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     Python 3.12.7, 11月 06, 2024

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     Copyright © 2001-2024, Python Software Foundation

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Python
******

     Python 3.12.7, 11月 06, 2024

     Author name not set

     Copyright © 2001-2024, Python Software Foundation

* Menu:

* Python 有什麼新功能？::
* Python 教學::
* Python 的設置與使用::
* Python 語言參考手冊::
* Python 標準函式庫 (Standard Library): Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library.
* 擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器::
* Python/C API 參考手冊::
* 安裝 Python 模組::
* Python 如何達成任務::
* Python 常見問題::
* 已棄用項目::
* 術語表::
* 關於這些說明文件::
* 處理錯誤 (Bug): 處理錯誤 Bug.
* 版權宣告::
* 沿革與授權::
* Python 模組索引::
* 索引::

 -- The Detailed Node Listing --

Python 有什麼新功能？

* Python 3.12 有什麼新功能: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.11 有什麼新功能: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.10 有什麼新功能: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.9 有什麼新功能: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.8 有什麼新功能: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.7 有什麼新功能: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.6 有什麼新功能: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.4 有什麼新功能: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.4 有什麼新功能: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>.
* Python 3.3 有什麼新功能: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.2 有什麼新功能: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.1 有什麼新功能: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.0 有什麼新功能: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.7 有什麼新功能: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.6 有什麼新功能: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.5 有什麼新功能: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.4 有什麼新功能: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.3 有什麼新功能: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.2 有什麼新功能: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.1 有什麼新功能: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.0 有什麼新功能: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能.
* Changelog（更動日誌）::

Python 3.12 有什麼新功能

* 發布重點摘要::
* 新增特性::
* New Features Related to Type Hints::
* 其他語言更動::
* 新增模組::
* 改進的模組::
* 最佳化::
* CPython 位元組碼變更::
* Demos and Tools::
* 已棄用::
* 已移除::
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12.
* 建置變更::
* C API 變更::
* 3.12.4 中的顯著變更: 3 12 4 中的顯著變更.
* 3.12.5 中的顯著變更: 3 12 5 中的顯著變更.
* 3.12.6 中的顯著變更: 3 12 6 中的顯著變更.

新增特性

* PEP 695：型別參數語法::
* PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
* PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
* PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
* PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
* PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
* Improved Error Messages::

New Features Related to Type Hints

* PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
* PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.

改進的模組

* array::
* asyncio::
* calendar::
* csv::
* dis::
* fractions::
* importlib.resources: importlib resources.
* inspect::
* itertools::
* math::
* os::
* os.path: os path.
* pathlib::
* pdb::
* random::
* shutil::
* sqlite3::
* statistics::
* sys::
* tempfile::
* threading::
* tkinter::
* tokenize::
* types::
* typing::
* unicodedata::
* unittest::
* uuid::

已棄用

* Python 3.13 中待移除的項目: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目.
* Python 3.14 中待移除的項目: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目.
* Python 3.15 中待移除的項目: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目.
* Python 3.16 中待移除的項目: Python 3 16 中待移除的項目.
* 未來版本中的待移除項目::

已移除

* asynchat 和 asyncore::
* configparser::
* distutils::
* ensurepip::
* enum::
* ftplib::
* gzip::
* hashlib::
* importlib::
* imp::
* io::
* locale::
* smtpd::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<2>.
* ssl::
* unittest: unittest<2>.
* webbrowser::
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree.
* zipimport::
* 其他::

Porting to Python 3.12

* Python API 的變更::

C API 變更

* 新增特性: 新增特性<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<2>.
* 已移除: 已移除<2>.

已棄用

* Python 3.14 中待移除的項目: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<2>.
* Python 3.15 中待移除的項目: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<2>.
* 未來版本中的待移除項目: 未來版本中的待移除項目<2>.

3.12.4 中的顯著變更

* ipaddress::

3.12.5 中的顯著變更

* email::

3.12.6 中的顯著變更

* email: email<2>.

Python 3.11 有什麼新功能

* 發布重點摘要: 發布重點摘要<2>.
* 新增特性: 新增特性<3>.
* 型別提示相關的新特性::
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<2>.
* 其他 CPython 實作更動::
* 新增模組: 新增模組<2>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<2>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<2>.
* 更快的 CPython::
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<2>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<3>.
* Python 3.12 中待決議的移除項目: Python 3 12 中待決議的移除項目.
* 已移除: 已移除<3>.
* 移植至 Python 3.11: 移植至 Python 3 11.
* 建置變更: 建置變更<2>.
* C API 變更: C API 變更<2>.
* Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4.
* Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5.

新增特性

* PEP 657：回溯 (traceback) 中更細緻的錯誤位置: PEP 657：回溯 traceback 中更細緻的錯誤位置.
* PEP 654：例外群組與 except*::
* PEP 678：運用例外註解使其更加詳盡::
* Windows py.exe 啟動程式 (launcher) 的改進: Windows py exe 啟動程式 launcher 的改進.

型別提示相關的新特性

* PEP 646：可變參數泛型 (variadic generics): PEP 646：可變參數泛型 variadic generics.
* PEP 655：標記獨立 TypedDict 項目為必要或不必要::
* PEP 673：Self 型別::
* PEP 675：任意的文本字串型別 (Arbitrary literal string type): PEP 675：任意的文本字串型別 Arbitrary literal string type.
* PEP 681：資料類別轉換 (Data class transforms): PEP 681：資料類別轉換 Data class transforms.
* PEP 563 可能不是未來::

改進的模組

* asyncio: asyncio<2>.
* contextlib::
* dataclasses::
* datetime::
* enum: enum<2>.
* fcntl::
* fractions: fractions<2>.
* functools::
* gzip: gzip<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<2>.
* IDLE 與 idlelib::
* inspect: inspect<2>.
* locale: locale<2>.
* logging::
* math: math<2>.
* operator::
* os: os<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<2>.
* re::
* shutil: shutil<2>.
* socket::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<3>.
* string::
* sys: sys<2>.
* sysconfig::
* tempfile: tempfile<2>.
* threading: threading<2>.
* time::
* tkinter: tkinter<2>.
* traceback::
* typing: typing<2>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<2>.
* unittest: unittest<3>.
* venv::
* warnings::
* zipfile::

更快的 CPython

* 更快的啟動::
* 更快的運行程式::
* 雜項::
* FAQ::
* 關於::

更快的啟動

* 凍結引入 (Frozen imports) / 靜態程式碼物件 (Static code objects): 凍結引入 Frozen imports / 靜態程式碼物件 Static code objects.

更快的運行程式

* 所需資源更少 (cheaper) 且惰性的 (lazy)) Python 幀 (frame): 所需資源更少 cheaper 且惰性的 lazy Python 幀 frame.
* 行內 Python 函式呼叫::
* PEP 659：特化的適應性直譯器::

FAQ

* 我該如何在程式碼中獲取這些加速？::
* Python 3.11 會不會使用更多記憶體？: Python 3 11 會不會使用更多記憶體？.
* 我在我的程式當中沒感覺到任何加速，為什麼？::
* 有用到 JIT 編譯器嗎？::

CPython 位元組碼變更

* 新增 opcode::
* 被取代的操作碼 (opcode): 被取代的操作碼 opcode.
* 有更動/被移除的 opcode::

已棄用

* 語言/內建::
* 模組::
* 標準函式庫::

C API 變更

* 新增特性: 新增特性<4>.
* 移植至 Python 3.11: 移植至 Python 3 11<2>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<4>.
* Python 3.12 中待決議的移除項目: Python 3 12 中待決議的移除項目<2>.
* 已移除: 已移除<4>.

Notable changes in 3.11.4

* tarfile::

Notable changes in 3.11.5

* OpenSSL::

Python 3.10 有什麼新功能

* 摘要: 摘要 -- 發布重點. 發布重點
* 新功能::
* 與型別提示相關的新功能::
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<3>.
* 新模組::
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<3>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<3>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<5>.
* 已刪除::
* 移植到 Python 3.10: 移植到 Python 3 10.
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<3>.
* 建置變更: 建置變更<3>.
* C API 變更: C API 變更<3>.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8.
* Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12.

新功能

* 帶括號的情境管理器::
* 更好的錯誤訊息::
* PEP 626：用於除錯和其他工具的精確列號::
* PEP 634：結構模式匹配::
* 可選的 EncodingWarning 和 encoding="locale" 選項::

更好的錯誤訊息

* SyntaxErrors::
* IndentationErrors::
* AttributeErrors::
* NameErrors::

PEP 634：結構模式匹配

* 語法和操作::
* 宣告式方法 (Declarative approach): 宣告式方法 Declarative approach.
* 簡單模式：與字面值匹配::
* 具有字面值和變數的模式::
* 模式和類別::
* 巢狀模式::
* 複雜模式和萬用字元::
* Guard::
* 其他主要功能::

簡單模式：與字面值匹配

* 沒有萬用字元 (wildcard) 的行為: 沒有萬用字元 wildcard 的行為.

模式和類別

* 具有位置參數的模式::

與型別提示相關的新功能

* PEP 604：新型聯集運算子::
* PEP 612：參數規範變數::
* PEP 613：型別別名 (TypeAlias): PEP 613：型別別名 TypeAlias.
* PEP 647：使用者定義的型別防護::

改進的模組

* asyncio: asyncio<3>.
* argparse::
* array: array<2>.
* asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd.
* base64::
* bdb::
* bisect::
* codecs::
* collections.abc: collections abc.
* contextlib: contextlib<2>.
* curses::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<2>.
* distutils: distutils<2>.
* doctest::
* encodings::
* enum: enum<3>.
* fileinput::
* faulthandler::
* gc::
* glob::
* hashlib: hashlib<3>.
* hmac::
* IDLE 和 idlelib::
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata.
* inspect: inspect<3>.
* itertools: itertools<2>.
* linecache::
* os: os<3>.
* os.path: os path<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<3>.
* platform::
* pprint::
* py_compile::
* pyclbr::
* shelve::
* statistics: statistics<2>.
* site::
* socket: socket<2>.
* ssl: ssl<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<4>.
* sys: sys<3>.
* _thread::
* threading: threading<3>.
* traceback: traceback<2>.
* types: types<2>.
* typing: typing<3>.
* unittest: unittest<4>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse.
* xml::
* zipimport: zipimport<2>.

dataclasses

* __slots__::
* 僅限關鍵字欄位 (Keyword-only fields): 僅限關鍵字欄位 Keyword-only fields.

移植到 Python 3.10

* Python 語法的變化::
* Python API 的變化::
* C API 中的改動::

C API 變更

* PEP 652：維護穩定 ABI::
* 新功能: 新功能<2>.
* 移植到 Python 3.10: 移植到 Python 3 10<2>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<6>.
* 已刪除: 已刪除<2>.

Notable changes in 3.10.12

* tarfile: tarfile<2>.

Python 3.9 有什麼新功能

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights. Release highlights
* You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code::
* New Features::
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<4>.
* 新模組: 新模組<2>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<4>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<4>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<7>.
* 已移除: 已移除<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9.
* 建置變更: 建置變更<4>.
* C API 變更: C API 變更<4>.
* Python 3.9.1 中顯著的變更: Python 3 9 1 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.9.2 中顯著的變更: Python 3 9 2 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.9.3 中顯著的變更: Python 3 9 3 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.9.5 中顯著的變更: Python 3 9 5 中顯著的變更.
* Notable security feature in 3.9.14: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
* Notable changes in 3.9.17: Notable changes in 3 9 17.

New Features

* Dictionary Merge & Update Operators::
* New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes::
* Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections::
* New Parser::

新模組

* zoneinfo::
* graphlib::

改進的模組

* ast::
* asyncio: asyncio<4>.
* compileall::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures.
* curses: curses<2>.
* datetime: datetime<2>.
* distutils: distutils<3>.
* fcntl: fcntl<2>.
* ftplib: ftplib<2>.
* gc: gc<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<4>.
* http::
* IDLE and idlelib::
* imaplib::
* importlib: importlib<2>.
* inspect: inspect<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<2>.
* math: math<3>.
* multiprocessing::
* nntplib::
* os: os<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<4>.
* pdb: pdb<2>.
* poplib::
* pprint: pprint<2>.
* pydoc::
* random: random<2>.
* signal::
* smtplib::
* socket: socket<3>.
* time: time<2>.
* sys: sys<4>.
* tracemalloc::
* typing: typing<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<3>.
* venv: venv<2>.
* xml: xml<2>.

Porting to Python 3.9

* Changes in the Python API::
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<2>.
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<4>.

C API 變更

* New Features: New Features<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9<2>.
* 已移除: 已移除<6>.

Python 3.9.1 中顯著的變更

* typing: typing<5>.
* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support.

Python 3.9.2 中顯著的變更

* collections.abc: collections abc<2>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>.

Python 3.9.5 中顯著的變更

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>.

Notable changes in 3.9.17

* tarfile: tarfile<3>.

Python 3.8 有什麼新功能

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights<2>. Release highlights
* New Features: New Features<3>.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<5>.
* 新增模組: 新增模組<3>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<5>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<5>.
* Build and C API Changes::
* 已棄用: 已棄用<8>.
* API and Feature Removals::
* Porting to Python 3.8: Porting to Python 3 8.
* Python 3.8.1 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 1 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.2 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 2 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.3 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 3 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.8 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 8 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.9 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 9 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.10 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.10 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更<2>.
* Python 3.8.12 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 12 中顯著的變更.
* Notable security feature in 3.8.14: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
* Notable changes in 3.8.17: Notable changes in 3 8 17.

New Features

* Assignment expressions::
* Positional-only parameters::
* Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files::
* Debug build uses the same ABI as release build::
* f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging::
* PEP 578; Python Runtime Audit Hooks: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks.
* PEP 587; Python Initialization Configuration: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
* PEP 590; Vectorcall; a fast calling protocol for CPython: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython.
* Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers::

改進的模組

* ast: ast<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<5>.
* builtins（內建）::
* collections::
* cProfile::
* csv: csv<2>.
* curses: curses<3>.
* ctypes::
* datetime: datetime<3>.
* functools: functools<2>.
* gc: gc<3>.
* gettext::
* gzip: gzip<3>.
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<2>.
* inspect: inspect<5>.
* io: io<2>.
* itertools: itertools<3>.
* json.tool: json tool.
* logging: logging<2>.
* math: math<4>.
* mmap::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>.
* os: os<5>.
* os.path: os path<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<5>.
* pickle::
* plistlib::
* pprint: pprint<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<2>.
* shlex::
* shutil: shutil<3>.
* socket: socket<4>.
* ssl: ssl<3>.
* statistics: statistics<3>.
* sys: sys<5>.
* tarfile: tarfile<4>.
* threading: threading<4>.
* tokenize: tokenize<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<3>.
* time: time<3>.
* typing: typing<6>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<4>.
* unittest: unittest<5>.
* venv: venv<3>.
* weakref::
* xml: xml<3>.
* xmlrpc::

Porting to Python 3.8

* Changes in Python behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<2>.
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<3>.
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<5>.
* Demos and Tools: Demos and Tools<2>.

Python 3.8.10 中顯著的變更

* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support<2>.

Python 3.8.10 中顯著的變更

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>.

Python 3.8.12 中顯著的變更

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<3>.

Notable changes in 3.8.17

* tarfile: tarfile<5>.

Python 3.7 有什麼新功能

* Summary: Summary -- Release Highlights. Release Highlights
* New Features: New Features<4>.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<6>.
* 新模組: 新模組<3>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<6>.
* C API 變更: C API 變更<5>.
* 建置變更: 建置變更<5>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<6>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes::
* Deprecated Python Behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API::
* Platform Support Removals::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<2>.
* Module Removals::
* Windows-only Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.7: Porting to Python 3 7.
* Python 3.7.1 中顯著的變更: Python 3 7 1 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.7.2 中顯著的變更: Python 3 7 2 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.7.6 中顯著的變更: Python 3 7 6 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.7.10 中顯著的變更: Python 3 7 10 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.7.11 中顯著的變更: Python 3 7 11 中顯著的變更.
* Notable security feature in 3.7.14: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.

New Features

* PEP 563; Postponed Evaluation of Annotations: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
* PEP 538; Legacy C Locale Coercion: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
* PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
* PEP 553; Built-in breakpoint(): PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
* PEP 539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
* PEP 562; Customization of Access to Module Attributes: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
* PEP 564; New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
* PEP 565; Show DeprecationWarning in __main__: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
* PEP 560; Core Support for typing module and Generic Types: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
* PEP 552; Hash-based .pyc Files: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
* PEP 545：Python 文件翻譯::
* Python Development Mode (-X dev): Python Development Mode -X dev.

新模組

* contextvars::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<3>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>.

改進的模組

* argparse: argparse<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<6>.
* binascii::
* calendar: calendar<2>.
* collections: collections<2>.
* compileall: compileall<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>.
* contextlib: contextlib<3>.
* cProfile: cProfile<2>.
* crypt::
* datetime: datetime<4>.
* dbm::
* decimal::
* dis: dis<2>.
* distutils: distutils<4>.
* enum: enum<4>.
* functools: functools<3>.
* gc: gc<4>.
* hmac: hmac<2>.
* http.client: http client.
* http.server: http server.
* idlelib and IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<3>.
* io: io<3>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<3>.
* itertools: itertools<4>.
* locale: locale<3>.
* logging: logging<3>.
* math: math<5>.
* mimetypes::
* msilib::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>.
* os: os<6>.
* pathlib: pathlib<6>.
* pdb: pdb<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<2>.
* queue::
* re: re<2>.
* signal: signal<2>.
* socket: socket<5>.
* socketserver::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<5>.
* ssl: ssl<4>.
* string: string<2>.
* subprocess::
* sys: sys<6>.
* time: time<4>.
* tkinter: tkinter<4>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>.
* types: types<3>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<5>.
* unittest: unittest<6>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>.
* uu::
* uuid: uuid<2>.
* warnings: warnings<2>.
* xml: xml<4>.
* xml.etree: xml etree.
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server.
* zipapp::
* zipfile: zipfile<2>.

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

* aifc::
* asyncio: asyncio<7>.
* collections: collections<3>.
* dbm: dbm<2>.
* enum: enum<5>.
* gettext: gettext<2>.
* importlib: importlib<4>.
* locale: locale<4>.
* macpath::
* threading: threading<5>.
* socket: socket<6>.
* ssl: ssl<5>.
* sunau::
* sys: sys<7>.
* wave::

Porting to Python 3.7

* Changes in Python Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<4>.
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<4>.
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<6>.
* Windows-only Changes: Windows-only Changes<2>.
* Other CPython implementation changes::

Python 3.6 有什麼新功能

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights<3>. Release highlights
* New Features: New Features<5>.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<7>.
* 新模組: 新模組<4>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<7>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<7>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>.
* Other Improvements::
* 已棄用: 已棄用<9>.
* 已移除: 已移除<7>.
* Porting to Python 3.6: Porting to Python 3 6.
* Python 3.6.2 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 2 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.4 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 4 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.5 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 5 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.7 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 7 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.10 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 10 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.13 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 13 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.14 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 14 中顯著的變更.

New Features

* PEP 498; Formatted string literals: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
* PEP 526; Syntax for variable annotations: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
* PEP 515; Underscores in Numeric Literals: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
* PEP 525; Asynchronous Generators: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
* PEP 530; Asynchronous Comprehensions: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
* PEP 487; Simpler customization of class creation: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
* PEP 487; Descriptor Protocol Enhancements: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
* PEP 519; Adding a file system path protocol: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
* PEP 495; Local Time Disambiguation: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
* PEP 529; Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 528; Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 520; Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
* PEP 468; Preserving Keyword Argument Order: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
* New dict implementation::
* PEP 523; Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
* PYTHONMALLOC environment variable::
* DTrace and SystemTap probing support::

新模組

* secrets::

改進的模組

* array: array<3>.
* ast: ast<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<8>.
* binascii: binascii<2>.
* cmath::
* collections: collections<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>.
* contextlib: contextlib<4>.
* datetime: datetime<5>.
* decimal: decimal<2>.
* distutils: distutils<5>.
* email: email<3>.
* encodings: encodings<2>.
* enum: enum<6>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<2>.
* fileinput: fileinput<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<5>.
* http.client: http client<2>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<2>.
* importlib: importlib<5>.
* inspect: inspect<6>.
* json::
* logging: logging<4>.
* math: math<6>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>.
* os: os<7>.
* pathlib: pathlib<7>.
* pdb: pdb<4>.
* pickle: pickle<2>.
* pickletools::
* pydoc: pydoc<3>.
* random: random<3>.
* re: re<3>.
* readline::
* rlcompleter::
* shlex: shlex<2>.
* site: site<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<6>.
* socket: socket<7>.
* socketserver: socketserver<2>.
* ssl: ssl<6>.
* statistics: statistics<4>.
* struct::
* subprocess: subprocess<2>.
* sys: sys<8>.
* telnetlib::
* time: time<5>.
* timeit::
* tkinter: tkinter<5>.
* traceback: traceback<3>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>.
* typing: typing<7>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<6>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>.
* urllib.request: urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser.
* venv: venv<4>.
* warnings: warnings<3>.
* winreg::
* winsound::
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client.
* zipfile: zipfile<3>.
* zlib::

已棄用

* 新關鍵字::
* Deprecated Python behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>.
* xml: xml<5>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>.
* Deprecated Build Options::

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

* asynchat::
* asyncore::
* dbm: dbm<3>.
* distutils: distutils<6>.
* grp::
* importlib: importlib<6>.
* os: os<8>.
* re: re<4>.
* ssl: ssl<7>.
* tkinter: tkinter<6>.
* venv: venv<5>.

已移除

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<3>.

Porting to Python 3.6

* Changes in 'python' Command Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<5>.
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<5>.
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<7>.

Python 3.6.2 中顯著的變更

* New make regen-all build target::
* Removal of make touch build target::

Python 3.4 有什麼新功能

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights<4>. Release highlights
* New Features: New Features<6>.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<8>.
* 新增模組: 新增模組<4>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<8>.
* Other module-level changes::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<8>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<10>.
* 已移除: 已移除<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.5: Porting to Python 3 5.
* Python 3.5.4 中顯著的變更: Python 3 5 4 中顯著的變更.

New Features

* PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax::
* PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication::
* PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations::
* PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray::
* PEP 484 - Type Hints::
* PEP 471 - os.scandir() function: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator. a better and faster directory iterator
* PEP 475; Retry system calls failing with EINTR: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
* PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
* PEP 485; A function for testing approximate equality: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
* PEP 486; Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
* PEP 488; Elimination of PYO files: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
* PEP 489; Multi-phase extension module initialization: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.

新增模組

* typing: typing<8>.
* zipapp: zipapp<2>.

改進的模組

* argparse: argparse<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<9>.
* bz2::
* cgi::
* cmath: cmath<2>.
* code::
* collections: collections<5>.
* collections.abc: collections abc<3>.
* compileall: compileall<3>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>.
* configparser: configparser<2>.
* contextlib: contextlib<5>.
* csv: csv<3>.
* curses: curses<4>.
* dbm: dbm<4>.
* difflib::
* distutils: distutils<7>.
* doctest: doctest<2>.
* email: email<4>.
* enum: enum<7>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<3>.
* functools: functools<4>.
* glob: glob<2>.
* gzip: gzip<4>.
* heapq::
* http: http<2>.
* http.client: http client<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<3>.
* imaplib: imaplib<2>.
* imghdr::
* importlib: importlib<7>.
* inspect: inspect<7>.
* io: io<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<4>.
* json: json<2>.
* linecache: linecache<2>.
* locale: locale<5>.
* logging: logging<5>.
* lzma::
* math: math<7>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>.
* operator: operator<2>.
* os: os<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<8>.
* pickle: pickle<3>.
* poplib: poplib<2>.
* re: re<5>.
* readline: readline<2>.
* selectors::
* shutil: shutil<4>.
* signal: signal<3>.
* smtpd: smtpd<2>.
* smtplib: smtplib<2>.
* sndhdr::
* socket: socket<8>.
* ssl: ssl<8>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<7>.
* subprocess: subprocess<3>.
* sys: sys<9>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<2>.
* tarfile: tarfile<6>.
* threading: threading<6>.
* time: time<6>.
* timeit: timeit<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<7>.
* traceback: traceback<4>.
* types: types<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<7>.
* unittest: unittest<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>.
* urllib::
* wsgiref::
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>.
* xml.sax: xml sax.
* zipfile: zipfile<4>.

ssl

* Memory BIO Support::
* Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support::
* Other Changes::

已棄用

* New Keywords::
* Deprecated Python Behavior: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>.
* Unsupported Operating Systems::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>.

已移除

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<4>.

Porting to Python 3.5

* Changes in Python behavior: Changes in Python behavior<2>.
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<6>.
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<6>.

Python 3.5.4 中顯著的變更

* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<2>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<2>.

Python 3.4 有什麼新功能

* Summary: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>. Release Highlights
* New Features: New Features<7>.
* 新模組: 新模組<5>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<9>.
* CPython 實作變更::
* 已棄用: 已棄用<11>.
* 已移除: 已移除<9>.
* Porting to Python 3.4: Porting to Python 3 4.
* 3.4.3 中的變更: 3 4 3 中的變更.

New Features

* PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations.
* PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
* Improvements to Codec Handling::
* PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<9>.

PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

* Bootstrapping pip By Default::
* Documentation Changes::

新模組

* asyncio: asyncio<10>.
* ensurepip: ensurepip<2>.
* enum: enum<8>.
* pathlib: pathlib<9>.
* selectors: selectors<2>.
* statistics: statistics<5>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>.

改進的模組

* abc::
* aifc: aifc<2>.
* argparse: argparse<4>.
* audioop::
* base64: base64<2>.
* collections: collections<6>.
* colorsys::
* contextlib: contextlib<6>.
* dbm: dbm<5>.
* dis: dis<3>.
* doctest: doctest<3>.
* email: email<5>.
* filecmp::
* functools: functools<5>.
* gc: gc<5>.
* glob: glob<3>.
* hashlib: hashlib<6>.
* hmac: hmac<3>.
* html::
* http: http<3>.
* idlelib 與 IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<8>.
* inspect: inspect<8>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<5>.
* logging: logging<6>.
* marshal::
* mmap: mmap<2>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>.
* operator: operator<3>.
* os: os<10>.
* pdb: pdb<5>.
* pickle: pickle<4>.
* plistlib: plistlib<2>.
* poplib: poplib<3>.
* pprint: pprint<4>.
* pty::
* pydoc: pydoc<4>.
* re: re<6>.
* resource::
* select::
* shelve: shelve<2>.
* shutil: shutil<5>.
* smtpd: smtpd<3>.
* smtplib: smtplib<3>.
* socket: socket<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<8>.
* ssl: ssl<9>.
* stat::
* struct: struct<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<4>.
* sunau: sunau<2>.
* sys: sys<10>.
* tarfile: tarfile<7>.
* textwrap::
* threading: threading<7>.
* traceback: traceback<5>.
* types: types<5>.
* urllib: urllib<2>.
* unittest: unittest<8>.
* venv: venv<6>.
* wave: wave<2>.
* weakref: weakref<2>.
* xml.etree: xml etree<2>.
* zipfile: zipfile<5>.

CPython 實作變更

* PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
* PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
* PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
* PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
* Other Build and C API Changes::
* Other Improvements: Other Improvements<2>.
* 顯著最佳化::

已棄用

* Deprecations in the Python API::
* 已棄用功能::

已移除

* Operating Systems No Longer Supported::
* API 與功能的移除::
* 程式碼的清除::

Porting to Python 3.4

* Changes in 'python' Command Behavior: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
* Python API 的變更: Python API 的變更<2>.
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<7>.

3.4.3 中的變更

* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients.

Python 3.3 有什麼新功能

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights<5>. Release highlights
* PEP 405：虛擬環境::
* PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
* PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
* PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
* PEP 397：適用於 Windows 的 Python 啟動器::
* PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
* PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
* PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
* PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
* PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
* PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
* PEP 362：函式簽名物件::
* PEP 421：新增 sys.implementation: PEP 421：新增 sys implementation.
* 使用 importlib 作為 import 的實作::
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<10>.
* A Finer-Grained Import Lock::
* 內建函式和型別::
* 新模組: 新模組<6>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<10>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<9>.
* 建置和 C API 更改::
* 已棄用: 已棄用<12>.
* 移植到 Python 3.3: 移植到 Python 3 3.

PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

* 功能::
* API 變更::

PEP 393: Flexible String Representation

* 功能性::
* 性能和資源使用情況::

PEP 421：新增 sys.implementation

* SimpleNamespace::

使用 importlib 作為 import 的實作

* 新 API::
* 明顯的變更::

新模組

* faulthandler: faulthandler<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<6>.
* lzma: lzma<2>.

改進的模組

* abc: abc<2>.
* array: array<4>.
* base64: base64<3>.
* binascii: binascii<3>.
* bz2: bz2<2>.
* codecs: codecs<2>.
* collections: collections<7>.
* contextlib: contextlib<7>.
* crypt: crypt<2>.
* curses: curses<5>.
* datetime: datetime<6>.
* decimal: decimal<3>.
* email: email<6>.
* ftplib: ftplib<3>.
* functools: functools<6>.
* gc: gc<6>.
* hmac: hmac<4>.
* http: http<4>.
* html: html<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<9>.
* io: io<5>.
* itertools: itertools<5>.
* logging: logging<7>.
* math: math<8>.
* mmap: mmap<3>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>.
* nntplib: nntplib<2>.
* os: os<11>.
* pdb: pdb<6>.
* pickle: pickle<5>.
* pydoc: pydoc<5>.
* re: re<7>.
* sched::
* select: select<2>.
* shlex: shlex<3>.
* shutil: shutil<6>.
* signal: signal<4>.
* smtpd: smtpd<4>.
* smtplib: smtplib<4>.
* socket: socket<10>.
* socketserver: socketserver<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<9>.
* ssl: ssl<10>.
* stat: stat<2>.
* struct: struct<3>.
* subprocess: subprocess<5>.
* sys: sys<11>.
* tarfile: tarfile<8>.
* tempfile: tempfile<3>.
* textwrap: textwrap<2>.
* threading: threading<8>.
* time: time<7>.
* types: types<6>.
* unittest: unittest<9>.
* urllib: urllib<3>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<2>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>.
* zlib: zlib<2>.

decimal

* 功能: 功能<2>.
* API 變更: API 變更<2>.

email

* Policy Framework::
* Provisional Policy with New Header API::
* 其他 API 變更::

已棄用

* 不支援的作業系統::
* 已棄用的 Python 模組、函式和方法::
* C API 中已棄用的函式和型別::
* 已棄用的功能::

移植到 Python 3.3

* 移植 Python 程式碼::
* Porting C code::
* Building C extensions::
* 命令列開關更改::

Python 3.2 有什麼新功能

* PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
* PEP 389; Argparse 命令列剖析模組: PEP 389 Argparse 命令列剖析模組.
* PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
* PEP 3148：concurrent.futures 模組: PEP 3148：concurrent futures 模組.
* PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
* PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
* PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<11>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules.
* Multi-threading::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<10>.
* Unicode::
* 編解碼器::
* 文件::
* IDLE::
* Code Repository::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.2: Porting to Python 3 2.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* email: email<7>.
* elementtree::
* functools: functools<7>.
* itertools: itertools<6>.
* collections: collections<8>.
* threading: threading<9>.
* datetime 和 time::
* math: math<9>.
* abc: abc<3>.
* io: io<6>.
* reprlib::
* logging: logging<8>.
* csv: csv<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<8>.
* decimal and fractions::
* ftp::
* popen::
* select: select<3>.
* gzip 和 zipfile::
* tarfile: tarfile<9>.
* hashlib: hashlib<7>.
* ast: ast<4>.
* os: os<12>.
* shutil: shutil<7>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<10>.
* html: html<3>.
* socket: socket<11>.
* ssl: ssl<11>.
* nntp::
* certificates::
* imaplib: imaplib<4>.
* http.client: http client<4>.
* unittest: unittest<10>.
* random: random<4>.
* poplib: poplib<4>.
* asyncore: asyncore<2>.
* tempfile: tempfile<4>.
* inspect: inspect<10>.
* pydoc: pydoc<6>.
* dis: dis<4>.
* dbm: dbm<6>.
* ctypes: ctypes<2>.
* site: site<3>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<3>.
* pdb: pdb<7>.
* configparser: configparser<3>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>.
* mailbox::
* turtledemo::

Python 3.1 有什麼新功能

* PEP 372：有序字典::
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<12>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<2>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.1: Porting to Python 3 1.

Python 3.0 有什麼新功能

* Common Stumbling Blocks::
* 語法變更概要::
* Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6.
* 函式庫變更::
* PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
* Changes To Exceptions::
* Miscellaneous Other Changes::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>.
* Performance::
* Porting To Python 3.0: Porting To Python 3 0.

Common Stumbling Blocks

* Print Is A Function::
* Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists::
* Ordering Comparisons::
* 整數::
* Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.

語法變更概要

* New Syntax::
* 語法變更::
* 已被移除的語法::

Miscellaneous Other Changes

* Operators And Special Methods::
* Builtins::

Python 2.7 有什麼新功能

* Python 2.x 的未來: Python 2 x 的未來.
* Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings::
* Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features.
* PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
* PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
* PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
* PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
* PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<13>.
* New and Improved Modules::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>.
* Other Changes and Fixes::
* Porting to Python 2.7: Porting to Python 2 7.
* New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases.
* 致謝::

其他語言更動

* Interpreter Changes::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<12>.

New and Improved Modules

* New module; importlib: New module importlib.
* New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig.
* ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk.
* Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest.
* Updated module; ElementTree 1.3: Updated module ElementTree 1 3.

Build and C API Changes

* Capsules::
* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X.
* Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD.

New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases

* Two new environment variables for debug mode::
* PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
* PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
* PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
* PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<3>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<3>.

PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7

* Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
* Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>.

Python 2.6 有什麼新功能

* Python 3.0: Python 3 0.
* Changes to the Development Process::
* PEP 343; The 'with' statement: PEP 343 The 'with' statement.
* PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module.
* PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
* PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
* PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
* PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
* PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
* PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
* PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
* PEP 3118：修訂緩衝協定::
* PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
* PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
* PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
* PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<14>.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>.
* Deprecations and Removals::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>.
* Porting to Python 2.6: Porting to Python 2 6.
* 致謝: 致謝<2>.

Changes to the Development Process

* New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup.
* New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx.

PEP 343: The 'with' statement

* Writing Context Managers::
* contextlib 模組::

PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

* The fractions Module::

其他語言更動

* 最佳化: 最佳化<13>.
* Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>.

New and Improved Modules

* ast 模組::
* future_builtins 模組::
* The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation.
* The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser.
* ctypes Enhancements::
* Improved SSL Support::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX.

Python 2.5 有什麼新功能

* PEP 308; Conditional Expressions: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
* PEP 309; Partial Function Application: PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
* PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
* PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
* PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
* PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
* PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
* PEP 343：'with' 陳述式::
* PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
* PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
* PEP 357; The '__index__' method: PEP 357 The '__index__' method.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<15>.
* New, Improved, and Removed Modules: New Improved and Removed Modules.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>.
* Porting to Python 2.5: Porting to Python 2 5.
* 致謝: 致謝<3>.

PEP 343：'with' 陳述式

* Writing Context Managers: Writing Context Managers<2>.
* contextlib 模組: contextlib 模組<2>.

其他語言更動

* Interactive Interpreter Changes::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<14>.

New, Improved, and Removed Modules

* ctypes 套件::
* ElementTree 套件::
* hashlib 套件::
* sqlite3 套件::
* wsgiref 套件::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes::

Python 2.4 有什麼新功能

* PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
* PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
* PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
* PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
* PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
* PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
* PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type.
* PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
* PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<16>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<10>.
* Porting to Python 2.4: Porting to Python 2 4.
* 致謝: 致謝<4>.

PEP 327: Decimal Data Type

* Why is Decimal needed?::
* Decimal 型別::
* Context 型別::

其他語言更動

* 最佳化: 最佳化<15>.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* cookielib::
* doctest: doctest<4>.

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>.

Python 2.3 有什麼新功能

* PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
* PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
* PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
* PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
* PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
* PEP 279：enumerate(): PEP 279：enumerate.
* PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package.
* PEP 285; A Boolean Type: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
* PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
* PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
* PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
* PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
* PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
* Extended Slices::
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<17>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
* Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<11>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
* Porting to Python 2.3: Porting to Python 2 3.
* 致謝: 致謝<5>.

其他語言更動

* String Changes::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<16>.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* Date/Time Type::
* The optparse Module::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>.

Python 2.2 有什麼新功能

* 簡介::
* PEPs 252 and 253; Type and Class Changes: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes.
* PEP 234：疊代器::
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
* PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
* Unicode 變更::
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>.
* 直譯器的變更與修正::
* 其他改動與修正::
* 致謝: 致謝<6>.

PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes

* Old and New Classes::
* Descriptors::
* Multiple Inheritance; The Diamond Rule: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
* Attribute Access::
* 相關連結::

Python 2.1 有什麼新功能

* 簡介: 簡介<2>.
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
* PEP 236; __future__ Directives: PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
* PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
* PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
* PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System.
* PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References.
* PEP 232; Function Attributes: PEP 232 Function Attributes.
* PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
* PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
* PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
* PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<3>.
* 致謝: 致謝<7>.

Python 2.0 有什麼新功能

* 簡介: 簡介<3>.
* What About Python 1.6?: What About Python 1 6?.
* New Development Process::
* Unicode: Unicode<2>.
* 串列綜合運算（List Comprehension）::
* Augmented Assignment::
* String Methods::
* Garbage Collection of Cycles::
* Other Core Changes::
* Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0.
* Extending/Embedding Changes::
* Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install.
* XML 模組::
* 模組變更::
* 新增模組: 新增模組<5>.
* IDLE Improvements::
* Deleted and Deprecated Modules::
* 致謝: 致謝<8>.

Other Core Changes

* Minor Language Changes::
* Changes to Built-in Functions::

XML 模組

* SAX2 支援::
* DOM 支援::
* Relationship to PyXML::

Changelog（更動日誌）

* Python next::
* Python 3.12.7 final: Python 3 12 7 final.
* Python 3.12.6 final: Python 3 12 6 final.
* Python 3.12.5 final: Python 3 12 5 final.
* Python 3.12.4 final: Python 3 12 4 final.
* Python 3.12.3 final: Python 3 12 3 final.
* Python 3.12.2 final: Python 3 12 2 final.
* Python 3.12.1 final: Python 3 12 1 final.
* Python 3.12.0 final: Python 3 12 0 final.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 4: Python 3 12 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 3: Python 3 12 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 2: Python 3 12 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final.
* Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final.
* Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final.
* Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final.
* Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final.
* Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final.
* Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final.
* Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final.
* Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final.
* Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final.
* Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final.
* Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1.

Python next

* Windows::
* Tests::
* Library::
* IDLE: IDLE<3>.
* Documentation::
* Core and Builtins::
* C API::
* Build::

Python 3.12.7 final

* Windows: Windows<2>.
* Tests: Tests<2>.
* Security::
* Library: Library<2>.
* IDLE: IDLE<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>.
* C API: C API<2>.
* Build: Build<2>.

Python 3.12.6 final

* macOS::
* Windows: Windows<3>.
* Tools/Demos::
* Tests: Tests<3>.
* Security: Security<2>.
* Library: Library<3>.
* IDLE: IDLE<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>.
* Build: Build<3>.

Python 3.12.5 final

* Windows: Windows<4>.
* Tests: Tests<4>.
* Security: Security<3>.
* Library: Library<4>.
* IDLE: IDLE<6>.
* Documentation: Documentation<2>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>.
* Build: Build<4>.

Python 3.12.4 final

* Security: Security<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<5>.
* Library: Library<5>.
* Documentation: Documentation<3>.
* Tests: Tests<5>.
* Windows: Windows<5>.
* macOS: macOS<2>.
* IDLE: IDLE<7>.
* C API: C API<3>.

Python 3.12.3 final

* Security: Security<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<6>.
* Library: Library<6>.
* Documentation: Documentation<4>.
* Tests: Tests<6>.
* Build: Build<5>.
* Windows: Windows<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<8>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<2>.
* C API: C API<4>.

Python 3.12.2 final

* Security: Security<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<7>.
* Library: Library<7>.
* Documentation: Documentation<5>.
* Tests: Tests<7>.
* Build: Build<6>.
* Windows: Windows<7>.
* macOS: macOS<3>.
* IDLE: IDLE<9>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<3>.

Python 3.12.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<8>.
* Library: Library<8>.
* Documentation: Documentation<6>.
* Tests: Tests<8>.
* Build: Build<7>.
* Windows: Windows<8>.
* macOS: macOS<4>.
* IDLE: IDLE<10>.
* C API: C API<5>.

Python 3.12.0 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<9>.
* Library: Library<9>.
* Documentation: Documentation<7>.
* Windows: Windows<9>.
* macOS: macOS<5>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<4>.

Python 3.12.0 release candidate 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<10>.
* Library: Library<10>.
* Documentation: Documentation<8>.
* Tests: Tests<9>.
* Build: Build<8>.

Python 3.12.0 release candidate 2

* Security: Security<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<11>.
* Library: Library<11>.
* Documentation: Documentation<9>.
* Tests: Tests<10>.
* Build: Build<9>.
* Windows: Windows<10>.
* macOS: macOS<6>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<5>.
* C API: C API<6>.

Python 3.12.0 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<8>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<12>.
* Library: Library<12>.
* Documentation: Documentation<10>.
* Tests: Tests<11>.
* Build: Build<10>.
* Windows: Windows<11>.
* macOS: macOS<7>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<6>.
* C API: C API<7>.

Python 3.12.0 beta 4

* Security: Security<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<13>.
* Library: Library<13>.
* Documentation: Documentation<11>.
* Tests: Tests<12>.
* Build: Build<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<7>.
* C API: C API<8>.

Python 3.12.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<14>.
* Library: Library<14>.
* Tests: Tests<13>.
* Windows: Windows<12>.
* C API: C API<9>.

Python 3.12.0 beta 2

* Security: Security<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<15>.
* Library: Library<15>.
* Documentation: Documentation<12>.
* Build: Build<12>.
* Windows: Windows<13>.
* macOS: macOS<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<11>.
* C API: C API<10>.

Python 3.12.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<16>.
* Library: Library<16>.
* Documentation: Documentation<13>.
* Tests: Tests<14>.
* Build: Build<13>.
* Windows: Windows<14>.
* macOS: macOS<9>.
* IDLE: IDLE<12>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<8>.
* C API: C API<11>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 7

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<17>.
* Library: Library<17>.
* Documentation: Documentation<14>.
* Tests: Tests<15>.
* Build: Build<14>.
* Windows: Windows<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<9>.
* C API: C API<12>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<18>.
* Library: Library<18>.
* Documentation: Documentation<15>.
* Tests: Tests<16>.
* Build: Build<15>.
* Windows: Windows<16>.
* macOS: macOS<10>.
* C API: C API<13>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<19>.
* Library: Library<19>.
* Documentation: Documentation<16>.
* Tests: Tests<17>.
* Build: Build<16>.
* Windows: Windows<17>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<20>.
* Library: Library<20>.
* Documentation: Documentation<17>.
* Tests: Tests<18>.
* Build: Build<17>.
* Windows: Windows<18>.
* macOS: macOS<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<10>.
* C API: C API<14>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<21>.
* Library: Library<21>.
* Documentation: Documentation<18>.
* Tests: Tests<19>.
* Build: Build<18>.
* Windows: Windows<19>.
* macOS: macOS<12>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<11>.
* C API: C API<15>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<15>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<22>.
* Library: Library<22>.
* Documentation: Documentation<19>.
* Tests: Tests<20>.
* Build: Build<19>.
* Windows: Windows<20>.
* macOS: macOS<13>.
* C API: C API<16>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<16>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<23>.
* Library: Library<23>.
* Documentation: Documentation<20>.
* Tests: Tests<21>.
* Build: Build<20>.
* Windows: Windows<21>.
* macOS: macOS<14>.
* IDLE: IDLE<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<12>.
* C API: C API<17>.

Python 3.11.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<17>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<24>.
* Library: Library<24>.
* Documentation: Documentation<21>.
* Tests: Tests<22>.
* Build: Build<21>.
* Windows: Windows<22>.
* macOS: macOS<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<13>.
* C API: C API<18>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 7

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<25>.
* Library: Library<25>.
* Documentation: Documentation<22>.
* Tests: Tests<23>.
* Build: Build<22>.
* Windows: Windows<23>.
* macOS: macOS<16>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<14>.
* C API: C API<19>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 6

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<26>.
* Library: Library<26>.
* Documentation: Documentation<23>.
* Tests: Tests<24>.
* Build: Build<23>.
* Windows: Windows<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<14>.
* C API: C API<20>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 5

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<27>.
* Library: Library<27>.
* Documentation: Documentation<24>.
* Tests: Tests<25>.
* Build: Build<24>.
* Windows: Windows<25>.
* macOS: macOS<17>.
* IDLE: IDLE<15>.
* C API: C API<21>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<28>.
* Library: Library<28>.
* Documentation: Documentation<25>.
* Tests: Tests<26>.
* Build: Build<25>.
* Windows: Windows<26>.
* macOS: macOS<18>.
* C API: C API<22>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<29>.
* Library: Library<29>.
* Documentation: Documentation<26>.
* Tests: Tests<27>.
* Build: Build<26>.
* Windows: Windows<27>.
* macOS: macOS<19>.
* C API: C API<23>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<30>.
* Library: Library<30>.
* Documentation: Documentation<27>.
* Tests: Tests<28>.
* Build: Build<27>.
* Windows: Windows<28>.
* macOS: macOS<20>.
* IDLE: IDLE<16>.
* C API: C API<24>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<18>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<31>.
* Library: Library<31>.
* Documentation: Documentation<28>.
* Tests: Tests<29>.
* Build: Build<28>.
* Windows: Windows<29>.
* macOS: macOS<21>.
* IDLE: IDLE<17>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<15>.
* C API: C API<25>.

Python 3.10.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<19>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<32>.
* Library: Library<32>.
* Documentation: Documentation<29>.
* Tests: Tests<30>.
* Build: Build<29>.
* Windows: Windows<30>.
* macOS: macOS<22>.
* IDLE: IDLE<18>.
* C API: C API<26>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 7

* Security: Security<20>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<33>.
* Library: Library<33>.
* Documentation: Documentation<30>.
* Tests: Tests<31>.
* Build: Build<30>.
* Windows: Windows<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<19>.
* C API: C API<27>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<21>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<34>.
* Library: Library<34>.
* Documentation: Documentation<31>.
* Tests: Tests<32>.
* Build: Build<31>.
* Windows: Windows<32>.
* macOS: macOS<23>.
* IDLE: IDLE<20>.
* C API: C API<28>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<22>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<35>.
* Library: Library<35>.
* Documentation: Documentation<32>.
* Tests: Tests<33>.
* Build: Build<32>.
* Windows: Windows<33>.
* macOS: macOS<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<21>.
* C API: C API<29>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<36>.
* Library: Library<36>.
* Documentation: Documentation<33>.
* Tests: Tests<34>.
* Build: Build<33>.
* macOS: macOS<25>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<16>.
* C API: C API<30>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<23>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<37>.
* Library: Library<37>.
* Documentation: Documentation<34>.
* Tests: Tests<35>.
* Build: Build<34>.
* Windows: Windows<34>.
* macOS: macOS<26>.
* IDLE: IDLE<22>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<17>.
* C API: C API<31>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<38>.
* Library: Library<38>.
* Documentation: Documentation<35>.
* Tests: Tests<36>.
* Build: Build<35>.
* Windows: Windows<35>.
* macOS: macOS<27>.
* IDLE: IDLE<23>.
* C API: C API<32>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<25>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<39>.
* Library: Library<39>.
* Documentation: Documentation<36>.
* Tests: Tests<37>.
* Build: Build<36>.
* Windows: Windows<36>.
* macOS: macOS<28>.
* IDLE: IDLE<24>.
* C API: C API<33>.

Python 3.9.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<26>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<40>.
* Library: Library<40>.
* Documentation: Documentation<37>.
* Tests: Tests<38>.
* Build: Build<37>.
* Windows: Windows<37>.
* macOS: macOS<29>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<18>.
* C API: C API<34>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<27>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<41>.
* Library: Library<41>.
* Documentation: Documentation<38>.
* Tests: Tests<39>.
* Build: Build<38>.
* Windows: Windows<38>.
* macOS: macOS<30>.
* IDLE: IDLE<25>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<19>.
* C API: C API<35>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<28>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<42>.
* Library: Library<42>.
* Documentation: Documentation<39>.
* Tests: Tests<40>.
* Build: Build<39>.
* Windows: Windows<39>.
* macOS: macOS<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<26>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<20>.
* C API: C API<36>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<29>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<43>.
* Library: Library<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<40>.
* Tests: Tests<41>.
* Build: Build<40>.
* Windows: Windows<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<27>.
* C API: C API<37>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<44>.
* Library: Library<44>.
* Documentation: Documentation<41>.
* Build: Build<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<28>.
* C API: C API<38>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<45>.
* Library: Library<45>.
* Documentation: Documentation<42>.
* Tests: Tests<42>.
* Build: Build<42>.
* Windows: Windows<41>.
* macOS: macOS<32>.
* IDLE: IDLE<29>.
* C API: C API<39>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<46>.
* Library: Library<46>.
* Documentation: Documentation<43>.
* Tests: Tests<43>.
* Build: Build<43>.
* Windows: Windows<42>.
* macOS: macOS<33>.
* IDLE: IDLE<30>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<21>.
* C API: C API<40>.

Python 3.8.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<32>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<47>.
* Library: Library<47>.
* Documentation: Documentation<44>.
* Tests: Tests<44>.
* Build: Build<44>.
* Windows: Windows<43>.
* macOS: macOS<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<31>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<22>.
* C API: C API<41>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<48>.
* Library: Library<48>.
* Documentation: Documentation<45>.
* Tests: Tests<45>.
* Build: Build<45>.
* Windows: Windows<44>.
* macOS: macOS<35>.
* IDLE: IDLE<32>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<23>.
* C API: C API<42>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<49>.
* Library: Library<49>.
* Documentation: Documentation<46>.
* Tests: Tests<46>.
* Build: Build<46>.
* Windows: Windows<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<33>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<24>.
* C API: C API<43>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<50>.
* Library: Library<50>.
* Documentation: Documentation<47>.
* Tests: Tests<47>.
* Windows: Windows<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<34>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<35>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<51>.
* Library: Library<51>.
* Documentation: Documentation<48>.
* Tests: Tests<48>.
* Build: Build<47>.
* Windows: Windows<47>.
* macOS: macOS<36>.
* IDLE: IDLE<35>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<25>.
* C API: C API<44>.

Python 3.7.0 final

* Library: Library<52>.
* C API: C API<45>.

Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<52>.
* Library: Library<53>.
* Documentation: Documentation<49>.
* Build: Build<48>.
* Windows: Windows<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<36>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 5

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<53>.
* Library: Library<54>.
* Documentation: Documentation<50>.
* Tests: Tests<49>.
* Build: Build<49>.
* macOS: macOS<37>.
* IDLE: IDLE<37>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<54>.
* Library: Library<55>.
* Documentation: Documentation<51>.
* Tests: Tests<50>.
* Build: Build<50>.
* Windows: Windows<49>.
* macOS: macOS<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<38>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<26>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 3

* Security: Security<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<55>.
* Library: Library<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<52>.
* Tests: Tests<51>.
* Build: Build<51>.
* Windows: Windows<50>.
* macOS: macOS<39>.
* IDLE: IDLE<39>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<27>.
* C API: C API<46>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 2

* Security: Security<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<56>.
* Library: Library<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<53>.
* Tests: Tests<52>.
* Build: Build<52>.
* Windows: Windows<51>.
* macOS: macOS<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<40>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<28>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<57>.
* Library: Library<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<54>.
* Tests: Tests<53>.
* Build: Build<53>.
* Windows: Windows<52>.
* macOS: macOS<41>.
* C API: C API<47>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<58>.
* Library: Library<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<55>.
* Tests: Tests<54>.
* Windows: Windows<53>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<29>.
* C API: C API<48>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<59>.
* Library: Library<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<56>.
* Tests: Tests<55>.
* Build: Build<54>.
* Windows: Windows<54>.
* macOS: macOS<42>.
* IDLE: IDLE<41>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<30>.
* C API: C API<49>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<60>.
* Library: Library<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<57>.
* Build: Build<55>.
* IDLE: IDLE<42>.
* C API: C API<50>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<38>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<61>.
* Library: Library<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<58>.
* Tests: Tests<56>.
* Build: Build<56>.
* Windows: Windows<55>.
* IDLE: IDLE<43>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<31>.
* C API: C API<51>.

Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<62>.
* Library: Library<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<59>.
* Tests: Tests<57>.
* Build: Build<57>.
* Windows: Windows<56>.
* macOS: macOS<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<44>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<32>.
* C API: C API<52>.

Python 3.6.5 final

* Tests: Tests<58>.
* Build: Build<58>.

Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<63>.
* Library: Library<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<60>.
* Tests: Tests<59>.
* Build: Build<59>.
* Windows: Windows<57>.
* macOS: macOS<44>.
* IDLE: IDLE<45>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<33>.
* C API: C API<53>.

Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<64>.
* Library: Library<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<61>.
* Tests: Tests<60>.
* Build: Build<60>.
* Windows: Windows<58>.
* macOS: macOS<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<46>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<34>.
* C API: C API<54>.

Python 3.6.3 final

* Library: Library<66>.
* Build: Build<61>.

Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<65>.
* Library: Library<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<62>.
* Tests: Tests<61>.
* Build: Build<62>.
* Windows: Windows<59>.
* IDLE: IDLE<47>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<35>.

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2

* Security: Security<41>.

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<42>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<66>.
* Library: Library<68>.
* IDLE: IDLE<48>.
* C API: C API<55>.
* Build: Build<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<63>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<36>.
* Tests: Tests<62>.
* Windows: Windows<60>.

Python 3.6.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<67>.
* Build: Build<64>.

Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<68>.
* Library: Library<69>.
* IDLE: IDLE<49>.
* Windows: Windows<61>.
* C API: C API<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<64>.
* Tests: Tests<63>.
* Build: Build<65>.

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<69>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<37>.
* Windows: Windows<62>.
* Build: Build<66>.

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<70>.
* Library: Library<70>.
* C API: C API<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<65>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<38>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<71>.
* Library: Library<71>.
* Documentation: Documentation<66>.
* Tests: Tests<64>.
* Build: Build<67>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<72>.
* Library: Library<72>.
* Windows: Windows<63>.
* Build: Build<68>.
* Tests: Tests<65>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<73>.
* Library: Library<73>.
* Windows: Windows<64>.
* C API: C API<58>.
* Build: Build<69>.
* Tests: Tests<66>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<74>.
* Library: Library<74>.
* IDLE: IDLE<50>.
* C API: C API<59>.
* Tests: Tests<67>.
* Build: Build<70>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<39>.
* Windows: Windows<65>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<75>.
* Library: Library<75>.
* IDLE: IDLE<51>.
* Tests: Tests<68>.
* Windows: Windows<66>.
* Build: Build<71>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<76>.
* Library: Library<76>.
* IDLE: IDLE<52>.
* C API: C API<60>.
* Build: Build<72>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<40>.
* Documentation: Documentation<67>.
* Tests: Tests<69>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<77>.
* Library: Library<77>.
* IDLE: IDLE<53>.
* Documentation: Documentation<68>.
* Tests: Tests<70>.
* Windows: Windows<67>.
* Build: Build<73>.
* C API: C API<61>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<41>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<45>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<78>.
* Library: Library<78>.
* IDLE: IDLE<54>.
* Documentation: Documentation<69>.
* Tests: Tests<71>.
* Build: Build<74>.
* Windows: Windows<68>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<42>.
* C API: C API<62>.

Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<46>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<79>.
* Library: Library<79>.

Python 3.5.4 final

* Library: Library<80>.

Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<47>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<80>.
* Library: Library<81>.
* Documentation: Documentation<70>.
* Tests: Tests<72>.
* Build: Build<75>.
* Windows: Windows<69>.
* C API: C API<63>.

Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<81>.
* Library: Library<82>.
* IDLE: IDLE<55>.
* C API: C API<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<71>.
* Tests: Tests<73>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<43>.
* Windows: Windows<70>.
* Build: Build<76>.

Python 3.5.2 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<82>.
* Tests: Tests<74>.
* IDLE: IDLE<56>.

Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<83>.
* Library: Library<83>.
* IDLE: IDLE<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<72>.
* Tests: Tests<75>.
* Build: Build<77>.
* Windows: Windows<71>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<44>.

Python 3.5.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<84>.
* Windows: Windows<72>.

Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<85>.
* Library: Library<84>.
* IDLE: IDLE<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<73>.
* Tests: Tests<76>.
* Build: Build<78>.
* Windows: Windows<73>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<45>.

Python 3.5.0 final

* Build: Build<79>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4

* Library: Library<85>.
* Build: Build<80>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<86>.
* Library: Library<86>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<87>.
* Library: Library<87>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<88>.
* Library: Library<88>.
* IDLE: IDLE<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<74>.
* Tests: Tests<77>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<89>.
* Library: Library<89>.
* Build: Build<81>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<90>.
* Library: Library<90>.
* Tests: Tests<78>.
* Documentation: Documentation<75>.
* Build: Build<82>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<91>.
* Library: Library<91>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<92>.
* Library: Library<92>.
* IDLE: IDLE<60>.
* Tests: Tests<79>.
* Documentation: Documentation<76>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<46>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<93>.
* Library: Library<93>.
* Build: Build<83>.
* Tests: Tests<80>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<47>.
* C API: C API<65>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<94>.
* Library: Library<94>.
* Build: Build<84>.
* Tests: Tests<81>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<48>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<95>.
* Library: Library<95>.
* Build: Build<85>.
* C API: C API<66>.
* Windows: Windows<74>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<96>.
* Library: Library<96>.
* IDLE: IDLE<61>.
* Build: Build<86>.
* C API: C API<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<77>.
* Tests: Tests<82>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<49>.
* Windows: Windows<75>.

Python 教學

* 淺嘗滋味::
* 使用 Python 直譯器::
* 一個非正式的 Python 簡介::
* 深入了解流程控制::
* 資料結構::
* 模組 (Module): 模組 Module.
* 輸入和輸出::
* 錯誤和例外::
* Class（類別）::
* Python 標準函式庫概覽::
* Python 標準函式庫概覽——第二部份::
* 虛擬環境與套件::
* 現在可以來學習些什麼？::
* 互動式輸入編輯和歷史記錄替換::
* 浮點數運算：問題與限制::
* 附錄::

使用 Python 直譯器

* 啟動直譯器::
* 直譯器與它的環境::

啟動直譯器

* 傳遞引數::
* 互動模式::

直譯器與它的環境

* 原始碼的字元編碼 (encoding): 原始碼的字元編碼 encoding.

一個非正式的 Python 簡介

* 把 Python 當作計算機使用::
* 初探程式設計的前幾步::

把 Python 當作計算機使用

* 數字 (Number): 數字 Number.
* 文字::
* List（串列）::

深入了解流程控制

* if 陳述式::
* for 陳述式::
* range() 函式: range 函式.
* break and continue Statements::
* else Clauses on Loops::
* pass 陳述式::
* match 陳述式::
* 定義函式 (function): 定義函式 function.
* 深入了解函式定義::
* 間奏曲：程式碼風格 (Coding Style): 間奏曲：程式碼風格 Coding Style.

深入了解函式定義

* 預設引數值::
* 關鍵字引數::
* 特殊參數::
* 任意引數列表 (Arbitrary Argument Lists): 任意引數列表 Arbitrary Argument Lists.
* 拆解引數列表（Unpacking Argument Lists）::
* Lambda 運算式::
* 說明文件字串 (Documentation Strings): 說明文件字串 Documentation Strings.
* 函式註釋 (Function Annotations): 函式註釋 Function Annotations.

特殊參數

* 位置或關鍵字引數 (Positional-or-Keyword Arguments): 位置或關鍵字引數 Positional-or-Keyword Arguments.
* 僅限位置參數 (Positional-Only Parameters): 僅限位置參數 Positional-Only Parameters.
* 僅限關鍵字引數 (Keyword-Only Arguments): 僅限關鍵字引數 Keyword-Only Arguments.
* 函式範例::
* 回顧::

資料結構

* 進一步了解 List（串列）::
* del 陳述式::
* Tuples 和序列 (Sequences): Tuples 和序列 Sequences.
* 集合 (Sets): 集合 Sets.
* 字典（Dictionary）::
* 迴圈技巧::
* 深入了解條件 (Condition): 深入了解條件 Condition.
* 序列和其他資料類型之比較::

進一步了解 List（串列）

* 將 List 作為 Stack（堆疊）使用::
* 將 List 作為 Queue（佇列）使用::
* List Comprehensions（串列綜合運算）::
* 巢狀的 List Comprehensions::

模組 (Module)

* 深入了解模組::
* 標準模組::
* dir() 函式: dir 函式.
* 套件 (Package): 套件 Package.

深入了解模組

* 把模組當作腳本執行::
* 模組的搜尋路徑::
* 「編譯」Python 檔案::

套件 (Package)

* 從套件中 import *::
* 套件內引用::
* 多目錄中的套件::

輸入和輸出

* 更華麗的輸出格式::
* 讀寫檔案::

更華麗的輸出格式

* 格式化的字串文本 (Formatted String Literals): 格式化的字串文本 Formatted String Literals.
* 字串的 format() method: 字串的 format method.
* 手動格式化字串::
* 格式化字串的舊方法::

讀寫檔案

* 檔案物件的 method::
* 使用 json 儲存結構化資料::

錯誤和例外

* 語法錯誤 (Syntax Error): 語法錯誤 Syntax Error.
* 例外 (Exception): 例外 Exception.
* 處理例外::
* 引發例外::
* 例外鏈接 (Exception Chaining): 例外鏈接 Exception Chaining.
* 使用者自定的例外::
* 定義清理動作::
* 預定義的清理動作::
* 引發及處理多個無關的例外::
* 用註解使例外更詳細::

Class（類別）

* 關於名稱與物件的一段話::
* Python 作用域 (Scope) 及命名空間 (Namespace): Python 作用域 Scope 及命名空間 Namespace.
* 初見 class::
* 隨意的備註::
* 繼承 (Inheritance): 繼承 Inheritance.
* 私有變數::
* 補充說明::
* 疊代器 (Iterator): 疊代器 Iterator.
* 產生器 (Generator): 產生器 Generator.
* 產生器運算式::

Python 作用域 (Scope) 及命名空間 (Namespace)

* 作用域和命名空間的範例::

初見 class

* Class definition（類別定義）語法::
* Class 物件::
* 實例物件::
* Method 物件::
* Class 及實例變數::

繼承 (Inheritance)

* 多重繼承::

Python 標準函式庫概覽

* 作業系統介面::
* 檔案之萬用字元 (File Wildcards): 檔案之萬用字元 File Wildcards.
* 命令列引數::
* 錯誤輸出重新導向與程式終止::
* 字串樣式比對::
* 數學相關::
* 網路存取::
* 日期與時間::
* 資料壓縮::
* 效能量測::
* 品質控管::
* 標準模組庫::

Python 標準函式庫概覽——第二部份

* 輸出格式化 (Output Formatting): 輸出格式化 Output Formatting.
* 模板化 (Templating): 模板化 Templating.
* 二進制資料記錄編排 (Binary Data Record Layouts): 二進制資料記錄編排 Binary Data Record Layouts.
* 多執行緒 (Multi-threading): 多執行緒 Multi-threading.
* 日誌記錄 (Logging): 日誌記錄 Logging.
* 弱引用 (Weak References): 弱引用 Weak References.
* 使用於 List 的工具::
* 十進制浮點數運算 (Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic): 十進制浮點數運算 Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic.

虛擬環境與套件

* 簡介: 簡介<4>.
* 建立虛擬環境::
* 用 pip 管理套件::

互動式輸入編輯和歷史記錄替換

* Tab 鍵自動完成 (Tab Completion) 和歷史記錄編輯 (History Editing): Tab 鍵自動完成 Tab Completion 和歷史記錄編輯 History Editing.
* 互動式直譯器的替代方案::

浮點數運算：問題與限制

* 表示法誤差 (Representation Error): 表示法誤差 Representation Error.

附錄

* 互動模式: 互動模式<2>.

互動模式

* 錯誤處理::
* 可執行的 Python 腳本::
* 互動式啟動檔案::
* 客製化模組::

Python 的設置與使用

* 命令列與環境::
* 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python::
* 配置 Python::
* 在 Windows 上使用 Python::
* 在 Mac 系統使用 Python::
* 編輯器與 IDE::

命令列與環境

* 命令列::
* 環境變數::

命令列

* 介面選項::
* Generic options::
* Miscellaneous options::
* 你不該使用的選項::

環境變數

* 除錯模式變數::

在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python

* 獲得並安裝 Python 的最新版本::
* 建置 Python::
* 與 Python 相關的路徑和檔案::
* 雜項: 雜項<2>.
* 客製化 OpenSSL::

獲得並安裝 Python 的最新版本

* 在 Linux 上::
* 在 FreeBSD 和 OpenBSD 上::

配置 Python

* 建置需求::
* 產生的檔案::
* 設定選項::
* Python Build System::
* Compiler and linker flags::

產生的檔案

* 設定腳本::

設定選項

* 一般選項::
* WebAssembly 選項::
* 安裝選項::
* Performance options::
* Python Debug Build::
* Debug options::
* Linker options::
* 函式庫選項::
* Security Options::
* macOS 選項::
* Cross Compiling Options::

Python Build System

* Main files of the build system::
* 主要建置步驟::
* 主要 Makefile 目標::
* C 擴充模組::

Compiler and linker flags

* Preprocessor flags::
* 編譯器旗標::
* Linker flags::

在 Windows 上使用 Python

* The full installer::
* The Microsoft Store package::
* nuget.org 套件: nuget org 套件.
* The embeddable package::
* Alternative bundles::
* 設定 Python::
* UTF-8 模式::
* Python Launcher for Windows::
* 找尋模組::
* 額外的模組::
* 編譯 Python 在 Windows::
* 其他平台::

The full installer

* 安裝步驟::
* Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation::
* 安裝排除使用者介面::
* 當安裝時不下載::
* Modifying an install::

The Microsoft Store package

* Known issues::

Known issues

* Redirection of local data, registry, and temporary paths: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.

The embeddable package

* Python Application::
* 嵌入 Python::

設定 Python

* Excursus; Setting environment variables: Excursus Setting environment variables.
* Finding the Python executable::

Python Launcher for Windows

* 開始::
* Shebang Lines::
* Arguments in shebang lines::
* Customization::
* Diagnostics::
* Dry Run::
* 安裝隨選::
* Return codes::

開始

* From the command-line::
* 虛擬環境（Virtual environment）::
* From a script::
* 從檔案關聯::

Customization

* Customization via INI files::
* Customizing default Python versions::

額外的模組

* PyWin32::
* cx_Freeze::

在 Mac 系統使用 Python

* 取得和安裝 Python::
* 整合化開發工具 (IDE): 整合化開發工具 IDE.
* 安裝額外的 Python 套件::
* 開發 GUI 程式::
* 發行 Python 應用程式::
* 其他資源::

取得和安裝 Python

* 如何執行 Python 腳本::
* 透過 GUI 執行腳本::
* 設定::

Python 語言參考手冊

* 簡介: 簡介<5>.
* 詞法分析::
* 資料模型::
* 執行模型::
* 模組引入系統::
* 運算式::
* 簡單陳述式::
* 複合陳述式::
* 最高層級元件::
* 完整的語法規格書::

簡介

* Alternate Implementations::
* Notation::

詞法分析

* Line structure::
* Other tokens::
* Identifiers and keywords::
* Literals::
* Operators::
* Delimiters::

Line structure

* Logical lines::
* Physical lines::
* Comments::
* Encoding declarations::
* Explicit line joining::
* Implicit line joining::
* Blank lines::
* Indentation::
* Whitespace between tokens::

Identifiers and keywords

* 關鍵字::
* 軟關鍵字::
* Reserved classes of identifiers::

Literals

* String and Bytes literals::
* String literal concatenation::
* f-string（f 字串）::
* Numeric literals::
* Integer literals::
* 浮點數常數 (Floating-point literals): 浮點數常數 Floating-point literals.
* Imaginary literals::

String and Bytes literals

* 跳脫序列::

資料模型

* Objects, values and types: Objects values and types.
* 標準型別階層::
* Special method names::
* 協程::

標準型別階層

* None::
* NotImplemented::
* Ellipsis::
* numbers.Number: numbers Number.
* Sequences::
* Set types::
* Mappings::
* Callable types::
* 模組: 模組<2>.
* Custom classes::
* Class instances::
* I/O objects (also known as file objects): I/O objects also known as file objects.
* Internal types::

numbers.Number

* numbers.Integral: numbers Integral.
* numbers.Real (float): numbers Real float.
* numbers.Complex (complex): numbers Complex complex.

Sequences

* Immutable sequences::
* Mutable sequences::

Mappings

* 字典::

Callable types

* 自訂函式::
* Instance methods::
* Generator functions::
* Coroutine functions::
* Asynchronous generator functions::
* Built-in functions::
* Built-in methods::
* Classes::
* Class Instances::

自訂函式

* 特殊唯讀屬性::
* 特殊可寫屬性::

模組

* Import-related attributes on module objects::
* Other writable attributes on module objects::
* Module dictionaries::

Custom classes

* Special attributes::
* Special methods::

Class instances

* Special attributes: Special attributes<2>.

Internal types

* Code objects::
* Frame objects::
* Traceback objects::
* Slice objects::
* Static method objects::
* Class method objects::

Code objects

* 特殊唯讀屬性: 特殊唯讀屬性<2>.
* 用於程式碼物件的方法::

Frame objects

* 特殊唯讀屬性: 特殊唯讀屬性<3>.
* 特殊可寫屬性: 特殊可寫屬性<2>.
* Frame object methods::

Special method names

* Basic customization::
* Customizing attribute access::
* Customizing class creation::
* Customizing instance and subclass checks::
* Emulating generic types::
* Emulating callable objects::
* Emulating container types::
* Emulating numeric types::
* With Statement Context Managers::
* Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching::
* Emulating buffer types::
* Special method lookup::

Customizing attribute access

* Customizing module attribute access::
* Implementing Descriptors::
* Invoking Descriptors::
* __slots__: __slots__<2>.

Customizing class creation

* Metaclasses::
* Resolving MRO entries::
* Determining the appropriate metaclass::
* Preparing the class namespace::
* Executing the class body::
* Creating the class object::
* Uses for metaclasses::

Emulating generic types

* The purpose of __class_getitem__::
* __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__::

協程

* Awaitable Objects::
* Coroutine Objects::
* Asynchronous Iterators::
* Asynchronous Context Managers::

執行模型

* Structure of a program::
* Naming and binding::
* 例外::

Naming and binding

* Binding of names::
* Resolution of names::
* Annotation scopes::
* Lazy evaluation::
* Builtins and restricted execution::
* Interaction with dynamic features::

模組引入系統

* importlib: importlib<9>.
* 套件::
* Searching::
* Loading::
* The Path Based Finder::
* Replacing the standard import system::
* Package Relative Imports::
* Special considerations for __main__::
* References::

套件

* Regular packages::
* Namespace packages::

Searching

* The module cache::
* Finders and loaders::
* Import hooks::
* The meta path::

Loading

* Loaders::
* 子模組::
* Module specs::
* __path__ attributes on modules::
* Module reprs::
* Cached bytecode invalidation::

The Path Based Finder

* Path entry finders::
* Path entry finder protocol::

Special considerations for __main__

* __main__.__spec__: __main__ __spec__.

運算式

* Arithmetic conversions::
* Atoms::
* Primaries::
* Await expression::
* The power operator::
* Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations::
* Binary arithmetic operations::
* Shifting operations::
* Binary bitwise operations::
* Comparisons::
* Boolean operations::
* Assignment expressions: Assignment expressions<2>.
* Conditional expressions::
* Lambdas::
* Expression lists::
* Evaluation order::
* Operator precedence::

Atoms

* Identifiers (Names): Identifiers Names.
* Literals: Literals<2>.
* Parenthesized forms::
* Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
* List displays::
* Set displays::
* Dictionary displays::
* Generator expressions::
* Yield expressions::

Identifiers (Names)

* Private name mangling::

Yield expressions

* Generator-iterator methods::
* 模組: 模組<3>.
* Asynchronous generator functions: Asynchronous generator functions<2>.
* Asynchronous generator-iterator methods::

Primaries

* Attribute references::
* Subscriptions::
* Slicings::
* Calls::

Comparisons

* Value comparisons::
* Membership test operations::
* Identity comparisons::

簡單陳述式

* Expression statements::
* Assignment statements::
* assert 陳述式::
* pass 陳述式: pass 陳述式<2>.
* del 陳述式: del 陳述式<2>.
* return 陳述式::
* yield 陳述式::
* raise 陳述式::
* break 陳述式::
* continue 陳述式::
* import 陳述式::
* global 陳述式::
* nonlocal 陳述式::
* type 陳述式::

Assignment statements

* Augmented assignment statements::
* Annotated assignment statements::

import 陳述式

* Future statements::

複合陳述式

* The if statement::
* The while statement::
* The for statement::
* The try statement::
* The with statement::
* The match statement::
* 函式定義::
* 類別定義::
* 協程: 協程<2>.
* Type parameter lists::

The try statement

* except clause::
* except* 子句::
* else clause::
* finally clause::

The match statement

* Overview::
* Guards::
* Irrefutable Case Blocks::
* Patterns::

Patterns

* OR Patterns::
* AS Patterns::
* Literal Patterns::
* Capture Patterns::
* Wildcard Patterns::
* Value Patterns::
* Group Patterns::
* Sequence Patterns::
* Mapping Patterns::
* Class Patterns::

協程

* 協程函式定義::
* async for 陳述式::
* async with 陳述式::

Type parameter lists

* Generic functions::
* Generic classes::
* Generic type aliases::

最高層級元件

* 完整的 Python 程式::
* 檔案輸入::
* 互動式輸入::
* 運算式輸入::

Python 標準函式庫 (Standard Library)

* 簡介: 簡介<6>.
* 內建函式::
* 內建常數::
* 內建型別::
* 內建的例外::
* 文本處理 (Text Processing) 服務: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務.
* 二進位資料服務::
* 資料型別::
* 數值與數學模組::
* 函式編程模組::
* 檔案與目錄存取::
* 資料持久性 (Data Persistence): 資料持久性 Data Persistence.
* 資料壓縮與保存::
* 檔案格式::
* 加密服務::
* 通用作業系統服務::
* 並行執行 (Concurrent Execution): 並行執行 Concurrent Execution.
* Networking and Interprocess Communication::
* 網際網路資料處理::
* Structured Markup Processing Tools::
* 網路協定 (Internet protocols) 及支援: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援.
* 多媒體服務::
* 國際化::
* 程式框架::
* 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 (Graphical User Interfaces): 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces.
* 開發工具::
* 除錯與效能分析::
* 軟體封裝與發布::
* Python Runtime 服務::
* 自訂 Python 直譯器::
* 引入模組::
* Python 語言服務::
* MS Windows 特有服務::
* Unix 特有服務::
* 模組命令列介面::
* 已被取代的模組::
* 安全性注意事項: 安全性注意事項<4>.

簡介

* 可用性之註釋::

可用性之註釋

* WebAssembly 平台::

內建常數

* 由 site module（模組）所添增的常數::

內建型別

* 真值檢測::
* Boolean（布林）運算: Boolean（布林）運算 --- and or not. and, or, not
* 比較運算::
* 數值型別: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex. int、float、complex
* Boolean 型別 - bool::
* 疊代器型別::
* Sequence Types: Sequence Types --- list tuple range. list, tuple, range
* Text Sequence Type: Text Sequence Type --- str. str
* Binary Sequence Types: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview. bytes, bytearray, memoryview
* Set Types: Set Types --- set frozenset. set, frozenset
* Mapping Types: Mapping Types --- dict. dict
* 情境管理器型別::
* 型別註釋的型別: 型別註釋的型別 --- 泛型別名 Generic Alias 、聯合 Union. 泛型別名 (Generic Alias)、聯合 (Union)
* Other Built-in Types::
* 特殊屬性::
* Integer string conversion length limitation::

數值型別 -- int、float、complex

* 整數型別的位元運算::
* 整數型別的附加 methods::
* 浮點數的附加 methods::
* 數值型別的雜湊::

疊代器型別

* Generator Types::

Sequence Types -- list, tuple, range

* Common Sequence Operations::
* Immutable Sequence Types::
* Mutable Sequence Types::
* List（串列）: List（串列）<2>.
* Tuples::
* Ranges::

Text Sequence Type -- str

* String Methods: String Methods<2>.
* printf-style String Formatting::

Binary Sequence Types -- bytes, bytearray, memoryview

* Bytes Objects::
* Bytearray Objects::
* Bytes and Bytearray Operations::
* printf-style Bytes Formatting::
* Memory Views::

Mapping Types -- dict

* 字典視圖物件::

型別註釋的型別 -- 泛型別名 (Generic Alias)、聯合 (Union)

* 泛型別名型別::
* 聯合型別 (Union Type): 聯合型別 Union Type.

泛型別名型別

* 標準泛型類別::
* GenericAlias 物件的特殊屬性::

Other Built-in Types

* 模組: 模組<4>.
* Classes and Class Instances::
* 函式::
* Methods::
* Code Objects::
* Type Objects::
* The Null Object::
* The Ellipsis Object::
* NotImplemented 物件::
* Internal Objects::

Integer string conversion length limitation

* 受影響的 API::
* 設定限制::
* 建議的配置::

內建的例外

* 例外的情境::
* 繼承自內建的例外::
* 基底類別 (base classes): 基底類別 base classes.
* 實體例外::
* 警告::
* 例外群組::
* 例外階層::

實體例外

* 作業系統例外::

文本處理 (Text Processing) 服務

* string: string --- 常見的字串操作. 常見的字串操作
* re: re --- 正規表示式 regular expression 操作. 正規表示式 (regular expression) 操作
* difflib: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具. 計算差異的輔助工具
* textwrap: textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充. 文字包裝與填充
* unicodedata: unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫. Unicode 資料庫
* stringprep: stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備. 網際網路字串準備
* readline: readline --- GNU readline 介面. GNU readline 介面
* rlcompleter: rlcompleter --- GNU readline 的補全函式. GNU readline 的補全函式

string -- 常見的字串操作

* 字串常數::
* 自訂字串格式::
* 格式化文字語法::
* 模板字串::
* 輔助函式::

格式化文字語法

* 格式規格 (Format Specification) 迷你語言: 格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
* 格式範例::

re -- 正規表示式 (regular expression) 操作

* 正規表示式語法::
* 模組內容::
* Regular Expression Objects::
* Match Objects::
* Regular Expression Examples::

模組內容

* 旗標::
* Functions::
* Exceptions::

Regular Expression Examples

* Checking for a Pair::
* 模擬 scanf(): 模擬 scanf.
* search() vs. match(): search vs match.
* Making a Phonebook::
* Text Munging::
* Finding all Adverbs::
* Finding all Adverbs and their Positions::
* Raw String Notation::
* Writing a Tokenizer::

difflib -- 計算差異的輔助工具

* SequenceMatcher 物件::
* SequenceMatcher 範例::
* Differ Objects::
* Differ Example::
* A command-line interface to difflib::
* ndiff 範例：::

readline -- GNU readline 介面

* Init file::
* Line buffer::
* History file::
* History list::
* Startup hooks::
* Completion::
* 範例::

二進位資料服務

* struct: struct --- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料. 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料
* codecs: codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別. 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別

struct -- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料

* 函式與例外::
* Format Strings::
* Applications::
* Classes: Classes<2>.

Format Strings

* Byte Order, Size, and Alignment: Byte Order Size and Alignment.
* Format Characters::
* 範例: 範例<2>.

Applications

* Native Formats::
* Standard Formats::

codecs -- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別

* Codec Base Classes::
* Encodings and Unicode::
* Standard Encodings::
* Python Specific Encodings::
* encodings.idna: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
* encodings.mbcs: encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage. Windows ANSI codepage
* encodings.utf_8_sig: encodings utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature. UTF-8 codec with BOM signature

Codec Base Classes

* Error Handlers::
* Stateless Encoding and Decoding::
* Incremental Encoding and Decoding::
* Stream Encoding and Decoding::

Incremental Encoding and Decoding

* IncrementalEncoder 物件::
* IncrementalDecoder 物件::

Stream Encoding and Decoding

* StreamWriter 物件::
* StreamReader 物件::
* StreamReaderWriter 物件::
* StreamRecoder 物件::

Python Specific Encodings

* Text Encodings::
* Binary Transforms::
* Text Transforms::

資料型別

* datetime: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別. 日期與時間的基本型別
* zoneinfo: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援. IANA 時區支援
* calendar: calendar --- 日曆相關函式. 日曆相關函式
* collections: collections --- 容器資料型態. 容器資料型態
* collections.abc: collections abc --- 容器的抽象基底類別. 容器的抽象基底類別
* heapq: heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法. 堆積佇列 (heap queue) 演算法
* bisect: bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm. 陣列二分演算法 (Array bisection algorithm)
* array: array --- 高效率的數值型陣列. 高效率的數值型陣列
* weakref: weakref --- 弱參照. 弱參照
* types: types --- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱. 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱
* copy: copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作. 淺層 (shallow) 和深層 (deep) 複製操作
* pprint: pprint --- 資料美化列印器. 資料美化列印器
* reprlib: reprlib --- repr 的替代實作. repr() 的替代實作
* enum: enum --- 對列舉的支援. 對列舉的支援
* graphlib —- 使用類圖 (graph-like) 結構進行操作的功能: graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能.

datetime -- 日期與時間的基本型別

* Aware and Naive Objects::
* 常數::
* Available Types::
* timedelta 物件::
* date 物件::
* datetime 物件::
* time 物件::
* tzinfo 物件::
* timezone 物件::
* strftime() 與 strptime() 的行為: strftime 與 strptime 的行為.

Available Types

* 常見屬性::
* Determining if an Object is Aware or Naive::

timedelta 物件

* 用法範例：timedelta::

date 物件

* 用法範例：date::

datetime 物件

* 用法範例：datetime::

time 物件

* 用法範例：time::

strftime() 與 strptime() 的行為

* strftime() 與 strptime() 格式碼: strftime 與 strptime 格式碼.
* 技術細節::

zoneinfo -- IANA 時區支援

* Using ZoneInfo::
* Data sources::
* The ZoneInfo class::
* 函式: 函式<2>.
* Globals::
* Exceptions and warnings::

Data sources

* Configuring the data sources::

Configuring the data sources

* Compile-time configuration::
* Environment configuration::
* Runtime configuration::

The ZoneInfo class

* String representations::
* Pickle serialization::

calendar -- 日曆相關函式

* 命令列用法::

collections -- 容器資料型態

* ChainMap 物件::
* Counter 物件::
* deque 物件::
* defaultdict 物件::
* namedtuple() 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式: namedtuple 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式.
* OrderedDict 物件::
* UserDict 物件::
* UserList 物件::
* UserString 物件::

ChainMap 物件

* ChainMap 範例和用法::

deque 物件

* deque 用法::

defaultdict 物件

* defaultdict 範例::

OrderedDict 物件

* OrderedDict 範例與用法::

collections.abc -- 容器的抽象基底類別

* Collections Abstract Base Classes::
* Collections Abstract Base Classes: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions. Detailed Descriptions
* Examples and Recipes::

heapq -- 堆積佇列 (heap queue) 演算法

* 基礎範例::
* 優先佇列實作細節::
* 原理::

bisect -- 陣列二分演算法 (Array bisection algorithm)

* 效能考量::
* 搜尋一個已排序的 list::
* 範例: 範例<3>.

weakref -- 弱參照

* 弱參照物件::
* 範例: 範例<4>.
* 最終化器物件::
* 最終化器與 __del__() 方法的比較: 最終化器與 __del__ 方法的比較.

types -- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱

* Dynamic Type Creation::
* Standard Interpreter Types::
* Additional Utility Classes and Functions::
* Coroutine Utility Functions::

pprint -- 資料美化列印器

* 函式: 函式<3>.
* PrettyPrinter 物件::
* 範例: 範例<5>.

reprlib -- repr() 的替代實作

* Repr 物件::
* Subclassing Repr Objects::

enum -- 對列舉的支援

* 模組內容: 模組內容<2>.
* 資料型別: 資料型別<2>.
* 通用項目與裝飾器::
* 備註::

資料型別

* 支援 __dunder__ 名稱::
* 支援 _sunder_ 名稱::

graphlib —- 使用類圖 (graph-like) 結構進行操作的功能

* 例外: 例外<2>.

數值與數學模組

* numbers: numbers --- 數值的抽象基底類別. 數值的抽象基底類別
* math: math --- 數學函式. 數學函式
* cmath: cmath --- 複數的數學函式. 複數的數學函式
* decimal: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算. 十進位固定點和浮點運算
* fractions: fractions --- 有理數. 有理數
* random: random --- 生成偽隨機數. 生成偽隨機數
* statistics: statistics --- 數學統計函式. 數學統計函式

numbers -- 數值的抽象基底類別

* 數值的階層::
* 給型別實作者的註記::

給型別實作者的註記

* 加入更多數值 ABC::
* 實作算術操作::

math -- 數學函式

* 數論與表現函式::
* Power and logarithmic functions::
* Trigonometric functions::
* Angular conversion::
* Hyperbolic functions::
* Special functions::
* 常數: 常數<2>.

cmath -- 複數的數學函式

* 轉換到極座標和從極座標做轉換::
* 冪函數和對數函數::
* 三角函數::
* 雙曲函數::
* 分類函式::
* 常數: 常數<3>.

decimal -- 十進位固定點和浮點運算

* Quick-start Tutorial::
* Decimal objects::
* Context objects::
* 常數: 常數<4>.
* Rounding modes::
* Signals::
* Floating-Point Notes::
* Working with threads::
* Recipes::
* Decimal FAQ::

Decimal objects

* Logical operands::

Floating-Point Notes

* Mitigating round-off error with increased precision::
* 特殊值::

random -- 生成偽隨機數

* 簿記函式 (bookkeeping functions): 簿記函式 bookkeeping functions.
* 回傳位元組的函式::
* 回傳整數的函式::
* 回傳序列的函式::
* 離散分布::
* 實數分布::
* 替代產生器::
* 關於 Reproducibility（復現性）的注意事項::
* 範例: 範例<6>.
* 使用方案::

statistics -- 數學統計函式

* 平均值與中央位置量數::
* 離度 (spread) 的測量: 離度 spread 的測量.
* 兩個輸入之間的關係統計::
* 函式細節::
* 例外: 例外<3>.
* NormalDist 物件::
* 範例與錦囊妙計::

範例與錦囊妙計

* 經典機率問題::
* 用於模擬的蒙地卡羅 (Monte Carlo) 輸入: 用於模擬的蒙地卡羅 Monte Carlo 輸入.
* 近似二項分布::
* 單純貝氏分類器 (Naive bayesian classifier): 單純貝氏分類器 Naive bayesian classifier.
* 核密度估計 (Kernel density estimation): 核密度估計 Kernel density estimation.

函式編程模組

* itertools: itertools --- 建立產生高效率迴圈之疊代器的函式. 建立產生高效率迴圈之疊代器的函式
* functools: functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作. 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作
* operator: operator --- 標準運算子替代函式. 標準運算子替代函式

itertools -- 建立產生高效率迴圈之疊代器的函式

* Itertool 函式::
* Itertools 應用技巧::

functools -- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作

* partial 物件::

operator -- 標準運算子替代函式

* 運算子與函式間的對映::
* 原地 (in-place) 運算子: 原地 in-place 運算子.

檔案與目錄存取

* pathlib: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑. 物件導向檔案系統路徑
* os.path: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作. 常見的路徑名操作
* fileinput: fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流. 逐列疊代多個輸入串流
* stat: stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果. 直譯 stat() 的結果
* filecmp: filecmp --- 檔案與目錄比較. 檔案與目錄比較
* tempfile: tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄. 生成臨時檔案和目錄
* glob: glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展. Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展
* fnmatch: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對. Unix 檔案名稱模式比對
* linecache: linecache --- 隨機存取文字列. 隨機存取文字列
* shutil — 高階檔案操作::

pathlib -- 物件導向檔案系統路徑

* 基本用法::
* 純路徑::
* 實體路徑::
* 與 os 模組裡的工具的對應關係::

純路徑

* 通用屬性::
* 運算子::
* 對個別組成的存取::
* 方法與屬性::

實體路徑

* Expanding and resolving paths::
* Querying file type and status::
* Reading and writing files::
* 讀取目錄::
* 建立檔案與目錄::
* Renaming and deleting::
* Permissions and ownership::

filecmp -- 檔案與目錄比較

* The dircmp class::

tempfile -- 生成臨時檔案和目錄

* 範例: 範例<7>.
* 已棄用的函式和變數::

shutil — 高階檔案操作

* Directory and files operations::
* Archiving operations::
* Querying the size of the output terminal::

Directory and files operations

* Platform-dependent efficient copy operations::
* copytree example::
* rmtree 範例::

Archiving operations

* Archiving example::
* Archiving example with base_dir::

資料持久性 (Data Persistence)

* pickle: pickle --- Python 物件序列化. Python 物件序列化
* copyreg: copyreg --- 註冊 pickle 支援函式. 註冊 pickle 支援函式
* shelve: shelve --- Python object persistence. Python object persistence
* marshal: marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化. 内部 Python 物件序列化
* dbm: dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面. Unix "databases" 的介面
* sqlite3: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面. SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2.0 介面

pickle -- Python 物件序列化

* 和其他 Python 模組的關係::
* Data stream format::
* 模組介面::
* What can be pickled and unpickled?::
* Pickling Class Instances::
* Custom Reduction for Types, Functions, and Other Objects: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects.
* Out-of-band Buffers::
* Restricting Globals::
* Performance: Performance<2>.
* 範例: 範例<9>.

和其他 Python 模組的關係

* 和 marshal 的比較::
* 和 json 的比較::

Pickling Class Instances

* Persistence of External Objects::
* Dispatch Tables::
* Handling Stateful Objects::

Out-of-band Buffers

* Provider API::
* Consumer API::
* 範例: 範例<8>.

copyreg -- 註冊 pickle 支援函式

* 範例: 範例<10>.

shelve -- Python object persistence

* Restrictions::
* 範例: 範例<11>.

dbm -- Unix "databases" 的介面

* dbm.gnu: dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器. GNU 資料庫管理器
* dbm.ndbm: dbm ndbm --- 新資料庫管理器. 新資料庫管理器
* dbm.dumb: dbm dumb --- 可攜式 DBM 實作. 可攜式 DBM 實作

sqlite3 -- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2.0 介面

* 教學::
* Reference::
* How-to guides::
* 解釋::

Reference

* Module functions::
* Module constants::
* Connection 物件::
* Cursor 物件::
* Row 物件::
* Blob 物件::
* PrepareProtocol 物件::
* 例外: 例外<4>.
* SQLite and Python types::
* Default adapters and converters (deprecated): Default adapters and converters deprecated.
* 命令列介面::

How-to guides

* How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries::
* How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values::
* How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types::
* Adapter and converter recipes::
* How to use connection shortcut methods::
* How to use the connection context manager::
* How to work with SQLite URIs::
* How to create and use row factories::
* How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings::

How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

* How to write adaptable objects::
* How to register adapter callables::

解釋

* Transaction control::

Transaction control

* Transaction control via the autocommit attribute::
* Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute::

資料壓縮與保存

* zlib: zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮. 相容於 gzip 的壓縮
* gzip: gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援. gzip 檔案的支援
* bz2: bz2 --- bzip2 壓縮的支援. bzip2 壓縮的支援
* lzma: lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮. 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮
* zipfile: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案. 處理 ZIP 封存檔案
* tarfile: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案. 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案

gzip -- gzip 檔案的支援

* 用法範例::
* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<2>.

命令列介面

* 命令列選項::

bz2 -- bzip2 壓縮的支援

* (De)compression of files: De compression of files.
* Incremental (de)compression: Incremental de compression.
* One-shot (de)compression: One-shot de compression.
* 用法範例: 用法範例<2>.

lzma -- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮

* Reading and writing compressed files::
* Compressing and decompressing data in memory::
* Miscellaneous::
* Specifying custom filter chains::
* 範例: 範例<12>.

zipfile -- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案

* ZipFile 物件::
* Path Objects::
* PyZipFile 物件::
* ZipInfo 物件::
* Command-Line Interface::
* Decompression pitfalls::

Command-Line Interface

* Command-line options::

Decompression pitfalls

* From file itself::
* File System limitations::
* Resources limitations::
* Interruption::
* Default behaviors of extraction::

tarfile -- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案

* TarFile 物件::
* TarInfo 物件::
* Extraction filters::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<2>.
* 範例: 範例<13>.
* Supported tar formats::
* Unicode issues::

Extraction filters

* Default named filters::
* Filter errors::
* Hints for further verification::
* Supporting older Python versions::
* Stateful extraction filter example::

Command-Line Interface

* 命令列選項: 命令列選項<2>.

檔案格式

* csv: csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入. CSV 檔案讀取及寫入
* configparser: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器. 設定檔剖析器
* tomllib: tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案. 剖析 TOML 檔案
* netrc: netrc --- netrc 檔案處理. netrc 檔案處理
* plistlib: plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案. 產生和剖析 Apple .plist 檔案

csv -- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入

* 模組內容: 模組內容<3>.
* Dialect 與格式參數::
* 讀取器物件::
* 寫入器物件::
* 範例: 範例<14>.

configparser -- 設定檔剖析器

* Quick Start::
* Supported Datatypes::
* Fallback Values::
* Supported INI File Structure::
* Interpolation of values::
* Mapping Protocol Access::
* Customizing Parser Behaviour::
* Legacy API Examples::
* ConfigParser 物件::
* RawConfigParser 物件::
* 例外: 例外<5>.

tomllib -- 剖析 TOML 檔案

* 範例: 範例<15>.
* 轉換表::

netrc -- netrc 檔案處理

* netrc 物件::

plistlib -- 產生和剖析 Apple .plist 檔案

* 範例: 範例<16>.

加密服務

* hashlib: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要. 安全雜湊與訊息摘要
* hmac: hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證. 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證
* secrets: secrets --- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數. 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數

hashlib -- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要

* 雜湊演算法::
* 用法::
* 建構函式::
* 屬性::
* 雜湊物件::
* SHAKE 可變長度摘要::
* 檔案雜湊::
* 密鑰的生成::
* BLAKE2::

BLAKE2

* 建立雜湊物件::
* 常數: 常數<5>.
* 範例: 範例<17>.
* 製作人員::

範例

* 簡單雜湊::
* 使用不同的摘要大小::
* 密鑰雜湊 (Keyed hashing): 密鑰雜湊 Keyed hashing.
* 隨機雜湊 (Randomized hashing): 隨機雜湊 Randomized hashing.
* 個人化::
* 樹狀模式::

secrets -- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數

* 亂數::
* 產生權杖（token）::
* 其他函式::
* 應用技巧和典範實務（best practices）::

產生權杖（token）

* 權杖應當使用多少個位元組？::

通用作業系統服務

* os: os --- 各種作業系統介面. 各種作業系統介面
* io — 處理資料串流的核心工具::
* time: time --- 時間存取與轉換. 時間存取與轉換
* argparse: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands. Parser for command-line options, arguments and
                        subcommands
* getopt: getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器. 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器
* logging: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具. Python 的日誌記錄工具
* logging.config: logging config --- 日誌記錄配置. 日誌記錄配置
* logging.handlers: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器. 日誌紀錄處理器
* getpass: getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具. 可攜式密碼輸入工具
* curses: curses --- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理. 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理
* curses.textpad: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs. Text input widget for curses programs
* curses.ascii: curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式. ASCII 字元的工具程式
* curses.panel: curses panel --- curses 的面板堆疊擴充. curses 的面板堆疊擴充
* platform: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取. 對底層平臺識別資料的存取
* errno: errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號. 標準 errno 系統符號
* ctypes: ctypes --- 用於 Python 的外部函式庫. 用於 Python 的外部函式庫

os -- 各種作業系統介面

* File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables.
* Python UTF-8 模式::
* 行程參數::
* File Object Creation::
* File Descriptor Operations::
* Files and Directories::
* 行程管理::
* Interface to the scheduler::
* Miscellaneous System Information::
* Random numbers::

File Descriptor Operations

* Querying the size of a terminal::
* Inheritance of File Descriptors::

Files and Directories

* Linux extended attributes::

io — 處理資料串流的核心工具

* 總覽::
* 文字編碼::
* 高階模組介面::
* 類別階層::
* Performance: Performance<3>.

總覽

* 文字 I/O::
* 二進位 (Binary) I/O: 二進位 Binary I/O.
* 原始 (Raw) I/O: 原始 Raw I/O.

文字編碼

* 選擇性加入的編碼警告::

類別階層

* I/O 基礎類別::
* 原始檔案 I/O::
* Buffered Streams::
* 文字 I/O: 文字 I/O<2>.

Performance

* 二進位 (Binary) I/O: 二進位 Binary I/O<2>.
* 文字 I/O: 文字 I/O<3>.
* Multi-threading: Multi-threading<2>.
* Reentrancy::

time -- 時間存取與轉換

* 函式: 函式<4>.
* Clock ID Constants::
* Timezone Constants::

argparse -- Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands

* ArgumentParser 物件::
* The add_argument() method: The add_argument method.
* The parse_args() method: The parse_args method.
* Other utilities::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<2>.

ArgumentParser 物件

* prog::
* usage::
* 描述::
* epilog::
* parents::
* formatter_class::
* prefix_chars::
* fromfile_prefix_chars::
* argument_default::
* allow_abbrev::
* conflict_handler::
* add_help::
* exit_on_error::

The add_argument() method

* name or flags::
* action::
* nargs::
* const::
* default::
* type::
* choices::
* required::
* 幫助::
* metavar::
* dest::
* Action classes::

The parse_args() method

* Option value syntax::
* Invalid arguments::
* Arguments containing -::
* Argument abbreviations (prefix matching): Argument abbreviations prefix matching.
* Beyond sys.argv: Beyond sys argv.
* The Namespace object::

Other utilities

* Sub-commands::
* FileType 物件::
* Argument groups::
* Mutual exclusion::
* Parser defaults::
* Printing help::
* Partial parsing::
* Customizing file parsing::
* Exiting methods::
* Intermixed parsing::

Exceptions

* Argparse 教學::
* Upgrading optparse code::

Argparse 教學

* 概念::
* 基本用法: 基本用法<2>.
* 位置引數的介紹::
* 可選引數的介紹::
* 組合位置引數和可選引數::
* 更進階一點::
* 如何翻譯 argparse 輸出::
* Custom type converters::
* 結論::

可選引數的介紹

* 短選項::

更進階一點

* 指定不明確的引數::
* 相互衝突的選項::

logging -- Python 的日誌記錄工具

* Logger 物件::
* Logging Levels::
* Handler Objects::
* Formatter Objects::
* Filter Objects::
* LogRecord 物件::
* LogRecord attributes::
* LoggerAdapter 物件::
* Thread Safety::
* Module-Level Functions::
* Module-Level Attributes::
* Integration with the warnings module::

logging.config -- 日誌記錄配置

* Configuration functions::
* Security considerations::
* Configuration dictionary schema::
* Configuration file format::

Configuration dictionary schema

* Dictionary Schema Details::
* Incremental Configuration::
* Object connections::
* User-defined objects::
* Handler configuration order::
* Access to external objects::
* Access to internal objects::
* Import resolution and custom importers::
* Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener::

logging.handlers -- 日誌紀錄處理器

* StreamHandler::
* FileHandler::
* NullHandler::
* WatchedFileHandler::
* BaseRotatingHandler::
* RotatingFileHandler::
* TimedRotatingFileHandler::
* SocketHandler::
* DatagramHandler::
* SysLogHandler::
* NTEventLogHandler::
* SMTPHandler::
* MemoryHandler::
* HTTPHandler::
* QueueHandler::
* QueueListener::

curses -- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理

* 函式: 函式<5>.
* Window Objects::
* Constants::

curses.textpad -- Text input widget for curses programs

* Textbox objects::

curses.panel -- curses 的面板堆疊擴充

* 函式: 函式<6>.
* Panel Objects::

platform --  對底層平臺識別資料的存取

* 跨平台::
* Java 平台::
* Windows 平台::
* macOS 平台::
* Unix 平台::
* Linux 平台::

ctypes -- 用於 Python 的外部函式庫

* ctypes 教學::
* ctypes reference::

ctypes 教學

* Loading dynamic link libraries::
* Accessing functions from loaded dlls::
* 呼叫函式::
* Fundamental data types::
* Calling functions, continued: Calling functions continued.
* Calling variadic functions::
* Calling functions with your own custom data types::
* Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes): Specifying the required argument types function prototypes.
* Return types::
* Passing pointers (or; passing parameters by reference): Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference.
* Structures and unions::
* Structure/union alignment and byte order::
* Bit fields in structures and unions::
* Arrays::
* Pointers::
* Type conversions::
* Incomplete Types::
* 回呼函式::
* Accessing values exported from dlls::
* Surprises::
* Variable-sized data types::

ctypes reference

* Finding shared libraries::
* Loading shared libraries::
* Foreign functions::
* Function prototypes::
* Utility functions::
* Data types::
* Fundamental data types: Fundamental data types<2>.
* Structured data types::
* Arrays and pointers::

並行執行 (Concurrent Execution)

* threading: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性. 基於執行緒的平行性
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性. 以行程為基礎的平行性
* multiprocessing.shared_memory: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取. 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取
* concurrent 套件::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務. 啟動平行任務
* subprocess: subprocess --- 子行程管理. 子行程管理
* sched: sched --- 事件排程器. 事件排程器
* queue: queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別. 同步佇列 (synchronized queue) 類別
* contextvars: contextvars --- 情境變數. 情境變數
* _thread: _thread --- 低階執行緒 API. 低階執行緒 API

threading -- 基於執行緒的平行性

* Thread-Local Data::
* Thread Objects::
* Lock Objects::
* RLock 物件::
* Condition Objects::
* Semaphore Objects::
* Event Objects::
* Timer Objects::
* Barrier Objects::
* Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement.

Semaphore Objects

* Semaphore 範例::

multiprocessing -- 以行程為基礎的平行性

* 簡介: 簡介<7>.
* Reference: Reference<2>.
* Programming guidelines::
* 範例: 範例<18>.

簡介

* Process 類別::
* Contexts and start methods::
* Exchanging objects between processes::
* Synchronization between processes::
* Sharing state between processes::
* Using a pool of workers::

Reference

* Process 與例外::
* Pipes and Queues::
* Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<2>.
* Connection Objects::
* Synchronization primitives::
* 共享的 ctypes 物件::
* Managers::
* Proxy Objects::
* Process Pools::
* Listeners and Clients::
* Authentication keys::
* Logging::
* multiprocessing.dummy 模組: multiprocessing dummy 模組.

共享的 ctypes 物件

* multiprocessing.sharedctypes 模組: multiprocessing sharedctypes 模組.

Managers

* Customized managers::
* Using a remote manager::

Proxy Objects

* Cleanup::

Listeners and Clients

* Address Formats::

Programming guidelines

* All start methods::
* The spawn and forkserver start methods::

concurrent.futures -- 啟動平行任務

* Executor 物件::
* ThreadPoolExecutor::
* ProcessPoolExecutor::
* Future 物件::
* 模組函式::
* 例外類別::

ThreadPoolExecutor

* ThreadPoolExecutor 範例::

ProcessPoolExecutor

* ProcessPoolExecutor 範例::

subprocess -- 子行程管理

* Using the subprocess Module::
* 安全性注意事項::
* Popen Objects::
* Windows Popen Helpers::
* Older high-level API::
* Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module::
* Legacy Shell Invocation Functions::
* 註解::

Using the subprocess Module

* Frequently Used Arguments::
* Popen Constructor::
* 例外: 例外<6>.

Windows Popen Helpers

* Windows Constants::

Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

* Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution::
* Replacing shell pipeline::
* Replacing os.system(): Replacing os system.
* Replacing the os.spawn family: Replacing the os spawn family.
* Replacing os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3(): Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen3.
* Replacing functions from the popen2 module::

註解

* Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows::
* 停用 vfork() 或 posix_spawn(): 停用 vfork 或 posix_spawn.

sched -- 事件排程器

* 排程器物件::

queue -- 同步佇列 (synchronized queue) 類別

* 佇列物件::
* SimpleQueue 物件::

contextvars -- 情境變數

* Context Variables::
* Manual Context Management::
* asyncio support::

Networking and Interprocess Communication

* asyncio: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O. 非同步 I/O
* socket: socket --- 低階網路介面. 低階網路介面
* ssl: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器. socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器
* select: select --- 等待 I/O 完成. 等待 I/O 完成
* selectors: selectors --- 高階 I/O 多工. 高階 I/O 多工
* signal: signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式. 設定非同步事件的處理函式
* mmap: mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援. 記憶體映射檔案的支援

asyncio -- 非同步 I/O

* Runners (執行器): Runners 執行器.
* 協程與任務::
* 串流::
* 同步化原始物件 (Synchronization Primitives): 同步化原始物件 Synchronization Primitives.
* 子行程::
* 佇列 (Queues): 佇列 Queues.
* 例外: 例外<8>.
* 事件迴圈::
* Futures::
* 傳輸與協定::
* Policies::
* 平臺支援::
* 擴充::
* 高階 API 索引::
* 低階 API 索引::
* 使用 asyncio 開發::

Runners (執行器)

* 運行一個 asyncio 程式::
* Runner context manager::
* Handling Keyboard Interruption::

協程與任務

* 協程: 協程<3>.
* Awaitables::
* Creating Tasks::
* Task Cancellation::
* Task Groups::
* Sleeping::
* Running Tasks Concurrently::
* Eager Task Factory::
* Shielding From Cancellation::
* Timeouts::
* Waiting Primitives::
* Running in Threads::
* Scheduling From Other Threads::
* Introspection::
* Task Object::

Task Groups

* Terminating a Task Group::

串流

* StreamReader::
* StreamWriter::
* 範例: 範例<19>.

範例

* 使用串流的 TCP echo 客戶端::
* 使用串流的 TCP echo 伺服器::
* 獲取 HTTP 標頭::
* 註冊一個使用串流來等待資料的開放 socket::

同步化原始物件 (Synchronization Primitives)

* Lock::
* Event::
* Condition::
* Semaphore::
* BoundedSemaphore::
* Barrier::

子行程

* 建立子行程::
* 常數: 常數<6>.
* Interacting with Subprocesses::

Interacting with Subprocesses

* 子行程與線程::
* 範例: 範例<20>.

佇列 (Queues)

* Queue::
* Priority Queue（優先佇列）::
* LIFO Queue::
* 例外: 例外<7>.
* 範例: 範例<21>.

事件迴圈

* 事件迴圈方法::
* 回呼處理::
* Server 物件::
* 事件迴圈實作::
* 範例: 範例<22>.

事件迴圈方法

* 啟動和停止迴圈::
* 排程回呼函式::
* 排程延遲的回呼函式::
* 建立 Futures 和 Tasks::
* 打開網路連線::
* 建立網路伺服器::
* 傳輸檔案::
* TLS 升級::
* 監視檔案描述器::
* 直接使用 socket 物件::
* DNS::
* 使用管道::
* Unix 訊號::
* 在執行緒池或行程池中執行程式碼::
* 錯誤處理 API::
* 啟用除錯模式::
* 運行子行程::

範例

* 使用 call_soon() 的 Hello World 範例: 使用 call_soon 的 Hello World 範例.
* 使用 call_later() 顯示目前日期: 使用 call_later 顯示目前日期.
* 監聽檔案描述器以進行讀取事件::
* 設定 SIGINT 和 SIGTERM 的訊號處理程式::

Futures

* Future 函式::
* Future 物件: Future 物件<2>.

傳輸與協定

* Transports::
* Protocols::
* 範例: 範例<23>.

Transports

* Transports Hierarchy::
* Base Transport::
* Read-only Transports::
* Write-only Transports::
* Datagram Transports::
* Subprocess Transports::

Protocols

* Base Protocols::
* Base Protocol::
* Streaming Protocols::
* Buffered Streaming Protocols::
* Datagram Protocols::
* Subprocess Protocols::

範例

* TCP Echo Server::
* TCP Echo Client::
* UDP Echo Server::
* UDP Echo Client::
* Connecting Existing Sockets::
* loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol.

Policies

* Getting and Setting the Policy::
* Policy Objects::
* Process Watchers::
* Custom Policies::

平臺支援

* 所有平台::
* Windows: Windows<76>.
* macOS: macOS<46>.

Windows

* Windows 的子行程支援::

擴充

* Writing a Custom Event Loop::
* Future and Task private constructors::
* Task lifetime support::

高階 API 索引

* 任務 (Tasks): 任務 Tasks.
* 佇列 (Queues): 佇列 Queues<2>.
* 子行程 (Subprocesses): 子行程 Subprocesses.
* 串流 (Streams): 串流 Streams.
* 同步化 (Synchronization): 同步化 Synchronization.
* 例外: 例外<9>.

低階 API 索引

* 獲取事件迴圈::
* 事件迴圈方法: 事件迴圈方法<2>.
* 傳輸::
* 協定::
* 事件迴圈 Policies::

使用 asyncio 開發

* 除錯模式::
* 並行性和多執行緒 (Concurrency and Multithreading): 並行性和多執行緒 Concurrency and Multithreading.
* 執行阻塞的程式::
* 日誌記錄::
* 偵測從未被等待的 (never-awaited) 協程: 偵測從未被等待的 never-awaited 協程.
* 偵測從未被獲取的 (never-retrieved) 例外: 偵測從未被獲取的 never-retrieved 例外.

socket -- 低階網路介面

* Socket 系列家族::
* 模組內容: 模組內容<4>.
* Socket 物件::
* Notes on socket timeouts::
* 範例: 範例<24>.

模組內容

* 例外: 例外<10>.
* 常數: 常數<7>.
* 函式: 函式<7>.

函式

* 建立 sockets::
* 其他函式: 其他函式<2>.

Notes on socket timeouts

* Timeouts and the connect method::
* Timeouts and the accept method::

ssl -- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器

* 函式、常數與例外::
* SSL Sockets::
* SSL Contexts::
* Certificates::
* 範例: 範例<25>.
* Notes on non-blocking sockets::
* Memory BIO Support: Memory BIO Support<2>.
* SSL session::
* Security considerations: Security considerations<2>.
* TLS 1.3: TLS 1 3.

函式、常數與例外

* Socket 建立::
* 語境建立::
* 例外: 例外<11>.
* 隨機產生::
* 認證處理::
* 常數: 常數<8>.

Certificates

* Certificate chains::
* CA certificates::
* Combined key and certificate::
* Self-signed certificates::

範例

* Testing for SSL support::
* Client-side operation::
* Server-side operation::

Security considerations

* Best defaults::
* 手動設定::
* Multi-processing::

手動設定

* 驗證憑證::
* 協定版本::
* Cipher selection::

select -- 等待 I/O 完成

* /dev/poll Polling Objects::
* Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
* Polling Objects::
* Kqueue Objects::
* Kevent Objects::

selectors -- 高階 I/O 多工

* 簡介: 簡介<8>.
* Classes: Classes<3>.
* 範例: 範例<26>.

signal -- 設定非同步事件的處理函式

* General rules::
* 模組內容: 模組內容<5>.
* 範例: 範例<27>.
* Note on SIGPIPE::
* Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions::

General rules

* Execution of Python signal handlers::
* Signals and threads::

mmap -- 記憶體映射檔案的支援

* MADV_* Constants::
* MAP_* 常數::

網際網路資料處理

* email: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件. 郵件和 MIME 處理套件
* json: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器. JSON 編碼器與解碼器
* mailbox: mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱. 以各種格式操作郵件信箱
* mimetypes: mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型. 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型
* base64: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼. Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼
* binascii: binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換. 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換
* quopri: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料. 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料

email -- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

* email.message：表示電子郵件訊息: email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
* email.parser：剖析電子郵件訊息: email parser：剖析電子郵件訊息.
* email.generator：產生 MIME 文件: email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
* email.policy; Policy Objects: email policy Policy Objects.
* email.errors：例外和缺陷類別: email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
* email.headerregistry：自訂標頭物件: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
* email.contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容: email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容.
* email：範例::
* email.message.Message; Representing an email message using the compat32 API: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
* email.mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件: email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
* email.header：國際化標頭: email header：國際化標頭.
* email.charset：表示字元集合: email charset：表示字元集合.
* email.encoders：編碼器: email encoders：編碼器.
* email.utils：雜項工具: email utils：雜項工具.
* email.iterators：疊代器: email iterators：疊代器.

email.parser：剖析電子郵件訊息

* FeedParser API::
* Parser API::
* Additional notes::

email.contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容

* Content Manager Instances::

json -- JSON 編碼器與解碼器

* 基本用法: 基本用法<3>.
* 編碼器與解碼器::
* 例外: 例外<12>.
* 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）::
* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<3>.

合規性與互通性（Interoperability）

* 字元編碼格式::
* 正負無限與非數值::
* 物件內重複的名稱::
* 位於頂層的非物件及非列表值::
* 實作限制::

命令列介面

* 命令列選項: 命令列選項<3>.

mailbox -- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱

* Mailbox 物件::
* Message 物件::
* 例外: 例外<13>.
* 範例: 範例<28>.

Mailbox 物件

* Mailbox 物件: Mailbox 物件<2>.
* mbox 物件::
* MH 物件::
* Babyl 物件::
* MMDF 物件::

Message 物件

* MaildirMessage 物件::
* mboxMessage 物件::
* MHMessage 物件::
* BabylMessage 物件::
* MMDFMessage 物件::

mimetypes -- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型

* MimeTypes 物件::

base64 -- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼

* 安全性注意事項: 安全性注意事項<2>.

Structured Markup Processing Tools

* html: html --- 超連結標記語言 HTML 支援. 超連結標記語言 (HTML) 支援
* html.parser: html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器. 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器
* html.entities: html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義. HTML 一般實體的定義
* XML 處理模組::
* xml.etree.cElementTree: xml etree cElementTree --- ElementTree XML API. ElementTree XML API
* xml.dom: xml dom --- Document 物件模型 API. Document 物件模型 API
* xml.dom.minidom: xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作. 最小的 DOM 實作
* xml.dom.pulldom: xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹. 支援建置部分 DOM 樹
* xml.sax: xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援. SAX2 剖析器支援
* xml.sax.handler: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別. SAX 處理函式的基本類別
* xml.sax.saxutils: xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式. SAX 工具程式
* xml.sax.xmlreader: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面. XML 剖析器的介面
* xml.parsers.expat: xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析. 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析

html.parser -- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器

* HTML 剖析器應用程式範例::
* HTMLParser 方法::
* 範例: 範例<29>.

XML 處理模組

* XML 漏洞::
* defusedxml 套件::

xml.etree.cElementTree -- ElementTree XML API

* 教學: 教學<2>.
* XPath 支援::
* Reference: Reference<3>.
* XInclude support::
* Reference: Reference<4>.

教學

* XML tree and elements::
* 剖析 XML::
* Pull API for non-blocking parsing::
* Finding interesting elements::
* 改動 XML 檔案::
* Building XML documents::
* Parsing XML with Namespaces::

XPath 支援

* 範例: 範例<30>.
* Supported XPath syntax::

Reference

* 函式: 函式<8>.

XInclude support

* 範例: 範例<31>.

Reference

* 函式: 函式<9>.
* Element 物件::
* ElementTree 物件::
* QName 物件::
* TreeBuilder 物件::
* XMLParser 物件::
* XMLPullParser 物件::
* 例外: 例外<14>.

xml.dom -- Document 物件模型 API

* 模組內容: 模組內容<6>.
* Objects in the DOM::
* Conformance::

Objects in the DOM

* DOMImplementation 物件::
* Node Objects::
* NodeList 物件::
* DocumentType 物件::
* Document Objects::
* Element Objects::
* Attr Objects::
* NamedNodeMap 物件::
* Comment Objects::
* Text and CDATASection Objects::
* ProcessingInstruction 物件::
* 例外: 例外<15>.

Conformance

* Type Mapping::
* Accessor Methods::

xml.dom.minidom -- 最小的 DOM 實作

* DOM 物件::
* DOM 範例::
* minidom and the DOM standard::

xml.dom.pulldom -- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹

* DOMEventStream 物件::

xml.sax -- SAX2 剖析器支援

* SAXException 物件::

xml.sax.handler -- SAX 處理函式的基本類別

* ContentHandler 物件::
* DTDHandler 物件::
* EntityResolver 物件::
* ErrorHandler 物件::
* LexicalHandler 物件::

xml.sax.xmlreader -- XML 剖析器的介面

* XMLReader 物件::
* IncrementalParser 物件::
* Locator Objects::
* InputSource 物件::
* The Attributes Interface::
* The AttributesNS Interface::

xml.parsers.expat -- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析

* XMLParser 物件: XMLParser 物件<2>.
* ExpatError 例外::
* 範例: 範例<32>.
* Content Model Descriptions::
* Expat error constants::

網路協定 (Internet protocols) 及支援

* webbrowser: webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器. 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器
* wsgiref: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作. WSGI 工具與參考實作
* urllib: urllib --- URL 處理模組. URL 處理模組
* urllib.request: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫. 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫
* urllib.response: urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib. Response classes used by urllib
* urllib.parse: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件. 將 URL 剖析成元件
* urllib.error: urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別. urllib.request 引發的例外類別
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器. robots.txt 的剖析器
* http: http --- HTTP 模組. HTTP 模組
* http.client: http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端. HTTP 協定用戶端
* ftplib: ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端. FTP 協定用戶端
* poplib: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端. POP3 協定用戶端
* imaplib: imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端. IMAP4 協定客戶端
* smtplib: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端. SMTP 協定用戶端
* uuid: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件. RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件
* socketserver: socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架. 用於網路伺服器的框架
* http.server — HTTP 伺服器: http server — HTTP 伺服器.
* http.cookies: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理. HTTP 狀態管理
* http.cookiejar: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理. HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc --- XMLRPC 伺服器與用戶模組. XMLRPC 伺服器與用戶模組
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取. XML-RPC 客戶端存取
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器. 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器
* ipaddress: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫. IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫

webbrowser -- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器

* Browser Controller Objects::

wsgiref -- WSGI 工具與參考實作

* wsgiref.util: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具. WSGI 環境工具
* wsgiref.headers: wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具. WSGI 回應標頭工具
* wsgiref.simple_server: wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器. 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器
* wsgiref.validate: wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查. WSGI 符合性檢查
* wsgiref.handlers: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別. 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別
* wsgiref.types: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別. 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別
* 範例: 範例<33>.

urllib.request -- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

* Request Objects::
* OpenerDirector 物件::
* BaseHandler 物件::
* HTTPRedirectHandler 物件::
* HTTPCookieProcessor 物件::
* ProxyHandler 物件::
* HTTPPasswordMgr 物件::
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件::
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler 物件::
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler 物件::
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler 物件::
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler 物件::
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler 物件::
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler 物件::
* HTTPHandler 物件::
* HTTPSHandler 物件::
* FileHandler 物件::
* DataHandler 物件::
* FTPHandler 物件::
* CacheFTPHandler 物件::
* UnknownHandler 物件::
* HTTPErrorProcessor 物件::
* 範例: 範例<34>.
* Legacy interface::
* urllib.request Restrictions: urllib request Restrictions.

urllib.parse -- 將 URL 剖析成元件

* URL Parsing::
* URL parsing security::
* Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes::
* Structured Parse Results::
* URL Quoting::

http -- HTTP 模組

* HTTP 狀態碼::
* HTTP 狀態分類::
* HTTP 方法::

http.client -- HTTP 協定用戶端

* HTTPConnection 物件::
* HTTPResponse 物件::
* 範例: 範例<35>.
* HTTPMessage 物件::

ftplib -- FTP 協定用戶端

* 參考::

參考

* FTP 物件::
* FTP_TLS 物件::
* 模組變數::

poplib -- POP3 協定用戶端

* POP3 物件::
* POP3 範例::

imaplib -- IMAP4 協定客戶端

* IMAP4 物件::
* IMAP4 範例::

smtplib -- SMTP 協定用戶端

* SMTP 物件::
* SMTP 範例::

uuid -- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件

* 命令列的用法::
* 範例: 範例<36>.
* 命令列的範例::

socketserver -- 用於網路伺服器的框架

* Server Creation Notes::
* Server Objects::
* Request Handler Objects::
* 範例: 範例<37>.

範例

* socketserver.TCPServer 範例: socketserver TCPServer 範例.
* socketserver.UDPServer 範例: socketserver UDPServer 範例.
* Asynchronous Mixins::

http.server — HTTP 伺服器

* 安全性注意事項: 安全性注意事項<3>.

http.cookies -- HTTP 狀態管理

* Cookie 物件::
* Morsel 物件::
* 範例: 範例<38>.

http.cookiejar -- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理

* CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件::
* FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers::
* CookiePolicy 物件::
* DefaultCookiePolicy 物件::
* Cookie 物件: Cookie 物件<2>.
* 範例: 範例<39>.

xmlrpc.client -- XML-RPC 客戶端存取

* ServerProxy 物件::
* 日期時間物件::
* Binary Objects::
* Fault Objects::
* ProtocolError 物件::
* MultiCall 物件::
* 便捷的函式::
* Example of Client Usage::
* Example of Client and Server Usage::

xmlrpc.server -- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器

* SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件::
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::
* Documenting XMLRPC server::
* DocXMLRPCServer 物件::
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::

SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件

* SimpleXMLRPCServer 範例::

ipaddress -- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫

* Convenience factory functions::
* IP Addresses::
* IP Network definitions::
* Interface objects::
* Other Module Level Functions::
* Custom Exceptions::

IP Addresses

* Address objects::
* Conversion to Strings and Integers::
* Operators: Operators<2>.

Operators

* Comparison operators::
* Arithmetic operators::

IP Network definitions

* Prefix, net mask and host mask: Prefix net mask and host mask.
* Network objects::
* Operators: Operators<3>.

Operators

* Logical operators::
* Iteration::
* Networks as containers of addresses::

Interface objects

* Operators: Operators<4>.

Operators

* Logical operators: Logical operators<2>.

多媒體服務

* wave: wave --- 讀寫 WAV 檔案. 讀寫 WAV 檔案
* colorsys: colorsys --- 顏色系統間的轉換. 顏色系統間的轉換

wave -- 讀寫 WAV 檔案

* Wave_read 物件::
* Wave_write 物件::

國際化

* gettext: gettext --- 多語言國際化服務. 多語言國際化服務
* locale: locale --- 國際化服務. 國際化服務

gettext -- 多語言國際化服務

* GNU gettext API::
* Class-based API::
* Internationalizing your programs and modules::
* 致謝: 致謝<9>.

Class-based API

* The NullTranslations class::
* The GNUTranslations class::
* Solaris message catalog support::
* The Catalog constructor::

Internationalizing your programs and modules

* Localizing your module::
* Localizing your application::
* Changing languages on the fly::
* Deferred translations::

locale -- 國際化服務

* Background, details, hints, tips and caveats: Background details hints tips and caveats.
* For extension writers and programs that embed Python::
* Access to message catalogs::

程式框架

* turtle: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics. 龜圖學 (Turtle graphics)
* cmd: cmd --- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援. 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援
* shlex: shlex --- 簡單的語法分析. 簡單的語法分析

turtle -- 龜圖學 (Turtle graphics)

* 介紹::
* 教學: 教學<3>.
* How to...: How to.
* Turtle graphics reference::
* Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions::
* Public classes::
* 解釋: 解釋<2>.
* Help and configuration::
* turtledemo: turtledemo --- Demo scripts. Demo scripts
* Changes since Python 2.6: Changes since Python 2 6.
* Changes since Python 3.0: Changes since Python 3 0.

教學

* 啟動一個烏龜環境::
* 基本繪圖::
* Making algorithmic patterns::

基本繪圖

* Pen control::
* The turtle's position::

How to...

* Get started as quickly as possible::
* Use the turtle module namespace::
* Use turtle graphics in a script::
* Use object-oriented turtle graphics::

Turtle graphics reference

* Turtle methods::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen::

Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

* Turtle motion::
* Tell Turtle's state::
* Settings for measurement::
* Pen control: Pen control<2>.
* Turtle state::
* Using events::
* Special Turtle methods::
* Compound shapes::

Pen control

* Drawing state::
* Color control::
* Filling::
* More drawing control::

Turtle state

* Visibility::
* Appearance::

Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

* Window control::
* Animation control::
* Using screen events::
* Input methods::
* Settings and special methods::
* Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.

Help and configuration

* How to use help::
* Translation of docstrings into different languages::
* How to configure Screen and Turtles::

cmd -- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援

* Cmd 物件::
* Cmd Example::

shlex -- 簡單的語法分析

* shlex 物件::
* Parsing Rules::
* Improved Compatibility with Shells::

以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 (Graphical User Interfaces)

* tkinter: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面. Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面
* tkinter.colorchooser: tkinter colorchooser --- 顏色選擇對話框. 顏色選擇對話框
* tkinter.font: tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器. Tkinter 字型包裝器
* Tkinter 對話框::
* tkinter.messagebox: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示. Tkinter 訊息提示
* tkinter.scrolledtext: tkinter scrolledtext --- 捲動文字小工具. 捲動文字小工具
* tkinter.dnd: tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援. 拖放支援
* tkinter.ttk: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具. Tk 主題化小工具
* tkinter.tix: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具. Tk 擴充小工具
* IDLE: IDLE<62>.

tkinter -- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面

* Architecture::
* Tkinter Modules::
* Tkinter Life Preserver::
* Threading model::
* Handy Reference::
* File Handlers::

Tkinter Life Preserver

* A Hello World Program::
* Important Tk Concepts::
* Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk::
* How do I...? What option does...?: How do I ? What option does ?.
* Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual::

Handy Reference

* Setting Options::
* The Packer::
* Packer Options::
* Coupling Widget Variables::
* The Window Manager::
* Tk Option Data Types::
* Bindings and Events::
* The index Parameter::
* Images::

Tkinter 對話框

* tkinter.simpledialog: tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框. 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框
* tkinter.filedialog: tkinter filedialog --- File selection dialogs. File selection dialogs
* tkinter.commondialog: tkinter commondialog --- Dialog window templates. Dialog window templates

tkinter.filedialog -- File selection dialogs

* Native Load/Save Dialogs::

tkinter.ttk -- Tk 主題化小工具

* 使用 Ttk::
* Ttk Widgets::
* Widget::
* Combobox::
* Spinbox::
* Notebook::
* Progressbar::
* Separator::
* Sizegrip::
* Treeview::
* Ttk Styling::

Widget

* 標準選項::
* Scrollable Widget Options::
* Label Options::
* 相容性選項::
* Widget States::
* ttk.Widget: ttk Widget.

Combobox

* 選項::
* Virtual events::
* ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox.

Spinbox

* 選項: 選項<2>.
* Virtual events: Virtual events<2>.
* ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox.

Notebook

* 選項: 選項<3>.
* Tab Options::
* Tab Identifiers::
* 虛擬事件::
* ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook.

Progressbar

* 選項: 選項<4>.
* ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar.

Separator

* 選項: 選項<5>.

Sizegrip

* Platform-specific notes::
* Bugs::

Treeview

* 選項: 選項<6>.
* Item Options::
* Tag Options::
* Column Identifiers::
* 虛擬事件: 虛擬事件<2>.
* ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview.

Ttk Styling

* Layouts::

tkinter.tix -- Tk 擴充小工具

* Using Tix::
* Tix Widgets::
* Tix 指令::

Tix Widgets

* Basic Widgets::
* File Selectors::
* Hierarchical ListBox::
* Tabular ListBox::
* Manager Widgets::
* Image Types::
* Miscellaneous Widgets::
* Form Geometry Manager::

IDLE

* 目錄::
* Editing and Navigation::
* Startup and Code Execution::
* Help and Preferences::
* idlelib::

目錄

* File menu (Shell and Editor): File menu Shell and Editor.
* Edit menu (Shell and Editor): Edit menu Shell and Editor.
* Format menu (Editor window only): Format menu Editor window only.
* Run menu (Editor window only): Run menu Editor window only.
* Shell menu (Shell window only): Shell menu Shell window only.
* Debug menu (Shell window only): Debug menu Shell window only.
* Options menu (Shell and Editor): Options menu Shell and Editor.
* Window menu (Shell and Editor): Window menu Shell and Editor.
* Help menu (Shell and Editor): Help menu Shell and Editor.
* Context menus::

Editing and Navigation

* Editor windows::
* Key bindings::
* Automatic indentation::
* Search and Replace::
* Completions::
* Calltips::
* Code Context::
* Shell window::
* Text colors::

Startup and Code Execution

* 命令列用法: 命令列用法<2>.
* Startup failure::
* Running user code::
* User output in Shell::
* Developing tkinter applications::
* Running without a subprocess::

Help and Preferences

* Help sources::
* Setting preferences::
* IDLE on macOS::
* Extensions::

開發工具

* typing: typing --- 支援型別提示. 支援型別提示
* pydoc: pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統. 文件產生器與線上幫助系統
* Python 開發模式::
* doctest: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例. 測試互動式 Python 範例
* unittest: unittest --- 單元測試框架. 單元測試框架
* unittest.mock — mock 物件函式庫: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock --- 入門指南. 入門指南
* 2to3: 2to3 --- 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3. 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3
* test: test --- Python 的回歸測試 regression tests 套件. Python 的回歸測試 (regression tests) 套件
* test.support: test support --- Python 測試套件的工具. Python 測試套件的工具
* test.support.socket_helper: test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具. 用於 socket 測試的工具
* test.support.script_helper: test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具. 用於 Python 執行測試的工具
* test.support.bytecode_helper: test support bytecode_helper --- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具. 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具
* test.support.threading_helper: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests. Utilities for threading tests
* test.support.os_helper: test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具. 用於 os 測試的工具
* test.support.import_helper: test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具. 用於 import 測試的工具
* test.support.warnings_helper: test support warnings_helper --- 用於 warnings 測試的工具. 用於 warnings 測試的工具

typing -- 支援型別提示

* Python 型別系統的技術規範::
* 型別別名::
* NewType::
* 註釋 callable 物件::
* 泛型::
* 註釋元組 (tuple): 註釋元組 tuple.
* 類別物件的型別::
* Annotating generators and coroutines::
* 使用者定義泛型型別::
* Any 型別::
* 標稱 (nominal) 子型別 vs 結構子型別: 標稱 nominal 子型別 vs 結構子型別.
* 模組內容: 模組內容<7>.
* Deprecation Timeline of Major Features::

模組內容

* 特別型別原語 (primitive): 特別型別原語 primitive.
* 協定: 協定<2>.
* ABCs for working with IO::
* 函式與裝飾器::
* Introspection helpers::
* 常數: 常數<9>.
* 棄用的別名::

特別型別原語 (primitive)

* 特別型別::
* 特別型式::
* Building generic types and type aliases::
* Other special directives::

棄用的別名

* 內建型別的別名::
* collections 中型別的別名::
* Aliases to other concrete types::
* collections.abc 中容器 ABC 的別名: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
* Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
* contextlib ABC 的別名::

Python 開發模式

* Python 開發模式的影響::
* ResourceWarning 範例::
* 檔案描述器的錯誤範例::

doctest -- 測試互動式 Python 範例

* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings.
* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File.
* How It Works::
* 基礎 API::
* Unittest API::
* Advanced API::
* Debugging::
* Soapbox::

How It Works

* Which Docstrings Are Examined?::
* How are Docstring Examples Recognized?::
* What's the Execution Context?::
* What About Exceptions?::
* 可選旗標::
* Directives::
* 警告: 警告<2>.

Advanced API

* DocTest 物件::
* Example 物件::
* DocTestFinder 物件::
* DocTestParser 物件::
* DocTestRunner 物件::
* OutputChecker 物件::

unittest -- 單元測試框架

* 簡單範例::
* 命令執行列介面 (Command-Line Interface): 命令執行列介面 Command-Line Interface.
* Test Discovery（測試探索）::
* Organizing test code::
* Re-using old test code::
* Skipping tests and expected failures::
* Distinguishing test iterations using subtests::
* Classes and functions::
* Class and Module Fixtures::
* Signal Handling::

命令執行列介面 (Command-Line Interface)

* 命令列模式選項::

Classes and functions

* Test cases::
* Grouping tests::
* Loading and running tests::

Loading and running tests

* load_tests Protocol::

Class and Module Fixtures

* setUpClass and tearDownClass::
* setUpModule and tearDownModule::

unittest.mock — mock 物件函式庫

* 快速導引::
* Mock 類別::
* Patchers::
* MagicMock 以及魔術方法支援::
* 輔助函式: 輔助函式<2>.
* Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps.

Mock 類別

* 呼叫::
* 刪除屬性::
* Mock 名稱與名稱屬性::
* 如同屬性一般附加 mock::

Patchers

* patch::
* patch.object: patch object.
* patch.dict: patch dict.
* patch.multiple: patch multiple.
* patch 方法：啟動與停止::
* patch 內建函式::
* TEST_PREFIX::
* 巢狀使用 Patch 裝飾器::
* 該 patch 何處::
* Patch 描述器與代理物件 (Proxy Objects): Patch 描述器與代理物件 Proxy Objects.

MagicMock 以及魔術方法支援

* Mock 魔術方法::
* Magic Mock::

輔助函式

* sentinel（哨兵）::
* DEFAULT::
* call::
* create_autospec::
* ANY::
* FILTER_DIR::
* mock_open::
* Autospeccing（自動規格）::
* 密封 mock::

unittest.mock -- 入門指南

* 使用 Mock 的方式::
* Patch 裝飾器::
* 更多範例::

使用 Mock 的方式

* 使用 Mock 來 patching 方法::
* 對物件的方法呼叫使用 mock::
* Mock 類別: Mock 類別<2>.
* 命名你的 mock::
* 追蹤所有呼叫::
* 設定回傳值和屬性::
* 透過 mock 引發例外::
* Side effect 函式以及可疊代物件::
* Mock 非同步可疊代物件::
* Mock 非同步情境管理器::
* 從現有物件建立 mock::
* 使用 side_effect 回傳各別檔案內容::

更多範例

* Mock 鍊接呼叫::
* 部分 mocking::
* Mock 產生器方法::
* 對每個測試方法應用相同的 patch::
* Mock Unbound Methods （未繫結方法）::
* 使用 mock 檢查多個呼叫::
* 應對可變引數::
* 巢狀使用 Patch::
* 使用 MagicMock 來 mock 字典::
* Mock 子類別及其屬性::
* 使用 patch.dict 來 mock import: 使用 patch dict 來 mock import.
* 追蹤呼叫順序與更簡潔的呼叫斷言::
* 更複雜的引數匹配::

2to3 -- 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3

* 使用 2to3::
* Fixers::
* lib2to3: lib2to3 --- 2to3's library. 2to3's library

test -- Python 的回歸測試 (regression tests) 套件

* 撰寫 test 套件的單元測試::
* 使用命令列介面執行測試::

除錯與效能分析

* 稽核事件表::
* bdb: bdb --- 偵錯器框架. 偵錯器框架
* faulthandler: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯. 傾印 Python 回溯
* pdb: pdb --- The Python Debugger. The Python Debugger
* Python 的分析器::
* timeit: timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間. 測量小量程式片段的執行時間
* trace: trace --- 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行. 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置. 追蹤記憶體配置

faulthandler -- 傾印 Python 回溯

* Dumping the traceback::
* Fault handler state::
* Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout::
* Dumping the traceback on a user signal::
* Issue with file descriptors::
* 範例: 範例<40>.

pdb -- The Python Debugger

* Debugger Commands::

Python 的分析器

* Introduction to the profilers::
* Instant User's Manual::
* profile and cProfile Module Reference::
* The Stats Class::
* What Is Deterministic Profiling?::
* 限制::
* 校正::
* Using a custom timer::

timeit -- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間

* 基礎範例: 基礎範例<2>.
* Python 介面::
* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<4>.
* 範例: 範例<41>.

trace -- 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行

* Command-Line Usage::
* Programmatic Interface::

Command-Line Usage

* Main options::
* Modifiers::
* Filters::

tracemalloc -- 追蹤記憶體配置

* 範例: 範例<42>.
* API::

範例

* Display the top 10::
* Compute differences::
* Get the traceback of a memory block::
* Pretty top::

Pretty top

* Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks::

API

* 函式: 函式<10>.
* DomainFilter::
* Filter::
* Frame::
* Snapshot::
* Statistic::
* StatisticDiff::
* Trace::
* Traceback::

軟體封裝與發布

* ensurepip: ensurepip --- pip 安裝器的初始建置 bootstrapping. pip 安裝器的初始建置 (bootstrapping)
* venv: venv --- 建立虛擬環境. 建立虛擬環境
* zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案::

ensurepip -- pip 安裝器的初始建置 (bootstrapping)

* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<5>.
* 模組 API::

venv -- 建立虛擬環境

* 建立虛擬環境: 建立虛擬環境<2>.
* 虛擬環境如何運作::
* API: API<2>.
* An example of extending EnvBuilder::

zipapp —- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案

* 基本範例::
* 命令執行列介面::
* Python API::
* 範例: 範例<43>.
* Specifying the Interpreter::
* Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp::
* The Python Zip Application Archive Format::

Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp

* Caveats::

Python Runtime 服務

* sys: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式. 系統特定的參數與函式
* sys.monitoring: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring. Execution event monitoring
* sysconfig: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取. 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取
* builtins: builtins --- 內建物件. 內建物件
* __main__: __main__ --- 頂層程式碼環境. 頂層程式碼環境
* warnings: warnings --- 警告控制. 警告控制
* dataclasses: dataclasses --- Data Classes. Data Classes
* contextlib: contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts. Utilities for with-statement contexts
* abc: abc --- 抽象基底類別. 抽象基底類別
* atexit: atexit --- 退出處理函式. 退出處理函式
* traceback: traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback. 列印或取得堆疊回溯 (stack traceback)
* __future__: __future__ --- Future 陳述式定義. Future 陳述式定義
* gc: gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface. 垃圾回收器介面 (Garbage Collector interface)
* inspect: inspect --- 檢視活動物件. 檢視活動物件
* site: site --- Site-specific configuration hook. Site-specific configuration hook

sys.monitoring -- Execution event monitoring

* Tool identifiers::
* 事件::
* Turning events on and off::
* 註冊回呼函式::

Tool identifiers

* Registering and using tools::

事件

* Local events::
* 輔助事件::
* 其他事件::
* The STOP_ITERATION event::

Turning events on and off

* Setting events globally::
* Per code object events::
* 停用事件::

註冊回呼函式

* 回呼函式引數::

sysconfig -- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取

* Configuration variables::
* Installation paths::
* User scheme::
* Home scheme::
* Prefix scheme::
* 安裝路徑函式::
* 其他函式: 其他函式<3>.
* 將 sysconfig 作為腳本使用::

User scheme

* posix_user::
* nt_user::
* osx_framework_user::

Home scheme

* posix_home::

Prefix scheme

* posix_prefix::
* nt::

__main__ -- 頂層程式碼環境

* __name__ == '__main__'::
* Python 套件中的 __main__.py: Python 套件中的 __main__ py.
* import __main__::

__name__ == '__main__'

* 什麼是「頂層程式碼環境」？::
* 慣用 (Idiomatic) 用法: 慣用 Idiomatic 用法.
* 打包時須考慮的事情::

Python 套件中的 __main__.py

* 慣用 (Idiomatic) 用法: 慣用 Idiomatic 用法<2>.

warnings -- 警告控制

* Warning Categories::
* The Warnings Filter::
* Temporarily Suppressing Warnings::
* Testing Warnings::
* Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies::
* Available Functions::
* Available Context Managers::

The Warnings Filter

* Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria::
* Describing Warning Filters::
* Default Warning Filter::
* Overriding the default filter::

dataclasses -- Data Classes

* 模組內容: 模組內容<8>.
* Post-init processing::
* 類別變數::
* Init-only variables::
* 凍結實例::
* 繼承::
* Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__.
* 預設工廠函式::
* 可變預設值::
* Descriptor-typed fields::

contextlib -- Utilities for with-statement contexts

* Utilities::
* Examples and Recipes: Examples and Recipes<2>.
* Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers.

Examples and Recipes

* Supporting a variable number of context managers::
* Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods::
* Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation::
* Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables::
* Using a context manager as a function decorator::

Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers

* Reentrant context managers::
* Reusable context managers::

atexit -- 退出處理函式

* atexit 範例::

traceback -- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 (stack traceback)

* Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<2>.
* TracebackException 物件::
* StackSummary 物件::
* FrameSummary 物件::
* Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions::
* Examples of Using TracebackException::

__future__ -- Future 陳述式定義

* 模組內容: 模組內容<9>.

inspect -- 檢視活動物件

* Types and members::
* 取得原始碼::
* Introspecting callables with the Signature object::
* 類別與函式::
* 直譯器堆疊::
* Fetching attributes statically::
* Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
* Code Objects Bit Flags::
* Buffer flags::
* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<6>.

site -- Site-specific configuration hook

* sitecustomize::
* usercustomize::
* Readline configuration::
* 模組內容: 模組內容<10>.
* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<7>.

自訂 Python 直譯器

* code: code --- 直譯器基底類別. 直譯器基底類別
* codeop: codeop --- 編譯 Python 程式碼. 編譯 Python 程式碼

code -- 直譯器基底類別

* Interactive Interpreter Objects::
* Interactive Console Objects::

引入模組

* zipimport: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組. 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組
* pkgutil: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式. 套件擴充工具程式
* modulefinder: modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組. 搜尋腳本所使用的模組
* runpy: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組. 定位並執行 Python 模組
* importlib: importlib --- import 的實作. import 的實作
* importlib.resources: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access. Package resource reading, opening and access
* importlib.resources.abc: importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別. 資源的抽象基底類別
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料. 存取套件的元資料
* The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path.

zipimport -- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組

* zipimporter 物件::
* 範例: 範例<44>.

modulefinder -- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組

* ModuleFinder 的用法範例::

importlib -- import 的實作

* 簡介: 簡介<9>.
* 函式: 函式<11>.
* importlib.abc: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import. Abstract base classes related to import
* importlib.machinery: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks. Importers and path hooks
* importlib.util: importlib util -- Utility code for importers. Utility code for importers
* 範例: 範例<45>.

範例

* Importing programmatically::
* Checking if a module can be imported::
* Importing a source file directly::
* Implementing lazy imports::
* Setting up an importer::
* Approximating importlib.import_module(): Approximating importlib import_module.

importlib.resources - Package resource reading, opening and access

* 已棄用函式::

importlib.metadata - 存取套件的元資料

* Overview: Overview<2>.
* Functional API::
* Distributions::
* Distribution Discovery::
* Extending the search algorithm::

Functional API

* Entry points::
* Distribution metadata::
* Distribution versions::
* Distribution files::
* Distribution requirements::
* Mapping import to distribution packages::

The initialization of the sys.path module search path

* Virtual environments::
* _pth files::
* Embedded Python::

Python 語言服務

* ast: ast --- 抽象語法樹 Abstract Syntax Trees. 抽象語法樹 (Abstract Syntax Trees)
* symtable: symtable --- 存取編譯器的符號表. 存取編譯器的符號表
* token: token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數. 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數
* keyword: keyword --- 檢驗 Python 關鍵字. 檢驗 Python 關鍵字
* tokenize: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source. Tokenizer for Python source
* tabnanny: tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排. 偵測不良縮排
* pyclbr: pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援. Python 模組瀏覽器支援
* py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案::
* compileall: compileall --- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫. 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫
* dis: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器. Python bytecode 的反組譯器
* pickletools: pickletools --- pickle 開發者的工具. pickle 開發者的工具

ast -- 抽象語法樹 (Abstract Syntax Trees)

* 抽象文法 (Abstract Grammar): 抽象文法 Abstract Grammar.
* 節點 (Node) 類別: 節點 Node 類別.
* ast 輔助程式::
* 編譯器旗標: 編譯器旗標<2>.
* 命令列用法: 命令列用法<3>.

節點 (Node) 類別

* 根節點::
* 文本 (Literals): 文本 Literals.
* 變數::
* 運算式: 運算式<2>.
* 陳述式::
* 流程控制::
* 模式匹配 (pattern matching): 模式匹配 pattern matching.
* 型別參數 (type parameters): 型別參數 type parameters.
* 函式和類別定義::
* async 和 await::

運算式

* 下標 (Subscripting): 下標 Subscripting.
* 綜合運算式 (comprehensions): 綜合運算式 comprehensions.

陳述式

* 引入 (imports): 引入 imports.

symtable -- 存取編譯器的符號表

* 產生符號表::
* 檢查符號表::

tokenize -- Tokenizer for Python source

* Tokenizing Input::
* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<2>.
* 範例: 範例<46>.

pyclbr -- Python 模組瀏覽器支援

* 函式物件::
* Class Objects::

py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案

* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<3>.

compileall -- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫

* Command-line use::
* Public functions::

dis -- Python bytecode 的反組譯器

* Command-line interface::
* Bytecode analysis::
* Analysis functions::
* Python Bytecode Instructions::
* Opcode collections::

pickletools -- pickle 開發者的工具

* 命令列用法: 命令列用法<4>.
* 程式化介面::

命令列用法

* 命令列選項: 命令列選項<4>.

MS Windows 特有服務

* msvcrt: msvcrt --- MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程. MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程
* winreg: winreg --- Windows 註冊表存取. Windows 註冊表存取
* winsound: winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面. Windows 的聲音播放介面

msvcrt -- MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程

* File Operations::
* Console I/O::
* Other Functions::

winreg -- Windows 註冊表存取

* 函式: 函式<12>.
* 常數: 常數<10>.
* Registry Handle Objects::

常數

* HKEY_* Constants::
* Access Rights::
* Value Types::

Access Rights

* 64-bit Specific::

Unix 特有服務

* posix: posix --- 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫. 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫
* pwd: pwd --- 密碼資料庫. 密碼資料庫
* grp: grp --- 群組資料庫. 群組資料庫
* termios: termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制. POSIX 風格 tty 控制
* tty: tty --- 終端機控制函式. 終端機控制函式
* pty: pty --- 偽終端工具. 偽終端工具
* fcntl: fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫. fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫
* resource: resource --- 資源使用資訊. 資源使用資訊
* syslog: syslog --- Unix syslog 函式庫例程. Unix syslog 函式庫例程

posix -- 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫

* 對大檔案 (Large File) 的支援: 對大檔案 Large File 的支援.
* 值得注意的模組內容::

termios -- POSIX 風格 tty 控制

* 範例: 範例<47>.

pty -- 偽終端工具

* 範例: 範例<48>.

resource -- 資源使用資訊

* Resource Limits::
* Resource Usage::

syslog -- Unix syslog 函式庫例程

* 範例: 範例<49>.

範例

* 簡單範例: 簡單範例<2>.

已被取代的模組

* aifc: aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案. 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案
* audioop: audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案. 操作原始聲音檔案
* cgi: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援. 通用閘道器介面支援
* cgitb: cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式. CGI 腳本的回溯 (traceback) 管理程式
* chunk: chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料. 讀取 IFF 分塊資料
* crypt: crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式. 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式
* imghdr: imghdr --- 推測圖片種類. 推測圖片種類
* mailcap: mailcap --- Mailcap 檔案處理. Mailcap 檔案處理
* msilib: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案. 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案
* nis: nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面. Sun NIS (Yellow Pages) 介面
* nntplib: nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端. NNTP 協定客戶端
* optparse: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器. 命令列選項剖析器
* ossaudiodev: ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取. 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取
* pipes: pipes --- shell pipelines 介面. shell pipelines 介面
* sndhdr: sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別. 判定聲音檔案的型別
* spwd: spwd --- shadow 密碼資料庫. shadow 密碼資料庫
* sunau: sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案. 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案
* telnetlib: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端. Telnet 客戶端
* xdrlib: xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼. uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼
* xdrlib: xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼. XDR 資料的編碼與解碼

cgi -- 通用閘道器介面支援

* 簡介: 簡介<10>.
* 使用 cgi 模組::
* Higher Level Interface::
* 函式: 函式<13>.
* Caring about security::
* Installing your CGI script on a Unix system::
* Testing your CGI script::
* Debugging CGI scripts::
* Common problems and solutions::

crypt -- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式

* 雜湊方法::
* 模組屬性::
* 模組函式: 模組函式<2>.
* 範例: 範例<50>.

msilib -- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案

* Database Objects::
* View Objects::
* Summary Information Objects::
* Record Objects::
* Errors::
* CAB 物件::
* Directory Objects::
* Features::
* GUI classes::
* Precomputed tables::

nntplib -- NNTP 協定客戶端

* NNTP 物件::
* Utility functions: Utility functions<2>.

NNTP 物件

* 屬性: 屬性<2>.
* 方法::

optparse -- 命令列選項剖析器

* 背景::
* 教學: 教學<4>.
* Reference Guide::
* Option Callbacks::
* Extending optparse::
* 例外: 例外<16>.

背景

* 術語::
* What are options for?::
* What are positional arguments for?::

教學

* Understanding option actions::
* The store action::
* Handling boolean (flag) options: Handling boolean flag options.
* Other actions::
* Default values::
* Generating help::
* Printing a version string::
* How optparse handles errors::
* Putting it all together::

Generating help

* Grouping Options::

Reference Guide

* Creating the parser::
* Populating the parser::
* Defining options::
* Option attributes::
* Standard option actions::
* Standard option types::
* 剖析引數::
* Querying and manipulating your option parser::
* Conflicts between options::
* Cleanup: Cleanup<2>.
* 其他方法::

Option Callbacks

* Defining a callback option::
* How callbacks are called::
* Raising errors in a callback::
* Callback example 1; trivial callback: Callback example 1 trivial callback.
* Callback example 2; check option order: Callback example 2 check option order.
* Callback example 3; check option order (generalized): Callback example 3 check option order generalized.
* Callback example 4; check arbitrary condition: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition.
* Callback example 5; fixed arguments: Callback example 5 fixed arguments.
* Callback example 6; variable arguments: Callback example 6 variable arguments.

Extending optparse

* Adding new types::
* Adding new actions::

ossaudiodev -- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取

* Audio Device Objects::
* Mixer Device Objects::

pipes -- shell pipelines 介面

* Template Objects::

sunau -- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案

* AU_read 物件::
* AU_write 物件::

telnetlib -- Telnet 客戶端

* Telnet Objects::
* Telnet 範例::

xdrlib -- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼

* Packer Objects::
* Unpacker Objects::
* 例外: 例外<17>.

擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器

* 推薦的第三方工具::
* 不使用第三方工具建立擴充::
* 在更大的應用程式中嵌入 CPython 運行環境 (runtime): 在更大的應用程式中嵌入 CPython 運行環境 runtime.

不使用第三方工具建立擴充

* 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python::
* Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: Defining Extension Types Tutorial.
* Defining Extension Types; Assorted Topics: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics.
* 建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件::
* 建置 Windows 上的 C 和 C++ 擴充::

以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

* 一個簡單範例::
* Intermezzo; Errors and Exceptions: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions.
* 回到範例::
* The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function::
* Compilation and Linkage::
* Calling Python Functions from C::
* Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions::
* Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions::
* Building Arbitrary Values::
* Reference Counts::
* Writing Extensions in C++::
* Providing a C API for an Extension Module::

Reference Counts

* Reference Counting in Python::
* Ownership Rules::
* Thin Ice::
* NULL 指標::

Defining Extension Types: Tutorial

* The Basics::
* Adding data and methods to the Basic example::
* Providing finer control over data attributes::
* Supporting cyclic garbage collection::
* Subclassing other types::

Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics

* Finalization and De-allocation::
* Object Presentation::
* Attribute Management::
* Object Comparison::
* Abstract Protocol Support::
* Weak Reference Support::
* More Suggestions::

Attribute Management

* Generic Attribute Management::
* Type-specific Attribute Management::

建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件

* Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools::

建置 Windows 上的 C 和 C++ 擴充

* A Cookbook Approach::
* Differences Between Unix and Windows::
* Using DLLs in Practice::

在更大的應用程式中嵌入 CPython 運行環境 (runtime)

* 在其它 App 內嵌入 Python::

在其它 App 內嵌入 Python

* Very High Level Embedding::
* Beyond Very High Level Embedding; An overview: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview.
* Pure Embedding::
* Extending Embedded Python::
* Embedding Python in C++::
* Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems::

Python/C API 參考手冊

* 簡介: 簡介<11>.
* C API 穩定性::
* The Very High Level Layer::
* 參照計數: 參照計數<2>.
* 例外處理::
* 工具::
* 抽象物件層 (Abstract Objects Layer): 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer.
* 具體物件層::
* Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: Initialization Finalization and Threads.
* Python 初始化設定::
* 記憶體管理::
* Object Implementation Support::
* API 和 ABI 版本管理::

簡介

* 編寫標準::
* 引入檔案 (include files): 引入檔案 include files.
* 有用的巨集::
* 物件、型別和參照計數::
* 例外: 例外<18>.
* 嵌入式Python::
* 除錯建置::

物件、型別和參照計數

* 參照計數::
* 型別::

參照計數

* 參照計數詳細資訊::

C API 穩定性

* 不穩定的 C API::
* 穩定的應用程式二進位介面::
* 平台注意事項::
* 受限 API 的內容::

穩定的應用程式二進位介面

* 受限 C API::
* 穩定 ABI::
* 受限 API 範圍和性能::
* 受限 API 注意事項::

例外處理

* Printing and clearing::
* Raising exceptions::
* Issuing warnings::
* Querying the error indicator::
* Signal Handling: Signal Handling<2>.
* 例外類別: 例外類別<2>.
* 例外物件::
* Unicode Exception Objects::
* Recursion Control::
* Standard Exceptions::
* Standard Warning Categories::

工具

* 作業系統工具::
* 系統函式::
* 行程控制::
* 引入模組: 引入模組<2>.
* 資料 marshal 的支援::
* 剖析引數與建置數值::
* 字串轉換與格式化::
* PyHash API::
* Reflection::
* 編解碼器註冊表和支援函式::
* 對 Perf Map 的支援::

剖析引數與建置數值

* Parsing arguments::
* Building values::

Parsing arguments

* Strings and buffers::
* 數字::
* 其他物件::
* API 函式::

編解碼器註冊表和支援函式

* 編解碼器查找 API::
* 用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API::

抽象物件層 (Abstract Objects Layer)

* 物件協定::
* 呼叫協定 (Call Protocol): 呼叫協定 Call Protocol.
* 數字協定::
* 序列協定::
* 對映協定::
* 疊代器協議::
* 緩衝協定 (Buffer Protocol): 緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol.
* 舊式緩衝協定 (Buffer Protocol): 舊式緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol.

呼叫協定 (Call Protocol)

* tp_call 協定::
* Vectorcall 協定::
* 物件呼叫 API::
* 呼叫支援 API::

Vectorcall 協定

* 遞迴控制::
* Vectorcall 支援 API::

緩衝協定 (Buffer Protocol)

* Buffer structure::
* Buffer request types::
* Complex arrays::
* Buffer-related functions::

Buffer request types

* request-independent fields::
* readonly, format: readonly format.
* shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets.
* contiguity requests::
* compound requests::

Complex arrays

* NumPy-style; shape and strides: NumPy-style shape and strides.
* PIL-style; shape, strides and suboffsets: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets.

具體物件層

* 基礎物件::
* 數值物件::
* 序列物件::
* 容器物件::
* 函式物件: 函式物件<2>.
* 其他物件: 其他物件<2>.

基礎物件

* 型別物件::
* None 物件::

型別物件

* Creating Heap-Allocated Types::

數值物件

* 整數物件::
* Boolean（布林）物件::
* 浮點數（Floating-Point）物件::
* 複數物件::

浮點數（Floating-Point）物件

* Pack and Unpack functions::

Pack and Unpack functions

* Pack functions::
* Unpack functions::

複數物件

* 作為 C 結構的複數::
* 作為 Python 物件的複數::

序列物件

* 位元組物件 (Bytes Objects): 位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
* 位元組陣列物件 (Byte Array Objects): 位元組陣列物件 Byte Array Objects.
* Unicode 物件與編解碼器::
* Tuple（元組）物件::
* Struct Sequence Objects::
* List（串列）物件::

位元組陣列物件 (Byte Array Objects)

* 型別檢查巨集::
* 直接 API 函式::
* 巨集::

Unicode 物件與編解碼器

* Unicode 物件::
* Built-in Codecs::
* Methods and Slot Functions::

Unicode 物件

* Unicode Type::
* Unicode Character Properties::
* Creating and accessing Unicode strings::
* Locale Encoding::
* File System Encoding::
* wchar_t 支援::

Built-in Codecs

* Generic Codecs::
* UTF-8 編解碼器::
* UTF-32 編解碼器::
* UTF-16 編解碼器::
* UTF-7 編解碼器::
* Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Latin-1 編解碼器::
* ASCII 編解碼器::
* Character Map Codecs::
* MBCS codecs for Windows::
* Methods & Slots::

容器物件

* 字典物件::
* 集合物件::

函式物件

* 函式物件 (Function Objects): 函式物件 Function Objects.
* 實例方法物件 (Instance Method Objects): 實例方法物件 Instance Method Objects.
* 方法物件 (Method Objects): 方法物件 Method Objects.
* Cell 物件::
* 程式碼物件::
* Extra information::

其他物件

* 檔案物件 (File Objects): 檔案物件 File Objects.
* 模組物件::
* 疊代器（Iterator）物件::
* Descriptor（描述器）物件::
* 切片物件::
* MemoryView 物件::
* 弱參照物件: 弱參照物件<2>.
* Capsules: Capsules<2>.
* Frame 物件::
* 產生器 (Generator) 物件: 產生器 Generator 物件.
* Coroutine（協程）物件::
* 情境變數物件::
* DateTime 物件::
* 型別提示物件::

模組物件

* 初始化 C 模組::
* 模組查找::

初始化 C 模組

* Single-phase initialization::
* Multi-phase initialization::
* Low-level module creation functions::
* 支援的函式::

切片物件

* Ellipsis Object::

Frame 物件

* Internal Frames::

Initialization, Finalization, and Threads

* Python 初始化之前::
* Global configuration variables::
* Initializing and finalizing the interpreter::
* Process-wide parameters::
* Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock::
* Sub-interpreter support::
* Asynchronous Notifications::
* Profiling and Tracing::
* Advanced Debugger Support::
* Thread Local Storage Support::

Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

* Releasing the GIL from extension code::
* Non-Python created threads::
* Cautions about fork(): Cautions about fork.
* 高階 API::
* 低階 API::

Sub-interpreter support

* A Per-Interpreter GIL::
* Bugs and caveats::

Thread Local Storage Support

* Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
* 執行緒局部儲存 (Thread Local Storage, TLS) API：: 執行緒局部儲存 Thread Local Storage TLS API：.

Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API

* Dynamic Allocation::
* 方法: 方法<2>.

Python 初始化設定

* 範例: 範例<51>.
* PyWideStringList::
* PyStatus::
* PyPreConfig::
* Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig::
* PyConfig::
* Initialization with PyConfig::
* Isolated Configuration::
* Python Configuration::
* Python Path Configuration::
* Py_RunMain(): Py_RunMain.
* Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv.
* Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API::

記憶體管理

* 總覽: 總覽<2>.
* Allocator Domains::
* Raw Memory Interface::
* 記憶體介面::
* Object allocators::
* Default Memory Allocators::
* Customize Memory Allocators::
* Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators::
* The pymalloc allocator::
* tracemalloc C API::
* 範例: 範例<52>.

The pymalloc allocator

* Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator::

Object Implementation Support

* 在 heap 上分配物件::
* 通用物件結構::
* 型別物件: 型別物件<2>.
* Number Object Structures::
* Mapping Object Structures::
* Sequence Object Structures::
* Buffer Object Structures::
* Async Object Structures::
* Slot Type typedefs::
* 範例: 範例<53>.
* 循環垃圾回收的支援::

通用物件結構

* Base object types and macros::
* 實作函式與方法::
* Accessing attributes of extension types::

Accessing attributes of extension types

* Member flags::
* Member types::
* Defining Getters and Setters::

型別物件

* Quick Reference::
* PyTypeObject Definition::
* PyObject Slots::
* PyVarObject Slots::
* PyTypeObject Slots::
* Static Types::
* Heap Types::

Quick Reference

* "tp slots"::
* sub-slots::
* slot typedefs::

循環垃圾回收的支援

* Controlling the Garbage Collector State::
* Querying Garbage Collector State::

安裝 Python 模組

* 關鍵術語::
* 基本用法: 基本用法<4>.
* 我該如何...？: 我該如何 ？.
* 常見的安裝問題::

我該如何...？

* ...在 Python 3.4 之前的 Python 版本中安裝 pip？: 在 Python 3 4 之前的 Python 版本中安裝 pip？.
* ...只為目前的使用者安裝套件？: 只為目前的使用者安裝套件？.
* ...安裝科學的 Python 套件？: 安裝科學的 Python 套件？.
* ...平行安裝多個 Python 版本並使用它們？: 平行安裝多個 Python 版本並使用它們？.

常見的安裝問題

* 在 Linux 上安裝套件至系統 Python::
* 未安裝 pip::
* 安裝二進制擴充 (binary extension): 安裝二進制擴充 binary extension.

Python 如何達成任務

* 遷移延伸模組到 Python 3::
* Curses Programming with Python::
* 描述器 (Descriptor) 指南: 描述器 Descriptor 指南.
* 使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯::
* Enum HOWTO::
* 函式編程 HOWTO::
* 如何使用 Logging 模組::
* Logging Cookbook::
* 如何使用正規表示式::
* Socket 程式設計指南::
* 排序技法::
* Unicode HOWTO::
* 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源::
* ipaddress 模組介紹::
* 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython::
* Python 對 Linux perf 分析器的支援::
* 註釋 (annotation) 最佳實踐: 註釋 annotation 最佳實踐.
* 隔離擴充模組::
* The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order.

Curses Programming with Python

* What is curses?::
* Starting and ending a curses application::
* Windows and Pads::
* Displaying Text::
* 使用者輸入::
* For More Information::

What is curses?

* Python curses 模組::

Displaying Text

* Attributes and Color::

描述器 (Descriptor) 指南

* Primer::
* Complete Practical Example::
* Technical Tutorial::
* Pure Python Equivalents::

Primer

* Simple example; A descriptor that returns a constant: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant.
* Dynamic lookups::
* Managed attributes::
* Customized names::
* Closing thoughts::

Complete Practical Example

* Validator class::
* Custom validators::
* Practical application::

Technical Tutorial

* 摘要::
* Definition and introduction::
* 描述器協定::
* Overview of descriptor invocation::
* Invocation from an instance::
* Invocation from a class::
* Invocation from super::
* Summary of invocation logic::
* Automatic name notification::
* ORM 範例::

Pure Python Equivalents

* Properties::
* Functions and methods::
* Kinds of methods::
* Static methods::
* Class methods::
* Member objects and __slots__::

使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯

* 先決條件::
* 使用偵錯建置與使用開發模式::
* 使用 python-gdb 擴充功能::
* 與 GDB 指令一起使用::

先決條件

* 使用從原始碼建置的 Python 進行設定::
* 從 Linux 發行版設定 Python::

使用 python-gdb 擴充功能

* 漂亮列印器::
* py-list::
* py-up 和 py-down::
* py-bt::
* py-print::
* py-locals::

Enum HOWTO

* Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes::
* Duplicating enum members and values::
* Ensuring unique enumeration values::
* Using automatic values::
* Iteration: Iteration<2>.
* 比較::
* Allowed members and attributes of enumerations::
* Restricted Enum subclassing::
* Dataclass support::
* Pickling::
* Functional API: Functional API<2>.
* Derived Enumerations::
* When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__.
* How are Enums and Flags different?::
* Enum Cookbook::
* Subclassing EnumType::

Derived Enumerations

* IntEnum::
* StrEnum::
* IntFlag::
* Flag::
* 其他: 其他<2>.

When to use __new__() vs. __init__()

* Finer Points::

Finer Points

* Supported __dunder__ names::
* Supported _sunder_ names::
* _Private__names::
* Enum member type::
* Creating members that are mixed with other data types::
* Boolean value of Enum classes and members::
* Enum classes with methods::
* Combining members of Flag::
* Flag and IntFlag minutia::

How are Enums and Flags different?

* Enum Classes::
* Flag Classes::
* Enum Members (aka instances): Enum Members aka instances.
* Flag Members::

Enum Cookbook

* Omitting values::
* OrderedEnum::
* DuplicateFreeEnum::
* Planet::
* TimePeriod::

Omitting values

* 使用 auto::
* 使用 object::
* Using a descriptive string::
* Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__.

函式編程 HOWTO

* 簡介: 簡介<12>.
* Iterators::
* Generator expressions and list comprehensions::
* Generators::
* 內建函式: 內建函式<2>.
* itertools 模組::
* functools 模組::
* Small functions and the lambda expression::
* Revision History and Acknowledgements::
* References: References<2>.

簡介

* Formal provability::
* Modularity::
* Ease of debugging and testing::
* Composability::

Iterators

* Data Types That Support Iterators::

Generators

* Passing values into a generator::

itertools 模組

* 建立新的疊代器::
* Calling functions on elements::
* Selecting elements::
* Combinatoric functions::
* Grouping elements::

functools 模組

* operator 模組::

References

* General::
* Python-specific::
* Python 說明文件::

如何使用 Logging 模組

* 基礎 Logging 指南::
* Advanced Logging Tutorial::
* Logging Levels: Logging Levels<2>.
* Useful Handlers::
* Exceptions raised during logging::
* Using arbitrary objects as messages::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<17>.
* 其他資源: 其他資源<2>.

基礎 Logging 指南

* 什麼時候使用 logging::
* 一個簡單範例: 一個簡單範例<2>.
* Logging to a file::
* Logging variable data::
* Changing the format of displayed messages::
* Displaying the date/time in messages::
* Next Steps::

Advanced Logging Tutorial

* Logging Flow::
* Loggers::
* Handlers::
* Formatters::
* Configuring Logging::
* What happens if no configuration is provided::
* Configuring Logging for a Library::

Logging Levels

* Custom Levels::

Logging Cookbook

* Using logging in multiple modules::
* Logging from multiple threads::
* Multiple handlers and formatters::
* Logging to multiple destinations::
* Custom handling of levels::
* Configuration server example::
* Dealing with handlers that block::
* Sending and receiving logging events across a network::
* Adding contextual information to your logging output::
* Use of contextvars::
* Imparting contextual information in handlers::
* Logging to a single file from multiple processes::
* Using file rotation::
* Use of alternative formatting styles::
* Customizing LogRecord::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example::
* An example dictionary-based configuration::
* Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing::
* A more elaborate multiprocessing example::
* Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler::
* Implementing structured logging::
* Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): Customizing handlers with dictConfig.
* Using particular formatting styles throughout your application::
* Configuring filters with dictConfig(): Configuring filters with dictConfig.
* Customized exception formatting::
* Speaking logging messages::
* Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally::
* Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering.
* Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration.
* Using a context manager for selective logging::
* A CLI application starter template::
* A Qt GUI for logging::
* Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support::
* How to treat a logger like an output stream::
* Patterns to avoid::
* Other resources::

Sending and receiving logging events across a network

* Running a logging socket listener in production::

Adding contextual information to your logging output

* Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information::
* Using Filters to impart contextual information::

Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information

* Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information::

Logging to a single file from multiple processes

* Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor.
* Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI::

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

* Subclass QueueHandler::
* Subclass QueueListener::

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

* Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>.
* Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>.

Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

* Using LogRecord factories::
* Using custom message objects::

Patterns to avoid

* Opening the same log file multiple times::
* Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters::
* Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library::
* Creating a lot of loggers::

如何使用正規表示式

* 簡介: 簡介<13>.
* Simple Patterns::
* Using Regular Expressions::
* More Pattern Power::
* Modifying Strings::
* Common Problems::
* Feedback::

Simple Patterns

* Matching Characters::
* Repeating Things::

Using Regular Expressions

* Compiling Regular Expressions::
* The Backslash Plague::
* Performing Matches::
* Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<3>.
* Compilation Flags::

More Pattern Power

* More Metacharacters::
* Grouping::
* Non-capturing and Named Groups::
* Lookahead Assertions::

Modifying Strings

* Splitting Strings::
* Search and Replace: Search and Replace<2>.

Common Problems

* Use String Methods::
* match() versus search(): match versus search.
* Greedy versus Non-Greedy::
* Using re.VERBOSE: Using re VERBOSE.

Socket 程式設計指南

* Sockets::
* 建立一個 Socket::
* 使用一個 Socket::
* 結束連線::
* 非阻塞的 Sockets::

Sockets

* 歷史::

建立一個 Socket

* IPC::

使用一個 Socket

* 二進位資料::

結束連線

* Sockets 何時銷毀::

排序技法

* 基礎排序::
* 鍵函式 (key functions): 鍵函式 key functions.
* Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation::
* 升冪與降冪::
* 排序穩定性與複合排序::
* 裝飾-排序-移除裝飾 (decorate-sort-undecorate): 裝飾-排序-移除裝飾 decorate-sort-undecorate.
* 比較函式 (comparison functions): 比較函式 comparison functions.
* 雜項說明::
* Partial Sorts::

Unicode HOWTO

* Introduction to Unicode::
* Python's Unicode Support::
* Reading and Writing Unicode Data::
* 致謝: 致謝<10>.

Introduction to Unicode

* 定義::
* Encodings::
* References: References<3>.

Python's Unicode Support

* The String Type::
* Converting to Bytes::
* Unicode Literals in Python Source Code::
* Unicode Properties::
* Comparing Strings::
* Unicode Regular Expressions::
* References: References<4>.

Reading and Writing Unicode Data

* Unicode filenames::
* Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs::
* References: References<5>.

Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs

* Converting Between File Encodings::
* Files in an Unknown Encoding::

如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源

* 簡介: 簡介<14>.
* 從 URL 取得資源::
* Handling Exceptions::
* info and geturl::
* Openers and Handlers::
* Basic Authentication::
* Proxies::
* Sockets and Layers::
* 註解: 註解<2>.

從 URL 取得資源

* Data::
* Headers::

Handling Exceptions

* URLError::
* HTTPError::
* Wrapping it Up::

HTTPError

* Error Codes::

Wrapping it Up

* Number 1::
* Number 2::

ipaddress 模組介紹

* Creating Address/Network/Interface objects::
* Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects::
* Networks as lists of Addresses::
* Comparisons: Comparisons<2>.
* Using IP Addresses with other modules::
* Getting more detail when instance creation fails::

Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

* A Note on IP Versions::
* IP Host Addresses::
* 定義網路::
* Host Interfaces::

使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython

* 啟用靜態標記::
* 靜態 DTrace 探針::
* 靜態 SystemTap 標記::
* 可用的靜態標記::
* SystemTap Tapsets::
* 範例: 範例<54>.

Python 對 Linux perf 分析器的支援

* 如何啟用 perf 分析支援::
* 如何獲得最佳結果::

註釋 (annotation) 最佳實踐

* 在 Python 3.10 及更高版本中存取物件的註釋字典: 在 Python 3 10 及更高版本中存取物件的註釋字典.
* 在 Python 3.9 及更早版本中存取物件的註釋字典: 在 Python 3 9 及更早版本中存取物件的註釋字典.
* 手動取消字串化註釋::
* 任何 Python 版本中 __annotations__ 的最佳實踐::
* __annotations__ 奇異之處::

隔離擴充模組

* Who should read this::
* 背景: 背景<2>.
* Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters::
* Heap Types: Heap Types<2>.
* Open Issues::

背景

* Enter Per-Module State::
* Isolated Module Objects::
* Surprising Edge Cases::

Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

* Managing Global State::
* Managing Per-Module State::
* Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process.
* Module State Access from Functions::

Heap Types

* Changing Static Types to Heap Types::
* Defining Heap Types::
* Garbage-Collection Protocol::
* Module State Access from Classes::
* Module State Access from Regular Methods::
* Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters.
* Lifetime of the Module State::

Garbage-Collection Protocol

* tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower.
* Delegating tp_traverse::
* Defining tp_dealloc::
* Not overriding tp_free::
* Avoiding PyObject_New::

Open Issues

* Per-Class Scope::
* Lossless Conversion to Heap Types::

The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order

* The beginning::
* The C3 Method Resolution Order::
* 範例: 範例<55>.
* Bad Method Resolution Orders::
* The end::
* Resources::

Python 常見問題

* 一般的 Python 常見問答集::
* 程式開發常見問答集::
* 設計和歷史常見問答集::
* 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題::
* 擴充/嵌入常見問題集::
* 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集::
* 圖形使用者介面常見問答集::
* 「為什麼 Python 被安裝在我的機器上？」常見問答集::

一般的 Python 常見問答集

* 一般資訊::
* 在真實世界中的 Python::

一般資訊

* 什麼是 Python？::
* 什麼是 Python 軟體基金會？::
* 使用 Python 時有任何版權限制嗎？::
* 當初為什麼 Python 會被創造出來？::
* 什麼是 Python 擅長的事情？::
* Python 的版本編號系統是如何運作的？::
* 我要如何得到 Python 的原始碼複本？::
* 我要如何取得 Python 的說明文件？::
* 我從來沒有寫過程式，有沒有 Python 的教學？::
* 有沒有 Python 專屬的新聞群組或郵件討論群？::
* 如何取得 Python 的 beta 測試版本？::
* 如何提交 Python 的錯誤報告和修補程式？::
* 是否有關於 Python 的任何已出版文章可供參考？::
* 有沒有關於 Python 的書？::
* www.python.org 的真實位置在哪裡？: www python org 的真實位置在哪裡？.
* 為什麼要取名為 Python？::
* 我需要喜歡「Monty Python 的飛行馬戲團」嗎？::

在真實世界中的 Python

* Python 的穩定性如何？::
* 有多少人在使用 Python？::
* 有沒有任何重要的專案使用 Python 完成開發？::
* Python 未來預期會有哪些新的開發？::
* 對 Python 提出不相容的變更建議是否適當？::
* Python 對於入門的程式設計師而言是否為好的語言？::

程式開發常見問答集

* 常見問題::
* 核心語言::
* 數字和字串::
* Performance: Performance<4>.
* Sequences (Tuples/Lists): Sequences Tuples/Lists.
* 物件::
* 模組: 模組<5>.

常見問題

* 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段,具有中斷點,步驟執行等功能的除錯器？: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？.
* 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？::
* 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？::
* Python 程式碼是否有編碼標準或風格指南？::

核心語言

* 為什麼當變數有值時，我仍得到錯誤訊息 UnboundLocalError？::
* Python 的區域變數和全域變數有什麼規則？::
* Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?::
* 如何跨模組共享全域變數？::
* What are the "best practices" for using import in a module?::
* Why are default values shared between objects?::
* How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?::
* 引數 (arguments) 和參數 (parameters) 有什麼區別？: 引數 arguments 和參數 parameters 有什麼區別？.
* 為什麼更改 list 'y' 也會更改 list 'x'？::
* How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?.
* How do you make a higher order function in Python?::
* 如何在 Python 中複製物件？::
* 如何找到物件的方法或屬性？::
* 我的程式碼如何發現物件的名稱？::
* What's up with the comma operator's precedence?::
* 是否有等效於 C 的 "?;" 三元運算子？: 是否有等效於 C 的 "? " 三元運算子？.
* Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?::
* What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?.

數字和字串

* 如何指定十六進位和八進位整數？::
* 為什麼 -22 // 10 回傳 -3？::
* How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?::
* 如何將字串轉換為數字？::
* 如何將數字轉換為字串？::
* How do I modify a string in place?::
* How do I use strings to call functions/methods?::
* Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?.
* Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?.
* 'UnicodeDecodeError' 或 'UnicodeEncodeErro' 錯誤是什麼意思？::
* Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?::

Performance

* 我的程式太慢了。我該如何加快速度？::
* What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?::

Sequences (Tuples/Lists)

* How do I convert between tuples and lists?::
* What's a negative index?::
* How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?::
* How do you remove duplicates from a list?::
* How do you remove multiple items from a list::
* How do you make an array in Python?::
* How do I create a multidimensional list?::
* How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?::
* Why does a_tuple[i] += ['item'] raise an exception when the addition works?::
* I want to do a complicated sort; can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?.
* How can I sort one list by values from another list?::

物件

* 什麼是類別 (class)？: 什麼是類別 class ？.
* 什麼是方法 (method)？: 什麼是方法 method ？.
* What is self?::
* How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?::
* What is delegation?::
* How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?::
* How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?::
* How do I create static class data and static class methods?::
* How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?.
* I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.
* My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.
* How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?::
* Why does the result of id() appear to be not unique?: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?.
* 我什麼時候可以依靠 is 運算子進行識別性測試？::
* 子類別如何控制不可變實例中存儲的資料？::
* 如何快取方法呼叫？::

模組

* 如何建立 .pyc 檔案？: 如何建立 pyc 檔案？.
* 如何找到當前模組名稱？::
* How can I have modules that mutually import each other?::
* __import__('x.y.z') 回傳 <module 'x'>，那我怎麼得到 z？: __import__ 'x y z' 回傳 <module 'x'>，那我怎麼得到 z？.
* 當我編輯需要引入的模組並重新引入它時，更動沒有反應出來。為什麼會這樣？::

設計和歷史常見問答集

* 為什麼 Python 使用縮排將陳述式進行分組？::
* 為什麼我會從簡單的數學運算得到奇怪的結果？::
* 為何浮點數運算如此不精確？::
* 為什麼 Python 字串不可變動？::
* 為何「self」在方法 (method) 定義和呼叫時一定要明確使用？: 為何「self」在方法 method 定義和呼叫時一定要明確使用？.
* 為何我不能在運算式 (expression) 中使用指派運算？: 為何我不能在運算式 expression 中使用指派運算？.
* 為何 Python 對於一些功能實作使用方法（像是 list.index()），另一些使用函式（像是 len(list)）？: 為何 Python 對於一些功能實作使用方法（像是 list index ），另一些使用函式（像是 len list ）？.
* 為何 join() 是字串方法而非串列 (list) 或元組 (tuple) 方法？: 為何 join 是字串方法而非串列 list 或元組 tuple 方法？.
* 例外處理有多快？::
* 為什麼 Python 內沒有 switch 或 case 陳述式？::
* 為何不能在直譯器上模擬執行緒，而要使用作業系統的特定實作方式？::
* 為何 lambda 運算式不能包含陳述式？::
* Python 可以被編譯成機器語言、C 語言或其他種語言嗎？::
* Python 如何管理記憶體？::
* 為何 CPython 不使用更多傳統的垃圾回收機制？::
* 當 CPython 結束時，為何所有的記憶體不會被釋放？::
* 為何要把元組 (tuple) 和串列 (list) 分成兩個資料型態？: 為何要把元組 tuple 和串列 list 分成兩個資料型態？.
* 串列 (list) 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？: 串列 list 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？.
* 字典 (dictionaries) 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？: 字典 dictionaries 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？.
* 為何字典的鍵一定是不可變的？::
* 為何 list.sort() 不是回傳排序過的串列？: 為何 list sort 不是回傳排序過的串列？.
* 如何在 Python 中指定和強制使用一個介面規範 (interface spec)？: 如何在 Python 中指定和強制使用一個介面規範 interface spec ？.
* 為何沒有 goto 語法？::
* 為何純字串 (r-string) 不能以反斜線結尾？: 為何純字串 r-string 不能以反斜線結尾？.
* 為何 Python 沒有屬性賦值的 with 陳述式？::
* 為何產生器 (generator) 不支援 with 陳述式？: 為何產生器 generator 不支援 with 陳述式？.
* 為何 if、while、def、class 陳述式裡需要冒號？::
* 為何 Python 允許在串列和元組末端加上逗號？::

函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題

* 常見函式問題::
* 常見課題::
* 執行緒::
* 輸入與輸出::
* 網路 (Network)/網際網路 (Internet) 程式: 網路 Network /網際網路 Internet 程式.
* 資料庫::
* 數學和數值::

常見函式問題

* 我如何找到執行任務 X 的模組或應用程式？::
* 哪裡可以找到 math.py (socket.py, regex.py, 等...) 來源檔案？: 哪裡可以找到 math py socket py regex py 等 來源檔案？.
* 我如何使 Python script 執行在 Unix？::
* 是否有適用於 Python 的 curses/termcap 套件？::
* Python 中是否有等同於 C 的 onexit() 的函式？: Python 中是否有等同於 C 的 onexit 的函式？.
* 為什麼我的信號處理程式不起作用？::

常見課題

* 如何測試 Python 程式或元件？::
* How do I create documentation from doc strings?::
* How do I get a single keypress at a time?::

執行緒

* 如何使用執行緒編寫程式？::
* 我的執行緒似乎都沒有運行：為什麼？::
* How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?::
* What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?::
* 不能擺脫全局直譯器鎖嗎？::

輸入與輸出

* 如何刪除檔案？（以及其他檔案問題...）: 如何刪除檔案？（以及其他檔案問題 ）.
* 如何複製檔案？::
* 如何讀取（或寫入）二進位制資料？::
* I can't seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why?: I can't seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?.
* 如何存取序列 (RS232) 連接埠？: 如何存取序列 RS232 連接埠？.
* 為什麼關閉 sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) 並沒有真正關閉它？: 為什麼關閉 sys stdout stdin stderr 並沒有真正關閉它？.

網路 (Network)/網際網路 (Internet) 程式

* Python 有哪些 WWW 工具？::
* 如何模擬 CGI 表單送出 (submission) (METHOD=POST)？: 如何模擬 CGI 表單送出 submission METHOD=POST ？.
* 我應該使用什麼模組來輔助產生 HTML？::
* 如何從 Python 腳本發送郵件？::
* How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket?: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?.

資料庫

* Python 中是否有任何資料庫套件的介面？::
* How do you implement persistent objects in Python?::

數學和數值

* 如何在 Python 中生成隨機數？::

擴充/嵌入常見問題集

* 我可以在 C 中建立自己的函式嗎？::
* 我可以在 C++ 中建立自己的函式嗎？::
* 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？::
* 如何從 C 執行任意 Python 陳述式？::
* How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?::
* 如何從 Python 物件中提取 C 值？::
* 如何使用 Py_BuildValue() 建立任意長度的元組？: 如何使用 Py_BuildValue 建立任意長度的元組？.
* 如何從 C 呼叫物件的方法？::
* 我如何捕捉 PyErr_Print() 的輸出（或任何印出到 stdout/stderr 的東西）？: 我如何捕捉 PyErr_Print 的輸出（或任何印出到 stdout/stderr 的東西）？.
* 如何從 C 存取用 Python 編寫的模組？::
* How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?::
* 我使用安裝檔案新增了一個模組，但 make 失敗了；為什麼？::
* 如何為擴充套件除錯？::
* 我想在我的 Linux 系統上編譯一個 Python 模組，但是缺少一些檔案。為什麼？::
* 如何從「無效輸入」區分出「不完整輸入」？::
* 如何找到未定義的 g++ 符號 __builtin_new 或 __pure_virtual？::
* Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?: Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python e g through inheritance ?.

在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集

* 如何在 Windows 作業系統裡運行 Python 程式？::
* 如何使 Python 腳本可以執行？::
* 為什麼 Python 有時需要這麼長的時間才能開始？::
* 如何從 Python 腳本製作可執行檔？::
* *.pyd 檔是否與 DLL 相同？: * pyd 檔是否與 DLL 相同？.
* 如何將 Python 嵌入 Windows 應用程式中？::
* 如何防止編輯器在我的 Python 原始碼中插入 tab？::
* 如何在不阻塞的情況下檢查 keypress？::
* 如何解決遺漏 api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll 的錯誤？: 如何解決遺漏 api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll 的錯誤？.

圖形使用者介面常見問答集

* 圖形使用者介面 (GUI) 的常見問題: 圖形使用者介面 GUI 的常見問題.
* Python 有哪些 GUI 套件？::
* Tkinter 的問答::

Tkinter 的問答

* 如何凍結 Tkinter 應用程式？::
* 是否可以在等待 I/O 時處理 Tk 事件？::
* 我無法讓鍵繫結 (key binding) 在 Tkinter 中作用：為什麼？: 我無法讓鍵繫結 key binding 在 Tkinter 中作用：為什麼？.

「為什麼 Python 被安裝在我的機器上？」常見問答集

* 什麼是 Python？: 什麼是 Python？<2>.
* 為什麼 Python 被安裝在我的機器上?::
* 我能夠自行刪除 Python 嗎？::

已棄用項目

* Python 3.13 中待移除的項目: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目<2>.
* Python 3.14 中待移除的項目: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<3>.
* Python 3.15 中待移除的項目: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<3>.
* Python 3.16 中待移除的項目: Python 3 16 中待移除的項目<2>.
* 未來版本中的待移除項目: 未來版本中的待移除項目<3>.
* C API 的棄用項目::

C API 的棄用項目

* Python 3.14 中待移除的項目: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<4>.
* Python 3.15 中待移除的項目: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<4>.
* 未來版本中的待移除項目: 未來版本中的待移除項目<4>.

關於這些說明文件

* Python 文件的貢獻者們::

處理錯誤 (Bug)

* 說明文件的錯誤::
* 使用 Python 問題追蹤系統::
* 開始讓自己貢獻 Python::

沿革與授權

* 軟體沿革::
* 關於存取或以其他方式使用 Python 的合約條款::
* 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝::

關於存取或以其他方式使用 Python 的合約條款

* 用於 PYTHON 3.12.7 的 PSF 授權合約: 用於 PYTHON 3 12 7 的 PSF 授權合約.
* 用於 PYTHON 2.0 的 BEOPEN.COM 授權合約: 用於 PYTHON 2 0 的 BEOPEN COM 授權合約.
* 用於 PYTHON 1.6.1 的 CNRI 授權合約: 用於 PYTHON 1 6 1 的 CNRI 授權合約.
* 用於 PYTHON 0.9.0 至 1.2 的 CWI 授權合約: 用於 PYTHON 0 9 0 至 1 2 的 CWI 授權合約.
* 用於 PYTHON 3.12.7 說明文件內程式碼的 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD 授權: 用於 PYTHON 3 12 7 說明文件內程式碼的 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD 授權.

被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

* Mersenne Twister::
* Sockets: Sockets<2>.
* 非同步 socket 服務::
* Cookie 管理::
* 執行追蹤::
* UUencode 與 UUdecode 函式::
* XML 遠端程序呼叫::
* test_epoll::
* Select kqueue::
* SipHash24::
* strtod 與 dtoa::
* OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>.
* expat::
* libffi::
* zlib: zlib<3>.
* cfuhash::
* libmpdec::
* W3C C14N 測試套件::
* Audioop::
* asyncio: asyncio<11>.



File: python.info,  Node: Python 有什麼新功能？,  Next: Python 教學,  Prev: Top,  Up: Top

1 Python 有什麼新功能？
***********************

「Python 有什麼新功能」這系列的說明是讓使用者知道 Python 各個主要更新版
本之間的重大改變的地方。對於希望在新版本釋出時立即了解版本差異的使用者們
來說，這些說明被歸類為「必讀」的等級。

* Menu:

* Python 3.12 有什麼新功能: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.11 有什麼新功能: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.10 有什麼新功能: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.9 有什麼新功能: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.8 有什麼新功能: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.7 有什麼新功能: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.6 有什麼新功能: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.4 有什麼新功能: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.4 有什麼新功能: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>.
* Python 3.3 有什麼新功能: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.2 有什麼新功能: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.1 有什麼新功能: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能.
* Python 3.0 有什麼新功能: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.7 有什麼新功能: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.6 有什麼新功能: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.5 有什麼新功能: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.4 有什麼新功能: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.3 有什麼新功能: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.2 有什麼新功能: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.1 有什麼新功能: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能.
* Python 2.0 有什麼新功能: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能.
* Changelog（更動日誌）::


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.1 Python 3.12 有什麼新功能
============================


編輯者: Adam Turner

本文介紹了 Python 3.12 與 3.11 相比的新功能。 Python 3.12 於 2023 年 10
月 2 日發布。完整詳請請見 *note changelog: 136.。

也參考
......

PEP 693(1) - Python 3.12 發佈時程

* Menu:

* 發布重點摘要::
* 新增特性::
* New Features Related to Type Hints::
* 其他語言更動::
* 新增模組::
* 改進的模組::
* 最佳化::
* CPython 位元組碼變更::
* Demos and Tools::
* 已棄用::
* 已移除::
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12.
* 建置變更::
* C API 變更::
* 3.12.4 中的顯著變更: 3 12 4 中的顯著變更.
* 3.12.5 中的顯著變更: 3 12 5 中的顯著變更.
* 3.12.6 中的顯著變更: 3 12 6 中的顯著變更.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0693/


File: python.info,  Node: 發布重點摘要,  Next: 新增特性,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.1 發布重點摘要
------------------

Python 3.12 is a stable release of the Python programming language, with
a mix of changes to the language and the standard library.  The library
changes focus on cleaning up deprecated APIs, usability, and
correctness.  Of note, the ‘distutils’ package has been removed from the
standard library.  Filesystem support in *note os: 9c. and *note
pathlib: 9f. has seen a number of improvements, and several modules have
better performance.

The language changes focus on usability, as *note f-strings: 138. have
had many limitations removed and 'Did you mean ...'  suggestions
continue to improve.  The new *note type parameter syntax: 139. and
*note type: 13a. statement improve ergonomics for using *note generic
types: 13b. and *note type aliases: 13c. with static type checkers.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead gives a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation, such as the *note
Library Reference: 13d. and *note Language Reference: 13e.  If you want
to understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a
change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature; but note that
PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully
implemented.

__________________________________________________________________

新增語法特性：

   * *note PEP 695: 139.，型別參數語法和 *note type: 13a. 陳述式

新增語法特性：

   * *note PEP 701: 13f, *note f-strings: 138. in the grammar

直譯器改進：

   * *note PEP 684: 140, a unique per-interpreter *note GIL: 141.

   * *note PEP 669: 142, low impact monitoring

   * *note Improved 'Did you mean ...'  suggestions: 143.for *note
     NameError: 144, *note ImportError: 145, and *note SyntaxError: 146.
     exceptions

Python 資料模型改進：

   * *note PEP 688: 147, using the *note buffer protocol: 148. from
     Python

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * *note pathlib.Path: 149. 類別現在支援子類別化

   * The *note os: 9c. module received several improvements for Windows
     support

   * 一個*note 命令列介面: 14a.已被加入 *note sqlite3: c9. 模組中

   * *note isinstance(): 14b. checks against *note runtime-checkable
     protocols: 14c. enjoy a speed up of between two and 20 times

   * *note asyncio: 9. 套件進行了許多效能改進，一些基準測試顯示速度提高
     了 75%。

   * 一個*note 命令列介面: 14d.已被加入 *note uuid: 10b. 模組中

   * Due to the changes in *note PEP 701: 13f, producing tokens via the
     *note tokenize: f6. module is up to 64% faster.

安全性改進：

   * Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 63. implementations of SHA1,
     SHA3, SHA2-384, SHA2-512, and MD5 with formally verified code from
     the HACL*(1) project.  These builtin implementations remain as
     fallbacks that are only used when OpenSSL does not provide them.

C API 改進：

   * *note PEP 697: 14e.，不穩定 C API 層

   * *note PEP 683: 14f, immortal objects

CPython 實作改進：

   * *note PEP 709: 150, comprehension inlining

   * *note CPython support: 151. for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler

   * Implement stack overflow protection on supported platforms

新增型別特性：

   * *note PEP 692: 152.、使用 *note TypedDict: 153. 來標註 *note
     **kwargs: 154.

   * *note PEP 698: 155.、*note typing.override(): 156. 裝飾器

重要的棄用、刪除或限制：

   * PEP 623(2): Remove ‘wstr’ from Unicode objects in Python's C API,
     reducing the size of every *note str: 157. object by at least 8
     bytes.

   * PEP 632(3): Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  See the migration
     guide(4) for advice replacing the APIs it provided.  The
     third-party Setuptools(5) package continues to provide ‘distutils’,
     if you still require it in Python 3.12 and beyond.

   * gh-95299(6): Do not pre-install ‘setuptools’ in virtual
     environments created with *note venv: 10c.  This means that
     ‘distutils’, ‘setuptools’, ‘pkg_resources’, and ‘easy_install’ will
     no longer available by default; to access these run ‘pip install
     setuptools’ in the *note activated: 158. virtual environment.

   * ‘asynchat’、‘asyncore’ 和 ‘imp’ 模組以及幾個 *note
     unittest.TestCase: 159. 的*note 方法別名: 15a.已被刪除。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice

   (5) 
https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/deprecated/distutils-legacy.html

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299


File: python.info,  Node: 新增特性,  Next: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Prev: 發布重點摘要,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.2 新增特性
--------------

* Menu:

* PEP 695：型別參數語法::
* PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
* PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
* PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
* PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
* PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
* Improved Error Messages::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 695：型別參數語法,  Next: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Up: 新增特性

1.1.2.1 PEP 695：型別參數語法
.............................

Generic classes and functions under PEP 484(1) were declared using a
verbose syntax that left the scope of type parameters unclear and
required explicit declarations of variance.

PEP 695(2) introduces a new, more compact and explicit way to create
*note generic classes: 15d. and *note functions: 15e.:

     def max[T](args: Iterable[T]) -> T:
         ...

     class list[T]:
         def __getitem__(self, index: int, /) -> T:
             ...

         def append(self, element: T) -> None:
             ...

In addition, the PEP introduces a new way to declare *note type aliases:
15f. using the *note type: 13a. statement, which creates an instance of
*note TypeAliasType: 160.:

     type Point = tuple[float, float]

型別別名也可以是*note 泛型: 161.：

     type Point[T] = tuple[T, T]

The new syntax allows declaring *note TypeVarTuple: 162. and *note
ParamSpec: 163. parameters, as well as *note TypeVar: 164. parameters
with bounds or constraints:

     type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]  # ParamSpec
     type LabeledTuple[*Ts] = tuple[str, *Ts]  # TypeVarTuple
     type HashableSequence[T: Hashable] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with bound
     type IntOrStrSequence[T: (int, str)] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with constraints

The value of type aliases and the bound and constraints of type
variables created through this syntax are evaluated only on demand (see
*note lazy evaluation: 165.).  This means type aliases are able to refer
to other types defined later in the file.

Type parameters declared through a type parameter list are visible
within the scope of the declaration and any nested scopes, but not in
the outer scope.  For example, they can be used in the type annotations
for the methods of a generic class or in the class body.  However, they
cannot be used in the module scope after the class is defined.  See
*note Type parameter lists: 166. for a detailed description of the
runtime semantics of type parameters.

In order to support these scoping semantics, a new kind of scope is
introduced, the *note annotation scope: 167.  Annotation scopes behave
for the most part like function scopes, but interact differently with
enclosing class scopes.  In Python 3.13, *note annotations: 168. will
also be evaluated in annotation scopes.

詳情請見 PEP 695(3)。

(PEP written by Eric Traut.  Implementation by Jelle Zijlstra, Eric
Traut, and others in gh-103764(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Next: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Prev: PEP 695：型別參數語法,  Up: 新增特性

1.1.2.2 PEP 701: Syntactic formalization of f-strings
.....................................................

PEP 701(1) lifts some restrictions on the usage of *note f-strings: 138.
Expression components inside f-strings can now be any valid Python
expression, including strings reusing the same quote as the containing
f-string, multi-line expressions, comments, backslashes, and unicode
escape sequences.  Let's cover these in detail:

   * Quote reuse: in Python 3.11, reusing the same quotes as the
     enclosing f-string raises a *note SyntaxError: 146, forcing the
     user to either use other available quotes (like using double quotes
     or triple quotes if the f-string uses single quotes).  In Python
     3.12, you can now do things like this:

          >>> songs = ['Take me back to Eden', 'Alkaline', 'Ascensionism']
          >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join(songs)}"
          'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

     Note that before this change there was no explicit limit in how
     f-strings can be nested, but the fact that string quotes cannot be
     reused inside the expression component of f-strings made it
     impossible to nest f-strings arbitrarily.  In fact, this is the
     most nested f-string that could be written:

          >>> f"""{f'''{f'{f"{1+1}"}'}'''}"""
          '2'

     As now f-strings can contain any valid Python expression inside
     expression components, it is now possible to nest f-strings
     arbitrarily:

          >>> f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{1+1}"}"}"}"}"}"
          '2'

   * Multi-line expressions and comments: In Python 3.11, f-string
     expressions must be defined in a single line, even if the
     expression within the f-string could normally span multiple lines
     (like literal lists being defined over multiple lines), making them
     harder to read.  In Python 3.12 you can now define f-strings
     spanning multiple lines, and add inline comments:

          >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join([
          ...     'Take me back to Eden',  # My, my, those eyes like fire
          ...     'Alkaline',              # Not acid nor alkaline
          ...     'Ascensionism'           # Take to the broken skies at last
          ... ])}"
          'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

   * Backslashes and unicode characters: before Python 3.12 f-string
     expressions couldn't contain any ‘\’ character.  This also affected
     unicode *note escape sequences: 16a. (such as ‘\N{snowman}’) as
     these contain the ‘\N’ part that previously could not be part of
     expression components of f-strings.  Now, you can define
     expressions like this:

          >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\n".join(songs)}")
          This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden
          Alkaline
          Ascensionism
          >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\N{BLACK HEART SUIT}".join(songs)}")
          This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden♥Alkaline♥Ascensionism

詳情請見 PEP 701(2)。

As a positive side-effect of how this feature has been implemented (by
parsing f-strings with the PEG parser(3)), now error messages for
f-strings are more precise and include the exact location of the error.
For example, in Python 3.11, the following f-string raises a *note
SyntaxError: 146.:

     >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         (x z y)
          ^^^
     SyntaxError: f-string: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

but the error message doesn't include the exact location of the error
within the line and also has the expression artificially surrounded by
parentheses.  In Python 3.12, as f-strings are parsed with the PEG
parser, error messages can be more precise and show the entire line:

     >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
                        ^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou,
Cristián Maureira-Fredes and Marta Gómez in gh-102856(4).  PEP written
by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou and Marta Gómez).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Next: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Prev: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Up: 新增特性

1.1.2.3 PEP 684: A Per-Interpreter GIL
......................................

PEP 684(1) introduces a per-interpreter *note GIL: 141, so that
sub-interpreters may now be created with a unique GIL per interpreter.
This allows Python programs to take full advantage of multiple CPU
cores.  This is currently only available through the C-API, though a
Python API is anticipated for 3.13(2).

Use the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 16c. function to create
an interpreter with its own GIL:

     PyInterpreterConfig config = {
         .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
         .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
     };
     PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
     PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
     if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
         return -1;
     }
     /* The new interpreter is now active in the current thread. */

For further examples how to use the C-API for sub-interpreters with a
per-interpreter GIL, see Modules/_xxsubinterpretersmodule.c(3).

（由 Eric Snow 於 gh-104210(4) 等貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Modules/_xxsubinterpretersmodule.c

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104210


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Next: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Prev: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Up: 新增特性

1.1.2.4 PEP 669: Low impact monitoring for CPython
..................................................

PEP 669(1) defines a new *note API: d4. for profilers, debuggers, and
other tools to monitor events in CPython.  It covers a wide range of
events, including calls, returns, lines, exceptions, jumps, and more.
This means that you only pay for what you use, providing support for
near-zero overhead debuggers and coverage tools.  See *note
sys.monitoring: d4. for details.

（由 Mark Shannon 於 gh-103082(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Next: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Prev: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Up: 新增特性

1.1.2.5 PEP 688: Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python
................................................................

PEP 688(1) introduces a way to use the *note buffer protocol: 148. from
Python code.  Classes that implement the *note __buffer__(): 16f. method
are now usable as buffer types.

The new *note collections.abc.Buffer: 170. ABC provides a standard way
to represent buffer objects, for example in type annotations.  The new
*note inspect.BufferFlags: 171. enum represents the flags that can be
used to customize buffer creation.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
gh-102500(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Next: Improved Error Messages,  Prev: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Up: 新增特性

1.1.2.6 PEP 709: Comprehension inlining
.......................................

Dictionary, list, and set comprehensions are now inlined, rather than
creating a new single-use function object for each execution of the
comprehension.  This speeds up execution of a comprehension by up to two
times.  See PEP 709(1) for further details.

Comprehension iteration variables remain isolated and don't overwrite a
variable of the same name in the outer scope, nor are they visible after
the comprehension.  Inlining does result in a few visible behavior
changes:

   * There is no longer a separate frame for the comprehension in
     tracebacks, and tracing/profiling no longer shows the comprehension
     as a function call.

   * The *note symtable: d2. module will no longer produce child symbol
     tables for each comprehension; instead, the comprehension's locals
     will be included in the parent function's symbol table.

   * Calling *note locals(): 173. inside a comprehension now includes
     variables from outside the comprehension, and no longer includes
     the synthetic ‘.0’ variable for the comprehension "argument".

   * A comprehension iterating directly over ‘locals()’ (e.g.  ‘[k for k
     in locals()]’) may see "RuntimeError: dictionary changed size
     during iteration" when run under tracing (e.g.  code coverage
     measurement).  This is the same behavior already seen in e.g.  ‘for
     k in locals():’.  To avoid the error, first create a list of keys
     to iterate over: ‘keys = list(locals()); [k for k in keys]’.

（由 Carl Meyer 和 Vladimir Matveev 於 PEP 709(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Error Messages,  Prev: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Up: 新增特性

1.1.2.7 Improved Error Messages
...............................

   * Modules from the standard library are now potentially suggested as
     part of the error messages displayed by the interpreter when a
     *note NameError: 144. is raised to the top level.  (Contributed by
     Pablo Galindo in gh-98254(1).)

          >>> sys.version_info
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          NameError: name 'sys' is not defined. Did you forget to import 'sys'?

   * Improve the error suggestion for *note NameError: 144. exceptions
     for instances.  Now if a *note NameError: 144. is raised in a
     method and the instance has an attribute that's exactly equal to
     the name in the exception, the suggestion will include
     ‘self.<NAME>’ instead of the closest match in the method scope.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-99139(2).)

          >>> class A:
          ...    def __init__(self):
          ...        self.blech = 1
          ...
          ...    def foo(self):
          ...        somethin = blech
          ...
          >>> A().foo()
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              somethin = blech
                         ^^^^^
          NameError: name 'blech' is not defined. Did you mean: 'self.blech'?

   * Improve the *note SyntaxError: 146. error message when the user
     types ‘import x from y’ instead of ‘from y import x’.  (Contributed
     by Pablo Galindo in gh-98931(3).)

          >>> import a.y.z from b.y.z
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              import a.y.z from b.y.z
              ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead?

   * *note ImportError: 145. exceptions raised from failed ‘from
     <module> import <name>’ statements now include suggestions for the
     value of ‘<name>’ based on the available names in ‘<module>’.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-91058(4).)

          >>> from collections import chainmap
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          ImportError: cannot import name 'chainmap' from 'collections'. Did you mean: 'ChainMap'?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Next: 其他語言更動,  Prev: 新增特性,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.3 New Features Related to Type Hints
----------------------------------------

This section covers major changes affecting type hints(1) and the *note
typing: ff. module.

* Menu:

* PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
* PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing,  Next: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints

1.1.3.1 PEP 692: Using ‘TypedDict’ for more precise ‘**kwargs’ typing
.....................................................................

Typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature as introduced by PEP 484(1)
allowed for valid annotations only in cases where all of the ‘**kwargs’
were of the same type.

PEP 692(2) specifies a more precise way of typing ‘**kwargs’ by relying
on typed dictionaries:

     from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

     class Movie(TypedDict):
       name: str
       year: int

     def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

詳情請見 PEP 692(3)。

（由 Franek Magiera 於 gh-103629(4) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing,  Prev: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints

1.1.3.2 PEP 698: Override Decorator for Static Typing
.....................................................

A new decorator *note typing.override(): 156. has been added to the
*note typing: ff. module.  It indicates to type checkers that the method
is intended to override a method in a superclass.  This allows type
checkers to catch mistakes where a method that is intended to override
something in a base class does not in fact do so.

範例：

     from typing import override

     class Base:
       def get_color(self) -> str:
         return "blue"

     class GoodChild(Base):
       @override  # ok: overrides Base.get_color
       def get_color(self) -> str:
         return "yellow"

     class BadChild(Base):
       @override  # type checker error: does not override Base.get_color
       def get_colour(self) -> str:
         return "red"

詳情請見 PEP 698(1)。

（由 Steven Troxler 於 gh-101561(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動,  Next: 新增模組,  Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.4 其他語言更動
------------------

   * The parser now raises *note SyntaxError: 146. when parsing source
     code containing null bytes.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     gh-96670(1).)

   * A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now
     generates a *note SyntaxWarning: 178, instead of *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179.  For example, ‘re.compile("\d+\.\d+")’ now
     emits a *note SyntaxWarning: 178. (‘"\d"’ is an invalid escape
     sequence, use raw strings for regular expression:
     ‘re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")’).  In a future Python version, *note
     SyntaxError: 146. will eventually be raised, instead of *note
     SyntaxWarning: 178.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-98401(2).)

   * Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ (ex: ‘"\477"’),
     deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a *note SyntaxWarning: 178,
     instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  In a future Python
     version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError: 146.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98401(3).)

   * Variables used in the target part of comprehensions that are not
     stored to can now be used in assignment expressions (‘:=’).  For
     example, in ‘[(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter]’, the assignment
     to ‘b’ is now allowed.  Note that assigning to variables stored to
     in the target part of comprehensions (like ‘a’) is still
     disallowed, as per PEP 572(4).  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-100581(5).)

   * Exceptions raised in a class or type's ‘__set_name__’ method are no
     longer wrapped by a *note RuntimeError: 17a.  Context information
     is added to the exception as a PEP 678(6) note.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-77757(7).)

   * When a ‘try-except*’ construct handles the entire *note
     ExceptionGroup: 17b. and raises one other exception, that exception
     is no longer wrapped in an *note ExceptionGroup: 17b.  Also changed
     in version 3.11.4.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103590(8).)

   * The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval breaker mechanism
     of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead of object
     allocations.  The GC can also run when *note PyErr_CheckSignals():
     17c. is called so C extensions that need to run for a long time
     without executing any Python code also have a chance to execute the
     GC periodically.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-97922(9).)

   * All builtin and extension callables expecting boolean parameters
     now accept arguments of any type instead of just *note bool: 17d.
     and *note int: 17e.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-60203(10).)

   * *note memoryview: 17f. now supports the half-float type (the "e"
     format code).  (Contributed by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou in
     gh-90751(11).)

   * *note slice: 180. objects are now hashable, allowing them to be
     used as dict keys and set items.  (Contributed by Will Bradshaw,
     Furkan Onder, and Raymond Hettinger in gh-101264(12).)

   * *note sum(): 181. now uses Neumaier summation to improve accuracy
     and commutativity when summing floats or mixed ints and floats.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100425(13).)

   * *note ast.parse(): 182. now raises *note SyntaxError: 146. instead
     of *note ValueError: 183. when parsing source code containing null
     bytes.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-96670(14).)

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: d8, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 184, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note tarfile extraction filters: 185. for details.  In Python
     3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.  (Contributed by Petr
     Viktorin in PEP 706(15).)

   * *note types.MappingProxyType: 186. instances are now hashable if
     the underlying mapping is hashable.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-87995(16).)

   * Add *note support for the perf profiler: 151. through the new
     environment variable *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 187. and command-line
     option *note -X perf: 188, as well as the new *note
     sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 189, *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 18a, and *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 18b. functions.  (Design by Pablo
     Galindo.  Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with
     contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon in
     gh-96123(17).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100581

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60203

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101264

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123


File: python.info,  Node: 新增模組,  Next: 改進的模組,  Prev: 其他語言更動,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.5 新增模組
--------------

   * None.


File: python.info,  Node: 改進的模組,  Next: 最佳化,  Prev: 新增模組,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.6 改進的模組
----------------

* Menu:

* array::
* asyncio::
* calendar::
* csv::
* dis::
* fractions::
* importlib.resources: importlib resources.
* inspect::
* itertools::
* math::
* os::
* os.path: os path.
* pathlib::
* pdb::
* random::
* shutil::
* sqlite3::
* statistics::
* sys::
* tempfile::
* threading::
* tkinter::
* tokenize::
* types::
* typing::
* unicodedata::
* unittest::
* uuid::


File: python.info,  Node: array,  Next: asyncio,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.1 array
.............

   * The *note array.array: 18f. class now supports subscripting, making
     it a *note generic type: 13b.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-98658(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio,  Next: calendar,  Prev: array,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.2 asyncio
...............

   * The performance of writing to sockets in *note asyncio: 9. has been
     significantly improved.  ‘asyncio’ now avoids unnecessary copying
     when writing to sockets and uses *note sendmsg(): 191. if the
     platform supports it.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-91166(1).)

   * Add *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 192. and *note
     asyncio.create_eager_task_factory(): 193. functions to allow opting
     an event loop in to eager task execution, making some use-cases 2x
     to 5x faster.  (Contributed by Jacob Bower & Itamar Oren in
     gh-102853(2), gh-104140(3), and gh-104138(4))

   * On Linux, *note asyncio: 9. uses *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher:
     194. by default if *note os.pidfd_open(): 195. is available and
     functional instead of *note asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher: 196.
     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-98024(5).)

   * The event loop now uses the best available child watcher for each
     platform (*note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 194. if supported and
     *note asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher: 196. otherwise), so manually
     configuring a child watcher is not recommended.  (Contributed by
     Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(6).)

   * Add 'loop_factory' parameter to *note asyncio.run(): 197. to allow
     specifying a custom event loop factory.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in gh-99388(7).)

   * Add C implementation of *note asyncio.current_task(): 198. for
     4x-6x speedup.  (Contributed by Itamar Oren and Pranav Thulasiram
     Bhat in gh-100344(8).)

   * *note asyncio.iscoroutine(): 199. now returns ‘False’ for
     generators as *note asyncio: 9. does not support legacy
     generator-based coroutines.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-102748(9).)

   * *note asyncio.wait(): 19a. and *note asyncio.as_completed(): 19b.
     now accepts generators yielding tasks.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in gh-78530(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102853

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104140

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104138

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98024

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530


File: python.info,  Node: calendar,  Next: csv,  Prev: asyncio,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.3 calendar
................

   * Add enums *note calendar.Month: 19d. and *note calendar.Day: 19e.
     defining months of the year and days of the week.  (Contributed by
     Prince Roshan in gh-103636(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636


File: python.info,  Node: csv,  Next: dis,  Prev: calendar,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.4 csv
...........

   * Add *note csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL: 1a0. and *note csv.QUOTE_STRINGS: 1a1.
     flags to provide finer grained control of ‘None’ and empty strings
     by *note csv.writer: 1a2. objects.


File: python.info,  Node: dis,  Next: fractions,  Prev: csv,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.5 dis
...........

   * Pseudo instruction opcodes (which are used by the compiler but do
     not appear in executable bytecode) are now exposed in the *note
     dis: 35. module.  *note HAVE_ARGUMENT: 1a4. is still relevant to
     real opcodes, but it is not useful for pseudo instructions.  Use
     the new *note dis.hasarg: 1a5. collection instead.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-94216(1).)

   * Add the *note dis.hasexc: 1a6. collection to signify instructions
     that set an exception handler.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-94216(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216


File: python.info,  Node: fractions,  Next: importlib resources,  Prev: dis,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.6 fractions
.................

   * Objects of type *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. now support
     float-style formatting.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
     gh-100161(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100161


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources,  Next: inspect,  Prev: fractions,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.7 importlib.resources
...........................

   * *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 1aa. now supports resource
     directories.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-97930(1).)

   * Rename first parameter of *note importlib.resources.files(): 1ab.
     to 'anchor'.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-100598(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100598


File: python.info,  Node: inspect,  Next: itertools,  Prev: importlib resources,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.8 inspect
...............

   * Add *note inspect.markcoroutinefunction(): 1ad. to mark sync
     functions that return a *note coroutine: 1ae. for use with *note
     inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 1af.  (Contributed by Carlton Gibson
     in gh-99247(1).)

   * Add *note inspect.getasyncgenstate(): 1b0. and *note
     inspect.getasyncgenlocals(): 1b1. for determining the current state
     of asynchronous generators.  (Contributed by Thomas Krennwallner in
     gh-79940(2).)

   * The performance of *note inspect.getattr_static(): 1b2. has been
     considerably improved.  Most calls to the function should be at
     least 2x faster than they were in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by
     Alex Waygood in gh-103193(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99247

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193


File: python.info,  Node: itertools,  Next: math,  Prev: inspect,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.9 itertools
.................

   * Add *note itertools.batched(): 1b4. for collecting into even-sized
     tuples where the last batch may be shorter than the rest.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-98363(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363


File: python.info,  Node: math,  Next: os,  Prev: itertools,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.10 math
.............

   * 新增 *note math.sumprod(): 1b6. 以計算乘積總和。（由 Raymond
     Hettinger 於 gh-100485(1) 中貢獻。）

   * Extend *note math.nextafter(): 1b7. to include a 'steps' argument
     for moving up or down multiple steps at a time.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Goergens, Mark Dickinson, and Raymond Hettinger in
     gh-94906(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906


File: python.info,  Node: os,  Next: os path,  Prev: math,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.11 os
...........

   * Add *note os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK: 1b9. to open a file descriptor for a
     process with *note os.pidfd_open(): 195. in non-blocking mode.
     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-93312(1).)

   * *note os.DirEntry: 1ba. now includes an *note
     os.DirEntry.is_junction(): 1bb. method to check if the entry is a
     junction.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(2).)

   * Add *note os.listdrives(): 1bc, *note os.listvolumes(): 1bd. and
     *note os.listmounts(): 1be. functions on Windows for enumerating
     drives, volumes and mount points.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
     gh-102519(3).)

   * *note os.stat(): 1bf. and *note os.lstat(): 1c0. are now more
     accurate on Windows.  The ‘st_birthtime’ field will now be filled
     with the creation time of the file, and ‘st_ctime’ is deprecated
     but still contains the creation time (but in the future will return
     the last metadata change, for consistency with other platforms).
     ‘st_dev’ may be up to 64 bits and ‘st_ino’ up to 128 bits depending
     on your file system, and ‘st_rdev’ is always set to zero rather
     than incorrect values.  Both functions may be significantly faster
     on newer releases of Windows.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
     gh-99726(4).)

   * As of 3.12.4, *note os.mkdir(): 1c1. and *note os.makedirs(): 1c2.
     on Windows now support passing a 'mode' value of ‘0o700’ to apply
     access control to the new directory.  This implicitly affects *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c3. and is a mitigation for CVE 2024-4030(5).
     Other values for 'mode' continue to be ignored.  (Contributed by
     Steve Dower in gh-118486(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486


File: python.info,  Node: os path,  Next: pathlib,  Prev: os,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.12 os.path
................

   * Add *note os.path.isjunction(): 1c5. to check if a given path is a
     junction.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(1).)

   * Add *note os.path.splitroot(): 1c6. to split a path into a triad
     ‘(drive, root, tail)’.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-101000(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib,  Next: pdb,  Prev: os path,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.13 pathlib
................

   * Add support for subclassing *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8. and *note
     pathlib.Path: 149, plus their Posix- and Windows-specific variants.
     Subclasses may override the *note pathlib.PurePath.with_segments():
     1c9. method to pass information between path instances.

   * Add *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 1ca. for walking the directory trees
     and generating all file or directory names within them, similar to
     *note os.walk(): 1cb.  (Contributed by Stanislav Zmiev in
     gh-90385(1).)

   * Add 'walk_up' optional parameter to *note
     pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 1cc. to allow the insertion of ‘..’
     entries in the result; this behavior is more consistent with *note
     os.path.relpath(): 1cd.  (Contributed by Domenico Ragusa in
     gh-84538(2).)

   * Add *note pathlib.Path.is_junction(): 1ce. as a proxy to *note
     os.path.isjunction(): 1c5.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-99547(3).)

   * Add 'case_sensitive' optional parameter to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 1cf, *note pathlib.Path.rglob(): 1d0. and
     *note pathlib.PurePath.match(): 1d1. for matching the path's case
     sensitivity, allowing for more precise control over the matching
     process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90385

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84538

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547


File: python.info,  Node: pdb,  Next: random,  Prev: pathlib,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.14 pdb
............

   * Add convenience variables to hold values temporarily for debug
     session and provide quick access to values like the current frame
     or the return value.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-103693(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693


File: python.info,  Node: random,  Next: shutil,  Prev: pdb,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.15 random
...............

   * 新增 *note random.binomialvariate(): 1d4.。（由 Raymond Hettinger 於
     gh-81620(1) 中貢獻。）

   * 將預設值 ‘lambd=1.0’ 加入至 *note random.expovariate(): 1d5. 中。（
     由 Raymond Hettinger 在 gh-100234(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234


File: python.info,  Node: shutil,  Next: sqlite3,  Prev: random,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.16 shutil
...............

   * *note shutil.make_archive(): 1d7. now passes the 'root_dir'
     argument to custom archivers which support it.  In this case it no
     longer temporarily changes the current working directory of the
     process to 'root_dir' to perform archiving.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-74696(1).)

   * *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. now accepts a new argument 'onexc'
     which is an error handler like 'onerror' but which expects an
     exception instance rather than a '(typ, val, tb)' triplet.
     'onerror' is deprecated.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102828(2).)

   * *note shutil.which(): 1d9. now consults the 'PATHEXT' environment
     variable to find matches within 'PATH' on Windows even when the
     given 'cmd' includes a directory component.  (Contributed by
     Charles Machalow in gh-103179(3).)

     *note shutil.which(): 1d9. will call
     ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW’ when querying for executables on
     Windows to determine if the current working directory should be
     prepended to the search path.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-103179(4).)

     *note shutil.which(): 1d9. will return a path matching the 'cmd'
     with a component from ‘PATHEXT’ prior to a direct match elsewhere
     in the search path on Windows.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-103179(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3,  Next: statistics,  Prev: shutil,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.17 sqlite3
................

   * 新增*note 命令列介面: 14a.。（由 Erlend E. Aasland 於 gh-77617(1) 中
     貢獻。）

   * Add the *note sqlite3.Connection.autocommit: 1db. attribute to
     *note sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. and the 'autocommit' parameter to
     *note sqlite3.connect(): 1dd. to control PEP 249(2)-compliant *note
     transaction handling: 1de.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-83638(3).)

   * Add 'entrypoint' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 1df, for overriding the SQLite
     extension entry point.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-103015(4).)

   * Add *note sqlite3.Connection.getconfig(): 1e0. and *note
     sqlite3.Connection.setconfig(): 1e1. to *note sqlite3.Connection:
     1dc. to make configuration changes to a database connection.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-103489(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489


File: python.info,  Node: statistics,  Next: sys,  Prev: sqlite3,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.18 statistics
...................

   * Extend *note statistics.correlation(): 1e3. to include as a
     ‘ranked’ method for computing the Spearman correlation of ranked
     data.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-95861(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95861


File: python.info,  Node: sys,  Next: tempfile,  Prev: statistics,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.19 sys
............

   * Add the *note sys.monitoring: d4. namespace to expose the new *note
     PEP 669: 142. monitoring API. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-103082(1).)

   * Add *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 189. and *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 18a. for activating and
     deactivating stack profiler trampolines, and *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 18b. for querying if stack
     profiler trampolines are active.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and
     Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google]
     and Mark Shannon in gh-96123(2).)

   * Add *note sys.last_exc: 1e5. which holds the last unhandled
     exception that was raised (for post-mortem debugging use cases).
     Deprecate the three fields that have the same information in its
     legacy form: *note sys.last_type: 1e6, *note sys.last_value: 1e7.
     and *note sys.last_traceback: 1e8.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102778(3).)

   * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 1e9. now returns a mapping from
     thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc,
     tb)’ tuple.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(4).)

   * *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 1ea. and *note
     sys.getrecursionlimit(): 1eb.  The recursion limit now applies only
     to Python code.  Builtin functions do not use the recursion limit,
     but are protected by a different mechanism that prevents recursion
     from causing a virtual machine crash.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile,  Next: threading,  Prev: sys,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.20 tempfile
.................

   * *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 1ed. 函式新增了一個選擇性參數
     'delete_on_close' （由 Evgeny Zorin 於 gh-58451(1) 中貢獻。）

   * *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c3. 現在總是會傳回絕對路徑，即使提供給
     'dir' 參數的引數是相對路徑。

   * As of 3.12.4 on Windows, the default mode ‘0o700’ used by *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c3. now limits access to the new directory due
     to changes to *note os.mkdir(): 1c1.  This is a mitigation for CVE
     2024-4030(2).  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-118486(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58451

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486


File: python.info,  Node: threading,  Next: tkinter,  Prev: tempfile,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.21 threading
..................

   * Add *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 1ef. and *note
     threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 1f0. that allow to set tracing
     and profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the
     calling one.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter,  Next: tokenize,  Prev: threading,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.22 tkinter
................

   * ‘tkinter.Canvas.coords()’ now flattens its arguments.  It now
     accepts not only coordinates as separate arguments (‘x1, y1, x2,
     y2, ...’) and a sequence of coordinates (‘[x1, y1, x2, y2, ...]’),
     but also coordinates grouped in pairs (‘(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...’
     and ‘[(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...]’), like ‘create_*()’ methods.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-94473(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize,  Next: types,  Prev: tkinter,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.23 tokenize
.................

   * The *note tokenize: f6. module includes the changes introduced in
     PEP 701(1).  (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo
     in gh-102856(2).)  See *note Porting to Python 3.12: 1f3. for more
     information on the changes to the *note tokenize: f6. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856


File: python.info,  Node: types,  Next: typing,  Prev: tokenize,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.24 types
..............

   * Add *note types.get_original_bases(): 1f5. to allow for further
     introspection of *note 使用者定義泛型型別: 1f6. when subclassed.
     (Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe and Alex Waygood in
     gh-101827(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101827


File: python.info,  Node: typing,  Next: unicodedata,  Prev: types,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.25 typing
...............

   * *note isinstance(): 14b. checks against *note runtime-checkable
     protocols: 14c. now use *note inspect.getattr_static(): 1b2. rather
     than *note hasattr(): 1f9. to lookup whether attributes exist.
     This means that descriptors and *note __getattr__(): 1fa. methods
     are no longer unexpectedly evaluated during ‘isinstance()’ checks
     against runtime-checkable protocols.  However, it may also mean
     that some objects which used to be considered instances of a
     runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of
     that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa.  Most users are
     unlikely to be affected by this change.  (Contributed by Alex
     Waygood in gh-102433(1).)

   * The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now considered
     "frozen" at runtime as soon as the class has been created.
     Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable protocol will
     still work, but will have no impact on *note isinstance(): 14b.
     checks comparing objects to the protocol.  For example:

          >>> from typing import Protocol, runtime_checkable
          >>> @runtime_checkable
          ... class HasX(Protocol):
          ...     x = 1
          ...
          >>> class Foo: ...
          ...
          >>> f = Foo()
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)
          False
          >>> f.x = 1
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)
          True
          >>> HasX.y = 2
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)  # unchanged, even though HasX now also has a "y" attribute
          True

     This change was made in order to speed up ‘isinstance()’ checks
     against runtime-checkable protocols.

   * The performance profile of *note isinstance(): 14b. checks against
     *note runtime-checkable protocols: 14c. has changed significantly.
     Most ‘isinstance()’ checks against protocols with only a few
     members should be at least 2x faster than in 3.11, and some may be
     20x faster or more.  However, ‘isinstance()’ checks against
     protocols with many members may be slower than in Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-74690(2) and gh-103193(3).)

   * All *note typing.TypedDict: 153. and *note typing.NamedTuple: 1fb.
     classes now have the ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute.  (Contributed by
     Adrian Garcia Badaracco in gh-103699(4).)

   * 新增 ‘frozen_default’ 參數至 *note typing.dataclass_transform():
     1fc.。（由 Erik De Bonte 於 gh-99957(5) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata,  Next: unittest,  Prev: typing,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.26 unicodedata
....................

   * The Unicode database has been updated to version 15.0.0.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in gh-96734(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96734


File: python.info,  Node: unittest,  Next: uuid,  Prev: unicodedata,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.27 unittest
.................

新增 ‘--durations’ 命令列選項，顯示 N 個最慢的測試案例：

     python3 -m unittest --durations=3 lib.tests.test_threading
     .....
     Slowest test durations
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     1.210s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
     1.003s     test_default_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
     0.518s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.EventTests)

     (0.000 durations hidden.  Use -v to show these durations.)
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 158 tests in 9.869s

     OK (skipped=3)

（由 Giampaolo Rodola 於 gh-48330(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330


File: python.info,  Node: uuid,  Prev: unittest,  Up: 改進的模組

1.1.6.28 uuid
.............

   * 新增一個*note 命令列介面: 14d.。（由 Adam Chhina 於 gh-88597(1) 中
     貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化,  Next: CPython 位元組碼變更,  Prev: 改進的模組,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.7 最佳化
------------

   * Remove ‘wstr’ and ‘wstr_length’ members from Unicode objects.  It
     reduces object size by 8 or 16 bytes on 64bit platform.  ( PEP
     623(1)) (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-92536(2).)

   * Add experimental support for using the BOLT binary optimizer in the
     build process, which improves performance by 1-5%.  (Contributed by
     Kevin Modzelewski in gh-90536(3) and tuned by Donghee Na in
     gh-101525(4))

   * Speed up the regular expression substitution (functions *note
     re.sub(): 201. and *note re.subn(): 202. and corresponding
     ‘re.Pattern’ methods) for replacement strings containing group
     references by 2-3 times.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-91524(5).)

   * Speed up *note asyncio.Task: 203. creation by deferring expensive
     string formatting.  (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-103793(6).)

   * The *note tokenize.tokenize(): 204. and *note
     tokenize.generate_tokens(): 205. functions are up to 64% faster as
     a side effect of the changes required to cover PEP 701(7) in the
     *note tokenize: f6. module.  (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and
     Pablo Galindo in gh-102856(8).)

   * Speed up *note super(): 206. method calls and attribute loads via
     the new *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 207. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91524

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 位元組碼變更,  Next: Demos and Tools,  Prev: 最佳化,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.8 CPython 位元組碼變更
--------------------------

   * Remove the ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction.  It has been merged into
     *note LOAD_ATTR: 209.  *note LOAD_ATTR: 209. will now behave like
     the old ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction if the low bit of its oparg is
     set.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in gh-93429(1).)

   * Remove the ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ and ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’
     instructions.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102859(2).)

   * Remove the ‘PRECALL’ instruction.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-92925(3).)

   * Add the *note BINARY_SLICE: 20a. and *note STORE_SLICE: 20b.
     instructions.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-94163(4).)

   * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 20c. instructions.  (Contributed by
     Mark Shannon in gh-99005(5).)

   * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_2: 20d. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-101799(6).)

   * Add the *note CLEANUP_THROW: 20e. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Brandt Bucher in gh-90997(7).)

   * Add the ‘END_SEND’ instruction.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-103082(8).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR: 20f. instruction as part of the
     implementation of PEP 709(9).  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in
     gh-101441(10).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_CHECK: 210. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Dennis Sweeney in gh-93143(11).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 211, *note
     LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS: 212, and *note LOAD_LOCALS: 213. opcodes
     as part of the implementation of PEP 695(12).  Remove the
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’ opcode, which can be replaced with *note
     LOAD_LOCALS: 213. plus *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 211.
     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-103764(13).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 207. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(14).)

   * Add the *note RETURN_CONST: 214. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Wenyang Wang in gh-101632(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92925

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101441

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632


File: python.info,  Node: Demos and Tools,  Next: 已棄用,  Prev: CPython 位元組碼變更,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.9 Demos and Tools
---------------------

   * Remove the ‘Tools/demo/’ directory which contained old demo
     scripts.  A copy can be found in the old-demos project(1).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-97681(2).)

   * Remove outdated example scripts of the ‘Tools/scripts/’ directory.
     A copy can be found in the old-demos project(3).  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-97669(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681

   (3) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用,  Next: 已移除,  Prev: Demos and Tools,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.10 已棄用
-------------

   * *note argparse: 6.：‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ 的 'type'、
     'choices' 和 'metavar' 參數已被棄用，將在 3.14 中移除。 (由 Nikita
     Sobolev 於 gh-92248(1) 貢獻。)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following *note ast: 8. features have been
     deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     請改用 *note ast.Constant: 217.。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 於
     gh-90953(2) 貢獻。）

   * *note asyncio: 9.：

        * The child watcher classes *note asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher:
          218, *note asyncio.FastChildWatcher: 219, *note
          asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher: 21a. and *note
          asyncio.SafeChildWatcher: 21b. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 21c.、*note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 21d.、*note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 21e. 和
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          21f. 已被棄用並將在 Python 3.14 中移除。（由 Kumar Aditya 於
          gh-94597(4) 貢獻。）

        * 預設事件迴圈策略的 *note get_event_loop(): 220. 方法現在會在沒
          有設定目前事件迴圈且決定建立一個時發出 *note
          DeprecationWarning: 179.。 (由 Serhiy Storchaka 和 Guido van
          Rossum 於 gh-100160(5) 貢獻。)

   * *note calendar: 12.：‘calendar.January’ 和 ‘calendar.February’ 常數
     已被棄用並被 *note calendar.JANUARY: 221. 和 *note
     calendar.FEBRUARY: 222. 取代。 (由 Prince Roshan 於 gh-103636(6) 貢
     獻。)

   * *note collections.abc: 1c.: Deprecated *note
     collections.abc.ByteString: 223.  Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note
     collections.abc.Buffer: 170.  For use in typing, prefer a union,
     like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 170.
     (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(7).)

   * *note datetime: 2e.: *note datetime.datetime: 224.'s *note
     utcnow(): 225. and *note utcfromtimestamp(): 226. are deprecated
     and will be removed in a future version.  Instead, use
     timezone-aware objects to represent datetimes in UTC: respectively,
     call *note now(): 227. and *note fromtimestamp(): 228. with the
     'tz' parameter set to *note datetime.UTC: 229.  (Contributed by
     Paul Ganssle in gh-103857(8).)

   * *note email: 37.：棄用 *note email.utils.localtime(): 22a. 中的
     'isdst' 參數。（由 Alan Williams 於 gh-72346(9) 中貢獻。）

   * *note importlib.abc: 72.：棄用下列類別，預定於 Python 3.14 中移除：

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     請改用 *note importlib.resources.abc: 76. 類別：

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 22b.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 22c.

     （由 Jason R. Coombs 和 Hugo van Kemenade 貢獻於 gh-93963(10)。）

   * *note itertools: 7b.: Deprecate the support for copy, deepcopy, and
     pickle operations, which is undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a
     significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(11).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 8f.: In Python 3.14, the default *note
     multiprocessing: 8f. start method will change to a safer one on
     Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where ‘'fork'’ is
     currently the default (gh-84559(12)).  Adding a runtime warning
     about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not
     expected to care.  Use the *note get_context(): 22d. or *note
     set_start_method(): 22e. APIs to explicitly specify when your code
     'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note contexts and start methods: 22f.

   * *note pkgutil: a4.: *note pkgutil.find_loader(): 230. and *note
     pkgutil.get_loader(): 231. are deprecated and will be removed in
     Python 3.14; use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 232. instead.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(13).)

   * *note pty: ac.: The module has two undocumented ‘master_open()’ and
     ‘slave_open()’ functions that have been deprecated since Python 2
     but only gained a proper *note DeprecationWarning: 179. in 3.12.
     Remove them in 3.14.  (Contributed by Soumendra Ganguly and Gregory
     P. Smith in gh-85984(14).)

   * *note os: 9c.：

        * The ‘st_ctime’ fields return by *note os.stat(): 1bf. and
          *note os.lstat(): 1c0. on Windows are deprecated.  In a future
          release, they will contain the last metadata change time,
          consistent with other platforms.  For now, they still contain
          the creation time, which is also available in the new
          ‘st_birthtime’ field.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
          gh-99726(15).)

        * On POSIX platforms, *note os.fork(): 233. can now raise a
          *note DeprecationWarning: 179. when it can detect being called
          from a multithreaded process.  There has always been a
          fundamental incompatibility with the POSIX platform when doing
          so.  Even if such code 'appeared' to work.  We added the
          warning to raise awareness as issues encountered by code doing
          this are becoming more frequent.  See the *note os.fork():
          233. documentation for more details along with this discussion
          on fork being incompatible with threads(16) for 'why' we're
          now surfacing this longstanding platform compatibility problem
          to developers.

     When this warning appears due to usage of *note multiprocessing:
     8f. or *note concurrent.futures: 1f. the fix is to use a different
     *note multiprocessing: 8f. start method such as ‘"spawn"’ or
     ‘"forkserver"’.

   * *note shutil: c0.：*note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. 的 'onerror' 引數已
     被棄用，請改用 'onexc'。（由 Irit Katriel 於 gh-102828(17) 中貢獻。
     ）

   * *note sqlite3: c9.：

        * *note default adapters and converters: 234. are now
          deprecated.  Instead, use the *note Adapter and converter
          recipes: 235. and tailor them to your needs.  (Contributed by
          Erlend E. Aasland in gh-90016(18).)

        * In *note execute(): 236, *note DeprecationWarning: 179. is now
          emitted when *note named placeholders: 237. are used together
          with parameters supplied as a *note sequence: 238. instead of
          as a *note dict: 239.  Starting from Python 3.14, using named
          placeholders with parameters supplied as a sequence will raise
          a *note ProgrammingError: 23a.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
          Aasland in gh-101698(19).)

   * *note sys: d3.: The *note sys.last_type: 1e6, *note sys.last_value:
     1e7. and *note sys.last_traceback: 1e8. fields are deprecated.  Use
     *note sys.last_exc: 1e5. instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102778(20).)

   * *note tarfile: d8.: Extracting tar archives without specifying
     'filter' is deprecated until Python 3.14, when ‘'data'’ filter will
     become the default.  See *note Extraction filters: 185. for
     details.

   * *note typing: ff.：

        * *note typing.Hashable: 23b. and *note typing.Sized: 23c,
          aliases for *note collections.abc.Hashable: 23d. and *note
          collections.abc.Sized: 23e. respectively, are deprecated.
          (gh-94309(21).)

        * *note typing.ByteString: 23f, deprecated since Python 3.9, now
          causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 179. to be emitted when it
          is used.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-91896(22).)

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120.: The module now emits *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179. when testing the truth value of an *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 240.  Before, the Python
     implementation emitted *note FutureWarning: 241, and the C
     implementation emitted nothing.  (Contributed by Jacob Walls in
     gh-83122(23).)

   * The 3-arg signatures (type, value, traceback) of *note coroutine
     throw(): 242, *note generator throw(): 243. and *note async
     generator throw(): 244. are deprecated and may be removed in a
     future version of Python.  Use the single-arg versions of these
     functions instead.  (Contributed by Ofey Chan in gh-89874(24).)

   * *note DeprecationWarning: 179. is now raised when *note
     __package__: 245. on a module differs from *note __spec__.parent:
     246. (previously it was *note ImportWarning: 247.).  (Contributed
     by Brett Cannon in gh-65961(25).)

   * Setting *note __package__: 245. or *note __cached__: 248. on a
     module is deprecated, and will cease to be set or taken into
     consideration by the import system in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by
     Brett Cannon in gh-65961(26).)

   * The bitwise inversion operator (‘~’) on bool is deprecated.  It
     will throw an error in Python 3.16.  Use ‘not’ for logical negation
     of bools instead.  In the rare case that you really need the
     bitwise inversion of the underlying ‘int’, convert to int
     explicitly: ‘~int(x)’.  (Contributed by Tim Hoffmann in
     gh-103487(27).)

   * Accessing *note co_lnotab: 249. on code objects was deprecated in
     Python 3.10 via PEP 626(28), but it only got a proper *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(29).)

* Menu:

* Python 3.13 中待移除的項目: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目.
* Python 3.14 中待移除的項目: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目.
* Python 3.15 中待移除的項目: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目.
* Python 3.16 中待移除的項目: Python 3 16 中待移除的項目.
* 未來版本中的待移除項目::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726

   (16) 
https://discuss.python.org/t/concerns-regarding-deprecation-of-fork-with-alive-threads/33555

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101698

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83122

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103487

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目,  Next: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目,  Up: 已棄用

1.1.10.1 Python 3.13 中待移除的項目
...................................

模組（請見 PEP 594(1)）：

   * *note aifc: 5.

   * *note audioop: b.

   * *note cgi: 13.

   * *note cgitb: 14.

   * *note chunk: 15.

   * *note crypt: 26.

   * *note imghdr: 70.

   * *note mailcap: 87.

   * *note msilib: 8d.

   * *note nis: 97.

   * *note nntplib: 98.

   * *note ossaudiodev: 9e.

   * *note pipes: a3.

   * *note sndhdr: c5.

   * *note spwd: c8.

   * *note sunau: d1.

   * *note telnetlib: d9.

   * *note uu: 10a.

   * *note xdrlib: 11a.

其他模組：

   * ‘lib2to3’ 和 ‘2to3’ 程式 (gh-84540(2))

API：

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ (gh-90765(3))

   * ‘locale.resetlocale()’ (gh-90817(4))

   * ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ (gh-50096(5))

   * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’ (gh-50096(6))

   * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’ (gh-50096(7))

   * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ (gh-50096(8))

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ (gh-67048(9))

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ (gh-86421(10))

   * *note classmethod: 24b. 描述器鏈接 (gh-89519(11))

   * *note importlib.resources: 75. 的已棄用方法：

        * ‘contents()’

        * ‘is_resource()’

        * ‘open_binary()’

        * ‘open_text()’

        * ‘path()’

        * ‘read_binary()’

        * ‘read_text()’

     請改用 *note importlib.resources.files(): 1ab.。請參閱
     importlib-resources: Migrating from Legacy(12) (gh-106531(13))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84540

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90765

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86421

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (12) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html#migrating-from-legacy

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目,  Next: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目,  Prev: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目,  Up: 已棄用

1.1.10.2 Python 3.14 中待移除的項目
...................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 24d. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 24e. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.14, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note argparse: 6.：‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ 的 'type'、
     'choices' 和 'metavar' 參數已被棄用，將在 3.14 中移除。 (由 Nikita
     Sobolev 於 gh-92248(1) 貢獻。)

   * *note ast: 8.：自 Python 3.8 起，下列功能已在文件中被棄用，現在在存
     取或使用時會於 runtime 發出 *note DeprecationWarning: 179.，並將在
     Python 3.14 中移除：

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     請改用 *note ast.Constant: 217.。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 於
     gh-90953(2) 貢獻。）

   * *note asyncio: 9.：

        * 已棄用並將在 Python 3.14 中移除的 child watcher 類別：*note
          MultiLoopChildWatcher: 218.、*note FastChildWatcher: 219.、
          *note AbstractChildWatcher: 21a. 和 *note SafeChildWatcher:
          21b.。 (由 Kumar Aditya 於 gh-94597(3) 貢獻。)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 21c.、*note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 21d.、*note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 21e. 和
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          21f. 已被棄用並將在 Python 3.14 中移除。（由 Kumar Aditya 於
          gh-94597(4) 貢獻。）

        * 預設事件迴圈策略的 *note get_event_loop(): 220. 方法現在會在沒
          有設定目前事件迴圈且決定建立一個時發出 *note
          DeprecationWarning: 179.。 (由 Serhiy Storchaka 和 Guido van
          Rossum 於 gh-100160(5) 貢獻。)

   * *note collections.abc: 1c.：已棄用 *note ByteString: 223.。請改用
     ‘Sequence’ 或 *note Buffer: 170.。在 typing 中使用時，請改用聯集，
     如 ‘bytes | bytearray’，或 *note collections.abc.Buffer: 170.。（由
     Shantanu Jain 於 gh-91896(6) 貢獻。）

   * *note email: 37.：已棄用 *note email.utils.localtime(): 22a. 中的
     'isdst' 參數。（由 Alan Williams 於 gh-72346(7) 貢獻。）

   * *note importlib: 71.：‘__package__’ 和 ‘__cached__’ 將不再被設定或
     被 import 系統考慮。 (gh-97879(8))

   * *note importlib.abc: 72. 的已棄用類別：

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     請改用 *note importlib.resources.abc: 76. 類別：

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 22b.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 22c.

     （由 Jason R. Coombs 和 Hugo van Kemenade 貢獻於 gh-93963(9)。）

   * *note itertools: 7b. 有不以文件記錄、效率低下、過去常有 bug 且不一
     致的 copy、deepcopy 和 pickle 操作支援。將在 3.14 中移除以大幅減少
     程式碼量和維護負擔。 (由 Raymond Hettinger 於 gh-101588(10) 貢獻。)

   * *note multiprocessing: 8f.：預設的啟動方法將在 Linux、BSD 和其他非
     macOS POSIX 平台上更改為更安全的 方法，目前 ‘'fork'’ 是預設值
     (gh-84559(11))。對此增加一個 runtime 警告被認為太過擾人，因為 大多
     數程式碼不會在意。請使用 *note get_context(): 22d. 或 *note
     set_start_method(): 22e. API 來明確指定你的程式碼何時'需要'
     ‘'fork'’。請參閱 *note Contexts and start methods: 22f.。

   * *note pathlib: 9f.：已棄用 *note is_relative_to(): 24f. 和 *note
     relative_to(): 1cc.：額外引數的傳遞已被棄用。

   * *note pkgutil: a4.：*note find_loader(): 230. 和 *note
     get_loader(): 231. 現在會引發 *note DeprecationWarning: 179.；請改
     用 *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 232.。 (由 Nikita Sobolev 於
     gh-97850(12) 貢獻。)

   * *note pty: ac.：

        * ‘master_open()’：請用 *note pty.openpty(): 250.。

        * ‘slave_open()’：請用 *note pty.openpty(): 250.。

   * *note sqlite3: c9.：

        * *note version: 251. 和 *note version_info: 252.。

        * *note execute(): 236. 和 *note executemany(): 253.，如果使用
          *note named placeholders: 237. 且 'parameters' 是序列而不是
          *note dict: 239.。

   * *note typing: ff.：自 Python 3.9 起已被棄用的 *note ByteString:
     23f. 現在在使用時會發出 *note DeprecationWarning: 179.。

   * *note urllib: 103.：‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ 已被棄用：它並非預期的公
     開 API。(由 Gregory P. Smith 於 gh-88168(13) 貢獻。)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目,  Next: Python 3 16 中待移除的項目,  Prev: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目,  Up: 已棄用

1.1.10.3 Python 3.15 中待移除的項目
...................................

   * *note http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 255. 將會被移除，連同其相
     關的 ‘--cgi’ 旗標到 ‘python -m http.server’。它已經過時且很少被使用
     。沒有直接的替代方案。'任何東西'都比 CGI 更好的來介接一個帶有請求處
     理器的網頁伺服器。

   * *note locale: 81.：*note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 256. 已在
     Python 3.11 中被棄用，原本計劃在 Python 3.13 中移除 (gh-90817(1))，
     但被延後至 Python 3.15。請改用 *note locale.setlocale(): 257.、
     *note locale.getencoding(): 258. 和 *note locale.getlocale(): 259.。
     (由 Hugo van Kemenade 於 gh-111187(2) 貢獻。)

   * *note pathlib: 9f.：*note pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved(): 25a. 已被
     棄用並計劃在 Python 3.15 中移除。從 Python 3.13 開始，請用
     ‘os.path.isreserved’ 來偵測 Windows 上的保留路徑。

   * *note platform: a5.：*note java_ver(): 25b. 已被棄用並將在 3.15 中
     移除。它幾乎沒有被測試過，API 令人困惑並且只對 Jython 支援有用。 (由
     Nikita Sobolev 於 gh-116349(3) 貢獻。)

   * *note threading: e7.：對 *note threading.RLock(): 25c. 傳遞任何引數
     現在已被棄用。C 版本允許任意數量的引數和關鍵字引數，但它們會被忽略
     。Python 版本不允許任何引數。所有引數將在 Python 3.15 中從 *note
     threading.RLock(): 25c. 中移除。 (由 Nikita Sobolev 於 gh-102029(4)
     貢獻。)

   * *note typing.NamedTuple: 1fb.：

        * 用於建立 ‘NamedTuple’ 類別的未以文件記錄之關鍵字引數語法 (‘NT
          = NamedTuple("NT", x=int)’) 已棄用，並將在 3.15 中被禁止。請改
          用基於類別的語法或函式語法 (functional syntax)。

   * *note types: fe.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 25d.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 249.
          was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 179. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).)

   * *note typing: ff.：

        * 當使用函式語法來建立 ‘NamedTuple’ 類別時，沒將值傳遞給
          'fields' 參數的方式 (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT")’) 已被棄用，將
          ‘None’ 傳遞給 'fields' 參數（‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", None)’）也
          已被棄用。這兩者將在 Python 3.15 中會被禁止。要建立一個沒有欄
          位的 ‘NamedTuple’ 類別，請使用 ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ 或
          ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", [])’。

   * *note typing.TypedDict: 153.：當使用函式語法來建立 ‘TypedDict’ 類別
     時，沒將值傳遞給 'fields' 參數的方式（‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’）已被
     棄用，將 ‘None’ 傳遞給 'fields' 參數（‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’）
     也已被棄用。這兩者將在 Python 3.15 中會被禁止。要建立一個沒有欄位的
     ‘TypedDict’ 類別，請使用 ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ 或 ‘TD =
     TypedDict("TD", {})’。

   * *note wave: 10e.：已棄用 *note wave.Wave_read: 25e. 和 *note
     wave.Wave_write: 25f. 類別的 ‘getmark()’、‘setmark()’ 和
     ‘getmarkers()’ 方法。它們將在 Python 3.15 中被移除。 (由 Victor
     Stinner 於 gh-105096(7) 貢獻。)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102029

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 16 中待移除的項目,  Next: 未來版本中的待移除項目,  Prev: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目,  Up: 已棄用

1.1.10.4 Python 3.16 中待移除的項目
...................................

   * *note array: 7.：*note array.array: 18f. ‘'u'’ 型別 (‘wchar_t’)：請
     改用 ‘'w'’ 型別 (‘Py_UCS4’)。

   * *note builtins: 10.：‘~bool’，對 bool 進行位元反轉。

   * *note symtable: d2.：由於並沒有太多關注，已棄用 *note
     symtable.Class.get_methods(): 261.。 (由 Bénédikt Tran 於
     gh-119698(1) 貢獻。)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698


File: python.info,  Node: 未來版本中的待移除項目,  Prev: Python 3 16 中待移除的項目,  Up: 已棄用

1.1.10.5 未來版本中的待移除項目
...............................

以下 API 將在未來被移除，雖然目前尚未安排移除日期。

   * *note argparse: 6.：已棄用巢狀引數群組和巢狀互斥群組。

   * *note array: 7. 的 ‘'u'’ 格式碼 (gh-57281(1))

   * *note builtins: 10.：

        * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’。

        * 產生器：‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ 和 ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’ 簽名
          已被棄用：請改用 ‘throw(exc)’ 和 ‘athrow(exc)’，為單引數簽名。

        * 目前 Python 接受數值字面值後面立即接關鍵字，例如 ‘0in x’、‘1or
          x’、‘0if 1else 2’。它讓表達式模糊且容易混淆，如 ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’（可以解釋為 ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ 或 ‘[0x1f or x in y]’）。如
          果數值字面值後立即接 *note and: 263.、*note else: 264.、*note
          for: 265.、*note if: 266.、*note in: 267.、*note is: 268. 和
          *note or: 269. 之一的關鍵字，則會引發語法警告。在未來版本中，
          它將被更改為語法錯誤。(gh-87999(2))

        * ‘__index__()’ 和 ‘__int__()’ 方法回傳非 int 型別的支援：這些方
          法將需要回傳 *note int: 17e. 的嚴格子類別實例。

        * 回傳 *note float: 26a. 嚴格子類別 ‘__float__()’ 方法的支援：這
          些方法將需要回傳 *note float: 26a. 的實例。

        * 回傳 *note complex: 26b. 嚴格子類別 ‘__complex__()’ 方法的支援
          ：這些方法將需要回傳 *note complex: 26b. 的實例。

        * 將 ‘int()’ 委派給 ‘__trunc__()’ 方法。

        * 在 *note complex(): 26b. 建構子中將複數作為 'real' 或 'imag' 引
          數傳遞現在已被棄用；它應該只作為單個位置引數傳遞。 (由 Serhiy
          Storchaka 於 gh-109218(3) 貢獻。)

   * *note calendar: 12.：‘calendar.January’ 和 ‘calendar.February’ 常數
     已被棄用並被 *note calendar.JANUARY: 221. 和 *note
     calendar.FEBRUARY: 222. 取代。 (由 Prince Roshan 於 gh-103636(4) 貢
     獻。)

   * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 249.：請改用 *note
     codeobject.co_lines(): 26c. 方法。

   * *note datetime: 2e.：

        * *note utcnow(): 225.：請改用
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’。

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 226.：請改用
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’。

   * *note gettext: 5e.：複數值必須是整數。

   * *note importlib: 71.：

        * ‘load_module()’ method：請改用 ‘exec_module()’。

        * *note cache_from_source(): 26d. 'debug_override' 參數已被棄用
          ：請改用 'optimization' 參數。

   * *note importlib.metadata: 74.：

        * ‘EntryPoints’ 元組介面。

        * 回傳值上的隱式 ‘None’。

   * *note mailbox: 86.：已棄用 StringIO 輸入和文本模式，請改用 BytesIO
     和二進位模式。

   * *note os: 9c.：在多執行緒行程中呼叫 *note os.register_at_fork():
     26e.。

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’：'exc_info' 參數的元組值已被棄用，請用例
     外實例。

   * *note re: b4.：現在對正規表示式中的數值群組參照和群組名稱用了更嚴格
     的規則。現在只有 ASCII 數碼序列被接受作為數值參照。位元組模式和替換
     字串中的群組名稱現在只能包含 ASCII 字母、數碼和底線。（由 Serhiy
     Storchaka 於 gh-91760(5) 貢獻。）

   * ‘sre_compile’、‘sre_constants’ 和 ‘sre_parse’ 模組。

   * *note shutil: c0.：*note rmtree(): 1d8. 的 'onerror' 參數在 Python
     3.12 中已被棄用；請改用 'onexc' 參數。

   * *note ssl: ca. 選項和協定：

        * 不帶協定引數的 *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. 已被棄用。

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f.：*note set_npn_protocols(): 270. 和
          ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ 已被棄用：請改用 ALPN。

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ 選項

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ 選項

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note sysconfig.is_python_build(): 271. 的 'check_home' 參數已被棄
     用並被忽略。

   * *note threading: e7. 方法：

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’：請用 *note notify_all():
          272.。

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’：請用 *note is_set(): 273.。

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’、*note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 274.：請用 *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 275. 屬性。

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’、*note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 276.：請用 *note
          threading.Thread.name: 277. 屬性。

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’：請用 *note
          threading.current_thread(): 278.。

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’：請用 *note
          threading.active_count(): 279.。

   * *note typing.Text: 27a. (gh-92332(6))。

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b.：從測試案例中回傳非
     ‘None’ 的值已被棄用。

   * *note urllib.parse: 105. 已棄用函式：請改用 *note urlparse(): 27c.。

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note urllib.request: 106.：呼叫請求的 *note URLopener: 27d. 和
     *note FancyURLopener: 27e. 風格已被棄用。請改用更新的 *note
     urlopen(): 27f. 函式和方法。

   * *note wsgiref: 113.：‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ 不應該進行部分
     寫入。

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120.：已棄用對 *note Element: 240. 的
     真值測試。在未來版本中，它將始終回傳 ‘True’。請改用明確的
     ‘len(elem)’ 或 ‘elem is not None’ 測試。

   * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 280. 已被棄用：請改用
     *note exec_module(): 281.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57281

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332


File: python.info,  Node: 已移除,  Next: Porting to Python 3 12,  Prev: 已棄用,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.11 已移除
-------------

* Menu:

* asynchat 和 asyncore::
* configparser::
* distutils::
* ensurepip::
* enum::
* ftplib::
* gzip::
* hashlib::
* importlib::
* imp::
* io::
* locale::
* smtpd::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<2>.
* ssl::
* unittest: unittest<2>.
* webbrowser::
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree.
* zipimport::
* 其他::


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat 和 asyncore,  Next: configparser,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.1 asynchat 和 asyncore
.............................

   * These two modules have been removed according to the schedule in
     PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.6.  Use *note
     asyncio: 9. instead.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-96580(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96580


File: python.info,  Node: configparser,  Next: distutils,  Prev: asynchat 和 asyncore,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.2 configparser
.....................

   * Several names deprecated in the *note configparser: 20. way back in
     3.2 have been removed per gh-89336(1):

        * *note configparser.ParsingError: 285. 不再具有 ‘filename’ 屬性
          或引數。請改用 ‘source’ 屬性和引數。

        * *note configparser: 20. no longer has a ‘SafeConfigParser’
          class.  Use the shorter *note ConfigParser: 286. name instead.

        * *note configparser.ConfigParser: 286. no longer has a ‘readfp’
          method.  Use *note read_file(): 287. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89336


File: python.info,  Node: distutils,  Next: ensurepip,  Prev: configparser,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.3 distutils
..................

   * Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  It was deprecated in Python 3.10
     by PEP 632(1) "Deprecate distutils module".  For projects still
     using ‘distutils’ and cannot be updated to something else, the
     ‘setuptools’ project can be installed: it still provides
     ‘distutils’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-92584(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip,  Next: enum,  Prev: distutils,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.4 ensurepip
..................

   * Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from *note ensurepip: 50, and
     stop installing setuptools in environments created by *note venv:
     10c.

     ‘pip (>= 22.1)’ does not require setuptools to be installed in the
     environment.  ‘setuptools’-based (and ‘distutils’-based) packages
     can still be used with ‘pip install’, since pip will provide
     ‘setuptools’ in the build environment it uses for building a
     package.

     ‘easy_install’, ‘pkg_resources’, ‘setuptools’ and ‘distutils’ are
     no longer provided by default in environments created with ‘venv’
     or bootstrapped with ‘ensurepip’, since they are part of the
     ‘setuptools’ package.  For projects relying on these at runtime,
     the ‘setuptools’ project should be declared as a dependency and
     installed separately (typically, using pip).

     （由 Pradyun Gedam 於 gh-95299(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299


File: python.info,  Node: enum,  Next: ftplib,  Prev: ensurepip,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.5 enum
.............

   * Remove *note enum: 51.'s ‘EnumMeta.__getattr__’, which is no longer
     needed for enum attribute access.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in
     gh-95083(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95083


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib,  Next: gzip,  Prev: enum,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.6 ftplib
...............

   * 移除 *note ftplib: 59. 的 ‘FTP_TLS.ssl_version’ 類別屬性：請改用
     'context' 參數。（由 Victor Stinner 於 gh-94172(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172


File: python.info,  Node: gzip,  Next: hashlib,  Prev: ftplib,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.7 gzip
.............

   * Remove the ‘filename’ attribute of *note gzip: 62.'s *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 28d, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the *note
     name: 28e. attribute instead.  In write mode, the ‘filename’
     attribute added ‘'.gz'’ file extension if it was not present.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94196(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib,  Next: importlib,  Prev: gzip,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.8 hashlib
................

   * Remove the pure Python implementation of *note hashlib: 63.'s *note
     hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 290, deprecated in Python 3.10.  Python 3.10
     and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 ( PEP 644(1)): this OpenSSL
     version provides a C implementation of *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 290.
     which is faster.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199


File: python.info,  Node: importlib,  Next: imp,  Prev: hashlib,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.9 importlib
..................

   * 現已完成清理 *note importlib: 71. 中許多過去已經棄用的東西：

        * 對 ‘module_repr()’ 的參照和支援已刪除。（由 Barry Warsaw 在
          gh-97850(1) 中貢獻。）

        * ‘importlib.util.set_package’, ‘importlib.util.set_loader’ and
          ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader’ have all been removed.
          (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Nikita Sobolev in gh-65961(2)
          and gh-97850(3).)

        * Support for ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’ APIs have been
          removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-98040(4).)

        * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’, ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, and
          ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ have been removed.  (Contributed by Barry
          Warsaw in gh-98040(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040


File: python.info,  Node: imp,  Next: io,  Prev: importlib,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.10 imp
.............

   * The ‘imp’ module has been removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
     gh-98040(1).)

     To migrate, consult the following correspondence table:

          imp                                   importlib
                                                
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                
          ‘imp.NullImporter’                    將 ‘None’ 插入 ‘sys.path_importer_cache’
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.cache_from_source()’             *note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 26d.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.find_module()’                   *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 232.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_magic()’                     *note importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER: 293.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_suffixes()’                  *note importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES: 294, *note importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 295, and
                                                *note importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 296.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_tag()’                       *note sys.implementation.cache_tag: 297.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.load_module()’                   *note importlib.import_module(): 298.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.new_module(name)’                ‘types.ModuleType(name)’
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.reload()’                        *note importlib.reload(): 299.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.source_from_cache()’             *note importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 29a.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.load_source()’                   '見下文'
                                                

     用以下取代 ‘imp.load_source()’：

          import importlib.util
          import importlib.machinery

          def load_source(modname, filename):
              loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader(modname, filename)
              spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(modname, filename, loader=loader)
              module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
              # The module is always executed and not cached in sys.modules.
              # Uncomment the following line to cache the module.
              # sys.modules[module.__name__] = module
              loader.exec_module(module)
              return module

   * 移除 ‘imp’ 函式和屬性、沒有替代方案：

        * 未以文件記錄的函式：

             * ‘imp.init_builtin()’

             * ‘imp.load_compiled()’

             * ‘imp.load_dynamic()’

             * ‘imp.load_package()’

        * ‘imp.lock_held()’, ‘imp.acquire_lock()’, ‘imp.release_lock()’:
          the locking scheme has changed in Python 3.3 to per-module
          locks.

        * ‘imp.find_module()’ 常數：‘SEARCH_ERROR’、‘PY_SOURCE’、
          ‘PY_COMPILED’、‘C_EXTENSION’、‘PY_RESOURCE’、‘PKG_DIRECTORY’、
          ‘C_BUILTIN’、‘PY_FROZEN’、‘PY_CODERESOURCE’、‘IMP_HOOK’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040


File: python.info,  Node: io,  Next: locale,  Prev: imp,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.11 io
............

   * Remove *note io: 79.'s ‘io.OpenWrapper’ and ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper’,
     deprecated in Python 3.10: just use *note open(): 29c. instead.
     The *note open(): 29c. (*note io.open(): 29d.) function is a
     built-in function.  Since Python 3.10, ‘_pyio.open()’ is also a
     static method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94169(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169


File: python.info,  Node: locale,  Next: smtpd,  Prev: io,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.12 locale
................

   * Remove *note locale: 81.'s ‘locale.format()’ function, deprecated
     in Python 3.7: use *note locale.format_string(): 29f. instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94226(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd,  Next: sqlite3<2>,  Prev: locale,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.13 smtpd
...............

   * The ‘smtpd’ module has been removed according to the schedule in
     PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.4.7 and 3.5.4.  Use
     the aiosmtpd(2) PyPI module or any other *note asyncio: 9.-based
     server instead.  (Contributed by Oleg Iarygin in gh-93243(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<2>,  Next: ssl,  Prev: smtpd,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.14 sqlite3
.................

   * The following undocumented *note sqlite3: c9. features, deprecated
     in Python 3.10, are now removed:

        * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

        * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’

     If a shared cache must be used, open the database in URI mode using
     the ‘cache=shared’ query parameter.

     The ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ text factory has been an alias for
     *note str: 157. since Python 3.3.  Code that previously set the
     text factory to ‘OptimizedUnicode’ can either use ‘str’ explicitly,
     or rely on the default value which is also ‘str’.

     （由 Erlend E. Aasland 於 gh-92548(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92548


File: python.info,  Node: ssl,  Next: unittest<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<2>,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.15 ssl
.............

   * Remove *note ssl: ca.'s ‘ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()’ function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6: use *note os.urandom(): 2a3. or *note
     ssl.RAND_bytes(): 2a4. instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94199(1).)

   * Remove the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  It was deprecated in
     Python 3.7.  OpenSSL performs hostname matching since Python 3.7,
     Python no longer uses the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).)

   * Remove the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function, deprecated in Python 3.7:
     instead, create a *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. object and call its
     *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket: 2a5. method.  Any package that
     still uses ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is broken and insecure.  The
     function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates the server
     hostname.  Code is subject to CWE 295(3) (Improper Certificate
     Validation).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (3) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<2>,  Next: webbrowser,  Prev: ssl,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.16 unittest
..................

   * 移除許多 *note unittest: 101. 中被棄用已久的功能：

        * 許多 *note TestCase: 159. 方法別名：

          已棄用的別名                     方法名稱                            已棄用於
                                                                               
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                               
          ‘failUnless’                     *note assertTrue(): 2a7.            3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIf’                         *note assertFalse(): 2a8.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessEqual’                *note assertEqual(): 2a9.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfEqual’                    *note assertNotEqual(): 2aa.        3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’          *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2ab.     3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfAlmostEqual’              *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2ac.  3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessRaises’               *note assertRaises(): 2ad.          3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assert_’                        *note assertTrue(): 2a7.            3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertEquals’                   *note assertEqual(): 2a9.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotEquals’                *note assertNotEqual(): 2aa.        3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertAlmostEquals’             *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2ab.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’          *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2ac.  3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’            *note assertRegex(): 2ae.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’             *note assertRaisesRegex(): 2af.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’         *note assertNotRegex(): 2b0.        3.5
                                                                               

          You can use ‘https://github.com/isidentical/teyit’ to
          automatically modernise your unit tests.

        * Undocumented and broken *note TestCase: 159. method
          ‘assertDictContainsSubset’ (deprecated in Python 3.2).

        * Undocumented *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule: 2b1.
          parameter 'use_load_tests' (deprecated and ignored since
          Python 3.5).

        * An alias of the *note TextTestResult: 2b2. class:
          ‘_TextTestResult’ (deprecated in Python 3.2).

     （由 Serhiy Storchaka 於 gh-89325(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89325


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser,  Next: xml etree ElementTree,  Prev: unittest<2>,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.17 webbrowser
....................

   * Remove support for obsolete browsers from *note webbrowser: 110.
     The removed browsers include: Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon,
     Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and below
     (gh-102871(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree,  Next: zipimport,  Prev: webbrowser,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.18 xml.etree.ElementTree
...............................

   * Remove the ‘ElementTree.Element.copy()’ method of the pure Python
     implementation, deprecated in Python 3.10, use the *note
     copy.copy(): 2b5. function instead.  The C implementation of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. has no ‘copy()’ method, only a
     ‘__copy__()’ method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94383(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport,  Next: 其他,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.19 zipimport
...................

   * Remove *note zipimport: 12c.'s ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’
     methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the ‘find_spec()’ method
     instead.  See PEP 451(1) for the rationale.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94379(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379


File: python.info,  Node: 其他,  Prev: zipimport,  Up: 已移除

1.1.11.20 其他
..............

   * Remove the ‘suspicious’ rule from the documentation ‘Makefile’ and
     ‘Doc/tools/rstlint.py’, both in favor of sphinx-lint(1).
     (Contributed by Julien Palard in gh-98179(2).)

   * Remove the 'keyfile' and 'certfile' parameters from the *note
     ftplib: 59, *note imaplib: 6f, *note poplib: a7. and *note smtplib:
     c4. modules, and the 'key_file', 'cert_file' and 'check_hostname'
     parameters from the *note http.client: 6a. module, all deprecated
     since Python 3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter ('ssl_context' in
     *note imaplib: 6f.) instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94172(3).)

   * 移除數個標準函式庫模組與測試中的 ‘Jython’ 相容性修補程式。（由
     Nikita Sobolev 於 gh-99482(4) 中貢獻。）

   * 移除 *note ctypes: 28. 模組中的
     ‘_use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_’ 旗標。（由 Nikita
     Sobolev 於 gh-99285(5) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/sphinx-contrib/sphinx-lint

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98179

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99285


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 12,  Next: 建置變更,  Prev: 已移除,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.12 Porting to Python 3.12
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Python API 的變更::


File: python.info,  Node: Python API 的變更,  Up: Porting to Python 3 12

1.1.12.1 Python API 的變更
..........................

   * More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references
     and group names in regular expressions.  Only sequence of ASCII
     digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.  The group name in
     bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII
     letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-91760(1).)

   * Remove ‘randrange()’ functionality deprecated since Python 3.10.
     Formerly, ‘randrange(10.0)’ losslessly converted to
     ‘randrange(10)’.  Now, it raises a *note TypeError: 2ba.  Also, the
     exception raised for non-integer values such as ‘randrange(10.5)’
     or ‘randrange('10')’ has been changed from *note ValueError: 183.
     to *note TypeError: 2ba.  This also prevents bugs where
     ‘randrange(1e25)’ would silently select from a larger range than
     ‘randrange(10**25)’.  (Originally suggested by Serhiy Storchaka
     gh-86388(2).)

   * *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 2bb. changed encoding and error
     handler for reading arguments from file (e.g.
     ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ option) from default text encoding (e.g.
     *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 2bc.) to *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 2bd.  Argument files should be encoded
     in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.

   * Remove the ‘asyncore’-based ‘smtpd’ module deprecated in Python
     3.4.7 and 3.5.4.  A recommended replacement is the *note asyncio:
     9.-based aiosmtpd(3) PyPI module.

   * *note shlex.split(): 2be.: Passing ‘None’ for 's' argument now
     raises an exception, rather than reading *note sys.stdin: 2bf.  The
     feature was deprecated in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94352(4).)

   * The *note os: 9c. module no longer accepts bytes-like paths, like
     *note bytearray: 2c0. and *note memoryview: 17f. types: only the
     exact *note bytes: 2c1. type is accepted for bytes strings.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).)

   * *note syslog.openlog(): 2c2. and *note syslog.closelog(): 2c3. now
     fail if used in subinterpreters.  *note syslog.syslog(): 2c4. may
     still be used in subinterpreters, but now only if *note
     syslog.openlog(): 2c2. has already been called in the main
     interpreter.  These new restrictions do not apply to the main
     interpreter, so only a very small set of users might be affected.
     This change helps with interpreter isolation.  Furthermore, *note
     syslog: d6. is a wrapper around process-global resources, which are
     best managed from the main interpreter.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     in gh-99127(6).)

   * The undocumented locking behavior of *note cached_property(): 2c5.
     is removed, because it locked across all instances of the class,
     leading to high lock contention.  This means that a cached property
     getter function could now run more than once for a single instance,
     if two threads race.  For most simple cached properties (e.g.
     those that are idempotent and simply calculate a value based on
     other attributes of the instance) this will be fine.  If
     synchronization is needed, implement locking within the cached
     property getter function or around multi-threaded access points.

   * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 1e9. now returns a mapping from
     thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc,
     tb)’ tuple.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(7).)

   * When extracting tar files using *note tarfile: d8. or *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 184, pass the 'filter' argument to limit
     features that may be surprising or dangerous.  See *note Extraction
     filters: 185. for details.

   * The output of the *note tokenize.tokenize(): 204. and *note
     tokenize.generate_tokens(): 205. functions is now changed due to
     the changes introduced in PEP 701(8).  This means that ‘STRING’
     tokens are not emitted any more for f-strings and the tokens
     described in PEP 701(9) are now produced instead: ‘FSTRING_START’,
     ‘FSTRING_MIDDLE’ and ‘FSTRING_END’ are now emitted for f-string
     "string" parts in addition to the appropriate tokens for the
     tokenization in the expression components.  For example for the
     f-string ‘f"start {1+1} end"’ the old version of the tokenizer
     emitted:

          1,0-1,18:           STRING         'f"start {1+1} end"'

     while the new version emits:

          1,0-1,2:            FSTRING_START  'f"'
          1,2-1,8:            FSTRING_MIDDLE 'start '
          1,8-1,9:            OP             '{'
          1,9-1,10:           NUMBER         '1'
          1,10-1,11:          OP             '+'
          1,11-1,12:          NUMBER         '1'
          1,12-1,13:          OP             '}'
          1,13-1,17:          FSTRING_MIDDLE ' end'
          1,17-1,18:          FSTRING_END    '"'

     Additionally, there may be some minor behavioral changes as a
     consequence of the changes required to support PEP 701(10).  Some
     of these changes include:

        * The ‘type’ attribute of the tokens emitted when tokenizing
          some invalid Python characters such as ‘!’ has changed from
          ‘ERRORTOKEN’ to ‘OP’.

        * Incomplete single-line strings now also raise *note
          tokenize.TokenError: 2c6. as incomplete multiline strings do.

        * Some incomplete or invalid Python code now raises *note
          tokenize.TokenError: 2c6. instead of returning arbitrary
          ‘ERRORTOKEN’ tokens when tokenizing it.

        * Mixing tabs and spaces as indentation in the same file is not
          supported anymore and will raise a *note TabError: 2c7.

   * The *note threading: e7. module now expects the ‘_thread’ module to
     have an ‘_is_main_interpreter’ attribute.  It is a function with no
     arguments that returns ‘True’ if the current interpreter is the
     main interpreter.

     Any library or application that provides a custom ‘_thread’ module
     should provide ‘_is_main_interpreter()’.  (See gh-112826(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86388

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826


File: python.info,  Node: 建置變更,  Next: C API 變更,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 12,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.13 建置變更
---------------

   * Python no longer uses ‘setup.py’ to build shared C extension
     modules.  Build parameters like headers and libraries are detected
     in ‘configure’ script.  Extensions are built by ‘Makefile’.  Most
     extensions use ‘pkg-config’ and fall back to manual detection.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-93939(1).)

   * ‘va_start()’ with two parameters, like ‘va_start(args, format),’ is
     now required to build Python.  ‘va_start()’ is no longer called
     with a single parameter.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-93207(2).)

   * CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default link time
     optimization policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-89536(3).)

   * Add ‘COMPILEALL_OPTS’ variable in ‘Makefile’ to override *note
     compileall: 1e. options (default: ‘-j0’) in ‘make install’.  Also
     merged the 3 ‘compileall’ commands into a single command to build
     .pyc files for all optimization levels (0, 1, 2) at once.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-99289(4).)

   * Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

        * loongarch64-linux-gnusf

        * loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

        * loongarch64-linux-gnu

     （由 Zhang Na 於 gh-90656(5) 中貢獻。）

   * ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now require Python 3.10 or newer.

   * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to regenerate
     ‘!configure’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-89886(6).)

   * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL
     3.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89536

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886


File: python.info,  Node: C API 變更,  Next: 3 12 4 中的顯著變更,  Prev: 建置變更,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.14 C API 變更
-----------------

* Menu:

* 新增特性: 新增特性<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<2>.
* 已移除: 已移除<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 新增特性<2>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Up: C API 變更

1.1.14.1 新增特性
.................

   * PEP 697(1): Introduce the *note Unstable C API tier: 2cb, intended
     for low-level tools like debuggers and JIT compilers.  This API may
     change in each minor release of CPython without deprecation
     warnings.  Its contents are marked by the ‘PyUnstable_’ prefix in
     names.

     程式碼物件建構函式：

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_New()’（自 ‘PyCode_New’ 重新命名）

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’（自
          ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’ 重新命名）

     程式碼物件的額外儲存 ( PEP 523(2))：

        - ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex()’（自
          ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’ 重新命名）

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra()’（自 ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’ 重新命名）

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra()’（自 ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’ 重新命名）

     原始名稱將可繼續使用，直到相應的 API 發生變更。

     （由 Petr Viktorin 於 gh-101101(3) 中貢獻。）

   * PEP 697(4): Add an API for extending types whose instance memory
     layout is opaque:

        - *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2cc. 可以為零或負數來指定繼承或擴
          充基底類別大小。

        - *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 2cd. and *note
          PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 2ce. added to allow access to
          subclass-specific instance data.

        - *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 2cf. and *note
          PyObject_GetItemData(): 2d0. added to allow safely extending
          certain variable-sized types, including *note PyType_Type:
          2d1.

        - *note Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET: 2d2. added to allow defining *note
          members: 2d3. in terms of a subclass-specific struct.

     （由 Petr Viktorin 於 gh-103509(5) 中貢獻。）

   * Add the new *note limited C API: 2d4. function *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2d5, which generalizes the existing *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6. using an additional metaclass
     argument.  (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-93012(6).)

   * API for creating objects that can be called using *note the
     vectorcall protocol: 2d7. was added to the *note Limited API: 2d8.:

        * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9.

        * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 2da.

        * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2db.

        * *note vectorcallfunc: 2dc.

     The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9. flag is now removed from
     a class when the class's *note __call__(): 2dd. method is
     reassigned.  This makes vectorcall safe to use with mutable types
     (i.e.  heap types without the immutable flag, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2de.).  Mutable types that do not
     override *note tp_call: 2df. now inherit the
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ flag.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin
     in gh-93274(7).)

     The *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2e0. and *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 2e1. flags have been added.  This
     allows extensions classes to support object *note __dict__: 2e2.
     and weakrefs with less bookkeeping, using less memory and with
     faster access.

   * API for performing calls using *note the vectorcall protocol: 2d7.
     was added to the *note Limited API: 2d8.:

        * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2e3.

        * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 2e4.

        * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 2e5.

     This means that both the incoming and outgoing ends of the vector
     call protocol are now available in the *note Limited API: 2d8.
     (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-98586(8).)

   * Add two new public functions, *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads():
     2e6. and *note PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 2e7, that allow to set
     tracing and profiling functions in all running threads in addition
     to the calling one.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(9).)

   * Add new function *note PyFunction_SetVectorcall(): 2e8. to the C
     API which sets the vectorcall field of a given *note
     PyFunctionObject: 2e9.  (Contributed by Andrew Frost in
     gh-92257(10).)

   * The C API now permits registering callbacks via *note
     PyDict_AddWatcher(): 2ea, *note PyDict_Watch(): 2eb. and related
     APIs to be called whenever a dictionary is modified.  This is
     intended for use by optimizing interpreters, JIT compilers, or
     debuggers.  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91052(11).)

   * Add *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 2ec. and *note PyType_Watch(): 2ed.
     API to register callbacks to receive notification on changes to a
     type.  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91051(12).)

   * Add *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 2ee. and *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 2ef. APIs to register callbacks to receive
     notification on creation and destruction of code objects.
     (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-91054(13).)

   * Add *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 2f0. and *note PyFrame_GetVarString():
     2f1. functions to get a frame variable by its name.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-91248(14).)

   * Add *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2f2. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 2f3. for saving and restoring the
     current exception.  These functions return and accept a single
     exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the
     now-deprecated *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2f4. and *note PyErr_Restore():
     2f5.  This is less error prone and a bit more efficient.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(15).)

   * Add ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’, which takes an exception instance,
     to replace the legacy-API ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’, which is now
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(16).)

   * Add *note PyException_GetArgs(): 2f6. and *note
     PyException_SetArgs(): 2f7. as convenience functions for retrieving
     and modifying the *note args: 2f8. passed to the exception's
     constructor.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(17).)

   * Add *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 2f9, which takes an exception
     instance, to replace the legacy-api ‘PyErr_Display()’.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102755(18)).

   * PEP 683(19): Introduce 'Immortal Objects', which allows objects to
     bypass reference counts, and related changes to the C-API:

        - 
          ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’：定義物件的參照計數

               as immortal.

        - ‘_Py_IsImmortal’ Checks if an object has the immortal
          reference count.

        - 
          ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ 這現在將初始化參照計數

               ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’（與 ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’ 一起使用時）。

        - 
          ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL’ An identifier for interned unicode objects

               that are immortal.

        - 
          ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL_STATIC’ An identifier for interned unicode

               objects that are immortal and static

        - 
          ‘sys.getunicodeinternedsize’ This returns the total number of unicode

               objects that have been interned.  This is now needed for
               ‘refleak.py’ to correctly track reference counts and
               allocated blocks

     （由 Eddie Elizondo 於 gh-84436(20) 中貢獻。）

   * PEP 684(21): Add the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 16c.
     function and *note PyInterpreterConfig: 2fa, which may be used to
     create sub-interpreters with their own GILs.  (See *note PEP 684; A
     Per-Interpreter GIL: 140. for more info.)  (Contributed by Eric
     Snow in gh-104110(22).)

   * In the limited C API version 3.12, *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. and
     *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. functions are now implemented as opaque
     function calls to hide implementation details.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-105387(23).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101101

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92257

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104110

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Next: 已棄用<2>,  Prev: 新增特性<2>,  Up: C API 變更

1.1.14.2 Porting to Python 3.12
...............................

   * Legacy Unicode APIs based on ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation has been
     removed.  Please migrate to APIs based on UTF-8 or ‘wchar_t*’.

   * Argument parsing functions like *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.
     doesn't support ‘Py_UNICODE*’ based format (e.g.  ‘u’, ‘Z’)
     anymore.  Please migrate to other formats for Unicode like ‘s’,
     ‘z’, ‘es’, and ‘U’.

   * ‘tp_weaklist’ for all static builtin types is always ‘NULL’.  This
     is an internal-only field on ‘PyTypeObject’ but we're pointing out
     the change in case someone happens to be accessing the field
     directly anyway.  To avoid breakage, consider using the existing
     public C-API instead, or, if necessary, the (internal-only)
     ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro.

   * This internal-only *note PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses: 2ff. may now
     not be a valid object pointer.  Its type was changed to void* to
     reflect this.  We mention this in case someone happens to be
     accessing the internal-only field directly.

     To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note
     __subclasses__(): 300. (using *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 301, for
     example).

   * Add support of more formatting options (left aligning, octals,
     uppercase hexadecimals, ‘intmax_t’, ‘ptrdiff_t’, ‘wchar_t’ C
     strings, variable width and precision) in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     303.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-98836(1).)

   * An unrecognized format character in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat():
     302. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 303. now sets a *note
     SystemError: 304.  In previous versions it caused all the rest of
     the format string to be copied as-is to the result string, and any
     extra arguments discarded.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-95781(2).)

   * Fix wrong sign placement in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302. and
     *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 303.  (Contributed by Philip Georgi
     in gh-95504(3).)

   * Extension classes wanting to add a *note __dict__: 2e2. or weak
     reference slot should use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2e0. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 2e1. instead of ‘tp_dictoffset’
     and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’, respectively.  The use of ‘tp_dictoffset’
     and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’ is still supported, but does not fully
     support multiple inheritance (gh-95589(4)), and performance may be
     worse.  Classes declaring *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2e0.
     should call ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict()’ to traverse and clear their
     instance's dictionaries.  To clear weakrefs, call *note
     PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 305, as before.

   * The *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 306. function no longer accepts
     bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 2c0. and *note memoryview:
     17f. types: only the exact *note bytes: 2c1. type is accepted for
     bytes strings.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).)

   * The *note Py_CLEAR: 307, *note Py_SETREF: 308. and *note
     Py_XSETREF: 309. macros now only evaluate their arguments once.  If
     an argument has side effects, these side effects are no longer
     duplicated.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98724(6).)

   * The interpreter's error indicator is now always normalized.  This
     means that *note PyErr_SetObject(): 30a, *note PyErr_SetString():
     30b. and the other functions that set the error indicator now
     normalize the exception before storing it.  (Contributed by Mark
     Shannon in gh-101578(7).)

   * ‘_Py_RefTotal’ is no longer authoritative and only kept around for
     ABI compatibility.  Note that it is an internal global and only
     available on debug builds.  If you happen to be using it then
     you'll need to start using ‘_Py_GetGlobalRefTotal()’.

   * The following functions now select an appropriate metaclass for the
     newly created type:

        * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c.

        * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 30d.

        * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6.

     Creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 30e. is
     deprecated, and in Python 3.14+ it will be disallowed.  Note that
     these functions ignore ‘tp_new’ of the metaclass, possibly allowing
     incomplete initialization.

     Note that *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2d5. (added in Python 3.12)
     already disallows creating classes whose metaclass overrides
     ‘tp_new’ (*note __new__(): 30f. in Python).

     Since ‘tp_new’ overrides almost everything ‘PyType_From*’ functions
     do, the two are incompatible with each other.  The existing
     behavior - ignoring the metaclass for several steps of type
     creation - is unsafe in general, since (meta)classes assume that
     ‘tp_new’ was called.  There is no simple general workaround.  One
     of the following may work for you:

        - If you control the metaclass, avoid using ‘tp_new’ in it:

             - If initialization can be skipped, it can be done in *note
               tp_init: 310. instead.

             - If the metaclass doesn't need to be instantiated from
               Python, set its ‘tp_new’ to ‘NULL’ using the *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 311. flag.  This makes
               it acceptable for ‘PyType_From*’ functions.

        - Avoid ‘PyType_From*’ functions: if you don't need C-specific
          features (slots or setting the instance size), create types by
          *note calling: 312. the metaclass.

        - If you 'know' the ‘tp_new’ can be skipped safely, filter the
          deprecation warning out using *note warnings.catch_warnings():
          313. from Python.

   * *note PyOS_InputHook: 314. and *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer:
     315. are no longer called in *note subinterpreters: 316.  This is
     because clients generally rely on process-wide global state (since
     these callbacks have no way of recovering extension module state).

     This also avoids situations where extensions may find themselves
     running in a subinterpreter that they don't support (or haven't yet
     been loaded in).  See gh-104668(8) for more info.

   * *note PyLongObject: 317. has had its internals changed for better
     performance.  Although the internals of *note PyLongObject: 317.
     are private, they are used by some extension modules.  The internal
     fields should no longer be accessed directly, instead the API
     functions beginning ‘PyLong_...’ should be used instead.  Two new
     'unstable' API functions are provided for efficient access to the
     value of *note PyLongObject: 317.s which fit into a single machine
     word:

        * *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 318.

        * *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 319.

   * Custom allocators, set via *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 31a, are now
     required to be thread-safe, regardless of memory domain.
     Allocators that don't have their own state, including "hooks", are
     not affected.  If your custom allocator is not already thread-safe
     and you need guidance then please create a new GitHub issue and CC
     ‘@ericsnowcurrently’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用<2>,  Next: 已移除<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Up: C API 變更

1.1.14.3 已棄用
...............

   * In accordance with PEP 699(1), the ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note
     PyDictObject: 31c. is deprecated for extension modules.  Accessing
     this field will generate a compiler warning at compile time.  This
     field will be removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Ramvikrams
     and Kumar Aditya in gh-101193(2).  PEP by Ken Jin.)

   * 棄用全域配置變數：

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 31d.: 請改用 *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          31e.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 31f.: 請改用 *note PyConfig.verbose:
          320.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 321.: 請改用 *note PyConfig.quiet: 322.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 323.: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 324.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 325.: 請改用 *note PyConfig.inspect:
          326.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 327.: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 328.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 329.: 請改用 *note PyConfig.site_import:
          32a.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 32b.: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 32c.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 32d.: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 32e.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 32f.: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 330.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 331.: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 332.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 333.: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 334.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 335.: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 336.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 337.: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 338. 和 *note PyConfig.hash_seed: 339.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 33a.: 請改用 *note PyConfig.isolated:
          33b.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 33c.: 請改用 *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 33d.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 33e.: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 33f.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 340.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 340.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: 請改用 *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 341.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: 請改用 *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 342.（參見
          *note Py_PreInitialize(): 343.）

     *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. API 應改為與 *note PyConfig:
     345. 一起使用。（由 Victor Stinner 於 gh-77782(3) 中貢獻。）

   * Creating *note immutable types: 2de. with mutable bases is
     deprecated and will be disabled in Python 3.14.  (gh-95388(4))

   * ‘structmember.h’ 標頭已棄用，但仍可使用，且還沒有移除它的計畫。

     Its contents are now available just by including ‘Python.h’, with a
     ‘Py’ prefix added if it was missing:

        - *note PyMemberDef: 2d3.、*note PyMember_GetOne(): 346. 和
          *note PyMember_SetOne(): 347.

        - Type macros like *note Py_T_INT: 348, *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 349,
          etc.  (previously ‘T_INT’, ‘T_DOUBLE’, etc.)

        - *note Py_READONLY: 34a.（先前為 ‘READONLY’）和 *note
          Py_AUDIT_READ: 34b.（先前全大寫）旗標

     數個項目不再從 ‘Python.h’ 中公開：

        - *note T_OBJECT: 34c.（請改用 *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 34d.）

        - *note T_NONE: 34e.（先前未記錄於文件上，且相當古怪）

        - 不做任何事的巨集 ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’。

        - ‘RESTRICTED’ 和 ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ 這兩個巨集，相當於 *note
          Py_AUDIT_READ: 34b.。

        - In some configurations, ‘<stddef.h>’ is not included from
          ‘Python.h’.  It should be included manually when using
          ‘offsetof()’.

     The deprecated header continues to provide its original contents
     under the original names.  Your old code can stay unchanged, unless
     the extra include and non-namespaced macros bother you greatly.

     (Contributed in gh-47146(5) by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work
     by Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.)

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2f4. and *note PyErr_Restore(): 2f5. are
     deprecated.  Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2f2. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 2f3. instead.  (Contributed by Mark
     Shannon in gh-101578(6).)

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’ 已棄用，請改用 *note PyErr_DisplayException():
     2f9.。（由 Irit Katriel 於 gh-102755(7) 中貢獻。）

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’ 已棄用，請改用 ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’。
     （由 Irit Katriel 於 gh-102192(8) 中貢獻。）

   * Using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c, *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 30d. or *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6. to create a class whose metaclass
     overrides *note tp_new: 30e. is deprecated.  Call the metaclass
     instead.

* Menu:

* Python 3.14 中待移除的項目: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<2>.
* Python 3.15 中待移除的項目: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<2>.
* 未來版本中的待移除項目: 未來版本中的待移除項目<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<2>,  Next: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<2>,  Up: 已棄用<2>

1.1.14.4 Python 3.14 中待移除的項目
...................................

   * *note PyDictObject: 31c. 中的 ‘ma_version_tag’ 欄位，用於擴充模組 (
     PEP 699(1)；gh-101193(2))。

   * 使用可變基底建立*note 不可變型別: 2de. (gh-95388(3))。

   * 設定 Python 初始化的函式，Python 3.11 中已被棄用：

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 350. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 350. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 351.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 352. instead.

     *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. API 應該與 *note PyConfig:
     345. 一起使用。

   * 全域設定變數：

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 31d.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          31e. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 31f.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 320.
          instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 321.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 322.
          instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 323.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 324. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 325.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 326.
          instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 327.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 328. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 329.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          32a. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 32b.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 32c. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 32d.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 32e. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 32f.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 330. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 331.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 332. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 333.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 334. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 335.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 336. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 337.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 338. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          339. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 33a.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 33b.
          instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 33c.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 33d. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 33e.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 33f. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 340. instead.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 340. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 341. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 342. instead.
          (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 343.)

     *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. API 應該與 *note PyConfig:
     345. 一起使用。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<2>,  Next: 未來版本中的待移除項目<2>,  Prev: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<2>,  Up: 已棄用<2>

1.1.14.5 Python 3.15 中待移除的項目
...................................

   * ‘libmpdecimal’ 的打包副本 (bundled copy)。

   * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 354.: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 355. instead.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 356. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT():
     357.: Use ‘PyWeakref_GetRef()’ instead.

   * *note Py_UNICODE: 358. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use
     ‘wchar_t’ instead.

   * Python 初始化函式：

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 359.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 35a. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 35b.: Get *note sys.exec_prefix:
          35c. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 35d.: Get *note sys.path: 35e. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 35f.: Get *note sys.prefix: 360.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 361.: Get *note sys.executable:
          362. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 363.: Get *note sys.executable:
          362. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 364.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 352.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 365. environment variable instead.


File: python.info,  Node: 未來版本中的待移除項目<2>,  Prev: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<2>,  Up: 已棄用<2>

1.1.14.6 未來版本中的待移除項目
...............................

下列 API 已被棄用並將會被移除，不過目前尚未訂定移除日期。

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 367.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2f4.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     2f2. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 368.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2f2. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 2f5.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     2f3. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 369.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 36a. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 36b.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     36c. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 36d.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     36e. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 36f. instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 370.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 370.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 371.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 371.
     instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 372.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 2f9.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ 成員：請改為呼叫 *note PyObject_Hash():
     373.。

   * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ 成員。

   * 執行緒局部儲存 (Thread Local Storage, TLS) API：

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 374.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 375. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 376.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 377. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 378.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 379. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 37a.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 37b. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 37c.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 37d. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 37e.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: 已移除<2>,  Prev: 已棄用<2>,  Up: C API 變更

1.1.14.7 已移除
...............

   * Remove the ‘token.h’ header file.  There was never any public
     tokenizer C API. The ‘token.h’ header file was only designed to be
     used by Python internals.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-92651(1).)

   * Legacy Unicode APIs have been removed.  See PEP 623(2) for detail.

        * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’

   * 移除 ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ 函式巨集。（由 Victor Stinner 於
     gh-85858(3) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858


File: python.info,  Node: 3 12 4 中的顯著變更,  Next: 3 12 5 中的顯著變更,  Prev: C API 變更,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.15 3.12.4 中的顯著變更
--------------------------

* Menu:

* ipaddress::


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress,  Up: 3 12 4 中的顯著變更

1.1.15.1 ipaddress
..................

   * 修正 ‘IPv4Address’、‘IPv6Address’、‘IPv4Network’ 和 ‘IPv6Network’ 中
     的 ‘is_global’ 和 ‘is_private’ 行為。


File: python.info,  Node: 3 12 5 中的顯著變更,  Next: 3 12 6 中的顯著變更,  Prev: 3 12 4 中的顯著變更,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.16 3.12.5 中的顯著變更
--------------------------

* Menu:

* email::


File: python.info,  Node: email,  Up: 3 12 5 中的顯著變更

1.1.16.1 email
..............

   * Headers with embedded newlines are now quoted on output.

     The *note generator: 3c. will now refuse to serialize (write)
     headers that are improperly folded or delimited, such that they
     would be parsed as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data.
     If you need to turn this safety feature off, set *note
     verify_generated_headers: 384.  (Contributed by Bas Bloemsaat and
     Petr Viktorin in gh-121650(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650


File: python.info,  Node: 3 12 6 中的顯著變更,  Prev: 3 12 5 中的顯著變更,  Up: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能

1.1.17 3.12.6 中的顯著變更
--------------------------

* Menu:

* email: email<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: email<2>,  Up: 3 12 6 中的顯著變更

1.1.17.1 email
..............

   * *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 387. and *note
     email.utils.parseaddr(): 388. now return ‘('', '')’ 2-tuples in
     more situations where invalid email addresses are encountered,
     instead of potentially inaccurate values.  An optional 'strict'
     parameter was added to these two functions: use ‘strict=False’ to
     get the old behavior, accepting malformed inputs.
     ‘getattr(email.utils, 'supports_strict_parsing', False)’ can be
     used to check if the 'strict' paramater is available.  (Contributed
     by Thomas Dwyer and Victor Stinner for gh-102988(1) to improve the
     CVE-2023-27043 fix.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.2 Python 3.11 有什麼新功能
============================


編輯者: Pablo Galindo Salgado

此文章解釋了 Python 3.11 和 3.10 相比多了哪些新特性。Python 3.11 於 2022
年 10 月 24 日發布。完整細節請見 *note Changelog（更動日誌）: 136.。

* Menu:

* 發布重點摘要: 發布重點摘要<2>.
* 新增特性: 新增特性<3>.
* 型別提示相關的新特性::
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<2>.
* 其他 CPython 實作更動::
* 新增模組: 新增模組<2>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<2>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<2>.
* 更快的 CPython::
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<2>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<3>.
* Python 3.12 中待決議的移除項目: Python 3 12 中待決議的移除項目.
* 已移除: 已移除<3>.
* 移植至 Python 3.11: 移植至 Python 3 11.
* 建置變更: 建置變更<2>.
* C API 變更: C API 變更<2>.
* Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4.
* Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5.


File: python.info,  Node: 發布重點摘要<2>,  Next: 新增特性<3>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.1 發布重點摘要
------------------

   * Python 3.11 比 Python 3.10 快了 10-60%。我們使用了標準基準量測套裝
     軟體 (benchmark suite) 測得平均加速了 1.25x。細節請見*note 更快的
     CPython: 38d.。

新增語法特性：

   * *note PEP 654：例外群組與 except*: 38e.

新增內建特性：

   * *note PEP 678：運用例外註解使其更加詳盡: 38f.

新增標準函式庫模組：

   * PEP 680(1)：*note tomllib: f7. — 在標準函式庫中支援 TOML(2) 檔案的
     剖析

直譯器的改進：

   * *note PEP 657：回溯 (traceback) 中更細緻的錯誤位置: 390.

   * 新增 *note -P: 391. 命令列選項和 *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 392. 環境變
     數以停用自動於 *note sys.path: 35e. 的開頭*note
     加上一個有潛在安全問題的路徑: 393.

新增型別特性：

   * *note PEP 646：可變參數泛型 (variadic generics): 394.

   * *note PEP 655：標記獨立 TypedDict 項目為必要或不必要: 395.

   * *note PEP 673：Self 型別: 396.

   * *note PEP 675：任意的文本字串型別 (Arbitrary literal string type):
     397.

   * *note PEP 681：資料類別轉換 (Data class transforms): 398.

重要的棄用、移除與限制：

   * PEP 594(3)：*note 許多標準函式庫中的遺留模組已被棄用: 399.且將於
     Python 3.13 移除

   * PEP 624(4)：*note Py_UNICODE 編碼器 API 已被移除: 39a.

   * PEP 670(5)：*note 轉換為靜態行內函式的巨集: 39b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (2) https://toml.io/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/


File: python.info,  Node: 新增特性<3>,  Next: 型別提示相關的新特性,  Prev: 發布重點摘要<2>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.2 新增特性
--------------

* Menu:

* PEP 657：回溯 (traceback) 中更細緻的錯誤位置: PEP 657：回溯 traceback 中更細緻的錯誤位置.
* PEP 654：例外群組與 except*::
* PEP 678：運用例外註解使其更加詳盡::
* Windows py.exe 啟動程式 (launcher) 的改進: Windows py exe 啟動程式 launcher 的改進.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 657：回溯 traceback 中更細緻的錯誤位置,  Next: PEP 654：例外群組與 except*,  Up: 新增特性<3>

1.2.2.1 PEP 657：回溯 (traceback) 中更細緻的錯誤位置
....................................................

當要印出回溯，直譯器現在會指出造成錯誤的確切運算式，而非只說明是哪一行。
例如：

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "distance.py", line 11, in <module>
         print(manhattan_distance(p1, p2))
               ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "distance.py", line 6, in manhattan_distance
         return abs(point_1.x - point_2.x) + abs(point_1.y - point_2.y)
                                ^^^^^^^^^
     AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'x'

前一版本的直譯器只會標明是哪一行，無法辨認哪一個物件是 ‘None’。當處理多
層的巢狀 *note dict: 239. 物件和多個函式呼叫時，這種強化錯誤提示也可能非
常有用：

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "query.py", line 37, in <module>
         magic_arithmetic('foo')
       File "query.py", line 18, in magic_arithmetic
         return add_counts(x) / 25
                ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "query.py", line 24, in add_counts
         return 25 + query_user(user1) + query_user(user2)
                     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "query.py", line 32, in query_user
         return 1 + query_count(db, response['a']['b']['c']['user'], retry=True)
                                    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^
     TypeError: 'NoneType' object is not subscriptable

在複雜的計算運算式中也是：

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "calculation.py", line 54, in <module>
         result = (x / y / z) * (a / b / c)
                   ~~~~~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

此外，強化回溯特性所使用的資訊可以透過一般的 API 來取得，以用來使 *note
bytecode: 39f. *note 指示 (instruction): 3a0.與原始碼位置相互關聯。此項
資訊可以用以下方式取得：

   - Python 中的 *note codeobject.co_positions(): 3a1. 方法。

   - C API 中的 *note PyCode_Addr2Location(): 3a2. 函式。

詳情請見 PEP 657(1)。（由 Pablo Galindo、Batuhan Taskaya 與 Ammar Askar
於 bpo-43950(2) 中所貢獻。）

     備註: 這個特性必須要將欄的位置 (column position) 儲存於 *note
     程式碼物件: 3a3.，這可能會導致直譯器用於編譯 Python 檔案的記憶體使
     用量與硬碟使用量增加。為了避免儲存多餘的資訊且停用印出多餘的回溯資
     訊，請用 *note -X no_debug_ranges: 188. 命令列選項或是 *note
     PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 3a4. 環境變數。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 654：例外群組與 except*,  Next: PEP 678：運用例外註解使其更加詳盡,  Prev: PEP 657：回溯 traceback 中更細緻的錯誤位置,  Up: 新增特性<3>

1.2.2.2 PEP 654：例外群組與 ‘except*’
.....................................

PEP 654(1) 引入了新的的語言特性，可讓程式同時引發並處理多個相互無關的例
外。內建型別 *note ExceptionGroup: 17b. 和 *note BaseExceptionGroup:
3a6. 使得程式可為多個例外組成群組並同時引發，新的 *note except*: 3a7. 語
法也將 *note except: 3a8. 泛用化、能夠比對例外群組的子群組。

詳情請見 PEP 654(2)。

（由 Irit Katriel 於 bpo-45292(3) 中所貢獻。PEP 由 Irit Katriel、Yury
Selivanov 與 Guido van Rossum 撰寫。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 678：運用例外註解使其更加詳盡,  Next: Windows py exe 啟動程式 launcher 的改進,  Prev: PEP 654：例外群組與 except*,  Up: 新增特性<3>

1.2.2.3 PEP 678：運用例外註解使其更加詳盡
.........................................

新增 *note add_note(): 3aa. 方法到 *note BaseException: 3ab.。當上下文資
訊在例外被引發時無法被取得，這個方法就可以用來為例外添加更多資訊。被添加
的註解會在預設回溯中出現。

詳情請見 PEP 678(1)。

（由 Irit Katriel 於 bpo-45607(2) 中所貢獻。PEP 由 Zac Hatfield-Dodds 所
撰寫）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607


File: python.info,  Node: Windows py exe 啟動程式 launcher 的改進,  Prev: PEP 678：運用例外註解使其更加詳盡,  Up: 新增特性<3>

1.2.2.4 Windows ‘py.exe’ 啟動程式 (launcher) 的改進
...................................................

Python 3.11 所包含的 *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae. 複製品有了
顯著的改善。它現在支援 PEP 514(1) 所定義的公司/標籤 (tag) 語法，可用
‘-V:<COMPANY>/<TAG>’ 引數來取代受限的 ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>’。這允許了
python.org(2) 上的 ‘PythonCore’ 以外的發行版本發布。

使用 ‘-V:’ 選擇器時，可以省略公司或標籤，但會搜索所有安裝。例如，
‘-V:OtherPython/’ 將選擇 ‘OtherPython’ 註冊的「最佳」標籤，而 ‘-V:3.11’
或 ‘-V:/3.11’ 將選擇帶有 ‘3.11’ 標籤的「最佳」發行版。

當使用遺留的 ‘-<MAJOR>’、‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>’、‘-<MAJOR>-<BITNESS>’ 或
‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>-<BITNESS>’ 引數時，所有過去版本的行為都應該保留下來，
且只有 ‘PythonCore’ 中的發布版本會被選用。然而，‘-64’ 後綴現在暗示了「非
32-bit」（不用一定要是 x86-64），因為現在有多個支援 64-bit 的平台。
32-bit 運行程式會在檢查運行程式之標籤是否帶有 ‘-32’ 後綴時被偵測出來。所
有 Python 3.5 以後發布版本的 32-bit 建置中都有這個行為。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (2) https://www.python.org


File: python.info,  Node: 型別提示相關的新特性,  Next: 其他語言更動<2>,  Prev: 新增特性<3>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.3 型別提示相關的新特性
--------------------------

這個部分涵蓋影響 PEP 484(1) 型別提示 (type hints) 與 *note typing: ff. 模
組的重大變更。

* Menu:

* PEP 646：可變參數泛型 (variadic generics): PEP 646：可變參數泛型 variadic generics.
* PEP 655：標記獨立 TypedDict 項目為必要或不必要::
* PEP 673：Self 型別::
* PEP 675：任意的文本字串型別 (Arbitrary literal string type): PEP 675：任意的文本字串型別 Arbitrary literal string type.
* PEP 681：資料類別轉換 (Data class transforms): PEP 681：資料類別轉換 Data class transforms.
* PEP 563 可能不是未來::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 646：可變參數泛型 variadic generics,  Next: PEP 655：標記獨立 TypedDict 項目為必要或不必要,  Up: 型別提示相關的新特性

1.2.3.1 PEP 646：可變參數泛型 (variadic generics)
.................................................

PEP 484(1) 先前引入了 *note TypeVar: 164.，開啟了帶有單一型別的泛型參數
化。 PEP 646(2) 新增 *note TypeVarTuple: 162.，開啟了帶有'任意'數量型別
的參數化 (parameterisation)。換句話說，*note TypeVarTuple: 162. 是'可變
的'型別變數，啟用了'可變的'泛型。

這使其有非常多用例，特別是它允許了像是 NumPy 和 Tensorflow 的數值運算函
式庫中類似陣列結構的型別可用 'shape' 陣列來被參數化。靜態型別檢查工具現
在也能夠為使用這些函式庫的程式捕捉到維度相關的錯誤。

詳情請見 PEP 646(3)。

（由 Matthew Rahtz 於 bpo-43224(4) 中所貢獻，由 Serhiy Storchaka 與
Jelle Zijlstra 協助。PEP 由 Mark Mendoza、Matthew Rahtz、Pradeep Kumar
Srinivasan 與 Vincent Siles 所撰寫）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 655：標記獨立 TypedDict 項目為必要或不必要,  Next: PEP 673：Self 型別,  Prev: PEP 646：可變參數泛型 variadic generics,  Up: 型別提示相關的新特性

1.2.3.2 PEP 655：標記獨立 ‘TypedDict’ 項目為必要或不必要
........................................................

*note Required: 3b4. 與 *note NotRequired: 3b5. 提供了標記一個獨立項目在
*note TypedDict: 153. 中是否必須存在的直覺方法。在這之前，這只有透過繼承
才有可能做得到。

所有欄位都預設為是必要的，除非 'total' 參數有被設為 ‘False’，那麼所有欄
位就會是非必要的。例如，這個範例指定了要有一個必要鍵與一個非必要鍵的
‘TypedDict’：

     class Movie(TypedDict):
        title: str
        year: NotRequired[int]

     m1: Movie = {"title": "Black Panther", "year": 2018}  # OK
     m2: Movie = {"title": "Star Wars"}  # OK (year is not required)
     m3: Movie = {"year": 2022}  # ERROR (missing required field title)

以下定義等同於：

     class Movie(TypedDict, total=False):
        title: Required[str]
        year: int

詳情請見 PEP 655(1)。

（由 David Foster 與 Jelle Zijlstra 於 bpo-47087(2) 中所貢獻。PEP 由
David Foster 所撰寫）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 673：Self 型別,  Next: PEP 675：任意的文本字串型別 Arbitrary literal string type,  Prev: PEP 655：標記獨立 TypedDict 項目為必要或不必要,  Up: 型別提示相關的新特性

1.2.3.3 PEP 673：‘Self’ 型別
............................

新的 *note Self: 3b7. 標註提供了一種簡單直觀的方法來標註那些會回傳其類別
實例的方法。這與 PEP 484(1) 中指定的基於 *note TypeVar: 164. 的方法相同
，但更簡潔且更易於遵循。

常見用例包括作為 *note classmethod: 24b. 的替代建構函式和會回傳 ‘self’ 的
*note __enter__(): 3b8. 方法：

     class MyLock:
         def __enter__(self) -> Self:
             self.lock()
             return self

         ...

     class MyInt:
         @classmethod
         def fromhex(cls, s: str) -> Self:
             return cls(int(s, 16))

         ...

*note Self: 3b7. 也可用於標註與其封閉類類別 (enclosing class) 相同的方法
參數或屬性。

詳情請見 PEP 673(2)。

（由 James Hilton-Balfe 於 bpo-46534(3) 中所貢獻。PEP 由 Pradeep Kumar
Srinivasan 與 James Hilton-Balfe 所撰寫）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/#annotating-instance-and-class-methods

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 675：任意的文本字串型別 Arbitrary literal string type,  Next: PEP 681：資料類別轉換 Data class transforms,  Prev: PEP 673：Self 型別,  Up: 型別提示相關的新特性

1.2.3.4 PEP 675：任意的文本字串型別 (Arbitrary literal string type)
...................................................................

新的 *note LiteralString: 3ba. 標註可用於標示一個函式參數可為任何文本字
串型別 (literal string type)。這允許函式接受任意的文本字串型別，以及從其
他文本字串建立的字串。型別檢查器就可以強制需審慎處理的函式（例如會執行
SQL 陳述式或 shell 命令的函式）僅會以靜態引數呼叫，從而提供針對注入攻擊
的保護。

例如一個 SQL 查詢函式 (query function) 可以被標註為：

     def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> ...
         ...

     def caller(
         arbitrary_string: str,
         query_string: LiteralString,
         table_name: LiteralString,
     ) -> None:
         run_query("SELECT * FROM students")       # ok
         run_query(query_string)                   # ok
         run_query("SELECT * FROM " + table_name)  # ok
         run_query(arbitrary_string)               # type checker error
         run_query(                                # type checker error
             f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
         )

詳情請見 PEP 675(1)。

（由 Jelle Zijlstra 於 bpo-47088(2) 中所貢獻。PEP 由 Pradeep Kumar
Srinivasan 與 Graham Bleaney 所撰寫）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 681：資料類別轉換 Data class transforms,  Next: PEP 563 可能不是未來,  Prev: PEP 675：任意的文本字串型別 Arbitrary literal string type,  Up: 型別提示相關的新特性

1.2.3.5 PEP 681：資料類別轉換 (Data class transforms)
.....................................................

*note dataclass_transform: 1fc. 可以用來裝飾一個類別、元類別
(metaclass)、或是一個本身就是裝飾器的函式。‘@dataclass_transform()’ 的存
在會讓一個靜態型別檢查器知道被裝飾物件會在運行程式做出轉換類別的「魔法」
，賦予其類似 *note dataclass: 3bc. 的行為。

舉例來說：

     # The create_model decorator is defined by a library.
     @typing.dataclass_transform()
     def create_model(cls: Type[T]) -> Type[T]:
         cls.__init__ = ...
         cls.__eq__ = ...
         cls.__ne__ = ...
         return cls

     # The create_model decorator can now be used to create new model classes:
     @create_model
     class CustomerModel:
         id: int
         name: str

     c = CustomerModel(id=327, name="Eric Idle")

詳情請見 PEP 681(1)。

（由 Jelle Zijlstra 於 gh-91860(2) 中所貢獻。PEP 由 Erik De Bonte 與
Eric Traut 所撰寫）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 563 可能不是未來,  Prev: PEP 681：資料類別轉換 Data class transforms,  Up: 型別提示相關的新特性

1.2.3.6 PEP 563 可能不是未來
............................

PEP 563(1) 標註的推遲求值 (Postponed Evaluation of Annotations)（‘from
__future__ import annotations’ *note future 陳述式: 3bf.）最初計劃在
Python 3.10 中發布，但已被無限期擱置。請參閱來自指導委員會 (Steering
Counsil) 的訊息(2)以獲得更多資訊。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<2>,  Next: 其他 CPython 實作更動,  Prev: 型別提示相關的新特性,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.4 其他語言更動
------------------

   * 星號拆解 (starred unpacking) 運算式現在可以在 *note for: 265. 陳述
     式中使用。（詳情請見 bpo-46725(1)。）

   * 非同步*note 綜合運算 (comprehension): 3c2. 現在允許在*note
     非同步函式中的內部綜合運算 (inside comprehension): 3c3.。在這種情況
     下，外部綜合運算 (outer comprehension) 隱晦地變成了非同步的了。（由
     Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-33346(2) 中貢獻。）

   * 現在在不支援 *note context manager: 3c4. 協議的物件上使用 *note
     with: 3c5. 陳述式和 *note contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context():
     3c6. 或在不支援 *note asynchronous context manager: 3c7. 協議的物件
     上使用 *note async with: 3c8. 陳述式和 *note
     contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context(): 3c9.，會引發 *note
     TypeError: 2ba. 而不是 *note AttributeError: 3ca.。（由 Serhiy
     Storchaka 在 bpo-12022(3) 和 bpo-44471(4) 中貢獻。）

   * Added *note object.__getstate__(): 3cb, which provides the default
     implementation of the ‘__getstate__()’ method.  *note copy: 23.ing
     and *note pickle: a1.ing instances of subclasses of builtin types
     *note bytearray: 2c0, *note set: 3cc, *note frozenset: 3cd, *note
     collections.OrderedDict: 3ce, *note collections.deque: 3cf, *note
     weakref.WeakSet: 3d0, and *note datetime.tzinfo: 3d1. now copies
     and pickles instance attributes implemented as *note slots: 3d2.
     This change has an unintended side effect: It trips up a small
     minority of existing Python projects not expecting *note
     object.__getstate__(): 3cb. to exist.  See the later comments on
     gh-70766(5) for discussions of what workarounds such code may need.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26579(6).)

   * 新增了一個 *note -P: 391. 命令列選項和一個 *note PYTHONSAFEPATH:
     392. 環境變數，它們禁用了當使用 *note -c: 3d3. 和 *note -m: 3d4. 以
     在運行腳本或當前目錄時自動添加到腳本目錄的 *note sys.path: 35e.。這
     確保只有 stdlib 和已安裝的模組會被 *note import: 3d5. 取用，以避免
     不小心或被惡意地將模組與本地（通常是使用者可寫入的）目錄中的模組重
     疊。（由 Victor Stinner 在 gh-57684(7) 中貢獻。）

   * ‘"z"’ 選項被新增到 *note 格式規格 (Format Specification) 迷你語言:
     3d6.，它會強迫負的 0 在進位到格式精度後成為正的。更多詳情請見 PEP
     682(8)。（由 John Belmonte 於 gh-90153(9) 中貢獻。）

   * *note sys.path: 35e. 不再接受位元組。支援已在 Python 3.2 和 3.6 之
     間的某個時間停止，直到 Python 3.10.0 發布後才引起人們的注意。此外，
     由於混合使用 *note str: 157. 和 *note bytes: 2c1. 鍵時 *note -b:
     3d7. 和 *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. 會出現的交互作用，恢復
     這項支援會出現問題。（由 Thomas Grainger 在 gh-91181(10) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46725

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33346

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12022

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44471

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70766

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90153

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91181


File: python.info,  Node: 其他 CPython 實作更動,  Next: 新增模組<2>,  Prev: 其他語言更動<2>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.5 其他 CPython 實作更動
---------------------------

   * 為支援 *note typing.SupportsComplex: 3db. 與 *note
     typing.SupportsBytes: 3dc. 協定，實作了 *note complex: 26b. 與
     *note bytes: 2c1. 的特殊方法 *note __complex__(): 3dd. 與 *note
     __bytes__(): 3de.。（由 Mark Dickinson 和 Donghee Na 於
     bpo-24234(1) 中所貢獻。）

   * 新增 ‘siphash13’ 以作為內部的雜湊演算法，它有與 ‘siphash24’ 相似的
     安全特性，但是在處理較長的輸入時會更快一些。現在是 *note str: 157.、
     *note bytes: 2c1. 和一些其他型別的 *note hash(): 3df. 預設演算法。
     PEP 552(2) *note 基於雜湊的 .pyc 檔案: 3e0. 現在也使用 ‘siphash13’。
     （由 Inada Naoki 於 bpo-29410(3) 中貢獻。）

   * 當一個仍有效的例外被 *note raise: 3e1. 陳述式在沒有參數的情況下重新
     引發，被附於該例外的追蹤資訊現在都會是
     ‘sys.exc_info()[1].__traceback__’。這代表對於當前 *note except:
     3a8. 子句的追蹤上做的改動會反映在被重複引發的例外上。（由 Irit
     Katriel 於 bpo-45711(4) 中貢獻。）

   * 有被處理的例外在直譯器狀態的表示（也就是 ‘exc_info’ 或
     ‘_PyErr_StackItem’）現在只會有 ‘exc_value’ 欄位；‘exc_type’ 和
     ‘exc_traceback’ 已被移除，現在只能透過 ‘exc_value’ 來取得它們。（由
     Irit Katriel 於 bpo-45711(5) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增*note 命令列選項: 3e2. ‘AppendPath’，已增加於 Windows 安裝程式
     。它的行為類似於 ‘PrependPath’，但在安裝和腳本目錄後面附加而非新增
     於它們前面。（由 Bastian Neuburger 在 bpo-44934(6) 中貢獻。）

   * 初始化中若是要用 *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3e3. 來初始化
     *note sys.path: 35e.，則現在 *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3e4. 必須被設為 1。否則，初始化會
     重新計算路徑並取代所有被加到 ‘module_search_paths’ 的值。

   * *note -help: 3e5. 選項的輸出現在會在 50 列、80 欄的大小之內，*note
     Python 環境變數: 3e6.和 *note -X: 188. 選項的資訊現在能夠分別透過
     *note -help-env: 3e7. 和 *note -help-xoptions: 3e8. 旗標與 *note
     -help-all: 3e9. 一起使用來取得。（由 Éric Araujo 於 bpo-46142(7) 中
     貢獻。）

   * 在除 2（binary、二進制）、4、8（octal、八進制）、16（hexadecimal、
     十六進制）或 32 以外的基數中，例如以 10（decimal、十進制）為基數，
     進行 *note int: 17e. 和 *note str: 157. 之間的轉換且字串形式的位數
     超過限制，現在會引發 *note ValueError: 183.，以避免由於演算法複雜性
     而導致的潛在阻斷服務攻擊 (denial of service attacks)。這是針對 CVE
     2020-10735(8) 的緩解措施，可以透過環境變數、命令列旗標或 *note sys:
     d3. API 來設定或禁用此限制。請參閱*note 整數字串轉換長度限制: 3ea.
     文件。預設限制為字串形式的 4300 位數字。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: 新增模組<2>,  Next: 改進的模組<2>,  Prev: 其他 CPython 實作更動,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.6 新增模組
--------------

   * *note tomllib: f7.：用於剖析 TOML(1)。詳情請見 PEP 680(2)。（由
     Taneli Hukkinen 於 bpo-40059(3) 中所貢獻。）

   * *note wsgiref.types: 117.： WSGI(4) 限定型別，用於靜態型別檢查。（
     Sebastian Rittau 於 bpo-42012(5) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://toml.io/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012


File: python.info,  Node: 改進的模組<2>,  Next: 最佳化<2>,  Prev: 新增模組<2>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.7 改進的模組
----------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<2>.
* contextlib::
* dataclasses::
* datetime::
* enum: enum<2>.
* fcntl::
* fractions: fractions<2>.
* functools::
* gzip: gzip<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<2>.
* IDLE 與 idlelib::
* inspect: inspect<2>.
* locale: locale<2>.
* logging::
* math: math<2>.
* operator::
* os: os<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<2>.
* re::
* shutil: shutil<2>.
* socket::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<3>.
* string::
* sys: sys<2>.
* sysconfig::
* tempfile: tempfile<2>.
* threading: threading<2>.
* time::
* tkinter: tkinter<2>.
* traceback::
* typing: typing<2>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<2>.
* unittest: unittest<3>.
* venv::
* warnings::
* zipfile::


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<2>,  Next: contextlib,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.1 asyncio
...............

   * 添加了 *note TaskGroup: 3f1. 類別，為一個會持有任務群組並在退出時等
     待全部完成的*note 非同步情境管理器 (asynchronous context manager):
     3f2.。對於新程式碼，建議直接使用 *note create_task(): 3f3. 和 *note
     gather(): 3f4.。（由 Yury Selivanov 和其他人在 gh-90908(1) 中貢獻。
     ）

   * 新增 *note timeout(): 3f5.，是一個用來為一個非同步操作設置超時的非
     同步情境管理器，新的程式建議直接使用它以取代 *note wait_for():
     3f6.。（由 Andrew Svetlov 於 gh-90927(2) 貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note Runner: 3f7. 類別，它會對外公布了 *note run(): 197. 的使
     用機制。（由 Andrew Svetlov 於 gh-91218(3) 貢獻。）

   * 於 asyncio 函式庫的同步化原始物件中新增 *note Barrier: 3f8. 類別與
     和其相關的 *note BrokenBarrierError: 3f9. 例外。（由 Yves Duprat 和
     Andrew Svetlov in gh-87518(4) 貢獻。）

   * 在 *note asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 3fa. 新增關鍵字引數
     'all_errors'，這樣多個連接錯誤就可以一起用一個 *note
     ExceptionGroup: 17b. 來引發。

   * 新增 *note asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 3fb. 方法，用來將已存
     在的串流連線升級至 TLS。（由 Ian Good 於 bpo-34975(5) 中貢獻。）

   * 在事件迴圈增加原始資料元 (raw datagram) socket 函式：*note
     sock_sendto(): 3fc.、*note sock_recvfrom(): 3fd. 和 *note
     sock_recvfrom_into(): 3fe.。以上在 *note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. 和
     *note ProactorEventLoop: 400. 中都有實作。（由 Alex Grönholm 在
     bpo-46805(6) 中貢獻。）

   * 於 *note Task: 203. 新增 *note cancelling(): 401. 和 *note
     uncancel(): 402. 方法。這些預期是只用於內部，尤其是 *note
     TaskGroup: 3f1.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90908

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90927

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87518

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib,  Next: dataclasses,  Prev: asyncio<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.2 contextlib
..................

   * 添加了非平行安全的 *note chdir(): 405. 情境管理器來更改當前工作目錄
     ，然後在退出時恢復它。*note chdir(): 406. 的簡單包裝器。（由 Filipe
     Laíns 在 bpo-25625(1) 中貢獻）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses,  Next: datetime,  Prev: contextlib,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.3 dataclasses
...................

   * 更改欄位預設的可變性檢查 (mutability check)，僅允許預設值是 *note
     hashable: 409. 而不是任何非 *note dict: 239.、*note list: 40a. 或
     *note set: 3cc. 實例的物件。（由 Eric V. Smith 在 bpo-44674(1) 中貢
     獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674


File: python.info,  Node: datetime,  Next: enum<2>,  Prev: dataclasses,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.4 datetime
................

   * 新增 *note datetime.UTC: 229.，一個 *note datetime.timezone.utc:
     40d. 的方便別名。（由 Kabir Kwatra 於 gh-91973(1) 所貢獻。）

   * *note datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 40e.、*note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 40f. 和 *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 410. 現在可以用來剖析大部分的
     ISO 8601 格式（除了那些支援分數形式的小時與分鐘）。（由 Paul
     Ganssle 於 gh-80010(2) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91973

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010


File: python.info,  Node: enum<2>,  Next: fcntl,  Prev: datetime,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.5 enum
............

   * ‘EnumMeta’ 更名為 *note EnumType: 413.（‘EnumMeta’ 保留為別名）。

   * 增加 *note StrEnum: 414.，列舉 (enum) 內的成員必須是字串。

   * 新增 *note ReprEnum: 415.，它只修改成員的 *note __repr__(): 416.，
     同時回傳成員的文本值 (literal value)（而不是名稱），以用於（為
     *note str(): 157.、*note format(): 417. 和 *note f-string: 138. 所
     使用的）*note __str__(): 418. 和 *note __format__(): 419.。

   * 改變了 *note Enum.__format__(): 41a. （被 *note format(): 417.、
     *note str.format(): 41b. 和 *note f-string: 138. 預設使用），以使其
     與 *note enum.Enum.__str__: 41c. 產生相同結果：對於繼承自 *note
     ReprEnum: 415. 的列舉，這會是成員之值；而其他的列舉會是列舉與成員名
     稱（例如 ‘Color.RED’）。

   * 新增 'boundary' 類別參數與其選項到 *note Flag: 41d. 列舉和 *note
     FlagBoundary: 41e. 列舉以控制處理超出範圍旗標數值的方法。

   * 新增了 *note verify(): 41f. 列舉裝飾器和 *note EnumCheck: 420. 列舉
     及其選項，以根據幾個特定限制檢查列舉類別。

   * 新增 *note member(): 421. 與 *note nonmember(): 422. 裝飾器以確保被
     裝飾的物件會/不會被轉換成一個列舉成員。

   * 新增 *note property(): 423. 裝飾器，它的作用類似 *note property():
     424. 但是是用於列舉，用以替代 *note types.DynamicClassAttribute():
     425.。

   * 新增 *note global_enum(): 426. 列舉裝飾器，用來調整 *note
     __repr__(): 416. 和 *note __str__(): 418. 以模組成員形式而非列舉類
     別來顯示值。例如，*note re.RegexFlag: 427. 的 *note ASCII: 428. 成
     員的 ‘'re.ASCII'’，而非 ‘'RegexFlag.ASCII'’。

   * 強化 *note Flag: 41d. 以支援使用 *note len(): 429.、疊代
     (iteration) 和 *note in: 267./*note not in: 42a. 於其成員。例如，以
     下程式現在能夠作用了：‘len(AFlag(3)) == 2 and list(AFlag(3)) ==
     (AFlag.ONE, AFlag.TWO)’

   * 更改了 *note Enum: 42b. 和 *note Flag: 41d. 以在呼叫 *note
     __init_subclass__(): 42c. 之前就定義成員；*note dir(): 42d. 現在包
     括來自混合資料型別的方法。

   * 更改 *note Flag: 41d. 以僅考慮主要值（2 的次方）規範，而複合值（
     ‘3’、‘6’、‘10’ 等）被視為別名；倒置旗標 (inverted flags) 會被強制轉
     換為正等價的值。


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl,  Next: fractions<2>,  Prev: enum<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.6 fcntl
.............

   * FreeBSD 上，‘F_DUP2FD’ 和 ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ 旗標分別有被支援，前者
     等同於 ‘dup2’ 用法，而後者設定了 ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ 旗標。


File: python.info,  Node: fractions<2>,  Next: functools,  Prev: fcntl,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.7 fractions
.................

   * 支援有 PEP 515(1) 風格的 *note Fraction: 1a8. 以字串初始化。（
     Sergey B Kirpichev 於 bpo-44258(2) 中所貢獻。）

   * *note Fraction: 1a8. 現在有實作了一個 ‘__int__’ 方法，因此
     ‘isinstance(some_fraction, typing.SupportsInt)’ 的檢查會通過。（由
     Mark Dickinson 在 bpo-44547(3) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44258

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547


File: python.info,  Node: functools,  Next: gzip<2>,  Prev: fractions<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.8 functools
.................

   * *note functools.singledispatch(): 434. 現在支援 *note
     types.UnionType: 435. 和 *note typing.Union: 436. 作為調度
     (dispatch) 引數的標註。

          >>> from functools import singledispatch
          >>> @singledispatch
          ... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> from typing import Union
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)
          ...

     （由 Yurii Karabas 於 bpo-46014(1) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<2>,  Next: hashlib<2>,  Prev: functools,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.9 gzip
............

   * The *note gzip.compress(): 439. function is now faster when used
     with the 'mtime=0' argument as it delegates the compression
     entirely to a single *note zlib.compress(): 43a. operation.  There
     is one side effect of this change: The gzip file header contains an
     "OS" byte in its header.  That was traditionally always set to a
     value of 255 representing "unknown" by the *note gzip: 62. module.
     Now, when using *note compress(): 439. with 'mtime=0', it may be
     set to a different value by the underlying zlib C library Python
     was linked against.  (See gh-112346(1) for details on the side
     effect.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112346


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<2>,  Next: IDLE 與 idlelib,  Prev: gzip<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.10 hashlib
................

   * *note hashlib.blake2b(): 43d. 與 *note hashlib.blake2s(): 43e. 現在
     偏好使用 libb2(1) 多於 Python 自發行版的複製。（由 Christian Heimes
     於 bpo-47095(2) 中所貢獻。）

   * 帶有 SHA3 和 SHAKE 演算法的內部 ‘_sha3’ 模組現在使用 'tiny_sha3' 而
     不是 'Keccak 程式碼套件'來減少程式碼和二進位檔案大小。*note
     hashlib: 63. 模組更喜歡來自 OpenSSL 的 SHA3 和 SHAKE 最佳化實作。此
     更改僅影響沒有 OpenSSL 支援的安裝。（由 Christian Heimes 在
     bpo-47098(3) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note hashlib.file_digest(): 43f.，是個能夠為檔案或類檔案物件
     做高效率雜湊的幫助函式。（由 Christian Heimes 於 gh-89313(4) 中貢獻
     。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89313


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE 與 idlelib,  Next: inspect<2>,  Prev: hashlib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.11 IDLE 與 idlelib
........................

   * 在 ‘.pyi’ 檔案施用語法突顯 (syntax highlight)。（由 Alex Waygood 與
     Terry Jan Reedy 於 bpo-45447(1) 中所貢獻。）

   * 當帶有輸入與輸出地儲存 Shell 時，也會包含提示字元。（由 Terry Jan
     Reedy 於 gh-95191(2) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<2>,  Next: locale<2>,  Prev: IDLE 與 idlelib,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.12 inspect
................

   * 添加 *note getmembers_static(): 444. 以回傳所有成員，而不會通過描述
     器協議 (descriptor protocol) 觸發動態查找。（由 Weipeng Hong 在
     bpo-30533(1) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note inspect.ismethodwrapper(): 445.，用來檢查一個物件的型別
     是否為 *note MethodWrapperType: 446.。（由 Hakan Çelik 於
     bpo-29418(2) 中所貢獻。）

   * 更改 *note inspect: 78. 模組中與幀相關的函式以回傳新的 *note
     FrameInfo: 447. 和 *note Traceback: 448. 類別實例（向後相容之前類似
     於 *note named tuple: 449. 的介面），包括擴充的 PEP 657(3) 位置資訊
     （結束行號、欄和結束欄）。受影響的功能是：

        * *note inspect.getframeinfo(): 44a.

        * *note inspect.getouterframes(): 44b.

        * *note inspect.getinnerframes(): 44c,

        * *note inspect.stack(): 44d.

        * *note inspect.trace(): 44e.

     （由 Pablo Galindo 於 gh-88116(4) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116


File: python.info,  Node: locale<2>,  Next: logging,  Prev: inspect<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.13 locale
...............

   * 新增 *note locale.getencoding(): 258. 以取得當前的區域編碼 (locale
     encoding)。和 ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ 類似但不考慮
     *note Python UTF-8 模式: 451.。


File: python.info,  Node: logging,  Next: math<2>,  Prev: locale<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.14 logging
................

   * 新增 *note getLevelNamesMapping(): 454. 以回傳一個日誌級別名稱（例
     如 ‘'CRITICAL'’）指到對應的 *note Logging Levels: 455. 數值（例如，
     預設為 ‘50’）的映射。（由 Andrei Kulakovin 於 gh-88024(1) 中貢獻。
     ）

   * 添加了一個 *note createSocket(): 456. 方法到 *note SysLogHandler:
     457.，以匹配 *note SocketHandler.createSocket(): 458. 。如果沒有已
     啟用的 socket，它會在處理程式初始化期間和發出一個事件時自動呼叫。（
     由 Kirill Pinchuk 在 gh-88457(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88024

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88457


File: python.info,  Node: math<2>,  Next: operator,  Prev: logging,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.15 math
.............

   * 新增 *note math.exp2(): 45b.：回傳 2 的 x 次方。（由 Gideon
     Mitchell 於 bpo-45917(1) 中所貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note math.cbrt(): 45c.：回傳 x 的立方根。（由 Ajith
     Ramachandran 於 bpo-44357(2) 中所貢獻。）

   * 為了與 IEEE 754 規範保持一致，更改了兩個 *note math.pow(): 45d. 邊
     角案例 (corner case) 的行為。‘math.pow(0.0, -math.inf)’ 和
     ‘math.pow(-0.0, -math.inf)’ 現在回傳 ‘inf’，之前它們會引發 *note
     ValueError: 183.。（由 Mark Dickinson 在 bpo-44339(3) 中貢獻。）

   * *note math.nan: 45e. 現為隨時可用。（由 Victor Stinner 於
     bpo-46917(4) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44357

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44339

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917


File: python.info,  Node: operator,  Next: os<2>,  Prev: math<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.16 operator
.................

   * 新增 ‘operator.call’ 函式，使得 ‘operator.call(obj, *args,
     **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs)’。（由 Antony Lee 於 bpo-44019(1)
     中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019


File: python.info,  Node: os<2>,  Next: pathlib<2>,  Prev: operator,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.17 os
...........

   * 在 Windows 上，*note os.urandom(): 2a3. 現在使用
     ‘BCryptGenRandom()’ 以取代被棄用的 ‘CryptGenRandom()’。（由 Donghee
     Na 於 bpo-44611(1) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<2>,  Next: re,  Prev: os<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.18 pathlib
................

   * 如果 'pattern' 以路徑名稱元件分隔符號 *note sep: 465. 或 *note
     altsep: 466. 結尾，*note glob(): 1cf. 和 *note rglob(): 1d0. 只回傳
     目錄。（由 Eisuke Kawasima 於 bpo-22276(1) 與 bpo-33392(2) 中所貢獻
     。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33392


File: python.info,  Node: re,  Next: shutil<2>,  Prev: pathlib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.19 re
...........

   * 現在規則運算式 (regular expression) 是有支援原子性群組 (atomic
     grouping) (‘(?>...)’) 和佔有性量詞 (possessive quantifier) (‘*+’,
     ‘++’, ‘?+’, ‘{m,n}+’) 的。（由 Jeffrey C. Jacobs 和 Serhiy
     Storchaka 在 bpo-433030(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<2>,  Next: socket,  Prev: re,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.20 shutil
...............

   * 新增 *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. 的可選參數 'dir_fd'。（由 Serhiy
     Storchaka 於 bpo-46245(1) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245


File: python.info,  Node: socket,  Next: sqlite3<3>,  Prev: shutil<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.21 socket
...............

   * 新增 NetBSD 對於 CAN Socket 的支援。（由 Thomas Klausner 於
     bpo-30512(1) 中所貢獻。）

   * 當連接失敗時，*note create_connection(): 46d. 有個選項可以引發一個
     包含所有錯誤的 *note ExceptionGroup: 17b.，而非只引發最後一個錯誤。
     （由 Irit Katriel 於 bpo-29980(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29980


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<3>,  Next: string,  Prev: socket,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.22 sqlite3
................

   * 現在可以透過將 *note None: 470. 傳遞給 *note set_authorizer(): 471.
     來停用 authorizer。（由 Erlend E. Aasland 於 bpo-44491(1) 中貢獻。
     ）

   * 定序 (collation) 名稱 *note create_collation(): 472. 現在可以包含任
     何 Unicode 字元。帶有無效字元的定序名稱現在會引發 *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 473. 而不是 *note sqlite3.ProgrammingError:
     23a.。（由 Erlend E. Aasland 在 bpo-44688(2) 中貢獻。）

   * *note sqlite3: c9. 例外現在包含 SQLite 擴充錯誤碼和 SQLite 錯誤名稱
     （分別為 *note sqlite_errorcode: 474. 和 *note sqlite_errorname:
     475.）。（由 Aviv Palivoda、Daniel Shahaf 和 Erlend E. Aasland 在
     bpo-16379(3) 和 bpo-24139(4) 中貢獻。）

   * 將 *note setlimit(): 476. 和 *note getlimit(): 477. 新增到 *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. 以根據連線來設定和取得 SQLite 限制。（由
     Erlend E. Aasland 在 bpo-45243(5) 中貢獻。）

   * *note sqlite3: c9. 現在會基於底層 SQLite 函式庫編譯時所使用的預設執
     行緒模式來設定 *note sqlite3.threadsafety: 478.。（由 Erlend E.
     Aasland 在 bpo-45613(6) 中貢獻。）

   * *note sqlite3: c9. 如果啟用回呼回溯 (callback traceback)，C 回呼現
     在使用無法被引發的例外。使用者現在可以註冊一個*note
     無法被引發的掛鈎處理程式 (unraisable hook handler): 479. 來改善他們
     的除錯體驗。（由 Erlend E. Aasland 在 bpo-45828(7) 中貢獻。）

   * 跨越不同回滾 (rollback) 的拿取動作不再引發 *note InterfaceError:
     47a.，我們將其留給 SQLite 函式庫來處理這些情況。（由 Erlend E.
     Aasland 在 bpo-44092(8) 中貢獻。）

   * 將 *note serialize(): 47b. 和 *note deserialize(): 47c. 新增到
     *note sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. 以用於序列化和反序列化資料庫。（由
     Erlend E. Aasland 在 bpo-41930(9) 中貢獻。）

   * 於 *note sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. 加入 *note
     create_window_function(): 47d. 已建立聚合視窗函式 (aggregate window
     function)。（由 Erlend E. Aasland 於 bpo-34916(10) 中貢獻。）

   * 在 *note sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. 新增 *note blobopen(): 47e.。
     *note sqlite3.Blob: 47f. 允許對 blob 進行增量 I/O 操作 (incremental
     I/O operations)。（由 Aviv Palivoda 和 Erlend E. Aasland 在
     bpo-24905(11) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44491

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34916

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905


File: python.info,  Node: string,  Next: sys<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.23 string
...............

   * 新增 *note get_identifiers(): 482. 和 *note is_valid(): 483. 於
     *note string.Template: 484.，分別能夠回傳所有合格的預留位置
     (placeholder) 與是否有任何不合格的預留位置存在。（由 Ben Kehoe 於
     gh-90465(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90465


File: python.info,  Node: sys<2>,  Next: sysconfig,  Prev: string,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.24 sys
............

   * *note sys.exc_info(): 487. 現在從 ‘value’（例外實例）衍生出 ‘type’
     和 ‘traceback’ 欄位，因此當例外在處理過程中被修改時，變更會反映在
     ‘exc_info()’ 後續呼叫的結果中。（由 Irit Katriel 在 bpo-45711(1) 中
     貢獻。）

   * 新增會回傳活躍例外實例 (active exception instance) 的 *note
     sys.exception(): 488.（等價於 ‘sys.exc_info()[1]’）。（由 Irit
     Katriel 於 bpo-46328(2) 中所貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note sys.flags.safe_path: 489. 旗標。（由 Victor Stinner 於
     gh-57684(3) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig,  Next: tempfile<2>,  Prev: sys<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.25 sysconfig
..................

   * 新增了三個*note 安裝方案: 48c.（'posix_venv'、'nt_venv' 和 'venv'）
     ，它們在 Python 建立新的虛擬環境或在虛擬環境中執行環境使用。前兩個
     方案（'posix_venv' 和 'nt_venv'）是非 Windows 和 Windows 作業系統所
     特有的，'venv' 本質上會根據 Python 運行的操作系統來做為其中之一的別
     名。這對修改 *note sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 48d. 的下游發
     布者很有用。建立新虛擬環境的第三方程式碼應該使用新的 'venv' 安裝方
     案來確定路徑，就像 *note venv: 10c. 一樣。（由 Miro Hrončok 在
     bpo-45413(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<2>,  Next: threading<2>,  Prev: sysconfig,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.26 tempfile
.................

   * *note SpooledTemporaryFile: 490. 物件現在完整實作了 *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 491. 或 *note io.TextIOBase: 492. 的方法（取決於
     檔案模式），這使它們能夠正確地使用需要類檔案物件的 API，例如壓縮模
     組。（由 Carey Metcalfe 在 gh-70363(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70363


File: python.info,  Node: threading<2>,  Next: time,  Prev: tempfile<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.27 threading
..................

   * 在 Unix 上，如果 ‘sem_clockwait()’ 函式在 C 函式庫（glibc 2.30 與其
     更新的版本）中可被使用，則 *note threading.Lock.acquire(): 495. 方
     法現在會使用單調時鐘 (‘time. CLOCK_MONOTONIC’) 用於超時 (timeout)，
     而不是使用系統時鐘 (*note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 496.)，以免受系統時
     鐘變化的影響。 由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-41710(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710


File: python.info,  Node: time,  Next: tkinter<2>,  Prev: threading<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.28 time
.............

   * 在 Unix 上，如果可用的話，*note time.sleep(): 499. 現在會使用
     ‘clock_nanosleep()’ 或 ‘nanosleep()’ 函式，其解析度為 1 納秒（10^-9
     秒），而不是使用解析度為 1 微秒（10^-6 秒）的 ‘select()’。（由
     Benjamin Szőke 和 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-21302(1) 中貢獻。）

   * 在 Windows 8.1 或更新的平台上，*note time.sleep(): 499. 現在使用了
     一個基於高解析度計時器(2)的可等待 (waitable) 計時器，解析度為 100 奈
     秒（即 10^-7 秒）。在這之前，它只有 1 微秒（10^-3 秒） 的解析度。（
     由 Benjamin Szőke、Donghee Na、Eryk Sun 和 Victor Stinner 於
     bpo-21302(3) 與 bpo-45429(4) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (2) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<2>,  Next: traceback,  Prev: time,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.29 tkinter
................

   * 新增了 ‘info_patchlevel()’ 方法，它會回傳 Tcl 函式庫的確切版本以作
     為類似於 *note sys.version_info: 49c. 的附名元組。（由 Serhiy
     Storchaka 在 gh-91827(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827


File: python.info,  Node: traceback,  Next: typing<2>,  Prev: tkinter<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.30 traceback
..................

   * 新增 *note traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(): 49f. 以允
     許使用者覆蓋回溯中出現的幀及它們的格式。（由 Ammar Askar 在
     bpo-44569(1) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note traceback.TracebackException.print(): 4a0.，它會印出格式
     化的 *note TracebackException: 4a1. 實例至一個檔案。（由 Irit
     Katriel 在 bpo-33809(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44569

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33809


File: python.info,  Node: typing<2>,  Next: unicodedata<2>,  Prev: traceback,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.31 typing
...............

重大變更請見 *note 型別提示相關的新特性: 3af.。

   * 新增 *note typing.assert_never(): 4a4. 和 *note typing.Never: 4a5.。
     *note typing.assert_never(): 4a4. 可用於要型別檢查器確認某行程式碼
     是否不可觸及。在執行環境，它會引發 *note AssertionError: 4a6.。（由
     Jelle Zijlstra 在 gh-90633(1) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note typing.reveal_type(): 4a7.，這可用於請求型別檢查器為給定
     運算式推斷出什麼型別。在執行環境它會印出接收到的值的型別。（由
     Jelle Zijlstra 在 gh-90572(2) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note typing.assert_type(): 4a8.，這可用於要型別檢查器確認它為
     給定運算式推斷的型別是否與給定型別相符。在執行環境，它只會回傳接收
     到的值。（由 Jelle Zijlstra 在 gh-90638(3) 中貢獻。）

   * *note typing.TypedDict: 153. 型別現可為泛型。（由 Samodya
     Abeysiriwardane 於 gh-89026(4) 中所貢獻。）

   * *note NamedTuple: 1fb. 型別現可為泛型。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 於
     bpo-43923(5) 中所貢獻。）

   * 允許繼承 *note typing.Any: 4a9.，這能有效避免與高度動態類別（例如
     mock）相關的型別檢查器錯誤。（由 Shantanu Jain 在 gh-91154(6) 中貢
     獻。）

   * *note typing.final(): 4aa. 裝飾器現在會在被裝飾的物件上設定
     ‘__final__’ 屬性。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 於 gh-90500(7) 中所貢獻。）

   * *note typing.get_overloads(): 4ab. 函式可用於自我檢查 (introspect)
     一個函式的過載 (overload)。*note typing.clear_overloads(): 4ac. 可
     用於清除一個函式的所有已註冊過載。（由 Jelle Zijlstra 在
     gh-89263(8) 中貢獻。）

   * *note Protocol: 4ad. 子類別的 *note __init__(): 4ae. 方法現在被保留
     。（由 Adrian Garcia Badarasco 在 gh-88970(9) 中貢獻。）

   * 空元組型別 (‘Tuple[()]’) 的表示法得到簡化，這會影響自我檢查
     (introspection)，例如 ‘get_args(Tuple[()])’ 的求值現在會是 ‘()’ 而
     不是 ‘((),)’。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 gh-91137(10) 中貢獻。）

   * 通過刪除私有 ‘typing._type_check’ 函式中的可呼叫檢查，放寬型別標註
     的執行環境要求。（由 Gregory Beauregard 在 gh-90802(11) 中貢獻。）

   * 作為*note PEP 585 泛化別名: 4af.中的前向參照，*note
     typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. 現支援了為字串求值 (evaluate)。（由
     Niklas Rosenstein 在 gh-85542(12) 中貢獻。）

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. 不再將 *note Optional: 4b1. 新
     增到預設為 ‘None’ 的參數中。（由 Nikita Sobolev 在 gh-90353(13) 中
     貢獻。）

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. 現在支援為無修飾 (bare) 字串化
     (stringified) 的 *note ClassVar: 4b2. 標註來求值。（由 Gregory
     Beauregard 在 gh-90711(14) 中貢獻。）

   * *note typing.no_type_check(): 4b3. 不再修改外部類別和函式。它現在也
     正確地將類別方法標記為不需進行型別檢查。（由 Nikita Sobolev 在
     gh-90729(15) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90572

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90638

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89026

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43923

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91154

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90500

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89263

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88970

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91137

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90802

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85542

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90353

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90711

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90729


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<2>,  Next: unittest<3>,  Prev: typing<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.32 unicodedata
....................

   * Unicode 資料庫被更新為 14.0.0 版本。（Benjamin Peterson 於
     bpo-45190(1) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<3>,  Next: venv,  Prev: unicodedata<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.33 unittest
.................

   * 新增 *note TestCase: 159. 類別的 *note enterContext(): 4b8. 與
     *note enterClassContext(): 4b9. 方法、 *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b. 類別 的 *note enterAsyncContext():
     4ba. 方法、*note unittest.enterModuleContext(): 4bb. 函式。（由
     Serhiy Storchaka 於 bpo-45046(1) 貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45046


File: python.info,  Node: venv,  Next: warnings,  Prev: unittest<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.34 venv
.............

   * 建立新的 Python 虛擬環境時，'venv' *note sysconfig 安裝方案: 48c.會
     被用於確定環境內的路徑。當 Python 在虛擬環境中運行時，預設使用相同
     的安裝方案。這意味著下游發布者可以在不改變虛擬環境行為的情況下更改
     預設的 sysconfig 安裝方案。建立新虛擬環境的第三方程式碼也應該這樣做
     。（由 Miro Hrončok 在 bpo-45413(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413


File: python.info,  Node: warnings,  Next: zipfile,  Prev: venv,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.35 warnings
.................

   * *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 313. 現在接受 *note
     warnings.simplefilter(): 4c0. 的引數，提供了一種更簡潔的方法來在本
     地端忽略警告或將它們轉換為錯誤。（由 Zac Hatfield-Dodds 在
     bpo-47074(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47074


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile,  Prev: warnings,  Up: 改進的模組<2>

1.2.7.36 zipfile
................

   * 新增了對指定成員名稱編碼的支援，以便在 *note ZipFile: 4c3. 的目錄和
     檔案標頭中讀取元資料 (metadata)。（由 Stephen J. Turnbull 和 Serhiy
     Storchaka 在 bpo-28080(1) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note ZipFile.mkdir(): 4c4. 以在 ZIP 歸檔中建立新的目錄。（由
     Sam Ezeh 於 gh-49083(2) 貢獻。）

   * 於 *note zipfile.Path: 4c5. 新增 *note stem: 4c6.、*note suffix:
     4c7. 和 *note suffixes: 4c8.。（由 Miguel Brito 於 gh-88261(3) 貢獻
     。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/49083

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88261


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<2>,  Next: 更快的 CPython,  Prev: 改進的模組<2>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.8 最佳化
------------

這個部分會涵蓋到特定的最佳化，但獨立於擁有自己一個說明的*note 更快的
CPython: 38d. 計畫。

   * 編譯器現在對僅包含格式程式碼 ‘%s’、‘%r’ 和 ‘%a’ 的字串文本 (string
     literal) 進行簡單的 *note printf 風格 % 格式化 (printf-style %
     formatting): 4cb. 最佳化並使其與相應的 *note f-string: 138. 運算式
     一樣快。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-28307(1) 中貢獻。）

   * 整數除法 (‘//’) 為了編譯器最佳化而被調校過。現在將 *note int: 17e.
     除以小於 ‘2**30’ 的值時，在 x86-64 上快了大約 20%。（由 Gregory P.
     Smith 和 Tim Peters 在 gh-90564(2) 中貢獻。）

   * 針對小於 ‘2**30’ 的整數，*note sum(): 181. 現在快了將近 30%。（由
     Stefan Behnel 於 gh-68264(3) 中所貢獻。）

   * 調整 list 大小在常見情況下增進了效能，為 ‘list.append()’ 加快了約
     15% 並為簡單的 *note list comprehension: 4cc. 加快了高達 20-30%（由
     Dennis Sweeney 在 gh-91165(4) 中貢獻。）

   * 當所有鍵都是 Unicode 物件時，字典不存儲雜湊值，減少了 *note dict:
     239. 的大小。例如，‘sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg"))’ 在
     64-bit 平台上從 352 位元組減少到 272 位元組（減少 23%）。（由 Inada
     Naoki 在 bpo-46845(5) 中貢獻。）

   * 使用 *note asyncio.DatagramProtocol: 4cd. 以透過 UDP 傳輸大文件時，
     現在速度提高了幾個數量級，傳輸 ≈60 MiB 檔案的速度提高了 100 多倍。
     （由 msoxzw 在 gh-91487(6) 中貢獻。）

   * *note math: 89. 函式 *note comb(): 4ce. 和 *note perm(): 4cf. 針對
     較大引數現在快了 ≈10 倍（對於更大的 'k' 有更大的加速）。（由 Serhiy
     Storchaka 在 bpo-37295(7) 中貢獻。）

   * *note statistics: cc. 函式 *note mean(): 4d0.、*note variance():
     4d1. 和 *note stdev(): 4d2. 現在會一次性的消耗疊代器，而不是先將它
     們轉換為 *note list: 40a.，這讓速度提升為兩倍並可以節省大量記憶體空
     間。（由 Raymond Hettinger 在 gh-90415(8) 中貢獻。）

   * *note unicodedata.normalize(): 4d3. 現在在常數時間內規範化
     (normalize) 純 ASCII 字串。（由 Donghee Na 在 bpo-44987(9) 中貢獻。
     ）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28307

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90564

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68264

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91165

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90415

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44987


File: python.info,  Node: 更快的 CPython,  Next: CPython 位元組碼變更<2>,  Prev: 最佳化<2>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.9 更快的 CPython
--------------------

當使用基準量測套裝軟體 pyperformance(1) 量測並以 GCC 於 Ubuntu Linux 上
編譯，Python 3.11 平均比 Python 3.10 快了 25%(2)。根據程式工作量可能有所
不同，整體加速程度可達 10-60%。

此計畫專注在 Python 的 *note 更快的啟動: 4d5. 和 *note 更快的運行程式:
4d6.。不在此專案內的最佳化被獨立列出在 *note 最佳化: 4ca.。

* Menu:

* 更快的啟動::
* 更快的運行程式::
* 雜項::
* FAQ::
* 關於::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pyperformance

   (2) https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas#published-results


File: python.info,  Node: 更快的啟動,  Next: 更快的運行程式,  Up: 更快的 CPython

1.2.9.1 更快的啟動
..................

* Menu:

* 凍結引入 (Frozen imports) / 靜態程式碼物件 (Static code objects): 凍結引入 Frozen imports / 靜態程式碼物件 Static code objects.


File: python.info,  Node: 凍結引入 Frozen imports / 靜態程式碼物件 Static code objects,  Up: 更快的啟動

1.2.9.2 凍結引入 (Frozen imports) / 靜態程式碼物件 (Static code objects)
........................................................................

Python 將*note 位元組碼: 39f.於 *note __pycache__: 4da. 目錄中存為快取來
加速模組的載入。

在先前的 3.10 中，執行 Python 模組會像是這樣：

     Read __pycache__ -> Unmarshal -> Heap allocated code object -> Evaluate

在 Python 3.11 中，核心模組在 Python 啟動時必須被「凍結」，這意味著它們
的*note 程式碼物件: 3a3.（和位元組碼）是由直譯器靜態分配的。這將模組執行
過程中的步驟減少為：

     Statically allocated code object -> Evaluate

在 Python 3.11 中直譯器啟動速度快了 10-15%。這對於使用 Python 所撰寫的短
暫程式有著巨大影響。

（由 Eric Snow、Guido van Rossum 與 Kumar Aditya 於多個 issue 中貢獻。）


File: python.info,  Node: 更快的運行程式,  Next: 雜項,  Prev: 更快的啟動,  Up: 更快的 CPython

1.2.9.3 更快的運行程式
......................

* Menu:

* 所需資源更少 (cheaper) 且惰性的 (lazy)) Python 幀 (frame): 所需資源更少 cheaper 且惰性的 lazy Python 幀 frame.
* 行內 Python 函式呼叫::
* PEP 659：特化的適應性直譯器::


File: python.info,  Node: 所需資源更少 cheaper 且惰性的 lazy Python 幀 frame,  Next: 行內 Python 函式呼叫,  Up: 更快的運行程式

1.2.9.4 所需資源更少 (cheaper) 且惰性的 (lazy)) Python 幀 (frame)
.................................................................

每當 Python 呼叫 Python 函式時，就會建立保存執行資訊的 Python 幀。以下是
針對幀而做的新最佳化：

   - 使幀的建立過程更有效率。

   - 在 C 堆疊 (stack) 中盡量重複利用幀的空間來避免記憶體分配。

   - 讓內部幀結構只包含必要資訊，使其更加精簡。在過去，幀必須帶有額外的
     偵錯與記憶體管理的資訊。

舊式*note 幀物件: 4de.現在僅在除錯器或 Python 自我檢查函式（例如 *note
sys._getframe(): 4df. 或 *note inspect.currentframe(): 4e0.）請求時才建
立。對於大多數使用者程式碼，根本不會建立任何幀物件。結果幾乎所有 Python
函式呼叫都顯著加速。我們以 pyperformance 測得了 3-7% 的加速。

（由 Mark Shannon 於 bpo-44590(1) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590


File: python.info,  Node: 行內 Python 函式呼叫,  Next: PEP 659：特化的適應性直譯器,  Prev: 所需資源更少 cheaper 且惰性的 lazy Python 幀 frame,  Up: 更快的運行程式

1.2.9.5 行內 Python 函式呼叫
............................

在 Python 函式呼叫期間，Python 將呼叫一個正在求值的 C 函式來直譯該函式的
程式碼，這有效地將純 Python 遞迴限制在對 C 堆疊的安全範圍內。

在 3.11 中，當 CPython 檢測到 Python 程式碼呼叫另一個 Python 函式時，它
會設立一個新框架 (frame)，並「跳轉」到新框架內的新程式碼，這避免了呼叫整
個 C 直譯函式。

現在大多數 Python 函式的呼叫因為不會佔用 C 堆疊空間而被加速。在斐波那契
(fibonacci) 或階乘等簡單遞迴函式中，觀察到 1.7 倍的加速。這也意味著遞迴
函式可以遞迴得更深（如果使用者有增加*note 遞迴限制: 1ea.）。我們在
pyperformance 測得 1-3% 的改進。

（由 Pablo Galindo 與 Mark Shannon 於 bpo-45256(1) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 659：特化的適應性直譯器,  Prev: 行內 Python 函式呼叫,  Up: 更快的運行程式

1.2.9.6 PEP 659：特化的適應性直譯器
...................................

PEP 659(1) 是加速 CPython 專案的關鍵部分之一。一般的想法是，雖然 Python
是一種動態語言，但大多數程式碼都有物件和型別很少去更改的區域。這個概念被
稱為'型別穩定 (type stability)'。

在執行環境，Python 將嘗試在執行中的程式碼內尋找常用模式和型別穩定，然後
Python 將用更特化的操作替換當前操作。這種特化操作運用了僅適用於那些用例
/型別的快速路徑，這通常優於它們的泛用對應 (generic counterparts)。這也引
入了另一個稱為'行內快取 (inline caching)'的概念，其中 Python 將繁重操作
的結果直接快取在*note 位元組碼: 39f.中。

特化程式 (specializer) 還將某些常用指示 (common instruction) 組合成一個
超級指示 (superinstruction)，這減少了執行期間的開銷。

Python 只會在看到「熱」（被多次執行的）程式碼時特化，這可以防止 Python 將
時間浪費在只運行一次的程式碼上。當程式碼過於動態或用途發生變化時，Python
也可以去特化 (de-specialize)。特化會定期被嘗試執行，而嘗試的成本也不會太
高，這讓特化得以適應新的環境。

（PEP 由 Mark Shannon 撰寫、概念啟發自 Stefan Brunthaler。詳情請見 PEP
659(2)。由 Mark Shannon 和 Brandt Bucher 實作，Irit Katriel 和 Dennis
Sweeney 亦提供了額外的幫助。）

操作                形式                     特化                                                        操作加速程度（上限）    貢獻者
                                                                                                                                 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                 
二元操作            ‘x + x’                  常見型別如 *note int: 17e.、*note float: 26a. 與            10%                     Mark Shannon, Donghee
                                             *note str: 157. 的二元加法、乘法與減法，為底層型別採取了                            Na, Brandt Bucher,
                    ‘x - x’                  特製的快速路徑。                                                                    Dennis Sweeney
                                                                                                                                 
                    ‘x * x’
                    
                                                                                                                                 
下標                ‘a[i]’                   下標容器型別如 *note list: 40a.、*note tuple: 4e6. 和       10-25%                  Irit Katriel, Mark
                                             *note dict: 239. 直接索引底層的資料結構。                                           Shannon
                                                                                                                                 
                                             下標自定義 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 也是行內的，類似於
                                             *note 行內 Python 函式呼叫: 4e1.。
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
儲存下標            ‘a[i] = z’               類似於上面的下標特化。                                      10-25%                  Dennis Sweeney
                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                 
呼叫                ‘f(arg)’                 常見內建 (C) 函式和型別的呼叫，例如 *note len(): 429. 和    20%                     Mark Shannon, Ken Jin
                                             *note str: 157.，會直接呼叫它們的 C 版本底層，這避免了通                            
                    ‘C(arg)’                 過內部呼叫的慣例。
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
載入全域變數        ‘print’                  全域/內建之命名空間內的物件索引被快取起來。載入全域與內建   (3)                     Mark Shannon
                                             變數不需要任何命名空間的查找。                                                      
                    ‘len’                    
                    
                                                                                                                                 
載入屬性            ‘o.attr’                 和載入全域變數類似，類別/物件之命名空間內的屬性索引被快取   (4)                     Mark Shannon
                                             起來。在大部分情況中，載入屬性不需要任何命名空間的查找。                            
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
載入要呼叫的方法    ‘o.meth()’               方法的真實記憶體地址被快取 (cache) 起來，方法的載入現在不   10-20%                  Ken Jin, Mark Shannon
                                             需要命名空間的查找 - 即便有很長繼承鏈結的類別也是。                                 
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
儲存屬性            ‘o.attr = z’             和載入屬性的最佳化相似。                                    2% 於 pyperformance 中  Mark Shannon
                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                 
拆解 (unpack) 序    ‘*seq’                   為像是 *note list: 40a. 和 *note tuple: 4e6. 的常見容器所   8%                      Brandt Bucher
列                                           特化，避免了內部呼叫慣例。                                                          
                                             

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/

   (3) 類似的最佳化自從 Python 3.8 就存在。3.11 特別處理了更多形式並減少
效能開銷 (overhead)。

   (4) 類似的最佳化自從 Python 3.10 就存在。3.11 特別處理了更多形式。此
外，所有屬性載入也被 bpo-45947
(https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947) 所加速。


File: python.info,  Node: 雜項,  Next: FAQ,  Prev: 更快的運行程式,  Up: 更快的 CPython

1.2.9.7 雜項
............

   * 物件現在因為使用了惰性建立的物件命名空間所以需要更少的記憶體。它們
     的命名空間字典現在也更自由地共享鍵。（由 Mark Shannon 於
     bpo-45340(1) 和 bpo-40116(2) 貢獻。 ）

   * 實作了「無代價 (Zero-cost)」的例外，消除了在沒有例外被引發時的
     *note try: 4ea. 陳述式開銷。（由 Mark Shannon 於 bpo-40222(3) 貢獻
     。）

   * 在直譯器內使用更簡潔的例外表示法將捕獲一個例外所需的時間減少了大約
     10%。 由 Irit Katriel 在 bpo-45711(4) 中貢獻。）

   * *note re: b4. 的正規表示式比對引擎部分被重構，且現在會有支援的平台
     上使用 computed gotos（或者「執行緒程式碼 (threaded code)」），因此
     Python 3.11 在執行 pyperformance 正規表示式基準量測(5)的表現上比起
     Python 3.10 快了 10%。（由 Brandt Bucher 於 gh-91404(6) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://pyperformance.readthedocs.io/benchmarks.html#regex-dna

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ,  Next: 關於,  Prev: 雜項,  Up: 更快的 CPython

1.2.9.8 FAQ
...........

* Menu:

* 我該如何在程式碼中獲取這些加速？::
* Python 3.11 會不會使用更多記憶體？: Python 3 11 會不會使用更多記憶體？.
* 我在我的程式當中沒感覺到任何加速，為什麼？::
* 有用到 JIT 編譯器嗎？::


File: python.info,  Node: 我該如何在程式碼中獲取這些加速？,  Next: Python 3 11 會不會使用更多記憶體？,  Up: FAQ

1.2.9.9 我該如何在程式碼中獲取這些加速？
........................................

撰寫符合 Python 風格 (Pythonic) 且依循常見最佳實踐的程式碼就好，你不需要
改變你的程式碼。CPython 加速計畫中，我們為所觀察到的常見程式編寫模式來做
最佳化。


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 會不會使用更多記憶體？,  Next: 我在我的程式當中沒感覺到任何加速，為什麼？,  Prev: 我該如何在程式碼中獲取這些加速？,  Up: FAQ

1.2.9.10 Python 3.11 會不會使用更多記憶體？
...........................................

也許不會。我們預期不會有超出 3.10 20% 的記憶體使用量。這數字會和上述禎物
件與物件字典的記憶體最佳化而有所偏差。


File: python.info,  Node: 我在我的程式當中沒感覺到任何加速，為什麼？,  Next: 有用到 JIT 編譯器嗎？,  Prev: Python 3 11 會不會使用更多記憶體？,  Up: FAQ

1.2.9.11 我在我的程式當中沒感覺到任何加速，為什麼？
...................................................

某些程式中不會有顯著的好處。如果你的程式花了大部分的時間在 I/O 操作上，
或已經將大部分計算用像是 numpy 的 C 擴充函式庫處理，那就不會有明顯的加速
。這個計畫是對純 Python 的工作負荷最有幫助。

此外，pyperformance 數值為一個幾何平均數 (geometric mean)。即便在
pyperformance 基準量測中，某些測試稍微慢了一些，但其他加快了將近兩倍！


File: python.info,  Node: 有用到 JIT 編譯器嗎？,  Prev: 我在我的程式當中沒感覺到任何加速，為什麼？,  Up: FAQ

1.2.9.12 有用到 JIT 編譯器嗎？
..............................

沒有，我們還在探索其他最佳化方式。


File: python.info,  Node: 關於,  Prev: FAQ,  Up: 更快的 CPython

1.2.9.13 關於
.............

CPython 加速計畫探索了各種 *note CPython: 4f7. 最佳化的可能性。主要團隊
由微軟 (microsoft) 所資助以全職發展該計畫，Pablo Galindo Salgado 亦由彭
博有限合夥企業 (Bloomberg LP) 資助來兼職開發，更有許許多多來自社群的自發
性貢獻者。


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 位元組碼變更<2>,  Next: 已棄用<3>,  Prev: 更快的 CPython,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.10 CPython 位元組碼變更
---------------------------

位元組碼現在包含行內快取條目，它們採用新添加的 *note CACHE: 4fa. 指示的
形式。許多操作碼預期後面要有確切數量的快取，並指示直譯器在執行環境跳過它
們。傳遞的 (populated) 快取看起來像任意指示，因此在讀取或修改包含加速資
料的原始且適應 (adaptive) 位元組碼時應格外小心。

* Menu:

* 新增 opcode::
* 被取代的操作碼 (opcode): 被取代的操作碼 opcode.
* 有更動/被移除的 opcode::


File: python.info,  Node: 新增 opcode,  Next: 被取代的操作碼 opcode,  Up: CPython 位元組碼變更<2>

1.2.10.1 新增 opcode
....................

   * ‘ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’、*note RETURN_GENERATOR: 4fd. 和 *note SEND: 4fe.
     被用於產生器與協程。

   * *note COPY_FREE_VARS: 4ff.，避免了為閉包 (closure) 而生的特殊呼叫方
     (caller-side) 程式碼的需求。

   * *note JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT: 500.，用於某些不需要處理中斷的循
     環。

   * *note MAKE_CELL: 501. 被用於建立 *note Cell 物件: 502.。

   * *note CHECK_EG_MATCH: 503. 和 ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’，處理 PEP 654(1)
     所加入的*note 新增例外群組和 except*: 38e.。

   * *note PUSH_EXC_INFO: 504. 被用於例外處理函式。

   * *note RESUME: 505.，為無操作 (no-po)，用於內部追查、除錯和最佳化檢
     查。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/


File: python.info,  Node: 被取代的操作碼 opcode,  Next: 有更動/被移除的 opcode,  Prev: 新增 opcode,  Up: CPython 位元組碼變更<2>

1.2.10.2 被取代的操作碼 (opcode)
................................

被取代的操作碼                           新的操作碼                               註記
                                                                                  
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
     ‘BINARY_*’                          *note BINARY_OP: 508.                    以單一一個操作碼來取代所有數值的、二進位/原
     ‘INPLACE_*’                                                                  位 (in-place) 操作碼
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION’                          *note CALL: 509.                    將方法的引數搬移 (argument shifting) 與關鍵
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’                       ‘KW_NAMES’                          字引數的處理分離開來；允許更好的呼叫特化
     ‘CALL_METHOD’                            ‘PRECALL’                           
                                              *note PUSH_NULL: 50a.
                                         
                                                                                  
     ‘DUP_TOP’                                *note COPY: 50b.                    堆疊操作指示
     ‘DUP_TOP_TWO’                            *note SWAP: 50c.                    
     ‘ROT_TWO’                           
     ‘ROT_THREE’
     ‘ROT_FOUR’
     ‘ROT_N’

     ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’                  *note CHECK_EXC_MATCH: 50d.         現在執行檢查但不跳位 (jump)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’                          *note JUMP_BACKWARD: 50e.           參見 (1)；每個方向的 ‘TRUE’、‘FALSE’、
     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE’                      ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_*’            ‘NONE’ 和 ‘NOT_NONE’ 變體
     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE’                       ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_*’             
                                         
                                                                                  
     ‘SETUP_WITH’                        *note BEFORE_WITH: 50f.                  *note with: 3c5. 區塊設置
     ‘SETUP_ASYNC_WITH’                                                           

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 所有跳位操作碼 (jump opcode) 現在都是相對的，包括現有的
‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ 和 ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’。該引數現在是當前指示
(instruction) 的偏移量而不是絕對位置。


File: python.info,  Node: 有更動/被移除的 opcode,  Prev: 被取代的操作碼 opcode,  Up: CPython 位元組碼變更<2>

1.2.10.3 有更動/被移除的 opcode
...............................

   * 更改了 *note MATCH_CLASS: 514. 和 *note MATCH_KEYS: 515. ，不再推送
     一個額外的布林值來表示成功/失敗。取而代之的是會在失敗時推送 ‘None’，
     而非一個包含提取值的元組。

   * 更改了運作於例外的操作碼以反映它們現在在堆疊中的表示為一項而不是三
     項（請參閱 gh-89874(1)）。

   * 刪除 ‘COPY_DICT_WITHOUT_KEYS’、‘GEN_START’、‘POP_BLOCK’、
     ‘SETUP_FINALLY’ 和 ‘YIELD_FROM’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用<3>,  Next: Python 3 12 中待決議的移除項目,  Prev: CPython 位元組碼變更<2>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.11 已棄用
-------------

這個部分列出了在 Python 3.11 中棄用的 Python API。

被棄用的 C API 被*note 獨立列出: 519.。
* Menu:

* 語言/內建::
* 模組::
* 標準函式庫::


File: python.info,  Node: 語言/內建,  Next: 模組,  Up: 已棄用<3>

1.2.11.1 語言/內建
..................

   * 鏈接 *note classmethod: 24b. 描述器（在 bpo-19072(1) 中引入）現已棄
     用。它不能再用於包裝其他描述器，例如 *note property: 424.。此功能的
     核心設計存在缺陷，並導致了許多下游問題。要「傳遞通過
     (pass-through)」*note classmethod: 24b.，請考慮使用 Python 3.10 中
     添加的 ‘__wrapped__’ 屬性。（由 Raymond Hettinger 在 gh-89519(2) 中
     貢獻。）

   * 值大於 ‘0o377’（十進位為 255）的字串和位元組文本值 (bytes literal)
     中的八進位跳脫 (octal escape) 現在會產生 *note DeprecationWarning:
     179.。在未來的 Python 版本中，他們將引發一個 *note SyntaxWarning:
     178. 並最終引發一個 *note SyntaxError: 146.。（由 Serhiy Storchaka
     在 gh-81548(3) 中貢獻。）

   * *note int(): 17e. 到 *note __trunc__(): 51d. 的授權 (delegation) 現
     已棄用。當 ‘type(a)’ 有實作 ‘__trunc__()’ 但沒有 *note __int__():
     51e. 或 *note __index__(): 51f.，呼叫 ‘int(a)’ 現在會引發一個 *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179.。（由 Zackery Spytz 在 bpo-44977(4) 中貢獻
     。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977


File: python.info,  Node: 模組,  Next: 標準函式庫,  Prev: 語言/內建,  Up: 已棄用<3>

1.2.11.2 模組
.............

   * PEP 594(1) 引領下列模組的棄用，並排訂於 Python 3.13 移除：

     *note aifc: 5.            *note chunk: 15.          *note msilib: 8d.         *note pipes: a3.          *note telnetlib: d9.
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     *note audioop: b.         *note crypt: 26.          *note nis: 97.            *note sndhdr: c5.         *note uu: 10a.
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     *note cgi: 13.            *note imghdr: 70.         *note nntplib: 98.        *note spwd: c8.           *note xdrlib: 11a.
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     *note cgitb: 14.          *note mailcap: 87.        *note ossaudiodev: 9e.    *note sunau: d1.
                                                                                   

     （由 Brett Cannon 和 Victor Stinner 分別於 bpo-47061(2) 與
     gh-68966(3) 中所貢獻。）

   * ‘asynchat’、‘asyncore’ 和 ‘smtpd’ 至少在 Python 3.6 以前就被棄用，
     它們的文件與棄用警告現在已被更新為會提示它們即將於 Python 3.12 中移
     除。（由 Hugo van Kemenade 於 bpo-47022(4) 中貢獻。）

   * *note lib2to3: 7f. 套件和 *note 2to3: 522. 工具現已棄用，可能無法剖
     析 Python 3.10 或更新版本。有關詳細資訊請參閱 PEP 617(5)，它引入了
     新的 PEG 剖析器。（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-40360(6) 中貢獻。）

   * 未被記錄於文件中的 ‘sre_compile’、‘sre_constants’ 和 ‘sre_parse’ 模
     組現在已被棄用。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-47152(7) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152


File: python.info,  Node: 標準函式庫,  Prev: 模組,  Up: 已棄用<3>

1.2.11.3 標準函式庫
...................

   * 以下 *note configparser: 20. 相關項目已在 Python 3.2 中棄用，它們的
     棄用警告現在會提示它們即將於 Python 3.12 中移除：

        * ‘configparser.SafeConfigParser’ 類別

        * ‘configparser.ParsingError.filename’ 屬性

        * ‘configparser.RawConfigParser.readfp()’ 方法

     （由 Hugo van Kemenade 於 bpo-45173(1) 中所貢獻。）

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ 自 Python 3.2 起已在文件字串中棄
     用，並且未在 *note configparser: 20. 文檔中列出。它現在會發出一個
     *note DeprecationWarning: 179. 並將在 Python 3.13 中刪除。請改用
     *note configparser.BasicInterpolation: 525. 或 *note
     configparser.ExtendedInterpolation: 526.。（由 Hugo van Kemenade 在
     bpo-46607(2) 中貢獻。）

   * 舊的 *note importlib.resources: 75. 函式集因為不支援定位套件子目錄
     中的資源而被棄用、並將在未來的 Python 版本中刪除，取而代之的是在
     Python 3.9 中添加的替代方案：

        * *note importlib.resources.contents(): 527.

        * *note importlib.resources.is_resource(): 528.

        * *note importlib.resources.open_binary(): 529.

        * *note importlib.resources.open_text(): 52a.

        * *note importlib.resources.read_binary(): 52b.

        * *note importlib.resources.read_text(): 52c.

        * *note importlib.resources.path(): 52d.

   * *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 256. 函式已被棄用且將於 Python
     3.15 中移除。請改用 *note locale.setlocale(): 257.、*note
     locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 2bc. 和 *note
     locale.getlocale(): 259.。（Victor Stinner 於 gh-90817(3) 中所貢獻
     。）

   * *note locale.resetlocale(): 52e. 函式已棄用並將於 Python 3.13 中移
     除，請改用 ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’。（由 Victor
     Stinner 於 gh-90817(4) 中所貢獻。）

   * 現在將對*note 規則運算式: 52f.中的數值群組參照 (numerical group
     references) 和群組名稱套用更嚴格的規則。現在只接受 ASCII 數字序列作
     為數值參照，並且 *note bytes: 2c1. 模式 (pattern) 的群組名稱和替換
     字串中只能包含 ASCII 字母、數字和底線。目前，會針對違反這些規則的語
     法發出棄用警告。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 gh-91760(5) 中貢獻。）

   * 在 *note re: b4. 模組中，‘re.template()’ 函式和相應的 ‘re.TEMPLATE’
     和 ‘re.T’ 旗標被棄用，因為它們沒被記錄於文件中並且缺乏明顯的目的。
     它們將在 Python 3.13 中被刪除。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 和 Miro
     Hrončok 在 gh-92728(6) 中貢獻。）

   * *note turtle.settiltangle(): 530. 自 Python 3.1 以來已被棄用；它現
     在會發出棄用警告，並將在 Python 3.13 中刪除。請改用 *note
     turtle.tiltangle(): 531.（它之前被錯誤地標記為已棄用，其文件字串現
     在已更正）。（由 Hugo van Kemenade 在 bpo-45837(7) 中貢獻。）

   * 僅用於支援 Python 2 和 Python 3 程式碼間相容性的 *note typing.Text:
     27a. 現已棄用。目前未計劃刪除它，但鼓勵用戶盡可能使用 *note str:
     157. 代替。（由 Alex Waygood 在 gh-92332(8) 中貢獻。）

   * 用於建構 *note typing.TypedDict: 153. 型別的關鍵字引數語法現已棄用
     。將在 Python 3.13 中停止支援。（由 Jingchen Ye 在 gh-90224(9) 中貢
     獻。）

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ 已被棄用且將於 Python 3.13 中移除。它並沒有被測
     試過、沒紀錄於文件、也沒有被 *note webbrowser: 110. 本身使用。（由
     Donghee Na 於 bpo-42255(10)。）

   * 回傳從 *note TestCase: 159. 和 *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b.
     測試方法（預設的 ‘None’ 值除外）給定值的行為現已棄用。

   * 棄用以下並沒有正式紀錄於文件中的 *note unittest: 101. 函式，並預計
     於 Python 3.13 中移除：

        * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’

        * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’

        * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’

     改用 *note TestLoader: 532. 方法：

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 2b1.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 533.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 534.

     （由 Erlend E. Aasland 於 bpo-5846(11) 中所貢獻。）

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ 被標記為已棄用，即將在 3.13 中移
     除（由 Carlos Damázio 在 gh-67048(12) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92728

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90224

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42255

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5846

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 中待決議的移除項目,  Next: 已移除<3>,  Prev: 已棄用<3>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.12 Python 3.12 中待決議的移除項目
-------------------------------------

下列 API 已在先前的 Python 發布版本中棄用，並將於 Python 3.12 中移除。

待定的 C API 移除項目為*note 獨立列出的: 538.。

   * ‘asynchat’ 模組

   * ‘asyncore’ 模組

   * *note 整個 distutils 套件: 539.

   * ‘imp’ 模組

   * *note typing.io: 53a. 命名空間

   * *note typing.re: 53b. 命名空間

   * ‘cgi.log()’

   * ‘importlib.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’

   * ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’

   * ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’

   * ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’

   * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’

   * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

   * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode()’

   * ‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ 環境變數

   * *note unittest: 101. 中被棄用的別名：

          已棄用的別名                     方法名稱                            棄用於
                                                                               
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                               
          ‘failUnless’                     *note assertTrue(): 2a7.            3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIf’                         *note assertFalse(): 2a8.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessEqual’                *note assertEqual(): 2a9.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfEqual’                    *note assertNotEqual(): 2aa.        3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’          *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2ab.     3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfAlmostEqual’              *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2ac.  3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessRaises’               *note assertRaises(): 2ad.          3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assert_’                        *note assertTrue(): 2a7.            3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertEquals’                   *note assertEqual(): 2a9.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotEquals’                *note assertNotEqual(): 2aa.        3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertAlmostEquals’             *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2ab.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’          *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2ac.  3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’            *note assertRegex(): 2ae.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’             *note assertRaisesRegex(): 2af.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’         *note assertNotRegex(): 2b0.        3.5
                                                                               


File: python.info,  Node: 已移除<3>,  Next: 移植至 Python 3 11,  Prev: Python 3 12 中待決議的移除項目,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.13 已移除
-------------

此部分列出 Python 3.11 中移除的 Python API。

被移除的 C API 被*note 獨立列出: 53f.。

   * 刪除了 ‘@asyncio.coroutine()’ *note decorator: 540. 使遺留的基於生
     成器的協程 (generator-based coroutine) 與 *note async: 541. / *note
     await: 542. 程式碼相容。該函式自 Python 3.8 起已被棄用，計劃於
     Python 3.10 刪除。請改用 *note async def: 3c3.。（由 Illia Volochii
     在 bpo-43216(1) 中貢獻。）

   * 移除除錯模式中用於包裝遺留基於產生器之協程物件的
     ‘asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper’。（由 Illia Volochii 於
     bpo-43216(2) 中貢獻。）

   * 因為有重大的安全性考量，Python 3.9 中停用的 *note
     asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543. 之 'reuse_address' 參
     數目前已經移除。這是因為 UDP socket 選項 ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ 的行為所致
     。（由 Hugo van Kemenade 於 bpo-45129(3) 中貢獻。）

   * 移除 Python 3.9 中棄用的 ‘binhex’ 模組，與其相關且相似的 *note
     binascii: e. 函式也一併被移除：

        * ‘binascii.a2b_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.b2a_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.rlecode_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.rldecode_hqx()’

     *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 544. 維持可用。

     （由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-45085(4) 中所貢獻。）

   * 移除 Python 3.9 中棄用的 ‘distutils’ ‘bdist_msi’ 命令。請改用
     ‘bdist_wheel’（wheel 套件）。（由 Hugo van Kemenade 於 bpo-45124(5)
     中貢獻。）

   * 將 *note xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 545.、*note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 546. 和 *note fileinput.FileInput: 547. 自
     Python 3.9 中棄用的 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 方法移除。(由 Hugo
     van Kemenade 在 bpo-45132(6) 中貢獻。)

   * 刪除了已棄用的 *note gettext: 5e. 函式 ‘lgettext()’、
     ‘ldgettext()’、‘lngettext()’ 和 ‘ldngettext()’，也刪除了
     ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ 函式、
     ‘NullTranslations.output_charset()’ 和
     ‘NullTranslations.set_output_charset()’ 方法，以及 ‘translation()’
     和 ‘install()’ 的 'codeset' 參數，因為它們僅被用於 ‘l*gettext()’ 函
     式。（由 Donghee Na 和 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-44235(7) 中貢獻。）

   * 於 *note inspect: 78. 模組中移除：

        * Python 3.0 中棄用的 ‘getargspec()’；改用 *note
          inspect.signature(): 548. 或 *note inspect.getfullargspec():
          549.。

        * Python 3.5 中棄用的 ‘formatargspec()’ 函式；請直接用 *note
          inspect.signature(): 548. 函式或 *note inspect.Signature: 54a.
          物件。

        * Python 3.5 中停用且沒有被紀錄於文件上的
          ‘Signature.from_builtin()’ 和 ‘Signature.from_function()’ 方法
          ；改用 *note Signature.from_callable(): 54b. 方法。

     （由 Hugo van Kemenade 於 bpo-45320(8) 中所貢獻。）

   * 自 *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8. 中移除 *note __class_getitem__():
     54c. 方法，因為它是前一版本中誤加且沒被使用。（由 Nikita Sobolev 於
     bpo-46483(9) 中所貢獻。）

   * 移除 ‘smtpd’ 模組中的 ‘MailmanProxy’ 類別，因為它無法獨立於外部套件
     ‘mailman’ 使用。（由 Donghee Na 於 bpo-35800(10) 貢獻。）

   * 移除 ‘_tkinter.TkappType’ 已被棄用的 ‘split()’ 方法。（由 Erlend E.
     Aasland 於 bpo-38371(11) 貢獻。）

   * 從 *note unittest: 101. 中刪除了命名空間套件支援。它在 Python 3.4 中
     引入，但自 Python 3.7 以來已無法運作。（由 Inada Naoki 在
     bpo-23882(12) 中貢獻。）

   * 將未被記錄於文件中的私有方法 ‘float.__set_format__()’ 移除，它過去
     是 Python 3.7 中的 ‘float.__setformat__()’。它的文件字串
     (docstring) 說到：「你大概不會想要使用這個函式，它只為了讓 Python 測
     試系列套件 (suite) 使用而存在。」（由 Victor Stinner 於
     bpo-46852(13) 中貢獻。）

   * 移除 ‘--experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’ 配置旗標（與對應的
     ‘EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS’ 巨集）。

   * Pynche(14) -- Python 風格的自然色彩與色調編輯器 -- 已被移出
     ‘Tools/scripts’，獨立開發(15)於 Python 原始碼之外。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45129

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45085

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45124

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45132

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44235

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (14) https://pypi.org/project/Pynche/

   (15) https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche/-/tree/main


File: python.info,  Node: 移植至 Python 3 11,  Next: 建置變更<2>,  Prev: 已移除<3>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.14 移植至 Python 3.11
-------------------------

本部分列出了之前描述的 Python API 中可能需要你去更改 Python 程式碼的變更
和其他錯誤修復。

C API 的移植被*note 獨立列出: 550.。

   * *note open(): 29c.、*note io.open(): 29d.、*note codecs.open():
     551. 和 *note fileinput.FileInput: 547. 不再接受 ‘'U'’（"universal
     newline"，通用換行符）文件模式。在 Python 3 中，每當以文本模式
     (text mode) 打開檔案時，預設情況下會使用「通用換行符」模式，並且自
     Python 3.3 以來就不推薦使用 ‘'U'’ 旗標。這些函式的 *note newline
     參數: 552.控制了通用換行符的作用方式。（由 Victor Stinner 在
     bpo-37330(1) 中貢獻。）

   * *note ast.AST: 553. 節點位置現在會在提供給 *note compile(): 554. 和
     其他相關函式時被驗證。如果檢測到無效位置，則會引發 *note
     ValueError: 183.。（由 Pablo Galindo 在 gh-93351(2) 中貢獻）

   * 在 Python 3.8 中棄用後，禁止將非 *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. 執行器傳遞給 *note
     asyncio.loop.set_default_executor(): 556.。（由 Illia Volochii 在
     bpo-43234(3) 中貢獻。）

   * *note calendar: 12.：*note calendar.LocaleTextCalendar: 557. 和
     *note calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar: 558. 類別如果沒有指定語言環境，
     現在會使用 *note locale.getlocale(): 259. 而非 *note
     locale.getdefaultlocale(): 256.。（由 Victor Stinner 在
     bpo-46659(4) 中貢獻。）

   * *note pdb: a0. 模組現在會讀取 ‘'UTF-8'’ 編碼的 ‘.pdbrc’ 配置檔案。
     （Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy (శ్రీనివాస్ రెడ్డి తాటిపర్తి) 於 bpo-41137(5) 貢獻
     。）

   * *note random.sample(): 559. 的 'population' 參數必須是一個序列，不
     再支援 *note set: 3cc. 到 *note list: 40a. 的自動轉換。此外，如果抽
     樣大小大於總體大小，則會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。（由 Raymond
     Hettinger 在 bpo-40465(6) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除了 *note random.shuffle(): 55a. 的 'random' 可選參數。它以前是
     用於隨機排列 (shuffle) 的任意隨機函式；現在都會使用 *note
     random.random(): 55b.（這是它以前的預設值）。

   * 在 *note re: b4. *note 正規表示式語法: 52f. 中，全域行內旗標（例如
     ‘(?i)’）現在只能在規則運算式的開頭使用。自 Python 3.6 以來，在其他
     地方使用它們已被棄用。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-47066(7) 中貢獻
     。）

   * 在 *note re: b4. 模組中修復了幾個長期存在的錯誤，在極少數情況下，這
     些錯誤可能會導致捕獲群組 (capture group) 得到錯誤的結果。因此，這可
     能會在這些情況下更改捕獲的輸出。（Ma Lin 在 bpo-35859(8) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43234

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41137

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859


File: python.info,  Node: 建置變更<2>,  Next: C API 變更<2>,  Prev: 移植至 Python 3 11,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.15 建置變更
---------------

   * CPython 現在有 PEP 11(1) Tier 3 支援(2) 以用於交叉編譯至
     WebAssembly(3) 平台 Emscripten(4)（‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’，即
     瀏覽器中的 Python）和 WebAssembly 系統介面 (WASI)(5)
     (‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’)。這個靈感來自過往的貢獻，例如 Pyodide(6)。
     這些平台提供了有限的 POSIX API 子集；Python 標準函式庫功能和與網路
     、行程、執行緒、訊號、mmap、用戶/群組相關的模組不開放使用或無法正常
     使用。（Emscripten 由 Christian Heimes 和 Ethan Smith 在
     gh-84461(7) 貢獻，WASI 由 Christian Heimes 在 gh-90473(8) 貢獻；平
     台在 gh-95085(9) 中推廣）

   * 建置 CPython 現在必須要有：

        * C11(10) 編譯器與標準函式庫。可選的 C11 特性(11) 並非必要。（由
          Victor Stinner 於 bpo-46656(12)、bpo-45440(13) 和
          bpo-46640(14) 中貢獻。）

        * 對 IEEE 754(15) 浮點數的支援（由 Victor Stinner 於
          bpo-46917(16) 中所貢獻。）

   * ‘Py_NO_NAN’ 巨集已被移除。因為 CPython 現在需要 IEEE 754 浮點數，
     NaN 數值皆為可得的。（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-46656(17) 中貢獻。）

   * *note tkinter: ea. 套件現在必須要有 Tcl/Tk(18) 8.5.12 或更新的版本
     。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 於 bpo-46996(19) 中所貢獻。）

   * 大多數 stdlib 擴充模組的依賴套件、編譯器旗標 (compiler flag) 和鏈接
     器旗標 (linker flags) 現在可以透過 ‘configure’ 檢測出來。（當可用時
     ）pkg-config(20) 會檢測出 libffi、libnsl、libsqlite3、zlib、bzip2、
     liblzma、libcrypt、Tcl/Tk 和 uuid 旗標。*note tkinter: ea. 現在需要
     一個 pkg-config 命令來檢測 Tcl/Tk(21) 標頭檔和函式庫的開發設定。（
     由 Christian Heimes 和 Erlend Egeberg Aasland 在 bpo-45847(22)、
     bpo-45747(23) 和 bpo-45763(24) 中貢獻。）

   * libpython 不再鏈接到 libcrypt。（由 Mike Gilbert 在 bpo-45433(25) 中
     貢獻。）

   * CPython 現在可以透過將 ‘thin’ 傳遞給 *note -with-lto: 55e.（也就是
     ‘--with-lto=thin’）來以 ThinLTO(26) 選項建置。（由 Donghee Na 與
     Brett Holman 於 bpo-44340(27) 中所貢獻。）

   * Freelists for object structs can now be disabled.  A new
     ‘configure’ option *note -without-freelists: 55f. can be used to
     disable all freelists except empty tuple singleton.  (Contributed
     by Christian Heimes in bpo-45522(28).)

   * ‘Modules/Setup’ 和 ‘Modules/makesetup’ 已得到改進和綁定。現在可以通
     過 ‘makesetup’ 建置擴充模組。除了一些測試模組外，所有模組都可以靜態
     鏈接到主要的二進制文件或函式庫中。（由 Brett Cannon 和 Christian
     Heimes 在 bpo-45548(29)、bpo-45570(30)、bpo-45571(31) 和
     bpo-43974(32) 中貢獻。）

          備註: 使用環境變數 ‘TCLTK_CFLAGS’ 和 ‘TCLTK_LIBS’ 以手動指定
          Tcl/Tk 標頭檔和函式庫的位置。‘configure’ 選項
          ‘—with-tcltk-includes’ 和 ‘—with-tcltk-libs’ 已被刪除。

          RHEL 7 和 CentOS 7 上的開發套件並無提供 ‘tcl.pc’ 和 ‘tk.pc’；
          要使用 ‘TCLTK_LIBS="-ltk8.5 -ltkstub8.5 -ltcl8.5"’。目錄
          ‘Misc/rhel7’ 包含 ‘.pc’ 檔案與如何使用 RHEL 7 和 CentOS 7 的
          Tcl/Tk 與 OpenSSL 建置 Python 的指示。

   * CPython 現在預設使用 30-bit 數字來實作 Python *note int: 17e.。以前
     ，在 ‘SIZEOF_VOID_P >= 8’ 的平台上預設使用 30-bit 數字，否則使用
     15-bit 數字，但仍能通過配置腳本的 *note -enable-big-digits: 560. 選
     項或（於 Windows）‘PC/pyconfig.h’ 中的 ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ 變數
     來明確請求使用 15-bit 數字，但此選項可能會在將來的某個時候被刪除。
     （由 Mark Dickinson 在 bpo-45569(33) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (3) https://webassembly.org/

   (4) https://emscripten.org/

   (5) https://wasi.dev/

   (6) https://pyodide.org/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085

   (10) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11

   (11) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640

   (15) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (18) https://www.tcl.tk

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996

   (20) https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/pkg-config/

   (21) https://www.tcl.tk

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433

   (26) https://clang.llvm.org/docs/ThinLTO.html

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569


File: python.info,  Node: C API 變更<2>,  Next: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Prev: 建置變更<2>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.16 C API 變更
-----------------

* Menu:

* 新增特性: 新增特性<4>.
* 移植至 Python 3.11: 移植至 Python 3 11<2>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<4>.
* Python 3.12 中待決議的移除項目: Python 3 12 中待決議的移除項目<2>.
* 已移除: 已移除<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: 新增特性<4>,  Next: 移植至 Python 3 11<2>,  Up: C API 變更<2>

1.2.16.1 新增特性
.................

   * 新增 *note PyType_GetName(): 565. 函式來取得型別的短名。（由 Hai
     Shi 於 bpo-42035(1) 中所貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note PyType_GetQualName(): 566. 函式來取得型別的合格名稱
     (qualified name)。（由 Hai Shi 於 bpo-42035(2) 中所貢獻。）

   * 在受限 C API (limited C API) 中新增 *note
     PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 567. 和 *note
     PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 568. 函式來中止和繼續追蹤 (tracing) 和
     性能分析 (profiling)。（由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-43760(3) 中貢獻。
     ）

   * 添加了 *note Py_Version: 569. 常數，其值與 *note PY_VERSION_HEX:
     56a. 相同。（由 Gabriele N. Tornetta 在 bpo-43931(4) 中貢獻。）

   * *note Py_buffer: 56b. 與 API 目前是受限 API 與穩定 ABI 中的一部分：

        * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 56c.

        * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d.

        * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 56e.

        * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 56f.

        * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 570.

        * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 571.

        * *note PyObject_CopyData(): 572.

        * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 573.

        * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): 574.

        * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 575.

        * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 576.

        * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 577.

        * *note bf_getbuffer: 578. 與 *note bf_releasebuffer: 579. 型別
          插槽 (type slot)

     （由 Christian Heimes 於 bpo-45459(5) 中所貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 57a. 函式，它將被用於取得定義一
     個方法的模組，以免這項資訊無法直接被取得（透過 *note PyCMethod:
     57b.）。（由 Petr Viktorin 於 bpo-46613(6) 中所貢獻。）

   * 新增函式以打包 (pack) 和取出 (unpack) C double（序列化和反序列化）
     ：*note PyFloat_Pack2(): 57c.、*note PyFloat_Pack4(): 57d.、*note
     PyFloat_Pack8(): 57e.、*note PyFloat_Unpack2(): 57f. , *note
     PyFloat_Unpack4(): 580. 和 *note PyFloat_Unpack8(): 581.。（由
     Victor Stinner 在 bpo-46906(7) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增取得幀物件屬性的函式：*note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 582.、*note
     PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 583.、*note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 584.、
     *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 585.。

   * 添加了兩個新函式來獲得和設置仍在作用的例外實例：*note
     PyErr_GetHandledException(): 586. 和 *note
     PyErr_SetHandledException(): 587.。這些是 *note PyErr_SetExcInfo():
     588. 和 *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 589. 的替代品，它們與例外的遺留三
     元組表示法一起作用。（由 Irit Katriel 在 bpo-46343(8) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note PyConfig.safe_path: 58a. 成員。（由 Victor Stinner 於
     gh-57684(9) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: 移植至 Python 3 11<2>,  Next: 已棄用<4>,  Prev: 新增特性<4>,  Up: C API 變更<2>

1.2.16.2 移植至 Python 3.11
...........................

   * 一些巨集已轉換為行內靜態函式以避免巨集陷阱 (macro pitfalls)(1)。這
     種變化對用戶來說應該是透明的，因為替換函式會將它們的引數轉換為預期
     的型別，以避免由於靜態型別檢查而產生的編譯器警告。但是，當受限 C
     API 設置為 >=3.11 時，這些轉換不會完成，使用者需要將引數轉換為他們
     期望的型別。有關更多詳細資訊，請參閱 PEP 670(2)。（由 Victor
     Stinner 和 Erlend E. Aasland 在 gh-89653(3) 中貢獻。）

   * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 588. 不再使用 ‘type’ 和 ‘traceback’ 引數
     ，直譯器現在從例外實例（‘value’ 引數）中獲得這些值。該函式仍會偷用
     這三個引數的參照。（由 Irit Katriel 在 bpo-45711(4) 中貢獻。）

   * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 589. 現在從例外實例的結果（‘value’ 欄位）
     中導出 ‘type’ 和 ‘traceback’ 欄位。（由 Irit Katriel 在
     bpo-45711(5) 中貢獻。）

   * *note _frozen: 58c. 有一個新的 ‘is_package’ 欄位來表示凍結模組是否
     為一個套件。以前 ‘size’ 欄位中的負值是指標，現在只有非負值可用於
     ‘size’。（由 Kumar Aditya 在 bpo-46608(6) 中貢獻。）

   * *note _PyFrameEvalFunction(): 58d. 現在將 ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’ 作
     為其第二個參數，而不是 ‘PyFrameObject*’。有關如何使用此函式指標型別
     的更多詳細資訊，請參閱 PEP 523(7)。

   * ‘PyCode_New()’ 和 ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ 現在採用額外的
     ‘exception_table’ 引數。如果可能的話應該避免使用這些函式。要獲取自
     定義程式碼物件，使用編譯器建立一個程式碼物件，然後使用 ‘replace’ 方
     法來得到修改後的版本。

   * *note PyCodeObject: 58e. 不再會有 ‘co_code’、‘co_varnames’、
     ‘co_cellvars’ 和 ‘co_freevars’ 欄位。分別被改為透過 C API 的 *note
     PyCode_GetCode(): 58f.、*note PyCode_GetVarnames(): 590.、*note
     PyCode_GetCellvars(): 591. 和 *note PyCode_GetFreevars(): 592. 來存
     取。（由 Brandt Bucher 在 bpo-46841(8)、Ken Jin 在 gh-92154(9) 與
     gh-94936(10) 中貢獻。）

   * 舊的回收筒巨集 (trashcan macro)
     (‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’/‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’) 現在已經被棄用，
     它們應被新的巨集 ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ 和 ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’ 所取代。

     一個用到老舊巨集的 tp_dealloc 函式，像是：

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p);
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END
          }

     應該要搬遷到新的巨集，如下所示：

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc)
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_END
          }

     請注意 ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ 有第二個引數，它應該是它所在的釋放函式
     (deallocation function)。

     為支援舊版 Python 在同一份程式碼中，你可以定義以下巨集並在程式碼中
     使用它們（要歸功於 ‘mypy’ 程式碼，這些是從那邊複製過來的）：

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc)
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_END
          #else
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(op)
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END(op)
          #endif

   * 如果一個型別是以 *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. 旗標來定義，但卻沒
     有遍歷函式 (traverse function) (*note PyTypeObject.tp_traverse:
     594.)，那 *note PyType_Ready(): 595. 函式現在會引發一個錯誤。（由
     Victor Stinner 於 bpo-44263(11) 中貢獻。）

   * 帶有 *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2de. 旗標的堆積型別現在可以繼
     承 PEP 590(12) 向量呼叫協定 (vectorcall protocol)。以前這僅適用於
     *note static types: 596.。（由 Erlend E. Aasland 在 bpo-43908(13) 中
     貢獻）。

   * 由於 *note Py_TYPE(): 597. 更改為行內靜態函式 (inline static
     function)，因此 ‘Py_TYPE(obj) = new_type’ 必須替換為
     ‘Py_SET_TYPE(obj, new_type)’：參見 *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 598. 函式（
     自 Python 3.9 起可用）。為了向後相容，可以使用這個巨集：

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_TYPE)
          static inline void _Py_SET_TYPE(PyObject *ob, PyTypeObject *type)
          { ob->ob_type = type; }
          #define Py_SET_TYPE(ob, type) _Py_SET_TYPE((PyObject*)(ob), type)
          #endif

     （由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-39573(14) 中所貢獻。）

   * 由於 *note Py_SIZE(): 599. 更改為行內靜態函式，因此 ‘Py_SIZE(obj) =
     new_size’ 必須替換為 ‘Py_SET_SIZE(obj, new_size)’：參見 *note
     Py_SET_SIZE(): 59a. 函式（自 Python 3.9 起可用）。為了向後相容，可
     以使用這個巨集：

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_SIZE)
          static inline void _Py_SET_SIZE(PyVarObject *ob, Py_ssize_t size)
          { ob->ob_size = size; }
          #define Py_SET_SIZE(ob, size) _Py_SET_SIZE((PyVarObject*)(ob), size)
          #endif

     （由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-39573(15) 中所貢獻。）

   * 當 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 巨集被設定為 ‘0x030b0000’（Python 3.11）或以上
     ，‘<Python.h>’ 不再會包含標頭檔 ‘<stdlib.h>’、‘<stdio.h>’、
     ‘<errno.h>’ 和 ‘<string.h>’。C 擴充程式應該要清楚的在 ‘#include
     <Python.h>’ 之後引入標頭檔案。（由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-45434(16)
     中貢獻。）

   * 非受限 API (non-limited API) 檔案 ‘cellobject.h’、‘classobject.h’、
     ‘code.h’、‘context.h’、‘funcobject.h’、‘genobject. h’ 和
     ‘longintrepr.h’ 已移至 ‘Include/cpython’ 目錄。此外，‘eval.h’ 標頭
     檔已被刪除。不能直接引入這些文件，因為它們已被包含在 ‘Python.h’ 中
     ：*note 引入檔案: 59b.。如果它們已被直接引入，請考慮改為引入
     ‘Python.h’。 （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-35134(17) 中貢獻。）

   * ‘PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED()’ 巨集已從受限 C API 中移出，它從來沒辦
     法被使用，因為它使用了受限 C API 不提供的內部結構。（由 Victor
     Stinner 於 bpo-46007(18) 中所貢獻。）

   * 以下用於幀 (frame) 的函式與型別現在可直接透過 ‘#include <Python.h>’
     來使用，不必再加上 ‘#include <frameobject.h>’：

        * *note PyFrame_Check(): 59c.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 59d.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 582.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 583.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 584.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 585.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 59e.

        * *note PyFrame_Type: 59f.

     （由 Victor Stinner 於 gh-93937(19) 中所貢獻。）

   * *note PyFrameObject: 5a1. 結構成員已經從公開的 C API 中移除。

     雖然文件指出 *note PyFrameObject: 5a1. 欄位隨時可能發生變化，但它們
     已經穩定了很長時間，並被用於幾個流行的擴充套件中。

     Python 3.11 中，幀的結構被重新編制來為性能做最佳化，有些作為舊版實
     作細節的欄位被整個移除。

     *note PyFrameObject: 5a1. 欄位：

        * ‘f_back’：使用 *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 59d.。

        * ‘f_blockstack’：已移除。

        * ‘f_builtins’：使用 *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 582.。

        * ‘f_code’：使用 *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 5a2.。

        * ‘f_gen’：使用 *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 583.。

        * ‘f_globals’：使用 *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 584.。

        * ‘f_iblock’：已移除。

        * ‘f_lasti’：使用 *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 585.。程式碼中
          ‘f_lasti’ 有與 ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ 同時使用的部分應該改用
          *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5a3.；它可能會更快。

        * ‘f_lineno’：使用 *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5a3.

        * ‘f_locals’：使用 *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 59e.。

        * ‘f_stackdepth’：已移除。

        * ‘f_state’：無公開 API（重新命名為 ‘f_frame.f_state’）。

        * ‘f_trace’：無公開 API。

        * ‘f_trace_lines’：使用
          ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame, "f_trace_lines")’。

        * ‘f_trace_opcodes’：使用
          ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame, "f_trace_opcodes")’。

        * ‘f_localsplus’：無公開 API（重新命名為 ‘f_frame.localsplus’）
          。

        * ‘f_valuestack’：已移除。

     Python 幀物件的建立現為惰性的 (lazily)，一個副作用是 *note f_back:
     5a4. 成員不能被直接存取，因為其職的計算也是惰性的，要改呼叫 *note
     PyFrame_GetBack(): 59d.。

     直接存取 *note f_locals: 5a5. 的除錯器'必須'改為呼叫 *note
     PyFrame_GetLocals(): 59e.。他們不再需要呼叫
     ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ 或 ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’，事實
     上他們不應該呼叫這些函式。框架的必要更新現在由虛擬機管理。

     ‘PyFrame_GetCode()’ 在 Python 3.8 以前的程式定義：

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyCodeObject* PyFrame_GetCode(PyFrameObject *frame)
          {
              Py_INCREF(frame->f_code);
              return frame->f_code;
          }
          #endif

     ‘PyFrame_GetBack()’ 在 Python 3.8 以前的程式定義：

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyFrameObject* PyFrame_GetBack(PyFrameObject *frame)
          {
              Py_XINCREF(frame->f_back);
              return frame->f_back;
          }
          #endif

     或是使用 pythoncap_compat 計畫(20)來在舊版 Python 函式中取得這兩個
     函式。

   * *note PyThreadState: 5a6. 結構成員的改動：

        * ‘frame’：已移除，改用 *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5a7.（
          bpo-40429(21) 於 Python 3.9 新增的函式）。警告：會回傳 *note
          strong reference: 5a8. 的函式必須呼叫 *note Py_XDECREF():
          5a9.。

        * ‘tracing’：已變更，改用 *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing():
          567. 和 *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 568.（
          bpo-43760(22) 於 Python 3.11 中新增的函式）。

        * ‘recursion_depth’：已移除，請改用 ‘(tstate->recursion_limit -
          tstate->recursion_remaining)’。

        * ‘stackcheck_counter’：已移除。

     ‘PyThreadState_GetFrame()’ 在 Python 3.8 以前的程式定義：

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyFrameObject* PyThreadState_GetFrame(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              Py_XINCREF(tstate->frame);
              return tstate->frame;
          }
          #endif

     ‘PyThreadState_EnterTracing()’ 與 ‘PyThreadState_LeaveTracing()’ 在
     Python 3.10 以前的程式定義：

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030B00A2
          static inline void PyThreadState_EnterTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              tstate->tracing++;
          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
              tstate->cframe->use_tracing = 0;
          #else
              tstate->use_tracing = 0;
          #endif
          }

          static inline void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              int use_tracing = (tstate->c_tracefunc != NULL || tstate->c_profilefunc != NULL);
              tstate->tracing--;
          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
              tstate->cframe->use_tracing = use_tracing;
          #else
              tstate->use_tracing = use_tracing;
          #endif
          }
          #endif

     或是使用 pythoncap-compat 計畫(23)來在舊版 Python 函式中取得它們。

   * 鼓勵發布者們使用最佳化過的 Blake2 函式庫 libb2(24) 來建置 Python。

   * 初始化中若是要用 *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3e3. 來初始化
     *note sys.path: 35e.，則現在 *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3e4. 必須被設為 1。否則，初始化會
     重新計算路徑並取代所有被加到 ‘module_search_paths’ 的值。

   * *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa. 不再計算初始搜索路徑，並且不會將任何值
     填充到 *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3e3. 中。若要計算預設路
     徑然後修改它們，完成初始化並使用 *note PySys_GetObject(): 5ab. 以取
     得 *note sys.path: 35e. 作為 Python 列表物件並直接修改它。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Macro-Pitfalls.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89653

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937

   (20) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (23) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (24) https://www.blake2.net/


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用<4>,  Next: Python 3 12 中待決議的移除項目<2>,  Prev: 移植至 Python 3 11<2>,  Up: C API 變更<2>

1.2.16.3 已棄用
...............

   * 棄用以下用來配置 Python 初始化的函式：

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’

        * ‘PySys_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     請改用 *note Python 初始化配置: 5ad.中新的 *note PyConfig: 345.
     API。（由 Victor Stinner 於 gh-88279(1) 中所貢獻。）

   * 棄用 *note PyBytesObject: 5ae. 中的 ‘ob_shash’ 成員。請改用 *note
     PyObject_Hash(): 373.。（由 Inada Naoki 於 bpo-46864(2) 中所貢獻。
     ）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 中待決議的移除項目<2>,  Next: 已移除<4>,  Prev: 已棄用<4>,  Up: C API 變更<2>

1.2.16.4 Python 3.12 中待決議的移除項目
.......................................

以下 C API 已於先前 Python 發布版本中棄用，並將於 Python 3.12 中移除。

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_IS_READY()’

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 372.

   * ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH()’

   * ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’

   * *note PyUnicodeObject: 5b0.

   * ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’


File: python.info,  Node: 已移除<4>,  Prev: Python 3 12 中待決議的移除項目<2>,  Up: C API 變更<2>

1.2.16.5 已移除
...............

   * ‘PyFrame_BlockSetup()’ and ‘PyFrame_BlockPop()’ have been removed.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222(1).)

   * 移除以下使用到 ‘errno’ 變數的數學巨集：

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()’

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()’

        * ‘Py_OVERFLOWED()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()’

     （由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-45412(2) 中所貢獻。）

   * 移除在 Python 3.3 中棄用的 ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’ 和
     ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’。請改用 ‘PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()’ 或
     ‘memcpy()’（‘wchar_t*’ 字串）和 ‘PyUnicode_Fill()’ 函式。（由
     Victor Stinner 於 bpo-41123(3) 中所貢獻。）

   * 移除 ‘pystrhex.h’ 標頭檔案。它只有包含私有函式。C 的擴充應該只要引
     入主要的 ‘<Python.h>’ 標頭檔案。（由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-45434(4)
     中所貢獻。）

   * 移除 ‘Py_FORCE_DOUBLE()’ 巨集。它先前被用於 ‘Py_IS_INFINITY()’ 巨集
     。（由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-45440(5) 中所貢獻。）

   * 當 *note Py_LIMITED_API: 5b2. 有被定義時，以下項目將無法被取得：

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(): 5b3.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(): 5b4.

        * *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(): 5b5.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(): 5b6.

        * ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ 巨集

     These are not part of the *note limited API: 5b7.

     （由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-45474(6) 中所貢獻。）

   * 將 *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 357. 排除於受限 C API 之外，它因為
     ‘PyWeakReference’ 結構在受限 C API 中過於晦澀而從未運作。（由
     Victor Stinner 於 bpo-35134(7) 中所貢獻。）

   * 移除 ‘PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS()’ 巨集，它是不小心才被放到公開的 C
     API 中，應該只能被 Python 內部所使用。請改用
     ‘PyTypeObject.tp_members’。（由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-40170(8) 中所
     貢獻。）

   * 移除 ‘HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION’ 巨集（移動至內部 C API）。（由
     Victor Stinner 於 bpo-45412(9) 中所貢獻。）

   * 移除 *note Py_UNICODE: 358. 編碼器 API，它們自從 Python 3.3 就被棄
     用，非常少用且和推薦的替代方案已無太大關聯。

     被移除的函式為：

        * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’

     詳情請見 PEP 624(10) 與 搬遷指南(11)。（由 Inada Naoki 於
     bpo-44029(12) 中所貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/#alternative-apis

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Next: Notable changes in 3 11 5,  Prev: C API 變更<2>,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.17 Notable changes in 3.11.4
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile::


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile,  Up: Notable changes in 3 11 4

1.2.17.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: d8, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 184, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 185. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     179.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 11 5,  Prev: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Up: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能

1.2.18 Notable changes in 3.11.5
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* OpenSSL::


File: python.info,  Node: OpenSSL,  Up: Notable changes in 3 11 5

1.2.18.1 OpenSSL
................

   * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL
     3.0.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 11 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.3 Python 3.10 有什麼新功能
============================


編輯者: Pablo Galindo Salgado

本文介紹了 Python 3.10 與 3.9 相比的新功能。Python 3.10 於 2021 年 10 月
4 日發布。有關完整詳細資訊，請參閱 *note changelog: 136.。

* Menu:

* 摘要: 摘要 -- 發布重點. 發布重點
* 新功能::
* 與型別提示相關的新功能::
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<3>.
* 新模組::
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<3>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<3>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<5>.
* 已刪除::
* 移植到 Python 3.10: 移植到 Python 3 10.
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<3>.
* 建置變更: 建置變更<3>.
* C API 變更: C API 變更<3>.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8.
* Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12.


File: python.info,  Node: 摘要 -- 發布重點,  Next: 新功能,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.1 摘要 - 發布重點
---------------------

新增語法特性：

   * PEP 634(1)，結構模式匹配 (Structural Pattern Matching)：規範

   * PEP 635(2)，結構模式匹配：動機和基本原理

   * PEP 636(3)，結構模式匹配：教學

   * bpo-12782(4)，現在正式允許帶括號的情境管理器 (context manager)。

標準函式庫中的新功能：

   * PEP 618(5)，新增可選的長度檢查到 zip。

直譯器改進：

   * PEP 626(6)，用於除錯和其他工具的精確列號。

新的 typing 功能：

   * PEP 604(7)，允許將聯集型別 (union types) 寫為 X | Y

   * PEP 612(8)，參數規範變數 (Parameter Specification Variables)

   * PEP 613(9)，顯式型別別名 (Explicit Type Aliases)

   * PEP 647(10)，使用者定義的型別防護 (User-Defined Type Guards)

重要的棄用、刪除或限制：

   * PEP 644(11)，需要 OpenSSL 1.1.1 或更高版本

   * PEP 632(12)，棄用 distutils 模組。

   * PEP 623(13)，棄用並準備刪除 PyUnicodeObject 中的 wstr 成員。

   * PEP 624(14)，刪除 Py_UNICODE 編碼器 API

   * PEP 597(15)，新增可選的 EncodingWarning

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/


File: python.info,  Node: 新功能,  Next: 與型別提示相關的新功能,  Prev: 摘要 -- 發布重點,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.2 新功能
------------

* Menu:

* 帶括號的情境管理器::
* 更好的錯誤訊息::
* PEP 626：用於除錯和其他工具的精確列號::
* PEP 634：結構模式匹配::
* 可選的 EncodingWarning 和 encoding="locale" 選項::


File: python.info,  Node: 帶括號的情境管理器,  Next: 更好的錯誤訊息,  Up: 新功能

1.3.2.1 帶括號的情境管理器
..........................

現在支援使用成對的括號來將多個情境管理器以數行表示。這允許了與過去的引入
陳述式 (import statement) 類似的方法來格式化一組多行的情境管理器集合。例
如，以下範例現在都是有效的：

     with (CtxManager() as example):
         ...

     with (
         CtxManager1(),
         CtxManager2()
     ):
         ...

     with (CtxManager1() as example,
           CtxManager2()):
         ...

     with (CtxManager1(),
           CtxManager2() as example):
         ...

     with (
         CtxManager1() as example1,
         CtxManager2() as example2
     ):
         ...

也可以在封閉群組的末尾使用逗號：

     with (
         CtxManager1() as example1,
         CtxManager2() as example2,
         CtxManager3() as example3,
     ):
         ...

此新語法使用新剖析器的非 LL(1) 功能。檢查 PEP 617(1) 了解更多詳細資訊。

（由 Guido van Rossum、Pablo Galindo 和 Lysandros Nikolaou 在
bpo-12782(2) 和 bpo-40334(3) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334


File: python.info,  Node: 更好的錯誤訊息,  Next: PEP 626：用於除錯和其他工具的精確列號,  Prev: 帶括號的情境管理器,  Up: 新功能

1.3.2.2 更好的錯誤訊息
......................

* Menu:

* SyntaxErrors::
* IndentationErrors::
* AttributeErrors::
* NameErrors::


File: python.info,  Node: SyntaxErrors,  Next: IndentationErrors,  Up: 更好的錯誤訊息

1.3.2.3 SyntaxErrors
....................

當剖析包含未成對括號或方括號的程式碼時，直譯器現在會包含未成對括號的位置
，而不是顯示 'SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while parsing' 或指向某些不正
確的位置。例如，以下程式碼（注意未閉合的 ‘{’ ）：

     expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
                 38: 4, 39: 4, 45: 5, 46: 5, 47: 5, 48: 5, 49: 5, 54: 6,
     some_other_code = foo()

以前版本的直譯器會在奇怪的地方顯示有語法錯誤：

     File "example.py", line 3
         some_other_code = foo()
                         ^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

但在 Python 3.10 中，會發出一個資訊更豐富的錯誤：

     File "example.py", line 1
         expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
                    ^
     SyntaxError: '{' was never closed

同樣地，涉及未成對字串字面值（單引號和三引號）的錯誤現在會指向字串的開頭
，而不是報告 EOF/EOL。

這些改進是受到 PyPy 直譯器的啟發。

（由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-42864(1) 和 Batuhan Taskaya 在 bpo-40176(2) 中
貢獻。）

直譯器引發的 *note SyntaxError: 146. 例外現在會突顯 (highlight) 構成語法
錯誤之運算式的完整錯誤範圍，而不僅是檢測到問題的位置。如此一來，過去（像
Python 3.10 之前）的：

     >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
                ^
     SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

現在 Python 3.10 則會將例外顯示為：

     >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
                ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

此改進由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-43914(3) 中貢獻。

已合併了大量針對 *note SyntaxError: 146. 例外的新專用訊息。一些最值得注
意的如下：

   * 在區塊之前缺少 ‘:’:

          >>> if rocket.position > event_horizon
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              if rocket.position > event_horizon
                                                ^
          SyntaxError: expected ':'

     （由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-42997(4) 中貢獻。）

   * 綜合運算目標中未加括號的元組：

          >>> {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
               ^
          SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?

     （由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-43017(5) 中貢獻。）

   * 容器字面值 (collection literals) 中和運算式之間缺少逗號：

          >>> items = {
          ... x: 1,
          ... y: 2
          ... z: 3,
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              y: 2
                 ^
          SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

     （由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-43822(6) 中貢獻。）

   * 不帶括號的多個例外型別：

          >>> try:
          ...     build_dyson_sphere()
          ... except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
                     ^
          SyntaxError: multiple exception types must be parenthesized

     （由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-43149(7) 中貢獻。）

   * 字典字面值中缺少 ‘:’ 和值：

          >>> values = {
          ... x: 1,
          ... y: 2,
          ... z:
          ... }
            File "<stdin>", line 4
              z:
               ^
          SyntaxError: expression expected after dictionary key and ':'

          >>> values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
                                  ^
          SyntaxError: ':' expected after dictionary key

     （由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-43823(8) 中貢獻。）

   * 沒有 ‘except’ 或 ‘finally’ 區塊的 ‘try’ 區塊：

          >>> try:
          ...     x = 2
          ... something = 3
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              something  = 3
              ^^^^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: expected 'except' or 'finally' block

     （由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-44305(9) 中貢獻。）

   * 於比較中使用 ‘=’ 而非 ‘==’：

          >>> if rocket.position = event_horizon:
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              if rocket.position = event_horizon:
                                 ^
          SyntaxError: cannot assign to attribute here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?

     （由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-43797(10) 中貢獻。）

   * f 字串中使用 ‘*’：

          >>> f"Black holes {*all_black_holes} and revelations"
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              (*all_black_holes)
               ^
          SyntaxError: f-string: cannot use starred expression here

     （由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-41064(11) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44305

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064


File: python.info,  Node: IndentationErrors,  Next: AttributeErrors,  Prev: SyntaxErrors,  Up: 更好的錯誤訊息

1.3.2.4 IndentationErrors
.........................

許多 *note IndentationError: 5c5. 例外現在支援更多關於哪種區塊需要縮進的
情境，包括陳述式的位置：

     >>> def foo():
     ...    if lel:
     ...    x = 2
       File "<stdin>", line 3
         x = 2
         ^
     IndentationError: expected an indented block after 'if' statement in line 2


File: python.info,  Node: AttributeErrors,  Next: NameErrors,  Prev: IndentationErrors,  Up: 更好的錯誤訊息

1.3.2.5 AttributeErrors
.......................

當印出 *note AttributeError: 3ca. 時，‘PyErr_Display()’ 將提供引發例外的
物件中類似屬性名稱的建議：

     >>> collections.namedtoplo
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: module 'collections' has no attribute 'namedtoplo'. Did you mean: namedtuple?

（由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-38530(1) 中貢獻。）

     警告: 請注意，如果未呼叫 ‘PyErr_Display()’ 來顯示錯誤（可能為了要使
     用其他自定義錯誤顯示函式），則此操作將不起作用。這是 IPython 等某些
     REPL 中的常見狀況。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: NameErrors,  Prev: AttributeErrors,  Up: 更好的錯誤訊息

1.3.2.6 NameErrors
..................

當印出直譯器引發的 *note NameError: 144. 時，‘PyErr_Display()’ 將在引發
例外的函式中提供類似變數名稱的建議：

     >>> schwarzschild_black_hole = None
     >>> schwarschild_black_hole
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'schwarschild_black_hole' is not defined. Did you mean: schwarzschild_black_hole?

（由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-38530(1) 中貢獻。）

     警告: 請注意，如果未呼叫 ‘PyErr_Display()’ 來顯示錯誤，則此操作將不
     起作用，如果使用其他自定義錯誤顯示函式，則可能會發生這種情況。這是
     IPython 等某些 REPL 中的常見場景。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 626：用於除錯和其他工具的精確列號,  Next: PEP 634：結構模式匹配,  Prev: 更好的錯誤訊息,  Up: 新功能

1.3.2.7 PEP 626：用於除錯和其他工具的精確列號
.............................................

PEP 626 為除錯、分析 (profiling) 和覆蓋 (coverage) 工具帶來了更精確、更
可靠的列號 (line numbers)。為所有已執行的程式碼列且僅針對已執行的程式碼
行產生具有正確列號的追蹤事件。

影格 (frame) 物件的 *note f_lineno: 5c9. 屬性總會包含預期的列號。

*note 程式碼物件: 5ca.的 *note co_lnotab: 249. 屬性已棄用，並將在 3.12 中
刪除。需要從偏移量轉換為列號的程式碼應使用新的 *note co_lines(): 26c. 方
法。


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 634：結構模式匹配,  Next: 可選的 EncodingWarning 和 encoding="locale" 選項,  Prev: PEP 626：用於除錯和其他工具的精確列號,  Up: 新功能

1.3.2.8 PEP 634：結構模式匹配
.............................

已新增結構模式匹配 (structural pattern matching)，其形式為具有關聯操作之
模式的 'match 陳述式' 和 'case 陳述式'。模式由序列、對映、原始資料型別
(primitive data types) 以及類別實例組成。模式匹配使程式能夠從複雜的資料
型別中提取資訊，在資料結構上進行分支，並根據不同形式的資料應用特定的操作
。

* Menu:

* 語法和操作::
* 宣告式方法 (Declarative approach): 宣告式方法 Declarative approach.
* 簡單模式：與字面值匹配::
* 具有字面值和變數的模式::
* 模式和類別::
* 巢狀模式::
* 複雜模式和萬用字元::
* Guard::
* 其他主要功能::


File: python.info,  Node: 語法和操作,  Next: 宣告式方法 Declarative approach,  Up: PEP 634：結構模式匹配

1.3.2.9 語法和操作
..................

模式匹配的通用語法是：

     match subject:
         case <pattern_1>:
             <action_1>
         case <pattern_2>:
             <action_2>
         case <pattern_3>:
             <action_3>
         case _:
             <action_wildcard>

match 陳述式採用一個運算式，並將其值與作為一個或多個 case 區塊給出的連續
模式進行比較。具體來說，模式匹配是透過以下方式進行操作：

  1. 使用具有型態 (type) 和特徵 (shape) 的資料 (主語 ‘subject’)

  2. ‘match’ 陳述式中 ‘subject’ 的求值 (evaluating)

  3. 從上到下將主語與 ‘case’ 陳述式中的每個模式進行比較，直到確認匹配。

  4. 執行與已確認匹配模式對應的操作

  5. 如果未確認完全匹配，則最後一種情況，即萬用字元 ‘_’ （如果有提供）將
     作為匹配到的情況。如未有任何匹配且不存在萬用字元的 case，則整個
     match 區塊會是個無操作 (no-op)。


File: python.info,  Node: 宣告式方法 Declarative approach,  Next: 簡單模式：與字面值匹配,  Prev: 語法和操作,  Up: PEP 634：結構模式匹配

1.3.2.10 宣告式方法 (Declarative approach)
..........................................

讀者可能會透過使用 C、Java 或 JavaScript（以及許多其他語言）中的 switch
陳述式將主語（資料物件）與字面值 (literal)（模式）進行匹配的簡單範例來了
解模式匹配。 switch 語句通常用於將物件/運算式與包含字面值的 case 陳述式
進行比較。

更強大的模式匹配範例可以在 Scala 和 Elixir 等語言中找到。對於結構模式匹
配，該方法是「宣告式的 (declarative)」，並且明確地說明了資料匹配的條件（
模式）。

雖然使用巢狀 "if" 陳述式的「命令式 (imperative)」指令系列可用於完成類似
於結構模式匹配的操作，但它不如「聲明式 (declarative)」方法清晰。相反地，
「聲明式」方法規定了匹配所需滿足的條件，並且因其明確表達模式而更具可讀性
。雖然結構模式匹配可以用其最簡單的形式達成，將變數與 case 陳述式中的字面
值進行比較，但它對 Python 的真正價值在於它對主語的型態和特徵的處理。


File: python.info,  Node: 簡單模式：與字面值匹配,  Next: 具有字面值和變數的模式,  Prev: 宣告式方法 Declarative approach,  Up: PEP 634：結構模式匹配

1.3.2.11 簡單模式：與字面值匹配
...............................

讓我們將此範例視為最簡單形式的模式匹配：一個值（主語）與多個文字（模式）
匹配。在下面的範例中，‘status’ 是匹配陳述式的主語。這些模式是每個 case 陳
述式，其中文字表示請求狀態程式碼。與案例相關的操作在匹配後執行：

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"
             case _:
                 return "Something's wrong with the internet"

如果上面的函式傳遞了 418 ‘status’，則回傳 "I'm a teapot"。如果上面的函式
傳遞了 500 ‘status’，則帶有 ‘_’ 的 case 語句將作為萬用字元進行匹配，並回
傳 "Something's wrong with the internet"。請注意最後一個區塊：變數名稱
‘_’ 充當 '萬用字元' 並確保主語始終匹配。‘_’ 的使用是可選的。

你可以使用 ‘|’ ("or") 將多個字面值組合在一個模式中：

     case 401 | 403 | 404:
         return "Not allowed"

* Menu:

* 沒有萬用字元 (wildcard) 的行為: 沒有萬用字元 wildcard 的行為.


File: python.info,  Node: 沒有萬用字元 wildcard 的行為,  Up: 簡單模式：與字面值匹配

1.3.2.12 沒有萬用字元 (wildcard) 的行為
.......................................

如果我們透過刪除最後一個 case 區塊來修改上面的範例，則範例將變為：

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"

如果在 case 陳述式中不使用 ‘_’，則可能不存在匹配項目。如果不存在匹配項目
，則該行為是無操作 (no-op)。例如，如果 ‘status’ 為 500，則不會有任何操作
。


File: python.info,  Node: 具有字面值和變數的模式,  Next: 模式和類別,  Prev: 簡單模式：與字面值匹配,  Up: PEP 634：結構模式匹配

1.3.2.13 具有字面值和變數的模式
...............................

模式看起來就像解包賦值 (unpacking assignment)，並且模式可用於繫結 (bind)
變數。在此範例中，可以將資料點解包為其 x 坐標和 y 坐標：

     # point is an (x, y) tuple
     match point:
         case (0, 0):
             print("Origin")
         case (0, y):
             print(f"Y={y}")
         case (x, 0):
             print(f"X={x}")
         case (x, y):
             print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
         case _:
             raise ValueError("Not a point")

第一個模式有兩個字面值 ‘(0, 0)’，並且可以被認為是上面顯示的字面值模式的
擴充。接下來的兩個模式組合了一個字面值和一個變數，並且變數'繫結'來自主語
（‘point’）的值。第四個模式捕獲兩個值，這使得它在概念上類似於解包賦值
‘(x, y) = point’。


File: python.info,  Node: 模式和類別,  Next: 巢狀模式,  Prev: 具有字面值和變數的模式,  Up: PEP 634：結構模式匹配

1.3.2.14 模式和類別
...................

如果你使用類別來建構資料，則可以用類別名稱與後面的引數列表組合成的建構函
式作為模式。該模式能夠將類別屬性捕獲到變數中：

     class Point:
         x: int
         y: int

     def location(point):
         match point:
             case Point(x=0, y=0):
                 print("Origin is the point's location.")
             case Point(x=0, y=y):
                 print(f"Y={y} and the point is on the y-axis.")
             case Point(x=x, y=0):
                 print(f"X={x} and the point is on the x-axis.")
             case Point():
                 print("The point is located somewhere else on the plane.")
             case _:
                 print("Not a point")

* Menu:

* 具有位置參數的模式::


File: python.info,  Node: 具有位置參數的模式,  Up: 模式和類別

1.3.2.15 具有位置參數的模式
...........................

你可以將位置參數與一些會為其屬性排序的內建類別（例如 dataclasses）一起使
用。你還可以通過在類別中設定 ‘__match_args__’ 特殊屬性來定義模式中屬性的
特定位置。如果它被設定為 ("x", "y")，則以下模式都是等效的（且都將 ‘y’ 屬
性繫結到 ‘var’ 變數）：

     Point(1, var)
     Point(1, y=var)
     Point(x=1, y=var)
     Point(y=var, x=1)


File: python.info,  Node: 巢狀模式,  Next: 複雜模式和萬用字元,  Prev: 模式和類別,  Up: PEP 634：結構模式匹配

1.3.2.16 巢狀模式
.................

模式可以任意巢套。例如，如果我們的資料是一個簡短的座標點列表，則可以這樣
匹配：

     match points:
         case []:
             print("No points in the list.")
         case [Point(0, 0)]:
             print("The origin is the only point in the list.")
         case [Point(x, y)]:
             print(f"A single point {x}, {y} is in the list.")
         case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
             print(f"Two points on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2} are in the list.")
         case _:
             print("Something else is found in the list.")


File: python.info,  Node: 複雜模式和萬用字元,  Next: Guard,  Prev: 巢狀模式,  Up: PEP 634：結構模式匹配

1.3.2.17 複雜模式和萬用字元
...........................

到目前為止，範例在最後一個 case 陳述式中單獨使用了 ‘_’。萬用字元可以用在
更複雜的模式中，像是 ‘('error', code, _)’。例如：

     match test_variable:
         case ('warning', code, 40):
             print("A warning has been received.")
         case ('error', code, _):
             print(f"An error {code} occurred.")

在上述情況下，值像是 ('error', code, 100) 和 ('error', code, 800) 的
‘test_variable’ 將會成功匹配。


File: python.info,  Node: Guard,  Next: 其他主要功能,  Prev: 複雜模式和萬用字元,  Up: PEP 634：結構模式匹配

1.3.2.18 Guard
..............

我們可以在模式中新增一個 ‘if’ 子句，稱為 "guard"。如果 guard 為 false，
則 ‘match’ 會繼續嘗試下一個 case 區塊。請注意，值的捕獲發生在 guard 的求
值 (evaluate) 之前：

     match point:
         case Point(x, y) if x == y:
             print(f"The point is located on the diagonal Y=X at {x}.")
         case Point(x, y):
             print(f"Point is not on the diagonal.")


File: python.info,  Node: 其他主要功能,  Prev: Guard,  Up: PEP 634：結構模式匹配

1.3.2.19 其他主要功能
.....................

其他幾個主要功能：

   - 與賦值的解包一樣，tuple 和 list 模式具有完全相同的含義，並且實際上
     匹配任意序列。從技術上來說，主語必須是一個序列。因此，一個重要的例
     外是模式不會去匹配疊代器。另外，為了防止常常出錯，序列模式也不會去
     匹配字串。

   - 序列模式支援萬用字元：‘[x, y, *rest]’ 和 ‘(x, y, *rest)’ 與解包賦值
     中的萬用字元類似。 ‘*’ 後面的名稱也可能是 ‘_’，因此 ‘(x, y, *_)’ 會
     匹配至少兩個項目的序列，且不繫結其餘項目。

   - 對映模式： ‘{"bandwidth": b, "latency": l}’ 從字典中捕獲
     ‘"bandwidth"’ 和 ‘"latency"’ 值。與序列模式不同，額外的鍵將被忽略。
     也支援萬用字元 ‘**rest’。（但是 ‘**_’ 是多餘的，所以是不允許的。）

   - 可以使用 ‘as’ 關鍵字捕獲子模式：

          case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

     這將繫結 x1、y1、x2、y2，如同沒有 ‘as’ 子句的情況下所預期的，並將
     p2 繫結到主語的整個第二項目。

   - 大多數字面值都是通過相等進行比較的。然而，單例 ‘True’、‘False’ 和
     ‘None’ 是按標識值 (identity) 來進行比較的。

   - 附名常數 (named constant) 可以在模式中使用。這些附名常數必須有帶有
     點的名稱 (dotted name)，以防止常數被直譯為捕獲的變數：

          from enum import Enum
          class Color(Enum):
              RED = 0
              GREEN = 1
              BLUE = 2

          color = Color.GREEN
          match color:
              case Color.RED:
                  print("I see red!")
              case Color.GREEN:
                  print("Grass is green")
              case Color.BLUE:
                  print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

有關完整規範，請參閱 PEP 634(1)。動機和基本原理位於 PEP 635(2) 中，較完
整的教學位於 PEP 636(3) 中。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: 可選的 EncodingWarning 和 encoding="locale" 選項,  Prev: PEP 634：結構模式匹配,  Up: 新功能

1.3.2.20 可選的 ‘EncodingWarning’ 和 ‘encoding="locale"’ 選項
.............................................................

*note TextIOWrapper: 5d9. 和 *note open(): 29c. 的預設編碼取決於平台和區
域設定。由於大多數 Unix 平台都使用 UTF-8，因此在打開 UTF-8 檔案（例如
JSON、YAML、TOML、Markdown）時省略 ‘encoding’ 選項是個常見的 bug，例如：

     # BUG: "rb" mode or encoding="utf-8" should be used.
     with open("data.json") as f:
         data = json.load(f)

為了發現這種錯誤，新增了一個可選的 ‘EncodingWarning’。當 *note
sys.flags.warn_default_encoding: 489. 為 true 且使用特定於語言環境的預設
編碼時，會發出該信號。

新增 ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ 選項和 *note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING:
5da. 來啟用警告。

更多資訊請見 *note 文字編碼: 5db.。


File: python.info,  Node: 與型別提示相關的新功能,  Next: 其他語言更動<3>,  Prev: 新功能,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.3 與型別提示相關的新功能
----------------------------

本節介紹影響 PEP 484(1) 型別提示和 *note typing: ff. 模組的主要更改。

* Menu:

* PEP 604：新型聯集運算子::
* PEP 612：參數規範變數::
* PEP 613：型別別名 (TypeAlias): PEP 613：型別別名 TypeAlias.
* PEP 647：使用者定義的型別防護::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 604：新型聯集運算子,  Next: PEP 612：參數規範變數,  Up: 與型別提示相關的新功能

1.3.3.1 PEP 604：新型聯集運算子
...............................

引入了一種新的聯集運算子，該運算子啟用像是 ‘X | Y’ 的語法。這提供了一種
在型別提示中更清晰的方式來表達「型別 X 或型別 Y」，來取代使用 *note
typing.Union: 436.。

在以前版本的 Python 中，要使用接受多種型別參數之型別提示的函式，要使用
*note typing.Union: 436.：

     def square(number: Union[int, float]) -> Union[int, float]:
         return number ** 2

現在可以用更簡潔的方式編寫型別提示：

     def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
         return number ** 2

這種新語法也接受作為 *note isinstance(): 14b. 和 *note issubclass():
5df. 的第二個引數：

     >>> isinstance(1, int | str)
     True

更多資訊請見 *note 聯合型別 (Union Type): 5e0. 與 PEP 604(1)。

（由 Maggie Moss 和 Philippe Prados 在 bpo-41428(2) 中貢獻，由 Yurii
Karabas 和 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-44490(3) 中補充。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 612：參數規範變數,  Next: PEP 613：型別別名 TypeAlias,  Prev: PEP 604：新型聯集運算子,  Up: 與型別提示相關的新功能

1.3.3.2 PEP 612：參數規範變數
.............................

*note typing: ff. 模組中新增了兩個新選項，用於改進為 PEP 484(1)
‘Callable’ 的靜態型別檢查器 (static type checker) 所提供的資訊。

第一個是參數規範變數 (parameter specification variable)。它們用於將一個
可呼叫物件的參數型別轉發到另一個可呼叫物件 - 這是高階函式和裝飾器中常見
的模式。使用範例可以在 *note typing.ParamSpec: 163. 中找到。在過去是沒有
簡單的方法可以如此精確地來為參數型別的依賴關係做型別註釋。

第二個選項是新的 ‘Concatenate’ 運算子。它與參數規範變數結合使用，來對一
個高階、會新增或刪除另一個可呼叫物件參數的可呼叫物件進行型別註釋。使用範
例可以在 *note typing.Concatenate: 5e2. 中找到。

請參閱 *note typing.Callable: 5e3.、*note typing.ParamSpec: 163.、*note
typing.Concatenate: 5e2.、*note typing.ParamSpecArgs: 5e4.、*note
typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 5e5. 和 PEP 612(2) 以了解更多詳情。

（由 Ken Jin 在 bpo-41559(3) 中貢獻、Jelle Zijlstra 在 bpo-43783(4) 中進
行了小幅改進。PEP 由 Mark Mendoza 編寫。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43783


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 613：型別別名 TypeAlias,  Next: PEP 647：使用者定義的型別防護,  Prev: PEP 612：參數規範變數,  Up: 與型別提示相關的新功能

1.3.3.3 PEP 613：型別別名 (TypeAlias)
.....................................

PEP 484(1) 引入了型別別名 (type aliases) 的概念，只要求它們是最高階、未
註釋的賦值 (top-level unannotated assignments)。這種簡單性有時使型別檢查
器難以區分型別別名和普通賦值，尤其是在涉及傳遞參照 (reference) 或無效型
別時。比較如下：

     StrCache = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
     LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

現在 *note typing: ff. 模組有一個特殊值 *note TypeAlias: 5e7.，它可以讓
你更明確地宣告型別別名：

     StrCache: TypeAlias = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
     LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

更多資訊請見 PEP 613(2)。

（由 Mikhail Golubev 在 bpo-41923(3) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 647：使用者定義的型別防護,  Prev: PEP 613：型別別名 TypeAlias,  Up: 與型別提示相關的新功能

1.3.3.4 PEP 647：使用者定義的型別防護
.....................................

*note TypeGuard: 5e9.（型別防護）已新增到 *note typing: ff. 模組中，用以
註釋型別防護函式並改進在型別窄縮 (type narrowing) 期間提供給靜態型別檢查
器的資訊。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note TypeGuard: 5e9. 的文件和 PEP
647(1)。

（由 Ken Jin 和 Guido van Rossum 在 bpo-43766(2) 中貢獻。PEP 由 Eric
Traut 編寫。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<3>,  Next: 新模組,  Prev: 與型別提示相關的新功能,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.4 其他語言更動
------------------

   * *note int: 17e. 型別有一個新方法 *note int.bit_count(): 5eb.，回傳
     給定整數的二進位展開式中 1 的數量，也稱為總體計數 (population
     count)。（由 Niklas Fiekas 在 bpo-29882(1) 中貢獻。）

   * *note dict.keys(): 5ec.、*note dict.values(): 5ed. 和 *note
     dict.items(): 5ee. 回傳的視圖 (view) 現在都有一個 ‘mapping’ 屬性，
     該屬性提供 *note types.MappingProxyType: 186. 包裝原始的字典物件。
     （由 Dennis Sweeney 在 bpo-40890(2) 中貢獻。）

   * PEP 618(3)：*note zip(): 5ef. 函式現在有一個可選的 ‘strict’ 旗標，
     用於要求所有可疊代物件具有相同的長度。

   * 採用整數引數的內建函式和擴充函式不再接受 *note Decimal: 5f0.、*note
     Fraction: 1a8. 以及其他只能在有損失的情況下轉換為整數的物件（例如有
     *note __int__(): 51e. 方法，但沒有 *note __index__(): 51f. 方法）。
     （由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-37999(4) 中貢獻。）

   * 如果 *note object.__ipow__(): 5f1. 回傳 *note NotImplemented: 5f2.，
     則該運算子將按預期正確回退到 *note object.__pow__(): 5f3. 和 *note
     object.__rpow__(): 5f4. 。（由 Alex Shkop 在 bpo-38302(5) 中貢獻。
     ）

   * 現在可以在集合字面值 (set literals) 和集合綜合運算 (set
     comprehensions) 以及序列索引（但不能是切片）中使用不帶括號的賦值運
     算式 (assignment expressions)。

   * 函式有一個新的 ‘__builtins__’ 屬性，用於在執行函式時查找內建符號，
     而不是查找 ‘__globals__['__builtins__']’ 。如果
     ‘__globals__["__builtins__"]’ 存在，則屬性會以此做初始化，否則從當
     前內建物件 (builtins) 初始化。（由 Mark Shannon 在 bpo-42990(6) 中
     貢獻。）

   * 新增兩個內建函式 - *note aiter(): 5f5. 和 *note anext(): 5f6.，分別
     為 *note iter(): 5f7. 和 *note next(): 5f8. 提供非同步的對應函式。
     （由 Joshua Bronson、Daniel Pope 和 Justin Wang 在 bpo-31861(7) 中
     貢獻。）

   * 靜態方法 (*note @staticmethod: 5f9.) 和類別方法 (*note
     @classmethod: 24b.) 現在繼承方法屬性 (‘__module__’, ‘__name__’,
     ‘__qualname__’, ‘__doc__’, ‘__annotations__’) 並有一個新的
     ‘__wrapped__’ 屬性。此外，靜態方法現在可以像是常規函式般呼叫。（由
     Victor Stinner 在 bpo-43682(8) 中貢獻。）

   * 複雜目標（除 PEP 526(9) 定義的 ‘simple name’ 目標之外的所有內容）的
     註釋不再使用 ‘from __future__ import comments’ 造成任何執行環境
     (runtime) 影響。（由 Batuhan Taskaya 在 bpo-42737(10) 中貢獻。）

   * 類別和模組物件現在會根據需求來延遲建立 (lazy-create) 空的註釋字典
     (annotations dicts)。註釋字典存儲在物件的 ‘__dict__’ 中以達成向後相
     容性。這改進了 ‘__annotations__’ 使用方式的最佳實踐方法；有關更多資
     訊，請參閱 *note 註釋 (annotation) 最佳實踐: 5fa.。（由 Larry
     Hastings 在 bpo-43901(11) 中貢獻。）

   * 附名運算式或由 ‘yield’、‘yield from’、‘await’ 組成的註釋現在在
     ‘from __future__ import comments’ 下被禁止，因為它們有些不預期的行
     為。（由 Batuhan Taskaya 在 bpo-42725(12) 中貢獻。）

   * 未繫結變數 (unbound variable)、‘super()’ 和其他可能會改變處理註釋之
     符號表 (symbol table) 的運算式，現在在 ‘from __future__ import
     comments’ 下變得無效。（由 Batuhan Taskaya 在 bpo-42725(13) 中貢獻
     。）

   * *note float: 26a. 型別和 *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0. 型別的 NaN 值
     的雜湊值現在取決於物件的標識值 (identity)。以前即使 NaN 值彼此不相
     等，它們也總是被雜湊為 ‘0’。由於在建立包含多個 NaN 的字典和集合時出
     現過多的雜湊衝突 (hash collision)，可能導致潛在的二次方執行環境行為
     (quadratic runtime behavior)。（由 Raymond Hettinger 在
     bpo-43475(14) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除 *note __debug__: 5fb. 常數時將引發 *note SyntaxError: 146. （
     而不是 *note NameError: 144.）。（由 Donghee Na 在 bpo-45000(15) 中
     貢獻。）

   * *note SyntaxError: 146. 例外現在具有 ‘end_lineno’ 和 ‘end_offset’ 屬
     性。如果未被決定，它們將會是 ‘None’。（由 Pablo Galindo 在
     bpo-43914(16) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29882

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40890

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37999

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45000

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914


File: python.info,  Node: 新模組,  Next: 改進的模組<3>,  Prev: 其他語言更動<3>,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.5 新模組
------------

   * 無。


File: python.info,  Node: 改進的模組<3>,  Next: 最佳化<3>,  Prev: 新模組,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.6 改進的模組
----------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<3>.
* argparse::
* array: array<2>.
* asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd.
* base64::
* bdb::
* bisect::
* codecs::
* collections.abc: collections abc.
* contextlib: contextlib<2>.
* curses::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<2>.
* distutils: distutils<2>.
* doctest::
* encodings::
* enum: enum<3>.
* fileinput::
* faulthandler::
* gc::
* glob::
* hashlib: hashlib<3>.
* hmac::
* IDLE 和 idlelib::
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata.
* inspect: inspect<3>.
* itertools: itertools<2>.
* linecache::
* os: os<3>.
* os.path: os path<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<3>.
* platform::
* pprint::
* py_compile::
* pyclbr::
* shelve::
* statistics: statistics<2>.
* site::
* socket: socket<2>.
* ssl: ssl<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<4>.
* sys: sys<3>.
* _thread::
* threading: threading<3>.
* traceback: traceback<2>.
* types: types<2>.
* typing: typing<3>.
* unittest: unittest<4>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse.
* xml::
* zipimport: zipimport<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<3>,  Next: argparse,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.1 asyncio
...............

新增缺少的 ‘connect_accepted_socket()’ 方法。（由 Alex Grönholm 在
bpo-41332(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332


File: python.info,  Node: argparse,  Next: array<2>,  Prev: asyncio<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.2 argparse
................

argparse 幫助中的誤導性用詞「可選引數 (optional arguments)」已被替換為「
選項 (options)」。某些依賴於精確輸出匹配的測試可能需要進行調整。（由
Raymond Hettinger 在 bpo-9694(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694


File: python.info,  Node: array<2>,  Next: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Prev: argparse,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.3 array
.............

*note array.array: 18f. 的 *note index(): 601. 方法現在具有可選的
'start' 和 'stop' 參數。（由 Anders Lorentsen 和 Zackery Spytz 在
bpo-31956(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Next: base64,  Prev: array<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.4 asynchat, asyncore, smtpd
.................................

自 Python 3.6 起，這些模組在其文件中被標記為已棄用。引入時的 *note
DeprecationWarning: 179. 現已新增到這三個模組中。


File: python.info,  Node: base64,  Next: bdb,  Prev: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.5 base64
..............

新增 *note base64.b32hexencode(): 604. 和 *note base64.b32hexdecode():
605. 以支援擴充十六進位字母的 Base32 編碼 (Base32 Encoding with Extended
Hex Alphabet)。


File: python.info,  Node: bdb,  Next: bisect,  Prev: base64,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.6 bdb
...........

新增 ‘clearBreakpoints()’ 來重置所有設定的斷點。（由 Irit Katriel 在
bpo-24160(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160


File: python.info,  Node: bisect,  Next: codecs,  Prev: bdb,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.7 bisect
..............

新增向 *note bisect: f. 模組 API 提供 'key' 函式的可能性。（由 Raymond
Hettinger 在 bpo-4356(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356


File: python.info,  Node: codecs,  Next: collections abc,  Prev: bisect,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.8 codecs
..............

新增 *note codecs.unregister(): 609. 函式來取消註冊 (unregister) 一個編
解碼器的搜索功能。（Hai Shi 在 bpo-41842(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc,  Next: contextlib<2>,  Prev: codecs,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.9 collections.abc
.......................

*note collections.abc.Callable: 60b. 的*note 參數化泛型 (parameterized
generic): 4af. 的 ‘__args__’ 現在與 *note typing.Callable: 5e3. 一致。
*note collections.abc.Callable: 60b. 泛型現在會將型別參數攤平，類似於
*note typing.Callable: 5e3. 目前的做法。這意味著
‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ 將具有 ‘(int, str, str)’ 的
‘__args__’；在以前這是 ‘([int, str], str)’。為了允許此更改，現在可以對
*note types.GenericAlias: 60c. 進行子類別化，並且在下標 (subscript)
*note collections.abc.Callable: 60b. 型別時將回傳子類別。請注意，對於無
效形式的 *note collections.abc.Callable: 60b. 參數化可能會引發 *note
TypeError: 2ba.，而在 Python 3.9 中該參數可能會無引發例外地傳遞。（由
Ken Jin 在 bpo-42195(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<2>,  Next: curses,  Prev: collections abc,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.10 contextlib
...................

新增 *note contextlib.aclosing(): 60e. 情境管理器以安全地關閉非同步產生
器和表示非同步釋放資源的物件。（由 Joongi Kim 和 John Belmonte 在
bpo-41229(1) 中貢獻。）

向 *note contextlib.nullcontext(): 60f. 新增非同步情境管理器支援。（由
Tom Gringauz 在 bpo-41543(2) 中貢獻。）

新增 *note AsyncContextDecorator: 610.，用於支援將非同步情境管理器作為裝
飾器使用。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543


File: python.info,  Node: curses,  Next: dataclasses<2>,  Prev: contextlib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.11 curses
...............

ncurses 6.1 中新增的擴充顏色函式將由 *note curses.color_content(): 612.、
*note curses.init_color(): 613.、*note curses.init_pair(): 614. 和 *note
curses.pair_content(): 615. 透明地使用。新函式 *note
curses.has_extended_color_support(): 616. 表示了底層的 ncurses 函式庫是
否支援擴充顏色。（由 Jeffrey Kintscher 和 Hans Petter Jansson 在
bpo-36982(1) 中貢獻。）

如果 ‘BUTTON5_*’ 常數是由底層 *note curses: 29. 函式庫提供的，那麼它們現
在會在 curses 模組中公開。（由 Zackery Spytz 在 bpo-39273(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36982

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses<2>,  Next: distutils<2>,  Prev: curses,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.12 dataclasses
....................

* Menu:

* __slots__::
* 僅限關鍵字欄位 (Keyword-only fields): 僅限關鍵字欄位 Keyword-only fields.


File: python.info,  Node: __slots__,  Next: 僅限關鍵字欄位 Keyword-only fields,  Up: dataclasses<2>

1.3.6.13 __slots__
..................

在 *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 3bc. 裝飾器中新增了 ‘slots’ 參數。（由
Yurii Karabas 在 bpo-42269(1) 中貢獻）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269


File: python.info,  Node: 僅限關鍵字欄位 Keyword-only fields,  Prev: __slots__,  Up: dataclasses<2>

1.3.6.14 僅限關鍵字欄位 (Keyword-only fields)
.............................................

dataclasses 現在支援在產生的 __init__ 方法中包含僅限關鍵字的欄位。有多種
方法可以指定僅限關鍵字欄位。

你可以說每個欄位都是關鍵字：

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass(kw_only=True)
     class Birthday:
         name: str
         birthday: datetime.date

‘name’ 和 ‘birthday’ 都是產生的 __init__ 方法的僅限關鍵字參數。

你可以在每個欄位的基礎上指定僅限關鍵字：

     from dataclasses import dataclass, field

     @dataclass
     class Birthday:
         name: str
         birthday: datetime.date = field(kw_only=True)

這裡只有 ‘birthday’ 是僅限關鍵字。如果你在各個欄位上設定 ‘kw_only’，請注
意，由於僅限關鍵字欄位需要遵循非僅限關鍵字欄位，因此會有欄位重新排序的相
關規則。詳細資訊請參閱完整的 dataclasses 文件。

你還可以指定 KW_ONLY 標記後面的所有欄位均為僅限關鍵字欄位。這可能是最常
見的用法：

     from dataclasses import dataclass, KW_ONLY

     @dataclass
     class Point:
         x: float
         y: float
         _: KW_ONLY
         z: float = 0.0
         t: float = 0.0

這裡的 ‘z’ 和 ‘t’ 是僅限關鍵字參數，而 ‘x’ 和 ‘y’ 則不是。（由 Eric V.
Smith 在 bpo-43532(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<2>,  Next: doctest,  Prev: dataclasses<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.15 distutils
..................

整個 ‘distutils’ 套件已被棄用，將在 Python 3.12 中刪除。它指定套件建置的
功能已經完全被第三方套件 ‘setuptools’ 和 ‘packaging’ 所取代，並且大多數
其他常用的 API 都可以在標準函式庫的其他地方被找到（例如 *note platform:
a5. 、*note shutil: c0.、*note subprocess: d0. 或 *note sysconfig: d5.）
。目前沒有將 ‘distutils’ 遷移任何其他地方的計畫，且使用其他功能的應用程
式應該開始規劃如何取得程式碼的私有副本。請參閱 PEP 632(1) 的討論。

Python 3.8 中不推薦使用的 ‘bdist_wininst’ 命令已被刪除。現在建議使用
‘bdist_wheel’ 命令來在 Windows 上發布二進位套件。（由 Victor Stinner 在
bpo-42802(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802


File: python.info,  Node: doctest,  Next: encodings,  Prev: distutils<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.16 doctest
................

當模組未定義 ‘__loader__’ 時，回退到 ‘__spec__.loader’ 。（由 Brett
Cannon 在 bpo-42133(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: encodings,  Next: enum<3>,  Prev: doctest,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.17 encodings
..................

‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’ 現在會忽略非 ASCII 字元。（Hai Shi 在
bpo-39337(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337


File: python.info,  Node: enum<3>,  Next: fileinput,  Prev: encodings,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.18 enum
.............

*note Enum: 42b. *note __repr__(): 416. 現在會回傳
‘enum_name.member_name’ 、*note __str__(): 418. 現在會回傳 ‘member_name’
。可用作模組常數的標準函式庫列舉會有 ‘module_name.member_name’ 的 *note
repr(): 61e.。（由 Ethan Furman 在 bpo-40066(1) 中貢獻。）

新增 *note enum.StrEnum: 414.，為所有成員都是字串的列舉。（由 Ethan
Furman 在 bpo-41816(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput,  Next: faulthandler,  Prev: enum<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.19 fileinput
..................

在 *note fileinput.input(): 620. 和 *note fileinput.FileInput: 547. 中新
增 'encoding' 和 'errors' 參數。（由 Inada Naoki 在 bpo-43712(1) 中貢獻
。）

當 'mode' 為 "r" 並且檔案有被壓縮時，*note fileinput.hook_compressed():
621. 現在會回傳 *note TextIOWrapper: 5d9. 物件（和未壓縮檔案一樣）。（由
Inada Naoki 在 bpo-5758(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5758


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler,  Next: gc,  Prev: fileinput,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.20 faulthandler
.....................

*note faulthandler: 53. 模組現在可以檢測垃圾收集器 (garbage collector) 在
收集期間是否發生嚴重錯誤。（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-44466(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44466


File: python.info,  Node: gc,  Next: glob,  Prev: faulthandler,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.21 gc
...........

為 *note gc.get_objects(): 624.、*note gc.get_referrers(): 625. 和 *note
gc.get_referents(): 626. 新增稽核掛鉤 (audit hooks)。（由 Pablo Galindo
在 bpo-43439(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439


File: python.info,  Node: glob,  Next: hashlib<3>,  Prev: gc,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.22 glob
.............

在 *note glob(): 628. 和 *note iglob(): 629. 中新增 'root_dir' 和
'dir_fd' 參數，允許指定搜索的根目錄。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在
bpo-38144(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38144


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<3>,  Next: hmac,  Prev: glob,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.23 hashlib
................

hashlib 模組需要 OpenSSL 1.1.1 或更高版本。（由 Christian Heimes 在 PEP
644(1) 和 bpo-43669(2) 中貢獻。）

hashlib 模組初步支援 OpenSSL 3.0.0。（由 Christian Heimes 在
bpo-38820(3) 和其他問題中貢獻。）

純 Python 的 *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 290. 回退已被棄用。將來只有在有
OpenSSL 支援的建置 Python 中才能夠使用 PBKDF2-HMAC。（由 Christian
Heimes 在 bpo-43880(4) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880


File: python.info,  Node: hmac,  Next: IDLE 和 idlelib,  Prev: hashlib<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.24 hmac
.............

hmac 模組現在在內部使用 OpenSSL 的 HMAC 實作。（由 Christian Heimes 在
bpo-40645(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE 和 idlelib,  Next: importlib metadata,  Prev: hmac,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.25 IDLE 和 idlelib
........................

讓 IDLE 調用 *note sys.excepthook(): 62d. （在沒有 ‘-n’ 的情況下啟動時）
。使用者掛鉤 (user hooks) 在以前是被忽略的。（由 Ken Hilton 在
bpo-43008(1) 中貢獻。）

重新排列設定對話框。將 General 分頁拆分為 Windows 和 Shell/Ed 分頁。將擴
充 Help 選單的幫助來源移至 Extensions 分頁。為新選項騰出空間並縮短對話框
，而後者使對話框更好地適應較小的螢幕。（由 Terry Jan Reedy 在
bpo-40468(2) 中貢獻。）將縮排空間設定從 Font 分頁移至新的 Windows 分頁。
（由 Mark Roseman 和 Terry Jan Reedy 在 bpo-33962(3) 中貢獻。）

上述更改已向後移植到 3.9 維護版本。

新增 Shell 側邊欄。將主要提示字元 (‘>>>’) 移至側邊欄。將輔助提示字元（
‘...’）新增到側邊欄。點擊左鍵再拖動能夠選擇一行或多行文字，和編輯器列號
側邊欄操作一樣。選擇文字列後點擊右鍵會顯示帶有「一併複製提示字元 (copy
with prompts)」的情境選單，這會將側邊欄中提示字元與所選文字並排，此選項
也會出現在文字的情境選單上。（由 Tal Einat 在 bpo-37903(4) 中貢獻。）

使用空格而不是製表符號 (tab) 來縮進交互式程式碼。這能夠使交互式程式碼條
目「看起來正確」。新增 shell 側邊欄的主要動機是實現這一點。（由 Terry
Jan Reedy 在 bpo-37892(5) 中貢獻。）

突顯 (highlight) 模式匹配陳述式中的新*note 軟關鍵字 (soft keywords):
62e. *note match: 62f.、*note case: 62f. 和 *note _: 630.。然而這種突顯
並不完美，並且在某些罕見的情況下會出錯，包括 ‘case’ 模式中的一些 ‘_’。（
由 Tal Einat 在 bpo-44010(6) 中貢獻。）

3.10 維護版本中的新增功能。

將語法突顯 (syntax highlighting) 應用於 ‘.pyi’ 檔案。（由 Alex Waygood 和
Terry Jan Reedy 在 bpo-45447(7) 中貢獻。）

保存帶有輸入和輸出的 Shell 時，會包含提示字元。（由 Terry Jan Reedy 在
gh-95191(8) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata,  Next: inspect<3>,  Prev: IDLE 和 idlelib,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.26 importlib.metadata
...........................

與 ‘importlib_metadata’ 4.6 功能相同（歷史(1)）。

*note importlib.metadata 入口點: 632.現在透過新的 *note
importlib.metadata.EntryPoints: 632. 類別提供了以群組和名稱選擇入口點的
更好體驗。有關棄用與用法的更多資訊，請參閱文件中的相容性說明。

新增了 *note importlib.metadata.packages_distributions(): 633. 用於將頂
階 Python 模組和套件解析出 *note importlib.metadata.Distribution: 634.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<3>,  Next: itertools<2>,  Prev: importlib metadata,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.27 inspect
................

當模組未定義 ‘__loader__’ 時，回退到 ‘__spec__.loader’ 。（由 Brett
Cannon 在 bpo-42133(1) 中貢獻。）

新增 *note inspect.get_annotations(): 636.，它可以安全地計算物件上定義的
註釋。它是存取各種型別物件註釋的怪作法 (quirks) 的變通解法 (work
around)，並且對其檢查的物件做出很少的假設。 *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 636. 也可以正確地取消字串化註釋 (stringized
annotations)。 *note inspect.get_annotations(): 636. 現在被認為是存取任
何 Python 物件上定義的註釋字典的最佳實踐；有關使用註釋的最佳實踐的更多資
訊，請參閱 *note 註釋 (annotation) 最佳實踐: 5fa.。相關地，*note
inspect.signature(): 548.、*note inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 54b.
和 ‘inspect.Signature.from_function()’ 現在呼叫 *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 636. 來檢索註釋。這意味著 *note
inspect.signature(): 548. 和 *note inspect.Signature.from_callable():
54b. 現在也可以取消字串化註釋。（由 Larry Hastings 在 bpo-43817(2) 中貢
獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<2>,  Next: linecache,  Prev: inspect<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.28 itertools
..................

新增 *note itertools.pairwise(): 638.。（由 Raymond Hettinger 在
bpo-38200(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200


File: python.info,  Node: linecache,  Next: os<3>,  Prev: itertools<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.29 linecache
..................

當模組未定義 ‘__loader__’ 時，回退到 ‘__spec__.loader’ 。（由 Brett
Cannon 在 bpo-42133(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: os<3>,  Next: os path<2>,  Prev: linecache,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.30 os
...........

為 VxWorks RTOS 新增 *note os.cpu_count(): 63b. 支援。（由 Peixing Xin 在
bpo-41440(1) 中貢獻。）

新增函式 *note os.eventfd(): 63c. 和相關幫助程式來包裝 Linux 上的
‘eventfd2’ 系統呼叫。（由 Christian Heimes 在 bpo-41001(2) 中貢獻。）

新增 *note os.splice(): 63d. 以允許在兩個檔案描述器 (file descriptor) 之
間移動資料，而無需在核心地址空間 (kernel address space) 和使用者地址空間
(user address space) 之間進行複製，其中檔案描述器之一必須是個 pipe。（由
Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-41625(3) 中貢獻。）

為 macOS 新增 *note O_EVTONLY: 63e.、*note O_FSYNC: 63f.、*note
O_SYMLINK: 640. 和 *note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 641.。（由 Donghee Na 在
bpo-43106(4) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106


File: python.info,  Node: os path<2>,  Next: pathlib<3>,  Prev: os<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.31 os.path
................

*note os.path.realpath(): 643. 現在接受一個 'strict' 僅限關鍵字引數。當
設定為 ‘True’ 時，如果路徑不存在或遇到符號鏈接循環 (symlink loop)，則會
引發 *note OSError: 644.。（由 Barney Gale 在 bpo-43757(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43757


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<3>,  Next: platform,  Prev: os path<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.32 pathlib
................

新增 *note PurePath.parents: 646. 對於切片的支援。 （由 Joshua Cannon 在
bpo-35498(1) 中貢獻。）

向 *note PurePath.parents: 646. 新增負索引支援。（由 Yaroslav Pankovych
在 bpo-21041(2) 中貢獻。）

新增替代 ‘link_to()’ 的 *note Path.hardlink_to: 647. 方法。新方法與
*note symlink_to(): 648. 具有相同的引數順序。（由 Barney Gale 在
bpo-39950(3) 中貢獻。）

*note pathlib.Path.stat(): 649. 和 *note chmod(): 64a. 現在接受
'follow_symlinks' 僅限關鍵字引數，以與 *note os: 9c. 模組中的相應函式保
持一致。（由 Barney Gale 在 bpo-39906(4) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906


File: python.info,  Node: platform,  Next: pprint,  Prev: pathlib<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.33 platform
.................

Add *note platform.freedesktop_os_release(): 64c. to retrieve operation
system identification from freedesktop.org os-release(1) standard file.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28468(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468


File: python.info,  Node: pprint,  Next: py_compile,  Prev: platform,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.34 pprint
...............

*note pprint.pprint(): 64e. 現在接受新的 ‘underscore_numbers’ 關鍵字引數
。（由 sblondon 在 bpo-42914(1) 中貢獻。）

*note pprint: a9. 現在可以漂亮地印出 *note dataclasses.dataclass: 3bc. 實
例。（由 Lewis Gaul 在 bpo-43080(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile,  Next: pyclbr,  Prev: pprint,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.35 py_compile
...................

將 ‘--quiet’ 選項新增到 *note py_compile: ae. 的命令列界面。（由 Gregory
Schevchenko 在 bpo-38731(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38731


File: python.info,  Node: pyclbr,  Next: shelve,  Prev: py_compile,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.36 pyclbr
...............

將 ‘end_lineno’ 屬性新增到 *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 651. 和 *note
pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 652. 回傳的樹中的 ‘Function’ 和 ‘Class’ 物件。它
與現有的（開始） ‘lineno’ 匹配。（由 Aviral Srivastava 在 bpo-38307(1) 中
貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307


File: python.info,  Node: shelve,  Next: statistics<2>,  Prev: pyclbr,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.37 shelve
...............

現在，*note shelve: be. 模組在建立 shelve 時預設使用 *note
pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 654.，而不是 *note pickle: a1. 的協議 ‘3’。（由
Zackery Spytz 在 bpo-34204(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<2>,  Next: site,  Prev: shelve,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.38 statistics
...................

新增 *note covariance(): 656.、Pearson *note correlation(): 1e3. 和簡單
*note linear_regression(): 657. 函式。（由 Tymoteusz Wołodźko 在
bpo-38490(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490


File: python.info,  Node: site,  Next: socket<2>,  Prev: statistics<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.39 site
.............

當模組未定義 ‘__loader__’ 時，回退到 ‘__spec__.loader’ 。（由 Brett
Cannon 在 bpo-42133(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: socket<2>,  Next: ssl<2>,  Prev: site,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.40 socket
...............

*note socket.timeout: 65a. 例外現在是 *note TimeoutError: 65b. 的別名。
（由 Christian Heimes 在 bpo-42413(1) 中貢獻。）

新增使用 ‘IPPROTO_MPTCP’ 建立 MPTCP socket 的選項（由 Rui Cunha 在
bpo-43571(2) 中貢獻。）

新增 ‘IP_RECVTOS’ 選項以接收服務型別 (type of service, ToS) 或 DSCP/ECN
欄位（由 Georg Sauthoff 在 44077 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<2>,  Next: sqlite3<4>,  Prev: socket<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.41 ssl
............

ssl 模組需要 OpenSSL 1.1.1 或更高版本。（由 Christian Heimes 在 PEP
644(1) 和 bpo-43669(2) 中貢獻。）

ssl 模組初步支援 OpenSSL 3.0.0 和新選項 *note OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF:
65d.。（由 Christian Heimes 於 bpo-38820(3)、bpo-43794(4)、
bpo-43788(5)、bpo-43791(6)、bpo-43799(7)、bpo-43920(8)、bpo-43789(9) 和
bpo-43811(10) 貢獻。)

已棄用函式和使用已棄用常數現在會導致 *note DeprecationWarning: 179.。
*note ssl.SSLContext.options: 65e. 預設設定有 *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 65f. 和
*note OP_NO_SSLv3: 660.，因此無法再次發出設定該旗標的警告。*note
棄用部分: 661.包含已棄用功能的列表。（由 Christian Heimes 在
bpo-43880(11) 中貢獻。）

ssl 模組現在具有更安全的預設設定。預設情況下禁用沒有前向保密或 SHA-1 MAC
的密碼。安全級別 2 禁止安全性低於 112 位元的弱 RSA、DH 和 ECC 密鑰。
*note SSLContext: 26f. 預設為最低協議版本 TLS 1.2。設定基於 Hynek
Schlawack 的研究。（由 Christian Heimes 在 bpo-43998(12) 中貢獻。）

不再正式支援已棄用的協議 SSL 3.0、TLS 1.0 和 TLS 1.1。 Python 不會主動阻
止它們。然而，OpenSSL 建置選項、發行版配置、發行商補丁和密碼套件可能會阻
止交握的成功。

向 *note ssl.get_server_certificate(): 662. 函式新增 'timeout' 參數。（
由 Zackery Spytz 在 bpo-31870(13) 中貢獻。）

ssl 模組使用堆疊類型 (heap-types) 和多階段初始化 (multi-phase
initialization)。（由 Christian Heimes 在 bpo-42333(14) 中貢獻。）

新增驗證旗標 *note VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 663.。（由 l0x 在
bpo-40849(15) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<4>,  Next: sys<3>,  Prev: ssl<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.42 sqlite3
................

新增 ‘connect/handle()’、*note enable_load_extension(): 665. 和 *note
load_extension(): 1df. 的稽核事件。（由 Erlend E. Aasland 在
bpo-43762(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762


File: python.info,  Node: sys<3>,  Next: _thread,  Prev: sqlite3<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.43 sys
............

新增 *note sys.orig_argv: 667. 屬性：傳遞給 Python 可執行檔案的原始命令
列引數列表。（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-23427(1) 中貢獻。）

新增 *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 668.，其中包含標準函式庫模組的名稱列
表。 （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-42955(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955


File: python.info,  Node: _thread,  Next: threading<3>,  Prev: sys<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.44 _thread
................

*note _thread.interrupt_main(): 66a. 現在需要一個可選的信號編號來進行模
擬（預設值仍然是 *note signal.SIGINT: 66b.）。（由 Antoine Pitrou 在
bpo-43356(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356


File: python.info,  Node: threading<3>,  Next: traceback<2>,  Prev: _thread,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.45 threading
..................

新增 *note threading.gettrace(): 66d. 和 *note threading.getprofile():
66e. 分別取得 *note threading.settrace(): 66f. 和 *note
threading.setprofile(): 670. 設定的函式。（由 Mario Corchero 在
bpo-42251(1) 中貢獻。）

新增 *note threading.__excepthook__: 671. 以允許取得 *note
threading.excepthook(): 672. 的原始值，以防它被設定為損壞或不同的值。（
由 Mario Corchero 在 bpo-42308(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<2>,  Next: types<2>,  Prev: threading<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.46 traceback
..................

*note format_exception(): 674.、*note format_exception_only(): 675. 和
*note print_exception(): 676. 函式現在可以將例外物件作為僅限位置引數。（
由 Zackery Spytz 和 Matthias Bussonnier 在 bpo-26389(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389


File: python.info,  Node: types<2>,  Next: typing<3>,  Prev: traceback<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.47 types
..............

重新引入 *note types.EllipsisType: 678.、*note types.NoneType: 679. 和
*note types.NotImplementedType: 67a. 類別，提供一組易於型別檢查器直譯的
新型別。（由 Bas van Beek 在 bpo-41810(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810


File: python.info,  Node: typing<3>,  Next: unittest<4>,  Prev: types<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.48 typing
...............

有關重大更改，請參閱*note 與型別提示相關的新功能: 5dc.。

*note typing.Literal: 67c. 的行為已更改為符合 PEP 586(1) 並匹配 PEP 中指
定的靜態型別檢查器的行為。

  1. ‘Literal’ 現在可以刪除重複參數。

  2. ‘Literal’ 物件之間的相等性比較現在與順序無關。

  3. 現在型別的比較會優先於 ‘Literal’ 的比較。例如，‘Literal[0] ==
     Literal[False]’ 先前之求值為 ‘True’，但現在它是 ‘False’。為了支援此
     更改，內部使用的型別快取現在支援了型別的辨認。

  4. 如果 ‘Literal’ 物件的任ㄧ參數不是*note 可雜湊的: 409.，那麼它們現在
     將在相等性比較期間引發 *note TypeError: 2ba. 例外。請注意，使用不可
     雜湊的參數宣告 ‘Literal’ 不會引發錯誤：

          >>> from typing import Literal
          >>> Literal[{0}]
          >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

（由 Yurii Karabas 在 bpo-42345(2) 中貢獻。）

新增函式 *note typing.is_typeddict(): 67d. 來自我審查 (introspect) 註釋
是否為 *note typing.TypedDict: 153.。（由 Patrick Reader 在 bpo-41792(3)
中貢獻。）

僅宣告了資料變數的 ‘typing.Protocol’ 子類別現在在使用 ‘isinstance’ 檢查
時會引發 ‘TypeError’ ，除非它們用 *note runtime_checkable(): 14c. 裝飾。
此前，這些檢查都是悄無聲息地通過的。如果使用者需要執行環境協議 (runtime
protocol)，則應該使用 ‘runtime_checkable()’ 裝飾器來裝飾其子類別。（由
Yurii Karabas 在 bpo-38908(4) 中貢獻。）

從 ‘typing.io’ 和 ‘typing.re’ 子模組引入現在將發出 *note
DeprecationWarning: 179.。這些子模組自 Python 3.8 起已被棄用，並將在未來
版本的 Python 中刪除。屬於這些子模組的任何內容都應該直接從 *note typing:
ff. 引入。 （由 Sebastian Rittau 在 bpo-38291(5) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38908

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<4>,  Next: urllib parse,  Prev: typing<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.49 unittest
.................

新增方法 *note assertNoLogs(): 67f. 以補足現有的 *note assertLogs():
680.。（由 Kit Yan Choi 在 bpo-39385(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39385


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse,  Next: xml,  Prev: unittest<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.50 urllib.parse
.....................

Python 3.10 之前的 Python 版本允許在 *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 682.
和 *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 683. 中使用 ‘;’ 和 ‘&’ 作為查詢參數
(query parameter) 的分隔符號。出於安全考慮，並且為了符合更新的 W3C 建議
，已將其更改為僅允許單個分隔符號鍵，預設為 ‘&’。此更改還會影響 *note
cgi.parse(): 684. 和 *note cgi.parse_multipart(): 685.，因為它們在內部使
用受影響的函式。有關更多詳細資訊，請參閱各自的文件。（由 Adam
Goldschmidt、Senthil Kumaran 和 Ken Jin 在 bpo-42967(1) 中貢獻。）

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(2), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 105.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
gh-88048(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: xml,  Next: zipimport<2>,  Prev: urllib parse,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.51 xml
............

新增 *note LexicalHandler: 687. 類別到 *note xml.sax.handler: 125. 模組
。（由 Jonathan Gossage 和 Zackery Spytz 在 bpo-35018(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35018


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport<2>,  Prev: xml,  Up: 改進的模組<3>

1.3.6.52 zipimport
..................

新增與 PEP 451(1) 相關的方法：*note find_spec(): 689.、*note
zipimport.zipimporter.create_module(): 68a. 和 *note
zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module(): 281.。（由 Brett Cannon 在
bpo-42131(2) 中貢獻。）

新增 *note invalidate_caches(): 68b. 方法。（由 Desmond Cheong 在
bpo-14678(3) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<3>,  Next: 已棄用<5>,  Prev: 改進的模組<3>,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.7 最佳化
------------

   * 建構函式 *note str(): 157.、*note bytes(): 2c1. 和 *note
     bytearray(): 2c0. 現在更快了（對於小型物件大約快了 30-40%）。（由
     Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-41334(1) 中貢獻。）

   * *note runpy: b9. 模組現在引入更少的模組。‘python3 -m module-name’ 指
     令啟動時間平均快了 1.4 倍。在 Linux 上，‘python3 -I -m module-name’
     在 Python 3.9 上引入 69 個模組，而在 Python 3.10 上僅引入 51 個模組
     (-18)。（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-41006(2) 和 bpo-41718(3) 中貢獻。
     ）

   * ‘LOAD_ATTR’ 指令現在使用新的「操作碼快取 (per opcode cache)」機制。
     現在一般屬性的速度提高了約 36%，槽位 (slot) 的速度提高了 44%。（由
     Pablo Galindo 和 Yury Selivanov 在 bpo-42093(4) 中以及 Guido van
     Rossum 在 bpo-42927(5) 中貢獻，基於最初在 PyPy 和 MicroPython 中實
     作的想法。）

   * 當使用 *note -enable-optimizations: 68d. 建置 Python 時，現在
     ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ 被新增到編譯和鏈接列 (link line) 中。
     這使得使用 *note -enable-shared: 68e. 和 ‘gcc’ 建立的 Python 直譯器
     的建置速度提高了 30%。請參閱本文(6) 以了解詳情。（由 Victor Stinner
     和 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-38980(7) 中貢獻。）

   * 對 *note bz2: 11. / *note lzma: 85. / *note zlib: 12d. 模組使用新的
     輸出緩衝區管理程式碼，並將 ‘.readall()’ 函式新增到
     ‘_compression.DecompressReader’ 類別。 bz2 解壓縮速度提高了 1.09x ~
     1.17x，lzma 解壓縮速度提高了 1.20x ~ 1.32x，‘GzipFile.read(-1)’ 速
     度提高了 1.11x ~ 1.18x。（由 Ma Lin 於 bpo-41486(8) 貢獻、由
     Gregory P. Smith 審閱）

   * 使用字串化註釋時，建立函式時不再建立函式的註釋字典。取而代之的是它
     們被存儲為字串元組，且函式物件會根據需求才將其延遲轉換 (lazily
     convert) 為註釋字典。此最佳化將定義帶有註釋的函式所需的 CPU 時間減
     少了一半。（由 Yurii Karabas 和 Inada Naoki 在 bpo-42202(9) 中貢獻
     。）

   * 像是 ‘str1 in str2’ 和 ‘str2.find(str1)’ 之類的子字串搜索函式現在有
     時會使用 Crochemore & Perrin 的「雙向」字串搜索演算法來避免作用於長
     字串上時發生二次方行為 (quadratic behavior)。（由 Dennis Sweeney 在
     bpo-41972(10) 中貢獻）

   * 向 ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ 新增微最佳化以提高快取命中的常見情況下的型別
     屬性快取查找性能。這使得直譯器平均速度提高了 1.04 倍。（由 Dino
     Viehland 在 bpo-43452(11) 中貢獻。）

   * 以下內建函式現在支援更快的 PEP 590(12) vectorcall 呼叫慣例：*note
     map(): 68f.、*note filter(): 690.、*note reversed(): 691.、*note
     bool(): 17d. 和 *note float(): 26a.。（由 Donghee Na 和 Jeroen
     Demeyer 在 bpo-43575(13)、bpo-43287(14)、bpo-41922(15)、
     bpo-41873(16) 和 bpo-41870(17) 中貢獻。）

   * 通過刪除內部 ‘RLock’，*note BZ2File: 692. 的性能得到了改進。這使得
     ‘BZ2File’ 在面對多個同時的讀取器或寫入器時執行緒不安全，就像 *note
     gzip: 62. 和 *note lzma: 85. 中的等效類別一樣。（由 Inada Naoki 在
     bpo-43785(18) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41006

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41718

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927

   (6) 
https://developers.redhat.com/blog/2020/06/25/red-hat-enterprise-linux-8-2-brings-faster-python-3-8-run-speeds/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用<5>,  Next: 已刪除,  Prev: 最佳化<3>,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.8 已棄用
------------

   * 目前 Python 接受緊跟關鍵字的數字字面值 (numeric literals)，例如
     ‘0in x’、‘1or x’、‘0if 1else 2’。它允許了令人困惑和不明確的運算式，
     例如 ‘[0x1for x in y]’ （可以直譯為 ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ 或 ‘[0x1f or
     x in y]’ ）。從此版本開始，如果數字字面值後緊跟關鍵字 *note and:
     263.、*note else: 264.、*note for: 265.、*note if: 266.、*note in:
     267.、*note is: 268. 與 *note or: 269. 其中之一，則會引發棄用警告。
     在未來的版本中，它將被變更為語法警告，最後成為為語法錯誤。（由
     Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-43833(1) 中貢獻。）

   * 從這個版本開始，我們將齊心協力開始清理為相容 Python 2.7 而保留的舊
     引入語義。具體來說， ‘find_loader()’/‘find_module()’ （被 *note
     find_spec(): 694. 取代）、*note load_module(): 695. （被 *note
     exec_module(): 696. 取代）、 ‘module_repr()’ （引入系統負責處理你）
     、‘__package__’ 屬性（由 ‘__spec__.parent’ 取代）、 ‘__loader__’ 屬
     性（由 ‘__spec__.loader’ 取代）和 ‘__cached__’ 屬性（由
     ‘__spec__.cached’ 取代）將慢慢被刪除（以及 *note importlib: 71. 中
     的其他類別和方法）。將酌情引發 *note ImportWarning: 247. 和/或
     *note DeprecationWarning: 179. 以幫助識別在此轉換期間需要更新的程式
     碼。

   * 整個 ‘distutils’ 命名空間已棄用，將在 Python 3.12 中刪除。請參閱
     *note 模組更改: 539. 以獲取更多資訊。

   * *note random.randrange(): 697. 的非整數引數已棄用。*note
     ValueError: 183. 已被棄用，取而代之的是 *note TypeError: 2ba.。（由
     Serhiy Storchaka 和 Raymond Hettinger 在 bpo-37319(2) 中貢獻。）

   * *note importlib: 71. 的各種 ‘load_module()’ 方法自 Python 3.6 起已
     被記錄為已棄用，但現在也會觸發 *note DeprecationWarning: 179.。請改
     用 *note exec_module(): 696.。（由 Brett Cannon 在 bpo-26131(3) 中
     貢獻。）

   * ‘zimport.zipimporter.load_module()’ 已被棄用，請用 *note
     exec_module(): 281.。（由 Brett Cannon 在 bpo-26131(4) 中貢獻。）

   * 引入系統使用 *note load_module(): 695. 現在會觸發 *note
     ImportWarning: 247.，因為 *note exec_module(): 696. 是當前首選。（
     由 Brett Cannon 在 bpo-26131(5) 中貢獻。）

   * 引入系統使用 ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ 和
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ 現在會觸發 *note
     ImportWarning: 247.，因為 *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 694. 和 *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 698. 分別是替代方案的首
     選。你可以使用 *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 699. 來幫助
     移植。（由 Brett Cannon 在 bpo-42134(6) 中貢獻。）

   * 引入系統使用 ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ 現在會觸
     發 *note ImportWarning: 247.，因為 *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 698. 是首選。你可以使用
     *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 699. 來幫助移植。（由
     Brett Cannon 在 bpo-43672(7) 中貢獻。）

   * ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ 的各種實作（
     ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’、
     ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’、
     ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’、
     ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’、
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ )、
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’
     (‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’ ) 和
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’
     (‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’ ) 現在引發 *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179. 並計劃在 Python 3.12 中刪除（之前它們已在
     Python 3.4 中被記錄為已棄用）。（由 Brett Cannon 在 bpo-42135(8) 中
     貢獻。）

   * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ 已被棄用（包括其唯一方法 ‘find_module()’）。
     *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 69a. 和 *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 69b. 都不再從該類別繼承。使用者應該
     根據需求來選擇其一以繼承。（由 Brett Cannon 在 bpo-42135(9) 中貢獻
     。）

   * 棄用 ‘imp’、‘importlib.find_loader()’、
     ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’、
     ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’、
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’、‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’ 和
     ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ 均已更新，將於 Python 3.12 列為預定的刪除版本（
     它們開始在過去版本的 Python 中引發 *note DeprecationWarning: 179.）
     。（由 Brett Cannon 在 bpo-43720(10) 中貢獻。）

   * 引入系統現在在模組上使用 ‘__spec__’ 屬性，然後才會回退使用
     ‘module_repr()’ 作為模組的 ‘__repr__()’ 方法。計劃在 Python 3.12 中
     刪除 ‘module_repr()’ 的使用。（由 Brett Cannon 在 bpo-42137(11) 中
     貢獻。）

   * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’、
     ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’ 和
     ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’ 已棄用並計劃在
     Python 3.12 中刪除。（由 Brett Cannon 在 bpo-42136(12) 中貢獻。）

   * 自 Python 3.3 起，‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ 就沒有文件記錄並且已過
     時，當時它被用作 *note str: 157. 的別名。它現已被棄用，並計劃在
     Python 3.12 中刪除。（由 Erlend E. Aasland 在 bpo-42264(13) 中貢獻
     。）

   * 未記錄於說明文件的內建函式 ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache’ 現已棄用，
     計劃在 Python 3.12 中刪除。SQLite3 文件強烈建議不去使用它。有關更多
     詳細資訊，請參閱 SQLite3 文件(14)。如果必須使用共享快取，請使用
     ‘cache=shared’ 查詢參數以 URI 模式打開資料庫。（由 Erlend E.
     Aasland 在 bpo-24464(15) 中貢獻。）

   * 以下 ‘threading’ 方法現已棄用：

        * ‘threading.currentThread’ => *note threading.current_thread():
          278.

        * ‘threading.activeCount’ => *note threading.active_count():
          279.

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll’ => *note
          threading.Condition.notify_all(): 272.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet’ => *note threading.Event.is_set():
          273.

        * ‘threading.Thread.setName’ => *note threading.Thread.name:
          277.

        * ‘threading.thread.getName’ => *note threading.Thread.name:
          277.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon:
          275.

        * ‘threading.Thread.setDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon:
          275.

     （由 Jelle Zijlstra 在 gh-87889(16) 中貢獻。）

   * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ 已棄用並計劃在 Python 3.12 中刪除。請改用
     *note pathlib.Path.hardlink_to(): 647.。（由 Barney Gale 在
     bpo-39950(17) 中貢獻。）

   * ‘cgi.log()’ 已棄用並計劃在 Python 3.12 中刪除。（由 Inada Naoki 在
     bpo-41139(18) 中貢獻。）

   * 自 Python 3.6、Python 3.7 或 OpenSSL 1.1.0 起，以下 *note ssl: ca.
     功能已被棄用，並將在 3.11 中刪除：

        * ‘OP_NO_SSLv2’、‘OP_NO_SSLv3’、‘OP_NO_TLSv1’、‘OP_NO_TLSv1_1’、
          ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_2’、和 ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_3’ 已被替換為
          ‘minimum_version’ 和 ‘maximum_version’。

        * ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv2’、‘PROTOCOL_SSLv3’、‘PROTOCOL_SSLv23’、
          ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1’、‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’、‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’ 和
          ‘PROTOCOL_TLS’ 已棄用，取而代之的是 *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT:
          69c. 和 *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 69d.

        * ‘wrap_socket()’ 被替換為 *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket():
          2a5.

        * ‘match_hostname()’

        * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’, ‘RAND_egd()’

        * NPN 功能如 *note ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol(): 69e. 和
          *note ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 270. 已被 ALPN 取代
          。

   * 執行緒除錯（‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ 環境變數）在 Python 3.10 中已棄用，
     並將在 Python 3.12 中刪除。此功能需要一個 *note Python
     的除錯用建置版本: 69f.。（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-44584(19) 中貢獻
     。）

   * 從 ‘typing.io’ 和 ‘typing.re’ 子模組引入現在將發出 *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179.。這些子模組將在 Python 的未來版本中刪除。
     屬於這些子模組的任何內容都應該直接從 *note typing: ff. 引入。（由
     Sebastian Rittau 在 bpo-38291(20) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37319

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264

   (14) https://sqlite.org/c3ref/enable_shared_cache.html

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87889

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291


File: python.info,  Node: 已刪除,  Next: 移植到 Python 3 10,  Prev: 已棄用<5>,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.9 已刪除
------------

   * 刪除了 *note complex: 26b. 類別的特殊方法 ‘__int__’、‘__float__’、
     ‘__floordiv__’、‘__mod__’、‘__divmod__’、‘__rfloordiv__’、
     ‘__rmod__’ 和 ‘__rdivmod__’ 。它們都會引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。
     （由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-41974(1) 中貢獻。）

   * ‘_markupbase’ 模組中私有、未於文件記錄的 ‘ParserBase.error()’ 方法
     已被刪除。*note html.parser.HTMLParser: 6a2. 是 ‘ParserBase’ 的唯一
     子類別，它的 ‘error()’ 實作已在 Python 3.5 中刪除。（由 Berker
     Peksag 在 bpo-31844(2) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除了 ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ 屬性，該屬性是內部 PyCapsule 物件
     。相關的私有 ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ 結構已移至內部 C API。（由
     Victor Stinner 在 bpo-42157(3) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除了由於切換到新的 PEG 剖析器而在 3.9 中被棄用的 ‘parser’ 模組。
     僅由舊剖析器使用的所有 C 原始碼和標頭檔也已被刪除，包括 ‘node.h’、
     ‘parser.h’、‘graminit.h’ 和 ‘grammar.h’。

   * 刪除了公開 C API 函式 ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’、
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’、
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’ 和 ‘PyNode_Compile’，這些函式由於切
     換到新的 PEG 剖析器而在 3.9 中被棄用。

   * 刪除了 ‘formatter’ 模組，該模組在 Python 3.4 中已棄用。它有些過時、
     很少被使用，也沒有經過測試。它最初計劃在 Python 3.6 中刪除，但此類
     別的刪除被推遲到 Python 2.7 EOL 之後。現有使用者應該將他們使用的任
     何類別複製到他們的程式碼中。（由 Donghee Na 和 Terry J. Reedy 在
     bpo-42299(4) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除了 ‘PyModule_GetWarningsModule()’ 函式，該函式現在無用，因為
     ‘_warnings’ 模組在 2.6 中已轉換為內建模組。（由 Hai Shi 在
     bpo-42599(5) 中貢獻。）

   * 從 *note collections: 1b. 模組中刪除已棄用的、對 *note Collections
     Abstract Base Classes: 6a3. 的別名。（由 Victor Stinner 在
     bpo-37324(6) 中貢獻。）

   * 在 Python 3.8 中棄用後，‘loop’ 參數已從大多數 *note asyncio: 9. 的
     *note 高階 API: 6a4. 中刪除。這一變化的背後動機是多方面的：

       1. 這簡化了高階 API。

       2. 自 Python 3.7 以來，高階 API 中的函式一直隱式獲取當前執行緒正
          在運行的事件循環。在大多數正常用例中，不需要將事件循環傳遞給
          API。

       3. 事件循環的傳遞很容易出錯，尤其是在處理在不同執行緒中運行的循環
          時。

     請注意，低階 API 仍會接受 ‘loop’。有關如何替換現有程式碼的範例，請
     參閱 *note Python API 的變化: 6a5.。

     （由 Yurii Karabas、Andrew Svetlov、Yury Selivanov 和 Kyle Stanley
     在 bpo-42392(7) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31844

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42599

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392


File: python.info,  Node: 移植到 Python 3 10,  Next: CPython 位元組碼變更<3>,  Prev: 已刪除,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.10 移植到 Python 3.10
-------------------------

本節列出了前面描述的更改以及可能需要更改程式碼的其他錯誤修復。

* Menu:

* Python 語法的變化::
* Python API 的變化::
* C API 中的改動::


File: python.info,  Node: Python 語法的變化,  Next: Python API 的變化,  Up: 移植到 Python 3 10

1.3.10.1 Python 語法的變化
..........................

   * 如果數字字面值後面緊跟關鍵字（如 ‘0in x’），在以前是有效的語法，但
     現在在編譯時會發出棄用警告。在未來的版本中，它將更改為語法警告，最
     後更改為語法錯誤。要消除警告並使程式碼與未來版本相容，只需在數字字
     面值和以下關鍵字之間新增一個空格即可。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在
     bpo-43833(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833


File: python.info,  Node: Python API 的變化,  Next: C API 中的改動,  Prev: Python 語法的變化,  Up: 移植到 Python 3 10

1.3.10.2 Python API 的變化
..........................

   * *note format_exception(): 674.、*note format_exception_only(): 675.
     和 *note traceback: f9. 模組中的 *note print_exception(): 676. 函式
     的 'etype' 參數已重命名為 'exc'。（由 Zackery Spytz 和 Matthias
     Bussonnier 在 bpo-26389(1) 中貢獻。）

   * *note atexit: a.：在 Python 退出時，如果一個使用 *note
     atexit.register(): 6a9. 註冊的回呼 (callback) 失敗，該例外現在會被
     記錄下來。在以前只記錄一些例外，並且最後一個例外總是被默默地忽略。
     （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-42639(2) 中貢獻。）

   * *note collections.abc.Callable: 60b. 泛型現在會攤平型別參數，類似於
     *note typing.Callable: 5e3. 目前的做法。這意味著
     ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ 將具有 ‘(int, str,
     str)’ 的 ‘__args__’；以前這是 ‘([int, str], str)’。透過 *note
     typing.get_args(): 6aa. 或 ‘__args__’ 存取參數的程式碼需要考慮此變
     更。此外，對於無效形式的參數化 *note collections.abc.Callable:
     60b.，可能會引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.，而在 Python 3.9 中，該參數
     可能已被默默地傳遞。（由 Ken Jin 在 bpo-42195(3) 中貢獻。）

   * 如果給定參數不適合 16 位元無符號整數 (16-bit unsigned integer)，
     *note socket.htons(): 6ab. 和 *note socket.ntohs(): 6ac. 現在會引發
     *note OverflowError: 6ad. 而不是 *note DeprecationWarning: 179.。（
     由 Erlend E. Aasland 在 bpo-42393(4) 中貢獻。）

   * 在 Python 3.8 中棄用後，‘loop’ 參數已從大多數 *note asyncio: 9. 的
     *note 高階 API: 6a4. 中刪除。

     目前如下所示的協程：

          async def foo(loop):
              await asyncio.sleep(1, loop=loop)

     應替換為：

          async def foo():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)

     如果 ‘foo()’ 被專門設計為 '不' 在當前執行緒的事件循環中運行（例如在
     另一個執行緒的事件循環中運行），請考慮改用 *note
     asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 6ae.。

     （由 Yurii Karabas、Andrew Svetlov、Yury Selivanov 和 Kyle Stanley
     在 bpo-42392(5) 中貢獻。）

   * 如果 'globals' 字典沒有 ‘"__builtins__"’ 鍵，則 *note
     types.FunctionType: 6af. 建構函式現在會繼承當前的內建物件，而不是使
     用 ‘{"None": None}’：相同行為如 *note eval(): 6b0. 和 *note exec():
     6b1. 函式。在 Python 中使用 ‘def function(...): ...’ 定義函式不受影
     響，全域變數不能用此語法覆蓋：它也繼承當前的內建物件。（由 Victor
     Stinner 在 bpo-42990(6) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990


File: python.info,  Node: C API 中的改動,  Prev: Python API 的變化,  Up: 移植到 Python 3 10

1.3.10.3 C API 中的改動
.......................

   * 由於切換到新的 PEG 剖析器，C API 函式
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’、
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’、
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’、‘PyNode_Compile’ 和被這些函式使用
     的型別 ‘struct _node’ 被刪除。

     現在應該將源程式碼直接（例如透過 *note Py_CompileString(): 6b3.）編
     譯為程式碼物件。然後可以（例如透過 *note PyEval_EvalCode(): 6b4.）
     為產生的程式碼物件求值 (evaluated)。

     具體來說：

        * 後跟有 ‘PyNode_Compile’ 呼叫的
          ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’ 呼叫，可以替換為呼叫 *note
          Py_CompileString(): 6b3.。

        * 沒有 ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’ 的直接替代品。要從 ‘FILE
          *’ 引數編譯程式碼，你需要用 C 讀取檔案並將結果緩衝區傳遞給
          *note Py_CompileString(): 6b3.。

        * 要編譯給定 ‘char *’ 檔案名稱的檔案，請顯式打開該檔案，讀取它並
          編譯結果。一種方法是使用 *note io: 79. 模組和 *note
          PyImport_ImportModule(): 355.、*note PyObject_CallMethod():
          301.、*note PyBytes_AsString(): 6b5. 和 *note
          Py_CompileString(): 6b3.，如下所示。（宣告和錯誤處理在此被省略
          。）：

               io_module = Import_ImportModule("io");
               fileobject = PyObject_CallMethod(io_module, "open", "ss", filename, "rb");
               source_bytes_object = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "read", "");
               result = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "close", "");
               source_buf = PyBytes_AsString(source_bytes_object);
               code = Py_CompileString(source_buf, filename, Py_file_input);

        * 對於 ‘FrameObject’ 物件，*note f_lasti: 6b6. 成員現在表示了字
          碼偏移量 (wordcode offset)，而不是位元組碼字串的簡單偏移量。這
          意味著這個數字需要乘以 2 才能與需要位元組偏移量的 API 一起使用
          （例如 *note PyCode_Addr2Line(): 6b7.）。還要注意，
          ‘FrameObject’ 物件的 ‘f_lasti’ 成員不被認為是穩定的：請改用
          *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5a3.。


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 位元組碼變更<3>,  Next: 建置變更<3>,  Prev: 移植到 Python 3 10,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.11 CPython 位元組碼變更
---------------------------

   * ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ 指令現在接受字典或字串元組作為函式的註釋。（由
     Yurii Karabas 和 Inada Naoki 在 bpo-42202(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202


File: python.info,  Node: 建置變更<3>,  Next: C API 變更<3>,  Prev: CPython 位元組碼變更<3>,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.12 建置變更
---------------

   * PEP 644(1)：Python 現在需要 OpenSSL 1.1.1 或更高版本。不再支援
     OpenSSL 1.0.2。（由 Christian Heimes 在 bpo-43669(2) 中貢獻。）

   * 現在需要 C99 函式 ‘snprintf()’ 和 ‘vsnprintf()’ 來建置 Python。 （
     由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-36020(3) 中貢獻。）

   * *note sqlite3: c9. 需要 SQLite 3.7.15 或更新版本。（由 Sergey
     Fedoseev 和 Erlend E. Aasland 在 bpo-40744(4) 和 bpo-40810(5) 中貢
     獻。）

   * *note atexit: a. 模組現在必須都被建置為內建模組。（由 Victor
     Stinner 在 bpo-42639(6) 中貢獻。）

   * 將 *note -disable-test-modules: 6ba. 選項新增到 ‘configure’ 腳本中
     ：不建置也不安裝測試模組。（由 Xavier de Gaye、Thomas Petazzoni 和
     Peixing Xin 在 bpo-27640(7) 中貢獻。）

   * 將 *note -with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH 選項: 6bb. 新增到 ‘./configure’ 腳
     本中。如果有指定，*note ensurepip: 50. 模組會在此目錄中查找
     ‘setuptools’ 和 ‘pip’ wheel 套件：如果兩者都存在，則使用這些 wheel
     套件而不是 ensurepip 捆綁的 wheel 套件。

     一些 Linux 發行版的打包策略建議不要一併包入依賴項目。例如，Fedora 在
     ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ 目錄中安裝 wheel 套件，並且不安裝
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ 套件。

     （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-42856(8) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note configure -without-static-libpython 選項: 6bc. 以不建置
     ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ 靜態函式庫且不安裝 ‘python.o’ 目標檔案。

     （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-43103(9) 中貢獻。）

   * 如果可用，‘configure’ 腳本現在使用 ‘pkg-config’ 工具程式 (utility)
     來檢測 Tcl/Tk 標頭檔和函式庫的位置。和以前一樣，可以使用
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ 和 ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ 配置選項顯式指定這些
     位置。（由 Manolis Stamatogiannakis 在 bpo-42603(10) 中貢獻。）

   * 將 *note -with-openssl-rpath: 6bd. 選項新增到 ‘configure’ 腳本中。
     該選項簡化了使用自定義 OpenSSL 安裝建置 Python 的過程，例如
     ‘./configure --with-openssl=/path/to/openssl
     --with-openssl-rpath=auto’。（由 Christian Heimes 在 bpo-43466(11)
     中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40744

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466


File: python.info,  Node: C API 變更<3>,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Prev: 建置變更<3>,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.13 C API 變更
-----------------

* Menu:

* PEP 652：維護穩定 ABI::
* 新功能: 新功能<2>.
* 移植到 Python 3.10: 移植到 Python 3 10<2>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<6>.
* 已刪除: 已刪除<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 652：維護穩定 ABI,  Next: 新功能<2>,  Up: C API 變更<3>

1.3.13.1 PEP 652：維護穩定 ABI
..............................

用於擴充模組或嵌入 Python 的穩定 ABI（應用程式二進位介面）現已明確定義。
*note C API 穩定性: 2d8. 描述了 C API 和 ABI 穩定性保證以及使用穩定 ABI
的最佳實踐。

（由 Petr Viktorin 在 PEP 652(1) 和 bpo-43795(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795


File: python.info,  Node: 新功能<2>,  Next: 移植到 Python 3 10<2>,  Prev: PEP 652：維護穩定 ABI,  Up: C API 變更<3>

1.3.13.2 新功能
...............

   * *note PyNumber_Index(): 6c1. 的結果現在都具有精確的 *note int: 17e.
     型別。在以前，結果可能是 ‘int’ 子類別的實例。（由 Serhiy Storchaka
     在 bpo-40792(1) 中貢獻。）

   * 將新的 *note orig_argv: 6c2. 成員新增到 *note PyConfig: 345. 結構：
     傳遞給 Python 可執行檔案的原始命令列參數列表。（由 Victor Stinner 在
     bpo-23427(2) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增了 *note PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(): 6c3. 和 *note
     PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(): 6c4. 巨集，用於存取 *note
     datetime.datetime: 224. 和 *note datetime.time: 6c5. 物件的
     ‘tzinfo’ 屬性。（由 Zackery Spytz 在 bpo-30155(3) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 6c6. 函式來取消註冊編解碼器搜索函
     式。（由 Hai Shi 在 bpo-41842(4) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增了 *note PyIter_Send(): 6c7. 函式，以允許將值發送到疊代器中，而
     不會引發 ‘StopIteration’ 例外。（由 Vladimir Matveev 在
     bpo-41756(5) 中貢獻。）

   * 將 *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 6c8. 新增到受限 C API (limited
     C API) 中。（由 Alex Gaynor 在 bpo-41784(6) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6c9. 函式：類似於 *note
     PyModule_AddObject(): 6ca. 但成功時不竊取對值的參照。（由 Victor
     Stinner 在 bpo-1635741(7) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note Py_NewRef(): 6cb. 和 *note Py_XNewRef(): 6cc. 函式來增加
     物件的參照計數並回傳物件。（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-42262(8) 中貢
     獻。）

   * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 30d. 和 *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6. 函式現在接受單個類別作為 'bases' 引
     數。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-42423(9) 中貢獻。）

   * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6. 函式現在接受 NULL ‘tp_doc’ 槽
     位。（由 Hai Shi 在 bpo-41832(10) 中貢獻。）

   * *note PyType_GetSlot(): 6cd. 函式可以接受*note 靜態型別 (static
     type): 596.。（由 Hai Shi 和 Petr Viktorin 在 bpo-41073(11) 中貢獻
     。）

   * 向 C-API 新增 *note PySet_CheckExact(): 6ce. 函式，以檢查物件是否是
     *note set: 3cc. 的實例而不是子型別的實例。（由 Pablo Galindo 在
     bpo-43277(12) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): 6cf.，它允許傳遞信號編號來進行模
     擬。（由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-43356(13) 中貢獻。）

   * 如 *note Python 是在除錯模式 (debug mode): 69f. 下建置的（如果有定
     義 ‘Py_DEBUG’ 巨集），現在會支援受限 C API。在受限 C API 中，如果
     Python 是在除錯模式下建置的，並且 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 巨集的目標是
     Python 3.10 或更新版本，*note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. 和 *note
     Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 函式現在的實作是不透明函式呼叫，而不是直接存取
     *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 6d0. 成員。在除錯模式下支援受限 C API 成
     為可能，因為自 Python 3.8 以來，*note PyObject: 6d1. 結構在發布和除
     錯模式下是相同的（請參閱:issue:‘36465’）。

     *note -with-trace-refs: 6d2. 特殊建置（‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ 巨集）仍不支
     援受限 C API。（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-43688(14) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note Py_Is(x, y): 6d3. 函式來測試 'x' 物件是否為 'y' 物件，與
     Python 中的 ‘x is y’ 相同。還新增 *note Py_IsNone(): 6d4.、*note
     Py_IsTrue(): 6d5.、*note Py_IsFalse(): 6d6. 函式來分別測試物件是否
     為 ‘None’ 單例、 ‘True’ 單例或 ‘False’ 單例。（由 Victor Stinner 在
     bpo-43753(15) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增函式以從 C 程式碼控制垃圾收集器：*note PyGC_Enable(): 6d7.、
     *note PyGC_Disable(): 6d8.、*note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 6d9.。這些函式
     使得能夠從 C 程式碼啟用、停用和查詢垃圾收集器的狀態，而無需引入
     *note gc: 5b. 模組。

   * 新增 *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 311. 型別旗標以禁止建
     立型別實例。（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-43916(16) 中貢獻。）

   * 新增 *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2de. 型別旗標用於建立不可變型
     別物件：無法設定或刪除型別屬性。（由 Victor Stinner 和 Erlend E.
     Aasland 在 bpo-43908(17) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908


File: python.info,  Node: 移植到 Python 3 10<2>,  Next: 已棄用<6>,  Prev: 新功能<2>,  Up: C API 變更<3>

1.3.13.3 移植到 Python 3.10
...........................

   * 現在必須定義 ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ 巨集以使用 *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. 和 *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db. 格式，這些
     格式使用 ‘#’: ‘es#’, ‘et#’、‘s#’、‘u#’、‘y#’、‘z#’、‘U#’ 和 ‘Z#’。
     請參閱 *note 剖析引數與建置數值: 6dc. 和 PEP 353(1)。（由 Victor
     Stinner 在 bpo-40943(2) 中貢獻。）

   * 由於 *note Py_REFCNT(): 6dd. 更改為行內靜態函式 (inline static
     function)，因此 ‘Py_REFCNT(obj) = new_refcnt’ 必須替換為
     ‘Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, new_refcnt)’ ：參見 *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 6de.
     （自 Python 3.9 起可用）。為了向後相容，可以使用該巨集：

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4
          #  define Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, refcnt) ((Py_REFCNT(obj) = (refcnt)), (void)0)
          #endif

     （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-39573(3) 中貢獻。）

   * 由於過去的種種原因，過去在不持有 *note GIL: 6df. 的情況下呼叫 *note
     PyDict_GetItem(): 6e0. 是被允許的。目前已被禁止。（由 Victor
     Stinner 在 bpo-40839(4) 中貢獻。）

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size)’ 和
     ‘PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’ 現在會引發
     ‘DeprecationWarning’。請改用 *note PyUnicode_New(): 6e1. 來分配沒有
     初始資料的 Unicode 物件。（由 Inada Naoki 在 bpo-36346(5) 中貢獻。
     ）

   * PyCapsule API ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ 的私有
     ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ 結構已移至內部 C API。（由 Victor Stinner 在
     bpo-42157(6) 中貢獻。）

   * 如果在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前（Python 初始化之前）被呼叫
     ，*note Py_GetPath(): 35d.、*note Py_GetPrefix(): 35f.、*note
     Py_GetExecPrefix(): 35b.、*note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 361.、
     *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 364. 和 *note Py_GetProgramName(): 363. 現
     在會回傳 ‘NULL’。使用新的 *note Python 初始化設定: 5ad. API 來獲取
     *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3.。（由 Victor Stinner 在
     bpo-42260(7) 中貢獻。）

   * *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 6e4.、*note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 6e5. 和
     *note PyCell_SET(): 6e6. 巨集不能再用作左值 (l-value) 或右值
     (r-value)。例如，‘x = PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c)’ 和
     ‘PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x’ 現在會失敗並出現編譯器錯誤。它可以防
     止如 ‘if (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ...’ 測試之類的錯誤。（由
     Zackery Spytz 和 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-30459(8) 中貢獻。）

   * 非受限 API 檔案 ‘odictobject.h’、‘parser_interface.h’、
     ‘picklebufobject.h’、‘pyarena.h’、‘pyctype.h’、‘pydebug.h’、
     ‘pyfpe.h’ 和 ‘pytime.h’ 已移至 ‘Include/cpython’ 目錄。這些檔案不得
     直接被引入，因為它們已於 ‘Python.h’ 中引入；請參閱 *note 引入檔案
     (include files): 59b.。如果直接引入它們，請考慮改為引入 ‘Python.h’。
     （由 Nicholas Sim 在 bpo-35134(9) 中貢獻。）

   * 使用 *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2de. 型別旗標來建立不可變型別
     物件。不要依賴 *note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 6e7. 來決定型別物件是否可
     變；應改為檢查是否設定了 *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2de.。（由
     Victor Stinner 和 Erlend E. Aasland 在 bpo-35134(10) 中貢獻。）

   * 未以說明文件記錄的函式 ‘Py_FrozenMain’ 已從受限 API 中刪除。該函式
     主要用於 Python 的自定義建置。（由 Petr Viktorin 在 bpo-26241(11) 中
     貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26241


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用<6>,  Next: 已刪除<2>,  Prev: 移植到 Python 3 10<2>,  Up: C API 變更<3>

1.3.13.4 已棄用
...............

   * ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ 函式現已棄用，並將在 Python 3.12 中刪
     除：請改用 *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 6e9.。（由 Victor
     Stinner 在 bpo-41692(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692


File: python.info,  Node: 已刪除<2>,  Prev: 已棄用<6>,  Up: C API 變更<3>

1.3.13.5 已刪除
...............

   * 刪除了操作 ‘Py_UNICODE*’ 字串的 ‘Py_UNICODE_str*’ 函式。（由 Inada
     Naoki 在 bpo-41123(1) 中貢獻。）

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen’：使用 *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 6eb. 或
          *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 6ec.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat’：使用 *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters():
          6ed. 或 *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy’、‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy’：使用 *note
          PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 6ed. 或 *note
          PyUnicode_Substring(): 6ee.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp’：使用 *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 6ef.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp’：使用 *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 6f0.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr’、‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr’：使用 *note
          PyUnicode_FindChar(): 6f1.

   * 刪除了 ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’。請改用新的 ( PEP 393(2)) API。（由
     Inada Naoki 在 bpo-41103(3) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除了 ‘PyLong_FromUnicode()’。請改用 *note
     PyLong_FromUnicodeObject(): 6f2.。（由 Inada Naoki 在 bpo-41103(4)
     中貢獻。）

   * 刪除了 ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’。請改用 *note
     PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 6f3. 或 *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString():
     6f4. （由 Inada Naoki 在 bpo-41103(5) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除了 ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ 變數：它已被 *note
     PyInterpreterState: 6f5. 結構的 ‘ceval.recursion_limit’ 取代。（由
     Victor Stinner 在 bpo-41834(6) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除了未被說明文件記錄的巨集 ‘Py_ALLOW_RECURSION’ 和
     ‘Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION’ 以及 *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. 結構的
     ‘recursion_ritic’ 欄位。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-41936(7) 中貢
     獻。）

   * 刪除了未被說明文件記錄的 ‘PyOS_InitInterrupts()’ 函式。初始化
     Python 已經隱式安裝信號處理程式：請參閱 *note
     PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 6f6.。（由 Victor Stinner 在
     bpo-41713(8) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除 ‘PyAST_Validate()’ 函式。不再可能使用公開 C API 來建置 AST 物
     件（‘mod_ty’ 類型）。該函式已被排除在受限 C API 之外 ( PEP 384(9))。
     （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-43244(10) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除 ‘symtable.h’ 標頭檔和未被說明文件記錄的函式：

        * ‘PyST_GetScope()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Build()’

        * ‘PySymtable_BuildObject()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Free()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableString()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableStringObject()’

     ‘Py_SymtableString()’ 函式錯誤地成為穩定 ABI 的一部分，但它因為
     ‘symtable.h’ 標頭檔被排除在受限 C API 之外而無法使用。

     請改用 Python *note symtable: d2. 模組。（由 Victor Stinner 在
     bpo-43244(11) 中貢獻。）

   * 從受限 C API 標頭和 ‘python3.dll’ （在 Windows 上提供穩定 ABI 的函
     式庫）中刪除 *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 315.。由於該函式
     採用 FILE* 引數，因此無法保證其 ABI 穩定性。（由 Petr Viktorin 在
     bpo-43868(12) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除 ‘ast.h’、‘asdl.h’ 和 ‘Python-ast.h’ 標頭檔。這些函式沒有文件記
     錄，並且被排除在受限 C API 之外。這些標頭檔定義的大多數名稱都沒有前
     綴 ‘Py’，因此可能會產生名稱衝突。例如，‘Python-ast.h’ 定義了一個
     ‘Yield’ 巨集，它與 Windows ‘<winbase.h>’ 標頭使用的 ‘Yield’ 有名稱
     衝突。請改用 Python *note ast: 8. 模組。（由 Victor Stinner 在
     bpo-43244(13) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除編譯器和使用 ‘struct _mod’ 的剖析器函式，因為公開 AST C API 已
     被刪除：

        * ‘PyAST_Compile()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileEx()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileObject()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromAST()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromASTObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFilename()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()’

     這些函式沒有文件記錄，並且被排除在受限 C API 之外。（由 Victor
     Stinner 在 bpo-43244(14) 中貢獻。）

   * 刪除包含以下函式的 ‘pyarena.h’ 標頭檔：

        * ‘PyArena_New()’

        * ‘PyArena_Free()’

        * ‘PyArena_Malloc()’

        * ‘PyArena_AddPyObject()’

     這些函式沒有文件記錄、被排除在受限 C API 之外，並僅被編譯器於內部使
     用。（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-43244(15) 中貢獻。）

   * 為了 Python 最佳化，已刪除 ‘PyThreadState.use_tracing’ 成員。（由
     Mark Shannon 在 bpo-43760(16) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Prev: C API 變更<3>,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.14 Notable security feature in 3.10.7
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 17e. and *note str: 157. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 183. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d3. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 3ea. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Next: Notable changes in 3 10 12,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.15 Notable security feature in 3.10.8
-----------------------------------------

The deprecated ‘mailcap’ module now refuses to inject unsafe text
(filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell commands.  Instead of
using such text, it will warn and act as if a match was not found (or
for test commands, as if the test failed).  (Contributed by Petr
Viktorin in gh-98966(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98966


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 10 12,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Up: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能

1.3.16 Notable changes in 3.10.12
---------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<2>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 10 12

1.3.16.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: d8, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 184, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 185. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     179.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 10 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.4 Python 3.9 有什麼新功能
===========================


編輯者: Łukasz Langa

This article explains the new features in Python 3.9, compared to 3.8.
Python 3.9 was released on October 5, 2020.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 136.

也參考
......

PEP 596(1) - Python 3.9 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights. Release highlights
* You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code::
* New Features::
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<4>.
* 新模組: 新模組<2>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<4>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<4>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<7>.
* 已移除: 已移除<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9.
* 建置變更: 建置變更<4>.
* C API 變更: C API 變更<4>.
* Python 3.9.1 中顯著的變更: Python 3 9 1 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.9.2 中顯著的變更: Python 3 9 2 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.9.3 中顯著的變更: Python 3 9 3 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.9.5 中顯著的變更: Python 3 9 5 中顯著的變更.
* Notable security feature in 3.9.14: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
* Notable changes in 3.9.17: Notable changes in 3 9 17.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0596/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary -- Release highlights,  Next: You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.1 Summary - Release highlights
----------------------------------

新增語法特性：

   * PEP 584(1), union operators added to ‘dict’;

   * PEP 585(2), type hinting generics in standard collections;

   * PEP 614(3), relaxed grammar restrictions on decorators.

New built-in features:

   * PEP 616(4), string methods to remove prefixes and suffixes.

New features in the standard library:

   * PEP 593(5), flexible function and variable annotations;

   * *note os.pidfd_open(): 195. added that allows process management
     without races and signals.

直譯器的改進：

   * PEP 573(6), fast access to module state from methods of C extension
     types;

   * PEP 617(7), CPython now uses a new parser based on PEG;

   * a number of Python builtins (range, tuple, set, frozenset, list,
     dict) are now sped up using PEP 590(8) vectorcall;

   * garbage collection does not block on resurrected objects;

   * a number of Python modules (‘_abc’, *note audioop: b, ‘_bz2’,
     ‘_codecs’, ‘_contextvars’, ‘_crypt’, ‘_functools’, ‘_json’,
     ‘_locale’, *note math: 89, *note operator: 9a, *note resource: b7,
     *note time: e8, ‘_weakref’) now use multiphase initialization as
     defined by PEP 489;

   * a number of standard library modules (*note audioop: b, *note ast:
     8, *note grp: 61, ‘_hashlib’, *note pwd: ad, ‘_posixsubprocess’,
     *note random: b3, *note select: bc, *note struct: cf, *note
     termios: db, *note zlib: 12d.) are now using the stable ABI defined
     by PEP 384.

New library modules:

   * PEP 615(9), the IANA Time Zone Database is now present in the
     standard library in the *note zoneinfo: 12e. module;

   * an implementation of a topological sort of a graph is now provided
     in the new *note graphlib: 60. module.

Release process changes:

   * PEP 602(10), CPython adopts an annual release cycle.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/


File: python.info,  Node: You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code,  Next: New Features,  Prev: Summary -- Release highlights,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.2 You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code
----------------------------------------------------------

When Python 2.7 was still supported, a lot of functionality in Python 3
was kept for backward compatibility with Python 2.7.  With the end of
Python 2 support, these backward compatibility layers have been removed,
or will be removed soon.  Most of them emitted a *note
DeprecationWarning: 179. warning for several years.  For example, using
‘collections.Mapping’ instead of ‘collections.abc.Mapping’ emits a *note
DeprecationWarning: 179. since Python 3.3, released in 2012.

Test your application with the *note -W: 6ff. ‘default’ command-line
option to see *note DeprecationWarning: 179. and *note
PendingDeprecationWarning: 700, or even with *note -W: 6ff. ‘error’ to
treat them as errors.  *note Warnings Filter: 701. can be used to ignore
warnings from third-party code.

Python 3.9 is the last version providing those Python 2 backward
compatibility layers, to give more time to Python projects maintainers
to organize the removal of the Python 2 support and add support for
Python 3.9.

Aliases to *note Abstract Base Classes: 6a3. in the *note collections:
1b. module, like ‘collections.Mapping’ alias to *note
collections.abc.Mapping: 702, are kept for one last release for backward
compatibility.  They will be removed from Python 3.10.

More generally, try to run your tests in the *note Python Development
Mode: 703. which helps to prepare your code to make it compatible with
the next Python version.

Note: a number of pre-existing deprecations were removed in this version
of Python as well.  Consult the *note 已移除: 704. section.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features,  Next: 其他語言更動<4>,  Prev: You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.3 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* Dictionary Merge & Update Operators::
* New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes::
* Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections::
* New Parser::


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators,  Next: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes,  Up: New Features

1.4.3.1 Dictionary Merge & Update Operators
...........................................

Merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’) operators have been added to the built-in
*note dict: 239. class.  Those complement the existing ‘dict.update’ and
‘{**d1, **d2}’ methods of merging dictionaries.

範例：

     >>> x = {"key1": "value1 from x", "key2": "value2 from x"}
     >>> y = {"key2": "value2 from y", "key3": "value3 from y"}
     >>> x | y
     {'key1': 'value1 from x', 'key2': 'value2 from y', 'key3': 'value3 from y'}
     >>> y | x
     {'key2': 'value2 from x', 'key3': 'value3 from y', 'key1': 'value1 from x'}

See PEP 584(1) for a full description.  (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in
bpo-36144(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144


File: python.info,  Node: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes,  Next: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections,  Prev: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators,  Up: New Features

1.4.3.2 New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes
..........................................................

*note str.removeprefix(prefix): 708. and *note str.removesuffix(suffix):
709. have been added to easily remove an unneeded prefix or a suffix
from a string.  Corresponding ‘bytes’, ‘bytearray’, and
‘collections.UserString’ methods have also been added.  See PEP 616(1)
for a full description.  (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in
bpo-39939(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939


File: python.info,  Node: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections,  Next: New Parser,  Prev: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes,  Up: New Features

1.4.3.3 Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections
.....................................................

In type annotations you can now use built-in collection types such as
‘list’ and ‘dict’ as generic types instead of importing the
corresponding capitalized types (e.g.  ‘List’ or ‘Dict’) from ‘typing’.
Some other types in the standard library are also now generic, for
example ‘queue.Queue’.

範例：

     def greet_all(names: list[str]) -> None:
         for name in names:
             print("Hello", name)

See PEP 585(1) for more details.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum,
Ethan Smith, and Batuhan Taşkaya in bpo-39481(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481


File: python.info,  Node: New Parser,  Prev: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections,  Up: New Features

1.4.3.4 New Parser
..................

Python 3.9 uses a new parser, based on PEG(1) instead of LL(1)(2).  The
new parser's performance is roughly comparable to that of the old
parser, but the PEG formalism is more flexible than LL(1) when it comes
to designing new language features.  We'll start using this flexibility
in Python 3.10 and later.

The *note ast: 8. module uses the new parser and produces the same AST
as the old parser.

In Python 3.10, the old parser will be deleted and so will all
functionality that depends on it (primarily the ‘parser’ module, which
has long been deprecated).  In Python 3.9 'only', you can switch back to
the LL(1) parser using a command line switch (‘-X oldparser’) or an
environment variable (‘PYTHONOLDPARSER=1’).

See PEP 617(3) for more details.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum,
Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou in bpo-40334(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LL_parser

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<4>,  Next: 新模組<2>,  Prev: New Features,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.4 其他語言更動
------------------

   * *note __import__(): 70d. now raises *note ImportError: 145. instead
     of *note ValueError: 183, which used to occur when a relative
     import went past its top-level package.  (Contributed by Ngalim
     Siregar in bpo-37444(1).)

   * Python now gets the absolute path of the script filename specified
     on the command line (ex: ‘python3 script.py’): the ‘__file__’
     attribute of the *note __main__: 1. module became an absolute path,
     rather than a relative path.  These paths now remain valid after
     the current directory is changed by *note os.chdir(): 406.  As a
     side effect, the traceback also displays the absolute path for
     *note __main__: 1. module frames in this case.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-20443(2).)

   * In the *note Python Development Mode: 703. and in *note debug
     build: 69f, the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments are now checked
     for string encoding and decoding operations.  Examples: *note
     open(): 29c, *note str.encode(): 70e. and *note bytes.decode():
     70f.

     By default, for best performance, the 'errors' argument is only
     checked at the first encoding/decoding error and the 'encoding'
     argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-37388(3).)

   * ‘"".replace("", s, n)’ now returns ‘s’ instead of an empty string
     for all non-zero ‘n’.  It is now consistent with ‘"".replace("",
     s)’.  There are similar changes for *note bytes: 2c1. and *note
     bytearray: 2c0. objects.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28029(4).)

   * Any valid expression can now be used as a *note decorator: 540.
     Previously, the grammar was much more restrictive.  See PEP 614(5)
     for details.  (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in bpo-39702(6).)

   * Improved help for the *note typing: ff. module.  Docstrings are now
     shown for all special forms and special generic aliases (like
     ‘Union’ and ‘List’).  Using *note help(): 710. with generic alias
     like ‘List[int]’ will show the help for the correspondent concrete
     type (‘list’ in this case).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-40257(7).)

   * Parallel running of *note aclose(): 711. / *note asend(): 712. /
     *note athrow(): 244. is now prohibited, and ‘ag_running’ now
     reflects the actual running status of the async generator.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-30773(8).)

   * Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method are no longer
     masked by ‘TypeError’ in the *note in: 267. operator and functions
     *note contains(): 713, *note indexOf(): 714. and *note countOf():
     715. of the *note operator: 9a. module.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-40824(9).)

   * Unparenthesized lambda expressions can no longer be the expression
     part in an ‘if’ clause in comprehensions and generator expressions.
     See bpo-41848(10) and bpo-43755(11) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30773

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40824

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41848

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755


File: python.info,  Node: 新模組<2>,  Next: 改進的模組<4>,  Prev: 其他語言更動<4>,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.5 新模組
------------

* Menu:

* zoneinfo::
* graphlib::


File: python.info,  Node: zoneinfo,  Next: graphlib,  Up: 新模組<2>

1.4.5.1 zoneinfo
................

The *note zoneinfo: 12e. module brings support for the IANA time zone
database to the standard library.  It adds *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: 718,
a concrete *note datetime.tzinfo: 3d1. implementation backed by the
system's time zone data.

範例：

     >>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
     >>> from datetime import datetime, timedelta

     >>> # Daylight saving time
     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00
     >>> dt.tzname()
     'PDT'

     >>> # Standard time
     >>> dt += timedelta(days=7)
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-11-07 12:00:00-08:00
     >>> print(dt.tzname())
     PST

As a fall-back source of data for platforms that don't ship the IANA
database, the tzdata(1) module was released as a first-party package -
distributed via PyPI and maintained by the CPython core team.

也參考
......

PEP 615(2) - Support for the IANA Time Zone Database in the Standard Library

     由 Paul Ganssle 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/


File: python.info,  Node: graphlib,  Prev: zoneinfo,  Up: 新模組<2>

1.4.5.2 graphlib
................

A new module, *note graphlib: 60, was added that contains the *note
graphlib.TopologicalSorter: 71a. class to offer functionality to perform
topological sorting of graphs.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Tim
Peters and Larry Hastings in bpo-17005(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005


File: python.info,  Node: 改進的模組<4>,  Next: 最佳化<4>,  Prev: 新模組<2>,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.6 改進的模組
----------------

* Menu:

* ast::
* asyncio: asyncio<4>.
* compileall::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures.
* curses: curses<2>.
* datetime: datetime<2>.
* distutils: distutils<3>.
* fcntl: fcntl<2>.
* ftplib: ftplib<2>.
* gc: gc<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<4>.
* http::
* IDLE and idlelib::
* imaplib::
* importlib: importlib<2>.
* inspect: inspect<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<2>.
* math: math<3>.
* multiprocessing::
* nntplib::
* os: os<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<4>.
* pdb: pdb<2>.
* poplib::
* pprint: pprint<2>.
* pydoc::
* random: random<2>.
* signal::
* smtplib::
* socket: socket<3>.
* time: time<2>.
* sys: sys<4>.
* tracemalloc::
* typing: typing<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<3>.
* venv: venv<2>.
* xml: xml<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: ast,  Next: asyncio<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.1 ast
...........

Added the 'indent' option to *note dump(): 71d. which allows it to
produce a multiline indented output.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-37995(1).)

Added *note ast.unparse(): 71e. as a function in the *note ast: 8.
module that can be used to unparse an *note ast.AST: 553. object and
produce a string with code that would produce an equivalent *note
ast.AST: 553. object when parsed.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and
Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-38870(2).)

Added docstrings to AST nodes that contains the ASDL signature used to
construct that node.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-39638(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37995

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<4>,  Next: compileall,  Prev: ast,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.2 asyncio
...............

Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of
*note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543. is no longer
supported.  This is because of the behavior of the socket option
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

Added a new *note coroutine: 1ae. *note shutdown_default_executor():
720. that schedules a shutdown for the default executor that waits on
the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. to finish closing.  Also, *note
asyncio.run(): 197. has been updated to use the new *note coroutine:
1ae.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-34037(2).)

Added *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 194, a Linux-specific child
watcher implementation that polls process file descriptors.
(bpo-38692(3))

Added a new *note coroutine: 1ae. *note asyncio.to_thread(): 721.  It is
mainly used for running IO-bound functions in a separate thread to avoid
blocking the event loop, and essentially works as a high-level version
of *note run_in_executor(): 722. that can directly take keyword
arguments.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley and Yury Selivanov in
bpo-32309(4).)

When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note asyncio.wait_for():
3f6. will now wait until the cancellation is complete also in the case
when 'timeout' is <= 0, like it does with positive timeouts.
(Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in bpo-32751(5).)

*note asyncio: 9. now raises *note TypeError: 2ba. when calling
incompatible methods with an *note ssl.SSLSocket: 723. socket.
(Contributed by Ido Michael in bpo-37404(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404


File: python.info,  Node: compileall,  Next: concurrent futures,  Prev: asyncio<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.3 compileall
..................

Added new possibility to use hardlinks for duplicated ‘.pyc’ files:
'hardlink_dupes' parameter and -hardlink-dupes command line option.
(Contributed by Lumír 'Frenzy' Balhar in bpo-40495(1).)

Added new options for path manipulation in resulting ‘.pyc’ files:
'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' parameters and -s, -p, -e
command line options.  Added the possibility to specify the option for
an optimization level multiple times.  (Contributed by Lumír 'Frenzy'
Balhar in bpo-38112(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38112


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures,  Next: curses<2>,  Prev: compileall,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.4 concurrent.futures
..........................

Added a new 'cancel_futures' parameter to *note
concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown(): 726. that cancels all pending
futures which have not started running, instead of waiting for them to
complete before shutting down the executor.  (Contributed by Kyle
Stanley in bpo-39349(1).)

Removed daemon threads from *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. and *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 727.  This improves compatibility with
subinterpreters and predictability in their shutdown processes.
(Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39812(2).)

Workers in *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. are now spawned on demand,
only when there are no available idle workers to reuse.  This optimizes
startup overhead and reduces the amount of lost CPU time to idle
workers.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39207(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207


File: python.info,  Node: curses<2>,  Next: datetime<2>,  Prev: concurrent futures,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.5 curses
..............

Added *note curses.get_escdelay(): 729, *note curses.set_escdelay():
72a, *note curses.get_tabsize(): 72b, and *note curses.set_tabsize():
72c. functions.  (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-38312(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<2>,  Next: distutils<3>,  Prev: curses<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.6 datetime
................

The *note isocalendar(): 72e. of *note datetime.date: 72f. and *note
isocalendar(): 730. of *note datetime.datetime: 224. methods now returns
a *note namedtuple(): 731. instead of a *note tuple: 4e6.  (Contributed
by Donghee Na in bpo-24416(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<3>,  Next: fcntl<2>,  Prev: datetime<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.7 distutils
.................

The ‘upload’ command now creates SHA2-256 and Blake2b-256 hash digests.
It skips MD5 on platforms that block MD5 digest.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-40698(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40698


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl<2>,  Next: ftplib<2>,  Prev: distutils<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.8 fcntl
.............

Added constants ‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38602(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib<2>,  Next: gc<2>,  Prev: fcntl<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.9 ftplib
..............

*note FTP: 735. and *note FTP_TLS: 736. now raise a *note ValueError:
183. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: gc<2>,  Next: hashlib<4>,  Prev: ftplib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.10 gc
...........

When the garbage collector makes a collection in which some objects
resurrect (they are reachable from outside the isolated cycles after the
finalizers have been executed), do not block the collection of all
objects that are still unreachable.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and
Tim Peters in bpo-38379(1).)

Added a new function *note gc.is_finalized(): 738. to check if an object
has been finalized by the garbage collector.  (Contributed by Pablo
Galindo in bpo-39322(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<4>,  Next: http,  Prev: gc<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.11 hashlib
................

The *note hashlib: 63. module can now use SHA3 hashes and SHAKE XOF from
OpenSSL when available.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-37630(1).)

Builtin hash modules can now be disabled with ‘./configure
--without-builtin-hashlib-hashes’ or selectively enabled with e.g.
‘./configure --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake2’ to force use of
OpenSSL based implementation.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-40479(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479


File: python.info,  Node: http,  Next: IDLE and idlelib,  Prev: hashlib<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.12 http
.............

HTTP status codes ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’, ‘418 IM_A_TEAPOT’ and ‘425
TOO_EARLY’ are added to *note http.HTTPStatus: 73b.  (Contributed by
Donghee Na in bpo-39509(1) and Ross Rhodes in bpo-39507(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE and idlelib,  Next: imaplib,  Prev: http,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.13 IDLE and idlelib
.........................

Added option to toggle cursor blink off.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz
in bpo-4603(1).)

Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows.  (Contributed by Johnny
Najera in bpo-38944(2).)

Added keywords to module name completion list.  (Contributed by Terry J.
Reedy in bpo-37765(3).)

New in 3.9 maintenance releases

Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): 62d. (when started without
'-n').  User hooks were previously ignored.  (Contributed by Ken Hilton
in bpo-43008(4).)

The changes above have been backported to 3.8 maintenance releases.

Rearrange the settings dialog.  Split the General tab into Windows and
Shell/Ed tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the
Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the dialog.  The
latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.  (Contributed by Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-40468(5).)  Move the indent space setting from the Font
tab to the new Windows tab.  (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-33962(6).)

Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood
and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib,  Next: importlib<2>,  Prev: IDLE and idlelib,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.14 imaplib
................

*note IMAP4: 73e. and *note IMAP4_SSL: 73f. now have an optional
'timeout' parameter for their constructors.  Also, the *note open():
740. method now has an optional 'timeout' parameter with this change.
The overridden methods of *note IMAP4_SSL: 73f. and *note IMAP4_stream:
741. were applied to this change.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-38615(1).)

*note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 742. is added.  *note
imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 742. frees server's resources associated with
the selected mailbox and returns the server to the authenticated state.
This command performs the same actions as *note imaplib.IMAP4.close():
743, except that no messages are permanently removed from the currently
selected mailbox.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40375(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<2>,  Next: inspect<4>,  Prev: imaplib,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.15 importlib
..................

To improve consistency with import statements, *note
importlib.util.resolve_name(): 745. now raises *note ImportError: 145.
instead of *note ValueError: 183. for invalid relative import attempts.
(Contributed by Ngalim Siregar in bpo-37444(1).)

Import loaders which publish immutable module objects can now publish
immutable packages in addition to individual modules.  (Contributed by
Dino Viehland in bpo-39336(2).)

Added *note importlib.resources.files(): 1ab. function with support for
subdirectories in package data, matching backport in
‘importlib_resources’ version 1.5.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in
bpo-39791(3).)

Refreshed ‘importlib.metadata’ from ‘importlib_metadata’ version 1.6.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<4>,  Next: ipaddress<2>,  Prev: importlib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.16 inspect
................

*note inspect.BoundArguments.arguments: 747. is changed from
‘OrderedDict’ to regular dict.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
bpo-36350(1) and bpo-39775(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<2>,  Next: math<3>,  Prev: inspect<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.17 ipaddress
..................

*note ipaddress: 7a. now supports IPv6 Scoped Addresses (IPv6 address
with suffix ‘%<scope_id>’).

Scoped IPv6 addresses can be parsed using *note ipaddress.IPv6Address:
749.  If present, scope zone ID is available through the *note scope_id:
74a. attribute.  (Contributed by Oleksandr Pavliuk in bpo-34788(1).)

Starting with Python 3.9.5 the *note ipaddress: 7a. module no longer
accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-36384(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384


File: python.info,  Node: math<3>,  Next: multiprocessing,  Prev: ipaddress<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.18 math
.............

Expanded the *note math.gcd(): 74c. function to handle multiple
arguments.  Formerly, it only supported two arguments.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-39648(1).)

Added *note math.lcm(): 74d.: return the least common multiple of
specified arguments.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson, Ananthakrishnan
and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-39479(2) and bpo-39648(3).)

Added *note math.nextafter(): 1b7.: return the next floating-point value
after 'x' towards 'y'.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39288(4).)

Added *note math.ulp(): 74e.: return the value of the least significant
bit of a float.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39310(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing,  Next: nntplib,  Prev: math<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.19 multiprocessing
........................

The *note multiprocessing.SimpleQueue: 750. class has a new *note
close(): 751. method to explicitly close the queue.  (Contributed by
Victor Stinner in bpo-30966(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib,  Next: os<4>,  Prev: multiprocessing,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.20 nntplib
................

*note NNTP: 753. and *note NNTP_SSL: 754. now raise a *note ValueError:
183. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: os<4>,  Next: pathlib<4>,  Prev: nntplib,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.21 os
...........

Added *note CLD_KILLED: 756. and *note CLD_STOPPED: 757. for ‘si_code’.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38493(1).)

Exposed the Linux-specific *note os.pidfd_open(): 195. (bpo-38692(2))
and *note os.P_PIDFD: 758. (bpo-38713(3)) for process management with
file descriptors.

The *note os.unsetenv(): 759. function is now also available on Windows.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39413(4).)

The *note os.putenv(): 75a. and *note os.unsetenv(): 759. functions are
now always available.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39395(5).)

Added *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 75b. function: convert a wait
status to an exit code.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-40094(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<4>,  Next: pdb<2>,  Prev: os<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.22 pathlib
................

Added *note pathlib.Path.readlink(): 75d. which acts similarly to *note
os.readlink(): 75e.  (Contributed by Girts Folkmanis in bpo-30618(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30618


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<2>,  Next: poplib,  Prev: pathlib<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.23 pdb
............

On Windows now *note Pdb: 760. supports ‘~/.pdbrc’.  (Contributed by Tim
Hopper and Dan Lidral-Porter in bpo-20523(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20523


File: python.info,  Node: poplib,  Next: pprint<2>,  Prev: pdb<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.24 poplib
...............

*note POP3: 762. and *note POP3_SSL: 763. now raise a *note ValueError:
183. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<2>,  Next: pydoc,  Prev: poplib,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.25 pprint
...............

*note pprint: a9. can now pretty-print *note types.SimpleNamespace: 765.
(Contributed by Carl Bordum Hansen in bpo-37376(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37376


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc,  Next: random<2>,  Prev: pprint<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.26 pydoc
..............

The documentation string is now shown not only for class, function,
method etc, but for any object that has its own *note __doc__: 767.
attribute.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40257(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257


File: python.info,  Node: random<2>,  Next: signal,  Prev: pydoc,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.27 random
...............

Added a new ‘random.Random.randbytes’ method: generate random bytes.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40286(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286


File: python.info,  Node: signal,  Next: smtplib,  Prev: random<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.28 signal
...............

Exposed the Linux-specific *note signal.pidfd_send_signal(): 76a. for
sending to signals to a process using a file descriptor instead of a
pid.  (bpo-38712(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib,  Next: socket<3>,  Prev: signal,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.29 smtplib
................

*note SMTP: 76c. and *note SMTP_SSL: 76d. now raise a *note ValueError:
183. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

*note LMTP: 76e. constructor now has an optional 'timeout' parameter.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39329(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329


File: python.info,  Node: socket<3>,  Next: time<2>,  Prev: smtplib,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.30 socket
...............

The *note socket: c6. module now exports the *note CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS:
770. constant on Linux 4.1 and greater.  (Contributed by Stefan
Tatschner and Zackery Spytz in bpo-25780(1).)

The socket module now supports the *note CAN_J1939: 771. protocol on
platforms that support it.  (Contributed by Karl Ding in bpo-40291(2).)

The socket module now has the *note socket.send_fds(): 772. and *note
socket.recv_fds(): 773. functions.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye,
Shinya Okano and Victor Stinner in bpo-28724(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28724


File: python.info,  Node: time<2>,  Next: sys<4>,  Prev: socket<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.31 time
.............

On AIX, *note thread_time(): 775. is now implemented with
‘thread_cputime()’ which has nanosecond resolution, rather than
‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ which has a resolution of 10
milliseconds.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40192(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192


File: python.info,  Node: sys<4>,  Next: tracemalloc,  Prev: time<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.32 sys
............

Added a new *note sys.platlibdir: 777. attribute: name of the
platform-specific library directory.  It is used to build the path of
standard library and the paths of installed extension modules.  It is
equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to
‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms.  (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl,
Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).)

Previously, *note sys.stderr: 778. was block-buffered when
non-interactive.  Now ‘stderr’ defaults to always being line-buffered.
(Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc,  Next: typing<4>,  Prev: sys<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.33 tracemalloc
....................

Added *note tracemalloc.reset_peak(): 77a. to set the peak size of
traced memory blocks to the current size, to measure the peak of
specific pieces of code.  (Contributed by Huon Wilson in bpo-40630(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40630


File: python.info,  Node: typing<4>,  Next: unicodedata<3>,  Prev: tracemalloc,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.34 typing
...............

PEP 593(1) introduced an *note typing.Annotated: 77c. type to decorate
existing types with context-specific metadata and new ‘include_extras’
parameter to *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. to access the metadata
at runtime.  (Contributed by Till Varoquaux and Konstantin Kashin.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<3>,  Next: venv<2>,  Prev: typing<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.35 unicodedata
....................

The Unicode database has been updated to version 13.0.0.
(bpo-39926(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926


File: python.info,  Node: venv<2>,  Next: xml<2>,  Prev: unicodedata<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.36 venv
.............

The activation scripts provided by *note venv: 10c. now all specify
their prompt customization consistently by always using the value
specified by ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’.  Previously some scripts unconditionally
used ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’, others only if it happened to be set (which was
the default case), and one used ‘__VENV_NAME__’ instead.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-37663(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37663


File: python.info,  Node: xml<2>,  Prev: venv<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<4>

1.4.6.37 xml
............

White space characters within attributes are now preserved when
serializing *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. to XML file.  EOLNs are no
longer normalized to "n".  This is the result of discussion about how to
interpret section 2.11 of XML spec.  (Contributed by Mefistotelis in
bpo-39011(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<4>,  Next: 已棄用<7>,  Prev: 改進的模組<4>,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.7 最佳化
------------

   * Optimized the idiom for assignment a temporary variable in
     comprehensions.  Now ‘for y in [expr]’ in comprehensions is as fast
     as a simple assignment ‘y = expr’.  For example:

          sums = [s for s in [0] for x in data for s in [s + x]]

     Unlike the ‘:=’ operator this idiom does not leak a variable to the
     outer scope.

     （由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-32856(1) 中貢獻。）

   * Optimized signal handling in multithreaded applications.  If a
     thread different than the main thread gets a signal, the bytecode
     evaluation loop is no longer interrupted at each bytecode
     instruction to check for pending signals which cannot be handled.
     Only the main thread of the main interpreter can handle signals.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread handles signals.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-40010(2).)

   * Optimized the *note subprocess: d0. module on FreeBSD using
     ‘closefrom()’.  (Contributed by Ed Maste, Conrad Meyer, Kyle Evans,
     Kubilay Kocak and Victor Stinner in bpo-38061(3).)

   * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): 781. is now up to 1.87x faster for
     values that fit into long.  (Contributed by Sergey Fedoseev in
     bpo-37986(4).)

   * A number of Python builtins (*note range: 782, *note tuple: 4e6,
     *note set: 3cc, *note frozenset: 3cd, *note list: 40a, *note dict:
     239.) are now sped up by using PEP 590(5) vectorcall protocol.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na, Mark Shannon, Jeroen Demeyer and Petr
     Viktorin in bpo-37207(6).)

   * Optimized ‘difference_update()’ for the case when the other set is
     much larger than the base set.  (Suggested by Evgeny Kapun with
     code contributed by Michele Orrù in bpo-8425(7).)

   * Python's small object allocator (‘obmalloc.c’) now allows (no more
     than) one empty arena to remain available for immediate reuse,
     without returning it to the OS. This prevents thrashing in simple
     loops where an arena could be created and destroyed anew on each
     iteration.  (Contributed by Tim Peters in bpo-37257(8).)

   * *note floor division: 783. of float operation now has a better
     performance.  Also the message of *note ZeroDivisionError: 784. for
     this operation is updated.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-39434(9).)

   * Decoding short ASCII strings with UTF-8 and ascii codecs is now
     about 15% faster.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-37348(10).)

Here's a summary of performance improvements from Python 3.4 through
Python 3.9:

     Python version                       3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8    3.9
     --------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---    ---

     Variable and attribute read access:
         read_local                       7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9    3.9
         read_nonlocal                    7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4    4.5
         read_global                     15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6    7.8
         read_builtin                    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5    7.8
         read_classvar_from_class        25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4   17.9
         read_classvar_from_instance     22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4   16.9
         read_instancevar                32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4   25.3
         read_instancevar_slots          27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2   20.5
         read_namedtuple                 73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4   18.7
         read_boundmethod                37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7   41.1

     Variable and attribute write access:
         write_local                      8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3    4.3
         write_nonlocal                  10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7    4.8
         write_global                    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8   16.7
         write_classvar                  92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2   39.8
         write_instancevar               44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5   37.4
         write_instancevar_slots         35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7   25.8

     Data structure read access:
         read_list                       24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0   19.5
         read_deque                      24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8   20.2
         read_dict                       24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0   22.4
         read_strdict                    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9   21.5

     Data structure write access:
         write_list                      27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0   20.0
         write_deque                     28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5   21.7
         write_dict                      31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7   25.4
         write_strdict                   28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1   24.5

     Stack (or queue) operations:
         list_append_pop                 93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8   50.6
         deque_append_pop                43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5   44.2
         deque_append_popleft            43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8   46.4

     Timing loop:
         loop_overhead                    0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3    0.3

These results were generated from the variable access benchmark script
at: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.  The benchmark script
displays timings in nanoseconds.  The benchmarks were measured on an
Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(11) running the macOS 64-bit builds
found at python.org(12).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37348

   (11) 
https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html

   (12) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用<7>,  Next: 已移除<5>,  Prev: 最佳化<4>,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.8 已棄用
------------

   * The distutils ‘bdist_msi’ command is now deprecated, use
     ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.  (Contributed by Hugo van
     Kemenade in bpo-39586(1).)

   * Currently *note math.factorial(): 786. accepts *note float: 26a.
     instances with non-negative integer values (like ‘5.0’).  It raises
     a *note ValueError: 183. for non-integral and negative floats.  It
     is now deprecated.  In future Python versions it will raise a *note
     TypeError: 2ba. for all floats.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-37315(2).)

   * The ‘parser’ and ‘symbol’ modules are deprecated and will be
     removed in future versions of Python.  For the majority of use
     cases, users can leverage the Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) generation
     and compilation stage, using the *note ast: 8. module.

   * The Public C API functions ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags()’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename()’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags()’ and ‘PyNode_Compile()’ are
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.10 together with the old
     parser.

   * Using *note NotImplemented: 5f2. in a boolean context has been
     deprecated, as it is almost exclusively the result of incorrect
     rich comparator implementations.  It will be made a *note
     TypeError: 2ba. in a future version of Python.  (Contributed by
     Josh Rosenberg in bpo-35712(3).)

   * The *note random: b3. module currently accepts any hashable type as
     a possible seed value.  Unfortunately, some of those types are not
     guaranteed to have a deterministic hash value.  After Python 3.9,
     the module will restrict its seeds to *note None: 470, *note int:
     17e, *note float: 26a, *note str: 157, *note bytes: 2c1, and *note
     bytearray: 2c0.

   * Opening the *note GzipFile: 28d. file for writing without
     specifying the 'mode' argument is deprecated.  In future Python
     versions it will always be opened for reading by default.  Specify
     the 'mode' argument for opening it for writing and silencing a
     warning.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28286(4).)

   * Deprecated the ‘split()’ method of ‘_tkinter.TkappType’ in favour
     of the ‘splitlist()’ method which has more consistent and
     predictable behavior.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-38371(5).)

   * The explicit passing of coroutine objects to *note asyncio.wait():
     19a. has been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.11.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and Kyle Stanley in bpo-34790(6).)

   * binhex4 and hexbin4 standards are now deprecated.  The ‘binhex’
     module and the following *note binascii: e. functions are now
     deprecated:

        * ‘b2a_hqx()’、‘a2b_hqx()’

        * ‘rlecode_hqx()’、‘rledecode_hqx()’

     （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-39353(7) 中貢獻。）

   * *note ast: 8. classes ‘slice’, ‘Index’ and ‘ExtSlice’ are
     considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python
     versions.  ‘value’ itself should be used instead of ‘Index(value)’.
     ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’ should be used instead of
     ‘ExtSlice(slices)’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-34822(8).)

   * *note ast: 8. classes ‘Suite’, ‘Param’, ‘AugLoad’ and ‘AugStore’
     are considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python
     versions.  They were not generated by the parser and not accepted
     by the code generator in Python 3.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya
     in bpo-39639(9) and bpo-39969(10) and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-39988(11).)

   * The ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’
     functions are now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.11.
     Calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ now does nothing.  The *note GIL:
     6df. is initialized by *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. since Python
     3.7.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39877(12).)

   * Passing ‘None’ as the first argument to the *note shlex.split():
     2be. function has been deprecated.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz
     in bpo-33262(13).)

   * ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy()’ is now deprecated as it is unusable without
     an external module, ‘mailman’.  (Contributed by Samuel Colvin in
     bpo-35800(14).)

   * The *note lib2to3: 7f. module now emits a *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.  Python 3.9 switched to a PEG
     parser (see PEP 617(15)), and Python 3.10 may include new language
     syntax that is not parsable by lib2to3's LL(1) parser.  The
     ‘lib2to3’ module may be removed from the standard library in a
     future Python version.  Consider third-party alternatives such as
     LibCST(16) or parso(17).  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in
     bpo-40360(18).)

   * The 'random' parameter of *note random.shuffle(): 55a. has been
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-40465(19))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37315

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (16) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (17) https://parso.readthedocs.io/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465


File: python.info,  Node: 已移除<5>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 9,  Prev: 已棄用<7>,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.9 已移除
------------

   * The erroneous version at ‘unittest.mock.__version__’ has been
     removed.

   * *note nntplib.NNTP: 753.: ‘xpath()’ and ‘xgtitle()’ methods have
     been removed.  These methods are deprecated since Python 3.3.
     Generally, these extensions are not supported or not enabled by
     NNTP server administrators.  For ‘xgtitle()’, please use *note
     nntplib.NNTP.descriptions(): 788. or *note
     nntplib.NNTP.description(): 789. instead.  (Contributed by Donghee
     Na in bpo-39366(1).)

   * *note array.array: 18f.: ‘tostring()’ and ‘fromstring()’ methods
     have been removed.  They were aliases to ‘tobytes()’ and
     ‘frombytes()’, deprecated since Python 3.2.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-38916(2).)

   * The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been removed.
     Since Python 3.7, it was deprecated and always returned *note None:
     470.  It required a special build option ‘CALL_PROFILE’ which was
     already removed in Python 3.7.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37414(3).)

   * The ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ and ‘sys.setcheckinterval()’ functions
     have been removed.  They were deprecated since Python 3.2.  Use
     *note sys.getswitchinterval(): 78a. and *note
     sys.setswitchinterval(): 78b. instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-37392(4).)

   * The C function ‘PyImport_Cleanup()’ has been removed.  It was
     documented as: "Empty the module table.  For internal use only."
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36710(5).)

   * ‘_dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’ modules have been removed.
     These modules were deprecated since Python 3.7 which requires
     threading support.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37312(6).)

   * ‘aifc.openfp()’ alias to ‘aifc.open()’, ‘sunau.openfp()’ alias to
     ‘sunau.open()’, and ‘wave.openfp()’ alias to *note wave.open():
     78c. have been removed.  They were deprecated since Python 3.7.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37320(7).)

   * The ‘isAlive()’ method of *note threading.Thread: 78d. has been
     removed.  It was deprecated since Python 3.8.  Use *note
     is_alive(): 78e. instead.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-37804(8).)

   * Methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ of classes *note
     ElementTree: 78f. and *note Element: 240. in the *note ElementTree:
     120. module have been removed.  They were deprecated in Python 3.2.
     Use ‘iter(x)’ or ‘list(x)’ instead of ‘x.getchildren()’ and
     ‘x.iter()’ or ‘list(x.iter())’ instead of ‘x.getiterator()’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36543(9).)

   * The old *note plistlib: a6. API has been removed, it was deprecated
     since Python 3.4.  Use the *note load(): 790, *note loads(): 791,
     *note dump(): 792, and *note dumps(): 793. functions.
     Additionally, the 'use_builtin_types' parameter was removed,
     standard *note bytes: 2c1. objects are always used instead.
     (Contributed by Jon Janzen in bpo-36409(10).)

   * The C function ‘PyGen_NeedsFinalizing’ has been removed.  It was
     not documented, tested, or used anywhere within CPython after the
     implementation of PEP 442(11).  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.
     (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-15088(12))

   * ‘base64.encodestring()’ and ‘base64.decodestring()’, aliases
     deprecated since Python 3.1, have been removed: use *note
     base64.encodebytes(): 794. and *note base64.decodebytes(): 795.
     instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39351(13).)

   * ‘fractions.gcd()’ function has been removed, it was deprecated
     since Python 3.5 (bpo-22486(14)): use *note math.gcd(): 74c.
     instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39350(15).)

   * The 'buffering' parameter of *note bz2.BZ2File: 692. has been
     removed.  Since Python 3.0, it was ignored and using it emitted a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  Pass an open file object to control
     how the file is opened.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-39357(16).)

   * The 'encoding' parameter of *note json.loads(): 796. has been
     removed.  As of Python 3.1, it was deprecated and ignored; using it
     has emitted a *note DeprecationWarning: 179. since Python 3.8.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-39377(17))

   * ‘with (await asyncio.lock):’ and ‘with (yield from asyncio.lock):’
     statements are not longer supported, use ‘async with lock’ instead.
     The same is correct for ‘asyncio.Condition’ and
     ‘asyncio.Semaphore’.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-34793(18).)

   * The ‘sys.getcounts()’ function, the ‘-X showalloccount’ command
     line option and the ‘show_alloc_count’ field of the C structure
     *note PyConfig: 345. have been removed.  They required a special
     Python build by defining ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ macro.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-39489(19).)

   * The ‘_field_types’ attribute of the *note typing.NamedTuple: 1fb.
     class has been removed.  It was deprecated since Python 3.8.  Use
     the ‘__annotations__’ attribute instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-40182(20).)

   * The ‘symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec()’ method has been removed.  It
     was deprecated since 2006, and only returning ‘False’ when it's
     called.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40208(21))

   * The ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’
     have been removed.  They were deprecated since Python 3.7 and you
     can use *note asyncio.current_task(): 198. and *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): 797. instead.  (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in
     bpo-40967(22))

   * The ‘unescape()’ method in the *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 6a2.
     class has been removed (it was deprecated since Python 3.4).  *note
     html.unescape(): 798. should be used for converting character
     references to the corresponding unicode characters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37414

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37392

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36710

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37312

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37320

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37804

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36409

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40967


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 9,  Next: 建置變更<4>,  Prev: 已移除<5>,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.10 Porting to Python 3.9
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python API::
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<2>.
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API,  Next: C API 中的改動<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 9

1.4.10.1 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * *note __import__(): 70d. and *note importlib.util.resolve_name():
     745. now raise *note ImportError: 145. where it previously raised
     *note ValueError: 183.  Callers catching the specific exception
     type and supporting both Python 3.9 and earlier versions will need
     to catch both using ‘except (ImportError, ValueError):’.

   * The *note venv: 10c. activation scripts no longer special-case when
     ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ is set to ‘""’.

   * The *note select.epoll.unregister(): 79b. method no longer ignores
     the *note EBADF: 79c. error.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-39239(1).)

   * The 'compresslevel' parameter of *note bz2.BZ2File: 692. became
     keyword-only, since the 'buffering' parameter has been removed.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39357(2).)

   * Simplified AST for subscription.  Simple indices will be
     represented by their value, extended slices will be represented as
     tuples.  ‘Index(value)’ will return a ‘value’ itself,
     ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ will return ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-34822(3).)

   * The *note importlib: 71. module now ignores the *note PYTHONCASEOK:
     79d. environment variable when the *note -E: 79e. or *note -I: 79f.
     command line options are being used.

   * The 'encoding' parameter has been added to the classes *note
     ftplib.FTP: 735. and *note ftplib.FTP_TLS: 736. as a keyword-only
     parameter, and the default encoding is changed from Latin-1 to
     UTF-8 to follow RFC 2640(4).

   * *note asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 720. has been added
     to *note AbstractEventLoop: 7a0, meaning alternative event loops
     that inherit from it should have this method defined.  (Contributed
     by Kyle Stanley in bpo-34037(5).)

   * The constant values of future flags in the *note __future__: 0.
     module is updated in order to prevent collision with compiler
     flags.  Previously ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ was clashing with
     ‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in
     bpo-39562(6))

   * ‘array('u')’ now uses ‘wchar_t’ as C type instead of ‘Py_UNICODE’.
     This change doesn't affect to its behavior because ‘Py_UNICODE’ is
     alias of ‘wchar_t’ since Python 3.3.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki
     in bpo-34538(7).)

   * The *note logging.getLogger(): 7a1. API now returns the root logger
     when passed the name ‘'root'’, whereas previously it returned a
     non-root logger named ‘'root'’.  This could affect cases where user
     code explicitly wants a non-root logger named ‘'root'’, or
     instantiates a logger using ‘logging.getLogger(__name__)’ in some
     top-level module called ‘'root.py'’.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip
     in bpo-37742(8).)

   * Division handling of *note PurePath: 1c8. now returns *note
     NotImplemented: 5f2. instead of raising a *note TypeError: 2ba.
     when passed something other than an instance of ‘str’ or *note
     PurePath: 1c8.  This allows creating compatible classes that don't
     inherit from those mentioned types.  (Contributed by Roger Aiudi in
     bpo-34775(9)).

   * Starting with Python 3.9.5 the *note ipaddress: 7a. module no
     longer accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading
     zeros are ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some
     libraries.  For example the legacy function *note
     socket.inet_aton(): 7a2. treats leading zeros as octal notatation.
     glibc implementation of modern *note inet_pton(): 7a3. does not
     accept any leading zeros.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-36384(10)).

   * *note codecs.lookup(): 7a4. now normalizes the encoding name the
     same way as ‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’, except that *note
     codecs.lookup(): 7a4. also converts the name to lower case.  For
     example, ‘"latex+latin1"’ encoding name is now normalized to
     ‘"latex_latin1"’.  (Contributed by Jordon Xu in bpo-37751(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34538

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37742

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34775

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751


File: python.info,  Node: C API 中的改動<2>,  Next: CPython 位元組碼變更<4>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API,  Up: Porting to Python 3 9

1.4.10.2 C API 中的改動
.......................

   * Instances of *note heap-allocated types: 7a6. (such as those
     created with *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c. and similar APIs) hold a
     reference to their type object since Python 3.8.  As indicated in
     the "Changes in the C API" of Python 3.8, for the vast majority of
     cases, there should be no side effect but for types that have a
     custom *note tp_traverse: 594. function, ensure that all custom
     ‘tp_traverse’ functions of heap-allocated types visit the object's
     type.

          範例：

               int
               foo_traverse(foo_struct *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) {
               // Rest of the traverse function
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (Python issue 35810 and 40217)
                   Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
               #endif
               }

     If your traverse function delegates to ‘tp_traverse’ of its base
     class (or another type), ensure that ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ is visited
     only once.  Note that only *note heap type: 7a6. are expected to
     visit the type in ‘tp_traverse’.

          For example, if your ‘tp_traverse’ function includes:

               base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

          then add:

               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (bpo-35810 and bpo-40217)
                   if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
                       // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self)
                   } else {
                       Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
                   }
               #else

     （更多資訊請見 bpo-35810(1) 與 bpo-40217(2)。）

   * The functions ‘PyEval_CallObject’, ‘PyEval_CallFunction’,
     ‘PyEval_CallMethod’ and ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords’ are
     deprecated.  Use *note PyObject_Call(): 7a7. and its variants
     instead.  (See more details in bpo-29548(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 位元組碼變更<4>,  Prev: C API 中的改動<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 9

1.4.10.3 CPython 位元組碼變更
.............................

   * The *note LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR: 7a9. opcode was added for handling
     the *note assert: 7aa. statement.  Previously, the assert statement
     would not work correctly if the *note AssertionError: 4a6.
     exception was being shadowed.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
     bpo-34880(1).)

   * The *note COMPARE_OP: 7ab. opcode was split into four distinct
     instructions:

        * ‘COMPARE_OP’ for rich comparisons

        * ‘IS_OP’ for 'is' and 'is not' tests

        * ‘CONTAINS_OP’ for 'in' and 'not in' tests

        * ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’ for checking exceptions in
          'try-except' statements.

     （由 Mark Shannon 在 bpo-39156(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34880

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156


File: python.info,  Node: 建置變更<4>,  Next: C API 變更<4>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 9,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.11 建置變更
---------------

   * Added ‘--with-platlibdir’ option to the ‘configure’ script: name of
     the platform-specific library directory, stored in the new *note
     sys.platlibdir: 777. attribute.  See *note sys.platlibdir: 777.
     attribute for more information.  (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj
     Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).)

   * The ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ special build macro has been removed.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39489(2).)

   * On non-Windows platforms, the ‘setenv()’ and ‘unsetenv()’ functions
     are now required to build Python.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in bpo-39395(3).)

   * On non-Windows platforms, creating ‘bdist_wininst’ installers is
     now officially unsupported.  (See bpo-10945(4) for more details.)

   * When building Python on macOS from source, ‘_tkinter’ now links
     with non-system Tcl and Tk frameworks if they are installed in
     ‘/Library/Frameworks’, as had been the case on older releases of
     macOS. If a macOS SDK is explicitly configured, by using *note
     -enable-universalsdk: 7ad. or ‘-isysroot’, only the SDK itself is
     searched.  The default behavior can still be overridden with
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’.  (Contributed by
     Ned Deily in bpo-34956(5).)

   * Python can now be built for Windows 10 ARM64.  (Contributed by
     Steve Dower in bpo-33125(6).)

   * Some individual tests are now skipped when ‘--pgo’ is used.  The
     tests in question increased the PGO task time significantly and
     likely didn't help improve optimization of the final executable.
     This speeds up the task by a factor of about 15x.  Running the full
     unit test suite is slow.  This change may result in a slightly less
     optimized build since not as many code branches will be executed.
     If you are willing to wait for the much slower build, the old
     behavior can be restored using ‘./configure [..] PROFILE_TASK="-m
     test --pgo-extended"’.  We make no guarantees as to which PGO task
     set produces a faster build.  Users who care should run their own
     relevant benchmarks as results can depend on the environment,
     workload, and compiler tool chain.  (See bpo-36044(7) and
     bpo-37707(8) for more details.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707


File: python.info,  Node: C API 變更<4>,  Next: Python 3 9 1 中顯著的變更,  Prev: 建置變更<4>,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.12 C API 變更
-----------------

* Menu:

* New Features: New Features<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9<2>.
* 已移除: 已移除<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<2>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 9<2>,  Up: C API 變更<4>

1.4.12.1 New Features
.....................

   * PEP 573(1): Added *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6. to
     associate a module with a class; *note PyType_GetModule(): 7b0. and
     *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 7b1. to retrieve the module and its
     state; and *note PyCMethod: 57b. and *note METH_METHOD: 7b2. to
     allow a method to access the class it was defined in.  (Contributed
     by Marcel Plch and Petr Viktorin in bpo-38787(2).)

   * Added *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 5a2. function: get a frame code.
     Added *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 59d. function: get the frame next
     outer frame.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40421(3).)

   * Added *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5a3. to the limited C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40421(4).)

   * Added *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 7b3. and *note
     PyInterpreterState_Get(): 7b4. functions to get the interpreter.
     Added *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5a7. function to get the
     current frame of a Python thread state.  Added *note
     PyThreadState_GetID(): 7b5. function: get the unique identifier of
     a Python thread state.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-39947(5).)

   * Added a new public *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 7b6. function to
     the C API, which calls a callable Python object without any
     arguments.  It is the most efficient way to call a callable Python
     object without any argument.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37194(6).)

   * Changes in the limited C API (if ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is
     defined):

        * Provide *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7b7. and *note
          Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 7b8. as regular functions for the
          limited API. Previously, there were defined as macros, but
          these macros didn't compile with the limited C API which
          cannot access ‘PyThreadState.recursion_depth’ field (the
          structure is opaque in the limited C API).

        * ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’ become regular
          "opaque" function to hide implementation details.

     （由 Victor Stinner 在 38644 和 39542 中貢獻。）

   * The *note PyModule_AddType(): 7b9. function is added to help adding
     a type to a module.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40024(7).)

   * Added the functions *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 7ba. and *note
     PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 7bb. to the public API to allow to query
     if Python objects are being currently tracked or have been already
     finalized by the garbage collector respectively.  (Contributed by
     Pablo Galindo Salgado in bpo-40241(8).)

   * Added ‘_PyObject_FunctionStr()’ to get a user-friendly string
     representation of a function-like object.  (Patch by Jeroen Demeyer
     in bpo-37645(9).)

   * Added *note PyObject_CallOneArg(): 7bc. for calling an object with
     one positional argument (Patch by Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-37483(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 9<2>,  Next: 已移除<6>,  Prev: New Features<2>,  Up: C API 變更<4>

1.4.12.2 Porting to Python 3.9
..............................

   * ‘PyInterpreterState.eval_frame’ ( PEP 523(1)) now requires a new
     mandatory 'tstate' parameter (‘PyThreadState*’).  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-38500(2).)

   * Extension modules: *note m_traverse: 7be, *note m_clear: 7bf. and
     *note m_free: 7c0. functions of *note PyModuleDef: 7c1. are no
     longer called if the module state was requested but is not
     allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after the module is
     created and before the module is executed (*note Py_mod_exec: 7c2.
     function).  More precisely, these functions are not called if *note
     m_size: 7c3. is greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by
     *note PyModule_GetState(): 7c4.) is ‘NULL’.

     Extension modules without module state (‘m_size <= 0’) are not
     affected.

   * If *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 7c5. is called in a subinterpreter,
     the function is now scheduled to be called from the subinterpreter,
     rather than being called from the main interpreter.  Each
     subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39984(3).)

   * The Windows registry is no longer used to initialize *note
     sys.path: 35e. when the ‘-E’ option is used (if *note
     PyConfig.use_environment: 330. is set to ‘0’).  This is significant
     when embedding Python on Windows.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
     bpo-8901(4).)

   * The global variable *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 7c6. is
     now a constant and refers to a constant string.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-38650(5).)

   * The ‘PyGC_Head’ structure is now opaque.  It is only defined in the
     internal C API (‘pycore_gc.h’).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-40241(6).)

   * The ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY’, ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL’, ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH’,
     ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’,
     ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode’, and ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’ are
     marked as deprecated in C. They have been deprecated by PEP 393(7)
     since Python 3.3.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36346(8).)

   * The *note Py_FatalError(): 7c7. function is replaced with a macro
     which logs automatically the name of the current function, unless
     the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-39882(9).)

   * The vectorcall protocol now requires that the caller passes only
     strings as keyword names.  (See bpo-37540(10) for more
     information.)

   * Implementation details of a number of macros and functions are now
     hidden:

        * *note PyObject_IS_GC(): 7c8. macro was converted to a
          function.

        * The ‘PyObject_NEW()’ macro becomes an alias to the *note
          PyObject_New: 7c9. macro, and the ‘PyObject_NEW_VAR()’ macro
          becomes an alias to the *note PyObject_NewVar: 7ca. macro.
          They no longer access directly the *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 7cb. member.

        * ‘PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro was converted to a
          function: the macro accessed directly the *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset: 7cc. member.

        * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 56c. macro was converted to a
          function: the macro accessed directly the *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer: 7cd. member.

        * *note PyIndex_Check(): 7ce. is now always declared as an
          opaque function to hide implementation details: removed the
          ‘PyIndex_Check()’ macro.  The macro accessed directly the
          *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_number: 7cf. member.

     （更多資訊請見 bpo-40170(11)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170


File: python.info,  Node: 已移除<6>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 9<2>,  Up: C API 變更<4>

1.4.12.3 已移除
...............

   * Excluded ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros
     of ‘pyfpe.h’ from the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in bpo-38835(1).)

   * The ‘tp_print’ slot of *note PyTypeObject: 7d1. has been removed.
     It was used for printing objects to files in Python 2.7 and before.
     Since Python 3.0, it has been ignored and unused.  (Contributed by
     Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-36974(2).)

   * Changes in the limited C API (if ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is
     defined):

        * Excluded the following functions from the limited C API:

             * ‘PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent()’ (Contributed by Joannah
               Nanjekye in bpo-37878(3).)

             * ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’

             * ‘_Py_NewReference()’

             * ‘_Py_ForgetReference()’

             * ‘_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference()’

             * ‘_Py_GetRefTotal()’

             * The trashcan mechanism which never worked in the limited
               C API.

             * ‘PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’

        * Moved following functions and definitions to the internal C
          API:

             * ‘_PyDebug_PrintTotalRefs()’

             * ‘_Py_PrintReferences()’

             * ‘_Py_PrintReferenceAddresses()’

             * ‘_Py_tracemalloc_config’

             * ‘_Py_AddToAllObjects()’ (specific to ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’
               build)

     （由 Victor Stinner 在 38644 和 39542 中貢獻。）

   * Removed ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’ hook and removed
     ‘_PyThreadState_GetFrame’ macro which was an alias to
     ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’.  They were only exposed by the internal C
     API. Removed also ‘PyThreadFrameGetter’ type.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-39946(4).)

   * Removed the following functions from the C API. Call *note
     PyGC_Collect(): 7d2. explicitly to clear all free lists.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki and Victor Stinner in bpo-37340(5),
     bpo-38896(6) and bpo-40428(7).)

        * ‘PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()’

        * ‘PyContext_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyDict_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFloat_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFrame_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyList_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyMethod_ClearFreeList()’ and ‘PyCFunction_ClearFreeList()’:
          the free lists of bound method objects have been removed.

        * ‘PySet_ClearFreeList()’: the set free list has been removed in
          Python 3.4.

        * ‘PyTuple_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()’: the Unicode free list has been
          removed in Python 3.3.

   * Removed ‘_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()’ function.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-39465(8).)

   * Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’.  It has been deprecated by PEP 393(9),
     and broken since Python 3.3.  The *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 6f0.
     function can be used instead.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
     bpo-36346(10).)

   * Cleaned header files of interfaces defined but with no
     implementation.  The public API symbols being removed are:
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale’,
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromArgs’,
     ‘_Py_InitializeFromWideArgs’, ‘_PyFloat_Repr’, ‘_PyFloat_Digits’,
     ‘_PyFloat_DigitsInit’, ‘PyFrame_ExtendStack’,
     ‘_PyAIterWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNullImporter_Type’, ‘PyCmpWrapper_Type’,
     ‘PySortWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNoArgsFunction’.  (Contributed by Pablo
     Galindo Salgado in bpo-39372(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 1 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 9 2 中顯著的變更,  Prev: C API 變更<4>,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.13 Python 3.9.1 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* typing: typing<5>.
* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support.


File: python.info,  Node: typing<5>,  Next: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support,  Up: Python 3 9 1 中顯著的變更

1.4.13.1 typing
...............

The behavior of *note typing.Literal: 67c. was changed to conform with
PEP 586(1) and to match the behavior of static type checkers specified
in the PEP.

  1. ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates parameters.

  2. Equality comparisons between ‘Literal’ objects are now order
     independent.

  3. ‘Literal’ comparisons now respect types.  For example, ‘Literal[0]
     == Literal[False]’ previously evaluated to ‘True’.  It is now
     ‘False’.  To support this change, the internally used type cache
     now supports differentiating types.

  4. ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception
     during equality comparisons if any of their parameters are not
     *note hashable: 409.  Note that declaring ‘Literal’ with mutable
     parameters will not throw an error:

          >>> from typing import Literal
          >>> Literal[{0}]
          >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

（由 Yurii Karabas 在 bpo-42345(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345


File: python.info,  Node: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support,  Prev: typing<5>,  Up: Python 3 9 1 中顯著的變更

1.4.13.2 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support
...........................................................

As of 3.9.1, Python now fully supports building and running on macOS
11.0 (Big Sur) and on Apple Silicon Macs (based on the ‘ARM64’
architecture).  A new universal build variant, ‘universal2’, is now
available to natively support both ‘ARM64’ and ‘Intel 64’ in one set of
executables.  Binaries can also now be built on current versions of
macOS to be deployed on a range of older macOS versions (tested to 10.9)
while making some newer OS functions and options conditionally available
based on the operating system version in use at runtime ("weaklinking").

（由 Ronald Oussoren 和 Lawrence D'Anna 在 bpo-41100(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 2 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 9 3 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 9 1 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.14 Python 3.9.2 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* collections.abc: collections abc<2>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc<2>,  Next: urllib parse<2>,  Up: Python 3 9 2 中顯著的變更

1.4.14.1 collections.abc
........................

*note collections.abc.Callable: 60b. generic now flattens type
parameters, similar to what *note typing.Callable: 5e3. currently does.
This means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ will have
‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was ‘([int, str],
str)’.  To allow this change, *note types.GenericAlias: 60c. can now be
subclassed, and a subclass will be returned when subscripting the *note
collections.abc.Callable: 60b. type.  Code which accesses the arguments
via *note typing.get_args(): 6aa. or ‘__args__’ need to account for this
change.  A *note DeprecationWarning: 179. may be emitted for invalid
forms of parameterizing *note collections.abc.Callable: 60b. which may
have passed silently in Python 3.9.1.  This *note DeprecationWarning:
179. will become a *note TypeError: 2ba. in Python 3.10.  (Contributed
by Ken Jin in bpo-42195(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<2>,  Prev: collections abc<2>,  Up: Python 3 9 2 中顯著的變更

1.4.14.2 urllib.parse
.....................

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 682. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 683.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
*note cgi.parse(): 684. and *note cgi.parse_multipart(): 685. as they
use the affected functions internally.  For more details, please see
their respective documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt,
Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 3 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 9 5 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 9 2 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.15 Python 3.9.3 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 735. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 5 中顯著的變更,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Prev: Python 3 9 3 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.16 Python 3.9.5 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<3>,  Up: Python 3 9 5 中顯著的變更

1.4.16.1 urllib.parse
.....................

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(1), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 105.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Next: Notable changes in 3 9 17,  Prev: Python 3 9 5 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.17 Notable security feature in 3.9.14
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 17e. and *note str: 157. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 183. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d3. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 3ea. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 9 17,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Up: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能

1.4.18 Notable changes in 3.9.17
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<3>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 9 17

1.4.18.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: d8, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 184, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 185. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     179.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.5 Python 3.8 有什麼新功能
===========================


編輯者: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.8, compared to 3.7.
Python 3.8 was released on October 14, 2019.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 136.

* Menu:

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights<2>. Release highlights
* New Features: New Features<3>.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<5>.
* 新增模組: 新增模組<3>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<5>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<5>.
* Build and C API Changes::
* 已棄用: 已棄用<8>.
* API and Feature Removals::
* Porting to Python 3.8: Porting to Python 3 8.
* Python 3.8.1 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 1 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.2 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 2 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.3 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 3 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.8 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 8 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.9 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 9 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.10 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.8.10 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更<2>.
* Python 3.8.12 中顯著的變更: Python 3 8 12 中顯著的變更.
* Notable security feature in 3.8.14: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
* Notable changes in 3.8.17: Notable changes in 3 8 17.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary -- Release highlights<2>,  Next: New Features<3>,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.1 Summary - Release highlights
----------------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<3>,  Next: 其他語言更動<5>,  Prev: Summary -- Release highlights<2>,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* Assignment expressions::
* Positional-only parameters::
* Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files::
* Debug build uses the same ABI as release build::
* f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging::
* PEP 578; Python Runtime Audit Hooks: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks.
* PEP 587; Python Initialization Configuration: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
* PEP 590; Vectorcall; a fast calling protocol for CPython: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython.
* Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers::


File: python.info,  Node: Assignment expressions,  Next: Positional-only parameters,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.1 Assignment expressions
..............................

There is new syntax ‘:=’ that assigns values to variables as part of a
larger expression.  It is affectionately known as "the walrus operator"
due to its resemblance to the eyes and tusks of a walrus(1).

In this example, the assignment expression helps avoid calling *note
len(): 429. twice:

     if (n := len(a)) > 10:
         print(f"List is too long ({n} elements, expected <= 10)")

A similar benefit arises during regular expression matching where match
objects are needed twice, once to test whether a match occurred and
another to extract a subgroup:

     discount = 0.0
     if (mo := re.search(r'(\d+)% discount', advertisement)):
         discount = float(mo.group(1)) / 100.0

The operator is also useful with while-loops that compute a value to
test loop termination and then need that same value again in the body of
the loop:

     # Loop over fixed length blocks
     while (block := f.read(256)) != '':
         process(block)

Another motivating use case arises in list comprehensions where a value
computed in a filtering condition is also needed in the expression body:

     [clean_name.title() for name in names
      if (clean_name := normalize('NFC', name)) in allowed_names]

Try to limit use of the walrus operator to clean cases that reduce
complexity and improve readability.

完整敘述請見 PEP 572(2)。

（由 Emily Morehouse 在 bpo-35224(3) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walrus#/media/File:Pacific_Walrus_-_Bull_(8247646168).jpg

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224


File: python.info,  Node: Positional-only parameters,  Next: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files,  Prev: Assignment expressions,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.2 Positional-only parameters
..................................

There is a new function parameter syntax ‘/’ to indicate that some
function parameters must be specified positionally and cannot be used as
keyword arguments.  This is the same notation shown by ‘help()’ for C
functions annotated with Larry Hastings' Argument Clinic(1) tool.

In the following example, parameters 'a' and 'b' are positional-only,
while 'c' or 'd' can be positional or keyword, and 'e' or 'f' are
required to be keywords:

     def f(a, b, /, c, d, *, e, f):
         print(a, b, c, d, e, f)

The following is a valid call:

     f(10, 20, 30, d=40, e=50, f=60)

However, these are invalid calls:

     f(10, b=20, c=30, d=40, e=50, f=60)   # b cannot be a keyword argument
     f(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, f=60)           # e must be a keyword argument

One use case for this notation is that it allows pure Python functions
to fully emulate behaviors of existing C coded functions.  For example,
the built-in *note divmod(): 7e5. function does not accept keyword
arguments:

     def divmod(a, b, /):
         "Emulate the built in divmod() function"
         return (a // b, a % b)

Another use case is to preclude keyword arguments when the parameter
name is not helpful.  For example, the builtin *note len(): 429.
function has the signature ‘len(obj, /)’.  This precludes awkward calls
such as:

     len(obj='hello')  # The "obj" keyword argument impairs readability

A further benefit of marking a parameter as positional-only is that it
allows the parameter name to be changed in the future without risk of
breaking client code.  For example, in the *note statistics: cc. module,
the parameter name 'dist' may be changed in the future.  This was made
possible with the following function specification:

     def quantiles(dist, /, *, n=4, method='exclusive')
         ...

Since the parameters to the left of ‘/’ are not exposed as possible
keywords, the parameters names remain available for use in ‘**kwargs’:

     >>> def f(a, b, /, **kwargs):
     ...     print(a, b, kwargs)
     ...
     >>> f(10, 20, a=1, b=2, c=3)         # a and b are used in two ways
     10 20 {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}

This greatly simplifies the implementation of functions and methods that
need to accept arbitrary keyword arguments.  For example, here is an
excerpt from code in the *note collections: 1b. module:

     class Counter(dict):

         def __init__(self, iterable=None, /, **kwds):
             # Note "iterable" is a possible keyword argument

完整敘述請見 PEP 570(2)。

（由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-36540(3) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540


File: python.info,  Node: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files,  Next: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build,  Prev: Positional-only parameters,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.3 Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files
.............................................................

The new *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 7e7. setting (also available as *note
-X: 188. ‘pycache_prefix’) configures the implicit bytecode cache to use
a separate parallel filesystem tree, rather than the default
‘__pycache__’ subdirectories within each source directory.

The location of the cache is reported in *note sys.pycache_prefix: 7e8.
(*note None: 470. indicates the default location in ‘__pycache__’
subdirectories).

（由 Carl Meyer 在 bpo-33499(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33499


File: python.info,  Node: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build,  Next: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging,  Prev: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.4 Debug build uses the same ABI as release build
......................................................

Python now uses the same ABI whether it's built in release or debug
mode.  On Unix, when Python is built in debug mode, it is now possible
to load C extensions built in release mode and C extensions built using
the stable ABI.

Release builds and *note debug builds: 69f. are now ABI compatible:
defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’
macro, which introduces the only ABI incompatibility.  The
‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which adds the ‘sys.getobjects()’ function and
the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 7ea. environment variable, can be set using
the new *note ./configure -with-trace-refs: 6d2. build option.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36465(1).)

On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpython except on
Android and Cygwin.  It is now possible for a statically linked Python
to load a C extension built using a shared library Python.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-21536(2).)

On Unix, when Python is built in debug mode, import now also looks for C
extensions compiled in release mode and for C extensions compiled with
the stable ABI. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36722(3).)

To embed Python into an application, a new ‘--embed’ option must be
passed to ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ to get ‘-lpython3.8’ (link the
application to libpython).  To support both 3.8 and older, try
‘python3-config --libs --embed’ first and fallback to ‘python3-config
--libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command fails.

Add a pkg-config ‘python-3.8-embed’ module to embed Python into an
application: ‘pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs’ includes
‘-lpython3.8’.  To support both 3.8 and older, try ‘pkg-config
python-X.Y-embed --libs’ first and fallback to ‘pkg-config python-X.Y
--libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command fails (replace ‘X.Y’
with the Python version).

On the other hand, ‘pkg-config python3.8 --libs’ no longer contains
‘-lpython3.8’.  C extensions must not be linked to libpython (except on
Android and Cygwin, whose cases are handled by the script); this change
is backward incompatible on purpose.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-36721(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721


File: python.info,  Node: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging,  Next: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks,  Prev: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.5 f-strings support ‘=’ for self-documenting expressions and debugging
............................................................................

Added an ‘=’ specifier to *note f-string: 138.s.  An f-string such as
‘f'{expr=}'’ will expand to the text of the expression, an equal sign,
then the representation of the evaluated expression.  For example:

     >>> user = 'eric_idle'
     >>> member_since = date(1975, 7, 31)
     >>> f'{user=} {member_since=}'
     "user='eric_idle' member_since=datetime.date(1975, 7, 31)"

The usual *note f-string format specifiers: 7ed. allow more control over
how the result of the expression is displayed:

     >>> delta = date.today() - member_since
     >>> f'{user=!s}  {delta.days=:,d}'
     'user=eric_idle  delta.days=16,075'

The ‘=’ specifier will display the whole expression so that calculations
can be shown:

     >>> print(f'{theta=}  {cos(radians(theta))=:.3f}')
     theta=30  cos(radians(theta))=0.866

（由 Eric V. Smith 和 Larry Hastings 在 bpo-36817(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks,  Next: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration,  Prev: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.6 PEP 578: Python Runtime Audit Hooks
...........................................

The PEP adds an Audit Hook and Verified Open Hook.  Both are available
from Python and native code, allowing applications and frameworks
written in pure Python code to take advantage of extra notifications,
while also allowing embedders or system administrators to deploy builds
of Python where auditing is always enabled.

完整細節請見 PEP 578(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration,  Next: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython,  Prev: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.7 PEP 587: Python Initialization Configuration
....................................................

The PEP 587(1) adds a new C API to configure the Python Initialization
providing finer control on the whole configuration and better error
reporting.

New structures:

   * *note PyConfig: 345.

   * *note PyPreConfig: 7f0.

   * *note PyStatus: 7f1.

   * *note PyWideStringList: 7f2.

New functions:

   * *note PyConfig_Clear(): 7f3.

   * *note PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 7f4.

   * *note PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 7f5.

   * *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa.

   * *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): 7f6.

   * *note PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): 7f7.

   * *note PyConfig_SetBytesString(): 7f8.

   * *note PyConfig_SetString(): 7f9.

   * *note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 7fa.

   * *note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 7fb.

   * *note PyStatus_Error(): 7fc.

   * *note PyStatus_Exception(): 7fd.

   * *note PyStatus_Exit(): 7fe.

   * *note PyStatus_IsError(): 7ff.

   * *note PyStatus_IsExit(): 800.

   * *note PyStatus_NoMemory(): 801.

   * *note PyStatus_Ok(): 802.

   * *note PyWideStringList_Append(): 803.

   * *note PyWideStringList_Insert(): 804.

   * *note Py_BytesMain(): 805.

   * *note Py_ExitStatusException(): 806.

   * *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344.

   * *note Py_PreInitialize(): 343.

   * *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): 807.

   * *note Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): 808.

   * *note Py_RunMain(): 809.

This PEP also adds ‘_PyRuntimeState.preconfig’ (*note PyPreConfig: 7f0.
type) and ‘PyInterpreterState.config’ (*note PyConfig: 345. type) fields
to these internal structures.  ‘PyInterpreterState.config’ becomes the
new reference configuration, replacing global configuration variables
and other private variables.

See *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad. for the
documentation.

完整敘述請見 PEP 587(2)。

（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-36763(3) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython,  Next: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers,  Prev: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.8 PEP 590: Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython
................................................................

*note Vectorcall 協定: 2d7. is added to the Python/C API. It is meant to
formalize existing optimizations which were already done for various
classes.  Any *note static type: 596. implementing a callable can use
this protocol.

This is currently provisional.  The aim is to make it fully public in
Python 3.9.

完整敘述請見 PEP 590(1)。

（由 Jeroen Demeyer、Mark Shannon 和 Petr Viktorin 在 bpo-36974(2) 中貢
獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974


File: python.info,  Node: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers,  Prev: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.9 Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers
.......................................................

When *note pickle: a1. is used to transfer large data between Python
processes in order to take advantage of multi-core or multi-machine
processing, it is important to optimize the transfer by reducing memory
copies, and possibly by applying custom techniques such as
data-dependent compression.

The *note pickle: a1. protocol 5 introduces support for out-of-band
buffers where PEP 3118(1)-compatible data can be transmitted separately
from the main pickle stream, at the discretion of the communication
layer.

完整敘述請見 PEP 574(2)。

（由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-36785(3) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36785


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<5>,  Next: 新增模組<3>,  Prev: New Features<3>,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.3 其他語言更動
------------------

   * A *note continue: 80d. statement was illegal in the *note finally:
     80e. clause due to a problem with the implementation.  In Python
     3.8 this restriction was lifted.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-32489(1).)

   * The *note bool: 17d, *note int: 17e, and *note fractions.Fraction:
     1a8. types now have an *note as_integer_ratio(): 80f. method like
     that found in *note float: 26a. and *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0.
     This minor API extension makes it possible to write ‘numerator,
     denominator = x.as_integer_ratio()’ and have it work across
     multiple numeric types.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-33073(2)
     and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-37819(3).)

   * Constructors of *note int: 17e, *note float: 26a. and *note
     complex: 26b. will now use the *note __index__(): 51f. special
     method, if available and the corresponding method *note __int__():
     51e, *note __float__(): 810. or *note __complex__(): 3dd. is not
     available.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20092(4).)

   * Added support of ‘\N{NAME}’ escapes in *note regular expressions:
     b4.:

          >>> notice = 'Copyright © 2019'
          >>> copyright_year_pattern = re.compile(r'\N{copyright sign}\s*(\d{4})')
          >>> int(copyright_year_pattern.search(notice).group(1))
          2019

     （由 Jonathan Eunice 和 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-30688(5) 中貢獻。）

   * Dict and dictviews are now iterable in reversed insertion order
     using *note reversed(): 691.  (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in
     bpo-33462(6).)

   * The syntax allowed for keyword names in function calls was further
     restricted.  In particular, ‘f((keyword)=arg)’ is no longer
     allowed.  It was never intended to permit more than a bare name on
     the left-hand side of a keyword argument assignment term.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-34641(7).)

   * Generalized iterable unpacking in *note yield: 811. and *note
     return: 812. statements no longer requires enclosing parentheses.
     This brings the 'yield' and 'return' syntax into better agreement
     with normal assignment syntax:

          >>> def parse(family):
                  lastname, *members = family.split()
                  return lastname.upper(), *members

          >>> parse('simpsons homer marge bart lisa maggie')
          ('SIMPSONS', 'homer', 'marge', 'bart', 'lisa', 'maggie')

     （由 David Cuthbert 和 Jordan Chapman 在 bpo-32117(8) 中貢獻。）

   * When a comma is missed in code such as ‘[(10, 20) (30, 40)]’, the
     compiler displays a *note SyntaxWarning: 178. with a helpful
     suggestion.  This improves on just having a *note TypeError: 2ba.
     indicating that the first tuple was not callable.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15248(9).)

   * Arithmetic operations between subclasses of *note datetime.date:
     72f. or *note datetime.datetime: 224. and *note datetime.timedelta:
     813. objects now return an instance of the subclass, rather than
     the base class.  This also affects the return type of operations
     whose implementation (directly or indirectly) uses *note
     datetime.timedelta: 813. arithmetic, such as *note astimezone():
     814.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32417(10).)

   * When the Python interpreter is interrupted by Ctrl-C (SIGINT) and
     the resulting *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. exception is not
     caught, the Python process now exits via a SIGINT signal or with
     the correct exit code such that the calling process can detect that
     it died due to a Ctrl-C. Shells on POSIX and Windows use this to
     properly terminate scripts in interactive sessions.  (Contributed
     by Google via Gregory P. Smith in bpo-1054041(11).)

   * Some advanced styles of programming require updating the *note
     types.CodeType: 25d. object for an existing function.  Since code
     objects are immutable, a new code object needs to be created, one
     that is modeled on the existing code object.  With 19 parameters,
     this was somewhat tedious.  Now, the new ‘replace()’ method makes
     it possible to create a clone with a few altered parameters.

     Here's an example that alters the *note statistics.mean(): 4d0.
     function to prevent the 'data' parameter from being used as a
     keyword argument:

          >>> from statistics import mean
          >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
          40
          >>> mean.__code__ = mean.__code__.replace(co_posonlyargcount=1)
          >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          TypeError: mean() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'data'

     （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-37032(12) 中貢獻。）

   * For integers, the three-argument form of the *note pow(): 816.
     function now permits the exponent to be negative in the case where
     the base is relatively prime to the modulus.  It then computes a
     modular inverse to the base when the exponent is ‘-1’, and a
     suitable power of that inverse for other negative exponents.  For
     example, to compute the modular multiplicative inverse(13) of 38
     modulo 137, write:

          >>> pow(38, -1, 137)
          119
          >>> 119 * 38 % 137
          1

     Modular inverses arise in the solution of linear Diophantine
     equations(14).  For example, to find integer solutions for ‘4258𝑥 +
     147𝑦 = 369’, first rewrite as ‘4258𝑥 ≡ 369 (mod 147)’ then solve:

          >>> x = 369 * pow(4258, -1, 147) % 147
          >>> y = (4258 * x - 369) // -147
          >>> 4258 * x + 147 * y
          369

     （由 Mark Dickinson 在 bpo-36027(15) 中貢獻。）

   * Dict comprehensions have been synced-up with dict literals so that
     the key is computed first and the value second:

          >>> # Dict comprehension
          >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ') for i in range(2)}
          role? King Arthur
          actor? Chapman
          role? Black Knight
          actor? Cleese

          >>> # Dict literal
          >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ')}
          role? Sir Robin
          actor? Eric Idle

     The guaranteed execution order is helpful with assignment
     expressions because variables assigned in the key expression will
     be available in the value expression:

          >>> names = ['Martin von Löwis', 'Łukasz Langa', 'Walter Dörwald']
          >>> {(n := normalize('NFC', name)).casefold() : n for name in names}
          {'martin von löwis': 'Martin von Löwis',
           'łukasz langa': 'Łukasz Langa',
           'walter dörwald': 'Walter Dörwald'}

     （由 Jörn Heissler 在 bpo-35224(16) 中貢獻。）

   * The *note object.__reduce__(): 817. method can now return a tuple
     from two to six elements long.  Formerly, five was the limit.  The
     new, optional sixth element is a callable with a ‘(obj, state)’
     signature.  This allows the direct control over the state-updating
     behavior of a specific object.  If not 'None', this callable will
     have priority over the object's ‘__setstate__()’ method.
     (Contributed by Pierre Glaser and Olivier Grisel in bpo-35900(17).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33073

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37819

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30688

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33462

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32117

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032

   (13) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse

   (14) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900


File: python.info,  Node: 新增模組<3>,  Next: 改進的模組<5>,  Prev: 其他語言更動<5>,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.4 新增模組
--------------

   * The new *note importlib.metadata: 74. module provides (provisional)
     support for reading metadata from third-party packages.  For
     example, it can extract an installed package's version number, list
     of entry points, and more:

          >>> # Note following example requires that the popular "requests"
          >>> # package has been installed.
          >>>
          >>> from importlib.metadata import version, requires, files
          >>> version('requests')
          '2.22.0'
          >>> list(requires('requests'))
          ['chardet (<3.1.0,>=3.0.2)']
          >>> list(files('requests'))[:5]
          [PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/INSTALLER'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/LICENSE'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/METADATA'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/RECORD'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/WHEEL')]

     （由 Barry Warsaw 和 Jason R. Coombs 在 bpo-34632(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34632


File: python.info,  Node: 改進的模組<5>,  Next: 最佳化<5>,  Prev: 新增模組<3>,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.5 改進的模組
----------------

* Menu:

* ast: ast<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<5>.
* builtins（內建）::
* collections::
* cProfile::
* csv: csv<2>.
* curses: curses<3>.
* ctypes::
* datetime: datetime<3>.
* functools: functools<2>.
* gc: gc<3>.
* gettext::
* gzip: gzip<3>.
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<2>.
* inspect: inspect<5>.
* io: io<2>.
* itertools: itertools<3>.
* json.tool: json tool.
* logging: logging<2>.
* math: math<4>.
* mmap::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>.
* os: os<5>.
* os.path: os path<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<5>.
* pickle::
* plistlib::
* pprint: pprint<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<2>.
* shlex::
* shutil: shutil<3>.
* socket: socket<4>.
* ssl: ssl<3>.
* statistics: statistics<3>.
* sys: sys<5>.
* tarfile: tarfile<4>.
* threading: threading<4>.
* tokenize: tokenize<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<3>.
* time: time<3>.
* typing: typing<6>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<4>.
* unittest: unittest<5>.
* venv: venv<3>.
* weakref::
* xml: xml<3>.
* xmlrpc::


File: python.info,  Node: ast<2>,  Next: asyncio<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.1 ast
...........

AST nodes now have ‘end_lineno’ and ‘end_col_offset’ attributes, which
give the precise location of the end of the node.  (This only applies to
nodes that have ‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’ attributes.)

New function *note ast.get_source_segment(): 81b. returns the source
code for a specific AST node.

（由 Ivan Levkivskyi 在 bpo-33416(1) 中貢獻。）

The *note ast.parse(): 182. function has some new flags:

   * ‘type_comments=True’ causes it to return the text of PEP 484(2) and
     PEP 526(3) type comments associated with certain AST nodes;

   * ‘mode='func_type'’ can be used to parse PEP 484(4) "signature type
     comments" (returned for function definition AST nodes);

   * ‘feature_version=(3, N)’ allows specifying an earlier Python 3
     version.  For example, ‘feature_version=(3, 4)’ will treat *note
     async: 541. and *note await: 542. as non-reserved words.

（由 Guido van Rossum 在 bpo-35766(5) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<5>,  Next: builtins（內建）,  Prev: ast<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.2 asyncio
...............

*note asyncio.run(): 197. has graduated from the provisional to stable
API. This function can be used to execute a *note coroutine: 1ae. and
return the result while automatically managing the event loop.  For
example:

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         await asyncio.sleep(0)
         return 42

     asyncio.run(main())

這'大致'等價於：

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         await asyncio.sleep(0)
         return 42

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()
     asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(main())
     finally:
         asyncio.set_event_loop(None)
         loop.close()

The actual implementation is significantly more complex.  Thus, *note
asyncio.run(): 197. should be the preferred way of running asyncio
programs.

（由 Yury Selivanov 在 bpo-32314(1) 中貢獻。）

Running ‘python -m asyncio’ launches a natively async REPL. This allows
rapid experimentation with code that has a top-level *note await: 542.
There is no longer a need to directly call ‘asyncio.run()’ which would
spawn a new event loop on every invocation:

     $ python -m asyncio
     asyncio REPL 3.8.0
     Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>> import asyncio
     >>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
     hello

（由 Yury Selivanov 在 bpo-37028(2) 中貢獻。）

The exception *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. now inherits from *note
BaseException: 3ab. rather than *note Exception: 81e. and no longer
inherits from *note concurrent.futures.CancelledError: 81f.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528(3).)

On Windows, the default event loop is now *note ProactorEventLoop: 400.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-34687(4).)

*note ProactorEventLoop: 400. now also supports UDP. (Contributed by
Adam Meily and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-29883(5).)

*note ProactorEventLoop: 400. can now be interrupted by *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 815. ("CTRL+C"). (Contributed by Vladimir Matveev in
bpo-23057(6).)

Added *note asyncio.Task.get_coro(): 820. for getting the wrapped
coroutine within an *note asyncio.Task: 203.  (Contributed by Alex
Grönholm in bpo-36999(7).)

Asyncio tasks can now be named, either by passing the ‘name’ keyword
argument to *note asyncio.create_task(): 3f3. or the *note
create_task(): 821. event loop method, or by calling the *note
set_name(): 822. method on the task object.  The task name is visible in
the ‘repr()’ output of *note asyncio.Task: 203. and can also be
retrieved using the *note get_name(): 823. method.  (Contributed by Alex
Grönholm in bpo-34270(8).)

Added support for Happy Eyeballs(9) to *note
asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 3fa.  To specify the behavior, two new
parameters have been added: 'happy_eyeballs_delay' and 'interleave'.
The Happy Eyeballs algorithm improves responsiveness in applications
that support IPv4 and IPv6 by attempting to simultaneously connect using
both.  (Contributed by twisteroid ambassador in bpo-33530(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34687

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23057

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34270

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530


File: python.info,  Node: builtins（內建）,  Next: collections,  Prev: asyncio<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.3 builtins（內建）
........................

The *note compile(): 554. built-in has been improved to accept the
‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag.  With this new flag passed, *note
compile(): 554. will allow top-level ‘await’, ‘async for’ and ‘async
with’ constructs that are usually considered invalid syntax.
Asynchronous code object marked with the ‘CO_COROUTINE’ flag may then be
returned.  (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-34616(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616


File: python.info,  Node: collections,  Next: cProfile,  Prev: builtins（內建）,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.4 collections
...................

The *note _asdict(): 826. method for *note collections.namedtuple():
731. now returns a *note dict: 239. instead of a *note
collections.OrderedDict: 3ce.  This works because regular dicts have
guaranteed ordering since Python 3.7.  If the extra features of
‘OrderedDict’ are required, the suggested remediation is to cast the
result to the desired type: ‘OrderedDict(nt._asdict())’.  (Contributed
by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35864(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864


File: python.info,  Node: cProfile,  Next: csv<2>,  Prev: collections,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.5 cProfile
................

The *note cProfile.Profile: 828. class can now be used as a context
manager.  Profile a block of code by running:

     import cProfile

     with cProfile.Profile() as profiler:
           # code to be profiled
           ...

（由 Scott Sanderson 在 bpo-29235(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235


File: python.info,  Node: csv<2>,  Next: curses<3>,  Prev: cProfile,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.6 csv
...........

The *note csv.DictReader: 82a. now returns instances of *note dict: 239.
instead of a *note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce.  The tool is now faster
and uses less memory while still preserving the field order.
(Contributed by Michael Selik in bpo-34003(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34003


File: python.info,  Node: curses<3>,  Next: ctypes,  Prev: csv<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.7 curses
..............

Added a new variable holding structured version information for the
underlying ncurses library: *note ncurses_version: 82c.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31680(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31680


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes,  Next: datetime<3>,  Prev: curses<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.8 ctypes
..............

On Windows, *note CDLL: 82e. and subclasses now accept a 'winmode'
parameter to specify flags for the underlying ‘LoadLibraryEx’ call.  The
default flags are set to only load DLL dependencies from trusted
locations, including the path where the DLL is stored (if a full or
partial path is used to load the initial DLL) and paths added by *note
add_dll_directory(): 82f.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<3>,  Next: functools<2>,  Prev: ctypes,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.9 datetime
................

Added new alternate constructors *note datetime.date.fromisocalendar():
831. and *note datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 832, which construct
*note date: 72f. and *note datetime: 224. objects respectively from ISO
year, week number, and weekday; these are the inverse of each class's
‘isocalendar’ method.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-36004(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004


File: python.info,  Node: functools<2>,  Next: gc<3>,  Prev: datetime<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.10 functools
..................

*note functools.lru_cache(): 834. can now be used as a straight
decorator rather than as a function returning a decorator.  So both of
these are now supported:

     @lru_cache
     def f(x):
         ...

     @lru_cache(maxsize=256)
     def f(x):
         ...

（由 Raymond Hettinger 在 bpo-36772(1) 中貢獻。）

Added a new *note functools.cached_property(): 2c5. decorator, for
computed properties cached for the life of the instance.

     import functools
     import statistics

     class Dataset:
        def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
           self.data = sequence_of_numbers

        @functools.cached_property
        def variance(self):
           return statistics.variance(self.data)

（由 Carl Meyer 在 bpo-21145(2) 中貢獻）

Added a new *note functools.singledispatchmethod(): 835. decorator that
converts methods into *note generic functions: 836. using *note single
dispatch: 837.:

     from functools import singledispatchmethod
     from contextlib import suppress

     class TaskManager:

         def __init__(self, tasks):
             self.tasks = list(tasks)

         @singledispatchmethod
         def discard(self, value):
             with suppress(ValueError):
                 self.tasks.remove(value)

         @discard.register(list)
         def _(self, tasks):
             targets = set(tasks)
             self.tasks = [x for x in self.tasks if x not in targets]

（由 Ethan Smith 在 bpo-32380(3) 中貢獻）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36772

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21145

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32380


File: python.info,  Node: gc<3>,  Next: gettext,  Prev: functools<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.11 gc
...........

*note get_objects(): 624. can now receive an optional 'generation'
parameter indicating a generation to get objects from.  (Contributed by
Pablo Galindo in bpo-36016(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016


File: python.info,  Node: gettext,  Next: gzip<3>,  Prev: gc<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.12 gettext
................

Added *note pgettext(): 83a. and its variants.  (Contributed by Franz
Glasner, Éric Araujo, and Cheryl Sabella in bpo-2504(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2504


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<3>,  Next: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Prev: gettext,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.13 gzip
.............

Added the 'mtime' parameter to *note gzip.compress(): 439. for
reproducible output.  (Contributed by Guo Ci Teo in bpo-34898(1).)

A *note BadGzipFile: 83c. exception is now raised instead of *note
OSError: 644. for certain types of invalid or corrupt gzip files.
(Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński, Michele Orrù, and Zackery Spytz in
bpo-6584(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34898

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6584


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Next: inspect<5>,  Prev: gzip<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.14 IDLE and idlelib
.........................

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.  N can
be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings
dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right
clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place by
double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by
right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-1529353(1).)

Add "Run Customized" to the Run menu to run a module with customized
settings.  Any command line arguments entered are added to sys.argv.
They also re-appear in the box for the next customized run.  One can
also suppress the normal Shell main module restart.  (Contributed by
Cheryl Sabella, Terry Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680(2) and
bpo-37627(3).)

Added optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.  Windows open
without line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the
configuration dialog.  Line numbers for an existing window are shown and
hidden in the Options menu.  (Contributed by Tal Einat and Saimadhav
Heblikar in bpo-17535(4).)

OS native encoding is now used for converting between Python strings and
Tcl objects.  This allows IDLE to work with emoji and other non-BMP
characters.  These characters can be displayed or copied and pasted to
or from the clipboard.  Converting strings from Tcl to Python and back
now never fails.  (Many people worked on this for eight years but the
problem was finally solved by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13153(5).)

New in 3.8.1:

Add option to toggle cursor blink off.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
bpo-4603(6).)

Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows.  (Contributed by Johnny
Najera in bpo-38944(7).)

The changes above have been backported to 3.7 maintenance releases.

Add keywords to module name completion list.  (Contributed by Terry J.
Reedy in bpo-37765(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<5>,  Next: io<2>,  Prev: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.15 inspect
................

The *note inspect.getdoc(): 83f. function can now find docstrings for
‘__slots__’ if that attribute is a *note dict: 239. where the values are
docstrings.  This provides documentation options similar to what we
already have for *note property(): 424, *note classmethod(): 24b, and
*note staticmethod(): 5f9.:

     class AudioClip:
         __slots__ = {'bit_rate': 'expressed in kilohertz to one decimal place',
                      'duration': 'in seconds, rounded up to an integer'}
         def __init__(self, bit_rate, duration):
             self.bit_rate = round(bit_rate / 1000.0, 1)
             self.duration = ceil(duration)

（由 Raymond Hettinger 在 bpo-36326(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326


File: python.info,  Node: io<2>,  Next: itertools<3>,  Prev: inspect<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.16 io
...........

In development mode (*note -X: 188. ‘env’) and in *note debug build:
69f, the *note io.IOBase: 841. finalizer now logs the exception if the
‘close()’ method fails.  The exception is ignored silently by default in
release build.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18748(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<3>,  Next: json tool,  Prev: io<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.17 itertools
..................

The *note itertools.accumulate(): 843. function added an option
'initial' keyword argument to specify an initial value:

     >>> from itertools import accumulate
     >>> list(accumulate([10, 5, 30, 15], initial=1000))
     [1000, 1010, 1015, 1045, 1060]

（由 Lisa Roach 在 bpo-34659(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34659


File: python.info,  Node: json tool,  Next: logging<2>,  Prev: itertools<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.18 json.tool
..................

Add option ‘--json-lines’ to parse every input line as a separate JSON
object.  (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-31553(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31553


File: python.info,  Node: logging<2>,  Next: math<4>,  Prev: json tool,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.19 logging
................

Added a 'force' keyword argument to *note logging.basicConfig(): 846.
When set to true, any existing handlers attached to the root logger are
removed and closed before carrying out the configuration specified by
the other arguments.

This solves a long-standing problem.  Once a logger or 'basicConfig()'
had been called, subsequent calls to 'basicConfig()' were silently
ignored.  This made it difficult to update, experiment with, or teach
the various logging configuration options using the interactive prompt
or a Jupyter notebook.

(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger, implemented by Donghee Na, and reviewed
by Vinay Sajip in bpo-33897(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33897


File: python.info,  Node: math<4>,  Next: mmap,  Prev: logging<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.20 math
.............

Added new function *note math.dist(): 848. for computing Euclidean
distance between two points.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
bpo-33089(1).)

Expanded the *note math.hypot(): 849. function to handle multiple
dimensions.  Formerly, it only supported the 2-D case.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-33089(2).)

Added new function, *note math.prod(): 84a, as analogous function to
*note sum(): 181. that returns the product of a 'start' value (default:
1) times an iterable of numbers:

     >>> prior = 0.8
     >>> likelihoods = [0.625, 0.84, 0.30]
     >>> math.prod(likelihoods, start=prior)
     0.126

（由 Pablo Galindo 在 bpo-35606(3) 中貢獻。）

Added two new combinatoric functions *note math.perm(): 4cf. and *note
math.comb(): 4ce.:

     >>> math.perm(10, 3)    # Permutations of 10 things taken 3 at a time
     720
     >>> math.comb(10, 3)    # Combinations of 10 things taken 3 at a time
     120

（由 Yash Aggarwal、Keller Fuchs、Serhiy Storchaka 和 Raymond Hettinger
在 bpo-37128(4)、bpo-37178(5) 和 bpo-35431(6) 中貢獻。）

Added a new function *note math.isqrt(): 84b. for computing accurate
integer square roots without conversion to floating point.  The new
function supports arbitrarily large integers.  It is faster than
‘floor(sqrt(n))’ but slower than *note math.sqrt(): 84c.:

     >>> r = 650320427
     >>> s = r ** 2
     >>> isqrt(s - 1)         # correct
     650320426
     >>> floor(sqrt(s - 1))   # incorrect
     650320427

（由 Mark Dickinson 在 bpo-36887(7) 中貢獻。）

The function *note math.factorial(): 786. no longer accepts arguments
that are not int-like.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-33083(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37178

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35431

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36887

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33083


File: python.info,  Node: mmap,  Next: multiprocessing<2>,  Prev: math<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.21 mmap
.............

The *note mmap.mmap: 84e. class now has an *note madvise(): 84f. method
to access the ‘madvise()’ system call.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
bpo-32941(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32941


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<2>,  Next: os<5>,  Prev: mmap,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.22 multiprocessing
........................

Added new *note multiprocessing.shared_memory: 94. module.  (Contributed
by Davin Potts in bpo-35813(1).)

On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now used by default.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-33725(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: os<5>,  Next: os path<3>,  Prev: multiprocessing<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.23 os
...........

Added new function *note add_dll_directory(): 82f. on Windows for
providing additional search paths for native dependencies when importing
extension modules or loading DLLs using *note ctypes: 28.  (Contributed
by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(1).)

A new *note os.memfd_create(): 852. function was added to wrap the
‘memfd_create()’ syscall.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Christian
Heimes in bpo-26836(2).)

On Windows, much of the manual logic for handling reparse points
(including symlinks and directory junctions) has been delegated to the
operating system.  Specifically, *note os.stat(): 1bf. will now traverse
anything supported by the operating system, while *note os.lstat(): 1c0.
will only open reparse points that identify as "name surrogates" while
others are opened as for *note os.stat(): 1bf.  In all cases,
‘stat_result.st_mode’ will only have ‘S_IFLNK’ set for symbolic links
and not other kinds of reparse points.  To identify other kinds of
reparse point, check the new ‘stat_result.st_reparse_tag’ attribute.

On Windows, *note os.readlink(): 75e. is now able to read directory
junctions.  Note that *note islink(): 853. will return ‘False’ for
directory junctions, and so code that checks ‘islink’ first will
continue to treat junctions as directories, while code that handles
errors from *note os.readlink(): 75e. may now treat junctions as links.

（由 Steve Dower 在 bpo-37834(3) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: os path<3>,  Next: pathlib<5>,  Prev: os<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.24 os.path
................

*note os.path: 9d. functions that return a boolean result like *note
exists(): 855, *note lexists(): 856, *note isdir(): 857, *note isfile():
858, *note islink(): 853, and *note ismount(): 859. now return ‘False’
instead of raising *note ValueError: 183. or its subclasses *note
UnicodeEncodeError: 473. and *note UnicodeDecodeError: 85a. for paths
that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS level.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33721(1).)

*note expanduser(): 85b. on Windows now prefers the ‘USERPROFILE’
environment variable and does not use ‘HOME’, which is not normally set
for regular user accounts.  (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in
bpo-36264(2).)

*note isdir(): 857. on Windows no longer returns ‘True’ for a link to a
non-existent directory.

*note realpath(): 643. on Windows now resolves reparse points, including
symlinks and directory junctions.

（由 Steve Dower 在 bpo-37834(3) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<5>,  Next: pickle,  Prev: os path<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.25 pathlib
................

*note pathlib.Path: 149. methods that return a boolean result like *note
exists(): 85d, *note is_dir(): 85e, *note is_file(): 85f, *note
is_mount(): 860, *note is_symlink(): 861, *note is_block_device(): 862,
*note is_char_device(): 863, *note is_fifo(): 864, *note is_socket():
865. now return ‘False’ instead of raising *note ValueError: 183. or its
subclass *note UnicodeEncodeError: 473. for paths that contain
characters unrepresentable at the OS level.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-33721(1).)

Added ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ which creates a hard link pointing to a
path.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-26978(2)) Note that
‘link_to’ was deprecated in 3.10 and removed in 3.12 in favor of a
‘hardlink_to’ method added in 3.10 which matches the semantics of the
existing ‘symlink_to’ method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978


File: python.info,  Node: pickle,  Next: plistlib,  Prev: pathlib<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.26 pickle
...............

*note pickle: a1. extensions subclassing the C-optimized *note Pickler:
867. can now override the pickling logic of functions and classes by
defining the special *note reducer_override(): 868. method.
(Contributed by Pierre Glaser and Olivier Grisel in bpo-35900(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib,  Next: pprint<3>,  Prev: pickle,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.27 plistlib
.................

Added new *note plistlib.UID: 86a. and enabled support for reading and
writing NSKeyedArchiver-encoded binary plists.  (Contributed by Jon
Janzen in bpo-26707(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26707


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<3>,  Next: py_compile<2>,  Prev: plistlib,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.28 pprint
...............

The *note pprint: a9. module added a 'sort_dicts' parameter to several
functions.  By default, those functions continue to sort dictionaries
before rendering or printing.  However, if 'sort_dicts' is set to false,
the dictionaries retain the order that keys were inserted.  This can be
useful for comparison to JSON inputs during debugging.

In addition, there is a convenience new function, *note pprint.pp():
86c. that is like *note pprint.pprint(): 64e. but with 'sort_dicts'
defaulting to ‘False’:

     >>> from pprint import pprint, pp
     >>> d = dict(source='input.txt', operation='filter', destination='output.txt')
     >>> pp(d, width=40)                  # Original order
     {'source': 'input.txt',
      'operation': 'filter',
      'destination': 'output.txt'}
     >>> pprint(d, width=40)              # Keys sorted alphabetically
     {'destination': 'output.txt',
      'operation': 'filter',
      'source': 'input.txt'}

（由 Rémi Lapeyre 在 bpo-30670(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile<2>,  Next: shlex,  Prev: pprint<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.29 py_compile
...................

*note py_compile.compile(): 86e. now supports silent mode.  (Contributed
by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-22640(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22640


File: python.info,  Node: shlex,  Next: shutil<3>,  Prev: py_compile<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.30 shlex
..............

The new *note shlex.join(): 870. function acts as the inverse of *note
shlex.split(): 2be.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32102(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<3>,  Next: socket<4>,  Prev: shlex,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.31 shutil
...............

*note shutil.copytree(): 872. now accepts a new ‘dirs_exist_ok’ keyword
argument.  (Contributed by Josh Bronson in bpo-20849(1).)

*note shutil.make_archive(): 1d7. now defaults to the modern pax
(POSIX.1-2001) format for new archives to improve portability and
standards conformance, inherited from the corresponding change to the
*note tarfile: d8. module.  (Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach in
bpo-30661(2).)

*note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. on Windows now removes directory junctions
without recursively removing their contents first.  (Contributed by
Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20849

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: socket<4>,  Next: ssl<3>,  Prev: shutil<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.32 socket
...............

Added *note create_server(): 874. and *note has_dualstack_ipv6(): 875.
convenience functions to automate the necessary tasks usually involved
when creating a server socket, including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6
connections on the same socket.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
bpo-17561(1).)

The *note socket.if_nameindex(): 876, *note socket.if_nametoindex():
877, and *note socket.if_indextoname(): 878. functions have been
implemented on Windows.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-37007(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<3>,  Next: statistics<3>,  Prev: socket<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.33 ssl
............

Added *note post_handshake_auth: 87a. to enable and *note
verify_client_post_handshake(): 87b. to initiate TLS 1.3 post-handshake
authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-34670(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34670


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<3>,  Next: sys<5>,  Prev: ssl<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.34 statistics
...................

Added *note statistics.fmean(): 87d. as a faster, floating-point variant
of *note statistics.mean(): 4d0.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and
Steven D'Aprano in bpo-35904(1).)

新增 *note statistics.geometric_mean(): 87e.（由 Raymond Hettinger 在
bpo-27181(2) 中貢獻。）

Added *note statistics.multimode(): 87f. that returns a list of the most
common values.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35892(3).)

Added *note statistics.quantiles(): 880. that divides data or a
distribution in to equiprobable intervals (e.g.  quartiles, deciles, or
percentiles).  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36546(4).)

Added *note statistics.NormalDist: 881, a tool for creating and
manipulating normal distributions of a random variable.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36018(5).)

     >>> temperature_feb = NormalDist.from_samples([4, 12, -3, 2, 7, 14])
     >>> temperature_feb.mean
     6.0
     >>> temperature_feb.stdev
     6.356099432828281

     >>> temperature_feb.cdf(3)            # Chance of being under 3 degrees
     0.3184678262814532
     >>> # Relative chance of being 7 degrees versus 10 degrees
     >>> temperature_feb.pdf(7) / temperature_feb.pdf(10)
     1.2039930378537762

     >>> el_niño = NormalDist(4, 2.5)
     >>> temperature_feb += el_niño        # Add in a climate effect
     >>> temperature_feb
     NormalDist(mu=10.0, sigma=6.830080526611674)

     >>> temperature_feb * (9/5) + 32      # Convert to Fahrenheit
     NormalDist(mu=50.0, sigma=12.294144947901014)
     >>> temperature_feb.samples(3)        # Generate random samples
     [7.672102882379219, 12.000027119750287, 4.647488369766392]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018


File: python.info,  Node: sys<5>,  Next: tarfile<4>,  Prev: statistics<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.35 sys
............

Add new *note sys.unraisablehook(): 479. function which can be
overridden to control how "unraisable exceptions" are handled.  It is
called when an exception has occurred but there is no way for Python to
handle it.  For example, when a destructor raises an exception or during
garbage collection (*note gc.collect(): 883.).  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner in bpo-36829(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<4>,  Next: threading<4>,  Prev: sys<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.36 tarfile
................

The *note tarfile: d8. module now defaults to the modern pax
(POSIX.1-2001) format for new archives, instead of the previous
GNU-specific one.  This improves cross-platform portability with a
consistent encoding (UTF-8) in a standardized and extensible format, and
offers several other benefits.  (Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach in
bpo-36268(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268


File: python.info,  Node: threading<4>,  Next: tokenize<2>,  Prev: tarfile<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.37 threading
..................

Add a new *note threading.excepthook(): 672. function which handles
uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): 886. exception.  It can be
overridden to control how uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): 886.
exceptions are handled.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-1230540(1).)

Add a new *note threading.get_native_id(): 887. function and a *note
native_id: 888. attribute to the *note threading.Thread: 78d. class.
These return the native integral Thread ID of the current thread
assigned by the kernel.  This feature is only available on certain
platforms, see *note get_native_id: 887. for more information.
(Contributed by Jake Tesler in bpo-36084(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize<2>,  Next: tkinter<3>,  Prev: threading<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.38 tokenize
.................

The *note tokenize: f6. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’ token
when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This
behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.  (Contributed
by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<3>,  Next: time<3>,  Prev: tokenize<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.39 tkinter
................

Added methods ‘selection_from()’, ‘selection_present()’,
‘selection_range()’ and ‘selection_to()’ in the ‘tkinter.Spinbox’ class.
(Contributed by Juliette Monsel in bpo-34829(1).)

Added method ‘moveto()’ in the ‘tkinter.Canvas’ class.  (Contributed by
Juliette Monsel in bpo-23831(2).)

The ‘tkinter.PhotoImage’ class now has ‘transparency_get()’ and
‘transparency_set()’ methods.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
bpo-25451(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34829

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23831

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451


File: python.info,  Node: time<3>,  Next: typing<6>,  Prev: tkinter<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.40 time
.............

Added new clock *note CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: 88c. for macOS 10.12.
(Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-35702(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35702


File: python.info,  Node: typing<6>,  Next: unicodedata<4>,  Prev: time<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.41 typing
...............

The *note typing: ff. module incorporates several new features:

   * A dictionary type with per-key types.  See PEP 589(1) and *note
     typing.TypedDict: 153.  TypedDict uses only string keys.  By
     default, every key is required to be present.  Specify
     "total=False" to allow keys to be optional:

          class Location(TypedDict, total=False):
              lat_long: tuple
              grid_square: str
              xy_coordinate: tuple

   * Literal types.  See PEP 586(2) and *note typing.Literal: 67c.
     Literal types indicate that a parameter or return value is
     constrained to one or more specific literal values:

          def get_status(port: int) -> Literal['connected', 'disconnected']:
              ...

   * "Final" variables, functions, methods and classes.  See PEP 591(3),
     *note typing.Final: 88e. and *note typing.final(): 4aa.  The final
     qualifier instructs a static type checker to restrict subclassing,
     overriding, or reassignment:

          pi: Final[float] = 3.1415926536

   * Protocol definitions.  See PEP 544(4), *note typing.Protocol: 4ad.
     and *note typing.runtime_checkable(): 14c.  Simple ABCs like *note
     typing.SupportsInt: 88f. are now ‘Protocol’ subclasses.

   * New protocol class *note typing.SupportsIndex: 890.

   * New functions *note typing.get_origin(): 891. and *note
     typing.get_args(): 6aa.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<4>,  Next: unittest<5>,  Prev: typing<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.42 unicodedata
....................

The *note unicodedata: 100. module has been upgraded to use the Unicode
12.1.0(1) release.

New function *note is_normalized(): 893. can be used to verify a string
is in a specific normal form, often much faster than by actually
normalizing the string.  (Contributed by Max Belanger, David Euresti,
and Greg Price in bpo-32285(2) and bpo-37966(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://blog.unicode.org/2019/05/unicode-12-1-en.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32285

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<5>,  Next: venv<3>,  Prev: unicodedata<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.43 unittest
.................

Added *note AsyncMock: 895. to support an asynchronous version of *note
Mock: 896.  Appropriate new assert functions for testing have been added
as well.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-26467(1)).

Added *note addModuleCleanup(): 897. and *note addClassCleanup(): 898.
to unittest to support cleanups for ‘setUpModule()’ and *note
setUpClass(): 899.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-24412(2).)

Several mock assert functions now also print a list of actual calls upon
failure.  (Contributed by Petter Strandmark in bpo-35047(3).)

*note unittest: 101. module gained support for coroutines to be used as
test cases with *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b.
(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32972(4).)

範例：

     import unittest


     class TestRequest(unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):

         async def asyncSetUp(self):
             self.connection = await AsyncConnection()

         async def test_get(self):
             response = await self.connection.get("https://example.com")
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)

         async def asyncTearDown(self):
             await self.connection.close()


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         unittest.main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26467

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35047

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972


File: python.info,  Node: venv<3>,  Next: weakref,  Prev: unittest<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.44 venv
.............

*note venv: 10c. now includes an ‘Activate.ps1’ script on all platforms
for activating virtual environments under PowerShell Core 6.1.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-32718(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32718


File: python.info,  Node: weakref,  Next: xml<3>,  Prev: venv<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.45 weakref
................

The proxy objects returned by *note weakref.proxy(): 89c. now support
the matrix multiplication operators ‘@’ and ‘@=’ in addition to the
other numeric operators.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-36669(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669


File: python.info,  Node: xml<3>,  Next: xmlrpc,  Prev: weakref,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.46 xml
............

As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 11d. and *note xml.sax: 124. modules no longer process
external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-17239(1).)

The ‘.find*()’ methods in the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. module
support wildcard searches like ‘{*}tag’ which ignores the namespace and
‘{namespace}*’ which returns all tags in the given namespace.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-28238(2).)

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. module provides a new function
‘–xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize()’ that implements C14N 2.0.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-13611(3).)

The target object of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser: 89e. can
receive namespace declaration events through the new callback methods
‘start_ns()’ and ‘end_ns()’.  Additionally, the *note
xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder: 89f. target can be configured to
process events about comments and processing instructions to include
them in the generated tree.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in
bpo-36676(4) and bpo-36673(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc,  Prev: xml<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<5>

1.5.5.47 xmlrpc
...............

*note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: 8a1. now supports an optional 'headers'
keyword argument for a sequence of HTTP headers to be sent with each
request.  Among other things, this makes it possible to upgrade from
default basic authentication to faster session authentication.
(Contributed by Cédric Krier in bpo-35153(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<5>,  Next: Build and C API Changes,  Prev: 改進的模組<5>,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.6 最佳化
------------

   * The *note subprocess: d0. module can now use the *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 8a3. function in some cases for better
     performance.  Currently, it is only used on macOS and Linux (using
     glibc 2.24 or newer) if all these conditions are met:

        * 'close_fds' is false;

        * 'preexec_fn', 'pass_fds', 'cwd' and 'start_new_session'
          parameters are not set;

        * the 'executable' path contains a directory.

     （由 Joannah Nanjekye 和 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-35537(1) 中貢獻。）

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): 8a4, *note shutil.copy(): 8a5, *note
     shutil.copy2(): 8a6, *note shutil.copytree(): 872. and *note
     shutil.move(): 8a7. use platform-specific "fast-copy" syscalls on
     Linux and macOS in order to copy the file more efficiently.
     "fast-copy" means that the copying operation occurs within the
     kernel, avoiding the use of userspace buffers in Python as in
     "‘outfd.write(infd.read())’".  On Windows *note shutil.copyfile():
     8a4. uses a bigger default buffer size (1 MiB instead of 16 KiB)
     and a *note memoryview(): 17f.-based variant of *note
     shutil.copyfileobj(): 8a8. is used.  The speedup for copying a 512
     MiB file within the same partition is about +26% on Linux, +50% on
     macOS and +40% on Windows.  Also, much less CPU cycles are
     consumed.  See *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations:
     8a9. section.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-33671(2).)

   * *note shutil.copytree(): 872. uses *note os.scandir(): 8aa.
     function and all copy functions depending from it use cached *note
     os.stat(): 1bf. values.  The speedup for copying a directory with
     8000 files is around +9% on Linux, +20% on Windows and +30% on a
     Windows SMB share.  Also the number of *note os.stat(): 1bf.
     syscalls is reduced by 38% making *note shutil.copytree(): 872.
     especially faster on network filesystems.  (Contributed by
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-33695(3).)

   * The default protocol in the *note pickle: a1. module is now
     Protocol 4, first introduced in Python 3.4.  It offers better
     performance and smaller size compared to Protocol 3 available since
     Python 3.0.

   * Removed one *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. member from ‘PyGC_Head’.  All GC
     tracked objects (e.g.  tuple, list, dict) size is reduced 4 or 8
     bytes.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-33597(4).)

   * *note uuid.UUID: 8ac. now uses ‘__slots__’ to reduce its memory
     footprint.  (Contributed by Wouter Bolsterlee and Tal Einat in
     bpo-30977(5))

   * Improved performance of *note operator.itemgetter(): 8ad. by 33%.
     Optimized argument handling and added a fast path for the common
     case of a single non-negative integer index into a tuple (which is
     the typical use case in the standard library).  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35664(6).)

   * Sped-up field lookups in *note collections.namedtuple(): 731.  They
     are now more than two times faster, making them the fastest form of
     instance variable lookup in Python.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger, Pablo Galindo, and Joe Jevnik, Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-32492(7).)

   * The *note list: 40a. constructor does not overallocate the internal
     item buffer if the input iterable has a known length (the input
     implements ‘__len__’).  This makes the created list 12% smaller on
     average.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Pablo Galindo in
     bpo-33234(8).)

   * Doubled the speed of class variable writes.  When a non-dunder
     attribute was updated, there was an unnecessary call to update
     slots.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel, Pablo Galindo Salgado,
     Raymond Hettinger, Neil Schemenauer, and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-36012(9).)

   * Reduced an overhead of converting arguments passed to many builtin
     functions and methods.  This sped up calling some simple builtin
     functions and methods up to 20-50%.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-23867(10), bpo-35582(11) and bpo-36127(12).)

   * ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ instruction now uses new "per opcode cache"
     mechanism.  It is about 40% faster now.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov and Inada Naoki in bpo-26219(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33695

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30977

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35664

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33234

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23867

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35582

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36127

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes,  Next: 已棄用<8>,  Prev: 最佳化<5>,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.7 Build and C API Changes
-----------------------------

   * Default *note sys.abiflags: 8af. became an empty string: the ‘m’
     flag for pymalloc became useless (builds with and without pymalloc
     are ABI compatible) and so has been removed.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-36707(1).)

     Example of changes:

        * Only ‘python3.8’ program is installed, ‘python3.8m’ program is
          gone.

        * Only ‘python3.8-config’ script is installed,
          ‘python3.8m-config’ script is gone.

        * The ‘m’ flag has been removed from the suffix of dynamic
          library filenames: extension modules in the standard library
          as well as those produced and installed by third-party
          packages, like those downloaded from PyPI. On Linux, for
          example, the Python 3.7 suffix
          ‘.cpython-37m-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’ became
          ‘.cpython-38-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’ in Python 3.8.

   * The header files have been reorganized to better separate the
     different kinds of APIs:

        * ‘Include/*.h’ should be the portable public stable C API.

        * ‘Include/cpython/*.h’ should be the unstable C API specific to
          CPython; public API, with some private API prefixed by ‘_Py’
          or ‘_PY’.

        * ‘Include/internal/*.h’ is the private internal C API very
          specific to CPython.  This API comes with no backward
          compatibility warranty and should not be used outside CPython.
          It is only exposed for very specific needs like debuggers and
          profiles which has to access to CPython internals without
          calling functions.  This API is now installed by ‘make
          install’.

     （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-35134(2) 和 bpo-35081(3) 中貢獻，該工作
     由 Eric Snow 在 Python 3.7 中發起。）

   * Some macros have been converted to static inline functions:
     parameter types and return type are well defined, they don't have
     issues specific to macros, variables have a local scopes.
     Examples:

        * *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb, *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.

        * *note Py_XINCREF(): 8b0, *note Py_XDECREF(): 5a9.

        * ‘PyObject_INIT()’, ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’

        * Private functions: ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’,
          ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’, ‘_Py_Dealloc()’

     （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-35059(4) 中貢獻。）

   * The ‘PyByteArray_Init()’ and ‘PyByteArray_Fini()’ functions have
     been removed.  They did nothing since Python 2.7.4 and Python
     3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI), and were
     not documented.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35713(5).)

   * The result of ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ is now of type ‘const char
     *’ rather of ‘char *’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-33818(6).)

   * The duality of ‘Modules/Setup.dist’ and ‘Modules/Setup’ has been
     removed.  Previously, when updating the CPython source tree, one
     had to manually copy ‘Modules/Setup.dist’ (inside the source tree)
     to ‘Modules/Setup’ (inside the build tree) in order to reflect any
     changes upstream.  This was of a small benefit to packagers at the
     expense of a frequent annoyance to developers following CPython
     development, as forgetting to copy the file could produce build
     failures.

     Now the build system always reads from ‘Modules/Setup’ inside the
     source tree.  People who want to customize that file are encouraged
     to maintain their changes in a git fork of CPython or as patch
     files, as they would do for any other change to the source tree.

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-32430(7) 中貢獻。）

   * Functions that convert Python number to C integer like *note
     PyLong_AsLong(): 8b1. and argument parsing functions like *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. with integer converting format units like
     ‘'i'’ will now use the *note __index__(): 51f. special method
     instead of *note __int__(): 51e, if available.  The deprecation
     warning will be emitted for objects with the ‘__int__()’ method but
     without the ‘__index__()’ method (like *note Decimal: 5f0. and
     *note Fraction: 1a8.).  *note PyNumber_Check(): 8b2. will now
     return ‘1’ for objects implementing ‘__index__()’.  *note
     PyNumber_Long(): 8b3, *note PyNumber_Float(): 8b4. and *note
     PyFloat_AsDouble(): 8b5. also now use the ‘__index__()’ method if
     available.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36048(8) and
     bpo-20092(9).)

   * Heap-allocated type objects will now increase their reference count
     in *note PyObject_Init(): 8b6. (and its parallel macro
     ‘PyObject_INIT’) instead of in *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8b7.
     Types that modify instance allocation or deallocation may need to
     be adjusted.  (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in bpo-35810(10).)

   * The new function ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ allows to create
     code objects like ‘PyCode_New()’, but with an extra
     'posonlyargcount' parameter for indicating the number of
     positional-only arguments.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     bpo-37221(11).)

   * ‘Py_SetPath()’ now sets *note sys.executable: 362. to the program
     full path (*note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 361.) rather than to the
     program name (*note Py_GetProgramName(): 363.).  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-38234(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用<8>,  Next: API and Feature Removals,  Prev: Build and C API Changes,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.8 已棄用
------------

   * The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command is now deprecated, use
     ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-37481(1).)

   * Deprecated methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ in the *note
     ElementTree: 120. module now emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.  They will be
     removed in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-29209(2).)

   * Passing an object that is not an instance of *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. to *note
     loop.set_default_executor(): 556. is deprecated and will be
     prohibited in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in
     bpo-34075(3).)

   * The *note __getitem__(): 4e7. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 545, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 546. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 547.
     have been deprecated.

     Implementations of these methods have been ignoring their 'index'
     parameter, and returning the next item instead.  (Contributed by
     Berker Peksag in bpo-9372(4).)

   * The *note typing.NamedTuple: 1fb. class has deprecated the
     ‘_field_types’ attribute in favor of the ‘__annotations__’
     attribute which has the same information.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in bpo-36320(5).)

   * *note ast: 8. classes ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and
     ‘Ellipsis’ are considered deprecated and will be removed in future
     Python versions.  *note Constant: 217. should be used instead.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32892(6).)

   * *note ast.NodeVisitor: 8b9. methods ‘visit_Num()’, ‘visit_Str()’,
     ‘visit_Bytes()’, ‘visit_NameConstant()’ and ‘visit_Ellipsis()’ are
     deprecated now and will not be called in future Python versions.
     Add the *note visit_Constant(): 8ba. method to handle all constant
     nodes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36917(7).)

   * The ‘asyncio.coroutine()’ *note decorator: 540. is deprecated and
     will be removed in version 3.10.  Instead of ‘@asyncio.coroutine’,
     use *note async def: 3c3. instead.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov
     in bpo-36921(8).)

   * In *note asyncio: 9, the explicit passing of a 'loop' argument has
     been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.10 for the
     following: *note asyncio.sleep(): 8bb, *note asyncio.gather(): 3f4,
     *note asyncio.shield(): 8bc, *note asyncio.wait_for(): 3f6, *note
     asyncio.wait(): 19a, *note asyncio.as_completed(): 19b, *note
     asyncio.Task: 203, *note asyncio.Lock: 8bd, *note asyncio.Event:
     8be, *note asyncio.Condition: 8bf, *note asyncio.Semaphore: 8c0,
     *note asyncio.BoundedSemaphore: 8c1, *note asyncio.Queue: 8c2,
     *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): 8c3, and *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): 8c4.

   * The explicit passing of coroutine objects to *note asyncio.wait():
     19a. has been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.11.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-34790(9).)

   * The following functions and methods are deprecated in the *note
     gettext: 5e. module: ‘lgettext()’, ‘ldgettext()’, ‘lngettext()’ and
     ‘ldngettext()’.  They return encoded bytes, and it's possible that
     you will get unexpected Unicode-related exceptions if there are
     encoding problems with the translated strings.  It's much better to
     use alternatives which return Unicode strings in Python 3.  These
     functions have been broken for a long time.

     Function ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’, methods ‘output_charset()’
     and ‘set_output_charset()’, and the 'codeset' parameter of
     functions *note translation(): 8c5. and *note install(): 8c6. are
     also deprecated, since they are only used for the ‘l*gettext()’
     functions.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33710(10).)

   * The ‘isAlive()’ method of *note threading.Thread: 78d. has been
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-35283(11).)

   * Many builtin and extension functions that take integer arguments
     will now emit a deprecation warning for *note Decimal: 5f0.s, *note
     Fraction: 1a8.s and any other objects that can be converted to
     integers only with a loss (e.g.  that have the *note __int__():
     51e. method but do not have the *note __index__(): 51f. method).
     In future version they will be errors.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-36048(12).)

   * Deprecated passing the following arguments as keyword arguments:

        - 'func' in *note functools.partialmethod(): 8c7, *note
          weakref.finalize(): 8c8, *note profile.Profile.runcall(): 8c9,
          ‘cProfile.Profile.runcall()’, *note bdb.Bdb.runcall(): 8ca,
          *note trace.Trace.runfunc(): 8cb. and *note curses.wrapper():
          8cc.

        - 'function' in *note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): 8cd.

        - 'fn' in the *note submit(): 8ce. method of *note
          concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. and *note
          concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 727.

        - 'callback' in *note contextlib.ExitStack.callback(): 8cf,
          ‘contextlib.AsyncExitStack.callback()’ and *note
          contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_callback(): 8d0.

        - 'c' and 'typeid' in the ‘create()’ method of
          ‘multiprocessing.managers.Server’ and
          ‘multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryServer’.

        - 'obj' in *note weakref.finalize(): 8c8.

     In future releases of Python, they will be *note positional-only:
     8d1.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36492(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37481

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34075

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9372

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36917

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36921

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33710

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35283

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals,  Next: Porting to Python 3 8,  Prev: 已棄用<8>,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.9 API and Feature Removals
------------------------------

The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.8:

   * Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from *note collections:
     1b. was deprecated, and importing should be done from *note
     collections.abc: 1c.  Being able to import from collections was
     marked for removal in 3.8, but has been delayed to 3.9.  (See
     gh-81134(1).)

   * The ‘macpath’ module, deprecated in Python 3.7, has been removed.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35471(2).)

   * The function ‘platform.popen()’ has been removed, after having been
     deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): 8d3. instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35345(3).)

   * The function ‘time.clock()’ has been removed, after having been
     deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note time.perf_counter(): 8d4. or
     *note time.process_time(): 8d5. instead, depending on your
     requirements, to have well-defined behavior.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-36895(4).)

   * The ‘pyvenv’ script has been removed in favor of ‘python3.8 -m
     venv’ to help eliminate confusion as to what Python interpreter the
     ‘pyvenv’ script is tied to.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-25427(5).)

   * ‘parse_qs’, ‘parse_qsl’, and ‘escape’ are removed from the *note
     cgi: 13. module.  They are deprecated in Python 3.2 or older.  They
     should be imported from the ‘urllib.parse’ and ‘html’ modules
     instead.

   * ‘filemode’ function is removed from the *note tarfile: d8. module.
     It is not documented and deprecated since Python 3.3.

   * The *note XMLParser: 89e. constructor no longer accepts the 'html'
     argument.  It never had an effect and was deprecated in Python 3.4.
     All other parameters are now *note keyword-only: 8d6.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(6).)

   * Removed the ‘doctype()’ method of *note XMLParser: 89e.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(7).)

   * "unicode_internal" codec is removed.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki
     in bpo-36297(8).)

   * The ‘Cache’ and ‘Statement’ objects of the *note sqlite3: c9.
     module are not exposed to the user.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda
     in bpo-30262(9).)

   * The ‘bufsize’ keyword argument of *note fileinput.input(): 620. and
     *note fileinput.FileInput(): 547. which was ignored and deprecated
     since Python 3.6 has been removed.  bpo-36952(10) (Contributed by
     Matthias Bussonnier.)

   * The functions ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’ and
     ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’ deprecated in Python 3.7 have been
     removed; bpo-36933(11) (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81134

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35471

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36895

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30262

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 8,  Next: Python 3 8 1 中顯著的變更,  Prev: API and Feature Removals,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.10 Porting to Python 3.8
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in Python behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<2>.
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<3>.
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<5>.
* Demos and Tools: Demos and Tools<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in Python behavior,  Next: Changes in the Python API<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.5.10.1 Changes in Python behavior
...................................

   * Yield expressions (both ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ clauses) are now
     disallowed in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from
     the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause).
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544(1).)

   * The compiler now produces a *note SyntaxWarning: 178. when identity
     checks (‘is’ and ‘is not’) are used with certain types of literals
     (e.g.  strings, numbers).  These can often work by accident in
     CPython, but are not guaranteed by the language spec.  The warning
     advises users to use equality tests (‘==’ and ‘!=’) instead.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-34850(2).)

   * The CPython interpreter can swallow exceptions in some
     circumstances.  In Python 3.8 this happens in fewer cases.  In
     particular, exceptions raised when getting the attribute from the
     type dictionary are no longer ignored.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-35459(3).)

   * Removed ‘__str__’ implementations from builtin types *note bool:
     17d, *note int: 17e, *note float: 26a, *note complex: 26b. and few
     classes from the standard library.  They now inherit ‘__str__()’
     from *note object: 8d9.  As result, defining the ‘__repr__()’
     method in the subclass of these classes will affect their string
     representation.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36793(4).)

   * On AIX, *note sys.platform: 8da. doesn't contain the major version
     anymore.  It is always ‘'aix'’, instead of ‘'aix3'’ ..  ‘'aix7'’.
     Since older Python versions include the version number, so it is
     recommended to always use ‘sys.platform.startswith('aix')’.
     (Contributed by M. Felt in bpo-36588(5).)

   * ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_AcquireThread()’ now terminate
     the current thread if called while the interpreter is finalizing,
     making them consistent with *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8db,
     *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): 8dc, and *note PyGILState_Ensure():
     8dd.  If this behavior is not desired, guard the call by checking
     ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8de.
     (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-36475(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35459

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<2>,  Next: C API 中的改動<3>,  Prev: Changes in Python behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.5.10.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * The *note os.getcwdb(): 8e0. function now uses the UTF-8 encoding
     on Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP 529(1) for the
     rationale.  The function is no longer deprecated on Windows.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37412(2).)

   * *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. can now use *note os.posix_spawn():
     8a3. in some cases for better performance.  On Windows Subsystem
     for Linux and QEMU User Emulation, the ‘Popen’ constructor using
     *note os.posix_spawn(): 8a3. no longer raises an exception on
     errors like "missing program".  Instead the child process fails
     with a non-zero ‘returncode’.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye and
     Victor Stinner in bpo-35537(3).)

   * The 'preexec_fn' argument of * *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. is no
     longer compatible with subinterpreters.  The use of the parameter
     in a subinterpreter now raises *note RuntimeError: 17a.
     (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-34651(4), modified by Christian
     Heimes in bpo-37951(5).)

   * The ‘imap.IMAP4.logout()’ method no longer silently ignores
     arbitrary exceptions.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-36348(6).)

   * The function ‘platform.popen()’ has been removed, after having been
     deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): 8d3. instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35345(7).)

   * The *note statistics.mode(): 8e2. function no longer raises an
     exception when given multimodal data.  Instead, it returns the
     first mode encountered in the input data.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in bpo-35892(8).)

   * The *note selection(): 8e3. method of the *note
     tkinter.ttk.Treeview: 8e4. class no longer takes arguments.  Using
     it with arguments for changing the selection was deprecated in
     Python 3.6.  Use specialized methods like *note selection_set():
     8e5. for changing the selection.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-31508(9).)

   * The ‘writexml()’, ‘toxml()’ and ‘toprettyxml()’ methods of *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 11d, and the ‘write()’ method of ‘xml.etree’, now
     preserve the attribute order specified by the user.  (Contributed
     by Diego Rojas and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-34160(10).)

   * A *note dbm.dumb: 30. database opened with flags ‘'r'’ is now
     read-only.  *note dbm.dumb.open(): 8e6. with flags ‘'r'’ and ‘'w'’
     no longer creates a database if it does not exist.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32749(11).)

   * The ‘doctype()’ method defined in a subclass of *note XMLParser:
     89e. will no longer be called and will emit a *note RuntimeWarning:
     8e7. instead of a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  Define the *note
     doctype(): 8e8. method on a target for handling an XML doctype
     declaration.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(12).)

   * A *note RuntimeError: 17a. is now raised when the custom metaclass
     doesn't provide the ‘__classcell__’ entry in the namespace passed
     to ‘type.__new__’.  A *note DeprecationWarning: 179. was emitted in
     Python 3.6-3.7.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-23722(13).)

   * The ‘cProfile.Profile’ class can now be used as a context manager.
     (Contributed by Scott Sanderson in bpo-29235(14).)

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): 8a4, *note shutil.copy(): 8a5, *note
     shutil.copy2(): 8a6, *note shutil.copytree(): 872. and *note
     shutil.move(): 8a7. use platform-specific "fast-copy" syscalls (see
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: 8a9. section).

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): 8a4. default buffer size on Windows was
     changed from 16 KiB to 1 MiB.

   * The ‘PyGC_Head’ struct has changed completely.  All code that
     touched the struct member should be rewritten.  (See
     bpo-33597(15).)

   * The *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. struct has been moved into the
     "internal" header files (specifically
     Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h).  An opaque ‘PyInterpreterState’
     is still available as part of the public API (and stable ABI). The
     docs indicate that none of the struct's fields are public, so we
     hope no one has been using them.  However, if you do rely on one or
     more of those private fields and have no alternative then please
     open a BPO issue.  We'll work on helping you adjust (possibly
     including adding accessor functions to the public API). (See
     bpo-35886(16).)

   * The *note mmap.flush(): 8e9. method now returns ‘None’ on success
     and raises an exception on error under all platforms.  Previously,
     its behavior was platform-dependent: a nonzero value was returned
     on success; zero was returned on error under Windows.  A zero value
     was returned on success; an exception was raised on error under
     Unix.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-2122(17).)

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 11d. and *note xml.sax: 124. modules no
     longer process external entities by default.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes in bpo-17239(18).)

   * Deleting a key from a read-only *note dbm: 2f. database (*note
     dbm.dumb: 30, *note dbm.gnu: 31. or *note dbm.ndbm: 32.) raises
     ‘error’ (*note dbm.dumb.error: 8ea, *note dbm.gnu.error: 8eb. or
     *note dbm.ndbm.error: 8ec.) instead of *note KeyError: 8ed.
     (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-33106(19).)

   * Simplified AST for literals.  All constants will be represented as
     *note ast.Constant: 217. instances.  Instantiating old classes
     ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and ‘Ellipsis’ will return an
     instance of ‘Constant’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-32892(20).)

   * *note expanduser(): 85b. on Windows now prefers the ‘USERPROFILE’
     environment variable and does not use ‘HOME’, which is not normally
     set for regular user accounts.  (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in
     bpo-36264(21).)

   * The exception *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. now inherits from
     *note BaseException: 3ab. rather than *note Exception: 81e. and no
     longer inherits from *note concurrent.futures.CancelledError: 81f.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528(22).)

   * The function *note asyncio.wait_for(): 3f6. now correctly waits for
     cancellation when using an instance of *note asyncio.Task: 203.
     Previously, upon reaching 'timeout', it was cancelled and
     immediately returned.  (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in
     bpo-32751(23).)

   * The function *note asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info(): 8ee. now
     returns a safe to use socket object when 'socket' is passed to the
     'name' parameter.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-37027(24).)

   * *note asyncio.BufferedProtocol: 8ef. has graduated to the stable
     API.

   * DLL dependencies for extension modules and DLLs loaded with *note
     ctypes: 28. on Windows are now resolved more securely.  Only the
     system paths, the directory containing the DLL or PYD file, and
     directories added with *note add_dll_directory(): 82f. are searched
     for load-time dependencies.  Specifically, ‘PATH’ and the current
     working directory are no longer used, and modifications to these
     will no longer have any effect on normal DLL resolution.  If your
     application relies on these mechanisms, you should check for *note
     add_dll_directory(): 82f. and if it exists, use it to add your DLLs
     directory while loading your library.  Note that Windows 7 users
     will need to ensure that Windows Update KB2533623 has been
     installed (this is also verified by the installer).  (Contributed
     by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(25).)

   * The header files and functions related to pgen have been removed
     after its replacement by a pure Python implementation.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-36623(26).)

   * *note types.CodeType: 25d. has a new parameter in the second
     position of the constructor ('posonlyargcount') to support
     positional-only arguments defined in PEP 570(27).  The first
     argument ('argcount') now represents the total number of positional
     arguments (including positional-only arguments).  The new
     ‘replace()’ method of *note types.CodeType: 25d. can be used to
     make the code future-proof.

   * The parameter ‘digestmod’ for *note hmac.new(): 8f1. no longer uses
     the MD5 digest by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37951

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31508

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34160

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32749

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2122

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33106

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/


File: python.info,  Node: C API 中的改動<3>,  Next: CPython 位元組碼變更<5>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.5.10.3 C API 中的改動
.......................

   * The *note PyCompilerFlags: 8f3. structure got a new
     'cf_feature_version' field.  It should be initialized to
     ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’.  The field is ignored by default, and is used
     if and only if ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ flag is set in 'cf_flags'.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-35766(1).)

   * The ‘PyEval_ReInitThreads()’ function has been removed from the C
     API. It should not be called explicitly: use *note
     PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 36c. instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-36728(2).)

   * On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpython except on
     Android and Cygwin.  When Python is embedded, ‘libpython’ must not
     be loaded with ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, but ‘RTLD_GLOBAL’ instead.
     Previously, using ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, it was already not possible to load
     C extensions which were not linked to ‘libpython’, like C
     extensions of the standard library built by the ‘*shared*’ section
     of ‘Modules/Setup’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21536(3).)

   * Use of ‘#’ variants of formats in parsing or building value (e.g.
     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe, *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db, *note
     PyObject_CallFunction(): 8f4, etc.)  without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’
     defined raises ‘DeprecationWarning’ now.  It will be removed in
     3.10 or 4.0.  Read *note 剖析引數與建置數值: 6dc. for detail.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36381(4).)

   * Instances of heap-allocated types (such as those created with *note
     PyType_FromSpec(): 30c.) hold a reference to their type object.
     Increasing the reference count of these type objects has been moved
     from *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8b7. to the more low-level
     functions, *note PyObject_Init(): 8b6. and ‘PyObject_INIT()’.  This
     makes types created through *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c. behave
     like other classes in managed code.

     *note Statically allocated types: 596. are not affected.

     For the vast majority of cases, there should be no side effect.
     However, types that manually increase the reference count after
     allocating an instance (perhaps to work around the bug) may now
     become immortal.  To avoid this, these classes need to call
     Py_DECREF on the type object during instance deallocation.

     To correctly port these types into 3.8, please apply the following
     changes:

        * Remove *note Py_INCREF: 2fb. on the type object after
          allocating an instance - if any.  This may happen after
          calling *note PyObject_New: 7c9, *note PyObject_NewVar: 7ca,
          *note PyObject_GC_New(): 8f5, *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): 8f6,
          or any other custom allocator that uses *note PyObject_Init():
          8b6. or ‘PyObject_INIT()’.

          範例：

               static foo_struct *
               foo_new(PyObject *type) {
                   foo_struct *foo = PyObject_GC_New(foo_struct, (PyTypeObject *) type);
                   if (foo == NULL)
                       return NULL;
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x03080000
                   // Workaround for Python issue 35810; no longer necessary in Python 3.8
                   PY_INCREF(type)
               #endif
                   return foo;
               }

        * Ensure that all custom ‘tp_dealloc’ functions of
          heap-allocated types decrease the type's reference count.

          範例：

               static void
               foo_dealloc(foo_struct *instance) {
                   PyObject *type = Py_TYPE(instance);
                   PyObject_GC_Del(instance);
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.8 (Python issue 35810)
                   Py_DECREF(type);
               #endif
               }

     （由 Eddie Elizondo 在 bpo-35810(5) 中貢獻。）

   * The *note Py_DEPRECATED(): 8f7. macro has been implemented for
     MSVC.  The macro now must be placed before the symbol name.

     範例：

          Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

     （由 Zackery Spytz 在 bpo-33407(6) 中貢獻。）

   * The interpreter does not pretend to support binary compatibility of
     extension types across feature releases, anymore.  A *note
     PyTypeObject: 8f8. exported by a third-party extension module is
     supposed to have all the slots expected in the current Python
     version, including *note tp_finalize: 8f9. (*note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 367. is not checked anymore before
     reading *note tp_finalize: 8f9.).

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-32388(7) 中貢獻。）

   * The functions ‘PyNode_AddChild()’ and ‘PyParser_AddToken()’ now
     accept two additional ‘int’ arguments 'end_lineno' and
     'end_col_offset'.

   * The ‘libpython38.a’ file to allow MinGW tools to link directly
     against ‘python38.dll’ is no longer included in the regular Windows
     distribution.  If you require this file, it may be generated with
     the ‘gendef’ and ‘dlltool’ tools, which are part of the MinGW
     binutils package:

          gendef - python38.dll > tmp.def
          dlltool --dllname python38.dll --def tmp.def --output-lib libpython38.a

     The location of an installed ‘pythonXY.dll’ will depend on the
     installation options and the version and language of Windows.  See
     *note 在 Windows 上使用 Python: 8fa. for more information.  The
     resulting library should be placed in the same directory as
     ‘pythonXY.lib’, which is generally the ‘libs’ directory under your
     Python installation.

     （由 Steve Dower 在 bpo-37351(8) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 位元組碼變更<5>,  Next: Demos and Tools<2>,  Prev: C API 中的改動<3>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.5.10.4 CPython 位元組碼變更
.............................

   * The interpreter loop has been simplified by moving the logic of
     unrolling the stack of blocks into the compiler.  The compiler
     emits now explicit instructions for adjusting the stack of values
     and calling the cleaning-up code for *note break: 8fc, *note
     continue: 80d. and *note return: 812.

     Removed opcodes ‘BREAK_LOOP’, ‘CONTINUE_LOOP’, ‘SETUP_LOOP’ and
     ‘SETUP_EXCEPT’.  Added new opcodes ‘ROT_FOUR’, ‘BEGIN_FINALLY’,
     ‘CALL_FINALLY’ and ‘POP_FINALLY’.  Changed the behavior of
     ‘END_FINALLY’ and ‘WITH_CLEANUP_START’.

     （由 Mark Shannon、Antoine Pitrou 和 Serhiy Storchaka 在
     bpo-17611(1) 中貢獻。）

   * Added new opcode *note END_ASYNC_FOR: 8fd. for handling exceptions
     raised when awaiting a next item in an *note async for: 8fe. loop.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33041(2).)

   * The *note MAP_ADD: 8ff. now expects the value as the first element
     in the stack and the key as the second element.  This change was
     made so the key is always evaluated before the value in dictionary
     comprehensions, as proposed by PEP 572(3).  (Contributed by Jörn
     Heissler in bpo-35224(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17611

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224


File: python.info,  Node: Demos and Tools<2>,  Prev: CPython 位元組碼變更<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.5.10.5 Demos and Tools
........................

Added a benchmark script for timing various ways to access variables:
‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.  (Contributed by Raymond
Hettinger in bpo-35884(1).)

Here's a summary of performance improvements since Python 3.3:

     Python version                       3.3     3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8
     --------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---     ---

     Variable and attribute read access:
         read_local                       4.0     7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9
         read_nonlocal                    5.3     7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4
         read_global                     13.3    15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6
         read_builtin                    20.0    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5
         read_classvar_from_class        20.5    25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4
         read_classvar_from_instance     18.5    22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4
         read_instancevar                26.8    32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4
         read_instancevar_slots          23.7    27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2
         read_namedtuple                 68.5    73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4
         read_boundmethod                29.8    37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7

     Variable and attribute write access:
         write_local                      4.6     8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3
         write_nonlocal                   7.3    10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7
         write_global                    15.9    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8
         write_classvar                  81.9    92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2
         write_instancevar               36.4    44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5
         write_instancevar_slots         28.7    35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7

     Data structure read access:
         read_list                       19.2    24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0
         read_deque                      19.9    24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8
         read_dict                       19.7    24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0
         read_strdict                    17.9    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9

     Data structure write access:
         write_list                      21.2    27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0
         write_deque                     23.8    28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5
         write_dict                      25.9    31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7
         write_strdict                   22.9    28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1

     Stack (or queue) operations:
         list_append_pop                144.2    93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8
         deque_append_pop                30.4    43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5
         deque_append_popleft            30.8    43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8

     Timing loop:
         loop_overhead                    0.3     0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3

The benchmarks were measured on an Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(2)
running the macOS 64-bit builds found at python.org(3).  The benchmark
script displays timings in nanoseconds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884

   (2) 
https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html

   (3) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 1 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 8 2 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 8,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.11 Python 3.8.1 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of
*note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543. is no longer
supported.  This is because of the behavior of the socket option
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 2 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 8 3 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 8 1 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.12 Python 3.8.2 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

Fixed a regression with the ‘ignore’ callback of *note
shutil.copytree(): 872.  The argument types are now str and List[str]
again.  (Contributed by Manuel Barkhau and Giampaolo Rodola in
gh-83571(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83571


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 3 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 8 8 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 8 2 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.13 Python 3.8.3 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

The constant values of future flags in the *note __future__: 0. module
are updated in order to prevent collision with compiler flags.
Previously ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ was clashing with
‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in gh-83743(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83743


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 8 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 8 9 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 8 3 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.14 Python 3.8.8 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 682. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 683.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
*note cgi.parse(): 684. and *note cgi.parse_multipart(): 685. as they
use the affected functions internally.  For more details, please see
their respective documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt,
Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 9 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 8 8 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.15 Python 3.8.9 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 735. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更<2>,  Prev: Python 3 8 9 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.16 Python 3.8.10 中顯著的變更
---------------------------------

* Menu:

* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support<2>,  Up: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更

1.5.16.1 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support
...........................................................

As of 3.8.10, Python now supports building and running on macOS 11 (Big
Sur) and on Apple Silicon Macs (based on the ‘ARM64’ architecture).  A
new universal build variant, ‘universal2’, is now available to natively
support both ‘ARM64’ and ‘Intel 64’ in one set of executables.  Note
that support for "weaklinking", building binaries targeted for newer
versions of macOS that will also run correctly on older versions by
testing at runtime for missing features, is not included in this
backport from Python 3.9; to support a range of macOS versions, continue
to target for and build on the oldest version in the range.

(Originally contributed by Ronald Oussoren and Lawrence D'Anna in
gh-85272(1), with fixes by FX Coudert and Eli Rykoff, and backported to
3.8 by Maxime Bélanger and Ned Deily)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85272


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更<2>,  Next: Python 3 8 12 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.17 Python 3.8.10 中顯著的變更
---------------------------------

* Menu:

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<4>,  Up: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更<2>

1.5.17.1 urllib.parse
.....................

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(1), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 105.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
bpo-43882(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 12 中顯著的變更,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Prev: Python 3 8 10 中顯著的變更<2>,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.18 Python 3.8.12 中顯著的變更
---------------------------------

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<3>,  Up: Python 3 8 12 中顯著的變更

1.5.18.1 Changes in the Python API
..................................

Starting with Python 3.8.12 the *note ipaddress: 7a. module no longer
accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading zeros are
ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries.  For
example the legacy function *note socket.inet_aton(): 7a2. treats
leading zeros as octal notation.  glibc implementation of modern *note
inet_pton(): 7a3. does not accept any leading zeros.

(Originally contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-36384(1), and
backported to 3.8 by Achraf Merzouki.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Next: Notable changes in 3 8 17,  Prev: Python 3 8 12 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.19 Notable security feature in 3.8.14
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 17e. and *note str: 157. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 183. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d3. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 3ea. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 8 17,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Up: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能

1.5.20 Notable changes in 3.8.17
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<5>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 8 17

1.5.20.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: d8, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 184, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 185. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     179.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 8 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.6 Python 3.7 有什麼新功能
===========================


編輯者: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.7, compared to 3.6.
Python 3.7 was released on June 27, 2018.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 136.

* Menu:

* Summary: Summary -- Release Highlights. Release Highlights
* New Features: New Features<4>.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<6>.
* 新模組: 新模組<3>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<6>.
* C API 變更: C API 變更<5>.
* 建置變更: 建置變更<5>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<6>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes::
* Deprecated Python Behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API::
* Platform Support Removals::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<2>.
* Module Removals::
* Windows-only Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.7: Porting to Python 3 7.
* Python 3.7.1 中顯著的變更: Python 3 7 1 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.7.2 中顯著的變更: Python 3 7 2 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.7.6 中顯著的變更: Python 3 7 6 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.7.10 中顯著的變更: Python 3 7 10 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.7.11 中顯著的變更: Python 3 7 11 中顯著的變更.
* Notable security feature in 3.7.14: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary -- Release Highlights,  Next: New Features<4>,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.1 Summary - Release Highlights
----------------------------------

新增語法特性：

   * *note PEP 563: 912, postponed evaluation of type annotations.

Backwards incompatible syntax changes:

   * *note async: 541. 和 *note await: 542. 現為保留關鍵字。

New library modules:

   * *note contextvars: 22.: *note PEP 567 - Context Variables: 913.

   * *note dataclasses: 2d.: *note PEP 557 - Data Classes: 914.

   * *note importlib.resources: 915.

New built-in features:

   * *note PEP 553: 916, the new *note breakpoint(): 917. function.

Python data model improvements:

   * *note PEP 562: 918, customization of access to module attributes.

   * *note PEP 560: 919, core support for typing module and generic
     types.

   * the insertion-order preservation nature of *note dict: 91a. objects
     has been declared(1) to be an official part of the Python language
     spec.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note asyncio: 9. module has received new features, significant
     *note usability and performance improvements: 91b.

   * The *note time: e8. module gained support for *note functions with
     nanosecond resolution: 91c.

CPython implementation improvements:

   * Avoiding the use of ASCII as a default text encoding:

        * *note PEP 538: 91d, legacy C locale coercion

        * *note PEP 540: 91e, forced UTF-8 runtime mode

   * *note PEP 552: 91f, deterministic .pycs

   * *note 新版 Python 開發模式: 920.

   * *note PEP 565: 921, improved *note DeprecationWarning: 179.
     handling

C API 改進：

   * *note PEP 539: 922, new C API for thread-local storage

Documentation improvements:

   * *note PEP 545: 923, Python documentation translations

   * New documentation translations: Japanese(2), French(3), and
     Korean(4).

This release features notable performance improvements in many areas.
The *note 最佳化: 924. section lists them in detail.

For a list of changes that may affect compatibility with previous Python
releases please refer to the *note Porting to Python 3.7: 925. section.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2017-December/151283.html

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ja/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/fr/

   (4) https://docs.python.org/ko/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<4>,  Next: 其他語言更動<6>,  Prev: Summary -- Release Highlights,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 563; Postponed Evaluation of Annotations: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
* PEP 538; Legacy C Locale Coercion: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
* PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
* PEP 553; Built-in breakpoint(): PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
* PEP 539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
* PEP 562; Customization of Access to Module Attributes: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
* PEP 564; New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
* PEP 565; Show DeprecationWarning in __main__: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
* PEP 560; Core Support for typing module and Generic Types: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
* PEP 552; Hash-based .pyc Files: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
* PEP 545：Python 文件翻譯::
* Python Development Mode (-X dev): Python Development Mode -X dev.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations,  Next: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.1 PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations
....................................................

The advent of type hints in Python uncovered two glaring usability
issues with the functionality of annotations added in PEP 3107(1) and
refined further in PEP 526(2):

   * annotations could only use names which were already available in
     the current scope, in other words they didn't support forward
     references of any kind; and

   * annotating source code had adverse effects on startup time of
     Python programs.

Both of these issues are fixed by postponing the evaluation of
annotations.  Instead of compiling code which executes expressions in
annotations at their definition time, the compiler stores the annotation
in a string form equivalent to the AST of the expression in question.
If needed, annotations can be resolved at runtime using *note
typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0.  In the common case where this is not
required, the annotations are cheaper to store (since short strings are
interned by the interpreter) and make startup time faster.

Usability-wise, annotations now support forward references, making the
following syntax valid:

     class C:
         @classmethod
         def from_string(cls, source: str) -> C:
             ...

         def validate_b(self, obj: B) -> bool:
             ...

     class B:
         ...

Since this change breaks compatibility, the new behavior needs to be
enabled on a per-module basis in Python 3.7 using a *note __future__: 0.
import:

     from __future__ import annotations

It will become the default in Python 3.10.

也參考
......

PEP 563(3) - Postponed evaluation of annotations

     PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Next: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Prev: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.2 PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion
.........................................

An ongoing challenge within the Python 3 series has been determining a
sensible default strategy for handling the "7-bit ASCII" text encoding
assumption currently implied by the use of the default C or POSIX locale
on non-Windows platforms.

PEP 538(1) updates the default interpreter command line interface to
automatically coerce that locale to an available UTF-8 based locale as
described in the documentation of the new *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:
929. environment variable.  Automatically setting ‘LC_CTYPE’ this way
means that both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions (such
as *note readline: b5.) will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text
encoding, rather than ASCII.

The platform support definition in PEP 11(2) has also been updated to
limit full text handling support to suitably configured non-ASCII based
locales.

As part of this change, the default error handler for *note stdin: 2bf.
and *note stdout: 92a. is now ‘surrogateescape’ (rather than ‘strict’)
when using any of the defined coercion target locales (currently
‘C.UTF-8’, ‘C.utf8’, and ‘UTF-8’).  The default error handler for *note
stderr: 778. continues to be ‘backslashreplace’, regardless of locale.

Locale coercion is silent by default, but to assist in debugging
potentially locale related integration problems, explicit warnings
(emitted directly on *note stderr: 778.) can be requested by setting
‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn’.  This setting will also cause the Python
runtime to emit a warning if the legacy C locale remains active when the
core interpreter is initialized.

While PEP 538(3)'s locale coercion has the benefit of also affecting
extension modules (such as GNU ‘readline’), as well as child processes
(including those running non-Python applications and older versions of
Python), it has the downside of requiring that a suitable target locale
be present on the running system.  To better handle the case where no
suitable target locale is available (as occurs on RHEL/CentOS 7, for
example), Python 3.7 also implements *note PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime
Mode: 91e.

也參考
......

PEP 538(4) - Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale

     由 Nick Coghlan 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Next: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Prev: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.3 PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode
..........................................

The new *note -X: 188. ‘utf8’ command line option and *note PYTHONUTF8:
92c. environment variable can be used to enable the *note Python UTF-8
Mode: 451.

When in UTF-8 mode, CPython ignores the locale settings, and uses the
UTF-8 encoding by default.  The error handlers for *note sys.stdin: 2bf.
and *note sys.stdout: 92a. streams are set to ‘surrogateescape’.

The forced UTF-8 mode can be used to change the text handling behavior
in an embedded Python interpreter without changing the locale settings
of an embedding application.

While PEP 540(1)'s UTF-8 mode has the benefit of working regardless of
which locales are available on the running system, it has the downside
of having no effect on extension modules (such as GNU ‘readline’), child
processes running non-Python applications, and child processes running
older versions of Python.  To reduce the risk of corrupting text data
when communicating with such components, Python 3.7 also implements
*note PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: 91e.).

The UTF-8 mode is enabled by default when the locale is ‘C’ or ‘POSIX’,
and the PEP 538(2) locale coercion feature fails to change it to a UTF-8
based alternative (whether that failure is due to
‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=0’ being set, ‘LC_ALL’ being set, or the lack of a
suitable target locale).

也參考
......

PEP 540(3) - Add a new UTF-8 mode

     由 Victor Stinner 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Next: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Prev: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.4 PEP 553: Built-in ‘breakpoint()’
........................................

Python 3.7 includes the new built-in *note breakpoint(): 917. function
as an easy and consistent way to enter the Python debugger.

Built-in ‘breakpoint()’ calls *note sys.breakpointhook(): 92e.  By
default, the latter imports *note pdb: a0. and then calls
‘pdb.set_trace()’, but by binding ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ to the function
of your choosing, ‘breakpoint()’ can enter any debugger.  Additionally,
the environment variable *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: 92f. can be set to the
callable of your debugger of choice.  Set ‘PYTHONBREAKPOINT=0’ to
completely disable built-in ‘breakpoint()’.

也參考
......

PEP 553(1) - Built-in breakpoint()

     由 Barry Warsaw 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Next: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Prev: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.5 PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage
...................................................

While Python provides a C API for thread-local storage support; the
existing *note Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: 931. has used int to
represent TLS keys across all platforms.  This has not generally been a
problem for officially support platforms, but that is neither
POSIX-compliant, nor portable in any practical sense.

PEP 539(1) changes this by providing a new *note Thread Specific Storage
(TSS) API: 932. to CPython which supersedes use of the existing TLS API
within the CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. The
TSS API uses a new type *note Py_tss_t: 933. instead of int to represent
TSS keys-an opaque type the definition of which may depend on the
underlying TLS implementation.  Therefore, this will allow to build
CPython on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that
cannot be safely cast to int.

Note that on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that
cannot be safely cast to int, all functions of the existing TLS API will
be no-op and immediately return failure.  This indicates clearly that
the old API is not supported on platforms where it cannot be used
reliably, and that no effort will be made to add such support.

也參考
......

PEP 539(2) - A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython

     PEP 由 Erik M. Bray 撰寫；由 Masayuki Yamamoto 實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Next: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Prev: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.6 PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes
.............................................................

Python 3.7 allows defining ‘__getattr__()’ on modules and will call it
whenever a module attribute is otherwise not found.  Defining
‘__dir__()’ on modules is now also allowed.

A typical example of where this may be useful is module attribute
deprecation and lazy loading.

也參考
......

PEP 562(1) - ‘__getattr__’ 與 ‘__dir__’ 模組

     由 Ivan Levkivskyi 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Next: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Prev: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.7 PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution
..............................................................

The resolution of clocks in modern systems can exceed the limited
precision of a floating-point number returned by the *note time.time():
936. function and its variants.  To avoid loss of precision, PEP 564(1)
adds six new "nanosecond" variants of the existing timer functions to
the *note time: e8. module:

   * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): 937.

   * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): 938.

   * *note time.monotonic_ns(): 939.

   * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): 93a.

   * *note time.process_time_ns(): 93b.

   * *note time.time_ns(): 93c.

The new functions return the number of nanoseconds as an integer value.

Measurements(2) show that on Linux and Windows the resolution of *note
time.time_ns(): 93c. is approximately 3 times better than that of *note
time.time(): 936.

也參考
......

PEP 564(3) - Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution

     由 Victor Stinner 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Next: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Prev: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.8 PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in ‘__main__’
......................................................

The default handling of *note DeprecationWarning: 179. has been changed
such that these warnings are once more shown by default, but only when
the code triggering them is running directly in the *note __main__: 1.
module.  As a result, developers of single file scripts and those using
Python interactively should once again start seeing deprecation warnings
for the APIs they use, but deprecation warnings triggered by imported
application, library and framework modules will continue to be hidden by
default.

As a result of this change, the standard library now allows developers
to choose between three different deprecation warning behaviours:

   * *note FutureWarning: 241.: always displayed by default, recommended
     for warnings intended to be seen by application end users (e.g.
     for deprecated application configuration settings).

   * *note DeprecationWarning: 179.: displayed by default only in *note
     __main__: 1. and when running tests, recommended for warnings
     intended to be seen by other Python developers where a version
     upgrade may result in changed behaviour or an error.

   * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.: displayed by default only
     when running tests, intended for cases where a future version
     upgrade will change the warning category to *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179. or *note FutureWarning: 241.

Previously both *note DeprecationWarning: 179. and *note
PendingDeprecationWarning: 700. were only visible when running tests,
which meant that developers primarily writing single file scripts or
using Python interactively could be surprised by breaking changes in the
APIs they used.

也參考
......

PEP 565(1) - Show DeprecationWarning in ‘__main__’

     由 Nick Coghlan 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Next: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Prev: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.9 PEP 560: Core Support for ‘typing’ module and Generic Types
...................................................................

Initially PEP 484(1) was designed in such way that it would not
introduce 'any' changes to the core CPython interpreter.  Now type hints
and the *note typing: ff. module are extensively used by the community,
so this restriction is removed.  The PEP introduces two special methods
‘__class_getitem__()’ and ‘__mro_entries__’, these methods are now used
by most classes and special constructs in *note typing: ff.  As a
result, the speed of various operations with types increased up to 7
times, the generic types can be used without metaclass conflicts, and
several long standing bugs in *note typing: ff. module are fixed.

也參考
......

PEP 560(2) - Core support for typing module and generic types

     由 Ivan Levkivskyi 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Next: PEP 545：Python 文件翻譯,  Prev: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.10 PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files
.......................................

Python has traditionally checked the up-to-dateness of bytecode cache
files (i.e., ‘.pyc’ files) by comparing the source metadata
(last-modified timestamp and size) with source metadata saved in the
cache file header when it was generated.  While effective, this
invalidation method has its drawbacks.  When filesystem timestamps are
too coarse, Python can miss source updates, leading to user confusion.
Additionally, having a timestamp in the cache file is problematic for
build reproducibility(1) and content-based build systems.

PEP 552(2) extends the pyc format to allow the hash of the source file
to be used for invalidation instead of the source timestamp.  Such
‘.pyc’ files are called "hash-based".  By default, Python still uses
timestamp-based invalidation and does not generate hash-based ‘.pyc’
files at runtime.  Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files may be generated with *note
py_compile: ae. or *note compileall: 1e.

Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files come in two variants: checked and unchecked.
Python validates checked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files against the
corresponding source files at runtime but doesn't do so for unchecked
hash-based pycs.  Unchecked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files are a useful
performance optimization for environments where a system external to
Python (e.g., the build system) is responsible for keeping ‘.pyc’ files
up-to-date.

更多資訊請見 *note Cached bytecode invalidation: 3e0.。

也參考
......

PEP 552(3) - Deterministic pycs

     由 Benjamin Peterson 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 545：Python 文件翻譯,  Next: Python Development Mode -X dev,  Prev: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.11 PEP 545：Python 文件翻譯
.................................

PEP 545(1) describes the process of creating and maintaining Python
documentation translations.

Three new translations have been added:

   - 日文：‘https://docs.python.org/ja/’

   - 法文：‘https://docs.python.org/fr/’

   - 韓文：‘https://docs.python.org/ko/’

也參考
......

PEP 545(2) - Python 文件翻譯

     PEP 由 Julien Palard、Inada Naoki 與 Victor Stinner 撰寫。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Development Mode -X dev,  Prev: PEP 545：Python 文件翻譯,  Up: New Features<4>

1.6.2.12 Python Development Mode (-X dev)
.........................................

The new *note -X: 188. ‘dev’ command line option or the new *note
PYTHONDEVMODE: 942. environment variable can be used to enable *note
Python Development Mode: 703.  When in development mode, Python performs
additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by
default.  See *note Python Development Mode: 703. documentation for the
full description.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<6>,  Next: 新模組<3>,  Prev: New Features<4>,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.3 其他語言更動
------------------

   * An *note await: 542. expression and comprehensions containing an
     *note async for: 8fe. clause were illegal in the expressions in
     *note formatted string literals: 7ed. due to a problem with the
     implementation.  In Python 3.7 this restriction was lifted.

   * More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a function, and a
     function can now have more than 255 parameters.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12844(1) and bpo-18896(2).)

   * *note bytes.fromhex(): 944. and *note bytearray.fromhex(): 945. now
     ignore all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces.  (Contributed by
     Robert Xiao in bpo-28927(3).)

   * *note str: 157, *note bytes: 2c1, and *note bytearray: 2c0. gained
     support for the new *note isascii(): 946. method, which can be used
     to test if a string or bytes contain only the ASCII characters.
     (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32677(4).)

   * *note ImportError: 145. now displays module name and module
     ‘__file__’ path when ‘from ... import ...’ fails.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29546(5).)

   * Circular imports involving absolute imports with binding a
     submodule to a name are now supported.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-30024(6).)

   * ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent to ‘str(x)’ rather
     than ‘format(str(self), '')’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28974(7).)

   * In order to better support dynamic creation of stack traces, *note
     types.TracebackType: 947. can now be instantiated from Python code,
     and the *note tb_next: 948. attribute on *note tracebacks: 949. is
     now writable.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30579(8).)

   * When using the *note -m: 3d4. switch, ‘sys.path[0]’ is now eagerly
     expanded to the full starting directory path, rather than being
     left as the empty directory (which allows imports from the
     'current' working directory at the time when an import occurs)
     (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-33053(9).)

   * The new *note -X: 188. ‘importtime’ option or the *note
     PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: 94a. environment variable can be used to
     show the timing of each module import.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki
     in bpo-31415(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18896

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28927

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415


File: python.info,  Node: 新模組<3>,  Next: 改進的模組<6>,  Prev: 其他語言更動<6>,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.4 新模組
------------

* Menu:

* contextvars::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<3>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: contextvars,  Next: dataclasses<3>,  Up: 新模組<3>

1.6.4.1 contextvars
...................

The new *note contextvars: 22. module and a set of *note new C APIs:
94d. introduce support for 'context variables'.  Context variables are
conceptually similar to thread-local variables.  Unlike TLS, context
variables support asynchronous code correctly.

The *note asyncio: 9. and *note decimal: 33. modules have been updated
to use and support context variables out of the box.  Particularly the
active decimal context is now stored in a context variable, which allows
decimal operations to work with the correct context in asynchronous
code.

也參考
......

PEP 567(1) - Context Variables

     由 Yury Selivanov 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses<3>,  Next: importlib resources<2>,  Prev: contextvars,  Up: 新模組<3>

1.6.4.2 dataclasses
...................

The new *note dataclass(): 3bc. decorator provides a way to declare
'data classes'.  A data class describes its attributes using class
variable annotations.  Its constructor and other magic methods, such as
*note __repr__(): 416, *note __eq__(): 94f, and *note __hash__(): 950.
are generated automatically.

範例：

     @dataclass
     class Point:
         x: float
         y: float
         z: float = 0.0

     p = Point(1.5, 2.5)
     print(p)   # produces "Point(x=1.5, y=2.5, z=0.0)"

也參考
......

PEP 557(1) - Data Classes

     由 Eric V. Smith 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources<2>,  Prev: dataclasses<3>,  Up: 新模組<3>

1.6.4.3 importlib.resources
...........................

The new *note importlib.resources: 75. module provides several new APIs
and one new ABC for access to, opening, and reading 'resources' inside
packages.  Resources are roughly similar to files inside packages, but
they needn't be actual files on the physical file system.  Module
loaders can provide a ‘get_resource_reader()’ function which returns a
*note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: 952. instance to support this new
API. Built-in file path loaders and zip file loaders both support this.

Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Brett Cannon in bpo-32248(1).

也參考
......

importlib_resources(2) - a PyPI backport for earlier Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (2) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: 改進的模組<6>,  Next: C API 變更<5>,  Prev: 新模組<3>,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.5 改進的模組
----------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<6>.
* binascii::
* calendar: calendar<2>.
* collections: collections<2>.
* compileall: compileall<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>.
* contextlib: contextlib<3>.
* cProfile: cProfile<2>.
* crypt::
* datetime: datetime<4>.
* dbm::
* decimal::
* dis: dis<2>.
* distutils: distutils<4>.
* enum: enum<4>.
* functools: functools<3>.
* gc: gc<4>.
* hmac: hmac<2>.
* http.client: http client.
* http.server: http server.
* idlelib and IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<3>.
* io: io<3>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<3>.
* itertools: itertools<4>.
* locale: locale<3>.
* logging: logging<3>.
* math: math<5>.
* mimetypes::
* msilib::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>.
* os: os<6>.
* pathlib: pathlib<6>.
* pdb: pdb<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<2>.
* queue::
* re: re<2>.
* signal: signal<2>.
* socket: socket<5>.
* socketserver::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<5>.
* ssl: ssl<4>.
* string: string<2>.
* subprocess::
* sys: sys<6>.
* time: time<4>.
* tkinter: tkinter<4>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>.
* types: types<3>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<5>.
* unittest: unittest<6>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>.
* uu::
* uuid: uuid<2>.
* warnings: warnings<2>.
* xml: xml<4>.
* xml.etree: xml etree.
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server.
* zipapp::
* zipfile: zipfile<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<2>,  Next: asyncio<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.1 argparse
................

The new *note ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(): 955. method allows
intermixing options and positional arguments.  (Contributed by paul.j3
in bpo-14191(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<6>,  Next: binascii,  Prev: argparse<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.2 asyncio
...............

The *note asyncio: 9. module has received many new features, usability
and *note performance improvements: 957.  Notable changes include:

   * The new *note provisional: 958. *note asyncio.run(): 197. function
     can be used to run a coroutine from synchronous code by
     automatically creating and destroying the event loop.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32314(1).)

   * asyncio gained support for *note contextvars: 22.  *note
     loop.call_soon(): 959, *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): 95a,
     *note loop.call_later(): 95b, *note loop.call_at(): 95c, and *note
     Future.add_done_callback(): 95d. have a new optional keyword-only
     'context' parameter.  *note Tasks: 203. now track their context
     automatically.  See PEP 567(2) for more details.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-32436(3).)

   * The new *note asyncio.create_task(): 3f3. function has been added
     as a shortcut to ‘asyncio.get_event_loop().create_task()’.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32311(4).)

   * The new *note loop.start_tls(): 95e. method can be used to upgrade
     an existing connection to TLS. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-23749(5).)

   * The new *note loop.sock_recv_into(): 95f. method allows reading
     data from a socket directly into a provided buffer making it
     possible to reduce data copies.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-31819(6).)

   * The new *note asyncio.current_task(): 198. function returns the
     currently running *note Task: 203. instance, and the new *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): 797. function returns a set of all existing
     ‘Task’ instances in a given loop.  The ‘Task.current_task()’ and
     ‘Task.all_tasks()’ methods have been deprecated.  (Contributed by
     Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(7).)

   * The new 'provisional' *note BufferedProtocol: 8ef. class allows
     implementing streaming protocols with manual control over the
     receive buffer.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32251(8).)

   * The new *note asyncio.get_running_loop(): 960. function returns the
     currently running loop, and raises a *note RuntimeError: 17a. if no
     loop is running.  This is in contrast with *note
     asyncio.get_event_loop(): 220, which will 'create' a new event loop
     if none is running.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32269(9).)

   * The new *note StreamWriter.wait_closed(): 961. coroutine method
     allows waiting until the stream writer is closed.  The new *note
     StreamWriter.is_closing(): 962. method can be used to determine if
     the writer is closing.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32391(10).)

   * The new *note loop.sock_sendfile(): 963. coroutine method allows
     sending files using *note os.sendfile: 964. when possible.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32410(11).)

   * The new *note Future.get_loop(): 965. and ‘Task.get_loop()’ methods
     return the instance of the loop on which a task or a future were
     created.  *note Server.get_loop(): 966. allows doing the same for
     *note asyncio.Server: 967. objects.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
     in bpo-32415(12) and Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy in bpo-32418(13).)

   * It is now possible to control how instances of *note
     asyncio.Server: 967. begin serving.  Previously, the server would
     start serving immediately when created.  The new 'start_serving'
     keyword argument to *note loop.create_server(): 968. and *note
     loop.create_unix_server(): 969, as well as *note
     Server.start_serving(): 96a, and *note Server.serve_forever(): 96b.
     can be used to decouple server instantiation and serving.  The new
     *note Server.is_serving(): 96c. method returns ‘True’ if the server
     is serving.  *note Server: 967. objects are now asynchronous
     context managers:

          srv = await loop.create_server(...)

          async with srv:
              # some code

          # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.

     （由 Yury Selivanov 在 bpo-32662(14) 中貢獻。）

   * Callback objects returned by *note loop.call_later(): 95b. gained
     the new *note when(): 96d. method which returns an absolute
     scheduled callback timestamp.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32741(15).)

   * The *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543. method gained
     support for Unix sockets.  (Contributed by Quentin Dawans in
     bpo-31245(16).)

   * The *note asyncio.open_connection(): 96e, *note
     asyncio.start_server(): 96f. functions, *note
     loop.create_connection(): 3fa, *note loop.create_server(): 968,
     *note loop.create_accepted_socket(): 970. methods and their
     corresponding UNIX socket variants now accept the
     'ssl_handshake_timeout' keyword argument.  (Contributed by Neil
     Aspinall in bpo-29970(17).)

   * The new *note Handle.cancelled(): 971. method returns ‘True’ if the
     callback was cancelled.  (Contributed by Marat Sharafutdinov in
     bpo-31943(18).)

   * The asyncio source has been converted to use the *note async:
     541./*note await: 542. syntax.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32193(19).)

   * The new *note ReadTransport.is_reading(): 972. method can be used
     to determine the reading state of the transport.  Additionally,
     calls to *note ReadTransport.resume_reading(): 973. and *note
     ReadTransport.pause_reading(): 974. are now idempotent.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32356(20).)

   * Loop methods which accept socket paths now support passing *note
     path-like objects: 975.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32066(21).)

   * In *note asyncio: 9. TCP sockets on Linux are now created with
     ‘TCP_NODELAY’ flag set by default.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
     and Victor Stinner in bpo-27456(22).)

   * Exceptions occurring in cancelled tasks are no longer logged.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-30508(23).)

   * New ‘WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy’ and
     ‘WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy’ classes.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-33792(24).)

Several ‘asyncio’ APIs have been *note deprecated: 976.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792


File: python.info,  Node: binascii,  Next: calendar<2>,  Prev: asyncio<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.3 binascii
................

The *note b2a_uu(): 978. function now accepts an optional 'backtick'
keyword argument.  When it's true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’
instead of spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103


File: python.info,  Node: calendar<2>,  Next: collections<2>,  Prev: binascii,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.4 calendar
................

The *note HTMLCalendar: 97a. class has new class attributes which ease
the customization of CSS classes in the produced HTML calendar.
(Contributed by Oz Tiram in bpo-30095(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30095


File: python.info,  Node: collections<2>,  Next: compileall<2>,  Prev: calendar<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.5 collections
...................

‘collections.namedtuple()’ now supports default values.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32320(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<2>,  Next: concurrent futures<2>,  Prev: collections<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.6 compileall
..................

*note compileall.compile_dir(): 97d. learned the new 'invalidation_mode'
parameter, which can be used to enable *note hash-based .pyc
invalidation: 91f.  The invalidation mode can also be specified on the
command line using the new ‘--invalidation-mode’ argument.  (Contributed
by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-31650(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<2>,  Next: contextlib<3>,  Prev: compileall<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.7 concurrent.futures
..........................

*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. and *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. now
support the new 'initializer' and 'initargs' constructor arguments.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-21423(1).)

The *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. can now take the multiprocessing
context via the new 'mp_context' argument.  (Contributed by Thomas
Moreau in bpo-31540(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<3>,  Next: cProfile<2>,  Prev: concurrent futures<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.8 contextlib
..................

The new *note nullcontext(): 60f. is a simpler and faster no-op context
manager than *note ExitStack: 980.  (Contributed by Jesse-Bakker in
bpo-10049(1).)

The new *note asynccontextmanager(): 981, *note
AbstractAsyncContextManager: 982, and *note AsyncExitStack: 983. have
been added to complement their synchronous counterparts.  (Contributed
by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-29679(2) and bpo-30241(3), and by Alexander
Mohr and Ilya Kulakov in bpo-29302(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29679

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302


File: python.info,  Node: cProfile<2>,  Next: crypt,  Prev: contextlib<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.9 cProfile
................

The *note cProfile: 25. command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’ as an
alternative to script path.  (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in
bpo-21862(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862


File: python.info,  Node: crypt,  Next: datetime<4>,  Prev: cProfile<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.10 crypt
..............

The *note crypt: 26. module now supports the Blowfish hashing method.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31664(1).)

The *note mksalt(): 986. function now allows specifying the number of
rounds for hashing.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31702(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<4>,  Next: dbm,  Prev: crypt,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.11 datetime
.................

The new *note datetime.fromisoformat(): 410. method constructs a *note
datetime: 224. object from a string in one of the formats output by
*note datetime.isoformat(): 988.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in
bpo-15873(1).)

The *note tzinfo: 3d1. class now supports sub-minute offsets.
(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-5288(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5288


File: python.info,  Node: dbm,  Next: decimal,  Prev: datetime<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.12 dbm
............

*note dbm.dumb: 30. now supports reading read-only files and no longer
writes the index file when it is not changed.


File: python.info,  Node: decimal,  Next: dis<2>,  Prev: dbm,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.13 decimal
................

The *note decimal: 33. module now uses *note context variables: 913. to
store the decimal context.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-32630(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630


File: python.info,  Node: dis<2>,  Next: distutils<4>,  Prev: decimal,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.14 dis
............

The *note dis(): 98c. function is now able to disassemble nested code
objects (the code of comprehensions, generator expressions and nested
functions, and the code used for building nested classes).  The maximum
depth of disassembly recursion is controlled by the new 'depth'
parameter.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-11822(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11822


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<4>,  Next: enum<4>,  Prev: dis<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.15 distutils
..................

‘README.rst’ is now included in the list of distutils standard READMEs
and therefore included in source distributions.  (Contributed by Ryan
Gonzalez in bpo-11913(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913


File: python.info,  Node: enum<4>,  Next: functools<3>,  Prev: distutils<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.16 enum
.............

The *note Enum: 42b. learned the new ‘_ignore_’ class property, which
allows listing the names of properties which should not become enum
members.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-31801(1).)

In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in ‘Enum’
classes will raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. (e.g.  ‘1 in Color’);
similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a ‘Flag’ member
will raise *note TypeError: 2ba. (e.g.  ‘1 in Perm.RW’); currently, both
operations return *note False: 98f. instead and are deprecated.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-33217(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217


File: python.info,  Node: functools<3>,  Next: gc<4>,  Prev: enum<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.17 functools
..................

*note functools.singledispatch(): 434. now supports registering
implementations using type annotations.  (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in
bpo-32227(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227


File: python.info,  Node: gc<4>,  Next: hmac<2>,  Prev: functools<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.18 gc
...........

The new *note gc.freeze(): 992. function allows freezing all objects
tracked by the garbage collector and excluding them from future
collections.  This can be used before a POSIX ‘fork()’ call to make the
GC copy-on-write friendly or to speed up collection.  The new *note
gc.unfreeze(): 993. functions reverses this operation.  Additionally,
*note gc.get_freeze_count(): 994. can be used to obtain the number of
frozen objects.  (Contributed by Li Zekun in bpo-31558(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<2>,  Next: http client,  Prev: gc<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.19 hmac
.............

The *note hmac: 65. module now has an optimized one-shot *note digest():
996. function, which is up to three times faster than ‘HMAC()’.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32433(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433


File: python.info,  Node: http client,  Next: http server,  Prev: hmac<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.20 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection: 998. and *note HTTPSConnection: 999. now support
the new 'blocksize' argument for improved upload throughput.
(Contributed by Nir Soffer in bpo-31945(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945


File: python.info,  Node: http server,  Next: idlelib and IDLE,  Prev: http client,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.21 http.server
....................

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 99b. now supports the HTTP
‘If-Modified-Since’ header.  The server returns the 304 response status
if the target file was not modified after the time specified in the
header.  (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in bpo-29654(1).)

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 99b. accepts the new 'directory'
argument, in addition to the new ‘--directory’ command line argument.
With this parameter, the server serves the specified directory, by
default it uses the current working directory.  (Contributed by Stéphane
Wirtel and Julien Palard in bpo-28707(2).)

The new *note ThreadingHTTPServer: 99c. class uses threads to handle
requests using ‘ThreadingMixin’.  It is used when ‘http.server’ is run
with ‘-m’.  (Contributed by Julien Palard in bpo-31639(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29654

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28707

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE,  Next: importlib<3>,  Prev: http server,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.22 idlelib and IDLE
.........................

Multiple fixes for autocompletion.  (Contributed by Louie Lu in
bpo-15786(1).)

Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now
displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions
and classes.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262(2).)

The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
to improve both appearance and function.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella
and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802(3).)  The sample can be
edited to include other characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-31860(4).)

The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been
reimplemented as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from
the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs.  (Contributed by Charles
Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099(5).)

Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up
to maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.
Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings
dialog.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in
bpo-33642(6), bpo-33768(7), and bpo-33679(8).)

On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On
Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python
binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this
should make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(9).)

New in 3.7.1:

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.  N can
be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings
dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right
clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place by
double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by
right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-1529353(10).)

The changes above have been backported to 3.6 maintenance releases.

NEW in 3.7.4:

Add "Run Customized" to the Run menu to run a module with customized
settings.  Any command line arguments entered are added to sys.argv.
They re-appear in the box for the next customized run.  One can also
suppress the normal Shell main module restart.  (Contributed by Cheryl
Sabella, Terry Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680(11) and bpo-37627(12).)

New in 3.7.5:

Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.  Windows open without
line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the
configuration dialog.  Line numbers for an existing window are shown and
hidden in the Options menu.  (Contributed by Tal Einat and Saimadhav
Heblikar in bpo-17535(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<3>,  Next: io<3>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.23 importlib
..................

The *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: 952. ABC was introduced to
support the loading of resources from packages.  See also *note
importlib.resources: 915.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon in
bpo-32248(1).)

*note importlib.reload(): 299. now raises *note ModuleNotFoundError:
99f. if the module lacks a spec.  (Contributed by Garvit Khatri in
bpo-29851(2).)

‘importlib.find_spec()’ now raises *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f.
instead of *note AttributeError: 3ca. if the specified parent module is
not a package (i.e.  lacks a ‘__path__’ attribute).  (Contributed by
Milan Oberkirch in bpo-30436(3).)

The new ‘importlib.source_hash()’ can be used to compute the hash of the
passed source.  A *note hash-based .pyc file: 91f. embeds the value
returned by this function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29851

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30436


File: python.info,  Node: io<3>,  Next: ipaddress<3>,  Prev: importlib<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.24 io
...........

The new *note TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(): 9a1. method can be used to
reconfigure the text stream with the new settings.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30526(1) and INADA Naoki in bpo-15216(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30526

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<3>,  Next: itertools<4>,  Prev: io<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.25 ipaddress
..................

The new ‘subnet_of()’ and ‘supernet_of()’ methods of *note
ipaddress.IPv6Network: 9a3. and *note ipaddress.IPv4Network: 9a4. can be
used for network containment tests.  (Contributed by Michel Albert and
Cheryl Sabella in bpo-20825(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<4>,  Next: locale<3>,  Prev: ipaddress<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.26 itertools
..................

*note itertools.islice(): 9a6. now accepts *note integer-like objects:
51f. as start, stop, and slice arguments.  (Contributed by Will Roberts
in bpo-30537(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537


File: python.info,  Node: locale<3>,  Next: logging<3>,  Prev: itertools<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.27 locale
...............

The new 'monetary' argument to *note locale.format_string(): 29f. can be
used to make the conversion use monetary thousands separators and
grouping strings.  (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).)

The *note locale.getpreferredencoding(): 2bc. function now always
returns ‘'UTF-8'’ on Android or when in the *note forced UTF-8 mode:
91e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379


File: python.info,  Node: logging<3>,  Next: math<5>,  Prev: locale<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.28 logging
................

*note Logger: 9a9. instances can now be pickled.  (Contributed by Vinay
Sajip in bpo-30520(1).)

The new *note StreamHandler.setStream(): 9aa. method can be used to
replace the logger stream after handler creation.  (Contributed by Vinay
Sajip in bpo-30522(2).)

It is now possible to specify keyword arguments to handler constructors
in configuration passed to *note logging.config.fileConfig(): 9ab.
(Contributed by Preston Landers in bpo-31080(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30520

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31080


File: python.info,  Node: math<5>,  Next: mimetypes,  Prev: logging<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.29 math
.............

The new *note math.remainder(): 9ad. function implements the IEEE
754-style remainder operation.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-29962(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29962


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes,  Next: msilib,  Prev: math<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.30 mimetypes
..................

The MIME type of .bmp has been changed from ‘'image/x-ms-bmp'’ to
‘'image/bmp'’.  (Contributed by Nitish Chandra in bpo-22589(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589


File: python.info,  Node: msilib,  Next: multiprocessing<3>,  Prev: mimetypes,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.31 msilib
...............

The new *note Database.Close(): 9b0. method can be used to close the MSI
database.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20486(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<3>,  Next: os<6>,  Prev: msilib,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.32 multiprocessing
........................

The new *note Process.close(): 9b2. method explicitly closes the process
object and releases all resources associated with it.  *note ValueError:
183. is raised if the underlying process is still running.  (Contributed
by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30596(1).)

The new *note Process.kill(): 9b3. method can be used to terminate the
process using the ‘SIGKILL’ signal on Unix.  (Contributed by Vitor
Pereira in bpo-30794(2).)

Non-daemonic threads created by *note Process: 9b4. are now joined on
process exit.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18966(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30596

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30794

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18966


File: python.info,  Node: os<6>,  Next: pathlib<6>,  Prev: multiprocessing<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.33 os
...........

*note os.fwalk(): 9b6. now accepts the 'path' argument as *note bytes:
2c1.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28682(1).)

*note os.scandir(): 8aa. gained support for *note file descriptors: 9b7.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25996(2).)

The new *note register_at_fork(): 26e. function allows registering
Python callbacks to be executed at process fork.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16500(3).)

Added *note os.preadv(): 9b8. (combine the functionality of *note
os.readv(): 9b9. and *note os.pread(): 9ba.) and *note os.pwritev():
9bb. functions (combine the functionality of *note os.writev(): 9bc. and
*note os.pwrite(): 9bd.).  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
bpo-31368(4).)

The mode argument of *note os.makedirs(): 1c2. no longer affects the
file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19930(5).)

*note os.dup2(): 9be. now returns the new file descriptor.  Previously,
‘None’ was always returned.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in
bpo-32441(6).)

The structure returned by *note os.stat(): 1bf. now contains the *note
st_fstype: 9bf. attribute on Solaris and its derivatives.  (Contributed
by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-32659(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28682

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<6>,  Next: pdb<3>,  Prev: os<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.34 pathlib
................

The new *note Path.is_mount(): 860. method is now available on POSIX
systems and can be used to determine whether a path is a mount point.
(Contributed by Cooper Ry Lees in bpo-30897(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30897


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<3>,  Next: py_compile<3>,  Prev: pathlib<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.35 pdb
............

*note pdb.set_trace(): 9c2. now takes an optional 'header' keyword-only
argument.  If given, it is printed to the console just before debugging
begins.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31389(1).)

*note pdb: a0. command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’ as an
alternative to script file.  (Contributed by Mario Corchero in
bpo-32206(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile<3>,  Next: pydoc<2>,  Prev: pdb<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.36 py_compile
...................

*note py_compile.compile(): 86e. - and by extension, *note compileall:
1e. - now respects the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable by
unconditionally creating ‘.pyc’ files for hash-based validation.  This
allows for guaranteeing reproducible builds(1) of ‘.pyc’ files when they
are created eagerly.  (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in
bpo-29708(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<2>,  Next: queue,  Prev: py_compile<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.37 pydoc
..............

The pydoc server can now bind to an arbitrary hostname specified by the
new ‘-n’ command-line argument.  (Contributed by Feanil Patel in
bpo-31128(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128


File: python.info,  Node: queue,  Next: re<2>,  Prev: pydoc<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.38 queue
..............

The new *note SimpleQueue: 9c6. class is an unbounded FIFO queue.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14976(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976


File: python.info,  Node: re<2>,  Next: signal<2>,  Prev: queue,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.39 re
...........

The flags *note re.ASCII: 428, *note re.LOCALE: 9c8. and *note
re.UNICODE: 9c9. can be set within the scope of a group.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31690(1).)

*note re.split(): 9ca. now supports splitting on a pattern like ‘r'\b'’,
‘'^$'’ or ‘(?=-)’ that matches an empty string.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-25054(2).)

Regular expressions compiled with the *note re.LOCALE: 9c8. flag no
longer depend on the locale at compile time.  Locale settings are
applied only when the compiled regular expression is used.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30215(3).)

*note FutureWarning: 241. is now emitted if a regular expression
contains character set constructs that will change semantically in the
future, such as nested sets and set operations.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-30349(4).)

Compiled regular expression and match objects can now be copied using
*note copy.copy(): 2b5. and *note copy.deepcopy(): 9cb.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10076(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30215

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10076


File: python.info,  Node: signal<2>,  Next: socket<5>,  Prev: re<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.40 signal
...............

The new 'warn_on_full_buffer' argument to the *note
signal.set_wakeup_fd(): 9cd. function makes it possible to specify
whether Python prints a warning on stderr when the wakeup buffer
overflows.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30050(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050


File: python.info,  Node: socket<5>,  Next: socketserver,  Prev: signal<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.41 socket
...............

The new *note socket.getblocking(): 9cf. method returns ‘True’ if the
socket is in blocking mode and ‘False’ otherwise.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-32373(1).)

The new *note socket.close(): 9d0. function closes the passed socket
file descriptor.  This function should be used instead of *note
os.close(): 9d1. for better compatibility across platforms.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32454(2).)

The *note socket: c6. module now exposes the ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’
(Linux 2.6.13), ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37), and
‘socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ (Linux 3.12) constants.  (Contributed by Omar
Sandoval in bpo-26273(3) and Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29728(4).)

Support for *note socket.AF_VSOCK: 9d2. sockets has been added to allow
communication between virtual machines and their hosts.  (Contributed by
Cathy Avery in bpo-27584(5).)

Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol from file descriptor
by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28134(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29728

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27584

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver,  Next: sqlite3<5>,  Prev: socket<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.42 socketserver
.....................

‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all
non-daemon threads complete.  ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()’
now waits until all child processes complete.

Add a new ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close’ class attribute to
*note socketserver.ForkingMixIn: 9d4. and *note
socketserver.ThreadingMixIn: 9d5. classes.  Set the class attribute to
‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<5>,  Next: ssl<4>,  Prev: socketserver,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.43 sqlite3
................

*note sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. now exposes the *note backup(): 9d7.
method when the underlying SQLite library is at version 3.6.11 or
higher.  (Contributed by Lele Gaifax in bpo-27645(1).)

The 'database' argument of *note sqlite3.connect(): 1dd. now accepts any
*note path-like object: 975, instead of just a string.  (Contributed by
Anders Lorentsen in bpo-31843(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<4>,  Next: string<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.44 ssl
............

The *note ssl: ca. module now uses OpenSSL's builtin API instead of
‘match_hostname()’ to check a host name or an IP address.  Values are
validated during TLS handshake.  Any certificate validation error
including failing the host name check now raises *note
SSLCertVerificationError: 9d9. and aborts the handshake with a proper
TLS Alert message.  The new exception contains additional information.
Host name validation can be customized with *note
SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name: 9da.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-31399(1).)

     備註: The improved host name check requires a 'libssl'
     implementation compatible with OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1.  Consequently,
     OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported (see *note Platform
     Support Removals: 9db. for more details).  The ssl module is mostly
     compatible with LibreSSL 2.7.2 and newer.

The ‘ssl’ module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI TLS extension.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32185(2).)

‘match_hostname()’ no longer supports partial wildcards like
‘www*.example.org’.  (Contributed by Mandeep Singh in bpo-23033(3) and
Christian Heimes in bpo-31399(4).)

The default cipher suite selection of the ‘ssl’ module now uses a
blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist.  Python no longer
re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by OpenSSL security updates.
Default cipher suite selection can be configured at compile time.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31429(5).)

Validation of server certificates containing internationalized domain
names (IDNs) is now supported.  As part of this change, the *note
SSLSocket.server_hostname: 9dc. attribute now stores the expected
hostname in A-label form (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’), rather than the
U-label form (‘"pythön.org"’).  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith and
Christian Heimes in bpo-28414(6).)

The ‘ssl’ module has preliminary and experimental support for TLS 1.3
and OpenSSL 1.1.1.  At the time of Python 3.7.0 release, OpenSSL 1.1.1
is still under development and TLS 1.3 hasn't been finalized yet.  The
TLS 1.3 handshake and protocol behaves slightly differently than TLS 1.2
and earlier, see *note TLS 1.3: 9dd.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-32947(7), bpo-20995(8), bpo-29136(9), bpo-30622(10) and
bpo-33618(11))

*note SSLSocket: 723. and *note SSLObject: 9de. no longer have a public
constructor.  Direct instantiation was never a documented and supported
feature.  Instances must be created with *note SSLContext: 26f. methods
*note wrap_socket(): 2a5. and *note wrap_bio(): 9df.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-32951(12))

OpenSSL 1.1 APIs for setting the minimum and maximum TLS protocol
version are available as *note SSLContext.minimum_version: 9e0. and
*note SSLContext.maximum_version: 9e1.  Supported protocols are
indicated by several new flags, such as *note HAS_TLSv1_1: 9e2.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32609(13).)

Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: 87a. to enable and *note
ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): 87b. to initiate TLS 1.3
post-handshake authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-78851(14).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20995

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32609

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851


File: python.info,  Node: string<2>,  Next: subprocess,  Prev: ssl<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.45 string
...............

*note string.Template: 484. now lets you to optionally modify the
regular expression pattern for braced placeholders and non-braced
placeholders separately.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-1198569(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1198569


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess,  Next: sys<6>,  Prev: string<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.46 subprocess
...................

The *note subprocess.run(): 9e5. function accepts the new
'capture_output' keyword argument.  When true, stdout and stderr will be
captured.  This is equivalent to passing *note subprocess.PIPE: 9e6. as
'stdout' and 'stderr' arguments.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in
bpo-32102(1).)

The ‘subprocess.run’ function and the *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1.
constructor now accept the 'text' keyword argument as an alias to
'universal_newlines'.  (Contributed by Andrew Clegg in bpo-31756(2).)

On Windows the default for 'close_fds' was changed from ‘False’ to
‘True’ when redirecting the standard handles.  It's now possible to set
'close_fds' to true when redirecting the standard handles.  See *note
subprocess.Popen: 8e1.  This means that 'close_fds' now defaults to
‘True’ on all supported platforms.  (Contributed by Segev Finer in
bpo-19764(3).)

The subprocess module is now more graceful when handling *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 815. during *note subprocess.call(): 9e7, *note
subprocess.run(): 9e5, or in a *note Popen: 8e1. context manager.  It
now waits a short amount of time for the child to exit, before
continuing the handling of the ‘KeyboardInterrupt’ exception.
(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in bpo-25942(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942


File: python.info,  Node: sys<6>,  Next: time<4>,  Prev: subprocess,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.47 sys
............

The new *note sys.breakpointhook(): 92e. hook function is called by the
built-in *note breakpoint(): 917.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-31353(1).)

On Android, the new *note sys.getandroidapilevel(): 9e9. returns the
build-time Android API version.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-28740(2).)

The new *note sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): 9ea. function
returns the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by the new
*note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): 9eb.  *note asyncio: 9.
has been converted to use this new API instead of the deprecated
‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in
bpo-32591(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28740

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591


File: python.info,  Node: time<4>,  Next: tkinter<4>,  Prev: sys<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.48 time
.............

PEP 564(1) adds six new functions with nanosecond resolution to the
*note time: e8. module:

   * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): 937.

   * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): 938.

   * *note time.monotonic_ns(): 939.

   * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): 93a.

   * *note time.process_time_ns(): 93b.

   * *note time.time_ns(): 93c.

New clock identifiers have been added:

   * *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: 9ed. (Linux): Identical to *note
     time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 9ee, except it also includes any time that
     the system is suspended.

   * *note time.CLOCK_PROF: 9ef. (FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD):
     High-resolution per-process CPU timer.

   * *note time.CLOCK_UPTIME: 9f0. (FreeBSD, OpenBSD): Time whose
     absolute value is the time the system has been running and not
     suspended, providing accurate uptime measurement.

The new *note time.thread_time(): 775. and *note time.thread_time_ns():
9f1. functions can be used to get per-thread CPU time measurements.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32025(2).)

The new *note time.pthread_getcpuclockid(): 9f2. function returns the
clock ID of the thread-specific CPU-time clock.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<4>,  Next: tracemalloc<2>,  Prev: time<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.49 tkinter
................

The new *note tkinter.ttk.Spinbox: 9f4. class is now available.
(Contributed by Alan Moore in bpo-32585(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<2>,  Next: types<3>,  Prev: tkinter<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.50 tracemalloc
....................

*note tracemalloc.Traceback: 9f6. behaves more like regular tracebacks,
sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.  *note
Traceback.format(): 9f7. now accepts negative 'limit', truncating the
result to the ‘abs(limit)’ oldest frames.  To get the old behaviour, use
the new 'most_recent_first' argument to ‘Traceback.format()’.
(Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121


File: python.info,  Node: types<3>,  Next: unicodedata<5>,  Prev: tracemalloc<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.51 types
..............

The new *note WrapperDescriptorType: 9f9, *note MethodWrapperType: 446,
*note MethodDescriptorType: 9fa, and *note ClassMethodDescriptorType:
9fb. classes are now available.  (Contributed by Manuel Krebber and
Guido van Rossum in bpo-29377(1), and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32265(2).)

The new *note types.resolve_bases(): 9fc. function resolves MRO entries
dynamically as specified by PEP 560(3).  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi
in bpo-32717(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29377

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32717


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<5>,  Next: unittest<6>,  Prev: types<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.52 unicodedata
....................

The internal *note unicodedata: 100. database has been upgraded to use
Unicode 11(1).  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<6>,  Next: unittest mock,  Prev: unicodedata<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.53 unittest
.................

The new ‘-k’ command-line option allows filtering tests by a name
substring or a Unix shell-like pattern.  For example, ‘python -m
unittest -k foo’ runs ‘foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something’,
‘bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo’, but not
‘bar_tests.FooTest.test_something’.  (Contributed by Jonas Haag in
bpo-32071(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock,  Next: urllib parse<5>,  Prev: unittest<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.54 unittest.mock
......................

The *note sentinel: a00. attributes now preserve their identity when
they are *note copied: 23. or *note pickled: a1.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-20804(1).)

The new *note seal(): a01. function allows sealing *note Mock: 896.
instances, which will disallow further creation of attribute mocks.  The
seal is applied recursively to all attributes that are themselves mocks.
(Contributed by Mario Corchero in bpo-30541(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20804

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<5>,  Next: uu,  Prev: unittest mock,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.55 urllib.parse
.....................

*note urllib.parse.quote(): a03. has been updated from RFC 2396(1) to
RFC 3986(2), adding ‘~’ to the set of characters that are never quoted
by default.  (Contributed by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath in
bpo-16285(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16285


File: python.info,  Node: uu,  Next: uuid<2>,  Prev: urllib parse<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.56 uu
...........

The *note uu.encode(): a05. function now accepts an optional 'backtick'
keyword argument.  When it's true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’
instead of spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103


File: python.info,  Node: uuid<2>,  Next: warnings<2>,  Prev: uu,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.57 uuid
.............

The new *note UUID.is_safe: a07. attribute relays information from the
platform about whether generated UUIDs are generated with a
multiprocessing-safe method.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-22807(1).)

*note uuid.getnode(): a08. now prefers universally administered MAC
addresses over locally administered MAC addresses.  This makes a better
guarantee for global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from *note
uuid.uuid1(): a09.  If only locally administered MAC addresses are
available, the first such one found is returned.  (Contributed by Barry
Warsaw in bpo-32107(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22807

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<2>,  Next: xml<4>,  Prev: uuid<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.58 warnings
.................

The initialization of the default warnings filters has changed as
follows:

   * warnings enabled via command line options (including those for
     *note -b: 3d7. and the new CPython-specific *note -X: 188. ‘dev’
     option) are always passed to the warnings machinery via the *note
     sys.warnoptions: 35a. attribute.

   * warnings filters enabled via the command line or the environment
     now have the following order of precedence:

        * the ‘BytesWarning’ filter for *note -b: 3d7. (or ‘-bb’)

        * any filters specified with the *note -W: 6ff. option

        * any filters specified with the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a0b.
          environment variable

        * any other CPython specific filters (e.g.  the ‘default’ filter
          added for the new ‘-X dev’ mode)

        * any implicit filters defined directly by the warnings
          machinery

   * in *note CPython debug builds: 69f, all warnings are now displayed
     by default (the implicit filter list is empty)

（由 Nick Coghlan 和 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-20361(1)、bpo-32043(2) 和
bpo-32230(3) 中貢獻。）

Deprecation warnings are once again shown by default in single-file
scripts and at the interactive prompt.  See *note PEP 565; Show
DeprecationWarning in __main__: 921. for details.  (Contributed by Nick
Coghlan in bpo-31975(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975


File: python.info,  Node: xml<4>,  Next: xml etree,  Prev: warnings<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.59 xml
............

As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 11d. and *note xml.sax: 124. modules no longer process
external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-61441(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree,  Next: xmlrpc server,  Prev: xml<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.60 xml.etree
..................

*note ElementPath: a0e. predicates in the ‘find()’ methods can now
compare text of the current node with ‘[. = "text"]’, not only text in
children.  Predicates also allow adding spaces for better readability.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-31648(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc server,  Next: zipapp,  Prev: xml etree,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.61 xmlrpc.server
......................

‘SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher.register_function’ can now be used as a
decorator.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-7769(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7769


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp,  Next: zipfile<2>,  Prev: xmlrpc server,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.62 zipapp
...............

Function *note create_archive(): a11. now accepts an optional 'filter'
argument to allow the user to select which files should be included in
the archive.  (Contributed by Irmen de Jong in bpo-31072(1).)

Function *note create_archive(): a11. now accepts an optional
'compressed' argument to generate a compressed archive.  A command line
option ‘--compress’ has also been added to support compression.
(Contributed by Zhiming Wang in bpo-31638(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31072

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<2>,  Prev: zipapp,  Up: 改進的模組<6>

1.6.5.63 zipfile
................

*note ZipFile: 4c3. now accepts the new 'compresslevel' parameter to
control the compression level.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in
bpo-21417(1).)

Subdirectories in archives created by ‘ZipFile’ are now stored in
alphabetical order.  (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in
bpo-30693(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693


File: python.info,  Node: C API 變更<5>,  Next: 建置變更<5>,  Prev: 改進的模組<6>,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.6 C API 變更
----------------

A new API for thread-local storage has been implemented.  See *note PEP
539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: 922. for an overview and *note
Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: 932. for a complete reference.
(Contributed by Masayuki Yamamoto in bpo-25658(1).)

The new *note context variables: 913. functionality exposes a number of
*note new C APIs: 94d.

The new *note PyImport_GetModule(): a14. function returns the previously
imported module with the given name.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in
bpo-28411(2).)

The new *note Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE: a15. macro eases writing rich
comparison functions.  (Contributed by Petr Victorin in bpo-23699(3).)

The new *note Py_UNREACHABLE: a16. macro can be used to mark unreachable
code paths.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31338(4).)

The *note tracemalloc: fa. now exposes a C API through the new *note
PyTraceMalloc_Track(): a17. and *note PyTraceMalloc_Untrack(): a18.
functions.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-30054(5).)

The new ‘import__find__load__start()’ and ‘import__find__load__done()’
static markers can be used to trace module imports.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-31574(6).)

The fields ‘name’ and ‘doc’ of structures *note PyMemberDef: 2d3, *note
PyGetSetDef: a19, *note PyStructSequence_Field: a1a, *note
PyStructSequence_Desc: a1b, and ‘wrapperbase’ are now of type ‘const
char *’ rather of ‘char *’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-28761(7).)

The result of *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 6c8. and *note
PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): a1c. is now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char
*’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28769(8).)

The result of *note PyMapping_Keys(): a1d, *note PyMapping_Values():
a1e. and *note PyMapping_Items(): a1f. is now always a list, rather than
a list or a tuple.  (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28280(9).)

Added functions *note PySlice_Unpack(): 36e. and *note
PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 36f.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(10).)

*note PyOS_AfterFork(): 36b. is deprecated in favour of the new
functions *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): a20, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent():
a21. and *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 36c.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-16500(11).)

The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton that was part of the public API
has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
during finalization of the interpreter.  Contributed by Xavier de Gaye
in bpo-22898(12) and bpo-30697(13).

Added C API support for timezones with timezone constructors *note
PyTimeZone_FromOffset(): a22. and *note PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName():
a23, and access to the UTC singleton with *note PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC:
a24.  Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-10381(14).

The type of results of ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’ and
‘PyThread_get_thread_ident()’, and the 'id' parameter of *note
PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): a25. changed from long to unsigned long.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-6532(15).)

*note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 6f4. now raises a *note ValueError:
183. if the second argument is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains
null characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30708(16).)

Changes to the startup sequence and the management of dynamic memory
allocators mean that the long documented requirement to call *note
Py_Initialize(): 6e2. before calling most C API functions is now relied
on more heavily, and failing to abide by it may lead to segfaults in
embedding applications.  See the *note Porting to Python 3.7: 925.
section in this document and the *note Python 初始化之前: a26. section
in the C API documentation for more details.

The new *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): a27. returns the unique ID for
a given interpreter.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-29102(17).)

*note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28, *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a29. now use the
UTF-8 encoding when the *note UTF-8 mode: 91e. is enabled.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-29240(18).)

*note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): a2a. and *note
PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): a2b. now use the current locale encoding for
‘surrogateescape’ error handler.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-29240(19).)

The 'start' and 'end' parameters of *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 6f1. are
now adjusted to behave like string slices.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang
in bpo-28822(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30054

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822


File: python.info,  Node: 建置變更<5>,  Next: 最佳化<6>,  Prev: C API 變更<5>,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.7 建置變更
--------------

Support for building ‘--without-threads’ has been removed.  The *note
threading: e7. module is now always available.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-31370(1).).

A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use when building the
*note _ctypes: 28. module on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy
of libffi is now required when building ‘_ctypes’ on such platforms.
(Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-27979(2).)

The Windows build process no longer depends on Subversion to pull in
external sources, a Python script is used to download zipfiles from
GitHub instead.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py
-3.6’), NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python for this
purpose.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-30450(3).)

The *note ssl: ca. module requires OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1 compatible
libssl.  OpenSSL 1.0.1 has reached end of lifetime on 2016-12-31 and is
no longer supported.  LibreSSL is temporarily not supported as well.
LibreSSL releases up to version 2.6.4 are missing required OpenSSL 1.0.2
APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<6>,  Next: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Prev: 建置變更<5>,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.8 最佳化
------------

The overhead of calling many methods of various standard library classes
implemented in C has been significantly reduced by porting more code to
use the ‘METH_FASTCALL’ convention.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-29300(1), bpo-29507(2), bpo-29452(3), and bpo-29286(4).)

Various optimizations have reduced Python startup time by 10% on Linux
and up to 30% on macOS. (Contributed by Victor Stinner, INADA Naoki in
bpo-29585(5), and Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-31333(6).)

Method calls are now up to 20% faster due to the bytecode changes which
avoid creating bound method instances.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110(7).)  The *note asyncio: 9. module received
a number of notable optimizations for commonly used functions:

   * The *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 220. function has been
     reimplemented in C to make it up to 15 times faster.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32296(8).)

   * *note asyncio.Future: a2e. callback management has been optimized.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32348(9).)

   * *note asyncio.gather(): 3f4. is now up to 15% faster.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32355(10).)

   * *note asyncio.sleep(): 8bb. is now up to 2 times faster when the
     'delay' argument is zero or negative.  (Contributed by Andrew
     Svetlov in bpo-32351(11).)

   * The performance overhead of asyncio debug mode has been reduced.
     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31970(12).)

As a result of *note PEP 560 work: 919, the import time of *note typing:
ff. has been reduced by a factor of 7, and many typing operations are
now faster.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-32226(13).)

*note sorted(): a2f. and *note list.sort(): a30. have been optimized for
common cases to be up to 40-75% faster.  (Contributed by Elliot
Gorokhovsky in bpo-28685(14).)

*note dict.copy(): a31. is now up to 5.5 times faster.  (Contributed by
Yury Selivanov in bpo-31179(15).)

*note hasattr(): 1f9. and *note getattr(): a32. are now about 4 times
faster when 'name' is not found and 'obj' does not override *note
object.__getattr__(): 1fa. or *note object.__getattribute__(): a33.
(Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32544(16).)

Searching for certain Unicode characters (like Ukrainian capital "Є") in
a string was up to 25 times slower than searching for other characters.
It is now only 3 times slower in the worst case.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-24821(17).)

The *note collections.namedtuple(): 731. factory has been reimplemented
to make the creation of named tuples 4 to 6 times faster.  (Contributed
by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638(18).)

‘date.fromordinal()’ and ‘date.fromtimestamp()’ are now up to 30% faster
in the common case.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32403(19).)

The *note os.fwalk(): 9b6. function is now up to 2 times faster thanks
to the use of *note os.scandir(): 8aa.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-25996(20).)

The speed of the *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. function has been improved
by 20-40% thanks to the use of the *note os.scandir(): 8aa. function.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28564(21).)

Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching of *note regular
expressions: b4.  Searching some patterns can now be up to 20 times
faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30285(22).)

*note re.compile(): a34. now converts ‘flags’ parameter to int object if
it is ‘RegexFlag’.  It is now as fast as Python 3.5, and faster than
Python 3.6 by about 10% depending on the pattern.  (Contributed by INADA
Naoki in bpo-31671(23).)

The *note modify(): a35. methods of classes *note
selectors.EpollSelector: a36, *note selectors.PollSelector: a37. and
*note selectors.DevpollSelector: a38. may be around 10% faster under
heavy loads.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-30014(24))

Constant folding has been moved from the peephole optimizer to the new
AST optimizer, which is able perform optimizations more consistently.
(Contributed by Eugene Toder and INADA Naoki in bpo-29469(25) and
bpo-11549(26).)

Most functions and methods in *note abc: 4. have been rewritten in C.
This makes creation of abstract base classes, and calling *note
isinstance(): 14b. and *note issubclass(): 5df. on them 1.5x faster.
This also reduces Python start-up time by up to 10%.  (Contributed by
Ivan Levkivskyi and INADA Naoki in bpo-31333(27))

Significant speed improvements to alternate constructors for *note
datetime.date: 72f. and *note datetime.datetime: 224. by using fast-path
constructors when not constructing subclasses.  (Contributed by Paul
Ganssle in bpo-32403(28))

The speed of comparison of *note array.array: 18f. instances has been
improved considerably in certain cases.  It is now from 10x to 70x
faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same integer type.
(Contributed by Adrian Wielgosik in bpo-24700(29).)

The *note math.erf(): a39. and *note math.erfc(): a3a. functions now use
the (faster) C library implementation on most platforms.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26121(30).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29300

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29507

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29452

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29286

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29585

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30285

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30014

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11549

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24700

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26121


File: python.info,  Node: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Next: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Prev: 最佳化<6>,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.9 Other CPython Implementation Changes
------------------------------------------

   * Trace hooks may now opt out of receiving the ‘line’ and opt into
     receiving the ‘opcode’ events from the interpreter by setting the
     corresponding new *note f_trace_lines: a3c. and *note
     f_trace_opcodes: a3d. attributes on the frame being traced.
     (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-31344(1).)

   * Fixed some consistency problems with namespace package module
     attributes.  Namespace module objects now have an ‘__file__’ that
     is set to ‘None’ (previously unset), and their ‘__spec__.origin’ is
     also set to ‘None’ (previously the string ‘"namespace"’).  See
     bpo-32305(2).  Also, the namespace module object's
     ‘__spec__.loader’ is set to the same value as ‘__loader__’
     (previously, the former was set to ‘None’).  See bpo-32303(3).

   * The *note locals(): 173. dictionary now displays in the lexical
     order that variables were defined.  Previously, the order was
     undefined.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32690(4).)

   * The ‘distutils’ ‘upload’ command no longer tries to change CR
     end-of-line characters to CRLF. This fixes a corruption issue with
     sdists that ended with a byte equivalent to CR. (Contributed by Bo
     Bayles in bpo-32304(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Prev: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.10 Deprecated Python Behavior
---------------------------------

Yield expressions (both ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ clauses) are now
deprecated in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from the
iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause).  This ensures that
comprehensions always immediately return a container of the appropriate
type (rather than potentially returning a *note generator iterator: a3f.
object), while generator expressions won't attempt to interleave their
implicit output with the output from any explicit yield expressions.  In
Python 3.7, such expressions emit *note DeprecationWarning: 179. when
compiled, in Python 3.8 this will be a *note SyntaxError: 146.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544(1).)

Returning a subclass of *note complex: 26b. from *note
object.__complex__(): 3dd. is deprecated and will be an error in future
Python versions.  This makes ‘__complex__()’ consistent with *note
object.__int__(): 51e. and *note object.__float__(): 810.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28894(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28894


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Prev: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.11 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
-------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* aifc::
* asyncio: asyncio<7>.
* collections: collections<3>.
* dbm: dbm<2>.
* enum: enum<5>.
* gettext: gettext<2>.
* importlib: importlib<4>.
* locale: locale<4>.
* macpath::
* threading: threading<5>.
* socket: socket<6>.
* ssl: ssl<5>.
* sunau::
* sys: sys<7>.
* wave::


File: python.info,  Node: aifc,  Next: asyncio<7>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.1 aifc
.............

‘aifc.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use *note aifc.open(): a42. instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<7>,  Next: collections<3>,  Prev: aifc,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.2 asyncio
................

Support for directly ‘await’-ing instances of *note asyncio.Lock: 8bd.
and other asyncio synchronization primitives has been deprecated.  An
asynchronous context manager must be used in order to acquire and
release the synchronization resource.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
bpo-32253(1).)

The ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’ methods
have been deprecated.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250


File: python.info,  Node: collections<3>,  Next: dbm<2>,  Prev: asyncio<7>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.3 collections
....................

In Python 3.8, the abstract base classes in *note collections.abc: 1c.
will no longer be exposed in the regular *note collections: 1b. module.
This will help create a clearer distinction between the concrete classes
and the abstract base classes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-25988(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<2>,  Next: enum<5>,  Prev: collections<3>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.4 dbm
............

*note dbm.dumb: 30. now supports reading read-only files and no longer
writes the index file when it is not changed.  A deprecation warning is
now emitted if the index file is missing and recreated in the ‘'r'’ and
‘'w'’ modes (this will be an error in future Python releases).
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28847(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847


File: python.info,  Node: enum<5>,  Next: gettext<2>,  Prev: dbm<2>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.5 enum
.............

In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in ‘Enum’
classes will raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. (e.g.  ‘1 in Color’);
similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a ‘Flag’ member
will raise *note TypeError: 2ba. (e.g.  ‘1 in Perm.RW’); currently, both
operations return *note False: 98f. instead.  (Contributed by Ethan
Furman in bpo-33217(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217


File: python.info,  Node: gettext<2>,  Next: importlib<4>,  Prev: enum<5>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.6 gettext
................

Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form in *note gettext:
5e. is now deprecated.  It never correctly worked.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28692(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28692


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<4>,  Next: locale<4>,  Prev: gettext<2>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.7 importlib
..................

Methods ‘MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ (replaced by *note
MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 694.) and ‘PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’
(replaced by *note PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 698.) both deprecated in
Python 3.4 now emit *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  (Contributed by
Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29576(1).)

The *note importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: a49. ABC has been deprecated in
favour of *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: 952.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29576


File: python.info,  Node: locale<4>,  Next: macpath,  Prev: importlib<4>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.8 locale
...............

‘locale.format()’ has been deprecated, use *note locale.format_string():
29f. instead.  (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379


File: python.info,  Node: macpath,  Next: threading<5>,  Prev: locale<4>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.9 macpath
................

The ‘macpath’ is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.8.
(Contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen in bpo-9850(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9850


File: python.info,  Node: threading<5>,  Next: socket<6>,  Prev: macpath,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.10 threading
...................

‘dummy_threading’ and ‘_dummy_thread’ have been deprecated.  It is no
longer possible to build Python with threading disabled.  Use *note
threading: e7. instead.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-31370(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370


File: python.info,  Node: socket<6>,  Next: ssl<5>,  Prev: threading<5>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.11 socket
................

The silent argument value truncation in *note socket.htons(): 6ab. and
*note socket.ntohs(): 6ac. has been deprecated.  In future versions of
Python, if the passed argument is larger than 16 bits, an exception will
be raised.  (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28332(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28332


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<5>,  Next: sunau,  Prev: socket<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.12 ssl
.............

‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is deprecated.  Use *note
ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2a5. instead.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-28124(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124


File: python.info,  Node: sunau,  Next: sys<7>,  Prev: ssl<5>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.13 sunau
...............

‘sunau.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use *note sunau.open(): a50. instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: sys<7>,  Next: wave,  Prev: sunau,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.14 sys
.............

Deprecated ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’ and
‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’.

The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been deprecated and will
be removed in a future Python version.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-28799(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799


File: python.info,  Node: wave,  Prev: sys<7>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.15 wave
..............

‘wave.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use *note wave.open(): 78c. instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Next: Platform Support Removals,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.12 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
--------------------------------------------------

Function *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 36d. is deprecated and replaced
with a macro if ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is not set or set to a value in the
range between ‘0x03050400’ and ‘0x03060000’ (not inclusive), or is
‘0x03060100’ or higher.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(1).)

*note PyOS_AfterFork(): 36b. has been deprecated.  Use *note
PyOS_BeforeFork(): a20, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): a21. or *note
PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 36c. instead.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-16500(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500


File: python.info,  Node: Platform Support Removals,  Next: API and Feature Removals<2>,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.13 Platform Support Removals
--------------------------------

   * FreeBSD 9 and older are no longer officially supported.

   * For full Unicode support, including within extension modules, *nix
     platforms are now expected to provide at least one of ‘C.UTF-8’
     (full locale), ‘C.utf8’ (full locale) or ‘UTF-8’ (‘LC_CTYPE’-only
     locale) as an alternative to the legacy ‘ASCII’-based ‘C’ locale.

   * OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported, which means
     building CPython 3.7 with SSL/TLS support on older platforms still
     using these versions requires custom build options that link to a
     more recent version of OpenSSL.

     Notably, this issue affects the Debian 8 (aka "jessie") and Ubuntu
     14.04 (aka "Trusty") LTS Linux distributions, as they still use
     OpenSSL 1.0.1 by default.

     Debian 9 ("stretch") and Ubuntu 16.04 ("xenial"), as well as recent
     releases of other LTS Linux releases (e.g.  RHEL/CentOS 7.5, SLES
     12-SP3), use OpenSSL 1.0.2 or later, and remain supported in the
     default build configuration.

     CPython's own CI configuration file(1) provides an example of using
     the SSL compatibility testing infrastructure(2) in CPython's test
     suite to build and link against OpenSSL 1.1.0 rather than an
     outdated system provided OpenSSL.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.7.13/.travis.yml

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Tools/ssl/multissltests.py


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<2>,  Next: Module Removals,  Prev: Platform Support Removals,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.14 API and Feature Removals
-------------------------------

The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.7:

   * The ‘os.stat_float_times()’ function has been removed.  It was
     introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python
     2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1.

   * Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter in
     replacement templates for *note re.sub(): 201. were deprecated in
     Python 3.5, and will now cause an error.

   * Removed support of the 'exclude' argument in *note
     tarfile.TarFile.add(): a56.  It was deprecated in Python 2.7 and
     3.2.  Use the 'filter' argument instead.

   * The ‘ntpath.splitunc()’ function was deprecated in Python 3.1, and
     has now been removed.  Use *note splitdrive(): a57. instead.

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 731. no longer supports the
     'verbose' parameter or ‘_source’ attribute which showed the
     generated source code for the named tuple class.  This was part of
     an optimization designed to speed-up class creation.  (Contributed
     by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
     Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638(1).)

   * Functions *note bool(): 17d, *note float(): 26a, *note list(): 40a.
     and *note tuple(): 4e6. no longer take keyword arguments.  The
     first argument of *note int(): 17e. can now be passed only as
     positional argument.

   * Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes ‘Plist’, ‘Dict’
     and ‘_InternalDict’ in the *note plistlib: a6. module.  Dict values
     in the result of functions ‘readPlist()’ and ‘readPlistFromBytes()’
     are now normal dicts.  You no longer can use attribute access to
     access items of these dictionaries.

   * The ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ function has been removed.
     Use the *note socket.socketpair(): a58. function instead, it is
     available on all platforms since Python 3.5.
     ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair’ was just an alias to
     ‘socket.socketpair’ on Python 3.5 and newer.

   * *note asyncio: 9. no longer exports the *note selectors: bd. and
     ‘_overlapped’ modules as ‘asyncio.selectors’ and
     ‘asyncio._overlapped’.  Replace ‘from asyncio import selectors’
     with ‘import selectors’.

   * Direct instantiation of *note ssl.SSLSocket: 723. and *note
     ssl.SSLObject: 9de. objects is now prohibited.  The constructors
     were never documented, tested, or designed as public constructors.
     Users were supposed to use ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ or *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 26f.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-32951(2).)

   * The unused ‘distutils’ ‘install_misc’ command has been removed.
     (Contributed by Eric N. Vander Weele in bpo-29218(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29218


File: python.info,  Node: Module Removals,  Next: Windows-only Changes,  Prev: API and Feature Removals<2>,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.15 Module Removals
----------------------

The ‘fpectl’ module has been removed.  It was never enabled by default,
never worked correctly on x86-64, and it changed the Python ABI in ways
that caused unexpected breakage of C extensions.  (Contributed by
Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29137(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137


File: python.info,  Node: Windows-only Changes,  Next: Porting to Python 3 7,  Prev: Module Removals,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.16 Windows-only Changes
---------------------------

The python launcher, (py.exe), can accept 32 & 64 bit specifiers
'without' having to specify a minor version as well.  So ‘py -3-32’ and
‘py -3-64’ become valid as well as ‘py -3.7-32’, also the -'m'-64 and
-'m.n'-64 forms are now accepted to force 64 bit python even if 32 bit
would have otherwise been used.  If the specified version is not
available py.exe will error exit.  (Contributed by Steve Barnes in
bpo-30291(1).)

The launcher can be run as ‘py -0’ to produce a list of the installed
pythons, 'with default marked with an asterisk'.  Running ‘py -0p’ will
include the paths.  If py is run with a version specifier that cannot be
matched it will also print the 'short form' list of available
specifiers.  (Contributed by Steve Barnes in bpo-30362(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 7,  Next: Python 3 7 1 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Windows-only Changes,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.17 Porting to Python 3.7
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in Python Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<4>.
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<4>.
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<6>.
* Windows-only Changes: Windows-only Changes<2>.
* Other CPython implementation changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in Python Behavior,  Next: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.1 Changes in Python Behavior
...................................

   * *note async: 541. and *note await: 542. names are now reserved
     keywords.  Code using these names as identifiers will now raise a
     *note SyntaxError: 146.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     bpo-30406(1).)

   * PEP 479(2) is enabled for all code in Python 3.7, meaning that
     *note StopIteration: a5d. exceptions raised directly or indirectly
     in coroutines and generators are transformed into *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. exceptions.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32670(3).)

   * *note object.__aiter__(): a5e. methods can no longer be declared as
     asynchronous.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-31709(4).)

   * Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted
     the following syntax:

          f(1 for x in [1],)

          class C(1 for x in [1]):
              pass

     Python 3.7 now correctly raises a *note SyntaxError: 146, as a
     generator expression always needs to be directly inside a set of
     parentheses and cannot have a comma on either side, and the
     duplication of the parentheses can be omitted only on calls.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32012(5) and bpo-32023(6).)

   * When using the *note -m: 3d4. switch, the initial working directory
     is now added to *note sys.path: 35e, rather than an empty string
     (which dynamically denoted the current working directory at the
     time of each import).  Any programs that are checking for the empty
     string, or otherwise relying on the previous behaviour, will need
     to be updated accordingly (e.g.  by also checking for ‘os.getcwd()’
     or ‘os.path.dirname(__main__.__file__)’, depending on why the code
     was checking for the empty string in the first place).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Next: C API 中的改動<4>,  Prev: Changes in Python Behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * ‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all
     non-daemon threads complete.  Set the new *note
     socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.block_on_close: a60. class attribute to
     ‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-31233(1) and bpo-33540(2).)

   * ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all
     child processes complete.  Set the new
     ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-31151(3) and bpo-33540(4).)

   * The *note locale.localeconv(): a61. function now temporarily sets
     the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the value of ‘LC_NUMERIC’ in some cases.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900(5).)

   * *note pkgutil.walk_packages(): a62. now raises a *note ValueError:
     183. if 'path' is a string.  Previously an empty list was returned.
     (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in bpo-24744(6).)

   * A format string argument for *note string.Formatter.format(): a63.
     is now *note positional-only: 8d1.  Passing it as a keyword
     argument was deprecated in Python 3.5.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-29193(7).)

   * Attributes *note key: a64, *note value: a65. and *note coded_value:
     a66. of class *note http.cookies.Morsel: a67. are now read-only.
     Assigning to them was deprecated in Python 3.5.  Use the *note
     set(): a68. method for setting them.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-29192(8).)

   * The 'mode' argument of *note os.makedirs(): 1c2. no longer affects
     the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level
     directories.  To set their file permission bits you can set the
     umask before invoking ‘makedirs()’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-19930(9).)

   * The *note struct.Struct.format: a69. type is now *note str: 157.
     instead of *note bytes: 2c1.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21071(10).)

   * *note parse_multipart(): 685. now accepts the 'encoding' and
     'errors' arguments and returns the same results as ‘FieldStorage’:
     for non-file fields, the value associated to a key is a list of
     strings, not bytes.  (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in
     bpo-29979(11).)

   * Due to internal changes in *note socket: c6, calling *note
     socket.fromshare(): a6a. on a socket created by *note socket.share:
     a6b. in older Python versions is not supported.

   * ‘repr’ for *note BaseException: 3ab. has changed to not include the
     trailing comma.  Most exceptions are affected by this change.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30399(12).)

   * ‘repr’ for *note datetime.timedelta: 813. has changed to include
     the keyword arguments in the output.  (Contributed by Utkarsh
     Upadhyay in bpo-30302(13).)

   * Because *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. is now implemented using the
     *note os.scandir(): 8aa. function, the user specified handler
     'onerror' is now called with the first argument ‘os.scandir’
     instead of ‘os.listdir’ when listing the directory is failed.

   * Support for nested sets and set operations in regular expressions
     as in Unicode Technical Standard #18(14) might be added in the
     future.  This would change the syntax.  To facilitate this future
     change a *note FutureWarning: 241. will be raised in ambiguous
     cases for the time being.  That include sets starting with a
     literal ‘'['’ or containing literal character sequences ‘'--'’,
     ‘'&&'’, ‘'~~'’, and ‘'||'’.  To avoid a warning, escape them with a
     backslash.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30349(15).)

   * The result of splitting a string on a *note regular expression: b4.
     that could match an empty string has been changed.  For example
     splitting on ‘r'\s*'’ will now split not only on whitespaces as it
     did previously, but also on empty strings before all non-whitespace
     characters and just before the end of the string.  The previous
     behavior can be restored by changing the pattern to ‘r'\s+'’.  A
     *note FutureWarning: 241. was emitted for such patterns since
     Python 3.5.

     For patterns that match both empty and non-empty strings, the
     result of searching for all matches may also be changed in other
     cases.  For example in the string ‘'a\n\n'’, the pattern
     ‘r'(?m)^\s*?$'’ will not only match empty strings at positions 2
     and 3, but also the string ‘'\n'’ at positions 2-3.  To match only
     blank lines, the pattern should be rewritten as
     ‘r'(?m)^[^\S\n]*$'’.

     *note re.sub(): 201. now replaces empty matches adjacent to a
     previous non-empty match.  For example ‘re.sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')’
     returns now ‘'-a-b--d-'’ instead of ‘'-a-b-d-'’ (the first minus
     between 'b' and 'd' replaces 'x', and the second minus replaces an
     empty string between 'x' and 'd').

     （由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-25054(16) 和 bpo-32308(17) 中貢獻。）

   * Change *note re.escape(): a6c. to only escape regex special
     characters instead of escaping all characters other than ASCII
     letters, numbers, and ‘'_'’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-29995(18).)

   * *note tracemalloc.Traceback: 9f6. frames are now sorted from oldest
     to most recent to be more consistent with *note traceback: f9.
     (Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(19).)

   * On OSes that support *note socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK: a6d. or *note
     socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC: a6e. bit flags, the *note socket.type: a6f. no
     longer has them applied.  Therefore, checks like ‘if sock.type ==
     socket.SOCK_STREAM’ work as expected on all platforms.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32331(20).)

   * On Windows the default for the 'close_fds' argument of *note
     subprocess.Popen: 8e1. was changed from *note False: 98f. to *note
     True: a70. when redirecting the standard handles.  If you
     previously depended on handles being inherited when using *note
     subprocess.Popen: 8e1. with standard io redirection, you will have
     to pass ‘close_fds=False’ to preserve the previous behaviour, or
     use *note STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList: a71.

   * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): a72. -
     which implicitly affects *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): a73.
     - now deletes entries in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. which
     are set to ‘None’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-33169(21).)

   * In *note asyncio: 9, *note loop.sock_recv(): a74, *note
     loop.sock_sendall(): a75, *note loop.sock_accept(): a76, *note
     loop.getaddrinfo(): a77, *note loop.getnameinfo(): a78. have been
     changed to be proper coroutine methods to match their
     documentation.  Previously, these methods returned *note
     asyncio.Future: a2e. instances.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32327(22).)

   * *note asyncio.Server.sockets: a79. now returns a copy of the
     internal list of server sockets, instead of returning it directly.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662(23).)

   * *note Struct.format: a69. is now a *note str: 157. instance instead
     of a *note bytes: 2c1. instance.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21071(24).)

   * *note argparse: 6. subparsers can now be made mandatory by passing
     ‘required=True’ to *note ArgumentParser.add_subparsers(): a7a.
     (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-26510(25).)

   * *note ast.literal_eval(): a7b. is now stricter.  Addition and
     subtraction of arbitrary numbers are no longer allowed.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31778(26).)

   * *note Calendar.itermonthdates: a7c. will now consistently raise an
     exception when a date falls outside of the ‘0001-01-01’ through
     ‘9999-12-31’ range.  To support applications that cannot tolerate
     such exceptions, the new *note Calendar.itermonthdays3: a7d. and
     *note Calendar.itermonthdays4: a7e. can be used.  The new methods
     return tuples and are not restricted by the range supported by
     *note datetime.date: 72f.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in
     bpo-28292(27).)

   * *note collections.ChainMap: a7f. now preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     bpo-32792(28).)

   * The ‘submit()’ method of *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. and *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. now raises a *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. if called during interpreter shutdown.
     (Contributed by Mark Nemec in bpo-33097(29).)

   * The *note configparser.ConfigParser: 286. constructor now uses
     ‘read_dict()’ to process the default values, making its behavior
     consistent with the rest of the parser.  Non-string keys and values
     in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly converted to
     strings.  (Contributed by James Tocknell in bpo-23835(30).)

   * Several undocumented internal imports were removed.  One example is
     that ‘os.errno’ is no longer available; use ‘import errno’ directly
     instead.  Note that such undocumented internal imports may be
     removed any time without notice, even in micro version releases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31151

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24744

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29193

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29192

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30302

   (14) https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29995

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23835


File: python.info,  Node: C API 中的改動<4>,  Next: CPython 位元組碼變更<6>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.3 C API 中的改動
.......................

The function *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 36d. is considered unsafe for
resizable sequences.  If the slice indices are not instances of *note
int: 17e, but objects that implement the ‘__index__()’ method, the
sequence can be resized after passing its length to
‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’.  This can lead to returning indices out of the
length of the sequence.  For avoiding possible problems use new
functions *note PySlice_Unpack(): 36e. and *note
PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 36f.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 位元組碼變更<6>,  Next: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Prev: C API 中的改動<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.4 CPython 位元組碼變更
.............................

There are two new opcodes: *note LOAD_METHOD: a82. and ‘CALL_METHOD’.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110(1).)

The ‘STORE_ANNOTATION’ opcode has been removed.  (Contributed by Mark
Shannon in bpo-32550(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550


File: python.info,  Node: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Next: Other CPython implementation changes,  Prev: CPython 位元組碼變更<6>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.5 Windows-only Changes
.............................

The file used to override *note sys.path: 35e. is now called
‘<python-executable>._pth’ instead of ‘'sys.path'’.  See *note 找尋模組:
a84. for more information.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
bpo-28137(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137


File: python.info,  Node: Other CPython implementation changes,  Prev: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.6 Other CPython implementation changes
.............................................

In preparation for potential future changes to the public CPython
runtime initialization API (see PEP 432(1) for an initial, but somewhat
outdated, draft), CPython's internal startup and configuration
management logic has been significantly refactored.  While these updates
are intended to be entirely transparent to both embedding applications
and users of the regular CPython CLI, they're being mentioned here as
the refactoring changes the internal order of various operations during
interpreter startup, and hence may uncover previously latent defects,
either in embedding applications, or in CPython itself.  (Initially
contributed by Nick Coghlan and Eric Snow as part of bpo-22257(2), and
further updated by Nick, Eric, and Victor Stinner in a number of other
issues).  Some known details affected:

   * *note PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode(): a86. is not currently usable by
     embedding applications due to the requirement to create a Unicode
     object prior to calling ‘Py_Initialize’.  Use *note
     PySys_AddWarnOption(): a87. instead.

   * warnings filters added by an embedding application with *note
     PySys_AddWarnOption(): a87. should now more consistently take
     precedence over the default filters set by the interpreter

Due to changes in the way the default warnings filters are configured,
setting *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 32b. to a value greater than one is
no longer sufficient to both emit *note BytesWarning: a88. messages and
have them converted to exceptions.  Instead, the flag must be set (to
cause the warnings to be emitted in the first place), and an explicit
‘error::BytesWarning’ warnings filter added to convert them to
exceptions.

Due to a change in the way docstrings are handled by the compiler, the
implicit ‘return None’ in a function body consisting solely of a
docstring is now marked as occurring on the same line as the docstring,
not on the function's header line.

The current exception state has been moved from the frame object to the
co-routine.  This simplified the interpreter and fixed a couple of
obscure bugs caused by having swap exception state when entering or
exiting a generator.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-25612(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22257

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 1 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 7 2 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 7,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.18 Python 3.7.1 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

Starting in 3.7.1, *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. now consistently reads
and respects all of the same environment settings as *note Py_Main():
a8a. (in earlier Python versions, it respected an ill-defined subset of
those environment variables, while in Python 3.7.0 it didn't read any of
them due to bpo-34247(1)).  If this behavior is unwanted, set *note
Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 32f. to 1 before calling *note
Py_Initialize(): 6e2.

In 3.7.1 the C API for Context Variables *note was updated: a8b. to use
*note PyObject: 6d1. pointers.  See also bpo-34762(2).

In 3.7.1 the *note tokenize: f6. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’
token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.
This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
(Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34247

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 2 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 7 6 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 7 1 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.19 Python 3.7.2 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

In 3.7.2, *note venv: 10c. on Windows no longer copies the original
binaries, but creates redirector scripts named ‘python.exe’ and
‘pythonw.exe’ instead.  This resolves a long standing issue where all
virtual environments would have to be upgraded or recreated with each
Python update.  However, note that this release will still require
recreation of virtual environments in order to get the new scripts.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 6 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 7 10 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 7 2 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.20 Python 3.7.6 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of
*note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543. is no longer
supported.  This is because of the behavior of the socket option
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 10 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 7 11 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 7 6 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.21 Python 3.7.10 中顯著的變更
---------------------------------

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 682. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 683.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
*note cgi.parse(): 684. and *note cgi.parse_multipart(): 685. as they
use the affected functions internally.  For more details, please see
their respective documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt,
Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 11 中顯著的變更,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 7 14,  Prev: Python 3 7 10 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.22 Python 3.7.11 中顯著的變更
---------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 735. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped
from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 105. preventing such
attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new module level
variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 7 14,  Prev: Python 3 7 11 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能

1.6.23 Notable security feature in 3.7.14
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 17e. and *note str: 157. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 183. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d3. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 3ea. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 7 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.7 Python 3.6 有什麼新功能
===========================


編輯者: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>, Yury Selivanov
<<yury@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.6, compared to 3.5.
Python 3.6 was released on December 23, 2016.   See the changelog(1) for
a full list of changes.

也參考
......

PEP 494(2) - Python 3.6 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights<3>. Release highlights
* New Features: New Features<5>.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<7>.
* 新模組: 新模組<4>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<7>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<7>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>.
* Other Improvements::
* 已棄用: 已棄用<9>.
* 已移除: 已移除<7>.
* Porting to Python 3.6: Porting to Python 3 6.
* Python 3.6.2 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 2 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.4 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 4 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.5 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 5 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.7 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 7 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.10 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 10 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.13 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 13 中顯著的變更.
* Python 3.6.14 中顯著的變更: Python 3 6 14 中顯著的變更.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0494/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary -- Release highlights<3>,  Next: New Features<5>,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.1 Summary - Release highlights
----------------------------------

新增語法特性：

   * *note PEP 498: a94, formatted string literals.

   * *note PEP 515: a95, underscores in numeric literals.

   * *note PEP 526: a96, syntax for variable annotations.

   * *note PEP 525: a97, asynchronous generators.

   * *note PEP 530: a98.: asynchronous comprehensions.

New library modules:

   * *note secrets: bb.: *note PEP 506 - Adding A Secrets Module To The
     Standard Library: a99.

CPython implementation improvements:

   * The *note dict: 91a. type has been reimplemented to use a *note
     more compact representation: a9a. based on a proposal by Raymond
     Hettinger(1) and similar to the PyPy dict implementation(2).  This
     resulted in dictionaries using 20% to 25% less memory when compared
     to Python 3.5.

   * Customization of class creation has been simplified with the *note
     new protocol: a9b.

   * The class attribute definition order is *note now preserved: a9c.

   * The order of elements in ‘**kwargs’ now *note corresponds to the
     order: a9d. in which keyword arguments were passed to the function.

   * DTrace and SystemTap *note probing support: a9e. has been added.

   * The new *note PYTHONMALLOC: a9f. environment variable can now be
     used to debug the interpreter memory allocation and access errors.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note asyncio: 9. module has received new features, significant
     usability and performance improvements, and a fair amount of bug
     fixes.  Starting with Python 3.6 the ‘asyncio’ module is no longer
     provisional and its API is considered stable.

   * A new *note file system path protocol: aa0. has been implemented to
     support *note path-like objects: 975.  All standard library
     functions operating on paths have been updated to work with the new
     protocol.

   * The *note datetime: 2e. module has gained support for *note Local
     Time Disambiguation: aa1.

   * The *note typing: ff. module received a number of *note
     improvements: aa2.

   * The *note tracemalloc: fa. module has been significantly reworked
     and is now used to provide better output for *note ResourceWarning:
     aa3. as well as provide better diagnostics for memory allocation
     errors.  See the *note PYTHONMALLOC section: a9f. for more
     information.

安全性改進：

   * The new *note secrets: bb. module has been added to simplify the
     generation of cryptographically strong pseudo-random numbers
     suitable for managing secrets such as account authentication,
     tokens, and similar.

   * On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 2a3. now blocks until the system
     urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.  See
     the PEP 524(3) for the rationale.

   * The *note hashlib: 63. and *note ssl: ca. modules now support
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   * The default settings and feature set of the *note ssl: ca. module
     have been improved.

   * The *note hashlib: 63. module received support for the BLAKE2,
     SHA-3 and SHAKE hash algorithms and the *note scrypt(): aa4. key
     derivation function.

Windows improvements:

   * *note PEP 528: aa5. and *note PEP 529: aa6, Windows filesystem and
     console encoding changed to UTF-8.

   * The ‘py.exe’ launcher, when used interactively, no longer prefers
     Python 2 over Python 3 when the user doesn't specify a version (via
     command line arguments or a config file).  Handling of shebang
     lines remains unchanged - "python" refers to Python 2 in that case.

   * ‘python.exe’ and ‘pythonw.exe’ have been marked as long-path aware,
     which means that the 260 character path limit may no longer apply.
     See *note removing the MAX_PATH limitation: aa7. for details.

   * A ‘._pth’ file can be added to force isolated mode and fully
     specify all search paths to avoid registry and environment lookup.
     See *note the documentation: a84. for more information.

   * A ‘python36.zip’ file now works as a landmark to infer *note
     PYTHONHOME: 365.  See *note the documentation: a84. for more
     information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html

   (2) 
https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<5>,  Next: 其他語言更動<7>,  Prev: Summary -- Release highlights<3>,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 498; Formatted string literals: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
* PEP 526; Syntax for variable annotations: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
* PEP 515; Underscores in Numeric Literals: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
* PEP 525; Asynchronous Generators: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
* PEP 530; Asynchronous Comprehensions: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
* PEP 487; Simpler customization of class creation: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
* PEP 487; Descriptor Protocol Enhancements: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
* PEP 519; Adding a file system path protocol: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
* PEP 495; Local Time Disambiguation: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
* PEP 529; Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 528; Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 520; Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
* PEP 468; Preserving Keyword Argument Order: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
* New dict implementation::
* PEP 523; Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
* PYTHONMALLOC environment variable::
* DTrace and SystemTap probing support::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 498 Formatted string literals,  Next: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.1 PEP 498: Formatted string literals
..........................................

PEP 498(1) introduces a new kind of string literals: 'f-strings', or
*note formatted string literals: 7ed.

Formatted string literals are prefixed with ‘'f'’ and are similar to the
format strings accepted by *note str.format(): 41b.  They contain
replacement fields surrounded by curly braces.  The replacement fields
are expressions, which are evaluated at run time, and then formatted
using the *note format(): 417. protocol:

     >>> name = "Fred"
     >>> f"He said his name is {name}."
     'He said his name is Fred.'
     >>> width = 10
     >>> precision = 4
     >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
     >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # nested fields
     'result:      12.35'

也參考
......

PEP 498(2) - Literal String Interpolation.

     由 Eric V. Smith 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

*note Feature documentation: 7ed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Next: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Prev: PEP 498 Formatted string literals,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.2 PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations
................................................

PEP 484(1) introduced the standard for type annotations of function
parameters, a.k.a.  type hints.  This PEP adds syntax to Python for
annotating the types of variables including class variables and instance
variables:

     primes: List[int] = []

     captain: str  # Note: no initial value!

     class Starship:
         stats: Dict[str, int] = {}

Just as for function annotations, the Python interpreter does not attach
any particular meaning to variable annotations and only stores them in
the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of a class or module.

In contrast to variable declarations in statically typed languages, the
goal of annotation syntax is to provide an easy way to specify
structured type metadata for third party tools and libraries via the
abstract syntax tree and the ‘__annotations__’ attribute.

也參考
......

PEP 526(2) - Syntax for variable annotations.

     PEP written by Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa
     Roach, and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

Tools that use or will use the new syntax: mypy(3), pytype(4), PyCharm,
etc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://www.mypy-lang.org/

   (4) https://github.com/google/pytype


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Next: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Prev: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.3 PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals
................................................

PEP 515(1) adds the ability to use underscores in numeric literals for
improved readability.  For example:

     >>> 1_000_000_000_000_000
     1000000000000000
     >>> 0x_FF_FF_FF_FF
     4294967295

Single underscores are allowed between digits and after any base
specifier.  Leading, trailing, or multiple underscores in a row are not
allowed.

The *note string formatting: 3d6. language also now has support for the
‘'_'’ option to signal the use of an underscore for a thousands
separator for floating-point presentation types and for integer
presentation type ‘'d'’.  For integer presentation types ‘'b'’, ‘'o'’,
‘'x'’, and ‘'X'’, underscores will be inserted every 4 digits:

     >>> '{:_}'.format(1000000)
     '1_000_000'
     >>> '{:_x}'.format(0xFFFFFFFF)
     'ffff_ffff'

也參考
......

PEP 515(2) - Underscores in Numeric Literals

     由 Georg Brandl 與 Serhiy Storchaka 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Next: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Prev: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.4 PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators
........................................

PEP 492(1) introduced support for native coroutines and ‘async’ /
‘await’ syntax to Python 3.5.  A notable limitation of the Python 3.5
implementation is that it was not possible to use ‘await’ and ‘yield’ in
the same function body.  In Python 3.6 this restriction has been lifted,
making it possible to define 'asynchronous generators':

     async def ticker(delay, to):
         """Yield numbers from 0 to *to* every *delay* seconds."""
         for i in range(to):
             yield i
             await asyncio.sleep(delay)

The new syntax allows for faster and more concise code.

也參考
......

PEP 525(2) - Asynchronous Generators

     由 Yury Selivanov 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Next: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Prev: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.5 PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions
............................................

PEP 530(1) adds support for using ‘async for’ in list, set, dict
comprehensions and generator expressions:

     result = [i async for i in aiter() if i % 2]

Additionally, ‘await’ expressions are supported in all kinds of
comprehensions:

     result = [await fun() for fun in funcs if await condition()]

也參考
......

PEP 530(2) - Asynchronous Comprehensions

     由 Yury Selivanov 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Next: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Prev: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.6 PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation
........................................................

It is now possible to customize subclass creation without using a
metaclass.  The new ‘__init_subclass__’ classmethod will be called on
the base class whenever a new subclass is created:

     class PluginBase:
         subclasses = []

         def __init_subclass__(cls, **kwargs):
             super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
             cls.subclasses.append(cls)

     class Plugin1(PluginBase):
         pass

     class Plugin2(PluginBase):
         pass

In order to allow zero-argument *note super(): 206. calls to work
correctly from *note __init_subclass__(): 42c. implementations, custom
metaclasses must ensure that the new ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry is
propagated to ‘type.__new__’ (as described in *note Creating the class
object: ab0.).

也參考
......

PEP 487(1) - Simpler customization of class creation

     由 Martin Teichmann 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

*note Feature documentation: ab1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Next: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Prev: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.7 PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements
.................................................

PEP 487(1) extends the descriptor protocol to include the new optional
*note __set_name__(): ab4. method.  Whenever a new class is defined, the
new method will be called on all descriptors included in the definition,
providing them with a reference to the class being defined and the name
given to the descriptor within the class namespace.  In other words,
instances of descriptors can now know the attribute name of the
descriptor in the owner class:

     class IntField:
         def __get__(self, instance, owner):
             return instance.__dict__[self.name]

         def __set__(self, instance, value):
             if not isinstance(value, int):
                 raise ValueError(f'expecting integer in {self.name}')
             instance.__dict__[self.name] = value

         # this is the new initializer:
         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.name = name

     class Model:
         int_field = IntField()

也參考
......

PEP 487(2) - Simpler customization of class creation

     由 Martin Teichmann 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

*note Feature documentation: ab5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Next: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Prev: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.8 PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol
...................................................

File system paths have historically been represented as *note str: 157.
or *note bytes: 2c1. objects.  This has led to people who write code
which operate on file system paths to assume that such objects are only
one of those two types (an *note int: 17e. representing a file
descriptor does not count as that is not a file path).  Unfortunately
that assumption prevents alternative object representations of file
system paths like *note pathlib: 9f. from working with pre-existing
code, including Python's standard library.

To fix this situation, a new interface represented by *note os.PathLike:
ab7. has been defined.  By implementing the *note __fspath__(): ab8.
method, an object signals that it represents a path.  An object can then
provide a low-level representation of a file system path as a *note str:
157. or *note bytes: 2c1. object.  This means an object is considered
*note path-like: 975. if it implements *note os.PathLike: ab7. or is a
*note str: 157. or *note bytes: 2c1. object which represents a file
system path.  Code can use *note os.fspath(): ab9, *note os.fsdecode():
aba, or *note os.fsencode(): abb. to explicitly get a *note str: 157.
and/or *note bytes: 2c1. representation of a path-like object.

The built-in *note open(): 29c. function has been updated to accept
*note os.PathLike: ab7. objects, as have all relevant functions in the
*note os: 9c. and *note os.path: 9d. modules, and most other functions
and classes in the standard library.  The *note os.DirEntry: 1ba. class
and relevant classes in *note pathlib: 9f. have also been updated to
implement *note os.PathLike: ab7.

The hope is that updating the fundamental functions for operating on
file system paths will lead to third-party code to implicitly support
all *note path-like objects: 975. without any code changes, or at least
very minimal ones (e.g.  calling *note os.fspath(): ab9. at the
beginning of code before operating on a path-like object).

Here are some examples of how the new interface allows for *note
pathlib.Path: 149. to be used more easily and transparently with
pre-existing code:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> with open(pathlib.Path("README")) as f:
     ...     contents = f.read()
     ...
     >>> import os.path
     >>> os.path.splitext(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
     ('some_file', '.txt')
     >>> os.path.join("/a/b", pathlib.Path("c"))
     '/a/b/c'
     >>> import os
     >>> os.fspath(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
     'some_file.txt'

(Implemented by Brett Cannon, Ethan Furman, Dusty Phillips, and Jelle
Zijlstra.)

也參考
......

PEP 519(1) - Adding a file system path protocol

     由 Brett Cannon 與 Koos Zevenhoven 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Next: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Prev: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.9 PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation
..........................................

In most world locations, there have been and will be times when local
clocks are moved back.  In those times, intervals are introduced in
which local clocks show the same time twice in the same day.  In these
situations, the information displayed on a local clock (or stored in a
Python datetime instance) is insufficient to identify a particular
moment in time.

PEP 495(1) adds the new 'fold' attribute to instances of *note
datetime.datetime: 224. and *note datetime.time: 6c5. classes to
differentiate between two moments in time for which local times are the
same:

     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
     ...
     04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
     05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
     07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

The values of the *note fold: abd. attribute have the value ‘0’ for all
instances except those that represent the second (chronologically)
moment in time in an ambiguous case.

也參考
......

PEP 495(2) - Local Time Disambiguation

     PEP written by Alexander Belopolsky and Tim Peters, implementation
     by Alexander Belopolsky.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Next: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Prev: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.10 PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8
.............................................................

Representing filesystem paths is best performed with str (Unicode)
rather than bytes.  However, there are some situations where using bytes
is sufficient and correct.

Prior to Python 3.6, data loss could result when using bytes paths on
Windows.  With this change, using bytes to represent paths is now
supported on Windows, provided those bytes are encoded with the encoding
returned by *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): abf, which now defaults
to ‘'utf-8'’.

Applications that do not use str to represent paths should use *note
os.fsencode(): abb. and *note os.fsdecode(): aba. to ensure their bytes
are correctly encoded.  To revert to the previous behaviour, set *note
PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: ac0. or call *note
sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): ac1.

See PEP 529(1) for more information and discussion of code modifications
that may be required.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Next: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Prev: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.11 PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8
..........................................................

The default console on Windows will now accept all Unicode characters
and provide correctly read str objects to Python code.  ‘sys.stdin’,
‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ now default to utf-8 encoding.

This change only applies when using an interactive console, and not when
redirecting files or pipes.  To revert to the previous behaviour for
interactive console use, set *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: ac3.

也參考
......

PEP 528(1) - Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8

     由 Steve Dower 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Next: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Prev: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.12 PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order
.............................................................

Attributes in a class definition body have a natural ordering: the same
order in which the names appear in the source.  This order is now
preserved in the new class's *note __dict__: ac5. attribute.

Also, the effective default class 'execution' namespace (returned from
*note type.__prepare__(): ac6.) is now an insertion-order-preserving
mapping.

也參考
......

PEP 520(1) - Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order

     由 Eric Snow 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0520/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Next: New dict implementation,  Prev: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.13 PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order
...................................................

‘**kwargs’ in a function signature is now guaranteed to be an
insertion-order-preserving mapping.

也參考
......

PEP 468(1) - Preserving Keyword Argument Order

     由 Eric Snow 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/


File: python.info,  Node: New dict implementation,  Next: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Prev: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.14 New dict implementation
................................

The *note dict: 91a. type now uses a "compact" representation based on a
proposal by Raymond Hettinger(1) which was first implemented by PyPy(2).
The memory usage of the new *note dict(): 239. is between 20% and 25%
smaller compared to Python 3.5.

The order-preserving aspect of this new implementation is considered an
implementation detail and should not be relied upon (this may change in
the future, but it is desired to have this new dict implementation in
the language for a few releases before changing the language spec to
mandate order-preserving semantics for all current and future Python
implementations; this also helps preserve backwards-compatibility with
older versions of the language where random iteration order is still in
effect, e.g.  Python 3.5).

(Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-27350(3).  Idea originally suggested
by Raymond Hettinger(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html

   (2) 
https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350

   (4) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Next: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Prev: New dict implementation,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.15 PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython
..........................................................

While Python provides extensive support to customize how code executes,
one place it has not done so is in the evaluation of frame objects.  If
you wanted some way to intercept frame evaluation in Python there really
wasn't any way without directly manipulating function pointers for
defined functions.

PEP 523(1) changes this by providing an API to make frame evaluation
pluggable at the C level.  This will allow for tools such as debuggers
and JITs to intercept frame evaluation before the execution of Python
code begins.  This enables the use of alternative evaluation
implementations for Python code, tracking frame evaluation, etc.

This API is not part of the limited C API and is marked as private to
signal that usage of this API is expected to be limited and only
applicable to very select, low-level use-cases.  Semantics of the API
will change with Python as necessary.

也參考
......

PEP 523(2) - Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython

     由 Brett Cannon 與 Dino Viehland 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Next: DTrace and SystemTap probing support,  Prev: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.16 PYTHONMALLOC environment variable
..........................................

The new *note PYTHONMALLOC: acc. environment variable allows setting the
Python memory allocators and installing debug hooks.

It is now possible to install debug hooks on Python memory allocators on
Python compiled in release mode using ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’.  Effects of
debug hooks:

   * Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte ‘0xCB’

   * Freed memory is filled with the byte ‘0xDB’

   * Detect violations of the Python memory allocator API. For example,
     *note PyObject_Free(): acd. called on a memory block allocated by
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace.

   * Detect writes before the start of a buffer (buffer underflows)

   * Detect writes after the end of a buffer (buffer overflows)

   * Check that the *note GIL: 141. is held when allocator functions of
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: acf. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0.)
     and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ad1. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace.)
     domains are called.

Checking if the GIL is held is also a new feature of Python 3.6.

See the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ad2. function for debug hooks on
Python memory allocators.

It is now also possible to force the usage of the ‘malloc()’ allocator
of the C library for all Python memory allocations using
‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’.  This is helpful when using external memory
debuggers like Valgrind on a Python compiled in release mode.

On error, the debug hooks on Python memory allocators now use the *note
tracemalloc: fa. module to get the traceback where a memory block was
allocated.

Example of fatal error on buffer overflow using ‘python3.6 -X
tracemalloc=5’ (store 5 frames in traces):

     Debug memory block at address p=0x7fbcd41666f8: API 'o'
         4 bytes originally requested
         The 7 pad bytes at p-7 are FORBIDDENBYTE, as expected.
         The 8 pad bytes at tail=0x7fbcd41666fc are not all FORBIDDENBYTE (0xfb):
             at tail+0: 0x02 *** OUCH
             at tail+1: 0xfb
             at tail+2: 0xfb
             at tail+3: 0xfb
             at tail+4: 0xfb
             at tail+5: 0xfb
             at tail+6: 0xfb
             at tail+7: 0xfb
         The block was made by call #1233329 to debug malloc/realloc.
         Data at p: 1a 2b 30 00

     Memory block allocated at (most recent call first):
       File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323
       File "unittest/case.py", line 600
       File "unittest/case.py", line 648
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84

     Fatal Python error: bad trailing pad byte

     Current thread 0x00007fbcdbd32700 (most recent call first):
       File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323 in test_hex
       File "unittest/case.py", line 600 in run
       File "unittest/case.py", line 648 in __call__
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
       ...

（由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-26516(1) 和 bpo-26564(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564


File: python.info,  Node: DTrace and SystemTap probing support,  Prev: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Up: New Features<5>

1.7.2.17 DTrace and SystemTap probing support
.............................................

Python can now be built ‘--with-dtrace’ which enables static markers for
the following events in the interpreter:

   * function call/return

   * garbage collection started/finished

   * line of code executed.

This can be used to instrument running interpreters in production,
without the need to recompile specific *note debug builds: 69f. or
providing application-specific profiling/debugging code.

More details in *note 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython: ad4.

The current implementation is tested on Linux and macOS. Additional
markers may be added in the future.

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-21590(1), based on patches by Jesús
Cea Avión, David Malcolm, and Nikhil Benesch.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<7>,  Next: 新模組<4>,  Prev: New Features<5>,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.3 其他語言更動
------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * A ‘global’ or ‘nonlocal’ statement must now textually appear before
     the first use of the affected name in the same scope.  Previously
     this was a *note SyntaxWarning: 178.

   * It is now possible to set a *note special method: ad6. to ‘None’ to
     indicate that the corresponding operation is not available.  For
     example, if a class sets ‘__iter__()’ to ‘None’, the class is not
     iterable.  (Contributed by Andrew Barnert and Ivan Levkivskyi in
     bpo-25958(1).)

   * Long sequences of repeated traceback lines are now abbreviated as
     ‘"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"’ (see *note
     traceback: ad7. for an example).  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in
     bpo-26823(2).)

   * Import now raises the new exception *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f.
     (subclass of *note ImportError: 145.) when it cannot find a module.
     Code that currently checks for ImportError (in try-except) will
     still work.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(3).)

   * Class methods relying on zero-argument ‘super()’ will now work
     correctly when called from metaclass methods during class creation.
     (Contributed by Martin Teichmann in bpo-23722(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722


File: python.info,  Node: 新模組<4>,  Next: 改進的模組<7>,  Prev: 其他語言更動<7>,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.4 新模組
------------

* Menu:

* secrets::


File: python.info,  Node: secrets,  Up: 新模組<4>

1.7.4.1 secrets
...............

The main purpose of the new *note secrets: bb. module is to provide an
obvious way to reliably generate cryptographically strong pseudo-random
values suitable for managing secrets, such as account authentication,
tokens, and similar.

     警告: Note that the pseudo-random generators in the *note random:
     b3. module should 'NOT' be used for security purposes.  Use *note
     secrets: bb. on Python 3.6+ and *note os.urandom(): 2a3. on Python
     3.5 and earlier.

也參考
......

PEP 506(1) - Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library

     由 Steven D'Aprano 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/


File: python.info,  Node: 改進的模組<7>,  Next: 最佳化<7>,  Prev: 新模組<4>,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.5 改進的模組
----------------

* Menu:

* array: array<3>.
* ast: ast<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<8>.
* binascii: binascii<2>.
* cmath::
* collections: collections<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>.
* contextlib: contextlib<4>.
* datetime: datetime<5>.
* decimal: decimal<2>.
* distutils: distutils<5>.
* email: email<3>.
* encodings: encodings<2>.
* enum: enum<6>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<2>.
* fileinput: fileinput<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<5>.
* http.client: http client<2>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<2>.
* importlib: importlib<5>.
* inspect: inspect<6>.
* json::
* logging: logging<4>.
* math: math<6>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>.
* os: os<7>.
* pathlib: pathlib<7>.
* pdb: pdb<4>.
* pickle: pickle<2>.
* pickletools::
* pydoc: pydoc<3>.
* random: random<3>.
* re: re<3>.
* readline::
* rlcompleter::
* shlex: shlex<2>.
* site: site<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<6>.
* socket: socket<7>.
* socketserver: socketserver<2>.
* ssl: ssl<6>.
* statistics: statistics<4>.
* struct::
* subprocess: subprocess<2>.
* sys: sys<8>.
* telnetlib::
* time: time<5>.
* timeit::
* tkinter: tkinter<5>.
* traceback: traceback<3>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>.
* typing: typing<7>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<6>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>.
* urllib.request: urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser.
* venv: venv<4>.
* warnings: warnings<3>.
* winreg::
* winsound::
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client.
* zipfile: zipfile<3>.
* zlib::


File: python.info,  Node: array<3>,  Next: ast<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.1 array
.............

Exhausted iterators of *note array.array: 18f. will now stay exhausted
even if the iterated array is extended.  This is consistent with the
behavior of other mutable sequences.

Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26492(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26492


File: python.info,  Node: ast<3>,  Next: asyncio<8>,  Prev: array<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.2 ast
...........

The new *note ast.Constant: 217. AST node has been added.  It can be
used by external AST optimizers for the purposes of constant folding.

Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26146(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<8>,  Next: binascii<2>,  Prev: ast<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.3 asyncio
...............

Starting with Python 3.6 the ‘asyncio’ module is no longer provisional
and its API is considered stable.

Notable changes in the *note asyncio: 9. module since Python 3.5.0 (all
backported to 3.5.x due to the provisional status):

   * The *note get_event_loop(): 220. function has been changed to
     always return the currently running loop when called from
     coroutines and callbacks.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-28613(1).)

   * The *note ensure_future(): ade. function and all functions that use
     it, such as *note loop.run_until_complete(): adf, now accept all
     kinds of *note awaitable objects: ae0.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * New *note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 6ae. function to submit
     coroutines to event loops from other threads.  (Contributed by
     Vincent Michel.)

   * New *note Transport.is_closing(): ae1. method to check if the
     transport is closing or closed.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * The *note loop.create_server(): 968. method can now accept a list
     of hosts.  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

   * New *note loop.create_future(): ae2. method to create Future
     objects.  This allows alternative event loop implementations, such
     as uvloop(2), to provide a faster *note asyncio.Future: a2e.
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27041(3).)

   * New *note loop.get_exception_handler(): ae3. method to get the
     current exception handler.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-27040(4).)

   * New *note StreamReader.readuntil(): ae4. method to read data from
     the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears.  (Contributed
     by Mark Korenberg.)

   * The performance of *note StreamReader.readexactly(): ae5. has been
     improved.  (Contributed by Mark Korenberg in bpo-28370(5).)

   * The *note loop.getaddrinfo(): a77. method is optimized to avoid
     calling the system ‘getaddrinfo’ function if the address is already
     resolved.  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   * The *note loop.stop(): ae6. method has been changed to stop the
     loop immediately after the current iteration.  Any new callbacks
     scheduled as a result of the last iteration will be discarded.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-25593(6).)

   * ‘Future.set_exception’ will now raise *note TypeError: 2ba. when
     passed an instance of the *note StopIteration: a5d. exception.
     (Contributed by Chris Angelico in bpo-26221(7).)

   * New *note loop.connect_accepted_socket(): 970. method to be used by
     servers that accept connections outside of asyncio, but that use
     asyncio to handle them.  (Contributed by Jim Fulton in
     bpo-27392(8).)

   * ‘TCP_NODELAY’ flag is now set for all TCP transports by default.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27456(9).)

   * New *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): ae7. to properly close pending
     asynchronous generators before closing the loop.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-28003(10).)

   * *note Future: a2e. and *note Task: 203. classes now have an
     optimized C implementation which makes asyncio code up to 30%
     faster.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in
     bpo-26081(11) and bpo-28544(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (2) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27041

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27040

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26221

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544


File: python.info,  Node: binascii<2>,  Next: cmath,  Prev: asyncio<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.4 binascii
................

The *note b2a_base64(): ae9. function now accepts an optional 'newline'
keyword argument to control whether the newline character is appended to
the return value.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25357(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25357


File: python.info,  Node: cmath,  Next: collections<4>,  Prev: binascii<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.5 cmath
.............

The new *note cmath.tau: aeb. ('τ') constant has been added.
(Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP 628(2) for details.)

New constants: *note cmath.inf: aec. and *note cmath.nan: aed. to match
*note math.inf: aee. and *note math.nan: 45e, and also *note cmath.infj:
aef. and *note cmath.nanj: af0. to match the format used by complex
repr.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-23229(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229


File: python.info,  Node: collections<4>,  Next: concurrent futures<3>,  Prev: cmath,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.6 collections
...................

The new *note Collection: af2. abstract base class has been added to
represent sized iterable container classes.  (Contributed by Ivan
Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar in bpo-27598(1).)

The new *note Reversible: af3. abstract base class represents iterable
classes that also provide the ‘__reversed__()’ method.  (Contributed by
Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-25987(2).)

The new *note AsyncGenerator: af4. abstract base class represents
asynchronous generators.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-28720(3).)

The *note namedtuple(): 731. function now accepts an optional keyword
argument 'module', which, when specified, is used for the *note
__module__: af5. attribute of the returned named tuple class.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-17941(4).)

The 'verbose' and 'rename' arguments for *note namedtuple(): 731. are
now keyword-only.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-25628(5).)

Recursive *note collections.deque: 3cf. instances can now be pickled.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26482(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25987

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26482


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<3>,  Next: contextlib<4>,  Prev: collections<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.7 concurrent.futures
..........................

The *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. class constructor now accepts an
optional 'thread_name_prefix' argument to make it possible to customize
the names of the threads created by the pool.  (Contributed by Gregory
P.  Smith in bpo-27664(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<4>,  Next: datetime<5>,  Prev: concurrent futures<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.8 contextlib
..................

The *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: af8. class has been added
to provide an abstract base class for context managers.  It provides a
sensible default implementation for ‘__enter__()’ which returns ‘self’
and leaves ‘__exit__()’ an abstract method.  A matching class has been
added to the *note typing: ff. module as *note typing.ContextManager:
af9.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<5>,  Next: decimal<2>,  Prev: contextlib<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.9 datetime
................

The *note datetime: 224. and *note time: 6c5. classes have the new
‘fold’ attribute used to disambiguate local time when necessary.  Many
functions in the *note datetime: 2e. have been updated to support local
time disambiguation.  See *note Local Time Disambiguation: aa1. section
for more information.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in
bpo-24773(1).)

The *note datetime.strftime(): afb. and *note date.strftime(): afc.
methods now support ISO 8601 date directives ‘%G’, ‘%u’ and ‘%V’.
(Contributed by Ashley Anderson in bpo-12006(2).)

The *note datetime.isoformat(): 988. function now accepts an optional
'timespec' argument that specifies the number of additional components
of the time value to include.  (Contributed by Alessandro Cucci and
Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-19475(3).)

The *note datetime.combine(): afd. now accepts an optional 'tzinfo'
argument.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-27661(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12006

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19475

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661


File: python.info,  Node: decimal<2>,  Next: distutils<5>,  Prev: datetime<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.10 decimal
................

New *note Decimal.as_integer_ratio(): aff. method that returns a pair
‘(n, d)’ of integers that represent the given *note Decimal: 5f0.
instance as a fraction, in lowest terms and with a positive denominator:

     >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
     (-157, 50)

（由 Stefan Krah 和 Mark Dickinson 於 bpo-25928(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25928


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<5>,  Next: email<3>,  Prev: decimal<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.11 distutils
..................

The ‘default_format’ attribute has been removed from
‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’ and the ‘formats’ attribute defaults to
‘['gztar']’.  Although not anticipated, any code relying on the presence
of ‘default_format’ may need to be adapted.  See bpo-27819(1) for more
details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819


File: python.info,  Node: email<3>,  Next: encodings<2>,  Prev: distutils<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.12 email
..............

The new email API, enabled via the 'policy' keyword to various
constructors, is no longer provisional.  The *note email: 37.
documentation has been reorganized and rewritten to focus on the new
API, while retaining the old documentation for the legacy API.
(Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24277(1).)

The *note email.mime: 41. classes now all accept an optional 'policy'
keyword.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-27331(2).)

The *note DecodedGenerator: b02. now supports the 'policy' keyword.

There is a new *note policy: 4b. attribute, *note message_factory: b03,
that controls what class is used by default when the parser creates new
message objects.  For the *note email.policy.compat32: b04. policy this
is *note Message: b05, for the new policies it is *note EmailMessage:
b06.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-20476(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20476


File: python.info,  Node: encodings<2>,  Next: enum<6>,  Prev: email<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.13 encodings
..................

On Windows, added the ‘'oem'’ encoding to use ‘CP_OEMCP’, and the
‘'ansi'’ alias for the existing ‘'mbcs'’ encoding, which uses the
‘CP_ACP’ code page.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27959(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959


File: python.info,  Node: enum<6>,  Next: faulthandler<2>,  Prev: encodings<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.14 enum
.............

Two new enumeration base classes have been added to the *note enum: 51.
module: *note Flag: 41d. and ‘IntFlags’.  Both are used to define
constants that can be combined using the bitwise operators.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-23591(1).)

Many standard library modules have been updated to use the ‘IntFlags’
class for their constants.

The new *note enum.auto: b09. value can be used to assign values to enum
members automatically:

     >>> from enum import Enum, auto
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     red = auto()
     ...     blue = auto()
     ...     green = auto()
     ...
     >>> list(Color)
     [<Color.red: 1>, <Color.blue: 2>, <Color.green: 3>]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<2>,  Next: fileinput<2>,  Prev: enum<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.15 faulthandler
.....................

On Windows, the *note faulthandler: 53. module now installs a handler
for Windows exceptions: see *note faulthandler.enable(): b0b.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23848(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23848


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput<2>,  Next: hashlib<5>,  Prev: faulthandler<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.16 fileinput
..................

*note hook_encoded(): b0d. now supports the 'errors' argument.
(Contributed by Joseph Hackman in bpo-25788(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25788


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<5>,  Next: http client<2>,  Prev: fileinput<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.17 hashlib
................

*note hashlib: 63. supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend
version is 1.0.2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).)

BLAKE2 hash functions were added to the module.  *note blake2b(): 43d.
and *note blake2s(): 43e. are always available and support the full
feature set of BLAKE2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26798(2)
based on code by Dmitry Chestnykh and Samuel Neves.  Documentation
written by Dmitry Chestnykh.)

The SHA-3 hash functions *note sha3_224(): b0f, *note sha3_256(): b10,
*note sha3_384(): b11, *note sha3_512(): b12, and SHAKE hash functions
*note shake_128(): b13. and *note shake_256(): b14. were added.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16113(3).  Keccak Code Package
by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, Gilles Van Assche, and
Ronny Van Keer.)

The password-based key derivation function *note scrypt(): aa4. is now
available with OpenSSL 1.1.0 and newer.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-27928(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928


File: python.info,  Node: http client<2>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Prev: hashlib<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.18 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection.request(): b16. and *note endheaders(): b17. both
now support chunked encoding request bodies.  (Contributed by Demian
Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Next: importlib<5>,  Prev: http client<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.19 idlelib and IDLE
.........................

The idlelib package is being modernized and refactored to make IDLE look
and work better and to make the code easier to understand, test, and
improve.  Part of making IDLE look better, especially on Linux and Mac,
is using ttk widgets, mostly in the dialogs.  As a result, IDLE no
longer runs with tcl/tk 8.4.  It now requires tcl/tk 8.5 or 8.6.  We
recommend running the latest release of either.

'Modernizing' includes renaming and consolidation of idlelib modules.
The renaming of files with partial uppercase names is similar to the
renaming of, for instance, Tkinter and TkFont to tkinter and
tkinter.font in 3.0.  As a result, imports of idlelib files that worked
in 3.5 will usually not work in 3.6.  At least a module name change will
be needed (see idlelib/README.txt), sometimes more.  (Name changes
contributed by Al Swiegart and Terry Reedy in bpo-24225(1).  Most
idlelib patches since have been and will be part of the process.)

In compensation, the eventual result with be that some idlelib classes
will be easier to use, with better APIs and docstrings explaining them.
Additional useful information will be added to idlelib when available.

New in 3.6.2:

Multiple fixes for autocompletion.  (Contributed by Louie Lu in
bpo-15786(2).)

New in 3.6.3:

Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now
displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions
and classes.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262(3).)

The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been
reimplemented as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from
the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs.  (Contributed by Charles
Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099(4).)

The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
to improve both appearance and function.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella
and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

New in 3.6.4:

The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802(5).)  The sample can be
edited to include other characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-31860(6).)

New in 3.6.6:

Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up
to maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.
Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings
dialog.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in
bpo-33642(7), bpo-33768(8), and bpo-33679(9).)

On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On
Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python
binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this
should make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(10).)

New in 3.6.7:

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.  N can
be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings
dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right
clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place by
double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by
right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-1529353(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<5>,  Next: inspect<6>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.20 importlib
..................

Import now raises the new exception *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f.
(subclass of *note ImportError: 145.) when it cannot find a module.
Code that current checks for ‘ImportError’ (in try-except) will still
work.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(1).)

*note importlib.util.LazyLoader: b1a. now calls *note create_module():
b1b. on the wrapped loader, removing the restriction that *note
importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: b1c. and *note
importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: b1d. couldn't be used with
*note importlib.util.LazyLoader: b1a.

*note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 26d, *note
importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 29a, and *note
importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(): b1e. now accept a *note
path-like object: 975.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<6>,  Next: json,  Prev: importlib<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.21 inspect
................

The *note inspect.signature(): 548. function now reports the implicit
‘.0’ parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and
generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only parameters
called ‘implicit0’.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-19611(1).)

To reduce code churn when upgrading from Python 2.7 and the legacy
‘inspect.getargspec()’ API, the previously documented deprecation of
*note inspect.getfullargspec(): 549. has been reversed.  While this
function is convenient for single/source Python 2/3 code bases, the
richer *note inspect.signature(): 548. interface remains the recommended
approach for new code.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-27172(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172


File: python.info,  Node: json,  Next: logging<4>,  Prev: inspect<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.22 json
.............

*note json.load(): b21. and *note json.loads(): 796. now support binary
input.  Encoded JSON should be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16,
or UTF-32.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-17909(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909


File: python.info,  Node: logging<4>,  Next: math<6>,  Prev: json,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.23 logging
................

The new *note WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded(): b23. method has been
added to add the ability to check if the log file needs to be reopened.
(Contributed by Marian Horban in bpo-24884(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24884


File: python.info,  Node: math<6>,  Next: multiprocessing<4>,  Prev: logging<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.24 math
.............

The tau ('τ') constant has been added to the *note math: 89. and *note
cmath: 16. modules.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP
628(2) for details.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<4>,  Next: os<7>,  Prev: math<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.25 multiprocessing
........................

*note Proxy Objects: b26. returned by *note multiprocessing.Manager():
b27. can now be nested.  (Contributed by Davin Potts in bpo-6766(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766


File: python.info,  Node: os<7>,  Next: pathlib<7>,  Prev: multiprocessing<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.26 os
...........

See the summary of *note PEP 519: aa0. for details on how the *note os:
9c. and *note os.path: 9d. modules now support *note path-like objects:
975.

*note scandir(): 8aa. now supports *note bytes: 2c1. paths on Windows.

A new *note close(): b29. method allows explicitly closing a *note
scandir(): 8aa. iterator.  The *note scandir(): 8aa. iterator now
supports the *note context manager: 3c4. protocol.  If a ‘scandir()’
iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed a *note
ResourceWarning: aa3. will be emitted in its destructor.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25994(1).)

On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 2a3. now blocks until the system urandom
entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.  See the PEP
524(2) for the rationale.

The Linux ‘getrandom()’ syscall (get random bytes) is now exposed as the
new *note os.getrandom(): b2a. function.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner, part of the PEP 524(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25994

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<7>,  Next: pdb<4>,  Prev: os<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.27 pathlib
................

*note pathlib: 9f. now supports *note path-like objects: 975.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-27186(1).)

細節請見 *note PEP 519: aa0. 中的摘要。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<4>,  Next: pickle<2>,  Prev: pathlib<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.28 pdb
............

The *note Pdb: 760. class constructor has a new optional 'readrc'
argument to control whether ‘.pdbrc’ files should be read.


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<2>,  Next: pickletools,  Prev: pdb<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.29 pickle
...............

Objects that need ‘__new__’ called with keyword arguments can now be
pickled using *note pickle protocols: b2e. older than protocol version
4.  Protocol version 4 already supports this case.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-24164(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24164


File: python.info,  Node: pickletools,  Next: pydoc<3>,  Prev: pickle<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.30 pickletools
....................

*note pickletools.dis(): b30. now outputs the implicit memo index for
the ‘MEMOIZE’ opcode.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-25382(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25382


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<3>,  Next: random<3>,  Prev: pickletools,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.31 pydoc
..............

The *note pydoc: b0. module has learned to respect the ‘MANPAGER’
environment variable.  (Contributed by Matthias Klose in bpo-8637(1).)

*note help(): 710. and *note pydoc: b0. can now list named tuple fields
in the order they were defined rather than alphabetically.  (Contributed
by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-24879(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24879


File: python.info,  Node: random<3>,  Next: re<3>,  Prev: pydoc<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.32 random
...............

The new *note choices(): b33. function returns a list of elements of
specified size from the given population with optional weights.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18844(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844


File: python.info,  Node: re<3>,  Next: readline,  Prev: random<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.33 re
...........

Added support of modifier spans in regular expressions.  Examples:
‘'(?i:p)ython'’ matches ‘'python'’ and ‘'Python'’, but not ‘'PYTHON'’;
‘'(?i)g(?-i:v)r'’ matches ‘'GvR'’ and ‘'gvr'’, but not ‘'GVR'’.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-433028(1).)

Match object groups can be accessed by ‘__getitem__’, which is
equivalent to ‘group()’.  So ‘mo['name']’ is now equivalent to
‘mo.group('name')’.  (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-24454(2).)

*note Match: b35. objects now support *note index-like objects: 51f. as
group indices.  (Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer and Xiang Zhang in
bpo-27177(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177


File: python.info,  Node: readline,  Next: rlcompleter,  Prev: re<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.34 readline
.................

Added *note set_auto_history(): b37. to enable or disable automatic
addition of input to the history list.  (Contributed by Tyler Crompton
in bpo-26870(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870


File: python.info,  Node: rlcompleter,  Next: shlex<2>,  Prev: readline,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.35 rlcompleter
....................

Private and special attribute names now are omitted unless the prefix
starts with underscores.  A space or a colon is added after some
completed keywords.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25011(1)
and bpo-25209(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25011

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25209


File: python.info,  Node: shlex<2>,  Next: site<2>,  Prev: rlcompleter,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.36 shlex
..............

The *note shlex: b3a. has much *note improved shell compatibility: b3b.
through the new 'punctuation_chars' argument to control which characters
are treated as punctuation.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
bpo-1521950(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1521950


File: python.info,  Node: site<2>,  Next: sqlite3<6>,  Prev: shlex<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.37 site
.............

When specifying paths to add to *note sys.path: 35e. in a ‘.pth’ file,
you may now specify file paths on top of directories (e.g.  zip files).
(Contributed by Wolfgang Langner in bpo-26587(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26587


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<6>,  Next: socket<7>,  Prev: site<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.38 sqlite3
................

*note sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid: b3e. now supports the ‘REPLACE’
statement.  (Contributed by Alex LordThorsen in bpo-16864(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864


File: python.info,  Node: socket<7>,  Next: socketserver<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.39 socket
...............

The *note ioctl(): b40. function now supports the *note
SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH: b41. control code.  (Contributed by Daniel
Stokes in bpo-26536(1).)

The *note getsockopt(): b42. constants ‘SO_DOMAIN’, ‘SO_PROTOCOL’,
‘SO_PEERSEC’, and ‘SO_PASSSEC’ are now supported.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-26907(2).)

The *note setsockopt(): b43. now supports the ‘setsockopt(level,
optname, None, optlen: int)’ form.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-27744(3).)

The socket module now supports the address family *note AF_ALG: b44. to
interface with Linux Kernel crypto API. ‘ALG_*’, ‘SOL_ALG’ and *note
sendmsg_afalg(): b45. were added.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-27744(4) with support from Victor Stinner.)

New Linux constants ‘TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ and ‘TCP_CONGESTION’ were added.
(Contributed by Omar Sandoval, bpo-26273(5)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26907

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver<2>,  Next: ssl<6>,  Prev: socket<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.40 socketserver
.....................

Servers based on the *note socketserver: c7. module, including those
defined in *note http.server: 6d, *note xmlrpc.server: 129. and *note
wsgiref.simple_server: 116, now support the *note context manager: 3c4.
protocol.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26404(1).)

The ‘wfile’ attribute of *note StreamRequestHandler: b47. classes now
implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491. writable interface.  In
particular, calling *note write(): b48. is now guaranteed to send the
data in full.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-26721(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26404

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<6>,  Next: statistics<4>,  Prev: socketserver<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.41 ssl
............

*note ssl: ca. supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend version is
1.0.2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).)

3DES has been removed from the default cipher suites and ChaCha20
Poly1305 cipher suites have been added.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-27850(2) and bpo-27766(3).)

*note SSLContext: 26f. has better default configuration for options and
ciphers.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28043(4).)

SSL session can be copied from one client-side connection to another
with the new *note SSLSession: b4a. class.  TLS session resumption can
speed up the initial handshake, reduce latency and improve performance
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19500(5) based on a draft by
Alex Warhawk.)

The new *note get_ciphers(): b4b. method can be used to get a list of
enabled ciphers in order of cipher priority.

All constants and flags have been converted to *note IntEnum: b4c. and
‘IntFlags’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28025(6).)

Server and client-side specific TLS protocols for *note SSLContext: 26f.
were added.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28085(7).)

Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: 87a. to enable and *note
ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): 87b. to initiate TLS 1.3
post-handshake authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-78851(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28085

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<4>,  Next: struct,  Prev: ssl<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.42 statistics
...................

A new *note harmonic_mean(): b4e. function has been added.  (Contributed
by Steven D'Aprano in bpo-27181(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181


File: python.info,  Node: struct,  Next: subprocess<2>,  Prev: statistics<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.43 struct
...............

*note struct: cf. now supports IEEE 754 half-precision floats via the
‘'e'’ format specifier.  (Contributed by Eli Stevens, Mark Dickinson in
bpo-11734(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<2>,  Next: sys<8>,  Prev: struct,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.44 subprocess
...................

*note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. destructor now emits a *note
ResourceWarning: aa3. warning if the child process is still running.
Use the context manager protocol (‘with proc: ...’) or explicitly call
the *note wait(): b51. method to read the exit status of the child
process.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26741(1).)

The *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. constructor and all functions that pass
arguments through to it now accept 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments.
Specifying either of these will enable text mode for the 'stdin',
'stdout' and 'stderr' streams.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
bpo-6135(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135


File: python.info,  Node: sys<8>,  Next: telnetlib,  Prev: subprocess<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.45 sys
............

The new *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): b53. function returns the
name of the error mode used to convert between Unicode filenames and
bytes filenames.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27781(1).)

On Windows the return value of the *note getwindowsversion(): b54.
function now includes the 'platform_version' field which contains the
accurate major version, minor version and build number of the current
operating system, rather than the version that is being emulated for the
process (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27932(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932


File: python.info,  Node: telnetlib,  Next: time<5>,  Prev: sys<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.46 telnetlib
..................

*note Telnet: b56. is now a context manager (contributed by Stéphane
Wirtel in bpo-25485(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485


File: python.info,  Node: time<5>,  Next: timeit,  Prev: telnetlib,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.47 time
.............

The *note struct_time: b58. attributes ‘tm_gmtoff’ and ‘tm_zone’ are now
available on all platforms.


File: python.info,  Node: timeit,  Next: tkinter<5>,  Prev: time<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.48 timeit
...............

The new *note Timer.autorange(): b5a. convenience method has been added
to call *note Timer.timeit(): b5b. repeatedly so that the total run time
is greater or equal to 200 milliseconds.  (Contributed by Steven
D'Aprano in bpo-6422(1).)

*note timeit: e9. now warns when there is substantial (4x) variance
between best and worst times.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-23552(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23552


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<5>,  Next: traceback<3>,  Prev: timeit,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.49 tkinter
................

Added methods ‘trace_add()’, ‘trace_remove()’ and ‘trace_info()’ in the
‘tkinter.Variable’ class.  They replace old methods ‘trace_variable()’,
‘trace()’, ‘trace_vdelete()’ and ‘trace_vinfo()’ that use obsolete Tcl
commands and might not work in future versions of Tcl.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22115(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<3>,  Next: tracemalloc<3>,  Prev: tkinter<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.50 traceback
..................

Both the traceback module and the interpreter's builtin exception
display now abbreviate long sequences of repeated lines in tracebacks as
shown in the following example:

     >>> def f(): f()
     ...
     >>> f()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       [Previous line repeated 995 more times]
     RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded

（由 Emanuel Barry 於 bpo-26823(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<3>,  Next: typing<7>,  Prev: traceback<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.51 tracemalloc
....................

The *note tracemalloc: fa. module now supports tracing memory
allocations in multiple different address spaces.

The new *note DomainFilter: b5f. filter class has been added to filter
block traces by their address space (domain).

（由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-26588(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26588


File: python.info,  Node: typing<7>,  Next: unicodedata<6>,  Prev: tracemalloc<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.52 typing
...............

Since the *note typing: ff. module is *note provisional: 958, all
changes introduced in Python 3.6 have also been backported to Python
3.5.x.

The *note typing: ff. module has a much improved support for generic
type aliases.  For example ‘Dict[str, Tuple[S, T]]’ is now a valid type
annotation.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in Github #195(1).)

The *note typing.ContextManager: af9. class has been added for
representing *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: af8.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(2).)

The *note typing.Collection: b61. class has been added for representing
*note collections.abc.Collection: af2.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi
in bpo-27598(3).)

The *note typing.ClassVar: 4b2. type construct has been added to mark
class variables.  As introduced in PEP 526(4), a variable annotation
wrapped in ClassVar indicates that a given attribute is intended to be
used as a class variable and should not be set on instances of that
class.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github #280(5).)

A new *note TYPE_CHECKING: b62. constant that is assumed to be ‘True’ by
the static type checkers, but is ‘False’ at runtime.  (Contributed by
Guido van Rossum in Github #230(6).)

A new *note NewType(): b63. helper function has been added to create
lightweight distinct types for annotations:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
     some_id = UserId(524313)

The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass
of the original type.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github
#189(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/195

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (5) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/280

   (6) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/230

   (7) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/189


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<6>,  Next: unittest mock<2>,  Prev: typing<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.53 unicodedata
....................

The *note unicodedata: 100. module now uses data from Unicode 9.0.0(1).
(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode9.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock<2>,  Next: urllib request,  Prev: unicodedata<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.54 unittest.mock
......................

The *note Mock: 896. class has the following improvements:

   * Two new methods, *note Mock.assert_called(): b66. and *note
     Mock.assert_called_once(): b67. to check if the mock object was
     called.  (Contributed by Amit Saha in bpo-26323(1).)

   * The *note Mock.reset_mock(): b68. method now has two optional
     keyword only arguments: 'return_value' and 'side_effect'.
     (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-21271(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26323

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request,  Next: urllib robotparser,  Prev: unittest mock<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.55 urllib.request
.......................

If a HTTP request has a file or iterable body (other than a bytes
object) but no ‘Content-Length’ header, rather than throwing an error,
‘AbstractHTTPHandler’ now falls back to use chunked transfer encoding.
(Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319


File: python.info,  Node: urllib robotparser,  Next: venv<4>,  Prev: urllib request,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.56 urllib.robotparser
...........................

*note RobotFileParser: b6b. now supports the ‘Crawl-delay’ and
‘Request-rate’ extensions.  (Contributed by Nikolay Bogoychev in
bpo-16099(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16099


File: python.info,  Node: venv<4>,  Next: warnings<3>,  Prev: urllib robotparser,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.57 venv
.............

*note venv: 10c. accepts a new parameter ‘--prompt’.  This parameter
provides an alternative prefix for the virtual environment.  (Proposed
by Łukasz Balcerzak and ported to 3.6 by Stéphane Wirtel in
bpo-22829(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22829


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<3>,  Next: winreg,  Prev: venv<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.58 warnings
.................

A new optional 'source' parameter has been added to the *note
warnings.warn_explicit(): b6e. function: the destroyed object which
emitted a *note ResourceWarning: aa3.  A 'source' attribute has also
been added to ‘warnings.WarningMessage’ (contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-26568(1) and bpo-26567(2)).

When a *note ResourceWarning: aa3. warning is logged, the *note
tracemalloc: fa. module is now used to try to retrieve the traceback
where the destroyed object was allocated.

Example with the script ‘example.py’:

     import warnings

     def func():
         return open(__file__)

     f = func()
     f = None

Output of the command ‘python3.6 -Wd -X tracemalloc=5 example.py’:

     example.py:7: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='example.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       f = None
     Object allocated at (most recent call first):
       File "example.py", lineno 4
         return open(__file__)
       File "example.py", lineno 6
         f = func()

The "Object allocated at" traceback is new and is only displayed if
*note tracemalloc: fa. is tracing Python memory allocations and if the
*note warnings: 10d. module was already imported.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26568

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567


File: python.info,  Node: winreg,  Next: winsound,  Prev: warnings<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.59 winreg
...............

Added the 64-bit integer type *note REG_QWORD: b70.  (Contributed by
Clement Rouault in bpo-23026(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026


File: python.info,  Node: winsound,  Next: xmlrpc client,  Prev: winreg,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.60 winsound
.................

Allowed keyword arguments to be passed to *note Beep: b72, *note
MessageBeep: b73, and *note PlaySound: b74. (bpo-27982(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc client,  Next: zipfile<3>,  Prev: winsound,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.61 xmlrpc.client
......................

The *note xmlrpc.client: 128. module now supports unmarshalling
additional data types used by the Apache XML-RPC implementation for
numerics and ‘None’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26885(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<3>,  Next: zlib,  Prev: xmlrpc client,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.62 zipfile
................

A new *note ZipInfo.from_file(): b77. class method allows making a *note
ZipInfo: b78. instance from a filesystem file.  A new *note
ZipInfo.is_dir(): b79. method can be used to check if the *note ZipInfo:
b78. instance represents a directory.  (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in
bpo-26039(1).)

The *note ZipFile.open(): b7a. method can now be used to write data into
a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data.  (Contributed by Thomas
Kluyver in bpo-26039(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039


File: python.info,  Node: zlib,  Prev: zipfile<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<7>

1.7.5.63 zlib
.............

The *note compress(): 43a. and *note decompress(): b7c. functions now
accept keyword arguments.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26243(1)
and Xiang Zhang in bpo-16764(2) respectively.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<7>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Prev: 改進的模組<7>,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.6 最佳化
------------

   * The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of
     bytecode which made a number of opcode optimizations possible.
     (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from Serhiy
     Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and bpo-28050(2).)

   * The *note asyncio.Future: a2e. class now has an optimized C
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in
     bpo-26081(3).)

   * The *note asyncio.Task: 203. class now has an optimized C
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28544(4).)

   * Various implementation improvements in the *note typing: ff. module
     (such as caching of generic types) allow up to 30 times performance
     improvements and reduced memory footprint.

   * The ASCII decoder is now up to 60 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘surrogateescape’, ‘ignore’ and ‘replace’ (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-24870(5)).

   * The ASCII and the Latin1 encoders are now up to 3 times as fast for
     the error handler ‘surrogateescape’ (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in bpo-25227(6)).

   * The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘ignore’, ‘replace’, ‘surrogateescape’, ‘surrogatepass’
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25267(7)).

   * The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘ignore’, ‘replace’ and ‘surrogateescape’ (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-25301(8)).

   * ‘bytes % args’ is now up to 2 times faster.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-25349(9)).

   * ‘bytearray % args’ is now between 2.5 and 5 times faster.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25399(10)).

   * Optimize *note bytes.fromhex(): 944. and *note bytearray.fromhex():
     945.: they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-25401(11)).

   * Optimize ‘bytes.replace(b'', b'.')’ and ‘bytearray.replace(b'',
     b'.')’: up to 80% faster.  (Contributed by Josh Snider in
     bpo-26574(12)).

   * Allocator functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace. domain (*note
     PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ad1.) now use the *note pymalloc memory
     allocator: b7e. instead of ‘malloc()’ function of the C library.
     The pymalloc allocator is optimized for objects smaller or equal to
     512 bytes with a short lifetime, and use ‘malloc()’ for larger
     memory blocks.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26249(13)).

   * *note pickle.load(): b7f. and *note pickle.loads(): b80. are now up
     to 10% faster when deserializing many small objects (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-27056(14)).

   * Passing *note keyword arguments: b81. to a function has an overhead
     in comparison with passing *note positional arguments: b82.  Now in
     extension functions implemented with using Argument Clinic this
     overhead is significantly decreased.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-27574(15)).

   * Optimized *note glob(): 628. and *note iglob(): 629. functions in
     the *note glob: 5f. module; they are now about 3-6 times faster.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25596(16)).

   * Optimized globbing in *note pathlib: 9f. by using *note
     os.scandir(): 8aa.; it is now about 1.5-4 times faster.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26032(17)).

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. parsing, iteration and deepcopy
     performance has been significantly improved.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25638(18), bpo-25873(19), and
     bpo-25869(20).)

   * Creation of *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. instances from floats
     and decimals is now 2 to 3 times faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-25971(21).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24870

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25638

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25873

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25869

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25971


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Next: Other Improvements,  Prev: 最佳化<7>,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.7 Build and C API Changes
-----------------------------

   * Python now requires some C99 support in the toolchain to build.
     Most notably, Python now uses standard integer types and macros in
     place of custom macros like ‘PY_LONG_LONG’.  For more information,
     see PEP 7(1) and bpo-17884(2).

   * Cross-compiling CPython with the Android NDK and the Android API
     level set to 21 (Android 5.0 Lollipop) or greater runs
     successfully.  While Android is not yet a supported platform, the
     Python test suite runs on the Android emulator with only about 16
     tests failures.  See the Android meta-issue bpo-26865(3).

   * The ‘--enable-optimizations’ configure flag has been added.
     Turning it on will activate expensive optimizations like PGO.
     (Original patch by Alecsandru Patrascu of Intel in bpo-26359(4).)

   * The *note GIL: 141. must now be held when allocator functions of
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: acf. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0.)
     and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ad1. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace.)
     domains are called.

   * New *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. API which indicates if flushing
     buffered data failed.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in
     bpo-5319(5).)

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85. now supports *note
     positional-only parameters: 8d1.  Positional-only parameters are
     defined by empty names.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-26282(6)).

   * ‘PyTraceback_Print’ method now abbreviates long sequences of
     repeated lines as ‘"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"’.
     (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(7).)

   * The new *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): b86. function allows
     for specifying a subclass of *note ImportError: 145. to raise.
     (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(8).)

   * The new *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): b87. function can be used to
     generate a *note ResourceWarning: aa3. providing the source of the
     resource allocation.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-26567(9).)

   * The new *note PyOS_FSPath(): b88. function returns the file system
     representation of a *note path-like object: 975.  (Contributed by
     Brett Cannon in bpo-27186(10).)

   * The *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): b89. and *note
     PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 306. functions will now accept *note
     path-like objects: 975.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26865

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186


File: python.info,  Node: Other Improvements,  Next: 已棄用<9>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.8 Other Improvements
------------------------

   * When *note -version: b8b. (short form: *note -V: b8c.) is supplied
     twice, Python prints *note sys.version: b8d. for detailed
     information.

          $ ./python -VV
          Python 3.6.0b4+ (3.6:223967b49e49+, Nov 21 2016, 20:55:04)
          [GCC 4.2.1 Compatible Apple LLVM 8.0.0 (clang-800.0.42.1)]


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用<9>,  Next: 已移除<7>,  Prev: Other Improvements,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.9 已棄用
------------

* Menu:

* 新關鍵字::
* Deprecated Python behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>.
* xml: xml<5>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>.
* Deprecated Build Options::


File: python.info,  Node: 新關鍵字,  Next: Deprecated Python behavior,  Up: 已棄用<9>

1.7.9.1 新關鍵字
................

‘async’ and ‘await’ are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
function or module names.  Introduced by PEP 492(1) in Python 3.5, they
will become proper keywords in Python 3.7.  Starting in Python 3.6, the
use of ‘async’ or ‘await’ as names will generate a *note
DeprecationWarning: 179.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python behavior,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Prev: 新關鍵字,  Up: 已棄用<9>

1.7.9.2 Deprecated Python behavior
..................................

Raising the *note StopIteration: a5d. exception inside a generator will
now generate a *note DeprecationWarning: 179, and will trigger a *note
RuntimeError: 17a. in Python 3.7.  See *note PEP 479; Change
StopIteration handling inside generators: b91. for details.

The ‘__aiter__()’ method is now expected to return an asynchronous
iterator directly instead of returning an awaitable as previously.
Doing the former will trigger a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  Backward
compatibility will be removed in Python 3.7.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-27243(1).)

A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now
generates a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  Although this will
eventually become a *note SyntaxError: 146, that will not be for several
Python releases.  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-27364(2).)

When performing a relative import, falling back on ‘__name__’ and
‘__path__’ from the calling module when ‘__spec__’ or ‘__package__’ are
not defined now raises an *note ImportWarning: 247.  (Contributed by
Rose Ames in bpo-25791(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Next: xml<5>,  Prev: Deprecated Python behavior,  Up: 已棄用<9>

1.7.9.3 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
........................................................

* Menu:

* asynchat::
* asyncore::
* dbm: dbm<3>.
* distutils: distutils<6>.
* grp::
* importlib: importlib<6>.
* os: os<8>.
* re: re<4>.
* ssl: ssl<7>.
* tkinter: tkinter<6>.
* venv: venv<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat,  Next: asyncore,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.4 asynchat
................

The ‘asynchat’ has been deprecated in favor of *note asyncio: 9.
(Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore,  Next: dbm<3>,  Prev: asynchat,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.5 asyncore
................

The ‘asyncore’ has been deprecated in favor of *note asyncio: 9.
(Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<3>,  Next: distutils<6>,  Prev: asyncore,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.6 dbm
...........

Unlike other *note dbm: 2f. implementations, the *note dbm.dumb: 30.
module creates databases with the ‘'rw'’ mode and allows modifying the
database opened with the ‘'r'’ mode.  This behavior is now deprecated
and will be removed in 3.8.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-21708(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<6>,  Next: grp,  Prev: dbm<3>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.7 distutils
.................

The undocumented ‘extra_path’ argument to the ‘distutils.Distribution’
constructor is now considered deprecated and will raise a warning if
set.  Support for this parameter will be removed in a future Python
release.  See bpo-27919(1) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919


File: python.info,  Node: grp,  Next: importlib<6>,  Prev: distutils<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.8 grp
...........

The support of non-integer arguments in *note getgrgid(): b98. has been
deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26129(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26129


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<6>,  Next: os<8>,  Prev: grp,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.9 importlib
.................

The *note importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module(): b9a. and
*note importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module(): b9b.
methods are now deprecated.  They were the only remaining
implementations of *note importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 695. in
*note importlib: 71. that had not been deprecated in previous versions
of Python in favour of *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 696.

The *note importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: b9c. class is now
deprecated.  As of 3.6.0, it is still added to *note sys.meta_path: b9d.
by default (on Windows), but this may change in future releases.


File: python.info,  Node: os<8>,  Next: re<4>,  Prev: importlib<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.10 os
...........

Undocumented support of general *note bytes-like objects: b9f. as paths
in *note os: 9c. functions, *note compile(): 554. and similar functions
is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25791(1) and
bpo-26754(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: re<4>,  Next: ssl<7>,  Prev: os<8>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.11 re
...........

Support for inline flags ‘(?letters)’ in the middle of the regular
expression has been deprecated and will be removed in a future Python
version.  Flags at the start of a regular expression are still allowed.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22493(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<7>,  Next: tkinter<6>,  Prev: re<4>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.12 ssl
............

OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and no longer supported.
In the future the *note ssl: ca. module will require at least OpenSSL
1.0.2 or 1.1.0.

SSL-related arguments like ‘certfile’, ‘keyfile’ and ‘check_hostname’ in
*note ftplib: 59, *note http.client: 6a, *note imaplib: 6f, *note
poplib: a7, and *note smtplib: c4. have been deprecated in favor of
‘context’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022(1).)

A couple of protocols and functions of the *note ssl: ca. module are now
deprecated.  Some features will no longer be available in future
versions of OpenSSL. Other features are deprecated in favor of a
different API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022(2) and
bpo-26470(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<6>,  Next: venv<5>,  Prev: ssl<7>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.13 tkinter
................

The *note tkinter.tix: f3. module is now deprecated.  *note tkinter: ea.
users should use *note tkinter.ttk: f4. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: venv<5>,  Prev: tkinter<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.14 venv
.............

The ‘pyvenv’ script has been deprecated in favour of ‘python3 -m venv’.
This prevents confusion as to what Python interpreter ‘pyvenv’ is
connected to and thus what Python interpreter will be used by the
virtual environment.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25154(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154


File: python.info,  Node: xml<5>,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Up: 已棄用<9>

1.7.9.15 xml
............

   * As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 11d. and *note xml.sax: 124. modules no longer
     process external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes in gh-61441(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Next: Deprecated Build Options,  Prev: xml<5>,  Up: 已棄用<9>

1.7.9.16 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
....................................................

Undocumented functions ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’,
‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’ and
‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’ are deprecated now.  Use the *note
generic codec based API: ba7. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Build Options,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Up: 已棄用<9>

1.7.9.17 Deprecated Build Options
.................................

The ‘--with-system-ffi’ configure flag is now on by default on non-macOS
UNIX platforms.  It may be disabled by using ‘--without-system-ffi’, but
using the flag is deprecated and will not be accepted in Python 3.7.
macOS is unaffected by this change.  Note that many OS distributors
already use the ‘--with-system-ffi’ flag when building their system
Python.


File: python.info,  Node: 已移除<7>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 6,  Prev: 已棄用<9>,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.10 已移除
-------------

* Menu:

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<3>,  Up: 已移除<7>

1.7.10.1 API and Feature Removals
.................................

   * Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter in regular
     expressions will now cause an error.  In replacement templates for
     *note re.sub(): 201. they are still allowed, but deprecated.  The
     *note re.LOCALE: 9c8. flag can now only be used with binary
     patterns.

   * ‘inspect.getmoduleinfo()’ was removed (was deprecated since CPython
     3.3).  *note inspect.getmodulename(): bab. should be used for
     obtaining the module name for a given path.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-13248(1).)

   * ‘traceback.Ignore’ class and ‘traceback.usage’,
     ‘traceback.modname’, ‘traceback.fullmodname’,
     ‘traceback.find_lines_from_code’, ‘traceback.find_lines’,
     ‘traceback.find_strings’, ‘traceback.find_executable_lines’ methods
     were removed from the *note traceback: f9. module.  They were
     undocumented methods deprecated since Python 3.2 and equivalent
     functionality is available from private methods.

   * The ‘tk_menuBar()’ and ‘tk_bindForTraversal()’ dummy methods in
     *note tkinter: ea. widget classes were removed (corresponding Tk
     commands were obsolete since Tk 4.0).

   * The *note open(): b7a. method of the *note zipfile.ZipFile: 4c3.
     class no longer supports the ‘'U'’ mode (was deprecated since
     Python 3.4).  Use *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. for reading
     compressed text files in *note universal newlines: bac. mode.

   * The undocumented ‘IN’, ‘CDROM’, ‘DLFCN’, ‘TYPES’, ‘CDIO’, and
     ‘STROPTS’ modules have been removed.  They had been available in
     the platform specific ‘Lib/plat-*/’ directories, but were
     chronically out of date, inconsistently available across platforms,
     and unmaintained.  The script that created these modules is still
     available in the source distribution at Tools/scripts/h2py.py(2).

   * The deprecated ‘asynchat.fifo’ class has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.6.15/Tools/scripts/h2py.py


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 6,  Next: Python 3 6 2 中顯著的變更,  Prev: 已移除<7>,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.11 Porting to Python 3.6
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in 'python' Command Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<5>.
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<5>.
* CPython 位元組碼變更: CPython 位元組碼變更<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior,  Next: Changes in the Python API<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.7.11.1 Changes in 'python' Command Behavior
.............................................

   * The output of a special Python build with defined ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’,
     ‘SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT’ or ‘SHOW_TRACK_COUNT’ macros is now off by
     default.  It can be re-enabled using the ‘-X showalloccount’
     option.  It now outputs to ‘stderr’ instead of ‘stdout’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23034(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<5>,  Next: C API 中的改動<5>,  Prev: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.7.11.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * *note open(): 29c. will no longer allow combining the ‘'U'’ mode
     flag with ‘'+'’.  (Contributed by Jeff Balogh and John O'Connor in
     bpo-2091(1).)

   * *note sqlite3: c9. no longer implicitly commits an open transaction
     before DDL statements.

   * On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 2a3. now blocks until the system
     urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.

   * When *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 696. is defined,
     *note importlib.abc.Loader.create_module(): b1b. must also be
     defined.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): bb0. now sets *note TypeError: 2ba.
     when its 'msg' argument is not set.  Previously only ‘NULL’ was
     returned.

   * The format of the *note co_lnotab: 249. attribute of code objects
     changed to support a negative line number delta.  By default,
     Python does not emit bytecode with a negative line number delta.
     Functions using *note frame.f_lineno: 5c9,
     ‘PyFrame_GetLineNumber()’ or ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ are not affected.
     Functions directly decoding ‘co_lnotab’ should be updated to use a
     signed 8-bit integer type for the line number delta, but this is
     only required to support applications using a negative line number
     delta.  See ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’ for the ‘co_lnotab’ format
     and how to decode it, and see the PEP 511(2) for the rationale.

   * The functions in the *note compileall: 1e. module now return
     booleans instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’ to represent success or failure,
     respectively.  Thanks to booleans being a subclass of integers,
     this should only be an issue if you were doing identity checks for
     ‘1’ or ‘0’.  See bpo-25768(3).

   * Reading the ‘port’ attribute of *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): bb1.
     and *note urlparse(): 27c. results now raises *note ValueError:
     183. for out-of-range values, rather than returning *note None:
     470.  See bpo-20059(4).

   * The ‘imp’ module now raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.

   * The following modules have had missing APIs added to their
     ‘__all__’ attributes to match the documented APIs: *note calendar:
     12, *note cgi: 13, *note csv: 27, *note ElementTree: 120, *note
     enum: 51, *note fileinput: 56, *note ftplib: 59, *note logging: 82,
     *note mailbox: 86, *note mimetypes: 8a, *note optparse: 9b, *note
     plistlib: a6, ‘smtpd’, *note subprocess: d0, *note tarfile: d8,
     *note threading: e7. and *note wave: 10e.  This means they will
     export new symbols when ‘import *’ is used.  (Contributed by Joel
     Taddei and Jacek Kołodziej in bpo-23883(5).)

   * When performing a relative import, if ‘__package__’ does not
     compare equal to ‘__spec__.parent’ then *note ImportWarning: 247.
     is raised.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25791(6).)

   * When a relative import is performed and no parent package is known,
     then *note ImportError: 145. will be raised.  Previously, *note
     SystemError: 304. could be raised.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-18018(7).)

   * Servers based on the *note socketserver: c7. module, including
     those defined in *note http.server: 6d, *note xmlrpc.server: 129.
     and *note wsgiref.simple_server: 116, now only catch exceptions
     derived from *note Exception: 81e.  Therefore if a request handler
     raises an exception like *note SystemExit: bb2. or *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 815, *note handle_error(): bb3. is no longer
     called, and the exception will stop a single-threaded server.
     (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-23430(8).)

   * *note spwd.getspnam(): bb4. now raises a *note PermissionError:
     bb5. instead of *note KeyError: 8ed. if the user doesn't have
     privileges.

   * The *note socket.socket.close(): bb6. method now raises an
     exception if an error (e.g.  ‘EBADF’) was reported by the
     underlying system call.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in
     bpo-26685(9).)

   * The 'decode_data' argument for the ‘smtpd.SMTPChannel’ and
     ‘smtpd.SMTPServer’ constructors is now ‘False’ by default.  This
     means that the argument passed to ‘process_message()’ is now a
     bytes object by default, and ‘process_message()’ will be passed
     keyword arguments.  Code that has already been updated in
     accordance with the deprecation warning generated by 3.5 will not
     be affected.

   * All optional arguments of the *note dump(): bb7, *note dumps():
     bb8, *note load(): b21. and *note loads(): 796. functions and *note
     JSONEncoder: bb9. and *note JSONDecoder: bba. class constructors in
     the *note json: 7c. module are now *note keyword-only: 8d6.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18726(10).)

   * Subclasses of *note type: bbb. which don't override ‘type.__new__’
     may no longer use the one-argument form to get the type of an
     object.

   * As part of PEP 487(11), the handling of keyword arguments passed to
     *note type: bbb. (other than the metaclass hint, ‘metaclass’) is
     now consistently delegated to *note object.__init_subclass__():
     42c.  This means that ‘type.__new__()’ and ‘type.__init__()’ both
     now accept arbitrary keyword arguments, but *note
     object.__init_subclass__(): 42c. (which is called from
     ‘type.__new__()’) will reject them by default.  Custom metaclasses
     accepting additional keyword arguments will need to adjust their
     calls to ‘type.__new__()’ (whether direct or via *note super: 206.)
     accordingly.

   * In ‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’, the ‘default_format’ attribute
     has been removed and is no longer honored.  Instead, the gzipped
     tarfile format is the default on all platforms and no
     platform-specific selection is made.  In environments where
     distributions are built on Windows and zip distributions are
     required, configure the project with a ‘setup.cfg’ file containing
     the following:

          [sdist]
          formats=zip

     This behavior has also been backported to earlier Python versions
     by Setuptools 26.0.0.

   * In the *note urllib.request: 106. module and the *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.request(): b16. method, if no
     Content-Length header field has been specified and the request body
     is a file object, it is now sent with HTTP 1.1 chunked encoding.
     If a file object has to be sent to a HTTP 1.0 server, the
     Content-Length value now has to be specified by the caller.
     (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl with tweaks from
     Martin Panter in bpo-12319(12).)

   * The *note DictReader: 82a. now returns rows of type *note
     OrderedDict: 3ce.  (Contributed by Steve Holden in bpo-27842(13).)

   * The *note crypt.METHOD_CRYPT: bbc. will no longer be added to
     ‘crypt.methods’ if unsupported by the platform.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-25287(14).)

   * The 'verbose' and 'rename' arguments for *note namedtuple(): 731.
     are now keyword-only.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     bpo-25628(15).)

   * On Linux, *note ctypes.util.find_library(): bbd. now looks in
     ‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’ for shared libraries.  (Contributed by Vinay
     Sajip in bpo-9998(16).)

   * The *note imaplib.IMAP4: 73e. class now handles flags containing
     the ‘']'’ character in messages sent from the server to improve
     real-world compatibility.  (Contributed by Lita Cho in
     bpo-21815(17).)

   * The ‘mmap.write()’ function now returns the number of bytes written
     like other write methods.  (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in
     bpo-26335(18).)

   * The *note pkgutil.iter_modules(): bbe. and *note
     pkgutil.walk_packages(): a62. functions now return *note
     ModuleInfo: bbf. named tuples.  (Contributed by Ramchandra Apte in
     bpo-17211(19).)

   * *note re.sub(): 201. now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group references in replacement templates even if the pattern is
     not found in the string.  The error message for invalid group
     references now includes the group index and the position of the
     reference.  (Contributed by SilentGhost, Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-25953(20).)

   * *note zipfile.ZipFile: 4c3. will now raise *note
     NotImplementedError: bc0. for unrecognized compression values.
     Previously a plain *note RuntimeError: 17a. was raised.
     Additionally, calling *note ZipFile: 4c3. methods on a closed
     ZipFile or calling the *note write(): bc1. method on a ZipFile
     created with mode ‘'r'’ will raise a *note ValueError: 183.
     Previously, a *note RuntimeError: 17a. was raised in those
     scenarios.

   * when custom metaclasses are combined with zero-argument *note
     super(): 206. or direct references from methods to the implicit
     ‘__class__’ closure variable, the implicit ‘__classcell__’
     namespace entry must now be passed up to ‘type.__new__’ for
     initialisation.  Failing to do so will result in a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179. in Python 3.6 and a *note RuntimeError:
     17a. in Python 3.8.

   * With the introduction of *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f, import
     system consumers may start expecting import system replacements to
     raise that more specific exception when appropriate, rather than
     the less-specific *note ImportError: 145.  To provide future
     compatibility with such consumers, implementers of alternative
     import systems that completely replace *note __import__(): 70d.
     will need to update their implementations to raise the new subclass
     when a module can't be found at all.  Implementers of compliant
     plugins to the default import system shouldn't need to make any
     changes, as the default import system will raise the new subclass
     when appropriate.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2091

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0511/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25768

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23430

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26685

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25287

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21815

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26335

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17211

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953


File: python.info,  Node: C API 中的改動<5>,  Next: CPython 位元組碼變更<7>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.7.11.3 C API 中的改動
.......................

   * The *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace. allocator family now uses the *note
     pymalloc allocator: b7e. rather than the system ‘malloc()’.
     Applications calling *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace. without holding the
     GIL can now crash.  Set the *note PYTHONMALLOC: acc. environment
     variable to ‘debug’ to validate the usage of memory allocators in
     your application.  See bpo-26249(1).

   * *note Py_Exit(): bc3. (and the main interpreter) now override the
     exit status with 120 if flushing buffered data failed.  See
     bpo-5319(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 位元組碼變更<7>,  Prev: C API 中的改動<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.7.11.4 CPython 位元組碼變更
.............................

There have been several major changes to the *note bytecode: 39f. in
Python 3.6.

   * The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of
     bytecode.  (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from
     Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and
     bpo-28050(2).)

   * The new *note FORMAT_VALUE: bc5. and *note BUILD_STRING: bc6.
     opcodes as part of the *note formatted string literal: a94.
     implementation.  (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-25483(3) and
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27078(4).)

   * The new *note BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP: bc7. opcode to optimize the
     creation of dictionaries with constant keys.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27140(5).)

   * The function call opcodes have been heavily reworked for better
     performance and simpler implementation.  The *note MAKE_FUNCTION:
     bc8, ‘CALL_FUNCTION’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’ and
     ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ opcodes have been modified, the new
     *note CALL_FUNCTION_EX: bc9. and ‘BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’
     have been added, and ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR_KW’
     and ‘MAKE_CLOSURE’ opcodes have been removed.  (Contributed by
     Demur Rumed in bpo-27095(6), and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27213(7),
     bpo-28257(8).)

   * The new *note SETUP_ANNOTATIONS: bca. and ‘STORE_ANNOTATION’
     opcodes have been added to support the new *note variable
     annotation: bcb. syntax.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in
     bpo-27985(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25483

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 6 4 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 6,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.12 Python 3.6.2 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* New make regen-all build target::
* Removal of make touch build target::


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target,  Next: Removal of make touch build target,  Up: Python 3 6 2 中顯著的變更

1.7.12.1 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
..........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

（由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-23404(2) 中貢獻。）

在 3.6.2 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target,  Prev: New make regen-all build target,  Up: Python 3 6 2 中顯著的變更

1.7.12.2 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
.............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

（由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-23404(1) 中貢獻。）

在 3.6.2 版的變更.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 4 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 6 5 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.13 Python 3.6.4 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton that was part of the public API
has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
during finalization of the interpreter.  (Contributed by Xavier de Gaye
in bpo-22898(1) and bpo-30697(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 5 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 6 7 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 6 4 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.14 Python 3.6.5 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

The *note locale.localeconv(): a61. function now sets temporarily the
‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale in some cases.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 7 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 6 10 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 6 5 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.15 Python 3.6.7 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

*note xml.dom.minidom: 11d. and *note xml.sax: 124. modules no longer
process external entities by default.  See also gh-61441(1).

In 3.6.7 the *note tokenize: f6. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’
token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.
This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
(Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 10 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 6 13 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 6 7 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.16 Python 3.6.10 中顯著的變更
---------------------------------

Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of
*note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543. is no longer
supported.  This is because of the behavior of the socket option
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 13 中顯著的變更,  Next: Python 3 6 14 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 6 10 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.17 Python 3.6.13 中顯著的變更
---------------------------------

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 682. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 683.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
*note cgi.parse(): 684. and *note cgi.parse_multipart(): 685. as they
use the affected functions internally.  For more details, please see
their respective documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt,
Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 14 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Python 3 6 13 中顯著的變更,  Up: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能

1.7.18 Python 3.6.14 中顯著的變更
---------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 735. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped
from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 105. preventing such
attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new module level
variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>,  Prev: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.8 Python 3.4 有什麼新功能
===========================


編輯者: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>, Yury Selivanov
<<yury@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.5, compared to 3.4.
Python 3.5 was released on September 13, 2015.   See the changelog(1)
for a full list of changes.

也參考
......

PEP 478(2) - Python 3.5 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights<4>. Release highlights
* New Features: New Features<6>.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<8>.
* 新增模組: 新增模組<4>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<8>.
* Other module-level changes::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<8>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>.
* 已棄用: 已棄用<10>.
* 已移除: 已移除<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.5: Porting to Python 3 5.
* Python 3.5.4 中顯著的變更: Python 3 5 4 中顯著的變更.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.5/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0478/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary -- Release highlights<4>,  Next: New Features<6>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.1 Summary - Release highlights
----------------------------------

新增語法特性：

   * *note PEP 492: bd8, coroutines with async and await syntax.

   * *note PEP 465: bd9, a new matrix multiplication operator: ‘a @ b’.

   * *note PEP 448: bda, additional unpacking generalizations.

New library modules:

   * *note typing: ff.: *note PEP 484 - Type Hints: bdb.

   * *note zipapp: 12a.: *note PEP 441 Improving Python ZIP Application
     Support: bdc.

新的內建功能

   * ‘bytes % args’, ‘bytearray % args’: *note PEP 461: bdd. - Adding
     ‘%’ formatting to bytes and bytearray.

   * New *note bytes.hex(): bde, *note bytearray.hex(): bdf. and *note
     memoryview.hex(): be0. methods.  (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in
     bpo-9951(1).)

   * *note memoryview: 17f. now supports tuple indexing (including
     multi-dimensional).  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-23632(2).)

   * Generators have a new ‘gi_yieldfrom’ attribute, which returns the
     object being iterated by ‘yield from’ expressions.  (Contributed by
     Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov in bpo-24450(3).)

   * A new *note RecursionError: be1. exception is now raised when
     maximum recursion depth is reached.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl
     in bpo-19235(4).)

CPython 實作改進：

   * When the ‘LC_TYPE’ locale is the POSIX locale (‘C’ locale), *note
     sys.stdin: 2bf. and *note sys.stdout: 92a. now use the
     ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, instead of the ‘strict’ error
     handler.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-19977(5).)

   * ‘.pyo’ files are no longer used and have been replaced by a more
     flexible scheme that includes the optimization level explicitly in
     ‘.pyc’ name.  (See *note PEP 488 overview: be2.)

   * Builtin and extension modules are now initialized in a multi-phase
     process, which is similar to how Python modules are loaded.  (See
     *note PEP 489 overview: be3.)

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * *note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce. is now *note implemented in C:
     be4, which makes it 4 to 100 times faster.

   * The *note ssl: ca. module gained *note support for Memory BIO: be5,
     which decouples SSL protocol handling from network IO.

   * The new *note os.scandir(): 8aa. function provides a *note better
     and significantly faster way: be6. of directory traversal.

   * *note functools.lru_cache(): 834. has been mostly *note
     reimplemented in C: be7, yielding much better performance.

   * The new *note subprocess.run(): 9e5. function provides a *note
     streamlined way to run subprocesses: be8.

   * The *note traceback: f9. module has been significantly *note
     enhanced: be9. for improved performance and developer convenience.

安全性改進：

   * SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard library.  It can
     still be enabled by instantiating a *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f.
     manually.  (See bpo-22638(6) for more details; this change was
     backported to CPython 3.4 and 2.7.)

   * HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to protect against
     potential injection attacks.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-22796(7).)

Windows improvements:

   * A new installer for Windows has replaced the old MSI. See *note 在
     Windows 上使用 Python: 8fa. for more information.

   * Windows builds now use Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, and extension
     modules should use the same.

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes,
including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations,
deprecations, and potential porting issues.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19977

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22638

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22796


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<6>,  Next: 其他語言更動<8>,  Prev: Summary -- Release highlights<4>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax::
* PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication::
* PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations::
* PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray::
* PEP 484 - Type Hints::
* PEP 471 - os.scandir() function: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator. a better and faster directory iterator
* PEP 475; Retry system calls failing with EINTR: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
* PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
* PEP 485; A function for testing approximate equality: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
* PEP 486; Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
* PEP 488; Elimination of PYO files: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
* PEP 489; Multi-phase extension module initialization: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax,  Next: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.1 PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax
........................................................

PEP 492(1) greatly improves support for asynchronous programming in
Python by adding *note awaitable objects: ae0, *note coroutine
functions: bec, *note asynchronous iteration: bed, and *note
asynchronous context managers: 3c7.

Coroutine functions are declared using the new *note async def: 3c3.
syntax:

     >>> async def coro():
     ...     return 'spam'

Inside a coroutine function, the new *note await: 542. expression can be
used to suspend coroutine execution until the result is available.  Any
object can be 'awaited', as long as it implements the *note awaitable:
ae0. protocol by defining the ‘__await__()’ method.

PEP 492 also adds *note async for: 8fe. statement for convenient
iteration over asynchronous iterables.

An example of a rudimentary HTTP client written using the new syntax:

     import asyncio

     async def http_get(domain):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(domain, 80)

         writer.write(b'\r\n'.join([
             b'GET / HTTP/1.1',
             b'Host: %b' % domain.encode('latin-1'),
             b'Connection: close',
             b'', b''
         ]))

         async for line in reader:
             print('>>>', line)

         writer.close()

     loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(http_get('example.com'))
     finally:
         loop.close()

Similarly to asynchronous iteration, there is a new syntax for
asynchronous context managers.  The following script:

     import asyncio

     async def coro(name, lock):
         print('coro {}: waiting for lock'.format(name))
         async with lock:
             print('coro {}: holding the lock'.format(name))
             await asyncio.sleep(1)
             print('coro {}: releasing the lock'.format(name))

     loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
     lock = asyncio.Lock()
     coros = asyncio.gather(coro(1, lock), coro(2, lock))
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(coros)
     finally:
         loop.close()

will output:

     coro 2: waiting for lock
     coro 2: holding the lock
     coro 1: waiting for lock
     coro 2: releasing the lock
     coro 1: holding the lock
     coro 1: releasing the lock

Note that both *note async for: 8fe. and *note async with: 3c8. can only
be used inside a coroutine function declared with *note async def: 3c3.

Coroutine functions are intended to be run inside a compatible event
loop, such as the *note asyncio loop: bee.

     備註: 
     在 3.5.2 版的變更: Starting with CPython 3.5.2, ‘__aiter__’ can
     directly return *note asynchronous iterators: bef.  Returning an
     *note awaitable: ae0. object will result in a *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.

     See more details in the *note Asynchronous Iterators: bf0.
     documentation section.

也參考
......

PEP 492(2) - Coroutines with async and await syntax

     由 Yury Selivanov 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Next: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Prev: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.2 PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication
......................................................................

PEP 465(1) adds the ‘@’ infix operator for matrix multiplication.
Currently, no builtin Python types implement the new operator, however,
it can be implemented by defining ‘__matmul__()’, ‘__rmatmul__()’, and
‘__imatmul__()’ for regular, reflected, and in-place matrix
multiplication.  The semantics of these methods is similar to that of
methods defining other infix arithmetic operators.

Matrix multiplication is a notably common operation in many fields of
mathematics, science, engineering, and the addition of ‘@’ allows
writing cleaner code:

     S = (H @ beta - r).T @ inv(H @ V @ H.T) @ (H @ beta - r)

instead of:

     S = dot((dot(H, beta) - r).T,
             dot(inv(dot(dot(H, V), H.T)), dot(H, beta) - r))

NumPy 1.10 has support for the new operator:

     >>> import numpy

     >>> x = numpy.ones(3)
     >>> x
     array([ 1., 1., 1.])

     >>> m = numpy.eye(3)
     >>> m
     array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
            [ 0., 1., 0.],
            [ 0., 0., 1.]])

     >>> x @ m
     array([ 1., 1., 1.])

也參考
......

PEP 465(2) - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication

     由 Nathaniel J. Smith 撰寫 PEP；由 Benjamin Peterson 實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Next: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Prev: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.3 PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations
......................................................

PEP 448(1) extends the allowed uses of the ‘*’ iterable unpacking
operator and ‘**’ dictionary unpacking operator.  It is now possible to
use an arbitrary number of unpackings in *note function calls: bf3.:

     >>> print(*[1], *[2], 3, *[4, 5])
     1 2 3 4 5

     >>> def fn(a, b, c, d):
     ...     print(a, b, c, d)
     ...

     >>> fn(**{'a': 1, 'c': 3}, **{'b': 2, 'd': 4})
     1 2 3 4

Similarly, tuple, list, set, and dictionary displays allow multiple
unpackings (see *note Expression lists: bf4. and *note Dictionary
displays: bf5.):

     >>> *range(4), 4
     (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)

     >>> [*range(4), 4]
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

     >>> {*range(4), 4, *(5, 6, 7)}
     {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

     >>> {'x': 1, **{'y': 2}}
     {'x': 1, 'y': 2}

也參考
......

PEP 448(2) - Additional Unpacking Generalizations

     PEP written by Joshua Landau; implemented by Neil Girdhar, Thomas
     Wouters, and Joshua Landau.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Next: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Prev: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.4 PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray
....................................................................

PEP 461(1) adds support for the ‘%’ *note interpolation operator: bf7.
to *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0.

While interpolation is usually thought of as a string operation, there
are cases where interpolation on ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearrays’ makes sense,
and the work needed to make up for this missing functionality detracts
from the overall readability of the code.  This issue is particularly
important when dealing with wire format protocols, which are often a
mixture of binary and ASCII compatible text.

範例：

     >>> b'Hello %b!' % b'World'
     b'Hello World!'

     >>> b'x=%i y=%f' % (1, 2.5)
     b'x=1 y=2.500000'

Unicode is not allowed for ‘%b’, but it is accepted by ‘%a’ (equivalent
of ‘repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')’):

     >>> b'Hello %b!' % 'World'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: %b requires bytes, or an object that implements __bytes__, not 'str'

     >>> b'price: %a' % '10€'
     b"price: '10\\u20ac'"

Note that ‘%s’ and ‘%r’ conversion types, although supported, should
only be used in codebases that need compatibility with Python 2.

也參考
......

PEP 461(2) - Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray

     PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Neil Schemenauer and
     Ethan Furman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Next: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator,  Prev: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.5 PEP 484 - Type Hints
............................

Function annotation syntax has been a Python feature since version 3.0 (
PEP 3107(1)), however the semantics of annotations has been left
undefined.

Experience has shown that the majority of function annotation uses were
to provide type hints to function parameters and return values.  It
became evident that it would be beneficial for Python users, if the
standard library included the base definitions and tools for type
annotations.

PEP 484(2) introduces a *note provisional module: 958. to provide these
standard definitions and tools, along with some conventions for
situations where annotations are not available.

For example, here is a simple function whose argument and return type
are declared in the annotations:

     def greeting(name: str) -> str:
         return 'Hello ' + name

While these annotations are available at runtime through the usual
‘__annotations__’ attribute, 'no automatic type checking happens at
runtime'.  Instead, it is assumed that a separate off-line type checker
(e.g.  mypy(3)) will be used for on-demand source code analysis.

The type system supports unions, generic types, and a special type named
*note Any: 4a9. which is consistent with (i.e.  assignable to and from)
all types.

也參考
......

   * *note typing: ff. 模組文件

   * 
     PEP 484(4) - Type Hints

          PEP written by Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, and Łukasz
          Langa; implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   * 
     PEP 483(5) - The Theory of Type Hints

          由 Guido van Rossum 撰寫 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://mypy-lang.org

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator,  Next: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Prev: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.6 PEP 471 - os.scandir() function - a better and faster directory iterator
................................................................................

PEP 471(1) adds a new directory iteration function, *note os.scandir():
8aa, to the standard library.  Additionally, *note os.walk(): 1cb. is
now implemented using ‘scandir’, which makes it 3 to 5 times faster on
POSIX systems and 7 to 20 times faster on Windows systems.  This is
largely achieved by greatly reducing the number of calls to *note
os.stat(): 1bf. required to walk a directory tree.

Additionally, ‘scandir’ returns an iterator, as opposed to returning a
list of file names, which improves memory efficiency when iterating over
very large directories.

The following example shows a simple use of *note os.scandir(): 8aa. to
display all the files (excluding directories) in the given 'path' that
don't start with ‘'.'’.  The *note entry.is_file(): bfa. call will
generally not make an additional system call:

     for entry in os.scandir(path):
         if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
             print(entry.name)

也參考
......

PEP 471(2) - os.scandir() function - a better and faster directory iterator

     在 Victor Stinner 協助下由 Ben Hoyt 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Next: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Prev: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.7 PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR
......................................................

An *note errno.EINTR: bfd. error code is returned whenever a system
call, that is waiting for I/O, is interrupted by a signal.  Previously,
Python would raise *note InterruptedError: bfe. in such cases.  This
meant that, when writing a Python application, the developer had two
choices:

  1. Ignore the ‘InterruptedError’.

  2. Handle the ‘InterruptedError’ and attempt to restart the
     interrupted system call at every call site.

The first option makes an application fail intermittently.  The second
option adds a large amount of boilerplate that makes the code nearly
unreadable.  Compare:

     print("Hello World")

和：

     while True:
         try:
             print("Hello World")
             break
         except InterruptedError:
             continue

PEP 475(1) implements automatic retry of system calls on ‘EINTR’.  This
removes the burden of dealing with ‘EINTR’ or *note InterruptedError:
bfe. in user code in most situations and makes Python programs,
including the standard library, more robust.  Note that the system call
is only retried if the signal handler does not raise an exception.

Below is a list of functions which are now retried when interrupted by a
signal:

   * *note open(): 29c. 和 *note io.open(): 29d.；

   * *note faulthandler: 53. 模組的函式；

   * *note os: 9c. functions: *note fchdir(): bff, *note fchmod(): c00,
     *note fchown(): c01, *note fdatasync(): c02, *note fstat(): c03,
     *note fstatvfs(): c04, *note fsync(): c05, *note ftruncate(): c06,
     *note mkfifo(): c07, *note mknod(): c08, *note open(): c09, *note
     posix_fadvise(): c0a, *note posix_fallocate(): c0b, *note pread():
     9ba, *note pwrite(): 9bd, *note read(): c0c, *note readv(): 9b9,
     *note sendfile(): 964, *note wait3(): c0d, *note wait4(): c0e,
     *note wait(): c0f, *note waitid(): c10, *note waitpid(): c11, *note
     write(): c12, *note writev(): 9bc.;

   * special cases: *note os.close(): 9d1. and *note os.dup2(): 9be. now
     ignore *note EINTR: bfd. errors; the syscall is not retried (see
     the PEP for the rationale);

   * *note select: bc. functions: *note devpoll.poll(): c13, *note
     epoll.poll(): c14, *note kqueue.control(): c15, *note poll.poll():
     c16, *note select(): c17.;

   * methods of the *note socket: c18. class: *note accept(): c19, *note
     connect(): c1a. (except for non-blocking sockets), *note recv():
     c1b, *note recvfrom(): c1c, *note recvmsg(): c1d, *note send():
     c1e, *note sendall(): c1f, *note sendmsg(): 191, *note sendto():
     c20.;

   * *note signal.sigtimedwait(): c21. 和 *note signal.sigwaitinfo():
     c22.；

   * *note time.sleep(): 499.。

也參考
......

PEP 475(2) - Retry system calls failing with EINTR

     PEP and implementation written by Charles-François Natali and
     Victor Stinner, with the help of Antoine Pitrou (the French
     connection).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Next: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Prev: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.8 PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators
................................................................

The interaction of generators and *note StopIteration: a5d. in Python
3.4 and earlier was sometimes surprising, and could conceal obscure
bugs.  Previously, ‘StopIteration’ raised accidentally inside a
generator function was interpreted as the end of the iteration by the
loop construct driving the generator.

PEP 479(1) changes the behavior of generators: when a ‘StopIteration’
exception is raised inside a generator, it is replaced with a *note
RuntimeError: 17a. before it exits the generator frame.  The main goal
of this change is to ease debugging in the situation where an unguarded
*note next(): 5f8. call raises ‘StopIteration’ and causes the iteration
controlled by the generator to terminate silently.  This is particularly
pernicious in combination with the ‘yield from’ construct.

This is a backwards incompatible change, so to enable the new behavior,
a *note __future__: c24. import is necessary:

     >>> from __future__ import generator_stop

     >>> def gen():
     ...     next(iter([]))
     ...     yield
     ...
     >>> next(gen())
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in gen
     StopIteration

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     RuntimeError: generator raised StopIteration

Without a ‘__future__’ import, a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.
will be raised whenever a *note StopIteration: a5d. exception is raised
inside a generator.

也參考
......

PEP 479(2) - Change StopIteration handling inside generators

     PEP written by Chris Angelico and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by
     Chris Angelico, Yury Selivanov and Nick Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Next: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Prev: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.9 PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality
............................................................

PEP 485(1) adds the *note math.isclose(): c27. and *note
cmath.isclose(): c28. functions which tell whether two values are
approximately equal or "close" to each other.  Whether or not two values
are considered close is determined according to given absolute and
relative tolerances.  Relative tolerance is the maximum allowed
difference between ‘isclose’ arguments, relative to the larger absolute
value:

     >>> import math
     >>> a = 5.0
     >>> b = 4.99998
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-5)
     True
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-6)
     False

It is also possible to compare two values using absolute tolerance,
which must be a non-negative value:

     >>> import math
     >>> a = 5.0
     >>> b = 4.99998
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00003)
     True
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00001)
     False

也參考
......

PEP 485(2) - A function for testing approximate equality

     PEP written by Christopher Barker; implemented by Chris Barker and
     Tal Einat.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Next: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files,  Prev: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.10 PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments
........................................................................

PEP 486(1) makes the Windows launcher (see PEP 397(2)) aware of an
active virtual environment.  When the default interpreter would be used
and the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ environment variable is set, the interpreter in
the virtual environment will be used.

也參考
......

PEP 486(3) - Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments

     由 Paul Moore 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files,  Next: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization,  Prev: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.11 PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files
..........................................

PEP 488(1) does away with the concept of ‘.pyo’ files.  This means that
‘.pyc’ files represent both unoptimized and optimized bytecode.  To
prevent the need to constantly regenerate bytecode files, ‘.pyc’ files
now have an optional ‘opt-’ tag in their name when the bytecode is
optimized.  This has the side-effect of no more bytecode file name
clashes when running under either *note -O: c2c. or *note -OO: c2d.
Consequently, bytecode files generated from *note -O: c2c, and *note
-OO: c2d. may now exist simultaneously.  *note
importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 26d. has an updated API to help with
this change.

也參考
......

PEP 488(2) - Elimination of PYO files

     由 Brett Cannon 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization,  Prev: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files,  Up: New Features<6>

1.8.2.12 PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization
.............................................................

PEP 489(1) updates extension module initialization to take advantage of
the two step module loading mechanism introduced by PEP 451(2) in Python
3.4.

This change brings the import semantics of extension modules that opt-in
to using the new mechanism much closer to those of Python source and
bytecode modules, including the ability to use any valid identifier as a
module name, rather than being restricted to ASCII.

也參考
......

PEP 489(3) - Multi-phase extension module initialization

     PEP written by Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, and Nick Coghlan;
     implemented by Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<8>,  Next: 新增模組<4>,  Prev: New Features<6>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.3 其他語言更動
------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Added the ‘"namereplace"’ error handlers.  The ‘"backslashreplace"’
     error handlers now work with decoding and translating.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19676(1) and bpo-22286(2).)

   * The *note -b: 3d7. option now affects comparisons of *note bytes:
     2c1. with *note int: 17e.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-23681(3).)

   * New Kazakh ‘kz1048’ and Tajik ‘koi8_t’ *note codecs: c30.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22682(4) and bpo-22681(5).)

   * Property docstrings are now writable.  This is especially useful
     for *note collections.namedtuple(): 731. docstrings.  (Contributed
     by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064(6).)

   * Circular imports involving relative imports are now supported.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17636(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636


File: python.info,  Node: 新增模組<4>,  Next: 改進的模組<8>,  Prev: 其他語言更動<8>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.4 新增模組
--------------

* Menu:

* typing: typing<8>.
* zipapp: zipapp<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: typing<8>,  Next: zipapp<2>,  Up: 新增模組<4>

1.8.4.1 typing
..............

The new *note typing: ff. *note provisional: 958. module provides
standard definitions and tools for function type annotations.  See *note
Type Hints: bdb. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp<2>,  Prev: typing<8>,  Up: 新增模組<4>

1.8.4.2 zipapp
..............

The new *note zipapp: 12a. module (specified in PEP 441(1)) provides an
API and command line tool for creating executable Python Zip
Applications, which were introduced in Python 2.6 in bpo-1739468(2), but
which were not well publicized, either at the time or since.

With the new module, bundling your application is as simple as putting
all the files, including a ‘__main__.py’ file, into a directory ‘myapp’
and running:

     $ python -m zipapp myapp
     $ python myapp.pyz

The module implementation has been contributed by Paul Moore in
bpo-23491(3).

也參考
......

PEP 441(4) - Improving Python ZIP Application Support

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/


File: python.info,  Node: 改進的模組<8>,  Next: Other module-level changes,  Prev: 新增模組<4>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.5 改進的模組
----------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<9>.
* bz2::
* cgi::
* cmath: cmath<2>.
* code::
* collections: collections<5>.
* collections.abc: collections abc<3>.
* compileall: compileall<3>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>.
* configparser: configparser<2>.
* contextlib: contextlib<5>.
* csv: csv<3>.
* curses: curses<4>.
* dbm: dbm<4>.
* difflib::
* distutils: distutils<7>.
* doctest: doctest<2>.
* email: email<4>.
* enum: enum<7>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<3>.
* functools: functools<4>.
* glob: glob<2>.
* gzip: gzip<4>.
* heapq::
* http: http<2>.
* http.client: http client<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<3>.
* imaplib: imaplib<2>.
* imghdr::
* importlib: importlib<7>.
* inspect: inspect<7>.
* io: io<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<4>.
* json: json<2>.
* linecache: linecache<2>.
* locale: locale<5>.
* logging: logging<5>.
* lzma::
* math: math<7>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>.
* operator: operator<2>.
* os: os<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<8>.
* pickle: pickle<3>.
* poplib: poplib<2>.
* re: re<5>.
* readline: readline<2>.
* selectors::
* shutil: shutil<4>.
* signal: signal<3>.
* smtpd: smtpd<2>.
* smtplib: smtplib<2>.
* sndhdr::
* socket: socket<8>.
* ssl: ssl<8>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<7>.
* subprocess: subprocess<3>.
* sys: sys<9>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<2>.
* tarfile: tarfile<6>.
* threading: threading<6>.
* time: time<6>.
* timeit: timeit<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<7>.
* traceback: traceback<4>.
* types: types<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<7>.
* unittest: unittest<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>.
* urllib::
* wsgiref::
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>.
* xml.sax: xml sax.
* zipfile: zipfile<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<3>,  Next: asyncio<9>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.1 argparse
................

The *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. class now allows disabling *note
abbreviated usage: c36. of long options by setting *note allow_abbrev:
c37. to ‘False’.  (Contributed by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard, paul
j3 and Daniel Eriksson in bpo-14910(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<9>,  Next: bz2,  Prev: argparse<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.2 asyncio
...............

Since the *note asyncio: 9. module is *note provisional: 958, all
changes introduced in Python 3.5 have also been backported to Python
3.4.x.

Notable changes in the *note asyncio: 9. module since Python 3.4.0:

   * New debugging APIs: *note loop.set_debug(): c39. and *note
     loop.get_debug(): c3a. methods.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The proactor event loop now supports SSL. (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou and Victor Stinner in bpo-22560(1).)

   * A new *note loop.is_closed(): c3b. method to check if the event
     loop is closed.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21326(2).)

   * A new *note loop.create_task(): 821. to conveniently create and
     schedule a new *note Task: 203. for a coroutine.  The ‘create_task’
     method is also used by all asyncio functions that wrap coroutines
     into tasks, such as *note asyncio.wait(): 19a, *note
     asyncio.gather(): 3f4, etc.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * A new *note transport.get_write_buffer_limits(): c3c. method to
     inquire for 'high-' and 'low-' water limits of the flow control.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The ‘async()’ function is deprecated in favor of *note
     ensure_future(): ade.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note loop.set_task_factory(): c3d. and *note
     loop.get_task_factory(): c3e. methods to customize the task factory
     that *note loop.create_task(): 821. method uses.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note Queue.join(): c3f. and *note Queue.task_done(): c40.
     queue methods.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The ‘JoinableQueue’ class was removed, in favor of the *note
     asyncio.Queue: 8c2. class.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

Updates in 3.5.1:

   * The *note ensure_future(): ade. function and all functions that use
     it, such as *note loop.run_until_complete(): adf, now accept all
     kinds of *note awaitable objects: ae0.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * New *note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 6ae. function to submit
     coroutines to event loops from other threads.  (Contributed by
     Vincent Michel.)

   * New *note Transport.is_closing(): ae1. method to check if the
     transport is closing or closed.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * The *note loop.create_server(): 968. method can now accept a list
     of hosts.  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

Updates in 3.5.2:

   * New *note loop.create_future(): ae2. method to create Future
     objects.  This allows alternative event loop implementations, such
     as uvloop(3), to provide a faster *note asyncio.Future: a2e.
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note loop.get_exception_handler(): ae3. method to get the
     current exception handler.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note StreamReader.readuntil(): ae4. method to read data from
     the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears.  (Contributed
     by Mark Korenberg.)

   * The *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa. and *note
     loop.create_server(): 968. methods are optimized to avoid calling
     the system ‘getaddrinfo’ function if the address is already
     resolved.  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   * The *note loop.sock_connect(sock, address): c41. no longer requires
     the 'address' to be resolved prior to the call.  (Contributed by A.
     Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22560

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21326

   (3) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop


File: python.info,  Node: bz2,  Next: cgi,  Prev: asyncio<9>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.3 bz2
...........

The *note BZ2Decompressor.decompress: c43. method now accepts an
optional 'max_length' argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed
data.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-15955(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955


File: python.info,  Node: cgi,  Next: cmath<2>,  Prev: bz2,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.4 cgi
...........

The ‘FieldStorage’ class now supports the *note context manager: 3c4.
protocol.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20289(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289


File: python.info,  Node: cmath<2>,  Next: code,  Prev: cgi,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.5 cmath
.............

A new function *note isclose(): c28. provides a way to test for
approximate equality.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in
bpo-24270(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270


File: python.info,  Node: code,  Next: collections<5>,  Prev: cmath<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.6 code
............

The *note InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback(): c47. method now prints
the full chained traceback, just like the interactive interpreter.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17442(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17442


File: python.info,  Node: collections<5>,  Next: collections abc<3>,  Prev: code,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.7 collections
...................

The *note OrderedDict: 3ce. class is now implemented in C, which makes
it 4 to 100 times faster.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-16991(1).)

‘OrderedDict.items()’, ‘OrderedDict.keys()’, ‘OrderedDict.values()’
views now support *note reversed(): 691. iteration.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19505(2).)

The *note deque: 3cf. class now defines *note index(): c49, *note
insert(): c4a, and *note copy(): c4b, and supports the ‘+’ and ‘*’
operators.  This allows deques to be recognized as a *note
MutableSequence: c4c. and improves their substitutability for lists.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-23704(3).)

Docstrings produced by *note namedtuple(): 731. can now be updated:

     Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
     Point.__doc__ += ': Cartesian coordinate'
     Point.x.__doc__ = 'abscissa'
     Point.y.__doc__ = 'ordinate'

（由 Berker Peksag 在 bpo-24064(4) 中貢獻。）

The *note UserString: c4d. class now implements the ‘__getnewargs__()’,
‘__rmod__()’, *note casefold(): c4e, *note format_map(): c4f, *note
isprintable(): c50, and *note maketrans(): c51. methods to match the
corresponding methods of *note str: 157.  (Contributed by Joe Jevnik in
bpo-22189(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19505

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc<3>,  Next: compileall<3>,  Prev: collections<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.8 collections.abc
.......................

The ‘Sequence.index()’ method now accepts 'start' and 'stop' arguments
to match the corresponding methods of *note tuple: 4e6, *note list: 40a,
etc.  (Contributed by Devin Jeanpierre in bpo-23086(1).)

A new *note Generator: c53. abstract base class.  (Contributed by Stefan
Behnel in bpo-24018(2).)

New *note Awaitable: c54, *note Coroutine: c55, *note AsyncIterator:
c56, and *note AsyncIterable: c57. abstract base classes.  (Contributed
by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24184(3).)

For earlier Python versions, a backport of the new ABCs is available in
an external PyPI package(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/backports_abc/


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<3>,  Next: concurrent futures<4>,  Prev: collections abc<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.9 compileall
..................

A new *note compileall: 1e. option, ‘-j N’, allows running 'N' workers
simultaneously to perform parallel bytecode compilation.  The *note
compile_dir(): 97d. function has a corresponding ‘workers’ parameter.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-16104(1).)

Another new option, ‘-r’, allows controlling the maximum recursion level
for subdirectories.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19628(2).)

The ‘-q’ command line option can now be specified more than once, in
which case all output, including errors, will be suppressed.  The
corresponding ‘quiet’ parameter in *note compile_dir(): 97d, *note
compile_file(): c59, and *note compile_path(): c5a. can now accept an
integer value indicating the level of output suppression.  (Contributed
by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-21338(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16104

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19628

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21338


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<4>,  Next: configparser<2>,  Prev: compileall<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.10 concurrent.futures
...........................

The *note Executor.map(): c5c. method now accepts a 'chunksize' argument
to allow batching of tasks to improve performance when *note
ProcessPoolExecutor(): 727. is used.  (Contributed by Dan O'Reilly in
bpo-11271(1).)

The number of workers in the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. constructor
is optional now.  The default value is 5 times the number of CPUs.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-21527(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11271

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21527


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<2>,  Next: contextlib<5>,  Prev: concurrent futures<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.11 configparser
.....................

*note configparser: 20. now provides a way to customize the conversion
of values by specifying a dictionary of converters in the *note
ConfigParser: 286. constructor, or by defining them as methods in
‘ConfigParser’ subclasses.  Converters defined in a parser instance are
inherited by its section proxies.

範例：

     >>> import configparser
     >>> conv = {}
     >>> conv['list'] = lambda v: [e.strip() for e in v.split() if e.strip()]
     >>> cfg = configparser.ConfigParser(converters=conv)
     >>> cfg.read_string("""
     ... [s]
     ... list = a b c d e f g
     ... """)
     >>> cfg.get('s', 'list')
     'a b c d e f g'
     >>> cfg.getlist('s', 'list')
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> section = cfg['s']
     >>> section.getlist('list')
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']

（由 Łukasz Langa 在 bpo-18159(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18159


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<5>,  Next: csv<3>,  Prev: configparser<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.12 contextlib
...................

The new *note redirect_stderr(): c5f. *note context manager: 3c4.
(similar to *note redirect_stdout(): c60.) makes it easier for utility
scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their output to *note
sys.stderr: 778. and don't provide any options to redirect it:

     >>> import contextlib, io, logging
     >>> f = io.StringIO()
     >>> with contextlib.redirect_stderr(f):
     ...     logging.warning('warning')
     ...
     >>> f.getvalue()
     'WARNING:root:warning\n'

（由 Berker Peksag 在 bpo-22389(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22389


File: python.info,  Node: csv<3>,  Next: curses<4>,  Prev: contextlib<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.13 csv
............

The *note writerow(): c62. method now supports arbitrary iterables, not
just sequences.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23171(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171


File: python.info,  Node: curses<4>,  Next: dbm<4>,  Prev: csv<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.14 curses
...............

The new *note update_lines_cols(): c64. function updates the ‘LINES’ and
‘COLS’ module variables.  This is useful for detecting manual screen
resizing.  (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in bpo-4254(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<4>,  Next: difflib,  Prev: curses<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.15 dbm
............

*note dumb.open: 8e6. always creates a new database when the flag has
the value ‘"n"’.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18039(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18039


File: python.info,  Node: difflib,  Next: distutils<7>,  Prev: dbm<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.16 difflib
................

The charset of HTML documents generated by *note HtmlDiff.make_file():
c67. can now be customized by using a new 'charset' keyword-only
argument.  The default charset of HTML document changed from
‘"ISO-8859-1"’ to ‘"utf-8"’.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in
bpo-2052(1).)

The *note diff_bytes(): c68. function can now compare lists of byte
strings.  This fixes a regression from Python 2.  (Contributed by Terry
J. Reedy and Greg Ward in bpo-17445(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<7>,  Next: doctest<2>,  Prev: difflib,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.17 distutils
..................

Both the ‘build’ and ‘build_ext’ commands now accept a ‘-j’ option to
enable parallel building of extension modules.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-5309(1).)

The ‘distutils’ module now supports ‘xz’ compression, and can be enabled
by passing ‘xztar’ as an argument to ‘bdist --format’.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16314(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5309

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<2>,  Next: email<4>,  Prev: distutils<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.18 doctest
................

The *note DocTestSuite(): c6b. function returns an empty *note
unittest.TestSuite: c6c. if 'module' contains no docstrings, instead of
raising *note ValueError: 183.  (Contributed by Glenn Jones in
bpo-15916(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15916


File: python.info,  Node: email<4>,  Next: enum<7>,  Prev: doctest<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.19 email
..............

A new policy option *note Policy.mangle_from_: c6e. controls whether or
not lines that start with ‘"From "’ in email bodies are prefixed with a
‘">"’ character by generators.  The default is ‘True’ for *note
compat32: b04. and ‘False’ for all other policies.  (Contributed by
Milan Oberkirch in bpo-20098(1).)

A new *note Message.get_content_disposition(): c6f. method provides easy
access to a canonical value for the ‘Content-Disposition’ header.
(Contributed by Abhilash Raj in bpo-21083(2).)

A new policy option *note EmailPolicy.utf8: c70. can be set to ‘True’ to
encode email headers using the UTF-8 charset instead of using encoded
words.  This allows ‘Messages’ to be formatted according to RFC 6532(3)
and used with an SMTP server that supports the RFC 6531(4) ‘SMTPUTF8’
extension.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24211(5).)

The *note mime.text.MIMEText: c71. constructor now accepts a *note
charset.Charset: c72. instance.  (Contributed by Claude Paroz and Berker
Peksag in bpo-16324(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21083

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324


File: python.info,  Node: enum<7>,  Next: faulthandler<3>,  Prev: email<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.20 enum
.............

The *note Enum: 42b. callable has a new parameter 'start' to specify the
initial number of enum values if only 'names' are provided:

     >>> Animal = enum.Enum('Animal', 'cat dog', start=10)
     >>> Animal.cat
     <Animal.cat: 10>
     >>> Animal.dog
     <Animal.dog: 11>

（由 Ethan Furman 在 bpo-21706(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21706


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<3>,  Next: functools<4>,  Prev: enum<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.21 faulthandler
.....................

The *note enable(): b0b, *note register(): c75, *note dump_traceback():
c76. and *note dump_traceback_later(): c77. functions now accept file
descriptors in addition to file-like objects.  (Contributed by Wei Wu in
bpo-23566(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566


File: python.info,  Node: functools<4>,  Next: glob<2>,  Prev: faulthandler<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.22 functools
..................

Most of the *note lru_cache(): 834. machinery is now implemented in C,
making it significantly faster.  (Contributed by Matt Joiner, Alexey
Kachayev, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14373(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373


File: python.info,  Node: glob<2>,  Next: gzip<4>,  Prev: functools<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.23 glob
.............

The *note iglob(): 629. and *note glob(): 628. functions now support
recursive search in subdirectories, using the ‘"**"’ pattern.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13968(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13968


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<4>,  Next: heapq,  Prev: glob<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.24 gzip
.............

The 'mode' argument of the *note GzipFile: 28d. constructor now accepts
‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Tim Heaney in
bpo-19222(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222


File: python.info,  Node: heapq,  Next: http<2>,  Prev: gzip<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.25 heapq
..............

Element comparison in *note merge(): c7c. can now be customized by
passing a *note key function: c7d. in a new optional 'key' keyword
argument, and a new optional 'reverse' keyword argument can be used to
reverse element comparison:

     >>> import heapq
     >>> a = ['9', '777', '55555']
     >>> b = ['88', '6666']
     >>> list(heapq.merge(a, b, key=len))
     ['9', '88', '777', '6666', '55555']
     >>> list(heapq.merge(reversed(a), reversed(b), key=len, reverse=True))
     ['55555', '6666', '777', '88', '9']

（由 Raymond Hettinger 在 bpo-13742(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13742


File: python.info,  Node: http<2>,  Next: http client<3>,  Prev: heapq,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.26 http
.............

A new *note HTTPStatus: 73b. enum that defines a set of HTTP status
codes, reason phrases and long descriptions written in English.
(Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-21793(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793


File: python.info,  Node: http client<3>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Prev: http<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.27 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection.getresponse(): c80. now raises a *note
RemoteDisconnected: c81. exception when a remote server connection is
closed unexpectedly.  Additionally, if a *note ConnectionError: c82. (of
which ‘RemoteDisconnected’ is a subclass) is raised, the client socket
is now closed automatically, and will reconnect on the next request:

     import http.client
     conn = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
     for retries in range(3):
         try:
             conn.request('GET', '/')
             resp = conn.getresponse()
         except http.client.RemoteDisconnected:
             pass

（由 Martin Panter 在 bpo-3566(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3566


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Next: imaplib<2>,  Prev: http client<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.28 idlelib and IDLE
.........................

Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended
for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release.
See ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’ for a cumulative list of changes since 3.4.0,
as well as changes made in future 3.5.x releases.  This file is also
available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<2>,  Next: imghdr,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.29 imaplib
................

The *note IMAP4: 73e. class now supports the *note context manager: 3c4.
protocol.  When used in a *note with: 3c5. statement, the IMAP4 ‘LOGOUT’
command will be called automatically at the end of the block.
(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-4972(1).)

The *note imaplib: 6f. module now supports RFC 5161(2) (ENABLE
Extension) and RFC 6855(3) (UTF-8 Support) via the *note IMAP4.enable():
c85. method.  A new *note IMAP4.utf8_enabled: c86. attribute tracks
whether or not RFC 6855(4) support is enabled.  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch, R. David Murray, and Maciej Szulik in bpo-21800(5).)

The *note imaplib: 6f. module now automatically encodes non-ASCII string
usernames and passwords using UTF-8, as recommended by the RFCs.
(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21800(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800


File: python.info,  Node: imghdr,  Next: importlib<7>,  Prev: imaplib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.30 imghdr
...............

The *note what(): c88. function now recognizes the OpenEXR(1) format
(contributed by Martin Vignali and Claudiu Popa in bpo-20295(2)), and
the WebP(3) format (contributed by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa in
bpo-20197(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.openexr.com

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20295

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebP

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20197


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<7>,  Next: inspect<7>,  Prev: imghdr,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.31 importlib
..................

The *note util.LazyLoader: b1a. class allows for lazy loading of modules
in applications where startup time is important.  (Contributed by Brett
Cannon in bpo-17621(1).)

The *note abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code(): c8a. method is now a
static method.  This makes it easier to initialize a module object with
code compiled from a string by running ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-21156(2).)

The new *note util.module_from_spec(): c8b. function is now the
preferred way to create a new module.  As opposed to creating a *note
types.ModuleType: c8c. instance directly, this new function will set the
various import-controlled attributes based on the passed-in spec object.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-20383(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17621

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21156

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20383


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<7>,  Next: io<4>,  Prev: importlib<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.32 inspect
................

Both the *note Signature: 54a. and *note Parameter: c8e. classes are now
picklable and hashable.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20726(1)
and bpo-20334(2).)

A new *note BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): c8f. method provides a way
to set default values for missing arguments:

     >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
     >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
     >>> ba.apply_defaults()
     >>> ba.arguments
     OrderedDict([('a', 'spam'), ('b', 'ham'), ('args', ())])

（由 Yury Selivanov 在 bpo-24190(3) 中貢獻。）

A new class method *note Signature.from_callable(): 54b. makes
subclassing of *note Signature: 54a. easier.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov and Eric Snow in bpo-17373(4).)

The *note signature(): 548. function now accepts a 'follow_wrapped'
optional keyword argument, which, when set to ‘False’, disables
automatic following of ‘__wrapped__’ links.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-20691(5).)

A set of new functions to inspect *note coroutine functions: bec. and
*note coroutine objects: 1ae. has been added: *note iscoroutine(): c90,
*note iscoroutinefunction(): 1af, *note isawaitable(): c91, *note
getcoroutinelocals(): c92, and *note getcoroutinestate(): c93.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(6) and bpo-24400(7).)

The *note stack(): 44d, *note trace(): 44e, *note getouterframes(): 44b,
and *note getinnerframes(): 44c. functions now return a list of named
tuples.  (Contributed by Daniel Shahaf in bpo-16808(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20334

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17373

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16808


File: python.info,  Node: io<4>,  Next: ipaddress<4>,  Prev: inspect<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.33 io
...........

A new *note BufferedIOBase.readinto1(): c95. method, that uses at most
one call to the underlying raw stream's *note RawIOBase.read(): c96. or
*note RawIOBase.readinto(): c97. methods.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath
in bpo-20578(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20578


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<4>,  Next: json<2>,  Prev: io<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.34 ipaddress
..................

Both the *note IPv4Network: 9a4. and *note IPv6Network: 9a3. classes now
accept an ‘(address, netmask)’ tuple argument, so as to easily construct
network objects from existing addresses:

     >>> import ipaddress
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', 8))
     IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', '255.0.0.0'))
     IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')

（由 Peter Moody 和 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-16531(1) 中貢獻。）

A new ‘reverse_pointer’ attribute for the *note IPv4Network: 9a4. and
*note IPv6Network: 9a3. classes returns the name of the reverse DNS PTR
record:

     >>> import ipaddress
     >>> addr = ipaddress.IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     >>> addr.reverse_pointer
     '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
     >>> addr6 = ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')
     >>> addr6.reverse_pointer
     '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa'

（由 Leon Weber 在 bpo-20480(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16531

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480


File: python.info,  Node: json<2>,  Next: linecache<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.35 json
.............

The *note json.tool: 7d. command line interface now preserves the order
of keys in JSON objects passed in input.  The new ‘--sort-keys’ option
can be used to sort the keys alphabetically.  (Contributed by Berker
Peksag in bpo-21650(1).)

JSON decoder now raises *note JSONDecodeError: c9a. instead of *note
ValueError: 183. to provide better context information about the error.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19361(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361


File: python.info,  Node: linecache<2>,  Next: locale<5>,  Prev: json<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.36 linecache
..................

A new *note lazycache(): c9c. function can be used to capture
information about a non-file-based module to permit getting its lines
later via *note getline(): c9d.  This avoids doing I/O until a line is
actually needed, without having to carry the module globals around
indefinitely.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911


File: python.info,  Node: locale<5>,  Next: logging<5>,  Prev: linecache<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.37 locale
...............

A new *note delocalize(): c9f. function can be used to convert a string
into a normalized number string, taking the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ settings into
account:

     >>> import locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'de_DE.UTF-8')
     'de_DE.UTF-8'
     >>> locale.delocalize('1.234,56')
     '1234.56'
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'en_US.UTF-8')
     'en_US.UTF-8'
     >>> locale.delocalize('1,234.56')
     '1234.56'

（由 Cédric Krier 在 bpo-13918(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13918


File: python.info,  Node: logging<5>,  Next: lzma,  Prev: locale<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.38 logging
................

All logging methods (*note Logger: 9a9. *note log(): ca1, *note
exception(): ca2, *note critical(): ca3, *note debug(): ca4, etc.), now
accept exception instances as an 'exc_info' argument, in addition to
boolean values and exception tuples:

     >>> import logging
     >>> try:
     ...     1/0
     ... except ZeroDivisionError as ex:
     ...     logging.error('exception', exc_info=ex)
     ERROR:root:exception

（由 Yury Selivanov 在 bpo-20537(1) 中貢獻。）

The *note handlers.HTTPHandler: ca5. class now accepts an optional *note
ssl.SSLContext: 26f. instance to configure SSL settings used in an HTTP
connection.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22788(2).)

The *note handlers.QueueListener: ca6. class now takes a
'respect_handler_level' keyword argument which, if set to ‘True’, will
pass messages to handlers taking handler levels into account.
(Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22788


File: python.info,  Node: lzma,  Next: math<7>,  Prev: logging<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.39 lzma
.............

The *note LZMADecompressor.decompress(): ca8. method now accepts an
optional 'max_length' argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed
data.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-15955(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955


File: python.info,  Node: math<7>,  Next: multiprocessing<5>,  Prev: lzma,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.40 math
.............

Two new constants have been added to the *note math: 89. module: *note
inf: aee. and *note nan: 45e.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-23185(1).)

A new function *note isclose(): c27. provides a way to test for
approximate equality.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in
bpo-24270(2).)

A new *note gcd(): 74c. function has been added.  The ‘fractions.gcd()’
function is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-22486(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23185

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<5>,  Next: operator<2>,  Prev: math<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.41 multiprocessing
........................

*note sharedctypes.synchronized(): cab. objects now support the *note
context manager: 3c4. protocol.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali
in bpo-21565(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21565


File: python.info,  Node: operator<2>,  Next: os<9>,  Prev: multiprocessing<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.42 operator
.................

*note attrgetter(): cad, *note itemgetter(): 8ad, and *note
methodcaller(): cae. objects now support pickling.  (Contributed by Josh
Rosenberg and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22955(1).)

New *note matmul(): caf. and *note imatmul(): cb0. functions to perform
matrix multiplication.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in
bpo-21176(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176


File: python.info,  Node: os<9>,  Next: pathlib<8>,  Prev: operator<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.43 os
...........

The new *note scandir(): 8aa. function returning an iterator of *note
DirEntry: 1ba. objects has been added.  If possible, *note scandir():
8aa. extracts file attributes while scanning a directory, removing the
need to perform subsequent system calls to determine file type or
attributes, which may significantly improve performance.  (Contributed
by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor Stinner in bpo-22524(1).)

On Windows, a new *note stat_result.st_file_attributes: cb2. attribute
is now available.  It corresponds to the ‘dwFileAttributes’ member of
the ‘BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION’ structure returned by
‘GetFileInformationByHandle()’.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt in
bpo-21719(2).)

The *note urandom(): 2a3. function now uses the ‘getrandom()’ syscall on
Linux 3.17 or newer, and ‘getentropy()’ on OpenBSD 5.6 and newer,
removing the need to use ‘/dev/urandom’ and avoiding failures due to
potential file descriptor exhaustion.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-22181(3).)

New *note get_blocking(): cb3. and *note set_blocking(): cb4. functions
allow getting and setting a file descriptor's blocking mode (*note
O_NONBLOCK: cb5.)  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22054(4).)

The *note truncate(): cb6. and *note ftruncate(): c06. functions are now
supported on Windows.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-23668(5).)

There is a new *note os.path.commonpath(): cb7. function returning the
longest common sub-path of each passed pathname.  Unlike the *note
os.path.commonprefix(): cb8. function, it always returns a valid path:

     >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
     '/usr/l'

     >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
     '/usr'

（由 Rafik Draoui 和 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-10395(6) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21719

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22054

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<8>,  Next: pickle<3>,  Prev: os<9>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.44 pathlib
................

The new *note Path.samefile(): cba. method can be used to check whether
the path points to the same file as another path, which can be either
another *note Path: 149. object, or a string:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> p1 = pathlib.Path('/etc/hosts')
     >>> p2 = pathlib.Path('/etc/../etc/hosts')
     >>> p1.samefile(p2)
     True

（由 Vajrasky Kok 和 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-19775(1) 中貢獻。）

The *note Path.mkdir(): cbb. method now accepts a new optional
'exist_ok' argument to match ‘mkdir -p’ and *note os.makedirs(): 1c2.
functionality.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21539(2).)

There is a new *note Path.expanduser(): cbc. method to expand ‘~’ and
‘~user’ prefixes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Claudiu Popa in
bpo-19776(3).)

A new *note Path.home(): cbd. class method can be used to get a *note
Path: 149. instance representing the user’s home directory.
(Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi in bpo-19777(4).)

New *note Path.write_text(): cbe, *note Path.read_text(): cbf, *note
Path.write_bytes(): cc0, *note Path.read_bytes(): cc1. methods to
simplify read/write operations on files.

The following code snippet will create or rewrite existing file
‘~/spam42’:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> p = pathlib.Path('~/spam42')
     >>> p.expanduser().write_text('ham')
     3

（由 Christopher Welborn 在 bpo-20218(5) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19775

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21539

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19776

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20218


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<3>,  Next: poplib<2>,  Prev: pathlib<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.45 pickle
...............

Nested objects, such as unbound methods or nested classes, can now be
pickled using *note pickle protocols: b2e. older than protocol version
4.  Protocol version 4 already supports these cases.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23611(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<2>,  Next: re<5>,  Prev: pickle<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.46 poplib
...............

A new *note POP3.utf8(): cc4. command enables RFC 6856(1)
(Internationalized Email) support, if a POP server supports it.
(Contributed by Milan OberKirch in bpo-21804(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804


File: python.info,  Node: re<5>,  Next: readline<2>,  Prev: poplib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.47 re
...........

References and conditional references to groups with fixed length are
now allowed in lookbehind assertions:

     >>> import re
     >>> pat = re.compile(r'(a|b).(?<=\1)c')
     >>> pat.match('aac')
     <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='aac'>
     >>> pat.match('bbc')
     <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='bbc'>

（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-9179(1) 中貢獻。）

The number of capturing groups in regular expressions is no longer
limited to 100.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22437(2).)

The *note sub(): 201. and *note subn(): 202. functions now replace
unmatched groups with empty strings instead of raising an exception.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1519638(3).)

The *note re.error: cc6. exceptions have new attributes, *note msg: cc7,
*note pattern: cc8, *note pos: cc9, *note lineno: cca, and *note colno:
ccb, that provide better context information about the error:

     >>> re.compile("""
     ...     (?x)
     ...     .++
     ... """)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     sre_constants.error: multiple repeat at position 16 (line 3, column 7)

（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-22578(4) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22437

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1519638

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22578


File: python.info,  Node: readline<2>,  Next: selectors,  Prev: re<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.48 readline
.................

A new *note append_history_file(): ccd. function can be used to append
the specified number of trailing elements in history to the given file.
(Contributed by Bruno Cauet in bpo-22940(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22940


File: python.info,  Node: selectors,  Next: shutil<4>,  Prev: readline<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.49 selectors
..................

The new *note DevpollSelector: a38. supports efficient ‘/dev/poll’
polling on Solaris.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-18931(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18931


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<4>,  Next: signal<3>,  Prev: selectors,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.50 shutil
...............

The *note move(): 8a7. function now accepts a 'copy_function' argument,
allowing, for example, the *note copy(): 8a5. function to be used
instead of the default *note copy2(): 8a6. if there is a need to ignore
file metadata when moving.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in
bpo-19840(1).)

The *note make_archive(): 1d7. function now supports the 'xztar' format.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-5411(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19840

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5411


File: python.info,  Node: signal<3>,  Next: smtpd<2>,  Prev: shutil<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.51 signal
...............

On Windows, the *note set_wakeup_fd(): 9cd. function now also supports
socket handles.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22018(1).)

Various ‘SIG*’ constants in the *note signal: c1. module have been
converted into *note Enums: 51.  This allows meaningful names to be
printed during debugging, instead of integer "magic numbers".
(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-21076(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22018

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21076


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<2>,  Next: smtplib<2>,  Prev: signal<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.52 smtpd
..............

Both the ‘SMTPServer’ and ‘SMTPChannel’ classes now accept a
'decode_data' keyword argument to determine if the ‘DATA’ portion of the
SMTP transaction is decoded using the ‘"utf-8"’ codec or is instead
provided to the ‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ method as a byte string.
The default is ‘True’ for backward compatibility reasons, but will
change to ‘False’ in Python 3.6.  If 'decode_data' is set to ‘False’,
the ‘process_message’ method must be prepared to accept keyword
arguments.  (Contributed by Maciej Szulik in bpo-19662(1).)

The ‘SMTPServer’ class now advertises the ‘8BITMIME’ extension ( RFC
6152(2)) if 'decode_data' has been set ‘True’.  If the client specifies
‘BODY=8BITMIME’ on the ‘MAIL’ command, it is passed to
‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ via the 'mail_options' keyword.
(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-21795(3).)

The ‘SMTPServer’ class now also supports the ‘SMTPUTF8’ extension ( RFC
6531(4): Internationalized Email).  If the client specified ‘SMTPUTF8
BODY=8BITMIME’ on the ‘MAIL’ command, they are passed to
‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ via the 'mail_options' keyword.  It is
the responsibility of the ‘process_message’ method to correctly handle
the ‘SMTPUTF8’ data.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21725(5).)

It is now possible to provide, directly or via name resolution, IPv6
addresses in the ‘SMTPServer’ constructor, and have it successfully
connect.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-14758(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19662

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6152.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21725

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14758


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<2>,  Next: sndhdr,  Prev: smtpd<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.53 smtplib
................

A new *note SMTP.auth(): cd3. method provides a convenient way to
implement custom authentication mechanisms.  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch in bpo-15014(1).)

The *note SMTP.set_debuglevel(): cd4. method now accepts an additional
debuglevel (2), which enables timestamps in debug messages.
(Contributed by Gavin Chappell and Maciej Szulik in bpo-16914(2).)

Both the *note SMTP.sendmail(): cd5. and *note SMTP.send_message(): cd6.
methods now support RFC 6531(3) (SMTPUTF8).  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-22027(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027


File: python.info,  Node: sndhdr,  Next: socket<8>,  Prev: smtplib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.54 sndhdr
...............

The *note what(): cd8. and *note whathdr(): cd9. functions now return a
*note namedtuple(): 731.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18615(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18615


File: python.info,  Node: socket<8>,  Next: ssl<8>,  Prev: sndhdr,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.55 socket
...............

Functions with timeouts now use a monotonic clock, instead of a system
clock.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

A new *note socket.sendfile(): cdb. method allows sending a file over a
socket by using the high-performance *note os.sendfile(): 964. function
on UNIX, resulting in uploads being from 2 to 3 times faster than when
using plain *note socket.send(): c1e.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola'
in bpo-17552(2).)

The *note socket.sendall(): c1f. method no longer resets the socket
timeout every time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is
now the maximum total duration to send all data.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner in bpo-23853(3).)

The 'backlog' argument of the *note socket.listen(): cdc. method is now
optional.  By default it is set to *note SOMAXCONN: cdd. or to ‘128’,
whichever is less.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in
bpo-21455(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21455


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<8>,  Next: sqlite3<7>,  Prev: socket<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.56 ssl
............

* Menu:

* Memory BIO Support::
* Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support::
* Other Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Memory BIO Support,  Next: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Up: ssl<8>

1.8.5.57 Memory BIO Support
...........................

（由 Geert Jansen 在 bpo-21965(1) 中貢獻。）

The new *note SSLObject: 9de. class has been added to provide SSL
protocol support for cases when the network I/O capabilities of *note
SSLSocket: 723. are not necessary or are suboptimal.  ‘SSLObject’
represents an SSL protocol instance, but does not implement any network
I/O methods, and instead provides a memory buffer interface.  The new
*note MemoryBIO: ce0. class can be used to pass data between Python and
an SSL protocol instance.

The memory BIO SSL support is primarily intended to be used in
frameworks implementing asynchronous I/O for which *note SSLSocket:
723.'s readiness model ("select/poll") is inefficient.

A new *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): 9df. method can be used to create a
new ‘SSLObject’ instance.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21965


File: python.info,  Node: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Next: Other Changes,  Prev: Memory BIO Support,  Up: ssl<8>

1.8.5.58 Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support
.......................................................

（由 Benjamin Peterson 在 bpo-20188(1) 中貢獻。）

Where OpenSSL support is present, the *note ssl: ca. module now
implements the 'Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation' TLS extension as
described in RFC 7301(2).

The new *note SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(): ce2. can be used to
specify which protocols a socket should advertise during the TLS
handshake.

The new *note SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): ce3. returns the
protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.  The *note
HAS_ALPN: ce4. flag indicates whether ALPN support is present.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes,  Prev: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Up: ssl<8>

1.8.5.59 Other Changes
......................

There is a new *note SSLSocket.version(): ce6. method to query the
actual protocol version in use.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-20421(1).)

The *note SSLSocket: 723. class now implements a ‘SSLSocket.sendfile()’
method.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-17552(2).)

The ‘SSLSocket.send()’ method now raises either the *note
ssl.SSLWantReadError: ce7. or *note ssl.SSLWantWriteError: ce8.
exception on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block.
Previously, it would return ‘0’.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in
bpo-20951(3).)

The *note cert_time_to_seconds(): ce9. function now interprets the input
time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280(4).  Additionally, the
return value is always an *note int: 17e.  (Contributed by Akira Li in
bpo-19940(5).)

New ‘SSLObject.shared_ciphers()’ and *note SSLSocket.shared_ciphers():
cea. methods return the list of ciphers sent by the client during the
handshake.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-23186(6).)

The *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): ceb, *note SSLSocket.read(): cec,
‘SSLSocket.shutdown()’, and *note SSLSocket.write(): ced. methods of the
*note SSLSocket: 723. class no longer reset the socket timeout every
time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the maximum
total duration of the method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-23853(7).)

The ‘match_hostname()’ function now supports matching of IP addresses.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-23239(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23186

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<7>,  Next: subprocess<3>,  Prev: ssl<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.60 sqlite3
................

The *note Row: cef. class now fully supports the sequence protocol, in
particular *note reversed(): 691. iteration and slice indexing.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-10203(1); by Lucas Sinclair, Jessica
McKellar, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13583(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<3>,  Next: sys<9>,  Prev: sqlite3<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.61 subprocess
...................

The new *note run(): 9e5. function has been added.  It runs the
specified command and returns a *note CompletedProcess: cf1. object,
which describes a finished process.  The new API is more consistent and
is the recommended approach to invoking subprocesses in Python code that
does not need to maintain compatibility with earlier Python versions.
(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-23342(1).)

範例：

     >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # 沒有捕捉到輸出
     CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

     >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

     >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], stdout=subprocess.PIPE)
     CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
     stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342


File: python.info,  Node: sys<9>,  Next: sysconfig<2>,  Prev: subprocess<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.62 sys
............

A new ‘set_coroutine_wrapper()’ function allows setting a global hook
that will be called whenever a *note coroutine object: 1ae. is created
by an *note async def: 3c3. function.  A corresponding
‘get_coroutine_wrapper()’ can be used to obtain a currently set wrapper.
Both functions are *note provisional: 958, and are intended for
debugging purposes only.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-24017(1).)

A new *note is_finalizing(): 8de. function can be used to check if the
Python interpreter is *note shutting down: cf3.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-22696(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22696


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<2>,  Next: tarfile<6>,  Prev: sys<9>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.63 sysconfig
..................

The name of the user scripts directory on Windows now includes the first
two components of the Python version.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in
bpo-23437(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<6>,  Next: threading<6>,  Prev: sysconfig<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.64 tarfile
................

The 'mode' argument of the *note open(): cf6. function now accepts ‘"x"’
to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in
bpo-21717(1).)

The *note TarFile.extractall(): cf7. and *note TarFile.extract(): cf8.
methods now take a keyword argument 'numeric_owner'.  If set to ‘True’,
the extracted files and directories will be owned by the numeric ‘uid’
and ‘gid’ from the tarfile.  If set to ‘False’ (the default, and the
behavior in versions prior to 3.5), they will be owned by the named user
and group in the tarfile.  (Contributed by Michael Vogt and Eric Smith
in bpo-23193(2).)

The *note TarFile.list(): cf9. now accepts an optional 'members' keyword
argument that can be set to a subset of the list returned by *note
TarFile.getmembers(): cfa.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-21549(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21549


File: python.info,  Node: threading<6>,  Next: time<6>,  Prev: tarfile<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.65 threading
..................

Both the *note Lock.acquire(): 495. and *note RLock.acquire(): cfc.
methods now use a monotonic clock for timeout management.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043


File: python.info,  Node: time<6>,  Next: timeit<2>,  Prev: threading<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.66 time
.............

The *note monotonic(): cfe. function is now always available.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043


File: python.info,  Node: timeit<2>,  Next: tkinter<7>,  Prev: time<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.67 timeit
...............

A new command line option ‘-u’ or ‘--unit=U’ can be used to specify the
time unit for the timer output.  Supported options are ‘usec’, ‘msec’,
or ‘sec’.  (Contributed by Julian Gindi in bpo-18983(1).)

The *note timeit(): d00. function has a new 'globals' parameter for
specifying the namespace in which the code will be running.
(Contributed by Ben Roberts in bpo-2527(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2527


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<7>,  Next: traceback<4>,  Prev: timeit<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.68 tkinter
................

The ‘tkinter._fix’ module used for setting up the Tcl/Tk environment on
Windows has been replaced by a private function in the ‘_tkinter’ module
which makes no permanent changes to environment variables.  (Contributed
by Zachary Ware in bpo-20035(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<4>,  Next: types<4>,  Prev: tkinter<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.69 traceback
..................

New *note walk_stack(): d03. and *note walk_tb(): d04. functions to
conveniently traverse frame and *note traceback objects: 949.
(Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(1).)

New lightweight classes: *note TracebackException: 4a1, *note
StackSummary: d05, and *note FrameSummary: d06.  (Contributed by Robert
Collins in bpo-17911(2).)

Both the *note print_tb(): d07. and *note print_stack(): d08. functions
now support negative values for the 'limit' argument.  (Contributed by
Dmitry Kazakov in bpo-22619(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619


File: python.info,  Node: types<4>,  Next: unicodedata<7>,  Prev: traceback<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.70 types
..............

A new *note coroutine(): d0a. function to transform *note generator:
a3f. and *note generator-like: c53. objects into *note awaitables: ae0.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(1).)

A new type called *note CoroutineType: d0b, which is used for *note
coroutine: 1ae. objects created by *note async def: 3c3. functions.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24400(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<7>,  Next: unittest<7>,  Prev: types<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.71 unicodedata
....................

The *note unicodedata: 100. module now uses data from Unicode 8.0.0(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<7>,  Next: unittest mock<3>,  Prev: unicodedata<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.72 unittest
.................

The *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 2b1. method now accepts a
keyword-only argument 'pattern' which is passed to ‘load_tests’ as the
third argument.  Found packages are now checked for ‘load_tests’
regardless of whether their path matches 'pattern', because it is
impossible for a package name to match the default pattern.
(Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in bpo-16662(1).)

Unittest discovery errors now are exposed in the *note
TestLoader.errors: d0e. attribute of the *note TestLoader: 532.
instance.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-19746(2).)

A new command line option ‘--locals’ to show local variables in
tracebacks.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-22936(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19746

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock<3>,  Next: urllib,  Prev: unittest<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.73 unittest.mock
......................

The *note Mock: 896. class has the following improvements:

   * The class constructor has a new 'unsafe' parameter, which causes
     mock objects to raise *note AttributeError: 3ca. on attribute names
     starting with ‘"assert"’.  (Contributed by Kushal Das in
     bpo-21238(1).)

   * A new *note Mock.assert_not_called(): d10. method to check if the
     mock object was called.  (Contributed by Kushal Das in
     bpo-21262(2).)

The *note MagicMock: d11. class now supports ‘__truediv__()’,
‘__divmod__()’ and ‘__matmul__()’ operators.  (Contributed by Johannes
Baiter in bpo-20968(3), and Håkan Lövdahl in bpo-23581(4) and
bpo-23568(5).)

It is no longer necessary to explicitly pass ‘create=True’ to the *note
patch(): d12. function when patching builtin names.  (Contributed by
Kushal Das in bpo-17660(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21262

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20968

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17660


File: python.info,  Node: urllib,  Next: wsgiref,  Prev: unittest mock<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.74 urllib
...............

A new *note request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth: d14. class allows HTTP
Basic Authentication credentials to be managed so as to eliminate
unnecessary ‘401’ response handling, or to unconditionally send
credentials on the first request in order to communicate with servers
that return a ‘404’ response instead of a ‘401’ if the ‘Authorization’
header is not sent.  (Contributed by Matej Cepl in bpo-19494(1) and
Akshit Khurana in bpo-7159(2).)

A new 'quote_via' argument for the *note parse.urlencode(): d15.
function provides a way to control the encoding of query parts if
needed.  (Contributed by Samwyse and Arnon Yaari in bpo-13866(3).)

The *note request.urlopen(): 27f. function accepts an *note
ssl.SSLContext: 26f. object as a 'context' argument, which will be used
for the HTTPS connection.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22366(4).)

The *note parse.urljoin(): d16. was updated to use the RFC 3986(5)
semantics for the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFC 1808(6)
and RFC 2396(7).  (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in
bpo-22118(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22366

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22118


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref,  Next: xmlrpc<2>,  Prev: urllib,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.75 wsgiref
................

The 'headers' argument of the *note headers.Headers: d18. class
constructor is now optional.  (Contributed by Pablo Torres Navarrete and
SilentGhost in bpo-5800(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5800


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc<2>,  Next: xml sax,  Prev: wsgiref,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.76 xmlrpc
...............

The *note client.ServerProxy: 8a1. class now supports the *note context
manager: 3c4. protocol.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-20627(1).)

The *note client.ServerProxy: 8a1. constructor now accepts an optional
*note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. instance.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in
bpo-22960(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20627

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22960


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax,  Next: zipfile<4>,  Prev: xmlrpc<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.77 xml.sax
................

SAX parsers now support a character stream of the *note
xmlreader.InputSource: d1b. object.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-2175(1).)

*note parseString(): d1c. now accepts a *note str: 157. instance.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10590(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<4>,  Prev: xml sax,  Up: 改進的模組<8>

1.8.5.78 zipfile
................

ZIP output can now be written to unseekable streams.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23252(1).)

The 'mode' argument of *note ZipFile.open(): b7a. method now accepts
‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-21717(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717


File: python.info,  Node: Other module-level changes,  Next: 最佳化<8>,  Prev: 改進的模組<8>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.6 Other module-level changes
--------------------------------

Many functions in the *note mmap: 8b, *note ossaudiodev: 9e, *note
socket: c6, *note ssl: ca, and *note codecs: 19. modules now accept
writable *note bytes-like objects: b9f.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-23001(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<8>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Prev: Other module-level changes,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.7 最佳化
------------

The *note os.walk(): 1cb. function has been sped up by 3 to 5 times on
POSIX systems, and by 7 to 20 times on Windows.  This was done using the
new *note os.scandir(): 8aa. function, which exposes file information
from the underlying ‘readdir’ or ‘FindFirstFile’/‘FindNextFile’ system
calls.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt with help from Victor Stinner in
bpo-23605(1).)

Construction of ‘bytes(int)’ (filled by zero bytes) is faster and uses
less memory for large objects.  ‘calloc()’ is used instead of ‘malloc()’
to allocate memory for these objects.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-21233(2).)

Some operations on *note ipaddress: 7a. *note IPv4Network: 9a4. and
*note IPv6Network: 9a3. have been massively sped up, such as *note
subnets(): d20, *note supernet(): d21, *note summarize_address_range():
d22, *note collapse_addresses(): d23.  The speed up can range from 3 to
15 times.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Michel Albert, and Markus in
bpo-21486(3), bpo-21487(4), bpo-20826(5), bpo-23266(6).)

Pickling of *note ipaddress: 7a. objects was optimized to produce
significantly smaller output.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-23133(7).)

Many operations on *note io.BytesIO: d24. are now 50% to 100% faster.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15381(8) and David Wilson in
bpo-22003(9).)

The *note marshal.dumps(): d25. function is now faster: 65-85% with
versions 3 and 4, 20-25% with versions 0 to 2 on typical data, and up to
5 times in best cases.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-20416(10) and bpo-23344(11).)

The UTF-32 encoder is now 3 to 7 times faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-15027(12).)

Regular expressions are now parsed up to 10% faster.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19380(13).)

The *note json.dumps(): bb8. function was optimized to run with
‘ensure_ascii=False’ as fast as with ‘ensure_ascii=True’.  (Contributed
by Naoki Inada in bpo-23206(14).)

The *note PyObject_IsInstance(): d26. and *note PyObject_IsSubclass():
d27. functions have been sped up in the common case that the second
argument has *note type: bbb. as its metaclass.  (Contributed Georg
Brandl by in bpo-22540(15).)

Method caching was slightly improved, yielding up to 5% performance
improvement in some benchmarks.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-22847(16).)

Objects from the *note random: b3. module now use 50% less memory on
64-bit builds.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23488(17).)

The *note property(): 424. getter calls are up to 25% faster.
(Contributed by Joe Jevnik in bpo-23910(18).)

Instantiation of *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. is now up to 30% faster.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-22464(19).)

String methods *note find(): d28, *note rfind(): d29, *note split():
d2a, *note partition(): d2b. and the *note in: 267. string operator are
now significantly faster for searching 1-character substrings.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23573(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21486

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21487

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20826

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22003

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19380

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23206

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22464

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Next: 已棄用<10>,  Prev: 最佳化<8>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.8 Build and C API Changes
-----------------------------

New ‘calloc’ functions were added:

   * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): d2d,

   * *note PyMem_Calloc(): d2e,

   * *note PyObject_Calloc(): d2f.

（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-21233(1) 中貢獻。）

New encoding/decoding helper functions:

   * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. (replaced ‘_Py_char2wchar()’),

   * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a29. (replaced ‘_Py_wchar2char()’).

（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-18395(2) 中貢獻。）

A new *note PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): d30. function to replace the
unicode encode error with ‘\N{...}’ escapes.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-19676(3).)

A new *note PyErr_FormatV(): d31. function similar to *note
PyErr_Format(): d32, but accepts a ‘va_list’ argument.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18711(4).)

A new ‘PyExc_RecursionError’ exception.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl in
bpo-19235(5).)

New *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): d33, *note
PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): d34, and *note PyModule_ExecDef(): d35.
functions introduced by PEP 489(6) - multi-phase extension module
initialization.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-24268(7).)

New *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): d36. and *note
PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): d37. functions to perform matrix
multiplication.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-21176(8).  See
also PEP 465(9) for details.)

The *note PyTypeObject.tp_finalize: 8f9. slot is now part of the stable
ABI.

Windows builds now require Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, which is available
as part of Visual Studio 2015(10).

Extension modules now include a platform information tag in their
filename on some platforms (the tag is optional, and CPython will import
extensions without it, although if the tag is present and mismatched,
the extension won't be loaded):

   * On Linux, extension module filenames end with
     ‘.cpython-<major><minor>m-<architecture>-<os>.pyd’:

        * ‘<major>’ is the major number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘3’.

        * ‘<minor>’ is the minor number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘5’.

        * ‘<architecture>’ is the hardware architecture the extension
          module was built to run on.  It's most commonly either ‘i386’
          for 32-bit Intel platforms or ‘x86_64’ for 64-bit Intel (and
          AMD) platforms.

        * ‘<os>’ is always ‘linux-gnu’, except for extensions built to
          talk to the 32-bit ABI on 64-bit platforms, in which case it
          is ‘linux-gnu32’ (and ‘<architecture>’ will be ‘x86_64’).

   * On Windows, extension module filenames end with
     ‘<debug>.cp<major><minor>-<platform>.pyd’:

        * ‘<major>’ is the major number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘3’.

        * ‘<minor>’ is the minor number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘5’.

        * ‘<platform>’ is the platform the extension module was built
          for, either ‘win32’ for Win32, ‘win_amd64’ for Win64,
          ‘win_ia64’ for Windows Itanium 64, and ‘win_arm’ for Windows
          on ARM.

        * If built in debug mode, ‘<debug>’ will be ‘_d’, otherwise it
          will be blank.

   * On OS X platforms, extension module filenames now end with
     ‘-darwin.so’.

   * On all other platforms, extension module filenames are the same as
     they were with Python 3.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (10) 
https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/en/vs/older-downloads/#visual-studio-2015-and-other-products


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用<10>,  Next: 已移除<8>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.9 已棄用
------------

* Menu:

* New Keywords::
* Deprecated Python Behavior: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>.
* Unsupported Operating Systems::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Keywords,  Next: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Up: 已棄用<10>

1.8.9.1 New Keywords
....................

‘async’ and ‘await’ are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
function or module names.  Introduced by PEP 492(1) in Python 3.5, they
will become proper keywords in Python 3.7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Next: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Prev: New Keywords,  Up: 已棄用<10>

1.8.9.2 Deprecated Python Behavior
..................................

Raising the *note StopIteration: a5d. exception inside a generator will
now generate a silent *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700, which will
become a non-silent deprecation warning in Python 3.6 and will trigger a
*note RuntimeError: 17a. in Python 3.7.  See *note PEP 479; Change
StopIteration handling inside generators: b91. for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>,  Prev: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Up: 已棄用<10>

1.8.9.3 Unsupported Operating Systems
.....................................

Windows XP is no longer supported by Microsoft, thus, per PEP 11(1),
CPython 3.5 is no longer officially supported on this OS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>,  Prev: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Up: 已棄用<10>

1.8.9.4 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
........................................................

The ‘formatter’ module has now graduated to full deprecation and is
still slated for removal in Python 3.6.

The ‘asyncio.async()’ function is deprecated in favor of *note
ensure_future(): ade.

The ‘smtpd’ module has in the past always decoded the DATA portion of
email messages using the ‘utf-8’ codec.  This can now be controlled by
the new 'decode_data' keyword to ‘SMTPServer’.  The default value is
‘True’, but this default is deprecated.  Specify the 'decode_data'
keyword with an appropriate value to avoid the deprecation warning.

Directly assigning values to the *note key: a64, *note value: a65. and
*note coded_value: a66. of *note http.cookies.Morsel: a67. objects is
deprecated.  Use the *note set(): a68. method instead.  In addition, the
undocumented 'LegalChars' parameter of *note set(): a68. is deprecated,
and is now ignored.

Passing a format string as keyword argument 'format_string' to the *note
format(): a63. method of the *note string.Formatter: d3d. class has been
deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23671(1).)

The ‘platform.dist()’ and ‘platform.linux_distribution()’ functions are
now deprecated.  Linux distributions use too many different ways of
describing themselves, so the functionality is left to a package.
(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Berker Peksag in bpo-1322(2).)

The previously undocumented ‘from_function’ and ‘from_builtin’ methods
of *note inspect.Signature: 54a. are deprecated.  Use the new *note
Signature.from_callable(): 54b. method instead.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-24248(3).)

The ‘inspect.getargspec()’ function is deprecated and scheduled to be
removed in Python 3.6.  (See bpo-20438(4) for details.)

The *note inspect: 78. *note getfullargspec(): 549, *note getcallargs():
d3e, and ‘formatargspec()’ functions are deprecated in favor of the
*note inspect.signature(): 548. API. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-20438(5).)

*note getargvalues(): d3f. and *note formatargvalues(): d40. functions
were inadvertently marked as deprecated with the release of Python
3.5.0.

Use of *note re.LOCALE: 9c8. flag with str patterns or *note re.ASCII:
428. is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-22407(6).)

Use of unrecognized special sequences consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
letter in regular expression patterns and replacement patterns now
raises a deprecation warning and will be forbidden in Python 3.6.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23622(7).)

The undocumented and unofficial 'use_load_tests' default argument of the
*note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 2b1. method now is
deprecated and ignored.  (Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A.
Warsaw in bpo-16662(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22407

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662


File: python.info,  Node: 已移除<8>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 5,  Prev: 已棄用<10>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.10 已移除
-------------

* Menu:

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<4>,  Up: 已移除<8>

1.8.10.1 API and Feature Removals
.................................

The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have
been removed:

   * The ‘__version__’ attribute has been dropped from the email
     package.  The email code hasn't been shipped separately from the
     stdlib for a long time, and the ‘__version__’ string was not
     updated in the last few releases.

   * The internal ‘Netrc’ class in the *note ftplib: 59. module was
     deprecated in 3.4, and has now been removed.  (Contributed by Matt
     Chaput in bpo-6623(1).)

   * The concept of ‘.pyo’ files has been removed.

   * The JoinableQueue class in the provisional *note asyncio: 9. module
     was deprecated in 3.4.4 and is now removed.  (Contributed by A.
     Jesse Jiryu Davis in bpo-23464(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6623

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 5,  Next: Python 3 5 4 中顯著的變更,  Prev: 已移除<8>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.11 Porting to Python 3.5
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in Python behavior: Changes in Python behavior<2>.
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<6>.
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in Python behavior<2>,  Next: Changes in the Python API<6>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 5

1.8.11.1 Changes in Python behavior
...................................

   * Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted
     the following syntax:

          f(1 for x in [1], *args)
          f(1 for x in [1], **kwargs)

     Python 3.5 now correctly raises a *note SyntaxError: 146, as
     generator expressions must be put in parentheses if not a sole
     argument to a function.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<6>,  Next: C API 中的改動<6>,  Prev: Changes in Python behavior<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 5

1.8.11.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * PEP 475(1): System calls are now retried when interrupted by a
     signal instead of raising *note InterruptedError: bfe. if the
     Python signal handler does not raise an exception.

   * Before Python 3.5, a *note datetime.time: 6c5. object was
     considered to be false if it represented midnight in UTC. This
     behavior was considered obscure and error-prone and has been
     removed in Python 3.5.  See bpo-13936(2) for full details.

   * The ‘ssl.SSLSocket.send()’ method now raises either *note
     ssl.SSLWantReadError: ce7. or *note ssl.SSLWantWriteError: ce8. on
     a non-blocking socket if the operation would block.  Previously, it
     would return ‘0’.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20951(3).)

   * The ‘__name__’ attribute of generators is now set from the function
     name, instead of being set from the code name.  Use
     ‘gen.gi_code.co_name’ to retrieve the code name.  Generators also
     have a new ‘__qualname__’ attribute, the qualified name, which is
     now used for the representation of a generator (‘repr(gen)’).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21205(4).)

   * The deprecated "strict" mode and argument of *note HTMLParser: 6a2,
     ‘HTMLParser.error()’, and the ‘HTMLParserError’ exception have been
     removed.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(5).)  The
     'convert_charrefs' argument of *note HTMLParser: 6a2. is now ‘True’
     by default.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21047(6).)

   * Although it is not formally part of the API, it is worth noting for
     porting purposes (ie: fixing tests) that error messages that were
     previously of the form "'sometype' does not support the buffer
     protocol" are now of the form "a *note bytes-like object: b9f. is
     required, not 'sometype'".  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in
     bpo-16518(7).)

   * If the current directory is set to a directory that no longer
     exists then *note FileNotFoundError: d46. will no longer be raised
     and instead *note find_spec(): d47. will return ‘None’ 'without'
     caching ‘None’ in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8, which is
     different than the typical case (bpo-22834(8)).

   * HTTP status code and messages from *note http.client: 6a. and *note
     http.server: 6d. were refactored into a common *note HTTPStatus:
     73b. enum.  The values in *note http.client: 6a. and *note
     http.server: 6d. remain available for backwards compatibility.
     (Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-21793(9).)

   * When an import loader defines
     ‘importlib.machinery.Loader.exec_module()’ it is now expected to
     also define ‘create_module()’ (raises a *note DeprecationWarning:
     179. now, will be an error in Python 3.6).  If the loader inherits
     from *note importlib.abc.Loader: d48. then there is nothing to do,
     else simply define ‘create_module()’ to return ‘None’.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-23014(10).)

   * The *note re.split(): 9ca. function always ignored empty pattern
     matches, so the ‘"x*"’ pattern worked the same as ‘"x+"’, and the
     ‘"\b"’ pattern never worked.  Now *note re.split(): 9ca. raises a
     warning if the pattern could match an empty string.  For
     compatibility, use patterns that never match an empty string (e.g.
     ‘"x+"’ instead of ‘"x*"’).  Patterns that could only match an empty
     string (such as ‘"\b"’) now raise an error.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-22818(11).)

   * The *note http.cookies.Morsel: a67. dict-like interface has been
     made self consistent: morsel comparison now takes the *note key:
     a64. and *note value: a65. into account, *note copy(): d49. now
     results in a *note Morsel: a67. instance rather than a *note dict:
     239, and *note update(): d4a. will now raise an exception if any of
     the keys in the update dictionary are invalid.  In addition, the
     undocumented 'LegalChars' parameter of *note set(): a68. is
     deprecated and is now ignored.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht in
     bpo-2211(12).)

   * PEP 488(13) has removed ‘.pyo’ files from Python and introduced the
     optional ‘opt-’ tag in ‘.pyc’ file names.  The *note
     importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 26d. has gained an
     'optimization' parameter to help control the ‘opt-’ tag.  Because
     of this, the 'debug_override' parameter of the function is now
     deprecated.  ‘.pyo’ files are also no longer supported as a file
     argument to the Python interpreter and thus serve no purpose when
     distributed on their own (i.e.  sourceless code distribution).  Due
     to the fact that the magic number for bytecode has changed in
     Python 3.5, all old ‘.pyo’ files from previous versions of Python
     are invalid regardless of this PEP.

   * The *note socket: c6. module now exports the *note
     CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES: d4b. constant on linux 3.6 and greater.

   * The *note ssl.cert_time_to_seconds(): ce9. function now interprets
     the input time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280(14).
     Additionally, the return value is always an *note int: 17e.
     (Contributed by Akira Li in bpo-19940(15).)

   * The ‘pygettext.py’ Tool now uses the standard +NNNN format for
     timezones in the POT-Creation-Date header.

   * The *note smtplib: c4. module now uses *note sys.stderr: 778.
     instead of the previous module-level ‘stderr’ variable for debug
     output.  If your (test) program depends on patching the
     module-level variable to capture the debug output, you will need to
     update it to capture sys.stderr instead.

   * The *note str.startswith(): d4c. and *note str.endswith(): d4d.
     methods no longer return ‘True’ when finding the empty string and
     the indexes are completely out of range.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-24284(16).)

   * The *note inspect.getdoc(): 83f. function now returns documentation
     strings inherited from base classes.  Documentation strings no
     longer need to be duplicated if the inherited documentation is
     appropriate.  To suppress an inherited string, an empty string must
     be specified (or the documentation may be filled in).  This change
     affects the output of the *note pydoc: b0. module and the *note
     help(): 710. function.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-15582(17).)

   * Nested *note functools.partial(): d4e. calls are now flattened.  If
     you were relying on the previous behavior, you can now either add
     an attribute to a *note functools.partial(): d4e. object or you can
     create a subclass of *note functools.partial(): d4e.  (Contributed
     by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-7830(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21047

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23014

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830


File: python.info,  Node: C API 中的改動<6>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<6>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 5

1.8.11.3 C API 中的改動
.......................

   * The undocumented ‘format’ member of the (non-public)
     ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ structure has been removed.  All extensions
     relying on the relevant parts in ‘memoryobject.h’ must be rebuilt.

   * The ‘PyMemAllocator’ structure was renamed to *note
     PyMemAllocatorEx: d50. and a new ‘calloc’ field was added.

   * Removed non-documented macro ‘PyObject_REPR()’ which leaked
     references.  Use format character ‘%R’ in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302.-like functions to format the *note
     repr(): 61e. of the object.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-22453(1).)

   * Because the lack of the *note __module__: af5. attribute breaks
     pickling and introspection, a deprecation warning is now raised for
     builtin types without the *note __module__: af5. attribute.  This
     will be an *note AttributeError: 3ca. in the future.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20204(2).)

   * As part of the PEP 492(3) implementation, the ‘tp_reserved’ slot of
     *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. was replaced with a *note tp_as_async:
     d51. slot.  Refer to *note Coroutine（協程）物件: d52. for new
     types, structures and functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 4 中顯著的變更,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 5,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能

1.8.12 Python 3.5.4 中顯著的變更
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<2>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target<2>,  Next: Removal of make touch build target<2>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 中顯著的變更

1.8.12.1 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
..........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-23404(2) 中貢獻。）

在 3.5.4 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target<2>,  Prev: New make regen-all build target<2>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 中顯著的變更

1.8.12.2 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
.............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

（由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-23404(1) 中貢獻。）

在 3.5.4 版的變更.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>,  Next: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.9 Python 3.4 有什麼新功能
===========================


作者: R. David Murray <<rdmurray@bitdance.com>> （編輯者）

This article explains the new features in Python 3.4, compared to 3.3.
Python 3.4 was released on March 16, 2014.  For full details, see the
changelog(1).

也參考
......

PEP 429(2) - Python 3.4 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>. Release Highlights
* New Features: New Features<7>.
* 新模組: 新模組<5>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<9>.
* CPython 實作變更::
* 已棄用: 已棄用<11>.
* 已移除: 已移除<9>.
* Porting to Python 3.4: Porting to Python 3 4.
* 3.4.3 中的變更: 3 4 3 中的變更.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.4/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0429/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>,  Next: New Features<7>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>

1.9.1 Summary - Release Highlights
----------------------------------

新增語法特性：

   * No new syntax features were added in Python 3.4.

Other new features:

   * *note pip should always be available: d59. ( PEP 453(1)).

   * *note Newly created file descriptors are non-inheritable: d5a. (
     PEP 446(2)).

   * command line option for *note isolated mode: d5b. (bpo-16499(3)).

   * *note improvements in the handling of codecs: d5c. that are not
     text encodings (multiple issues).

   * *note A ModuleSpec Type: d5d. for the Import System ( PEP 451(4)).
     (Affects importer authors.)

   * The *note marshal: 88. format has been made *note more compact and
     efficient: d5e. (bpo-16475(5)).

New library modules:

   * *note asyncio: 9.: *note New provisional API for asynchronous IO:
     d5f. ( PEP 3156(6)).

   * *note ensurepip: 50.: *note Bootstrapping the pip installer: d60. (
     PEP 453(7)).

   * *note enum: 51.: *note Support for enumeration types: d61. ( PEP
     435(8)).

   * *note pathlib: 9f.: *note Object-oriented filesystem paths: d62. (
     PEP 428(9)).

   * *note selectors: bd.: *note High-level and efficient I/O
     multiplexing: d63, built upon the *note select: bc. module
     primitives (part of PEP 3156(10)).

   * *note statistics: cc.: A basic *note numerically stable statistics
     library: d64. ( PEP 450(11)).

   * *note tracemalloc: fa.: *note Trace Python memory allocations: d65.
     ( PEP 454(12)).

Significantly improved library modules:

   * *note Single-dispatch generic functions: d66. in *note functools:
     5a. ( PEP 443(13)).

   * New *note pickle: a1. *note protocol 4: d67. ( PEP 3154(14)).

   * *note multiprocessing: 8f. now has *note an option to avoid using
     os.fork on Unix: d68. (bpo-8713(15)).

   * *note email: 37. has a new submodule, *note contentmanager: 39, and
     a new *note Message: b05. subclass (‘EmailMessage’) that *note
     simplify MIME handling: d69. (bpo-18891(16)).

   * The *note inspect: 78. and *note pydoc: b0. modules are now capable
     of correct introspection of a much wider variety of callable
     objects, which improves the output of the Python *note help(): 710.
     system.

   * The *note ipaddress: 7a. module API has been declared stable

安全性改進：

   * *note Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm: d6a. ( PEP
     456(17)).

   * *note Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable: d5a. (
     PEP 446(18)) to avoid leaking file descriptors to child processes.

   * New command line option for *note isolated mode: d5b,
     (bpo-16499(19)).

   * *note multiprocessing: 8f. now has *note an option to avoid using
     os.fork on Unix: d68.  'spawn' and 'forkserver' are more secure
     because they avoid sharing data with child processes.

   * *note multiprocessing: 8f. child processes on Windows no longer
     inherit all of the parent's inheritable handles, only the necessary
     ones.

   * A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 290. function provides the
     PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2(20).

   * *note TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support: d6b. for *note ssl: ca.

   * *note Retrieving certificates from the Windows system cert store
     support: d6c. for *note ssl: ca.

   * *note Server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) support: d6d. for
     *note ssl: ca.

   * The *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. class has a *note lot of
     improvements: d6e.

   * All modules in the standard library that support SSL now support
     server certificate verification, including hostname matching
     (‘ssl.match_hostname()’) and CRLs (Certificate Revocation lists,
     see *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d6f.).

CPython implementation improvements:

   * *note Safe object finalization: d70. ( PEP 442(21)).

   * Leveraging PEP 442(22), in most cases *note module globals are no
     longer set to None during finalization: d70. (bpo-18214(23)).

   * *note Configurable memory allocators: d71. ( PEP 445(24)).

   * *note Argument Clinic: d72. ( PEP 436(25)).

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes,
including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations,
deprecations, and potential porting issues.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (20) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18214

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<7>,  Next: 新模組<5>,  Prev: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>

1.9.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations.
* PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
* Improvements to Codec Handling::
* PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations,  Next: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Up: New Features<7>

1.9.2.1 PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations
......................................................................

* Menu:

* Bootstrapping pip By Default::
* Documentation Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default,  Next: Documentation Changes,  Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

1.9.2.2 Bootstrapping pip By Default
....................................

The new *note ensurepip: 50. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a
standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into
Python installations and virtual environments.  The version of ‘pip’
included with Python 3.4.0 is ‘pip’ 1.5.4, and future 3.4.x maintenance
releases will update the bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’
that is available at the time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on all
platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation),
along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies.  On Windows
and in virtual environments on all platforms, the unversioned ‘pip’
command will also be installed.  On other platforms, the system wide
unversioned ‘pip’ command typically refers to the separately installed
Python 2 version.

The ‘pyvenv’ command line utility and the *note venv: 10c. module make
use of the *note ensurepip: 50. module to make ‘pip’ readily available
in virtual environments.  When using the command line utility, ‘pip’ is
installed by default, while when using the *note venv: 10c. module *note
API: d76. installation of ‘pip’ must be requested explicitly.

For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: d77, the ‘make
install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands bootstrap ‘pip’ by default.
This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and
overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to
installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of
installing it during the installation process).  Window users will need
to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available
from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed
through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’.

As discussed in the PEP(2) platform packagers may choose not to install
these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear
and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually
using the system package manager).

     備註: To avoid conflicts between parallel Python 2 and Python 3
     installations, only the versioned ‘pip3’ and ‘pip3.4’ commands are
     bootstrapped by default when ‘ensurepip’ is invoked directly - the
     ‘--default-pip’ option is needed to also request the unversioned
     ‘pip’ command.  ‘pyvenv’ and the Windows installer ensure that the
     unqualified ‘pip’ command is made available in those environments,
     and ‘pip’ can always be invoked via the ‘-m’ switch rather than
     directly to avoid ambiguity on systems with multiple Python
     installations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation Changes,  Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default,  Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

1.9.2.3 Documentation Changes
.............................

As part of this change, the *note 安裝 Python 模組: d79. and
distributing-index sections of the documentation have been completely
redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents.  Most packaging
documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority
maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the documentation of the
individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
versions of those guides remaining available as *note Building C and C++
Extensions with setuptools: d7a. and *note Building C and C++ Extensions
with setuptools: d7b.

也參考
......

PEP 453(2) - Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
     Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Next: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Prev: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations,  Up: New Features<7>

1.9.2.4 PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable
...................................................................

PEP 446(1) makes newly created file descriptors *note non-inheritable:
d7d.  In general, this is the behavior an application will want: when
launching a new process, having currently open files also open in the
new process can lead to all sorts of hard to find bugs, and potentially
to security issues.

However, there are occasions when inheritance is desired.  To support
these cases, the following new functions and methods are available:

   * *note os.get_inheritable(): d7e, *note os.set_inheritable(): d7f.

   * *note os.get_handle_inheritable(): d80, *note
     os.set_handle_inheritable(): d81.

   * *note socket.socket.get_inheritable(): d82, *note
     socket.socket.set_inheritable(): d83.

也參考
......

PEP 446(2) - Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable

     由 Victor Stinner 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/


File: python.info,  Node: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Next: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Prev: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Up: New Features<7>

1.9.2.5 Improvements to Codec Handling
......................................

Since it was first introduced, the *note codecs: 19. module has always
been intended to operate as a type-neutral dynamic encoding and decoding
system.  However, its close coupling with the Python text model,
especially the type restricted convenience methods on the builtin *note
str: 157, *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0. types, has
historically obscured that fact.

As a key step in clarifying the situation, the *note codecs.encode():
d85. and *note codecs.decode(): d86. convenience functions are now
properly documented in Python 2.7, 3.3 and 3.4.  These functions have
existed in the *note codecs: 19. module (and have been covered by the
regression test suite) since Python 2.4, but were previously only
discoverable through runtime introspection.

Unlike the convenience methods on *note str: 157, *note bytes: 2c1. and
*note bytearray: 2c0, the *note codecs: 19. convenience functions
support arbitrary codecs in both Python 2 and Python 3, rather than
being limited to Unicode text encodings (in Python 3) or ‘basestring’
<-> ‘basestring’ conversions (in Python 2).

In Python 3.4, the interpreter is able to identify the known non-text
encodings provided in the standard library and direct users towards
these general purpose convenience functions when appropriate:

     >>> b"abcdef".decode("hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.decode() to handle arbitrary codecs

     >>> "hello".encode("rot13")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'rot13' is not a text encoding; use codecs.encode() to handle arbitrary codecs

     >>> open("foo.txt", encoding="hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.open() to handle arbitrary codecs

In a related change, whenever it is feasible without breaking backwards
compatibility, exceptions raised during encoding and decoding operations
are wrapped in a chained exception of the same type that mentions the
name of the codec responsible for producing the error:

     >>> import codecs

     >>> codecs.decode(b"abcdefgh", "hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/hex_codec.py", line 20, in hex_decode
         return (binascii.a2b_hex(input), len(input))
     binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     binascii.Error: decoding with 'hex' codec failed (Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found)

     >>> codecs.encode("hello", "bz2")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/bz2_codec.py", line 17, in bz2_encode
         return (bz2.compress(input), len(input))
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/bz2.py", line 498, in compress
         return comp.compress(data) + comp.flush()
     TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: encoding with 'bz2' codec failed (TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface)

Finally, as the examples above show, these improvements have permitted
the restoration of the convenience aliases for the non-Unicode codecs
that were themselves restored in Python 3.2.  This means that encoding
binary data to and from its hexadecimal representation (for example) can
now be written as:

     >>> from codecs import encode, decode
     >>> encode(b"hello", "hex")
     b'68656c6c6f'
     >>> decode(b"68656c6c6f", "hex")
     b'hello'

The binary and text transforms provided in the standard library are
detailed in *note Binary Transforms: d87. and *note Text Transforms:
d88.

（由 Nick Coghlan 在 bpo-7475(1)、bpo-17827(2)、bpo-17828(3) 和
bpo-19619(4) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7475

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17827

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17828

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19619


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Next: 其他語言更動<9>,  Prev: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Up: New Features<7>

1.9.2.6 PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System
........................................................

PEP 451(1) provides an encapsulation of the information about a module
that the import machinery will use to load it (that is, a module
specification).  This helps simplify both the import implementation and
several import-related APIs.  The change is also a stepping stone for
several future import-related improvements(2).

The public-facing changes from the PEP are entirely backward-compatible.
Furthermore, they should be transparent to everyone but importer
authors.  Key finder and loader methods have been deprecated, but they
will continue working.  New importers should use the new methods
described in the PEP. Existing importers should be updated to implement
the new methods.  See the *note 已棄用: d8a. section for a list of
methods that should be replaced and their replacements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2013-November/130111.html


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<9>,  Prev: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Up: New Features<7>

1.9.2.7 其他語言更動
....................

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.3.

   * *note min(): d8c. and *note max(): d8d. now accept a 'default'
     keyword-only argument that can be used to specify the value they
     return if the iterable they are evaluating has no elements.
     (Contributed by Julian Berman in bpo-18111(1).)

   * Module objects are now *note weakly referenceable: d8e.

   * Module ‘__file__’ attributes (and related values) should now always
     contain absolute paths by default, with the sole exception of
     ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed directly using
     a relative path.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18416(2).)

   * All the UTF-* codecs (except UTF-7) now reject surrogates during
     both encoding and decoding unless the ‘surrogatepass’ error handler
     is used, with the exception of the UTF-16 decoder (which accepts
     valid surrogate pairs) and the UTF-16 encoder (which produces them
     while encoding non-BMP characters).  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner, Kang-Hao (Kenny) Lu and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12892(3).)

   * New German EBCDIC *note codec: c30. ‘cp273’.  (Contributed by
     Michael Bierenfeld and Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1097797(4).)

   * New Ukrainian *note codec: c30. ‘cp1125’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-19668(5).)

   * *note bytes: 2c1.join() and *note bytearray: 2c0.join() now accept
     arbitrary buffer objects as arguments.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou in bpo-15958(6).)

   * The *note int: 17e. constructor now accepts any object that has an
     ‘__index__’ method for its 'base' argument.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson in bpo-16772(7).)

   * Frame objects now have a *note clear(): d8f. method that clears all
     references to local variables from the frame.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17934(8).)

   * *note memoryview: 17f. is now registered as a *note Sequence: 1c,
     and supports the *note reversed(): 691. builtin.  (Contributed by
     Nick Coghlan and Claudiu Popa in bpo-18690(9) and bpo-19078(10).)

   * Signatures reported by *note help(): 710. have been modified and
     improved in several cases as a result of the introduction of
     Argument Clinic and other changes to the *note inspect: 78. and
     *note pydoc: b0. modules.

   * *note __length_hint__(): d90. is now part of the formal language
     specification (see PEP 424(11)).  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in
     bpo-16148(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18111

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1097797

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15958

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17934

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18690

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19078

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148


File: python.info,  Node: 新模組<5>,  Next: 改進的模組<9>,  Prev: New Features<7>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>

1.9.3 新模組
------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<10>.
* ensurepip: ensurepip<2>.
* enum: enum<8>.
* pathlib: pathlib<9>.
* selectors: selectors<2>.
* statistics: statistics<5>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<10>,  Next: ensurepip<2>,  Up: 新模組<5>

1.9.3.1 asyncio
...............

The new *note asyncio: 9. module (defined in PEP 3156(1)) provides a
standard pluggable event loop model for Python, providing solid
asynchronous IO support in the standard library, and making it easier
for other event loop implementations to interoperate with the standard
library and each other.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: 958.

也參考
......

PEP 3156(2) - Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the "asyncio" Module

     由 Guido van Rossum 撰寫 PEP 與帶領實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip<2>,  Next: enum<8>,  Prev: asyncio<10>,  Up: 新模組<5>

1.9.3.2 ensurepip
.................

The new *note ensurepip: 50. module is the primary infrastructure for
the PEP 453(1) implementation.  In the normal course of events end users
will not need to interact with this module, but it can be used to
manually bootstrap ‘pip’ if the automated bootstrapping into an
installation or virtual environment was declined.

*note ensurepip: 50. includes a bundled copy of ‘pip’, up-to-date as of
the first release candidate of the release of CPython with which it
ships (this applies to both maintenance releases and feature releases).
‘ensurepip’ does not access the internet.  If the installation has
internet access, after ‘ensurepip’ is run the bundled ‘pip’ can be used
to upgrade ‘pip’ to a more recent release than the bundled one.  (Note
that such an upgraded version of ‘pip’ is considered to be a separately
installed package and will not be removed if Python is uninstalled.)

The module is named 'ensure'pip because if called when ‘pip’ is already
installed, it does nothing.  It also has an ‘--upgrade’ option that will
cause it to install the bundled copy of ‘pip’ if the existing installed
version of ‘pip’ is older than the bundled copy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: enum<8>,  Next: pathlib<9>,  Prev: ensurepip<2>,  Up: 新模組<5>

1.9.3.3 enum
............

The new *note enum: 51. module (defined in PEP 435(1)) provides a
standard implementation of enumeration types, allowing other modules
(such as *note socket: c6.) to provide more informative error messages
and better debugging support by replacing opaque integer constants with
backwards compatible enumeration values.

也參考
......

PEP 435(2) - Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky and Ethan Furman,
     implemented by Ethan Furman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<9>,  Next: selectors<2>,  Prev: enum<8>,  Up: 新模組<5>

1.9.3.4 pathlib
...............

The new *note pathlib: 9f. module offers classes representing filesystem
paths with semantics appropriate for different operating systems.  Path
classes are divided between 'pure paths', which provide purely
computational operations without I/O, and 'concrete paths', which
inherit from pure paths but also provide I/O operations.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: 958.

也參考
......

PEP 428(1) - The pathlib module - object-oriented filesystem paths

     由 Antoine Pitrou 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/


File: python.info,  Node: selectors<2>,  Next: statistics<5>,  Prev: pathlib<9>,  Up: 新模組<5>

1.9.3.5 selectors
.................

The new *note selectors: bd. module (created as part of implementing PEP
3156(1)) allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon
the *note select: bc. module primitives.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<5>,  Next: tracemalloc<4>,  Prev: selectors<2>,  Up: 新模組<5>

1.9.3.6 statistics
..................

The new *note statistics: cc. module (defined in PEP 450(1)) offers some
core statistics functionality directly in the standard library.  This
module supports calculation of the mean, median, mode, variance and
standard deviation of a data series.

也參考
......

PEP 450(2) - Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library

     由 Steven D'Aprano 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<4>,  Prev: statistics<5>,  Up: 新模組<5>

1.9.3.7 tracemalloc
...................

The new *note tracemalloc: fa. module (defined in PEP 454(1)) is a debug
tool to trace memory blocks allocated by Python.  It provides the
following information:

   * Trace where an object was allocated

   * Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line
     number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory
     blocks

   * Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory
     leaks

也參考
......

PEP 454(2) - Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations

     由 Victor Stinner 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/


File: python.info,  Node: 改進的模組<9>,  Next: CPython 實作變更,  Prev: 新模組<5>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>

1.9.4 改進的模組
----------------

* Menu:

* abc::
* aifc: aifc<2>.
* argparse: argparse<4>.
* audioop::
* base64: base64<2>.
* collections: collections<6>.
* colorsys::
* contextlib: contextlib<6>.
* dbm: dbm<5>.
* dis: dis<3>.
* doctest: doctest<3>.
* email: email<5>.
* filecmp::
* functools: functools<5>.
* gc: gc<5>.
* glob: glob<3>.
* hashlib: hashlib<6>.
* hmac: hmac<3>.
* html::
* http: http<3>.
* idlelib 與 IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<8>.
* inspect: inspect<8>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<5>.
* logging: logging<6>.
* marshal::
* mmap: mmap<2>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>.
* operator: operator<3>.
* os: os<10>.
* pdb: pdb<5>.
* pickle: pickle<4>.
* plistlib: plistlib<2>.
* poplib: poplib<3>.
* pprint: pprint<4>.
* pty::
* pydoc: pydoc<4>.
* re: re<6>.
* resource::
* select::
* shelve: shelve<2>.
* shutil: shutil<5>.
* smtpd: smtpd<3>.
* smtplib: smtplib<3>.
* socket: socket<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<8>.
* ssl: ssl<9>.
* stat::
* struct: struct<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<4>.
* sunau: sunau<2>.
* sys: sys<10>.
* tarfile: tarfile<7>.
* textwrap::
* threading: threading<7>.
* traceback: traceback<5>.
* types: types<5>.
* urllib: urllib<2>.
* unittest: unittest<8>.
* venv: venv<6>.
* wave: wave<2>.
* weakref: weakref<2>.
* xml.etree: xml etree<2>.
* zipfile: zipfile<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: abc,  Next: aifc<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.1 abc
...........

New function *note abc.get_cache_token(): d9b. can be used to know when
to invalidate caches that are affected by changes in the object graph.
(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-16832(1).)

New class *note ABC: d9c. has *note ABCMeta: d9d. as its meta class.
Using ‘ABC’ as a base class has essentially the same effect as
specifying ‘metaclass=abc.ABCMeta’, but is simpler to type and easier to
read.  (Contributed by Bruno Dupuis in bpo-16049(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16832

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16049


File: python.info,  Node: aifc<2>,  Next: argparse<4>,  Prev: abc,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.2 aifc
............

The *note getparams(): d9f. method now returns a namedtuple rather than
a plain tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17818(1).)

*note aifc.open(): a42. now supports the context management protocol:
when used in a *note with: 3c5. block, the *note close(): da0. method of
the returned object will be called automatically at the end of the
block.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchacha in bpo-16486(2).)

The *note writeframesraw(): da1. and *note writeframes(): da2. methods
now accept any *note bytes-like object: b9f.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8311(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17818

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16486

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<4>,  Next: audioop,  Prev: aifc<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.3 argparse
................

The *note FileType: da4. class now accepts 'encoding' and 'errors'
arguments, which are passed through to *note open(): 29c.  (Contributed
by Lucas Maystre in bpo-11175(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11175


File: python.info,  Node: audioop,  Next: base64<2>,  Prev: argparse<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.4 audioop
...............

*note audioop: b. now supports 24-bit samples.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-12866(1).)

New *note byteswap(): da6. function converts big-endian samples to
little-endian and vice versa.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-19641(2).)

All *note audioop: b. functions now accept any *note bytes-like object:
b9f.  Strings are not accepted: they didn't work before, now they raise
an error right away.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16685(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12866

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19641

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685


File: python.info,  Node: base64<2>,  Next: collections<6>,  Prev: audioop,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.5 base64
..............

The encoding and decoding functions in *note base64: c. now accept any
*note bytes-like object: b9f. in cases where it previously required a
*note bytes: 2c1. or *note bytearray: 2c0. instance.  (Contributed by
Nick Coghlan in bpo-17839(1).)

New functions *note a85encode(): da8, *note a85decode(): da9, *note
b85encode(): daa, and *note b85decode(): dab. provide the ability to
encode and decode binary data from and to ‘Ascii85’ and the
git/mercurial ‘Base85’ formats, respectively.  The ‘a85’ functions have
options that can be used to make them compatible with the variants of
the ‘Ascii85’ encoding, including the Adobe variant.  (Contributed by
Martin Morrison, the Mercurial project, Serhiy Storchaka, and Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-17618(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17839

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17618


File: python.info,  Node: collections<6>,  Next: colorsys,  Prev: base64<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.6 collections
...................

The *note ChainMap.new_child(): dad. method now accepts an 'm' argument
specifying the child map to add to the chain.  This allows an existing
mapping and/or a custom mapping type to be used for the child.
(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16613(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16613


File: python.info,  Node: colorsys,  Next: contextlib<6>,  Prev: collections<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.7 colorsys
................

The number of digits in the coefficients for the RGB -- YIQ conversions
have been expanded so that they match the FCC NTSC versions.  The change
in results should be less than 1% and may better match results found
elsewhere.  (Contributed by Brian Landers and Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-14323(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14323


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<6>,  Next: dbm<5>,  Prev: colorsys,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.8 contextlib
..................

The new *note contextlib.suppress: db0. context manager helps to clarify
the intent of code that deliberately suppresses exceptions from a single
statement.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15806(1) and Zero
Piraeus in bpo-19266(2).)

The new *note contextlib.redirect_stdout(): c60. context manager makes
it easier for utility scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their
output to *note sys.stdout: 92a. and don't provide any options to
redirect it.  Using the context manager, the *note sys.stdout: 92a.
output can be redirected to any other stream or, in conjunction with
*note io.StringIO: db1, to a string.  The latter can be especially
useful, for example, to capture output from a function that was written
to implement a command line interface.  It is recommended only for
utility scripts because it affects the global state of *note sys.stdout:
92a.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15805(3).)

The *note contextlib: 21. documentation has also been updated to include
a *note discussion: db2. of the differences between single use, reusable
and reentrant context managers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15806

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19266

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15805


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<5>,  Next: dis<3>,  Prev: contextlib<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.9 dbm
...........

*note dbm.open(): db4. objects now support the context management
protocol.  When used in a *note with: 3c5. statement, the ‘close’ method
of the database object will be called automatically at the end of the
block.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick Coghlan in bpo-19282(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19282


File: python.info,  Node: dis<3>,  Next: doctest<3>,  Prev: dbm<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.10 dis
............

Functions *note show_code(): db6, *note dis(): 98c, *note distb(): db7,
and *note disassemble(): db8. now accept a keyword-only 'file' argument
that controls where they write their output.

The *note dis: 35. module is now built around an *note Instruction: db9.
class that provides object oriented access to the details of each
individual bytecode operation.

A new method, *note get_instructions(): dba, provides an iterator that
emits the Instruction stream for a given piece of Python code.  Thus it
is now possible to write a program that inspects and manipulates a
bytecode object in ways different from those provided by the *note dis:
35. module itself.  For example:

     >>> import dis
     >>> for instr in dis.get_instructions(lambda x: x + 1):
     ...     print(instr.opname)
     LOAD_FAST
     LOAD_CONST
     BINARY_ADD
     RETURN_VALUE

The various display tools in the *note dis: 35. module have been
rewritten to use these new components.

In addition, a new application-friendly class *note Bytecode: dbb.
provides an object-oriented API for inspecting bytecode in both in
human-readable form and for iterating over instructions.  The *note
Bytecode: dbb. constructor takes the same arguments that
‘get_instruction()’ does (plus an optional 'current_offset'), and the
resulting object can be iterated to produce *note Instruction: db9.
objects.  But it also has a *note dis: dbc. method, equivalent to
calling *note dis: 98c. on the constructor argument, but returned as a
multi-line string:

     >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(lambda x: x + 1, current_offset=3)
     >>> for instr in bytecode:
     ...     print('{} ({})'.format(instr.opname, instr.opcode))
     LOAD_FAST (124)
     LOAD_CONST (100)
     BINARY_ADD (23)
     RETURN_VALUE (83)
     >>> bytecode.dis().splitlines()
     ['  1           0 LOAD_FAST                0 (x)',
      '      -->     3 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)',
      '              6 BINARY_ADD',
      '              7 RETURN_VALUE']

*note Bytecode: dbb. also has a class method, *note from_traceback():
dbd, that provides the ability to manipulate a traceback (that is,
‘print(Bytecode.from_traceback(tb).dis())’ is equivalent to
‘distb(tb)’).

（由 Nick Coghlan、Ryan Kelly 和 Thomas Kluyver 在 bpo-11816(1) 中以及
Claudiu Popa 在 bpo-17916(2) 中貢獻。）

New function *note stack_effect(): dbe. computes the effect on the
Python stack of a given opcode and argument, information that is not
otherwise available.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-19722(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11816

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17916

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19722


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<3>,  Next: email<5>,  Prev: dis<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.11 doctest
................

A new *note option flag: dc0, *note FAIL_FAST: dc1, halts test running
as soon as the first failure is detected.  (Contributed by R. David
Murray and Daniel Urban in bpo-16522(1).)

The *note doctest: 36. command line interface now uses *note argparse:
6, and has two new options, ‘-o’ and ‘-f’.  ‘-o’ allows *note doctest
options: dc0. to be specified on the command line, and ‘-f’ is a
shorthand for ‘-o FAIL_FAST’ (to parallel the similar option supported
by the *note unittest: 101. CLI). (Contributed by R. David Murray in
bpo-11390(2).)

*note doctest: 36. will now find doctests in extension module ‘__doc__’
strings.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-3158(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16522

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11390

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158


File: python.info,  Node: email<5>,  Next: filecmp,  Prev: doctest<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.12 email
..............

*note as_string(): dc3. now accepts a 'policy' argument to override the
default policy of the message when generating a string representation of
it.  This means that ‘as_string’ can now be used in more circumstances,
instead of having to create and use a *note generator: 3c. in order to
pass formatting parameters to its ‘flatten’ method.  (Contributed by R.
David Murray in bpo-18600(1).)

New method *note as_bytes(): dc4. added to produce a bytes
representation of the message in a fashion similar to how ‘as_string’
produces a string representation.  It does not accept the 'maxheaderlen'
argument, but does accept the 'unixfrom' and 'policy' arguments.  The
*note Message: b05. *note __bytes__(): dc5. method calls it, meaning
that ‘bytes(mymsg)’ will now produce the intuitive result: a bytes
object containing the fully formatted message.  (Contributed by R. David
Murray in bpo-18600(2).)

The *note Message.set_param(): dc6. message now accepts a 'replace'
keyword argument.  When specified, the associated header will be updated
without changing its location in the list of headers.  For backward
compatibility, the default is ‘False’.  (Contributed by R. David Murray
in bpo-18891(3).)  A pair of new subclasses of *note Message: b05. have
been added (*note EmailMessage: b06. and *note MIMEPart: dc7.), along
with a new sub-module, *note contentmanager: 39. and a new *note policy:
4b. attribute *note content_manager: dc8.  All documentation is
currently in the new module, which is being added as part of email's new
*note provisional API: 958.  These classes provide a number of new
methods that make extracting content from and inserting content into
email messages much easier.  For details, see the *note contentmanager:
39. documentation and the *note email：範例: dc9.  These API additions
complete the bulk of the work that was planned as part of the email6
project.  The currently provisional API is scheduled to become final in
Python 3.5 (possibly with a few minor additions in the area of error
handling).  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18891(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891


File: python.info,  Node: filecmp,  Next: functools<5>,  Prev: email<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.13 filecmp
................

A new *note clear_cache(): dcb. function provides the ability to clear
the *note filecmp: 55. comparison cache, which uses *note os.stat():
1bf. information to determine if the file has changed since the last
compare.  This can be used, for example, if the file might have been
changed and re-checked in less time than the resolution of a particular
filesystem's file modification time field.  (Contributed by Mark Levitt
in bpo-18149(1).)

New module attribute *note DEFAULT_IGNORES: dcc. provides the list of
directories that are used as the default value for the 'ignore'
parameter of the *note dircmp(): dcd. function.  (Contributed by Eli
Bendersky in bpo-15442(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18149

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15442


File: python.info,  Node: functools<5>,  Next: gc<5>,  Prev: filecmp,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.14 functools
..................

The new *note partialmethod(): 8c7. descriptor brings partial argument
application to descriptors, just as *note partial(): d4e. provides for
normal callables.  The new descriptor also makes it easier to get
arbitrary callables (including *note partial(): d4e. instances) to
behave like normal instance methods when included in a class definition.
(Contributed by Alon Horev and Nick Coghlan in bpo-4331(1).)  The new
*note singledispatch(): 434. decorator brings support for
single-dispatch generic functions to the Python standard library.  Where
object oriented programming focuses on grouping multiple operations on a
common set of data into a class, a generic function focuses on grouping
multiple implementations of an operation that allows it to work with
'different' kinds of data.

也參考
......

PEP 443(2) - Single-dispatch generic functions

     由 Łukasz Langa 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

*note total_ordering(): dcf. now supports a return value of *note
NotImplemented: 5f2. from the underlying comparison function.
(Contributed by Katie Miller in bpo-10042(3).)

A pure-python version of the *note partial(): d4e. function is now in
the stdlib; in CPython it is overridden by the C accelerated version,
but it is available for other implementations to use.  (Contributed by
Brian Thorne in bpo-12428(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4331

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10042

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12428


File: python.info,  Node: gc<5>,  Next: glob<3>,  Prev: functools<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.15 gc
...........

New function *note get_stats(): dd1. returns a list of three
per-generation dictionaries containing the collections statistics since
interpreter startup.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16351(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16351


File: python.info,  Node: glob<3>,  Next: hashlib<6>,  Prev: gc<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.16 glob
.............

A new function *note escape(): dd3. provides a way to escape special
characters in a filename so that they do not become part of the globbing
expansion but are instead matched literally.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8402(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8402


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<6>,  Next: hmac<3>,  Prev: glob<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.17 hashlib
................

A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 290. function provides the PKCS#5
password-based key derivation function 2(1).  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-18582(2).)

The *note name: dd5. attribute of *note hashlib: 63. hash objects is now
a formally supported interface.  It has always existed in CPython's
*note hashlib: 63. (although it did not return lower case names for all
supported hashes), but it was not a public interface and so some other
Python implementations have not previously supported it.  (Contributed
by Jason R. Coombs in bpo-18532(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18582

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<3>,  Next: html,  Prev: hashlib<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.18 hmac
.............

*note hmac: 65. now accepts ‘bytearray’ as well as ‘bytes’ for the 'key'
argument to the *note new(): 8f1. function, and the 'msg' parameter to
both the *note new(): 8f1. function and the *note update(): dd7. method
now accepts any type supported by the *note hashlib: 63. module.
(Contributed by Jonas Borgström in bpo-18240(1).)

The 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): 8f1. function may now
be any hash digest name recognized by *note hashlib: 63.  In addition,
the current behavior in which the value of 'digestmod' defaults to ‘MD5’
is deprecated: in a future version of Python there will be no default
value.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17276(2).)

With the addition of *note block_size: dd8. and *note name: dd9.
attributes (and the formal documentation of the *note digest_size: dda.
attribute), the *note hmac: 65. module now conforms fully to the PEP
247(3) API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18775(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18240

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0247/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18775


File: python.info,  Node: html,  Next: http<3>,  Prev: hmac<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.19 html
.............

New function *note unescape(): 798. function converts HTML5 character
references to the corresponding Unicode characters.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti in bpo-2927(1).)

*note HTMLParser: 6a2. accepts a new keyword argument 'convert_charrefs'
that, when ‘True’, automatically converts all character references.  For
backward-compatibility, its value defaults to ‘False’, but it will
change to ‘True’ in a future version of Python, so you are invited to
set it explicitly and update your code to use this new feature.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13633(2).)

The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: 6a2. is now deprecated.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2927

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114


File: python.info,  Node: http<3>,  Next: idlelib 與 IDLE,  Prev: html,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.20 http
.............

*note send_error(): ddd. now accepts an optional additional 'explain'
parameter which can be used to provide an extended error description,
overriding the hardcoded default if there is one.  This extended error
description will be formatted using the ‘error_message_format’ attribute
and sent as the body of the error response.  (Contributed by Karl Cow in
bpo-12921(1).)

The *note http.server: 6d. *note command line interface: dde. now has a
‘-b/--bind’ option that causes the server to listen on a specific
address.  (Contributed by Malte Swart in bpo-17764(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12921

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17764


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib 與 IDLE,  Next: importlib<8>,  Prev: http<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.21 idlelib 與 IDLE
........................

Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended
for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release.
See ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’ for a cumulative list of changes since 3.3.0,
as well as changes made in future 3.4.x releases.  This file is also
available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<8>,  Next: inspect<8>,  Prev: idlelib 與 IDLE,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.22 importlib
..................

The *note InspectLoader: de1. ABC defines a new method, *note
source_to_code(): c8a. that accepts source data and a path and returns a
code object.  The default implementation is equivalent to ‘compile(data,
path, 'exec', dont_inherit=True)’.  (Contributed by Eric Snow and Brett
Cannon in bpo-15627(1).)

*note InspectLoader: de1. also now has a default implementation for the
*note get_code(): de2. method.  However, it will normally be desirable
to override the default implementation for performance reasons.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18072(2).)

The *note reload(): 299. function has been moved from ‘imp’ to *note
importlib: 71. as part of the ‘imp’ module deprecation.  (Contributed by
Berker Peksag in bpo-18193(3).)

*note importlib.util: 77. now has a *note MAGIC_NUMBER: 293. attribute
providing access to the bytecode version number.  This replaces the
‘get_magic()’ function in the deprecated ‘imp’ module.  (Contributed by
Brett Cannon in bpo-18192(4).)

New *note importlib.util: 77. functions *note cache_from_source(): 26d.
and *note source_from_cache(): 29a. replace the same-named functions in
the deprecated ‘imp’ module.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
bpo-18194(5).)

The *note importlib: 71. bootstrap *note NamespaceLoader: de3. now
conforms to the *note InspectLoader: de1. ABC, which means that ‘runpy’
and ‘python -m’ can now be used with namespace packages.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-18058(6).)

*note importlib.util: 77. has a new function *note decode_source(): de4.
that decodes source from bytes using universal newline processing.  This
is useful for implementing *note InspectLoader.get_source(): de5.
methods.

*note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: b1d. now has a *note
get_filename(): de6. method.  This was inadvertently omitted in the
original implementation.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-19152(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15627

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18072

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18193

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18192

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18194

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18058

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19152


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<8>,  Next: ipaddress<5>,  Prev: importlib<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.23 inspect
................

The *note inspect: 78. module now offers a basic *note command line
interface: de8. to quickly display source code and other information for
modules, classes and functions.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick
Coghlan in bpo-18626(1).)

*note unwrap(): de9. makes it easy to unravel wrapper function chains
created by *note functools.wraps(): dea. (and any other API that sets
the ‘__wrapped__’ attribute on a wrapper function).  (Contributed by
Daniel Urban, Aaron Iles and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13266(2).)

As part of the implementation of the new *note enum: 51. module, the
*note inspect: 78. module now has substantially better support for
custom ‘__dir__’ methods and dynamic class attributes provided through
metaclasses.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-18929(3) and
bpo-19030(4).)

*note getfullargspec(): 549. and ‘getargspec()’ now use the *note
signature(): 548. API. This allows them to support a much broader range
of callables, including those with ‘__signature__’ attributes, those
with metadata provided by argument clinic, *note functools.partial():
d4e. objects and more.  Note that, unlike *note signature(): 548, these
functions still ignore ‘__wrapped__’ attributes, and report the already
bound first argument for bound methods, so it is still necessary to
update your code to use *note signature(): 548. directly if those
features are desired.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-17481(5).)

*note signature(): 548. now supports duck types of CPython functions,
which adds support for functions compiled with Cython.  (Contributed by
Stefan Behnel and Yury Selivanov in bpo-17159(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18626

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13266

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18929

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17481

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17159


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<5>,  Next: logging<6>,  Prev: inspect<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.24 ipaddress
..................

*note ipaddress: 7a. was added to the standard library in Python 3.3 as
a *note provisional API: 958.  With the release of Python 3.4, this
qualification has been removed: *note ipaddress: 7a. is now considered a
stable API, covered by the normal standard library requirements to
maintain backwards compatibility.

A new *note is_global: dec. property is ‘True’ if an address is globally
routeable.  (Contributed by Peter Moody in bpo-17400(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17400


File: python.info,  Node: logging<6>,  Next: marshal,  Prev: ipaddress<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.25 logging
................

The *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: dee. has a new 'atTime' parameter
that can be used to specify the time of day when rollover should happen.
(Contributed by Ronald Oussoren in bpo-9556(1).)

*note SocketHandler: def. and *note DatagramHandler: df0. now support
Unix domain sockets (by setting 'port' to ‘None’).  (Contributed by
Vinay Sajip in commit ce46195b56a9.)

*note fileConfig(): 9ab. now accepts a *note
configparser.RawConfigParser: df1. subclass instance for the 'fname'
parameter.  This facilitates using a configuration file when logging
configuration is just a part of the overall application configuration,
or where the application modifies the configuration before passing it to
*note fileConfig(): 9ab.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16110(2).)

Logging configuration data received from a socket via the *note
logging.config.listen(): df2. function can now be validated before being
processed by supplying a verification function as the argument to the
new 'verify' keyword argument.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
bpo-15452(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16110

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15452


File: python.info,  Node: marshal,  Next: mmap<2>,  Prev: logging<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.26 marshal
................

The default *note marshal: 88. version has been bumped to 3.  The code
implementing the new version restores the Python2 behavior of recording
only one copy of interned strings and preserving the interning on
deserialization, and extends this "one copy" ability to any object type
(including handling recursive references).  This reduces both the size
of ‘.pyc’ files and the amount of memory a module occupies in memory
when it is loaded from a ‘.pyc’ (or ‘.pyo’) file.  (Contributed by
Kristján Valur Jónsson in bpo-16475(1), with additional speedups by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19219(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<2>,  Next: multiprocessing<6>,  Prev: marshal,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.27 mmap
.............

mmap objects are now *note weakly referenceable: d8e.  (Contributed by
Valerie Lambert in bpo-4885(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4885


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<6>,  Next: operator<3>,  Prev: mmap<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.28 multiprocessing
........................

On Unix two new *note start methods: 22f, ‘spawn’ and ‘forkserver’, have
been added for starting processes using *note multiprocessing: 8f.
These make the mixing of processes with threads more robust, and the
‘spawn’ method matches the semantics that multiprocessing has always
used on Windows.  New function *note get_all_start_methods(): df6.
reports all start methods available on the platform, *note
get_start_method(): df7. reports the current start method, and *note
set_start_method(): 22e. sets the start method.  (Contributed by Richard
Oudkerk in bpo-8713(1).)

*note multiprocessing: 8f. also now has the concept of a ‘context’,
which determines how child processes are created.  New function *note
get_context(): 22d. returns a context that uses a specified start
method.  It has the same API as the *note multiprocessing: 8f. module
itself, so you can use it to create *note Pool: df8.s and other objects
that will operate within that context.  This allows a framework and an
application or different parts of the same application to use
multiprocessing without interfering with each other.  (Contributed by
Richard Oudkerk in bpo-18999(2).)

Except when using the old 'fork' start method, child processes no longer
inherit unneeded handles/file descriptors from their parents (part of
bpo-8713(3)).

*note multiprocessing: 8f. now relies on *note runpy: b9. (which
implements the ‘-m’ switch) to initialise ‘__main__’ appropriately in
child processes when using the ‘spawn’ or ‘forkserver’ start methods.
This resolves some edge cases where combining multiprocessing, the ‘-m’
command line switch, and explicit relative imports could cause obscure
failures in child processes.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
bpo-19946(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18999

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19946


File: python.info,  Node: operator<3>,  Next: os<10>,  Prev: multiprocessing<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.29 operator
.................

New function *note length_hint(): dfa. provides an implementation of the
specification for how the *note __length_hint__(): d90. special method
should be used, as part of the PEP 424(1) formal specification of this
language feature.  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(2).)

There is now a pure-python version of the *note operator: 9a. module
available for reference and for use by alternate implementations of
Python.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-16694(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16694


File: python.info,  Node: os<10>,  Next: pdb<5>,  Prev: operator<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.30 os
...........

There are new functions to get and set the *note inheritable flag: d7d.
of a file descriptor (*note os.get_inheritable(): d7e, *note
os.set_inheritable(): d7f.) or a Windows handle (*note
os.get_handle_inheritable(): d80, *note os.set_handle_inheritable():
d81.).

New function *note cpu_count(): 63b. reports the number of CPUs
available on the platform on which Python is running (or ‘None’ if the
count can't be determined).  The *note multiprocessing.cpu_count(): dfc.
function is now implemented in terms of this function).  (Contributed by
Trent Nelson, Yogesh Chaudhari, Victor Stinner, and Charles-François
Natali in bpo-17914(1).)

*note os.path.samestat(): dfd. is now available on the Windows platform
(and the *note os.path.samefile(): dfe. implementation is now shared
between Unix and Windows).  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-11939(2).)

*note os.path.ismount(): 859. now recognizes volumes mounted below a
drive root on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim Golden in bpo-9035(3).)

*note os.open(): c09. supports two new flags on platforms that provide
them, *note O_PATH: dff. (un-opened file descriptor), and *note
O_TMPFILE: e00. (unnamed temporary file; as of 3.4.0 release available
only on Linux systems with a kernel version of 3.11 or newer that have
uapi headers).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18673(4) and
Benjamin Peterson, respectively.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17914

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11939

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9035

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18673


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<5>,  Next: pickle<4>,  Prev: os<10>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.31 pdb
............

*note pdb: a0. has been enhanced to handle generators, *note yield: 811,
and ‘yield from’ in a more useful fashion.  This is especially helpful
when debugging *note asyncio: 9. based programs.  (Contributed by Andrew
Svetlov and Xavier de Gaye in bpo-16596(1).)

The ‘print’ command has been removed from *note pdb: a0, restoring
access to the Python *note print(): e02. function from the pdb command
line.  Python2's ‘pdb’ did not have a ‘print’ command; instead, entering
‘print’ executed the ‘print’ statement.  In Python3 ‘print’ was
mistakenly made an alias for the pdb *note p: e03. command.  ‘p’,
however, prints the ‘repr’ of its argument, not the ‘str’ like the
Python2 ‘print’ command did.  Worse, the Python3 ‘pdb print’ command
shadowed the Python3 ‘print’ function, making it inaccessible at the
‘pdb’ prompt.  (Contributed by Connor Osborn in bpo-18764(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16596

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18764


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<4>,  Next: plistlib<2>,  Prev: pdb<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.32 pickle
...............

*note pickle: a1. now supports (but does not use by default) a new
pickle protocol, protocol 4.  This new protocol addresses a number of
issues that were present in previous protocols, such as the
serialization of nested classes, very large strings and containers, and
classes whose ‘__new__()’ method takes keyword-only arguments.  It also
provides some efficiency improvements.

也參考
......

PEP 3154(1) - Pickle protocol 4

     由 Antoine Pitrou 撰寫 PEP、Alexandre Vassalotti 實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib<2>,  Next: poplib<3>,  Prev: pickle<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.33 plistlib
.................

*note plistlib: a6. now has an API that is similar to the standard
pattern for stdlib serialization protocols, with new *note load(): 790,
*note dump(): 792, *note loads(): 791, and *note dumps(): 793.
functions.  (The older API is now deprecated.)  In addition to the
already supported XML plist format (*note FMT_XML: e06.), it also now
supports the binary plist format (*note FMT_BINARY: e07.).  (Contributed
by Ronald Oussoren and others in bpo-14455(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14455


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<3>,  Next: pprint<4>,  Prev: plistlib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.34 poplib
...............

Two new methods have been added to *note poplib: a7.: *note capa(): e09,
which returns the list of capabilities advertised by the POP server, and
*note stls(): e0a, which switches a clear-text POP3 session into an
encrypted POP3 session if the POP server supports it.  (Contributed by
Lorenzo Catucci in bpo-4473(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4473


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<4>,  Next: pty,  Prev: poplib<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.35 pprint
...............

The *note pprint: a9. module's *note PrettyPrinter: e0c. class and its
*note pformat(): e0d, and *note pprint(): 64e. functions have a new
option, 'compact', that controls how the output is formatted.  Currently
setting 'compact' to ‘True’ means that sequences will be printed with as
many sequence elements as will fit within 'width' on each (indented)
line.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19132(1).)

Long strings are now wrapped using Python's normal line continuation
syntax.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17150(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19132

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17150


File: python.info,  Node: pty,  Next: pydoc<4>,  Prev: pprint<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.36 pty
............

*note pty.spawn(): e0f. now returns the status value from *note
os.waitpid(): c11. on the child process, instead of ‘None’.
(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<4>,  Next: re<6>,  Prev: pty,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.37 pydoc
..............

The *note pydoc: b0. module is now based directly on the *note
inspect.signature(): 548. introspection API, allowing it to provide
signature information for a wider variety of callable objects.  This
change also means that ‘__wrapped__’ attributes are now taken into
account when displaying help information.  (Contributed by Larry
Hastings in bpo-19674(1).)

The *note pydoc: b0. module no longer displays the ‘self’ parameter for
already bound methods.  Instead, it aims to always display the exact
current signature of the supplied callable.  (Contributed by Larry
Hastings in bpo-20710(2).)

In addition to the changes that have been made to *note pydoc: b0.
directly, its handling of custom ‘__dir__’ methods and various
descriptor behaviours has also been improved substantially by the
underlying changes in the *note inspect: 78. module.

As the *note help(): 710. builtin is based on *note pydoc: b0, the above
changes also affect the behaviour of *note help(): 710.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19674

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20710


File: python.info,  Node: re<6>,  Next: resource,  Prev: pydoc<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.38 re
...........

New *note fullmatch(): e12. function and ‘regex.fullmatch()’ method
anchor the pattern at both ends of the string to match.  This provides a
way to be explicit about the goal of the match, which avoids a class of
subtle bugs where ‘$’ characters get lost during code changes or the
addition of alternatives to an existing regular expression.
(Contributed by Matthew Barnett in bpo-16203(1).)

The repr of *note regex objects: e13. now includes the pattern and the
flags; the repr of *note match objects: e14. now includes the start,
end, and the part of the string that matched.  (Contributed by Hugo
Lopes Tavares and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13592(2) and bpo-17087(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13592

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17087


File: python.info,  Node: resource,  Next: select,  Prev: re<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.39 resource
.................

New *note prlimit(): e16. function, available on Linux platforms with a
kernel version of 2.6.36 or later and glibc of 2.13 or later, provides
the ability to query or set the resource limits for processes other than
the one making the call.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-16595(1).)

On Linux kernel version 2.6.36 or later, there are also some new Linux
specific constants: *note RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE: e17, *note RLIMIT_NICE: e18,
*note RLIMIT_RTPRIO: e19, *note RLIMIT_RTTIME: e1a, and *note
RLIMIT_SIGPENDING: e1b.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-19324(2).)

On FreeBSD version 9 and later, there some new FreeBSD specific
constants: *note RLIMIT_SBSIZE: e1c, *note RLIMIT_SWAP: e1d, and *note
RLIMIT_NPTS: e1e.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19343(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16595

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19324

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19343


File: python.info,  Node: select,  Next: shelve<2>,  Prev: resource,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.40 select
...............

*note epoll: e20. objects now support the context management protocol.
When used in a *note with: 3c5. statement, the *note close(): e21.
method will be called automatically at the end of the block.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16488(1).)

*note devpoll: e22. objects now have *note fileno(): e23. and *note
close(): e24. methods, as well as a new attribute *note closed: e25.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18794(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16488

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18794


File: python.info,  Node: shelve<2>,  Next: shutil<5>,  Prev: select,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.41 shelve
...............

*note Shelf: e27. instances may now be used in *note with: 3c5.
statements, and will be automatically closed at the end of the ‘with’
block.  (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13896(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13896


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<5>,  Next: smtpd<3>,  Prev: shelve<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.42 shutil
...............

*note copyfile(): 8a4. now raises a specific *note Error: e29. subclass,
*note SameFileError: e2a, when the source and destination are the same
file, which allows an application to take appropriate action on this
specific error.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto and Hynek Schlawack in
bpo-1492704(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1492704


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<3>,  Next: smtplib<3>,  Prev: shutil<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.43 smtpd
..............

The ‘SMTPServer’ and ‘SMTPChannel’ classes now accept a 'map' keyword
argument which, if specified, is passed in to ‘asynchat.async_chat’ as
its 'map' argument.  This allows an application to avoid affecting the
global socket map.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-11959(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11959


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<3>,  Next: socket<9>,  Prev: smtpd<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.44 smtplib
................

*note SMTPException: e2d. is now a subclass of *note OSError: 644, which
allows both socket level errors and SMTP protocol level errors to be
caught in one try/except statement by code that only cares whether or
not an error occurred.  (Contributed by Ned Jackson Lovely in
bpo-2118(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2118


File: python.info,  Node: socket<9>,  Next: sqlite3<8>,  Prev: smtplib<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.45 socket
...............

The socket module now supports the *note CAN_BCM: e2f. protocol on
platforms that support it.  (Contributed by Brian Thorne in
bpo-15359(1).)

Socket objects have new methods to get or set their *note inheritable
flag: d7d, *note get_inheritable(): d82. and *note set_inheritable():
d83.

The ‘socket.AF_*’ and ‘socket.SOCK_*’ constants are now enumeration
values using the new *note enum: 51. module.  This allows meaningful
names to be printed during debugging, instead of integer "magic
numbers".

The *note AF_LINK: e30. constant is now available on BSD and OSX.

*note inet_pton(): 7a3. and *note inet_ntop(): e31. are now supported on
Windows.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto in bpo-7171(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15359

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7171


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<8>,  Next: ssl<9>,  Prev: socket<9>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.46 sqlite3
................

A new boolean parameter to the *note connect(): 1dd. function, 'uri',
can be used to indicate that the 'database' parameter is a ‘uri’ (see
the SQLite URI documentation(1)).  (Contributed by poq in bpo-13773(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13773


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<9>,  Next: stat,  Prev: sqlite3<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.47 ssl
............

*note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1: e34. and *note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2: e35. (TLSv1.1
and TLSv1.2 support) have been added; support for these protocols is
only available if Python is linked with OpenSSL 1.0.1 or later.
(Contributed by Michele Orrù and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16692(1).)  New
function *note create_default_context(): e36. provides a standard way to
obtain an *note SSLContext: 26f. whose settings are intended to be a
reasonable balance between compatibility and security.  These settings
are more stringent than the defaults provided by the *note SSLContext:
26f. constructor, and may be adjusted in the future, without prior
deprecation, if best-practice security requirements change.  The new
recommended best practice for using stdlib libraries that support SSL is
to use *note create_default_context(): e36. to obtain an *note
SSLContext: 26f. object, modify it if needed, and then pass it as the
'context' argument of the appropriate stdlib API. (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-19689(2).)

*note SSLContext: 26f. method *note load_verify_locations(): d6f.
accepts a new optional argument 'cadata', which can be used to provide
PEM or DER encoded certificates directly via strings or bytes,
respectively.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18138(3).)

New function *note get_default_verify_paths(): e37. returns a named
tuple of the paths and environment variables that the *note
set_default_verify_paths(): e38. method uses to set OpenSSL's default
‘cafile’ and ‘capath’.  This can be an aid in debugging default
verification issues.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18143(4).)

*note SSLContext: 26f. has a new method, *note cert_store_stats(): e39,
that reports the number of loaded ‘X.509’ certs, ‘X.509 CA’ certs, and
certificate revocation lists (‘crl’s), as well as a *note
get_ca_certs(): e3a. method that returns a list of the loaded ‘CA’
certificates.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18147(5).)

If OpenSSL 0.9.8 or later is available, *note SSLContext: 26f. has a new
attribute *note verify_flags: e3b. that can be used to control the
certificate verification process by setting it to some combination of
the new constants *note VERIFY_DEFAULT: e3c, *note
VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF: e3d, *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN: e3e, or *note
VERIFY_X509_STRICT: e3f.  OpenSSL does not do any CRL verification by
default.  (Contributed by Christien Heimes in bpo-8813(6).)

New *note SSLContext: 26f. method *note load_default_certs(): e40. loads
a set of default "certificate authority" (CA) certificates from default
locations, which vary according to the platform.  It can be used to load
both TLS web server authentication certificates (‘purpose=’*note
SERVER_AUTH: e41.) for a client to use to verify a server, and
certificates for a server to use in verifying client certificates
(‘purpose=’*note CLIENT_AUTH: e42.).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-19292(7).)  Two new windows-only functions, *note
enum_certificates(): e43. and *note enum_crls(): e44. provide the
ability to retrieve certificates, certificate information, and CRLs from
the Windows cert store.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-17134(8).)  Support for server-side SNI (Server Name Indication)
using the new *note ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): e45.
method.  (Contributed by Daniel Black in bpo-8109(9).)

The dictionary returned by *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e46. contains
additional ‘X509v3’ extension items: ‘crlDistributionPoints’,
‘calIssuers’, and ‘OCSP’ URIs.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-18379(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16692

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19689

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18138

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18143

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18147

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8813

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19292

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17134

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8109

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18379


File: python.info,  Node: stat,  Next: struct<2>,  Prev: ssl<9>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.48 stat
.............

The *note stat: cb. module is now backed by a C implementation in
‘_stat’.  A C implementation is required as most of the values aren't
standardized and are platform-dependent.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-11016(1).)

The module supports new *note ST_MODE: e48. flags, *note S_IFDOOR: e49,
*note S_IFPORT: e4a, and *note S_IFWHT: e4b.  (Contributed by Christian
Hiemes in bpo-11016(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016


File: python.info,  Node: struct<2>,  Next: subprocess<4>,  Prev: stat,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.49 struct
...............

New function *note iter_unpack: e4d. and a new *note
struct.Struct.iter_unpack(): e4e. method on compiled formats provide
streamed unpacking of a buffer containing repeated instances of a given
format of data.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17804(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17804


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<4>,  Next: sunau<2>,  Prev: struct<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.50 subprocess
...................

*note check_output(): e50. now accepts an 'input' argument that can be
used to provide the contents of ‘stdin’ for the command that is run.
(Contributed by Zack Weinberg in bpo-16624(1).)

‘getstatus()’ and *note getstatusoutput(): e51. now work on Windows.
This change was actually inadvertently made in 3.3.4.  (Contributed by
Tim Golden in bpo-10197(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16624

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10197


File: python.info,  Node: sunau<2>,  Next: sys<10>,  Prev: subprocess<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.51 sunau
..............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18901(1).)

*note sunau.open(): a50. now supports the context management protocol:
when used in a *note with: 3c5. block, the ‘close’ method of the
returned object will be called automatically at the end of the block.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18878(2).)

*note AU_write.setsampwidth(): e53. now supports 24 bit samples, thus
adding support for writing 24 sample using the module.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19261(3).)

The *note writeframesraw(): e54. and *note writeframes(): e55. methods
now accept any *note bytes-like object: b9f.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8311(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18901

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18878

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19261

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: sys<10>,  Next: tarfile<7>,  Prev: sunau<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.52 sys
............

New function *note sys.getallocatedblocks(): e57. returns the current
number of blocks allocated by the interpreter.  (In CPython with the
default ‘--with-pymalloc’ setting, this is allocations made through the
*note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0. API.) This can be useful for tracking
memory leaks, especially if automated via a test suite.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13390(1).)

When the Python interpreter starts in *note interactive mode: e58, it
checks for an *note __interactivehook__: e59. attribute on the *note
sys: d3. module.  If the attribute exists, its value is called with no
arguments just before interactive mode is started.  The check is made
after the *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e5a. file is read, so it can be set
there.  The *note site: c2. module *note sets it: e5b. to a function
that enables tab completion and history saving (in ‘~/.python-history’)
if the platform supports *note readline: b5.  If you do not want this
(new) behavior, you can override it in *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e5a, *note
sitecustomize: c3, or *note usercustomize: 109. by deleting this
attribute from *note sys: d3. (or setting it to some other callable).
(Contributed by Éric Araujo and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5845(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<7>,  Next: textwrap,  Prev: sys<10>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.53 tarfile
................

The *note tarfile: d8. module now supports a simple *note Command-Line
Interface: e5d. when called as a script directly or via ‘-m’.  This can
be used to create and extract tarfile archives.  (Contributed by Berker
Peksag in bpo-13477(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13477


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap,  Next: threading<7>,  Prev: tarfile<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.54 textwrap
.................

The *note TextWrapper: e5f. class has two new attributes/constructor
arguments: *note max_lines: e60, which limits the number of lines in the
output, and *note placeholder: e61, which is a string that will appear
at the end of the output if it has been truncated because of
'max_lines'.  Building on these capabilities, a new convenience function
*note shorten(): e62. collapses all of the whitespace in the input to
single spaces and produces a single line of a given 'width' that ends
with the 'placeholder' (by default, ‘[...]’).  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18585(1) and bpo-18725(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18585

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18725


File: python.info,  Node: threading<7>,  Next: traceback<5>,  Prev: textwrap,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.55 threading
..................

The *note Thread: 78d. object representing the main thread can be
obtained from the new *note main_thread(): e64. function.  In normal
conditions this will be the thread from which the Python interpreter was
started.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-18882(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18882


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<5>,  Next: types<5>,  Prev: threading<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.56 traceback
..................

A new *note traceback.clear_frames(): e66. function takes a traceback
object and clears the local variables in all of the frames it
references, reducing the amount of memory consumed.  (Contributed by
Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1565525(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1565525


File: python.info,  Node: types<5>,  Next: urllib<2>,  Prev: traceback<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.57 types
..............

A new *note DynamicClassAttribute(): 425. descriptor provides a way to
define an attribute that acts normally when looked up through an
instance object, but which is routed to the 'class' ‘__getattr__’ when
looked up through the class.  This allows one to have properties active
on a class, and have virtual attributes on the class with the same name
(see ‘Enum’ for an example).  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in
bpo-19030(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<2>,  Next: unittest<8>,  Prev: types<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.58 urllib
...............

*note urllib.request: 106. now supports ‘data:’ URLs via the *note
DataHandler: e69. class.  (Contributed by Mathias Panzenböck in
bpo-16423(1).)

The http method that will be used by a *note Request: e6a. class can now
be specified by setting a *note method: e6b. class attribute on the
subclass.  (Contributed by Jason R Coombs in bpo-18978(2).)

*note Request: e6a. objects are now reusable: if the *note full_url:
e6c. or *note data: e6d. attributes are modified, all relevant internal
properties are updated.  This means, for example, that it is now
possible to use the same *note Request: e6a. object in more than one
*note OpenerDirector.open(): e6e. call with different 'data' arguments,
or to modify a *note Request: e6a.'s ‘url’ rather than recomputing it
from scratch.  There is also a new *note remove_header(): e6f. method
that can be used to remove headers from a *note Request: e6a.
(Contributed by Alexey Kachayev in bpo-16464(3), Daniel Wozniak in
bpo-17485(4), and Damien Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-17272(5).)

*note HTTPError: e70. objects now have a *note headers: e71. attribute
that provides access to the HTTP response headers associated with the
error.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-15701(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18978

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16464

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17485

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17272

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15701


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<8>,  Next: venv<6>,  Prev: urllib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.59 unittest
.................

The *note TestCase: 159. class has a new method, *note subTest(): e73,
that produces a context manager whose *note with: 3c5. block becomes a
"sub-test".  This context manager allows a test method to dynamically
generate subtests by, say, calling the ‘subTest’ context manager inside
a loop.  A single test method can thereby produce an indefinite number
of separately identified and separately counted tests, all of which will
run even if one or more of them fail.  For example:

     class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_even(self):
             for i in range(6):
                 with self.subTest(i=i):
                     self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

will result in six subtests, each identified in the unittest verbose
output with a label consisting of the variable name ‘i’ and a particular
value for that variable (‘i=0’, ‘i=1’, etc).  See *note Distinguishing
test iterations using subtests: e74. for the full version of this
example.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16997(1).)

*note unittest.main(): e75. now accepts an iterable of test names for
'defaultTest', where previously it only accepted a single test name as a
string.  (Contributed by Jyrki Pulliainen in bpo-15132(2).)

If *note SkipTest: e76. is raised during test discovery (that is, at the
module level in the test file), it is now reported as a skip instead of
an error.  (Contributed by Zach Ware in bpo-16935(3).)

*note discover(): e77. now sorts the discovered files to provide
consistent test ordering.  (Contributed by Martin Melin and Jeff Ramnani
in bpo-16709(4).)

*note TestSuite: c6c. now drops references to tests as soon as the test
has been run, if the test is successful.  On Python interpreters that do
garbage collection, this allows the tests to be garbage collected if
nothing else is holding a reference to the test.  It is possible to
override this behavior by creating a *note TestSuite: c6c. subclass that
defines a custom ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method.  (Contributed by Tom
Wardill, Matt McClure, and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-11798(5).)

A new test assertion context-manager, *note assertLogs(): 680, will
ensure that a given block of code emits a log message using the *note
logging: 82. module.  By default the message can come from any logger
and have a priority of ‘INFO’ or higher, but both the logger name and an
alternative minimum logging level may be specified.  The object returned
by the context manager can be queried for the *note LogRecord: e78.s
and/or formatted messages that were logged.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-18937(6).)

Test discovery now works with namespace packages (Contributed by Claudiu
Popa in bpo-17457(7).)

*note unittest.mock: 102. objects now inspect their specification
signatures when matching calls, which means an argument can now be
matched by either position or name, instead of only by position.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17015(8).)

‘mock_open()’ objects now have ‘readline’ and ‘readlines’ methods.
(Contributed by Toshio Kuratomi in bpo-17467(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16997

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15132

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16935

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18937

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17457

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17015

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17467


File: python.info,  Node: venv<6>,  Next: wave<2>,  Prev: unittest<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.60 venv
.............

*note venv: 10c. now includes activation scripts for the ‘csh’ and
‘fish’ shells.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-15417(1).)

*note EnvBuilder: e7a. and the *note create(): e7b. convenience function
take a new keyword argument 'with_pip', which defaults to ‘False’, that
controls whether or not *note EnvBuilder: e7a. ensures that ‘pip’ is
installed in the virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
bpo-19552(2) as part of the PEP 453(3) implementation.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15417

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: wave<2>,  Next: weakref<2>,  Prev: venv<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.61 wave
.............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17487(1).)

*note wave.open(): 78c. now supports the context management protocol.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17616(2).)

*note wave: 10e. can now *note write output to unseekable files: e7d.
(Contributed by David Jones, Guilherme Polo, and Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-5202(3).)

The *note writeframesraw(): e7e. and *note writeframes(): e7f. methods
now accept any *note bytes-like object: b9f.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8311(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17487

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17616

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5202

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: weakref<2>,  Next: xml etree<2>,  Prev: wave<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.62 weakref
................

New *note WeakMethod: e81. class simulates weak references to bound
methods.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14631(1).)

New *note finalize: 8c8. class makes it possible to register a callback
to be invoked when an object is garbage collected, without needing to
carefully manage the lifecycle of the weak reference itself.
(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15528(2).)

The callback, if any, associated with a *note ref: e82. is now exposed
via the *note __callback__: e83. attribute.  (Contributed by Mark
Dickinson in bpo-17643(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14631

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15528

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17643


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree<2>,  Next: zipfile<5>,  Prev: weakref<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.63 xml.etree
..................

A new parser, *note XMLPullParser: e85, allows a non-blocking
applications to parse XML documents.  An example can be seen at *note
Pull API for non-blocking parsing: e86.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
in bpo-17741(1).)

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. *note tostring(): e87. and *note
tostringlist(): e88. functions, and the *note ElementTree: 78f. *note
write(): e89. method, now have a 'short_empty_elements' *note
keyword-only parameter: 8d6. providing control over whether elements
with no content are written in abbreviated (‘<tag />’) or expanded
(‘<tag></tag>’) form.  (Contributed by Ariel Poliak and Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-14377(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14377


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<5>,  Prev: xml etree<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<9>

1.9.4.64 zipfile
................

The *note writepy(): e8b. method of the *note PyZipFile: e8c. class has
a new 'filterfunc' option that can be used to control which directories
and files are added to the archive.  For example, this could be used to
exclude test files from the archive.  (Contributed by Christian Tismer
in bpo-19274(1).)

The 'allowZip64' parameter to *note ZipFile: 4c3. and ‘PyZipfile’ is now
‘True’ by default.  (Contributed by William Mallard in bpo-17201(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19274

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17201


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 實作變更,  Next: 已棄用<11>,  Prev: 改進的模組<9>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>

1.9.5 CPython 實作變更
----------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
* PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
* PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
* PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
* Other Build and C API Changes::
* Other Improvements: Other Improvements<2>.
* 顯著最佳化::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators,  Next: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Up: CPython 實作變更

1.9.5.1 PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators
...........................................................

PEP 445(1) adds new C level interfaces to customize memory allocation in
the CPython interpreter.

也參考
......

PEP 445(2) - Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators

     由 Victor Stinner 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Next: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Prev: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators,  Up: CPython 實作變更

1.9.5.2 PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization
.........................................

PEP 442(1) removes the current limitations and quirks of object
finalization in CPython.  With it, objects with ‘__del__()’ methods, as
well as generators with *note finally: 80e. clauses, can be finalized
when they are part of a reference cycle.

As part of this change, module globals are no longer forcibly set to
*note None: 470. during interpreter shutdown in most cases, instead
relying on the normal operation of the cyclic garbage collector.  This
avoids a whole class of interpreter-shutdown-time errors, usually
involving ‘__del__’ methods, that have plagued Python since the cyclic
GC was first introduced.

也參考
......

PEP 442(2) - Safe object finalization

     由 Antoine Pitrou 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Next: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Prev: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Up: CPython 實作變更

1.9.5.3 PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm
..........................................................

PEP 456(1) follows up on earlier security fix work done on Python's hash
algorithm to address certain DOS attacks to which public facing APIs
backed by dictionary lookups may be subject.  (See bpo-14621(2) for the
start of the current round of improvements.)  The PEP unifies CPython's
hash code to make it easier for a packager to substitute a different
hash algorithm, and switches Python's default implementation to a
SipHash implementation on platforms that have a 64 bit data type.  Any
performance differences in comparison with the older FNV algorithm are
trivial.

The PEP adds additional fields to the *note sys.hash_info: e91. named
tuple to describe the hash algorithm in use by the currently executing
binary.  Otherwise, the PEP does not alter any existing CPython APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14621


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Next: Other Build and C API Changes,  Prev: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Up: CPython 實作變更

1.9.5.4 PEP 436: Argument Clinic
................................

"Argument Clinic" ( PEP 436(1)) is now part of the CPython build process
and can be used to simplify the process of defining and maintaining
accurate signatures for builtins and standard library extension modules
implemented in C.

Some standard library extension modules have been converted to use
Argument Clinic in Python 3.4, and *note pydoc: b0. and *note inspect:
78. have been updated accordingly.

It is expected that signature metadata for programmatic introspection
will be added to additional callables implemented in C as part of Python
3.4 maintenance releases.

     備註: The Argument Clinic PEP is not fully up to date with the
     state of the implementation.  This has been deemed acceptable by
     the release manager and core development team in this case, as
     Argument Clinic will not be made available as a public API for
     third party use in Python 3.4.

也參考
......

PEP 436(2) - The Argument Clinic DSL

     由 Larry Hastings 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Build and C API Changes,  Next: Other Improvements<2>,  Prev: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Up: CPython 實作變更

1.9.5.5 Other Build and C API Changes
.....................................

   * The new *note PyType_GetSlot(): 6cd. function has been added to the
     stable ABI, allowing retrieval of function pointers from named type
     slots when using the limited API. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis
     in bpo-17162(1).)

   * The new *note Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding(): e94.
     pre-initialization API allows applications embedding the CPython
     interpreter to reliably force a particular encoding and error
     handler for the standard streams.  (Contributed by Bastien Montagne
     and Nick Coghlan in bpo-16129(2).)

   * Most Python C APIs that don't mutate string arguments are now
     correctly marked as accepting ‘const char *’ rather than ‘char *’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1772673(3).)

   * A new shell version of ‘python-config’ can be used even when a
     python interpreter is not available (for example, in cross
     compilation scenarios).

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302. now supports width and precision
     specifications for ‘%s’, ‘%A’, ‘%U’, ‘%V’, ‘%S’, and ‘%R’.
     (Contributed by Ysj Ray and Victor Stinner in bpo-7330(4).)

   * New function *note PyStructSequence_InitType2(): e95. supplements
     the existing *note PyStructSequence_InitType(): e96. function.  The
     difference is that it returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on failure.

   * The CPython source can now be compiled using the address sanity
     checking features of recent versions of GCC and clang: the false
     alarms in the small object allocator have been silenced.
     (Contributed by Dhiru Kholia in bpo-18596(5).)

   * The Windows build now uses Address Space Layout Randomization(6)
     and Data Execution Prevention(7).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
     in bpo-16632(8).)

   * New function *note PyObject_LengthHint(): e97. is the C API
     equivalent of *note operator.length_hint(): dfa.  (Contributed by
     Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17162

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16129

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7330

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18596

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Execution_Prevention

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16632

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148


File: python.info,  Node: Other Improvements<2>,  Next: 顯著最佳化,  Prev: Other Build and C API Changes,  Up: CPython 實作變更

1.9.5.6 Other Improvements
..........................

   * The *note python: e9a. command has a new *note option: e9b, ‘-I’,
     which causes it to run in "isolated mode", which means that *note
     sys.path: 35e. contains neither the script's directory nor the
     user's ‘site-packages’ directory, and all ‘PYTHON*’ environment
     variables are ignored (it implies both ‘-s’ and ‘-E’).  Other
     restrictions may also be applied in the future, with the goal being
     to isolate the execution of a script from the user's environment.
     This is appropriate, for example, when Python is used to run a
     system script.  On most POSIX systems it can and should be used in
     the ‘#!’ line of system scripts.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
     in bpo-16499(1).)

   * Tab-completion is now enabled by default in the interactive
     interpreter on systems that support *note readline: b5.  History is
     also enabled by default, and is written to (and read from) the file
     ‘~/.python-history’.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Éric
     Araujo in bpo-5845(2).)

   * Invoking the Python interpreter with ‘--version’ now outputs the
     version to standard output instead of standard error
     (bpo-18338(3)).  Similar changes were made to *note argparse: 6.
     (bpo-18920(4)) and other modules that have script-like invocation
     capabilities (bpo-18922(5)).

   * The CPython Windows installer now adds ‘.py’ to the ‘PATHEXT’
     variable when extensions are registered, allowing users to run a
     python script at the windows command prompt by just typing its name
     without the ‘.py’ extension.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in
     bpo-18569(6).)

   * A new ‘make’ target coverage-report(7) will build python, run the
     test suite, and generate an HTML coverage report for the C codebase
     using ‘gcov’ and lcov(8).

   * The ‘-R’ option to the *note python regression test suite: e9c. now
     also checks for memory allocation leaks, using *note
     sys.getallocatedblocks(): e57.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-13390(9).)

   * ‘python -m’ now works with namespace packages.

   * The *note stat: cb. module is now implemented in C, which means it
     gets the values for its constants from the C header files, instead
     of having the values hard-coded in the python module as was
     previously the case.

   * Loading multiple python modules from a single OS module (‘.so’,
     ‘.dll’) now works correctly (previously it silently returned the
     first python module in the file).  (Contributed by Václav Šmilauer
     in bpo-16421(10).)

   * A new opcode, ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’, has been added to fix a bug in the
     loading of free variables in class bodies that could be triggered
     by certain uses of *note __prepare__: ac6.  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Peterson in bpo-17853(11).)

   * A number of MemoryError-related crashes were identified and fixed
     by Victor Stinner using his PEP 445(12)-based ‘pyfailmalloc’ tool
     (bpo-18408(13), bpo-18520(14)).

   * The ‘pyvenv’ command now accepts a ‘--copies’ option to use copies
     rather than symlinks even on systems where symlinks are the
     default.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-18807(15).)

   * The ‘pyvenv’ command also accepts a ‘--without-pip’ option to
     suppress the otherwise-automatic bootstrapping of pip into the
     virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19552(16)
     as part of the PEP 453(17) implementation.)

   * The encoding name is now optional in the value set for the *note
     PYTHONIOENCODING: e9d. environment variable.  This makes it
     possible to set just the error handler, without changing the
     default encoding.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-18818(18).)

   * The *note bz2: 11, *note lzma: 85, and *note gzip: 62. module
     ‘open’ functions now support ‘x’ (exclusive creation) mode.
     (Contributed by Tim Heaney and Vajrasky Kok in bpo-19201(19),
     bpo-19222(20), and bpo-19223(21).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18338

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18920

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18922

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18569

   (7) 
https://devguide.python.org/coverage/#measuring-coverage-of-c-code-with-gcov-and-lcov

   (8) https://github.com/linux-test-project/lcov

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16421

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17853

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18408

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18520

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18807

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18818

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19201

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19223


File: python.info,  Node: 顯著最佳化,  Prev: Other Improvements<2>,  Up: CPython 實作變更

1.9.5.7 顯著最佳化
..................

   * The UTF-32 decoder is now 3x to 4x faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-14625(1).)

   * The cost of hash collisions for sets is now reduced.  Each hash
     table probe now checks a series of consecutive, adjacent key/hash
     pairs before continuing to make random probes through the hash
     table.  This exploits cache locality to make collision resolution
     less expensive.  The collision resolution scheme can be described
     as a hybrid of linear probing and open addressing.  The number of
     additional linear probes defaults to nine.  This can be changed at
     compile-time by defining LINEAR_PROBES to be any value.  Set
     LINEAR_PROBES=0 to turn-off linear probing entirely.  (Contributed
     by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18771(2).)

   * The interpreter starts about 30% faster.  A couple of measures lead
     to the speedup.  The interpreter loads fewer modules on startup,
     e.g.  the *note re: b4, *note collections: 1b. and *note locale:
     81. modules and their dependencies are no longer imported by
     default.  The marshal module has been improved to load compiled
     Python code faster.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Christian
     Heimes and Victor Stinner in bpo-19219(3), bpo-19218(4),
     bpo-19209(5), bpo-19205(6) and bpo-9548(7).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 692. is now as fast or faster than the Python2
     version for most cases.  *note lzma.LZMAFile: e9f. has also been
     optimized.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Nadeem Vawda in
     bpo-16034(8).)

   * *note random.getrandbits(): ea0. is 20%-40% faster for small
     integers (the most common use case).  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-16674(9).)

   * By taking advantage of the new storage format for strings, pickling
     of strings is now significantly faster.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-15596(10).)

   * A performance issue in ‘io.FileIO.readall()’ has been solved.  This
     particularly affects Windows, and significantly speeds up the case
     of piping significant amounts of data through *note subprocess: d0.
     (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15758(11).)

   * *note html.escape(): ea1. is now 10x faster.  (Contributed by Matt
     Bryant in bpo-18020(12).)

   * On Windows, the native ‘VirtualAlloc’ is now used instead of the
     CRT ‘malloc’ in ‘obmalloc’.  Artificial benchmarks show about a 3%
     memory savings.

   * *note os.urandom(): 2a3. now uses a lazily opened persistent file
     descriptor so as to avoid using many file descriptors when run in
     parallel from multiple threads.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-18756(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14625

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18771

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19218

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19209

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19205

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9548

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16034

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16674

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15596

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15758

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18020

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18756


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用<11>,  Next: 已移除<9>,  Prev: CPython 實作變更,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>

1.9.6 已棄用
------------

This section covers various APIs and other features that have been
deprecated in Python 3.4, and will be removed in Python 3.5 or later.
In most (but not all) cases, using the deprecated APIs will produce a
*note DeprecationWarning: 179. when the interpreter is run with
deprecation warnings enabled (for example, by using ‘-Wd’).

* Menu:

* Deprecations in the Python API::
* 已棄用功能::


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations in the Python API,  Next: 已棄用功能,  Up: 已棄用<11>

1.9.6.1 Deprecations in the Python API
......................................

   * As mentioned in *note PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import
     System: d5d, a number of *note importlib: 71. methods and functions
     are deprecated: ‘importlib.find_loader()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.util.find_spec(): 232.;
     ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): ea4.;
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 694.;
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’
     are replaced by *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec():
     698.; all of the ‘XXXLoader’ ABC ‘load_module’ methods
     (‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module()’) should no longer be
     implemented, instead loaders should implement an ‘exec_module’
     method (*note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 696, *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module(): ea5. *note
     importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module(): ea6.) and let the import
     system take care of the rest; and
     ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’,
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_loader()’, and ‘importlib.util.set_package()’
     are no longer needed because their functions are now handled
     automatically by the import system.

   * The ‘imp’ module is pending deprecation.  To keep compatibility
     with Python 2/3 code bases, the module's removal is currently not
     scheduled.

   * The ‘formatter’ module is pending deprecation and is slated for
     removal in Python 3.6.

   * ‘MD5’ as the default 'digestmod' for the *note hmac.new(): 8f1.
     function is deprecated.  Python 3.6 will require an explicit digest
     name or constructor as 'digestmod' argument.

   * The internal ‘Netrc’ class in the *note ftplib: 59. module has been
     documented as deprecated in its docstring for quite some time.  It
     now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 179. and will be removed
     completely in Python 3.5.

   * The undocumented 'endtime' argument to *note
     subprocess.Popen.wait(): b51. should not have been exposed and is
     hopefully not in use; it is deprecated and will mostly likely be
     removed in Python 3.5.

   * The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: 6a2. is deprecated.

   * The *note plistlib: a6. ‘readPlist()’, ‘writePlist()’,
     ‘readPlistFromBytes()’, and ‘writePlistToBytes()’ functions are
     deprecated in favor of the corresponding new functions *note
     load(): 790, *note dump(): 792, *note loads(): 791, and *note
     dumps(): 793.  ‘Data()’ is deprecated in favor of just using the
     *note bytes: 2c1. constructor.

   * The *note sysconfig: d5. key ‘SO’ is deprecated, it has been
     replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’.

   * The ‘U’ mode accepted by various ‘open’ functions is deprecated.
     In Python3 it does not do anything useful, and should be replaced
     by appropriate uses of *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. (if needed) and
     its 'newline' argument.

   * The 'parser' argument of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse():
     ea7. has been deprecated, as has the 'html' argument of *note
     XMLParser(): 89e.  To prepare for the removal of the latter, all
     arguments to ‘XMLParser’ should be passed by keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用功能,  Prev: Deprecations in the Python API,  Up: 已棄用<11>

1.9.6.2 已棄用功能
..................

   * Running *note IDLE: ea9. with the ‘-n’ flag (no subprocess) is
     deprecated.  However, the feature will not be removed until
     bpo-18823(1) is resolved.

   * The site module adding a "site-python" directory to sys.path, if it
     exists, is deprecated (bpo-19375(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18823

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19375


File: python.info,  Node: 已移除<9>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 4,  Prev: 已棄用<11>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>

1.9.7 已移除
------------

* Menu:

* Operating Systems No Longer Supported::
* API 與功能的移除::
* 程式碼的清除::


File: python.info,  Node: Operating Systems No Longer Supported,  Next: API 與功能的移除,  Up: 已移除<9>

1.9.7.1 Operating Systems No Longer Supported
.............................................

Support for the following operating systems has been removed from the
source and build tools:

   * OS/2 (bpo-16135(1))。

   * Windows 2000 (changeset e52df05b496a).

   * Windows systems where ‘COMSPEC’ points to ‘command.com’
     (bpo-14470(2)).

   * VMS (bpo-16136(3))。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16135

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14470

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16136


File: python.info,  Node: API 與功能的移除,  Next: 程式碼的清除,  Prev: Operating Systems No Longer Supported,  Up: 已移除<9>

1.9.7.2 API 與功能的移除
........................

The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have
been removed:

   * The unmaintained ‘Misc/TextMate’ and ‘Misc/vim’ directories have
     been removed (see the devguide(1) for suggestions on what to use
     instead).

   * The ‘SO’ makefile macro is removed (it was replaced by the
     ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’ and ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ macros) (bpo-16754(2)).

   * The ‘PyThreadState.tick_counter’ field has been removed; its value
     has been meaningless since Python 3.2, when the "new GIL" was
     introduced (bpo-19199(3)).

   * ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’ have been removed from *note
     importlib: 71.  (Contributed by Taras Lyapun in bpo-15641(4).)

   * The 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: 998. and *note
     HTTPSConnection: 999. has been removed.  HTTP 0.9-style "Simple
     Responses" are no longer supported.

   * The deprecated *note urllib.request.Request: e6a. getter and setter
     methods ‘add_data’, ‘has_data’, ‘get_data’, ‘get_type’, ‘get_host’,
     ‘get_selector’, ‘set_proxy’, ‘get_origin_req_host’, and
     ‘is_unverifiable’ have been removed (use direct attribute access
     instead).

   * Support for loading the deprecated ‘TYPE_INT64’ has been removed
     from *note marshal: 88.  (Contributed by Dan Riti in bpo-15480(5).)

   * *note inspect.Signature: 54a.: positional-only parameters are now
     required to have a valid name.

   * *note object.__format__(): 419. no longer accepts non-empty format
     strings, it now raises a *note TypeError: 2ba. instead.  Using a
     non-empty string has been deprecated since Python 3.2.  This change
     has been made to prevent a situation where previously working (but
     incorrect) code would start failing if an object gained a
     __format__ method, which means that your code may now raise a *note
     TypeError: 2ba. if you are using an ‘'s'’ format code with objects
     that do not have a __format__ method that handles it.  See
     bpo-7994(6) for background.

   * ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbjunk()’ and
     ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbpopular()’ were deprecated in 3.2, and
     have now been removed: use ‘x in sm.bjunk’ and ‘x in sm.bpopular’,
     where 'sm' is a *note SequenceMatcher: ead. object (bpo-13248(7)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16754

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19199

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15480

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248


File: python.info,  Node: 程式碼的清除,  Prev: API 與功能的移除,  Up: 已移除<9>

1.9.7.3 程式碼的清除
....................

   * The unused and undocumented internal ‘Scanner’ class has been
     removed from the *note pydoc: b0. module.

   * The private and effectively unused ‘_gestalt’ module has been
     removed, along with the private *note platform: a5. functions
     ‘_mac_ver_lookup’, ‘_mac_ver_gstalt’, and ‘_bcd2str’, which would
     only have ever been called on badly broken OSX systems (see
     bpo-18393(1)).

   * The hardcoded copies of certain *note stat: cb. constants that were
     included in the *note tarfile: d8. module namespace have been
     removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18393


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 4,  Next: 3 4 3 中的變更,  Prev: 已移除<9>,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>

1.9.8 Porting to Python 3.4
---------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in 'python' Command Behavior: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
* Python API 的變更: Python API 的變更<2>.
* C API 中的改動: C API 中的改動<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>,  Next: Python API 的變更<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.9.8.1 Changes in 'python' Command Behavior
............................................

   * In a posix shell, setting the ‘PATH’ environment variable to an
     empty value is equivalent to not setting it at all.  However,
     setting *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. to an empty value was 'not'
     equivalent to not setting it at all: setting *note PYTHONPATH: eb1.
     to an empty value was equivalent to setting it to ‘.’, which leads
     to confusion when reasoning by analogy to how ‘PATH’ works.  The
     behavior now conforms to the posix convention for ‘PATH’.

   * The [X refs, Y blocks] output of a debug (‘--with-pydebug’) build
     of the CPython interpreter is now off by default.  It can be
     re-enabled using the ‘-X showrefcount’ option.  (Contributed by
     Ezio Melotti in bpo-17323(1).)

   * The python command and most stdlib scripts (as well as *note
     argparse: 6.) now output ‘--version’ information to ‘stdout’
     instead of ‘stderr’ (for issue list see *note Other Improvements:
     e99. above).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17323


File: python.info,  Node: Python API 的變更<2>,  Next: C API 中的改動<7>,  Prev: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.9.8.2 Python API 的變更
.........................

   * The ABCs defined in *note importlib.abc: 72. now either raise the
     appropriate exception or return a default value instead of raising
     *note NotImplementedError: bc0. blindly.  This will only affect
     code calling *note super(): 206. and falling through all the way to
     the ABCs.  For compatibility, catch both *note NotImplementedError:
     bc0. or the appropriate exception as needed.

   * The module type now initializes the *note __package__: 245. and
     *note __loader__: 24d. attributes to ‘None’ by default.  To
     determine if these attributes were set in a backwards-compatible
     fashion, use e.g.  ‘getattr(module, '__loader__', None) is not
     None’.  (bpo-17115(1).)

   * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ now sets ‘__loader__’ and
     ‘__package__’ unconditionally to properly support reloading.  If
     this is not desired then you will need to set these attributes
     manually.  You can use ‘importlib.util.module_to_load()’ for module
     management.

   * Import now resets relevant attributes (e.g.  ‘__name__’,
     ‘__loader__’, ‘__package__’, ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’)
     unconditionally when reloading.  Note that this restores a pre-3.3
     behavior in that it means a module is re-found when re-loaded
     (bpo-19413(2)).

   * Frozen packages no longer set ‘__path__’ to a list containing the
     package name, they now set it to an empty list.  The previous
     behavior could cause the import system to do the wrong thing on
     submodule imports if there was also a directory with the same name
     as the frozen package.  The correct way to determine if a module is
     a package or not is to use ‘hasattr(module, '__path__')’
     (bpo-18065(3)).

   * Frozen modules no longer define a ‘__file__’ attribute.  It's
     semantically incorrect for frozen modules to set the attribute as
     they are not loaded from any explicit location.  If you must know
     that a module comes from frozen code then you can see if the
     module's ‘__spec__.location’ is set to ‘'frozen'’, check if the
     loader is a subclass of *note importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter:
     eb3, or if Python 2 compatibility is necessary you can use
     ‘imp.is_frozen()’.

   * *note py_compile.compile(): 86e. now raises *note FileExistsError:
     eb4. if the file path it would write to is a symlink or a
     non-regular file.  This is to act as a warning that import will
     overwrite those files with a regular file regardless of what type
     of file path they were originally.

   * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source(): eb5. no longer
     raises *note ImportError: 145. when the source code being loaded
     triggers a *note SyntaxError: 146. or *note UnicodeDecodeError:
     85a.  As *note ImportError: 145. is meant to be raised only when
     source code cannot be found but it should, it was felt to be
     over-reaching/overloading of that meaning when the source code is
     found but improperly structured.  If you were catching ImportError
     before and wish to continue to ignore syntax or decoding issues,
     catch all three exceptions now.

   * *note functools.update_wrapper(): eb6. and *note functools.wraps():
     dea. now correctly set the ‘__wrapped__’ attribute to the function
     being wrapped, even if that function also had its ‘__wrapped__’
     attribute set.  This means ‘__wrapped__’ attributes now correctly
     link a stack of decorated functions rather than every ‘__wrapped__’
     attribute in the chain referring to the innermost function.
     Introspection libraries that assumed the previous behaviour was
     intentional can use *note inspect.unwrap(): de9. to access the
     first function in the chain that has no ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.

   * *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 549. has been reimplemented on top
     of *note inspect.signature(): 548. and hence handles a much wider
     variety of callable objects than it did in the past.  It is
     expected that additional builtin and extension module callables
     will gain signature metadata over the course of the Python 3.4
     series.  Code that assumes that *note inspect.getfullargspec():
     549. will fail on non-Python callables may need to be adjusted
     accordingly.

   * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder: eb7. now passes on the
     current working directory to objects in *note sys.path_hooks: eb8.
     for the empty string.  This results in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. never containing ‘''’, thus iterating
     through *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. based on *note
     sys.path: 35e. will not find all keys.  A module's ‘__file__’ when
     imported in the current working directory will also now have an
     absolute path, including when using ‘-m’ with the interpreter
     (except for ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed
     directly using a relative path) (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-18416(4)).  is specified on the command-line) (bpo-18416(5)).

   * The removal of the 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: 998.
     and *note HTTPSConnection: 999. changes the meaning of the
     remaining arguments if you are specifying them positionally rather
     than by keyword.  If you've been paying attention to deprecation
     warnings your code should already be specifying any additional
     arguments via keywords.

   * Strings between ‘from __future__ import ...’ statements now
     'always' raise a *note SyntaxError: 146.  Previously if there was
     no leading docstring, an interstitial string would sometimes be
     ignored.  This brings CPython into compliance with the language
     spec; Jython and PyPy already were.  (bpo-17434(6)).

   * *note ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e46. and *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake(): ceb. now raise an *note OSError: 644.
     with ‘ENOTCONN’ when the ‘SSLSocket’ is not connected, instead of
     the previous behavior of raising an *note AttributeError: 3ca.  In
     addition, *note getpeercert(): e46. will raise a *note ValueError:
     183. if the handshake has not yet been done.

   * *note base64.b32decode(): eb9. now raises a *note binascii.Error:
     eba. when the input string contains non-b32-alphabet characters,
     instead of a *note TypeError: 2ba.  This particular *note
     TypeError: 2ba. was missed when the other *note TypeError: 2ba.s
     were converted.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18011(7).)
     Note: this change was also inadvertently applied in Python 3.3.3.

   * The ‘file’ attribute is now automatically closed when the creating
     ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage collected.  If you were
     pulling the file object out separately from the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’
     instance and not keeping the instance alive, then you should either
     store the entire ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance or read the contents
     of the file before the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage
     collected.

   * Calling ‘read’ or ‘write’ on a closed SSL socket now raises an
     informative *note ValueError: 183. rather than the previous more
     mysterious *note AttributeError: 3ca. (bpo-9177(8)).

   * *note slice.indices(): ebb. no longer produces an *note
     OverflowError: 6ad. for huge values.  As a consequence of this fix,
     *note slice.indices(): ebb. now raises a *note ValueError: 183. if
     given a negative length; previously it returned nonsense values
     (bpo-14794(9)).

   * The *note complex: 26b. constructor, unlike the *note cmath: 16.
     functions, was incorrectly accepting *note float: 26a. values if an
     object's ‘__complex__’ special method returned one.  This now
     raises a *note TypeError: 2ba.  (bpo-16290(10).)

   * The *note int: 17e. constructor in 3.2 and 3.3 erroneously accepts
     *note float: 26a. values for the 'base' parameter.  It is unlikely
     anyone was doing this, but if so, it will now raise a *note
     TypeError: 2ba. (bpo-16772(11)).

   * Defaults for keyword-only arguments are now evaluated 'after'
     defaults for regular keyword arguments, instead of before.
     Hopefully no one wrote any code that depends on the previous buggy
     behavior (bpo-16967(12)).

   * Stale thread states are now cleared after *note fork(): 233.  This
     may cause some system resources to be released that previously were
     incorrectly kept perpetually alive (for example, database
     connections kept in thread-local storage).  (bpo-17094(13).)

   * Parameter names in ‘__annotations__’ dicts are now mangled
     properly, similarly to *note __kwdefaults__: ebc.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-20625(14).)

   * *note hashlib.hash.name: dd5. now always returns the identifier in
     lower case.  Previously some builtin hashes had uppercase names,
     but now that it is a formal public interface the naming has been
     made consistent (bpo-18532(15)).

   * Because *note unittest.TestSuite: c6c. now drops references to
     tests after they are run, test harnesses that reuse a *note
     TestSuite: c6c. to re-run a set of tests may fail.  Test suites
     should not be re-used in this fashion since it means state is
     retained between test runs, breaking the test isolation that *note
     unittest: 101. is designed to provide.  However, if the lack of
     isolation is considered acceptable, the old behavior can be
     restored by creating a *note TestSuite: c6c. subclass that defines
     a ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method that does nothing (see *note
     TestSuite.__iter__(): ebd.) (bpo-11798(16)).

   * *note unittest: 101. now uses *note argparse: 6. for command line
     parsing.  There are certain invalid command forms that used to work
     that are no longer allowed; in theory this should not cause
     backward compatibility issues since the disallowed command forms
     didn't make any sense and are unlikely to be in use.

   * The *note re.split(): 9ca, *note re.findall(): ebe, and *note
     re.sub(): 201. functions, and the ‘group()’ and ‘groups()’ methods
     of ‘match’ objects now always return a 'bytes' object when the
     string to be matched is a *note bytes-like object: b9f.  Previously
     the return type matched the input type, so if your code was
     depending on the return value being, say, a ‘bytearray’, you will
     need to change your code.

   * *note audioop: b. functions now raise an error immediately if
     passed string input, instead of failing randomly later on
     (bpo-16685(17)).

   * The new 'convert_charrefs' argument to *note HTMLParser: 6a2.
     currently defaults to ‘False’ for backward compatibility, but will
     eventually be changed to default to ‘True’.  It is recommended that
     you add this keyword, with the appropriate value, to any *note
     HTMLParser: 6a2. calls in your code (bpo-13633(18)).

   * Since the 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): 8f1.
     function will in the future have no default, all calls to *note
     hmac.new(): 8f1. should be changed to explicitly specify a
     'digestmod' (bpo-17276(19)).

   * Calling *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): ebf. with the ‘SO’ key,
     or looking ‘SO’ up in the results of a call to *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): ec0. is deprecated.  This key should
     be replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ or ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’, depending on the
     context (bpo-19555(20)).

   * Any calls to ‘open’ functions that specify ‘U’ should be modified.
     ‘U’ is ineffective in Python3 and will eventually raise an error if
     used.  Depending on the function, the equivalent of its old Python2
     behavior can be achieved using either a 'newline' argument, or if
     necessary by wrapping the stream in *note TextIOWrapper: 5d9. to
     use its 'newline' argument (bpo-15204(21)).

   * If you use ‘pyvenv’ in a script and desire that pip 'not' be
     installed, you must add ‘--without-pip’ to your command invocation.

   * The default behavior of *note json.dump(): bb7. and *note
     json.dumps(): bb8. when an indent is specified has changed: it no
     longer produces trailing spaces after the item separating commas at
     the ends of lines.  This will matter only if you have tests that
     are doing white-space-sensitive comparisons of such output
     (bpo-16333(22)).

   * *note doctest: 36. now looks for doctests in extension module
     ‘__doc__’ strings, so if your doctest test discovery includes
     extension modules that have things that look like doctests in them
     you may see test failures you've never seen before when running
     your tests (bpo-3158(23)).

   * The *note collections.abc: 1c. module has been slightly refactored
     as part of the Python startup improvements.  As a consequence of
     this, it is no longer the case that importing *note collections:
     1b. automatically imports *note collections.abc: 1c.  If your
     program depended on the (undocumented) implicit import, you will
     need to add an explicit ‘import collections.abc’ (bpo-20784(24)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17115

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19413

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18065

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17434

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18011

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9177

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14794

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16290

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16967

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17094

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20625

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19555

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15204

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16333

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20784


File: python.info,  Node: C API 中的改動<7>,  Prev: Python API 的變更<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.9.8.3 C API 中的改動
......................

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): ec2, *note PyObject_Repr(): ec3, and
     *note PyObject_Str(): ec4, along with some other internal C APIs,
     now include a debugging assertion that ensures they are not used in
     situations where they may silently discard a currently active
     exception.  In cases where discarding the active exception is
     expected and desired (for example, because it has already been
     saved locally with *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2f4. or is being
     deliberately replaced with a different exception), an explicit
     *note PyErr_Clear(): ec5. call will be needed to avoid triggering
     the assertion when invoking these operations (directly or
     indirectly) and running against a version of Python that is
     compiled with assertions enabled.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): bb0. now sets *note TypeError: 2ba.
     when its 'msg' argument is not set.  Previously only ‘NULL’ was
     returned with no exception set.

   * The result of the *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 315. callback
     must now be a string allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): ec6. or
     *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): ec7, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred,
     instead of a string allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace. or
     *note PyMem_Realloc(): ec8. (bpo-16742(1))

   * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 378. now always set the value.  In
     Python 3.3, the function did nothing if the key already exists (if
     the current value is a non-‘NULL’ pointer).

   * The ‘f_tstate’ (thread state) field of the *note PyFrameObject:
     5a1. structure has been removed to fix a bug: see bpo-14432(2) for
     the rationale.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16742

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14432


File: python.info,  Node: 3 4 3 中的變更,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 4,  Up: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>

1.9.9 3.4.3 中的變更
--------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients,  Up: 3 4 3 中的變更

1.9.9.1 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
.....................................................................................

*note http.client: 6a. and modules which use it, such as *note
urllib.request: 106. and *note xmlrpc.client: 128, will now verify that
the server presents a certificate which is signed by a CA in the
platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname being
requested by default, significantly improving security for many
applications.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass
an alternate context:

     import urllib.request
     import ssl

     # This disables all verification
     context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

     # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
     # to be in the trust store
     context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

     urllib.request.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.10 Python 3.3 有什麼新功能
============================

This article explains the new features in Python 3.3, compared to 3.2.
Python 3.3 was released on September 29, 2012.  For full details, see
the changelog(1).

也參考
......

PEP 398(2) - Python 3.3 發佈時間表

* Menu:

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights<5>. Release highlights
* PEP 405：虛擬環境::
* PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
* PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
* PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
* PEP 397：適用於 Windows 的 Python 啟動器::
* PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
* PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
* PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
* PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
* PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
* PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
* PEP 362：函式簽名物件::
* PEP 421：新增 sys.implementation: PEP 421：新增 sys implementation.
* 使用 importlib 作為 import 的實作::
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<10>.
* A Finer-Grained Import Lock::
* 內建函式和型別::
* 新模組: 新模組<6>.
* 改進的模組: 改進的模組<10>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<9>.
* 建置和 C API 更改::
* 已棄用: 已棄用<12>.
* 移植到 Python 3.3: 移植到 Python 3 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.3/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0398/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary -- Release highlights<5>,  Next: PEP 405：虛擬環境,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.1 Summary - Release highlights
-----------------------------------

新增語法特性：

   * New ‘yield from’ expression for *note generator delegation: ecf.

   * *note str: 157. 物件再次接受 ‘u'unicode'’ 語法。

新的函式庫模組：

   * *note faulthandler: 53. (helps debugging low-level crashes)

   * *note ipaddress: 7a. (high-level objects representing IP addresses
     and masks)

   * *note lzma: 85. (compress data using the XZ / LZMA algorithm)

   * *note unittest.mock: 102. (replace parts of your system under test
     with mock objects)

   * *note venv: 10c. (Python *note virtual environments: ed0, as in the
     popular ‘virtualenv’ package)

新的內建功能：

   * 重新設計 *note I/O 例外層次結構: ed1.。

實作改進：

   * Rewritten *note import machinery: ed2. based on *note importlib:
     71.

   * More compact *note unicode strings: ed3.

   * More compact *note attribute dictionaries: ed4.

Significantly Improved Library Modules:

   * C Accelerator for the *note decimal: ed5. module.

   * Better unicode handling in the *note email: ed6. module (*note
     provisional: ed7.).

安全性改進：

   * 預設情況下，雜湊隨機化處於打開狀態。

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 405：虛擬環境,  Next: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Prev: Summary -- Release highlights<5>,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.2 PEP 405：虛擬環境
------------------------

Virtual environments help create separate Python setups while sharing a
system-wide base install, for ease of maintenance.  Virtual environments
have their own set of private site packages (i.e.  locally installed
libraries), and are optionally segregated from the system-wide site
packages.  Their concept and implementation are inspired by the popular
‘virtualenv’ third-party package, but benefit from tighter integration
with the interpreter core.

This PEP adds the *note venv: 10c. module for programmatic access, and
the ‘pyvenv’ script for command-line access and administration.  The
Python interpreter checks for a ‘pyvenv.cfg’, file whose existence
signals the base of a virtual environment's directory tree.

也參考
......

PEP 405(1) - Python 虛擬環境

     由 Carl Meyer 撰寫 PEP；由 Carl Meyer 與 Vinay Sajip 實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Next: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Prev: PEP 405：虛擬環境,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.3 PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
-------------------------------------------

Native support for package directories that don't require ‘__init__.py’
marker files and can automatically span multiple path segments (inspired
by various third party approaches to namespace packages, as described in
PEP 420(1))

也參考
......

PEP 420(2) - Implicit Namespace Packages

     由 Eric V. Smith 撰寫 PEP；由 Eric V. Smith 和 Barry Warsaw 實施

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Next: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Prev: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.4 PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The implementation of PEP 3118(1) has been significantly improved.

The new memoryview implementation comprehensively fixes all ownership
and lifetime issues of dynamically allocated fields in the Py_buffer
struct that led to multiple crash reports.  Additionally, several
functions that crashed or returned incorrect results for non-contiguous
or multi-dimensional input have been fixed.

The memoryview object now has a PEP-3118 compliant getbufferproc() that
checks the consumer's request type.  Many new features have been added,
most of them work in full generality for non-contiguous arrays and
arrays with suboffsets.

The documentation has been updated, clearly spelling out
responsibilities for both exporters and consumers.  Buffer request flags
are grouped into basic and compound flags.  The memory layout of
non-contiguous and multi-dimensional NumPy-style arrays is explained.

* Menu:

* 功能::
* API 變更::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: 功能,  Next: API 變更,  Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

1.10.4.1 功能
.............

   * All native single character format specifiers in struct module
     syntax (optionally prefixed with '@') are now supported.

   * With some restrictions, the cast() method allows changing of format
     and shape of C-contiguous arrays.

   * Multi-dimensional list representations are supported for any array
     type.

   * Multi-dimensional comparisons are supported for any array type.

   * One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with
     formats B, b or c are now hashable.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
     in bpo-13411(1).)

   * Arbitrary slicing of any 1-D arrays type is supported.  For
     example, it is now possible to reverse a memoryview in 'O'(1) by
     using a negative step.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13411


File: python.info,  Node: API 變更,  Prev: 功能,  Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

1.10.4.2 API 變更
.................

   * The maximum number of dimensions is officially limited to 64.

   * The representation of empty shape, strides and suboffsets is now an
     empty tuple instead of ‘None’.

   * Accessing a memoryview element with format 'B' (unsigned bytes) now
     returns an integer (in accordance with the struct module syntax).
     For returning a bytes object the view must be cast to 'c' first.

   * memoryview comparisons now use the logical structure of the
     operands and compare all array elements by value.  All format
     strings in struct module syntax are supported.  Views with
     unrecognised format strings are still permitted, but will always
     compare as unequal, regardless of view contents.

   * For further changes see *note Build and C API Changes: ede. and
     *note Porting C code: edf.

（由 Stefan Krah 在 bpo-10181(1) 中貢獻。）

也參考
......

PEP 3118(2) - 修訂緩衝協定

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10181

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Next: PEP 397：適用於 Windows 的 Python 啟動器,  Prev: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.5 PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
----------------------------------------------

The Unicode string type is changed to support multiple internal
representations, depending on the character with the largest Unicode
ordinal (1, 2, or 4 bytes) in the represented string.  This allows a
space-efficient representation in common cases, but gives access to full
UCS-4 on all systems.  For compatibility with existing APIs, several
representations may exist in parallel; over time, this compatibility
should be phased out.

On the Python side, there should be no downside to this change.

On the C API side, PEP 393(1) is fully backward compatible.  The legacy
API should remain available at least five years.  Applications using the
legacy API will not fully benefit of the memory reduction, or - worse -
may use a bit more memory, because Python may have to maintain two
versions of each string (in the legacy format and in the new efficient
storage).

* Menu:

* 功能性::
* 性能和資源使用情況::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: 功能性,  Next: 性能和資源使用情況,  Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation

1.10.5.1 功能性
...............

PEP 393(1) 引入的更改如下：

   * Python now always supports the full range of Unicode code points,
     including non-BMP ones (i.e.  from ‘U+0000’ to ‘U+10FFFF’).  The
     distinction between narrow and wide builds no longer exists and
     Python now behaves like a wide build, even under Windows.

   * With the death of narrow builds, the problems specific to narrow
     builds have also been fixed, for example:

        * *note len(): 429. now always returns 1 for non-BMP characters,
          so ‘len('\U0010FFFF') == 1’;

        * surrogate pairs are not recombined in string literals, so
          ‘'\uDBFF\uDFFF' != '\U0010FFFF'’;

        * indexing or slicing non-BMP characters returns the expected
          value, so ‘'\U0010FFFF'[0]’ now returns ‘'\U0010FFFF'’ and not
          ‘'\uDBFF'’;

        * all other functions in the standard library now correctly
          handle non-BMP code points.

   * The value of *note sys.maxunicode: ee2. is now always ‘1114111’
     (‘0x10FFFF’ in hexadecimal).  The ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’ function
     still returns either ‘0xFFFF’ or ‘0x10FFFF’ for backward
     compatibility, and it should not be used with the new Unicode API
     (see bpo-13054(2)).

   * ‘./configure’ 旗標 ‘--with-wide-unicode’ 已被刪除。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13054


File: python.info,  Node: 性能和資源使用情況,  Prev: 功能性,  Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation

1.10.5.2 性能和資源使用情況
...........................

The storage of Unicode strings now depends on the highest code point in
the string:

   * pure ASCII and Latin1 strings (‘U+0000-U+00FF’) use 1 byte per code
     point;

   * BMP strings (‘U+0000-U+FFFF’) use 2 bytes per code point;

   * non-BMP strings (‘U+10000-U+10FFFF’) use 4 bytes per code point.

The net effect is that for most applications, memory usage of string
storage should decrease significantly - especially compared to former
wide unicode builds - as, in many cases, strings will be pure ASCII even
in international contexts (because many strings store non-human language
data, such as XML fragments, HTTP headers, JSON-encoded data, etc.).  We
also hope that it will, for the same reasons, increase CPU cache
efficiency on non-trivial applications.  The memory usage of Python 3.3
is two to three times smaller than Python 3.2, and a little bit better
than Python 2.7, on a Django benchmark (see the PEP for details).

也參考
......

PEP 393(1) - Flexible String Representation

     PEP 由 Martin von Löwis 撰寫；由 Torsten Becker 和 Martin von Löwis
     實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 397：適用於 Windows 的 Python 啟動器,  Next: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Prev: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.6 PEP 397：適用於 Windows 的 Python 啟動器
-----------------------------------------------

The Python 3.3 Windows installer now includes a ‘py’ launcher
application that can be used to launch Python applications in a version
independent fashion.

This launcher is invoked implicitly when double-clicking ‘*.py’ files.
If only a single Python version is installed on the system, that version
will be used to run the file.  If multiple versions are installed, the
most recent version is used by default, but this can be overridden by
including a Unix-style "shebang line" in the Python script.

The launcher can also be used explicitly from the command line as the
‘py’ application.  Running ‘py’ follows the same version selection rules
as implicitly launching scripts, but a more specific version can be
selected by passing appropriate arguments (such as ‘-3’ to request
Python 3 when Python 2 is also installed, or ‘-2.6’ to specifically
request an earlier Python version when a more recent version is
installed).

In addition to the launcher, the Windows installer now includes an
option to add the newly installed Python to the system PATH.
(Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-3561(1).)

也參考
......

PEP 397(2) - 適用於 Windows 的 Python 啟動器

     由 Mark Hammond 和 Martin v.  Löwis 撰寫 PEP；由 Vinay Sajip 實作。

啟動器文件：*note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae.

Installer PATH modification: *note Finding the Python executable: ee6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3561

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Next: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Prev: PEP 397：適用於 Windows 的 Python 啟動器,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.7 PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
------------------------------------------------------------

The hierarchy of exceptions raised by operating system errors is now
both simplified and finer-grained.

You don't have to worry anymore about choosing the appropriate exception
type between *note OSError: 644, *note IOError: ee8, *note
EnvironmentError: ee9, *note WindowsError: eea, ‘mmap.error’, *note
socket.error: eeb. or *note select.error: eec.  All these exception
types are now only one: *note OSError: 644.  The other names are kept as
aliases for compatibility reasons.

Also, it is now easier to catch a specific error condition.  Instead of
inspecting the ‘errno’ attribute (or ‘args[0]’) for a particular
constant from the *note errno: 52. module, you can catch the adequate
*note OSError: 644. subclass.  The available subclasses are the
following:

   * *note BlockingIOError: eed.

   * *note ChildProcessError: eee.

   * *note ConnectionError: c82.

   * *note FileExistsError: eb4.

   * *note FileNotFoundError: d46.

   * *note InterruptedError: bfe.

   * *note IsADirectoryError: eef.

   * *note NotADirectoryError: ef0.

   * *note PermissionError: bb5.

   * *note ProcessLookupError: ef1.

   * *note TimeoutError: 65b.

And the *note ConnectionError: c82. itself has finer-grained subclasses:

   * *note BrokenPipeError: ef2.

   * *note ConnectionAbortedError: ef3.

   * *note ConnectionRefusedError: ef4.

   * *note ConnectionResetError: ef5.

Thanks to the new exceptions, common usages of the *note errno: 52. can
now be avoided.  For example, the following code written for Python 3.2:

     from errno import ENOENT, EACCES, EPERM

     try:
         with open("document.txt") as f:
             content = f.read()
     except IOError as err:
         if err.errno == ENOENT:
             print("document.txt file is missing")
         elif err.errno in (EACCES, EPERM):
             print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")
         else:
             raise

can now be written without the *note errno: 52. import and without
manual inspection of exception attributes:

     try:
         with open("document.txt") as f:
             content = f.read()
     except FileNotFoundError:
         print("document.txt file is missing")
     except PermissionError:
         print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")

也參考
......

PEP 3151(1) - Reworking the OS and IO Exception Hierarchy

     由 Antoine Pitrou 撰寫 PEP 與實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Next: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Prev: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.8 PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
-------------------------------------------------------

PEP 380 adds the ‘yield from’ expression, allowing a *note generator:
ef7. to delegate part of its operations to another generator.  This
allows a section of code containing *note yield: 811. to be factored out
and placed in another generator.  Additionally, the subgenerator is
allowed to return with a value, and the value is made available to the
delegating generator.

While designed primarily for use in delegating to a subgenerator, the
‘yield from’ expression actually allows delegation to arbitrary
subiterators.

For simple iterators, ‘yield from iterable’ is essentially just a
shortened form of ‘for item in iterable: yield item’:

     >>> def g(x):
     ...     yield from range(x, 0, -1)
     ...     yield from range(x)
     ...
     >>> list(g(5))
     [5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

However, unlike an ordinary loop, ‘yield from’ allows subgenerators to
receive sent and thrown values directly from the calling scope, and
return a final value to the outer generator:

     >>> def accumulate():
     ...     tally = 0
     ...     while 1:
     ...         next = yield
     ...         if next is None:
     ...             return tally
     ...         tally += next
     ...
     >>> def gather_tallies(tallies):
     ...     while 1:
     ...         tally = yield from accumulate()
     ...         tallies.append(tally)
     ...
     >>> tallies = []
     >>> acc = gather_tallies(tallies)
     >>> next(acc)  # Ensure the accumulator is ready to accept values
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     acc.send(i)
     ...
     >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the first tally
     >>> for i in range(5):
     ...     acc.send(i)
     ...
     >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the second tally
     >>> tallies
     [6, 10]

The main principle driving this change is to allow even generators that
are designed to be used with the ‘send’ and ‘throw’ methods to be split
into multiple subgenerators as easily as a single large function can be
split into multiple subfunctions.

也參考
......

PEP 380(1) - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator

     PEP written by Greg Ewing; implementation by Greg Ewing, integrated
     into 3.3 by Renaud Blanch, Ryan Kelly and Nick Coghlan;
     documentation by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek and Nick Coghlan

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Next: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Prev: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.9 PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
---------------------------------------------

PEP 409 introduces new syntax that allows the display of the chained
exception context to be disabled.  This allows cleaner error messages in
applications that convert between exception types:

     >>> class D:
     ...     def __init__(self, extra):
     ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
     ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
     ...         try:
     ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
     ...         except KeyError:
     ...             raise AttributeError(attr) from None
     ...
     >>> D({}).x
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
     AttributeError: x

Without the ‘from None’ suffix to suppress the cause, the original
exception would be displayed by default:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def __init__(self, extra):
     ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
     ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
     ...         try:
     ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
     ...         except KeyError:
     ...             raise AttributeError(attr)
     ...
     >>> C({}).x
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 6, in __getattr__
     KeyError: 'x'

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
     AttributeError: x

No debugging capability is lost, as the original exception context
remains available if needed (for example, if an intervening library has
incorrectly suppressed valuable underlying details):

     >>> try:
     ...     D({}).x
     ... except AttributeError as exc:
     ...     print(repr(exc.__context__))
     ...
     KeyError('x',)

也參考
......

PEP 409(1) - Suppressing exception context

     PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Ethan Furman and Nick
     Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0409/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Next: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Prev: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.10 PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
------------------------------------------

To ease the transition from Python 2 for Unicode aware Python
applications that make heavy use of Unicode literals, Python 3.3 once
again supports the "‘u’" prefix for string literals.  This prefix has no
semantic significance in Python 3, it is provided solely to reduce the
number of purely mechanical changes in migrating to Python 3, making it
easier for developers to focus on the more significant semantic changes
(such as the stricter default separation of binary and text data).

也參考
......

PEP 414(1) - Explicit Unicode literals

     由 Armin Ronacher 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Next: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Prev: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.11 PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
----------------------------------------------------------

Functions and class objects have a new *note __qualname__: efb.
attribute representing the "path" from the module top-level to their
definition.  For global functions and classes, this is the same as *note
__name__: efc.  For other functions and classes, it provides better
information about where they were actually defined, and how they might
be accessible from the global scope.

Example with (non-bound) methods:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def meth(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> C.meth.__name__
     'meth'
     >>> C.meth.__qualname__
     'C.meth'

巢狀類別範例：

     >>> class C:
     ...     class D:
     ...         def meth(self):
     ...             pass
     ...
     >>> C.D.__name__
     'D'
     >>> C.D.__qualname__
     'C.D'
     >>> C.D.meth.__name__
     'meth'
     >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
     'C.D.meth'

巢狀函式範例：

     >>> def outer():
     ...     def inner():
     ...         pass
     ...     return inner
     ...
     >>> outer().__name__
     'inner'
     >>> outer().__qualname__
     'outer.<locals>.inner'

The string representation of those objects is also changed to include
the new, more precise information:

     >>> str(C.D)
     "<class '__main__.C.D'>"
     >>> str(C.D.meth)
     '<function C.D.meth at 0x7f46b9fe31e0>'

也參考
......

PEP 3155(1) - Qualified name for classes and functions

     由 Antoine Pitrou 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Next: PEP 362：函式簽名物件,  Prev: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.12 PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
---------------------------------------

Dictionaries used for the storage of objects' attributes are now able to
share part of their internal storage between each other (namely, the
part which stores the keys and their respective hashes).  This reduces
the memory consumption of programs creating many instances of
non-builtin types.

也參考
......

PEP 412(1) - 密鑰共享字典

     由 Mark Shannon 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 362：函式簽名物件,  Next: PEP 421：新增 sys implementation,  Prev: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.13 PEP 362：函式簽名物件
-----------------------------

A new function *note inspect.signature(): 548. makes introspection of
python callables easy and straightforward.  A broad range of callables
is supported: python functions, decorated or not, classes, and *note
functools.partial(): d4e. objects.  New classes *note inspect.Signature:
54a, *note inspect.Parameter: c8e. and *note inspect.BoundArguments:
eff. hold information about the call signatures, such as, annotations,
default values, parameters kinds, and bound arguments, which
considerably simplifies writing decorators and any code that validates
or amends calling signatures or arguments.

也參考
......

PEP 362(1): - 函式簽名物件

     PEP 由 Brett Cannon、Yury Selivanov、Larry Hastings、Jiwon Seo 撰寫
     ；由 Yury Selivanov 實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 421：新增 sys implementation,  Next: 使用 importlib 作為 import 的實作,  Prev: PEP 362：函式簽名物件,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.14 PEP 421：新增 sys.implementation
----------------------------------------

A new attribute on the *note sys: d3. module exposes details specific to
the implementation of the currently running interpreter.  The initial
set of attributes on *note sys.implementation: 297. are ‘name’,
‘version’, ‘hexversion’, and ‘cache_tag’.

The intention of ‘sys.implementation’ is to consolidate into one
namespace the implementation-specific data used by the standard library.
This allows different Python implementations to share a single standard
library code base much more easily.  In its initial state,
‘sys.implementation’ holds only a small portion of the
implementation-specific data.  Over time that ratio will shift in order
to make the standard library more portable.

One example of improved standard library portability is ‘cache_tag’.  As
of Python 3.3, ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is used by *note
importlib: 71. to support PEP 3147(1) compliance.  Any Python
implementation that uses ‘importlib’ for its built-in import system may
use ‘cache_tag’ to control the caching behavior for modules.

* Menu:

* SimpleNamespace::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleNamespace,  Up: PEP 421：新增 sys implementation

1.10.14.1 SimpleNamespace
.........................

The implementation of ‘sys.implementation’ also introduces a new type to
Python: *note types.SimpleNamespace: 765.  In contrast to a
mapping-based namespace, like *note dict: 239, ‘SimpleNamespace’ is
attribute-based, like *note object: 8d9.  However, unlike ‘object’,
‘SimpleNamespace’ instances are writable.  This means that you can add,
remove, and modify the namespace through normal attribute access.

也參考
......

PEP 421(1) - 新增 sys.implementation

     由 Eric Snow 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 importlib 作為 import 的實作,  Next: 其他語言更動<10>,  Prev: PEP 421：新增 sys implementation,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.15 使用 importlib 作為 import 的實作
-----------------------------------------

bpo-2377(1) - Replace __import__ w/ importlib.__import__ bpo-13959(2) -
Re-implement parts of ‘imp’ in pure Python bpo-14605(3) - Make import
machinery explicit bpo-14646(4) - Require loaders set __loader__ and
__package__

The *note __import__(): 70d. function is now powered by *note
importlib.__import__(): f03.  This work leads to the completion of
"phase 2" of PEP 302(5).  There are multiple benefits to this change.
First, it has allowed for more of the machinery powering import to be
exposed instead of being implicit and hidden within the C code.  It also
provides a single implementation for all Python VMs supporting Python
3.3 to use, helping to end any VM-specific deviations in import
semantics.  And finally it eases the maintenance of import, allowing for
future growth to occur.

For the common user, there should be no visible change in semantics.
For those whose code currently manipulates import or calls import
programmatically, the code changes that might possibly be required are
covered in the *note Porting Python code: f04. section of this document.

* Menu:

* 新 API::
* 明顯的變更::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2377

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13959

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14605

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14646

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: 新 API,  Next: 明顯的變更,  Up: 使用 importlib 作為 import 的實作

1.10.15.1 新 API
................

One of the large benefits of this work is the exposure of what goes into
making the import statement work.  That means the various importers that
were once implicit are now fully exposed as part of the *note importlib:
71. package.

The abstract base classes defined in *note importlib.abc: 72. have been
expanded to properly delineate between *note meta path finders: f06. and
*note path entry finders: f07. by introducing *note
importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 69a. and *note
importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 69b, respectively.  The old ABC of
‘importlib.abc.Finder’ is now only provided for backwards-compatibility
and does not enforce any method requirements.

In terms of finders, *note importlib.machinery.FileFinder: f08. exposes
the mechanism used to search for source and bytecode files of a module.
Previously this class was an implicit member of *note sys.path_hooks:
eb8.

For loaders, the new abstract base class *note importlib.abc.FileLoader:
f09. helps write a loader that uses the file system as the storage
mechanism for a module's code.  The loader for source files (*note
importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader: f0a.), sourceless bytecode files
(*note importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader: f0b.), and extension
modules (*note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: b1d.) are now
available for direct use.

*note ImportError: 145. now has ‘name’ and ‘path’ attributes which are
set when there is relevant data to provide.  The message for failed
imports will also provide the full name of the module now instead of
just the tail end of the module's name.

The *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): a73. function will now call the
method with the same name on all finders cached in *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. to help clean up any stored state as
necessary.


File: python.info,  Node: 明顯的變更,  Prev: 新 API,  Up: 使用 importlib 作為 import 的實作

1.10.15.2 明顯的變更
....................

For potential required changes to code, see the *note Porting Python
code: f04. section.

Beyond the expanse of what *note importlib: 71. now exposes, there are
other visible changes to import.  The biggest is that *note
sys.meta_path: b9d. and *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. now store all of the
meta path finders and path entry hooks used by import.  Previously the
finders were implicit and hidden within the C code of import instead of
being directly exposed.  This means that one can now easily remove or
change the order of the various finders to fit one's needs.

Another change is that all modules have a ‘__loader__’ attribute,
storing the loader used to create the module.  PEP 302(1) has been
updated to make this attribute mandatory for loaders to implement, so in
the future once 3rd-party loaders have been updated people will be able
to rely on the existence of the attribute.  Until such time, though,
import is setting the module post-load.

Loaders are also now expected to set the ‘__package__’ attribute from
PEP 366(2).  Once again, import itself is already setting this on all
loaders from *note importlib: 71. and import itself is setting the
attribute post-load.

‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. when no
finder can be found on *note sys.path_hooks: eb8.  Since
‘imp.NullImporter’ is not directly exposed on *note sys.path_hooks: eb8.
it could no longer be relied upon to always be available to use as a
value representing no finder found.

All other changes relate to semantic changes which should be taken into
consideration when updating code for Python 3.3, and thus should be read
about in the *note Porting Python code: f04. section of this document.

（由 Brett Cannon 實作）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<10>,  Next: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Prev: 使用 importlib 作為 import 的實作,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.16 其他語言更動
--------------------

對核心 Python 語言所做的一些較小的更改包括：

   * Added support for Unicode name aliases and named sequences.  Both
     *note unicodedata.lookup(): f0e. and ‘'\N{...}'’ now resolve name
     aliases, and *note unicodedata.lookup(): f0e. resolves named
     sequences too.

     （由 Ezio Melotti 在 bpo-12753(1) 中貢獻。）

   * Unicode 資料庫更新至 UCD 版本 6.1.0

   * Equality comparisons on *note range(): 782. objects now return a
     result reflecting the equality of the underlying sequences
     generated by those range objects.  (bpo-13201(2))

   * The ‘count()’, ‘find()’, ‘rfind()’, ‘index()’ and ‘rindex()’
     methods of *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0. objects now
     accept an integer between 0 and 255 as their first argument.

     （由 Petri Lehtinen 在 bpo-12170(3) 中貢獻。）

   * The ‘rjust()’, ‘ljust()’, and ‘center()’ methods of *note bytes:
     2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0. now accept a *note bytearray: 2c0.
     for the ‘fill’ argument.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in
     bpo-12380(4).)

   * New methods have been added to *note list: 40a. and *note
     bytearray: 2c0.: ‘copy()’ and ‘clear()’ (bpo-10516(5)).
     Consequently, *note MutableSequence: c4c. now also defines a
     ‘clear()’ method (bpo-11388(6)).

   * Raw bytes literals can now be written ‘rb"..."’ as well as
     ‘br"..."’.

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-13748(7) 中貢獻。）

   * *note dict.setdefault(): f0f. now does only one lookup for the
     given key, making it atomic when used with built-in types.

     （由 Filip Gruszczyński 在 bpo-13521(8) 中貢獻。）

   * The error messages produced when a function call does not match the
     function signature have been significantly improved.

     （由 Benjamin Peterson 貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12753

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13201

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12170

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10516

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11388

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13748

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13521


File: python.info,  Node: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Next: 內建函式和型別,  Prev: 其他語言更動<10>,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.17 A Finer-Grained Import Lock
-----------------------------------

Previous versions of CPython have always relied on a global import lock.
This led to unexpected annoyances, such as deadlocks when importing a
module would trigger code execution in a different thread as a
side-effect.  Clumsy workarounds were sometimes employed, such as the
*note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 354. C API function.

In Python 3.3, importing a module takes a per-module lock.  This
correctly serializes importation of a given module from multiple threads
(preventing the exposure of incompletely initialized modules), while
eliminating the aforementioned annoyances.

（由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-9260(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9260


File: python.info,  Node: 內建函式和型別,  Next: 新模組<6>,  Prev: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.18 內建函式和型別
----------------------

   * *note open(): 29c. gets a new 'opener' parameter: the underlying
     file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling
     'opener' with ('file', 'flags').  It can be used to use custom
     flags like *note os.O_CLOEXEC: f12. for example.  The ‘'x'’ mode
     was added: open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already
     exists.

   * *note print(): e02.: added the 'flush' keyword argument.  If the
     'flush' keyword argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.

   * *note hash(): 3df.: hash randomization is enabled by default, see
     *note object.__hash__(): 950. and *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f13.

   * The *note str: 157. type gets a new *note casefold(): c4e. method:
     return a casefolded copy of the string, casefolded strings may be
     used for caseless matching.  For example, ‘'ß'.casefold()’ returns
     ‘'ss'’.

   * The sequence documentation has been substantially rewritten to
     better explain the binary/text sequence distinction and to provide
     specific documentation sections for the individual builtin sequence
     types (bpo-4966(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4966


File: python.info,  Node: 新模組<6>,  Next: 改進的模組<10>,  Prev: 內建函式和型別,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.19 新模組
--------------

* Menu:

* faulthandler: faulthandler<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<6>.
* lzma: lzma<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<4>,  Next: ipaddress<6>,  Up: 新模組<6>

1.10.19.1 faulthandler
......................

This new debug module *note faulthandler: 53. contains functions to dump
Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault (a crash like a segmentation
fault), after a timeout, or on a user signal.  Call *note
faulthandler.enable(): b0b. to install fault handlers for the ‘SIGSEGV’,
‘SIGFPE’, ‘SIGABRT’, ‘SIGBUS’, and ‘SIGILL’ signals.  You can also
enable them at startup by setting the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: f16.
environment variable or by using *note -X: 188. ‘faulthandler’ command
line option.

Example of a segmentation fault on Linux:

     $ python -q -X faulthandler
     >>> import ctypes
     >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
     Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

     Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700:
       File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
       File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
     Segmentation fault


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<6>,  Next: lzma<2>,  Prev: faulthandler<4>,  Up: 新模組<6>

1.10.19.2 ipaddress
...................

The new *note ipaddress: 7a. module provides tools for creating and
manipulating objects representing IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, networks and
interfaces (i.e.  an IP address associated with a specific IP subnet).

（由 Google 和 Peter Moody 在 PEP 3144(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3144/


File: python.info,  Node: lzma<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<6>,  Up: 新模組<6>

1.10.19.3 lzma
..............

The newly added *note lzma: 85. module provides data compression and
decompression using the LZMA algorithm, including support for the ‘.xz’
and ‘.lzma’ file formats.

（由 Nadeem Vawda 和 Per Øyvind Karlsen 在 bpo-6715(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6715


File: python.info,  Node: 改進的模組<10>,  Next: 最佳化<9>,  Prev: 新模組<6>,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.20 改進的模組
------------------

* Menu:

* abc: abc<2>.
* array: array<4>.
* base64: base64<3>.
* binascii: binascii<3>.
* bz2: bz2<2>.
* codecs: codecs<2>.
* collections: collections<7>.
* contextlib: contextlib<7>.
* crypt: crypt<2>.
* curses: curses<5>.
* datetime: datetime<6>.
* decimal: decimal<3>.
* email: email<6>.
* ftplib: ftplib<3>.
* functools: functools<6>.
* gc: gc<6>.
* hmac: hmac<4>.
* http: http<4>.
* html: html<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<9>.
* io: io<5>.
* itertools: itertools<5>.
* logging: logging<7>.
* math: math<8>.
* mmap: mmap<3>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>.
* nntplib: nntplib<2>.
* os: os<11>.
* pdb: pdb<6>.
* pickle: pickle<5>.
* pydoc: pydoc<5>.
* re: re<7>.
* sched::
* select: select<2>.
* shlex: shlex<3>.
* shutil: shutil<6>.
* signal: signal<4>.
* smtpd: smtpd<4>.
* smtplib: smtplib<4>.
* socket: socket<10>.
* socketserver: socketserver<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<9>.
* ssl: ssl<10>.
* stat: stat<2>.
* struct: struct<3>.
* subprocess: subprocess<5>.
* sys: sys<11>.
* tarfile: tarfile<8>.
* tempfile: tempfile<3>.
* textwrap: textwrap<2>.
* threading: threading<8>.
* time: time<7>.
* types: types<6>.
* unittest: unittest<9>.
* urllib: urllib<3>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<2>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>.
* zlib: zlib<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: abc<2>,  Next: array<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.1 abc
.............

Improved support for abstract base classes containing descriptors
composed with abstract methods.  The recommended approach to declaring
abstract descriptors is now to provide ‘__isabstractmethod__’ as a
dynamically updated property.  The built-in descriptors have been
updated accordingly.

   * *note abc.abstractproperty: f1b. 已被棄用，請改 *note property:
     424. 和 *note abc.abstractmethod(): f1c.。

   * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: f1d. 已被棄用，請改用 *note
     classmethod: 24b. 和 *note abc.abstractmethod(): f1c.。

   * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: f1e. 已被棄用，請改用 *note
     staticmethod: 5f9. 和 *note abc.abstractmethod(): f1c.。

（由 Darren Dale 在 bpo-11610(1) 中貢獻。）

*note abc.ABCMeta.register(): f1f. now returns the registered subclass,
which means it can now be used as a class decorator (bpo-10868(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11610

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10868


File: python.info,  Node: array<4>,  Next: base64<3>,  Prev: abc<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.2 array
...............

The *note array: 7. module supports the long long type using ‘q’ and ‘Q’
type codes.

（由 Oren Tirosh 和 Hirokazu Yamamoto 在 bpo-1172711(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1172711


File: python.info,  Node: base64<3>,  Next: binascii<3>,  Prev: array<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.3 base64
................

ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of
the *note base64: c. modern interface.  For example,
‘base64.b64decode('YWJj')’ returns ‘b'abc'’.  (Contributed by Catalin
Iacob in bpo-13641(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13641


File: python.info,  Node: binascii<3>,  Next: bz2<2>,  Prev: base64<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.4 binascii
..................

In addition to the binary objects they normally accept, the ‘a2b_’
functions now all also accept ASCII-only strings as input.  (Contributed
by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13637(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13637


File: python.info,  Node: bz2<2>,  Next: codecs<2>,  Prev: binascii<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.5 bz2
.............

The *note bz2: 11. module has been rewritten from scratch.  In the
process, several new features have been added:

   * New *note bz2.open(): f24. function: open a bzip2-compressed file
     in binary or text mode.

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 692. can now read from and write to arbitrary
     file-like objects, by means of its constructor's 'fileobj'
     argument.

     （由 Nadeem Vawda 在 bpo-5863(1) 中貢獻。）

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 692. and *note bz2.decompress(): f25. can now
     decompress multi-stream inputs (such as those produced by the
     ‘pbzip2’ tool).  *note bz2.BZ2File: 692. can now also be used to
     create this type of file, using the ‘'a'’ (append) mode.

     （由 Nir Aides 在 bpo-1625(2) 中貢獻。）

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 692. now implements all of the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 491. API, except for the ‘detach()’ and
     ‘truncate()’ methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5863

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1625


File: python.info,  Node: codecs<2>,  Next: collections<7>,  Prev: bz2<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.6 codecs
................

The *note mbcs: 4e. codec has been rewritten to handle correctly
‘replace’ and ‘ignore’ error handlers on all Windows versions.  The
*note mbcs: 4e. codec now supports all error handlers, instead of only
‘replace’ to encode and ‘ignore’ to decode.

A new Windows-only codec has been added: ‘cp65001’ (bpo-13216(1)).  It
is the Windows code page 65001 (Windows UTF-8, ‘CP_UTF8’).  For example,
it is used by ‘sys.stdout’ if the console output code page is set to
cp65001 (e.g., using ‘chcp 65001’ command).

Multibyte CJK decoders now resynchronize faster.  They only ignore the
first byte of an invalid byte sequence.  For example,
‘b'\xff\n'.decode('gb2312', 'replace')’ now returns a ‘\n’ after the
replacement character.

(bpo-12016(2))

Incremental CJK codec encoders are no longer reset at each call to their
encode() methods.  For example:

     >>> import codecs
     >>> encoder = codecs.getincrementalencoder('hz')('strict')
     >>> b''.join(encoder.encode(x) for x in '\u52ff\u65bd\u65bc\u4eba\u3002 Bye.')
     b'~{NpJ)l6HK!#~} Bye.'

This example gives ‘b'~{Np~}~{J)~}~{l6~}~{HK~}~{!#~} Bye.'’ with older
Python versions.

(bpo-12100(3))

‘unicode_internal’ 編解碼器已被棄用。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12016

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12100


File: python.info,  Node: collections<7>,  Next: contextlib<7>,  Prev: codecs<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.7 collections
.....................

Addition of a new *note ChainMap: a7f. class to allow treating a number
of mappings as a single unit.  (Written by Raymond Hettinger for
bpo-11089(1), made public in bpo-11297(2).)

The abstract base classes have been moved in a new *note
collections.abc: 1c. module, to better differentiate between the
abstract and the concrete collections classes.  Aliases for ABCs are
still present in the *note collections: 1b. module to preserve existing
imports.  (bpo-11085(3))

The *note Counter: f28. class now supports the unary ‘+’ and ‘-’
operators, as well as the in-place operators ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘|=’, and ‘&=’.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13121(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11089

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11297

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11085

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13121


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<7>,  Next: crypt<2>,  Prev: collections<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.8 contextlib
....................

*note ExitStack: 980. now provides a solid foundation for programmatic
manipulation of context managers and similar cleanup functionality.
Unlike the previous ‘contextlib.nested’ API (which was deprecated and
removed), the new API is designed to work correctly regardless of
whether context managers acquire their resources in their ‘__init__’
method (for example, file objects) or in their ‘__enter__’ method (for
example, synchronisation objects from the *note threading: e7. module).

(bpo-13585(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13585


File: python.info,  Node: crypt<2>,  Next: curses<5>,  Prev: contextlib<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.9 crypt
...............

Addition of salt and modular crypt format (hashing method) and the *note
mksalt(): 986. function to the *note crypt: 26. module.

(bpo-10924(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10924


File: python.info,  Node: curses<5>,  Next: datetime<6>,  Prev: crypt<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.10 curses
.................

   * If the *note curses: 29. module is linked to the ncursesw library,
     use Unicode functions when Unicode strings or characters are passed
     (e.g.  ‘waddwstr()’), and bytes functions otherwise (e.g.
     ‘waddstr()’).

   * Use the locale encoding instead of ‘utf-8’ to encode Unicode
     strings.

   * ‘curses.window’ 有一個新的 *note curses.window.encoding: f2c. 屬性
     。

   * ‘curses.window’ 類別有一個新的 *note get_wch(): f2d. 方法來獲取寬字
     元

   * The *note curses: 29. module has a new *note unget_wch(): f2e.
     function to push a wide character so the next *note get_wch(): f2d.
     will return it

（由 Iñigo Serna 在 bpo-6755(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6755


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<6>,  Next: decimal<3>,  Prev: curses<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.11 datetime
...................

   * Equality comparisons between naive and aware *note datetime: 224.
     instances now return *note False: 98f. instead of raising *note
     TypeError: 2ba. (bpo-15006(1)).

   * New *note datetime.datetime.timestamp(): f30. method: Return POSIX
     timestamp corresponding to the *note datetime: 224. instance.

   * The *note datetime.datetime.strftime(): afb. method supports
     formatting years older than 1000.

   * The *note datetime.datetime.astimezone(): 814. method can now be
     called without arguments to convert datetime instance to the system
     timezone.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15006


File: python.info,  Node: decimal<3>,  Next: email<6>,  Prev: datetime<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.12 decimal
..................

bpo-7652(1) - integrate fast native decimal arithmetic.

     由 Stefan Krah 編寫的 C 模組和 libmpdec。

The new C version of the decimal module integrates the high speed
libmpdec library for arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal
floating-point arithmetic.  libmpdec conforms to IBM's General Decimal
Arithmetic Specification.

Performance gains range from 10x for database applications to 100x for
numerically intensive applications.  These numbers are expected gains
for standard precisions used in decimal floating-point arithmetic.
Since the precision is user configurable, the exact figures may vary.
For example, in integer bignum arithmetic the differences can be
significantly higher.

The following table is meant as an illustration.  Benchmarks are
available at ‘https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html’.

                   decimal.py        _decimal           speedup
                                                        
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
     pi            42.02s            0.345s             120x
                                                        
                                                        
     telco         172.19s           5.68s              30x
                                                        
                                                        
     psycopg       3.57s             0.29s              12x
                                                        

* Menu:

* 功能: 功能<2>.
* API 變更: API 變更<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7652


File: python.info,  Node: 功能<2>,  Next: API 變更<2>,  Up: decimal<3>

1.10.20.13 功能
...............

   * The *note FloatOperation: f33. signal optionally enables stricter
     semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.

   * If Python is compiled without threads, the C version automatically
     disables the expensive thread local context machinery.  In this
     case, the variable *note HAVE_THREADS: f34. is set to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: API 變更<2>,  Prev: 功能<2>,  Up: decimal<3>

1.10.20.14 API 變更
...................

   * The C module has the following context limits, depending on the
     machine architecture:

                                  32 位元              64 位元
                                                       
          ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
          ‘MAX_PREC’              ‘425000000’          ‘999999999999999999’
                                                       
                                                       
          ‘MAX_EMAX’              ‘425000000’          ‘999999999999999999’
                                                       
                                                       
          ‘MIN_EMIN’              ‘-425000000’         ‘-999999999999999999’
                                                       

   * In the context templates (*note DefaultContext: f36, *note
     BasicContext: f37. and *note ExtendedContext: f38.) the magnitude
     of ‘Emax’ and ‘Emin’ has changed to ‘999999’.

   * The *note Decimal: 5f0. constructor in decimal.py does not observe
     the context limits and converts values with arbitrary exponents or
     precision exactly.  Since the C version has internal limits, the
     following scheme is used: If possible, values are converted
     exactly, otherwise *note InvalidOperation: f39. is raised and the
     result is NaN. In the latter case it is always possible to use
     *note create_decimal(): f3a. in order to obtain a rounded or
     inexact value.

   * The power function in decimal.py is always correctly rounded.  In
     the C version, it is defined in terms of the correctly rounded
     *note exp(): f3b. and *note ln(): f3c. functions, but the final
     result is only "almost always correctly rounded".

   * In the C version, the context dictionary containing the signals is
     a *note MutableMapping: f3d.  For speed reasons, ‘flags’ and
     ‘traps’ always refer to the same *note MutableMapping: f3d. that
     the context was initialized with.  If a new signal dictionary is
     assigned, ‘flags’ and ‘traps’ are updated with the new values, but
     they do not reference the RHS dictionary.

   * Pickling a *note Context: f3e. produces a different output in order
     to have a common interchange format for the Python and C versions.

   * The order of arguments in the *note Context: f3e. constructor has
     been changed to match the order displayed by *note repr(): 61e.

   * *note quantize(): f3f. 方法中的 ‘watchexp’ 參數已棄用。


File: python.info,  Node: email<6>,  Next: ftplib<3>,  Prev: decimal<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.15 email
................

* Menu:

* Policy Framework::
* Provisional Policy with New Header API::
* 其他 API 變更::


File: python.info,  Node: Policy Framework,  Next: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Up: email<6>

1.10.20.16 Policy Framework
...........................

The email package now has a *note policy: 4b. framework.  A *note
Policy: f42. is an object with several methods and properties that
control how the email package behaves.  The primary policy for Python
3.3 is the *note Compat32: f43. policy, which provides backward
compatibility with the email package in Python 3.2.  A ‘policy’ can be
specified when an email message is parsed by a *note parser: 4a, or when
a *note Message: b05. object is created, or when an email is serialized
using a *note generator: 3c.  Unless overridden, a policy passed to a
‘parser’ is inherited by all the ‘Message’ object and sub-objects
created by the ‘parser’.  By default a ‘generator’ will use the policy
of the ‘Message’ object it is serializing.  The default policy is *note
compat32: b04.

The minimum set of controls implemented by all ‘policy’ objects are:

max_line_length     The maximum length, excluding the linesep character(s),
                    individual lines may have when a ‘Message’ is serialized.
                    Defaults to 78.
                    
                    
linesep             The character used to separate individual lines when a
                    ‘Message’ is serialized.  Defaults to ‘\n’.
                    
                    
cte_type            ‘7bit’ or ‘8bit’.  ‘8bit’ applies only to a ‘Bytes’
                    ‘generator’, and means that non-ASCII may be used where
                    allowed by the protocol (or where it exists in the
                    original input).
                    
                    
raise_on_defect     Causes a ‘parser’ to raise error when defects are
                    encountered instead of adding them to the ‘Message’
                    object's ‘defects’ list.
                    

A new policy instance, with new settings, is created using the *note
clone(): f44. method of policy objects.  ‘clone’ takes any of the above
controls as keyword arguments.  Any control not specified in the call
retains its default value.  Thus you can create a policy that uses
‘\r\n’ linesep characters like this:

     mypolicy = compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')

Policies can be used to make the generation of messages in the format
needed by your application simpler.  Instead of having to remember to
specify ‘linesep='\r\n'’ in all the places you call a ‘generator’, you
can specify it once, when you set the policy used by the ‘parser’ or the
‘Message’, whichever your program uses to create ‘Message’ objects.  On
the other hand, if you need to generate messages in multiple forms, you
can still specify the parameters in the appropriate ‘generator’ call.
Or you can have custom policy instances for your different cases, and
pass those in when you create the ‘generator’.


File: python.info,  Node: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Next: 其他 API 變更,  Prev: Policy Framework,  Up: email<6>

1.10.20.17 Provisional Policy with New Header API
.................................................

While the policy framework is worthwhile all by itself, the main
motivation for introducing it is to allow the creation of new policies
that implement new features for the email package in a way that
maintains backward compatibility for those who do not use the new
policies.  Because the new policies introduce a new API, we are
releasing them in Python 3.3 as a *note provisional policy: ed7.
Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the code)
may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers.

The new policies are instances of *note EmailPolicy: f46, and add the
following additional controls:

refold_source       Controls whether or not headers parsed by a
                    *note parser: 4a. are refolded by the
                    *note generator: 3c.  It can be ‘none’, ‘long’, or ‘all’.
                    The default is ‘long’, which means that source headers
                    with a line longer than ‘max_line_length’ get refolded.
                    ‘none’ means no line get refolded, and ‘all’ means that
                    all lines get refolded.
                    
                    
header_factory      A callable that take a ‘name’ and ‘value’ and produces a
                    custom header object.
                    

The ‘header_factory’ is the key to the new features provided by the new
policies.  When one of the new policies is used, any header retrieved
from a ‘Message’ object is an object produced by the ‘header_factory’,
and any time you set a header on a ‘Message’ it becomes an object
produced by ‘header_factory’.  All such header objects have a ‘name’
attribute equal to the header name.  Address and Date headers have
additional attributes that give you access to the parsed data of the
header.  This means you can now do things like this:

     >>> m = Message(policy=SMTP)
     >>> m['To'] = 'Éric <foo@example.com>'
     >>> m['to']
     'Éric <foo@example.com>'
     >>> m['to'].addresses
     (Address(display_name='Éric', username='foo', domain='example.com'),)
     >>> m['to'].addresses[0].username
     'foo'
     >>> m['to'].addresses[0].display_name
     'Éric'
     >>> m['Date'] = email.utils.localtime()
     >>> m['Date'].datetime
     datetime.datetime(2012, 5, 25, 21, 39, 24, 465484, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(-1, 72000), 'EDT'))
     >>> m['Date']
     'Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400'
     >>> print(m)
     To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
     Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400

You will note that the unicode display name is automatically encoded as
‘utf-8’ when the message is serialized, but that when the header is
accessed directly, you get the unicode version.  This eliminates any
need to deal with the *note email.header: 3d. *note decode_header():
f47. or *note make_header(): f48. functions.

You can also create addresses from parts:

     >>> m['cc'] = [Group('pals', [Address('Bob', 'bob', 'example.com'),
     ...                           Address('Sally', 'sally', 'example.com')]),
     ...            Address('Bonzo', addr_spec='bonz@laugh.com')]
     >>> print(m)
     To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
     Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400
     cc: pals: Bob <bob@example.com>, Sally <sally@example.com>;, Bonzo <bonz@laugh.com>

解碼為 unicode 是自動完成的：

     >>> m2 = message_from_string(str(m))
     >>> m2['to']
     'Éric <foo@example.com>'

When you parse a message, you can use the ‘addresses’ and ‘groups’
attributes of the header objects to access the groups and individual
addresses:

     >>> m2['cc'].addresses
     (Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'))
     >>> m2['cc'].groups
     (Group(display_name='pals', addresses=(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com')), Group(display_name=None, addresses=(Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'),))

In summary, if you use one of the new policies, header manipulation
works the way it ought to: your application works with unicode strings,
and the email package transparently encodes and decodes the unicode to
and from the RFC standard Content Transfer Encodings.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他 API 變更,  Prev: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Up: email<6>

1.10.20.18 其他 API 變更
........................

New *note BytesHeaderParser: f4a, added to the *note parser: 4a. module
to complement *note HeaderParser: f4b. and complete the Bytes API.

新工具函式：

   * *note format_datetime(): f4c.: given a *note datetime: 224, produce
     a string formatted for use in an email header.

   * *note parsedate_to_datetime(): f4d.: given a date string from an
     email header, convert it into an aware *note datetime: 224, or a
     naive *note datetime: 224. if the offset is ‘-0000’.

   * *note localtime(): 22a.: With no argument, returns the current
     local time as an aware *note datetime: 224. using the local *note
     timezone: f4e.  Given an aware *note datetime: 224, converts it
     into an aware *note datetime: 224. using the local *note timezone:
     f4e.


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib<3>,  Next: functools<6>,  Prev: email<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.19 ftplib
.................

   * *note ftplib.FTP: 735. now accepts a ‘source_address’ keyword
     argument to specify the ‘(host, port)’ to use as the source address
     in the bind call when creating the outgoing socket.  (Contributed
     by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8594(1).)

   * The *note FTP_TLS: 736. class now provides a new *note ccc(): f50.
     function to revert control channel back to plaintext.  This can be
     useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT
     with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports.  (Contributed by
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-12139(2).)

   * Added *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): f51. method which provides a
     parsable directory listing format and deprecates *note
     ftplib.FTP.nlst(): f52. and *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): f53.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11072(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8594

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12139

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11072


File: python.info,  Node: functools<6>,  Next: gc<6>,  Prev: ftplib<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.20 functools
....................

The *note functools.lru_cache(): 834. decorator now accepts a ‘typed’
keyword argument (that defaults to ‘False’ to ensure that it caches
values of different types that compare equal in separate cache slots.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13227(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13227


File: python.info,  Node: gc<6>,  Next: hmac<4>,  Prev: functools<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.21 gc
.............

It is now possible to register callbacks invoked by the garbage
collector before and after collection using the new *note callbacks:
f56. list.


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<4>,  Next: http<4>,  Prev: gc<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.22 hmac
...............

A new *note compare_digest(): f58. function has been added to prevent
side channel attacks on digests through timing analysis.  (Contributed
by Nick Coghlan and Christian Heimes in bpo-15061(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15061


File: python.info,  Node: http<4>,  Next: html<2>,  Prev: hmac<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.23 http
...............

*note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f5a. now buffers the headers
and writes them all at once when *note end_headers(): f5b. is called.  A
new method *note flush_headers(): f5c. can be used to directly manage
when the accumulated headers are sent.  (Contributed by Andrew Schaaf in
bpo-3709(1).)

*note http.server: 6d. now produces valid ‘HTML 4.01 strict’ output.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13295(2).)

*note http.client.HTTPResponse: f5d. now has a *note readinto(): f5e.
method, which means it can be used as an *note io.RawIOBase: f5f. class.
(Contributed by John Kuhn in bpo-13464(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13295

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13464


File: python.info,  Node: html<2>,  Next: imaplib<3>,  Prev: http<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.24 html
...............

*note html.parser.HTMLParser: 6a2. is now able to parse broken markup
without raising errors, therefore the 'strict' argument of the
constructor and the ‘HTMLParseError’ exception are now deprecated.  The
ability to parse broken markup is the result of a number of bug fixes
that are also available on the latest bug fix releases of Python
2.7/3.2.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(1), and
bpo-14538(2), bpo-13993(3), bpo-13960(4), bpo-13358(5), bpo-1745761(6),
bpo-755670(7), bpo-13357(8), bpo-12629(9), bpo-1200313(10),
bpo-670664(11), bpo-13273(12), bpo-12888(13), bpo-7311(14).)

A new *note html5: f61. dictionary that maps HTML5 named character
references to the equivalent Unicode character(s) (e.g.  ‘html5['gt;']
== '>'’) has been added to the *note html.entities: 67. module.  The
dictionary is now also used by *note HTMLParser: 6a2.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti in bpo-11113(15) and bpo-15156(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14538

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13993

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13960

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13358

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1745761

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=755670

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13357

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12629

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1200313

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=670664

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13273

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12888

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7311

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11113

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15156


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<3>,  Next: inspect<9>,  Prev: html<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.25 imaplib
..................

The *note IMAP4_SSL: 73f. constructor now accepts an SSLContext
parameter to control parameters of the secure channel.

（由 Sijin Joseph 在 bpo-8808(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8808


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<9>,  Next: io<5>,  Prev: imaplib<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.26 inspect
..................

A new *note getclosurevars(): f64. function has been added.  This
function reports the current binding of all names referenced from the
function body and where those names were resolved, making it easier to
verify correct internal state when testing code that relies on stateful
closures.

（由 Meador Inge 與 Nick Coghlan 在 bpo-13062(1) 中貢獻。）

A new *note getgeneratorlocals(): f65. function has been added.  This
function reports the current binding of local variables in the
generator's stack frame, making it easier to verify correct internal
state when testing generators.

（由 Meador Inge 於 bpo-15153(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13062

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15153


File: python.info,  Node: io<5>,  Next: itertools<5>,  Prev: inspect<9>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.27 io
.............

The *note open(): 29d. function has a new ‘'x'’ mode that can be used to
exclusively create a new file, and raise a *note FileExistsError: eb4.
if the file already exists.  It is based on the C11 'x' mode to fopen().

（由 David Townshend 於 bpo-12760(1) 中貢獻。）

The constructor of the *note TextIOWrapper: 5d9. class has a new
'write_through' optional argument.  If 'write_through' is ‘True’, calls
to ‘write()’ are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the
*note TextIOWrapper: 5d9. object is immediately handled to its
underlying binary buffer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12760


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<5>,  Next: logging<7>,  Prev: io<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.28 itertools
....................

*note accumulate(): 843. now takes an optional ‘func’ argument for
providing a user-supplied binary function.


File: python.info,  Node: logging<7>,  Next: math<8>,  Prev: itertools<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.29 logging
..................

The *note basicConfig(): 846. function now supports an optional
‘handlers’ argument taking an iterable of handlers to be added to the
root logger.

A class level attribute ‘append_nul’ has been added to *note
SysLogHandler: 457. to allow control of the appending of the ‘NUL’
(‘\000’) byte to syslog records, since for some daemons it is required
while for others it is passed through to the log.


File: python.info,  Node: math<8>,  Next: mmap<3>,  Prev: logging<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.30 math
...............

The *note math: 89. module has a new function, *note log2(): f6a, which
returns the base-2 logarithm of 'x'.

（由 Mark Dickinson 於 bpo-11888(1) 中撰寫）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11888


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<3>,  Next: multiprocessing<7>,  Prev: math<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.31 mmap
...............

The *note read(): f6c. method is now more compatible with other
file-like objects: if the argument is omitted or specified as ‘None’, it
returns the bytes from the current file position to the end of the
mapping.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12021(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12021


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<7>,  Next: nntplib<2>,  Prev: mmap<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.32 multiprocessing
..........................

The new *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): f6e. function allows
polling multiple objects (such as connections, sockets and pipes) with a
timeout.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-12328(1).)

‘multiprocessing.Connection’ objects can now be transferred over
multiprocessing connections.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in
bpo-4892(2).)

*note multiprocessing.Process: 9b4. now accepts a ‘daemon’ keyword
argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the ‘daemon’
flag from the parent process (bpo-6064(3)).

New attribute *note multiprocessing.Process.sentinel: f6f. allows a
program to wait on multiple *note Process: 9b4. objects at one time
using the appropriate OS primitives (for example, *note select: bc. on
posix systems).

New methods *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap(): f70. and *note
starmap_async(): f71. provide *note itertools.starmap(): f72.
equivalents to the existing *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map(): f73.
and *note map_async(): f74. functions.  (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack
in bpo-12708(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12328

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4892

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12708


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib<2>,  Next: os<11>,  Prev: multiprocessing<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.33 nntplib
..................

The *note nntplib.NNTP: 753. class now supports the context management
protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error: eeb. exceptions
and to close the NNTP connection when done:

     >>> from nntplib import NNTP
     >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n:
     ...     n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
     ...
     ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
     >>>

（由 Giampaolo Rodolà 於 bpo-9795(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9795


File: python.info,  Node: os<11>,  Next: pdb<6>,  Prev: nntplib<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.34 os
.............

   * The *note os: 9c. module has a new *note pipe2(): f77. function
     that makes it possible to create a pipe with *note O_CLOEXEC: f12.
     or *note O_NONBLOCK: cb5. flags set atomically.  This is especially
     useful to avoid race conditions in multi-threaded programs.

   * The *note os: 9c. module has a new *note sendfile(): 964. function
     which provides an efficient "zero-copy" way for copying data from
     one file (or socket) descriptor to another.  The phrase "zero-copy"
     refers to the fact that all of the copying of data between the two
     descriptors is done entirely by the kernel, with no copying of data
     into userspace buffers.  *note sendfile(): 964. can be used to
     efficiently copy data from a file on disk to a network socket, e.g.
     for downloading a file.

     （由 Ross Lagerwall 和 Giampaolo Rodolà 於 bpo-10882(1) 提交補丁。
     ）

   * To avoid race conditions like symlink attacks and issues with
     temporary files and directories, it is more reliable (and also
     faster) to manipulate file descriptors instead of file names.
     Python 3.3 enhances existing functions and introduces new functions
     to work on file descriptors (bpo-4761(2), bpo-10755(3) and
     bpo-14626(4)).

        - The *note os: 9c. module has a new *note fwalk(): 9b6.
          function similar to *note walk(): 1cb. except that it also
          yields file descriptors referring to the directories visited.
          This is especially useful to avoid symlink races.

        - The following functions get new optional 'dir_fd' (*note paths
          relative to directory descriptors: f78.) and/or
          'follow_symlinks' (*note not following symlinks: f79.): *note
          access(): f7a, *note chflags(): f7b, *note chmod(): f7c, *note
          chown(): f7d, *note link(): f7e, *note lstat(): 1c0, *note
          mkdir(): 1c1, *note mkfifo(): c07, *note mknod(): c08, *note
          open(): c09, *note readlink(): 75e, *note remove(): f7f, *note
          rename(): f80, *note replace(): f81, *note rmdir(): f82, *note
          stat(): 1bf, *note symlink(): f83, *note unlink(): f84, *note
          utime(): f85.  Platform support for using these parameters can
          be checked via the sets *note os.supports_dir_fd: f86. and
          ‘os.supports_follows_symlinks’.

        - The following functions now support a file descriptor for
          their path argument: *note chdir(): 406, *note chmod(): f7c,
          *note chown(): f7d, *note execve(): f87, *note listdir(): f88,
          *note pathconf(): f89, *note exists(): 855, *note stat(): 1bf,
          *note statvfs(): f8a, *note utime(): f85.  Platform support
          for this can be checked via the *note os.supports_fd: f8b.
          set.

   * *note access(): f7a. accepts an ‘effective_ids’ keyword argument to
     turn on using the effective uid/gid rather than the real uid/gid in
     the access check.  Platform support for this can be checked via the
     *note supports_effective_ids: f8c. set.

   * The *note os: 9c. module has two new functions: *note
     getpriority(): f8d. and *note setpriority(): f8e.  They can be used
     to get or set process niceness/priority in a fashion similar to
     *note os.nice(): f8f. but extended to all processes instead of just
     the current one.

     （由 Giampaolo Rodolà 於 bpo-10784(5) 提交補丁。）

   * The new *note os.replace(): f81. function allows cross-platform
     renaming of a file with overwriting the destination.  With *note
     os.rename(): f80, an existing destination file is overwritten under
     POSIX, but raises an error under Windows.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou in bpo-8828(6).)

   * The stat family of functions (*note stat(): 1bf, *note fstat():
     c03, and *note lstat(): 1c0.) now support reading a file's
     timestamps with nanosecond precision.  Symmetrically, *note
     utime(): f85. can now write file timestamps with nanosecond
     precision.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(7).)

   * The new *note os.get_terminal_size(): f90. function queries the
     size of the terminal attached to a file descriptor.  See also *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): f91.  (Contributed by Zbigniew
     Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(8).)

   * New functions to support Linux extended attributes (bpo-12720(9)):
     *note getxattr(): f92, *note listxattr(): f93, *note removexattr():
     f94, *note setxattr(): f95.

   * New interface to the scheduler.  These functions control how a
     process is allocated CPU time by the operating system.  New
     functions: *note sched_get_priority_max(): f96, *note
     sched_get_priority_min(): f97, *note sched_getaffinity(): f98,
     *note sched_getparam(): f99, *note sched_getscheduler(): f9a, *note
     sched_rr_get_interval(): f9b, *note sched_setaffinity(): f9c, *note
     sched_setparam(): f9d, *note sched_setscheduler(): f9e, *note
     sched_yield(): f9f,

   * New functions to control the file system:

        * *note posix_fadvise(): c0a.: Announces an intention to access
          data in a specific pattern thus allowing the kernel to make
          optimizations.

        * *note posix_fallocate(): c0b.: Ensures that enough disk space
          is allocated for a file.

        * *note sync(): fa0.: Force write of everything to disk.

   * 其他新的 posix 函式：

        * *note lockf(): fa1.: Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an
          open file descriptor.

        * *note pread(): 9ba.: Read from a file descriptor at an offset,
          the file offset remains unchanged.

        * *note pwrite(): 9bd.: Write to a file descriptor from an
          offset, leaving the file offset unchanged.

        * *note readv(): 9b9.: Read from a file descriptor into a number
          of writable buffers.

        * *note truncate(): cb6.: Truncate the file corresponding to
          'path', so that it is at most 'length' bytes in size.

        * *note waitid(): c10.: Wait for the completion of one or more
          child processes.

        * *note writev(): 9bc.: Write the contents of 'buffers' to a
          file descriptor, where 'buffers' is an arbitrary sequence of
          buffers.

        * *note getgrouplist(): fa2. (bpo-9344(10)): Return list of
          group ids that specified user belongs to.

   * *note times(): fa3. and *note uname(): fa4.: Return type changed
     from a tuple to a tuple-like object with named attributes.

   * Some platforms now support additional constants for the *note
     lseek(): fa5. function, such as ‘os.SEEK_HOLE’ and ‘os.SEEK_DATA’.

   * New constants *note RTLD_LAZY: fa6, *note RTLD_NOW: fa7, *note
     RTLD_GLOBAL: fa8, *note RTLD_LOCAL: fa9, *note RTLD_NODELETE: faa,
     *note RTLD_NOLOAD: fab, and *note RTLD_DEEPBIND: fac. are available
     on platforms that support them.  These are for use with the *note
     sys.setdlopenflags(): fad. function, and supersede the similar
     constants defined in *note ctypes: 28. and ‘DLFCN’.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-13226(11).)

   * *note os.symlink(): f83. now accepts (and ignores) the
     ‘target_is_directory’ keyword argument on non-Windows platforms, to
     ease cross-platform support.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10882

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4761

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10755

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14626

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10784

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8828

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12720

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9344

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13226


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<6>,  Next: pickle<5>,  Prev: os<11>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.35 pdb
..............

Tab-completion is now available not only for command names, but also
their arguments.  For example, for the ‘break’ command, function and
file names are completed.

（由 Georg Brandl 在 bpo-14210(1) 中貢獻）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14210


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<5>,  Next: pydoc<5>,  Prev: pdb<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.36 pickle
.................

*note pickle.Pickler: 867. objects now have an optional *note
dispatch_table: fb0. attribute allowing per-pickler reduction functions
to be set.

（由 Richard Oudkerk 在 bpo-14166(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14166


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<5>,  Next: re<7>,  Prev: pickle<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.37 pydoc
................

The Tk GUI and the ‘serve()’ function have been removed from the *note
pydoc: b0. module: ‘pydoc -g’ and ‘serve()’ have been deprecated in
Python 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: re<7>,  Next: sched,  Prev: pydoc<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.38 re
.............

*note str: 157. regular expressions now support ‘\u’ and ‘\U’ escapes.

（由 Serhiy Storchaka 在 bpo-3665(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3665


File: python.info,  Node: sched,  Next: select<2>,  Prev: re<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.39 sched
................

   * *note run(): fb4. now accepts a 'blocking' parameter which when set
     to false makes the method execute the scheduled events due to
     expire soonest (if any) and then return immediately.  This is
     useful in case you want to use the *note scheduler: fb5. in
     non-blocking applications.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
     bpo-13449(1).)

   * *note scheduler: fb5. class can now be safely used in
     multi-threaded environments.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson and
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8684(2).)

   * 'timefunc' and 'delayfunct' parameters of *note scheduler: fb5.
     class constructor are now optional and defaults to *note
     time.time(): 936. and *note time.sleep(): 499. respectively.
     (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(3).)

   * *note enter(): fb6. 和 *note enterabs(): fb7. 'argument' 參數現在是
     可選的。（由 Chris Clark 在 bpo-13245(4) 中貢獻。）

   * *note enter(): fb6. 和 *note enterabs(): fb7. 現在接受 'kwargs' 參
     數。（由 Chris Clark 在 bpo-13245(5) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13449

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245


File: python.info,  Node: select<2>,  Next: shlex<3>,  Prev: sched,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.40 select
.................

Solaris and derivative platforms have a new class *note select.devpoll:
e22. for high performance asynchronous sockets via ‘/dev/poll’.
(Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-6397(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6397


File: python.info,  Node: shlex<3>,  Next: shutil<6>,  Prev: select<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.41 shlex
................

The previously undocumented helper function ‘quote’ from the *note
pipes: a3. modules has been moved to the *note shlex: bf. module and
documented.  *note quote(): fba. properly escapes all characters in a
string that might be otherwise given special meaning by the shell.


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<6>,  Next: signal<4>,  Prev: shlex<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.42 shutil
.................

   * 新功能：

        * *note disk_usage(): fbc.: provides total, used and free disk
          space statistics.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
          bpo-12442(1).)

        * *note chown(): fbd.: allows one to change user and/or group of
          the given path also specifying the user/group names and not
          only their numeric ids.  (Contributed by Sandro Tosi in
          bpo-12191(2).)

        * *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): f91.: returns the size of
          the terminal window to which the interpreter is attached.
          (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(3).)

   * *note copy2(): 8a6. and *note copystat(): fbe. now preserve file
     timestamps with nanosecond precision on platforms that support it.
     They also preserve file "extended attributes" on Linux.
     (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(4) and bpo-15238(5).)

   * Several functions now take an optional ‘symlinks’ argument: when
     that parameter is true, symlinks aren't dereferenced and the
     operation instead acts on the symlink itself (or creates one, if
     relevant).  (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in bpo-12715(6).)

   * When copying files to a different file system, *note move(): 8a7.
     now handles symlinks the way the posix ‘mv’ command does,
     recreating the symlink rather than copying the target file
     contents.  (Contributed by Jonathan Niehof in bpo-9993(7).)  *note
     move(): 8a7. now also returns the ‘dst’ argument as its result.

   * *note rmtree(): 1d8. is now resistant to symlink attacks on
     platforms which support the new ‘dir_fd’ parameter in *note
     os.open(): c09. and *note os.unlink(): f84.  (Contributed by Martin
     von Löwis and Hynek Schlawack in bpo-4489(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12442

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12191

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15238

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12715

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9993

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4489


File: python.info,  Node: signal<4>,  Next: smtpd<4>,  Prev: shutil<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.43 signal
.................

   * *note signal: c1. 模組有了新的函式：

        * *note pthread_sigmask(): fc0.: fetch and/or change the signal
          mask of the calling thread (Contributed by Jean-Paul Calderone
          in bpo-8407(1));

        * *note pthread_kill(): fc1.：向執行緒發送訊號；

        * *note sigpending(): fc2.：檢查未定的函式；

        * *note sigwait(): fc3.：等待訊號；

        * *note sigwaitinfo(): c22.：等待訊號，回傳有關該訊號的詳細資訊
          ；

        * *note sigtimedwait(): c21.：類似於 *note sigwaitinfo(): c22. 但
          有超時。

   * The signal handler writes the signal number as a single byte
     instead of a nul byte into the wakeup file descriptor.  So it is
     possible to wait more than one signal and know which signals were
     raised.

   * *note signal.signal(): fc4. 和 *note signal.siginterrupt(): fc5. 會
     引發 OSError，而不是 RuntimeError：OSError 有一個 errno 屬性。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8407


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<4>,  Next: smtplib<4>,  Prev: signal<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.44 smtpd
................

The ‘smtpd’ module now supports RFC 5321(1) (extended SMTP) and RFC
1870(2) (size extension).  Per the standard, these extensions are
enabled if and only if the client initiates the session with an ‘EHLO’
command.

(Initial ‘ELHO’ support by Alberto Trevino.  Size extension by Juhana
Jauhiainen.  Substantial additional work on the patch contributed by
Michele Orrù and Dan Boswell.  bpo-8739(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1870.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8739


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<4>,  Next: socket<10>,  Prev: smtpd<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.45 smtplib
..................

The *note SMTP: 76c, *note SMTP_SSL: 76d, and *note LMTP: 76e. classes
now accept a ‘source_address’ keyword argument to specify the ‘(host,
port)’ to use as the source address in the bind call when creating the
outgoing socket.  (Contributed by Paulo Scardine in bpo-11281(1).)

*note SMTP: 76c. 現在支援情境管理協議，允許在 ‘with’ 陳述式中使用 ‘SMTP’
實例。（由 Giampaolo Rodolà 在 bpo-11289(2) 中貢獻。）

*note SMTP_SSL: 76d. 構造函式和 *note starttls(): fc8. 方法現在接受
SSLContext 參數來控制安全通道的參數。（由 Kasun Herath 在 bpo-8809(3) 中
貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11281

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11289

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8809


File: python.info,  Node: socket<10>,  Next: socketserver<3>,  Prev: smtplib<4>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.46 socket
.................

   * 當底層平台支援時，*note socket: c18. 類現在公開了額外的方法來處理輔
     助資料：

        * *note sendmsg(): 191.

        * *note recvmsg(): c1d.

        * *note recvmsg_into(): fca.

     （由 David Watson 在 bpo-6560(1) 中貢獻，其基於 Heiko Wundram 的早
     期補丁）

   * *note socket: c18. 類別現在支援 Linux
     (‘https://lwn.net/Articles/253425’) 上的 PF_CAN 協議系列
     (‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan’)。

     （在 bpo-10141(2) 中由 Matthias Fuchs 貢獻、並由 Tiago Gonçalves 更
     新。）

   * *note socket: c18. 類別現在支援 PF_RDS 協議系列（
     ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets’ 和
     https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds(3)）。

   * *note socket: c18. 類別現在支援 OS X 上的 ‘PF_SYSTEM’ 協議系列。（
     由 Michael Goderbauer 在 bpo-13777(4) 中貢獻。）

   * New function *note sethostname(): fcb. allows the hostname to be
     set on Unix systems if the calling process has sufficient
     privileges.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in bpo-10866(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6560

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10141

   (3) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20130115155505/https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10866


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver<3>,  Next: sqlite3<9>,  Prev: socket<10>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.47 socketserver
.......................

*note BaseServer: fcd. now has an overridable method *note
service_actions(): fce. that is called by the *note serve_forever():
fcf. method in the service loop.  *note ForkingMixIn: 9d4. now uses this
to clean up zombie child processes.  (Contributed by Justin Warkentin in
bpo-11109(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11109


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<9>,  Next: ssl<10>,  Prev: socketserver<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.48 sqlite3
..................

New *note sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. method *note set_trace_callback():
fd1. can be used to capture a trace of all sql commands processed by
sqlite.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-11688(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11688


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<10>,  Next: stat<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<9>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.49 ssl
..............

   * *note ssl: ca. 模組有兩個新的隨機生成函式：

        * *note RAND_bytes(): 2a4.：生成加密的強偽隨機位元組。

        * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’：生成偽隨機位元組。

     （由 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-12049(1) 中貢獻。）

   * The *note ssl: ca. module now exposes a finer-grained exception
     hierarchy in order to make it easier to inspect the various kinds
     of errors.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-11183(2).)

   * *note load_cert_chain(): fd3. now accepts a 'password' argument to
     be used if the private key is encrypted.  (Contributed by Adam
     Simpkins in bpo-12803(3).)

   * Diffie-Hellman key exchange, both regular and Elliptic Curve-based,
     is now supported through the *note load_dh_params(): fd4. and *note
     set_ecdh_curve(): fd5. methods.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-13626(4) and bpo-13627(5).)

   * SSL sockets have a new *note get_channel_binding(): fd6. method
     allowing the implementation of certain authentication mechanisms
     such as SCRAM-SHA-1-PLUS. (Contributed by Jacek Konieczny in
     bpo-12551(6).)

   * You can query the SSL compression algorithm used by an SSL socket,
     thanks to its new *note compression(): fd7. method.  The new
     attribute *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: fd8. can be used to disable
     compression.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13634(7).)

   * Support has been added for the Next Protocol Negotiation extension
     using the *note ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 270. method.
     (Contributed by Colin Marc in bpo-14204(8).)

   * SSL errors can now be introspected more easily thanks to *note
     library: fd9. and *note reason: fda. attributes.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14837(9).)

   * The *note get_server_certificate(): 662. function now supports
     IPv6.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-11811(10).)

   * New attribute *note OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE: fdb. allows
     setting SSLv3 server sockets to use the server's cipher ordering
     preference rather than the client's (bpo-13635(11)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12049

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11183

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12803

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13626

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13627

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12551

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13634

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14204

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14837

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11811

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13635


File: python.info,  Node: stat<2>,  Next: struct<3>,  Prev: ssl<10>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.50 stat
...............

The undocumented tarfile.filemode function has been moved to *note
stat.filemode(): fdd.  It can be used to convert a file's mode to a
string of the form '-rwxrwxrwx'.

（由 Giampaolo Rodolà 在 bpo-14807(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14807


File: python.info,  Node: struct<3>,  Next: subprocess<5>,  Prev: stat<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.51 struct
.................

The *note struct: cf. module now supports ‘ssize_t’ and ‘size_t’ via the
new codes ‘n’ and ‘N’, respectively.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-3163(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3163


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<5>,  Next: sys<11>,  Prev: struct<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.52 subprocess
.....................

Command strings can now be bytes objects on posix platforms.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-8513(1).)

A new constant *note DEVNULL: fe0. allows suppressing output in a
platform-independent fashion.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in
bpo-5870(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8513

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5870


File: python.info,  Node: sys<11>,  Next: tarfile<8>,  Prev: subprocess<5>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.53 sys
..............

The *note sys: d3. module has a new *note thread_info: fe2. *note named
tuple: 449. holding information about the thread implementation
(bpo-11223(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11223


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<8>,  Next: tempfile<3>,  Prev: sys<11>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.54 tarfile
..................

*note tarfile: d8. 現在透過 *note lzma: 85. 模組支援 ‘lzma’ 編碼。（由
Lars Gustäbel 在 bpo-5689(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5689


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<3>,  Next: textwrap<2>,  Prev: tarfile<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.55 tempfile
...................

*note tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 490.'s ‘truncate()’ method now
accepts a ‘size’ parameter.  (Contributed by Ryan Kelly in bpo-9957(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9957


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap<2>,  Next: threading<8>,  Prev: tempfile<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.56 textwrap
...................

The *note textwrap: e6. module has a new *note indent(): fe6. that makes
it straightforward to add a common prefix to selected lines in a block
of text (bpo-13857(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13857


File: python.info,  Node: threading<8>,  Next: time<7>,  Prev: textwrap<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.57 threading
....................

*note threading.Condition: fe8, *note threading.Semaphore: fe9, *note
threading.BoundedSemaphore: fea, *note threading.Event: feb, and *note
threading.Timer: fec, all of which used to be factory functions
returning a class instance, are now classes and may be subclassed.
(Contributed by Éric Araujo in bpo-10968(1).)

The *note threading.Thread: 78d. constructor now accepts a ‘daemon’
keyword argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the
‘daemon’ flag value from the parent thread (bpo-6064(2)).

The formerly private function ‘_thread.get_ident’ is now available as
the public function *note threading.get_ident(): fed.  This eliminates
several cases of direct access to the ‘_thread’ module in the stdlib.
Third party code that used ‘_thread.get_ident’ should likewise be
changed to use the new public interface.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10968

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064


File: python.info,  Node: time<7>,  Next: types<6>,  Prev: threading<8>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.58 time
...............

PEP 418(1) 向 *note time: e8. 模組新增了新功能：

   * *note get_clock_info(): fef.：獲取時鐘資訊。

   * *note monotonic(): cfe.：單調時鐘（不能倒退），不受系統時鐘更新的影
     響。

   * *note perf_counter(): 8d4.: Performance counter with the highest
     available resolution to measure a short duration.

   * *note process_time(): 8d5.：當前行程的系統和使用者 CPU 時間總和。

其他新功能：

   * *note clock_getres(): ff0.、*note clock_gettime(): ff1. 和 *note
     clock_settime(): ff2. 函式帶有 ‘CLOCK_XXX’ 常數。（由 Victor
     Stinner 在 bpo-10278(2) 中貢獻。）

To improve cross platform consistency, *note sleep(): 499. now raises a
*note ValueError: 183. when passed a negative sleep value.  Previously
this was an error on posix, but produced an infinite sleep on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0418/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10278


File: python.info,  Node: types<6>,  Next: unittest<9>,  Prev: time<7>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.59 types
................

Add a new *note types.MappingProxyType: 186. class: Read-only proxy of a
mapping.  (bpo-14386(1))

The new functions *note types.new_class(): ff4. and *note
types.prepare_class(): ff5. provide support for PEP 3115(2) compliant
dynamic type creation.  (bpo-14588(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14386

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14588


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<9>,  Next: urllib<3>,  Prev: types<6>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.60 unittest
...................

*note assertRaises(): 2ad, *note assertRaisesRegex(): 2af, *note
assertWarns(): ff7, and *note assertWarnsRegex(): ff8. now accept a
keyword argument 'msg' when used as context managers.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti and Winston Ewert in bpo-10775(1).)

*note unittest.TestCase.run(): ff9. 現在回傳 *note TestResult: ffa. 物件
。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10775


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<3>,  Next: webbrowser<2>,  Prev: unittest<9>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.61 urllib
.................

The *note Request: e6a. class, now accepts a 'method' argument used by
*note get_method(): ffc. to determine what HTTP method should be used.
For example, this will send a ‘'HEAD'’ request:

     >>> urlopen(Request('https://www.python.org', method='HEAD'))

(bpo-1673007(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1673007


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser<2>,  Next: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Prev: urllib<3>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.62 webbrowser
.....................

The *note webbrowser: 110. module supports more "browsers": Google
Chrome (named ‘chrome’, ‘chromium’, ‘chrome-browser’ or
‘chromium-browser’ depending on the version and operating system), and
the generic launchers ‘xdg-open’, from the FreeDesktop.org project, and
‘gvfs-open’, which is the default URI handler for GNOME 3.  (The former
contributed by Arnaud Calmettes in bpo-13620(1), the latter by Matthias
Klose in bpo-14493(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13620

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14493


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Next: zlib<2>,  Prev: webbrowser<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.63 xml.etree.ElementTree
................................

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. module now imports its C
accelerator by default; there is no longer a need to explicitly import
‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ (this module stays for backwards compatibility,
but is now deprecated).  In addition, the ‘iter’ family of methods of
*note Element: 240. has been optimized (rewritten in C). The module's
documentation has also been greatly improved with added examples and a
more detailed reference.


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<2>,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Up: 改進的模組<10>

1.10.20.64 zlib
...............

New attribute *note zlib.Decompress.eof: 1000. makes it possible to
distinguish between a properly formed compressed stream and an
incomplete or truncated one.  (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in
bpo-12646(1).)

New attribute *note zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1001. reports the version
string of the underlying ‘zlib’ library that is loaded at runtime.
(Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-12306(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12646

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12306


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<9>,  Next: 建置和 C API 更改,  Prev: 改進的模組<10>,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.21 最佳化
--------------

Major performance enhancements have been added:

   * Thanks to PEP 393(1), some operations on Unicode strings have been
     optimized:

        * the memory footprint is divided by 2 to 4 depending on the
          text

        * encode an ASCII string to UTF-8 doesn't need to encode
          characters anymore, the UTF-8 representation is shared with
          the ASCII representation

        * the UTF-8 encoder has been optimized

        * repeating a single ASCII letter and getting a substring of an
          ASCII string is 4 times faster

   * UTF-8 is now 2x to 4x faster.  UTF-16 encoding is now up to 10x
     faster.

     （由 Serhiy Storchaka 於 bpo-14624(2)、bpo-14738(3) 和 bpo-15026(4)
     貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14624

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14738

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15026


File: python.info,  Node: 建置和 C API 更改,  Next: 已棄用<12>,  Prev: 最佳化<9>,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.22 建置和 C API 更改
-------------------------

Python 建置程序和 C API 的更改包括：

   * 新的 PEP 3118(1) 相關功能：

        * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1003.

   * PEP 393(2) added new Unicode types, macros and functions:

        * 高階 API：

             * *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 6ed.

             * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 6f1.

             * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 6eb, *note
               PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 6ec.

             * *note PyUnicode_New(): 6e1.

             * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 6ee.

             * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 1004, *note
               PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 1005.

        * 低階 API：

             * *note Py_UCS1: 1006.、*note Py_UCS2: 1007.、*note
               Py_UCS4: 1008. 型別

             * *note PyASCIIObject: 1009. 和 *note
               PyCompactUnicodeObject: 100a. 結構

             * *note PyUnicode_READY: 372.

             * *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 100b.

             * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 100c, *note
               PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 6f3.

             * *note PyUnicode_DATA: 100d, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA:
               100e, *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA: 100f, *note
               PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA: 1010.

             * *note PyUnicode_KIND: 1011. with ‘PyUnicode_Kind’ enum:
               ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1012,
               *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND: 1013, *note
               PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1014.

             * *note PyUnicode_READ: 1015, *note PyUnicode_READ_CHAR:
               1016, *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 1017.

             * *note PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE: 1018.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple: 2fe. 現在接受 *note bytearray: 2c0. 為 ‘c’
     格式 (bpo-12380(3))。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用<12>,  Next: 移植到 Python 3 3,  Prev: 建置和 C API 更改,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.23 已棄用
--------------

* Menu:

* 不支援的作業系統::
* 已棄用的 Python 模組、函式和方法::
* C API 中已棄用的函式和型別::
* 已棄用的功能::


File: python.info,  Node: 不支援的作業系統,  Next: 已棄用的 Python 模組、函式和方法,  Up: 已棄用<12>

1.10.23.1 不支援的作業系統
..........................

由於缺乏維護者，OS/2 和 VMS 不再受支援。

Windows 2000 and Windows platforms which set ‘COMSPEC’ to ‘command.com’
are no longer supported due to maintenance burden.

OSF 支援在 3.2 中已棄用，現已完全刪除。


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用的 Python 模組、函式和方法,  Next: C API 中已棄用的函式和型別,  Prev: 不支援的作業系統,  Up: 已棄用<12>

1.10.23.2 已棄用的 Python 模組、函式和方法
..........................................

   * Passing a non-empty string to ‘object.__format__()’ is deprecated,
     and will produce a *note TypeError: 2ba. in Python 3.4
     (bpo-9856(1)).

   * The ‘unicode_internal’ codec has been deprecated because of the PEP
     393(2), use UTF-8, UTF-16 (‘utf-16-le’ or ‘utf-16-be’), or UTF-32
     (‘utf-32-le’ or ‘utf-32-be’)

   * *note ftplib.FTP.nlst(): f52. 和 *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): f53.：使用
     *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): f51.

   * ‘platform.popen()’：使用 *note subprocess: d0. 模組。請特別檢查
     *note Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module: 101c. 部
     分 (bpo-11377(3))。

   * bpo-13374(4): The Windows bytes API has been deprecated in the
     *note os: 9c. module.  Use Unicode filenames, instead of bytes
     filenames, to not depend on the ANSI code page anymore and to
     support any filename.

   * bpo-13988(5): The ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ module is deprecated.
     The accelerator is used automatically whenever available.

   * The behaviour of ‘time.clock()’ depends on the platform: use the
     new *note time.perf_counter(): 8d4. or *note time.process_time():
     8d5. function instead, depending on your requirements, to have a
     well defined behaviour.

   * ‘os.stat_float_times()’ 函式已棄用。

   * *note abc: 4. 模組：

        * *note abc.abstractproperty: f1b. 已被棄用，請改 *note
          property: 424. 和 *note abc.abstractmethod(): f1c.。

        * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: f1d. 已被棄用，請改用 *note
          classmethod: 24b. 和 *note abc.abstractmethod(): f1c.。

        * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: f1e. 已被棄用，請改用 *note
          staticmethod: 5f9. 和 *note abc.abstractmethod(): f1c.。

   * *note importlib: 71. 套件：

        * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime(): 101d. is now
          deprecated in favour of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 101e. as bytecode
          files now store both the modification time and size of the
          source file the bytecode file was compiled from.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9856

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11377

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13374

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13988


File: python.info,  Node: C API 中已棄用的函式和型別,  Next: 已棄用的功能,  Prev: 已棄用的 Python 模組、函式和方法,  Up: 已棄用<12>

1.10.23.3 C API 中已棄用的函式和型別
....................................

*note Py_UNICODE: 358. 已被 PEP 393(1) 棄用，並將在 Python 4 中刪除。所
有使用此型別的函式均已棄用：

Unicode functions and methods using *note Py_UNICODE: 358. and *note
Py_UNICODE: 358.* types:

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode’：使用 *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 1020.
     或 *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 100b.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE’、‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’、
     ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’：使用 *note
     PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 6f4.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA’：將 *note PyUnicode_DATA: 100d. 與 *note
     PyUnicode_READ: 1015. 和 *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 1017. 一起使用

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE’、‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’：使用 *note
     PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 6ec. 或 *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 6eb.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE’：使用 ‘PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) *
     PyUnicode_KIND(str)’（僅適用於準備好的字串）

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’：使用 *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy():
     6f3. 或 *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 6f4.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’

操作 Py_UNICODE* 字串的函式和巨集：

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen()’：使用 *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 6eb. 或
     *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 6ec.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat()’：使用 *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 6ed.
     或 *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy()’、‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy()’、
     ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’：使用 *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 6ed. 或
     *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 6ee.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp()’：使用 *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 6ef.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp()’: 使用 *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 6f0.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr()’: 使用 *note
     PyUnicode_FindChar(): 6f1.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’: 使用 *note PyUnicode_Fill(): 1021.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’

編碼器：

   * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’：使用 ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’：使用 *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): a1c. 或
     *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 1022.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’ 使用 *note
     PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1023.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’ 使用 *note
     PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1024.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’: 使用 *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String():
     1025.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’：使用 *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString():
     1026.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()’：使用 *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString():
     1027. 或 *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 1028. （帶有 ‘CP_ACP’
     code_page）

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’、‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用的功能,  Prev: C API 中已棄用的函式和型別,  Up: 已棄用<12>

1.10.23.4 已棄用的功能
......................

The *note array: 7. module's ‘'u'’ format code is now deprecated and
will be removed in Python 4 together with the rest of the (*note
Py_UNICODE: 358.) API.


File: python.info,  Node: 移植到 Python 3 3,  Prev: 已棄用<12>,  Up: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能

1.10.24 移植到 Python 3.3
-------------------------

本節列出了前面描述的更改以及可能需要你更改程式碼的其他錯誤修復。

* Menu:

* 移植 Python 程式碼::
* Porting C code::
* Building C extensions::
* 命令列開關更改::


File: python.info,  Node: 移植 Python 程式碼,  Next: Porting C code,  Up: 移植到 Python 3 3

1.10.24.1 移植 Python 程式碼
............................

   * Hash randomization is enabled by default.  Set the *note
     PYTHONHASHSEED: f13. environment variable to ‘0’ to disable hash
     randomization.  See also the *note object.__hash__(): 950. method.

   * bpo-12326(1): On Linux, sys.platform doesn't contain the major
     version anymore.  It is now always 'linux', instead of 'linux2' or
     'linux3' depending on the Linux version used to build Python.
     Replace sys.platform == 'linux2' with
     sys.platform.startswith('linux'), or directly sys.platform ==
     'linux' if you don't need to support older Python versions.

   * bpo-13847(2), bpo-14180(3): *note time: e8. and *note datetime:
     2e.: *note OverflowError: 6ad. is now raised instead of *note
     ValueError: 183. if a timestamp is out of range.  *note OSError:
     644. is now raised if C functions ‘gmtime()’ or ‘localtime()’
     failed.

   * The default finders used by import now utilize a cache of what is
     contained within a specific directory.  If you create a Python
     source file or sourceless bytecode file, make sure to call *note
     importlib.invalidate_caches(): a73. to clear out the cache for the
     finders to notice the new file.

   * *note ImportError: 145. now uses the full name of the module that
     was attempted to be imported.  Doctests that check ImportErrors'
     message will need to be updated to use the full name of the module
     instead of just the tail of the name.

   * The 'index' argument to *note __import__(): 70d. now defaults to 0
     instead of -1 and no longer support negative values.  It was an
     oversight when PEP 328(4) was implemented that the default value
     remained -1.  If you need to continue to perform a relative import
     followed by an absolute import, then perform the relative import
     using an index of 1, followed by another import using an index of
     0.  It is preferred, though, that you use *note
     importlib.import_module(): 298. rather than call *note
     __import__(): 70d. directly.

   * *note __import__(): 70d. no longer allows one to use an index value
     other than 0 for top-level modules.  E.g.  ‘__import__('sys',
     level=1)’ is now an error.

   * Because *note sys.meta_path: b9d. and *note sys.path_hooks: eb8.
     now have finders on them by default, you will most likely want to
     use ‘list.insert()’ instead of ‘list.append()’ to add to those
     lists.

   * Because ‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache:
     3d8, if you are clearing out entries in the dictionary of paths
     that do not have a finder, you will need to remove keys paired with
     values of ‘None’ 'and' ‘imp.NullImporter’ to be
     backwards-compatible.  This will lead to extra overhead on older
     versions of Python that re-insert ‘None’ into *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. where it represents the use of
     implicit finders, but semantically it should not change anything.

   * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ no longer specifies a ‘find_module()’
     abstract method that must be implemented.  If you were relying on
     subclasses to implement that method, make sure to check for the
     method's existence first.  You will probably want to check for
     ‘find_loader()’ first, though, in the case of working with *note
     path entry finders: f07.

   * *note pkgutil: a4. has been converted to use *note importlib: 71.
     internally.  This eliminates many edge cases where the old
     behaviour of the PEP 302(5) import emulation failed to match the
     behaviour of the real import system.  The import emulation itself
     is still present, but is now deprecated.  The *note
     pkgutil.iter_importers(): 102c. and *note pkgutil.walk_packages():
     a62. functions special case the standard import hooks so they are
     still supported even though they do not provide the non-standard
     ‘iter_modules()’ method.

   * A longstanding RFC-compliance bug (bpo-1079(6)) in the parsing done
     by *note email.header.decode_header(): f47. has been fixed.  Code
     that uses the standard idiom to convert encoded headers into
     unicode (‘str(make_header(decode_header(h))’) will see no change,
     but code that looks at the individual tuples returned by
     decode_header will see that whitespace that precedes or follows
     ‘ASCII’ sections is now included in the ‘ASCII’ section.  Code that
     builds headers using ‘make_header’ should also continue to work
     without change, since ‘make_header’ continues to add whitespace
     between ‘ASCII’ and non-‘ASCII’ sections if it is not already
     present in the input strings.

   * *note email.utils.formataddr(): 102d. now does the correct content
     transfer encoding when passed non-‘ASCII’ display names.  Any code
     that depended on the previous buggy behavior that preserved the
     non-‘ASCII’ unicode in the formatted output string will need to be
     changed (bpo-1690608(7)).

   * *note poplib.POP3.quit(): 102e. may now raise protocol errors like
     all other ‘poplib’ methods.  Code that assumes ‘quit’ does not
     raise *note poplib.error_proto: 102f. errors may need to be changed
     if errors on ‘quit’ are encountered by a particular application
     (bpo-11291(8)).

   * 自 Python 2.4 以來已棄用的 *note email.parser.Parser: 1030. 的
     ‘strict’ 引數終於被刪除了。

   * 已棄用的方法 ‘unittest.TestCase.assertSameElements’ 已被刪除。

   * 已棄用的變數 ‘time.accept2dyear’ 已被刪除。

   * The deprecated ‘Context._clamp’ attribute has been removed from the
     *note decimal: 33. module.  It was previously replaced by the
     public attribute ‘clamp’.  (See bpo-8540(9).)

   * The undocumented internal helper class ‘SSLFakeFile’ has been
     removed from *note smtplib: c4, since its functionality has long
     been provided directly by *note socket.socket.makefile(): 1031.

   * Passing a negative value to *note time.sleep(): 499. on Windows now
     raises an error instead of sleeping forever.  It has always raised
     an error on posix.

   * The ‘ast.__version__’ constant has been removed.  If you need to
     make decisions affected by the AST version, use *note
     sys.version_info: 49c. to make the decision.

   * Code that used to work around the fact that the *note threading:
     e7. module used factory functions by subclassing the private
     classes will need to change to subclass the now-public classes.

   * The undocumented debugging machinery in the threading module has
     been removed, simplifying the code.  This should have no effect on
     production code, but is mentioned here in case any application
     debug frameworks were interacting with it (bpo-13550(10)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12326

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13847

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14180

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1079

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1690608

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13550


File: python.info,  Node: Porting C code,  Next: Building C extensions,  Prev: 移植 Python 程式碼,  Up: 移植到 Python 3 3

1.10.24.2 Porting C code
........................

   * In the course of changes to the buffer API the undocumented
     ‘smalltable’ member of the *note Py_buffer: 56b. structure has been
     removed and the layout of the ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ has changed.

     All extensions relying on the relevant parts in ‘memoryobject.h’ or
     ‘object.h’ must be rebuilt.

   * Due to *note PEP 393: ed3, the *note Py_UNICODE: 358. type and all
     functions using this type are deprecated (but will stay available
     for at least five years).  If you were using low-level Unicode APIs
     to construct and access unicode objects and you want to benefit of
     the memory footprint reduction provided by PEP 393(1), you have to
     convert your code to the new *note Unicode API: 1032.

     However, if you only have been using high-level functions such as
     *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 1033, *note PyUnicode_Join(): 1034. or
     *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302, your code will automatically
     take advantage of the new unicode representations.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 1035. 現在在失敗時回傳 ‘-1’。

   * As a negative value for the 'level' argument to *note __import__():
     70d. is no longer valid, the same now holds for *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 1036.  This also means that the value
     of 'level' used by *note PyImport_ImportModuleEx(): 1037. is now
     ‘0’ instead of ‘-1’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Building C extensions,  Next: 命令列開關更改,  Prev: Porting C code,  Up: 移植到 Python 3 3

1.10.24.3 Building C extensions
...............................

   * The range of possible file names for C extensions has been
     narrowed.  Very rarely used spellings have been suppressed: under
     POSIX, files named ‘xxxmodule.so’, ‘xxxmodule.abi3.so’ and
     ‘xxxmodule.cpython-*.so’ are no longer recognized as implementing
     the ‘xxx’ module.  If you had been generating such files, you have
     to switch to the other spellings (i.e., remove the ‘module’ string
     from the file names).

     （於 bpo-14040(1) 中實作。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14040


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列開關更改,  Prev: Building C extensions,  Up: 移植到 Python 3 3

1.10.24.4 命令列開關更改
........................

   * The -Q command-line flag and related artifacts have been removed.
     Code checking sys.flags.division_warning will need updating.

     （由 Éric Araujo 於 bpo-10998(1) 中實作。）

   * When ‘python’ is started with *note -S: 103a, ‘import site’ will no
     longer add site-specific paths to the module search paths.  In
     previous versions, it did.

     （bpo-11591(2)，由 Carl Meyer 貢獻並由 Éric Araujo 修訂。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10998

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11591


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.11 Python 3.2 有什麼新功能
============================


作者: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.2 as compared to 3.1.
Python 3.2 was released on February 20, 2011.  It focuses on a few
highlights and gives a few examples.  For full details, see the
Misc/NEWS(1) file.

也參考
......

PEP 392(2) - Python 3.2 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
* PEP 389; Argparse 命令列剖析模組: PEP 389 Argparse 命令列剖析模組.
* PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
* PEP 3148：concurrent.futures 模組: PEP 3148：concurrent futures 模組.
* PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
* PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
* PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<11>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules.
* Multi-threading::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<10>.
* Unicode::
* 編解碼器::
* 文件::
* IDLE::
* Code Repository::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.2: Porting to Python 3 2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/076ca6c3c8df3030307e548d9be792ce3c1c6eea/Misc/NEWS

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0392/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI,  Next: PEP 389 Argparse 命令列剖析模組,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.1 PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
-------------------------------------

In the past, extension modules built for one Python version were often
not usable with other Python versions.  Particularly on Windows, every
feature release of Python required rebuilding all extension modules that
one wanted to use.  This requirement was the result of the free access
to Python interpreter internals that extension modules could use.

With Python 3.2, an alternative approach becomes available: extension
modules which restrict themselves to a limited API (by defining
Py_LIMITED_API) cannot use many of the internals, but are constrained to
a set of API functions that are promised to be stable for several
releases.  As a consequence, extension modules built for 3.2 in that
mode will also work with 3.3, 3.4, and so on.  Extension modules that
make use of details of memory structures can still be built, but will
need to be recompiled for every feature release.

也參考
......

PEP 384(1) - 定義一個穩定 ABI

     由 Martin von Löwis 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 389 Argparse 命令列剖析模組,  Next: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Prev: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.2 PEP 389: Argparse 命令列剖析模組
---------------------------------------

A new module for command line parsing, *note argparse: 6, was introduced
to overcome the limitations of *note optparse: 9b. which did not provide
support for positional arguments (not just options), subcommands,
required options and other common patterns of specifying and validating
options.

This module has already had widespread success in the community as a
third-party module.  Being more fully featured than its predecessor, the
*note argparse: 6. module is now the preferred module for command-line
processing.  The older module is still being kept available because of
the substantial amount of legacy code that depends on it.

Here's an annotated example parser showing features like limiting
results to a set of choices, specifying a 'metavar' in the help screen,
validating that one or more positional arguments is present, and making
a required option:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
                 description = 'Manage servers',         # main description for help
                 epilog = 'Tested on Solaris and Linux') # displayed after help
     parser.add_argument('action',                       # argument name
                 choices = ['deploy', 'start', 'stop'],  # three allowed values
                 help = 'action on each target')         # help msg
     parser.add_argument('targets',
                 metavar = 'HOSTNAME',                   # var name used in help msg
                 nargs = '+',                            # require one or more targets
                 help = 'url for target machines')       # help msg explanation
     parser.add_argument('-u', '--user',                 # -u or --user option
                 required = True,                        # make it a required argument
                 help = 'login as user')

Example of calling the parser on a command string:

     >>> cmd = 'deploy sneezy.example.com sleepy.example.com -u skycaptain'
     >>> result = parser.parse_args(cmd.split())
     >>> result.action
     'deploy'
     >>> result.targets
     ['sneezy.example.com', 'sleepy.example.com']
     >>> result.user
     'skycaptain'

Example of the parser's automatically generated help:

     >>> parser.parse_args('-h'.split())

     usage: manage_cloud.py [-h] -u USER
                            {deploy,start,stop} HOSTNAME [HOSTNAME ...]

     Manage servers

     positional arguments:
       {deploy,start,stop}   action on each target
       HOSTNAME              url for target machines

     optional arguments:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -u USER, --user USER  login as user

     Tested on Solaris and Linux

An especially nice *note argparse: 6. feature is the ability to define
subparsers, each with their own argument patterns and help displays:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='HELM')
     subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()

     parser_l = subparsers.add_parser('launch', help='Launch Control')   # first subgroup
     parser_l.add_argument('-m', '--missiles', action='store_true')
     parser_l.add_argument('-t', '--torpedos', action='store_true')

     parser_m = subparsers.add_parser('move', help='Move Vessel',        # second subgroup
                                      aliases=('steer', 'turn'))         # equivalent names
     parser_m.add_argument('-c', '--course', type=int, required=True)
     parser_m.add_argument('-s', '--speed', type=int, default=0)

     $ ./helm.py --help                         # top level help (launch and move)
     $ ./helm.py launch --help                  # help for launch options
     $ ./helm.py launch --missiles              # set missiles=True and torpedos=False
     $ ./helm.py steer --course 180 --speed 5   # set movement parameters

也參考
......

PEP 389(1) - 新命令列剖析模組

     由 Steven Bethard 撰寫 PEP。

*note Upgrading optparse code: 103f. for details on the differences from
*note optparse: 9b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Next: PEP 3148：concurrent futures 模組,  Prev: PEP 389 Argparse 命令列剖析模組,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.3 PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note logging: 82. module provided two kinds of configuration, one
style with function calls for each option or another style driven by an
external file saved in a *note configparser: 20. format.  Those options
did not provide the flexibility to create configurations from JSON or
YAML files, nor did they support incremental configuration, which is
needed for specifying logger options from a command line.

To support a more flexible style, the module now offers *note
logging.config.dictConfig(): 1041. for specifying logging configuration
with plain Python dictionaries.  The configuration options include
formatters, handlers, filters, and loggers.  Here's a working example of
a configuration dictionary:

     {"version": 1,
      "formatters": {"brief": {"format": "%(levelname)-8s: %(name)-15s: %(message)s"},
                     "full": {"format": "%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s"}
                     },
      "handlers": {"console": {
                        "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                        "formatter": "brief",
                        "level": "INFO",
                        "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"},
                   "console_priority": {
                        "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                        "formatter": "full",
                        "level": "ERROR",
                        "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"}
                   },
      "root": {"level": "DEBUG", "handlers": ["console", "console_priority"]}}

If that dictionary is stored in a file called ‘conf.json’, it can be
loaded and called with code like this:

     >>> import json, logging.config
     >>> with open('conf.json') as f:
     ...     conf = json.load(f)
     ...
     >>> logging.config.dictConfig(conf)
     >>> logging.info("Transaction completed normally")
     INFO    : root           : Transaction completed normally
     >>> logging.critical("Abnormal termination")
     2011-02-17 11:14:36,694 root            CRITICAL Abnormal termination

也參考
......

PEP 391(1) - Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging

     由 Vinay Sajip 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3148：concurrent futures 模組,  Next: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.4 PEP 3148：‘concurrent.futures’ 模組
------------------------------------------

Code for creating and managing concurrency is being collected in a new
top-level namespace, 'concurrent'.  Its first member is a 'futures'
package which provides a uniform high-level interface for managing
threads and processes.

The design for *note concurrent.futures: 1f. was inspired by the
'java.util.concurrent' package.  In that model, a running call and its
result are represented by a *note Future: 1043. object that abstracts
features common to threads, processes, and remote procedure calls.  That
object supports status checks (running or done), timeouts,
cancellations, adding callbacks, and access to results or exceptions.

The primary offering of the new module is a pair of executor classes for
launching and managing calls.  The goal of the executors is to make it
easier to use existing tools for making parallel calls.  They save the
effort needed to setup a pool of resources, launch the calls, create a
results queue, add time-out handling, and limit the total number of
threads, processes, or remote procedure calls.

Ideally, each application should share a single executor across multiple
components so that process and thread limits can be centrally managed.
This solves the design challenge that arises when each component has its
own competing strategy for resource management.

Both classes share a common interface with three methods: *note
submit(): 8ce. for scheduling a callable and returning a *note Future:
1043. object; *note map(): c5c. for scheduling many asynchronous calls
at a time, and *note shutdown(): 726. for freeing resources.  The class
is a *note context manager: 3c4. and can be used in a *note with: 3c5.
statement to assure that resources are automatically released when
currently pending futures are done executing.

A simple of example of *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. is a launch of
four parallel threads for copying files:

     import concurrent.futures, shutil
     with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest4.txt')

也參考
......

PEP 3148(1) - Futures - Execute Computations Asynchronously

     由 Brian Quinlan 撰寫 PEP。

*note Code for Threaded Parallel URL reads: 1044, an example using
threads to fetch multiple web pages in parallel.

*note Code for computing prime numbers in parallel: 1045, an example
demonstrating *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Next: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Prev: PEP 3148：concurrent futures 模組,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.5 PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
-------------------------------------------

Python's scheme for caching bytecode in '.pyc' files did not work well
in environments with multiple Python interpreters.  If one interpreter
encountered a cached file created by another interpreter, it would
recompile the source and overwrite the cached file, thus losing the
benefits of caching.

The issue of "pyc fights" has become more pronounced as it has become
commonplace for Linux distributions to ship with multiple versions of
Python.  These conflicts also arise with CPython alternatives such as
Unladen Swallow.

To solve this problem, Python's import machinery has been extended to
use distinct filenames for each interpreter.  Instead of Python 3.2 and
Python 3.3 and Unladen Swallow each competing for a file called
"mymodule.pyc", they will now look for "mymodule.cpython-32.pyc",
"mymodule.cpython-33.pyc", and "mymodule.unladen10.pyc".  And to prevent
all of these new files from cluttering source directories, the 'pyc'
files are now collected in a "__pycache__" directory stored under the
package directory.

Aside from the filenames and target directories, the new scheme has a
few aspects that are visible to the programmer:

   * Imported modules now have a *note __cached__: 248. attribute which
     stores the name of the actual file that was imported:

          >>> import collections
          >>> collections.__cached__
          'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

   * The tag that is unique to each interpreter is accessible from the
     ‘imp’ module:

          >>> import imp
          >>> imp.get_tag()
          'cpython-32'

   * Scripts that try to deduce source filename from the imported file
     now need to be smarter.  It is no longer sufficient to simply strip
     the "c" from a ".pyc" filename.  Instead, use the new functions in
     the ‘imp’ module:

          >>> imp.source_from_cache('c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc')
          'c:/py32/lib/collections.py'
          >>> imp.cache_from_source('c:/py32/lib/collections.py')
          'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

   * The *note py_compile: ae. and *note compileall: 1e. modules have
     been updated to reflect the new naming convention and target
     directory.  The command-line invocation of 'compileall' has new
     options: ‘-i’ for specifying a list of files and directories to
     compile and ‘-b’ which causes bytecode files to be written to their
     legacy location rather than '__pycache__'.

   * The *note importlib.abc: 72. module has been updated with new *note
     abstract base classes: 1047. for loading bytecode files.  The
     obsolete ABCs, ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’, have been deprecated
     (instructions on how to stay Python 3.1 compatible are included
     with the documentation).

也參考
......

PEP 3147(1) - PYC Repository Directories

     由 Barry Warsaw 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Next: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Prev: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.6 PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
---------------------------------------------

The PYC repository directory allows multiple bytecode cache files to be
co-located.  This PEP implements a similar mechanism for shared object
files by giving them a common directory and distinct names for each
version.

The common directory is "pyshared" and the file names are made distinct
by identifying the Python implementation (such as CPython, PyPy, Jython,
etc.), the major and minor version numbers, and optional build flags
(such as "d" for debug, "m" for pymalloc, "u" for wide-unicode).  For an
arbitrary package "foo", you may see these files when the distribution
package is installed:

     /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-32m.so
     /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-33md.so

In Python itself, the tags are accessible from functions in the *note
sysconfig: d5. module:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('SOABI')       # find the version tag
     'cpython-32mu'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')  # find the full filename extension
     '.cpython-32mu.so'

也參考
......

PEP 3149(1) - ABI Version Tagged .so Files

     由 Barry Warsaw 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Next: 其他語言更動<11>,  Prev: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.7 PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
-----------------------------------------------------------

This informational PEP clarifies how bytes/text issues are to be handled
by the WSGI protocol.  The challenge is that string handling in Python 3
is most conveniently handled with the *note str: 157. type even though
the HTTP protocol is itself bytes oriented.

The PEP differentiates so-called 'native strings' that are used for
request/response headers and metadata versus 'byte strings' which are
used for the bodies of requests and responses.

The 'native strings' are always of type *note str: 157. but are
restricted to code points between 'U+0000' through 'U+00FF' which are
translatable to bytes using 'Latin-1' encoding.  These strings are used
for the keys and values in the environment dictionary and for response
headers and statuses in the ‘start_response()’ function.  They must
follow RFC 2616(1) with respect to encoding.  That is, they must either
be 'ISO-8859-1' characters or use RFC 2047(2) MIME encoding.

For developers porting WSGI applications from Python 2, here are the
salient points:

   * If the app already used strings for headers in Python 2, no change
     is needed.

   * If instead, the app encoded output headers or decoded input
     headers, then the headers will need to be re-encoded to Latin-1.
     For example, an output header encoded in utf-8 was using
     ‘h.encode('utf-8')’ now needs to convert from bytes to native
     strings using ‘h.encode('utf-8').decode('latin-1')’.

   * Values yielded by an application or sent using the ‘write()’ method
     must be byte strings.  The ‘start_response()’ function and environ
     must use native strings.  The two cannot be mixed.

For server implementers writing CGI-to-WSGI pathways or other CGI-style
protocols, the users must to be able access the environment using native
strings even though the underlying platform may have a different
convention.  To bridge this gap, the *note wsgiref: 113. module has a
new function, *note wsgiref.handlers.read_environ(): 104a. for
transcoding CGI variables from *note os.environ: 104b. into native
strings and returning a new dictionary.

也參考
......

PEP 3333(3) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1

     由 Phillip Eby 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<11>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Prev: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.8 其他語言更動
-------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * String formatting for *note format(): 417. and *note str.format():
     41b. gained new capabilities for the format character '#'.
     Previously, for integers in binary, octal, or hexadecimal, it
     caused the output to be prefixed with '0b', '0o', or '0x'
     respectively.  Now it can also handle floats, complex, and Decimal,
     causing the output to always have a decimal point even when no
     digits follow it.

          >>> format(20, '#o')
          '0o24'
          >>> format(12.34, '#5.0f')
          '  12.'

     (Suggested by Mark Dickinson and implemented by Eric Smith in
     bpo-7094(1).)

   * There is also a new *note str.format_map(): c4f. method that
     extends the capabilities of the existing *note str.format(): 41b.
     method by accepting arbitrary *note mapping: 104d. objects.  This
     new method makes it possible to use string formatting with any of
     Python's many dictionary-like objects such as *note defaultdict:
     104e, *note Shelf: e27, *note ConfigParser: 286, or *note dbm: 2f.
     It is also useful with custom *note dict: 239. subclasses that
     normalize keys before look-up or that supply a ‘__missing__()’
     method for unknown keys:

          >>> import shelve
          >>> d = shelve.open('tmp.shl')
          >>> 'The {project_name} status is {status} as of {date}'.format_map(d)
          'The testing project status is green as of February 15, 2011'

          >>> class LowerCasedDict(dict):
          ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
          ...         return dict.__getitem__(self, key.lower())
          ...
          >>> lcd = LowerCasedDict(part='widgets', quantity=10)
          >>> 'There are {QUANTITY} {Part} in stock'.format_map(lcd)
          'There are 10 widgets in stock'

          >>> class PlaceholderDict(dict):
          ...     def __missing__(self, key):
          ...         return '<{}>'.format(key)
          ...
          >>> 'Hello {name}, welcome to {location}'.format_map(PlaceholderDict())
          'Hello <name>, welcome to <location>'

     (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith in
     bpo-6081(2).)

   * The interpreter can now be started with a quiet option, ‘-q’, to
     prevent the copyright and version information from being displayed
     in the interactive mode.  The option can be introspected using the
     *note sys.flags: 489. attribute:

          $ python -q
          >>> sys.flags
          sys.flags(debug=0, division_warning=0, inspect=0, interactive=0,
          optimize=0, dont_write_bytecode=0, no_user_site=0, no_site=0,
          ignore_environment=0, verbose=0, bytes_warning=0, quiet=1)

     （由 Marcin Wojdyr 在 bpo-1772833(3) 中貢獻）。

   * The *note hasattr(): 1f9. function works by calling *note
     getattr(): a32. and detecting whether an exception is raised.  This
     technique allows it to detect methods created dynamically by *note
     __getattr__(): 1fa. or *note __getattribute__(): a33. which would
     otherwise be absent from the class dictionary.  Formerly, 'hasattr'
     would catch any exception, possibly masking genuine errors.  Now,
     'hasattr' has been tightened to only catch *note AttributeError:
     3ca. and let other exceptions pass through:

          >>> class A:
          ...     @property
          ...     def f(self):
          ...         return 1 // 0
          ...
          >>> a = A()
          >>> hasattr(a, 'f')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

     (Discovered by Yury Selivanov and fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-9666(4).)

   * The *note str(): 157. of a float or complex number is now the same
     as its *note repr(): 61e.  Previously, the *note str(): 157. form
     was shorter but that just caused confusion and is no longer needed
     now that the shortest possible *note repr(): 61e. is displayed by
     default:

          >>> import math
          >>> repr(math.pi)
          '3.141592653589793'
          >>> str(math.pi)
          '3.141592653589793'

     (Proposed and implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-9337(5).)

   * *note memoryview: 17f. objects now have a *note release(): 104f.
     method and they also now support the context management protocol.
     This allows timely release of any resources that were acquired when
     requesting a buffer from the original object.

          >>> with memoryview(b'abcdefgh') as v:
          ...     print(v.tolist())
          [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]

     (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9757(6).)

   * Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace
     if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block:

          def outer(x):
              def inner():
                  return x
              inner()
              del x

     This is now allowed.  Remember that the target of an *note except:
     3a8. clause is cleared, so this code which used to work with Python
     2.6, raised a *note SyntaxError: 146. with Python 3.1 and now works
     again:

          def f():
              def print_error():
                  print(e)
              try:
                  something
              except Exception as e:
                  print_error()
                  # implicit "del e" here

     （請見 bpo-4617(7)。）

   * *note Struct sequence types: 1050. are now subclasses of tuple.
     This means that C structures like those returned by *note
     os.stat(): 1bf, *note time.gmtime(): 1051, and *note
     sys.version_info: 49c. now work like a *note named tuple: 449. and
     now work with functions and methods that expect a tuple as an
     argument.  This is a big step forward in making the C structures as
     flexible as their pure Python counterparts:

          >>> import sys
          >>> isinstance(sys.version_info, tuple)
          True
          >>> 'Version %d.%d.%d %s(%d)' % sys.version_info
          'Version 3.2.0 final(0)'

     (Suggested by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis and implemented
     by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-8413(8).)

   * Warnings are now easier to control using the *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     a0b. environment variable as an alternative to using ‘-W’ at the
     command line:

          $ export PYTHONWARNINGS='ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::'

     (Suggested by Barry Warsaw and implemented by Philip Jenvey in
     bpo-7301(9).)

   * A new warning category, *note ResourceWarning: aa3, has been added.
     It is emitted when potential issues with resource consumption or
     cleanup are detected.  It is silenced by default in normal release
     builds but can be enabled through the means provided by the *note
     warnings: 10d. module, or on the command line.

     A *note ResourceWarning: aa3. is issued at interpreter shutdown if
     the *note gc.garbage: 1052. list isn't empty, and if *note
     gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE: 1053. is set, all uncollectable objects are
     printed.  This is meant to make the programmer aware that their
     code contains object finalization issues.

     A *note ResourceWarning: aa3. is also issued when a *note file
     object: 1054. is destroyed without having been explicitly closed.
     While the deallocator for such object ensures it closes the
     underlying operating system resource (usually, a file descriptor),
     the delay in deallocating the object could produce various issues,
     especially under Windows.  Here is an example of enabling the
     warning from the command line:

          $ python -q -Wdefault
          >>> f = open("foo", "wb")
          >>> del f
          __main__:1: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.BufferedWriter name='foo'>

     (Added by Antoine Pitrou and Georg Brandl in bpo-10093(10) and
     bpo-477863(11).)

   * *note range: 782. objects now support 'index' and 'count' methods.
     This is part of an effort to make more objects fully implement the
     *note collections.Sequence: 1055. *note abstract base class: 1047.
     As a result, the language will have a more uniform API. In
     addition, *note range: 782. objects now support slicing and
     negative indices, even with values larger than *note sys.maxsize:
     1056.  This makes 'range' more interoperable with lists:

          >>> range(0, 100, 2).count(10)
          1
          >>> range(0, 100, 2).index(10)
          5
          >>> range(0, 100, 2)[5]
          10
          >>> range(0, 100, 2)[0:5]
          range(0, 10, 2)

     （由 Daniel Stutzbach 在 bpo-9213(12)、Alexander Belopolsky 在
     bpo-2690(13)、Nick Coghlan 在 bpo-10889(14) 中貢獻。）

   * The *note callable(): 1057. builtin function from Py2.x was
     resurrected.  It provides a concise, readable alternative to using
     an *note abstract base class: 1047. in an expression like
     ‘isinstance(x, collections.Callable)’:

          >>> callable(max)
          True
          >>> callable(20)
          False

     （請見 bpo-10518(15)。）

   * Python's import mechanism can now load modules installed in
     directories with non-ASCII characters in the path name.  This
     solved an aggravating problem with home directories for users with
     non-ASCII characters in their usernames.

     (Required extensive work by Victor Stinner in bpo-9425(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7094

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772833

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9666

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9337

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9757

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4617

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8413

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10093

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=477863

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9213

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2690

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10889

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10518

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9425


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Next: Multi-threading,  Prev: 其他語言更動<11>,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.9 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------------

Python's standard library has undergone significant maintenance efforts
and quality improvements.

The biggest news for Python 3.2 is that the *note email: 37. package,
*note mailbox: 86. module, and *note nntplib: 98. modules now work
correctly with the bytes/text model in Python 3.  For the first time,
there is correct handling of messages with mixed encodings.

Throughout the standard library, there has been more careful attention
to encodings and text versus bytes issues.  In particular, interactions
with the operating system are now better able to exchange non-ASCII data
using the Windows MBCS encoding, locale-aware encodings, or UTF-8.

Another significant win is the addition of substantially better support
for 'SSL' connections and security certificates.

In addition, more classes now implement a *note context manager: 3c4. to
support convenient and reliable resource clean-up using a *note with:
3c5. statement.

* Menu:

* email: email<7>.
* elementtree::
* functools: functools<7>.
* itertools: itertools<6>.
* collections: collections<8>.
* threading: threading<9>.
* datetime 和 time::
* math: math<9>.
* abc: abc<3>.
* io: io<6>.
* reprlib::
* logging: logging<8>.
* csv: csv<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<8>.
* decimal and fractions::
* ftp::
* popen::
* select: select<3>.
* gzip 和 zipfile::
* tarfile: tarfile<9>.
* hashlib: hashlib<7>.
* ast: ast<4>.
* os: os<12>.
* shutil: shutil<7>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<10>.
* html: html<3>.
* socket: socket<11>.
* ssl: ssl<11>.
* nntp::
* certificates::
* imaplib: imaplib<4>.
* http.client: http client<4>.
* unittest: unittest<10>.
* random: random<4>.
* poplib: poplib<4>.
* asyncore: asyncore<2>.
* tempfile: tempfile<4>.
* inspect: inspect<10>.
* pydoc: pydoc<6>.
* dis: dis<4>.
* dbm: dbm<6>.
* ctypes: ctypes<2>.
* site: site<3>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<3>.
* pdb: pdb<7>.
* configparser: configparser<3>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>.
* mailbox::
* turtledemo::


File: python.info,  Node: email<7>,  Next: elementtree,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.1 email
..............

The usability of the *note email: 37. package in Python 3 has been
mostly fixed by the extensive efforts of R. David Murray.  The problem
was that emails are typically read and stored in the form of *note
bytes: 2c1. rather than *note str: 157. text, and they may contain
multiple encodings within a single email.  So, the email package had to
be extended to parse and generate email messages in bytes format.

   * New functions *note message_from_bytes(): 105a. and *note
     message_from_binary_file(): 105b, and new classes *note
     BytesFeedParser: 105c. and *note BytesParser: 105d. allow binary
     message data to be parsed into model objects.

   * Given bytes input to the model, *note get_payload(): 105e. will by
     default decode a message body that has a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' using the charset specified
     in the MIME headers and return the resulting string.

   * Given bytes input to the model, *note Generator: 105f. will convert
     message bodies that have a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' to
     instead have a '7bit' ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.

     Headers with unencoded non-ASCII bytes are deemed to be RFC
     2047(1)-encoded using the 'unknown-8bit' character set.

   * A new class *note BytesGenerator: 1060. produces bytes as output,
     preserving any unchanged non-ASCII data that was present in the
     input used to build the model, including message bodies with a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit'.

   * The *note smtplib: c4. *note SMTP: 76c. class now accepts a byte
     string for the 'msg' argument to the *note sendmail(): cd5. method,
     and a new method, *note send_message(): cd6. accepts a *note
     Message: b05. object and can optionally obtain the 'from_addr' and
     'to_addrs' addresses directly from the object.

(Proposed and implemented by R. David Murray, bpo-4661(2) and
bpo-10321(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10321


File: python.info,  Node: elementtree,  Next: functools<7>,  Prev: email<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.2 elementtree
....................

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. package and its
‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ counterpart have been updated to version 1.3.

Several new and useful functions and methods have been added:

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist(): 1062. which builds an
     XML document from a sequence of fragments

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace(): 1063. for
     registering a global namespace prefix

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist(): e88. for string
     representation including all sublists

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend(): 1064. for appending a
     sequence of zero or more elements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind(): 1065. searches an
     element and subelements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext(): 1066. creates a
     text iterator over an element and its subelements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end(): 1067. closes the
     current element

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype(): 8e8. handles a
     doctype declaration

有兩個方法已被棄用：

   * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getchildren()’ use ‘list(elem)’ instead.

   * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getiterator()’ use ‘Element.iter’ instead.

For details of the update, see Introducing ElementTree(1) on Fredrik
Lundh's website.

（由 Florent Xicluna 和 Fredrik Lundh 貢獻，bpo-6472(2)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472


File: python.info,  Node: functools<7>,  Next: itertools<6>,  Prev: elementtree,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.3 functools
..................

   * The *note functools: 5a. module includes a new decorator for
     caching function calls.  *note functools.lru_cache(): 834. can save
     repeated queries to an external resource whenever the results are
     expected to be the same.

     For example, adding a caching decorator to a database query
     function can save database accesses for popular searches:

          >>> import functools
          >>> @functools.lru_cache(maxsize=300)
          ... def get_phone_number(name):
          ...     c = conn.cursor()
          ...     c.execute('SELECT phonenumber FROM phonelist WHERE name=?', (name,))
          ...     return c.fetchone()[0]

          >>> for name in user_requests:
          ...     get_phone_number(name)        # cached lookup

     To help with choosing an effective cache size, the wrapped function
     is instrumented for tracking cache statistics:

          >>> get_phone_number.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=4805, misses=980, maxsize=300, currsize=300)

     If the phonelist table gets updated, the outdated contents of the
     cache can be cleared with:

          >>> get_phone_number.cache_clear()

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design ideas
     from Jim Baker, Miki Tebeka, and Nick Coghlan; see recipe
     498245(1), recipe 577479(2), bpo-10586(3), and bpo-10593(4).)

   * The *note functools.wraps(): dea. decorator now adds a
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute pointing to the original callable function.
     This allows wrapped functions to be introspected.  It also copies
     *note __annotations__: 1069. if defined.  And now it also
     gracefully skips over missing attributes such as *note __doc__:
     106a. which might not be defined for the wrapped callable.

     In the above example, the cache can be removed by recovering the
     original function:

          >>> get_phone_number = get_phone_number.__wrapped__    # uncached function

     (By Nick Coghlan and Terrence Cole; bpo-9567(5), bpo-3445(6), and
     bpo-8814(7).)

   * To help write classes with rich comparison methods, a new decorator
     *note functools.total_ordering(): dcf. will use existing equality
     and inequality methods to fill in the remaining methods.

     For example, supplying '__eq__' and '__lt__' will enable *note
     total_ordering(): dcf. to fill-in '__le__', '__gt__' and '__ge__':

          @total_ordering
          class Student:
              def __eq__(self, other):
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

              def __lt__(self, other):
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

     With the 'total_ordering' decorator, the remaining comparison
     methods are filled in automatically.

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻。）

   * To aid in porting programs from Python 2, the *note
     functools.cmp_to_key(): 106b. function converts an old-style
     comparison function to modern *note key function: c7d.:

          >>> # locale-aware sort order
          >>> sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))

     For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see the Sorting
     HowTo(8) tutorial.

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/498245-lru-and-lfu-cache-decorators/

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577479-simple-caching-decorator/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10586

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10593

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9567

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3445

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8814

   (8) https://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<6>,  Next: collections<8>,  Prev: functools<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.4 itertools
..................

   * The *note itertools: 7b. module has a new *note accumulate(): 843.
     function modeled on APL's 'scan' operator and Numpy's 'accumulate'
     function:

          >>> from itertools import accumulate
          >>> list(accumulate([8, 2, 50]))
          [8, 10, 60]

          >>> prob_dist = [0.1, 0.4, 0.2, 0.3]
          >>> list(accumulate(prob_dist))      # cumulative probability distribution
          [0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0]

     For an example using *note accumulate(): 843, see the *note
     examples for the random module: 106d.

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻，並結合了 Mark Dickinson 的設計建議。）


File: python.info,  Node: collections<8>,  Next: threading<9>,  Prev: itertools<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.5 collections
....................

   * The *note collections.Counter: f28. class now has two forms of
     in-place subtraction, the existing '-=' operator for saturating
     subtraction(1) and the new *note subtract(): 106f. method for
     regular subtraction.  The former is suitable for multisets(2) which
     only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use
     cases that allow negative counts:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
          >>> tally -= Counter(dogs=2, cats=8)    # saturating subtraction
          >>> tally
          Counter({'dogs': 3})

          >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
          >>> tally.subtract(dogs=2, cats=8)      # regular subtraction
          >>> tally
          Counter({'dogs': 3, 'cats': -5})

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻。）

   * The *note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce. class has a new method
     *note move_to_end(): 1070. which takes an existing key and moves it
     to either the first or last position in the ordered sequence.

     The default is to move an item to the last position.  This is
     equivalent of renewing an entry with ‘od[k] = od.pop(k)’.

     A fast move-to-end operation is useful for resequencing entries.
     For example, an ordered dictionary can be used to track order of
     access by aging entries from the oldest to the most recently
     accessed.

          >>> from collections import OrderedDict
          >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys(['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e'])
          >>> list(d)
          ['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e']
          >>> d.move_to_end('X')
          >>> list(d)
          ['a', 'b', 'd', 'e', 'X']

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻。）

   * The *note collections.deque: 3cf. class grew two new methods *note
     count(): 1071. and *note reverse(): 1072. that make them more
     substitutable for *note list: 40a. objects:

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> d = deque('simsalabim')
          >>> d.count('s')
          2
          >>> d.reverse()
          >>> d
          deque(['m', 'i', 'b', 'a', 'l', 'a', 's', 'm', 'i', 's'])

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset


File: python.info,  Node: threading<9>,  Next: datetime 和 time,  Prev: collections<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.6 threading
..................

The *note threading: e7. module has a new *note Barrier: 1074.
synchronization class for making multiple threads wait until all of them
have reached a common barrier point.  Barriers are useful for making
sure that a task with multiple preconditions does not run until all of
the predecessor tasks are complete.

Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads.  This is a
generalization of a Rendezvous(1) which is defined for only two threads.

Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, *note Barrier: 1074. objects
are suitable for use in loops.  The separate 'filling' and 'draining'
phases assure that all threads get released (drained) before any one of
them can loop back and re-enter the barrier.  The barrier fully resets
after each cycle.

Example of using barriers:

     from threading import Barrier, Thread

     def get_votes(site):
         ballots = conduct_election(site)
         all_polls_closed.wait()        # do not count until all polls are closed
         totals = summarize(ballots)
         publish(site, totals)

     all_polls_closed = Barrier(len(sites))
     for site in sites:
         Thread(target=get_votes, args=(site,)).start()

In this example, the barrier enforces a rule that votes cannot be
counted at any polling site until all polls are closed.  Notice how a
solution with a barrier is similar to one with *note
threading.Thread.join(): 1075, but the threads stay alive and continue
to do work (summarizing ballots) after the barrier point is crossed.

If any of the predecessor tasks can hang or be delayed, a barrier can be
created with an optional 'timeout' parameter.  Then if the timeout
period elapses before all the predecessor tasks reach the barrier point,
all waiting threads are released and a *note BrokenBarrierError: 1076.
exception is raised:

     def get_votes(site):
         ballots = conduct_election(site)
         try:
             all_polls_closed.wait(timeout=midnight - time.now())
         except BrokenBarrierError:
             lockbox = seal_ballots(ballots)
             queue.put(lockbox)
         else:
             totals = summarize(ballots)
             publish(site, totals)

In this example, the barrier enforces a more robust rule.  If some
election sites do not finish before midnight, the barrier times-out and
the ballots are sealed and deposited in a queue for later handling.

See Barrier Synchronization Patterns(2) for more examples of how
barriers can be used in parallel computing.  Also, there is a simple but
thorough explanation of barriers in The Little Book of Semaphores(3),
'section 3.6'.

（在 bpo-8777(4) 中由 Kristján Valur Jónsson 貢獻、Jeffrey Yasskin 進行
API 審查。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous

   (2) 
https://osl.cs.illinois.edu/media/papers/karmani-2009-barrier_synchronization_pattern.pdf

   (3) https://greenteapress.com/semaphores/LittleBookOfSemaphores.pdf

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8777


File: python.info,  Node: datetime 和 time,  Next: math<9>,  Prev: threading<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.7 datetime 和 time
.........................

   * The *note datetime: 2e. module has a new type *note timezone: f4e.
     that implements the *note tzinfo: 3d1. interface by returning a
     fixed UTC offset and timezone name.  This makes it easier to create
     timezone-aware datetime objects:

          >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone

          >>> datetime.now(timezone.utc)
          datetime.datetime(2010, 12, 8, 21, 4, 2, 923754, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

          >>> datetime.strptime("01/01/2000 12:00 +0000", "%m/%d/%Y %H:%M %z")
          datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 12, 0, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

   * Also, *note timedelta: 813. objects can now be multiplied by *note
     float: 26a. and divided by *note float: 26a. and *note int: 17e.
     objects.  And *note timedelta: 813. objects can now divide one
     another.

   * The *note datetime.date.strftime(): afc. method is no longer
     restricted to years after 1900.  The new supported year range is
     from 1000 to 9999 inclusive.

   * Whenever a two-digit year is used in a time tuple, the
     interpretation has been governed by ‘time.accept2dyear’.  The
     default is ‘True’ which means that for a two-digit year, the
     century is guessed according to the POSIX rules governing the ‘%y’
     strptime format.

     Starting with Py3.2, use of the century guessing heuristic will
     emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  Instead, it is recommended
     that ‘time.accept2dyear’ be set to ‘False’ so that large date
     ranges can be used without guesswork:

          >>> import time, warnings
          >>> warnings.resetwarnings()      # remove the default warning filters

          >>> time.accept2dyear = True      # guess whether 11 means 11 or 2011
          >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
          Warning (from warnings module):
            ...
          DeprecationWarning: Century info guessed for a 2-digit year.
          'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 2011'

          >>> time.accept2dyear = False     # use the full range of allowable dates
          >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
          'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 11'

     Several functions now have significantly expanded date ranges.
     When ‘time.accept2dyear’ is false, the *note time.asctime(): 1078.
     function will accept any year that fits in a C int, while the *note
     time.mktime(): 1079. and *note time.strftime(): 107a. functions
     will accept the full range supported by the corresponding operating
     system functions.

（由 Alexander Belopolsky 和 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-1289118(1)、
bpo-5094(2)、bpo-6641(3)、bpo-2706(4)、bpo-1777412(5)、bpo-8013(6) 和
bpo-10827(7) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1289118

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5094

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6641

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2706

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1777412

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8013

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10827


File: python.info,  Node: math<9>,  Next: abc<3>,  Prev: datetime 和 time,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.8 math
.............

The *note math: 89. module has been updated with six new functions
inspired by the C99 standard.

The *note isfinite(): 107c. function provides a reliable and fast way to
detect special values.  It returns ‘True’ for regular numbers and
‘False’ for 'Nan' or 'Infinity':

     >>> from math import isfinite
     >>> [isfinite(x) for x in (123, 4.56, float('Nan'), float('Inf'))]
     [True, True, False, False]

The *note expm1(): 107d. function computes ‘e**x-1’ for small values of
'x' without incurring the loss of precision that usually accompanies the
subtraction of nearly equal quantities:

     >>> from math import expm1
     >>> expm1(0.013671875)   # more accurate way to compute e**x-1 for a small x
     0.013765762467652909

The *note erf(): a39. function computes a probability integral or
Gaussian error function(1).  The complementary error function, *note
erfc(): a3a, is ‘1 - erf(x)’:

     >>> from math import erf, erfc, sqrt
     >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0))   # portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation
     0.682689492137086
     >>> erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))  # portion of normal distribution outside 1 standard deviation
     0.31731050786291404
     >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) + erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))
     1.0

The *note gamma(): 107e. function is a continuous extension of the
factorial function.  See ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function’
for details.  Because the function is related to factorials, it grows
large even for small values of 'x', so there is also a *note lgamma():
107f. function for computing the natural logarithm of the gamma
function:

     >>> from math import gamma, lgamma
     >>> gamma(7.0)           # six factorial
     720.0
     >>> lgamma(801.0)        # log(800 factorial)
     4551.950730698041

（由 Mark Dickinson 貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function


File: python.info,  Node: abc<3>,  Next: io<6>,  Prev: math<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.9 abc
............

The *note abc: 4. module now supports *note abstractclassmethod(): f1d.
and *note abstractstaticmethod(): f1e.

These tools make it possible to define an *note abstract base class:
1047. that requires a particular *note classmethod(): 24b. or *note
staticmethod(): 5f9. to be implemented:

     class Temperature(metaclass=abc.ABCMeta):
         @abc.abstractclassmethod
         def from_fahrenheit(cls, t):
             ...
         @abc.abstractclassmethod
         def from_celsius(cls, t):
             ...

(Patch submitted by Daniel Urban; bpo-5867(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5867


File: python.info,  Node: io<6>,  Next: reprlib,  Prev: abc<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.10 io
............

The *note io.BytesIO: d24. has a new method, *note getbuffer(): 1082,
which provides functionality similar to *note memoryview(): 17f.  It
creates an editable view of the data without making a copy.  The
buffer's random access and support for slice notation are well-suited to
in-place editing:

     >>> REC_LEN, LOC_START, LOC_LEN = 34, 7, 11

     >>> def change_location(buffer, record_number, location):
     ...     start = record_number * REC_LEN + LOC_START
     ...     buffer[start: start+LOC_LEN] = location

     >>> import io

     >>> byte_stream = io.BytesIO(
     ...     b'G3805  storeroom  Main chassis    '
     ...     b'X7899  shipping   Reserve cog     '
     ...     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'
     ... )
     >>> buffer = byte_stream.getbuffer()
     >>> change_location(buffer, 1, b'warehouse  ')
     >>> change_location(buffer, 0, b'showroom   ')
     >>> print(byte_stream.getvalue())
     b'G3805  showroom   Main chassis    '
     b'X7899  warehouse  Reserve cog     '
     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'

（由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-5506(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5506


File: python.info,  Node: reprlib,  Next: logging<8>,  Prev: io<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.11 reprlib
.................

When writing a *note __repr__(): 416. method for a custom container, it
is easy to forget to handle the case where a member refers back to the
container itself.  Python's builtin objects such as *note list: 40a. and
*note set: 3cc. handle self-reference by displaying "..."  in the
recursive part of the representation string.

To help write such *note __repr__(): 416. methods, the *note reprlib:
b6. module has a new decorator, *note recursive_repr(): 1084, for
detecting recursive calls to ‘__repr__()’ and substituting a placeholder
string instead:

     >>> class MyList(list):
     ...     @recursive_repr()
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
     ...
     >>> m = MyList('abc')
     >>> m.append(m)
     >>> m.append('x')
     >>> print(m)
     <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

（由 Raymond Hettinger 在 bpo-9826(1) 和 bpo-9840(2) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9826

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9840


File: python.info,  Node: logging<8>,  Next: csv<4>,  Prev: reprlib,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.12 logging
.................

In addition to dictionary-based configuration described above, the *note
logging: 82. package has many other improvements.

The logging documentation has been augmented by a *note basic tutorial:
1086, an *note advanced tutorial: 1087, and a *note cookbook: 1088. of
logging recipes.  These documents are the fastest way to learn about
logging.

The *note logging.basicConfig(): 846. set-up function gained a 'style'
argument to support three different types of string formatting.  It
defaults to "%" for traditional %-formatting, can be set to "{" for the
new *note str.format(): 41b. style, or can be set to "$" for the
shell-style formatting provided by *note string.Template: 484.  The
following three configurations are equivalent:

     >>> from logging import basicConfig
     >>> basicConfig(style='%', format="%(name)s -> %(levelname)s: %(message)s")
     >>> basicConfig(style='{', format="{name} -> {levelname} {message}")
     >>> basicConfig(style='$', format="$name -> $levelname: $message")

If no configuration is set-up before a logging event occurs, there is
now a default configuration using a *note StreamHandler: 1089. directed
to *note sys.stderr: 778. for events of ‘WARNING’ level or higher.
Formerly, an event occurring before a configuration was set-up would
either raise an exception or silently drop the event depending on the
value of *note logging.raiseExceptions: 108a.  The new default handler
is stored in *note logging.lastResort: 108b.

The use of filters has been simplified.  Instead of creating a *note
Filter: 108c. object, the predicate can be any Python callable that
returns ‘True’ or ‘False’.

There were a number of other improvements that add flexibility and
simplify configuration.  See the module documentation for a full listing
of changes in Python 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: csv<4>,  Next: contextlib<8>,  Prev: logging<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.13 csv
.............

The *note csv: 27. module now supports a new dialect, *note
unix_dialect: 108e, which applies quoting for all fields and a
traditional Unix style with ‘'\n'’ as the line terminator.  The
registered dialect name is ‘unix’.

The *note csv.DictWriter: 108f. has a new method, *note writeheader():
1090. for writing-out an initial row to document the field names:

     >>> import csv, sys
     >>> w = csv.DictWriter(sys.stdout, ['name', 'dept'], dialect='unix')
     >>> w.writeheader()
     "name","dept"
     >>> w.writerows([
     ...     {'name': 'tom', 'dept': 'accounting'},
     ...     {'name': 'susan', 'dept': 'Salesl'}])
     "tom","accounting"
     "susan","sales"

(New dialect suggested by Jay Talbot in bpo-5975(1), and the new method
suggested by Ed Abraham in bpo-1537721(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5975

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537721


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<8>,  Next: decimal and fractions,  Prev: csv<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.14 contextlib
....................

There is a new and slightly mind-blowing tool *note ContextDecorator:
1092. that is helpful for creating a *note context manager: 3c4. that
does double duty as a function decorator.

As a convenience, this new functionality is used by *note
contextmanager(): 1093. so that no extra effort is needed to support
both roles.

The basic idea is that both context managers and function decorators can
be used for pre-action and post-action wrappers.  Context managers wrap
a group of statements using a *note with: 3c5. statement, and function
decorators wrap a group of statements enclosed in a function.  So,
occasionally there is a need to write a pre-action or post-action
wrapper that can be used in either role.

For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of
statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of
exit.  Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context
manager for the task, the *note contextmanager(): 1093. provides both
capabilities in a single definition:

     from contextlib import contextmanager
     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     @contextmanager
     def track_entry_and_exit(name):
         logging.info('Entering: %s', name)
         yield
         logging.info('Exiting: %s', name)

Formerly, this would have only been usable as a context manager:

     with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Now, it can be used as a decorator as well:

     @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
     def activity():
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Trying to fulfill two roles at once places some limitations on the
technique.  Context managers normally have the flexibility to return an
argument usable by a *note with: 3c5. statement, but there is no
parallel for function decorators.

In the above example, there is not a clean way for the
'track_entry_and_exit' context manager to return a logging instance for
use in the body of enclosed statements.

（由 Michael Foord 在 bpo-9110(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9110


File: python.info,  Node: decimal and fractions,  Next: ftp,  Prev: contextlib<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.15 decimal and fractions
...............................

Mark Dickinson crafted an elegant and efficient scheme for assuring that
different numeric datatypes will have the same hash value whenever their
actual values are equal (bpo-8188(1)):

     assert hash(Fraction(3, 2)) == hash(1.5) == \
            hash(Decimal("1.5")) == hash(complex(1.5, 0))

Some of the hashing details are exposed through a new attribute, *note
sys.hash_info: e91, which describes the bit width of the hash value, the
prime modulus, the hash values for 'infinity' and 'nan', and the
multiplier used for the imaginary part of a number:

     >>> sys.hash_info
     sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693951, inf=314159, nan=0, imag=1000003)

An early decision to limit the interoperability of various numeric types
has been relaxed.  It is still unsupported (and ill-advised) to have
implicit mixing in arithmetic expressions such as ‘Decimal('1.1') +
float('1.1')’ because the latter loses information in the process of
constructing the binary float.  However, since existing floating-point
value can be converted losslessly to either a decimal or rational
representation, it makes sense to add them to the constructor and to
support mixed-type comparisons.

   * The *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0. constructor now accepts *note
     float: 26a. objects directly so there in no longer a need to use
     the *note from_float(): 1095. method (bpo-8257(2)).

   * Mixed type comparisons are now fully supported so that *note
     Decimal: 5f0. objects can be directly compared with *note float:
     26a. and *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. (bpo-2531(3) and
     bpo-8188(4)).

Similar changes were made to *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. so that the
*note from_float(): 1096. and *note from_decimal(): 1097. methods are no
longer needed (bpo-8294(5)):

     >>> from decimal import Decimal
     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> Decimal(1.1)
     Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')
     >>> Fraction(1.1)
     Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)

Another useful change for the *note decimal: 33. module is that the
‘Context.clamp’ attribute is now public.  This is useful in creating
contexts that correspond to the decimal interchange formats specified in
IEEE 754 (see bpo-8540(6)).

（由 Mark Dickinson 和 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540


File: python.info,  Node: ftp,  Next: popen,  Prev: decimal and fractions,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.16 ftp
.............

The *note ftplib.FTP: 735. class now supports the context management
protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error: eeb. exceptions
and to close the FTP connection when done:

     >>> from ftplib import FTP
     >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
             ftp.login()
             ftp.dir()

     '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
     dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
     dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
     dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
     dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora

Other file-like objects such as *note mmap.mmap: 84e. and *note
fileinput.input(): 620. also grew auto-closing context managers:

     with fileinput.input(files=('log1.txt', 'log2.txt')) as f:
         for line in f:
             process(line)

（由 Tarek Ziadé 和 Giampaolo Rodolà 在 bpo-4972(1) 中貢獻，由 Georg
Brandl 在 bpo-8046(2) 和 bpo-1286(3) 中貢獻。）

The *note FTP_TLS: 736. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which
is a *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. object allowing bundling SSL
configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single
(potentially long-lived) structure.

（由 Giampaolo Rodolà 貢獻；bpo-8806(4)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8046

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1286

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8806


File: python.info,  Node: popen,  Next: select<3>,  Prev: ftp,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.17 popen
...............

The *note os.popen(): 8d3. and *note subprocess.Popen(): 8e1. functions
now support *note with: 3c5. statements for auto-closing of the file
descriptors.

（由 Antoine Pitrou 和 Brian Curtin 在 bpo-7461(1) 和 bpo-10554(2) 中貢
獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7461

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10554


File: python.info,  Node: select<3>,  Next: gzip 和 zipfile,  Prev: popen,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.18 select
................

The *note select: bc. module now exposes a new, constant attribute,
*note PIPE_BUF: 109b, which gives the minimum number of bytes which are
guaranteed not to block when *note select.select(): c17. says a pipe is
ready for writing.

     >>> import select
     >>> select.PIPE_BUF
     512

(Available on Unix systems.  Patch by Sébastien Sablé in bpo-9862(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9862


File: python.info,  Node: gzip 和 zipfile,  Next: tarfile<9>,  Prev: select<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.19 gzip 和 zipfile
.........................

*note gzip.GzipFile: 28d. now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase:
491. *note abstract base class: 1047. (except for ‘truncate()’).  It
also has a *note peek(): 109d. method and supports unseekable as well as
zero-padded file objects.

The *note gzip: 62. module also gains the *note compress(): 439. and
*note decompress(): 109e. functions for easier in-memory compression and
decompression.  Keep in mind that text needs to be encoded as *note
bytes: 2c1. before compressing and decompressing:

     >>> import gzip
     >>> s = 'Three shall be the number thou shalt count, '
     >>> s += 'and the number of the counting shall be three'
     >>> b = s.encode()                        # convert to utf-8
     >>> len(b)
     89
     >>> c = gzip.compress(b)
     >>> len(c)
     77
     >>> gzip.decompress(c).decode()[:42]      # decompress and convert to text
     'Three shall be the number thou shalt count'

（由 Anand B. Pillai 在 bpo-3488(1) 中貢獻；由 Antoine Pitrou、Nir Aides
和 Brian Curtin 在 bpo-9962(2)、bpo-1675951(3)、bpo-7471(4) 和
bpo-2846(5) 中貢獻。）

Also, the *note zipfile.ZipExtFile: b7a. class was reworked internally
to represent files stored inside an archive.  The new implementation is
significantly faster and can be wrapped in an *note io.BufferedReader:
109f. object for more speedups.  It also solves an issue where
interleaved calls to 'read' and 'readline' gave the wrong results.

(Patch submitted by Nir Aides in bpo-7610(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3488

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9962

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7610


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<9>,  Next: hashlib<7>,  Prev: gzip 和 zipfile,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.20 tarfile
.................

The *note TarFile: 10a1. class can now be used as a context manager.  In
addition, its *note add(): a56. method has a new option, 'filter', that
controls which files are added to the archive and allows the file
metadata to be edited.

The new 'filter' option replaces the older, less flexible 'exclude'
parameter which is now deprecated.  If specified, the optional 'filter'
parameter needs to be a *note keyword argument: b81.  The user-supplied
filter function accepts a *note TarInfo: 10a2. object and returns an
updated *note TarInfo: 10a2. object, or if it wants the file to be
excluded, the function can return ‘None’:

     >>> import tarfile, glob

     >>> def myfilter(tarinfo):
     ...     if tarinfo.isfile():             # only save real files
     ...         tarinfo.uname = 'monty'      # redact the user name
     ...         return tarinfo

     >>> with tarfile.open(name='myarchive.tar.gz', mode='w:gz') as tf:
     ...     for filename in glob.glob('*.txt'):
     ...         tf.add(filename, filter=myfilter)
     ...     tf.list()
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        902 2011-01-26 17:59:11 annotations.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        123 2011-01-26 17:59:11 general_questions.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501       3514 2011-01-26 17:59:11 prion.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        124 2011-01-26 17:59:11 py_todo.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501       1399 2011-01-26 17:59:11 semaphore_notes.txt

（由 Tarek Ziadé 提議並由 Lars Gustäbel 實作於 bpo-6856(1)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6856


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<7>,  Next: ast<4>,  Prev: tarfile<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.21 hashlib
.................

The *note hashlib: 63. module has two new constant attributes listing
the hashing algorithms guaranteed to be present in all implementations
and those available on the current implementation:

     >>> import hashlib

     >>> hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed
     {'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha384', 'sha256', 'sha512', 'md5'}

     >>> hashlib.algorithms_available
     {'md2', 'SHA256', 'SHA512', 'dsaWithSHA', 'mdc2', 'SHA224', 'MD4', 'sha256',
     'sha512', 'ripemd160', 'SHA1', 'MDC2', 'SHA', 'SHA384', 'MD2',
     'ecdsa-with-SHA1','md4', 'md5', 'sha1', 'DSA-SHA', 'sha224',
     'dsaEncryption', 'DSA', 'RIPEMD160', 'sha', 'MD5', 'sha384'}

（由 Carl Chenet 在 bpo-7418(1) 中提議。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418


File: python.info,  Node: ast<4>,  Next: os<12>,  Prev: hashlib<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.22 ast
.............

The *note ast: 8. module has a wonderful a general-purpose tool for
safely evaluating expression strings using the Python literal syntax.
The *note ast.literal_eval(): a7b. function serves as a secure
alternative to the builtin *note eval(): 6b0. function which is easily
abused.  Python 3.2 adds *note bytes: 2c1. and *note set: 3cc. literals
to the list of supported types: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists,
dicts, sets, booleans, and ‘None’.

     >>> from ast import literal_eval

     >>> request = "{'req': 3, 'func': 'pow', 'args': (2, 0.5)}"
     >>> literal_eval(request)
     {'args': (2, 0.5), 'req': 3, 'func': 'pow'}

     >>> request = "os.system('do something harmful')"
     >>> literal_eval(request)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: malformed node or string: <_ast.Call object at 0x101739a10>

（由 Benjamin Peterson 和 Georg Brandl 實作。）


File: python.info,  Node: os<12>,  Next: shutil<7>,  Prev: ast<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.23 os
............

Different operating systems use various encodings for filenames and
environment variables.  The *note os: 9c. module provides two new
functions, *note fsencode(): abb. and *note fsdecode(): aba, for
encoding and decoding filenames:

     >>> import os
     >>> filename = 'Sehenswürdigkeiten'
     >>> os.fsencode(filename)
     b'Sehensw\xc3\xbcrdigkeiten'

Some operating systems allow direct access to encoded bytes in the
environment.  If so, the *note os.supports_bytes_environ: 10a6. constant
will be true.

For direct access to encoded environment variables (if available), use
the new *note os.getenvb(): 10a7. function or use *note os.environb:
10a8. which is a bytes version of *note os.environ: 104b.

（由 Victor Stinner 貢獻。）


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<7>,  Next: sqlite3<10>,  Prev: os<12>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.24 shutil
................

The *note shutil.copytree(): 872. function has two new options:

   * 'ignore_dangling_symlinks': when ‘symlinks=False’ so that the
     function copies a file pointed to by a symlink, not the symlink
     itself.  This option will silence the error raised if the file
     doesn't exist.

   * 'copy_function': is a callable that will be used to copy files.
     *note shutil.copy2(): 8a6. is used by default.

（由 Tarek Ziadé 貢獻。）

In addition, the *note shutil: c0. module now supports *note archiving
operations: 10aa. for zipfiles, uncompressed tarfiles, gzipped tarfiles,
and bzipped tarfiles.  And there are functions for registering
additional archiving file formats (such as xz compressed tarfiles or
custom formats).

The principal functions are *note make_archive(): 1d7. and *note
unpack_archive(): 184.  By default, both operate on the current
directory (which can be set by *note os.chdir(): 406.) and on any
sub-directories.  The archive filename needs to be specified with a full
pathname.  The archiving step is non-destructive (the original files are
left unchanged).

     >>> import shutil, pprint

     >>> os.chdir('mydata')  # change to the source directory
     >>> f = shutil.make_archive('/var/backup/mydata',
     ...                         'zip')      # archive the current directory
     >>> f                                   # show the name of archive
     '/var/backup/mydata.zip'
     >>> os.chdir('tmp')                     # change to an unpacking
     >>> shutil.unpack_archive('/var/backup/mydata.zip')  # recover the data

     >>> pprint.pprint(shutil.get_archive_formats())  # display known formats
     [('bztar', "bzip2'ed tar-file"),
      ('gztar', "gzip'ed tar-file"),
      ('tar', 'uncompressed tar file'),
      ('zip', 'ZIP file')]

     >>> shutil.register_archive_format(     # register a new archive format
     ...     name='xz',
     ...     function=xz.compress,           # callable archiving function
     ...     extra_args=[('level', 8)],      # arguments to the function
     ...     description='xz compression'
     ... )

（由 Tarek Ziadé 貢獻。）


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<10>,  Next: html<3>,  Prev: shutil<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.25 sqlite3
.................

The *note sqlite3: c9. module was updated to pysqlite version 2.6.0.  It
has two new capabilities.

   * The ‘sqlite3.Connection.in_transit’ attribute is true if there is
     an active transaction for uncommitted changes.

   * The *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 665. and
     *note sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 1df. methods allows you
     to load SQLite extensions from ".so" files.  One well-known
     extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

（由 R. David Murray 和 Shashwat Anand 貢獻；bpo-8845(1)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8845


File: python.info,  Node: html<3>,  Next: socket<11>,  Prev: sqlite3<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.26 html
..............

A new *note html: 66. module was introduced with only a single function,
*note escape(): ea1, which is used for escaping reserved characters from
HTML markup:

     >>> import html
     >>> html.escape('x > 2 && x < 7')
     'x &gt; 2 &amp;&amp; x &lt; 7'


File: python.info,  Node: socket<11>,  Next: ssl<11>,  Prev: html<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.27 socket
................

The *note socket: c6. module has two new improvements.

   * Socket objects now have a *note detach(): 10ae. method which puts
     the socket into closed state without actually closing the
     underlying file descriptor.  The latter can then be reused for
     other purposes.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8524(1).)

   * *note socket.create_connection(): 46d. now supports the context
     management protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error:
     eeb. exceptions and to close the socket when done.  (Contributed by
     Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-9794(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8524

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9794


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<11>,  Next: nntp,  Prev: socket<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.28 ssl
.............

The *note ssl: ca. module added a number of features to satisfy common
requirements for secure (encrypted, authenticated) internet connections:

   * A new class, *note SSLContext: 26f, serves as a container for
     persistent SSL data, such as protocol settings, certificates,
     private keys, and various other options.  It includes a *note
     wrap_socket(): 2a5. for creating an SSL socket from an SSL context.

   * A new function, ‘ssl.match_hostname()’, supports server identity
     verification for higher-level protocols by implementing the rules
     of HTTPS (from RFC 2818(1)) which are also suitable for other
     protocols.

   * The *note ssl.wrap_socket(): 2a5. constructor function now takes a
     'ciphers' argument.  The 'ciphers' string lists the allowed
     encryption algorithms using the format described in the OpenSSL
     documentation(2).

   * When linked against recent versions of OpenSSL, the *note ssl: ca.
     module now supports the Server Name Indication extension to the TLS
     protocol, allowing multiple "virtual hosts" using different
     certificates on a single IP port.  This extension is only supported
     in client mode, and is activated by passing the 'server_hostname'
     argument to *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2a5.

   * Various options have been added to the *note ssl: ca. module, such
     as *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 65f. which disables the insecure and obsolete
     SSLv2 protocol.

   * The extension now loads all the OpenSSL ciphers and digest
     algorithms.  If some SSL certificates cannot be verified, they are
     reported as an "unknown algorithm" error.

   * The version of OpenSSL being used is now accessible using the
     module attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 10b0. (a string),
     *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 10b1. (a 5-tuple), and *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 10b2. (an integer).

（由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-8850(3)、bpo-1589(4)、bpo-8322(5)、
bpo-5639(6)、bpo-4870(7)、bpo-8484(8) 和 bpo-8321(9) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2818.html

   (2) https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8850

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1589

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4870

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321


File: python.info,  Node: nntp,  Next: certificates,  Prev: ssl<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.29 nntp
..............

The *note nntplib: 98. module has a revamped implementation with better
bytes and text semantics as well as more practical APIs.  These
improvements break compatibility with the nntplib version in Python 3.1,
which was partly dysfunctional in itself.

Support for secure connections through both implicit (using *note
nntplib.NNTP_SSL: 754.) and explicit (using *note
nntplib.NNTP.starttls(): 10b4.) TLS has also been added.

（由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-9360(1) 中和 Andrew Vant 在 bpo-1926(2) 中貢
獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9360

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1926


File: python.info,  Node: certificates,  Next: imaplib<4>,  Prev: nntp,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.30 certificates
......................

*note http.client.HTTPSConnection: 999, *note
urllib.request.HTTPSHandler: 10b6. and *note urllib.request.urlopen():
27f. now take optional arguments to allow for server certificate
checking against a set of Certificate Authorities, as recommended in
public uses of HTTPS.

(Added by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-9003(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9003


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<4>,  Next: http client<4>,  Prev: certificates,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.31 imaplib
.................

Support for explicit TLS on standard IMAP4 connections has been added
through the new *note imaplib.IMAP4.starttls: 10b8. method.

（由 Lorenzo M. Catucci 和 Antoine Pitrou 於 bpo-4471(1) 貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4471


File: python.info,  Node: http client<4>,  Next: unittest<10>,  Prev: imaplib<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.32 http.client
.....................

There were a number of small API improvements in the *note http.client:
6a. module.  The old-style HTTP 0.9 simple responses are no longer
supported and the 'strict' parameter is deprecated in all classes.

The *note HTTPConnection: 998. and *note HTTPSConnection: 999. classes
now have a 'source_address' parameter for a (host, port) tuple
indicating where the HTTP connection is made from.

Support for certificate checking and HTTPS virtual hosts were added to
*note HTTPSConnection: 999.

The *note request(): b16. method on connection objects allowed an
optional 'body' argument so that a *note file object: 1054. could be
used to supply the content of the request.  Conveniently, the 'body'
argument now also accepts an *note iterable: 10ba. object so long as it
includes an explicit ‘Content-Length’ header.  This extended interface
is much more flexible than before.

To establish an HTTPS connection through a proxy server, there is a new
*note set_tunnel(): 10bb. method that sets the host and port for HTTP
Connect tunneling.

To match the behavior of *note http.server: 6d, the HTTP client library
now also encodes headers with ISO-8859-1 (Latin-1) encoding.  It was
already doing that for incoming headers, so now the behavior is
consistent for both incoming and outgoing traffic.  (See work by Armin
Ronacher in bpo-10980(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10980


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<10>,  Next: random<4>,  Prev: http client<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.33 unittest
..................

The unittest module has a number of improvements supporting test
discovery for packages, easier experimentation at the interactive
prompt, new testcase methods, improved diagnostic messages for test
failures, and better method names.

   * The command-line call ‘python -m unittest’ can now accept file
     paths instead of module names for running specific tests
     (bpo-10620(1)).  The new test discovery can find tests within
     packages, locating any test importable from the top-level
     directory.  The top-level directory can be specified with the ‘-t’
     option, a pattern for matching files with ‘-p’, and a directory to
     start discovery with ‘-s’:

          $ python -m unittest discover -s my_proj_dir -p _test.py

     （由 Michael Foord 貢獻。）

   * Experimentation at the interactive prompt is now easier because the
     *note unittest.TestCase: 159. class can now be instantiated without
     arguments:

          >>> from unittest import TestCase
          >>> TestCase().assertEqual(pow(2, 3), 8)

     （由 Michael Foord 貢獻。）

   * The *note unittest: 101. module has two new methods, *note
     assertWarns(): ff7. and *note assertWarnsRegex(): ff8. to verify
     that a given warning type is triggered by the code under test:

          with self.assertWarns(DeprecationWarning):
              legacy_function('XYZ')

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 於 bpo-9754(2) 貢獻。）

     Another new method, *note assertCountEqual(): 10bd. is used to
     compare two iterables to determine if their element counts are
     equal (whether the same elements are present with the same number
     of occurrences regardless of order):

          def test_anagram(self):
              self.assertCountEqual('algorithm', 'logarithm')

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻。）

   * A principal feature of the unittest module is an effort to produce
     meaningful diagnostics when a test fails.  When possible, the
     failure is recorded along with a diff of the output.  This is
     especially helpful for analyzing log files of failed test runs.
     However, since diffs can sometime be voluminous, there is a new
     *note maxDiff: 10be. attribute that sets maximum length of diffs
     displayed.

   * In addition, the method names in the module have undergone a number
     of clean-ups.

     For example, *note assertRegex(): 2ae. is the new name for
     ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ which was misnamed because the test uses
     *note re.search(): 10bf, not *note re.match(): 10c0.  Other methods
     using regular expressions are now named using short form "Regex" in
     preference to "Regexp" - this matches the names used in other
     unittest implementations, matches Python's old name for the *note
     re: b4. module, and it has unambiguous camel-casing.

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻，由 Ezio Melotti 實作。）

   * To improve consistency, some long-standing method aliases are being
     deprecated in favor of the preferred names:

          舊名稱                              Preferred Name
                                              
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              
          ‘assert_()’                         *note assertTrue(): 2a7.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertEquals()’                    *note assertEqual(): 2a9.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertNotEquals()’                 *note assertNotEqual(): 2aa.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertAlmostEquals()’              *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2ab.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals()’           *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2ac.
                                              

     Likewise, the ‘TestCase.fail*’ methods deprecated in Python 3.1 are
     expected to be removed in Python 3.3.

     （由 Ezio Melotti 貢獻；bpo-9424(3)。）

   * The ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ method was deprecated because it
     was misimplemented with the arguments in the wrong order.  This
     created hard-to-debug optical illusions where tests like
     ‘TestCase().assertDictContainsSubset({'a':1, 'b':2}, {'a':1})’
     would fail.

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10620

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9754

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9424


File: python.info,  Node: random<4>,  Next: poplib<4>,  Prev: unittest<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.34 random
................

The integer methods in the *note random: b3. module now do a better job
of producing uniform distributions.  Previously, they computed
selections with ‘int(n*random())’ which had a slight bias whenever 'n'
was not a power of two.  Now, multiple selections are made from a range
up to the next power of two and a selection is kept only when it falls
within the range ‘0 <= x < n’.  The functions and methods affected are
*note randrange(): 697, *note randint(): 10c2, *note choice(): 10c3,
*note shuffle(): 55a. and *note sample(): 559.

（由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻；bpo-9025(1)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9025


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<4>,  Next: asyncore<2>,  Prev: random<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.35 poplib
................

*note POP3_SSL: 763. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which is a
*note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. object allowing bundling SSL configuration
options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially
long-lived) structure.

（由 Giampaolo Rodolà 貢獻；bpo-8807(1)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8807


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore<2>,  Next: tempfile<4>,  Prev: poplib<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.36 asyncore
..................

‘asyncore.dispatcher’ now provides a ‘handle_accepted()’ method
returning a ‘(sock, addr)’ pair which is called when a connection has
actually been established with a new remote endpoint.  This is supposed
to be used as a replacement for old ‘handle_accept()’ and avoids the
user to call ‘accept()’ directly.

（由 Giampaolo Rodolà 貢獻；bpo-6706(1)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<4>,  Next: inspect<10>,  Prev: asyncore<2>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.37 tempfile
..................

The *note tempfile: da. module has a new context manager, *note
TemporaryDirectory: 10c7. which provides easy deterministic cleanup of
temporary directories:

     with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
         print('created temporary dir:', tmpdirname)

（由 Neil Schedulenauer 和 Nick Coghlan 貢獻；bpo-5178(1)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5178


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<10>,  Next: pydoc<6>,  Prev: tempfile<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.38 inspect
.................

   * The *note inspect: 78. module has a new function *note
     getgeneratorstate(): 10c9. to easily identify the current state of
     a generator-iterator:

          >>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate
          >>> def gen():
          ...     yield 'demo'
          ...
          >>> g = gen()
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_CREATED'
          >>> next(g)
          'demo'
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_SUSPENDED'
          >>> next(g, None)
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_CLOSED'

     （由 Rodolfo Eckhardt 和 Nick Coghlan 於 bpo-10220(1) 貢獻。）

   * To support lookups without the possibility of activating a dynamic
     attribute, the *note inspect: 78. module has a new function, *note
     getattr_static(): 1b2.  Unlike *note hasattr(): 1f9, this is a true
     read-only search, guaranteed not to change state while it is
     searching:

          >>> class A:
          ...     @property
          ...     def f(self):
          ...         print('Running')
          ...         return 10
          ...
          >>> a = A()
          >>> getattr(a, 'f')
          Running
          10
          >>> inspect.getattr_static(a, 'f')
          <property object at 0x1022bd788>

     （由 Michael Foord 貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10220


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<6>,  Next: dis<4>,  Prev: inspect<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.39 pydoc
...............

The *note pydoc: b0. module now provides a much-improved web server
interface, as well as a new command-line option ‘-b’ to automatically
open a browser window to display that server:

     $ pydoc3.2 -b

（由 Ron Adam 貢獻；bpo-2001(1)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2001


File: python.info,  Node: dis<4>,  Next: dbm<6>,  Prev: pydoc<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.40 dis
.............

The *note dis: 35. module gained two new functions for inspecting code,
*note code_info(): 10cc. and *note show_code(): db6.  Both provide
detailed code object information for the supplied function, method,
source code string or code object.  The former returns a string and the
latter prints it:

     >>> import dis, random
     >>> dis.show_code(random.choice)
     Name:              choice
     Filename:          /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/random.py
     Argument count:    2
     Kw-only arguments: 0
     Number of locals:  3
     Stack size:        11
     Flags:             OPTIMIZED, NEWLOCALS, NOFREE
     Constants:
        0: 'Choose a random element from a non-empty sequence.'
        1: 'Cannot choose from an empty sequence'
     Names:
        0: _randbelow
        1: len
        2: ValueError
        3: IndexError
     Variable names:
        0: self
        1: seq
        2: i

In addition, the *note dis(): 98c. function now accepts string arguments
so that the common idiom ‘dis(compile(s, '', 'eval'))’ can be shortened
to ‘dis(s)’:

     >>> dis('3*x+1 if x%2==1 else x//2')
       1           0 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                   3 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
                   6 BINARY_MODULO
                   7 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
                  10 COMPARE_OP               2 (==)
                  13 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE       28
                  16 LOAD_CONST               2 (3)
                  19 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                  22 BINARY_MULTIPLY
                  23 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
                  26 BINARY_ADD
                  27 RETURN_VALUE
             >>   28 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                  31 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
                  34 BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE
                  35 RETURN_VALUE

Taken together, these improvements make it easier to explore how CPython
is implemented and to see for yourself what the language syntax does
under-the-hood.

（由 Nick Coghlan 在 bpo-9147(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9147


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<6>,  Next: ctypes<2>,  Prev: dis<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.41 dbm
.............

All database modules now support the ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods.

（由 Ray Allen 在 bpo-9523(1) 中建議。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9523


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes<2>,  Next: site<3>,  Prev: dbm<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.42 ctypes
................

A new type, *note ctypes.c_ssize_t: 10cf. represents the C ‘ssize_t’
datatype.


File: python.info,  Node: site<3>,  Next: sysconfig<3>,  Prev: ctypes<2>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.43 site
..............

The *note site: c2. module has three new functions useful for reporting
on the details of a given Python installation.

   * *note getsitepackages(): 10d1. lists all global site-packages
     directories.

   * *note getuserbase(): 10d2. reports on the user's base directory
     where data can be stored.

   * *note getusersitepackages(): 10d3. reveals the user-specific
     site-packages directory path.

     >>> import site
     >>> site.getsitepackages()
     ['/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/site-packages',
      '/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/site-python',
      '/Library/Python/3.2/site-packages']
     >>> site.getuserbase()
     '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2'
     >>> site.getusersitepackages()
     '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2/lib/python/site-packages'

Conveniently, some of site's functionality is accessible directly from
the command-line:

     $ python -m site --user-base
     /Users/raymondhettinger/.local
     $ python -m site --user-site
     /Users/raymondhettinger/.local/lib/python3.2/site-packages

（由 Tarek Ziadé 在 bpo-6693(1) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6693


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<3>,  Next: pdb<7>,  Prev: site<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.44 sysconfig
...................

The new *note sysconfig: d5. module makes it straightforward to discover
installation paths and configuration variables that vary across
platforms and installations.

The module offers access simple access functions for platform and
version information:

   * *note get_platform(): 10d5. returning values like 'linux-i586' or
     'macosx-10.6-ppc'.

   * *note get_python_version(): 10d6. returns a Python version string
     such as "3.2".

It also provides access to the paths and variables corresponding to one
of seven named schemes used by ‘distutils’.  Those include
'posix_prefix', 'posix_home', 'posix_user', 'nt', 'nt_user', 'os2',
'os2_home':

   * *note get_paths(): 10d7. makes a dictionary containing installation
     paths for the current installation scheme.

   * *note get_config_vars(): ec0. returns a dictionary of platform
     specific variables.

There is also a convenient command-line interface:

     C:\Python32>python -m sysconfig
     Platform: "win32"
     Python version: "3.2"
     Current installation scheme: "nt"

     Paths:
             data = "C:\Python32"
             include = "C:\Python32\Include"
             platinclude = "C:\Python32\Include"
             platlib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
             platstdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             purelib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
             scripts = "C:\Python32\Scripts"
             stdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"

     Variables:
             BINDIR = "C:\Python32"
             BINLIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             EXE = ".exe"
             INCLUDEPY = "C:\Python32\Include"
             LIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             SO = ".pyd"
             VERSION = "32"
             abiflags = ""
             base = "C:\Python32"
             exec_prefix = "C:\Python32"
             platbase = "C:\Python32"
             prefix = "C:\Python32"
             projectbase = "C:\Python32"
             py_version = "3.2"
             py_version_nodot = "32"
             py_version_short = "3.2"
             srcdir = "C:\Python32"
             userbase = "C:\Documents and Settings\Raymond\Application Data\Python"

(Moved out of Distutils by Tarek Ziadé.)


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<7>,  Next: configparser<3>,  Prev: sysconfig<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.45 pdb
.............

The *note pdb: a0. debugger module gained a number of usability
improvements:

   * ‘pdb.py’ now has a ‘-c’ option that executes commands as given in a
     ‘.pdbrc’ script file.

   * A ‘.pdbrc’ script file can contain ‘continue’ and ‘next’ commands
     that continue debugging.

   * 現在 *note Pdb: 760. 類別建構函式接受 'nosigint' 引數。

   * New commands: ‘l(list)’, ‘ll(long list)’ and ‘source’ for listing
     source code.

   * New commands: ‘display’ and ‘undisplay’ for showing or hiding the
     value of an expression if it has changed.

   * New command: ‘interact’ for starting an interactive interpreter
     containing the global and local names found in the current scope.

   * Breakpoints can be cleared by breakpoint number.

（由 Georg Brandl、Antonio Cuni 和 Ilya Sandler 貢獻。）


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<3>,  Next: urllib parse<6>,  Prev: pdb<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.46 configparser
......................

The *note configparser: 20. module was modified to improve usability and
predictability of the default parser and its supported INI syntax.  The
old ‘ConfigParser’ class was removed in favor of ‘SafeConfigParser’
which has in turn been renamed to *note ConfigParser: 286.  Support for
inline comments is now turned off by default and section or option
duplicates are not allowed in a single configuration source.

Config parsers gained a new API based on the mapping protocol:

     >>> parser = ConfigParser()
     >>> parser.read_string("""
     ... [DEFAULT]
     ... location = upper left
     ... visible = yes
     ... editable = no
     ... color = blue
     ...
     ... [main]
     ... title = Main Menu
     ... color = green
     ...
     ... [options]
     ... title = Options
     ... """)
     >>> parser['main']['color']
     'green'
     >>> parser['main']['editable']
     'no'
     >>> section = parser['options']
     >>> section['title']
     'Options'
     >>> section['title'] = 'Options (editable: %(editable)s)'
     >>> section['title']
     'Options (editable: no)'

The new API is implemented on top of the classical API, so custom parser
subclasses should be able to use it without modifications.

The INI file structure accepted by config parsers can now be customized.
Users can specify alternative option/value delimiters and comment
prefixes, change the name of the 'DEFAULT' section or switch the
interpolation syntax.

There is support for pluggable interpolation including an additional
interpolation handler *note ExtendedInterpolation: 526.:

     >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
     >>> parser.read_dict({'buildout': {'directory': '/home/ambv/zope9'},
     ...                   'custom': {'prefix': '/usr/local'}})
     >>> parser.read_string("""
     ... [buildout]
     ... parts =
     ...   zope9
     ...   instance
     ... find-links =
     ...   ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist
     ...
     ... [zope9]
     ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9install
     ... location = /opt/zope
     ...
     ... [instance]
     ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9instance
     ... zope9-location = ${zope9:location}
     ... zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf
     ... """)
     >>> parser['buildout']['find-links']
     '\n/home/ambv/zope9/downloads/dist'
     >>> parser['instance']['zope-conf']
     '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
     >>> instance = parser['instance']
     >>> instance['zope-conf']
     '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
     >>> instance['zope9-location']
     '/opt/zope'

A number of smaller features were also introduced, like support for
specifying encoding in read operations, specifying fallback values for
get-functions, or reading directly from dictionaries and strings.

(All changes contributed by Łukasz Langa.)


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<6>,  Next: mailbox,  Prev: configparser<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.47 urllib.parse
......................

A number of usability improvements were made for the *note urllib.parse:
105. module.

The *note urlparse(): 27c. function now supports IPv6(1) addresses as
described in RFC 2732(2):

     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/')
     ParseResult(scheme='http',
                 netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]',
                 path='/foo/',
                 params='',
                 query='',
                 fragment='')

The *note urldefrag(): 10db. function now returns a *note named tuple:
449.:

     >>> r = urllib.parse.urldefrag('http://python.org/about/#target')
     >>> r
     DefragResult(url='http://python.org/about/', fragment='target')
     >>> r[0]
     'http://python.org/about/'
     >>> r.fragment
     'target'

And, the *note urlencode(): d15. function is now much more flexible,
accepting either a string or bytes type for the 'query' argument.  If it
is a string, then the 'safe', 'encoding', and 'error' parameters are
sent to *note quote_plus(): 10dc. for encoding:

     >>> urllib.parse.urlencode([
     ...      ('type', 'telenovela'),
     ...      ('name', '¿Dónde Está Elisa?')],
     ...      encoding='latin-1')
     'type=telenovela&name=%BFD%F3nde+Est%E1+Elisa%3F'

As detailed in *note Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes: 10dd, all the *note
urllib.parse: 105. functions now accept ASCII-encoded byte strings as
input, so long as they are not mixed with regular strings.  If
ASCII-encoded byte strings are given as parameters, the return types
will also be an ASCII-encoded byte strings:

     >>> urllib.parse.urlparse(b'http://www.python.org:80/about/')
     ParseResultBytes(scheme=b'http', netloc=b'www.python.org:80',
                      path=b'/about/', params=b'', query=b'', fragment=b'')

(Work by Nick Coghlan, Dan Mahn, and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-2987(3),
bpo-5468(4), and bpo-9873(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5468

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9873


File: python.info,  Node: mailbox,  Next: turtledemo,  Prev: urllib parse<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.48 mailbox
.................

Thanks to a concerted effort by R. David Murray, the *note mailbox: 86.
module has been fixed for Python 3.2.  The challenge was that mailbox
had been originally designed with a text interface, but email messages
are best represented with *note bytes: 2c1. because various parts of a
message may have different encodings.

The solution harnessed the *note email: 37. package's binary support for
parsing arbitrary email messages.  In addition, the solution required a
number of API changes.

As expected, the *note add(): 10df. method for *note mailbox.Mailbox:
10e0. objects now accepts binary input.

*note StringIO: db1. and text file input are deprecated.  Also, string
input will fail early if non-ASCII characters are used.  Previously it
would fail when the email was processed in a later step.

There is also support for binary output.  The *note get_file(): 10e1.
method now returns a file in the binary mode (where it used to
incorrectly set the file to text-mode).  There is also a new *note
get_bytes(): 10e2. method that returns a *note bytes: 2c1.
representation of a message corresponding to a given 'key'.

It is still possible to get non-binary output using the old API's *note
get_string(): 10e3. method, but that approach is not very useful.
Instead, it is best to extract messages from a *note Message: 10e4.
object or to load them from binary input.

(Contributed by R. David Murray, with efforts from Steffen Daode
Nurpmeso and an initial patch by Victor Stinner in bpo-9124(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9124


File: python.info,  Node: turtledemo,  Prev: mailbox,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.49 turtledemo
....................

The demonstration code for the *note turtle: fc. module was moved from
the 'Demo' directory to main library.  It includes over a dozen sample
scripts with lively displays.  Being on *note sys.path: 35e, it can now
be run directly from the command-line:

     $ python -m turtledemo

(Moved from the Demo directory by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-10199(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10199


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-threading,  Next: 最佳化<10>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.10 Multi-threading
-----------------------

   * The mechanism for serializing execution of concurrently running
     Python threads (generally known as the *note GIL: 6df. or Global
     Interpreter Lock) has been rewritten.  Among the objectives were
     more predictable switching intervals and reduced overhead due to
     lock contention and the number of ensuing system calls.  The notion
     of a "check interval" to allow thread switches has been abandoned
     and replaced by an absolute duration expressed in seconds.  This
     parameter is tunable through *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 78b.
     It currently defaults to 5 milliseconds.

     Additional details about the implementation can be read from a
     python-dev mailing-list message(1) (however, "priority requests" as
     exposed in this message have not been kept for inclusion).

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 貢獻。）

   * Regular and recursive locks now accept an optional 'timeout'
     argument to their *note acquire(): 495. method.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7316(2).)

   * Similarly, *note threading.Semaphore.acquire(): 10e7. also gained a
     'timeout' argument.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff;
     bpo-850728(3).)

   * Regular and recursive lock acquisitions can now be interrupted by
     signals on platforms using Pthreads.  This means that Python
     programs that deadlock while acquiring locks can be successfully
     killed by repeatedly sending SIGINT to the process (by pressing
     ‘Ctrl+C’ in most shells).  (Contributed by Reid Kleckner;
     bpo-8844(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2009-October/093321.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7316

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=850728

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8844


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<10>,  Next: Unicode,  Prev: Multi-threading,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.11 最佳化
--------------

A number of small performance enhancements have been added:

   * Python's peephole optimizer now recognizes patterns such ‘x in {1,
     2, 3}’ as being a test for membership in a set of constants.  The
     optimizer recasts the *note set: 3cc. as a *note frozenset: 3cd.
     and stores the pre-built constant.

     Now that the speed penalty is gone, it is practical to start
     writing membership tests using set-notation.  This style is both
     semantically clear and operationally fast:

          extension = name.rpartition('.')[2]
          if extension in {'xml', 'html', 'xhtml', 'css'}:
              handle(name)

     (Patch and additional tests contributed by Dave Malcolm;
     bpo-6690(1)).

   * Serializing and unserializing data using the *note pickle: a1.
     module is now several times faster.

     （由 Alexandre Vassalotti、Antoine Pitrou 和 Unladen Swallow 團隊在
     bpo-9410(2) 和 bpo-3873(3) 中貢獻。）

   * The Timsort algorithm(4) used in *note list.sort(): a30. and *note
     sorted(): a2f. now runs faster and uses less memory when called
     with a *note key function: c7d.  Previously, every element of a
     list was wrapped with a temporary object that remembered the key
     value associated with each element.  Now, two arrays of keys and
     values are sorted in parallel.  This saves the memory consumed by
     the sort wrappers, and it saves time lost to delegating
     comparisons.

     (Patch by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9915(5).)

   * JSON decoding performance is improved and memory consumption is
     reduced whenever the same string is repeated for multiple keys.
     Also, JSON encoding now uses the C speedups when the ‘sort_keys’
     argument is true.

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-7451(6) 中貢獻、由 Raymond Hettinger 和
     Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-10314(7) 中貢獻。）

   * Recursive locks (created with the *note threading.RLock(): 25c.
     API) now benefit from a C implementation which makes them as fast
     as regular locks, and between 10x and 15x faster than their
     previous pure Python implementation.

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 貢獻；bpo-3001(8)。）

   * The fast-search algorithm in stringlib is now used by the *note
     split(): d2a, *note rsplit(): 10e9, *note splitlines(): 10ea. and
     *note replace(): 10eb. methods on *note bytes: 2c1, *note
     bytearray: 2c0. and *note str: 157. objects.  Likewise, the
     algorithm is also used by *note rfind(): d29, *note rindex(): 10ec,
     *note rsplit(): 10e9. and *note rpartition(): 10ed.

     (Patch by Florent Xicluna in bpo-7622(9) and bpo-7462(10).)

   * Integer to string conversions now work two "digits" at a time,
     reducing the number of division and modulo operations.

     (bpo-6713(11) by Gawain Bolton, Mark Dickinson, and Victor
     Stinner.)

There were several other minor optimizations.  Set differencing now runs
faster when one operand is much larger than the other (patch by Andress
Bennetts in bpo-8685(12)).  The ‘array.repeat()’ method has a faster
implementation (bpo-1569291(13) by Alexander Belopolsky).  The *note
BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f5a. has more efficient buffering (bpo-3709(14)
by Andrew Schaaf).  The *note operator.attrgetter(): cad. function has
been sped-up (bpo-10160(15) by Christos Georgiou).  And *note
ConfigParser: 286. loads multi-line arguments a bit faster (bpo-7113(16)
by Łukasz Langa).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6690

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9410

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3873

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9915

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7451

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10314

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3001

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8685

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1569291

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10160

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7113


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode,  Next: 編解碼器,  Prev: 最佳化<10>,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.12 Unicode
---------------

Python has been updated to Unicode 6.0.0(1).  The update to the standard
adds over 2,000 new characters including emoji(2) symbols which are
important for mobile phones.

In addition, the updated standard has altered the character properties
for two Kannada characters (U+0CF1, U+0CF2) and one New Tai Lue numeric
character (U+19DA), making the former eligible for use in identifiers
while disqualifying the latter.  For more information, see Unicode
Character Database Changes(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji

   (3) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/#Database_Changes


File: python.info,  Node: 編解碼器,  Next: 文件,  Prev: Unicode,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.13 編解碼器
----------------

Support was added for 'cp720' Arabic DOS encoding (bpo-1616979(1)).

MBCS encoding no longer ignores the error handler argument.  In the
default strict mode, it raises an *note UnicodeDecodeError: 85a. when it
encounters an undecodable byte sequence and an *note UnicodeEncodeError:
473. for an unencodable character.

The MBCS codec supports ‘'strict'’ and ‘'ignore'’ error handlers for
decoding, and ‘'strict'’ and ‘'replace'’ for encoding.

To emulate Python3.1 MBCS encoding, select the ‘'ignore'’ handler for
decoding and the ‘'replace'’ handler for encoding.

On Mac OS X, Python decodes command line arguments with ‘'utf-8'’ rather
than the locale encoding.

By default, *note tarfile: d8. uses ‘'utf-8'’ encoding on Windows
(instead of ‘'mbcs'’) and the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler on all
operating systems.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979


File: python.info,  Node: 文件,  Next: IDLE,  Prev: 編解碼器,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.14 文件
------------

The documentation continues to be improved.

   * A table of quick links has been added to the top of lengthy
     sections such as *note 內建函式: 10f1.  In the case of *note
     itertools: 7b, the links are accompanied by tables of
     cheatsheet-style summaries to provide an overview and memory jog
     without having to read all of the docs.

   * In some cases, the pure Python source code can be a helpful adjunct
     to the documentation, so now many modules now feature quick links
     to the latest version of the source code.  For example, the *note
     functools: 5a. module documentation has a quick link at the top
     labeled:

          'Source code' Lib/functools.py(1).

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; see rationale(2).)

   * The docs now contain more examples and recipes.  In particular,
     *note re: b4. module has an extensive section, *note Regular
     Expression Examples: 10f2.  Likewise, the *note itertools: 7b.
     module continues to be updated with new *note Itertools 應用技巧:
     10f3.

   * The *note datetime: 2e. module now has an auxiliary implementation
     in pure Python.  No functionality was changed.  This just provides
     an easier-to-read alternate implementation.

     （由 Alexander Belopolsky 在 bpo-9528(3) 中貢獻。）

   * The unmaintained ‘Demo’ directory has been removed.  Some demos
     were integrated into the documentation, some were moved to the
     ‘Tools/demo’ directory, and others were removed altogether.

     （由 Georg Brandl 在 bpo-7962(4) 中貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/functools.py

   (2) 
https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9528

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7962


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE,  Next: Code Repository,  Prev: 文件,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.15 IDLE
------------

   * The format menu now has an option to clean source files by
     stripping trailing whitespace.

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻；bpo-5150(1)。）

   * IDLE on Mac OS X now works with both Carbon AquaTk and Cocoa
     AquaTk.

     （由 Kevin Walzer、Ned Deily 和 Ronald Oussoren 貢獻；bpo-6075(2)。
     ）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6075


File: python.info,  Node: Code Repository,  Next: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Prev: IDLE,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.16 Code Repository
-----------------------

In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at
‘https://svn.python.org’ there is now a Mercurial(1) repository at
‘https://hg.python.org/’.

After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the
primary repository.  This distributed version control system should make
it easier for members of the community to create and share external
changesets.  See PEP 385(2) for details.

To learn to use the new version control system, see the Quick Start(3)
or the Guide to Mercurial Workflows(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0385/

   (3) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/wiki/QuickStart

   (4) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/guide


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 2,  Prev: Code Repository,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.17 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * The 'idle', 'pydoc' and '2to3' scripts are now installed with a
     version-specific suffix on ‘make altinstall’ (bpo-10679(1)).

   * The C functions that access the Unicode Database now accept and
     return characters from the full Unicode range, even on narrow
     unicode builds (Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER, Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL, and
     others).  A visible difference in Python is that *note
     unicodedata.numeric(): 10f7. now returns the correct value for
     large code points, and *note repr(): 61e. may consider more
     characters as printable.

     (Reported by Bupjoe Lee and fixed by Amaury Forgeot D'Arc;
     bpo-5127(2).)

   * Computed gotos are now enabled by default on supported compilers
     (which are detected by the configure script).  They can still be
     disabled selectively by specifying ‘--without-computed-gotos’.

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 貢獻；bpo-9203(3)。）

   * The option ‘--with-wctype-functions’ was removed.  The built-in
     unicode database is now used for all functions.

     （由 Amaury Forgeot D'Arc 貢獻；bpo-9210(4)。）

   * Hash values are now values of a new type, *note Py_hash_t: 10f8,
     which is defined to be the same size as a pointer.  Previously they
     were of type long, which on some 64-bit operating systems is still
     only 32 bits long.  As a result of this fix, *note set: 3cc. and
     *note dict: 239. can now hold more than ‘2**32’ entries on builds
     with 64-bit pointers (previously, they could grow to that size but
     their performance degraded catastrophically).

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 建議並由 Benjamin Peterson 實作；
     bpo-9778(5)。）

   * A new macro ‘Py_VA_COPY’ copies the state of the variable argument
     list.  It is equivalent to C99 'va_copy' but available on all
     Python platforms (bpo-2443(6)).

   * A new C API function ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ allows an embedded
     interpreter to set *note sys.argv: 10f9. without also modifying
     *note sys.path: 35e. (bpo-5753(7)).

   * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available in macro form.  The
     function declaration, which was kept for backwards compatibility
     reasons, is now removed - the macro was introduced in 1997
     (bpo-8276(8)).

   * There is a new function *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 10fa.
     which is analogous to *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 10fb.  They
     both serve to convert Python *note int: 17e. into a native
     fixed-width type while providing detection of cases where the
     conversion won't fit (bpo-7767(9)).

   * The *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 10fc. function now
     returns 'not equal' if the Python string is 'NUL' terminated.

   * There is a new function *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 10fd.
     that is like *note PyErr_NewException(): 10fe. but allows a
     docstring to be specified.  This lets C exceptions have the same
     self-documenting capabilities as their pure Python counterparts
     (bpo-7033(10)).

   * When compiled with the ‘--with-valgrind’ option, the pymalloc
     allocator will be automatically disabled when running under
     Valgrind.  This gives improved memory leak detection when running
     under Valgrind, while taking advantage of pymalloc at other times
     (bpo-2422(11)).

   * Removed the ‘O?’ format from the 'PyArg_Parse' functions.  The
     format is no longer used and it had never been documented
     (bpo-8837(12)).

There were a number of other small changes to the C-API. See the
Misc/NEWS(13) file for a complete list.

Also, there were a number of updates to the Mac OS X build, see
Mac/BuildScript/README.txt(14) for details.  For users running a
32/64-bit build, there is a known problem with the default Tcl/Tk on Mac
OS X 10.6.  Accordingly, we recommend installing an updated alternative
such as ActiveState Tcl/Tk 8.5.9(15).  See
‘https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/’ for additional details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10679

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5127

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9203

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9210

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9778

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8837

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Misc/NEWS

   (14) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Mac/BuildScript/README.txt

   (15) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20101208191259/https://www.activestate.com/activetcl/downloads


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 2,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Up: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能

1.11.18 Porting to Python 3.2
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The *note configparser: 20. module has a number of clean-ups.  The
     major change is to replace the old ‘ConfigParser’ class with
     long-standing preferred alternative ‘SafeConfigParser’.  In
     addition there are a number of smaller incompatibilities:

        * The interpolation syntax is now validated on *note get():
          1100. and *note set(): 1101. operations.  In the default
          interpolation scheme, only two tokens with percent signs are
          valid: ‘%(name)s’ and ‘%%’, the latter being an escaped
          percent sign.

        * The *note set(): 1101. and *note add_section(): 1102. methods
          now verify that values are actual strings.  Formerly,
          unsupported types could be introduced unintentionally.

        * Duplicate sections or options from a single source now raise
          either *note DuplicateSectionError: 1103. or *note
          DuplicateOptionError: 1104.  Formerly, duplicates would
          silently overwrite a previous entry.

        * Inline comments are now disabled by default so now the ';'
          character can be safely used in values.

        * Comments now can be indented.  Consequently, for ';' or '#' to
          appear at the start of a line in multiline values, it has to
          be interpolated.  This keeps comment prefix characters in
          values from being mistaken as comments.

        * ‘""’ is now a valid value and is no longer automatically
          converted to an empty string.  For empty strings, use ‘"option
          ="’ in a line.

   * The *note nntplib: 98. module was reworked extensively, meaning
     that its APIs are often incompatible with the 3.1 APIs.

   * *note bytearray: 2c0. objects can no longer be used as filenames;
     instead, they should be converted to *note bytes: 2c1.

   * The ‘array.tostring()’ and ‘array.fromstring()’ have been renamed
     to *note array.tobytes(): 1105. and *note array.frombytes(): 1106.
     for clarity.  The old names have been deprecated.  (See
     bpo-8990(1).)

   * ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ functions:

        * "t#" format has been removed: use "s#" or "s*" instead

        * "w" and "w#" formats has been removed: use "w*" instead

   * The ‘PyCObject’ type, deprecated in 3.1, has been removed.  To wrap
     opaque C pointers in Python objects, the *note PyCapsule: 1107. API
     should be used instead; the new type has a well-defined interface
     for passing typing safety information and a less complicated
     signature for calling a destructor.

   * The ‘sys.setfilesystemencoding()’ function was removed because it
     had a flawed design.

   * The *note random.seed(): 1108. function and method now salt string
     seeds with an sha512 hash function.  To access the previous version
     of 'seed' in order to reproduce Python 3.1 sequences, set the
     'version' argument to '1', ‘random.seed(s, version=1)’.

   * The previously deprecated ‘string.maketrans()’ function has been
     removed in favor of the static methods *note bytes.maketrans():
     1109. and *note bytearray.maketrans(): 110a.  This change solves
     the confusion around which types were supported by the *note
     string: cd. module.  Now, *note str: 157, *note bytes: 2c1, and
     *note bytearray: 2c0. each have their own 'maketrans' and
     'translate' methods with intermediate translation tables of the
     appropriate type.

     （由 Georg Brandl 貢獻；bpo-5675(2)。）

   * The previously deprecated ‘contextlib.nested()’ function has been
     removed in favor of a plain *note with: 3c5. statement which can
     accept multiple context managers.  The latter technique is faster
     (because it is built-in), and it does a better job finalizing
     multiple context managers when one of them raises an exception:

          with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
              for line in infile:
                  if '<critical>' in line:
                      outfile.write(line)

     （由 Georg Brandl 和 Mattias Brändström 貢獻；appspot 問題
     53094(3)。）

   * *note struct.pack(): 110b. now only allows bytes for the ‘s’ string
     pack code.  Formerly, it would accept text arguments and implicitly
     encode them to bytes using UTF-8.  This was problematic because it
     made assumptions about the correct encoding and because a
     variable-length encoding can fail when writing to fixed length
     segment of a structure.

     Code such as ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', 'GIF87a', x, y)’ should be
     rewritten with to use bytes instead of text,
     ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', b'GIF87a', x, y)’.

     (Discovered by David Beazley and fixed by Victor Stinner;
     bpo-10783(4).)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. class now raises an *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError: 110c. when a parse fails.
     Previously it raised an *note xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 110d.

   * The new, longer *note str(): 157. value on floats may break
     doctests which rely on the old output format.

   * In *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1, the default value for 'close_fds'
     is now ‘True’ under Unix; under Windows, it is ‘True’ if the three
     standard streams are set to ‘None’, ‘False’ otherwise.  Previously,
     'close_fds' was always ‘False’ by default, which produced difficult
     to solve bugs or race conditions when open file descriptors would
     leak into the child process.

   * Support for legacy HTTP 0.9 has been removed from *note
     urllib.request: 106. and *note http.client: 6a.  Such support is
     still present on the server side (in *note http.server: 6d.).

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 於 bpo-10711(5) 貢獻。）

   * SSL sockets in timeout mode now raise *note socket.timeout: 65a.
     when a timeout occurs, rather than a generic *note SSLError: 110e.

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 於 bpo-10272(6) 貢獻。）

   * The misleading functions ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ have been officially deprecated.  The
     thread-state aware APIs (such as *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 110f.
     and *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8db.) should be used instead.

   * Due to security risks, ‘asyncore.handle_accept()’ has been
     deprecated, and a new function, ‘asyncore.handle_accepted()’, was
     added to replace it.

     （由 Giampaolo Rodola 在 bpo-6706(7) 中貢獻。）

   * Due to the new *note GIL: 6df. implementation,
     ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ cannot be called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6e2. anymore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8990

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675

   (3) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10783

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10272

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.12 Python 3.1 有什麼新功能
============================


作者: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.1, compared to 3.0.
Python 3.1 was released on June 27, 2009.

* Menu:

* PEP 372：有序字典::
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<12>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
* 最佳化: 最佳化<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<2>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.1: Porting to Python 3 1.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 372：有序字典,  Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Up: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能

'PEP 372'：有序字典

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary
order.  Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative
implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally
inserted.  Based on the experiences from those implementations, a new
*note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce. class has been introduced.

The OrderedDict API is substantially the same as regular dictionaries
but will iterate over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on
when a key was first inserted.  If a new entry overwrites an existing
entry, the original insertion position is left unchanged.  Deleting an
entry and reinserting it will move it to the end.

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
modules.  The *note configparser: 20. module uses them by default.  This
lets configuration files be read, modified, and then written back in
their original order.  The '_asdict()' method for *note
collections.namedtuple(): 731. now returns an ordered dictionary with
the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices.
The *note json: 7c. module is being built-out with an
'object_pairs_hook' to allow OrderedDicts to be built by the decoder.
Support was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1).

也參考
......

PEP 372(2) - 有序字典

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger.
     Implementation written by Raymond Hettinger.

Since an ordered dictionary remembers its insertion order, it can be
used in conjunction with sorting to make a sorted dictionary:

     >>> # regular unsorted dictionary
     >>> d = {'banana': 3, 'apple':4, 'pear': 1, 'orange': 2}

     >>> # dictionary sorted by key
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[0]))
     OrderedDict([('apple', 4), ('banana', 3), ('orange', 2), ('pear', 1)])

     >>> # dictionary sorted by value
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[1]))
     OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3), ('apple', 4)])

     >>> # dictionary sorted by length of the key string
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: len(t[0])))
     OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('apple', 4), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3)])

The new sorted dictionaries maintain their sort order when entries are
deleted.  But when new keys are added, the keys are appended to the end
and the sort is not maintained.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyyaml.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Next: 其他語言更動<12>,  Prev: PEP 372：有序字典,  Up: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能

1.12.2 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
--------------------------------------------------------

The built-in *note format(): 417. function and the *note str.format():
41b. method use a mini-language that now includes a simple, non-locale
aware way to format a number with a thousands separator.  That provides
a way to humanize a program's output, improving its professional
appearance and readability:

     >>> format(1234567, ',d')
     '1,234,567'
     >>> format(1234567.89, ',.2f')
     '1,234,567.89'
     >>> format(12345.6 + 8901234.12j, ',f')
     '12,345.600000+8,901,234.120000j'
     >>> format(Decimal('1234567.89'), ',f')
     '1,234,567.89'

The supported types are *note int: 17e, *note float: 26a, *note complex:
26b. and *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0.

Discussions are underway about how to specify alternative separators
like dots, spaces, apostrophes, or underscores.  Locale-aware
applications should use the existing 'n' format specifier which already
has some support for thousands separators.

也參考
......

PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

     PEP written by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith and
     Mark Dickinson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<12>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Up: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能

1.12.3 其他語言更動
-------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can
     now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter.
     The directory/zipfile is automatically inserted as the first entry
     in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu; revised
     patch by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; bpo-1739468(1).)

   * The *note int(): 17e. type gained a ‘bit_length’ method that
     returns the number of bits necessary to represent its argument in
     binary:

          >>> n = 37
          >>> bin(37)
          '0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6
          >>> n = 2**123-1
          >>> n.bit_length()
          123
          >>> (n+1).bit_length()
          124

     （由 Fredrik Johansson、Victor Stinner、Raymond Hettinger 和 Mark
     Dickinson 貢獻；bpo-3439(2)。）

   * The fields in *note format(): 417. strings can now be automatically
     numbered:

          >>> 'Sir {} of {}'.format('Gallahad', 'Camelot')
          'Sir Gallahad of Camelot'

     Formerly, the string would have required numbered fields such as:
     ‘'Sir {0} of {1}'’.

     （由 Eric Smith 貢獻；bpo-5237(3)。）

   * The ‘string.maketrans()’ function is deprecated and is replaced by
     new static methods, *note bytes.maketrans(): 1109. and *note
     bytearray.maketrans(): 110a.  This change solves the confusion
     around which types were supported by the *note string: cd. module.
     Now, *note str: 157, *note bytes: 2c1, and *note bytearray: 2c0.
     each have their own 'maketrans' and 'translate' methods with
     intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type.

     （由 Georg Brandl 貢獻；bpo-5675(4)。）

   * The syntax of the *note with: 3c5. statement now allows multiple
     context managers in a single statement:

          >>> with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
          ...     for line in infile:
          ...         if '<critical>' in line:
          ...             outfile.write(line)

     With the new syntax, the ‘contextlib.nested()’ function is no
     longer needed and is now deprecated.

     （由 Georg Brandl 和 Mattias Brändström 貢獻；appspot 問題
     53094(5)。）

   * ‘round(x, n)’ now returns an integer if 'x' is an integer.
     Previously it returned a float:

          >>> round(1123, -2)
          1100

     （由 Mark Dickinson 貢獻；bpo-4707(6)。）

   * Python now uses David Gay's algorithm for finding the shortest
     floating-point representation that doesn't change its value.  This
     should help mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary
     floating-point numbers.

     The significance is easily seen with a number like ‘1.1’ which does
     not have an exact equivalent in binary floating point.  Since there
     is no exact equivalent, an expression like ‘float('1.1')’ evaluates
     to the nearest representable value which is ‘0x1.199999999999ap+0’
     in hex or ‘1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625’
     in decimal.  That nearest value was and still is used in subsequent
     floating-point calculations.

     What is new is how the number gets displayed.  Formerly, Python
     used a simple approach.  The value of ‘repr(1.1)’ was computed as
     ‘format(1.1, '.17g')’ which evaluated to ‘'1.1000000000000001'’.
     The advantage of using 17 digits was that it relied on IEEE-754
     guarantees to assure that ‘eval(repr(1.1))’ would round-trip
     exactly to its original value.  The disadvantage is that many
     people found the output to be confusing (mistaking intrinsic
     limitations of binary floating-point representation as being a
     problem with Python itself).

     The new algorithm for ‘repr(1.1)’ is smarter and returns ‘'1.1'’.
     Effectively, it searches all equivalent string representations
     (ones that get stored with the same underlying float value) and
     returns the shortest representation.

     The new algorithm tends to emit cleaner representations when
     possible, but it does not change the underlying values.  So, it is
     still the case that ‘1.1 + 2.2 != 3.3’ even though the
     representations may suggest otherwise.

     The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying
     floating-point implementation.  If the required features are not
     found, the old algorithm will continue to be used.  Also, the text
     pickle protocols assure cross-platform portability by using the old
     algorithm.

     （由 Eric Smith 和 Mark Dickinson 貢獻；bpo-1580(7)）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675

   (5) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4707

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1580


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Next: 最佳化<11>,  Prev: 其他語言更動<12>,  Up: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能

1.12.4 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------------

   * Added a *note collections.Counter: f28. class to support convenient
     counting of unique items in a sequence or iterable:

          >>> Counter(['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue'])
          Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻；bpo-1696199(1)。）

   * Added a new module, *note tkinter.ttk: f4. for access to the Tk
     themed widget set.  The basic idea of ttk is to separate, to the
     extent possible, the code implementing a widget's behavior from the
     code implementing its appearance.

     （由 Guilherme Polo 貢獻；bpo-2983(2)。）

   * The *note gzip.GzipFile: 28d. and *note bz2.BZ2File: 692. classes
     now support the context management protocol:

          >>> # Automatically close file after writing
          >>> with gzip.GzipFile(filename, "wb") as f:
          ...     f.write(b"xxx")

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 貢獻。）

   * The *note decimal: 33. module now supports methods for creating a
     decimal object from a binary *note float: 26a.  The conversion is
     exact but can sometimes be surprising:

          >>> Decimal.from_float(1.1)
          Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')

     The long decimal result shows the actual binary fraction being
     stored for '1.1'.  The fraction has many digits because '1.1'
     cannot be exactly represented in binary.

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 和 Mark Dickinso 貢獻。）

   * The *note itertools: 7b. module grew two new functions.  The *note
     itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1116. function is one of
     four for generating combinatorics including permutations and
     Cartesian products.  The *note itertools.compress(): 1117. function
     mimics its namesake from APL. Also, the existing *note
     itertools.count(): 1118. function now has an optional 'step'
     argument and can accept any type of counting sequence including
     *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. and *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0.:

          >>> [p+q for p,q in combinations_with_replacement('LOVE', 2)]
          ['LL', 'LO', 'LV', 'LE', 'OO', 'OV', 'OE', 'VV', 'VE', 'EE']

          >>> list(compress(data=range(10), selectors=[0,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,0,0]))
          [2, 3, 5, 7]

          >>> c = count(start=Fraction(1,2), step=Fraction(1,6))
          >>> [next(c), next(c), next(c), next(c)]
          [Fraction(1, 2), Fraction(2, 3), Fraction(5, 6), Fraction(1, 1)]

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻。）

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 731. now supports a keyword
     argument 'rename' which lets invalid fieldnames be automatically
     converted to positional names in the form _0, _1, etc.  This is
     useful when the field names are being created by an external source
     such as a CSV header, SQL field list, or user input:

          >>> query = input()
          SELECT region, dept, count(*) FROM main GROUPBY region, dept

          >>> cursor.execute(query)
          >>> query_fields = [desc[0] for desc in cursor.description]
          >>> UserQuery = namedtuple('UserQuery', query_fields, rename=True)
          >>> pprint.pprint([UserQuery(*row) for row in cursor])
          [UserQuery(region='South', dept='Shipping', _2=185),
           UserQuery(region='North', dept='Accounting', _2=37),
           UserQuery(region='West', dept='Sales', _2=419)]

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 貢獻；bpo-1818(3)。）

   * The *note re.sub(): 201, *note re.subn(): 202. and *note
     re.split(): 9ca. functions now accept a flags parameter.

     （由 Gregory Smith 貢獻。）

   * The *note logging: 82. module now implements a simple *note
     logging.NullHandler: 1119. class for applications that are not
     using logging but are calling library code that does.  Setting-up a
     null handler will suppress spurious warnings such as "No handlers
     could be found for logger foo":

          >>> h = logging.NullHandler()
          >>> logging.getLogger("foo").addHandler(h)

     （由 Vinay Sajip 貢獻；bpo-4384(4)）。

   * The *note runpy: b9. module which supports the ‘-m’ command line
     switch now supports the execution of packages by looking for and
     executing a ‘__main__’ submodule when a package name is supplied.

     （由 Andi Vajda 貢獻；bpo-4195(5)。）

   * The *note pdb: a0. module can now access and display source code
     loaded via *note zipimport: 12c. (or any other conformant PEP
     302(6) loader).

     （由 Alexander Belopolsky 貢獻；bpo-4201(7)。）

   * *note functools.partial: d4e. objects can now be pickled.

     (Suggested by Antoine Pitrou and Jesse Noller.  Implemented by Jack
     Diederich; bpo-5228(8).)

   * Add *note pydoc: b0. help topics for symbols so that ‘help('@')’
     works as expected in the interactive environment.

     （由 David Laban 貢獻；bpo-4739(9)。）

   * The *note unittest: 101. module now supports skipping individual
     tests or classes of tests.  And it supports marking a test as an
     expected failure, a test that is known to be broken, but shouldn't
     be counted as a failure on a TestResult:

          class TestGizmo(unittest.TestCase):

              @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
              def test_gizmo_on_windows(self):
                  ...

              @unittest.expectedFailure
              def test_gimzo_without_required_library(self):
                  ...

     Also, tests for exceptions have been builtout to work with context
     managers using the *note with: 3c5. statement:

          def test_division_by_zero(self):
              with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
                  x / 0

     In addition, several new assertion methods were added including
     *note assertSetEqual(): 111a, *note assertDictEqual(): 111b,
     ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’, *note assertListEqual(): 111c, *note
     assertTupleEqual(): 111d, *note assertSequenceEqual(): 111e, *note
     assertRaisesRegexp(): 2af, *note assertIsNone(): 111f, and *note
     assertIsNotNone(): 1120.

     （由 Benjamin Peterson 和 Antoine Pitrou 貢獻。）

   * The *note io: 79. module has three new constants for the *note
     seek(): 1121. method: *note SEEK_SET: 1122, *note SEEK_CUR: 1123,
     and *note SEEK_END: 1124.

   * The *note sys.version_info: 49c. tuple is now a named tuple:

          >>> sys.version_info
          sys.version_info(major=3, minor=1, micro=0, releaselevel='alpha', serial=2)

     （由 Ross Light 貢獻；bpo-4285(10)。）

   * The *note nntplib: 98. and *note imaplib: 6f. modules now support
     IPv6.

     （由 Derek Morr 貢獻；bpo-1655(11) 和 bpo-1664(12)。）

   * The *note pickle: a1. module has been adapted for better
     interoperability with Python 2.x when used with protocol 2 or
     lower.  The reorganization of the standard library changed the
     formal reference for many objects.  For example, ‘__builtin__.set’
     in Python 2 is called ‘builtins.set’ in Python 3.  This change
     confounded efforts to share data between different versions of
     Python.  But now when protocol 2 or lower is selected, the pickler
     will automatically use the old Python 2 names for both loading and
     dumping.  This remapping is turned-on by default but can be
     disabled with the 'fix_imports' option:

          >>> s = {1, 2, 3}
          >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0)
          b'c__builtin__\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'
          >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0, fix_imports=False)
          b'cbuiltins\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'

     An unfortunate but unavoidable side-effect of this change is that
     protocol 2 pickles produced by Python 3.1 won't be readable with
     Python 3.0.  The latest pickle protocol, protocol 3, should be used
     when migrating data between Python 3.x implementations, as it
     doesn't attempt to remain compatible with Python 2.x.

     （由 Alexandre Vassalotti 和 Antoine Pitrou 貢獻，bpo-6137(13)。）

   * A new module, *note importlib: 71. was added.  It provides a
     complete, portable, pure Python reference implementation of the
     *note import: 3d5. statement and its counterpart, the *note
     __import__(): 70d. function.  It represents a substantial step
     forward in documenting and defining the actions that take place
     during imports.

     （由 Brett Cannon 貢獻。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4384

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4195

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4201

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5228

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4739

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4285

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1664

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6137


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<11>,  Next: IDLE<2>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Up: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能

1.12.5 最佳化
-------------

Major performance enhancements have been added:

   * The new I/O library (as defined in PEP 3116(1)) was mostly written
     in Python and quickly proved to be a problematic bottleneck in
     Python 3.0.  In Python 3.1, the I/O library has been entirely
     rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on the task at
     hand.  The pure Python version is still available for
     experimentation purposes through the ‘_pyio’ module.

     （由 Amaury Forgeot d'Arc 和 Antoine Pitrou 貢獻。）

   * Added a heuristic so that tuples and dicts containing only
     untrackable objects are not tracked by the garbage collector.  This
     can reduce the size of collections and therefore the garbage
     collection overhead on long-running programs, depending on their
     particular use of datatypes.

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 貢獻，bpo-4688(2)。）

   * Enabling a configure option named ‘--with-computed-gotos’ on
     compilers that support it (notably: gcc, SunPro, icc), the bytecode
     evaluation loop is compiled with a new dispatch mechanism which
     gives speedups of up to 20%, depending on the system, the compiler,
     and the benchmark.

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 和其他一些參與者共同貢獻，bpo-4753(3)）。

   * The decoding of UTF-8, UTF-16 and LATIN-1 is now two to four times
     faster.

     （由 Antoine Pitrou 和 Amaury Forgeot d'Arc 貢獻，bpo-4868(4)。）

   * The *note json: 7c. module now has a C extension to substantially
     improve its performance.  In addition, the API was modified so that
     json works only with *note str: 157, not with *note bytes: 2c1.
     That change makes the module closely match the JSON
     specification(5) which is defined in terms of Unicode.

     （由 Bob Ippolito 貢獻，由 Antoine Pitrou 和 Benjamin Peterson 轉換
     為 Py3.1；bpo-4136(6)。）

   * Unpickling now interns the attribute names of pickled objects.
     This saves memory and allows pickles to be smaller.

     （由 Jake McGuire 和 Antoine Pitrou 貢獻；bpo-5084(7)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4753

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4868

   (5) https://json.org/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<2>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Prev: 最佳化<11>,  Up: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能

1.12.6 IDLE
-----------

   * IDLE's format menu now provides an option to strip trailing
     whitespace from a source file.

     （由 Roger D. Serwy 貢獻；bpo-5150(1)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 1,  Prev: IDLE<2>,  Up: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能

1.12.7 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * Integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or in
     base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time.  Previously,
     they were always stored in base ‘2**15’.  Using base ‘2**30’ gives
     significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but
     benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.  Therefore,
     the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines and base
     ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there's a new configure option
     ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override this default.

     Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
     invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
     debugging purposes there's a new *note sys.int_info: 1128. that
     provides information about the internal format, giving the number
     of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
     each digit:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.int_info
          sys.int_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

     （由 Mark Dickinson 貢獻；bpo-4258(1)。）

   * The *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 1129. function now handles a
     negative 'pylong' by raising *note OverflowError: 6ad. instead of
     *note TypeError: 2ba.

     （由 Mark Dickinson 和 Lisandro Dalcrin 貢獻；bpo-5175(2)。）

   * Deprecated ‘PyNumber_Int()’.  Use *note PyNumber_Long(): 8b3.
     instead.

     （由 Mark Dickinson 貢獻；bpo-4910(3)。）

   * Added a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 112a. function to
     replace the deprecated functions ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and
     ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’.

     （由 Mark Dickinson 貢獻；bpo-5914(4)。）

   * Added *note PyCapsule: 1107. as a replacement for the ‘PyCObject’
     API. The principal difference is that the new type has a well
     defined interface for passing typing safety information and a less
     complicated signature for calling a destructor.  The old type had a
     problematic API and is now deprecated.

     （由 Larry Hastings 貢獻；bpo-5630(5)。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5175

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4910

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5914

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 1,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Up: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能

1.12.8 Porting to Python 3.1
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The new floating-point string representations can break existing
     doctests.  For example:

          def e():
              '''Compute the base of natural logarithms.

              >>> e()
              2.7182818284590451

              '''
              return sum(1/math.factorial(x) for x in reversed(range(30)))

          doctest.testmod()

          **********************************************************************
          Failed example:
              e()
          Expected:
              2.7182818284590451
          Got:
              2.718281828459045
          **********************************************************************

   * The automatic name remapping in the pickle module for protocol 2 or
     lower can make Python 3.1 pickles unreadable in Python 3.0.  One
     solution is to use protocol 3.  Another solution is to set the
     'fix_imports' option to ‘False’.  See the discussion above for more
     details.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 1 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.13 Python 3.0 有什麼新功能
============================


作者: Guido van Rossum

This article explains the new features in Python 3.0, compared to 2.6.
Python 3.0, also known as "Python 3000" or "Py3K", is the first ever
'intentionally backwards incompatible' Python release.  Python 3.0 was
released on December 3, 2008.  There are more changes than in a typical
release, and more that are important for all Python users.
Nevertheless, after digesting the changes, you'll find that Python
really hasn't changed all that much - by and large, we're mostly fixing
well-known annoyances and warts, and removing a lot of old cruft.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead tries to give a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 3.0, and/or
the many PEPs referenced in the text.  If you want to understand the
complete implementation and design rationale for a particular feature,
PEPs usually have more details than the regular documentation; but note
that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully
implemented.

Due to time constraints this document is not as complete as it should
have been.  As always for a new release, the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the
source distribution contains a wealth of detailed information about
every small thing that was changed.

* Menu:

* Common Stumbling Blocks::
* 語法變更概要::
* Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6.
* 函式庫變更::
* PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
* Changes To Exceptions::
* Miscellaneous Other Changes::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>.
* Performance::
* Porting To Python 3.0: Porting To Python 3 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Common Stumbling Blocks,  Next: 語法變更概要,  Up: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能

1.13.1 Common Stumbling Blocks
------------------------------

This section lists those few changes that are most likely to trip you up
if you're used to Python 2.5.

* Menu:

* Print Is A Function::
* Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists::
* Ordering Comparisons::
* 整數::
* Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.


File: python.info,  Node: Print Is A Function,  Next: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.13.1.1 Print Is A Function
............................

The ‘print’ statement has been replaced with a *note print(): e02.
function, with keyword arguments to replace most of the special syntax
of the old ‘print’ statement ( PEP 3105(1)).  Examples:

     Old: print "The answer is", 2*2
     New: print("The answer is", 2*2)

     Old: print x,           # Trailing comma suppresses newline
     New: print(x, end=" ")  # Appends a space instead of a newline

     Old: print              # Prints a newline
     New: print()            # You must call the function!

     Old: print >>sys.stderr, "fatal error"
     New: print("fatal error", file=sys.stderr)

     Old: print (x, y)       # prints repr((x, y))
     New: print((x, y))      # Not the same as print(x, y)!

You can also customize the separator between items, e.g.:

     print("There are <", 2**32, "> possibilities!", sep="")

which produces:

     There are <4294967296> possibilities!

Note:

   * The *note print(): e02. function doesn't support the "softspace"
     feature of the old ‘print’ statement.  For example, in Python 2.x,
     ‘print "A\n", "B"’ would write ‘"A\nB\n"’; but in Python 3.0,
     ‘print("A\n", "B")’ writes ‘"A\n B\n"’.

   * Initially, you'll be finding yourself typing the old ‘print x’ a
     lot in interactive mode.  Time to retrain your fingers to type
     ‘print(x)’ instead!

   * When using the ‘2to3’ source-to-source conversion tool, all ‘print’
     statements are automatically converted to *note print(): e02.
     function calls, so this is mostly a non-issue for larger projects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/


File: python.info,  Node: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Next: Ordering Comparisons,  Prev: Print Is A Function,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.13.1.2 Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists
.............................................

Some well-known APIs no longer return lists:

   * *note dict: 239. methods *note dict.keys(): 5ec, *note
     dict.items(): 5ee. and *note dict.values(): 5ed. return "views"
     instead of lists.  For example, this no longer works: ‘k =
     d.keys(); k.sort()’.  Use ‘k = sorted(d)’ instead (this works in
     Python 2.5 too and is just as efficient).

   * Also, the ‘dict.iterkeys()’, ‘dict.iteritems()’ and
     ‘dict.itervalues()’ methods are no longer supported.

   * *note map(): 68f. and *note filter(): 690. return iterators.  If
     you really need a list and the input sequences are all of equal
     length, a quick fix is to wrap *note map(): 68f. in *note list():
     40a, e.g.  ‘list(map(...))’, but a better fix is often to use a
     list comprehension (especially when the original code uses *note
     lambda: 1131.), or rewriting the code so it doesn't need a list at
     all.  Particularly tricky is *note map(): 68f. invoked for the side
     effects of the function; the correct transformation is to use a
     regular *note for: 265. loop (since creating a list would just be
     wasteful).

     If the input sequences are not of equal length, *note map(): 68f.
     will stop at the termination of the shortest of the sequences.  For
     full compatibility with *note map(): 68f. from Python 2.x, also
     wrap the sequences in *note itertools.zip_longest(): 1132, e.g.
     ‘map(func, *sequences)’ becomes ‘list(map(func,
     itertools.zip_longest(*sequences)))’.

   * *note range(): 782. now behaves like ‘xrange()’ used to behave,
     except it works with values of arbitrary size.  The latter no
     longer exists.

   * *note zip(): 5ef. now returns an iterator.


File: python.info,  Node: Ordering Comparisons,  Next: 整數,  Prev: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.13.1.3 Ordering Comparisons
.............................

Python 3.0 has simplified the rules for ordering comparisons:

   * The ordering comparison operators (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>=’, ‘>’) raise a
     TypeError exception when the operands don't have a meaningful
     natural ordering.  Thus, expressions like ‘1 < ''’, ‘0 > None’ or
     ‘len <= len’ are no longer valid, and e.g.  ‘None < None’ raises
     *note TypeError: 2ba. instead of returning ‘False’.  A corollary is
     that sorting a heterogeneous list no longer makes sense - all the
     elements must be comparable to each other.  Note that this does not
     apply to the ‘==’ and ‘!=’ operators: objects of different
     incomparable types always compare unequal to each other.

   * ‘builtin.sorted()’ and *note list.sort(): a30. no longer accept the
     'cmp' argument providing a comparison function.  Use the 'key'
     argument instead.  N.B. the 'key' and 'reverse' arguments are now
     "keyword-only".

   * The ‘cmp()’ function should be treated as gone, and the ‘__cmp__()’
     special method is no longer supported.  Use ‘__lt__()’ for sorting,
     ‘__eq__()’ with ‘__hash__()’, and other rich comparisons as needed.
     (If you really need the ‘cmp()’ functionality, you could use the
     expression ‘(a > b) - (a < b)’ as the equivalent for ‘cmp(a, b)’.)


File: python.info,  Node: 整數,  Next: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit,  Prev: Ordering Comparisons,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.13.1.4 整數
.............

   * PEP 237(1): Essentially, ‘long’ renamed to *note int: 17e.  That
     is, there is only one built-in integral type, named *note int:
     17e.; but it behaves mostly like the old ‘long’ type.

   * PEP 238(2): An expression like ‘1/2’ returns a float.  Use ‘1//2’
     to get the truncating behavior.  (The latter syntax has existed for
     years, at least since Python 2.2.)

   * The ‘sys.maxint’ constant was removed, since there is no longer a
     limit to the value of integers.  However, *note sys.maxsize: 1056.
     can be used as an integer larger than any practical list or string
     index.  It conforms to the implementation's "natural" integer size
     and is typically the same as ‘sys.maxint’ in previous releases on
     the same platform (assuming the same build options).

   * The *note repr(): 61e. of a long integer doesn't include the
     trailing ‘L’ anymore, so code that unconditionally strips that
     character will chop off the last digit instead.  (Use *note str():
     157. instead.)

   * Octal literals are no longer of the form ‘0720’; use ‘0o720’
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit,  Prev: 整數,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.13.1.5 Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit
...................................................

Everything you thought you knew about binary data and Unicode has
changed.

   * Python 3.0 uses the concepts of 'text' and (binary) 'data' instead
     of Unicode strings and 8-bit strings.  All text is Unicode; however
     'encoded' Unicode is represented as binary data.  The type used to
     hold text is *note str: 157, the type used to hold data is *note
     bytes: 2c1.  The biggest difference with the 2.x situation is that
     any attempt to mix text and data in Python 3.0 raises *note
     TypeError: 2ba, whereas if you were to mix Unicode and 8-bit
     strings in Python 2.x, it would work if the 8-bit string happened
     to contain only 7-bit (ASCII) bytes, but you would get *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: 85a. if it contained non-ASCII values.  This
     value-specific behavior has caused numerous sad faces over the
     years.

   * As a consequence of this change in philosophy, pretty much all code
     that uses Unicode, encodings or binary data most likely has to
     change.  The change is for the better, as in the 2.x world there
     were numerous bugs having to do with mixing encoded and unencoded
     text.  To be prepared in Python 2.x, start using ‘unicode’ for all
     unencoded text, and *note str: 157. for binary or encoded data
     only.  Then the ‘2to3’ tool will do most of the work for you.

   * You can no longer use ‘u"..."’ literals for Unicode text.  However,
     you must use ‘b"..."’ literals for binary data.

   * As the *note str: 157. and *note bytes: 2c1. types cannot be mixed,
     you must always explicitly convert between them.  Use *note
     str.encode(): 70e. to go from *note str: 157. to *note bytes: 2c1,
     and *note bytes.decode(): 70f. to go from *note bytes: 2c1. to
     *note str: 157.  You can also use ‘bytes(s, encoding=...)’ and
     ‘str(b, encoding=...)’, respectively.

   * Like *note str: 157, the *note bytes: 2c1. type is immutable.
     There is a separate 'mutable' type to hold buffered binary data,
     *note bytearray: 2c0.  Nearly all APIs that accept *note bytes:
     2c1. also accept *note bytearray: 2c0.  The mutable API is based on
     ‘collections.MutableSequence’.

   * All backslashes in raw string literals are interpreted literally.
     This means that ‘'\U'’ and ‘'\u'’ escapes in raw strings are not
     treated specially.  For example, ‘r'\u20ac'’ is a string of 6
     characters in Python 3.0, whereas in 2.6, ‘ur'\u20ac'’ was the
     single "euro" character.  (Of course, this change only affects raw
     string literals; the euro character is ‘'\u20ac'’ in Python 3.0.)

   * The built-in ‘basestring’ abstract type was removed.  Use *note
     str: 157. instead.  The *note str: 157. and *note bytes: 2c1. types
     don't have functionality enough in common to warrant a shared base
     class.  The ‘2to3’ tool (see below) replaces every occurrence of
     ‘basestring’ with *note str: 157.

   * Files opened as text files (still the default mode for *note
     open(): 29c.) always use an encoding to map between strings (in
     memory) and bytes (on disk).  Binary files (opened with a ‘b’ in
     the mode argument) always use bytes in memory.  This means that if
     a file is opened using an incorrect mode or encoding, I/O will
     likely fail loudly, instead of silently producing incorrect data.
     It also means that even Unix users will have to specify the correct
     mode (text or binary) when opening a file.  There is a
     platform-dependent default encoding, which on Unixy platforms can
     be set with the ‘LANG’ environment variable (and sometimes also
     with some other platform-specific locale-related environment
     variables).  In many cases, but not all, the system default is
     UTF-8; you should never count on this default.  Any application
     reading or writing more than pure ASCII text should probably have a
     way to override the encoding.  There is no longer any need for
     using the encoding-aware streams in the *note codecs: 19. module.

   * The initial values of *note sys.stdin: 2bf, *note sys.stdout: 92a.
     and *note sys.stderr: 778. are now unicode-only text files (i.e.,
     they are instances of *note io.TextIOBase: 492.).  To read and
     write bytes data with these streams, you need to use their *note
     io.TextIOBase.buffer: 1136. attribute.

   * Filenames are passed to and returned from APIs as (Unicode)
     strings.  This can present platform-specific problems because on
     some platforms filenames are arbitrary byte strings.  (On the other
     hand, on Windows filenames are natively stored as Unicode.)  As a
     work-around, most APIs (e.g.  *note open(): 29c. and many functions
     in the *note os: 9c. module) that take filenames accept *note
     bytes: 2c1. objects as well as strings, and a few APIs have a way
     to ask for a *note bytes: 2c1. return value.  Thus, *note
     os.listdir(): f88. returns a list of *note bytes: 2c1. instances if
     the argument is a *note bytes: 2c1. instance, and *note
     os.getcwdb(): 8e0. returns the current working directory as a *note
     bytes: 2c1. instance.  Note that when *note os.listdir(): f88.
     returns a list of strings, filenames that cannot be decoded
     properly are omitted rather than raising *note UnicodeError: 1137.

   * Some system APIs like *note os.environ: 104b. and *note sys.argv:
     10f9. can also present problems when the bytes made available by
     the system is not interpretable using the default encoding.
     Setting the ‘LANG’ variable and rerunning the program is probably
     the best approach.

   * PEP 3138(1): The *note repr(): 61e. of a string no longer escapes
     non-ASCII characters.  It still escapes control characters and code
     points with non-printable status in the Unicode standard, however.

   * PEP 3120(2): The default source encoding is now UTF-8.

   * PEP 3131(3): Non-ASCII letters are now allowed in identifiers.
     (However, the standard library remains ASCII-only with the
     exception of contributor names in comments.)

   * The ‘StringIO’ and ‘cStringIO’ modules are gone.  Instead, import
     the *note io: 79. module and use *note io.StringIO: db1. or *note
     io.BytesIO: d24. for text and data respectively.

   * 也請見為了 Python 3.0 所更新的 *note Unicode HOWTO: 1138.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3138/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/


File: python.info,  Node: 語法變更概要,  Next: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Prev: Common Stumbling Blocks,  Up: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能

1.13.2 語法變更概要
-------------------

This section gives a brief overview of every 'syntactic' change in
Python 3.0.

* Menu:

* New Syntax::
* 語法變更::
* 已被移除的語法::


File: python.info,  Node: New Syntax,  Next: 語法變更,  Up: 語法變更概要

1.13.2.1 New Syntax
...................

   * PEP 3107(1): Function argument and return value annotations.  This
     provides a standardized way of annotating a function's parameters
     and return value.  There are no semantics attached to such
     annotations except that they can be introspected at runtime using
     the ‘__annotations__’ attribute.  The intent is to encourage
     experimentation through metaclasses, decorators or frameworks.

   * PEP 3102(2): Keyword-only arguments.  Named parameters occurring
     after ‘*args’ in the parameter list 'must' be specified using
     keyword syntax in the call.  You can also use a bare ‘*’ in the
     parameter list to indicate that you don't accept a variable-length
     argument list, but you do have keyword-only arguments.

   * Keyword arguments are allowed after the list of base classes in a
     class definition.  This is used by the new convention for
     specifying a metaclass (see next section), but can be used for
     other purposes as well, as long as the metaclass supports it.

   * PEP 3104(3): *note nonlocal: 113b. statement.  Using ‘nonlocal x’
     you can now assign directly to a variable in an outer (but
     non-global) scope.  ‘nonlocal’ is a new reserved word.

   * PEP 3132(4): Extended Iterable Unpacking.  You can now write things
     like ‘a, b, *rest = some_sequence’.  And even ‘*rest, a = stuff’.
     The ‘rest’ object is always a (possibly empty) list; the right-hand
     side may be any iterable.  Example:

          (a, *rest, b) = range(5)

     This sets 'a' to ‘0’, 'b' to ‘4’, and 'rest' to ‘[1, 2, 3]’.

   * Dictionary comprehensions: ‘{k: v for k, v in stuff}’ means the
     same thing as ‘dict(stuff)’ but is more flexible.  (This is PEP
     274(5) vindicated.  :-)

   * Set literals, e.g.  ‘{1, 2}’.  Note that ‘{}’ is an empty
     dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set.  Set comprehensions are
     also supported; e.g., ‘{x for x in stuff}’ means the same thing as
     ‘set(stuff)’ but is more flexible.

   * New octal literals, e.g.  ‘0o720’ (already in 2.6).  The old octal
     literals (‘0720’) are gone.

   * New binary literals, e.g.  ‘0b1010’ (already in 2.6), and there is
     a new corresponding built-in function, *note bin(): 113c.

   * Bytes literals are introduced with a leading ‘b’ or ‘B’, and there
     is a new corresponding built-in function, *note bytes(): 2c1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3102/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0274/


File: python.info,  Node: 語法變更,  Next: 已被移除的語法,  Prev: New Syntax,  Up: 語法變更概要

1.13.2.2 語法變更
.................

   * PEP 3109(1) and PEP 3134(2): new *note raise: 3e1. statement
     syntax: ‘raise [EXPR [from EXPR]]’.  See below.

   * ‘as’ and *note with: 3c5. are now reserved words.  (Since 2.6,
     actually.)

   * ‘True’, ‘False’, and ‘None’ are reserved words.  (2.6 partially
     enforced the restrictions on ‘None’ already.)

   * Change from *note except: 3a8. 'exc', 'var' to ‘except’ 'exc' ‘as’
     'var'.  See PEP 3110(3).

   * PEP 3115(4): New Metaclass Syntax.  Instead of:

          class C:
              __metaclass__ = M
              ...

     you must now use:

          class C(metaclass=M):
              ...

     The module-global ‘__metaclass__’ variable is no longer supported.
     (It was a crutch to make it easier to default to new-style classes
     without deriving every class from *note object: 8d9.)

   * List comprehensions no longer support the syntactic form ‘[... for
     VAR in ITEM1, ITEM2, ...]’.  Use ‘[... for VAR in (ITEM1, ITEM2,
     ...)]’ instead.  Also note that list comprehensions have different
     semantics: they are closer to syntactic sugar for a generator
     expression inside a *note list(): 40a. constructor, and in
     particular the loop control variables are no longer leaked into the
     surrounding scope.

   * The 'ellipsis' (‘...’) can be used as an atomic expression
     anywhere.  (Previously it was only allowed in slices.)  Also, it
     'must' now be spelled as ‘...’.  (Previously it could also be
     spelled as ‘. . .’, by a mere accident of the grammar.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: 已被移除的語法,  Prev: 語法變更,  Up: 語法變更概要

1.13.2.3 已被移除的語法
.......................

   * PEP 3113(1): Tuple parameter unpacking removed.  You can no longer
     write ‘def foo(a, (b, c)): ...’.  Use ‘def foo(a, b_c): b, c = b_c’
     instead.

   * Removed backticks (use *note repr(): 61e. instead).

   * 移除 ‘<>’(請改用 ‘!=’)。

   * Removed keyword: *note exec(): 6b1. is no longer a keyword; it
     remains as a function.  (Fortunately the function syntax was also
     accepted in 2.x.)  Also note that *note exec(): 6b1. no longer
     takes a stream argument; instead of ‘exec(f)’ you can use
     ‘exec(f.read())’.

   * Integer literals no longer support a trailing ‘l’ or ‘L’.

   * String literals no longer support a leading ‘u’ or ‘U’.

   * The *note from: 113f. 'module' *note import: 3d5. ‘*’ syntax is
     only allowed at the module level, no longer inside functions.

   * The only acceptable syntax for relative imports is ‘from .[MODULE]
     import NAME’.  All *note import: 3d5. forms not starting with ‘.’
     are interpreted as absolute imports.  ( PEP 328(2))

   * Classic classes are gone.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3113/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Next: 函式庫變更,  Prev: 語法變更概要,  Up: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能

1.13.3 Changes Already Present In Python 2.6
--------------------------------------------

Since many users presumably make the jump straight from Python 2.5 to
Python 3.0, this section reminds the reader of new features that were
originally designed for Python 3.0 but that were back-ported to Python
2.6.  The corresponding sections in *note Python 2.6 有什麼新功能: 1141.
should be consulted for longer descriptions.

   * *note PEP 343; The 'with' statement: 1142.  The *note with: 3c5.
     statement is now a standard feature and no longer needs to be
     imported from the *note __future__: 0.  Also check out *note
     Writing Context Managers: 1143. and *note contextlib 模組: 1144.

   * *note PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: 1145.
     This enhances the usefulness of the *note -m: 3d4. option when the
     referenced module lives in a package.

   * *note PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: 1146.。

   * *note PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: 1147.。

   * *note PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: 1148.  Note: the 2.6
     description mentions the *note format(): 417. method for both 8-bit
     and Unicode strings.  In 3.0, only the *note str: 157. type (text
     strings with Unicode support) supports this method; the *note
     bytes: 2c1. type does not.  The plan is to eventually make this the
     only API for string formatting, and to start deprecating the ‘%’
     operator in Python 3.1.

   * *note PEP 3105; print As a Function: 1149.  This is now a standard
     feature and no longer needs to be imported from *note __future__:
     0.  More details were given above.

   * *note PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: 114a.  The *note
     except: 3a8. 'exc' ‘as’ 'var' syntax is now standard and ‘except’
     'exc', 'var' is no longer supported.  (Of course, the ‘as’ 'var'
     part is still optional.)

   * *note PEP 3112; Byte Literals: 114b.  The ‘b"..."’ string literal
     notation (and its variants like ‘b'...'’, ‘b"""..."""’, and
     ‘br"..."’) now produces a literal of type *note bytes: 2c1.

   * *note PEP 3116; New I/O Library: 114c.  The *note io: 79. module is
     now the standard way of doing file I/O. The built-in *note open():
     29c. function is now an alias for *note io.open(): 29d. and has
     additional keyword arguments 'encoding', 'errors', 'newline' and
     'closefd'.  Also note that an invalid 'mode' argument now raises
     *note ValueError: 183, not *note IOError: ee8.  The binary file
     object underlying a text file object can be accessed as ‘f.buffer’
     (but beware that the text object maintains a buffer of itself in
     order to speed up the encoding and decoding operations).

   * *note PEP 3118：修訂緩衝協定: 114d.  The old builtin ‘buffer()’ is
     now really gone; the new builtin *note memoryview(): 17f. provides
     (mostly) similar functionality.

   * *note PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: 114e.  The *note abc: 4.
     module and the ABCs defined in the *note collections: 1b. module
     plays a somewhat more prominent role in the language now, and
     built-in collection types like *note dict: 239. and *note list:
     40a. conform to the ‘collections.MutableMapping’ and
     ‘collections.MutableSequence’ ABCs, respectively.

   * *note PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: 114f.  As
     mentioned above, the new octal literal notation is the only one
     supported, and binary literals have been added.

   * *note PEP 3129; Class Decorators: 1150.。

   * *note PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: 1151.  The *note
     numbers: 99. module is another new use of ABCs, defining Python's
     "numeric tower".  Also note the new *note fractions: 58. module
     which implements *note numbers.Rational: 1152.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式庫變更,  Next: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Prev: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Up: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能

1.13.4 函式庫變更
-----------------

Due to time constraints, this document does not exhaustively cover the
very extensive changes to the standard library.  PEP 3108(1) is the
reference for the major changes to the library.  Here's a capsule
review:

   * Many old modules were removed.  Some, like ‘gopherlib’ (no longer
     used) and ‘md5’ (replaced by *note hashlib: 63.), were already
     deprecated by PEP 4(2).  Others were removed as a result of the
     removal of support for various platforms such as Irix, BeOS and Mac
     OS 9 (see PEP 11(3)).  Some modules were also selected for removal
     in Python 3.0 due to lack of use or because a better replacement
     exists.  See PEP 3108(4) for an exhaustive list.

   * The ‘bsddb3’ package was removed because its presence in the core
     standard library has proved over time to be a particular burden for
     the core developers due to testing instability and Berkeley DB's
     release schedule.  However, the package is alive and well,
     externally maintained at
     ‘https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm’.

   * 一些模組因為舊名稱違反了 PEP 8(5) 或其他原因而被重新命名。以下為變
     更清單：

     舊名                        新名
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------
                                 
     _winreg                     winreg
                                 
                                 
     ConfigParser                configparser
                                 
                                 
     copy_reg                    copyreg
                                 
                                 
     Queue                       queue
                                 
                                 
     SocketServer                socketserver
                                 
                                 
     markupbase                  _markupbase
                                 
                                 
     repr                        reprlib
                                 
                                 
     test.test_support           test.support
                                 

   * A common pattern in Python 2.x is to have one version of a module
     implemented in pure Python, with an optional accelerated version
     implemented as a C extension; for example, *note pickle: a1. and
     ‘cPickle’.  This places the burden of importing the accelerated
     version and falling back on the pure Python version on each user of
     these modules.  In Python 3.0, the accelerated versions are
     considered implementation details of the pure Python versions.
     Users should always import the standard version, which attempts to
     import the accelerated version and falls back to the pure Python
     version.  The *note pickle: a1. / ‘cPickle’ pair received this
     treatment.  The *note profile: aa. module is on the list for 3.1.
     The ‘StringIO’ module has been turned into a class in the *note io:
     79. module.

   * Some related modules have been grouped into packages, and usually
     the submodule names have been simplified.  The resulting new
     packages are:

        * *note dbm: 2f.（‘anydbm’、‘dbhash’、‘dbm’、‘dumbdbm’、‘gdbm’、
          ‘whichdb’）。

        * *note html: 66.（‘HTMLParser’、‘htmlentitydefs’）。

        * *note http: 69.（‘httplib’、‘BaseHTTPServer’、
          ‘CGIHTTPServer’、‘SimpleHTTPServer’、‘Cookie’、‘cookielib’）。

        * *note tkinter: ea. (all ‘Tkinter’-related modules except *note
          turtle: fc.).  The target audience of *note turtle: fc.
          doesn't really care about *note tkinter: ea.  Also note that
          as of Python 2.6, the functionality of *note turtle: fc. has
          been greatly enhanced.

        * *note urllib: 103.（‘urllib’、‘urllib2’、‘urlparse’、
          ‘robotparse’）。

        * ‘xmlrpc’（‘xmlrpclib’、‘DocXMLRPCServer’、
          ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’）。

Some other changes to standard library modules, not covered by PEP
3108(6):

   * 移除 ‘sets’。請使用內建的 *note set(): 3cc. 類別。

   * Cleanup of the *note sys: d3. module: removed ‘sys.exitfunc()’,
     ‘sys.exc_clear()’, ‘sys.exc_type’, ‘sys.exc_value’,
     ‘sys.exc_traceback’.  (Note that *note sys.last_type: 1e6. etc.
     remain.)

   * Cleanup of the *note array.array: 18f. type: the ‘read()’ and
     ‘write()’ methods are gone; use ‘fromfile()’ and ‘tofile()’
     instead.  Also, the ‘'c'’ typecode for array is gone - use either
     ‘'b'’ for bytes or ‘'u'’ for Unicode characters.

   * Cleanup of the *note operator: 9a. module: removed
     ‘sequenceIncludes()’ and ‘isCallable()’.

   * Cleanup of the ‘thread’ module: ‘acquire_lock()’ and
     ‘release_lock()’ are gone; use *note acquire(): 495. and *note
     release(): 1154. instead.

   * 清理 *note random: b3. 模組：移除 ‘jumpahead()’ API。

   * 移除 ‘new’ 模組。

   * The functions ‘os.tmpnam()’, ‘os.tempnam()’ and ‘os.tmpfile()’ have
     been removed in favor of the *note tempfile: da. module.

   * The *note tokenize: f6. module has been changed to work with bytes.
     The main entry point is now *note tokenize.tokenize(): 204, instead
     of generate_tokens.

   * ‘string.letters’ and its friends (‘string.lowercase’ and
     ‘string.uppercase’) are gone.  Use *note string.ascii_letters:
     1155. etc.  instead.  (The reason for the removal is that
     ‘string.letters’ and friends had locale-specific behavior, which is
     a bad idea for such attractively named global "constants".)

   * Renamed module ‘__builtin__’ to *note builtins: 10. (removing the
     underscores, adding an 's').  The ‘__builtins__’ variable found in
     most global namespaces is unchanged.  To modify a builtin, you
     should use *note builtins: 10, not ‘__builtins__’!

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0004/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Next: Changes To Exceptions,  Prev: 函式庫變更,  Up: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能

'PEP 3101': A New Approach To String Formatting

   * A new system for built-in string formatting operations replaces the
     ‘%’ string formatting operator.  (However, the ‘%’ operator is
     still supported; it will be deprecated in Python 3.1 and removed
     from the language at some later time.)  Read PEP 3101(1) for the
     full scoop.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes To Exceptions,  Next: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Prev: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Up: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能

1.13.6 Changes To Exceptions
----------------------------

The APIs for raising and catching exception have been cleaned up and new
powerful features added:

   * PEP 352(1): All exceptions must be derived (directly or indirectly)
     from *note BaseException: 3ab.  This is the root of the exception
     hierarchy.  This is not new as a recommendation, but the
     'requirement' to inherit from *note BaseException: 3ab. is new.
     (Python 2.6 still allowed classic classes to be raised, and placed
     no restriction on what you can catch.)  As a consequence, string
     exceptions are finally truly and utterly dead.

   * Almost all exceptions should actually derive from *note Exception:
     81e.; *note BaseException: 3ab. should only be used as a base class
     for exceptions that should only be handled at the top level, such
     as *note SystemExit: bb2. or *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815.  The
     recommended idiom for handling all exceptions except for this
     latter category is to use *note except: 3a8. *note Exception: 81e.

   * ‘StandardError’ 被移除。

   * Exceptions no longer behave as sequences.  Use the ‘args’ attribute
     instead.

   * PEP 3109(2): Raising exceptions.  You must now use ‘raise
     EXCEPTION(ARGS)’ instead of ‘raise EXCEPTION, ARGS’.  Additionally,
     you can no longer explicitly specify a traceback; instead, if you
     'have' to do this, you can assign directly to the *note
     __traceback__: 1158. attribute (see below).

   * PEP 3110(3): Catching exceptions.  You must now use ‘except
     SOMEEXCEPTION as VARIABLE’ instead of ‘except SOMEEXCEPTION,
     VARIABLE’.  Moreover, the 'variable' is explicitly deleted when the
     *note except: 3a8. block is left.

   * PEP 3134(4): Exception chaining.  There are two cases: implicit
     chaining and explicit chaining.  Implicit chaining happens when an
     exception is raised in an *note except: 3a8. or *note finally: 80e.
     handler block.  This usually happens due to a bug in the handler
     block; we call this a 'secondary' exception.  In this case, the
     original exception (that was being handled) is saved as the *note
     __context__: 1159. attribute of the secondary exception.  Explicit
     chaining is invoked with this syntax:

          raise SecondaryException() from primary_exception

     (where 'primary_exception' is any expression that produces an
     exception object, probably an exception that was previously
     caught).  In this case, the primary exception is stored on the
     *note __cause__: 115a. attribute of the secondary exception.  The
     traceback printed when an unhandled exception occurs walks the
     chain of ‘__cause__’ and *note __context__: 1159. attributes and
     prints a separate traceback for each component of the chain, with
     the primary exception at the top.  (Java users may recognize this
     behavior.)

   * PEP 3134(5): Exception objects now store their traceback as the
     *note __traceback__: 1158. attribute.  This means that an exception
     object now contains all the information pertaining to an exception,
     and there are fewer reasons to use *note sys.exc_info(): 487.
     (though the latter is not removed).

   * A few exception messages are improved when Windows fails to load an
     extension module.  For example, ‘error code 193’ is now ‘%1 is not
     a valid Win32 application’.  Strings now deal with non-English
     locales.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Next: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Prev: Changes To Exceptions,  Up: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能

1.13.7 Miscellaneous Other Changes
----------------------------------

* Menu:

* Operators And Special Methods::
* Builtins::


File: python.info,  Node: Operators And Special Methods,  Next: Builtins,  Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes

1.13.7.1 Operators And Special Methods
......................................

   * ‘!=’ now returns the opposite of ‘==’, unless ‘==’ returns *note
     NotImplemented: 5f2.

   * The concept of "unbound methods" has been removed from the
     language.  When referencing a method as a class attribute, you now
     get a plain function object.

   * ‘__getslice__()’, ‘__setslice__()’ and ‘__delslice__()’ were
     killed.  The syntax ‘a[i:j]’ now translates to
     ‘a.__getitem__(slice(i, j))’ (or ‘__setitem__()’ or
     ‘__delitem__()’, when used as an assignment or deletion target,
     respectively).

   * PEP 3114(1): the standard *note next(): 5f8. method has been
     renamed to *note __next__(): 115d.

   * The ‘__oct__()’ and ‘__hex__()’ special methods are removed - *note
     oct(): 115e. and *note hex(): 115f. use ‘__index__()’ now to
     convert the argument to an integer.

   * 移除對 ‘__members__’ 和 ‘__methods__’ 的支援。

   * The function attributes named ‘func_X’ have been renamed to use the
     ‘__X__’ form, freeing up these names in the function attribute
     namespace for user-defined attributes.  To wit, ‘func_closure’,
     ‘func_code’, ‘func_defaults’, ‘func_dict’, ‘func_doc’,
     ‘func_globals’, ‘func_name’ were renamed to *note __closure__:
     1160, *note __code__: 1161, *note __defaults__: 1162, *note
     __dict__: 1163, *note __doc__: 106a, *note __globals__: 1164, *note
     __name__: 1165, respectively.

   * ‘__nonzero__()’ 現在為 *note __bool__(): 1166.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3114/


File: python.info,  Node: Builtins,  Prev: Operators And Special Methods,  Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes

1.13.7.2 Builtins
.................

   * PEP 3135(1): New *note super(): 206.  You can now invoke *note
     super(): 206. without arguments and (assuming this is in a regular
     instance method defined inside a *note class: 1168. statement) the
     right class and instance will automatically be chosen.  With
     arguments, the behavior of *note super(): 206. is unchanged.

   * PEP 3111(2): ‘raw_input()’ was renamed to *note input(): 1169.
     That is, the new *note input(): 1169. function reads a line from
     *note sys.stdin: 2bf. and returns it with the trailing newline
     stripped.  It raises *note EOFError: 116a. if the input is
     terminated prematurely.  To get the old behavior of *note input():
     1169, use ‘eval(input())’.

   * A new built-in function *note next(): 5f8. was added to call the
     *note __next__(): 115d. method on an object.

   * The *note round(): 116b. function rounding strategy and return type
     have changed.  Exact halfway cases are now rounded to the nearest
     even result instead of away from zero.  (For example, ‘round(2.5)’
     now returns ‘2’ rather than ‘3’.)  ‘round(x[, n])’ now delegates to
     ‘x.__round__([n])’ instead of always returning a float.  It
     generally returns an integer when called with a single argument and
     a value of the same type as ‘x’ when called with two arguments.

   * Moved ‘intern()’ to *note sys.intern(): 116c.

   * Removed: ‘apply()’.  Instead of ‘apply(f, args)’ use ‘f(*args)’.

   * Removed *note callable(): 1057.  Instead of ‘callable(f)’ you can
     use ‘isinstance(f, collections.Callable)’.  The
     ‘operator.isCallable()’ function is also gone.

   * Removed ‘coerce()’.  This function no longer serves a purpose now
     that classic classes are gone.

   * 移除 ‘execfile()’。請使用 ‘exec(open(fn).read())’ 來替換
     ‘execfile(fn)’。

   * Removed the ‘file’ type.  Use *note open(): 29c.  There are now
     several different kinds of streams that open can return in the
     *note io: 79. module.

   * Removed ‘reduce()’.  Use *note functools.reduce(): 116d. if you
     really need it; however, 99 percent of the time an explicit *note
     for: 265. loop is more readable.

   * Removed ‘reload()’.  Use ‘imp.reload()’.

   * Removed.  ‘dict.has_key()’ - use the *note in: 267. operator
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3111/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Next: Performance,  Prev: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Up: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能

1.13.8 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

Due to time constraints, here is a 'very' incomplete list of changes to
the C API.

   * Support for several platforms was dropped, including but not
     limited to Mac OS 9, BeOS, RISCOS, Irix, and Tru64.

   * PEP 3118(1)：新的緩衝 API。

   * PEP 3121(2): Extension Module Initialization & Finalization.

   * PEP 3123(3): Making *note PyObject_HEAD: 116f. conform to standard
     C.

   * No more C API support for restricted execution.

   * ‘PyNumber_Coerce()’, ‘PyNumber_CoerceEx()’, ‘PyMember_Get()’, and
     ‘PyMember_Set()’ C APIs are removed.

   * New C API *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 354, works like
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 355. but won't block on the import
     lock (returning an error instead).

   * Renamed the boolean conversion C-level slot and method:
     ‘nb_nonzero’ is now ‘nb_bool’.

   * 移除 C API 中的 ‘METH_OLDARGS’ 和 ‘WITH_CYCLE_GC’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3123/


File: python.info,  Node: Performance,  Next: Porting To Python 3 0,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Up: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能

1.13.9 Performance
------------------

The net result of the 3.0 generalizations is that Python 3.0 runs the
pystone benchmark around 10% slower than Python 2.5.  Most likely the
biggest cause is the removal of special-casing for small integers.
There's room for improvement, but it will happen after 3.0 is released!


File: python.info,  Node: Porting To Python 3 0,  Prev: Performance,  Up: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能

1.13.10 Porting To Python 3.0
-----------------------------

For porting existing Python 2.5 or 2.6 source code to Python 3.0, the
best strategy is the following:

  0. (Prerequisite:) Start with excellent test coverage.

  1. Port to Python 2.6.  This should be no more work than the average
     port from Python 2.x to Python 2.(x+1).  Make sure all your tests
     pass.

  2. (Still using 2.6:) Turn on the ‘-3’ command line switch.  This
     enables warnings about features that will be removed (or change) in
     3.0.  Run your test suite again, and fix code that you get warnings
     about until there are no warnings left, and all your tests still
     pass.

  3. Run the ‘2to3’ source-to-source translator over your source code
     tree.  (See *note 2to3 -- 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3:
     522. for more on this tool.)  Run the result of the translation
     under Python 3.0.  Manually fix up any remaining issues, fixing
     problems until all tests pass again.

It is not recommended to try to write source code that runs unchanged
under both Python 2.6 and 3.0; you'd have to use a very contorted coding
style, e.g.  avoiding ‘print’ statements, metaclasses, and much more.
If you are maintaining a library that needs to support both Python 2.6
and Python 3.0, the best approach is to modify step 3 above by editing
the 2.6 version of the source code and running the ‘2to3’ translator
again, rather than editing the 3.0 version of the source code.

For porting C extensions to Python 3.0, please see *note 遷移延伸模組到
Python 3: 1172.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 3 0 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.14 Python 2.7 有什麼新功能
============================


作者: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.7.  Python 2.7 was
released on July 3, 2010.

Numeric handling has been improved in many ways, for both floating-point
numbers and for the *note Decimal: 5f0. class.  There are some useful
additions to the standard library, such as a greatly enhanced *note
unittest: 101. module, the *note argparse: 6. module for parsing
command-line options, convenient *note OrderedDict: 3ce. and *note
Counter: f28. classes in the *note collections: 1b. module, and many
other improvements.

Python 2.7 is planned to be the last of the 2.x releases, so we worked
on making it a good release for the long term.  To help with porting to
Python 3, several new features from the Python 3.x series have been
included in 2.7.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.7 at
‘https://docs.python.org’.  If you want to understand the rationale for
the design and implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new
feature or the issue on ‘https://bugs.python.org’ in which a change was
discussed.  Whenever possible, "What's New in Python" links to the
bug/patch item for each change.

* Menu:

* Python 2.x 的未來: Python 2 x 的未來.
* Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings::
* Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features.
* PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
* PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
* PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
* PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
* PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<13>.
* New and Improved Modules::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>.
* Other Changes and Fixes::
* Porting to Python 2.7: Porting to Python 2 7.
* New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases.
* 致謝::


File: python.info,  Node: Python 2 x 的未來,  Next: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.1 Python 2.x 的未來
------------------------

Python 2.7 is the last major release in the 2.x series, as the Python
maintainers have shifted the focus of their new feature development
efforts to the Python 3.x series.  This means that while Python 2
continues to receive bug fixes, and to be updated to build correctly on
new hardware and versions of supported operated systems, there will be
no new full feature releases for the language or standard library.

However, while there is a large common subset between Python 2.7 and
Python 3, and many of the changes involved in migrating to that common
subset, or directly to Python 3, can be safely automated, some other
changes (notably those associated with Unicode handling) may require
careful consideration, and preferably robust automated regression test
suites, to migrate effectively.

This means that Python 2.7 will remain in place for a long time,
providing a stable and supported base platform for production systems
that have not yet been ported to Python 3.  The full expected lifecycle
of the Python 2.7 series is detailed in PEP 373(1).

Some key consequences of the long-term significance of 2.7 are:

   * As noted above, the 2.7 release has a much longer period of
     maintenance when compared to earlier 2.x versions.  Python 2.7 is
     currently expected to remain supported by the core development team
     (receiving security updates and other bug fixes) until at least
     2020 (10 years after its initial release, compared to the more
     typical support period of 18-24 months).

   * As the Python 2.7 standard library ages, making effective use of
     the Python Package Index (either directly or via a redistributor)
     becomes more important for Python 2 users.  In addition to a wide
     variety of third party packages for various tasks, the available
     packages include backports of new modules and features from the
     Python 3 standard library that are compatible with Python 2, as
     well as various tools and libraries that can make it easier to
     migrate to Python 3.  The Python Packaging User Guide(2) provides
     guidance on downloading and installing software from the Python
     Package Index.

   * While the preferred approach to enhancing Python 2 is now the
     publication of new packages on the Python Package Index, this
     approach doesn't necessarily work in all cases, especially those
     related to network security.  In exceptional cases that cannot be
     handled adequately by publishing new or updated packages on PyPI,
     the Python Enhancement Proposal process may be used to make the
     case for adding new features directly to the Python 2 standard
     library.  Any such additions, and the maintenance releases where
     they were added, will be noted in the *note New Features Added to
     Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: 1177. section below.

For projects wishing to migrate from Python 2 to Python 3, or for
library and framework developers wishing to support users on both Python
2 and Python 3, there are a variety of tools and guides available to
help decide on a suitable approach and manage some of the technical
details involved.  The recommended starting point is the pyporting-howto
HOWTO guide.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Next: Python 3 1 Features,  Prev: Python 2 x 的未來,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.2 Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
------------------------------------------------------

For Python 2.7, a policy decision was made to silence warnings only of
interest to developers by default.  *note DeprecationWarning: 179. and
its descendants are now ignored unless otherwise requested, preventing
users from seeing warnings triggered by an application.  This change was
also made in the branch that became Python 3.2.  (Discussed on
stdlib-sig and carried out in bpo-7319(1).)

In previous releases, *note DeprecationWarning: 179. messages were
enabled by default, providing Python developers with a clear indication
of where their code may break in a future major version of Python.

However, there are increasingly many users of Python-based applications
who are not directly involved in the development of those applications.
*note DeprecationWarning: 179. messages are irrelevant to such users,
making them worry about an application that's actually working correctly
and burdening application developers with responding to these concerns.

You can re-enable display of *note DeprecationWarning: 179. messages by
running Python with the *note -Wdefault: 6ff. (short form: *note -Wd:
6ff.) switch, or by setting the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a0b. environment
variable to ‘"default"’ (or ‘"d"’) before running Python.  Python code
can also re-enable them by calling ‘warnings.simplefilter('default')’.

The ‘unittest’ module also automatically reenables deprecation warnings
when running tests.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7319


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 1 Features,  Next: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Prev: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.3 Python 3.1 Features
--------------------------

Much as Python 2.6 incorporated features from Python 3.0, version 2.7
incorporates some of the new features in Python 3.1.  The 2.x series
continues to provide tools for migrating to the 3.x series.

A partial list of 3.1 features that were backported to 2.7:

   * The syntax for set literals (‘{1,2,3}’ is a mutable set).

   * Dictionary and set comprehensions (‘{i: i*2 for i in range(3)}’).

   * Multiple context managers in a single *note with: 3c5. statement.

   * A new version of the *note io: 79. library, rewritten in C for
     performance.

   * The ordered-dictionary type described in *note PEP 372; Adding an
     Ordered Dictionary to collections: 117a.

   * The new ‘","’ format specifier described in *note PEP 378; Format
     Specifier for Thousands Separator: 117b.

   * *note memoryview: 17f. 物件。

   * A small subset of the *note importlib: 71. module, *note described
     below: 117c.

   * The *note repr(): 61e. of a float ‘x’ is shorter in many cases:
     it's now based on the shortest decimal string that's guaranteed to
     round back to ‘x’.  As in previous versions of Python, it's
     guaranteed that ‘float(repr(x))’ recovers ‘x’.

   * Float-to-string and string-to-float conversions are correctly
     rounded.  The *note round(): 116b. function is also now correctly
     rounded.

   * The *note PyCapsule: 1107. type, used to provide a C API for
     extension modules.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 10fb. C API 函式。

Other new Python3-mode warnings include:

   * ‘operator.isCallable()’ and ‘operator.sequenceIncludes()’, which
     are not supported in 3.x, now trigger warnings.

   * The ‘-3’ switch now automatically enables the ‘-Qwarn’ switch that
     causes warnings about using classic division with integers and long
     integers.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Prev: Python 3 1 Features,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.4 PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
-----------------------------------------------------------

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary
order.  Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative
implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally
inserted.  Based on the experiences from those implementations, 2.7
introduces a new *note OrderedDict: 3ce. class in the *note collections:
1b. module.

The *note OrderedDict: 3ce. API provides the same interface as regular
dictionaries but iterates over keys and values in a guaranteed order
depending on when a key was first inserted:

     >>> from collections import OrderedDict
     >>> d = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
     ...                  ('second', 2),
     ...                  ('third', 3)])
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('second', 2), ('third', 3)]

If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion
position is left unchanged:

     >>> d['second'] = 4
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('second', 4), ('third', 3)]

Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end:

     >>> del d['second']
     >>> d['second'] = 5
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('third', 3), ('second', 5)]

The *note popitem(): 117e. method has an optional 'last' argument that
defaults to ‘True’.  If 'last' is true, the most recently added key is
returned and removed; if it's false, the oldest key is selected:

     >>> od = OrderedDict([(x,0) for x in range(20)])
     >>> od.popitem()
     (19, 0)
     >>> od.popitem()
     (18, 0)
     >>> od.popitem(last=False)
     (0, 0)
     >>> od.popitem(last=False)
     (1, 0)

Comparing two ordered dictionaries checks both the keys and values, and
requires that the insertion order was the same:

     >>> od1 = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
     ...                    ('second', 2),
     ...                    ('third', 3)])
     >>> od2 = OrderedDict([('third', 3),
     ...                    ('first', 1),
     ...                    ('second', 2)])
     >>> od1 == od2
     False
     >>> # Move 'third' key to the end
     >>> del od2['third']; od2['third'] = 3
     >>> od1 == od2
     True

Comparing an *note OrderedDict: 3ce. with a regular dictionary ignores
the insertion order and just compares the keys and values.

How does the *note OrderedDict: 3ce. work?  It maintains a doubly linked
list of keys, appending new keys to the list as they're inserted.  A
secondary dictionary maps keys to their corresponding list node, so
deletion doesn't have to traverse the entire linked list and therefore
remains 'O'(1).

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
modules.

   * The *note ConfigParser: 20. module uses them by default, meaning
     that configuration files can now be read, modified, and then
     written back in their original order.

   * The *note _asdict(): 826. method for *note
     collections.namedtuple(): 731. now returns an ordered dictionary
     with the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple
     indices.

   * The *note json: 7c. module's *note JSONDecoder: bba. class
     constructor was extended with an 'object_pairs_hook' parameter to
     allow ‘OrderedDict’ instances to be built by the decoder.  Support
     was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1).

也參考
......

PEP 372(2) - Adding an ordered dictionary to collections

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger; implemented by
     Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyyaml.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Next: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Prev: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.5 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
--------------------------------------------------------

To make program output more readable, it can be useful to add separators
to large numbers, rendering them as 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 instead
of 18446744073709551616.

The fully general solution for doing this is the *note locale: 81.
module, which can use different separators ("," in North America, "."
in Europe) and different grouping sizes, but *note locale: 81. is
complicated to use and unsuitable for multi-threaded applications where
different threads are producing output for different locales.

Therefore, a simple comma-grouping mechanism has been added to the
mini-language used by the *note str.format(): 41b. method.  When
formatting a floating-point number, simply include a comma between the
width and the precision:

     >>> '{:20,.2f}'.format(18446744073709551616.0)
     '18,446,744,073,709,551,616.00'

When formatting an integer, include the comma after the width:

     >>> '{:20,d}'.format(18446744073709551616)
     '18,446,744,073,709,551,616'

This mechanism is not adaptable at all; commas are always used as the
separator and the grouping is always into three-digit groups.  The
comma-formatting mechanism isn't as general as the *note locale: 81.
module, but it's easier to use.

也參考
......

PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

     由 Raymond Hettinger 撰寫 PEP；由 Eric Smith 實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Next: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.6 PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
-------------------------------------------------------------

The *note argparse: 6. module for parsing command-line arguments was
added as a more powerful replacement for the *note optparse: 9b. module.

This means Python now supports three different modules for parsing
command-line arguments: *note getopt: 5c, *note optparse: 9b, and *note
argparse: 6.  The *note getopt: 5c. module closely resembles the C
library's ‘getopt()’ function, so it remains useful if you're writing a
Python prototype that will eventually be rewritten in C. *note optparse:
9b. becomes redundant, but there are no plans to remove it because there
are many scripts still using it, and there's no automated way to update
these scripts.  (Making the *note argparse: 6. API consistent with *note
optparse: 9b.'s interface was discussed but rejected as too messy and
difficult.)

In short, if you're writing a new script and don't need to worry about
compatibility with earlier versions of Python, use *note argparse: 6.
instead of *note optparse: 9b.

以下是個範例：

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Command-line example.')

     # Add optional switches
     parser.add_argument('-v', action='store_true', dest='is_verbose',
                         help='produce verbose output')
     parser.add_argument('-o', action='store', dest='output',
                         metavar='FILE',
                         help='direct output to FILE instead of stdout')
     parser.add_argument('-C', action='store', type=int, dest='context',
                         metavar='NUM', default=0,
                         help='display NUM lines of added context')

     # Allow any number of additional arguments.
     parser.add_argument(nargs='*', action='store', dest='inputs',
                         help='input filenames (default is stdin)')

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print args.__dict__

Unless you override it, ‘-h’ and ‘--help’ switches are automatically
added, and produce neatly formatted output:

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py --help
     usage: argparse-example.py [-h] [-v] [-o FILE] [-C NUM] [inputs [inputs ...]]

     Command-line example.

     positional arguments:
       inputs      input filenames (default is stdin)

     optional arguments:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       -v          produce verbose output
       -o FILE     direct output to FILE instead of stdout
       -C NUM      display NUM lines of added context

As with *note optparse: 9b, the command-line switches and arguments are
returned as an object with attributes named by the 'dest' parameters:

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v
     {'output': None,
      'is_verbose': True,
      'context': 0,
      'inputs': []}

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v -o /tmp/output -C 4 file1 file2
     {'output': '/tmp/output',
      'is_verbose': True,
      'context': 4,
      'inputs': ['file1', 'file2']}

*note argparse: 6. has much fancier validation than *note optparse: 9b.;
you can specify an exact number of arguments as an integer, 0 or more
arguments by passing ‘'*'’, 1 or more by passing ‘'+'’, or an optional
argument with ‘'?'’.  A top-level parser can contain sub-parsers to
define subcommands that have different sets of switches, as in ‘svn
commit’, ‘svn checkout’, etc.  You can specify an argument's type as
*note FileType: da4, which will automatically open files for you and
understands that ‘'-'’ means standard input or output.

也參考
......

*note argparse: 6. 文件

     argparse 模組的文件頁面。

*note Upgrading optparse code: 103f.

     Part of the Python documentation, describing how to convert code
     that uses *note optparse: 9b.

PEP 389(1) - argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module

     由 Steven Bethard 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Next: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Prev: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.7 PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note logging: 82. module is very flexible; applications can define
a tree of logging subsystems, and each logger in this tree can filter
out certain messages, format them differently, and direct messages to a
varying number of handlers.

All this flexibility can require a lot of configuration.  You can write
Python statements to create objects and set their properties, but a
complex set-up requires verbose but boring code.  *note logging: 82.
also supports a *note fileConfig(): 9ab. function that parses a file,
but the file format doesn't support configuring filters, and it's
messier to generate programmatically.

Python 2.7 adds a *note dictConfig(): 1041. function that uses a
dictionary to configure logging.  There are many ways to produce a
dictionary from different sources: construct one with code; parse a file
containing JSON; or use a YAML parsing library if one is installed.  For
more information see *note Configuration functions: 1182.

The following example configures two loggers, the root logger and a
logger named "network".  Messages sent to the root logger will be sent
to the system log using the syslog protocol, and messages to the
"network" logger will be written to a ‘network.log’ file that will be
rotated once the log reaches 1MB.

     import logging
     import logging.config

     configdict = {
      'version': 1,    # Configuration schema in use; must be 1 for now
      'formatters': {
          'standard': {
              'format': ('%(asctime)s %(name)-15s '
                         '%(levelname)-8s %(message)s')}},

      'handlers': {'netlog': {'backupCount': 10,
                          'class': 'logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler',
                          'filename': '/logs/network.log',
                          'formatter': 'standard',
                          'level': 'INFO',
                          'maxBytes': 1000000},
                   'syslog': {'class': 'logging.handlers.SysLogHandler',
                              'formatter': 'standard',
                              'level': 'ERROR'}},

      # Specify all the subordinate loggers
      'loggers': {
                  'network': {
                              'handlers': ['netlog']
                  }
      },
      # Specify properties of the root logger
      'root': {
               'handlers': ['syslog']
      },
     }

     # Set up configuration
     logging.config.dictConfig(configdict)

     # As an example, log two error messages
     logger = logging.getLogger('/')
     logger.error('Database not found')

     netlogger = logging.getLogger('network')
     netlogger.error('Connection failed')

Three smaller enhancements to the *note logging: 82. module, all
implemented by Vinay Sajip, are:

   * The *note SysLogHandler: 457. class now supports syslogging over
     TCP. The constructor has a 'socktype' parameter giving the type of
     socket to use, either *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 1183. for UDP or
     *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 1184. for TCP. The default protocol
     remains UDP.

   * *note Logger: 9a9. instances gained a *note getChild(): 1185.
     method that retrieves a descendant logger using a relative path.
     For example, once you retrieve a logger by doing ‘log =
     getLogger('app')’, calling ‘log.getChild('network.listen')’ is
     equivalent to ‘getLogger('app.network.listen')’.

   * The *note LoggerAdapter: 1186. class gained an *note
     isEnabledFor(): 1187. method that takes a 'level' and returns
     whether the underlying logger would process a message of that level
     of importance.

也參考
......

PEP 391(1) - Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging

     由 Vinay Sajip 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Next: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.8 PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
---------------------------------

The dictionary methods *note keys(): 5ec, *note values(): 5ed, and *note
items(): 5ee. are different in Python 3.x.  They return an object called
a 'view' instead of a fully materialized list.

It's not possible to change the return values of *note keys(): 5ec,
*note values(): 5ed, and *note items(): 5ee. in Python 2.7 because too
much code would break.  Instead the 3.x versions were added under the
new names ‘viewkeys()’, ‘viewvalues()’, and ‘viewitems()’.

     >>> d = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
     >>> d
     {0: 'A', 130: 'N', 10: 'B', 140: 'O', 20: ..., 250: 'Z'}
     >>> d.viewkeys()
     dict_keys([0, 130, 10, 140, 20, 150, 30, ..., 250])

Views can be iterated over, but the key and item views also behave like
sets.  The ‘&’ operator performs intersection, and ‘|’ performs a union:

     >>> d1 = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
     >>> d2 = dict((i**.5, i) for i in range(1000))
     >>> d1.viewkeys() & d2.viewkeys()
     set([0.0, 10.0, 20.0, 30.0])
     >>> d1.viewkeys() | range(0, 30)
     set([0, 1, 130, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..., 120, 250])

The view keeps track of the dictionary and its contents change as the
dictionary is modified:

     >>> vk = d.viewkeys()
     >>> vk
     dict_keys([0, 130, 10, ..., 250])
     >>> d[260] = '&'
     >>> vk
     dict_keys([0, 130, 260, 10, ..., 250])

However, note that you can't add or remove keys while you're iterating
over the view:

     >>> for k in vk:
     ...     d[k*2] = k
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration

You can use the view methods in Python 2.x code, and the 2to3 converter
will change them to the standard *note keys(): 5ec, *note values(): 5ed,
and *note items(): 5ee. methods.

也參考
......

PEP 3106(1) - Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items()

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.  Backported to 2.7 by Alexandre
     Vassalotti; bpo-1967(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3106/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1967


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Next: 其他語言更動<13>,  Prev: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.9 PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
--------------------------------------

The *note memoryview: 17f. object provides a view of another object's
memory content that matches the *note bytes: 2c1. type's interface.

     >>> import string
     >>> m = memoryview(string.letters)
     >>> m
     <memory at 0x37f850>
     >>> len(m)           # Returns length of underlying object
     52
     >>> m[0], m[25], m[26]   # Indexing returns one byte
     ('a', 'z', 'A')
     >>> m2 = m[0:26]         # Slicing returns another memoryview
     >>> m2
     <memory at 0x37f080>

The content of the view can be converted to a string of bytes or a list
of integers:

     >>> m2.tobytes()
     'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
     >>> m2.tolist()
     [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, ... 121, 122]
     >>>

*note memoryview: 17f. objects allow modifying the underlying object if
it's a mutable object.

     >>> m2[0] = 75
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
     >>> b = bytearray(string.letters)  # Creating a mutable object
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ')
     >>> mb = memoryview(b)
     >>> mb[0] = '*'         # Assign to view, changing the bytearray.
     >>> b[0:5]              # The bytearray has been changed.
     bytearray(b'*bcde')
     >>>

也參考
......

PEP 3137(1) - Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Travis Oliphant,
     Antoine Pitrou and others.  Backported to 2.7 by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-2396(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3137/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2396


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<13>,  Next: New and Improved Modules,  Prev: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.10 其他語言更動
--------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * The syntax for set literals has been backported from Python 3.x.
     Curly brackets are used to surround the contents of the resulting
     mutable set; set literals are distinguished from dictionaries by
     not containing colons and values.  ‘{}’ continues to represent an
     empty dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set.

          >>> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
          set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
          >>> set() # empty set
          set([])
          >>> {}    # empty dict
          {}

     Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2335(1).

   * Dictionary and set comprehensions are another feature backported
     from 3.x, generalizing list/generator comprehensions to use the
     literal syntax for sets and dictionaries.

          >>> {x: x*x for x in range(6)}
          {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}
          >>> {('a'*x) for x in range(6)}
          set(['', 'a', 'aa', 'aaa', 'aaaa', 'aaaaa'])

     Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2333(2).

   * The *note with: 3c5. statement can now use multiple context
     managers in one statement.  Context managers are processed from
     left to right and each one is treated as beginning a new ‘with’
     statement.  This means that:

          with A() as a, B() as b:
              ... suite of statements ...

     is equivalent to:

          with A() as a:
              with B() as b:
                  ... suite of statements ...

     The ‘contextlib.nested()’ function provides a very similar
     function, so it's no longer necessary and has been deprecated.

     (Proposed in ‘https://codereview.appspot.com/53094’; implemented by
     Georg Brandl.)

   * Conversions between floating-point numbers and strings are now
     correctly rounded on most platforms.  These conversions occur in
     many different places: *note str(): 157. on floats and complex
     numbers; the *note float: 26a. and *note complex: 26b.
     constructors; numeric formatting; serializing and deserializing
     floats and complex numbers using the *note marshal: 88, *note
     pickle: a1. and *note json: 7c. modules; parsing of float and
     imaginary literals in Python code; and *note Decimal: 5f0.-to-float
     conversion.

     Related to this, the *note repr(): 61e. of a floating-point number
     'x' now returns a result based on the shortest decimal string
     that's guaranteed to round back to 'x' under correct rounding (with
     round-half-to-even rounding mode).  Previously it gave a string
     based on rounding x to 17 decimal digits.

     The rounding library responsible for this improvement works on
     Windows and on Unix platforms using the gcc, icc, or suncc
     compilers.  There may be a small number of platforms where correct
     operation of this code cannot be guaranteed, so the code is not
     used on such systems.  You can find out which code is being used by
     checking *note sys.float_repr_style: 118b, which will be ‘short’ if
     the new code is in use and ‘legacy’ if it isn't.

     Implemented by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson, using David Gay's
     ‘dtoa.c’ library; bpo-7117(3).

   * Conversions from long integers and regular integers to floating
     point now round differently, returning the floating-point number
     closest to the number.  This doesn't matter for small integers that
     can be converted exactly, but for large numbers that will
     unavoidably lose precision, Python 2.7 now approximates more
     closely.  For example, Python 2.6 computed the following:

          >>> n = 295147905179352891391
          >>> float(n)
          2.9514790517935283e+20
          >>> n - long(float(n))
          65535L

     Python 2.7's floating-point result is larger, but much closer to
     the true value:

          >>> n = 295147905179352891391
          >>> float(n)
          2.9514790517935289e+20
          >>> n - long(float(n))
          -1L

     （由 Mark Dickinson 實作；bpo-3166(4)。）

     Integer division is also more accurate in its rounding behaviours.
     (Also implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1811(5).)

   * Implicit coercion for complex numbers has been removed; the
     interpreter will no longer ever attempt to call a ‘__coerce__()’
     method on complex objects.  (Removed by Meador Inge and Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-5211(6).)

   * The *note str.format(): 41b. method now supports automatic
     numbering of the replacement fields.  This makes using *note
     str.format(): 41b. more closely resemble using ‘%s’ formatting:

          >>> '{}:{}:{}'.format(2009, 04, 'Sunday')
          '2009:4:Sunday'
          >>> '{}:{}:{day}'.format(2009, 4, day='Sunday')
          '2009:4:Sunday'

     The auto-numbering takes the fields from left to right, so the
     first ‘{...}’ specifier will use the first argument to *note
     str.format(): 41b, the next specifier will use the next argument,
     and so on.  You can't mix auto-numbering and explicit numbering -
     either number all of your specifier fields or none of them - but
     you can mix auto-numbering and named fields, as in the second
     example above.  (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-5237(7).)

     Complex numbers now correctly support usage with *note format():
     417, and default to being right-aligned.  Specifying a precision or
     comma-separation applies to both the real and imaginary parts of
     the number, but a specified field width and alignment is applied to
     the whole of the resulting ‘1.5+3j’ output.  (Contributed by Eric
     Smith; bpo-1588(8) and bpo-7988(9).)

     The 'F' format code now always formats its output using uppercase
     characters, so it will now produce 'INF' and 'NAN'. (Contributed by
     Eric Smith; bpo-3382(10).)

     A low-level change: the *note object.__format__(): 419. method now
     triggers a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700. if it's passed a
     format string, because the ‘__format__()’ method for *note object:
     8d9. converts the object to a string representation and formats
     that.  Previously the method silently applied the format string to
     the string representation, but that could hide mistakes in Python
     code.  If you're supplying formatting information such as an
     alignment or precision, presumably you're expecting the formatting
     to be applied in some object-specific way.  (Fixed by Eric Smith;
     bpo-7994(11).)

   * The *note int(): 17e. and ‘long()’ types gained a ‘bit_length’
     method that returns the number of bits necessary to represent its
     argument in binary:

          >>> n = 37
          >>> bin(n)
          '0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6
          >>> n = 2**123-1
          >>> n.bit_length()
          123
          >>> (n+1).bit_length()
          124

     （由 Fredrik Johansson 和 Victor Stinner 貢獻；bpo-3439(12)。）

   * The *note import: 3d5. statement will no longer try an absolute
     import if a relative import (e.g.  ‘from .os import sep’) fails.
     This fixes a bug, but could possibly break certain ‘import’
     statements that were only working by accident.  (Fixed by Meador
     Inge; bpo-7902(13).)

   * It's now possible for a subclass of the built-in ‘unicode’ type to
     override the ‘__unicode__()’ method.  (Implemented by Victor
     Stinner; bpo-1583863(14).)

   * The *note bytearray: 2c0. type's *note translate(): 118c. method
     now accepts ‘None’ as its first argument.  (Fixed by Georg Brandl;
     bpo-4759(15).)

   * When using *note @classmethod: 24b. and *note @staticmethod: 5f9.
     to wrap methods as class or static methods, the wrapper object now
     exposes the wrapped function as their *note __func__: 118d.
     attribute.  (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d'Arc, after a
     suggestion by George Sakkis; bpo-5982(16).)

   * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’,
     deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError:
     3ca. as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-7604(17).)

   * Two new encodings are now supported: "cp720", used primarily for
     Arabic text; and "cp858", a variant of CP 850 that adds the euro
     symbol.  (CP720 contributed by Alexander Belchenko and Amaury
     Forgeot d'Arc in bpo-1616979(18); CP858 contributed by Tim Hatch in
     bpo-8016(19).)

   * The ‘file’ object will now set the ‘filename’ attribute on the
     *note IOError: ee8. exception when trying to open a directory on
     POSIX platforms (noted by Jan Kaliszewski; bpo-4764(20)), and now
     explicitly checks for and forbids writing to read-only file objects
     instead of trusting the C library to catch and report the error
     (fixed by Stefan Krah; bpo-5677(21)).

   * The Python tokenizer now translates line endings itself, so the
     *note compile(): 554. built-in function now accepts code using any
     line-ending convention.  Additionally, it no longer requires that
     the code end in a newline.

   * Extra parentheses in function definitions are illegal in Python
     3.x, meaning that you get a syntax error from ‘def f((x)): pass’.
     In Python3-warning mode, Python 2.7 will now warn about this odd
     usage.  (Noted by James Lingard; bpo-7362(22).)

   * It's now possible to create weak references to old-style class
     objects.  New-style classes were always weak-referenceable.  (Fixed
     by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8268(23).)

   * When a module object is garbage-collected, the module's dictionary
     is now only cleared if no one else is holding a reference to the
     dictionary (bpo-7140(24)).

* Menu:

* Interpreter Changes::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<12>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2335

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2333

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7117

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3166

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1811

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5211

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1588

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7988

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3382

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7902

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583863

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4759

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5982

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8016

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4764

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5677

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7362

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8268

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7140


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes,  Next: 最佳化<12>,  Up: 其他語言更動<13>

1.14.10.1 Interpreter Changes
.............................

A new environment variable, *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a0b, allows
controlling warnings.  It should be set to a string containing warning
settings, equivalent to those used with the *note -W: 6ff. switch,
separated by commas.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin; bpo-7301(1).)

For example, the following setting will print warnings every time they
occur, but turn warnings from the *note Cookie: 6c. module into an
error.  (The exact syntax for setting an environment variable varies
across operating systems and shells.)

     export PYTHONWARNINGS=all,error:::Cookie:0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<12>,  Prev: Interpreter Changes,  Up: 其他語言更動<13>

1.14.10.2 最佳化
................

Several performance enhancements have been added:

   * A new opcode was added to perform the initial setup for *note with:
     3c5. statements, looking up the *note __enter__(): 3b8. and *note
     __exit__(): 1191. methods.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   * The garbage collector now performs better for one common usage
     pattern: when many objects are being allocated without deallocating
     any of them.  This would previously take quadratic time for garbage
     collection, but now the number of full garbage collections is
     reduced as the number of objects on the heap grows.  The new logic
     only performs a full garbage collection pass when the middle
     generation has been collected 10 times and when the number of
     survivor objects from the middle generation exceeds 10% of the
     number of objects in the oldest generation.  (Suggested by Martin
     von Löwis and implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4074(1).)

   * The garbage collector tries to avoid tracking simple containers
     which can't be part of a cycle.  In Python 2.7, this is now true
     for tuples and dicts containing atomic types (such as ints,
     strings, etc.).  Transitively, a dict containing tuples of atomic
     types won't be tracked either.  This helps reduce the cost of each
     garbage collection by decreasing the number of objects to be
     considered and traversed by the collector.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-4688(2).)

   * Long integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or
     in base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time.
     Previously, they were always stored in base ‘2**15’.  Using base
     ‘2**30’ gives significant performance improvements on 64-bit
     machines, but benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.
     Therefore, the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines
     and base ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there's a new
     configure option ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override
     this default.

     Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
     invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
     debugging purposes there's a new structseq ‘sys.long_info’ that
     provides information about the internal format, giving the number
     of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
     each digit:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.long_info
          sys.long_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

     （由 Mark Dickinson 貢獻；bpo-4258(3)。）

     Another set of changes made long objects a few bytes smaller: 2
     bytes smaller on 32-bit systems and 6 bytes on 64-bit.
     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5260(4).)

   * The division algorithm for long integers has been made faster by
     tightening the inner loop, doing shifts instead of multiplications,
     and fixing an unnecessary extra iteration.  Various benchmarks show
     speedups of between 50% and 150% for long integer divisions and
     modulo operations.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5512(5).)
     Bitwise operations are also significantly faster (initial patch by
     Gregory Smith; bpo-1087418(6)).

   * The implementation of ‘%’ checks for the left-side operand being a
     Python string and special-cases it; this results in a 1-3%
     performance increase for applications that frequently use ‘%’ with
     strings, such as templating libraries.  (Implemented by Collin
     Winter; bpo-5176(7).)

   * List comprehensions with an ‘if’ condition are compiled into faster
     bytecode.  (Patch by Antoine Pitrou, back-ported to 2.7 by Jeffrey
     Yasskin; bpo-4715(8).)

   * Converting an integer or long integer to a decimal string was made
     faster by special-casing base 10 instead of using a generalized
     conversion function that supports arbitrary bases.  (Patch by
     Gawain Bolton; bpo-6713(9).)

   * The ‘split()’, ‘replace()’, ‘rindex()’, ‘rpartition()’, and
     ‘rsplit()’ methods of string-like types (strings, Unicode strings,
     and *note bytearray: 2c0. objects) now use a fast reverse-search
     algorithm instead of a character-by-character scan.  This is
     sometimes faster by a factor of 10.  (Added by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-7462(10) and bpo-7622(11).)

   * The *note pickle: a1. and ‘cPickle’ modules now automatically
     intern the strings used for attribute names, reducing memory usage
     of the objects resulting from unpickling.  (Contributed by Jake
     McGuire; bpo-5084(12).)

   * The ‘cPickle’ module now special-cases dictionaries, nearly halving
     the time required to pickle them.  (Contributed by Collin Winter;
     bpo-5670(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4074

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5260

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5512

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1087418

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5176

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4715

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5670


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules,  Next: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Prev: 其他語言更動<13>,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.11 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

As in every release, Python's standard library received a number of
enhancements and bug fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable
changes, sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’
file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look
through the Subversion logs for all the details.

   * The *note bdb: d. module's base debugging class *note Bdb: 1193.
     gained a feature for skipping modules.  The constructor now takes
     an iterable containing glob-style patterns such as ‘django.*’; the
     debugger will not step into stack frames from a module that matches
     one of these patterns.  (Contributed by Maru Newby after a
     suggestion by Senthil Kumaran; bpo-5142(1).)

   * The *note binascii: e. module now supports the buffer API, so it
     can be used with *note memoryview: 17f. instances and other similar
     buffer objects.  (Backported from 3.x by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-7703(2).)

   * Updated module: the ‘bsddb’ module has been updated from
     4.7.2devel9 to version 4.8.4 of the pybsddb package(3).  The new
     version features better Python 3.x compatibility, various bug
     fixes, and adds several new BerkeleyDB flags and methods.  (Updated
     by Jesús Cea Avión; bpo-8156(4).  The pybsddb changelog can be read
     at ‘https://hg.jcea.es/pybsddb/file/tip/ChangeLog’.)

   * The *note bz2: 11. module's *note BZ2File: 692. now supports the
     context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     bz2.BZ2File(...) as f:’.  (Contributed by Hagen Fürstenau;
     bpo-3860(5).)

   * New class: the *note Counter: f28. class in the *note collections:
     1b. module is useful for tallying data.  *note Counter: f28.
     instances behave mostly like dictionaries but return zero for
     missing keys instead of raising a *note KeyError: 8ed.:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> c = Counter()
          >>> for letter in 'here is a sample of english text':
          ...   c[letter] += 1
          ...
          >>> c
          Counter({' ': 6, 'e': 5, 's': 3, 'a': 2, 'i': 2, 'h': 2,
          'l': 2, 't': 2, 'g': 1, 'f': 1, 'm': 1, 'o': 1, 'n': 1,
          'p': 1, 'r': 1, 'x': 1})
          >>> c['e']
          5
          >>> c['z']
          0

     There are three additional *note Counter: f28. methods.  *note
     most_common(): 1194. returns the N most common elements and their
     counts.  *note elements(): 1195. returns an iterator over the
     contained elements, repeating each element as many times as its
     count.  *note subtract(): 106f. takes an iterable and subtracts one
     for each element instead of adding; if the argument is a dictionary
     or another ‘Counter’, the counts are subtracted.

          >>> c.most_common(5)
          [(' ', 6), ('e', 5), ('s', 3), ('a', 2), ('i', 2)]
          >>> c.elements() ->
             'a', 'a', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
             'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'g', 'f', 'i', 'i',
             'h', 'h', 'm', 'l', 'l', 'o', 'n', 'p', 's',
             's', 's', 'r', 't', 't', 'x'
          >>> c['e']
          5
          >>> c.subtract('very heavy on the letter e')
          >>> c['e']    # Count is now lower
          -1

     Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199(6).

     New class: *note OrderedDict: 3ce. is described in the earlier
     section *note PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections:
     117a.

     New method: The *note deque: 3cf. data type now has a *note
     count(): 1071. method that returns the number of contained elements
     equal to the supplied argument 'x', and a *note reverse(): 1072.
     method that reverses the elements of the deque in-place.  *note
     deque: 3cf. also exposes its maximum length as the read-only *note
     maxlen: 1196. attribute.  (Both features added by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

     The *note namedtuple: 731. class now has an optional 'rename'
     parameter.  If 'rename' is true, field names that are invalid
     because they've been repeated or aren't legal Python identifiers
     will be renamed to legal names that are derived from the field's
     position within the list of fields:

          >>> from collections import namedtuple
          >>> T = namedtuple('T', ['field1', '$illegal', 'for', 'field2'], rename=True)
          >>> T._fields
          ('field1', '_1', '_2', 'field2')

     (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818(7).)

     Finally, the *note Mapping: 702. abstract base class now returns
     *note NotImplemented: 5f2. if a mapping is compared to another type
     that isn't a ‘Mapping’.  (Fixed by Daniel Stutzbach; bpo-8729(8).)

   * Constructors for the parsing classes in the *note ConfigParser: 20.
     module now take an 'allow_no_value' parameter, defaulting to false;
     if true, options without values will be allowed.  For example:

          >>> import ConfigParser, StringIO
          >>> sample_config = """
          ... [mysqld]
          ... user = mysql
          ... pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
          ... skip-bdb
          ... """
          >>> config = ConfigParser.RawConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
          >>> config.readfp(StringIO.StringIO(sample_config))
          >>> config.get('mysqld', 'user')
          'mysql'
          >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'skip-bdb')
          None
          >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'unknown')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          NoOptionError: No option 'unknown' in section: 'mysqld'

     （由 Mats Kindahl 貢獻；bpo-7005(9)。）

   * Deprecated function: ‘contextlib.nested()’, which allows handling
     more than one context manager with a single *note with: 3c5.
     statement, has been deprecated, because the ‘with’ statement now
     supports multiple context managers.

   * The *note cookielib: 6b. module now ignores cookies that have an
     invalid version field, one that doesn't contain an integer value.
     (Fixed by John J. Lee; bpo-3924(10).)

   * The *note copy: 23. module's *note deepcopy(): 9cb. function will
     now correctly copy bound instance methods.  (Implemented by Robert
     Collins; bpo-1515(11).)

   * The *note ctypes: 28. module now always converts ‘None’ to a C
     ‘NULL’ pointer for arguments declared as pointers.  (Changed by
     Thomas Heller; bpo-4606(12).)  The underlying libffi library(13)
     has been updated to version 3.0.9, containing various fixes for
     different platforms.  (Updated by Matthias Klose; bpo-8142(14).)

   * New method: the *note datetime: 2e. module's *note timedelta: 813.
     class gained a *note total_seconds(): 1197. method that returns the
     number of seconds in the duration.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan;
     bpo-5788(15).)

   * New method: the *note Decimal: 5f0. class gained a *note
     from_float(): 1095. class method that performs an exact conversion
     of a floating-point number to a ‘Decimal’.  This exact conversion
     strives for the closest decimal approximation to the floating-point
     representation's value; the resulting decimal value will therefore
     still include the inaccuracy, if any.  For example,
     ‘Decimal.from_float(0.1)’ returns
     ‘Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')’.
     (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4796(16).)

     Comparing instances of *note Decimal: 5f0. with floating-point
     numbers now produces sensible results based on the numeric values
     of the operands.  Previously such comparisons would fall back to
     Python's default rules for comparing objects, which produced
     arbitrary results based on their type.  Note that you still cannot
     combine ‘Decimal’ and floating point in other operations such as
     addition, since you should be explicitly choosing how to convert
     between float and ‘Decimal’.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-2531(17).)

     The constructor for *note Decimal: 5f0. now accepts floating-point
     numbers (added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-8257(18)) and non-European
     Unicode characters such as Arabic-Indic digits (contributed by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-6595(19)).

     Most of the methods of the *note Context: f3e. class now accept
     integers as well as *note Decimal: 5f0. instances; the only
     exceptions are the *note canonical(): 1198. and *note
     is_canonical(): 1199. methods.  (Patch by Juan José Conti;
     bpo-7633(20).)

     When using *note Decimal: 5f0. instances with a string's *note
     format(): 41b. method, the default alignment was previously
     left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which is
     more sensible for numeric types.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-6857(21).)

     Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal
     *note InvalidOperation: f39. instead of silently returning a true
     or false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN
     values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-7279(22).)

   * The *note difflib: 34. module now produces output that is more
     compatible with modern ‘diff’/‘patch’ tools through one small
     change, using a tab character instead of spaces as a separator in
     the header giving the filename.  (Fixed by Anatoly Techtonik;
     bpo-7585(23).)

   * The Distutils ‘sdist’ command now always regenerates the ‘MANIFEST’
     file, since even if the ‘MANIFEST.in’ or ‘setup.py’ files haven't
     been modified, the user might have created some new files that
     should be included.  (Fixed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-8688(24).)

   * The *note doctest: 36. module's *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL:
     119a. flag will now ignore the name of the module containing the
     exception being tested.  (Patch by Lennart Regebro; bpo-7490(25).)

   * The *note email: 37. module's *note Message: b05. class will now
     accept a Unicode-valued payload, automatically converting the
     payload to the encoding specified by ‘output_charset’.  (Added by
     R.  David Murray; bpo-1368247(26).)

   * The *note Fraction: 1a8. class now accepts a single float or *note
     Decimal: 5f0. instance, or two rational numbers, as arguments to
     its constructor.  (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; rationals added
     in bpo-5812(27), and float/decimal in bpo-8294(28).)

     Ordering comparisons (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’) between fractions and
     complex numbers now raise a *note TypeError: 2ba.  This fixes an
     oversight, making the *note Fraction: 1a8. match the other numeric
     types.

   * New class: *note FTP_TLS: 736. in the *note ftplib: 59. module
     provides secure FTP connections using TLS encapsulation of
     authentication as well as subsequent control and data transfers.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola; bpo-2054(29).)

     The *note storbinary(): 119b. method for binary uploads can now
     restart uploads thanks to an added 'rest' parameter (patch by Pablo
     Mouzo; bpo-6845(30).)

   * New class decorator: *note total_ordering(): dcf. in the *note
     functools: 5a. module takes a class that defines an *note __eq__():
     94f. method and one of *note __lt__(): 119c, *note __le__(): 119d,
     *note __gt__(): 119e, or *note __ge__(): 119f, and generates the
     missing comparison methods.  Since the ‘__cmp__()’ method is being
     deprecated in Python 3.x, this decorator makes it easier to define
     ordered classes.  (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5479(31).)

     New function: *note cmp_to_key(): 106b. will take an old-style
     comparison function that expects two arguments and return a new
     callable that can be used as the 'key' parameter to functions such
     as *note sorted(): a2f, *note min(): d8c. and *note max(): d8d,
     etc.  The primary intended use is to help with making code
     compatible with Python 3.x.  (Added by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * New function: the *note gc: 5b. module's *note is_tracked(): 11a0.
     returns true if a given instance is tracked by the garbage
     collector, false otherwise.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-4688(32).)

   * The *note gzip: 62. module's *note GzipFile: 28d. now supports the
     context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     gzip.GzipFile(...) as f:’ (contributed by Hagen Fürstenau;
     bpo-3860(33)), and it now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase:
     491. ABC, so you can wrap it with *note io.BufferedReader: 109f.
     for faster processing (contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7471(34)).
     It's also now possible to override the modification time recorded
     in a gzipped file by providing an optional timestamp to the
     constructor.  (Contributed by Jacques Frechet; bpo-4272(35).)

     Files in gzip format can be padded with trailing zero bytes; the
     *note gzip: 62. module will now consume these trailing bytes.
     (Fixed by Tadek Pietraszek and Brian Curtin; bpo-2846(36).)

   * New attribute: the *note hashlib: 63. module now has an
     ‘algorithms’ attribute containing a tuple naming the supported
     algorithms.  In Python 2.7, ‘hashlib.algorithms’ contains ‘('md5',
     'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha256', 'sha384', 'sha512')’.  (Contributed by
     Carl Chenet; bpo-7418(37).)

   * The default *note HTTPResponse: f5d. class used by the *note
     httplib: 69. module now supports buffering, resulting in much
     faster reading of HTTP responses.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur
     Jónsson; bpo-4879(38).)

     The *note HTTPConnection: 998. and *note HTTPSConnection: 999.
     classes now support a 'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’
     2-tuple giving the source address that will be used for the
     connection.  (Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(39).)

   * The ‘ihooks’ module now supports relative imports.  Note that
     ‘ihooks’ is an older module for customizing imports, superseded by
     the ‘imputil’ module added in Python 2.0.  (Relative import support
     added by Neil Schemenauer.)

   * The *note imaplib: 6f. module now supports IPv6 addresses.
     (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1655(40).)

   * New function: the *note inspect: 78. module's *note getcallargs():
     d3e. takes a callable and its positional and keyword arguments, and
     figures out which of the callable's parameters will receive each
     argument, returning a dictionary mapping argument names to their
     values.  For example:

          >>> from inspect import getcallargs
          >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3)
          {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,), 'named': {}}
          >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4)
          {'a': 2, 'b': 1, 'pos': (), 'named': {'x': 4}}
          >>> getcallargs(f)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          TypeError: f() takes at least 1 argument (0 given)

     Contributed by George Sakkis; bpo-3135(41).

   * Updated module: The *note io: 79. library has been upgraded to the
     version shipped with Python 3.1.  For 3.1, the I/O library was
     entirely rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on
     the task being performed.  The original Python version was renamed
     to the ‘_pyio’ module.

     One minor resulting change: the *note io.TextIOBase: 492. class now
     has an *note errors: 11a1. attribute giving the error setting used
     for encoding and decoding errors (one of ‘'strict'’, ‘'replace'’,
     ‘'ignore'’).

     The *note io.FileIO: 11a2. class now raises an *note OSError: 644.
     when passed an invalid file descriptor.  (Implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-4991(42).)  The *note truncate(): 11a3. method now
     preserves the file position; previously it would change the file
     position to the end of the new file.  (Fixed by Pascal Chambon;
     bpo-6939(43).)

   * New function: ‘itertools.compress(data, selectors)’ takes two
     iterators.  Elements of 'data' are returned if the corresponding
     value in 'selectors' is true:

          itertools.compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) =>
            A, C, E, F

     New function: ‘itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iter, r)’
     returns all the possible 'r'-length combinations of elements from
     the iterable 'iter'.  Unlike *note combinations(): 11a4, individual
     elements can be repeated in the generated combinations:

          itertools.combinations_with_replacement('abc', 2) =>
            ('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),
            ('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'), ('c', 'c')

     Note that elements are treated as unique depending on their
     position in the input, not their actual values.

     The *note itertools.count(): 1118. function now has a 'step'
     argument that allows incrementing by values other than 1.  *note
     count(): 1118. also now allows keyword arguments, and using
     non-integer values such as floats or *note Decimal: 5f0. instances.
     (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5032(44).)

     *note itertools.combinations(): 11a4. and *note
     itertools.product(): 11a5. previously raised *note ValueError: 183.
     for values of 'r' larger than the input iterable.  This was deemed
     a specification error, so they now return an empty iterator.
     (Fixed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4816(45).)

   * Updated module: The *note json: 7c. module was upgraded to version
     2.0.9 of the simplejson package, which includes a C extension that
     makes encoding and decoding faster.  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito;
     bpo-4136(46).)

     To support the new *note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce. type, *note
     json.load(): b21. now has an optional 'object_pairs_hook' parameter
     that will be called with any object literal that decodes to a list
     of pairs.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5381(47).)

   * The *note mailbox: 86. module's *note Maildir: 11a6. class now
     records the timestamp on the directories it reads, and only
     re-reads them if the modification time has subsequently changed.
     This improves performance by avoiding unneeded directory scans.
     (Fixed by A.M. Kuchling and Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1607951(48),
     bpo-6896(49).)

   * New functions: the *note math: 89. module gained *note erf(): a39.
     and *note erfc(): a3a. for the error function and the complementary
     error function, *note expm1(): 107d. which computes ‘e**x - 1’ with
     more precision than using *note exp(): 11a7. and subtracting 1,
     *note gamma(): 107e. for the Gamma function, and *note lgamma():
     107f. for the natural log of the Gamma function.  (Contributed by
     Mark Dickinson and nirinA raseliarison; bpo-3366(50).)

   * The *note multiprocessing: 8f. module's ‘Manager*’ classes can now
     be passed a callable that will be called whenever a subprocess is
     started, along with a set of arguments that will be passed to the
     callable.  (Contributed by lekma; bpo-5585(51).)

     The *note Pool: df8. class, which controls a pool of worker
     processes, now has an optional 'maxtasksperchild' parameter.
     Worker processes will perform the specified number of tasks and
     then exit, causing the ‘Pool’ to start a new worker.  This is
     useful if tasks may leak memory or other resources, or if some
     tasks will cause the worker to become very large.  (Contributed by
     Charles Cazabon; bpo-6963(52).)

   * The *note nntplib: 98. module now supports IPv6 addresses.
     (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1664(53).)

   * New functions: the *note os: 9c. module wraps the following POSIX
     system calls: *note getresgid(): 11a8. and *note getresuid(): 11a9,
     which return the real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs; *note
     setresgid(): 11aa. and *note setresuid(): 11ab, which set real,
     effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs to new values; *note
     initgroups(): 11ac, which initialize the group access list for the
     current process.  (GID/UID functions contributed by Travis H.;
     bpo-6508(54).  Support for initgroups added by Jean-Paul Calderone;
     bpo-7333(55).)

     The *note os.fork(): 233. function now re-initializes the import
     lock in the child process; this fixes problems on Solaris when
     *note fork(): 233. is called from a thread.  (Fixed by Zsolt
     Cserna; bpo-7242(56).)

   * In the *note os.path: 9d. module, the *note normpath(): 11ad. and
     *note abspath(): 11ae. functions now preserve Unicode; if their
     input path is a Unicode string, the return value is also a Unicode
     string.  (*note normpath(): 11ad. fixed by Matt Giuca in
     bpo-5827(57); *note abspath(): 11ae. fixed by Ezio Melotti in
     bpo-3426(58).)

   * The *note pydoc: b0. module now has help for the various symbols
     that Python uses.  You can now do ‘help('<<')’ or ‘help('@')’, for
     example.  (Contributed by David Laban; bpo-4739(59).)

   * The *note re: b4. module's *note split(): 9ca, *note sub(): 201,
     and *note subn(): 202. now accept an optional 'flags' argument, for
     consistency with the other functions in the module.  (Added by
     Gregory P. Smith.)

   * New function: *note run_path(): 11af. in the *note runpy: b9.
     module will execute the code at a provided 'path' argument.  'path'
     can be the path of a Python source file (‘example.py’), a compiled
     bytecode file (‘example.pyc’), a directory (‘./package/’), or a zip
     archive (‘example.zip’).  If a directory or zip path is provided,
     it will be added to the front of ‘sys.path’ and the module *note
     __main__: 1. will be imported.  It's expected that the directory or
     zip contains a ‘__main__.py’; if it doesn't, some other
     ‘__main__.py’ might be imported from a location later in
     ‘sys.path’.  This makes more of the machinery of *note runpy: b9.
     available to scripts that want to mimic the way Python's command
     line processes an explicit path name.  (Added by Nick Coghlan;
     bpo-6816(60).)

   * New function: in the *note shutil: c0. module, *note
     make_archive(): 1d7. takes a filename, archive type (zip or
     tar-format), and a directory path, and creates an archive
     containing the directory's contents.  (Added by Tarek Ziadé.)

     *note shutil: c0.'s *note copyfile(): 8a4. and *note copytree():
     872. functions now raise a ‘SpecialFileError’ exception when asked
     to copy a named pipe.  Previously the code would treat named pipes
     like a regular file by opening them for reading, and this would
     block indefinitely.  (Fixed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3002(61).)

   * The *note signal: c1. module no longer re-installs the signal
     handler unless this is truly necessary, which fixes a bug that
     could make it impossible to catch the EINTR signal robustly.
     (Fixed by Charles-Francois Natali; bpo-8354(62).)

   * New functions: in the *note site: c2. module, three new functions
     return various site- and user-specific paths.  *note
     getsitepackages(): 10d1. returns a list containing all global
     site-packages directories, *note getusersitepackages(): 10d3.
     returns the path of the user's site-packages directory, and *note
     getuserbase(): 10d2. returns the value of the *note USER_BASE:
     11b0. environment variable, giving the path to a directory that can
     be used to store data.  (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-6693(63).)

     The *note site: c2. module now reports exceptions occurring when
     the *note sitecustomize: c3. module is imported, and will no longer
     catch and swallow the *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. exception.
     (Fixed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3137(64).)

   * The *note create_connection(): 46d. function gained a
     'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’ 2-tuple giving the
     source address that will be used for the connection.  (Contributed
     by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(65).)

     The *note recv_into(): 11b1. and *note recvfrom_into(): 11b2.
     methods will now write into objects that support the buffer API,
     most usefully the *note bytearray: 2c0. and *note memoryview: 17f.
     objects.  (Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8104(66).)

   * The *note SocketServer: c7. module's *note TCPServer: 11b3. class
     now supports socket timeouts and disabling the Nagle algorithm.
     The ‘disable_nagle_algorithm’ class attribute defaults to ‘False’;
     if overridden to be true, new request connections will have the
     TCP_NODELAY option set to prevent buffering many small sends into a
     single TCP packet.  The *note timeout: 11b4. class attribute can
     hold a timeout in seconds that will be applied to the request
     socket; if no request is received within that time, *note
     handle_timeout(): 11b5. will be called and *note handle_request():
     11b6. will return.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson;
     bpo-6192(67) and bpo-6267(68).)

   * Updated module: the *note sqlite3: c9. module has been updated to
     version 2.6.0 of the pysqlite package(69).  Version 2.6.0 includes
     a number of bugfixes, and adds the ability to load SQLite
     extensions from shared libraries.  Call the
     ‘enable_load_extension(True)’ method to enable extensions, and then
     call *note load_extension(): 1df. to load a particular shared
     library.  (Updated by Gerhard Häring.)

   * The *note ssl: ca. module's *note SSLSocket: 723. objects now
     support the buffer API, which fixed a test suite failure (fix by
     Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7133(70)) and automatically set OpenSSL's
     ‘SSL_MODE_AUTO_RETRY’, which will prevent an error code being
     returned from ‘recv()’ operations that trigger an SSL renegotiation
     (fix by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8222(71)).

     The *note wrap_socket(): 2a5. constructor function now takes a
     'ciphers' argument that's a string listing the encryption
     algorithms to be allowed; the format of the string is described in
     the OpenSSL documentation(72).  (Added by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-8322(73).)

     Another change makes the extension load all of OpenSSL's ciphers
     and digest algorithms so that they're all available.  Some SSL
     certificates couldn't be verified, reporting an "unknown algorithm"
     error.  (Reported by Beda Kosata, and fixed by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-8484(74).)

     The version of OpenSSL being used is now available as the module
     attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 10b0. (a string), *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 10b1. (a 5-tuple), and *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 10b2. (an integer).  (Added by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-8321(75).)

   * The *note struct: cf. module will no longer silently ignore
     overflow errors when a value is too large for a particular integer
     format code (one of ‘bBhHiIlLqQ’); it now always raises a *note
     struct.error: 11b7. exception.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-1523(76).)  The *note pack(): 110b. function will also attempt
     to use *note __index__(): 51f. to convert and pack non-integers
     before trying the *note __int__(): 51e. method or reporting an
     error.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-8300(77).)

   * New function: the *note subprocess: d0. module's *note
     check_output(): e50. runs a command with a specified set of
     arguments and returns the command's output as a string when the
     command runs without error, or raises a *note CalledProcessError:
     11b8. exception otherwise.

          >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '.'])
          'Filesystem     Size   Used  Avail Capacity  Mounted on\n
          /dev/disk0s2    52G    49G   3.0G    94%    /\n'

          >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '/bogus'])
            ...
          subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command '['df', '-h', '/bogus']' returned non-zero exit status 1

     （由 Gregory P. Smith 所貢獻。）

     The *note subprocess: d0. module will now retry its internal system
     calls on receiving an *note EINTR: bfd. signal.  (Reported by
     several people; final patch by Gregory P. Smith in
     bpo-1068268(78).)

   * New function: *note is_declared_global(): 11b9. in the *note
     symtable: d2. module returns true for variables that are explicitly
     declared to be global, false for ones that are implicitly global.
     (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * The *note syslog: d6. module will now use the value of
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default
     value of ‘'python'’.  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider;
     bpo-8451(79).)

   * The *note sys.version_info: 49c. value is now a named tuple, with
     attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘micro’, ‘releaselevel’, and
     ‘serial’.  (Contributed by Ross Light; bpo-4285(80).)

     *note sys.getwindowsversion(): b54. also returns a named tuple,
     with attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘build’, ‘platform’,
     ‘service_pack’, ‘service_pack_major’, ‘service_pack_minor’,
     ‘suite_mask’, and ‘product_type’.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin;
     bpo-7766(81).)

   * The *note tarfile: d8. module's default error handling has changed,
     to no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was
     previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a
     message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log
     is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed.  The
     default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there's
     an error.  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(82).)

     *note tarfile: d8. now supports filtering the *note TarInfo: 10a2.
     objects being added to a tar file.  When you call *note add(): a56,
     you may supply an optional 'filter' argument that's a callable.
     The 'filter' callable will be passed the *note TarInfo: 10a2. for
     every file being added, and can modify and return it.  If the
     callable returns ‘None’, the file will be excluded from the
     resulting archive.  This is more powerful than the existing
     'exclude' argument, which has therefore been deprecated.  (Added by
     Lars Gustäbel; bpo-6856(83).)  The *note TarFile: 10a1. class also
     now supports the context management protocol.  (Added by Lars
     Gustäbel; bpo-7232(84).)

   * The *note wait(): 11ba. method of the *note threading.Event: feb.
     class now returns the internal flag on exit.  This means the method
     will usually return true because *note wait(): 11ba. is supposed to
     block until the internal flag becomes true.  The return value will
     only be false if a timeout was provided and the operation timed
     out.  (Contributed by Tim Lesher; bpo-1674032(85).)

   * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 100. module
     is now used internally to determine which characters are numeric,
     whitespace, or represent line breaks.  The database also includes
     information from the ‘Unihan.txt’ data file (patch by Anders
     Chrigström and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; bpo-1571184(86)) and has been
     updated to version 5.2.0 (updated by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-8024(87)).

   * The *note urlparse: 105. module's *note urlsplit(): bb1. now
     handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC
     3986(88): if the URL is of the form ‘"<something>://..."’, the text
     before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it's a made-up
     scheme that the module doesn't know about.  This change may break
     code that worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python
     2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

     Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

     (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
     returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

     The *note urlparse: 105. module also supports IPv6 literal
     addresses as defined by RFC 2732(89) (contributed by Senthil
     Kumaran; bpo-2987(90)).

          >>> urlparse.urlparse('http://[1080::8:800:200C:417A]/foo')
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='[1080::8:800:200C:417A]',
                      path='/foo', params='', query='', fragment='')

   * New class: the *note WeakSet: 3d0. class in the *note weakref: 10f.
     module is a set that only holds weak references to its elements;
     elements will be removed once there are no references pointing to
     them.  (Originally implemented in Python 3.x by Raymond Hettinger,
     and backported to 2.7 by Michael Foord.)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. library, no longer escapes
     ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
     instruction (which looks like ‘<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>’)
     or comment (which looks like ‘<!-- comment -->’).  (Patch by Neil
     Muller; bpo-2746(91).)

   * The XML-RPC client and server, provided by the *note xmlrpclib:
     128. and *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 129. modules, have improved
     performance by supporting HTTP/1.1 keep-alive and by optionally
     using gzip encoding to compress the XML being exchanged.  The gzip
     compression is controlled by the ‘encode_threshold’ attribute of
     *note SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 11bb, which contains a size in
     bytes; responses larger than this will be compressed.  (Contributed
     by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-6267(92).)

   * The *note zipfile: 12b. module's *note ZipFile: 4c3. now supports
     the context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     zipfile.ZipFile(...) as f:’.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin;
     bpo-5511(93).)

     *note zipfile: 12b. now also supports archiving empty directories
     and extracts them correctly.  (Fixed by Kuba Wieczorek;
     bpo-4710(94).)  Reading files out of an archive is faster, and
     interleaving *note read(): 11bc. and *note readline(): 11bd. now
     works correctly.  (Contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7610(95).)

     The *note is_zipfile(): 11be. function now accepts a file object,
     in addition to the path names accepted in earlier versions.
     (Contributed by Gabriel Genellina; bpo-4756(96).)

     The *note writestr(): 11bf. method now has an optional
     'compress_type' parameter that lets you override the default
     compression method specified in the *note ZipFile: 4c3.
     constructor.  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-6003(97).)

* Menu:

* New module; importlib: New module importlib.
* New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig.
* ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk.
* Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest.
* Updated module; ElementTree 1.3: Updated module ElementTree 1 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5142

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7703

   (3) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8156

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8729

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7005

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3924

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1515

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4606

   (13) https://sourceware.org/libffi/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8142

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5788

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4796

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531

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File: python.info,  Node: New module importlib,  Next: New module sysconfig,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.14.11.1 New module: importlib
...............................

Python 3.1 includes the *note importlib: 71. package, a
re-implementation of the logic underlying Python's *note import: 3d5.
statement.  *note importlib: 71. is useful for implementers of Python
interpreters and to users who wish to write new importers that can
participate in the import process.  Python 2.7 doesn't contain the
complete *note importlib: 71. package, but instead has a tiny subset
that contains a single function, *note import_module(): 298.

‘import_module(name, package=None)’ imports a module.  'name' is a
string containing the module or package's name.  It's possible to do
relative imports by providing a string that begins with a ‘.’ character,
such as ‘..utils.errors’.  For relative imports, the 'package' argument
must be provided and is the name of the package that will be used as the
anchor for the relative import.  *note import_module(): 298. both
inserts the imported module into ‘sys.modules’ and returns the module
object.

以下是一些範例：

     >>> from importlib import import_module
     >>> anydbm = import_module('anydbm')  # Standard absolute import
     >>> anydbm
     <module 'anydbm' from '/p/python/Lib/anydbm.py'>
     >>> # Relative import
     >>> file_util = import_module('..file_util', 'distutils.command')
     >>> file_util
     <module 'distutils.file_util' from '/python/Lib/distutils/file_util.pyc'>

*note importlib: 71. was implemented by Brett Cannon and introduced in
Python 3.1.


File: python.info,  Node: New module sysconfig,  Next: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Prev: New module importlib,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.14.11.2 New module: sysconfig
...............................

The *note sysconfig: d5. module has been pulled out of the Distutils
package, becoming a new top-level module in its own right.  *note
sysconfig: d5. provides functions for getting information about Python's
build process: compiler switches, installation paths, the platform name,
and whether Python is running from its source directory.

Some of the functions in the module are:

   * *note get_config_var(): ebf. returns variables from Python's
     Makefile and the ‘pyconfig.h’ file.

   * *note get_config_vars(): ec0. returns a dictionary containing all
     of the configuration variables.

   * *note get_path(): 11c2. returns the configured path for a
     particular type of module: the standard library, site-specific
     modules, platform-specific modules, etc.

   * *note is_python_build(): 271. returns true if you're running a
     binary from a Python source tree, and false otherwise.

Consult the *note sysconfig: d5. documentation for more details and for
a complete list of functions.

The Distutils package and *note sysconfig: d5. are now maintained by
Tarek Ziadé, who has also started a Distutils2 package (source
repository at ‘https://hg.python.org/distutils2/’) for developing a
next-generation version of Distutils.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Next: Updated module unittest,  Prev: New module sysconfig,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.14.11.3 ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk
....................................

Tcl/Tk 8.5 includes a set of themed widgets that re-implement basic Tk
widgets but have a more customizable appearance and can therefore more
closely resemble the native platform's widgets.  This widget set was
originally called Tile, but was renamed to Ttk (for "themed Tk") on
being added to Tcl/Tck release 8.5.

To learn more, read the *note ttk: f4. module documentation.  You may
also wish to read the Tcl/Tk manual page describing the Ttk theme
engine, available at
‘https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.5/TkCmd/ttk_intro.html’.  Some screenshots
of the Python/Ttk code in use are at
‘https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-ttk/wikis/Screenshots.wiki’.

The *note tkinter.ttk: f4. module was written by Guilherme Polo and
added in bpo-2983(1).  An alternate version called ‘Tile.py’, written by
Martin Franklin and maintained by Kevin Walzer, was proposed for
inclusion in bpo-2618(2), but the authors argued that Guilherme Polo's
work was more comprehensive.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2618


File: python.info,  Node: Updated module unittest,  Next: Updated module ElementTree 1 3,  Prev: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.14.11.4 Updated module: unittest
..................................

The *note unittest: 101. module was greatly enhanced; many new features
were added.  Most of these features were implemented by Michael Foord,
unless otherwise noted.  The enhanced version of the module is
downloadable separately for use with Python versions 2.4 to 2.6,
packaged as the ‘unittest2’ package, from unittest2(1).

When used from the command line, the module can automatically discover
tests.  It's not as fancy as py.test(2) or nose(3), but provides a
simple way to run tests kept within a set of package directories.  For
example, the following command will search the ‘test/’ subdirectory for
any importable test files named ‘test*.py’:

     python -m unittest discover -s test

Consult the *note unittest: 101. module documentation for more details.
(Developed in bpo-6001(4).)

The *note main(): e75. function supports some other new options:

   * *note -b: 11c6. or ‘--buffer’ will buffer the standard output and
     standard error streams during each test.  If the test passes, any
     resulting output will be discarded; on failure, the buffered output
     will be displayed.

   * *note -c: 11c7. or ‘--catch’ will cause the control-C interrupt to
     be handled more gracefully.  Instead of interrupting the test
     process immediately, the currently running test will be completed
     and then the partial results up to the interruption will be
     reported.  If you're impatient, a second press of control-C will
     cause an immediate interruption.

     This control-C handler tries to avoid causing problems when the
     code being tested or the tests being run have defined a signal
     handler of their own, by noticing that a signal handler was already
     set and calling it.  If this doesn't work for you, there's a *note
     removeHandler(): 11c8. decorator that can be used to mark tests
     that should have the control-C handling disabled.

   * *note -f: 11c9. or ‘--failfast’ makes test execution stop
     immediately when a test fails instead of continuing to execute
     further tests.  (Suggested by Cliff Dyer and implemented by Michael
     Foord; bpo-8074(5).)

The progress messages now show 'x' for expected failures and 'u' for
unexpected successes when run in verbose mode.  (Contributed by Benjamin
Peterson.)

Test cases can raise the *note SkipTest: e76. exception to skip a test
(bpo-1034053(6)).

The error messages for *note assertEqual(): 2a9, *note assertTrue():
2a7, and *note assertFalse(): 2a8. failures now provide more
information.  If you set the *note longMessage: 11ca. attribute of your
*note TestCase: 159. classes to true, both the standard error message
and any additional message you provide will be printed for failures.
(Added by Michael Foord; bpo-5663(7).)

The *note assertRaises(): 2ad. method now returns a context handler when
called without providing a callable object to run.  For example, you can
write this:

     with self.assertRaises(KeyError):
         {}['foo']

（由 Antoine Pitrou 實作；bpo-4444(8)。）

Module- and class-level setup and teardown fixtures are now supported.
Modules can contain ‘setUpModule()’ and ‘tearDownModule()’ functions.
Classes can have *note setUpClass(): 899. and *note tearDownClass():
11cb. methods that must be defined as class methods (using
‘@classmethod’ or equivalent).  These functions and methods are invoked
when the test runner switches to a test case in a different module or
class.

The methods *note addCleanup(): 8cd. and *note doCleanups(): 11cc. were
added.  *note addCleanup(): 8cd. lets you add cleanup functions that
will be called unconditionally (after *note setUp(): 11cd. if *note
setUp(): 11cd. fails, otherwise after *note tearDown(): 11ce.).  This
allows for much simpler resource allocation and deallocation during
tests (bpo-5679(9)).

A number of new methods were added that provide more specialized tests.
Many of these methods were written by Google engineers for use in their
test suites; Gregory P. Smith, Michael Foord, and GvR worked on merging
them into Python's version of *note unittest: 101.

   * *note assertIsNone(): 111f. and *note assertIsNotNone(): 1120. take
     one expression and verify that the result is or is not ‘None’.

   * *note assertIs(): 11cf. and *note assertIsNot(): 11d0. take two
     values and check whether the two values evaluate to the same object
     or not.  (Added by Michael Foord; bpo-2578(10).)

   * *note assertIsInstance(): 11d1. and *note assertNotIsInstance():
     11d2. check whether the resulting object is an instance of a
     particular class, or of one of a tuple of classes.  (Added by Georg
     Brandl; bpo-7031(11).)

   * *note assertGreater(): 11d3, *note assertGreaterEqual(): 11d4,
     *note assertLess(): 11d5, and *note assertLessEqual(): 11d6.
     compare two quantities.

   * *note assertMultiLineEqual(): 11d7. compares two strings, and if
     they're not equal, displays a helpful comparison that highlights
     the differences in the two strings.  This comparison is now used by
     default when Unicode strings are compared with *note assertEqual():
     2a9.

   * *note assertRegexpMatches(): 2ae. and *note
     assertNotRegexpMatches(): 2b0. checks whether the first argument is
     a string matching or not matching the regular expression provided
     as the second argument (bpo-8038(12)).

   * *note assertRaisesRegexp(): 2af. checks whether a particular
     exception is raised, and then also checks that the string
     representation of the exception matches the provided regular
     expression.

   * *note assertIn(): 11d8. and *note assertNotIn(): 11d9. tests
     whether 'first' is or is not in 'second'.

   * *note assertItemsEqual(): 10bd. tests whether two provided
     sequences contain the same elements.

   * *note assertSetEqual(): 111a. compares whether two sets are equal,
     and only reports the differences between the sets in case of error.

   * Similarly, *note assertListEqual(): 111c. and *note
     assertTupleEqual(): 111d. compare the specified types and explain
     any differences without necessarily printing their full values;
     these methods are now used by default when comparing lists and
     tuples using *note assertEqual(): 2a9.  More generally, *note
     assertSequenceEqual(): 111e. compares two sequences and can
     optionally check whether both sequences are of a particular type.

   * *note assertDictEqual(): 111b. compares two dictionaries and
     reports the differences; it's now used by default when you compare
     two dictionaries using *note assertEqual(): 2a9.
     ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ checks whether all of the key/value
     pairs in 'first' are found in 'second'.

   * *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2ab. and *note assertNotAlmostEqual():
     2ac. test whether 'first' and 'second' are approximately equal.
     This method can either round their difference to an optionally
     specified number of 'places' (the default is 7) and compare it to
     zero, or require the difference to be smaller than a supplied
     'delta' value.

   * *note loadTestsFromName(): 11da. properly honors the *note
     suiteClass: 11db. attribute of the *note TestLoader: 532.  (Fixed
     by Mark Roddy; bpo-6866(13).)

   * A new hook lets you extend the *note assertEqual(): 2a9. method to
     handle new data types.  The *note addTypeEqualityFunc(): 11dc.
     method takes a type object and a function.  The function will be
     used when both of the objects being compared are of the specified
     type.  This function should compare the two objects and raise an
     exception if they don't match; it's a good idea for the function to
     provide additional information about why the two objects aren't
     matching, much as the new sequence comparison methods do.

*note unittest.main(): e75. now takes an optional ‘exit’ argument.  If
false, *note main(): e75. doesn't call *note sys.exit(): 11dd, allowing
*note main(): e75. to be used from the interactive interpreter.
(Contributed by J. Pablo Fernández; bpo-3379(14).)

*note TestResult: ffa. has new *note startTestRun(): 11de. and *note
stopTestRun(): 11df. methods that are called immediately before and
after a test run.  (Contributed by Robert Collins; bpo-5728(15).)

With all these changes, the ‘unittest.py’ was becoming awkwardly large,
so the module was turned into a package and the code split into several
files (by Benjamin Peterson).  This doesn't affect how the module is
imported or used.

也參考
......

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20210619163128/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/unittest2.shtml’

     Describes the new features, how to use them, and the rationale for
     various design decisions.  (By Michael Foord.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/unittest2/

   (2) https://pytest.org

   (3) https://nose.readthedocs.io/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6001

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8074

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1034053

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5663

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4444

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5679

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2578

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7031

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8038

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6866

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3379

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5728


File: python.info,  Node: Updated module ElementTree 1 3,  Prev: Updated module unittest,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.14.11.5 Updated module: ElementTree 1.3
.........................................

The version of the ElementTree library included with Python was updated
to version 1.3.  Some of the new features are:

   * The various parsing functions now take a 'parser' keyword argument
     giving an *note XMLParser: 89e. instance that will be used.  This
     makes it possible to override the file's internal encoding:

          p = ET.XMLParser(encoding='utf-8')
          t = ET.XML("""<root/>""", parser=p)

     Errors in parsing XML now raise a *note ParseError: 110c.
     exception, whose instances have a ‘position’ attribute containing a
     ('line', 'column') tuple giving the location of the problem.

   * ElementTree's code for converting trees to a string has been
     significantly reworked, making it roughly twice as fast in many
     cases.  The *note ElementTree.write(): e89. and ‘Element.write()’
     methods now have a 'method' parameter that can be "xml" (the
     default), "html", or "text".  HTML mode will output empty elements
     as ‘<empty></empty>’ instead of ‘<empty/>’, and text mode will skip
     over elements and only output the text chunks.  If you set the
     *note tag: 11e2. attribute of an element to ‘None’ but leave its
     children in place, the element will be omitted when the tree is
     written out, so you don't need to do more extensive rearrangement
     to remove a single element.

     Namespace handling has also been improved.  All ‘xmlns:<whatever>’
     declarations are now output on the root element, not scattered
     throughout the resulting XML. You can set the default namespace for
     a tree by setting the ‘default_namespace’ attribute and can
     register new prefixes with *note register_namespace(): 1063.  In
     XML mode, you can use the true/false 'xml_declaration' parameter to
     suppress the XML declaration.

   * New *note Element: 240. method: *note extend(): 1064. appends the
     items from a sequence to the element's children.  Elements
     themselves behave like sequences, so it's easy to move children
     from one element to another:

          from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

          t = ET.XML("""<list>
            <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
          </list>""")
          new = ET.XML('<root/>')
          new.extend(t)

          # Outputs <root><item>1</item>...</root>
          print ET.tostring(new)

   * New *note Element: 240. method: *note iter(): 11e3. yields the
     children of the element as a generator.  It's also possible to
     write ‘for child in elem:’ to loop over an element's children.  The
     existing method ‘getiterator()’ is now deprecated, as is
     ‘getchildren()’ which constructs and returns a list of children.

   * New *note Element: 240. method: *note itertext(): 1066. yields all
     chunks of text that are descendants of the element.  For example:

          t = ET.XML("""<list>
            <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
          </list>""")

          # Outputs ['\n  ', '1', ' ', '2', '  ', '3', '\n']
          print list(t.itertext())

   * Deprecated: using an element as a Boolean (i.e., ‘if elem:’) would
     return true if the element had any children, or false if there were
     no children.  This behaviour is confusing - ‘None’ is false, but so
     is a childless element?  - so it will now trigger a *note
     FutureWarning: 241.  In your code, you should be explicit: write
     ‘len(elem) != 0’ if you're interested in the number of children, or
     ‘elem is not None’.

Fredrik Lundh develops ElementTree and produced the 1.3 version; you can
read his article describing 1.3 at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm’.
Florent Xicluna updated the version included with Python, after
discussions on python-dev and in bpo-6472(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes,  Prev: New and Improved Modules,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.12 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * The latest release of the GNU Debugger, GDB 7, can be scripted
     using Python(1).  When you begin debugging an executable program P,
     GDB will look for a file named ‘P-gdb.py’ and automatically read
     it.  Dave Malcolm contributed a ‘python-gdb.py’ that adds a number
     of commands useful when debugging Python itself.  For example,
     ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ go up or down one Python stack frame, which
     usually corresponds to several C stack frames.  ‘py-print’ prints
     the value of a Python variable, and ‘py-bt’ prints the Python stack
     trace.  (Added as a result of bpo-8032(2).)

   * If you use the ‘.gdbinit’ file provided with Python, the "pyo"
     macro in the 2.7 version now works correctly when the thread being
     debugged doesn't hold the GIL; the macro now acquires it before
     printing.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3632(3).)

   * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 7c5. is now thread-safe, letting any
     worker thread submit notifications to the main Python thread.  This
     is particularly useful for asynchronous IO operations.
     (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-4293(4).)

   * New function: *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 11e5. creates an empty code
     object; only the filename, function name, and first line number are
     required.  This is useful for extension modules that are attempting
     to construct a more useful traceback stack.  Previously such
     extensions needed to call ‘PyCode_New()’, which had many more
     arguments.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

   * New function: *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 10fd. creates a
     new exception class, just as the existing *note
     PyErr_NewException(): 10fe. does, but takes an extra ‘char *’
     argument containing the docstring for the new exception class.
     (Added by 'lekma' on the Python bug tracker; bpo-7033(5).)

   * New function: *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5a3. takes a frame
     object and returns the line number that the frame is currently
     executing.  Previously code would need to get the index of the
     bytecode instruction currently executing, and then look up the line
     number corresponding to that address.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

   * New functions: *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 10fb. and *note
     PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 10fa. approximates a Python long
     integer as a C long or long long.  If the number is too large to
     fit into the output type, an 'overflow' flag is set and returned to
     the caller.  (Contributed by Case Van Horsen; bpo-7528(6) and
     bpo-7767(7).)

   * New function: stemming from the rewrite of string-to-float
     conversion, a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 112a. function was
     added.  The old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’
     functions are now deprecated.

   * New function: *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11e6. sets the value of
     ‘sys.argv’ and can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include the
     directory containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’ depending on
     the value of an 'updatepath' parameter.

     This function was added to close a security hole for applications
     that embed Python.  The old function, *note PySys_SetArgv(): 11e7,
     would always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the
     current directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application
     embedding Python in a directory controlled by someone else,
     attackers could put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a
     file named ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and
     run.

     If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
     whether you're calling *note PySys_SetArgv(): 11e7. and carefully
     consider whether the application should be using *note
     PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11e6. with 'updatepath' set to false.

     Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(8); discussed in
     bpo-5753(9), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

   * New macros: the Python header files now define the following
     macros: ‘Py_ISALNUM’, ‘Py_ISALPHA’, ‘Py_ISDIGIT’, ‘Py_ISLOWER’,
     ‘Py_ISSPACE’, ‘Py_ISUPPER’, ‘Py_ISXDIGIT’, ‘Py_TOLOWER’, and
     ‘Py_TOUPPER’.  All of these functions are analogous to the C
     standard macros for classifying characters, but ignore the current
     locale setting, because in several places Python needs to analyze
     characters in a locale-independent way.  (Added by Eric Smith;
     bpo-5793(10).)

   * Removed function: ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available as a
     macro.  A function version was being kept around to preserve ABI
     linking compatibility, but that was in 1997; it can certainly be
     deleted by now.  (Removed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8276(11).)

   * New format codes: the ‘PyString_FromFormat()’,
     ‘PyString_FromFormatV()’, and *note PyErr_Format(): d32. functions
     now accept ‘%lld’ and ‘%llu’ format codes for displaying C's long
     long types.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-7228(12).)

   * The complicated interaction between threads and process forking has
     been changed.  Previously, the child process created by *note
     os.fork(): 233. might fail because the child is created with only a
     single thread running, the thread performing the *note os.fork():
     233.  If other threads were holding a lock, such as Python's import
     lock, when the fork was performed, the lock would still be marked
     as "held" in the new process.  But in the child process nothing
     would ever release the lock, since the other threads weren't
     replicated, and the child process would no longer be able to
     perform imports.

     Python 2.7 acquires the import lock before performing an *note
     os.fork(): 233, and will also clean up any locks created using the
     *note threading: e7. module.  C extension modules that have
     internal locks, or that call ‘fork()’ themselves, will not benefit
     from this clean-up.

     (Fixed by Thomas Wouters; bpo-1590864(13).)

   * The *note Py_Finalize(): 11e8. function now calls the internal
     ‘threading._shutdown()’ function; this prevents some exceptions
     from being raised when an interpreter shuts down.  (Patch by Adam
     Olsen; bpo-1722344(14).)

   * When using the *note PyMemberDef: 2d3. structure to define
     attributes of a type, Python will no longer let you try to delete
     or set a ‘T_STRING_INPLACE’ attribute.

   * Global symbols defined by the *note ctypes: 28. module are now
     prefixed with ‘Py’, or with ‘_ctypes’.  (Implemented by Thomas
     Heller; bpo-3102(15).)

   * New configure option: the ‘--with-system-expat’ switch allows
     building the *note pyexpat: 121. module to use the system Expat
     library.  (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
     bpo-7609(16).)

   * New configure option: the ‘--with-valgrind’ option will now disable
     the pymalloc allocator, which is difficult for the Valgrind
     memory-error detector to analyze correctly.  Valgrind will
     therefore be better at detecting memory leaks and overruns.
     (Contributed by James Henstridge; bpo-2422(17).)

   * New configure option: you can now supply an empty string to
     ‘--with-dbmliborder=’ in order to disable all of the various DBM
     modules.  (Added by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
     bpo-6491(18).)

   * The ‘configure’ script now checks for floating-point rounding bugs
     on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a ‘X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING’
     preprocessor definition.  No code currently uses this definition,
     but it's available if anyone wishes to use it.  (Added by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-2937(19).)

     ‘configure’ also now sets a ‘LDCXXSHARED’ Makefile variable for
     supporting C++ linking.  (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar
     Arahesis; bpo-1222585(20).)

   * The build process now creates the necessary files for pkg-config
     support.  (Contributed by Clinton Roy; bpo-3585(21).)

   * The build process now supports Subversion 1.7.  (Contributed by
     Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-6094(22).)

* Menu:

* Capsules::
* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X.
* Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20110715084810/http://sourceware.org/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdb/Python.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8032

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3632

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4293

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7528

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5793

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7228

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1590864

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1722344

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3102

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7609

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6491

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2937

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1222585

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3585

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6094


File: python.info,  Node: Capsules,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Up: Build and C API Changes<7>

1.14.12.1 Capsules
..................

Python 3.1 adds a new C datatype, *note PyCapsule: 1107, for providing a
C API to an extension module.  A capsule is essentially the holder of a
C ‘void *’ pointer, and is made available as a module attribute; for
example, the *note socket: c6. module's API is exposed as ‘socket.CAPI’,
and *note unicodedata: 100. exposes ‘ucnhash_CAPI’.  Other extensions
can import the module, access its dictionary to get the capsule object,
and then get the ‘void *’ pointer, which will usually point to an array
of pointers to the module's various API functions.

There is an existing data type already used for this, ‘PyCObject’, but
it doesn't provide type safety.  Evil code written in pure Python could
cause a segmentation fault by taking a ‘PyCObject’ from module A and
somehow substituting it for the ‘PyCObject’ in module B. Capsules know
their own name, and getting the pointer requires providing the name:

     void *vtable;

     if (!PyCapsule_IsValid(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI") {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "argument type invalid");
             return NULL;
     }

     vtable = PyCapsule_GetPointer(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI");

You are assured that ‘vtable’ points to whatever you're expecting.  If a
different capsule was passed in, *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 11eb. would
detect the mismatched name and return false.  Refer to *note Providing a
C API for an Extension Module: 11ec. for more information on using these
objects.

Python 2.7 now uses capsules internally to provide various
extension-module APIs, but the ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ was modified to
handle capsules, preserving compile-time compatibility with the
‘PyCObject’ interface.  Use of ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ will signal a
*note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700, which is silent by default.

Implemented in Python 3.1 and backported to 2.7 by Larry Hastings;
discussed in bpo-5630(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Prev: Capsules,  Up: Build and C API Changes<7>

1.14.12.2 Port-Specific Changes: Windows
........................................

   * The *note msvcrt: 8e. module now contains some constants from the
     ‘crtassem.h’ header file: *note CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION: 11ee, *note
     VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN: 11ef, and *note
     LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX: 11f0.  (Contributed by David
     Cournapeau; bpo-4365(1).)

   * The *note _winreg: 111. module for accessing the registry now
     implements the *note CreateKeyEx(): 11f1. and *note DeleteKeyEx():
     11f2. functions, extended versions of previously supported
     functions that take several extra arguments.  The *note
     DisableReflectionKey(): 11f3, *note EnableReflectionKey(): 11f4,
     and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 11f5. were also tested and
     documented.  (Implemented by Brian Curtin: bpo-7347(2).)

   * The new ‘_beginthreadex()’ API is used to start threads, and the
     native thread-local storage functions are now used.  (Contributed
     by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-3582(3).)

   * The *note os.kill(): 11f6. function now works on Windows.  The
     signal value can be the constants *note CTRL_C_EVENT: 11f7, *note
     CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: 11f8, or any integer.  The first two constants
     will send ‘Control-C’ and ‘Control-Break’ keystroke events to
     subprocesses; any other value will use the ‘TerminateProcess()’
     API.  (Contributed by Miki Tebeka; bpo-1220212(4).)

   * The *note os.listdir(): f88. function now correctly fails for an
     empty path.  (Fixed by Hirokazu Yamamoto; bpo-5913(5).)

   * The *note mimetypes: 8a. module will now read the MIME database
     from the Windows registry when initializing.  (Patch by Gabriel
     Genellina; bpo-4969(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4365

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3582

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1220212

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5913

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4969


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Next: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Up: Build and C API Changes<7>

1.14.12.3 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
.........................................

   * The path ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’ is now appended to
     ‘sys.path’, in order to share added packages between the system
     installation and a user-installed copy of the same version.
     (Changed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-4865(1).)

     在 2.7.13 版的變更: As of 2.7.13, this change was removed.
     ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’, the site-packages directory
     used by the Apple-supplied system Python 2.7 is no longer appended
     to ‘sys.path’ for user-installed Pythons such as from the
     python.org installers.  As of macOS 10.12, Apple changed how the
     system site-packages directory is configured, which could cause
     installation of pip components, like setuptools, to fail.  Packages
     installed for the system Python will no longer be shared with
     user-installed Pythons.  (bpo-28440(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4865

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Up: Build and C API Changes<7>

1.14.12.4 Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD
........................................

   * FreeBSD 7.1's ‘SO_SETFIB’ constant, used with the *note socket():
     c18. methods *note getsockopt(): b42./*note setsockopt(): b43. to
     select an alternate routing table, is now available in the *note
     socket: c6. module.  (Added by Kyle VanderBeek; bpo-8235(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8235


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes,  Next: Porting to Python 2 7,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.13 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

   * Two benchmark scripts, ‘iobench’ and ‘ccbench’, were added to the
     ‘Tools’ directory.  ‘iobench’ measures the speed of the built-in
     file I/O objects returned by *note open(): 29c. while performing
     various operations, and ‘ccbench’ is a concurrency benchmark that
     tries to measure computing throughput, thread switching latency,
     and IO processing bandwidth when performing several tasks using a
     varying number of threads.

   * The ‘Tools/i18n/msgfmt.py’ script now understands plural forms in
     ‘.po’ files.  (Fixed by Martin von Löwis; bpo-5464(1).)

   * When importing a module from a ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ file with an
     existing ‘.py’ counterpart, the *note co_filename: 11fc. attributes
     of the resulting code objects are overwritten when the original
     filename is obsolete.  This can happen if the file has been
     renamed, moved, or is accessed through different paths.  (Patch by
     Ziga Seilnacht and Jean-Paul Calderone; bpo-1180193(2).)

   * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now takes a ‘--randseed=’ switch that
     takes an integer that will be used as the random seed for the ‘-r’
     option that executes tests in random order.  The ‘-r’ option also
     reports the seed that was used (Added by Collin Winter.)

   * Another ‘regrtest.py’ switch is ‘-j’, which takes an integer
     specifying how many tests run in parallel.  This allows reducing
     the total runtime on multi-core machines.  This option is
     compatible with several other options, including the ‘-R’ switch
     which is known to produce long runtimes.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou,
     bpo-6152(3).)  This can also be used with a new ‘-F’ switch that
     runs selected tests in a loop until they fail.  (Added by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-7312(4).)

   * When executed as a script, the ‘py_compile.py’ module now accepts
     ‘'-'’ as an argument, which will read standard input for the list
     of filenames to be compiled.  (Contributed by Piotr Ożarowski;
     bpo-8233(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5464

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1180193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6152

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7312

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8233


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 7,  Next: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.14 Porting to Python 2.7
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The *note range(): 782. function processes its arguments more
     consistently; it will now call *note __int__(): 51e. on non-float,
     non-integer arguments that are supplied to it.  (Fixed by Alexander
     Belopolsky; bpo-1533(1).)

   * The string *note format(): 417. method changed the default
     precision used for floating-point and complex numbers from 6
     decimal places to 12, which matches the precision used by *note
     str(): 157.  (Changed by Eric Smith; bpo-5920(2).)

   * Because of an optimization for the *note with: 3c5. statement, the
     special methods *note __enter__(): 3b8. and *note __exit__(): 1191.
     must belong to the object's type, and cannot be directly attached
     to the object's instance.  This affects new-style classes (derived
     from *note object: 8d9.) and C extension types.  (bpo-6101(3).)

   * Due to a bug in Python 2.6, the 'exc_value' parameter to *note
     __exit__(): 1191. methods was often the string representation of
     the exception, not an instance.  This was fixed in 2.7, so
     'exc_value' will be an instance as expected.  (Fixed by Florent
     Xicluna; bpo-7853(4).)

   * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’,
     deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError:
     3ca. as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-7604(5).)

In the standard library:

   * Operations with *note datetime: 224. instances that resulted in a
     year falling outside the supported range didn't always raise *note
     OverflowError: 6ad.  Such errors are now checked more carefully and
     will now raise the exception.  (Reported by Mark Leander, patch by
     Anand B. Pillai and Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-7150(6).)

   * When using *note Decimal: 5f0. instances with a string's *note
     format(): 417. method, the default alignment was previously
     left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which
     might change the output of your programs.  (Changed by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-6857(7).)

     Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal
     *note InvalidOperation: f39. instead of silently returning a true
     or false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN
     values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-7279(8).)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. library no longer escapes
     ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
     instruction (which looks like ‘<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>’)
     or comment (which looks like ‘<!-- comment -->’).  (Patch by Neil
     Muller; bpo-2746(9).)

   * The ‘readline()’ method of *note StringIO: db1. objects now does
     nothing when a negative length is requested, as other file-like
     objects do.  (bpo-7348(10)).

   * The *note syslog: d6. module will now use the value of
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default
     value of ‘'python'’.  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider;
     bpo-8451(11).)

   * The *note tarfile: d8. module's default error handling has changed,
     to no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was
     previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a
     message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log
     is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed.  The
     default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there's
     an error.  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(12).)

   * The *note urlparse: 105. module's *note urlsplit(): bb1. now
     handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC
     3986(13): if the URL is of the form ‘"<something>://..."’, the text
     before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it's a made-up
     scheme that the module doesn't know about.  This change may break
     code that worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python
     2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

     Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

     (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
     returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

For C extensions:

   * C extensions that use integer format codes with the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
     family of functions will now raise a *note TypeError: 2ba.
     exception instead of triggering a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.
     (bpo-5080(14)).

   * Use the new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 112a. function instead
     of the old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’ functions,
     which are now deprecated.

For applications that embed Python:

   * The *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11e6. function was added, letting
     applications close a security hole when the existing *note
     PySys_SetArgv(): 11e7. function was used.  Check whether you're
     calling *note PySys_SetArgv(): 11e7. and carefully consider whether
     the application should be using *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11e6. with
     'updatepath' set to false.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6101

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7853

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7150

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2746

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7348

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8451

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7357

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5080


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Next: 致謝,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 7,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.15 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
-------------------------------------------------------------

New features may be added to Python 2.7 maintenance releases when the
situation genuinely calls for it.  Any such additions must go through
the Python Enhancement Proposal process, and make a compelling case for
why they can't be adequately addressed by either adding the new feature
solely to Python 3, or else by publishing it on the Python Package
Index.

In addition to the specific proposals listed below, there is a general
exemption allowing new ‘-3’ warnings to be added in any Python 2.7
maintenance release.

* Menu:

* Two new environment variables for debug mode::
* PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
* PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
* PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
* PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<3>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Two new environment variables for debug mode,  Next: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.1 Two new environment variables for debug mode
......................................................

In debug mode, the ‘[xxx refs]’ statistic is not written by default, the
‘PYTHONSHOWREFCOUNT’ environment variable now must also be set.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-31733(1).)

When Python is compiled with ‘COUNT_ALLOC’ defined, allocation counts
are no longer dumped by default anymore: the ‘PYTHONSHOWALLOCCOUNT’
environment variable must now also be set.  Moreover, allocation counts
are now dumped into stderr, rather than stdout.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner; bpo-31692(2).)

在 2.7.15 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31733

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31692


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Next: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Prev: Two new environment variables for debug mode,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.2 PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches
..............................................................

PEP 434(1) describes a general exemption for changes made to the IDLE
development environment shipped along with Python.  This exemption makes
it possible for the IDLE developers to provide a more consistent user
experience across all supported versions of Python 2 and 3.

For details of any IDLE changes, refer to the NEWS file for the specific
release.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Next: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Prev: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.3 PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7
...............................................................

PEP 466(1) describes a number of network security enhancement proposals
that have been approved for inclusion in Python 2.7 maintenance
releases, with the first of those changes appearing in the Python 2.7.7
release.

PEP 466(2) related features added in Python 2.7.7:

   * *note hmac.compare_digest(): f58. was backported from Python 3 to
     make a timing attack resistant comparison operation available to
     Python 2 applications.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21306(3).)

   * OpenSSL 1.0.1g was upgraded in the official Windows installers
     published on python.org.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware;
     bpo-21462(4).)

PEP 466(5) related features added in Python 2.7.8:

   * *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 290. was backported from Python 3 to
     make a hashing algorithm suitable for secure password storage
     broadly available to Python 2 applications.  (Contributed by Alex
     Gaynor; bpo-21304(6).)

   * OpenSSL 1.0.1h was upgraded for the official Windows installers
     published on python.org.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in
     bpo-21671(7) for CVE 2014-0224(8).)

PEP 466(9) related features added in Python 2.7.9:

   * Most of Python 3.4's *note ssl: ca. module was backported.  This
     means *note ssl: ca. now supports Server Name Indication, TLS1.x
     settings, access to the platform certificate store, the *note
     SSLContext: 26f. class, and other features.  (Contributed by Alex
     Gaynor and David Reid; bpo-21308(10).)

     Refer to the "Version added: 2.7.9" notes in the module
     documentation for specific details.

   * *note os.urandom(): 2a3. was changed to cache a file descriptor to
     ‘/dev/urandom’ instead of reopening ‘/dev/urandom’ on every call.
     (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21305(11).)

   * *note hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed: 1202. and *note
     hashlib.algorithms_available: 1203. were backported from Python 3
     to make it easier for Python 2 applications to select the strongest
     available hash algorithm.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in
     bpo-21307(12))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21306

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21462

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21304

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21671

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2014-0224

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21308

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21305

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21307


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Next: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Prev: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.4 PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7
.............................................................

PEP 477(1) approves the inclusion of the PEP 453(2) ensurepip module and
the improved documentation that was enabled by it in the Python 2.7
maintenance releases, appearing first in the Python 2.7.9 release.

* Menu:

* Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
* Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>,  Next: Documentation Changes<2>,  Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7

1.14.15.5 Bootstrapping pip By Default
......................................

The new *note ensurepip: 50. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a
standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into
Python installations.  The version of ‘pip’ included with Python 2.7.9
is ‘pip’ 1.5.6, and future 2.7.x maintenance releases will update the
bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’ that is available at the
time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands ‘pip’, ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on
all platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python
installation), along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies.

For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: d77, the ‘make
install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands do not bootstrap ‘pip’ by
default.  This behaviour can be controlled through configure options,
and overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to
installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of
installing it during the installation process).  Window users will need
to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available
from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed
through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’.

As discussed in the PEP(2), platform packagers may choose not to install
these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear
and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually
using the system package manager).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation Changes<2>,  Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>,  Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7

1.14.15.6 Documentation Changes
...............................

As part of this change, the *note 安裝 Python 模組: d79. and
distributing-index sections of the documentation have been completely
redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents.  Most packaging
documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority
maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the documentation of the
individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
versions of those guides remaining available as *note Building C and C++
Extensions with setuptools: d7a. and *note Building C and C++ Extensions
with setuptools: d7b.

也參考
......

PEP 453(2) - Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
     Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Next: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Prev: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.7 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
.......................................................................................

PEP 476(1) updated *note httplib: 69. and modules which use it, such as
*note urllib2: 106. and *note xmlrpclib: 128, to now verify that the
server presents a certificate which is signed by a Certificate Authority
in the platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname
being requested by default, significantly improving security for many
applications.  This change was made in the Python 2.7.9 release.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass
an alternate context:

     import urllib2
     import ssl

     # This disables all verification
     context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

     # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
     # to be in the trust store
     context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

     urllib2.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0476/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Next: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Prev: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.8 PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7
....................................................................

PEP 493(1) provides additional migration tools to support a more
incremental infrastructure upgrade process for environments containing
applications and services relying on the historically permissive
processing of server certificates when establishing client HTTPS
connections.  These additions were made in the Python 2.7.12 release.

These tools are intended for use in cases where affected applications
and services can't be modified to explicitly pass a more permissive SSL
context when establishing the connection.

For applications and services which can't be modified at all, the new
‘PYTHONHTTPSVERIFY’ environment variable may be set to ‘0’ to revert an
entire Python process back to the default permissive behaviour of Python
2.7.8 and earlier.

For cases where the connection establishment code can't be modified, but
the overall application can be, the new
‘ssl._https_verify_certificates()’ function can be used to adjust the
default behaviour at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0493/


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Next: Removal of make touch build target<3>,  Prev: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.9 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
...........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

（由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-23404(2) 中貢獻。）

在 2.7.14 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target<3>,  Prev: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.10 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
...............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

（由 Victor Stinner 於 bpo-23404(1) 中貢獻。）

在 2.7.14 版的變更.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: 致謝,  Prev: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Up: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能

1.14.16 致謝
------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Nick Coghlan, Philip Jenvey, Ryan Lovett, R. David Murray, Hugh
Secker-Walker.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 2 7 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.15 Python 2.6 有什麼新功能
============================


作者: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.6, released on
October 1, 2008.  The release schedule is described in PEP 361(1).

The major theme of Python 2.6 is preparing the migration path to Python
3.0, a major redesign of the language.  Whenever possible, Python 2.6
incorporates new features and syntax from 3.0 while remaining compatible
with existing code by not removing older features or syntax.  When it's
not possible to do that, Python 2.6 tries to do what it can, adding
compatibility functions in a ‘future_builtins’ module and a ‘-3’ switch
to warn about usages that will become unsupported in 3.0.

Some significant new packages have been added to the standard library,
such as the *note multiprocessing: 8f. and *note json: 7c. modules, but
there aren't many new features that aren't related to Python 3.0 in some
way.

Python 2.6 also sees a number of improvements and bugfixes throughout
the source.  A search through the change logs finds there were 259
patches applied and 612 bugs fixed between Python 2.5 and 2.6.  Both
figures are likely to be underestimates.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.6.  If you
want to understand the rationale for the design and implementation,
refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.  Whenever possible,
"What's New in Python" links to the bug/patch item for each change.

* Menu:

* Python 3.0: Python 3 0.
* Changes to the Development Process::
* PEP 343; The 'with' statement: PEP 343 The 'with' statement.
* PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module.
* PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
* PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
* PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
* PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
* PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
* PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
* PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
* PEP 3118：修訂緩衝協定::
* PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
* PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
* PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
* PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<14>.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>.
* Deprecations and Removals::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>.
* Porting to Python 2.6: Porting to Python 2 6.
* 致謝: 致謝<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0361/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 0,  Next: Changes to the Development Process,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.1 Python 3.0
-----------------

The development cycle for Python versions 2.6 and 3.0 was synchronized,
with the alpha and beta releases for both versions being made on the
same days.  The development of 3.0 has influenced many features in 2.6.

Python 3.0 is a far-ranging redesign of Python that breaks compatibility
with the 2.x series.  This means that existing Python code will need
some conversion in order to run on Python 3.0.  However, not all the
changes in 3.0 necessarily break compatibility.  In cases where new
features won't cause existing code to break, they've been backported to
2.6 and are described in this document in the appropriate place.  Some
of the 3.0-derived features are:

   * A ‘__complex__()’ method for converting objects to a complex
     number.

   * Alternate syntax for catching exceptions: ‘except TypeError as
     exc’.

   * The addition of *note functools.reduce(): 116d. as a synonym for
     the built-in ‘reduce()’ function.

Python 3.0 adds several new built-in functions and changes the semantics
of some existing builtins.  Functions that are new in 3.0 such as *note
bin(): 113c. have simply been added to Python 2.6, but existing builtins
haven't been changed; instead, the ‘future_builtins’ module has versions
with the new 3.0 semantics.  Code written to be compatible with 3.0 can
do ‘from future_builtins import hex, map’ as necessary.

A new command-line switch, ‘-3’, enables warnings about features that
will be removed in Python 3.0.  You can run code with this switch to see
how much work will be necessary to port code to 3.0.  The value of this
switch is available to Python code as the boolean variable
‘sys.py3kwarning’, and to C extension code as ‘Py_Py3kWarningFlag’.

也參考
......

The 3'xxx' series of PEPs, which contains proposals for Python 3.0.  PEP
3000(1) describes the development process for Python 3.0.  Start with
PEP 3100(2) that describes the general goals for Python 3.0, and then
explore the higher-numbered PEPs that propose specific features.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3000/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3100/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to the Development Process,  Next: PEP 343 The 'with' statement,  Prev: Python 3 0,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.2 Changes to the Development Process
-----------------------------------------

While 2.6 was being developed, the Python development process underwent
two significant changes: we switched from SourceForge's issue tracker to
a customized Roundup installation, and the documentation was converted
from LaTeX to reStructuredText.

* Menu:

* New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup.
* New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx.


File: python.info,  Node: New Issue Tracker Roundup,  Next: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx,  Up: Changes to the Development Process

1.15.2.1 New Issue Tracker: Roundup
...................................

For a long time, the Python developers had been growing increasingly
annoyed by SourceForge's bug tracker.  SourceForge's hosted solution
doesn't permit much customization; for example, it wasn't possible to
customize the life cycle of issues.

The infrastructure committee of the Python Software Foundation therefore
posted a call for issue trackers, asking volunteers to set up different
products and import some of the bugs and patches from SourceForge.  Four
different trackers were examined: Jira(1), Launchpad(2), Roundup(3), and
Trac(4).  The committee eventually settled on Jira and Roundup as the
two candidates.  Jira is a commercial product that offers no-cost hosted
instances to free-software projects; Roundup is an open-source project
that requires volunteers to administer it and a server to host it.

After posting a call for volunteers, a new Roundup installation was set
up at ‘https://bugs.python.org’.  One installation of Roundup can host
multiple trackers, and this server now also hosts issue trackers for
Jython and for the Python web site.  It will surely find other uses in
the future.  Where possible, this edition of "What's New in Python"
links to the bug/patch item for each change.

Hosting of the Python bug tracker is kindly provided by Upfront
Systems(5) of Stellenbosch, South Africa.  Martin von Löwis put a lot of
effort into importing existing bugs and patches from SourceForge; his
scripts for this import operation are at
‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’ and may be useful to
other projects wishing to move from SourceForge to Roundup.

也參考
......

‘https://bugs.python.org’

     The Python bug tracker.

‘https://bugs.jython.org’:

     The Jython bug tracker.

‘https://roundup.sourceforge.io/’

     Roundup downloads and documentation.

‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’

     Martin von Löwis's conversion scripts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira/

   (2) https://launchpad.net/

   (3) https://roundup.sourceforge.io/

   (4) https://trac.edgewall.org/

   (5) https://upfrontsoftware.co.za


File: python.info,  Node: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx,  Prev: New Issue Tracker Roundup,  Up: Changes to the Development Process

1.15.2.2 New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx
................................................................

The Python documentation was written using LaTeX since the project
started around 1989.  In the 1980s and early 1990s, most documentation
was printed out for later study, not viewed online.  LaTeX was widely
used because it provided attractive printed output while remaining
straightforward to write once the basic rules of the markup were
learned.

Today LaTeX is still used for writing publications destined for
printing, but the landscape for programming tools has shifted.  We no
longer print out reams of documentation; instead, we browse through it
online and HTML has become the most important format to support.
Unfortunately, converting LaTeX to HTML is fairly complicated and Fred
L.  Drake Jr., the long-time Python documentation editor, spent a lot of
time maintaining the conversion process.  Occasionally people would
suggest converting the documentation into SGML and later XML, but
performing a good conversion is a major task and no one ever committed
the time required to finish the job.

During the 2.6 development cycle, Georg Brandl put a lot of effort into
building a new toolchain for processing the documentation.  The
resulting package is called Sphinx, and is available from
‘https://www.sphinx-doc.org/’.

Sphinx concentrates on HTML output, producing attractively styled and
modern HTML; printed output is still supported through conversion to
LaTeX. The input format is reStructuredText, a markup syntax supporting
custom extensions and directives that is commonly used in the Python
community.

Sphinx is a standalone package that can be used for writing, and almost
two dozen other projects (listed on the Sphinx web site(1)) have adopted
Sphinx as their documentation tool.

也參考
......

Documenting Python(2)

     Describes how to write for Python's documentation.

Sphinx(3)

     Documentation and code for the Sphinx toolchain.

Docutils(4)

     The underlying reStructuredText parser and toolset.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/examples.html

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/documenting/

   (3) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/

   (4) https://docutils.sourceforge.io


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 343 The 'with' statement,  Next: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Prev: Changes to the Development Process,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.3 PEP 343: The 'with' statement
------------------------------------

The previous version, Python 2.5, added the '*note with: 3c5.' statement
as an optional feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import
with_statement’ directive.  In 2.6 the statement no longer needs to be
specially enabled; this means that ‘with’ is now always a keyword.  The
rest of this section is a copy of the corresponding section from the
"What's New in Python 2.5" document; if you're familiar with the
'‘with’' statement from Python 2.5, you can skip this section.

The '*note with: 3c5.' statement clarifies code that previously would
use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In
this section, I'll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.
In the next section, I'll examine the implementation details and show
how to write objects for use with this statement.

The '*note with: 3c5.' statement is a control-flow structure whose basic
structure is:

     with expression [as variable]:
         with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that
supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note
__enter__(): 3b8. and *note __exit__(): 1191. methods).

The object's *note __enter__(): 3b8. is called before 'with-block' is
executed and therefore can run set-up code.  It also may return a value
that is bound to the name 'variable', if given.  (Note carefully that
'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.)

After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object's *note
__exit__(): 1191. method is called, even if the block raised an
exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol
and can be used with the '*note with: 3c5.' statement.  File objects are
one example:

     with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
         for line in f:
             print line
             ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been
automatically closed, even if the *note for: 265. loop raised an
exception part-way through the block.

     備註: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note open():
     29c, because *note __enter__(): 3b8. returns 'self'.

The *note threading: e7. module's locks and condition variables also
support the '*note with: 3c5.' statement:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with lock:
         # Critical section of code
         ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released
once the block is complete.

The ‘localcontext()’ function in the *note decimal: 33. module makes it
easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates
the desired precision and rounding characteristics for computations:

     from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

     # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
     v = Decimal('578')
     print v.sqrt()

     with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
         # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
         # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
         print v.sqrt()

* Menu:

* Writing Context Managers::
* contextlib 模組::


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Context Managers,  Next: contextlib 模組,  Up: PEP 343 The 'with' statement

1.15.3.1 Writing Context Managers
.................................

Under the hood, the '*note with: 3c5.' statement is fairly complicated.
Most people will only use '‘with’' in company with existing objects and
don't need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this
section if you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the
details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

   * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a
     "context manager".  The context manager must have *note
     __enter__(): 3b8. and *note __exit__(): 1191. methods.

   * The context manager's *note __enter__(): 3b8. method is called.
     The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘as VAR’ clause is
     present, the value is simply discarded.

   * The code in 'BLOCK' is executed.

   * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the context manager's *note
     __exit__(): 1191. method is called with three arguments, the
     exception details (‘type, value, traceback’, the same values
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 487, which can also be ‘None’ if
     no exception occurred).  The method's return value controls whether
     an exception is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception,
     and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it.  You'll only rarely want
     to suppress the exception, because if you do the author of the code
     containing the '*note with: 3c5.' statement will never realize
     anything went wrong.

   * If 'BLOCK' didn't raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 1191.
     method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are
     all ‘None’.

Let's think through an example.  I won't present detailed code but will
only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports
transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to
the database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either
committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database,
or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the
database is unchanged.  See any database textbook for more information.)

Let's assume there's an object representing a database connection.  Our
goal will be to let the user write code like this:

     db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_connection as cursor:
         cursor.execute('insert into ...')
         cursor.execute('delete from ...')
         # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs
flawlessly or rolled back if there's an exception.  Here's the basic
interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I'll assume:

     class DatabaseConnection:
         # Database interface
         def cursor(self):
             "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
         def commit(self):
             "Commits current transaction"
         def rollback(self):
             "Rolls back current transaction"

The *note __enter__(): 3b8. method is pretty easy, having only to start
a new transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object
would be a useful result, so the method will return it.  The user can
then add ‘as cursor’ to their '*note with: 3c5.' statement to bind the
cursor to a variable name.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __enter__(self):
             # Code to start a new transaction
             cursor = self.cursor()
             return cursor

The *note __exit__(): 1191. method is the most complicated because it's
where most of the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an
exception occurred.  If there was no exception, the transaction is
committed.  The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
returning the default value of ‘None’.  ‘None’ is false, so the
exception will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be
more explicit and add a *note return: 812. statement at the marked
location.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __exit__(self, type, value, tb):
             if tb is None:
                 # No exception, so commit
                 self.commit()
             else:
                 # Exception occurred, so rollback.
                 self.rollback()
                 # return False


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib 模組,  Prev: Writing Context Managers,  Up: PEP 343 The 'with' statement

1.15.3.2 contextlib 模組
........................

The *note contextlib: 21. module provides some functions and a decorator
that are useful when writing objects for use with the '*note with: 3c5.'
statement.

The decorator is called ‘contextmanager()’, and lets you write a single
generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator
should yield exactly one value.  The code up to the *note yield: 811.
will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 3b8. method, and the value
yielded will be the method's return value that will get bound to the
variable in the '*note with: 3c5.' statement's ‘as’ clause, if any.  The
code after the ‘yield’ will be executed in the *note __exit__(): 1191.
method.  Any exception raised in the block will be raised by the ‘yield’
statement.

Using this decorator, our database example from the previous section
could be written as:

     from contextlib import contextmanager

     @contextmanager
     def db_transaction(connection):
         cursor = connection.cursor()
         try:
             yield cursor
         except:
             connection.rollback()
             raise
         else:
             connection.commit()

     db = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
         ...

The *note contextlib: 21. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’
function that combines a number of context managers so you don't need to
write nested '*note with: 3c5.' statements.  In this example, the single
'‘with’' statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a
thread lock:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
         ...

Finally, the ‘closing()’ function returns its argument so that it can be
bound to a variable, and calls the argument's ‘.close()’ method at the
end of the block.

     import urllib, sys
     from contextlib import closing

     with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
         for line in f:
             sys.stdout.write(line)

也參考
......

PEP 343(1) - The "with" statement

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by
     Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the
     code generated for a '*note with: 3c5.' statement, which can be
     helpful in learning how the statement works.

*note contextlib: 21. 模組的文件。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Next: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Prev: PEP 343 The 'with' statement,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.4 PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
------------------------------------------------------------

Python's *note -m: 3d4. switch allows running a module as a script.
When you ran a module that was located inside a package, relative
imports didn't work correctly.

The fix for Python 2.6 adds a *note module.__package__: 245. attribute.
When this attribute is present, relative imports will be relative to the
value of this attribute instead of the *note __name__: 1217. attribute.

PEP 302-style importers can then set *note __package__: 245. as
necessary.  The *note runpy: b9. module that implements the *note -m:
3d4. switch now does this, so relative imports will now work correctly
in scripts running from inside a package.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Next: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Prev: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.5 PEP 370: Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory
--------------------------------------------------

When you run Python, the module search path ‘sys.path’ usually includes
a directory whose path ends in ‘"site-packages"’.  This directory is
intended to hold locally installed packages available to all users using
a machine or a particular site installation.

Python 2.6 introduces a convention for user-specific site directories.
The directory varies depending on the platform:

   * Unix and Mac OS X: ‘~/.local/’

   * Windows: ‘%APPDATA%/Python’

Within this directory, there will be version-specific subdirectories,
such as ‘lib/python2.6/site-packages’ on Unix/Mac OS and
‘Python26/site-packages’ on Windows.

If you don't like the default directory, it can be overridden by an
environment variable.  *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1219. sets the root
directory used for all Python versions supporting this feature.  On
Windows, the directory for application-specific data can be changed by
setting the ‘APPDATA’ environment variable.  You can also modify the
‘site.py’ file for your Python installation.

The feature can be disabled entirely by running Python with the *note
-s: 121a. option or setting the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 121b.
environment variable.

也參考
......

PEP 370(1) - Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory

     由 Christian Heimes 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Next: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Prev: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.6 PEP 371: The ‘multiprocessing’ Package
---------------------------------------------

The new *note multiprocessing: 8f. package lets Python programs create
new processes that will perform a computation and return a result to the
parent.  The parent and child processes can communicate using queues and
pipes, synchronize their operations using locks and semaphores, and can
share simple arrays of data.

The *note multiprocessing: 8f. module started out as an exact emulation
of the *note threading: e7. module using processes instead of threads.
That goal was discarded along the path to Python 2.6, but the general
approach of the module is still similar.  The fundamental class is the
‘Process’, which is passed a callable object and a collection of
arguments.  The ‘start()’ method sets the callable running in a
subprocess, after which you can call the ‘is_alive()’ method to check
whether the subprocess is still running and the ‘join()’ method to wait
for the process to exit.

Here's a simple example where the subprocess will calculate a factorial.
The function doing the calculation is written strangely so that it takes
significantly longer when the input argument is a multiple of 4.

     import time
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue


     def factorial(queue, N):
         "Compute a factorial."
         # If N is a multiple of 4, this function will take much longer.
         if (N % 4) == 0:
             time.sleep(.05 * N/4)

         # Calculate the result
         fact = 1L
         for i in range(1, N+1):
             fact = fact * i

         # Put the result on the queue
         queue.put(fact)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         queue = Queue()

         N = 5

         p = Process(target=factorial, args=(queue, N))
         p.start()
         p.join()

         result = queue.get()
         print 'Factorial', N, '=', result

A *note Queue: 121d. is used to communicate the result of the factorial.
The *note Queue: 121d. object is stored in a global variable.  The child
process will use the value of the variable when the child was created;
because it's a *note Queue: 121d, parent and child can use the object to
communicate.  (If the parent were to change the value of the global
variable, the child's value would be unaffected, and vice versa.)

Two other classes, ‘Pool’ and ‘Manager’, provide higher-level
interfaces.  ‘Pool’ will create a fixed number of worker processes, and
requests can then be distributed to the workers by calling ‘apply()’ or
‘apply_async()’ to add a single request, and *note map(): 68f. or
‘map_async()’ to add a number of requests.  The following code uses a
‘Pool’ to spread requests across 5 worker processes and retrieve a list
of results:

     from multiprocessing import Pool

     def factorial(N, dictionary):
         "Compute a factorial."
         ...
     p = Pool(5)
     result = p.map(factorial, range(1, 1000, 10))
     for v in result:
         print v

This produces the following output:

     1
     39916800
     51090942171709440000
     8222838654177922817725562880000000
     33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
     ...

The other high-level interface, the ‘Manager’ class, creates a separate
server process that can hold master copies of Python data structures.
Other processes can then access and modify these data structures using
proxy objects.  The following example creates a shared dictionary by
calling the *note dict(): 239. method; the worker processes then insert
values into the dictionary.  (Locking is not done for you automatically,
which doesn't matter in this example.  ‘Manager’'s methods also include
‘Lock()’, ‘RLock()’, and ‘Semaphore()’ to create shared locks.)

     import time
     from multiprocessing import Pool, Manager

     def factorial(N, dictionary):
         "Compute a factorial."
         # Calculate the result
         fact = 1L
         for i in range(1, N+1):
             fact = fact * i

         # Store result in dictionary
         dictionary[N] = fact

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         p = Pool(5)
         mgr = Manager()
         d = mgr.dict()         # Create shared dictionary

         # Run tasks using the pool
         for N in range(1, 1000, 10):
             p.apply_async(factorial, (N, d))

         # Mark pool as closed -- no more tasks can be added.
         p.close()

         # Wait for tasks to exit
         p.join()

         # Output results
         for k, v in sorted(d.items()):
             print k, v

This will produce the output:

     1 1
     11 39916800
     21 51090942171709440000
     31 8222838654177922817725562880000000
     41 33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
     51 15511187532873822802242430164693032110632597200169861120000...

也參考
......

*note multiprocessing: 8f. 模組的文件。

PEP 371(1) - Addition of the multiprocessing package

     PEP written by Jesse Noller and Richard Oudkerk; implemented by
     Richard Oudkerk and Jesse Noller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0371/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Next: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Prev: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.7 PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
-------------------------------------------

In Python 3.0, the ‘%’ operator is supplemented by a more powerful
string formatting method, *note format(): 417.  Support for the *note
str.format(): 41b. method has been backported to Python 2.6.

In 2.6, both 8-bit and Unicode strings have a ‘.format()’ method that
treats the string as a template and takes the arguments to be formatted.
The formatting template uses curly brackets (‘{’, ‘}’) as special
characters:

     >>> # Substitute positional argument 0 into the string.
     >>> "User ID: {0}".format("root")
     'User ID: root'
     >>> # Use the named keyword arguments
     >>> "User ID: {uid}   Last seen: {last_login}".format(
     ...    uid="root",
     ...    last_login = "5 Mar 2008 07:20")
     'User ID: root   Last seen: 5 Mar 2008 07:20'

Curly brackets can be escaped by doubling them:

     >>> "Empty dict: {{}}".format()
     "Empty dict: {}"

Field names can be integers indicating positional arguments, such as
‘{0}’, ‘{1}’, etc.  or names of keyword arguments.  You can also supply
compound field names that read attributes or access dictionary keys:

     >>> import sys
     >>> print 'Platform: {0.platform}\nPython version: {0.version}'.format(sys)
     Platform: darwin
     Python version: 2.6a1+ (trunk:61261M, Mar  5 2008, 20:29:41)
     [GCC 4.0.1 (Apple Computer, Inc. build 5367)]'

     >>> import mimetypes
     >>> 'Content-type: {0[.mp4]}'.format(mimetypes.types_map)
     'Content-type: video/mp4'

Note that when using dictionary-style notation such as ‘[.mp4]’, you
don't need to put any quotation marks around the string; it will look up
the value using ‘.mp4’ as the key.  Strings beginning with a number will
be converted to an integer.  You can't write more complicated
expressions inside a format string.

So far we've shown how to specify which field to substitute into the
resulting string.  The precise formatting used is also controllable by
adding a colon followed by a format specifier.  For example:

     >>> # Field 0: left justify, pad to 15 characters
     >>> # Field 1: right justify, pad to 6 characters
     >>> fmt = '{0:15} ${1:>6}'
     >>> fmt.format('Registration', 35)
     'Registration    $    35'
     >>> fmt.format('Tutorial', 50)
     'Tutorial        $    50'
     >>> fmt.format('Banquet', 125)
     'Banquet         $   125'

Format specifiers can reference other fields through nesting:

     >>> fmt = '{0:{1}}'
     >>> width = 15
     >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
     'Invoice #1234  '
     >>> width = 35
     >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
     'Invoice #1234                      '

The alignment of a field within the desired width can be specified:

Character            Effect
                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
< (default)          Left-align
                     
                     
>                    Right-align
                     
                     
^                    Center
                     
                     
=                    (For numeric types only) Pad after the sign.
                     

Format specifiers can also include a presentation type, which controls
how the value is formatted.  For example, floating-point numbers can be
formatted as a general number or in exponential notation:

     >>> '{0:g}'.format(3.75)
     '3.75'
     >>> '{0:e}'.format(3.75)
     '3.750000e+00'

A variety of presentation types are available.  Consult the 2.6
documentation for a *note complete list: 121f.; here's a sample:

‘b’       Binary.  Outputs the number in base 2.
          
          
‘c’       Character.  Converts the integer to the corresponding Unicode character
          before printing.
          
          
‘d’       Decimal Integer.  Outputs the number in base 10.
          
          
‘o’       Octal format.  Outputs the number in base 8.
          
          
‘x’       Hex format.  Outputs the number in base 16, using lower-case letters for
          the digits above 9.
          
          
‘e’       Exponent notation.  Prints the number in scientific notation using the
          letter 'e' to indicate the exponent.
          
          
‘g’       General format.  This prints the number as a fixed-point number, unless
          the number is too large, in which case it switches to 'e' exponent
          notation.
          
          
‘n’       Number.  This is the same as 'g' (for floats) or 'd' (for integers),
          except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate
          number separator characters.
          
          
‘%’       Percentage.  Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in fixed ('f')
          format, followed by a percent sign.
          

Classes and types can define a ‘__format__()’ method to control how
they're formatted.  It receives a single argument, the format specifier:

     def __format__(self, format_spec):
         if isinstance(format_spec, unicode):
             return unicode(str(self))
         else:
             return str(self)

There's also a *note format(): 417. builtin that will format a single
value.  It calls the type's ‘__format__()’ method with the provided
specifier:

     >>> format(75.6564, '.2f')
     '75.66'

也參考
......

*note 格式化文字語法: 121f.

     The reference documentation for format fields.

PEP 3101(1) - Advanced String Formatting

     由 Talin 撰寫 PEP、由 Eric Smith 實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Next: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Prev: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.8 PEP 3105: ‘print’ As a Function
--------------------------------------

The ‘print’ statement becomes the *note print(): e02. function in Python
3.0.  Making *note print(): e02. a function makes it possible to replace
the function by doing ‘def print(...)’ or importing a new function from
somewhere else.

Python 2.6 has a ‘__future__’ import that removes ‘print’ as language
syntax, letting you use the functional form instead.  For example:

     >>> from __future__ import print_function
     >>> print('# of entries', len(dictionary), file=sys.stderr)

The signature of the new function is:

     def print(*args, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None)

The parameters are:

   * 'args': positional arguments whose values will be printed out.

   * 'sep': the separator, which will be printed between arguments.

   * 'end': the ending text, which will be printed after all of the
     arguments have been output.

   * 'file': the file object to which the output will be sent.

也參考
......

PEP 3105(1) - Make print a function

     由 Georg Brandl 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Next: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Prev: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.9 PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
-------------------------------------------

One error that Python programmers occasionally make is writing the
following code:

     try:
         ...
     except TypeError, ValueError:  # Wrong!
         ...

The author is probably trying to catch both *note TypeError: 2ba. and
*note ValueError: 183. exceptions, but this code actually does something
different: it will catch *note TypeError: 2ba. and bind the resulting
exception object to the local name ‘"ValueError"’.  The *note
ValueError: 183. exception will not be caught at all.  The correct code
specifies a tuple of exceptions:

     try:
         ...
     except (TypeError, ValueError):
         ...

This error happens because the use of the comma here is ambiguous: does
it indicate two different nodes in the parse tree, or a single node
that's a tuple?

Python 3.0 makes this unambiguous by replacing the comma with the word
"as".  To catch an exception and store the exception object in the
variable ‘exc’, you must write:

     try:
         ...
     except TypeError as exc:
         ...

Python 3.0 will only support the use of "as", and therefore interprets
the first example as catching two different exceptions.  Python 2.6
supports both the comma and "as", so existing code will continue to
work.  We therefore suggest using "as" when writing new Python code that
will only be executed with 2.6.

也參考
......

PEP 3110(1) - Catching Exceptions in Python 3000

     由 Collin Winter 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Next: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Prev: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.10 PEP 3112: Byte Literals
-------------------------------

Python 3.0 adopts Unicode as the language's fundamental string type and
denotes 8-bit literals differently, either as ‘b'string'’ or using a
*note bytes: 2c1. constructor.  For future compatibility, Python 2.6
adds *note bytes: 2c1. as a synonym for the *note str: 157. type, and it
also supports the ‘b''’ notation.

The 2.6 *note str: 157. differs from 3.0's *note bytes: 2c1. type in
various ways; most notably, the constructor is completely different.  In
3.0, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ is 3 elements long, containing the bytes
representing ‘ABC’; in 2.6, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ returns the 12-byte
string representing the *note str(): 157. of the list.

The primary use of *note bytes: 2c1. in 2.6 will be to write tests of
object type such as ‘isinstance(x, bytes)’.  This will help the 2to3
converter, which can't tell whether 2.x code intends strings to contain
either characters or 8-bit bytes; you can now use either *note bytes:
2c1. or *note str: 157. to represent your intention exactly, and the
resulting code will also be correct in Python 3.0.

There's also a ‘__future__’ import that causes all string literals to
become Unicode strings.  This means that ‘\u’ escape sequences can be
used to include Unicode characters:

     from __future__ import unicode_literals

     s = ('\u751f\u3080\u304e\u3000\u751f\u3054'
          '\u3081\u3000\u751f\u305f\u307e\u3054')

     print len(s)               # 12 Unicode characters

At the C level, Python 3.0 will rename the existing 8-bit string type,
called ‘PyStringObject’ in Python 2.x, to *note PyBytesObject: 5ae.
Python 2.6 uses ‘#define’ to support using the names *note
PyBytesObject(): 5ae, *note PyBytes_Check(): 1223, *note
PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 1224, and all the other functions and
macros used with strings.

Instances of the *note bytes: 2c1. type are immutable just as strings
are.  A new *note bytearray: 2c0. type stores a mutable sequence of
bytes:

     >>> bytearray([65, 66, 67])
     bytearray(b'ABC')
     >>> b = bytearray(u'\u21ef\u3244', 'utf-8')
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'\xe2\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
     >>> b[0] = '\xe3'
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'\xe3\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
     >>> unicode(str(b), 'utf-8')
     u'\u31ef \u3244'

Byte arrays support most of the methods of string types, such as
‘startswith()’/‘endswith()’, ‘find()’/‘rfind()’, and some of the methods
of lists, such as ‘append()’, ‘pop()’, and ‘reverse()’.

     >>> b = bytearray('ABC')
     >>> b.append('d')
     >>> b.append(ord('e'))
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'ABCde')

There's also a corresponding C API, with *note PyByteArray_FromObject():
1225, *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 1226, and various other
functions.

也參考
......

PEP 3112(1) - Bytes literals in Python 3000

     PEP written by Jason Orendorff; backported to 2.6 by Christian
     Heimes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Next: PEP 3118：修訂緩衝協定,  Prev: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.11 PEP 3116: New I/O Library
---------------------------------

Python's built-in file objects support a number of methods, but
file-like objects don't necessarily support all of them.  Objects that
imitate files usually support ‘read()’ and ‘write()’, but they may not
support *note readline(): b5, for example.  Python 3.0 introduces a
layered I/O library in the *note io: 79. module that separates buffering
and text-handling features from the fundamental read and write
operations.

There are three levels of abstract base classes provided by the *note
io: 79. module:

   * ‘RawIOBase’ defines raw I/O operations: ‘read()’, ‘readinto()’,
     ‘write()’, ‘seek()’, ‘tell()’, ‘truncate()’, and ‘close()’.  Most
     of the methods of this class will often map to a single system
     call.  There are also ‘readable()’, ‘writable()’, and ‘seekable()’
     methods for determining what operations a given object will allow.

     Python 3.0 has concrete implementations of this class for files and
     sockets, but Python 2.6 hasn't restructured its file and socket
     objects in this way.

   * ‘BufferedIOBase’ is an abstract base class that buffers data in
     memory to reduce the number of system calls used, making I/O
     processing more efficient.  It supports all of the methods of
     ‘RawIOBase’, and adds a ‘raw’ attribute holding the underlying raw
     object.

     There are five concrete classes implementing this ABC.
     ‘BufferedWriter’ and ‘BufferedReader’ are for objects that support
     write-only or read-only usage that have a ‘seek()’ method for
     random access.  ‘BufferedRandom’ objects support read and write
     access upon the same underlying stream, and ‘BufferedRWPair’ is for
     objects such as TTYs that have both read and write operations
     acting upon unconnected streams of data.  The ‘BytesIO’ class
     supports reading, writing, and seeking over an in-memory buffer.

   * ‘TextIOBase’: Provides functions for reading and writing strings
     (remember, strings will be Unicode in Python 3.0), and supporting
     *note universal newlines: bac.  ‘TextIOBase’ defines the *note
     readline(): b5. method and supports iteration upon objects.

     There are two concrete implementations.  ‘TextIOWrapper’ wraps a
     buffered I/O object, supporting all of the methods for text I/O and
     adding a ‘buffer’ attribute for access to the underlying object.
     ‘StringIO’ simply buffers everything in memory without ever writing
     anything to disk.

     (In Python 2.6, *note io.StringIO: db1. is implemented in pure
     Python, so it's pretty slow.  You should therefore stick with the
     existing ‘StringIO’ module or ‘cStringIO’ for now.  At some point
     Python 3.0's *note io: 79. module will be rewritten into C for
     speed, and perhaps the C implementation will be backported to the
     2.x releases.)

In Python 2.6, the underlying implementations haven't been restructured
to build on top of the *note io: 79. module's classes.  The module is
being provided to make it easier to write code that's forward-compatible
with 3.0, and to save developers the effort of writing their own
implementations of buffering and text I/O.

也參考
......

PEP 3116(1) - New I/O

     PEP written by Daniel Stutzbach, Mike Verdone, and Guido van
     Rossum.  Code by Guido van Rossum, Georg Brandl, Walter Doerwald,
     Jeremy Hylton, Martin von Löwis, Tony Lownds, and others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3118：修訂緩衝協定,  Next: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Prev: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.12 PEP 3118：修訂緩衝協定
------------------------------

The buffer protocol is a C-level API that lets Python types exchange
pointers into their internal representations.  A memory-mapped file can
be viewed as a buffer of characters, for example, and this lets another
module such as *note re: b4. treat memory-mapped files as a string of
characters to be searched.

The primary users of the buffer protocol are numeric-processing packages
such as NumPy, which expose the internal representation of arrays so
that callers can write data directly into an array instead of going
through a slower API. This PEP updates the buffer protocol in light of
experience from NumPy development, adding a number of new features such
as indicating the shape of an array or locking a memory region.

The most important new C API function is ‘PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject
*obj, Py_buffer *view, int flags)’, which takes an object and a set of
flags, and fills in the ‘Py_buffer’ structure with information about the
object's memory representation.  Objects can use this operation to lock
memory in place while an external caller could be modifying the
contents, so there's a corresponding ‘PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer *view)’
to indicate that the external caller is done.

The 'flags' argument to *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d. specifies
constraints upon the memory returned.  Some examples are:

   * *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1229. indicates that the memory must be
     writable.

   * ‘PyBUF_LOCK’ requests a read-only or exclusive lock on the memory.

   * *note PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS: 122a. and *note PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS: 122b.
     requests a C-contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest) or
     Fortran-contiguous (first dimension varies the fastest) array
     layout.

Two new argument codes for *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe, ‘s*’ and ‘z*’,
return locked buffer objects for a parameter.

也參考
......

PEP 3118(1) - Revising the buffer protocol

     PEP written by Travis Oliphant and Carl Banks; implemented by
     Travis Oliphant.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Next: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Prev: PEP 3118：修訂緩衝協定,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.13 PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
---------------------------------------

Some object-oriented languages such as Java support interfaces,
declaring that a class has a given set of methods or supports a given
access protocol.  Abstract Base Classes (or ABCs) are an equivalent
feature for Python.  The ABC support consists of an *note abc: 4. module
containing a metaclass called ‘ABCMeta’, special handling of this
metaclass by the *note isinstance(): 14b. and *note issubclass(): 5df.
builtins, and a collection of basic ABCs that the Python developers
think will be widely useful.  Future versions of Python will probably
add more ABCs.

Let's say you have a particular class and wish to know whether it
supports dictionary-style access.  The phrase "dictionary-style" is
vague, however.  It probably means that accessing items with ‘obj[1]’
works.  Does it imply that setting items with ‘obj[2] = value’ works?
Or that the object will have ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’
methods?  What about the iterative variants such as ‘iterkeys()’?  *note
copy(): 23. and ‘update()’?  Iterating over the object with *note
iter(): 5f7.?

The Python 2.6 *note collections: 1b. module includes a number of
different ABCs that represent these distinctions.  ‘Iterable’ indicates
that a class defines ‘__iter__()’, and ‘Container’ means the class
defines a ‘__contains__()’ method and therefore supports ‘x in y’
expressions.  The basic dictionary interface of getting items, setting
items, and ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’, is defined by the
‘MutableMapping’ ABC.

You can derive your own classes from a particular ABC to indicate they
support that ABC's interface:

     import collections

     class Storage(collections.MutableMapping):
         ...

Alternatively, you could write the class without deriving from the
desired ABC and instead register the class by calling the ABC's
‘register()’ method:

     import collections

     class Storage:
         ...

     collections.MutableMapping.register(Storage)

For classes that you write, deriving from the ABC is probably clearer.
The ‘register()’ method is useful when you've written a new ABC that can
describe an existing type or class, or if you want to declare that some
third-party class implements an ABC. For example, if you defined a
‘PrintableType’ ABC, it's legal to do:

     # Register Python's types
     PrintableType.register(int)
     PrintableType.register(float)
     PrintableType.register(str)

Classes should obey the semantics specified by an ABC, but Python can't
check this; it's up to the class author to understand the ABC's
requirements and to implement the code accordingly.

To check whether an object supports a particular interface, you can now
write:

     def func(d):
         if not isinstance(d, collections.MutableMapping):
             raise ValueError("Mapping object expected, not %r" % d)

Don't feel that you must now begin writing lots of checks as in the
above example.  Python has a strong tradition of duck-typing, where
explicit type-checking is never done and code simply calls methods on an
object, trusting that those methods will be there and raising an
exception if they aren't.  Be judicious in checking for ABCs and only do
it where it's absolutely necessary.

You can write your own ABCs by using ‘abc.ABCMeta’ as the metaclass in a
class definition:

     from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod

     class Drawable():
         __metaclass__ = ABCMeta

         @abstractmethod
         def draw(self, x, y, scale=1.0):
             pass

         def draw_doubled(self, x, y):
             self.draw(x, y, scale=2.0)


     class Square(Drawable):
         def draw(self, x, y, scale):
             ...

In the ‘Drawable’ ABC above, the ‘draw_doubled()’ method renders the
object at twice its size and can be implemented in terms of other
methods described in ‘Drawable’.  Classes implementing this ABC
therefore don't need to provide their own implementation of
‘draw_doubled()’, though they can do so.  An implementation of ‘draw()’
is necessary, though; the ABC can't provide a useful generic
implementation.

You can apply the ‘@abstractmethod’ decorator to methods such as
‘draw()’ that must be implemented; Python will then raise an exception
for classes that don't define the method.  Note that the exception is
only raised when you actually try to create an instance of a subclass
lacking the method:

     >>> class Circle(Drawable):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> c = Circle()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Circle with abstract methods draw
     >>>

Abstract data attributes can be declared using the ‘@abstractproperty’
decorator:

     from abc import abstractproperty
     ...

     @abstractproperty
     def readonly(self):
        return self._x

Subclasses must then define a ‘readonly()’ property.

也參考
......

PEP 3119(1) - Introducing Abstract Base Classes

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Talin.  Implemented by Guido
     van Rossum.  Backported to 2.6 by Benjamin Aranguren, with Alex
     Martelli.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Next: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Prev: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.14 PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
----------------------------------------------------

Python 3.0 changes the syntax for octal (base-8) integer literals,
prefixing them with "0o" or "0O" instead of a leading zero, and adds
support for binary (base-2) integer literals, signalled by a "0b" or
"0B" prefix.

Python 2.6 doesn't drop support for a leading 0 signalling an octal
number, but it does add support for "0o" and "0b":

     >>> 0o21, 2*8 + 1
     (17, 17)
     >>> 0b101111
     47

The *note oct(): 115e. builtin still returns numbers prefixed with a
leading zero, and a new *note bin(): 113c. builtin returns the binary
representation for a number:

     >>> oct(42)
     '052'
     >>> future_builtins.oct(42)
     '0o52'
     >>> bin(173)
     '0b10101101'

The *note int(): 17e. and ‘long()’ builtins will now accept the "0o" and
"0b" prefixes when base-8 or base-2 are requested, or when the 'base'
argument is zero (signalling that the base used should be determined
from the string):

     >>> int ('0o52', 0)
     42
     >>> int('1101', 2)
     13
     >>> int('0b1101', 2)
     13
     >>> int('0b1101', 0)
     13

也參考
......

PEP 3127(1) - Integer Literal Support and Syntax

     PEP written by Patrick Maupin; backported to 2.6 by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3127/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Next: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Prev: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.15 PEP 3129: Class Decorators
----------------------------------

Decorators have been extended from functions to classes.  It's now legal
to write:

     @foo
     @bar
     class A:
       pass

This is equivalent to:

     class A:
       pass

     A = foo(bar(A))

也參考
......

PEP 3129(1) - Class Decorators

     由 Collin Winter 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Next: 其他語言更動<14>,  Prev: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.16 PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
----------------------------------------------

Python 3.0 adds several abstract base classes for numeric types inspired
by Scheme's numeric tower.  These classes were backported to 2.6 as the
*note numbers: 99. module.

The most general ABC is ‘Number’.  It defines no operations at all, and
only exists to allow checking if an object is a number by doing
‘isinstance(obj, Number)’.

‘Complex’ is a subclass of ‘Number’.  Complex numbers can undergo the
basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
exponentiation, and you can retrieve the real and imaginary parts and
obtain a number's conjugate.  Python's built-in complex type is an
implementation of ‘Complex’.

‘Real’ further derives from ‘Complex’, and adds operations that only
work on real numbers: ‘floor()’, ‘trunc()’, rounding, taking the
remainder mod N, floor division, and comparisons.

‘Rational’ numbers derive from ‘Real’, have ‘numerator’ and
‘denominator’ properties, and can be converted to floats.  Python 2.6
adds a simple rational-number class, ‘Fraction’, in the *note fractions:
58. module.  (It's called ‘Fraction’ instead of ‘Rational’ to avoid a
name clash with *note numbers.Rational: 1152.)

‘Integral’ numbers derive from ‘Rational’, and can be shifted left and
right with ‘<<’ and ‘>>’, combined using bitwise operations such as ‘&’
and ‘|’, and can be used as array indexes and slice boundaries.

In Python 3.0, the PEP slightly redefines the existing builtins *note
round(): 116b, *note math.floor(): 1230, *note math.ceil(): 1231, and
adds a new one, *note math.trunc(): 1232, that's been backported to
Python 2.6.  *note math.trunc(): 1232. rounds toward zero, returning the
closest ‘Integral’ that's between the function's argument and zero.

也參考
......

PEP 3141(1) - A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

     由 Jeffrey Yasskin 撰寫 PEP。

Scheme's numerical tower(2), from the Guile manual.

Scheme's number datatypes(3) from the R5RS Scheme specification.

* Menu:

* The fractions Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/

   (2) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/guile/manual/html_node/Numerical-Tower.html#Numerical-Tower

   (3) 
https://conservatory.scheme.org/schemers/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-9.html#%_sec_6.2


File: python.info,  Node: The fractions Module,  Up: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

1.15.16.1 The ‘fractions’ Module
................................

To fill out the hierarchy of numeric types, the *note fractions: 58.
module provides a rational-number class.  Rational numbers store their
values as a numerator and denominator forming a fraction, and can
exactly represent numbers such as ‘2/3’ that floating-point numbers can
only approximate.

The ‘Fraction’ constructor takes two ‘Integral’ values that will be the
numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction.

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> a = Fraction(2, 3)
     >>> b = Fraction(2, 5)
     >>> float(a), float(b)
     (0.66666666666666663, 0.40000000000000002)
     >>> a+b
     Fraction(16, 15)
     >>> a/b
     Fraction(5, 3)

For converting floating-point numbers to rationals, the float type now
has an ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method that returns the numerator and
denominator for a fraction that evaluates to the same floating-point
value:

     >>> (2.5) .as_integer_ratio()
     (5, 2)
     >>> (3.1415) .as_integer_ratio()
     (7074029114692207L, 2251799813685248L)
     >>> (1./3) .as_integer_ratio()
     (6004799503160661L, 18014398509481984L)

Note that values that can only be approximated by floating-point
numbers, such as 1./3, are not simplified to the number being
approximated; the fraction attempts to match the floating-point value
'exactly'.

The *note fractions: 58. module is based upon an implementation by
Sjoerd Mullender that was in Python's ‘Demo/classes/’ directory for a
long time.  This implementation was significantly updated by Jeffrey
Yasskin.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<14>,  Next: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Prev: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.17 其他語言更動
--------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can
     now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter.
     The directory or zip archive is automatically inserted as the first
     entry in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu,
     subsequently revised by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan;
     bpo-1739468(1).)

   * The *note hasattr(): 1f9. function was catching and ignoring all
     errors, under the assumption that they meant a ‘__getattr__()’
     method was failing somehow and the return value of *note hasattr():
     1f9. would therefore be ‘False’.  This logic shouldn't be applied
     to *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. and *note SystemExit: bb2,
     however; Python 2.6 will no longer discard such exceptions when
     *note hasattr(): 1f9. encounters them.  (Fixed by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-2196(2).)

   * When calling a function using the ‘**’ syntax to provide keyword
     arguments, you are no longer required to use a Python dictionary;
     any mapping will now work:

          >>> def f(**kw):
          ...    print sorted(kw)
          ...
          >>> ud=UserDict.UserDict()
          >>> ud['a'] = 1
          >>> ud['b'] = 'string'
          >>> f(**ud)
          ['a', 'b']

     （由 Alexander Belopolsky 所貢獻；bpo-1686487(3)。）

     It's also become legal to provide keyword arguments after a ‘*args’
     argument to a function call.

          >>> def f(*args, **kw):
          ...     print args, kw
          ...
          >>> f(1,2,3, *(4,5,6), keyword=13)
          (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) {'keyword': 13}

     Previously this would have been a syntax error.  (Contributed by
     Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; bpo-3473(4).)

   * A new builtin, ‘next(iterator, [default])’ returns the next item
     from the specified iterator.  If the 'default' argument is
     supplied, it will be returned if 'iterator' has been exhausted;
     otherwise, the *note StopIteration: a5d. exception will be raised.
     (Backported in bpo-2719(5).)

   * Tuples now have ‘index()’ and ‘count()’ methods matching the list
     type's ‘index()’ and ‘count()’ methods:

          >>> t = (0,1,2,3,4,0,1,2)
          >>> t.index(3)
          3
          >>> t.count(0)
          2

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 所貢獻。）

   * The built-in types now have improved support for extended slicing
     syntax, accepting various combinations of ‘(start, stop, step)’.
     Previously, the support was partial and certain corner cases
     wouldn't work.  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

   * Properties now have three attributes, ‘getter’, ‘setter’ and
     ‘deleter’, that are decorators providing useful shortcuts for
     adding a getter, setter or deleter function to an existing
     property.  You would use them like this:

          class C(object):
              @property
              def x(self):
                  return self._x

              @x.setter
              def x(self, value):
                  self._x = value

              @x.deleter
              def x(self):
                  del self._x

          class D(C):
              @C.x.getter
              def x(self):
                  return self._x * 2

              @x.setter
              def x(self, value):
                  self._x = value / 2

   * Several methods of the built-in set types now accept multiple
     iterables: ‘intersection()’, ‘intersection_update()’, ‘union()’,
     ‘update()’, ‘difference()’ and ‘difference_update()’.

          >>> s=set('1234567890')
          >>> s.intersection('abc123', 'cdf246')  # Intersection between all inputs
          set(['2'])
          >>> s.difference('246', '789')
          set(['1', '0', '3', '5'])

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 所貢獻。）

   * Many floating-point features were added.  The *note float(): 26a.
     function will now turn the string ‘nan’ into an IEEE 754 Not A
     Number value, and ‘+inf’ and ‘-inf’ into positive or negative
     infinity.  This works on any platform with IEEE 754 semantics.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(6).)

     Other functions in the *note math: 89. module, ‘isinf()’ and
     ‘isnan()’, return true if their floating-point argument is infinite
     or Not A Number.  (bpo-1640(7))

     Conversion functions were added to convert floating-point numbers
     into hexadecimal strings (bpo-3008(8)).  These functions convert
     floats to and from a string representation without introducing
     rounding errors from the conversion between decimal and binary.
     Floats have a *note hex(): 115f. method that returns a string
     representation, and the ‘float.fromhex()’ method converts a string
     back into a number:

          >>> a = 3.75
          >>> a.hex()
          '0x1.e000000000000p+1'
          >>> float.fromhex('0x1.e000000000000p+1')
          3.75
          >>> b=1./3
          >>> b.hex()
          '0x1.5555555555555p-2'

   * A numerical nicety: when creating a complex number from two floats
     on systems that support signed zeros (-0 and +0), the *note
     complex(): 26b. constructor will now preserve the sign of the zero.
     (Fixed by Mark T. Dickinson; bpo-1507(9).)

   * Classes that inherit a ‘__hash__()’ method from a parent class can
     set ‘__hash__ = None’ to indicate that the class isn't hashable.
     This will make ‘hash(obj)’ raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. and the
     class will not be indicated as implementing the ‘Hashable’ ABC.

     You should do this when you've defined a ‘__cmp__()’ or ‘__eq__()’
     method that compares objects by their value rather than by
     identity.  All objects have a default hash method that uses
     ‘id(obj)’ as the hash value.  There's no tidy way to remove the
     ‘__hash__()’ method inherited from a parent class, so assigning
     ‘None’ was implemented as an override.  At the C level, extensions
     can set ‘tp_hash’ to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1235.
     (Fixed by Nick Coghlan and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; bpo-2235(10).)

   * The *note GeneratorExit: 1236. exception now subclasses *note
     BaseException: 3ab. instead of *note Exception: 81e.  This means
     that an exception handler that does ‘except Exception:’ will not
     inadvertently catch *note GeneratorExit: 1236.  (Contributed by
     Chad Austin; bpo-1537(11).)

   * Generator objects now have a ‘gi_code’ attribute that refers to the
     original code object backing the generator.  (Contributed by Collin
     Winter; bpo-1473257(12).)

   * The *note compile(): 554. built-in function now accepts keyword
     arguments as well as positional parameters.  (Contributed by Thomas
     Wouters; bpo-1444529(13).)

   * The *note complex(): 26b. constructor now accepts strings
     containing parenthesized complex numbers, meaning that
     ‘complex(repr(cplx))’ will now round-trip values.  For example,
     ‘complex('(3+4j)')’ now returns the value (3+4j).
     (bpo-1491866(14))

   * The string ‘translate()’ method now accepts ‘None’ as the
     translation table parameter, which is treated as the identity
     transformation.  This makes it easier to carry out operations that
     only delete characters.  (Contributed by Bengt Richter and
     implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1193128(15).)

   * The built-in *note dir(): 42d. function now checks for a
     ‘__dir__()’ method on the objects it receives.  This method must
     return a list of strings containing the names of valid attributes
     for the object, and lets the object control the value that *note
     dir(): 42d. produces.  Objects that have ‘__getattr__()’ or
     ‘__getattribute__()’ methods can use this to advertise
     pseudo-attributes they will honor.  (bpo-1591665(16))

   * Instance method objects have new attributes for the object and
     function comprising the method; the new synonym for ‘im_self’ is
     *note __self__: 1237, and ‘im_func’ is also available as *note
     __func__: 118d.  The old names are still supported in Python 2.6,
     but are gone in 3.0.

   * An obscure change: when you use the *note locals(): 173. function
     inside a *note class: 1168. statement, the resulting dictionary no
     longer returns free variables.  (Free variables, in this case, are
     variables referenced in the ‘class’ statement that aren't
     attributes of the class.)

* Menu:

* 最佳化: 最佳化<13>.
* Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2196

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1686487

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3473

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2719

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3008

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1507

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2235

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1473257

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1444529

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1491866

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193128

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1591665


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<13>,  Next: Interpreter Changes<2>,  Up: 其他語言更動<14>

1.15.17.1 最佳化
................

   * The *note warnings: 10d. module has been rewritten in C. This makes
     it possible to invoke warnings from the parser, and may also make
     the interpreter's startup faster.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and
     Brett Cannon; bpo-1631171(1).)

   * Type objects now have a cache of methods that can reduce the work
     required to find the correct method implementation for a particular
     class; once cached, the interpreter doesn't need to traverse base
     classes to figure out the right method to call.  The cache is
     cleared if a base class or the class itself is modified, so the
     cache should remain correct even in the face of Python's dynamic
     nature.  (Original optimization implemented by Armin Rigo, updated
     for Python 2.6 by Kevin Jacobs; bpo-1700288(2).)

     By default, this change is only applied to types that are included
     with the Python core.  Extension modules may not necessarily be
     compatible with this cache, so they must explicitly add
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG’ to the module's ‘tp_flags’ field to
     enable the method cache.  (To be compatible with the method cache,
     the extension module's code must not directly access and modify the
     ‘tp_dict’ member of any of the types it implements.  Most modules
     don't do this, but it's impossible for the Python interpreter to
     determine that.  See bpo-1878(3) for some discussion.)

   * Function calls that use keyword arguments are significantly faster
     by doing a quick pointer comparison, usually saving the time of a
     full string comparison.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, after
     an initial implementation by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1819(4).)

   * All of the functions in the *note struct: cf. module have been
     rewritten in C, thanks to work at the Need For Speed sprint.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Some of the standard built-in types now set a bit in their type
     objects.  This speeds up checking whether an object is a subclass
     of one of these types.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)

   * Unicode strings now use faster code for detecting whitespace and
     line breaks; this speeds up the ‘split()’ method by about 25% and
     ‘splitlines()’ by 35%.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)  Memory
     usage is reduced by using pymalloc for the Unicode string's data.

   * The ‘with’ statement now stores the *note __exit__(): 1191. method
     on the stack, producing a small speedup.  (Implemented by Jeffrey
     Yasskin.)

   * To reduce memory usage, the garbage collector will now clear
     internal free lists when garbage-collecting the highest generation
     of objects.  This may return memory to the operating system sooner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1700288

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1878

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1819


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes<2>,  Prev: 最佳化<13>,  Up: 其他語言更動<14>

1.15.17.2 Interpreter Changes
.............................

Two command-line options have been reserved for use by other Python
implementations.  The *note -J: 123b. switch has been reserved for use
by Jython for Jython-specific options, such as switches that are passed
to the underlying JVM. *note -X: 188. has been reserved for options
specific to a particular implementation of Python such as CPython,
Jython, or IronPython.  If either option is used with Python 2.6, the
interpreter will report that the option isn't currently used.

Python can now be prevented from writing ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files by
supplying the *note -B: 123c. switch to the Python interpreter, or by
setting the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 123d. environment variable
before running the interpreter.  This setting is available to Python
programs as the ‘sys.dont_write_bytecode’ variable, and Python code can
change the value to modify the interpreter's behaviour.  (Contributed by
Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

The encoding used for standard input, output, and standard error can be
specified by setting the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: e9d. environment
variable before running the interpreter.  The value should be a string
in the form ‘<encoding>’ or ‘<encoding>:<errorhandler>’.  The 'encoding'
part specifies the encoding's name, e.g.  ‘utf-8’ or ‘latin-1’; the
optional 'errorhandler' part specifies what to do with characters that
can't be handled by the encoding, and should be one of "error",
"ignore", or "replace".  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Next: Deprecations and Removals,  Prev: 其他語言更動<14>,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.18 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

As in every release, Python's standard library received a number of
enhancements and bug fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable
changes, sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’
file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look
through the Subversion logs for all the details.

   * The ‘asyncore’ and ‘asynchat’ modules are being actively maintained
     again, and a number of patches and bugfixes were applied.
     (Maintained by Josiah Carlson; see bpo-1736190(1) for one patch.)

   * The ‘bsddb’ module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and
     the package is now available as a standalone package.  The web page
     for the package is www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm(2).  The
     plan is to remove the package from the standard library in Python
     3.0, because its pace of releases is much more frequent than
     Python's.

     The ‘bsddb.dbshelve’ module now uses the highest pickling protocol
     available, instead of restricting itself to protocol 1.
     (Contributed by W. Barnes.)

   * The *note cgi: 13. module will now read variables from the query
     string of an HTTP POST request.  This makes it possible to use form
     actions with URLs that include query strings such as
     "/cgi-bin/add.py?category=1".  (Contributed by Alexandre Fiori and
     Nubis; bpo-1817(3).)

     The ‘parse_qs()’ and ‘parse_qsl()’ functions have been relocated
     from the *note cgi: 13. module to the *note urlparse: 105. module.
     The versions still available in the ‘cgi’ module will trigger *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 700. messages in 2.6 (bpo-600362(4)).

   * The *note cmath: 16. module underwent extensive revision,
     contributed by Mark Dickinson and Christian Heimes.  Five new
     functions were added:

        * ‘polar()’ converts a complex number to polar form, returning
          the modulus and argument of the complex number.

        * ‘rect()’ does the opposite, turning a modulus, argument pair
          back into the corresponding complex number.

        * ‘phase()’ returns the argument (also called the angle) of a
          complex number.

        * ‘isnan()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
          its argument is a NaN.

        * ‘isinf()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
          its argument is infinite.

     The revisions also improved the numerical soundness of the *note
     cmath: 16. module.  For all functions, the real and imaginary parts
     of the results are accurate to within a few units of least
     precision (ulps) whenever possible.  See bpo-1381(5) for the
     details.  The branch cuts for ‘asinh()’, ‘atanh()’: and ‘atan()’
     have also been corrected.

     The tests for the module have been greatly expanded; nearly 2000
     new test cases exercise the algebraic functions.

     On IEEE 754 platforms, the *note cmath: 16. module now handles IEEE
     754 special values and floating-point exceptions in a manner
     consistent with Annex 'G' of the C99 standard.

   * A new data type in the *note collections: 1b. module:
     ‘namedtuple(typename, fieldnames)’ is a factory function that
     creates subclasses of the standard tuple whose fields are
     accessible by name as well as index.  For example:

          >>> var_type = collections.namedtuple('variable',
          ...             'id name type size')
          >>> # Names are separated by spaces or commas.
          >>> # 'id, name, type, size' would also work.
          >>> var_type._fields
          ('id', 'name', 'type', 'size')

          >>> var = var_type(1, 'frequency', 'int', 4)
          >>> print var[0], var.id    # Equivalent
          1 1
          >>> print var[2], var.type  # Equivalent
          int int
          >>> var._asdict()
          {'size': 4, 'type': 'int', 'id': 1, 'name': 'frequency'}
          >>> v2 = var._replace(name='amplitude')
          >>> v2
          variable(id=1, name='amplitude', type='int', size=4)

     Several places in the standard library that returned tuples have
     been modified to return ‘namedtuple()’ instances.  For example, the
     ‘Decimal.as_tuple()’ method now returns a named tuple with ‘sign’,
     ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields.

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 所貢獻。）

   * Another change to the *note collections: 1b. module is that the
     ‘deque’ type now supports an optional 'maxlen' parameter; if
     supplied, the deque's size will be restricted to no more than
     'maxlen' items.  Adding more items to a full deque causes old items
     to be discarded.

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> dq=deque(maxlen=3)
          >>> dq
          deque([], maxlen=3)
          >>> dq.append(1); dq.append(2); dq.append(3)
          >>> dq
          deque([1, 2, 3], maxlen=3)
          >>> dq.append(4)
          >>> dq
          deque([2, 3, 4], maxlen=3)

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 所貢獻。）

   * The *note Cookie: 6c. module's *note Morsel: a67. objects now
     support an *note httponly: 123f. attribute.  In some browsers.
     cookies with this attribute set cannot be accessed or manipulated
     by JavaScript code.  (Contributed by Arvin Schnell;
     bpo-1638033(6).)

   * A new window method in the *note curses: 29. module, ‘chgat()’,
     changes the display attributes for a certain number of characters
     on a single line.  (Contributed by Fabian Kreutz.)

          # Boldface text starting at y=0,x=21
          # and affecting the rest of the line.
          stdscr.chgat(0, 21, curses.A_BOLD)

     The ‘Textbox’ class in the *note curses.textpad: 2c. module now
     supports editing in insert mode as well as overwrite mode.  Insert
     mode is enabled by supplying a true value for the 'insert_mode'
     parameter when creating the ‘Textbox’ instance.

   * The *note datetime: 2e. module's ‘strftime()’ methods now support a
     ‘%f’ format code that expands to the number of microseconds in the
     object, zero-padded on the left to six places.  (Contributed by
     Skip Montanaro; bpo-1158(7).)

   * The *note decimal: 33. module was updated to version 1.66 of the
     General Decimal Specification(8).  New features include some
     methods for some basic mathematical functions such as ‘exp()’ and
     ‘log10()’:

          >>> Decimal(1).exp()
          Decimal("2.718281828459045235360287471")
          >>> Decimal("2.7182818").ln()
          Decimal("0.9999999895305022877376682436")
          >>> Decimal(1000).log10()
          Decimal("3")

     The ‘as_tuple()’ method of ‘Decimal’ objects now returns a named
     tuple with ‘sign’, ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields.

     (Implemented by Facundo Batista and Mark Dickinson.  Named tuple
     support added by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note difflib: 34. module's ‘SequenceMatcher’ class now returns
     named tuples representing matches, with ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘size’
     attributes.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
     seconds, was added to the *note ftplib.FTP: 735. class constructor
     as well as the ‘connect()’ method.  (Added by Facundo Batista.)
     Also, the ‘FTP’ class's ‘storbinary()’ and ‘storlines()’ now take
     an optional 'callback' parameter that will be called with each
     block of data after the data has been sent.  (Contributed by Phil
     Schwartz; bpo-1221598(9).)

   * The ‘reduce()’ built-in function is also available in the *note
     functools: 5a. module.  In Python 3.0, the builtin has been dropped
     and ‘reduce()’ is only available from *note functools: 5a.;
     currently there are no plans to drop the builtin in the 2.x series.
     (Patched by Christian Heimes; bpo-1739906(10).)

   * When possible, the *note getpass: 5d. module will now use
     ‘/dev/tty’ to print a prompt message and read the password, falling
     back to standard error and standard input.  If the password may be
     echoed to the terminal, a warning is printed before the prompt is
     displayed.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

   * The *note glob.glob(): 628. function can now return Unicode
     filenames if a Unicode path was used and Unicode filenames are
     matched within the directory.  (bpo-1001604(11))

   * A new function in the *note heapq: 64. module, ‘merge(iter1, iter2,
     ...)’, takes any number of iterables returning data in sorted
     order, and returns a new generator that returns the contents of all
     the iterators, also in sorted order.  For example:

          >>> list(heapq.merge([1, 3, 5, 9], [2, 8, 16]))
          [1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 16]

     Another new function, ‘heappushpop(heap, item)’, pushes 'item' onto
     'heap', then pops off and returns the smallest item.  This is more
     efficient than making a call to ‘heappush()’ and then ‘heappop()’.

     *note heapq: 64. is now implemented to only use less-than
     comparison, instead of the less-than-or-equal comparison it
     previously used.  This makes *note heapq: 64.'s usage of a type
     match the *note list.sort(): a30. method.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
     seconds, was added to the *note httplib.HTTPConnection: 998. and
     *note HTTPSConnection: 999. class constructors.  (Added by Facundo
     Batista.)

   * Most of the *note inspect: 78. module's functions, such as
     ‘getmoduleinfo()’ and ‘getargs()’, now return named tuples.  In
     addition to behaving like tuples, the elements of the return value
     can also be accessed as attributes.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

     Some new functions in the module include ‘isgenerator()’,
     ‘isgeneratorfunction()’, and ‘isabstract()’.

   * The *note itertools: 7b. module gained several new functions.

     ‘izip_longest(iter1, iter2, ...[, fillvalue])’ makes tuples from
     each of the elements; if some of the iterables are shorter than
     others, the missing values are set to 'fillvalue'.  For example:

          >>> tuple(itertools.izip_longest([1,2,3], [1,2,3,4,5]))
          ((1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (None, 4), (None, 5))

     ‘product(iter1, iter2, ..., [repeat=N])’ returns the Cartesian
     product of the supplied iterables, a set of tuples containing every
     possible combination of the elements returned from each iterable.

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2,3], [4,5,6]))
          [(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6),
           (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
           (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)]

     The optional 'repeat' keyword argument is used for taking the
     product of an iterable or a set of iterables with themselves,
     repeated 'N' times.  With a single iterable argument, 'N'-tuples
     are returned:

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], repeat=3))
          [(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2),
           (2, 1, 1), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2)]

     With two iterables, '2N'-tuples are returned.

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], [3,4], repeat=2))
          [(1, 3, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1, 4), (1, 3, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2, 4),
           (1, 4, 1, 3), (1, 4, 1, 4), (1, 4, 2, 3), (1, 4, 2, 4),
           (2, 3, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1, 4), (2, 3, 2, 3), (2, 3, 2, 4),
           (2, 4, 1, 3), (2, 4, 1, 4), (2, 4, 2, 3), (2, 4, 2, 4)]

     ‘combinations(iterable, r)’ returns sub-sequences of length 'r'
     from the elements of 'iterable'.

          >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 2))
          [('1', '2'), ('1', '3'), ('2', '3')]
          >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 3))
          [('1', '2', '3')]
          >>> list(itertools.combinations('1234', 3))
          [('1', '2', '3'), ('1', '2', '4'),
           ('1', '3', '4'), ('2', '3', '4')]

     ‘permutations(iter[, r])’ returns all the permutations of length
     'r' of the iterable's elements.  If 'r' is not specified, it will
     default to the number of elements produced by the iterable.

          >>> list(itertools.permutations([1,2,3,4], 2))
          [(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4),
           (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4),
           (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4),
           (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)]

     ‘itertools.chain(*iterables)’ is an existing function in *note
     itertools: 7b. that gained a new constructor in Python 2.6.
     ‘itertools.chain.from_iterable(iterable)’ takes a single iterable
     that should return other iterables.  ‘chain()’ will then return all
     the elements of the first iterable, then all the elements of the
     second, and so on.

          >>> list(itertools.chain.from_iterable([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]]))
          [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

     (All contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note logging: 82. module's ‘FileHandler’ class and its
     subclasses ‘WatchedFileHandler’, ‘RotatingFileHandler’, and
     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ now have an optional 'delay' parameter
     to their constructors.  If 'delay' is true, opening of the log file
     is deferred until the first ‘emit()’ call is made.  (Contributed by
     Vinay Sajip.)

     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ also has a 'utc' constructor parameter.
     If the argument is true, UTC time will be used in determining when
     midnight occurs and in generating filenames; otherwise local time
     will be used.

   * Several new functions were added to the *note math: 89. module:

        * *note isinf(): 1240. and *note isnan(): 1241. determine
          whether a given float is a (positive or negative) infinity or
          a NaN (Not a Number), respectively.

        * *note copysign(): 1242. copies the sign bit of an IEEE 754
          number, returning the absolute value of 'x' combined with the
          sign bit of 'y'.  For example, ‘math.copysign(1, -0.0)’
          returns -1.0.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

        * *note factorial(): 786. computes the factorial of a number.
          (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-2138(12).)

        * *note fsum(): 1243. adds up the stream of numbers from an
          iterable, and is careful to avoid loss of precision through
          using partial sums.  (Contributed by Jean Brouwers, Raymond
          Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-2819(13).)

        * *note acosh(): 1244, *note asinh(): 1245. and *note atanh():
          1246. compute the inverse hyperbolic functions.

        * *note log1p(): 1247. returns the natural logarithm of '1+x'
          (base 'e').

        * ‘trunc()’ rounds a number toward zero, returning the closest
          ‘Integral’ that's between the function's argument and zero.
          Added as part of the backport of *note PEP 3141's type
          hierarchy for numbers: 1151.

   * The *note math: 89. module has been improved to give more
     consistent behaviour across platforms, especially with respect to
     handling of floating-point exceptions and IEEE 754 special values.

     Whenever possible, the module follows the recommendations of the
     C99 standard about 754's special values.  For example, ‘sqrt(-1.)’
     should now give a *note ValueError: 183. across almost all
     platforms, while ‘sqrt(float('NaN'))’ should return a NaN on all
     IEEE 754 platforms.  Where Annex 'F' of the C99 standard recommends
     signaling 'divide-by-zero' or 'invalid', Python will raise *note
     ValueError: 183.  Where Annex 'F' of the C99 standard recommends
     signaling 'overflow', Python will raise *note OverflowError: 6ad.
     (See bpo-711019(14) and bpo-1640(15).)

     （由 Christian Heimes 和 Mark Dickinson 所貢獻。）

   * *note mmap: 84e. objects now have a ‘rfind()’ method that searches
     for a substring beginning at the end of the string and searching
     backwards.  The ‘find()’ method also gained an 'end' parameter
     giving an index at which to stop searching.  (Contributed by John
     Lenton.)

   * The *note operator: 9a. module gained a ‘methodcaller()’ function
     that takes a name and an optional set of arguments, returning a
     callable that will call the named function on any arguments passed
     to it.  For example:

          >>> # Equivalent to lambda s: s.replace('old', 'new')
          >>> replacer = operator.methodcaller('replace', 'old', 'new')
          >>> replacer('old wine in old bottles')
          'new wine in new bottles'

     （經 Gregory Petrosyan 建議後由 Georg Brandl 所貢獻。）

     The ‘attrgetter()’ function now accepts dotted names and performs
     the corresponding attribute lookups:

          >>> inst_name = operator.attrgetter(
          ...        '__class__.__name__')
          >>> inst_name('')
          'str'
          >>> inst_name(help)
          '_Helper'

     （經 Barry Warsaw 建議後由 Georg Brandl 所貢獻。）

   * The *note os: 9c. module now wraps several new system calls.
     ‘fchmod(fd, mode)’ and ‘fchown(fd, uid, gid)’ change the mode and
     ownership of an opened file, and ‘lchmod(path, mode)’ changes the
     mode of a symlink.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Christian
     Heimes.)

     ‘chflags()’ and ‘lchflags()’ are wrappers for the corresponding
     system calls (where they're available), changing the flags set on a
     file.  Constants for the flag values are defined in the *note stat:
     cb. module; some possible values include ‘UF_IMMUTABLE’ to signal
     the file may not be changed and ‘UF_APPEND’ to indicate that data
     can only be appended to the file.  (Contributed by M. Levinson.)

     ‘os.closerange(low, high)’ efficiently closes all file descriptors
     from 'low' to 'high', ignoring any errors and not including 'high'
     itself.  This function is now used by the *note subprocess: d0.
     module to make starting processes faster.  (Contributed by Georg
     Brandl; bpo-1663329(16).)

   * The ‘os.environ’ object's ‘clear()’ method will now unset the
     environment variables using *note os.unsetenv(): 759. in addition
     to clearing the object's keys.  (Contributed by Martin Horcicka;
     bpo-1181(17).)

   * The *note os.walk(): 1cb. function now has a ‘followlinks’
     parameter.  If set to True, it will follow symlinks pointing to
     directories and visit the directory's contents.  For backward
     compatibility, the parameter's default value is false.  Note that
     the function can fall into an infinite recursion if there's a
     symlink that points to a parent directory.  (bpo-1273829(18))

   * In the *note os.path: 9d. module, the ‘splitext()’ function has
     been changed to not split on leading period characters.  This
     produces better results when operating on Unix's dot-files.  For
     example, ‘os.path.splitext('.ipython')’ now returns ‘('.ipython',
     '')’ instead of ‘('', '.ipython')’.  (bpo-1115886(19))

     A new function, ‘os.path.relpath(path, start='.')’, returns a
     relative path from the ‘start’ path, if it's supplied, or from the
     current working directory to the destination ‘path’.  (Contributed
     by Richard Barran; bpo-1339796(20).)

     On Windows, *note os.path.expandvars(): 1248. will now expand
     environment variables given in the form "%var%", and "~user" will
     be expanded into the user's home directory path.  (Contributed by
     Josiah Carlson; bpo-957650(21).)

   * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: a0. module gained a
     new command: "run" restarts the Python program being debugged and
     can optionally take new command-line arguments for the program.
     (Contributed by Rocky Bernstein; bpo-1393667(22).)

   * The *note pdb.post_mortem(): 1249. function, used to begin
     debugging a traceback, will now use the traceback returned by *note
     sys.exc_info(): 487. if no traceback is supplied.  (Contributed by
     Facundo Batista; bpo-1106316(23).)

   * The *note pickletools: a2. module now has an ‘optimize()’ function
     that takes a string containing a pickle and removes some unused
     opcodes, returning a shorter pickle that contains the same data
     structure.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A ‘get_data()’ function was added to the *note pkgutil: a4. module
     that returns the contents of resource files included with an
     installed Python package.  For example:

          >>> import pkgutil
          >>> print pkgutil.get_data('test', 'exception_hierarchy.txt')
          BaseException
           +-- SystemExit
           +-- KeyboardInterrupt
           +-- GeneratorExit
           +-- Exception
                +-- StopIteration
                +-- StandardError
           ...

     （由 Paul Moore 貢獻；bpo-2439(24)。）

   * The ‘pyexpat’ module's ‘Parser’ objects now allow setting their
     ‘buffer_size’ attribute to change the size of the buffer used to
     hold character data.  (Contributed by Achim Gaedke; bpo-1137(25).)

   * The ‘Queue’ module now provides queue variants that retrieve
     entries in different orders.  The ‘PriorityQueue’ class stores
     queued items in a heap and retrieves them in priority order, and
     ‘LifoQueue’ retrieves the most recently added entries first,
     meaning that it behaves like a stack.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The *note random: b3. module's ‘Random’ objects can now be pickled
     on a 32-bit system and unpickled on a 64-bit system, and vice
     versa.  Unfortunately, this change also means that Python 2.6's
     ‘Random’ objects can't be unpickled correctly on earlier versions
     of Python.  (Contributed by Shawn Ligocki; bpo-1727780(26).)

     The new ‘triangular(low, high, mode)’ function returns random
     numbers following a triangular distribution.  The returned values
     are between 'low' and 'high', not including 'high' itself, and with
     'mode' as the most frequently occurring value in the distribution.
     (Contributed by Wladmir van der Laan and Raymond Hettinger;
     bpo-1681432(27).)

   * Long regular expression searches carried out by the *note re: b4.
     module will check for signals being delivered, so time-consuming
     searches can now be interrupted.  (Contributed by Josh Hoyt and
     Ralf Schmitt; bpo-846388(28).)

     The regular expression module is implemented by compiling bytecodes
     for a tiny regex-specific virtual machine.  Untrusted code could
     create malicious strings of bytecode directly and cause crashes, so
     Python 2.6 includes a verifier for the regex bytecode.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum from work for Google App Engine;
     bpo-3487(29).)

   * The *note rlcompleter: b8. module's ‘Completer.complete()’ method
     will now ignore exceptions triggered while evaluating a name.
     (Fixed by Lorenz Quack; bpo-2250(30).)

   * The *note sched: ba. module's ‘scheduler’ instances now have a
     read-only *note queue: b1. attribute that returns the contents of
     the scheduler's queue, represented as a list of named tuples with
     the fields ‘(time, priority, action, argument)’.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1861(31).)

   * The *note select: bc. module now has wrapper functions for the
     Linux ‘epoll()’ and BSD ‘kqueue()’ system calls.  ‘modify()’ method
     was added to the existing ‘poll’ objects; ‘pollobj.modify(fd,
     eventmask)’ takes a file descriptor or file object and an event
     mask, modifying the recorded event mask for that file.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1657(32).)

   * The *note shutil.copytree(): 872. function now has an optional
     'ignore' argument that takes a callable object.  This callable will
     receive each directory path and a list of the directory's contents,
     and returns a list of names that will be ignored, not copied.

     The *note shutil: c0. module also provides an ‘ignore_patterns()’
     function for use with this new parameter.  ‘ignore_patterns()’
     takes an arbitrary number of glob-style patterns and returns a
     callable that will ignore any files and directories that match any
     of these patterns.  The following example copies a directory tree,
     but skips both ‘.svn’ directories and Emacs backup files, which
     have names ending with '~':

          shutil.copytree('Doc/library', '/tmp/library',
                          ignore=shutil.ignore_patterns('*~', '.svn'))

     （由 Tarek Ziadé 貢獻；bpo-2663(33)。）

   * Integrating signal handling with GUI handling event loops like
     those used by Tkinter or GTk+ has long been a problem; most
     software ends up polling, waking up every fraction of a second to
     check if any GUI events have occurred.  The *note signal: c1.
     module can now make this more efficient.  Calling
     ‘signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd)’ sets a file descriptor to be used; when
     a signal is received, a byte is written to that file descriptor.
     There's also a C-level function, *note PySignal_SetWakeupFd():
     124a, for setting the descriptor.

     Event loops will use this by opening a pipe to create two
     descriptors, one for reading and one for writing.  The writable
     descriptor will be passed to ‘set_wakeup_fd()’, and the readable
     descriptor will be added to the list of descriptors monitored by
     the event loop via ‘select()’ or ‘poll()’.  On receiving a signal,
     a byte will be written and the main event loop will be woken up,
     avoiding the need to poll.

     （由 Adam Olsen 貢獻；bpo-1583(34)。）

     The ‘siginterrupt()’ function is now available from Python code,
     and allows changing whether signals can interrupt system calls or
     not.  (Contributed by Ralf Schmitt.)

     The ‘setitimer()’ and ‘getitimer()’ functions have also been added
     (where they're available).  ‘setitimer()’ allows setting interval
     timers that will cause a signal to be delivered to the process
     after a specified time, measured in wall-clock time, consumed
     process time, or combined process+system time.  (Contributed by
     Guilherme Polo; bpo-2240(35).)

   * The *note smtplib: c4. module now supports SMTP over SSL thanks to
     the addition of the ‘SMTP_SSL’ class.  This class supports an
     interface identical to the existing ‘SMTP’ class.  (Contributed by
     Monty Taylor.)  Both class constructors also have an optional
     ‘timeout’ parameter that specifies a timeout for the initial
     connection attempt, measured in seconds.  (Contributed by Facundo
     Batista.)

     An implementation of the LMTP protocol ( RFC 2033(36)) was also
     added to the module.  LMTP is used in place of SMTP when
     transferring e-mail between agents that don't manage a mail queue.
     (LMTP implemented by Leif Hedstrom; bpo-957003(37).)

     ‘SMTP.starttls()’ now complies with RFC 3207(38) and forgets any
     knowledge obtained from the server not obtained from the TLS
     negotiation itself.  (Patch contributed by Bill Fenner;
     bpo-829951(39).)

   * The *note socket: c6. module now supports TIPC
     (‘https://tipc.sourceforge.net/’), a high-performance non-IP-based
     protocol designed for use in clustered environments.  TIPC
     addresses are 4- or 5-tuples.  (Contributed by Alberto Bertogli;
     bpo-1646(40).)

     A new function, ‘create_connection()’, takes an address and
     connects to it using an optional timeout value, returning the
     connected socket object.  This function also looks up the address's
     type and connects to it using IPv4 or IPv6 as appropriate.
     Changing your code to use ‘create_connection()’ instead of
     ‘socket(socket.AF_INET, ...)’ may be all that's required to make
     your code work with IPv6.

   * The base classes in the *note SocketServer: c7. module now support
     calling a *note handle_timeout(): 11b5. method after a span of
     inactivity specified by the server's *note timeout: 11b4.
     attribute.  (Contributed by Michael Pomraning.)  The *note
     serve_forever(): fcf. method now takes an optional poll interval
     measured in seconds, controlling how often the server will check
     for a shutdown request.  (Contributed by Pedro Werneck and Jeffrey
     Yasskin; bpo-742598(41), bpo-1193577(42).)

   * The *note sqlite3: c9. module, maintained by Gerhard Häring, has
     been updated from version 2.3.2 in Python 2.5 to version 2.4.1.

   * The *note struct: cf. module now supports the C99 _Bool type, using
     the format character ‘'?'’.  (Contributed by David Remahl.)

   * The *note Popen: 8e1. objects provided by the *note subprocess: d0.
     module now have *note terminate(): 124b, *note kill(): 124c, and
     *note send_signal(): 124d. methods.  On Windows, ‘send_signal()’
     only supports the *note SIGTERM: 124e. signal, and all these
     methods are aliases for the Win32 API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * A new variable in the *note sys: d3. module, ‘float_info’, is an
     object containing information derived from the ‘float.h’ file about
     the platform's floating-point support.  Attributes of this object
     include ‘mant_dig’ (number of digits in the mantissa), ‘epsilon’
     (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next largest value
     representable), and several others.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes; bpo-1534(43).)

     Another new variable, ‘dont_write_bytecode’, controls whether
     Python writes any ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files on importing a module.  If
     this variable is true, the compiled files are not written.  The
     variable is initially set on start-up by supplying the *note -B:
     123c. switch to the Python interpreter, or by setting the *note
     PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 123d. environment variable before running
     the interpreter.  Python code can subsequently change the value of
     this variable to control whether bytecode files are written or not.
     (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

     Information about the command-line arguments supplied to the Python
     interpreter is available by reading attributes of a named tuple
     available as ‘sys.flags’.  For example, the ‘verbose’ attribute is
     true if Python was executed in verbose mode, ‘debug’ is true in
     debugging mode, etc.  These attributes are all read-only.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

     A new function, ‘getsizeof()’, takes a Python object and returns
     the amount of memory used by the object, measured in bytes.
     Built-in objects return correct results; third-party extensions may
     not, but can define a ‘__sizeof__()’ method to return the object's
     size.  (Contributed by Robert Schuppenies; bpo-2898(44).)

     It's now possible to determine the current profiler and tracer
     functions by calling *note sys.getprofile(): 124f. and *note
     sys.gettrace(): 1250.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-1648(45).)

   * The *note tarfile: d8. module now supports POSIX.1-2001 (pax)
     tarfiles in addition to the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) and GNU tar
     formats that were already supported.  The default format is GNU
     tar; specify the ‘format’ parameter to open a file using a
     different format:

          tar = tarfile.open("output.tar", "w",
                             format=tarfile.PAX_FORMAT)

     The new ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ parameters specify an encoding and
     an error handling scheme for character conversions.  ‘'strict'’,
     ‘'ignore'’, and ‘'replace'’ are the three standard ways Python can
     handle errors,; ‘'utf-8'’ is a special value that replaces bad
     characters with their UTF-8 representation.  (Character conversions
     occur because the PAX format supports Unicode filenames, defaulting
     to UTF-8 encoding.)

     The ‘TarFile.add()’ method now accepts an ‘exclude’ argument that's
     a function that can be used to exclude certain filenames from an
     archive.  The function must take a filename and return true if the
     file should be excluded or false if it should be archived.  The
     function is applied to both the name initially passed to ‘add()’
     and to the names of files in recursively added directories.

     (All changes contributed by Lars Gustäbel).

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the *note
     telnetlib.Telnet: b56. class constructor, specifying a timeout
     measured in seconds.  (Added by Facundo Batista.)

   * The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 1ed. class usually deletes
     the temporary file it created when the file is closed.  This
     behaviour can now be changed by passing ‘delete=False’ to the
     constructor.  (Contributed by Damien Miller; bpo-1537850(46).)

     A new class, ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’, behaves like a temporary file
     but stores its data in memory until a maximum size is exceeded.  On
     reaching that limit, the contents will be written to an on-disk
     temporary file.  (Contributed by Dustin J. Mitchell.)

     The ‘NamedTemporaryFile’ and ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’ classes both
     work as context managers, so you can write ‘with
     tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile() as tmp: ...’.  (Contributed by
     Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-2021(47).)

   * The *note test.test_support: de. module gained a number of context
     managers useful for writing tests.  *note EnvironmentVarGuard():
     1251. is a context manager that temporarily changes environment
     variables and automatically restores them to their old values.

     Another context manager, ‘TransientResource’, can surround calls to
     resources that may or may not be available; it will catch and
     ignore a specified list of exceptions.  For example, a network test
     may ignore certain failures when connecting to an external web
     site:

          with test_support.TransientResource(IOError,
                                          errno=errno.ETIMEDOUT):
              f = urllib.urlopen('https://sf.net')
              ...

     Finally, ‘check_warnings()’ resets the ‘warning’ module's warning
     filters and returns an object that will record all warning messages
     triggered (bpo-3781(48)):

          with test_support.check_warnings() as wrec:
              warnings.simplefilter("always")
              # ... code that triggers a warning ...
              assert str(wrec.message) == "function is outdated"
              assert len(wrec.warnings) == 1, "Multiple warnings raised"

     （由 Brett Cannon 貢獻。）

   * The *note textwrap: e6. module can now preserve existing whitespace
     at the beginnings and ends of the newly created lines by specifying
     ‘drop_whitespace=False’ as an argument:

          >>> S = """This  sentence  has a bunch   of
          ...   extra   whitespace."""
          >>> print textwrap.fill(S, width=15)
          This  sentence
          has a bunch
          of    extra
          whitespace.
          >>> print textwrap.fill(S, drop_whitespace=False, width=15)
          This  sentence
            has a bunch
             of    extra
             whitespace.
          >>>

     （由 Dwayne Bailey 貢獻；bpo-1581073(49)。）

   * The *note threading: e7. module API is being changed to use
     properties such as ‘daemon’ instead of ‘setDaemon()’ and
     ‘isDaemon()’ methods, and some methods have been renamed to use
     underscores instead of camel-case; for example, the ‘activeCount()’
     method is renamed to ‘active_count()’.  Both the 2.6 and 3.0
     versions of the module support the same properties and renamed
     methods, but don't remove the old methods.  No date has been set
     for the deprecation of the old APIs in Python 3.x; the old APIs
     won't be removed in any 2.x version.  (Carried out by several
     people, most notably Benjamin Peterson.)

     The *note threading: e7. module's ‘Thread’ objects gained an
     ‘ident’ property that returns the thread's identifier, a nonzero
     integer.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-2871(50).)

   * The *note timeit: e9. module now accepts callables as well as
     strings for the statement being timed and for the setup code.  Two
     convenience functions were added for creating ‘Timer’ instances:
     ‘repeat(stmt, setup, time, repeat, number)’ and ‘timeit(stmt,
     setup, time, number)’ create an instance and call the corresponding
     method.  (Contributed by Erik Demaine; bpo-1533909(51).)

   * The ‘Tkinter’ module now accepts lists and tuples for options,
     separating the elements by spaces before passing the resulting
     value to Tcl/Tk.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2906(52).)

   * The *note turtle: fc. module for turtle graphics was greatly
     enhanced by Gregor Lingl.  New features in the module include:

        * Better animation of turtle movement and rotation.

        * Control over turtle movement using the new ‘delay()’,
          ‘tracer()’, and ‘speed()’ methods.

        * The ability to set new shapes for the turtle, and to define a
          new coordinate system.

        * Turtles now have an ‘undo()’ method that can roll back
          actions.

        * Simple support for reacting to input events such as mouse and
          keyboard activity, making it possible to write simple games.

        * A ‘turtle.cfg’ file can be used to customize the starting
          appearance of the turtle's screen.

        * The module's docstrings can be replaced by new docstrings that
          have been translated into another language.

     (bpo-1513695(53))

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the *note
     urllib.urlopen: 27f. function and the ‘urllib.ftpwrapper’ class
     constructor, as well as the *note urllib2.urlopen: 27f. function.
     The parameter specifies a timeout measured in seconds.  For
     example:

          >>> u = urllib2.urlopen("http://slow.example.com",
                                  timeout=3)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          urllib2.URLError: <urlopen error timed out>
          >>>

     (Added by Facundo Batista.)

   * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 100. module
     has been updated to version 5.1.0.  (Updated by Martin von Löwis;
     bpo-3811(54).)

   * The *note warnings: 10d. module's ‘formatwarning()’ and
     ‘showwarning()’ gained an optional 'line' argument that can be used
     to supply the line of source code.  (Added as part of
     bpo-1631171(55), which re-implemented part of the *note warnings:
     10d. module in C code.)

     A new function, ‘catch_warnings()’, is a context manager intended
     for testing purposes that lets you temporarily modify the warning
     filters and then restore their original values (bpo-3781(56)).

   * The XML-RPC *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 129. and *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 129. classes can now be prevented from immediately
     opening and binding to their socket by passing ‘False’ as the
     'bind_and_activate' constructor parameter.  This can be used to
     modify the instance's ‘allow_reuse_address’ attribute before
     calling the ‘server_bind()’ and ‘server_activate()’ methods to open
     the socket and begin listening for connections.  (Contributed by
     Peter Parente; bpo-1599845(57).)

     ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’ also has a ‘_send_traceback_header’ attribute;
     if true, the exception and formatted traceback are returned as HTTP
     headers "X-Exception" and "X-Traceback".  This feature is for
     debugging purposes only and should not be used on production
     servers because the tracebacks might reveal passwords or other
     sensitive information.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre as part of
     his project for Google's Summer of Code 2007.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 128. module no longer automatically converts
     *note datetime.date: 72f. and *note datetime.time: 6c5. to the
     *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 1252. type; the conversion semantics were
     not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
     ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and *note time: 6c5. instances.
     (bpo-1330538(58)) The code can also handle dates before 1900
     (contributed by Ralf Schmitt; bpo-2014(59)) and 64-bit integers
     represented by using ‘<i8>’ in XML-RPC responses (contributed by
     Riku Lindblad; bpo-2985(60)).

   * The *note zipfile: 12b. module's ‘ZipFile’ class now has
     ‘extract()’ and ‘extractall()’ methods that will unpack a single
     file or all the files in the archive to the current directory, or
     to a specified directory:

          z = zipfile.ZipFile('python-251.zip')

          # Unpack a single file, writing it relative
          # to the /tmp directory.
          z.extract('Python/sysmodule.c', '/tmp')

          # Unpack all the files in the archive.
          z.extractall()

     （由 Alan McIntyre 貢獻；bpo-467924(61)。）

     The *note open(): 29c, ‘read()’ and ‘extract()’ methods can now
     take either a filename or a ‘ZipInfo’ object.  This is useful when
     an archive accidentally contains a duplicated filename.
     (Contributed by Graham Horler; bpo-1775025(62).)

     Finally, *note zipfile: 12b. now supports using Unicode filenames
     for archived files.  (Contributed by Alexey Borzenkov;
     bpo-1734346(63).)

* Menu:

* ast 模組::
* future_builtins 模組::
* The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation.
* The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser.
* ctypes Enhancements::
* Improved SSL Support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1736190

   (2) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1817

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=600362

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1381

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1638033

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1158

   (8) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1221598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739906

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1001604

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2138

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2819

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=711019

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1663329

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1181

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1273829

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1115886

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1339796

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1393667

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1106316

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2439

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1137

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1727780

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1681432

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=846388

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3487

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2250

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1861

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1657

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2663

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2240

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2033.html

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957003

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3207.html

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=829951

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1646

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=742598

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193577

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2898

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1648

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537850

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2021

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1581073

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2871

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533909

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2906

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1513695

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3811

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1599845

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2014

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2985

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=467924

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1775025

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1734346


File: python.info,  Node: ast 模組,  Next: future_builtins 模組,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.1 ‘ast’ 模組
....................

The *note ast: 8. module provides an Abstract Syntax Tree representation
of Python code, and Armin Ronacher contributed a set of helper functions
that perform a variety of common tasks.  These will be useful for HTML
templating packages, code analyzers, and similar tools that process
Python code.

The ‘parse()’ function takes an expression and returns an AST. The
‘dump()’ function outputs a representation of a tree, suitable for
debugging:

     import ast

     t = ast.parse("""
     d = {}
     for i in 'abcdefghijklm':
         d[i + i] = ord(i) - ord('a') + 1
     print d
     """)
     print ast.dump(t)

This outputs a deeply nested tree:

     Module(body=[
       Assign(targets=[
         Name(id='d', ctx=Store())
        ], value=Dict(keys=[], values=[]))
       For(target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
           iter=Str(s='abcdefghijklm'), body=[
         Assign(targets=[
           Subscript(value=
             Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
               slice=
               Index(value=
                 BinOp(left=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()), op=Add(),
                  right=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()))), ctx=Store())
          ], value=
          BinOp(left=
           BinOp(left=
            Call(func=
             Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
               Name(id='i', ctx=Load())
              ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None),
            op=Sub(), right=Call(func=
             Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
               Str(s='a')
              ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None)),
            op=Add(), right=Num(n=1)))
         ], orelse=[])
        Print(dest=None, values=[
          Name(id='d', ctx=Load())
        ], nl=True)
      ])

The ‘literal_eval()’ method takes a string or an AST representing a
literal expression, parses and evaluates it, and returns the resulting
value.  A literal expression is a Python expression containing only
strings, numbers, dictionaries, etc.  but no statements or function
calls.  If you need to evaluate an expression but cannot accept the
security risk of using an *note eval(): 6b0. call, ‘literal_eval()’ will
handle it safely:

     >>> literal = '("a", "b", {2:4, 3:8, 1:2})'
     >>> print ast.literal_eval(literal)
     ('a', 'b', {1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 8})
     >>> print ast.literal_eval('"a" + "b"')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: malformed string

The module also includes ‘NodeVisitor’ and ‘NodeTransformer’ classes for
traversing and modifying an AST, and functions for common
transformations such as changing line numbers.


File: python.info,  Node: future_builtins 模組,  Next: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Prev: ast 模組,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.2 ‘future_builtins’ 模組
................................

Python 3.0 makes many changes to the repertoire of built-in functions,
and most of the changes can't be introduced in the Python 2.x series
because they would break compatibility.  The ‘future_builtins’ module
provides versions of these built-in functions that can be imported when
writing 3.0-compatible code.

The functions in this module currently include:

   * ‘ascii(obj)’: equivalent to *note repr(): 61e.  In Python 3.0,
     *note repr(): 61e. will return a Unicode string, while *note
     ascii(): 1255. will return a pure ASCII bytestring.

   * ‘filter(predicate, iterable)’, ‘map(func, iterable1, ...)’: the 3.0
     versions return iterators, unlike the 2.x builtins which return
     lists.

   * ‘hex(value)’, ‘oct(value)’: instead of calling the ‘__hex__()’ or
     ‘__oct__()’ methods, these versions will call the ‘__index__()’
     method and convert the result to hexadecimal or octal.  *note
     oct(): 115e. will use the new ‘0o’ notation for its result.


File: python.info,  Node: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Next: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Prev: future_builtins 模組,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.3 The ‘json’ module: JavaScript Object Notation
.......................................................

The new *note json: 7c. module supports the encoding and decoding of
Python types in JSON (Javascript Object Notation).  JSON is a
lightweight interchange format often used in web applications.  For more
information about JSON, see ‘http://www.json.org’.

*note json: 7c. comes with support for decoding and encoding most
built-in Python types.  The following example encodes and decodes a
dictionary:

     >>> import json
     >>> data = {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}
     >>> in_json = json.dumps(data) # Encode the data
     >>> in_json
     '{"parrot": 42, "spam": "foo"}'
     >>> json.loads(in_json) # Decode into a Python object
     {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}

It's also possible to write your own decoders and encoders to support
more types.  Pretty-printing of the JSON strings is also supported.

*note json: 7c. (originally called simplejson) was written by Bob
Ippolito.


File: python.info,  Node: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Next: ctypes Enhancements,  Prev: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.4 The ‘plistlib’ module: A Property-List Parser
.......................................................

The ‘.plist’ format is commonly used on Mac OS X to store basic data
types (numbers, strings, lists, and dictionaries) by serializing them
into an XML-based format.  It resembles the XML-RPC serialization of
data types.

Despite being primarily used on Mac OS X, the format has nothing
Mac-specific about it and the Python implementation works on any
platform that Python supports, so the *note plistlib: a6. module has
been promoted to the standard library.

Using the module is simple:

     import sys
     import plistlib
     import datetime

     # Create data structure
     data_struct = dict(lastAccessed=datetime.datetime.now(),
                        version=1,
                        categories=('Personal','Shared','Private'))

     # Create string containing XML.
     plist_str = plistlib.writePlistToString(data_struct)
     new_struct = plistlib.readPlistFromString(plist_str)
     print data_struct
     print new_struct

     # Write data structure to a file and read it back.
     plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, '/tmp/customizations.plist')
     new_struct = plistlib.readPlist('/tmp/customizations.plist')

     # read/writePlist accepts file-like objects as well as paths.
     plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, sys.stdout)


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes Enhancements,  Next: Improved SSL Support,  Prev: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.5 ctypes Enhancements
.............................

Thomas Heller continued to maintain and enhance the *note ctypes: 28.
module.

*note ctypes: 28. now supports a ‘c_bool’ datatype that represents the
C99 ‘bool’ type.  (Contributed by David Remahl; bpo-1649190(1).)

The *note ctypes: 28. string, buffer and array types have improved
support for extended slicing syntax, where various combinations of
‘(start, stop, step)’ are supplied.  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

All *note ctypes: 28. data types now support ‘from_buffer()’ and
‘from_buffer_copy()’ methods that create a ctypes instance based on a
provided buffer object.  ‘from_buffer_copy()’ copies the contents of the
object, while ‘from_buffer()’ will share the same memory area.

A new calling convention tells *note ctypes: 28. to clear the ‘errno’ or
Win32 LastError variables at the outset of each wrapped call.
(Implemented by Thomas Heller; bpo-1798(2).)

You can now retrieve the Unix ‘errno’ variable after a function call.
When creating a wrapped function, you can supply ‘use_errno=True’ as a
keyword parameter to the ‘DLL()’ function and then call the module-level
methods ‘set_errno()’ and ‘get_errno()’ to set and retrieve the error
value.

The Win32 LastError variable is similarly supported by the ‘DLL()’,
‘OleDLL()’, and ‘WinDLL()’ functions.  You supply ‘use_last_error=True’
as a keyword parameter and then call the module-level methods
‘set_last_error()’ and ‘get_last_error()’.

The ‘byref()’ function, used to retrieve a pointer to a ctypes instance,
now has an optional 'offset' parameter that is a byte count that will be
added to the returned pointer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1649190

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1798


File: python.info,  Node: Improved SSL Support,  Prev: ctypes Enhancements,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.6 Improved SSL Support
..............................

Bill Janssen made extensive improvements to Python 2.6's support for the
Secure Sockets Layer by adding a new module, *note ssl: ca, that's built
atop the OpenSSL(1) library.  This new module provides more control over
the protocol negotiated, the X.509 certificates used, and has better
support for writing SSL servers (as opposed to clients) in Python.  The
existing SSL support in the *note socket: c6. module hasn't been removed
and continues to work, though it will be removed in Python 3.0.

To use the new module, you must first create a TCP connection in the
usual way and then pass it to the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function.  It's
possible to specify whether a certificate is required, and to obtain
certificate info by calling the ‘getpeercert()’ method.

也參考
......

The documentation for the *note ssl: ca. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.openssl.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations and Removals,  Next: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.19 Deprecations and Removals
---------------------------------

   * String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises
     a *note TypeError: 2ba.

   * Changes to the *note Exception: 81e. interface as dictated by PEP
     352(1) continue to be made.  For 2.6, the ‘message’ attribute is
     being deprecated in favor of the *note args: 2f8. attribute.

   * (3.0-warning mode) Python 3.0 will feature a reorganized standard
     library that will drop many outdated modules and rename others.
     Python 2.6 running in 3.0-warning mode will warn about these
     modules when they are imported.

     The list of deprecated modules is: ‘audiodev’, ‘bgenlocations’,
     ‘buildtools’, ‘bundlebuilder’, ‘Canvas’, ‘compiler’, ‘dircache’,
     ‘dl’, ‘fpformat’, ‘gensuitemodule’, ‘ihooks’, ‘imageop’, ‘imgfile’,
     ‘linuxaudiodev’, ‘mhlib’, ‘mimetools’, ‘multifile’, ‘new’, ‘pure’,
     ‘statvfs’, ‘sunaudiodev’, ‘test.testall’, and ‘toaiff’.

   * The ‘gopherlib’ module has been removed.

   * The ‘MimeWriter’ module and ‘mimify’ module have been deprecated;
     use the *note email: 37. package instead.

   * The ‘md5’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 63.
     module instead.

   * The ‘posixfile’ module has been deprecated; *note fcntl.lockf():
     125b. provides better locking.

   * The ‘popen2’ module has been deprecated; use the *note subprocess:
     d0. module.

   * The ‘rgbimg’ module has been removed.

   * The ‘sets’ module has been deprecated; it's better to use the
     built-in *note set: 3cc. and *note frozenset: 3cd. types.

   * The ‘sha’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 63.
     module instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 6,  Prev: Deprecations and Removals,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.20 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * Python now must be compiled with C89 compilers (after 19 years!).
     This means that the Python source tree has dropped its own
     implementations of ‘memmove()’ and ‘strerror()’, which are in the
     C89 standard library.

   * Python 2.6 can be built with Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 (version
     9.0), and this is the new default compiler.  See the ‘PCbuild’
     directory for the build files.  (Implemented by Christian Heimes.)

   * On Mac OS X, Python 2.6 can be compiled as a 4-way universal build.
     The ‘configure’ script can take a
     ‘--with-universal-archs=[32-bit|64-bit|all]’ switch, controlling
     whether the binaries are built for 32-bit architectures (x86,
     PowerPC), 64-bit (x86-64 and PPC-64), or both.  (Contributed by
     Ronald Oussoren.)

   * A new function added in Python 2.6.6, ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’, sets the
     value of ‘sys.argv’ and can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include
     the directory containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’
     depending on the value of an 'updatepath' parameter.

     This function was added to close a security hole for applications
     that embed Python.  The old function, ‘PySys_SetArgv()’, would
     always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the current
     directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application embedding
     Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could
     put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named
     ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and run.

     If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
     whether you're calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider
     whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with
     'updatepath' set to false.  Note that using this function will
     break compatibility with Python versions 2.6.5 and earlier; if you
     have to continue working with earlier versions, you can leave the
     call to ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ alone and call
     ‘PyRun_SimpleString("sys.path.pop(0)\n")’ afterwards to discard the
     first ‘sys.path’ component.

     Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(1); discussed in
     gh-50003(2), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

   * The BerkeleyDB module now has a C API object, available as
     ‘bsddb.db.api’.  This object can be used by other C extensions that
     wish to use the ‘bsddb’ module for their own purposes.
     (Contributed by Duncan Grisby.)

   * The new buffer interface, previously described in *note the PEP
     3118 section: 1228, adds *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d. and *note
     PyBuffer_Release(): 576, as well as a few other functions.

   * Python's use of the C stdio library is now thread-safe, or at least
     as thread-safe as the underlying library is.  A long-standing
     potential bug occurred if one thread closed a file object while
     another thread was reading from or writing to the object.  In 2.6
     file objects have a reference count, manipulated by the
     ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ functions.  File
     objects can't be closed unless the reference count is zero.
     ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ should be called while the GIL is still
     held, before carrying out an I/O operation using the ‘FILE *’
     pointer, and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ should be called immediately
     after the GIL is re-acquired.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and
     Gregory P. Smith.)

   * Importing modules simultaneously in two different threads no longer
     deadlocks; it will now raise an *note ImportError: 145.  A new API
     function, *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 354, will look for
     a module in ‘sys.modules’ first, then try to import it after
     acquiring an import lock.  If the import lock is held by another
     thread, an *note ImportError: 145. is raised.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes.)

   * Several functions return information about the platform's
     floating-point support.  *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 125d. returns the
     maximum representable floating-point value, and *note
     PyFloat_GetMin(): 125e. returns the minimum positive value.  *note
     PyFloat_GetInfo(): 125f. returns an object containing more
     information from the ‘float.h’ file, such as ‘"mant_dig"’ (number
     of digits in the mantissa), ‘"epsilon"’ (smallest difference
     between 1.0 and the next largest value representable), and several
     others.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1534(3).)

   * C functions and methods that use *note PyComplex_AsCComplex():
     1260. will now accept arguments that have a ‘__complex__()’ method.
     In particular, the functions in the *note cmath: 16. module will
     now accept objects with this method.  This is a backport of a
     Python 3.0 change.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-1675423(4).)

   * Python's C API now includes two functions for case-insensitive
     string comparisons, ‘PyOS_stricmp(char*, char*)’ and
     ‘PyOS_strnicmp(char*, char*, Py_ssize_t)’.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(5).)

   * Many C extensions define their own little macro for adding integers
     and strings to the module's dictionary in the ‘init*’ function.
     Python 2.6 finally defines standard macros for adding values to a
     module, *note PyModule_AddStringMacro: 1261. and *note
     PyModule_AddIntMacro(): 1262.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * Some macros were renamed in both 3.0 and 2.6 to make it clearer
     that they are macros, not functions.  ‘Py_Size()’ became *note
     Py_SIZE(): 599, ‘Py_Type()’ became *note Py_TYPE(): 597, and
     ‘Py_Refcnt()’ became *note Py_REFCNT(): 6dd.  The mixed-case macros
     are still available in Python 2.6 for backward compatibility.
     (bpo-1629(6))

   * Distutils now places C extensions it builds in a different
     directory when running on a debug version of Python.  (Contributed
     by Collin Winter; bpo-1530959(7).)

   * Several basic data types, such as integers and strings, maintain
     internal free lists of objects that can be re-used.  The data
     structures for these free lists now follow a naming convention: the
     variable is always named ‘free_list’, the counter is always named
     ‘numfree’, and a macro ‘Py<typename>_MAXFREELIST’ is always
     defined.

   * A new Makefile target, "make patchcheck", prepares the Python
     source tree for making a patch: it fixes trailing whitespace in all
     modified ‘.py’ files, checks whether the documentation has been
     changed, and reports whether the ‘Misc/ACKS’ and ‘Misc/NEWS’ files
     have been updated.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

     Another new target, "make profile-opt", compiles a Python binary
     using GCC's profile-guided optimization.  It compiles Python with
     profiling enabled, runs the test suite to obtain a set of profiling
     results, and then compiles using these results for optimization.
     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50003

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675423

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1629

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1530959


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.15.20.1 Port-Specific Changes: Windows
........................................

   * The support for Windows 95, 98, ME and NT4 has been dropped.
     Python 2.6 requires at least Windows 2000 SP4.

   * The new default compiler on Windows is Visual Studio 2008 (version
     9.0).  The build directories for Visual Studio 2003 (version 7.1)
     and 2005 (version 8.0) were moved into the PC/ directory.  The new
     ‘PCbuild’ directory supports cross compilation for X64, debug
     builds and Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). PGO builds are
     roughly 10% faster than normal builds.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes with help from Amaury Forgeot d'Arc and Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note msvcrt: 8e. module now supports both the normal and wide
     char variants of the console I/O API. The *note getwch(): 1264.
     function reads a keypress and returns a Unicode value, as does the
     *note getwche(): 1265. function.  The *note putwch(): 1266.
     function takes a Unicode character and writes it to the console.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * *note os.path.expandvars(): 1248. will now expand environment
     variables in the form "%var%", and "~user" will be expanded into
     the user's home directory path.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson;
     bpo-957650(1).)

   * The *note socket: c6. module's socket objects now have an *note
     ioctl(): b40. method that provides a limited interface to the
     ‘WSAIoctl()’ system interface.

   * The *note _winreg: 111. module now has a function, *note
     ExpandEnvironmentStrings(): 1267, that expands environment variable
     references such as ‘%NAME%’ in an input string.  The handle objects
     provided by this module now support the context protocol, so they
     can be used in *note with: 3c5. statements.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes.)

     *note _winreg: 111. also has better support for x64 systems,
     exposing the *note DisableReflectionKey(): 11f3, *note
     EnableReflectionKey(): 11f4, and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 11f5.
     functions, which enable and disable registry reflection for 32-bit
     processes running on 64-bit systems.  (bpo-1753245(2))

   * The *note msilib: 8d. module's ‘Record’ object gained *note
     GetInteger(): 1268. and *note GetString(): 1269. methods that
     return field values as an integer or a string.  (Contributed by
     Floris Bruynooghe; bpo-2125(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1753245

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2125


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Next: Port-Specific Changes IRIX,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.15.20.2 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
.........................................

   * When compiling a framework build of Python, you can now specify the
     framework name to be used by providing the ‘--with-framework-name=’
     option to the ‘configure’ script.

   * The ‘macfs’ module has been removed.  This in turn required the
     ‘macostools.touched()’ function to be removed because it depended
     on the ‘macfs’ module.  (bpo-1490190(1))

   * Many other Mac OS modules have been deprecated and will be removed
     in Python 3.0: ‘_builtinSuites’, ‘aepack’, ‘aetools’, ‘aetypes’,
     ‘applesingle’, ‘appletrawmain’, ‘appletrunner’, ‘argvemulator’,
     ‘Audio_mac’, ‘autoGIL’, ‘Carbon’, ‘cfmfile’, ‘CodeWarrior’,
     ‘ColorPicker’, ‘EasyDialogs’, ‘Explorer’, ‘Finder’, ‘FrameWork’,
     ‘findertools’, ‘ic’, ‘icglue’, ‘icopen’, ‘macerrors’, ‘MacOS’,
     ‘macfs’, ‘macostools’, ‘macresource’, ‘MiniAEFrame’, ‘Nav’,
     ‘Netscape’, ‘OSATerminology’, ‘pimp’, ‘PixMapWrapper’, ‘StdSuites’,
     ‘SystemEvents’, ‘Terminal’, and ‘terminalcommand’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1490190


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes IRIX,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.15.20.3 Port-Specific Changes: IRIX
.....................................

A number of old IRIX-specific modules were deprecated and will be
removed in Python 3.0: ‘al’ and ‘AL’, ‘cd’, ‘cddb’, ‘cdplayer’, ‘CL’ and
‘cl’, ‘DEVICE’, ‘ERRNO’, ‘FILE’, ‘FL’ and ‘fl’, ‘flp’, ‘fm’, ‘GET’,
‘GLWS’, ‘GL’ and ‘gl’, ‘IN’, ‘IOCTL’, ‘jpeg’, ‘panelparser’, ‘readcd’,
‘SV’ and ‘sv’, ‘torgb’, ‘videoreader’, and ‘WAIT’.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 6,  Next: 致謝<2>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.21 Porting to Python 2.6
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * Classes that aren't supposed to be hashable should set ‘__hash__ =
     None’ in their definitions to indicate the fact.

   * String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises
     a *note TypeError: 2ba.

   * The ‘__init__()’ method of *note collections.deque: 3cf. now clears
     any existing contents of the deque before adding elements from the
     iterable.  This change makes the behavior match ‘list.__init__()’.

   * *note object.__init__(): 4ae. previously accepted arbitrary
     arguments and keyword arguments, ignoring them.  In Python 2.6,
     this is no longer allowed and will result in a *note TypeError:
     2ba.  This will affect ‘__init__()’ methods that end up calling the
     corresponding method on *note object: 8d9. (perhaps through using
     *note super(): 206.).  See bpo-1683368(1) for discussion.

   * The ‘Decimal’ constructor now accepts leading and trailing
     whitespace when passed a string.  Previously it would raise an
     ‘InvalidOperation’ exception.  On the other hand, the
     ‘create_decimal()’ method of ‘Context’ objects now explicitly
     disallows extra whitespace, raising a ‘ConversionSyntax’ exception.

   * Due to an implementation accident, if you passed a file path to the
     built-in *note __import__(): 70d. function, it would actually
     import the specified file.  This was never intended to work,
     however, and the implementation now explicitly checks for this case
     and raises an *note ImportError: 145.

   * C API: the *note PyImport_Import(): 126d. and *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 355. functions now default to absolute
     imports, not relative imports.  This will affect C extensions that
     import other modules.

   * C API: extension data types that shouldn't be hashable should
     define their ‘tp_hash’ slot to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented():
     1235.

   * The *note socket: c6. module exception *note socket.error: eeb. now
     inherits from *note IOError: ee8.  Previously it wasn't a subclass
     of ‘StandardError’ but now it is, through *note IOError: ee8.
     (Implemented by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-1706815(2).)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 128. module no longer automatically converts
     *note datetime.date: 72f. and *note datetime.time: 6c5. to the
     *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 1252. type; the conversion semantics were
     not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
     ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and *note time: 6c5. instances.
     (bpo-1330538(3))

   * (3.0-warning mode) The *note Exception: 81e. class now warns when
     accessed using slicing or index access; having *note Exception:
     81e. behave like a tuple is being phased out.

   * (3.0-warning mode) inequality comparisons between two dictionaries
     or two objects that don't implement comparison methods are reported
     as warnings.  ‘dict1 == dict2’ still works, but ‘dict1 < dict2’ is
     being phased out.

     Comparisons between cells, which are an implementation detail of
     Python's scoping rules, also cause warnings because such
     comparisons are forbidden entirely in 3.0.

For applications that embed Python:

   * The ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ function was added in Python 2.6.6, letting
     applications close a security hole when the existing
     ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ function was used.  Check whether you're calling
     ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider whether the application
     should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1683368

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1706815

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538


File: python.info,  Node: 致謝<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 6,  Up: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能

1.15.22 致謝
------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Georg Brandl, Steve Brown, Nick Coghlan, Ralph Corderoy, Jim
Jewett, Kent Johnson, Chris Lambacher, Martin Michlmayr, Antoine Pitrou,
Brian Warner.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.16 Python 2.5 有什麼新功能
============================


作者: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.5.  The final release
of Python 2.5 is scheduled for August 2006; PEP 356(1) describes the
planned release schedule.  Python 2.5 was released on September 19,
2006.

The changes in Python 2.5 are an interesting mix of language and library
improvements.  The library enhancements will be more important to
Python's user community, I think, because several widely useful packages
were added.  New modules include ElementTree for XML processing
(‘xml.etree’), the SQLite database module (‘sqlite’), and the *note
ctypes: 28. module for calling C functions.

The language changes are of middling significance.  Some pleasant new
features were added, but most of them aren't features that you'll use
every day.  Conditional expressions were finally added to the language
using a novel syntax; see section *note PEP 308; Conditional
Expressions: 1272.  The new '*note with: 3c5.' statement will make
writing cleanup code easier (section *note PEP 343：'with' 陳述式:
1273.).  Values can now be passed into generators (section *note PEP
342; New Generator Features: 1274.).  Imports are now visible as either
absolute or relative (section *note PEP 328; Absolute and Relative
Imports: 1275.).  Some corner cases of exception handling are handled
better (section *note PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: 1276.).  All
these improvements are worthwhile, but they're improvements to one
specific language feature or another; none of them are broad
modifications to Python's semantics.

As well as the language and library additions, other improvements and
bugfixes were made throughout the source tree.  A search through the SVN
change logs finds there were 353 patches applied and 458 bugs fixed
between Python 2.4 and 2.5.  (Both figures are likely to be
underestimates.)

This article doesn't try to be a complete specification of the new
features; instead changes are briefly introduced using helpful examples.
For full details, you should always refer to the documentation for
Python 2.5 at ‘https://docs.python.org’.  If you want to understand the
complete implementation and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a
particular new feature.

Comments, suggestions, and error reports for this document are welcome;
please e-mail them to the author or open a bug in the Python bug
tracker.

* Menu:

* PEP 308; Conditional Expressions: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
* PEP 309; Partial Function Application: PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
* PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
* PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
* PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
* PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
* PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
* PEP 343：'with' 陳述式::
* PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
* PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
* PEP 357; The '__index__' method: PEP 357 The '__index__' method.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<15>.
* New, Improved, and Removed Modules: New Improved and Removed Modules.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>.
* Porting to Python 2.5: Porting to Python 2 5.
* 致謝: 致謝<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0356/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions,  Next: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.1 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
---------------------------------------

For a long time, people have been requesting a way to write conditional
expressions, which are expressions that return value A or value B
depending on whether a Boolean value is true or false.  A conditional
expression lets you write a single assignment statement that has the
same effect as the following:

     if condition:
         x = true_value
     else:
         x = false_value

There have been endless tedious discussions of syntax on both python-dev
and comp.lang.python.  A vote was even held that found the majority of
voters wanted conditional expressions in some form, but there was no
syntax that was preferred by a clear majority.  Candidates included C's
‘cond ? true_v : false_v’, ‘if cond then true_v else false_v’, and 16
other variations.

Guido van Rossum eventually chose a surprising syntax:

     x = true_value if condition else false_value

Evaluation is still lazy as in existing Boolean expressions, so the
order of evaluation jumps around a bit.  The 'condition' expression in
the middle is evaluated first, and the 'true_value' expression is
evaluated only if the condition was true.  Similarly, the 'false_value'
expression is only evaluated when the condition is false.

This syntax may seem strange and backwards; why does the condition go in
the 'middle' of the expression, and not in the front as in C's ‘c ? x :
y’?  The decision was checked by applying the new syntax to the modules
in the standard library and seeing how the resulting code read.  In many
cases where a conditional expression is used, one value seems to be the
'common case' and one value is an 'exceptional case', used only on rarer
occasions when the condition isn't met.  The conditional syntax makes
this pattern a bit more obvious:

     contents = ((doc + '\n') if doc else '')

I read the above statement as meaning "here 'contents' is usually
assigned a value of ‘doc+'\n'’; sometimes 'doc' is empty, in which
special case an empty string is returned."  I doubt I will use
conditional expressions very often where there isn't a clear common and
uncommon case.

There was some discussion of whether the language should require
surrounding conditional expressions with parentheses.  The decision was
made to 'not' require parentheses in the Python language's grammar, but
as a matter of style I think you should always use them.  Consider these
two statements:

     # First version -- no parens
     level = 1 if logging else 0

     # Second version -- with parens
     level = (1 if logging else 0)

In the first version, I think a reader's eye might group the statement
into 'level = 1', 'if logging', 'else 0', and think that the condition
decides whether the assignment to 'level' is performed.  The second
version reads better, in my opinion, because it makes it clear that the
assignment is always performed and the choice is being made between two
values.

Another reason for including the brackets: a few odd combinations of
list comprehensions and lambdas could look like incorrect conditional
expressions.  See PEP 308(1) for some examples.  If you put parentheses
around your conditional expressions, you won't run into this case.

也參考
......

PEP 308(2) - Conditional Expressions

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Raymond D. Hettinger;
     implemented by Thomas Wouters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Next: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Prev: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.2 PEP 309: Partial Function Application
--------------------------------------------

The *note functools: 5a. module is intended to contain tools for
functional-style programming.

One useful tool in this module is the ‘partial()’ function.  For
programs written in a functional style, you'll sometimes want to
construct variants of existing functions that have some of the
parameters filled in.  Consider a Python function ‘f(a, b, c)’; you
could create a new function ‘g(b, c)’ that was equivalent to ‘f(1, b,
c)’.  This is called "partial function application".

‘partial()’ takes the arguments ‘(function, arg1, arg2, ...
kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)’.  The resulting object is callable, so
you can just call it to invoke 'function' with the filled-in arguments.

Here's a small but realistic example:

     import functools

     def log (message, subsystem):
         "Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."
         print '%s: %s' % (subsystem, message)
         ...

     server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
     server_log('Unable to open socket')

Here's another example, from a program that uses PyGTK. Here a
context-sensitive pop-up menu is being constructed dynamically.  The
callback provided for the menu option is a partially applied version of
the ‘open_item()’ method, where the first argument has been provided.

     ...
     class Application:
         def open_item(self, path):
            ...
         def init (self):
             open_func = functools.partial(self.open_item, item_path)
             popup_menu.append( ("Open", open_func, 1) )

Another function in the *note functools: 5a. module is the
‘update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped)’ function that helps you write
well-behaved decorators.  ‘update_wrapper()’ copies the name, module,
and docstring attribute to a wrapper function so that tracebacks inside
the wrapped function are easier to understand.  For example, you might
write:

     def my_decorator(f):
         def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
             print 'Calling decorated function'
             return f(*args, **kwds)
         functools.update_wrapper(wrapper, f)
         return wrapper

‘wraps()’ is a decorator that can be used inside your own decorators to
copy the wrapped function's information.  An alternate version of the
previous example would be:

     def my_decorator(f):
         @functools.wraps(f)
         def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
             print 'Calling decorated function'
             return f(*args, **kwds)
         return wrapper

也參考
......

PEP 309(1) - Partial Function Application

     PEP proposed and written by Peter Harris; implemented by Hye-Shik
     Chang and Nick Coghlan, with adaptations by Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0309/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Next: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Prev: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.3 PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
----------------------------------------------------------

Some simple dependency support was added to Distutils.  The ‘setup()’
function now has ‘requires’, ‘provides’, and ‘obsoletes’ keyword
parameters.  When you build a source distribution using the ‘sdist’
command, the dependency information will be recorded in the ‘PKG-INFO’
file.

Another new keyword parameter is ‘download_url’, which should be set to
a URL for the package's source code.  This means it's now possible to
look up an entry in the package index, determine the dependencies for a
package, and download the required packages.

     VERSION = '1.0'
     setup(name='PyPackage',
           version=VERSION,
           requires=['numarray', 'zlib (>=1.1.4)'],
           obsoletes=['OldPackage']
           download_url=('http://www.example.com/pypackage/dist/pkg-%s.tar.gz'
                         % VERSION),
          )

Another new enhancement to the Python package index at
‘https://pypi.org’ is storing source and binary archives for a package.
The new ‘upload’ Distutils command will upload a package to the
repository.

Before a package can be uploaded, you must be able to build a
distribution using the ‘sdist’ Distutils command.  Once that works, you
can run ‘python setup.py upload’ to add your package to the PyPI
archive.  Optionally you can GPG-sign the package by supplying the
‘--sign’ and ‘--identity’ options.

Package uploading was implemented by Martin von Löwis and Richard Jones.

也參考
......

PEP 314(1) - Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1

     PEP proposed and written by A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones, and Fred
     Drake; implemented by Richard Jones and Fred Drake.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0314/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Next: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Prev: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.4 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
---------------------------------------------

The simpler part of PEP 328(1) was implemented in Python 2.4:
parentheses could now be used to enclose the names imported from a
module using the ‘from ... import ...’ statement, making it easier to
import many different names.

The more complicated part has been implemented in Python 2.5: importing
a module can be specified to use absolute or package-relative imports.
The plan is to move toward making absolute imports the default in future
versions of Python.

Let's say you have a package directory like this:

     pkg/
     pkg/__init__.py
     pkg/main.py
     pkg/string.py

This defines a package named ‘pkg’ containing the ‘pkg.main’ and
‘pkg.string’ submodules.

Consider the code in the ‘main.py’ module.  What happens if it executes
the statement ‘import string’?  In Python 2.4 and earlier, it will first
look in the package's directory to perform a relative import, finds
‘pkg/string.py’, imports the contents of that file as the ‘pkg.string’
module, and that module is bound to the name ‘string’ in the ‘pkg.main’
module's namespace.

That's fine if ‘pkg.string’ was what you wanted.  But what if you wanted
Python's standard *note string: cd. module?  There's no clean way to
ignore ‘pkg.string’ and look for the standard module; generally you had
to look at the contents of ‘sys.modules’, which is slightly unclean.
Holger Krekel's ‘py.std’ package provides a tidier way to perform
imports from the standard library, ‘import py; py.std.string.join()’,
but that package isn't available on all Python installations.

Reading code which relies on relative imports is also less clear,
because a reader may be confused about which module, *note string: cd.
or ‘pkg.string’, is intended to be used.  Python users soon learned not
to duplicate the names of standard library modules in the names of their
packages' submodules, but you can't protect against having your
submodule's name being used for a new module added in a future version
of Python.

In Python 2.5, you can switch *note import: 3d5.'s behaviour to absolute
imports using a ‘from __future__ import absolute_import’ directive.
This absolute-import behaviour will become the default in a future
version (probably Python 2.7).  Once absolute imports are the default,
‘import string’ will always find the standard library's version.  It's
suggested that users should begin using absolute imports as much as
possible, so it's preferable to begin writing ‘from pkg import string’
in your code.

Relative imports are still possible by adding a leading period to the
module name when using the ‘from ... import’ form:

     # Import names from pkg.string
     from .string import name1, name2
     # Import pkg.string
     from . import string

This imports the *note string: cd. module relative to the current
package, so in ‘pkg.main’ this will import 'name1' and 'name2' from
‘pkg.string’.  Additional leading periods perform the relative import
starting from the parent of the current package.  For example, code in
the ‘A.B.C’ module can do:

     from . import D                 # 引入 A.B.D
     from .. import E                # 引入 A.E
     from ..F import G               # 引入 A.F.G

Leading periods cannot be used with the ‘import modname’ form of the
import statement, only the ‘from ... import’ form.

也參考
......

PEP 328(2) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

     由 Aahz 撰寫 PEP；由 Thomas Wouters 實作。

‘https://pylib.readthedocs.io/’

     The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the ‘py.std’
     package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Next: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Prev: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.5 PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
--------------------------------------------

The *note -m: 3d4. switch added in Python 2.4 to execute a module as a
script gained a few more abilities.  Instead of being implemented in C
code inside the Python interpreter, the switch now uses an
implementation in a new module, *note runpy: b9.

The *note runpy: b9. module implements a more sophisticated import
mechanism so that it's now possible to run modules in a package such as
‘pychecker.checker’.  The module also supports alternative import
mechanisms such as the *note zipimport: 12c. module.  This means you can
add a .zip archive's path to ‘sys.path’ and then use the *note -m: 3d4.
switch to execute code from the archive.

也參考
......

PEP 338(1) - Executing modules as scripts

     由 Nick Coghlan 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Next: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Prev: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.6 PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
------------------------------------------

Until Python 2.5, the *note try: 4ea. statement came in two flavours.
You could use a *note finally: 80e. block to ensure that code is always
executed, or one or more *note except: 3a8. blocks to catch specific
exceptions.  You couldn't combine both ‘except’ blocks and a ‘finally’
block, because generating the right bytecode for the combined version
was complicated and it wasn't clear what the semantics of the combined
statement should be.

Guido van Rossum spent some time working with Java, which does support
the equivalent of combining *note except: 3a8. blocks and a *note
finally: 80e. block, and this clarified what the statement should mean.
In Python 2.5, you can now write:

     try:
         block-1 ...
     except Exception1:
         handler-1 ...
     except Exception2:
         handler-2 ...
     else:
         else-block
     finally:
         final-block

The code in 'block-1' is executed.  If the code raises an exception, the
various *note except: 3a8. blocks are tested: if the exception is of
class ‘Exception1’, 'handler-1' is executed; otherwise if it's of class
‘Exception2’, 'handler-2' is executed, and so forth.  If no exception is
raised, the 'else-block' is executed.

No matter what happened previously, the 'final-block' is executed once
the code block is complete and any raised exceptions handled.  Even if
there's an error in an exception handler or the 'else-block' and a new
exception is raised, the code in the 'final-block' is still run.

也參考
......

PEP 341(1) - Unifying try-except and try-finally

     由 Georg Brandl 撰寫 PEP；由 Thomas Lee 實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0341/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Next: PEP 343：'with' 陳述式,  Prev: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.7 PEP 342: New Generator Features
--------------------------------------

Python 2.5 adds a simple way to pass values 'into' a generator.  As
introduced in Python 2.3, generators only produce output; once a
generator's code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to
pass any new information into the function when its execution is
resumed.  Sometimes the ability to pass in some information would be
useful.  Hackish solutions to this include making the generator's code
look at a global variable and then changing the global variable's value,
or passing in some mutable object that callers then modify.

To refresh your memory of basic generators, here's a simple example:

     def counter (maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             yield i
             i += 1

When you call ‘counter(10)’, the result is an iterator that returns the
values from 0 up to 9.  On encountering the *note yield: 811. statement,
the iterator returns the provided value and suspends the function's
execution, preserving the local variables.  Execution resumes on the
following call to the iterator's *note next(): 5f8. method, picking up
after the ‘yield’ statement.

In Python 2.3, *note yield: 811. was a statement; it didn't return any
value.  In 2.5, ‘yield’ is now an expression, returning a value that can
be assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on:

     val = (yield i)

I recommend that you always put parentheses around a *note yield: 811.
expression when you're doing something with the returned value, as in
the above example.  The parentheses aren't always necessary, but it's
easier to always add them instead of having to remember when they're
needed.

( PEP 342(1) explains the exact rules, which are that a *note yield:
811.-expression must always be parenthesized except when it occurs at
the top-level expression on the right-hand side of an assignment.  This
means you can write ‘val = yield i’ but have to use parentheses when
there's an operation, as in ‘val = (yield i) + 12’.)

Values are sent into a generator by calling its ‘send(value)’ method.
The generator's code is then resumed and the *note yield: 811.
expression returns the specified 'value'.  If the regular *note next():
5f8. method is called, the ‘yield’ returns *note None: 470.

Here's the previous example, modified to allow changing the value of the
internal counter.

     def counter (maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             val = (yield i)
             # If value provided, change counter
             if val is not None:
                 i = val
             else:
                 i += 1

And here's an example of changing the counter:

     >>> it = counter(10)
     >>> print it.next()
     0
     >>> print it.next()
     1
     >>> print it.send(8)
     8
     >>> print it.next()
     9
     >>> print it.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 15, in ?
         print it.next()
     StopIteration

*note yield: 811. will usually return *note None: 470, so you should
always check for this case.  Don't just use its value in expressions
unless you're sure that the ‘send()’ method will be the only method used
to resume your generator function.

In addition to ‘send()’, there are two other new methods on generators:

   * ‘throw(type, value=None, traceback=None)’ is used to raise an
     exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the
     *note yield: 811. expression where the generator's execution is
     paused.

   * ‘close()’ raises a new *note GeneratorExit: 1236. exception inside
     the generator to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this
     exception, the generator's code must either raise *note
     GeneratorExit: 1236. or *note StopIteration: a5d.  Catching the
     *note GeneratorExit: 1236. exception and returning a value is
     illegal and will trigger a *note RuntimeError: 17a.; if the
     function raises some other exception, that exception is propagated
     to the caller.  ‘close()’ will also be called by Python's garbage
     collector when the generator is garbage-collected.

     If you need to run cleanup code when a *note GeneratorExit: 1236.
     occurs, I suggest using a ‘try: ... finally:’ suite instead of
     catching *note GeneratorExit: 1236.

The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from
one-way producers of information into both producers and consumers.

Generators also become 'coroutines', a more generalized form of
subroutines.  Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another
point (the top of the function, and a *note return: 812. statement), but
coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points
(the *note yield: 811. statements).  We'll have to figure out patterns
for using coroutines effectively in Python.

The addition of the ‘close()’ method has one side effect that isn't
obvious.  ‘close()’ is called when a generator is garbage-collected, so
this means the generator's code gets one last chance to run before the
generator is destroyed.  This last chance means that ‘try...finally’
statements in generators can now be guaranteed to work; the *note
finally: 80e. clause will now always get a chance to run.  The syntactic
restriction that you couldn't mix *note yield: 811. statements with a
‘try...finally’ suite has therefore been removed.  This seems like a
minor bit of language trivia, but using generators and ‘try...finally’
is actually necessary in order to implement the *note with: 3c5.
statement described by PEP 343(2).  I'll look at this new statement in
the following section.

Another even more esoteric effect of this change: previously, the
‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a frame object.  It's now
possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’ once the generator has been
exhausted.

也參考
......

PEP 342(3) - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Phillip J. Eby; implemented by
     Phillip J. Eby.  Includes examples of some fancier uses of
     generators as coroutines.

     Earlier versions of these features were proposed in PEP 288(4) by
     Raymond Hettinger and PEP 325(5) by Samuele Pedroni.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’

     The Wikipedia entry for coroutines.

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160321211320/http://www.sidhe.org/~dan/blog/archives/000178.html’

     An explanation of coroutines from a Perl point of view, written by
     Dan Sugalski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0288/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0325/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 343：'with' 陳述式,  Next: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Prev: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.8 PEP 343：'with' 陳述式
-----------------------------

The '*note with: 3c5.' statement clarifies code that previously would
use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In
this section, I'll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.
In the next section, I'll examine the implementation details and show
how to write objects for use with this statement.

The '*note with: 3c5.' statement is a new control-flow structure whose
basic structure is:

     with expression [as variable]:
         with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that
supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note
__enter__(): 3b8. and *note __exit__(): 1191. methods.

The object's *note __enter__(): 3b8. is called before 'with-block' is
executed and therefore can run set-up code.  It also may return a value
that is bound to the name 'variable', if given.  (Note carefully that
'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.)

After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object's *note
__exit__(): 1191. method is called, even if the block raised an
exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

To enable the statement in Python 2.5, you need to add the following
directive to your module:

     from __future__ import with_statement

The statement will always be enabled in Python 2.6.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol
and can be used with the '*note with: 3c5.' statement.  File objects are
one example:

     with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
         for line in f:
             print line
             ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been
automatically closed, even if the *note for: 265. loop raised an
exception part-way through the block.

     備註: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note open():
     29c, because *note __enter__(): 3b8. returns 'self'.

The *note threading: e7. module's locks and condition variables also
support the '*note with: 3c5.' statement:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with lock:
         # Critical section of code
         ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released
once the block is complete.

The new ‘localcontext()’ function in the *note decimal: 33. module makes
it easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which
encapsulates the desired precision and rounding characteristics for
computations:

     from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

     # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
     v = Decimal('578')
     print v.sqrt()

     with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
         # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
         # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
         print v.sqrt()

* Menu:

* Writing Context Managers: Writing Context Managers<2>.
* contextlib 模組: contextlib 模組<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Context Managers<2>,  Next: contextlib 模組<2>,  Up: PEP 343：'with' 陳述式

1.16.8.1 Writing Context Managers
.................................

Under the hood, the '*note with: 3c5.' statement is fairly complicated.
Most people will only use '‘with’' in company with existing objects and
don't need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this
section if you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the
details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

   * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a
     "context manager".  The context manager must have *note
     __enter__(): 3b8. and *note __exit__(): 1191. methods.

   * The context manager's *note __enter__(): 3b8. method is called.
     The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘'as VAR'’ clause is
     present, the value is simply discarded.

   * The code in 'BLOCK' is executed.

   * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the ‘__exit__(type, value,
     traceback)’ is called with the exception details, the same values
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 487.  The method's return value
     controls whether the exception is re-raised: any false value
     re-raises the exception, and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it.
     You'll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because if you
     do the author of the code containing the '*note with: 3c5.'
     statement will never realize anything went wrong.

   * If 'BLOCK' didn't raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 1191.
     method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are
     all ‘None’.

Let's think through an example.  I won't present detailed code but will
only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports
transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to
the database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either
committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database,
or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the
database is unchanged.  See any database textbook for more information.)

Let's assume there's an object representing a database connection.  Our
goal will be to let the user write code like this:

     db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_connection as cursor:
         cursor.execute('insert into ...')
         cursor.execute('delete from ...')
         # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs
flawlessly or rolled back if there's an exception.  Here's the basic
interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I'll assume:

     class DatabaseConnection:
         # Database interface
         def cursor (self):
             "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
         def commit (self):
             "Commits current transaction"
         def rollback (self):
             "Rolls back current transaction"

The *note __enter__(): 3b8. method is pretty easy, having only to start
a new transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object
would be a useful result, so the method will return it.  The user can
then add ‘as cursor’ to their '*note with: 3c5.' statement to bind the
cursor to a variable name.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __enter__ (self):
             # Code to start a new transaction
             cursor = self.cursor()
             return cursor

The *note __exit__(): 1191. method is the most complicated because it's
where most of the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an
exception occurred.  If there was no exception, the transaction is
committed.  The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
returning the default value of ‘None’.  ‘None’ is false, so the
exception will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be
more explicit and add a *note return: 812. statement at the marked
location.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __exit__ (self, type, value, tb):
             if tb is None:
                 # No exception, so commit
                 self.commit()
             else:
                 # Exception occurred, so rollback.
                 self.rollback()
                 # return False


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib 模組<2>,  Prev: Writing Context Managers<2>,  Up: PEP 343：'with' 陳述式

1.16.8.2 contextlib 模組
........................

The new *note contextlib: 21. module provides some functions and a
decorator that are useful for writing objects for use with the '*note
with: 3c5.' statement.

The decorator is called ‘contextmanager()’, and lets you write a single
generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator
should yield exactly one value.  The code up to the *note yield: 811.
will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 3b8. method, and the value
yielded will be the method's return value that will get bound to the
variable in the '*note with: 3c5.' statement's ‘as’ clause, if any.  The
code after the *note yield: 811. will be executed in the *note
__exit__(): 1191. method.  Any exception raised in the block will be
raised by the ‘yield’ statement.

Our database example from the previous section could be written using
this decorator as:

     from contextlib import contextmanager

     @contextmanager
     def db_transaction (connection):
         cursor = connection.cursor()
         try:
             yield cursor
         except:
             connection.rollback()
             raise
         else:
             connection.commit()

     db = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
         ...

The *note contextlib: 21. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’
function that combines a number of context managers so you don't need to
write nested '*note with: 3c5.' statements.  In this example, the single
'‘with’' statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a
thread lock:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
         ...

Finally, the ‘closing(object)’ function returns 'object' so that it can
be bound to a variable, and calls ‘object.close’ at the end of the
block.

     import urllib, sys
     from contextlib import closing

     with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
         for line in f:
             sys.stdout.write(line)

也參考
......

PEP 343(1) - The "with" statement

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by
     Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the
     code generated for a '*note with: 3c5.' statement, which can be
     helpful in learning how the statement works.

*note contextlib: 21. 模組的文件。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Next: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Prev: PEP 343：'with' 陳述式,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.9 PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
-----------------------------------------------

Exception classes can now be new-style classes, not just classic
classes, and the built-in *note Exception: 81e. class and all the
standard built-in exceptions (*note NameError: 144, *note ValueError:
183, etc.)  are now new-style classes.

The inheritance hierarchy for exceptions has been rearranged a bit.  In
2.5, the inheritance relationships are:

     BaseException       # New in Python 2.5
     |- KeyboardInterrupt
     |- SystemExit
     |- Exception
        |- (all other current built-in exceptions)

This rearrangement was done because people often want to catch all
exceptions that indicate program errors.  *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815.
and *note SystemExit: bb2. aren't errors, though, and usually represent
an explicit action such as the user hitting ‘Control-C’ or code calling
*note sys.exit(): 11dd.  A bare ‘except:’ will catch all exceptions, so
you commonly need to list *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. and *note
SystemExit: bb2. in order to re-raise them.  The usual pattern is:

     try:
         ...
     except (KeyboardInterrupt, SystemExit):
         raise
     except:
         # Log error...
         # Continue running program...

In Python 2.5, you can now write ‘except Exception’ to achieve the same
result, catching all the exceptions that usually indicate errors but
leaving *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. and *note SystemExit: bb2. alone.
As in previous versions, a bare ‘except:’ still catches all exceptions.

The goal for Python 3.0 is to require any class raised as an exception
to derive from *note BaseException: 3ab. or some descendant of *note
BaseException: 3ab, and future releases in the Python 2.x series may
begin to enforce this constraint.  Therefore, I suggest you begin making
all your exception classes derive from *note Exception: 81e. now.  It's
been suggested that the bare ‘except:’ form should be removed in Python
3.0, but Guido van Rossum hasn't decided whether to do this or not.

Raising of strings as exceptions, as in the statement ‘raise "Error
occurred"’, is deprecated in Python 2.5 and will trigger a warning.  The
aim is to be able to remove the string-exception feature in a few
releases.

也參考
......

PEP 352(1) - Required Superclass for Exceptions

     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Guido van Rossum; implemented by
     Brett Cannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Next: PEP 357 The '__index__' method,  Prev: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.10 PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
------------------------------------------------

A wide-ranging change to Python's C API, using a new *note Py_ssize_t:
8ab. type definition instead of int, will permit the interpreter to
handle more data on 64-bit platforms.  This change doesn't affect
Python's capacity on 32-bit platforms.

Various pieces of the Python interpreter used C's int type to store
sizes or counts; for example, the number of items in a list or tuple
were stored in an int.  The C compilers for most 64-bit platforms still
define int as a 32-bit type, so that meant that lists could only hold up
to ‘2**31 - 1’ = 2147483647 items.  (There are actually a few different
programming models that 64-bit C compilers can use - see
‘https://unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lp64_wp.html’ for a discussion - but
the most commonly available model leaves int as 32 bits.)

A limit of 2147483647 items doesn't really matter on a 32-bit platform
because you'll run out of memory before hitting the length limit.  Each
list item requires space for a pointer, which is 4 bytes, plus space for
a *note PyObject: 6d1. representing the item.  2147483647*4 is already
more bytes than a 32-bit address space can contain.

It's possible to address that much memory on a 64-bit platform, however.
The pointers for a list that size would only require 16 GiB of space, so
it's not unreasonable that Python programmers might construct lists that
large.  Therefore, the Python interpreter had to be changed to use some
type other than int, and this will be a 64-bit type on 64-bit platforms.
The change will cause incompatibilities on 64-bit machines, so it was
deemed worth making the transition now, while the number of 64-bit users
is still relatively small.  (In 5 or 10 years, we may 'all' be on 64-bit
machines, and the transition would be more painful then.)

This change most strongly affects authors of C extension modules.
Python strings and container types such as lists and tuples now use
*note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. to store their size.  Functions such as *note
PyList_Size(): 128a. now return *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.  Code in
extension modules may therefore need to have some variables changed to
*note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.

The *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db.
functions have a new conversion code, ‘n’, for *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.
*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.'s ‘s#’ and ‘t#’ still output int by
default, but you can define the macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before
including ‘Python.h’ to make them return *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.

PEP 353(1) has a section on conversion guidelines that extension authors
should read to learn about supporting 64-bit platforms.

也參考
......

PEP 353(2) - Using ssize_t as the index type

     由 Martin von Löwis 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 357 The '__index__' method,  Next: 其他語言更動<15>,  Prev: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.11 PEP 357: The '__index__' method
---------------------------------------

The NumPy developers had a problem that could only be solved by adding a
new special method, ‘__index__()’.  When using slice notation, as in
‘[start:stop:step]’, the values of the 'start', 'stop', and 'step'
indexes must all be either integers or long integers.  NumPy defines a
variety of specialized integer types corresponding to unsigned and
signed integers of 8, 16, 32, and 64 bits, but there was no way to
signal that these types could be used as slice indexes.

Slicing can't just use the existing ‘__int__()’ method because that
method is also used to implement coercion to integers.  If slicing used
‘__int__()’, floating-point numbers would also become legal slice
indexes and that's clearly an undesirable behaviour.

Instead, a new special method called ‘__index__()’ was added.  It takes
no arguments and returns an integer giving the slice index to use.  For
example:

     class C:
         def __index__ (self):
             return self.value

The return value must be either a Python integer or long integer.  The
interpreter will check that the type returned is correct, and raises a
*note TypeError: 2ba. if this requirement isn't met.

A corresponding *note nb_index: 128d. slot was added to the C-level
*note PyNumberMethods: 128e. structure to let C extensions implement
this protocol.  ‘PyNumber_Index(obj)’ can be used in extension code to
call the ‘__index__()’ function and retrieve its result.

也參考
......

PEP 357(1) - Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing

     由 Travis Oliphant 撰寫 PEP 與實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0357/


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<15>,  Next: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Prev: PEP 357 The '__index__' method,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.12 其他語言更動
--------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python
language.

   * The *note dict: 239. type has a new hook for letting subclasses
     provide a default value when a key isn't contained in the
     dictionary.  When a key isn't found, the dictionary's
     ‘__missing__(key)’ method will be called.  This hook is used to
     implement the new ‘defaultdict’ class in the *note collections: 1b.
     module.  The following example defines a dictionary that returns
     zero for any missing key:

          class zerodict (dict):
              def __missing__ (self, key):
                  return 0

          d = zerodict({1:1, 2:2})
          print d[1], d[2]   # 印出 1, 2
          print d[3], d[4]   # 印出 0, 0

   * Both 8-bit and Unicode strings have new ‘partition(sep)’ and
     ‘rpartition(sep)’ methods that simplify a common use case.

     The ‘find(S)’ method is often used to get an index which is then
     used to slice the string and obtain the pieces that are before and
     after the separator.  ‘partition(sep)’ condenses this pattern into
     a single method call that returns a 3-tuple containing the
     substring before the separator, the separator itself, and the
     substring after the separator.  If the separator isn't found, the
     first element of the tuple is the entire string and the other two
     elements are empty.  ‘rpartition(sep)’ also returns a 3-tuple but
     starts searching from the end of the string; the ‘r’ stands for
     'reverse'.

     一些範例：

          >>> ('http://www.python.org').partition('://')
          ('http', '://', 'www.python.org')
          >>> ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html').partition('://')
          ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html', '', '')
          >>> (u'Subject: a quick question').partition(':')
          (u'Subject', u':', u' a quick question')
          >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition('.')
          ('www.python', '.', 'org')
          >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition(':')
          ('', '', 'www.python.org')

     (Implemented by Fredrik Lundh following a suggestion by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The ‘startswith()’ and ‘endswith()’ methods of string types now
     accept tuples of strings to check for.

          def is_image_file (filename):
              return filename.endswith(('.gif', '.jpg', '.tiff'))

     （由 Georg Brandl 實作、後有 Tom Lynn 提出建議。）

   * The *note min(): d8c. and *note max(): d8d. built-in functions
     gained a ‘key’ keyword parameter analogous to the ‘key’ argument
     for ‘sort()’.  This parameter supplies a function that takes a
     single argument and is called for every value in the list; *note
     min(): d8c./*note max(): d8d. will return the element with the
     smallest/largest return value from this function.  For example, to
     find the longest string in a list, you can do:

          L = ['medium', 'longest', 'short']
          # Prints 'longest'
          print max(L, key=len)
          # Prints 'short', because lexicographically 'short' has the largest value
          print max(L)

     （由 Steven Bethard 和 Raymond Hettinger 所貢獻。）

   * Two new built-in functions, *note any(): 1291. and *note all():
     1292, evaluate whether an iterator contains any true or false
     values.  *note any(): 1291. returns *note True: a70. if any value
     returned by the iterator is true; otherwise it will return *note
     False: 98f.  *note all(): 1292. returns *note True: a70. only if
     all of the values returned by the iterator evaluate as true.
     (Suggested by Guido van Rossum, and implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The result of a class's ‘__hash__()’ method can now be either a
     long integer or a regular integer.  If a long integer is returned,
     the hash of that value is taken.  In earlier versions the hash
     value was required to be a regular integer, but in 2.5 the *note
     id(): 1293. built-in was changed to always return non-negative
     numbers, and users often seem to use ‘id(self)’ in ‘__hash__()’
     methods (though this is discouraged).

   * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It's now a syntax
     error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters
     but doesn't have an encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this
     triggered a warning, not a syntax error.  See PEP 263(1) for how to
     declare a module's encoding; for example, you might add a line like
     this near the top of the source file:

          # -*- coding: latin1 -*-

   * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 1294, is triggered when you
     attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can't
     be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding.  The
     result of the comparison is false:

          >>> chr(128) == unichr(128)   # Can't convert chr(128) to Unicode
          __main__:1: UnicodeWarning: Unicode equal comparison failed
            to convert both arguments to Unicode - interpreting them
            as being unequal
          False
          >>> chr(127) == unichr(127)   # chr(127) can be converted
          True

     Previously this would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError: 85a.
     exception, but in 2.5 this could result in puzzling problems when
     accessing a dictionary.  If you looked up ‘unichr(128)’ and
     ‘chr(128)’ was being used as a key, you'd get a *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: 85a. exception.  Other changes in 2.5 resulted
     in this exception being raised instead of suppressed by the code in
     ‘dictobject.c’ that implements dictionaries.

     Raising an exception for such a comparison is strictly correct, but
     the change might have broken code, so instead *note UnicodeWarning:
     1294. was introduced.

     （由 Marc-André Lemburg 實作。）

   * One error that Python programmers sometimes make is forgetting to
     include an ‘__init__.py’ module in a package directory.  Debugging
     this mistake can be confusing, and usually requires running Python
     with the *note -v: 1295. switch to log all the paths searched.  In
     Python 2.5, a new *note ImportWarning: 247. warning is triggered
     when an import would have picked up a directory as a package but no
     ‘__init__.py’ was found.  This warning is silently ignored by
     default; provide the *note -Wd: 6ff. option when running the Python
     executable to display the warning message.  (Implemented by Thomas
     Wouters.)

   * The list of base classes in a class definition can now be empty.
     As an example, this is now legal:

          class C():
              pass

     （由 Brett Cannon 實作。）

* Menu:

* Interactive Interpreter Changes::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<14>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Interpreter Changes,  Next: 最佳化<14>,  Up: 其他語言更動<15>

1.16.12.1 Interactive Interpreter Changes
.........................................

In the interactive interpreter, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ have long been strings
so that new users get a somewhat helpful message when they try to quit:

     >>> quit
     'Use Ctrl-D (i.e. EOF) to exit.'

In Python 2.5, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ are now objects that still produce
string representations of themselves, but are also callable.  Newbies
who try ‘quit()’ or ‘exit()’ will now exit the interpreter as they
expect.  (Implemented by Georg Brandl.)

The Python executable now accepts the standard long options *note -help:
3e5. and *note -version: b8b.; on Windows, it also accepts the *note /?:
1298. option for displaying a help message.  (Implemented by Georg
Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<14>,  Prev: Interactive Interpreter Changes,  Up: 其他語言更動<15>

1.16.12.2 最佳化
................

Several of the optimizations were developed at the NeedForSpeed sprint,
an event held in Reykjavik, Iceland, from May 21-28 2006.  The sprint
focused on speed enhancements to the CPython implementation and was
funded by EWT LLC with local support from CCP Games.  Those
optimizations added at this sprint are specially marked in the following
list.

   * When they were introduced in Python 2.4, the built-in *note set:
     3cc. and *note frozenset: 3cd. types were built on top of Python's
     dictionary type.  In 2.5 the internal data structure has been
     customized for implementing sets, and as a result sets will use a
     third less memory and are somewhat faster.  (Implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The speed of some Unicode operations, such as finding substrings,
     string splitting, and character map encoding and decoding, has been
     improved.  (Substring search and splitting improvements were added
     by Fredrik Lundh and Andrew Dalke at the NeedForSpeed sprint.
     Character maps were improved by Walter Dörwald and Martin von
     Löwis.)

   * The ‘long(str, base)’ function is now faster on long digit strings
     because fewer intermediate results are calculated.  The peak is for
     strings of around 800-1000 digits where the function is 6 times
     faster.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre and committed at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * It's now illegal to mix iterating over a file with ‘for line in
     file’ and calling the file object's ‘read()’/*note readline():
     b5./‘readlines()’ methods.  Iteration uses an internal buffer and
     the ‘read*()’ methods don't use that buffer.  Instead they would
     return the data following the buffer, causing the data to appear
     out of order.  Mixing iteration and these methods will now trigger
     a *note ValueError: 183. from the ‘read*()’ method.  (Implemented
     by Thomas Wouters.)

   * The *note struct: cf. module now compiles structure format strings
     into an internal representation and caches this representation,
     yielding a 20% speedup.  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * The *note re: b4. module got a 1 or 2% speedup by switching to
     Python's allocator functions instead of the system's ‘malloc()’ and
     ‘free()’.  (Contributed by Jack Diederich at the NeedForSpeed
     sprint.)

   * The code generator's peephole optimizer now performs simple
     constant folding in expressions.  If you write something like ‘a =
     2+3’, the code generator will do the arithmetic and produce code
     corresponding to ‘a = 5’.  (Proposed and implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * Function calls are now faster because code objects now keep the
     most recently finished frame (a "zombie frame") in an internal
     field of the code object, reusing it the next time the code object
     is invoked.  (Original patch by Michael Hudson, modified by Armin
     Rigo and Richard Jones; committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)
     Frame objects are also slightly smaller, which may improve cache
     locality and reduce memory usage a bit.  (Contributed by Neal
     Norwitz.)

   * Python's built-in exceptions are now new-style classes, a change
     that speeds up instantiation considerably.  Exception handling in
     Python 2.5 is therefore about 30% faster than in 2.4.  (Contributed
     by Richard Jones, Georg Brandl and Sean Reifschneider at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * Importing now caches the paths tried, recording whether they exist
     or not so that the interpreter makes fewer ‘open()’ and ‘stat()’
     calls on startup.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Georg
     Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Next: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Prev: 其他語言更動<15>,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.13 New, Improved, and Removed Modules
------------------------------------------

The standard library received many enhancements and bug fixes in Python
2.5.  Here's a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted
alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the
source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the SVN
logs for all the details.

   * The *note audioop: b. module now supports the a-LAW encoding, and
     the code for u-LAW encoding has been improved.  (Contributed by
     Lars Immisch.)

   * The *note codecs: 19. module gained support for incremental codecs.
     The ‘codec.lookup()’ function now returns a ‘CodecInfo’ instance
     instead of a tuple.  ‘CodecInfo’ instances behave like a 4-tuple to
     preserve backward compatibility but also have the attributes
     ‘encode’, ‘decode’, ‘incrementalencoder’, ‘incrementaldecoder’,
     ‘streamwriter’, and ‘streamreader’.  Incremental codecs can receive
     input and produce output in multiple chunks; the output is the same
     as if the entire input was fed to the non-incremental codec.  See
     the *note codecs: 19. module documentation for details.  (Designed
     and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * The *note collections: 1b. module gained a new type, ‘defaultdict’,
     that subclasses the standard *note dict: 239. type.  The new type
     mostly behaves like a dictionary but constructs a default value
     when a key isn't present, automatically adding it to the dictionary
     for the requested key value.

     The first argument to ‘defaultdict’'s constructor is a factory
     function that gets called whenever a key is requested but not
     found.  This factory function receives no arguments, so you can use
     built-in type constructors such as *note list(): 40a. or *note
     int(): 17e.  For example, you can make an index of words based on
     their initial letter like this:

          words = """Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita
          mi ritrovai per una selva oscura
          che la diritta via era smarrita""".lower().split()

          index = defaultdict(list)

          for w in words:
              init_letter = w[0]
              index[init_letter].append(w)

     Printing ‘index’ results in the following output:

          defaultdict(<type 'list'>, {'c': ['cammin', 'che'], 'e': ['era'],
                  'd': ['del', 'di', 'diritta'], 'm': ['mezzo', 'mi'],
                  'l': ['la'], 'o': ['oscura'], 'n': ['nel', 'nostra'],
                  'p': ['per'], 's': ['selva', 'smarrita'],
                  'r': ['ritrovai'], 'u': ['una'], 'v': ['vita', 'via']}

     （由 Guido van Rossum 所貢獻。）

   * The ‘deque’ double-ended queue type supplied by the *note
     collections: 1b. module now has a ‘remove(value)’ method that
     removes the first occurrence of 'value' in the queue, raising *note
     ValueError: 183. if the value isn't found.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * New module: The *note contextlib: 21. module contains helper
     functions for use with the new '*note with: 3c5.' statement.  See
     section *note contextlib 模組: 1284. for more about this module.

   * New module: The *note cProfile: 25. module is a C implementation of
     the existing *note profile: aa. module that has much lower
     overhead.  The module's interface is the same as *note profile:
     aa.: you run ‘cProfile.run('main()')’ to profile a function, can
     save profile data to a file, etc.  It's not yet known if the
     Hotshot profiler, which is also written in C but doesn't match the
     *note profile: aa. module's interface, will continue to be
     maintained in future versions of Python.  (Contributed by Armin
     Rigo.)

     Also, the *note pstats: ab. module for analyzing the data measured
     by the profiler now supports directing the output to any file
     object by supplying a 'stream' argument to the ‘Stats’ constructor.
     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * The *note csv: 27. module, which parses files in comma-separated
     value format, received several enhancements and a number of
     bugfixes.  You can now set the maximum size in bytes of a field by
     calling the ‘csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)’ function; omitting
     the 'new_limit' argument will return the currently set limit.  The
     ‘reader’ class now has a ‘line_num’ attribute that counts the
     number of physical lines read from the source; records can span
     multiple physical lines, so ‘line_num’ is not the same as the
     number of records read.

     The CSV parser is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields.
     Previously, if a line ended within a quoted field without a
     terminating newline character, a newline would be inserted into the
     returned field.  This behavior caused problems when reading files
     that contained carriage return characters within fields, so the
     code was changed to return the field without inserting newlines.
     As a consequence, if newlines embedded within fields are important,
     the input should be split into lines in a manner that preserves the
     newline characters.

     （由 Skip Montanaro 和 Andrew McNamara 所貢獻。）

   * The *note datetime: 224. class in the *note datetime: 2e. module
     now has a ‘strptime(string, format)’ method for parsing date
     strings, contributed by Josh Spoerri.  It uses the same format
     characters as *note time.strptime(): 129d. and *note
     time.strftime(): 107a.:

          from datetime import datetime

          ts = datetime.strptime('10:13:15 2006-03-07',
                                 '%H:%M:%S %Y-%m-%d')

   * The ‘SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks()’ method in the *note
     difflib: 34. module now guarantees to return a minimal list of
     blocks describing matching subsequences.  Previously, the algorithm
     would occasionally break a block of matching elements into two list
     entries.  (Enhancement by Tim Peters.)

   * The *note doctest: 36. module gained a ‘SKIP’ option that keeps an
     example from being executed at all.  This is intended for code
     snippets that are usage examples intended for the reader and aren't
     actually test cases.

     An 'encoding' parameter was added to the ‘testfile()’ function and
     the ‘DocFileSuite’ class to specify the file's encoding.  This
     makes it easier to use non-ASCII characters in tests contained
     within a docstring.  (Contributed by Bjorn Tillenius.)

   * The *note email: 37. package has been updated to version 4.0.
     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note fileinput: 56. module was made more flexible.  Unicode
     filenames are now supported, and a 'mode' parameter that defaults
     to ‘"r"’ was added to the *note input(): 1169. function to allow
     opening files in binary or *note universal newlines: bac. mode.
     Another new parameter, 'openhook', lets you use a function other
     than *note open(): 29c. to open the input files.  Once you're
     iterating over the set of files, the ‘FileInput’ object's new *note
     fileno(): 129e. returns the file descriptor for the currently
     opened file.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

   * In the *note gc: 5b. module, the new ‘get_count()’ function returns
     a 3-tuple containing the current collection counts for the three GC
     generations.  This is accounting information for the garbage
     collector; when these counts reach a specified threshold, a garbage
     collection sweep will be made.  The existing *note gc.collect():
     883. function now takes an optional 'generation' argument of 0, 1,
     or 2 to specify which generation to collect.  (Contributed by Barry
     Warsaw.)

   * The ‘nsmallest()’ and ‘nlargest()’ functions in the *note heapq:
     64. module now support a ‘key’ keyword parameter similar to the one
     provided by the *note min(): d8c./*note max(): d8d. functions and
     the ‘sort()’ methods.  For example:

          >>> import heapq
          >>> L = ["short", 'medium', 'longest', 'longer still']
          >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L)  # Return two lowest elements, lexicographically
          ['longer still', 'longest']
          >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L, key=len)   # Return two shortest elements
          ['short', 'medium']

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 所貢獻。）

   * The *note itertools.islice(): 9a6. function now accepts ‘None’ for
     the start and step arguments.  This makes it more compatible with
     the attributes of slice objects, so that you can now write the
     following:

          s = slice(5)     # Create slice object
          itertools.islice(iterable, s.start, s.stop, s.step)

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 所貢獻。）

   * The *note format(): 417. function in the *note locale: 81. module
     has been modified and two new functions were added,
     ‘format_string()’ and ‘currency()’.

     The *note format(): 417. function's 'val' parameter could
     previously be a string as long as no more than one %char specifier
     appeared; now the parameter must be exactly one %char specifier
     with no surrounding text.  An optional 'monetary' parameter was
     also added which, if ‘True’, will use the locale's rules for
     formatting currency in placing a separator between groups of three
     digits.

     To format strings with multiple %char specifiers, use the new
     ‘format_string()’ function that works like *note format(): 417. but
     also supports mixing %char specifiers with arbitrary text.

     A new ‘currency()’ function was also added that formats a number
     according to the current locale's settings.

     （由 Georg Brandl 所貢獻。）

   * The *note mailbox: 86. module underwent a massive rewrite to add
     the capability to modify mailboxes in addition to reading them.  A
     new set of classes that include ‘mbox’, ‘MH’, and ‘Maildir’ are
     used to read mailboxes, and have an ‘add(message)’ method to add
     messages, ‘remove(key)’ to remove messages, and ‘lock()’/‘unlock()’
     to lock/unlock the mailbox.  The following example converts a
     maildir-format mailbox into an mbox-format one:

          import mailbox

          # 'factory=None' uses email.Message.Message as the class representing
          # individual messages.
          src = mailbox.Maildir('maildir', factory=None)
          dest = mailbox.mbox('/tmp/mbox')

          for msg in src:
              dest.add(msg)

     (Contributed by Gregory K. Johnson.  Funding was provided by
     Google's 2005 Summer of Code.)

   * New module: the *note msilib: 8d. module allows creating Microsoft
     Installer ‘.msi’ files and CAB files.  Some support for reading the
     ‘.msi’ database is also included.  (Contributed by Martin von
     Löwis.)

   * The *note nis: 97. module now supports accessing domains other than
     the system default domain by supplying a 'domain' argument to the
     *note nis.match(): 129f. and *note nis.maps(): 12a0. functions.
     (Contributed by Ben Bell.)

   * The *note operator: 9a. module's ‘itemgetter()’ and ‘attrgetter()’
     functions now support multiple fields.  A call such as
     ‘operator.attrgetter('a', 'b')’ will return a function that
     retrieves the ‘a’ and ‘b’ attributes.  Combining this new feature
     with the ‘sort()’ method's ‘key’ parameter lets you easily sort
     lists using multiple fields.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note optparse: 9b. module was updated to version 1.5.1 of the
     Optik library.  The ‘OptionParser’ class gained an ‘epilog’
     attribute, a string that will be printed after the help message,
     and a ‘destroy()’ method to break reference cycles created by the
     object.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The *note os: 9c. module underwent several changes.  The
     ‘stat_float_times’ variable now defaults to true, meaning that
     *note os.stat(): 1bf. will now return time values as floats.  (This
     doesn't necessarily mean that *note os.stat(): 1bf. will return
     times that are precise to fractions of a second; not all systems
     support such precision.)

     Constants named *note os.SEEK_SET: 1122, *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1123,
     and *note os.SEEK_END: 1124. have been added; these are the
     parameters to the *note os.lseek(): fa5. function.  Two new
     constants for locking are *note os.O_SHLOCK: 12a1. and *note
     os.O_EXLOCK: 12a2.

     Two new functions, ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’, were added.  They're
     similar the ‘waitpid()’ function which waits for a child process to
     exit and returns a tuple of the process ID and its exit status, but
     ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’ return additional information.  ‘wait3()’
     doesn't take a process ID as input, so it waits for any child
     process to exit and returns a 3-tuple of 'process-id',
     'exit-status', 'resource-usage' as returned from the *note
     resource.getrusage(): 12a3. function.  ‘wait4(pid)’ does take a
     process ID. (Contributed by Chad J. Schroeder.)

     On FreeBSD, the *note os.stat(): 1bf. function now returns times
     with nanosecond resolution, and the returned object now has
     ‘st_gen’ and ‘st_birthtime’.  The ‘st_flags’ attribute is also
     available, if the platform supports it.  (Contributed by Antti
     Louko and Diego Pettenò.)

   * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: a0. module can now
     store lists of commands to execute when a breakpoint is reached and
     execution stops.  Once breakpoint #1 has been created, enter
     ‘commands 1’ and enter a series of commands to be executed,
     finishing the list with ‘end’.  The command list can include
     commands that resume execution, such as ‘continue’ or ‘next’.
     (Contributed by Grégoire Dooms.)

   * The *note pickle: a1. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer accept a
     return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): 817. method;
     the method must return a tuple of arguments instead.  The ability
     to return ‘None’ was deprecated in Python 2.4, so this completes
     the removal of the feature.

   * The *note pkgutil: a4. module, containing various utility functions
     for finding packages, was enhanced to support PEP 302(1)'s import
     hooks and now also works for packages stored in ZIP-format
     archives.  (Contributed by Phillip J. Eby.)

   * The pybench benchmark suite by Marc-André Lemburg is now included
     in the ‘Tools/pybench’ directory.  The pybench suite is an
     improvement on the commonly used ‘pystone.py’ program because
     pybench provides a more detailed measurement of the interpreter's
     speed.  It times particular operations such as function calls,
     tuple slicing, method lookups, and numeric operations, instead of
     performing many different operations and reducing the result to a
     single number as ‘pystone.py’ does.

   * The ‘pyexpat’ module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser.
     (Contributed by Trent Mick.)

   * The *note Queue: 121d. class provided by the ‘Queue’ module gained
     two new methods.  ‘join()’ blocks until all items in the queue have
     been retrieved and all processing work on the items have been
     completed.  Worker threads call the other new method,
     ‘task_done()’, to signal that processing for an item has been
     completed.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The old ‘regex’ and ‘regsub’ modules, which have been deprecated
     ever since Python 2.0, have finally been deleted.  Other deleted
     modules: ‘statcache’, ‘tzparse’, ‘whrandom’.

   * Also deleted: the ‘lib-old’ directory, which includes ancient
     modules such as ‘dircmp’ and ‘ni’, was removed.  ‘lib-old’ wasn't
     on the default ‘sys.path’, so unless your programs explicitly added
     the directory to ‘sys.path’, this removal shouldn't affect your
     code.

   * The *note rlcompleter: b8. module is no longer dependent on
     importing the *note readline: b5. module and therefore now works on
     non-Unix platforms.  (Patch from Robert Kiendl.)

   * The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 129. and *note DocXMLRPCServer: 129.
     classes now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that constrains XML-RPC
     operations to a limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow
     only ‘'/'’ and ‘'/RPC2'’.  Setting ‘rpc_paths’ to ‘None’ or an
     empty tuple disables this path checking.

   * The *note socket: c6. module now supports ‘AF_NETLINK’ sockets on
     Linux, thanks to a patch from Philippe Biondi.  Netlink sockets are
     a Linux-specific mechanism for communications between a user-space
     process and kernel code; an introductory article about them is at
     ‘https://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356’.  In Python code,
     netlink addresses are represented as a tuple of 2 integers, ‘(pid,
     group_mask)’.

     Two new methods on socket objects, ‘recv_into(buffer)’ and
     ‘recvfrom_into(buffer)’, store the received data in an object that
     supports the buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a
     string.  This means you can put the data directly into an array or
     a memory-mapped file.

     Socket objects also gained ‘getfamily()’, ‘gettype()’, and
     ‘getproto()’ accessor methods to retrieve the family, type, and
     protocol values for the socket.

   * New module: the *note spwd: c8. module provides functions for
     accessing the shadow password database on systems that support
     shadow passwords.

   * The *note struct: cf. is now faster because it compiles format
     strings into ‘Struct’ objects with ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ methods.
     This is similar to how the *note re: b4. module lets you create
     compiled regular expression objects.  You can still use the
     module-level ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ functions; they'll create
     ‘Struct’ objects and cache them.  Or you can use ‘Struct’ instances
     directly:

          s = struct.Struct('ih3s')

          data = s.pack(1972, 187, 'abc')
          year, number, name = s.unpack(data)

     You can also pack and unpack data to and from buffer objects
     directly using the ‘pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)’ and
     ‘unpack_from(buffer, offset)’ methods.  This lets you store data
     directly into an array or a memory-mapped file.

     (‘Struct’ objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.  Support for buffer objects was added by
     Martin Blais, also at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * The Python developers switched from CVS to Subversion during the
     2.5 development process.  Information about the exact build version
     is available as the ‘sys.subversion’ variable, a 3-tuple of
     ‘(interpreter-name, branch-name, revision-range)’.  For example, at
     the time of writing my copy of 2.5 was reporting ‘('CPython',
     'trunk', '45313:45315')’.

     This information is also available to C extensions via the *note
     Py_GetBuildInfo(): 12a4. function that returns a string of build
     information like this: ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006,
     07:42:19"’.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * Another new function, *note sys._current_frames(): 12a5, returns
     the current stack frames for all running threads as a dictionary
     mapping thread identifiers to the topmost stack frame currently
     active in that thread at the time the function is called.
     (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * The ‘TarFile’ class in the *note tarfile: d8. module now has an
     ‘extractall()’ method that extracts all members from the archive
     into the current working directory.  It's also possible to set a
     different directory as the extraction target, and to unpack only a
     subset of the archive's members.

     The compression used for a tarfile opened in stream mode can now be
     autodetected using the mode ‘'r|*'’.  (Contributed by Lars
     Gustäbel.)

   * The *note threading: e7. module now lets you set the stack size
     used when new threads are created.  The ‘stack_size([*size*])’
     function returns the currently configured stack size, and supplying
     the optional 'size' parameter sets a new value.  Not all platforms
     support changing the stack size, but Windows, POSIX threading, and
     OS/2 all do.  (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

   * The *note unicodedata: 100. module has been updated to use version
     4.1.0 of the Unicode character database.  Version 3.2.0 is required
     by some specifications, so it's still available as *note
     unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0: 12a6.

   * New module: the *note uuid: 10b. module generates universally
     unique identifiers (UUIDs) according to RFC 4122(2).  The RFC
     defines several different UUID versions that are generated from a
     starting string, from system properties, or purely randomly.  This
     module contains a ‘UUID’ class and functions named ‘uuid1()’,
     ‘uuid3()’, ‘uuid4()’, and ‘uuid5()’ to generate different versions
     of UUID. (Version 2 UUIDs are not specified in RFC 4122(3) and are
     not supported by this module.)

          >>> import uuid
          >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
          >>> uuid.uuid1()
          UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

          >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
          >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
          UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

          >>> # make a random UUID
          >>> uuid.uuid4()
          UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

          >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
          >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
          UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

     （由 Ka-Ping Yee 所貢獻。）

   * The *note weakref: 10f. module's ‘WeakKeyDictionary’ and
     ‘WeakValueDictionary’ types gained new methods for iterating over
     the weak references contained in the dictionary.  ‘iterkeyrefs()’
     and ‘keyrefs()’ methods were added to ‘WeakKeyDictionary’, and
     ‘itervaluerefs()’ and ‘valuerefs()’ were added to
     ‘WeakValueDictionary’.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * The *note webbrowser: 110. module received a number of
     enhancements.  It's now usable as a script with ‘python -m
     webbrowser’, taking a URL as the argument; there are a number of
     switches to control the behaviour (‘-n’ for a new browser window,
     ‘-t’ for a new tab).  New module-level functions, ‘open_new()’ and
     ‘open_new_tab()’, were added to support this.  The module's *note
     open(): 29c. function supports an additional feature, an
     'autoraise' parameter that signals whether to raise the open window
     when possible.  A number of additional browsers were added to the
     supported list such as Firefox, Opera, Konqueror, and elinks.
     (Contributed by Oleg Broytmann and Georg Brandl.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 128. module now supports returning *note
     datetime: 224. objects for the XML-RPC date type.  Supply
     ‘use_datetime=True’ to the *note loads(): 12a7. function or the
     ‘Unmarshaller’ class to enable this feature.  (Contributed by Skip
     Montanaro.)

   * The *note zipfile: 12b. module now supports the ZIP64 version of
     the format, meaning that a .zip archive can now be larger than 4
     GiB and can contain individual files larger than 4 GiB.
     (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)

   * The *note zlib: 12d. module's ‘Compress’ and ‘Decompress’ objects
     now support a *note copy(): 23. method that makes a copy of the
     object's internal state and returns a new ‘Compress’ or
     ‘Decompress’ object.  (Contributed by Chris AtLee.)

* Menu:

* ctypes 套件::
* ElementTree 套件::
* hashlib 套件::
* sqlite3 套件::
* wsgiref 套件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes 套件,  Next: ElementTree 套件,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.16.13.1 ctypes 套件
.....................

The *note ctypes: 28. package, written by Thomas Heller, has been added
to the standard library.  *note ctypes: 28. lets you call arbitrary
functions in shared libraries or DLLs.  Long-time users may remember the
‘dl’ module, which provides functions for loading shared libraries and
calling functions in them.  The *note ctypes: 28. package is much
fancier.

To load a shared library or DLL, you must create an instance of the
‘CDLL’ class and provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL.
Once that's done, you can call arbitrary functions by accessing them as
attributes of the ‘CDLL’ object.

     import ctypes

     libc = ctypes.CDLL('libc.so.6')
     result = libc.printf("Line of output\n")

Type constructors for the various C types are provided: ‘c_int()’,
‘c_float()’, ‘c_double()’, ‘c_char_p()’ (equivalent to char*), and so
forth.  Unlike Python's types, the C versions are all mutable; you can
assign to their ‘value’ attribute to change the wrapped value.  Python
integers and strings will be automatically converted to the
corresponding C types, but for other types you must call the correct
type constructor.  (And I mean 'must'; getting it wrong will often
result in the interpreter crashing with a segmentation fault.)

You shouldn't use ‘c_char_p()’ with a Python string when the C function
will be modifying the memory area, because Python strings are supposed
to be immutable; breaking this rule will cause puzzling bugs.  When you
need a modifiable memory area, use ‘create_string_buffer()’:

     s = "this is a string"
     buf = ctypes.create_string_buffer(s)
     libc.strfry(buf)

C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the
‘restype’ attribute of the function object to change this:

     >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
     -1783957616
     >>> libc.atof.restype = ctypes.c_double
     >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
     2.71828

*note ctypes: 28. also provides a wrapper for Python's C API as the
‘ctypes.pythonapi’ object.  This object does 'not' release the global
interpreter lock before calling a function, because the lock must be
held when calling into the interpreter's code.  There's a *note
py_object: 12aa. type constructor that will create a *note PyObject:
6d1.* pointer.  A simple usage:

     import ctypes

     d = {}
     ctypes.pythonapi.PyObject_SetItem(ctypes.py_object(d),
               ctypes.py_object("abc"),  ctypes.py_object(1))
     # d 現在為 {'abc', 1}.

Don't forget to use *note py_object(): 12aa.; if it's omitted you end up
with a segmentation fault.

*note ctypes: 28. has been around for a while, but people still write
and distribution hand-coded extension modules because you can't rely on
*note ctypes: 28. being present.  Perhaps developers will begin to write
Python wrappers atop a library accessed through *note ctypes: 28.
instead of extension modules, now that *note ctypes: 28. is included
with core Python.

也參考
......

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180410025338/http://starship.python.net/crew/theller/ctypes/’

     The pre-stdlib ctypes web page, with a tutorial, reference, and
     FAQ.

*note ctypes: 28. 模組的文件。


File: python.info,  Node: ElementTree 套件,  Next: hashlib 套件,  Prev: ctypes 套件,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.16.13.2 ElementTree 套件
..........................

A subset of Fredrik Lundh's ElementTree library for processing XML has
been added to the standard library as ‘xml.etree’.  The available
modules are ‘ElementTree’, ‘ElementPath’, and ‘ElementInclude’ from
ElementTree 1.2.6.  The ‘cElementTree’ accelerator module is also
included.

The rest of this section will provide a brief overview of using
ElementTree.  Full documentation for ElementTree is available at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’.

ElementTree represents an XML document as a tree of element nodes.  The
text content of the document is stored as the ‘text’ and ‘tail’
attributes of (This is one of the major differences between ElementTree
and the Document Object Model; in the DOM there are many different types
of node, including ‘TextNode’.)

The most commonly used parsing function is ‘parse()’, that takes either
a string (assumed to contain a filename) or a file-like object and
returns an ‘ElementTree’ instance:

     from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

     tree = ET.parse('ex-1.xml')

     feed = urllib.urlopen(
               'http://planet.python.org/rss10.xml')
     tree = ET.parse(feed)

Once you have an ‘ElementTree’ instance, you can call its ‘getroot()’
method to get the root ‘Element’ node.

There's also an ‘XML()’ function that takes a string literal and returns
an ‘Element’ node (not an ‘ElementTree’).  This function provides a tidy
way to incorporate XML fragments, approaching the convenience of an XML
literal:

     svg = ET.XML("""<svg width="10px" version="1.0">
                  </svg>""")
     svg.set('height', '320px')
     svg.append(elem1)

Each XML element supports some dictionary-like and some list-like access
methods.  Dictionary-like operations are used to access attribute
values, and list-like operations are used to access child nodes.

操作                                結果
                                    
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘elem[n]’                           Returns n'th child element.
                                    
                                    
‘elem[m:n]’                         Returns list of m'th through n'th child
                                    elements.
                                    
                                    
‘len(elem)’                         Returns number of child elements.
                                    
                                    
‘list(elem)’                        Returns list of child elements.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.append(elem2)’                Adds 'elem2' as a child.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.insert(index, elem2)’         Inserts 'elem2' at the specified location.
                                    
                                    
‘del elem[n]’                       Deletes n'th child element.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.keys()’                       Returns list of attribute names.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.get(name)’                    Returns value of attribute 'name'.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.set(name, value)’             Sets new value for attribute 'name'.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.attrib’                       Retrieves the dictionary containing
                                    attributes.
                                    
                                    
‘del elem.attrib[name]’             Deletes attribute 'name'.
                                    

Comments and processing instructions are also represented as ‘Element’
nodes.  To check if a node is a comment or processing instructions:

     if elem.tag is ET.Comment:
         ...
     elif elem.tag is ET.ProcessingInstruction:
         ...

To generate XML output, you should call the ‘ElementTree.write()’
method.  Like ‘parse()’, it can take either a string or a file-like
object:

     # Encoding is US-ASCII
     tree.write('output.xml')

     # Encoding is UTF-8
     f = open('output.xml', 'w')
     tree.write(f, encoding='utf-8')

(Caution: the default encoding used for output is ASCII. For general XML
work, where an element's name may contain arbitrary Unicode characters,
ASCII isn't a very useful encoding because it will raise an exception if
an element's name contains any characters with values greater than 127.
Therefore, it's best to specify a different encoding such as UTF-8 that
can handle any Unicode character.)

This section is only a partial description of the ElementTree
interfaces.  Please read the package's official documentation for more
details.

也參考
......

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’

     Official documentation for ElementTree.


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib 套件,  Next: sqlite3 套件,  Prev: ElementTree 套件,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.16.13.3 hashlib 套件
......................

A new *note hashlib: 63. module, written by Gregory P. Smith, has been
added to replace the ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules.  *note hashlib: 63. adds
support for additional secure hashes (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and
SHA-512).  When available, the module uses OpenSSL for fast platform
optimized implementations of algorithms.

The old ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules still exist as wrappers around hashlib
to preserve backwards compatibility.  The new module's interface is very
close to that of the old modules, but not identical.  The most
significant difference is that the constructor functions for creating
new hashing objects are named differently.

     # Old versions
     h = md5.md5()
     h = md5.new()

     # New version
     h = hashlib.md5()

     # Old versions
     h = sha.sha()
     h = sha.new()

     # New version
     h = hashlib.sha1()

     # Hash that weren't previously available
     h = hashlib.sha224()
     h = hashlib.sha256()
     h = hashlib.sha384()
     h = hashlib.sha512()

     # Alternative form
     h = hashlib.new('md5')          # Provide algorithm as a string

Once a hash object has been created, its methods are the same as before:
‘update(string)’ hashes the specified string into the current digest
state, ‘digest()’ and ‘hexdigest()’ return the digest value as a binary
string or a string of hex digits, and *note copy(): 23. returns a new
hashing object with the same digest state.

也參考
......

*note hashlib: 63. 模組的文件。


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3 套件,  Next: wsgiref 套件,  Prev: hashlib 套件,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.16.13.4 sqlite3 套件
......................

The pysqlite module (‘https://www.pysqlite.org’), a wrapper for the
SQLite embedded database, has been added to the standard library under
the package name *note sqlite3: c9.

SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database
that doesn't require a separate server process and allows accessing the
database using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language.  Some
applications can use SQLite for internal data storage.  It's also
possible to prototype an application using SQLite and then port the code
to a larger database such as PostgreSQL or Oracle.

pysqlite was written by Gerhard Häring and provides a SQL interface
compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP 249(1).

If you're compiling the Python source yourself, note that the source
tree doesn't include the SQLite code, only the wrapper module.  You'll
need to have the SQLite libraries and headers installed before compiling
Python, and the build process will compile the module when the necessary
headers are available.

To use the module, you must first create a ‘Connection’ object that
represents the database.  Here the data will be stored in the
‘/tmp/example’ file:

     conn = sqlite3.connect('/tmp/example')

You can also supply the special name ‘:memory:’ to create a database in
RAM.

Once you have a ‘Connection’, you can create a ‘Cursor’ object and call
its ‘execute()’ method to perform SQL commands:

     c = conn.cursor()

     # Create table
     c.execute('''create table stocks
     (date text, trans text, symbol text,
      qty real, price real)''')

     # Insert a row of data
     c.execute("""insert into stocks
               values ('2006-01-05','BUY','RHAT',100,35.14)""")

Usually your SQL operations will need to use values from Python
variables.  You shouldn't assemble your query using Python's string
operations because doing so is insecure; it makes your program
vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.

Instead, use the DB-API's parameter substitution.  Put ‘?’ as a
placeholder wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple
of values as the second argument to the cursor's ‘execute()’ method.
(Other database modules may use a different placeholder, such as ‘%s’ or
‘:1’.)  For example:

     # Never do this -- insecure!
     symbol = 'IBM'
     c.execute("... where symbol = '%s'" % symbol)

     # Do this instead
     t = (symbol,)
     c.execute('select * from stocks where symbol=?', t)

     # Larger example
     for t in (('2006-03-28', 'BUY', 'IBM', 1000, 45.00),
               ('2006-04-05', 'BUY', 'MSOFT', 1000, 72.00),
               ('2006-04-06', 'SELL', 'IBM', 500, 53.00),
              ):
         c.execute('insert into stocks values (?,?,?,?,?)', t)

To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either
treat the cursor as an iterator, call the cursor's ‘fetchone()’ method
to retrieve a single matching row, or call ‘fetchall()’ to get a list of
the matching rows.

This example uses the iterator form:

     >>> c = conn.cursor()
     >>> c.execute('select * from stocks order by price')
     >>> for row in c:
     ...    print row
     ...
     (u'2006-01-05', u'BUY', u'RHAT', 100, 35.140000000000001)
     (u'2006-03-28', u'BUY', u'IBM', 1000, 45.0)
     (u'2006-04-06', u'SELL', u'IBM', 500, 53.0)
     (u'2006-04-05', u'BUY', u'MSOFT', 1000, 72.0)
     >>>

For more information about the SQL dialect supported by SQLite, see
‘https://www.sqlite.org’.

也參考
......

‘https://www.pysqlite.org’

     The pysqlite web page.

‘https://www.sqlite.org’

     The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the
     available data types for the supported SQL dialect.

*note sqlite3: c9. 模組的文件。

PEP 249(2) - Database API Specification 2.0

     由 Marc-André Lemburg 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref 套件,  Prev: sqlite3 套件,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.16.13.5 wsgiref 套件
......................

The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) v1.0 defines a standard
interface between web servers and Python web applications and is
described in PEP 333(1).  The *note wsgiref: 113. package is a reference
implementation of the WSGI specification.

The package includes a basic HTTP server that will run a WSGI
application; this server is useful for debugging but isn't intended for
production use.  Setting up a server takes only a few lines of code:

     from wsgiref import simple_server

     wsgi_app = ...

     host = ''
     port = 8000
     httpd = simple_server.make_server(host, port, wsgi_app)
     httpd.serve_forever()

也參考
......

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160331090247/http://wsgi.readthedocs.org/en/latest/’

     A central web site for WSGI-related resources.

PEP 333(2) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0

     由 Phillip J. Eby 撰寫 PEP。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 5,  Prev: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.14 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * The Python source tree was converted from CVS to Subversion, in a
     complex migration procedure that was supervised and flawlessly
     carried out by Martin von Löwis.  The procedure was developed as
     PEP 347(1).

   * Coverity, a company that markets a source code analysis tool called
     Prevent, provided the results of their examination of the Python
     source code.  The analysis found about 60 bugs that were quickly
     fixed.  Many of the bugs were refcounting problems, often occurring
     in error-handling code.  See ‘https://scan.coverity.com’ for the
     statistics.

   * The largest change to the C API came from PEP 353(2), which
     modifies the interpreter to use a *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. type
     definition instead of int.  See the earlier section *note PEP 353;
     Using ssize_t as the index type: 1288. for a discussion of this
     change.

   * The design of the bytecode compiler has changed a great deal, no
     longer generating bytecode by traversing the parse tree.  Instead
     the parse tree is converted to an abstract syntax tree (or AST),
     and it is the abstract syntax tree that's traversed to produce the
     bytecode.

     It's possible for Python code to obtain AST objects by using the
     *note compile(): 554. built-in and specifying ‘_ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’
     as the value of the 'flags' parameter:

          from _ast import PyCF_ONLY_AST
          ast = compile("""a=0
          for i in range(10):
              a += i
          """, "<string>", 'exec', PyCF_ONLY_AST)

          assignment = ast.body[0]
          for_loop = ast.body[1]

     No official documentation has been written for the AST code yet,
     but PEP 339(3) discusses the design.  To start learning about the
     code, read the definition of the various AST nodes in
     ‘Parser/Python.asdl’.  A Python script reads this file and
     generates a set of C structure definitions in
     ‘Include/Python-ast.h’.  The ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’ and
     ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’, defined in ‘Include/pythonrun.h’, take
     Python source as input and return the root of an AST representing
     the contents.  This AST can then be turned into a code object by
     ‘PyAST_Compile()’.  For more information, read the source code, and
     then ask questions on python-dev.

     The AST code was developed under Jeremy Hylton's management, and
     implemented by (in alphabetical order) Brett Cannon, Nick Coghlan,
     Grant Edwards, John Ehresman, Kurt Kaiser, Neal Norwitz, Tim
     Peters, Armin Rigo, and Neil Schemenauer, plus the participants in
     a number of AST sprints at conferences such as PyCon.

   * Evan Jones's patch to obmalloc, first described in a talk at PyCon
     DC 2005, was applied.  Python 2.4 allocated small objects in
     256K-sized arenas, but never freed arenas.  With this patch, Python
     will free arenas when they're empty.  The net effect is that on
     some platforms, when you allocate many objects, Python's memory
     usage may actually drop when you delete them and the memory may be
     returned to the operating system.  (Implemented by Evan Jones, and
     reworked by Tim Peters.)

     Note that this change means extension modules must be more careful
     when allocating memory.  Python's API has many different functions
     for allocating memory that are grouped into families.  For example,
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace, *note PyMem_Realloc(): ec8, and *note
     PyMem_Free(): 12b5. are one family that allocates raw memory, while
     *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12b6, and
     *note PyObject_Free(): acd. are another family that's supposed to
     be used for creating Python objects.

     Previously these different families all reduced to the platform's
     ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ functions.  This meant it didn't matter if
     you got things wrong and allocated memory with the ‘PyMem’ function
     but freed it with the ‘PyObject’ function.  With 2.5's changes to
     obmalloc, these families now do different things and mismatches
     will probably result in a segfault.  You should carefully test your
     C extension modules with Python 2.5.

   * The built-in set types now have an official C API. Call *note
     PySet_New(): 12b7. and *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 12b8. to create a
     new set, *note PySet_Add(): 12b9. and *note PySet_Discard(): 12ba.
     to add and remove elements, and *note PySet_Contains(): 12bb. and
     *note PySet_Size(): 12bc. to examine the set's state.  (Contributed
     by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * C code can now obtain information about the exact revision of the
     Python interpreter by calling the *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 12a4.
     function that returns a string of build information like this:
     ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006, 07:42:19"’.  (Contributed by
     Barry Warsaw.)

   * Two new macros can be used to indicate C functions that are local
     to the current file so that a faster calling convention can be
     used.  ‘Py_LOCAL(type)’ declares the function as returning a value
     of the specified 'type' and uses a fast-calling qualifier.
     ‘Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)’ does the same thing and also requests the
     function be inlined.  If macro ‘PY_LOCAL_AGGRESSIVE’ is defined
     before ‘python.h’ is included, a set of more aggressive
     optimizations are enabled for the module; you should benchmark the
     results to find out if these optimizations actually make the code
     faster.  (Contributed by Fredrik Lundh at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * ‘PyErr_NewException(name, base, dict)’ can now accept a tuple of
     base classes as its 'base' argument.  (Contributed by Georg
     Brandl.)

   * The ‘PyErr_Warn()’ function for issuing warnings is now deprecated
     in favour of ‘PyErr_WarnEx(category, message, stacklevel)’ which
     lets you specify the number of stack frames separating this
     function and the caller.  A 'stacklevel' of 1 is the function
     calling *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 12bd, 2 is the function above that,
     and so forth.  (Added by Neal Norwitz.)

   * The CPython interpreter is still written in C, but the code can now
     be compiled with a C++ compiler without errors.  (Implemented by
     Anthony Baxter, Martin von Löwis, Skip Montanaro.)

   * The ‘PyRange_New()’ function was removed.  It was never documented,
     never used in the core code, and had dangerously lax error
     checking.  In the unlikely case that your extensions were using it,
     you can replace it by something like the following:

          range = PyObject_CallFunction((PyObject*) &PyRange_Type, "lll",
                                        start, stop, step);

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0347/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0339/


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes,  Up: Build and C API Changes<9>

1.16.14.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

   * MacOS X (10.3 and higher): dynamic loading of modules now uses the
     ‘dlopen()’ function instead of MacOS-specific functions.

   * MacOS X: an ‘--enable-universalsdk’ switch was added to the
     ‘configure’ script that compiles the interpreter as a universal
     binary able to run on both PowerPC and Intel processors.
     (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-2573(1).)

   * Windows: ‘.dll’ is no longer supported as a filename extension for
     extension modules.  ‘.pyd’ is now the only filename extension that
     will be searched for.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2573


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 5,  Next: 致謝<3>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.15 Porting to Python 2.5
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It's now a syntax
     error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters
     but doesn't have an encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this
     triggered a warning, not a syntax error.

   * Previously, the ‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a
     frame object.  Because of the PEP 342(1) changes described in
     section *note PEP 342; New Generator Features: 1274, it's now
     possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’.

   * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 1294, is triggered when you
     attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can't
     be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding.
     Previously such comparisons would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError:
     85a. exception.

   * Library: the *note csv: 27. module is now stricter about multi-line
     quoted fields.  If your files contain newlines embedded within
     fields, the input should be split into lines in a manner which
     preserves the newline characters.

   * Library: the *note locale: 81. module's *note format(): 417.
     function's would previously accept any string as long as no more
     than one %char specifier appeared.  In Python 2.5, the argument
     must be exactly one %char specifier with no surrounding text.

   * Library: The *note pickle: a1. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer
     accept a return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): 817.
     method; the method must return a tuple of arguments instead.  The
     modules also no longer accept the deprecated 'bin' keyword
     parameter.

   * Library: The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 129. and *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 129. classes now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that
     constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set of URL paths; the
     default is to allow only ‘'/'’ and ‘'/RPC2'’.  Setting ‘rpc_paths’
     to ‘None’ or an empty tuple disables this path checking.

   * C API: Many functions now use *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. instead of int
     to allow processing more data on 64-bit machines.  Extension code
     may need to make the same change to avoid warnings and to support
     64-bit machines.  See the earlier section *note PEP 353; Using
     ssize_t as the index type: 1288. for a discussion of this change.

   * C API: The obmalloc changes mean that you must be careful to not
     mix usage of the ‘PyMem_*’ and ‘PyObject_*’ families of functions.
     Memory allocated with one family's ‘*_Malloc’ must be freed with
     the corresponding family's ‘*_Free’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: 致謝<3>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 5,  Up: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能

1.16.16 致謝
------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Georg Brandl, Nick Coghlan, Phillip J. Eby, Lars Gustäbel,
Raymond Hettinger, Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve, Kent Johnson, Iain Lowe,
Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro,
Gustavo Niemeyer, Paul Prescod, James Pryor, Mike Rovner, Scott Weikart,
Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.17 Python 2.4 有什麼新功能
============================


作者: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.4.1, released on
March 30, 2005.

Python 2.4 is a medium-sized release.  It doesn't introduce as many
changes as the radical Python 2.2, but introduces more features than the
conservative 2.3 release.  The most significant new language features
are function decorators and generator expressions; most other changes
are to the standard library.

According to the CVS change logs, there were 481 patches applied and 502
bugs fixed between Python 2.3 and 2.4.  Both figures are likely to be
underestimates.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of
every single new feature, but instead provides a brief introduction to
each feature.  For full details, you should refer to the documentation
for Python 2.4, such as the Python Library Reference and the Python
Reference Manual.  Often you will be referred to the PEP for a
particular new feature for explanations of the implementation and design
rationale.

* Menu:

* PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
* PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
* PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
* PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
* PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
* PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
* PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type.
* PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
* PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<16>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<10>.
* Porting to Python 2.4: Porting to Python 2 4.
* 致謝: 致謝<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects,  Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.1 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
------------------------------------

Python 2.3 introduced the ‘sets’ module.  C implementations of set data
types have now been added to the Python core as two new built-in types,
‘set(iterable)’ and ‘frozenset(iterable)’.  They provide high speed
operations for membership testing, for eliminating duplicates from
sequences, and for mathematical operations like unions, intersections,
differences, and symmetric differences.

     >>> a = set('abracadabra')              # form a set from a string
     >>> 'z' in a                            # fast membership testing
     False
     >>> a                                   # unique letters in a
     set(['a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'])
     >>> ''.join(a)                          # convert back into a string
     'arbcd'

     >>> b = set('alacazam')                 # form a second set
     >>> a - b                               # letters in a but not in b
     set(['r', 'd', 'b'])
     >>> a | b                               # letters in either a or b
     set(['a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])
     >>> a & b                               # letters in both a and b
     set(['a', 'c'])
     >>> a ^ b                               # letters in a or b but not both
     set(['r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])

     >>> a.add('z')                          # add a new element
     >>> a.update('wxy')                     # add multiple new elements
     >>> a
     set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'x', 'z'])
     >>> a.remove('x')                       # take one element out
     >>> a
     set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'z'])

The *note frozenset(): 3cd. type is an immutable version of *note set():
3cc.  Since it is immutable and hashable, it may be used as a dictionary
key or as a member of another set.

The ‘sets’ module remains in the standard library, and may be useful if
you wish to subclass the ‘Set’ or ‘ImmutableSet’ classes.  There are
currently no plans to deprecate the module.

也參考
......

PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

     Originally proposed by Greg Wilson and ultimately implemented by
     Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Next: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Prev: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.2 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
---------------------------------------------------

The lengthy transition process for this PEP, begun in Python 2.2, takes
another step forward in Python 2.4.  In 2.3, certain integer operations
that would behave differently after int/long unification triggered *note
FutureWarning: 241. warnings and returned values limited to 32 or 64
bits (depending on your platform).  In 2.4, these expressions no longer
produce a warning and instead produce a different result that's usually
a long integer.

The problematic expressions are primarily left shifts and lengthy
hexadecimal and octal constants.  For example, ‘2 << 32’ results in a
warning in 2.3, evaluating to 0 on 32-bit platforms.  In Python 2.4,
this expression now returns the correct answer, 8589934592.

也參考
......

PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

     Original PEP written by Moshe Zadka and GvR. The changes for 2.4
     were implemented by Kalle Svensson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Next: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.3 PEP 289: Generator Expressions
-------------------------------------

The iterator feature introduced in Python 2.2 and the *note itertools:
7b. module make it easier to write programs that loop through large data
sets without having the entire data set in memory at one time.  List
comprehensions don't fit into this picture very well because they
produce a Python list object containing all of the items.  This
unavoidably pulls all of the objects into memory, which can be a problem
if your data set is very large.  When trying to write a functionally
styled program, it would be natural to write something like:

     links = [link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed]
     for link in links:
         ...

instead of

     for link in get_all_links():
         if link.followed:
             continue
         ...

The first form is more concise and perhaps more readable, but if you're
dealing with a large number of link objects you'd have to write the
second form to avoid having all link objects in memory at the same time.

Generator expressions work similarly to list comprehensions but don't
materialize the entire list; instead they create a generator that will
return elements one by one.  The above example could be written as:

     links = (link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed)
     for link in links:
         ...

Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, as
in the above example.  The parentheses signalling a function call also
count, so if you want to create an iterator that will be immediately
passed to a function you could write:

     print sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

Generator expressions differ from list comprehensions in various small
ways.  Most notably, the loop variable ('obj' in the above example) is
not accessible outside of the generator expression.  List comprehensions
leave the variable assigned to its last value; future versions of Python
will change this, making list comprehensions match generator expressions
in this respect.

也參考
......

PEP 289(1) - Generator Expressions

     Proposed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Jiwon Seo with
     early efforts steered by Hye-Shik Chang.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Next: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Prev: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.4 PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
--------------------------------------------

Some new classes in the standard library provide an alternative
mechanism for substituting variables into strings; this style of
substitution may be better for applications where untrained users need
to edit templates.

The usual way of substituting variables by name is the ‘%’ operator:

     >>> '%(page)i: %(title)s' % {'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'}
     '2: The Best of Times'

When writing the template string, it can be easy to forget the ‘i’ or
‘s’ after the closing parenthesis.  This isn't a big problem if the
template is in a Python module, because you run the code, get an
"Unsupported format character" *note ValueError: 183, and fix the
problem.  However, consider an application such as Mailman where
template strings or translations are being edited by users who aren't
aware of the Python language.  The format string's syntax is complicated
to explain to such users, and if they make a mistake, it's difficult to
provide helpful feedback to them.

PEP 292 adds a ‘Template’ class to the *note string: cd. module that
uses ‘$’ to indicate a substitution:

     >>> import string
     >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
     >>> t.substitute({'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'})
     '2: The Best of Times'

If a key is missing from the dictionary, the ‘substitute()’ method will
raise a *note KeyError: 8ed.  There's also a ‘safe_substitute()’ method
that ignores missing keys:

     >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
     >>> t.safe_substitute({'page':3})
     '3: $title'

也參考
......

PEP 292(1) - Simpler String Substitutions

     Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Next: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Prev: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.5 PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
----------------------------------------------------

Python 2.2 extended Python's object model by adding static methods and
class methods, but it didn't extend Python's syntax to provide any new
way of defining static or class methods.  Instead, you had to write a
*note def: 12ca. statement in the usual way, and pass the resulting
method to a *note staticmethod(): 5f9. or *note classmethod(): 24b.
function that would wrap up the function as a method of the new type.
Your code would look like this:

     class C:
        def meth (cls):
            ...

        meth = classmethod(meth)   # Rebind name to wrapped-up class method

If the method was very long, it would be easy to miss or forget the
*note classmethod(): 24b. invocation after the function body.

The intention was always to add some syntax to make such definitions
more readable, but at the time of 2.2's release a good syntax was not
obvious.  Today a good syntax 'still' isn't obvious but users are asking
for easier access to the feature; a new syntactic feature has been added
to meet this need.

The new feature is called "function decorators".  The name comes from
the idea that *note classmethod(): 24b, *note staticmethod(): 5f9, and
friends are storing additional information on a function object; they're
'decorating' functions with more details.

The notation borrows from Java and uses the ‘'@'’ character as an
indicator.  Using the new syntax, the example above would be written:

     class C:

        @classmethod
        def meth (cls):
            ...

The ‘@classmethod’ is shorthand for the ‘meth=classmethod(meth)’
assignment.  More generally, if you have the following:

     @A
     @B
     @C
     def f ():
         ...

It's equivalent to the following pre-decorator code:

     def f(): ...
     f = A(B(C(f)))

Decorators must come on the line before a function definition, one
decorator per line, and can't be on the same line as the def statement,
meaning that ‘@A def f(): ...’ is illegal.  You can only decorate
function definitions, either at the module level or inside a class; you
can't decorate class definitions.

A decorator is just a function that takes the function to be decorated
as an argument and returns either the same function or some new object.
The return value of the decorator need not be callable (though it
typically is), unless further decorators will be applied to the result.
It's easy to write your own decorators.  The following simple example
just sets an attribute on the function object:

     >>> def deco(func):
     ...    func.attr = 'decorated'
     ...    return func
     ...
     >>> @deco
     ... def f(): pass
     ...
     >>> f
     <function f at 0x402ef0d4>
     >>> f.attr
     'decorated'
     >>>

As a slightly more realistic example, the following decorator checks
that the supplied argument is an integer:

     def require_int (func):
         def wrapper (arg):
             assert isinstance(arg, int)
             return func(arg)

         return wrapper

     @require_int
     def p1 (arg):
         print arg

     @require_int
     def p2(arg):
         print arg*2

An example in PEP 318(1) contains a fancier version of this idea that
lets you both specify the required type and check the returned type.

Decorator functions can take arguments.  If arguments are supplied, your
decorator function is called with only those arguments and must return a
new decorator function; this function must take a single function and
return a function, as previously described.  In other words, ‘@A @B
@C(args)’ becomes:

     def f(): ...
     _deco = C(args)
     f = A(B(_deco(f)))

Getting this right can be slightly brain-bending, but it's not too
difficult.

A small related change makes the *note func_name: 1165. attribute of
functions writable.  This attribute is used to display function names in
tracebacks, so decorators should change the name of any new function
that's constructed and returned.

也參考
......

PEP 318(2) - Decorators for Functions, Methods and Classes

     Written by Kevin D. Smith, Jim Jewett, and Skip Montanaro.  Several
     people wrote patches implementing function decorators, but the one
     that was actually checked in was patch #979728, written by Mark
     Russell.

‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary’

     This Wiki page contains several examples of decorators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Next: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Prev: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.6 PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
---------------------------------

A new built-in function, ‘reversed(seq)’, takes a sequence and returns
an iterator that loops over the elements of the sequence in reverse
order.

     >>> for i in reversed(xrange(1,4)):
     ...    print i
     ...
     3
     2
     1

Compared to extended slicing, such as ‘range(1,4)[::-1]’, *note
reversed(): 691. is easier to read, runs faster, and uses substantially
less memory.

Note that *note reversed(): 691. only accepts sequences, not arbitrary
iterators.  If you want to reverse an iterator, first convert it to a
list with *note list(): 40a.

     >>> input = open('/etc/passwd', 'r')
     >>> for line in reversed(list(input)):
     ...   print line
     ...
     root:*:0:0:System Administrator:/var/root:/bin/tcsh
       ...

也參考
......

PEP 322(1) - Reverse Iteration

     Written and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Next: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Prev: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.7 PEP 324: New subprocess Module
-------------------------------------

The standard library provides a number of ways to execute a subprocess,
offering different features and different levels of complexity.
‘os.system(command)’ is easy to use, but slow (it runs a shell process
which executes the command) and dangerous (you have to be careful about
escaping the shell's metacharacters).  The ‘popen2’ module offers
classes that can capture standard output and standard error from the
subprocess, but the naming is confusing.  The *note subprocess: d0.
module cleans this up, providing a unified interface that offers all the
features you might need.

Instead of ‘popen2’'s collection of classes, *note subprocess: d0.
contains a single class called *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. whose
constructor supports a number of different keyword arguments.

     class Popen(args, bufsize=0, executable=None,
                 stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None,
                 preexec_fn=None, close_fds=False, shell=False,
                 cwd=None, env=None, universal_newlines=False,
                 startupinfo=None, creationflags=0):

'args' is commonly a sequence of strings that will be the arguments to
the program executed as the subprocess.  (If the 'shell' argument is
true, 'args' can be a string which will then be passed on to the shell
for interpretation, just as *note os.system(): 12cd. does.)

'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' specify what the subprocess's input,
output, and error streams will be.  You can provide a file object or a
file descriptor, or you can use the constant ‘subprocess.PIPE’ to create
a pipe between the subprocess and the parent.

The constructor has a number of handy options:

   * 'close_fds' requests that all file descriptors be closed before
     running the subprocess.

   * 'cwd' specifies the working directory in which the subprocess will
     be executed (defaulting to whatever the parent's working directory
     is).

   * 'env' is a dictionary specifying environment variables.

   * 'preexec_fn' is a function that gets called before the child is
     started.

   * 'universal_newlines' opens the child's input and output using
     Python's *note universal newlines: bac. feature.

Once you've created the ‘Popen’ instance, you can call its ‘wait()’
method to pause until the subprocess has exited, ‘poll()’ to check if
it's exited without pausing, or ‘communicate(data)’ to send the string
'data' to the subprocess's standard input.  ‘communicate(data)’ then
reads any data that the subprocess has sent to its standard output or
standard error, returning a tuple ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’.

‘call()’ is a shortcut that passes its arguments along to the ‘Popen’
constructor, waits for the command to complete, and returns the status
code of the subprocess.  It can serve as a safer analog to *note
os.system(): 12cd.:

     sts = subprocess.call(['dpkg', '-i', '/tmp/new-package.deb'])
     if sts == 0:
         # Success
         ...
     else:
         # dpkg returned an error
         ...

The command is invoked without use of the shell.  If you really do want
to use the shell, you can add ‘shell=True’ as a keyword argument and
provide a string instead of a sequence:

     sts = subprocess.call('dpkg -i /tmp/new-package.deb', shell=True)

The PEP takes various examples of shell and Python code and shows how
they'd be translated into Python code that uses *note subprocess: d0.
Reading this section of the PEP is highly recommended.

也參考
......

PEP 324(1) - subprocess - 新的行程模組

     Written and implemented by Peter Åstrand, with assistance from
     Fredrik Lundh and others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Next: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Prev: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.8 PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
---------------------------------

Python has always supported floating-point (FP) numbers, based on the
underlying C double type, as a data type.  However, while most
programming languages provide a floating-point type, many people (even
programmers) are unaware that floating-point numbers don't represent
certain decimal fractions accurately.  The new ‘Decimal’ type can
represent these fractions accurately, up to a user-specified precision
limit.

* Menu:

* Why is Decimal needed?::
* Decimal 型別::
* Context 型別::


File: python.info,  Node: Why is Decimal needed?,  Next: Decimal 型別,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.17.8.1 Why is Decimal needed?
...............................

The limitations arise from the representation used for floating-point
numbers.  FP numbers are made up of three components:

   * The sign, which is positive or negative.

   * The mantissa, which is a single-digit binary number followed by a
     fractional part.  For example, ‘1.01’ in base-2 notation is ‘1 +
     0/2 + 1/4’, or 1.25 in decimal notation.

   * The exponent, which tells where the decimal point is located in the
     number represented.

For example, the number 1.25 has positive sign, a mantissa value of 1.01
(in binary), and an exponent of 0 (the decimal point doesn't need to be
shifted).  The number 5 has the same sign and mantissa, but the exponent
is 2 because the mantissa is multiplied by 4 (2 to the power of the
exponent 2); 1.25 * 4 equals 5.

Modern systems usually provide floating-point support that conforms to a
standard called IEEE 754.  C's double type is usually implemented as a
64-bit IEEE 754 number, which uses 52 bits of space for the mantissa.
This means that numbers can only be specified to 52 bits of precision.
If you're trying to represent numbers whose expansion repeats endlessly,
the expansion is cut off after 52 bits.  Unfortunately, most software
needs to produce output in base 10, and common fractions in base 10 are
often repeating decimals in binary.  For example, 1.1 decimal is binary
‘1.0001100110011 ...’; .1 = 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/256 plus an infinite number
of additional terms.  IEEE 754 has to chop off that infinitely repeated
decimal after 52 digits, so the representation is slightly inaccurate.

Sometimes you can see this inaccuracy when the number is printed:

     >>> 1.1
     1.1000000000000001

The inaccuracy isn't always visible when you print the number because
the FP-to-decimal-string conversion is provided by the C library, and
most C libraries try to produce sensible output.  Even if it's not
displayed, however, the inaccuracy is still there and subsequent
operations can magnify the error.

For many applications this doesn't matter.  If I'm plotting points and
displaying them on my monitor, the difference between 1.1 and
1.1000000000000001 is too small to be visible.  Reports often limit
output to a certain number of decimal places, and if you round the
number to two or three or even eight decimal places, the error is never
apparent.  However, for applications where it does matter, it's a lot of
work to implement your own custom arithmetic routines.

Hence, the ‘Decimal’ type was created.


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal 型別,  Next: Context 型別,  Prev: Why is Decimal needed?,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.17.8.2 ‘Decimal’ 型別
.......................

A new module, *note decimal: 33, was added to Python's standard library.
It contains two classes, ‘Decimal’ and ‘Context’.  ‘Decimal’ instances
represent numbers, and ‘Context’ instances are used to wrap up various
settings such as the precision and default rounding mode.

‘Decimal’ instances are immutable, like regular Python integers and FP
numbers; once it's been created, you can't change the value an instance
represents.  ‘Decimal’ instances can be created from integers or
strings:

     >>> import decimal
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1972)
     Decimal("1972")
     >>> decimal.Decimal("1.1")
     Decimal("1.1")

You can also provide tuples containing the sign, the mantissa
represented as a tuple of decimal digits, and the exponent:

     >>> decimal.Decimal((1, (1, 4, 7, 5), -2))
     Decimal("-14.75")

Cautionary note: the sign bit is a Boolean value, so 0 is positive and 1
is negative.

Converting from floating-point numbers poses a bit of a problem: should
the FP number representing 1.1 turn into the decimal number for exactly
1.1, or for 1.1 plus whatever inaccuracies are introduced?  The decision
was to dodge the issue and leave such a conversion out of the API.
Instead, you should convert the floating-point number into a string
using the desired precision and pass the string to the ‘Decimal’
constructor:

     >>> f = 1.1
     >>> decimal.Decimal(str(f))
     Decimal("1.1")
     >>> decimal.Decimal('%.12f' % f)
     Decimal("1.100000000000")

Once you have ‘Decimal’ instances, you can perform the usual
mathematical operations on them.  One limitation: exponentiation
requires an integer exponent:

     >>> a = decimal.Decimal('35.72')
     >>> b = decimal.Decimal('1.73')
     >>> a+b
     Decimal("37.45")
     >>> a-b
     Decimal("33.99")
     >>> a*b
     Decimal("61.7956")
     >>> a/b
     Decimal("20.64739884393063583815028902")
     >>> a ** 2
     Decimal("1275.9184")
     >>> a**b
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     decimal.InvalidOperation: x ** (non-integer)

You can combine ‘Decimal’ instances with integers, but not with
floating-point numbers:

     >>> a + 4
     Decimal("39.72")
     >>> a + 4.5
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: You can interact Decimal only with int, long or Decimal data types.
     >>>

‘Decimal’ numbers can be used with the *note math: 89. and *note cmath:
16. modules, but note that they'll be immediately converted to
floating-point numbers before the operation is performed, resulting in a
possible loss of precision and accuracy.  You'll also get back a regular
floating-point number and not a ‘Decimal’.

     >>> import math, cmath
     >>> d = decimal.Decimal('123456789012.345')
     >>> math.sqrt(d)
     351364.18288201344
     >>> cmath.sqrt(-d)
     351364.18288201344j

‘Decimal’ instances have a ‘sqrt()’ method that returns a ‘Decimal’, but
if you need other things such as trigonometric functions you'll have to
implement them.

     >>> d.sqrt()
     Decimal("351364.1828820134592177245001")


File: python.info,  Node: Context 型別,  Prev: Decimal 型別,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.17.8.3 ‘Context’ 型別
.......................

Instances of the ‘Context’ class encapsulate several settings for
decimal operations:

   * ‘prec’ is the precision, the number of decimal places.

   * ‘rounding’ specifies the rounding mode.  The *note decimal: 33.
     module has constants for the various possibilities: ‘ROUND_DOWN’,
     ‘ROUND_CEILING’, ‘ROUND_HALF_EVEN’, and various others.

   * ‘traps’ is a dictionary specifying what happens on encountering
     certain error conditions: either an exception is raised or a value
     is returned.  Some examples of error conditions are division by
     zero, loss of precision, and overflow.

There's a thread-local default context available by calling
‘getcontext()’; you can change the properties of this context to alter
the default precision, rounding, or trap handling.  The following
example shows the effect of changing the precision of the default
context:

     >>> decimal.getcontext().prec
     28
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
     Decimal("0.1428571428571428571428571429")
     >>> decimal.getcontext().prec = 9
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
     Decimal("0.142857143")

The default action for error conditions is selectable; the module can
either return a special value such as infinity or not-a-number, or
exceptions can be raised:

     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     decimal.DivisionByZero: x / 0
     >>> decimal.getcontext().traps[decimal.DivisionByZero] = False
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
     Decimal("Infinity")
     >>>

The ‘Context’ instance also has various methods for formatting numbers
such as ‘to_eng_string()’ and ‘to_sci_string()’.

For more information, see the documentation for the *note decimal: 33.
module, which includes a quick-start tutorial and a reference.

也參考
......

PEP 327(1) - Decimal Data Type

     Written by Facundo Batista and implemented by Facundo Batista, Eric
     Price, Raymond Hettinger, Aahz, and Tim Peters.

http://www.lahey.com/float.htm(2)

     The article uses Fortran code to illustrate many of the problems
     that floating-point inaccuracy can cause.

‘https://speleotrove.com/decimal/’

     A description of a decimal-based representation.  This
     representation is being proposed as a standard, and underlies the
     new Python decimal type.  Much of this material was written by Mike
     Cowlishaw, designer of the Rexx language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0327/

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20230604072523/http://www.lahey.com/float.htm


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Next: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Prev: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.9 PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
----------------------------------

One language change is a small syntactic tweak aimed at making it easier
to import many names from a module.  In a ‘from module import names’
statement, 'names' is a sequence of names separated by commas.  If the
sequence is very long, you can either write multiple imports from the
same module, or you can use backslashes to escape the line endings like
this:

     from SimpleXMLRPCServer import SimpleXMLRPCServer,\
                 SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
                 CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
                 resolve_dotted_attribute

The syntactic change in Python 2.4 simply allows putting the names
within parentheses.  Python ignores newlines within a parenthesized
expression, so the backslashes are no longer needed:

     from SimpleXMLRPCServer import (SimpleXMLRPCServer,
                                     SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                     CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                     resolve_dotted_attribute)

The PEP also proposes that all *note import: 3d5. statements be absolute
imports, with a leading ‘.’ character to indicate a relative import.
This part of the PEP was not implemented for Python 2.4, but was
completed for Python 2.5.

也參考
......

PEP 328(1) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

     Written by Aahz.  Multi-line imports were implemented by Dima
     Dorfman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Next: 其他語言更動<16>,  Prev: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.10 PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
------------------------------------------------------------

The *note locale: 81. modules lets Python software select various
conversions and display conventions that are localized to a particular
country or language.  However, the module was careful to not change the
numeric locale because various functions in Python's implementation
required that the numeric locale remain set to the ‘'C'’ locale.  Often
this was because the code was using the C library's ‘atof()’ function.

Not setting the numeric locale caused trouble for extensions that used
third-party C libraries, however, because they wouldn't have the correct
locale set.  The motivating example was GTK+, whose user interface
widgets weren't displaying numbers in the current locale.

The solution described in the PEP is to add three new functions to the
Python API that perform ASCII-only conversions, ignoring the locale
setting:

   * ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod(str, ptr)’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof(str, ptr)’ both
     convert a string to a C double.

   * ‘PyOS_ascii_formatd(buffer, buf_len, format, d)’ converts a double
     to an ASCII string.

The code for these functions came from the GLib library
(https://developer-old.gnome.org/glib/2.26/(1)), whose developers kindly
relicensed the relevant functions and donated them to the Python
Software Foundation.  The *note locale: 81. module can now change the
numeric locale, letting extensions such as GTK+ produce the correct
results.

也參考
......

PEP 331(2) - Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions

     Written by Christian R. Reis, and implemented by Gustavo Carneiro.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
http://web.archive.org/web/20210306104320/https://developer.gnome.org/glib/2.26/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0331/


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<16>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Prev: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.11 其他語言更動
--------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python
language.

   * Decorators for functions and methods were added ( PEP 318(1)).

   * Built-in *note set(): 3cc. and *note frozenset(): 3cd. types were
     added ( PEP 218(2)).  Other new built-ins include the
     ‘reversed(seq)’ function ( PEP 322(3)).

   * Generator expressions were added ( PEP 289(4)).

   * Certain numeric expressions no longer return values restricted to
     32 or 64 bits ( PEP 237(5)).

   * You can now put parentheses around the list of names in a ‘from
     module import names’ statement ( PEP 328(6)).

   * The *note dict.update(): 12d5. method now accepts the same argument
     forms as the *note dict: 239. constructor.  This includes any
     mapping, any iterable of key/value pairs, and keyword arguments.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The string methods ‘ljust()’, ‘rjust()’, and ‘center()’ now take an
     optional argument for specifying a fill character other than a
     space.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Strings also gained an ‘rsplit()’ method that works like the
     ‘split()’ method but splits from the end of the string.
     (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.)

          >>> 'www.python.org'.split('.', 1)
          ['www', 'python.org']
          'www.python.org'.rsplit('.', 1)
          ['www.python', 'org']

   * Three keyword parameters, 'cmp', 'key', and 'reverse', were added
     to the ‘sort()’ method of lists.  These parameters make some common
     usages of ‘sort()’ simpler.  All of these parameters are optional.

     For the 'cmp' parameter, the value should be a comparison function
     that takes two parameters and returns -1, 0, or +1 depending on how
     the parameters compare.  This function will then be used to sort
     the list.  Previously this was the only parameter that could be
     provided to ‘sort()’.

     'key' should be a single-parameter function that takes a list
     element and returns a comparison key for the element.  The list is
     then sorted using the comparison keys.  The following example sorts
     a list case-insensitively:

          >>> L = ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
          >>> L.sort()                 # Case-sensitive sort
          >>> L
          ['A', 'D', 'b', 'c']
          >>> # Using 'key' parameter to sort list
          >>> L.sort(key=lambda x: x.lower())
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
          >>> # Old-fashioned way
          >>> L.sort(cmp=lambda x,y: cmp(x.lower(), y.lower()))
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

     The last example, which uses the 'cmp' parameter, is the old way to
     perform a case-insensitive sort.  It works but is slower than using
     a 'key' parameter.  Using 'key' calls ‘lower()’ method once for
     each element in the list while using 'cmp' will call it twice for
     each comparison, so using 'key' saves on invocations of the
     ‘lower()’ method.

     For simple key functions and comparison functions, it is often
     possible to avoid a *note lambda: 1131. expression by using an
     unbound method instead.  For example, the above case-insensitive
     sort is best written as:

          >>> L.sort(key=str.lower)
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

     Finally, the 'reverse' parameter takes a Boolean value.  If the
     value is true, the list will be sorted into reverse order.  Instead
     of ‘L.sort(); L.reverse()’, you can now write
     ‘L.sort(reverse=True)’.

     The results of sorting are now guaranteed to be stable.  This means
     that two entries with equal keys will be returned in the same order
     as they were input.  For example, you can sort a list of people by
     name, and then sort the list by age, resulting in a list sorted by
     age where people with the same age are in name-sorted order.

     (All changes to ‘sort()’ contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * There is a new built-in function ‘sorted(iterable)’ that works like
     the in-place *note list.sort(): a30. method but can be used in
     expressions.  The differences are:

   * the input may be any iterable;

   * a newly formed copy is sorted, leaving the original intact; and

   * the expression returns the new sorted copy

          >>> L = [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
          >>> [10+i for i in sorted(L)]       # usable in a list comprehension
          [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]
          >>> L                               # original is left unchanged
          [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
          >>> sorted('Monty Python')          # any iterable may be an input
          [' ', 'M', 'P', 'h', 'n', 'n', 'o', 'o', 't', 't', 'y', 'y']

          >>> # List the contents of a dict sorted by key values
          >>> colormap = dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4, yellow=5)
          >>> for k, v in sorted(colormap.iteritems()):
          ...     print k, v
          ...
          black 4
          blue 2
          green 3
          red 1
          yellow 5

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 所貢獻。）

   * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’.
     The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

   * The interpreter gained a new switch, *note -m: 3d4, that takes a
     name, searches for the corresponding module on ‘sys.path’, and runs
     the module as a script.  For example, you can now run the Python
     profiler with ‘python -m profile’.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

   * The ‘eval(expr, globals, locals)’ and ‘execfile(filename, globals,
     locals)’ functions and the ‘exec’ statement now accept any mapping
     type for the 'locals' parameter.  Previously this had to be a
     regular Python dictionary.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note zip(): 5ef. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now
     return an empty list if called with no arguments.  Previously they
     raised a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception.  This makes them more
     suitable for use with variable length argument lists:

          >>> def transpose(array):
          ...    return zip(*array)
          ...
          >>> transpose([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)])
          [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
          >>> transpose([])
          []

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 所貢獻。）

   * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
     partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’.  The
     incomplete module object left behind would fool further imports of
     the same module into succeeding, leading to confusing errors.
     (Fixed by Tim Peters.)

   * *note None: 470. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to
     the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

* Menu:

* 最佳化: 最佳化<15>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<15>,  Up: 其他語言更動<16>

1.17.11.1 最佳化
................

   * The inner loops for list and tuple slicing were optimized and now
     run about one-third faster.  The inner loops for dictionaries were
     also optimized, resulting in performance boosts for ‘keys()’,
     ‘values()’, ‘items()’, ‘iterkeys()’, ‘itervalues()’, and
     ‘iteritems()’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The machinery for growing and shrinking lists was optimized for
     speed and for space efficiency.  Appending and popping from lists
     now runs faster due to more efficient code paths and less frequent
     use of the underlying system ‘realloc()’.  List comprehensions also
     benefit.  ‘list.extend()’ was also optimized and no longer converts
     its argument into a temporary list before extending the base list.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * *note list(): 40a, *note tuple(): 4e6, *note map(): 68f, *note
     filter(): 690, and *note zip(): 5ef. now run several times faster
     with non-sequence arguments that supply a ‘__len__()’ method.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The methods ‘list.__getitem__()’, ‘dict.__getitem__()’, and
     ‘dict.__contains__()’ are now implemented as ‘method_descriptor’
     objects rather than ‘wrapper_descriptor’ objects.  This form of
     access doubles their performance and makes them more suitable for
     use as arguments to functionals: ‘map(mydict.__getitem__,
     keylist)’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Added a new opcode, ‘LIST_APPEND’, that simplifies the generated
     bytecode for list comprehensions and speeds them up by about a
     third.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The peephole bytecode optimizer has been improved to produce
     shorter, faster bytecode; remarkably, the resulting bytecode is
     more readable.  (Enhanced by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * String concatenations in statements of the form ‘s = s + "abc"’ and
     ‘s += "abc"’ are now performed more efficiently in certain
     circumstances.  This optimization won't be present in other Python
     implementations such as Jython, so you shouldn't rely on it; using
     the ‘join()’ method of strings is still recommended when you want
     to efficiently glue a large number of strings together.
     (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)

The net result of the 2.4 optimizations is that Python 2.4 runs the
pystone benchmark around 5% faster than Python 2.3 and 35% faster than
Python 2.2.  (pystone is not a particularly good benchmark, but it's the
most commonly used measurement of Python's performance.  Your own
applications may show greater or smaller benefits from Python 2.4.)


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Prev: 其他語言更動<16>,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.12 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
---------------------------------------------

As usual, Python's standard library received a number of enhancements
and bug fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable changes,
sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in
the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the
CVS logs for all the details.

   * The ‘asyncore’ module's ‘loop()’ function now has a 'count'
     parameter that lets you perform a limited number of passes through
     the polling loop.  The default is still to loop forever.

   * The *note base64: c. module now has more complete RFC 3548(1)
     support for Base64, Base32, and Base16 encoding and decoding,
     including optional case folding and optional alternative alphabets.
     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note bisect: f. module now has an underlying C implementation
     for improved performance.  (Contributed by Dmitry Vasiliev.)

   * The CJKCodecs collections of East Asian codecs, maintained by
     Hye-Shik Chang, was integrated into 2.4.  The new encodings are:

   * Chinese (PRC): gb2312, gbk, gb18030, big5hkscs, hz

   * Chinese (ROC): big5, cp950

   * 
     Japanese: cp932, euc-jis-2004, euc-jp, euc-jisx0213, iso-2022-jp,

          iso-2022-jp-1, iso-2022-jp-2, iso-2022-jp-3, iso-2022-jp-ext,
          iso-2022-jp-2004, shift-jis, shift-jisx0213, shift-jis-2004

   * Korean: cp949, euc-kr, johab, iso-2022-kr

   * Some other new encodings were added: HP Roman8, ISO_8859-11,
     ISO_8859-16, PCTP-154, and TIS-620.

   * The UTF-8 and UTF-16 codecs now cope better with receiving partial
     input.  Previously the ‘StreamReader’ class would try to read more
     data, making it impossible to resume decoding from the stream.  The
     ‘read()’ method will now return as much data as it can and future
     calls will resume decoding where previous ones left off.
     (Implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * There is a new *note collections: 1b. module for various
     specialized collection datatypes.  Currently it contains just one
     type, ‘deque’, a double-ended queue that supports efficiently
     adding and removing elements from either end:

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> d = deque('ghi')        # make a new deque with three items
          >>> d.append('j')           # add a new entry to the right side
          >>> d.appendleft('f')       # add a new entry to the left side
          >>> d                       # show the representation of the deque
          deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])
          >>> d.pop()                 # return and remove the rightmost item
          'j'
          >>> d.popleft()             # return and remove the leftmost item
          'f'
          >>> list(d)                 # list the contents of the deque
          ['g', 'h', 'i']
          >>> 'h' in d                # search the deque
          True

     Several modules, such as the ‘Queue’ and *note threading: e7.
     modules, now take advantage of *note collections.deque: 3cf. for
     improved performance.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note ConfigParser: 20. classes have been enhanced slightly.
     The *note read(): 12d8. method now returns a list of the files that
     were successfully parsed, and the *note set(): 1101. method raises
     *note TypeError: 2ba. if passed a 'value' argument that isn't a
     string.  (Contributed by John Belmonte and David Goodger.)

   * The *note curses: 29. module now supports the ncurses extension
     ‘use_default_colors()’.  On platforms where the terminal supports
     transparency, this makes it possible to use a transparent
     background.  (Contributed by Jörg Lehmann.)

   * The *note difflib: 34. module now includes an ‘HtmlDiff’ class that
     creates an HTML table showing a side by side comparison of two
     versions of a text.  (Contributed by Dan Gass.)

   * The *note email: 37. package was updated to version 3.0, which
     dropped various deprecated APIs and removes support for Python
     versions earlier than 2.3.  The 3.0 version of the package uses a
     new incremental parser for MIME messages, available in the
     ‘email.FeedParser’ module.  The new parser doesn't require reading
     the entire message into memory, and doesn't raise exceptions if a
     message is malformed; instead it records any problems in the
     ‘defect’ attribute of the message.  (Developed by Anthony Baxter,
     Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters, and others.)

   * The *note heapq: 64. module has been converted to C. The resulting
     tenfold improvement in speed makes the module suitable for handling
     high volumes of data.  In addition, the module has two new
     functions ‘nlargest()’ and ‘nsmallest()’ that use heaps to find the
     N largest or smallest values in a dataset without the expense of a
     full sort.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note httplib: 69. module now contains constants for HTTP
     status codes defined in various HTTP-related RFC documents.
     Constants have names such as ‘OK’, ‘CREATED’, ‘CONTINUE’, and
     ‘MOVED_PERMANENTLY’; use pydoc to get a full list.  (Contributed by
     Andrew Eland.)

   * The *note imaplib: 6f. module now supports IMAP's THREAD command
     (contributed by Yves Dionne) and new ‘deleteacl()’ and ‘myrights()’
     methods (contributed by Arnaud Mazin).

   * The *note itertools: 7b. module gained a ‘groupby(iterable[,
     *func*])’ function.  'iterable' is something that can be iterated
     over to return a stream of elements, and the optional 'func'
     parameter is a function that takes an element and returns a key
     value; if omitted, the key is simply the element itself.
     ‘groupby()’ then groups the elements into subsequences which have
     matching values of the key, and returns a series of 2-tuples
     containing the key value and an iterator over the subsequence.

     Here's an example to make this clearer.  The 'key' function simply
     returns whether a number is even or odd, so the result of
     ‘groupby()’ is to return consecutive runs of odd or even numbers.

          >>> import itertools
          >>> L = [2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14]
          >>> for key_val, it in itertools.groupby(L, lambda x: x % 2):
          ...    print key_val, list(it)
          ...
          0 [2, 4, 6]
          1 [7]
          0 [8]
          1 [9, 11]
          0 [12, 14]
          >>>

     ‘groupby()’ is typically used with sorted input.  The logic for
     ‘groupby()’ is similar to the Unix ‘uniq’ filter which makes it
     handy for eliminating, counting, or identifying duplicate elements:

          >>> word = 'abracadabra'
          >>> letters = sorted(word)   # Turn string into a sorted list of letters
          >>> letters
          ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r', 'r']
          >>> for k, g in itertools.groupby(letters):
          ...    print k, list(g)
          ...
          a ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a']
          b ['b', 'b']
          c ['c']
          d ['d']
          r ['r', 'r']
          >>> # List unique letters
          >>> [k for k, g in groupby(letters)]
          ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r']
          >>> # Count letter occurrences
          >>> [(k, len(list(g))) for k, g in groupby(letters)]
          [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('c', 1), ('d', 1), ('r', 2)]

     （由 Hye-Shik Chang 所貢獻。）

   * *note itertools: 7b. also gained a function named ‘tee(iterator,
     N)’ that returns 'N' independent iterators that replicate
     'iterator'.  If 'N' is omitted, the default is 2.

          >>> L = [1,2,3]
          >>> i1, i2 = itertools.tee(L)
          >>> i1,i2
          (<itertools.tee object at 0x402c2080>, <itertools.tee object at 0x402c2090>)
          >>> list(i1)               # Run the first iterator to exhaustion
          [1, 2, 3]
          >>> list(i2)               # Run the second iterator to exhaustion
          [1, 2, 3]

     Note that ‘tee()’ has to keep copies of the values returned by the
     iterator; in the worst case, it may need to keep all of them.  This
     should therefore be used carefully if the leading iterator can run
     far ahead of the trailing iterator in a long stream of inputs.  If
     the separation is large, then you might as well use *note list():
     40a. instead.  When the iterators track closely with one another,
     ‘tee()’ is ideal.  Possible applications include bookmarking,
     windowing, or lookahead iterators.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * A number of functions were added to the *note locale: 81. module,
     such as ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ to specify a particular
     encoding and a family of ‘l*gettext()’ functions that return
     messages in the chosen encoding.  (Contributed by Gustavo
     Niemeyer.)

   * Some keyword arguments were added to the *note logging: 82.
     package's ‘basicConfig()’ function to simplify log configuration.
     The default behavior is to log messages to standard error, but
     various keyword arguments can be specified to log to a particular
     file, change the logging format, or set the logging level.  For
     example:

          import logging
          logging.basicConfig(filename='/var/log/application.log',
              level=0,  # Log all messages
              format='%(levelname):%(process):%(thread):%(message)')

     Other additions to the *note logging: 82. package include a
     ‘log(level, msg)’ convenience method, as well as a
     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ class that rotates its log files at a
     timed interval.  The module already had ‘RotatingFileHandler’,
     which rotated logs once the file exceeded a certain size.  Both
     classes derive from a new ‘BaseRotatingHandler’ class that can be
     used to implement other rotating handlers.

     (Changes implemented by Vinay Sajip.)

   * The *note marshal: 88. module now shares interned strings on
     unpacking a data structure.  This may shrink the size of certain
     pickle strings, but the primary effect is to make ‘.pyc’ files
     significantly smaller.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note nntplib: 98. module's ‘NNTP’ class gained ‘description()’
     and ‘descriptions()’ methods to retrieve newsgroup descriptions for
     a single group or for a range of groups.  (Contributed by Jürgen A.
     Erhard.)

   * Two new functions were added to the *note operator: 9a. module,
     ‘attrgetter(attr)’ and ‘itemgetter(index)’.  Both functions return
     callables that take a single argument and return the corresponding
     attribute or item; these callables make excellent data extractors
     when used with *note map(): 68f. or *note sorted(): a2f.  For
     example:

          >>> L = [('c', 2), ('d', 1), ('a', 4), ('b', 3)]
          >>> map(operator.itemgetter(0), L)
          ['c', 'd', 'a', 'b']
          >>> map(operator.itemgetter(1), L)
          [2, 1, 4, 3]
          >>> sorted(L, key=operator.itemgetter(1)) # Sort list by second tuple item
          [('d', 1), ('c', 2), ('b', 3), ('a', 4)]

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 所貢獻。）

   * The *note optparse: 9b. module was updated in various ways.  The
     module now passes its messages through *note gettext.gettext():
     12d9, making it possible to internationalize Optik's help and error
     messages.  Help messages for options can now include the string
     ‘'%default'’, which will be replaced by the option's default value.
     (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The long-term plan is to deprecate the ‘rfc822’ module in some
     future Python release in favor of the *note email: 37. package.  To
     this end, the *note email.Utils.formatdate: 12da. function has been
     changed to make it usable as a replacement for
     ‘rfc822.formatdate()’.  You may want to write new e-mail processing
     code with this in mind.  (Change implemented by Anthony Baxter.)

   * A new ‘urandom(n)’ function was added to the *note os: 9c. module,
     returning a string containing 'n' bytes of random data.  This
     function provides access to platform-specific sources of randomness
     such as ‘/dev/urandom’ on Linux or the Windows CryptoAPI.
     (Contributed by Trevor Perrin.)

   * Another new function: ‘os.path.lexists(path)’ returns true if the
     file specified by 'path' exists, whether or not it's a symbolic
     link.  This differs from the existing ‘os.path.exists(path)’
     function, which returns false if 'path' is a symlink that points to
     a destination that doesn't exist.  (Contributed by Beni
     Cherniavsky.)

   * A new ‘getsid()’ function was added to the *note posix: a8. module
     that underlies the *note os: 9c. module.  (Contributed by J.
     Raynor.)

   * The *note poplib: a7. module now supports POP over SSL.
     (Contributed by Hector Urtubia.)

   * The *note profile: aa. module can now profile C extension
     functions.  (Contributed by Nick Bastin.)

   * The *note random: b3. module has a new method called
     ‘getrandbits(N)’ that returns a long integer 'N' bits in length.
     The existing ‘randrange()’ method now uses ‘getrandbits()’ where
     appropriate, making generation of arbitrarily large random numbers
     more efficient.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The regular expression language accepted by the *note re: b4.
     module was extended with simple conditional expressions, written as
     ‘(?(group)A|B)’.  'group' is either a numeric group ID or a group
     name defined with ‘(?P<group>...)’ earlier in the expression.  If
     the specified group matched, the regular expression pattern 'A'
     will be tested against the string; if the group didn't match, the
     pattern 'B' will be used instead.  (Contributed by Gustavo
     Niemeyer.)

   * The *note re: b4. module is also no longer recursive, thanks to a
     massive amount of work by Gustavo Niemeyer.  In a recursive regular
     expression engine, certain patterns result in a large amount of C
     stack space being consumed, and it was possible to overflow the
     stack.  For example, if you matched a 30000-byte string of ‘a’
     characters against the expression ‘(a|b)+’, one stack frame was
     consumed per character.  Python 2.3 tried to check for stack
     overflow and raise a *note RuntimeError: 17a. exception, but
     certain patterns could sidestep the checking and if you were
     unlucky Python could segfault.  Python 2.4's regular expression
     engine can match this pattern without problems.

   * The *note signal: c1. module now performs tighter error-checking on
     the parameters to the *note signal.signal(): fc4. function.  For
     example, you can't set a handler on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal; previous
     versions of Python would quietly accept this, but 2.4 will raise a
     *note RuntimeError: 17a. exception.

   * Two new functions were added to the *note socket: c6. module.
     ‘socketpair()’ returns a pair of connected sockets and
     ‘getservbyport(port)’ looks up the service name for a given port
     number.  (Contributed by Dave Cole and Barry Warsaw.)

   * The ‘sys.exitfunc()’ function has been deprecated.  Code should be
     using the existing *note atexit: a. module, which correctly handles
     calling multiple exit functions.  Eventually ‘sys.exitfunc()’ will
     become a purely internal interface, accessed only by *note atexit:
     a.

   * The *note tarfile: d8. module now generates GNU-format tar files by
     default.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

   * The *note threading: e7. module now has an elegantly simple way to
     support thread-local data.  The module contains a ‘local’ class
     whose attribute values are local to different threads.

          import threading

          data = threading.local()
          data.number = 42
          data.url = ('www.python.org', 80)

     Other threads can assign and retrieve their own values for the
     ‘number’ and ‘url’ attributes.  You can subclass ‘local’ to
     initialize attributes or to add methods.  (Contributed by Jim
     Fulton.)

   * The *note timeit: e9. module now automatically disables periodic
     garbage collection during the timing loop.  This change makes
     consecutive timings more comparable.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The *note weakref: 10f. module now supports a wider variety of
     objects including Python functions, class instances, sets,
     frozensets, deques, arrays, files, sockets, and regular expression
     pattern objects.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 128. module now supports a multi-call
     extension for transmitting multiple XML-RPC calls in a single HTTP
     operation.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

   * The ‘mpz’, ‘rotor’, and ‘xreadlines’ modules have been removed.

* Menu:

* cookielib::
* doctest: doctest<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html


File: python.info,  Node: cookielib,  Next: doctest<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>

1.17.12.1 cookielib
...................

The *note cookielib: 6b. library supports client-side handling for HTTP
cookies, mirroring the *note Cookie: 6c. module's server-side cookie
support.  Cookies are stored in cookie jars; the library transparently
stores cookies offered by the web server in the cookie jar, and fetches
the cookie from the jar when connecting to the server.  As in web
browsers, policy objects control whether cookies are accepted or not.

In order to store cookies across sessions, two implementations of cookie
jars are provided: one that stores cookies in the Netscape format so
applications can use the Mozilla or Lynx cookie files, and one that
stores cookies in the same format as the Perl libwww library.

*note urllib2: 106. has been changed to interact with *note cookielib:
6b.: ‘HTTPCookieProcessor’ manages a cookie jar that is used when
accessing URLs.

This module was contributed by John J. Lee.


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<4>,  Prev: cookielib,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>

1.17.12.2 doctest
.................

The *note doctest: 36. module underwent considerable refactoring thanks
to Edward Loper and Tim Peters.  Testing can still be as simple as
running *note doctest.testmod(): 12dd, but the refactorings allow
customizing the module's operation in various ways

The new ‘DocTestFinder’ class extracts the tests from a given object's
docstrings:

     def f (x, y):
         """>>> f(2,2)
     4
     >>> f(3,2)
     6
         """
         return x*y

     finder = doctest.DocTestFinder()

     # Get list of DocTest instances
     tests = finder.find(f)

The new ‘DocTestRunner’ class then runs individual tests and can produce
a summary of the results:

     runner = doctest.DocTestRunner()
     for t in tests:
         tried, failed = runner.run(t)

     runner.summarize(verbose=1)

The above example produces the following output:

     1 items passed all tests:
        2 tests in f
     2 tests in 1 items.
     2 passed and 0 failed.
     Test passed.

‘DocTestRunner’ uses an instance of the ‘OutputChecker’ class to compare
the expected output with the actual output.  This class takes a number
of different flags that customize its behaviour; ambitious users can
also write a completely new subclass of ‘OutputChecker’.

The default output checker provides a number of handy features.  For
example, with the *note doctest.ELLIPSIS: 12de. option flag, an ellipsis
(‘...’) in the expected output matches any substring, making it easier
to accommodate outputs that vary in minor ways:

     def o (n):
         """>>> o(1)
     <__main__.C instance at 0x...>
     >>>
     """

Another special string, ‘<BLANKLINE>’, matches a blank line:

     def p (n):
         """>>> p(1)
     <BLANKLINE>
     >>>
     """

Another new capability is producing a diff-style display of the output
by specifying the *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF: 12df. (unified diffs),
*note doctest.REPORT_CDIFF: 12e0. (context diffs), or *note
doctest.REPORT_NDIFF: 12e1. (delta-style) option flags.  For example:

     def g (n):
         """>>> g(4)
     here
     is
     a
     lengthy
     >>>"""
         L = 'here is a rather lengthy list of words'.split()
         for word in L[:n]:
             print word

Running the above function's tests with *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF:
12df. specified, you get the following output:

     **********************************************************************
     File "t.py", line 15, in g
     Failed example:
         g(4)
     Differences (unified diff with -expected +actual):
         @@ -2,3 +2,3 @@
          is
          a
         -lengthy
         +rather
     **********************************************************************


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 4,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.13 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Some of the changes to Python's build process and to the C API are:

   * Three new convenience macros were added for common return values
     from extension functions: *note Py_RETURN_NONE: 12e3, *note
     Py_RETURN_TRUE: 12e4, and *note Py_RETURN_FALSE: 12e5.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   * Another new macro, *note Py_CLEAR: 307, decreases the reference
     count of 'obj' and sets 'obj' to the null pointer.  (Contributed by
     Jim Fulton.)

   * A new function, ‘PyTuple_Pack(N, obj1, obj2, ..., objN)’,
     constructs tuples from a variable length argument list of Python
     objects.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A new function, ‘PyDict_Contains(d, k)’, implements fast dictionary
     lookups without masking exceptions raised during the look-up
     process.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The Py_IS_NAN(X) macro returns 1 if its float or double argument
     'X' is a NaN. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * C code can avoid unnecessary locking by using the new
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ function to tell if any thread
     operations have been performed.  If this function returns false, no
     lock operations are needed.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

   * A new function, *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 12e6, is the
     same as *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85. but takes a
     ‘va_list’ instead of a number of arguments.  (Contributed by Greg
     Chapman.)

   * A new method flag, *note METH_COEXIST: 12e7, allows a function
     defined in slots to co-exist with a *note PyCFunction: 12e8. having
     the same name.  This can halve the access time for a method such as
     ‘set.__contains__()’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Python can now be built with additional profiling for the
     interpreter itself, intended as an aid to people developing the
     Python core.  Providing ‘--enable-profiling’ to the ‘configure’
     script will let you profile the interpreter with ‘gprof’, and
     providing the ‘--with-tsc’ switch enables profiling using the
     Pentium's Time-Stamp-Counter register.  Note that the ‘--with-tsc’
     switch is slightly misnamed, because the profiling feature also
     works on the PowerPC platform, though that processor architecture
     doesn't call that register "the TSC register".  (Contributed by
     Jeremy Hylton.)

   * The ‘tracebackobject’ type has been renamed to ‘PyTracebackObject’.

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<10>

1.17.13.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

   * The Windows port now builds under MSVC++ 7.1 as well as version 6.
     (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 4,  Next: 致謝<4>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.14 Porting to Python 2.4
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * Left shifts and hexadecimal/octal constants that are too large no
     longer trigger a *note FutureWarning: 241. and return a value
     limited to 32 or 64 bits; instead they return a long integer.

   * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’.
     The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

   * The *note zip(): 5ef. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now
     return an empty list instead of raising a *note TypeError: 2ba.
     exception if called with no arguments.

   * You can no longer compare the ‘date’ and *note datetime: 224.
     instances provided by the *note datetime: 2e. module.  Two
     instances of different classes will now always be unequal, and
     relative comparisons (‘<’, ‘>’) will raise a *note TypeError: 2ba.

   * ‘dircache.listdir()’ now passes exceptions to the caller instead of
     returning empty lists.

   * ‘LexicalHandler.startDTD()’ used to receive the public and system
     IDs in the wrong order.  This has been corrected; applications
     relying on the wrong order need to be fixed.

   * *note fcntl.ioctl(): 12eb. now warns if the 'mutate' argument is
     omitted and relevant.

   * The *note tarfile: d8. module now generates GNU-format tar files by
     default.

   * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
     partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’.

   * *note None: 470. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to
     the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error.

   * The ‘signals.signal()’ function now raises a *note RuntimeError:
     17a. exception for certain illegal values; previously these errors
     would pass silently.  For example, you can no longer set a handler
     on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal.


File: python.info,  Node: 致謝<4>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 4,  Up: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能

1.17.15 致謝
------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Koray Can, Hye-Shik Chang, Michael Dyck, Raymond Hettinger,
Brian Hurt, Hamish Lawson, Fredrik Lundh, Sean Reifschneider, Sadruddin
Rejeb.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 2 4 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.18 Python 2.3 有什麼新功能
============================


作者: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.3.  Python 2.3 was
released on July 29, 2003.

The main themes for Python 2.3 are polishing some of the features added
in 2.2, adding various small but useful enhancements to the core
language, and expanding the standard library.  The new object model
introduced in the previous version has benefited from 18 months of
bugfixes and from optimization efforts that have improved the
performance of new-style classes.  A few new built-in functions have
been added such as *note sum(): 181. and *note enumerate(): 12f0.  The
*note in: 267. operator can now be used for substring searches (e.g.
‘"ab" in "abc"’ returns *note True: a70.).

Some of the many new library features include Boolean, set, heap, and
date/time data types, the ability to import modules from ZIP-format
archives, metadata support for the long-awaited Python catalog, an
updated version of IDLE, and modules for logging messages, wrapping
text, parsing CSV files, processing command-line options, using
BerkeleyDB databases...  the list of new and enhanced modules is
lengthy.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.3, such as
the Python Library Reference and the Python Reference Manual.  If you
want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale,
refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

* Menu:

* PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
* PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
* PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
* PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
* PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
* PEP 279：enumerate(): PEP 279：enumerate.
* PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package.
* PEP 285; A Boolean Type: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
* PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
* PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
* PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
* PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
* PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
* Extended Slices::
* 其他語言更動: 其他語言更動<17>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
* Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<11>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
* Porting to Python 2.3: Porting to Python 2 3.
* 致謝: 致謝<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype,  Next: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.1 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
---------------------------------------

The new ‘sets’ module contains an implementation of a set datatype.  The
‘Set’ class is for mutable sets, sets that can have members added and
removed.  The ‘ImmutableSet’ class is for sets that can't be modified,
and instances of ‘ImmutableSet’ can therefore be used as dictionary
keys.  Sets are built on top of dictionaries, so the elements within a
set must be hashable.

以下是個簡單範例：

     >>> import sets
     >>> S = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S
     Set([1, 2, 3])
     >>> 1 in S
     True
     >>> 0 in S
     False
     >>> S.add(5)
     >>> S.remove(3)
     >>> S
     Set([1, 2, 5])
     >>>

The union and intersection of sets can be computed with the *note
union(): 12f2. and *note intersection(): 12f3. methods; an alternative
notation uses the bitwise operators ‘&’ and ‘|’.  Mutable sets also have
in-place versions of these methods, ‘union_update()’ and *note
intersection_update(): 12f4.

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([4,5,6])
     >>> S1.union(S2)
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>> S1 | S2                  # Alternative notation
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>> S1.intersection(S2)
     Set([])
     >>> S1 & S2                  # Alternative notation
     Set([])
     >>> S1.union_update(S2)
     >>> S1
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>>

It's also possible to take the symmetric difference of two sets.  This
is the set of all elements in the union that aren't in the intersection.
Another way of putting it is that the symmetric difference contains all
elements that are in exactly one set.  Again, there's an alternative
notation (‘^’), and an in-place version with the ungainly name *note
symmetric_difference_update(): 12f5.

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3,4])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([3,4,5,6])
     >>> S1.symmetric_difference(S2)
     Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
     >>> S1 ^ S2
     Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
     >>>

There are also ‘issubset()’ and ‘issuperset()’ methods for checking
whether one set is a subset or superset of another:

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([2,3])
     >>> S2.issubset(S1)
     True
     >>> S1.issubset(S2)
     False
     >>> S1.issuperset(S2)
     True
     >>>

也參考
......

PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

     PEP written by Greg V. Wilson.  Implemented by Greg V. Wilson, Alex
     Martelli, and GvR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Next: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Prev: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.2 PEP 255: Simple Generators
---------------------------------

In Python 2.2, generators were added as an optional feature, to be
enabled by a ‘from __future__ import generators’ directive.  In 2.3
generators no longer need to be specially enabled, and are now always
present; this means that *note yield: 811. is now always a keyword.  The
rest of this section is a copy of the description of generators from the
"What's New in Python 2.2" document; if you read it back when Python 2.2
came out, you can skip the rest of this section.

You're doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.
When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local
variables are created.  When the function reaches a *note return: 812.
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is
returned to the caller.  A later call to the same function will get a
fresh new set of local variables.  But, what if the local variables
weren't thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could later
resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators provide;
they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here's the simplest example of a generator function:

     def generate_ints(N):
         for i in range(N):
             yield i

A new keyword, *note yield: 811, was introduced for generators.  Any
function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is
detected by Python's bytecode compiler which compiles the function
specially as a result.

When you call a generator function, it doesn't return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the *note yield: 811. statement, the generator
outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 812. statement.
The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on
reaching a ‘yield’ the generator's state of execution is suspended and
local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator's
‘.next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after
the ‘yield’ statement.  (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement
isn't allowed inside the *note try: 4ea. block of a ‘try’...‘finally’
statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the interaction
between ‘yield’ and exceptions.)

Here's a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object at 0x8117f90>
     >>> gen.next()
     0
     >>> gen.next()
     1
     >>> gen.next()
     2
     >>> gen.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "stdin", line 1, in ?
       File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, the *note return: 812. statement can only
be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of
values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values.
‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a
generator function.  The end of the generator's results can also be
indicated by raising *note StopIteration: a5d. manually, or by just
letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): 5f8. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much
messier.  ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more
interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal
of a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x
             yield t.label
             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions
for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so
that no queen threatens another) and the Knight's Tour (a route that
takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting
any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages,
especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of
generators is central.  In Icon, every expression and function call
behaves like a generator.  One example from "An Overview of the Icon
Programming Language" at
‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what
this looks like:

     sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
     if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring
"or" is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the *note if: 266. statement, ‘i’ is first
assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails,
and Icon retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5,
so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the
screen.

Python doesn't go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a
central concept.  Generators are considered part of the core Python
language, but learning or using them isn't compulsory; if they don't
solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them.  One novel
feature of Python's interface as compared to Icon's is that a
generator's state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator)
that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data
structure.

也參考
......

PEP 255(2) - Simple Generators

     Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.
     Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other
     fixes from the Python Labs crew.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Next: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Prev: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.3 PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
-------------------------------------

Python source files can now be declared as being in different character
set encodings.  Encodings are declared by including a specially
formatted comment in the first or second line of the source file.  For
example, a UTF-8 file can be declared with:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     # -*- coding: UTF-8 -*-

Without such an encoding declaration, the default encoding used is 7-bit
ASCII. Executing or importing modules that contain string literals with
8-bit characters and have no encoding declaration will result in a *note
DeprecationWarning: 179. being signalled by Python 2.3; in 2.4 this will
be a syntax error.

The encoding declaration only affects Unicode string literals, which
will be converted to Unicode using the specified encoding.  Note that
Python identifiers are still restricted to ASCII characters, so you
can't have variable names that use characters outside of the usual
alphanumerics.

也參考
......

PEP 263(1) - Defining Python Source Code Encodings

     Written by Marc-André Lemburg and Martin von Löwis; implemented by
     Suzuki Hisao and Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Next: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Prev: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.4 PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
---------------------------------------------------

The new *note zipimport: 12c. module adds support for importing modules
from a ZIP-format archive.  You don't need to import the module
explicitly; it will be automatically imported if a ZIP archive's
filename is added to ‘sys.path’.  For example:

     amk@nyman:~/src/python$ unzip -l /tmp/example.zip
     Archive:  /tmp/example.zip
       Length     Date   Time    Name
      --------    ----   ----    ----
          8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py
      --------                   -------
          8467                   1 file
     amk@nyman:~/src/python$ ./python
     Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.insert(0, '/tmp/example.zip')  # Add .zip file to front of path
     >>> import jwzthreading
     >>> jwzthreading.__file__
     '/tmp/example.zip/jwzthreading.py'
     >>>

An entry in ‘sys.path’ can now be the filename of a ZIP archive.  The
ZIP archive can contain any kind of files, but only files named ‘*.py’,
‘*.pyc’, or ‘*.pyo’ can be imported.  If an archive only contains ‘*.py’
files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
corresponding ‘*.pyc’ file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn't
contain ‘*.pyc’ files, importing may be rather slow.

A path within the archive can also be specified to only import from a
subdirectory; for example, the path ‘/tmp/example.zip/lib/’ would only
import from the ‘lib/’ subdirectory within the archive.

也參考
......

PEP 273(1) - Import Modules from Zip Archives

     Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation.
     Python 2.3 follows the specification in PEP 273(2), but uses an
     implementation written by Just van Rossum that uses the import
     hooks described in PEP 302(3).  See section *note PEP 302; New
     Import Hooks: 12fb. for a description of the new import hooks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Next: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Prev: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.5 PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
--------------------------------------------------------

On Windows NT, 2000, and XP, the system stores file names as Unicode
strings.  Traditionally, Python has represented file names as byte
strings, which is inadequate because it renders some file names
inaccessible.

Python now allows using arbitrary Unicode strings (within the
limitations of the file system) for all functions that expect file
names, most notably the *note open(): 29c. built-in function.  If a
Unicode string is passed to *note os.listdir(): f88, Python now returns
a list of Unicode strings.  A new function, ‘os.getcwdu()’, returns the
current directory as a Unicode string.

Byte strings still work as file names, and on Windows Python will
transparently convert them to Unicode using the ‘mbcs’ encoding.

Other systems also allow Unicode strings as file names but convert them
to byte strings before passing them to the system, which can cause a
*note UnicodeError: 1137. to be raised.  Applications can test whether
arbitrary Unicode strings are supported as file names by checking *note
os.path.supports_unicode_filenames: 12fd, a Boolean value.

Under MacOS, *note os.listdir(): f88. may now return Unicode filenames.

也參考
......

PEP 277(1) - Unicode file name support for Windows NT

     Written by Neil Hodgson; implemented by Neil Hodgson, Martin von
     Löwis, and Mark Hammond.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0277/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Next: PEP 279：enumerate,  Prev: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.6 PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
-----------------------------------------

The three major operating systems used today are Microsoft Windows,
Apple's Macintosh OS, and the various Unix derivatives.  A minor
irritation of cross-platform work is that these three platforms all use
different characters to mark the ends of lines in text files.  Unix uses
the linefeed (ASCII character 10), MacOS uses the carriage return (ASCII
character 13), and Windows uses a two-character sequence of a carriage
return plus a newline.

Python's file objects can now support end of line conventions other than
the one followed by the platform on which Python is running.  Opening a
file with the mode ‘'U'’ or ‘'rU'’ will open a file for reading in *note
universal newlines: bac. mode.  All three line ending conventions will
be translated to a ‘'\n'’ in the strings returned by the various file
methods such as ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’.

Universal newline support is also used when importing modules and when
executing a file with the ‘execfile()’ function.  This means that Python
modules can be shared between all three operating systems without
needing to convert the line-endings.

This feature can be disabled when compiling Python by specifying the
‘--without-universal-newlines’ switch when running Python's ‘configure’
script.

也參考
......

PEP 278(1) - Universal Newline Support

     Written and implemented by Jack Jansen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 279：enumerate,  Next: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Prev: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.7 PEP 279：enumerate()
---------------------------

A new built-in function, *note enumerate(): 12f0, will make certain
loops a bit clearer.  ‘enumerate(thing)’, where 'thing' is either an
iterator or a sequence, returns an iterator that will return ‘(0,
thing[0])’, ‘(1, thing[1])’, ‘(2, thing[2])’, and so forth.

A common idiom to change every element of a list looks like this:

     for i in range(len(L)):
         item = L[i]
         # ... compute some result based on item ...
         L[i] = result

This can be rewritten using *note enumerate(): 12f0. as:

     for i, item in enumerate(L):
         # ... compute some result based on item ...
         L[i] = result

也參考
......

PEP 279(1) - The enumerate() built-in function

     Written and implemented by Raymond D. Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0279/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Next: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Prev: PEP 279：enumerate,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.8 PEP 282: The logging Package
-----------------------------------

A standard package for writing logs, *note logging: 82, has been added
to Python 2.3.  It provides a powerful and flexible mechanism for
generating logging output which can then be filtered and processed in
various ways.  A configuration file written in a standard format can be
used to control the logging behavior of a program.  Python includes
handlers that will write log records to standard error or to a file or
socket, send them to the system log, or even e-mail them to a particular
address; of course, it's also possible to write your own handler
classes.

The *note Logger: 9a9. class is the primary class.  Most application
code will deal with one or more *note Logger: 9a9. objects, each one
used by a particular subsystem of the application.  Each *note Logger:
9a9. is identified by a name, and names are organized into a hierarchy
using ‘.’ as the component separator.  For example, you might have *note
Logger: 9a9. instances named ‘server’, ‘server.auth’ and
‘server.network’.  The latter two instances are below ‘server’ in the
hierarchy.  This means that if you turn up the verbosity for ‘server’ or
direct ‘server’ messages to a different handler, the changes will also
apply to records logged to ‘server.auth’ and ‘server.network’.  There's
also a root *note Logger: 9a9. that's the parent of all other loggers.

For simple uses, the *note logging: 82. package contains some
convenience functions that always use the root log:

     import logging

     logging.debug('Debugging information')
     logging.info('Informational message')
     logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
     logging.error('Error occurred')
     logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

This produces the following output:

     WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
     ERROR:root:Error occurred
     CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

In the default configuration, informational and debugging messages are
suppressed and the output is sent to standard error.  You can enable the
display of informational and debugging messages by calling the *note
setLevel(): 1302. method on the root logger.

Notice the *note warning(): 1303. call's use of string formatting
operators; all of the functions for logging messages take the arguments
‘(msg, arg1, arg2, ...)’ and log the string resulting from ‘msg % (arg1,
arg2, ...)’.

There's also an *note exception(): 1304. function that records the most
recent traceback.  Any of the other functions will also record the
traceback if you specify a true value for the keyword argument
'exc_info'.

     def f():
         try:    1/0
         except: logging.exception('Problem recorded')

     f()

This produces the following output:

     ERROR:root:Problem recorded
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 6, in f
         1/0
     ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

Slightly more advanced programs will use a logger other than the root
logger.  The ‘getLogger(name)’ function is used to get a particular log,
creating it if it doesn't exist yet.  ‘getLogger(None)’ returns the root
logger.

     log = logging.getLogger('server')
      ...
     log.info('Listening on port %i', port)
      ...
     log.critical('Disk full')
      ...

Log records are usually propagated up the hierarchy, so a message logged
to ‘server.auth’ is also seen by ‘server’ and ‘root’, but a *note
Logger: 9a9. can prevent this by setting its *note propagate: 1305.
attribute to *note False: 98f.

There are more classes provided by the *note logging: 82. package that
can be customized.  When a *note Logger: 9a9. instance is told to log a
message, it creates a *note LogRecord: e78. instance that is sent to any
number of different *note Handler: 1306. instances.  Loggers and
handlers can also have an attached list of filters, and each filter can
cause the *note LogRecord: e78. to be ignored or can modify the record
before passing it along.  When they're finally output, *note LogRecord:
e78. instances are converted to text by a *note Formatter: 1307. class.
All of these classes can be replaced by your own specially written
classes.

With all of these features the *note logging: 82. package should provide
enough flexibility for even the most complicated applications.  This is
only an incomplete overview of its features, so please see the package's
reference documentation for all of the details.  Reading PEP 282(1) will
also be helpful.

也參考
......

PEP 282(2) - A Logging System

     Written by Vinay Sajip and Trent Mick; implemented by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Next: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Prev: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.9 PEP 285: A Boolean Type
------------------------------

A Boolean type was added to Python 2.3.  Two new constants were added to
the ‘__builtin__’ module, *note True: a70. and *note False: 98f.  (*note
True: a70. and *note False: 98f. constants were added to the built-ins
in Python 2.2.1, but the 2.2.1 versions are simply set to integer values
of 1 and 0 and aren't a different type.)

The type object for this new type is named *note bool: 17d.; the
constructor for it takes any Python value and converts it to *note True:
a70. or *note False: 98f.

     >>> bool(1)
     True
     >>> bool(0)
     False
     >>> bool([])
     False
     >>> bool( (1,) )
     True

Most of the standard library modules and built-in functions have been
changed to return Booleans.

     >>> obj = []
     >>> hasattr(obj, 'append')
     True
     >>> isinstance(obj, list)
     True
     >>> isinstance(obj, tuple)
     False

Python's Booleans were added with the primary goal of making code
clearer.  For example, if you're reading a function and encounter the
statement ‘return 1’, you might wonder whether the ‘1’ represents a
Boolean truth value, an index, or a coefficient that multiplies some
other quantity.  If the statement is ‘return True’, however, the meaning
of the return value is quite clear.

Python's Booleans were 'not' added for the sake of strict type-checking.
A very strict language such as Pascal would also prevent you performing
arithmetic with Booleans, and would require that the expression in an
*note if: 266. statement always evaluate to a Boolean result.  Python is
not this strict and never will be, as PEP 285(1) explicitly says.  This
means you can still use any expression in an ‘if’ statement, even ones
that evaluate to a list or tuple or some random object.  The Boolean
type is a subclass of the *note int: 17e. class so that arithmetic using
a Boolean still works.

     >>> True + 1
     2
     >>> False + 1
     1
     >>> False * 75
     0
     >>> True * 75
     75

To sum up *note True: a70. and *note False: 98f. in a sentence: they're
alternative ways to spell the integer values 1 and 0, with the single
difference that *note str(): 157. and *note repr(): 61e. return the
strings ‘'True'’ and ‘'False'’ instead of ‘'1'’ and ‘'0'’.

也參考
......

PEP 285(2) - Adding a bool type

     Written and implemented by GvR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Next: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Prev: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.10 PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
-----------------------------------------------

When encoding a Unicode string into a byte string, unencodable
characters may be encountered.  So far, Python has allowed specifying
the error processing as either "strict" (raising *note UnicodeError:
1137.), "ignore" (skipping the character), or "replace" (using a
question mark in the output string), with "strict" being the default
behavior.  It may be desirable to specify alternative processing of such
errors, such as inserting an XML character reference or HTML entity
reference into the converted string.

Python now has a flexible framework to add different processing
strategies.  New error handlers can be added with *note
codecs.register_error(): 130b, and codecs then can access the error
handler with *note codecs.lookup_error(): 130c.  An equivalent C API has
been added for codecs written in C. The error handler gets the necessary
state information such as the string being converted, the position in
the string where the error was detected, and the target encoding.  The
handler can then either raise an exception or return a replacement
string.

Two additional error handlers have been implemented using this
framework: "backslashreplace" uses Python backslash quoting to represent
unencodable characters and "xmlcharrefreplace" emits XML character
references.

也參考
......

PEP 293(1) - Codec Error Handling Callbacks

     Written and implemented by Walter Dörwald.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0293/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Next: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Prev: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.11 PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
---------------------------------------------------------

Support for the long-requested Python catalog makes its first appearance
in 2.3.

The heart of the catalog is the new Distutils ‘register’ command.
Running ‘python setup.py register’ will collect the metadata describing
a package, such as its name, version, maintainer, description, &c., and
send it to a central catalog server.  The resulting catalog is available
from ‘https://pypi.org’.

To make the catalog a bit more useful, a new optional 'classifiers'
keyword argument has been added to the Distutils ‘setup()’ function.  A
list of Trove(1)-style strings can be supplied to help classify the
software.

Here's an example ‘setup.py’ with classifiers, written to be compatible
with older versions of the Distutils:

     from distutils import core
     kw = {'name': "Quixote",
           'version': "0.5.1",
           'description': "A highly Pythonic Web application framework",
           # ...
           }

     if (hasattr(core, 'setup_keywords') and
         'classifiers' in core.setup_keywords):
         kw['classifiers'] = \
             ['Topic :: Internet :: WWW/HTTP :: Dynamic Content',
              'Environment :: No Input/Output (Daemon)',
              'Intended Audience :: Developers'],

     core.setup(**kw)

The full list of classifiers can be obtained by running ‘python setup.py
register --list-classifiers’.

也參考
......

PEP 301(2) - Package Index and Metadata for Distutils

     Written and implemented by Richard Jones.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://catb.org/~esr/trove/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0301/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Next: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Prev: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.12 PEP 302: New Import Hooks
---------------------------------

While it's been possible to write custom import hooks ever since the
‘ihooks’ module was introduced in Python 1.3, no one has ever been
really happy with it because writing new import hooks is difficult and
messy.  There have been various proposed alternatives such as the
‘imputil’ and ‘iu’ modules, but none of them has ever gained much
acceptance, and none of them were easily usable from C code.

PEP 302(1) borrows ideas from its predecessors, especially from Gordon
McMillan's ‘iu’ module.  Three new items are added to the *note sys: d3.
module:

   * ‘sys.path_hooks’ is a list of callable objects; most often they'll
     be classes.  Each callable takes a string containing a path and
     either returns an importer object that will handle imports from
     this path or raises an *note ImportError: 145. exception if it
     can't handle this path.

   * ‘sys.path_importer_cache’ caches importer objects for each path, so
     ‘sys.path_hooks’ will only need to be traversed once for each path.

   * ‘sys.meta_path’ is a list of importer objects that will be
     traversed before ‘sys.path’ is checked.  This list is initially
     empty, but user code can add objects to it.  Additional built-in
     and frozen modules can be imported by an object added to this list.

Importer objects must have a single method, ‘find_module(fullname,
path=None)’.  'fullname' will be a module or package name, e.g.
‘string’ or ‘distutils.core’.  ‘find_module()’ must return a loader
object that has a single method, ‘load_module(fullname)’, that creates
and returns the corresponding module object.

Pseudo-code for Python's new import logic, therefore, looks something
like this (simplified a bit; see PEP 302(2) for the full details):

     for mp in sys.meta_path:
         loader = mp(fullname)
         if loader is not None:
             <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

     for path in sys.path:
         for hook in sys.path_hooks:
             try:
                 importer = hook(path)
             except ImportError:
                 # ImportError, so try the other path hooks
                 pass
             else:
                 loader = importer.find_module(fullname)
                 <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

     # Not found!
     raise ImportError

也參考
......

PEP 302(3) - New Import Hooks

     Written by Just van Rossum and Paul Moore.  Implemented by Just van
     Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Next: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Prev: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.13 PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
--------------------------------------

Comma-separated files are a format frequently used for exporting data
from databases and spreadsheets.  Python 2.3 adds a parser for
comma-separated files.

Comma-separated format is deceptively simple at first glance:

     Costs,150,200,3.95

Read a line and call ‘line.split(',')’: what could be simpler?  But toss
in string data that can contain commas, and things get more complicated:

     "Costs",150,200,3.95,"Includes taxes, shipping, and sundry items"

A big ugly regular expression can parse this, but using the new *note
csv: 27. package is much simpler:

     import csv

     input = open('datafile', 'rb')
     reader = csv.reader(input)
     for line in reader:
         print line

The *note reader(): 1312. function takes a number of different options.
The field separator isn't limited to the comma and can be changed to any
character, and so can the quoting and line-ending characters.

Different dialects of comma-separated files can be defined and
registered; currently there are two dialects, both used by Microsoft
Excel.  A separate *note csv.writer: 1a2. class will generate
comma-separated files from a succession of tuples or lists, quoting
strings that contain the delimiter.

也參考
......

PEP 305(1) - CSV 檔案 API

     Written and implemented by Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara,
     Skip Montanaro, Cliff Wells.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Next: Extended Slices,  Prev: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.14 PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
------------------------------------

The *note pickle: a1. and ‘cPickle’ modules received some attention
during the 2.3 development cycle.  In 2.2, new-style classes could be
pickled without difficulty, but they weren't pickled very compactly; PEP
307(1) quotes a trivial example where a new-style class results in a
pickled string three times longer than that for a classic class.

The solution was to invent a new pickle protocol.  The *note
pickle.dumps(): 1315. function has supported a text-or-binary flag for a
long time.  In 2.3, this flag is redefined from a Boolean to an integer:
0 is the old text-mode pickle format, 1 is the old binary format, and
now 2 is a new 2.3-specific format.  A new constant, *note
pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1316, can be used to select the fanciest
protocol available.

Unpickling is no longer considered a safe operation.  2.2's *note
pickle: a1. provided hooks for trying to prevent unsafe classes from
being unpickled (specifically, a ‘__safe_for_unpickling__’ attribute),
but none of this code was ever audited and therefore it's all been
ripped out in 2.3.  You should not unpickle untrusted data in any
version of Python.

To reduce the pickling overhead for new-style classes, a new interface
for customizing pickling was added using three special methods: *note
__getstate__(): 3cb, *note __setstate__(): 1317, and *note
__getnewargs__(): 1318.  Consult PEP 307(2) for the full semantics of
these methods.

As a way to compress pickles yet further, it's now possible to use
integer codes instead of long strings to identify pickled classes.  The
Python Software Foundation will maintain a list of standardized codes;
there's also a range of codes for private use.  Currently no codes have
been specified.

也參考
......

PEP 307(3) - Extensions to the pickle protocol

     Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum and Tim Peters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/


File: python.info,  Node: Extended Slices,  Next: 其他語言更動<17>,  Prev: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.15 Extended Slices
-----------------------

Ever since Python 1.4, the slicing syntax has supported an optional
third "step" or "stride" argument.  For example, these are all legal
Python syntax: ‘L[1:10:2]’, ‘L[:-1:1]’, ‘L[::-1]’.  This was added to
Python at the request of the developers of Numerical Python, which uses
the third argument extensively.  However, Python's built-in list, tuple,
and string sequence types have never supported this feature, raising a
*note TypeError: 2ba. if you tried it.  Michael Hudson contributed a
patch to fix this shortcoming.

For example, you can now easily extract the elements of a list that have
even indexes:

     >>> L = range(10)
     >>> L[::2]
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

Negative values also work to make a copy of the same list in reverse
order:

     >>> L[::-1]
     [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

This also works for tuples, arrays, and strings:

     >>> s='abcd'
     >>> s[::2]
     'ac'
     >>> s[::-1]
     'dcba'

If you have a mutable sequence such as a list or an array you can assign
to or delete an extended slice, but there are some differences between
assignment to extended and regular slices.  Assignment to a regular
slice can be used to change the length of the sequence:

     >>> a = range(3)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2]
     >>> a[1:3] = [4, 5, 6]
     >>> a
     [0, 4, 5, 6]

Extended slices aren't this flexible.  When assigning to an extended
slice, the list on the right hand side of the statement must contain the
same number of items as the slice it is replacing:

     >>> a = range(4)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2, 3]
     >>> a[::2]
     [0, 2]
     >>> a[::2] = [0, -1]
     >>> a
     [0, 1, -1, 3]
     >>> a[::2] = [0,1,2]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     ValueError: attempt to assign sequence of size 3 to extended slice of size 2

Deletion is more straightforward:

     >>> a = range(4)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2, 3]
     >>> a[::2]
     [0, 2]
     >>> del a[::2]
     >>> a
     [1, 3]

One can also now pass slice objects to the *note __getitem__(): 4e7.
methods of the built-in sequences:

     >>> range(10).__getitem__(slice(0, 5, 2))
     [0, 2, 4]

Or use slice objects directly in subscripts:

     >>> range(10)[slice(0, 5, 2)]
     [0, 2, 4]

To simplify implementing sequences that support extended slicing, slice
objects now have a method ‘indices(length)’ which, given the length of a
sequence, returns a ‘(start, stop, step)’ tuple that can be passed
directly to *note range(): 782.  ‘indices()’ handles omitted and
out-of-bounds indices in a manner consistent with regular slices (and
this innocuous phrase hides a welter of confusing details!).  The method
is intended to be used like this:

     class FakeSeq:
         ...
         def calc_item(self, i):
             ...
         def __getitem__(self, item):
             if isinstance(item, slice):
                 indices = item.indices(len(self))
                 return FakeSeq([self.calc_item(i) for i in range(*indices)])
             else:
                 return self.calc_item(i)

From this example you can also see that the built-in *note slice: 180.
object is now the type object for the slice type, and is no longer a
function.  This is consistent with Python 2.2, where *note int: 17e,
*note str: 157, etc., underwent the same change.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他語言更動<17>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Prev: Extended Slices,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.16 其他語言更動
--------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python
language.

   * The *note yield: 811. statement is now always a keyword, as
     described in section *note PEP 255; Simple Generators: 12f7. of
     this document.

   * A new built-in function *note enumerate(): 12f0. was added, as
     described in section *note PEP 279：enumerate(): 1300. of this
     document.

   * Two new constants, *note True: a70. and *note False: 98f. were
     added along with the built-in *note bool: 17d. type, as described
     in section *note PEP 285; A Boolean Type: 1309. of this document.

   * The *note int(): 17e. type constructor will now return a long
     integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: 6ad. when a
     string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an
     integer.  This can lead to the paradoxical result that
     ‘isinstance(int(expression), int)’ is false, but that seems
     unlikely to cause problems in practice.

   * Built-in types now support the extended slicing syntax, as
     described in section *note Extended Slices: 131a. of this document.

   * A new built-in function, ‘sum(iterable, start=0)’, adds up the
     numeric items in the iterable object and returns their sum.  *note
     sum(): 181. only accepts numbers, meaning that you can't use it to
     concatenate a bunch of strings.  (Contributed by Alex Martelli.)

   * ‘list.insert(pos, value)’ used to insert 'value' at the front of
     the list when 'pos' was negative.  The behaviour has now been
     changed to be consistent with slice indexing, so when 'pos' is -1
     the value will be inserted before the last element, and so forth.

   * ‘list.index(value)’, which searches for 'value' within the list and
     returns its index, now takes optional 'start' and 'stop' arguments
     to limit the search to only part of the list.

   * Dictionaries have a new method, ‘pop(key[, *default*])’, that
     returns the value corresponding to 'key' and removes that key/value
     pair from the dictionary.  If the requested key isn't present in
     the dictionary, 'default' is returned if it's specified and *note
     KeyError: 8ed. raised if it isn't.

          >>> d = {1:2}
          >>> d
          {1: 2}
          >>> d.pop(4)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "stdin", line 1, in ?
          KeyError: 4
          >>> d.pop(1)
          2
          >>> d.pop(1)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "stdin", line 1, in ?
          KeyError: 'pop(): dictionary is empty'
          >>> d
          {}
          >>>

     There's also a new class method, ‘dict.fromkeys(iterable, value)’,
     that creates a dictionary with keys taken from the supplied
     iterator 'iterable' and all values set to 'value', defaulting to
     ‘None’.

     (Patches contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

     Also, the *note dict(): 239. constructor now accepts keyword
     arguments to simplify creating small dictionaries:

          >>> dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4)
          {'blue': 2, 'black': 4, 'green': 3, 'red': 1}

     （由 Just van Rossum 所貢獻。）

   * The *note assert: 7aa. statement no longer checks the ‘__debug__’
     flag, so you can no longer disable assertions by assigning to
     ‘__debug__’.  Running Python with the *note -O: c2c. switch will
     still generate code that doesn't execute any assertions.

   * Most type objects are now callable, so you can use them to create
     new objects such as functions, classes, and modules.  (This means
     that the ‘new’ module can be deprecated in a future Python version,
     because you can now use the type objects available in the *note
     types: fe. module.)  For example, you can create a new module
     object with the following code:

          >>> import types
          >>> m = types.ModuleType('abc','docstring')
          >>> m
          <module 'abc' (built-in)>
          >>> m.__doc__
          'docstring'

   * A new warning, *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700. was added to
     indicate features which are in the process of being deprecated.
     The warning will 'not' be printed by default.  To check for use of
     features that will be deprecated in the future, supply *note
     -Walways;;PendingDeprecationWarning;;: 6ff. on the command line or
     use *note warnings.filterwarnings(): 131c.

   * The process of deprecating string-based exceptions, as in ‘raise
     "Error occurred"’, has begun.  Raising a string will now trigger
     *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.

   * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 178. warning.  In a future version of Python, ‘None’
     may finally become a keyword.

   * The ‘xreadlines()’ method of file objects, introduced in Python
     2.1, is no longer necessary because files now behave as their own
     iterator.  ‘xreadlines()’ was originally introduced as a faster way
     to loop over all the lines in a file, but now you can simply write
     ‘for line in file_obj’.  File objects also have a new read-only
     ‘encoding’ attribute that gives the encoding used by the file;
     Unicode strings written to the file will be automatically converted
     to bytes using the given encoding.

   * The method resolution order used by new-style classes has changed,
     though you'll only notice the difference if you have a really
     complicated inheritance hierarchy.  Classic classes are unaffected
     by this change.  Python 2.2 originally used a topological sort of a
     class's ancestors, but 2.3 now uses the C3 algorithm as described
     in the paper "A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan"(1).
     To understand the motivation for this change, read Michele
     Simionato's article *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order:
     131d, or read the thread on python-dev starting with the message at
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’.
     Samuele Pedroni first pointed out the problem and also implemented
     the fix by coding the C3 algorithm.

   * Python runs multithreaded programs by switching between threads
     after executing N bytecodes.  The default value for N has been
     increased from 10 to 100 bytecodes, speeding up single-threaded
     applications by reducing the switching overhead.  Some
     multithreaded applications may suffer slower response time, but
     that's easily fixed by setting the limit back to a lower number
     using ‘sys.setcheckinterval(N)’.  The limit can be retrieved with
     the new ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ function.

   * One minor but far-reaching change is that the names of extension
     types defined by the modules included with Python now contain the
     module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type name.  For example, in
     Python 2.2, if you created a socket and printed its ‘__class__’,
     you'd get this output:

          >>> s = socket.socket()
          >>> s.__class__
          <type 'socket'>

     In 2.3, you get this:

          >>> s.__class__
          <type '_socket.socket'>

   * One of the noted incompatibilities between old- and new-style
     classes has been removed: you can now assign to the *note __name__:
     131e. and *note __bases__: 131f. attributes of new-style classes.
     There are some restrictions on what can be assigned to ‘__bases__’
     along the lines of those relating to assigning to an instance's
     *note __class__: 1320. attribute.

* Menu:

* String Changes::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<16>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.19.3910


File: python.info,  Node: String Changes,  Next: 最佳化<16>,  Up: 其他語言更動<17>

1.18.16.1 String Changes
........................

   * The *note in: 267. operator now works differently for strings.
     Previously, when evaluating ‘X in Y’ where 'X' and 'Y' are strings,
     'X' could only be a single character.  That's now changed; 'X' can
     be a string of any length, and ‘X in Y’ will return *note True:
     a70. if 'X' is a substring of 'Y'. If 'X' is the empty string, the
     result is always *note True: a70.

          >>> 'ab' in 'abcd'
          True
          >>> 'ad' in 'abcd'
          False
          >>> '' in 'abcd'
          True

     Note that this doesn't tell you where the substring starts; if you
     need that information, use the *note find(): d28. string method.

   * The *note strip(): 1322, *note lstrip(): 1323, and *note rstrip():
     1324. string methods now have an optional argument for specifying
     the characters to strip.  The default is still to remove all
     whitespace characters:

          >>> '   abc '.strip()
          'abc'
          >>> '><><abc<><><>'.strip('<>')
          'abc'
          >>> '><><abc<><><>\n'.strip('<>')
          'abc<><><>\n'
          >>> u'\u4000\u4001abc\u4000'.strip(u'\u4000')
          u'\u4001abc'
          >>>

     (Suggested by Simon Brunning and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * The *note startswith(): d4c. and *note endswith(): d4d. string
     methods now accept negative numbers for the 'start' and 'end'
     parameters.

   * Another new string method is *note zfill(): 1325, originally a
     function in the *note string: cd. module.  *note zfill(): 1325.
     pads a numeric string with zeros on the left until it's the
     specified width.  Note that the ‘%’ operator is still more flexible
     and powerful than *note zfill(): 1325.

          >>> '45'.zfill(4)
          '0045'
          >>> '12345'.zfill(4)
          '12345'
          >>> 'goofy'.zfill(6)
          '0goofy'

     （由 Walter Dörwald 所貢獻。）

   * A new type object, ‘basestring’, has been added.  Both 8-bit
     strings and Unicode strings inherit from this type, so
     ‘isinstance(obj, basestring)’ will return *note True: a70. for
     either kind of string.  It's a completely abstract type, so you
     can't create ‘basestring’ instances.

   * Interned strings are no longer immortal and will now be
     garbage-collected in the usual way when the only reference to them
     is from the internal dictionary of interned strings.  (Implemented
     by Oren Tirosh.)


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<16>,  Prev: String Changes,  Up: 其他語言更動<17>

1.18.16.2 最佳化
................

   * The creation of new-style class instances has been made much
     faster; they're now faster than classic classes!

   * The *note sort(): a30. method of list objects has been extensively
     rewritten by Tim Peters, and the implementation is significantly
     faster.

   * Multiplication of large long integers is now much faster thanks to
     an implementation of Karatsuba multiplication, an algorithm that
     scales better than the 'O'('n'^2) required for the grade-school
     multiplication algorithm.  (Original patch by Christopher A. Craig,
     and significantly reworked by Tim Peters.)

   * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode is now gone.  This may provide a small
     speed increase, depending on your compiler's idiosyncrasies.  See
     section *note Other Changes and Fixes: 1327. for a longer
     explanation.  (Removed by Michael Hudson.)

   * ‘xrange()’ objects now have their own iterator, making ‘for i in
     xrange(n)’ slightly faster than ‘for i in range(n)’.  (Patch by
     Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A number of small rearrangements have been made in various hotspots
     to improve performance, such as inlining a function or removing
     some code.  (Implemented mostly by GvR, but lots of people have
     contributed single changes.)

The net result of the 2.3 optimizations is that Python 2.3 runs the
pystone benchmark around 25% faster than Python 2.2.


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Next: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Prev: 其他語言更動<17>,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.17 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
---------------------------------------------

As usual, Python's standard library received a number of enhancements
and bug fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable changes,
sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in
the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the
CVS logs for all the details.

   * The *note array: 7. module now supports arrays of Unicode
     characters using the ‘'u'’ format character.  Arrays also now
     support using the ‘+=’ assignment operator to add another array's
     contents, and the ‘*=’ assignment operator to repeat an array.
     (Contributed by Jason Orendorff.)

   * The ‘bsddb’ module has been replaced by version 4.1.6 of the
     PyBSDDB(1) package, providing a more complete interface to the
     transactional features of the BerkeleyDB library.

     The old version of the module has been renamed to ‘bsddb185’ and is
     no longer built automatically; you'll have to edit ‘Modules/Setup’
     to enable it.  Note that the new ‘bsddb’ package is intended to be
     compatible with the old module, so be sure to file bugs if you
     discover any incompatibilities.  When upgrading to Python 2.3, if
     the new interpreter is compiled with a new version of the
     underlying BerkeleyDB library, you will almost certainly have to
     convert your database files to the new version.  You can do this
     fairly easily with the new scripts ‘db2pickle.py’ and
     ‘pickle2db.py’ which you will find in the distribution's
     ‘Tools/scripts’ directory.  If you've already been using the
     PyBSDDB package and importing it as ‘bsddb3’, you will have to
     change your ‘import’ statements to import it as ‘bsddb’.

   * The new *note bz2: 11. module is an interface to the bz2 data
     compression library.  bz2-compressed data is usually smaller than
     corresponding *note zlib: 12d.-compressed data.  (Contributed by
     Gustavo Niemeyer.)

   * A set of standard date/time types has been added in the new *note
     datetime: 2e. module.  See the following section for more details.

   * The Distutils ‘Extension’ class now supports an extra constructor
     argument named 'depends' for listing additional source files that
     an extension depends on.  This lets Distutils recompile the module
     if any of the dependency files are modified.  For example, if
     ‘sampmodule.c’ includes the header file ‘sample.h’, you would
     create the ‘Extension’ object like this:

          ext = Extension("samp",
                          sources=["sampmodule.c"],
                          depends=["sample.h"])

     Modifying ‘sample.h’ would then cause the module to be recompiled.
     (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * Other minor changes to Distutils: it now checks for the *note CC:
     1329, *note CFLAGS: 132a, ‘CPP’, *note LDFLAGS: 132b, and *note
     CPPFLAGS: 132c. environment variables, using them to override the
     settings in Python's configuration (contributed by Robert Weber).

   * Previously the *note doctest: 36. module would only search the
     docstrings of public methods and functions for test cases, but it
     now also examines private ones as well.  The *note DocTestSuite():
     c6b. function creates a *note unittest.TestSuite: c6c. object from
     a set of *note doctest: 36. tests.

   * The new ‘gc.get_referents(object)’ function returns a list of all
     the objects referenced by 'object'.

   * The *note getopt: 5c. module gained a new function, *note
     gnu_getopt(): 132d, that supports the same arguments as the
     existing *note getopt(): 132e. function but uses GNU-style scanning
     mode.  The existing *note getopt(): 132e. stops processing options
     as soon as a non-option argument is encountered, but in GNU-style
     mode processing continues, meaning that options and arguments can
     be mixed.  For example:

          >>> getopt.getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
          ([('-f', 'filename')], ['output', '-v'])
          >>> getopt.gnu_getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
          ([('-f', 'filename'), ('-v', '')], ['output'])

     （由 Peter Åstrand 所貢獻。）

   * The *note grp: 61, *note pwd: ad, and *note resource: b7. modules
     now return enhanced tuples:

          >>> import grp
          >>> g = grp.getgrnam('amk')
          >>> g.gr_name, g.gr_gid
          ('amk', 500)

   * The *note gzip: 62. module can now handle files exceeding 2 GiB.

   * The new *note heapq: 64. module contains an implementation of a
     heap queue algorithm.  A heap is an array-like data structure that
     keeps items in a partially sorted order such that, for every index
     'k', ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1]’ and ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]’.  This
     makes it quick to remove the smallest item, and inserting a new
     item while maintaining the heap property is 'O'(log 'n').  (See
     ‘https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads//HTML/priorityque.html’ for more
     information about the priority queue data structure.)

     The *note heapq: 64. module provides *note heappush(): 132f. and
     *note heappop(): 1330. functions for adding and removing items
     while maintaining the heap property on top of some other mutable
     Python sequence type.  Here's an example that uses a Python list:

          >>> import heapq
          >>> heap = []
          >>> for item in [3, 7, 5, 11, 1]:
          ...    heapq.heappush(heap, item)
          ...
          >>> heap
          [1, 3, 5, 11, 7]
          >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
          1
          >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
          3
          >>> heap
          [5, 7, 11]

     （由 Kevin O'Connor 所貢獻。）

   * The IDLE integrated development environment has been updated using
     the code from the IDLEfork project
     (‘https://idlefork.sourceforge.net’).  The most notable feature is
     that the code being developed is now executed in a subprocess,
     meaning that there's no longer any need for manual ‘reload()’
     operations.  IDLE's core code has been incorporated into the
     standard library as the *note idlelib: 6e. package.

   * The *note imaplib: 6f. module now supports IMAP over SSL.
     (Contributed by Piers Lauder and Tino Lange.)

   * The *note itertools: 7b. contains a number of useful functions for
     use with iterators, inspired by various functions provided by the
     ML and Haskell languages.  For example,
     ‘itertools.ifilter(predicate, iterator)’ returns all elements in
     the iterator for which the function ‘predicate()’ returns *note
     True: a70, and ‘itertools.repeat(obj, N)’ returns ‘obj’ 'N' times.
     There are a number of other functions in the module; see the
     package's reference documentation for details.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Two new functions in the *note math: 89. module, ‘degrees(rads)’
     and ‘radians(degs)’, convert between radians and degrees.  Other
     functions in the *note math: 89. module such as *note math.sin():
     1331. and *note math.cos(): 1332. have always required input values
     measured in radians.  Also, an optional 'base' argument was added
     to *note math.log(): 1333. to make it easier to compute logarithms
     for bases other than ‘e’ and ‘10’.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * Several new POSIX functions (‘getpgid()’, ‘killpg()’, ‘lchown()’,
     ‘loadavg()’, ‘major()’, ‘makedev()’, ‘minor()’, and ‘mknod()’) were
     added to the *note posix: a8. module that underlies the *note os:
     9c. module.  (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer, Geert Jansen, and
     Denis S. Otkidach.)

   * In the *note os: 9c. module, the ‘*stat()’ family of functions can
     now report fractions of a second in a timestamp.  Such time stamps
     are represented as floats, similar to the value returned by *note
     time.time(): 936.

     During testing, it was found that some applications will break if
     time stamps are floats.  For compatibility, when using the tuple
     interface of the *note stat_result: 1334. time stamps will be
     represented as integers.  When using named fields (a feature first
     introduced in Python 2.2), time stamps are still represented as
     integers, unless ‘os.stat_float_times()’ is invoked to enable float
     return values:

          >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
          1034791200
          >>> os.stat_float_times(True)
          >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
          1034791200.6335014

     In Python 2.4, the default will change to always returning floats.

     Application developers should enable this feature only if all their
     libraries work properly when confronted with floating-point time
     stamps, or if they use the tuple API. If used, the feature should
     be activated on an application level instead of trying to enable it
     on a per-use basis.

   * The *note optparse: 9b. module contains a new parser for
     command-line arguments that can convert option values to a
     particular Python type and will automatically generate a usage
     message.  See the following section for more details.

   * The old and never-documented ‘linuxaudiodev’ module has been
     deprecated, and a new version named *note ossaudiodev: 9e. has been
     added.  The module was renamed because the OSS sound drivers can be
     used on platforms other than Linux, and the interface has also been
     tidied and brought up to date in various ways.  (Contributed by
     Greg Ward and Nicholas FitzRoy-Dale.)

   * The new *note platform: a5. module contains a number of functions
     that try to determine various properties of the platform you're
     running on.  There are functions for getting the architecture, CPU
     type, the Windows OS version, and even the Linux distribution
     version.  (Contributed by Marc-André Lemburg.)

   * The parser objects provided by the *note pyexpat: 121. module can
     now optionally buffer character data, resulting in fewer calls to
     your character data handler and therefore faster performance.
     Setting the parser object's *note buffer_text: 1335. attribute to
     *note True: a70. will enable buffering.

   * The ‘sample(population, k)’ function was added to the *note random:
     b3. module.  'population' is a sequence or ‘xrange’ object
     containing the elements of a population, and *note sample(): 559.
     chooses 'k' elements from the population without replacing chosen
     elements.  'k' can be any value up to ‘len(population)’.  For
     example:

          >>> days = ['Mo', 'Tu', 'We', 'Th', 'Fr', 'St', 'Sn']
          >>> random.sample(days, 3)      # Choose 3 elements
          ['St', 'Sn', 'Th']
          >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 elements
          ['Tu', 'Th', 'Mo', 'We', 'St', 'Fr', 'Sn']
          >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 again
          ['We', 'Mo', 'Sn', 'Fr', 'Tu', 'St', 'Th']
          >>> random.sample(days, 8)      # Can't choose eight
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
            File "random.py", line 414, in sample
                raise ValueError, "sample larger than population"
          ValueError: sample larger than population
          >>> random.sample(xrange(1,10000,2), 10)   # Choose ten odd nos. under 10000
          [3407, 3805, 1505, 7023, 2401, 2267, 9733, 3151, 8083, 9195]

     The *note random: b3. module now uses a new algorithm, the Mersenne
     Twister, implemented in C. It's faster and more extensively studied
     than the previous algorithm.

     (All changes contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note readline: b5. module also gained a number of new
     functions: *note get_history_item(): 1336, *note
     get_current_history_length(): 1337, and *note redisplay(): 1338.

   * The ‘rexec’ and ‘Bastion’ modules have been declared dead, and
     attempts to import them will fail with a *note RuntimeError: 17a.
     New-style classes provide new ways to break out of the restricted
     execution environment provided by ‘rexec’, and no one has interest
     in fixing them or time to do so.  If you have applications using
     ‘rexec’, rewrite them to use something else.

     (Sticking with Python 2.2 or 2.1 will not make your applications
     any safer because there are known bugs in the ‘rexec’ module in
     those versions.  To repeat: if you're using ‘rexec’, stop using it
     immediately.)

   * The ‘rotor’ module has been deprecated because the algorithm it
     uses for encryption is not believed to be secure.  If you need
     encryption, use one of the several AES Python modules that are
     available separately.

   * The *note shutil: c0. module gained a ‘move(src, dest)’ function
     that recursively moves a file or directory to a new location.

   * Support for more advanced POSIX signal handling was added to the
     *note signal: c1. but then removed again as it proved impossible to
     make it work reliably across platforms.

   * The *note socket: c6. module now supports timeouts.  You can call
     the ‘settimeout(t)’ method on a socket object to set a timeout of
     't' seconds.  Subsequent socket operations that take longer than
     't' seconds to complete will abort and raise a *note
     socket.timeout: 65a. exception.

     The original timeout implementation was by Tim O'Malley.  Michael
     Gilfix integrated it into the Python *note socket: c6. module and
     shepherded it through a lengthy review.  After the code was checked
     in, Guido van Rossum rewrote parts of it.  (This is a good example
     of a collaborative development process in action.)

   * On Windows, the *note socket: c6. module now ships with Secure
     Sockets Layer (SSL) support.

   * The value of the C ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’ macro is now exposed at the
     Python level as ‘sys.api_version’.  The current exception can be
     cleared by calling the new ‘sys.exc_clear()’ function.

   * The new *note tarfile: d8. module allows reading from and writing
     to ‘tar’-format archive files.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

   * The new *note textwrap: e6. module contains functions for wrapping
     strings containing paragraphs of text.  The ‘wrap(text, width)’
     function takes a string and returns a list containing the text
     split into lines of no more than the chosen width.  The ‘fill(text,
     width)’ function returns a single string, reformatted to fit into
     lines no longer than the chosen width.  (As you can guess, *note
     fill(): 1339. is built on top of *note wrap(): 133a.  For example:

          >>> import textwrap
          >>> paragraph = "Not a whit, we defy augury: ... more text ..."
          >>> textwrap.wrap(paragraph, 60)
          ["Not a whit, we defy augury: there's a special providence in",
           "the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it",
           ...]
          >>> print textwrap.fill(paragraph, 35)
          Not a whit, we defy augury: there's
          a special providence in the fall of
          a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not
          to come; if it be not to come, it
          will be now; if it be not now, yet
          it will come: the readiness is all.
          >>>

     The module also contains a *note TextWrapper: e5f. class that
     actually implements the text wrapping strategy.  Both the *note
     TextWrapper: e5f. class and the *note wrap(): 133a. and *note
     fill(): 1339. functions support a number of additional keyword
     arguments for fine-tuning the formatting; consult the module's
     documentation for details.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The ‘thread’ and *note threading: e7. modules now have companion
     modules, ‘dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’, that provide a
     do-nothing implementation of the ‘thread’ module's interface for
     platforms where threads are not supported.  The intention is to
     simplify thread-aware modules (ones that 'don't' rely on threads to
     run) by putting the following code at the top:

          try:
              import threading as _threading
          except ImportError:
              import dummy_threading as _threading

     In this example, ‘_threading’ is used as the module name to make it
     clear that the module being used is not necessarily the actual
     *note threading: e7. module.  Code can call functions and use
     classes in ‘_threading’ whether or not threads are supported,
     avoiding an *note if: 266. statement and making the code slightly
     clearer.  This module will not magically make multithreaded code
     run without threads; code that waits for another thread to return
     or to do something will simply hang forever.

   * The *note time: e8. module's *note strptime(): 129d. function has
     long been an annoyance because it uses the platform C library's
     *note strptime(): 129d. implementation, and different platforms
     sometimes have odd bugs.  Brett Cannon contributed a portable
     implementation that's written in pure Python and should behave
     identically on all platforms.

   * The new *note timeit: e9. module helps measure how long snippets of
     Python code take to execute.  The ‘timeit.py’ file can be run
     directly from the command line, or the module's *note Timer: 133b.
     class can be imported and used directly.  Here's a short example
     that figures out whether it's faster to convert an 8-bit string to
     Unicode by appending an empty Unicode string to it or by using the
     ‘unicode()’ function:

          import timeit

          timer1 = timeit.Timer('unicode("abc")')
          timer2 = timeit.Timer('"abc" + u""')

          # Run three trials
          print timer1.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)
          print timer2.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)

          # On my laptop this outputs:
          # [0.36831796169281006, 0.37441694736480713, 0.35304892063140869]
          # [0.17574405670166016, 0.18193507194519043, 0.17565798759460449]

   * The ‘Tix’ module has received various bug fixes and updates for the
     current version of the Tix package.

   * The ‘Tkinter’ module now works with a thread-enabled version of
     Tcl.  Tcl's threading model requires that widgets only be accessed
     from the thread in which they're created; accesses from another
     thread can cause Tcl to panic.  For certain Tcl interfaces,
     ‘Tkinter’ will now automatically avoid this when a widget is
     accessed from a different thread by marshalling a command, passing
     it to the correct thread, and waiting for the results.  Other
     interfaces can't be handled automatically but ‘Tkinter’ will now
     raise an exception on such an access so that you can at least find
     out about the problem.  See
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-December/031107.html’
     for a more detailed explanation of this change.  (Implemented by
     Martin von Löwis.)

   * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only
     strings.  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are
     converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped
     with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists.
     This behavior can be controlled through the ‘wantobjects()’ method
     of ‘tkapp’ objects.

     When using ‘_tkinter’ through the ‘Tkinter’ module (as most Tkinter
     applications will), this feature is always activated.  It should
     not cause compatibility problems, since Tkinter would always
     convert string results to Python types where possible.

     If any incompatibilities are found, the old behavior can be
     restored by setting the ‘wantobjects’ variable in the ‘Tkinter’
     module to false before creating the first ‘tkapp’ object.

          import Tkinter
          Tkinter.wantobjects = 0

     Any breakage caused by this change should be reported as a bug.

   * The ‘UserDict’ module has a new ‘DictMixin’ class which defines all
     dictionary methods for classes that already have a minimum mapping
     interface.  This greatly simplifies writing classes that need to be
     substitutable for dictionaries, such as the classes in the *note
     shelve: be. module.

     Adding the mix-in as a superclass provides the full dictionary
     interface whenever the class defines *note __getitem__(): 4e7,
     *note __setitem__(): 133c, *note __delitem__(): 133d, and ‘keys()’.
     For example:

          >>> import UserDict
          >>> class SeqDict(UserDict.DictMixin):
          ...     """Dictionary lookalike implemented with lists."""
          ...     def __init__(self):
          ...         self.keylist = []
          ...         self.valuelist = []
          ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             raise KeyError
          ...         return self.valuelist[i]
          ...     def __setitem__(self, key, value):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...             self.valuelist[i] = value
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             self.keylist.append(key)
          ...             self.valuelist.append(value)
          ...     def __delitem__(self, key):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             raise KeyError
          ...         self.keylist.pop(i)
          ...         self.valuelist.pop(i)
          ...     def keys(self):
          ...         return list(self.keylist)
          ...
          >>> s = SeqDict()
          >>> dir(s)      # See that other dictionary methods are implemented
          ['__cmp__', '__contains__', '__delitem__', '__doc__', '__getitem__',
           '__init__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__module__', '__repr__',
           '__setitem__', 'clear', 'get', 'has_key', 'items', 'iteritems',
           'iterkeys', 'itervalues', 'keylist', 'keys', 'pop', 'popitem',
           'setdefault', 'update', 'valuelist', 'values']

     （由 Raymond Hettinger 所貢獻。）

   * The DOM implementation in *note xml.dom.minidom: 11d. can now
     generate XML output in a particular encoding by providing an
     optional encoding argument to the *note toxml(): 133e. and *note
     toprettyxml(): 133f. methods of DOM nodes.

   * The ‘xmlrpclib’ module now supports an XML-RPC extension for
     handling nil data values such as Python's ‘None’.  Nil values are
     always supported on unmarshalling an XML-RPC response.  To generate
     requests containing ‘None’, you must supply a true value for the
     'allow_none' parameter when creating a ‘Marshaller’ instance.

   * The new ‘DocXMLRPCServer’ module allows writing self-documenting
     XML-RPC servers.  Run it in demo mode (as a program) to see it in
     action.  Pointing the web browser to the RPC server produces
     pydoc-style documentation; pointing xmlrpclib to the server allows
     invoking the actual methods.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

   * Support for internationalized domain names (RFCs 3454, 3490, 3491,
     and 3492) has been added.  The "idna" encoding can be used to
     convert between a Unicode domain name and the ASCII-compatible
     encoding (ACE) of that name.

          >{}>{}> u"www.Alliancefrançaise.nu".encode("idna")
          'www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu'

     The *note socket: c6. module has also been extended to
     transparently convert Unicode hostnames to the ACE version before
     passing them to the C library.  Modules that deal with hostnames
     such as ‘httplib’ and *note ftplib: 59.) also support Unicode host
     names; ‘httplib’ also sends HTTP ‘Host’ headers using the ACE
     version of the domain name.  *note urllib: 103. supports Unicode
     URLs with non-ASCII host names as long as the ‘path’ part of the
     URL is ASCII only.

     To implement this change, the *note stringprep: ce. module, the
     ‘mkstringprep’ tool and the ‘punycode’ encoding have been added.

* Menu:

* Date/Time Type::
* The optparse Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pybsddb.sourceforge.net


File: python.info,  Node: Date/Time Type,  Next: The optparse Module,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>

1.18.17.1 Date/Time Type
........................

Date and time types suitable for expressing timestamps were added as the
*note datetime: 2e. module.  The types don't support different calendars
or many fancy features, and just stick to the basics of representing
time.

The three primary types are: *note date: 72f, representing a day, month,
and year; *note time: 6c5, consisting of hour, minute, and second; and
*note datetime: 224, which contains all the attributes of both *note
date: 72f. and *note time: 6c5.  There's also a *note timedelta: 813.
class representing differences between two points in time, and time zone
logic is implemented by classes inheriting from the abstract *note
tzinfo: 3d1. class.

You can create instances of *note date: 72f. and *note time: 6c5. by
either supplying keyword arguments to the appropriate constructor, e.g.
‘datetime.date(year=1972, month=10, day=15)’, or by using one of a
number of class methods.  For example, the *note today(): 1341. class
method returns the current local date.

Once created, instances of the date/time classes are all immutable.
There are a number of methods for producing formatted strings from
objects:

     >>> import datetime
     >>> now = datetime.datetime.now()
     >>> now.isoformat()
     '2002-12-30T21:27:03.994956'
     >>> now.ctime()  # Only available on date, datetime
     'Mon Dec 30 21:27:03 2002'
     >>> now.strftime('%Y %d %b')
     '2002 30 Dec'

The *note replace(): 1342. method allows modifying one or more fields of
a *note date: 72f. or *note datetime: 224. instance, returning a new
instance:

     >>> d = datetime.datetime.now()
     >>> d
     datetime.datetime(2002, 12, 30, 22, 15, 38, 827738)
     >>> d.replace(year=2001, hour = 12)
     datetime.datetime(2001, 12, 30, 12, 15, 38, 827738)
     >>>

Instances can be compared, hashed, and converted to strings (the result
is the same as that of *note isoformat(): 988.).  *note date: 72f. and
*note datetime: 224. instances can be subtracted from each other, and
added to *note timedelta: 813. instances.  The largest missing feature
is that there's no standard library support for parsing strings and
getting back a *note date: 72f. or *note datetime: 224.

For more information, refer to the module's reference documentation.
(Contributed by Tim Peters.)


File: python.info,  Node: The optparse Module,  Prev: Date/Time Type,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>

1.18.17.2 The optparse Module
.............................

The *note getopt: 5c. module provides simple parsing of command-line
arguments.  The new *note optparse: 9b. module (originally named Optik)
provides more elaborate command-line parsing that follows the Unix
conventions, automatically creates the output for ‘--help’, and can
perform different actions for different options.

You start by creating an instance of *note OptionParser: 1344. and
telling it what your program's options are.

     import sys
     from optparse import OptionParser

     op = OptionParser()
     op.add_option('-i', '--input',
                   action='store', type='string', dest='input',
                   help='set input filename')
     op.add_option('-l', '--length',
                   action='store', type='int', dest='length',
                   help='set maximum length of output')

Parsing a command line is then done by calling the *note parse_args():
1345. method.

     options, args = op.parse_args(sys.argv[1:])
     print options
     print args

This returns an object containing all of the option values, and a list
of strings containing the remaining arguments.

Invoking the script with the various arguments now works as you'd expect
it to.  Note that the length argument is automatically converted to an
integer.

     $ ./python opt.py -i data arg1
     <Values at 0x400cad4c: {'input': 'data', 'length': None}>
     ['arg1']
     $ ./python opt.py --input=data --length=4
     <Values at 0x400cad2c: {'input': 'data', 'length': 4}>
     []
     $

The help message is automatically generated for you:

     $ ./python opt.py --help
     usage: opt.py [options]

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -iINPUT, --input=INPUT
                             set input filename
       -lLENGTH, --length=LENGTH
                             set maximum length of output
     $

更多細節請見 module 文件。

Optik was written by Greg Ward, with suggestions from the readers of the
Getopt SIG.


File: python.info,  Node: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Next: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.18 Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
------------------------------------------------

Pymalloc, a specialized object allocator written by Vladimir Marangozov,
was a feature added to Python 2.1.  Pymalloc is intended to be faster
than the system ‘malloc()’ and to have less memory overhead for
allocation patterns typical of Python programs.  The allocator uses C's
‘malloc()’ function to get large pools of memory and then fulfills
smaller memory requests from these pools.

In 2.1 and 2.2, pymalloc was an experimental feature and wasn't enabled
by default; you had to explicitly enable it when compiling Python by
providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’ option to the ‘configure’ script.  In
2.3, pymalloc has had further enhancements and is now enabled by
default; you'll have to supply ‘--without-pymalloc’ to disable it.

This change is transparent to code written in Python; however, pymalloc
may expose bugs in C extensions.  Authors of C extension modules should
test their code with pymalloc enabled, because some incorrect code may
cause core dumps at runtime.

There's one particularly common error that causes problems.  There are a
number of memory allocation functions in Python's C API that have
previously just been aliases for the C library's ‘malloc()’ and
‘free()’, meaning that if you accidentally called mismatched functions
the error wouldn't be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled,
these functions aren't aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more, and
calling the wrong function to free memory may get you a core dump.  For
example, if memory was allocated using *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0, it
has to be freed using *note PyObject_Free(): acd, not ‘free()’.  A few
modules included with Python fell afoul of this and had to be fixed;
doubtless there are more third-party modules that will have the same
problem.

As part of this change, the confusing multiple interfaces for allocating
memory have been consolidated down into two API families.  Memory
allocated with one family must not be manipulated with functions from
the other family.  There is one family for allocating chunks of memory
and another family of functions specifically for allocating Python
objects.

   * To allocate and free an undistinguished chunk of memory use the
     "raw memory" family: *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace, *note
     PyMem_Realloc(): ec8, and *note PyMem_Free(): 12b5.

   * The "object memory" family is the interface to the pymalloc
     facility described above and is biased towards a large number of
     "small" allocations: *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0, *note
     PyObject_Realloc(): 12b6, and *note PyObject_Free(): acd.

   * To allocate and free Python objects, use the "object" family *note
     PyObject_New: 7c9, *note PyObject_NewVar: 7ca, and *note
     PyObject_Del(): 1348.

Thanks to lots of work by Tim Peters, pymalloc in 2.3 also provides
debugging features to catch memory overwrites and doubled frees in both
extension modules and in the interpreter itself.  To enable this
support, compile a debugging version of the Python interpreter by
running ‘configure’ with ‘--with-pydebug’.

To aid extension writers, a header file ‘Misc/pymemcompat.h’ is
distributed with the source to Python 2.3 that allows Python extensions
to use the 2.3 interfaces to memory allocation while compiling against
any version of Python since 1.5.2.  You would copy the file from
Python's source distribution and bundle it with the source of your
extension.

也參考
......

‘https://hg.python.org/cpython/file/default/Objects/obmalloc.c’

     For the full details of the pymalloc implementation, see the
     comments at the top of the file ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ in the Python
     source code.  The above link points to the file within the
     python.org SVN browser.


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Prev: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.19 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * The cycle detection implementation used by the garbage collection
     has proven to be stable, so it's now been made mandatory.  You can
     no longer compile Python without it, and the ‘--with-cycle-gc’
     switch to ‘configure’ has been removed.

   * Python can now optionally be built as a shared library
     (‘libpython2.3.so’) by supplying ‘--enable-shared’ when running
     Python's ‘configure’ script.  (Contributed by Ondrej Palkovsky.)

   * The ‘DL_EXPORT’ and ‘DL_IMPORT’ macros are now deprecated.
     Initialization functions for Python extension modules should now be
     declared using the new macro *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 134a, while the
     Python core will generally use the ‘PyAPI_FUNC’ and ‘PyAPI_DATA’
     macros.

   * The interpreter can be compiled without any docstrings for the
     built-in functions and modules by supplying ‘--without-doc-strings’
     to the ‘configure’ script.  This makes the Python executable about
     10% smaller, but will also mean that you can't get help for
     Python's built-ins.  (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)

   * The ‘PyArg_NoArgs()’ macro is now deprecated, and code that uses it
     should be changed.  For Python 2.2 and later, the method definition
     table can specify the *note METH_NOARGS: 134b. flag, signalling
     that there are no arguments, and the argument checking can then be
     removed.  If compatibility with pre-2.2 versions of Python is
     important, the code could use ‘PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "")’ instead,
     but this will be slower than using *note METH_NOARGS: 134b.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. accepts new format characters for
     various sizes of unsigned integers: ‘B’ for unsigned char, ‘H’ for
     unsigned short int, ‘I’ for unsigned int, and ‘K’ for unsigned long
     long.

   * A new function, ‘PyObject_DelItemString(mapping, char *key)’ was
     added as shorthand for ‘PyObject_DelItem(mapping,
     PyString_New(key))’.

   * File objects now manage their internal string buffer differently,
     increasing it exponentially when needed.  This results in the
     benchmark tests in ‘Lib/test/test_bufio.py’ speeding up
     considerably (from 57 seconds to 1.7 seconds, according to one
     measurement).

   * It's now possible to define class and static methods for a C
     extension type by setting either the *note METH_CLASS: 134c. or
     *note METH_STATIC: 134d. flags in a method's *note PyMethodDef:
     134e. structure.

   * Python now includes a copy of the Expat XML parser's source code,
     removing any dependence on a system version or local installation
     of Expat.

   * If you dynamically allocate type objects in your extension, you
     should be aware of a change in the rules relating to the *note
     __module__: af5. and *note __name__: 131e. attributes.  In summary,
     you will want to ensure the type's dictionary contains a
     ‘'__module__'’ key; making the module name the part of the type
     name leading up to the final period will no longer have the desired
     effect.  For more detail, read the API reference documentation or
     the source.

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes<3>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<11>

1.18.19.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

Support for a port to IBM's OS/2 using the EMX runtime environment was
merged into the main Python source tree.  EMX is a POSIX emulation layer
over the OS/2 system APIs.  The Python port for EMX tries to support all
the POSIX-like capability exposed by the EMX runtime, and mostly
succeeds; ‘fork()’ and *note fcntl(): 54. are restricted by the
limitations of the underlying emulation layer.  The standard OS/2 port,
which uses IBM's Visual Age compiler, also gained support for
case-sensitive import semantics as part of the integration of the EMX
port into CVS. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

On MacOS, most toolbox modules have been weaklinked to improve backward
compatibility.  This means that modules will no longer fail to load if a
single routine is missing on the current OS version.  Instead calling
the missing routine will raise an exception.  (Contributed by Jack
Jansen.)

The RPM spec files, found in the ‘Misc/RPM/’ directory in the Python
source distribution, were updated for 2.3.  (Contributed by Sean
Reifschneider.)

Other new platforms now supported by Python include AtheOS
(‘http://www.atheos.cx/’), GNU/Hurd, and OpenVMS.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 3,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.20 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

As usual, there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes
scattered throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change
logs finds there were 523 patches applied and 514 bugs fixed between
Python 2.2 and 2.3.  Both figures are likely to be underestimates.

Some of the more notable changes are:

   * If the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 1351. environment variable is set, the
     Python interpreter will enter the interactive prompt after running
     a Python program, as if Python had been invoked with the *note -i:
     1352. option.  The environment variable can be set before running
     the Python interpreter, or it can be set by the Python program as
     part of its execution.

   * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now provides a way to allow "all resources
     except 'foo'."  A resource name passed to the ‘-u’ option can now
     be prefixed with a hyphen (‘'-'’) to mean "remove this resource."
     For example, the option '‘-uall,-bsddb’' could be used to enable
     the use of all resources except ‘bsddb’.

   * The tools used to build the documentation now work under Cygwin as
     well as Unix.

   * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode has been removed.  Back in the mists of
     time, this opcode was needed to produce line numbers in tracebacks
     and support trace functions (for, e.g., *note pdb: a0.).  Since
     Python 1.5, the line numbers in tracebacks have been computed using
     a different mechanism that works with "python -O". For Python 2.3
     Michael Hudson implemented a similar scheme to determine when to
     call the trace function, removing the need for ‘SET_LINENO’
     entirely.

     It would be difficult to detect any resulting difference from
     Python code, apart from a slight speed up when Python is run
     without *note -O: c2c.

     C extensions that access the *note f_lineno: 5c9. field of frame
     objects should instead call ‘PyCode_Addr2Line(f->f_code,
     f->f_lasti)’.  This will have the added effect of making the code
     work as desired under "python -O" in earlier versions of Python.

     A nifty new feature is that trace functions can now assign to the
     *note f_lineno: 5c9. attribute of frame objects, changing the line
     that will be executed next.  A ‘jump’ command has been added to the
     *note pdb: a0. debugger taking advantage of this new feature.
     (Implemented by Richie Hindle.)


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 3,  Next: 致謝<5>,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.21 Porting to Python 2.3
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * *note yield: 811. is now always a keyword; if it's used as a
     variable name in your code, a different name must be chosen.

   * For strings 'X' and 'Y', ‘X in Y’ now works if 'X' is more than one
     character long.

   * The *note int(): 17e. type constructor will now return a long
     integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: 6ad. when a
     string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an
     integer.

   * If you have Unicode strings that contain 8-bit characters, you must
     declare the file's encoding (UTF-8, Latin-1, or whatever) by adding
     a comment to the top of the file.  See section *note PEP 263;
     Source Code Encodings: 12f9. for more information.

   * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only
     strings.  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are
     converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped
     with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists.

   * Large octal and hex literals such as ‘0xffffffff’ now trigger a
     *note FutureWarning: 241.  Currently they're stored as 32-bit
     numbers and result in a negative value, but in Python 2.4 they'll
     become positive long integers.

     There are a few ways to fix this warning.  If you really need a
     positive number, just add an ‘L’ to the end of the literal.  If
     you're trying to get a 32-bit integer with low bits set and have
     previously used an expression such as ‘~(1 << 31)’, it's probably
     clearest to start with all bits set and clear the desired upper
     bits.  For example, to clear just the top bit (bit 31), you could
     write ‘0xffffffffL &~(1L<<31)’.

   * You can no longer disable assertions by assigning to ‘__debug__’.

   * The Distutils ‘setup()’ function has gained various new keyword
     arguments such as 'depends'.  Old versions of the Distutils will
     abort if passed unknown keywords.  A solution is to check for the
     presence of the new ‘get_distutil_options()’ function in your
     ‘setup.py’ and only uses the new keywords with a version of the
     Distutils that supports them:

          from distutils import core

          kw = {'sources': 'foo.c', ...}
          if hasattr(core, 'get_distutil_options'):
              kw['depends'] = ['foo.h']
          ext = Extension(**kw)

   * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 178. warning.

   * Names of extension types defined by the modules included with
     Python now contain the module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type
     name.


File: python.info,  Node: 致謝<5>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 3,  Up: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能

1.18.22 致謝
------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Jeff Bauer, Simon Brunning, Brett Cannon, Michael Chermside,
Andrew Dalke, Scott David Daniels, Fred L. Drake, Jr., David Fraser,
Kelly Gerber, Raymond Hettinger, Michael Hudson, Chris Lambert, Detlef
Lannert, Martin von Löwis, Andrew MacIntyre, Lalo Martins, Chad Netzer,
Gustavo Niemeyer, Neal Norwitz, Hans Nowak, Chris Reedy, Francesco
Ricciardi, Vinay Sajip, Neil Schemenauer, Roman Suzi, Jason Tishler,
Just van Rossum.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 2 3 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.19 Python 2.2 有什麼新功能
============================


作者: A.M. Kuchling

* Menu:

* 簡介::
* PEPs 252 and 253; Type and Class Changes: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes.
* PEP 234：疊代器::
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
* PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
* Unicode 變更::
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>.
* 直譯器的變更與修正::
* 其他改動與修正::
* 致謝: 致謝<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介,  Next: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.1 簡介
-----------

This article explains the new features in Python 2.2.2, released on
October 14, 2002.  Python 2.2.2 is a bugfix release of Python 2.2,
originally released on December 21, 2001.

Python 2.2 can be thought of as the "cleanup release".  There are some
features such as generators and iterators that are completely new, but
most of the changes, significant and far-reaching though they may be,
are aimed at cleaning up irregularities and dark corners of the language
design.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.2, such as
the Python Library Reference(1) and the Python Reference Manual(2).  If
you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale
for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/2.2/lib/lib.html

   (2) https://docs.python.org/2.2/ref/ref.html


File: python.info,  Node: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Next: PEP 234：疊代器,  Prev: 簡介,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.2 PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
-----------------------------------------------

The largest and most far-reaching changes in Python 2.2 are to Python's
model of objects and classes.  The changes should be backward
compatible, so it's likely that your code will continue to run
unchanged, but the changes provide some amazing new capabilities.
Before beginning this, the longest and most complicated section of this
article, I'll provide an overview of the changes and offer some
comments.

A long time ago I wrote a web page listing flaws in Python's design.
One of the most significant flaws was that it's impossible to subclass
Python types implemented in C. In particular, it's not possible to
subclass built-in types, so you can't just subclass, say, lists in order
to add a single useful method to them.  The ‘UserList’ module provides a
class that supports all of the methods of lists and that can be
subclassed further, but there's lots of C code that expects a regular
Python list and won't accept a *note UserList: 135a. instance.

Python 2.2 fixes this, and in the process adds some exciting new
capabilities.  A brief summary:

   * You can subclass built-in types such as lists and even integers,
     and your subclasses should work in every place that requires the
     original type.

   * It's now possible to define static and class methods, in addition
     to the instance methods available in previous versions of Python.

   * It's also possible to automatically call methods on accessing or
     setting an instance attribute by using a new mechanism called
     'properties'.  Many uses of *note __getattr__(): 1fa. can be
     rewritten to use properties instead, making the resulting code
     simpler and faster.  As a small side benefit, attributes can now
     have docstrings, too.

   * The list of legal attributes for an instance can be limited to a
     particular set using 'slots', making it possible to safeguard
     against typos and perhaps make more optimizations possible in
     future versions of Python.

Some users have voiced concern about all these changes.  Sure, they say,
the new features are neat and lend themselves to all sorts of tricks
that weren't possible in previous versions of Python, but they also make
the language more complicated.  Some people have said that they've
always recommended Python for its simplicity, and feel that its
simplicity is being lost.

Personally, I think there's no need to worry.  Many of the new features
are quite esoteric, and you can write a lot of Python code without ever
needed to be aware of them.  Writing a simple class is no more difficult
than it ever was, so you don't need to bother learning or teaching them
unless they're actually needed.  Some very complicated tasks that were
previously only possible from C will now be possible in pure Python, and
to my mind that's all for the better.

I'm not going to attempt to cover every single corner case and small
change that were required to make the new features work.  Instead this
section will paint only the broad strokes.  See section *note 相關連結:
135b, "Related Links", for further sources of information about Python
2.2's new object model.

* Menu:

* Old and New Classes::
* Descriptors::
* Multiple Inheritance; The Diamond Rule: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
* Attribute Access::
* 相關連結::


File: python.info,  Node: Old and New Classes,  Next: Descriptors,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.19.2.1 Old and New Classes
............................

First, you should know that Python 2.2 really has two kinds of classes:
classic or old-style classes, and new-style classes.  The old-style
class model is exactly the same as the class model in earlier versions
of Python.  All the new features described in this section apply only to
new-style classes.  This divergence isn't intended to last forever;
eventually old-style classes will be dropped, possibly in Python 3.0.

So how do you define a new-style class?  You do it by subclassing an
existing new-style class.  Most of Python's built-in types, such as
integers, lists, dictionaries, and even files, are new-style classes
now.  A new-style class named *note object: 8d9, the base class for all
built-in types, has also been added so if no built-in type is suitable,
you can just subclass *note object: 8d9.:

     class C(object):
         def __init__ (self):
             ...
         ...

This means that *note class: 1168. statements that don't have any base
classes are always classic classes in Python 2.2.  (Actually you can
also change this by setting a module-level variable named
‘__metaclass__’ -- see PEP 253(1) for the details -- but it's easier to
just subclass *note object: 8d9.)

The type objects for the built-in types are available as built-ins,
named using a clever trick.  Python has always had built-in functions
named *note int(): 17e, *note float(): 26a, and *note str(): 157.  In
2.2, they aren't functions any more, but type objects that behave as
factories when called.

     >>> int
     <type 'int'>
     >>> int('123')
     123

To make the set of types complete, new type objects such as *note
dict(): 239. and ‘file()’ have been added.  Here's a more interesting
example, adding a ‘lock()’ method to file objects:

     class LockableFile(file):
         def lock (self, operation, length=0, start=0, whence=0):
             import fcntl
             return fcntl.lockf(self.fileno(), operation,
                                length, start, whence)

The now-obsolete ‘posixfile’ module contained a class that emulated all
of a file object's methods and also added a ‘lock()’ method, but this
class couldn't be passed to internal functions that expected a built-in
file, something which is possible with our new ‘LockableFile’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptors,  Next: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Prev: Old and New Classes,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.19.2.2 Descriptors
....................

In previous versions of Python, there was no consistent way to discover
what attributes and methods were supported by an object.  There were
some informal conventions, such as defining ‘__members__’ and
‘__methods__’ attributes that were lists of names, but often the author
of an extension type or a class wouldn't bother to define them.  You
could fall back on inspecting the *note __dict__: 2e2. of an object, but
when class inheritance or an arbitrary ‘__getattr__()’ hook were in use
this could still be inaccurate.

The one big idea underlying the new class model is that an API for
describing the attributes of an object using 'descriptors' has been
formalized.  Descriptors specify the value of an attribute, stating
whether it's a method or a field.  With the descriptor API, static
methods and class methods become possible, as well as more exotic
constructs.

Attribute descriptors are objects that live inside class objects, and
have a few attributes of their own:

   * *note __name__: efc. 是屬性的名稱。

   * *note __doc__: 767. is the attribute's docstring.

   * ‘__get__(object)’ is a method that retrieves the attribute value
     from 'object'.

   * ‘__set__(object, value)’ sets the attribute on 'object' to 'value'.

   * ‘__delete__(object, value)’ deletes the 'value' attribute of
     'object'.

For example, when you write ‘obj.x’, the steps that Python actually
performs are:

     descriptor = obj.__class__.x
     descriptor.__get__(obj)

For methods, *note descriptor.__get__: 135e. returns a temporary object
that's callable, and wraps up the instance and the method to be called
on it.  This is also why static methods and class methods are now
possible; they have descriptors that wrap up just the method, or the
method and the class.  As a brief explanation of these new kinds of
methods, static methods aren't passed the instance, and therefore
resemble regular functions.  Class methods are passed the class of the
object, but not the object itself.  Static and class methods are defined
like this:

     class C(object):
         def f(arg1, arg2):
             ...
         f = staticmethod(f)

         def g(cls, arg1, arg2):
             ...
         g = classmethod(g)

The *note staticmethod(): 5f9. function takes the function ‘f()’, and
returns it wrapped up in a descriptor so it can be stored in the class
object.  You might expect there to be special syntax for creating such
methods (‘def static f’, ‘defstatic f()’, or something like that) but no
such syntax has been defined yet; that's been left for future versions
of Python.

More new features, such as slots and properties, are also implemented as
new kinds of descriptors, and it's not difficult to write a descriptor
class that does something novel.  For example, it would be possible to
write a descriptor class that made it possible to write Eiffel-style
preconditions and postconditions for a method.  A class that used this
feature might be defined like this:

     from eiffel import eiffelmethod

     class C(object):
         def f(self, arg1, arg2):
             # The actual function
             ...
         def pre_f(self):
             # Check preconditions
             ...
         def post_f(self):
             # Check postconditions
             ...

         f = eiffelmethod(f, pre_f, post_f)

Note that a person using the new ‘eiffelmethod()’ doesn't have to
understand anything about descriptors.  This is why I think the new
features don't increase the basic complexity of the language.  There
will be a few wizards who need to know about it in order to write
‘eiffelmethod()’ or the ZODB or whatever, but most users will just write
code on top of the resulting libraries and ignore the implementation
details.


File: python.info,  Node: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Next: Attribute Access,  Prev: Descriptors,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.19.2.3 Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule
...............................................

Multiple inheritance has also been made more useful through changing the
rules under which names are resolved.  Consider this set of classes
(diagram taken from PEP 253(1) by Guido van Rossum):

           class A:
             ^ ^  def save(self): ...
            /   \
           /     \
          /       \
         /         \
     class B     class C:
         ^         ^  def save(self): ...
          \       /
           \     /
            \   /
             \ /
           class D

The lookup rule for classic classes is simple but not very smart; the
base classes are searched depth-first, going from left to right.  A
reference to ‘D.save()’ will search the classes ‘D’, ‘B’, and then ‘A’,
where ‘save()’ would be found and returned.  ‘C.save()’ would never be
found at all.  This is bad, because if ‘C’'s ‘save()’ method is saving
some internal state specific to ‘C’, not calling it will result in that
state never getting saved.

New-style classes follow a different algorithm that's a bit more
complicated to explain, but does the right thing in this situation.
(Note that Python 2.3 changes this algorithm to one that produces the
same results in most cases, but produces more useful results for really
complicated inheritance graphs.)

  1. List all the base classes, following the classic lookup rule and
     include a class multiple times if it's visited repeatedly.  In the
     above example, the list of visited classes is [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘A’, ‘C’,
     ‘A’].

  2. Scan the list for duplicated classes.  If any are found, remove all
     but one occurrence, leaving the 'last' one in the list.  In the
     above example, the list becomes [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘A’] after dropping
     duplicates.

Following this rule, referring to ‘D.save()’ will return ‘C.save()’,
which is the behaviour we're after.  This lookup rule is the same as the
one followed by Common Lisp.  A new built-in function, *note super():
206, provides a way to get at a class's superclasses without having to
reimplement Python's algorithm.  The most commonly used form will be
‘super(class, obj)’, which returns a bound superclass object (not the
actual class object).  This form will be used in methods to call a
method in the superclass; for example, ‘D’'s ‘save()’ method would look
like this:

     class D (B,C):
         def save (self):
             # Call superclass .save()
             super(D, self).save()
             # Save D's private information here
             ...

*note super(): 206. can also return unbound superclass objects when
called as ‘super(class)’ or ‘super(class1, class2)’, but this probably
won't often be useful.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: Attribute Access,  Next: 相關連結,  Prev: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.19.2.4 Attribute Access
.........................

A fair number of sophisticated Python classes define hooks for attribute
access using *note __getattr__(): 1fa.; most commonly this is done for
convenience, to make code more readable by automatically mapping an
attribute access such as ‘obj.parent’ into a method call such as
‘obj.get_parent’.  Python 2.2 adds some new ways of controlling
attribute access.

First, ‘__getattr__(attr_name)’ is still supported by new-style classes,
and nothing about it has changed.  As before, it will be called when an
attempt is made to access ‘obj.foo’ and no attribute named ‘foo’ is
found in the instance's dictionary.

New-style classes also support a new method,
‘__getattribute__(attr_name)’.  The difference between the two methods
is that *note __getattribute__(): a33. is 'always' called whenever any
attribute is accessed, while the old *note __getattr__(): 1fa. is only
called if ‘foo’ isn't found in the instance's dictionary.

However, Python 2.2's support for 'properties' will often be a simpler
way to trap attribute references.  Writing a ‘__getattr__()’ method is
complicated because to avoid recursion you can't use regular attribute
accesses inside them, and instead have to mess around with the contents
of *note __dict__: 2e2.  *note __getattr__(): 1fa. methods also end up
being called by Python when it checks for other methods such as *note
__repr__(): 416. or ‘__coerce__()’, and so have to be written with this
in mind.  Finally, calling a function on every attribute access results
in a sizable performance loss.

*note property: 424. is a new built-in type that packages up three
functions that get, set, or delete an attribute, and a docstring.  For
example, if you want to define a ‘size’ attribute that's computed, but
also settable, you could write:

     class C(object):
         def get_size (self):
             result = ... computation ...
             return result
         def set_size (self, size):
             ... compute something based on the size
             and set internal state appropriately ...

         # Define a property.  The 'delete this attribute'
         # method is defined as None, so the attribute
         # can't be deleted.
         size = property(get_size, set_size,
                         None,
                         "Storage size of this instance")

That is certainly clearer and easier to write than a pair of
‘__getattr__()’/‘__setattr__()’ methods that check for the ‘size’
attribute and handle it specially while retrieving all other attributes
from the instance's *note __dict__: 2e2.  Accesses to ‘size’ are also
the only ones which have to perform the work of calling a function, so
references to other attributes run at their usual speed.

Finally, it's possible to constrain the list of attributes that can be
referenced on an object using the new *note __slots__: 1361. class
attribute.  Python objects are usually very dynamic; at any time it's
possible to define a new attribute on an instance by just doing
‘obj.new_attr=1’.  A new-style class can define a class attribute named
*note __slots__: 1361. to limit the legal attributes to a particular set
of names.  An example will make this clear:

     >>> class C(object):
     ...     __slots__ = ('template', 'name')
     ...
     >>> obj = C()
     >>> print obj.template
     None
     >>> obj.template = 'Test'
     >>> print obj.template
     Test
     >>> obj.newattr = None
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     AttributeError: 'C' object has no attribute 'newattr'

Note how you get an *note AttributeError: 3ca. on the attempt to assign
to an attribute not listed in *note __slots__: 1361.


File: python.info,  Node: 相關連結,  Prev: Attribute Access,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.19.2.5 相關連結
.................

This section has just been a quick overview of the new features, giving
enough of an explanation to start you programming, but many details have
been simplified or ignored.  Where should you go to get a more complete
picture?

The *note 描述器 (Descriptor) 指南: 1363. is a lengthy tutorial
introduction to the descriptor features, written by Guido van Rossum.
If my description has whetted your appetite, go read this tutorial next,
because it goes into much more detail about the new features while still
remaining quite easy to read.

Next, there are two relevant PEPs, PEP 252(1) and PEP 253(2).  PEP
252(3) is titled "Making Types Look More Like Classes", and covers the
descriptor API. PEP 253(4) is titled "Subtyping Built-in Types", and
describes the changes to type objects that make it possible to subtype
built-in objects.  PEP 253(5) is the more complicated PEP of the two,
and at a few points the necessary explanations of types and meta-types
may cause your head to explode.  Both PEPs were written and implemented
by Guido van Rossum, with substantial assistance from the rest of the
Zope Corp.  team.

Finally, there's the ultimate authority: the source code.  Most of the
machinery for the type handling is in ‘Objects/typeobject.c’, but you
should only resort to it after all other avenues have been exhausted,
including posting a question to python-list or python-dev.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 234：疊代器,  Next: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Prev: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.3 PEP 234：疊代器
----------------------

Another significant addition to 2.2 is an iteration interface at both
the C and Python levels.  Objects can define how they can be looped over
by callers.

In Python versions up to 2.1, the usual way to make ‘for item in obj’
work is to define a *note __getitem__(): 4e7. method that looks
something like this:

     def __getitem__(self, index):
         return <next item>

*note __getitem__(): 4e7. is more properly used to define an indexing
operation on an object so that you can write ‘obj[5]’ to retrieve the
sixth element.  It's a bit misleading when you're using this only to
support *note for: 265. loops.  Consider some file-like object that
wants to be looped over; the 'index' parameter is essentially
meaningless, as the class probably assumes that a series of *note
__getitem__(): 4e7. calls will be made with 'index' incrementing by one
each time.  In other words, the presence of the *note __getitem__():
4e7. method doesn't mean that using ‘file[5]’ to randomly access the
sixth element will work, though it really should.

In Python 2.2, iteration can be implemented separately, and *note
__getitem__(): 4e7. methods can be limited to classes that really do
support random access.  The basic idea of iterators is simple.  A new
built-in function, ‘iter(obj)’ or ‘iter(C, sentinel)’, is used to get an
iterator.  ‘iter(obj)’ returns an iterator for the object 'obj', while
‘iter(C, sentinel)’ returns an iterator that will invoke the callable
object 'C' until it returns 'sentinel' to signal that the iterator is
done.

Python classes can define an ‘__iter__()’ method, which should create
and return a new iterator for the object; if the object is its own
iterator, this method can just return ‘self’.  In particular, iterators
will usually be their own iterators.  Extension types implemented in C
can implement a *note tp_iter: 1365. function in order to return an
iterator, and extension types that want to behave as iterators can
define a *note tp_iternext: 1366. function.

So, after all this, what do iterators actually do?  They have one
required method, *note next(): 5f8, which takes no arguments and returns
the next value.  When there are no more values to be returned, calling
*note next(): 5f8. should raise the *note StopIteration: a5d. exception.

     >>> L = [1,2,3]
     >>> i = iter(L)
     >>> print i
     <iterator object at 0x8116870>
     >>> i.next()
     1
     >>> i.next()
     2
     >>> i.next()
     3
     >>> i.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     StopIteration
     >>>

In 2.2, Python's *note for: 265. statement no longer expects a sequence;
it expects something for which *note iter(): 5f7. will return an
iterator.  For backward compatibility and convenience, an iterator is
automatically constructed for sequences that don't implement
‘__iter__()’ or a *note tp_iter: 1365. slot, so ‘for i in [1,2,3]’ will
still work.  Wherever the Python interpreter loops over a sequence, it's
been changed to use the iterator protocol.  This means you can do things
like this:

     >>> L = [1,2,3]
     >>> i = iter(L)
     >>> a,b,c = i
     >>> a,b,c
     (1, 2, 3)

Iterator support has been added to some of Python's basic types.
Calling *note iter(): 5f7. on a dictionary will return an iterator which
loops over its keys:

     >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
     ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
     >>> for key in m: print key, m[key]
     ...
     Mar 3
     Feb 2
     Aug 8
     Sep 9
     May 5
     Jun 6
     Jul 7
     Jan 1
     Apr 4
     Nov 11
     Dec 12
     Oct 10

That's just the default behaviour.  If you want to iterate over keys,
values, or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the ‘iterkeys()’,
‘itervalues()’, or ‘iteritems()’ methods to get an appropriate iterator.
In a minor related change, the *note in: 267. operator now works on
dictionaries, so ‘key in dict’ is now equivalent to ‘dict.has_key(key)’.

Files also provide an iterator, which calls the *note readline(): b5.
method until there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can
now read each line of a file using code like this:

     for line in file:
         # do something for each line
         ...

Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there's no way to get
the previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it.  An
iterator object could provide such additional capabilities, but the
iterator protocol only requires a *note next(): 5f8. method.

也參考
......

PEP 234(1) - 疊代器

     由 Ka-Ping Yee 和 GvR 撰寫；由 Python Labs 團隊實作，主要為 GvR 和
     Tim Peters 所貢獻。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0234/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Prev: PEP 234：疊代器,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.4 PEP 255: Simple Generators
---------------------------------

Generators are another new feature, one that interacts with the
introduction of iterators.

You're doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.
When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local
variables are created.  When the function reaches a *note return: 812.
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is
returned to the caller.  A later call to the same function will get a
fresh new set of local variables.  But, what if the local variables
weren't thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could later
resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators provide;
they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here's the simplest example of a generator function:

     def generate_ints(N):
         for i in range(N):
             yield i

A new keyword, *note yield: 811, was introduced for generators.  Any
function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is
detected by Python's bytecode compiler which compiles the function
specially as a result.  Because a new keyword was introduced, generators
must be explicitly enabled in a module by including a ‘from __future__
import generators’ statement near the top of the module's source code.
In Python 2.3 this statement will become unnecessary.

When you call a generator function, it doesn't return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the *note yield: 811. statement, the generator
outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 812. statement.
The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on
reaching a ‘yield’ the generator's state of execution is suspended and
local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator's
‘next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after
the ‘yield’ statement.  (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement
isn't allowed inside the ‘try’ block of a *note try: 4ea...*note
finally: 80e. statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the
interaction between ‘yield’ and exceptions.)

Here's a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object at 0x8117f90>
     >>> gen.next()
     0
     >>> gen.next()
     1
     >>> gen.next()
     2
     >>> gen.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, the *note return: 812. statement can only
be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of
values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values.
‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a
generator function.  The end of the generator's results can also be
indicated by raising *note StopIteration: a5d. manually, or by just
letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): 5f8. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much
messier.  ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more
interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal
of a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x
             yield t.label
             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions
for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so
that no queen threatens another) and the Knight's Tour (a route that
takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting
any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages,
especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of
generators is central.  In Icon, every expression and function call
behaves like a generator.  One example from "An Overview of the Icon
Programming Language" at
‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what
this looks like:

     sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
     if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring
"or" is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the *note if: 266. statement, ‘i’ is first
assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails,
and Icon retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5,
so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the
screen.

Python doesn't go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a
central concept.  Generators are considered a new part of the core
Python language, but learning or using them isn't compulsory; if they
don't solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them.  One
novel feature of Python's interface as compared to Icon's is that a
generator's state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator)
that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data
structure.

也參考
......

PEP 255(2) - Simple Generators

     Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.
     Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other
     fixes from the Python Labs crew.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Next: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Prev: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.5 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
---------------------------------------------------

In recent versions, the distinction between regular integers, which are
32-bit values on most machines, and long integers, which can be of
arbitrary size, was becoming an annoyance.  For example, on platforms
that support files larger than ‘2**32’ bytes, the ‘tell()’ method of
file objects has to return a long integer.  However, there were various
bits of Python that expected plain integers and would raise an error if
a long integer was provided instead.  For example, in Python 1.5, only
regular integers could be used as a slice index, and ‘'abc'[1L:]’ would
raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception with the message 'slice index
must be int'.

Python 2.2 will shift values from short to long integers as required.
The 'L' suffix is no longer needed to indicate a long integer literal,
as now the compiler will choose the appropriate type.  (Using the 'L'
suffix will be discouraged in future 2.x versions of Python, triggering
a warning in Python 2.4, and probably dropped in Python 3.0.)  Many
operations that used to raise an *note OverflowError: 6ad. will now
return a long integer as their result.  For example:

     >>> 1234567890123
     1234567890123L
     >>> 2 ** 64
     18446744073709551616L

In most cases, integers and long integers will now be treated
identically.  You can still distinguish them with the *note type(): bbb.
built-in function, but that's rarely needed.

也參考
......

PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

     Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented mostly by
     Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Next: Unicode 變更,  Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.6 PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
----------------------------------------------

The most controversial change in Python 2.2 heralds the start of an
effort to fix an old design flaw that's been in Python from the
beginning.  Currently Python's division operator, ‘/’, behaves like C's
division operator when presented with two integer arguments: it returns
an integer result that's truncated down when there would be a fractional
part.  For example, ‘3/2’ is 1, not 1.5, and ‘(-1)/2’ is -1, not -0.5.
This means that the results of division can vary unexpectedly depending
on the type of the two operands and because Python is dynamically typed,
it can be difficult to determine the possible types of the operands.

(The controversy is over whether this is 'really' a design flaw, and
whether it's worth breaking existing code to fix this.  It's caused
endless discussions on python-dev, and in July 2001 erupted into a storm
of acidly sarcastic postings on ‘comp.lang.python’.  I won't argue for
either side here and will stick to describing what's implemented in 2.2.
Read PEP 238(1) for a summary of arguments and counter-arguments.)

Because this change might break code, it's being introduced very
gradually.  Python 2.2 begins the transition, but the switch won't be
complete until Python 3.0.

First, I'll borrow some terminology from PEP 238(2).  "True division" is
the division that most non-programmers are familiar with: 3/2 is 1.5,
1/4 is 0.25, and so forth.  "Floor division" is what Python's ‘/’
operator currently does when given integer operands; the result is the
floor of the value returned by true division.  "Classic division" is the
current mixed behaviour of ‘/’; it returns the result of floor division
when the operands are integers, and returns the result of true division
when one of the operands is a floating-point number.

Here are the changes 2.2 introduces:

   * A new operator, ‘//’, is the floor division operator.  (Yes, we
     know it looks like C++'s comment symbol.)  ‘//’ 'always' performs
     floor division no matter what the types of its operands are, so ‘1
     // 2’ is 0 and ‘1.0 // 2.0’ is also 0.0.

     ‘//’ is always available in Python 2.2; you don't need to enable it
     using a ‘__future__’ statement.

   * By including a ‘from __future__ import division’ in a module, the
     ‘/’ operator will be changed to return the result of true division,
     so ‘1/2’ is 0.5.  Without the ‘__future__’ statement, ‘/’ still
     means classic division.  The default meaning of ‘/’ will not change
     until Python 3.0.

   * Classes can define methods called *note __truediv__(): 136a. and
     *note __floordiv__(): 136b. to overload the two division operators.
     At the C level, there are also slots in the *note PyNumberMethods:
     128e. structure so extension types can define the two operators.

   * Python 2.2 supports some command-line arguments for testing whether
     code will work with the changed division semantics.  Running python
     with ‘-Q warn’ will cause a warning to be issued whenever division
     is applied to two integers.  You can use this to find code that's
     affected by the change and fix it.  By default, Python 2.2 will
     simply perform classic division without a warning; the warning will
     be turned on by default in Python 2.3.

也參考
......

PEP 238(3) - Changing the Division Operator

     Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Guido
     van Rossum..

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode 變更,  Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Prev: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.7 Unicode 變更
-------------------

Python's Unicode support has been enhanced a bit in 2.2.  Unicode
strings are usually stored as UCS-2, as 16-bit unsigned integers.
Python 2.2 can also be compiled to use UCS-4, 32-bit unsigned integers,
as its internal encoding by supplying ‘--enable-unicode=ucs4’ to the
configure script.  (It's also possible to specify ‘--disable-unicode’ to
completely disable Unicode support.)

When built to use UCS-4 (a "wide Python"), the interpreter can natively
handle Unicode characters from U+000000 to U+110000, so the range of
legal values for the ‘unichr()’ function is expanded accordingly.  Using
an interpreter compiled to use UCS-2 (a "narrow Python"), values greater
than 65535 will still cause ‘unichr()’ to raise a *note ValueError: 183.
exception.  This is all described in PEP 261(1), "Support for 'wide'
Unicode characters"; consult it for further details.

Another change is simpler to explain.  Since their introduction, Unicode
strings have supported an ‘encode()’ method to convert the string to a
selected encoding such as UTF-8 or Latin-1.  A symmetric
‘decode([*encoding*])’ method has been added to 8-bit strings (though
not to Unicode strings) in 2.2.  ‘decode()’ assumes that the string is
in the specified encoding and decodes it, returning whatever is returned
by the codec.

Using this new feature, codecs have been added for tasks not directly
related to Unicode.  For example, codecs have been added for
uu-encoding, MIME's base64 encoding, and compression with the *note
zlib: 12d. module:

     >>> s = """Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,
     ... and repetitive text.
     ... """
     >>> data = s.encode('zlib')
     >>> data
     'x\x9c\r\xc9\xc1\r\x80 \x10\x04\xc0?Ul...'
     >>> data.decode('zlib')
     'Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,\nand repetitive text.\n'
     >>> print s.encode('uu')
     begin 666 <data>
     M2&5R92!I<R!A(&QE;F=T:'D@<&EE8V4@;V8@<F5D=6YD86YT+"!O=F5R;'D@
     >=F5R8F]S92P*86YD(')E<&5T:71I=F4@=&5X="X*

     end
     >>> "sheesh".encode('rot-13')
     'furrfu'

To convert a class instance to Unicode, a ‘__unicode__()’ method can be
defined by a class, analogous to ‘__str__()’.

‘encode()’, ‘decode()’, and ‘__unicode__()’ were implemented by
Marc-André Lemburg.  The changes to support using UCS-4 internally were
implemented by Fredrik Lundh and Martin von Löwis.

也參考
......

PEP 261(2) - 支援 'wide' Unicode 字元

     由 Paul Prescod 撰寫。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Next: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Prev: Unicode 變更,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.8 PEP 227: Nested Scopes
-----------------------------

In Python 2.1, statically nested scopes were added as an optional
feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import nested_scopes’
directive.  In 2.2 nested scopes no longer need to be specially enabled,
and are now always present.  The rest of this section is a copy of the
description of nested scopes from my "What's New in Python 2.1"
document; if you read it when 2.1 came out, you can skip the rest of
this section.

The largest change introduced in Python 2.1, and made complete in 2.2,
is to Python's scoping rules.  In Python 2.0, at any given time there
are at most three namespaces used to look up variable names: local,
module-level, and the built-in namespace.  This often surprised people
because it didn't match their intuitive expectations.  For example, a
nested recursive function definition doesn't work:

     def f():
         ...
         def g(value):
             ...
             return g(value-1) + 1
         ...

The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 144. exception,
because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn't in either its local namespace
or in the module-level namespace.  This isn't much of a problem in
practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like
this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 1131. expression
clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.  In code which uses
‘lambda’ you can often find local variables being copied by passing them
as the default values of arguments.

     def find(self, name):
         "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
         L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
                    self.list_attribute)
         return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style
suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.2 is that static scoping has
been added to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the
‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.
Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a
function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 12ca, *note class: 1168,
or *note import: 3d5. statements), references to the variable will be
looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope.  A more
detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the
implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the
same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local
variable within a function that contains further function definitions.
This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been
pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and
‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that
‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but
the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the
implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source
into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a
containing scope.  ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible
for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local
namespace that are unknowable at compile time.  Therefore, if a function
contains function definitions or *note lambda: 1131. expressions with
free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note
SyntaxError: 146. exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here's an example:

     x = 1
     def f():
         # The next line is a syntax error
         exec 'x=2'
         def g():
             return x

Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’
would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be
accessed by ‘g()’.

This shouldn't be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in
most Python code (and when it is used, it's often a sign of a poor
design anyway).

也參考
......

PEP 227(1) - Statically Nested Scopes

     Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Next: 直譯器的變更與修正,  Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.9 New and Improved Modules
-------------------------------

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 128. module was contributed to the standard
     library by Fredrik Lundh, providing support for writing XML-RPC
     clients.  XML-RPC is a simple remote procedure call protocol built
     on top of HTTP and XML. For example, the following snippet
     retrieves a list of RSS channels from the O'Reilly Network, and
     then lists the recent headlines for one channel:

          import xmlrpclib
          s = xmlrpclib.Server(
                'http://www.oreillynet.com/meerkat/xml-rpc/server.php')
          channels = s.meerkat.getChannels()
          # channels is a list of dictionaries, like this:
          # [{'id': 4, 'title': 'Freshmeat Daily News'}
          #  {'id': 190, 'title': '32Bits Online'},
          #  {'id': 4549, 'title': '3DGamers'}, ... ]

          # Get the items for one channel
          items = s.meerkat.getItems( {'channel': 4} )

          # 'items' is another list of dictionaries, like this:
          # [{'link': 'http://freshmeat.net/releases/52719/',
          #   'description': 'A utility which converts HTML to XSL FO.',
          #   'title': 'html2fo 0.3 (Default)'}, ... ]

     The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 129. module makes it easy to create
     straightforward XML-RPC servers.  See
     ‘http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/’ for more information about XML-RPC.

   * The new *note hmac: 65. module implements the HMAC algorithm
     described by RFC 2104(1).  (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

   * Several functions that originally returned lengthy tuples now
     return pseudo-sequences that still behave like tuples but also have
     mnemonic attributes such as ‘memberst_mtime’ or *note tm_year:
     136f.  The enhanced functions include *note stat(): 1bf, *note
     fstat(): c03, *note statvfs(): f8a, and *note fstatvfs(): c04. in
     the *note os: 9c. module, and *note localtime(): 1370, *note
     gmtime(): 1051, and *note strptime(): 129d. in the *note time: e8.
     module.

     For example, to obtain a file's size using the old tuples, you'd
     end up writing something like ‘file_size =
     os.stat(filename)[stat.ST_SIZE]’, but now this can be written more
     clearly as ‘file_size = os.stat(filename).st_size’.

     The original patch for this feature was contributed by Nick
     Mathewson.

   * The Python profiler has been extensively reworked and various
     errors in its output have been corrected.  (Contributed by Fred L.
     Drake, Jr.  and Tim Peters.)

   * The *note socket: c6. module can be compiled to support IPv6;
     specify the ‘--enable-ipv6’ option to Python's configure script.
     (Contributed by Jun-ichiro "itojun" Hagino.)

   * Two new format characters were added to the *note struct: cf.
     module for 64-bit integers on platforms that support the C long
     long type.  ‘q’ is for a signed 64-bit integer, and ‘Q’ is for an
     unsigned one.  The value is returned in Python's long integer type.
     (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * In the interpreter's interactive mode, there's a new built-in
     function *note help(): 710. that uses the *note pydoc: b0. module
     introduced in Python 2.1 to provide interactive help.
     ‘help(object)’ displays any available help text about 'object'.
     *note help(): 710. with no argument puts you in an online help
     utility, where you can enter the names of functions, classes, or
     modules to read their help text.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum,
     using Ka-Ping Yee's *note pydoc: b0. module.)

   * Various bugfixes and performance improvements have been made to the
     SRE engine underlying the *note re: b4. module.  For example, the
     *note re.sub(): 201. and *note re.split(): 9ca. functions have been
     rewritten in C. Another contributed patch speeds up certain Unicode
     character ranges by a factor of two, and a new *note finditer():
     1371. method that returns an iterator over all the non-overlapping
     matches in a given string.  (SRE is maintained by Fredrik Lundh.
     The BIGCHARSET patch was contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note smtplib: c4. module now supports RFC 2487(2), "Secure
     SMTP over TLS", so it's now possible to encrypt the SMTP traffic
     between a Python program and the mail transport agent being handed
     a message.  *note smtplib: c4. also supports SMTP authentication.
     (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

   * The *note imaplib: 6f. module, maintained by Piers Lauder, has
     support for several new extensions: the NAMESPACE extension defined
     in RFC 2342(3), SORT, GETACL and SETACL. (Contributed by Anthony
     Baxter and Michel Pelletier.)

   * The ‘rfc822’ module's parsing of email addresses is now compliant
     with RFC 2822(4), an update to RFC 822(5).  (The module's name is
     'not' going to be changed to ‘rfc2822’.)  A new package, *note
     email: 37, has also been added for parsing and generating e-mail
     messages.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, and arising out of his
     work on Mailman.)

   * The *note difflib: 34. module now contains a new ‘Differ’ class for
     producing human-readable lists of changes (a "delta") between two
     sequences of lines of text.  There are also two generator
     functions, ‘ndiff()’ and ‘restore()’, which respectively return a
     delta from two sequences, or one of the original sequences from a
     delta.  (Grunt work contributed by David Goodger, from ndiff.py
     code by Tim Peters who then did the generatorization.)

   * New constants ‘ascii_letters’, ‘ascii_lowercase’, and
     ‘ascii_uppercase’ were added to the *note string: cd. module.
     There were several modules in the standard library that used
     ‘string.letters’ to mean the ranges A-Za-z, but that assumption is
     incorrect when locales are in use, because ‘string.letters’ varies
     depending on the set of legal characters defined by the current
     locale.  The buggy modules have all been fixed to use
     ‘ascii_letters’ instead.  (Reported by an unknown person; fixed by
     Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * The *note mimetypes: 8a. module now makes it easier to use
     alternative MIME-type databases by the addition of a *note
     MimeTypes: 1372. class, which takes a list of filenames to be
     parsed.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * A *note Timer: fec. class was added to the *note threading: e7.
     module that allows scheduling an activity to happen at some future
     time.  (Contributed by Itamar Shtull-Trauring.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2487.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: 直譯器的變更與修正,  Next: 其他改動與修正,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.10 直譯器的變更與修正
--------------------------

Some of the changes only affect people who deal with the Python
interpreter at the C level because they're writing Python extension
modules, embedding the interpreter, or just hacking on the interpreter
itself.  If you only write Python code, none of the changes described
here will affect you very much.

   * Profiling and tracing functions can now be implemented in C, which
     can operate at much higher speeds than Python-based functions and
     should reduce the overhead of profiling and tracing.  This will be
     of interest to authors of development environments for Python.  Two
     new C functions were added to Python's API, *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 1374. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 1375.  The
     existing *note sys.setprofile(): 1376. and *note sys.settrace():
     1377. functions still exist, and have simply been changed to use
     the new C-level interface.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * Another low-level API, primarily of interest to implementers of
     Python debuggers and development tools, was added.  *note
     PyInterpreterState_Head(): 1378. and *note
     PyInterpreterState_Next(): 1379. let a caller walk through all the
     existing interpreter objects; *note
     PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead(): 137a. and *note
     PyThreadState_Next(): 137b. allow looping over all the thread
     states for a given interpreter.  (Contributed by David Beazley.)

   * The C-level interface to the garbage collector has been changed to
     make it easier to write extension types that support garbage
     collection and to debug misuses of the functions.  Various
     functions have slightly different semantics, so a bunch of
     functions had to be renamed.  Extensions that use the old API will
     still compile but will 'not' participate in garbage collection, so
     updating them for 2.2 should be considered fairly high priority.

     To upgrade an extension module to the new API, perform the
     following steps:

   * 將 ‘Py_TPFLAGS_GC’ 重新命名為 *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593.。

   * 
     Use *note PyObject_GC_New(): 8f5. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): 8f6. to allocate

          objects, and *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 137c. to deallocate
          them.

   * Rename ‘PyObject_GC_Init()’ to *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 137d. and
     ‘PyObject_GC_Fini()’ to *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 137e.

   * Remove ‘PyGC_HEAD_SIZE’ from object size calculations.

   * Remove calls to ‘PyObject_AS_GC()’ and ‘PyObject_FROM_GC()’.

   * A new ‘et’ format sequence was added to *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
     2fe.; ‘et’ takes both a parameter and an encoding name, and
     converts the parameter to the given encoding if the parameter turns
     out to be a Unicode string, or leaves it alone if it's an 8-bit
     string, assuming it to already be in the desired encoding.  This
     differs from the ‘es’ format character, which assumes that 8-bit
     strings are in Python's default ASCII encoding and converts them to
     the specified new encoding.  (Contributed by M.-A. Lemburg, and
     used for the MBCS support on Windows described in the following
     section.)

   * A different argument parsing function, *note PyArg_UnpackTuple():
     137f, has been added that's simpler and presumably faster.  Instead
     of specifying a format string, the caller simply gives the minimum
     and maximum number of arguments expected, and a set of pointers to
     *note PyObject: 6d1.* variables that will be filled in with
     argument values.

   * Two new flags *note METH_NOARGS: 134b. and *note METH_O: 1380. are
     available in method definition tables to simplify implementation of
     methods with no arguments or a single untyped argument.  Calling
     such methods is more efficient than calling a corresponding method
     that uses *note METH_VARARGS: 1381.  Also, the old ‘METH_OLDARGS’
     style of writing C methods is now officially deprecated.

   * Two new wrapper functions, *note PyOS_snprintf(): 1382. and *note
     PyOS_vsnprintf(): 1383. were added to provide cross-platform
     implementations for the relatively new ‘snprintf()’ and
     ‘vsnprintf()’ C lib APIs.  In contrast to the standard ‘sprintf()’
     and ‘vsprintf()’ functions, the Python versions check the bounds of
     the buffer used to protect against buffer overruns.  (Contributed
     by M.-A. Lemburg.)

   * The *note _PyTuple_Resize(): 1384. function has lost an unused
     parameter, so now it takes 2 parameters instead of 3.  The third
     argument was never used, and can simply be discarded when porting
     code from earlier versions to Python 2.2.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他改動與修正,  Next: 致謝<6>,  Prev: 直譯器的變更與修正,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.11 其他改動與修正
----------------------

As usual there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered
throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change logs finds
there were 527 patches applied and 683 bugs fixed between Python 2.1 and
2.2; 2.2.1 applied 139 patches and fixed 143 bugs; 2.2.2 applied 106
patches and fixed 82 bugs.  These figures are likely to be
underestimates.

一些較顯著的變更為：

   * The code for the MacOS port for Python, maintained by Jack Jansen,
     is now kept in the main Python CVS tree, and many changes have been
     made to support MacOS X.

     The most significant change is the ability to build Python as a
     framework, enabled by supplying the ‘--enable-framework’ option to
     the configure script when compiling Python.  According to Jack
     Jansen, "This installs a self-contained Python installation plus
     the OS X framework "glue" into
     ‘/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’ (or another location of
     choice).  For now there is little immediate added benefit to this
     (actually, there is the disadvantage that you have to change your
     PATH to be able to find Python), but it is the basis for creating a
     full-blown Python application, porting the MacPython IDE, possibly
     using Python as a standard OSA scripting language and much more."

     Most of the MacPython toolbox modules, which interface to MacOS
     APIs such as windowing, QuickTime, scripting, etc.  have been
     ported to OS X, but they've been left commented out in ‘setup.py’.
     People who want to experiment with these modules can uncomment them
     manually.

   * Keyword arguments passed to built-in functions that don't take them
     now cause a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception to be raised, with the
     message "'function' takes no keyword arguments".

   * Weak references, added in Python 2.1 as an extension module, are
     now part of the core because they're used in the implementation of
     new-style classes.  The *note ReferenceError: 1386. exception has
     therefore moved from the *note weakref: 10f. module to become a
     built-in exception.

   * A new script, ‘Tools/scripts/cleanfuture.py’ by Tim Peters,
     automatically removes obsolete ‘__future__’ statements from Python
     source code.

   * An additional 'flags' argument has been added to the built-in
     function *note compile(): 554, so the behaviour of ‘__future__’
     statements can now be correctly observed in simulated shells, such
     as those presented by IDLE and other development environments.
     This is described in PEP 264(1).  (Contributed by Michael Hudson.)

   * The new license introduced with Python 1.6 wasn't GPL-compatible.
     This is fixed by some minor textual changes to the 2.2 license, so
     it's now legal to embed Python inside a GPLed program again.  Note
     that Python itself is not GPLed, but instead is under a license
     that's essentially equivalent to the BSD license, same as it always
     was.  The license changes were also applied to the Python 2.0.1 and
     2.1.1 releases.

   * When presented with a Unicode filename on Windows, Python will now
     convert it to an MBCS encoded string, as used by the Microsoft file
     APIs.  As MBCS is explicitly used by the file APIs, Python's choice
     of ASCII as the default encoding turns out to be an annoyance.  On
     Unix, the locale's character set is used if
     ‘locale.nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ is available.  (Windows support was
     contributed by Mark Hammond with assistance from Marc-André
     Lemburg.  Unix support was added by Martin von Löwis.)

   * Large file support is now enabled on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim
     Peters.)

   * The ‘Tools/scripts/ftpmirror.py’ script now parses a ‘.netrc’ file,
     if you have one.  (Contributed by Mike Romberg.)

   * Some features of the object returned by the ‘xrange()’ function are
     now deprecated, and trigger warnings when they're accessed; they'll
     disappear in Python 2.3.  ‘xrange’ objects tried to pretend they
     were full sequence types by supporting slicing, sequence
     multiplication, and the *note in: 267. operator, but these features
     were rarely used and therefore buggy.  The ‘tolist()’ method and
     the ‘start’, ‘stop’, and ‘step’ attributes are also being
     deprecated.  At the C level, the fourth argument to the
     ‘PyRange_New()’ function, ‘repeat’, has also been deprecated.

   * There were a bunch of patches to the dictionary implementation,
     mostly to fix potential core dumps if a dictionary contains objects
     that sneakily changed their hash value, or mutated the dictionary
     they were contained in.  For a while python-dev fell into a gentle
     rhythm of Michael Hudson finding a case that dumped core, Tim
     Peters fixing the bug, Michael finding another case, and round and
     round it went.

   * On Windows, Python can now be compiled with Borland C thanks to a
     number of patches contributed by Stephen Hansen, though the result
     isn't fully functional yet.  (But this 'is' progress...)

   * Another Windows enhancement: Wise Solutions generously offered
     PythonLabs use of their InstallerMaster 8.1 system.  Earlier
     PythonLabs Windows installers used Wise 5.0a, which was beginning
     to show its age.  (Packaged up by Tim Peters.)

   * Files ending in ‘.pyw’ can now be imported on Windows.  ‘.pyw’ is a
     Windows-only thing, used to indicate that a script needs to be run
     using PYTHONW.EXE instead of PYTHON.EXE in order to prevent a DOS
     console from popping up to display the output.  This patch makes it
     possible to import such scripts, in case they're also usable as
     modules.  (Implemented by David Bolen.)

   * On platforms where Python uses the C ‘dlopen()’ function to load
     extension modules, it's now possible to set the flags used by
     ‘dlopen()’ using the *note sys.getdlopenflags(): 1387. and *note
     sys.setdlopenflags(): fad. functions.  (Contributed by Bram Stolk.)

   * The *note pow(): 816. built-in function no longer supports 3
     arguments when floating-point numbers are supplied.  ‘pow(x, y, z)’
     returns ‘(x**y) % z’, but this is never useful for floating-point
     numbers, and the final result varies unpredictably depending on the
     platform.  A call such as ‘pow(2.0, 8.0, 7.0)’ will now raise a
     *note TypeError: 2ba. exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0264/


File: python.info,  Node: 致謝<6>,  Prev: 其他改動與修正,  Up: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能

1.19.12 致謝
------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Fred Bremmer, Keith Briggs, Andrew Dalke, Fred L. Drake, Jr.,
Carel Fellinger, David Goodger, Mark Hammond, Stephen Hansen, Michael
Hudson, Jack Jansen, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Fredrik
Lundh, Michael McLay, Nick Mathewson, Paul Moore, Gustavo Niemeyer, Don
O'Donnell, Joonas Paalasma, Tim Peters, Jens Quade, Tom Reinhardt, Neil
Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum, Greg Ward, Edward Welbourne.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能,  Next: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能,  Prev: Python 2 2 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.20 Python 2.1 有什麼新功能
============================


作者: A.M. Kuchling

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<2>.
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
* PEP 236; __future__ Directives: PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
* PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
* PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
* PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System.
* PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References.
* PEP 232; Function Attributes: PEP 232 Function Attributes.
* PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
* PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
* PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
* PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<3>.
* 致謝: 致謝<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<2>,  Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.1 簡介
-----------

This article explains the new features in Python 2.1.  While there
aren't as many changes in 2.1 as there were in Python 2.0, there are
still some pleasant surprises in store.  2.1 is the first release to be
steered through the use of Python Enhancement Proposals, or PEPs, so
most of the sizable changes have accompanying PEPs that provide more
complete documentation and a design rationale for the change.  This
article doesn't attempt to document the new features completely, but
simply provides an overview of the new features for Python programmers.
Refer to the Python 2.1 documentation, or to the specific PEP, for more
details about any new feature that particularly interests you.

One recent goal of the Python development team has been to accelerate
the pace of new releases, with a new release coming every 6 to 9 months.
2.1 is the first release to come out at this faster pace, with the first
alpha appearing in January, 3 months after the final version of 2.0 was
released.

The final release of Python 2.1 was made on April 17, 2001.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Next: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Prev: 簡介<2>,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.2 PEP 227: Nested Scopes
-----------------------------

The largest change in Python 2.1 is to Python's scoping rules.  In
Python 2.0, at any given time there are at most three namespaces used to
look up variable names: local, module-level, and the built-in namespace.
This often surprised people because it didn't match their intuitive
expectations.  For example, a nested recursive function definition
doesn't work:

     def f():
         ...
         def g(value):
             ...
             return g(value-1) + 1
         ...

The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 144. exception,
because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn't in either its local namespace
or in the module-level namespace.  This isn't much of a problem in
practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like
this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 1131. expression
clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.  In code which uses *note
lambda: 1131. you can often find local variables being copied by passing
them as the default values of arguments.

     def find(self, name):
         "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
         L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
                    self.list_attribute)
         return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style
suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.1 is that static scoping has
been added to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the
‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.
Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a
function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 12ca, *note class: 1168,
or *note import: 3d5. statements), references to the variable will be
looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope.  A more
detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the
implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the
same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local
variable within a function that contains further function definitions.
This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been
pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and
‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that
‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but
the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the
implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source
into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a
containing scope.  ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible
for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local
namespace that are unknowable at compile time.  Therefore, if a function
contains function definitions or *note lambda: 1131. expressions with
free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note
SyntaxError: 146. exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here's an example:

     x = 1
     def f():
         # The next line is a syntax error
         exec 'x=2'
         def g():
             return x

Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’
would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be
accessed by ‘g()’.

This shouldn't be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in
most Python code (and when it is used, it's often a sign of a poor
design anyway).

Compatibility concerns have led to nested scopes being introduced
gradually; in Python 2.1, they aren't enabled by default, but can be
turned on within a module by using a future statement as described in
PEP 236(1).  (See the following section for further discussion of PEP
236(2).)  In Python 2.2, nested scopes will become the default and there
will be no way to turn them off, but users will have had all of 2.1's
lifetime to fix any breakage resulting from their introduction.

也參考
......

PEP 227(3) - Statically Nested Scopes

     Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Next: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.3 PEP 236: __future__ Directives
-------------------------------------

The reaction to nested scopes was widespread concern about the dangers
of breaking code with the 2.1 release, and it was strong enough to make
the Pythoneers take a more conservative approach.  This approach
consists of introducing a convention for enabling optional functionality
in release N that will become compulsory in release N+1.

The syntax uses a ‘from...import’ statement using the reserved module
name *note __future__: 0.  Nested scopes can be enabled by the following
statement:

     from __future__ import nested_scopes

While it looks like a normal *note import: 3d5. statement, it's not;
there are strict rules on where such a future statement can be put.
They can only be at the top of a module, and must precede any Python
code or regular ‘import’ statements.  This is because such statements
can affect how the Python bytecode compiler parses code and generates
bytecode, so they must precede any statement that will result in
bytecodes being produced.

也參考
......

PEP 236(1) - Back to the *note __future__: 0.

     Written by Tim Peters, and primarily implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Next: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Prev: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.4 PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
--------------------------------

In earlier versions, Python's support for implementing comparisons on
user-defined classes and extension types was quite simple.  Classes
could implement a ‘__cmp__()’ method that was given two instances of a
class, and could only return 0 if they were equal or +1 or -1 if they
weren't; the method couldn't raise an exception or return anything other
than a Boolean value.  Users of Numeric Python often found this model
too weak and restrictive, because in the number-crunching programs that
numeric Python is used for, it would be more useful to be able to
perform elementwise comparisons of two matrices, returning a matrix
containing the results of a given comparison for each element.  If the
two matrices are of different sizes, then the compare has to be able to
raise an exception to signal the error.

In Python 2.1, rich comparisons were added in order to support this
need.  Python classes can now individually overload each of the ‘<’,
‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’, ‘==’, and ‘!=’ operations.  The new magic method names
are:

操作            方法名稱
                
---------------------------------------------
                
‘<’             *note __lt__(): 119c.
                
                
‘<=’            *note __le__(): 119d.
                
                
‘>’             *note __gt__(): 119e.
                
                
‘>=’            *note __ge__(): 119f.
                
                
‘==’            *note __eq__(): 94f.
                
                
‘!=’            *note __ne__(): 138f.
                

(The magic methods are named after the corresponding Fortran operators
‘.LT.’.  ‘.LE.’, &c.  Numeric programmers are almost certainly quite
familiar with these names and will find them easy to remember.)

Each of these magic methods is of the form ‘method(self, other)’, where
‘self’ will be the object on the left-hand side of the operator, while
‘other’ will be the object on the right-hand side.  For example, the
expression ‘A < B’ will cause ‘A.__lt__(B)’ to be called.

Each of these magic methods can return anything at all: a Boolean, a
matrix, a list, or any other Python object.  Alternatively they can
raise an exception if the comparison is impossible, inconsistent, or
otherwise meaningless.

The built-in ‘cmp(A,B)’ function can use the rich comparison machinery,
and now accepts an optional argument specifying which comparison
operation to use; this is given as one of the strings ‘"<"’, ‘"<="’,
‘">"’, ‘">="’, ‘"=="’, or ‘"!="’.  If called without the optional third
argument, ‘cmp()’ will only return -1, 0, or +1 as in previous versions
of Python; otherwise it will call the appropriate method and can return
any Python object.

There are also corresponding changes of interest to C programmers;
there's a new slot ‘tp_richcmp’ in type objects and an API for
performing a given rich comparison.  I won't cover the C API here, but
will refer you to PEP 207(1), or to 2.1's C API documentation, for the
full list of related functions.

也參考
......

PEP 207(2) - Rich Comparisons

     Written by Guido van Rossum, heavily based on earlier work by David
     Ascher, and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Next: PEP 229 New Build System,  Prev: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.5 PEP 230: Warning Framework
---------------------------------

Over its 10 years of existence, Python has accumulated a certain number
of obsolete modules and features along the way.  It's difficult to know
when a feature is safe to remove, since there's no way of knowing how
much code uses it -- perhaps no programs depend on the feature, or
perhaps many do.  To enable removing old features in a more structured
way, a warning framework was added.  When the Python developers want to
get rid of a feature, it will first trigger a warning in the next
version of Python.  The following Python version can then drop the
feature, and users will have had a full release cycle to remove uses of
the old feature.

Python 2.1 adds the warning framework to be used in this scheme.  It
adds a *note warnings: 10d. module that provide functions to issue
warnings, and to filter out warnings that you don't want to be
displayed.  Third-party modules can also use this framework to deprecate
old features that they no longer wish to support.

For example, in Python 2.1 the ‘regex’ module is deprecated, so
importing it causes a warning to be printed:

     >>> import regex
     __main__:1: DeprecationWarning: the regex module
              is deprecated; please use the re module
     >>>

Warnings can be issued by calling the *note warnings.warn(): 1391.
function:

     warnings.warn("feature X no longer supported")

The first parameter is the warning message; an additional optional
parameters can be used to specify a particular warning category.

Filters can be added to disable certain warnings; a regular expression
pattern can be applied to the message or to the module name in order to
suppress a warning.  For example, you may have a program that uses the
‘regex’ module and not want to spare the time to convert it to use the
*note re: b4. module right now.  The warning can be suppressed by
calling

     import warnings
     warnings.filterwarnings(action = 'ignore',
                             message='.*regex module is deprecated',
                             category=DeprecationWarning,
                             module = '__main__')

This adds a filter that will apply only to warnings of the class *note
DeprecationWarning: 179. triggered in the *note __main__: 1. module, and
applies a regular expression to only match the message about the ‘regex’
module being deprecated, and will cause such warnings to be ignored.
Warnings can also be printed only once, printed every time the offending
code is executed, or turned into exceptions that will cause the program
to stop (unless the exceptions are caught in the usual way, of course).

Functions were also added to Python's C API for issuing warnings; refer
to PEP 230 or to Python's API documentation for the details.

也參考
......

PEP 5(1) - Guidelines for Language Evolution

     Written by Paul Prescod, to specify procedures to be followed when
     removing old features from Python.  The policy described in this
     PEP hasn't been officially adopted, but the eventual policy
     probably won't be too different from Prescod's proposal.

PEP 230(2) - Warning Framework

     Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0230/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 229 New Build System,  Next: PEP 205 Weak References,  Prev: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.6 PEP 229: New Build System
--------------------------------

When compiling Python, the user had to go in and edit the
‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable various additional modules; the
default set is relatively small and limited to modules that compile on
most Unix platforms.  This means that on Unix platforms with many more
features, most notably Linux, Python installations often don't contain
all useful modules they could.

Python 2.0 added the Distutils, a set of modules for distributing and
installing extensions.  In Python 2.1, the Distutils are used to compile
much of the standard library of extension modules, autodetecting which
ones are supported on the current machine.  It's hoped that this will
make Python installations easier and more featureful.

Instead of having to edit the ‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable
modules, a ‘setup.py’ script in the top directory of the Python source
distribution is run at build time, and attempts to discover which
modules can be enabled by examining the modules and header files on the
system.  If a module is configured in ‘Modules/Setup’, the ‘setup.py’
script won't attempt to compile that module and will defer to the
‘Modules/Setup’ file's contents.  This provides a way to specific any
strange command-line flags or libraries that are required for a specific
platform.

In another far-reaching change to the build mechanism, Neil Schemenauer
restructured things so Python now uses a single makefile that isn't
recursive, instead of makefiles in the top directory and in each of the
‘Python/’, ‘Parser/’, ‘Objects/’, and ‘Modules/’ subdirectories.  This
makes building Python faster and also makes hacking the Makefiles
clearer and simpler.

也參考
......

PEP 229(1) - Using Distutils to Build Python

     Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0229/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 205 Weak References,  Next: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Prev: PEP 229 New Build System,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.7 PEP 205: Weak References
-------------------------------

Weak references, available through the *note weakref: 10f. module, are a
minor but useful new data type in the Python programmer's toolbox.

Storing a reference to an object (say, in a dictionary or a list) has
the side effect of keeping that object alive forever.  There are a few
specific cases where this behaviour is undesirable, object caches being
the most common one, and another being circular references in data
structures such as trees.

For example, consider a memoizing function that caches the results of
another function ‘f(x)’ by storing the function's argument and its
result in a dictionary:

     _cache = {}
     def memoize(x):
         if _cache.has_key(x):
             return _cache[x]

         retval = f(x)

         # Cache the returned object
         _cache[x] = retval

         return retval

This version works for simple things such as integers, but it has a side
effect; the ‘_cache’ dictionary holds a reference to the return values,
so they'll never be deallocated until the Python process exits and
cleans up.  This isn't very noticeable for integers, but if ‘f()’
returns an object, or a data structure that takes up a lot of memory,
this can be a problem.

Weak references provide a way to implement a cache that won't keep
objects alive beyond their time.  If an object is only accessible
through weak references, the object will be deallocated and the weak
references will now indicate that the object it referred to no longer
exists.  A weak reference to an object 'obj' is created by calling ‘wr =
weakref.ref(obj)’.  The object being referred to is returned by calling
the weak reference as if it were a function: ‘wr()’.  It will return the
referenced object, or ‘None’ if the object no longer exists.

This makes it possible to write a ‘memoize()’ function whose cache
doesn't keep objects alive, by storing weak references in the cache.

     _cache = {}
     def memoize(x):
         if _cache.has_key(x):
             obj = _cache[x]()
             # If weak reference object still exists,
             # return it
             if obj is not None: return obj

         retval = f(x)

         # Cache a weak reference
         _cache[x] = weakref.ref(retval)

         return retval

The *note weakref: 10f. module also allows creating proxy objects which
behave like weak references -- an object referenced only by proxy
objects is deallocated - but instead of requiring an explicit call to
retrieve the object, the proxy transparently forwards all operations to
the object as long as the object still exists.  If the object is
deallocated, attempting to use a proxy will cause a
‘weakref.ReferenceError’ exception to be raised.

     proxy = weakref.proxy(obj)
     proxy.attr   # Equivalent to obj.attr
     proxy.meth() # Equivalent to obj.meth()
     del obj
     proxy.attr   # raises weakref.ReferenceError

也參考
......

PEP 205(1) - Weak References

     Written and implemented by Fred L. Drake, Jr.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Next: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Prev: PEP 205 Weak References,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.8 PEP 232: Function Attributes
-----------------------------------

In Python 2.1, functions can now have arbitrary information attached to
them.  People were often using docstrings to hold information about
functions and methods, because the *note __doc__: 106a. attribute was
the only way of attaching any information to a function.  For example,
in the Zope web application server, functions are marked as safe for
public access by having a docstring, and in John Aycock's SPARK parsing
framework, docstrings hold parts of the BNF grammar to be parsed.  This
overloading is unfortunate, since docstrings are really intended to hold
a function's documentation; for example, it means you can't properly
document functions intended for private use in Zope.

Arbitrary attributes can now be set and retrieved on functions using the
regular Python syntax:

     def f(): pass

     f.publish = 1
     f.secure = 1
     f.grammar = "A ::= B (C D)*"

The dictionary containing attributes can be accessed as the function's
*note __dict__: 1163.  Unlike the *note __dict__: ac5. attribute of
class instances, in functions you can actually assign a new dictionary
to *note __dict__: 1163, though the new value is restricted to a regular
Python dictionary; you 'can't' be tricky and set it to a ‘UserDict’
instance, or any other random object that behaves like a mapping.

也參考
......

PEP 232(1) - Function Attributes

     Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0232/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Next: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Prev: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.9 PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
---------------------------------------------------------------

Some operating systems have filesystems that are case-insensitive, MacOS
and Windows being the primary examples; on these systems, it's
impossible to distinguish the filenames ‘FILE.PY’ and ‘file.py’, even
though they do store the file's name in its original case (they're
case-preserving, too).

In Python 2.1, the *note import: 3d5. statement will work to simulate
case-sensitivity on case-insensitive platforms.  Python will now search
for the first case-sensitive match by default, raising an *note
ImportError: 145. if no such file is found, so ‘import file’ will not
import a module named ‘FILE.PY’.  Case-insensitive matching can be
requested by setting the *note PYTHONCASEOK: 79d. environment variable
before starting the Python interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Next: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Prev: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.10 PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
-----------------------------------------

When using the Python interpreter interactively, the output of commands
is displayed using the built-in *note repr(): 61e. function.  In Python
2.1, the variable *note sys.displayhook(): 1397. can be set to a
callable object which will be called instead of *note repr(): 61e.  For
example, you can set it to a special pretty-printing function:

     >>> # Create a recursive data structure
     ... L = [1,2,3]
     >>> L.append(L)
     >>> L # Show Python's default output
     [1, 2, 3, [...]]
     >>> # Use pprint.pprint() as the display function
     ... import sys, pprint
     >>> sys.displayhook = pprint.pprint
     >>> L
     [1, 2, 3,  <Recursion on list with id=135143996>]
     >>>

也參考
......

PEP 217(1) - Display Hook for Interactive Use

     Written and implemented by Moshe Zadka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0217/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Next: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Prev: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.11 PEP 208: New Coercion Model
-----------------------------------

How numeric coercion is done at the C level was significantly modified.
This will only affect the authors of C extensions to Python, allowing
them more flexibility in writing extension types that support numeric
operations.

Extension types can now set the type flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_CHECKTYPES’ in
their ‘PyTypeObject’ structure to indicate that they support the new
coercion model.  In such extension types, the numeric slot functions can
no longer assume that they'll be passed two arguments of the same type;
instead they may be passed two arguments of differing types, and can
then perform their own internal coercion.  If the slot function is
passed a type it can't handle, it can indicate the failure by returning
a reference to the ‘Py_NotImplemented’ singleton value.  The numeric
functions of the other type will then be tried, and perhaps they can
handle the operation; if the other type also returns
‘Py_NotImplemented’, then a *note TypeError: 2ba. will be raised.
Numeric methods written in Python can also return ‘Py_NotImplemented’,
causing the interpreter to act as if the method did not exist (perhaps
raising a *note TypeError: 2ba, perhaps trying another object's numeric
methods).

也參考
......

PEP 208(1) - Reworking the Coercion Model

     Written and implemented by Neil Schemenauer, heavily based upon
     earlier work by Marc-André Lemburg.  Read this to understand the
     fine points of how numeric operations will now be processed at the
     C level.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0208/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Next: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Prev: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.12 PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
--------------------------------------------

A common complaint from Python users is that there's no single catalog
of all the Python modules in existence.  T. Middleton's Vaults of
Parnassus at ‘www.vex.net/parnassus/’ (retired in February 2009,
available in the Internet Archive Wayback Machine(1)) was the largest
catalog of Python modules, but registering software at the Vaults is
optional, and many people did not bother.

As a first small step toward fixing the problem, Python software
packaged using the Distutils ‘sdist’ command will include a file named
‘PKG-INFO’ containing information about the package such as its name,
version, and author (metadata, in cataloguing terminology).  PEP 241(2)
contains the full list of fields that can be present in the ‘PKG-INFO’
file.  As people began to package their software using Python 2.1, more
and more packages will include metadata, making it possible to build
automated cataloguing systems and experiment with them.  With the result
experience, perhaps it'll be possible to design a really good catalog
and then build support for it into Python 2.2.  For example, the
Distutils ‘sdist’ and ‘bdist_*’ commands could support an ‘upload’
option that would automatically upload your package to a catalog server.

You can start creating packages containing ‘PKG-INFO’ even if you're not
using Python 2.1, since a new release of the Distutils will be made for
users of earlier Python versions.  Version 1.0.2 of the Distutils
includes the changes described in PEP 241(3), as well as various
bugfixes and enhancements.  It will be available from the Distutils SIG
at ‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/distutils-sig/’.

也參考
......

PEP 241(4) - Metadata for Python Software Packages

     Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

PEP 243(5) - Module Repository Upload Mechanism

     Written by Sean Reifschneider, this draft PEP describes a proposed
     mechanism for uploading Python packages to a central server.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20090130140102/http://www.vex.net/parnassus/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0243/


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Prev: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.13 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

   * Ka-Ping Yee contributed two new modules: ‘inspect.py’, a module for
     getting information about live Python code, and ‘pydoc.py’, a
     module for interactively converting docstrings to HTML or text.  As
     a bonus, ‘Tools/scripts/pydoc’, which is now automatically
     installed, uses ‘pydoc.py’ to display documentation given a Python
     module, package, or class name.  For example, ‘pydoc xml.dom’
     displays the following:

          Python Library Documentation: package xml.dom in xml

          NAME
              xml.dom - W3C Document Object Model implementation for Python.

          FILE
              /usr/local/lib/python2.1/xml/dom/__init__.pyc

          DESCRIPTION
              The Python mapping of the Document Object Model is documented in the
              Python Library Reference in the section on the xml.dom package.

              This package contains the following modules:
                ...

     ‘pydoc’ also includes a Tk-based interactive help browser.  ‘pydoc’
     quickly becomes addictive; try it out!

   * Two different modules for unit testing were added to the standard
     library.  The *note doctest: 36. module, contributed by Tim Peters,
     provides a testing framework based on running embedded examples in
     docstrings and comparing the results against the expected output.
     PyUnit, contributed by Steve Purcell, is a unit testing framework
     inspired by JUnit, which was in turn an adaptation of Kent Beck's
     Smalltalk testing framework.  See ‘https://pyunit.sourceforge.net/’
     for more information about PyUnit.

   * The *note difflib: 34. module contains a class, *note
     SequenceMatcher: ead, which compares two sequences and computes the
     changes required to transform one sequence into the other.  For
     example, this module can be used to write a tool similar to the
     Unix ‘diff’ program, and in fact the sample program
     ‘Tools/scripts/ndiff.py’ demonstrates how to write such a script.

   * *note curses.panel: 2b, a wrapper for the panel library, part of
     ncurses and of SYSV curses, was contributed by Thomas Gellekum.
     The panel library provides windows with the additional feature of
     depth.  Windows can be moved higher or lower in the depth ordering,
     and the panel library figures out where panels overlap and which
     sections are visible.

   * The PyXML package has gone through a few releases since Python 2.0,
     and Python 2.1 includes an updated version of the *note xml: 11b.
     package.  Some of the noteworthy changes include support for Expat
     1.2 and later versions, the ability for Expat parsers to handle
     files in any encoding supported by Python, and various bugfixes for
     SAX, DOM, and the ‘minidom’ module.

   * Ping also contributed another hook for handling uncaught
     exceptions.  *note sys.excepthook(): 62d. can be set to a callable
     object.  When an exception isn't caught by any *note try:
     4ea...*note except: 3a8. blocks, the exception will be passed to
     *note sys.excepthook(): 62d, which can then do whatever it likes.
     At the Ninth Python Conference, Ping demonstrated an application
     for this hook: printing an extended traceback that not only lists
     the stack frames, but also lists the function arguments and the
     local variables for each frame.

   * Various functions in the *note time: e8. module, such as *note
     asctime(): 1078. and *note localtime(): 1370, require a
     floating-point argument containing the time in seconds since the
     epoch.  The most common use of these functions is to work with the
     current time, so the floating-point argument has been made
     optional; when a value isn't provided, the current time will be
     used.  For example, log file entries usually need a string
     containing the current time; in Python 2.1, ‘time.asctime()’ can be
     used, instead of the lengthier
     ‘time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time()))’ that was previously
     required.

     This change was proposed and implemented by Thomas Wouters.

   * The *note ftplib: 59. module now defaults to retrieving files in
     passive mode, because passive mode is more likely to work from
     behind a firewall.  This request came from the Debian bug tracking
     system, since other Debian packages use *note ftplib: 59. to
     retrieve files and then don't work from behind a firewall.  It's
     deemed unlikely that this will cause problems for anyone, because
     Netscape defaults to passive mode and few people complain, but if
     passive mode is unsuitable for your application or network setup,
     call ‘set_pasv(0)’ on FTP objects to disable passive mode.

   * Support for raw socket access has been added to the *note socket:
     c6. module, contributed by Grant Edwards.

   * The *note pstats: ab. module now contains a simple interactive
     statistics browser for displaying timing profiles for Python
     programs, invoked when the module is run as a script.  Contributed
     by Eric S. Raymond.

   * A new implementation-dependent function, ‘sys._getframe([depth])’,
     has been added to return a given frame object from the current call
     stack.  *note sys._getframe(): 4df. returns the frame at the top of
     the call stack; if the optional integer argument 'depth' is
     supplied, the function returns the frame that is 'depth' calls
     below the top of the stack.  For example, ‘sys._getframe(1)’
     returns the caller's frame object.

     This function is only present in CPython, not in Jython or the .NET
     implementation.  Use it for debugging, and resist the temptation to
     put it into production code.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Next: 致謝<7>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.14 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

There were relatively few smaller changes made in Python 2.1 due to the
shorter release cycle.  A search through the CVS change logs turns up
117 patches applied, and 136 bugs fixed; both figures are likely to be
underestimates.  Some of the more notable changes are:

   * A specialized object allocator is now optionally available, that
     should be faster than the system ‘malloc()’ and have less memory
     overhead.  The allocator uses C's ‘malloc()’ function to get large
     pools of memory, and then fulfills smaller memory requests from
     these pools.  It can be enabled by providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’
     option to the ‘configure’ script; see ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ for the
     implementation details.

     Authors of C extension modules should test their code with the
     object allocator enabled, because some incorrect code may break,
     causing core dumps at runtime.  There are a bunch of memory
     allocation functions in Python's C API that have previously been
     just aliases for the C library's ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, meaning
     that if you accidentally called mismatched functions, the error
     wouldn't be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled,
     these functions aren't aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more,
     and calling the wrong function to free memory will get you a core
     dump.  For example, if memory was allocated using *note PyMem_New:
     139c, it has to be freed using *note PyMem_Del(): 139d, not
     ‘free()’.  A few modules included with Python fell afoul of this
     and had to be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party modules
     that will have the same problem.

     The object allocator was contributed by Vladimir Marangozov.

   * The speed of line-oriented file I/O has been improved because
     people often complain about its lack of speed, and because it's
     often been used as a naïve benchmark.  The *note readline(): b5.
     method of file objects has therefore been rewritten to be much
     faster.  The exact amount of the speedup will vary from platform to
     platform depending on how slow the C library's ‘getc()’ was, but is
     around 66%, and potentially much faster on some particular
     operating systems.  Tim Peters did much of the benchmarking and
     coding for this change, motivated by a discussion in
     comp.lang.python.

     A new module and method for file objects was also added,
     contributed by Jeff Epler.  The new method, ‘xreadlines()’, is
     similar to the existing ‘xrange()’ built-in.  ‘xreadlines()’
     returns an opaque sequence object that only supports being iterated
     over, reading a line on every iteration but not reading the entire
     file into memory as the existing ‘readlines()’ method does.  You'd
     use it like this:

          for line in sys.stdin.xreadlines():
              # ... do something for each line ...
              ...

     For a fuller discussion of the line I/O changes, see the python-dev
     summary for January 1-15, 2001 at
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2001-January/’.

   * A new method, *note popitem(): 139e, was added to dictionaries to
     enable destructively iterating through the contents of a
     dictionary; this can be faster for large dictionaries because
     there's no need to construct a list containing all the keys or
     values.  ‘D.popitem()’ removes a random ‘(key, value)’ pair from
     the dictionary ‘D’ and returns it as a 2-tuple.  This was
     implemented mostly by Tim Peters and Guido van Rossum, after a
     suggestion and preliminary patch by Moshe Zadka.

   * Modules can now control which names are imported when ‘from module
     import *’ is used, by defining an ‘__all__’ attribute containing a
     list of names that will be imported.  One common complaint is that
     if the module imports other modules such as *note sys: d3. or *note
     string: cd, ‘from module import *’ will add them to the importing
     module's namespace.  To fix this, simply list the public names in
     ‘__all__’:

          # List public names
          __all__ = ['Database', 'open']

     A stricter version of this patch was first suggested and
     implemented by Ben Wolfson, but after some python-dev discussion, a
     weaker final version was checked in.

   * Applying *note repr(): 61e. to strings previously used octal
     escapes for non-printable characters; for example, a newline was
     ‘'\012'’.  This was a vestigial trace of Python's C ancestry, but
     today octal is of very little practical use.  Ka-Ping Yee suggested
     using hex escapes instead of octal ones, and using the ‘\n’, ‘\t’,
     ‘\r’ escapes for the appropriate characters, and implemented this
     new formatting.

   * Syntax errors detected at compile-time can now raise exceptions
     containing the filename and line number of the error, a pleasant
     side effect of the compiler reorganization done by Jeremy Hylton.

   * C extensions which import other modules have been changed to use
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 355, which means that they will use
     any import hooks that have been installed.  This is also encouraged
     for third-party extensions that need to import some other module
     from C code.

   * The size of the Unicode character database was shrunk by another
     340K thanks to Fredrik Lundh.

   * Some new ports were contributed: MacOS X (by Steven Majewski),
     Cygwin (by Jason Tishler); RISCOS (by Dietmar Schwertberger);
     Unixware 7 (by Billy G. Allie).

And there's the usual list of minor bugfixes, minor memory leaks,
docstring edits, and other tweaks, too lengthy to be worth itemizing;
see the CVS logs for the full details if you want them.


File: python.info,  Node: 致謝<7>,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Up: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能

1.20.15 致謝
------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions on various drafts of this article: Graeme Cross, David
Goodger, Jay Graves, Michael Hudson, Marc-André Lemburg, Fredrik Lundh,
Neil Schemenauer, Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能,  Next: Changelog（更動日誌）,  Prev: Python 2 1 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.21 Python 2.0 有什麼新功能
============================


作者: A.M. Kuchling 和 Moshe Zadka

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<3>.
* What About Python 1.6?: What About Python 1 6?.
* New Development Process::
* Unicode: Unicode<2>.
* 串列綜合運算（List Comprehension）::
* Augmented Assignment::
* String Methods::
* Garbage Collection of Cycles::
* Other Core Changes::
* Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0.
* Extending/Embedding Changes::
* Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install.
* XML 模組::
* 模組變更::
* 新增模組: 新增模組<5>.
* IDLE Improvements::
* Deleted and Deprecated Modules::
* 致謝: 致謝<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<3>,  Next: What About Python 1 6?,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.1 簡介
-----------

A new release of Python, version 2.0, was released on October 16, 2000.
This article covers the exciting new features in 2.0, highlights some
other useful changes, and points out a few incompatible changes that may
require rewriting code.

Python's development never completely stops between releases, and a
steady flow of bug fixes and improvements are always being submitted.  A
host of minor fixes, a few optimizations, additional docstrings, and
better error messages went into 2.0; to list them all would be
impossible, but they're certainly significant.  Consult the publicly
available CVS logs if you want to see the full list.  This progress is
due to the five developers working for PythonLabs are now getting paid
to spend their days fixing bugs, and also due to the improved
communication resulting from moving to SourceForge.


File: python.info,  Node: What About Python 1 6?,  Next: New Development Process,  Prev: 簡介<3>,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.2 What About Python 1.6?
-----------------------------

Python 1.6 can be thought of as the Contractual Obligations Python
release.  After the core development team left CNRI in May 2000, CNRI
requested that a 1.6 release be created, containing all the work on
Python that had been performed at CNRI. Python 1.6 therefore represents
the state of the CVS tree as of May 2000, with the most significant new
feature being Unicode support.  Development continued after May, of
course, so the 1.6 tree received a few fixes to ensure that it's
forward-compatible with Python 2.0.  1.6 is therefore part of Python's
evolution, and not a side branch.

So, should you take much interest in Python 1.6?  Probably not.  The
1.6final and 2.0beta1 releases were made on the same day (September 5,
2000), the plan being to finalize Python 2.0 within a month or so.  If
you have applications to maintain, there seems little point in breaking
things by moving to 1.6, fixing them, and then having another round of
breakage within a month by moving to 2.0; you're better off just going
straight to 2.0.  Most of the really interesting features described in
this document are only in 2.0, because a lot of work was done between
May and September.


File: python.info,  Node: New Development Process,  Next: Unicode<2>,  Prev: What About Python 1 6?,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.3 New Development Process
------------------------------

The most important change in Python 2.0 may not be to the code at all,
but to how Python is developed: in May 2000 the Python developers began
using the tools made available by SourceForge for storing source code,
tracking bug reports, and managing the queue of patch submissions.  To
report bugs or submit patches for Python 2.0, use the bug tracking and
patch manager tools available from Python's project page, located at
‘https://sourceforge.net/projects/python/’.

The most important of the services now hosted at SourceForge is the
Python CVS tree, the version-controlled repository containing the source
code for Python.  Previously, there were roughly 7 or so people who had
write access to the CVS tree, and all patches had to be inspected and
checked in by one of the people on this short list.  Obviously, this
wasn't very scalable.  By moving the CVS tree to SourceForge, it became
possible to grant write access to more people; as of September 2000
there were 27 people able to check in changes, a fourfold increase.
This makes possible large-scale changes that wouldn't be attempted if
they'd have to be filtered through the small group of core developers.
For example, one day Peter Schneider-Kamp took it into his head to drop
K&R C compatibility and convert the C source for Python to ANSI C. After
getting approval on the python-dev mailing list, he launched into a
flurry of checkins that lasted about a week, other developers joined in
to help, and the job was done.  If there were only 5 people with write
access, probably that task would have been viewed as "nice, but not
worth the time and effort needed" and it would never have gotten done.

The shift to using SourceForge's services has resulted in a remarkable
increase in the speed of development.  Patches now get submitted,
commented on, revised by people other than the original submitter, and
bounced back and forth between people until the patch is deemed worth
checking in.  Bugs are tracked in one central location and can be
assigned to a specific person for fixing, and we can count the number of
open bugs to measure progress.  This didn't come without a cost:
developers now have more e-mail to deal with, more mailing lists to
follow, and special tools had to be written for the new environment.
For example, SourceForge sends default patch and bug notification e-mail
messages that are completely unhelpful, so Ka-Ping Yee wrote an HTML
screen-scraper that sends more useful messages.

The ease of adding code caused a few initial growing pains, such as code
was checked in before it was ready or without getting clear agreement
from the developer group.  The approval process that has emerged is
somewhat similar to that used by the Apache group.  Developers can vote
+1, +0, -0, or -1 on a patch; +1 and -1 denote acceptance or rejection,
while +0 and -0 mean the developer is mostly indifferent to the change,
though with a slight positive or negative slant.  The most significant
change from the Apache model is that the voting is essentially advisory,
letting Guido van Rossum, who has Benevolent Dictator For Life status,
know what the general opinion is.  He can still ignore the result of a
vote, and approve or reject a change even if the community disagrees
with him.

Producing an actual patch is the last step in adding a new feature, and
is usually easy compared to the earlier task of coming up with a good
design.  Discussions of new features can often explode into lengthy
mailing list threads, making the discussion hard to follow, and no one
can read every posting to python-dev.  Therefore, a relatively formal
process has been set up to write Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs),
modelled on the internet RFC process.  PEPs are draft documents that
describe a proposed new feature, and are continually revised until the
community reaches a consensus, either accepting or rejecting the
proposal.  Quoting from the introduction to PEP 1(1), "PEP Purpose and
Guidelines":

     PEP stands for Python Enhancement Proposal.  A PEP is a design
     document providing information to the Python community, or
     describing a new feature for Python.  The PEP should provide a
     concise technical specification of the feature and a rationale for
     the feature.

     We intend PEPs to be the primary mechanisms for proposing new
     features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for
     documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python.  The
     PEP author is responsible for building consensus within the
     community and documenting dissenting opinions.

Read the rest of PEP 1(2) for the details of the PEP editorial process,
style, and format.  PEPs are kept in the Python CVS tree on SourceForge,
though they're not part of the Python 2.0 distribution, and are also
available in HTML form from ‘https://peps.python.org/’.  As of September
2000, there are 25 PEPs, ranging from PEP 201(3), "Lockstep Iteration",
to PEP 225, "Elementwise/Objectwise Operators".

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0201/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode<2>,  Next: 串列綜合運算（List Comprehension）,  Prev: New Development Process,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.4 Unicode
--------------

The largest new feature in Python 2.0 is a new fundamental data type:
Unicode strings.  Unicode uses 16-bit numbers to represent characters
instead of the 8-bit number used by ASCII, meaning that 65,536 distinct
characters can be supported.

The final interface for Unicode support was arrived at through countless
often-stormy discussions on the python-dev mailing list, and mostly
implemented by Marc-André Lemburg, based on a Unicode string type
implementation by Fredrik Lundh.  A detailed explanation of the
interface was written up as PEP 100(1), "Python Unicode Integration".
This article will simply cover the most significant points about the
Unicode interfaces.

In Python source code, Unicode strings are written as ‘u"string"’.
Arbitrary Unicode characters can be written using a new escape sequence,
‘\uHHHH’, where 'HHHH' is a 4-digit hexadecimal number from 0000 to
FFFF.  The existing ‘\xHH’ escape sequence can also be used, and octal
escapes can be used for characters up to U+01FF, which is represented by
‘\777’.

Unicode strings, just like regular strings, are an immutable sequence
type.  They can be indexed and sliced, but not modified in place.
Unicode strings have an ‘encode( [encoding] )’ method that returns an
8-bit string in the desired encoding.  Encodings are named by strings,
such as ‘'ascii'’, ‘'utf-8'’, ‘'iso-8859-1'’, or whatever.  A codec API
is defined for implementing and registering new encodings that are then
available throughout a Python program.  If an encoding isn't specified,
the default encoding is usually 7-bit ASCII, though it can be changed
for your Python installation by calling the
‘sys.setdefaultencoding(encoding)’ function in a customized version of
‘site.py’.

Combining 8-bit and Unicode strings always coerces to Unicode, using the
default ASCII encoding; the result of ‘'a' + u'bc'’ is ‘u'abc'’.

New built-in functions have been added, and existing built-ins modified
to support Unicode:

   * ‘unichr(ch)’ returns a Unicode string 1 character long, containing
     the character 'ch'.

   * ‘ord(u)’, where 'u' is a 1-character regular or Unicode string,
     returns the number of the character as an integer.

   * ‘unicode(string [, encoding] [, errors] )’ creates a Unicode string
     from an 8-bit string.  ‘encoding’ is a string naming the encoding
     to use.  The ‘errors’ parameter specifies the treatment of
     characters that are invalid for the current encoding; passing
     ‘'strict'’ as the value causes an exception to be raised on any
     encoding error, while ‘'ignore'’ causes errors to be silently
     ignored and ‘'replace'’ uses U+FFFD, the official replacement
     character, in case of any problems.

   * The ‘exec’ statement, and various built-ins such as ‘eval()’,
     ‘getattr()’, and ‘setattr()’ will also accept Unicode strings as
     well as regular strings.  (It's possible that the process of fixing
     this missed some built-ins; if you find a built-in function that
     accepts strings but doesn't accept Unicode strings at all, please
     report it as a bug.)

A new module, *note unicodedata: 100, provides an interface to Unicode
character properties.  For example, ‘unicodedata.category(u'A')’ returns
the 2-character string 'Lu', the 'L' denoting it's a letter, and 'u'
meaning that it's uppercase.  ‘unicodedata.bidirectional(u'\u0660')’
returns 'AN', meaning that U+0660 is an Arabic number.

The *note codecs: 19. module contains functions to look up existing
encodings and register new ones.  Unless you want to implement a new
encoding, you'll most often use the ‘codecs.lookup(encoding)’ function,
which returns a 4-element tuple: ‘(encode_func, decode_func,
stream_reader, stream_writer)’.

   * 'encode_func' is a function that takes a Unicode string, and
     returns a 2-tuple ‘(string, length)’.  'string' is an 8-bit string
     containing a portion (perhaps all) of the Unicode string converted
     into the given encoding, and 'length' tells you how much of the
     Unicode string was converted.

   * 'decode_func' is the opposite of 'encode_func', taking an 8-bit
     string and returning a 2-tuple ‘(ustring, length)’, consisting of
     the resulting Unicode string 'ustring' and the integer 'length'
     telling how much of the 8-bit string was consumed.

   * 'stream_reader' is a class that supports decoding input from a
     stream.  'stream_reader(file_obj)' returns an object that supports
     the ‘read()’, ‘readline()’, and ‘readlines()’ methods.  These
     methods will all translate from the given encoding and return
     Unicode strings.

   * 'stream_writer', similarly, is a class that supports encoding
     output to a stream.  'stream_writer(file_obj)' returns an object
     that supports the ‘write()’ and ‘writelines()’ methods.  These
     methods expect Unicode strings, translating them to the given
     encoding on output.

For example, the following code writes a Unicode string into a file,
encoding it as UTF-8:

     import codecs

     unistr = u'\u0660\u2000ab ...'

     (UTF8_encode, UTF8_decode,
      UTF8_streamreader, UTF8_streamwriter) = codecs.lookup('UTF-8')

     output = UTF8_streamwriter( open( '/tmp/output', 'wb') )
     output.write( unistr )
     output.close()

The following code would then read UTF-8 input from the file:

     input = UTF8_streamreader( open( '/tmp/output', 'rb') )
     print repr(input.read())
     input.close()

Unicode-aware regular expressions are available through the *note re:
b4. module, which has a new underlying implementation called SRE written
by Fredrik Lundh of Secret Labs AB.

A ‘-U’ command line option was added which causes the Python compiler to
interpret all string literals as Unicode string literals.  This is
intended to be used in testing and future-proofing your Python code,
since some future version of Python may drop support for 8-bit strings
and provide only Unicode strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0100/


File: python.info,  Node: 串列綜合運算（List Comprehension）,  Next: Augmented Assignment,  Prev: Unicode<2>,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.5 串列綜合運算（List Comprehension）
-----------------------------------------

Lists are a workhorse data type in Python, and many programs manipulate
a list at some point.  Two common operations on lists are to loop over
them, and either pick out the elements that meet a certain criterion, or
apply some function to each element.  For example, given a list of
strings, you might want to pull out all the strings containing a given
substring, or strip off trailing whitespace from each line.

The existing *note map(): 68f. and *note filter(): 690. functions can be
used for this purpose, but they require a function as one of their
arguments.  This is fine if there's an existing built-in function that
can be passed directly, but if there isn't, you have to create a little
function to do the required work, and Python's scoping rules make the
result ugly if the little function needs additional information.  Take
the first example in the previous paragraph, finding all the strings in
the list containing a given substring.  You could write the following to
do it:

     # Given the list L, make a list of all strings
     # containing the substring S.
     sublist = filter( lambda s, substring=S:
                          string.find(s, substring) != -1,
                       L)

Because of Python's scoping rules, a default argument is used so that
the anonymous function created by the *note lambda: 1131. expression
knows what substring is being searched for.  List comprehensions make
this cleaner:

     sublist = [ s for s in L if string.find(s, S) != -1 ]

List comprehensions have the form:

     [ expression for expr in sequence1
                  for expr2 in sequence2 ...
                  for exprN in sequenceN
                  if condition ]

The ‘for’...‘in’ clauses contain the sequences to be iterated over.  The
sequences do not have to be the same length, because they are 'not'
iterated over in parallel, but from left to right; this is explained
more clearly in the following paragraphs.  The elements of the generated
list will be the successive values of 'expression'.  The final ‘if’
clause is optional; if present, 'expression' is only evaluated and added
to the result if 'condition' is true.

To make the semantics very clear, a list comprehension is equivalent to
the following Python code:

     for expr1 in sequence1:
         for expr2 in sequence2:
         ...
             for exprN in sequenceN:
                  if (condition):
                       # Append the value of
                       # the expression to the
                       # resulting list.

This means that when there are multiple ‘for’...‘in’ clauses, the
resulting list will be equal to the product of the lengths of all the
sequences.  If you have two lists of length 3, the output list is 9
elements long:

     seq1 = 'abc'
     seq2 = (1,2,3)
     >>> [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3), ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3), ('c', 1),
     ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python's grammar, if 'expression'
is creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses.  The first
list comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is
correct:

     # 語法錯誤
     [ x,y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     # 正確
     [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]

The idea of list comprehensions originally comes from the functional
programming language Haskell (‘https://www.haskell.org’).  Greg Ewing
argued most effectively for adding them to Python and wrote the initial
list comprehension patch, which was then discussed for a seemingly
endless time on the python-dev mailing list and kept up-to-date by Skip
Montanaro.


File: python.info,  Node: Augmented Assignment,  Next: String Methods,  Prev: 串列綜合運算（List Comprehension）,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.6 Augmented Assignment
---------------------------

Augmented assignment operators, another long-requested feature, have
been added to Python 2.0.  Augmented assignment operators include ‘+=’,
‘-=’, ‘*=’, and so forth.  For example, the statement ‘a += 2’
increments the value of the variable ‘a’ by 2, equivalent to the
slightly lengthier ‘a = a + 2’.

The full list of supported assignment operators is ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’,
‘/=’, ‘%=’, ‘**=’, ‘&=’, ‘|=’, ‘^=’, ‘>>=’, and ‘<<=’.  Python classes
can override the augmented assignment operators by defining methods
named ‘__iadd__()’, ‘__isub__()’, etc.  For example, the following
‘Number’ class stores a number and supports using += to create a new
instance with an incremented value.

     class Number:
         def __init__(self, value):
             self.value = value
         def __iadd__(self, increment):
             return Number( self.value + increment)

     n = Number(5)
     n += 3
     print n.value

The ‘__iadd__()’ special method is called with the value of the
increment, and should return a new instance with an appropriately
modified value; this return value is bound as the new value of the
variable on the left-hand side.

Augmented assignment operators were first introduced in the C
programming language, and most C-derived languages, such as ‘awk’, C++,
Java, Perl, and PHP also support them.  The augmented assignment patch
was implemented by Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: String Methods,  Next: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Prev: Augmented Assignment,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.7 String Methods
---------------------

Until now string-manipulation functionality was in the *note string: cd.
module, which was usually a front-end for the ‘strop’ module written in
C. The addition of Unicode posed a difficulty for the ‘strop’ module,
because the functions would all need to be rewritten in order to accept
either 8-bit or Unicode strings.  For functions such as
‘string.replace()’, which takes 3 string arguments, that means eight
possible permutations, and correspondingly complicated code.

Instead, Python 2.0 pushes the problem onto the string type, making
string manipulation functionality available through methods on both
8-bit strings and Unicode strings.

     >>> 'andrew'.capitalize()
     'Andrew'
     >>> 'hostname'.replace('os', 'linux')
     'hlinuxtname'
     >>> 'moshe'.find('sh')
     2

One thing that hasn't changed, a noteworthy April Fools' joke
notwithstanding, is that Python strings are immutable.  Thus, the string
methods return new strings, and do not modify the string on which they
operate.

The old *note string: cd. module is still around for backwards
compatibility, but it mostly acts as a front-end to the new string
methods.

Two methods which have no parallel in pre-2.0 versions, although they
did exist in JPython for quite some time, are ‘startswith()’ and
‘endswith()’.  ‘s.startswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[:len(t)] == t’,
while ‘s.endswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[-len(t):] == t’.

One other method which deserves special mention is ‘join()’.  The
‘join()’ method of a string receives one parameter, a sequence of
strings, and is equivalent to the ‘string.join()’ function from the old
*note string: cd. module, with the arguments reversed.  In other words,
‘s.join(seq)’ is equivalent to the old ‘string.join(seq, s)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Next: Other Core Changes,  Prev: String Methods,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.8 Garbage Collection of Cycles
-----------------------------------

The C implementation of Python uses reference counting to implement
garbage collection.  Every Python object maintains a count of the number
of references pointing to itself, and adjusts the count as references
are created or destroyed.  Once the reference count reaches zero, the
object is no longer accessible, since you need to have a reference to an
object to access it, and if the count is zero, no references exist any
longer.

Reference counting has some pleasant properties: it's easy to understand
and implement, and the resulting implementation is portable, fairly
fast, and reacts well with other libraries that implement their own
memory handling schemes.  The major problem with reference counting is
that it sometimes doesn't realise that objects are no longer accessible,
resulting in a memory leak.  This happens when there are cycles of
references.

Consider the simplest possible cycle, a class instance which has a
reference to itself:

     instance = SomeClass()
     instance.myself = instance

After the above two lines of code have been executed, the reference
count of ‘instance’ is 2; one reference is from the variable named
‘'instance'’, and the other is from the ‘myself’ attribute of the
instance.

If the next line of code is ‘del instance’, what happens?  The reference
count of ‘instance’ is decreased by 1, so it has a reference count of 1;
the reference in the ‘myself’ attribute still exists.  Yet the instance
is no longer accessible through Python code, and it could be deleted.
Several objects can participate in a cycle if they have references to
each other, causing all of the objects to be leaked.

Python 2.0 fixes this problem by periodically executing a cycle
detection algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the
objects involved.  A new *note gc: 5b. module provides functions to
perform a garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tuning
the collector's parameters.

Running the cycle detection algorithm takes some time, and therefore
will result in some additional overhead.  It is hoped that after we've
gotten experience with the cycle collection from using 2.0, Python 2.1
will be able to minimize the overhead with careful tuning.  It's not yet
obvious how much performance is lost, because benchmarking this is
tricky and depends crucially on how often the program creates and
destroys objects.  The detection of cycles can be disabled when Python
is compiled, if you can't afford even a tiny speed penalty or suspect
that the cycle collection is buggy, by specifying the
‘--without-cycle-gc’ switch when running the ‘configure’ script.

Several people tackled this problem and contributed to a solution.  An
early implementation of the cycle detection approach was written by Toby
Kelsey.  The current algorithm was suggested by Eric Tiedemann during a
visit to CNRI, and Guido van Rossum and Neil Schemenauer wrote two
different implementations, which were later integrated by Neil.  Lots of
other people offered suggestions along the way; the March 2000 archives
of the python-dev mailing list contain most of the relevant discussion,
especially in the threads titled "Reference cycle collection for Python"
and "Finalization again".


File: python.info,  Node: Other Core Changes,  Next: Porting to 2 0,  Prev: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.9 Other Core Changes
-------------------------

Various minor changes have been made to Python's syntax and built-in
functions.  None of the changes are very far-reaching, but they're handy
conveniences.

* Menu:

* Minor Language Changes::
* Changes to Built-in Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Minor Language Changes,  Next: Changes to Built-in Functions,  Up: Other Core Changes

1.21.9.1 Minor Language Changes
...............................

A new syntax makes it more convenient to call a given function with a
tuple of arguments and/or a dictionary of keyword arguments.  In Python
1.5 and earlier, you'd use the ‘apply()’ built-in function: ‘apply(f,
args, kw)’ calls the function ‘f()’ with the argument tuple 'args' and
the keyword arguments in the dictionary 'kw'.  ‘apply()’ is the same in
2.0, but thanks to a patch from Greg Ewing, ‘f(*args, **kw)’ is a
shorter and clearer way to achieve the same effect.  This syntax is
symmetrical with the syntax for defining functions:

     def f(*args, **kw):
         # args is a tuple of positional args,
         # kw is a dictionary of keyword args
         ...

The ‘print’ statement can now have its output directed to a file-like
object by following the ‘print’ with ‘>> file’, similar to the
redirection operator in Unix shells.  Previously you'd either have to
use the ‘write()’ method of the file-like object, which lacks the
convenience and simplicity of ‘print’, or you could assign a new value
to ‘sys.stdout’ and then restore the old value.  For sending output to
standard error, it's much easier to write this:

     print >> sys.stderr, "Warning: action field not supplied"

Modules can now be renamed on importing them, using the syntax ‘import
module as name’ or ‘from module import name as othername’.  The patch
was submitted by Thomas Wouters.

A new format style is available when using the ‘%’ operator; '%r' will
insert the *note repr(): 61e. of its argument.  This was also added from
symmetry considerations, this time for symmetry with the existing '%s'
format style, which inserts the *note str(): 157. of its argument.  For
example, ‘'%r %s' % ('abc', 'abc')’ returns a string containing ‘'abc'
abc’.

Previously there was no way to implement a class that overrode Python's
built-in *note in: 267. operator and implemented a custom version.  ‘obj
in seq’ returns true if 'obj' is present in the sequence 'seq'; Python
computes this by simply trying every index of the sequence until either
'obj' is found or an *note IndexError: 13ac. is encountered.  Moshe
Zadka contributed a patch which adds a ‘__contains__()’ magic method for
providing a custom implementation for ‘in’.  Additionally, new built-in
objects written in C can define what ‘in’ means for them via a new slot
in the sequence protocol.

Earlier versions of Python used a recursive algorithm for deleting
objects.  Deeply nested data structures could cause the interpreter to
fill up the C stack and crash; Christian Tismer rewrote the deletion
logic to fix this problem.  On a related note, comparing recursive
objects recursed infinitely and crashed; Jeremy Hylton rewrote the code
to no longer crash, producing a useful result instead.  For example,
after this code:

     a = []
     b = []
     a.append(a)
     b.append(b)

The comparison ‘a==b’ returns true, because the two recursive data
structures are isomorphic.  See the thread "trashcan and PR#7" in the
April 2000 archives of the python-dev mailing list for the discussion
leading up to this implementation, and some useful relevant links.  Note
that comparisons can now also raise exceptions.  In earlier versions of
Python, a comparison operation such as ‘cmp(a,b)’ would always produce
an answer, even if a user-defined ‘__cmp__()’ method encountered an
error, since the resulting exception would simply be silently swallowed.

Work has been done on porting Python to 64-bit Windows on the Itanium
processor, mostly by Trent Mick of ActiveState.  (Confusingly,
‘sys.platform’ is still ‘'win32'’ on Win64 because it seems that for
ease of porting, MS Visual C++ treats code as 32 bit on Itanium.)
PythonWin also supports Windows CE; see the Python CE page at
‘https://pythonce.sourceforge.net/’ for more information.

Another new platform is Darwin/MacOS X; initial support for it is in
Python 2.0.  Dynamic loading works, if you specify "configure -with-dyld
-with-suffix=.x".  Consult the README in the Python source distribution
for more instructions.

An attempt has been made to alleviate one of Python's warts, the
often-confusing *note NameError: 144. exception when code refers to a
local variable before the variable has been assigned a value.  For
example, the following code raises an exception on the ‘print’ statement
in both 1.5.2 and 2.0; in 1.5.2 a *note NameError: 144. exception is
raised, while 2.0 raises a new *note UnboundLocalError: 13ad. exception.
*note UnboundLocalError: 13ad. is a subclass of *note NameError: 144, so
any existing code that expects *note NameError: 144. to be raised should
still work.

     def f():
         print "i=",i
         i = i + 1
     f()

Two new exceptions, *note TabError: 2c7. and *note IndentationError:
5c5, have been introduced.  They're both subclasses of *note
SyntaxError: 146, and are raised when Python code is found to be
improperly indented.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to Built-in Functions,  Prev: Minor Language Changes,  Up: Other Core Changes

1.21.9.2 Changes to Built-in Functions
......................................

A new built-in, ‘zip(seq1, seq2, ...)’, has been added.  *note zip():
5ef. returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains the i-th element
from each of the argument sequences.  The difference between *note
zip(): 5ef. and ‘map(None, seq1, seq2)’ is that *note map(): 68f. pads
the sequences with ‘None’ if the sequences aren't all of the same
length, while *note zip(): 5ef. truncates the returned list to the
length of the shortest argument sequence.

The *note int(): 17e. and ‘long()’ functions now accept an optional
"base" parameter when the first argument is a string.  ‘int('123', 10)’
returns 123, while ‘int('123', 16)’ returns 291.  ‘int(123, 16)’ raises
a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception with the message "can't convert
non-string with explicit base".

A new variable holding more detailed version information has been added
to the *note sys: d3. module.  ‘sys.version_info’ is a tuple ‘(major,
minor, micro, level, serial)’ For example, in a hypothetical 2.0.1beta1,
‘sys.version_info’ would be ‘(2, 0, 1, 'beta', 1)’.  'level' is a string
such as ‘"alpha"’, ‘"beta"’, or ‘"final"’ for a final release.

Dictionaries have an odd new method, ‘setdefault(key, default)’, which
behaves similarly to the existing ‘get()’ method.  However, if the key
is missing, ‘setdefault()’ both returns the value of 'default' as
‘get()’ would do, and also inserts it into the dictionary as the value
for 'key'.  Thus, the following lines of code:

     if dict.has_key( key ): return dict[key]
     else:
         dict[key] = []
         return dict[key]

can be reduced to a single ‘return dict.setdefault(key, [])’ statement.

The interpreter sets a maximum recursion depth in order to catch runaway
recursion before filling the C stack and causing a core dump or GPF..
Previously this limit was fixed when you compiled Python, but in 2.0 the
maximum recursion depth can be read and modified using *note
sys.getrecursionlimit(): 1eb. and *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 1ea.
The default value is 1000, and a rough maximum value for a given
platform can be found by running a new script,
‘Misc/find_recursionlimit.py’.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to 2 0,  Next: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Prev: Other Core Changes,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.10 Porting to 2.0
----------------------

New Python releases try hard to be compatible with previous releases,
and the record has been pretty good.  However, some changes are
considered useful enough, usually because they fix initial design
decisions that turned out to be actively mistaken, that breaking
backward compatibility can't always be avoided.  This section lists the
changes in Python 2.0 that may cause old Python code to break.

The change which will probably break the most code is tightening up the
arguments accepted by some methods.  Some methods would take multiple
arguments and treat them as a tuple, particularly various list methods
such as ‘append()’ and ‘insert()’.  In earlier versions of Python, if
‘L’ is a list, ‘L.append( 1,2 )’ appends the tuple ‘(1,2)’ to the list.
In Python 2.0 this causes a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception to be
raised, with the message: 'append requires exactly 1 argument; 2 given'.
The fix is to simply add an extra set of parentheses to pass both values
as a tuple: ‘L.append( (1,2) )’.

The earlier versions of these methods were more forgiving because they
used an old function in Python's C interface to parse their arguments;
2.0 modernizes them to use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe, the current
argument parsing function, which provides more helpful error messages
and treats multi-argument calls as errors.  If you absolutely must use
2.0 but can't fix your code, you can edit ‘Objects/listobject.c’ and
define the preprocessor symbol ‘NO_STRICT_LIST_APPEND’ to preserve the
old behaviour; this isn't recommended.

Some of the functions in the *note socket: c6. module are still
forgiving in this way.  For example, ‘socket.connect( ('hostname', 25)
)’ is the correct form, passing a tuple representing an IP address, but
‘socket.connect('hostname', 25)’ also works.  *note socket.connect_ex:
13b0. and *note socket.bind: 13b1. are similarly easy-going.  2.0alpha1
tightened these functions up, but because the documentation actually
used the erroneous multiple argument form, many people wrote code which
would break with the stricter checking.  GvR backed out the changes in
the face of public reaction, so for the *note socket: c6. module, the
documentation was fixed and the multiple argument form is simply marked
as deprecated; it 'will' be tightened up again in a future Python
version.

The ‘\x’ escape in string literals now takes exactly 2 hex digits.
Previously it would consume all the hex digits following the 'x' and
take the lowest 8 bits of the result, so ‘\x123456’ was equivalent to
‘\x56’.

The *note AttributeError: 3ca. and *note NameError: 144. exceptions have
a more friendly error message, whose text will be something like ‘'Spam'
instance has no attribute 'eggs'’ or ‘name 'eggs' is not defined’.
Previously the error message was just the missing attribute name ‘eggs’,
and code written to take advantage of this fact will break in 2.0.

Some work has been done to make integers and long integers a bit more
interchangeable.  In 1.5.2, large-file support was added for Solaris, to
allow reading files larger than 2 GiB; this made the ‘tell()’ method of
file objects return a long integer instead of a regular integer.  Some
code would subtract two file offsets and attempt to use the result to
multiply a sequence or slice a string, but this raised a *note
TypeError: 2ba.  In 2.0, long integers can be used to multiply or slice
a sequence, and it'll behave as you'd intuitively expect it to; ‘3L *
'abc'’ produces 'abcabcabc', and ‘(0,1,2,3)[2L:4L]’ produces (2,3).
Long integers can also be used in various contexts where previously only
integers were accepted, such as in the ‘seek()’ method of file objects,
and in the formats supported by the ‘%’ operator (‘%d’, ‘%i’, ‘%x’,
etc.).  For example, ‘"%d" % 2L**64’ will produce the string
‘18446744073709551616’.

The subtlest long integer change of all is that the *note str(): 157. of
a long integer no longer has a trailing 'L' character, though *note
repr(): 61e. still includes it.  The 'L' annoyed many people who wanted
to print long integers that looked just like regular integers, since
they had to go out of their way to chop off the character.  This is no
longer a problem in 2.0, but code which does ‘str(longval)[:-1]’ and
assumes the 'L' is there, will now lose the final digit.

Taking the *note repr(): 61e. of a float now uses a different formatting
precision than *note str(): 157.  *note repr(): 61e. uses ‘%.17g’ format
string for C's ‘sprintf()’, while *note str(): 157. uses ‘%.12g’ as
before.  The effect is that *note repr(): 61e. may occasionally show
more decimal places than *note str(): 157, for certain numbers.  For
example, the number 8.1 can't be represented exactly in binary, so
‘repr(8.1)’ is ‘'8.0999999999999996'’, while str(8.1) is ‘'8.1'’.

The ‘-X’ command-line option, which turned all standard exceptions into
strings instead of classes, has been removed; the standard exceptions
will now always be classes.  The ‘exceptions’ module containing the
standard exceptions was translated from Python to a built-in C module,
written by Barry Warsaw and Fredrik Lundh.


File: python.info,  Node: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Next: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Prev: Porting to 2 0,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.11 Extending/Embedding Changes
-----------------------------------

Some of the changes are under the covers, and will only be apparent to
people writing C extension modules or embedding a Python interpreter in
a larger application.  If you aren't dealing with Python's C API, you
can safely skip this section.

The version number of the Python C API was incremented, so C extensions
compiled for 1.5.2 must be recompiled in order to work with 2.0.  On
Windows, it's not possible for Python 2.0 to import a third party
extension built for Python 1.5.x due to how Windows DLLs work, so Python
will raise an exception and the import will fail.

Users of Jim Fulton's ExtensionClass module will be pleased to find out
that hooks have been added so that ExtensionClasses are now supported by
*note isinstance(): 14b. and *note issubclass(): 5df.  This means you no
longer have to remember to write code such as ‘if type(obj) ==
myExtensionClass’, but can use the more natural ‘if isinstance(obj,
myExtensionClass)’.

The ‘Python/importdl.c’ file, which was a mass of #ifdefs to support
dynamic loading on many different platforms, was cleaned up and
reorganised by Greg Stein.  ‘importdl.c’ is now quite small, and
platform-specific code has been moved into a bunch of
‘Python/dynload_*.c’ files.  Another cleanup: there were also a number
of ‘my*.h’ files in the Include/ directory that held various portability
hacks; they've been merged into a single file, ‘Include/pyport.h’.

Vladimir Marangozov's long-awaited malloc restructuring was completed,
to make it easy to have the Python interpreter use a custom allocator
instead of C's standard ‘malloc()’.  For documentation, read the
comments in ‘Include/pymem.h’ and ‘Include/objimpl.h’.  For the lengthy
discussions during which the interface was hammered out, see the web
archives of the 'patches' and 'python-dev' lists at python.org.

Recent versions of the GUSI development environment for MacOS support
POSIX threads.  Therefore, Python's POSIX threading support now works on
the Macintosh.  Threading support using the user-space GNU ‘pth’ library
was also contributed.

Threading support on Windows was enhanced, too.  Windows supports thread
locks that use kernel objects only in case of contention; in the common
case when there's no contention, they use simpler functions which are an
order of magnitude faster.  A threaded version of Python 1.5.2 on NT is
twice as slow as an unthreaded version; with the 2.0 changes, the
difference is only 10%.  These improvements were contributed by Yakov
Markovitch.

Python 2.0's source now uses only ANSI C prototypes, so compiling Python
now requires an ANSI C compiler, and can no longer be done using a
compiler that only supports K&R C.

Previously the Python virtual machine used 16-bit numbers in its
bytecode, limiting the size of source files.  In particular, this
affected the maximum size of literal lists and dictionaries in Python
source; occasionally people who are generating Python code would run
into this limit.  A patch by Charles G. Waldman raises the limit from
‘2**16’ to ‘2**32’.

Three new convenience functions intended for adding constants to a
module's dictionary at module initialization time were added: *note
PyModule_AddObject(): 6ca, *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 13b3, and
*note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 13b4.  Each of these functions takes
a module object, a null-terminated C string containing the name to be
added, and a third argument for the value to be assigned to the name.
This third argument is, respectively, a Python object, a C long, or a C
string.

A wrapper API was added for Unix-style signal handlers.  *note
PyOS_getsig(): 13b5. gets a signal handler and *note PyOS_setsig():
13b6. will set a new handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Next: XML 模組,  Prev: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.12 Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
-------------------------------------------------

Before Python 2.0, installing modules was a tedious affair - there was
no way to figure out automatically where Python is installed, or what
compiler options to use for extension modules.  Software authors had to
go through an arduous ritual of editing Makefiles and configuration
files, which only really work on Unix and leave Windows and MacOS
unsupported.  Python users faced wildly differing installation
instructions which varied between different extension packages, which
made administering a Python installation something of a chore.

The SIG for distribution utilities, shepherded by Greg Ward, has created
the Distutils, a system to make package installation much easier.  They
form the ‘distutils’ package, a new part of Python's standard library.
In the best case, installing a Python module from source will require
the same steps: first you simply mean unpack the tarball or zip archive,
and the run "‘python setup.py install’".  The platform will be
automatically detected, the compiler will be recognized, C extension
modules will be compiled, and the distribution installed into the proper
directory.  Optional command-line arguments provide more control over
the installation process, the distutils package offers many places to
override defaults - separating the build from the install, building or
installing in non-default directories, and more.

In order to use the Distutils, you need to write a ‘setup.py’ script.
For the simple case, when the software contains only .py files, a
minimal ‘setup.py’ can be just a few lines long:

     from distutils.core import setup
     setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
            py_modules = ["module1", "module2"])

The ‘setup.py’ file isn't much more complicated if the software consists
of a few packages:

     from distutils.core import setup
     setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
            packages = ["package", "package.subpackage"])

A C extension can be the most complicated case; here's an example taken
from the PyXML package:

     from distutils.core import setup, Extension

     expat_extension = Extension('xml.parsers.pyexpat',
          define_macros = [('XML_NS', None)],
          include_dirs = [ 'extensions/expat/xmltok',
                           'extensions/expat/xmlparse' ],
          sources = [ 'extensions/pyexpat.c',
                      'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmltok.c',
                      'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmlrole.c', ]
            )
     setup (name = "PyXML", version = "0.5.4",
            ext_modules =[ expat_extension ] )

The Distutils can also take care of creating source and binary
distributions.  The "sdist" command, run by "‘python setup.py sdist’',
builds a source distribution such as ‘foo-1.0.tar.gz’.  Adding new
commands isn't difficult, "bdist_rpm" and "bdist_wininst" commands have
already been contributed to create an RPM distribution and a Windows
installer for the software, respectively.  Commands to create other
distribution formats such as Debian packages and Solaris ‘.pkg’ files
are in various stages of development.

All this is documented in a new manual, 'Distributing Python Modules',
that joins the basic set of Python documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: XML 模組,  Next: 模組變更,  Prev: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.13 XML 模組
----------------

Python 1.5.2 included a simple XML parser in the form of the ‘xmllib’
module, contributed by Sjoerd Mullender.  Since 1.5.2's release, two
different interfaces for processing XML have become common: SAX2
(version 2 of the Simple API for XML) provides an event-driven interface
with some similarities to ‘xmllib’, and the DOM (Document Object Model)
provides a tree-based interface, transforming an XML document into a
tree of nodes that can be traversed and modified.  Python 2.0 includes a
SAX2 interface and a stripped-down DOM interface as part of the *note
xml: 11b. package.  Here we will give a brief overview of these new
interfaces; consult the Python documentation or the source code for
complete details.  The Python XML SIG is also working on improved
documentation.

* Menu:

* SAX2 支援::
* DOM 支援::
* Relationship to PyXML::


File: python.info,  Node: SAX2 支援,  Next: DOM 支援,  Up: XML 模組

1.21.13.1 SAX2 支援
...................

SAX defines an event-driven interface for parsing XML. To use SAX, you
must write a SAX handler class.  Handler classes inherit from various
classes provided by SAX, and override various methods that will then be
called by the XML parser.  For example, the *note startElement(): 13ba.
and *note endElement(): 13bb. methods are called for every starting and
end tag encountered by the parser, the *note characters(): 13bc. method
is called for every chunk of character data, and so forth.

The advantage of the event-driven approach is that the whole document
doesn't have to be resident in memory at any one time, which matters if
you are processing really huge documents.  However, writing the SAX
handler class can get very complicated if you're trying to modify the
document structure in some elaborate way.

For example, this little example program defines a handler that prints a
message for every starting and ending tag, and then parses the file
‘hamlet.xml’ using it:

     from xml import sax

     class SimpleHandler(sax.ContentHandler):
         def startElement(self, name, attrs):
             print 'Start of element:', name, attrs.keys()

         def endElement(self, name):
             print 'End of element:', name

     # Create a parser object
     parser = sax.make_parser()

     # Tell it what handler to use
     handler = SimpleHandler()
     parser.setContentHandler( handler )

     # Parse a file!
     parser.parse( 'hamlet.xml' )

For more information, consult the Python documentation, or the XML HOWTO
at ‘https://pyxml.sourceforge.net/topics/howto/xml-howto.html’.


File: python.info,  Node: DOM 支援,  Next: Relationship to PyXML,  Prev: SAX2 支援,  Up: XML 模組

1.21.13.2 DOM 支援
..................

The Document Object Model is a tree-based representation for an XML
document.  A top-level ‘Document’ instance is the root of the tree, and
has a single child which is the top-level ‘Element’ instance.  This
‘Element’ has children nodes representing character data and any
sub-elements, which may have further children of their own, and so
forth.  Using the DOM you can traverse the resulting tree any way you
like, access element and attribute values, insert and delete nodes, and
convert the tree back into XML.

The DOM is useful for modifying XML documents, because you can create a
DOM tree, modify it by adding new nodes or rearranging subtrees, and
then produce a new XML document as output.  You can also construct a DOM
tree manually and convert it to XML, which can be a more flexible way of
producing XML output than simply writing ‘<tag1>’...‘</tag1>’ to a file.

The DOM implementation included with Python lives in the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 11d. module.  It's a lightweight implementation of the
Level 1 DOM with support for XML namespaces.  The ‘parse()’ and
‘parseString()’ convenience functions are provided for generating a DOM
tree:

     from xml.dom import minidom
     doc = minidom.parse('hamlet.xml')

‘doc’ is a ‘Document’ instance.  ‘Document’, like all the other DOM
classes such as ‘Element’ and ‘Text’, is a subclass of the ‘Node’ base
class.  All the nodes in a DOM tree therefore support certain common
methods, such as ‘toxml()’ which returns a string containing the XML
representation of the node and its children.  Each class also has
special methods of its own; for example, ‘Element’ and ‘Document’
instances have a method to find all child elements with a given tag
name.  Continuing from the previous 2-line example:

     perslist = doc.getElementsByTagName( 'PERSONA' )
     print perslist[0].toxml()
     print perslist[1].toxml()

For the 'Hamlet' XML file, the above few lines output:

     <PERSONA>CLAUDIUS, king of Denmark. </PERSONA>
     <PERSONA>HAMLET, son to the late, and nephew to the present king.</PERSONA>

The root element of the document is available as ‘doc.documentElement’,
and its children can be easily modified by deleting, adding, or removing
nodes:

     root = doc.documentElement

     # Remove the first child
     root.removeChild( root.childNodes[0] )

     # Move the new first child to the end
     root.appendChild( root.childNodes[0] )

     # Insert the new first child (originally,
     # the third child) before the 20th child.
     root.insertBefore( root.childNodes[0], root.childNodes[20] )

Again, I will refer you to the Python documentation for a complete
listing of the different ‘Node’ classes and their various methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Relationship to PyXML,  Prev: DOM 支援,  Up: XML 模組

1.21.13.3 Relationship to PyXML
...............................

The XML Special Interest Group has been working on XML-related Python
code for a while.  Its code distribution, called PyXML, is available
from the SIG's web pages at
‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/xml-sig’.  The PyXML
distribution also used the package name ‘xml’.  If you've written
programs that used PyXML, you're probably wondering about its
compatibility with the 2.0 *note xml: 11b. package.

The answer is that Python 2.0's *note xml: 11b. package isn't compatible
with PyXML, but can be made compatible by installing a recent version
PyXML. Many applications can get by with the XML support that is
included with Python 2.0, but more complicated applications will require
that the full PyXML package will be installed.  When installed, PyXML
versions 0.6.0 or greater will replace the *note xml: 11b. package
shipped with Python, and will be a strict superset of the standard
package, adding a bunch of additional features.  Some of the additional
features in PyXML include:

   * 4DOM, a full DOM implementation from FourThought, Inc.

   * The xmlproc validating parser, written by Lars Marius Garshol.

   * The ‘sgmlop’ parser accelerator module, written by Fredrik Lundh.


File: python.info,  Node: 模組變更,  Next: 新增模組<5>,  Prev: XML 模組,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.14 模組變更
----------------

Lots of improvements and bugfixes were made to Python's extensive
standard library; some of the affected modules include *note readline:
b5, *note ConfigParser: 20, *note cgi: 13, *note calendar: 12, *note
posix: a8, *note readline: b5, ‘xmllib’, *note aifc: 5, *note chunk: 15.
*note wave: 10e, *note random: b3, *note shelve: be, and *note nntplib:
98.  Consult the CVS logs for the exact patch-by-patch details.

Brian Gallew contributed OpenSSL support for the *note socket: c6.
module.  OpenSSL is an implementation of the Secure Socket Layer, which
encrypts the data being sent over a socket.  When compiling Python, you
can edit ‘Modules/Setup’ to include SSL support, which adds an
additional function to the *note socket: c6. module: ‘socket.ssl(socket,
keyfile, certfile)’, which takes a socket object and returns an SSL
socket.  The *note httplib: 69. and *note urllib: 103. modules were also
changed to support ‘https://’ URLs, though no one has implemented FTP or
SMTP over SSL.

The *note httplib: 69. module has been rewritten by Greg Stein to
support HTTP/1.1.

Backward compatibility with the 1.5 version of ‘httplib’ is provided,
though using HTTP/1.1 features such as pipelining will require rewriting
code to use a different set of interfaces.

The ‘Tkinter’ module now supports Tcl/Tk version 8.1, 8.2, or 8.3, and
support for the older 7.x versions has been dropped.  The Tkinter module
now supports displaying Unicode strings in Tk widgets.  Also, Fredrik
Lundh contributed an optimization which makes operations like
‘create_line’ and ‘create_polygon’ much faster, especially when using
lots of coordinates.

The *note curses: 29. module has been greatly extended, starting from
Oliver Andrich's enhanced version, to provide many additional functions
from ncurses and SYSV curses, such as colour, alternative character set
support, pads, and mouse support.  This means the module is no longer
compatible with operating systems that only have BSD curses, but there
don't seem to be any currently maintained OSes that fall into this
category.

As mentioned in the earlier discussion of 2.0's Unicode support, the
underlying implementation of the regular expressions provided by the
*note re: b4. module has been changed.  SRE, a new regular expression
engine written by Fredrik Lundh and partially funded by Hewlett Packard,
supports matching against both 8-bit strings and Unicode strings.


File: python.info,  Node: 新增模組<5>,  Next: IDLE Improvements,  Prev: 模組變更,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.15 新增模組
----------------

A number of new modules were added.  We'll simply list them with brief
descriptions; consult the 2.0 documentation for the details of a
particular module.

   * *note atexit: a.: For registering functions to be called before the
     Python interpreter exits.  Code that currently sets ‘sys.exitfunc’
     directly should be changed to use the *note atexit: a. module
     instead, importing *note atexit: a. and calling *note
     atexit.register(): 6a9. with the function to be called on exit.
     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * *note codecs: 19, ‘encodings’, *note unicodedata: 100.: Added as
     part of the new Unicode support.

   * *note filecmp: 55.: Supersedes the old ‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’ and
     ‘dircmp’ modules, which have now become deprecated.  (Contributed
     by Gordon MacMillan and Moshe Zadka.)

   * *note gettext: 5e.: This module provides internationalization
     (I18N) and localization (L10N) support for Python programs by
     providing an interface to the GNU gettext message catalog library.
     (Integrated by Barry Warsaw, from separate contributions by Martin
     von Löwis, Peter Funk, and James Henstridge.)

   * ‘linuxaudiodev’: Support for the ‘/dev/audio’ device on Linux, a
     twin to the existing ‘sunaudiodev’ module.  (Contributed by Peter
     Bosch, with fixes by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * *note mmap: 8b.: An interface to memory-mapped files on both
     Windows and Unix.  A file's contents can be mapped directly into
     memory, at which point it behaves like a mutable string, so its
     contents can be read and modified.  They can even be passed to
     functions that expect ordinary strings, such as the *note re: b4.
     module.  (Contributed by Sam Rushing, with some extensions by A.M.
     Kuchling.)

   * ‘pyexpat’: An interface to the Expat XML parser.  (Contributed by
     Paul Prescod.)

   * *note robotparser: 108.: Parse a ‘robots.txt’ file, which is used
     for writing web spiders that politely avoid certain areas of a web
     site.  The parser accepts the contents of a ‘robots.txt’ file,
     builds a set of rules from it, and can then answer questions about
     the fetchability of a given URL. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * *note tabnanny: d7.: A module/script to check Python source code
     for ambiguous indentation.  (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * ‘UserString’: A base class useful for deriving objects that behave
     like strings.

   * *note webbrowser: 110.: A module that provides a platform
     independent way to launch a web browser on a specific URL. For each
     platform, various browsers are tried in a specific order.  The user
     can alter which browser is launched by setting the 'BROWSER'
     environment variable.  (Originally inspired by Eric S. Raymond's
     patch to *note urllib: 103. which added similar functionality, but
     the final module comes from code originally implemented by Fred
     Drake as ‘Tools/idle/BrowserControl.py’, and adapted for the
     standard library by Fred.)

   * *note _winreg: 111.: An interface to the Windows registry.
     ‘_winreg’ is an adaptation of functions that have been part of
     PythonWin since 1995, but has now been added to the core
     distribution, and enhanced to support Unicode.  ‘_winreg’ was
     written by Bill Tutt and Mark Hammond.

   * *note zipfile: 12b.: A module for reading and writing ZIP-format
     archives.  These are archives produced by ‘PKZIP’ on DOS/Windows or
     ‘zip’ on Unix, not to be confused with ‘gzip’-format files (which
     are supported by the *note gzip: 62. module) (Contributed by James
     C. Ahlstrom.)

   * ‘imputil’: A module that provides a simpler way for writing
     customized import hooks, in comparison to the existing ‘ihooks’
     module.  (Implemented by Greg Stein, with much discussion on
     python-dev along the way.)


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE Improvements,  Next: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Prev: 新增模組<5>,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.16 IDLE Improvements
-------------------------

IDLE is the official Python cross-platform IDE, written using Tkinter.
Python 2.0 includes IDLE 0.6, which adds a number of new features and
improvements.  A partial list:

   * UI improvements and optimizations, especially in the area of syntax
     highlighting and auto-indentation.

   * The class browser now shows more information, such as the top level
     functions in a module.

   * Tab width is now a user settable option.  When opening an existing
     Python file, IDLE automatically detects the indentation
     conventions, and adapts.

   * There is now support for calling browsers on various platforms,
     used to open the Python documentation in a browser.

   * IDLE now has a command line, which is largely similar to the
     vanilla Python interpreter.

   * Call tips were added in many places.

   * IDLE can now be installed as a package.

   * In the editor window, there is now a line/column bar at the bottom.

   * Three new keystroke commands: Check module (‘Alt-F5’), Import
     module (‘F5’) and Run script (‘Ctrl-F5’).


File: python.info,  Node: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Next: 致謝<8>,  Prev: IDLE Improvements,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.17 Deleted and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------

A few modules have been dropped because they're obsolete, or because
there are now better ways to do the same thing.  The ‘stdwin’ module is
gone; it was for a platform-independent windowing toolkit that's no
longer developed.

A number of modules have been moved to the ‘lib-old’ subdirectory:
‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’, ‘dircmp’, ‘dump’, ‘find’, ‘grep’, ‘packmail’, ‘poly’,
‘util’, ‘whatsound’, ‘zmod’.  If you have code which relies on a module
that's been moved to ‘lib-old’, you can simply add that directory to
‘sys.path’ to get them back, but you're encouraged to update any code
that uses these modules.


File: python.info,  Node: 致謝<8>,  Prev: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Up: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能

1.21.18 致謝
------------

The authors would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions on various drafts of this article: David Bolen, Mark
Hammond, Gregg Hauser, Jeremy Hylton, Fredrik Lundh, Detlef Lannert,
Aahz Maruch, Skip Montanaro, Vladimir Marangozov, Tobias Polzin, Guido
van Rossum, Neil Schemenauer, and Russ Schmidt.

「Changelog（更動日誌）」是從 Misc/NEWS.d(1) 目錄樹內容檔案建置(2)的一個
HTML 版本，其中包含了 Python 目前版本中的'所有'重要變更。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Misc/NEWS.d

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/blurb/


File: python.info,  Node: Changelog（更動日誌）,  Prev: Python 2 0 有什麼新功能,  Up: Python 有什麼新功能？

1.22 Changelog（更動日誌）
==========================

* Menu:

* Python next::
* Python 3.12.7 final: Python 3 12 7 final.
* Python 3.12.6 final: Python 3 12 6 final.
* Python 3.12.5 final: Python 3 12 5 final.
* Python 3.12.4 final: Python 3 12 4 final.
* Python 3.12.3 final: Python 3 12 3 final.
* Python 3.12.2 final: Python 3 12 2 final.
* Python 3.12.1 final: Python 3 12 1 final.
* Python 3.12.0 final: Python 3 12 0 final.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 4: Python 3 12 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 3: Python 3 12 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 2: Python 3 12 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final.
* Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final.
* Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final.
* Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final.
* Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final.
* Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final.
* Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final.
* Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final.
* Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final.
* Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final.
* Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final.
* Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1.


File: python.info,  Node: Python next,  Next: Python 3 12 7 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.1 Python next
------------------

'Release date: XXXX-XX-XX'

* Menu:

* Windows::
* Tests::
* Library::
* IDLE: IDLE<3>.
* Documentation::
* Core and Builtins::
* C API::
* Build::


File: python.info,  Node: Windows,  Next: Tests,  Up: Python next

1.22.1.1 Windows
................

   - gh-125315(1): Avoid crashing in *note platform: a5. due to slow WMI
     calls on some Windows machines.

   - gh-125550(2): Enable the *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae. to
     detect Python 3.14 installs from the Windows Store.

   - gh-124448(3): Updated bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125315

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125550

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124448


File: python.info,  Node: Tests,  Next: Library,  Prev: Windows,  Up: Python next

1.22.1.2 Tests
..............

   - gh-125041(1): Re-enable skipped tests for *note zlib: 12d. on the
     s390x architecture: only skip checks of the compressed bytes, which
     can be different between zlib's software implementation and the
     hardware-accelerated implementation.

   - gh-124295(2): Add translation tests to the *note argparse: 6.
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125041

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124295


File: python.info,  Node: Library,  Next: IDLE<3>,  Prev: Tests,  Up: Python next

1.22.1.3 Library
................

   - gh-126417(1): Register the ‘multiprocessing.managers.DictProxy’ and
     ‘multiprocessing.managers.ListProxy’ types in *note
     multiprocessing.managers: 92. to *note
     collections.abc.MutableMapping: f3d. and *note
     collections.abc.MutableSequence: c4c, respectively.

   - gh-126303(2): Fix pickling and copying of *note os.sched_param:
     13ca. objects.

   - gh-126138(3): Fix a use-after-free crash on *note asyncio.Task:
     203. objects whose underlying coroutine yields an object that
     implements an evil *note __getattribute__(): a33.  Patch by Nico
     Posada.

   - gh-126220(4): Fix crash in ‘cProfile.Profile’ and
     ‘_lsprof.Profiler’ when their callbacks were directly called with 0
     arguments.

   - gh-126205(5): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     13cb. generated URLs beginning with four slashes (rather than two)
     when given a Windows UNC path.

   - gh-126105(6): Fix a crash in *note ast: 8. when the *note
     ast.AST._fields: 13cc. attribute is deleted.

   - gh-126106(7): Fixes a possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in *note
     ssl: ca.

   - gh-126080(8): Fix a use-after-free crash on *note asyncio.Task:
     203. objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil
     *note __getattribute__(): a33.  Reported by Nico-Posada.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126083(9): Fixed a reference leak in *note asyncio.Task: 203.
     objects when reinitializing the same object with a non-‘None’
     context.  Patch by Nico Posada.

   - gh-125984(10): Fix use-after-free crashes on *note asyncio.Future:
     a2e. objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil
     *note __getattribute__(): a33.  Reported by Nico-Posada.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125969(11): Fix an out-of-bounds crash when an evil *note
     asyncio.loop.call_soon(): 959. mutates the length of the internal
     callbacks list.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125966(12): Fix a use-after-free crash in *note
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback(): 13cd.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-125789(13): Fix possible crash when mutating list of callbacks
     returned by ‘asyncio.Future._callbacks’.  It now always returns a
     new copy in C implementation ‘_asyncio’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-125884(14): Fixed the bug for *note pdb: a0. where it can't set
     breakpoints on functions with certain annotations.

   - gh-125355(15): Fix several bugs in *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(): 955.

        * The parser no longer changes temporarily during parsing.

        * Default values are not processed twice.

        * Required mutually exclusive groups containing positional
          arguments are now supported.

        * The missing arguments report now includes the names of all
          required optional and positional arguments.

        * Unknown options can be intermixed with positional arguments in
          parse_known_intermixed_args().

   - gh-125682(16): Reject non-ASCII digits in the Python implementation
     of *note json.loads(): 796. conforming to the JSON specification.

   - gh-125660(17): Reject invalid unicode escapes for Python
     implementation of *note json.loads(): 796.

   - gh-125259(18): Fix the notes removal logic for errors thrown in
     enum initialization.

   - gh-125519(19): Improve traceback if *note importlib.reload(): 299.
     is called with an object that is not a module.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-125451(20): Fix deadlock when *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. shuts down
     concurrently with an error when feeding a job to a worker process.

   - gh-125422(21): Fixed the bug where *note pdb: a0. and *note bdb: d.
     can step into the bottom caller frame.

   - gh-100141(22): Fixed the bug where *note pdb: a0. will be stuck in
     an infinite loop when debugging an empty file.

   - gh-53203(23): Fix *note time.strptime(): 129d. for ‘%c’, ‘%x’ and
     ‘%X’ formats in many locales that use non-ASCII digits, like
     Persian, Burmese, Odia and Shan.

   - gh-125254(24): Fix a bug where ArgumentError includes the incorrect
     ambiguous option in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-61011(25): Fix inheritance of nested mutually exclusive groups
     from parent parser in *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 2bb.
     Previously, all nested mutually exclusive groups lost their
     connection to the group containing them and were displayed as
     belonging directly to the parser.

   - gh-52551(26): Fix encoding issues in *note time.strftime(): 107a,
     the *note strftime(): afb. method of the *note datetime: 2e.
     classes *note datetime: 224, *note date: 72f. and *note time: 6c5.
     and formatting of these classes.  Characters not encodable in the
     current locale are now acceptable in the format string.  Surrogate
     pairs and sequence of surrogatescape-encoded bytes are no longer
     recombinated.  Embedded null character no longer terminates the
     format string.

   - gh-125118(27): Don't copy arbitrary values to _Bool in the *note
     struct: cf. module.

   - gh-125069(28): Fix an issue where providing a *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 1c8. object as an initializer argument to a
     second *note PurePath: 1c8. object with a different flavour
     resulted in arguments to the former object's initializer being
     joined by the latter object's flavour.

   - gh-124969(29): Fix ‘locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ALT_DIGITS)’ on
     platforms with glibc.  Now it returns a string consisting of up to
     100 semicolon-separated symbols (an empty string in most locales)
     on all Posix platforms.  Previously it only returned the first
     symbol or an empty string.

   - gh-124958(30): Fix refcycles in exceptions raised from *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup: 3f1. and the python implementation of *note
     asyncio.Future: a2e.

   - gh-53203(31): Fix *note time.strptime(): 129d. for ‘%c’ and ‘%x’
     formats in many locales: Arabic, Bislama, Breton, Bodo, Kashubian,
     Chuvash, Estonian, French, Irish, Ge'ez, Gurajati, Manx Gaelic,
     Hebrew, Hindi, Chhattisgarhi, Haitian Kreyol, Japanese, Kannada,
     Korean, Marathi, Malay, Norwegian, Nynorsk, Punjabi, Rajasthani,
     Tok Pisin, Yoruba, Yue Chinese, Yau/Nungon and Chinese.

   - gh-124917(32): Allow calling *note os.path.exists(): 855. and *note
     os.path.lexists(): 856. with keyword arguments on Windows.  Fixes a
     regression in 3.12.4.

   - gh-124653(33): Fix detection of the minimal Queue API needed by the
     *note logging: 82. module.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-124858(34): Fix reference cycles left in tracebacks in *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): 96e. when used with
     ‘happy_eyeballs_delay’

   - gh-124390(35): Fixed *note AssertionError: 4a6. when using
     ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race()’ with *note
     asyncio.eager_task_factory: 192.

   - gh-124651(36): Properly quote template strings in *note venv: 10c.
     activation scripts.

   - gh-124594(37): All *note asyncio: 9. REPL prompts run in the same
     *note context: 13ce.  Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-120378(38): Fix a crash related to an integer overflow in *note
     curses.resizeterm(): 13cf. and *note curses.resize_term(): 13d0.

   - gh-123884(39): Fixed bug in itertools.tee() handling of other tee
     inputs (a tee in a tee).  The output now has the promised 'n'
     independent new iterators.  Formerly, the first iterator was
     identical (not independent) to the input iterator.  This would
     sometimes give surprising results.

   - gh-123978(40): Remove broken *note time.thread_time(): 775. and
     *note time.thread_time_ns(): 9f1. on NetBSD.

   - gh-123370(41): Fix the canvas not clearing after running turtledemo
     clock.

   - gh-120754(42): Update unbounded ‘read’ calls in *note zipfile: 12b.
     to specify an explicit ‘size’ putting a limit on how much data they
     may read.  This also updates handling around ZIP max comment size
     to match the standard instead of reading comments that are one byte
     too long.

   - gh-70764(43): Fixed an issue where *note inspect.getclosurevars():
     f64. would incorrectly classify an attribute name as a global
     variable when the name exists both as an attribute name and a
     global variable.

   - gh-117766(44): Always use *note str(): 157. to print ‘choices’ in
     *note argparse: 6.

   - bpo-14074(45): Fix *note argparse: 6. metavar processing to allow
     positional arguments to have a tuple metavar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126417

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126303

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126138

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126220

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126205

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126105

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126106

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126080

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126083

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125984

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125969

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125966

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125789

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125884

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125355

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125682

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125660

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125259

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125519

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125451

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125422

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100141

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125254

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61011

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52551

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125118

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125069

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124969

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124958

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124917

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124653

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124858

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124390

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124651

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124594

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120378

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123884

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123978

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123370

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70764

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117766

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14074


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<3>,  Next: Documentation,  Prev: Library,  Up: Python next

1.22.1.4 IDLE
.............

   - gh-122392(1): Increase currently inadequate vertical spacing for
     the IDLE browsers (path, module, and stack) on high-resolution
     monitors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122392


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation,  Next: Core and Builtins,  Prev: IDLE<3>,  Up: Python next

1.22.1.5 Documentation
......................

   - gh-125277(1): Require Sphinx 7.2.6 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-125018(2): The *note importlib.metadata: 74. documentation now
     includes semantic cross-reference targets for the significant
     documented APIs.  This means intersphinx references like *note
     importlib.metadata.version(): 13d3. will now work as expected.

   - gh-121277(3): Writers of CPython's documentation can now use ‘next’
     as the version for the ‘versionchanged’, ‘versionadded’,
     ‘deprecated’ directives.

   - gh-60712(4): Include the *note object: 8d9. type in the lists of
     documented types.  Change by Furkan Onder and Martin Panter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125277

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125018

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121277

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60712


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins,  Next: C API,  Prev: Documentation,  Up: Python next

1.22.1.6 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-126139(1): Provide better error location when attempting to use
     a *note future statement: c24. with an unknown future feature.

   - gh-125008(2): Fix *note tokenize.untokenize(): 13d5. producing
     invalid syntax for double braces preceded by certain escape
     characters.

   - gh-123378(3): Fix a crash in the *note __str__(): 418. method of
     *note UnicodeError: 1137. objects when the *note
     UnicodeError.start: 13d6. and *note UnicodeError.end: 13d7. values
     are invalid or out-of-range.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-118950(4): Fix bug where SSLProtocol.connection_lost wasn't
     getting called when OSError was thrown on writing to socket.

   - gh-113570(5): Fixed a bug in ‘reprlib.repr’ where it incorrectly
     called the repr method on shadowed Python built-in types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126139

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125008

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123378

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118950

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113570


File: python.info,  Node: C API,  Next: Build,  Prev: Core and Builtins,  Up: Python next

1.22.1.7 C API
..............

   - gh-113601(1): Removed debug build assertions related to interning
     strings, which were falsely triggered by stable ABI extensions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113601


File: python.info,  Node: Build,  Prev: C API,  Up: Python next

1.22.1.8 Build
..............

   - gh-89640(1): Hard-code float word ordering as little endian on
     WASM.

   - gh-89640(2): Improve detection of float word ordering on Linux when
     link-time optimizations are enabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 7 final,  Next: Python 3 12 6 final,  Prev: Python next,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.2 Python 3.12.7 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-10-01'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<2>.
* Tests: Tests<2>.
* Security::
* Library: Library<2>.
* IDLE: IDLE<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>.
* C API: C API<2>.
* Build: Build<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<2>,  Next: Tests<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.2.1 Windows
................

   - gh-123915(1): Ensure that ‘Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat’ uses
     different directories for AMD64 and ARM64 builds.

   - gh-117505(2): Fixes an issue with the Windows installer not running
     ensurepip in a fully isolated environment.  This could cause
     unexpected interactions with the user site-packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123915

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117505


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<2>,  Next: Security,  Prev: Windows<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.2.2 Tests
..............

   - gh-124378(1): Updated ‘test_ttk’ to pass with Tcl/Tk 8.6.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124378


File: python.info,  Node: Security,  Next: Library<2>,  Prev: Tests<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.2.3 Security
.................

   - gh-122792(1): Changed IPv4-mapped ‘ipaddress.IPv6Address’ to
     consistently use the mapped IPv4 address value for deciding
     properties.  Properties which have their behavior fixed are
     ‘is_multicast’, ‘is_reserved’, ‘is_link_local’, ‘is_global’, and
     ‘is_unspecified’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122792


File: python.info,  Node: Library<2>,  Next: IDLE<4>,  Prev: Security,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.2.4 Library
................

   - gh-116850(1): Fix *note argparse: 6. for namespaces with not
     directly writable dict (e.g.  classes).

   - gh-58573(2): Fix conflicts between abbreviated long options in the
     parent parser and subparsers in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-61181(3): Fix support of *note choices: 13df. with string value
     in *note argparse: 6.  Substrings of the specified string no longer
     considered valid values.

   - gh-80259(4): Fix *note argparse: 6. support of positional arguments
     with ‘nargs='?'’, ‘default=argparse.SUPPRESS’ and specified ‘type’.

   - gh-124498(5): Fix *note typing.TypeAliasType: 160. not to be
     generic, when ‘type_params’ is an empty tuple.

   - gh-124345(6): *note argparse: 6. vim supports abbreviated
     single-dash long options separated by ‘=’ from its value.

   - gh-104860(7): Fix disallowing abbreviation of single-dash long
     options in *note argparse: 6. with ‘allow_abbrev=False’.

   - gh-63143(8): Fix parsing mutually exclusive arguments in *note
     argparse: 6.  Arguments with the value identical to the default
     value (e.g.  booleans, small integers, empty or 1-character
     strings) are no longer considered "not present".

   - gh-72795(9): Positional arguments with *note nargs: 13e0. equal to
     ‘'*'’ or ‘argparse.REMAINDER’ are no longer required.  This allows
     to use positional argument with ‘nargs='*'’ and without ‘default’
     in mutually exclusive group and improves error message about
     required arguments.

   - gh-59317(10): Fix parsing positional argument with *note nargs:
     13e0. equal to ‘'?'’ or ‘'*'’ if it is preceded by an option and
     another positional argument.

   - gh-53780(11): *note argparse: 6. now ignores the first ‘"--"’
     (double dash) between an option and command.

   - gh-124217(12): Add RFC 9637 reserved IPv6 block ‘3fff::/20’ in
     *note ipaddress: 7a. module.

   - gh-124248(13): Fixed potential crash when using *note struct: cf.
     to process zero-width 'Pascal string' fields (‘0p’).

   - gh-81691(14): Fix handling of multiple ‘"--"’ (double dashes) in
     *note argparse: 6.  Only the first one has now been removed, all
     subsequent ones are now taken literally.

   - gh-87041(15): Fix a bug in *note argparse: 6. where lengthy
     subparser argument help is incorrectly indented.

   - gh-124171(16): Add workaround for broken ‘fmod()’ implementations
     on Windows, that loose zero sign (e.g.  ‘fmod(-10, 1)’ returns
     ‘0.0’).  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-123934(17): Fix *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: d11. reseting
     magic methods return values after ‘.reset_mock(return_value=True)’
     was called.

   - gh-123935(18): Fix parent slots detection for dataclasses that
     inherit from classes with ‘__dictoffset__’.

   - gh-123892(19): Add ‘"_wmi"’ to *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 668.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116810(20): Resolve a memory leak introduced in CPython 3.10's
     *note ssl: ca. when the *note ssl.SSLSocket.session: 13e1. property
     was accessed.  Speeds up read and write access to said property by
     no longer unnecessarily cloning session objects via serialization.

   - gh-121735(21): When working with zip archives, importlib.resources
     now properly honors module-adjacent references (e.g.
     ‘files(pkg.mod)’ and not just ‘files(pkg)’).

   - gh-119004(22): Fix a crash in *note OrderedDict.__eq__: 13e2. when
     operands are mutated during the check.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - bpo-44864(23): Do not translate user-provided strings in *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 2bb.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116850

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58573

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61181

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80259

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124498

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124345

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104860

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63143

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72795

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59317

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53780

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124217

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124248

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81691

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87041

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124171

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123934

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123935

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123892

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116810

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121735

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119004

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44864


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<4>,  Next: Core and Builtins<2>,  Prev: Library<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.2.5 IDLE
.............

   - gh-112938(1): Fix uninteruptable hang when Shell gets rapid
     continuous output.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112938


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<2>,  Next: C API<2>,  Prev: IDLE<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.2.6 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-116510(1): Fix a bug that can cause a crash when
     sub-interpreters use "basic" single-phase extension modules.
     Shared objects could refer to PyGC_Head nodes that had been freed
     as part of interpreter cleanup.

   - gh-124188(2): Fix reading and decoding a line from the source file
     witn non-UTF-8 encoding for syntax errors raised in the compiler.

   - gh-77894(3): Fix possible crash in the garbage collector when it
     tries to break a reference loop containing a *note memoryview: 17f.
     object.  Now a ‘memoryview’ object can only be cleared if there are
     no buffers that refer it.

   - gh-98442(4): Fix too wide source locations of the cleanup
     instructions of a with statement.

   - gh-113993(5): Strings interned with *note sys.intern(): 116c. are
     again garbage-collected when no longer used, as per the
     documentation.  Strings interned with the C function *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 6e9. are still immortal.  Internals of
     the string interning mechanism have been changed.  This may affect
     performance and identities of *note str: 157. objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116510

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124188

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77894

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98442

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993


File: python.info,  Node: C API<2>,  Next: Build<2>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.2.7 C API
..............

   - gh-113993(1): *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 6e9. no longer
     prevents its argument from being garbage collected.

     Several functions that take ‘char *’ are now documented as possibly
     preventing string objects from being garbage collected; refer to
     their documentation for details: *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 13e6, *note PyDict_SetItemString():
     13e7, *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 13e8, *note
     PyObject_DelAttrString(): 13e9, *note PyUnicode_InternFromString():
     13e6, and ‘PyModule_Add*’ convenience functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993


File: python.info,  Node: Build<2>,  Prev: C API<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.2.8 Build
..............

   - gh-124487(1): Windows builds now use Windows 8.1 as their API
     baseline (installation already required Windows 8.1).

   - gh-123917(2): Fix the check for the ‘crypt()’ function in the
     configure script.  Patch by Paul Smith and Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124487

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123917


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 6 final,  Next: Python 3 12 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 7 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.3 Python 3.12.6 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-09-06'

* Menu:

* macOS::
* Windows: Windows<3>.
* Tools/Demos::
* Tests: Tests<3>.
* Security: Security<2>.
* Library: Library<3>.
* IDLE: IDLE<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>.
* Build: Build<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS,  Next: Windows<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.3.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-123418(1): Updated macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<3>,  Next: Tools/Demos,  Prev: macOS,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.3.2 Windows
................

   - gh-123418(1): Updated Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   - gh-100256(2): *note mimetypes: 8a. no longer fails when it
     encounters an inaccessible registry key.

   - gh-79846(3): Makes ‘ssl.create_default_context()’ ignore invalid
     certificates in the Windows certificate store

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100256

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79846


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos,  Next: Tests<3>,  Prev: Windows<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.3.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-123418(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.15 and
     multissltests to use 3.0.15, 3.1.7, and 3.2.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<3>,  Next: Security<2>,  Prev: Tools/Demos,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.3.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-101525(1): Skip ‘test_gdb’ if the binary is relocated by BOLT.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525


File: python.info,  Node: Security<2>,  Next: Library<3>,  Prev: Tests<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.3.5 Security
.................

   - gh-123678(1): Upgrade libexpat to 2.6.3

   - gh-121285(2): Remove backtracking from tarfile header parsing for
     ‘hdrcharset’, PAX, and GNU sparse headers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123678

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121285


File: python.info,  Node: Library<3>,  Next: IDLE<5>,  Prev: Security<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.3.6 Library
................

   - gh-123270(1): Applied a more surgical fix for malformed payloads in
     *note zipfile.Path: 4c5. causing infinite loops (gh-122905(2))
     without breaking contents using legitimate characters.

   - gh-123213(3): *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend(): 1064.
     and *note Element: 240. assignment no longer hide the internal
     exception if an erronous generator is passed.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-85110(4): Preserve relative path in URL without netloc in *note
     urllib.parse.urlunsplit(): 13f2. and *note
     urllib.parse.urlunparse(): 13f3.

   - gh-123067(5): Fix quadratic complexity in parsing ‘"’-quoted cookie
     values with backslashes by *note http.cookies: 6c.

   - gh-122903(6): ‘zipfile.Path.glob’ now correctly matches directories
     instead of silently omitting them.

   - gh-122905(7): *note zipfile.Path: 4c5. objects now sanitize names
     from the zipfile.

   - gh-122695(8): Fixed double-free when using *note
     gc.get_referents(): 626. with a freed *note asyncio.Future: a2e.
     iterator.

   - gh-116263(9): *note logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 13f4. no
     longer rolls over empty log files.

   - gh-118814(10): Fix the *note typing.TypeVar: 164. constructor when
     name is passed by keyword.

   - gh-122478(11): Remove internal frames from tracebacks shown in
     *note code.InteractiveInterpreter: 13f5. with non-default *note
     sys.excepthook(): 62d.  Save correct tracebacks in *note
     sys.last_traceback: 1e8. and update ‘__traceback__’ attribute of
     *note sys.last_value: 1e7. and *note sys.last_exc: 1e5.

   - gh-113785(12): *note csv: 27. now correctly parses numeric fields
     (when used with *note csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 13f6.) which start with
     an escape character.

   - gh-112182(13): ‘asyncio.futures.Future.set_exception()’ now
     transforms *note StopIteration: a5d. into *note RuntimeError: 17a.
     instead of hanging or other misbehavior.  Patch contributed by
     Jamie Phan.

   - gh-108172(14): ‘webbrowser’ honors OS preferred browser on Linux
     when its desktop entry name contains the text of a known browser
     name.

   - gh-102988(15): *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 387. and *note
     email.utils.parseaddr(): 388. now return ‘('', '')’ 2-tuples in
     more situations where invalid email addresses are encountered
     instead of potentially inaccurate values.  Add optional 'strict'
     parameter to these two functions: use ‘strict=False’ to get the old
     behavior, accept malformed inputs.  ‘getattr(email.utils,
     'supports_strict_parsing', False)’ can be use to check if the
     'strict' paramater is available.  Patch by Thomas Dwyer and Victor
     Stinner to improve the CVE-2023-27043 fix.

   - gh-99437(16): *note runpy.run_path(): 11af. now decodes path-like
     objects, making sure __file__ and sys.argv[0] of the module being
     run are always strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123270

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122905

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123213

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85110

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123067

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122903

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122905

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122695

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116263

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118814

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122478

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113785

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112182

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108172

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99437


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<5>,  Next: Core and Builtins<3>,  Prev: Library<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.3.7 IDLE
.............

   - gh-120083(1): Add explicit black IDLE Hovertip foreground color
     needed for recent macOS. Fixes Sonoma showing unreadable white on
     pale yellow.  Patch by John Riggles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120083


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<3>,  Next: Build<3>,  Prev: IDLE<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.3.8 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-123321(1): Prevent Parser/myreadline race condition from
     segfaulting on multi-threaded use.  Patch by Bar Harel and Amit
     Wienner.

   - gh-122982(2): Extend the deprecation period for bool inversion
     (‘~’) by two years.

   - gh-123229(3): Fix valgrind warning by initializing the f-string
     buffers to 0 in the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-123142(4): Fix too-wide source location in exception tracebacks
     coming from broken iterables in comprehensions.

   - gh-123048(5): Fix a bug where pattern matching code could emit a
     *note JUMP_FORWARD: 13f9. with no source location.

   - gh-123083(6): Fix a potential use-after-free in
     ‘STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT’.

   - gh-122527(7): Fix a crash that occurred when a ‘PyStructSequence’
     was deallocated after its type's dictionary was cleared by the GC.
     The type's *note tp_basicsize: 7cb. now accounts for non-sequence
     fields that aren't included in the *note Py_SIZE: 599. of the
     sequence.

   - gh-93691(8): Fix source locations of instructions generated for
     with statements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123321

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122982

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123229

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123142

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123048

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123083

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122527

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691


File: python.info,  Node: Build<3>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.3.9 Build
..............

   - gh-123297(1): Propagate the value of ‘LDFLAGS’ to ‘LDCXXSHARED’ in
     *note sysconfig: d5.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123297


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 5 final,  Next: Python 3 12 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 6 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.4 Python 3.12.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-08-06'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<4>.
* Tests: Tests<4>.
* Security: Security<3>.
* Library: Library<4>.
* IDLE: IDLE<6>.
* Documentation: Documentation<2>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>.
* Build: Build<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<4>,  Next: Tests<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.4.1 Windows
................

   - gh-122573(1): The Windows build of CPython now requires 3.10 or
     newer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122573


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<4>,  Next: Security<3>,  Prev: Windows<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.4.2 Tests
..............

   - gh-59022(1): Add tests for *note pkgutil.extend_path(): 13fe.
     Patch by Andreas Stocker.

   - gh-99242(2): *note os.getloadavg(): 13ff. may throw *note OSError:
     644. when running regression tests under certain conditions (e.g.
     chroot).  This error is now caught and ignored, since reporting
     load average is optional.

   - gh-121084(3): Fix test_typing random leaks.  Clear typing ABC
     caches when running tests for refleaks (‘-R’ option): call
     ‘_abc_caches_clear()’ on typing abstract classes and their
     subclasses.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121160(4): Add a test for *note readline.set_history_length():
     1400.  Note that this test may fail on readline libraries.

   - gh-121200(5): Fix ‘test_expanduser_pwd2()’ of ‘test_posixpath’.
     Call ‘getpwnam()’ to get ‘pw_dir’, since it can be different than
     ‘getpwall()’ ‘pw_dir’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121188(6): When creating the JUnit XML file, regrtest now
     escapes characters which are invalid in XML, such as the chr(27)
     control character used in ANSI escape sequences.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59022

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99242

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121084

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121160

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121200

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121188


File: python.info,  Node: Security<3>,  Next: Library<4>,  Prev: Tests<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.4.3 Security
.................

   - gh-121957(1): Fixed missing audit events around interactive use of
     Python, now also properly firing for ‘python -i’, as well as for
     ‘python -m asyncio’.  The event in question is ‘cpython.run_stdin’.

   - gh-122133(2): Authenticate the socket connection for the
     ‘socket.socketpair()’ fallback on platforms where ‘AF_UNIX’ is not
     available like Windows.

     Patch by Gregory P. Smith <<greg@krypto.org>> and Seth Larson
     <<seth@python.org>>.  Reported by Ellie <<el@horse64.org>>

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121957

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122133


File: python.info,  Node: Library<4>,  Next: IDLE<6>,  Prev: Security<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.4.4 Library
................

   - gh-122744(1): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to
     version 24.2.

   - gh-122334(2): Fix crash when importing *note ssl: ca. after the
     main interpreter restarts.

   - gh-87320(3): In *note code.InteractiveInterpreter: 13f5, handle
     exceptions caused by calling a non-default *note sys.excepthook():
     62d.  Before, the exception bubbled up to the caller, ending the
     REPL.

   - gh-122400(4): Handle *note ValueError: 183.s raised by *note
     os.stat(): 1bf. in *note filecmp.dircmp: dcd. and *note
     filecmp.cmpfiles(): 1403.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-122311(5): Fix some error messages in *note pickle: a1.

   - gh-121650(6): *note email: 37. headers with embedded newlines are
     now quoted on output.  The *note generator: 3c. will now refuse to
     serialize (write) headers that are unsafely folded or delimited;
     see *note verify_generated_headers: 384.  (Contributed by Bas
     Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in gh-121650(7).)

   - gh-122332(8): Fixed segfault with *note asyncio.Task.get_coro():
     820. when using an eager task factory.

   - gh-122170(9): Handle *note ValueError: 183.s raised by *note
     os.stat(): 1bf. in *note linecache: 80.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121723(10): Make *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 1041. accept
     any object implementing the Queue public API. See the *note queue
     configuration: 1404. section for details.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-82951(11): Serializing objects with complex ‘__qualname__’ (such
     as unbound methods and nested classes) by name no longer involves
     serializing parent objects by value in pickle protocols < 4.

   - gh-120930(12): Fixed a bug introduced by gh-92081(13) that added an
     incorrect extra blank to encoded words occurring in wrapped
     headers.

   - gh-121474(14): Fix missing sanity check for ‘parties’ arg in *note
     threading.Barrier: 1074. constructor.  Patch by Clinton Christian
     (pygeek).

   - gh-121025(15): Improve the *note __repr__(): 416. of *note
     functools.partialmethod: 8c7.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121018(16): Fixed issues where
     ‘argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args()’ did not honor
     ‘exit_on_error=False’.  Based on patch by Ben Hsing.

   - gh-119614(17): Fix truncation of strings with embedded null
     characters in some internal operations in *note tkinter: ea.

   - gh-120910(18): When reading installed files from an egg, use
     ‘relative_to(walk_up=True)’ to honor files installed outside of the
     installation root.

   - gh-101830(19): Accessing the *note tkinter: ea. object's string
     representation no longer converts the underlying Tcl object to a
     string on Windows.

   - gh-120811(20): Fix possible memory leak in *note
     contextvars.Context.run(): 1405.

   - gh-120769(21): Make empty line in *note pdb: a0. repeats the last
     command even when the command is from ‘cmdqueue’.

   - gh-120732(22): Fix ‘name’ passing to *note unittest.mock.Mock: 896.
     object when using *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1406.

   - gh-120495(23): Fix incorrect exception handling in Tab Nanny.
     Patch by Wulian233.

   - gh-120343(24): Fix column offset reporting for tokens that come
     after multiline f-strings in the *note tokenize: f6. module.

   - gh-119600(25): Fix *note unittest.mock.patch(): d12. to not read
     attributes of the target when ‘new_callable’ is set.  Patch by
     Robert Collins.

   - gh-120289(26): Fixed the use-after-free issue in *note cProfile:
     25. by disallowing ‘disable()’ and ‘clear()’ in external timers.

   - gh-114053(27): Fix edge-case bug where *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. would produce incorrect results if
     type parameters in a class scope were overridden by assignments in
     a class scope and ‘from __future__ import annotations’ semantics
     were enabled.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-114053(28): Fix erroneous *note NameError: 144. when calling
     *note inspect.get_annotations(): 636. with ‘eval_str=True`’ on a
     class that made use of PEP 695(29) type parameters in a module that
     had ‘from __future__ import annotations’ at the top of the file.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-120268(30): Prohibit passing ‘None’ to pure-Python *note
     datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): 1407. to achieve consistency with
     C-extension implementation.

   - gh-120244(31): Fix memory leak in *note re.sub(): 201. when the
     replacement string contains backreferences.

   - gh-120211(32): Fix *note tkinter.ttk: f4. with Tcl/Tk 9.0.

   - gh-71587(33): Fix crash in C version of *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1408. when called again on the
     restarted interpreter.

   - gh-117983(34): Defer the ‘threading’ import in ‘importlib.util’
     until lazy loading is used.

   - gh-119698(35): Fix *note symtable.Class.get_methods(): 261. and
     document its behaviour.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120121(36): Add *note concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError:
     1409. to module's ‘__all__’.

   - gh-112672(37): Support building *note tkinter: ea. with Tcl 9.0.

   - gh-65454(38): *note unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock(): 140a. no
     longer triggers a call to a ‘PropertyMock’ being attached.

   - gh-81936(39): ‘help()’ and ‘showtopic()’ methods now respect a
     configured 'output' argument to ‘pydoc.Helper’ and not use the
     pager in such cases.  Patch by Enrico Tröger.

   - gh-119577(40): The *note DeprecationWarning: 179. emitted when
     testing the truth value of an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element:
     240. now describes unconditionally returning ‘True’ in a future
     version rather than raising an exception in Python 3.14.

   - gh-119506(41): Fix ‘io.TextIOWrapper.write()’ method breaks
     internal buffer when the method is called again during flushing
     internal buffer.

   - gh-119189(42): When using the ‘**’ operator or *note pow(): 816.
     with *note Fraction: 1a8. as the base and an exponent that is not
     rational, a float, or a complex, the fraction is no longer
     converted to a float.

   - gh-105623(43): Fix performance degradation in *note
     logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 13f4.  Patch by Craig Robson.

   - bpo-39324(44): Add mime type mapping for .md <-> text/markdown

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122744

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122334

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87320

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122400

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122311

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122332

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122170

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121723

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82951

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120930

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121474

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121025

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121018

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119614

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120910

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101830

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120811

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120769

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120732

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120495

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120343

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119600

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120289

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120268

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120244

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120211

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71587

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117983

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120121

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112672

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65454

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81936

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119577

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119506

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119189

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105623

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39324


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<6>,  Next: Documentation<2>,  Prev: Library<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.4.5 IDLE
.............

   - gh-122482(1): Change About IDLE to direct users to
     discuss.python.org instead of the now unused idle-dev email and
     mailing list.

   - gh-78889(2): Stop Shell freezes by blocking user access to
     non-method sys.stdout.shell attributes, which are all private.

   - gh-120104(3): Fix padding in config and search dialog windows in
     IDLE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122482

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78889

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120104


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<2>,  Next: Core and Builtins<4>,  Prev: IDLE<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.4.6 Documentation
......................

   - gh-121749(1): Fix documentation for *note PyModule_AddObjectRef():
     6c9.

   - gh-120012(2): Clarify the behaviours of *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.empty(): 140d. and *note
     multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.empty(): 140e. on closed queues.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121749

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120012


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<4>,  Next: Build<4>,  Prev: Documentation<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.4.7 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-122208(1): Dictionary watchers now only deliver the
     PyDict_EVENT_ADDED event when the insertion is in a known good
     state to succeed.

   - gh-122300(2): Preserve AST nodes for f-string with single-element
     format specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-122029(3): Emit ‘c_call’ events in *note sys.setprofile(): 1376.
     when a ‘PyMethodObject’ pointing to a ‘PyCFunction’ is called.

   - gh-122026(4): Fix a bug that caused the tokenizer to not correctly
     identify mismatched parentheses inside f-strings in some
     situations.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-121657(5): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 146. message if the
     user tries to use *note yield from: 811. outside a function.

   - gh-117482(6): Unexpected slot wrappers are no longer created for
     builtin static types in subinterpreters.

   - gh-121439(7): Allow tuples of length 20 in the freelist to be
     reused.

   - gh-121130(8): Fix f-strings with debug expressions in format
     specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-120722(9): Correctly set the bytecode position on return
     instructions within lambdas.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-120384(10): Fix an array out of bounds crash in
     ‘list_ass_subscript’, which could be invoked via some specificly
     tailored input: including concurrent modification of a list object,
     where one thread assigns a slice and another clears it.

   - gh-120380(11): Fix Python implementation of *note pickle.Pickler:
     867. for *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0. objects when
     using protocol version 5.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-93691(12): Fix source locations of instructions generated for
     the iterator of a for statement.

   - gh-120198(13): Fix a crash when multiple threads read and write to
     the same ‘__class__’ of an object concurrently.

   - gh-120298(14): Fix use-after free in ‘list_richcompare_impl’ which
     can be invoked via some specificly tailored evil input.

   - gh-119666(15): Fix a compiler crash in the case where two
     comprehensions in class scope both reference ‘__class__’.

   - bpo-24766(16): Fix handling of ‘doc’ argument to subclasses of
     ‘property’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122208

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122300

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122029

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122026

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121657

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117482

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121439

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121130

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120722

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120384

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120380

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120198

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120298

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119666

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24766


File: python.info,  Node: Build<4>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.4.8 Build
..............

   - gh-120671(1): Fix failing configure tests due to a missing space
     when appending to CFLAGS.

   - gh-115983(2): Skip building test modules that must be built as
     shared under WASI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120671

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115983


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 4 final,  Next: Python 3 12 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 5 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.5 Python 3.12.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-06-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<5>.
* Library: Library<5>.
* Documentation: Documentation<3>.
* Tests: Tests<5>.
* Windows: Windows<5>.
* macOS: macOS<2>.
* IDLE: IDLE<7>.
* C API: C API<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<4>,  Next: Core and Builtins<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.5.1 Security
.................

   - gh-118486(1): *note os.mkdir(): 1c1. on Windows now accepts 'mode'
     of ‘0o700’ to restrict the new directory to the current user.  This
     fixes CVE 2024-4030(2) affecting *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c3. in
     scenarios where the base temporary directory is more permissive
     than the default.

   - gh-116741(3): Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.2

   - gh-117233(4): Detect BLAKE2, SHA3, Shake, & truncated SHA512
     support in the OpenSSL-ish libcrypto library at build time.  This
     allows *note hashlib: 63. to be used with libraries that do not to
     support every algorithm that upstream OpenSSL does.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116741

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117233


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<5>,  Next: Library<5>,  Prev: Security<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.5.2 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-119821(1): Fix execution of *note annotation scopes: 167. within
     classes when ‘globals’ is set to a non-dict.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-119311(2): Fix bug where names are unexpectedly mangled in the
     bases of generic classes.

   - gh-119395(3): Fix bug where names appearing after a generic class
     are mangled as if they are in the generic class.

   - gh-119213(4): Non-builtin modules built with argument clinic were
     crashing if used in a subinterpreter before the main interpreter.
     The objects that were causing the problem by leaking between
     interpreters carelessly have been fixed.

   - gh-119011(5): Fixes ‘type.__type_params__’ to return an empty tuple
     instead of a descriptor.

   - gh-118997(6): Fix _Py_ClearImmortal() assertion: use
     _Py_IsImmortal() to tolerate reference count lower than
     _Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT. Fix the assertion for the stable ABI, when a C
     extension is built with Python 3.11 or lower.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-118513(7): Fix incorrect *note UnboundLocalError: 13ad. when two
     comprehensions in the same function both reference the same name,
     and in one comprehension the name is bound while in the other it's
     an implicit global.

   - gh-118164(8): Break a loop between the Python implementation of the
     *note decimal: 33. module and the Python code for integer to string
     conversion.  Also optimize integer to string conversion for values
     in the range from 9_000 to 135_000 decimal digits.

   - gh-118272(9): Fix bug where ‘generator.close’ does not free the
     generator frame's locals.

   - gh-116767(10): Fix crash in compiler on 'async with' that has many
     context managers.

   - gh-117894(11): Prevent ‘agen.aclose()’ objects being re-used after
     ‘.throw()’.

   - gh-117881(12): prevent concurrent access to an async generator via
     athrow().throw() or asend().throw()

   - gh-115874(13): Fixed a possible segfault during garbage collection
     of ‘_asyncio.FutureIter’ objects

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119821

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119311

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119395

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119213

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119011

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118997

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118513

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118272

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116767

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117894

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117881

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115874


File: python.info,  Node: Library<5>,  Next: Documentation<3>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.5.3 Library
................

   - gh-119819(1): Fix regression to allow logging configuration with
     multiprocessing queue types.

   - gh-89727(2): Fix issue with *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. where a
     *note RecursionError: be1. is raised on deep directory trees.

   - gh-89727(3): Partially fix issue with *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8.
     where a *note RecursionError: be1. is raised on deep directory
     trees.  A recursion error is no longer raised when
     ‘rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks’ is false.

   - gh-119118(4): Fix performance regression in the *note tokenize: f6.
     module by caching the ‘line’ token attribute and calculating the
     column offset more efficiently.

   - gh-89727(5): Fix issue with *note os.fwalk(): 9b6. where a *note
     RecursionError: be1. was raised on deep directory trees by
     adjusting the implementation to be iterative instead of recursive.

   - gh-118263(6): Speed up *note os.path.normpath(): 11ad. with a
     direct C call.

   - gh-113892(7): Now, the method ‘sock_connect’ of *note
     asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: 400. raises a *note ValueError: 183. if
     given socket is not in non-blocking mode, as well as in other loop
     implementations.

   - gh-118507(8): Fix *note os.path.isfile(): 858. on Windows for
     pipes.

   - gh-119174(9): Fix high DPI causes turtledemo(turtle-graphics
     examples) windows blurry Patch by Wulian233 and Terry Jan Reedy

   - gh-118643(10): Fix an AttributeError in the *note email: 37. module
     when re-fold a long address list.  Also fix more cases of incorrect
     encoding of the address separator in the address list.

   - gh-58933(11): Make *note pdb: a0. return to caller frame correctly
     when ‘f_trace’ of the caller frame is not set

   - gh-118868(12): Fixed issue where kwargs were no longer passed to
     the logging handler QueueHandler

   - gh-118164(13): The Python implementation of the ‘decimal’ module
     could appear to hang in relatively small power cases (like
     ‘2**117’) if context precision was set to a very high value.  A
     different method to check for exactly representable results is used
     now that doesn't rely on computing ‘10**precision’ (which could be
     effectively too large to compute).

   - gh-118404(14): Fix *note inspect.signature(): 548. for
     non-comparable callables.

   - gh-118314(15): Fix an edge case in *note binascii.a2b_base64():
     1415. strict mode, where excessive padding is not detected when no
     padding is necessary.

   - gh-118042(16): Fix an unraisable exception in
     ‘telnetlib.Telnet.__del__()’ when the ‘__init__()’ method was not
     called.

   - gh-118221(17): Fix a bug where ‘sqlite3.iterdump()’ could fail if a
     custom *note row factory: 1416. was used.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-118013(18): Fix regression introduced in gh-103193(19) that
     meant that calling *note inspect.getattr_static(): 1b2. on an
     instance would cause a strong reference to that instance's class to
     persist in an internal cache in the *note inspect: 78. module.
     This caused unexpected memory consumption if the class was
     dynamically created, the class held strong references to other
     objects which took up a significant amount of memory, and the cache
     contained the sole strong reference to the class.  The fix for the
     regression leads to a slowdown in ‘getattr_static()’, but the
     function should still be significantly faster than it was in Python
     3.11.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-90848(20): Fixed *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1406. to
     configure parent mock with keyword arguments.

   - gh-118168(21): Fix incorrect argument substitution when *note
     typing.Unpack: 1417. is used with the builtin *note tuple: 4e6.
     ‘typing.Unpack’ now raises *note TypeError: 2ba. when used with
     certain invalid types.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-118033(22): Fix *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 3bc. not creating
     a ‘__weakref__’ slot when subclassing *note typing.Generic: 1418.

   - gh-117535(23): Do not try to get the source line for made up file
     name "sys" in *note warnings: 10d.

   - gh-114053(24): Fix erroneous *note NameError: 144. when calling
     *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. on a class that made use of PEP
     695(25) type parameters in a module that had ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ at the top of the file.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-117995(26): Don't raise *note DeprecationWarning: 179. when a
     *note sequence: 238. of parameters is used to bind indexed,
     nameless placeholders.  See also gh-100668(27).

   - gh-80361(28): Fix TypeError in *note
     email.message.Message.get_payload(): 105e. when the charset is RFC
     2231(29) encoded.

   - gh-86650(30): Fix IndexError when parse some emails with invalid
     Message-ID (including one-off addresses generated by Microsoft
     Outlook).

   - gh-117691(31): Improve the error messages emitted by *note tarfile:
     d8. deprecation warnings relating to PEP 706.  If a ‘filter’
     argument is not provided to ‘extract()’ or ‘extractall’, the
     deprecation warning now points to the line in the user's code where
     the relevant function was called.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-77102(32): *note site: c2. module now parses ‘.pth’ file with
     UTF-8 first, and *note locale encoding: 1419. if
     ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ happened.  It supported only locale encoding
     before.

   - gh-117692(33): Fixes a bug when *note doctest.DocTestFinder: 141a.
     was failing on wrapped ‘builtin_function_or_method’.

   - gh-117566(34): *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_loopback(): 141b.
     will now return ‘True’ for IPv4-mapped loopback addresses, i.e.
     addresses in the ‘::ffff:127.0.0.0/104’ address space.

   - gh-117503(35): Fix support of non-ASCII user names in bytes paths
     in *note os.path.expanduser(): 85b. on Posix.

   - gh-117313(36): Only treat ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\r\n'’ as line
     separators in re-folding the *note email: 37. messages.  Preserve
     control characters ‘'\v'’, ‘'\f'’, ‘'\x1c'’, ‘'\x1d'’ and ‘'\x1e'’
     and Unicode line separators ‘'\x85'’, ‘'\u2028'’ and ‘'\u2029'’ as
     is.

   - gh-113171(37): Fixed various false positives and false negatives in

        * *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private: 141c. (see these docs
          for details)

        * *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global: dec.

        * *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private: 141d.

        * *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_global: 141e.

     Also in the corresponding *note ipaddress.IPv4Network: 9a4. and
     *note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 9a3. attributes.

   - gh-103956(38): Fix lack of newline characters in *note trace: f8.
     module output when line tracing is enabled but source code line for
     current frame is not available.

   - gh-92081(39): Fix missing spaces in email headers when the spaces
     are mixed with encoded 8-bit characters.

   - gh-103194(40): Prepare Tkinter for C API changes in Tcl 8.7/9.0 to
     avoid ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ being unexpectedly returned instead of
     *note bool: 17d, *note str: 157, *note bytearray: 2c0, or *note
     int: 17e.

   - gh-87106(41): Fixed handling in *note inspect.Signature.bind():
     141f. of keyword arguments having the same name as positional-only
     arguments when a variadic keyword argument (e.g.  ‘**kwargs’) is
     present.

   - bpo-45767(42): Fix integer conversion in *note os.major(): 1420,
     *note os.minor(): 1421, and *note os.makedev(): 1422.  Support
     device numbers larger than ‘2**63-1’.  Support non-existent device
     number (‘NODEV’).

   - bpo-40943(43): Fix several IndexError when parse emails with
     truncated Message-ID, address, routes, etc, e.g.  ‘example@’.

   - bpo-30988(44): Fix parsing of emails with invalid address headers
     having a leading or trailing dot.  Patch by tsufeki.

   - gh-67693(45): Fix *note urllib.parse.urlunparse(): 13f3. and *note
     urllib.parse.urlunsplit(): 13f2. for URIs with path starting with
     multiple slashes and no authority.  Based on patch by Ashwin
     Ramaswami.

   - bpo-15010(46): *note unittest.TestLoader.discover(): e77. now saves
     the original value of ‘unittest.TestLoader._top_level_dir’ and
     restores it at the end of the call.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119819

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119118

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118263

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113892

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118507

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119174

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118643

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58933

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118868

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118404

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118314

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118042

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118221

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118013

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90848

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118168

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118033

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117535

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117995

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100668

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80361

   (29) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86650

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117691

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77102

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117692

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117566

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117503

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117313

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113171

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103956

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103194

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87106

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45767

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30988

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67693

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15010


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<3>,  Next: Tests<5>,  Prev: Library<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.5.4 Documentation
......................

   - gh-117928(1): The minimum Sphinx version required for the
     documentation is now 6.2.1.

   - gh-91565(2): Changes to documentation files and config outputs to
     reflect the new location for reporting bugs - i.e.  GitHub rather
     than bugs.python.org.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117928

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91565


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<5>,  Next: Windows<5>,  Prev: Documentation<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.5.5 Tests
..............

   - gh-119050(1): regrtest test runner: Add XML support to the refleak
     checker (-R option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119050


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<5>,  Next: macOS<2>,  Prev: Tests<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.5.6 Windows
................

   - gh-119690(1): Adds Unicode support and fixes audit events for
     ‘_winapi.CreateNamedPipe’.

   - gh-119070(2): Fixes ‘py.exe’ handling of shebangs like
     ‘/usr/bin/env python3.12’, which were previously interpreted as
     ‘python3.exe’ instead of ‘python3.12.exe’.

   - gh-118347(3): Fixes launcher updates not being installed.

   - gh-115009(4): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

   - gh-90329(5): Suppress the warning displayed on virtual environment
     creation when the requested and created paths differ only by a
     short (8.3 style) name.  Warnings will continue to be shown if a
     junction or symlink in the path caused the venv to be created in a
     different location than originally requested.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119690

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119070

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118347

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90329


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<2>,  Next: IDLE<7>,  Prev: Windows<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.5.7 macOS
..............

   - gh-115009(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

   - gh-116145(2): Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116145


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<7>,  Next: C API<3>,  Prev: macOS<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.5.8 IDLE
.............

   - bpo-34774(1): Use user-selected color theme for Help => IDLE Doc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34774


File: python.info,  Node: C API<3>,  Prev: IDLE<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.5.9 C API
..............

   - gh-119585(1): Fix crash when a thread state that was created by
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd. calls a destructor that during
     *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1429. that calls back into *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 142a.
     This might occur when in the free-threaded build or when using
     thread-local variables whose destructors call *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd.

   - gh-117534(2): Improve validation logic in the C implementation of
     ‘datetime.fromisoformat()’ to better handle invalid years.  Patch
     by Vlad Efanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119585

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117534


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 3 final,  Next: Python 3 12 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 4 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.6 Python 3.12.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-04-09'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<6>.
* Library: Library<6>.
* Documentation: Documentation<4>.
* Tests: Tests<6>.
* Build: Build<5>.
* Windows: Windows<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<8>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<2>.
* C API: C API<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<5>,  Next: Core and Builtins<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.6.1 Security
.................

   - gh-115398(1): Allow controlling Expat >=2.6.0 reparse deferral (
     CVE 2023-52425(2)) by adding five new methods:

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.flush(): 142d.

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.flush(): 142e.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          142f.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          1430.

        * ‘xml.sax.expatreader.ExpatParser.flush()’

   - gh-115399(3): Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.0

   - gh-115243(4): Fix possible crashes in *note
     collections.deque.index(): c49. when the deque is concurrently
     modified.

   - gh-114572(5): *note ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats(): e39. and
     *note ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs(): e3a. now correctly lock access
     to the certificate store, when the *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. is
     shared across multiple threads.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115398

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115243

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114572


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<6>,  Next: Library<6>,  Prev: Security<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.6.2 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-109120(1): Added handle of incorrect star expressions, e.g ‘f(3,
     *)’.  Patch by Grigoryev Semyon

   - gh-99108(2): Updated the *note hashlib: 63. built-in HACL*
     project(3) C code from upstream that we use for many
     implementations when they are not present via OpenSSL in a given
     build.  This also avoids the rare potential for a C symbol name one
     definition rule linking issue.

   - gh-116735(4): For ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX’, set ‘arg0’ to
     ‘sys.monitoring.MISSING’ instead of ‘None’ for *note CALL: 1432.
     event.

   - gh-113964(5): Starting new threads and process creation through
     *note os.fork(): 233. are now only prevented once all non-daemon
     threads exit.

   - gh-116604(6): Respect the status of the garbage collector when
     indirect calls are made via *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 17c. and
     the evaluation breaker.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-116626(7): Ensure ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ always emits
     *note CALL: 1432.

   - gh-116296(8): Fix possible refleak in ‘object.__reduce__()’
     internal error handling.

   - gh-116034(9): Fix location of the error on a failed assertion.

   - gh-115823(10): Properly calculate error ranges in the parser when
     raising *note SyntaxError: 146. exceptions caused by invalid byte
     sequences.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112087(11): For an empty reverse iterator for list will be
     reduced to *note reversed(): 691.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-115154(12): Fix a bug that was causing the *note
     tokenize.untokenize(): 13d5. function to handle unicode named
     literals incorrectly.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-114828(13): Fix compilation crashes in uncommon code examples
     using *note super(): 206. inside a comprehension in a class body.

   - gh-115011(14): Setters for members with an unsigned integer type
     now support the same range of valid values for objects that has a
     *note __index__(): 51f. method as for *note int: 17e.

   - gh-112215(15): Change the C recursion limits to more closely
     reflect the underlying platform limits.

   - gh-96497(16): Fix incorrect resolution of mangled class variables
     used in assignment expressions in comprehensions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109120

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (3) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116735

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113964

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116604

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116626

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116296

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116034

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115823

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112087

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115154

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114828

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115011

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112215

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96497


File: python.info,  Node: Library<6>,  Next: Documentation<4>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.6.3 Library
................

   - gh-117467(1): Preserve mailbox ownership when rewriting in
     ‘mailbox.mbox.flush()’.  Patch by Tony Mountifield.

   - gh-117310(2): Fixed an unlikely early & extra ‘Py_DECREF’ triggered
     crash in *note ssl: ca. when creating a new ‘_ssl._SSLContext’ if
     CPython was built implausibly such that the default cipher list is
     empty 'or' the SSL library it was linked against reports a failure
     from its C ‘SSL_CTX_set_cipher_list()’ API.

   - gh-117178(3): Fix regression in lazy loading of self-referential
     modules, introduced in gh-114781(4).

   - gh-117084(5): Fix *note zipfile: 12b. extraction for directory
     entries with the name containing backslashes on Windows.

   - gh-117110(6): Fix a bug that prevents subclasses of *note
     typing.Any: 4a9. to be instantiated with arguments.  Patch by Chris
     Fu.

   - gh-90872(7): On Windows, *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): b51. no
     longer calls ‘WaitForSingleObject()’ with a negative timeout: pass
     ‘0’ ms if the timeout is negative.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116957(8): configparser: Don't leave ConfigParser values in an
     invalid state (stored as a list instead of a str) after an earlier
     read raised DuplicateSectionError or DuplicateOptionError.

   - gh-90095(9): Ignore empty lines and comments in ‘.pdbrc’

   - gh-116764(10): Restore support of ‘None’ and other false values in
     *note urllib.parse: 105. functions *note parse_qs(): 682. and *note
     parse_qsl(): 683.  Also, they now raise a TypeError for non-zero
     integers and non-empty sequences.

   - gh-116811(11): In ‘PathFinder.invalidate_caches’, delegate to
     ‘MetadataPathFinder.invalidate_caches’.

   - gh-116600(12): Fix *note repr(): 61e. for global *note Flag: 41d.
     members.

   - gh-116484(13): Change automatically generated ‘tkinter.Checkbutton’
     widget names to avoid collisions with automatically generated
     ‘tkinter.ttk.Checkbutton’ widget names within the same parent
     widget.

   - gh-116401(14): Fix blocking *note os.fwalk(): 9b6. and *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. on opening named pipe.

   - gh-116143(15): Fix a race in pydoc ‘_start_server’, eliminating a
     window in which ‘_start_server’ can return a thread that is
     "serving" but without a ‘docserver’ set.

   - gh-116325(16): *note typing: ff.: raise *note SyntaxError: 146.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 3ca. on forward references as
     empty strings.

   - gh-90535(17): Fix support of 'interval' values > 1 in
     ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’ for ‘when='MIDNIGHT'’ and
     ‘when='Wx'’.

   - gh-115978(18): Disable preadv(), readv(), pwritev(), and writev()
     on WASI.

     Under wasmtime for WASI 0.2, these functions don't pass test_posix
     (‘https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasmtime/issues/7830’).

   - gh-88352(19): Fix the computation of the next rollover time in the
     ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’ handler.  ‘computeRollover()’
     now always returns a timestamp larger than the specified time and
     works correctly during the DST change.  ‘doRollover()’ no longer
     overwrite the already rolled over file, saving from data loss when
     run at midnight or during repeated time at the DST change.

   - gh-87115(20): Set ‘__main__.__spec__’ to ‘None’ when running a
     script with *note pdb: a0.

   - gh-76511(21): Fix UnicodeEncodeError in ‘email.Message.as_string()’
     that results when a message that claims to be in the ascii
     character set actually has non-ascii characters.  Non-ascii
     characters are now replaced with the U+FFFD replacement character,
     like in the ‘replace’ error handler.

   - gh-116040(22): [Enum] fix by-value calls when second value is
     falsey; e.g.  Cardinal(1, 0)

   - gh-75988(23): Fixed *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1406. to
     pass the call through to the wrapped object to return the real
     result.

   - gh-115881(24): Fix issue where *note ast.parse(): 182. would
     incorrectly flag conditional context managers (such as ‘with (x()
     if y else z()): ...’) as invalid syntax if ‘feature_version=(3, 8)’
     was passed.  This reverts changes to the grammar made as part of
     gh-94949(25).

   - gh-115886(26): Fix silent truncation of the name with an embedded
     null character in *note multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory:
     1434.

   - gh-115809(27): Improve algorithm for computing which rolled-over
     log files to delete in ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’.  It is
     now reliable for handlers without ‘namer’ and with arbitrary
     deterministic ‘namer’ that leaves the datetime part in the file
     name unmodified.

   - gh-74668(28): *note urllib.parse: 105. functions *note parse_qs():
     682. and *note parse_qsl(): 683. now support bytes arguments
     containing raw and percent-encoded non-ASCII data.

   - gh-67044(29): *note csv.writer(): 1a2. now always quotes or escapes
     ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\n'’, regardless of 'lineterminator' value.

   - gh-115712(30): *note csv.writer(): 1a2. now quotes empty fields if
     delimiter is a space and skipinitialspace is true and raises
     exception if quoting is not possible.

   - gh-112364(31): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 71e. to handle
     format_spec with ‘"’, ‘'’ or ‘\\’.  Patched by Frank Hoffmann.

   - gh-111358(32): Fix a bug in
     ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop.shutdown_default_executor()’ to ensure the
     timeout passed to the coroutine behaves as expected.

   - gh-115618(33): Fix improper decreasing the reference count for
     ‘None’ argument in *note property: 424. methods *note getter():
     1435, *note setter(): 1436. and *note deleter(): 1437.

   - gh-115570(34): A *note DeprecationWarning: 179. is no longer
     omitted on access to the ‘__doc__’ attributes of the deprecated
     ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ pseudo-modules.

   - gh-112006(35): Fix *note inspect.unwrap(): de9. for types with the
     ‘__wrapper__’ data descriptor.

   - gh-101293(36): Support callables with the ‘__call__()’ method and
     types with ‘__new__()’ and ‘__init__()’ methods set to class
     methods, static methods, bound methods, partial functions, and
     other types of methods and descriptors in *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 54b.

   - gh-115392(37): Fix a bug in *note doctest: 36. where incorrect line
     numbers would be reported for decorated functions.

   - gh-114563(38): Fix several *note format(): 417. bugs when using the
     C implementation of *note Decimal: 5f0.: * memory leak in some rare
     cases when using the ‘z’ format option (coerce negative 0) *
     incorrect output when applying the ‘z’ format option to type ‘F’
     (fixed-point with capital ‘NAN’ / ‘INF’) * incorrect output when
     applying the ‘#’ format option (alternate form)

   - gh-115197(39): ‘urllib.request’ no longer resolves the hostname
     before checking it against the system's proxy bypass list on macOS
     and Windows.

   - gh-115165(40): Most exceptions are now ignored when attempting to
     set the ‘__orig_class__’ attribute on objects returned when calling
     *note typing: ff. generic aliases (including generic aliases
     created using *note typing.Annotated: 77c.).  Previously only *note
     AttributeError: 3ca. was ignored.  Patch by Dave Shawley.

   - gh-115133(41): Fix tests for *note XMLPullParser: e85. with Expat
     2.6.0.

   - gh-115059(42): ‘io.BufferedRandom.read1()’ now flushes the
     underlying write buffer.

   - gh-79382(43): Trailing ‘**’ no longer allows to match files and
     non-existing paths in recursive *note glob(): 628.

   - gh-114071(44): Support tuple subclasses using auto() for enum
     member value.

   - gh-114763(45): Protect modules loaded with *note
     importlib.util.LazyLoader: b1a. from race conditions when multiple
     threads try to access attributes before the loading is complete.

   - gh-97959(46): Fix rendering class methods, bound methods, method
     and function aliases in *note pydoc: b0.  Class methods no longer
     have "method of builtins.type instance" note.  Corresponding notes
     are now added for class and unbound methods.  Method and function
     aliases now have references to the module or the class where the
     origin was defined if it differs from the current.  Bound methods
     are now listed in the static methods section.  Methods of builtin
     classes are now supported as well as methods of Python classes.

   - gh-112281(47): Allow creating *note union of types: 5e0. for *note
     typing.Annotated: 77c. with unhashable metadata.

   - gh-111775(48): Fix
     ‘importlib.resources.simple.ResourceHandle.open()’ for text mode,
     added missed ‘stream’ argument.

   - gh-90095(49): Make .pdbrc and -c work with any valid pdb commands.

   - gh-107155(50): Fix incorrect output of ‘help(x)’ where ‘x’ is a
     *note lambda: 1131. function, which has an ‘__annotations__’
     dictionary attribute with a ‘"return"’ key.

   - gh-105866(51): Fixed ‘_get_slots’ bug which caused error when
     defining dataclasses with slots and a weakref_slot.

   - gh-60346(52): Fix ArgumentParser inconsistent with
     parse_known_args.

   - gh-100985(53): Update HTTPSConnection to consistently wrap IPv6
     Addresses when using a proxy.

   - gh-100884(54): email: fix misfolding of comma in address-lists over
     multiple lines in combination with unicode encoding.

   - gh-95782(55): Fix ‘io.BufferedReader.tell()’,
     ‘io.BufferedReader.seek()’, ‘_pyio.BufferedReader.tell()’,
     ‘io.BufferedRandom.tell()’, ‘io.BufferedRandom.seek()’ and
     ‘_pyio.BufferedRandom.tell()’ being able to return negative
     offsets.

   - gh-96310(56): Fix a traceback in *note argparse: 6. when all
     options in a mutually exclusive group are suppressed.

   - gh-93205(57): Fixed a bug in *note
     logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler: dee. where multiple
     rotating handler instances pointing to files with the same name but
     different extensions would conflict and not delete the correct
     files.

   - bpo-44865(58): Add missing call to localization function in *note
     argparse: 6.

   - bpo-43952(59): Fix *note
     multiprocessing.connection.Listener.accept(): 1438. to accept empty
     bytes as authkey.  Not accepting empty bytes as key causes it to
     hang indefinitely.

   - bpo-42125(60): linecache: get module name from ‘__spec__’ if
     available.  This allows getting source code for the ‘__main__’
     module when a custom loader is used.

   - gh-66543(61): Make *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 1439. properly
     parsing of URLs with only a host name, URLs containing fragment or
     query, and filenames with only a UNC sharepoint on Windows.  Based
     on patch by Dong-hee Na.

   - bpo-33775(62): Add 'default' and 'version' help text for
     localization in argparse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117467

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117310

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117178

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114781

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117084

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117110

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90872

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116957

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116764

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116811

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116600

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116484

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116401

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116143

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116325

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90535

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115978

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88352

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87115

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76511

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116040

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75988

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115881

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115886

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115809

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74668

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67044

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115712

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112364

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111358

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115618

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115570

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112006

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101293

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115392

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114563

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115197

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115165

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115133

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115059

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79382

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114071

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114763

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97959

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112281

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111775

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107155

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105866

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60346

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100985

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100884

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95782

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96310

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93205

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44865

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43952

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42125

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33775


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<4>,  Next: Tests<6>,  Prev: Library<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.6.4 Documentation
......................

   - gh-115399(1): Document CVE 2023-52425(2) of Expat <2.6.0 under "XML
     vulnerabilities".

   - gh-115233(3): Fix an example for *note LoggerAdapter: 1186. in the
     Logging Cookbook.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115233


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<6>,  Next: Build<5>,  Prev: Documentation<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.6.5 Tests
..............

   - gh-83434(1): Disable JUnit XML output (‘--junit-xml=FILE’ command
     line option) in regrtest when hunting for reference leaks (‘-R’
     option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117187(2): Fix XML tests for vanilla Expat <2.6.0.

   - gh-116333(3): Tests of TLS related things (error codes, etc) were
     updated to be more lenient about specific error message strings and
     behaviors as seen in the BoringSSL and AWS-LC forks of OpenSSL.

   - gh-115979(4): Update test_importlib so that it passes under WASI
     SDK 21.

   - gh-112536(5): Add -tsan to test.regrtest for running TSAN tests in
     reasonable execution times.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-116307(6): Added import helper ‘isolated_modules’ as
     ‘CleanImport’ does not remove modules imported during the context.
     Use it in importlib.resources tests to avoid leaving ‘mod’ around
     to impede importlib.metadata tests.

   - gh-115720(7): Leak tests (‘-R’, ‘--huntrleaks’) now show a summary
     of the number of leaks found in each iteration.

   - gh-115122(8): Add ‘--bisect’ option to regrtest test runner: run
     failed tests with ‘test.bisect_cmd’ to identify failing tests.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-115596(9): Fix ‘ProgramPriorityTests’ in ‘test_os’ permanently
     changing the process priority.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83434

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117187

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116333

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115979

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116307

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115720

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115122

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115596


File: python.info,  Node: Build<5>,  Next: Windows<6>,  Prev: Tests<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.6.6 Build
..............

   - gh-116313(1): Get WASI builds to work under wasmtime 18 w/ WASI
     0.2/preview2 primitives.

   - gh-116117(2): Backport ‘libb2’'s PR #42 to fix compiling CPython on
     32-bit Windows with ‘clang-cl’.

   - gh-115167(3): Avoid vendoring ‘vcruntime140_threads.dll’ when
     building with Visual Studio 2022 version 17.8.

   - gh-112536(4): Add support for thread sanitizer (TSAN)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116313

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116117

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115167

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<6>,  Next: IDLE<8>,  Prev: Build<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.6.7 Windows
................

   - gh-117267(1): Ensure ‘DirEntry.stat().st_ctime’ behaves
     consistently with *note os.stat(): 1bf. during the deprecation
     period of ‘st_ctime’ by containing the same value as
     ‘st_birthtime’.  After the deprecation period, ‘st_ctime’ will be
     the metadata change time (or unavailable through ‘DirEntry’), and
     only ‘st_birthtime’ will contain the creation time.

   - gh-116773(2): Fix instances of ‘<_overlapped.Overlapped object at
     0xXXX> still has pending operation at deallocation, the process may
     crash’.

   - gh-91227(3): Fix the asyncio ProactorEventLoop implementation so
     that sending a datagram to an address that is not listening does
     not prevent receiving any more datagrams.

   - gh-115554(4): The installer now has more strict rules about
     updating the *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae.  In general,
     most users only have a single launcher installed and will see no
     difference.  When multiple launchers have been installed, the
     option to install the launcher is disabled until all but one have
     been removed.  Downgrading the launcher (which was never allowed)
     is now more obviously blocked.

   - gh-115543(5): *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae. can now
     detect Python 3.13 when installed from the Microsoft Store, and
     will install Python 3.12 by default when ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’
     is set.

   - gh-115049(6): Fixes ‘py.exe’ launcher failing when run as users
     without user profiles.

   - gh-115009(7): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117267

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116773

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91227

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115554

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115543

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115049

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<8>,  Next: Tools/Demos<2>,  Prev: Windows<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.6.8 IDLE
.............

   - gh-88516(1): On macOS show a proxy icon in the title bar of editor
     windows to match platform behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88516


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<2>,  Next: C API<4>,  Prev: IDLE<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.6.9 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-113516(1): Don't set ‘LDSHARED’ when building for WASI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113516


File: python.info,  Node: C API<4>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.6.10 C API
...............

   - gh-117021(1): Fix integer overflow in ‘PyLong_AsPid()’ on
     non-Windows 64-bit platforms.

   - gh-116869(2): Make the C API compatible with
     ‘-Werror=declaration-after-statement’ compiler flag again.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117021

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116869


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 2 final,  Next: Python 3 12 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 3 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.7 Python 3.12.2 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-02-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<7>.
* Library: Library<7>.
* Documentation: Documentation<5>.
* Tests: Tests<7>.
* Build: Build<6>.
* Windows: Windows<7>.
* macOS: macOS<3>.
* IDLE: IDLE<9>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<6>,  Next: Core and Builtins<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.7.1 Security
.................

   - gh-113659(1): Skip ‘.pth’ files with names starting with a dot or
     hidden file attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113659


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<7>,  Next: Library<7>,  Prev: Security<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.7.2 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-114887(1): Changed socket type validation in *note
     create_datagram_endpoint(): 543. to accept all non-stream sockets.
     This fixes a regression in compatibility with raw sockets.

   - gh-114388(2): Fix a *note RuntimeWarning: 8e7. emitted when assign
     an integer-like value that is not an instance of *note int: 17e. to
     an attribute that corresponds to a C struct member of *note type:
     1444. T_UINT and T_ULONG. Fix a double *note RuntimeWarning: 8e7.
     emitted when assign a negative integer value to an attribute that
     corresponds to a C struct member of type T_UINT.

   - gh-113703(3): Fix a regression in the *note codeop: 1a. module that
     was causing it to incorrectly identify incomplete f-strings.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-89811(4): Check for a valid ‘tp_version_tag’ before performing
     bytecode specializations that rely on this value being usable.

   - gh-113602(5): Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to
     overwrite existing errors and crashing in the process.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-113297(6): Fix segfault in the compiler on with statement with
     19 context managers.

   - gh-106905(7): Use per AST-parser state rather than global state to
     track recursion depth within the AST parser to prevent potential
     race condition due to simultaneous parsing.

     The issue primarily showed up in 3.11 by multithreaded users of
     *note ast.parse(): 182.  In 3.12 a change to when garbage
     collection can be triggered prevented the race condition from
     occurring.

   - gh-112943(8): Correctly compute end column offsets for multiline
     tokens in the *note tokenize: f6. module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112716(9): Fix SystemError in the ‘import’ statement and in
     ‘__reduce__()’ methods of builtin types when ‘__builtins__’ is not
     a dict.

   - gh-94606(10): Fix UnicodeEncodeError when
     ‘email.message.get_payload()’ reads a message with a Unicode
     surrogate character and the message content is not well-formed for
     surrogateescape encoding.  Patch by Sidney Markowitz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114887

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114388

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113703

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89811

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113602

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113297

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106905

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112943

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112716

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94606


File: python.info,  Node: Library<7>,  Next: Documentation<5>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.7.3 Library
................

   - gh-114965(1): Update bundled pip to 24.0

   - gh-114959(2): *note tarfile: d8. no longer ignores errors when
     trying to extract a directory on top of a file.

   - gh-109475(3): Fix support of explicit option value "-" in *note
     argparse: 6. (e.g.  ‘--option=--’).

   - gh-110190(4): Fix ctypes structs with array on Windows ARM64
     platform by setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 32 in stgdict.  Patch by
     Diego Russo

   - gh-113280(5): Fix a leak of open socket in rare cases when error
     occurred in *note ssl.SSLSocket: 723. creation.

   - gh-77749(6): *note email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold(): 1446. now
     always encodes non-ASCII characters in headers if *note utf8: c70.
     is false.

   - gh-114492(7): Make the result of *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1447.
     reproducible on Alpine Linux.  Previously it could leave a random
     garbage in some fields.

   - gh-113267(8): Revert changes in gh-106584(9) which made calls of
     ‘TestResult’ methods ‘startTest()’ and ‘stopTest()’ unbalanced.

   - gh-75128(10): Ignore an *note OSError: 644. in
     ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop.create_server()’ when IPv6 is available but
     the interface cannot actually support it.

   - gh-114257(11): Dismiss the ‘FileNotFound’ error in *note
     ctypes.util.find_library(): bbd. and just return ‘None’ on Linux.

   - gh-114328(12): The *note tty.setcbreak(): 1448. and new *note
     tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1449. no longer clears the terminal input ICRLF
     flag.  This fixes a regression introduced in 3.12 that no longer
     matched how OSes define cbreak mode in their ‘stty(1)’ manual
     pages.

   - gh-101438(13): Avoid reference cycle in ElementTree.iterparse.  The
     iterator returned by ‘ElementTree.iterparse’ may hold on to a file
     descriptor.  The reference cycle prevented prompt clean-up of the
     file descriptor if the returned iterator was not exhausted.

   - gh-104522(14): *note OSError: 644. raised when run a subprocess now
     only has 'filename' attribute set to 'cwd' if the error was caused
     by a failed attempt to change the current directory.

   - gh-114149(15): Enum: correctly handle tuple subclasses in custom
     ‘__new__’.

   - gh-109534(16): Fix a reference leak in
     ‘asyncio.selector_events.BaseSelectorEventLoop’ when SSL handshakes
     fail.  Patch contributed by Jamie Phan.

   - gh-114077(17): Fix possible *note OverflowError: 6ad. in *note
     socket.socket.sendfile(): cdb. when pass 'count' larger than 2 GiB
     on 32-bit platform.

   - gh-114014(18): Fixed a bug in *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. where
     an invalid string using ‘d’ in the decimals part creates a
     different error compared to other invalid letters/characters.
     Patch by Jeremiah Gabriel Pascual.

   - gh-113951(19): Fix the behavior of ‘tag_unbind()’ methods of
     ‘tkinter.Text’ and ‘tkinter.Canvas’ classes with three arguments.
     Previously, ‘widget.tag_unbind(tag, sequence, funcid)’ destroyed
     the current binding for 'sequence', leaving 'sequence' unbound, and
     deleted the 'funcid' command.  Now it removes only 'funcid' from
     the binding for 'sequence', keeping other commands, and deletes the
     'funcid' command.  It leaves 'sequence' unbound only if 'funcid'
     was the last bound command.

   - gh-113877(20): Fix *note tkinter: ea. method ‘winfo_pathname()’ on
     64-bit Windows.

   - gh-113661(21): unittest runner: Don't exit 5 if tests were skipped.
     The intention of exiting 5 was to detect issues where the test
     suite wasn't discovered at all.  If we skipped tests, it was
     correctly discovered.

   - gh-113781(22): Silence unraisable AttributeError when warnings are
     emitted during Python finalization.

   - gh-112932(23): Restore the ability for *note zipfile: 12b. to
     ‘extractall’ from zip files with a "/" directory entry in them as
     is commonly added to zips by some wiki or bug tracker data
     exporters.

   - gh-113594(24): Fix *note UnicodeEncodeError: 473. in *note email:
     37. when re-fold lines that contain unknown-8bit encoded part
     followed by non-unknown-8bit encoded part.

   - gh-113538(25): In ‘asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol.connection_made()’,
     there is callback that logs an error if the task wrapping the
     "connected callback" fails.  This callback would itself fail if the
     task was cancelled.  Prevent this by checking whether the task was
     cancelled first.  If so, close the transport but don't log an
     error.

   - gh-85567(26): Fix resource warnings for unclosed files in *note
     pickle: a1. and *note pickletools: a2. command line interfaces.

   - gh-101225(27): Increase the backlog for *note
     multiprocessing.connection.Listener: 144a. objects created by
     ‘multiprocessing.manager’ and ‘multiprocessing.resource_sharer’ to
     significantly reduce the risk of getting a connection refused error
     when creating a *note multiprocessing.connection.Connection: 144b.
     to them.

   - gh-113543(28): Make sure that ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript’ sends
     ‘webbrowser.open’ audit event.

   - gh-113028(29): When a second reference to a string appears in the
     input to *note pickle: a1, and the Python implementation is in use,
     we are guaranteed that a single copy gets pickled and a single
     object is shared when reloaded.  Previously, in protocol 0, when a
     string contained certain characters (e.g.  newline) it resulted in
     duplicate objects.

   - gh-113421(30): Fix multiprocessing logger for ‘%(filename)s’.

   - gh-111784(31): Fix segfaults in the ‘_elementtree’ module.  Fix
     first segfault during deallocation of ‘_elementtree.XMLParser’
     instances by keeping strong reference to ‘pyexpat’ module in module
     state for capsule lifetime.  Fix second segfault which happens in
     the same deallocation process by keeping strong reference to
     ‘_elementtree’ module in ‘XMLParser’ structure for ‘_elementtree’
     module lifetime.

   - gh-113407(32): Fix import of *note unittest.mock: 102. when CPython
     is built without docstrings.

   - gh-113320(33): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where *note Protocol:
     4ad. classes that were not marked as *note runtime-checkable: 14c.
     would be unnecessarily introspected, potentially causing exceptions
     to be raised if the protocol had problematic members.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - gh-113358(34): Fix rendering tracebacks for exceptions with a
     broken ‘__getattr__’.

   - gh-113214(35): Fix an ‘AttributeError’ during asyncio SSL protocol
     aborts in SSL-over-SSL scenarios.

   - gh-113246(36): Update bundled pip to 23.3.2.

   - gh-113199(37): Make ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.read1’ and
     ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.readline’ close IO after reading all data
     when content length is known.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-113188(38): Fix *note shutil.copymode(): 144c. and *note
     shutil.copystat(): fbe. on Windows.  Previously they worked
     differenly if 'dst' is a symbolic link: they modified the
     permission bits of 'dst' itself rather than the file it points to
     if 'follow_symlinks' is true or 'src' is not a symbolic link, and
     did not modify the permission bits if 'follow_symlinks' is false
     and 'src' is a symbolic link.

   - gh-61648(39): Detect line numbers of properties in doctests.

   - gh-112559(40): *note signal.signal(): fc4. and *note
     signal.getsignal(): 144d. no longer call ‘repr’ on callable
     handlers.  *note asyncio.run(): 197. and *note
     asyncio.Runner.run(): 144e. no longer call ‘repr’ on the task
     results.  Patch by Yilei Yang.

   - gh-110190(41): Fix ctypes structs with array on PPC64LE platform by
     setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 64 in stgdict.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-79429(42): Ignore FileNotFoundError when remove a temporary
     directory in the multiprocessing finalizer.

   - gh-81194(43): Fix a crash in *note socket.if_indextoname(): 878.
     with specific value (UINT_MAX). Fix an integer overflow in *note
     socket.if_indextoname(): 878. on 64-bit non-Windows platforms.

   - gh-112343(44): Improve handling of pdb convenience variables to
     avoid replacing string contents.

   - gh-111615(45): Fix a regression caused by a fix to gh-93162(46)
     whereby you couldn't configure a ‘QueueHandler’ without specifying
     handlers.

   - gh-111049(47): Fix crash during garbage collection of the *note
     io.BytesIO: d24. buffer object.

   - gh-110345(48): Show the Tcl/Tk patchlevel (rather than version) in
     ‘tkinter._test()’.

   - gh-109858(49): Protect *note zipfile: 12b. from "quoted-overlap"
     zipbomb.  It now raises BadZipFile when try to read an entry that
     overlaps with other entry or central directory.

   - gh-114440(50): On Windows, closing the connection writer when
     cleaning up a broken *note multiprocessing.Queue: 144f. queue is
     now done for all queues, rather than only in *note
     concurrent.futures: 1f. manager thread.  This can prevent a
     deadlock when a ‘multiprocessing’ worker process terminates without
     cleaning up.  This completes the backport of patches by Victor
     Stinner and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - gh-38807(51): Fix race condition in *note trace: f8.  Instead of
     checking if a directory exists and creating it, directly call *note
     os.makedirs(): 1c2. with the kwarg ‘exist_ok=True’.

   - gh-75705(52): Set unixfrom envelope in *note mailbox.mbox: 1450.
     and *note mailbox.MMDF: 1451.

   - gh-106233(53): Fix stacklevel in ‘InvalidTZPathWarning’ during
     *note zoneinfo: 12e. module import.

   - gh-105102(54): Allow *note ctypes.Union: 1452. to be nested in
     *note ctypes.Structure: 1453. when the system endianness is the
     opposite of the classes.

   - gh-104282(55): Fix null pointer dereference in
     ‘lzma._decode_filter_properties()’ due to improper handling of BCJ
     filters with properties of zero length.  Patch by Radislav
     Chugunov.

   - gh-102512(56): When *note os.fork(): 233. is called from a foreign
     thread (aka ‘_DummyThread’), the type of the thread in a child
     process is changed to ‘_MainThread’.  Also changed its name and
     daemonic status, it can be now joined.

   - bpo-35928(57): *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. now correctly handles
     the decoding buffer after ‘read()’ and ‘write()’.

   - bpo-26791(58): *note shutil.move(): 8a7. now moves a symlink into a
     directory when that directory is the target of the symlink.  This
     provides the same behavior as the mv shell command.  The previous
     behavior raised an exception.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-36959(59): Fix some error messages for invalid ISO format
     string combinations in ‘strptime()’ that referred to directives not
     contained in the format string.  Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-18060(60): Fixed a class inheritance issue that can cause
     segfaults when deriving two or more levels of subclasses from a
     base class of Structure or Union.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114965

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114959

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109475

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113280

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77749

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114492

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113267

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75128

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114257

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114328

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101438

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104522

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114149

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109534

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114077

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114014

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113951

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113877

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113661

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113781

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112932

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113594

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85567

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101225

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113543

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113028

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113421

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111784

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113407

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113320

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113358

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113214

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113246

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113199

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113188

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61648

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112559

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79429

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81194

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112343

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111615

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93162

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111049

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110345

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109858

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114440

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/38807

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75705

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106233

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105102

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104282

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102512

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35928

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26791

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36959

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18060


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<5>,  Next: Tests<7>,  Prev: Library<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.7.4 Documentation
......................

   - gh-110746(1): Improved markup for valid options/values for methods
     ttk.treeview.column and ttk.treeview.heading, and for Layouts.

   - gh-95649(2): Document that the *note asyncio: 9. module contains
     code taken from v0.16.0 of the uvloop project(3), as well as the
     required MIT licensing information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110746

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95649

   (3) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<7>,  Next: Build<6>,  Prev: Documentation<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.7.5 Tests
..............

   - gh-109980(1): Fix ‘test_tarfile_vs_tar’ in ‘test_shutil’ for macOS,
     where system tar can include more information in the archive than
     *note shutil.make_archive: 1d7.

   - gh-105089(2): Fix
     ‘test.test_zipfile.test_core.TestWithDirectory.test_create_directory_with_write’
     test in AIX by doing a bitwise AND of 0xFFFF on mode , so that it
     will be in sync with ‘zinfo.external_attr’

   - bpo-40648(3): Test modes that file can get with chmod() on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109980

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40648


File: python.info,  Node: Build<6>,  Next: Windows<7>,  Prev: Tests<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.7.6 Build
..............

   - gh-112305(1): Fixed the ‘check-clean-src’ step performed on out of
     tree builds to detect errant ‘$(srcdir)/Python/frozen_modules/*.h’
     files and recommend appropriate source tree cleanup steps to get a
     working build again.

   - gh-112867(2): Fix the build for the case that
     WITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0 set.

   - bpo-11102(3): The *note os.major(): 1420, *note os.makedev(): 1422,
     and *note os.minor(): 1421. functions are now available on HP-UX
     v3.

   - bpo-36351(4): Do not set ipv6type when cross-compiling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112305

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112867

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11102

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36351


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<7>,  Next: macOS<3>,  Prev: Build<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.7.7 Windows
................

   - gh-109991(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

   - gh-111239(2): Update Windows builds to use zlib v1.3.1.

   - gh-100107(3): The ‘py.exe’ launcher will no longer attempt to run
     the Microsoft Store redirector when launching a script containing a
     ‘/usr/bin/env’ shebang

   - gh-114096(4): Process privileges that are activated for creating
     directory junctions are now restored afterwards, avoiding behaviour
     changes in other parts of the program.

   - gh-111877(5): *note os.stat(): 1bf. calls were returning incorrect
     time values for files that could not be accessed directly.

   - gh-113009(6): *note multiprocessing: 8f.: On Windows, fix a race
     condition in ‘Process.terminate()’: no longer set the ‘returncode’
     attribute to always call ‘WaitForSingleObject()’ in
     ‘Process.wait()’.  Previously, sometimes the process was still
     running after ‘TerminateProcess()’ even if ‘GetExitCodeProcess()’
     is not ‘STILL_ACTIVE’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-87868(7): Correctly sort and remove duplicate environment
     variables in ‘_winapi.CreateProcess()’.

   - bpo-37308(8): Fix mojibake in *note mmap.mmap: 84e. when using a
     non-ASCII 'tagname' argument on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111239

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100107

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114096

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111877

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113009

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87868

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37308


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<3>,  Next: IDLE<9>,  Prev: Windows<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.7.8 macOS
..............

   - gh-115009(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

   - gh-109991(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

   - gh-110459(3): Running ‘configure ... --with-openssl-rpath=X/Y/Z’ no
     longer fails to detect OpenSSL on macOS.

   - gh-74573(4): Document that *note dbm.ndbm: 32. can silently corrupt
     DBM files on updates when exceeding undocumented platform limits,
     and can crash (segmentation fault) when reading such a corrupted
     file.  (FB8919203)

   - gh-65701(5): The ‘freeze’ tool doesn't work with framework builds
     of Python.  Document this and bail out early when running the tool
     with such a build.

   - gh-108269(6): Set ‘CFBundleAllowMixedLocalizations’ to true in the
     Info.plist for the framework, embedded Python.app and IDLE.app with
     framework installs on macOS. This allows applications to pick up
     the user's preferred locale when that's different from english.

   - gh-102362(7): Make sure the result of ‘sysconfig.get_plaform()’
     includes at least a major and minor versions, even if
     ‘MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’ is set to only a major version during
     build to match the format expected by pip.

   - gh-110017(8): Disable a signal handling stress test on macOS due to
     a bug in macOS (FB13453490).

   - gh-110820(9): Make sure the preprocessor definitions for
     ‘ALIGNOF_MAX_ALIGN_T’, ‘SIZEOF_LONG_DOUBLE’ and
     ‘HAVE_GCC_ASM_FOR_X64’ are correct for Universal 2 builds on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110459

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74573

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65701

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108269

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102362

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110017

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110820


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<9>,  Next: Tools/Demos<3>,  Prev: macOS<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.7.9 IDLE
.............

   - gh-96905(1): In idlelib code, stop redefining built-ins 'dict' and
     'object'.

   - gh-72284(2): Improve the lists of features, editor key bindings,
     and shell key bingings in the IDLE doc.

   - gh-113903(3): Fix rare failure of test.test_idle, in
     test_configdialog.

   - gh-113729(4): Fix the "Help -> IDLE Doc" menu bug in 3.11.7 and
     3.12.1.

   - gh-113269(5): Fix test_editor hang on macOS Catalina.

   - gh-112898(6): Fix processing unsaved files when quitting IDLE on
     macOS.

   - gh-103820(7): Revise IDLE bindings so that events from mouse button
     4/5 on non-X11 windowing systems (i.e.  Win32 and Aqua) are not
     mistaken for scrolling.

   - bpo-13586(8): Enter the selected text when opening the "Replace"
     dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96905

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72284

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113903

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113729

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113269

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112898

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103820

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13586


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<3>,  Prev: IDLE<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.7.10 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-109991(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.13 and
     multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.13, 3.1.5, and 3.2.1.

   - gh-115015(2): Fix a bug in Argument Clinic that generated incorrect
     code for methods with no parameters that use the *note METH_METHOD
     | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 145b. calling convention.  Only
     the positional parameter count was checked; any keyword argument
     passed would be silently accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115015


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 1 final,  Next: Python 3 12 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 2 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.8 Python 3.12.1 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2023-12-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<8>.
* Library: Library<8>.
* Documentation: Documentation<6>.
* Tests: Tests<8>.
* Build: Build<7>.
* Windows: Windows<8>.
* macOS: macOS<4>.
* IDLE: IDLE<10>.
* C API: C API<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<8>,  Next: Library<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.8.1 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-112125(1): Fix None.__ne__(None) returning NotImplemented
     instead of False

   - gh-112625(2): Fixes a bug where a bytearray object could be cleared
     while iterating over an argument in the ‘bytearray.join()’ method
     that could result in reading memory after it was freed.

   - gh-105967(3): Workaround a bug in Apple's macOS platform zlib
     library where *note zlib.crc32(): 145e. and *note binascii.crc32():
     145f. could produce incorrect results on multi-gigabyte inputs.
     Including when using *note zipfile: 12b. on zips containing large
     data.

   - gh-112356(4): Stopped erroneously deleting a ‘LOAD_NULL’ bytecode
     instruction when optimized twice.

   - gh-111058(5): Change coro.cr_frame/gen.gi_frame to return ‘None’
     after the coroutine/generator has been closed.  This fixes a bug
     where *note getcoroutinestate(): c93. and *note
     getgeneratorstate(): 10c9. return the wrong state for a closed
     coroutine/generator.

   - gh-112388(6): Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to
     overwrite tokenizer errors.  Patch by pablo Galindo

   - gh-112387(7): Fix error positions for decoded strings with
     backwards tokenize errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112367(8): Avoid undefined behaviour when using the perf
     trampolines by not freeing the code arenas until shutdown.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112243(9): Don't include comments in f-string debug expressions.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112266(10): Change docstrings of *note __dict__: 2e2. and
     ‘__weakref__’.

   - gh-111654(11): Fix runtime crash when some error happens in opcode
     ‘LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF’.

   - gh-109181(12): Speed up ‘Traceback’ object creation by lazily
     compute the line number.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-102388(13): Fix a bug where ‘iso2022_jp_3’ and ‘iso2022_jp_2004’
     codecs read out of bounds

   - gh-111366(14): Fix an issue in the *note codeop: 1a. that was
     causing *note SyntaxError: 146. exceptions raised in the presence
     of invalid syntax to not contain precise error messages.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-111380(15): Fix a bug that was causing *note SyntaxWarning: 178.
     to appear twice when parsing if invalid syntax is encountered
     later.  Patch by Pablo galindo

   - gh-94438(16): Fix a regression that prevented jumping across ‘is
     None’ and ‘is not None’ when debugging.  Patch by Savannah
     Ostrowski.

   - gh-110938(17): Fix error messages for indented blocks with
     functions and classes with generic type parameters.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-109894(18): Fixed crash due to improperly initialized static
     *note MemoryError: 1460. in subinterpreter.

   - gh-110782(19): Fix crash when *note typing.TypeVar: 164. is
     constructed with a keyword argument.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-110696(20): Fix incorrect error message for invalid argument
     unpacking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-110543(21): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where
     ‘types.CodeType.replace()’ would produce a broken code object if
     called on a module or class code object that contains a
     comprehension.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-110514(22): Add ‘PY_THROW’ to *note sys.setprofile(): 1376.
     events

   - gh-110455(23): Guard ‘assert(tstate->thread_id > 0)’ with ‘#ifndef
     HAVE_PTHREAD_STUBS’.  This allows for for pydebug builds to work
     under WASI which (currently) lacks thread support.

   - gh-110259(24): Correctly identify the format spec in f-strings
     (with single or triple quotes) that have multiple lines in the
     expression part and include a formatting spec.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-110237(25): Fix missing error checks for calls to
     ‘PyList_Append’ in ‘_PyEval_MatchClass’.

   - gh-109889(26): Fix the compiler's redundant NOP detection algorithm
     to skip over NOPs with no line number when looking for the next
     instruction's lineno.

   - gh-109853(27): ‘sys.path[0]’ is now set correctly for
     subinterpreters.

   - gh-105716(28): Subinterpreters now correctly handle the case where
     they have threads running in the background.  Before, such threads
     would interfere with cleaning up and destroying them, as well as
     prevent running another script.

   - gh-109793(29): The main thread no longer exits prematurely when a
     subinterpreter is cleaned up during runtime finalization.  The bug
     was a problem particularly because, when triggered, the Python
     process would always return with a 0 exitcode, even if it failed.

   - gh-109596(30): Fix some tokens in the grammar that were incorrectly
     marked as soft keywords.  Also fix some repeated rule names and
     ensure that repeated rules are not allowed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-109351(31): Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a
     named (walrus) expression.

   - gh-109216(32): Fix possible memory leak in *note BUILD_MAP: 1461.

   - gh-109207(33): Fix a SystemError in ‘__repr__’ of symtable entry
     object.

   - gh-109179(34): Fix bug where the C traceback display drops notes
     from *note SyntaxError: 146.

   - gh-109052(35): Use the base opcode when comparing code objects to
     avoid interference from instrumentation

   - gh-88943(36): Improve syntax error for non-ASCII character that
     follows a numerical literal.  It now points on the invalid
     non-ASCII character, not on the valid numerical literal.

   - gh-106931(37): Statically allocated string objects are now interned
     globally instead of per-interpreter.  This fixes a situation where
     such a string would only be interned in a single interpreter.
     Normal string objects are unaffected.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112125

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112625

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105967

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112356

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111058

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112388

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112387

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112367

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112243

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112266

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111654

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109181

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102388

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111366

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111380

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110938

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109894

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110782

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110696

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110543

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110514

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110455

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110259

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110237

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109889

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109853

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105716

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109793

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109596

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109351

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109216

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109207

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109179

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109052

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88943

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106931


File: python.info,  Node: Library<8>,  Next: Documentation<6>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.8.2 Library
................

   - gh-79325(1): Fix an infinite recursion error in *note
     tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(): 10c7. cleanup on Windows.

   - gh-112645(2): Remove deprecation error on passing ‘onerror’ to
     *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8.

   - gh-112618(3): Fix a caching bug relating to *note typing.Annotated:
     77c.  ‘Annotated[str, True]’ is no longer identical to
     ‘Annotated[str, 1]’.

   - gh-112334(4): Fixed a performance regression in 3.12's *note
     subprocess: d0. on Linux where it would no longer use the fast-path
     ‘vfork()’ system call when it should have due to a logic bug,
     instead always falling back to the safe but slower ‘fork()’.

     Also fixed a related 3.12 security regression: If a value of
     ‘extra_groups=[]’ was passed to *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. or
     related APIs, the underlying ‘setgroups(0, NULL)’ system call to
     clear the groups list would not be made in the child process prior
     to ‘exec()’.  This has been assigned CVE 2023-6507(5).

     This was identified via code inspection in the process of fixing
     the first bug.

   - gh-110190(6): Fix ctypes structs with array on Arm platform by
     setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 32 in stgdict.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-112578(7): Fix a spurious *note RuntimeWarning: 8e7. when
     executing the *note zipfile: 12b. module.

   - gh-112509(8): Fix edge cases that could cause a key to be present
     in both the ‘__required_keys__’ and ‘__optional_keys__’ attributes
     of a *note typing.TypedDict: 153.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-112414(9): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where calling *note
     repr(): 61e. on a module that had been imported using a custom
     *note loader: 1463. could fail with *note AttributeError: 3ca.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-112358(10): Revert change to *note struct.Struct: 1464.
     initialization that broke some cases of subclassing.

   - gh-94722(11): Fix bug where comparison between instances of *note
     DocTest: 1465. fails if one of them has ‘None’ as its lineno.

   - gh-112105(12): Make *note readline.set_completer_delims(): 1466.
     work with libedit

   - gh-111942(13): Fix SystemError in the TextIOWrapper constructor
     with non-encodable "errors" argument in non-debug mode.

   - gh-109538(14): Issue warning message instead of having *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. be displayed when event loop has already been
     closed at ‘StreamWriter.__del__()’.

   - gh-111942(15): Fix crashes in *note io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure():
     9a1. when pass invalid arguments, e.g.  non-string encoding.

   - gh-111460(16): *note curses: 29.: restore wide character support
     (including *note curses.unget_wch(): f2e. and *note get_wch():
     f2d.) on macOS, which was unavailable due to a regression in Python
     3.12.

   - gh-103791(17): *note contextlib.suppress: db0. now supports
     suppressing exceptions raised as part of a *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 3a6, in addition to the recent support for
     *note ExceptionGroup: 17b.

   - gh-111804(18): Remove posix.fallocate() under WASI as the
     underlying posix_fallocate() is not available in WASI preview2.

   - gh-111841(19): Fix truncating arguments on an embedded null
     character in *note os.putenv(): 75a. and *note os.unsetenv(): 759.
     on Windows.

   - gh-111541(20): Fix *note doctest: 36. for *note SyntaxError: 146.
     not-builtin subclasses.

   - gh-110894(21): Call loop exception handler for exceptions in
     ‘client_connected_cb’ of *note asyncio.start_server(): 96f. so that
     applications can handle it.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-111531(22): Fix reference leaks in ‘bind_class()’ and
     ‘bind_all()’ methods of *note tkinter: ea. widgets.

   - gh-111356(23): Added *note io.text_encoding(): 1467, *note
     io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1468, and *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 1469. to ‘io.__all__’.

   - gh-111342(24): Fixed typo in *note math.sumprod(): 1b6.

   - gh-68166(25): Remove mention of not supported "vsapi" element type
     in *note tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create(): 146a.  Add tests for
     ‘element_create()’ and other ‘ttk.Style’ methods.  Add examples for
     ‘element_create()’ in the documentation.

   - gh-75666(26): Fix the behavior of *note tkinter: ea. widget's
     ‘unbind()’ method with two arguments.  Previously,
     ‘widget.unbind(sequence, funcid)’ destroyed the current binding for
     'sequence', leaving 'sequence' unbound, and deleted the 'funcid'
     command.  Now it removes only 'funcid' from the binding for
     'sequence', keeping other commands, and deletes the 'funcid'
     command.  It leaves 'sequence' unbound only if 'funcid' was the
     last bound command.

   - gh-79033(27): Another attempt at fixing *note
     asyncio.Server.wait_closed(): 146b.  It now blocks until both
     conditions are true: the server is closed, 'and' there are no more
     active connections.  (This means that in some cases where in 3.12.0
     this function would 'incorrectly' have returned immediately, it
     will now block; in particular, when there are no active connections
     but the server hasn't been closed yet.)

   - gh-111295(28): Fix *note time: e8. not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111253(29): Add error checking during ‘_socket’ module init.

   - gh-111251(30): Fix ‘_blake2’ not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111174(31): Fix crash in *note io.BytesIO.getbuffer(): 1082.
     called repeatedly for empty BytesIO.

   - gh-111187(32): Postpone removal version for
     locale.getdefaultlocale() to Python 3.15.

   - gh-111159(33): Fix *note doctest: 36. output comparison for
     exceptions with notes.

   - gh-110910(34): Fix invalid state handling in *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup: 3f1. and *note asyncio.Timeout: 146c.  They now
     raise proper RuntimeError if they are improperly used and are left
     in consistent state after this.

   - gh-111092(35): Make turtledemo run without default root enabled.

   - gh-110488(36): Fix a couple of issues in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_name(): 146d.: a single dot was incorrectly
     considered a valid name, and in ‘PureWindowsPath’, a name with an
     NTFS alternate data stream, like ‘a:b’, was incorrectly considered
     invalid.

   - gh-110392(37): Fix *note tty.setraw(): 146e. and *note
     tty.setcbreak(): 1448.: previously they returned partially modified
     list of the original tty attributes.  *note tty.cfmakeraw(): 146f.
     and *note tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1449. now make a copy of the list of
     special characters before modifying it.

   - gh-110590(38): Fix a bug in ‘_sre.compile()’ where *note TypeError:
     2ba. would be overwritten by *note OverflowError: 6ad. when the
     'code' argument was a list of non-ints.

   - gh-65052(39): Prevent *note pdb: a0. from crashing when trying to
     display undisplayable objects

   - gh-110519(40): Deprecation warning about non-integer number in
     *note gettext: 5e. now alwais refers to the line in the user code
     where gettext function or method is used.  Previously it could
     refer to a line in ‘gettext’ code.

   - gh-110395(41): Ensure that *note select.kqueue(): 1470. objects
     correctly appear as closed in forked children, to prevent
     operations on an invalid file descriptor.

   - gh-110378(42): *note contextmanager(): 1093. and *note
     asynccontextmanager(): 981. context managers now close an invalid
     underlying generator object that yields more then one value.

   - gh-110365(43): Fix *note termios.tcsetattr(): 1471. bug that was
     overwritting existing errors during parsing integers from ‘term’
     list.

   - gh-109653(44): Fix a Python 3.12 regression in the import time of
     *note random: b3.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-110196(45): Add ‘__reduce__’ method to ‘IPv6Address’ in order to
     keep ‘scope_id’

   - gh-110036(46): On Windows, multiprocessing ‘Popen.terminate()’ now
     catchs *note PermissionError: bb5. and get the process exit code.
     If the process is still running, raise again the *note
     PermissionError: bb5.  Otherwise, the process terminated as
     expected: store its exit code.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110038(47): Fixed an issue that caused ‘KqueueSelector.select()’
     to not return all the ready events in some cases when a file
     descriptor is registered for both read and write.

   - gh-109631(48): *note re: b4. functions such as *note re.findall():
     ebe, *note re.split(): 9ca, *note re.search(): 10bf. and *note
     re.sub(): 201. which perform short repeated matches can now be
     interrupted by user.

   - gh-109747(49): Improve errors for unsupported look-behind patterns.
     Now re.error is raised instead of OverflowError or RuntimeError for
     too large width of look-behind pattern.

   - gh-109818(50): Fix *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 1084. not
     copying ‘__type_params__’ from decorated function.

   - gh-109047(51): *note concurrent.futures: 1f.: The 'executor manager
     thread' now catches exceptions when adding an item to the 'call
     queue'.  During Python finalization, creating a new thread can now
     raise *note RuntimeError: 17a.  Catch the exception and call
     ‘terminate_broken()’ in this case.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109782(52): Ensure the signature of *note os.path.isdir(): 857.
     is identical on all platforms.  Patch by Amin Alaee.

   - gh-109590(53): *note shutil.which(): 1d9. will prefer files with an
     extension in ‘PATHEXT’ if the given mode includes ‘os.X_OK’ on
     win32.  If no ‘PATHEXT’ match is found, a file without an extension
     in ‘PATHEXT’ can be returned.  This change will have *note
     shutil.which(): 1d9. act more similarly to previous behavior in
     Python 3.11.

   - gh-109786(54): Fix possible reference leaks and crash when re-enter
     the ‘__next__()’ method of *note itertools.pairwise: 638.

   - gh-109593(55): Avoid deadlocking on a reentrant call to the
     multiprocessing resource tracker.  Such a reentrant call, though
     unlikely, can happen if a GC pass invokes the finalizer for a
     multiprocessing object such as SemLock.

   - gh-109613(56): Fix *note os.stat(): 1bf. and *note
     os.DirEntry.stat(): 1472.: check for exceptions.  Previously, on
     Python built in debug mode, these functions could trigger a fatal
     Python error (and abort the process) when a function succeeded with
     an exception set.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109375(57): The *note pdb: a0. ‘alias’ command now prevents
     registering aliases without arguments.

   - gh-107219(58): Fix a race condition in ‘concurrent.futures’.  When
     a process in the process pool was terminated abruptly (while the
     future was running or pending), close the connection write end.  If
     the call queue is blocked on sending bytes to a worker process,
     closing the connection write end interrupts the send, so the queue
     can be closed.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-50644(59): Attempts to pickle or create a shallow or deep copy
     of *note codecs: 19. streams now raise a TypeError.  Previously,
     copying failed with a RecursionError, while pickling produced wrong
     results that eventually caused unpickling to fail with a
     RecursionError.

   - gh-108987(60): Fix *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 1473. race
     condition.  If a thread is created during Python finalization, the
     newly spawned thread now exits immediately instead of trying to
     access freed memory and lead to a crash.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108791(61): Improved error handling in *note pdb: a0. command
     line interface, making it produce more concise error messages.

   - gh-105829(62): Fix concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor deadlock

   - gh-106584(63): Fix exit code for ‘unittest’ if all tests are
     skipped.  Patch by Egor Eliseev.

   - gh-102956(64): Fix returning of empty byte strings after seek in
     zipfile module

   - gh-84867(65): *note unittest.TestLoader: 532. no longer loads test
     cases from exact *note unittest.TestCase: 159. and *note
     unittest.FunctionTestCase: 1474. classes.

   - gh-91133(66): Fix a bug in *note tempfile.TemporaryDirectory: 10c7.
     cleanup, which now no longer dereferences symlinks when working
     around file system permission errors.

   - gh-73561(67): Omit the interface scope from an IPv6 address when
     used as Host header by *note http.client: 6a.

   - gh-86826(68): ‘zipinfo’ now supports the full range of values in
     the TZ string determined by RFC 8536 and detects all invalid
     formats.  Both Python and C implementations now raise exceptions of
     the same type on invalid data.

   - bpo-43153(69): On Windows, ‘tempfile.TemporaryDirectory’ previously
     masked a ‘PermissionError’ with ‘NotADirectoryError’ during
     directory cleanup.  It now correctly raises ‘PermissionError’ if
     errors are not ignored.  Patch by Andrei Kulakov and Ken Jin.

   - bpo-35332(70): The *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. function now ignores
     errors when calling *note os.close(): 9d1. when 'ignore_errors' is
     ‘True’, and *note os.close(): 9d1. no longer retried after error.

   - bpo-41422(71): Fixed memory leaks of *note pickle.Pickler: 867. and
     *note pickle.Unpickler: 1475. involving cyclic references via the
     internal memo mapping.

   - bpo-40262(72): The ‘ssl.SSLSocket.recv_into()’ method no longer
     requires the 'buffer' argument to implement ‘__len__’ and supports
     buffers with arbitrary item size.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79325

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112645

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112618

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112334

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-6507

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112578

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112509

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112414

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112358

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94722

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112105

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109538

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111460

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111804

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111841

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111541

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110894

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111531

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111356

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111342

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75666

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111295

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111253

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111251

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111174

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111159

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110910

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111092

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110488

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110392

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110590

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65052

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110519

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110395

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110378

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110365

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110196

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110036

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110038

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109631

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109747

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109818

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109047

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109782

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109590

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109786

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109593

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109613

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109375

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107219

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50644

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108987

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108791

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105829

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102956

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84867

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91133

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73561

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86826

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43153

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35332

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41422

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40262


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<6>,  Next: Tests<8>,  Prev: Library<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.8.3 Documentation
......................

   - gh-111699(1): Relocate ‘smtpd’ deprecation notice to its own
     section rather than under ‘locale’ in What's New in Python 3.12
     document

   - gh-108826(2): *note dis: 35. module command-line interface is now
     mentioned in documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111699

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108826


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<8>,  Next: Build<7>,  Prev: Documentation<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.8.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-112769(1): The tests now correctly compare zlib version when
     *note zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1001. contains non-integer
     suffixes.  For example zlib-ng defines the version as
     ‘1.3.0.zlib-ng’.

   - gh-110367(2): Make regrtest ‘--verbose3’ option compatible with
     ‘--huntrleaks -jN’ options.  The ‘./python -m test -j1 -R 3:3
     --verbose3’ command now works as expected.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111165(3): Remove no longer used functions ‘run_unittest()’ and
     ‘run_doctest()’ from the *note test.support: de. module.

   - gh-110932(4): Fix regrtest if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable is defined: use the variable value as the random seed.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110995(5): test_gdb: Fix detection of gdb built without Python
     scripting support.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110918(6): Test case matching patterns specified by options
     ‘--match’, ‘--ignore’, ‘--matchfile’ and ‘--ignorefile’ are now
     tested in the order of specification, and the last match determines
     whether the test case be run or ignored.

   - gh-110647(7): Fix test_stress_modifying_handlers() of test_signal.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103053(8): Fix test_tools.test_freeze on FreeBSD: run "make
     distclean" instead of "make clean" in the copied source directory
     to remove also the "python" program.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110167(9): Fix a deadlock in test_socket when server fails with
     a timeout but the client is still running in its thread.  Don't
     hold a lock to call cleanup functions in doCleanups().  One of the
     cleanup function waits until the client completes, whereas the
     client could deadlock if it called addCleanup() in such situation.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110388(10): Add tests for *note tty: fb.

   - gh-81002(11): Add tests for *note termios: db.

   - gh-110267(12): Add tests for pickling and copying PyStructSequence
     objects.  Patched by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-110031(13): Skip test_threading tests using thread+fork if
     Python is built with Address Sanitizer (ASAN). Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-110088(14): Fix test_asyncio timeouts: don't measure the maximum
     duration, a test should not measure a CI performance.  Only measure
     the minimum duration when a task has a timeout or delay.  Add
     ‘CLOCK_RES’ to ‘test_asyncio.utils’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109974(15): Fix race conditions in test_threading lock tests.
     Wait until a condition is met rather than using *note time.sleep():
     499. with a hardcoded number of seconds.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110033(16): Fix ‘test_interprocess_signal()’ of ‘test_signal’.
     Make sure that the ‘subprocess.Popen’ object is deleted before the
     test raising an exception in a signal handler.  Otherwise,
     ‘Popen.__del__()’ can get the exception which is logged as
     ‘Exception ignored in: ...’ and the test fails.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109594(17): Fix test_timeout() of
     test_concurrent_futures.test_wait.  Remove the future which may or
     may not complete depending if it takes longer than the timeout ot
     not.  Keep the second future which does not complete before wait()
     timeout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109972(18): Split test_gdb.py file into a test_gdb package made
     of multiple tests, so tests can now be run in parallel.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103053(19): Skip test_freeze_simple_script() of
     test_tools.test_freeze if Python is built with ‘./configure
     --enable-optimizations’, which means with Profile Guided
     Optimization (PGO): it just makes the test too slow.  The freeze
     tool is tested by many other CIs with other (faster) compiler
     flags.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109580(20): Skip ‘test_perf_profiler’ if Python is built with
     ASAN, MSAN or UBSAN sanitizer.  Python does crash randomly in this
     test on such build.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104736(21): Fix test_gdb on Python built with LLVM clang 16 on
     Linux ppc64le (ex: Fedora 38).  Search patterns in gdb "bt" command
     output to detect when gdb fails to retrieve the traceback.  For
     example, skip a test if ‘Backtrace stopped: frame did not save the
     PC’ is found.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108927(22): Fixed order dependence in running tests in the same
     process when a test that has submodules (e.g.  test_importlib)
     follows a test that imports its submodule (e.g.
     test_importlib.util) and precedes a test (e.g.  test_unittest or
     test_compileall) that uses that submodule.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112769

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110367

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111165

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110932

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110995

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110918

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110647

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110167

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110388

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81002

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110267

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110031

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110088

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109974

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110033

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109594

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109972

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109580

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104736

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108927


File: python.info,  Node: Build<7>,  Next: Windows<8>,  Prev: Tests<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.8.5 Build
..............

   - gh-112088(1): Add ‘Tools/build/regen-configure.sh’ script to
     regenerate the ‘configure’ with an Ubuntu container image.  The
     ‘quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:271’ container image
     (tiran/cpython_autoconf(2)) is no longer used.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111046(3): For wasi-threads, memory is now exported to fix
     compatibility issues with some wasm runtimes.

   - gh-103053(4): "make check-clean-src" now also checks if the
     "python" program is found in the source directory: fail with an
     error if it does exist.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109191(5): Fix compile error when building with recent versions
     of libedit.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112088

   (2) https://github.com/tiran/cpython_autoconf

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111046

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109191


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<8>,  Next: macOS<4>,  Prev: Build<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.8.6 Windows
................

   - gh-111856(1): Fixes *note fstat(): c03. on file systems that do not
     support file ID requests.  This includes FAT32 and exFAT.

   - gh-111293(2): Fix *note os.DirEntry.inode: 147a. dropping higher 64
     bits of a file id on some filesystems on Windows.

   - gh-110913(3): WindowsConsoleIO now correctly chunks large buffers
     without splitting up UTF-8 sequences.

   - gh-110437(4): Allows overriding the source of VC redistributables
     so that releases can be guaranteed to never downgrade between
     updates.

   - gh-109286(5): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111856

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111293

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110913

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110437

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<4>,  Next: IDLE<10>,  Prev: Windows<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.8.7 macOS
..............

   - gh-109981(1): Use ‘/dev/fd’ on macOS to determine the number of
     open files in ‘test.support.os_helper.fd_count’ to avoid a crash
     with "guarded" file descriptors when probing for open files.

   - gh-110950(2): Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk
     fix for the ‘Secure coding is not enabled for restorable state!’
     warning encountered in Tkinter on macOS 14 Sonoma.

   - gh-111015(3): Ensure that IDLE.app and Python Launcher.app are
     installed with appropriate permissions on macOS builds.

   - gh-109286(4): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

   - gh-71383(5): Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk
     fix for the ‘ttk::ThemeChanged’ error encountered in Tkinter.

   - gh-92603(6): Update macOS installer to include a fix accepted by
     upstream Tcl/Tk for a crash encountered after the first *note
     tkinter.Tk(): 147c. instance is destroyed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109981

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110950

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111015

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71383

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92603


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<10>,  Next: C API<5>,  Prev: macOS<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.8.8 IDLE
.............

   - bpo-35668(1): Add docstrings to the IDLE debugger module.  Fix two
     bugs: initialize Idb.botframe (should be in Bdb); in
     Idb.in_rpc_code, check whether prev_frame is None before trying to
     use it.  Greatly expand test_debugger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35668


File: python.info,  Node: C API<5>,  Prev: IDLE<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.8.9 C API
..............

   - gh-106560(1): Fix redundant declarations in the public C API.
     Declare PyBool_Type and PyLong_Type only once.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-112438(2): Fix support of format units "es", "et", "es#", and
     "et#" in nested tuples in *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.-like
     functions.

   - gh-109521(3): *note PyImport_GetImporter(): 147f. now sets
     RuntimeError if it fails to get *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. or *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. or they are not list and dict
     correspondingly.  Previously it could return NULL without setting
     error in obscure cases, crash or raise SystemError if these
     attributes have wrong type.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106560

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112438

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109521


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 final,  Next: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3,  Prev: Python 3 12 1 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.9 Python 3.12.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2023-10-02'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<9>.
* Library: Library<9>.
* Documentation: Documentation<7>.
* Windows: Windows<9>.
* macOS: macOS<5>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<9>,  Next: Library<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.9.1 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-109823(1): Fix bug where compiler does not adjust labels when
     removing an empty basic block which is a jump target.

   - gh-109719(2): Fix missing jump target labels when compiler reorders
     cold/warm blocks.

   - gh-109627(3): Fix bug where the compiler does not assign a new jump
     target label to a duplicated small exit block.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109823

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109719

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109627


File: python.info,  Node: Library<9>,  Next: Documentation<7>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.9.2 Library
................

   - gh-110045(1): Update the *note symtable: d2. module to support the
     new scopes introduced by PEP 695(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110045

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<7>,  Next: Windows<9>,  Prev: Library<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.9.3 Documentation
......................

   - gh-109209(1): The minimum Sphinx version required for the
     documentation is now 4.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109209


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<9>,  Next: macOS<5>,  Prev: Documentation<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.9.4 Windows
................

   - gh-109991(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<5>,  Next: Tools/Demos<4>,  Prev: Windows<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.9.5 macOS
..............

   - gh-109991(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<4>,  Prev: macOS<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.9.6 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-109991(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.11 and
     multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.11, and 3.1.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3,  Next: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.10 Python 3.12.0 release candidate 3
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2023-09-18'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<10>.
* Library: Library<10>.
* Documentation: Documentation<8>.
* Tests: Tests<9>.
* Build: Build<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<10>,  Next: Library<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3

1.22.10.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-109496(1): On a Python built in debug mode, *note Py_DECREF():
     2fc. now calls ‘_Py_NegativeRefcount()’ if the object is a dangling
     pointer to deallocated memory: memory filled with ‘0xDD’ "dead
     byte" by the debug hook on memory allocators.  The fix is to check
     the reference count 'before' checking for ‘_Py_IsImmortal()’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109371(2): Deopted instructions correctly for tool
     initialization and modified the incorrect assertion in
     instrumentation, when a previous tool already sets INSTRUCTION
     events

   - gh-105658(3): Fix bug where the line trace of an except block
     ending with a conditional includes an excess event with the line of
     the conditional expression.

   - gh-109219(4): Fix compiling type param scopes that use a name which
     is also free in an inner scope.

   - gh-109341(5): Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a
     *note ast.TypeAlias: 1489.

   - gh-109195(6): Fix source location for the ‘LOAD_*’ instruction
     preceding a ‘LOAD_SUPER_ATTR’ to load the ‘super’ global (or
     shadowing variable) so that it encompasses only the name ‘super’
     and not the following parentheses.

   - gh-109118(7): Disallow nested scopes (lambdas, generator
     expressions, and comprehensions) within PEP 695 annotation scopes
     that are nested within classes.

   - gh-109114(8): Relax the detection of the error message for invalid
     lambdas inside f-strings to not search for arbitrary replacement
     fields to avoid false positives.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-109118(9): Fix interpreter crash when a NameError is raised
     inside the type parameters of a generic class.

   - gh-108976(10): Fix crash that occurs after de-instrumenting a code
     object in a monitoring callback.

   - gh-108732(11): Make iteration variables of module- and class-scoped
     comprehensions visible to pdb and other tools that use
     ‘frame.f_locals’ again.

   - gh-108959(12): Fix caret placement for error locations for
     subscript and binary operations that involve non-semantic
     parentheses and spaces.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109496

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109371

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105658

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109219

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109341

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109195

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109114

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108976

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108732

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108959


File: python.info,  Node: Library<10>,  Next: Documentation<8>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3

1.22.10.2 Library
.................

   - gh-108682(1): Enum: require ‘names=()’ or ‘type=...’ to create an
     empty enum using the functional syntax.

   - gh-108843(2): Fix an issue in *note ast.unparse(): 71e. when
     unparsing f-strings containing many quote types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108843


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<8>,  Next: Tests<9>,  Prev: Library<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3

1.22.10.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-102823(1): Document the return type of ‘x // y’ when ‘x’ and ‘y’
     have type *note float: 26a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102823


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<9>,  Next: Build<8>,  Prev: Documentation<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3

1.22.10.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-109396(1): Fix ‘test_socket.test_hmac_sha1()’ in FIPS mode.  Use
     a longer key: FIPS mode requires at least of at least 112 bits.
     The previous key was only 32 bits.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104736(2): Fix test_gdb on Python built with LLVM clang 16 on
     Linux ppc64le (ex: Fedora 38).  Search patterns in gdb "bt" command
     output to detect when gdb fails to retrieve the traceback.  For
     example, skip a test if ‘Backtrace stopped: frame did not save the
     PC’ is found.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109237(3): Fix ‘test_site.test_underpth_basic()’ when the
     working directory contains at least one non-ASCII character: encode
     the ‘._pth’ file to UTF-8 and enable the UTF-8 Mode to use UTF-8
     for the child process stdout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109230(4): Fix ‘test_pyexpat.test_exception()’: it can now be
     run from a directory different than Python source code directory.
     Before, the test failed in this case.  Skip the test if
     Modules/pyexpat.c source is not available.  Skip also the test on
     Python implementations other than CPython.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109015(5): Fix test_asyncio, test_imaplib and test_socket tests
     on FreeBSD if the TCP blackhole is enabled (‘sysctl
     net.inet.tcp.blackhole’).  Skip the few tests which failed with
     ‘ETIMEDOUT’ which such non standard configuration.  Currently, the
     FreeBSD GCP image enables TCP and UDP blackhole(6) (‘sysctl
     net.inet.tcp.blackhole=2’ and ‘sysctl net.inet.udp.blackhole=1’).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91960(7): Skip ‘test_gdb’ if gdb is unable to retrieve Python
     frame objects: if a frame is ‘<optimized out>’.  When Python is
     built with "clang -Og", gdb can fail to retrive the 'frame'
     parameter of ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’.  In this case, tests
     like ‘py_bt()’ are likely to fail.  Without getting access to
     Python frames, ‘python-gdb.py’ is mostly clueless on retrieving the
     Python traceback.  Moreover, ‘test_gdb’ is no longer skipped on
     macOS if Python is built with Clang.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108962(8): Skip ‘test_tempfile.test_flags()’ if ‘chflags()’
     fails with "OSError: [Errno 45] Operation not supported" (ex: on
     FreeBSD 13).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108851(9): Fix ‘test_tomllib’ recursion tests for WASI
     buildbots: reduce the recursion limit and compute the maximum
     nested array/dict depending on the current available recursion
     limit.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108851(10): Add ‘get_recursion_available()’ and
     ‘get_recursion_depth()’ functions to the *note test.support: de.
     module.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(11): Add ‘--fail-rerun option’ option to regrtest: if a
     test failed when then passed when rerun in verbose mode, exit the
     process with exit code 2 (error), instead of exit code 0 (success).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(12): Rename regrtest ‘--verbose2’ option (‘-w’) to
     ‘--rerun’.  Keep ‘--verbose2’ as a deprecated alias.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(13): When regrtest reruns failed tests in verbose mode
     (‘./python -m test --rerun’), tests are now rerun in fresh worker
     processes rather than being executed in the main process.  If a
     test does crash or is killed by a timeout, the main process can
     detect and handle the killed worker process.  Tests are rerun in
     parallel if the ‘-jN’ option is used to run tests in parallel.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103186(14): Suppress and assert expected RuntimeWarnings in
     test_sys_settrace.py

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109396

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104736

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109237

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109230

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109015

   (6) https://reviews.freebsd.org/D41751

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91960

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108962

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186


File: python.info,  Node: Build<8>,  Prev: Tests<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3

1.22.10.5 Build
...............

   - gh-108740(1): Fix a race condition in ‘make regen-all’.  The
     ‘deepfreeze.c’ source and files generated by Argument Clinic are
     now generated or updated before generating "global objects".
     Previously, some identifiers may miss depending on the order in
     which these files were generated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108740


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.11 Python 3.12.0 release candidate 2
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2023-09-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<11>.
* Library: Library<11>.
* Documentation: Documentation<9>.
* Tests: Tests<10>.
* Build: Build<9>.
* Windows: Windows<10>.
* macOS: macOS<6>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<5>.
* C API: C API<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<7>,  Next: Core and Builtins<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.11.1 Security
..................

   - gh-108310(1): Fixed an issue where instances of *note
     ssl.SSLSocket: 723. were vulnerable to a bypass of the TLS
     handshake and included protections (like certificate verification)
     and treating sent unencrypted data as if it were post-handshake TLS
     encrypted data.  Security issue reported as CVE 2023-40217(2) by
     Aapo Oksman.  Patch by Gregory P. Smith.

   - gh-107774(3): PEP 669 specifies that
     ‘sys.monitoring.register_callback’ will generate an audit event.
     Pre-releases of Python 3.12 did not generate the audit event.  This
     is now fixed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108310

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-40217

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107774


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<11>,  Next: Library<11>,  Prev: Security<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.11.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-108520(1): Fix
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.__setstate__()’ to properly
     initialize ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx’.
     This fixes a regression when passing a SemLock accross nested
     processes.

     Rename ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.is_fork_ctx’ to
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx’ to avoid
     exposing it as public API.

   - gh-108654(2): Restore locals shadowed by an inlined comprehension
     if the comprehension raises an exception.

   - gh-108487(3): Change an assert that would cause a spurious crash in
     a devious case that should only trigger deoptimization.

   - gh-106176(4): Use a ‘WeakValueDictionary’ to track the lists
     containing the modules each thread is currently importing.  This
     helps avoid a reference leak from keeping the list around longer
     than necessary.  Weakrefs are used as GC can't interrupt the
     cleanup.

   - gh-107901(5): Fix missing line number on *note JUMP_BACKWARD: 50e.
     at the end of a for loop.

   - gh-108390(6): Raise an exception when setting a non-local event
     (‘RAISE’, ‘EXCEPTION_HANDLED’, etc.)  in
     ‘sys.monitoring.set_local_events’.

     Fixes crash when tracing in recursive calls to Python classes.

   - gh-91051(7): Fix abort / segfault when using all eight type watcher
     slots, on platforms where ‘char’ is signed by default.

   - gh-107724(8): In pre-release versions of 3.12, up to rc1, the
     sys.monitoring callback function for the ‘PY_THROW’ event was
     missing the third, exception argument.  That is now fixed.

   - gh-107080(9): Trace refs builds (‘--with-trace-refs’) were crashing
     when used with isolated subinterpreters.  The problematic global
     state has been isolated to each interpreter.  Other fixing the
     crashes, this change does not affect users.

   - gh-77377(10): Ensure that multiprocessing synchronization objects
     created in a fork context are not sent to a different process
     created in a spawn context.  This changes a segfault into an
     actionable RuntimeError in the parent process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108520

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108654

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108487

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106176

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108390

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107724

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107080

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77377


File: python.info,  Node: Library<11>,  Next: Documentation<9>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.11.3 Library
.................

   - gh-108469(1): *note ast.unparse(): 71e. now supports new *note
     f-string: 138. syntax introduced in Python 3.12.  Note that the
     *note f-string: 138. quotes are reselected for simplicity under the
     new syntax.  (Patch by Steven Sun)

   - gh-108682(2): Enum: raise *note TypeError: 2ba. if
     ‘super().__new__()’ is called from a custom ‘__new__’.

   - gh-108295(3): Fix crashes related to use of weakrefs on *note
     typing.TypeVar: 164.

   - gh-64662(4): Fix support for virtual tables in *note
     sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 1492.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - gh-108111(5): Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251(6) for 3.12,
     resulting in an incorrect offset calculation in
     ‘gzip.GzipFile.seek()’.

   - gh-105736(7): Harmonized the pure Python version of *note
     OrderedDict: 3ce. with the C version.  Now, both versions set up
     their internal state in ‘__new__’.  Formerly, the pure Python
     version did the set up in ‘__init__’.

   - gh-108083(8): Fix bugs in the constructor of *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. and *note sqlite3.Connection.close():
     1493. where exceptions could be leaked.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-107963(9): Fix *note multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload():
     1494. to check the given list of modules names.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-106242(10): Fixes *note os.path.normpath(): 11ad. to handle
     embedded null characters without truncating the path.

   - gh-107913(11): Fix possible losses of ‘errno’ and ‘winerror’ values
     in *note OSError: 644. exceptions if they were cleared or modified
     by the cleanup code before creating the exception object.

   - gh-107845(12): *note tarfile.data_filter(): 1495. now takes the
     location of symlinks into account when determining their target, so
     it will no longer reject some valid tarballs with
     ‘LinkOutsideDestinationError’.

   - gh-107805(13): Fix signatures of module-level generated functions
     in *note turtle: fc.

   - gh-107715(14): Fix *note doctest.DocTestFinder.find(): 1496. in
     presence of class names with special characters.  Patch by Gertjan
     van Zwieten.

   - gh-100814(15): Passing a callable object as an option value to a
     Tkinter image now raises the expected TclError instead of an
     AttributeError.

   - gh-106684(16): Close *note asyncio.StreamWriter: 1497. when it is
     not closed by application leading to memory leaks.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-107396(17): tarfiles; Fixed use before assignment of
     self.exception for gzip decompression

   - gh-106052(18): *note re: b4. module: fix the matching of possessive
     quantifiers in the case of a subpattern containing backtracking.

   - gh-100061(19): Fix a bug that causes wrong matches for regular
     expressions with possessive qualifier.

   - gh-99203(20): Restore following CPython <= 3.10.5 behavior of *note
     shutil.make_archive(): 1d7.: do not create an empty archive if
     ‘root_dir’ is not a directory, and, in that case, raise *note
     FileNotFoundError: d46. or *note NotADirectoryError: ef0.
     regardless of ‘format’ choice.  Beyond the brought-back behavior,
     the function may now also raise these exceptions in ‘dry_run’ mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108469

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108295

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64662

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108111

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105736

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108083

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107963

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107913

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107845

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107805

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107715

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100814

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106684

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107396

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106052

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100061

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99203


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<9>,  Next: Tests<10>,  Prev: Library<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.11.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-105052(1): Update ‘timeit’ doc to specify that time in seconds
     is just the default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105052


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<10>,  Next: Build<9>,  Prev: Documentation<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.11.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-89392(1): Removed support of ‘test_main()’ function in tests.
     They now always use normal unittest test runner.

   - gh-108388(2): Convert test_concurrent_futures to a package of 7
     sub-tests.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108388(3): Split test_multiprocessing_fork,
     test_multiprocessing_forkserver and test_multiprocessing_spawn into
     test packages.  Each package is made of 4 sub-tests: processes,
     threads, manager and misc.  It allows running more tests in
     parallel and so reduce the total test duration.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-105776(4): Fix test_cppext when the C compiler command
     ‘-std=c11’ option: remove ‘-std=’ options from the compiler
     command.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107178(5): Add the C API test for functions in the Mapping
     Protocol, the Sequence Protocol and some functions in the Object
     Protocol.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89392

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105776

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107178


File: python.info,  Node: Build<9>,  Next: Windows<10>,  Prev: Tests<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.11.6 Build
...............

   - gh-63760(1): Fix Solaris build: no longer redefine the
     ‘gethostname()’ function.  Solaris defines the function since 2005.
     Patch by Victor Stinner, original patch by Jakub Kulík.

   - gh-107814(2): When calling ‘find_python.bat’ with ‘-q’ it did not
     properly silence the output of nuget.  That is now fixed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63760

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107814


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<10>,  Next: macOS<6>,  Prev: Build<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.11.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-107565(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.10.

   - gh-106242(2): Fixes *note realpath(): 643. to behave consistently
     when passed a path containing an embedded null character on
     Windows.  In strict mode, it now raises *note OSError: 644. instead
     of the unexpected *note ValueError: 183, and in non-strict mode
     will make the path absolute.

   - gh-106844(3): Fix integer overflow and truncating by the null
     character in ‘_winapi.LCMapStringEx()’ which affects
     ‘ntpath.normcase()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107565

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106844


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<6>,  Next: Tools/Demos<5>,  Prev: Windows<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.11.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-107565(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107565


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<5>,  Next: C API<6>,  Prev: macOS<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.11.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-107565(1): Update multissltests and GitHub CI workflows to use
     OpenSSL 1.1.1v, 3.0.10, and 3.1.2.

   - gh-95065(2): Argument Clinic now supports overriding automatically
     generated signature by using directive ‘@text_signature’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107565

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95065


File: python.info,  Node: C API<6>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.11.10 C API
................

   - gh-107916(1): C API functions *note
     PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(): 149f, *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 14a0. and *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 14a1. save now the error
     code before calling *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 14a2.

   - gh-107915(2): Such C API functions as ‘PyErr_SetString()’,
     ‘PyErr_Format()’, ‘PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename()’ and many
     others no longer crash or ignore errors if it failed to format the
     error message or decode the filename.  Instead, they keep a
     corresponding error.

   - gh-107810(3): Improve *note DeprecationWarning: 179. for uses of
     *note PyType_Spec: 14a3. with metaclasses that have custom
     ‘tp_new’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107916

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107915

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107810


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 12 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.12 Python 3.12.0 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2023-08-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<8>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<12>.
* Library: Library<12>.
* Documentation: Documentation<10>.
* Tests: Tests<11>.
* Build: Build<10>.
* Windows: Windows<11>.
* macOS: macOS<7>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<6>.
* C API: C API<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<8>,  Next: Core and Builtins<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.12.1 Security
..................

   - gh-102988(1): Reverted the *note email.utils: 4c. security
     improvement change released in 3.12beta4 that unintentionally
     caused *note email.utils.getaddresses: 387. to fail to parse email
     addresses with a comma in the quoted name field.  See gh-106669(2).

   - gh-102509(3): Start initializing ‘ob_digit’ during creation of
     *note PyLongObject: 317. objects.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106669

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102509


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<12>,  Next: Library<12>,  Prev: Security<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.12.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-107263(1): Increase C recursion limit for functions other than
     the main interpreter from 800 to 1500.  This should allow functions
     like ‘list.__repr__’ and ‘json.dumps’ to handle all the inputs that
     they could prior to 3.12

   - gh-104432(2): Fix potential unaligned memory access on C APIs
     involving returned sequences of ‘char *’ pointers within the *note
     grp: 61. and *note socket: c6. modules.  These were revealed using
     a ‘-fsaniziter=alignment’ build on ARM macOS. Patch by Christopher
     Chavez.

   - gh-106898(3): Add the exception as the third argument to ‘PY_UNIND’
     callbacks in ‘sys.monitoring’.  This makes the ‘PY_UNWIND’ callback
     consistent with the other exception hanlding callbacks.

   - gh-106895(4): Raise a ‘ValueError’ when a monitoring callback
     funtion returns ‘DISABLE’ for events that cannot be disabled
     locally.

   - gh-106897(5): Add a ‘RERAISE’ event to ‘sys.monitoring’, which
     occurs when an exception is reraised, either explicitly by a plain
     ‘raise’ statement, or implicitly in an ‘except’ or ‘finally’ block.

   - gh-104621(6): Unsupported modules now always fail to be imported.

   - gh-106917(7): Fix classmethod-style *note super(): 206. method
     calls (i.e., where the second argument to *note super(): 206, or
     the implied second argument drawn from ‘self/cls’ in the case of
     zero-arg super, is a type) when the target of the call is not a
     classmethod.

   - gh-105699(8): Python no longer crashes due an infrequent race when
     initialzing per-interpreter interned strings.  The crash would
     manifest when the interpreter was finalized.

   - gh-105699(9): Python no longer crashes due to an infrequent race in
     setting ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’ and
     ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’ (both deprecated), when
     simultaneously initializing two isolated subinterpreters.  Now they
     are only set during runtime initialization.

   - gh-106092(10): Fix a segmentation fault caused by a use-after-free
     bug in ‘frame_dealloc’ when the trashcan delays the deallocation of
     a ‘PyFrameObject’.

   - gh-106719(11): No longer suppress arbitrary errors in the
     ‘__annotations__’ getter and setter in the type and module types.

   - gh-106723(12): Propagate ‘frozen_modules’ to multiprocessing
     spawned process interpreters.

   - gh-105235(13): Prevent out-of-bounds memory access during
     ‘mmap.find()’ calls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107263

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104432

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106898

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106895

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106897

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104621

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106917

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106092

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106719

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106723

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105235


File: python.info,  Node: Library<12>,  Next: Documentation<10>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.12.3 Library
.................

   - gh-107077(1): Seems that in some conditions, OpenSSL will return
     ‘SSL_ERROR_SYSCALL’ instead of ‘SSL_ERROR_SSL’ when a certification
     verification has failed, but the error parameters will still
     contain ‘ERR_LIB_SSL’ and ‘SSL_R_CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED’.  We
     are now detecting this situation and raising the appropiate
     ‘ssl.SSLCertVerificationError’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-107576(2): Fix *note types.get_original_bases(): 1f5. to only
     return ‘__orig_bases__’ if it is present on ‘cls’ directly.  Patch
     by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - gh-46376(3): Prevent memory leak and use-after-free when using
     pointers to pointers with ctypes

   - gh-62519(4): Make *note gettext.pgettext(): 83a. search plural
     definitions when translation is not found.

   - gh-83006(5): Document behavior of *note shutil.disk_usage(): fbc.
     for non-mounted filesystems on Unix.

   - gh-106186(6): Do not report ‘MultipartInvariantViolationDefect’
     defect when the *note email.parser.Parser: 1030. class is used to
     parse emails with ‘headersonly=True’.

   - gh-105002(7): Fix invalid result from ‘PurePath.relative_to()’
     method when attempting to walk a "‘..’" segment in 'other' with
     'walk_up' enabled.  A *note ValueError: 183. exception is now
     raised in this case.

   - gh-106831(8): Fix potential missing ‘NULL’ check of
     ‘d2i_SSL_SESSION’ result in ‘_ssl.c’.

   - gh-106774(9): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.2.1.

   - gh-106752(10): Fixed several bugs in zipfile.Path, including: in
     ‘Path.match’, Windows separators are no longer honored (and never
     were meant to be); Fixed ‘name’/‘suffix’/‘suffixes’/‘stem’
     operations when no filename is present and the Path is not at the
     root of the zipfile; Reworked glob for performance and more correct
     matching behavior.

   - gh-106602(11): Add __copy__ and __deepcopy__ in *note enum: 51.

   - gh-106530(12): Revert a change to *note colorsys.rgb_to_hls():
     14a8. that caused division by zero for certain almost-white inputs.
     Patch by Terry Jan Reedy.

   - gh-106403(13): Instances of *note typing.TypeVar: 164, *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 163, *note typing.ParamSpecArgs: 5e4, *note
     typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 5e5, and *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 162.
     once again support weak references, fixing a regression introduced
     in Python 3.12.0 beta 1.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-106350(14): Detect possible memory allocation failure in the
     libtommath function ‘mp_init()’ used by the ‘_tkinter’ module.

   - gh-106263(15): Fix crash when calling ‘repr’ with a manually
     constructed SignalDict object.  Patch by Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-105626(16): Change the default return value of *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers(): 14a9. to
     be ‘None’ and not ‘{}’.

   - bpo-18319(17): Ensure ‘gettext(msg)’ retrieve translations even if
     a plural form exists.  In other words: ‘gettext(msg) ==
     ngettext(msg, '', 1)’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107077

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107576

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46376

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62519

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83006

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106186

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105002

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106831

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106774

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106602

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106530

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106403

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106350

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106263

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105626

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18319


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<10>,  Next: Tests<11>,  Prev: Library<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.12.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-107305(1): Add documentation for *note PyInterpreterConfig: 2fa.
     and *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 16c.  Also clarify some of
     the nearby docs relative to per-interpreter GIL.

   - gh-107008(2): Document the *note curses: 29. module variables *note
     LINES: 14ab. and *note COLS: 14ac.

   - gh-106948(3): Add a number of standard external names to
     ‘nitpick_ignore’.

   - gh-54738(4): Add documentation on how to localize the *note
     argparse: 6. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107305

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107008

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106948

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54738


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<11>,  Next: Build<10>,  Prev: Documentation<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.12.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-107237(1): ‘test_logging’: Fix ‘test_udp_reconnection()’ by
     increasing the timeout from 100 ms to 5 minutes (LONG_TIMEOUT).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106714(2): test_capi: Fix test_no_FatalError_infinite_loop() to
     no longer write a coredump, by using
     test.support.SuppressCrashReport.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104090(3): Avoid creating a reference to the test object in
     *note collectedDurations(): 14ae.

   - gh-106752(4): Moved tests for ‘zipfile.Path’ into
     ‘Lib/test/test_zipfile/_path’.  Made ‘zipfile._path’ a package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107237

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106714

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104090

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752


File: python.info,  Node: Build<10>,  Next: Windows<11>,  Prev: Tests<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.12.6 Build
...............

   - gh-106881(1): Check for ‘linux/limits.h’ before including it in
     ‘Modules/posixmodule.c’.

   - gh-106962(2): Detect MPI compilers in ‘configure’.

   - gh-101538(3): Add experimental wasi-threads support.  Patch by
     Takashi Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106881

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106962

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101538


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<11>,  Next: macOS<7>,  Prev: Build<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.12.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-99079(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.9

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99079


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<7>,  Next: Tools/Demos<6>,  Prev: Windows<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.12.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-99079(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99079


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<6>,  Next: C API<7>,  Prev: macOS<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.12.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-106970(1): Fix bugs in the Argument Clinic ‘destination <name>
     clear’ command; the destination buffers would never be cleared, and
     the ‘destination’ directive parser would simply continue to the
     fault handler after processing the command.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-103186(2): ‘freeze’ now fetches ‘CONFIG_ARGS’ from the original
     CPython instance the Makefile uses to call utility scripts.  Patch
     by Ijtaba Hussain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106970

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186


File: python.info,  Node: C API<7>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.12.10 C API
................

   - gh-107226(1): *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6c9. is now only
     available in the limited API version 3.10 or later.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107226


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 12 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.13 Python 3.12.0 beta 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-07-11'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<13>.
* Library: Library<13>.
* Documentation: Documentation<11>.
* Tests: Tests<12>.
* Build: Build<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<7>.
* C API: C API<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<9>,  Next: Core and Builtins<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.13.1 Security
..................

   - gh-102988(1): CVE 2023-27043(2): Prevent *note
     email.utils.parseaddr(): 388. and *note email.utils.getaddresses():
     387. from returning the realname portion of an invalid RFC2822
     email header in the email address portion of the 2-tuple returned
     after being parsed by ‘email._parseaddr.AddressList’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-27043


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<13>,  Next: Library<13>,  Prev: Security<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.13.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-106396(1): When the format specification of an f-string
     expression is empty, the parser now generates an empty *note
     ast.JoinedStr: 14b7. node for it instead of an one-element *note
     ast.JoinedStr: 14b7. with an empty string *note ast.Constant: 217.

   - gh-106145(2): Make ‘end_lineno’ and ‘end_col_offset’ required on
     ‘type_param’ ast nodes.

   - gh-105979(3): Fix crash in ‘_imp.get_frozen_object()’ due to
     improper exception handling.

   - gh-98931(4): Ensure custom *note SyntaxError: 146. error messages
     are raised for invalid imports with multiple targets.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105908(5): Fixed bug where gh-99111(6) breaks future import
     ‘barry_as_FLUFL’ in the Python REPL.

   - gh-105340(7): Include the comprehension iteration variable in
     ‘locals()’ inside a module- or class-scope comprehension.

   - gh-105486(8): Change the repr of ‘ParamSpec’ list of args in
     ‘types.GenericAlias’.

   - gh-101006(9): Improve error handling when read *note marshal: 88.
     data.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106396

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106145

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105979

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105908

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99111

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105340

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105486

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101006


File: python.info,  Node: Library<13>,  Next: Documentation<11>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.13.3 Library
.................

   - gh-106524(1): Fix crash in ‘_sre.template()’ with templates
     containing invalid group indices.

   - gh-106510(2): Improve debug output for atomic groups in regular
     expressions.

   - gh-106503(3): Fix ref cycle in ‘asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport’
     by removing ‘_write_ready’ in ‘close’.

   - gh-105497(4): Fix flag mask inversion when unnamed flags exist.

   - gh-90876(5): Prevent ‘multiprocessing.spawn’ from failing to
     'import' in environments where ‘sys.executable’ is ‘None’.  This
     regressed in 3.11 with the addition of support for path-like
     objects in multiprocessing.

   - gh-106292(6): Check for an instance-dict cached value in the
     ‘__get__()’ method of *note functools.cached_property(): 2c5.  This
     better matches the pre-3.12 behavior and improves compatibility for
     users subclassing *note functools.cached_property(): 2c5. and
     adding a ‘__set__()’ method.

   - gh-106330(7): Fix incorrect matching of empty paths in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 1d1.  This bug was introduced in Python
     3.12.0 beta 1.

   - gh-102541(8): Make pydoc.doc catch bad module ImportError when
     output stream is not None.

   - gh-106152(9): Added PY_THROW event hook for *note cProfile: 25. for
     generators

   - gh-106075(10): Added ‘asyncio.taskgroups.__all__’ to
     ‘asyncio.__all__’ for export in star imports.

   - gh-105987(11): Fix crash due to improper reference counting in
     *note asyncio: 9. eager task factory internal routines.

   - gh-105974(12): Fix bug where a *note typing.Protocol: 4ad. class
     that had one or more non-callable members would raise *note
     TypeError: 2ba. when *note issubclass(): 5df. was called against
     it, even if it defined a custom ‘__subclasshook__’ method.  The
     behaviour in Python 3.11 and lower - which has now been restored -
     was not to raise *note TypeError: 2ba. in these situations if a
     custom ‘__subclasshook__’ method was defined.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-96145(13): Reverted addition of ‘json.AttrDict’.

   - gh-105497(14): Fix flag inversion when alias/mask members exist.

   - gh-104554(15): Add RTSPS scheme support in urllib.parse

   - gh-94777(16): Fix hanging *note multiprocessing: 8f.
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ when a child process crashes while data is
     being written in the call queue.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106524

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106510

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106503

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90876

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106292

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106330

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102541

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106152

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106075

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105987

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105974

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96145

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104554

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94777


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<11>,  Next: Tests<12>,  Prev: Library<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.13.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-106232(1): Make timeit doc command lines compatible with Windows
     by using double quotes for arguments.  This works on linux and
     macOS also.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106232


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<12>,  Next: Build<11>,  Prev: Documentation<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.13.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-101634(1): When running the Python test suite with ‘-jN’ option,
     if a worker stdout cannot be decoded from the locale encoding
     report a failed testn so the exitcode is non-zero.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101634


File: python.info,  Node: Build<11>,  Next: Tools/Demos<7>,  Prev: Tests<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.13.6 Build
...............

   - gh-106118(1): Fix compilation for platforms without ‘O_CLOEXEC’.
     The issue was introduced with Python 3.12b1 in gh-103295(2).  Patch
     by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-104692(3): Include ‘commoninstall’ as a prerequisite for
     ‘bininstall’

     This ensures that ‘commoninstall’ is completed before ‘bininstall’
     is started when parallel builds are used (‘make -j install’), and
     so the ‘python3’ symlink is only installed after all standard
     library modules are installed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106118

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104692


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<7>,  Next: C API<8>,  Prev: Build<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.13.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-106359(1): Argument Clinic now explicitly forbids "kwarg splats"
     in function calls used as annotations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106359


File: python.info,  Node: C API<8>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.13.8 C API
...............

   - gh-105227(1): The new *note PyType_GetDict(): 14be. provides the
     dictionary for the given type object that is normally exposed by
     ‘cls.__dict__’.  Normally it's sufficient to use *note tp_dict:
     14bf, but for the static builtin types ‘tp_dict’ is now always
     ‘NULL’.  ‘PyType_GetDict()’ provides the correct dict object
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105227


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 12 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.14 Python 3.12.0 beta 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-06-19'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<14>.
* Library: Library<14>.
* Tests: Tests<13>.
* Windows: Windows<12>.
* C API: C API<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<14>,  Next: Library<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 3

1.22.14.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-105840(1): Fix possible crashes when specializing function calls
     with too many ‘__defaults__’.

   - gh-105831(2): Fix an f-string bug, where using a debug expression
     (the ‘=’ sign) that appears in the last line of a file results to
     the debug buffer that holds the expression text being one character
     too small.

   - gh-105800(3): Correctly issue *note SyntaxWarning: 178. in
     f-strings if invalid sequences are used.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105587(4): The runtime can't guarantee that immortal objects
     will not be mutated by Extensions.  Thus, this modifies
     _PyStaticObject_CheckRefcnt to warn instead of asserting.

   - gh-105564(5): Don't include artificil newlines in the ‘line’
     attribute of tokens in the APIs of the *note tokenize: f6. module.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105549(6): Tokenize separately ‘NUMBER’ and ‘NAME’ tokens that
     are not ambiguous.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-105588(7): Fix an issue that could result in crashes when
     compiling malformed *note ast: 8. nodes.

   - gh-105375(8): Fix bugs in the *note builtins: 10. module where
     exceptions could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(9): Fix bug in the compiler where an exception could end
     up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(10): Improve error handling in
     ‘PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap()’ where an exception could end up
     being overwritten.

   - gh-105435(11): Fix spurious newline character if file ends on a
     comment without a newline.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105390(12): Correctly raise *note tokenize.TokenError: 2c6.
     exceptions instead of *note SyntaxError: 146. for tokenize errors
     such as incomplete input.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104812(13): The "pending call" machinery now works for all
     interpreters, not just the main interpreter, and runs in all
     threads, not just the main thread.  Some calls are still only done
     in the main thread, ergo in the main interpreter.  This change does
     not affect signal handling nor the existing public C-API
     (‘Py_AddPendingCall()’), which both still only target the main
     thread.  The new functionality is meant strictly for internal use
     for now, since consequences of its use are not well understood yet
     outside some very restricted cases.  This change brings the
     capability in line with the intention when the state was made
     per-interpreter several years ago.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105840

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105831

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105800

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105587

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105564

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105549

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105588

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105435

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105390

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104812


File: python.info,  Node: Library<14>,  Next: Tests<13>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 3

1.22.14.2 Library
.................

   - gh-105808(1): Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251(2) for 3.12,
     causing ‘gzip.GzipFile.flush()’ to not flush the compressor (nor
     pass along the ‘zip_mode’ argument).

   - gh-104799(3): Enable *note ast.unparse(): 71e. to unparse function
     and class definitions created without the new ‘type_params’ field
     from PEP 695(4).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-105745(5): Fix ‘webbrowser.Konqueror.open’ method.

   - gh-105375(6): Fix a bug in ‘_Unpickler_SetInputStream()’ where an
     exception could end up being overwritten in case of failure.

   - gh-105375(7): Fix bugs in *note sys: d3. where exceptions could end
     up being overwritten because of deferred error handling.

   - gh-105605(8): Harden ‘pyexpat’ error handling during module
     initialisation to prevent exceptions from possibly being
     overwritten, and objects from being dereferenced twice.

   - gh-105375(9): Fix bug in *note decimal: 33. where an exception
     could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(10): Fix bugs in ‘_datetime’ where exceptions could be
     overwritten in case of module initialisation failure.

   - gh-105375(11): Fix bugs in ‘_ssl’ initialisation which could lead
     to leaked references and overwritten exceptions.

   - gh-105375(12): Fix a bug in *note array.array: 18f. where an
     exception could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(13): Fix bugs in ‘_ctypes’ where exceptions could end up
     being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(14): Fix a bug in the *note posix: a8. module where an
     exception could be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(15): Fix bugs in ‘_elementtree’ where exceptions could be
     overwritten.

   - gh-105375(16): Fix bugs in *note zoneinfo: 12e. where exceptions
     could be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(17): Fix bugs in *note errno: 52. where exceptions could
     be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(18): Fix bugs in *note pickle: a1. where exceptions could
     be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(19): Fix a bug in *note sqlite3: c9. where an exception
     could be overwritten in the *note collation: 472. callback.

   - gh-105332(20): Revert pickling method from by-name back to
     by-value.

   - gh-104310(21): In the beta 1 release we added a utility function
     for extension module authors, to use when testing their module for
     support in multiple interpreters or under a per-interpreter GIL.
     The name of that function has changed from
     ‘allowing_all_extensions’ to
     ‘_incompatible_extension_module_restrictions’.  The default for the
     "disable_check" argument has change from ‘True’ to ‘False’, to
     better match the new function name.

   - gh-104996(22): Improve performance of *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8.
     initialisation by deferring joining of paths when multiple
     arguments are given.

   - gh-102541(23): Hide traceback in *note help(): 710. prompt, when
     import failed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105808

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105745

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105605

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105332

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104996

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102541


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<13>,  Next: Windows<12>,  Prev: Library<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 3

1.22.14.3 Tests
...............

   - gh-105084(1): When the Python build is configured
     ‘--with-wheel-pkg-dir’, tests requiring the ‘setuptools’ and
     ‘wheel’ wheels will search for the wheels in ‘WHEEL_PKG_DIR’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105084


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<12>,  Next: C API<9>,  Prev: Tests<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 3

1.22.14.4 Windows
.................

   - gh-105436(1): Ensure that an empty environment block is terminated
     by two null characters, as is required by Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105436


File: python.info,  Node: C API<9>,  Prev: Windows<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 3

1.22.14.5 C API
...............

   - gh-105375(1): Fix a bug in *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 14c6. where
     an exception could end up being overwritten if the API failed
     internally.

   - gh-105603(2): We've renamed the new (in 3.12)
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig.own_gil’ to ‘PyInterpreterConfig.gil’ and
     changed the meaning of the value from "bool" to an integer with
     supported values of ‘PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL’,
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL’, and
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL’.  The default is "shared".

   - gh-105387(3): In the limited C API version 3.12, *note Py_INCREF():
     2fb. and *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. functions are now implemented as
     opaque function calls to hide implementation details.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103968(4): *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2d5. now allows
     metaclasses with ‘tp_new’ set to ‘NULL’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105603

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.15 Python 3.12.0 beta 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-06-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<15>.
* Library: Library<15>.
* Documentation: Documentation<12>.
* Build: Build<12>.
* Windows: Windows<13>.
* macOS: macOS<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<11>.
* C API: C API<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<10>,  Next: Core and Builtins<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.15.1 Security
..................

   - gh-103142(1): The version of OpenSSL used in our binary builds has
     been upgraded to 1.1.1u to address several CVEs.

   - gh-99108(2): Refresh our new HACL* built-in *note hashlib: 63. code
     from upstream.  Built-in SHA2 should be faster and an issue with
     SHA3 on 32-bit platforms is fixed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103142

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<15>,  Next: Library<15>,  Prev: Security<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.15.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-105259(1): Don't include newline character for trailing
     ‘NEWLINE’ tokens emitted in the *note tokenize: f6. module.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105324(2): Fix the main function of the *note tokenize: f6.
     module when reading from ‘sys.stdin’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98963(3): Restore the ability for a subclass of *note property:
     424. to define ‘__slots__’ or otherwise be dict-less by ignoring
     failures to set a docstring on such a class.  This behavior had
     regressed in 3.12beta1.  An *note AttributeError: 3ca. where there
     had not previously been one was disruptive to existing code.

   - gh-105194(4): Do not escape with backslashes f-string format
     specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105162(5): Fixed bug in generator.close()/throw() where an inner
     iterator would be ignored when the outer iterator was instrumented.

   - gh-105164(6): Ensure annotations are set up correctly if the only
     annotation in a block is within a *note match: 62f. block.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104799(7): Attributes of *note ast: 8. nodes that are lists now
     default to the empty list if omitted.  This means that some code
     that previously raised *note TypeError: 2ba. when the AST node was
     used will now proceed with the empty list instead.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-105035(8): Fix *note super(): 206. calls on types with custom
     ‘tp_getattro’ implementation (e.g.  meta-types.)

   - gh-105017(9): Show CRLF lines in the tokenize string attribute in
     both NL and NEWLINE tokens.  Patch by Marta Gómez.

   - gh-105013(10): Fix handling of multiline parenthesized lambdas in
     *note inspect.getsource(): 14ca.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105017(11): Do not include an additional final ‘NL’ token when
     parsing files having CRLF lines.  Patch by Marta Gómez.

   - gh-104976(12): Ensure that trailing ‘DEDENT’ ‘tokenize.TokenInfo’
     objects emitted by the *note tokenize: f6. module are reported as
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104972(13): Ensure that the ‘line’ attribute in
     ‘tokenize.TokenInfo’ objects in the *note tokenize: f6. module are
     always correct.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104955(14): Fix signature for the new *note
     __release_buffer__(): 14cb. slot.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104690(15): Starting new threads and process creation through
     *note os.fork(): 233. during interpreter shutdown (such as from
     *note atexit: a. handlers) is no longer supported.  It can lead to
     race condition between the main Python runtime thread freeing
     thread states while internal *note threading: e7. routines are
     trying to allocate and use the state of just created threads.  Or
     forked children trying to use the mid-shutdown runtime and thread
     state in the child process.

   - gh-104879(16): Fix crash when accessing the ‘__module__’ attribute
     of type aliases defined outside a module.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104825(17): Tokens emitted by the *note tokenize: f6. module do
     not include an implicit ‘\n’ character in the ‘line’ attribute
     anymore.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105259

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105324

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98963

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105194

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105162

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105164

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105035

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105017

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105013

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105017

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104976

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104972

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104955

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104690

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104879

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104825


File: python.info,  Node: Library<15>,  Next: Documentation<12>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.15.3 Library
.................

   - gh-105280(1): Fix bug where ‘isinstance([],
     collections.abc.Mapping)’ could evaluate to ‘True’ if garbage
     collection happened at the wrong time.  The bug was caused by
     changes to the implementation of *note typing.Protocol: 4ad. in
     Python 3.12.

   - gh-105239(2): Fix longstanding bug where ‘issubclass(object,
     typing.Protocol)’ would evaluate to ‘True’ in some edge cases.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-105080(3): Fixed inconsistent signature on derived classes for
     *note inspect.signature(): 548.

   - gh-105144(4): Fix a recent regression in the *note typing: ff.
     module.  The regression meant that doing ‘class Foo(X,
     typing.Protocol)’, where ‘X’ was a class that had *note
     abc.ABCMeta: d9d. as its metaclass, would then cause subsequent
     ‘isinstance(1, X)’ calls to erroneously raise *note TypeError: 2ba.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-105113(5): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 1d1. by compiling an *note re.Pattern:
     14cd. object for the entire pattern.

   - gh-101588(6): Deprecate undocumented copy/deepcopy/pickle support
     for itertools.

   - gh-103631(7): Fix
     ‘pathlib.PurePosixPath(pathlib.PureWindowsPath(...))’ not
     converting path separators to restore 3.11 compatible behavior.

   - gh-104947(8): Make comparisons between *note
     pathlib.PureWindowsPath: 14ce. objects consistent across Windows
     and Posix to match 3.11 behavior.

   - gh-104935(9): Fix bugs with the interaction between *note
     typing.runtime_checkable(): 14c. and *note typing.Generic: 1418.
     that were introduced by the PEP 695(10) implementation.  Patch by
     Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104874(11): Document the ‘__name__’ and ‘__supertype__’
     attributes of *note typing.NewType: b63.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104799(12): Adjust the location of the (see PEP 695(13))
     ‘type_params’ field on *note ast.ClassDef: 14cf, *note
     ast.AsyncFunctionDef: 14d0, and *note ast.FunctionDef: 14d1. to
     better preserve backward compatibility.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra

   - gh-104797(14): Allow *note typing.Protocol: 4ad. classes to inherit
     from *note collections.abc.Buffer: 170.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104372(15): On Linux where *note subprocess: d0. can use the
     ‘vfork()’ syscall for faster spawning, prevent the parent process
     from blocking other threads by dropping the GIL while it waits for
     the vfork'ed child process ‘exec()’ outcome.  This prevents
     spawning a binary from a slow filesystem from blocking the rest of
     the application.

   - gh-99108(16): We now release the GIL around built-in *note hashlib:
     63. computations of reasonable size for the SHA families and MD5
     hash functions, matching what our OpenSSL backed hash computations
     already does.

   - gh-104399(17): Prepare the ‘_tkinter’ module for building with Tcl
     9.0 and future libtommath by replacing usage of deprecated
     functions ‘mp_to_unsigned_bin_n()’ and ‘mp_unsigned_bin_size()’
     when necessary.

   - gh-102024(18): Reduce calls of ‘_idle_semaphore.release()’ in
     ‘concurrent.futures.thread._worker()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105280

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105239

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105080

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105144

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105113

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103631

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104947

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104935

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104874

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104797

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104399

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102024


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<12>,  Next: Build<12>,  Prev: Library<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.15.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-89455(1): Add missing documentation for the ‘max_group_depth’
     and ‘max_group_width’ parameters and the ‘exceptions’ attribute of
     the *note traceback.TracebackException: 4a1. class.

   - gh-89412(2): Add missing documentation for the ‘end_lineno’ and
     ‘end_offset’ attributes of the *note traceback.TracebackException:
     4a1. class.

   - gh-104943(3): Remove mentions of old Python versions in *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 1fb.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89412

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104943


File: python.info,  Node: Build<12>,  Next: Windows<13>,  Prev: Documentation<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.15.5 Build
...............

   - gh-90005(1): Fix a regression in ‘configure’ where we could end up
     unintentionally linking with ‘libbsd’.

   - gh-89886(2): Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to
     regenerate ‘!configure’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<13>,  Next: macOS<8>,  Prev: Build<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.15.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-105146(1): Updated the links at the end of the installer to
     point to Discourse rather than the mailing lists.

   - gh-103646(2): When installed from the Microsoft Store, ‘pip’ no
     longer defaults to per-user installs.  However, as the install
     directory is unwritable, it should automatically decide to do a
     per-user install anyway.  This should resolve issues when ‘pip’ is
     passed an option that conflicts with ‘--user’.

   - gh-88745(3): Improve performance of *note shutil.copy2(): 8a6. by
     using the operating system's ‘CopyFile2’ function.  This may result
     in subtle changes to metadata copied along with some files,
     bringing them in line with normal OS behavior.

   - gh-104820(4): Fixes *note stat(): 1bf. and related functions on
     file systems that do not support file ID requests.  This includes
     FAT32 and exFAT.

   - gh-104803(5): Add *note os.path.isdevdrive(): 14d5. to detect
     whether a path is on a Windows Dev Drive.  Returns ‘False’ on
     platforms that do not support Dev Drive, and is absent on
     non-Windows platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105146

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103646

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88745

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104820

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104803


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<8>,  Next: IDLE<11>,  Prev: Windows<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.15.7 macOS
...............

   - gh-103142(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.1u.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103142


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<11>,  Next: C API<10>,  Prev: macOS<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.15.8 IDLE
..............

   - gh-104719(1): Remove IDLE's modification of tokenize.tabsize and
     test other uses of tokenize data and methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104719


File: python.info,  Node: C API<10>,  Prev: IDLE<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.15.9 C API
...............

   - gh-105115(1): ‘PyTypeObject.tp_bases’ (and ‘tp_mro’) for builtin
     static types are now shared by all interpreters, whereas in
     3.12-beta1 they were stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Also note
     that now the tuples are immortal objects.

   - gh-105071(2): Add ‘PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar’ to the unstable
     C api to expose the implementation of *note except*: 3a7.

   - gh-104668(3): Don't call *note PyOS_InputHook: 314. or *note
     PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 315. in subinterpreters, since it's
     generally difficult to avoid using global state in their registered
     callbacks.  This also avoids situations where extensions may find
     themselves running in a subinterpreter they don't support (or
     haven't yet been loaded in).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105115

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105071

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.16 Python 3.12.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-05-22'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<16>.
* Library: Library<16>.
* Documentation: Documentation<13>.
* Tests: Tests<14>.
* Build: Build<13>.
* Windows: Windows<14>.
* macOS: macOS<9>.
* IDLE: IDLE<12>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<8>.
* C API: C API<11>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<11>,  Next: Core and Builtins<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.16.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99889(1): Fixed a security in flaw in *note uu.decode(): 14db.
     that could allow for directory traversal based on the input if no
     ‘out_file’ was specified.

   - gh-104049(2): Do not expose the local on-disk location in directory
     indexes produced by ‘http.client.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’.

   - gh-99108(3): Upgrade built-in *note hashlib: 63. SHA3
     implementation to a verified implementation from the ‘HACL*’
     project.  Used when OpenSSL is not present or lacks SHA3.

   - gh-102153(4): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): bb1. now strips
     leading C0 control and space characters following the specification
     for URLs defined by WHATWG in response to CVE 2023-24329(5).  Patch
     by Illia Volochii.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99889

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104049

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102153

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-24329


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<16>,  Next: Library<16>,  Prev: Security<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.16.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102856(1): Implement PEP 701 changes in the *note tokenize: f6.
     module.  Patch by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo Salgado

   - gh-104615(2): Fix wrong ordering of assignments in code like ‘a, a
     = x, y’.  Contributed by Carl Meyer.

   - gh-104572(3): Improve syntax error message for invalid constructs
     in PEP 695(4) contexts and in annotations when ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ is active.

   - gh-104482(5): Fix three error handling bugs in ast.c's validation
     of pattern matching statements.

   - gh-102818(6): Do not add a frame to the traceback in the
     ‘sys.setprofile’ and ‘sys.settrace’ trampoline functions.  This
     ensures that frames are not duplicated if an exception is raised in
     the callback function, and ensures that frames are not omitted if a
     C callback is used and that does not add the frame.

   - gh-104405(7): Fix an issue where some *note bytecode: 39f.
     instructions could ignore PEP 523(8) when "inlining" calls.

   - gh-103082(9): Change behavior of ‘sys.monitoring.events.LINE’
     events in ‘sys.monitoring’: Line events now occur when a new line
     is reached dynamically, instead of using a static approximation, as
     before.  This makes the behavior very similar to that of "line"
     events in ‘sys.settrace’.  This should ease porting of tools from
     3.11 to 3.12.

   - gh-104263(10): Fix ‘float("nan")’ to produce a quiet NaN on
     platforms (like MIPS) where the meaning of the signalling / quiet
     bit is inverted from its usual meaning.  Also introduce a new macro
     ‘Py_INFINITY’ matching C99's ‘INFINITY’, and refactor internals to
     rely on C99's ‘NAN’ and ‘INFINITY’ macros instead of hard-coding
     bit patterns for infinities and NaNs.  Thanks Sebastian Berg.

   - gh-99113(11): Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate
     that they support running in subinterpreters that have their own
     GIL. This is done by using ‘Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED’
     as the value for the ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ module def
     slot.  Otherwise the module, by default, cannot be imported in such
     subinterpreters.  (This does not affect the main interpreter or
     subinterpreters that do not have their own GIL.) In addition to the
     isolation that multi-phase init already normally requires, support
     for per-interpreter GIL involves one additional constraint:
     thread-safety.  If the module has external (linked) dependencies
     and those libraries have any state that isn't thread-safe then the
     module must do the additional work to add thread-safety.  This
     should be an uncommon case.

   - gh-99113(12): The GIL is now (optionally) per-interpreter.  This is
     the fundamental change for PEP 684.  This is all made possible by
     virtue of the isolated state of each interpreter in the process.
     The behavior of the main interpreter remains unchanged.  Likewise,
     interpreters created using ‘Py_NewInterpreter()’ are not affected.
     To get an interpreter with its own GIL, call
     ‘Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’.

   - gh-104108(13): Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate
     whether or not they actually support multiple interpreters.  By
     default such modules are expected to support use in multiple
     interpreters.  In the uncommon case that one does not, it may use
     the new ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ module def slot.  A value of
     ‘0’ means the module does not support them.  ‘1’ means it does.
     The default is ‘1’.

   - gh-104142(14): Fix an issue where *note list: 40a. or *note tuple:
     4e6. repetition could fail to respect PEP 683(15).

   - gh-104078(16): Improve the performance of *note
     PyObject_HasAttrString(): 14dd.

   - gh-104066(17): Improve the performance of *note hasattr(): 1f9. for
     module objects with a missing attribute.

   - gh-104028(18): Reduce object creation while calling callback
     function from gc.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-104018(19): Disallow the "z" format specifier in %-format of
     bytes objects.

   - gh-102213(20): Fix performance loss when accessing an object's
     attributes with ‘__getattr__’ defined.

   - gh-103895(21): Improve handling of edge cases in showing
     ‘Exception.__notes__’.  Ensures that the messages always end with a
     newline and that string/bytes are not exploded over multiple lines.
     Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - gh-103907(22): Don't modify the refcounts of known immortal objects
     (*note True: a70, *note False: 98f, and *note None: 470.) in the
     main interpreter loop.

   - gh-103899(23): Provide a helpful hint in the *note TypeError: 2ba.
     message when accidentally calling a *note module: 14de. object that
     has a callable attribute of the same name (such as *note dis.dis():
     98c. or *note datetime.datetime: 224.).

   - gh-103845(24): Remove both line and instruction instrumentation
     before adding new ones for monitoring, to avoid newly added
     instrumentation being removed immediately.

   - gh-103763(25): Implement PEP 695(26), adding syntactic support for
     generic classes, generic functions, and type aliases.

     A new ‘type X = ...’ syntax is added for type aliases, which
     resolves at runtime to an instance of the new class
     ‘typing.TypeAliasType’.  The value is lazily evaluated and is
     accessible through the ‘.__value__’ attribute.  This is implemented
     as a new AST node ‘ast.TypeAlias’.

     New syntax (‘class X[T]: ...’, ‘def func[T](): ...’) is added for
     defining generic functions and classes.  This is implemented as a
     new ‘type_params’ attribute on the AST nodes for classes and
     functions.  This node holds instances of the new AST classes
     ‘ast.TypeVar’, ‘ast.ParamSpec’, and ‘ast.TypeVarTuple’.

     ‘typing.TypeVar’, ‘typing.ParamSpec’, ‘typing.ParamSpecArgs’,
     ‘typing.ParamSpecKwargs’, ‘typing.TypeVarTuple’, and
     ‘typing.Generic’ are now implemented in C rather than Python.

     There are new bytecode instructions ‘LOAD_LOCALS’,
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_GLOBAL’, and ‘LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_DEREF’ to
     support correct resolution of names in class namespaces.

     Patch by Eric Traut, Larry Hastings, and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-103801(27): Adds three minor linting fixes to the wasm module
     caught that were caught by ruff.

   - gh-103793(28): Optimized asyncio Task creation by deferring
     expensive string formatting (task name generation) from Task
     creation to the first time ‘get_name’ is called.  This makes
     asyncio benchmarks up to 5% faster.

   - gh-102310(29): Change the error range for invalid bytes literals.

   - gh-103590(30): Do not wrap a single exception raised from a
     ‘try-except*’ construct in an *note ExceptionGroup: 17b.

   - gh-103650(31): Change the perf map format to remove the '0x' prefix
     from the addresses

   - gh-102856(32): Implement the required C tokenizer changes for PEP
     701.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Lysandros Nikolaou, Batuhan
     Taskaya, Marta Gómez Macías and sunmy2019.

   - gh-100530(33): Clarify the error message raised when the called
     part of a class pattern isn't actually a class.

   - gh-101517(34): Fix bug in line numbers of instructions emitted for
     *note except*: 3a7.

   - gh-103492(35): Clarify *note SyntaxWarning: 178. with literal ‘is’
     comparison by specifying which literal is problematic, since
     comparisons using ‘is’ with e.g.  ‘None’ and bool literals are
     idiomatic.

   - gh-87729(36): Add *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 207. (and a specialization
     for ‘super().method()’) to speed up ‘super().method()’ and
     ‘super().attr’.  This makes ‘super().method()’ roughly 2.3x faster
     and brings it within 20% of the performance of a simple method
     call.  Patch by Vladimir Matveev and Carl Meyer.

   - gh-103488(37): Change the internal offset distinguishing yield and
     return target addresses, so that the instruction pointer is correct
     for exception handling and other stack unwinding.

   - gh-82012(38): The bitwise inversion operator (‘~’) on bool is
     deprecated.  It returns the bitwise inversion of the underlying
     ‘int’ representation such that ‘bool(~True) == True’, which can be
     confusing.  Use ‘not’ for logical negation of bools.  In the rare
     case that you really need the bitwise inversion of the underlying
     ‘int’, convert to int explicitly ‘~int(x)’.

   - gh-77757(39): Exceptions raised in a typeobject's ‘__set_name__’
     method are no longer wrapped by a *note RuntimeError: 17a.  Context
     information is added to the exception as a PEP 678(40) note.

   - gh-103333(41): *note AttributeError: 3ca. now retains the ‘name’
     attribute when pickled and unpickled.

   - gh-103242(42): Migrate *note set_ecdh_curve(): fd5. method not to
     use deprecated OpenSSL APIs.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-103323(43): We've replaced our use of
     ‘_PyRuntime.tstate_current’ with a thread-local variable.  This is
     a fairly low-level implementation detail, and there should be no
     change in behavior.

   - gh-84436(44): The implementation of PEP-683 which adds Immortal
     Objects by using a fixed reference count that skips reference
     counting to make objects truly immutable.

   - gh-102700(45): Allow built-in modules to be submodules.  This
     allows submodules to be statically linked into a CPython binary.

   - gh-103082(46): Implement PEP 669(47) Low Impact Monitoring for
     CPython.

   - gh-88691(48): Reduce the number of inline *note CACHE: 4fa. entries
     for *note CALL: 509.

   - gh-102500(49): Make the buffer protocol accessible in Python code
     using the new ‘__buffer__’ and ‘__release_buffer__’ magic methods.
     See PEP 688(50) for details.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-97933(51): PEP 709(52): inline list, dict and set comprehensions
     to improve performance and reduce bytecode size.

   - gh-99184(53): Bypass instance attribute access of ‘__name__’ in
     ‘repr’ of *note weakref.ref: e82.

   - gh-98003(54): Complex function calls are now faster and consume no
     C stack space.

   - bpo-39610(55): ‘len()’ for 0-dimensional *note memoryview: 17f.
     objects (such as ‘memoryview(ctypes.c_uint8(42))’) now raises a
     *note TypeError: 2ba.  Previously this returned ‘1’, which was not
     consistent with ‘mem_0d[0]’ raising an *note IndexError: 13ac.

   - bpo-31821(56): Fix ‘pause_reading()’ to work when called from
     ‘connection_made()’ in *note asyncio: 9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104615

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104572

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104482

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102818

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104405

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104263

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104108

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104142

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104078

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104066

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104028

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104018

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103895

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103907

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103899

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103845

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103763

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103801

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102310

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103650

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100530

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103492

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87729

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103488

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82012

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757

   (40) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103333

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103242

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103323

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102700

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (47) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88691

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500

   (50) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97933

   (52) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99184

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98003

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39610

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31821


File: python.info,  Node: Library<16>,  Next: Documentation<13>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.16.3 Library
.................

   - gh-104600(1): *note functools.update_wrapper(): eb6. now sets the
     ‘__type_params__’ attribute (added by PEP 695(2)).

   - gh-104340(3): When an ‘asyncio’ pipe protocol loses its connection
     due to an error, and the caller doesn't await ‘wait_closed()’ on
     the corresponding ‘StreamWriter’, don't log a warning about an
     exception that was never retrieved.  After all, according to the
     ‘StreamWriter.close()’ docs, the ‘wait_closed()’ call is optional
     ("not mandatory").

   - gh-104555(4): Fix issue where an *note issubclass(): 5df. check
     comparing a class ‘X’ against a *note runtime-checkable protocol:
     14c. ‘Y’ with non-callable members would not cause *note TypeError:
     2ba. to be raised if an *note isinstance(): 14b. call had
     previously been made comparing an instance of ‘X’ to ‘Y’.  This
     issue was present in edge cases on Python 3.11, but became more
     prominent in 3.12 due to some unrelated changes that were made to
     runtime-checkable protocols.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-104372(5): Refactored the ‘_posixsubprocess’ internals to avoid
     Python C API usage between fork and exec when marking ‘pass_fds=’
     file descriptors inheritable.

   - gh-104484(6): Added 'case_sensitive' argument to *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 1d1.

   - gh-75367(7): Fix data descriptor detection in *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 1b2.

   - gh-104536(8): Fix a race condition in the internal
     ‘multiprocessing.process’ cleanup logic that could manifest as an
     unintended ‘AttributeError’ when calling ‘process.close()’.

   - gh-103857(9): Update datetime deprecations' stracktrace to point to
     the calling line

   - gh-101520(10): Move the core functionality of the ‘tracemalloc’
     module in the ‘Python/’ folder, leaving just the module wrapper in
     ‘Modules/’.

   - gh-104392(11): Remove undocumented and unused ‘_paramspec_tvars’
     attribute from some classes in *note typing: ff.

   - gh-102613(12): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1cf.
     raised *note RecursionError: be1. when walking deep directory
     trees.

   - gh-103000(13): Improve performance of *note dataclasses.asdict():
     14e0. for the common case where 'dict_factory' is ‘dict’.  Patch by
     David C Ellis.

   - gh-104301(14): Allow leading whitespace in disambiguated statements
     in *note pdb: a0.

   - gh-104139(15): Teach ‘urllib.parse.unsplit()’ to retain the ‘"//"’
     when assembling ‘itms-services://?action=generate-bugs’ style Apple
     Platform Deployment(16) URLs.

   - gh-104307(17): *note socket.getnameinfo(): 14e1. now releases the
     GIL while contacting the DNS server

   - gh-104310(18): Users may now use
     ‘importlib.util.allowing_all_extensions()’ (a context manager) to
     temporarily disable the strict compatibility checks for importing
     extension modules in subinterpreters.

   - gh-87695(19): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1cf.
     raised *note OSError: 644. when it encountered a symlink to an
     overly long path.

   - gh-104265(20): Prevent possible crash by disallowing instantiation
     of the ‘_csv.Reader’ and ‘_csv.Writer’ types.  The regression was
     introduced in 3.10.0a4 with PR 23224 (bpo-14935(21)).  Patch by
     Radislav Chugunov.

   - gh-102613(22): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     1cf. when expanding recursive wildcards ("‘**’") by merging
     adjacent wildcards and de-duplicating results only when necessary.

   - gh-65772(23): Remove unneeded comments and code in turtle.py.

   - gh-90208(24): Fixed issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1cf.
     returned incomplete results when it encountered a *note
     PermissionError: bb5.  This method now suppresses all *note
     OSError: 644. exceptions, except those raised from calling *note
     is_dir(): 85e. on the top-level path.

   - gh-104144(25): Optimize *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 3f1. when using
     *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 192.  Skip scheduling a done
     callback if a TaskGroup task completes eagerly.

   - gh-104144(26): Optimize *note asyncio.gather(): 3f4. when using
     *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 192. to complete eagerly if all
     fututres completed eagerly.  Avoid scheduling done callbacks for
     futures that complete eagerly.

   - gh-104114(27): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1cf.
     returns paths using the case of non-wildcard segments for
     corresponding path segments, rather than the real filesystem case.

   - gh-104104(28): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     1cf. by using *note re.IGNORECASE: 14e2. to implement
     case-insensitive matching.

   - gh-104102(29): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     1cf. when evaluating patterns that contain ‘'../'’ segments.

   - gh-103822(30): Update the return type of ‘weekday’ to the newly
     added Day attribute

   - gh-103629(31): Update the ‘repr’ of *note typing.Unpack: 1417.
     according to PEP 692(32).

   - gh-103963(33): Make *note dis: 35. display the names of the args
     for ‘CALL_INTRINSIC_*’.

   - gh-104035(34): Do not ignore user-defined ‘__getstate__’ and
     ‘__setstate__’ methods for slotted frozen dataclasses.

   - gh-103987(35): In *note mmap: 8b, fix several bugs that could lead
     to access to memory-mapped files after they have been invalidated.

   - gh-103977(36): Improve import time of *note platform: a5. module.

   - gh-88773(37): Added *note turtle.teleport(): 14e3. to the *note
     turtle: fc. module to move a turtle to a new point without tracing
     a line, visible or invisible.  Patch by Liam Gersten.

   - gh-103935(38): Use *note io.open_code(): 14e4. for files to be
     executed instead of raw *note open(): 29c.

   - gh-68968(39): Fixed garbled output of *note assertEqual(): 2a9.
     when an input lacks final newline.

   - gh-100370(40): Fix potential *note OverflowError: 6ad. in *note
     sqlite3.Connection.blobopen(): 47e. for 32-bit builds.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-102628(41): Substitute CTRL-D with CTRL-Z in *note sqlite3: c9.
     CLI banner when running on Windows.

   - gh-103636(42): Module-level attributes ‘January’ and ‘February’ are
     deprecated from *note calendar: 12.

   - gh-103583(43): Isolate ‘_multibytecodec’ and codecs extension
     modules.  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103848(44): Add checks to ensure that ‘[’ bracketed ‘]’ hosts
     found by *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): bb1. are of IPv6 or
     IPvFuture format.

   - gh-103872(45): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.2.

   - gh-99944(46): Make *note dis: 35. display the value of oparg of
     *note KW_NAMES: 14e5.

   - gh-74940(47): The C.UTF-8 locale is no longer converted to
     en_US.UTF-8, enabling the use of UTF-8 encoding on systems which
     have no locales installed.

   - gh-103861(48): Fix ‘zipfile.Zipfile’ creating invalid zip files
     when ‘force_zip64’ was used to add files to them.  Patch by Carey
     Metcalfe.

   - gh-103857(49): Deprecated *note datetime.datetime.utcnow(): 225.
     and *note datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp(): 226.  (Patch by
     Paul Ganssle)

   - gh-103839(50): Avoid compilation error due to tommath.h not being
     found when building Tkinter against Tcl 8.7 built with bundled
     libtommath.

   - gh-103791(51): *note contextlib.suppress: db0. now supports
     suppressing exceptions raised as part of an *note ExceptionGroup:
     17b.  If other exceptions exist on the group, they are re-raised in
     a group that does not contain the suppressed exceptions.

   - gh-90750(52): Use *note datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 832.
     in the implementation of *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1408,
     which should now accept only valid ISO dates.  (Patch by Paul
     Ganssle)

   - gh-103685(53): Prepare ‘tkinter.Menu.index()’ for Tk 8.7 so that it
     does not raise ‘TclError: expected integer but got ""’ when it
     should return ‘None’.

   - gh-81403(54): *note urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler: 14e6. no longer
     raises ‘URLError’ if a cached FTP instance is reused.  ftplib's
     endtransfer method calls voidresp to drain the connection to handle
     FTP instance reuse properly.

   - gh-103699(55): Add ‘__orig_bases__’ to non-generic TypedDicts,
     call-based TypedDicts, and call-based NamedTuples.  Other
     TypedDicts and NamedTuples already had the attribute.

   - gh-103693(56): Add convenience variable feature to *note pdb: a0.

   - gh-92248(57): Deprecate ‘type’, ‘choices’, and ‘metavar’ parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’.

   - gh-89415(58): Add *note socket: c6. constants for source-specific
     multicast.  Patch by Reese Hyde.

   - gh-103673(59): *note socketserver: c7. gains
     ‘ForkingUnixStreamServer’ and ‘ForkingUnixDatagramServer’ classes.
     Patch by Jay Berry.

   - gh-103636(60): Added Enum for months and days in the calendar
     module.

   - gh-84976(61): Create a new ‘Lib/_pydatetime.py’ file that defines
     the Python version of the ‘datetime’ module, and make ‘datetime’
     import the contents of the new library only if the C implementation
     is missing.  Currently, the full Python implementation is defined
     and then deleted if the C implementation is not available, slowing
     down ‘import datetime’ unnecessarily.

   - gh-103596(62): Attributes/methods are no longer shadowed by
     same-named enum members, although they may be shadowed by
     enum.property's.

   - gh-103584(63): Updated ‘importlib.metadata’ with changes from
     ‘importlib_metadata’ 5.2 through 6.5.0, including: Support
     ‘installed-files.txt’ for ‘Distribution.files’ when present.
     ‘PackageMetadata’ now stipulates an additional ‘get’ method
     allowing for easy querying of metadata keys that may not be
     present.  ‘packages_distributions’ now honors packages and modules
     with Python modules that not ‘.py’ sources (e.g.  ‘.pyc’, ‘.so’).
     Expand protocol for ‘PackageMetadata.get_all’ to match the upstream
     implementation of ‘email.message.Message.get_all’ in
     python/typeshed#9620.  Deprecated use of ‘Distribution’ without
     defining abstract methods.  Deprecated expectation that
     ‘PackageMetadata.__getitem__’ will return ‘None’ for missing keys.
     In the future, it will raise a ‘KeyError’.

   - gh-103578(64): Fixed a bug where *note pdb: a0. crashes when
     reading source file with different encoding by replacing *note
     io.open(): 29d. with *note io.open_code(): 14e4.  The new method
     would also call into the hook set by *note
     PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 14e7.

   - gh-103556(65): Now creating *note inspect.Signature: 54a. objects
     with positional-only parameter with a default followed by a
     positional-or-keyword parameter without one is impossible.

   - gh-103559(66): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.1.

   - gh-103548(67): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.Path.absolute(): 14e8. and *note cwd(): 14e9. by joining
     paths only when necessary.  Also improve performance of *note
     pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute(): 14ea. on Posix by skipping path
     parsing and normalization.

   - gh-103538(68): Remove ‘_tkinter’ module code guarded by definition
     of the ‘TK_AQUA’ macro which was only needed for Tk 8.4.7 or
     earlier and was never actually defined by any build system or
     documented for manual use.

   - gh-103533(69): Update *note cProfile: 25. to use PEP 669 API

   - gh-103525(70): Fix misleading exception message when mixed ‘str’
     and ‘bytes’ arguments are supplied to *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8.
     and *note Path: 149.

   - gh-103489(71): Add *note getconfig(): 1e0. and *note setconfig():
     1e1. to *note Connection: 1dc. to make configuration changes to a
     database connection.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103365(72): Set default Flag boundary to ‘STRICT’ and fix
     bitwise operations.

   - gh-103472(73): Avoid a potential *note ResourceWarning: aa3. in
     *note http.client.HTTPConnection: 998. by closing the proxy /
     tunnel's CONNECT response explicitly.

   - gh-103462(74): Fixed an issue with using *note writelines(): 14eb.
     in *note asyncio: 9. to send very large payloads that exceed the
     amount of data that can be written in one call to *note
     socket.socket.send(): c1e. or *note socket.socket.sendmsg(): 191,
     resulting in the remaining buffer being left unwritten.

   - gh-103449(75): Fix a bug in doc string generation in *note
     dataclasses.dataclass(): 3bc.

   - gh-103092(76): Isolate ‘_collections’ (apply PEP 687(77)).  Patch
     by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103357(78): Added support for *note logging.Formatter: 1307.
     ‘defaults’ parameter to *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 1041.
     and *note logging.config.fileConfig(): 9ab.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-103092(79): Adapt the *note winreg: 111. extension module to PEP
     687(80).

   - gh-74690(81): The performance of *note isinstance(): 14b. checks
     against *note runtime-checkable protocols: 14c. has been
     considerably improved for protocols that only have a few members.
     To achieve this improvement, several internal implementation
     details of the *note typing: ff. module have been refactored,
     including ‘typing._ProtocolMeta.__instancecheck__’,
     ‘typing._is_callable_members_only’, and
     ‘typing._get_protocol_attrs’.  Patches by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-74690(82): The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now
     considered "frozen" at runtime as soon as the class has been
     created.  See *note "What's new in Python 3.12": 1f8. for more
     details.

   - gh-103256(83): Fixed a bug that caused *note hmac: 65. to raise an
     exception when the requested hash algorithm was not available in
     OpenSSL despite being available separately as part of ‘hashlib’
     itself.  It now falls back properly to the built-in.  This could
     happen when, for example, your OpenSSL does not include SHA3
     support and you want to compute ‘hmac.digest(b'K', b'M',
     'sha3_256')’.

   - gh-102778(84): Support ‘sys.last_exc’ in *note idlelib: 6e.

   - gh-103285(85): Improve performance of *note
     ast.get_source_segment(): 81b.

   - gh-103225(86): Fix a bug in *note pdb: a0. when displaying line
     numbers of module-level source code.

   - gh-103092(87): Adapt the *note msvcrt: 8e. extension module to PEP
     687(88).

   - gh-103092(89): Adapt the *note winsound: 112. extension module to
     PEP 687(90).

   - gh-93910(91): Remove deprecation of enum ‘member.member’ access.

   - gh-102978(92): Fixes *note unittest.mock.patch(): d12. not
     enforcing function signatures for methods decorated with
     ‘@classmethod’ or ‘@staticmethod’ when patch is called with
     ‘autospec=True’.

   - gh-103092(93): Isolate ‘_socket’ (apply PEP 687(94)).  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100479(95): Add *note pathlib.PurePath.with_segments(): 1c9,
     which creates a path object from arguments.  This method is called
     whenever a derivative path is created, such as from *note
     pathlib.PurePath.parent: 14ec.  Subclasses may override this method
     to share information between path objects.

   - gh-103220(96): Fix issue where *note os.path.join(): 14ed. added a
     slash when joining onto an incomplete UNC drive with a trailing
     slash on Windows.

   - gh-103204(97): Fixes *note http.server: 6d. accepting HTTP requests
     with HTTP version numbers preceded by '+', or '-', or with
     digit-separating '_' characters.  The length of the version numbers
     is also constrained.

   - gh-75586(98): Fix various Windows-specific issues with
     ‘shutil.which’.

   - gh-103193(99): Improve performance of *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 1b2.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-103176(100): *note sys._current_exceptions(): 1e9. now returns a
     mapping from thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a
     ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ tuple.

   - gh-103143(101): Polish the help messages and docstrings of *note
     pdb: a0.

   - gh-103015(102): Add 'entrypoint' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 1df, for overriding the SQLite
     extension entry point.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103000(103): Improve performance of *note dataclasses.astuple():
     14ee. and *note dataclasses.asdict(): 14e0. in cases where the
     contents are common Python types.

   - gh-102953(104): The extraction methods in *note tarfile: d8, and
     *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 184, have a new a 'filter' argument
     that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or
     dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination
     directory.  See *note Extraction filters: 185. for details.

   - gh-97696(105): Implemented an eager task factory in asyncio.  When
     used as a task factory on an event loop, it performs eager
     execution of coroutines.  Coroutines that are able to complete
     synchronously (e.g.  return or raise without blocking) are returned
     immediately as a finished task, and the task is never scheduled to
     the event loop.  If the coroutine blocks, the (pending) task is
     scheduled and returned.

   - gh-81079(106): Add 'case_sensitive' keyword-only argument to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 1cf. and *note rglob(): 1d0.

   - gh-101819(107): Isolate the *note io: 79. extension module by
     applying PEP 687(108).  Patch by Kumar Aditya, Victor Stinner, and
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91896(109): Deprecate *note collections.abc.ByteString: 223.

   - gh-101362(110): Speed up *note pathlib.Path: 149. construction by
     omitting the path anchor from the internal list of path parts.

   - gh-102114(111): Functions in the *note dis: 35. module that accept
     a source code string as argument now print a more concise traceback
     when the string contains a syntax or indentation error.

   - gh-62432(112): The *note unittest: 101. runner will now exit with
     status code 5 if no tests were run.  It is common for test runner
     misconfiguration to fail to find any tests, this should be an
     error.

   - gh-78079(113): Fix incorrect normalization of UNC device path
     roots, and partial UNC share path roots, in *note pathlib.PurePath:
     1c8.  Pathlib no longer appends a trailing slash to such paths.

   - gh-85984(114): Add *note tty.cfmakeraw(): 146f. and *note
     tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1449. to *note tty: fb. and modernize, the
     behavior of *note tty.setraw(): 146e. and *note tty.setcbreak():
     1448. to use POSIX.1-2017 Chapter 11 "General Terminal Interface"
     flag masks by default.

   - gh-101688(115): Implement *note types.get_original_bases(): 1f5. to
     provide further introspection for types.

   - gh-101640(116): *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 2bb. now catches
     errors when writing messages, such as when *note sys.stderr: 778.
     is ‘None’.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-83861(117): Fix datetime.astimezone method return value when
     invoked on a naive datetime instance that represents local time
     falling in a timezone transition gap.  PEP 495 requires that
     instances with fold=1 produce earlier times than those with fold=0
     in this case.

   - gh-89550(118): Decrease execution time of some *note gzip: 62. file
     writes by 15% by adding more appropriate buffering.

   - gh-95299(119): Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from
     ‘ensurepip’, and stop installing setuptools in environments created
     by ‘venv’.

   - gh-99353(120): Respect the *note http.client.HTTPConnection: 998.
     ‘.debuglevel’ flag in ‘urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler’ when its
     constructor parameter ‘debuglevel’ is not set.  And do the same for
     ‘*HTTPS*’.

   - gh-98040(121): Remove the long-deprecated ‘imp’ module.

   - gh-97850(122): Deprecate *note pkgutil.find_loader(): 230. and
     *note pkgutil.get_loader(): 231. in favor of *note
     importlib.util.find_spec(): 232.

   - gh-94473(123): Flatten arguments in ‘tkinter.Canvas.coords()’.  It
     now accepts not only ‘x1, y1, x2, y2, ...’ and ‘[x1, y1, x2, y2,
     ...]’, but also ‘(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...’ and ‘[(x1, y1), (x2, y2),
     ...]’.

   - gh-98040(124): Remove more deprecated importlib APIs:
     ‘find_loader()’, ‘find_module()’, ‘importlib.abc.Finder’,
     ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’.

   - gh-96522(125): Fix potential deadlock in pty.spawn()

   - gh-96534(126): Support divert(4) added in FreeBSD 14.

   - gh-87474(127): Fix potential file descriptor leaks in *note
     subprocess.Popen: 8e1.

   - gh-94906(128): Support multiple steps in *note math.nextafter():
     1b7.  Patch by Shantanu Jain and Matthias Gorgens.

   - gh-51574(129): Make *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c3. return absolute
     paths when its 'dir' parameter is relative.

   - gh-94518(130): Convert private ‘_posixsubprocess.fork_exec()’ to
     use Argument Clinic.

   - gh-92184(131): When creating zip files using *note zipfile: 12b,
     ‘os.altsep’, if not ‘None’, will always be treated as a path
     separator even when it is not ‘/’.  Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - bpo-46797(132): Deprecation warnings are now emitted for ‘ast.Num’,
     ‘ast.Bytes’, ‘ast.Str’, ‘ast.NameConstant’ and ‘ast.Ellipsis’.
     These have been documented as deprecated since Python 3.8, and will
     be removed in Python 3.14.

   - bpo-44844(133): Enables *note webbrowser: 110. to detect and launch
     Microsoft Edge browser.

   - bpo-45606(134): Fixed the bug in *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1cf. -
     previously a dangling symlink would not be found by this method
     when the pattern is an exact match, but would be found when the
     pattern contains a wildcard or the recursive wildcard (‘**’).  With
     this change, a dangling symlink will be found in both cases.

   - bpo-23041(135): Add *note QUOTE_STRINGS: 1a1. and *note
     QUOTE_NOTNULL: 1a0. to the suite of *note csv: 27. module quoting
     styles.

   - bpo-24964(136): Added *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers(): 14a9. that
     provides access to the HTTP headers on a proxy server response to
     the ‘CONNECT’ request.

   - bpo-17258(137): *note multiprocessing: 8f. now supports stronger
     HMAC algorithms for inter-process connection authentication rather
     than only HMAC-MD5.

   - bpo-39744(138): Make *note
     asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate(): 14ef. close the
     subprocess's stdin even when called with ‘input=None’.

   - bpo-22708(139): http.client CONNECT method tunnel improvements: Use
     HTTP 1.1 protocol; send a matching Host: header with CONNECT, if
     one is not provided; convert IDN domain names to Punycode.  Patch
     by Michael Handler.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104600

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104340

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104555

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104484

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75367

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104536

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101520

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104392

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104301

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104139

   (16) 
https://support.apple.com/en-gb/guide/deployment/depce7cefc4d/web

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104307

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87695

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104265

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14935

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65772

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90208

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104114

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104104

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104102

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103822

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103963

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104035

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103987

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103977

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88773

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103935

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68968

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100370

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102628

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103583

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103848

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103872

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99944

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74940

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103861

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103839

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90750

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103685

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81403

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89415

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103673

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84976

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103596

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103584

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103578

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103556

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103559

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103548

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103538

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103533

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103525

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103365

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103472

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103462

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103449

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (77) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103357

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (80) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103256

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103285

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103225

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (88) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (90) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93910

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102978

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (94) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100479

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103220

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103204

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75586

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103143

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102953

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97696

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81079

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101819

   (108) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102114

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62432

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78079

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101688

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101640

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83861

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89550

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99353

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96522

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96534

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87474

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51574

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92184

   (132) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46797

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44844

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45606

   (135) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23041

   (136) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24964

   (137) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258

   (138) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39744

   (139) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22708


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<13>,  Next: Tests<14>,  Prev: Library<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.16.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-67056(1): Document that the effect of registering or
     unregistering an *note atexit: a. cleanup function from within a
     registered cleanup function is undefined.

   - gh-103629(2): Mention the new way of typing ‘**kwargs’ with
     ‘Unpack’ and ‘TypedDict’ introduced in PEP 692(3).

   - gh-48241(4): Clarifying documentation about the url parameter to
     urllib.request.urlopen and urllib.request.Request needing to be
     encoded properly.

   - gh-86094(5): Add support for Unicode Path Extra Field in ZipFile.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim and Andrea Giudiceandrea

   - gh-99202(6): Fix extension type from documentation for compiling in
     C++20 mode

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67056

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48241

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86094

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99202


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<14>,  Next: Build<13>,  Prev: Documentation<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.16.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-104494(1): Update ‘test_pack_configure_in’ and
     ‘test_place_configure_in’ for changes to error message formatting
     in Tk 8.7.

   - gh-104461(2): Run test_configure_screen on X11 only, since the
     ‘DISPLAY’ environment variable and ‘-screen’ option for toplevels
     are not useful on Tk for Win32 or Aqua.

   - gh-86275(3): Added property-based tests to the *note zoneinfo: 12e.
     tests, along with stubs for the ‘hypothesis’ interface.  (Patch by
     Paul Ganssle)

   - gh-103329(4): Regression tests for the behaviour of
     ‘unittest.mock.PropertyMock’ were added.

   - gh-102795(5): fix use of poll in test_epoll's test_control_and_wait

   - gh-75729(6): Fix the *note os.spawn*: 14f2. tests failing on
     Windows when the working directory or interpreter path contains
     spaces.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104494

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86275

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103329

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102795

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75729


File: python.info,  Node: Build<13>,  Next: Windows<14>,  Prev: Tests<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.16.6 Build
...............

   - gh-101282(1): BOLT optimization is now applied to the libpython
     shared library if building a shared library.  BOLT instrumentation
     and application settings can now be influenced via the
     ‘BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS’ and ‘BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS’ configure variables.

   - gh-99017(2): ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now require Python 3.10 or newer.

   - gh-104490(3): Define ‘.PHONY’ / virtual make targets consistently
     and properly.

   - gh-104106(4): Add gcc fallback of mkfifoat/mknodat for macOS. Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - gh-103532(5): The ‘TKINTER_PROTECT_LOADTK’ macro is no longer
     defined or used in the ‘_tkinter’ module.  It was previously only
     defined when building against Tk 8.4.13 and older, but Tk older
     than 8.5.12 has been unsupported since gh-91152(6).

   - gh-99069(7): Extended workaround defining ‘static_assert’ when
     missing from the libc headers to all clang and gcc builds.  In
     particular, this fixes building on macOS <= 10.10.

   - gh-100220(8): Changed the default value of the ‘SHELL’ Makefile
     variable from ‘/bin/sh’ to ‘/bin/sh -e’ to ensure that complex
     recipes correctly fail after an error.  Previously, ‘make install’
     could fail to install some files and yet return a successful
     result.

   - gh-90656(9): Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

        * loongarch64-linux-gnusf

        * loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

        * loongarch64-linux-gnu

     Patch by Zhang Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99017

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104490

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104106

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103532

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91152

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99069

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100220

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<14>,  Next: macOS<9>,  Prev: Build<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.16.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-104623(1): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.42.0.

   - gh-82814(2): Fix a potential ‘[Errno 13] Permission denied’ when
     using *note shutil.copystat(): fbe. within Windows Subsystem for
     Linux (WSL) on a mounted filesystem by adding ‘errno.EACCES’ to the
     list of ignored errors within the internal implementation.

   - gh-103088(3): Fix virtual environment ‘activate’ script having
     incorrect line endings for Cygwin.

   - gh-103088(4): Fixes venvs not working in bash on Windows across
     different disks

   - gh-102997(5): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.41.2.

   - gh-88013(6): Fixed a bug where *note TypeError: 2ba. was raised
     when calling ‘ntpath.realpath()’ with a bytes parameter in some
     cases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82814

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88013


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<9>,  Next: IDLE<12>,  Prev: Windows<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.16.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-99834(1): Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.13.

   - gh-104623(2): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.42.0.

   - gh-103545(3): Add ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD’,
     ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS’, ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG’ and
     ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI’.  These can be used with ‘os.setpriority’ to
     run the process at a lower priority and make use of the efficiency
     cores on Apple Silicon systems.

   - gh-104180(4): Support reading SOCKS proxy configuration from macOS
     System Configuration.  Patch by Sam Schott.

   - gh-60436(5): update curses textbox to additionally handle backspace
     using the ‘curses.ascii.DEL’ key press.

   - gh-102997(6): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.41.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103545

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104180

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60436

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<12>,  Next: Tools/Demos<8>,  Prev: macOS<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.16.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-104499(1): Fix completions for Tk Aqua 8.7 (currently blank).

   - gh-104496(2): About prints both tcl and tk versions if different
     (expected someday).

   - gh-88496(3): Fix IDLE test hang on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104499

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104496

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88496


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<8>,  Next: C API<11>,  Prev: IDLE<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.16.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-104389(1): Argument Clinic C converters now accept the ‘unused’
     keyword, for wrapping a parameter with *note Py_UNUSED: 14f8.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104389


File: python.info,  Node: C API<11>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.16.11 C API
................

   - gh-101291(1): Added unstable C API for extracting the value of
     "compact" integers: *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 318. and
     *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 319.

   - gh-104109(2): We've added ‘Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’ and
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig’ to the public C-API (but not the stable ABI;
     not yet at least).  The new function may be used to create a new
     interpreter with various features configured.  The function was
     added to support PEP 684 (per-interpreter GIL).

   - gh-103968(3): *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c. and its variants now
     allow creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 30e.
     The ‘tp_new’ is ignored.  This behavior is deprecated and will be
     disallowed in 3.14+.  The new *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2d5.
     already disallows it.

   - gh-103743(4): Add *note PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData():
     14fa. function that can be used to allocate additional memory after
     an object for data not managed by Python.

   - gh-103295(5): Introduced *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry():
     14fb, *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 14fc. and *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini(): 14fd.  These allow extension
     modules (JIT compilers in particular) to write to perf-map files in
     a thread safe manner.  The *note Python 對 Linux perf 分析器的支援:
     14fe. also uses these APIs to write entries in the perf-map file.

   - gh-103509(6): Added C API for extending types whose instance memory
     layout is opaque: *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2cc. can now be zero
     or negative, *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 2cd. can be used to get
     subclass-specific data, and *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 2cf. can
     be used to safely extend variable-size objects.  See PEP 697(7) for
     details.

   - gh-103091(8): Add a new C-API function to eagerly assign a version
     tag to a PyTypeObject: ‘PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag()’.

   - gh-101408(9): *note PyObject_GC_Resize: 14ff. should calculate
     preheader size if needed.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-98836(10): Add support of more formatting options (left
     aligning, octals, uppercase hexadecimals, ‘intmax_t’, ‘ptrdiff_t’,
     ‘wchar_t’ C strings, variable width and precision) in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     303.

   - gh-96803(11): Add unstable C-API functions to get the code object,
     lasti and line number from the internal ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ in
     the limited API. The functions are:

        * ‘PyCodeObject * PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

        * ‘int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

        * ‘int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104109

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103743

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103091

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101408

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96803


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.17 Python 3.12.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-04-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<17>.
* Library: Library<17>.
* Documentation: Documentation<14>.
* Tests: Tests<15>.
* Build: Build<14>.
* Windows: Windows<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<9>.
* C API: C API<12>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<17>,  Next: Library<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.17.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102192(1): Deprecated ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’ in favour of
     ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’.

   - gh-89987(2): Reduce the number of inline *note CACHE: 4fa. entries
     for *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 1502.

   - gh-102859(3): Removed ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ and
     ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ instructions.

   - gh-101975(4): Fixed ‘stacktop’ value on tracing entries to avoid
     corruption on garbage collection.

   - gh-102778(5): Add *note sys.last_exc: 1e5. and deprecate *note
     sys.last_type: 1e6, *note sys.last_value: 1e7. and *note
     sys.last_traceback: 1e8, which hold the same information in its
     legacy form.

   - gh-100982(6): Replace all occurrences of ‘COMPARE_AND_BRANCH’ with
     *note COMPARE_OP: 7ab.

   - gh-102701(7): Fix overflow when creating very large dict.

   - gh-102755(8): Add *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 2f9. which takes
     just an exception instance, to replace the legacy ‘PyErr_Display()’
     which takes the ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ triplet.

   - gh-102594(9): Add note to exception raised in ‘PyErr_SetObject’
     when normalization fails.

   - gh-90997(10): Shrink the number of inline *note CACHE: 4fa. entries
     used by *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 1503.

   - gh-102491(11): Improve import time of ‘platform’ by removing
     IronPython version parsing.  The IronPython version parsing was not
     functional (see
     ‘https://github.com/IronLanguages/ironpython3/issues/1667’).

   - gh-101291(12): Rearrage bits in first field (after header) of
     PyLongObject.  * Bits 0 and 1: 1 - sign.  I.e.  0 for positive
     numbers, 1 for zero and 2 for negative numbers.  * Bit 2 reserved
     (probably for the immortal bit) * Bits 3+ the unsigned size.

     This makes a few operations slightly more efficient, and will
     enable a more compact and faster 2s-complement representation of
     most ints in future.

   - gh-102397(13): Fix segfault from race condition in signal handling
     during garbage collection.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102406(14): *note codecs: 19. encoding/decoding errors now get
     the context information (which operation and which codecs) attached
     as PEP 678(15) notes instead of through chaining a new instance of
     the exception.

   - gh-102281(16): Fix potential nullptr dereference and use of
     uninitialized memory in fileutils.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102300(17): Reuse operands with refcount of 1 in float
     specializations of BINARY_OP.

   - gh-102213(18): Fix performance loss when accessing an object's
     attributes with ‘__getattr__’ defined.

   - gh-102255(19): Improve build support for the Xbox.  Patch by Max
     Bachmann.

   - gh-102027(20): Fix SSE2 and SSE3 detection in ‘_blake2’ internal
     module.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-101865(21): Deprecate ‘co_lnotab’ in code objects, schedule it
     for removal in Python 3.14

   - bpo-1635741(22): Adapt ‘_pickle’ to PEP 687(23).  Patch by Mohamed
     Koubaa and Erlend Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89987

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101975

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102701

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102594

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102491

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102397

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102406

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102281

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102300

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102255

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101865

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<17>,  Next: Documentation<14>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.17.2 Library
.................

   - gh-103085(1): Pure python *note locale.getencoding(): 258. will not
     warn deprecation.

   - gh-103068(2): It's no longer possible to register conditional
     breakpoints in *note Pdb: 760. that raise *note SyntaxError: 146.
     Patch by Tian Gao.

   - gh-102549(3): Don't ignore exceptions in member type creation.

   - gh-103056(4): Ensure final ‘_generate_next_value_’ is a
     ‘staticmethod’.

   - gh-103046(5): Display current line label correctly in *note dis:
     35. when ‘show_caches’ is False and ‘lasti’ points to a CACHE
     entry.

   - gh-102433(6): *note isinstance(): 14b. checks against *note
     runtime-checkable protocols: 14c. now use *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 1b2. rather than *note hasattr(): 1f9. to
     lookup whether attributes exist.  This means that descriptors and
     *note __getattr__(): 1fa. methods are no longer unexpectedly
     evaluated during ‘isinstance()’ checks against runtime-checkable
     protocols.  However, it may also mean that some objects which used
     to be considered instances of a runtime-checkable protocol may no
     longer be considered instances of that protocol on Python 3.12+,
     and vice versa.  Most users are unlikely to be affected by this
     change.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-103023(7): It's no longer possible to register expressions to
     display in *note Pdb: 760. that raise *note SyntaxError: 146.
     Patch by Tian Gao.

   - gh-102947(8): Improve traceback when *note dataclasses.fields():
     1505. is called on a non-dataclass.  Patch by Alex Waygood

   - gh-102780(9): The *note asyncio.Timeout: 146c. context manager now
     works reliably even when performing cleanup due to task
     cancellation.  Previously it could raise a *note CancelledError:
     81d. instead of an *note TimeoutError: 1506. in such cases.

   - gh-102871(10): Remove support for obsolete browsers from *note
     webbrowser: 110.  Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape,
     Galeon, Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and
     below.

   - gh-102839(11): Improve performance of *note math.log(): 1333.
     arguments handling by removing the argument clinic.

   - gh-102828(12): Add the ‘onexc’ arg to *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8,
     which is like ‘onerror’ but expects an exception instance rather
     than an exc_info tuple.  Deprecate ‘onerror’.

   - gh-88965(13): typing: Fix a bug relating to substitution in custom
     classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 163.  Previously, if the
     ‘ParamSpec’ was substituted with a parameters list that itself
     contained a *note TypeVar: 164, the ‘TypeVar’ in the parameters
     list could not be subsequently substituted.  This is now fixed.

     Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

   - gh-76846(14): Fix issue where ‘__new__()’ and ‘__init__()’ methods
     of *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8. and *note Path: 149. subclasses
     were not called in some circumstances.

   - gh-78530(15): *note asyncio.wait(): 19a. now accepts generators
     yielding tasks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102748(16): *note asyncio.iscoroutine(): 199. now returns
     ‘False’ for generators as *note asyncio: 9. does not support legacy
     generator-based coroutines.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102670(17): Optimized fmean(), correlation(), covariance(), and
     linear_regression() using the new math.sumprod() function.

   - gh-102615(18): Typing: Improve the ‘repr’ of generic aliases for
     classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 163.  (Use square brackets
     to represent a parameter list.)

   - gh-100112(19): *note asyncio.Task.get_coro(): 820. now always
     returns a coroutine when wrapping an awaitable object.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102578(20): Speed up setting or deleting mutable attributes on
     non-dataclass subclasses of frozen dataclasses.  Due to the
     implementation of ‘__setattr__’ and ‘__delattr__’ for frozen
     dataclasses, this previously had a time complexity of 'O'('n').  It
     now has a time complexity of 'O'(1).

   - gh-102519(21): Add *note os.listdrives(): 1bc, *note
     os.listvolumes(): 1bd. and *note os.listmounts(): 1be. functions on
     Windows for enumerating drives, volumes and mount points

   - gh-74468(22): Attribute name of the extracted *note tarfile: d8.
     file object now holds filename of itself rather than of the archive
     it is contained in.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-102378(23): Private helper method
     ‘inspect._signature_strip_non_python_syntax’ will no longer strip
     ‘/’ from the input string.

   - gh-79940(24): Add *note inspect.getasyncgenstate(): 1b0. and *note
     inspect.getasyncgenlocals(): 1b1.  Patch by Thomas Krennwallner.

   - gh-102103(25): Add ‘module’ argument to *note
     dataclasses.make_dataclass(): 1507. and make classes produced by it
     pickleable.

   - gh-102069(26): Fix ‘__weakref__’ descriptor generation for custom
     dataclasses.

   - gh-102038(27): Skip a ‘stat’ in *note site: c2. if we have already
     found a ‘pyvenv.cfg’

   - gh-98886(28): Fix issues when defining dataclasses that have fields
     with specific underscore names that aren't clearly reserved by
     *note dataclasses: 2d.

   - gh-101673(29): Fix a *note pdb: a0. bug where ‘ll’ clears the
     changes to local variables.

   - gh-101313(30): Added -h and -help arguments to the webbrowser CLI

   - gh-100372(31): *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d6f.
     no longer incorrectly accepts some cases of trailing data when
     parsing DER.

   - gh-89727(32): Fix pathlib.Path.walk RecursionError on deep
     directory trees by rewriting it using iteration instead of
     recursion.

   - gh-100131(33): Added an optional ‘delete’ keyword argument to *note
     tempfile.TemporaryDirectory: 10c7.

   - gh-48330(34): Added ‘--durations’ command line option, showing the
     N slowest test cases.  *note unittest.TextTestRunner: 1508. and
     *note unittest.TextTestResult: 2b2. constructors accept a new
     'durations' keyword argument.  Subclasses should take this into
     account or accept ‘**kwargs’.  Added *note
     unittest.TestResult.addDuration(): 1509. method and *note
     unittest.TestResult.collectedDurations: 14ae. attribute.

     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - gh-98169(35): Fix *note dataclasses.astuple(): 14ee. crash when
     *note collections.defaultdict: 104e. is present in the attributes.

   - gh-96931(36): Fix incorrect results from *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers(): cea.

   - gh-95495(37): When built against OpenSSL 3.0, the *note ssl: ca.
     module had a bug where it reported unauthenticated EOFs (i.e.
     without close_notify) as a clean TLS-level EOF. It now raises *note
     SSLEOFError: 150a, matching the behavior in previous versions of
     OpenSSL. The *note options: 65e. attribute on *note SSLContext:
     26f. also no longer includes *note OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 65d.
     by default.  This option may be set to specify the previous OpenSSL
     3.0 behavior.

   - gh-94684(38): Now *note uuid.uuid3(): 150b. and *note uuid.uuid5():
     150c. functions support *note bytes: 2c1. objects as their 'name'
     argument.

   - gh-94440(39): Fix a ‘concurrent.futures.process’ bug where
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ shutdown could hang after a future has been
     quickly submitted and canceled.

   - gh-72346(40): Added deprecation warning to 'isdst' parameter of
     *note email.utils.localtime(): 22a.

   - bpo-36305(41): Fix handling of Windows filenames that resemble
     drives, such as ‘./a:b’, in *note pathlib: 9f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103085

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103068

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102549

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103056

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103046

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103023

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102947

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102780

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102839

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88965

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76846

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102670

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102615

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100112

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102578

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74468

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102378

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102103

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102069

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102038

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98886

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101673

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101313

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100372

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100131

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98169

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96931

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95495

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94684

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94440

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36305


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<14>,  Next: Tests<15>,  Prev: Library<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.17.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-103112(1): Add docstring to *note
     http.client.HTTPResponse.read(): 150e. to fix ‘pydoc’ output.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103112


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<15>,  Next: Build<14>,  Prev: Documentation<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.17.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-102980(1): Improve test coverage on *note pdb: a0.

   - gh-102537(2): Adjust the error handling strategy in
     ‘test_zoneinfo.TzPathTest.python_tzpath_context’.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - gh-101377(3): Improved test_locale_calendar_formatweekday of
     calendar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102980

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102537

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101377


File: python.info,  Node: Build<14>,  Next: Windows<15>,  Prev: Tests<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.17.5 Build
...............

   - gh-102973(1): Add a dev container (along with accompanying
     Dockerfile) for development purposes.

   - gh-102711(2): Fix ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ compiler warnings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102973

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102711


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<15>,  Next: Tools/Demos<9>,  Prev: Build<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.17.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-102690(1): Update *note webbrowser: 110. to fall back to
     Microsoft Edge instead of Internet Explorer.

   - gh-99726(2): Improves correctness of stat results for Windows, and
     uses faster API when available

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102690

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<9>,  Next: C API<12>,  Prev: Windows<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.17.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-102809(1): ‘Misc/gdbinit’ was removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102809


File: python.info,  Node: C API<12>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.17.8 C API
...............

   - gh-102013(1): Add a new (unstable) C-API function for iterating
     over GC'able objects using a callback: ‘PyUnstable_VisitObjects’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102013


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.18 Python 3.12.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-03-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<18>.
* Library: Library<18>.
* Documentation: Documentation<15>.
* Tests: Tests<16>.
* Build: Build<15>.
* Windows: Windows<16>.
* macOS: macOS<10>.
* C API: C API<13>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<12>,  Next: Core and Builtins<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.18.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99108(1): Replace builtin hashlib implementations of MD5 and
     SHA1 with verified ones from the HACL* project.

   - gh-101727(2): Updated the OpenSSL version used in Windows and macOS
     binary release builds to 1.1.1t to address CVE 2023-0286(3), CVE
     2022-4303(4), and CVE 2022-4303(5) per the OpenSSL 2023-02-07
     security advisory(6).

   - gh-99108(7): Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 63. implementations
     of SHA2-384 and SHA2-512 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally
     verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL*(8) project.
     The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not
     provide them.

   - gh-101283(9): *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. now uses a safer
     approach to find ‘cmd.exe’ when launching with ‘shell=True’.  Patch
     by Eryk Sun, based on a patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101727

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-0286

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303

   (6) https://openssl-library.org/news/secadv/20230207.txt

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (8) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101283


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<18>,  Next: Library<18>,  Prev: Security<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.18.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102493(1): Fix regression in semantics of normalisation in
     ‘PyErr_SetObject’.

   - gh-102416(2): Do not memoize incorrectly automatically generated
     loop rules in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-102356(3): Fix a bug that caused a crash when deallocating
     deeply nested filter objects.  Patch by Marta Gómez Macías.

   - gh-102336(4): Cleanup Windows 7 specific special handling.  Patch
     by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102250(5): Fixed a segfault occurring when the interpreter calls
     a ‘__bool__’ method that raises.

   - gh-102126(6): Fix deadlock at shutdown when clearing thread states
     if any finalizer tries to acquire the runtime head lock.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102027(7): Use ‘GetCurrentProcessId’ on Windows when ‘getpid’ is
     unavailable.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102056(8): Fix error handling bugs in interpreter's exception
     printing code, which could cause a crash on infinite recursion.

   - gh-100982(9): Restrict the scope of the ‘FOR_ITER_RANGE’
     instruction to the scope of the original *note FOR_ITER: 1517.
     instruction, to allow instrumentation.

   - gh-101967(10): Fix possible segfault in
     ‘positional_only_passed_as_keyword’ function, when new list
     created.

   - gh-101952(11): Fix possible segfault in ‘BUILD_SET’ opcode, when
     new set created.

   - gh-74895(12): *note socket.getaddrinfo: 1518. no longer raises
     *note OverflowError: 6ad. for *note int: 17e. 'port' values outside
     of the C long range.  Out of range values are left up to the
     underlying string based C library API to report.  A *note
     socket.gaierror: 1519. ‘SAI_SERVICE’ may occur instead, or no error
     at all as not all platform C libraries generate an error.

   - gh-101799(13): Add *note CALL_INTRINSIC_2: 20d. and use it instead
     of ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’.

   - gh-101857(14): Fix xattr support detection on Linux systems by
     widening the check to linux, not just glibc.  This fixes support
     for musl.

   - gh-84783(15): Make the slice object hashable.  Patch by Will
     Bradshaw and Furkan Onder.

   - gh-87849(16): Change the ‘SEND’ instruction to leave the receiver
     on the stack.  This allows the specialized form of ‘SEND’ to skip
     the chain of C calls and jump directly to the ‘RESUME’ in the
     generator or coroutine.

   - gh-101765(17): Fix SystemError / segmentation fault in iter
     ‘__reduce__’ when internal access of ‘builtins.__dict__’ keys
     mutates the iter object.

   - gh-101430(18): Update *note tracemalloc: fa. to handle presize of
     object properly.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101696(19): Invalidate type version tag in
     ‘_PyStaticType_Dealloc’ for static types, avoiding bug where a
     false cache hit could crash the interpreter.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-101632(20): Adds a new *note RETURN_CONST: 214. instruction.

   - gh-100719(21): Remove gi_code field from generator (and coroutine
     and async generator) objects as it is redundant.  The frame already
     includes a reference to the code object.

   - gh-98627(22): When an interpreter is configured to check (and only
     then), importing an extension module will now fail when the
     extension does not support multiple interpreters (i.e.  doesn't
     implement PEP 489 multi-phase init).  This does not apply to the
     main interpreter, nor to subinterpreters created with
     ‘Py_NewInterpreter()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102493

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102416

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102356

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102336

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102250

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102126

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102056

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101967

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101952

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74895

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101857

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84783

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87849

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101765

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101430

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101696

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98627


File: python.info,  Node: Library<18>,  Next: Documentation<15>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.18.3 Library
.................

   - gh-102302(1): Micro-optimise hashing of *note inspect.Parameter:
     c8e, reducing the time it takes to hash an instance by around 40%.

   - gh-101979(2): Fix a bug where parentheses in the ‘metavar’ argument
     to *note argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 151b. were
     dropped.  Patch by Yeojin Kim.

   - gh-91038(3): *note platform.platform(): 151c. now has boolean
     default arguments.

   - gh-81652(4): Add *note mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 151d. FreeBSD and
     *note mmap.MAP_CONCEAL: 151e. OpenBSD constants to *note mmap: 8b.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim.

   - gh-102179(5): Fix *note os.dup2(): 9be. error message for negative
     fds.

   - gh-101961(6): For the binary mode, ‘fileinput.hookcompressed()’
     doesn't set the ‘encoding’ value even if the value is ‘None’.
     Patch by Gihwan Kim.

   - gh-101936(7): The default value of ‘fp’ becomes *note io.BytesIO:
     d24. if *note HTTPError: e70. is initialized without a designated
     ‘fp’ parameter.  Patch by Long Vo.

   - gh-101566(8): In zipfile, sync Path with zipp 3.14(9), including
     fix for extractall on the underlying zipfile after being wrapped in
     ‘Path’.

   - gh-97930(10): Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.12(11),
     including fix for ‘MultiplexedPath’ to support directories in
     multiple namespaces (python/importlib_resources#265).

   - gh-101997(12): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip
     23.0.1)

   - gh-99108(13): The built-in extension modules for *note hashlib: 63.
     SHA2 algorithms, used when OpenSSL does not provide them, now live
     in a single internal ‘_sha2’ module instead of separate ‘_sha256’
     and ‘_sha512’ modules.

   - gh-101892(14): Callable iterators no longer raise *note
     SystemError: 304. when the callable object exhausts the iterator
     but forgets to either return a sentinel value or raise *note
     StopIteration: a5d.

   - gh-87634(15): Remove locking behavior from *note
     functools.cached_property(): 2c5.

   - gh-97786(16): Fix potential undefined behaviour in corner cases of
     floating-point-to-time conversions.

   - gh-101517(17): Fixed bug where *note bdb: d. looks up the source
     line with *note linecache: 80. with a ‘lineno=None’, which causes
     it to fail with an unhandled exception.

   - gh-101773(18): Optimize *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. for small
     components.  The private argument ‘_normalize’ of the *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1a8. constructor has been removed.

   - gh-101693(19): In *note sqlite3.Cursor.execute(): 236, *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179. is now emitted when *note named
     placeholders: 237. are used together with parameters supplied as a
     *note sequence: 238. instead of as a *note dict: 239.  Starting
     from Python 3.14, using named placeholders with parameters supplied
     as a sequence will raise a *note ProgrammingError: 23a.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-101446(20): Change repr of *note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce.
     to use regular dictionary formatting instead of pairs of keys and
     values.

   - gh-101362(21): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8. construction
     by handling arguments more uniformly.  When a *note pathlib.Path:
     149. argument is supplied, we use its string representation rather
     than joining its parts with *note os.path.join(): 14ed.

   - gh-101362(22): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8. construction
     by calling *note os.path.join(): 14ed. only when two or more
     arguments are given.

   - gh-101362(23): Speed up *note pathlib.Path: 149. construction by
     running the path flavour compatibility check only when pathlib is
     imported.

   - gh-85984(24): Refactored the implementation of *note pty.fork():
     151f. to use *note os.login_tty(): 1520.

     A *note DeprecationWarning: 179. is now raised by
     ‘pty.master_open()’ and ‘pty.slave_open()’.  They were undocumented
     and deprecated long long ago in the docstring in favor of *note
     pty.openpty(): 250.

   - gh-101561(25): Add a new decorator *note typing.override(): 156.
     See PEP 698(26) for details.  Patch by Steven Troxler.

   - gh-63301(27): Set exit code when *note tabnanny: d7. CLI exits on
     error.

   - gh-101360(28): Fix anchor matching in
     ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.match()’.  Path and pattern anchors are
     now matched with *note fnmatch: 57, just like other path parts.
     This allows patterns such as ‘"*:/Users/*"’ to be matched.

   - gh-101277(29): Remove global state from *note itertools: 7b. module
     ( PEP 687(30)).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100809(31): Fix handling of drive-relative paths (like 'C:' and
     'C:foo') in *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 14e8.  This method now
     uses the OS API to retrieve the correct current working directory
     for the drive.

   - gh-99138(32): Apply PEP 687(33) to *note zoneinfo: 12e.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-96764(34): *note asyncio.wait_for(): 3f6. now uses *note
     asyncio.timeout(): 3f5. as its underlying implementation.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-88233(35): Correctly preserve "extra" fields in ‘zipfile’
     regardless of their ordering relative to a zip64 "extra."

   - bpo-23224(36): Fix segfaults when creating *note
     lzma.LZMADecompressor: 1521. and *note bz2.BZ2Decompressor: 1522.
     objects without calling ‘__init__()’, and fix leakage of locks and
     internal buffers when calling the ‘__init__()’ methods of *note
     lzma.LZMADecompressor: 1521, *note lzma.LZMACompressor: 1523, *note
     bz2.BZ2Compressor: 1524, and *note bz2.BZ2Decompressor: 1522.
     objects multiple times.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102302

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101979

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91038

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81652

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102179

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101961

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101936

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101566

   (9) https://zipp.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-14-0

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (11) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v5-12-0

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101997

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101892

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87634

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97786

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101773

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101693

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101446

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63301

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101360

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101277

   (30) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100809

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99138

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96764

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88233

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23224


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<15>,  Next: Tests<16>,  Prev: Library<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.18.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-85417(1): Update *note cmath: 16. documentation to clarify
     behaviour on branch cuts.

   - gh-97725(2): Fix *note asyncio.Task.print_stack(): 1526.
     description for ‘file=None’.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85417

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97725


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<16>,  Next: Build<15>,  Prev: Documentation<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.18.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-102019(1): Fix deadlock on shutdown if
     ‘test_current_{exception,frames}’ fails.  Patch by Jacob Bower.

   - gh-85984(2): Utilize new "winsize" functions from termios in pty
     tests.

   - gh-89792(3): ‘test_tools’ now copies up to 10x less source data to
     a temporary directory during the ‘freeze’ test by ignoring git
     metadata and other artifacts.  It also limits its python build
     parallelism based on os.cpu_count instead of hard coding it as 8
     cores.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102019

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89792


File: python.info,  Node: Build<15>,  Next: Windows<16>,  Prev: Tests<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.18.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99942(1): On Android, in a static build, python-config in embed
     mode no longer incorrectly reports a library to link to.

   - gh-99942(2): On Android, python.pc now correctly reports the
     library to link to, the same as python-config.sh.

   - gh-100221(3): Fix creating install directories in ‘make
     sharedinstall’ if they exist outside ‘DESTDIR’ already.

   - gh-96821(4): Explicitly mark C extension modules that need defined
     signed integer overflow, and add a configure option *note
     -with-strict-overflow: 1529.  Patch by Matthias Görgens and
     Shantanu Jain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100221

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<16>,  Next: macOS<10>,  Prev: Build<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.18.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-102344(1): Implement ‘winreg.QueryValue’ using ‘QueryValueEx’
     and ‘winreg.SetValue’ using ‘SetValueEx’.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-101881(2): Handle read and write operations on non-blocking
     pipes properly on Windows.

   - gh-101881(3): Add support for the os.get_blocking() and
     os.set_blocking() functions on Windows.

   - gh-101849(4): Ensures installer will correctly upgrade existing
     ‘py.exe’ launcher installs.

   - gh-101763(5): Updates copy of libffi bundled with Windows installs
     to 3.4.4.

   - gh-101759(6): Update Windows installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

   - gh-101614(7): Correctly handle extensions built against debug
     binaries that reference ‘python3_d.dll’.

   - gh-101196(8): The functions ‘os.path.isdir’, ‘os.path.isfile’,
     ‘os.path.islink’ and ‘os.path.exists’ are now 13% to 28% faster on
     Windows, by making fewer Win32 API calls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102344

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101849

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101763

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101614

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101196


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<10>,  Next: C API<13>,  Prev: Windows<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.18.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-101759(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759


File: python.info,  Node: C API<13>,  Prev: macOS<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.18.9 C API
...............

   - gh-101907(1): Removes use of non-standard C++ extension in public
     header files.

   - gh-99293(2): Document that the Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG is an
     internal feature, should not be used, and will be removed.

   - gh-101578(3): Add *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2f2. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 2f3. for saving and restoring the
     current exception.  These functions return and accept a single
     exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the
     now-deprecated *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2f4. and *note PyErr_Restore():
     2f5.  This is less error prone and a bit more efficient.

     Add *note PyException_GetArgs(): 2f6. and *note
     PyException_SetArgs(): 2f7. as convenience functions for retrieving
     and modifying the *note args: 2f8. passed to the exception's
     constructor.

   - gh-91744(4): Introduced the 'Unstable C API tier', marking APi that
     is allowed to change in minor releases without a deprecation
     period.  See PEP 689(5) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101907

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99293

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91744

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0689/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.19 Python 3.12.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-02-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<19>.
* Library: Library<19>.
* Documentation: Documentation<16>.
* Tests: Tests<17>.
* Build: Build<16>.
* Windows: Windows<17>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<13>,  Next: Core and Builtins<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.19.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99108(1): Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 63. implementations
     of SHA2-224 and SHA2-256 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally
     verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL*(2) project.
     The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not
     provide them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (2) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<19>,  Next: Library<19>,  Prev: Security<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.19.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-92173(1): Fix the ‘defs’ and ‘kwdefs’ arguments to *note
     PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1530. and a reference leak in that function.

   - gh-59956(2): The GILState API is now partially compatible with
     subinterpreters.  Previously, ‘PyThreadState_GET()’ and
     ‘PyGILState_GetThisThreadState()’ would get out of sync, causing
     inconsistent behavior and crashes.

   - gh-101400(3): Fix wrong lineno in exception message on *note
     continue: 80d. or *note break: 8fc. which are not in a loop.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101372(4): Fix *note is_normalized(): 893. to properly handle
     the UCD 3.2.0 cases.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101266(5): Fix *note sys.getsizeof(): 1531. reporting for *note
     int: 17e. subclasses.

   - gh-101291(6): Refactor the ‘PyLongObject’ struct into a normal
     Python object header and a ‘PyLongValue’ struct.

   - gh-101046(7): Fix a possible memory leak in the parser when raising
     *note MemoryError: 1460.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-101037(8): Fix potential memory underallocation issue for
     instances of *note int: 17e. subclasses with value zero.

   - gh-100762(9): Record the (virtual) exception block depth in the
     oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 1532.  Use this to avoid the expensive
     ‘throw()’ when closing generators (and coroutines) that can be
     closed trivially.

   - gh-100982(10): Adds a new ‘COMPARE_AND_BRANCH’ instruction.  This
     is a bit more efficient when performing a comparison immediately
     followed by a branch, and restores the design intent of PEP 659
     that specializations are local to a single instruction.

   - gh-100942(11): Fixed segfault in property.getter/setter/deleter
     that occurred when a property subclass overrode the ‘__new__’
     method to return a non-property instance.

   - gh-100923(12): Remove the ‘mask’ cache entry for the *note
     COMPARE_OP: 7ab. instruction and embed the mask into the oparg.

   - gh-100892(13): Fix race while iterating over thread states in
     clearing *note threading.local: 1533.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91351(14): Fix a case where re-entrant imports could corrupt the
     import deadlock detection code and cause a *note KeyError: 8ed. to
     be raised out of ‘importlib/_bootstrap’.  In addition to the
     straightforward cases, this could also happen when garbage
     collection leads to a warning being emitted - as happens when it
     collects an open socket or file)

   - gh-100726(15): Optimize construction of ‘range’ object for medium
     size integers.

   - gh-100712(16): Added option to build cpython with specialization
     disabled, by setting ‘ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION=False’ in ‘opcode’,
     followed by ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-32780(17): Inter-field padding is now inserted into the PEP3118
     format strings obtained from *note ctypes.Structure: 1453. objects,
     reflecting their true representation in memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59956

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101400

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101372

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101266

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101046

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101037

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100762

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100942

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100923

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100892

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91351

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100726

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100712

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32780


File: python.info,  Node: Library<19>,  Next: Documentation<16>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.19.3 Library
.................

   - gh-101541(1): [Enum] - fix psuedo-flag creation

   - gh-101570(2): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip 23.0)

   - gh-101323(3): Fix a bug where errors where not thrown by
     zlib._ZlibDecompressor if encountered during decompressing.

   - gh-101317(4): Add 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter for *note
     asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 3fb.

   - gh-101326(5): Fix regression when passing ‘None’ as second or third
     argument to ‘FutureIter.throw’.

   - gh-92123(6): Adapt the ‘_elementtree’ extension module to
     multi-phase init ( PEP 489(7)).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100795(8): Avoid potential unexpected ‘freeaddrinfo’ call
     (double free) in *note socket: c6. when when a libc ‘getaddrinfo()’
     implementation leaves garbage in an output pointer when returning
     an error.  Original patch by Sergey G. Brester.

   - gh-101143(9): Remove unused references to *note TimerHandle: 1535.
     in ‘asyncio.base_events.BaseEventLoop._add_callback’.

   - gh-101144(10): Make *note zipfile.Path.open(): 1536. and *note
     zipfile.Path.read_text(): 1537. also accept ‘encoding’ as a
     positional argument.  This was the behavior in Python 3.9 and
     earlier.  3.10 introduced a regression where supplying it as a
     positional argument would lead to a *note TypeError: 2ba.

   - gh-94518(11): Group-related variables of ‘_posixsubprocess’ module
     are renamed to stress that supplimentary group affinity is added to
     a fork, not replace the inherited ones.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-101015(12): Fix *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. on
     ‘'*tuple[...]'’ and ‘*tuple[...]’.  It must not drop the ‘Unpack’
     part.

   - gh-101000(13): Add *note os.path.splitroot(): 1c6, which splits a
     path into a 3-item tuple ‘(drive, root, tail)’.  This new function
     is used by *note pathlib: 9f. to improve the performance of path
     construction by up to a third.

   - gh-100573(14): Fix a Windows *note asyncio: 9. bug with named pipes
     where a client doing ‘os.stat()’ on the pipe would cause an error
     in the server that disabled serving future requests.

   - gh-39615(15): *note warnings.warn(): 1391. now has the ability to
     skip stack frames based on code filename prefix rather than only a
     numeric ‘stacklevel’ via the new ‘skip_file_prefixes’ keyword
     argument.

   - gh-100750(16): pass encoding kwarg to subprocess in platform

   - gh-100160(17): Emit a deprecation warning in
     ‘asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy.get_event_loop()’ if there is no
     current event loop set and it decides to create one.

   - gh-96290(18): Fix handling of partial and invalid UNC drives in
     ‘ntpath.splitdrive()’, and in ‘ntpath.normpath()’ on non-Windows
     systems.  Paths such as '\server' and '\' are now considered by
     ‘splitdrive()’ to contain only a drive, and consequently are not
     modified by ‘normpath()’ on non-Windows systems.  The behaviour of
     ‘normpath()’ on Windows systems is unaffected, as native OS APIs
     are used.  Patch by Eryk Sun, with contributions by Barney Gale.

   - gh-99952(19): Fix a reference undercounting issue in *note
     ctypes.Structure: 1453. with ‘from_param()’ results larger than a C
     pointer.

   - gh-67790(20): Add float-style formatting support for *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1a8. instances.

   - gh-99266(21): Preserve more detailed error messages in *note
     ctypes: 28.

   - gh-86682(22): Ensure runtime-created collections have the correct
     module name using the newly added (internal) *note
     sys._getframemodulename(): 1538.

   - gh-88597(23): *note uuid: 10b. now has a command line interface.
     Try ‘python -m uuid -h’.

   - gh-60580(24): ‘ctypes.wintypes.BYTE’ definition changed from *note
     c_byte: 1539. to *note c_ubyte: 153a. to match Windows SDK. Patch
     by Anatoly Techtonik and Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-94518(25): ‘_posixsubprocess’ now initializes all UID and GID
     variables using a reserved ‘-1’ value instead of a separate flag.
     Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-38941(26): The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. module now
     emits *note DeprecationWarning: 179. when testing the truth value
     of an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 240.  Before, the Python
     implementation emitted *note FutureWarning: 241, and the C
     implementation emitted nothing.

   - bpo-40077(27): Convert ‘elementtree’ types to heap types.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-29847(28): Fix a bug where *note pathlib.Path: 149. accepted
     and ignored keyword arguments.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-77772(29): *note ctypes.CDLL: 82e, *note ctypes.OleDLL: 153b,
     *note ctypes.WinDLL: 153c, and *note ctypes.PyDLL: 153d. now accept
     *note path-like objects: 975. as their ‘name’ argument.  Patch by
     Robert Hoelzl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101541

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101570

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101323

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101317

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101326

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92123

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100795

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101143

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101144

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101015

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100573

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/39615

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100750

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96290

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99952

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67790

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99266

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86682

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60580

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38941

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29847

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77772


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<16>,  Next: Tests<17>,  Prev: Library<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.19.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-88324(1): Reword *note subprocess: d0. to emphasize default
     behavior of 'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' arguments.  Remove
     inaccurate statement about child file handle inheritance.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88324


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<17>,  Next: Build<16>,  Prev: Documentation<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.19.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-101334(1): ‘test_tarfile’ has been updated to pass when run as a
     high UID.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101334


File: python.info,  Node: Build<16>,  Next: Windows<17>,  Prev: Tests<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.19.6 Build
...............

   - gh-101282(1): Update BOLT configuration not to use deprecated usage
     of ‘--split functions’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101522(2): Allow overriding Windows dependencies versions and
     paths using MSBuild properties.

   - gh-77532(3): Minor fixes to allow building with
     ‘PlatformToolset=ClangCL’ on Windows.

   - gh-101152(4): In accordance with PEP 699(5), the ‘ma_version_tag’
     field in *note PyDictObject: 31c. is deprecated for extension
     modules.  Accessing this field will generate a compiler warning at
     compile time.  This field will be removed in Python 3.14.

   - gh-100340(6): Allows -Wno-int-conversion for wasm-sdk 17 and
     onwards, thus enables building WASI builds once against the latest
     sdk.

   - gh-101060(7): Conditionally add ‘-fno-reorder-blocks-and-partition’
     in configure.  Effectively fixes ‘--enable-bolt’ when using Clang,
     as this appears to be a GCC-only flag.

   - gh-98705(8): ‘__bool__’ is defined in AIX system header files which
     breaks the build in AIX, so undefine it.

   - gh-98636(9): Fix a regression in detecting ‘gdbm_compat’ library
     for the ‘_gdbm’ module build.

   - gh-96305(10): ‘_aix_support’ now uses a simple code to get platform
     details rather than the now non-existent ‘_bootsubprocess’ during
     bootstrap.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101522

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77532

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101152

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100340

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101060

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98705

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98636

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96305


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<17>,  Prev: Build<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.19.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-101543(1): Ensure the install path in the registry is only used
     when the standard library hasn't been located in any other way.

   - gh-101467(2): The ‘py.exe’ launcher now correctly filters when only
     a single runtime is installed.  It also correctly handles prefix
     matches on tags so that ‘-3.1’ does not match ‘3.11’, but would
     still match ‘3.1-32’.

   - gh-99834(3): Updates bundled copy of Tcl/Tk to 8.6.13.0

   - gh-101135(4): Restore ability to launch older 32-bit versions from
     the ‘py.exe’ launcher when both 32-bit and 64-bit installs of the
     same version are available.

   - gh-82052(5): Fixed an issue where writing more than 32K of Unicode
     output to the console screen in one go can result in mojibake.

   - gh-100320(6): Ensures the ‘PythonPath’ registry key from an install
     is used when launching from a different copy of Python that relies
     on an existing install to provide a copy of its modules and
     standard library.

   - gh-100247(7): Restores support for the ‘py.exe’ launcher finding
     shebang commands in its configuration file using the full command
     name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101543

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101467

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101135

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82052

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100320

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100247


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.20 Python 3.12.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-01-10'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<20>.
* Library: Library<20>.
* Documentation: Documentation<17>.
* Tests: Tests<18>.
* Build: Build<17>.
* Windows: Windows<18>.
* macOS: macOS<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<10>.
* C API: C API<14>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<20>,  Next: Library<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.20.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-100776(1): Fix misleading default value in *note input():
     1169.'s ‘__text_signature__’.

   - gh-99005(2): Remove ‘UNARY_POSITIVE’, ‘ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’ and
     ‘LIST_TO_TUPLE’, replacing them with intrinsics.

   - gh-99005(3): Add new *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 20c. instruction.
     Remove ‘IMPORT_STAR’, ‘PRINT_EXPR’ and ‘STOPITERATION_ERROR’,
     replacing them with the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 20c. instruction.

   - gh-100288(4): Remove the LOAD_ATTR_METHOD_WITH_DICT specialized
     instruction.  Stats show it is not useful.

   - gh-100720(5): Added ‘_PyFrame_NumSlotsForCodeObject’, which returns
     the number of slots needed in a frame for a given code object.

   - gh-100719(6): Removed the co_nplaincellvars field from the code
     object, as it is redundant.

   - gh-100637(7): Fix ‘int.__sizeof__()’ calculation to include the
     1-element ‘ob_digit’ array for ‘0’ and ‘False’.

   - gh-100649(8): Update the native_thread_id field of PyThreadState
     after fork.

   - gh-100126(9): Fix an issue where "incomplete" frames could be
     briefly visible to C code while other frames are being torn down,
     possibly resulting in corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter
     while running finalizers.

   - gh-87447(10): Fix *note SyntaxError: 146. on comprehension rebind
     checking with names that are not actually redefined.

     Now reassigning ‘b’ in ‘[(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter]’ is
     allowed.  Reassigning ‘a’ is still disallowed as per PEP 572(11).

   - gh-100268(12): Add *note int.is_integer(): 1544. to improve duck
     type compatibility between *note int: 17e. and *note float: 26a.

   - gh-100425(13): Improve the accuracy of ‘sum()’ with compensated
     summation.

   - gh-100374(14): Fix incorrect result and delay in *note
     socket.getfqdn(): 1545.  Patch by Dominic Socular.

   - gh-100357(15): Convert ‘vars’, ‘dir’, ‘next’, ‘getattr’, and ‘iter’
     to argument clinic.

   - gh-100117(16): Improve the output of *note codeobject.co_lines():
     26c. by emitting only one entry for each line range.

   - gh-90043(17): Handle NaNs when specializing *note COMPARE_OP: 7ab.
     for *note float: 26a. values.

   - gh-100222(18): Redefine the ‘_Py_CODEUNIT’ typedef as a union to
     describe its layout to the C compiler, avoiding type punning and
     improving clarity.

   - gh-99955(19): Internal compiler functions (in compile.c) now
     consistently return -1 on error and 0 on success.

   - gh-100188(20): The ‘BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT’ and
     ‘BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT’ instructions are no longer used for
     negative integers because those instructions always miss when
     encountering negative integers.

   - gh-99110(21): Initialize frame->previous in frameobject.c to fix a
     segmentation fault when accessing frames created by
     ‘PyFrame_New()’.

   - gh-94155(22): Improved the hashing algorithm for code objects,
     mitigating some hash collisions.

   - gh-99540(23): ‘None’ now hashes to a constant value.  This is not a
     requirements change.

   - gh-100143(24): When built with ‘--enable-pystats’, stats collection
     is now off by default.  To enable it early at startup, pass the
     ‘-Xpystats’ flag.  Stats are now always dumped, even if switched
     off.

   - gh-100146(25): Improve ‘BUILD_LIST’ opcode so that it works
     similarly to the ‘BUILD_TUPLE’ opcode, by stealing references from
     the stack rather than repeatedly using stack operations to set list
     elements.  Implementation details are in a new private API
     ‘_PyList_FromArraySteal()’.

   - gh-100110(26): Specialize ‘FOR_ITER’ for tuples.

   - gh-100050(27): Honor existing errors obtained when searching for
     mismatching parentheses in the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-92216(28): Improve the performance of *note hasattr(): 1f9. for
     type objects with a missing attribute.

   - gh-99582(29): Freeze *note zipimport: 12c. module into
     ‘_bootstrap_python’.

   - gh-99554(30): Pack debugging location tables more efficiently
     during bytecode compilation.

   - gh-98522(31): Add an internal version number to code objects, to
     give better versioning of inner functions and comprehensions, and
     thus better specialization of those functions.  This change is
     invisible to both Python and C extensions.

   - gh-94603(32): Improve performance of ‘list.pop’ for small lists.

   - gh-89051(33): Add *note ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT: 1546.

   - bpo-32782(34): ‘ctypes’ arrays of length 0 now report a correct
     itemsize when a ‘memoryview’ is constructed from them, rather than
     always giving a value of 0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100776

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100288

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100720

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100637

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100649

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100126

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87447

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100268

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100374

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100357

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100117

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90043

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100222

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99955

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100188

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99110

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94155

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99540

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100143

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100146

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100110

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100050

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92216

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99582

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99554

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98522

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94603

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89051

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32782


File: python.info,  Node: Library<20>,  Next: Documentation<17>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.20.2 Library
.................

   - gh-100833(1): Speed up *note math.fsum(): 1243. by removing
     defensive ‘volatile’ qualifiers.

   - gh-100805(2): Modify *note random.choice(): 10c3. implementation to
     once again work with NumPy arrays.

   - gh-100813(3): Add ‘socket.IP_PKTINFO’ constant.

   - gh-100792(4): Make *note email.message.Message.__contains__():
     1548. twice as fast.

   - gh-91851(5): Microoptimizations for *note
     fractions.Fraction.__round__(): 1549, *note
     fractions.Fraction.__ceil__(): 154a. and *note
     fractions.Fraction.__floor__(): 154b.

   - gh-90104(6): Avoid RecursionError on ‘repr’ if a dataclass field
     definition has a cyclic reference.

   - gh-100689(7): Fix crash in ‘pyexpat’ by statically allocating
     ‘PyExpat_CAPI’ capsule.

   - gh-100740(8): Fix ‘unittest.mock.Mock’ not respecting the spec for
     attribute names prefixed with ‘assert’.

   - gh-91219(9): Change ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’ to support
     subclassing to provide a different set of index file names instead
     of using ‘__init__’ parameters.

   - gh-100690(10): ‘Mock’ objects which are not unsafe will now raise
     an ‘AttributeError’ when accessing an attribute that matches the
     name of an assertion but without the prefix ‘assert_’, e.g.
     accessing ‘called_once’ instead of ‘assert_called_once’.  This is
     in addition to this already happening for accessing attributes with
     prefixes ‘assert’, ‘assret’, ‘asert’, ‘aseert’, and ‘assrt’.

   - gh-89727(11): Simplify and optimize *note os.walk(): 1cb. by using
     *note isinstance(): 14b. checks to check the top of the stack.

   - gh-100485(12): Add math.sumprod() to compute the sum of products.

   - gh-86508(13): Fix *note asyncio.open_connection(): 96e. to skip
     binding to local addresses of different family.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-97930(14): ‘importlib.resources.files’ now accepts a module as
     an anchor instead of only accepting packages.  If a module is
     passed, resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same
     package or at the package root).  The parameter was renamed from
     ‘package’ to ‘anchor’ with a compatibility shim for those passing
     by keyword.  Additionally, the new ‘anchor’ parameter is now
     optional and will default to the caller's module.

   - gh-100585(15): Fixed a bug where importlib.resources.as_file was
     leaving file pointers open

   - gh-100562(16): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.Path.absolute(): 14e8. by nearly 2x.  This comes at the
     cost of a performance regression in *note pathlib.Path.cwd(): 14e9,
     which is generally used less frequently in user code.

   - gh-100519(17): Small simplification of
     ‘http.cookiejar.eff_request_host()’ that improves readability and
     better matches the RFC wording.

   - gh-100287(18): Fix the interaction of *note unittest.mock.seal():
     a01. with *note unittest.mock.AsyncMock: 895.

   - gh-100488(19): Add ‘Fraction.is_integer()’ to check whether a *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1a8. is an integer.  This improves duck type
     compatibility with *note float: 26a. and *note int: 17e.

   - gh-100474(20): *note http.server: 6d. now checks that an index page
     is actually a regular file before trying to serve it.  This avoids
     issues with directories named ‘index.html’.

   - gh-100363(21): Speed up *note asyncio.get_running_loop(): 960. by
     removing redundant ‘getpid’ checks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-78878(22): Fix crash when creating an instance of
     ‘_ctypes.CField’.

   - gh-100348(23): Fix ref cycle in ‘asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport’
     by removing ‘_read_ready_cb’ in ‘close’.

   - gh-100344(24): Provide C implementation for *note
     asyncio.current_task(): 198. for a 4x-6x speedup.

   - gh-100272(25): Fix JSON serialization of OrderedDict.  It now
     preserves the order of keys.

   - gh-83076(26): Instantiation of ‘Mock()’ and ‘AsyncMock()’ is now
     3.8x faster.

   - gh-100234(27): Set a default value of 1.0 for the ‘lambd’ parameter
     in random.expovariate().

   - gh-100228(28): A *note DeprecationWarning: 179. may be raised when
     *note os.fork(): 233. or *note os.forkpty(): 154c. is called from
     multi-threaded processes.  Forking with threads is unsafe and can
     cause deadlocks, crashes and subtle problems.  Lack of a warning
     does not indicate that the fork call was actually safe, as Python
     may not be aware of all threads.

   - gh-100039(29): Improve signatures for enums and flags.

   - gh-100133(30): Fix regression in *note asyncio: 9. where a
     subprocess would sometimes lose data received from pipe.

   - bpo-44592(31): Fixes inconsistent handling of case sensitivity of
     'extrasaction' arg in *note csv.DictWriter: 108f.

   - gh-100098(32): Fix ‘tuple’ subclasses being cast to ‘tuple’ when
     used as enum values.

   - gh-85432(33): Rename the 'fmt' parameter of the pure-Python
     implementation of *note datetime.time.strftime(): 154d. to
     'format'.  Rename the 't' parameter of *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 228. to 'timestamp'.  These
     changes mean the parameter names in the pure-Python implementation
     now match the parameter names in the C implementation.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - gh-98778(34): Update *note HTTPError: e70. to be initialized
     properly, even if the ‘fp’ is ‘None’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-99925(35): Unify error messages in JSON serialization between
     ‘json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False)’ and
     ‘json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False, indent=<SOMETHING>)’.
     Now both include the representation of the value that could not be
     serialized.

   - gh-89727(36): Fix issue with *note os.walk(): 1cb. where a *note
     RecursionError: be1. would occur on deep directory structures by
     adjusting the implementation of *note os.walk(): 1cb. to be
     iterative instead of recursive.

   - gh-94943(37): Add *note Dataclass support: 154e. to the *note Enum:
     42b. *note __repr__(): 154f.  When inheriting from a *note
     dataclass: 3bc, only show the field names in the value section of
     the member *note repr(): 61e, and not the dataclass' class name.

   - gh-83035(38): Fix *note inspect.getsource(): 14ca. handling of
     decorator calls with nested parentheses.

   - gh-99576(39): Fix ‘.save()’ method for ‘LWPCookieJar’ and
     ‘MozillaCookieJar’: saved file was not truncated on repeated save.

   - gh-94912(40): Add *note inspect.markcoroutinefunction(): 1ad.
     decorator which manually marks a function as a coroutine for the
     benefit of ‘iscoroutinefunction()’.

   - gh-99509(41): Add PEP 585(42) support for
     ‘multiprocessing.queues.Queue’.

   - gh-99482(43): Remove ‘Jython’ partial compatibility code from
     several stdlib modules.

   - gh-99433(44): Fix *note doctest: 36. failure on *note
     types.MethodWrapperType: 446. in modules.

   - gh-85267(45): Several improvements to *note inspect.signature():
     548.'s handling of ‘__text_signature’.  - Fixes a case where *note
     inspect.signature(): 548. dropped parameters - Fixes a case where
     *note inspect.signature(): 548. raised *note tokenize.TokenError:
     2c6. - Allows *note inspect.signature(): 548. to understand
     defaults involving binary operations of constants - *note
     inspect.signature(): 548. is documented as only raising *note
     TypeError: 2ba. or *note ValueError: 183, but sometimes raised
     *note RuntimeError: 17a.  These cases now raise *note ValueError:
     183. - Removed a dead code path

   - gh-91166(46): *note asyncio: 9. is optimized to avoid excessive
     copying when writing to socket and use *note sendmsg(): 191. if the
     platform supports it.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98030(47): Add missing TCP socket options from Linux:
     ‘TCP_MD5SIG’, ‘TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS’, ‘TCP_THIN_DUPACK’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE’, ‘TCP_QUEUE_SEQ’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS’, ‘TCP_TIMESTAMP’, ‘TCP_CC_INFO’,
     ‘TCP_SAVE_SYN’, ‘TCP_SAVED_SYN’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT’, ‘TCP_ULP’, ‘TCP_MD5SIG_EXT’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE’,
     ‘TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE’, ‘TCP_INQ’, ‘TCP_TX_DELAY’.

   - gh-88500(48): Reduced the memory usage of *note
     urllib.parse.unquote(): 1550. and *note
     urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes(): 1551. on large values.

   - gh-96127(49): ‘inspect.signature’ was raising ‘TypeError’ on call
     with mock objects.  Now it correctly returns ‘(*args, **kwargs)’ as
     inferred signature.

   - gh-95882(50): Fix a 3.11 regression in *note asynccontextmanager():
     981, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks and fix a 3.11 regression in *note contextmanager():
     1093, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks for *note StopIteration: a5d.

   - gh-78707(51): Deprecate passing more than one positional argument
     to *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 1cc. and *note
     is_relative_to(): 24f.

   - gh-92122(52): Fix reStructuredText syntax errors in docstrings in
     the *note enum: 51. module.

   - gh-91851(53): Optimize the *note Fraction: 1a8. arithmetics for
     small components.

   - bpo-24132(54): Make *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8. and *note Path:
     149. subclassable (private to start).  Previously, attempting to
     instantiate a subclass resulted in an *note AttributeError: 3ca.
     being raised.  Patch by Barney Gale.

   - bpo-40447(55): Accept *note os.PathLike: ab7. (such as *note
     pathlib.Path: 149.) in the ‘stripdir’ arguments of *note
     compileall.compile_file(): c59. and *note compileall.compile_dir():
     97d.

   - bpo-36880(56): Fix a reference counting issue when a *note ctypes:
     28. callback with return type *note py_object: 12aa. returns
     ‘None’, which could cause crashes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100833

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100805

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100813

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100792

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90104

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100689

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100740

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91219

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100690

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86508

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100585

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100562

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100519

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100287

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100488

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100474

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100363

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78878

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100348

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100272

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83076

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100228

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100039

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100133

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44592

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100098

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85432

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98778

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99925

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94943

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83035

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99576

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94912

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99509

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99433

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85267

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98030

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88500

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96127

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95882

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78707

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92122

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24132

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40447

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36880


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<17>,  Next: Tests<18>,  Prev: Library<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.20.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-100616(1): Document existing ‘attr’ parameter to *note
     curses.window.vline(): 1553. function in *note curses: 29.

   - gh-100472(2): Remove claim in documentation that the ‘stripdir’,
     ‘prependdir’ and ‘limit_sl_dest’ parameters of *note
     compileall.compile_dir(): 97d. and *note compileall.compile_file():
     c59. could be *note bytes: 2c1.

   - bpo-25377(3): Clarify use of octal format of mode argument in
     help(os.chmod) as well as help(os.fchmod)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100616

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100472

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25377


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<18>,  Next: Build<17>,  Prev: Documentation<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.20.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-100454(1): Start running SSL tests with OpenSSL 3.1.0-beta1.

   - gh-100086(2): The Python test runner (libregrtest) now logs Python
     build information like "debug" vs "release" build, or LTO and PGO
     optimizations.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93018(3): Make two tests forgiving towards host system libexpat
     with backported security fixes applied.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100454

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100086

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93018


File: python.info,  Node: Build<17>,  Next: Windows<18>,  Prev: Tests<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.20.5 Build
...............

   - gh-100540(1): Removed the ‘--with-system-ffi’ ‘configure’ option;
     ‘libffi’ must now always be supplied by the system on all
     non-Windows platforms.  The option has had no effect on non-Darwin
     platforms for several releases, and in 3.11 only had the
     non-obvious effect of invoking ‘pkg-config’ to find ‘libffi’ and
     never setting ‘-DUSING_APPLE_OS_LIBFFI’.  Now on Darwin platforms
     ‘configure’ will first check for the OS ‘libffi’ and then fall back
     to the same processing as other platforms if it is not found.

   - gh-88267(2): Avoid exporting Python symbols in linked Windows
     applications when the core is built as static.

   - bpo-41916(3): Allow override of ac_cv_cxx_thread so that cross
     compiled python can set -pthread for CXX.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88267

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41916


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<18>,  Next: macOS<11>,  Prev: Build<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.20.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-100180(1): Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

   - gh-99191(2): Use ‘_MSVC_LANG >= 202002L’ instead of less-precise
     ‘_MSC_VER >=1929’ to more accurately test for C++20 support in
     ‘PC/_wmimodule.cpp’.

   - gh-79218(3): Define ‘MS_WIN64’ for Mingw-w64 64bit, fix cython
     compilation failure.

   - gh-99941(4): Ensure that *note asyncio.Protocol.data_received():
     1557. receives an immutable *note bytes: 2c1. object (as
     documented), instead of *note bytearray: 2c0.

   - bpo-43984(5): *note winreg.SetValueEx(): 1558. now leaves the
     target value untouched in the case of conversion errors.
     Previously, ‘-1’ would be written in case of such errors.

   - bpo-34816(6): ‘hasattr(ctypes.windll, 'nonexistant')’ now returns
     ‘False’ instead of raising *note OSError: 644.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99191

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99941

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43984

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34816


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<11>,  Next: Tools/Demos<10>,  Prev: Windows<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.20.7 macOS
...............

   - gh-100180(1): Update macOS installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

   - gh-100540(2): Removed obsolete ‘dlfcn.h’ shim from the ‘_ctypes’
     extension module, which has not been necessary since Mac OS X 10.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<10>,  Next: C API<14>,  Prev: macOS<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.20.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-45256(1): Fix a bug that caused an *note AttributeError: 3ca.
     to be raised in ‘python-gdb.py’ when ‘py-locals’ is used without a
     frame.

   - gh-100342(2): Add missing ‘NULL’ check for possible allocation
     failure in ‘*args’ parsing in Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100342


File: python.info,  Node: C API<14>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.20.9 C API
...............

   - gh-99947(1): Raising SystemError on import will now have its cause
     be set to the original unexpected exception.

   - gh-99240(2): In argument parsing, after deallocating newly
     allocated memory, reset its pointer to NULL.

   - gh-98724(3): The *note Py_CLEAR: 307, *note Py_SETREF: 308. and
     *note Py_XSETREF: 309. macros now only evaluate their arguments
     once.  If an argument has side effects, these side effects are no
     longer duplicated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99947

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.21 Python 3.12.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-12-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<21>.
* Library: Library<21>.
* Documentation: Documentation<18>.
* Tests: Tests<19>.
* Build: Build<18>.
* Windows: Windows<19>.
* macOS: macOS<12>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<11>.
* C API: C API<15>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<14>,  Next: Core and Builtins<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.21.1 Security
..................

   - gh-100001(1): ‘python -m http.server’ no longer allows terminal
     control characters sent within a garbage request to be printed to
     the stderr server log.

     This is done by changing the *note http.server: 6d.
     ‘BaseHTTPRequestHandler’ ‘.log_message’ method to replace control
     characters with a ‘\xHH’ hex escape before printing.

   - gh-87604(2): Avoid publishing list of active per-interpreter audit
     hooks via the *note gc: 5b. module

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87604


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<21>,  Next: Library<21>,  Prev: Security<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.21.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-99891(1): Fix a bug in the tokenizer that could cause infinite
     recursion when showing syntax warnings that happen in the first
     line of the source.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-91054(2): Add *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 2ee. and *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 2ef. APIs to register callbacks to receive
     notification on creation and destruction of code objects.

   - gh-99729(3): Fix an issue that could cause frames to be visible to
     Python code as they are being torn down, possibly leading to memory
     corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter.

   - gh-99708(4): Fix bug where compiler crashes on an if expression
     with an empty body block.

   - gh-99578(5): Fix a reference bug in ‘_imp.create_builtin()’ after
     the creation of the first sub-interpreter for modules ‘builtins’
     and ‘sys’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-99581(6): Fixed a bug that was causing a buffer overflow if the
     tokenizer copies a line missing the newline character from a file
     that is as long as the available tokenizer buffer.  Patch by Pablo
     galindo

   - gh-99553(7): Fix bug where an *note ExceptionGroup: 17b. subclass
     can wrap a *note BaseException: 3ab.

   - gh-99547(8): Add a function to os.path to check if a path is a
     junction: isjunction.  Add similar functionality to pathlib.Path as
     is_junction.

   - gh-99370(9): Fix zip path for venv created from a non-installed
     python on POSIX platforms.

   - gh-99377(10): Add audit events for thread creation and clear
     operations.

   - gh-98686(11): Remove the ‘BINARY_OP_GENERIC’ and
     ‘COMPARE_OP_GENERIC’ "specializations".

   - gh-99298(12): Remove the remaining error paths for attribute
     specializations, and refuse to specialize attribute accesses on
     types that haven't had *note PyType_Ready(): 595. called on them
     yet.

   - gh-99127(13): Allow some features of *note syslog: d6. to the main
     interpreter only.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-91053(14): Optimizing interpreters and JIT compilers may need to
     invalidate internal metadata when functions are modified.  This
     change adds the ability to provide a callback that will be invoked
     each time a function is created, modified, or destroyed.

   - gh-90994(15): Improve error messages when there's a syntax error
     with call arguments.  The following three cases are covered: - No
     value is assigned to a named argument, eg ‘foo(a=)’.  - A value is
     assigned to a star argument, eg ‘foo(*args=[0])’.  - A value is
     assigned to a double-star keyword argument, eg ‘foo(**kwarg={'a':
     0})’.

   - bpo-45026(16): Optimize the *note range: 782. object iterator.  It
     is now smaller, faster iteration of ranges containing large
     numbers.  Smaller pickles, faster unpickling.

   - bpo-31718(17): Raise *note ValueError: 183. instead of *note
     SystemError: 304. when methods of uninitialized *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 1469. objects are called.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-38031(18): Fix a possible assertion failure in *note io.FileIO:
     11a2. when the opener returns an invalid file descriptor.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99891

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99729

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99708

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99578

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99581

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99553

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99370

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99377

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91053

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90994

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45026

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31718

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38031


File: python.info,  Node: Library<21>,  Next: Documentation<18>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.21.3 Library
.................

   - gh-100001(1): Also escape s in the http.server
     BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message so that it is technically
     possible to parse the line and reconstruct what the original data
     was.  Without this a xHH is ambiguious as to if it is a hex
     replacement we put in or the characters r"x" came through in the
     original request line.

   - gh-99957(2): Add ‘frozen_default’ parameter to *note
     typing.dataclass_transform(): 1fc.

   - gh-79033(3): Fix *note asyncio.Server.wait_closed(): 146b. to
     actually do what the docs promise - wait for all existing
     connections to complete, after closing the server.

   - gh-51524(4): Fix bug when calling trace.CoverageResults with valid
     infile.

   - gh-99645(5): Fix a bug in handling class cleanups in *note
     unittest.TestCase: 159.  Now ‘addClassCleanup()’ uses separate
     lists for different ‘TestCase’ subclasses, and ‘doClassCleanups()’
     only cleans up the particular class.

   - gh-99508(6): Fix ‘TypeError’ in
     ‘Lib/importlib/_bootstrap_external.py’ while calling
     ‘_imp.source_hash()’.

   - gh-66285(7): Fix *note asyncio: 9. to not share event loop and
     signal wakeupfd in forked processes.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-97001(8): Release the GIL when calling termios APIs to avoid
     blocking threads.

   - gh-92647(9): Use final status of an enum to determine lookup or
     creation branch of functional API.

   - gh-99388(10): Add 'loop_factory' parameter to *note asyncio.run():
     197. to allow specifying a custom event loop factory.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-99341(11): Fix *note ast.increment_lineno(): 1560. to also cover
     ‘ast.TypeIgnore’ when changing line numbers.

   - gh-99382(12): Check the number of arguments in substitution in user
     generics containing a *note TypeVarTuple: 162. and one or more
     *note TypeVar: 164.

   - gh-99379(13): Fix substitution of *note ParamSpec: 163. followed by
     *note TypeVarTuple: 162. in generic aliases.

   - gh-99344(14): Fix substitution of *note TypeVarTuple: 162. and
     *note ParamSpec: 163. together in user generics.

   - gh-99284(15): Remove ‘_use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_’
     old untested and undocumented hack from *note ctypes: 28.

   - gh-99201(16): Fix *note IndexError: 13ac. when initializing the
     config variables on Windows if ‘HAVE_DYNAMIC_LOADING’ is not set.

   - gh-99240(17): Fix double-free bug in Argument Clinic
     ‘str_converter’ by extracting memory clean up to a new
     ‘post_parsing’ section.

   - gh-64490(18): Fix refcount error when arguments are packed to tuple
     in Argument Clinic.

   - gh-99029(19): *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 1cc. now treats
     naked Windows drive paths as relative.  This brings its behaviour
     in line with other parts of pathlib.

   - gh-98253(20): The implementation of the typing module is now more
     resilient to reference leaks in binary extension modules.

     Previously, a reference leak in a typed C API-based extension
     module could leak internals of the typing module, which could in
     turn introduce leaks in essentially any other package with typed
     function signatures.  Although the typing package is not the
     original source of the problem, such non-local dependences
     exacerbate debugging of large-scale projects, and the
     implementation was therefore changed to reduce harm by providing
     better isolation.

   - gh-98458(21): Fix infinite loop in unittest when a self-referencing
     chained exception is raised

   - gh-93453(22): *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 220. and many other
     *note asyncio: 9. functions like *note asyncio.ensure_future():
     ade, *note asyncio.shield(): 8bc. or *note asyncio.gather(): 3f4,
     and also the ‘get_event_loop()’ method of
     ‘asyncio.BaseDefaultEventLoopPolicy’ now raise a *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. if called when there is no running event loop
     and the current event loop was not set.  Previously they implicitly
     created and set a new current event loop.  *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179. is no longer emitted if there is no
     running event loop but the current event loop was set.

   - gh-97966(23): On ‘uname_result’, restored expectation that
     ‘_fields’ and ‘_asdict’ would include all six properties including
     ‘processor’.

   - gh-98248(24): Provide informative error messages in *note
     struct.pack(): 110b. when its integral arguments are not in range.

   - gh-98108(25): ‘zipfile.Path’ is now pickleable if its
     initialization parameters were pickleable (e.g.  for file system
     paths).

   - gh-98098(26): Created packages from zipfile and test_zipfile
     modules, separating ‘zipfile.Path’ functionality.

   - gh-82836(27): Fix *note is_private: 141c. properties in the *note
     ipaddress: 7a. module.  Previously non-private networks (0.0.0.0/0)
     would return ‘True’ from this method; now they correctly return
     ‘False’.

   - gh-96828(28): Add an *note OP_ENABLE_KTLS: 1561. option for
     enabling the use of the kernel TLS (kTLS). Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-88863(29): To avoid apparent memory leaks when *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): 96e. raises, break reference cycles
     generated by local exception and future instances (which has
     exception instance as its member var).  Patch by Dong Uk, Kang.

   - gh-91078(30): ‘TarFile.next()’ now returns ‘None’ when called on an
     empty tarfile.

   - bpo-47220(31): Document the optional 'callback' parameter of
     ‘WeakMethod’.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-44817(32): Ignore WinError 53 (ERROR_BAD_NETPATH), 65
     (ERROR_NETWORK_ACCESS_DENIED) and 161 (ERROR_BAD_PATHNAME) when
     using ntpath.realpath().

   - bpo-41260(33): Rename the 'fmt' parameter of the pure Python
     implementation of *note datetime.date.strftime(): afc. to 'format'.

   - bpo-15999(34): All built-in functions now accept arguments of any
     type instead of just ‘bool’ and ‘int’ for boolean parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51524

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99645

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99508

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66285

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97001

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92647

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99341

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99382

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99379

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99344

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99284

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99201

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99029

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98253

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98458

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93453

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98248

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98108

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98098

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82836

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96828

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88863

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91078

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47220

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44817

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41260

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15999


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<18>,  Next: Tests<19>,  Prev: Library<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.21.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-99931(1): Use sphinxext-opengraph(2) to generate OpenGraph
     metadata(3).

   - gh-89682(4): Reworded docstring of the default ‘__contains__’ to
     clarify that it returns a *note bool: 17d.

   - gh-88330(5): Improved the description of what a resource is in
     importlib.resources docs.

   - gh-92892(6): Document that calling variadic functions with ctypes
     requires special care on macOS/arm64 (and possibly other
     platforms).

   - bpo-41825(7): Restructured the documentation for the *note
     os.wait*: c0f. family of functions, and improved the docs for *note
     os.waitid(): c10. with more explanation of the possible argument
     constants.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99931

   (2) https://sphinxext-opengraph.readthedocs.io/

   (3) https://ogp.me/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89682

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88330

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92892

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41825


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<19>,  Next: Build<18>,  Prev: Documentation<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.21.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-99892(1): Skip test_normalization() of test_unicodedata if it
     fails to download NormalizationTest.txt file from pythontest.net.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-99934(2): Correct test_marsh on (32 bit) x86: test_deterministic
     sets was failing.

   - gh-99741(3): We've implemented multi-phase init (PEP 489/630/687)
     for the internal (for testing) _xxsubinterpreters module.

   - gh-99659(4): Optional big memory tests in ‘test_sqlite3’ now catch
     the correct ‘sqlite.DataError’ exception type in case of too large
     strings and/or blobs passed.

   - gh-99593(5): Cover the Unicode C API with tests.

   - gh-96002(6): Add functional test for Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99892

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99934

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99741

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99659

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99593

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96002


File: python.info,  Node: Build<18>,  Next: Windows<19>,  Prev: Tests<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.21.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99086(1): Fix ‘-Wimplicit-int’, ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’, and
     ‘-Wimplicit-function-declaration’ compiler warnings in ‘configure’
     checks.

   - gh-99337(2): Fix a compilation issue with GCC 12 on macOS.

   - gh-99289(3): Add a ‘COMPILEALL_OPTS’ variable in Makefile to
     override *note compileall: 1e. options (default: ‘-j0’) in ‘make
     install’.  Also merged the ‘compileall’ commands into a single
     command building .pyc files for the all optimization levels (0, 1,
     2) at once.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98872(4): Fix a possible fd leak in ‘Programs/_freeze_module.c’
     introduced in Python 3.11.

   - gh-88226(5): Always define ‘TARGET_*’ labels in ‘Python/ceval.c’,
     even if ‘USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS’ is disabled.  This allows breakpoints
     to be set at those labels in (for instance) ‘gdb’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99337

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98872

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88226


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<19>,  Next: macOS<12>,  Prev: Build<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.21.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-99345(1): Use faster initialization functions to detect install
     location for Windows Store package

   - gh-98629(2): Fix initialization of *note sys.version: b8d. and
     ‘sys._git’ on Windows

   - gh-99442(3): Fix handling in *note Python Launcher for Windows:
     3ae. when ‘argv[0]’ does not include a file extension.

   - bpo-40882(4): Fix a memory leak in *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory: 1434. on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99345

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98629

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99442

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40882


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<12>,  Next: Tools/Demos<11>,  Prev: Windows<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.21.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-87235(1): On macOS ‘python3 /dev/fd/9 9</path/to/script.py’
     failed for any script longer than a couple of bytes.

   - gh-98940(2): Fix ‘Mac/Extras.install.py’ file filter bug.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87235

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98940


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<11>,  Next: C API<15>,  Prev: macOS<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.21.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-64490(1): Argument Clinic varargs bugfixes

        * Fix out-of-bounds error in
          ‘_PyArg_UnpackKeywordsWithVararg()’.

        * Fix incorrect check which allowed more than one varargs in
          clinic.py.

        * Fix miscalculation of ‘noptargs’ in generated code.

        * Do not generate ‘noptargs’ when there is a vararg argument and
          no optional argument.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490


File: python.info,  Node: C API<15>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.21.10 C API
................

   - gh-98680(1): ‘PyBUF_*’ constants were marked as part of Limited API
     of Python 3.11+.  These were available in 3.11.0 with *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 5b2. defined for 3.11, and are necessary to use the
     buffer API.

   - gh-99612(2): Fix *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 1569. for
     ASCII-only data: ‘*consumed’ was not set.

   - gh-47146(3): The ‘structmember.h’ header is deprecated.  Its
     non-deprecated contents are now available just by including
     ‘Python.h’, with a ‘Py_’ prefix added if it was missing.
     (Deprecated contents are *note T_OBJECT: 34c, *note T_NONE: 34e,
     and no-op flags.)  Patch by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work by
     Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98680

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99612

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.22 Python 3.12.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-11-14'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<15>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<22>.
* Library: Library<22>.
* Documentation: Documentation<19>.
* Tests: Tests<20>.
* Build: Build<19>.
* Windows: Windows<20>.
* macOS: macOS<13>.
* C API: C API<16>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<15>,  Next: Core and Builtins<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.22.1 Security
..................

   - gh-98433(1): The IDNA codec decoder used on DNS hostnames by *note
     socket: c6. or *note asyncio: 9. related name resolution functions
     no longer involves a quadratic algorithm.  This prevents a
     potential CPU denial of service if an out-of-spec excessive length
     hostname involving bidirectional characters were decoded.  Some
     protocols such as *note urllib: 103. http ‘3XX’ redirects
     potentially allow for an attacker to supply such a name.

     Individual labels within an IDNA encoded DNS name will now raise an
     error early during IDNA decoding if they are longer than 1024
     unicode characters given that each decoded DNS label must be 63 or
     fewer characters and the entire decoded DNS name is limited to 255.
     Only an application presenting a hostname or label consisting
     primarily of RFC 3454(2) section 3.1 "Nothing" characters to be
     removed would run into of this new limit.  See also RFC 5894(3)
     section 6 and RFC 3491(4).

   - gh-98739(5): Update bundled libexpat to 2.5.0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98433

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5894.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3491.html

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98739


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<22>,  Next: Library<22>,  Prev: Security<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.22.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-81057(1): The docs clearly say that ‘PyImport_Inittab’, *note
     PyImport_AppendInittab(): 156d, and *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     156e. should not be used after *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. has been
     called.  We now enforce this for the two functions.  Additionally,
     the runtime now uses an internal copy of ‘PyImport_Inittab’, to
     guard against modification.

   - gh-99298(2): Fix an issue that could potentially cause incorrect
     error handling for some bytecode instructions.

   - gh-99254(3): The compiler now removes all unused constants from
     code objects (except the first one, which may be a docstring).

   - gh-99205(4): Fix an issue that prevented *note PyThreadState: 5a6.
     and *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. memory from being freed
     properly.

   - gh-81057(5): The 18 global C variables holding the state of the
     allocators have been moved to ‘_PyRuntimeState’.  This is a
     strictly internal change with no change in behavior.

   - gh-99181(6): Fix failure in *note except*: 3a7. with unhashable
     exceptions.

   - gh-99204(7): Fix calculation of ‘sys._base_executable’ when inside
     a POSIX virtual environment using copies of the python binary when
     the base installation does not provide the executable name used by
     the venv.  Calculation will fall back to alternative names
     ("python<MAJOR>", "python<MAJOR>.<MINOR>").

   - gh-96055(8): Update *note faulthandler: 53. to emit an error
     message with the proper unexpected signal number.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-99153(9): Fix location of *note SyntaxError: 146. for a *note
     try: 4ea. block with both *note except: 3a8. and *note except*:
     3a7.

   - gh-98686(10): Merge the adaptive opcode logic into each
     instruction's unquickened variant, and merge the logic in
     ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’ into *note EXTENDED_ARG: 156f.  With these
     changes, the quickening that happens at code object creation is now
     only responsible for initializing warmup counters and inserting
     superinstructions.

   - gh-99103(11): Fix the error reporting positions of specialized
     traceback anchors when the source line contains Unicode characters.

   - gh-99139(12): Improve the error suggestion for *note NameError:
     144. exceptions for instances.  Now if a *note NameError: 144. is
     raised in a method and the instance has an attribute that's exactly
     equal to the name in the exception, the suggestion will include
     ‘self.<NAME>’ instead of the closest match in the method scope.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98401(13): Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ (ex:
     ‘"\477"’), deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 178, instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  In a
     future Python version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError:
     146.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98401(14): A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape
     sequence now generates a *note SyntaxWarning: 178, instead of *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179.  For example, ‘re.compile("\d+\.\d+")’ now
     emits a *note SyntaxWarning: 178. (‘"\d"’ is an invalid escape
     sequence), use raw strings for regular expression:
     ‘re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")’.  In a future Python version, *note
     SyntaxError: 146. will eventually be raised, instead of *note
     SyntaxWarning: 178.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96793(15): Handle StopIteration and StopAsyncIteration raised in
     generator or coroutines in the bytecode, rather than in wrapping C
     code.

   - gh-98931(16): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 146. error message
     when the user types ‘import x from y’ instead of ‘from y import x’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98852(17): Fix subscription of type aliases containing bare
     generic types or types like *note TypeVar: 164.: for example
     ‘tuple[A, T][int]’ and ‘tuple[TypeVar, T][int]’, where ‘A’ is a
     generic type, and ‘T’ is a type variable.

   - gh-98925(18): Lower the recursion depth for marshal on WASI to
     support (in-development) wasmtime 2.0.

   - gh-98783(19): Fix multiple crashes in debug mode when ‘str’
     subclasses are used instead of ‘str’ itself.

   - gh-98811(20): Use complete source locations to simplify detection
     of ‘__future__’ imports which are not at the beginning of the file.
     Also corrects the offset in the exception raised in one case, which
     was off by one and impeded highlighting.

   - gh-96793(21): Add specialization of *note FOR_ITER: 1517. for
     generators.  Saves multiple layers of dispatch and checking to get
     from the *note FOR_ITER: 1517. instruction in the caller to the
     *note RESUME: 505. in the generator.

   - gh-98762(22): Fix source locations of *note match: 62f.
     sub-patterns.

   - gh-98586(23): Added the methods *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2e3.
     and *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 2e4. to the *note Limited
     API: 2d8. along with the auxiliary macro constant *note
     PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 2e5.

     The availability of these functions enables more efficient PEP
     590(24) vector calls from binary extension modules that avoid
     argument boxing/unboxing overheads.

   - gh-99257(25): Fix an issue where member descriptors (such as those
     for *note __slots__: 1361.) could behave incorrectly or crash
     instead of raising a *note TypeError: 2ba. when accessed via an
     instance of an invalid type.

   - gh-93143(26): Rather than changing ‘co_code’, the interpreter will
     now display a *note RuntimeWarning: 8e7. and assign *note None:
     470. to any fast locals that are left unbound after jumps or *note
     del: 1570. statements executed while tracing.

   - gh-96421(27): When calling into Python code from C code, through
     *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): ec2. or a related C-API function, a
     shim frame in inserted into the call stack.  This occurs in the
     ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ function.  The extra frame should be
     invisible to all Python and most C extensions, but out-of-process
     profilers and debuggers need to be aware of it.  These shim frames
     can be detected by checking ‘frame->owner ==
     FRAME_OWNED_BY_CSTACK’.

     Extensions implementing their own interpreters using PEP 523 need
     to be aware of this shim frame and the changes to the semantics of
     *note RETURN_VALUE: 1571, *note YIELD_VALUE: 1532, and *note
     RETURN_GENERATOR: 4fd, which now clear the frame.

   - gh-98415(28): Fix detection of MAC addresses for *note uuid: 10b.
     on certain OSs.  Patch by Chaim Sanders

   - gh-98686(29): Quicken all code objects, and specialize adaptive
     bytecode instructions more aggressively.

   - gh-92119(30): Print exception class name instead of its string
     representation when raising errors from *note ctypes: 28. calls.

   - gh-91058(31): *note ImportError: 145. raised from failed ‘from
     <module> import <name>’ now include suggestions for the value of
     ‘<name>’ based on the available names in ‘<module>’.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96793(32): The *note FOR_ITER: 1517. now leaves the iterator on
     the stack on termination of the loop.  This is to assist
     specialization of loops for generators.

   - gh-90716(33): Add _pylong.py module.  It includes asymptotically
     faster algorithms that can be used for operations on integers with
     many digits.  It is used by longobject.c to speed up some
     operations.

   - gh-95389(34): Expose *note ETH_P_ALL: 1572. and some of the *note
     ETHERTYPE_* constants: 1573. in *note socket: c6.  Patch by Noam
     Cohen.

   - gh-93696(35): Allow *note pdb: a0. to locate source for frozen
     modules in the standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99254

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99205

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99181

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99204

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96055

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99153

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99103

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98852

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98925

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98783

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98811

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98762

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99257

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96421

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98415

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92119

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90716

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95389

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93696


File: python.info,  Node: Library<22>,  Next: Documentation<19>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.22.3 Library
.................

   - gh-99418(1): Fix bug in *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 27c. that
     causes URL schemes that begin with a digit, a plus sign, or a minus
     sign to be parsed incorrectly.

   - gh-94597(2): Deprecate *note asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher: 21a. to
     be removed in Python 3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-99305(3): Improve performance of *note secrets.token_hex():
     1575.

   - gh-74044(4): Fixed bug where *note inspect.signature(): 548.
     reported incorrect arguments for decorated methods.

   - gh-99275(5): Fix ‘SystemError’ in *note ctypes: 28. when exception
     was not set during ‘__initsubclass__’.

   - gh-99277(6): Remove older version of
     ‘_SSLProtocolTransport.get_write_buffer_limits’ in
     ‘asyncio.sslproto’

   - gh-99248(7): fix negative numbers failing in verify()

   - gh-99155(8): Fix *note statistics.NormalDist: 881. pickle with ‘0’
     and ‘1’ protocols.

   - gh-93464(9): ‘enum.auto()’ is now correctly activated when combined
     with other assignment values.  E.g.  ‘ONE = auto(), 'some text'’
     will now evaluate as ‘(1, 'some text')’.

   - gh-99134(10): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 22.3.1.

   - gh-92584(11): Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  It was deprecated in
     Python 3.10 by PEP 632(12) "Deprecate distutils module".  For
     projects still using ‘distutils’ and cannot be updated to something
     else, the ‘setuptools’ project can be installed: it still provides
     ‘distutils’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98999(13): Now ‘_pyio’ is consistent with ‘_io’ in raising
     ‘ValueError’ when executing methods over closed buffers.

   - gh-83004(14): Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_zoneinfo’

   - gh-83004(15): Clean up refleaks on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_pickle’

   - gh-83004(16): Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_io’.

   - gh-98897(17): Fix memory leak in *note math.dist(): 848. when both
     points don't have the same dimension.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98878(18): Use the frame bound builtins when offering a name
     suggestion in *note traceback: f9. to prevent crashing when
     ‘__builtins__’ is not a dict.

   - gh-98139(19): In ‘importlib._bootstrap’, enhance namespace package
     repr to ‘<module 'x' (namespace) from ['path']>’.

   - gh-90352(20): Fix ‘_SelectorDatagramTransport’ to inherit from
     *note DatagramTransport: 1576. in *note asyncio: 9.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-98793(21): Fix argument typechecks in ‘_overlapped.WSAConnect()’
     and ‘_overlapped.Overlapped.WSASendTo()’ functions.

   - gh-98744(22): Prevent crashing in *note traceback: f9. when
     retrieving the byte-offset for some source files that contain
     certain unicode characters.

   - gh-98740(23): Fix internal error in the *note re: b4. module which
     in very rare circumstances prevented compilation of a regular
     expression containing a *note conditional expression: 1577. without
     the "else" branch.

   - gh-98703(24): Fix *note asyncio.StreamWriter.drain(): 1578. to call
     ‘protocol.connection_lost’ callback only once on Windows.

   - gh-98624(25): Add a mutex to unittest.mock.NonCallableMock to
     protect concurrent access to mock attributes.

   - gh-98658(26): The *note array.array: 18f. class now supports
     subscripting, making it a *note generic type: 13b.

   - gh-98284(27): Improved *note TypeError: 2ba. message for undefined
     abstract methods of a *note abc.ABC: d9c. instance.  The names of
     the missing methods are surrounded by single-quotes to highlight
     them.

   - gh-96151(28): Allow ‘BUILTINS’ to be a valid field name for frozen
     dataclasses.

   - gh-98086(29): Make sure ‘patch.dict()’ can be applied on async
     functions.

   - gh-72719(30): Remove modules ‘asyncore’ and ‘asynchat’, which were
     deprecated by PEP 594(31).

   - gh-96192(32): Fix handling of ‘bytes’ *note path-like objects: 975.
     in ‘os.ismount()’.

   - gh-94172(33): *note ftplib: 59.: Remove the ‘FTP_TLS.ssl_version’
     class attribute: use the 'context' parameter instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner

   - gh-94172(34): Remove the 'keyfile' and 'certfile' parameters from
     the *note ftplib: 59, *note imaplib: 6f, *note poplib: a7. and
     *note smtplib: c4. modules, and the 'key_file', 'cert_file' and
     'check_hostname' parameters from the *note http.client: 6a. module,
     all deprecated since Python 3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter
     ('ssl_context' in *note imaplib: 6f.) instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-83638(35): Add the *note autocommit: 1db. attribute to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. and the 'autocommit' parameter to *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 1dd. to control PEP 249(36)-compliant *note
     transaction handling: 1de.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-92452(37): Fixed a race condition that could cause *note
     sysconfig.get_config_var(): ebf. to incorrectly return *note None:
     470. in multi-threaded programs.

   - gh-91803(38): Fix an error when using a method of objects mocked
     with *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1406. after it was
     sealed with *note unittest.mock.seal(): a01. function.

   - bpo-38523(39): *note shutil.copytree(): 872. now applies the
     'ignore_dangling_symlinks' argument recursively.

   - bpo-40358(40): Add walk_up argument in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 1cc.

   - bpo-36267(41): Fix IndexError in *note argparse.ArgumentParser:
     2bb. when a ‘store_true’ action is given an explicit argument.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99305

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74044

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99275

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99277

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99248

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99155

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93464

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99134

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98999

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98897

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98878

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98139

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90352

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98744

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98740

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98703

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98624

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98284

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96151

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98086

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72719

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96192

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92452

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91803

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38523

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40358

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36267


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<19>,  Next: Tests<20>,  Prev: Library<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.22.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-98832(1): Changes wording of docstring for *note
     pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 157a.

   - gh-97966(2): Update uname docs to clarify the special nature of the
     platform attribute and to indicate when it became late-bound.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98832

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<20>,  Next: Build<19>,  Prev: Documentation<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.22.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-98903(1): The Python test suite now fails with exit code 4 if no
     tests ran.  It should help detecting typos in test names and test
     methods.

   - gh-98713(2): Fix a bug in the *note typing: ff. tests where a test
     relying on CPython-specific implementation details was not
     decorated with ‘@cpython_only’ and was not skipped on other
     implementations.

   - gh-87390(3): Add tests for star-unpacking with PEP 646, and some
     other miscellaneous PEP 646 tests.

   - gh-96853(4): Added explicit coverage of ‘Py_Initialize’ (and hence
     ‘Py_InitializeEx’) back to the embedding tests (all other embedding
     tests migrated to ‘Py_InitializeFromConfig’ in Python 3.11)

   - bpo-34272(5): Some C API tests were moved into the new
     Lib/test/test_capi/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98903

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98713

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34272


File: python.info,  Node: Build<19>,  Next: Windows<20>,  Prev: Tests<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.22.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99086(1): Fix ‘-Wimplicit-int’ compiler warning in ‘configure’
     check for ‘PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM’.

   - gh-99016(2): Fix build with ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN=python3.8’.

   - gh-97731(3): Specify the full path to the source location for ‘make
     docclean’ (needed for cross-builds).

   - gh-98949(4): Drop unused build dependency on ‘readelf’.

   - gh-98989(5): Use ‘python3.11’, if available, for regeneration and
     freezing.

   - gh-98831(6): Add new tooling, in ‘Tools/cases_generator’, to
     generate the interpreter switch statement from a list of opcode
     definitions.  This only affects adding, modifying or removing
     instruction definitions.  The instruction definitions now live in
     ‘Python/bytecodes.c’, in the form of a custom DSL (under
     development)(7).  The tooling reads this file and writes
     ‘Python/generated_cases.c.h’, which is then included by
     ‘Python/ceval.c’ to provide most of the cases of the main
     interpreter switch.

   - gh-98817(8): Remove PCbuild/lib.pyproj: it's not used for anything,
     is only a minor convenience for Visual Studio users (who probably
     mostly don't even know about it), and it takes a lot of maintenance
     effort to keep updated.

   - gh-98776(9): Fix ‘make regen-test-levenshtein’ for out-of-tree
     builds.

   - gh-98707(10): Don't use vendored ‘libmpdec’ headers if *note
     -with-system-libmpdec: 157d. is passed to ‘configure’.  Don't use
     vendored ‘libexpat’ headers if *note -with-system-expat: 157e. is
     passed to ‘configure’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99016

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97731

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98949

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98989

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98831

   (7) 
https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas/blob/main/3.12/interpreter_definition.md

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98817

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98776

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98707


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<20>,  Next: macOS<13>,  Prev: Build<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.22.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-98689(1): Update Windows builds to zlib v1.2.13.  v1.2.12 has
     CVE 2022-37434(2), but the vulnerable ‘inflateGetHeader’ API is not
     used by Python.

   - gh-98790(3): Assumes that a missing ‘DLLs’ directory means that
     standard extension modules are in the executable's directory.

   - gh-98745(4): Update ‘py.exe’ launcher to install 3.11 by default
     and 3.12 on request.

   - gh-98692(5): Fix the *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae.
     ignoring unrecognized shebang lines instead of treating them as
     local paths

   - gh-94328(6): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.39.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98689

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-37434

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98790

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98745

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98692

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<13>,  Next: C API<16>,  Prev: Windows<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.22.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-94328(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.39.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328


File: python.info,  Node: C API<16>,  Prev: macOS<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.22.9 C API
...............

   - gh-98724(1): The *note Py_CLEAR: 307, *note Py_SETREF: 308. and
     *note Py_XSETREF: 309. macros now only evaluate their argument
     once.  If the argument has side effects, these side effects are no
     longer duplicated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98978(2): Fix use-after-free in ‘Py_SetPythonHome(NULL)’,
     ‘Py_SetProgramName(NULL)’ and ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath(NULL)’
     function calls.  Issue reported by Benedikt Reinartz.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98410(3): Add ‘getbufferproc’ and ‘releasebufferproc’ to the
     stable API.

   - gh-98610(4): Some configurable capabilities of sub-interpreters
     have changed.  They always allow subprocesses (*note subprocess:
     d0.) now, whereas before subprocesses could be optionally
     disallowed for a sub-interpreter.  Instead ‘os.exec()’ can now be
     disallowed.  Disallowing daemon threads is now supported.
     Disallowing all threads is still allowed, but is never done by
     default.  Note that the optional restrictions are only available
     through ‘_Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’, which isn't a public API.
     They do not affect the main interpreter, nor *note
     Py_NewInterpreter(): 1582.

   - gh-98608(5): A ‘_PyInterpreterConfig’ has been added and
     ‘_Py_NewInterpreter()’ has been renamed to
     ‘_Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’.  The "isolated_subinterpreters"
     argument is now a granular config that captures the previous
     behavior.  Note that this is all "private" API.

   - gh-96853(6): ‘Py_InitializeEx’ now correctly calls ‘PyConfig_Clear’
     after initializing the interpreter (the omission didn't cause a
     memory leak only because none of the dynamically allocated config
     fields are populated by the wrapper function)

   - gh-91248(7): Add *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 2f0. and *note
     PyFrame_GetVarString(): 2f1. functions to get a frame variable by
     its name.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98978

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98410

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98610

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98608

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.23 Python 3.12.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-10-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<16>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<23>.
* Library: Library<23>.
* Documentation: Documentation<20>.
* Tests: Tests<21>.
* Build: Build<20>.
* Windows: Windows<21>.
* macOS: macOS<14>.
* IDLE: IDLE<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<12>.
* C API: C API<17>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<16>,  Next: Core and Builtins<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.23.1 Security
..................

   - gh-97616(1): Fix multiplying a list by an integer (‘list *= int’):
     detect the integer overflow when the new allocated length is close
     to the maximum size.  Issue reported by Jordan Limor.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-97514(2): On Linux the *note multiprocessing: 8f. module returns
     to using filesystem backed unix domain sockets for communication
     with the 'forkserver' process instead of the Linux abstract socket
     namespace.  Only code that chooses to use the *note "forkserver"
     start method: 22f. is affected.

     Abstract sockets have no permissions and could allow any user on
     the system in the same network namespace(3) (often the whole
     system) to inject code into the multiprocessing 'forkserver'
     process.  This was a potential privilege escalation.  Filesystem
     based socket permissions restrict this to the 'forkserver' process
     user as was the default in Python 3.8 and earlier.

     This prevents Linux CVE 2022-42919(4).

   - gh-87389(5): *note http.server: 6d.: Fix an open redirection
     vulnerability in the HTTP server when an URI path starts with ‘//’.
     Vulnerability discovered, and initial fix proposed, by Hamza Avvan.

   - gh-79096(6): LWPCookieJar and MozillaCookieJar create files with
     file mode 600 instead of 644 (Microsoft Windows is not affected)

   - gh-92888(7): Fix ‘memoryview’ use after free when accessing the
     backing buffer in certain cases.

   - gh-68966(8): The deprecated mailcap module now refuses to inject
     unsafe text (filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell
     commands.  Instead of using such text, it will warn and act as if a
     match was not found (or for test commands, as if the test failed).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97616

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514

   (3) https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/network_namespaces.7.html

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-42919

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87389

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92888

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<23>,  Next: Library<23>,  Prev: Security<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.23.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-98374(1): Suppress ImportError for invalid query for help()
     command.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-98461(2): Fix source location in bytecode for list, set and dict
     comprehensions as well as generator expressions.

   - gh-98354(3): Added unicode check for ‘name’ attribute of ‘spec’
     argument passed in ‘_imp.create_builtin()’ function.

   - gh-98398(4): Fix source location of 'assert' bytecodes.

   - gh-98390(5): Fix location of sub-expressions of boolean
     expressions, by reducing their scope to that of the sub-expression.

   - gh-98254(6): Modules from the standard library are now potentially
     suggested as part of the error messages displayed by the
     interpreter when an *note NameError: 144. is raised to the top
     level.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-97997(7): Add running column offset to the tokenizer state to
     avoid calculating AST column information with pointer arithmetic.

   - gh-97973(8): Modify the tokenizer to return all necessary
     information the parser needs to set location information in the AST
     nodes, so that the parser does not have to calculate those doing
     pointer arithmetic.

   - gh-96078(9): *note os.sched_yield(): f9f. now release the GIL while
     calling sched_yield(2).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-97955(10): Migrate *note zoneinfo: 12e. to Argument Clinic.

   - gh-97912(11): The compiler now avoids quadratic behavior when
     finding which instructions should use the *note LOAD_FAST_CHECK:
     210. opcode.

   - gh-97002(12): Fix an issue where several frame objects could be
     backed by the same interpreter frame, possibly leading to corrupted
     memory and hard crashes of the interpreter.

   - gh-97943(13): Bugfix: *note PyFunction_GetAnnotations(): 1586.
     should return a borrowed reference.  It was returning a new
     reference.

   - gh-97922(14): The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval
     breaker mechanism of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead on
     object allocations.  The GC can also run when *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 17c. is called so C extensions that need to
     run for a long time without executing any Python code also have a
     chance to execute the GC periodically.

   - gh-65961(15): When ‘__package__’ is different than
     ‘__spec__.parent’, raise a ‘DeprecationWarning’ instead of
     ‘ImportWarning’.

     Also remove ‘importlib.util.set_package()’ which was scheduled for
     removal.

   - gh-97850(16): Long deprecated, ‘module_repr()’ should now be
     completely eradicated.

   - gh-86298(17): In cases where ‘warnings.warn_explicit()’ consults
     the module's loader, an ‘DeprecationWarning’ is issued when
     ‘m.__loader__’ differs from ‘m.__spec__.loader’.

   - gh-97779(18): Ensure that all Python frame objects are backed by
     "complete" frames.

   - gh-91052(19): Add API for subscribing to modification events on
     selected dictionaries.

   - gh-97752(20): Fix possible data corruption or crashes when
     accessing the ‘f_back’ member of newly-created generator or
     coroutine frames.

   - gh-97591(21): Fixed a missing incref/decref pair in
     ‘Exception.__setstate__()’.  Patch by Ofey Chan.

   - gh-97670(22): Remove the ‘sys.getdxp()’ function and the
     ‘Tools/scripts/analyze_dxp.py’ script.  DXP stands for "dynamic
     execution pairs".  They were related to ‘DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE’
     and ‘DXPAIRS’ macros which have been removed in Python 3.11.
     Python can now be built with *note ./configure -enable-pystats:
     1587. to gather statistics on Python opcodes.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-94526(23): Fix the Python path configuration used to initialized
     *note sys.path: 35e. at Python startup.  Paths are no longer
     encoded to UTF-8/strict to avoid encoding errors if it contains
     surrogate characters (bytes paths are decoded with the
     surrogateescape error handler).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96670(24): The parser now raises *note SyntaxError: 146. when
     parsing source code containing null bytes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96975(25): Fix a crash occurring when *note PyEval_GetFrame():
     1588. is called while the topmost Python frame is in a
     partially-initialized state.

   - gh-96848(26): Fix command line parsing: reject *note -X
     int_max_str_digits: 188. option with no value (invalid) when the
     *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1589. environment variable is set to a
     valid limit.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-95921(27): Fix overly-broad source position information for
     chained comparisons used as branching conditions.

   - gh-96821(28): Fix undefined behaviour in ‘audioop.c’.

   - gh-96821(29): Fix undefined behaviour in ‘_testcapimodule.c’.

   - gh-95778(30): When *note ValueError: 183. is raised if an integer
     is larger than the limit, mention the *note
     sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 158a. function in the error message.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96387(31): At Python exit, sometimes a thread holding the GIL
     can wait forever for a thread (usually a daemon thread) which
     requested to drop the GIL, whereas the thread already exited.  To
     fix the race condition, the thread which requested the GIL drop now
     resets its request before exiting.  Issue discovered and analyzed
     by Mingliang ZHAO. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96864(32): Fix a possible assertion failure, fatal error, or
     *note SystemError: 304. if a line tracing event raises an exception
     while opcode tracing is enabled.

   - gh-95778(33): The ‘PyLong_FromString’ function was refactored to
     make it more maintainable and extensible.

   - gh-96678(34): Fix undefined behaviour in C code of null pointer
     arithmetic.

   - gh-96754(35): Make sure that all frame objects created are created
     from valid interpreter frames.  Prevents the possibility of invalid
     frames in backtraces and signal handlers.

   - gh-90997(36): Improve the performance of reading and writing inline
     bytecode caches on some platforms.

   - gh-96751(37): Remove dead code from ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ opcode.

   - gh-90751(38): *note memoryview: 17f. now supports half-floats.
     Patch by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou.

   - gh-96678(39): Fix case of undefined behavior in ceval.c

   - gh-64373(40): Convert ‘_functools’ to argument clinic.

   - gh-96641(41): Do not expose ‘KeyWrapper’ in ‘_functools’.

   - gh-96636(42): Ensure that tracing, ‘sys.setrace()’, is turned on
     immediately.  In pre-release versions of 3.11, some tracing events
     might have been lost when turning on tracing in a ‘__del__’ method
     or interrupt.

   - gh-96572(43): Fix use after free in trace refs build mode.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96611(44): When loading a file with invalid UTF-8 inside a
     multi-line string, a correct SyntaxError is emitted.

   - gh-96612(45): Make sure that incomplete frames do not show up in
     tracemalloc traces.

   - gh-90230(46): Fix compiler warnings and test failures when building
     with ‘--enable-pystats’.

   - gh-96587(47): Correctly raise ‘SyntaxError’ on exception groups (
     PEP 654(48)) on python versions prior to 3.11

   - gh-96569(49): Remove two cases of undefined behavior, by adding
     NULL checks.

   - gh-96582(50): Fix possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in
     ‘_PyThread_CurrentFrames’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91079(51): Separate Python recursion checking from C recursion
     checking which reduces the chance of C stack overflow and allows
     the recursion limit to be increased safely.

   - gh-93911(52): Fix an issue that could prevent *note LOAD_ATTR: 209.
     from specializing properly when accessing properties.

   - gh-96348(53): Emit a DeprecationWarning when *note throw(): 243,
     *note throw(): 242. or *note athrow(): 244. are called with more
     than one argument.

   - gh-95196(54): Disable incorrect pickling of the C implemented
     classmethod descriptors.

   - gh-96364(55): Fix text signatures of ‘list.__getitem__’ and
     ‘dict.__getitem__’.

   - gh-96352(56): Fix *note AttributeError: 3ca. missing ‘name’ and
     ‘obj’ attributes in *note object.__getattribute__(): a33.  Patch by
     Philip Georgi.

   - gh-93554(57): Change the jump opcodes so that all conditional jumps
     are forward jumps.  Backward jumps are converted by the assembler
     into a conditional forward jump whose target is the fallthrough
     block (and with a reversed condition), followed by an unconditional
     backward jump.  For example:

     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE BACKWARD_TARGET’ becomes ‘POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE
     NEXT_BLOCK; JUMP BACKWARD_TARGET’.

     All the directed conditional jump opcodes were removed:
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_TRUE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_TRUE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_FALSE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_FALSE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NONE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NONE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NOT_NONE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NOT_NONE’.

     The corresponding opcodes without direction are no longer
     pseudo-instructions, and they implement the forward conditional
     jumps.

   - gh-96268(58): Loading a file with invalid UTF-8 will now report the
     broken character at the correct location.

   - gh-96237(59): The internal field ‘_PyInterpreterFrame.f_func’ is
     renamed to ‘_PyInterpreterFrame.f_funcobj’ and may be any object.
     The ‘f_globals’ and ‘f_builtin’ fields may hold junk values.

     It is safest to treat the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ struct as opaque.

   - gh-96187(60): Fixed a bug that caused ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’ to return
     garbage for negative indexes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96143(61): Add a new ‘-X perf’ Python command line option as
     well as *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 189. and *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 18a. function in the *note sys:
     d3. module that allows to set/unset the interpreter in a way that
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler can detect Python calls.  The new *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 18b. function allows to query the
     state of the perf trampoline.  Design by Pablo Galindo.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory
     P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon.

   - gh-96071(62): Fix a deadlock in *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd.
     when allocating new thread state.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96046(63): *note PyType_Ready(): 595. now initializes
     ‘ht_cached_keys’ and performs additional checks to ensure that type
     objects are properly configured.  This avoids crashes in 3rd party
     packages that don't use regular API to create new types.

   - gh-96005(64): On WASI *note ENOTCAPABLE: 158b. is now mapped to
     *note PermissionError: bb5.  The *note errno: 52. modules exposes
     the new error number.  ‘getpath.py’ now ignores *note
     PermissionError: bb5. when it cannot open landmark files
     ‘pybuilddir.txt’ and ‘pyenv.cfg’.

   - gh-93678(65): Added test a harness for direct unit tests of the
     compiler's optimization stage.  The
     ‘_testinternalcapi.optimize_cfg()’ function runs the optimiser on a
     sequence of instructions.  The ‘CfgOptimizationTestCase’ class in
     ‘test.support’ has utilities for invoking the optimizer and
     checking the output.

   - gh-95245(66): Reduces the size of a "simple" Python object from 8
     to 6 words by moving the weakreflist pointer into the pre-header
     directly before the object's dict/values pointer.

   - gh-90997(67): Compile virtual *note try: 4ea./*note except: 3a8.
     blocks to handle exceptions raised during *note close(): 158c. or
     *note throw(): 243. calls through a suspended frame.

   - gh-95977(68): Optimized calling *note __get__(): 135e. with
     vectorcall.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91210(69): Improve error message when a parameter without a
     default value follows one with a default value, and show the same
     message, even when the non-default/default sequence is preceded by
     positional-only parameters.

   - gh-95922(70): Fixed bug where the compiler's
     ‘eliminate_empty_basic_blocks’ function ignores the last block of
     the code unit.

   - gh-95818(71): Skip over incomplete frames in *note
     PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5a7.

   - gh-95876(72): Fix format string in
     ‘_PyPegen_raise_error_known_location’ that can lead to memory
     corruption on some 64bit systems.  The function was building a
     tuple with ‘i’ (int) instead of ‘n’ (Py_ssize_t) for Py_ssize_t
     arguments.

   - gh-95605(73): Fix misleading contents of error message when
     converting an all-whitespace string to *note float: 26a.

   - gh-95150(74): Update code object hashing and equality to consider
     all debugging and exception handling tables.  This fixes an issue
     where certain non-identical code objects could be "deduplicated"
     during compilation.

   - gh-91146(75): Reduce allocation size of *note list: 40a. from *note
     str.split(): d2a. and *note str.rsplit(): 10e9.  Patch by Donghee
     Na and Inada Naoki.

   - gh-87092(76): Create a 'jump target label' abstraction in the
     compiler so that the compiler's codegen stage does not work
     directly with basic blocks.  This prepares the code for changes to
     the underlying CFG generation mechanism.

   - gh-95355(77): ‘_PyPegen_Parser_New’ now properly detects token
     memory allocation errors.  Patch by Honglin Zhu.

   - gh-90081(78): Run Python code in tracer/profiler function at full
     speed.  Fixes slowdown in earlier versions of 3.11.

   - gh-95324(79): Emit a warning in debug mode if an object does not
     call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 137e. before deallocation.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-95245(80): Merge managed dict and values pointer into a single
     tagged pointer to save one word in the pre-header.

   - gh-93678(81): Add cfg_builder struct and refactor the relevant code
     so that a cfg can be constructed without an instance of the
     compiler struct.

   - gh-95185(82): Prevented crashes in the AST constructor when
     compiling some absurdly long expressions like ‘"+0"*1000000’.
     *note RecursionError: be1. is now raised instead.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-93351(83): *note ast.AST: 553. node positions are now validated
     when provided to *note compile(): 554. and other related functions.
     If invalid positions are detected, a *note ValueError: 183. will be
     raised.

   - gh-94438(84): Fix an issue that caused extended opcode arguments
     and some conditional pops to be ignored when calculating valid jump
     targets for assignments to the ‘f_lineno’ attribute of frame
     objects.  In some cases, this could cause inconsistent internal
     state, resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-95060(85): Undocumented ‘PyCode_Addr2Location’ function now
     properly returns when ‘addrq’ argument is less than zero.

   - gh-95113(86): Replace all ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’ instructions with
     basic *note EXTENDED_ARG: 156f. instructions in unquickened code.
     Consumers of non-adaptive bytecode should be able to handle
     extended arguments the same way they were handled in CPython 3.10
     and older.

   - gh-91409(87): Fix incorrect source location info caused by certain
     optimizations in the bytecode compiler.

   - gh-95023(88): Implement *note os.setns(): 158d. and *note
     os.unshare(): 158e. for Linux.  Patch by Noam Cohen.

   - gh-94036(89): Fix incorrect source location info for some
     multi-line attribute accesses and method calls.

   - gh-94938(90): Fix error detection in some builtin functions when
     keyword argument name is an instance of a str subclass with
     overloaded ‘__eq__’ and ‘__hash__’.  Previously it could cause
     SystemError or other undesired behavior.

   - gh-94996(91): *note ast.parse(): 182. will no longer parse function
     definitions with positional-only params when passed
     ‘feature_version’ less than ‘(3, 8)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-94739(92): Allow jumping within, out of, and across exception
     handlers in the debugger.

   - gh-94949(93): *note ast.parse(): 182. will no longer parse
     parenthesized context managers when passed ‘feature_version’ less
     than ‘(3, 9)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-94947(94): *note ast.parse(): 182. will no longer parse
     assignment expressions when passed ‘feature_version’ less than ‘(3,
     8)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-91256(95): Ensures the program name is known for help text
     during interpreter startup.

   - gh-94869(96): Fix the column offsets for some expressions in
     multi-line f-strings *note ast: 8. nodes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-94893(97): Fix an issue where frame object manipulations could
     corrupt inline bytecode caches.

   - gh-94822(98): Fix an issue where lookups of metaclass descriptors
     may be ignored when an identically-named attribute also exists on
     the class itself.

   - gh-91153(99): Fix an issue where a *note bytearray: 2c0. item
     assignment could crash if it's resized by the new value's
     ‘__index__()’ method.

   - gh-90699(100): Fix reference counting bug in ‘bool.__repr__()’.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94694(101): Fix an issue that could cause code with multi-line
     method lookups to have misleading or incorrect column offset
     information.  In some cases (when compiling a hand-built AST) this
     could have resulted in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-93252(102): Fix an issue that caused internal frames to outlive
     failed Python function calls, possibly resulting in memory leaks or
     hard interpreter crashes.

   - gh-94215(103): Fix an issue where exceptions raised by line-tracing
     events would cause frames to be left in an invalid state, possibly
     resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-92228(104): Disable the compiler's inline-small-exit-blocks
     optimization for exit blocks that are associated with source code
     lines.  This fixes a bug where the debugger cannot tell where an
     exception handler ends and the following code block begins.

   - gh-94485(105): Line number of a module's ‘RESUME’ instruction is
     set to 0 as specified in PEP 626(106).

   - gh-94438(107): Account for instructions that can push NULL to the
     stack when setting line number in a frame.  Prevents some
     (unlikely) crashes.

   - gh-91719(108): Reload ‘opcode’ when raising ‘unknown opcode error’
     in the interpreter main loop, for C compilers to generate
     dispatching code independently.

   - gh-94329(109): Compile and run code with unpacking of extremely
     large sequences (1000s of elements).  Such code failed to compile.
     It now compiles and runs correctly.

   - gh-94360(110): Fixed a tokenizer crash when reading encoded files
     with syntax errors from ‘stdin’ with non utf-8 encoded text.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-88116(111): Fix an issue when reading line numbers from code
     objects if the encoded line numbers are close to ‘INT_MIN’.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-94262(112): Don't create frame objects for incomplete frames.
     Prevents the creation of generators and closures from being
     observable to Python and C extensions, restoring the behavior of
     3.10 and earlier.

   - gh-94192(113): Fix error for dictionary literals with invalid
     expression as value.

   - gh-87995(114): *note types.MappingProxyType: 186. instances are now
     hashable if the underlying mapping is hashable.

   - gh-93883(115): Revise the display strategy of traceback enhanced
     error locations.  The indicators are only shown when the location
     doesn't span the whole line.

   - gh-94163(116): Add *note BINARY_SLICE: 20a. and *note STORE_SLICE:
     20b. instructions for more efficient handling and better
     specialization of slicing operations, where the slice is explicit
     in the source code.

   - gh-94021(117): Fix unreachable code warning in
     ‘Python/specialize.c’.

   - gh-93911(118): Specialize ‘LOAD_ATTR’ for objects with custom
     ‘__getattribute__’.

   - gh-93955(119): Improve performance of attribute lookups on objects
     with custom ‘__getattribute__’ and ‘__getattr__’.  Patch by Ken
     Jin.

   - gh-93911(120): Specialize ‘LOAD_ATTR’ for ‘property()’ attributes.

   - gh-93678(121): Refactor compiler optimisation code so that it no
     longer needs the ‘struct assembler’ and ‘struct compiler’ passed
     around.  Instead, each function takes the CFG and other data that
     it actually needs.  This will make it possible to test this code
     directly.

   - gh-93841(122): When built with ‘-enable-pystats’,
     ‘sys._stats_on()’, ‘sys._stats_off()’, ‘sys._stats_clear()’ and
     ‘sys._stats_dump()’ functions have been added to enable gathering
     stats for parts of programs.

   - gh-93516(123): Store offset of first traceable instruction in code
     object to avoid having to recompute it for each instruction when
     tracing.

   - gh-93516(124): Lazily create a table mapping bytecode offsets to
     line numbers to speed up calculation of line numbers when tracing.

   - gh-89828(125): *note types.GenericAlias: 60c. no longer relays the
     ‘__class__’ attribute.  For example, ‘isinstance(list[int], type)’
     no longer returns ‘True’.

   - gh-93678(126): Refactor the compiler to reduce boilerplate and
     repetition.

   - gh-93671(127): Fix some exponential backtrace case happening with
     deeply nested sequence patterns in match statements.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93662(128): Make sure that the end column offsets are correct in
     multi-line method calls.  Previously, the end column could precede
     the column offset.

   - gh-93461(129): *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): a73. now drops
     entries from *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. with a relative
     path as name.  This solves a caching issue when a process changes
     its current working directory.

     ‘FileFinder’ no longer inserts a dot in the path, e.g.
     ‘/egg/./spam’ is now ‘/egg/spam’.

   - gh-93621(130): Change order of bytecode instructions emitted for
     *note with: 3c5. and *note async with: 3c8. to reduce the number of
     entries in the exception table.

   - gh-93533(131): Reduce the size of the inline cache for
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’ by 2 bytes.

   - gh-93444(132): Removed redundant fields from the compiler's
     basicblock struct: ‘b_nofallthrough’, ‘b_exit’, ‘b_return’.  They
     can be easily calculated from the opcode of the last instruction of
     the block.

   - gh-93429(133): ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction has been removed.  It was
     merged back into ‘LOAD_ATTR’.

   - gh-93418(134): Fixed an assert where an f-string has an equal sign
     '=' following an expression, but there's no trailing brace.  For
     example, f"{i=".

   - gh-93382(135): Cache the result of *note PyCode_GetCode(): 58f.
     function to restore the 'O'(1) lookup of the ‘co_code’ attribute.

   - gh-93359(136): Ensure that custom *note ast: 8. nodes without
     explicit end positions can be compiled.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-93356(137): Code for exception handlers is emitted at the end of
     the code unit's bytecode.  This avoids one jump when no exception
     is raised.

   - gh-93354(138): Use exponential backoff for specialization counters
     in the interpreter.  Can reduce the number of failed
     specializations significantly and avoid slowdown for those parts of
     a program that are not suitable for specialization.

   - gh-93283(139): Improve error message for invalid syntax of
     conversion character in f-string expressions.

   - gh-93345(140): Fix a crash in substitution of a ‘TypeVar’ in nested
     generic alias after ‘TypeVarTuple’.

   - gh-93223(141): When a bytecode instruction jumps to an
     unconditional jump instruction, the first instruction can often be
     optimized to target the unconditional jump's target directly.  For
     tracing reasons, this would previously only occur if both
     instructions have the same line number.  This also now occurs if
     the unconditional jump is artificial, i.e., if it has no associated
     line number.

   - gh-84694(142): The ‘--experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’
     configure option and ‘EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS’ macro
     have been removed.

   - gh-91924(143): Fix ‘__lltrace__’ debug feature if the stdout
     encoding is not UTF-8.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93040(144): Wraps unused parameters in ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ with
     ‘Py_UNUSED’.

   - gh-93143(145): Avoid ‘NULL’ checks for uninitialized local
     variables by determining at compile time which variables must be
     initialized.

   - gh-93061(146): Backward jumps after ‘async for’ loops are no longer
     given dubious line numbers.

   - gh-93065(147): Fix contextvars HAMT implementation to handle
     iteration over deep trees.

     The bug was discovered and fixed by Eli Libman.  See
     MagicStack/immutables#84(148) for more details.

   - gh-93012(149): Added the new function *note PyType_FromMetaclass():
     2d5, which generalizes the existing *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6. using an additional metaclass
     argument.  This is useful for language binding tools, where it can
     be used to intercept type-related operations like subclassing or
     static attribute access by specifying a metaclass with custom
     slots.

     Importantly, *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2d5. is available in the
     Limited API, which provides a path towards migrating more binding
     tools onto the Stable ABI.

   - gh-93021(150): Fix the ‘__text_signature__’ for ‘__get__()’ methods
     implemented in C. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-89914(151): The operand of the ‘YIELD_VALUE’ instruction is set
     to the stack depth.  This is done to help frame handling on ‘yield’
     and may assist debuggers.

   - gh-92955(152): Fix memory leak in code object's lines and positions
     iterators as they were not finalized at exit.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-92930(153): Fixed a crash in ‘_pickle.c’ from mutating
     collections during ‘__reduce__’ or ‘persistent_id’.

   - gh-90690(154): The PRECALL instruction has been removed.  It
     offered only a small advantage for specialization and is not needed
     in the vast majority of cases.

   - gh-92914(155): Always round the allocated size for lists up to the
     nearest even number.

   - gh-92858(156): Improve error message for some suites with syntax
     error before ':'

   - gh-90473(157): Decrease default recursion limit on WASI to address
     limited call stack size.

   - gh-92804(158): Fix memory leak in ‘memoryview’ iterator as it was
     not finalized at exit.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92777(159): Specialize ‘LOAD_METHOD’ for objects with lazy
     dictionaries.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - gh-92658(160): Add support for connecting and binding to Hyper-V
     sockets on Windows Hyper-V hosts and guests.

   - gh-92236(161): Remove spurious "LINE" event when starting a
     generator or coroutine, visible tracing functions implemented in C.

   - gh-91102(162): ‘_warnings.warn_explicit()’ is ported to Argument
     Clinic.

   - gh-92619(163): Make the compiler duplicate an exit block only if
     none of its instructions have a lineno (previously only the first
     instruction in the block was checked, leading to unnecessarily
     duplicated blocks).

   - gh-88750(164): The deprecated debug build only ‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’
     environment variable no longer does anything.

   - gh-92261(165): Fix hang when trying to iterate over a
     ‘typing.Union’.

   - gh-91432(166): Specialized the *note FOR_ITER: 1517. opcode using
     the PEP 659 machinery

   - gh-91399(167): Removed duplicate '{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}' entry in
     'Objects/unicodetype_db.h'.

   - gh-91578(168): Updates the error message for abstract class.

   - bpo-47091(169): Improve performance of repetition of *note list:
     40a. and *note tuple: 4e6. by using ‘memcpy’ to copy data and
     performing the reference increments in one step.

   - bpo-46142(170): Make ‘--help’ output shorter by moving some info to
     the new ‘--help-env’ and ‘--help-xoptions’ command-line options.
     Also add ‘--help-all’ option to print complete usage.

   - bpo-42316(171): Document some places where an assignment expression
     needs parentheses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98374

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98354

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98398

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98390

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97997

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97973

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96078

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97955

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97912

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97002

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97943

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86298

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97779

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97752

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97591

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97670

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94526

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96975

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96848

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95921

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96387

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96864

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96754

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96751

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64373

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96641

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96636

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96572

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96611

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96612

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90230

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96587

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96569

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96582

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91079

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96348

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95196

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96364

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96352

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93554

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96268

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96237

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96187

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96143

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96071

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96046

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96005

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95977

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91210

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95922

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95818

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95876

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95605

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95150

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91146

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87092

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95355

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90081

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95324

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95185

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95060

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95113

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91409

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95023

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94036

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94938

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94996

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94739

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94947

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91256

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94869

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94893

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94822

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91153

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90699

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94694

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93252

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94215

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92228

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94485

   (106) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91719

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94329

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94360

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94262

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94192

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93883

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94021

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93955

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93841

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89828

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93671

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93662

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93461

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93621

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93533

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93444

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93418

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93382

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93359

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93356

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93354

   (139) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93283

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93345

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93223

   (142) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84694

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91924

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93040

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93061

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93065

   (148) https://github.com/MagicStack/immutables/issues/84

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93021

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89914

   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92955

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92930

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90690

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92914

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92858

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92804

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92777

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92658

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92236

   (162) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92619

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88750

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92261

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91432

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91399

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91578

   (169) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47091

   (170) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142

   (171) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316


File: python.info,  Node: Library<23>,  Next: Documentation<20>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.23.3 Library
.................

   - gh-89237(1): Fix hang on Windows in ‘subprocess.wait_closed()’ in
     *note asyncio: 9. with *note ProactorEventLoop: 400.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-97928(2): ‘tkinter.Text.count()’ raises now an exception for
     options starting with "-" instead of silently ignoring them.

   - gh-98393(3): The *note os: 9c. module no longer accepts bytes-like
     paths, like *note bytearray: 2c0. and *note memoryview: 17f. types:
     only the exact *note bytes: 2c1. type is accepted for bytes
     strings.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98363(4): Added itertools.batched() to batch data into lists of
     a given length with the last list possibly being shorter than the
     others.

   - gh-98331(5): Update the bundled copies of pip and setuptools to
     versions 22.3 and 65.5.0 respectively.

   - gh-98307(6): A *note createSocket(): 456. method was added to *note
     SysLogHandler: 457.

   - gh-96035(7): Fix bug in *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 27c. that
     causes certain port numbers containing whitespace, underscores,
     plus and minus signs, or non-ASCII digits to be incorrectly
     accepted.

   - gh-98257(8): Make *note sys.setprofile(): 1376. and *note
     sys.settrace(): 1377. functions reentrant.  They can no long fail
     with: ‘RuntimeError("Cannot install a trace function while another
     trace function is being installed")’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98251(9): Allow *note venv: 10c. to pass along ‘PYTHON*’
     variables to ‘ensurepip’ and ‘pip’ when they do not impact path
     resolution

   - gh-94597(10): Deprecated *note
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher(): 21f. and *note
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 21e. methods
     to be removed in Python 3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98178(11): On macOS, fix a crash in *note syslog.syslog(): 2c4.
     in multi-threaded applications.  On macOS, the libc ‘syslog()’
     function is not thread-safe, so *note syslog.syslog(): 2c4. no
     longer releases the GIL to call it.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-44098(12): Release the GIL when creating *note mmap.mmap: 84e.
     objects on Unix.

   - gh-87730(13): Wrap network errors consistently in urllib FTP
     support, so the test suite doesn't fail when a network is available
     but the public internet is not reachable.

   - gh-94597(14): The child watcher classes *note
     MultiLoopChildWatcher: 218, *note FastChildWatcher: 219. and *note
     SafeChildWatcher: 21b. are deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98023(15): Change default child watcher to *note
     PidfdChildWatcher: 194. on Linux systems which supports it.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-90985(16): Earlier in 3.11 we deprecated
     ‘asyncio.Task.cancel("message")’.  We realized we were too harsh,
     and have undeprecated it.

   - gh-65961(17): Do not rely solely on ‘__cached__’ on modules; code
     will also support ‘__spec__.cached’.

   - gh-97646(18): Replace deprecated ‘application/javascript’ with
     ‘text/javascript’ in *note mimetypes: 8a.  See RFC 9239(19).  Patch
     by Noam Cohen.

   - gh-97930(20): Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.8 and 5.9:
     ‘Traversable.joinpath’ provides a concrete implementation.
     ‘as_file’ now supports directories of resources.

   - gh-97850(21): Remove deprecated ‘importlib.util.set_loader()’ and
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ from *note importlib.util: 77.

   - gh-97837(22): Change deprecate warning message in *note unittest:
     101. from

     ‘It is deprecated to return a value!=None’

     to

     ‘It is deprecated to return a value that is not None from a test
     case’

   - gh-97825(23): Fixes *note AttributeError: 3ca. when *note
     subprocess.check_output(): e50. is used with argument ‘input=None’
     and either of the arguments 'encoding' or 'errors' are used.

   - gh-97008(24): *note NameError: 144. and *note AttributeError: 3ca.
     spelling suggestions provided since gh-82711(25) are now also
     emitted by the pure Python *note traceback: f9. module.  Tests for
     those suggestions now exercise both implementations to ensure they
     are equivalent.  Patch by Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick and Łukasz
     Langa.

   - gh-97799(26): ‘dataclass’ now uses *note inspect.get_annotations():
     636. to examine the annotations on class objects.

   - gh-97781(27): Removed deprecated interfaces in ‘importlib.metadata’
     (entry points accessed as dictionary, implicit dictionary
     construction of sequence of ‘EntryPoint’ objects, mutablility of
     ‘EntryPoints’ result, access of entry point by index).
     ‘entry_points’ now has a simpler, more straightforward API
     (returning ‘EntryPoints’).

   - gh-96827(28): Avoid spurious tracebacks from *note asyncio: 9. when
     default executor cleanup is delayed until after the event loop is
     closed (e.g.  as the result of a keyboard interrupt).

   - gh-95534(29): ‘gzip.GzipFile.read()’ reads 10% faster.

   - gh-97592(30): Avoid a crash in the C version of *note
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback(): 13cd. when an evil argument
     is passed.

   - gh-97639(31): Remove ‘tokenize.NL’ check from *note tabnanny: d7.

   - gh-97545(32): Make Semaphore run faster.

   - gh-73588(33): Fix generation of the default name of
     ‘tkinter.Checkbutton’.  Previously, checkbuttons in different
     parent widgets could have the same short name and share the same
     state if arguments "name" and "variable" are not specified.  Now
     they are globally unique.

   - gh-96865(34): fix Flag to use boundary CONFORM

     This restores previous Flag behavior of allowing flags with
     non-sequential values to be combined; e.g.

     class Skip(Flag): TWO = 2 EIGHT = 8

     Skip.TWO | Skip.EIGHT -> <Skip.TWO|EIGHT: 10>

   - gh-97005(35): Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.9

   - gh-85760(36): Fix race condition in *note asyncio: 9. where *note
     process_exited(): 1590. called before the *note
     pipe_data_received(): 1591. leading to inconsistent output.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96704(37): Pass the correct ‘contextvars.Context’ when a
     ‘asyncio’ exception handler is called on behalf of a task or
     callback handle.  This adds a new ‘Task’ method, ‘get_context’, and
     also a new ‘Handle’ method with the same name.  If this method is
     not found on a task object (perhaps because it is a third-party
     library that does not yet provide this method), the context
     prevailing at the time the exception handler is called is used.

   - gh-96819(38): Fixed check in ‘multiprocessing.resource_tracker’
     that guarantees that the length of a write to a pipe is not greater
     than ‘PIPE_BUF’.

   - gh-95865(39): Reduce *note urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(): 1592.
     memory use on large values.

     Contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

   - gh-96741(40): Corrected type annotation for dataclass attribute
     ‘pstats.FunctionProfile.ncalls’ to be ‘str’.

   - gh-96734(41): Update *note unicodedata: 100. database to Unicode
     15.0.0.

   - gh-96735(42): Fix undefined behaviour in *note struct.unpack():
     1593.

   - gh-46412(43): Improve performance of ‘bool(db)’ for large ndb/gdb
     databases.  Previously this would call ‘len(db)’ which would
     iterate over all keys - the answer (empty or not) is known after
     the first key.

   - gh-96652(44): Fix the faulthandler implementation of
     ‘faulthandler.register(signal, chain=True)’ if the ‘sigaction()’
     function is not available: don't call the previous signal handler
     if it's NULL. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-68163(45): Correct conversion of *note numbers.Rational: 1152.'s
     to *note float: 26a.

   - gh-96538(46): Speed up ‘bisect.bisect()’ functions by taking
     advantage of type-stability.

   - gh-96465(47): Fraction hashes are now cached.

   - gh-96079(48): In *note typing: ff, fix missing field ‘name’ and
     incorrect ‘__module__’ in _AnnotatedAlias.

   - gh-96415(49): Remove ‘types._cell_factory’ from module namespace.

   - gh-95987(50): Fix ‘repr’ of ‘Any’ subclasses.

   - gh-96388(51): Work around missing socket functions in *note socket:
     c18.'s ‘__repr__’.

   - gh-96385(52): Fix ‘TypeVarTuple.__typing_prepare_subst__’.
     ‘TypeError’ was not raised when using more than one ‘TypeVarTuple’,
     like ‘[*T, *V]’ in type alias substitutions.

   - gh-96142(53): Add ‘match_args’, ‘kw_only’, ‘slots’, and
     ‘weakref_slot’ to ‘_DataclassParams’.

   - gh-96073(54): In *note inspect: 78, fix overeager replacement of
     "‘typing.’" in formatting annotations.

   - gh-89258(55): Added a *note getChildren(): 1594. method to *note
     logging.Logger: 9a9, to get the immediate child loggers of a
     logger.

   - gh-96346(56): Use double caching for compiled RE patterns.

   - gh-96349(57): Fixed a minor performance regression in
     ‘threading.Event.__init__()’

   - gh-90467(58): Fix ‘asyncio.streams.StreamReaderProtocol’ to keep a
     strong reference to the created task, so that it's not garbage
     collected

   - gh-96172(59): Fix a bug in ‘unicodedata’: ‘east_asian_width’ used
     to return the wrong value for unassigned characters; and for yet
     unassigned, but reserved characters.

   - gh-96159(60): Fix a performance regression in logging
     TimedRotatingFileHandler.  Only check for special files when the
     rollover time has passed.

   - gh-96175(61): Fix unused ‘localName’ parameter in the ‘Attr’ class
     in *note xml.dom.minidom: 11d.

   - gh-96145(62): Add AttrDict to JSON module for use with object_hook.

   - gh-96052(63): Fix handling compiler warnings (SyntaxWarning and
     DeprecationWarning) in *note codeop.compile_command(): 1595. when
     checking for incomplete input.  Previously it emitted warnings and
     raised a SyntaxError.  Now it always returns ‘None’ for incomplete
     input without emitting any warnings.

   - gh-96125(64): Fix incorrect condition that causes
     ‘sys.thread_info.name’ to be wrong on pthread platforms.

   - gh-96019(65): Fix a bug in the ‘makeunicodedata.py’ script leading
     to about 13 KiB of space saving in the ‘unicodedata’ module,
     specifically the character decomposition data.

   - gh-95463(66): Remove an incompatible change from bpo-28080(67) that
     caused a regression that ignored the utf8 in ‘ZipInfo.flag_bits’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-69142(68): Add ‘%:z’ strftime format code (generates tzoffset
     with colons as separator), see *note strftime() 與 strptime()
     的行為: 1596.

   - gh-95899(69): Fix *note asyncio.Runner: 3f7. to call *note
     asyncio.set_event_loop(): 1597. only once to avoid calling *note
     attach_loop(): 1598. multiple times on child watchers.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95736(70): Fix *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b. to
     set event loop before calling setup functions.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-95865(71): Speed up *note urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(): 1592.
     by replacing a list comprehension with ‘map()’.

   - gh-95861(72): Add support for computing Spearman's correlation
     coefficient to the existing statistics.correlation() function.

   - gh-95804(73): Fix ‘logging’ shutdown handler so it respects
     ‘MemoryHandler.flushOnClose’.

   - gh-95704(74): When a task catches *note asyncio.CancelledError:
     81d. and raises some other error, the other error should generally
     not silently be suppressed.

   - gh-95149(75): The *note HTTPStatus: 73b. enum offers a couple of
     properties to indicate the HTTP status category e.g.
     ‘HTTPStatus.OK.is_success’.

   - gh-95609(76): Update bundled pip to 22.2.2.

   - gh-95289(77): Fix *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 3f1. to propagate
     exception when *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. was replaced with
     another exception by a context manager.  Patch by Kumar Aditya and
     Guido van Rossum.

   - gh-94909(78): Fix incorrect joining of relative Windows paths with
     drives in *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8. initializer.

   - gh-95385(79): Faster ‘json.dumps()’ when sorting of keys is not
     requested (default).

   - gh-83901(80): Improve *note Signature.bind: 141f. error message for
     missing keyword-only arguments.

   - gh-95339(81): Update bundled pip to 22.2.1.

   - gh-95045(82): Fix GC crash when deallocating ‘_lsprof.Profiler’ by
     untracking it before calling any callbacks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95231(83): Fail gracefully if *note EPERM: 1599. or *note
     ENOSYS: 159a. is raised when loading *note crypt: 26. methods.
     This may happen when trying to load ‘MD5’ on a Linux kernel with
     FIPS (Federal Information Processing Standard) enabled.

   - gh-95097(84): Fix *note asyncio.run(): 197. for *note asyncio.Task:
     203. implementations without *note uncancel(): 402. method.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95087(85): Fix IndexError in parsing invalid date in the *note
     email: 37. module.

   - gh-95199(86): Upgrade bundled setuptools to 63.2.0.

   - gh-95194(87): Upgrade bundled pip to 22.2.

   - gh-93899(88): Fix check for existence of *note os.EFD_CLOEXEC:
     159b, *note os.EFD_NONBLOCK: 159c. and *note os.EFD_SEMAPHORE:
     159d. flags on older kernel versions where these flags are not
     present.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95166(89): Fix *note concurrent.futures.Executor.map(): c5c. to
     cancel the currently waiting on future on an error - e.g.
     TimeoutError or KeyboardInterrupt.

   - gh-95132(90): Fix a *note sqlite3: c9. regression where ‘*args’ and
     ‘**kwds’ were incorrectly relayed from *note connect(): 1dd. to the
     *note Connection: 1dc. factory.  The regression was introduced in
     3.11a1 with PR 24421 (gh-85128(91)).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93157(92): Fix *note fileinput: 56. module didn't support
     ‘errors’ option when ‘inplace’ is true.

   - gh-91212(93): Fixed flickering of the turtle window when the tracer
     is turned off.  Patch by Shin-myoung-serp.

   - gh-95077(94): Add deprecation warning for enum ‘member.member’
     access (e.g.  ‘Color.RED.BLUE’).  Remove ‘EnumMeta.__getattr__’.

   - gh-95109(95): Ensure that timeouts scheduled with *note
     asyncio.Timeout: 146c. that have already expired are delivered
     promptly.

   - gh-95105(96): ‘wsgiref.types.InputStream.__iter__()’ should return
     ‘Iterator[bytes]’, not ‘Iterable[bytes]’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-95066(97): Replaced assert with exception in *note ast.parse():
     182, when ‘feature_version’ has an invalid major version.  Patch by
     Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-77617(98): Add *note sqlite3: c9. *note command-line interface:
     14a.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-95005(99): Replace _PyAccu with _PyUnicodeWriter in JSON encoder
     and StringIO and remove the _PyAccu implementation.

   - gh-90085(100): Remove ‘-c/--clock’ and ‘-t/--time’ CLI options of
     *note timeit: e9.  The options had been deprecated since Python 3.3
     and the functionality was removed in Python 3.7.  Patch by Shantanu
     Jain.

   - gh-94857(101): Fix refleak in ‘_io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure’.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94821(102): Fix binding of unix socket to empty address on Linux
     to use an available address from the abstract namespace, instead of
     "0".

   - gh-94736(103): Fix crash when deallocating an instance of a
     subclass of ‘_multiprocessing.SemLock’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-81620(104): Add random.binomialvariate().

   - gh-74116(105): Allow *note asyncio.StreamWriter.drain(): 1578. to
     be awaited concurrently by multiple tasks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-87822(106): When called with ‘capture_locals=True’, the *note
     traceback: f9. module functions swallow exceptions raised from
     calls to ‘repr()’ on local variables of frames.  This is in order
     to prioritize the original exception over rendering errors.  An
     indication of the failure is printed in place of the missing value.
     (Patch by Simon-Martin Schroeder).

   - gh-88050(107): Fix *note asyncio: 9. subprocess transport to kill
     process cleanly when process is blocked and avoid ‘RuntimeError’
     when loop is closed.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94637(108): ‘SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths()’ now releases
     the GIL around ‘SSL_CTX_set_default_verify_paths’ call.  The
     function call performs I/O and CPU intensive work.

   - gh-94309(109): Deprecate aliases *note typing.Hashable: 23b. and
     *note typing.Sized: 23c.

   - gh-92546(110): An undocumented ‘python -m pprint’ benchmark is
     moved into ‘pprint’ suite of pyperformance.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-94607(111): Fix subclassing complex generics with type variables
     in *note typing: ff.  Previously an error message saying ‘Some type
     variables ... are not listed in Generic[...]’ was shown.  *note
     typing: ff. no longer populates ‘__parameters__’ with the
     ‘__parameters__’ of a Python class.

   - gh-94619(112): Remove the long-deprecated ‘module_repr()’ from
     *note importlib: 71.

   - gh-93910(113): The ability to access the other values of an enum on
     an enum (e.g.  ‘Color.RED.BLUE’) has been restored in order to fix
     a performance regression.

   - gh-93896(114): Fix *note asyncio.run(): 197. and *note
     unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b. to always the set event loop
     as it was done in Python 3.10 and earlier.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94343(115): Allow setting the attributes of ‘reprlib.Repr’
     during object initialization

   - gh-94382(116): Port static types of ‘_multiprocessing’ module to
     heap types.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-78724(117): Fix crash in *note struct.Struct: 1464. when it was
     not completely initialized by initializing it in *note __new__():
     30f.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94510(118): Re-entrant calls to *note sys.setprofile(): 1376.
     and *note sys.settrace(): 1377. now raise *note RuntimeError: 17a.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-92336(119): Fix bug where *note linecache.getline(): c9d. fails
     on bad files with *note UnicodeDecodeError: 85a. or *note
     SyntaxError: 146.  It now returns an empty string as per the
     documentation.

   - gh-94398(120): Once a *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 3f1. has started
     shutting down (i.e., at least one task has failed and the task
     group has started cancelling the remaining tasks), it should not be
     possible to add new tasks to the task group.

   - gh-94383(121): ‘xml.etree’: Remove the ‘ElementTree.Element.copy()’
     method of the pure Python implementation, deprecated in Python
     3.10, use the *note copy.copy(): 2b5. function instead.  The C
     implementation of ‘xml.etree’ has no ‘copy()’ method, only a
     ‘__copy__()’ method.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94379(122): *note zipimport: 12c.: Remove ‘find_loader()’ and
     ‘find_module()’ methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the
     ‘find_spec()’ method instead.  See PEP 451(123) for the rationale.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94352(124): *note shlex.split(): 2be.: Passing ‘None’ for 's'
     argument now raises an exception, rather than reading *note
     sys.stdin: 2bf.  The feature was deprecated in Python 3.9.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94318(125): Strip trailing spaces in *note pydoc: b0. text
     output.

   - gh-89988(126): Fix memory leak in *note pickle.Pickler: 867. when
     looking up ‘dispatch_table’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-90016(127): Deprecate *note sqlite3: c9. *note default adapters
     and converters: 234.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-94254(128): Fixed types of *note struct: cf. module to be
     immutable.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-93259(129): Now raise ‘ValueError’ when ‘None’ or an empty
     string are passed to ‘Distribution.from_name’ (and other callers).

   - gh-74696(130): *note shutil.make_archive(): 1d7. now passes the
     'root_dir' argument to custom archivers which support it.

   - gh-94216(131): The *note dis: 35. module now has the opcodes for
     pseudo instructions (those which are used by the compiler during
     code generation but then removed or replaced by real opcodes before
     the final bytecode is emitted).

   - gh-93096(132): Removed undocumented ‘python -m codecs’.  Use
     ‘python -m unittest test.test_codecs.EncodedFileTest’ instead.

   - gh-94207(133): Made ‘_struct.Struct’ GC-tracked in order to fix a
     reference leak in the ‘_struct’ module.

   - gh-93096(134): Removed undocumented ‘-t’ argument of ‘python -m
     base64’.  Use ‘python -m unittest
     test.test_base64.LegacyBase64TestCase.test_encodebytes’ instead.

   - gh-94226(135): Remove the ‘locale.format()’ function, deprecated in
     Python 3.7: use *note locale.format_string(): 29f. instead.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(136): Remove the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  The
     ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ was deprecated in Python 3.7.  OpenSSL
     performs hostname matching since Python 3.7, Python no longer uses
     the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94214(137): Document the ‘context’ object used in the
     ‘venv.EnvBuilder’ class, and add the new environment's library path
     to it.

   - gh-94199(138): Remove the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function, deprecated
     in Python 3.7: instead, create a *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. object
     and call its *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket: 2a5. method.  Any
     package that still uses ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is broken and insecure.
     The function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates server
     hostname.  Code is subject to CWE 295(139) Improper Certificate
     Validation.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(140): Remove the ‘ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()’ function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6: use *note os.urandom(): 2a3. or *note
     ssl.RAND_bytes(): 2a4. instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(141): *note hashlib: 63.: Remove the pure Python
     implementation of *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 290, deprecated in
     Python 3.10.  Python 3.10 and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 ( PEP
     644(142)): this OpenSSL version provides a C implementation of
     *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 290. which is faster.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-94196(143): *note gzip: 62.: Remove the ‘filename’ attribute of
     *note gzip.GzipFile: 28d, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the
     *note name: 28e. attribute instead.  In write mode, the ‘filename’
     attribute added ‘'.gz'’ file extension if it was not present.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94182(144): run the *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 194. on the
     running loop, this allows event loops to run subprocesses when
     there is no default event loop running on the main thread

   - gh-94169(145): Remove ‘io.OpenWrapper’ and ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper’,
     deprecated in Python 3.10: just use *note open(): 29c. instead.
     The *note open(): 29c. (*note io.open(): 29d.) function is a
     built-in function.  Since Python 3.10, ‘_pyio.open()’ is also a
     static method.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91742(146): Fix *note pdb: a0. crash after jump caused by a null
     pointer dereference.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94101(147): Manual instantiation of *note ssl.SSLSession: b4a.
     objects is no longer allowed as it lead to misconfigured instances
     that crashed the interpreter when attributes where accessed on
     them.

   - gh-84753(148): *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 1af, *note
     inspect.isgeneratorfunction(): 159e, and *note
     inspect.isasyncgenfunction(): 159f. now properly return ‘True’ for
     duck-typed function-like objects like instances of *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock: 895.

     This makes *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 1af. consistent
     with the behavior of ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’.  Patch by
     Mehdi ABAAKOUK.

   - gh-94028(149): Fix a regression in the *note sqlite3: c9. where
     statement objects were not properly cleared and reset after use in
     cursor iters.  The regression was introduced by PR 27884 in Python
     3.11a1.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93973(150): Add keyword argument ‘all_errors’ to
     ‘asyncio.create_connection’ so that multiple connection errors can
     be raised as an ‘ExceptionGroup’.

   - gh-93963(151): Officially deprecate from ‘importlib.abc’ classes
     moved to ‘importlib.resources.abc’.

   - gh-93858(152): Prevent error when activating venv in nested fish
     instances.

   - gh-93820(153): Pickle *note enum.Flag: 41d. by name.

   - gh-93847(154): Fix repr of enum of generic aliases.

   - gh-91404(155): Revert the *note re: b4. memory leak when a match is
     terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure as the
     implemented fix caused a major performance regression.

   - gh-83499(156): Fix double closing of file description in *note
     tempfile: da.

   - gh-93820(157): Fixed a regression when *note copy.copy(): 2b5.-ing
     *note enum.Flag: 41d. with multiple flag members.

   - gh-79512(158): Fixed names and ‘__module__’ value of *note weakref:
     10f. classes *note ReferenceType: 15a0, *note ProxyType: 15a1,
     *note CallableProxyType: 15a2.  It makes them pickleable.

   - gh-91389(159): Fix an issue where *note dis: 35. utilities could
     report missing or incorrect position information in the presence of
     ‘CACHE’ entries.

   - gh-93626(160): Set ‘__future__.annotations’ to have a ‘None’
     mandatoryRelease to indicate that it is currently 'TBD'.

   - gh-90473(161): Emscripten and WASI have no home directory and
     cannot provide PEP 370(162) user site directory.

   - gh-90494(163): *note copy.copy(): 2b5. and *note copy.deepcopy():
     9cb. now always raise a TypeError if ‘__reduce__()’ returns a tuple
     with length 6 instead of silently ignore the 6th item or produce
     incorrect result.

   - gh-90549(164): Fix a multiprocessing bug where a global named
     resource (such as a semaphore) could leak when a child process is
     spawned (as opposed to forked).

   - gh-93521(165): Fixed a case where dataclasses would try to add
     ‘__weakref__’ into the ‘__slots__’ for a dataclass that specified
     ‘weakref_slot=True’ when it was already defined in one of its
     bases.  This resulted in a ‘TypeError’ upon the new class being
     created.

   - gh-79579(166): *note sqlite3: c9. now correctly detects DML queries
     with leading comments.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93421(167): Update *note sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount: 15a3. when a
     DML statement has run to completion.  This fixes the row count for
     SQL queries like ‘UPDATE ... RETURNING’.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-93475(168): Expose ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’ constants in
     *note fcntl: 54.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-93370(169): Deprecate *note sqlite3.version: 251. and *note
     sqlite3.version_info: 252.

   - gh-91810(170): Suppress writing an XML declaration in open files in
     ‘ElementTree.write()’ with ‘encoding='unicode'’ and
     ‘xml_declaration=None’.

   - gh-91162(171): Support splitting of unpacked arbitrary-length tuple
     over ‘TypeVar’ and ‘TypeVarTuple’ parameters.  For example:

        * ‘A[T, *Ts][*tuple[int, ...]]’ -> ‘A[int, *tuple[int, ...]]’

        * ‘A[*Ts, T][*tuple[int, ...]]’ -> ‘A[*tuple[int, ...], int]’

   - gh-93353(172): Fix the *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 1aa.
     context manager to remove the temporary file if destroyed late
     during Python finalization: keep a local reference to the *note
     os.remove(): f7f. function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-83658(173): Make ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ raise an exception if
     ‘maxtasksperchild’ is not ‘None’ or a positive int.

   - gh-93312(174): Add *note os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK: 1b9. flag to open a
     file descriptor for a process with *note os.pidfd_open(): 195. in
     non-blocking mode.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-88123(175): Implement ‘Enum.__contains__’ that returns ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ to replace the deprecated behaviour that would sometimes
     raise a *note TypeError: 2ba.

   - gh-93297(176): Make asyncio task groups prevent child tasks from
     being GCed

   - gh-85308(177): Changed *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 2bb. to use
     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd. instead of
     default text encoding to read arguments from file (e.g.
     ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ option).  This change affects Windows;
     argument file should be encoded with UTF-8 instead of ANSI
     Codepage.

   - gh-93156(178): Accessing the *note pathlib.PurePath.parents: 646.
     sequence of an absolute path using negative index values produced
     incorrect results.

   - gh-93162(179): Add the ability for *note
     logging.config.dictConfig(): 1041. to usefully configure *note
     QueueHandler: 15a4. and *note QueueListener: ca6. as a pair, and
     add *note logging.getHandlerByName(): 15a5. and *note
     logging.getHandlerNames(): 15a6. APIs to allow access to handlers
     by name.

   - gh-93243(180): The ‘smtpd’ module was removed per the schedule in
     PEP 594(181).

   - gh-92886(182): Replace ‘assert’ statements with ‘raise
     AssertionError()’ in ‘BaseHandler’ so that the tested behaviour is
     maintained running with optimizations ‘(-O)’.

   - gh-90155(183): Fix broken *note asyncio.Semaphore: 8c0. when
     acquire is cancelled.

   - gh-90817(184): The *note locale.resetlocale(): 52e. function is
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use
     ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’ instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91513(185): Added ‘taskName’ attribute to *note logging: 82.
     module for use with *note asyncio: 9. tasks.

   - gh-74696(186): *note shutil.make_archive(): 1d7. no longer
     temporarily changes the current working directory during creation
     of standard ‘.zip’ or tar archives.

   - gh-92728(187): The ‘re.template()’ function and the corresponding
     ‘re.TEMPLATE’ and ‘re.T’ flags are restored after they were removed
     in 3.11.0b1, but they are now deprecated, so they might be removed
     from Python 3.13.

   - gh-93033(188): Search in some strings (platform dependent i.e
     [U+0xFFFF, U+0x0100] on Windows or [U+0xFFFFFFFF, U+0x00010000] on
     Linux 64-bit) are now up to 10 times faster.

   - gh-89973(189): Fix *note re.error: cc6. raised in *note fnmatch:
     57. if the pattern contains a character range with upper bound
     lower than lower bound (e.g.  ‘[c-a]’).  Now such ranges are
     interpreted as empty ranges.

   - gh-93044(190): No longer convert the database argument of *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 1dd. to bytes before passing it to the factory.

   - gh-93010(191): In a very special case, the email package tried to
     append the nonexistent ‘InvalidHeaderError’ to the defect list.  It
     should have been ‘InvalidHeaderDefect’.

   - gh-92986(192): Fix *note ast.unparse(): 71e. when
     ‘ImportFrom.level’ is ‘None’

   - gh-92932(193): Now *note dis(): 98c. and *note get_instructions():
     dba. handle operand values for instructions prefixed by
     ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’.  Patch by Sam Gross and Donghee Na.

   - gh-92675(194): Fix ‘venv.ensure_directories()’ to accept *note
     pathlib.Path: 149. arguments in addition to *note str: 157. paths.
     Patch by David Foster.

   - gh-87901(195): Removed the ‘encoding’ argument from *note
     os.popen(): 8d3. that was added in 3.11b1.

   - gh-91922(196): Fix function ‘sqlite.connect()’ and the
     ‘sqlite.Connection’ constructor on non-UTF-8 locales.  Also, they
     now support bytes paths non-decodable with the current FS encoding.

   - gh-92869(197): Added *note c_time_t: 15a7. to *note ctypes: 28,
     which has the same size as the ‘time_t’ type in C.

   - gh-92839(198): Fixed crash resulting from calling bisect.insort()
     or bisect.insort_left() with the key argument not equal to ‘None’.

   - gh-90473(199): *note subprocess: d0. now fails early on Emscripten
     and WASI platforms to work around missing *note os.pipe(): 15a8. on
     WASI.

   - gh-89325(200): Removed many old deprecated *note unittest: 101.
     features: *note TestCase: 159. method aliases, undocumented and
     broken *note TestCase: 159. method ‘assertDictContainsSubset’,
     undocumented *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule: 2b1. parameter
     'use_load_tests', and an underscored alias of the *note
     TextTestResult: 2b2. class.

   - gh-92734(201): Allow multi-element reprs emitted by *note reprlib:
     b6. to be pretty-printed using configurable indentation.

   - gh-92671(202): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 71e. for empty tuples in
     the assignment target context.

   - gh-91581(203): *note utcfromtimestamp(): 226. no longer attempts to
     resolve ‘fold’ in the pure Python implementation, since the fold is
     never 1 in UTC. In addition to being slightly faster in the common
     case, this also prevents some errors when the timestamp is close to
     *note datetime.min: 15a9.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-86388(204): Removed randrange() functionality deprecated since
     Python 3.10.  Formerly, randrange(10.0) losslessly converted to
     randrange(10).  Now, it raises a TypeError.  Also, the exception
     raised for non-integral values such as randrange(10.5) or
     randrange('10') has been changed from ValueError to TypeError.

   - gh-90385(205): Add *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 1ca. as an
     alternative to *note os.walk(): 1cb.

   - gh-92550(206): Fix *note pathlib.Path.rglob(): 1d0. for empty
     pattern.

   - gh-92591(207): Allow *note logging: 82. filters to return a *note
     logging.LogRecord: e78. instance so that filters attached to *note
     logging.Handler: 1306.s can enrich records without side effects on
     other handlers.

   - gh-92445(208): Fix a bug in *note argparse: 6. where ‘nargs="*"’
     would raise an error instead of returning an empty list when 0
     arguments were supplied if choice was also defined in
     ‘parser.add_argument’.

   - gh-92547(209): Remove undocumented *note sqlite3: c9. features
     deprecated in Python 3.10:

        * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

        * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-92530(210): Fix an issue that occurred after interrupting *note
     threading.Condition.notify(): 15aa.

   - gh-92531(211): The statistics.median_grouped() function now always
     return a float.  Formerly, it did not convert the input type when
     for sequences of length one.

   - gh-84131(212): The *note pathlib.Path: 149. deprecated method
     ‘link_to’ has been removed.  Use 3.10's *note hardlink_to(): 647.
     method instead as its semantics are consistent with that of *note
     symlink_to(): 648.

   - gh-89336(213): Removed *note configparser: 20. module APIs: the
     ‘SafeConfigParser’ class alias, the ‘ParsingError.filename’
     property and parameter, and the ‘ConfigParser.readfp’ method, all
     of which were deprecated since Python 3.2.

   - gh-92391(214): Add *note __class_getitem__(): 54c. to *note
     csv.DictReader: 82a. and *note csv.DictWriter: 108f, allowing them
     to be parameterized at runtime.  Patch by Marc Mueller.

   - gh-91968(215): Add ‘SO_RTABLE’ and ‘SO_USER_COOKIE’ constants to
     *note socket: c6.

   - gh-91810(216): *note ElementTree: 78f. method *note write(): e89.
     and function *note tostring(): e87. now use the text file's
     encoding ("UTF-8" if not available) instead of locale encoding in
     XML declaration when ‘encoding="unicode"’ is specified.

   - gh-81790(217): *note os.path.splitdrive(): a57. now understands DOS
     device paths with UNC links (beginning ‘\\?\UNC\’).  Contributed by
     Barney Gale.

   - gh-91760(218): Apply more strict rules for numerical group
     references and group names in regular expressions.  Only sequence
     of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.  The
     group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only
     contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.

   - gh-90622(219): Worker processes for *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. are no longer spawned
     on demand (a feature added in 3.9) when the multiprocessing context
     start method is ‘"fork"’ as that can lead to deadlocks in the child
     processes due to a fork happening while threads are running.

   - gh-91577(220): Move imports in ‘SharedMemory’ methods to module
     level so that they can be executed late in python finalization.

   - gh-91581(221): Remove an unhandled error case in the C
     implementation of calls to *note datetime.fromtimestamp: 228. with
     no time zone (i.e.  getting a local time from an epoch timestamp).
     This should have no user-facing effect other than giving a possibly
     more accurate error message when called with timestamps that fall
     on 10000-01-01 in the local time.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-91539(222): Improve performance of
     ‘urllib.request.getproxies_environment’ when there are many
     environment variables

   - gh-91524(223): Speed up the regular expression substitution
     (functions *note re.sub(): 201. and *note re.subn(): 202. and
     corresponding *note re.Pattern: 14cd. methods) for replacement
     strings containing group references by 2-3 times.

   - gh-91447(224): Fix findtext in the xml module to only give an empty
     string when the text attribute is set to ‘None’.

   - gh-91456(225): Deprecate current default auto() behavior: In 3.13
     the default will be for for auto() to always return the largest
     member value incremented by 1, and to raise if incompatible value
     types are used.

   - bpo-47231(226): Fixed an issue with inconsistent trailing slashes
     in tarfile longname directories.

   - bpo-39064(227): *note zipfile.ZipFile: 4c3. now raises *note
     zipfile.BadZipFile: 15ab. instead of ‘ValueError’ when reading a
     corrupt zip file in which the central directory offset is negative.

   - bpo-41287(228): Fix handling of the ‘doc’ argument in subclasses of
     *note property(): 424.

   - gh-90005(229): *note ctypes: 28. dependency ‘libffi’ is now
     detected with ‘pkg-config’.

   - bpo-32547(230): The constructors for *note DictWriter: 108f. and
     *note DictReader: 82a. now coerce the ‘fieldnames’ argument to a
     *note list: 40a. if it is an iterator.

   - bpo-35540(231): Fix *note dataclasses.asdict(): 14e0. crash when
     *note collections.defaultdict: 104e. is present in the attributes.

   - bpo-47063(232): Add an index_pages parameter to support using
     non-default index page names.

   - bpo-47025(233): Drop support for *note bytes: 2c1. on *note
     sys.path: 35e.

   - bpo-46951(234): Order the contents of zipapp archives, to make
     builds more reproducible.

   - bpo-42777(235): Implement *note pathlib.Path.is_mount(): 860. for
     Windows paths.

   - bpo-46755(236): In ‘QueueHandler’, clear ‘stack_info’ from
     ‘LogRecord’ to prevent stack trace from being written twice.

   - bpo-45393(237): Fix the formatting for ‘await x’ and ‘not x’ in the
     operator precedence table when using the *note help(): 710. system.

   - bpo-46642(238): Improve error message when trying to subclass an
     instance of *note typing.TypeVar: 164, *note typing.ParamSpec: 163,
     *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 162, etc.  Based on patch by Gregory
     Beauregard.

   - bpo-46364(239): Restrict use of sockets instead of pipes for stdin
     of subprocesses created by *note asyncio: 9. to AIX platform only.

   - bpo-28249(240): Set *note doctest.DocTest.lineno: 15ac. to ‘None’
     when an object does not have *note __doc__: 767.

   - bpo-46197(241): Fix *note ensurepip: 50. environment isolation for
     subprocess running ‘pip’.

   - bpo-45924(242): Fix *note asyncio: 9. incorrect traceback when
     future's exception is raised multiple times.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-45046(243): Add support of context managers in *note unittest:
     101.: methods *note enterContext(): 4b8. and *note
     enterClassContext(): 4b9. of class *note TestCase: 159, method
     *note enterAsyncContext(): 4ba. of class *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b. and function *note
     unittest.enterModuleContext(): 4bb.

   - bpo-44173(244): Enable fast seeking of uncompressed unencrypted
     ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’

   - bpo-42627(245): Fix incorrect parsing of Windows registry proxy
     settings

   - bpo-42047(246): Add *note threading.get_native_id(): 887. support
     for DragonFly BSD. Patch by David Carlier.

   - bpo-14243(247): The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 1ed.
     function has a new optional parameter 'delete_on_close'

   - bpo-41246(248): Give the same callback function for when the
     overlapped operation is done to the functions ‘recv’, ‘recv_into’,
     ‘recvfrom’, ‘sendto’, ‘send’ and ‘sendfile’ inside ‘IocpProactor’.

   - bpo-39264(249): Fixed ‘collections.UserDict.get()’ to not call
     ‘__missing__()’ when a value is not found.  This matches the
     behavior of *note dict: 239.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-38693(250): *note importlib: 71. now uses f-strings internally
     instead of ‘str.format’.

   - bpo-38267(251): Add 'timeout' parameter to *note
     asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 720.  The default value
     is ‘None’, which means the executor will be given an unlimited
     amount of time.  When called from *note asyncio.Runner: 3f7. or
     *note asyncio.run(): 197, the default timeout is 5 minutes.

   - bpo-34828(252): *note sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 1492. now
     handles databases that use ‘AUTOINCREMENT’ in one or more tables.

   - bpo-32990(253): Support reading wave files with the
     ‘WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE’ format in the *note wave: 10e. module.

   - bpo-26253(254): Allow adjustable compression level for tarfile
     streams in *note tarfile.open(): cf6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89237

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98331

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98307

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96035

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98257

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98251

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98178

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44098

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87730

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98023

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90985

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97646

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9239.html

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97837

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97825

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97008

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82711

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97799

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97781

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96827

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95534

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97592

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97639

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97545

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73588

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96865

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97005

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85760

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96704

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96819

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95865

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96741

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96734

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96735

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46412

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96652

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68163

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96538

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96465

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96079

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96415

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95987

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96388

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96385

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96142

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96073

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89258

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96346

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96349

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90467

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96172

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96159

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96175

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96145

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96052

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96125

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96019

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95463

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69142

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95899

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95736

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   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95149

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95609

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95289

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94909

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95385

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83901

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95339

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95045

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95231

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95097

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95087

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95199

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95194

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93899

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95166

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95132

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85128

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93157

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91212

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95077

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95109

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95105

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95066

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95005

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90085

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94857

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94821

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94736

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74116

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87822

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88050

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94637

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92546

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94607

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94619

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93910

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93896

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94343

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94382

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78724

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94510

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92336

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94398

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379

   (123) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94318

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89988

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94254

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93259

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94207

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94214

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (139) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (142) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94182

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91742

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94101

   (148) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84753

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94028

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93973

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93858

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93820

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93847

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83499

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93820

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79512

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91389

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93626

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (162) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90494

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90549

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93521

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79579

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93421

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93475

   (169) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93370

   (170) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91810

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   (172) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93353

   (173) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83658

   (174) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (175) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88123

   (176) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93297

   (177) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85308

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   (179) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93162

   (180) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243

   (181) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (182) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

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   (188) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93033

   (189) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89973

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   (192) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92986

   (193) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92932

   (194) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92675

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   (196) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91922

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   (229) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (230) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32547

   (231) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35540

   (232) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47063

   (233) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47025

   (234) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46951

   (235) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42777

   (236) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46755

   (237) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45393

   (238) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46642

   (239) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46364

   (240) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28249

   (241) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46197

   (242) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45924

   (243) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45046

   (244) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44173

   (245) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42627

   (246) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42047

   (247) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14243

   (248) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41246

   (249) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39264

   (250) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38693

   (251) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38267

   (252) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34828

   (253) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32990

   (254) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26253


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<20>,  Next: Tests<21>,  Prev: Library<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.23.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-85525(1): Remove extra row

   - gh-86404(2): Deprecated tools ‘make suspicious’ and ‘rstlint.py’
     are now removed.  They have been replaced by sphinx-lint(3).

   - gh-97741(4): Fix ‘!’ in c domain ref target syntax via a ‘conf.py’
     patch, so it works as intended to disable ref target resolution.

   - gh-96432(5): Fraction literals now support whitespace around the
     forward slash, ‘Fraction('2 / 3')’.

   - gh-96098(6): Improve discoverability of the higher level
     concurrent.futures module by providing clearer links from the lower
     level threading and multiprocessing modules.

   - gh-95957(7): What's New 3.11 now has instructions for how to
     provide compiler and linker flags for Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL on RHEL 7
     and CentOS 7.

   - gh-95588(8): Clarified the conflicting advice given in the *note
     ast: 8. documentation about *note ast.literal_eval(): a7b. being
     "safe" for use on untrusted input while at the same time warning
     that it can crash the process.  The latter statement is true and is
     deemed unfixable without a large amount of work unsuitable for a
     bugfix.  So we keep the warning and no longer claim that
     ‘literal_eval’ is safe.

   - gh-91207(9): Fix stylesheet not working in Windows CHM htmlhelp
     docs and add warning that they are deprecated.  Contributed by
     C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - gh-95454(10): Replaced incorrectly written true/false values in
     documentation.  Patch by Robert O'Shea

   - gh-95451(11): Update library documentation with *note availability
     information: 15ae. on WebAssembly platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ and
     ‘wasm32-wasi’.

   - gh-95415(12): Use consistent syntax for platform availability.  The
     directive now supports a content body and emits a warning when it
     encounters an unknown platform.

   - gh-94321(13): Document the PEP 246(14) style protocol type *note
     sqlite3.PrepareProtocol: 15af.

   - gh-86128(15): Document a limitation in ThreadPoolExecutor where its
     exit handler is executed before any handlers in atexit.

   - gh-61162(16): Clarify *note sqlite3: c9. behavior when *note How to
     use the connection context manager: 15b0.

   - gh-87260(17): Align *note sqlite3: c9. argument specs with the
     actual implementation.

   - gh-86986(18): The minimum Sphinx version required to build the
     documentation is now 3.2.

   - gh-88831(19): Augmented documentation of asyncio.create_task().
     Clarified the need to keep strong references to tasks and added a
     code snippet detailing how to do this.

   - gh-86438(20): Clarify that *note -W: 6ff. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     a0b. are matched literally and case-insensitively, rather than as
     regular expressions, in *note warnings: 10d.

   - gh-93031(21): Update tutorial introduction output to use 3.10+
     SyntaxError invalid range.

   - gh-92240(22): Added release dates for "What's New in Python 3.X"
     for 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.8 and 3.10

   - bpo-47161(23): Document that *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8. does not
     collapse initial double slashes because they denote UNC paths.

   - bpo-40838(24): Document that *note inspect.getdoc(): 83f, *note
     inspect.getmodule(): 15b1, and *note inspect.getsourcefile(): 15b2.
     might return ‘None’.

   - bpo-43689(25): The ‘Differ’ documentation now also mentions other
     whitespace characters, which make it harder to understand the diff
     output.

   - bpo-38056(26): Overhaul the *note Error Handlers: 15b3.
     documentation in *note codecs: 19.

   - bpo-13553(27): Document tkinter.Tk args.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85525

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86404

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/sphinx-lint/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97741

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96432

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96098

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95957

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95588

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91207

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95454

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95451

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95415

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94321

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86128

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61162

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87260

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86986

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88831

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86438

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93031

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92240

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47161

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40838

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43689

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38056

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13553


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<21>,  Next: Build<20>,  Prev: Documentation<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.23.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-95027(1): On Windows, when the Python test suite is run with the
     ‘-jN’ option, the ANSI code page is now used as the encoding for
     the stdout temporary file, rather than using UTF-8 which can lead
     to decoding errors.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96624(2): Fixed the failure of repeated runs of
     ‘test.test_unittest’ caused by side effects in
     ‘test_dotted_but_module_not_loaded’.

   - gh-95243(3): Mitigate the inherent race condition from using
     find_unused_port() in testSockName() by trying to find an unused
     port a few times before failing.  Patch by Ross Burton.

   - gh-95573(4): Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py(5) exposed a bug in
     the macOS kernel where intense concurrent load on non-blocking
     sockets occasionally causes *note errno.ENOBUFS: 15b5. ("No buffer
     space available") to be emitted.  FB11063974 filed with Apple, in
     the mean time as a workaround buffer size used in tests on macOS is
     decreased to avoid intermittent failures.  Patch by Fantix King.

   - gh-95280(6): Fix problem with ‘test_ssl’ ‘test_get_ciphers’ on
     systems that require perfect forward secrecy (PFS) ciphers.

   - gh-95212(7): Make multiprocessing test case
     ‘test_shared_memory_recreate’ parallel-safe.

   - gh-95218(8): Move tests for importlib.resources into
     test_importlib.resources.

   - gh-93963(9): Updated tests to use preferred location for
     ‘importlib.resources’ ABCs.

   - gh-94675(10): Add a regression test for *note re: b4. exponentional
     slowdown when using rjsmin.

   - gh-91330(11): Added more tests for *note dataclasses: 2d. to cover
     behavior with data descriptor-based fields.

   - gh-94208(12): ‘test_ssl’ is now checking for supported TLS version
     and protocols in more tests.

   - gh-94315(13): Tests now check for DAC override capability instead
     of relying on *note os.geteuid(): 15b6.

   - gh-54781(14): Rename test_tk to test_tkinter, and rename
     test_ttk_guionly to test_ttk.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93839(15): Move ‘Lib/ctypes/test/’ to ‘Lib/test/test_ctypes/’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93951(16): In test_bdb.StateTestCase.test_skip, avoid including
     auxiliary importers.

   - gh-93957(17): Provide nicer error reporting from subprocesses in
     test_venv.EnsurePipTest.test_with_pip.

   - gh-93884(18): Add test cases for *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 15b7.
     that take a large number or a non-int object as parameter.

   - gh-93852(19): test_asyncio, test_logging, test_socket and
     test_socketserver now create AF_UNIX domains in the current
     directory to no longer fail with ‘OSError("AF_UNIX path too long")’
     if the temporary directory (the ‘TMPDIR’ environment variable) is
     too long.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93353(20): regrtest now checks if a test leaks temporary files
     or directories if run with -jN option.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-84461(21): ‘run_tests.py’ now handles cross compiling env vars
     correctly and pass ‘HOSTRUNNER’ to regression tests.

   - gh-93616(22): ‘test_modulefinder’ now creates a temporary directory
     in ‘ModuleFinderTest.setUp()’ instead of module scope.

   - gh-93575(23): Fix issue with test_unicode test_raiseMemError.  The
     test case now use ‘test.support.calcobjsize’ to calculate size of
     PyUnicode structs.  *note sys.getsizeof(): 1531. may return
     different size when string has UTF-8 memory.

   - gh-90473(24): WASI does not have a ‘chmod(2)’ syscall.  *note
     os.chmod(): f7c. is now a dummy function on WASI. Skip all tests
     that depend on working *note os.chmod(): f7c.

   - gh-90473(25): Skip tests on WASI that require symlinks with
     absolute paths.

   - gh-57539(26): Increase calendar test coverage for
     ‘calendar.LocaleTextCalendar.formatweekday()’.

   - gh-90473(27): Skip symlink tests on WASI. wasmtime uses
     ‘openat2(2)’ with ‘RESOLVE_BENEATH’ flag, which prevents symlinks
     with absolute paths.

   - gh-89858(28): Fix ‘test_embed’ for out-of-tree builds.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92886(29): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_imaplib.py’.

   - gh-92886(30): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_zipimport.py’

   - gh-92886(31): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_py_compile.py’

   - gh-92886(32): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_sys_settrace.py’.

   - gh-92886(33): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘_test_multiprocessing.py’

   - gh-92670(34): Skip
     ‘test_shutil.TestCopy.test_copyfile_nonexistent_dir’ test on AIX as
     the test uses a trailing slash to force the OS consider the path as
     a directory, but on AIX the trailing slash has no effect and is
     considered as a file.

   - gh-92514(35): Remove unused ‘test.support.BasicTestRunner’.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-47016(36): Create a GitHub Actions workflow for verifying
     bundled pip and setuptools.  Patch by Illia Volochii and Adam
     Turner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95027

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96624

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95243

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95573

   (5) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95280

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95212

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95218

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94675

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91330

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94208

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94315

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54781

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93839

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93951

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93957

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93884

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93852

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93353

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93616

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93575

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57539

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89858

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92670

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92514

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47016


File: python.info,  Node: Build<20>,  Next: Windows<21>,  Prev: Tests<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.23.6 Build
...............

   - gh-96761(1): Fix the build process of clang compiler for
     ‘_bootstrap_python’ if LTO optimization is applied.  Patch by
     Matthias Görgens and Donghee Na.

   - gh-96883(2): ‘wasm32-emscripten’ builds for browsers now include
     *note concurrent.futures: 1f. for *note asyncio: 9. and *note
     unittest.mock: 102.

   - gh-85936(3): CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default
     policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-96729(4): Ensure that Windows releases built with
     ‘Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat’ are upgradable to and from official
     Python releases.

   - gh-96269(5): Shared module targets now depend on new ‘MODULE_DEPS’
     variable, which includes ‘EXPORTSYMS’.  This fixes a build order
     issue on unsupported AIX platform.

   - gh-84461(6): ‘wasm32-emscripten’ platform no longer builds *note
     resource: b7. module, *note getresuid(): 11a9, *note getresgid():
     11a8, and their setters.  The APIs are stubs and not functional.

   - gh-95973(7): Add a new ‘--with-dsymutil’ configure option to link
     debug information in macOS. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-90536(8): Use the BOLT post-link optimizer to improve
     performance, particularly on medium-to-large applications.

   - gh-93744(9): Remove the ‘configure --with-cxx-main’ build option:
     it didn't work for many years.  Remove the ‘MAINCC’ variable from
     ‘configure’ and ‘Makefile’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94801(10): Fix a regression in ‘configure’ script that caused
     some header checks to ignore custom ‘CPPFLAGS’.  The regression was
     introduced in gh-94802(11).

   - gh-95145(12): wasm32-wasi builds no longer depend on WASIX's
     pthread stubs.  Python now has its own stubbed pthread API.

   - gh-95174(13): Python now detects missing ‘dup’ function in WASI and
     works around some missing *note errno: 52, *note select: bc, and
     *note socket: c6. constants.

   - gh-95174(14): Python now skips missing *note socket: c6. functions
     and methods on WASI. WASI can only create sockets from existing fd
     / accept and has no netdb.

   - gh-95085(15): Platforms ‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’ and
     ‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’ have been promoted to PEP 11(16) tier 3
     platform support.

   - gh-94847(17): Fixed ‘_decimal’ module build issue on GCC when
     compiling with LTO and pydebug.  Debug builds no longer force
     inlining of functions.

   - gh-94841(18): Fix the possible performance regression of *note
     PyObject_Free(): acd. compiled with MSVC version 1932.

   - gh-94801(19): ‘configure’ now uses custom flags like ‘ZLIB_CFLAGS’
     and ‘ZLIB_LIBS’ when searching for headers and libraries.

   - gh-94773(20): ‘deepfreeze.py’ now supports code object with
     frozensets that contain incompatible, unsortable types.

   - gh-94682(21): Build and test with OpenSSL 1.1.1q

   - gh-90005(22): Dependencies of *note readline: b5. and *note curses:
     29. module are now detected in ‘configure’ script with
     ‘pkg-config’.  Only ‘ncurses’ / ‘ncursesw’ are detected
     automatically.  The old ‘curses’ library is not configured
     automatically.  Workaround for missing ‘termcap’ or ‘tinfo’ library
     has been removed.

   - gh-90005(23): Fix building ‘_ctypes’ extension without
     ‘pkg-config’.

   - gh-90005(24): ‘_dbm’ module dependencies are now detected by
     configure.

   - gh-94404(25): ‘makesetup’ now works around an issue with sed on
     macOS and uses correct CFLAGS for object files that end up in a
     shared extension.  Module CFLAGS are used before
     PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS to avoid clashes with system headers.

   - gh-93939(26): C extension modules are now built by ‘configure’ and
     ‘make’ instead of ‘distutils’ and ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-93939(27): The ‘2to3’, ‘idle’, and ‘pydoc’ scripts are now
     generated and installed by ‘Makefile’ instead of ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-94280(28): Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find
     and use Python 3.9 or higher.  Prior to this, pegen regeneration
     already required 3.9 or higher, but the script may have used lower
     versions of Python.

   - gh-93584(29): Address race condition in ‘Makefile’ when installing
     a PGO build.  All ‘test’ and ‘install’ targets now depend on ‘all’
     target.

   - gh-93491(30): ‘configure’ now detects and reports PEP 11(31)
     support tiers.

   - gh-69093(32): Fix ‘Modules/Setup.stdlib.in’ rule for ‘_sqlite3’
     extension.

   - gh-93207(33): ‘va_start()’ with two parameters, like
     ‘va_start(args, format),’ is now required to build Python.
     ‘va_start()’ is no longer called with a single parameter.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-93202(34): Python now always use the ‘%zu’ and ‘%zd’ printf
     formats to format a ‘size_t’ or ‘Py_ssize_t’ number.  Building
     Python 3.12 requires a C11 compiler, so these printf formats are
     now always supported.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-90473(35): Disable pymalloc and increase stack size on
     ‘wasm32-wasi’.

   - bpo-34449(36): Drop invalid compiler switch ‘-fPIC’ for HP aCC on
     HP-UX. Patch by Michael Osipov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96761

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96883

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85936

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96729

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96269

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95973

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93744

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94802

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95145

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94847

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94841

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94773

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94682

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94404

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94280

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93584

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93491

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93202

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34449


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<21>,  Next: macOS<14>,  Prev: Build<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.23.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-98360(1): Fixes *note multiprocessing: 8f. spawning child
     processes on Windows from a virtual environment to ensure that
     child processes that also use *note multiprocessing: 8f. to spawn
     more children will recognize that they are in a virtual
     environment.

   - gh-98414(2): Fix ‘py.exe’ launcher handling of ‘-V:<COMPANY>/’
     option when default preferences have been set in environment
     variables or configuration files.

   - gh-97728(3): Fix possible crashes caused by the use of
     uninitialized variables when pass invalid arguments in *note
     os.system(): 12cd. on Windows and in Windows-specific modules (like
     ‘winreg’).

   - gh-90989(4): Made *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae. install
     per-user by default (unless an all users install already exists),
     and clarify some text in the installer.

   - gh-97649(5): The ‘Tools’ directory is no longer installed on
     Windows

   - gh-96965(6): Update libffi to 3.4.3

   - gh-96577(7): Fixes a potential buffer overrun in *note msilib: 8d.

   - gh-96559(8): Fixes the Windows launcher not using the compatible
     interpretation of default tags found in configuration files when no
     tag was passed to the command.

   - gh-94781(9): Fix ‘pcbuild.proj’ to clean previous instances of
     output files in ‘Python\deepfreeze’ and ‘Python\frozen_modules’
     directories on Windows.  Patch by Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-89545(10): Updates *note platform: a5. code getting the Windows
     version to use native Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI)
     queries to determine OS version, type, and architecture.

   - gh-95733(11): Make certain requirements of the Windows Store
     package optional to allow installing on earlier updates of Windows.

   - gh-95656(12): Enable the *note enable_load_extension(): 665. *note
     sqlite3: c9. API.

   - gh-95587(13): Fixes some issues where the Windows installer would
     incorrectly detect certain features of an existing install when
     upgrading.

   - gh-94399(14): Restores the behaviour of *note Python Launcher for
     Windows: 3ae. for ‘/usr/bin/env’ shebang lines, which will now
     search ‘PATH’ for an executable matching the given command.  If
     none is found, the usual search process is used.

   - gh-95445(15): Fixes the unsuccessful removal of the HTML document
     directory when uninstalling with Windows msi.

   - gh-95359(16): Fix *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae. handling
     of ‘py.ini’ commands (it was incorrectly expecting a ‘py_’ prefix
     on keys) and crashes when reading per-user configuration file.

   - gh-95285(17): Fix *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae. handling
     of command lines where it is only passed a short executable name.

   - gh-90844(18): Allow virtual environments to correctly launch when
     they have spaces in the path.

   - gh-94772(19): Fix incorrect handling of shebang lines in py.exe
     launcher

   - gh-94018(20): *note zipfile: 12b. will now remove trailing spaces
     from path components when extracting files on Windows.

   - gh-93824(21): Drag and drop of files onto Python files in Windows
     Explorer has been enabled for Windows ARM64.

   - gh-43414(22): *note os.get_terminal_size(): f90. now attempts to
     read the size from any provided handle, rather than only supporting
     file descriptors 0, 1 and 2.

   - gh-92817(23): Ensures that ‘py.exe’ will prefer an active virtual
     environment over default tags specified with environment variables
     or through a ‘py.ini’ file.

   - gh-92984(24): Explicitly disable incremental linking for non-Debug
     builds

   - gh-92841(25): *note asyncio: 9. no longer throws ‘RuntimeError:
     Event loop is closed’ on interpreter exit after asynchronous socket
     activity.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46907(26): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.4.

   - gh-91061(27): Accept os.PathLike for the argument to
     winsound.PlaySound

   - bpo-42658(28): Support native Windows case-insensitive path
     comparisons by using ‘LCMapStringEx’ instead of *note str.lower():
     15ba. in ‘ntpath.normcase()’.  Add ‘LCMapStringEx’ to the ‘_winapi’
     module.

   - bpo-38704(29): Prevent installation on unsupported Windows
     versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98360

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98414

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97728

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90989

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97649

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96965

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96577

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96559

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94781

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95733

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95656

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95587

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94399

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95445

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95359

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95285

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90844

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94772

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94018

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93824

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43414

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92817

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92984

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92841

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91061

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42658

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38704


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<14>,  Next: IDLE<13>,  Prev: Windows<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.23.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-97897(1): The macOS 13 SDK includes support for the ‘mkfifoat’
     and ‘mknodat’ system calls.  Using the ‘dir_fd’ option with either
     *note os.mkfifo(): c07. or *note os.mknod(): c08. could result in a
     segfault if cpython is built with the macOS 13 SDK but run on an
     earlier version of macOS. Prevent this by adding runtime support
     for detection of these system calls ("weaklinking") as is done for
     other newer syscalls on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97897


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<13>,  Next: Tools/Demos<12>,  Prev: macOS<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.23.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-97527(1): Fix a bug in the previous bugfix that caused IDLE to
     not start when run with 3.10.8, 3.12.0a1, and at least Microsoft
     Python 3.10.2288.0 installed without the Lib/test package.  3.11.0
     was never affected.

   - gh-65802(2): Document handling of extensions in Save As dialogs.

   - gh-95191(3): Include prompts when saving Shell (interactive input
     and output).

   - gh-95511(4): Fix the Shell context menu copy-with-prompts bug of
     copying an extra line when one selects whole lines.

   - gh-95471(5): In the Edit menu, move ‘Select All’ and add a new
     separator.

   - gh-95411(6): Enable using IDLE's module browser with .pyw files.

   - gh-89610(7): Add .pyi as a recognized extension for IDLE on macOS.
     This allows opening stub files by double clicking on them in the
     Finder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97527

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65802

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95511

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95471

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95411

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89610


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<12>,  Next: C API<17>,  Prev: IDLE<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.23.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-68686(1): Remove ptags and eptags scripts.

   - gh-97681(2): Remove the ‘Tools/demo/’ directory which contained old
     demo scripts.  A copy can be found in the old-demos project(3).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-97669(4): Remove outdated example scripts of the
     ‘Tools/scripts/’ directory.  A copy can be found in the old-demos
     project(5).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-95853(6): The ‘wasm_build.py’ script now pre-builds Emscripten
     ports, checks for broken EMSDK versions, and warns about pkg-config
     env vars.

   - gh-95853(7): The new tool ‘Tools/wasm/wasm_builder.py’ automates
     configure, compile, and test steps for building CPython on
     WebAssembly platforms.

   - gh-95731(8): Fix handling of module docstrings in
     ‘Tools/i18n/pygettext.py’.

   - gh-93939(9): Add script ‘Tools/scripts/check_modules.py’ to check
     and validate builtin and shared extension modules.  The script also
     handles ‘Modules/Setup’ and will eventually replace ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-94538(10): Fix Argument Clinic output to custom file
     destinations.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-94430(11): Allow parameters named ‘module’ and ‘self’ with
     custom C names in Argument Clinic.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland

   - gh-86087(12): The ‘Tools/scripts/parseentities.py’ script used to
     parse HTML4 entities has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68686

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681

   (3) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669

   (5) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95731

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94538

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94430

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86087


File: python.info,  Node: C API<17>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.23.11 C API
................

   - gh-98393(1): The *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 306. function no
     longer accepts bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 2c0. and
     *note memoryview: 17f. types: only the exact *note bytes: 2c1. type
     is accepted for bytes strings.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91051(2): Add *note PyType_Watch(): 2ed. and related APIs to
     allow callbacks on *note PyType_Modified(): 15bf.

   - gh-95756(3): Lazily create and cache ‘co_’ attributes for better
     performance for code getters.

   - gh-96512(4): Configuration for the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 3ea. now lives in the PyConfig C API struct.

   - gh-95589(5): Extensions classes that set ‘tp_dictoffset’ and
     ‘tp_weaklistoffset’ lose the support for multiple inheritance, but
     are now safe.  Extension classes should use *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2e0. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     2e1. instead.

   - gh-95781(6): An unrecognized format character in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     303. now sets a *note SystemError: 304.  In previous versions it
     caused all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the
     result string, and any extra arguments discarded.

   - gh-92678(7): Restore the 3.10 behavior for multiple inheritance of
     C extension classes that store their dictionary at the end of the
     struct.

   - gh-92678(8): Support C extensions using managed dictionaries by
     setting the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT’ flag.

   - gh-93274(9): API for implementing vectorcall (*note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9, *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 2da.
     and *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2db.) was added to the limited API
     and stable ABI.

   - gh-95504(10): Fix sign placement when specifying width or precision
     in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302. and *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 303.  Patch by Philip Georgi.

   - gh-93012(11): The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9. flag is
     now removed from a class when the class's *note __call__(): 2dd.
     method is reassigned.  This makes vectorcall safe to use with
     mutable types (i.e.  heap types without the ‘immutable’ flag).
     Mutable types that do not override *note tp_call: 2df. now inherit
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9. flag.

   - gh-95388(12): Creating *note immutable types: 2de. with mutable
     bases is deprecated and is planned to be disabled in Python 3.14.

   - gh-92678(13): Adds unstable C-API functions
     ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict’ and ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict’ to
     allow C extensions to allow the VM to manage their object's
     dictionaries.

   - gh-94936(14): Added *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): 590, *note
     PyCode_GetCellvars(): 591. and *note PyCode_GetFreevars(): 592. for
     accessing ‘co_varnames’, ‘co_cellvars’ and ‘co_freevars’
     respectively via the C API.

   - gh-94930(15): Fix ‘SystemError’ raised when *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85. is used with ‘#’ in ‘(...)’ but
     without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ defined.

   - gh-94731(16): Python again uses C-style casts for most casting
     operations when compiled with C++.  This may trigger compiler
     warnings, if they are enabled with e.g.  ‘-Wold-style-cast’ or
     ‘-Wzero-as-null-pointer-constant’ options for ‘g++’.

   - gh-93937(17): The following frame functions and type are now
     directly available with ‘#include <Python.h>’, it's no longer
     needed to add ‘#include <frameobject.h>’:

        * *note PyFrame_Check(): 59c.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 59d.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 582.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 583.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 584.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 585.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 59e.

        * *note PyFrame_Type: 59f.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91321(18): Fix the compatibility of the Python C API with C++
     older than C++11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91731(19): Avoid defining the ‘static_assert’ when compiling
     with C++ 11, where this is a keyword and redefining it can lead to
     undefined behavior.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-89546(20): *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2d5. (and other
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions) now check that offsets and the base
     class's *note tp_basicsize: 7cb. fit in the new class's
     ‘tp_basicsize’.

   - gh-93503(21): Add two new public functions to the public C-API,
     *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads(): 2e6. and *note
     PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 2e7, that allow to set tracing and
     profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the
     calling one.  Also, two analogous functions to the *note threading:
     e7. module (*note threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 1f0. and
     *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 1ef.) that allow to do the
     same from Python.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93442(22): Add C++ overloads for _Py_CAST_impl() to handle
     0/NULL. This will allow C++ extensions that pass 0 or NULL to
     macros using _Py_CAST() to continue to compile.

   - gh-93466(23): Slot IDs in PyType_Spec may not be repeated.  The
     documentation was updated to mention this.  For some cases of
     repeated slots, PyType_FromSpec and related functions will now
     raise an exception.

   - gh-92898(24): Fix C++ compiler warnings when casting function
     arguments to ‘PyObject*’.  Patch by Serge Guelton.

   - gh-93103(25): Deprecate global configuration variables, like *note
     Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 32f, in the documentation: the *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. API should be instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-77782(26): Deprecate global configuration variable like *note
     Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 32f.: the *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. API should be instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92913(27): Ensures changes to *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3e3. are ignored unless *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3e4. is set

   - gh-92781(28): Avoid mixing declarations and code in the C API to
     fix the compiler warning: "ISO C90 forbids mixed declarations and
     code" [-Werror=declaration-after-statement].  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-92651(29): Remove the ‘token.h’ header file.  There was never
     any public tokenizer C API. The ‘token.h’ header file was only
     designed to be used by Python internals.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92536(30): Remove legacy Unicode APIs based on ‘Py_UNICODE*’.

   - gh-85858(31): Remove the ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function and
     the ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL’ macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92193(32): Add new function *note PyFunction_SetVectorcall():
     2e8. to the C API which sets the vectorcall field of a given *note
     PyFunctionObject: 2e9.

     Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of
     the unaltered function!

   - gh-59121(33): Fixed an assert that prevented ‘PyRun_InteractiveOne’
     from providing tracebacks when parsing from the provided FD.

   - bpo-45383(34): The *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c. API will now find
     and use a metaclass based on the provided bases.  An error will be
     raised if there is a metaclass conflict.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95756

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96512

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94930

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94731

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91321

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89546

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93442

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93466

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92898

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93103

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92913

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92781

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92193

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59121

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45383


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.24 Python 3.11.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-05-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<17>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<24>.
* Library: Library<24>.
* Documentation: Documentation<21>.
* Tests: Tests<22>.
* Build: Build<21>.
* Windows: Windows<22>.
* macOS: macOS<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<13>.
* C API: C API<18>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<17>,  Next: Core and Builtins<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.24.1 Security
..................

   - gh-57684(1): Add the *note -P: 391. command line option and the
     *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 392. environment variable to not prepend a
     potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 35e.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<24>,  Next: Library<24>,  Prev: Security<17>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.24.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-89519(1): Chaining classmethod descriptors (introduced in
     bpo-19072(2)) is deprecated.  It can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as property().  The core design of this
     feature was flawed, and it caused a number of downstream problems.

   - gh-92345(3): ‘pymain_run_python()’ now imports ‘readline’ and
     ‘rlcompleter’ before sys.path is extended to include the current
     working directory of an interactive interpreter.  Non-interactive
     interpreters are not affected.

   - bpo-43857(4): Improve the *note AttributeError: 3ca. message when
     deleting a missing attribute.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - gh-92245(5): Make sure that PEP 523 is respected in all cases.  In
     3.11a7, specialization may have prevented Python-to-Python calls
     respecting PEP 523.

   - gh-92203(6): Add a closure keyword-only parameter to *note exec():
     6b1.  It can only be specified when exec-ing a code object that
     uses free variables.  When specified, it must be a tuple, with
     exactly the number of cell variables referenced by the code object.
     closure has a default value of ‘None’, and it must be ‘None’ if the
     code object doesn't refer to any free variables.

   - gh-91173(7): Disable frozen modules in debug builds.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92114(8): Improve error message when subscript a type with
     ‘__class_getitem__’ set to ‘None’.

   - gh-92112(9): Fix crash triggered by an evil custom ‘mro()’ on a
     metaclass.

   - gh-92063(10): The ‘PRECALL_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR_FAST_WITH_KEYWORDS’
     instruction now ensures methods are called only on objects of the
     correct type.

   - gh-92031(11): Deoptimize statically allocated code objects during
     ‘Py_FINALIZE()’ so that future ‘_PyCode_Quicken’ calls always start
     with unquickened code.

   - gh-92036(12): Fix a crash in subinterpreters related to the garbage
     collector.  When a subinterpreter is deleted, untrack all objects
     tracked by its GC. To prevent a crash in deallocator functions
     expecting objects to be tracked by the GC, leak a strong reference
     to these objects on purpose, so they are never deleted and their
     deallocator functions are not called.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92032(13): The interpreter can now autocomplete soft keywords,
     as of now ‘match’, ‘case’, and ‘_’ (wildcard pattern) from PEP
     634(14).

   - gh-87999(15): The warning emitted by the Python parser for a
     numeric literal immediately followed by keyword has been changed
     from deprecation warning to syntax warning.

   - gh-91869(16): Fix an issue where specialized opcodes with extended
     arguments could produce incorrect tracing output or lead to
     assertion failures.

   - gh-91603(17): Speed up *note types.UnionType: 435. instantiation.
     Based on patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-89373(18): If Python is built in debug mode, Python now ensures
     that deallocator functions leave the current exception unchanged.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91632(19): Fix a minor memory leak at exit: release the memory
     of the ‘generic_alias_iterator’ type.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-81548(20): Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ now
     produce a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  In a future Python
     version they will be a *note SyntaxWarning: 178. and eventually a
     *note SyntaxError: 146.

   - bpo-43950(21): Use a single compact table for line starts, ends and
     column offsets.  Reduces memory consumption for location info by
     half

   - gh-91102(22): Use Argument Clinic for ‘EncodingMap’.  Patch by Oleg
     Iarygin.

   - gh-91636(23): Fixed a crash in a garbage-collection edge-case, in
     which a ‘PyFunction_Type.tp_clear’ function could leave a python
     function object in an inconsistent state.

   - gh-91603(24): Speed up *note isinstance(): 14b. and *note
     issubclass(): 5df. checks for *note types.UnionType: 435.  Patch by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-91625(25): Fixed a bug in which adaptive opcodes ignored any
     preceding ‘EXTENDED_ARG’s on specialization failure.

   - gh-78607(26): The LLTRACE special build now looks for the name
     ‘__lltrace__’ defined in module globals, rather than the name
     ‘__ltrace__’, which had been introduced as a typo.

   - gh-91576(27): Speed up iteration of ascii strings by 50%.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-89279(28): Improve interpreter performance on Windows by
     inlining a few specific macros.

   - gh-91502(29): Add a new ‘_PyFrame_IsEntryFrame()’ API function, to
     check if a *note PyFrameObject: 5a1. is an entry frame.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-91266(30): Refactor the ‘bytearray’ strip methods ‘strip’,
     ‘lstrip’ and ‘rstrip’ to use a common implementation.

   - gh-91479(31): Replaced the ‘__note__’ field of *note BaseException:
     3ab. (added in an earlier version of 3.11) with the final design of
     PEP 678(32).  Namely, *note BaseException: 3ab. gets an
     ‘add_note()’ method, and its ‘__notes__’ field is created when
     necessary.

   - gh-46055(33): Speed up right shift of negative integers, by
     removing unnecessary creation of temporaries.  Original patch by
     Xinhang Xu, reworked by Mark Dickinson.

   - gh-91462(34): Make the interpreter's low-level tracing (lltrace)
     feature output more readable by displaying opcode names (rather
     than just numbers), and by displaying stack contents before each
     opcode.

   - gh-89455(35): Fixed an uninitialized bool value in the traceback
     printing code path that was introduced by the initial bpo-45292(36)
     exception groups work.

   - gh-91421(37): Fix a potential integer overflow in _Py_DecodeUTF8Ex.

   - gh-91428(38): Add ‘static const char *const _PyOpcode_OpName[256] =
     {...};’ to ‘opcode.h’ for debug builds to assist in debugging the
     Python interpreter.  It is now more convenient to make various
     forms of debugging output more human-readable by including opcode
     names rather than just the corresponding decimal digits.

   - bpo-47120(39): Make *note POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE: 15c3, *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE: 15c4, *note POP_JUMP_IF_NONE: 15c5. and *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE: 15c6. virtual, mapping to new relative jump
     opcodes.

   - bpo-45317(40): Add internal documentation explaining design of new
     (for 3.11) frame stack.

   - bpo-47197(41): ctypes used to mishandle ‘void’ return types, so
     that for instance a function declared like ‘ctypes.CFUNCTYPE(None,
     ctypes.c_int)’ would be called with signature ‘int f(int)’ instead
     of ‘void f(int)’.  Wasm targets require function pointers to be
     called with the correct signatures so this led to crashes.  The
     problem is now fixed.

   - bpo-47120(42): Make opcodes ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ and
     ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ relative rather than absolute.

   - bpo-47177(43): Replace the ‘f_lasti’ member of the internal
     ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ structure with a ‘prev_instr’ pointer, which
     reduces overhead in the main interpreter loop.  The ‘f_lasti’
     attribute of Python-layer frame objects is preserved for
     backward-compatibility.

   - bpo-46961(44): Integer mod/remainder operations, including the
     three-argument form of *note pow(): 816, now consistently return
     ints from the global small integer cache when applicable.

   - bpo-46962(45): Classes and functions that unconditionally declared
     their docstrings ignoring the ‘--without-doc-strings’ compilation
     flag no longer do so.

     The classes affected are ‘ctypes.UnionType’, *note
     pickle.PickleBuffer: 15c7, ‘testcapi.RecursingInfinitelyError’, and
     *note types.GenericAlias: 60c.

     The functions affected are 24 methods in *note ctypes: 28.

     Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46942(46): Use Argument Clinic for the *note types.MethodType:
     15c8. constructor.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46764(47): Fix wrapping bound methods with @classmethod

   - bpo-43464(48): Optimize ‘set.intersection()’ for non-set arguments.

   - bpo-46721(49): Optimize ‘set.issuperset()’ for non-set argument.

   - bpo-46509(50): Add type-specialized versions of the ‘Py_DECREF()’,
     and use them for ‘float’, ‘int’, ‘str’, ‘bool’, and ‘None’ to avoid
     pointer-chasing at runtime where types are known at C compile time.

   - bpo-46045(51): Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

   - bpo-36819(52): Fix crashes in built-in encoders with error handlers
     that return position less or equal than the starting position of
     non-encodable characters.

   - bpo-34093(53): ‘marshal.dumps()’ uses ‘FLAG_REF’ for all interned
     strings.  This makes output more deterministic and helps
     reproducible build.

   - bpo-26579(54): Added ‘object.__getstate__’ which provides the
     default implementation of the ‘__getstate__()’ method.

     Copying and pickling instances of subclasses of builtin types
     bytearray, set, frozenset, collections.OrderedDict,
     collections.deque, weakref.WeakSet, and datetime.tzinfo now copies
     and pickles instance attributes implemented as slots.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92345

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43857

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92245

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92203

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91173

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92114

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92112

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92063

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92031

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92036

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92032

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91869

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89373

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91632

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91636

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91625

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78607

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91576

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89279

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91502

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91266

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91479

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46055

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91462

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91421

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91428

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45317

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47197

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47177

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46961

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46942

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46764

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43464

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46721

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46509

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36819

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34093

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579


File: python.info,  Node: Library<24>,  Next: Documentation<21>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.24.3 Library
.................

   - gh-87901(1): Add the 'encoding' parameter to *note os.popen(): 8d3.

   - gh-90997(2): Fix an issue where *note dis: 35. utilities may
     interpret populated inline cache entries as valid instructions.

   - gh-92332(3): Deprecate *note typing.Text: 27a. (removal of the
     class is currently not planned).  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - Deprecate nested classes in enum definitions becoming members - in
     3.13 they will be normal classes; add ‘member’ and ‘nonmember’
     functions to allow control over results now.

   - gh-92356(4): Fixed a performance regression in ctypes function
     calls.

   - gh-90997(5): Show the actual named values stored in inline caches
     when ‘show_caches=True’ is passed to *note dis: 35. utilities.

   - gh-92301(6): Prefer ‘close_range()’ to iterating over procfs for
     file descriptor closing in *note subprocess: d0. for better
     performance.

   - gh-67248(7): Sort the miscellaneous topics in Cmd.do_help()

   - gh-92210(8): Port ‘socket.__init__’ to Argument Clinic.  Patch by
     Cinder.

   - gh-80010(9): Add support for generalized ISO 8601 parsing to *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 410, *note
     datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 40e. and *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 40f.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-92118(10): Fix a 3.11 regression in *note contextmanager():
     1093, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks.

   - gh-90887(11): Adding ‘COPYFILE_STAT’, ‘COPYFILE_ACL’ and
     ‘COPYFILE_XATTR’ constants for ‘os.fcopyfile()’ available in macOs.

   - gh-91215(12): For *note @dataclass: 3bc, add 'weakref_slot'.  The
     new parameter defaults to ‘False’.  If true, and if ‘slots=True’,
     add a slot named ‘"__weakref__"’, which will allow instances to be
     weakref'd.  Contributed by Eric V. Smith

   - gh-85984(13): New function os.login_tty() for Unix.

   - gh-92128(14): Add *note __class_getitem__(): 54c. to *note
     logging.LoggerAdapter: 1186. and *note logging.StreamHandler: 1089,
     allowing them to be parameterized at runtime.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-92049(15): Forbid pickling constants ‘re._constants.SUCCESS’
     etc.  Previously, pickling did not fail, but the result could not
     be unpickled.

   - gh-92062(16): *note inspect.Parameter: c8e. now raises *note
     ValueError: 183. if ‘name’ is a keyword, in addition to the
     existing check that it is an identifier.

   - gh-87390(17): Add an ‘__unpacked__’ attribute to *note
     types.GenericAlias: 60c.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-88089(18): Add support for generic *note typing.NamedTuple: 1fb.

   - gh-91996(19): New http.HTTPMethod enum to represent all the
     available HTTP request methods in a convenient way

   - gh-91984(20): Modified test strings in test_argparse.py to not
     contain trailing spaces before end of line.

   - gh-91952(21): Add ‘encoding="locale"’ support to
     ‘TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()’.

   - gh-91954(22): Add 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments to *note
     subprocess.getoutput(): 15ca. and *note
     subprocess.getstatusoutput(): e51.

   - bpo-47029(23): Always close the read end of the pipe used by *note
     multiprocessing.Queue: 144f. 'after' the last write of buffered
     data to the write end of the pipe to avoid *note BrokenPipeError:
     ef2. at garbage collection and at *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.close(): 15cb. calls.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - gh-91928(24): Add ‘datetime.UTC’ alias for ‘datetime.timezone.utc’.

     Patch by Kabir Kwatra.

   - gh-68966(25): The *note mailcap: 87. module is now deprecated and
     will be removed in Python 3.13.  See PEP 594(26) for the rationale
     and the *note mimetypes: 8a. module for an alternative.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91401(27): Provide a way to disable *note subprocess: d0. use of
     ‘vfork()’ just in case it is ever needed and document the existing
     mechanism for ‘posix_spawn()’.

   - gh-64783(28): Fix *note signal.NSIG: 15cc. value on FreeBSD to
     accept signal numbers greater than 32, like ‘signal.SIGRTMIN’ and
     ‘signal.SIGRTMAX’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91910(29): Add missing f prefix to f-strings in error messages
     from the *note multiprocessing: 8f. and *note asyncio: 9. modules.

   - gh-91860(30): Add *note typing.dataclass_transform(): 1fc,
     implementing PEP 681(31).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-91832(32): Add ‘required’ attribute to *note argparse.Action:
     15cd. repr output.

   - gh-91827(33): In the *note tkinter: ea. module add method
     ‘info_patchlevel()’ which returns the exact version of the Tcl
     library as a named tuple similar to *note sys.version_info: 49c.

   - gh-84461(34): Add *note -enable-wasm-pthreads: 15ce. to enable
     pthreads support for WASM builds.  ‘Emscripten/node’ no longer has
     threading enabled by default.  Include additional file systems.

   - gh-91821(35): Fix unstable ‘test_from_tuple’ test in
     ‘test_decimal.py’.

   - gh-91217(36): Deprecate the xdrlib module.

   - gh-91217(37): Deprecate the uu module.

   - gh-91760(38): More strict rules will be applied for numerical group
     references and group names in regular expressions.  For now, a
     deprecation warning is emitted for group references and group names
     which will be errors in future Python versions.

   - gh-84461(39): Add provisional *note sys._emscripten_info: 15cf.
     named tuple with build-time and run-time information about
     Emscripten platform.

   - gh-90623(40): *note signal.raise_signal(): 15d0. and *note
     os.kill(): 11f6. now check immediately for pending signals.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91734(41): Fix OSS audio support on Solaris.

   - gh-90633(42): Include the passed value in the exception thrown by
     *note typing.assert_never(): 4a4.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-91700(43): Compilation of regular expression containing a
     conditional expression ‘(?(group)...)’ now raises an appropriate
     *note re.error: cc6. if the group number refers to not defined
     group.  Previously an internal RuntimeError was raised.

   - gh-91231(44): Add an optional keyword 'shutdown_timeout' parameter
     to the ‘multiprocessing.BaseManager’ constructor.  Kill the process
     if terminate() takes longer than the timeout.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91621(45): Fix *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. for *note
     collections.abc.Callable: 60b.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-90568(46): Parsing ‘\N’ escapes of Unicode Named Character
     Sequences in a *note regular expression: b4. raises now *note
     re.error: cc6. instead of ‘TypeError’.

   - gh-91670(47): Remove deprecated ‘SO’ config variable in *note
     sysconfig: d5.

   - gh-91217(48): Deprecate the telnetlib module.

   - gh-91217(49): Deprecate the sunau module.

   - gh-91217(50): Deprecate the spwd module.

   - gh-91217(51): Deprecate the sndhdr module, as well as inline needed
     functionality for ‘email.mime.MIMEAudio’.

   - gh-91616(52): *note re: b4. module, fix *note fullmatch(): 15d1.
     mismatch when using Atomic Grouping or Possessive Quantifiers.

   - gh-91217(53): Deprecate the 'pipes' module.

   - gh-91217(54): Deprecate the ossaudiodev module.

   - bpo-47256(55): *note re: b4. module, limit the maximum capturing
     group to 1,073,741,823 in 64-bit build, this increases the depth of
     backtracking.

   - gh-91217(56): Deprecate the nis module.

   - gh-91595(57): Fix the comparison of character and integer inside
     ‘Tools.gdb.libpython.write_repr()’.  Patch by Yu Liu.

   - gh-74166(58): Add option to raise all errors from *note
     create_connection(): 46d. in an *note ExceptionGroup: 17b. when it
     fails to create a connection.  The default remains to raise only
     the last error that had occurred when multiple addresses were
     tried.

   - gh-91487(59): Optimize asyncio UDP speed, over 100 times faster
     when transferring a large file.

   - gh-91575(60): Update case-insensitive matching in the *note re: b4.
     module to the latest Unicode version.

   - gh-90622(61): In ‘concurrent.futures.process.ProcessPoolExecutor’
     disallow the "fork" multiprocessing start method when the new
     ‘max_tasks_per_child’ feature is used as the mix of threads+fork
     can hang the child processes.  Default to using the safe "spawn"
     start method in that circumstance if no ‘mp_context’ was supplied.

   - gh-89022(62): In *note sqlite3: c9, ‘SQLITE_MISUSE’ result codes
     are now mapped to *note InterfaceError: 47a. instead of *note
     ProgrammingError: 23a.  Also, more accurate exceptions are raised
     when binding parameters fail.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91526(63): Stop calling ‘os.device_encoding(file.fileno())’ in
     ‘TextIOWrapper’.  It was complex, never documented, and didn't work
     for most cases.  (Patch by Inada Naoki.)

   - gh-88116(64): Change the frame-related functions in the *note
     inspect: 78. module to return a regular object (that is backwards
     compatible with the old tuple-like interface) that include the
     extended PEP 657(65) position information (end line number, column
     and end column).  The affected functions are: *note
     inspect.getframeinfo(): 44a, *note inspect.getouterframes(): 44b,
     *note inspect.getinnerframes(): 44c, *note inspect.stack(): 44d.
     and *note inspect.trace(): 44e.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-69093(66): Add indexing and slicing support to *note
     sqlite3.Blob: 47f.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-69093(67): Add *note context manager: 3c4. support to *note
     sqlite3.Blob: 47f.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91217(68): Deprecate nntplib.

   - gh-91217(69): Deprecate msilib.

   - gh-91404(70): Improve the performance of *note re: b4. matching by
     using computed gotos (or "threaded code") on supported platforms
     and removing expensive pointer indirections.

   - gh-91217(71): Deprecate the imghdr module.

   - gh-91217(72): Deprecate the crypt module.

   - gh-91276(73): Make space for longer opcodes in *note dis: 35.
     output.

   - bpo-47000(74): Make ‘TextIOWrapper’ uses locale encoding when
     ‘encoding="locale"’ is specified even in UTF-8 mode.

   - gh-91230(75): *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 313. now accepts
     arguments for *note warnings.simplefilter(): 4c0, providing a more
     concise way to locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors.

   - gh-91217(76): Deprecate the chunk module.

   - Add the ‘TCP_CONNECTION_INFO’ option (available on macOS) to *note
     socket: c6.

   - bpo-47260(77): Fix ‘os.closerange()’ potentially being a no-op in a
     Linux seccomp sandbox.

   - bpo-47087(78): Implement ‘typing.Required’ and ‘typing.NotRequired’
     ( PEP 655(79)).  Patch by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-47061(80): Deprecate cgi and cgitb.

   - bpo-47061(81): Deprecate audioop.

   - bpo-47000(82): Add *note locale.getencoding(): 258. to get the
     current locale encoding.  It is similar to
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ but ignores the *note Python
     UTF-8 Mode: 451.

   - bpo-42012(83): Add *note wsgiref.types: 117, containing
     WSGI-specific types for static type checking.

   - bpo-47227(84): Suppress expression chaining for more *note re: b4.
     parsing errors.

   - bpo-47211(85): Remove undocumented and never working function
     ‘re.template()’ and flag ‘re.TEMPLATE’.  This was later reverted in
     3.11.0b2 and deprecated instead.

   - bpo-47135(86): *note decimal.localcontext(): 15d2. now accepts
     context attributes via keyword arguments

   - bpo-43323(87): Fix errors in the *note email: 37. module if the
     charset itself contains undecodable/unencodable characters.

   - bpo-46841(88): Disassembly of quickened code.

   - bpo-46681(89): Forward gzip.compress() compresslevel to zlib.

   - bpo-45100(90): Add *note typing.get_overloads(): 4ab. and *note
     typing.clear_overloads(): 4ac.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-44807(91): *note typing.Protocol: 4ad. no longer silently
     replaces ‘__init__()’ methods defined on subclasses.  Patch by
     Adrian Garcia Badaracco.

   - bpo-46787(92): Fix *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     727. exception memory leak

   - bpo-46720(93): Add support for path-like objects to *note
     multiprocessing.set_executable(): 15d3. for Windows to be on a par
     with Unix-like systems.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-46696(94): Add ‘SO_INCOMING_CPU’ constant to *note socket: c6.

   - bpo-46053(95): Fix OSS audio support on NetBSD.

   - bpo-45639(96): ‘image/avif’ and ‘image/webp’ were added to *note
     mimetypes: 8a.

   - bpo-46285(97): Add command-line option ‘-p’/‘--protocol’ to module
     *note http.server: 6d. which specifies the HTTP version to which
     the server is conformant (HTTP/1.1 conformant servers can now be
     run from the command-line interface of module *note http.server:
     6d.).  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-44791(98): Accept ellipsis as the last argument of *note
     typing.Concatenate: 5e2.

   - bpo-46547(99): Remove variables leaking into ‘pydoc.Helper’ class
     namespace.

   - bpo-46415(100): Fix ipaddress.ip_{address,interface,network}
     raising TypeError instead of ValueError if given invalid tuple as
     address parameter.

   - bpo-46075(101): ‘CookieJar’ with ‘DefaultCookiePolicy’ now can
     process cookies from localhost with domain=localhost explicitly
     specified in Set-Cookie header.

   - bpo-45995(102): Add a "z" option to the string formatting
     specification that coerces negative zero floating-point values to
     positive zero after rounding to the format precision.  Contributed
     by John Belmonte.

   - bpo-26175(103): Fully implement the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491.
     or *note io.TextIOBase: 492. interface for *note
     tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 490. objects.  This lets them work
     correctly with higher-level layers (like compression modules).
     Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - bpo-45138(104): Fix a regression in the *note sqlite3: c9. trace
     callback where bound parameters were not expanded in the passed
     statement string.  The regression was introduced in Python 3.10 by
     bpo-40318(105).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44863(106): Allow *note TypedDict: 153. subclasses to also
     include *note Generic: 1418. as a base class in class based syntax.
     Thereby allowing the user to define a generic ‘TypedDict’, just
     like a user-defined generic but with ‘TypedDict’ semantics.

   - bpo-44587(107): Fix BooleanOptionalAction to not automatically add
     a default string.  If a default string is desired, use a formatter
     to add it.

   - bpo-43827(108): All positional-or-keyword parameters to
     ‘ABCMeta.__new__’ are now positional-only to avoid conflicts with
     keyword arguments to be passed to ‘__init_subclass__()’.

   - bpo-43218(109): Prevent creation of a venv whose path contains the
     PATH separator.  This could affect the usage of the activate
     script.  Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

   - bpo-38435(110): Add a ‘process_group’ parameter to *note
     subprocess.Popen: 8e1. to help move more things off of the unsafe
     ‘preexec_fn’ parameter.

   - bpo-42066(111): Fix cookies getting sorted in
     ‘CookieJar.__iter__()’ which is an extra behavior and not mentioned
     in RFC 2965 or Netscape cookie protocol.  Now the cookies in
     ‘CookieJar’ follows the order of the ‘Set-Cookie’ header.  Patch by
     Iman Kermani.

   - bpo-40617(112): Add *note create_window_function(): 47d. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. for creating aggregate window functions.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40676(113): Convert *note csv: 27. to use Argument Clinic for
     *note csv.field_size_limit(): 15d4, *note csv.get_dialect(): 15d5,
     *note csv.unregister_dialect(): 15d6. and *note
     csv.list_dialects(): 15d7.

   - bpo-39716(114): Raise an ‘ArgumentError’ when the same subparser
     name is added twice to an ‘argparse.ArgumentParser’.  This is
     consistent with the (default) behavior when the same option string
     is added twice to an ‘ArgumentParser’.

   - bpo-36073(115): Raise *note ProgrammingError: 23a. instead of
     segfaulting on recursive usage of cursors in *note sqlite3: c9.
     converters.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34975(116): Adds a ‘start_tls()’ method to ‘StreamWriter’,
     which upgrades the connection with TLS using the given *note
     SSLContext: 26f.

   - bpo-22276(117): *note Path: 149. methods *note glob(): 1cf. and
     *note rglob(): 1d0. return only directories if 'pattern' ends with
     a pathname components separator (‘/’ or *note sep: 465.).  Patch by
     Eisuke Kawashima.

   - bpo-24905(118): Add *note blobopen(): 47e. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1dc.  *note sqlite3.Blob: 47f. allows
     incremental I/O operations on blobs.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87901

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92356

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92301

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67248

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92210

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92118

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90887

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91215

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92128

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92049

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92062

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88089

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91996

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91984

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91952

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91954

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47029

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91928

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91401

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64783

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91910

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91832

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91821

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90623

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91734

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91700

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91231

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91621

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90568

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91670

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91616

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47256

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91595

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74166

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90622

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89022

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91526

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116

   (65) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91276

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91230

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47260

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087

   (79) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

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   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47227

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47211

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47135

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43323

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46681

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45100

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44807

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46787

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46720

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46696

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46053

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45639

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46285

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46547

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46415

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46075

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45995

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26175

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45138

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40318

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44863

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<21>,  Next: Tests<22>,  Prev: Library<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.24.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-91888(1): Add a new ‘gh’ role to the documentation to link to
     GitHub issues.

   - gh-91783(2): Document security issues concerning the use of the
     function *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 184.

   - gh-91547(3): Remove "Undocumented modules" page.

   - gh-91298(4): In ‘importlib.resources.abc’, refined the
     documentation of the Traversable Protocol, applying changes from
     importlib_resources 5.7.1.

   - bpo-44347(5): Clarify the meaning of 'dirs_exist_ok', a kwarg of
     *note shutil.copytree(): 872.

   - bpo-36329(6): Remove 'make -C Doc serve' in favour of 'make -C Doc
     htmlview'

   - bpo-47189(7): Add a What's New in Python 3.11 entry for the Faster
     CPython project.  Documentation by Ken Jin and Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-38668(8): Update the introduction to documentation for *note
     os.path: 9d. to remove warnings that became irrelevant after the
     implementations of PEP 383(9) and PEP 529(10).

   - bpo-47115(11): The documentation now lists which members of C
     structs are part of the *note Limited API/Stable ABI: 2d8.

   - bpo-46962(12): All docstrings in code snippets are now wrapped into
     *note PyDoc_STR: 15d9. to follow the guideline of PEP 7's
     Documentation Strings paragraph(13).  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-26792(14): Improve the docstrings of *note runpy.run_module():
     15da. and *note runpy.run_path(): 11af.  Original patch by Andrew
     Brezovsky.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91888

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91783

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91547

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91298

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44347

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47189

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38668

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47115

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/#documentation-strings

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26792


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<22>,  Next: Build<21>,  Prev: Documentation<21>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.24.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-92169(1): Use ‘warnings_helper.import_deprecated()’ to import
     deprecated modules uniformly in tests.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-84461(2): When multiprocessing is enabled, libregrtest can now
     use a Python executable other than ‘sys.executable’ via the
     ‘--python’ flag.

   - gh-91904(3): Fix initialization of ‘PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD’
     which prevented running regression tests on non-UTF-8 locale.

   - gh-91752(4): Added @requires_zlib to
     test.test_tools.test_freeze.TestFreeze.

   - gh-91607(5): Fix ‘test_concurrent_futures’ to test the correct
     multiprocessing start method context in several cases where the
     test logic mixed this up.

   - bpo-40280(6): Threading tests are now skipped on WASM targets
     without pthread support.

   - bpo-47109(7): Test for ‘ctypes.macholib.dyld’,
     ‘ctypes.macholib.dylib’, and ‘ctypes.macholib.framework’ are
     brought from manual pre-*note unittest: 101. times to ‘ctypes.test’
     location and structure.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-29890(8): Add tests for *note ipaddress.IPv4Interface: 15dc.
     and *note ipaddress.IPv6Interface: 15dd. construction with tuple
     arguments.  Original patch and tests by louisom.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92169

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91904

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91752

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91607

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47109

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29890


File: python.info,  Node: Build<21>,  Next: Windows<22>,  Prev: Tests<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.24.6 Build
...............

   - gh-89452(1): gdbm-compat is now preferred over ndbm if both are
     available on the system.  This allows avoiding the problematic
     ndbm.h on macOS.

   - gh-91731(2): Python is now built with ‘-std=c11’ compiler option,
     rather than ‘-std=c99’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-47152(3): Add script and make target for generating
     ‘sre_constants.h’.

   - bpo-47103(4): Windows ‘PGInstrument’ builds now copy a required DLL
     into the output directory, making it easier to run the profile
     stage of a PGO build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89452

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47103


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<22>,  Next: macOS<15>,  Prev: Build<21>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.24.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46907(1): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.3.

   - bpo-47239(2): Fixed -list and -list-paths output for *note Python
     Launcher for Windows: 3ae. when used in an active virtual
     environment.

   - bpo-46907(3): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.2.

   - bpo-46785(4): Fix race condition between *note os.stat(): 1bf. and
     unlinking a file on Windows, by using errors codes returned by
     ‘FindFirstFileW()’ when appropriate in ‘win32_xstat_impl’.

   - bpo-40859(5): Update Windows build to use xz-5.2.5

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47239

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46785

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40859


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<15>,  Next: Tools/Demos<13>,  Prev: Windows<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.24.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-46907(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<13>,  Next: C API<18>,  Prev: macOS<15>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.24.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-91583(1): Fix regression in the code generated by Argument
     Clinic for functions with the ‘defining_class’ parameter.

   - gh-91575(2): Add script ‘Tools/scripts/generate_re_casefix.py’ and
     the make target ‘regen-re’ for generating additional data for
     case-insensitive matching according to the current Unicode version.

   - gh-91551(3): Remove the ancient Pynche color editor.  It has moved
     to ‘https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91583

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91551


File: python.info,  Node: C API<18>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<13>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.24.10 C API
................

   - gh-88279(1): Deprecate the C functions: *note PySys_SetArgv():
     11e7, *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11e6, *note PySys_SetPath(): 15e3.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92154(2): Added the *note PyCode_GetCode(): 58f. function.  This
     function does the equivalent of the Python code
     ‘getattr(code_object, 'co_code')’.

   - gh-92173(3): Fix the ‘closure’ argument to *note
     PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1530.

   - gh-91320(4): Fix C++ compiler warnings about "old-style cast" (‘g++
     -Wold-style-cast’) in the Python C API. Use C++
     ‘reinterpret_cast<>’ and ‘static_cast<>’ casts when the Python C
     API is used in C++.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-80527(5): Mark functions as deprecated by PEP 623(6):
     ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’, ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’,
     ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’, ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91768(7): *note Py_REFCNT(): 6dd, *note Py_TYPE(): 597, *note
     Py_SIZE(): 599. and *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 15e4. functions argument
     type is now ‘PyObject*’, rather than ‘const PyObject*’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91020(8): Add ‘PyBytes_Type.tp_alloc’ to initialize
     ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ for bytes subclasses.

   - bpo-40421(9): Add ‘PyFrame_GetLasti’ C-API function to access frame
     object's ‘f_lasti’ attribute safely from C code.

   - bpo-35134(10): Remove the ‘Include/code.h’ header file.  C
     extensions should only include the main ‘<Python.h>’ header file.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-47169(11): *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 15e5. is now exported in
     the Stable ABI on Windows.

   - bpo-47169(12): ‘PyThread_get_thread_native_id()’ is excluded from
     the stable ABI on platforms where it doesn't exist (like Solaris).

   - bpo-46343(13): Added *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 586. and
     *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 587. as simpler alternatives to
     *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 589. and *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 588.

     They are included in the stable ABI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91320

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80527

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91768

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91020

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.25 Python 3.11.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-04-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<25>.
* Library: Library<25>.
* Documentation: Documentation<22>.
* Tests: Tests<23>.
* Build: Build<22>.
* Windows: Windows<23>.
* macOS: macOS<16>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<14>.
* C API: C API<19>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<25>,  Next: Library<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.25.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-47212(1): Raise *note IndentationError: 5c5. instead of *note
     SyntaxError: 146. for a bare ‘except’ with no following indent.
     Improve *note SyntaxError: 146. locations for an un-parenthesized
     generator used as arguments.  Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-47186(2): Replace ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EG_MATCH’ by *note
     CHECK_EG_MATCH: 503. + jump.

   - bpo-47176(3): Emscripten builds cannot handle signals in the usual
     way due to platform limitations.  Python can now handle signals.
     To use, set Module.Py_EmscriptenSignalBuffer to be a single byte
     SharedArrayBuffer and set Py_EMSCRIPTEN_SIGNAL_HANDLING to 1.
     Writing a number into the SharedArrayBuffer will cause the
     corresponding signal to be raised into the Python thread.

   - bpo-47186(4): Replace ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’ by *note
     CHECK_EXC_MATCH: 50d. + jump.

   - bpo-47120(5): Replace the absolute jump opcode *note
     JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT: 15e8. by the relative *note
     JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT: 500.

   - bpo-46841(6): Avoid unnecessary allocations when comparing code
     objects.

   - bpo-47182(7): Fix a crash when using a named unicode character like
     ‘"\N{digit nine}"’ after the main interpreter has been initialized
     a second time.

   - bpo-47162(8): WebAssembly cannot deal with bad function pointer
     casts (different count or types of arguments).  Python can now use
     call trampolines to mitigate the problem.  Define
     ‘PY_CALL_TRAMPOLINE’ to enable call trampolines.

   - bpo-46775(9): Some Windows system error codes(>= 10000) are now
     mapped into the correct errno and may now raise a subclass of *note
     OSError: 644.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-47129(10): Improve error messages in f-string syntax errors
     concerning empty expressions.

   - bpo-47117(11): Fix a crash if we fail to decode characters in
     interactive mode if the tokenizer buffers are uninitialized.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-47127(12): Speed up calls to c functions with keyword arguments
     by 25% with specialization.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-47120(13): Replaced ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’ by the relative jump *note
     JUMP_BACKWARD: 50e.

   - bpo-42197(14): ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ and
     ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’ are no longer called during profiling nor
     tracing.  C code can access the ‘f_locals’ attribute of *note
     PyFrameObject: 5a1. by calling *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 59e.

   - bpo-47070(15): Improve performance of ‘array_inplace_repeat’ by
     reducing the number of invocations of ‘memcpy’.  Refactor the
     ‘repeat’ and inplace ‘repeat’ methods of ‘array’, ‘bytes’,
     ‘bytearray’ and ‘unicodeobject’ to use the common
     ‘_PyBytes_Repeat’.

   - bpo-47053(16): Reduce de-optimization in the specialized
     ‘BINARY_OP_INPLACE_ADD_UNICODE’ opcode.

   - bpo-47045(17): Remove the ‘f_state’ field from the
     _PyInterpreterFrame struct.  Add the ‘owner’ field to the
     _PyInterpreterFrame struct to make ownership explicit to simplify
     clearing and deallocing frames and generators.

   - bpo-46968(18): Check for the existence of the "sys/auxv.h" header
     in *note faulthandler: 53. to avoid compilation problems in systems
     where this header doesn't exist.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46329(19): Use low bit of ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ to indicate whether to
     push a ‘NULL’ before the global.  Helps streamline the call
     sequence a bit.

   - bpo-46841(20): Quicken bytecode in-place by storing it as part of
     the corresponding ‘PyCodeObject’.

   - bpo-47012(21): Speed up iteration of *note bytes: 2c1. and *note
     bytearray: 2c0. by 30%.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-47009(22): Improved the performance of ‘list.append()’ and list
     comprehensions by optimizing for the common case, where no resize
     is needed.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-47005(23): Improve performance of ‘bytearray_repeat’ and
     ‘bytearray_irepeat’ by reducing the number of invocations of
     ‘memcpy’.

   - bpo-46829(24): Deprecate passing a message into *note
     asyncio.Future.cancel(): 15e9. and *note asyncio.Task.cancel():
     15ea.

   - bpo-46993(25): Speed up *note bytearray: 2c0. creation from *note
     list: 40a. and *note tuple: 4e6. by 40%.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-39829(26): Removed the ‘__len__()’ call when initializing a
     list and moved initializing to ‘list_extend’.  Patch by Jeremiah
     Pascual.

   - bpo-46944(27): Speed up throwing exception in generator with *note
     METH_FASTCALL: 15eb. calling convention.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46841(28): Modify *note STORE_SUBSCR: 15ec. to use an inline
     cache entry (rather than its oparg) as an adaptive counter.

   - bpo-46841(29): Use inline caching for ‘PRECALL’ and *note CALL:
     509, and remove the internal machinery for managing the (now
     unused) non-inline caches.

   - bpo-46881(30): Statically allocate and initialize the latin1
     characters.

   - bpo-46838(31): Improve syntax errors for incorrect function
     definitions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43721(32): Fix docstrings of *note getter: 1435, *note setter:
     1436, and *note deleter: 1437. to clarify that they create a new
     copy of the property.

   - bpo-43224(33): Make grammar changes required for PEP 646.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47212

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47176

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47182

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47162

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46775

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47129

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47117

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47127

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42197

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47070

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47053

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47045

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47012

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47009

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47005

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46829

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46993

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39829

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46944

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46881

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46838

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43721

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224


File: python.info,  Node: Library<25>,  Next: Documentation<22>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.25.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-47208(1): Allow vendors to override ‘CTYPES_MAX_ARGCOUNT’.

   - bpo-23689(2): *note re: b4. module: fix memory leak when a match is
     terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure.  Patch by Ma
     Lin.

   - bpo-47167(3): Allow overriding a future compliance check in *note
     asyncio.Task: 203.

   - bpo-47151(4): When subprocess tries to use vfork, it now falls back
     to fork if vfork returns an error.  This allows use in situations
     where vfork isn't allowed by the OS kernel.

   - bpo-47152(5): Convert the *note re: b4. module into a package.
     Deprecate modules ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’.

   - bpo-4833(6): Add ‘ZipFile.mkdir()’

   - bpo-27929(7): Fix *note asyncio.loop.sock_connect(): c41. to only
     resolve names for *note socket.AF_INET: 15ee. or *note
     socket.AF_INET6: 15ef. families.  Resolution may not make sense for
     other families, like ‘socket.AF_BLUETOOTH’ and *note
     socket.AF_UNIX: 15f0.

   - bpo-14265(8): Adds the fully qualified test name to unittest output

   - bpo-47061(9): Deprecate the aifc module.

   - bpo-39622(10): Handle Ctrl+C in asyncio programs to interrupt the
     main task.

   - bpo-47101(11): *note hashlib.algorithms_available: 1203. now lists
     only algorithms that are provided by activated crypto providers on
     OpenSSL 3.0.  Legacy algorithms are not listed unless the legacy
     provider has been loaded into the default OSSL context.

   - bpo-47099(12): All ‘URLError’ exception messages raised in *note
     urllib.request.URLopener: 27d. now contain a colon between ‘ftp
     error’ and the rest of the message.  Previously, ‘open_ftp()’
     missed the colon.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-47099(13): Exception chaining is changed from
     ‘Exception.with_traceback()’/*note sys.exc_info(): 487. to PEP
     3134(14).  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-47095(15): *note hashlib: 63.'s internal ‘_blake2’ module now
     prefers ‘libb2’ from ‘https://www.blake2.net/’ over Python's
     vendored copy of blake2.

   - bpo-47098(16): The Keccak Code Package for *note hashlib: 63.'s
     internal ‘_sha3’ module has been replaced with tiny_sha3.  The
     module is used as fallback when Python is built without OpenSSL.

   - bpo-47088(17): Implement *note typing.LiteralString: 3ba, part of
     PEP 675(18).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-42885(19): Optimize *note re.search(): 10bf, *note re.split():
     9ca, *note re.findall(): ebe, *note re.finditer(): 1371. and *note
     re.sub(): 201. for regular expressions starting with ‘\A’ or ‘^’.

   - bpo-23691(20): Protect the *note re.finditer(): 1371. iterator from
     re-entering.

   - bpo-47067(21): Optimize calling ‘GenericAlias’ objects by using PEP
     590(22) ‘vectorcall’ and by replacing ‘PyObject_SetAttrString’ with
     ‘PyObject_SetAttr’.

   - bpo-28080(23): Add the 'metadata_encoding' parameter in the *note
     zipfile.ZipFile: 4c3. constructor and the ‘--metadata-encoding’
     option in the *note zipfile: 12b. CLI to allow reading zipfiles
     using non-standard codecs to encode the filenames within the
     archive.

   - bpo-47000(24): Make *note io.text_encoding(): 1467. returns "utf-8"
     when UTF-8 mode is enabled.

   - bpo-42369(25): Fix thread safety of ‘zipfile._SharedFile.tell()’ to
     avoid a "zipfile.BadZipFile: Bad CRC-32 for file" exception when
     reading a ‘ZipFile’ from multiple threads.

   - bpo-38256(26): Fix *note binascii.crc32(): 145f. when it is
     compiled to use zlib'c crc32 to work properly on inputs 4+GiB in
     length instead of returning the wrong result.  The workaround prior
     to this was to always feed the function data in increments smaller
     than 4GiB or to just call the zlib module function.

     We also have *note binascii.crc32(): 145f. release the GIL when
     computing on larger inputs as *note zlib.crc32(): 145e. and *note
     hashlib: 63. do.

     This also boosts performance on Windows as it now uses the zlib
     crc32 implementation for *note binascii.crc32(): 145f. for a 2-3x
     speedup.

     That the stdlib has a crc32 API in two modules is a known
     historical oddity.  This moves us closer to a single implementation
     behind them.

   - bpo-47066(27): Global inline flags (e.g.  ‘(?i)’) can now only be
     used at the start of the regular expressions.  Using them not at
     the start of expression was deprecated since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-39394(28): A warning about inline flags not at the start of the
     regular expression now contains the position of the flag.

   - bpo-433030(29): Add support of atomic grouping (‘(?>...)’) and
     possessive quantifiers (‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’, ‘{m,n}+’) in *note
     regular expressions: b4.

   - bpo-47062(30): Implement *note asyncio.Runner: 3f7. context
     manager.

   - bpo-46382(31): *note dataclass(): 3bc. ‘slots=True’ now correctly
     omits slots already defined in base classes.  Patch by Arie
     Bovenberg.

   - bpo-47057(32): Use FASTCALL convention for ‘FutureIter.throw()’

   - bpo-47061(33): Deprecate the various modules listed by PEP 594(34):

     aifc, asynchat, asyncore, audioop, cgi, cgitb, chunk, crypt,
     imghdr, msilib, nntplib, nis, ossaudiodev, pipes, smtpd, sndhdr,
     spwd, sunau, telnetlib, uu, xdrlib

   - bpo-34790(35): Remove passing coroutine objects to *note
     asyncio.wait(): 19a.

   - bpo-47039(36): Normalize ‘repr()’ of asyncio future and task
     objects.

   - bpo-2604(37): Fix bug where doctests using globals would fail when
     run multiple times.

   - bpo-45150(38): Add *note hashlib.file_digest(): 43f. helper for
     efficient hashing of file object.

   - bpo-34861(39): Made cumtime the default sorting key for cProfile

   - bpo-45997(40): Fix *note asyncio.Semaphore: 8c0. re-aquiring FIFO
     order.

   - bpo-47022(41): The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’ and ‘smtpd’ modules have
     been deprecated since at least Python 3.6.  Their documentation and
     deprecation warnings and have now been updated to note they will
     removed in Python 3.12 ( PEP 594(42)).

   - bpo-43253(43): Fix a crash when closing transports where the
     underlying socket handle is already invalid on the Proactor event
     loop.

   - bpo-40280(44): *note select.select(): c17. now passes ‘NULL’ to
     ‘select’ for each empty fdset.

   - bpo-47004(45): Apply bugfixes from importlib_metadata 4.11.3,
     including bugfix for EntryPoint.extras, which was returning match
     objects and not the extras strings.

   - bpo-46998(46): Allow subclassing of *note typing.Any: 4a9.  Patch
     by Shantanu Jain.

   - bpo-46995(47): Deprecate missing *note asyncio.Task.set_name():
     822. for third-party task implementations, schedule making it
     mandatory in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46994(48): Accept explicit contextvars.Context in *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 3f3. and *note asyncio.loop.create_task():
     821.

   - bpo-46981(49): ‘typing.get_args(typing.Tuple[()])’ now returns ‘()’
     instead of ‘((),)’.

   - bpo-46968(50): Add ‘os.sysconf_names['SC_MINSIGSTKSZ']’.

   - bpo-46985(51): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip
     22.0.4)

   - bpo-46968(52): *note faulthandler: 53.: On Linux 5.14 and newer,
     dynamically determine size of signal handler stack size CPython
     allocates using ‘getauxval(AT_MINSIGSTKSZ)’.  This changes allows
     for Python extension's request to Linux kernel to use AMX_TILE
     instruction set on Sapphire Rapids Xeon processor to succeed,
     unblocking use of the ISA in frameworks.

   - bpo-46917(53): The *note math.nan: 45e. value is now always
     available.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46955(54): Expose ‘asyncio.base_events.Server’ as *note
     asyncio.Server: 967.  Patch by Stefan Zabka.

   - bpo-23325(55): The *note signal: c1. module no longer assumes that
     *note SIG_IGN: 15f1. and *note SIG_DFL: 15f2. are small int
     singletons.

   - bpo-46932(56): Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.7

   - bpo-46933(57): The *note pwd: ad. module is now optional.  *note
     os.path.expanduser(): 85b. returns the path when the *note pwd: ad.
     module is not available.

   - bpo-40059(58): PEP 680(59), the *note tomllib: f7. module.  Adds
     support for parsing TOML.

   - bpo-464471(60): *note asyncio.timeout(): 3f5. and *note
     asyncio.timeout_at(): 15f3. context managers added.  Patch by Tin
     Tvrtković and Andrew Svetlov.

   - bpo-46805(61): Added raw datagram socket functions for asyncio:
     ‘sock_sendto()’, ‘sock_recvfrom()’ and ‘sock_recvfrom_into()’.

   - bpo-46644(62): No longer require valid typeforms to be callable.
     This allows *note typing.Annotated: 77c. to wrap *note
     typing.ParamSpecArgs: 5e4. and ‘dataclasses.InitVar’.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46581(63): Brings ‘ParamSpec’ propagation for ‘GenericAlias’ in
     line with ‘Concatenate’ (and others).

   - bpo-45413(64): Define 'posix_venv' and 'nt_venv' *note sysconfig
     installation schemes: 48c. to be used for bootstrapping new virtual
     environments.  Add 'venv' sysconfig installation scheme to get the
     appropriate one of the above.  The schemes are identical to the
     pre-existing 'posix_prefix' and 'nt' install schemes.  The *note
     venv: 10c. module now uses the 'venv' scheme to create new virtual
     environments instead of hardcoding the paths depending only on the
     platform.  Downstream Python distributors customizing the
     'posix_prefix' or 'nt' install scheme in a way that is not
     compatible with the install scheme used in virtual environments are
     encouraged not to customize the 'venv' schemes.  When Python itself
     runs in a virtual environment, *note
     sysconfig.get_default_scheme(): 15f4. and *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 48d. with ‘key="prefix"’ returns
     'venv'.

   - bpo-43224(65): Implement support for PEP 646 in typing.py.

   - bpo-43224(66): Allow unpacking types.GenericAlias objects, e.g.
     ‘*tuple[int, str]’.

   - bpo-46557(67): Warnings captured by the logging module are now
     logged without a format string to prevent systems that group logs
     by the msg argument from grouping captured warnings together.

   - bpo-41370(68): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. now supports
     evaluating strings as forward references in *note PEP 585 generic
     aliases: 4af.

   - bpo-46607(69): Add *note DeprecationWarning: 179. to
     ‘LegacyInterpolation’, deprecated in the docstring since Python
     3.2.  Will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use ‘BasicInterpolation’ or
     ‘ExtendedInterpolation’ instead.

   - bpo-26120(70): *note pydoc: b0. now excludes __future__ imports
     from the module's data items.

   - bpo-46480(71): Add *note typing.assert_type(): 4a8.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46421(72): Fix a unittest issue where if the command was
     invoked as ‘python -m unittest’ and the filename(s) began with a
     dot (.), a ‘ValueError’ is returned.

   - bpo-46245(73): Add optional parameter 'dir_fd' in *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 1d8.

   - bpo-22859(74): ‘usageExit()’ is marked deprecated, to be removed in
     3.13.

   - bpo-46170(75): Improve the error message when you try to subclass
     an instance of *note typing.NewType: b63.

   - bpo-40296(76): Fix supporting generic aliases in *note pydoc: b0.

   - bpo-20392(77): Fix inconsistency with uppercase file extensions in
     ‘MimeTypes.guess_type()’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46030(78): Add ‘LOCAL_CREDS’, ‘LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT’ and
     ‘SCM_CREDS2’ FreeBSD constants to the socket module.

   - bpo-44439(79): Fix ‘.write()’ method of a member file in ‘ZipFile’,
     when the input data is an object that supports the buffer protocol,
     the file length may be wrong.

   - bpo-45171(80): Fix handling of the ‘stacklevel’ argument to logging
     functions in the *note logging: 82. module so that it is consistent
     across all logging functions and, as advertised, similar to the
     ‘stacklevel’ argument used in *note warn(): 1391.

   - bpo-24959(81): Fix bug where *note unittest: 101. sometimes drops
     frames from tracebacks of exceptions raised in tests.

   - bpo-44859(82): Raise more accurate and PEP 249(83) compatible
     exceptions in *note sqlite3: c9.

        * Raise *note InterfaceError: 47a. instead of *note
          ProgrammingError: 23a. for ‘SQLITE_MISUSE’ errors.

        * Don't overwrite *note BufferError: 15f5. with *note
          ValueError: 183. when conversion to BLOB fails.

        * Raise *note ProgrammingError: 23a. instead of *note Warning:
          15f6. if user tries to *note execute(): 236. more than one SQL
          statement.

        * Raise *note ProgrammingError: 23a. instead of *note
          ValueError: 183. if an SQL query contains null characters.

   - bpo-44493(84): Add missing terminated NUL in sockaddr_un's length

     This was potentially observable when using non-abstract AF_UNIX
     datagram sockets to processes written in another programming
     language.

   - bpo-41930(85): Add *note serialize(): 47b. and *note deserialize():
     47c. support to *note sqlite3: c9.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-33178(86): Added *note ctypes.BigEndianUnion: 15f7. and *note
     ctypes.LittleEndianUnion: 15f8. classes, as originally documented
     in the library docs but not yet implemented.

   - bpo-43352(87): Add an Barrier object in synchronization primitives
     of 'asyncio' Lib in order to be consistent with Barrier from
     'threading' and 'multiprocessing' libs*

   - bpo-35859(88): *note re: b4. module, fix a few bugs about capturing
     group.  In rare cases, capturing group gets an incorrect string.
     Patch by Ma Lin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47208

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23689

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47167

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47151

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4833

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27929

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14265

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39622

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47101

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42885

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23691

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47067

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42369

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38256

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39394

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47062

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46382

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47057

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47039

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2604

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45150

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34861

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45997

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43253

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47004

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46998

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46995

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46994

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46981

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46985

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46955

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23325

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46932

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46933

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059

   (59) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=464471

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46644

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46581

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46557

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41370

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26120

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46480

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46421

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22859

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46170

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40296

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20392

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46030

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44439

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45171

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24959

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44859

   (83) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44493

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33178

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43352

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<22>,  Next: Tests<23>,  Prev: Library<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.25.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45099(1): Document internal *note asyncio: 9. API.

   - bpo-47126(2): Update PEP URLs to PEP 676(3)'s new canonical form.

   - bpo-47040(4): Clarified the old Python versions compatibility note
     of *note binascii.crc32(): 145f. / *note zlib.adler32(): 15fa. /
     *note zlib.crc32(): 145e. functions.

   - bpo-46033(5): Clarify ‘for’ statement execution in its doc.

   - bpo-45790(6): Adjust inaccurate phrasing in *note Defining
     Extension Types; Tutorial: 15fb. about the ‘ob_base’ field and the
     macros used to access its contents.

   - bpo-42340(7): Document that in some circumstances *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 815. may cause the code to enter an inconsistent
     state.  Provided a sample workaround to avoid it if needed.

   - bpo-41233(8): Link the errnos referenced in
     ‘Doc/library/exceptions.rst’ to their respective section in
     ‘Doc/library/errno.rst’, and vice versa.  Previously this was only
     done for EINTR and InterruptedError.  Patch by Yan "yyyyyyyan"
     Orestes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45099

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47126

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0676/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47040

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46033

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45790

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41233


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<23>,  Next: Build<22>,  Prev: Documentation<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.25.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-47205(1): Skip test for *note sched_getaffinity(): f98. and
     *note sched_setaffinity(): f9c. error case on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-46126(2): Restore 'descriptions' when running tests internally.

   - bpo-47104(3): Rewrite *note asyncio.to_thread(): 721. tests to use
     *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b.

   - bpo-40280(4): The test suite is now passing on the Emscripten
     platform.  All fork, socket, and subprocess-based tests are
     skipped.

   - bpo-47037(5): Skip ‘strftime("%4Y")’ feature test on Windows.  It
     can cause an assertion error in debug builds.

   - bpo-46587(6): Skip tests if platform's ‘strftime’ does not support
     non-portable glibc extensions.

   - bpo-47015(7): A test case for *note os.sendfile(): 964. is
     converted from deprecated ‘asyncore’ (see PEP 594(8)) to *note
     asyncio: 9.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47205

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47037

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46587

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47015

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/


File: python.info,  Node: Build<22>,  Next: Windows<23>,  Prev: Tests<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.25.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-40280(1): Add configure option *note
     -enable-wasm-dynamic-linking: 15fe. to enable ‘dlopen’ and
     MAIN_MODULE / SIDE_MODULE on ‘wasm32-emscripten’.

   - bpo-46023(2): ‘makesetup’ now detects and skips all duplicated
     module definitions.  The first entry wins.

   - bpo-40280(3): Add SOABI ‘wasm32-emscripten’ for Emscripten and
     ‘wasm32-wasi’ for WASI on 32bit WASM as well as ‘wasm64’ counter
     parts.

   - bpo-47032(4): Ensure Windows install builds fail correctly with a
     non-zero exit code when part of the build fails.

   - bpo-47024(5): Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1n for macOS installers and all
     Windows builds.

   - bpo-46996(6): The *note tkinter: ea. package now requires Tcl/Tk
     version 8.5.12 or newer.

   - bpo-46973(7): Add ‘regen-configure’ make target to regenerate
     configure script with Christian's container image
     ‘quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:269’.

   - bpo-46917(8): Building Python now requires support of IEEE 754
     floating-point numbers.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45774(9): ‘configure’ now verifies that all SQLite C APIs
     needed for the *note sqlite3: c9. extension module are found.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47032

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47024

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46973

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<23>,  Next: macOS<16>,  Prev: Build<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.25.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-47194(1): Update ‘zlib’ to v1.2.12 to resolve CVE
     2018-25032(2).

   - bpo-47171(3): Enables installing the ‘py.exe’ launcher on Windows
     ARM64.

   - bpo-46566(4): Upgraded *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae. to
     support a new ‘-V:company/tag’ argument for full PEP 514(5) support
     and to detect ARM64 installs.  The ‘-64’ suffix on arguments is
     deprecated, but still selects any non-32-bit install.  Setting
     ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’ and specifying a version that is not
     installed will attempt to install the requested version from the
     Microsoft Store.

   - bpo-47086(6): The installer for Windows now includes documentation
     as loose HTML files rather than a single compiled ‘.chm’ file.

   - bpo-46907(7): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.1.

   - bpo-44549(8): Update bzip2 to 1.0.8 in Windows builds to mitigate
     CVE 2016-3189(9) and CVE 2019-12900(10).

   - bpo-46948(11): Prevent CVE 2022-26488(12) by ensuring the Add to
     PATH option in the Windows installer uses the correct path when
     being repaired.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47194

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-25032

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47171

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46566

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47086

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44549

   (9) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-3189

   (10) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-12900

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46948

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-26488


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<16>,  Next: Tools/Demos<14>,  Prev: Windows<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.25.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-46890(1): Fix a regression in the setting of
     ‘sys._base_executable’ in framework builds, and thereby fix a
     regression in *note venv: 10c. virtual environments with such
     builds.

   - bpo-46907(2): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46890

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<14>,  Next: C API<19>,  Prev: macOS<16>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.25.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-40280(1): Replace Emscripten's limited shell with Katie Bell's
     browser-ui REPL from python-wasm project.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280


File: python.info,  Node: C API<19>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<14>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.25.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-40421(1): Add ‘PyFrame_GetBuiltins’, ‘PyFrame_GetGenerator’ and
     ‘PyFrame_GetGlobals’ C-API functions to access frame object
     attributes safely from C code.

   - bpo-46850(2): Move the private ‘_PyFrameEvalFunction’ type, and
     private ‘_PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc()’ and
     ‘_PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc()’ functions to the internal
     C API. The ‘_PyFrameEvalFunction’ callback function type now uses
     the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ type which is part of the internal C API.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(3): Move the private undocumented
     ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ function to the internal C API. The
     function now uses the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ type which is part of
     the internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(4): Remove the private undocumented function
     ‘_PyEval_CallTracing()’ from the C API. Call the public *note
     sys.call_tracing(): 1603. function instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(5): Remove the private undocumented function
     ‘_PyEval_GetCoroutineOriginTrackingDepth()’ from the C API. Call
     the public *note sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): 9ea.
     function instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(6): Remove the following private undocumented functions
     from the C API:

        * ‘_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFirstiter()’

        * ‘_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFinalizer()’

        * ‘_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFirstiter()’

        * ‘_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFinalizer()’

     Call the public *note sys.get_asyncgen_hooks(): 1604. and *note
     sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 1605. functions instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46987(7): Remove private functions ‘_PySys_GetObjectId()’ and
     ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-46906(8): Add new functions to pack and unpack C double
     (serialize and deserialize): *note PyFloat_Pack2(): 57c, *note
     PyFloat_Pack4(): 57d, *note PyFloat_Pack8(): 57e, *note
     PyFloat_Unpack2(): 57f, *note PyFloat_Unpack4(): 580. and *note
     PyFloat_Unpack8(): 581.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46987

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.26 Python 3.11.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-03-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<26>.
* Library: Library<26>.
* Documentation: Documentation<23>.
* Tests: Tests<24>.
* Build: Build<23>.
* Windows: Windows<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<14>.
* C API: C API<20>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<26>,  Next: Library<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.26.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46940(1): Avoid overriding *note AttributeError: 3ca. metadata
     information for nested attribute access calls.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-46927(2): Include the type's name in the error message for
     subscripting non-generic types.

   - bpo-46921(3): Support vectorcall for ‘super()’.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-46841(4): Fix incorrect handling of inline cache entries when
     specializing *note BINARY_OP: 508.

   - bpo-46841(5): Use an oparg to simplify the construction of helpful
     error messages in *note GET_AWAITABLE: 1608.

   - bpo-46903(6): Make sure that str subclasses can be used as
     attribute names for instances with virtual dictionaries.  Fixes
     regression in 3.11alpha

   - bpo-46841(7): Add more detailed specialization failure stats for
     *note COMPARE_OP: 7ab. followed by *note EXTENDED_ARG: 156f.

   - bpo-46891(8): Fix bug introduced during 3.11alpha where subclasses
     of ‘types.ModuleType’ with ‘__slots__’ were not initialized
     correctly, resulting in an interpreter crash.

   - bpo-46841(9): Use inline caching for *note LOAD_ATTR: 209, *note
     LOAD_METHOD: a82, and *note STORE_ATTR: 1609.

   - bpo-46841(10): Use inline cache for *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 1502.

   - bpo-46841(11): Use inline caching for *note COMPARE_OP: 7ab.

   - bpo-46864(12): Deprecate ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’.  It will be
     removed in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46841(13): Use inline caching for *note UNPACK_SEQUENCE: 160a.

   - bpo-46845(14): Reduces dict size by removing hash value from hash
     table when all inserted keys are Unicode.  For example,
     ‘sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg"))’ becomes 272 bytes from
     352 bytes on 64bit platform.

   - bpo-46841(15): Use inline cache for *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 1503.

   - bpo-46852(16): Rename the private undocumented
     ‘float.__set_format__()’ method to ‘float.__setformat__()’ to fix a
     typo introduced in Python 3.7.  The method is only used by
     test_float.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46852(17): Remove the undocumented private
     ‘float.__set_format__()’ method, previously known as
     ‘float.__setformat__()’ in Python 3.7.  Its docstring said: "You
     probably don't want to use this function.  It exists mainly to be
     used in Python's test suite."  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40116(18): Fix regression that dict.update(other) may don't
     respect iterate order of other when other is key sharing dict.

   - bpo-46712(19): Share global string identifiers in deep-frozen
     modules.

   - bpo-46430(20): Fix memory leak in interned strings of deep-frozen
     modules.

   - bpo-46841(21): Store *note BINARY_OP: 508. caches inline using a
     new *note CACHE: 4fa. instruction.

   - bpo-45107(22): Specialize ‘LOAD_METHOD’ for instances with a dict.

   - bpo-44337(23): Reduce the memory usage of specialized *note
     LOAD_ATTR: 209. and *note STORE_ATTR: 1609. instructions.

   - bpo-46729(24): Add number of sub-exceptions to
     ‘BaseException.__str__()’.

   - bpo-45885(25): Don't un-adapt *note COMPARE_OP: 7ab. when
     collecting specialization stats.

   - bpo-46329(26): Fix specialization stats gathering for ‘PRECALL’
     instructions.

   - bpo-46794(27): Bump up the libexpat version into 2.4.6

   - bpo-46823(28): Implement a specialized combined opcode
     ‘LOAD_FAST__LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE’.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-46820(29): Fix parsing a numeric literal immediately (without
     spaces) followed by "not in" keywords, like in ‘1not in x’.  Now
     the parser only emits a warning, not a syntax error.

   - bpo-46329(30): Move ‘KW_NAMES’ before ‘PRECALL’ instruction in call
     sequence.  Change ‘operand’ of ‘CALL’ to match ‘PRECALL’ for easier
     specialization.

   - bpo-46808(31): Remove the ‘NEXT_BLOCK’ macro from compile.c, and
     make the compiler automatically generate implicit blocks when they
     are needed.

   - bpo-46329(32): Add ‘PUSH_NULL’ instruction.  This is used as a
     prefix when evaluating a callable, so that the stack has the same
     shape for methods and other calls.  ‘PRECALL_FUNCTION’ and
     ‘PRECALL_METHOD’ are merged into a single ‘PRECALL’ instruction.

     There is no change in semantics.

   - bpo-46762(33): Fix an assert failure in debug builds when a '<',
     '>', or '=' is the last character in an f-string that's missing a
     closing right brace.

   - bpo-46730(34): Message of AttributeError caused by getting, setting
     or deleting a property without the corresponding function now
     mentions that the attribute is in fact a property and also
     specifies type of the class that it belongs to.

   - bpo-46724(35): Make sure that all backwards jumps use the
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’ instruction, rather than ‘JUMP_FORWARD’ with an
     argument of ‘(2**32)+offset’.

   - bpo-46732(36): Correct the docstring for the *note __bool__():
     1166. method.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46072(37): Add more detailed specialization failure statistics
     for *note BINARY_OP: 508.

   - bpo-46707(38): Avoid potential exponential backtracking when
     producing some syntax errors involving lots of brackets.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46323(39): *note ctypes: 28. now allocates memory on the stack
     instead of on the heap to pass arguments while calling a Python
     callback function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45923(40): Add a quickened form of *note RESUME: 505. that
     skips quickening checks.

   - bpo-46702(41): Specialize *note UNPACK_SEQUENCE: 160a. for *note
     tuple: 4e6. and *note list: 40a. unpackings.

   - bpo-46072(42): Opcode pair stats are now gathered with
     ‘--enable-pystats’.  Defining ‘DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE’ or
     ‘DXPAIRS’ no longer has any effect.

   - bpo-46675(43): Allow more than 16 items in a split dict before it
     is combined.  The limit is now 254.

   - bpo-40479(44): Add a missing call to ‘va_end()’ in
     ‘Modules/_hashopenssl.c’.

   - bpo-46323(45): Use *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2e3. while calling
     ctypes callback function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-46615(46): When iterating over sets internally in
     ‘setobject.c’, acquire strong references to the resulting items
     from the set.  This prevents crashes in corner-cases of various set
     operations where the set gets mutated.

   - bpo-45828(47): The bytecode compiler now attempts to apply runtime
     stack manipulations at compile-time (whenever it is feasible to do
     so).

   - bpo-30496(48): Fixed a minor portability issue in the
     implementation of *note PyLong_FromLong(): 160b, and added a fast
     path for single-digit integers to *note PyLong_FromLongLong():
     160c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46940

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46927

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46921

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46903

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46891

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46712

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45107

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44337

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46729

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46794

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46823

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46820

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46808

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46762

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46730

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46732

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46707

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46702

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46675

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46615

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30496


File: python.info,  Node: Library<26>,  Next: Documentation<23>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.26.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-25707(1): Fixed a file leak in *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): ea7. when the iterator is not
     exhausted.  Patch by Jacob Walls.

   - bpo-46877(2): Export *note unittest.doModuleCleanups(): 160e. in
     *note unittest: 101.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46848(3): For performance, use the optimized string-searching
     implementations from *note find(): 160f. and *note rfind(): 1610.
     for ‘find()’ and ‘rfind()’.

   - bpo-46736(4): *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 99b. now uses HTML5
     grammar.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44886(5): Inherit asyncio proactor datagram transport from
     *note asyncio.DatagramTransport: 1576.

   - bpo-46827(6): Support UDP sockets in *note
     asyncio.loop.sock_connect(): c41. for selector-based event loops.
     Patch by Thomas Grainger.

   - bpo-46811(7): Make test suite support Expat >=2.4.5

   - bpo-46252(8): Raise *note TypeError: 2ba. if *note ssl.SSLSocket:
     723. is passed to transport-based APIs.

   - bpo-46784(9): Fix libexpat symbols collisions with user dynamically
     loaded or statically linked libexpat in embedded Python.

   - bpo-46786(10): The HTML serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree now
     writes ‘embed’, ‘source’, ‘track’ and ‘wbr’ as empty tags, as
     defined in HTML 5.

   - bpo-39327(11): *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. can now work with
     VirtualBox shared folders when running from the guest
     operating-system.

   - bpo-45390(12): Propagate *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. message
     from inner task to outer awaiter.

   - bpo-46756(13): Fix a bug in *note
     urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password(): 1611. and
     *note
     urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated():
     1612. which allowed to bypass authorization.  For example, access
     to URI ‘example.org/foobar’ was allowed if the user was authorized
     for URI ‘example.org/foo’.

   - bpo-46737(14): *note random.gauss(): 1613. and *note
     random.normalvariate(): 1614. now have default arguments.

   - bpo-46752(15): Add task groups to asyncio (structured concurrency,
     inspired by Trio's nurseries).  This also introduces a change to
     task cancellation, where a cancelled task can't be cancelled again
     until it calls .uncancel().

   - bpo-46724(16): Fix *note dis: 35. behavior on negative jump
     offsets.

   - bpo-46333(17): The ‘__repr__()’ method of *note typing.ForwardRef:
     1615. now includes the ‘module’ parameter of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 1615. when it is set.

   - bpo-46643(18): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0, support
     evaluating stringified ‘ParamSpecArgs’ and ‘ParamSpecKwargs’
     annotations.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-45863(19): When the *note tarfile: d8. module creates a pax
     format archive, it will put an integer representation of timestamps
     in the ustar header (if possible) for the benefit of older
     unarchivers, in addition to the existing full-precision timestamps
     in the pax extended header.

   - bpo-46066(20): Deprecate kwargs-based syntax for *note
     typing.TypedDict: 153. definitions.  It had confusing semantics
     when specifying totality, and was largely unused.  Patch by
     Jingchen Ye.

   - bpo-46676(21): Make *note typing.ParamSpec: 163. args and kwargs
     equal to themselves.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46323(22): ‘ctypes.CFUNCTYPE()’ and ‘ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE()’ now
     fail to create the type if its ‘_argtypes_’ member contains too
     many arguments.  Previously, the error was only raised when calling
     a function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46672(23): Fix ‘NameError’ in *note asyncio.gather(): 3f4. when
     initial type check fails.

   - bpo-46659(24): The *note calendar.LocaleTextCalendar: 557. and
     *note calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar: 558. classes now use *note
     locale.getlocale(): 259, instead of using *note
     locale.getdefaultlocale(): 256, if no locale is specified.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46659(25): The *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 256. function
     is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use *note
     locale.setlocale(): 257, *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False):
     2bc. and *note locale.getlocale(): 259. functions instead.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46655(26): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0, support
     evaluating bare stringified ‘TypeAlias’ annotations.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-45948(27): Fixed a discrepancy in the C implementation of the
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. module.  Now, instantiating an
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser: 89e. with a ‘target=None’
     keyword provides a default *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder:
     89f. target as the Python implementation does.

   - bpo-46626(28): Expose Linux's ‘IP_BIND_ADDRESS_NO_PORT’ option in
     *note socket: c6.

   - bpo-46521(29): Fix a bug in the *note codeop: 1a. module that was
     incorrectly identifying invalid code involving string quotes as
     valid code.

   - bpo-46571(30): Improve *note typing.no_type_check(): 4b3.

     Now it does not modify external classes and functions.  We also now
     correctly mark classmethods as not to be type checked.

   - bpo-46400(31): expat: Update libexpat from 2.4.1 to 2.4.4

   - bpo-46556(32): Deprecate undocumented support for using a *note
     pathlib.Path: 149. object as a context manager.

   - bpo-46534(33): Implement PEP 673(34) *note typing.Self: 3b7.  Patch
     by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - bpo-46522(35): Make various module ‘__getattr__’ AttributeErrors
     more closely match a typical AttributeError

   - bpo-46475(36): Add *note typing.Never: 4a5. and *note
     typing.assert_never(): 4a4.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46333(37): The ‘__eq__()’ and ‘__hash__()’ methods of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 1615. now honor the ‘module’ parameter of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 1615.  Forward references from different modules
     are now differentiated.

   - bpo-46246(38): Add missing ‘__slots__’ to
     ‘importlib.metadata.DeprecatedList’.  Patch by Arie Bovenberg.

   - bpo-46232(39): The *note ssl: ca. module now handles certificates
     with bit strings in DN correctly.

   - bpo-46195(40): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. no longer adds
     ‘Optional’ to parameters with ‘None’ as a default.  This aligns to
     changes to PEP 484 in ‘https://github.com/python/peps/pull/689’

   - bpo-31369(41): Add *note RegexFlag: 427. to ‘re.__all__’ and
     documented it.  Add ‘NOFLAG’ to indicate no flags being set.

   - bpo-45898(42): *note ctypes: 28. no longer defines ‘ffi_type_*’
     symbols in ‘cfield.c’.  The symbols have been provided by libffi
     for over a decade.

   - bpo-44953(43): Calling ‘operator.itemgetter’ objects and
     ‘operator.attrgetter’ objects is now faster due to use of the
     vectorcall calling convention.

   - bpo-44289(44): Fix an issue with *note is_tarfile(): 1616. method
     when using 'fileobj' argument: position in the 'fileobj' was
     advanced forward which made it unreadable with *note
     tarfile.TarFile.open(): 1617.

   - bpo-44011(45): Reimplement SSL/TLS support in asyncio, borrow the
     implementation from uvloop library.

   - bpo-41086(46): Make the *note configparser.ConfigParser: 286.
     constructor raise *note TypeError: 2ba. if the ‘interpolation’
     parameter is not of type ‘configparser.Interpolation’

   - bpo-29418(47): Implement *note inspect.ismethodwrapper(): 445. and
     fix *note inspect.isroutine(): 1618. for cases where methodwrapper
     is given.  Patch by Hakan Çelik.

   - bpo-14156(48): argparse.FileType now supports an argument of '-' in
     binary mode, returning the .buffer attribute of
     sys.stdin/sys.stdout as appropriate.  Modes including 'x' and 'a'
     are treated equivalently to 'w' when argument is '-'.  Patch
     contributed by Josh Rosenberg

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25707

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46877

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46848

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46736

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44886

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46827

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46811

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46252

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46784

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46786

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39327

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45390

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46756

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46737

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46752

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46643

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45863

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46066

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46676

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46672

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46655

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45948

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46626

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46521

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46571

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46400

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46556

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46522

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46475

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46246

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46232

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46195

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31369

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45898

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44953

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44289

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44011

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41086

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14156


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<23>,  Next: Tests<24>,  Prev: Library<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.26.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): ‘Doc/tools/rstlint.py’ has moved to its own
     repository and is now packaged on PyPI as ‘sphinx-lint’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<24>,  Next: Build<23>,  Prev: Documentation<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.26.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-46913(1): Fix test_faulthandler.test_sigfpe() if Python is
     built with undefined behavior sanitizer (UBSAN): disable UBSAN on
     the faulthandler_sigfpe() function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46760(2): Remove bytecode offsets from expected values in
     test.test_dis module.  Reduces the obstacles to modifying the VM or
     compiler.

   - bpo-46708(3): Prevent default asyncio event loop policy
     modification warning after ‘test_asyncio’ execution.

   - bpo-46678(4): The function ‘make_legacy_pyc’ in
     ‘Lib/test/support/import_helper.py’ no longer fails when
     ‘PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX’ is set to a directory on a different device
     from where tempfiles are stored.

   - bpo-46623(5): Skip test_pair() and test_speech128() of test_zlib on
     s390x since they fail if zlib uses the s390x hardware accelerator.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46913

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46760

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46678

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46623


File: python.info,  Node: Build<23>,  Next: Windows<24>,  Prev: Tests<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.26.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-46860(1): Respect ‘--with-suffix’ when building on
     case-insensitive file systems.

   - bpo-46656(2): Building Python now requires a C11 compiler.
     Optional C11 features are not required.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46656(3): Building Python now requires support for
     floating-point Not-a-Number (NaN): remove the ‘Py_NO_NAN’ macro.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46640(4): Building Python now requires a C99 ‘<math.h>’ header
     file providing a ‘NAN’ constant, or the ‘__builtin_nan()’ built-in
     function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46608(5): Exclude marshalled-frozen data if deep-freezing to
     save 300 KB disk space.  This includes adding a new ‘is_package’
     field to *note _frozen: 58c.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-40280(6): Fix wasm32-emscripten test failures and platform
     issues.  - Disable syscalls that are not supported or don't work,
     e.g.  wait, getrusage, prlimit, mkfifo, mknod, setres[gu]id,
     setgroups.  - Use fd_count to count open fds.  - Add more checks
     for subprocess and fork.  - Add workarounds for missing
     _multiprocessing and failing socket.accept().  - Enable bzip2.  -
     Disable large file support.  - Disable signal.alarm.

   - bpo-46430(7): Intern strings in deep-frozen modules.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46860

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<24>,  Next: IDLE<14>,  Prev: Build<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.26.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46744(1): The default all users install directory for ARM64 is
     now under the native ‘Program Files’ folder, rather than ‘Program
     Files (Arm)’ which is intended for ARM (32-bit) files.

   - bpo-46567(2): Adds Tcl and Tk support for Windows ARM64.  This also
     adds IDLE to the installation.

   - bpo-46638(3): Ensures registry virtualization is consistently
     disabled.  For 3.10 and earlier, it remains enabled (some registry
     writes are protected), while for 3.11 and later it is disabled
     (registry modifications affect all applications).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46744

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46567

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46638


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<14>,  Next: C API<20>,  Prev: Windows<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.26.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-46630(1): Make query dialogs on Windows start with a cursor in
     the entry box.

   - bpo-45447(2): Apply IDLE syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.
     Patch by Alex Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447


File: python.info,  Node: C API<20>,  Prev: IDLE<14>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.26.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-46748(1): Python's public headers no longer import
     ‘<stdbool.h>’, leaving code that embeds/extends Python free to
     define ‘bool’, ‘true’ and ‘false’.

   - bpo-46836(2): Move the *note PyFrameObject: 5a1. type definition
     (‘struct _frame’) to the internal C API ‘pycore_frame.h’ header
     file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45459(3): Rename ‘Include/buffer.h’ header file to
     ‘Include/pybuffer.h’ to avoid conflicts with projects having an
     existing ‘buffer.h’ header file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45412(4): Remove the ‘HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION’ macro (moved
     to the internal C API). Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46613(5): Added function *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 57a,
     which allows access to module state when a method's defining class
     is not available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46748

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46836

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.27 Python 3.11.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-02-03'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<27>.
* Library: Library<27>.
* Documentation: Documentation<24>.
* Tests: Tests<25>.
* Build: Build<24>.
* Windows: Windows<25>.
* macOS: macOS<17>.
* IDLE: IDLE<15>.
* C API: C API<21>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<27>,  Next: Library<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.27.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45773(1): Remove two invalid "peephole" optimizations from the
     bytecode compiler.

   - bpo-46564(2): Do not create frame objects when creating *note
     super: 206. object.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45885(3): Added more fined-grained specialization failure stats
     regarding the ‘COMPARE_OP’ bytecode.

   - bpo-44977(4): The delegation of *note int(): 17e. to ‘__trunc__()’
     is now deprecated.  Calling ‘int(a)’ when ‘type(a)’ implements
     ‘__trunc__()’ but not ‘__int__()’ or ‘__index__()’ now raises a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 179.

   - bpo-46458(5): Reorder code emitted by the compiler for a *note try:
     4ea.-*note except: 3a8. block so that the *note else: 264. block's
     code immediately follows the *note try: 4ea. body (without a jump).
     This is more optimal for the happy path.

   - bpo-46527(6): Allow passing ‘iterable’ as a keyword argument to
     *note enumerate(): 12f0. again.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46528(7): Replace several stack manipulation instructions
     (‘DUP_TOP’, ‘DUP_TOP_TWO’, ‘ROT_TWO’, ‘ROT_THREE’, ‘ROT_FOUR’, and
     ‘ROT_N’) with new *note COPY: 50b. and *note SWAP: 50c.
     instructions.

   - bpo-46329(8): Use two or three bytecodes to implement most calls.

     Calls without named arguments are implemented as a sequence of two
     instructions: ‘PRECALL; CALL’.  Calls with named arguments are
     implemented as a sequence of three instructions: ‘PRECALL;
     KW_NAMES; CALL’.  There are two different ‘PRECALL’ instructions:
     ‘PRECALL_FUNTION’ and ‘PRECALL_METHOD’.  The latter pairs with
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’.

     This partition into pre-call and call allows better specialization,
     and thus better performance ultimately.

     There is no change in semantics.

   - bpo-46503(9): Fix an assert when parsing some invalid N escape
     sequences in f-strings.

   - bpo-46431(10): Improve error message on invalid calls to
     ‘BaseExceptionGroup.__new__()’.

   - bpo-46476(11): Fix memory leak in code objects generated by
     deepfreeze.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46481(12): Speed up calls to ‘weakref.ref.__call__()’ by using
     the PEP 590(13) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-46417(14): Fix a race condition on setting a type ‘__bases__’
     attribute: the internal function ‘add_subclass()’ now gets the
     ‘PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses’ member after calling *note
     PyWeakref_NewRef(): 1621. which can trigger a garbage collection
     which can indirectly modify ‘PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46417(15): ‘python -X showrefcount’ now shows the total
     reference count after clearing and destroyed the main Python
     interpreter.  Previously, it was shown before.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-43683(16): Add ASYNC_GEN_WRAP opcode to wrap the value to be
     yielded in async generators.  Removes the need to special case
     async generators in the ‘YIELD_VALUE’ instruction.

   - bpo-46407(17): Optimize some modulo operations in
     ‘Objects/longobject.c’.  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   - bpo-46409(18): Add new ‘RETURN_GENERATOR’ bytecode to make
     generators.  Simplifies calling Python functions in the VM, as they
     no longer any need to special case generator functions.

     Also add ‘JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT’ bytecode that acts like
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’, but does not check for interrupts.

   - bpo-46406(19): The integer division ‘//’ implementation has been
     optimized to better let the compiler understand its constraints.
     It can be 20% faster on the amd64 platform when dividing an int by
     a value smaller than ‘2**30’.

   - bpo-46383(20): Fix invalid signature of ‘_zoneinfo’'s ‘module_free’
     function to resolve a crash on wasm32-emscripten platform.

   - bpo-46361(21): Ensure that "small" integers created by *note
     int.from_bytes(): 1622. and *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0. are
     properly cached.

   - bpo-46161(22): Fix the class building error when the arguments are
     constants and CALL_FUNCTION_EX is used.

   - bpo-46028(23): Fixes calculation of ‘sys._base_executable’ when
     inside a virtual environment that uses symlinks with different
     binary names than the base environment provides.

   - bpo-46091(24): Correctly calculate indentation levels for lines
     with whitespace character that are ended by line continuation
     characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-30512(25): Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD.

   - bpo-46045(26): Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

   - bpo-44024(27): Improve the *note TypeError: 2ba. message for
     non-string second arguments passed to the built-in functions *note
     getattr(): a32. and *note hasattr(): 1f9.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46458

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46527

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46528

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46503

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46431

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46476

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46481

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46407

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46409

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46406

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46383

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46361

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46161

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46028

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46091

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44024


File: python.info,  Node: Library<27>,  Next: Documentation<24>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.27.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46624(1): Restore support for non-integer arguments of *note
     random.randrange(): 697. and *note random.randint(): 10c2.

   - bpo-46591(2): Make the IDLE doc URL on the About IDLE dialog
     clickable.

   - bpo-46565(3): Remove loop variables that are leaking into modules'
     namespaces.

   - bpo-46553(4): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0, support
     evaluating bare stringified ‘ClassVar’ annotations.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46544(5): Don't leak ‘x’ & ‘uspace’ intermediate vars in *note
     textwrap.TextWrapper: e5f.

   - bpo-46487(6): Add the ‘get_write_buffer_limits’ method to
     ‘asyncio.transports.WriteTransport’ and to the SSL transport.

   - bpo-45173(7): Note the configparser deprecations will be removed in
     Python 3.12.

   - bpo-45162(8): The deprecated *note unittest: 101. APIs removed in
     3.11a1 have been temporarily restored to be removed in 3.12 while
     cleanups in external projects go in.

   - bpo-46539(9): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0, support
     evaluating stringified ‘ClassVar’ and ‘Final’ annotations inside
     ‘Annotated’.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46510(10): Add missing test for *note types.TracebackType: 947.
     and *note types.FrameType: 1624.  Calculate them directly from the
     caught exception without calling *note sys.exc_info(): 487.

   - bpo-46491(11): Allow *note typing.Annotated: 77c. to wrap *note
     typing.Final: 88e. and *note typing.ClassVar: 4b2.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46483(12): Remove *note __class_getitem__(): 54c. from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 1c8. as this class was not supposed to be
     generic.

   - bpo-46436(13): Fix command-line option ‘-d’/‘--directory’ in module
     *note http.server: 6d. which is ignored when combined with
     command-line option ‘--cgi’.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-41403(14): Make ‘mock.patch()’ raise a *note TypeError: 2ba.
     with a relevant error message on invalid arg.  Previously it
     allowed a cryptic *note AttributeError: 3ca. to escape.

   - bpo-46474(15): In ‘importlib.metadata.EntryPoint.pattern’, avoid
     potential REDoS by limiting ambiguity in consecutive whitespace.

   - bpo-46474(16): Removed private method from
     ‘importlib.metadata.Path’.  Sync with importlib_metadata 4.10.0.

   - bpo-46470(17): Remove unused branch from
     ‘typing._remove_dups_flatten’

   - bpo-46469(18): *note asyncio: 9. generic classes now return *note
     types.GenericAlias: 60c. in ‘__class_getitem__’ instead of the same
     class.

   - bpo-41906(19): Support passing filter instances in the ‘filters’
     values of ‘handlers’ and ‘loggers’ in the dictionary passed to
     *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 1041.

   - bpo-46422(20): Use ‘dis.Positions’ in ‘dis.Instruction’ instead of
     a regular ‘tuple’.

   - bpo-46434(21): *note pdb: a0. now gracefully handles ‘help’ when
     *note __doc__: 1625. is missing, for example when run with
     pregenerated optimized ‘.pyc’ files.

   - bpo-43869(22): Python uses the same time Epoch on all platforms.
     Add an explicit unit test to ensure that it's the case.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46414(23): Add *note typing.reveal_type(): 4a7.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-40280(24): *note subprocess: d0. now imports Windows-specific
     imports when ‘msvcrt’ module is available, and POSIX-specific
     imports on all other platforms.  This gives a clean exception when
     ‘_posixsubprocess’ is not available (e.g.  Emscripten browser
     target).

   - bpo-40066(25): ‘IntEnum’, ‘IntFlag’, and ‘StrEnum’ use the mixed-in
     type for their ‘str()’ and ‘format()’ output.

   - bpo-46316(26): Optimize *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 157a. by
     removing an unnecessary check for special entries.

   - bpo-29688(27): Document *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 14e8. (which
     has always existed).

   - bpo-43012(28): The pathlib module's obsolete and internal
     ‘_Accessor’ class has been removed to prepare the terrain for
     upcoming enhancements to the module.

   - bpo-46258(29): Speed up *note math.isqrt(): 84b. for small positive
     integers by replacing two division steps with a lookup table.

   - bpo-46242(30): Improve error message when creating a new *note
     enum.Enum: 42b. type subclassing an existing ‘Enum’ with
     ‘_member_names_’ using ‘enum.Enum.__call__()’.

   - bpo-43118(31): Fix a bug in *note inspect.signature(): 548. that
     was causing it to fail on some subclasses of classes with a
     ‘__text_signature__’ referencing module globals.  Patch by Weipeng
     Hong.

   - bpo-26552(32): Fixed case where failing *note
     asyncio.ensure_future(): ade. did not close the coroutine.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-21987(33): Fix an issue with *note tarfile.TarFile.getmember():
     1626. getting a directory name with a trailing slash.

   - bpo-46124(34): Update *note zoneinfo: 12e. to rely on
     importlib.resources traversable API.

   - bpo-46103(35): Now *note inspect.getmembers(): 1627. only gets
     ‘__bases__’ attribute from class type.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-46080(36): Fix exception in argparse help text generation if a
     *note argparse.BooleanOptionalAction: 1628. argument's default is
     ‘argparse.SUPPRESS’ and it has ‘help’ specified.  Patch by Felix
     Fontein.

   - bpo-44791(37): Fix substitution of *note ParamSpec: 163. in *note
     Concatenate: 5e2. with different parameter expressions.
     Substitution with a list of types returns now a tuple of types.
     Substitution with ‘Concatenate’ returns now a ‘Concatenate’ with
     concatenated lists of arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46624

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46591

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46565

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46553

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46544

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46487

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45162

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46539

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46510

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46491

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46436

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41403

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46470

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46469

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41906

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46422

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46434

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43869

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46414

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46316

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29688

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43012

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46258

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46242

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43118

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26552

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21987

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46124

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46103

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46080

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<24>,  Next: Tests<25>,  Prev: Library<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.27.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-46463(1): Fixes ‘escape4chm.py’ script used when building the
     CHM documentation file

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46463


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<25>,  Next: Build<24>,  Prev: Documentation<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.27.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43478(1): Mocks can no longer be provided as the specs for
     other Mocks.  As a result, an already-mocked object cannot be
     passed to ‘mock.Mock()’.  This can uncover bugs in tests since
     these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g.
     isinstance) and builtin assert functions (e.g.
     assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

   - bpo-46616(2): Ensures ‘test_importlib.test_windows’ cleans up
     registry keys after completion.

   - bpo-44359(3): test_ftplib now silently ignores socket errors to
     prevent logging unhandled threading exceptions.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46600(4): Fix test_gdb.test_pycfunction() for Python built with
     ‘clang -Og’.  Tolerate inlined functions in the gdb traceback.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46542(5): Fix a Python crash in test_lib2to3 when using Python
     built in debug mode: limit the recursion limit.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46576(6): test_peg_generator now disables compiler optimization
     when testing compilation of its own C extensions to significantly
     speed up the testing on non-debug builds of CPython.

   - bpo-46542(7): Fix ‘test_json’ tests checking for *note
     RecursionError: be1.: modify these tests to use
     ‘support.infinite_recursion()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-13886(8): Skip test_builtin PTY tests on non-ASCII characters
     if the readline module is loaded.  The readline module changes
     input() behavior, but test_builtin is not intended to test the
     readline module.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(9): Add ‘test.support.requires_fork()’ decorators to mark
     tests that require a working *note os.fork(): 233.

   - bpo-40280(10): Add ‘test.support.requires_subprocess()’ decorator
     to mark tests which require working *note subprocess: d0. module or
     ‘os.spawn*’.  The wasm32-emscripten platform has no support for
     processes.

   - bpo-46126(11): Disable 'descriptions' when running tests
     internally.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46616

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44359

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46576

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13886

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126


File: python.info,  Node: Build<24>,  Next: Windows<25>,  Prev: Tests<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.27.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-46602(1): Tidied up configure.ac so that conftest.c is
     truncated rather than appended.  This assists in the case where the
     'rm' of conftest.c fails to happen between tests.  Downstream
     issues such as a clobbered SOABI can result.

   - bpo-46600(2): Fix the test checking if the C compiler supports
     ‘-Og’ option in the ‘./configure’ script to also use ‘-Og’ on clang
     which supports it.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38472(3): Fix GCC detection in setup.py when cross-compiling.
     The C compiler is now run with LC_ALL=C. Previously, the detection
     failed with a German locale.

   - bpo-46513(4): ‘configure’ no longer uses ‘AC_C_CHAR_UNSIGNED’ macro
     and ‘pyconfig.h’ no longer defines reserved symbol
     ‘__CHAR_UNSIGNED__’.

   - bpo-46471(5): Use global singletons for single byte bytes objects
     in deepfreeze.

   - bpo-46443(6): Deepfreeze now uses cached small integers as it saves
     some space for common small integers.

   - bpo-46429(7): Merge all deep-frozen files into one for space
     savings.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45569(8): The build now defaults to using 30-bit digits for
     Python integers.  Previously either 15-bit or 30-bit digits would
     be selected, depending on the platform.  15-bit digits may still be
     selected using the ‘--enable-big-digits=15’ option to the
     ‘configure’ script, or by defining ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ in
     ‘pyconfig.h’.

   - bpo-45925(9): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.37.2.

   - bpo-43112(10): Detect musl libc as a separate SOABI (tagged as
     ‘linux-musl’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46602

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38472

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46513

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46471

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46429

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43112


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<25>,  Next: macOS<17>,  Prev: Build<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.27.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33125(1): The traditional EXE/MSI based installer for Windows
     is now available for ARM64

   - bpo-46362(2): os.path.abspath("C:CON") is now fixed to return
     "\.CON", not the same path.  The regression was true of all legacy
     DOS devices such as COM1, LPT1, or NUL.

   - bpo-44934(3): The installer now offers a command-line only option
     to add the installation directory to the end of ‘PATH’ instead of
     at the start.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46362

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<17>,  Next: IDLE<15>,  Prev: Windows<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.27.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45925(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.37.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<15>,  Next: C API<21>,  Prev: macOS<17>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.27.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45296(1): Clarify close, quit, and exit in IDLE. In the File
     menu, 'Close' and 'Exit' are now 'Close Window' (the current one)
     and 'Exit' is now 'Exit IDLE' (by closing all windows).  In Shell,
     'quit()' and 'exit()' mean 'close Shell'.  If there are no other
     windows, this also exits IDLE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296


File: python.info,  Node: C API<21>,  Prev: IDLE<15>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.27.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-40170(1): Remove the ‘PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS()’ macro.  It was
     exposed in the public C API by mistake, it must only be used by
     Python internally.  Use the ‘PyTypeObject.tp_members’ member
     instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40170(2): Move _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks() and
     _PyObject_DebugMallocStats() private functions to the internal C
     API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46433(3): The internal function _PyType_GetModuleByDef now
     correctly handles inheritance patterns involving static types.

   - bpo-45459(4): *note Py_buffer: 56b. and various ‘Py_buffer’ related
     functions are now part of the limited API and stable ABI.

   - bpo-14916(5): Fixed bug in the tokenizer that prevented
     ‘PyRun_InteractiveOne’ from parsing from the provided FD.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46433

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14916


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.28 Python 3.11.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-01-13'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<28>.
* Library: Library<28>.
* Documentation: Documentation<25>.
* Tests: Tests<26>.
* Build: Build<25>.
* Windows: Windows<26>.
* macOS: macOS<18>.
* C API: C API<22>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<28>,  Next: Library<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.28.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46070(1): *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1632. now explicitly
     untracks all objects currently tracked by the GC. Previously, if an
     object was used later by another interpreter, calling *note
     PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 137e. on the object crashed if the previous
     or the next object of the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure became a dangling
     pointer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46347(2): Fix memory leak in PyEval_EvalCodeEx.

   - bpo-46339(3): Fix a crash in the parser when retrieving the error
     text for multi-line f-strings expressions that do not start in the
     first line of the string.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46331(4): Do not set line number of instruction storing
     doc-string.  Fixes regression introduced in 3.11 alpha.

   - bpo-46314(5): Remove spurious "call" event when creating a lambda
     function that was accidentally introduced in 3.11a4.

   - bpo-46289(6): ASDL declaration of ‘FormattedValue’ has changed to
     reflect ‘conversion’ field is not optional.

   - bpo-46297(7): Fixed an interpreter crash on bootup with multiple
     PythonPaths set in the Windows registry.  Patch by Derzsi Dániel.

   - bpo-46237(8): Fix the line number of tokenizer errors inside
     f-strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46263(9): We always expect the "use_frozen_modules" config to
     be set, now that getpath.c was rewritten in pure Python and the
     logic improved.

   - bpo-46006(10): Fix a regression when a type method like
     ‘__init__()’ is modified in a subinterpreter.  Fix a regression in
     ‘_PyUnicode_EqualToASCIIId()’ and type ‘update_slot()’.  Revert the
     change which made the Unicode dictionary of interned strings
     compatible with subinterpreters: the internal interned dictionary
     is shared again by all interpreters.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45923(11): Add RESUME opcode.  This is a logical no-op.  It is
     emitted by the compiler anywhere a Python function can be entered.
     It is used by the interpreter to perform tracing and optimizer
     checks.

   - bpo-46208(12): Fix the regression of os.path.normpath("A/../../B")
     not returning expected "../B" but "B".

   - bpo-46240(13): Correct the error message for unclosed parentheses
     when the tokenizer doesn't reach the end of the source when the
     error is reported.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46009(14): Remove the ‘GEN_START’ opcode.

   - bpo-46235(15): Certain sequence multiplication operations like ‘[0]
     * 1_000’ are now faster due to reference-counting optimizations.
     Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-46221(16): ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’ no longer pushes ‘lasti’ to the
     stack.

   - bpo-46202(17): Remove ‘POP_EXCEPT_AND_RERAISE’ and replace it by an
     equivalent sequence of other opcodes.

   - bpo-46085(18): Fix iterator cache mechanism of ‘OrderedDict’.

   - bpo-46055(19): Speed up shifting operation involving integers less
     than ‘PyLong_BASE’.  Patch by Xinhang Xu.

   - bpo-46110(20): Add a maximum recursion check to the PEG parser to
     avoid stack overflow.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46107(21): Fix bug where ‘ExceptionGroup.split()’ and
     ‘ExceptionGroup.subgroup()’ did not copy the exception group's
     ‘__note__’ field to the parts.

   - bpo-45711(22): The interpreter state's representation of handled
     exceptions (a.k.a exc_info, or _PyErr_StackItem) now has only the
     ‘exc_value’ field, ‘exc_type’ and ‘exc_traceback’ have been removed
     as their values can be derived from ‘exc_value’.

   - bpo-44525(23): Replace the four call bytecode instructions which
     one pre-call instruction and two call instructions.

     Removes ‘CALL_FUNCTION’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’, ‘CALL_METHOD’ and
     ‘CALL_METHOD_KW’.

     Adds ‘CALL_NO_KW’ and ‘CALL_KW’ call instructions, and
     ‘PRECALL_METHOD’ prefix for pairing with ‘LOAD_METHOD’.

   - bpo-46039(24): Remove the ‘YIELD_FROM’ instruction and replace it
     with the ‘SEND’ instruction which performs the same operation, but
     without the loop.

   - bpo-45635(25): The code called from ‘_PyErr_Display()’ was
     refactored to improve error handling.  It now exits immediately
     upon an unrecoverable error.

   - bpo-46054(26): Fix parser error when parsing non-utf8 characters in
     source files.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46042(27): Improve the location of the caret in *note
     SyntaxError: 146. exceptions emitted by the symbol table.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46049(28): Ensure ‘._pth’ files work as intended on platforms
     other than Windows.

   - bpo-46048(29): Fixes parsing of ‘._pth’ files on startup so that
     single-character paths are correctly read.

   - bpo-37971(30): Fix a bug where the line numbers given in a
     traceback when a decorator application raised an exception were
     wrong.

   - bpo-46031(31): Add *note POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE: 15c6. and *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_NONE: 15c5. opcodes to speed up conditional jumps.

   - bpo-45654(32): Deepfreeze *note runpy: b9, patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46025(33): Fix a crash in the *note atexit: a. module involving
     functions that unregister themselves before raising exceptions.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46000(34): Improve compatibility of the *note curses: 29.
     module with NetBSD curses.

   - bpo-44525(35): Specialize the CALL_FUNCTION instruction for calls
     to builtin types with a single argument.  Speeds up ‘range(x)’,
     ‘list(x)’, and specifically ‘type(obj)’.

   - bpo-42918(36): Fix bug where the built-in *note compile(): 554.
     function did not always raise a *note SyntaxError: 146. when passed
     multiple statements in 'single' mode.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-45953(37): The main interpreter in _PyRuntimeState.interpreters
     is now statically allocated (as part of _PyRuntime).  Likewise for
     the initial thread state of each interpreter.  This means less
     allocation during runtime init, as well as better memory locality
     for these key state objects.

   - bpo-45292(38): Complete the PEP 654(39) implementation: add
     ‘except*’.

   - bpo-43413(40): Revert changes in ‘set.__init__’.  Subclass of *note
     set: 3cc. needs to define a ‘__init__()’ method if it defines a
     ‘__new__()’ method with additional keyword parameters.

   - bpo-43931(41): Added the *note Py_Version: 569. constant which
     bears the same value as *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 56a.  Patch by
     Gabriele N. Tornetta.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46339

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46331

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46314

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46289

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46297

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46237

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46006

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46208

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46240

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46235

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46221

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46202

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46085

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46055

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46110

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46107

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46039

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45635

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46054

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46042

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46049

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46048

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37971

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46031

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45654

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46025

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46000

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42918

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45953

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43413

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931


File: python.info,  Node: Library<28>,  Next: Documentation<25>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.28.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46342(1): The ‘@typing.final’ decorator now sets the
     ‘__final__’ attribute on the decorated object to allow runtime
     introspection.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46328(2): Added the *note sys.exception(): 488. method which
     returns the active exception instance.

   - bpo-46307(3): Add *note string.Template.is_valid(): 483. and *note
     string.Template.get_identifiers(): 482. methods.

   - bpo-46306(4): Assume that *note types.CodeType: 25d. always has
     ‘types.CodeType.co_firstlineno’ in *note doctest: 36.

   - bpo-40479(5): Fix *note hashlib: 63. 'usedforsecurity' option to
     work correctly with OpenSSL 3.0.0 in FIPS mode.

   - bpo-46070(6): Fix possible segfault when importing the *note
     asyncio: 9. module from different sub-interpreters in parallel.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-46244(7): Removed ‘__slots__’ from *note typing.ParamSpec: 163.
     and *note typing.TypeVar: 164.  They served no purpose.  Patch by
     Arie Bovenberg.

   - bpo-46278(8): Reflect ‘context’ argument in
     ‘AbstractEventLoop.call_*()’ methods.  Loop implementations already
     support it.

   - bpo-46269(9): Remove special-casing of ‘__new__’ in *note
     enum.Enum.__dir__(): 1634.

   - bpo-46266(10): Improve day constants in *note calendar: 12.

     Now all constants (‘MONDAY’ ...  ‘SUNDAY’) are documented, tested,
     and added to ‘__all__’.

   - bpo-46257(11): Optimized the mean, variance, and stdev functions in
     the statistics module.  If the input is an iterator, it is consumed
     in a single pass rather than eating memory by conversion to a list.
     The single pass algorithm is about twice as fast as the previous
     two pass code.

   - bpo-41011(12): Added two new variables to 'pyvenv.cfg' which is
     generated by *note venv: 10c. module: 'executable' for the
     executable and 'command' for the command line used to create the
     environment.

   - bpo-46239(13): Improve error message when importing
     ‘asyncio.windows_events’ on non-Windows.

   - bpo-46238(14): Reuse ‘_winapi’ constants in
     ‘asyncio.windows_events’.

   - bpo-46222(15): Adding ‘SF_NOCACHE’ sendfile constant for FreeBSD
     for the posixmodule.

   - bpo-37295(16): Add fast path for ‘0 <= k <= n <= 67’ for *note
     math.comb(): 4ce.

   - bpo-46176(17): Adding the ‘MAP_STACK’ constant for the mmap module.

   - bpo-43424(18): Deprecate ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript._name’ and use
     ‘name’ instead.

   - bpo-45321(19): Added missing error codes to module
     ‘xml.parsers.expat.errors’.

   - bpo-46125(20): Refactor tests to test traversable API directly.
     Includes changes from importlib 5.4.0.

   - bpo-46118(21): Moved importlib.resources and its related
     functionality to a package.

   - bpo-37578(22): Add 'include_hidden' parameter to *note glob(): 628.
     and *note iglob(): 629. to match hidden files and directories when
     using special characters like ‘*’, ‘**’, ‘?’ and ‘[]’.

   - bpo-20369(23): *note concurrent.futures.wait(): 1635. no longer
     blocks forever when given duplicate Futures.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46105(24): Honor spec when generating requirement specs with
     urls and extras (importlib_metadata 4.8.3).

   - bpo-44893(25): EntryPoint objects are no longer tuples.
     Recommended means to access is by attribute ('.name', '.group') or
     accessor ('.load()').  Access by index is deprecated and will raise
     deprecation warning.

   - bpo-22815(26): Print unexpected successes together with failures
     and errors in summary in *note unittest.TextTestResult: 2b2.

   - bpo-22047(27): Calling ‘add_argument_group()’ on an argument group
     is deprecated.  Calling ‘add_argument_group()’ or
     ‘add_mutually_exclusive_group()’ on a mutually exclusive group is
     deprecated.

     These features were never supported and do not always work
     correctly.  The functions exist on the API by accident through
     inheritance and will be removed in the future.

   - bpo-26952(28): *note argparse: 6. raises *note ValueError: 183.
     with clear message when trying to render usage for an empty
     mutually exclusive group.  Previously it raised a cryptic *note
     IndexError: 13ac.

   - bpo-45615(29): Functions in the *note traceback: f9. module raise
     *note TypeError: 2ba. rather than *note AttributeError: 3ca. when
     an exception argument is not of type *note BaseException: 3ab.

   - bpo-16594(30): Add allow allow_reuse_port flag in socketserver.

   - bpo-27718(31): Fix help for the *note signal: c1. module.  Some
     functions (e.g.  ‘signal()’ and ‘getsignal()’) were omitted.

   - bpo-46032(32): The ‘registry()’ method of *note
     functools.singledispatch(): 434. functions checks now the first
     argument or the first parameter annotation and raises a TypeError
     if it is not supported.  Previously unsupported "types" were
     ignored (e.g.  ‘typing.List[int]’) or caused an error at calling
     time (e.g.  ‘list[int]’).

   - bpo-46014(33): Add ability to use ‘typing.Union’ and
     ‘types.UnionType’ as dispatch argument to
     ‘functools.singledispatch’.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-27062(34): Add ‘__all__’ to *note inspect: 78, patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46018(35): Ensure that *note math.expm1(): 107d. does not raise
     on underflow.

   - bpo-46016(36): Adding ‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ constants
     from FreeBSD into the fcntl module.

   - bpo-45755(37): *note typing: ff. generic aliases now reveal the
     class attributes of the original generic class when passed to
     ‘dir()’.  This was the behavior up to Python 3.6, but was changed
     in 3.7-3.9.

   - bpo-45874(38): The empty query string, consisting of no query
     arguments, is now handled correctly in ‘urllib.parse.parse_qsl’.
     This caused problems before when strict parsing was enabled.

   - bpo-44674(39): Change how dataclasses disallows mutable default
     values.  It used to use a list of known types (list, dict, set).
     Now it disallows unhashable objects to be defaults.  It's using
     unhashability as a proxy for mutability.  Patch by Eric V. Smith,
     idea by Raymond Hettinger.

   - bpo-23882(40): Remove namespace package (PEP 420) support from
     unittest discovery.  It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been
     broken since Python 3.7.

   - bpo-25066(41): Added a ‘__repr__()’ method to *note
     multiprocessing.Event: 1636. objects, patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45643(42): Added *note signal.SIGSTKFLT: 1637. on platforms
     where this signal is defined.

   - bpo-44092(43): Fetch across rollback no longer raises *note
     InterfaceError: 47a.  Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to
     handle these cases.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42413(44): Replace ‘concurrent.futures.TimeoutError’ and
     ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’ with builtin *note TimeoutError: 65b, keep
     these names as deprecated aliases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46342

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46307

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46306

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46244

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46278

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46269

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46266

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46257

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41011

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46239

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46238

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46222

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46176

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43424

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45321

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46125

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46118

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37578

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20369

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44893

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22815

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22047

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26952

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45615

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16594

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27718

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46032

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27062

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46018

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46016

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45755

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45874

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25066

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45643

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<25>,  Next: Tests<26>,  Prev: Library<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.28.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-46196(1): Document method *note cmd.Cmd.columnize(): 1639.

   - bpo-46120(2): State that ‘|’ is preferred for readability over
     ‘Union’ in the *note typing: ff. docs.

   - bpo-46109(3): Extracted ‘importlib.resources’ and
     ‘importlib.resources.abc’ documentation into separate files.

   - bpo-19737(4): Update the documentation for the *note globals():
     163a. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46196

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46120

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46109

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19737


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<26>,  Next: Build<25>,  Prev: Documentation<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.28.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-46296(1): Add a test case for *note enum: 51. with ‘_use_args_
     == True’ and ‘_member_type_ == object’.

   - bpo-46205(2): Fix hang in runtest_mp due to race condition

   - bpo-46263(3): Fix test_capi on FreeBSD 14-dev: instruct jemalloc to
     not fill freed memory with junk byte.

   - bpo-46262(4): Cover ‘ValueError’ path in tests for
     ‘enum.Flag._missing_()’.

   - bpo-46150(5): Now ‘fakename’ in
     ‘test_pathlib.PosixPathTest.test_expanduser’ is checked to be
     non-existent.

   - bpo-46129(6): Rewrite ‘asyncio.locks’ tests with *note
     unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b. usage.

   - bpo-23819(7): Fixed *note asyncio: 9. tests in python optimized
     mode.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46114(8): Fix test case for OpenSSL 3.0.1 version.  OpenSSL 3.0
     uses ‘0xMNN00PP0L’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46296

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46205

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46262

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46150

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46129

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46114


File: python.info,  Node: Build<25>,  Next: Windows<26>,  Prev: Tests<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.28.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-44133(1): When Python is configured with *note
     -without-static-libpython: 6bc, the Python static library
     (libpython.a) is no longer built.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44133(2): When Python is built without *note -enable-shared:
     68e, the ‘python’ program is now linked to object files, rather
     than being linked to the Python static library (libpython.a), to
     make sure that all symbols are exported.  Previously, the linker
     omitted some symbols like the ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ function.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(3): The ‘configure’ script has a new option
     ‘--with-emscripten-target’ to select browser or node as Emscripten
     build target.

   - bpo-46315(4): Added and fixed ‘#ifdef HAVE_FEATURE’ checks for
     functionality that is not available on WASI platform.

   - bpo-45723(5): Fixed a regression in ‘configure’ check for *note
     select.epoll(): e20.

   - bpo-46263(6): ‘configure’ no longer sets ‘MULTIARCH’ on FreeBSD
     platforms.

   - bpo-46106(7): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1m in Windows builds, macOS
     installer builds, and CI. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46088(8): Automatically detect or install bootstrap Python
     runtime when building from Visual Studio.

   - bpo-46072(9): Add a -with-pystats configure option to turn on
     internal statistics gathering.

   - bpo-40280(10): A new directory ‘Tools/wasm’ contains
     WebAssembly-related helpers like ‘config.site’ override for
     wasm32-emscripten, wasm assets generator to bundle the stdlib, and
     a README.

   - bpo-46023(11): ‘makesetup’ no longer builds extensions that have
     been marked as 'disabled'.  This allows users to disable modules in
     ‘Modules/Setup.local’.

   - bpo-45949(12): Use pure Python ‘freeze_module’ for all but
     importlib bootstrap files.  ‘--with-freeze-module’ ‘configure’
     option is no longer needed for cross builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46315

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46106

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46088

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45949


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<26>,  Next: macOS<18>,  Prev: Build<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.28.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46217(1): Removed parameter that is unsupported on Windows 8.1
     and early Windows 10 and may have caused build or runtime failures.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46217


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<18>,  Next: C API<22>,  Prev: Windows<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.28.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-40477(1): The Python Launcher app for macOS now properly
     launches scripts and, if necessary, the Terminal app when running
     on recent macOS releases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40477


File: python.info,  Node: C API<22>,  Prev: macOS<18>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.28.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-46236(1): Fix a bug in *note PyFunction_GetAnnotations(): 1586.
     that caused it to return a ‘tuple’ instead of a ‘dict’.

   - bpo-46140(2): *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 56e, *note
     PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 571, *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 570.
     and *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 577. now take buffer info by
     ‘const Py_buffer *’ instead of ‘Py_buffer *’, as they do not need
     mutability.  *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 571. also now takes
     the source buffer as ‘const void *’, and similarly *note
     PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 56e. takes the strides as ‘const Py_ssize_t
     *’.

   - bpo-45855(3): Document that the 'no_block' argument to *note
     PyCapsule_Import(): 1640. is a no-op now.

   - bpo-45855(4): Replaced deprecated usage of *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 354. with *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 355. in stdlib modules.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46007(5): The ‘PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED()’ macro has been
     excluded from the limited C API. It was never usable there, because
     it used internal structures which are not available in the limited
     C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46236

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46140

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.29 Python 3.11.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-12-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<29>.
* Library: Library<29>.
* Documentation: Documentation<26>.
* Tests: Tests<27>.
* Build: Build<26>.
* Windows: Windows<27>.
* macOS: macOS<19>.
* C API: C API<23>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<29>,  Next: Library<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.29.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46009(1): Restore behavior from 3.9 and earlier when sending
     non-None to newly started generator.  In 3.9 this did not affect
     the state of the generator.  In 3.10.0 and 3.10.1
     ‘gen_func().send(0)’ is equivalent to
     ‘gen_func().throw(TypeError(...)’ which exhausts the generator.  In
     3.10.2 onward, the behavior has been reverted to that of 3.9.

   - bpo-46004(2): Fix the *note SyntaxError: 146. location for errors
     involving for loops with invalid targets.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45711(3): ‘_PyErr_ChainStackItem()’ no longer normalizes
     ‘exc_info’ (including setting the traceback on the exception
     instance) because ‘exc_info’ is always normalized.

   - bpo-45607(4): The ‘__note__’ field was added to *note
     BaseException: 3ab.  It is ‘None’ by default but can be set to a
     string which is added to the exception's traceback.

   - bpo-45947(5): Place pointers to dict and values immediately before
     GC header.  This reduces number of dependent memory loads to access
     either dict or values from 3 to 1.

   - bpo-45915(6): ‘is_valid_fd’ now uses faster ‘fcntl(fd, F_GETFD)’ on
     Linux, macOS, and Windows.

   - bpo-44530(7): Reverts a change to the ‘code.__new__’ *note audit
     event: 1643. from an earlier prerelease.

   - bpo-42268(8): Fail the configure step if the selected compiler
     doesn't support memory sanitizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45711(9): The three values of ‘exc_info’ are now always
     consistent with each other.  In particular, the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ fields are now derived from the exception instance.
     This impacts the return values of *note sys.exc_info(): 487. and
     *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 589. if the exception instance is
     modified while the exception is handled, as well as *note
     PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 588, which now ignores the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ arguments provided to it.

   - bpo-45727(10): Refine the custom syntax error that suggests that a
     comma may be missing to trigger only when the expressions are
     detected between parentheses or brackets.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45885(11): Specialized the ‘COMPARE_OP’ opcode using the PEP
     659 machinery.

   - bpo-45786(12): Allocate space for the interpreter frame in the
     frame object, to avoid an additional allocation when the frame
     object outlives the frame activation.

   - bpo-45614(13): Fix *note traceback: f9. display for exceptions with
     invalid module name.

   - bpo-45813(14): Fix crash when calling coro.cr_frame.clear() after
     coroutine has been freed.

   - bpo-45811(15): Improve the tokenizer errors when encountering
     invisible control characters in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45848(16): Allow the parser to obtain error lines directly from
     encoded files.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45709(17): Restore behavior from 3.10 when tracing an exception
     raised within a with statement.

   - bpo-44525(18): Adds new *note COPY_FREE_VARS: 4ff. opcode, to make
     copying of free variables from function to frame explicit.  Helps
     optimization of calls to Python function.

   - bpo-45829(19): Specialize *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 1502. for classes
     with a ‘__getitem__’ method implemented in Python

   - bpo-45826(20): Fixed a crash when calling ‘.with_traceback(None)’
     on ‘NameError’.  This occurs internally in
     ‘unittest.TestCase.assertRaises()’.

   - bpo-45822(21): Fixed a bug in the parser that was causing it to not
     respect PEP 263(22) coding cookies when no flags are provided.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45820(23): Fix a segfault when the parser fails without reading
     any input.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45636(24): Simplify the implementation of *note BINARY_OP: 508.
     by indexing into an array of function pointers (rather than
     switching on the oparg).

   - bpo-42540(25): Fix crash when *note os.fork(): 233. is called with
     an active non-default memory allocator.

   - bpo-45738(26): Fix computation of error location for invalid
     continuation characters in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45636(27): Remove an existing "fast path" for old-style string
     formatting, since it no longer appears to have any measurable
     impact.

   - bpo-45753(28): Make recursion checks a bit more efficient by
     tracking amount of calls left before overflow.

   - bpo-45773(29): Fix a compiler hang when attempting to optimize
     certain jump patterns.

   - bpo-45764(30): The parser now gives a better error message when
     leaving out the opening parenthesis ‘(’ after a ‘def’-statement:

          >>> def f:
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              def f:
                   ^
          SyntaxError: expected '('

   - bpo-45609(31): Specialized the ‘STORE_SUBSCR’ opcode using the PEP
     659 machinery.

   - bpo-45636(32): Replace all numeric ‘BINARY_*’ and ‘INPLACE_*’
     instructions with a single *note BINARY_OP: 508. implementation.

   - bpo-45582(33): Path calculation (known as ‘getpath’) has been
     reimplemented as a frozen Python module.  This should have no
     visible impact, but may affect calculation of all paths referenced
     in *note sys: d3. and *note sysconfig: d5.

   - bpo-45450(34): Improve the syntax error message for parenthesized
     arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46004

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45915

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42268

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45727

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45786

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45614

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45813

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45811

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45848

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45709

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45829

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45826

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45822

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45820

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42540

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45738

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45753

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45764

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45609

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45582

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45450


File: python.info,  Node: Library<29>,  Next: Documentation<26>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.29.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27946(1): Fix possible crash when getting an attribute of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 240. simultaneously with replacing
     the ‘attrib’ dict.

   - bpo-45711(2): Make *note asyncio: 9. normalize exceptions as soon
     as they are captured with *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2f4, and before they
     are stored as an exc_info triplet.  This brings *note asyncio: 9.
     in line with the rest of the codebase, where an exc_info triplet is
     always normalized.

   - bpo-23819(3): Replaced asserts with exceptions in asyncio, patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-13236(4): *note unittest.TextTestResult: 2b2. and *note
     unittest.TextTestRunner: 1508. flush now the output stream more
     often.

   - bpo-45917(5): Added *note math.exp2(): 45b.:, which returns 2
     raised to the power of x.

   - bpo-37658(6): Fix issue when on certain conditions
     ‘asyncio.wait_for()’ may allow a coroutine to complete
     successfully, but fail to return the result, potentially causing
     memory leaks or other issues.

   - bpo-45876(7): Improve the accuracy of stdev() and pstdev() in the
     statistics module.  When the inputs are floats or fractions, the
     output is a correctly rounded float

   - bpo-44649(8): Handle dataclass(slots=True) with a field that has
     default a default value, but for which init=False.

   - bpo-45803(9): Added missing kw_only parameter to
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().

   - bpo-45837(10): The ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ is deprecated
     since Python 3.1, it now emits a deprecation warning and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.

     Use ‘turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle()’ instead.

     ‘turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle()’ was earlier incorrectly marked as
     deprecated, its docstring has been corrected.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45831(11): *note faulthandler: 53. can now write ASCII-only
     strings (like filenames and function names) with a single write()
     syscall when dumping a traceback.  It reduces the risk of getting
     an unreadable dump when two threads or two processes dump a
     traceback to the same file (like stderr) at the same time.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45828(12): ‘sqlite’ C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions
     if callback tracebacks are enabled.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41735(13): Fix thread lock in ‘zlib.Decompress.flush()’ method
     before ‘PyObject_GetBuffer’.

   - bpo-45235(14): Reverted an argparse bugfix that caused regression
     in the handling of default arguments for subparsers.  This
     prevented leaf level arguments from taking precedence over root
     level arguments.

   - bpo-45754(15): Fix a regression in Python 3.11a1 and 3.11a2 where
     *note sqlite3: c9. incorrectly would use ‘SQLITE_LIMIT_LENGTH’ when
     checking SQL statement lengths.  Now, ‘SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH’ is
     used.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45766(16): Added 'proportional' option to *note
     statistics.linear_regression(): 657.

   - bpo-45765(17): In importlib.metadata, fix distribution discovery
     for an empty path.

   - bpo-45757(18): Fix bug where *note dis: 35. produced an incorrect
     oparg when *note EXTENDED_ARG: 156f. is followed by an opcode that
     does not use its argument.

   - bpo-45644(19): In-place JSON file formatting using ‘python3 -m
     json.tool infile infile’ now works correctly, previously it left
     the file empty.  Patch by Chris Wesseling.

   - bpo-45703(20): When a namespace package is imported before another
     module from the same namespace is created/installed in a different
     *note sys.path: 35e. location while the program is running, calling
     the *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): a73. function will now
     also guarantee the new module is noticed.

   - bpo-45535(21): Improve output of ‘dir()’ with Enums.

   - bpo-45664(22): Fix *note types.resolve_bases(): 9fc. and *note
     types.new_class(): ff4. for *note types.GenericAlias: 60c. instance
     as a base.

   - bpo-45663(23): Fix *note dataclasses.is_dataclass(): 1645. for
     dataclasses which are subclasses of *note types.GenericAlias: 60c.

   - bpo-45662(24): Fix the repr of ‘dataclasses.InitVar’ with a type
     alias to the built-in class, e.g.  ‘InitVar[list[int]]’.

   - bpo-43137(25): Launch GNOME web browsers via gio tool instead of
     obsolete gvfs-open

   - bpo-45429(26): On Windows, *note time.sleep(): 499. now uses a
     waitable timer which supports high-resolution timers.  Patch by
     Donghee Na and Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-37295(27): Optimize *note math.comb(): 4ce. and *note
     math.perm(): 4cf.

   - bpo-45514(28): Deprecated legacy functions in *note
     importlib.resources: 75.

   - bpo-45507(29): Add tests for truncated/missing trailers in
     gzip.decompress implementation.

   - bpo-45359(30): Implement PEP 585(31) for *note
     graphlib.TopologicalSorter: 71a.

   - bpo-44733(32): Add ‘max_tasks_per_child’ to *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 727.  This allows users to
     specify the maximum number of tasks a single process should execute
     before the process needs to be restarted.

   - bpo-28806(33): Improve netrc library.  netrc file no longer needs
     to contain all tokens.  And if the login name is anonymous,
     security check is no longer need.

   - bpo-43498(34): Avoid a possible '"RuntimeError: dictionary changed
     size during iteration"' when adjusting the process count of
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’.

   - bpo-42158(35): Add MIME types for N-quads, N-triples, Notation3 and
     TriG to ‘mimetypes’.

   - bpo-30533(36): Add *note inspect.getmembers_static(): 444. , it
     return all members without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27946

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13236

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45876

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44649

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45803

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45831

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45766

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45765

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45757

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45644

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45703

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45535

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45664

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45663

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45662

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43137

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45514

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45507

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45359

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44733

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28806

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43498

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42158

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<26>,  Next: Tests<27>,  Prev: Library<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.29.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): ‘make -C Doc suspicious’ will be removed soon in
     favor of ‘make -C Doc check’, mark it as deprecated.

   - bpo-45840(2): Improve cross-references in the documentation for the
     data model.

   - bpo-45640(3): Properly marked-up grammar tokens in the
     documentation are now clickable and take you to the definition of a
     given piece of grammar.  Patch by Arthur Milchior.

   - bpo-45788(4): Link doc for sys.prefix to sysconfig doc on
     installation paths.

   - bpo-45772(5): ‘socket.socket’ documentation is corrected to a class
     from a function.

   - bpo-45392(6): Update the docstring of the *note type: bbb. built-in
     to remove a redundant line and to mention keyword arguments for the
     constructor.

   - bpo-45250(7): Update the documentation to note that CPython does
     not consistently require iterators to define ‘__iter__’.

   - bpo-25381(8): In the extending chapter of the extending doc, update
     a paragraph about the global variables containing exception
     information.

   - bpo-43905(9): Expanded *note astuple(): 14ee. and *note asdict():
     14e0. docs, warning about deepcopy being applied and providing a
     workaround.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45840

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45640

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45788

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45772

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45392

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45250

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43905


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<27>,  Next: Build<26>,  Prev: Documentation<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.29.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-45695(1): Out-of-tree builds with a read-only source directory
     are now tested by CI.

   - bpo-19460(2): Add new Test for
     ‘Lib/email/mime/nonmultipart.py::MIMENonMultipart’.

   - bpo-45835(3): Fix race condition in test_queue tests with multiple
     "feeder" threads.

   - bpo-45783(4): The test for the freeze tool now handles file moves
     and deletions.

   - bpo-45745(5): Remove the ‘--findleaks’ command line option of
     regrtest: use the ‘--fail-env-changed’ option instead.  Since
     Python 3.7, it was a deprecated alias to the ‘--fail-env-changed’
     option.

   - bpo-45701(6): Add tests with ‘tuple’ type with *note
     functools.lru_cache(): 834. to ‘test_functools’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45695

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19460

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45835

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45783

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45745

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45701


File: python.info,  Node: Build<26>,  Next: Windows<27>,  Prev: Tests<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.29.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-44035(1): CI now verifies that autoconf files have been
     regenerated with a current and unpatched autoconf package.

   - bpo-45950(2): The build system now uses a ‘_bootstrap_python’
     interpreter for freezing and deepfreezing again.  To speed up build
     process the build tools ‘_bootstrap_python’ and ‘_freeze_module’
     are no longer build with LTO.

   - bpo-45881(3): The ‘configure’ script now accepts
     ‘--with-build-python’ and ‘--with-freeze-module’ options to make
     cross compiling easier.

   - bpo-40280(4): Emscripten platform now uses ‘.wasm’ suffix by
     default.

   - bpo-40280(5): Disable unusable core extension modules on
     WASM/Emscripten targets.

   - bpo-40280(6): ‘configure’ now checks for socket ‘shutdown’
     function.  The check makes it possible to disable ‘SYS_shutdown’
     with ‘ac_cv_func_shutdown=no’ in CONFIG_SITE.

   - bpo-40280(7): ‘configure’ now checks for functions ‘fork1, getegid,
     geteuid, getgid, getppid, getuid, opendir, pipe, system, wait,
     ttyname’.

   - bpo-33393(8): Update ‘config.guess’ to 2021-06-03 and ‘config.sub’
     to 2021-08-14.  ‘Makefile’ now has an ‘update-config’ target to
     make updating more convenient.

   - bpo-45866(9): ‘make regen-all’ now produces the same output when
     run from a directory other than the source tree: when building
     Python out of the source tree.  pegen now strips directory of the
     "generated by pygen from <FILENAME>" header Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(10): ‘configure’ now accepts machine ‘wasm32’ or ‘wasm64’
     and OS ‘wasi’ or ‘emscripten’ for cross building, e.g.
     ‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’, ‘wasm32-wasi’, or
     ‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’.

   - bpo-41498(11): Python now compiles on platforms without ‘sigset_t’.
     Several functions in *note signal: c1. are not available when
     ‘sigset_t’ is missing.

     Based on patch by Roman Yurchak for pyodide.

   - bpo-45881(12): ‘setup.py’ now uses ‘CC’ from environment first to
     discover multiarch and cross compile paths.

   - bpo-45886(13): The ‘_freeze_module’ program path can now be
     overridden on the command line, e.g.  ‘make
     FREEZE_MODULE=../x86_64/Program/_freeze_module’.

   - bpo-45873(14): Get rid of the ‘_bootstrap_python’ build step.  The
     deepfreeze.py script is now run using ‘$(PYTHON_FOR_REGEN)’ which
     can be Python 3.7 or newer (on Windows, 3.8 or newer).

   - bpo-45847(15): Port builtin hashlib extensions to ‘PY_STDLIB_MOD’
     macro and ‘addext()’.

   - bpo-45723(16): Add ‘autoconf’ helpers for saving and restoring
     environment variables:

        * ‘SAVE_ENV’: Save ‘$CFLAGS’, ‘$LDFLAGS’, ‘$LIBS’, and
          ‘$CPPFLAGS’.

        * ‘RESTORE_ENV’: Restore ‘$CFLAGS’, ‘$LDFLAGS’, ‘$LIBS’, and
          ‘$CPPFLAGS’.

        * ‘WITH_SAVE_ENV([SCRIPT])’: Run ‘SCRIPT’ wrapped with
          ‘SAVE_ENV’ and ‘RESTORE_ENV’.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45573(17): Mandatory core modules, that are required to
     bootstrap Python, are now in ‘Modules/Setup.bootstrap’.

   - bpo-45573(18): ‘configure’ now creates ‘Modules/Setup.stdlib’ with
     conditionally enabled/disabled extension module lines.  The file is
     not used, yet.

   - bpo-45573(19): ‘configure’ now uses a unified format to set state,
     compiler flags, and linker flags in Makefile.  The new macro
     ‘PY_STDLIB_MOD’ sets three variables that are consumed by
     ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘setup.py’.

   - bpo-45816(20): Python now supports building with Visual Studio 2022
     (MSVC v143, VS Version 17.0).  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   - bpo-45800(21): Settings for ‘pyexpat’ C extension are now detected
     by ‘configure’.  The bundled ‘expat’ library is built in
     ‘Makefile’.

   - bpo-45798(22): Settings for *note decimal: 33. internal C extension
     are now detected by ‘configure’.  The bundled ‘libmpdec’ library is
     built in ‘Makefile’.

   - bpo-45723(23): ‘configure’ has a new option ‘--with-pkg-config’ to
     disable or require pkg-config.

   - bpo-45774(24): The build dependencies for *note sqlite3: c9. are
     now detected by ‘configure’ and ‘pkg-config’.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-45763(25): The build dependencies for *note zlib: 12d, *note
     bz2: 11, and *note lzma: 85. are now detected by ‘configure’.

   - bpo-45747(26): gdbm and dbm build dependencies are now detected by
     ‘configure’.

   - bpo-45743(27): On macOS, the build system no longer passes
     ‘search_paths_first’ to the linker.  The flag has been the default
     since Xcode 4 / macOS 10.6.

   - bpo-45723(28): ‘configure.ac’ is now compatible with autoconf 2.71.
     Deprecated checks ‘STDC_HEADERS’ and ‘AC_HEADER_TIME’ have been
     removed.

   - bpo-45723(29): ‘configure’ now prints a warning when pkg-config is
     missing.

   - bpo-45731(30): ‘configure --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions’ is
     now handled by new ‘PY_SQLITE_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION’ macro instead
     of logic in setup.py.

   - bpo-45723(31): configure.ac now uses custom helper macros and
     ‘AC_CACHE_CHECK’ to simplify and speed up configure runs.

   - bpo-45696(32): Skip the marshal step for frozen modules by
     generating C code that produces a set of ready-to-use code objects.
     This speeds up startup time by another 10% or more.

   - bpo-45561(33): Run smelly.py tool from $(srcdir).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44035

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45950

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45866

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41498

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45886

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45873

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45816

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45800

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45798

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45743

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45731

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45696

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45561


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<27>,  Next: macOS<19>,  Prev: Build<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.29.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46105(1): Fixed calculation of *note sys.path: 35e. in a venv
     on Windows.

   - bpo-45901(2): When installed through the Microsoft Store and set as
     the default app for ‘*.py’ files, command line arguments will now
     be passed to Python when invoking a script without explicitly
     launching Python (that is, ‘script.py args’ rather than ‘python
     script.py args’).

   - bpo-45616(3): Fix Python Launcher's ability to distinguish between
     versions 3.1 and 3.10 when either one is explicitly requested.
     Previously, 3.1 would be used if 3.10 was requested but not
     installed, and 3.10 would be used if 3.1 was requested but 3.10 was
     installed.

   - bpo-45850(4): Implement changes to build with deep-frozen modules
     on Windows.  Note that we now require Python 3.10 as the
     "bootstrap" or "host" Python.

   - bpo-45732(5): Updates bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.12.

   - bpo-45720(6): Internal reference to ‘shlwapi.dll’ was dropped to
     help improve startup time.  This DLL will no longer be loaded at
     the start of every Python process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45901

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45616

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45850

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45720


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<19>,  Next: C API<23>,  Prev: Windows<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.29.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45732(1): Update python.org macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk
     8.6.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732


File: python.info,  Node: C API<23>,  Prev: macOS<19>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.29.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-39026(1): Fix Python.h to build C extensions with Xcode: remove
     a relative include from ‘Include/cpython/pystate.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39026


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.30 Python 3.11.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-11-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<30>.
* Library: Library<30>.
* Documentation: Documentation<27>.
* Tests: Tests<28>.
* Build: Build<27>.
* Windows: Windows<28>.
* macOS: macOS<20>.
* IDLE: IDLE<16>.
* C API: C API<24>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<30>,  Next: Library<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.30.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45716(1): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 146. message when
     using ‘True’, ‘None’ or ‘False’ as keywords in a function call.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45688(2): *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 668. now contains the
     macOS-specific module ‘_scproxy’.

   - bpo-45379(3): Clarify *note ImportError: 145. message when we try
     to explicitly import a frozen module but frozen modules are
     disabled.

   - bpo-44525(4): Specialize simple calls to Python functions (no
     starargs, keyword dict, or closure)

   - bpo-45530(5): Cases of sorting using tuples as keys may now be
     significantly faster in some cases.  Patch by Tim Peters.

     The order of the result may differ from earlier releases if the
     tuple elements don't define a total ordering (see *note Value
     comparisons: 164e. for information on total ordering).  It's
     generally true that the result of sorting simply isn't well-defined
     in the absence of a total ordering on list elements.

   - bpo-45526(6): In obmalloc, set ADDRESS_BITS to not ignore any bits
     (ignored 16 before).  That is safer in the case that the kernel
     gives user-space virtual addresses that span a range greater than
     48 bits.

   - bpo-30570(7): Fixed a crash in ‘issubclass()’ from infinite
     recursion when searching pathological ‘__bases__’ tuples.

   - bpo-45521(8): Fix a bug in the obmalloc radix tree code.  On 64-bit
     machines, the bug causes the tree to hold 46-bits of virtual
     addresses, rather than the intended 48-bits.

   - bpo-45494(9): Fix parser crash when reporting errors involving
     invalid continuation characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45445(10): Python now fails to initialize if it finds an
     invalid *note -X: 188. option in the command line.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-45340(11): Object attributes are held in an array instead of a
     dictionary.  An object's dictionary are created lazily, only when
     needed.  Reduces the memory consumption of a typical Python object
     by about 30%.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-45408(12): Fix a crash in the parser when reporting tokenizer
     errors that occur at the same time unclosed parentheses are
     detected.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-29410(13): Add SipHash13 for string hash algorithm and use it
     by default.

   - bpo-45385(14): Fix reference leak from descr_check.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45367(15): Specialized the ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY’ opcode to
     ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY_INT’ and ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY_FLOAT’ using the PEP 659
     machinery.

   - bpo-21736(16): Frozen stdlib modules now have ‘__file__’ to the .py
     file they would otherwise be loaded from, if possible.  For
     packages, ‘__path__’ now has the correct entry instead of being an
     empty list, which allows unfrozen submodules to be imported.  These
     are set only if the stdlib directory is known when the runtime is
     initialized.  Note that the file at ‘__file__’ is not guaranteed to
     exist.  None of this affects non-stdlib frozen modules nor, for
     now, frozen modules imported using ‘PyImport_ImportFrozenModule()’.
     Also, at the moment ‘co_filename’ is not updated for the module.

   - bpo-45020(17): For frozen stdlib modules, record the original
     module name as ‘module.__spec__.loader_state.origname’.  If the
     value is different than ‘module.__spec__.name’ then the module was
     defined as an alias in Tools/scripts/freeze_modules.py.  If it is
     ‘None’ then the module comes from a source file outside the stdlib.

   - bpo-45324(18): In FrozenImporter.find_spec(), we now preserve the
     information needed in exec_module() to load the module.  This
     change mostly impacts internal details, rather than changing the
     importer's behavior.

   - bpo-45292(19): Implement PEP 654(20).  Add *note ExceptionGroup:
     17b. and *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3a6.  Update traceback display
     code.

   - bpo-40116(21): Change to the implementation of split dictionaries.
     Classes where the instances differ either in the exact set of
     attributes, or in the order in which those attributes are set, can
     still share keys.  This should have no observable effect on users
     of Python or the C-API. Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-44050(22): Extensions that indicate they use global state (by
     setting ‘m_size’ to -1) can again be used in multiple interpreters.
     This reverts to behavior of Python 3.8.

   - bpo-44525(23): Setup initial specialization infrastructure for the
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION’ opcode.  Implemented initial specializations for C
     function calls:

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_O’ for ‘METH_O’ flag.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_FAST’ for ‘METH_FASTCALL’ flag without
          keywords.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_LEN’ for ‘len(o)’.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_ISINSTANCE’ for ‘isinstance(o, t)’.

   - bpo-44511(24): Improve the generated bytecode for class and mapping
     patterns.

   - bpo-43706(25): Speed up calls to ‘enumerate()’ by using the PEP
     590(26) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45716

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45530

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45526

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30570

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45521

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45494

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45445

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45408

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45385

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45367

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21736

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45324

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44050

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44511

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43706

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<30>,  Next: Documentation<27>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.30.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-45679(1): Fix caching of multi-value *note typing.Literal: 67c.
     ‘Literal[True, 2]’ is no longer equal to ‘Literal[1, 2]’.

   - bpo-42064(2): Convert *note sqlite3: c9. to multi-phase
     initialisation (PEP 489).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45438(3): Fix typing.Signature string representation for
     generic builtin types.

   - bpo-45613(4): *note sqlite3: c9. now sets *note
     sqlite3.threadsafety: 478. based on the default threading mode the
     underlying SQLite library has been compiled with.  Patch by Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45574(5): Fix warning about ‘print_escape’ being unused.

   - bpo-45581(6): *note sqlite3.connect(): 1dd. now correctly raises
     *note MemoryError: 1460. if the underlying SQLite API signals
     memory error.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45557(7): *note pprint.pprint(): 64e. now handles
     'underscore_numbers' correctly.  Previously it was always setting
     it to ‘False’.

   - bpo-44019(8): Add *note operator.call(): 1650. to
     ‘operator.__all__’.  Patch by Kreusada.

   - bpo-42174(9): *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): f91. now falls back
     to sane values if the column or line count are 0.

   - bpo-35673(10): Improve the introspectability of the ‘__loader__’
     attribute for namespace packages.  *note
     importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader: de3. is now public, and
     implements the *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: de1. interface.
     ‘_NamespaceLoader’ is kept for backward compatibility.

   - bpo-45515(11): Add references to *note zoneinfo: 12e. in the *note
     datetime: 2e. documentation, mostly replacing outdated references
     to ‘dateutil.tz’.  Change by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-45475(12): Reverted optimization of iterating *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 28d, *note bz2.BZ2File: 692, and *note
     lzma.LZMAFile: e9f. (see bpo-43787(13)) because it caused
     regression when user iterate them without having reference of them.
     Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-45489(14): Update *note ForwardRef: 1615. to support ‘|’
     operator.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42222(15): Removed deprecated support for float arguments in
     'randrange()'.

   - bpo-45428(16): Fix a regression in py_compile when reading
     filenames from standard input.

   - bpo-45467(17): Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the
     "raw-unicode-escape" codec.  Previously they failed if the escape
     sequence was split.

   - bpo-45461(18): Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the
     "unicode-escape" codec.  Previously they failed if the escape
     sequence was split.

   - bpo-45239(19): Fixed *note email.utils.parsedate_tz(): 1651.
     crashing with *note UnboundLocalError: 13ad. on certain invalid
     input instead of returning ‘None’.  Patch by Ben Hoyt.

   - bpo-45417(20): Fix quadratic behaviour in the enum module: Creation
     of enum classes with a lot of entries was quadratic.

   - bpo-45249(21): Fix the behaviour of *note traceback.print_exc():
     1652. when displaying the caret when the ‘end_offset’ in the
     exception is set to 0.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45416(22): Fix use of *note asyncio.Condition: 8bf. with
     explicit *note asyncio.Lock: 8bd. objects, which was a regression
     due to removal of explicit loop arguments.  Patch by Joongi Kim.

   - bpo-20028(23): Empty escapechar/quotechar is not allowed when
     initializing *note csv.Dialect: 1653.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok and
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44904(24): Fix bug in the *note doctest: 36. module that caused
     it to fail if a docstring included an example with a ‘classmethod’
     ‘property’.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45406(25): Make *note inspect.getmodule(): 15b1. catch
     ‘FileNotFoundError’ raised by ‘inspect.getabsfile()’, and return
     ‘None’ to indicate that the module could not be determined.

   - bpo-45411(26): Add extensions for files containing subtitles - .srt
     & .vtt - to the mimetypes.py module.

   - bpo-10716(27): Migrated pydoc to HTML5 (without changing the look
     of it).  Side effect is to update xmlrpc's ‘ServerHTMLDoc’ which
     now uses the CSS too.  cgitb now relies less on pydoc (as it can't
     use the CSS file).

   - bpo-27580(28): Add support of null characters in *note csv: 27.

   - bpo-45262(29): Prevent use-after-free in asyncio.  Make sure the
     cached running loop holder gets cleared on dealloc to prevent
     use-after-free in get_running_loop

   - bpo-45386(30): Make *note xmlrpc.client: 128. more robust to C
     runtimes where the underlying C ‘strftime’ function results in a
     ‘ValueError’ when testing for year formatting options.

   - bpo-20028(31): Improve error message of *note csv.Dialect: 1653.
     when initializing.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok and Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45343(32): Update bundled pip to 21.2.4 and setuptools to
     58.1.0

   - bpo-45328(33): Fixed *note http.client.HTTPConnection: 998. to work
     properly in OSs that don't support the ‘TCP_NODELAY’ socket option.

   - bpo-45243(34): Add *note setlimit(): 476. and *note getlimit():
     477. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. for setting and getting
     SQLite limits by connection basis.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45320(35): Removed from the *note inspect: 78. module:

        * 
          the ‘getargspec’ function, deprecated since Python 3.0;

               use *note inspect.signature(): 548. or *note
               inspect.getfullargspec(): 549. instead.

        * the ‘formatargspec’ function, deprecated since Python 3.5; use
          the *note inspect.signature(): 548. function and ‘Signature’
          object directly.

        * the undocumented ‘Signature.from_builtin’ and
          ‘Signature.from_function’ functions, deprecated since Python
          3.5; use the *note Signature.from_callable(): 54b. method
          instead.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45192(36): Fix the ‘tempfile._infer_return_type’ function so
     that the ‘dir’ argument of the *note tempfile: da. functions
     accepts an object implementing the ‘os.PathLike’ protocol.

     Patch by Kyungmin Lee.

   - bpo-45160(37): When tracing a tkinter variable used by a ttk
     OptionMenu, callbacks are no longer made twice.

   - bpo-25625(38): Added non parallel-safe *note chdir(): 405. context
     manager to change the current working directory and then restore it
     on exit.  Simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 406.

   - bpo-24139(39): Add support for SQLite extended result codes in
     *note sqlite3.Error: 1654.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-24444(40): Fixed an error raised in *note argparse: 6. help
     display when help for an option is set to 1+ blank spaces or when
     'choices' arg is an empty container.

   - bpo-44547(41): Implement ‘Fraction.__int__’, so that a *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1a8. instance ‘f’ passes an ‘isinstance(f,
     typing.SupportsInt)’ check.

   - bpo-40321(42): Adds support for HTTP 308 redirects to *note urllib:
     103.  See RFC 7538(43) for details.  Patch by Jochem
     Schulenklopper.

   - bpo-41374(44): Ensure that ‘socket.TCP_*’ constants are exposed on
     Cygwin 3.1.6 and greater.

   - bpo-35970(45): Add help flag to the base64 module's command line
     interface.  Patch contributed by Robert Kuska.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45679

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42064

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45438

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45574

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45581

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45557

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42174

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35673

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45515

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45475

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45489

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45428

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45467

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45461

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45239

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45417

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45249

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45416

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44904

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45406

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45411

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10716

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27580

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45262

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45386

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45343

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45328

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45192

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45160

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24444

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40321

   (43) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7538.html

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41374

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35970


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<27>,  Next: Tests<28>,  Prev: Library<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.30.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45726(1): Improve documentation for *note
     functools.singledispatch(): 434. and *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 835.

   - bpo-45680(2): Amend the docs on ‘GenericAlias’ objects to clarify
     that non-container classes can also implement ‘__class_getitem__’.
     Patch contributed by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45618(3): Update Sphinx version used to build the documentation
     to 4.2.0.  Patch by Maciej Olko.

   - bpo-45655(4): Add a new "relevant PEPs" section to the top of the
     documentation for the ‘typing’ module.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45604(5): Add ‘level’ argument to
     ‘multiprocessing.log_to_stderr’ function docs.

   - bpo-45516(6): Add protocol description to the *note
     importlib.abc.TraversableResources: 1656. documentation.

   - bpo-45464(7): Mention in the documentation of *note Built-in
     Exceptions: 1657. that inheriting from multiple exception types in
     a single subclass is not recommended due to possible memory layout
     incompatibility.

   - bpo-45449(8): Add note about PEP 585(9) in *note collections.abc:
     1c.

   - bpo-45516(10): Add protocol description to the *note
     importlib.abc.Traversable: 1658. documentation.

   - bpo-20692(11): Add Programming FAQ entry explaining that int
     literal attribute access requires either a space after or
     parentheses around the literal.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45680

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45618

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45655

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45604

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45464

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45449

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20692


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<28>,  Next: Build<27>,  Prev: Documentation<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.30.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-45678(1): Add tests for scenarios in which *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 835. is stacked on top of a method
     that has already been wrapped by two other decorators.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45578(2): Add tests for *note dis.distb(): db7.

   - bpo-45678(3): Add tests to ensure that
     ‘functools.singledispatchmethod’ correctly wraps the attributes of
     the target function.

   - bpo-45668(4): PGO tests now pass when Python is built without test
     extension modules.

   - bpo-45577(5): Add subtests for all ‘pickle’ protocols in
     ‘test_zoneinfo’.

   - bpo-45566(6): Fix ‘test_frozen_pickle’ in ‘test_dataclasses’ to
     check all ‘pickle’ versions.

   - bpo-43592(7): ‘test.libregrtest’ now raises the soft resource limit
     for the maximum number of file descriptors when the default is too
     low for our test suite as was often the case on macOS.

   - bpo-39679(8): Add more test cases for
     ‘@functools.singledispatchmethod’ when combined with ‘@classmethod’
     or ‘@staticmethod’.

   - bpo-45410(9): When libregrtest spawns a worker process, stderr is
     now written into stdout to keep messages order.  Use a single pipe
     for stdout and stderr, rather than two pipes.  Previously, messages
     were out of order which made analysis of buildbot logs harder Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45402(10): Fix test_tools.test_sundry() when Python is built
     out of tree: fix how the freeze_modules.py tool locates the
     _freeze_module program.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45403(11): Fix test_sys.test_stdlib_dir() when Python is built
     outside the source tree: compare normalized paths.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45400(12): Fix
     test_name_error_suggestions_do_not_trigger_for_too_many_locals() of
     test_exceptions if a directory name contains "a1" (like
     "Python-3.11.0a1"): use a stricter regular expression.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-10572(13): Rename *note sqlite3: c9. tests from ‘test_sqlite’
     to ‘test_sqlite3’, and relocate them to ‘Lib/test/test_sqlite3’.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45578

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45668

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45577

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45566

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43592

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39679

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45410

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45402

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45403

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45400

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10572


File: python.info,  Node: Build<27>,  Next: Windows<28>,  Prev: Tests<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.30.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-43158(1): ‘setup.py’ now uses values from configure script to
     build the ‘_uuid’ extension module.  Configure now detects
     util-linux's ‘libuuid’, too.

   - bpo-45666(2): Fix warning of ‘swprintf’ and ‘%s’ usage in
     ‘_testembed.c’

   - bpo-45548(3): ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘Modules/makesetup’ have been
     improved.  The ‘Setup’ file now contains working rules for all
     extensions.  Outdated comments have been removed.  Rules defined by
     ‘makesetup’ track dependencies correctly.

   - bpo-45548(4): The *note math: 89. and *note cmath: 16.
     implementation now require a C99 compatible ‘libm’ and no longer
     ship with workarounds for missing acosh, asinh, atanh, expm1, and
     log1p functions.

   - bpo-45595(5): ‘setup.py’ and ‘makesetup’ now track build
     dependencies on all Python header files and module specific header
     files.

   - bpo-45571(6): ‘Modules/Setup’ now use ‘PY_CFLAGS_NODIST’ instead of
     ‘PY_CFLAGS’ to compile shared modules.

   - bpo-45570(7): ‘pyexpat’ and ‘_elementtree’ no longer define
     obsolete macros ‘HAVE_EXPAT_CONFIG_H’ and ‘USE_PYEXPAT_CAPI’.
     ‘XML_POOR_ENTROPY’ is now defined in ‘expat_config.h’.

   - bpo-43974(8): ‘setup.py’ no longer defines ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’.
     Instead every module, that uses the internal API, defines the
     macro.

   - bpo-45548(9): Fill in missing entries in Modules/Setup.

   - bpo-45532(10): Update *note sys.version: b8d. to use ‘main’ as
     fallback information.  Patch by Jeong YunWon.

   - bpo-45536(11): The ‘configure’ script now checks whether OpenSSL
     headers and libraries provide required APIs.  Most common APIs are
     verified.  The check detects outdated or missing OpenSSL. Failures
     do not stop configure.

   - bpo-45221(12): Fixed regression in handling of ‘LDFLAGS’ and
     ‘CPPFLAGS’ options where ‘argparse.parse_known_args()’ could
     interpret an option as one of the built-in command line argument,
     for example ‘-h’ for help.

   - bpo-45440(13): Building Python now requires a C99 ‘<math.h>’ header
     file providing the following functions: ‘copysign()’, ‘hypot()’,
     ‘isfinite()’, ‘isinf()’, ‘isnan()’, ‘round()’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45405(14): Prevent ‘internal configure error’ when running
     ‘configure’ with recent versions of non-Apple clang.  Patch by
     David Bohman.

   - bpo-45433(15): Avoid linking libpython with libcrypt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43158

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45666

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45595

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45532

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45536

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45221

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45405

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<28>,  Next: macOS<20>,  Prev: Build<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.30.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43652(1): Update Tcl/Tk to 8.6.11, actually this time.  The
     previous update incorrectly included 8.6.10.

   - bpo-45337(2): venv now warns when the created environment may need
     to be accessed at a different path, due to redirections, links or
     junctions.  It also now correctly installs or upgrades components
     when the alternate path is required.

   - bpo-43851(3): Build SQLite ‘SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT’ on Windows.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45337

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<20>,  Next: IDLE<16>,  Prev: Windows<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.30.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-44828(1): Avoid tkinter file dialog failure on macOS 12
     Monterey when using the Tk 8.6.11 provided by python.org macOS
     installers.  Patch by Marc Culler of the Tk project.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44828


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<16>,  Next: C API<24>,  Prev: macOS<20>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.30.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45495(1): Add context keywords 'case' and 'match' to
     completions list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45495


File: python.info,  Node: C API<24>,  Prev: IDLE<16>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.30.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-29103(1): *note PyType_FromSpec*: 2d6. now copies the class
     name from the spec to a buffer owned by the class, so the original
     can be safely deallocated.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-45522(2): The internal freelists for frame, float, list, dict,
     async generators, and context objects can now be disabled.

   - bpo-35134(3): Exclude *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 357. from the
     limited C API. It never worked since the ‘PyWeakReference’
     structure is opaque in the limited C API.

   - bpo-35081(4): Move the ‘interpreteridobject.h’ header file from
     ‘Include/’ to ‘Include/internal/’.  It only provides private
     functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-35134(5): The non-limited API files ‘cellobject.h’,
     ‘classobject.h’, ‘context.h’, ‘funcobject.h’, ‘genobject.h’ and
     ‘longintrepr.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’ directory.
     Moreover, the ‘eval.h’ header file was removed.  These files must
     not be included directly, as they are already included in
     ‘Python.h’: *note Include Files: 59b.  If they have been included
     directly, consider including ‘Python.h’ instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45474(6): The following items are no longer available when
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is defined:

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(): 5b3.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(): 5b4.

        * *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(): 5b5.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(): 5b6.

        * the ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ macro

     These are not part of the *note limited API: 5b7.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45434(7): Remove the ‘pystrhex.h’ header file.  It only
     contains private functions.  C extensions should only include the
     main ‘<Python.h>’ header file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45440(8): Remove the ‘Py_FORCE_DOUBLE()’ macro.  It was used by
     the ‘Py_IS_INFINITY()’ macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45434(9): ‘<Python.h>’ no longer includes the header files
     ‘<stdlib.h>’, ‘<stdio.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’ and ‘<string.h>’ when the
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is set to ‘0x030b0000’ (Python 3.11) or
     higher.  C extensions should explicitly include the header files
     after ‘#include <Python.h>’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41123(10): Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’ and ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’
     macros, deprecated since Python 3.3.  Use
     ‘PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()’ or ‘memcpy()’ (‘wchar_t*’ string), and
     ‘PyUnicode_Fill()’ functions instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45412(11): Remove the following math macros using the ‘errno’
     variable:

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()’

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()’

        * ‘Py_OVERFLOWED()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45395(12): Custom frozen modules (the array set to
     ‘PyImport_FrozenModules’) are now treated as additions, rather than
     replacing all the default frozen modules.  Frozen stdlib modules
     can still be disabled by setting the "code" field of the custom
     array entry to NULL.

   - bpo-43760(13): Add new *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 567, and
     *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 568. functions to the limited C
     API to suspend and resume tracing and profiling.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-44220(14): *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 7c6. is added
     to the Stable ABI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29103

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45395

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44220


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.31 Python 3.11.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-10-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<18>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<31>.
* Library: Library<31>.
* Documentation: Documentation<28>.
* Tests: Tests<29>.
* Build: Build<28>.
* Windows: Windows<29>.
* macOS: macOS<21>.
* IDLE: IDLE<17>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<15>.
* C API: C API<25>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<18>,  Next: Core and Builtins<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.31.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42278(1): Replaced usage of *note tempfile.mktemp(): 1661. with
     *note TemporaryDirectory: 10c7. to avoid a potential race
     condition.

   - bpo-44600(2): Fix incorrect line numbers while tracing some failed
     patterns in *note match: 62f. statements.  Patch by Charles
     Burkland.

   - bpo-41180(3): Add auditing events to the *note marshal: 88. module,
     and stop raising ‘code.__init__’ events for every unmarshalled code
     object.  Directly instantiated code objects will continue to raise
     an event, and audit event handlers should inspect or collect the
     raw marshal data.  This reduces a significant performance overhead
     when loading from ‘.pyc’ files.

   - bpo-44394(4): Update the vendored copy of libexpat to 2.4.1 (from
     2.2.8) to get the fix for the CVE 2013-0340(5) "Billion Laughs"
     vulnerability.  This copy is most used on Windows and macOS.

   - bpo-43124(6): Made the internal ‘putcmd’ function in *note smtplib:
     c4. sanitize input for presence of ‘\r’ and ‘\n’ characters to
     avoid (unlikely) command injection.

   - bpo-44022(7): *note http.client: 6a. now avoids infinitely reading
     potential HTTP headers after a ‘100 Continue’ status response from
     the server.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41180

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44394

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2013-0340

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43124

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44022


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<31>,  Next: Library<31>,  Prev: Security<18>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.31.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43760(1): The number of hardware branches per instruction
     dispatch is reduced from two to one by adding a special instruction
     for tracing.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-45061(2): Add a deallocator to the bool type to detect refcount
     bugs in C extensions which call Py_DECREF(Py_True) or
     Py_DECREF(Py_False) by mistake.  Detect also refcount bugs when the
     empty tuple singleton or the Unicode empty string singleton is
     destroyed by mistake.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-24076(3): sum() was further optimised for summing up single
     digit integers.

   - bpo-45190(4): Update Unicode databases to Unicode 14.0.0.

   - bpo-45167(5): Fix deepcopying of *note types.GenericAlias: 60c.
     objects.

   - bpo-45155(6): *note int.to_bytes(): 1663. and *note
     int.from_bytes(): 1622. now take a default value of ‘"big"’ for the
     ‘byteorder’ argument.  *note int.to_bytes(): 1663. also takes a
     default value of ‘1’ for the ‘length’ argument.

   - bpo-44219(7): Release the GIL while performing ‘isatty’ system
     calls on arbitrary file descriptors.  In particular, this affects
     *note os.isatty(): 1664, *note os.device_encoding(): 1665. and
     *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9.  By extension, *note io.open(): 29d.
     in text mode is also affected.  This change solves a deadlock in
     *note os.isatty(): 1664.  Patch by Vincent Michel in bpo-44219(8).

   - bpo-44959(9): Added fallback to extension modules with '.sl' suffix
     on HP-UX

   - bpo-45121(10): Fix issue where ‘Protocol.__init__’ raises
     ‘RecursionError’ when it's called directly or via ‘super()’.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44348(11): The deallocator function of the *note BaseException:
     3ab. type now uses the trashcan mechanism to prevent stack
     overflow.  For example, when a *note RecursionError: be1. instance
     is raised, it can be linked to another RecursionError through the
     ‘__context__’ attribute or the ‘__traceback__’ attribute, and then
     a chain of exceptions is created.  When the chain is destroyed,
     nested deallocator function calls can crash with a stack overflow
     if the chain is too long compared to the available stack memory.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45123(12): Fix PyAiter_Check to only check for the __anext__
     presence (not for __aiter__).  Rename PyAiter_Check to
     PyAIter_Check, PyObject_GetAiter -> PyObject_GetAIter.

   - bpo-1514420(13): Interpreter no longer attempts to open files with
     names in angle brackets (like "<string>" or "<stdin>") when
     formatting an exception.

   - bpo-41031(14): Match C and Python code formatting of unprintable
     exceptions and exceptions in the *note __main__: 1. module.

   - bpo-37330(15): *note open(): 29c, *note io.open(): 29d, *note
     codecs.open(): 551. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 547. no longer
     accept ‘'U'’ ("universal newline") in the file mode.  This flag was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45083(16): When the interpreter renders an exception, its name
     now has a complete qualname.  Previously only the class name was
     concatenated to the module name, which sometimes resulted in an
     incorrect full name being displayed.

     (This issue impacted only the C code exception rendering, the *note
     traceback: f9. module was using qualname already).

   - bpo-34561(17): List sorting now uses the merge-ordering strategy
     from Munro and Wild's ‘powersort()’.  Unlike the former strategy,
     this is provably near-optimal in the entropy of the distribution of
     run lengths.  Most uses of ‘list.sort()’ probably won't see a
     significant time difference, but may see significant improvements
     in cases where the former strategy was exceptionally poor.
     However, as these are all fast linear-time approximations to a
     problem that's inherently at best quadratic-time to solve truly
     optimally, it's also possible to contrive cases where the former
     strategy did better.

   - bpo-45056(18): Compiler now removes trailing unused constants from
     co_consts.

   - bpo-45020(19): Add a new command line option, "-X
     frozen_modules=[on|off]" to opt out of (or into) using optional
     frozen modules.  This defaults to "on" (or "off" if it's running
     out of the source tree).

   - bpo-45012(20): In *note posix: a8, release GIL during ‘stat()’,
     ‘lstat()’, and ‘fstatat()’ syscalls made by *note
     os.DirEntry.stat(): 1472.  Patch by Stanisław Skonieczny.

   - bpo-45018(21): Fixed pickling of range iterators that iterated for
     over ‘2**32’ times.

   - bpo-45000(22): A *note SyntaxError: 146. is now raised when trying
     to delete *note __debug__: 5fb.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44963(23): Implement ‘send()’ and ‘throw()’ methods for
     ‘anext_awaitable’ objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44962(24): Fix a race in WeakKeyDictionary, WeakValueDictionary
     and WeakSet when two threads attempt to commit the last pending
     removal.  This fixes asyncio.create_task and fixes a data loss in
     asyncio.run where shutdown_asyncgens is not run

   - bpo-24234(25): Implement the ‘__bytes__()’ special method on the
     *note bytes: 2c1. type, so a bytes object ‘b’ passes an
     ‘isinstance(b, typing.SupportsBytes)’ check.

   - bpo-24234(26): Implement the ‘__complex__()’ special method on the
     *note complex: 26b. type, so a complex number ‘z’ passes an
     ‘isinstance(z, typing.SupportsComplex)’ check.

   - bpo-44954(27): Fixed a corner case bug where the result of
     ‘float.fromhex('0x.8p-1074')’ was rounded the wrong way.

   - bpo-44947(28): Refine the syntax error for trailing commas in
     import statements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44945(29): Specialize the BINARY_ADD instruction using the PEP
     659 machinery.  Adds five new instructions:

        * BINARY_ADD_ADAPTIVE

        * BINARY_ADD_FLOAT

        * BINARY_ADD_INT

        * BINARY_ADD_UNICODE

        * BINARY_ADD_UNICODE_INPLACE_FAST

   - bpo-44929(30): Fix some edge cases of ‘enum.Flag’ string
     representation in the REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44914(31): Class version tags are no longer recycled.

     This means that a version tag serves as a unique identifier for the
     state of a class.  We rely on this for effective specialization of
     the LOAD_ATTR and other instructions.

   - bpo-44698(32): Restore behaviour of complex exponentiation with
     integer-valued exponent of type *note float: 26a. or *note complex:
     26b.

   - bpo-44895(33): A debug variable ‘PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE’ is added for
     creating a dump file which is generated by *note -with-trace-refs:
     6d2.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44900(34): Add five superinstructions for PEP 659 quickening:

        * LOAD_FAST LOAD_FAST

        * STORE_FAST LOAD_FAST

        * LOAD_FAST LOAD_CONST

        * LOAD_CONST LOAD_FAST

        * STORE_FAST STORE_FAST

   - bpo-44889(35): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’.  The following specialized forms were added:

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_CACHED’

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_MODULE’

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_CLASS’

   - bpo-44890(36): Specialization stats are always collected in debug
     builds.

   - bpo-44885(37): Correct the ast locations of f-strings with format
     specs and repeated expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44878(38): Remove the loop from the bytecode interpreter.  All
     instructions end with a DISPATCH macro, so the loop is now
     redundant.

   - bpo-44878(39): Remove switch statement for interpreter loop when
     using computed gotos.  This makes sure that we only have one
     dispatch table in the interpreter.

   - bpo-44874(40): Deprecate the old trashcan macros
     (‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’/‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’).  They should be
     replaced by the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

   - bpo-44872(41): Use new trashcan macros (Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN/END) in
     frameobject.c instead of the old ones (Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN/END).

   - bpo-33930(42): Fix segmentation fault with deep recursion when
     cleaning method objects.  Patch by Augusto Goulart and Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-25782(43): Fix bug where ‘PyErr_SetObject’ hangs when the
     current exception has a cycle in its context chain.

   - bpo-44856(44): Fix reference leaks in the error paths of
     ‘update_bases()’ and ‘__build_class__’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44826(45): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     STORE_ATTR

     Three specialized forms of STORE_ATTR are added:

        * STORE_ATTR_SLOT

        * STORE_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

        * STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT

   - bpo-44838(46): Fixed a bug that was causing the parser to raise an
     incorrect custom *note SyntaxError: 146. for invalid 'if'
     expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44821(47): Create instance dictionaries (__dict__) eagerly, to
     improve regularity of object layout and assist specialization.

   - bpo-44792(48): Improve syntax errors for if expressions.  Patch by
     Miguel Brito

   - bpo-34013(49): Generalize the invalid legacy statement custom error
     message (like the one generated when "print" is called without
     parentheses) to include more generic expressions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-44732(50): Rename ‘types.Union’ to ‘types.UnionType’.

   - bpo-44725(51): Expose specialization stats in python via
     ‘_opcode.get_specialization_stats()’.

   - bpo-44717(52): Improve AttributeError on circular imports of
     submodules.

   - bpo-44698(53): Fix undefined behaviour in complex object
     exponentiation.

   - bpo-44653(54): Support *note typing: ff. types in parameter
     substitution in the union type.

   - bpo-44676(55): Add ability to serialise ‘types.Union’ objects.
     Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44633(56): Parameter substitution of the union type with wrong
     types now raises ‘TypeError’ instead of returning *note
     NotImplemented: 5f2.

   - bpo-44661(57): Update ‘property_descr_set’ to use vectorcall if
     possible.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44662(58): Add ‘__module__’ to ‘types.Union’.  This also fixes
     ‘types.Union’ issues with ‘typing.Annotated’.  Patch provided by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44655(59): Include the name of the type in unset __slots__
     attribute errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44655(60): Don't include a missing attribute with the same name
     as the failing one when offering suggestions for missing
     attributes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44646(61): Fix the hash of the union type: it no longer depends
     on the order of arguments.

   - bpo-44636(62): Collapse union of equal types.  E.g.  the result of
     ‘int | int’ is now ‘int’.  Fix comparison of the union type with
     non-hashable objects.  E.g.  ‘int | str == {}’ no longer raises a
     TypeError.

   - bpo-44611(63): On Windows, *note os.urandom(): 2a3.: uses
     BCryptGenRandom API instead of CryptGenRandom API which is
     deprecated from Microsoft Windows API. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44635(64): Convert ‘None’ to ‘type(None)’ in the union type
     constructor.

   - bpo-26280(65): Implement adaptive specialization for BINARY_SUBSCR

     Three specialized forms of BINARY_SUBSCR are added:

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_DICT

   - bpo-44589(66): Mapping patterns in ‘match’ statements with two or
     more equal literal keys will now raise a *note SyntaxError: 146. at
     compile-time.

   - bpo-44606(67): Fix ‘__instancecheck__’ and ‘__subclasscheck__’ for
     the union type.

   - bpo-42073(68): The ‘@classmethod’ decorator can now wrap other
     classmethod-like descriptors.

   - bpo-41972(69): Tuned the string-searching algorithm of fastsearch.h
     to have a shorter inner loop for most cases.

   - bpo-44590(70): All necessary data for executing a Python function
     (local variables, stack, etc) is now kept in a per-thread stack.
     Frame objects are lazily allocated on demand.  This increases
     performance by about 7% on the standard benchmark suite.
     Introspection and debugging are unaffected as frame objects are
     always available when needed.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-44584(71): The threading debug (‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment
     variable) is deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in
     Python 3.12.  This feature requires a debug build of Python.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43895(72): An obsolete internal cache of shared object file
     handles added in 1995 that attempted, but did not guarantee, that a
     .so would not be dlopen'ed twice to work around flaws in mid-1990s
     posix-ish operating systems has been removed from dynload_shlib.c.

   - bpo-44490(73): *note typing: ff. now searches for type parameters
     in ‘types.Union’ objects.  ‘get_type_hints’ will also properly
     resolve annotations with nested ‘types.Union’ objects.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-43950(74): Code objects can now provide the column information
     for instructions when available.  This is levaraged during
     traceback printing to show the expressions responsible for errors.

     Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya and Ammar Askar as
     part of PEP 657(75).

   - bpo-44562(76): Remove uses of *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 137c. in
     error path when initializing *note types.GenericAlias: 60c.

   - bpo-41486(77): Fix a memory consumption and copying performance
     regression in earlier 3.10 beta releases if someone used an output
     buffer larger than 4GiB with zlib.decompress on input data that
     expands that large.

   - bpo-43908(78): Heap types with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE:
     2de. flag can now inherit the PEP 590(79) vectorcall protocol.
     Previously, this was only possible for *note static types: 596.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44553(80): Implement GC methods for ‘types.Union’ to break
     reference cycles and prevent memory leaks.

   - bpo-44490(81): Add ‘__parameters__’ attribute and ‘__getitem__’
     operator to ‘types.Union’.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44523(82): Remove the pass-through for *note hash(): 3df. of
     *note weakref.proxy: 89c. objects to prevent unintended
     consequences when the original referred object dies while the proxy
     is part of a hashable object.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44483(83): Fix a crash in ‘types.Union’ objects when creating a
     union of an object with bad ‘__module__’ field.

   - bpo-44486(84): Modules will always have a dictionary, even when
     created by ‘types.ModuleType.__new__()’

   - bpo-44472(85): Fix ltrace functionality when exceptions are raised.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-12022(86): A *note TypeError: 2ba. is now raised instead of an
     *note AttributeError: 3ca. in *note with: 3c5. and *note async
     with: 3c8. statements for objects which do not support the *note
     context manager: 3c4. or *note asynchronous context manager: 3c7.
     protocols correspondingly.

   - bpo-44297(87): Make sure that the line number is set when entering
     a comprehension scope.  This ensures that backtraces including
     generator expressions show the correct line number.

   - bpo-44456(88): Improve the syntax error when mixing positional and
     keyword patterns.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44409(89): Fix error location information for tokenizer errors
     raised on initialization of the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44396(90): Fix a possible crash in the tokenizer when raising
     syntax errors for unclosed strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44376(91): Exact integer exponentiation (like ‘i**2’ or ‘pow(i,
     2)’) with a small exponent is much faster, due to reducing overhead
     in such cases.

   - bpo-44313(92): Directly imported objects and modules (through
     import and from import statements) don't generate
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’/‘CALL_METHOD’ for directly accessed objects on their
     namespace.  They now use the regular ‘LOAD_ATTR’/‘CALL_FUNCTION’.

   - bpo-44338(93): Implement adaptive specialization for LOAD_GLOBAL

     Two specialized forms of LOAD_GLOBAL are added:

        * LOAD_GLOBAL_MODULE

        * LOAD_GLOBAL_BUILTIN

   - bpo-44368(94): Improve syntax errors for invalid "as" targets.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44349(95): Fix an edge case when displaying text from files
     with encoding in syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44337(96): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     LOAD_ATTR

     Four specialized forms of LOAD_ATTR are added:

        * LOAD_ATTR_SLOT

        * LOAD_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

        * LOAD_ATTR_WITH_HINT

        * LOAD_ATTR_MODULE

   - bpo-44335(97): Fix a regression when identifying incorrect
     characters in syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43693(98): Computation of the offsets of cell variables is done
     in the compiler instead of at runtime.  This reduces the overhead
     of handling cell and free variables, especially in the case where a
     variable is both an argument and cell variable.

   - bpo-44317(99): Improve tokenizer error with improved locations.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44304(100): Fix a crash in the *note sqlite3: c9. module that
     happened when the garbage collector clears ‘sqlite.Statement’
     objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44305(101): Improve error message for ‘try’ blocks without
     ‘except’ or ‘finally’ blocks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43413(102): Constructors of subclasses of some builtin classes
     (e.g.  *note tuple: 4e6, *note list: 40a, *note frozenset: 3cd.) no
     longer accept arbitrary keyword arguments.  [reverted in 3.11a4]
     Subclass of *note set: 3cc. can now define a ‘__new__()’ method
     with additional keyword parameters without overriding also
     ‘__init__()’.

   - bpo-43667(103): Improve Unicode support in non-UTF locales on
     Oracle Solaris.  This issue does not affect other Solaris systems.

   - bpo-43693(104): A new opcode MAKE_CELL has been added that
     effectively moves some of the work done on function entry into the
     compiler and into the eval loop.  In addition to creating the
     required cell objects, the new opcode converts relevant arguments
     (and other locals) to cell variables on function entry.

   - bpo-44232(105): Fix a regression in *note type(): bbb. when a
     metaclass raises an exception.  The C function ‘type_new()’ must
     properly report the exception when a metaclass constructor raises
     an exception and the winner class is not the metaclass.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44201(106): Avoid side effects of checking for specialized
     syntax errors in the REPL that was causing it to ask for extra
     tokens after a syntax error had been detected.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-43693(107): ‘PyCodeObject’ gained ‘co_fastlocalnames’ and
     ‘co_fastlocalkinds’ as the authoritative source of fast locals
     info.  Marshaled code objects have changed accordingly.

   - bpo-44184(108): Fix a crash at Python exit when a deallocator
     function removes the last strong reference to a heap type.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44187(109): Implement quickening in the interpreter.  This
     offers no advantages as yet, but is an enabler of future
     optimizations.  See PEP 659 for full explanation.

   - bpo-44180(110): The parser doesn't report generic syntax errors
     that happen in a position further away that the one it reached in
     the first pass.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44168(111): Fix error message in the parser involving keyword
     arguments with invalid expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44156(112): String caches in ‘compile.c’ are now subinterpreter
     compatible.

   - bpo-44143(113): Fixed a crash in the parser that manifest when
     raising tokenizer errors when an existing exception was present.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44032(114): Move 'fast' locals and other variables from the
     frame object to a per-thread datastack.

   - bpo-44114(115): Fix incorrect dictkeys_reversed and
     dictitems_reversed function signatures in C code, which broke
     webassembly builds.

   - bpo-44110(116): Improve ‘str.__getitem__()’ error message

   - bpo-26110(117): Add ‘CALL_METHOD_KW’ opcode to speed up method
     calls with keyword arguments.  Idea originated from PyPy.  A side
     effect is executing ‘CALL_METHOD’ is now branchless in the
     evaluation loop.

   - bpo-28307(118): Compiler now optimizes simple C-style formatting
     with literal format containing only format codes %s, %r and %a by
     converting them to f-string expressions.

   - bpo-43149(119): Correct the syntax error message regarding multiple
     exception types to not refer to "exception groups".  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-43822(120): The parser will prioritize tokenizer errors over
     custom syntax errors when raising exceptions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-40222(121): "Zero cost" exception handling.

        * Uses a lookup table to determine how to handle exceptions.

        * Removes SETUP_FINALLY and POP_TOP block instructions,
          eliminating the runtime overhead of try statements.

        * Reduces the size of the frame object by about 60%.

     Patch by Mark Shannon

   - bpo-43918(122): Document the signature and ‘default’ argument in
     the docstring of the new ‘anext’ builtin.

   - bpo-43833(123): Emit a deprecation warning if the numeric literal
     is immediately followed by one of keywords: and, else, for, if, in,
     is, or.  Raise a syntax error with more informative message if it
     is immediately followed by other keyword or identifier.

   - bpo-43879(124): Add native_thread_id to PyThreadState.  Patch by
     Gabriele N. Tornetta.

   - bpo-43693(125): Compute cell offsets relative to locals in
     compiler.  Allows the interpreter to treats locals and cells a
     single array, which is slightly more efficient.  Also make the
     LOAD_CLOSURE opcode an alias for LOAD_FAST. Preserving LOAD_CLOSURE
     helps keep bytecode a bit more readable.

   - bpo-17792(126): More accurate error messages for access of unbound
     locals or free vars.

   - bpo-28146(127): Fix a confusing error message in *note
     str.format(): 41b.

   - bpo-11105(128): When compiling *note ast.AST: 553. objects with
     recursive references through *note compile(): 554, the interpreter
     doesn't crash anymore instead it raises a *note RecursionError:
     be1.

   - bpo-39091(129): Fix crash when using passing a non-exception to a
     generator's ‘throw()’ method.  Patch by Noah Oxer

   - bpo-33346(130): Asynchronous comprehensions are now allowed inside
     comprehensions in asynchronous functions.  Outer comprehensions
     implicitly become asynchronous.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24076

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45167

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45155

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44959

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45121

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45123

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1514420

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41031

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45083

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34561

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45056

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45012

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45018

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45000

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44963

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44962

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234

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   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44698

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44895

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44900

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44889

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44890

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44885

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44878

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44878

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44874

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44872

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33930

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25782

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   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44838

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44821

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44792

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34013

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44732

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44725

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44717

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44698

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44653

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44676

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44633

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44661

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44662

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44646

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44636

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44635

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26280

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44589

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44606

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42073

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43895

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950

   (75) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44562

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (79) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44553

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490

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   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44486

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44472

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   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43693

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<31>,  Next: Documentation<28>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.31.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-45371(1): Fix clang rpath issue in ‘distutils’.  The
     UnixCCompiler now uses correct clang option to add a runtime
     library directory (rpath) to a shared library.

   - bpo-45329(2): Fix freed memory access in ‘pyexpat.xmlparser’ when
     building it with an installed expat library <= 2.2.0.

   - bpo-41710(3): On Unix, if the ‘sem_clockwait()’ function is
     available in the C library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the *note
     threading.Lock.acquire(): 495. method now uses the monotonic clock
     (*note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 9ee.) for the timeout, rather than
     using the system clock (*note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 496.), to not be
     affected by system clock changes.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-1596321(4): Fix the ‘threading._shutdown()’ function when the
     *note threading: e7. module was imported first from a thread
     different than the main thread: no longer log an error at Python
     exit.

   - bpo-45274(5): Fix a race condition in the *note Thread.join():
     1075. method of the *note threading: e7. module.  If the function
     is interrupted by a signal and the signal handler raises an
     exception, make sure that the thread remains in a consistent state
     to prevent a deadlock.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-21302(6): In Unix operating systems, *note time.sleep(): 499.
     now uses the ‘nanosleep()’ function, if ‘clock_nanosleep()’ is not
     available but ‘nanosleep()’ is available.  ‘nanosleep()’ allows to
     sleep with nanosecond precision.

   - bpo-21302(7): On Windows, *note time.sleep(): 499. now uses a
     waitable timer which has a resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10^-7
     seconds).  Previously, it had a resolution of 1 millisecond (10^-3
     seconds).  Patch by Benjamin Szőke and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45238(8): Fix ‘unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase.debug()’: it
     runs now asynchronous methods and callbacks.

   - bpo-36674(9): *note unittest.TestCase.debug(): 1667. raises now a
     *note unittest.SkipTest: e76. if the class or the test method are
     decorated with the skipping decorator.

   - bpo-45235(10): Fix an issue where argparse would not preserve
     values in a provided namespace when using a subparser with
     defaults.

   - bpo-45183(11): Have zipimport.zipimporter.find_spec() not raise an
     exception when the underlying zip file has been deleted and the
     internal cache has been reset via invalidate_cache().

   - bpo-45234(12): Fixed a regression in *note copyfile(): 8a4, *note
     copy(): 8a5, *note copy2(): 8a6. raising *note FileNotFoundError:
     d46. when source is a directory, which should raise *note
     IsADirectoryError: eef.

   - bpo-45228(13): Fix stack buffer overflow in parsing J1939 network
     address.

   - bpo-45225(14): use map function instead of genexpr in capwords.

   - bpo-42135(15): Fix typo: ‘importlib.find_loader’ is really slated
     for removal in Python 3.12 not 3.10, like the others in PR 25169.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-20524(16): Improves error messages on ‘.format()’ operation for
     ‘str’, ‘float’, ‘int’, and ‘complex’.  New format now shows the
     problematic pattern and the object type.

   - bpo-45168(17): Change *note dis.dis(): 98c. output to omit op arg
     values that cannot be resolved due to ‘co_consts’, ‘co_names’ etc
     not being provided.  Previously the oparg itself was repeated in
     the value field, which is not useful and can be confusing.

   - bpo-21302(18): In Unix operating systems, *note time.sleep(): 499.
     now uses the ‘clock_nanosleep()’ function, if available, which
     allows to sleep for an interval specified with nanosecond
     precision.

   - bpo-45173(19): Remove from the *note configparser: 20. module: the
     ‘SafeConfigParser’ class, the ‘filename’ property of the *note
     ParsingError: 285. class, the ‘readfp()’ method of the *note
     ConfigParser: 286. class, deprecated since Python 3.2.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-44987(20): Pure ASCII strings are now normalized in constant
     time by *note unicodedata.normalize(): 4d3.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35474(21): Calling *note mimetypes.guess_all_extensions():
     1668. with ‘strict=False’ no longer affects the result of the
     following call with ‘strict=True’.  Also, mutating the returned
     list no longer affects the global state.

   - bpo-45166(22): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. now works with
     *note Final: 88e. wrapped in *note ForwardRef: 1615.

   - bpo-45162(23): Remove many old deprecated *note unittest: 101.
     features:

        * "‘fail*’" and "‘assert*’" aliases of *note TestCase: 159.
          methods.

        * Broken from start *note TestCase: 159. method
          ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’.

        * Ignored ‘<unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule>
          TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()’ parameter 'use_load_tests'.

        * Old alias ‘_TextTestResult’ of *note TextTestResult: 2b2.

   - bpo-38371(24): Remove the deprecated ‘split()’ method of
     ‘_tkinter.TkappType’.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-20499(25): Improve the speed and accuracy of
     statistics.pvariance().

   - bpo-45132(26): Remove *note __getitem__(): 4e7. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 545, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 546. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 547,
     deprecated since Python 3.9.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45129(27): Due to significant security concerns, the
     'reuse_address' parameter of *note
     asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543, disabled in Python
     3.9, is now entirely removed.  This is because of the behavior of
     the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45124(28): The ‘bdist_msi’ command, deprecated in Python 3.9,
     is now removed.

     Use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-30856(29): *note unittest.TestResult: ffa. methods *note
     addFailure(): 1669, *note addError(): 166a, *note addSkip(): 166b.
     and *note addSubTest(): 166c. are now called immediately after
     raising an exception in test or finishing a subtest.  Previously
     they were called only after finishing the test clean up.

   - bpo-45034(30): Changes how error is formatted for ‘struct.pack’
     with ‘'H'’ and ‘'h'’ modes and too large / small numbers.  Now it
     shows the actual numeric limits, while previously it was showing
     arithmetic expressions.

   - bpo-25894(31): *note unittest: 101. now always reports skipped and
     failed subtests separately: separate characters in default mode and
     separate lines in verbose mode.  Also the test description is now
     output for errors in test method, class and module cleanups.

   - bpo-45081(32): Fix issue when dataclasses that inherit from
     ‘typing.Protocol’ subclasses have wrong ‘__init__’.  Patch provided
     by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-45085(33): The ‘binhex’ module, deprecated in Python 3.9, is
     now removed.  The following *note binascii: e. functions,
     deprecated in Python 3.9, are now also removed:

        * ‘a2b_hqx()’, ‘b2a_hqx()’;

        * ‘rlecode_hqx()’, ‘rledecode_hqx()’.

     The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 544. function remains available.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40360(34): The *note lib2to3: 7f. package is now deprecated and
     may not be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer.  See the PEP 617(35)
     (New PEG parser for CPython).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45075(36): Rename ‘traceback.StackSummary.format_frame()’ to
     *note traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(): 49f.  This
     method was added for 3.11 so it was not released yet.

     Updated code and docs to better distinguish frame and FrameSummary.

   - bpo-31299(37): Add option to completely drop frames from a
     traceback by returning ‘None’ from a ‘format_frame()’ override.

   - bpo-41620(38): *note run(): ff9. now always return a *note
     TestResult: ffa. instance.  Previously it returned ‘None’ if the
     test class or method was decorated with a skipping decorator.

   - bpo-45021(39): Fix a potential deadlock at shutdown of forked
     children when using *note concurrent.futures: 1f. module

   - bpo-43913(40): Fix bugs in cleaning up classes and modules in *note
     unittest: 101.:

        * Functions registered with *note addModuleCleanup(): 897. were
          not called unless the user defines ‘tearDownModule()’ in their
          test module.

        * Functions registered with *note addClassCleanup(): 898. were
          not called if ‘tearDownClass’ is set to ‘None’.

        * Buffering in *note TestResult: ffa. did not work with
          functions registered with ‘addClassCleanup()’ and
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’.

        * Errors in functions registered with ‘addClassCleanup()’ and
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’ were not handled correctly in buffered
          and debug modes.

        * Errors in ‘setUpModule()’ and functions registered with
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’ were reported in wrong order.

        * And several lesser bugs.

   - bpo-45030(41): Fix integer overflow in pickling and copying the
     range iterator.

   - bpo-45001(42): Made email date parsing more robust against
     malformed input, namely a whitespace-only ‘Date:’ header.  Patch by
     Wouter Bolsterlee.

   - bpo-45010(43): Remove support of special method ‘__div__’ in *note
     unittest.mock: 102.  It is not used in Python 3.

   - bpo-39218(44): Improve accuracy of variance calculations by using
     ‘x*x’ instead of ‘x**2’.

   - bpo-43613(45): Improve the speed of *note gzip.compress(): 439. and
     *note gzip.decompress(): 109e. by compressing and decompressing at
     once in memory instead of in a streamed fashion.

   - bpo-37596(46): Ensure that *note set: 3cc. and *note frozenset:
     3cd. objects are always *note marshalled: 88. reproducibly.

   - bpo-44019(47): A new function ‘operator.call’ has been added, such
     that ‘operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs)’.

   - bpo-42255(48): ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ is deprecated and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  It is untested and undocumented and also
     not used by webbrowser itself.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44955(49): Method *note stopTestRun(): 11df. is now always
     called in pair with method *note startTestRun(): 11de. for *note
     TestResult: ffa. objects implicitly created in *note run(): ff9.
     Previously it was not called for test methods and classes decorated
     with a skipping decorator.

   - bpo-39039(50): tarfile.open raises *note ReadError: 166d. when a
     zlib error occurs during file extraction.

   - bpo-44935(51): *note subprocess: d0. on Solaris now also uses *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 8a3. for better performance.

   - bpo-44911(52): *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b. will no longer
     throw an exception while cancelling leaked tasks.  Patch by Bar
     Harel.

   - bpo-41322(53): Added ‘DeprecationWarning’ for tests and async tests
     that return a value!=None (as this may indicate an improperly
     written test, for example a test written as a generator function).

   - bpo-44524(54): Make exception message more useful when subclass
     from typing special form alias.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-38956(55): *note argparse.BooleanOptionalAction: 1628.'s
     default value is no longer printed twice when used with *note
     argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter: 166e.

   - bpo-44860(56): Fix the ‘posix_user’ scheme in *note sysconfig: d5.
     to not depend on *note sys.platlibdir: 777.

   - bpo-44859(57): Improve error handling in *note sqlite3: c9. and
     raise more accurate exceptions.

        * *note MemoryError: 1460. is now raised instead of *note
          sqlite3.Warning: 15f6. when memory is not enough for encoding
          a statement to UTF-8 in ‘Connection.__call__()’ and
          ‘Cursor.execute()’.

        * ‘UnicodEncodeError’ is now raised instead of *note
          sqlite3.Warning: 15f6. when the statement contains surrogate
          characters in ‘Connection.__call__()’ and ‘Cursor.execute()’.

        * *note TypeError: 2ba. is now raised instead of *note
          ValueError: 183. for non-string script argument in
          ‘Cursor.executescript()’.

        * *note ValueError: 183. is now raised for script containing the
          null character instead of truncating it in
          ‘Cursor.executescript()’.

        * Correctly handle exceptions raised when getting boolean value
          of the result of the progress handler.

        * Add many tests covering different corner cases.

   - bpo-44581(58): Upgrade bundled pip to 21.2.3 and setuptools to
     57.4.0

   - bpo-44849(59): Fix the *note os.set_inheritable(): d7f. function on
     FreeBSD 14 for file descriptor opened with the *note O_PATH: dff.
     flag: ignore the *note EBADF: 79c. error on ‘ioctl()’, fallback on
     the ‘fcntl()’ implementation.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44605(60): The @functools.total_ordering() decorator now works
     with metaclasses.

   - bpo-44524(61): Fixed an issue wherein the ‘__name__’ and
     ‘__qualname__’ attributes of subscribed specialforms could be
     ‘None’.

   - bpo-44839(62): *note MemoryError: 1460. raised in user-defined
     functions will now produce a ‘MemoryError’ in *note sqlite3: c9.
     *note OverflowError: 6ad. will now be converted to *note DataError:
     166f.  Previously *note OperationalError: 1670. was produced in
     these cases.

   - bpo-44822(63): *note sqlite3: c9. user-defined functions and
     aggregators returning *note strings: 157. with embedded NUL
     characters are no longer truncated.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44801(64): Ensure that the *note ParamSpec: 163. variable in
     Callable can only be substituted with a parameters expression (a
     list of types, an ellipsis, ParamSpec or Concatenate).

   - bpo-44806(65): Non-protocol subclasses of *note typing.Protocol:
     4ad. ignore now the ‘__init__’ method inherited from protocol base
     classes.

   - bpo-27275(66): *note collections.OrderedDict.popitem(): 117e. and
     ‘collections.OrderedDict.pop()’ no longer call ‘__getitem__’ and
     ‘__delitem__’ methods of the OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-44793(67): Fix checking the number of arguments when subscribe
     a generic type with ‘ParamSpec’ parameter.

   - bpo-44784(68): In importlib.metadata tests, override warnings
     behavior under expected DeprecationWarnings (importlib_metadata
     4.6.3).

   - bpo-44667(69): The *note tokenize.tokenize(): 204. doesn't
     incorrectly generate a ‘NEWLINE’ token if the source doesn't end
     with a new line character but the last line is a comment, as the
     function is already generating a ‘NL’ token.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-44771(70): Added ‘importlib.simple’ module implementing
     adapters from a low-level resources reader interface to a
     ‘TraversableResources’ interface.  Legacy API (‘path’, ‘contents’,
     ...)  is now supported entirely by the ‘.files()’ API with a
     compatibility shim supplied for resource loaders without that
     functionality.  Feature parity with ‘importlib_resources’ 5.2.

   - bpo-44752(71): ‘rcompleter’ does not call *note getattr(): a32. on
     *note property: 424. objects to avoid the side-effect of evaluating
     the corresponding method.

   - bpo-44747(72): Refactor usage of ‘sys._getframe’ in ‘typing’
     module.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42378(73): Fixes the issue with log file being overwritten when
     *note logging.FileHandler: 1671. is used in *note atexit: a. with
     'filemode' set to ‘'w'’.  Note this will cause the message in
     'atexit' not being logged if the log stream is already closed due
     to shutdown of logging.

   - bpo-44720(74): ‘weakref.proxy’ objects referencing non-iterators
     now raise ‘TypeError’ rather than dereferencing the null
     ‘tp_iternext’ slot and crashing.

   - bpo-44704(75): The implementation of ‘collections.abc.Set._hash()’
     now matches that of ‘frozenset.__hash__()’.

   - bpo-44666(76): Fixed issue in *note compileall.compile_file(): c59.
     when ‘sys.stdout’ is redirected.  Patch by Stefan Hölzl.

   - bpo-44688(77): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_collation(): 472.
     now accepts non-ASCII collation names.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44690(78): Adopt 'binacii.a2b_base64"s strict mode in
     'base64.b64decode'.

   - bpo-42854(79): Fixed a bug in the ‘_ssl’ module that was throwing
     *note OverflowError: 6ad. when using ‘_ssl._SSLSocket.write()’ and
     ‘_ssl._SSLSocket.read()’ for a big value of the ‘len’ parameter.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44686(80): Replace ‘unittest.mock._importer’ with
     ‘pkgutil.resolve_name’.

   - bpo-44353(81): Make ‘NewType.__call__’ faster by implementing it in
     C. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44682(82): Change the *note pdb: a0. 'commands' directive to
     disallow setting commands for an invalid breakpoint and to display
     an appropriate error.

   - bpo-44353(83): Refactor ‘typing.NewType’ from function into
     callable class.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44678(84): Added a separate error message for discontinuous
     padding in 'binascii.a2b_base64' strict mode.

   - bpo-44524(85): Add missing ‘__name__’ and ‘__qualname__’ attributes
     to ‘typing’ module classes.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-40897(86): Give priority to using the current class constructor
     in *note inspect.signature(): 548.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-44638(87): Add a reference to the zipp project and hint as to
     how to use it.

   - bpo-44648(88): Fixed wrong error being thrown by *note
     inspect.getsource(): 14ca. when examining a class in the
     interactive session.  Instead of *note TypeError: 2ba, it should be
     *note OSError: 644. with appropriate error message.

   - bpo-44608(89): Fix memory leak in ‘_tkinter._flatten()’ if it is
     called with a sequence or set, but not list or tuple.

   - bpo-44594(90): Fix an edge case of ‘ExitStack’ and ‘AsyncExitStack’
     exception chaining.  They will now match ‘with’ block behavior when
     ‘__context__’ is explicitly set to ‘None’ when the exception is in
     flight.

   - bpo-42799(91): In *note fnmatch: 57, the cache size for compiled
     regex patterns (*note functools.lru_cache(): 834.) was bumped up
     from 256 to 32768, affecting functions: *note fnmatch.fnmatch():
     1672, *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 1673, *note fnmatch.filter():
     1674.

   - bpo-41928(92): Update *note shutil.copyfile(): 8a4. to raise *note
     FileNotFoundError: d46. instead of confusing *note
     IsADirectoryError: eef. when a path ending with a ‘os.path.sep’
     does not exist; *note shutil.copy(): 8a5. and *note shutil.copy2():
     8a6. are also affected.

   - bpo-44569(93): Added the ‘StackSummary.format_frame()’ function in
     *note traceback: f9.  This allows users to customize the way
     individual lines are formatted in tracebacks without
     re-implementing logic to handle recursive tracebacks.

   - bpo-44566(94): handle StopIteration subclass raised from
     @contextlib.contextmanager generator

   - bpo-44558(95): Make the implementation consistency of *note
     indexOf(): 714. between C and Python versions.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-41249(96): Fixes ‘TypedDict’ to work with
     ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ and postponed evaluation of annotations
     across modules.

   - bpo-44554(97): Refactor argument processing in ‘pdb.main()’ to
     simplify detection of errors in input loading and clarify behavior
     around module or script invocation.

   - bpo-34798(98): Break up paragraph about *note pprint.PrettyPrinter:
     e0c. construction parameters to make it easier to read.

   - bpo-44539(99): Added support for recognizing JPEG files without
     JFIF or Exif markers.

   - bpo-44461(100): Fix bug with *note pdb: a0.'s handling of import
     error due to a package which does not have a ‘__main__’ module

   - bpo-43625(101): Fix a bug in the detection of CSV file headers by
     *note csv.Sniffer.has_header(): 1675. and improve documentation of
     same.

   - bpo-44516(102): Update vendored pip to 21.1.3

   - bpo-42892(103): Fixed an exception thrown while parsing a malformed
     multipart email by *note email.message.EmailMessage: b06.

   - bpo-44468(104): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. now finds
     annotations in classes and base classes with unexpected
     ‘__module__’.  Previously, it skipped those MRO elements.

   - bpo-44491(105): Allow clearing the *note sqlite3: c9. authorizer
     callback by passing *note None: 470. to *note set_authorizer():
     471.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43977(106): Set the proper *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1676. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1677. flags for subclasses created
     before a parent has been registered as a *note
     collections.abc.Mapping: 702. or *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     1055.

   - bpo-44482(107): Fix very unlikely resource leak in *note glob: 5f.
     in alternate Python implementations.

   - bpo-44466(108): The *note faulthandler: 53. module now detects if a
     fatal error occurs during a garbage collector collection.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44471(109): A *note TypeError: 2ba. is now raised instead of an
     *note AttributeError: 3ca. in *note
     contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context(): 3c6. and *note
     contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context(): 3c9. for objects
     which do not support the *note context manager: 3c4. or *note
     asynchronous context manager: 3c7. protocols correspondingly.

   - bpo-44404(110): *note tkinter: ea.'s ‘after()’ method now supports
     callables without the ‘__name__’ attribute.

   - bpo-41546(111): Make *note pprint: a9. (like the builtin ‘print’)
     not attempt to write to ‘stdout’ when it is ‘None’.

   - bpo-44458(112): ‘BUFFER_BLOCK_SIZE’ is now declared static, to
     avoid linking collisions when bz2, lmza or zlib are statically
     linked.

   - bpo-44464(113): Remove exception for flake8 in deprecated
     importlib.metadata interfaces.  Sync with importlib_metadata 4.6.

   - bpo-44446(114): Take into account that ‘lineno’ might be ‘None’ in
     *note traceback.FrameSummary: d06.

   - bpo-44439(115): Fix in ‘bz2.BZ2File.write()’ /
     ‘lzma.LZMAFile.write()’ methods, when the input data is an object
     that supports the buffer protocol, the file length may be wrong.

   - bpo-44434(116): _thread.start_new_thread() no longer calls
     PyThread_exit_thread() explicitly at the thread exit, the call was
     redundant.  On Linux with the glibc, pthread_exit() aborts the
     whole process if dlopen() fails to open libgcc_s.so file (ex:
     EMFILE error).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42972(117): The _thread.RLock type now fully implement the GC
     protocol: add a traverse function and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     593. flag.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44422(118): The *note threading.enumerate(): 1678. function now
     uses a reentrant lock to prevent a hang on reentrant call.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38291(119): Importing typing.io or typing.re now prints a
     ‘DeprecationWarning’.

   - bpo-37880(120): argparse actions store_const and append_const each
     receive a default value of ‘None’ when the ‘const’ kwarg is not
     provided.  Previously, this raised a *note TypeError: 2ba.

   - bpo-44389(121): Fix deprecation of *note ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3: 1679.

   - bpo-27827(122): ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.is_reserved()’ now
     identifies a greater range of reserved filenames, including those
     with trailing spaces or colons.

   - bpo-44395(123): Fix ‘as_string()’ to pass unixfrom properly.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-34266(124): Handle exceptions from parsing the arg of *note
     pdb: a0.'s run/restart command.

   - bpo-44362(125): Improve *note ssl: ca. module's deprecation
     messages, error reporting, and documentation for deprecations.

   - bpo-44342(126): [Enum] Change pickling from by-value to by-name.

   - bpo-44356(127): [Enum] Allow multiple data-type mixins if they are
     all the same.

   - bpo-44351(128): Restore back ‘parse_makefile()’ in
     ‘distutils.sysconfig’ because it behaves differently than the
     similar implementation in *note sysconfig: d5.

   - bpo-35800(129): ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy’ is now removed as it is
     unusable without an external module, ‘mailman’.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-44357(130): Added a function that returns cube root of the
     given number *note math.cbrt(): 45c.

   - bpo-44339(131): Change ‘math.pow(±0.0, -math.inf)’ to return ‘inf’
     instead of raising ‘ValueError’.  This brings the special-case
     handling of ‘math.pow’ into compliance with the IEEE 754 standard.

   - bpo-44242(132): Remove missing flag check from Enum creation and
     move into a ‘verify’ decorator.

   - bpo-44246(133): In ‘importlib.metadata’, restore compatibility in
     the result from ‘Distribution.entry_points’ (‘EntryPoints’) to
     honor expectations in older implementations and issuing deprecation
     warnings for these cases: A. ‘EntryPoints’ objects are once again
     mutable, allowing for ‘sort()’ and other list-based mutation
     operations.  Avoid deprecation warnings by casting to a mutable
     sequence (e.g.  ‘list(dist.entry_points).sort()’).  B.
     ‘EntryPoints’ results once again allow for access by index.  To
     avoid deprecation warnings, cast the result to a Sequence first
     (e.g.  ‘tuple(dist.entry_points)[0]’).

   - bpo-44246(134): In importlib.metadata.entry_points, de-duplication
     of distributions no longer requires loading the full metadata for
     PathDistribution objects, improving entry point loading performance
     by ~10x.

   - bpo-43858(135): Added a function that returns a copy of a dict of
     logging levels: *note logging.getLevelNamesMapping(): 454.

   - bpo-44260(136): The *note random.Random: 167a. constructor no
     longer reads system entropy without need.

   - bpo-44254(137): On Mac, give turtledemo button text a color that
     works on both light or dark background.  Programmers cannot control
     the latter.

   - bpo-44258(138): Support PEP 515 for Fraction's initialization from
     string.

   - bpo-44235(139): Remove deprecated functions in the *note gettext:
     5e.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38693(140): Prefer f-strings to ‘.format’ in
     importlib.resources.

   - bpo-33693(141): Importlib.metadata now prefers f-strings to
     .format.

   - bpo-44241(142): Incorporate minor tweaks from importlib_metadata
     4.1: SimplePath protocol, support for Metadata 2.2.

   - bpo-43216(143): Remove the ‘@asyncio.coroutine’ *note decorator:
     540. enabling legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible
     with async/await code; remove ‘asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper’ used
     for wrapping legacy coroutine objects in the debug mode.  The
     decorator has been deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was
     initially scheduled for Python 3.10.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-44210(144): Make importlib.metadata._meta.PackageMetadata
     public.

   - bpo-43643(145): Declare readers.MultiplexedPath.name as a property
     per the spec.

   - bpo-27334(146): The *note sqlite3: c9. context manager now performs
     a rollback (thus releasing the database lock) if commit failed.
     Patch by Luca Citi and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-4928(147): Documented existing behavior on POSIX:
     NamedTemporaryFiles are not deleted when creating process is killed
     with SIGKILL

   - bpo-44154(148): Optimize *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. pickling
     for large components.

   - bpo-33433(149): For IPv4 mapped IPv6 addresses ( RFC 4291(150)
     Section 2.5.5.2), the *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private: 141d.
     check is deferred to the mapped IPv4 address.  This solves a bug
     where public mapped IPv4 addresses were considered private by the
     IPv6 check.

   - bpo-44150(151): Add optional 'weights' argument to
     statistics.fmean().

   - bpo-44142(152): *note ast.unparse(): 71e. will now drop the
     redundant parentheses when tuples used as assignment targets (e.g
     in for loops).

   - bpo-44145(153): *note hmac: 65. computations were not releasing the
     GIL while calling the OpenSSL ‘HMAC_Update’ C API (a new feature in
     3.9).  This unintentionally prevented parallel computation as other
     *note hashlib: 63. algorithms support.

   - bpo-44095(154): *note zipfile.Path: 4c5. now supports *note
     zipfile.Path.stem: 4c6, *note zipfile.Path.suffixes: 4c8, and *note
     zipfile.Path.suffix: 4c7. attributes.

   - bpo-44077(155): It's now possible to receive the type of service
     (ToS), a.k.a.  differentiated services (DS), a.k.a.  differentiated
     services code point (DSCP) and explicit congestion notification
     (ECN) IP header fields with ‘socket.IP_RECVTOS’.

   - bpo-37788(156): Fix a reference leak when a Thread object is never
     joined.

   - bpo-38908(157): Subclasses of ‘typing.Protocol’ which only have
     data variables declared will now raise a ‘TypeError’ when checked
     with ‘isinstance’ unless they are decorated with
     ‘runtime_checkable()’.  Previously, these checks passed silently.
     Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44098(158): ‘typing.ParamSpec’ will no longer be found in the
     ‘__parameters__’ of most *note typing: ff. generics except in valid
     use locations specified by PEP 612(159).  This prevents incorrect
     usage like ‘typing.List[P][int]’.  This change means incorrect
     usage which may have passed silently in 3.10 beta 1 and earlier
     will now error.

   - bpo-44089(160): Allow subclassing ‘csv.Error’ in 3.10 (it was
     allowed in 3.9 and earlier but was disallowed in early versions of
     3.10).

   - bpo-44081(161): *note ast.unparse(): 71e. now doesn't use redundant
     spaces to separate ‘lambda’ and the ‘:’ if there are no parameters.

   - bpo-44061(162): Fix regression in previous release when calling
     *note pkgutil.iter_modules(): bbe. with a list of *note
     pathlib.Path: 149. objects

   - bpo-44059(163): Register the SerenityOS Browser in the *note
     webbrowser: 110. module.

   - bpo-36515(164): The *note hashlib: 63. module no longer does
     unaligned memory accesses when compiled for ARM platforms.

   - bpo-40465(165): Remove random module features deprecated in Python
     3.9.

   - bpo-44018(166): random.seed() no longer mutates bytearray inputs.

   - bpo-38352(167): Add ‘IO’, ‘BinaryIO’, ‘TextIO’, ‘Match’, and
     ‘Pattern’ to ‘typing.__all__’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-44002(168): *note urllib.parse: 105. now uses
     ‘functool.lru_cache()’ for its internal URL splitting and quoting
     caches instead of rolling its own like its the '90s.

     The undocumented internal *note urllib.parse: 105. ‘Quoted’ class
     API is now deprecated, for removal in 3.14.

   - bpo-43972(169): When *note http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler:
     99b. sends a ‘301 (Moved Permanently)’ for a directory path not
     ending with ‘/’, add a ‘Content-Length: 0’ header.  This improves
     the behavior for certain clients.

   - bpo-28528(170): Fix a bug in *note pdb: a0. where ‘checkline()’
     raises *note AttributeError: 3ca. if it is called after ‘reset()’.

   - bpo-43853(171): Improved string handling for *note sqlite3: c9.
     user-defined functions and aggregates:

        * It is now possible to pass strings with embedded null
          characters to UDFs

        * Conversion failures now correctly raise *note MemoryError:
          1460.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43666(172): AIX: ‘Lib/_aix_support.get_platform()’ may fail in
     an AIX WPAR. The fileset bos.rte appears to have a builddate in
     both LPAR and WPAR so this fileset is queried rather than bos.mp64.
     To prevent a similar situation (no builddate in ODM) a value (9988)
     sufficient for completing a build is provided.  Patch by M Felt.

   - bpo-43650(173): Fix *note MemoryError: 1460. in *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 184. which fails inside
     ‘shutil._unpack_zipfile()’ on large files.  Patch by Igor
     Bolshakov.

   - bpo-43612(174): *note zlib.compress(): 43a. now accepts a wbits
     parameter which allows users to compress data as a raw deflate
     block without zlib headers and trailers in one go.  Previously this
     required instantiating a ‘zlib.compressobj’.  It also provides a
     faster alternative to ‘gzip.compress’ when wbits=31 is used.

   - bpo-43392(175): ‘importlib._bootstrap._find_and_load()’ now
     implements a two-step check to avoid locking when modules have been
     already imported and are ready.  This improves performance of
     repeated calls to *note importlib.import_module(): 298. and *note
     importlib.__import__(): f03.

   - bpo-43318(176): Fix a bug where *note pdb: a0. does not always echo
     cleared breakpoints.

   - bpo-43234(177): Prohibit passing non-*note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. executors to
     ‘loop.set_default_executor()’ following a deprecation in Python
     3.8.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-43232(178): Prohibit previously deprecated potentially
     disruptive operations on ‘asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket’.  Patch
     by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-30077(179): Added support for Apple's aifc/sowt
     pseudo-compression

   - bpo-42971(180): Add definition of ‘errno.EQFULL’ for platforms that
     define this constant (such as macOS).

   - bpo-43086(181): Added a new optional ‘strict_mode’ parameter to
     'binascii.a2b_base64'.  When ‘scrict_mode’ is set to ‘True’, the
     'a2b_base64' function will accept only valid base64 content.  More
     details about what "valid base64 content" is, can be found in the
     function's documentation.

   - bpo-43024(182): Improve the help signature of *note
     traceback.print_exception(): 676, *note
     traceback.format_exception(): 674. and *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 675.

   - bpo-33809(183): Add the *note traceback.TracebackException.print():
     4a0. method which prints the formatted exception information.

   - bpo-42862(184): *note sqlite3: c9. now utilizes *note
     functools.lru_cache(): 834. to implement the connection statement
     cache.  As a small optimisation, the default statement cache size
     has been increased from 100 to 128.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41818(185): Soumendra Ganguly: add termios.tcgetwinsize(),
     termios.tcsetwinsize().

   - bpo-40497(186): *note subprocess.check_output(): e50. now raises
     *note ValueError: 183. when the invalid keyword argument 'check' is
     passed by user code.  Previously such use would fail later with a
     *note TypeError: 2ba.  Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37449(187): ‘ensurepip’ now uses ‘importlib.resources.files()’
     traversable APIs

   - bpo-40956(188): Use Argument Clinic in *note sqlite3: c9.  Patches
     by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41730(189): ‘DeprecationWarning’ is now raised when importing
     *note tkinter.tix: f3, which has been deprecated in documentation
     since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-20684(190): Remove unused ‘_signature_get_bound_param’ function
     from *note inspect: 78. - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-41402(191): Fix *note email.message.EmailMessage.set_content():
     167b. when called with binary data and ‘7bit’ content transfer
     encoding.

   - bpo-32695(192): The 'compresslevel' and 'preset' keyword arguments
     of *note tarfile.open(): cf6. are now both documented and tested.

   - bpo-41137(193): Use utf-8 encoding while reading .pdbrc files.
     Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy

   - bpo-24391(194): Improved reprs of *note threading: e7.
     synchronization objects: *note Semaphore: fe9, *note
     BoundedSemaphore: fea, *note Event: feb. and *note Barrier: 1074.

   - bpo-5846(195): Deprecated the following *note unittest: 101.
     functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13:

        * ‘findTestCases()’

        * ‘makeSuite()’

        * ‘getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 532. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 2b1.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 533.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 534.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40563(196): Support pathlike objects on dbm/shelve.  Patch by
     Hakan Çelik and Henry-Joseph Audéoud.

   - bpo-34990(197): Fixed a Y2k38 bug in the compileall module where it
     would fail to compile files with a modification time after the year
     2038.

   - bpo-39549(198): Whereas the code for reprlib.Repr had previously
     used a hardcoded string value of '...', this PR updates it to use
     of a “fillvalue” attribute, whose value defaults to '...'  and can
     be reset in either individual reprlib.Repr instances or in
     subclasses thereof.

   - bpo-37022(199): *note pdb: a0. now displays exceptions from
     ‘repr()’ with its ‘p’ and ‘pp’ commands.

   - bpo-38840(200): Fix ‘test___all__’ on platforms lacking a shared
     memory implementation.

   - bpo-39359(201): Add one missing check that the password is a bytes
     object for an encrypted zipfile.

   - bpo-38741(202): *note configparser: 20.: using ']' inside a section
     header will no longer cut the section name short at the ']'

   - bpo-38415(203): Added missing behavior to *note
     contextlib.asynccontextmanager(): 981. to match *note
     contextlib.contextmanager(): 1093. so decorated functions can
     themselves be decorators.

   - bpo-30256(204): Pass multiprocessing BaseProxy argument
     ‘manager_owned’ through AutoProxy.

   - bpo-27513(205): *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 387. now accepts
     *note email.header.Header: 167c. objects along with string values.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-16379(206): Add SQLite error code and name to *note sqlite3:
     c9. exceptions.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel Shahaf, and Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-26228(207): pty.spawn no longer hangs on FreeBSD, macOS, and
     Solaris.

   - bpo-33349(208): lib2to3 now recognizes async generators everywhere.

   - bpo-29298(209): Fix ‘TypeError’ when required subparsers without
     ‘dest’ do not receive arguments.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45371

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45329

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1596321

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45274

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45238

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36674

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235

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   (191) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41402

   (192) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32695

   (193) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41137

   (194) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24391

   (195) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5846

   (196) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40563

   (197) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34990

   (198) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39549

   (199) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37022

   (200) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38840

   (201) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39359

   (202) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38741

   (203) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38415

   (204) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30256

   (205) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27513

   (206) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16379

   (207) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26228

   (208) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33349

   (209) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29298


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<28>,  Next: Tests<29>,  Prev: Library<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.31.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45216(1): Remove extra documentation listing methods in
     ‘difflib’.  It was rendering twice in pydoc and was outdated in
     some places.

   - bpo-45024(2): *note collections.abc: 1c. documentation has been
     expanded to explicitly cover how instance and subclass checks work,
     with additional doctest examples and an exhaustive list of ABCs
     which test membership purely by presence of the right *note special
     method: 167e.s.  Patch by Raymond Hettinger.

   - bpo-44957(3): Promote PEP 604 union syntax by using it where
     possible.  Also, mention ‘X | Y’ more prominently in section about
     ‘Union’ and mention ‘X | None’ at all in section about ‘Optional’.

   - bpo-16580(4): Added code equivalents for the *note int.to_bytes():
     1663. and *note int.from_bytes(): 1622. methods, as well as tests
     ensuring that these code equivalents are valid.

   - bpo-44903(5): Removed the ‘othergui.rst’ file, any references to
     it, and the list of GUI frameworks in the FAQ. In their place I've
     added links to the Python Wiki page on GUI frameworks(6).

   - bpo-33479(7): Tkinter documentation has been greatly expanded with
     new "Architecture" and "Threading model" sections.

   - bpo-36700(8): *note base64: c. RFC references were updated to point
     to RFC 4648(9); a section was added to point users to the new
     "security considerations" section of the RFC.

   - bpo-44740(10): Replaced occurrences of uppercase "Web" and
     "Internet" with lowercase versions per the 2016 revised Associated
     Press Style Book.

   - bpo-44693(11): Update the definition of __future__ in the glossary
     by replacing the confusing word "pseudo-module" with a more
     accurate description.

   - bpo-35183(12): Add typical examples to os.path.splitext docs

   - bpo-30511(13): Clarify that *note shutil.make_archive(): 1d7. is
     not thread-safe due to reliance on changing the current working
     directory.

   - bpo-44561(14): Update of three expired hyperlinks in
     Doc/distributing/index.rst: "Project structure", "Building and
     packaging the project", and "Uploading the project to the Python
     Packaging Index".

   - bpo-44651(15): Delete entry "coercion" in Doc/glossary.rst for its
     outdated definition.

   - bpo-42958(16): Updated the docstring and docs of *note
     filecmp.cmp(): 167f. to be more accurate and less confusing
     especially in respect to 'shallow' arg.

   - bpo-44631(17): Refactored the ‘repr()’ code of the ‘_Environ’ (os
     module).

   - bpo-44613(18): importlib.metadata is no longer provisional.

   - bpo-44558(19): Match the docstring and python implementation of
     *note countOf(): 715. to the behavior of its c implementation.

   - bpo-44544(20): List all kwargs for *note textwrap.wrap(): 133a,
     *note textwrap.fill(): 1339, and *note textwrap.shorten(): e62.
     Now, there are nav links to attributes of ‘TextWrap’, which makes
     navigation much easier while minimizing duplication in the
     documentation.

   - bpo-38062(21): Clarify that atexit uses equality comparisons
     internally.

   - bpo-40620(22): Convert examples in tutorial controlflow.rst section
     4.3 to be interpreter-demo style.

   - bpo-43066(23): Added a warning to *note zipfile: 12b. docs:
     filename arg with a leading slash may cause archive to be
     un-openable on Windows systems.

   - bpo-39452(24): Rewrote ‘Doc/library/__main__.rst’.  Broadened scope
     of the document to explicitly discuss and differentiate between
     ‘__main__.py’ in packages versus the ‘__name__ == '__main__'’
     expression (and the idioms that surround it).

   - bpo-13814(25): In the Design FAQ, answer "Why don't generators
     support the with statement?"

   - bpo-27752(26): Documentation of csv.Dialect is more descriptive.

   - bpo-44453(27): Fix documentation for the return type of *note
     sysconfig.get_path(): 11c2.

   - bpo-44392(28): Added a new section in the C API documentation for
     types used in type hinting.  Documented ‘Py_GenericAlias’ and
     ‘Py_GenericAliasType’.

   - bpo-38291(29): Mark ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ as deprecated since
     Python 3.8 in the documentation.  They were never properly
     supported by type checkers.

   - bpo-44322(30): Document that SyntaxError args have a details tuple
     and that details are adjusted for errors in f-string field
     replacement expressions.

   - bpo-42392(31): Document the deprecation and removal of the ‘loop’
     parameter for many functions and classes in *note asyncio: 9.

   - bpo-44195(32): Corrected references to ‘TraversableResources’ in
     docs.  There is no ‘TraversableReader’.

   - bpo-41963(33): Document that ‘ConfigParser’ strips off comments
     when reading configuration files.

   - bpo-44072(34): Correct where in the numeric ABC hierarchy ‘**’
     support is added, i.e., in numbers.Complex, not numbers.Integral.

   - bpo-43558(35): Add the remark to *note dataclasses: 2d.
     documentation that the ‘__init__()’ of any base class has to be
     called in ‘__post_init__()’, along with a code example.

   - bpo-44025(36): Clarify when '_' in match statements is a keyword,
     and when not.

   - bpo-41706(37): Fix docs about how methods like ‘__add__’ are
     invoked when evaluating operator expressions.

   - bpo-41621(38): Document that *note collections.defaultdict: 104e.
     parameter ‘default_factory’ defaults to ‘None’ and is
     positional-only.

   - bpo-41576(39): document BaseException in favor of bare except

   - bpo-21760(40): The description for __file__ fixed.  Patch by Furkan
     Onder

   - bpo-39498(41): Add a "Security Considerations" index which links to
     standard library modules that have explicitly documented security
     considerations.

   - bpo-33479(42): Remove the unqualified claim that tkinter is
     threadsafe.  It has not been true for several years and likely
     never was.  An explanation of what is true may be added later,
     after more discussion, and possibly after patching _tkinter.c,

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45024

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44957

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16580

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44903

   (6) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36700

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44740

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44693

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35183

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30511

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44561

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44651

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42958

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44631

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44613

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44558

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44544

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38062

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40620

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43066

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39452

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13814

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27752

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44453

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44392

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44322

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44195

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41963

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44072

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43558

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44025

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41706

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41621

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41576

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21760

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39498

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<29>,  Next: Build<28>,  Prev: Documentation<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.31.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40173(1): Fix *note
     test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module(): 1681.

   - bpo-45280(2): Add a test case for empty *note typing.NamedTuple:
     1fb.

   - bpo-45269(3): Cover case when invalid ‘markers’ type is supplied to
     ‘c_make_encoder’.

   - bpo-45128(4): Fix ‘test_multiprocessing_fork’ failure due to
     ‘test_logging’ and ‘sys.modules’ manipulation.

   - bpo-45209(5): Fix ‘UserWarning: resource_tracker’ warning in
     ‘_test_multiprocessing._TestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination’

   - bpo-45185(6): Enables ‘TestEnumerations’ test cases in ‘test_ssl’
     suite.

   - bpo-45195(7): Fix test_readline.test_nonascii(): sometimes, the
     newline character is not written at the end, so don't expect it in
     the output.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45156(8): Fixes infinite loop on *note unittest.mock.seal():
     a01. of mocks created by ‘create_autospec()’.

   - bpo-45125(9): Improves pickling tests and docs of ‘SharedMemory’
     and ‘SharableList’ objects.

   - bpo-44860(10): Update ‘test_sysconfig.test_user_similar()’ for the
     posix_user scheme: ‘platlib’ doesn't use *note sys.platlibdir: 777.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45052(11):
     ‘WithProcessesTestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_basics’ test was
     ignored, because ‘self.assertEqual(sms.size, sms2.size)’ line was
     failing.  It is now removed and test is unskipped.

     The main motivation for this line to be removed from the test is
     that the ‘size’ of ‘SharedMemory’ is not ever guaranteed to be the
     same.  It is decided by the platform.

   - bpo-44895(12): libregrtest now clears the type cache later to
     reduce the risk of false alarm when checking for reference leaks.
     Previously, the type cache was cleared too early and libregrtest
     raised a false alarm about reference leaks under very specific
     conditions.  Patch by Irit Katriel and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45042(13): Fixes that test classes decorated with
     ‘@hashlib_helper.requires_hashdigest’ were skipped all the time.

   - bpo-25130(14): Add calls of *note gc.collect(): 883. in tests to
     support PyPy.

   - bpo-45011(15): Made tests relying on the ‘_asyncio’ C extension
     module optional to allow running on alternative Python
     implementations.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-44949(16): Fix auto history tests of test_readline: sometimes,
     the newline character is not written at the end, so don't expect it
     in the output.

   - bpo-44891(17): Tests were added to clarify *note id(): 1293. is
     preserved when ‘obj * 1’ is used on *note str: 157. and *note
     bytes: 2c1. objects.  Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

   - bpo-44852(18): Add ability to wholesale silence DeprecationWarnings
     while running the regression test suite.

   - bpo-40928(19): Notify users running test_decimal regression tests
     on macOS of potential harmless "malloc can't allocate region"
     messages spewed by test_decimal.

   - bpo-44734(20): Fixed floating-point precision issue in turtle
     tests.

   - bpo-44708(21): Regression tests, when run with -w, are now
     re-running only the affected test methods instead of re-running the
     entire test file.

   - bpo-42095(22): Added interop tests for Apple plists: generate plist
     files with Python plistlib and parse with Apple plutil; and the
     other way round.

   - bpo-44647(23): Added a permanent Unicode-valued environment
     variable to regression tests to ensure they handle this use case in
     the future.  If your test environment breaks because of that,
     report a bug to us, and temporarily set
     PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD=0 in your test environment.

   - bpo-44515(24): Adjust recently added contextlib tests to avoid
     assuming the use of a refcounted GC

   - bpo-44287(25): Fix asyncio test_popen() of test_windows_utils by
     using a longer timeout.  Use military grade battle-tested *note
     test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT: 1682. timeout rather than a hardcoded
     timeout of 10 seconds: it's 30 seconds by default, but it is made
     longer on slow buildbots.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44451(26): Reset ‘DeprecationWarning’ filters in
     ‘test.test_importlib.test_metadata_api.APITests.test_entry_points_by_index’
     to avoid ‘StopIteration’ error if ‘DeprecationWarnings’ are
     ignored.

   - bpo-44363(27): Account for address sanitizer in test_capi.
     test_capi now passes when run GCC address sanitizer.

   - bpo-44364(28): Add non integral tests for *note math.sqrt(): 84c.
     function.

   - bpo-43921(29): Fix test_ssl.test_wrong_cert_tls13(): use
     ‘suppress_ragged_eofs=False’, since ‘read()’ can raise *note
     ssl.SSLEOFError: 150a. on Windows.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43921(30): Fix test_pha_required_nocert() of test_ssl: catch
     two more EOF cases (when the ‘recv()’ method returns an empty
     string).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44131(31): Add test_frozenmain to test_embed to test the
     ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ C function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31904(32): Ignore error string case in test_file_not_exists().

   - bpo-42083(33): Add test to check that ‘PyStructSequence_NewType’
     accepts a ‘PyStructSequence_Desc’ with ‘doc’ field set to ‘NULL’.

   - bpo-35753(34): Fix crash in doctest when doctest parses modules
     that include unwrappable functions by skipping those functions.

   - bpo-30256(35): Add test for nested queues when using
     ‘multiprocessing’ shared objects ‘AutoProxy[Queue]’ inside
     ‘ListProxy’ and ‘DictProxy’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40173

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45280

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45269

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45128

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45209

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45185

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45195

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45156

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45125

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44860

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45052

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44895

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45042

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45011

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44949

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44891

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44852

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40928

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44734

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44708

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42095

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44647

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44515

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44287

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44451

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44363

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44364

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44131

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42083

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35753

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30256


File: python.info,  Node: Build<28>,  Next: Windows<29>,  Prev: Tests<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.31.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-45220(1): Avoid building with the Windows 11 SDK previews
     automatically.  This may be overridden by setting the
     ‘DefaultWindowsSDKVersion’ environment variable before building.

   - bpo-45020(2): Freeze stdlib modules that are imported during
     startup.  This provides significant performance improvements to
     startup.  If necessary, use the previously added "-X
     frozen_modules=off" commandline option to force importing the
     source modules.

   - bpo-45188(3): Windows builds now regenerate frozen modules as the
     first part of the build.  Previously the regeneration was later in
     the build, which would require it to be restarted if any modules
     had changed.

   - bpo-45163(4): Fixes Haiku platform build.

   - bpo-45067(5): The ncurses function extended_color_content was
     introduced in 2017

     (‘https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/NEWS.html#index-t20170401’).
     The

     ncurses-devel package in CentOS 7 had a older version ncurses
     resulted in compilation error.  For compiling ncurses with extended
     color support, we verify the version of the ncurses library >=
     20170401.

   - bpo-45019(6): Generate lines in relevant files for frozen modules.
     Up until now each of the files had to be edited manually.  This
     change makes it easier to add to and modify the frozen modules.

   - bpo-44340(7): Add support for building with clang thin lto via
     -with-lto=thin/full.  Patch by Donghee Na and Brett Holman.

   - bpo-44535(8): Enable building using a Visual Studio 2022 install on
     Windows.

   - bpo-43298(9): Improved error message when building without a
     Windows SDK installed.

   - bpo-44381(10): The Windows build now accepts
     ‘EnableControlFlowGuard’ set to ‘guard’ to enable CFG.

   - bpo-41282(11): Fix broken ‘make install’ that caused standard
     library extension modules to be unnecessarily and incorrectly
     rebuilt during the install phase of cpython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45220

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45188

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45163

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45067

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45019

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44535

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43298

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44381

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<29>,  Next: macOS<21>,  Prev: Build<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.31.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-45375(1): Fixes an assertion failure due to searching for the
     standard library in unnormalised paths.

   - bpo-45022(2): Update Windows release to include libffi 3.4.2

   - bpo-45007(3): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1l in Windows build

   - bpo-44848(4): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

   - bpo-44572(5): Avoid consuming standard input in the *note platform:
     a5. module

   - bpo-44582(6): Accelerate speed of *note mimetypes: 8a.
     initialization using a native implementation of the registry scan.

   - bpo-41299(7): Fix 16 milliseconds jitter when using timeouts in
     *note threading: e7, such as with *note threading.Lock.acquire():
     495. or *note threading.Condition.wait(): 1685.

   - bpo-42686(8): Build *note sqlite3: c9. with math functions enabled.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40263(9): This is a follow-on bug from
     ‘https://bugs.python.org/issue26903’.  Once that is applied we run
     into an off-by-one assertion problem.  The assert was not correct.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45375

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44572

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44582

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41299

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42686

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40263


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<21>,  Next: IDLE<17>,  Prev: Windows<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.31.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45007(1): Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1l.

   - bpo-34602(2): When building CPython on macOS with ‘./configure
     --with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer --with-pydebug’, the stack size
     is now quadrupled to allow for the entire test suite to pass.

   - bpo-44848(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

   - bpo-44689(4): *note ctypes.util.find_library(): bbd. now works
     correctly on macOS 11 Big Sur even if Python is built on an older
     version of macOS. Previously, when built on older macOS systems,
     ‘find_library’ was not able to find macOS system libraries when
     running on Big Sur due to changes in how system libraries are
     stored.

   - bpo-41972(5): The framework build's user header path in sysconfig
     is changed to add a 'pythonX.Y' component to match distutils's
     behavior.

   - bpo-43109(6): Allow -with-lto configure option to work with
     Apple-supplied Xcode or Command Line Tools.

   - bpo-34932(7): Add socket.TCP_KEEPALIVE support for macOS. Patch by
     Shane Harvey.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44689

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43109

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34932


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<17>,  Next: Tools/Demos<15>,  Prev: macOS<21>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.31.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45296(1): On Windows, change exit/quit message to suggest
     Ctrl-D, which works, instead of <Ctrl-Z Return>, which does not
     work in IDLE.

   - bpo-45193(2): Make completion boxes appear on Ubuntu again.

   - bpo-40128(3): Mostly fix completions on macOS when not using tcl/tk
     8.6.11 (as with 3.9).  The added update_idletask call should be
     harmless and possibly helpful otherwise.

   - bpo-33962(4): Move the indent space setting from the Font tab to
     the new Windows tab.  Patch by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-40468(5): Split the settings dialog General tab into Windows
     and Shell/ED tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu,
     to the Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the
     dialog.  The latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.

   - bpo-41611(6): Avoid uncaught exceptions in
     ‘AutoCompleteWindow.winconfig_event()’.

   - bpo-41611(7): Fix IDLE sometimes freezing upon tab-completion on
     macOS.

   - bpo-44010(8): Highlight the new *note match: 62f. statement's *note
     soft keywords: 62e.: *note match: 62f, *note case: 62f, and *note
     _: 630.  However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be
     incorrect in some rare cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’
     patterns.

   - bpo-44026(9): Include interpreter's typo fix suggestions in message
     line for NameErrors and AttributeErrors.  Patch by E. Paine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44026


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<15>,  Next: C API<25>,  Prev: IDLE<17>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.31.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-44786(1): Fix a warning in regular expression in the c-analyzer
     script.

   - bpo-44967(2): pydoc now returns a non-zero status code when a
     module cannot be found.

   - bpo-44978(3): Allow the Argument Clinic tool to handle
     ‘__complex__’ special methods.

   - bpo-43425(4): Removed the 'test2to3' demo project that demonstrated
     using lib2to3 to support Python 2.x and Python 3.x from a single
     source in a distutils package.  Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-44074(5): Make patchcheck automatically detect the correct base
     branch name (previously it was hardcoded to 'master')

   - bpo-20291(6): Added support for variadic positional parameters in
     Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44967

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44978

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43425

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44074

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20291


File: python.info,  Node: C API<25>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<15>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.31.11 C API
................

   - bpo-41710(1): The PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() function now clamps
     the timeout if it is too large, rather than aborting the process.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44687(2): ‘BufferedReader.peek()’ no longer raises *note
     ValueError: 183. when the entire file has already been buffered.

   - bpo-45116(3): Add the *note Py_ALWAYS_INLINE: 168a. macro to ask
     the compiler to always inline a static inline function.  The
     compiler can ignore it and decides to not inline the function.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45094(4): Add the *note Py_NO_INLINE: 168b. macro to disable
     inlining on a function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45061(5): Add a deallocator to the *note bool: 17d. type to
     detect refcount bugs in C extensions which call
     ‘Py_DECREF(Py_True);’ or ‘Py_DECREF(Py_False);’ by mistake.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42035(6): Add a new *note PyType_GetQualName(): 566. function
     to get type's qualified name.

   - bpo-41103(7): Reverts removal of the old buffer protocol because
     they are part of stable ABI.

   - bpo-44751(8): Remove ‘crypt.h’ include from the public ‘Python.h’
     header.

   - bpo-42747(9): The ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG’ type flag now does
     nothing.  The ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_AM_SEND’ flag (which was added in
     3.10) is removed.  Both were unnecessary because it is not possible
     to have type objects with the relevant fields missing.

   - bpo-44530(10): Added the ‘co_qualname’ to the ‘PyCodeObject’
     structure to propagate the qualified name from the compiler to code
     objects.

     Patch by Gabriele N. Tornetta

   - bpo-44441(11): *note Py_RunMain(): 809. now resets
     ‘PyImport_Inittab’ to its initial value at exit.  It must be
     possible to call *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 156d. or *note
     PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 156e. at each Python initialization.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39947(12): Remove 4 private trashcan C API functions which were
     only kept for the backward compatibility of the stable ABI with
     Python 3.8 and older, since the trashcan API was not usable with
     the limited C API on Python 3.8 and older.  The trashcan API was
     excluded from the limited C API in Python 3.9.

     Removed functions:

        * _PyTrash_deposit_object()

        * _PyTrash_destroy_chain()

        * _PyTrash_thread_deposit_object()

        * _PyTrash_thread_destroy_chain()

     The trashcan C API was never usable with the limited C API, since
     old trashcan macros accessed directly *note PyThreadState: 5a6.
     members like ‘_tstate->trash_delete_nesting’, whereas the *note
     PyThreadState: 5a6. structure is opaque in the limited C API.

     Exclude also the ‘PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL’ constant from the C API.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40939(13): Removed documentation for the removed ‘PyParser_*’ C
     API.

   - bpo-43795(14): The list in *note 受限 API 的內容: 5b7. now shows
     the public name *note PyFrameObject: 5a1. rather than ‘_frame’.
     The non-existing entry ‘_node’ no longer appears in the list.

   - bpo-44378(15): *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 15e4. no longer uses *note
     Py_TYPE(): 597. to avoid a compiler warning: no longer cast ‘const
     PyObject*’ to ‘PyObject*’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39573(16): Convert the *note Py_TYPE(): 597. and *note
     Py_SIZE(): 599. macros to static inline functions.  The *note
     Py_SET_TYPE(): 598. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 59a. functions must
     now be used to set an object type and size.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-44263(17): The *note PyType_Ready(): 595. function now raises
     an error if a type is defined with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     593. flag set but has no traverse function (*note
     PyTypeObject.tp_traverse: 594.).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43795(18): The undocumented function ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ is
     removed from the Limited API.

   - bpo-44113(19): Deprecate the following functions to configure the
     Python initialization:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 345. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5ad. instead ( PEP 587(20)).

   - bpo-44094(21): Remove ‘PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithUnicodeFilename()’,
     ‘PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename()’, and
     ‘PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename()’.  They are not
     documented and have been deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-43795(22): *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 6c6. is now properly
     exported as a function in the Windows Stable ABI DLL.

   - bpo-44029(23): Remove deprecated ‘Py_UNICODE’ APIs:
     ‘PyUnicode_Encode’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape’,
     ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII’, ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap’,
     ‘PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create’, ‘PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create’.
     See PEP 393(24) and PEP 624(25) for reference.

   - bpo-42035(26): Add a new *note PyType_GetName(): 565. function to
     get type's short name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44687

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45116

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45094

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44751

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42747

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44441

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44378

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44113

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44094

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.32 Python 3.10.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-05-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<19>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<32>.
* Library: Library<32>.
* Documentation: Documentation<29>.
* Tests: Tests<30>.
* Build: Build<29>.
* Windows: Windows<30>.
* macOS: macOS<22>.
* IDLE: IDLE<18>.
* C API: C API<26>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<19>,  Next: Core and Builtins<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.32.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-43434(1): Creating *note sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. objects now
     also produces ‘sqlite3.connect’ and ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ *note
     auditing events: 168e.  Previously these events were only produced
     by *note sqlite3.connect(): 1dd. calls.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43998(2): The *note ssl: ca. module sets more secure cipher
     suites defaults.  Ciphers without forward secrecy and with SHA-1
     MAC are disabled by default.  Security level 2 prohibits weak RSA,
     DH, and ECC keys with less than 112 bits of security.  *note
     SSLContext: 26f. defaults to minimum protocol version TLS 1.2.
     Settings are based on Hynek Schlawack's research.

   - bpo-43882(3): The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of
     a URL could allow some forms of attacks.

     Following the controlling specification for URLs defined by WHATWG
     *note urllib.parse(): 105. now removes ASCII newlines and tabs from
     URLs, preventing such attacks.

   - bpo-43472(4): Ensures interpreter-level audit hooks receive the
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_New’ event when called through the
     ‘_xxsubinterpreters’ module.

   - bpo-43362(5): Fix invalid free in _sha3 module.  The issue was
     introduced in 3.10.0a1.  Python 3.9 and earlier are not affected.

   - bpo-43762(6): Add audit events for ‘sqlite3.connect/handle()’,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 665, and *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 1df.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43756(7): Add new audit event ‘glob.glob/2’ to incorporate the
     new 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' arguments added to *note glob.glob():
     628. and *note glob.iglob(): 629.

   - bpo-36384(8): *note ipaddress: 7a. module no longer accepts any
     leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading zeros are ambiguous
     and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries.  For example
     the legacy function *note socket.inet_aton(): 7a2. treats leading
     zeros as octal notation.  glibc implementation of modern *note
     inet_pton(): 7a3. does not accept any leading zeros.  For a while
     the *note ipaddress: 7a. module used to accept ambiguous leading
     zeros.

   - bpo-43075(9): Fix Regular Expression Denial of Service (ReDoS)
     vulnerability in *note urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler:
     168f.  The ReDoS-vulnerable regex has quadratic worst-case
     complexity and it allows cause a denial of service when identifying
     crafted invalid RFCs.  This ReDoS issue is on the client side and
     needs remote attackers to control the HTTP server.

   - bpo-42800(10): Audit hooks are now fired for frame.f_code,
     traceback.tb_frame, and generator code/frame attribute access.

   - bpo-37363(11): Add audit events to the *note http.client: 6a.
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43434

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43472

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43362

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43756

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43075

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42800

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<32>,  Next: Library<32>,  Prev: Security<19>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.32.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43977(1): Prevent classes being both a sequence and a mapping
     when pattern matching.

   - bpo-43977(2): Use *note tp_flags: 1691. on the class object to
     determine if the subject is a sequence or mapping when pattern
     matching.  Avoids the need to import *note collections.abc: 1c.
     when pattern matching.

   - bpo-43892(3): Restore proper validation of complex literal value
     patterns when parsing ‘match’ blocks.

   - bpo-43933(4): Set frame.f_lineno to the line number of the 'with'
     kweyword when executing the call to ‘__exit__’.

   - bpo-43933(5): If the current position in a frame has no line number
     then set the f_lineno attribute to None, instead of -1, to conform
     to PEP 626.  This should not normally be possible, but might occur
     in some unusual circumstances.

   - bpo-43963(6): Importing the ‘_signal’ module in a subinterpreter
     has no longer side effects.

   - bpo-42739(7): The internal representation of line number tables is
     changed to not use sentinels, and an explicit length parameter is
     added to the out of process API function
     ‘PyLineTable_InitAddressRange’.  This makes the handling of line
     number tables more robust in some circumstances.

   - bpo-43908(8): Make *note re: b4. types immutable.  Patch by Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43908(9): Make the *note array.array: 18f. type immutable.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43901(10): Change class and module objects to lazy-create empty
     annotations dicts on demand.  The annotations dicts are stored in
     the object's __dict__ for backwards compatibility.

   - bpo-43892(11): Match patterns now use new dedicated AST nodes
     (‘MatchValue’, ‘MatchSingleton’, ‘MatchSequence’, ‘MatchStar’,
     ‘MatchMapping’, ‘MatchClass’) rather than reusing expression AST
     nodes.  ‘MatchAs’ and ‘MatchOr’ are now defined as pattern nodes
     rather than as expression nodes.  Patch by Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-42725(12): Usage of ‘await’/‘yield’/‘yield from’ and named
     expressions within an annotation is now forbidden when PEP 563 is
     activated.

   - bpo-43754(13): When performing structural pattern matching ( PEP
     634(14)), captured names are now left unbound until the 'entire'
     pattern has matched successfully.

   - bpo-42737(15): Annotations for complex targets (everything beside
     simple names) no longer cause any runtime effects with ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’.

   - bpo-43914(16): *note SyntaxError: 146. exceptions raised by the
     interpreter will highlight the full error range of the expression
     that consistutes the syntax error itself, instead of just where the
     problem is detected.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38605(17): Revert making ‘from __future__ import annotations’
     the default.  This follows the Steering Council decision to
     postpone PEP 563 changes to at least Python 3.11.  See the original
     email for more information regarding the decision:
     ‘https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/thread/CLVXXPQ2T2LQ5MP2Y53VVQFCXYWQJHKZ/’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43475(18): Hashes of NaN values now depend on object identity.
     Formerly, they always hashed to 0 even though NaN values are not
     equal to one another.  Having the same hash for unequal values
     caused pile-ups in hash tables.

   - bpo-43859(19): Improve the error message for *note
     IndentationError: 5c5. exceptions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-41323(20): Constant tuple folding in bytecode optimizer now
     reuses tuple in constant table.

   - bpo-43846(21): Data stack usage is much reduced for large literal
     and call expressions.

   - bpo-38530(22): When printing *note NameError: 144. raised by the
     interpreter, ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar
     variable names in the function that the exception was raised from.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43823(23): Improve syntax errors for invalid dictionary
     literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43822(24): Improve syntax errors in the parser for missing
     commas between expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43798(25): *note ast.alias: 1692. nodes now include source
     location metadata attributes e.g.  lineno, col_offset.

   - bpo-43797(26): Improve ‘SyntaxError’ error messages for invalid
     comparisons.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43760(27): Move the flag for checking whether tracing is
     enabled to the C stack, from the heap.  Should speed up dispatch in
     the interpreter.

   - bpo-43682(28): Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 5f9.) and class
     methods (*note @classmethod: 24b.) now inherit the method
     attributes (‘__module__’, ‘__name__’, ‘__qualname__’, ‘__doc__’,
     ‘__annotations__’) and have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43751(29): Fixed a bug where ‘anext(ait, default)’ would
     erroneously return None.

   - bpo-42128(30): *note __match_args__: 1693. is no longer allowed to
     be a list.

   - bpo-43683(31): Add GEN_START opcode.  Marks start of generator,
     including async, or coroutine and handles sending values to a newly
     created generator or coroutine.

   - bpo-43105(32): Importlib now resolves relative paths when creating
     module spec objects from file locations.

   - bpo-43682(33): Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 5f9.) are now
     callable as regular functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42609(34): Prevented crashes in the AST validator and optimizer
     when compiling some absurdly long expressions like ‘"+0"*1000000’.
     *note RecursionError: be1. is now raised instead.

   - bpo-38530(35): When printing *note AttributeError: 3ca,
     ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar attribute names
     in the object that the exception was raised from.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43963

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42739

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43754

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43859

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41323

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43846

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43798

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43751

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43105

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42609

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: Library<32>,  Next: Documentation<29>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.32.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-44015(1): In @dataclass(), raise a TypeError if KW_ONLY is
     specified more than once.

   - bpo-25478(2): Added a 'total()' method to collections.Counter() to
     compute the sum of the counts.

   - bpo-43733(3): Change *note netrc.netrc: 1695. to use UTF-8 encoding
     before using locale encoding.

   - bpo-43979(4): Removed an unnecessary list comprehension before
     looping from *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 683.  Patch by
     Christoph Zwerschke and Donghee Na.

   - bpo-43993(5): Update bundled pip to 21.1.1.

   - bpo-43957(6): [Enum] Deprecate ‘TypeError’ when non-member is used
     in a containment check; In 3.12 ‘True’ or ‘False’ will be returned
     instead, and containment will return ‘True’ if the value is either
     a member of that enum or one of its members' value.

   - bpo-42904(7): For backwards compatibility with previous minor
     versions of Python, if *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. receives
     no namespace dictionary arguments, *note typing.get_type_hints():
     4b0. will search through the global then local namespaces during
     evaluation of stringized type annotations (string forward
     references) inside a class.

   - bpo-43945(8): [Enum] Deprecate non-standard mixin format()
     behavior: in 3.12 the enum member, not the member's value, will be
     used for format() calls.

   - bpo-41139(9): Deprecate undocumented ‘cgi.log()’ API.

   - bpo-43937(10): Fixed the *note turtle: fc. module working with
     non-default root window.

   - bpo-43930(11): Update bundled pip to 21.1 and setuptools to 56.0.0

   - bpo-43907(12): Fix a bug in the pure-Python pickle implementation
     when using protocol 5, where bytearray instances that occur several
     time in the pickled object graph would incorrectly unpickle into
     repeated copies of the bytearray object.

   - bpo-43926(13): In ‘importlib.metadata’, provide a uniform interface
     to ‘Description’, allow for any field to be encoded with multiline
     values, remove continuation lines from multiline values, and add a
     ‘.json’ property for easy access to the PEP 566 JSON-compatible
     form.  Sync with ‘importlib_metadata 4.0’.

   - bpo-43920(14): OpenSSL 3.0.0: *note load_verify_locations(): d6f.
     now returns a consistent error message when cadata contains no
     valid certificate.

   - bpo-43607(15): *note urllib: 103. can now convert Windows paths
     with ‘\\?\’ prefixes into URL paths.

   - bpo-43817(16): Add *note inspect.get_annotations(): 636, which
     safely computes the annotations defined on an object.  It works
     around the quirks of accessing the annotations from various types
     of objects, and makes very few assumptions about the object passed
     in.  *note inspect.get_annotations(): 636. can also correctly
     un-stringize stringized annotations.

     *note inspect.signature(): 548, ‘inspect.from_callable()’, and
     ‘inspect.from_function()’ now call *note inspect.get_annotations():
     636. to retrieve annotations.  This means *note
     inspect.signature(): 548. and ‘inspect.from_callable()’ can now
     un-stringize stringized annotations, too.

   - bpo-43284(17): platform.win32_ver derives the windows version from
     sys.getwindowsversion().platform_version which in turn derives the
     version from kernel32.dll (which can be of a different version than
     Windows itself).  Therefore change the platform.win32_ver to
     determine the version using the platform module's _syscmd_ver
     private function to return an accurate version.

   - bpo-42854(18): The *note ssl: ca. module now uses ‘SSL_read_ex’ and
     ‘SSL_write_ex’ internally.  The functions support reading and
     writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no
     longer fails with a protocol violation error.

   - bpo-42333(19): Port ‘_ssl’ extension module to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-43880(20): *note ssl: ca. now raises DeprecationWarning for
     OP_NO_SSL/TLS* options, old TLS versions, old protocols, and other
     features that have been deprecated since Python 3.6, 3.7, or
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - bpo-41559(21): PEP 612(22) is now implemented purely in Python;
     builtin ‘types.GenericAlias’ objects no longer include
     ‘typing.ParamSpec’ in ‘__parameters__’ (with the exception of
     ‘collections.abc.Callable’'s ‘GenericAlias’).  This means
     previously invalid uses of ‘ParamSpec’ (such as ‘list[P]’) which
     worked in earlier versions of Python 3.10 alpha, will now raise
     ‘TypeError’ during substitution.

   - bpo-43867(23): The *note multiprocessing: 8f. ‘Server’ class now
     explicitly catches *note SystemExit: bb2. and closes the client
     connection in this case.  It happens when the
     ‘Server.serve_client()’ method reaches the end of file (EOF).

   - bpo-40443(24): Remove unused imports: pyclbr no longer uses copy,
     and typing no longer uses ast.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43820(25): Remove an unneeded copy of the namespace passed to
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().

   - bpo-43787(26): Add ‘__iter__()’ method to *note bz2.BZ2File: 692,
     *note gzip.GzipFile: 28d, and *note lzma.LZMAFile: e9f.  It makes
     iterating them about 2x faster.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-43680(27): Deprecate io.OpenWrapper and _pyio.OpenWrapper: use
     io.open and _pyio.open instead.  Until Python 3.9, _pyio.open was
     not a static method and builtins.open was set to OpenWrapper to not
     become a bound method when set to a class variable.  _io.open is a
     built-in function whereas _pyio.open is a Python function.  In
     Python 3.10, _pyio.open() is now a static method, and
     builtins.open() is now io.open().

   - bpo-43680(28): The Python ‘_pyio.open()’ function becomes a static
     method to behave as *note io.open(): 29d. built-in function: don't
     become a bound method when stored as a class variable.  It becomes
     possible since static methods are now callable in Python 3.10.
     Moreover, ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper()’ becomes a simple alias to
     ‘_pyio.open()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41515(29): Fix *note KeyError: 8ed. raised in *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. due to synthetic modules that don't
     appear in ‘sys.modules’.

   - bpo-43776(30): When *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. args are provided
     as a string or as *note pathlib.Path: 149, the Popen instance repr
     now shows the right thing.

   - bpo-42248(31): [Enum] ensure exceptions raised in ‘_missing__’ are
     released

   - bpo-43744(32): fix issue with enum member name matching the start
     of a private variable name

   - bpo-43772(33): Fixed the return value of ‘TypeVar.__ror__’.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-43764(34): Add match_args parameter to @dataclass decorator to
     allow suppression of __match_args__ generation.

   - bpo-43799(35): OpenSSL 3.0.0: define ‘OPENSSL_API_COMPAT’ 1.1.1 to
     suppress deprecation warnings.  Python requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 APIs.

   - bpo-43478(36): Mocks can no longer be used as the specs for other
     Mocks.  As a result, an already-mocked object cannot have an
     attribute mocked using ‘autospec=True’ or be the subject of a
     ‘create_autospec(...)’ call.  This can uncover bugs in tests since
     these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g.
     *note isinstance(): 14b.) and builtin assert functions (e.g.
     assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

   - bpo-43794(37): Add *note ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 65d.
     constants (OpenSSL 3.0.0)

   - bpo-43785(38): Improve ‘bz2.BZ2File’ performance by removing the
     RLock from BZ2File.  This makes BZ2File thread unsafe in the face
     of multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its
     equivalent classes in *note gzip: 62. and *note lzma: 85. have
     always been.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-43789(39): OpenSSL 3.0.0: Don't call the password callback
     function a second time when first call has signaled an error
     condition.

   - bpo-43788(40): The header files for *note ssl: ca. error codes are
     now OpenSSL version-specific.  Exceptions will now show correct
     reason and library codes.  The ‘make_ssl_data.py’ script has been
     rewritten to use OpenSSL's text file with error codes.

   - bpo-43766(41): Implement PEP 647(42) in the *note typing: ff.
     module by adding ‘TypeGuard’.

   - bpo-25264(43): *note os.path.realpath(): 643. now accepts a
     'strict' keyword-only argument.  When set to ‘True’, *note OSError:
     644. is raised if a path doesn't exist or a symlink loop is
     encountered.

   - bpo-43780(44): In ‘importlib.metadata’, incorporate changes from
     importlib_metadata 3.10: Add mtime-based caching during
     distribution discovery.  Flagged use of dict result from
     ‘entry_points()’ as deprecated.

   - The ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ attributes of *note typing.ParamSpec:
     163. are now instances of the new classes *note
     typing.ParamSpecArgs: 5e4. and *note typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 5e5,
     which enables a more useful ‘repr()’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-43731(45): Add an ‘encoding’ parameter ‘logging.fileConfig()’.

   - bpo-43712(46): Add ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ parameters to *note
     fileinput.input(): 620. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 547.

   - bpo-38659(47): A ‘simple_enum’ decorator is added to the ‘enum’
     module to convert a normal class into an Enum.  ‘test_simple_enum’
     added to test simple enums against a corresponding normal Enum.
     Standard library modules updated to use ‘simple_enum’.

   - bpo-43764(48): Fix an issue where *note __match_args__: 1693.
     generation could fail for some *note dataclasses: 2d.

   - bpo-43752(49): Fix *note sqlite3: c9. regression for zero-sized
     blobs with converters, where ‘b""’ was returned instead of ‘None’.
     The regression was introduced by PR 24723.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43655(50): *note tkinter: ea. dialog windows are now recognized
     as dialogs by window managers on macOS and X Window.

   - bpo-43723(51): The following ‘threading’ methods are now deprecated
     and should be replaced:

        - ‘currentThread’ => *note threading.current_thread(): 278.

        - ‘activeCount’ => *note threading.active_count(): 279.

        - ‘Condition.notifyAll’ => *note
          threading.Condition.notify_all(): 272.

        - ‘Event.isSet’ => *note threading.Event.is_set(): 273.

        - ‘Thread.setName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 277.

        - ‘thread.getName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 277.

        - ‘Thread.isDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 275.

        - ‘Thread.setDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 275.

     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-2135(52): Deprecate find_module() and find_loader()
     implementations in importlib and zipimport.

   - bpo-43534(53): *note turtle.textinput(): 1696. and *note
     turtle.numinput(): 1697. create now a transient window working on
     behalf of the canvas window.

   - bpo-43532(54): Add the ability to specify keyword-only fields to
     dataclasses.  These fields will become keyword-only arguments to
     the generated __init__.

   - bpo-43522(55): Fix problem with *note hostname_checks_common_name:
     9da.  OpenSSL does not copy hostflags from 'struct SSL_CTX' to
     'struct SSL'.

   - bpo-8978(56): Improve error message for *note tarfile.open(): cf6.
     when *note lzma: 85. / *note bz2: 11. are unavailable.  Patch by
     Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-42967(57): Allow *note bytes: 2c1. ‘separator’ argument in
     ‘urllib.parse.parse_qs’ and ‘urllib.parse.parse_qsl’ when parsing
     *note str: 157. query strings.  Previously, this raised a
     ‘TypeError’.

   - bpo-43296(58): Improve *note sqlite3: c9. error handling:
     ‘sqlite3_value_blob()’ errors that set ‘SQLITE_NOMEM’ now raise
     *note MemoryError: 1460.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43312(59): New functions *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 48d. and *note
     sysconfig.get_default_scheme(): 15f4. are added to query a platform
     for its preferred "user", "home", and "prefix" (default) scheme
     names.

   - bpo-43265(60): Improve *note sqlite3.Connection.backup(): 9d7.
     error handling.  The error message for non-existent target database
     names is now ‘unknown database <database name>’ instead of ‘SQL
     logic error’.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41282(61): Install schemes in ‘distutils.command.install’ are
     now loaded from *note sysconfig: d5.

   - bpo-41282(62): ‘distutils.sysconfig’ has been merged to *note
     sysconfig: d5.

   - bpo-43176(63): Fixed processing of a dataclass that inherits from a
     frozen dataclass with no fields.  It is now correctly detected as
     an error.

   - bpo-43080(64): *note pprint: a9. now has support for *note
     dataclasses.dataclass: 3bc.  Patch by Lewis Gaul.

   - bpo-39950(65): Add ‘pathlib.Path.hardlink_to()’ method that
     supersedes ‘link_to()’.  The new method has the same argument order
     as ‘symlink_to()’.

   - bpo-42904(66): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. now checks the
     local namespace of a class when evaluating PEP 563(67) annotations
     inside said class.

   - bpo-42269(68): Add ‘slots’ parameter to ‘dataclasses.dataclass’
     decorator to automatically generate ‘__slots__’ for class.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-39529(69): Deprecated use of *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
     220. without running event loop.  Emit deprecation warning for
     *note asyncio: 9. functions which implicitly create a *note Future:
     a2e. or *note Task: 203. objects if there is no running event loop
     and no explicit 'loop' argument is passed: *note ensure_future():
     ade, *note wrap_future(): 1698, *note gather(): 3f4, *note
     shield(): 8bc, *note as_completed(): 19b. and constructors of *note
     Future: a2e, *note Task: 203, *note StreamReader: 1699,
     ‘StreamReaderProtocol’.

   - bpo-18369(70): Certificate and PrivateKey classes were added to the
     ssl module.  Certificates and keys can now be loaded from memory
     buffer, too.

   - bpo-41486(71): Use a new output buffer management code for *note
     bz2: 11. / *note lzma: 85. / *note zlib: 12d. modules, and add
     ‘.readall()’ function to ‘_compression.DecompressReader’ class.
     These bring some performance improvements.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-31870(72): The *note ssl.get_server_certificate(): 662.
     function now has a 'timeout' parameter.

   - bpo-41735(73): Fix thread locks in zlib module may go wrong in rare
     case.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-36470(74): Fix dataclasses with ‘InitVar’s and *note replace():
     169a.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-40849(75): Expose X509_V_FLAG_PARTIAL_CHAIN ssl flag

   - bpo-35114(76): *note ssl.RAND_status(): 169b. now returns a boolean
     value (as documented) instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’.

   - bpo-39906(77): *note pathlib.Path.stat(): 649. and *note chmod():
     64a. now accept a 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument for
     consistency with corresponding functions in the *note os: 9c.
     module.

   - bpo-39899(78): *note os.path.expanduser(): 85b. now refuses to
     guess Windows home directories if the basename of current user's
     home directory does not match their username.

     *note pathlib.Path.expanduser(): cbc. and *note home(): cbd. now
     consistently raise *note RuntimeError: 17a. exception when a home
     directory cannot be resolved.  Previously a *note KeyError: 8ed.
     exception could be raised on Windows when the ‘"USERNAME"’
     environment variable was unset.

   - bpo-36076(79): Added SNI support to *note
     ssl.get_server_certificate(): 662.

   - bpo-38490(80): Covariance, Pearson's correlation, and simple linear
     regression functionality was added to statistics module.  Patch by
     Tymoteusz Wołodźko.

   - bpo-33731(81): Provide a locale.localize() function, which converts
     a normalized number string into a locale format.

   - bpo-32745(82): Fix a regression in the handling of ctypes' *note
     ctypes.c_wchar_p: 169c. type: embedded null characters would cause
     a *note ValueError: 183. to be raised.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44015

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25478

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43733

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43979

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43993

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43957

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43945

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43937

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43930

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43907

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43926

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43607

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43284

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42854

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43867

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40443

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43820

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41515

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43776

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42248

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43744

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43772

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25264

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43780

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43731

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38659

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43752

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43723

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2135

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43534

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43522

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8978

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43296

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43312

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43265

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43176

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904

   (67) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39529

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18369

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36470

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35114

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39899

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36076

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33731

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32745


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<29>,  Next: Tests<30>,  Prev: Library<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.32.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-43987(1): Add "Annotations Best Practices" document as a new
     HOWTO.

   - bpo-43977(2): Document the new *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1676. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1677. type flags.

   - bpo-43959(3): The documentation on the PyContextVar C-API was
     clarified.

   - bpo-43938(4): Update dataclasses documentation to express that
     FrozenInstanceError is derived from AttributeError.

   - bpo-43778(5): Fix the Sphinx glossary_search extension: create the
     _static/ sub-directory if it doesn't exist.

   - bpo-43755(6): Update documentation to reflect that unparenthesized
     lambda expressions can no longer be the expression part in an ‘if’
     clause in comprehensions and generator expressions since Python
     3.9.

   - bpo-43739(7): Fixing the example code in
     Doc/extending/extending.rst to declare and initialize the pmodule
     variable to be of the right type.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43987

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43959

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43938

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43778

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43739


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<30>,  Next: Build<29>,  Prev: Documentation<29>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.32.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43961(1): Fix test_logging.test_namer_rotator_inheritance() on
     Windows: use *note os.replace(): f81. rather than *note
     os.rename(): f80.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43842(2): Fix a race condition in the SMTP test of
     test_logging.  Don't close a file descriptor (socket) from a
     different thread while asyncore.loop() is polling the file
     descriptor.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43843(3): ‘test.libregrtest’ now marks a test as ENV_CHANGED
     (altered the execution environment) if a thread raises an exception
     but does not catch it.  It sets a hook on *note
     threading.excepthook(): 672.  Use ‘--fail-env-changed’ option to
     mark the test as failed.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43811(4): Tests multiple OpenSSL versions on GitHub Actions.
     Use ccache to speed up testing.

   - bpo-43791(5): OpenSSL 3.0.0: Disable testing of legacy protocols
     TLS 1.0 and 1.1.  Tests are failing with
     TLSV1_ALERT_INTERNAL_ERROR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43961

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43842

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43843

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791


File: python.info,  Node: Build<29>,  Next: Windows<30>,  Prev: Tests<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.32.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43567(1): Improved generated code refresh
     (AST/tokens/opcodes/keywords) on Windows.

   - bpo-43669(2): Implement PEP 644(3).  Python now requires OpenSSL
     1.1.1 or newer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43567

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<30>,  Next: macOS<22>,  Prev: Build<29>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.32.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35306(1): Adds additional arguments to *note os.startfile():
     16a1. function.

   - bpo-43538(2): Avoid raising errors from *note
     pathlib.Path.exists(): 85d. when passed an invalid filename.

   - bpo-38822(3): Fixed *note os.stat(): 1bf. failing on inaccessible
     directories with a trailing slash, rather than falling back to the
     parent directory's metadata.  This implicitly affected *note
     os.path.exists(): 855. and *note os.path.isdir(): 857.

   - bpo-26227(4): Fixed decoding of host names in *note
     socket.gethostbyaddr(): 16a2. and *note socket.gethostbyname_ex():
     16a3.

   - bpo-40432(5): Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find
     and use Python 3.8 or higher.  Prior to this, pegen regeneration
     already required 3.8 or higher, but the script may have used lower
     versions of Python.

   - bpo-43745(6): Actually updates Windows release to OpenSSL 1.1.1k.
     Earlier releases were mislabelled and actually included 1.1.1i
     again.

   - bpo-43652(7): Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.11 in Windows installer.

   - bpo-43492(8): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.35.5.

   - bpo-30555(9): Fix ‘WindowsConsoleIO’ errors in the presence of fd
     redirection.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35306

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43538

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38822

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40432

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43745

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30555


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<22>,  Next: IDLE<18>,  Prev: Windows<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.32.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42119(1): Fix check for macOS SDK paths when building Python.
     Narrow search to match contents of SDKs, namely only files in
     ‘/System/Library’, ‘/System/IOSSupport’, and ‘/usr’ other than
     ‘/usr/local’.  Previously, anything under ‘/System’ was assumed to
     be in an SDK which causes problems with the new file system layout
     in 10.15+ where user file systems may appear to be mounted under
     ‘/System’.  Paths in ‘/Library’ were also incorrectly treated as
     SDK locations.

   - bpo-43568(2): Drop support for MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET < 10.3

   - bpo-44009(3): Provide "python3.x-intel64" executable to allow
     reliably forcing macOS universal2 framework builds to run under
     Rosetta 2 Intel-64 emulation on Apple Silicon Macs.  This can be
     useful for testing or when universal2 wheels are not yet available.

   - bpo-43851(4): Build SQLite with ‘SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT’ on macOS.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43492(5): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.35.4.

   - bpo-42235(6): ‘Mac/BuildScript/build-installer.py’ will now use
     "-enable-optimizations" and ‘--with-lto’ when building on macOS
     10.15 or later.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42119

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43568

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44009

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42235


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<18>,  Next: C API<26>,  Prev: macOS<22>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.32.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-37903(1): Add mouse actions to the shell sidebar.  Left click
     and optional drag selects one or more lines, as with the editor
     line number sidebar.  Right click after selecting raises a context
     menu with 'copy with prompts'.  This zips together prompts from the
     sidebar with lines from the selected text.

   - bpo-43981(2): Fix reference leak in test_sidebar and test_squeezer.
     Patches by Terry Jan Reedy and Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-37892(3): Indent IDLE Shell input with spaces instead of tabs

   - bpo-43655(4): IDLE dialog windows are now recognized as dialogs by
     window managers on macOS and X Window.

   - bpo-37903(5): IDLE's shell now shows prompts in a separate
     side-bar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43981

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903


File: python.info,  Node: C API<26>,  Prev: IDLE<18>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.32.10 C API
................

   - bpo-43916(1): Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION:
     311. type flag to disallow creating type instances.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43774(2): Remove the now unused ‘PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ macro.  Debug
     hooks on memory allocators are now installed by default if Python
     is built in debug mode (if ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  Moreover,
     they can now be used on Python build in release mode (ex: using
     ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’ environment variable).

   - bpo-43962(3): _PyInterpreterState_IDIncref() now calls
     _PyInterpreterState_IDInitref() and always increments id_refcount.
     Previously, calling _xxsubinterpreters.get_current() could create
     an id_refcount inconsistency when a
     _xxsubinterpreters.InterpreterID object was deallocated.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-28254(4): Add new C-API functions to control the state of the
     garbage collector: *note PyGC_Enable(): 6d7, *note PyGC_Disable():
     6d8, *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 6d9, corresponding to the functions in
     the *note gc: 5b. module.

   - bpo-43908(5): Introduce *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2de. flag
     for immutable type objects, and modify *note PyType_Ready(): 595.
     to set it for static types.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43795(6): *note PyMem_Calloc(): d2e. is now available in the
     limited C API (‘Py_LIMITED_API’).

   - bpo-43868(7): *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 315. is no
     longer exported by limited C API headers and by ‘python3.dll’ on
     Windows.  Like any function that takes ‘FILE*’, it is not part of
     the stable ABI.

   - bpo-43795(8): Stable ABI and limited API definitions are generated
     from a central manifest ( PEP 652(9)).

   - bpo-43753(10): Add the *note Py_Is(x, y): 6d3. function to test if
     the 'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python.
     Add also the *note Py_IsNone(): 6d4, *note Py_IsTrue(): 6d5, *note
     Py_IsFalse(): 6d6. functions to test if an object is, respectively,
     the ‘None’ singleton, the ‘True’ singleton or the ‘False’
     singleton.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43774

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43962

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28254

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.33 Python 3.10.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-04-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<20>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<33>.
* Library: Library<33>.
* Documentation: Documentation<30>.
* Tests: Tests<31>.
* Build: Build<30>.
* Windows: Windows<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<19>.
* C API: C API<27>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<20>,  Next: Core and Builtins<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.33.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42988(1): CVE 2021-3426(2): Remove the ‘getfile’ feature of the
     *note pydoc: b0. module which could be abused to read arbitrary
     files on the disk (directory traversal vulnerability).  Moreover,
     even source code of Python modules can contain sensitive data like
     passwords.  Vulnerability reported by David Schwörer.

   - bpo-43285(3): *note ftplib: 59. no longer trusts the IP address
     value returned from the server in response to the PASV command by
     default.  This prevents a malicious FTP server from using the
     response to probe IPv4 address and port combinations on the client
     network.

     Code that requires the former vulnerable behavior may set a
     ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’ attribute on their *note
     ftplib.FTP: 735. instances to ‘True’ to re-enable it.

   - bpo-43439(4): Add audit hooks for *note gc.get_objects(): 624,
     *note gc.get_referrers(): 625. and *note gc.get_referents(): 626.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42988

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2021-3426

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43285

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<33>,  Next: Library<33>,  Prev: Security<20>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.33.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27129(1): Update CPython bytecode magic number.

   - bpo-43672(2): Raise ImportWarning when calling find_loader().

   - bpo-43660(3): Fix crash that happens when replacing ‘sys.stderr’
     with a callable that can remove the object while an exception is
     being printed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-27129(4): The bytecode interpreter uses instruction, rather
     byte, offsets internally.  This reduces the number of EXTENDED_ARG
     instructions needed and streamlines instruction dispatch a bit.

   - bpo-40645(5): Fix reference leak in the ‘_hashopenssl’ extension.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42134(6): Calls to find_module() by the import system now raise
     ImportWarning.

   - bpo-41064(7): Improve the syntax error for invalid usage of double
     starred elements ('**') in f-strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43575(8): Speed up calls to ‘map()’ by using the PEP 590(9)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42137(10): The import system now prefers using ‘__spec__’ for
     ‘ModuleType.__repr__’ over ‘module_repr()’.

   - bpo-43452(11): Added micro-optimizations to ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ to
     improve cache lookup performance in the common case of cache hits.

   - bpo-43555(12): Report the column offset for *note SyntaxError: 146.
     for invalid line continuation characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43517(13): Fix misdetection of circular imports when using
     ‘from pkg.mod import attr’, which caused false positives in
     non-trivial multi-threaded code.

   - bpo-43497(14): Emit SyntaxWarnings for assertions with tuple
     constants, this is a regression introduced in python3.7

   - bpo-39316(15): Tracing now has correct line numbers for attribute
     accesses when the attribute is on a different line from the object.
     Improves debugging and profiling for multi-line method chains.

   - bpo-35883(16): Python no longer fails at startup with a fatal error
     if a command line argument contains an invalid Unicode character.
     The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. function now escapes byte
     sequences which would be decoded as Unicode characters outside the
     [U+0000; U+10ffff] range.

   - bpo-43410(17): Fix a bug that was causing the parser to crash when
     emitting syntax errors when reading input from stdin.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43406(18): Fix a possible race condition where
     ‘PyErr_CheckSignals’ tries to execute a non-Python signal handler.

   - bpo-42128(19): Add ‘__match_args__’ to *note struct sequence
     objects: 1050.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43390(20): CPython now sets the ‘SA_ONSTACK’ flag in
     ‘PyOS_setsig’ for the VM's default signal handlers.  This is
     friendlier to other in-process code that an extension module or
     embedding use could pull in (such as Golang's cgo) where tiny
     thread stacks are the norm and ‘sigaltstack()’ has been used to
     provide for signal handlers.  This is a no-op change for the vast
     majority of processes that don't use sigaltstack.

   - bpo-43287(21): Speed up calls to ‘filter()’ by using the PEP
     590(22) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37448(23): Add a radix tree based memory map to track in-use
     obmalloc arenas.  Use to replace the old implementation of
     address_in_range().  The radix tree approach makes it easy to
     increase pool sizes beyond the OS page size.  Boosting the pool and
     arena size allows obmalloc to handle a significantly higher
     percentage of requests from its ultra-fast paths.

     It also has the advantage of eliminating the memory unsanitary
     behavior of the previous address_in_range().  The old
     address_in_range() was marked with the annotations
     _Py_NO_SANITIZE_ADDRESS, _Py_NO_SANITIZE_THREAD, and
     _Py_NO_SANITIZE_MEMORY. Those annotations are no longer needed.

     To disable the radix tree map, set a preprocessor flag as follows:
     ‘-DWITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0’.

     Co-authored-by: Tim Peters <<tim.peters@gmail.com>>

   - bpo-29988(24): Only handle asynchronous exceptions and requests to
     drop the GIL when returning from a call or on the back edges of
     loops.  Makes sure that *note __exit__(): 1191. is always called in
     with statements, even for interrupts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43660

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43555

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43517

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43497

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39316

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35883

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43410

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43406

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43390

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37448

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29988


File: python.info,  Node: Library<33>,  Next: Documentation<30>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.33.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43720(1): Document various stdlib deprecations in imp, pkgutil,
     and importlib.util for removal in Python 3.12.

   - bpo-43433(2): *note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: 8a1. no longer
     ignores query and fragment in the URL of the server.

   - bpo-31956(3): The *note index(): 601. method of *note array.array:
     18f. now has optional 'start' and 'stop' parameters.

   - bpo-40066(4): Enum: adjust ‘repr()’ to show only enum and member
     name (not value, nor angle brackets) and ‘str()’ to show only
     member name.  Update and improve documentation to match.

   - bpo-42136(5): Deprecate all module_repr() methods found in
     importlib as their use is being phased out by Python 3.12.

   - bpo-35930(6): Raising an exception raised in a "future" instance
     will create reference cycles.

   - bpo-41369(7): Finish updating the vendored libmpdec to version
     2.5.1.  Patch by Stefan Krah.

   - bpo-43422(8): Revert the _decimal C API which was added in
     bpo-41324(9).

   - bpo-43577(10): Fix deadlock when using *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f.
     debug callback with *note ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback(): 16ab.

   - bpo-43571(11): It's now possible to create MPTCP sockets with
     IPPROTO_MPTCP

   - bpo-43542(12): ‘image/heic’ and ‘image/heif’ were added to *note
     mimetypes: 8a.

   - bpo-40645(13): The *note hmac: 65. module now uses OpenSSL's HMAC
     implementation when digestmod argument is a hash name or builtin
     hash function.

   - bpo-43510(14): Implement PEP 597(15): Add ‘EncodingWarning’
     warning, ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ option, *note
     PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 5da. environment variable and
     ‘encoding="locale"’ argument value.

   - bpo-43521(16): ‘ast.unparse’ can now render NaNs and empty sets.

   - bpo-42914(17): *note pprint.pprint(): 64e. gains a new boolean
     ‘underscore_numbers’ optional argument to emit integers with
     thousands separated by an underscore character for improved
     readability (for example ‘1_000_000’ instead of ‘1000000’).

   - bpo-41361(18): *note rotate(): 16ac. calls are now slightly faster
     due to faster argument parsing.

   - bpo-43423(19): ‘subprocess.communicate()’ no longer raises an
     IndexError when there is an empty stdout or stderr IO buffer during
     a timeout on Windows.

   - bpo-27820(20): Fixed long-standing bug of smtplib.SMTP where doing
     AUTH LOGIN with initial_response_ok=False will fail.

     The cause is that SMTP.auth_login _always_ returns a password if
     provided with a challenge string, thus non-compliant with the
     standard for AUTH LOGIN.

     Also fixes bug with the test for smtpd.

   - bpo-43445(21): Add frozen modules to *note sys.stdlib_module_names:
     668.  For example, add ‘"_frozen_importlib"’ and
     ‘"_frozen_importlib_external"’ names.

   - bpo-43245(22): Add keyword arguments support to
     ‘ChainMap.new_child()’.

   - bpo-29982(23): Add optional parameter 'ignore_cleanup_errors' to
     *note tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(): 10c7. and allow multiple
     ‘cleanup()’ attempts.  Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - bpo-43428(24): Include changes from importlib_metadata 3.7(25):

     Performance enhancements to distribution discovery.

     ‘entry_points’ only returns unique distributions.

     Introduces new ‘EntryPoints’ object for containing a set of entry
     points with convenience methods for selecting entry points by group
     or name.  ‘entry_points’ now returns this object if selection
     parameters are supplied but continues to return a dict object for
     compatibility.  Users are encouraged to rely on the selection
     interface.  The dict object result is likely to be deprecated in
     the future.

     Added packages_distributions function to return a mapping of
     packages to the distributions that provide them.

   - bpo-43332(26): Improves the networking efficiency of *note
     http.client: 6a. when using a proxy via ‘set_tunnel()’.  Fewer
     small send calls are made during connection setup.

   - bpo-43420(27): Improve performance of *note fractions.Fraction:
     1a8. arithmetics for large components.  Contributed by Sergey B.
     Kirpichev.

   - bpo-43356(28): Allow passing a signal number to
     ‘_thread.interrupt_main()’.

   - bpo-43399(29): Fix ‘ElementTree.extend’ not working on iterators
     when using the Python implementation

   - bpo-43369(30): Improve *note sqlite3: c9. error handling: If
     ‘sqlite3_column_text()’ and ‘sqlite3_column_blob()’ set
     ‘SQLITE_NOMEM’, *note MemoryError: 1460. is now raised.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43368(31): Fix a regression introduced in PR 24562, where an
     empty bytestring was fetched as ‘None’ instead of ‘b''’ in *note
     sqlite3: c9.  Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

   - bpo-41282(32): Fixed stacklevel of ‘DeprecationWarning’ emitted
     from ‘import distutils’.

   - bpo-42129(33): ‘importlib.resources’ now honors namespace packages,
     merging resources from each location in the namespace as introduced
     in ‘importlib_resources’ 3.2 and including incidental changes
     through 5.0.3.

   - bpo-43295(34): *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1408. now raises
     ‘ValueError’ instead of ‘IndexError’ when matching ‘'z'’ with the
     ‘%z’ format specifier.

   - bpo-43125(35): Return empty string if base64mime.body_encode
     receive empty bytes

   - bpo-43084(36): *note curses.window.enclose(): 16ad. returns now
     ‘True’ or ‘False’ (as was documented) instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’.

   - bpo-42994(37): Add MIME types for opus, AAC, 3gpp and 3gpp2

   - bpo-14678(38): Add an invalidate_caches() method to the
     zipimport.zipimporter class to support
     importlib.invalidate_caches().  Patch by Desmond Cheong.

   - bpo-42782(39): Fail fast in *note shutil.move(): 8a7. to avoid
     creating destination directories on failure.

   - bpo-40066(40): Enum's ‘repr()’ and ‘str()’ have changed: ‘repr()’
     is now 'EnumClass.MemberName' and ‘str()’ is 'MemberName'.
     Additionally, stdlib Enum's whose contents are available as module
     attributes, such as ‘RegexFlag.IGNORECASE’, have their ‘repr()’ as
     'module.name', e.g.  ‘re.IGNORECASE’.

   - bpo-26053(41): Fixed bug where the *note pdb: a0. interactive run
     command echoed the args from the shell command line, even if those
     have been overridden at the pdb prompt.

   - bpo-24160(42): Fixed bug where breakpoints did not persist across
     multiple debugger sessions in *note pdb: a0.'s interactive mode.

   - bpo-40701(43): When the *note tempfile.tempdir: 16ae. global
     variable is set to a value of type bytes, it is now handled
     consistently.  Previously exceptions could be raised from some
     tempfile APIs when the directory did not already exist in this
     situation.  Also ensures that the *note tempfile.gettempdir():
     16af. and *note tempfile.gettempdirb(): 16b0. functions 'always'
     return ‘str’ and ‘bytes’ respectively.

   - bpo-39342(44): Expose ‘X509_V_FLAG_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS’ as *note
     VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS: 16b1. to allow proxy certificate
     validation as explained in
     ‘https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man7/proxy-certificates/’.

   - bpo-31861(45): Add builtins.aiter and builtins.anext.  Patch by
     Joshua Bronson (@jab), Daniel Pope (@lordmauve), and Justin Wang
     (@justin39).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43433

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35930

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41369

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43422

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43577

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43542

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43510

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43521

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41361

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43423

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27820

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43445

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43245

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29982

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43428

   (25) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-7-0

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43332

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43420

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43399

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43369

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43368

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42129

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43295

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43125

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43084

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42994

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42782

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26053

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40701

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39342

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<30>,  Next: Tests<31>,  Prev: Library<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.33.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-43199(1): Answer "Why is there no goto?"  in the Design and
     History FAQ.

   - bpo-43407(2): Clarified that a result from *note time.monotonic():
     cfe, *note time.perf_counter(): 8d4, *note time.process_time():
     8d5, or *note time.thread_time(): 775. can be compared with the
     result from any following call to the same function - not just the
     next immediate call.

   - bpo-43354(3): Fix type documentation for ‘Fault.faultCode’; the
     type has to be ‘int’ instead of ‘str’.

   - bpo-41933(4): Clarified wording of s * n in the Common Sequence
     Operations

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43199

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43407

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43354

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41933


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<31>,  Next: Build<30>,  Prev: Documentation<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.33.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-37945(1): Fix test_getsetlocale_issue1813() of test_locale:
     skip the test if ‘setlocale()’ fails.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41561(2): Add workaround for Ubuntu's custom OpenSSL security
     level policy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37945

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561


File: python.info,  Node: Build<30>,  Next: Windows<31>,  Prev: Tests<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.33.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43179(1): Introduce and correctly use ALIGNOF_X in place of
     SIZEOF_X for alignment-related code in optimized string routines.
     Patch by Jessica Clarke.

   - bpo-43631(2): Update macOS, Windows, and CI to OpenSSL 1.1.1k.

   - bpo-43617(3): Improve configure.ac: Check for presence of
     autoconf-archive package and remove our copies of M4 macros.

   - bpo-43466(4): The ‘configure’ script now supports
     ‘--with-openssl-rpath’ option.

   - bpo-43372(5): Use ‘_freeze_importlib’ to generate code for the
     ‘__hello__’ module.  This approach ensures the code matches the
     interpreter version.  Previously, PYTHON_FOR_REGEN was used to
     generate the code, which might be wrong.  The marshal format for
     code objects has changed with bpo-42246(6), commit 877df851.
     Update the code and the expected code sizes in ctypes
     test_frozentable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43179

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43631

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43617

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43372

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<31>,  Next: IDLE<19>,  Prev: Build<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.33.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43440(1): Build *note sqlite3: c9. with the ‘R*Tree’ module
     enabled.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43440


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<19>,  Next: C API<27>,  Prev: Windows<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.33.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-42225(1): Document that IDLE can fail on Unix either from
     misconfigured IP masquerade rules or failure displaying complex
     colored (non-ascii) characters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42225


File: python.info,  Node: C API<27>,  Prev: IDLE<19>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.33.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-43688(1): The limited C API is now supported if Python is built
     in debug mode (if the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  In the limited
     C API, the *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. and *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.
     functions are now implemented as opaque function calls, rather than
     accessing directly the *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 6d0. member, if
     Python is built in debug mode and the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro
     targets Python 3.10 or newer.  It became possible to support the
     limited C API in debug mode because the *note PyObject: 6d1.
     structure is the same in release and debug mode since Python 3.8
     (see bpo-36465(2)).

     The limited C API is still not supported in the ‘--with-trace-refs’
     special build (‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro).

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(3): Remove the ‘pyarena.h’ header file with functions:

        * ‘PyArena_New()’

        * ‘PyArena_Free()’

        * ‘PyArena_Malloc()’

        * ‘PyArena_AddPyObject()’

     These functions were undocumented, excluded from the limited C API,
     and were only used internally by the compiler.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(4): Remove the compiler and parser functions using
     ‘struct _mod’ type, because the public AST C API was removed:

        * ‘PyAST_Compile()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileEx()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileObject()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromAST()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromASTObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFilename()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()’

     These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C
     API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(5): Remove ‘ast.h’, ‘asdl.h’, and ‘Python-ast.h’ header
     files.  These functions were undocumented and excluded from the
     limited C API. Most names defined by these header files were not
     prefixed by ‘Py’ and so could create names conflicts.  For example,
     ‘Python-ast.h’ defined a ‘Yield’ macro which was conflict with the
     ‘Yield’ name used by the Windows ‘<winbase.h>’ header.  Use the
     Python *note ast: 8. module instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43541(6): Fix a ‘PyEval_EvalCodeEx()’ regression: fix reference
     counting on builtins.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(7): Remove the ‘symtable.h’ header file and the
     undocumented functions:

        * ‘PyST_GetScope()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Build()’

        * ‘PySymtable_BuildObject()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Free()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableString()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableStringObject()’

     The ‘Py_SymtableString()’ function was part the stable ABI by
     mistake but it could not be used, because the ‘symtable.h’ header
     file was excluded from the limited C API.

     The Python *note symtable: d2. module remains available and is
     unchanged.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(8): Remove the ‘PyAST_Validate()’ function.  It is no
     longer possible to build a AST object (‘mod_ty’ type) with the
     public C API. The function was already excluded from the limited C
     API ( PEP 384(9)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43541

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.34 Python 3.10.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-03-01'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<21>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<34>.
* Library: Library<34>.
* Documentation: Documentation<31>.
* Tests: Tests<32>.
* Build: Build<31>.
* Windows: Windows<32>.
* macOS: macOS<23>.
* IDLE: IDLE<20>.
* C API: C API<28>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<21>,  Next: Core and Builtins<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.34.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42967(1): Fix web cache poisoning vulnerability by defaulting
     the query args separator to ‘&’, and allowing the user to choose a
     custom separator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<34>,  Next: Library<34>,  Prev: Security<21>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.34.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43321(1): Fix ‘SystemError’ raised when ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ is
     used with ‘#’ but without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ defined.

   - bpo-36346(2): ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ functions now emits
     ‘DeprecationWarning’ when ‘u’ or ‘Z’ format is used.  See PEP
     623(3) for detail.

   - bpo-43277(4): Add a new *note PySet_CheckExact(): 6ce. function to
     the C-API to check if an object is an instance of *note set: 3cc.
     but not an instance of a subtype.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42990(5): The *note types.FunctionType: 6af. constructor now
     inherits the current builtins if the 'globals' dictionary has no
     ‘"__builtins__"’ key, rather than using ‘{"None": None}’ as
     builtins: same behavior as *note eval(): 6b0. and *note exec():
     6b1. functions.  Defining a function with ‘def function(...): ...’
     in Python is not affected, globals cannot be overridden with this
     syntax: it also inherits the current builtins.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42990(6): Functions have a new ‘__builtins__’ attribute which
     is used to look for builtin symbols when a function is executed,
     instead of looking into ‘__globals__['__builtins__']’.  Patch by
     Mark Shannon and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43149(7): Improve the error message in the parser for exception
     groups without parentheses.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43121(8): Fixed an incorrect *note SyntaxError: 146. message
     for missing comma in literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42819(9): *note readline: b5.: Explicitly disable bracketed
     paste in the interactive interpreter, even if it's set in the
     inputrc, is enabled by default (eg GNU Readline 8.1), or a user
     calls ‘readline.read_init_file()’.  The Python REPL has not
     implemented bracketed paste support.  Also, bracketed mode writes
     the ‘"\x1b[?2004h"’ escape sequence into stdout which causes test
     failures in applications that don't support it.  It can still be
     explicitly enabled by calling ‘readline.parse_and_bind("set
     enable-bracketed-paste on")’.  Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

   - bpo-42808(10): Simple calls to ‘type(object)’ are now faster due to
     the ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-42217(11): Make the compiler merges same co_code and
     co_linetable objects in a module like already did for co_consts.

   - bpo-41972(12): Substring search functions such as ‘str1 in str2’
     and ‘str2.find(str1)’ now sometimes use the "Two-Way" string
     comparison algorithm to avoid quadratic behavior on long strings.

   - bpo-42128(13): Implement PEP 634(14) (structural pattern matching).
     Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-40692(15): In the *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     727, validate that ‘multiprocess.synchronize()’ is available on a
     given platform and rely on that check in the *note
     concurrent.futures: 1f. test suite so we can run tests that are
     unrelated to ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ on those platforms.

   - bpo-38302(16): If *note object.__ipow__(): 5f1. returns *note
     NotImplemented: 5f2, the operator will correctly fall back to *note
     object.__pow__(): 5f3. and *note object.__rpow__(): 5f4. as
     expected.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43321

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43121

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42819

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42808

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42217

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40692

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302


File: python.info,  Node: Library<34>,  Next: Documentation<31>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.34.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43316(1): The ‘python -m gzip’ command line application now
     properly fails when detecting an unsupported extension.  It exits
     with a non-zero exit code and prints an error message to stderr.

   - bpo-43317(2): Set the chunk size for the ‘gzip’ module main
     function to io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE. This is slightly faster than
     the 1024 bytes constant that was used previously.

   - bpo-43146(3): Handle None in single-arg versions of *note
     print_exception(): 676. and *note format_exception(): 674.

   - bpo-43260(4): Fix TextIOWrapper can not flush internal buffer
     forever after very large text is written.

   - bpo-43258(5): Prevent needless allocation of *note sqlite3: c9.
     aggregate function context when no rows match an aggregate query.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43251(6): Improve *note sqlite3: c9. error handling:
     ‘sqlite3_column_name()’ failures now result in *note MemoryError:
     1460.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40956(7): Fix segfault in *note sqlite3.Connection.backup():
     9d7. if no argument was provided.  The regression was introduced by
     PR 23838.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43172(8): The readline module now passes its tests when built
     directly against libedit.  Existing irreconcilable API differences
     remain in *note readline.get_begidx(): 16bc. and *note
     readline.get_endidx(): 16bd. behavior based on libreadline vs
     libedit use.

   - bpo-43163(9): Fix a bug in *note codeop: 1a. that was causing it to
     not ask for more input when multi-line snippets have unclosed
     parentheses.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43162(10): deprecate unsupported ability to access enum members
     as attributes of other enum members

   - bpo-43146(11): Fix recent regression in None argument handling in
     *note traceback: f9. module functions.

   - bpo-43102(12): The namedtuple __new__ method had its __builtins__
     set to None instead of an actual dictionary.  This created problems
     for introspection tools.

   - bpo-43106(13): Added *note O_EVTONLY: 63e, *note O_FSYNC: 63f,
     *note O_SYMLINK: 640. and *note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 641. for macOS.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42960(14): Adds *note resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES: 16be. constant
     from FreeBSD to the *note resource: b7. module.

   - bpo-42151(15): Make the pure Python implementation of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. behave the same as the C implementation
     (‘_elementree’) regarding default attribute values (by not setting
     ‘specified_attributes=1’).

   - bpo-29753(16): In ctypes, now packed bitfields are calculated
     properly and the first item of packed bitfields is now shrank
     correctly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43316

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43317

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43260

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43258

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43251

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40956

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43172

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43163

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43162

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43102

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42960

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42151

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29753


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<31>,  Next: Tests<32>,  Prev: Library<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.34.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-27646(1): Clarify that 'yield from <expr>' works with any
     iterable, not just iterators.

   - bpo-36346(2): Update some deprecated unicode APIs which are
     documented as "will be removed in 4.0" to "3.12".  See PEP 623(3)
     for detail.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27646

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<32>,  Next: Build<31>,  Prev: Documentation<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.34.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43288(1): Fix test_importlib to correctly skip Unicode file
     tests if the filesystem does not support them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43288


File: python.info,  Node: Build<31>,  Next: Windows<32>,  Prev: Tests<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.34.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43174(1): Windows build now uses ‘/utf-8’ compiler option.

   - bpo-43103(2): Add a new configure ‘--without-static-libpython’
     option to not build the ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ static library and
     not install the ‘python.o’ object file.

   - bpo-13501(3): The configure script can now use 'libedit' instead of
     'readline' with the command line option ‘--with-readline=editline’.

   - bpo-42603(4): Make configure script use pkg-config to detect the
     location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries, used to build tkinter.

     On macOS, a Tcl/Tk configuration provided by pkg-config will be
     preferred over Tcl/Tk frameworks installed in
     ‘/{System/,}Library/Frameworks’.  If both exist and the latter is
     preferred, the appropriate ‘--with-tcltk-*’ configuration options
     need to be explicitly set.

   - bpo-39448(5): Add the "regen-frozen" makefile target that
     regenerates the code for the frozen ‘__hello__’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43174

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13501

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39448


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<32>,  Next: macOS<23>,  Prev: Build<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.34.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43155(1): *note PyCMethod_New(): 16c3. is now present in
     ‘python3.lib’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43155


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<23>,  Next: IDLE<20>,  Prev: Windows<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.34.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41837(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1j.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<20>,  Next: C API<28>,  Prev: macOS<23>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.34.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-43283(1): Document why printing to IDLE's Shell is often slower
     than printing to a system terminal and that it can be made faster
     by pre-formatting a single string before printing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43283


File: python.info,  Node: C API<28>,  Prev: IDLE<20>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.34.10 C API
................

   - bpo-43278(1): Always put compiler and system information on the
     first line of the REPL welcome message.

   - bpo-43270(2): Remove the private ‘_PyErr_OCCURRED()’ macro: use the
     public *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. function instead.

   - bpo-35134(3): Move odictobject.h, parser_interface.h,
     picklebufobject.h, pydebug.h, and pyfpe.h into the cpython/
     directory.  They must not be included directly, as they are already
     included by Python.h: *note Include Files: 59b.

   - bpo-35134(4): Move pyarena.h, pyctype.h, and pytime.h into the
     cpython/ directory.  They must not be included directly, as they
     are already included by Python.h: *note Include Files: 59b.

   - bpo-40170(5): ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ is now always declared as a
     function, in order to hide implementation details.  The macro
     accessed *note PyTypeObject.tp_name: 16c8. directly.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43239(6): The *note PyCFunction_New(): 16c9. function is now
     exported in the ABI when compiled with ‘-fvisibility=hidden’.

   - bpo-40170(7): *note PyIter_Check(): 16ca. is now always declared as
     a function, in order to hide implementation details.  The macro
     accessed *note PyTypeObject.tp_iternext: 1366. directly.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40170(8): Convert *note PyDescr_IsData(): 16cb. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details: The macro accessed *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set: 16cc. directly.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43181(9): Convert *note PyObject_TypeCheck(): 16cd. macro to a
     static inline function.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43270

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43239

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43181


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.35 Python 3.10.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-02-02'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<22>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<35>.
* Library: Library<35>.
* Documentation: Documentation<32>.
* Tests: Tests<33>.
* Build: Build<32>.
* Windows: Windows<33>.
* macOS: macOS<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<21>.
* C API: C API<29>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<22>,  Next: Core and Builtins<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.35.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42938(1): Avoid static buffers when computing the repr of *note
     ctypes.c_double: 16d0. and *note ctypes.c_longdouble: 16d1. values.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42938


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<35>,  Next: Library<35>,  Prev: Security<22>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.35.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42990(1): Refactor the ‘PyEval_’ family of functions.

        * An new function ‘_PyEval_Vector’ is added to simplify calls to
          Python from C.

        * ‘_PyEval_EvalCodeWithName’ is removed

        * ‘PyEval_EvalCodeEx’ is retained as part of the API, but is not
          used internally

   - bpo-38631(2): Replace *note Py_FatalError(): 7c7. calls in the
     compiler with regular *note SystemError: 304. exceptions.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42997(3): Improve error message for missing ":" before blocks.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43017(4): Improve error message in the parser when using
     un-parenthesised tuples in comprehensions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42986(5): Fix parser crash when reporting syntax errors in
     f-string with newlines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40176(6): Syntax errors for unterminated string literals now
     point to the start of the string instead of reporting EOF/EOL.

   - bpo-42927(7): The inline cache for ‘LOAD_ATTR’ now also optimizes
     access to attributes defined by ‘__slots__’.  This makes reading
     such attribute up to 30% faster.

   - bpo-42864(8): Improve error messages in the parser when parentheses
     are not closed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42924(9): Fix ‘bytearray’ repetition incorrectly copying data
     from the start of the buffer, even if the data is offset within the
     buffer (e.g.  after reassigning a slice at the start of the
     ‘bytearray’ to a shorter byte string).

   - bpo-42882(10): Fix the ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ function
     (_Py_IDENTIFIER(var) API) when *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. / *note
     Py_Finalize(): 11e8. is called multiple times: preserve
     ‘_PyRuntime.unicode_ids.next_index’ value.

   - bpo-42827(11): Fix a crash when working out the error line of a
     *note SyntaxError: 146. in some multi-line expressions.

   - bpo-42823(12): frame.f_lineno is correct even if frame.f_trace is
     set to True

   - bpo-37324(13): Remove deprecated aliases to *note Collections
     Abstract Base Classes: 6a3. from the *note collections: 1b. module.

   - bpo-41994(14): Fixed possible leak in ‘import’ when ‘sys.modules’
     is not a ‘dict’.

   - bpo-27772(15): In string formatting, preceding the 'width' field by
     ‘'0'’ no longer affects the default alignment for strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42986

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42924

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42882

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42827

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42823

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41994

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27772


File: python.info,  Node: Library<35>,  Next: Documentation<32>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.35.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43108(1): Fixed a reference leak in the *note curses: 29.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43077(2): Update the bundled pip to 21.0.1 and setuptools to
     52.0.0.

   - bpo-41282(3): Deprecate ‘distutils’ in documentation and add
     warning on import.

   - bpo-43014(4): Improve performance of *note tokenize: f6. by 20-30%.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-42323(5): Fix *note math.nextafter(): 1b7. for NaN on AIX.

   - bpo-42955(6): Add *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 668, containing
     the list of the standard library module names.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42944(7): Fix ‘random.Random.sample’ when ‘counts’ argument is
     not ‘None’.

   - bpo-42934(8): Use *note TracebackException: 4a1.'s new ‘compact’
     param in *note TestResult: ffa. to reduce time and memory consumed
     by traceback formatting.

   - bpo-42931(9): Add ‘randbytes()’ to ‘random.__all__’.

   - bpo-38250(10): [Enum] Flags consisting of a single bit are now
     considered canonical, and will be the only flags returned from
     listing and iterating over a Flag class or a Flag member.
     Multi-bit flags are considered aliases; they will be returned from
     lookups and operations that result in their value.  Iteration for
     both Flag and Flag members is in definition order.

   - bpo-42877(11): Added the ‘compact’ parameter to the constructor of
     *note traceback.TracebackException: 4a1. to reduce time and memory
     for use cases that only need to call ‘TracebackException.format()’
     and ‘TracebackException.format_exception_only()’.

   - bpo-42923(12): The *note Py_FatalError(): 7c7. function and the
     *note faulthandler: 53. module now dump the list of extension
     modules on a fatal error.

   - bpo-42848(13): Removed recursion from *note TracebackException:
     4a1. to allow it to handle long exception chains.

   - bpo-42901(14): [Enum] move member creation from ‘EnumMeta.__new__’
     to ‘_proto_member.__set_name__’, allowing members to be created and
     visible in ‘__init_subclass__’.

   - bpo-42780(15): Fix os.set_inheritable() for O_PATH file descriptors
     on Linux.

   - bpo-42866(16): Fix a reference leak in the ‘getcodec()’ function of
     CJK codecs.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42846(17): Convert the 6 CJK codec extension modules
     (_codecs_cn, _codecs_hk, _codecs_iso2022, _codecs_jp, _codecs_kr
     and _codecs_tw) to the multiphase initialization API ( PEP
     489(18)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42851(19): remove __init_subclass__ support for Enum members

   - bpo-42834(20): Make internal caches of the ‘_json’ module
     compatible with subinterpreters.

   - bpo-41748(21): Fix HTMLParser parsing rules for element attributes
     containing commas with spaces.  Patch by Karl Dubost.

   - bpo-40810(22): Require SQLite 3.7.15 or newer.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Convert the _multibytecodec extension module (CJK
     codecs) to multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(24)).  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42802(25): The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command deprecated in
     Python 3.8 has been removed.  The distutils ‘bdist_wheel’ command
     is now recommended to distribute binary packages on Windows.

   - bpo-24464(26): The undocumented built-in function
     ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache’ is now deprecated, scheduled for
     removal in Python 3.12.  Its use is strongly discouraged by the
     SQLite3 documentation.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42384(27): Make pdb populate sys.path[0] exactly the same as
     regular python execution.

   - bpo-42383(28): Fix pdb: previously pdb would fail to restart the
     debugging target if it was specified using a relative path and the
     current directory changed.

   - bpo-42005(29): Fix CLI of *note cProfile: 25. and *note profile:
     aa. to catch *note BrokenPipeError: ef2.

   - bpo-41604(30): Don't decrement the reference count of the previous
     user_ptr when set_panel_userptr fails.

   - bpo-41149(31): Allow executing callables that have a boolean value
     of ‘False’ when passed to ‘Threading.thread’ as the target.  Patch
     contributed by Barney Stratford.

   - bpo-38307(32): Add an 'end_lineno' attribute to the Class and
     Function objects that appear in the tree returned by pyclbr
     functions.  This and the existing 'lineno' attribute define the
     extent of class and def statements.  Patch by Aviral Srivastava.

   - bpo-39273(33): The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed in the
     *note curses: 29. module if available.

   - bpo-33289(34): Correct call to *note tkinter.colorchooser: eb. to
     return RGB triplet of ints instead of floats.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43108

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43077

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43014

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42323

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42944

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42934

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42931

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38250

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42923

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42848

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42901

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42780

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42866

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42846

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42851

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42834

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41748

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42384

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42383

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42005

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41149

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33289


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<32>,  Next: Tests<33>,  Prev: Library<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.35.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-40304(1): Fix doc for type(name, bases, dict).  Patch by Boris
     Verkhovskiy and Éric Araujo.

   - bpo-42811(2): Updated importlib.util.resolve_name() doc to use
     __spec__.parent instead of __package__.  (Thanks Yair Frid.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40304

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42811


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<33>,  Next: Build<32>,  Prev: Documentation<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.35.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40823(1): Use ‘unittest.TestLoader().loadTestsFromTestCase()’
     instead of ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ in *note sqlite3: c9. tests.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40810(2): In *note sqlite3: c9, fix ‘CheckTraceCallbackContent’
     for SQLite pre 3.7.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40823

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810


File: python.info,  Node: Build<32>,  Next: Windows<33>,  Prev: Tests<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.35.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43031(1): Pass ‘--timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT)’ option to the default
     profile task ‘./python -m test --pgo’ command.

   - bpo-36143(2): ‘make regen-all’ now also runs ‘regen-keyword’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42874(3): Removed the grep -q and -E flags in the tzpath
     validation section of the configure script to better accommodate
     users of some platforms (specifically Solaris 10).

   - bpo-31904(4): Add library search path by wr-cc in
     add_cross_compiling_paths() for VxWorks.

   - bpo-42856(5): Add ‘--with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH’ option to the
     ‘./configure’ script.  If specified, the *note ensurepip: 50.
     module looks for ‘setuptools’ and ‘pip’ wheel packages in this
     directory: if both are present, these wheel packages are used
     instead of ensurepip bundled wheel packages.

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don't install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43031

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42874

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<33>,  Next: macOS<24>,  Prev: Build<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.35.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-41837(1): Updated Windows installer to include OpenSSL 1.1.1i

   - bpo-42584(2): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<24>,  Next: IDLE<21>,  Prev: Windows<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.35.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42504(1): Ensure that the value of
     sysconfig.get_config_var('MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET') is always a
     string, even in when the value is parsable as an integer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<21>,  Next: C API<29>,  Prev: macOS<24>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.35.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-43008(1): Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): 62d. in
     normal, 2-process mode.  Patch by Ken Hilton.

   - bpo-33065(2): Fix problem debugging user classes with __repr__
     method.

   - bpo-23544(3): Disable Debug=>Stack Viewer when user code is running
     or Debugger is active, to prevent hang or crash.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   - bpo-32631(4): Finish zzdummy example extension module: make menu
     entries work; add docstrings and tests with 100% coverage.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33065

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23544

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32631


File: python.info,  Node: C API<29>,  Prev: IDLE<21>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.35.10 C API
................

   - bpo-42979(1): When Python is built in debug mode (with C
     assertions), calling a type slot like ‘sq_length’ (‘__len__()’ in
     Python) now fails with a fatal error if the slot succeeded with an
     exception set, or failed with no exception set.  The error message
     contains the slot, the type name, and the current exception (if an
     exception is set).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43030(2): Fixed a compiler warning in *note
     Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(): 16db. on platforms with signed ‘wchar_t’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42979

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43030


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.36 Python 3.10.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-01-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<36>.
* Library: Library<36>.
* Documentation: Documentation<33>.
* Tests: Tests<34>.
* Build: Build<33>.
* macOS: macOS<25>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<16>.
* C API: C API<30>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<36>,  Next: Library<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.36.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42814(1): Fix undefined behavior in
     ‘Objects/genericaliasobject.c’.

   - bpo-42806(2): Fix the column offsets for f-strings *note ast: 8.
     nodes surrounded by parentheses and for nodes that spawn multiple
     lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40631(3): Fix regression where a single parenthesized starred
     expression was a valid assignment target.

   - bpo-27794(4): Improve the error message for failed writes/deletes
     to property objects.  When possible, the attribute name is now
     shown.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42745(5): Make the type attribute lookup cache per-interpreter.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42246(6): Jumps to jumps are not eliminated when it would break
     PEP 626.

   - bpo-42246(7): Make sure that the ‘f_lasti’ and ‘f_lineno’
     attributes of a frame are set correctly when an exception is raised
     or re-raised.  Required for PEP 626.

   - bpo-32381(8): The coding cookie (ex: ‘# coding: latin1’) is now
     ignored in the command passed to the *note -c: 3d3. command line
     option.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-30858(9): Improve error location in expressions that contain
     assignments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou.

   - bpo-42615(10): Remove jump commands made redundant by the deletion
     of unreachable bytecode blocks

   - bpo-42639(11): Make the *note atexit: a. module state
     per-interpreter.  It is now safe have more than one *note atexit:
     a. module instance.  Patch by Donghee Na and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-32381(12): Fix encoding name when running a ‘.pyc’ file on
     Windows: *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 16de. now uses the
     correct encoding to decode the filename.

   - bpo-42195(13): The ‘__args__’ of the parameterized generics for
     *note typing.Callable: 5e3. and *note collections.abc.Callable:
     60b. are now consistent.  The ‘__args__’ for *note
     collections.abc.Callable: 60b. are now flattened while *note
     typing.Callable: 5e3.'s have not changed.  To allow this change,
     *note types.GenericAlias: 60c. can now be subclassed and
     ‘collections.abc.Callable’'s ‘__class_getitem__’ will now return a
     subclass of ‘types.GenericAlias’.  Tests for typing were also
     updated to not subclass things like ‘Callable[..., T]’ as that is
     not a valid base class.  Finally, both ‘Callable’s no longer
     validate their ‘argtypes’, in ‘Callable[[argtypes], resulttype]’ to
     prepare for PEP 612(14).  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-40137(15): Convert functools module to use *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6.

   - bpo-40077(16): Convert *note array: 7. to use heap types, and
     establish module state for these.

   - bpo-42008(17): Fix _random.Random() seeding.

   - bpo-1635741(18): Port the ‘pyexpat’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(19)).

   - bpo-40521(20): Make the Unicode dictionary of interned strings
     compatible with subinterpreters.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39465(21): Make ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ function compatible with
     subinterpreters.  Each interpreter now has an array of identifier
     objects (interned strings decoded from UTF-8).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42814

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42806

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40631

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42745

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30858

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42615

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40137

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42008

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465


File: python.info,  Node: Library<36>,  Next: Documentation<33>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.36.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-42257(1): Handle empty string in variable executable in
     platform.libc_ver()

   - bpo-42772(2): randrange() now raises a TypeError when step is
     specified without a stop argument.  Formerly, it silently ignored
     the step argument.

   - bpo-42759(3): Fixed equality comparison of ‘tkinter.Variable’ and
     *note tkinter.font.Font: 16e0.  Objects which belong to different
     Tcl interpreters are now always different, even if they have the
     same name.

   - bpo-42756(4): Configure LMTP Unix-domain socket to use socket
     global default timeout when a timeout is not explicitly provided.

   - bpo-23328(5): Allow / character in username, password fields on
     _PROXY envars.

   - bpo-42740(6): *note typing.get_args(): 6aa. and *note
     typing.get_origin(): 891. now support PEP 604(7) union types and
     PEP 612(8) additions to ‘Callable’.

   - bpo-42655(9): *note subprocess: d0. 'extra_groups' is now correctly
     passed into setgroups() system call.

   - bpo-42727(10): ‘EnumMeta.__prepare__’ now accepts ‘**kwds’ to
     properly support ‘__init_subclass__’

   - bpo-38308(11): Add optional 'weights' to
     'statistics.harmonic_mean()'.

   - bpo-42721(12): When simple query dialogs (*note
     tkinter.simpledialog: f2.), message boxes (*note
     tkinter.messagebox: f0.) or color choose dialog (*note
     tkinter.colorchooser: eb.) are created without arguments 'master'
     and 'parent', and the default root window is not yet created, and
     ‘NoDefaultRoot()’ was not called, a new temporal hidden root window
     will be created automatically.  It will not be set as the default
     root window and will be destroyed right after closing the dialog
     window.  It will help to use these simple dialog windows in
     programs which do not need other GUI.

   - bpo-25246(13): Optimized *note collections.deque.remove(): 16e1.

   - bpo-35728(14): Added a root parameter to *note
     tkinter.font.nametofont(): 16e2.

   - bpo-15303(15): *note tkinter: ea. supports now widgets with boolean
     value False.

   - bpo-42681(16): Fixed range checks for color and pair numbers in
     *note curses: 29.

   - bpo-42685(17): Improved placing of simple query windows in Tkinter
     (such as *note tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger(): 16e3.).  They are
     now centered at the center of the parent window if it is specified
     and shown, otherwise at the center of the screen.

   - bpo-9694(18): Argparse help no longer uses the confusing phrase,
     "optional arguments".  It uses "options" instead.

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port the ‘_thread’ extension module to the
     multiphase initialization API ( PEP 489(20)) and convert its static
     types to heap types.

   - bpo-37961(21): Fix crash in ‘tracemalloc.Traceback.__repr__()’
     (regressed in Python 3.9).

   - bpo-42630(22): *note tkinter: ea. functions and constructors which
     need a default root window raise now *note RuntimeError: 17a. with
     descriptive message instead of obscure *note AttributeError: 3ca.
     or *note NameError: 144. if it is not created yet or cannot be
     created automatically.

   - bpo-42639(23): ‘atexit._run_exitfuncs()’ now logs callback
     exceptions using *note sys.unraisablehook: 479, rather than logging
     them directly into *note sys.stderr: 778. and raise the last
     exception.

   - bpo-42644(24): ‘logging.disable’ will now validate the types and
     value of its parameter.  It also now accepts strings representing
     the levels (as does ‘logging.setLevel’) instead of only the
     numerical values.

   - bpo-42639(25): At Python exit, if a callback registered with *note
     atexit.register(): 6a9. fails, its exception is now logged.
     Previously, only some exceptions were logged, and the last
     exception was always silently ignored.

   - bpo-36541(26): Fixed lib2to3.pgen2 to be able to parse PEP-570
     positional only argument syntax.

   - bpo-42382(27): In ‘importlib.metadata’: - ‘EntryPoint’ objects now
     expose a ‘.dist’ object referencing the ‘Distribution’ when
     constructed from a ‘Distribution’.  - Add support for package
     discovery under package normalization rules.  - The object returned
     by ‘metadata()’ now has a formally defined protocol called
     ‘PackageMetadata’ with declared support for the ‘.get_all()’
     method.  - Synced with importlib_metadata 3.3.

   - bpo-41877(28): A check is added against misspellings of autospect,
     auto_spec and set_spec being passed as arguments to patch,
     patch.object and create_autospec.

   - bpo-39717(29): [tarfile] update nested exception raising to use
     ‘from None’ or ‘from e’

   - bpo-41877(30): AttributeError for suspected misspellings of
     assertions on mocks are now pointing out that the cause are
     misspelled assertions and also what to do if the misspelling is
     actually an intended attribute name.  The unittest.mock document is
     also updated to reflect the current set of recognised misspellings.

   - bpo-41559(31): Implemented PEP 612(32): added ‘ParamSpec’ and
     ‘Concatenate’ to *note typing: ff.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-42385(33): StrEnum: fix _generate_next_value_ to return a str

   - bpo-31904(34): Define THREAD_STACK_SIZE for VxWorks.

   - bpo-34750(35): [Enum] ‘_EnumDict.update()’ is now supported.

   - bpo-42517(36): Enum: private names do not become members / do not
     generate errors - they remain normal attributes

   - bpo-42678(37): ‘Enum’: call ‘__init_subclass__’ after members have
     been added

   - bpo-28964(38): *note ast.literal_eval(): a7b. adds line number
     information (if available) in error message for malformed nodes.

   - bpo-42470(39): *note random.sample(): 559. no longer warns on a
     sequence which is also a set.

   - bpo-31904(40): ‘posixpath.expanduser()’ returns the input 'path'
     unchanged if user home directory is None on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42388(41): Fix subprocess.check_output(..., input=None)
     behavior when text=True to be consistent with that of the
     documentation and universal_newlines=True.

   - bpo-34463(42): Fixed discrepancy between *note traceback: f9. and
     the interpreter in formatting of SyntaxError with lineno not set
     (*note traceback: f9. was changed to match interpreter).

   - bpo-42393(43): Raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. instead of silent
     truncation in *note socket.ntohs(): 6ac. and *note socket.htons():
     6ab.  Silent truncation was deprecated in Python 3.7.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland

   - bpo-42222(44): Harmonized *note random.randrange(): 697. argument
     handling to match *note range(): 782.

        * The integer test and conversion in ‘randrange()’ now uses
          *note operator.index(): 16e4.

        * Non-integer arguments to ‘randrange()’ are deprecated.

        * The ‘ValueError’ is deprecated in favor of a ‘TypeError’.

        * It now runs a little faster than before.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Serhiy Storchaka.)

   - bpo-42163(45): Restore compatibility for ‘uname_result’ around
     deepcopy and _replace.

   - bpo-42090(46): ‘zipfile.Path.joinpath’ now accepts arbitrary
     arguments, same as ‘pathlib.Path.joinpath’.

   - bpo-1635741(47): Port the _csv module to the multi-phase
     initialization API ( PEP 489(48)).

   - bpo-42059(49): *note typing.TypedDict: 153. types created using the
     alternative call-style syntax now correctly respect the ‘total’
     keyword argument when setting their ‘__required_keys__’ and
     ‘__optional_keys__’ class attributes.

   - bpo-41960(50): Add ‘globalns’ and ‘localns’ parameters to the *note
     inspect.signature(): 548. and *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 54b.

   - bpo-41907(51): fix ‘format()’ behavior for ‘IntFlag’

   - bpo-41891(52): Ensure asyncio.wait_for waits for task completion

   - bpo-24792(53): Fixed bug where ‘zipimporter’ sometimes reports an
     incorrect cause of import errors.

   - bpo-31904(54): Fix site and sysconfig modules for VxWorks RTOS
     which has no home directories.

   - bpo-41462(55): Add *note os.set_blocking(): cb4. support for
     VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-40219(56): Lowered ‘tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale’ dummy widget to
     prevent hiding part of the content label.

   - bpo-37193(57): Fixed memory leak in ‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn’
     introduced in Python 3.7.

   - bpo-39068(58): Fix initialization race condition in ‘a85encode()’
     and ‘b85encode()’ in *note base64: c.  Patch by Brandon Stansbury.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42257

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42772

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42759

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42756

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23328

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42740

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42655

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42727

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38308

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42721

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25246

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35728

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15303

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42681

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42685

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37961

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42630

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42644

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42382

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39717

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42385

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34750

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42517

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42678

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28964

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42470

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42388

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34463

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42163

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42090

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42059

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41960

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41907

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41891

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24792

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41462

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40219

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37193

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39068


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<33>,  Next: Tests<34>,  Prev: Library<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.36.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17140(1): Add documentation for the *note
     multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool: 16e6. class.

   - bpo-34398(2): Prominently feature listings from the glossary in
     documentation search results.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17140

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34398


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<34>,  Next: Build<33>,  Prev: Documentation<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.36.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-42794(1): Update test_nntplib to use official group name of
     news.aioe.org for testing.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-31904(2): Skip some asyncio tests on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42641(3): Enhance ‘test_select.test_select()’: it now takes 500
     milliseconds rather than 10 seconds.  Use Python rather than a
     shell to make the test more portable.

   - bpo-31904(4): Skip some tests in _test_all_chown_common() on
     VxWorks.

   - bpo-42199(5): Fix bytecode helper assertNotInBytecode.

   - bpo-41443(6): Add more attribute checking in test_posix.py

   - bpo-31904(7): Disable os.popen and impacted tests on VxWorks

   - bpo-41439(8): Port test_ssl and test_uuid to VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42794

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42641

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42199

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41439


File: python.info,  Node: Build<33>,  Next: macOS<25>,  Prev: Tests<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.36.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-42692(1): Fix __builtin_available check on older compilers.
     Patch by Joshua Root.

   - bpo-27640(2): Added ‘--disable-test-modules’ option to the
     ‘configure’ script: don't build nor install test modules.  Patch by
     Xavier de Gaye, Thomas Petazzoni and Peixing Xin.

   - bpo-42604(3): Now all platforms use a value for the "EXT_SUFFIX"
     build variable derived from SOABI (for instance in freeBSD,
     "EXT_SUFFIX" is now ".cpython-310d.so" instead of ".so").
     Previously only Linux, Mac and VxWorks were using a value for
     "EXT_SUFFIX" that included "SOABI".

   - bpo-42598(4): Fix implicit function declarations in configure which
     could have resulted in incorrect configuration checks.  Patch
     contributed by Joshua Root.

   - bpo-31904(5): Enable libpython3.so for VxWorks.

   - bpo-29076(6): Add fish shell support to macOS installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42692

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42604

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29076


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<25>,  Next: Tools/Demos<16>,  Prev: Build<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.36.6 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42361(1): Update macOS installer build to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.11
     (rc2, expected to be final release).

   - bpo-41837(2): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1i.

   - bpo-42584(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42361

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<16>,  Next: C API<30>,  Prev: macOS<25>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.36.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-42726(1): Fixed Python 3 compatibility issue with
     gdb/libpython.py handling of attribute dictionaries.

   - bpo-42613(2): Fix ‘freeze.py’ tool to use the prope config and
     library directories.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42613


File: python.info,  Node: C API<30>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<16>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.36.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-42591(1): Export the ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ function: fix a Python
     3.9.0 regression.  Python 3.9 uses ‘-fvisibility=hidden’ and the
     function was not exported explicitly and so not exported.

   - bpo-32381(2): Remove the private ‘_Py_fopen()’ function which is no
     longer needed.  Use ‘_Py_wfopen()’ or ‘_Py_fopen_obj()’ instead.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-1635741(3): Port *note resource: b7. extension module to module
     state

   - bpo-42111(4): Update the ‘xxlimited’ module to be a better example
     of how to use the limited C API.

   - bpo-40052(5): Fix an alignment build warning/error in function
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function()’.  Patch by Andreas Schneider, Antoine
     Pitrou and Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42591

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42111

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40052


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.37 Python 3.10.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-12-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<23>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<37>.
* Library: Library<37>.
* Documentation: Documentation<34>.
* Tests: Tests<35>.
* Build: Build<34>.
* Windows: Windows<34>.
* macOS: macOS<26>.
* IDLE: IDLE<22>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<17>.
* C API: C API<31>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<23>,  Next: Core and Builtins<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.37.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40791(1): Add ‘volatile’ to the accumulator variable in
     ‘hmac.compare_digest’, making constant-time-defeating optimizations
     less likely.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40791


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<37>,  Next: Library<37>,  Prev: Security<23>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.37.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42576(1): ‘types.GenericAlias’ will now raise a ‘TypeError’
     when attempting to initialize with a keyword argument.  Previously,
     this would cause the interpreter to crash if the interpreter was
     compiled with debug symbols.  This does not affect interpreters
     compiled for release.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-42536(2): Several built-in and standard library types now
     ensure that their internal result tuples are always tracked by the
     *note garbage collector: 16ef.:

        - *note collections.OrderedDict.items(): 3ce.

        - *note dict.items(): 5ee.

        - *note enumerate(): 12f0.

        - *note functools.reduce(): 116d.

        - *note itertools.combinations(): 11a4.

        - *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1116.

        - *note itertools.permutations(): 16f0.

        - *note itertools.product(): 11a5.

        - *note itertools.zip_longest(): 1132.

        - *note zip(): 5ef.

     Previously, they could have become untracked by a prior garbage
     collection.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-42500(3): Improve handling of exceptions near recursion limit.
     Converts a number of Fatal Errors in RecursionErrors.

   - bpo-42246(4): PEP 626: After a return, the f_lineno attribute of a
     frame is always the last line executed.

   - bpo-42435(5): Speed up comparison of bytes objects with non-bytes
     objects when option *note -b: 3d7. is specified.  Speed up
     comparison of bytarray objects with non-buffer object.

   - bpo-1635741(6): Port the ‘_warnings’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(7)).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-41686(8): On Windows, the ‘SIGINT’ event,
     ‘_PyOS_SigintEvent()’, is now created even if Python is configured
     to not install signal handlers (if *note
     PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 6f6. equals to 0, or
     ‘Py_InitializeEx(0)’).

   - bpo-42381(9): Allow assignment expressions in set literals and set
     comprehensions as per PEP 572.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42202(10): Change function parameters annotations internal
     representation to tuple of strings.  Patch provided by Yurii
     Karabas.

   - bpo-42374(11): Fix a regression introduced by the new parser, where
     an unparenthesized walrus operator was not allowed within generator
     expressions.

   - bpo-42316(12): Allow an unparenthesized walrus in subscript
     indexes.

   - bpo-42349(13): Make sure that the compiler front-end produces a
     well-formed control flow graph.  Be be more aggressive in the
     compiler back-end, as it is now safe to do so.

   - bpo-42296(14): On Windows, fix a regression in signal handling
     which prevented to interrupt a program using CTRL+C. The signal
     handler can be run in a thread different than the Python thread, in
     which case the test deciding if the thread can handle signals is
     wrong.

   - bpo-42332(15): *note types.GenericAlias: 60c. objects can now be
     the targets of weakrefs.

   - bpo-42282(16): Optimise constant subexpressions that appear as part
     of named expressions (previously the AST optimiser did not descend
     into named expressions).  Patch by Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-42266(17): Fixed a bug with the LOAD_ATTR opcode cache that was
     not respecting monkey-patching a class-level attribute to make it a
     descriptor.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40077(18): Convert *note queue: b1. to use heap types.

   - bpo-42246(19): Improved accuracy of line tracing events and
     f_lineno attribute of Frame objects.  See PEP 626 for details.

   - bpo-40077(20): Convert *note mmap: 8b. to use heap types.

   - bpo-42233(21): Allow ‘GenericAlias’ objects to use *note union type
     expressions: 5e0.  This allows expressions like ‘list[int] |
     dict[float, str]’ where previously a ‘TypeError’ would have been
     thrown.  This also fixes union type expressions not de-duplicating
     ‘GenericAlias’ objects.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42233(22).)

   - bpo-26131(23): The import system triggers a ‘ImportWarning’ when it
     falls back to using ‘load_module()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42576

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42500

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42435

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41686

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42381

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42374

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42349

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42296

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42332

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42282

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42266

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131


File: python.info,  Node: Library<37>,  Next: Documentation<34>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.37.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-5054(1): CGIHTTPRequestHandler.run_cgi() HTTP_ACCEPT improperly
     parsed.  Replace the special purpose getallmatchingheaders with
     generic get_all method and add relevant tests.

     Original Patch by Martin Panter.  Modified by Senthil Kumaran.

   - bpo-42562(2): Fix issue when dis failed to parse function that has
     no line numbers.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-17735(3): ‘inspect.findsource()’ now raises *note OSError: 644.
     instead of *note IndexError: 13ac. when ‘co_lineno’ of a code
     object is greater than the file length.  This can happen, for
     example, when a file is edited after it was imported.  PR by Irit
     Katriel.

   - bpo-42116(4): Fix handling of trailing comments by *note
     inspect.getsource(): 14ca.

   - bpo-42532(5): Remove unexpected call of ‘__bool__’ when passing a
     ‘spec_arg’ argument to a Mock.

   - bpo-38200(6): Added itertools.pairwise()

   - bpo-41818(7): Fix test_master_read() so that it succeeds on all
     platforms that either raise OSError or return b"" upon reading from
     master.

   - bpo-42487(8): ChainMap.__iter__ no longer calls __getitem__ on
     underlying maps

   - bpo-42482(9): *note TracebackException: 4a1. no longer holds a
     reference to the exception's traceback object.  Consequently,
     instances of TracebackException for equivalent but non-equal
     exceptions now compare as equal.

   - bpo-41818(10): Make test_openpty() avoid unexpected success due to
     number of rows and/or number of columns being == 0.

   - bpo-42392(11): Remove loop parameter from ‘asyncio.subprocess’ and
     ‘asyncio.tasks’ functions.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42392(12): Remove loop parameter from ‘asyncio.open_connection’
     and ‘asyncio.start_server’ functions.  Patch provided by Yurii
     Karabas.

   - bpo-28468(13): Add *note platform.freedesktop_os_release(): 64c.
     function to parse freedesktop.org ‘os-release’ files.

   - bpo-42299(14): Removed the ‘formatter’ module, which was deprecated
     in Python 3.4.  It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not
     tested.  It was originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6,
     but such removals were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing
     users should copy whatever classes they use into their code.  Patch
     by Donghee Na and and Terry J. Reedy.

   - bpo-26131(15): Deprecate zipimport.zipimporter.load_module() in
     favour of exec_module().

   - bpo-41818(16): Updated tests for the pty library.  test_basic() has
     been changed to test_openpty(); this additionally checks if slave
     termios and slave winsize are being set properly by pty.openpty().
     In order to add support for FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and Darwin,
     this also adds test_master_read(), which demonstrates that
     pty.spawn() should not depend on an OSError to exit from its copy
     loop.

   - bpo-42392(17): Remove loop parameter from ‘__init__’ in all
     ‘asyncio.locks’ and ‘asyncio.Queue’ classes.  Patch provided by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-15450(18): Make *note filecmp.dircmp: dcd. respect subclassing.
     Now the *note filecmp.dircmp.subdirs: 16f2. behaves as expected
     when subclassing dircmp.

   - bpo-42413(19): The exception *note socket.timeout: 65a. is now an
     alias of *note TimeoutError: 65b.

   - bpo-31904(20): Support signal module on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42406(21): We fixed an issue in ‘pickle.whichmodule’ in which
     importing ‘multiprocessing’ could change the how pickle identifies
     which module an object belongs to, potentially breaking the
     unpickling of those objects.

   - bpo-42403(22): Simplify the *note importlib: 71. external bootstrap
     code: ‘importlib._bootstrap_external’ now uses regular imports to
     import builtin modules.  When it is imported, the builtin *note
     __import__(): 70d. function is already fully working and so can be
     used to import builtin modules like *note sys: d3.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Convert _sre module types to heap types (PEP 384).
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42375(24): subprocess module update for DragonFlyBSD support.

   - bpo-41713(25): Port the ‘_signal’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(26)).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner and Mohamed Koubaa.

   - bpo-37205(27): *note time.time(): 936, *note time.perf_counter():
     8d4. and *note time.monotonic(): cfe. functions can no longer fail
     with a Python fatal error, instead raise a regular Python exception
     on failure.

   - bpo-42328(28): Fixed *note tkinter.ttk.Style.map(): 16f3.  The
     function accepts now the representation of the default state as
     empty sequence (as returned by ‘Style.map()’).  The structure of
     the result is now the same on all platform and does not depend on
     the value of ‘wantobjects’.

   - bpo-42345(29): Fix various issues with ‘typing.Literal’ parameter
     handling (flatten, deduplicate, use type to cache key).  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-37205(30): *note time.perf_counter(): 8d4. on Windows and *note
     time.monotonic(): cfe. on macOS are now system-wide.  Previously,
     they used an offset computed at startup to reduce the precision
     loss caused by the float type.  Use *note time.perf_counter_ns():
     93a. and *note time.monotonic_ns(): 939. added in Python 3.7 to
     avoid this precision loss.

   - bpo-42318(31): Fixed support of non-BMP characters in *note
     tkinter: ea. on macOS.

   - bpo-42350(32): Fix the *note threading.Thread: 78d. class at fork:
     do nothing if the thread is already stopped (ex: fork called at
     Python exit).  Previously, an error was logged in the child
     process.

   - bpo-42333(33): Port _ssl extension module to heap types.

   - bpo-42014(34): The ‘onerror’ callback from ‘shutil.rmtree’ now
     receives correct function when ‘os.open’ fails.

   - bpo-42237(35): Fix ‘os.sendfile()’ on illumos.

   - bpo-42308(36): Add *note threading.__excepthook__: 671. to allow
     retrieving the original value of *note threading.excepthook(): 672.
     in case it is set to a broken or a different value.  Patch by Mario
     Corchero.

   - bpo-42131(37): Implement PEP 451/spec methods on
     zipimport.zipimporter: find_spec(), create_module(), and
     exec_module().

     This also allows for the documented deprecation of find_loader(),
     find_module(), and load_module().

   - bpo-41877(38): Mock objects which are not unsafe will now raise an
     AttributeError if an attribute with the prefix asert, aseert, or
     assrt is accessed, in addition to this already happening for the
     prefixes assert or assret.

   - bpo-42264(39): ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ has been undocumented and
     obsolete since Python 3.3, when it was made an alias to *note str:
     157.  It is now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.

   - bpo-42251(40): Added *note threading.gettrace(): 66d. and *note
     threading.getprofile(): 66e. to retrieve the functions set by *note
     threading.settrace(): 66f. and *note threading.setprofile(): 670.
     respectively.  Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-42249(41): Fixed writing binary Plist files larger than 4 GiB.

   - bpo-42236(42): On Unix, the *note os.device_encoding(): 1665.
     function now returns ‘'UTF-8'’ rather than the device encoding if
     the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451. is enabled.

   - bpo-41754(43): webbrowser: Ignore 'NotADirectoryError' when calling
     ‘xdg-settings’.

   - bpo-42183(44): Fix a stack overflow error for asyncio Task or
     Future repr().

     The overflow occurs under some circumstances when a Task or Future
     recursively returns itself.

   - bpo-42140(45): Improve asyncio.wait function to create the futures
     set just one time.

   - bpo-42133(46): Update various modules in the stdlib to fall back on
     ‘__spec__.loader’ when ‘__loader__’ isn't defined on a module.

   - bpo-26131(47): The ‘load_module()’ methods found in ‘importlib’ now
     trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’.

   - bpo-39825(48): Windows: Change
     ‘sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')’ to the expected full
     ‘platform_tag.extension’ format.  Previously it was hard-coded to
     ‘.pyd’, now it is compatible with ‘distutils.sysconfig’ and will
     result in something like ‘.cp38-win_amd64.pyd’.  This brings
     windows into conformance with the other platforms.

   - bpo-26389(49): The *note traceback.format_exception(): 674, *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 675, and *note
     traceback.print_exception(): 676. functions can now take an
     exception object as a positional-only argument.

   - bpo-41889(50): Enum: fix regression involving inheriting a multiply
     inherited enum

   - bpo-41861(51): Convert *note sqlite3: c9. to use heap types (PEP
     384).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40624(52): Added support for the XPath ‘!=’ operator in
     xml.etree

   - bpo-28850(53): Fix *note pprint.PrettyPrinter.format(): 16f4.
     overrides being ignored for contents of small containers.  The
     ‘pprint._safe_repr()’ function was removed.

   - bpo-41625(54): Expose the ‘splice()’ as *note os.splice(): 63d. in
     the *note os: 9c. module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-34215(55): Clarify the error message for *note
     asyncio.IncompleteReadError: 16f5. when ‘expected’ is ‘None’.

   - bpo-41543(56): Add async context manager support for
     contextlib.nullcontext.

   - bpo-21041(57): *note pathlib.PurePath.parents: 646. now supports
     negative indexing.  Patch contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych.

   - bpo-41332(58): Added missing connect_accepted_socket() method to
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop’.

   - bpo-12800(59): Extracting a symlink from a tarball should succeed
     and overwrite the symlink if it already exists.  The fix is to
     remove the existing file or symlink before extraction.  Based on
     patch by Chris AtLee, Jeffrey Kintscher, and Senthil Kumaran.

   - bpo-40968(60): *note urllib.request: 106. and *note http.client:
     6a. now send ‘http/1.1’ ALPN extension during TLS handshake when no
     custom context is supplied.

   - bpo-41001(61): Add *note os.eventfd(): 63c. to provide a low level
     interface for Linux's event notification file descriptor.

   - bpo-40816(62): Add AsyncContextDecorator to contextlib to support
     async context manager as a decorator.

   - bpo-40550(63): Fix time-of-check/time-of-action issue in
     subprocess.Popen.send_signal.

   - bpo-39411(64): Add an ‘is_async’ identifier to *note pyclbr: af.'s
     ‘Function’ objects.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-35498(65): Add slice support to *note pathlib.PurePath.parents:
     646.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5054

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42562

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17735

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42116

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42532

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42487

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42482

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15450

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42406

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42403

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42375

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42328

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42318

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42350

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42014

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42237

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42249

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41754

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42183

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42140

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39825

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41889

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41861

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40624

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28850

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34215

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12800

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40968

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40816

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40550

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39411

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<34>,  Next: Tests<35>,  Prev: Library<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.37.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): Tentative to deprecate ‘make suspicious’ by first
     removing it from the CI and documentation builds, but keeping it
     around for manual uses.

   - bpo-42153(2): Fix the URL for the IMAP protocol documents.

   - bpo-41028(3): Language and version switchers, previously maintained
     in every cpython branches, are now handled by docsbuild-script.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42153

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41028


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<35>,  Next: Build<34>,  Prev: Documentation<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.37.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41473(1): Re-enable test_gdb on gdb 9.2 and newer:
     ‘https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=1866884’ bug is fixed
     in gdb 10.1.

   - bpo-42553(2): Fix ‘test_asyncio.test_call_later()’ race condition:
     don't measure asyncio performance in the ‘call_later()’ unit test.
     The test failed randomly on the CI.

   - bpo-31904(3): Fix test_netrc on VxWorks: create temporary
     directories using temp_cwd().

   - bpo-31904(4): skip test_getaddrinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic and
     test_getnameinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(5): skip test_test of test_mailcap on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(6): add shell requirement for test_pipes

   - bpo-31904(7): skip some tests related to fifo on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(8): Fix test_doctest.py failures for VxWorks.

   - bpo-40754(9): Include ‘_testinternalcapi’ module in Windows
     installer for test suite

   - bpo-41561(10): test_ssl: skip test_min_max_version_mismatch when
     TLS 1.0 is not available

   - bpo-31904(11): Fix os module failures for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-31904(12): Fix fifo test cases for VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41473

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42553

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40754

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904


File: python.info,  Node: Build<34>,  Next: Windows<34>,  Prev: Tests<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.37.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-31904(1): remove libnet dependency from detect_socket() for
     VxWorks

   - bpo-42398(2): Fix a race condition in "make regen-all" when make
     -jN option is used to run jobs in parallel.  The clinic.py script
     now only use atomic write to write files.  Moveover, generated
     files are now left unchanged if the content does not change, to not
     change the file modification time.

   - bpo-41617(3): Fix building ‘pycore_bitutils.h’ internal header on
     old clang version without ‘__builtin_bswap16()’ (ex: Xcode 4.6.3 on
     Mac OS X 10.7).  Patch by Joshua Root and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38823(4): It is no longer possible to build the ‘_ctypes’
     extension module without ‘wchar_t’ type: remove ‘CTYPES_UNICODE’
     macro.  Anyway, the ‘wchar_t’ type is required to build Python.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42087(5): Support was removed for AIX 5.3 and below.  See
     bpo-40680(6).

   - bpo-40998(7): Addressed three compiler warnings found by undefined
     behavior sanitizer (ubsan).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42398

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38823

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42087

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40680

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40998


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<34>,  Next: macOS<26>,  Prev: Build<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.37.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-42120(1): Remove macro definition of ‘copysign’ (to
     ‘_copysign’) in headers.

   - bpo-38506(2): The Windows launcher now properly handles Python 3.10
     when listing installed Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42120

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38506


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<26>,  Next: IDLE<22>,  Prev: Windows<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.37.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42504(1): Fix build on macOS Big Sur when
     MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET=11

   - bpo-41116(2): Ensure distutils.unixxcompiler.find_library_file can
     find system provided libraries on macOS 11.

   - bpo-41100(3): Add support for macOS 11 and Apple Silicon systems.

     It is now possible to build "Universal 2" binaries using
     "-enable-universalsdk -with-universal-archs=universal2".

     Binaries build on later macOS versions can be deployed back to
     older versions (tested up to macOS 10.9), when using the correct
     deployment target.  This is tested using Xcode 11 and later.

   - bpo-42232(4): Added Darwin specific madvise options to mmap module.

   - bpo-38443(5): The ‘--enable-universalsdk’ and
     ‘--with-universal-archs’ options for the configure script now check
     that the specified architectures can be used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41116

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42232

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38443


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<22>,  Next: Tools/Demos<17>,  Prev: macOS<26>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.37.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-42508(1): Keep IDLE running on macOS. Remove obsolete
     workaround that prevented running files with shortcuts when using
     new universal2 installers built on macOS 11.

   - bpo-42426(2): Fix reporting offset of the RE error in searchengine.

   - bpo-42415(3): Get docstrings for IDLE calltips more often by using
     inspect.getdoc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42508

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42426

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42415


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<17>,  Next: C API<31>,  Prev: IDLE<22>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.37.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-42212(1): The smelly.py script now also checks the Python
     dynamic library and extension modules, not only the Python static
     library.  Make also the script more verbose: explain what it does.

   - bpo-36310(2): Allow ‘Tools/i18n/pygettext.py’ to detect calls to
     ‘gettext’ in f-strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42212

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36310


File: python.info,  Node: C API<31>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<17>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.37.11 C API
................

   - bpo-42423(1): The *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 30d. and *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6. functions now accept a single
     class as the 'bases' argument.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port *note select: bc. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(3)).

   - bpo-1635741(4): Port _posixsubprocess extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(5)).

   - bpo-1635741(6): Port _posixshmem extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(7))

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _struct extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(9))

   - bpo-1635741(10): Port *note spwd: c8. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(11))

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note gc: 5b. extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13))

   - bpo-1635741(14): Port _queue extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(15))

   - bpo-39573(16): Convert *note Py_TYPE(): 597. and *note Py_SIZE():
     599. back to macros to allow using them as an l-value.  Many third
     party C extension modules rely on the ability of using Py_TYPE()
     and Py_SIZE() to set an object type and size: ‘Py_TYPE(obj) =
     type;’ and ‘Py_SIZE(obj) = size;’.

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port *note symtable: d2. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(18))

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port *note grp: 61. and *note pwd: ad. extension
     modules to multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(20))

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port _random extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(22))

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port _hashlib extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(24))

   - bpo-41713(25): Removed the undocumented ‘PyOS_InitInterrupts()’
     function.  Initializing Python already implicitly installs signal
     handlers: see *note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 6f6.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40170(26): The ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ macro no longer accesses
     PyTypeObject attributes, but now can get the condition by calling
     the new private ‘_PyTrash_cond()’ function which hides
     implementation details.

   - bpo-42260(27): *note Py_GetPath(): 35d, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 35f,
     *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 35b, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 361,
     *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 364. and *note Py_GetProgramName(): 363.
     functions now return ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize():
     6e2. (before Python is initialized).  Use the new *note Python
     Initialization Configuration API: 5ad. to get the *note Python Path
     Configuration.: 6e3.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42260(28): The *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa. function now only
     parses *note PyConfig.argv: 350. arguments once: *note
     PyConfig.parse_argv: 16fe. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are
     parsed.  Since Python arguments are strippped from *note
     PyConfig.argv: 350, parsing arguments twice would parse the
     application options as Python options.

   - bpo-42262(29): Added *note Py_NewRef(): 6cb. and *note
     Py_XNewRef(): 6cc. functions to increment the reference count of an
     object and return the object.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42260(30): When *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. is called twice,
     the second call now updates more *note sys: d3. attributes for the
     configuration, rather than only *note sys.argv: 10f9.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41832(31): The *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6. function
     now accepts NULL ‘tp_doc’ slot.

   - bpo-1635741(32): Added *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6c9.
     function: similar to *note PyModule_AddObject(): 6ca. but don't
     steal a reference to the value on success.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42171(33): The *note METH_FASTCALL: 15eb. calling convention is
     added to the limited API. The functions *note PyModule_AddType():
     7b9, *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6, *note
     PyType_GetModule(): 7b0. and *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 7b1.
     are added to the limited API on Windows.

   - bpo-42085(34): Add dedicated entry to PyAsyncMethods for sending
     values

   - bpo-41073(35): *note PyType_GetSlot(): 6cd. can now accept static
     types.

   - bpo-30459(36): *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 6e4, *note
     PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 6e5. and *note PyCell_SET(): 6e6. macros can no
     longer be used as l-value or r-value.  For example, ‘x =
     PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c)’ and ‘PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x’ now
     fail with a compiler error.  It prevents bugs like ‘if
     (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ...’ test.  Patch by Zackery Spytz
     and Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42171

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42085

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.38 Python 3.10.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-11-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<38>.
* Library: Library<38>.
* Documentation: Documentation<35>.
* Tests: Tests<36>.
* Build: Build<35>.
* Windows: Windows<35>.
* macOS: macOS<27>.
* IDLE: IDLE<23>.
* C API: C API<32>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<24>,  Next: Core and Builtins<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.38.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42103(1): Prevented potential DoS attack via CPU and RAM
     exhaustion when processing malformed Apple Property List files in
     binary format.

   - bpo-42051(2): The *note plistlib: a6. module no longer accepts
     entity declarations in XML plist files to avoid XML
     vulnerabilities.  This should not affect users as entity
     declarations are not used in regular plist files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42051


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<38>,  Next: Library<38>,  Prev: Security<24>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.38.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42236(1): If the ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ function returns an
     empty string, Python now uses UTF-8 as the filesystem encoding.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42218(2): Fixed a bug in the PEG parser that was causing
     crashes in debug mode.  Now errors are checked in left-recursive
     rules to avoid cases where such errors do not get handled in time
     and appear as long-distance crashes in other places.

   - bpo-42214(3): Fixed a possible crash in the PEG parser when
     checking for the '!=' token in the ‘barry_as_flufl’ rule.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42206(4): Propagate and raise the errors caused by
     ‘PyAST_Validate()’ in the parser.

   - bpo-41796(5): The *note ast: 8. module internal state is now per
     interpreter.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42143(6): Fix handling of errors during creation of
     ‘PyFunctionObject’, which resulted in operations on uninitialized
     memory.  Patch by Yonatan Goldschmidt.

   - bpo-41659(7): Fix a bug in the parser, where a curly brace
     following a ‘primary’ didn't fail immediately.  This led to invalid
     expressions like ‘a {b}’ to throw a *note SyntaxError: 146. with a
     wrong offset, or invalid expressions ending with a curly brace like
     ‘a {’ to not fail immediately in the REPL.

   - bpo-42150(8): Fix possible buffer overflow in the new parser when
     checking for continuation lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42123(9): Run the parser two times.  On the first run, disable
     all the rules that only generate better error messages to gain
     performance.  If there's a parse failure, run the parser a second
     time with those enabled.

   - bpo-42093(10): The ‘LOAD_ATTR’ instruction now uses new "per opcode
     cache" mechanism and it is about 36% faster now.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-42030(11): Support for the legacy AIX-specific shared library
     loading support has been removed.  All versions of AIX since 4.3
     have supported and defaulted to using the common Unix mechanism
     instead.

   - bpo-41984(12): The garbage collector now tracks all user-defined
     classes.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-41993(13): Fixed potential issues with removing not completely
     initialized module from ‘sys.modules’ when import fails.

   - bpo-41979(14): Star-unpacking is now allowed for with item's
     targets in the PEG parser.

   - bpo-41974(15): Removed special methods ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’,
     ‘__floordiv__’, ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__rfloordiv__’,
     ‘__rmod__’ and ‘__rdivmod__’ of the *note complex: 26b. class.
     They always raised a *note TypeError: 2ba.

   - bpo-41902(16): Micro optimization when compute *note sq_item: 1702.
     and *note mp_subscript: 1703. of *note range: 782.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41894(17): When loading a native module and a load failure
     occurs, prevent a possible UnicodeDecodeError when not running in a
     UTF-8 locale by decoding the load error message using the current
     locale's encoding.

   - bpo-41902(18): Micro optimization for range.index if step is 1.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41435(19): Add ‘sys._current_exceptions()’ function to retrieve
     a dictionary mapping each thread's identifier to the topmost
     exception currently active in that thread at the time the function
     is called.

   - bpo-38605(20): Enable ‘from __future__ import annotations’ ( PEP
     563(21)) by default.  The values found in ‘__annotations__’ dicts
     are now strings, for example ‘{"x": "int"}’ instead of ‘{"x":
     int}’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42218

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42214

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42206

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41796

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42143

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41659

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42150

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42123

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42030

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41984

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41993

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41979

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41894

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41435

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<38>,  Next: Documentation<35>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.38.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35455(1): On Solaris, *note thread_time(): 775. is now
     implemented with ‘gethrvtime()’ because
     ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ is not always available.
     Patch by Jakub Kulik.

   - bpo-42233(2): The *note repr(): 61e. of *note typing: ff. types
     containing *note Generic Alias Types: 4af. previously did not show
     the parameterized types in the ‘GenericAlias’.  They have now been
     changed to do so.

   - bpo-29566(3): ‘binhex.binhex()’ consistently writes macOS 9 line
     endings.

   - bpo-26789(4): The *note logging.FileHandler: 1671. class now keeps
     a reference to the builtin *note open(): 29c. function to be able
     to open or reopen the file during Python finalization.  Fix errors
     like: ‘NameError: name 'open' is not defined’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42157(5): Removed the ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ attribute
     which was an internal PyCapsule object.  The related private
     ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure was moved to the internal C API.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42157(6): Convert the *note unicodedata: 100. extension module
     to the multiphase initialization API ( PEP 489(7)) and convert the
     ‘unicodedata.UCD’ static type to a heap type.  Patch by Mohamed
     Koubaa and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42146(8): Fix memory leak in *note subprocess.Popen(): 8e1. in
     case an uid (gid) specified in ‘user’ (‘group’, ‘extra_groups’)
     overflows ‘uid_t’ (‘gid_t’).

   - bpo-42103(9): ‘InvalidFileException’ and *note RecursionError: be1.
     are now the only errors caused by loading malformed binary Plist
     file (previously ValueError and TypeError could be raised in some
     specific cases).

   - bpo-41490(10): In ‘importlib.resources’, ‘.path’ method is more
     aggressive about releasing handles to zipfile objects early,
     enabling use-cases like certifi to leave the context open but
     delete the underlying zip file.

   - bpo-41052(11): Pickling heap types implemented in C with protocols
     0 and 1 raises now an error instead of producing incorrect data.

   - bpo-42089(12): In ‘importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError’, make
     reference to the package metadata being missing to improve the user
     experience.

   - bpo-41491(13): plistlib: fix parsing XML plists with hexadecimal
     integer values

   - bpo-42065(14): Fix an incorrectly formatted error from
     ‘_codecs.charmap_decode()’ when called with a mapped value outside
     the range of valid Unicode code points.  PR by Max Bernstein.

   - bpo-41966(15): Fix pickling pure Python *note datetime.time: 6c5.
     subclasses.  Patch by Dean Inwood.

   - bpo-19270(16): *note sched.scheduler.cancel(): 1705. will now
     cancel the correct event, if two events with same priority are
     scheduled for the same time.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-28660(17): *note textwrap.wrap(): 133a. now attempts to break
     long words after hyphens when ‘break_long_words=True’ and
     ‘break_on_hyphens=True’.

   - bpo-35823(18): Use ‘vfork()’ instead of ‘fork()’ for *note
     subprocess.Popen(): 8e1. on Linux to improve performance in cases
     where it is deemed safe.

   - bpo-42043(19): Add support for ‘zipfile.Path’ inheritance.
     ‘zipfile.Path.is_file()’ now returns False for non-existent names.
     ‘zipfile.Path’ objects now expose a ‘.filename’ attribute and rely
     on that to resolve ‘.name’ and ‘.parent’ when the ‘Path’ object is
     at the root of the zipfile.

   - bpo-42021(20): Fix possible ref leaks in *note sqlite3: c9. module
     init.

   - bpo-39101(21): Fixed tests using IsolatedAsyncioTestCase from
     hanging on BaseExceptions.

   - bpo-41976(22): Fixed a bug that was causing *note
     ctypes.util.find_library(): bbd. to return ‘None’ when triying to
     locate a library in an environment when gcc>=9 is available and
     ‘ldconfig’ is not.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-41943(23): Fix bug where TestCase.assertLogs doesn't correctly
     filter messages by level.

   - bpo-41923(24): Implement PEP 613(25), introducing *note
     typing.TypeAlias: 5e7. annotation.

   - bpo-41905(26): A new function in abc: 'update_abstractmethods' to
     re-calculate an abstract class's abstract status.  In addition,
     'dataclass' has been changed to call this function.

   - bpo-23706(27): Added 'newline' parameter to
     ‘pathlib.Path.write_text()’.

   - bpo-41876(28): Tkinter font class repr uses font name

   - bpo-41831(29): ‘str()’ for the ‘type’ attribute of the
     ‘tkinter.Event’ object always returns now the numeric code returned
     by Tk instead of the name of the event type.

   - bpo-39337(30): ‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’ now ignores
     non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-41747(31): Ensure all methods that generated from *note
     dataclasses.dataclass(): 3bc. objects now have the proper
     ‘__qualname__’ attribute referring to the class they belong to.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-30681(32): Handle exceptions caused by unparsable date headers
     when using email "default" policy.  Patch by Tim Bell, Georges Toth

   - bpo-41586(33): Add F_SETPIPE_SZ and F_GETPIPE_SZ to fcntl module.
     Allow setting pipesize on subprocess.Popen.

   - bpo-41229(34): Add ‘contextlib.aclosing’ for deterministic cleanup
     of async generators which is analogous to ‘contextlib.closing’ for
     non-async generators.  Patch by Joongi Kim and John Belmonte.

   - bpo-16396(35): Allow ‘ctypes.wintypes’ to be imported on
     non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-4356(36): Add a key function to the bisect module.

   - bpo-40592(37): *note shutil.which(): 1d9. now ignores empty entries
     in ‘PATHEXT’ instead of treating them as a match.

   - bpo-40492(38): Fix ‘--outfile’ for *note cProfile: 25. / *note
     profile: aa. not writing the output file in the original directory
     when the program being profiled changes the working directory.  PR
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-34204(39): The *note shelve: be. module now uses *note
     pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 654. by default instead of *note pickle:
     a1. protocol ‘3’.

   - bpo-27321(40): Fixed KeyError exception when flattening an email to
     a string attempts to replace a non-existent
     Content-Transfer-Encoding header.

   - bpo-38976(41): The *note http.cookiejar: 6b. module now supports
     the parsing of cookies in CURL-style cookiejar files through
     MozillaCookieJar on all platforms.  Previously, such cookie entries
     would be silently ignored when loading a cookiejar with such
     entries.

     Additionally, the HTTP Only attribute is persisted in the object,
     and will be correctly written to file if the MozillaCookieJar
     object is subsequently dumped.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35455

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29566

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26789

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42146

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41490

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41052

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42089

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41491

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42065

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41966

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19270

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28660

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35823

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42043

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42021

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39101

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41976

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41943

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41905

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23706

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41876

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41831

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41747

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30681

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41586

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16396

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40592

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40492

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27321

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38976


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<35>,  Next: Tests<36>,  Prev: Library<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.38.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42061(1): Document __format__ functionality for IP addresses.

   - bpo-41910(2): Document the default implementation of
     ‘object.__eq__’.

   - bpo-42010(3): Clarify that subscription expressions are also valid
     for certain *note classes: 1707. and *note types: 1708. in the
     standard library, and for user-defined classes and types if the
     classmethod ‘__class_getitem__()’ is provided.

   - bpo-41805(4): Documented *note generic alias type: 4af. and *note
     types.GenericAlias: 60c.  Also added an entry in glossary for *note
     generic types: 13b.

   - bpo-39693(5): Fix tarfile's extractfile documentation

   - bpo-39416(6): Document some restrictions on the default string
     representations of numeric classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42061

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41910

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42010

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41805

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39693

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39416


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<36>,  Next: Build<35>,  Prev: Documentation<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.38.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41739(1): Fix
     test_logging.test_race_between_set_target_and_flush(): the test now
     waits until all threads complete to avoid leaking running threads.

   - bpo-41970(2): Avoid a test failure in ‘test_lib2to3’ if the module
     has already imported at the time the test executes.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-41944(3): Tests for CJK codecs no longer call ‘eval()’ on
     content received via HTTP.

   - bpo-41306(4): Fixed a failure in ‘test_tk.test_widgets.ScaleTest’
     happening when executing the test with Tk 8.6.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41739

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41970

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41944

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41306


File: python.info,  Node: Build<35>,  Next: Windows<35>,  Prev: Tests<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.38.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38980(1): Add ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ to both the compile
     and link line when building with ‘--enable-optimizations’.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner and Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<35>,  Next: macOS<27>,  Prev: Build<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.38.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-38439(1): Updates the icons for IDLE in the Windows Store
     package.

   - bpo-38252(2): Use 8-byte step to detect ASCII sequence in 64-bit
     Windows build.

   - bpo-39107(3): Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.10 in Windows installer.

   - bpo-41557(4): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

   - bpo-38324(5): Avoid Unicode errors when accessing certain locale
     data on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38252

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39107

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38324


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<27>,  Next: IDLE<23>,  Prev: Windows<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.38.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41471(1): Ignore invalid prefix lengths in system proxy
     excludes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41471


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<23>,  Next: C API<32>,  Prev: macOS<27>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.38.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33987(1): Mostly finish using ttk widgets, mainly for editor,
     settings, and searches.  Some patches by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-40511(2): Typing opening and closing parentheses inside the
     parentheses of a function call will no longer cause unnecessary
     "flashing" off and on of an existing open call-tip, e.g.  when
     typed in a string literal.

   - bpo-38439(3): Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to the Windows .ico
     file.  Created by Andrew Clover.  Remove the low-color gif
     variations from the .ico file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40511

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439


File: python.info,  Node: C API<32>,  Prev: IDLE<23>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.38.10 C API
................

   - bpo-42157(1): The private ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure of the
     PyCapsule API ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ has been moved to the
     internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42015(2): Fix potential crash in deallocating method objects
     when dynamically allocated *note PyMethodDef: 134e.'s lifetime is
     managed through the ‘self’ argument of a *note PyCFunction: 12e8.

   - bpo-40423(3): The *note subprocess: d0. module and ‘os.closerange’
     will now use the ‘close_range(low, high, flags)’ syscall when it is
     available for more efficient closing of ranges of descriptors.

   - bpo-41845(4): *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 170f. is available
     again in the limited API when targeting 3.10 or later.

   - bpo-40422(5): Add ‘_Py_closerange’ function to provide performant
     closing of a range of file descriptors.

   - bpo-41986(6): ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’ and ‘Py_UTF8Mode’
     are available again in limited API.

   - bpo-41756(7): Add ‘PyIter_Send’ function to allow sending value
     into generator/coroutine/iterator without raising StopIteration
     exception to signal return.

   - bpo-41784(8): Added ‘PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize’ to the limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42015

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40423

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41845

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40422

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.39 Python 3.10.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-10-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<25>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<39>.
* Library: Library<39>.
* Documentation: Documentation<36>.
* Tests: Tests<37>.
* Build: Build<36>.
* Windows: Windows<36>.
* macOS: macOS<28>.
* IDLE: IDLE<24>.
* C API: C API<33>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<25>,  Next: Core and Builtins<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.39.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-41304(1): Fixes ‘python3x._pth’ being ignored on Windows,
     caused by the fix for bpo-29778(2) ( CVE 2020-15801(3)).

   - bpo-41162(4): Audit hooks are now cleared later during finalization
     to avoid missing events.

   - bpo-29778(5): Ensure ‘python3.dll’ is loaded from correct locations
     when Python is embedded ( CVE 2020-15523(6)).

   - bpo-41004(7): The __hash__() methods of ipaddress.IPv4Interface and
     ipaddress.IPv6Interface incorrectly generated constant hash values
     of 32 and 128 respectively.  This resulted in always causing hash
     collisions.  The fix uses hash() to generate hash values for the
     tuple of (address, mask length, network address).

   - bpo-39603(8): Prevent http header injection by rejecting control
     characters in http.client.putrequest(...).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41304

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15801

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41162

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15523

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41004

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39603


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<39>,  Next: Library<39>,  Prev: Security<25>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.39.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-41909(1): Fixed stack overflow in *note issubclass(): 5df. and
     *note isinstance(): 14b. when getting the ‘__bases__’ attribute
     leads to infinite recursion.

   - bpo-41922(2): Speed up calls to ‘reversed()’ by using the PEP
     590(3) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41873(4): Calls to ‘float()’ are now faster due to the
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-41870(5): Speed up calls to ‘bool()’ by using the PEP 590(6)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(7): Port the ‘_bisect’ module to the multi-phase
     initialization API ( PEP 489(8)).

   - bpo-39934(9): Correctly count control blocks in 'except' in
     compiler.  Ensures that a syntax error, rather a fatal error,
     occurs for deeply nested, named exception handlers.

   - bpo-41780(10): Fix ‘__dir__()’ of *note types.GenericAlias: 60c.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-1635741(11): Port the ‘_lsprof’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(12)).

   - bpo-1635741(13): Port the *note cmath: 16. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(14)).

   - bpo-1635741(15): Port the ‘_scproxy’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(16)).

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port the *note termios: db. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(18)).

   - bpo-1635741(19): Convert the ‘_sha256’ extension module types to
     heap types.

   - bpo-41690(20): Fix a possible stack overflow in the parser when
     parsing functions and classes with a huge amount of arguments.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port the ‘_overlapped’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(22)).

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port the ‘_curses_panel’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(24)).

   - bpo-1635741(25): Port the ‘_opcode’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(26)).

   - bpo-41681(27): Fixes the wrong error description in the error
     raised by using 2 ‘,’ in format string in f-string and *note
     str.format(): 41b.

   - bpo-41675(28): The implementation of *note signal.siginterrupt():
     fc5. now uses ‘sigaction()’ (if it is available in the system)
     instead of the deprecated ‘siginterrupt()’.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-41670(29): Prevent line trace being skipped on platforms not
     compiled with ‘USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS’.  Fixes issue where some lines
     nested within a try-except block were not being traced on Windows.

   - bpo-41654(30): Fix a crash that occurred when destroying subclasses
     of *note MemoryError: 1460.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(31): Port the *note zlib: 12d. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(32)).

   - bpo-41631(33): The ‘_ast’ module uses again a global state.  Using
     a module state per module instance is causing subtle practical
     problems.  For example, the Mercurial project replaces the
     ‘__import__()’ function to implement lazy import, whereas Python
     expected that ‘import _ast’ always return a fully initialized
     ‘_ast’ module.

   - bpo-40077(34): Convert ‘_operator’ to use *note PyType_FromSpec():
     30c.

   - bpo-1653741(35): Port ‘_sha3’ to multi-phase init.  Convert static
     types to heap types.

   - bpo-1635741(36): Port the ‘_blake2’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(37)).

   - bpo-41533(38): Free the stack allocated in ‘va_build_stack’ if
     ‘do_mkstack’ fails and the stack is not a ‘small_stack’.

   - bpo-41531(39): Fix a bug that was dropping keys when compiling dict
     literals with more than 0xFFFF elements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41525(40): The output of ‘python --help’ contains now only
     ASCII characters.

   - bpo-1635741(41): Port the ‘_sha1’, ‘_sha512’, and ‘_md5’ extension
     modules to multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(42)).

   - bpo-41431(43): Optimize ‘dict_merge()’ for copying dict (e.g.
     ‘dict(d)’ and ‘{}.update(d)’).

   - bpo-41428(44): Implement PEP 604.  This supports (int | str) etc.
     in place of Union[str, int].

   - bpo-41340(45): Removed fallback implementation for ‘strdup’.

   - bpo-38156(46): Handle interrupts that come after EOF correctly in
     ‘PyOS_StdioReadline’.

   - bpo-41342(47): *note round(): 116b. with integer argument is now
     faster (9-60%).

   - bpo-41334(48): Constructors *note str(): 157, *note bytes(): 2c1.
     and *note bytearray(): 2c0. are now faster (around 30-40% for small
     objects).

   - bpo-41295(49): Resolve a regression in CPython 3.8.4 where defining
     "__setattr__" in a multi-inheritance setup and calling up the
     hierarchy chain could fail if builtins/extension types were
     involved in the base types.

   - bpo-41323(50): Bytecode optimizations are performed directly on the
     control flow graph.  This will result in slightly more compact code
     objects in some circumstances.

   - bpo-41247(51): Always cache the running loop holder when running
     ‘asyncio.set_running_loop’.

   - bpo-41252(52): Fix incorrect refcounting in _ssl.c's
     ‘_servername_callback()’.

   - bpo-1635741(53): Port *note multiprocessing: 8f. to multi-phase
     initialization

   - bpo-1635741(54): Port ‘winapi’ to multiphase initialization

   - bpo-41215(55): Use non-NULL default values in the PEG parser
     keyword list to overcome a bug that was preventing Python from
     being properly compiled when using the XLC compiler.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41218(56): Python 3.8.3 had a regression where compiling with
     ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT would aggressively mark list
     comprehension with CO_COROUTINE. Now only list comprehension making
     use of async/await will tagged as so.

   - bpo-1635741(57): Port *note faulthandler: 53. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(58): Port ‘sha256’ to multiphase initialization

   - bpo-41175(59): Guard against a NULL pointer dereference within
     bytearrayobject triggered by the ‘bytearray() + bytearray()’
     operation.

   - bpo-41100(60): add arm64 to the allowable Mac OS arches in
     mpdecimal.h

   - bpo-41094(61): Fix decoding errors with audit when open files with
     non-ASCII names on non-UTF-8 locale.

   - bpo-39960(62): The "hackcheck" that prevents sneaking around a
     type's __setattr__() by calling the superclass method was rewritten
     to allow C implemented heap types.

   - bpo-41084(63): Prefix the error message with 'f-string: ', when
     parsing an f-string expression which throws a *note SyntaxError:
     146.

   - bpo-40521(64): Empty frozensets are no longer singletons.

   - bpo-41076(65): Pre-feed the parser with the location of the
     f-string expression, not the f-string itself, which allows us to
     skip the shifting of the AST node locations after the parsing is
     completed.

   - bpo-41056(66): Fixes a reference to deallocated stack space during
     startup when constructing sys.path involving a relative symlink
     when code was supplied via -c.  (discovered via Coverity)

   - bpo-41061(67): Fix incorrect expressions and asserts in hashtable
     code and tests.

   - bpo-41052(68): Opt out serialization/deserialization for
     _random.Random

   - bpo-40939(69): Rename ‘PyPegen*’ functions to ‘PyParser*’, so that
     we can remove the old set of ‘PyParser*’ functions that were using
     the old parser, but keep everything backwards-compatible.

   - bpo-35975(70): Stefan Behnel reported that cf_feature_version is
     used even when PyCF_ONLY_AST is not set.  This is against the
     intention and against the documented behavior, so it's been fixed.

   - bpo-40939(71): Remove the remaining files from the old parser and
     the ‘symbol’ module.

   - bpo-40077(72): Convert ‘_bz2’ to use *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c.

   - bpo-41006(73): The ‘encodings.latin_1’ module is no longer imported
     at startup.  Now it is only imported when it is the filesystem
     encoding or the stdio encoding.

   - bpo-40636(74): *note zip(): 5ef. now supports PEP 618(75)'s
     ‘strict’ parameter, which raises a *note ValueError: 183. if the
     arguments are exhausted at different lengths.  Patch by Brandt
     Bucher.

   - bpo-1635741(76): Port ‘_gdbm’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-40985(77): Fix a bug that caused the *note SyntaxError: 146.
     text to be empty when a file ends with a line ending in a line
     continuation character (i.e.  backslash).  The error text should
     contain the text of the last line.

   - bpo-40958(78): Fix a possible buffer overflow in the PEG parser
     when gathering information for emitting syntax errors.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(79): Port ‘_dbm’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-40957(80): Fix refleak in _Py_fopen_obj() when PySys_Audit()
     fails

   - bpo-40950(81): Add a state to the *note nis: 97. module ( PEP
     3121(82)) and apply the multiphase initialization.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40947(83): The Python *note Path Configuration: 6e3. now takes
     *note PyConfig.platlibdir: 1713. in account.

   - bpo-40939(84): Remove the old parser, the ‘parser’ module and all
     associated support code, command-line options and environment
     variables.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40847(85): Fix a bug where a line with only a line continuation
     character is not considered a blank line at tokenizer level.  In
     such cases, more than a single ‘NEWLINE’ token was emitted.  The
     old parser was working around the issue, but the new parser threw a
     *note SyntaxError: 146. for valid input due to this.  For example,
     an empty line following a line continuation character was
     interpreted as a *note SyntaxError: 146.

   - bpo-40890(86): Each dictionary view now has a ‘mapping’ attribute
     that provides a *note types.MappingProxyType: 186. wrapping the
     original dictionary.  Patch contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-40889(87): Improved the performance of symmetric difference
     operations on dictionary item views.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-40904(88): Fix possible segfault in the new PEG parser when
     parsing f-string containing yield statements with no value
     (‘f"{yield}"’).  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40903(89): Fixed a possible segfault in the new PEG parser when
     producing error messages for invalid assignments of the form
     ‘p=p=’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40880(90): Fix invalid memory read in the new parser when
     checking newlines in string literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40883(91): Fix memory leak in when parsing f-strings in the new
     parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40870(92): Raise *note ValueError: 183. when validating custom
     AST's where the constants ‘True’, ‘False’ and ‘None’ are used
     within a *note ast.Name: 1714. node.

   - bpo-40854(93): Allow overriding *note sys.platlibdir: 777. via a
     new *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 1715. environment variable.

   - bpo-40826(94): Fix GIL usage in ‘PyOS_Readline()’: lock the GIL to
     set an exception and pass the Python thread state when checking if
     there is a pending signal.

   - bpo-1635741(95): Port *note fcntl: 54. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-19468(96): Delete unnecessary instance check in
     importlib.reload().  Patch by Furkan Önder.

   - bpo-40824(97): Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method
     are no longer masked by ‘TypeError’ in the *note in: 267. operator
     and functions *note contains(): 713, *note indexOf(): 714. and
     *note countOf(): 715. of the *note operator: 9a. module.

   - bpo-40792(98): Attributes ‘start’, ‘stop’ and ‘step’ of the *note
     range: 782. object now always has exact type *note int: 17e.
     Previously, they could have been an instance of a subclass of
     ‘int’.

   - bpo-40780(99): Fix a corner case where g-style string formatting of
     a float failed to remove trailing zeros.

   - bpo-38964(100): When there's a *note SyntaxError: 146. in the
     expression part of an fstring, the filename attribute of the *note
     SyntaxError: 146. gets correctly set to the name of the file the
     fstring resides in.

   - bpo-40750(101): Support the "-d" debug flag in the new PEG parser.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40217(102): Instances of types created with *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 30d. will no longer automatically visit
     their class object when traversing references in the garbage
     collector.  The user is expected to manually visit the object's
     class.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39573(103): *note Py_TYPE(): 597. is changed to the inline
     static function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40696(104): Fix a hang that can arise after *note
     generator.throw(): 243. due to a cycle in the exception context
     chain.

   - bpo-40521(105): Each interpreter now its has own free lists,
     singletons and caches:

        * Free lists: float, tuple, list, dict, frame, context,
          asynchronous generator, MemoryError.

        * Singletons: empty tuple, empty bytes string, empty Unicode
          string, single byte character, single Unicode (latin1)
          character.

        * Slice cache.

     They are no longer shared by all interpreters.

   - bpo-40679(106): Certain *note TypeError: 2ba. messages about
     missing or extra arguments now include the function's *note
     qualified name: 1716.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-29590(107): Make the stack trace correct after calling *note
     generator.throw(): 243. on a generator that has yielded from a
     ‘yield from’.

   - bpo-4022(108): Improve performance of generators by not raising
     internal StopIteration.

   - bpo-1635741(109): Port *note mmap: 8b. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(110): Port ‘_lzma’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-37999(111): Builtin and extension functions that take integer
     arguments no longer accept *note Decimal: 5f0.s, *note Fraction:
     1a8.s and other objects that can be converted to integers only with
     a loss (e.g.  that have the *note __int__(): 51e. method but do not
     have the *note __index__(): 51f. method).

   - bpo-29882(112): Add *note int.bit_count(): 5eb, counting the number
     of ones in the binary representation of an integer.  Patch by
     Niklas Fiekas.

   - bpo-36982(113): Use ncurses extended color functions when available
     to support terminals with 256 colors, and add the new function
     *note curses.has_extended_color_support(): 616. to indicate whether
     extended color support is provided by the underlying ncurses
     library.

   - bpo-19569(114): Add the private macros ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_PUSH’,
     ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_IGNORE_DEPR_DECLS’, and ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_POP’.

   - bpo-26680(115): The int type now supports the x.is_integer() method
     for compatibility with float.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41909

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39934

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41780

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41690

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41681

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41675

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41670

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41654

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41631

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1653741

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41533

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41531

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41525

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41431

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41340

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38156

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41342

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41295

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41323

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41247

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41252

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41215

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41218

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41175

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41094

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39960

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41084

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41076

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41061

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41052

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35975

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41006

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40636

   (75) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40985

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40958

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40957

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40950

   (82) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40947

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40847

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40890

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40889

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40904

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40903

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40880

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40883

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40870

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40854

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40826

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19468

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40824

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40780

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38964

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40750

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40696

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40679

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29590

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4022

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37999

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29882

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36982

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19569

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26680


File: python.info,  Node: Library<39>,  Next: Documentation<36>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.39.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-41900(1): C14N 2.0 serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree
     failed for unprefixed attributes when a default namespace was
     defined.

   - bpo-41887(2): Strip leading spaces and tabs on *note
     ast.literal_eval(): a7b.  Also document stripping of spaces and
     tabs for *note eval(): 6b0.

   - bpo-41773(3): Note in documentation that *note random.choices():
     b33. doesn't support non-finite weights, raise *note ValueError:
     183. when given non-finite weights.

   - bpo-41840(4): Fix a bug in the *note symtable: d2. module that was
     causing module-scope global variables to not be reported as both
     local and global.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41842(5): Add *note codecs.unregister(): 609. function to
     unregister a codec search function.

   - bpo-40564(6): In ‘zipfile.Path’, mutate the passed ZipFile object
     type instead of making a copy.  Prevents issues when both the local
     copy and the caller’s copy attempt to close the same file handle.

   - bpo-40670(7): More reliable validation of statements in *note
     timeit.Timer: 133b.  It now accepts "empty" statements (only
     whitespaces and comments) and rejects misindentent statements.

   - bpo-41833(8): The *note threading.Thread: 78d. constructor now uses
     the target name if the 'target' argument is specified but the
     'name' argument is omitted.

   - bpo-41817(9): fix ‘tkinter.EventType’ Enum so all members are
     strings, and none are tuples

   - bpo-41810(10): *note types.EllipsisType: 678, *note
     types.NotImplementedType: 67a. and *note types.NoneType: 679. have
     been reintroduced, providing a new set of types readily
     interpretable by static type checkers.

   - bpo-41815(11): Fix SQLite3 segfault when backing up closed
     database.  Patch contributed by Peter David McCormick.

   - bpo-41816(12): StrEnum added: it ensures that all members are
     already strings or string candidates

   - bpo-41517(13): fix bug allowing Enums to be extended via multiple
     inheritance

   - bpo-39587(14): use the correct mix-in data type when constructing
     Enums

   - bpo-41792(15): Add is_typeddict function to typing.py to check if a
     type is a TypedDict class

     Previously there was no way to check that without using private
     API.  See the relevant issue in python/typing(16).

   - bpo-41789(17): Honor ‘object’ overrides in ‘Enum’ class creation
     (specifically, ‘__str__’, ‘__repr__’, ‘__format__’, and
     ‘__reduce_ex__’).

   - bpo-32218(18): ‘enum.Flag’ and ‘enum.IntFlag’ members are now
     iterable.

   - bpo-39651(19): Fix a race condition in the ‘call_soon_threadsafe()’
     method of ‘asyncio.ProactorEventLoop’: do nothing if the self-pipe
     socket has been closed.

   - bpo-1635741(20): Port the ‘mashal’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(21)).

   - bpo-1635741(22): Port the ‘_string’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(23)).

   - bpo-41732(24): Added an *note iterator: 1718. to *note memoryview:
     17f.

   - bpo-41720(25): Fixed ‘turtle.Vec2D.__rmul__()’ for arguments which
     are not int or float.

   - bpo-41696(26): Fix handling of debug mode in *note asyncio.run():
     197.  This allows setting ‘PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG’ or ‘-X dev’ to
     enable asyncio debug mode when using *note asyncio.run(): 197.

   - bpo-41687(27): Fix implementation of sendfile to be compatible with
     Solaris.

   - bpo-41662(28): No longer override exceptions raised in ‘__len__()’
     of a sequence of parameters in *note sqlite3: c9. with *note
     ProgrammingError: 23a.

   - bpo-39010(29): Restarting a ‘ProactorEventLoop’ on Windows no
     longer logs spurious ‘ConnectionResetErrors’.

   - bpo-41638(30): *note ProgrammingError: 23a. message for absent
     parameter in *note sqlite3: c9. contains now the name of the
     parameter instead of its index when parameters are supplied as a
     dict.

   - bpo-41662(31): Fixed crash when mutate list of parameters during
     iteration in *note sqlite3: c9.

   - bpo-41513(32): Improved the accuracy of math.hypot().  Internally,
     each step is computed with extra precision so that the result is
     now almost always correctly rounded.

   - bpo-41609(33): The pdb whatis command correctly reports instance
     methods as 'Method' rather than 'Function'.

   - bpo-39994(34): Fixed pprint's handling of dict subclasses that
     override __repr__.

   - bpo-32751(35): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 3f6. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete also in the case when 'timeout' is <= 0, like it does with
     positive timeouts.

   - bpo-37658(36): *note asyncio.wait_for(): 3f6. now properly handles
     races between cancellation of itself and the completion of the
     wrapped awaitable.

   - bpo-40782(37): Change the method
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.run_in_executor to not be a coroutine.

   - bpo-41520(38): Fix *note codeop: 1a. regression that prevented
     turning compile warnings into errors.

   - bpo-41528(39): turtle uses math module functions to convert degrees
     to radians and vice versa and to calculate vector norm

   - bpo-41513(40): Minor algorithmic improvement to math.hypot() and
     math.dist() giving small gains in speed and accuracy.

   - bpo-41503(41): Fixed a race between setTarget and flush in
     logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.

   - bpo-41497(42): Fix potential UnicodeDecodeError in dis module.

   - bpo-41467(43): On Windows, fix asyncio ‘recv_into()’ return value
     when the socket/pipe is closed (*note BrokenPipeError: ef2.):
     return ‘0’ rather than an empty byte string (‘b''’).

   - bpo-41425(44): Make tkinter doc example runnable.

   - bpo-41421(45): Make an algebraic simplification to
     random.paretovariate().  It now is slightly less subject to
     round-off error and is slightly faster.  Inputs that used to cause
     ZeroDivisionError now cause an OverflowError instead.

   - bpo-41440(46): Add *note os.cpu_count(): 63b. support for VxWorks
     RTOS.

   - bpo-41316(47): Fix the *note tarfile: d8. module to write only
     basename of TAR file to GZIP compression header.

   - bpo-41384(48): Raise TclError instead of TypeError when an unknown
     option is passed to tkinter.OptionMenu.

   - bpo-41317(49): Use add_done_callback() in
     asyncio.loop.sock_accept() to unsubscribe reader early on
     cancellation.

   - bpo-41364(50): Reduce import overhead of *note uuid: 10b.

   - bpo-35328(51): Set the environment variable ‘VIRTUAL_ENV_PROMPT’ at
     *note venv: 10c. activation.

   - bpo-41341(52): Recursive evaluation of ‘typing.ForwardRef’ in
     ‘get_type_hints’.

   - bpo-41344(53): Prevent creating ‘shared_memory.SharedMemory’
     objects with ‘size=0’.

   - bpo-41333(54): ‘collections.OrderedDict.pop()’ is now 2 times
     faster.

   - bpo-41288(55): Unpickling invalid NEWOBJ_EX opcode with the C
     implementation raises now UnpicklingError instead of crashing.

   - bpo-39017(56): Avoid infinite loop when reading specially crafted
     TAR files using the tarfile module ( CVE 2019-20907(57)).

   - bpo-41273(58): Speed up any transport using
     ‘_ProactorReadPipeTransport’ by calling ‘recv_into’ instead of
     ‘recv’, thus not creating a new buffer for each ‘recv’ call in the
     transport's read loop.

   - bpo-41235(59): Fix the error handling in *note
     ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params(): fd4.

   - bpo-41207(60): In distutils.spawn, restore expectation that
     DistutilsExecError is raised when the command is not found.

   - bpo-29727(61): Register *note array.array: 18f. as a *note
     MutableSequence: c4c.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39168(62): Remove the ‘__new__’ method of *note typing.Generic:
     1418.

   - bpo-41194(63): Fix a crash in the ‘_ast’ module: it can no longer
     be loaded more than once.  It now uses a global state rather than a
     module state.

   - bpo-41195(64): Add read-only ssl.SSLContext.security_level
     attribute to retrieve the context's security level.

   - bpo-41193(65): The ‘write_history()’ atexit function of the
     readline completer now ignores any *note OSError: 644. to ignore
     error if the filesystem is read-only, instead of only ignoring
     *note FileNotFoundError: d46. and *note PermissionError: bb5.

   - bpo-41182(66): selector: use DefaultSelector based upon
     implementation

   - bpo-41161(67): The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0.
     Users of -with-system-libmpdec should update their system library.

   - bpo-40874(68): The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0.

   - bpo-41138(69): Fixed the *note trace: f8. module CLI for Python
     source files with non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-31082(70): Use the term "iterable" in the docstring for *note
     functools.reduce(): 116d.

   - bpo-40521(71): Remove freelist from collections.deque().

   - bpo-31938(72): Fix default-value signatures of several functions in
     the *note select: bc. module - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-41068(73): Fixed reading files with non-ASCII names from ZIP
     archive directly after writing them.

   - bpo-41058(74): ‘pdb.find_function()’ now correctly determines the
     source file encoding.

   - bpo-41056(75): Invalid file descriptor values are now prevented
     from being passed to os.fpathconf.  (discovered by Coverity)

   - bpo-41056(76): Fix a NULL pointer dereference within the ssl module
     during a MemoryError in the keylog callback.  (discovered by
     Coverity)

   - bpo-41056(77): Fixed an instance where a MemoryError within the
     zoneinfo module might not be reported or not reported at its
     source.  (found by Coverity)

   - bpo-41048(78): *note mimetypes.read_mime_types(): 1719. function
     reads the rule file using UTF-8 encoding, not the locale encoding.
     Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy.

   - bpo-41043(79): Fixed the use of *note glob(): 628. in the stdlib:
     literal part of the path is now always correctly escaped.

   - bpo-41025(80): Fixed an issue preventing the C implementation of
     *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: 718. from being subclassed.

   - bpo-35018(81): Add the *note xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler: 687.
     class that is present in other SAX XML implementations.

   - bpo-41002(82): Improve performance of HTTPResponse.read with a
     given amount.  Patch by Bruce Merry.

   - bpo-40448(83): *note ensurepip: 50. now disables the use of ‘pip’
     cache when installing the bundled versions of ‘pip’ and
     ‘setuptools’.  Patch by Krzysztof Konopko.

   - bpo-40967(84): Removed ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and
     ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-40924(85): Ensure ‘importlib.resources.path’ returns an extant
     path for the SourceFileLoader's resource reader.  Avoids the
     regression identified in master while a long-term solution is
     devised.

   - bpo-40955(86): Fix a minor memory leak in *note subprocess: d0.
     module when extra_groups was specified.

   - bpo-40855(87): The standard deviation and variance functions in the
     statistics module were ignoring their mu and xbar arguments.

   - bpo-40939(88): Use the new PEG parser when generating the stdlib
     *note keyword: 7e. module.

   - bpo-23427(89): Add *note sys.orig_argv: 667. attribute: the list of
     the original command line arguments passed to the Python
     executable.

   - bpo-33689(90): Ignore empty or whitespace-only lines in .pth files.
     This matches the documentated behavior.  Before, empty lines caused
     the site-packages dir to appear multiple times in sys.path.  By Ido
     Michael, contributors Malcolm Smith and Tal Einat.

   - bpo-40884(91): Added a ‘defaults’ parameter to *note
     logging.Formatter: 1307, to allow specifying default values for
     custom fields.  Patch by Asaf Alon and Bar Harel.

   - bpo-40876(92): Clarify error message in the *note csv: 27. module.

   - bpo-39791(93): Refresh importlib.metadata from importlib_metadata
     1.6.1.

   - bpo-40807(94): Stop codeop._maybe_compile, used by
     code.InteractiveInterpreter (and IDLE). from emitting each warning
     three times.

   - bpo-32604(95): Fix reference leak in the *note select: bc. module
     when the module is imported in a subinterpreter.

   - bpo-39791(96): Built-in loaders (SourceFileLoader and ZipImporter)
     now supply ‘TraversableResources’ implementations for
     ‘ResourceReader’, and the fallback function has been removed.

   - bpo-39314(97): *note rlcompleter.Completer: 171a. and the standard
     Python shell now close the parenthesis for functions that take no
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-17005(98): The topological sort functionality that was
     introduced initially in the *note functools: 5a. module has been
     moved to a new *note graphlib: 60. module to better accommodate the
     new tools and keep the original scope of the *note functools: 5a.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40834(99): Fix truncate when sending str object
     with_xxsubinterpreters.channel_send.

   - bpo-40755(100): Add rich comparisons to collections.Counter().

   - bpo-26407(101): Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method
     are no longer masked by ‘TypeError’ in *note csv.reader(): 1312,
     ‘csv.writer.writerow()’ and ‘csv.writer.writerows()’.

   - bpo-39384(102): Fixed email.contentmanager to allow set_content()
     to set a null string.

   - bpo-40744(103): The *note sqlite3: c9. module uses SQLite API
     functions that require SQLite v3.7.3 or higher.  This patch removes
     support for older SQLite versions, and explicitly requires SQLite
     3.7.3 both at build, compile and runtime.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev
     and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40777(104): Initialize PyDateTime_IsoCalendarDateType.tp_base
     at run-time to avoid errors on some compilers.

   - bpo-38488(105): Update ensurepip to install pip 20.1.1 and
     setuptools 47.1.0.

   - bpo-40792(106): The result of *note operator.index(): 16e4. now
     always has exact type *note int: 17e.  Previously, the result could
     have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’.

   - bpo-40767(107): *note webbrowser: 110. now properly finds the
     default browser in pure Wayland systems by checking the
     WAYLAND_DISPLAY environment variable.  Patch contributed by Jérémy
     Attali.

   - bpo-40791(108): ‘hashlib.compare_digest()’ uses OpenSSL's
     ‘CRYPTO_memcmp()’ function when OpenSSL is available.

   - bpo-40795(109): *note ctypes: 28. module: If ctypes fails to
     convert the result of a callback or if a ctypes callback function
     raises an exception, sys.unraisablehook is now called with an
     exception set.  Previously, the error was logged into stderr by
     *note PyErr_Print(): 171b.

   - bpo-16995(110): Add *note base64.b32hexencode(): 604. and *note
     base64.b32hexdecode(): 605. to support the Base32 Encoding with
     Extended Hex Alphabet.

   - bpo-30008(111): Fix *note ssl: ca. code to be compatible with
     OpenSSL 1.1.x builds that use ‘no-deprecated’ and ‘--api=1.1.0’.

   - bpo-30064(112): Fix asyncio ‘loop.sock_*’ race condition issue

   - bpo-40759(113): Deprecate the ‘symbol’ module.

   - bpo-40756(114): The second argument (extra) of
     ‘LoggerAdapter.__init__’ now defaults to None.

   - bpo-37129(115): Add a new *note os.RWF_APPEND: 171c. flag for *note
     os.pwritev(): 9bb.

   - bpo-40737(116): Fix possible reference leak for *note sqlite3: c9.
     initialization.

   - bpo-40726(117): Handle cases where the ‘end_lineno’ is ‘None’ on
     *note ast.increment_lineno(): 1560.

   - bpo-40698(118): ‘distutils’ upload creates SHA2-256 and Blake2b-256
     digests.  MD5 digests is skipped if platform blocks MD5.

   - bpo-40695(119): *note hashlib: 63. no longer falls back to builtin
     hash implementations when OpenSSL provides a hash digest and the
     algorithm is blocked by security policy.

   - bpo-9216(120): *note hashlib.new(): 171d. passed ‘usedforsecurity’
     to OpenSSL EVP constructor ‘_hashlib.new()’.  test_hashlib and
     test_smtplib handle strict security policy better.

   - bpo-40614(121): *note ast.parse(): 182. will not parse self
     documenting expressions in f-strings when passed ‘feature_version’
     is less than ‘(3, 8)’.

   - bpo-40626(122): Add h5 file extension as MIME Type
     application/x-hdf5, as per HDF Group recommendation for HDF5
     formatted data files.  Patch contributed by Mark Schwab.

   - bpo-25920(123): On macOS, when building Python for macOS 10.4 and
     older, which wasn't the case for python.org macOS installer, *note
     socket.getaddrinfo(): 1518. no longer uses an internal lock to
     prevent race conditions when calling ‘getaddrinfo()’ which is
     thread-safe since macOS 10.5.  Python 3.9 requires macOS 10.6 or
     newer.  The internal lock caused random hang on fork when another
     thread was calling *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 1518.  The lock was
     also used on FreeBSD older than 5.3, OpenBSD older than 201311 and
     NetBSD older than 4.

   - bpo-40671(124): Prepare ‘_hashlib’ for PEP 489(125) and use *note
     PyModule_AddType(): 7b9.

   - bpo-32309(126): Added a new *note coroutine: 1ae. *note
     asyncio.to_thread(): 721.  It is mainly used for running IO-bound
     functions in a separate thread to avoid blocking the event loop,
     and essentially works as a high-level version of *note
     run_in_executor(): 722. that can directly take keyword arguments.

   - bpo-36543(127): Restored the deprecated ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’
     module.

   - bpo-40611(128): *note MAP_POPULATE: 171e. constant has now been
     added to the list of exported *note mmap: 8b. module flags.

   - bpo-39881(129): PEP 554 for use in the test suite.  (Patch By
     Joannah Nanjekye)

   - bpo-13097(130): ‘ctypes’ now raises an ‘ArgumentError’ when a
     callback is invoked with more than 1024 arguments.

   - bpo-39385(131): A new test assertion context-manager,
     ‘unittest.assertNoLogs()’ will ensure a given block of code emits
     no log messages using the logging module.  Contributed by Kit Yan
     Choi.

   - bpo-23082(132): Updated the error message and docs of
     PurePath.relative_to() to better reflect the function behaviour.

   - bpo-40318(133): Use SQLite3 trace v2 API, if it is available.

   - bpo-40105(134): ZipFile truncates files to avoid corruption when a
     shorter comment is provided in append ("a") mode.  Patch by Jan
     Mazur.

   - bpo-40084(135): Fix ‘Enum.__dir__’: dir(Enum.member) now includes
     attributes as well as methods.

   - bpo-31122(136): ssl.wrap_socket() now raises ssl.SSLEOFError rather
     than OSError when peer closes connection during TLS negotiation

   - bpo-39728(137): fix default ‘_missing_’ so a duplicate ‘ValueError’
     is not set as the ‘__context__’ of the original ‘ValueError’.

   - bpo-39244(138): Fixed
     ‘multiprocessing.context.get_all_start_methods’ to properly return
     the default method first on macOS.

   - bpo-39040(139): Fix parsing of invalid mime headers parameters by
     collapsing whitespace between encoded words in a bare-quote-string.

   - bpo-38731(140): Add ‘--quiet’ option to command-line interface of
     *note py_compile: ae.  Patch by Gregory Schevchenko.

   - bpo-35714(141): *note struct.error: 11b7. is now raised if there is
     a null character in a *note struct: cf. format string.

   - bpo-38144(142): Added the 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' parameters in
     *note glob.glob(): 628.

   - bpo-26543(143): Fix ‘IMAP4.noop()’ when debug mode is enabled (ex:
     ‘imaplib.Debug = 3’).

   - bpo-12178(144): *note csv.writer(): 1a2. now correctly escapes
     'escapechar' when input contains 'escapechar'.  Patch by Catalin
     Iacob, Berker Peksag, and Itay Elbirt.

   - bpo-36290(145): AST nodes are now raising *note TypeError: 2ba. on
     conflicting keyword arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-33944(146): Added site.py site-packages tracing in verbose
     mode.

   - bpo-35078(147): Refactor formatweekday, formatmonthname methods in
     LocaleHTMLCalendar and LocaleTextCalendar classes in calendar
     module to call the base class methods.This enables customizable CSS
     classes for LocaleHTMLCalendar.  Patch by Srinivas Reddy
     Thatiparthy

   - bpo-29620(148): *note assertWarns(): ff7. no longer raises a
     ‘RuntimeException’ when accessing a module's ‘__warningregistry__’
     causes importation of a new module, or when a new module is
     imported in another thread.  Patch by Kernc.

   - bpo-31844(149): Remove ‘ParserBase.error()’ method from the private
     and undocumented ‘_markupbase’ module.  *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: 6a2. is the only subclass of ‘ParserBase’
     and its ‘error()’ implementation was deprecated in Python 3.4 and
     removed in Python 3.5.

   - bpo-34226(150): Fix ‘cgi.parse_multipart’ without content_length.
     Patch by Roger Duran

   - bpo-33660(151): Fix pathlib.PosixPath to resolve a relative path
     located on the root directory properly.

   - bpo-28557(152): Improve the error message for a misbehaving
     ‘rawio.readinto’

   - bpo-26680(153): The d.is_integer() method is added to the Decimal
     type, for compatibility with other number types.

   - bpo-26680(154): The x.is_integer() method is incorporated into the
     abstract types of the numeric tower, Real, Rational and Integral,
     with appropriate default implementations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41900

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41887

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41773

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41840

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40564

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40670

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41833

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41817

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41815

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41517

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39587

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792

   (16) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/751

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41789

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32218

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39651

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41732

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41720

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41696

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41687

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39010

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41638

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41609

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39994

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40782

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41520

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41528

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41503

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41497

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41467

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41425

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41421

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41316

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41384

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41317

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41364

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35328

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41341

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41344

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41333

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41288

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39017

   (57) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-20907

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41273

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41235

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41207

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29727

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39168

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   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41193

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   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41161

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   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41138

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31082

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   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16995

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   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40671

   (125) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309

   (127) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<36>,  Next: Tests<37>,  Prev: Library<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.39.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-41428(1): Add documentation for PEP 604(2) (Allow writing union
     types as ‘X | Y’).

   - bpo-41774(3): In Programming FAQ "Sequences (Tuples/Lists)"
     section, add "How do you remove multiple items from a list".

   - bpo-35293(4): Fix RemovedInSphinx40Warning when building the
     documentation.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37149(5): Change Shipman tkinter doc link from archive.org to
     TkDocs.  (The doc has been removed from the NMT server.)  The new
     link responds much faster and includes a short explanatory note.

   - bpo-41726(6): Update the refcounts info of
     ‘PyType_FromModuleAndSpec’.

   - bpo-41624(7): Fix the signature of *note typing.Coroutine: 1720.

   - bpo-40204(8): Enable Sphinx 3.2 ‘c_allow_pre_v3’ option and disable
     ‘c_warn_on_allowed_pre_v3’ option to make the documentation
     compatible with Sphinx 2 and Sphinx 3.

   - bpo-41045(9): Add documentation for debug feature of f-strings.

   - bpo-41314(10): Changed the release when ‘from __future__ import
     annotations’ becomes the default from ‘4.0’ to ‘3.10’ (following a
     change in PEP 563).

   - bpo-40979(11): Refactored typing.rst, arranging more than 70
     classes, functions, and decorators into new sub-sections.

   - bpo-40552(12): Fix in tutorial section 4.2.  Code snippet is now
     correct.

   - bpo-39883(13): Make code, examples, and recipes in the Python
     documentation be licensed under the more permissive BSD0 license in
     addition to the existing Python 2.0 license.

   - bpo-37703(14): Updated Documentation to comprehensively elaborate
     on the behaviour of gather.cancel()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41774

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35293

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41624

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41045

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41314

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40552

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39883

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37703


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<37>,  Next: Build<36>,  Prev: Documentation<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.39.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41939(1): Fix test_site.test_license_exists_at_url(): call
     ‘urllib.request.urlcleanup()’ to reset the global
     ‘urllib.request._opener’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41731(2): Make test_cmd_line_script pass with option '-vv'.

   - bpo-41602(3): Add tests for SIGINT handling in the runpy module.

   - bpo-41521(4): *note test.support: de.: Rename ‘blacklist’ parameter
     of *note check__all__(): 1722. to ‘not_exported’.

   - bpo-41477(5): Make ctypes optional in test_genericalias.

   - bpo-41085(6): Fix integer overflow in the *note
     array.array.index(): 601. method on 64-bit Windows for index larger
     than ‘2**31’.

   - bpo-41069(7): ‘test.support.TESTFN’ and the current directory for
     tests when run via ‘test.regrtest’ contain now non-ascii characters
     if possible.

   - bpo-38377(8): On Linux, skip tests using multiprocessing if the
     current user cannot create a file in ‘/dev/shm/’ directory.  Add
     the *note skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize(): 1723.
     function to the *note test.support: de. module.

   - bpo-41009(9): Fix use of
     ‘support.require_{linux|mac|freebsd}_version()’ decorators as class
     decorator.

   - bpo-41003(10): Fix ‘test_copyreg’ when ‘numpy’ is installed:
     ‘test.pickletester’ now saves/restores warnings filters when
     importing ‘numpy’, to ignore filters installed by ‘numpy’.

   - bpo-40964(11): Disable remote *note imaplib: 6f. tests, host
     cyrus.andrew.cmu.edu is blocking incoming connections.

   - bpo-40927(12): Fix test_binhex when run twice: it now uses
     import_fresh_module() to ensure that it raises DeprecationWarning
     each time.

   - bpo-17258(13): Skip some *note multiprocessing: 8f. tests when MD5
     hash digest is blocked.

   - bpo-31904(14): Increase LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT to 10 for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-38169(15): Increase code coverage for SharedMemory and
     ShareableList

   - bpo-34401(16): Make test_gdb properly run on HP-UX. Patch by
     Michael Osipov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41939

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41731

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41602

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41521

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41477

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41085

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41069

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38377

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41009

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41003

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40964

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40927

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38169

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34401


File: python.info,  Node: Build<36>,  Next: Windows<36>,  Prev: Tests<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.39.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38249(1): Update *note Py_UNREACHABLE: a16. to use
     __builtin_unreachable() if only the compiler is able to use it.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41617(2): Fix ‘pycore_bitutils.h’ header file to support old
     clang versions: ‘__builtin_bswap16()’ is not available in LLVM
     clang 3.0.

   - bpo-40204(3): Pin Sphinx version to 2.3.1 in ‘Doc/Makefile’.

   - bpo-36020(4): The C99 functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’ are
     now required to build Python.

   - bpo-40684(5): ‘make install’ now uses the ‘PLATLIBDIR’ variable for
     the destination ‘lib-dynload/’ directory when ‘./configure
     --with-platlibdir’ is used.

   - bpo-40683(6): Fixed an issue where the *note zoneinfo: 12e. module
     and its tests were not included when Python is installed with
     ‘make’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40684

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40683


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<36>,  Next: macOS<28>,  Prev: Build<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.39.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-41744(1): Fixes automatic import of props file when using the
     Nuget package.

   - bpo-41627(2): The user site directory for 32-bit now includes a
     ‘-32’ suffix to distinguish it from the 64-bit interpreter's
     directory.

   - bpo-41526(3): Fixed layout of final page of the installer by
     removing the special thanks to Mark Hammond (with his permission).

   - bpo-41492(4): Fixes the description that appears in UAC prompts.

   - bpo-40948(5): Improve post-install message to direct people to the
     "py" command.

   - bpo-41412(6): The installer will now fail to install on Windows 7
     and Windows 8.  Further, the UCRT dependency is now always
     downloaded on demand.

   - bpo-40741(7): Update Windows release to include SQLite 3.32.3.

   - bpo-41142(8): *note msilib: 8d. now supports creating CAB files
     with non-ASCII file path and adding files with non-ASCII file path
     to them.

   - bpo-41074(9): Fixed support of non-ASCII names in functions *note
     msilib.OpenDatabase(): 1726. and *note msilib.init_database():
     1727. and non-ASCII SQL in method *note msilib.Database.OpenView():
     1728.

   - bpo-41039(10): Stable ABI redirection DLL (python3.dll) now uses
     ‘#pragma comment(linker)’ for re-exporting.

   - bpo-40164(11): Updates Windows OpenSSL to 1.1.1g

   - bpo-39631(12): Changes the registered MIME type for ‘.py’ files on
     Windows to ‘text/x-python’ instead of ‘text/plain’.

   - bpo-40677(13): Manually define IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK in case
     some old Windows SDK doesn't have it.

   - bpo-37556(14): Extend py.exe help to mention overrides via venv,
     shebang, environmental variables & ini files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41744

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41627

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41526

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41492

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40948

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41412

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41142

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41074

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41039

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39631

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40677

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37556


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<28>,  Next: IDLE<24>,  Prev: Windows<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.39.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41557(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

   - bpo-39580(2): Avoid opening Finder window if running installer from
     the command line.  Patch contributed by Rick Heil.

   - bpo-41100(3): Fix configure error when building on macOS 11.  Note
     that the current Python release was released shortly after the
     first developer preview of macOS 11 (Big Sur); there are other
     known issues with building and running on the developer preview.
     Big Sur is expected to be fully supported in a future bugfix
     release of Python 3.8.x and with 3.9.0.

   - bpo-40741(4): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.3.

   - bpo-41005(5): fixed an XDG settings issue not allowing macos to
     open browser in webbrowser.py

   - bpo-40741(6): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39580

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41005

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<24>,  Next: C API<33>,  Prev: macOS<28>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.39.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-41775(1): Use 'IDLE Shell' as shell title

   - bpo-35764(2): Rewrite the Calltips doc section.

   - bpo-40181(3): In calltips, stop reminding that '/' marks the end of
     positional-only arguments.

   - bpo-41468(4): Improve IDLE run crash error message (which users
     should never see).

   - bpo-41373(5): Save files loaded with no line ending, as when blank,
     or different line endings, by setting its line ending to the system
     default.  Fix regression in 3.8.4 and 3.9.0b4.

   - bpo-41300(6): Save files with non-ascii chars.  Fix regression
     released in 3.9.0b4 and 3.8.4.

   - bpo-37765(7): Add keywords to module name completion list.  Rewrite
     Completions section of IDLE doc.

   - bpo-41152(8): The encoding of ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ in
     IDLE is now always UTF-8.

   - bpo-41144(9): Make Open Module open a special module such as
     os.path.

   - bpo-39885(10): Make context menu Cut and Copy work again when
     right-clicking within a selection.

   - bpo-40723(11): Make test_idle pass when run after import.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41775

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35764

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40181

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41468

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41373

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41300

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41152

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41144

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40723


File: python.info,  Node: C API<33>,  Prev: IDLE<24>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.39.10 C API
................

   - bpo-41936(1): Removed undocumented macros ‘Py_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and
     ‘Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and the ‘recursion_critical’ field of the
     *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. structure.

   - bpo-41692(2): The ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function is now
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.12: use *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 6e9. instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41842(3): Add *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 6c6. function to
     unregister a codec search function.

   - bpo-41834(4): Remove the ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ variable: it has
     been replaced by ‘ceval.recursion_limit’ of the *note
     PyInterpreterState: 6f5. structure.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41689(5): Types created with *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c. now
     make any signature in their ‘tp_doc’ slot accessible from
     ‘__text_signature__’.

   - bpo-41524(6): Fix bug in PyOS_mystrnicmp and PyOS_mystricmp that
     incremented pointers beyond the end of a string.

   - bpo-41324(7): Add a minimal decimal capsule API. The API supports
     fast conversions between Decimals up to 38 digits and their triple
     representation as a C struct.

   - bpo-30155(8): Add *note PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(): 6c3. and
     *note PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(): 6c4. macros for accessing the
     ‘tzinfo’ attributes of *note datetime.datetime: 224. and *note
     datetime.time: 6c5. objects.

   - bpo-40170(9): Revert *note PyType_HasFeature(): 172c. change: it
     reads again directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags: 1691. member
     when the limited C API is not used, rather than always calling
     *note PyType_GetFlags(): 172d. which hides implementation details.

   - bpo-41123(10): Remove ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy’.

   - bpo-41123(11): Removed ‘PyLong_FromUnicode()’.

   - bpo-41123(12): Removed ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’.

   - bpo-41123(13): Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_str*’ functions manipulating
     ‘Py_UNICODE*’ strings.

   - bpo-41103(14): ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’,
     ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’, and
     ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’ are removed.  Please migrate to new
     buffer protocol; *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d. and *note
     PyBuffer_Release(): 576.

   - bpo-36346(15): Raises DeprecationWarning for
     ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size)’ and
     ‘PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’ with ‘size > 0’.

   - bpo-36346(16): Mark ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY’, ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL’,
     ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH’, ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode’,
     ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode’, and ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize’ as
     deprecated in C. Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’ which was deprecated and
     broken since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-40989(17): The ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’
     macros become aliases to, respectively, *note PyObject_Init(): 8b6.
     and *note PyObject_InitVar(): 172e. functions.

   - bpo-36020(18): On Windows, ‘#include "pyerrors.h"’ no longer
     defines ‘snprintf’ and ‘vsnprintf’ macros.

   - bpo-40943(19): The ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro must now be defined to
     use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db.
     formats which use ‘#’: ‘es#’, ‘et#’, ‘s#’, ‘u#’, ‘y#’, ‘z#’, ‘U#’
     and ‘Z#’.  See *note Parsing arguments and building values: 6dc.
     and the PEP 353(20).

   - bpo-40910(21): Export explicitly the *note Py_GetArgcArgv(): 172f.
     function to the C API and document the function.  Previously, it
     was exported implicitly which no longer works since Python is built
     with ‘-fvisibility=hidden’.

   - bpo-40724(22): Allow defining buffer slots in type specs.

   - bpo-40679(23): Fix a ‘_PyEval_EvalCode()’ crash if 'qualname'
     argument is NULL.

   - bpo-40839(24): Calling *note PyDict_GetItem(): 6e0. without *note
     GIL: 6df. held had been allowed for historical reason.  It is no
     longer allowed.

   - bpo-40826(25): ‘PyOS_InterruptOccurred()’ now fails with a fatal
     error if it is called with the GIL released.

   - bpo-40792(26): The result of *note PyNumber_Index(): 6c1. now
     always has exact type *note int: 17e.  Previously, the result could
     have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’.

   - bpo-39573(27): Convert *note Py_REFCNT(): 6dd. and *note Py_SIZE():
     599. macros to static inline functions.  They cannot be used as
     l-value anymore: use *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 6de. and *note
     Py_SET_SIZE(): 59a. to set an object reference count and size.
     This change is backward incompatible on purpose, to prepare the C
     API for an opaque *note PyObject: 6d1. structure.

   - bpo-40703(28): The PyType_FromSpec*() functions no longer overwrite
     the type's "__module__" attribute if it is set via "Py_tp_members"
     or "Py_tp_getset".

   - bpo-39583(29): Remove superfluous "extern C" declarations from
     ‘Include/cpython/*.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41689

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41524

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40989

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40910

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40724

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40679

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40826

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40703

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39583


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.40 Python 3.9.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2020-05-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<26>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<40>.
* Library: Library<40>.
* Documentation: Documentation<37>.
* Tests: Tests<38>.
* Build: Build<37>.
* Windows: Windows<37>.
* macOS: macOS<29>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<18>.
* C API: C API<34>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<26>,  Next: Core and Builtins<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.40.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40501(1): *note uuid: 10b. no longer uses *note ctypes: 28. to
     load ‘libuuid’ or ‘rpcrt4.dll’ at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40501


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<40>,  Next: Library<40>,  Prev: Security<26>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.40.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40663(1): Correctly generate annotations where parentheses are
     omitted but required (e.g: ‘Type[(str, int, *other))]’.

   - bpo-40596(2): Fixed *note str.isidentifier(): 1733. for
     non-canonicalized strings containing non-BMP characters on Windows.

   - bpo-40593(3): Improved syntax errors for invalid characters in
     source code.

   - bpo-40585(4): Fixed a bug when using *note
     codeop.compile_command(): 1595. that was causing exceptions to be
     swallowed with the new parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40566(5): Apply PEP 573(6) to *note abc: 4.

   - bpo-40502(7): Initialize ‘n->n_col_offset’.  (Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye)

   - bpo-40527(8): Fix command line argument parsing: no longer write
     errors multiple times into stderr.

   - bpo-1635741(9): Port *note errno: 52. to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(10)).

   - bpo-40523(11): Add pass-throughs for *note hash(): 3df. and *note
     reversed(): 691. to *note weakref.proxy: 89c. objects.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note syslog: d6. to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13)).

   - bpo-40246(14): Reporting a specialised error message for invalid
     string prefixes, which was introduced in bpo-40246(15), is being
     reverted due to backwards compatibility concerns for strings that
     immediately follow a reserved keyword without whitespace between
     them.  Constructs like ‘bg="#d00" if clear else"#fca"’ were failing
     to parse, which is not an acceptable breakage on such short notice.

   - bpo-40417(16): Fix imp module deprecation warning when
     PyImport_ReloadModule is called.  Patch by Robert Rouhani.

   - bpo-40408(17): Fixed support of nested type variables in
     GenericAlias (e.g.  ‘list[list[T]]’).

   - bpo-1635741(18): Port _stat module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(19)).

   - bpo-29587(20): Enable implicit exception chaining when calling
     *note generator.throw(): 243.

   - bpo-40328(21): Add tools for generating mappings headers for
     CJKCodecs.

   - bpo-40228(22): Setting frame.f_lineno is now robust w.r.t.  changes
     in the source-to-bytecode compiler

   - bpo-38880(23): Added the ability to list interpreters associated
     with channel ends in the internal subinterpreters module.

   - bpo-37986(24): Improve performance of *note PyLong_FromDouble():
     781. for values that fit into long.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40663

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40596

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40585

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40566

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40502

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40527

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40523

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40417

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40408

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29587

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40328

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40228

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38880

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986


File: python.info,  Node: Library<40>,  Next: Documentation<37>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.40.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-40662(1): Fixed *note ast.get_source_segment(): 81b. for ast
     nodes that have incomplete location information.  Patch by Irit
     Katriel.

   - bpo-40665(2): Convert *note bisect: f. to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-40536(3): Added the *note available_timezones(): 1735. function
     to the *note zoneinfo: 12e. module.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-40645(4): The ‘hmac.HMAC’ exposes internal implementation
     details.  The attributes ‘digest_cons’, ‘inner’, and ‘outer’ are
     deprecated and will be removed in the future.

   - bpo-40645(5): The internal module ‘_hashlib’ wraps and exposes
     OpenSSL's HMAC API. The new code will be used in Python 3.10 after
     the internal implementation details of the pure Python HMAC module
     are no longer part of the public API.

   - bpo-40637(6): Builtin hash modules can now be disabled or
     selectively enabled with ‘configure
     --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake1’ or
     ‘--without-builtin-hashlib-hashes’.

   - bpo-37630(7): The *note hashlib: 63. module can now use SHA3 hashes
     and SHAKE XOF from OpenSSL when available.

   - bpo-40479(8): The *note hashlib: 63. now compiles with OpenSSL
     3.0.0-alpha2.

   - bpo-40257(9): Revert changes to *note inspect.getdoc(): 83f.

   - bpo-40607(10): When cancelling a task due to timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 3f6. will now propagate the exception if an
     error happens during cancellation.  Patch by Roman Skurikhin.

   - bpo-40612(11): Fix edge cases in SyntaxError formatting.  If the
     offset is <= 0, no caret is printed.  If the offset is > line
     length, the caret is printed pointing just after the last
     character.

   - bpo-40597(12): If text content lines are longer than
     policy.max_line_length, always use a content-encoding to make sure
     they are wrapped.

   - bpo-40571(13): Added functools.cache() as a simpler, more
     discoverable way to access the unbounded cache variant of
     lru_cache(maxsize=None).

   - bpo-40503(14): PEP 615(15), the *note zoneinfo: 12e. module.  Adds
     support for the IANA time zone database.

   - bpo-40397(16): Removed attributes ‘__args__’ and ‘__parameters__’
     from special generic aliases like ‘typing.List’ (not subscripted).

   - bpo-40549(17): Convert posixmodule.c ("posix" or "nt" module) to
     the multiphase initialization (PEP 489).

   - bpo-31033(18): Add a ‘msg’ argument to ‘Future.cancel()’ and
     ‘Task.cancel()’.

   - bpo-40541(19): Added an optional 'counts' parameter to
     random.sample().

   - bpo-40515(20): The *note ssl: ca. and *note hashlib: 63. modules
     now actively check that OpenSSL is build with thread support.
     Python 3.7.0 made thread support mandatory and no longer works
     safely with a no-thread builds.

   - bpo-31033(21): When a *note asyncio.Task: 203. is cancelled, the
     exception traceback now chains all the way back to where the task
     was first interrupted.

   - bpo-40504(22): *note functools.lru_cache(): 834. objects can now be
     the targets of weakrefs.

   - bpo-40559(23): Fix possible memory leak in the C implementation of
     *note asyncio.Task: 203.

   - bpo-40480(24): ‘fnmatch.fnmatch()’ could take exponential time in
     the presence of multiple ‘*’ pattern characters.  This was repaired
     by generating more elaborate regular expressions to avoid futile
     backtracking.

   - bpo-40495(25): *note compileall: 1e. is now able to use hardlinks
     to prevent duplicates in a case when ‘.pyc’ files for different
     optimization levels have the same content.

   - bpo-40457(26): The ssl module now support OpenSSL builds without
     TLS 1.0 and 1.1 methods.

   - bpo-40355(27): Improve error reporting in *note ast.literal_eval():
     a7b. in the presence of malformed *note ast.Dict: 1736. nodes
     instead of silently ignoring any non-conforming elements.  Patch by
     Curtis Bucher.

   - bpo-40465(28): Deprecated the optional 'random' argument to
     'random.shuffle()'.

   - bpo-40459(29): *note platform.win32_ver(): 1737. now produces
     correct 'ptype' strings instead of empty strings.

   - bpo-39435(30): The first argument of *note pickle.loads(): b80. is
     now positional-only.

   - bpo-39305(31): Update *note nntplib: 98. to merge *note
     nntplib.NNTP: 753. and ‘nntplib._NNTPBase’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-32494(32): Update *note dbm.gnu: 31. to use gdbm_count if
     possible when calling *note len(): 429.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40453(33): Add ‘isolated=True’ keyword-only parameter to
     ‘_xxsubinterpreters.create()’.  An isolated subinterpreter cannot
     spawn threads, spawn a child process or call ‘os.fork()’.

   - bpo-40286(34): Remove ‘_random.Random.randbytes()’: the C
     implementation of ‘randbytes()’.  Implement the method in Python to
     ease subclassing: ‘randbytes()’ now directly reuses
     ‘getrandbits()’.

   - bpo-40394(35): Added default arguments to *note
     difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match(): 1738.

   - bpo-39995(36): Fix a race condition in
     concurrent.futures._ThreadWakeup: access to _ThreadWakeup is now
     protected with the shutdown lock.

   - bpo-30966(37): ‘Process.shutdown(wait=True)’ of *note
     concurrent.futures: 1f. now closes explicitly the result queue.

   - bpo-30966(38): Add a new *note close(): 751. method to the *note
     SimpleQueue: 750. class to explicitly close the queue.

   - bpo-39966(39): Revert bpo-25597(40).  *note
     unittest.mock.MagicMock: d11. with wraps' set uses default return
     values for magic methods.

   - bpo-39791(41): Added ‘files()’ function to importlib.resources with
     support for subdirectories in package data, matching backport in
     importlib_resources 1.5.

   - bpo-40375(42): *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 742. is added.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40389(43): ‘repr()’ now returns ‘typing.Optional[T]’ when
     called for ‘typing.Union’ of two types, one of which is ‘NoneType’.

   - bpo-40291(44): Add support for CAN_J1939 sockets (available on
     Linux 5.4+)

   - bpo-40273(45): *note types.MappingProxyType: 186. is now
     reversible.

   - bpo-39075(46): The repr for *note types.SimpleNamespace: 765. is
     now insertion ordered rather than alphabetical.

   - bpo-40192(47): On AIX, *note thread_time(): 775. is now implemented
     with ‘thread_cputime()’ which has nanosecond resolution, rather
     than ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ which has a
     resolution of 10 milliseconds.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-40025(48): Raise TypeError when _generate_next_value_ is
     defined after members.  Patch by Ethan Onstott.

   - bpo-39058(49): In the argparse module, the repr for Namespace() and
     other argument holders now displayed in the order attributes were
     added.  Formerly, it displayed in alphabetical order even though
     argument order is preserved the user visible parts of the module.

   - bpo-24416(50): The ‘isocalendar()’ methods of *note datetime.date:
     72f. and *note datetime.datetime: 224. now return a *note named
     tuple: 449. instead of a *note tuple: 4e6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40665

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40536

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40637

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40607

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40612

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40597

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40571

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40503

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40397

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40549

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40541

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40515

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40504

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40559

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40480

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40457

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40355

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40459

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39305

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32494

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40453

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40394

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39995

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39966

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40389

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40273

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39075

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40025

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39058

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<37>,  Next: Tests<38>,  Prev: Library<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.40.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-34790(1): Add version of removal for explicit passing of coros
     to ‘asyncio.wait()’'s documentation

   - bpo-40561(2): Provide docstrings for webbrowser open functions.

   - bpo-40499(3): Mention that *note asyncio.wait(): 19a. requires a
     non-empty set of awaitables.

   - bpo-39705(4): Tutorial example for sorted() in the Loop Techniques
     section is given a better explanation.  Also a new example is
     included to explain sorted()'s basic behavior.

   - bpo-39435(5): Fix an incorrect signature for *note pickle.loads():
     b80. in the docs

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40561

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40499

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39705

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<38>,  Next: Build<37>,  Prev: Documentation<37>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.40.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40055(1): distutils.tests now saves/restores warnings filters
     to leave them unchanged.  Importing tests imports docutils which
     imports pkg_resources which adds a warnings filter.

   - bpo-40436(2): test_gdb and test.pythoninfo now check gdb command
     exit code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40055

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40436


File: python.info,  Node: Build<37>,  Next: Windows<37>,  Prev: Tests<38>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.40.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-40653(1): Move _dirnameW out of HAVE_SYMLINK to fix a potential
     compiling issue.

   - bpo-40514(2): Add ‘--with-experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’
     build option to ‘configure’: better isolate subinterpreters,
     experimental build mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40653

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40514


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<37>,  Next: macOS<29>,  Prev: Build<37>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.40.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-40650(1): Include winsock2.h in pytime.c for timeval.

   - bpo-40458(2): Increase reserved stack space to prevent overflow
     crash on Windows.

   - bpo-39148(3): Add IPv6 support to *note asyncio: 9. datagram
     endpoints in ProactorEventLoop.  Change the raised exception for
     unknown address families to ValueError as it's not coming from
     Windows API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40458

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39148


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<29>,  Next: Tools/Demos<18>,  Prev: Windows<37>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.40.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-34956(1): When building Python on macOS from source, ‘_tkinter’
     now links with non-system Tcl and Tk frameworks if they are
     installed in ‘/Library/Frameworks’, as had been the case on older
     releases of macOS. If a macOS SDK is explicitly configured, by
     using ‘--enable-universalsdk=’ or ‘-isysroot’, only the SDK itself
     is searched.  The default behavior can still be overridden with
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’.

   - bpo-35569(2): Expose RFC 3542 IPv6 socket options.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35569


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<18>,  Next: C API<34>,  Prev: macOS<29>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.40.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-40479(1): Update multissltest helper to test with latest
     OpenSSL 1.0.2, 1.1.0, 1.1.1, and 3.0.0-alpha.

   - bpo-40431(2): Fix a syntax typo in ‘turtledemo’ that now raises a
     ‘SyntaxError’.

   - bpo-40163(3): Fix multissltest tool.  OpenSSL has changed download
     URL for old releases.  The multissltest tool now tries to download
     from current and old download URLs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40431

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40163


File: python.info,  Node: C API<34>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<18>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.40.10 C API
................

   - bpo-39465(1): Remove the ‘_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()’ function
     from the C API.

   - bpo-38787(2): Add PyCFunction_CheckExact() macro for exact type
     checks now that we allow subtypes of PyCFunction, as well as
     PyCMethod_CheckExact() and PyCMethod_Check() for the new PyCMethod
     subtype.

   - bpo-40545(3): Declare ‘_PyErr_GetTopmostException()’ with
     ‘PyAPI_FUNC()’ to properly export the function in the C API. The
     function remains private (‘_Py’) prefix.

   - bpo-40412(4): Nullify inittab_copy during finalization, preventing
     future interpreter initializations in an embedded situation from
     crashing.  Patch by Gregory Szorc.

   - bpo-40429(5): The *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5a7. function now
     returns a strong reference to the frame.

   - bpo-40428(6): Remove the following functions from the C API. Call
     *note PyGC_Collect(): 7d2. explicitly to free all free lists.

        * ‘PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()’

        * ‘PyContext_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyDict_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFloat_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFrame_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyList_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PySet_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyTuple_ClearFreeList()’

   - bpo-40421(7): New *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 59d. function: get the
     frame next outer frame.

   - bpo-40421(8): New *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 5a2. function: return a
     borrowed reference to the frame code.

   - bpo-40217(9): Ensure that instances of types created with *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 30d. will visit its class object when
     traversing references in the garbage collector (implemented as an
     extension of the provided *note tp_traverse: 594.).  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-38787(10): Module C state is now accessible from C-defined heap
     type methods ( PEP 573(11)).  Patch by Marcel Plch and Petr
     Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40545

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40412

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.41 Python 3.9.0 alpha 6
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-04-27'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<27>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<41>.
* Library: Library<41>.
* Documentation: Documentation<38>.
* Tests: Tests<39>.
* Build: Build<38>.
* Windows: Windows<38>.
* macOS: macOS<30>.
* IDLE: IDLE<25>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<19>.
* C API: C API<35>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<27>,  Next: Core and Builtins<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.41.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40121(1): Fixes audit events raised on creating a new socket.

   - bpo-39073(2): Disallow CR or LF in email.headerregistry.Address
     arguments to guard against header injection attacks.

   - bpo-39503(3): CVE 2020-8492(4): The *note AbstractBasicAuthHandler:
     168f. class of the *note urllib.request: 106. module uses an
     inefficient regular expression which can be exploited by an
     attacker to cause a denial of service.  Fix the regex to prevent
     the catastrophic backtracking.  Vulnerability reported by Ben
     Caller and Matt Schwager.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40121

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39073

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-8492


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<41>,  Next: Library<41>,  Prev: Security<27>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.41.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40313(1): Improve the performance of bytes.hex().

   - bpo-40334(2): Switch to a new parser, based on PEG. For more
     details see PEP 617.  To temporarily switch back to the old parser,
     use ‘-X oldparser’ or ‘PYTHONOLDPARSER=1’.  In Python 3.10 we will
     remove the old parser completely, including the ‘parser’ module
     (already deprecated) and anything that depends on it.

   - bpo-40267(3): Fix the tokenizer to display the correct error
     message, when there is a ‘SyntaxError’ on the last input character
     and no newline follows.  It used to be ‘unexpected EOF while
     parsing’, while it should be ‘invalid syntax’.

   - bpo-39522(4): Correctly unparse explicit ‘u’ prefix for strings
     when postponed evaluation for annotations activated.  Patch by
     Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-40246(5): Report a specialized error message, ‘invalid string
     prefix’, when the tokenizer encounters a string with an invalid
     prefix.

   - bpo-40082(6): Fix the signal handler: it now always uses the main
     interpreter, rather than trying to get the current Python thread
     state.

   - bpo-37388(7): str.encode() and str.decode() no longer check the
     encoding and errors in development mode or in debug mode during
     Python finalization.  The codecs machinery can no longer work on
     very late calls to str.encode() and str.decode().

   - bpo-40077(8): Fix possible refleaks in ‘_json’, memo of
     PyScannerObject should be traversed.

   - bpo-37207(9): Speed up calls to ‘dict()’ by using the PEP 590(10)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.

   - bpo-40141(11): Add column and line information to ‘ast.keyword’
     nodes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note resource: b7. to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13)).

   - bpo-1635741(14): Port *note math: 89. to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(15)).

   - bpo-1635741(16): Port _uuid module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(17)).

   - bpo-40077(18): Convert json module to use *note PyType_FromSpec():
     30c.

   - bpo-40067(19): Improve the error message for multiple star
     expressions in an assignment.  Patch by Furkan Onder

   - bpo-1635741(20): Port _functools module to multiphase
     initialization (PEP 489).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port operator module to multiphase initialization
     (PEP 489).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-20526(22): Fix *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1429.
     ‘PyThreadState.frame’ is a borrowed reference, not a strong
     reference: ‘PyThreadState_Clear()’ must not call
     ‘Py_CLEAR(tstate->frame)’.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port time module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(24)).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-1635741(25): Port _weakref extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(26)).

   - bpo-40020(27): Fix a leak and subsequent crash in parsetok.c caused
     by realloc misuse on a rare codepath.

   - bpo-39939(28): Added str.removeprefix and str.removesuffix methods
     and corresponding bytes, bytearray, and collections.UserString
     methods to remove affixes from a string if present.  See PEP
     616(29) for a full description.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-39481(30): Implement PEP 585.  This supports list[int],
     tuple[str, ...]  etc.

   - bpo-32894(31): Support unparsing of infinity numbers in postponed
     annotations.  Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-37207(32): Speed up calls to ‘list()’ by using the PEP 590(33)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40313

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40267

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39522

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40082

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40141

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40067

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20526

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40020

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32894

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<41>,  Next: Documentation<38>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.41.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-40398(1): *note typing.get_args(): 6aa. now always returns an
     empty tuple for special generic aliases.

   - bpo-40396(2): Functions *note typing.get_origin(): 891, *note
     typing.get_args(): 6aa. and *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0.
     support now generic aliases like ‘list[int]’.

   - bpo-38061(3): Optimize the *note subprocess: d0. module on FreeBSD
     using ‘closefrom()’.  A single ‘close(fd)’ syscall is cheap, but
     when ‘sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX)’ is high, the loop calling ‘close(fd)’
     on each file descriptor can take several milliseconds.

     The workaround on FreeBSD to improve performance was to load and
     mount the fdescfs kernel module, but this is not enabled by
     default.

     Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans
     (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs):
     ‘https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274’

   - bpo-38061(4): On FreeBSD, ‘os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high)’ now
     calls ‘closefrom(fd_low)’ if 'fd_high' is greater than or equal to
     ‘sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX)’.

     Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans
     (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs):
     ‘https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274’

   - bpo-40360(5): The *note lib2to3: 7f. module is pending deprecation
     due to PEP 617(6).

   - bpo-40138(7): Fix the Windows implementation of *note os.waitpid():
     c11. for exit code larger than ‘INT_MAX >> 8’.  The exit status is
     now interpreted as an unsigned number.

   - bpo-39942(8): Set "__main__" as the default module name when
     "__name__" is missing in *note typing.TypeVar: 164.  Patch by
     Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-40275(9): The *note logging: 82. package is now imported lazily
     in *note unittest: 101. only when the *note assertLogs(): 680.
     assertion is used.

   - bpo-40275(10): The *note asyncio: 9. package is now imported lazily
     in *note unittest: 101. only when the *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b. class is used.

   - bpo-40330(11): In ‘ShareableList.__setitem__()’, check the size of
     a new string item after encoding it to utf-8, not before.

   - bpo-40148(12): Added ‘pathlib.Path.with_stem()’ to create a new
     Path with the stem replaced.

   - bpo-40325(13): Deprecated support for set objects in
     random.sample().

   - bpo-40257(14): Improved help for the *note typing: ff. module.
     Docstrings are now shown for all special forms and special generic
     aliases (like ‘Union’ and ‘List’).  Using ‘help()’ with generic
     alias like ‘List[int]’ will show the help for the correspondent
     concrete type (‘list’ in this case).

   - bpo-40257(15): *note inspect.getdoc(): 83f. no longer returns
     docstring inherited from the type of the object or from parent
     class if it is a class if it is not defined in the object itself.
     In *note pydoc: b0. the documentation string is now shown not only
     for class, function, method etc, but for any object that has its
     own ‘__doc__’ attribute.

   - bpo-40287(16): Fixed ‘SpooledTemporaryFile.seek()’ to return the
     position.

   - bpo-40290(17): Added zscore() to statistics.NormalDist().

   - bpo-40282(18): Allow ‘random.getrandbits(0)’ to succeed and to
     return 0.

   - bpo-40286(19): Add *note random.randbytes(): 1744. function and
     ‘random.Random.randbytes()’ method to generate random bytes.

   - bpo-40277(20): *note collections.namedtuple(): 731. now provides a
     human-readable repr for its field accessors.

   - bpo-40270(21): The included copy of sqlite3 on Windows is now
     compiled with the json extension.  This allows the use of functions
     such as ‘json_object’.

   - bpo-29255(22): Wait in ‘KqueueSelector.select’ when no fds are
     registered

   - bpo-40260(23): Ensure *note modulefinder: 8c. uses *note
     io.open_code(): 14e4. and respects coding comments.

   - bpo-40234(24): Allow again to spawn daemon threads in
     subinterpreters (revert change which denied them).

   - bpo-39207(25): Workers in *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. are now
     spawned on demand, only when there are no available idle workers to
     reuse.  This optimizes startup overhead and reduces the amount of
     lost CPU time to idle workers.  Patch by Kyle Stanley.

   - bpo-40091(26): Fix a hang at fork in the logging module: the new
     private _at_fork_reinit() method is now used to reinitialize locks
     at fork in the child process.

   - bpo-40149(27): Implement traverse and clear slots in _abc._abc_data
     type.

   - bpo-40208(28): Remove deprecated ‘symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec()’.

   - bpo-40196(29): Fix a bug in the *note symtable: d2. module that was
     causing incorrectly report global variables as local.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40190(30): Add support for ‘_SC_AIX_REALMEM’ to
     ‘posix.sysconf()’.

   - bpo-40182(31): Removed the ‘_field_types’ attribute of the *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 1fb. class.

   - bpo-36517(32): Multiple inheritance with *note typing.NamedTuple:
     1fb. now raises an error instead of silently ignoring other types.

   - bpo-40126(33): Fixed reverting multiple patches in unittest.mock.
     Patcher's ‘__exit__()’ is now never called if its ‘__enter__()’ is
     failed.  Returning true from ‘__exit__()’ silences now the
     exception.

   - bpo-40094(34): CGIHTTPRequestHandler of http.server now logs the
     CGI script exit code, rather than the CGI script exit status of
     os.waitpid().  For example, if the script is killed by signal 11,
     it now logs: "CGI script exit code -11."

   - bpo-40108(35): Improve the error message when triying to import a
     module using *note runpy: b9. and incorrectly using the ".py"
     extension at the end of the module name.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40094(36): Add *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 75b.
     function: convert a wait status to an exit code.

   - bpo-40089(37): Fix threading._after_fork(): if fork was not called
     by a thread spawned by threading.Thread, threading._after_fork()
     now creates a _MainThread instance for _main_thread, instead of a
     _DummyThread instance.

   - bpo-40089(38): Add a private ‘_at_fork_reinit()’ method to
     ‘_thread.Lock’, ‘_thread.RLock’, *note threading.RLock: 25c. and
     *note threading.Condition: fe8. classes: reinitialize the lock at
     fork in the child process, reset the lock to the unlocked state.
     Rename also the private ‘_reset_internal_locks()’ method of *note
     threading.Event: feb. to ‘_at_fork_reinit()’.

   - bpo-25780(39): Expose *note CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS: 770. in the *note
     socket: c6. module.

   - bpo-39503(40): *note AbstractBasicAuthHandler: 168f. of *note
     urllib.request: 106. now parses all WWW-Authenticate HTTP headers
     and accepts multiple challenges per header: use the realm of the
     first Basic challenge.

   - bpo-39812(41): Removed daemon threads from *note
     concurrent.futures: 1f. by adding an internal
     ‘threading._register_atexit()’, which calls registered functions
     prior to joining all non-daemon threads.  This allows for
     compatibility with subinterpreters, which don't support daemon
     threads.

   - bpo-40050(42): Fix ‘importlib._bootstrap_external’: avoid creating
     a new ‘winreg’ builtin module if it's already available in *note
     sys.modules: 1745, and remove redundant imports.

   - bpo-40014(43): Fix ‘os.getgrouplist()’: if ‘getgrouplist()’
     function fails because the group list is too small, retry with a
     larger group list.  On failure, the glibc implementation of
     ‘getgrouplist()’ sets ‘ngroups’ to the total number of groups.  For
     other implementations, double the group list size.

   - bpo-40017(44): Add *note time.CLOCK_TAI: 1746. constant if the
     operating system support it.

   - bpo-40016(45): In re docstring, clarify the relationship between
     inline and argument compile flags.

   - bpo-39953(46): Update internal table of OpenSSL error codes in the
     ‘ssl’ module.

   - bpo-36144(47): Added PEP 584(48) operators to *note
     weakref.WeakValueDictionary: 1747.

   - bpo-36144(49): Added PEP 584(50) operators to *note
     weakref.WeakKeyDictionary: 1748.

   - bpo-38891(51): Fix linear runtime behaviour of the ‘__getitem__’
     and ‘__setitem__’ methods in *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList: 1749.  This avoids
     quadratic performance when iterating a ‘ShareableList’.  Patch by
     Thomas Krennwallner.

   - bpo-39682(52): Remove undocumented support for 'closing' a
     ‘pathlib.Path’ object via its context manager.  The context manager
     magic methods remain, but they are now a no-op, making ‘Path’
     objects immutable.

   - bpo-36144(53): Added PEP 584(54) operators (‘|’ and ‘|=’) to *note
     collections.ChainMap: a7f.

   - bpo-39011(55): Normalization of line endings in ElementTree
     attributes was removed, as line endings which were replaced by
     entity numbers should be preserved in original form.

   - bpo-38410(56): Properly handle *note sys.audit(): 174a. failures in
     *note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 1605.

   - bpo-36541(57): lib2to3 now recognizes named assignment expressions
     (the walrus operator, ‘:=’)

   - bpo-35967(58): In platform, delay the invocation of 'uname -p'
     until the processor attribute is requested.

   - bpo-35113(59): *note inspect.getsource(): 14ca. now returns correct
     source code for inner class with same name as module level class.
     Decorators are also returned as part of source of the class.  Patch
     by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-33262(60): Deprecate passing None as an argument for *note
     shlex.split(): 2be.'s ‘s’ parameter.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-31758(61): Prevent crashes when using an uninitialized
     ‘_elementtree.XMLParser’ object.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40398

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40396

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40138

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39942

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40330

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40148

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40325

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40287

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40290

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40282

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40277

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40270

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29255

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40260

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40234

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40091

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40149

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40196

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40190

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36517

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40126

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40108

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40050

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40014

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40017

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40016

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39953

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (50) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38891

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39682

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (54) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38410

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35967

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35113

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31758


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<38>,  Next: Tests<39>,  Prev: Library<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.41.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-27635(1): The pickle documentation incorrectly claimed that
     ‘__new__’ isn't called by default when unpickling.

   - bpo-39879(2): Updated *note 資料模型: 174c. docs to include *note
     dict(): 239. insertion order preservation.  Patch by Furkan Onder
     and Samy Lahfa.

   - bpo-38387(3): Document *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 174d. macro in the C-API
     reference.

   - bpo-13743(4): Some methods within xml.dom.minidom.Element class are
     now better documented.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27635

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39879

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38387

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13743


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<39>,  Next: Build<38>,  Prev: Documentation<38>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.41.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31904(1): Set expected default encoding in
     test_c_locale_coercion.py for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-40162(2): Update Travis CI configuration to OpenSSL 1.1.1f.

   - bpo-40146(3): Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1f in Azure Pipelines.

   - bpo-40094(4): Add *note test.support.wait_process(): 174f.
     function.

   - bpo-40003(5): ‘test.bisect_cmd’ now copies Python command line
     options like ‘-O’ or ‘-W’.  Moreover, emit a warning if
     ‘test.bisect_cmd’ is used with ‘-w’/‘--verbose2’ option.

   - bpo-39380(6): Add the encoding in *note ftplib.FTP: 735. and *note
     ftplib.FTP_TLS: 736. to the constructor as keyword-only and change
     the default from ‘latin-1’ to ‘utf-8’ to follow RFC 2640(7).

   - bpo-39793(8): Use the same domain when testing ‘make_msgid’.  Patch
     by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-1812(9): Fix newline handling in doctest.testfile when loading
     from a package whose loader has a get_data method.  Patch by Peter
     Donis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40162

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40003

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39380

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39793

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1812


File: python.info,  Node: Build<38>,  Next: Windows<38>,  Prev: Tests<39>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.41.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38360(1): Support single-argument form of macOS -isysroot flag.

   - bpo-40158(2): Fix CPython MSBuild Properties in NuGet Package
     (build/native/python.props)

   - bpo-38527(3): Fix configure check on Solaris for "float word
     ordering": sometimes, the correct "grep" command was not being
     used.  Patch by Arnon Yaari.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38360

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40158

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38527


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<38>,  Next: macOS<30>,  Prev: Build<38>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.41.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-40164(1): Updates Windows to OpenSSL 1.1.1f

   - bpo-8901(2): Ignore the Windows registry when the ‘-E’ option is
     used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<30>,  Next: IDLE<25>,  Prev: Windows<38>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.41.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38329(1): python.org macOS installers now update the Current
     version symlink of /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions
     for 3.9 installs.  Previously, Current was only updated for Python
     2.x installs.  This should make it easier to embed Python 3 into
     other macOS applications.

   - bpo-40164(2): Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1g.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38329

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<25>,  Next: Tools/Demos<19>,  Prev: macOS<30>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.41.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-38439(1): Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to support more modern
     environments.  Created by Andrew Clover.  Delete the unused macOS
     idle.icns icon file.

   - bpo-38689(2): IDLE will no longer freeze when inspect.signature
     fails when fetching a calltip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38689


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<19>,  Next: C API<35>,  Prev: IDLE<25>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.41.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-40385(1): Removed the checkpyc.py tool.  Please see compileall
     without force mode as a potential alternative.

   - bpo-40179(2): Fixed translation of ‘#elif’ in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-40094(3): Fix ‘which.py’ script exit code: it now uses *note
     os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 75b. to convert *note os.system():
     12cd. exit status into an exit code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40385

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40179

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094


File: python.info,  Node: C API<35>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<19>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.41.11 C API
................

   - bpo-40241(1): Move the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure to the internal C API.

   - bpo-40170(2): Convert *note PyObject_IS_GC(): 7c8. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details.

   - bpo-40241(3): Add the functions *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 7ba.
     and *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 7bb. to the public API to
     allow to query if Python objects are being currently tracked or
     have been already finalized by the garbage collector respectively.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40170(4): The ‘PyObject_NEW()’ macro becomes an alias to the
     *note PyObject_New(): 7c9. macro, and the ‘PyObject_NEW_VAR()’
     macro becomes an alias to the *note PyObject_NewVar(): 7ca. macro,
     to hide implementation details.  They no longer access directly the
     *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 7cb. member.

   - bpo-40170(5): *note PyType_HasFeature(): 172c. now always calls
     *note PyType_GetFlags(): 172d. to hide implementation details.
     Previously, it accessed directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags:
     1691. member when the limited C API was not used.

   - bpo-40170(6): Convert the ‘PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro
     to a function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed
     directly to the *note PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset: 7cc. member.

   - bpo-40170(7): Convert *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 56c. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed
     directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer: 7cd. member.

   - bpo-40170(8): Always declare *note PyIndex_Check(): 7ce. as an
     opaque function to hide implementation details: remove
     ‘PyIndex_Check()’ macro.  The macro accessed directly the *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_as_number: 7cf. member.

   - bpo-39947(9): Add *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 7b5. function: get
     the unique identifier of a Python thread state.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.42 Python 3.9.0 alpha 5
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-03-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<28>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<42>.
* Library: Library<42>.
* Documentation: Documentation<39>.
* Tests: Tests<40>.
* Build: Build<39>.
* Windows: Windows<39>.
* macOS: macOS<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<26>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<20>.
* C API: C API<36>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<28>,  Next: Core and Builtins<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.42.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38576(1): Disallow control characters in hostnames in
     http.client, addressing CVE 2019-18348(2).  Such potentially
     malicious header injection URLs now cause a InvalidURL to be
     raised.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38576

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-18348


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<42>,  Next: Library<42>,  Prev: Security<28>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.42.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40010(1): Optimize pending calls in multithreaded applications.
     If a thread different than the main thread schedules a pending call
     (*note Py_AddPendingCall(): 7c5.), the bytecode evaluation loop is
     no longer interrupted at each bytecode instruction to check for
     pending calls which cannot be executed.  Only the main thread can
     execute pending calls.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread executes pending calls.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port _weakref extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(3)).

   - bpo-1635741(4): Port _collections module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(5)).

   - bpo-40010(6): Optimize signal handling in multithreaded
     applications.  If a thread different than the main thread gets a
     signal, the bytecode evaluation loop is no longer interrupted at
     each bytecode instruction to check for pending signals which cannot
     be handled.  Only the main thread of the main interpreter can
     handle signals.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread handles signals.

   - bpo-39984(7): If *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 7c5. is called in a
     subinterpreter, the function is now scheduled to be called from the
     subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main interpreter.
     Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls.

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _heapq module to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(9): Port itertools module to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(10)).

   - bpo-37207(11): Speed up calls to ‘frozenset()’ by using the PEP
     590(12) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39984(13): subinterpreters: Move
     ‘_PyRuntimeState.ceval.tracing_possible’ to
     ‘PyInterpreterState.ceval.tracing_possible’: each interpreter now
     has its own variable.

   - bpo-37207(14): Speed up calls to ‘set()’ by using the PEP 590(15)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(16): Port _statistics module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(17)).

   - bpo-39968(18): Use inline function to replace extension modules'
     get_module_state macros.

   - bpo-39965(19): Correctly raise ‘SyntaxError’ if 'await' is used
     inside non-async functions and ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ is set
     (like in the asyncio REPL). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39562(20): Allow executing asynchronous comprehensions on the
     top level when the ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag is given.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-37207(21): Speed up calls to ‘tuple()’ by using the PEP 590(22)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38373(23): Changed list overallocation strategy.  It no longer
     overallocates if the new size is closer to overallocated size than
     to the old size and adds padding.

   - bpo-39926(24): Update Unicode database to Unicode version 13.0.0.

   - bpo-19466(25): Clear the frames of daemon threads earlier during
     the Python shutdown to call objects destructors.  So "unclosed
     file" resource warnings are now emitted for daemon threads in a
     more reliable way.

   - bpo-38894(26): Fix a bug that was causing incomplete results when
     calling ‘pathlib.Path.glob’ in the presence of symlinks that point
     to files where the user does not have read access.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Matt Wozniski.

   - bpo-39877(27): Fix *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8db. random crash
     at exit with daemon threads.  It now accesses the ‘_PyRuntime’
     variable directly instead of using ‘tstate->interp->runtime’, since
     ‘tstate’ can be a dangling pointer after *note Py_Finalize(): 11e8.
     has been called.  Moreover, the daemon thread now exits before
     trying to take the GIL.

   - bpo-39871(28): Fix a possible *note SystemError: 304. in
     ‘math.{atan2,copysign,remainder}()’ when the first argument cannot
     be converted to a *note float: 26a.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-39776(29): Fix race condition where threads created by
     PyGILState_Ensure() could get a duplicate id.

     This affects consumers of tstate->id like the contextvar caching
     machinery, which could return invalid cached objects under heavy
     thread load (observed in embedded scenarios).

   - bpo-39778(30): Fixed a crash due to incorrect handling of weak
     references in ‘collections.OrderedDict’ classes.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(31): Port audioop extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(32)).

   - bpo-39702(33): Relax *note decorator: 540. grammar restrictions to
     allow any valid expression ( PEP 614(34)).

   - bpo-38091(35): Tweak import deadlock detection code to not deadlock
     itself.

   - bpo-1635741(36): Port _locale extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(37)).

   - bpo-39087(38): Optimize *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): a1c. and *note
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 6c8. slightly when they need to create
     internal UTF-8 cache.

   - bpo-39520(39): Fix unparsing of ext slices with no items
     (‘foo[:,]’).  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39220(40): Do not optimize annotations if 'from __future__
     import annotations' is used.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35712(41): Using *note NotImplemented: 5f2. in a boolean
     context has been deprecated.  Patch contributed by Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-22490(42): Don't leak environment variable
     ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ into the interpreter session on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39965

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38373

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19466

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38894

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39871

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39776

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39778

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38091

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39087

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39520

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39220

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22490


File: python.info,  Node: Library<42>,  Next: Documentation<39>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.42.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-39830(1): Add *note zipfile.Path: 4c5. to ‘__all__’ in the
     *note zipfile: 12b. module.

   - bpo-40000(2): Improved error messages for validation of
     ‘ast.Constant’ nodes.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39999(3): ‘__module__’ of the AST node classes is now set to
     "ast" instead of "_ast".  Added docstrings for dummy AST node
     classes and deprecated attributes.

   - bpo-39991(4): *note uuid.getnode(): a08. now skips IPv6 addresses
     with the same string length than a MAC address (17 characters):
     only use MAC addresses.

   - bpo-39988(5): Deprecated ‘ast.AugLoad’ and ‘ast.AugStore’ node
     classes because they are no longer used.

   - bpo-39656(6): Ensure ‘bin/python3.#’ is always present in virtual
     environments on POSIX platforms - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39969(7): Deprecated ‘ast.Param’ node class because it's no
     longer used.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39360(8): Ensure all workers exit when finalizing a
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ implicitly via the module finalization
     handlers of multiprocessing.  This fixes a deadlock situation that
     can be experienced when the Pool is not properly finalized via the
     context manager or a call to ‘multiprocessing.Pool.terminate’.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya and Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35370(9): sys.settrace(), sys.setprofile() and
     _lsprof.Profiler.enable() now properly report *note PySys_Audit():
     175a. error if "sys.setprofile" or "sys.settrace" audit event is
     denied.

   - bpo-39936(10): AIX: Fix _aix_support module when the subprocess is
     not available, when building Python from scratch.  It now uses new
     private _bootsubprocess module, rather than having two
     implementations depending if subprocess is available or not.  So
     _aix_support.aix_platform() result is now the same if subprocess is
     available or not.

   - bpo-36144(11): *note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce. now implements
     ‘|’ and ‘|=’ ( PEP 584(12)).

   - bpo-39652(13): The column name found in
     ‘sqlite3.Cursor.description’ is now truncated on the first '[' only
     if the PARSE_COLNAMES option is set.

   - bpo-39915(14): Ensure *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock.await_args_list: 175b. has call objects in
     the order of awaited arguments instead of using *note
     unittest.mock.Mock.call_args: 175c. which has the last value of the
     call.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36144(15): Updated *note os.environ: 104b. and *note
     os.environb: 10a8. to support PEP 584(16)'s merge (‘|’) and update
     (‘|=’) operators.

   - bpo-38662(17): The ‘ensurepip’ module now invokes ‘pip’ via the
     ‘runpy’ module.  Hence it is no longer tightly coupled with the
     internal API of the bundled ‘pip’ version, allowing easier updates
     to a newer ‘pip’ version both internally and for distributors.

   - bpo-38075(18): Fix the *note random.Random.seed(): 175d. method
     when a *note bool: 17d. is passed as the seed.

   - bpo-39916(19): More reliable use of ‘os.scandir()’ in
     ‘Path.glob()’.  It no longer emits a ResourceWarning when
     interrupted.

   - bpo-39850(20): *note multiprocessing: 8f. now supports abstract
     socket addresses (if abstract sockets are supported in the running
     platform).  When creating arbitrary addresses (like when
     default-constructing *note multiprocessing.connection.Listener:
     144a. objects) abstract sockets are preferred to avoid the case
     when the temporary-file-generated address is too large for an
     AF_UNIX socket address.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36287(21): *note ast.dump(): 71d. no longer outputs optional
     fields and attributes with default values.  The default values for
     optional fields and attributes of AST nodes are now set as class
     attributes (e.g.  ‘Constant.kind’ is set to ‘None’).

   - bpo-39889(22): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 71e. for extended slices
     containing a single element (e.g.  ‘a[i:j,]’).  Remove redundant
     tuples when index with a tuple (e.g.  ‘a[i, j]’).

   - bpo-39828(23): Fix *note json.tool: 7d. to catch *note
     BrokenPipeError: ef2.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-13487(24): Avoid a possible '"RuntimeError: dictionary changed
     size during iteration"' from *note inspect.getmodule(): 15b1. when
     it tried to loop through *note sys.modules: 1745.

   - bpo-39674(25): Revert "bpo-37330(26): open() no longer accept 'U'
     in file mode".  The "U" mode of open() is kept in Python 3.9 to
     ease transition from Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python
     3.10.

   - bpo-28577(27): The hosts method on 32-bit prefix length
     IPv4Networks and 128-bit prefix IPv6Networks now returns a list
     containing the single Address instead of an empty list.

   - bpo-39826(28): Add getConnection method to logging HTTPHandler to
     enable custom connections.

   - bpo-39763(29): Reimplement ‘distutils.spawn.spawn’ function with
     the *note subprocess: d0. module.

   - bpo-39794(30): Add -without-decimal-contextvar build option.  This
     enables a thread-local rather than a coroutine local context.

   - bpo-36144(31): *note collections.defaultdict: 104e. now implements
     ‘|’ ( PEP 584(32)).

   - bpo-39517(33): Fix runpy.run_path() when using pathlike objects

   - bpo-39775(34): Change ‘inspect.Signature.parameters’ back to
     ‘collections.OrderedDict’.  This was changed to ‘dict’ in Python
     3.9.0a4.

   - bpo-39678(35): Refactor queue_manager in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. to make it easier to
     maintain.

   - bpo-39764(36): Fix AttributeError when calling get_stack on a
     PyAsyncGenObject Task

   - bpo-39769(37): The *note compileall.compile_dir(): 97d. function's
     'ddir' parameter and the compileall command line flag ‘-d’ no
     longer write the wrong pathname to the generated pyc file for
     submodules beneath the root of the directory tree being compiled.
     This fixes a regression introduced with Python 3.5.

   - bpo-36144(38): *note types.MappingProxyType: 186. objects now
     support the merge (‘|’) operator from PEP 584(39).

   - bpo-38691(40): The *note importlib: 71. module now ignores the
     *note PYTHONCASEOK: 79d. environment variable when the *note -E:
     79e. or *note -I: 79f. command line options are being used.

   - bpo-39719(41): Remove ‘tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.softspace()’
     as files no longer have the ‘softspace’ attribute in Python 3.
     Patch by Shantanu.

   - bpo-39667(42): Improve pathlib.Path compatibility on zipfile.Path
     and correct performance degradation as found in zipp 3.0.

   - bpo-39638(43): Keep ASDL signatures in the docstrings for ‘AST’
     nodes.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-39639(44): Deprecated ‘ast.Suite’ node class because it's no
     longer used.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39609(45): Add thread_name_prefix to default asyncio executor

   - bpo-39548(46): Fix handling of header in *note
     urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler: 175e. when the optional
     ‘qop’ parameter is not present.

   - bpo-39509(47): HTTP status codes ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’ and ‘425
     TOO_EARLY’ are added to *note http.HTTPStatus: 73b.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39507(48): Adding HTTP status 418 "I'm a Teapot" to HTTPStatus
     in http library.  Patch by Ross Rhodes.

   - bpo-39495(49): Remove default value from 'attrs' parameter of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.start(): 175f. for consistency
     between Python and C implementations.

   - bpo-38971(50): Open issue in the BPO indicated a desire to make the
     implementation of codecs.open() at parity with io.open(), which
     implements a try/except to assure file stream gets closed before an
     exception is raised.

   - bpo-38641(51): Added starred expressions support to ‘return’ and
     ‘yield’ statements for ‘lib2to3’.  Patch by Vlad Emelianov.

   - bpo-37534(52): When using minidom module to generate XML documents
     the ability to add Standalone Document Declaration is added.  All
     the changes are made to generate a document in compliance with
     Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fifth Edition) W3C
     Recommendation (available here:
     ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/xml/#sec-prolog-dtd’).

   - bpo-34788(53): Add support for scoped IPv6 addresses to *note
     ipaddress: 7a.  Patch by Oleksandr Pavliuk.

   - bpo-34822(54): Simplified AST for subscription.  Simple indices are
     now represented by their value, extended slices are represented as
     tuples.  *note ast: 8. classes ‘Index’ and ‘ExtSlice’ are
     considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python
     versions.  In the meantime, ‘Index(value)’ now returns a ‘value’
     itself, ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ returns ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39830

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40000

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39999

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39991

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39656

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39360

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39936

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39652

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39915

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38662

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39916

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39850

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36287

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39889

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39828

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13487

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28577

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39826

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39794

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39517

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39678

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39764

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39769

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38691

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39719

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39667

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39609

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39548

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39495

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38971

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38641

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37534

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<39>,  Next: Tests<40>,  Prev: Library<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.42.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-39868(1): Updated the Language Reference for PEP 572(2).

   - bpo-13790(3): Change 'string' to 'specification' in format doc.

   - bpo-17422(4): The language reference no longer restricts default
     class namespaces to dicts only.

   - bpo-39530(5): Fix misleading documentation about mixed-type numeric
     comparisons.

   - bpo-39718(6): Update *note token: f5. documentation to reflect
     additions in Python 3.8

   - bpo-39677(7): Changed operand name of 'MAKE_FUNCTION' from 'argc'
     to 'flags' for module *note dis: 35.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39868

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13790

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39530

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39718

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39677


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<40>,  Next: Build<39>,  Prev: Documentation<39>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.42.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40019(1): test_gdb now skips tests if it detects that gdb
     failed to read debug information because the Python binary is
     optimized.

   - bpo-27807(2): ‘test_site.test_startup_imports()’ is now skipped if
     a path of *note sys.path: 35e. contains a ‘.pth’ file.

   - bpo-26067(3): Do not fail test_shutil test_chown test when uid or
     gid of user cannot be resolved to a name.

   - bpo-39855(4): test_subprocess.test_user() now skips the test on an
     user name if the user name doesn't exist.  For example, skip the
     test if the user "nobody" doesn't exist on Linux.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40019

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27807

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26067

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39855


File: python.info,  Node: Build<39>,  Next: Windows<39>,  Prev: Tests<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.42.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-39761(1): Fix build with DTrace but without additional DFLAGS.

   - bpo-39763(2): setup.py now uses a basic implementation of the *note
     subprocess: d0. module if the *note subprocess: d0. module is not
     available: before required C extension modules are built.

   - bpo-1294959(3): Add ‘--with-platlibdir’ option to the configure
     script: name of the platform-specific library directory, stored in
     the new *note sys.platlibdir: 777. attribute.  It is used to build
     the path of platform-specific extension modules and the path of the
     standard library.  It is equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On
     Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to ‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms.
     Patch by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39761

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<39>,  Next: macOS<31>,  Prev: Build<39>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.42.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39930(1): Ensures the required ‘vcruntime140.dll’ is included
     in install packages.

   - bpo-39847(2): Avoid hang when computer is hibernated whilst waiting
     for a mutex (for lock-related objects from *note threading: e7.)
     around 49-day uptime.

   - bpo-38597(3): ‘distutils’ will no longer statically link
     ‘vcruntime140.dll’ when a redistributable version is unavailable.
     All future releases of CPython will include a copy of this DLL to
     ensure distributed extensions can continue to load.

   - bpo-38380(4): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

   - bpo-39789(5): Update Windows release build machines to Visual
     Studio 2019 (MSVC 14.2).

   - bpo-34803(6): Package for nuget.org now includes repository
     reference and bundled icon image.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39930

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39847

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38597

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39789

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34803


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<31>,  Next: IDLE<26>,  Prev: Windows<39>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.42.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38380(1): Update macOS builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<26>,  Next: Tools/Demos<20>,  Prev: macOS<31>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.42.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27115(1): For 'Go to Line', use a Query box subclass with IDLE
     standard behavior and improved error checking.

   - bpo-39885(2): Since clicking to get an IDLE context menu moves the
     cursor, any text selection should be and now is cleared.

   - bpo-39852(3): Edit "Go to line" now clears any selection,
     preventing accidental deletion.  It also updates Ln and Col on the
     status bar.

   - bpo-39781(4): Selecting code context lines no longer causes a jump.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27115

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39852

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39781


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<20>,  Next: C API<36>,  Prev: IDLE<26>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.42.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-36184(1): Port python-gdb.py to FreeBSD. python-gdb.py now
     checks for "take_gil" function name to check if a frame tries to
     acquire the GIL, instead of checking for "pthread_cond_timedwait"
     which is specific to Linux and can be a different condition than
     the GIL.

   - bpo-38080(2): Added support to fix ‘getproxies’ in the
     ‘lib2to3.fixes.fix_urllib’ module.  Patch by José Roberto Meza
     Cabrera.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36184

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38080


File: python.info,  Node: C API<36>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<20>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.42.11 C API
................

   - bpo-40024(1): Add *note PyModule_AddType(): 7b9. helper function:
     add a type to a module.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39946(2): Remove ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’ hook and remove
     ‘_PyThreadState_GetFrame’ macro which was an alias to
     ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’.  They were only exposed by the internal C
     API. Remove also ‘PyThreadFrameGetter’ type.

   - bpo-39947(3): Add *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5a7. function:
     get the current frame of a Python thread state.

   - bpo-37207(4): Add _PyArg_NoKwnames helper function.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39947(5): Add *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 7b3.: get
     the interpreter of a Python thread state.

   - bpo-39947(6): Add *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 7b4. function to
     the limited C API.

   - bpo-35370(7): If *note PySys_Audit(): 175a. fails in *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 1374. or *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 1375, log
     the error as an unraisable exception.

   - bpo-39947(8): Move the static inline function flavor of
     Py_EnterRecursiveCall() and Py_LeaveRecursiveCall() to the internal
     C API: they access PyThreadState attributes.  The limited C API
     provides regular functions which hide implementation details.

   - bpo-39947(9): Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION and Py_TRASHCAN_END macro
     no longer access PyThreadState attributes, but call new private
     _PyTrash_begin() and _PyTrash_end() functions which hide
     implementation details.

   - bpo-39884(10): *note PyDescr_NewMethod(): 1768. and *note
     PyCFunction_NewEx(): 1769. now include the method name in the
     SystemError "bad call flags" error message to ease debug.

   - bpo-39877(11): Deprecated ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’.  Calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ now
     does nothing.

   - bpo-38249(12): *note Py_UNREACHABLE: a16. is now implemented with
     ‘__builtin_unreachable()’ and analogs in release mode.

   - bpo-38643(13): *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 15b7. now raises a *note
     SystemError: 304. instead of crashing when called with invalid
     base.

   - bpo-39882(14): The *note Py_FatalError(): 7c7. function is replaced
     with a macro which logs automatically the name of the current
     function, unless the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined.

   - bpo-39824(15): Extension modules: *note m_traverse: 7be, *note
     m_clear: 7bf. and *note m_free: 7c0. functions of *note
     PyModuleDef: 7c1. are no longer called if the module state was
     requested but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately
     after the module is created and before the module is executed
     (*note Py_mod_exec: 7c2. function).  More precisely, these
     functions are not called if *note m_size: 7c3. is greater than 0
     and the module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState():
     7c4.) is ‘NULL’.

     Extension modules without module state (‘m_size <= 0’) are not
     affected.

   - bpo-38913(16): Fixed segfault in ‘Py_BuildValue()’ called with a
     format containing "#" and undefined PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN whwn an
     exception is set.

   - bpo-38500(17): Add a private API to get and set the frame
     evaluation function: add *note
     _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc(): 176a. and *note
     _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc(): 176b. C functions.  The
     *note _PyFrameEvalFunction: 58d. function type now takes a 'tstate'
     parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39884

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38643

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39824

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38913

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.43 Python 3.9.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-02-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<29>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<43>.
* Library: Library<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<40>.
* Tests: Tests<41>.
* Build: Build<40>.
* Windows: Windows<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<27>.
* C API: C API<37>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<29>,  Next: Core and Builtins<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.43.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-39184(1): Add audit events to functions in ‘fcntl’, ‘msvcrt’,
     ‘os’, ‘resource’, ‘shutil’, ‘signal’ and ‘syslog’.

   - bpo-39401(2): Avoid unsafe DLL load at startup on Windows 7 and
     earlier.

   - bpo-39184(3): Add audit events to command execution functions in os
     and pty modules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39401

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<43>,  Next: Library<43>,  Prev: Security<29>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.43.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39382(1): Fix a use-after-free in the single inheritance path
     of ‘issubclass()’, when the ‘__bases__’ of an object has a single
     reference, and so does its first item.  Patch by Yonatan
     Goldschmidt.

   - bpo-39573(2): Update clinic tool to use *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 15e4.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39619(3): Enable use of *note os.chroot(): 176f. on HP-UX
     systems.

   - bpo-39573(4): Add *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 15e4. static inline function
     to check whether the object 'o' type is 'type'.

   - bpo-39606(5): Fix regression caused by fix for bpo-39386(6), that
     prevented calling ‘aclose’ on an async generator that had already
     been closed or exhausted.

   - bpo-39579(7): Change the ending column offset of ‘Attribute’ nodes
     constructed in ‘ast_for_dotted_name’ to point at the end of the
     current node and not at the end of the last ‘NAME’ node.

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _crypt extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(9)).

   - bpo-1635741(10): Port _contextvars extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(11)).

   - bpo-39510(12): Fix segfault in ‘readinto()’ method on closed
     BufferedReader.

   - bpo-39502(13): Fix *note time.localtime(): 1370. on 64-bit AIX to
     support years before 1902 and after 2038.  Patch by M Felt.

   - bpo-39492(14): Fix a reference cycle in the C Pickler that was
     preventing the garbage collection of deleted, pickled objects.

   - bpo-39453(15): Fixed a possible crash in ‘list.__contains__()’ when
     a list is changed during comparing items.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39434(16): *note floor division: 783. of float operation now
     has a better performance.  Also the message of *note
     ZeroDivisionError: 784. for this operation is updated.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port _codecs extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(18)).

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port _bz2 extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(20)).

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port _abc extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(22)).

   - bpo-39320(23): Replace two complex bytecodes for building dicts
     with two simpler ones.  The new bytecodes ‘DICT_MERGE’ and
     ‘DICT_UPDATE’ have been added The old bytecodes ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK’
     and ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ have been removed.

   - bpo-39219(24): Syntax errors raised in the tokenizer now always set
     correct "text" and "offset" attributes.

   - bpo-36051(25): Drop the GIL during large ‘bytes.join’ operations.
     Patch by Bruce Merry.

   - bpo-38960(26): Fix DTrace build issues on FreeBSD. Patch by David
     Carlier.

   - bpo-37207(27): Speed up calls to ‘range()’ by about 30%, by using
     the PEP 590 ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Mark
     Shannon.

   - bpo-36144(28): *note dict: 239. (and *note collections.UserDict:
     1770.) objects now support PEP 584's merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’)
     operators.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-32856(29): Optimized the idiom for assignment a temporary
     variable in comprehensions.  Now ‘for y in [expr]’ in
     comprehensions is as fast as a simple assignment ‘y = expr’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39382

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39619

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39606

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39579

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39510

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39492

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39453

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39219

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36051

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38960

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856


File: python.info,  Node: Library<43>,  Next: Documentation<40>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.43.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-30566(1): Fix *note IndexError: 13ac. when trying to decode an
     invalid string with punycode codec.

   - bpo-39649(2): Remove obsolete check for ‘__args__’ in
     ‘bdb.Bdb.format_stack_entry’.

   - bpo-39648(3): Expanded *note math.gcd(): 74c. and *note math.lcm():
     74d. to handle multiple arguments.

   - bpo-39681(4): Fix a regression where the C pickle module wouldn't
     allow unpickling from a file-like object that doesn't expose a
     readinto() method.

   - bpo-35950(5): Raise *note io.UnsupportedOperation: 1772. in
     ‘io.BufferedReader.truncate()’ when it is called on a read-only
     *note io.BufferedReader: 109f. instance.

   - bpo-39479(6): Add *note math.lcm(): 74d. function: least common
     multiple.

   - bpo-39674(7): Revert "Do not expose abstract collection classes in
     the collections module" change (bpo-25988(8)).  Aliases to ABC like
     collections.Mapping are kept in Python 3.9 to ease transition from
     Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python 3.10.

   - bpo-39104(9): Fix hanging ProcessPoolExcutor on
     ‘shutdown(wait=False)’ when a task has failed pickling.

   - bpo-39627(10): Fixed TypedDict totality check for inherited keys.

   - bpo-39474(11): Fixed starting position of AST for expressions like
     ‘(a)(b)’, ‘(a)[b]’ and ‘(a).b’.

   - bpo-21016(12): The *note pydoc: b0. and *note trace: f8. modules
     now use the *note sysconfig: d5. module to get the path to the
     Python standard library, to support uncommon installation path like
     ‘/usr/lib64/python3.9/’ on Fedora.  Patch by Jan Matějek.

   - bpo-39590(13): Collections.deque now holds strong references during
     deque.__contains__ and deque.count, fixing crashes.

   - bpo-39586(14): The distutils ‘bdist_msi’ command is deprecated in
     Python 3.9, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

   - bpo-39595(15): Improved performance of zipfile.Path for files with
     a large number of entries.  Also improved performance and fixed
     minor issue as published with importlib_metadata 1.5(16).

   - bpo-39350(17): Fix regression in *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. if
     the numerator and/or the denominator is an *note int: 17e.
     subclass.  The *note math.gcd(): 74c. function is now used to
     normalize the 'numerator' and 'denominator'.  *note math.gcd():
     74c. always return a *note int: 17e. type.  Previously, the GCD
     type depended on 'numerator' and 'denominator'.

   - bpo-39567(18): Added audit for *note os.walk(): 1cb, *note
     os.fwalk(): 9b6, *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1cf. and *note
     pathlib.Path.rglob(): 1d0.

   - bpo-39559(19): Remove unused, undocumented argument ‘getters’ from
     *note uuid.getnode(): a08.

   - bpo-38149(20): *note sys.audit(): 174a. is now called only once per
     call of *note glob.glob(): 628. and *note glob.iglob(): 629.

   - bpo-39546(21): Fix a regression in *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. where
     ‘allow_abbrev=False’ was ignored for long options that used a
     prefix character other than "-".

   - bpo-39450(22): Striped whitespace from docstring before returning
     it from ‘unittest.case.shortDescription()’.

   - bpo-12915(23): A new function ‘resolve_name’ has been added to the
     ‘pkgutil’ module.  This resolves a string of the form ‘'a.b.c.d'’
     or ‘'a.b:c.d'’ to an object.  In the example, ‘a.b’ is a
     package/module and ‘c.d’ is an object within that package/module
     reached via recursive attribute access.

   - bpo-39353(24): The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 544. function is no
     longer deprecated.

   - bpo-39493(25): Mark ‘typing.IO.closed’ as a property

   - bpo-39491(26): Add *note typing.Annotated: 77c. and
     ‘include_extras’ parameter to *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0.
     as part of PEP 593(27).  Patch by Till Varoquaux, documentation by
     Till Varoquaux and Konstantin Kashin.

   - bpo-39485(28): Fix a bug in *note unittest.mock.create_autospec():
     1406. that would complain about the wrong number of arguments for
     custom descriptors defined in an extension module returning
     functions.

   - bpo-38932(29): Mock fully resets child objects on reset_mock().
     Patch by Vegard Stikbakke

   - bpo-39082(30): Allow AsyncMock to correctly patch static/class
     methods

   - bpo-39432(31): Implement PEP-489 algorithm for non-ascii
     "PyInit_..."  symbol names in distutils to make it export the
     correct init symbol also on Windows.

   - bpo-18819(32): Omit ‘devmajor’ and ‘devminor’ fields for non-device
     files in *note tarfile: d8. archives, enabling bit-for-bit
     compatibility with GNU ‘tar(1)’.

   - bpo-39349(33): Added a new 'cancel_futures' parameter to *note
     concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown(): 726. that cancels all
     pending futures which have not started running, instead of waiting
     for them to complete before shutting down the executor.

   - bpo-39274(34): ‘bool(fraction.Fraction)’ now returns a boolean even
     if (numerator != 0) does not return a boolean (ex: numpy number).

   - bpo-34793(35): Remove support for ‘with (await asyncio.lock):’ and
     ‘with (yield from asyncio.lock):’.  The same is correct for
     ‘asyncio.Condition’ and ‘asyncio.Semaphore’.

   - bpo-25597(36): Ensure, if ‘wraps’ is supplied to *note
     unittest.mock.MagicMock: d11, it is used to calculate return values
     for the magic methods instead of using the default return values.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36350(37): ‘inspect.Signature.parameters’ and
     ‘inspect.BoundArguments.arguments’ are now dicts instead of
     OrderedDicts.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35727(38): Fix sys.exit() and sys.exit(None) exit code
     propagation when used in multiprocessing.Process.

   - bpo-32173(39): * Add ‘lazycache’ function to ‘__all__’.  * Use
     ‘dict.clear’ to clear the cache.  * Refactoring ‘getline’ function
     and ‘checkcache’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30566

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39681

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35950

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39104

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39627

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39474

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21016

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39590

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39595

   (16) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v1-5-0

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39567

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39559

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38149

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39546

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39450

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39493

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39491

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39485

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38932

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39082

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39432

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18819

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39274

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35727

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32173


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<40>,  Next: Tests<41>,  Prev: Library<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.43.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17422(1): The language reference now specifies restrictions on
     class namespaces.  Adapted from a patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-39572(2): Updated documentation of ‘total’ flag of ‘TypedDict’.

   - bpo-39654(3): In pyclbr doc, update 'class' to 'module' where
     appropriate and add readmodule comment.  Patch by Hakan Çelik.

   - bpo-39153(4): Clarify refcounting semantics for the following
     functions: - PyObject_SetItem - PyMapping_SetItemString -
     PyDict_SetItem - PyDict_SetItemString

   - bpo-39392(5): Explain that when filling with turtle, overlap
     regions may be left unfilled.

   - bpo-39369(6): Update mmap readline method description.  The fact
     that the readline method does update the file position should not
     be ignored since this might give the impression for the programmer
     that it doesn't update it.

   - bpo-9056(7): Include subsection in TOC for PDF version of docs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39572

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39153

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39392

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39369

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9056


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<41>,  Next: Build<40>,  Prev: Documentation<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.43.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38325(1): Skip tests on non-BMP characters of
     test_winconsoleio.

   - bpo-39502(2): Skip test_zipfile.test_add_file_after_2107() if *note
     time.localtime(): 1370. fails with *note OverflowError: 6ad.  It is
     the case on AIX 6.1 for example.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38325

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502


File: python.info,  Node: Build<40>,  Next: Windows<40>,  Prev: Tests<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.43.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-39489(1): Remove ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ special build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<40>,  Next: IDLE<27>,  Prev: Build<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.43.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39553(1): Delete unused code related to SxS manifests.

   - bpo-39439(2): Honor the Python path when a virtualenv is active on
     Windows.

   - bpo-39393(3): Improve the error message when attempting to load a
     DLL with unresolved dependencies.

   - bpo-38883(4): *note home(): cbd. and *note expanduser(): cbc. on
     Windows now prefer ‘USERPROFILE’ and no longer use ‘HOME’, which is
     not normally set for regular user accounts.  This makes them again
     behave like *note os.path.expanduser(): 85b, which was changed to
     ignore ‘HOME’ in 3.8, see bpo-36264(5).

   - bpo-39185(6): The build.bat script has additional options for
     very-quiet output (-q) and very-verbose output (-vv)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39553

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39439

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39393

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38883

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39185


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<27>,  Next: C API<37>,  Prev: Windows<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.43.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-39663(1): Add tests for pyparse find_good_parse_start().

   - bpo-39600(2): In the font configuration window, remove duplicated
     font names.

   - bpo-30780(3): Add remaining configdialog tests for buttons and
     highlights and keys tabs.

   - bpo-39388(4): IDLE Settings Cancel button now cancels pending
     changes

   - bpo-38792(5): Close an IDLE shell calltip if a *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 815. or shell restart occurs.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39663

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30780

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39388

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38792


File: python.info,  Node: C API<37>,  Prev: IDLE<27>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.43.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-35081(1): Move the ‘bytes_methods.h’ header file to the
     internal C API as ‘pycore_bytes_methods.h’: it only contains
     private symbols (prefixed by ‘_Py’), except of the
     ‘PyDoc_STRVAR_shared()’ macro.

   - bpo-35081(2): Move the ‘dtoa.h’ header file to the internal C API
     as ‘pycore_dtoa.h’: it only contains private functions (prefixed by
     ‘_Py’).  The *note math: 89. and *note cmath: 16. modules must now
     be compiled with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’ macro defined.

   - bpo-39573(3): Add *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 59a. function to set the
     size of an object.

   - bpo-39500(4): *note PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(): 1779. does not call
     *note Py_FatalError(): 7c7. anymore if the string is not ready.

   - bpo-39573(5): Add *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 598. function to set the
     type of an object.

   - bpo-39573(6): Add a *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 6de. function to set the
     reference counter of an object.

   - bpo-39542(7): Convert *note PyType_HasFeature(): 172c, *note
     PyType_Check(): 177a. and *note PyType_CheckExact(): 177b. macros
     to static inline functions.

   - bpo-39542(8): In the limited C API, ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and
     ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’ are now defined as aliases to *note
     PyObject_Init(): 8b6. and *note PyObject_InitVar(): 172e. to make
     their implementation opaque.  It avoids to leak implementation
     details in the limited C API. Exclude the following functions from
     the limited C API: ‘_Py_NewReference()’, ‘_Py_ForgetReference()’,
     ‘_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference()’ and ‘_Py_GetRefTotal()’.

   - bpo-39542(9): Exclude trashcan mechanism from the limited C API: it
     requires access to PyTypeObject and PyThreadState structure fields,
     whereas these structures are opaque in the limited C API.

   - bpo-39511(10): The *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1429. function now
     calls the ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback.  Previously, that
     happened in *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 177c.

   - bpo-38076(11): Fix to clear the interpreter state only after
     clearing module globals to guarantee module state access from C
     Extensions during runtime destruction

   - bpo-39245(12): The Vectorcall API (PEP 590) was made public, adding
     the functions ‘PyObject_Vectorcall’, ‘PyObject_VectorcallMethod’,
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function’, ‘PyObject_CallOneArg’,
     ‘PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs’, ‘PyObject_CallMethodOneArg’,
     ‘PyObject_FastCallDict’, and the flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39511

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39245


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.44 Python 3.9.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-01-24'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<44>.
* Library: Library<44>.
* Documentation: Documentation<41>.
* Build: Build<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<28>.
* C API: C API<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<44>,  Next: Library<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.44.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39427(1): Document all possibilities for the ‘-X’ options in
     the command line help section.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39421(2): Fix possible crashes when operating with the
     functions in the *note heapq: 64. module and custom comparison
     operators.

   - bpo-39386(3): Prevent double awaiting of async iterator.

   - bpo-17005(4): Add ‘functools.TopologicalSorter’ to the *note
     functools: 5a. module to offers functionality to perform
     topological sorting of graphs.  Patch by Pablo Galindo, Tim Peters
     and Larry Hastings.

   - bpo-39320(5): Replace four complex bytecodes for building sequences
     with three simpler ones.

     The following four bytecodes have been removed:

        * BUILD_LIST_UNPACK

        * BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK

        * BUILD_SET_UNPACK

        * BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL

     The following three bytecodes have been added:

        * LIST_TO_TUPLE

        * LIST_EXTEND

        * SET_UPDATE

   - bpo-39336(6): Import loaders which publish immutable module objects
     can now publish immutable packages in addition to individual
     modules.

   - bpo-39322(7): Added a new function *note gc.is_finalized(): 738. to
     check if an object has been finalized by the garbage collector.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39048(8): Improve the displayed error message when incorrect
     types are passed to ‘async with’ statements by looking up the
     ‘__aenter__()’ special method before the ‘__aexit__()’ special
     method when entering an asynchronous context manager.  Patch by
     Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-39235(9): Fix AST end location for lone generator expression in
     function call, e.g.  f(i for i in a).

   - bpo-39209(10): Correctly handle multi-line tokens in interactive
     mode.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(11): Port _json extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(12)).

   - bpo-39216(13): Fix constant folding optimization for positional
     only arguments - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39215(14): Fix ‘SystemError’ when nested function has
     annotation on positional-only argument - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39200(15): Correct the error message when calling the *note
     min(): d8c. or *note max(): d8d. with no arguments.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39200(16): Correct the error message when trying to construct
     *note range: 782. objects with no arguments.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-39166(17): Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace
     functions when tracing the last iteration of asynchronous for
     loops.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39114(18): Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace
     functions when tracing exception handlers with name binding.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39156(19): Split the COMPARE_OP bytecode instruction into four
     distinct instructions.

        * COMPARE_OP for rich comparisons

        * IS_OP for 'is' and 'is not' tests

        * CONTAINS_OP for 'in' and 'is not' tests

        * JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH for checking exceptions in 'try-except'
          statements.

     This improves the clarity of the interpreter and should provide a
     modest speedup.

   - bpo-38588(20): Fix possible crashes in dict and list when calling
     *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 177f.

   - bpo-13601(21): By default, ‘sys.stderr’ is line-buffered now, even
     if ‘stderr’ is redirected to a file.  You can still make
     ‘sys.stderr’ unbuffered by passing the *note -u: 1780. command-line
     option or setting the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 1781. environment
     variable.

     (Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601(22).)

   - bpo-38610(23): Fix possible crashes in several list methods by
     holding strong references to list elements when calling *note
     PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 177f.

   - bpo-32021(24): Include brotli .br encoding in mimetypes
     encodings_map

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39421

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39048

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39235

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39209

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39216

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39215

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39166

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39114

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38588

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38610

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32021


File: python.info,  Node: Library<44>,  Next: Documentation<41>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.44.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-39430(1): Fixed race condition in lazy imports in *note
     tarfile: d8.

   - bpo-39413(2): The *note os.unsetenv(): 759. function is now also
     available on Windows.

   - bpo-39390(3): Fixed a regression with the ‘ignore’ callback of
     *note shutil.copytree(): 872.  The argument types are now ‘str’ and
     ‘List[str]’ again.

   - bpo-39395(4): The *note os.putenv(): 75a. and *note os.unsetenv():
     759. functions are now always available.

   - bpo-39406(5): If ‘setenv()’ C function is available, *note
     os.putenv(): 75a. is now implemented with ‘setenv()’ instead of
     ‘putenv()’, so Python doesn't have to handle the environment
     variable memory.

   - bpo-39396(6): Fix ‘math.nextafter(-0.0, +0.0)’ on AIX 7.1.

   - bpo-29435(7): Allow *note tarfile.is_tarfile(): 1616. to be used
     with file and file-like objects, like *note zipfile.is_zipfile():
     11be.  Patch by William Woodruff.

   - bpo-39377(8): Removed ‘encoding’ option from *note json.loads():
     796.  It has been deprecated since Python 3.1.

   - bpo-39389(9): Write accurate compression level metadata in *note
     gzip: 62. archives, rather than always signaling maximum
     compression.

   - bpo-39366(10): The previously deprecated ‘xpath()’ and ‘xgtitle()’
     methods of *note nntplib.NNTP: 753. have been removed.

   - bpo-39357(11): Remove the 'buffering' parameter of *note
     bz2.BZ2File: 692.  Since Python 3.0, it was ignored and using it
     was emitting *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  Pass an open file
     object, to control how the file is opened.  The 'compresslevel'
     parameter becomes keyword-only.

   - bpo-39353(12): Deprecate binhex4 and hexbin4 standards.  Deprecate
     the ‘binhex’ module and the following *note binascii: e. functions:
     ‘b2a_hqx()’, ‘a2b_hqx()’, ‘rlecode_hqx()’, ‘rledecode_hqx()’, *note
     crc_hqx(): 544.

   - bpo-39351(13): Remove ‘base64.encodestring()’ and
     ‘base64.decodestring()’, aliases deprecated since Python 3.1: use
     *note base64.encodebytes(): 794. and *note base64.decodebytes():
     795. instead.

   - bpo-39350(14): Remove ‘fractions.gcd()’ function, deprecated since
     Python 3.5 (bpo-22486(15)): use *note math.gcd(): 74c. instead.

   - bpo-39329(16): *note LMTP: 76e. constructor now has an optional
     'timeout' parameter.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39313(17): Add a new ‘exec_function’ option ('-exec-function'
     in the CLI) to ‘RefactoringTool’ for making ‘exec’ a function.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39259(18): *note FTP_TLS: 736. and *note FTP_TLS: 736. now
     raise a *note ValueError: 183. if the given timeout for their
     constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking
     socket.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39259(19): *note SMTP: 76c. and *note SMTP_SSL: 76d. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 183. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39310(20): Add *note math.ulp(): 74e.: return the value of the
     least significant bit of a float.

   - bpo-39297(21): Improved performance of importlib.metadata
     distribution discovery and resilients to inaccessible sys.path
     entries (importlib_metadata v1.4.0).

   - bpo-39259(22): *note NNTP: 753. and *note NNTP_SSL: 754. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 183. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38901(23): When you specify prompt='.'  or equivalently python
     -m venv -prompt .  ...  the basename of the current directory is
     used to set the created venv's prompt when it's activated.

   - bpo-39288(24): Add *note math.nextafter(): 1b7.: return the next
     floating-point value after 'x' towards 'y'.

   - bpo-39259(25): *note POP3: 762. and *note POP3_SSL: 763. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 183. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39242(26): Updated the Gmane domain from news.gmane.org to
     news.gmane.io which is used for examples of *note NNTP: 753. news
     reader server and nntplib tests.

   - bpo-35292(27): Proxy the ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.guess_type’ to
     ‘mimetypes.guess_type’ so the ‘mimetypes.init’ is called lazily to
     avoid unnecessary costs when *note http.server: 6d. module is
     imported.

   - bpo-39239(28): The *note select.epoll.unregister(): 79b. method no
     longer ignores the *note EBADF: 79c. error.

   - bpo-38907(29): In http.server script, restore binding to IPv4 on
     Windows.

   - bpo-39152(30): Fix ttk.Scale.configure([name]) to return
     configuration tuple for name or all options.  Giovanni Lombardo
     contributed part of the patch.

   - bpo-39198(31): If an exception were to be thrown in
     ‘Logger.isEnabledFor’ (say, by asyncio timeouts or stopit) , the
     ‘logging’ global lock may not be released appropriately, resulting
     in deadlock.  This change wraps that block of code with
     ‘try...finally’ to ensure the lock is released.

   - bpo-39191(32): Perform a check for running loop before starting a
     new task in ‘loop.run_until_complete()’ to fail fast; it prevents
     the side effect of new task spawning before exception raising.

   - bpo-38871(33): Correctly parenthesize filter-based statements that
     contain lambda expressions in *note lib2to3: 7f.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-39142(34): A change was made to logging.config.dictConfig to
     avoid converting instances of named tuples to ConvertingTuple.
     It's assumed that named tuples are too specialised to be treated
     like ordinary tuples; if a user of named tuples requires
     ConvertingTuple functionality, they will have to implement that
     themselves in their named tuple class.

   - bpo-39158(35): ast.literal_eval() now supports empty sets.

   - bpo-39129(36): Fix import path for ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’

   - bpo-39057(37): ‘urllib.request.proxy_bypass_environment()’ now
     ignores leading dots and no longer ignores a trailing newline.

   - bpo-39056(38): Fixed handling invalid warning category in the -W
     option.  No longer import the re module if it is not needed.

   - bpo-39055(39): *note base64.b64decode(): 1783. with ‘validate=True’
     raises now a binascii.Error if the input ends with a single ‘\n’.

   - bpo-21600(40): Fix ‘mock.patch.stopall()’ to stop active patches
     that were created with ‘mock.patch.dict()’.

   - bpo-39019(41): Implement dummy ‘__class_getitem__’ for *note
     tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 490.

   - bpo-39019(42): Implement dummy ‘__class_getitem__’ for
     ‘subprocess.Popen’, ‘subprocess.CompletedProcess’

   - bpo-38914(43): Adjusted the wording of the warning issued by
     distutils' ‘check’ command when the ‘author’ and ‘maintainer’
     fields are supplied but no corresponding e-mail field
     (‘author_email’ or ‘maintainer_email’) is found.  The wording now
     reflects the fact that these fields are suggested, but not
     required.  Patch by Juergen Gmach.

   - bpo-38878(44): Fixed __subclasshook__ of *note os.PathLike: ab7. to
     return a correct result upon inheritance.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-38615(45): *note IMAP4: 73e. and *note IMAP4_SSL: 73f. now have
     an optional 'timeout' parameter for their constructors.  Also, the
     *note open(): 740. method now has an optional 'timeout' parameter
     with this change.  The overridden methods of *note IMAP4_SSL: 73f.
     and *note IMAP4_stream: 741. were applied to this change.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35182(46): Fixed ‘Popen.communicate()’ subsequent call crash
     when the child process has already closed any piped standard
     stream, but still continues to be running.  Patch by Andriy
     Maletsky.

   - bpo-38630(47): On Unix, *note subprocess.Popen.send_signal(): 124d.
     now polls the process status.  Polling reduces the risk of sending
     a signal to the wrong process if the process completed, the *note
     subprocess.Popen.returncode: 1784. attribute is still ‘None’, and
     the pid has been reassigned (recycled) to a new different process.

   - bpo-38536(48): Removes trailing space in formatted currency with
     ‘international=True’ and a locale with symbol following value.
     E.g.  ‘locale.currency(12.34, international=True)’ returned ‘'12,34
     EUR '’ instead of ‘'12,34 EUR'’.

   - bpo-38473(49): Use signature from inner mock for autospecced
     methods attached with ‘unittest.mock.attach_mock()’.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-38361(50): Fixed an issue where ‘ident’ could include a leading
     path separator when *note syslog.openlog(): 2c2. was called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-38293(51): Add *note copy.copy(): 2b5. and *note
     copy.deepcopy(): 9cb. support to *note property(): 424. objects.

   - bpo-37958(52): Added the pstats.Stats.get_profile_dict() method to
     return the profile data as a StatsProfile instance.

   - bpo-28367(53): Termios magic constants for the following baud
     rates: - B500000 - B576000 - B921600 - B1000000 - B1152000 -
     B1500000 - B2000000 - B2500000 - B3000000 - B3500000 - B4000000
     Patch by Andrey Smirnov

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39430

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39390

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39406

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39396

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29435

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39389

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39313

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39297

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38901

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39242

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35292

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38907

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39152

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39198

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39191

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38871

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39142

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39158

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39129

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39057

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39056

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39055

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21600

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38914

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38878

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35182

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38630

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38536

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38473

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38361

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38293

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37958

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28367


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<41>,  Next: Build<41>,  Prev: Library<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.44.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-39381(1): Mention in docs that *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
     220. implicitly creates new event loop only if called from the main
     thread.

   - bpo-38918(2): Add an entry for ‘__module__’ in the "function" &
     "method" sections of the *note inspect: 78. docs' *note Types and
     members: 1786. table.

   - bpo-3530(3): In the *note ast: 8. module documentation, fix a
     misleading ‘NodeTransformer’ example and add advice on when to use
     the ‘fix_missing_locations’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39381

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38918

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3530


File: python.info,  Node: Build<41>,  Next: IDLE<28>,  Prev: Documentation<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.44.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-39395(1): On non-Windows platforms, the ‘setenv()’ and
     ‘unsetenv()’ functions are now required to build Python.

   - bpo-39160(2): Updated the documentation in ‘./configure --help’ to
     show default values, reference documentation where required and add
     additional explanation where needed.

   - bpo-39144(3): The ctags and etags build targets both include
     Modules/_ctypes and Python standard library source files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39160

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39144


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<28>,  Next: C API<38>,  Prev: Build<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.44.5 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-39050(1): Make IDLE Settings dialog Help button work again.

   - bpo-34118(2): Tag memoryview, range, and tuple as classes, the same
     as list, etcetera, in the library manual built-in functions list.

   - bpo-32989(3): Add tests for editor newline_and_indent_event method.
     Remove dead code from pyparse find_good_parse_start method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39050

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34118

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32989


File: python.info,  Node: C API<38>,  Prev: IDLE<28>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.44.6 C API
...............

   - bpo-39372(1): Clean header files of interfaces defined but with no
     implementation.  The public API symbols being removed are:
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale’,
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromArgs’,
     ‘_Py_InitializeFromWideArgs’, ‘_PyFloat_Repr’, ‘_PyFloat_Digits’,
     ‘_PyFloat_DigitsInit’, ‘PyFrame_ExtendStack’,
     ‘_PyAIterWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNullImporter_Type’, ‘PyCmpWrapper_Type’,
     ‘PySortWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNoArgsFunction’.

   - bpo-39164(2): Add a private ‘_PyErr_GetExcInfo()’ function to
     retrieve exception information of the specified Python thread
     state.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39164


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.45 Python 3.9.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-12-18'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<45>.
* Library: Library<45>.
* Documentation: Documentation<42>.
* Tests: Tests<42>.
* Build: Build<42>.
* Windows: Windows<41>.
* macOS: macOS<32>.
* IDLE: IDLE<29>.
* C API: C API<39>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<30>,  Next: Core and Builtins<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.45.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38945(1): Newline characters have been escaped when performing
     uu encoding to prevent them from overflowing into to content
     section of the encoded file.  This prevents malicious or accidental
     modification of data during the decoding process.

   - bpo-37228(2): Due to significant security concerns, the
     'reuse_address' parameter of *note
     asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543. is no longer
     supported.  This is because of the behavior of ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in
     UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
     ‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
     Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(3).)

   - bpo-38804(4): Fixes a ReDoS vulnerability in *note http.cookiejar:
     6b.  Patch by Ben Caller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38945

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38804


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<45>,  Next: Library<45>,  Prev: Security<30>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.45.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39028(1): Slightly improve the speed of keyword argument
     parsing with many kwargs by strengthening the assumption that
     kwargs are interned strings.

   - bpo-39080(2): Fix the value of 'end_col_offset' for Starred
     Expression AST nodes when they are among the elements in the 'args'
     attribute of Call AST nodes.

   - bpo-39031(3): When parsing an "elif" node, lineno and col_offset of
     the node now point to the "elif" keyword and not to its condition,
     making it consistent with the "if" node.  Patch by Lysandros
     Nikolaou.

   - bpo-20443(4): In Python 3.9.0a1, sys.argv[0] was made an absolute
     path if a filename was specified on the command line.  Revert this
     change, since most users expect sys.argv to be unmodified.

   - bpo-39008(5): *note PySys_Audit(): 175a. now requires ‘Py_ssize_t’
     to be used for size arguments in the format string, regardless of
     whether ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was defined at include time.

   - bpo-38673(6): In REPL mode, don't switch to PS2 if the line starts
     with comment or whitespace.  Based on work by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-38922(7): Calling ‘replace’ on a code object now raises the
     ‘code.__new__’ audit event.

   - bpo-38920(8): Add audit hooks for when *note sys.excepthook(): 62d.
     and *note sys.unraisablehook(): 479. are invoked.

   - bpo-38892(9): Improve documentation for audit events table and
     functions.

   - bpo-38852(10): Set the thread stack size to 8 Mb for debug builds
     on android platforms.

   - bpo-38858(11): Each Python subinterpreter now has its own "small
     integer singletons": numbers in [-5; 257] range.  It is no longer
     possible to change the number of small integers at build time by
     overriding ‘NSMALLNEGINTS’ and ‘NSMALLPOSINTS’ macros: macros
     should now be modified manually in ‘pycore_pystate.h’ header file.

   - bpo-36854(12): The garbage collector state becomes per interpreter
     (‘PyInterpreterState.gc’), rather than being global
     (‘_PyRuntimeState.gc’).

   - bpo-38835(13): The ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros are empty: they have been doing
     nothing for the last year, so stop using them.

   - bpo-38328(14): Sped up the creation time of constant *note list:
     40a. and *note set: 3cc. displays.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-38707(15): ‘MainThread.native_id’ is now correctly reset in
     child processes spawned using *note multiprocessing.Process: 9b4,
     instead of retaining the parent's value.

   - bpo-38629(16): Added ‘__floor__’ and ‘__ceil__’ methods to float
     object.  Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-27145(17): int + int and int - int operators can now return
     small integer singletons.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-38021(18): Provide a platform tag for AIX that is sufficient
     for PEP425 binary distribution identification.  Patch by Michael
     Felt.

   - bpo-35409(19): Ignore GeneratorExit exceptions when throwing an
     exception into the aclose coroutine of an asynchronous generator.

   - bpo-33387(20): Removed WITH_CLEANUP_START, WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH,
     BEGIN_FINALLY, END_FINALLY, CALL_FINALLY and POP_FINALLY bytecodes.
     Replaced with RERAISE and WITH_EXCEPT_START bytecodes.  The
     compiler now generates different code for exceptional and
     non-exceptional branches for 'with' and 'try-except' statements.
     For 'try-finally' statements the 'finally' block is replicated for
     each exit from the 'try' body.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39028

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39080

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39031

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39008

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38673

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38922

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38920

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38892

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38852

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38858

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36854

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38328

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38707

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38629

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27145

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38021

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35409

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33387


File: python.info,  Node: Library<45>,  Next: Documentation<42>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.45.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-39033(1): Fix *note NameError: 144. in *note zipimport: 12c.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-39022(2): Update importlib.metadata to include improvements
     from importlib_metadata 1.3 including better serialization of
     EntryPoints and improved documentation for custom finders.

   - bpo-39006(3): Fix asyncio when the ssl module is missing: only
     check for ssl.SSLSocket instance if the ssl module is available.

   - bpo-38708(4): Fix a potential IndexError in email parser when
     parsing an empty msg-id.

   - bpo-38698(5): Add a new ‘InvalidMessageID’ token to email parser to
     represent invalid Message-ID headers.  Also, add defects when there
     is remaining value after parsing the header.

   - bpo-38994(6): Implement ‘__class_getitem__’ for ‘os.PathLike’,
     ‘pathlib.Path’.

   - bpo-38979(7): Return class from ‘ContextVar.__class_getitem__’ to
     simplify subclassing.

   - bpo-38978(8): Implement ‘__class_getitem__’ on asyncio objects
     (Future, Task, Queue).  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-38916(9): *note array.array: 18f.: Remove ‘tostring()’ and
     ‘fromstring()’ methods.  They were aliases to ‘tobytes()’ and
     ‘frombytes()’, deprecated since Python 3.2.

   - bpo-38986(10): Make repr of C accelerated TaskWakeupMethWrapper the
     same as of pure Python version.

   - bpo-38982(11): Fix asyncio ‘PidfdChildWatcher’: handle ‘waitpid()’
     error.  If ‘waitpid()’ is called elsewhere, ‘waitpid()’ call fails
     with *note ChildProcessError: eee.: use return code 255 in this
     case, and log a warning.  It ensures that the pidfd file descriptor
     is closed if this error occurs.

   - bpo-38529(12): Drop too noisy asyncio warning about deletion of a
     stream without explicit ‘.close()’ call.

   - bpo-27413(13): Added ability to pass through ‘ensure_ascii’ options
     to json.dumps in the ‘json.tool’ command-line interface.

   - bpo-38634(14): The *note readline: b5. module now detects if Python
     is linked to libedit at runtime on all platforms.  Previously, the
     check was only done on macOS.

   - bpo-33684(15): Fix ‘json.tool’ failed to read a JSON file with
     non-ASCII characters when locale encoding is not UTF-8.

   - bpo-38698(16): Prevent UnboundLocalError to pop up in
     parse_message_id.

     parse_message_id() was improperly using a token defined inside an
     exception handler, which was raising ‘UnboundLocalError’ on parsing
     an invalid value.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-38927(17): Use ‘python -m pip’ instead of ‘pip’ to upgrade
     dependencies in venv.

   - bpo-26730(18): Fix ‘SpooledTemporaryFile.rollover()’ might corrupt
     the file when it is in text mode.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-38881(19): random.choices() now raises a ValueError when all
     the weights are zero.

   - bpo-38876(20): Raise pickle.UnpicklingError when loading an item
     from memo for invalid input.

     The previous code was raising a ‘KeyError’ for both the Python and
     C implementation.  This was caused by the specified index of an
     invalid input which did not exist in the memo structure, where the
     pickle stores what objects it has seen.  The malformed input would
     have caused either a ‘BINGET’ or ‘LONG_BINGET’ load from the memo,
     leading to a ‘KeyError’ as the determined index was bogus.  Patch
     by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-38688(21): Calling func:‘shutil.copytree’ to copy a directory
     tree from one directory to another subdirectory resulted in an
     endless loop and a RecursionError.  A fix was added to consume an
     iterator and create the list of the entries to be copied, avoiding
     the recursion for newly created directories.  Patch by Bruno P.
     Kinoshita.

   - bpo-38863(22): Improve ‘is_cgi()’ function in *note http.server:
     6d, which enables processing the case that cgi directory is a child
     of another directory other than root.

   - bpo-37838(23): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. properly handles
     functions decorated with *note functools.wraps(): dea.

   - bpo-38870(24): Expose *note ast.unparse(): 71e. as a function of
     the *note ast: 8. module that can be used to unparse an *note
     ast.AST: 553. object and produce a string with code that would
     produce an equivalent *note ast.AST: 553. object when parsed.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo and Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-38859(25): AsyncMock now returns StopAsyncIteration on the
     exhaustion of a side_effects iterable.  Since PEP-479 its
     Impossible to raise a StopIteration exception from a coroutine.

   - bpo-38857(26): AsyncMock fix for return values that are awaitable
     types.  This also covers side_effect iterable values that happened
     to be awaitable, and wraps callables that return an awaitable type.
     Before these awaitables were being awaited instead of being
     returned as is.

   - bpo-38834(27): *note typing.TypedDict: 153. subclasses now track
     which keys are optional using the ‘__required_keys__’ and
     ‘__optional_keys__’ attributes, to enable runtime validation by
     downstream projects.  Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

   - bpo-38821(28): Fix unhandled exceptions in *note argparse: 6. when
     internationalizing error messages for arguments with ‘nargs’ set to
     special (non-integer) values.  Patch by Federico Bond.

   - bpo-38820(29): Make Python compatible with OpenSSL 3.0.0.  *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e46. no longer returns IPv6 addresses
     with a trailing new line.

   - bpo-38811(30): Fix an unhandled exception in *note pathlib: 9f.
     when *note os.link(): f7e. is missing.  Patch by Toke
     Høiland-Jørgensen.

   - bpo-38686(31): Added support for multiple ‘qop’ values in *note
     urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler: 175e.

   - bpo-38712(32): Add the Linux-specific *note
     signal.pidfd_send_signal(): 76a. function, which allows sending a
     signal to a process identified by a file descriptor rather than a
     pid.

   - bpo-38348(33): Add ‘-i’ and ‘--indent’ (indentation level), and
     ‘--no-type-comments’ (type comments) command line options to ast
     parsing tool.

   - bpo-37523(34): Change ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’ to raise ‘ValueError’
     when trying to access the underlying file object after it has been
     closed.  This new behavior is consistent with how accessing closed
     files is handled in other parts of Python.

   - bpo-38045(35): Improve the performance of ‘enum._decompose()’ in
     *note enum: 51.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-36820(36): Break cycle generated when saving an exception in
     socket.py, codeop.py and dyld.py as they keep alive not only the
     exception but user objects through the ‘__traceback__’ attribute.
     Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-36406(37): Handle namespace packages in *note doctest: 36.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-34776(38): Fix dataclasses to support forward references in
     type annotations

   - bpo-20928(39): ElementTree supports recursive XInclude processing.
     Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-29636(40): Add whitespace options for formatting JSON with the
     ‘json.tool’ CLI. The following mutually exclusive options are now
     supported: ‘--indent’ for setting the indent level in spaces;
     ‘--tab’ for indenting with tabs; ‘--no-indent’ for suppressing
     newlines; and ‘--compact’ for suppressing all whitespace.  The
     default behavior remains the same as ‘--indent=4’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39033

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39006

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38708

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38994

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38979

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38978

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38986

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38982

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38529

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27413

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38634

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33684

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38927

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26730

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38881

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38876

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38688

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38863

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37838

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38859

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38857

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38834

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38821

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38811

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38686

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38348

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37523

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38045

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36820

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36406

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34776

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20928

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29636


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<42>,  Next: Tests<42>,  Prev: Library<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.45.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-38928(1): Correct when venv's ‘upgrade_dependencies()’ and
     ‘--upgrade-deps’ are added.

   - bpo-38899(2): Update documentation to state that to activate
     virtual environments under fish one should use ‘source’, not ‘.’ as
     documented at
     ‘https://fishshell.com/docs/current/cmds/source.html’.

   - bpo-22377(3): Improves documentation of the values that *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1408. accepts for ‘%Z’.  Patch by
     Karl Dubost.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38928

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38899

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22377


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<42>,  Next: Build<42>,  Prev: Documentation<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.45.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38546(1): Fix test_ressources_gced_in_workers() of
     test_concurrent_futures: explicitly stop the manager to prevent
     leaking a child process running in the background after the test
     completes.

   - bpo-38546(2): Multiprocessing and concurrent.futures tests now stop
     the resource tracker process when tests complete.

   - bpo-38614(3): Replace hardcoded timeout constants in tests with new
     *note test.support: de. constants: *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1790,
     *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1791, *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 1682. and *note
     LONG_TIMEOUT: 1792.  It becomes easier to adjust these four timeout
     constants for all tests at once, rather than having to adjust every
     single test file.

   - bpo-38547(4): Fix test_pty: if the process is the session leader,
     closing the master file descriptor raises a SIGHUP signal: simply
     ignore SIGHUP when running the tests.

   - bpo-38992(5): Fix a test for *note math.fsum(): 1243. that was
     failing due to constant folding.

   - bpo-38991(6): *note test.support: de.: ‘run_python_until_end()’,
     ‘assert_python_ok()’ and ‘assert_python_failure()’ functions no
     longer strip whitespaces from stderr.  Remove
     ‘test.support.strip_python_stderr()’ function.

   - bpo-38965(7): Fix test_faulthandler on GCC 10.  Use the "volatile"
     keyword in ‘faulthandler._stack_overflow()’ to prevent tail call
     optimization on any compiler, rather than relying on compiler
     specific pragma.

   - bpo-38875(8): test_capi: trashcan tests now require the test "cpu"
     resource.

   - bpo-38841(9): Skip asyncio
     test_create_datagram_endpoint_existing_sock_unix on platforms
     lacking a functional bind() for named unix domain sockets.

   - bpo-38692(10): Skip the test_posix.test_pidfd_open() test if
     ‘os.pidfd_open()’ fails with a *note PermissionError: bb5.  This
     situation can happen in a Linux sandbox using a syscall whitelist
     which doesn't allow the ‘pidfd_open()’ syscall yet.

   - bpo-38839(11): Fix some unused functions in tests.  Patch by Adam
     Johnson.

   - bpo-38669(12): Raise *note TypeError: 2ba. when passing target as a
     string with *note unittest.mock.patch.object(): 1793.

   - bpo-37957(13): test.regrtest now can receive a list of test
     patterns to ignore (using the -i/-ignore argument) or a file with a
     list of patterns to ignore (using the -ignore-file argument).
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38547

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38992

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38991

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38965

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38875

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38841

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38839

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38669

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37957


File: python.info,  Node: Build<42>,  Next: Windows<41>,  Prev: Tests<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.45.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-37404(1): *note asyncio: 9. now raises *note TypeError: 2ba.
     when calling incompatible methods with an *note ssl.SSLSocket: 723.
     socket.  Patch by Ido Michael.

   - bpo-36500(2): Added an optional "regen" project to the Visual
     Studio solution that will regenerate all grammar, tokens, and
     opcodes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36500


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<41>,  Next: macOS<32>,  Prev: Build<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.45.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39007(1): Add auditing events to functions in *note winreg:
     111.

   - bpo-33125(2): Add support for building and releasing Windows ARM64
     packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39007

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<32>,  Next: IDLE<29>,  Prev: Windows<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.45.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-37931(1): Fixed a crash on OSX dynamic builds that occurred
     when re-initializing the posix module after a Py_Finalize if the
     environment had changed since the previous ‘import posix’.  Patch
     by Benoît Hudson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37931


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<29>,  Next: C API<39>,  Prev: macOS<32>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.45.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-38944(1): Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows.  Patch
     by Johnny Najera.

   - bpo-38943(2): Fix IDLE autocomplete windows not always appearing on
     some systems.  Patch by Johnny Najera.

   - bpo-38862(3): 'Strip Trailing Whitespace' on the Format menu
     removes extra newlines at the end of non-shell files.

   - bpo-38636(4): Fix IDLE Format menu tab toggle and file indent
     width.  These functions (default shortcuts Alt-T and Alt-U) were
     mistakenly disabled in 3.7.5 and 3.8.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38943

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38862

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38636


File: python.info,  Node: C API<39>,  Prev: IDLE<29>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.45.10 C API
................

   - bpo-38896(1): Remove ‘PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()’ function: the
     Unicode free list has been removed in Python 3.3.

   - bpo-37340(2): Remove ‘PyMethod_ClearFreeList()’ and
     ‘PyCFunction_ClearFreeList()’ functions: the free lists of bound
     method objects have been removed.

   - bpo-38835(3): Exclude ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros of ‘pyfpe.h’ from ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
     (stable API).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.46 Python 3.9.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-11-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<46>.
* Library: Library<46>.
* Documentation: Documentation<43>.
* Tests: Tests<43>.
* Build: Build<43>.
* Windows: Windows<42>.
* macOS: macOS<33>.
* IDLE: IDLE<30>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<21>.
* C API: C API<40>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<31>,  Next: Core and Builtins<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.46.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38722(1): *note runpy: b9. now uses *note io.open_code(): 14e4.
     to open code files.  Patch by Jason Killen.

   - bpo-38622(2): Add additional audit events for the *note ctypes: 28.
     module.

   - bpo-38418(3): Fixes audit event for *note os.system(): 12cd. to be
     named ‘os.system’.

   - bpo-38243(4): Escape the server title of *note
     xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer: 179b. when rendering the document
     page as HTML. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38243(5).)

   - bpo-38174(6): Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.8,
     which resolves CVE 2019-15903(7).

   - bpo-37764(8): Fixes email._header_value_parser.get_unstructured
     going into an infinite loop for a specific case in which the email
     header does not have trailing whitespace, and the case in which it
     contains an invalid encoded word.  Patch by Ashwin Ramaswami.

   - bpo-37461(9): Fix an infinite loop when parsing specially crafted
     email headers.  Patch by Abhilash Raj.

   - bpo-37363(10): Adds audit events for the range of supported run
     commands (see *note 命令列與環境: 179c.).

   - bpo-37463(11): ssl.match_hostname() no longer accepts IPv4
     addresses with additional text after the address and only
     quad-dotted notation without trailing whitespaces.  Some
     inet_aton() implementations ignore whitespace and all data after
     whitespace, e.g.  '127.0.0.1 whatever'.

   - bpo-37363(12): Adds audit events for *note ensurepip: 50, *note
     ftplib: 59, *note glob: 5f, *note imaplib: 6f, *note nntplib: 98,
     *note pdb: a0, *note poplib: a7, *note shutil: c0, *note smtplib:
     c4, *note sqlite3: c9, *note subprocess: d0, *note telnetlib: d9,
     *note tempfile: da. and *note webbrowser: 110, as well as *note
     os.listdir(): f88, *note os.scandir(): 8aa. and *note breakpoint():
     917.

   - bpo-37364(13): *note io.open_code(): 14e4. is now used when reading
     ‘.pth’ files.

   - bpo-34631(14): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in Windows installer

   - bpo-34155(15): Fix parsing of invalid email addresses with more
     than one ‘@’ (e.g.  a@b@c.com.)  to not return the part before 2nd
     ‘@’ as valid email address.  Patch by maxking & jpic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38622

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38418

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38174

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-15903

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37764

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37461

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37463

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37364

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34155


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<46>,  Next: Library<46>,  Prev: Security<31>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.46.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-38631(1): Replace ‘Py_FatalError()’ call with a regular *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. exception in ‘float.__getformat__()’.

   - bpo-38639(2): Optimized *note math.floor(): 1230, *note
     math.ceil(): 1231. and *note math.trunc(): 1232. for floats.

   - bpo-38640(3): Fixed a bug in the compiler that was causing to raise
     in the presence of break statements and continue statements inside
     always false while loops.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38613(4): Optimized some set operations (e.g.  ‘|’, ‘^’, and
     ‘-’) of ‘dict_keys’.  ‘d.keys() | other’ was slower than ‘set(d) |
     other’ but they are almost same performance for now.

   - bpo-28029(5): ‘"".replace("", s, n)’ now returns ‘s’ instead of an
     empty string for all non-zero ‘n’.  There are similar changes for
     *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0. objects.

   - bpo-38535(6): Fixed line numbers and column offsets for AST nodes
     for calls without arguments in decorators.

   - bpo-38525(7): Fix a segmentation fault when using reverse iterators
     of empty ‘dict’ objects.  Patch by Donghee Na and Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-38465(8): *note bytearray: 2c0, *note array: 18f. and *note
     mmap: 84e. objects allow now to export more than ‘2**31’ buffers at
     a time.

   - bpo-38469(9): Fixed a bug where the scope of named expressions was
     not being resolved correctly in the presence of the 'global'
     keyword.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38437(10): Activate the ‘GC_DEBUG’ macro for debug builds of
     the interpreter (when ‘Py_DEBUG’ is set).  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38379(11): When the garbage collector makes a collection in
     which some objects resurrect (they are reachable from outside the
     isolated cycles after the finalizers have been executed), do not
     block the collection of all objects that are still unreachable.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo and Tim Peters.

   - bpo-38379(12): When cyclic garbage collection (gc) runs finalizers
     that resurrect unreachable objects, the current gc run ends,
     without collecting any cyclic trash.  However, the statistics
     reported by ‘collect()’ and ‘get_stats()’ claimed that all cyclic
     trash found was collected, and that the resurrected objects were
     collected.  Changed the stats to report that none were collected.

   - bpo-38392(13): In debug mode, *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 137d. now
     calls ‘tp_traverse()’ of the object type to ensure that the object
     is valid: test that objects visited by ‘tp_traverse()’ are valid.

   - bpo-38210(14): Remove unnecessary intersection and update set
     operation in dictview with empty set.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     in bpo-38210(15).)

   - bpo-38402(16): Check the error from the system's underlying ‘crypt’
     or ‘crypt_r’.

   - bpo-37474(17): On FreeBSD, Python no longer calls
     ‘fedisableexcept()’ at startup to control the floating-point
     control mode.  The call became useless since FreeBSD 6: it became
     the default mode.

   - bpo-38006(18): Fix a bug due to the interaction of weakrefs and the
     cyclic garbage collector.  We must clear any weakrefs in garbage in
     order to prevent their callbacks from executing and causing a
     crash.

   - bpo-38317(19): Fix warnings options priority:
     ‘PyConfig.warnoptions’ has the highest priority, as stated in the
     PEP 587(20).

   - bpo-38310(21): Predict ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ ->
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ opcode pairs in the main interpreter loop.
     Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-36871(22): Improve error handling for the assert_has_calls and
     assert_has_awaits methods of mocks.  Fixed a bug where any errors
     encountered while binding the expected calls to the mock's spec
     were silently swallowed, leading to misleading error output.

   - bpo-11410(23): Better control over symbol visibility is provided
     through use of the visibility attributes available in gcc >= 4.0,
     provided in a uniform way across POSIX and Windows.  The POSIX
     build files have been updated to compile with -fvisibility=hidden,
     minimising exported symbols.

   - bpo-38219(24): Optimized the *note dict: 239. constructor and the
     *note update(): 12d5. method for the case when the argument is a
     dict.

   - bpo-38236(25): Python now dumps path configuration if it fails to
     import the Python codecs of the filesystem and stdio encodings.

   - bpo-38013(26): Allow to call ‘async_generator_athrow().throw(...)’
     even for non-started async generator helper.  It fixes annoying
     warning at the end of *note asyncio.run(): 197. call.

   - bpo-38124(27): Fix an off-by-one error in PyState_AddModule that
     could cause out-of-bounds memory access.

   - bpo-38116(28): The select module is now PEP-384 compliant and no
     longer has static state

   - bpo-38113(29): ast module updated to PEP-384 and all statics
     removed

   - bpo-38076(30): The struct module is now PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38075(31): The random module is now PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38074(32): zlib module made PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38073(33): Make pwd extension module PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38072(34): grp module made PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38069(35): Make _posixsubprocess PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38071(36): Make termios extension module PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38005(37): Fixed comparing and creating of InterpreterID and
     ChannelID.

   - bpo-36946(38): Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling
     slices.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-37994(39): Fixed silencing arbitrary errors if an attribute
     lookup fails in several sites.  Only AttributeError should be
     silenced.

   - bpo-8425(40): Optimize set difference_update for the case when the
     other set is much larger than the base set.  (Suggested by Evgeny
     Kapun with code contributed by Michele Orrù).

   - bpo-37966(41): The implementation of *note is_normalized(): 893.
     has been greatly sped up on strings that aren't normalized, by
     implementing the full normalization-quick-check algorithm from the
     Unicode standard.

   - bpo-37947(42): Adjust correctly the recursion level in the symtable
     generation for named expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37812(43): The ‘CHECK_SMALL_INT’ macro used inside
     ‘Object/longobject.c’ has been replaced with an explicit ‘return’
     at each call site.

   - bpo-37751(44): Fix *note codecs.lookup(): 7a4. to normalize the
     encoding name the same way than ‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’,
     except that *note codecs.lookup(): 7a4. also converts the name to
     lower case.

   - bpo-37830(45): Fixed compilation of *note break: 8fc. and *note
     continue: 80d. in the *note finally: 80e. block when the
     corresponding *note try: 4ea. block contains *note return: 812.
     with a non-constant value.

   - bpo-20490(46): Improve import error message for partially
     initialized module on circular ‘from’ imports - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37840(47): Fix handling of negative indices in *note sq_item:
     1702. of *note bytearray: 2c0.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37802(48): Slightly improve performance of *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 179e, *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 179f. and *note PyLong_FromSize_t():
     17a0.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37409(49): Ensure explicit relative imports from interactive
     sessions and scripts (having no parent package) always raise
     ImportError, rather than treating the current module as the
     package.  Patch by Ben Lewis.

   - bpo-32912(50): Reverted bpo-32912(51): emitting *note
     SyntaxWarning: 178. instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 179. for
     invalid escape sequences in string and bytes literals.

   - bpo-37757(52): PEP 572(53): As described in the PEP, assignment
     expressions now raise *note SyntaxError: 146. when their
     interaction with comprehension scoping results in an ambiguous
     target scope.

     The ‘TargetScopeError’ subclass originally proposed by the PEP has
     been removed in favour of just raising regular syntax errors for
     the disallowed cases.

   - bpo-36279(54): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in *note
     os.wait3(): c0d.

   - bpo-36311(55): Decoding bytes objects larger than 2GiB is faster
     and no longer fails when a multibyte characters spans a chunk
     boundary.

   - bpo-34880(56): The *note assert: 7aa. statement now works properly
     if the *note AssertionError: 4a6. exception is being shadowed.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-37340(57): Removed object cache (‘free_list’) for bound method
     objects.  Temporary bound method objects are less used than before
     thanks to the ‘LOAD_METHOD’ opcode and the
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod’ C API.

   - bpo-37648(58): Fixed minor inconsistency in ‘list.__contains__()’,
     ‘tuple.__contains__()’ and a few other places.  The collection's
     item is now always at the left and the needle is on the right of
     ‘==’.

   - bpo-37444(59): Update differing exception between
     ‘builtins.__import__()’ and *note importlib.__import__(): f03.

   - bpo-37619(60): When adding a wrapper descriptor from one class to a
     different class (for example, setting ‘__add__ = str.__add__’ on an
     ‘int’ subclass), an exception is correctly raised when the operator
     is called.

   - bpo-37593(61): Swap the positions of the 'posonlyargs' and 'args'
     parameters in the constructor of ‘ast.parameters’ nodes.

   - bpo-37543(62): Optimized pymalloc for non PGO build.

   - bpo-37537(63): Compute allocated pymalloc blocks inside
     _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks().  This slows down _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks()
     but gives a small speedup to _PyObject_Malloc() and
     _PyObject_Free().

   - bpo-37467(64): Fix *note sys.excepthook(): 62d. and
     ‘PyErr_Display()’ if a filename is a bytes string.  For example,
     for a SyntaxError exception where the filename attribute is a bytes
     string.

   - bpo-37433(65): Fix ‘SyntaxError’ indicator printing too many spaces
     for multi-line strings - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37417(66): ‘bytearray.extend()’ now correctly handles errors
     that arise during iteration.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-37414(67): The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been
     removed.  Since Python 3.7, it was deprecated and always returned
     ‘None’.  It required a special build option ‘CALL_PROFILE’ which
     was already removed in Python 3.7.

   - bpo-37392(68): Remove ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ and
     ‘sys.setcheckinterval()’ functions.  They were deprecated since
     Python 3.2.  Use *note sys.getswitchinterval(): 78a. and *note
     sys.setswitchinterval(): 78b. instead.  Remove also
     ‘check_interval’ field of the ‘PyInterpreterState’ structure.

   - bpo-37388(69): In development mode and in debug build, 'encoding'
     and 'errors' arguments are now checked on string encoding and
     decoding operations.  Examples: *note open(): 29c, *note
     str.encode(): 70e. and *note bytes.decode(): 70f.

     By default, for best performances, the 'errors' argument is only
     checked at the first encoding/decoding error, and the 'encoding'
     argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.

   - bpo-37348(70): Optimized decoding short ASCII string with UTF-8 and
     ascii codecs.  ‘b"foo".decode()’ is about 15% faster.  Patch by
     Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-24214(71): Improved support of the surrogatepass error handler
     in the UTF-8 and UTF-16 incremental decoders.

   - bpo-37330(72): *note open(): 29c, *note io.open(): 29d, *note
     codecs.open(): 551. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 547. no longer
     accept ‘'U'’ ("universal newline") in the file mode.  This flag was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-35224(73): Reverse evaluation order of key: value in dict
     comprehensions as proposed in PEP 572.  I.e.  in ‘{k: v for ...}’,
     ‘k’ will be evaluated before ‘v’.

   - bpo-37316(74): Fix the *note PySys_Audit(): 175a. call in *note
     mmap.mmap: 84e.

   - bpo-37300(75): Remove an unnecessary Py_XINCREF in classobject.c.

   - bpo-37269(76): Fix a bug in the peephole optimizer that was not
     treating correctly constant conditions with binary operators.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-20443(77): Python now gets the absolute path of the script
     filename specified on the command line (ex: "python3 script.py"):
     the __file__ attribute of the __main__ module and sys.path[0]
     become an absolute path, rather than a relative path.

   - bpo-37257(78): Python's small object allocator (‘obmalloc.c’) now
     allows (no more than) one empty arena to remain available for
     immediate reuse, without returning it to the OS. This prevents
     thrashing in simple loops where an arena could be created and
     destroyed anew on each iteration.

   - bpo-37231(79): The dispatching of type slots to special methods
     (for example calling ‘__mul__’ when doing ‘x * y’) has been made
     faster.

   - bpo-36974(80): Implemented separate vectorcall functions for every
     calling convention of builtin functions and methods.  This improves
     performance for calls.

   - bpo-37213(81): Handle correctly negative line offsets in the
     peephole optimizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37219(82): Remove erroneous optimization for empty set
     differences.

   - bpo-15913(83): Implement *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 56f.
     function (previously documented but not implemented): call *note
     struct.calcsize(): 17a1.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-36922(84): Slot functions optimize any callable with
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR’ instead of only instances of
     ‘function’.

   - bpo-36974(85): The slot ‘tp_vectorcall_offset’ is inherited
     unconditionally to support ‘super().__call__()’ when the base class
     uses vectorcall.

   - bpo-37160(86): *note threading.get_native_id(): 887. now also
     supports NetBSD.

   - bpo-37077(87): Add *note threading.get_native_id(): 887. support
     for AIX. Patch by M. Felt

   - bpo-36781(88): *note sum(): 181. has been optimized for boolean
     values.

   - bpo-34556(89): Add ‘--upgrade-deps’ to venv module.  Patch by
     Cooper Ry Lees

   - bpo-20523(90): ‘pdb.Pdb’ supports ~/.pdbrc in Windows 7.  Patch by
     Tim Hopper and Dan Lidral-Porter.

   - bpo-35551(91): Updated encodings: - Removed the "tis260" encoding,
     which was an alias for the nonexistent "tactis" codec.  - Added
     "mac_centeuro" as an alias for the mac_latin2 encoding.

   - bpo-19072(92): The *note classmethod: 24b. decorator can now wrap
     other descriptors such as property objects.  Adapted from a patch
     written by Graham Dumpleton.

   - bpo-27575(93): Improve speed of dictview intersection by directly
     using set intersection logic.  Patch by David Su.

   - bpo-30773(94): Prohibit parallel running of aclose() / asend() /
     athrow().  Fix ag_running to reflect the actual running status of
     the AG.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38639

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38640

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38613

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38535

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38525

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38465

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38437

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38392

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38402

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37474

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38006

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38317

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38310

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36871

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11410

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38219

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38236

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38013

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38124

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38116

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38113

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38074

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38073

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38072

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38069

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38071

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38005

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37994

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37947

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37812

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37830

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20490

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37840

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37802

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37409

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37757

   (53) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36279

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36311

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34880

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37648

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37619

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37593

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37543

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37537

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37467

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37433

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37417

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37414

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37392

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37348

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24214

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37316

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37300

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37269

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37257

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37231

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37213

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37219

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15913

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36922

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37160

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37077

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36781

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34556

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20523

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35551

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27575

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30773


File: python.info,  Node: Library<46>,  Next: Documentation<43>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.46.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-36589(1): The *note curses.update_lines_cols(): c64. function
     now returns ‘None’ instead of ‘1’ on success.

   - bpo-38807(2): Update *note TypeError: 2ba. messages for *note
     os.path.join(): 14ed. to include *note os.PathLike: ab7. objects as
     acceptable input types.

   - bpo-38724(3): Add a repr for ‘subprocess.Popen’ objects.  Patch by
     Andrey Doroschenko.

   - bpo-38786(4): pydoc now recognizes and parses HTTPS URLs.  Patch by
     python273.

   - bpo-38785(5): Prevent asyncio from crashing if parent ‘__init__’ is
     not called from a constructor of object derived from
     ‘asyncio.Future’.

   - bpo-38723(6): *note pdb: a0. now uses *note io.open_code(): 14e4.
     to trigger auditing events.

   - bpo-27805(7): Allow opening pipes and other non-seekable files in
     append mode with *note open(): 29c.

   - bpo-38438(8): Simplify the *note argparse: 6. usage message for
     ‘nargs="*"’.

   - bpo-38761(9): WeakSet is now registered as a
     collections.abc.MutableSet.

   - bpo-38716(10): logging: change RotatingHandler namer and rotator to
     class-level attributes.  This stops __init__ from setting them to
     None in the case where a subclass defines them with eponymous
     methods.

   - bpo-38713(11): Add *note os.P_PIDFD: 758. constant, which may be
     passed to *note os.waitid(): c10. to wait on a Linux process file
     descriptor.

   - bpo-38692(12): Add *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 194, a
     Linux-specific child watcher implementation that polls process file
     descriptors.

   - bpo-38692(13): Expose the Linux ‘pidfd_open’ syscall as *note
     os.pidfd_open(): 195.

   - bpo-38602(14): Added constants ‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and
     ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’ to the *note fcntl: 54. module.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-38334(15): Fixed seeking backward on an encrypted
     ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’.

   - bpo-38312(16): Add *note curses.get_escdelay(): 729, *note
     curses.set_escdelay(): 72a, *note curses.get_tabsize(): 72b, and
     *note curses.set_tabsize(): 72c. functions - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-38586(17): Now *note fileConfig(): 9ab. correctly sets the
     .name of handlers loaded.

   - bpo-38565(18): Add new cache_parameters() method for
     functools.lru_cache() to better support pickling.

   - bpo-34679(19): asynci.ProactorEventLoop.close() now only calls
     signal.set_wakeup_fd() in the main thread.

   - bpo-31202(20): The case the result of ‘pathlib.WindowsPath.glob()’
     matches now the case of the pattern for literal parts.

   - bpo-36321(21): Remove misspelled attribute.  The 3.8 changelog
     noted that this would be removed in 3.9.

   - bpo-38521(22): Fixed erroneous equality comparison in
     statistics.NormalDist().

   - bpo-38493(23): Added *note CLD_KILLED: 756. and *note CLD_STOPPED:
     757. for ‘si_code’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38478(24): Fixed a bug in ‘inspect.signature.bind()’ that was
     causing it to fail when handling a keyword argument with same name
     as positional-only parameter.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33604(25): Fixed ‘hmac.new’ and ‘hmac.HMAC’ to raise TypeError
     instead of ValueError when the digestmod parameter, now required in
     3.8, is omitted.  Also clarified the hmac module documentation and
     docstrings.

   - bpo-38378(26): Parameters 'out' and 'in' of *note os.sendfile():
     964. was renamed to 'out_fd' and 'in_fd'.

   - bpo-38417(27): Added support for setting the umask in the child
     process to the subprocess module on POSIX systems.

   - bpo-38449(28): Revert PR 15522, which introduces a regression in
     *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 1439. due to improper handling of
     filenames as urls.

   - bpo-38431(29): Fix ‘__repr__’ method for ‘dataclasses.InitVar’ to
     support typing objects, patch by Samuel Colvin.

   - bpo-38109(30): Add missing *note stat.S_IFDOOR: e49, *note
     stat.S_IFPORT: e4a, *note stat.S_IFWHT: e4b, *note stat.S_ISDOOR():
     17a3, *note stat.S_ISPORT(): 17a4, and *note stat.S_ISWHT(): 17a5.
     values to the Python implementation of *note stat: cb.

   - bpo-38422(31): Clarify docstrings of pathlib suffix(es)

   - bpo-38405(32): Nested subclasses of *note typing.NamedTuple: 1fb.
     are now pickleable.

   - bpo-38332(33): Prevent *note KeyError: 8ed. thrown by
     ‘_encoded_words.decode()’ when given an encoded-word with invalid
     content-type encoding from propagating all the way to
     ‘email.message.get()’.

   - bpo-38371(34): Deprecated the ‘split()’ method in
     ‘_tkinter.TkappType’ in favour of the ‘splitlist()’ method which
     has more consistent and predictable behavior.

   - bpo-38341(35): Add *note smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError: 17a6. to
     the *note smtplib: c4. exported names.

   - bpo-38319(36): sendfile() used in socket and shutil modules was
     raising OverflowError for files >= 2GiB on 32-bit architectures.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-38242(37): Revert the new asyncio Streams API

   - bpo-13153(38): OS native encoding is now used for converting
     between Python strings and Tcl objects.  This allows to display,
     copy and paste to clipboard emoji and other non-BMP characters.
     Converting strings from Tcl to Python and back now never fails
     (except MemoryError).

   - bpo-38019(39): Correctly handle pause/resume reading of closed
     asyncio unix pipe.

   - bpo-38163(40): Child mocks will now detect their type as either
     synchronous or asynchronous, asynchronous child mocks will be
     AsyncMocks and synchronous child mocks will be either MagicMock or
     Mock (depending on their parent type).

   - bpo-38161(41): Removes _AwaitEvent from AsyncMock.

   - bpo-38216(42): Allow the rare code that wants to send invalid http
     requests from the ‘http.client’ library a way to do so.  The fixes
     for bpo-30458(43) led to breakage for some projects that were
     relying on this ability to test their own behavior in the face of
     bad requests.

   - bpo-28286(44): Deprecate opening *note GzipFile: 28d. for writing
     implicitly.  Always specify the 'mode' argument for writing.

   - bpo-38108(45): Any synchronous magic methods on an AsyncMock now
     return a MagicMock.  Any asynchronous magic methods on a MagicMock
     now return an AsyncMock.

   - bpo-38265(46): Update the 'length' parameter of *note os.pread():
     9ba. to accept *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. instead of int.

   - bpo-38112(47): *note compileall: 1e. has a higher default recursion
     limit and new command-line arguments for path manipulation,
     symlinks handling, and multiple optimization levels.

   - bpo-38248(48): asyncio: Fix inconsistent immediate Task
     cancellation

   - bpo-38237(49): The arguments for the builtin pow function are more
     descriptive.  They can now also be passed in as keywords.

   - bpo-34002(50): Improve efficiency in parts of email package by
     changing while-pop to a for loop, using isdisjoint instead of set
     intersections.

   - bpo-38191(51): Constructors of *note NamedTuple: 1fb. and *note
     TypedDict: 153. types now accept arbitrary keyword argument names,
     including "cls", "self", "typename", "_typename", "fields" and
     "_fields".

   - bpo-38155(52): Add ‘__all__’ to *note datetime: 2e.  Patch by Tahia
     Khan.

   - bpo-38185(53): Fixed case-insensitive string comparison in *note
     sqlite3.Row: cef. indexing.

   - bpo-38136(54): Changes AsyncMock call count and await count to be
     two different counters.  Now await count only counts when a
     coroutine has been awaited, not when it has been called, and
     vice-versa.  Update the documentation around this.

   - bpo-37828(55): Fix default mock name in *note
     unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called(): b66. exceptions.  Patch by
     Abraham Toriz Cruz.

   - bpo-38175(56): Fix a memory leak in comparison of *note
     sqlite3.Row: cef. objects.

   - bpo-33936(57): _hashlib no longer calls obsolete OpenSSL
     initialization function with OpenSSL 1.1.0+.

   - bpo-34706(58): Preserve subclassing in
     inspect.Signature.from_callable.

   - bpo-38153(59): Names of hashing algorithms from OpenSSL are now
     normalized to follow Python's naming conventions.  For example
     OpenSSL uses sha3-512 instead of sha3_512 or blake2b512 instead of
     blake2b.

   - bpo-38115(60): Fix a bug in dis.findlinestarts() where it would
     return invalid bytecode offsets.  Document that a code object's
     co_lnotab can contain invalid bytecode offsets.

   - bpo-38148(61): Add slots to *note asyncio: 9. transport classes,
     which can reduce memory usage.

   - bpo-38142(62): The _hashlib OpenSSL wrapper extension module is now
     PEP-384 compliant.

   - bpo-9216(63): hashlib constructors now support usedforsecurity flag
     to signal that a hashing algorithm is not used in a security
     context.

   - bpo-36991(64): Fixes a potential incorrect AttributeError exception
     escaping ZipFile.extract() in some unsupported input error
     situations.

   - bpo-38134(65): Remove obsolete copy of PBKDF2_HMAC_fast.  All
     supported OpenSSL versions contain a fast implementation.

   - bpo-38132(66): The OpenSSL hashlib wrapper uses a simpler
     implementation.  Several Macros and pointless caches are gone.  The
     hash name now comes from OpenSSL's EVP. The algorithm name stays
     the same, except it is now always lower case.

   - bpo-38008(67): Fix parent class check in protocols to correctly
     identify the module that provides a builtin protocol, instead of
     assuming they all come from the *note collections.abc: 1c. module

   - bpo-34037(68): For *note asyncio: 9, add a new coroutine
     ‘loop.shutdown_default_executor()’.  The new coroutine provides an
     API to schedule an executor shutdown that waits on the threadpool
     to finish closing.  Also, *note asyncio.run(): 197. has been
     updated to utilize the new coroutine.  Patch by Kyle Stanley.

   - bpo-37405(69): Fixed regression bug for socket.getsockname() for
     non-CAN_ISOTP AF_CAN address family sockets by returning a 1-tuple
     instead of string.

   - bpo-38121(70): Update parameter names on functions in
     importlib.metadata matching the changes in the 0.22 release of
     importlib_metadata.

   - bpo-38110(71): The os.closewalk() implementation now uses the libc
     fdwalk() API on platforms where it is available.

   - bpo-38093(72): Fixes AsyncMock so it doesn't crash when used with
     AsyncContextManagers or AsyncIterators.

   - bpo-37488(73): Add warning to ‘datetime.utctimetuple()’,
     ‘datetime.utcnow()’ and ‘datetime.utcfromtimestamp()’ .

   - bpo-35640(74): Allow passing a *note path-like object: 975. as
     ‘directory’ argument to the *note
     http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 99b. class.  Patch by Géry
     Ogam.

   - bpo-38086(75): Update importlib.metadata with changes from
     importlib_metadata 0.21(76).

   - bpo-37251(77): Remove ‘__code__’ check in AsyncMock that
     incorrectly evaluated function specs as async objects but failed to
     evaluate classes with ‘__await__’ but no ‘__code__’ attribute
     defined as async objects.

   - bpo-38037(78): Fix reference counters in the *note signal: c1.
     module.

   - bpo-38066(79): Hide internal asyncio.Stream methods: feed_eof(),
     feed_data(), set_exception() and set_transport().

   - bpo-38059(80): inspect.py now uses sys.exit() instead of exit()

   - bpo-38049(81): Added command-line interface for the *note ast: 8.
     module.

   - bpo-37953(82): In *note typing: ff, improved the ‘__hash__’ and
     ‘__eq__’ methods for ‘ForwardReferences’.

   - bpo-38026(83): Fixed *note inspect.getattr_static(): 1b2. used
     ‘isinstance’ while it should avoid dynamic lookup.

   - bpo-35923(84): Update *note importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter:
     b1c. to use ‘loader._ORIGIN’ instead of a hardcoded value.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38010(85): In ‘importlib.metadata’ sync with
     ‘importlib_metadata’ 0.20, clarifying behavior of ‘files()’ and
     fixing issue where only one requirement was returned for
     ‘requires()’ on ‘dist-info’ packages.

   - bpo-38006(86): weakref.WeakValueDictionary defines a local remove()
     function used as callback for weak references.  This function was
     created with a closure.  Modify the implementation to avoid the
     closure.

   - bpo-37995(87): Added the 'indent' option to *note ast.dump(): 71d.
     which allows it to produce a multiline indented output.

   - bpo-34410(88): Fixed a crash in the ‘tee()’ iterator when re-enter
     it.  RuntimeError is now raised in this case.

   - bpo-37140(89): Fix a ctypes regression of Python 3.8.  When a
     ctypes.Structure is passed by copy to a function, ctypes internals
     created a temporary object which had the side effect of calling the
     structure finalizer (__del__) twice.  The Python semantics requires
     a finalizer to be called exactly once.  Fix ctypes internals to no
     longer call the finalizer twice.

   - bpo-37587(90): ‘_json.scanstring’ is now up to 3x faster when there
     are many backslash escaped characters in the JSON string.

   - bpo-37834(91): Prevent shutil.rmtree exception when built on
     non-Windows system without fd system call support, like older
     versions of macOS.

   - bpo-10978(92): Semaphores and BoundedSemaphores can now release
     more than one waiting thread at a time.

   - bpo-37972(93): Subscripts to the ‘unittest.mock.call’ objects now
     receive the same chaining mechanism as any other custom attributes,
     so that the following usage no longer raises a ‘TypeError’:

     ‘call().foo().__getitem__('bar')’

     Patch by blhsing

   - bpo-37965(94): Fix C compiler warning caused by
     distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.has_function.

   - bpo-37964(95): Add ‘F_GETPATH’ command to *note fcntl: 54.

   - bpo-37960(96): ‘repr()’ of buffered and text streams now silences
     only expected exceptions when get the value of "name" and "mode"
     attributes.

   - bpo-37961(97): Add a ‘total_nframe’ field to the traces collected
     by the tracemalloc module.  This field indicates the original
     number of frames before it was truncated.

   - bpo-37951(98): Most features of the subprocess module now work
     again in subinterpreters.  Only 'preexec_fn' is restricted in
     subinterpreters.

   - bpo-36205(99): Fix the rusage implementation of time.process_time()
     to correctly report the sum of the system and user CPU time.

   - bpo-37950(100): Fix *note ast.dump(): 71d. when call with
     incompletely initialized node.

   - bpo-34679(101): Restores instantiation of Windows IOCP event loops
     from the non-main thread.

   - bpo-36917(102): Add default implementation of the *note
     ast.NodeVisitor.visit_Constant(): 8ba. method which emits a
     deprecation warning and calls corresponding methods ‘visit_Num()’,
     ‘visit_Str()’, etc.

   - bpo-37798(103): Update test_statistics.py to verify that the
     statistics module works well for both C and Python implementations.
     Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-26589(104): Added a new status code to the http module: 451
     UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS

   - bpo-37915(105): Fix a segmentation fault that appeared when
     comparing instances of ‘datetime.timezone’ and ‘datetime.tzinfo’
     objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-32554(106): Deprecate having random.seed() call hash on
     arbitrary types.

   - bpo-9938(107): Add optional keyword argument ‘exit_on_error’ for
     ‘ArgumentParser’.

   - bpo-37851(108): The *note faulthandler: 53. module no longer
     allocates its alternative stack at Python startup.  Now the stack
     is only allocated at the first faulthandler usage.

   - bpo-32793(109): Fix a duplicated debug message when *note
     smtplib.SMTP.connect(): 17a7. is called.

   - bpo-37885(110): venv: Don't generate unset variable warning on
     deactivate.

   - bpo-37868(111): Fix dataclasses.is_dataclass when given an instance
     that never raises AttributeError in __getattr__.  That is, an
     object that returns something for __dataclass_fields__ even if it's
     not a dataclass.

   - bpo-37811(112): Fix ‘socket’ module's ‘socket.connect(address)’
     function being unable to establish connection in case of
     interrupted system call.  The problem was observed on all OSes
     which ‘poll(2)’ system call can take only non-negative integers and
     -1 as a timeout value.

   - bpo-37863(113): Optimizations for Fraction.__hash__ suggested by
     Tim Peters.

   - bpo-21131(114): Fix ‘faulthandler.register(chain=True)’ stack.
     faulthandler now allocates a dedicated stack of ‘SIGSTKSZ*2’ bytes,
     instead of just ‘SIGSTKSZ’ bytes.  Calling the previous signal
     handler in faulthandler signal handler uses more than ‘SIGSTKSZ’
     bytes of stack memory on some platforms.

   - bpo-37798(115): Add C fastpath for statistics.NormalDist.inv_cdf()
     Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-37804(116): Remove the deprecated method
     ‘threading.Thread.isAlive()’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37819(117): Add Fraction.as_integer_ratio() to match the
     corresponding methods in bool, int, float, and decimal.

   - bpo-14465(118): Add an xml.etree.ElementTree.indent() function for
     pretty-printing XML trees.  Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-37810(119): Fix *note difflib: 34. ‘?’ hint in diff output when
     dealing with tabs.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37772(120): In ‘zipfile.Path’, when adding implicit dirs,
     ensure that ancestral directories are added and that duplicates are
     excluded.

   - bpo-18578(121): Renamed and documented ‘test.bytecode_helper’ as
     ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37785(122): Fix xgettext warnings in *note argparse: 6.

   - bpo-34488(123): ‘writelines()’ method of *note io.BytesIO: d24. is
     now slightly faster when many small lines are passed.  Patch by
     Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37449(124): ‘ensurepip’ now uses
     ‘importlib.resources.read_binary()’ to read data instead of
     ‘pkgutil.get_data()’.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-28292(125): Mark calendar.py helper functions as being private.
     The follows PEP 8 guidance to maintain the style conventions in the
     module and it addresses a known case of user confusion.

   - bpo-18049(126): Add definition of THREAD_STACK_SIZE for AIX in
     Python/thread_pthread.h The default thread stacksize caused crashes
     with the default recursion limit Patch by M Felt

   - bpo-37742(127): The logging.getLogger() API now returns the root
     logger when passed the name 'root', whereas previously it returned
     a non-root logger named 'root'.  This could affect cases where user
     code explicitly wants a non-root logger named 'root', or
     instantiates a logger using logging.getLogger(__name__) in some
     top-level module called 'root.py'.

   - bpo-37738(128): Fix the implementation of curses ‘addch(str,
     color_pair)’: pass the color pair to ‘setcchar()’, instead of
     always passing 0 as the color pair.

   - bpo-37723(129): Fix performance regression on regular expression
     parsing with huge character sets.  Patch by Yann Vaginay.

   - bpo-35943(130): The function *note PyImport_GetModule(): a14. now
     ensures any module it returns is fully initialized.  Patch by
     Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-32178(131): Fix IndexError in *note email: 37. package when
     trying to parse invalid address fields starting with ‘:’.

   - bpo-37268(132): The ‘parser’ module is deprecated and will be
     removed in future versions of Python.

   - bpo-11953(133): Completing WSA* error codes in *note socket: c6.

   - bpo-37685(134): Fixed comparisons of *note datetime.timedelta: 813.
     and *note datetime.timezone: f4e.

   - bpo-37697(135): Synchronize ‘importlib.metadata’ with
     importlib_metadata 0.19(136), improving handling of EGG-INFO files
     and fixing a crash when entry point names contained colons.

   - bpo-37695(137): Correct *note curses.unget_wch(): f2e. error
     message.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37689(138): Add ‘is_relative_to()’ in ‘PurePath’ to determine
     whether or not one path is relative to another.

   - bpo-29553(139): Fixed *note argparse.ArgumentParser.format_usage():
     17a8. for mutually exclusive groups.  Patch by Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-37691(140): Let math.dist() accept coordinates as sequences (or
     iterables) rather than just tuples.

   - bpo-37685(141): Fixed ‘__eq__’, ‘__lt__’ etc implementations in
     some classes.  They now return *note NotImplemented: 5f2. for
     unsupported type of the other operand.  This allows the other
     operand to play role (for example the equality comparison with
     *note ANY: 17a9. will return ‘True’).

   - bpo-37354(142): Make Activate.ps1 Powershell script static to allow
     for signing it.

   - bpo-37664(143): Update wheels bundled with ensurepip (pip 19.2.3
     and setuptools 41.2.0)

   - bpo-37663(144): Bring consistency to venv shell activation scripts
     by always using __VENV_PROMPT__.

   - bpo-37642(145): Allowed the pure Python implementation of *note
     datetime.timezone: f4e. to represent sub-minute offsets close to
     minimum and maximum boundaries, specifically in the ranges (23:59,
     24:00) and (-23:59, 24:00).  Patch by Ngalim Siregar

   - bpo-36161(146): In *note posix: a8, use ‘ttyname_r’ instead of
     ‘ttyname’ for thread safety.

   - bpo-36324(147): Make internal attributes for
     statistics.NormalDist() private.

   - bpo-37555(148): Fix ‘NonCallableMock._call_matcher’ returning tuple
     instead of ‘_Call’ object when ‘self._spec_signature’ exists.
     Patch by Elizabeth Uselton

   - bpo-29446(149): Make ‘from tkinter import *’ import only the
     expected objects.

   - bpo-16970(150): Adding a value error when an invalid value in
     passed to nargs Patch by Robert Leenders

   - bpo-34443(151): Exceptions from *note enum: 51. now use the
     ‘__qualname’ of the enum class in the exception message instead of
     the ‘__name__’.

   - bpo-37491(152): Fix ‘IndexError’ when parsing email headers with
     unexpectedly ending bare-quoted string value.  Patch by Abhilash
     Raj.

   - bpo-37587(153): Make json.loads faster for long strings.  (Patch by
     Marco Paolini)

   - bpo-18378(154): Recognize "UTF-8" as a valid value for LC_CTYPE in
     locale._parse_localename.

   - bpo-37579(155): Return *note NotImplemented: 5f2. in Python
     implementation of ‘__eq__’ for *note timedelta: 813. and *note
     time: 6c5. when the other object being compared is not of the same
     type to match C implementation.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-21478(156): Record calls to parent when autospecced object is
     attached to a mock using ‘unittest.mock.attach_mock()’.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-37531(157): "python3 -m test -jN -timeout=TIMEOUT" now kills a
     worker process if it runs longer than 'TIMEOUT' seconds.

   - bpo-37482(158): Fix serialization of display name in originator or
     destination address fields with both encoded words and special
     chars.

   - bpo-36993(159): Improve error reporting for corrupt zip files with
     bad zip64 extra data.  Patch by Daniel Hillier.

   - bpo-37502(160): pickle.loads() no longer raises TypeError when the
     buffers argument is set to None

   - bpo-37520(161): Correct behavior for zipfile.Path.parent when the
     path object identifies a subdirectory.

   - bpo-18374(162): Fix the ‘.col_offset’ attribute of nested *note
     ast.BinOp: 17aa. instances which had a too large value in some
     situations.

   - bpo-37424(163): Fixes a possible hang when using a timeout on
     ‘subprocess.run()’ while capturing output.  If the child process
     spawned its own children or otherwise connected its stdout or
     stderr handles with another process, we could hang after the
     timeout was reached and our child was killed when attempting to
     read final output from the pipes.

   - bpo-37421(164): Fix ‘multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir()’
     finalizer: clear also the 'tempdir' configuration of the current
     process, so next call to ‘get_temp_dir()’ will create a new
     temporary directory, rather than reusing the removed temporary
     directory.

   - bpo-37481(165): The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command is deprecated
     in Python 3.8, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

   - bpo-37479(166): When ‘Enum.__str__’ is overridden in a derived
     class, the override will be used by ‘Enum.__format__’ regardless of
     whether mixin classes are present.

   - bpo-37440(167): http.client now enables TLS 1.3 post-handshake
     authentication for default context or if a cert_file is passed to
     HTTPSConnection.

   - bpo-37437(168): Update vendorized expat version to 2.2.7.

   - bpo-37428(169): SSLContext.post_handshake_auth = True no longer
     sets SSL_VERIFY_POST_HANDSHAKE verify flag for client connections.
     Although the option is documented as ignored for clients, OpenSSL
     implicitly enables cert chain validation when the flag is set.

   - bpo-37420(170): *note os.sched_setaffinity(): f9c. now correctly
     handles errors that arise during iteration over its ‘mask’
     argument.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-37412(171): The *note os.getcwdb(): 8e0. function now uses the
     UTF-8 encoding on Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP
     529(172) for the rationale.  The function is no longer deprecated
     on Windows.

   - bpo-37406(173): The sqlite3 module now raises TypeError, rather
     than ValueError, if operation argument type is not str: execute(),
     executemany() and calling a connection.

   - bpo-29412(174): Fix IndexError in parsing a header value ending
     unexpectedly.  Patch by Abhilash Raj.

   - bpo-36546(175): The 'dist' argument for statistics.quantiles() is
     now positional only.  The current name doesn't reflect that the
     argument can be either a dataset or a distribution.  Marking the
     parameter as positional avoids confusion and makes it possible to
     change the name later.

   - bpo-37394(176): Fix a bug that was causing the *note queue: b1.
     module to fail if the accelerator module was not available.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37376(177): *note pprint: a9. now has support for *note
     types.SimpleNamespace: 765.  Patch by Carl Bordum Hansen.

   - bpo-26967(178): An *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. with
     ‘allow_abbrev=False’ no longer disables grouping of short flags,
     such as ‘-vv’, but only disables abbreviation of long flags as
     documented.  Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

   - bpo-37212(179): *note unittest.mock.call(): 17ab. now preserves the
     order of keyword arguments in repr output.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-37372(180): Fix error unpickling datetime.time objects from
     Python 2 with seconds>=24.  Patch by Justin Blanchard.

   - bpo-37345(181): Add formal support for UDPLITE sockets.  Support
     was present before, but it is now easier to detect support with
     ‘hasattr(socket, 'IPPROTO_UDPLITE')’ and there are constants
     defined for each of the values needed: ‘socket.IPPROTO_UDPLITE’,
     ‘UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV’, and ‘UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV’.  Patch by Gabe
     Appleton.

   - bpo-37358(182): Optimized ‘functools.partial’ by using vectorcall.

   - bpo-37347(183): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(): 17ac,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 17ad, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(): 471, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler(): 17ae. *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback(): fd1. methods lead to
     segfaults if some of these methods are called twice with an equal
     object but not the same.  Now callbacks are stored more carefully.
     Patch by Aleksandr Balezin.

   - bpo-37163(184): The 'obj' argument of *note dataclasses.replace():
     169a. is positional-only now.

   - bpo-37085(185): Add the optional Linux SocketCAN Broadcast Manager
     constants, used as flags to configure the BCM behaviour, in the
     socket module.  Patch by Karl Ding.

   - bpo-37328(186): ‘HTMLParser.unescape’ is removed.  It was
     undocumented and deprecated since Python 3.4.

   - bpo-37305(187): Add .webmanifest -> application/manifest+json to
     list of recognized file types and content type headers

   - bpo-37320(188): ‘aifc.openfp()’ alias to ‘aifc.open()’,
     ‘sunau.openfp()’ alias to ‘sunau.open()’, and ‘wave.openfp()’ alias
     to ‘wave.open()’ have been removed.  They were deprecated since
     Python 3.7.

   - bpo-37315(189): Deprecated accepting floats with integral value
     (like ‘5.0’) in *note math.factorial(): 786.

   - bpo-37312(190): ‘_dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’ modules have
     been removed.  These modules were deprecated since Python 3.7 which
     requires threading support.

   - bpo-33972(191): Email with single part but content-type set to
     ‘multipart/*’ doesn't raise AttributeError anymore.

   - bpo-37280(192): Use threadpool for reading from file for sendfile
     fallback mode.

   - bpo-37279(193): Fix asyncio sendfile support when sendfile sends
     extra data in fallback mode.

   - bpo-19865(194): *note ctypes.create_unicode_buffer(): 17af. now
     also supports non-BMP characters on platforms with 16-bit ‘wchar_t’
     (for example, Windows and AIX).

   - bpo-37266(195): In a subinterpreter, spawning a daemon thread now
     raises an exception.  Daemon threads were never supported in
     subinterpreters.  Previously, the subinterpreter finalization
     crashed with a Python fatal error if a daemon thread was still
     running.

   - bpo-37210(196): Allow pure Python implementation of *note pickle:
     a1. to work even when the C ‘_pickle’ module is unavailable.

   - bpo-21872(197): Fix *note lzma: 85.: module decompresses data
     incompletely.  When decompressing a FORMAT_ALONE format file, and
     it doesn't have the end marker, sometimes the last one to dozens
     bytes can't be output.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-35922(198): Fix ‘RobotFileParser.crawl_delay()’ and
     ‘RobotFileParser.request_rate()’ to return ‘None’ rather than raise
     *note AttributeError: 3ca. when no relevant rule is defined in the
     robots.txt file.  Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35766(199): Change the format of feature_version to be a
     (major, minor) tuple.

   - bpo-36607(200): Eliminate *note RuntimeError: 17a. raised by *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): 797. if internal tasks weak set is changed by
     another thread during iteration.

   - bpo-18748(201): ‘_pyio.IOBase’ destructor now does nothing if
     getting the ‘closed’ attribute fails to better mimic ‘_io.IOBase’
     finalizer.

   - bpo-36402(202): Fix a race condition at Python shutdown when
     waiting for threads.  Wait until the Python thread state of all
     non-daemon threads get deleted (join all non-daemon threads),
     rather than just wait until non-daemon Python threads complete.

   - bpo-37206(203): Default values which cannot be represented as
     Python objects no longer improperly represented as ‘None’ in
     function signatures.

   - bpo-37111(204): Added ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ keyword parameters to
     ‘logging.basicConfig’.

   - bpo-12144(205): Ensure cookies with ‘expires’ attribute are handled
     in ‘CookieJar.make_cookies()’.

   - bpo-34886(206): Fix an unintended ValueError from *note
     subprocess.run(): 9e5. when checking for conflicting 'input' and
     'stdin' or 'capture_output' and 'stdout' or 'stderr' args when they
     were explicitly provided but with ‘None’ values within a passed in
     ‘**kwargs’ dict rather than as passed directly by name.  Patch
     contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37173(207): The exception message for ‘inspect.getfile()’ now
     correctly reports the passed class rather than the builtins module.

   - bpo-37178(208): Give math.perm() a one argument form that means the
     same as math.factorial().

   - bpo-37178(209): For math.perm(n, k), let k default to n, giving the
     same result as factorial.

   - bpo-37165(210): Converted _collections._count_elements to use the
     Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-34767(211): Do not always create a *note collections.deque:
     3cf. in *note asyncio.Lock: 8bd.

   - bpo-37158(212): Speed-up statistics.fmean() by switching from a
     function to a generator.

   - bpo-34282(213): Remove ‘Enum._convert’ method, deprecated in 3.8.

   - bpo-37150(214): ‘argparse._ActionsContainer.add_argument’ now
     throws error, if someone accidentally pass FileType class object
     instead of instance of FileType as ‘type’ argument.

   - bpo-28724(215): The socket module now has the *note
     socket.send_fds(): 772. and ‘socket.recv.fds()’ methods.
     Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye, Shinya Okano and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-35621(216): Support running asyncio subprocesses when execution
     event loop in a thread on UNIX.

   - bpo-36520(217): Lengthy email headers with UTF-8 characters are now
     properly encoded when they are folded.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-30835(218): Fixed a bug in email parsing where a message with
     invalid bytes in content-transfer-encoding of a multipart message
     can cause an AttributeError.  Patch by Andrew Donnellan.

   - bpo-31163(219): pathlib.Path instance's rename and replace methods
     now return the new Path instance.

   - bpo-25068(220): *note urllib.request.ProxyHandler: 17b0. now
     lowercases the keys of the passed dictionary.

   - bpo-26185(221): Fix *note repr(): 61e. on empty ‘ZipInfo’ object.
     Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-21315(222): Email headers containing RFC2047 encoded words are
     parsed despite the missing whitespace, and a defect registered.
     Also missing trailing whitespace after encoded words is now
     registered as a defect.

   - bpo-31904(223): Port test_datetime to VxWorks: skip zoneinfo tests
     on VxWorks

   - bpo-35805(224): Add parser for Message-ID header and add it to
     default HeaderRegistry.  This should prevent folding of Message-ID
     using RFC 2048 encoded words.

   - bpo-36871(225): Ensure method signature is used instead of
     constructor signature of a class while asserting mock object
     against method calls.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35070(226): posix.getgrouplist() now works correctly when the
     user belongs to NGROUPS_MAX supplemental groups.  Patch by Jeffrey
     Kintscher.

   - bpo-31783(227): Fix race condition in ThreadPoolExecutor when
     worker threads are created during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-36582(228): Fix ‘UserString.encode()’ to correctly return
     ‘bytes’ rather than a ‘UserString’ instance.

   - bpo-32424(229): Deprecate xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.copy() in
     favor of copy.copy().

     Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley

   - bpo-36564(230): Fix infinite loop in email header folding logic
     that would be triggered when an email policy's max_line_length is
     not long enough to include the required markup and any values in
     the message.  Patch by Paul Ganssle

   - bpo-36543(231): Removed methods Element.getchildren(),
     Element.getiterator() and ElementTree.getiterator() and the
     xml.etree.cElementTree module.

   - bpo-36409(232): Remove the old plistlib API deprecated in Python
     3.4

   - bpo-36302(233): distutils sorts source file lists so that Extension
     .so files build more reproducibly by default

   - bpo-36250(234): Ignore ‘ValueError’ from ‘signal’ with
     ‘interaction’ in non-main thread.

   - bpo-36046(235): Added ‘user’, ‘group’ and ‘extra_groups’ parameters
     to the subprocess.Popen constructor.  Patch by Patrick McLean.

   - bpo-32627(236): Fix compile error when ‘_uuid’ headers conflicting
     included.

   - bpo-35800(237): Deprecate ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy’ ready for future
     removal.

   - bpo-35168(238): *note shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars: 17b1. is now a
     read-only property.

   - bpo-8538(239): Add support for boolean actions like ‘--foo’ and
     ‘--no-foo’ to argparse.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-20504(240): Fixes a bug in *note cgi: 13. module when a
     multipart/form-data request has no ‘Content-Length’ header.

   - bpo-25988(241): The abstract base classes in *note collections.abc:
     1c. no longer are exposed in the regular *note collections: 1b.
     module.

   - bpo-11122(242): Distutils won't check for rpmbuild in specified
     paths only.

   - bpo-34775(243): Division handling of PurePath now returns
     NotImplemented instead of raising a TypeError when passed something
     other than an instance of str or PurePath.  Patch by Roger Aiudi.

   - bpo-34749(244): *note binascii.a2b_base64(): 1415. is now up to 2
     times faster.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34519(245): Add additional aliases for HP Roman 8.  Patch by
     Michael Osipov.

   - bpo-28009(246): Fix uuid.getnode() on platforms with '.'  as MAC
     Addr delimiter as well fix for MAC Addr format that omits a leading
     0 in MAC Addr values.  Currently, AIX is the only know platform
     with these settings.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-30618(247): Add *note readlink(): 75d.  Patch by Girts
     Folkmanis.

   - bpo-32498(248): Made *note urllib.parse.unquote(): 1550. accept
     bytes in addition to strings.  Patch by Stein Karlsen.

   - bpo-33348(249): lib2to3 now recognizes expressions after ‘*’ and
     ‘**’ like in ‘f(*[] or [])’.

   - bpo-32689(250): Update *note shutil.move(): 8a7. function to allow
     for Path objects to be used as source argument.  Patch by Emily
     Morehouse and Maxwell "5.13b" McKinnon.

   - bpo-32820(251): Added ‘__format__’ to IPv4 and IPv6 classes.
     Always outputs a fully zero-padded string.  Supports b/x/n
     modifiers (bin/hex/native format).  Native format for IPv4 is bin,
     native format for IPv6 is hex.  Also supports '#' and '_'
     modifiers.

   - bpo-27657(252): Fix urllib.parse.urlparse() with numeric paths.  A
     string like "path:80" is no longer parsed as a path but as a scheme
     ("path") and a path ("80").

   - bpo-4963(253): Fixed non-deterministic behavior related to
     mimetypes extension mapping and module reinitialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36589

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38807

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38724

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38786

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38785

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38723

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27805

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38438

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38761

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38716

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38334

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38586

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38565

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34679

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31202

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36321

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38521

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38478

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38378

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38417

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38449

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38431

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38109

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38422

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38405

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38332

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38341

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38319

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38242

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38019

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38163

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38161

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38216

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30458

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<43>,  Next: Tests<43>,  Prev: Library<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.46.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-21767(1): Explicitly mention abc support in
     functools.singledispatch

   - bpo-38816(2): Provides more details about the interaction between
     ‘fork()’ and CPython's runtime, focusing just on the C-API. This
     includes cautions about where ‘fork()’ should and shouldn't be
     called.

   - bpo-38351(3): Modernize *note email: 37. examples from %-formatting
     to f-strings.

   - bpo-38778(4): Document the fact that *note RuntimeError: 17a. is
     raised if *note os.fork(): 233. is called in a subinterpreter.

   - bpo-38592(5): Add Brazilian Portuguese to the language switcher at
     Python Documentation website.

   - bpo-38294(6): Add list of no-longer-escaped chars to re.escape
     documentation

   - bpo-38053(7): Modernized the plistlib documentation

   - bpo-26868(8): Fix example usage of *note PyModule_AddObject(): 6ca.
     to properly handle errors.

   - bpo-36797(9): Fix a dead link in the distutils API Reference.

   - bpo-37977(10): Warn more strongly and clearly about pickle
     insecurity

   - bpo-37979(11): Added a link to dateutil.parser.isoparse in the
     datetime.fromisoformat documentation.  Patch by Paul Ganssle

   - bpo-12707(12): Deprecate info(), geturl(), getcode() methods in
     favor of the headers, url, and status properties, respectively, for
     HTTPResponse and addinfourl.  Also deprecate the code attribute of
     addinfourl in favor of the status attribute.  Patch by Ashwin
     Ramaswami

   - bpo-37937(13): Mention ‘frame.f_trace’ in *note sys.settrace():
     1377. docs.

   - bpo-37878(14): Make *note PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent(): 17b3.
     Internal.

   - bpo-37759(15): Beginning edits to Whatsnew 3.8

   - bpo-37726(16): Stop recommending getopt in the tutorial for command
     line argument parsing and promote argparse.

   - bpo-32910(17): Remove implementation-specific behaviour of how
     venv's Deactivate works.

   - bpo-37256(18): Fix wording of arguments for ‘Request’ in *note
     urllib.request: 106.

   - bpo-37284(19): Add a brief note to indicate that any new
     ‘sys.implementation’ required attributes must go through the PEP
     process.

   - bpo-30088(20): Documented that *note mailbox.Maildir: 11a6.
     constructor doesn't attempt to verify the maildir folder layout
     correctness.  Patch by Sviatoslav Sydorenko.

   - bpo-37521(21): Fix ‘importlib’ examples to insert any newly created
     modules via importlib.util.module_from_spec() immediately into
     sys.modules instead of after calling loader.exec_module().

     Thanks to Benjamin Mintz for finding the bug.

   - bpo-37456(22): Slash ('/') is now part of syntax.

   - bpo-37487(23): Fix PyList_GetItem index description to include 0.

   - bpo-37149(24): Replace the dead link to the Tkinter 8.5 reference
     by John Shipman, New Mexico Tech, with a link to the archive.org
     copy.

   - bpo-37478(25): Added possible exceptions to the description of
     os.chdir().

   - bpo-34903(26): Documented that in *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1408, the leading zero in some
     two-digit formats is optional.  Patch by Mike Gleen.

   - bpo-36260(27): Add decompression pitfalls to zipfile module
     documentation.

   - bpo-37004(28): In the documentation for difflib, a note was added
     explicitly warning that the results of SequenceMatcher's ratio
     method may depend on the order of the input strings.

   - bpo-36960(29): Restructured the *note datetime: 2e. docs in the
     interest of making them more user-friendly and improving
     readability.  Patch by Brad Solomon.

   - bpo-36487(30): Make C-API docs clear about what the "main"
     interpreter is.

   - bpo-23460(31): The documentation for decimal string formatting
     using the ‘:g’ specifier has been updated to reflect the correct
     exponential notation cutoff point.  Original patch contributed by
     Tuomas Suutari.

   - bpo-35803(32): Document and test that ‘tempfile’ functions may
     accept a *note path-like object: 975. for the ‘dir’ argument.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33944(33): Added a note about the intended use of code in .pth
     files.

   - bpo-34293(34): Fix the Doc/Makefile regarding PAPER environment
     variable and PDF builds

   - bpo-25237(35): Add documentation for tkinter modules

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21767

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38816

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38351

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38778

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38592

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38294

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38053

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26868

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37977

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12707

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37937

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37759

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37726

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32910

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37256

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37284

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30088

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37521

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37456

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37487

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37478

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34903

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36260

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37004

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36960

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36487

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23460

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35803

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33944

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34293

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25237


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<43>,  Next: Build<43>,  Prev: Documentation<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.46.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38614(1): Fix test_communicate() of
     test_asyncio.test_subprocess: use ‘support.LONG_TIMEOUT’ (5
     minutes), instead of just 1 minute.

   - bpo-38614(2): Add timeout constants to *note test.support: de.:
     *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1790, *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1791, *note
     SHORT_TIMEOUT: 1682. and *note LONG_TIMEOUT: 1792.

   - bpo-38502(3): test.regrtest now uses process groups in the
     multiprocessing mode (-jN command line option) if process groups
     are available: if *note os.setsid(): 17b5. and *note os.killpg():
     17b6. functions are available.

   - bpo-35998(4): Fix a race condition in
     test_asyncio.test_start_tls_server_1().  Previously, there was a
     race condition between the test main() function which replaces the
     protocol and the test ServerProto protocol which sends ANSWER once
     it gets HELLO. Now, only the test main() function is responsible to
     send data, ServerProto no longer sends data.

   - bpo-38470(5): Fix ‘test_compileall.test_compile_dir_maxlevels()’ on
     Windows without long path support: only create 3 subdirectories
     instead of between 20 and 100 subdirectories.

   - bpo-37531(6): On timeout, regrtest no longer attempts to call
     ‘popen.communicate()’ again: it can hang until all child processes
     using stdout and stderr pipes completes.  Kill the worker process
     and ignores its output.  Change also the faulthandler timeout of
     the main process from 1 minute to 5 minutes, for Python slowest
     buildbots.

   - bpo-38239(7): Fix test_gdb for Link Time Optimization (LTO) builds.

   - bpo-38275(8): test_ssl now handles disabled TLS/SSL versions
     better.  OpenSSL's crypto policy and run-time settings are
     recognized and tests for disabled versions are skipped.  Tests also
     accept more TLS minimum_versions for platforms that override
     OpenSSL's default with strict settings.

   - bpo-38271(9): The private keys for test_ssl were encrypted with
     3DES in traditional PKCS#5 format.  3DES and the digest algorithm
     of PKCS#5 are blocked by some strict crypto policies.  Use PKCS#8
     format with AES256 encryption instead.

   - bpo-38270(10): test.support now has a helper function to check for
     availability of a hash digest function.  Several tests are
     refactored avoid MD5 and use SHA256 instead.  Other tests are
     marked to use MD5 and skipped when MD5 is disabled.

   - bpo-37123(11): Multiprocessing test test_mymanager() now also
     expects -SIGTERM, not only exitcode 0.
     BaseManager._finalize_manager() sends SIGTERM to the manager
     process if it takes longer than 1 second to stop, which happens on
     slow buildbots.

   - bpo-38212(12): Multiprocessing tests: increase
     test_queue_feeder_donot_stop_onexc() timeout from 1 to 60 seconds.

   - bpo-38117(13): Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1d

   - bpo-38018(14): Increase code coverage for
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.

   - bpo-37805(15): Add tests for json.dump(..., skipkeys=True).  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37531(16): Enhance regrtest multiprocess timeout: write a
     message when killing a worker process, catch popen.kill() and
     popen.wait() exceptions, put a timeout on the second call to
     popen.communicate().

   - bpo-37876(17): Add tests for ROT-13 codec.

   - bpo-36833(18): Added tests for ‘PyDateTime_XXX_GET_XXX()’ macros of
     the C API of the *note datetime: 2e. module.  Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37558(19): Fix
     test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination name handling

   - bpo-37526(20): Add ‘test.support.catch_threading_exception()’:
     context manager catching *note threading.Thread: 78d. exception
     using *note threading.excepthook(): 672.

   - bpo-37421(21): test_concurrent_futures now explicitly stops the
     ForkServer instance if it's running.

   - bpo-37421(22): multiprocessing tests now stop the ForkServer
     instance if it's running: close the "alive" file descriptor to ask
     the server to stop and then remove its UNIX address.

   - bpo-37421(23): test_distutils.test_build_ext() is now able to
     remove the temporary directory on Windows: don't import the newly
     built C extension ("xx") in the current process, but test it in a
     separated process.

   - bpo-37421(24): test_concurrent_futures now cleans up
     multiprocessing to remove immediately temporary directories created
     by multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir().

   - bpo-37421(25): test_winconsoleio doesn't leak a temporary file
     anymore: use tempfile.TemporaryFile() to remove it when the test
     completes.

   - bpo-37421(26): multiprocessing tests now explicitly call
     ‘_run_finalizers()’ to immediately remove temporary directories
     created by tests.

   - bpo-37421(27): urllib.request tests now call *note urlcleanup():
     17b7. to remove temporary files created by ‘urlretrieve()’ tests
     and to clear the ‘_opener’ global variable set by ‘urlopen()’ and
     functions calling indirectly ‘urlopen()’.

   - bpo-37472(28): Remove ‘Lib/test/outstanding_bugs.py’.

   - bpo-37199(29): Fix test failures when IPv6 is unavailable or
     disabled.

   - bpo-19696(30): Replace deprecated method "random.choose" with
     "random.choice" in "test_pkg_import.py".

   - bpo-37335(31): Remove no longer necessary code from c locale
     coercion tests

   - bpo-37421(32): Fix test_shutil to no longer leak temporary files.

   - bpo-37411(33): Fix test_wsgiref.testEnviron() to no longer depend
     on the environment variables (don't fail if "X" variable is set).

   - bpo-37400(34): Fix test_os.test_chown(): use os.getgroups() rather
     than grp.getgrall() to get groups.  Rename also the test to
     test_chown_gid().

   - bpo-37359(35): Add -cleanup option to python3 -m test to remove
     ‘test_python_*’ directories of previous failed jobs.  Add "make
     cleantest" to run ‘python3 -m test --cleanup’.

   - bpo-37362(36): test_gdb no longer fails if it gets an "unexpected"
     message on stderr: it now ignores stderr.  The purpose of test_gdb
     is to test that python-gdb.py commands work as expected, not to
     test gdb.

   - bpo-35998(37): Avoid TimeoutError in test_asyncio:
     test_start_tls_server_1()

   - bpo-37278(38): Fix test_asyncio ProactorLoopCtrlC: join the thread
     to prevent leaking a running thread and leaking a reference.

   - bpo-37261(39): Fix *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception():
     17b8.: its __exit__() method now ignores unraisable exception
     raised when clearing its ‘unraisable’ attribute.

   - bpo-37069(40): regrtest now uses *note sys.unraisablehook(): 479.
     to mark a test as "environment altered" (ENV_CHANGED) if it emits
     an "unraisable exception".  Moreover, regrtest logs a warning in
     this case.

     Use ‘python3 -m test --fail-env-changed’ to catch unraisable
     exceptions in tests.

   - bpo-37252(41): Fix assertions in ‘test_close’ and
     ‘test_events_mask_overflow’ devpoll tests.

   - bpo-37169(42): Rewrite ‘_PyObject_IsFreed()’ unit tests.

   - bpo-37153(43): ‘test_venv.test_multiprocessing()’ now explicitly
     calls ‘pool.terminate()’ to wait until the pool completes.

   - bpo-34001(44): Make test_ssl pass with LibreSSL. LibreSSL handles
     minimum and maximum TLS version differently than OpenSSL.

   - bpo-36919(45): Make ‘test_source_encoding.test_issue2301’
     implementation independent.  The test will work now for both
     CPython and IronPython.

   - bpo-30202(46): Update ‘test.test_importlib.test_abc’ to test
     ‘find_spec()’.

   - bpo-28009(47): Modify the test_uuid logic to test when a program is
     available AND can be used to obtain a MACADDR as basis for an UUID.
     Patch by M. Felt

   - bpo-34596(48): Fallback to a default reason when *note
     unittest.skip(): 17b9. is uncalled.  Patch by Naitree Zhu.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38502

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38470

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38239

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38275

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38271

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38270

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37123

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38212

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38018

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37805

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37876

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36833

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37558

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37526

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37472

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37199

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19696

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37335

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37411

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37400

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37359

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37362

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37278

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37261

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37252

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37169

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37153

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34001

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36919

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30202

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28009

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34596


File: python.info,  Node: Build<43>,  Next: Windows<42>,  Prev: Tests<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.46.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38809(1): On Windows, build scripts will now recognize and use
     python.exe from an active virtual env.

   - bpo-38684(2): Fix _hashlib build when Blake2 is disabled, but
     OpenSSL supports it.

   - bpo-38468(3): Misc/python-config.in now uses ‘getvar()’ for all
     still existing ‘sysconfig.get_config_var()’ calls.  Patch by
     Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37415(4): Fix stdatomic.h header check for ICC compiler: the
     ICC implementation lacks atomic_uintptr_t type which is needed by
     Python.

   - bpo-38301(5): In Solaris family, we must be sure to use
     ‘-D_REENTRANT’.  Patch by Jesús Cea Avión.

   - bpo-36002(6): Locate ‘llvm-profdata’ and ‘llvm-ar’ binaries using
     ‘AC_PATH_TOOL’ rather than ‘AC_PATH_TARGET_TOOL’.

   - bpo-37936(7): The ‘.gitignore’ file systematically keeps "rooted",
     with a non-trailing slash, all the rules that are meant to apply to
     files in a specific place in the repo.  Previously, when the
     intended file to ignore happened to be at the root of the repo,
     we'd most often accidentally also ignore files and directories with
     the same name anywhere in the tree.

   - bpo-37760(8): The ‘Tools/unicode/makeunicodedata.py’ script, which
     is used for converting information from the Unicode Character
     Database into generated code and data used by the methods of *note
     str: 157. and by the *note unicodedata: 100. module, now handles
     each character's data as a ‘dataclass’ with named attributes,
     rather than a length-18 list of different fields.

   - bpo-37936(9): The ‘.gitignore’ file no longer applies to any files
     that are in fact tracked in the Git repository.  Patch by Greg
     Price.

   - bpo-37725(10): Change "clean" makefile target to also clean the
     program guided optimization (PGO) data.  Previously you would have
     to use "make clean" and "make profile-removal", or "make clobber".

   - bpo-37707(11): Mark some individual tests to skip when -pgo is
     used.  The tests marked increase the PGO task time significantly
     and likely don't help improve optimization of the final executable.

   - bpo-36044(12): Reduce the number of unit tests run for the PGO
     generation task.  This speeds up the task by a factor of about 15x.
     Running the full unit test suite is slow.  This change may result
     in a slightly less optimized build since not as many code branches
     will be executed.  If you are willing to wait for the much slower
     build, the old behavior can be restored using './configure [..]
     PROFILE_TASK="-m test -pgo-extended"'.  We make no guarantees as to
     which PGO task set produces a faster build.  Users who care should
     run their own relevant benchmarks as results can depend on the
     environment, workload, and compiler tool chain.

   - bpo-37468(13): ‘make install’ no longer installs ‘wininst-*.exe’
     files used by distutils bdist_wininst: bdist_wininst only works on
     Windows.

   - bpo-37189(14): Many ‘PyRun_XXX()’ functions like *note
     PyRun_String(): 17bb. were no longer exported in ‘libpython38.dll’
     by mistake.  Export them again to fix the ABI compatibility.

   - bpo-25361(15): Enables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit
     build.

   - bpo-36210(16): Update optional extension module detection for AIX.
     ossaudiodev and spwd are not applicable for AIX, and are no longer
     reported as missing.  3rd-party packaging of ncurses (with ASIS
     support) conflicts with officially supported AIX curses library, so
     configure AIX to use libcurses.a.  However, skip trying to build
     _curses_panel.

     patch by M Felt

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38809

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38468

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37415

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38301

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36002

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37760

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37725

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37468

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37189

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36210


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<42>,  Next: macOS<33>,  Prev: Build<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.46.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-38589(1): Fixes HTML Help shortcut when Windows is not
     installed to C drive

   - bpo-38453(2): Ensure ntpath.realpath() correctly resolves relative
     paths.

   - bpo-38519(3): Restores the internal C headers that were missing
     from the nuget.org and Microsoft Store packages.

   - bpo-38492(4): Remove ‘pythonw.exe’ dependency on the Microsoft C++
     runtime.

   - bpo-38344(5): Fix error message in activate.bat

   - bpo-38359(6): Ensures ‘pyw.exe’ launcher reads correct registry
     key.

   - bpo-38355(7): Fixes ‘ntpath.realpath’ failing on ‘sys.executable’.

   - bpo-38117(8): Update bundled OpenSSL to 1.1.1d

   - bpo-38092(9): Reduce overhead when using multiprocessing in a
     Windows virtual environment.

   - bpo-38133(10): Allow py.exe launcher to locate installations from
     the Microsoft Store and improve display of active virtual
     environments.

   - bpo-38114(11): The ‘pip.ini’ is no longer included in the Nuget
     package.

   - bpo-32592(12): Set Windows 8 as the minimum required version for
     API support

   - bpo-36634(13): *note os.cpu_count(): 63b. now returns active
     processors rather than maximum processors.

   - bpo-36634(14): venv activate.bat now works when the existing
     variables contain double quote characters.

   - bpo-38081(15): Prevent error calling *note os.path.realpath(): 643.
     on ‘'NUL'’.

   - bpo-38087(16): Fix case sensitivity in test_pathlib and
     test_ntpath.

   - bpo-38088(17): Fixes distutils not finding vcruntime140.dll with
     only the v142 toolset installed.

   - bpo-37283(18): Ensure command-line and unattend.xml setting
     override previously detected states in Windows installer.

   - bpo-38030(19): Fixes *note os.stat(): 1bf. failing for block
     devices on Windows

   - bpo-38020(20): Fixes potential crash when calling *note
     os.readlink(): 75e. (or indirectly through *note realpath(): 643.)
     on a file that is not a supported link.

   - bpo-37705(21): Improve the implementation of ‘winerror_to_errno()’.

   - bpo-37549(22): *note os.dup(): 17bd. no longer fails for standard
     streams on Windows 7.

   - bpo-1311(23): The ‘nul’ file on Windows now returns True from *note
     exists(): 855. and a valid result from *note os.stat(): 1bf. with
     ‘S_IFCHR’ set.

   - bpo-9949(24): Enable support for following symlinks in
     ‘os.realpath()’.

   - bpo-37834(25): Treat all name surrogate reparse points on Windows
     in *note os.lstat(): 1c0. and other reparse points as regular files
     in *note os.stat(): 1bf.

   - bpo-36266(26): Add the module name in the formatted error message
     when DLL load fail happens during module import in
     ‘_PyImport_FindSharedFuncptrWindows()’.  Patch by Srinivas
     Nyayapati.

   - bpo-25172(27): Trying to import the *note crypt: 26. module on
     Windows will result in an *note ImportError: 145. with a message
     explaining that the module isn't supported on Windows.  On other
     platforms, if the underlying ‘_crypt’ module is not available, the
     ImportError will include a message explaining the problem.

   - bpo-37778(28): Fixes the icons used for file associations to the
     Microsoft Store package.

   - bpo-37734(29): Fix use of registry values to launch Python from
     Microsoft Store app.

   - bpo-37702(30): Fix memory leak on Windows in creating an SSLContext
     object or running ‘urllib.request.urlopen('https://...')’.

   - bpo-37672(31): Switch Windows Store package's pip to use bundled
     ‘pip.ini’ instead of ‘PIP_USER’ variable.

   - bpo-10945(32): Officially drop support for creating bdist_wininst
     installers on non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-37445(33): Include the ‘FORMAT_MESSAGE_IGNORE_INSERTS’ flag in
     ‘FormatMessageW()’ calls.

   - bpo-37369(34): Fixes path for *note sys.executable: 362. when
     running from the Microsoft Store.

   - bpo-37380(35): Don't collect unfinished processes with
     ‘subprocess._active’ on Windows to cleanup later.  Patch by Ruslan
     Kuprieiev.

   - bpo-37351(36): Removes libpython38.a from standard Windows
     distribution.

   - bpo-35360(37): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.28.0.

   - bpo-37267(38): On Windows, *note os.dup(): 17bd. no longer creates
     an inheritable fd when handling a character file.

   - bpo-36779(39): Ensure ‘time.tzname’ is correct on Windows when the
     active code page is set to CP_UTF7 or CP_UTF8.

   - bpo-32587(40): Make *note winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ: 17be. support
     zero-length strings.

   - bpo-28269(41): Replace use of ‘strcasecmp()’ for the system
     function ‘_stricmp()’.  Patch by Minmin Gong.

   - bpo-36590(42): Add native Bluetooth RFCOMM support to socket
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38589

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38453

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38519

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38492

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38344

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38359

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38355

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38092

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38133

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38114

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32592

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38081

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38087

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38088

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37283

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38030

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38020

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37705

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37549

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1311

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9949

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36266

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25172

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37778

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37734

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37702

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37672

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37445

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37369

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37380

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37267

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36779

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32587

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28269

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36590


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<33>,  Next: IDLE<30>,  Prev: Windows<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.46.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38117(1): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1d in macOS installer.

   - bpo-38089(2): Move Azure Pipelines to latest VM versions and make
     macOS tests optional

   - bpo-18049(3): Increase the default stack size of threads from 5MB
     to 16MB on macOS, to match the stack size of the main thread.  This
     avoids crashes on deep recursion in threads.

   - bpo-34602(4): Avoid test suite failures on macOS by no longer
     calling resource.setrlimit to increase the process stack size limit
     at runtime.  The runtime change is no longer needed since the
     interpreter is being built with a larger default stack size.

   - bpo-35360(5): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.28.0.

   - bpo-34631(6): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in macOS installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18049

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<30>,  Next: Tools/Demos<21>,  Prev: macOS<33>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.46.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-26353(1): Stop adding newline when saving an IDLE shell window.

   - bpo-4630(2): Add an option to toggle IDLE's cursor blink for shell,
     editor, and output windows.  See Settings, General, Window
     Preferences, Cursor Blink.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-38598(3): Do not try to compile IDLE shell or output windows

   - bpo-36698(4): IDLE no longer fails when write non-encodable
     characters to stderr.  It now escapes them with a backslash, as the
     regular Python interpreter.  Added the ‘errors’ field to the
     standard streams.

   - bpo-35379(5): When exiting IDLE, catch any AttributeError.  One
     happens when EditorWindow.close is called twice.  Printing a
     traceback, when IDLE is run from a terminal, is useless and
     annoying.

   - bpo-38183(6): To avoid problems, test_idle ignores the user config
     directory.  It no longer tries to create or access .idlerc or any
     files within.  Users must run IDLE to discover problems with saving
     settings.

   - bpo-38077(7): IDLE no longer adds 'argv' to the user namespace when
     initializing it.  This bug only affected 3.7.4 and 3.8.0b2 to
     3.8.0b4.

   - bpo-38041(8): Shell restart lines now fill the window width, always
     start with '=', and avoid wrapping unnecessarily.  The line will
     still wrap if the included file name is long relative to the width.

   - bpo-35771(9): To avoid occasional spurious test_idle failures on
     slower machines, increase the ‘hover_delay’ in test_tooltip.

   - bpo-37824(10): Properly handle user input warnings in IDLE shell.
     Cease turning SyntaxWarnings into SyntaxErrors.

   - bpo-37929(11): IDLE Settings dialog now closes properly when there
     is no shell window.

   - bpo-37902(12): Add mousewheel scrolling for IDLE module, path, and
     stack browsers.  Patch by George Zhang.

   - bpo-37849(13): Fixed completions list appearing too high or low
     when shown above the current line.

   - bpo-36419(14): Refactor IDLE autocomplete and improve testing.

   - bpo-37748(15): Reorder the Run menu.  Put the most common choice,
     Run Module, at the top.

   - bpo-37692(16): Improve highlight config sample with example shell
     interaction and better labels for shell elements.

   - bpo-37628(17): Settings dialog no longer expands with font size.

   - bpo-37627(18): Initialize the Customize Run dialog with the command
     line arguments most recently entered before.  The user can
     optionally edit before submitting them.

   - bpo-33610(19): Fix code context not showing the correct context
     when first toggled on.

   - bpo-37530(20): Optimize code context to reduce unneeded background
     activity.  Font and highlight changes now occur along with text
     changes instead of after a random delay.

   - bpo-27452(21): Cleanup ‘config.py’ by inlining ‘RemoveFile’ and
     simplifying the handling of ‘file’ in ‘CreateConfigHandlers’.

   - bpo-37325(22): Fix tab focus traversal order for help source and
     custom run dialogs.

   - bpo-37321(23): Both subprocess connection error messages now refer
     to the 'Startup failure' section of the IDLE doc.

   - bpo-17535(24): Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.
     Windows open without line numbers unless set otherwise in the
     General tab of the configuration dialog.

   - bpo-26806(25): To compensate for stack frames added by IDLE and
     avoid possible problems with low recursion limits, add 30 to limits
     in the user code execution process.  Subtract 30 when reporting
     recursion limits to make this addition mostly transparent.

   - bpo-37177(26): Properly 'attach' search dialogs to their main
     window so that they behave like other dialogs and do not get hidden
     behind their main window.

   - bpo-37039(27): Adjust "Zoom Height" to individual screens by
     momentarily maximizing the window on first use with a particular
     screen.  Changing screen settings may invalidate the saved height.
     While a window is maximized, "Zoom Height" has no effect.

   - bpo-35763(28): Make calltip reminder about '/' meaning
     positional-only less obtrusive by only adding it when there is room
     on the first line.

   - bpo-5680(29): Add 'Run...  Customized' to the Run menu to run a
     module with customized settings.  Any 'command line arguments'
     entered are added to sys.argv.  One can suppress the normal Shell
     main module restart.

   - bpo-36390(30): Gather Format menu functions into format.py.
     Combine paragraph.py, rstrip.py, and format methods from editor.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4630

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38598

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36698

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35379

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38183

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38077

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38041

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35771

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37824

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37929

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37902

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37849

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36419

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37748

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37692

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37628

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33610

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37530

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37325

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37321

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26806

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37177

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37039

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35763

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36390


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<21>,  Next: C API<40>,  Prev: IDLE<30>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.46.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-38118(1): Update Valgrind suppression file to ignore a false
     alarm in *note PyUnicode_Decode(): 17c2. when using GCC builtin
     strcmp().

   - bpo-38347(2): pathfix.py: Assume all files that end on '.py' are
     Python scripts when working recursively.

   - bpo-37803(3): pdb's ‘--help’ and ‘--version’ long options now work.

   - bpo-37942(4): Improve ArgumentClinic converter for floats.

   - bpo-37704(5): Remove ‘Tools/scripts/h2py.py’: use cffi to access a
     C API in Python.

   - bpo-37675(6): 2to3 now works when run from a zipped standard
     library.

   - bpo-37034(7): Argument Clinic now uses the argument name on errors
     with keyword-only argument instead of their position.  Patch
     contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37064(8): Add option -k to pathscript.py script: preserve
     shebang flags.  Add option -a to pathscript.py script: add flags.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38118

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37803

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37942

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37704

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37675

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37034

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37064


File: python.info,  Node: C API<40>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<21>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.46.11 C API
................

   - bpo-37633(1): Re-export some function compatibility wrappers for
     macros in ‘pythonrun.h’.

   - bpo-38644(2): Provide *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7b7. and *note
     Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 7b8. as regular functions for the limited
     API. Previously, there were defined as macros, but these macros
     didn't work with the limited API which cannot access
     ‘PyThreadState.recursion_depth’ field.  Remove
     ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ from the stable ABI.

   - bpo-38650(3): The global variable *note
     PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 7c6. is now a constant and refers to
     a constant string.

   - bpo-38540(4): Fixed possible leak in *note PyArg_Parse(): 17c4. and
     similar functions for format units ‘"es#"’ and ‘"et#"’ when the
     macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ is not defined.

   - bpo-38395(5): Fix a crash in *note weakref.proxy: 89c. objects due
     to incorrect lifetime management when calling some associated
     methods that may delete the last reference to object being
     referenced by the proxy.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36389(6): The ‘_PyObject_CheckConsistency()’ function is now
     also available in release mode.  For example, it can be used to
     debug a crash in the ‘visit_decref()’ function of the GC.

   - bpo-38266(7): Revert the removal of PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent()
     with documentation.

   - bpo-38303(8): Update audioop extension module to use the stable ABI
     (PEP-384).  Patch by Tyler Kieft.

   - bpo-38234(9): ‘Py_SetPath()’ now sets *note sys.executable: 362. to
     the program full path (*note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 361.) rather
     than to the program name (*note Py_GetProgramName(): 363.).

   - bpo-38234(10): Python ignored arguments passed to ‘Py_SetPath()’,
     ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’ and ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: fix Python
     initialization to use specified arguments.

   - bpo-38205(11): The *note Py_UNREACHABLE(): a16. macro now calls
     *note Py_FatalError(): 7c7.

   - bpo-38140(12): Make dict and weakref offsets opaque for C heap
     types by passing the offsets through PyMemberDef

   - bpo-15088(13): The C function ‘PyGen_NeedsFinalizing’ has been
     removed.  It was not documented, tested or used anywhere within
     CPython after the implementation of PEP 442(14).  Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye.  (Patch by Joannah Nanjekye)

   - bpo-36763(15): Options added by ‘PySys_AddXOption()’ are now
     handled the same way than ‘PyConfig.xoptions’ and command line ‘-X’
     options.

   - bpo-37926(16): Fix a crash in ‘PySys_SetArgvEx(0, NULL, 0)’.

   - bpo-37879(17): Fix subtype_dealloc to suppress the type decref when
     the base type is a C heap type

   - bpo-37645(18): Add ‘_PyObject_FunctionStr()’ to get a user-friendly
     string representation of a function-like object.  Patch by Jeroen
     Demeyer.

   - bpo-29548(19): The functions ‘PyEval_CallObject’,
     ‘PyEval_CallFunction’, ‘PyEval_CallMethod’ and
     ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords’ are deprecated.  Use *note
     PyObject_Call(): 7a7. and its variants instead.

   - bpo-37151(20): ‘PyCFunction_Call’ is now a deprecated alias of
     *note PyObject_Call(): 7a7.

   - bpo-37540(21): The vectorcall protocol now requires that the caller
     passes only strings as keyword names.

   - bpo-37207(22): The vectorcall protocol is now enabled for ‘type’
     objects: set ‘tp_vectorcall’ to a vectorcall function to be used
     instead of ‘tp_new’ and ‘tp_init’ when calling the class itself.

   - bpo-21120(23): Exclude Python-ast.h, ast.h and asdl.h from the
     limited API.

   - bpo-37483(24): Add new function ‘_PyObject_CallOneArg’ for calling
     an object with one positional argument.

   - bpo-36763(25): Add *note PyConfig_SetWideStringList(): 17c5.
     function.

   - bpo-37337(26): Add fast functions for calling methods:
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod()’, ‘_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()’.

   - bpo-28805(27): The *note METH_FASTCALL: 15eb. calling convention
     has been documented.

   - bpo-37221(28): The new function ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’
     allows to create code objects like ‘PyCode_New()’, but with an
     extra 'posonlyargcount' parameter for indicating the number of
     positonal-only arguments.

   - bpo-37215(29): Fix dtrace issue introduce by bpo-36842(30)

   - bpo-37194(31): Add a new public *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 7b6.
     function to the C API: call a callable Python object without any
     arguments.  It is the most efficient way to call a callback without
     any argument.  On x86-64, for example,
     ‘PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(func, NULL)’ allocates 960 bytes on
     the stack per call, whereas ‘PyObject_CallNoArgs(func)’ only
     allocates 624 bytes per call.

   - bpo-37170(32): Fix the cast on error in *note
     PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(): 17c6.

   - bpo-35381(33): Convert posixmodule.c statically allocated types
     ‘DirEntryType’ and ‘ScandirIteratorType’ to heap-allocated types.

   - bpo-34331(34): Use singular/plural noun in error message when
     instantiating an abstract class with non-overridden abstract
     method(s).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37633

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38266

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38303

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38205

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38140

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37926

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37879

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37151

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21120

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37337

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28805

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37215

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37170

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35381

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34331


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.47 Python 3.8.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2019-06-04'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<32>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<47>.
* Library: Library<47>.
* Documentation: Documentation<44>.
* Tests: Tests<44>.
* Build: Build<44>.
* Windows: Windows<43>.
* macOS: macOS<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<31>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<22>.
* C API: C API<41>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<32>,  Next: Core and Builtins<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.47.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-35907(1): CVE 2019-9948(2): Avoid file reading by disallowing
     ‘local-file://’ and ‘local_file://’ URL schemes in
     ‘URLopener().open()’ and ‘URLopener().retrieve()’ of *note
     urllib.request: 106.

   - bpo-33529(3): Prevent fold function used in email header encoding
     from entering infinite loop when there are too many non-ASCII
     characters in a header.

   - bpo-33164(4): Updated blake2 implementation which uses secure
     memset implementation provided by platform.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35907

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9948

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33529

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33164


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<47>,  Next: Library<47>,  Prev: Security<32>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.47.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-35814(1): Allow unpacking in the right hand side of annotated
     assignments.  In particular, ‘t: Tuple[int, ...] = x, y, *z’ is now
     allowed.

   - bpo-37126(2): All structseq objects are now tracked by the garbage
     collector.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37122(3): Make the 'co_argcount' attribute of code objects
     represent the total number of positional arguments (including
     positional-only arguments).  The value of 'co_posonlyargcount' can
     be used to distinguish which arguments are positional only, and the
     difference ('co_argcount' - 'co_posonlyargcount') is the number of
     positional-or-keyword arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-20092(4): Constructors of *note int: 17e, *note float: 26a. and
     *note complex: 26b. will now use the *note __index__(): 51f.
     special method, if available and the corresponding method *note
     __int__(): 51e, *note __float__(): 810. or *note __complex__():
     3dd. is not available.

   - bpo-37087(5): Add native thread ID (TID) support to OpenBSD.

   - bpo-26219(6): Implemented per opcode cache mechanism and
     ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ instruction use it.  ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ is now about 40%
     faster.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov, and Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-37072(7): Fix crash in PyAST_FromNodeObject() when flags is
     NULL.

   - bpo-37029(8): Freeing a great many small objects could take time
     quadratic in the number of arenas, due to using linear search to
     keep ‘obmalloc.c’'s list of usable arenas sorted by order of number
     of free memory pools.  This is accomplished without search now,
     leaving the worst-case time linear in the number of arenas.  For
     programs where this quite visibly matters (typically with more than
     100 thousand small objects alive simultaneously), this can greatly
     reduce the time needed to release their memory.

   - bpo-26423(9): Fix possible overflow in ‘wrap_lenfunc()’ when
     ‘sizeof(long) < sizeof(Py_ssize_t)’ (e.g., 64-bit Windows).

   - bpo-37050(10): Improve the AST for "debug" f-strings, which use '='
     to print out the source of the expression being evaluated.  Delete
     expr_text from the FormattedValue node, and instead use a Constant
     string node (possibly merged with adjacent constant expressions
     inside the f-string).

   - bpo-22385(11): The ‘bytes.hex’, ‘bytearray.hex’, and
     ‘memoryview.hex’ methods as well as the ‘binascii.hexlify’ and
     ‘b2a_hex’ functions now have the ability to include an optional
     separator between hex bytes.  This functionality was inspired by
     MicroPython's hexlify implementation.

   - bpo-26836(12): Add *note os.memfd_create(): 852.

   - bpo-37032(13): Added new ‘replace()’ method to the code type (*note
     types.CodeType: 25d.).

   - bpo-37007(14): Implement *note socket.if_nameindex(): 876, *note
     socket.if_nametoindex(): 877, and *note socket.if_indextoname():
     878. on Windows.

   - bpo-36829(15): *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 17ca. now creates a
     traceback object if there is no current traceback.  Moreover, call
     *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 368. and *note
     PyException_SetTraceback(): 17cb. to normalize the exception value.
     Ignore any error.

   - bpo-36878(16): Only accept text after ‘# type: ignore’ if the first
     character is ASCII. This is to disallow things like ‘# type:
     ignoreé’.

   - bpo-36878(17): Store text appearing after a ‘# type: ignore’
     comment in the AST. For example a type ignore like ‘# type:
     ignore[E1000]’ will have the string ‘"[E1000]"’ stored in its AST
     node.

   - bpo-2180(18): Treat line continuation at EOF as a ‘SyntaxError’ by
     Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36907(19): Fix a crash when calling a C function with a keyword
     dict (‘f(**kwargs)’) and changing the dict ‘kwargs’ while that
     function is running.

   - bpo-36946(20): Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling
     slices.

   - bpo-36826(21): Add NamedExpression kind support to ast_unparse.c

   - bpo-1875(22): A *note SyntaxError: 146. is now raised if a code
     blocks that will be optimized away (e.g.  if conditions that are
     always false) contains syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36027(23): Allow computation of modular inverses via
     three-argument ‘pow’: the second argument is now permitted to be
     negative in the case where the first and third arguments are
     relatively prime.

   - bpo-36861(24): Update the Unicode database to version 12.1.0.

   - bpo-28866(25): Avoid caching attributes of classes which type
     defines mro() to avoid a hard cache invalidation problem.

   - bpo-36851(26): The ‘FrameType’ stack is now correctly cleaned up if
     the execution ends with a return and the stack is not empty.

   - bpo-34616(27): The ‘compile()’ builtin functions now support the
     ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag, which allow to compile
     sources that contains top-level ‘await’, ‘async with’ or ‘async
     for’.  This is useful to evaluate async-code from with an already
     async functions; for example in a custom REPL.

   - bpo-36842(28): Implement PEP 578, adding sys.audit, io.open_code
     and related APIs.

   - bpo-27639(29): Correct return type for UserList slicing operations.
     Patch by Michael Blahay, Erick Cervantes, and vaultah

   - bpo-36737(30): Move PyRuntimeState.warnings into per-interpreter
     state (via "module state").

   - bpo-36793(31): Removed ‘__str__’ implementations from builtin types
     *note bool: 17d, *note int: 17e, *note float: 26a, *note complex:
     26b. and few classes from the standard library.  They now inherit
     ‘__str__()’ from *note object: 8d9.

   - bpo-36817(32): Add a ‘=’ feature f-strings for debugging.  This can
     precede ‘!s’, ‘!r’, or ‘!a’.  It produces the text of the
     expression, followed by an equal sign, followed by the repr of the
     value of the expression.  So ‘f'{3*9+15=}'’ would be equal to the
     string ‘'3*9+15=42'’.  If ‘=’ is specified, the default conversion
     is set to ‘!r’, unless a format spec is given, in which case the
     formatting behavior is unchanged, and __format__ will be used.

   - bpo-24048(33): Save the live exception during import.c's
     ‘remove_module()’.

   - bpo-27987(34): pymalloc returns memory blocks aligned by 16 bytes,
     instead of 8 bytes, on 64-bit platforms to conform x86-64 ABI.
     Recent compilers assume this alignment more often.  Patch by Inada
     Naoki.

   - bpo-36601(35): A long-since-meaningless check for ‘getpid() ==
     main_pid’ was removed from Python's internal C signal handler.

   - bpo-36594(36): Fix incorrect use of ‘%p’ in format strings.  Patch
     by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-36045(37): ‘builtins.help()’ now prefixes ‘async’ for async
     functions.

   - bpo-36084(38): Add native thread ID (TID) to threading.Thread
     objects (supported platforms: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS)

   - bpo-36035(39): Added fix for broken symlinks in combination with
     pathlib

   - bpo-35983(40): Added new trashcan macros to deal with a double
     deallocation that could occur when the ‘tp_dealloc’ of a subclass
     calls the ‘tp_dealloc’ of a base class and that base class uses the
     trashcan mechanism.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-20602(41): Do not clear *note sys.flags: 489. and *note
     sys.float_info: 17cc. during shutdown.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-26826(42): Expose ‘copy_file_range()’ as a low level API in the
     *note os: 9c. module.

   - bpo-32388(43): Remove cross-version binary compatibility
     requirement in tp_flags.

   - bpo-31862(44): Port binascii to PEP 489 multiphase initialization.
     Patch by Marcel Plch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37126

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37122

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37087

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37072

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37029

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26423

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37050

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22385

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2180

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36907

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36826

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1875

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36861

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28866

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36851

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27639

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36737

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24048

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27987

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36601

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36594

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36045

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36035

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35983

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20602

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26826

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31862


File: python.info,  Node: Library<47>,  Next: Documentation<44>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.47.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-37128(1): Added *note math.perm(): 4cf.

   - bpo-37120(2): Add SSLContext.num_tickets to control the number of
     TLSv1.3 session tickets.

   - bpo-12202(3): Fix the error handling in *note
     msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty(): 17ce.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   - bpo-26835(4): The fcntl module now contains file sealing constants
     for sealing of memfds.

   - bpo-29262(5): Add ‘get_origin()’ and ‘get_args()’ introspection
     helpers to ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-12639(6): *note msilib.Directory.start_component(): 17cf. no
     longer fails if 'keyfile' is not ‘None’.

   - bpo-36999(7): Add the ‘asyncio.Task.get_coro()’ method to publicly
     expose the tasks's coroutine object.

   - bpo-35246(8): Make *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): 8c3.
     accept path-like arguments.

   - bpo-35279(9): Change default 'max_workers' of ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’
     from ‘cpu_count() * 5’ to ‘min(32, cpu_count() + 4)’.  Previous
     value was unreasonably large on many cores machines.

   - bpo-37076(10): *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 1473. now logs
     uncaught exception raised by the function using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 479, rather than *note sys.excepthook(): 62d,
     so the hook gets access to the function which raised the exception.

   - bpo-33725(11): On macOS, the *note multiprocessing: 8f. module now
     uses 'spawn' start method by default.

   - bpo-37054(12): Fix destructor ‘_pyio.BytesIO’ and
     ‘_pyio.TextIOWrapper’: initialize their ‘_buffer’ attribute as soon
     as possible (in the class body), because it's used by ‘__del__()’
     which calls ‘close()’.

   - bpo-37058(13): PEP 544: Add ‘Protocol’ and ‘@runtime_checkable’ to
     the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-36933(14): The functions ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper’ and
     ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper’ that were deprecated and marked for
     removal in 3.8 have been removed.

   - bpo-37047(15): Handle late binding and attribute access in *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock: 895. setup for autospeccing.  Document
     newly implemented async methods in *note unittest.mock.MagicMock:
     d11.

   - bpo-37049(16): PEP 589: Add ‘TypedDict’ to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37046(17): PEP 586: Add ‘Literal’ to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37045(18): PEP 591: Add ‘Final’ qualifier and ‘@final’
     decorator to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37035(19): Don't log OSError based exceptions if a fatal error
     has occurred in asyncio transport.  Peer can generate almost any
     OSError, user cannot avoid these exceptions by fixing own code.
     Errors are still propagated to user code, it's just logging them is
     pointless and pollute asyncio logs.

   - bpo-37001(20): *note symtable.symtable(): 17d0. now accepts the
     same input types for source code as the built-in *note compile():
     554. function.  Patch by Dino Viehland.

   - bpo-37028(21): Implement asyncio REPL

   - bpo-37027(22): Return safe to use proxy socket object from
     transport.get_extra_info('socket')

   - bpo-32528(23): Make asyncio.CancelledError a BaseException.

     This will address the common mistake many asyncio users make: an
     "except Exception" clause breaking Tasks cancellation.

     In addition to this change, we stop inheriting asyncio.TimeoutError
     and asyncio.InvalidStateError from their concurrent.futures.*
     counterparts.  There's no point for these exceptions to share the
     inheritance chain.

   - bpo-1230540(24): Add a new *note threading.excepthook(): 672.
     function which handles uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): 886.
     exception.  It can be overridden to control how uncaught *note
     threading.Thread.run(): 886. exceptions are handled.

   - bpo-36996(25): Handle *note unittest.mock.patch(): d12. used as a
     decorator on async functions.

   - bpo-37008(26): Add support for calling *note next(): 5f8. with the
     mock resulting from *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 17d1.

   - bpo-27737(27): Allow whitespace only header encoding in
     ‘email.header’ - by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-36969(28): PDB command ‘args’ now display positional only
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36969(29): PDB command ‘args’ now display keyword only
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36983(30): Add missing names to ‘typing.__all__’: ‘ChainMap’,
     ‘ForwardRef’, ‘OrderedDict’ - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36972(31): Add SupportsIndex protocol to the typing module to
     allow type checking to detect classes that can be passed to
     ‘hex()’, ‘oct()’ and ‘bin()’.

   - bpo-32972(32): Implement ‘unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase’ to help
     testing asyncio-based code.

   - bpo-36952(33): *note fileinput.input(): 620. and *note
     fileinput.FileInput: 547. 'bufsize' argument has been removed (was
     deprecated and ignored since Python 3.6), and as a result the
     'mode' and 'openhook' arguments have been made keyword-only.

   - bpo-36952(34): Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from *note
     collections: 1b. is deprecated, and import should be done from
     *note collections.abc: 1c.  Still being able to import from *note
     collections: 1b. was marked for removal in 3.8, but has been
     delayed to 3.9; documentation and ‘DeprecationWarning’ clarified.

   - bpo-36949(35): Implement __repr__ for WeakSet objects.

   - bpo-36948(36): Fix *note NameError: 144. in *note
     urllib.request.URLopener.retrieve(): 17d2.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-33524(37): Fix the folding of email header when the
     max_line_length is 0 or None and the header contains non-ascii
     characters.  Contributed by Licht Takeuchi (@Licht-T).

   - bpo-24564(38): *note shutil.copystat(): fbe. now ignores *note
     errno.EINVAL: 17d3. on *note os.setxattr(): f95. which may occur
     when copying files on filesystems without extended attributes
     support.

     Original patch by Giampaolo Rodola, updated by Ying Wang.

   - bpo-36888(39): Python child processes can now access the status of
     their parent process using multiprocessing.process.parent_process

   - bpo-36921(40): Deprecate ‘@coroutine’ for sake of ‘async def’.

   - bpo-25652(41): Fix bug in ‘__rmod__’ of ‘UserString’ - by Batuhan
     Taskaya.

   - bpo-36916(42): Remove a message about an unhandled exception in a
     task when writer.write() is used without await and writer.drain()
     fails with an exception.

   - bpo-36889(43): Introduce ‘asyncio.Stream’ class that merges *note
     asyncio.StreamReader: 1699. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter: 1497.
     functionality.  ‘asyncio.Stream’ can work in readonly, writeonly
     and readwrite modes.  Provide ‘asyncio.connect()’,
     ‘asyncio.connect_unix()’, ‘asyncio.connect_read_pipe()’ and
     ‘asyncio.connect_write_pipe()’ factories to open ‘asyncio.Stream’
     connections.  Provide ‘asyncio.StreamServer’ and ‘UnixStreamServer’
     to serve servers with asyncio.Stream API. Modify *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): 8c4. and *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): 8c3. to use ‘asyncio.Stream’
     instead of deprecated ‘StreamReader’ and ‘StreamWriter’.  Deprecate
     *note asyncio.StreamReader: 1699. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter:
     1497.  Deprecate usage of private classes, e.g.
     ‘asyncio.FlowControlMixing’ and ‘asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol’
     outside of asyncio package.

   - bpo-36845(44): Added validation of integer prefixes to the
     construction of IP networks and interfaces in the ipaddress module.

   - bpo-23378(45): Add an extend action to argparser.

   - bpo-36867(46): Fix a bug making a SharedMemoryManager instance and
     its parent process use two separate resource_tracker processes.

   - bpo-23896(47): Adds a grammar to lib2to3.pygram that contains exec
     as a function not as statement.

   - bpo-36895(48): The function ‘time.clock()’ was deprecated in 3.3 in
     favor of ‘time.perf_counter()’ and marked for removal in 3.8, it
     has removed.

   - bpo-35545(49): Fix asyncio discarding IPv6 scopes when ensuring
     hostname resolutions internally

   - bpo-36887(50): Add new function *note math.isqrt(): 84b. to compute
     integer square roots.

   - bpo-34632(51): Introduce the ‘importlib.metadata’ module with
     (provisional) support for reading metadata from third-party
     packages.

   - bpo-36878(52): When using ‘type_comments=True’ in ‘ast.parse’,
     treat ‘# type: ignore’ followed by a non-alphanumeric character and
     then arbitrary text as a type ignore, instead of requiring nothing
     but whitespace or another comment.  This is to permit formations
     such as ‘# type: ignore[E1000]’.

   - bpo-36778(53): ‘cp65001’ encoding (Windows code page 65001) becomes
     an alias to ‘utf_8’ encoding.

   - bpo-36867(54): The multiprocessing.resource_tracker replaces the
     multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker module.  Other than semaphores,
     resource_tracker also tracks shared_memory segments.

   - bpo-30262(55): The ‘Cache’ and ‘Statement’ objects of the *note
     sqlite3: c9. module are not exposed to the user.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-24538(56): In ‘shutil.copystat()’, first copy extended file
     attributes and then file permissions, since extended attributes can
     only be set on the destination while it is still writeable.

   - bpo-36829(57): Add new *note sys.unraisablehook(): 479. function
     which can be overridden to control how "unraisable exceptions" are
     handled.  It is called when an exception has occurred but there is
     no way for Python to handle it.  For example, when a destructor
     raises an exception or during garbage collection (*note
     gc.collect(): 883.).

   - bpo-36832(58): Introducing ‘zipfile.Path’, a pathlib-compatible
     wrapper for traversing zip files.

   - bpo-36814(59): Fix an issue where os.posix_spawnp() would
     incorrectly raise a TypeError when file_actions is None.

   - bpo-33110(60): Handle exceptions raised by functions added by
     concurrent.futures add_done_callback correctly when the Future has
     already completed.

   - bpo-26903(61): Limit ‘max_workers’ in ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ to 61
     to work around a WaitForMultipleObjects limitation.

   - bpo-36813(62): Fix *note QueueListener: ca6. to call
     ‘queue.task_done()’ upon stopping.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-36806(63): Forbid creation of asyncio stream objects like
     StreamReader, StreamWriter, Process, and their protocols outside of
     asyncio package.

   - bpo-36802(64): Provide both sync and async calls for
     StreamWriter.write() and StreamWriter.close()

   - bpo-36801(65): Properly handle SSL connection closing in asyncio
     StreamWriter.drain() call.

   - bpo-36785(66): Implement PEP 574 (pickle protocol 5 with
     out-of-band buffers).

   - bpo-36772(67): functools.lru_cache() can now be used as a straight
     decorator in addition to its existing usage as a function that
     returns a decorator.

   - bpo-6584(68): Add a *note BadGzipFile: 83c. exception to the *note
     gzip: 62. module.

   - bpo-36748(69): Optimized write buffering in C implementation of
     ‘TextIOWrapper’.  Writing ASCII string to ‘TextIOWrapper’ with
     ascii, latin1, or utf-8 encoding is about 20% faster.  Patch by
     Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-8138(70): Don't mark ‘wsgiref.simple_server.SimpleServer’ as
     multi-threaded since ‘wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer’ is
     single-threaded.

   - bpo-22640(71): *note py_compile.compile(): 86e. now supports silent
     mode.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye

   - bpo-29183(72): Fix double exceptions in *note
     wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler: 17d4. by calling its ‘close()’ method
     only when no exception is raised.

   - bpo-36548(73): Improved the repr of regular expression flags.

   - bpo-36542(74): The signature of Python functions can now be
     overridden by specifying the ‘__text_signature__’ attribute.

   - bpo-36533(75): Reinitialize logging.Handler locks in forked child
     processes instead of attempting to acquire them all in the parent
     before forking only to be released in the child process.  The
     acquire/release pattern was leading to deadlocks in code that has
     implemented any form of chained logging handlers that depend upon
     one another as the lock acquisition order cannot be guaranteed.

   - bpo-35252(76): Throw a TypeError instead of an AssertionError when
     using an invalid type annotation with singledispatch.

   - bpo-35900(77): Allow reduction methods to return a 6-item tuple
     where the 6th item specifies a custom state-setting method that's
     called instead of the regular ‘__setstate__’ method.

   - bpo-35900(78): enable custom reduction callback registration for
     functions and classes in _pickle.c, using the new Pickler's
     attribute ‘reducer_override’

   - bpo-36368(79): Fix a bug crashing SharedMemoryManager instances in
     interactive sessions after a ctrl-c (KeyboardInterrupt) was sent

   - bpo-31904(80): Fix mmap fail for VxWorks

   - bpo-27497(81): *note csv.DictWriter.writeheader(): 1090. now
     returns the return value of the underlying ‘csv.Writer.writerow()’
     method.  Patch contributed by Ashish Nitin Patil.

   - bpo-36239(82): Parsing .mo files now ignores comments starting and
     ending with #-#-#-#-#.

   - bpo-26707(83): Enable plistlib to read and write binary plist files
     that were created as a KeyedArchive file.  Specifically, this
     allows the plistlib to process 0x80 tokens as UID objects.

   - bpo-31904(84): Add posix module support for VxWorks.

   - bpo-35125(85): Asyncio: Remove inner callback on outer cancellation
     in shield

   - bpo-35721(86): Fix ‘asyncio.SelectorEventLoop.subprocess_exec()’
     leaks file descriptors if ‘Popen’ fails and called with
     ‘stdin=subprocess.PIPE’.  Patch by Niklas Fiekas.

   - bpo-31855(87): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 17d1. results now
     respects the argument of read([size]).  Patch contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35431(88): Implement *note math.comb(): 4ce. that returns
     binomial coefficient, that computes the number of ways to choose k
     items from n items without repetition and without order.  Patch by
     Yash Aggarwal and Keller Fuchs.

   - bpo-26660(89): Fixed permission errors in *note TemporaryDirectory:
     10c7. clean up.  Previously ‘TemporaryDirectory.cleanup()’ failed
     when non-writeable or non-searchable files or directories were
     created inside a temporary directory.

   - bpo-34271(90): Add debugging helpers to ssl module.  It's now
     possible to dump key material and to trace TLS protocol.  The
     default and stdlib contexts also support SSLKEYLOGFILE env var.

   - bpo-26467(91): Added AsyncMock to support using unittest to mock
     asyncio coroutines.  Patch by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-33569(92): dataclasses.InitVar: Exposes the type used to create
     the init var.

   - bpo-34424(93): Fix serialization of messages containing encoded
     strings when the policy.linesep is set to a multi-character string.
     Patch by Jens Troeger.

   - bpo-34303(94): Performance of *note functools.reduce(): 116d. is
     slightly improved.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-33361(95): Fix a bug in *note codecs.StreamRecoder: 17d5. where
     seeking might leave old data in a buffer and break subsequent read
     calls.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-22454(96): The *note shlex: bf. module now exposes *note
     shlex.join(): 870, the inverse of *note shlex.split(): 2be.  Patch
     by Bo Bayles.

   - bpo-31922(97):
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.create_datagram_endpoint()’: Do not
     connect UDP socket when broadcast is allowed.  This allows to
     receive replies after a UDP broadcast.

   - bpo-24882(98): Change ThreadPoolExecutor to use existing idle
     threads before spinning up new ones.

   - bpo-31961(99): Added support for bytes and path-like objects in
     *note subprocess.Popen(): 8e1. on Windows.  The 'args' parameter
     now accepts a *note path-like object: 975. if 'shell' is ‘False’
     and a sequence containing bytes and path-like objects.  The
     'executable' parameter now accepts a bytes and *note path-like
     object: 975.  The 'cwd' parameter now accepts a bytes object.
     Based on patch by Anders Lorentsen.

   - bpo-33123(100): *note pathlib.Path.unlink: 17d6. now accepts a
     'missing_ok' parameter to avoid a *note FileNotFoundError: d46.
     from being raised.  Patch by Robert Buchholz.

   - bpo-32941(101): Allow *note mmap.mmap: 84e. objects to access the
     madvise() system call (through *note mmap.mmap.madvise(): 84f.).

   - bpo-22102(102): Added support for ZIP files with disks set to 0.
     Such files are commonly created by builtin tools on Windows when
     use ZIP64 extension.  Patch by Francisco Facioni.

   - bpo-32515(103): trace.py can now run modules via python3 -m trace
     -t -module module_name

   - bpo-32299(104): Changed *note unittest.mock.patch.dict(): 17d7. to
     return the patched dictionary when used as context manager.  Patch
     by Vadim Tsander.

   - bpo-27141(105): Added a ‘__copy__()’ to ‘collections.UserList’ and
     ‘collections.UserDict’ in order to correctly implement shallow
     copying of the objects.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-31829(106): ‘\r’, ‘\0’ and ‘\x1a’ (end-of-file on Windows) are
     now escaped in protocol 0 pickles of Unicode strings.  This allows
     to load them without loss from files open in text mode in Python 2.

   - bpo-23395(107): ‘_thread.interrupt_main()’ now avoids setting the
     Python error status if the ‘SIGINT’ signal is ignored or not
     handled by Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37120

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12202

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26835

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29262

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35246

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35279

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37076

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37054

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37058

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37047

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37049

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37046

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37045

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37035

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37001

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36996

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37008

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27737

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36983

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36972

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36949

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36948

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<44>,  Next: Tests<44>,  Prev: Library<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.47.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36896(1): Clarify that some types have unstable constructor
     signature between Python versions.

   - bpo-36686(2): Improve documentation of the stdin, stdout, and
     stderr arguments of the ‘asyncio.subprocess_exec’ function to
     specify which values are supported.  Also mention that decoding as
     text is not supported.

     Add a few tests to verify that the various values passed to the
     std* arguments actually work.

   - bpo-36984(3): Improve version added references in ‘typing’ module -
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36868(4): What's new now mentions
     SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name instead of
     SSLContext.host_flags.

   - bpo-35924(5): Add a note to the ‘curses.addstr()’ documentation to
     warn that multiline strings can cause segfaults because of an
     ncurses bug.

   - bpo-36783(6): Added C API Documentation for Time_FromTimeAndFold
     and PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold as per PEP 495.  Patch by
     Edison Abahurire.

   - bpo-36797(7): More of the legacy distutils documentation has been
     either pruned, or else more clearly marked as being retained solely
     until the setuptools documentation covers it independently.

   - bpo-22865(8): Add detail to the documentation on the ‘pty.spawn’
     function.

   - bpo-35397(9): Remove deprecation and document
     urllib.parse.unwrap().  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-32995(10): Added the context variable in glossary.

   - bpo-33519(11): Clarify that ‘copy()’ is not part of the
     ‘MutableSequence’ ABC.

   - bpo-33482(12): Make ‘codecs.StreamRecoder.writelines’ take a list
     of bytes.

   - bpo-25735(13): Added documentation for func factorial to indicate
     that returns integer values

   - bpo-20285(14): Expand object.__doc__ (docstring) to make it
     clearer.  Modify pydoc.py so that help(object) lists object methods
     (for other classes, help omits methods of the object base class.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36896

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36686

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36984

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36868

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35924

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36783

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22865

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35397

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32995

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33519

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33482

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25735

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20285


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<44>,  Next: Build<44>,  Prev: Documentation<44>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.47.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-37069(1): Modify test_coroutines, test_cprofile,
     test_generators, test_raise, test_ssl and test_yield_from to use
     *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception(): 17b8. rather than
     *note test.support.captured_stderr(): 17da.

   - bpo-37098(2): Fix test_memfd_create on older Linux Kernels.

   - bpo-37081(3): Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1c

   - bpo-36829(4): Add *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception():
     17b8.: context manager catching unraisable exception using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 479.

   - bpo-36915(5): The main regrtest process now always removes all
     temporary directories of worker processes even if they crash or if
     they are killed on KeyboardInterrupt (CTRL+c).

   - bpo-36719(6): "python3 -m test -jN ..."  now continues the
     execution of next tests when a worker process crash (CHILD_ERROR
     state).  Previously, the test suite stopped immediately.  Use
     -failfast to stop at the first error.

   - bpo-36816(7): Update Lib/test/selfsigned_pythontestdotnet.pem to
     match self-signed.pythontest.net's new TLS certificate.

   - bpo-35925(8): Skip httplib and nntplib networking tests when they
     would otherwise fail due to a modern OS or distro with a default
     OpenSSL policy of rejecting connections to servers with weak
     certificates.

   - bpo-36782(9): Add tests for several C API functions in the *note
     datetime: 2e. module.  Patch by Edison Abahurire.

   - bpo-36342(10): Fix test_multiprocessing in test_venv if platform
     lacks functioning sem_open.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37098

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36915

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36816

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35925

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36782

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36342


File: python.info,  Node: Build<44>,  Next: Windows<43>,  Prev: Tests<44>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.47.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36721(1): To embed Python into an application, a new ‘--embed’
     option must be passed to ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ to get
     ‘-lpython3.8’ (link the application to libpython).  To support both
     3.8 and older, try ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ first and
     fallback to ‘python3-config --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the
     previous command fails.

     Add a pkg-config ‘python-3.8-embed’ module to embed Python into an
     application: ‘pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs’ includes
     ‘-lpython3.8’.  To support both 3.8 and older, try ‘pkg-config
     python-X.Y-embed --libs’ first and fallback to ‘pkg-config
     python-X.Y --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command
     fails (replace ‘X.Y’ with the Python version).

     On the other hand, ‘pkg-config python3.8 --libs’ no longer contains
     ‘-lpython3.8’.  C extensions must not be linked to libpython
     (except on Android, case handled by the script); this change is
     backward incompatible on purpose.

   - bpo-36786(2): "make install" now runs compileall in parallel.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36786


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<43>,  Next: macOS<34>,  Prev: Build<44>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.47.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-36965(1): include of STATUS_CONTROL_C_EXIT without depending on
     MSC compiler

   - bpo-35926(2): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1b for Windows.

   - bpo-29883(3): Add Windows support for UDP transports for the
     Proactor Event Loop.  Patch by Adam Meily.

   - bpo-33407(4): The *note Py_DEPRECATED(): 8f7. macro has been
     implemented for MSVC.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36965

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35926

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<34>,  Next: IDLE<31>,  Prev: Windows<43>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.47.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-36231(1): Support building Python on macOS without /usr/include
     installed.  As of macOS 10.14, system header files are only
     available within an SDK provided by either the Command Line Tools
     or the Xcode app.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36231


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<31>,  Next: Tools/Demos<22>,  Prev: macOS<34>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.47.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35610(1): Replace now redundant .context_use_ps1 with
     .prompt_last_line.  This finishes change started in bpo-31858(2).

   - bpo-37038(3): Make idlelib.run runnable; add test clause.

   - bpo-36958(4): Print any argument other than None or int passed to
     SystemExit or sys.exit().

   - bpo-36807(5): When saving a file, call os.fsync() so bits are
     flushed to e.g.  USB drive.

   - bpo-32411(6): In browser.py, remove extraneous sorting by line
     number since dictionary was created in line number order.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35610

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37038

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36958

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36807

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32411


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<22>,  Next: C API<41>,  Prev: IDLE<31>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.47.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-37053(1): Handle strings like u"bar" correctly in
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Chih-Hsuan Yen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37053


File: python.info,  Node: C API<41>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<22>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.47.11 C API
................

   - bpo-36763(1): Implement the PEP 587(2) "Python Initialization
     Configuration".

   - bpo-36379(3): Fix crashes when attempting to use the 'modulo'
     parameter when ‘__ipow__’ is implemented in C.

   - bpo-37107(4): Update *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 17e1. and
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodIdObjArgs’ to use ‘_PyObject_GetMethod’ to
     avoid creating a bound method object in many cases.  Patch by
     Michael J. Sullivan.

   - bpo-36974(5): Implement PEP 590(6): Vectorcall: a fast calling
     protocol for CPython.  This is a new protocol to optimize calls of
     custom callable objects.

   - bpo-36763(7): ‘Py_Main()’ now returns the exitcode rather than
     calling ‘Py_Exit(exitcode)’ when calling ‘PyErr_Print()’ if the
     current exception type is ‘SystemExit’.

   - bpo-36922(8): Add new type flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR’ for
     objects behaving like unbound methods.  These are objects
     supporting the optimization given by the
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’/‘CALL_METHOD’ opcodes.  See PEP 590.

   - bpo-36728(9): The ‘PyEval_ReInitThreads()’ function has been
     removed from the C API. It should not be called explicitly: use
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 36c. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37107

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36922

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.48 Python 3.8.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-05-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<48>.
* Library: Library<48>.
* Documentation: Documentation<45>.
* Tests: Tests<45>.
* Build: Build<45>.
* Windows: Windows<44>.
* macOS: macOS<35>.
* IDLE: IDLE<32>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<23>.
* C API: C API<42>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<33>,  Next: Core and Builtins<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.48.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-36742(1): Fixes mishandling of pre-normalization characters in
     urlsplit().

   - bpo-30458(2): Address CVE 2019-9740(3) by disallowing URL paths
     with embedded whitespace or control characters through into the
     underlying http client request.  Such potentially malicious header
     injection URLs now cause an http.client.InvalidURL exception to be
     raised.

   - bpo-35755(4): *note shutil.which(): 1d9. now uses
     ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’ if available and if the ‘PATH’ environment
     variable is not set.  Remove also the current directory from
     ‘posixpath.defpath’.  On Unix, *note shutil.which(): 1d9. and the
     *note subprocess: d0. module no longer search the executable in the
     current directory if the ‘PATH’ environment variable is not set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36742

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30458

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9740

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<48>,  Next: Library<48>,  Prev: Security<33>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.48.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36722(1): In debug build, import now also looks for C
     extensions compiled in release mode and for C extensions compiled
     in the stable ABI.

   - bpo-32849(2): Fix Python Initialization code on FreeBSD to detect
     properly when stdin file descriptor (fd 0) is invalid.

   - bpo-36623(3): Remove parser headers and related function
     declarations that lack implementations after the removal of pgen.

   - bpo-20180(4): ‘dict.pop()’ is now up to 33% faster thanks to
     Argument Clinic.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36611(5): Debug memory allocators: disable serialno field by
     default from debug hooks on Python memory allocators to reduce the
     memory footprint by 5%.  Enable *note tracemalloc: fa. to get the
     traceback where a memory block has been allocated when a fatal
     memory error is logged to decide where to put a breakpoint.
     Compile Python with ‘PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO’ defined to get back the
     field.

   - bpo-36588(6): On AIX, *note sys.platform: 8da. doesn't contain the
     major version anymore.  Always return ‘'aix'’, instead of ‘'aix3'’
     ..  ‘'aix7'’.  Since older Python versions include the version
     number, it is recommended to always use
     ‘sys.platform.startswith('aix')’.  Contributed by M. Felt.

   - bpo-36549(7): Change str.capitalize to use titlecase for the first
     character instead of uppercase.

   - bpo-36540(8): Implement PEP 570(9) (Python positional-only
     parameters).  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36475(10): ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_AcquireThread()’
     now terminate the current thread if called while the interpreter is
     finalizing, making them consistent with *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8db, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): 8dc, and
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd.

   - bpo-36504(11): Fix signed integer overflow in _ctypes.c's
     ‘PyCArrayType_new()’.

   - bpo-20844(12): Fix running script with encoding cookie and LF line
     ending may fail on Windows.

   - bpo-24214(13): Fixed support of the surrogatepass error handler in
     the UTF-8 incremental decoder.

   - bpo-36452(14): Changing ‘dict’ keys during iteration of the dict
     itself, ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, or ‘items()’ will now be detected in
     certain corner cases where keys are deleted/added so that the
     number of keys isn't changed.  A ‘RuntimeError’ will be raised
     after ‘len(dict)’ iterations.  Contributed by Thomas Perl.

   - bpo-36459(15): Fix a possible double ‘PyMem_FREE()’ due to
     tokenizer.c's ‘tok_nextc()’.

   - bpo-36433(16): Fixed TypeError message in classmethoddescr_call.

   - bpo-36430(17): Fix a possible reference leak in *note
     itertools.count(): 1118.

   - bpo-36440(18): Include node names in ‘ParserError’ messages,
     instead of numeric IDs.  Patch by A. Skrobov.

   - bpo-36143(19): Regenerate *note keyword: 7e. from the Grammar and
     Tokens file using pgen.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-18372(20): Add missing *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 137d. calls
     in the *note pickle: a1. module.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32849

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20180

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36549

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36504

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20844

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24214

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36452

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36459

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36433

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36430

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36440

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18372


File: python.info,  Node: Library<48>,  Next: Documentation<45>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.48.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35952(1): Fix pythoninfo when the compiler is missing.

   - bpo-28238(2): The ‘.find*()’ methods of xml.etree.ElementTree can
     now search for wildcards like ‘{*}tag’ and ‘{ns}*’ that match a tag
     in any namespace or all tags in a namespace.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-26978(3): ‘pathlib.path.link_to()’ is now implemented.  It
     creates a hard link pointing to a path.

   - bpo-1613500(4): *note fileinput.FileInput: 547. now uses the input
     file mode to correctly set the output file mode (previously it was
     hardcoded to ‘'w'’) when ‘inplace=True’ is passed to its
     constructor.

   - bpo-36734(5): Fix compilation of ‘faulthandler.c’ on HP-UX.
     Initialize ‘stack_t current_stack’ to zero using ‘memset()’.

   - bpo-13611(6): The xml.etree.ElementTree packages gained support for
     C14N 2.0 serialisation.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-36669(7): Add missing matrix multiplication operator support to
     weakref.proxy.

   - bpo-36676(8): The XMLParser() in xml.etree.ElementTree provides
     namespace prefix context to the parser target if it defines the
     callback methods "start_ns()" and/or "end_ns()".  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-36673(9): The TreeBuilder and XMLPullParser in
     xml.etree.ElementTree gained support for parsing comments and
     processing instructions.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-36650(10): The C version of functools.lru_cache() was treating
     calls with an empty ‘**kwargs’ dictionary as being distinct from
     calls with no keywords at all.  This did not result in an incorrect
     answer, but it did trigger an unexpected cache miss.

   - bpo-28552(11): Fix ‘distutils.sysconfig’ if *note sys.executable:
     362. is ‘None’ or an empty string: use *note os.getcwd(): 17e6. to
     initialize ‘project_base’.  Fix also the distutils build command:
     don't use *note sys.executable: 362. if it is ‘None’ or an empty
     string.

   - bpo-35755(12): *note shutil.which(): 1d9. and
     ‘distutils.spawn.find_executable’ now use ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’
     if available instead of *note os.defpath: 17e7, if the ‘PATH’
     environment variable is not set.  Moreover, don't use
     ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’ nor *note os.defpath: 17e7. if the ‘PATH’
     environment variable is set to an empty string.

   - bpo-25430(13): improve performance of ‘IPNetwork.__contains__()’

   - bpo-30485(14): Path expressions in xml.etree.ElementTree can now
     avoid explicit namespace prefixes for tags (or the "{namespace}tag"
     notation) by passing a default namespace with an empty string
     prefix.

   - bpo-36613(15): Fix *note asyncio: 9. wait() not removing callback
     if exception

   - bpo-36598(16): Fix ‘isinstance’ check for Mock objects with spec
     when the code is executed under tracing.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-18748(17): In development mode (*note -X: 188. ‘dev’) and in
     debug build, the *note io.IOBase: 841. destructor now logs
     ‘close()’ exceptions.  These exceptions are silent by default in
     release mode.

   - bpo-36575(18): The ‘_lsprof’ module now uses internal timer same to
     ‘time.perf_counter()’ by default.  ‘gettimeofday(2)’ was used on
     Unix.  New timer has better resolution on most Unix platforms and
     timings are no longer impacted by system clock updates since
     ‘perf_counter()’ is monotonic.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-33461(19): ‘json.loads’ now emits ‘DeprecationWarning’ when
     ‘encoding’ option is specified.  Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-36559(20): The random module now prefers the lean internal
     _sha512 module over hashlib for seed(version=2) to optimize import
     time.

   - bpo-17561(21): Set backlog=None as the default for
     socket.create_server.

   - bpo-34373(22): Fix *note time.mktime(): 1079. error handling on AIX
     for year before 1970.

   - bpo-36232(23): Improve error message when trying to open existing
     DBM database that actually doesn't exist.  Patch by Marco Rougeth.

   - bpo-36546(24): Add statistics.quantiles()

   - bpo-36050(25): Optimized ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.read()’ for
     large response.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36522(26): If 'debuglevel' is set to >0 in *note http.client:
     6a, print all values for headers with multiple values for the same
     header name.  Patch by Matt Houglum.

   - bpo-36492(27): Deprecated passing required arguments like 'func' as
     keyword arguments in functions which should accept arbitrary
     keyword arguments and pass them to other function.  Arbitrary
     keyword arguments (even with names "self" and "func") can now be
     passed to these functions if the required arguments are passed as
     positional arguments.

   - bpo-27181(28): Add statistics.geometric_mean().

   - bpo-30427(29): ‘os.path.normcase()’ relies on ‘os.fspath()’ to
     check the type of its argument.  Redundant checks have been removed
     from its ‘posixpath.normcase()’ and ‘ntpath.normcase()’
     implementations.  Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-36385(30): Stop rejecting IPv4 octets for being ambiguously
     octal.  Leading zeros are ignored, and no longer are assumed to
     specify octal octets.  Octets are always decimal numbers.  Octets
     must still be no more than three digits, including leading zeroes.

   - bpo-36434(31): Errors during writing to a ZIP file no longer
     prevent to properly close it.

   - bpo-36407(32): Fixed wrong indentation writing for CDATA section in
     xml.dom.minidom.  Patch by Vladimir Surjaninov.

   - bpo-36326(33): inspect.getdoc() can now find docstrings for member
     objects when __slots__ is a dictionary.

   - bpo-36366(34): Calling ‘stop()’ on an unstarted or stopped *note
     unittest.mock.patch(): d12. object will now return ‘None’ instead
     of raising *note RuntimeError: 17a, making the method idempotent.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36348(35): The ‘imap.IMAP4.logout()’ method no longer ignores
     silently arbitrary exceptions.

   - bpo-31904(36): Add time module support and fix test_time failures
     for VxWorks.

   - bpo-36227(37): Added support for keyword arguments
     ‘default_namespace’ and ‘xml_declaration’ in functions
     ‘ElementTree.tostring()’ and ‘ElementTree.tostringlist()’.

   - bpo-36004(38): Added new alternate constructors *note
     datetime.date.fromisocalendar(): 831. and *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 832, which construct date
     objects from ISO year, week number and weekday; these are the
     inverse of each class's ‘isocalendar’ method.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - bpo-35936(39): *note modulefinder: 8c. no longer depends on the
     deprecated ‘imp’ module, and the initializer for *note
     modulefinder.ModuleFinder: 17e8. now has immutable default
     arguments.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-35376(40): *note modulefinder: 8c. correctly handles modules
     that have the same name as a bad package.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-17396(41): *note modulefinder: 8c. no longer crashes when
     encountering syntax errors in followed imports.  Patch by Brandt
     Bucher.

   - bpo-35934(42): Added *note create_server(): 874. and *note
     has_dualstack_ipv6(): 875. convenience functions to automate the
     necessary tasks usually involved when creating a server socket,
     including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6 connections on the same
     socket.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in bpo-17561(43).)

   - bpo-23078(44): Add support for *note classmethod(): 24b. and *note
     staticmethod(): 5f9. to *note unittest.mock.create_autospec():
     1406.  Initial patch by Felipe Ochoa.

   - bpo-35416(45): Fix potential resource warnings in distutils.  Patch
     by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-25451(46): Add transparency methods to ‘tkinter.PhotoImage’.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35082(47): Don't return deleted attributes when calling dir on
     a *note unittest.mock.Mock: 896.

   - bpo-34547(48): *note wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler: 17d4. now
     handles abrupt client connection terminations gracefully.  Patch by
     Petter Strandmark.

   - bpo-31658(49): *note xml.sax.parse(): 17e9. now supports *note
     path-like: 975.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-34139(50): Remove stale unix datagram socket before binding

   - bpo-33530(51): Implemented Happy Eyeballs in
     ‘asyncio.create_connection()’.  Added two new arguments,
     'happy_eyeballs_delay' and 'interleave', to specify Happy Eyeballs
     behavior.

   - bpo-33291(52): Do not raise AttributeError when calling the inspect
     functions isgeneratorfunction, iscoroutinefunction,
     isasyncgenfunction on a method created from an arbitrary callable.
     Instead, return False.

   - bpo-31310(53): Fix the multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker so it is
     reused by child processes

   - bpo-31292(54): Fix ‘setup.py check --restructuredtext’ for files
     containing ‘include’ directives.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35952

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1613500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36734

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36650

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28552

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25430

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30485

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36613

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36598

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36575

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33461

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36559

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36232

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36050

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36522

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30427

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36385

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36434

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36407

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36366

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36227

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35936

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35376

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17396

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35934

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23078

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35416

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35082

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34547

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31658

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34139

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33291

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31292


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<45>,  Next: Tests<45>,  Prev: Library<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.48.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36625(1): Remove obsolete comments from docstrings in
     fractions.Fraction

   - bpo-30840(2): Document relative imports

   - bpo-36523(3): Add docstring for io.IOBase.writelines().

   - bpo-36425(4): New documentation translation: Simplified Chinese(5).

   - bpo-36345(6): Avoid the duplication of code from
     ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ in using the ‘literalinclude’ directive
     for the basic wsgiref-based web server in the documentation of
     *note wsgiref: 113.  Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36345(7): Using the code of the ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ script
     as an example in the *note wsgiref: 113. documentation.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36157(8): Added documentation for PyInterpreterState_Main().

   - bpo-33043(9): Updates the docs.python.org page with the addition of
     a 'Contributing to Docs' link at the end of the page (between
     'Reporting Bugs' and 'About Documentation').  Updates the 'Found a
     Bug' page with additional links and information in the
     Documentation Bugs section.

   - bpo-35581(10): @typing.type_check_only now allows type stubs to
     mark functions and classes not available during runtime.

   - bpo-33832(11): Add glossary entry for 'magic method'.

   - bpo-32913(12): Added re.Match.groupdict example to regex HOWTO.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36625

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30840

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36425

   (5) https://docs.python.org/zh-cn/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36157

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33043

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35581

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33832

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32913


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<45>,  Next: Build<45>,  Prev: Documentation<45>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.48.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-36719(1): regrtest now always detects uncollectable objects.
     Previously, the check was only enabled by ‘--findleaks’.  The check
     now also works with ‘-jN/--multiprocess N’.  ‘--findleaks’ becomes
     a deprecated alias to ‘--fail-env-changed’.

   - bpo-36725(2): When using multiprocessing mode (-jN), regrtest now
     better reports errors if a worker process fails, and it exits
     immediately on a worker thread failure or when interrupted.

   - bpo-36454(3): Change test_time.test_monotonic() to test only the
     lower bound of elapsed time after a sleep command rather than the
     upper bound.  This prevents unnecessary test failures on slow
     buildbots.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-32424(4): Improve test coverage for xml.etree.ElementTree.
     Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-32424(5): Fix typo in test_cyclic_gc() test for
     xml.etree.ElementTree.  Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-36635(6): Add a new ‘_testinternalcapi’ module to test the
     internal C API.

   - bpo-36629(7): Fix ‘test_imap4_host_default_value()’ of
     ‘test_imaplib’: catch also *note errno.ENETUNREACH: 17ec. error.

   - bpo-36611(8): Fix ‘test_sys.test_getallocatedblocks()’ when *note
     tracemalloc: fa. is enabled.

   - bpo-36560(9): Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest: compute also
     deltas (of reference count, allocated memory blocks, file
     descriptor count) during warmup, to ensure that everything is
     initialized before starting to hunt reference leaks.

   - bpo-36565(10): Fix reference hunting (‘python3 -m test -R 3:3’)
     when Python has no built-in abc module.

   - bpo-31904(11): Port test_resource to VxWorks: skip tests cases
     setting RLIMIT_FSIZE and RLIMIT_CPU.

   - bpo-31904(12): Fix test_tabnanny on VxWorks: adjust ENOENT error
     message.

   - bpo-36436(13): Fix ‘_testcapi.pymem_buffer_overflow()’: handle
     memory allocation failure.

   - bpo-31904(14): Fix test_utf8_mode on VxWorks: Python always use
     UTF-8 on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36341(15): Fix tests that may fail with PermissionError upon
     calling bind() on AF_UNIX sockets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36725

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36454

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36629

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36560

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36565

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36436

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36341


File: python.info,  Node: Build<45>,  Next: Windows<44>,  Prev: Tests<45>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.48.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36747(1): Remove the stale scriptsinstall Makefile target.

   - bpo-21536(2): On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to
     libpython except on Android and Cygwin.

     It is now possible for a statically linked Python to load a C
     extension built using a shared library Python.

     When Python is embedded, ‘libpython’ must not be loaded with
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, but ‘RTLD_GLOBAL’ instead.  Previously, using
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, it was already not possible to load C extensions
     which were not linked to ‘libpython’, such as C extensions of the
     standard library built by the ‘*shared*’ section of
     ‘Modules/Setup’.

     distutils, python-config and python-config.py have been modified.

   - bpo-36707(3): ‘./configure --with-pymalloc’ no longer adds the ‘m’
     flag to SOABI (sys.implementation.cache_tag).  Enabling or
     disabling pymalloc has no impact on the ABI.

   - bpo-36635(4): Change ‘PyAPI_FUNC(type)’, ‘PyAPI_DATA(type)’ and
     ‘PyMODINIT_FUNC’ macros of ‘pyport.h’ when ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’
     is defined.  The ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ define must be now be used
     to build a C extension as a dynamic library accessing Python
     internals: export the ‘PyInit_XXX()’ function in DLL exports on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31904(5): Don't build the ‘_crypt’ extension on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36618(6): Add ‘-fmax-type-align=8’ to CFLAGS when clang
     compiler is detected.  The pymalloc memory allocator aligns memory
     on 8 bytes.  On x86-64, clang expects alignment on 16 bytes by
     default and so uses MOVAPS instruction which can lead to
     segmentation fault.  Instruct clang that Python is limited to
     alignment on 8 bytes to use MOVUPS instruction instead: slower but
     don't trigger a SIGSEGV if the memory is not aligned on 16 bytes.
     Sadly, the flag must be added to ‘CFLAGS’ and not just
     ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’, since third party C extensions can have the same
     issue.

   - bpo-36605(7): ‘make tags’ and ‘make TAGS’ now also parse
     ‘Modules/_io/*.c’ and ‘Modules/_io/*.h’.

   - bpo-36465(8): Release builds and debug builds are now ABI
     compatible: defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the
     ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which introduces the only ABI
     incompatibility.  The ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which adds the
     ‘sys.getobjects()’ function and the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 7ea.
     environment variable, can be set using the new ‘./configure
     --with-trace-refs’ build option.

   - bpo-36577(9): setup.py now correctly reports missing OpenSSL
     headers and libraries again.

   - bpo-36544(10): Fix regression introduced in bpo-36146(11)
     refactoring setup.py

   - bpo-36508(12): ‘python-config --ldflags’ no longer includes flags
     of the ‘LINKFORSHARED’ variable.  The ‘LINKFORSHARED’ variable must
     only be used to build executables.

   - bpo-36503(13): Remove references to "aix3" and "aix4".  Patch by M.
     Felt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36747

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36618

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36605

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36577

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36544

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36508

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36503


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<44>,  Next: macOS<35>,  Prev: Build<45>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.48.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35920(1): Added platform.win32_edition() and
     platform.win32_is_iot().  Added support for cross-compiling
     packages for Windows ARM32.  Skip tests that are not expected to
     work on Windows IoT Core ARM32.

   - bpo-36649(2): Remove trailing spaces for registry keys when
     installed via the Store.

   - bpo-34144(3): Fixed activate.bat to correctly update codepage when
     chcp.com returns dots in output.  Patch by Lorenz Mende.

   - bpo-36509(4): Added preset-iot layout for Windows IoT ARM
     containers.  This layout doesn't contain UI components like tkinter
     or IDLE. It also doesn't contain files to support on-target builds
     since Windows ARM32 builds must be cross-compiled when using MSVC.

   - bpo-35941(5): enum_certificates function of the ssl module now
     returns certificates from all available certificate stores inside
     windows in a query instead of returning only certificates from the
     system wide certificate store.  This includes certificates from
     these certificate stores: local machine, local machine enterprise,
     local machine group policy, current user, current user group
     policy, services, users.  ssl.enum_crls() function is changed in
     the same way to return all certificate revocation lists inside the
     windows certificate revocation list stores.

   - bpo-36441(6): Fixes creating a venv when debug binaries are
     installed.

   - bpo-36085(7): Enable better DLL resolution on Windows by using safe
     DLL search paths and adding *note os.add_dll_directory(): 82f.

   - bpo-36010(8): Add the venv standard library module to the nuget
     distribution for Windows.

   - bpo-29515(9): Add the following socket module constants on Windows:
     IPPROTO_AH IPPROTO_CBT IPPROTO_DSTOPTS IPPROTO_EGP IPPROTO_ESP
     IPPROTO_FRAGMENT IPPROTO_GGP IPPROTO_HOPOPTS IPPROTO_ICLFXBM
     IPPROTO_ICMPV6 IPPROTO_IDP IPPROTO_IGMP IPPROTO_IGP IPPROTO_IPV4
     IPPROTO_IPV6 IPPROTO_L2TP IPPROTO_MAX IPPROTO_ND IPPROTO_NONE
     IPPROTO_PGM IPPROTO_PIM IPPROTO_PUP IPPROTO_RDP IPPROTO_ROUTING
     IPPROTO_SCTP IPPROTO_ST

   - bpo-35947(10): Added current version of libffi to
     cpython-source-deps.  Change _ctypes to use current version of
     libffi on Windows.

   - bpo-34060(11): Report system load when running test suite on
     Windows.  Patch by Ammar Askar.  Based on prior work by Jeremy
     Kloth.

   - bpo-31512(12): With the Windows 10 Creators Update, non-elevated
     users can now create symlinks as long as the computer has Developer
     Mode enabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35920

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34144

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36509

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35941

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36010

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29515

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35947

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31512


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<35>,  Next: IDLE<32>,  Prev: Windows<44>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.48.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-34602(1): Avoid failures setting macOS stack resource limit
     with resource.setrlimit.  This reverts an earlier fix for
     bpo-18075(2) which forced a non-default stack size when building
     the interpreter executable on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18075


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<32>,  Next: Tools/Demos<23>,  Prev: macOS<35>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.48.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-36429(1): Fix starting IDLE with pyshell.  Add idlelib.pyshell
     alias at top; remove pyshell alias at bottom.  Remove obsolete
     __name__=='__main__' command.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36429


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<23>,  Next: C API<42>,  Prev: IDLE<32>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.48.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-14546(1): Fix the argument handling in Tools/scripts/lll.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14546


File: python.info,  Node: C API<42>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<23>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.48.11 C API
................

   - bpo-36763(1): Fix memory leak in *note
     Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding(): e94.: release memory if the
     function is called twice.

   - bpo-36641(2): PyDoc_VAR(name) and *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 174d.(name,
     str) now create ‘static const char name[]’ instead of ‘static char
     name[]’.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36389(3): Change the value of ‘CLEANBYTE’, ‘DEADDYTE’ and
     ‘FORBIDDENBYTE’ internal constants used by debug hooks on Python
     memory allocators (*note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ad2. function).
     Byte patterns ‘0xCB’, ‘0xDB’ and ‘0xFB’ have been replaced with
     ‘0xCD’, ‘0xDD’ and ‘0xFD’ to use the same values than Windows CRT
     debug ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.

   - bpo-36443(4): Since Python 3.7.0, calling *note Py_DecodeLocale():
     a28. before *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. produces mojibake if the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale is coerced and/or if the UTF-8 Mode is enabled by
     the user configuration.  The LC_CTYPE coercion and UTF-8 Mode are
     now disabled by default to fix the mojibake issue.  They must now
     be enabled explicitly (opt-in) using the new ‘_Py_PreInitialize()’
     API with ‘_PyPreConfig’.

   - bpo-36025(5): Fixed an accidental change to the datetime C API
     where the arguments to the *note PyDate_FromTimestamp(): 17f3.
     function were incorrectly interpreted as a single timestamp rather
     than an arguments tuple, which causes existing code to start
     raising *note TypeError: 2ba.  The backwards-incompatible change
     was only present in alpha releases of Python 3.8.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - bpo-35810(6): Modify ‘PyObject_Init’ to correctly increase the
     refcount of heap-allocated Type objects.  Also fix the refcounts of
     the heap-allocated types that were either doing this manually or
     not decreasing the type's refcount in tp_dealloc

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36641

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36443

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36025

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.49 Python 3.8.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-03-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<49>.
* Library: Library<49>.
* Documentation: Documentation<46>.
* Tests: Tests<46>.
* Build: Build<46>.
* Windows: Windows<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<33>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<24>.
* C API: C API<43>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<34>,  Next: Core and Builtins<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.49.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-36216(1): Changes urlsplit() to raise ValueError when the URL
     contains characters that decompose under IDNA encoding
     (NFKC-normalization) into characters that affect how the URL is
     parsed.

   - bpo-35121(2): Don't send cookies of domain A without Domain
     attribute to domain B when domain A is a suffix match of domain B
     while using a cookiejar with *note
     http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy: 17f6. policy.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<49>,  Next: Library<49>,  Prev: Security<34>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.49.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36421(1): Fix a possible double decref in _ctypes.c's
     ‘PyCArrayType_new()’.

   - bpo-36412(2): Fix a possible crash when creating a new dictionary.

   - bpo-36398(3): Fix a possible crash in ‘structseq_repr()’.

   - bpo-36256(4): Fix bug in parsermodule when parsing a state in a DFA
     that has two or more arcs with labels of the same type.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36365(5): repr(structseq) is no longer limited to 512 bytes.

   - bpo-36374(6): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     ‘merge_consts_recursive()’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-36236(7): At Python initialization, the current directory is no
     longer prepended to *note sys.path: 35e. if it has been removed.

   - bpo-36352(8): Python initialization now fails with an error, rather
     than silently truncating paths, if a path is too long.

   - bpo-36301(9): Python initialization now fails if decoding
     ‘pybuilddir.txt’ configuration file fails at startup.

   - bpo-36333(10): Fix leak in _PyRuntimeState_Fini.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36332(11): The builtin *note compile(): 554. can now handle AST
     objects that contain assignment expressions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-36282(12): Improved error message for too much positional
     arguments in some builtin functions.

   - bpo-30040(13): New empty dict uses fewer memory for now.  It used
     more memory than empty dict created by ‘dict.clear()’.  And empty
     dict creation and deletion is about 2x faster.  Patch by Inada
     Naoki.

   - bpo-36262(14): Fix an unlikely memory leak on conversion from
     string to float in the function ‘_Py_dg_strtod()’ used by
     ‘float(str)’, ‘complex(str)’, *note pickle.load(): b7f, *note
     marshal.load(): 17f8, etc.

   - bpo-36252(15): Update Unicode databases to version 12.0.0.

   - bpo-36218(16): Fix a segfault occurring when sorting a list of
     heterogeneous values.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre and Elliot
     Gorokhovsky.

   - bpo-36188(17): Cleaned up left-over vestiges of Python 2 unbound
     method handling in method objects and documentation.  Patch by
     Martijn Pieters

   - bpo-36124(18): Add a new interpreter-specific dict and expose it in
     the C-API via PyInterpreterState_GetDict().  This parallels
     PyThreadState_GetDict().  However, extension modules should
     continue using PyModule_GetState() for their own internal
     per-interpreter state.

   - bpo-35975(19): Add a ‘feature_version’ flag to ‘ast.parse()’
     (documented) and ‘compile()’ (hidden) that allows tweaking the
     parser to support older versions of the grammar.  In particular, if
     ‘feature_version’ is 5 or 6, the hacks for the ‘async’ and ‘await’
     keyword from PEP 492 are reinstated.  (For 7 or higher, these are
     unconditionally treated as keywords, but they are still special
     tokens rather than ‘NAME’ tokens that the parser driver
     recognizes.)

   - bpo-31904(20): Use UTF-8 as the system encoding on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36048(21): The *note __index__(): 51f. special method will be
     used instead of *note __int__(): 51e. for implicit conversion of
     Python numbers to C integers.  Using the ‘__int__()’ method in
     implicit conversions has been deprecated.

   - bpo-35808(22): Retire pgen and use a modified version of pgen2 to
     generate the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36398

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36256

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36365

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36374

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36236

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36352

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36301

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36333

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36332

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36282

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30040

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36262

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36252

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36218

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36188

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36124

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35975

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35808


File: python.info,  Node: Library<49>,  Next: Documentation<46>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.49.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-36401(1): The class documentation created by pydoc now has a
     separate section for readonly properties.

   - bpo-36320(2): The typing.NamedTuple() class has deprecated the
     _field_types attribute in favor of the __annotations__ attribute
     which carried the same information.  Also, both attributes were
     converted from OrderedDict to a regular dict.

   - bpo-34745(3): Fix *note asyncio: 9. ssl memory issues caused by
     circular references

   - bpo-36324(4): Add method to statistics.NormalDist for computing the
     inverse cumulative normal distribution.

   - bpo-36321(5): collections.namedtuple() misspelled the name of an
     attribute.  To be consistent with typing.NamedTuple, the attribute
     name should have been "_field_defaults" instead of
     "_fields_defaults".  For backwards compatibility, both spellings
     are now created.  The misspelled version may be removed in the
     future.

   - bpo-36297(6): "unicode_internal" codec is removed.  It was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36298(7): Raise ModuleNotFoundError in pyclbr when a module
     can't be found.  Thanks to 'mental' for the bug report.

   - bpo-36268(8): Switch the default format used for writing tars with
     *note tarfile: d8. to the modern POSIX.1-2001 pax standard, from
     the vendor-specific GNU. Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - bpo-36285(9): Fix integer overflows in the array module.  Patch by
     Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-31904(10): Add _signal module support for VxWorks.

   - bpo-36272(11): *note logging: 82. does not silently ignore
     RecursionError anymore.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36280(12): Add a kind field to ast.Constant.  It is 'u' if the
     literal has a 'u' prefix (i.e.  a Python 2 style unicode literal),
     else None.

   - bpo-35931(13): The *note pdb: a0. ‘debug’ command now gracefully
     handles all exceptions.

   - bpo-36251(14): Fix format strings used for stderrprinter and
     re.Match reprs.  Patch by Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-36235(15): Fix ‘CFLAGS’ in ‘customize_compiler()’ of
     ‘distutils.sysconfig’: when the ‘CFLAGS’ environment variable is
     defined, don't override ‘CFLAGS’ variable with the ‘OPT’ variable
     anymore.  Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

   - bpo-35807(16): Update ensurepip to install pip 19.0.3 and
     setuptools 40.8.0.

   - bpo-36139(17): Release GIL when closing *note mmap: 84e. objects.

   - bpo-36179(18): Fix two unlikely reference leaks in _hashopenssl.
     The leaks only occur in out-of-memory cases.

   - bpo-36169(19): Add overlap() method to statistics.NormalDist.
     Computes the overlapping coefficient for two normal distributions.

   - bpo-36103(20): Default buffer size used by ‘shutil.copyfileobj()’
     is changed from 16 KiB to 64 KiB on non-Windows platform to reduce
     system call overhead.  Contributed by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36130(21): Fix ‘pdb’ with ‘skip=...’ when stepping into a frame
     without a ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35652(22): shutil.copytree(copy_function=...)  erroneously pass
     DirEntry instead of a path string.

   - bpo-35178(23): Ensure custom *note warnings.formatwarning(): 17fa.
     function can receive ‘line’ as positional argument.  Based on patch
     by Tashrif Billah.

   - bpo-36106(24): Resolve potential name clash with libm's sinpi().
     Patch by Dmitrii Pasechnik.

   - bpo-36091(25): Clean up reference to async generator in Lib/types.
     Patch by Henry Chen.

   - bpo-36043(26): ‘FileCookieJar’ supports *note path-like object:
     975.  Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35899(27): Enum has been fixed to correctly handle empty
     strings and strings with non-Latin characters (ie.  'α', 'א')
     without crashing.  Original patch contributed by Maxwell.  Assisted
     by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-21269(28): Add ‘args’ and ‘kwargs’ properties to mock call
     objects.  Contributed by Kumar Akshay.

   - bpo-30670(29): ‘pprint.pp’ has been added to pretty-print objects
     with dictionary keys being sorted with their insertion order by
     default.  Parameter 'sort_dicts' has been added to ‘pprint.pprint’,
     ‘pprint.pformat’ and ‘pprint.PrettyPrinter’.  Contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35843(30): Implement ‘__getitem__’ for ‘_NamespacePath’.  Patch
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35802(31): Clean up code which checked presence of ‘os.stat’ /
     ‘os.lstat’ / ‘os.chmod’ which are always present.  Patch by Anthony
     Sottile.

   - bpo-35715(32): Librates the return value of a ProcessPoolExecutor
     _process_worker after it's no longer needed to free memory

   - bpo-35493(33): Use *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): f6e.
     instead of polling each 0.2 seconds for worker updates in
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35661(34): Store the venv prompt in pyvenv.cfg.

   - bpo-35121(35): Don't set cookie for a request when the request path
     is a prefix match of the cookie's path attribute but doesn't end
     with "/".  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-21478(36): Calls to a child function created with *note
     unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1406. should propagate to the
     parent.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35198(37): Fix C++ extension compilation on AIX

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36401

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34745

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36324

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36321

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36298

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36285

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36272

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36280

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36251

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36235

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35807

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36139

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36179

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36169

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36103

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36130

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35652

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35178

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36106

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36091

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36043

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35899

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21269

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35843

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35802

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35715

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35493

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35661

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21478

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35198


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<46>,  Next: Tests<46>,  Prev: Library<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.49.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36329(1): Declare the path of the Python binary for the usage
     of ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ when executing ‘make -C Doc/ serve’.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-36138(2): Improve documentation about converting
     datetime.timedelta to scalars.

   - bpo-21314(3): A new entry was added to the Core Language Section of
     the Programming FAQ, which explaines the usage of slash(/) in the
     signature of a function.  Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36138

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21314


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<46>,  Next: Build<46>,  Prev: Documentation<46>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.49.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-36234(1): test_posix.PosixUidGidTests: add tests for invalid
     uid/gid type (str).  Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

   - bpo-29571(2): Fix ‘test_re.test_locale_flag()’: use
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’ rather than ‘locale.getlocale()’ to
     get the locale encoding.  With some locales, ‘locale.getlocale()’
     returns the wrong encoding.

   - bpo-36123(3): Fix race condition in test_socket.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36234

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36123


File: python.info,  Node: Build<46>,  Next: Windows<45>,  Prev: Tests<46>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.49.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36356(1): Fix leaks that led to build failure when configured
     with address sanitizer.

   - bpo-36146(2): Add ‘TEST_EXTENSIONS’ constant to ‘setup.py’ to allow
     to not build test extensions like ‘_testcapi’.

   - bpo-36146(3): Fix setup.py on macOS: only add ‘/usr/include/ffi’ to
     include directories of _ctypes, not for all extensions.

   - bpo-31904(4): Enable build system to cross-build for VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36356

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<45>,  Next: IDLE<33>,  Prev: Build<46>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.49.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-36312(1): Fixed decoders for the following code pages: 50220,
     50221, 50222, 50225, 50227, 50229, 57002 through 57011, 65000 and
     42.

   - bpo-36264(2): Don't honor POSIX ‘HOME’ in ‘os.path.expanduser’ on
     windows.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-24643(3): Fix name collisions due to ‘#define timezone
     _timezone’ in PC/pyconfig.h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36312

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24643


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<33>,  Next: Tools/Demos<24>,  Prev: Windows<45>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.49.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-36405(1): Use dict unpacking in idlelib.

   - bpo-36396(2): Remove fgBg param of idlelib.config.GetHighlight().
     This param was only used twice and changed the return type.

   - bpo-36176(3): Fix IDLE autocomplete & calltip popup colors.
     Prevent conflicts with Linux dark themes (and slightly darken
     calltip background).

   - bpo-23205(4): For the grep module, add tests for findfiles,
     refactor findfiles to be a module-level function, and refactor
     findfiles to use os.walk.

   - bpo-23216(5): Add docstrings to IDLE search modules.

   - bpo-36152(6): Remove colorizer.ColorDelegator.close_when_done and
     the corresponding argument of .close().  In IDLE, both have always
     been None or False since 2007.

   - bpo-32129(7): Avoid blurry IDLE application icon on macOS with Tk
     8.6.  Patch by Kevin Walzer.

   - bpo-36096(8): Refactor class variables to instance variables in
     colorizer.

   - bpo-30348(9): Increase test coverage of idlelib.autocomplete by
     30%.  Patch by Louie Lu

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36405

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36396

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36176

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23216

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36152

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32129

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36096

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30348


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<24>,  Next: C API<43>,  Prev: IDLE<33>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.49.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-35132(1): Fix py-list and py-bt commands of python-gdb.py on
     gdb7.

   - bpo-32217(2): Fix freeze script on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35132

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32217


File: python.info,  Node: C API<43>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<24>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.49.10 C API
................

   - bpo-36381(1): Raise ‘DeprecationWarning’ when '#' formats are used
     for building or parsing values without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’.

   - bpo-36142(2): The whole coreconfig.h header is now excluded from
     Py_LIMITED_API. Move functions definitions into a new internal
     pycore_coreconfig.h header.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36142


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.50 Python 3.8.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-02-25'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<50>.
* Library: Library<50>.
* Documentation: Documentation<47>.
* Tests: Tests<47>.
* Windows: Windows<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<34>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<50>,  Next: Library<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.50.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36052(1): Raise a *note SyntaxError: 146. when assigning a
     value to ‘__debug__’ with the Assignment Operator.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel and Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36012(2): Doubled the speed of class variable writes.  When a
     non-dunder attribute was updated, there was an unnecessary call to
     update slots.

   - bpo-35942(3): The error message emitted when returning invalid
     types from ‘__fspath__’ in interfaces that allow passing *note
     PathLike: ab7. objects has been improved and now it does explain
     the origin of the error.

   - bpo-36016(4): ‘gc.get_objects’ can now receive an optional
     parameter indicating a generation to get objects from.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1054041(5): When the main interpreter exits due to an uncaught
     KeyboardInterrupt, the process now exits in the appropriate manner
     for its parent process to detect that a SIGINT or ^C terminated the
     process.  This allows shells and batch scripts to understand that
     the user has asked them to stop.

   - bpo-35992(6): Fix ‘__class_getitem__()’ not being called on a class
     with a custom non-subscriptable metaclass.

   - bpo-35993(7): Fix a crash on fork when using subinterpreters.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35991(8): Fix a potential double free in
     Modules/_randommodule.c.

   - bpo-35961(9): Fix a crash in slice_richcompare(): use strong
     references rather than stolen references for the two temporary
     internal tuples.

   - bpo-35911(10): Enable the creation of cell objects by adding a
     ‘cell.__new__’ method, and expose the type ‘cell’ in ‘Lib/types.py’
     under the name CellType.  Patch by Pierre Glaser.

   - bpo-12822(11): Use monotonic clock for ‘pthread_cond_timedwait’
     when ‘pthread_condattr_setclock’ and ‘CLOCK_MONOTONIC’ are
     available.

   - bpo-15248(12): The compiler emits now syntax warnings in the case
     when a comma is likely missed before tuple or list.

   - bpo-35886(13): The implementation of PyInterpreterState has been
     moved into the internal header files (guarded by Py_BUILD_CORE).

   - bpo-31506(14): Clarify the errors reported when ‘object.__new__’
     and ‘object.__init__’ receive more than one argument.  Contributed
     by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-35724(15): Signal-handling is now guaranteed to happen relative
     to the main interpreter.

   - bpo-33608(16): We added a new internal _Py_AddPendingCall() that
     operates relative to the provided interpreter.  This allows us to
     use the existing implementation to ask another interpreter to do
     work that cannot be done in the current interpreter, like decref an
     object the other interpreter owns.  The existing
     Py_AddPendingCall() only operates relative to the main interpreter.

   - bpo-33989(17): Fix a possible crash in *note list.sort(): a30. when
     sorting objects with ‘ob_type->tp_richcompare == NULL’.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36052

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35942

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35992

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35993

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35991

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35961

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35911

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12822

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35724

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33608

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33989


File: python.info,  Node: Library<50>,  Next: Documentation<47>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.50.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-35512(1): *note unittest.mock.patch.dict(): 17d7. used as a
     decorator with string target resolves the target during function
     call instead of during decorator construction.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36018(2): Add statistics.NormalDist, a tool for creating and
     manipulating normal distributions of random variable.  Features a
     composite class that treats the mean and standard deviation of
     measurement data as single entity.

   - bpo-35904(3): Added statistics.fmean() as a faster, floating-point
     variant of the existing mean() function.

   - bpo-35918(4): Removed broken ‘has_key’ method from
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.dict.  Contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-18283(5): Add support for bytes to *note shutil.which(): 1d9.

   - bpo-35960(6): Fix *note dataclasses.field(): 1805. throwing away
     empty mapping objects passed as metadata.

   - bpo-35500(7): Write expected and actual call parameters on separate
     lines in *note unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with(): 1806.
     assertion errors.  Contributed by Susan Su.

   - bpo-35931(8): The *note pdb: a0. ‘debug’ command now gracefully
     handles syntax errors.

   - bpo-24209(9): In http.server script, rely on getaddrinfo to bind to
     preferred address based on the bind parameter.  Now default bind or
     binding to a name may bind to IPv6 or dual-stack, depending on the
     environment.

   - bpo-35321(10): Set ‘__spec__.origin’ of ‘_frozen_importlib’ to
     frozen so that it matches the behavior of
     ‘_frozen_importlib_external’.  Patch by Nina Zakharenko.

   - bpo-35378(11): Fix a reference issue inside ‘multiprocessing.Pool’
     that caused the pool to remain alive if it was deleted without
     being closed or terminated explicitly.  A new strong reference is
     added to the pool iterators to link the lifetime of the pool to the
     lifetime of its iterators so the pool does not get destroyed if a
     pool iterator is still alive.

   - bpo-34294(12): re module, fix wrong capturing groups in rare cases.
     *note re.search(): 10bf, *note re.findall(): ebe, *note re.sub():
     201. and other functions that scan through string looking for a
     match, should reset capturing groups between two match attempts.
     Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-35615(13): *note weakref: 10f.: Fix a RuntimeError when copying
     a WeakKeyDictionary or a WeakValueDictionary, due to some keys or
     values disappearing while iterating.

   - bpo-35606(14): Implement *note math.prod(): 84a. as analogous
     function to *note sum(): 181. that returns the product of a 'start'
     value (default: 1) times an iterable of numbers.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-32417(15): Performing arithmetic between *note
     datetime.datetime: 224. subclasses and *note datetime.timedelta:
     813. now returns an object of the same type as the *note
     datetime.datetime: 224. subclass.  As a result, *note
     datetime.datetime.astimezone(): 814. and alternate constructors
     like *note datetime.datetime.now(): 227. and
     ‘datetime.fromtimestamp()’ called with a ‘tz’ argument now 'also'
     retain their subclass.

   - bpo-35153(16): Add 'headers' optional keyword-only parameter to
     *note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: 8a1, ‘xmlrpc.client.Transport’ and
     ‘xmlrpc.client.SafeTransport’.  Patch by Cédric Krier.

   - bpo-34572(17): Fix C implementation of pickle.loads to use
     importlib's locking mechanisms, and thereby avoid using partially
     loaded modules.  Patch by Tim Burgess.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35512

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35918

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18283

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35960

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35500

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24209

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35321

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35378

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34294

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35615

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34572


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<47>,  Next: Tests<47>,  Prev: Library<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.50.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36083(1): Fix formatting of -check-hash-based-pycs options in
     the manpage Synopsis.

   - bpo-36007(2): Bump minimum sphinx version to 1.8.  Patch by Anthony
     Sottile.

   - bpo-22062(3): Update documentation and docstrings for pathlib.
     Original patch by Mike Short.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36083

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36007

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22062


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<47>,  Next: Windows<46>,  Prev: Documentation<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.50.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27313(1): Avoid test_ttk_guionly ComboboxTest failure with
     macOS Cocoa Tk.

   - bpo-36019(2): Add test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL and replace references
     of ‘http://www.example.com’ by this new constant.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36037(3): Fix test_ssl for strict OpenSSL configuration like
     RHEL8 strict crypto policy.  Use older TLS version for minimum TLS
     version of the server SSL context if needed, to test TLS version
     older than default minimum TLS version.

   - bpo-35798(4): Added ‘test.support.check_syntax_warning()’.

   - bpo-35505(5): Make test_imap4_host_default_value independent on
     whether the local IMAP server is running.

   - bpo-35917(6): multiprocessing: provide unit tests for SyncManager
     and SharedMemoryManager classes + all the shareable types which are
     supposed to be supported by them.  (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-35704(7): Skip ‘test_shutil.test_unpack_archive_xztar’ to
     prevent a MemoryError on 32-bit AIX when MAXDATA setting is less
     than 0x20000000.

     Patch by Michael Felt (aixtools)

   - bpo-34720(8): Assert m_state != NULL to mimic GC traversal
     functions that do not correctly handle module creation when the
     module state has not been created.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27313

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36019

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35798

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35505

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35917

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35704

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34720


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<46>,  Next: IDLE<34>,  Prev: Tests<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.50.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35976(1): Added ARM build support to Windows build files in
     PCBuild.

   - bpo-35692(2): ‘pathlib’ no longer raises when checking file and
     directory existence on drives that are not ready

   - bpo-35872(3): Uses the base Python executable when invoking venv in
     a virtual environment

   - bpo-35873(4): Prevents venv paths being inherited by child
     processes

   - bpo-35299(5): Fix sysconfig detection of the source directory and
     distutils handling of pyconfig.h during PGO profiling

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35976

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35872

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35873

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35299


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<34>,  Prev: Windows<46>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.50.6 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-24310(1): IDLE - Document settings dialog font tab sample.

   - bpo-35833(2): Revise IDLE doc for control codes sent to Shell.  Add
     a code example block.

   - bpo-35689(3): Add docstrings and unittests for colorizer.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24310

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35833

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35689


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.51 Python 3.8.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-02-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<35>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<51>.
* Library: Library<51>.
* Documentation: Documentation<48>.
* Tests: Tests<48>.
* Build: Build<47>.
* Windows: Windows<47>.
* macOS: macOS<36>.
* IDLE: IDLE<35>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<25>.
* C API: C API<44>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<35>,  Next: Core and Builtins<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.51.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-35746(1): CVE 2019-5010(2): Fix a NULL pointer deref in ssl
     module.  The cert parser did not handle CRL distribution points
     with empty DP or URI correctly.  A malicious or buggy certificate
     can result into segfault.  Vulnerability (TALOS-2018-0758) reported
     by Colin Read and Nicolas Edet of Cisco.

   - bpo-34812(3): The *note -I: 79f. command line option (run Python in
     isolated mode) is now also copied by the *note multiprocessing: 8f.
     and ‘distutils’ modules when spawning child processes.  Previously,
     only *note -E: 79e. and *note -s: 121a. options (enabled by *note
     -I: 79f.) were copied.

   - bpo-34791(4): The xml.sax and xml.dom.domreg no longer use
     environment variables to override parser implementations when
     sys.flags.ignore_environment is set by -E or -I arguments.

   - bpo-17239(5): The xml.sax and xml.dom.minidom parsers no longer
     processes external entities by default.  External DTD and ENTITY
     declarations no longer load files or create network connections.

   - bpo-34623(6): CVE 2018-14647(7): The C accelerated _elementtree
     module now initializes hash randomization salt from _Py_HashSecret
     instead of libexpat's default CSPRNG.

   - bpo-34405(8): Updated to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for Windows builds.

   - bpo-33871(9): Fixed sending the part of the file in *note
     os.sendfile(): 964. on macOS. Using the 'trailers' argument could
     cause sending more bytes from the input file than was specified.

   - bpo-32533(10): Fixed thread-safety of error handling in _ssl.

   - bpo-33136(11): Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE
     2018-8970(12).  X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an
     explicit namelen.  A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not
     allowed.

   - bpo-33001(13): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(14): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(15) and CVE 2018-1061(16).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   - bpo-28414(17): The ssl module now allows users to perform their own
     IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35746

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-5010

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34812

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34791

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34623

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-14647

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33871

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32533

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (15) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (16) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<51>,  Next: Library<51>,  Prev: Security<35>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.51.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-35877(1): Make parenthesis optional for named expressions in
     while statement.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35814(2): Allow same right hand side expressions in annotated
     assignments as in normal ones.  In particular, ‘x: Tuple[int, int]
     = 1, 2’ (without parentheses on the right) is now allowed.

   - bpo-35766(3): Add the option to parse PEP 484 type comments in the
     ast module.  (Off by default.)  This is merging the key
     functionality of the third party fork thereof,
     [typed_ast](‘https://github.com/python/typed_ast’).

   - bpo-35713(4): Reorganize Python initialization to get working
     exceptions and sys.stderr earlier.

   - bpo-33416(5): Add end line and end column position information to
     the Python AST nodes.  This is a C-level backwards incompatible
     change.

   - bpo-35720(6): Fixed a minor memory leak in
     pymain_parse_cmdline_impl function in Modules/main.c

   - bpo-35634(7): ‘func(**kwargs)’ will now raise an error when
     ‘kwargs’ is a mapping containing multiple entries with the same
     key.  An error was already raised when other keyword arguments are
     passed before ‘**kwargs’ since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-35623(8): Fix a crash when sorting very long lists.  Patch by
     Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-35214(9): clang Memory Sanitizer build instrumentation was
     added to work around false positives from posix, socket, time,
     test_io, and test_faulthandler.

   - bpo-35560(10): Fix an assertion error in *note format(): 417. in
     debug build for floating-point formatting with "n" format, zero
     padding and small width.  Release build is not impacted.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35552(11): Format characters ‘%s’ and ‘%V’ in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302. and ‘%s’ in *note
     PyBytes_FromFormat(): 180e. no longer read memory past the limit if
     'precision' is specified.

   - bpo-35504(12): Fix segfaults and *note SystemError: 304.s when
     deleting certain attributes.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35504(13): Fixed a SystemError when delete the
     characters_written attribute of an OSError.

   - bpo-35494(14): Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced
     parentheses in f-string.

   - bpo-35444(15): Fixed error handling in pickling methods when fail
     to look up builtin "getattr".  Sped up pickling iterators.

   - bpo-35436(16): Fix various issues with memory allocation error
     handling.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35423(17): Separate the signal handling trigger in the eval
     loop from the "pending calls" machinery.  There is no semantic
     change and the difference in performance is insignificant.

   - bpo-35357(18): Internal attributes' names of unittest.mock._Call
     and unittest.mock.MagicProxy (name, parent & from_kall) are now
     prefixed with _mock_ in order to prevent clashes with widely used
     object attributes.  Fixed minor typo in test function name.

   - bpo-35372(19): Fixed the code page decoder for input longer than 2
     GiB containing undecodable bytes.

   - bpo-35336(20): Fix PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=1 environment variable: only
     coerce the C locale if the LC_CTYPE locale is "C".

   - bpo-31241(21): The 'lineno' and 'col_offset' attributes of AST
     nodes for list comprehensions, generator expressions and tuples are
     now point to the opening parenthesis or square brace.  For tuples
     without parenthesis they point to the position of the first item.

   - bpo-33954(22): For *note str.format(): 41b, ‘float.__format__()’
     and ‘complex.__format__()’ methods for non-ASCII decimal point when
     using the "n" formatter.

   - bpo-35269(23): Fix a possible segfault involving a newly created
     coroutine.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35224(24): Implement PEP 572(25) (assignment expressions).
     Patch by Emily Morehouse.

   - bpo-32492(26): Speed up ‘namedtuple()’ attribute access by 1.6x
     using a C fast-path for the name descriptors.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-35214(27): Fixed an out of bounds memory access when parsing a
     truncated unicode escape sequence at the end of a string such as
     ‘'\N'’.  It would read one byte beyond the end of the memory
     allocation.

   - bpo-35214(28): The interpreter and extension modules have had
     annotations added so that they work properly under clang's Memory
     Sanitizer.  A new configure flag -with-memory-sanitizer has been
     added to make test builds of this nature easier to perform.

   - bpo-35193(29): Fix an off by one error in the bytecode peephole
     optimizer where it could read bytes beyond the end of bounds of an
     array when removing unreachable code.  This bug was present in
     every release of Python 3.6 and 3.7 until now.

   - bpo-35169(30): Improved error messages for forbidden assignments.

   - bpo-34022(31): Fix handling of hash-based bytecode files in *note
     zipimport: 12c.  Patch by Elvis Pranskevichus.

   - bpo-28401(32): Debug builds will no longer to attempt to import
     extension modules built for the ABI as they were never compatible
     to begin with.  Patch by Stefano Rivera.

   - bpo-29341(33): Clarify in the docstrings of *note os: 9c. methods
     that path-like objects are also accepted as input parameters.

   - bpo-35050(34): *note socket: c6.: Fix off-by-one bug in length
     check for ‘AF_ALG’ name and type.

   - bpo-29743(35): Raise *note ValueError: 183. instead of *note
     OverflowError: 6ad. in case of a negative ‘_length_’ in a *note
     ctypes.Array: 180f. subclass.  Also raise *note TypeError: 2ba.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 3ca. for non-integer ‘_length_’.
     Original patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-16806(36): Fix ‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’ for multi-line string
     tokens.

   - bpo-35029(37): *note SyntaxWarning: 178. raised as an exception at
     code generation time will be now replaced with a *note SyntaxError:
     146. for better error reporting.

   - bpo-34983(38): Expose *note symtable.Symbol.is_nonlocal(): 1810. in
     the symtable module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34974(39): *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0.
     constructors no longer convert unexpected exceptions (e.g.  *note
     MemoryError: 1460. and *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815.) to *note
     TypeError: 2ba.

   - bpo-34939(40): Allow annotated names in module namespace that are
     declared global before the annotation happens.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-34973(41): Fixed crash in *note bytes(): 2c1. when the *note
     list: 40a. argument is mutated while it is iterated.

   - bpo-34876(42): The 'lineno' and 'col_offset' attributes of the AST
     for decorated function and class refer now to the position of the
     corresponding ‘def’, ‘async def’ and ‘class’ instead of the
     position of the first decorator.  This leads to more correct line
     reporting in tracing.  This is the only case when the position of
     child AST nodes can precede the position of the parent AST node.

   - bpo-34879(43): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     bytesobject.c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34784(44): Fix the implementation of PyStructSequence_NewType
     in order to create heap allocated StructSequences.

   - bpo-32912(45): A *note SyntaxWarning: 178. is now emitted instead
     of a *note DeprecationWarning: 179. for invalid escape sequences in
     string and bytes literals.

   - bpo-34854(46): Fixed a crash in compiling string annotations
     containing a lambda with a keyword-only argument that doesn't have
     a default value.

   - bpo-34850(47): The compiler now produces a *note SyntaxWarning:
     178. when identity checks (‘is’ and ‘is not’) are used with certain
     types of literals (e.g.  strings, ints).  These can often work by
     accident in CPython, but are not guaranteed by the language spec.
     The warning advises users to use equality tests (‘==’ and ‘!=’)
     instead.

   - bpo-34824(48): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     Modules/_ssl.c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-30156(49): The C function ‘property_descr_get()’ uses a
     "cached" tuple to optimize function calls.  But this tuple can be
     discovered in debug mode with ‘sys.getobjects()’.  Remove the
     optimization, it's not really worth it and it causes 3 different
     crashes last years.

   - bpo-34762(50): Fix contextvars C API to use PyObject* pointer
     types.

   - bpo-34751(51): The hash function for tuples is now based on xxHash
     which gives better collision results on (formerly) pathological
     cases.  Additionally, on 64-bit systems it improves tuple hashes in
     general.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer with substantial contributions by
     Tim Peters.

   - bpo-34735(52): Fix a memory leak in Modules/timemodule.c.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34683(53): Fixed a bug where some SyntaxError error pointed to
     locations that were off-by-one.

   - bpo-34651(54): Only allow the main interpreter to fork.  The avoids
     the possibility of affecting the main interpreter, which is
     critical to operation of the runtime.

   - bpo-34653(55): Remove unused function
     PyParser_SimpleParseStringFilename.

   - bpo-32236(56): Warn that line buffering is not supported if *note
     open(): 29c. is called with binary mode and ‘buffering=1’.

   - bpo-34641(57): Further restrict the syntax of the left-hand side of
     keyword arguments in function calls.  In particular,
     ‘f((keyword)=arg)’ is now disallowed.

   - bpo-34637(58): Make the 'start' argument to 'sum()' visible as a
     keyword argument.

   - bpo-1621(59): Do not assume signed integer overflow behavior (C
     undefined behavior) when performing set hash table resizing.

   - bpo-34588(60): Fix an off-by-one in the recursive call pruning
     feature of traceback formatting.

   - bpo-34485(61): On Windows, the LC_CTYPE is now set to the user
     preferred locale at startup.  Previously, the LC_CTYPE locale was
     "C" at startup, but changed when calling setlocale(LC_CTYPE, "") or
     setlocale(LC_ALL, "").

   - bpo-34485(62): Standard streams like sys.stdout now use the
     "surrogateescape" error handler, instead of "strict", on the POSIX
     locale (when the C locale is not coerced and the UTF-8 Mode is
     disabled).

   - bpo-34485(63): Fix the error handler of standard streams like
     sys.stdout: PYTHONIOENCODING=":" is now ignored instead of setting
     the error handler to "strict".

   - bpo-34485(64): Python now gets the locale encoding with C code to
     initialize the encoding of standard streams like sys.stdout.
     Moreover, the encoding is now initialized to the Python codec name
     to get a normalized encoding name and to ensure that the codec is
     loaded.  The change avoids importing _bootlocale and _locale
     modules at startup by default.

   - bpo-34527(65): On FreeBSD, Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale()
     now also forces the ASCII encoding if the LC_CTYPE locale is
     "POSIX", not only if the LC_CTYPE locale is "C".

   - bpo-34527(66): The UTF-8 Mode is now also enabled by the "POSIX"
     locale, not only by the "C" locale.

   - bpo-34403(67): On HP-UX with C or POSIX locale,
     sys.getfilesystemencoding() now returns "ascii" instead of "roman8"
     (when the UTF-8 Mode is disabled and the C locale is not coerced).

   - bpo-34523(68): The Python filesystem encoding is now read earlier
     during the Python initialization.

   - bpo-12458(69): Tracebacks show now correct line number for
     subexpressions in multiline expressions.  Tracebacks show now the
     line number of the first line for multiline expressions instead of
     the line number of the last subexpression.

   - bpo-34408(70): Prevent a null pointer dereference and resource
     leakage in ‘PyInterpreterState_New()’.

   - bpo-34400(71): Fix undefined behavior in parsetok.c.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33073(72): Added as_integer_ratio to ints to make them more
     interoperable with floats.

   - bpo-34377(73): Update valgrind suppression list to use
     ‘_PyObject_Free’/‘_PyObject_Realloc’ instead of
     ‘PyObject_Free’/‘PyObject_Realloc’.

   - bpo-34353(74): Added the "socket" option in the ‘stat.filemode()’
     Python implementation to match the C implementation.

   - bpo-34320(75): Fix ‘dict(od)’ didn't copy iteration order of
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-34113(76): Fixed crash on debug builds when opcode stack was
     adjusted with negative numbers.  Patch by Constantin Petrisor.

   - bpo-34100(77): Compiler now merges constants in tuples and
     frozensets recursively.  Code attributes like ‘co_names’ are merged
     too.

   - bpo-34151(78): Performance of list concatenation, repetition and
     slicing operations is slightly improved.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34170(79): -X dev: it is now possible to override the memory
     allocator using PYTHONMALLOC even if the developer mode is enabled.

   - bpo-33237(80): Improved *note AttributeError: 3ca. message for
     partially initialized module.

   - bpo-34149(81): Fix min and max functions to get default behavior
     when key is None.

   - bpo-34125(82): Profiling of unbound built-in methods now works when
     ‘**kwargs’ is given.

   - bpo-34141(83): Optimized pickling atomic types (None, bool, int,
     float, bytes, str).

   - bpo-34126(84): Fix crashes when profiling certain invalid calls of
     unbound methods.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-24618(85): Fixed reading invalid memory when create the code
     object with too small varnames tuple or too large argument counts.

   - bpo-34068(86): In *note io.IOBase.close(): 1811, ensure that the
     *note closed: 1812. attribute is not set with a live exception.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-34087(87): Fix buffer overflow while converting unicode to
     numeric values.

   - bpo-34080(88): Fixed a memory leak in the compiler when it raised
     some uncommon errors during tokenizing.

   - bpo-34066(89): Disabled interruption by Ctrl-C between calling
     ‘open()’ and entering a 'with' block in ‘with open()’.

   - bpo-34042(90): Fix dict.copy() to maintain correct total refcount
     (as reported by sys.gettotalrefcount()).

   - bpo-33418(91): Fix potential memory leak in function object when it
     creates reference cycle.

   - bpo-33985(92): Implement contextvars.ContextVar.name attribute.

   - bpo-33956(93): Update vendored Expat library copy to version 2.2.5.

   - bpo-24596(94): Decref the module object in *note
     PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 16de. before calling *note
     PyErr_Print(): 171b.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33451(95): Close directly executed pyc files before calling
     ‘PyEval_EvalCode()’.

   - bpo-1617161(96): The hash of ‘BuiltinMethodType’ instances (methods
     of built-in classes) now depends on the hash of the identity of
     '__self__' instead of its value.  The hash and equality of
     ‘ModuleType’ and ‘MethodWrapperType’ instances (methods of
     user-defined classes and some methods of built-in classes like
     ‘str.__add__’) now depend on the hash and equality of the identity
     of '__self__' instead of its value.  ‘MethodWrapperType’ instances
     no longer support ordering.

   - bpo-33824(97): Fix "LC_ALL=C python3.7 -V": reset properly the
     command line parser when the encoding changes after reading the
     Python configuration.

   - bpo-33803(98): Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking
     for an object that hadn't all of its fields set to NULL.

   - bpo-33738(99): Seven macro incompatibilities with the Limited API
     were fixed, and the macros *note PyIter_Check(): 16ca, *note
     PyIndex_Check(): 7ce. and ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ were added as
     functions.  A script for automatic macro checks was added.

   - bpo-33786(100): Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit
     in athrow() correctly

   - bpo-30167(101): ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags’ removes ‘__cached__’ from
     module in addition to ‘__file__’.

   - bpo-33706(102): Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing
     the command line options.  Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug
     report and the fix!

   - bpo-33597(103): Reduce ‘PyGC_Head’ size from 3 words to 2 words.

   - bpo-30654(104): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-33622(105): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to
     add an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into
     the *note gc.garbage: 1052. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 7d2. can
     now be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-33462(106): Make dict and dict views reversible.  Patch by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-23722(107): A *note RuntimeError: 17a. is now raised when the
     custom metaclass doesn't provide the ‘__classcell__’ entry in the
     namespace passed to ‘type.__new__’.  A *note DeprecationWarning:
     179. was emitted in Python 3.6-3.7.

   - bpo-33499(108): Add *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 7e7. environment
     variable and *note -X: 188. ‘pycache_prefix’ command-line option to
     set an alternate root directory for writing module bytecode cache
     files.

   - bpo-25711(109): The *note zipimport: 12c. module has been rewritten
     in pure Python.

   - bpo-33509(110): Fix module_globals parameter of
     warnings.warn_explicit(): don't crash if module_globals is not a
     dict.

   - bpo-31849(111): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   - bpo-33475(112): Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations
     to strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

   - bpo-20104(113): Added support for the ‘setpgroup’, ‘resetids’,
     ‘setsigmask’, ‘setsigdef’ and ‘scheduler’ parameters of
     ‘posix_spawn’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33391(114): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-33363(115): Raise a SyntaxError for ‘async with’ and ‘async
     for’ statements outside of async functions.

   - bpo-28055(116): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by
     Rolf Eike Beer.

   - bpo-33128(117): Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on
     sys.meta_path.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   - bpo-33331(118): Modules imported last are now cleared first at
     interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-33312(119): Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer)
     warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct
     _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

   - bpo-33305(120): Improved syntax error messages for invalid
     numerical literals.

   - bpo-33306(121): Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced
     parentheses.

   - bpo-33234(122): The list constructor will pre-size and not
     over-allocate when the input length is known.

   - bpo-33270(123): Intern the names for all anonymous code objects.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-30455(124): The C and Python code and the documentation related
     to tokens are now generated from a single source file
     ‘Grammar/Tokens’.

   - bpo-33176(125): Add a ‘toreadonly()’ method to memoryviews.

   - bpo-33231(126): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-33205(127): Change dict growth function from
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2)’ to
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*3)’.  Previously, dict is shrinked only
     when ‘used == 0’.  Now dict has more chance to be shrinked.

   - bpo-29922(128): Improved error messages in 'async with' when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(129): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   - bpo-33053(130): When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now
     explicitly expanded as the 'starting' working directory, rather
     than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the
     current working directory at the time of the import)

   - bpo-33138(131): Changed standard error message for non-pickleable
     and non-copyable types.  It now says "cannot pickle" instead of
     "can't pickle" or "cannot serialize".

   - bpo-33018(132): Improve consistency of errors raised by
     ‘issubclass()’ when called with a non-class and an abstract base
     class as the first and second arguments, respectively.  Patch by
     Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-33083(133): ‘math.factorial’ no longer accepts arguments that
     are not int-like.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33041(134): Added new opcode *note END_ASYNC_FOR: 8fd. and
     fixes the following issues:

        * Setting global *note StopAsyncIteration: 1813. no longer
          breaks ‘async for’ loops.

        * Jumping into an ‘async for’ loop is now disabled.

        * Jumping out of an ‘async for’ loop no longer corrupts the
          stack.

   - bpo-25750(135): Fix rare Python crash due to bad refcounting in
     ‘type_getattro()’ if a descriptor deletes itself from the class.
     Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-33041(136): Fixed bytecode generation for "async for" with a
     complex target.  A StopAsyncIteration raised on assigning or
     unpacking will be now propagated instead of stopping the iteration.

   - bpo-33026(137): Fixed jumping out of "with" block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-33005(138): Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory
     allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var).  _PyGILState_Reinit()
     and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory
     allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

   - bpo-32911(139): Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered
     during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463(140).
     ‘docstring’ field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef,
     and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1.  Docstring
     expression is restored as a first statement in their body.  Based
     on patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-17288(141): Prevent jumps from 'return' and 'exception' trace
     events.

   - bpo-32946(142): Importing names from already imported module with
     "from ...  import ..."  is now 30% faster if the module is not a
     package.

   - bpo-32932(143): Make error message more revealing when there are
     non-str objects in ‘__all__’.

   - bpo-32925(144): Optimized iterating and containing test for literal
     lists consisting of non-constants: ‘x in [a, b]’ and ‘for x in [a,
     b]’.  The case of all constant elements already was optimized.

   - bpo-32889(145): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-32836(146): Don't use temporary variables in cases of
     list/dict/set comprehensions

   - bpo-31356(147): Remove the new API added in bpo-31356(148)
     (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

   - bpo-32305(149): For namespace packages, ensure that both ‘__file__’
     and ‘__spec__.origin’ are set to None.

   - bpo-32303(150): Make sure ‘__spec__.loader’ matches ‘__loader__’
     for namespace packages.

   - bpo-32711(151): Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c.
     Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32583(152): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   - bpo-32489(153): A *note continue: 80d. statement is now allowed in
     the *note finally: 80e. clause.

   - bpo-17611(154): Simplified the interpreter loop by moving the logic
     of unrolling the stack of blocks into the compiler.  The compiler
     emits now explicit instructions for adjusting the stack of values
     and calling the cleaning up code for *note break: 8fc, *note
     continue: 80d. and *note return: 812.

     Removed opcodes ‘BREAK_LOOP’, ‘CONTINUE_LOOP’, ‘SETUP_LOOP’ and
     ‘SETUP_EXCEPT’.  Added new opcodes ‘ROT_FOUR’, ‘BEGIN_FINALLY’ and
     ‘CALL_FINALLY’ and ‘POP_FINALLY’.  Changed the behavior of
     ‘END_FINALLY’ and ‘WITH_CLEANUP_START’.

   - bpo-32285(155): New function unicodedata.is_normalized, which can
     check whether a string is in a specific normal form.

   - bpo-10544(156): Yield expressions are now disallowed in
     comprehensions and generator expressions except the expression for
     the outermost iterable.

   - bpo-32117(157): Iterable unpacking is now allowed without
     parentheses in yield and return statements, e.g.  ‘yield 1, 2, 3,
     *rest’.  Thanks to David Cuthbert for the change and Jordan Chapman
     for added tests.

   - bpo-31902(158): Fix the ‘col_offset’ attribute for ast nodes
     ‘ast.AsyncFor’, ‘ast.AsyncFunctionDef’, and ‘ast.AsyncWith’.
     Previously, ‘col_offset’ pointed to the keyword after ‘async’.

   - bpo-25862(159): Fix assertion failures in the ‘tell()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-21983(160): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31577(161): Fix a crash in ‘os.utime()’ in case of a bad ns
     argument.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-29832(162): Remove references to 'getsockaddrarg' from various
     socket error messages.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35877

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35720

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35634

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35623

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35560

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35552

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35494

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35444

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35436

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35423

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35357

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35372

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35336

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31241

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33954

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35269

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35193

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35169

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34022

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28401

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29341

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35050

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16806

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35029

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34983

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34974

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34939

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34973

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34876

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34879

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34784

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34854

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34824

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30156

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34751

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34735

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34683

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34653

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32236

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34637

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34588

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<51>,  Next: Documentation<48>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.51.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35845(1): Add 'order' parameter to memoryview.tobytes().

   - bpo-35864(2): The _asdict() method for collections.namedtuple now
     returns a regular dict instead of an OrderedDict.

   - bpo-35537(3): An ExitStack is now used internally within
     subprocess.Popen to clean up pipe file handles.  No behavior change
     in normal operation.  But if closing one handle were ever to cause
     an exception, the others will now be closed instead of leaked.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-35847(4): RISC-V needed the CTYPES_PASS_BY_REF_HACK. Fixes
     ctypes Structure test_pass_by_value.

   - bpo-35813(5): Shared memory submodule added to multiprocessing to
     avoid need for serialization between processes

   - bpo-35780(6): Fix lru_cache() errors arising in recursive,
     reentrant, or multi-threaded code.  These errors could result in
     orphan links and in the cache being trapped in a state with fewer
     than the specified maximum number of links.  Fix handling of
     negative maxsize which should have been treated as zero.  Fix
     errors in toggling the "full" status flag.  Fix misordering of
     links when errors are encountered.  Sync-up the C code and pure
     Python code for the space saving path in functions with a single
     positional argument.  In this common case, the space overhead of an
     lru cache entry is reduced by almost half.  Fix counting of cache
     misses.  In error cases, the miss count was out of sync with the
     actual number of times the underlying user function was called.

   - bpo-35537(7): *note os.posix_spawn(): 8a3. and *note
     os.posix_spawnp(): 1815. now have a 'setsid' parameter.

   - bpo-23846(8): *note asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: 400. now catches and
     logs send errors when the self-pipe is full.

   - bpo-34323(9): *note asyncio: 9.: Enhance ‘IocpProactor.close()’
     log: wait 1 second before the first log, then log every second.
     Log also the number of seconds since ‘close()’ was called.

   - bpo-35674(10): Add a new *note os.posix_spawnp(): 1815. function.
     Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-35733(11): ‘ast.Constant(boolean)’ no longer an instance of
     ‘ast.Num’.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35726(12): QueueHandler.prepare() now makes a copy of the
     record before modifying and enqueueing it, to avoid affecting other
     handlers in the chain.

   - bpo-35719(13): Sped up multi-argument *note math: 89. functions
     atan2(), copysign(), remainder() and hypot() by 1.3-2.5 times.

   - bpo-35717(14): Fix KeyError exception raised when using enums and
     compile.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35699(15): Fixed detection of Visual Studio Build Tools 2017 in
     distutils

   - bpo-32710(16): Fix memory leaks in asyncio ProactorEventLoop on
     overlapped operation failure.

   - bpo-35702(17): The *note time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: 88c. constant is
     now available for macOS 10.12.

   - bpo-32710(18): Fix a memory leak in asyncio in the
     ProactorEventLoop when ‘ReadFile()’ or ‘WSASend()’ overlapped
     operation fail immediately: release the internal buffer.

   - bpo-35682(19): Fix ‘asyncio.ProactorEventLoop.sendfile()’: don't
     attempt to set the result of an internal future if it's already
     done.

   - bpo-35283(20): Add a deprecated warning for the
     ‘threading.Thread.isAlive()’ method.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35664(21): Improve operator.itemgetter() performance by 33%
     with optimized argument handling and with adding a fast path for
     the common case of a single non-negative integer index into a tuple
     (which is the typical use case in the standard library).

   - bpo-35643(22): Fixed a SyntaxWarning: invalid escape sequence in
     Modules/_sha3/cleanup.py.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-35619(23): Improved support of custom data descriptors in *note
     help(): 710. and *note pydoc: b0.

   - bpo-28503(24): The ‘crypt’ module now internally uses the
     ‘crypt_r()’ library function instead of ‘crypt()’ when available.

   - bpo-35614(25): Fixed help() on metaclasses.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   - bpo-35568(26): Expose ‘raise(signum)’ as ‘raise_signal’

   - bpo-35588(27): The floor division and modulo operations and the
     *note divmod(): 7e5. function on *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8.
     types are 2-4x faster.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-35585(28): Speed-up building enums by value, e.g.
     http.HTTPStatus(200).

   - bpo-30561(29): random.gammavariate(1.0, beta) now computes the same
     result as random.expovariate(1.0 / beta).  This synchronizes the
     two algorithms and eliminates some idiosyncrasies in the old
     implementation.  It does however produce a difference stream of
     random variables than it used to.

   - bpo-35537(30): The *note subprocess: d0. module can now use the
     *note os.posix_spawn(): 8a3. function in some cases for better
     performance.

   - bpo-35526(31): Delaying the 'joke' of barry_as_FLUFL.mandatory to
     Python version 4.0

   - bpo-35523(32): Remove *note ctypes: 28. callback workaround: no
     longer create a callback at startup.  Avoid SELinux alert on
     ‘import ctypes’ and ‘import uuid’.

   - bpo-31784(33): *note uuid.uuid1(): a09. now calls *note
     time.time_ns(): 93c. rather than ‘int(time.time() * 1e9)’.

   - bpo-35513(34): ‘TextTestRunner’ of ‘unittest.runner’ now uses *note
     time.perf_counter(): 8d4. rather than *note time.time(): 936. to
     measure the execution time of a test: *note time.time(): 936. can
     go backwards, whereas *note time.perf_counter(): 8d4. is monotonic.

   - bpo-35502(35): Fixed reference leaks in *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder: 89f. in case of unfinished
     building of the tree (in particular when an error was raised during
     parsing XML).

   - bpo-35348(36): Make *note platform.architecture(): 1816. parsing of
     ‘file’ command output more reliable: add the ‘-b’ option to the
     ‘file’ command to omit the filename, force the usage of the C
     locale, and search also the "shared object" pattern.

   - bpo-35491(37): *note multiprocessing: 8f.: Add ‘Pool.__repr__()’
     and enhance ‘BaseProcess.__repr__()’ (add pid and parent pid) to
     ease debugging.  Pool state constant values are now strings instead
     of integers, for example ‘RUN’ value becomes ‘'RUN'’ instead of
     ‘0’.

   - bpo-35477(38): ‘multiprocessing.Pool.__enter__()’ now fails if the
     pool is not running: ‘with pool:’ fails if used more than once.

   - bpo-31446(39): Copy command line that was passed to CreateProcessW
     since this function can change the content of the input buffer.

   - bpo-35471(40): Python 2.4 dropped MacOS 9 support.  The macpath
     module was deprecated in Python 3.7.  The module is now removed.

   - bpo-23057(41): Unblock Proactor event loop when keyboard interrupt
     is received on Windows

   - bpo-35052(42): Fix xml.dom.minidom cloneNode() on a document with
     an entity: pass the correct arguments to the user data handler of
     an entity.

   - bpo-20239(43): Allow repeated assignment deletion of *note
     unittest.mock.Mock: 896. attributes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-17185(44): Set ‘__signature__’ on mock for *note inspect: 78.
     to get signature.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35445(45): Memory errors during creating posix.environ no
     longer ignored.

   - bpo-35415(46): Validate fileno= argument to socket.socket().

   - bpo-35424(47): ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ destructor now emits *note
     ResourceWarning: aa3. if the pool is still running.

   - bpo-35330(48): When a ‘Mock’ instance was used to wrap an object,
     if ‘side_effect’ is used in one of the mocks of it methods, don't
     call the original implementation and return the result of using the
     side effect the same way that it is done with return_value.

   - bpo-35346(49): Drop Mac OS 9 and Rhapsody support from the *note
     platform: a5. module.  Rhapsody last release was in 2000.  Mac OS 9
     last release was in 2001.

   - bpo-10496(50): ‘check_environ()’ of ‘distutils.utils’ now catches
     *note KeyError: 8ed. on calling *note pwd.getpwuid(): 1817.: don't
     create the ‘HOME’ environment variable in this case.

   - bpo-10496(51): ‘posixpath.expanduser()’ now returns the input
     'path' unchanged if the ‘HOME’ environment variable is not set and
     the current user has no home directory (if the current user
     identifier doesn't exist in the password database).  This change
     fix the *note site: c2. module if the current user doesn't exist in
     the password database (if the user has no home directory).

   - bpo-35389(52): *note platform.libc_ver(): 1818. now uses
     ‘os.confstr('CS_GNU_LIBC_VERSION')’ if available and the
     'executable' parameter is not set.

   - bpo-35394(53): Add empty slots to asyncio abstract protocols.

   - bpo-35310(54): Fix a bug in *note select.select(): c17. where, in
     some cases, the file descriptor sequences were returned unmodified
     after a signal interruption, even though the file descriptors might
     not be ready yet.  *note select.select(): c17. will now always
     return empty lists if a timeout has occurred.  Patch by Oran
     Avraham.

   - bpo-35380(55): Enable TCP_NODELAY on Windows for proactor asyncio
     event loop.

   - bpo-35341(56): Add generic version of ‘collections.OrderedDict’ to
     the ‘typing’ module.  Patch by Ismo Toijala.

   - bpo-35371(57): Fixed possible crash in ‘os.utime()’ on Windows when
     pass incorrect arguments.

   - bpo-35346(58): *note platform.uname(): 1819. now redirects ‘stderr’
     to *note os.devnull: 181a. when running external programs like ‘cmd
     /c ver’.

   - bpo-35066(59): Previously, calling the strftime() method on a
     datetime object with a trailing '%' in the format string would
     result in an exception.  However, this only occurred when the
     datetime C module was being used; the python implementation did not
     match this behavior.  Datetime is now PEP-399 compliant, and will
     not throw an exception on a trailing '%'.

   - bpo-35345(60): The function ‘platform.popen’ has been removed, it
     was deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): 8d3.
     instead.

   - bpo-35344(61): On macOS, *note platform.platform(): 151c. now uses
     *note platform.mac_ver(): 181b, if it returns a non-empty release
     string, to get the macOS version rather than the darwin version.

   - bpo-35312(62): Make ‘lib2to3.pgen2.parse.ParseError’ round-trip
     pickle-able.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35308(63): Fix regression in ‘webbrowser’ where default
     browsers may be preferred over browsers in the ‘BROWSER’
     environment variable.

   - bpo-24746(64): Avoid stripping trailing whitespace in doctest fancy
     diff.  Original patch by R. David Murray & Jairo Trad.  Enhanced by
     Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-28604(65): *note locale.localeconv(): a61. now sets temporarily
     the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_MONETARY’ locale if the two
     locales are different and monetary strings are non-ASCII. This
     temporary change affects other threads.

   - bpo-35277(66): Update ensurepip to install pip 18.1 and setuptools
     40.6.2.

   - bpo-24209(67): Adds IPv6 support when invoking http.server
     directly.

   - bpo-35226(68): Recursively check arguments when testing for
     equality of *note unittest.mock.call: 17ab. objects and add note
     that tracking of parameters used to create ancestors of mocks in
     ‘mock_calls’ is not possible.

   - bpo-29564(69): The warnings module now suggests to enable
     tracemalloc if the source is specified, the tracemalloc module is
     available, but tracemalloc is not tracing memory allocations.

   - bpo-35189(70): Modify the following fnctl function to retry if
     interrupted by a signal (EINTR): flock, lockf, fnctl

   - bpo-30064(71): Use add_done_callback() in sock_* asyncio API to
     unsubscribe reader/writer early on calcellation.

   - bpo-35186(72): Removed the "built with" comment added when
     ‘setup.py upload’ is used with either ‘bdist_rpm’ or ‘bdist_dumb’.

   - bpo-35152(73): Allow sending more than 2 GB at once on a
     multiprocessing connection on non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-35062(74): Fix incorrect parsing of *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 1469.'s 'translate' argument.

   - bpo-35065(75): Remove ‘StreamReaderProtocol._untrack_reader’.  The
     call to ‘_untrack_reader’ is currently performed too soon, causing
     the protocol to forget about the reader before ‘connection_lost’
     can run and feed the EOF to the reader.

   - bpo-34160(76): ElementTree and minidom now preserve the attribute
     order specified by the user.

   - bpo-35079(77): Improve difflib.SequenceManager.get_matching_blocks
     doc by adding 'non-overlapping' and changing '!=' to '<'.

   - bpo-33710(78): Deprecated ‘l*gettext()’ functions and methods in
     the *note gettext: 5e. module.  They return encoded bytes instead
     of Unicode strings and are artifacts from Python 2 times.  Also
     deprecated functions and methods related to setting the charset for
     ‘l*gettext()’ functions and methods.

   - bpo-35017(79): *note socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever(): fcf.
     now exits immediately if it's *note shutdown(): 181c. method is
     called while it is polling for new events.

   - bpo-35024(80): ‘importlib’ no longer logs ‘wrote <bytecode path>’
     redundantly after ‘(created|could not create) <bytecode path>’ is
     already logged.  Patch by Quentin Agren.

   - bpo-35047(81): ‘unittest.mock’ now includes mock calls in exception
     messages if ‘assert_not_called’, ‘assert_called_once’, or
     ‘assert_called_once_with’ fails.  Patch by Petter Strandmark.

   - bpo-31047(82): Fix ‘ntpath.abspath’ regression where it didn't
     remove a trailing separator on Windows.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-35053(83): tracemalloc now tries to update the traceback when
     an object is reused from a "free list" (optimization for faster
     object creation, used by the builtin list type for example).

   - bpo-31553(84): Add the -json-lines option to json.tool.  Patch by
     hongweipeng.

   - bpo-34794(85): Fixed a leak in Tkinter when pass the Python wrapper
     around Tcl_Obj back to Tcl/Tk.

   - bpo-34909(86): Enum: fix grandchildren subclassing when parent
     mixed with concrete data types.

   - bpo-35022(87): *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: d11. now supports the
     ‘__fspath__’ method (from *note os.PathLike: ab7.).

   - bpo-35008(88): Fixed references leaks when call the
     ‘__setstate__()’ method of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element:
     240. in the C implementation for already initialized element.

   - bpo-23420(89): Verify the value for the parameter '-s' of the
     cProfile CLI. Patch by Robert Kuska

   - bpo-33947(90): dataclasses now handle recursive reprs without
     raising RecursionError.

   - bpo-34890(91): Make *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 1af, *note
     inspect.isgeneratorfunction(): 159e. and *note
     inspect.isasyncgenfunction(): 159f. work with *note
     functools.partial(): d4e.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34521(92): Use *note socket.CMSG_SPACE(): 181d. to calculate
     ancillary data size instead of *note socket.CMSG_LEN(): 181e. in
     ‘multiprocessing.reduction.recvfds()’ as RFC 3542(93) requires the
     use of the former for portable applications.

   - bpo-31522(94): The ‘mailbox.mbox.get_string’ function 'from_'
     parameter can now successfully be set to a non-default value.

   - bpo-34970(95): Protect tasks weak set manipulation in
     ‘asyncio.all_tasks()’

   - bpo-34969(96): gzip: Add -fast, -best on the gzip CLI, these
     parameters will be used for the fast compression method (quick) or
     the best method compress (slower, but smaller file).  Also, change
     the default compression level to 6 (tradeoff).

   - bpo-16965(97): The *note 2to3: 181f. *note execfile: 1820. fixer
     now opens the file with mode ‘'rb'’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34966(98): *note pydoc: b0. now supports aliases not only to
     methods defined in the end class, but also to inherited methods.
     The docstring is not duplicated for aliases.

   - bpo-34926(99): *note mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_type(): 1821. now
     accepts *note path-like object: 975. in addition to url strings.
     Patch by Mayank Asthana.

   - bpo-23831(100): Add ‘moveto()’ method to the ‘tkinter.Canvas’
     widget.  Patch by Juliette Monsel.

   - bpo-34941(101): Methods ‘find()’, ‘findtext()’ and ‘findall()’ of
     the ‘Element’ class in the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. module
     are now able to find children which are instances of ‘Element’
     subclasses.

   - bpo-32680(102): *note smtplib.SMTP: 76c. objects now always have a
     ‘sock’ attribute present

   - bpo-34769(103): Fix for async generators not finalizing when event
     loop is in debug mode and garbage collector runs in another thread.

   - bpo-34936(104): Fix ‘TclError’ in
     ‘tkinter.Spinbox.selection_element()’.  Patch by Juliette Monsel.

   - bpo-34829(105): Add methods ‘selection_from’, ‘selection_range’,
     ‘selection_present’ and ‘selection_to’ to the ‘tkinter.Spinbox’ for
     consistency with the ‘tkinter.Entry’ widget.  Patch by Juliette
     Monsel.

   - bpo-34911(106): Added 'secure_protocols' argument to
     'http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy' to allow for tweaking of
     protocols and also to add support by default for 'wss', the secure
     websocket protocol.

   - bpo-34922(107): Fixed integer overflow in the *note digest(): 1822.
     and *note hexdigest(): 1823. methods for the SHAKE algorithm in the
     *note hashlib: 63. module.

   - bpo-34925(108): 25% speedup in argument parsing for the functions
     in the bisect module.

   - bpo-34900(109): Fixed *note unittest.TestCase.debug(): 1667. when
     used to call test methods with subtests.  Patch by Bruno Oliveira.

   - bpo-34844(110): logging.Formatter enhancement - Ensure styles and
     fmt matches in logging.Formatter - Added validate method in each
     format style class: StrFormatStyle, PercentStyle,
     StringTemplateStyle.  - This method is called in the constructor of
     logging.Formatter class - Also re-raise the KeyError in the format
     method of each style class, so it would a bit clear that it's an
     error with the invalid format fields.

   - bpo-34897(111): Adjust test.support.missing_compiler_executable
     check so that a nominal command name of "" is ignored.  Patch by
     Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34871(112): Fix inspect module polluted ‘sys.modules’ when
     parsing ‘__text_signature__’ of callable.

   - bpo-34898(113): Add ‘mtime’ argument to ‘gzip.compress’ for
     reproducible output.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-28441(114): On Cygwin and MinGW, ensure that ‘sys.executable’
     always includes the full filename in the path, including the ‘.exe’
     suffix (unless it is a symbolic link).

   - bpo-34866(115): Adding ‘max_num_fields’ to ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ to
     make DOS attacks harder by limiting the number of
     ‘MiniFieldStorage’ objects created by ‘FieldStorage’.

   - bpo-34711(116): http.server ensures it reports HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND
     when the local path ends with "/" and is not a directory, even if
     the underlying OS (e.g.  AIX) accepts such paths as a valid file
     reference.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34872(117): Fix self-cancellation in C implementation of
     asyncio.Task

   - bpo-34849(118): Don't log waiting for ‘selector.select’ in asyncio
     loop iteration.  The waiting is pretty normal for any asyncio
     program, logging its time just adds a noise to logs without any
     useful information provided.

   - bpo-34022(119): The ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable no
     longer overrides the value of the 'invalidation_mode' argument to
     *note py_compile.compile(): 86e, and determines its default value
     instead.

   - bpo-34819(120): Use a monotonic clock to compute timeouts in
     ‘Executor.map()’ and ‘as_completed()’, in order to prevent timeouts
     from deviating when the system clock is adjusted.

   - bpo-34758(121): Add .wasm -> application/wasm to list of recognized
     file types and content type headers

   - bpo-34789(122): *note xml.sax.make_parser(): 1824. now accepts any
     iterable as its 'parser_list' argument.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-34334(123): In ‘QueueHandler’, clear ‘exc_text’ from
     ‘LogRecord’ to prevent traceback from being written twice.

   - bpo-34687(124): On Windows, asyncio now uses ProactorEventLoop,
     instead of SelectorEventLoop, by default.

   - bpo-5950(125): Support reading zip files with archive comments in
     *note zipimport: 12c.

   - bpo-32892(126): The parser now represents all constants as *note
     ast.Constant: 217. instead of using specific constant AST types
     (‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and ‘Ellipsis’).  These
     classes are considered deprecated and will be removed in future
     Python versions.

   - bpo-34728(127): Add deprecation warning when ‘loop’ is used in
     methods: ‘asyncio.sleep’, ‘asyncio.wait’ and ‘asyncio.wait_for’.

   - bpo-34738(128): ZIP files created by ‘distutils’ will now include
     entries for directories.

   - bpo-34659(129): Add an optional 'initial' argument to
     itertools.accumulate().

   - bpo-29577(130): Support multiple mixin classes when creating Enums.

   - bpo-34670(131): Add SSLContext.post_handshake_auth and
     SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake for TLS 1.3's post handshake
     authentication feature.

   - bpo-32718(132): The Activate.ps1 script from venv works with
     PowerShell Core 6.1 and is now available under all operating
     systems.

   - bpo-31177(133): Fix bug that prevented using *note reset_mock: b68.
     on mock instances with deleted attributes

   - bpo-34672(134): Add a workaround, so the ‘'Z'’ *note
     time.strftime(): 107a. specifier on the musl C library can work in
     some cases.

   - bpo-34666(135): Implement ‘asyncio.StreamWriter.awrite’ and
     ‘asyncio.StreamWriter.aclose()’ coroutines.  Methods are needed for
     providing a consistent stream API with control flow switched on by
     default.

   - bpo-6721(136): Acquire the logging module's commonly used internal
     locks while fork()ing to avoid deadlocks in the child process.

   - bpo-34658(137): Fix a rare interpreter unhandled exception state
     SystemError only seen when using subprocess with a preexec_fn while
     an after_parent handler has been registered with
     os.register_at_fork and the fork system call fails.

   - bpo-34652(138): Ensure *note os.lchmod(): 1825. is never defined on
     Linux.

   - bpo-34638(139): Store a weak reference to stream reader to break
     strong references loop between reader and protocol.  It allows to
     detect and close the socket if the stream is deleted (garbage
     collected) without ‘close()’ call.

   - bpo-34536(140): ‘Enum._missing_’: raise ‘ValueError’ if None
     returned and ‘TypeError’ if non-member is returned.

   - bpo-34636(141): Speed up re scanning of many non-matching
     characters for s w and d within bytes objects.  (microoptimization)

   - bpo-24412(142): Add *note addModuleCleanup(): 897. and *note
     addClassCleanup(): 898. to unittest to support cleanups for
     ‘setUpModule()’ and *note setUpClass(): 899.  Patch by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-34630(143): Don't log SSL certificate errors in asyncio code
     (connection error logging is skipped already).

   - bpo-32490(144): Prevent filename duplication in *note subprocess:
     d0. exception messages.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34363(145): dataclasses.asdict() and .astuple() now handle
     namedtuples correctly.

   - bpo-34625(146): Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.6.

   - bpo-32270(147): The subprocess module no longer mistakenly closes
     redirected fds even when they were in pass_fds when outside of the
     default {0, 1, 2} set.

   - bpo-34622(148): Create a dedicated ‘asyncio.CancelledError’,
     ‘asyncio.InvalidStateError’ and ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’ exception
     classes.  Inherit them from corresponding exceptions from
     ‘concurrent.futures’ package.  Extract ‘asyncio’ exceptions into a
     separate file.

   - bpo-34610(149): Fixed iterator of
     ‘multiprocessing.managers.DictProxy’.

   - bpo-34421(150): Fix distutils logging for non-ASCII strings.  This
     caused installation issues on Windows.

   - bpo-34604(151): Fix possible mojibake in the error message of
     ‘pwd.getpwnam’ and ‘grp.getgrnam’ using string representation
     because of invisible characters or trailing whitespaces.  Patch by
     William Grzybowski.

   - bpo-30977(152): Make uuid.UUID use ‘__slots__’ to reduce its memory
     footprint.  Based on original patch by Wouter Bolsterlee.

   - bpo-34574(153): OrderedDict iterators are not exhausted during
     pickling anymore.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-8110(154): Refactored *note subprocess: d0. to check for
     Windows-specific modules rather than ‘sys.platform == 'win32'’.

   - bpo-34530(155): ‘distutils.spawn.find_executable()’ now falls back
     on *note os.defpath: 17e7. if the ‘PATH’ environment variable is
     not set.

   - bpo-34563(156): On Windows, fix multiprocessing.Connection for very
     large read: fix _winapi.PeekNamedPipe() and _winapi.ReadFile() for
     read larger than INT_MAX (usually ‘2**31-1’).

   - bpo-34558(157): Correct typo in Lib/ctypes/_aix.py

   - bpo-34282(158): Move ‘Enum._convert’ to ‘EnumMeta._convert_’ and
     fix enum members getting shadowed by parent attributes.

   - bpo-22872(159): When the queue is closed, *note ValueError: 183. is
     now raised by *note multiprocessing.Queue.put(): 1826. and *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.get(): 1827. instead of *note AssertionError:
     4a6. and *note OSError: 644, respectively.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34515(160): Fix parsing non-ASCII identifiers in
     ‘lib2to3.pgen2.tokenize’ ( PEP 3131(161)).

   - bpo-13312(162): Avoids a possible integer underflow (undefined
     behavior) in the time module's year handling code when passed a
     very low negative year value.

   - bpo-34472(163): Improved compatibility for streamed files in *note
     zipfile: 12b.  Previously an optional signature was not being
     written and certain ZIP applications were not supported.  Patch by
     Silas Sewell.

   - bpo-34454(164): Fix the .fromisoformat() methods of datetime types
     crashing when given unicode with non-UTF-8-encodable code points.
     Specifically, datetime.fromisoformat() now accepts surrogate
     unicode code points used as the separator.  Report and tests by
     Alexey Izbyshev, patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-6700(165): Fix inspect.getsourcelines for module level
     frames/tracebacks.  Patch by Vladimir Matveev.

   - bpo-34171(166): Running the *note trace: f8. module no longer
     creates the ‘trace.cover’ file.

   - bpo-34441(167): Fix crash when an ‘ABC’-derived class with invalid
     ‘__subclasses__’ is passed as the second argument to *note
     issubclass(): 5df.  Patch by Alexey Izbyshev.

   - bpo-34427(168): Fix infinite loop in ‘a.extend(a)’ for
     ‘MutableSequence’ subclasses.

   - bpo-34412(169): Make *note signal.strsignal(): 1828. work on HP-UX.
     Patch by Michael Osipov.

   - bpo-20849(170): shutil.copytree now accepts a new ‘dirs_exist_ok’
     keyword argument.  Patch by Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-31715(171): Associate ‘.mjs’ file extension with
     ‘application/javascript’ MIME Type.

   - bpo-34384(172): *note os.readlink(): 75e. now accepts *note
     path-like: 975. and *note bytes: 2c1. objects on Windows.

   - bpo-22602(173): The UTF-7 decoder now raises *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: 85a. for ill-formed sequences starting with "+"
     (as specified in RFC 2152).  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-2122(174): The *note mmap.flush(): 8e9. method now returns
     ‘None’ on success, raises an exception on error under all
     platforms.

   - bpo-34341(175): Appending to the ZIP archive with the ZIP64
     extension no longer grows the size of extra fields of existing
     entries.

   - bpo-34333(176): Fix %-formatting in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix(): 1829. when formatting an error
     message.

   - bpo-18540(177): The *note imaplib.IMAP4: 73e. and *note
     imaplib.IMAP4_SSL: 73f. classes now resolve to the local host IP
     correctly when the default value of 'host' parameter (‘''’) is
     used.

   - bpo-26502(178): Implement ‘traceback.FrameSummary.__len__()’ method
     to preserve compatibility with the old tuple API.

   - bpo-34318(179): *note assertRaises(): 2ad, *note
     assertRaisesRegex(): 2af, *note assertWarns(): ff7. and *note
     assertWarnsRegex(): ff8. no longer success if the passed callable
     is None.  They no longer ignore unknown keyword arguments in the
     context manager mode.  A DeprecationWarning was raised in these
     cases since Python 3.5.

   - bpo-9372(180): Deprecate *note __getitem__(): 4e7. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 545, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 546. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 547.

   - bpo-33613(181): Fix a race condition in
     ‘multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker’ when the tracker receives
     SIGINT before it can register signal handlers for ignoring it.

   - bpo-34248(182): Report filename in the exception raised when the
     database file cannot be opened by *note dbm.gnu.open(): 182a. and
     *note dbm.ndbm.open(): 182b. due to OS-related error.  Patch by
     Zsolt Cserna.

   - bpo-33089(183): Add math.dist() to compute the Euclidean distance
     between two points.

   - bpo-34246(184): *note smtplib.SMTP.send_message(): cd6. no longer
     modifies the content of the 'mail_options' argument.  Patch by
     Pablo S. Blum de Aguiar.

   - bpo-31047(185): Fix ‘ntpath.abspath’ for invalid paths on windows.
     Patch by Franz Woellert.

   - bpo-32321(186): Add pure Python fallback for functools.reduce.
     Patch by Robert Wright.

   - bpo-34270(187): The default asyncio task class now always has a
     name which can be get or set using two new methods (*note
     get_name(): 823. and *note set_name(): 822.) and is visible in the
     *note repr(): 61e. output.  An initial name can also be set using
     the new ‘name’ keyword argument to *note asyncio.create_task():
     3f3. or the ‘create_task()’ method of the event loop.  If no
     initial name is set, the default Task implementation generates a
     name like ‘Task-1’ using a monotonic counter.

   - bpo-34263(188): asyncio's event loop will not pass timeouts longer
     than one day to epoll/select etc.

   - bpo-34035(189): Fix several AttributeError in zipfile seek()
     methods.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-32215(190): Fix performance regression in *note sqlite3: c9.
     when a DML statement appeared in a different line than the rest of
     the SQL query.

   - bpo-34075(191): Deprecate passing non-ThreadPoolExecutor instances
     to ‘AbstractEventLoop.set_default_executor()’.

   - bpo-34251(192): Restore ‘msilib.Win64’ to preserve backwards
     compatibility since it's already used by ‘distutils’' ‘bdist_msi’
     command.

   - bpo-19891(193): Ignore errors caused by missing / non-writable
     homedir while writing history during exit of an interactive
     session.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33089(194): Enhanced math.hypot() to support more than two
     dimensions.

   - bpo-34228(195): tracemalloc: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=0 environment
     variable and -X tracemalloc=0 command line option are now allowed
     to disable explicitly tracemalloc at startup.

   - bpo-13041(196): Use *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): f91. to
     calculate the terminal width correctly in the
     ‘argparse.HelpFormatter’ class.  Initial patch by Zbyszek
     Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

   - bpo-34213(197): Allow frozen dataclasses to have a field named
     "object".  Previously this conflicted with an internal use of
     "object".

   - bpo-34052(198): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(): 17ac,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 17ad, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(): 471, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler(): 17ae. methods raises
     TypeError when unhashable objects are passed as callable.  These
     methods now don't pass such objects to SQLite API. Previous
     behavior could lead to segfaults.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34197(199): Attributes 'skipinitialspace', 'doublequote' and
     'strict' of the 'dialect' attribute of the *note csv: 27. reader
     are now *note bool: 17d. instances instead of integers 0 or 1.

   - bpo-32788(200): Errors other than *note TypeError: 2ba. raised in
     methods ‘__adapt__()’ and ‘__conform__()’ in the *note sqlite3: c9.
     module are now propagated to the user.

   - bpo-21446(201): The *note reload: 182c. fixer now uses *note
     importlib.reload(): 299. instead of deprecated ‘imp.reload()’.

   - bpo-940286(202): pydoc's ‘Helper.showtopic()’ method now prints the
     cross references of a topic correctly.

   - bpo-34164(203): *note base64.b32decode(): eb9. could raise
     UnboundLocalError or OverflowError for incorrect padding.  Now it
     always raises ‘base64.Error’ in these cases.

   - bpo-33729(204): Fixed issues with arguments parsing in *note
     hashlib: 63.

   - bpo-34097(205): ZipFile can zip files older than 1980-01-01 and
     newer than 2107-12-31 using a new ‘strict_timestamps’ parameter at
     the cost of setting the timestamp to the limit.

   - bpo-34108(206): Remove extraneous CR in 2to3 refactor.

   - bpo-34070(207): Make sure to only check if the handle is a tty,
     when opening a file with ‘buffering=-1’.

   - bpo-27494(208): Reverted bpo-27494(209).  2to3 rejects now a
     trailing comma in generator expressions.

   - bpo-33967(210): functools.singledispatch now raises TypeError
     instead of IndexError when no positional arguments are passed.

   - bpo-34041(211): Add the parameter 'deterministic' to the *note
     sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 17ad. method.  Patch by
     Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34056(212): Ensure the loader shim created by ‘imp.load_module’
     always returns bytes from its ‘get_data()’ function.  This fixes
     using ‘imp.load_module’ with PEP 552(213) hash-based pycs.

   - bpo-34054(214): The multiprocessing module now uses the monotonic
     clock *note time.monotonic(): cfe. instead of the system clock
     *note time.time(): 936. to implement timeout.

   - bpo-34043(215): Optimize tarfile uncompress performance about 15%
     when gzip is used.

   - bpo-34044(216): ‘subprocess.Popen’ now copies the 'startupinfo'
     argument to leave it unchanged: it will modify the copy, so that
     the same ‘STARTUPINFO’ object can be used multiple times.

   - bpo-34010(217): Fixed a performance regression for reading streams
     with tarfile.  The buffered read should use a list, instead of
     appending to a bytes object.

   - bpo-34019(218): webbrowser: Correct the arguments passed to Opera
     Browser when opening a new URL using the ‘webbrowser’ module.
     Patch by Bumsik Kim.

   - bpo-34003(219): csv.DictReader now creates dicts instead of
     OrderedDicts.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-33978(220): Closed existing logging handlers before
     reconfiguration via fileConfig and dictConfig.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-14117(221): Make minor tweaks to turtledemo.  The 'wikipedia'
     example is now 'rosette', describing what it draws.  The 'penrose'
     print output is reduced.  The'1024' output of 'tree' is eliminated.

   - bpo-33974(222): Fixed passing lists and tuples of strings
     containing special characters ‘"’, ‘\’, ‘{’, ‘}’ and ‘\n’ as
     options to *note ttk: f4. widgets.

   - bpo-27500(223): Fix getaddrinfo to resolve IPv6 addresses
     correctly.

   - bpo-24567(224): Improve random.choices() to handle subnormal input
     weights that could occasionally trigger an IndexError.

   - bpo-33871(225): Fixed integer overflow in *note os.readv(): 9b9,
     *note os.writev(): 9bc, *note os.preadv(): 9b8. and *note
     os.pwritev(): 9bb. and in *note os.sendfile(): 964. with 'headers'
     or 'trailers' arguments (on BSD-based OSes and macOS).

   - bpo-25007(226): Add *note copy.copy(): 2b5. and *note
     copy.deepcopy(): 9cb. support to zlib compressors and
     decompressors.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33929(227): multiprocessing: Fix a race condition in Popen of
     multiprocessing.popen_spawn_win32.  The child process now
     duplicates the read end of pipe instead of "stealing" it.
     Previously, the read end of pipe was "stolen" by the child process,
     but it leaked a handle if the child process had been terminated
     before it could steal the handle from the parent process.

   - bpo-33899(228): Tokenize module now implicitly emits a NEWLINE when
     provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This
     behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
     Contributed by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-33897(229): Added a 'force' keyword argument to
     logging.basicConfig().

   - bpo-33695(230): *note shutil.copytree(): 872. uses *note
     os.scandir(): 8aa. function and all copy functions depending from
     it use cached *note os.stat(): 1bf. values.  The speedup for
     copying a directory with 8000 files is around +9% on Linux, +20% on
     Windows and + 30% on a Windows SMB share.  Also the number of *note
     os.stat(): 1bf. syscalls is reduced by 38% making *note
     shutil.copytree(): 872. especially faster on network filesystems.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-33695(231).)

   - bpo-33916(232): bz2 and lzma: When Decompressor.__init__() is
     called twice, free the old lock to not leak memory.

   - bpo-32568(233): Make select.epoll() and its documentation
     consistent regarding 'sizehint' and 'flags'.

   - bpo-33833(234): Fixed bug in asyncio where ProactorSocketTransport
     logs AssertionError if force closed during write.

   - bpo-33663(235): Convert content length to string before putting to
     header.

   - bpo-33721(236): *note os.path: 9d. functions that return a boolean
     result like *note exists(): 855, *note lexists(): 856, *note
     isdir(): 857, *note isfile(): 858, *note islink(): 853, and *note
     ismount(): 859, and *note pathlib.Path: 149. methods that return a
     boolean result like *note exists(): 85d, *note is_dir(): 85e, *note
     is_file(): 85f, *note is_mount(): 860, *note is_symlink(): 861,
     *note is_block_device(): 862, *note is_char_device(): 863, *note
     is_fifo(): 864, *note is_socket(): 865. now return ‘False’ instead
     of raising *note ValueError: 183. or its subclasses *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 473. and *note UnicodeDecodeError: 85a. for
     paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS
     level.

   - bpo-26544(237): Fixed implementation of *note platform.libc_ver():
     1818.  It almost always returned version '2.9' for glibc.

   - bpo-33843(238): Remove deprecated ‘cgi.escape’, ‘cgi.parse_qs’ and
     ‘cgi.parse_qsl’.

   - bpo-33842(239): Remove ‘tarfile.filemode’ which is deprecated since
     Python 3.3.

   - bpo-30167(240): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33805(241): Improve error message of dataclasses.replace() when
     an InitVar is not specified

   - bpo-33687(242): Fix the call to ‘os.chmod()’ for ‘uu.decode()’ if a
     mode is given or decoded.  Patch by Timo Furrer.

   - bpo-33812(243): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-32108(244): In configparser, don't clear section when it is
     assigned to itself.

   - bpo-27397(245): Make email module properly handle invalid-length
     base64 strings.

   - bpo-33578(246): Implement multibyte encoder/decoder state methods

   - bpo-30805(247): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33476(248): Fix _header_value_parser.py when address group is
     missing final ';'.  Contributed by Enrique Perez-Terron

   - bpo-33694(249): asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on
     pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

   - bpo-32493(250): Correct test for ‘uuid_enc_be’ availability in
     ‘configure.ac’.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-33792(251): Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and
     asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

   - bpo-33274(252): W3C DOM Level 1 specifies return value of
     Element.removeAttributeNode() as "The Attr node that was removed."
     xml.dom.minidom now complies with this requirement.

   - bpo-33778(253): Update ‘unicodedata’'s database to Unicode version
     11.0.0.

   - bpo-33165(254): Added a stacklevel parameter to logging calls to
     allow use of wrapper/helper functions for logging APIs.

   - bpo-33770(255): improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs
     of invalid length

   - bpo-33769(256): asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel
     callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as
     closed if it is aborted.

   - bpo-33767(257): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’)
     sequence operations now raise *note TypeError: 2ba. instead of
     *note SystemError: 304. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 84e.
     objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33734(258): asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default
     handshake timeout

   - bpo-31014(259): Fixed creating a controller for *note webbrowser:
     110. when a user specifies a path to an entry in the BROWSER
     environment variable.  Based on patch by John Still.

   - bpo-2504(260): Add gettext.pgettext() and variants.

   - bpo-33197(261): Add description property for _ParameterKind

   - bpo-32751(262): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 3f6. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete.

   - bpo-32684(263): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33654(264): Support protocol type switching in
     SSLTransport.set_protocol().

   - bpo-33674(265): Pause the transport as early as possible to further
     reduce the risk of data_received() being called before
     connection_made().

   - bpo-33671(266): *note shutil.copyfile(): 8a4, *note shutil.copy():
     8a5, *note shutil.copy2(): 8a6, *note shutil.copytree(): 872. and
     *note shutil.move(): 8a7. use platform-specific fast-copy syscalls
     on Linux and macOS in order to copy the file more efficiently.  On
     Windows *note shutil.copyfile(): 8a4. uses a bigger default buffer
     size (1 MiB instead of 16 KiB) and a *note memoryview(): 17f.-based
     variant of *note shutil.copyfileobj(): 8a8. is used.  The speedup
     for copying a 512MiB file is about +26% on Linux, +50% on macOS and
     +40% on Windows.  Also, much less CPU cycles are consumed.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-25427(267).)

   - bpo-33674(268): Fix a race condition in
     SSLProtocol.connection_made() of asyncio.sslproto: start
     immediately the handshake instead of using call_soon().
     Previously, data_received() could be called before the handshake
     started, causing the handshake to hang or fail.

   - bpo-31647(269): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it's already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-32610(270): Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

   - bpo-32410(271): Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

   - bpo-33469(272): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-33672(273): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython's bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33654(274): Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching
     between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol.  Fix
     loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

   - bpo-33652(275): Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics
     are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

   - bpo-32493(276): Fixed *note uuid.uuid1(): a09. on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-33238(277): Add ‘InvalidStateError’ to *note
     concurrent.futures: 1f.  ‘Future.set_result’ and
     ‘Future.set_exception’ now raise ‘InvalidStateError’ if the futures
     are not pending or running.  Patch by Jason Haydaman.

   - bpo-33618(278): Finalize and document preliminary and experimental
     TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

   - bpo-33625(279): Release GIL on ‘grp.getgrnam’, ‘grp.getgrgid’,
     ‘pwd.getpwnam’ and ‘pwd.getpwuid’ if reentrant variants of these
     functions are available.  Patch by William Grzybowski.

   - bpo-33623(280): Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created
     in __del__

   - bpo-11874(281): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-30877(282): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the
     JSON decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from
     clearing after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33604(283): Remove HMAC default to md5 marked for removal in
     3.8 (removal originally planned in 3.6, bump to 3.8 in PR 7062).

   - bpo-33582(284): Emit a deprecation warning for
     inspect.formatargspec

   - bpo-21145(285): Add ‘functools.cached_property’ decorator, for
     computed properties cached for the life of the instance.

   - bpo-33570(286): Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer.  OpenSSL 1.1.1
     will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

   - bpo-28556(287): Do not simplify arguments to ‘typing.Union’.  Now
     ‘Union[Manager, Employee]’ is not simplified to ‘Employee’ at
     runtime.  Such simplification previously caused several bugs and
     limited possibilities for introspection.

   - bpo-12486(288): *note tokenize.generate_tokens(): 205. is now
     documented as a public API to tokenize unicode strings.  It was
     previously present but undocumented.

   - bpo-33540(289): Add a new ‘block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘ForkingMixIn’ and ‘ThreadingMixIn’ classes of *note socketserver:
     c7.

   - bpo-33548(290): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33109(291): argparse subparsers are once again not required by
     default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by
     bpo-26510(292) in 3.7.0a2.

   - bpo-33541(293): Remove unused private method
     ‘_strptime.LocaleTime.__pad’ (a.k.a.  ‘_LocaleTime__pad’).

   - bpo-33536(294): dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid
     field names and duplicate fields.  Also, added a check for invalid
     field specifications.

   - bpo-33542(295): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead
     of a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(296): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - Fix failure in ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ when ClassVar was provided
     as a string forward reference.

   - bpo-33516(297): *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: d11. now supports
     the ‘__round__’ magic method.

   - bpo-28612(298): Added support for Site Maps to urllib's
     ‘RobotFileParser’ as *note RobotFileParser.site_maps(): 182d.
     Patch by Lady Red, based on patch by Peter Wirtz.

   - bpo-28167(299): Remove platform.linux_distribution, which was
     deprecated since 3.5.

   - bpo-33504(300): Switch the default dictionary implementation for
     *note configparser: 20. from *note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce. to
     the standard *note dict: 239. type.

   - bpo-33505(301): Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if
     checks: 1.17x faster.

   - bpo-33497(302): Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an
     encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted).
     Patch by Amber Brown.

   - bpo-29235(303): The ‘cProfile.Profile’ class can now be used as a
     context manager.  Patch by Scott Sanderson.

   - bpo-33495(304): Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of
     each of its members, instead of str.  This makes it more clear what
     each field actually represents.  This is especially true for the
     'type' member.

   - bpo-26103(305): Correct ‘inspect.isdatadescriptor’ to look for
     ‘__set__’ or ‘__delete__’.  Patch by Aaron Hall.

   - bpo-29209(306): Removed the ‘doctype()’ method and the 'html'
     parameter of the constructor of *note XMLParser: 89e.  The
     ‘doctype()’ method defined in a subclass will no longer be called.
     Deprecated methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ in the *note
     ElementTree: 120. module emit now a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.

   - bpo-33453(307): Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string
     type annotations or if using PEP 563 "Postponed Evaluation of
     Annotations".  Only specific string prefixes are detected for both
     ClassVar ("ClassVar" and "typing.ClassVar") and InitVar ("InitVar"
     and "dataclasses.InitVar").

   - bpo-28556(308): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-33365(309): Print the header values besides the header keys
     instead just the header keys if 'debuglevel' is set to >0 in *note
     http.client: 6a.  Patch by Marco Strigl.

   - bpo-20087(310): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(311): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-28167(312): The function ‘platform.linux_distribution’ and
     ‘platform.dist’ now trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and have been
     marked for removal in Python 3.8

   - bpo-33281(313): Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

   - bpo-33311(314): Text and html output generated by cgitb does not
     display parentheses if the current call is done directly in the
     module.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-27300(315): The file classes in 'tempfile' now accept an
     'errors' parameter that complements the already existing
     'encoding'.  Patch by Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-32933(316): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 17d1. now supports
     iteration over the file contents.  Patch by Tony Flury.

   - bpo-33217(317): Raise *note TypeError: 2ba. when looking up
     non-Enum objects in Enum classes and Enum members.

   - bpo-33197(318): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33383(319): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 32. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33375(320): The warnings module now finds the Python file
     associated with a warning from the code object, rather than the
     frame's global namespace.  This is consistent with how tracebacks
     and pdb find filenames, and should work better for dynamically
     executed code.

   - bpo-33336(321): ‘imaplib’ now allows ‘MOVE’ command in
     ‘IMAP4.uid()’ (RFC 6851: IMAP MOVE Extension) and potentially as a
     name of supported method of ‘IMAP4’ object.

   - bpo-32455(322): Added 'jump' parameter to *note dis.stack_effect():
     dbe.

   - bpo-27485(323): Rename and deprecate undocumented functions in
     *note urllib.parse(): 105.

   - bpo-33332(324): Add ‘signal.valid_signals()’ to expose the POSIX
     sigfillset() functionality.

   - bpo-33251(325): ‘ConfigParser.items()’ was fixed so that key-value
     pairs passed in via *note vars(): 182e. are not included in the
     resulting output.

   - bpo-33329(326): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-33334(327): *note dis.stack_effect(): dbe. now supports all
     defined opcodes including NOP and EXTENDED_ARG.

   - bpo-991266(328): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 182f.

   - bpo-33131(329): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(330): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when
     converting an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with
     ‘line_info=False’ and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-23403(331): lib2to3 now uses pickle protocol 4 for pre-computed
     grammars.

   - bpo-33266(332): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rf'...'’ strings.

   - bpo-11594(333): Ensure line-endings are respected when using
     lib2to3.

   - bpo-33254(334): Have *note importlib.resources.contents(): 527. and
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents(): 1830. return an
     *note iterable: 10ba. instead of an *note iterator: 1718.

   - bpo-33265(335): ‘contextlib.ExitStack’ and
     ‘contextlib.AsyncExitStack’ now use a method instead of a wrapper
     function for exit callbacks.

   - bpo-33263(336): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-33256(337): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33144(338): ‘random.Random()’ and its subclassing mechanism got
     optimized to check only once at class/subclass instantiation time
     whether its ‘getrandbits()’ method can be relied on by other
     methods, including ‘randrange()’, for the generation of arbitrarily
     large random integers.  Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-33185(339): Fixed regression when running pydoc with the *note
     -m: 3d4. switch.  (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the
     resolution of bpo-33053(340))

     This fix also changed pydoc to add ‘os.getcwd()’ to *note sys.path:
     35e. when necessary, rather than adding ‘"."’.

   - bpo-29613(341): Added support for the ‘SameSite’ cookie flag to the
     ‘http.cookies’ module.

   - bpo-33169(342): Delete entries of ‘None’ in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. when
     ‘importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches()’ is called.

   - bpo-33203(343): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’
     for empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(344): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(345).  Convert
     an uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(346): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1831.

   - bpo-32861(347): The urllib.robotparser's ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the "Crawl-delay" and
     "Request-rate" fields.  Also removes extra newlines that were being
     appended to the end of the string.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-23403(348): ‘DEFAULT_PROTOCOL’ in *note pickle: a1. was bumped
     to 4.  Protocol 4 is described in PEP 3154(349) and available since
     Python 3.4.  It offers better performance and smaller size compared
     to protocol 3 introduced in Python 3.0.

   - bpo-20104(350): Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak
     in *note os.posix_spawn(): 8a3.

   - bpo-33106(351): Deleting a key from a read-only dbm database raises
     module specific error instead of KeyError.

   - bpo-33175(352): In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the
     __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the
     default value.

   - bpo-32380(353): Create functools.singledispatchmethod to support
     generic single dispatch on descriptors and methods.

   - bpo-33141(354): Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to
     their default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

   - bpo-33096(355): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-32873(356): Treat type variables and special typing forms as
     immutable by copy and pickle.  This fixes several minor issues and
     inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python
     3.6.

   - bpo-33134(357): When computing dataclass's __hash__, use the lookup
     table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value.
     This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing
     that string to see what to do.

   - bpo-33127(358): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-32505(359): Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass
     is of type Field, but doesn't have a type annotation.

   - bpo-33078(360): Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying
     on sem_getvalue

   - bpo-33116(361): Add 'Field' to dataclasses.__all__.

   - bpo-32896(362): Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a
     field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect
     class.

   - bpo-33100(363): Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that's
     a MemberDescriptorType, then it's from that field being in
     __slots__, not an actual default value.

   - bpo-32953(364): If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen
     dataclass, allow attributes to be added to the derived class.  Only
     attributes from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to.
     Require all dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or
     all non-frozen.

   - bpo-33097(365): Raise RuntimeError when ‘executor.submit’ is called
     during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32968(366): Modulo and floor division involving Fraction and
     float should return float.

   - bpo-33061(367): Add missing ‘NoReturn’ to ‘__all__’ in typing.py

   - bpo-33078(368): Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when
     a pickling error occurs.

   - bpo-33064(369): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-33056(370): FIX properly close leaking fds in
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

   - bpo-33021(371): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-31804(372): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33034(373): Providing an explicit error message when casting
     the port property to anything that is not an integer value using
     ‘urlparse()’ and ‘urlsplit()’.  Patch by Matt Eaton.

   - bpo-30249(374): Improve struct.unpack_from() exception messages for
     problems with the buffer size and offset.

   - bpo-33037(375): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-27683(376): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 7a. that
     result of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a
     tuple containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-22674(377): Add the strsignal() function in the signal module
     that returns the system description of the given signal, as
     returned by strsignal(3).

   - bpo-32999(378): Fix C implementation of ‘ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls,
     subclass)’ crashed when ‘subclass’ is not a type object.

   - bpo-33009(379): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(380): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32056(381): Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of
     channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules *note
     aifc: 5, *note wave: 10e. and *note sunau: d1.

   - bpo-32970(382): Improved disassembly of the MAKE_FUNCTION
     instruction.

   - bpo-32844(383): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-32960(384): For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from
     non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from
     frozen classes.  This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

   - bpo-32713(385): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-32257(386): The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION
     constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

   - bpo-32951(387): Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject
     objects is now prohibited.  The constructors were never documented,
     tested, or designed as public constructors.  Users were suppose to
     use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

   - bpo-32929(388): Remove the tri-state parameter "hash", and add the
     boolean "unsafe_hash".  If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__
     function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError.  If
     unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and
     frozen=.  The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old
     hash=None behavior.  unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as
     hash=None used to be.

   - bpo-32947(389): Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround
     for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

   - bpo-32146(390): Document the interaction between frozen executables
     and the spawn and forkserver start methods in multiprocessing.

   - bpo-30622(391): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(392): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32759(393): Free unused arenas in multiprocessing.heap.

   - bpo-32859(394): In ‘os.dup2’, don't check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-32556(395): nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and
     nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

   - bpo-21060(396): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     "No dist file created in earlier command" to the more helpful "Must
     create and upload files in one command".

   - bpo-32857(397): In *note tkinter: ea, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 183. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-32852(398): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-31333(399): ‘_abc’ module is added.  It is a speedup module
     with C implementations for various functions and methods in ‘abc’.
     Creating an ABC subclass and calling ‘isinstance’ or ‘issubclass’
     with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster.  In addition, this
     makes Python start-up up to 10% faster.

     Note that the new implementation hides internal registry and
     caches, previously accessible via private attributes
     ‘_abc_registry’, ‘_abc_cache’, and ‘_abc_negative_cache’.  There
     are three debugging helper methods that can be used instead
     ‘_dump_registry’, ‘_abc_registry_clear’, and ‘_abc_caches_clear’.

   - bpo-32841(400): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32819(401): ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no
     longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP
     addresses.  Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been
     improved.

   - bpo-19675(402): ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ no longer leaks processes if
     its initialization fails.

   - bpo-32394(403): socket: Remove
     TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older
     version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-31787(404): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(405): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-30688(406): Added support of ‘\N{name}’ escapes in regular
     expressions.  Based on patch by Jonathan Eunice.

   - bpo-32792(407): collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.

   - bpo-32775(408): *note fnmatch.translate(): 1832. no longer produces
     patterns which contain set operations.  Sets starting with '[' or
     containing '-', '&&', '~~' or '||' will be interpreted differently
     in regular expressions in future versions.  Currently they emit
     warnings.  fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns
     containing such sets by accident.

   - bpo-32622(409): Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor
     event loop.

   - bpo-32777(410): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(411): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect
     linking for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked
     against libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32749(412): A *note dbm.dumb: 30. database opened with flags
     'r' is now read-only.  *note dbm.dumb.open(): 8e6. with flags 'r'
     and 'w' no longer creates a database if it does not exist.

   - bpo-32741(413): Implement ‘asyncio.TimerHandle.when()’ method.

   - bpo-32691(414): Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

   - bpo-32734(415): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(416): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31453(417): Add TLSVersion constants and
     SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes.  The new
     API wraps OpenSSL 1.1
     ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html’
     feature.

   - bpo-24334(418): Internal implementation details of ssl module were
     cleaned up.  The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection.
     Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and
     SSLObject constructor.  Channel binding implementation has been
     simplified.

   - bpo-31848(419): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32585(420): Add Ttk spinbox widget to *note tkinter.ttk: f4.
     Patch by Alan D Moore.

   - bpo-32512(421): *note profile: aa. CLI accepts ‘-m module_name’ as
     an alternative to script path.

   - bpo-8525(422): help() on a type now displays builtin subclasses.
     This is intended primarily to help with notification of more
     specific exception subclasses.

     Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31639(423): http.server now exposes a ThreadingHTTPServer class
     and uses it when the module is run with ‘-m’ to cope with web
     browsers pre-opening sockets.

   - bpo-29877(424): compileall: import ProcessPoolExecutor only when
     needed, preventing hangs on low resource platforms

   - bpo-32221(425): Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6
     addresses now omit ‘%scope’ part since the same information is
     already encoded in 'scopeid' tuple item.  Especially this speeds up
     ‘socket.recvfrom()’ when it receives multicast packet since useless
     resolving of network interface name is omitted.

   - bpo-32147(426): *note binascii.unhexlify(): 1833. is now up to 2
     times faster.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-30693(427): The TarFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-30693(428): The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-31680(429): Added *note curses.ncurses_version: 82c.

   - bpo-31908(430): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-31608(431): Raise a ‘TypeError’ instead of crashing if a
     ‘collections.deque’ subclass returns a non-deque from ‘__new__’.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31425(432): Add support for sockets of the AF_QIPCRTR address
     family, supported by the Linux kernel.  This is used to communicate
     with services, such as GPS or radio, running on Qualcomm devices.
     Patch by Bjorn Andersson.

   - bpo-22005(433): Implemented unpickling instances of *note datetime:
     224, *note date: 72f. and *note time: 6c5. pickled by Python 2.
     ‘encoding='latin1'’ should be used for successful decoding.

   - bpo-27645(434): *note sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. now exposes a *note
     backup: 9d7. method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version
     3.6.11 or higher.  Patch by Lele Gaifax.

   - bpo-16865(435): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 28.  Patch
     by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-31508(436): Removed support of arguments in
     ‘tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection’.  It was deprecated in 3.6.  Use
     specialized methods like ‘selection_set’ for changing the
     selection.

   - bpo-29456(437): Fix bugs in hangul normalization: u1176, u11a7 and
     u11c3

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35845

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35847

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35780

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23846

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34323

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35674

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35733

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<48>,  Next: Tests<48>,  Prev: Library<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.51.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-21257(1): Document *note http.client.parse_headers(): 1835.

   - bpo-34764(2): Improve example of iter() with 2nd sentinel argument.

   - bpo-35564(3): Explicitly set master_doc variable in conf.py for
     compliance with Sphinx 2.0

   - bpo-35511(4): Specified that profile.Profile class doesn't not
     support enable or disable methods.  Also, elaborated that Profile
     object as a context manager is only supported in cProfile module.

   - bpo-10536(5): Enhance the gettext docs.  Patch by Éric Araujo

   - bpo-35089(6): Remove mention of ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’.  Their
     types should be imported from ‘typing’ directly.

   - bpo-35038(7): Fix the documentation about an unexisting
     ‘f_restricted’ attribute in the frame object.  Patch by Stéphane
     Wirtel

   - bpo-35042(8): Replace PEP XYZ by the pep role and allow to use the
     direct links to the PEPs.

   - bpo-35044(9): Fix the documentation with the role ‘exc’ for the
     appropriated exception.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35035(10): Rename documentation for *note email.utils: 4c. to
     ‘email.utils.rst’.

   - bpo-34967(11): Use app.add_object_type() instead of the deprecated
     Sphinx function app.description_unit()

   - bpo-34913(12): Add documentation about the new command line
     interface of the gzip module.

   - bpo-32174(13): chm document displays non-ASCII characters properly
     on some MBCS Windows systems.

   - bpo-11233(14): Create availability directive for documentation.
     Original patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-34790(15): Document how passing coroutines to asyncio.wait()
     can be confusing.

   - bpo-34552(16): Make clear that ‘==’ operator sometimes is
     equivalent to ‘is’.  The ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ and ‘>=’ operators are only
     defined where they make sense.

   - bpo-28617(17): Fixed info in the stdtypes docs concerning the types
     that support membership tests.

   - bpo-20177(18): Migrate datetime.date.fromtimestamp to Argument
     Clinic.  Patch by Tim Hoffmann.

   - bpo-34065(19): Fix wrongly written basicConfig documentation markup
     syntax

   - bpo-33460(20): replaced ellipsis with correct error codes in
     tutorial chapter 3.

   - bpo-33847(21): Add '@' operator entry to index.

   - bpo-33409(22): Clarified the relationship between PEP 538(23)'s
     PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540's PYTHONUTF8 mode.

   - bpo-33197(24): Add versionadded tag to the documentation of
     ParameterKind.description

   - bpo-17045(25): Improve the C-API doc for PyTypeObject.  This
     includes adding several quick-reference tables and a lot of missing
     slot/typedef entries.  The existing entries were also cleaned up
     with a slightly more consistent format.

   - bpo-33736(26): Improve the documentation of *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): 96e, *note asyncio.start_server(): 96f.
     and their UNIX socket counterparts.

   - bpo-23859(27): Document that ‘asyncio.wait()’ does not cancel its
     futures on timeout.

   - bpo-32436(28): Document PEP 567(29) changes to asyncio.

   - bpo-33604(30): Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning,
     bump removal to 3.8.

   - bpo-33594(31): Document ‘getargspec’, ‘from_function’ and
     ‘from_builtin’ as deprecated in their respective docstring, and
     include version since deprecation in DeprecationWarning message.

   - bpo-33503(32): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(33): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   - bpo-33487(34): BZ2file now emit a DeprecationWarning when
     buffering=None is passed, the deprecation message and documentation
     also now explicitly state it is deprecated since 3.0.

   - bpo-33378(35): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(36): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(37): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(38): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’
     document.  ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python
     3.3, but it is missed in the document.

   - bpo-33126(39): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(40): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(41): Update *note zipapp: 12a. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(42): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(43): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   - bpo-28124(44): The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been
     de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and
     efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

   - bpo-17232(45): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32436(46): Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP
     567).

   - bpo-32800(47): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-11015(48): Update *note test.support: de. documentation.

   - bpo-32613(49): Update the faq/windows.html to use the py command
     from PEP 397 instead of python.

   - bpo-8722(50): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 3ca.

   - bpo-32614(51): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 179. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-20709(52): Remove the paragraph where we explain that
     os.utime() does not support a directory as path under Windows.
     Patch by Jan-Philip Gehrcke

   - bpo-32722(53): Remove the bad example in the tutorial of the
     Generator Expression.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31972(54): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’
     subclasses.

   - bpo-30607(55): Use the externalized ‘python-docs-theme’ package
     when building the documentation.

   - bpo-8243(56): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-32337(57): Update documentation related with ‘dict’ order.

   - bpo-25041(58): Document ‘AF_PACKET’ in the *note socket: c6.
     module.

   - bpo-31432(59): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21257

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34764

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35564

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35511

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10536

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35089

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35038

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35042

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35044

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35035

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34967

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34913

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32174

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11233

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34552

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28617

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20177

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34065

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33460

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33847

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17045

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33594

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33487

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32613

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20709

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32722

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30607

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25041

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<48>,  Next: Build<47>,  Prev: Documentation<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.51.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-35772(1): Fix sparse file tests of test_tarfile on ppc64 with
     the tmpfs filesystem.  Fix the function testing if the filesystem
     supports sparse files: create a file which contains data and
     "holes", instead of creating a file which contains no data.  tmpfs
     effective block size is a page size (tmpfs lives in the page
     cache).  RHEL uses 64 KiB pages on aarch64, ppc64, ppc64le, only
     s390x and x86_64 use 4 KiB pages, whereas the test punch holes of 4
     KiB.

   - bpo-35045(2): Make ssl tests less strict and also accept TLSv1 as
     system default.  The changes unbreaks test_min_max_version on
     Fedora 29.

   - bpo-32710(3): ‘test_asyncio/test_sendfile.py’ now resets the event
     loop policy using ‘tearDownModule()’ as done in other tests, to
     prevent a warning when running tests on Windows.

   - bpo-33717(4): test.pythoninfo now logs information of all clocks,
     not only time.time() and time.perf_counter().

   - bpo-35488(5): Add a test to pathlib's Path.match() to verify it
     does not support glob-style ** recursive pattern matching.

   - bpo-31731(6): Fix a race condition in ‘check_interrupted_write()’
     of test_io: create directly the thread with SIGALRM signal blocked,
     rather than blocking the signal later from the thread.  Previously,
     it was possible that the thread gets the signal before the signal
     is blocked.

   - bpo-35424(7): Fix test_multiprocessing_main_handling: use
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ with a context manager and then explicitly
     join the pool.

   - bpo-35519(8): Rename ‘test.bisect’ module to ‘test.bisect_cmd’ to
     avoid conflict with *note bisect: f. module when running directly a
     test like ‘./python Lib/test/test_xmlrpc.py’.

   - bpo-35513(9): Replace *note time.time(): 936. with *note
     time.monotonic(): cfe. in tests to measure time delta.

   - bpo-34279(10): ‘test.support.run_unittest()’ no longer raise
     ‘TestDidNotRun’ if the test result contains skipped tests.  The
     exception is now only raised if no test have been run and no test
     have been skipped.

   - bpo-35412(11): Add testcase to ‘test_future4’: check unicode
     literal.

   - bpo-26704(12): Added test demonstrating double-patching of an
     instance method.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33725(13): test_multiprocessing_fork may crash on recent
     versions of macOS. Until the issue is resolved, skip the test on
     macOS.

   - bpo-35352(14): Modify test_asyncio to use the certificate set from
     the test directory.

   - bpo-35317(15): Fix ‘mktime()’ overflow error in ‘test_email’: run
     ‘test_localtime_daylight_true_dst_true()’ and
     ‘test_localtime_daylight_false_dst_true()’ with a specific
     timezone.

   - bpo-21263(16): After several reports that test_gdb does not work
     properly on macOS and since gdb is not shipped by default anymore,
     test_gdb is now skipped on macOS when LLVM Clang has been used to
     compile Python.  Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

   - bpo-34279(17): regrtest issue a warning when no tests have been
     executed in a particular test file.  Also, a new final result state
     is issued if no test have been executed across all test files.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34962(18): make docstest in Doc now passes., and is enforced in
     CI

   - bpo-23596(19): Use argparse for the command line of the gzip
     module.  Patch by Antony Lee

   - bpo-34537(20): Fix ‘test_gdb.test_strings()’ when ‘LC_ALL=C’ and
     GDB was compiled with Python 3.6 or earlier.

   - bpo-34587(21): test_socket: Remove RDSTest.testCongestion().  The
     test tries to fill the receiver's socket buffer and expects an
     error.  But the RDS protocol doesn't require that.  Moreover, the
     Linux implementation of RDS expects that the producer of the
     messages reduces its rate, it's not the role of the receiver to
     trigger an error.  The test fails on Fedora 28 by design, so just
     remove it.

   - bpo-34661(22): Fix test_shutil if unzip doesn't support -t.

   - bpo-34200(23): Fixed non-deterministic flakiness of test_pkg by not
     using the scary test.support.module_cleanup() logic to save and
     restore sys.modules contents between test cases.

   - bpo-34569(24): The experimental PEP 554 data channels now correctly
     pass negative PyLong objects between subinterpreters on 32-bit
     systems.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34594(25): Fix usage of hardcoded ‘errno’ values in the tests.

   - bpo-34579(26): Fix test_embed for AIX Patch by Michael Felt

   - bpo-34542(27): Use 3072 RSA keys and SHA-256 signature for test
     certs and keys.

   - bpo-11193(28): Remove special condition for AIX in
     ‘test_subprocess.test_undecodable_env’

   - bpo-34347(29): Fix ‘test_utf8_mode.test_cmd_line’ for AIX

   - bpo-34490(30): On AIX with AF_UNIX family sockets getsockname()
     does not provide 'sockname', so skip calls to
     transport.get_extra_info('sockname')

   - bpo-34391(31): Fix ftplib test for TLS 1.3 by reading from data
     socket.

   - bpo-11192(32): Fix ‘test_socket’ on AIX 6.1 and later IPv6 zone id
     supports only supported by ‘inet_pton6_zone()’.  Switch to
     runtime-based ‘platform.system()’ to establish current platform
     rather than build-time based ‘sys.platform()’

   - bpo-34399(33): Update all RSA keys and DH params to use at least
     2048 bits.

   - bpo-34373(34): Fix ‘test_mktime’ and ‘test_pthread_getcpuclickid’
     tests for AIX Add range checking for ‘_PyTime_localtime’ for AIX
     Patch by Michael Felt

   - bpo-11191(35): Skip the distutils test 'test_search_cpp' when using
     XLC as compiler patch by aixtools (Michael Felt)

   - Improved an error message when mock assert_has_calls fails.

   - bpo-33746(36): Fix test_unittest when run in verbose mode.

   - bpo-33901(37): Fix test_dbm_gnu on macOS with gdbm 1.15: add a
     larger value to make sure that the file size changes.

   - bpo-33873(38): Fix a bug in ‘regrtest’ that caused an extra test to
     run if -huntrleaks/-R was used.  Exit with error in case that
     invalid parameters are specified to -huntrleaks/-R (at least one
     warmup run and one repetition must be used).

   - bpo-33562(39): Check that a global asyncio event loop policy is not
     left behind by any tests.

   - bpo-33655(40): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD
     platforms that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-32962(41): Fixed test_gdb when Python is compiled with flags
     -mcet -fcf-protection -O0.

   - bpo-33358(42): Fix
     ‘test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options()’ when the
     interpreter is built with ‘--enable-shared’.

   - bpo-32872(43): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   - bpo-32517(44): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-32663(45): Making sure the ‘SMTPUTF8SimTests’ class of tests
     gets run in ‘test_smtplib.py’.

   - bpo-27643(46): Test_C test case needs "signed short" bitfields, but
     the IBM XLC compiler (on AIX) does not support this Skip the code
     and test when AIX and XLC are used

     Applicable to Python2-2.7 and later

   - bpo-19417(47): Add test_bdb.py.

   - bpo-31809(48): Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH
     curves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35772

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35045

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33717

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35488

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31731

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35424

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35519

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35513

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35412

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26704

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35352

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35317

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21263

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34962

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23596

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34537

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34587

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34661

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34200

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34569

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34594

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34579

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34542

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11193

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34347

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34490

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34391

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11192

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34399

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11191

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33746

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33901

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33873

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33562

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32663

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27643

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809


File: python.info,  Node: Build<47>,  Next: Windows<47>,  Prev: Tests<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.51.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-34691(1): The _contextvars module is now built into the core
     Python library on Windows.

   - bpo-35683(2): Improved Azure Pipelines build steps and now
     verifying layouts correctly

   - bpo-35642(3): Remove asynciomodule.c from pythoncore.vcxproj

   - bpo-35550(4): Fix incorrect Solaris #ifdef checks to look for __sun
     && __SVR4 instead of sun when compiling.

   - bpo-35499(5): ‘make profile-opt’ no longer replaces ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     with ‘CFLAGS’.  It now adds profile-guided optimization (PGO) flags
     to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’: existing ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’ flags are kept.

   - bpo-35257(6): Avoid leaking the linker flags from Link Time
     Optimizations (LTO) into distutils when compiling C extensions.

   - bpo-35351(7): When building Python with clang and LTO, LTO flags
     are no longer passed into CFLAGS to build third-party C extensions
     through distutils.

   - bpo-35139(8): Fix a compiler error when statically linking
     ‘pyexpat’ in ‘Modules/Setup’.

   - bpo-35059(9): PCbuild: Set InlineFunctionExpansion to
     OnlyExplicitInline ("/Ob1" option) in pyproject.props in Debug mode
     to expand functions marked as inline.  This change should make
     Python compiled in Debug mode a little bit faster on Windows.

   - bpo-35011(10): Restores the use of pyexpatns.h to isolate our
     embedded copy of the expat C library so that its symbols do not
     conflict at link or dynamic loading time with an embedding
     application or other extension modules with their own version of
     libexpat.

   - bpo-28015(11): Have -with-lto works correctly with clang.

   - bpo-34765(12): Update the outdated install-sh file to the latest
     revision from automake v1.16.1

   - bpo-34585(13): Check for floating-point byte order in configure.ac
     using compilation tests instead of executing code, so that these
     checks work in cross-compiled builds.

   - bpo-34710(14): Fixed SSL module build with OpenSSL & pedantic
     CFLAGS.

   - bpo-34582(15): Add JUnit XML output for regression tests and update
     Azure DevOps builds.

   - bpo-34081(16): Make Sphinx warnings as errors in the Docs Makefile.

   - bpo-34555(17): Fix for case where it was not possible to have both
     ‘HAVE_LINUX_VM_SOCKETS_H’ and ‘HAVE_SOCKADDR_ALG’ be undefined.

   - bpo-33015(18): Fix an undefined behaviour in the pthread
     implementation of ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’: add a function
     wrapper to always return ‘NULL’.

   - bpo-34245(19): The Python shared library is now installed with
     write permission (mode 0755), which is the standard way of
     installing such libraries.

   - bpo-34121(20): Fix detection of C11 atomic support on clang.

   - bpo-32430(21): Rename Modules/Setup.dist to Modules/Setup, and
     remove the necessity to copy the former manually to the latter when
     updating the local source tree.

   - bpo-30345(22): Add -g to LDFLAGS when compiling with LTO to get
     debug symbols.

   - bpo-5755(23): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   - bpo-33614(24): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI
     on Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33648(25): The -with-c-locale-warning configuration flag has
     been removed.  It has had no effect for about a year.

   - bpo-33522(26): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33512(27): configure's check for "long double" has been
     simplified

   - bpo-33483(28): C compiler is now correctly detected from the
     standard environment variables.  -without-gcc and -with-icc options
     have been removed.

   - bpo-33394(29): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   - bpo-33393(30): Update config.guess and config.sub files.

   - bpo-33377(31): Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants
     (used in extension suffixes).

   - bpo-32232(32): By default, modules configured in ‘Modules/Setup’
     are no longer built with ‘-DPy_BUILD_CORE’.  Instead, modules that
     specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their
     individual entries.

   - bpo-33182(33): The embedding tests can once again be built with
     clang 6.0

   - bpo-33163(34): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   - bpo-33012(35): gcc 8 has added a new warning heuristic to detect
     invalid function casts and a stock python build seems to hit that
     warning quite often.  The most common is the cast of a METH_NOARGS
     function (that uses just one argument) to a PyCFunction.  Fix this
     by adding a dummy argument to all functions that implement
     METH_NOARGS.

   - bpo-32898(36): Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

   - bpo-29442(37): Replace optparse with argparse in setup.py

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34691

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35642

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35550

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35499

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35257

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35351

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35139

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35011

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28015

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34765

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34585

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34710

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34582

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34081

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34555

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33015

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34245

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34121

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30345

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33648

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33512

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33483

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29442


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<47>,  Next: macOS<36>,  Prev: Build<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.51.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35890(1): Fix API calling consistency of GetVersionEx and
     wcstok.

   - bpo-32560(2): The ‘py’ launcher now forwards its ‘STARTUPINFO’
     structure to child processes.

   - bpo-35854(3): Fix EnvBuilder and -symlinks in venv on Windows

   - bpo-35811(4): Avoid propagating venv settings when launching via
     py.exe

   - bpo-35797(5): Fix default executable used by the multiprocessing
     module

   - bpo-35758(6): Allow building on ARM with MSVC.

   - bpo-29734(7): Fix handle leaks in os.stat on Windows.

   - bpo-35596(8): Use unchecked PYCs for the embeddable distro to avoid
     zipimport restrictions.

   - bpo-35596(9): Fix vcruntime140.dll being added to embeddable distro
     multiple times.

   - bpo-35402(10): Update Windows build to use Tcl and Tk 8.6.9

   - bpo-35401(11): Updates Windows build to OpenSSL 1.1.0j

   - bpo-34977(12): venv on Windows will now use a python.exe redirector
     rather than copying the actual binaries from the base environment.

   - bpo-34977(13): Adds support for building a Windows App Store
     package

   - bpo-35067(14): Remove _distutils_findvs module and use vswhere.exe
     instead.

   - bpo-32557(15): Allow shutil.disk_usage to take a file path on
     Windows

   - bpo-34770(16): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     pyshellext.cpp.

   - bpo-34603(17): Fix returning structs from functions produced by
     MSVC

   - bpo-34581(18): Guard MSVC-specific code in socketmodule.c with
     ‘#ifdef _MSC_VER’.

   - bpo-34532(19): Fixes exit code of list version arguments for
     py.exe.

   - bpo-34062(20): Fixed the '-list' and '-list-paths' arguments for
     the py.exe launcher

   - bpo-34225(21): Ensure INCLUDE and LIB directories do not end with a
     backslash.

   - bpo-34011(22): A suite of code has been changed which copied across
     DLLs and init.tcl from the running Python location into a venv
     being created.  These copies are needed only when running from a
     Python source build, and the copying code is now only run when that
     is the case, rather than whenever a venv is created.

   - bpo-34006(23): Revert line length limit for Windows help docs.  The
     line-length limit is not needed because the pages appear in a
     separate app rather than on a browser tab.  It can also interact
     badly with the DPI setting.

   - bpo-31546(24): Restore running PyOS_InputHook while waiting for
     user input at the prompt.  The restores integration of interactive
     GUI windows (such as Matplotlib figures) with the prompt on
     Windows.

   - bpo-30237(25): Output error when ReadConsole is canceled by
     CancelSynchronousIo instead of crashing.

   - bpo-33895(26): GIL is released while calling functions that acquire
     Windows loader lock.

   - bpo-33720(27): Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release
     builds.

   - bpo-29097(28): Fix bug where ‘datetime.fromtimestamp()’ erroneously
     throws an *note OSError: 644. on Windows for values between 0 and
     86400.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-33316(29): PyThread_release_lock always fails

   - bpo-33184(30): Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   - bpo-32890(31): Fix usage of GetLastError() instead of errno in
     os.execve() and os.truncate().

   - bpo-33016(32): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(33): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   - bpo-32901(34): Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

   - bpo-31966(35): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(36): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(37): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(38): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(39): Fix *note os.readlink(): 75e. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   - bpo-1104(40): Correctly handle string length in
     ‘msilib.SummaryInfo.GetProperty()’ to prevent it from truncating
     the last character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35890

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32560

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35854

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35811

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35797

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35758

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29734

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35402

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35067

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32557

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34770

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34603

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34581

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34532

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34062

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34225

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34011

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34006

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31546

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30237

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33895

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29097

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33316

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32890

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1104


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<36>,  Next: IDLE<35>,  Prev: Windows<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.51.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-35401(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0j.

   - bpo-35025(2): Properly guard the use of the ‘CLOCK_GETTIME’ et al.
     macros in ‘timemodule’ on macOS.

   - bpo-24658(3): On macOS, fix reading from and writing into a file
     with a size larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-34405(4): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for macOS installer builds.

   - bpo-33635(5): In macOS stat on some file descriptors (/dev/fd/3
     f.e) will result in bad file descriptor OSError.  Guard against
     this exception was added in is_dir, is_file and similar methods.
     DirEntry.is_dir can also throw this exception so
     _RecursiveWildcardSelector._iterate_directories was also extended
     with the same error ignoring pattern.

   - bpo-13631(6): The .editrc file in user's home directory is now
     processed correctly during the readline initialization through
     editline emulation on macOS.

   - bpo-33184(7): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   - bpo-32726(8): Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for
     the macOS 10.6+ installer.  The 10.9+ installer variant already
     does this.  This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the
     python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external
     versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such
     as ActiveTcl.

   - bpo-32901(9): Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   - bpo-31903(10): In ‘_scproxy’, drop the GIL when calling into
     ‘SystemConfiguration’ to avoid deadlocks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35025

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24658

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33635

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31903


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<35>,  Next: Tools/Demos<25>,  Prev: macOS<36>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.51.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35770(1): IDLE macosx deletes Options => Configure IDLE. It
     previously deleted Window => Zoom Height by mistake.  (Zoom Height
     is now on the Options menu).  On Mac, the settings dialog is
     accessed via Preferences on the IDLE menu.

   - bpo-35769(2): Change IDLE's new file name from 'Untitled' to
     'untitled'

   - bpo-35660(3): Fix imports in idlelib.window.

   - bpo-35641(4): Proper format ‘calltip’ when the function has no
     docstring.

   - bpo-33987(5): Use ttk Frame for ttk widgets.

   - bpo-34055(6): Fix erroneous 'smart' indents and newlines in IDLE
     Shell.

   - bpo-35591(7): Find Selection now works when selection not found.

   - bpo-35196(8): Speed up squeezer line counting.

   - bpo-35598(9): Update config_key: use PEP 8 names and ttk widgets,
     make some objects global, and add tests.

   - bpo-28097(10): Add Previous/Next History entries to Shell menu.

   - bpo-35208(11): Squeezer now properly counts wrapped lines before
     newlines.

   - bpo-35555(12): Gray out Code Context menu entry when it's not
     applicable.

   - bpo-35521(13): Document the IDLE editor code context feature.  Add
     some internal references within the IDLE doc.

   - bpo-22703(14): The Code Context menu label now toggles between
     Show/Hide Code Context.  The Zoom Height menu now toggles between
     Zoom/Restore Height.  Zoom Height has moved from the Window menu to
     the Options menu.

   - bpo-35213(15): Where appropriate, use 'macOS' in idlelib.

   - bpo-34864(16): On macOS, warn if the system preference "Prefer tabs
     when opening documents" is set to "Always".

   - bpo-34864(17): Document two IDLE on MacOS issues.  The System
     Preferences Dock "prefer tabs always" setting disables some IDLE
     features.  Menus are a bit different than as described for Windows
     and Linux.

   - bpo-35202(18): Remove unused imports from lib/idlelib

   - bpo-33000(19): Document that IDLE's shell has no line limit.  A
     program that runs indefinitely can overfill memory.

   - bpo-23220(20): Explain how IDLE's Shell displays output.

   - bpo-35099(21): Improve the doc about IDLE running user code.  The
     section is renamed from "IDLE - console differences" is renamed
     "Running user code".  It mostly covers the implications of using
     custom ‘sys.stdXXX’ objects.

   - bpo-35097(22): Add IDLE doc subsection explaining editor windows.
     Topics include opening, title and status bar, .py* extension, and
     running.

   - bpo-35093(23): Document the IDLE document viewer in the IDLE doc.
     Add a paragraph in "Help and preferences", "Help sources"
     subsection.

   - bpo-35088(24): Update idlelib.help.copy_string docstring.  We now
     use git and backporting instead of hg and forward merging.

   - bpo-35087(25): Update idlelib help files for the current doc build.
     The main change is the elimination of chapter-section numbers.

   - bpo-34548(26): Use configured color theme for read-only text views.

   - bpo-1529353(27): Enable "squeezing" of long outputs in the shell,
     to avoid performance degradation and to clean up the history
     without losing it.  Squeezed outputs may be copied, viewed in a
     separate window, and "unsqueezed".

   - bpo-34047(28): Fixed mousewheel scrolling direction on macOS.

   - bpo-34275(29): Make IDLE calltips always visible on Mac.  Some
     MacOS-tk combinations need .update_idletasks().  Patch by Kevin
     Walzer.

   - bpo-34120(30): Fix unresponsiveness after closing certain windows
     and dialogs.

   - bpo-33975(31): Avoid small type when running htests.  Since part of
     the purpose of human-viewed tests is to determine that widgets look
     right, it is important that they look the same for testing as when
     running IDLE.

   - bpo-33905(32): Add test for idlelib.stackview.StackBrowser.

   - bpo-33924(33): Change mainmenu.menudefs key 'windows' to 'window'.
     Every other menudef key is lowercase version of main menu entry.

   - bpo-33906(34): Rename idlelib.windows as window Match Window on the
     main menu and remove last plural module name.

   - bpo-33917(35): Fix and document idlelib/idle_test/template.py.  The
     revised file compiles, runs, and tests OK. idle_test/README.txt
     explains how to use it to create new IDLE test files.

   - bpo-33904(36): IDLE: In rstrip, rename class RstripExtension as
     Rstrip

   - bpo-33907(37): For consistency and clarity, rename an IDLE module
     and classes.  Module calltips and its class CallTips are now
     calltip and Calltip.  In module calltip_w, class CallTip is now
     CalltipWindow.

   - bpo-33856(38): Add "help" in the welcome message of IDLE

   - bpo-33839(39): IDLE: refactor ToolTip and CallTip and add
     documentation and tests

   - bpo-33855(40): Minimally test all IDLE modules.  Add missing files,
     import module, instantiate classes, and check coverage.  Check
     existing files.

   - bpo-33656(41): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(42): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the
     top of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(43): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(44): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(45): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(46): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   - bpo-33628(47): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(48): IDLE's code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-21474(49): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(50): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     'u' string prefix cannot be paired with either 'r' or 'f'.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   - bpo-32984(51): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e5a.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(52): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   - bpo-32916(53): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(54): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(55): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(56): Using the system and place-dependent default
     encoding for open() is a bad idea for IDLE's system and
     location-independent files.

   - bpo-32826(57): Add "encoding=utf-8" to open() in IDLE's
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to 'ascii' because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32831(58): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   - bpo-32765(59): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35770

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35769

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35660

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35591

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35196

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28097

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35208

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35555

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35521

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22703

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35213

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35202

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33000

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23220

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35099

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35097

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35093

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35088

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35087

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34548

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34047

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34275

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34120

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33975

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33905

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33924

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33906

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33917

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33904

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33907

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33856

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33839

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33855

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<25>,  Next: C API<44>,  Prev: IDLE<35>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.51.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-35884(1): Add a benchmark script for timing various ways to
     access variables: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.

   - bpo-34989(2): python-gdb.py now handles errors on computing the
     line number of a Python frame.

   - bpo-20260(3): Argument Clinic now has non-bitwise unsigned int
     converters.

   - bpo-32962(4): python-gdb now catches ‘UnicodeDecodeError’
     exceptions when calling ‘string()’.

   - bpo-32962(5): python-gdb now catches ValueError on read_var(): when
     Python has no debug symbols for example.

   - bpo-33189(6): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(7): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(8): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-25427(9): Remove the pyvenv script in favor of ‘python3 -m
     venv’ in order to lower confusion as to what Python interpreter a
     virtual environment will be created for.

   - bpo-32885(10): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   - bpo-32222(11): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for
     functions with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   - bpo-31583(12): Fix 2to3 for using with -add-suffix option but
     without -output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34989

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20260

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: C API<44>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<25>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.51.11 C API
................

   - bpo-35713(1): The ‘PyByteArray_Init()’ and ‘PyByteArray_Fini()’
     functions have been removed.  They did nothing since Python 2.7.4
     and Python 3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI),
     and were not documented.

   - bpo-33817(2): Fixed *note _PyBytes_Resize(): 183d. for empty bytes
     objects.

   - bpo-35322(3): Fix memory leak in *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale():
     a2b. and *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 183e. on error
     handling.

   - bpo-35059(4): The following C macros have been converted to static
     inline functions: *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb, *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc,
     *note Py_XINCREF(): 8b0, *note Py_XDECREF(): 5a9,
     ‘PyObject_INIT()’, ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’.

   - bpo-35296(5): ‘make install’ now also installs the internal API:
     ‘Include/internal/*.h’ header files.

   - bpo-35081(6): Internal APIs surrounded by ‘#ifdef Py_BUILD_CORE’
     have been moved from ‘Include/*.h’ headers to new header files
     ‘Include/internal/pycore_*.h’.

   - bpo-35259(7): Conditionally declare *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84.
     (new in 3.6) based on Py_LIMITED_API. Patch by Arthur Neufeld.

   - bpo-35081(8): The ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’ macros have been removed from the public C
     API.

   - bpo-35134(9): Creation of a new ‘Include/cpython/’ subdirectory.

   - bpo-34725(10): Adds _Py_SetProgramFullPath so embedders may
     override sys.executable

   - bpo-34910(11): Ensure that *note PyObject_Print(): 183f. always
     returns ‘-1’ on error.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34523(12): Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale() now use the
     UTF-8 encoding on Windows if Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag is
     zero.

   - bpo-34193(13): Fix pluralization in TypeError messages in getargs.c
     and typeobject.c: '1 argument' instead of '1 arguments' and '1
     element' instead of '1 elements'.

   - bpo-34127(14): Return grammatically correct error message based on
     argument count.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-23927(15): Fixed *note SystemError: 304. in *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85. when the ‘w*’ format unit is
     used for optional parameter.

   - bpo-32455(16): Added ‘PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffectWithJump()’.

   - bpo-34008(17): Py_Main() can again be called after Py_Initialize(),
     as in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-32500(18): Fixed error messages for *note PySequence_Size():
     1840, *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1841, *note PySequence_SetItem():
     1842. and *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1843. called with a mapping
     and *note PyMapping_Size(): 1844. called with a sequence.

   - bpo-33818(19): ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ will now return ‘const
     char *’ instead of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-33042(20): Embedding applications may once again call
     PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption
     prior to calling Py_Initialize.

   - bpo-32374(21): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   - bpo-30863(22): *note PyUnicode_AsWideChar(): 1845. and *note
     PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 6f4. no longer cache the ‘wchar_t*’
     representation of string objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33817

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35322

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35296

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35259

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34725

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34910

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34523

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34193

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34127

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23927

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32455

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32500

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30863


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 final,  Next: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.52 Python 3.7.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-27'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<52>.
* C API: C API<45>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<52>,  Next: C API<45>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 final

1.22.52.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-33851(1): Fix *note ast.get_docstring(): 1848. for a node that
     lacks a docstring.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33851


File: python.info,  Node: C API<45>,  Prev: Library<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 final

1.22.52.2 C API
...............

   - bpo-33932(1): Calling Py_Initialize() twice does nothing, instead
     of failing with a fatal error: restore the Python 3.6 behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33932


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.53 Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-12'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<52>.
* Library: Library<53>.
* Documentation: Documentation<49>.
* Build: Build<48>.
* Windows: Windows<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<36>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<52>,  Next: Library<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.53.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33803(1): Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking
     for an object that hadn't all of its fields set to NULL.

   - bpo-33706(2): Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing the
     command line options.  Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug report
     and the fix!

   - bpo-30654(3): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-31849(4): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33803

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33706

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849


File: python.info,  Node: Library<53>,  Next: Documentation<49>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.53.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30167(1): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33812(2): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-30805(3): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33694(4): asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on
     pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

   - bpo-32493(5): Correct test for ‘uuid_enc_be’ availability in
     ‘configure.ac’.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-33792(6): Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and
     asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

   - bpo-33778(7): Update ‘unicodedata’'s database to Unicode version
     11.0.0.

   - bpo-33770(8): improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs
     of invalid length

   - bpo-33769(9): asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel
     callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as
     closed if it is aborted.

   - bpo-33767(10): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’)
     sequence operations now raise *note TypeError: 2ba. instead of
     *note SystemError: 304. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 84e.
     objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33734(11): asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default
     handshake timeout

   - bpo-11874(12): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-33582(13): Emit a deprecation warning for inspect.formatargspec

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33694

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33778

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33770

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33769

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33734

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33582


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<49>,  Next: Build<48>,  Prev: Library<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.53.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33409(1): Clarified the relationship between PEP 538(2)'s
     PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540's PYTHONUTF8 mode.

   - bpo-33736(3): Improve the documentation of *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): 96e, *note asyncio.start_server(): 96f.
     and their UNIX socket counterparts.

   - bpo-31432(4): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Build<48>,  Next: Windows<48>,  Prev: Documentation<49>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.53.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-5755(1): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<48>,  Next: IDLE<36>,  Prev: Build<48>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.53.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33720(1): Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release
     builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<36>,  Prev: Windows<48>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.53.6 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33656(1): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(2): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top
     of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(3): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(4): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(5): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(6): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.54 Python 3.7.0 beta 5
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-05-30'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<53>.
* Library: Library<54>.
* Documentation: Documentation<50>.
* Tests: Tests<49>.
* Build: Build<49>.
* macOS: macOS<37>.
* IDLE: IDLE<37>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<53>,  Next: Library<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.54.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33622(1): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add
     an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into the
     *note gc.garbage: 1052. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 7d2. can now
     be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-33509(2): Fix module_globals parameter of
     warnings.warn_explicit(): don't crash if module_globals is not a
     dict.

   - bpo-20104(3): The new ‘os.posix_spawn’ added in 3.7.0b1 was removed
     as we are still working on what the API should look like.  Expect
     this in 3.8 instead.

   - bpo-33475(4): Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations to
     strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

   - bpo-33391(5): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-28055(6): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by Rolf
     Eike Beer.

   - bpo-32911(7): Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered
     during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463(8).  ‘docstring’
     field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef, and
     AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1.  Docstring
     expression is restored as a first statement in their body.  Based
     on patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-21983(9): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33509

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33475

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983


File: python.info,  Node: Library<54>,  Next: Documentation<50>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.54.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-32751(1): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 3f6. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete.

   - bpo-32684(2): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33654(3): Support protocol type switching in
     SSLTransport.set_protocol().

   - bpo-33674(4): Pause the transport as early as possible to further
     reduce the risk of data_received() being called before
     connection_made().

   - bpo-33674(5): Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made()
     of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of
     using call_soon().  Previously, data_received() could be called
     before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or
     fail.

   - bpo-31647(6): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it's already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-32610(7): Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

   - bpo-32410(8): Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

   - bpo-33469(9): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-33672(10): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython's bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33654(11): Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching
     between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol.  Fix
     loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

   - bpo-33652(12): Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics
     are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

   - bpo-32493(13): Fixed *note uuid.uuid1(): a09. on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-33618(14): Finalize and document preliminary and experimental
     TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

   - bpo-33623(15): Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created
     in __del__

   - bpo-30877(16): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON
     decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing
     after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33570(17): Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer.  OpenSSL 1.1.1
     will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

   - bpo-28556(18): Do not simplify arguments to ‘typing.Union’.  Now
     ‘Union[Manager, Employee]’ is not simplified to ‘Employee’ at
     runtime.  Such simplification previously caused several bugs and
     limited possibilities for introspection.

   - bpo-33540(19): Add a new ‘block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘ForkingMixIn’ and ‘ThreadingMixIn’ classes of *note socketserver:
     c7.

   - bpo-33548(20): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33109(21): argparse subparsers are once again not required by
     default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by
     bpo-26510(22) in 3.7.0a2.

   - bpo-33536(23): dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid
     field names and duplicate fields.  Also, added a check for invalid
     field specifications.

   - bpo-33542(24): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead of
     a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(25): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - Fix failure in ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ when ClassVar was provided
     as a string forward reference.

   - bpo-33505(26): Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if
     checks: 1.17x faster.

   - bpo-33497(27): Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an
     encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted).
     Patch by Amber Brown.

   - bpo-33495(28): Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of
     each of its members, instead of str.  This makes it more clear what
     each field actually represents.  This is especially true for the
     'type' member.

   - bpo-33453(29): Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string type
     annotations or if using PEP 563 "Postponed Evaluation of
     Annotations".  Only specific string prefixes are detected for both
     ClassVar ("ClassVar" and "typing.ClassVar") and InitVar ("InitVar"
     and "dataclasses.InitVar").

   - bpo-28556(30): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-20087(31): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(32): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-28167(33): The function ‘platform.linux_distribution’ and
     ‘platform.dist’ now trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and have been
     marked for removal in Python 3.8

   - bpo-33197(34): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33263(35): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-32861(36): The urllib.robotparser's ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the "Crawl-delay" and
     "Request-rate" fields.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-32257(37): The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION
     constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

   - bpo-16865(38): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 28.  Patch by
     Segev Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32610

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33652

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33623

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33570

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33109

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33536

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33505

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33497

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33495

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33453

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28167

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32257

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<50>,  Next: Tests<49>,  Prev: Library<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.54.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-23859(1): Document that ‘asyncio.wait()’ does not cancel its
     futures on timeout.

   - bpo-32436(2): Document PEP 567(3) changes to asyncio.

   - bpo-33604(4): Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning, bump
     removal to 3.8.

   - bpo-33503(5): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(6): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<49>,  Next: Build<49>,  Prev: Documentation<50>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.54.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33655(1): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms
     that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-32604(2): Remove the _xxsubinterpreters module (meant for
     testing) and associated helpers.  This module was originally added
     recently in 3.7b1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604


File: python.info,  Node: Build<49>,  Next: macOS<37>,  Prev: Tests<49>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.54.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-33614(1): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on
     Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33522(2): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33012(3): Add ‘-Wno-cast-function-type’ for gcc 8 for silencing
     warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
     definition lists.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<37>,  Next: IDLE<37>,  Prev: Build<49>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.54.6 macOS
...............

   - bpo-13631(1): The .editrc file in user's home directory is now
     processed correctly during the readline initialization through
     editline emulation on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<37>,  Prev: macOS<37>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.54.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33628(1): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(2): IDLE's code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-32831(3): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.55 Python 3.7.0 beta 4
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-05-02'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<54>.
* Library: Library<55>.
* Documentation: Documentation<51>.
* Tests: Tests<50>.
* Build: Build<50>.
* Windows: Windows<49>.
* macOS: macOS<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<38>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<26>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<54>,  Next: Library<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.55.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33363(1): Raise a SyntaxError for ‘async with’ and ‘async for’
     statements outside of async functions.

   - bpo-33128(2): Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on
     sys.meta_path.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   - bpo-33312(3): Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer)
     warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct
     _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

   - bpo-33231(4): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-33205(5): Change dict growth function from
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2)’ to
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*3)’.  Previously, dict is shrinked only
     when ‘used == 0’.  Now dict has more chance to be shrinked.

   - bpo-29922(6): Improved error messages in 'async with' when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(7): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33363

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33128

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33312

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33205

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199


File: python.info,  Node: Library<55>,  Next: Documentation<51>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.55.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-33281(1): Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

   - bpo-33383(2): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 32. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33329(3): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-991266(4): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 182f.

   - bpo-33131(5): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(6): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when converting
     an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with ‘line_info=False’
     and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-33266(7): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rf'...'’ strings.

   - bpo-11594(8): Ensure line-endings are respected when using lib2to3.

   - bpo-33254(9): Have *note importlib.resources.contents(): 527. and
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents(): 1830. return an
     *note iterable: 10ba. instead of an *note iterator: 1718.

   - bpo-33256(10): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33185(11): Fixed regression when running pydoc with the *note
     -m: 3d4. switch.  (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the
     resolution of bpo-33053(12)) This fix also changed pydoc to add
     ‘os.getcwd()’ to *note sys.path: 35e. when necessary, rather than
     adding ‘"."’.

   - bpo-33169(13): Delete entries of ‘None’ in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. when
     ‘importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches()’ is called.

   - bpo-33217(14): Deprecate looking up non-Enum objects in Enum
     classes and Enum members (will raise *note TypeError: 2ba. in
     3.8+).

   - bpo-33203(15): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’ for
     empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(16): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(17).  Convert an
     uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(18): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1831.

   - bpo-20104(19): Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak
     in *note os.posix_spawn(): 8a3.

   - bpo-33175(20): In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the
     __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the
     default value.

   - bpo-33097(21): Raise RuntimeError when ‘executor.submit’ is called
     during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-31908(22): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33281

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33266

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11594

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33254

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33185

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33175

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<51>,  Next: Tests<50>,  Prev: Library<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.55.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33378(1): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(2): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(3): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(4): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’ document.
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it
     is missed in the document.

   - bpo-8243(5): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-32337(6): Update documentation related with ‘dict’ order.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<50>,  Next: Build<50>,  Prev: Documentation<51>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.55.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33358(1): Fix
     ‘test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options()’ when the
     interpreter is built with ‘--enable-shared’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358


File: python.info,  Node: Build<50>,  Next: Windows<49>,  Prev: Tests<50>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.55.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-33394(1): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   - bpo-33393(2): Update config.guess and config.sub files.

   - bpo-33377(3): Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants (used
     in extension suffixes).

   - bpo-32232(4): By default, modules configured in ‘Modules/Setup’ are
     no longer built with ‘-DPy_BUILD_CORE’.  Instead, modules that
     specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their
     individual entries.

   - bpo-33182(5): The embedding tests can once again be built with
     clang 6.0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<49>,  Next: macOS<38>,  Prev: Build<50>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.55.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33184(1): Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<38>,  Next: IDLE<38>,  Prev: Windows<49>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.55.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-33184(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<38>,  Next: Tools/Demos<26>,  Prev: macOS<38>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.55.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-21474(1): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(2): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     'u' string prefix cannot be paired with either 'r' or 'f'.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<26>,  Prev: IDLE<38>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.55.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-33189(1): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(2): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(3): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-31583(4): Fix 2to3 for using with -add-suffix option but
     without -output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.56 Python 3.7.0 beta 3
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-29'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<55>.
* Library: Library<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<52>.
* Tests: Tests<51>.
* Build: Build<51>.
* Windows: Windows<50>.
* macOS: macOS<39>.
* IDLE: IDLE<39>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<27>.
* C API: C API<46>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<36>,  Next: Core and Builtins<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.56.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-33136(1): Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE 2018-8970(2).
     X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an explicit namelen.
     A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not allowed.

   - bpo-33001(3): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(4): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(5) and CVE 2018-1061(6).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<55>,  Next: Library<56>,  Prev: Security<36>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.56.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33053(1): When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now
     explicitly expanded as the 'starting' working directory, rather
     than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the
     current working directory at the time of the import)

   - bpo-33018(2): Improve consistency of errors raised by
     ‘issubclass()’ when called with a non-class and an abstract base
     class as the first and second arguments, respectively.  Patch by
     Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-33041(3): Fixed jumping when the function contains an ‘async
     for’ loop.

   - bpo-33026(4): Fixed jumping out of "with" block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-33005(5): Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory
     allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var).  _PyGILState_Reinit()
     and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory
     allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

   - bpo-17288(6): Prevent jumps from 'return' and 'exception' trace
     events.

   - bpo-32836(7): Don't use temporary variables in cases of
     list/dict/set comprehensions

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33005

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32836


File: python.info,  Node: Library<56>,  Next: Documentation<52>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.56.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-33141(1): Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to their
     default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

   - bpo-33096(2): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-32873(3): Treat type variables and special typing forms as
     immutable by copy and pickle.  This fixes several minor issues and
     inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python
     3.6.

   - bpo-33134(4): When computing dataclass's __hash__, use the lookup
     table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value.
     This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing
     that string to see what to do.

   - bpo-33127(5): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-32505(6): Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass
     is of type Field, but doesn't have a type annotation.

   - bpo-33078(7): Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying on
     sem_getvalue

   - bpo-33116(8): Add 'Field' to dataclasses.__all__.

   - bpo-32896(9): Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a
     field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect
     class.

   - bpo-33100(10): Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that's a
     MemberDescriptorType, then it's from that field being in __slots__,
     not an actual default value.

   - bpo-32953(11): If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen dataclass,
     allow attributes to be added to the derived class.  Only attributes
     from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to.  Require all
     dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or all
     non-frozen.

   - bpo-33061(12): Add missing ‘NoReturn’ to ‘__all__’ in typing.py

   - bpo-33078(13): Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when
     a pickling error occurs.

   - bpo-33064(14): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-33056(15): FIX properly close leaking fds in
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

   - bpo-33021(16): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-31804(17): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33037(18): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-27683(19): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 7a. that result
     of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
     containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-32999(20): Fix C implementation of ‘ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls,
     subclass)’ crashed when ‘subclass’ is not a type object.

   - bpo-33009(21): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(22): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32056(23): Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of
     channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules *note
     aifc: 5, *note wave: 10e. and *note sunau: d1.

   - bpo-32844(24): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-32857(25): In *note tkinter: ea, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 183. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31639(26): http.server now exposes a ThreadedHTTPServer class
     and uses it when the module is run with ‘-m’ to cope with web
     browsers pre-opening sockets.

   - bpo-27645(27): *note sqlite3.Connection: 1dc. now exposes a *note
     backup: 9d7. method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version
     3.6.11 or higher.  Patch by Lele Gaifax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33141

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32873

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33134

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32505

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33116

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32896

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33100

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32953

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33061

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33056

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32999

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32056

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<52>,  Next: Tests<51>,  Prev: Library<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.56.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33126(1): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(2): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(3): Update *note zipapp: 12a. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(4): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(5): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<51>,  Next: Build<51>,  Prev: Documentation<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.56.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32872(1): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   - bpo-32517(2): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-19417(3): Add test_bdb.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417


File: python.info,  Node: Build<51>,  Next: Windows<50>,  Prev: Tests<51>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.56.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-33163(1): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<50>,  Next: macOS<39>,  Prev: Build<51>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.56.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33016(1): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(2): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<39>,  Next: IDLE<39>,  Prev: Windows<50>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.56.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for
     the macOS 10.6+ installer.  The 10.9+ installer variant already
     does this.  This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the
     python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external
     versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such
     as ActiveTcl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<39>,  Next: Tools/Demos<27>,  Prev: macOS<39>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.56.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32984(1): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e5a.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(2): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<27>,  Next: C API<46>,  Prev: IDLE<39>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.56.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-32885(1): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885


File: python.info,  Node: C API<46>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<27>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.56.11 C API
................

   - bpo-33042(1): Embedding applications may once again call
     PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption
     prior to calling Py_Initialize.

   - bpo-32374(2): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.57 Python 3.7.0 beta 2
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-02-27'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<56>.
* Library: Library<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<53>.
* Tests: Tests<52>.
* Build: Build<52>.
* Windows: Windows<51>.
* macOS: macOS<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<40>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<28>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<37>,  Next: Core and Builtins<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.57.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-28414(1): The ssl module now allows users to perform their own
     IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<56>,  Next: Library<57>,  Prev: Security<37>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.57.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32889(1): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-31356(2): Remove the new API added in bpo-31356(3)
     (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

   - bpo-32305(4): For namespace packages, ensure that both ‘__file__’
     and ‘__spec__.origin’ are set to None.

   - bpo-32303(5): Make sure ‘__spec__.loader’ matches ‘__loader__’ for
     namespace packages.

   - bpo-32711(6): Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c.
     Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32583(7): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32711

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583


File: python.info,  Node: Library<57>,  Next: Documentation<53>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.57.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-32960(1): For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from
     non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from
     frozen classes.  This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

   - bpo-32713(2): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-32951(3): Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject
     objects is now prohibited.  The constructors were never documented,
     tested, or designed as public constructors.  Users were suppose to
     use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

   - bpo-32929(4): Remove the tri-state parameter "hash", and add the
     boolean "unsafe_hash".  If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__
     function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError.  If
     unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and
     frozen=.  The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old
     hash=None behavior.  unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as
     hash=None used to be.

   - bpo-32947(5): Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround
     for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

   - bpo-30622(6): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(7): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32859(8): In ‘os.dup2’, don't check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-32556(9): nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and
     nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

   - bpo-25988(10): Emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 179. when using or
     importing an ABC directly from *note collections: 1b. rather than
     from *note collections.abc: 1c.

   - bpo-21060(11): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     "No dist file created in earlier command" to the more helpful "Must
     create and upload files in one command".

   - bpo-32852(12): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-31333(13): ‘_abc’ module is added.  It is a speedup module with
     C implementations for various functions and methods in ‘abc’.
     Creating an ABC subclass and calling ‘isinstance’ or ‘issubclass’
     with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster.  In addition, this
     makes Python start-up up to 10% faster.  Note that the new
     implementation hides internal registry and caches, previously
     accessible via private attributes ‘_abc_registry’, ‘_abc_cache’,
     and ‘_abc_negative_cache’.  There are three debugging helper
     methods that can be used instead ‘_dump_registry’,
     ‘_abc_registry_clear’, and ‘_abc_caches_clear’.

   - bpo-32841(14): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32819(15): ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no
     longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP
     addresses.  Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been
     improved.

   - bpo-32394(16): socket: Remove
     TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older
     version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-31787(17): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(18): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-32792(19): collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.

   - bpo-32775(20): *note fnmatch.translate(): 1832. no longer produces
     patterns which contain set operations.  Sets starting with '[' or
     containing '-', '&&', '~~' or '||' will be interpreted differently
     in regular expressions in future versions.  Currently they emit
     warnings.  fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns
     containing such sets by accident.

   - bpo-32622(21): Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor
     event loop.

   - bpo-32777(22): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(23): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking
     for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked against
     libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32741(24): Implement ‘asyncio.TimerHandle.when()’ method.

   - bpo-32691(25): Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

   - bpo-32734(26): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(27): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31453(28): Add TLSVersion constants and
     SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes.  The new
     API wraps OpenSSL 1.1
     ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html’
     feature.

   - bpo-24334(29): Internal implementation details of ssl module were
     cleaned up.  The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection.
     Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and
     SSLObject constructor.  Channel binding implementation has been
     simplified.

   - bpo-31848(30): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32585(31): Add Ttk spinbox widget to *note tkinter.ttk: f4.
     Patch by Alan D Moore.

   - bpo-32221(32): Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6
     addresses now omit ‘%scope’ part since the same information is
     already encoded in 'scopeid' tuple item.  Especially this speeds up
     ‘socket.recvfrom()’ when it receives multicast packet since useless
     resolving of network interface name is omitted.

   - bpo-30693(33): The TarFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-30693(34): The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32960

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32929

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32556

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32819

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32775

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32691

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31453

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24334

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32221

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<53>,  Next: Tests<52>,  Prev: Library<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.57.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28124(1): The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been
     de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and
     efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

   - bpo-17232(2): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32436(3): Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP
     567).

   - bpo-32800(4): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-11015(5): Update *note test.support: de. documentation.

   - bpo-8722(6): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 3ca.

   - bpo-32614(7): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 179. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-31972(8): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’ subclasses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<52>,  Next: Build<52>,  Prev: Documentation<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.57.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31809(1): Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH curves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809


File: python.info,  Node: Build<52>,  Next: Windows<51>,  Prev: Tests<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.57.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-32898(1): Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<51>,  Next: macOS<40>,  Prev: Build<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.57.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-32901(1): Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

   - bpo-31966(2): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(3): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(4): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(5): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(6): Fix *note os.readlink(): 75e. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<40>,  Next: IDLE<40>,  Prev: Windows<51>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.57.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32901(1): Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<40>,  Next: Tools/Demos<28>,  Prev: macOS<40>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.57.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32916(1): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(2): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(3): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(4): Using the system and place-dependent default encoding
     for open() is a bad idea for IDLE's system and location-independent
     files.

   - bpo-32826(5): Add "encoding=utf-8" to open() in IDLE's
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to 'ascii' because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32765(6): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<28>,  Prev: IDLE<40>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.57.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-32222(1): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions
     with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.58 Python 3.7.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-30'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<57>.
* Library: Library<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<54>.
* Tests: Tests<53>.
* Build: Build<53>.
* Windows: Windows<52>.
* macOS: macOS<41>.
* C API: C API<47>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<57>,  Next: Library<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.58.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32703(1): Fix coroutine's ResourceWarning when there's an
     active error set when it's being finalized.

   - bpo-32650(2): Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will
     correctly step over (next command) native coroutines.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-28685(3): Optimize list.sort() and sorted() by using type
     specialized comparisons when possible.

   - bpo-32685(4): Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print
     statement is either present on the same line as the header of a
     compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a
     newline.  Patch by Nitish Chandra.

   - bpo-32697(5): Python now explicitly preserves the definition order
     of keyword-only parameters.  It's always preserved their order, but
     this behavior was never guaranteed before; this behavior is now
     guaranteed and tested.

   - bpo-32690(6): The locals() dictionary now displays in the lexical
     order that variables were defined.  Previously, the order was
     reversed.

   - bpo-32677(7): Add ‘.isascii()’ method to ‘str’, ‘bytes’ and
     ‘bytearray’.  It can be used to test that string contains only
     ASCII characters.

   - bpo-32670(8): Enforce PEP 479(9) for all code.  This means that
     manually raising a StopIteration exception from a generator is
     prohibited for all code, regardless of whether 'from __future__
     import generator_stop' was used or not.

   - bpo-32591(10): Added built-in support for tracking the origin of
     coroutine objects; see sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth and
     CoroutineType.cr_origin.  This replaces the asyncio debug mode's
     use of coroutine wrapping for native coroutine objects.

   - bpo-31368(11): Expose preadv and pwritev system calls in the os
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-32544(12): ‘hasattr(obj, name)’ and ‘getattr(obj, name,
     default)’ are about 4 times faster than before when ‘name’ is not
     found and ‘obj’ doesn't override ‘__getattr__’ or
     ‘__getattribute__’.

   - bpo-26163(13): Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct
     hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar
     values.

   - bpo-32550(14): Remove the STORE_ANNOTATION bytecode.

   - bpo-20104(15): Expose posix_spawn as a low level API in the os
     module.  (removed before 3.7.0rc1)

   - bpo-24340(16): Fixed estimation of the code stack size.

   - bpo-32436(17): Implement PEP 567(18) Context Variables.

   - bpo-18533(19): ‘repr()’ on a dict containing its own ‘values()’ or
     ‘items()’ no longer raises ‘RecursionError’; OrderedDict similarly.
     Instead, use ‘...’, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by
     Ben North.

   - bpo-20891(20): Py_Initialize() now creates the GIL. The GIL is no
     longer created "on demand" to fix a race condition when
     PyGILState_Ensure() is called in a non-Python thread.

   - bpo-32028(21): Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when
     generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3
     builtin print function calls.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31179(22): Make dict.copy() up to 5.5 times faster.

   - bpo-31113(23): Get rid of recursion in the compiler for normal
     control flow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32703

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32697

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24340

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31113


File: python.info,  Node: Library<58>,  Next: Documentation<54>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.58.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-25988(1): Deprecate exposing the contents of collections.abc in
     the regular collections module.

   - bpo-31429(2): The default cipher suite selection of the ssl module
     now uses a blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist.
     Python no longer re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by
     OpenSSL security update.  Default cipher suite selection can be
     configured on compile time.

   - bpo-30306(3): contextlib.contextmanager now releases the arguments
     passed to the underlying generator as soon as the context manager
     is entered.  Previously it would keep them alive for as long as the
     context manager was alive, even when not being used as a function
     decorator.  Patch by Martin Teichmann.

   - bpo-21417(4): Added support for setting the compression level for
     zipfile.ZipFile.

   - bpo-32251(5): Implement asyncio.BufferedProtocol (provisional API).

   - bpo-32513(6): In dataclasses, allow easier overriding of dunder
     methods without specifying decorator parameters.

   - bpo-32660(7): *note termios: db. makes available ‘FIONREAD’,
     ‘FIONCLEX’, ‘FIOCLEX’, ‘FIOASYNC’ and ‘FIONBIO’ also under
     Solaris/derivatives.

   - bpo-27931(8): Fix email address header parsing error when the
     username is an empty quoted string.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-32659(9): Under Solaris and derivatives, *note os.stat_result:
     1334. provides a st_fstype attribute.

   - bpo-32662(10): Implement Server.start_serving(),
     Server.serve_forever(), and Server.is_serving() methods.  Add
     'start_serving' keyword parameter to loop.create_server() and
     loop.create_unix_server().

   - bpo-32391(11): Implement *note asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed():
     961. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing(): 962. methods

   - bpo-32643(12): Make Task._step, Task._wakeup and
     Future._schedule_callbacks methods private.

   - bpo-32630(13): Refactor decimal module to use contextvars to store
     decimal context.

   - bpo-32622(14): Add ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.sendfile()’ method.

   - bpo-32304(15): distutils' upload command no longer corrupts tar
     files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to
     CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

   - bpo-32502(16): uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit
     hardware address is encountered.

   - bpo-32596(17): ‘concurrent.futures’ imports ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’
     and ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ lazily (using PEP 562(18)).  It makes
     ‘import asyncio’ about 15% faster because asyncio uses only
     ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ by default.

   - bpo-31801(19): Add ‘_ignore_’ to ‘Enum’ so temporary variables can
     be used during class construction without being turned into
     members.

   - bpo-32576(20): Use queue.SimpleQueue() in places where it can be
     invoked from a weakref callback.

   - bpo-32574(21): Fix memory leak in asyncio.Queue, when the queue has
     limited size and it is full, the cancelation of queue.put() can
     cause a memory leak.  Patch by: José Melero.

   - bpo-32521(22): The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and
     headers location.

   - bpo-32467(23): collections.abc.ValuesView now inherits from
     collections.abc.Collection.

   - bpo-32473(24): Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

   - bpo-32102(25): New argument ‘capture_output’ for subprocess.run

   - bpo-32521(26): glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc
     headers and library in nis module.

   - bpo-32493(27): UUID module fixes build for FreeBSD/OpenBSD

   - bpo-32503(28): Pickling with protocol 4 no longer creates too small
     frames.

   - bpo-29237(29): Create enum for pstats sorting options

   - bpo-32454(30): Add close(fd) function to the socket module.

   - bpo-25942(31): The subprocess module is now more graceful when
     handling a Ctrl-C KeyboardInterrupt during subprocess.call,
     subprocess.run, or a Popen context manager.  It now waits a short
     amount of time for the child (presumed to have also gotten the
     SIGINT) to exit, before continuing the KeyboardInterrupt exception
     handling.  This still includes a SIGKILL in the call() and run()
     APIs, but at least the child had a chance first.

   - bpo-32433(32): The hmac module now has hmac.digest(), which
     provides an optimized HMAC digest.

   - bpo-28134(33): Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol
     from file descriptor by default.

   - bpo-32404(34): Fix bug where *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 228. did not call __new__ in
     *note datetime.datetime: 224. subclasses.

   - bpo-32403(35): Improved speed of *note datetime.date: 72f. and
     *note datetime.datetime: 224. alternate constructors.

   - bpo-32228(36): Ensure that ‘truncate()’ preserves the file position
     (as reported by ‘tell()’) after writes longer than the buffer size.

   - bpo-32410(37): Implement ‘loop.sock_sendfile’ for asyncio event
     loop.

   - bpo-22908(38): Added seek and tell to the ZipExtFile class.  This
     only works if the file object used to open the zipfile is seekable.

   - bpo-32373(39): Add socket.getblocking() method.

   - bpo-32248(40): Add *note importlib.resources: 75. and *note
     importlib.abc.ResourceReader: 952. as the unified API for reading
     resources contained within packages.  Loaders wishing to support
     resource reading must implement the ‘get_resource_reader()’ method.
     File-based and zipimport-based loaders both implement these APIs.
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: a49. is deprecated in favor of
     these new APIs.

   - bpo-32320(41): collections.namedtuple() now supports default
     values.

   - bpo-29302(42): Add contextlib.AsyncExitStack.  Patch by Alexander
     Mohr and Ilya Kulakov.

   - bpo-31961(43): 'Removed in Python 3.7.0b2.'  The 'args' argument of
     subprocess.Popen can now be a *note path-like object: 975.  If
     'args' is given as a sequence, it's first element can now be a
     *note path-like object: 975. as well.

   - bpo-31900(44): The *note locale.localeconv(): a61. function now
     sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale
     to decode ‘decimal_point’ and ‘thousands_sep’ byte strings if they
     are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale is
     different than the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale.  This temporary change
     affects other threads.  Same change for the *note str.format():
     41b. method when formatting a number (*note int: 17e, *note float:
     26a, *note float: 26a. and subclasses) with the ‘n’ type (ex:
     ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’).

   - bpo-31853(45): Use super().method instead of socket.method in
     SSLSocket.  They were there most likely for legacy reasons.

   - bpo-31399(46): The ssl module now uses OpenSSL's
     X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() and X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_ip() API
     to verify hostname and IP addresses.  Subject common name fallback
     can be disabled with SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name.

   - bpo-14976(47): Add a queue.SimpleQueue class, an unbounded FIFO
     queue with a reentrant C implementation of put().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30306

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32513

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32660

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32643

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32596

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32576

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32574

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32467

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32503

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29237

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32404

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22908

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31961

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31853

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<54>,  Next: Tests<53>,  Prev: Library<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.58.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32724(1): Add references to some commands in the documentation
     of Pdb.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32649(2): Complete the C API documentation, profiling and
     tracing part with the newly added per-opcode events.

   - bpo-17799(3): Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and
     sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of
     events are received in each function.  Patch by Pablo Galindo
     Salgado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32724

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<53>,  Next: Build<53>,  Prev: Documentation<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.58.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32721(1): Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is
     not built.

   - bpo-28414(2): Add test cases for IDNA 2003 and 2008 host names.
     IDNA 2003 internationalized host names are working since
     bpo-31399(3) has landed.  IDNA 2008 are still broken.

   - bpo-32604(4): Add a new "_xxsubinterpreters" extension module that
     exposes the existing subinterpreter C-API and a new
     cross-interpreter data sharing mechanism.  The module is primarily
     intended for more thorough testing of the existing subinterpreter
     support.  Note that the _xxsubinterpreters module has been removed
     in 3.7.0rc1.

   - bpo-32602(5): Add test certs and test for ECDSA cert and EC/RSA
     dual mode.

   - bpo-32549(6): On Travis CI, Python now Compiles and uses a local
     copy of OpenSSL 1.1.0g for testing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32602

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32549


File: python.info,  Node: Build<53>,  Next: Windows<52>,  Prev: Tests<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.58.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-32635(1): Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is
     provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

   - bpo-32598(2): Use autoconf to detect OpenSSL libs, headers and
     supported features.  The ax_check_openssl M4 macro uses pkg-config
     to locate OpenSSL and falls back to manual search.

   - bpo-32593(3): Drop support of FreeBSD 9 and older.

   - bpo-29708(4): If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is
     set, *note py_compile: ae. will always create hash-based ‘.pyc’
     files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32598

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<52>,  Next: macOS<41>,  Prev: Build<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.58.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-32588(1): Create standalone _distutils_findvs module and add
     missing _queue module to installer.

   - bpo-29911(2): Ensure separate Modify and Uninstall buttons are
     displayed.

   - bpo-32507(3): Use app-local UCRT install rather than the proper
     update for old versions of Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29911

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32507


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<41>,  Next: C API<47>,  Prev: Windows<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.58.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer
     variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only.
     Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.1.0g and to
     SQLite 3.22.0.  The 10.9+ installer now links with and supplies its
     own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.

   - bpo-28440(2): No longer add /Library/Python/3.x/site-packages to
     sys.path for macOS framework builds to avoid future conflicts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440


File: python.info,  Node: C API<47>,  Prev: macOS<41>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.58.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-32681(1): Fix uninitialized variable 'res' in the C
     implementation of os.dup2.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-10381(2): Add C API access to the ‘datetime.timezone’
     constructor and ‘datetime.timzone.UTC’ singleton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32681

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.59 Python 3.7.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<58>.
* Library: Library<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<55>.
* Tests: Tests<54>.
* Windows: Windows<53>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<29>.
* C API: C API<48>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<58>,  Next: Library<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.59.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31975(1): The default warning filter list now starts with a
     "default::DeprecationWarning:__main__" entry, so deprecation
     warnings are once again shown by default in single-file scripts and
     at the interactive prompt.

   - bpo-32226(2): ‘__class_getitem__’ is now an automatic class method.

   - bpo-32399(3): Add AIX uuid library support for RFC4122 using
     uuid_create() in libc.a

   - bpo-32390(4): Fix the compilation failure on AIX after the f_fsid
     field has been added to the object returned by os.statvfs()
     (bpo-32143(5)).  Original patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-32379(6): Make MRO computation faster when a class inherits
     from a single base.

   - bpo-32259(7): The error message of a TypeError raised when unpack
     non-iterable is now more specific.

   - bpo-27169(8): The ‘__debug__’ constant is now optimized out at
     compile time.  This fixes also bpo-22091(9).

   - bpo-32329(10): The *note -R: 1885. option now turns on hash
     randomization when the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f13. environment
     variable is set to ‘0’.  Previously, the option was ignored.
     Moreover, ‘sys.flags.hash_randomization’ is now properly set to 0
     when hash randomization is turned off by ‘PYTHONHASHSEED=0’.

   - bpo-30416(11): The optimizer is now protected from spending much
     time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for
     creating large constants in constant folding.  Increased limits for
     constants that can be produced in constant folding.

   - bpo-32282(12): Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of
     VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

   - bpo-30579(13): Implement TracebackType.__new__ to allow
     Python-level creation of traceback objects, and make
     TracebackType.tb_next mutable.

   - bpo-32260(14): Don't byte swap the input keys to the SipHash
     algorithm on big-endian platforms.  This should ensure siphash
     gives consistent results across platforms.

   - bpo-31506(15): Improve the error message logic for object.__new__
     and object.__init__.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-20361(16): ‘-b’ and ‘-bb’ now inject ‘'default::BytesWarning'’
     and ‘error::BytesWarning’ entries into ‘sys.warnoptions’, ensuring
     that they take precedence over any other warning filters configured
     via the ‘-W’ option or the ‘PYTHONWARNINGS’ environment variable.

   - bpo-32230(17): ‘-X dev’ now injects a ‘'default'’ entry into
     sys.warnoptions, ensuring that it behaves identically to actually
     passing ‘-Wdefault’ at the command line.

   - bpo-29240(18): Add a new UTF-8 mode: implementation of the PEP
     540(19).

   - bpo-32226(20): PEP 560(21): Add support for ‘__mro_entries__’ and
     ‘__class_getitem__’.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-32225(22): PEP 562(23): Add support for module ‘__getattr__’
     and ‘__dir__’.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-31901(24): The ‘atexit’ module now has its callback stored per
     interpreter.

   - bpo-31650(25): Implement PEP 552(26) (Deterministic pycs).  Python
     now supports invalidating bytecode cache files bashed on a source
     content hash rather than source last-modified time.

   - bpo-29469(27): Move constant folding from bytecode layer to AST
     layer.  Original patch by Eugene Toder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32399

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32390

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32379

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32259

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32260

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32225

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31901

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469


File: python.info,  Node: Library<59>,  Next: Documentation<55>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.59.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-32506(1): Now that dict is defined as keeping insertion order,
     drop OrderedDict and just use plain dict.

   - bpo-32279(2): Add params to dataclasses.make_dataclasses(): init,
     repr, eq, order, hash, and frozen.  Pass them through to
     dataclass().

   - bpo-32278(3): Make type information optional on
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().  If omitted, the string 'typing.Any'
     is used.

   - bpo-32499(4): Add dataclasses.is_dataclass(obj), which returns True
     if obj is a dataclass or an instance of one.

   - bpo-32468(5): Improve frame repr() to mention filename, code name
     and current line number.

   - bpo-23749(6): asyncio: Implement loop.start_tls()

   - bpo-32441(7): Return the new file descriptor (i.e., the second
     argument) from ‘os.dup2’.  Previously, ‘None’ was always returned.

   - bpo-32422(8): ‘functools.lru_cache’ uses less memory (3 words for
     each cached key) and takes about 1/3 time for cyclic GC.

   - bpo-31721(9): Prevent Python crash from happening when
     Future._log_traceback is set to True manually.  Now it can only be
     set to False, or a ValueError is raised.

   - bpo-32415(10): asyncio: Add Task.get_loop() and Future.get_loop()

   - bpo-26133(11): Don't unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop
     on interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32363(12): Make asyncio.Task.set_exception() and set_result()
     raise NotImplementedError.  Task._step() and Future.__await__()
     raise proper exceptions when they are in an invalid state, instead
     of raising an AssertionError.

   - bpo-32357(13): Optimize asyncio.iscoroutine() and
     loop.create_task() for non-native coroutines (e.g.  async/await
     compiled with Cython).  'loop.create_task(python_coroutine)' used
     to be 20% faster than 'loop.create_task(cython_coroutine)'.  Now,
     the latter is as fast.

   - bpo-32356(14): asyncio.transport.resume_reading() and
     pause_reading() are now idempotent.  New transport.is_reading()
     method is added.

   - bpo-32355(15): Optimize asyncio.gather(); now up to 15% faster.

   - bpo-32351(16): Use fastpath in asyncio.sleep if delay<0 (2x boost)

   - bpo-32348(17): Optimize asyncio.Future schedule/add/remove
     callback.  The optimization shows 3-6% performance improvements of
     async/await code.

   - bpo-32331(18): Fix socket.settimeout() and socket.setblocking() to
     keep socket.type as is.  Fix socket.socket() constructor to reset
     any bit flags applied to socket's type.  This change only affects
     OSes that have SOCK_NONBLOCK and/or SOCK_CLOEXEC.

   - bpo-32248(19): Add *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: 952. as an
     ABC for loaders to provide a unified API for reading resources
     contained within packages.  Also add *note importlib.resources: 75.
     as the port of ‘importlib_resources’.

   - bpo-32311(20): Implement asyncio.create_task(coro) shortcut

   - bpo-32327(21): Convert asyncio functions that were documented as
     coroutines to coroutines.  Affected functions: loop.sock_sendall,
     loop.sock_recv, loop.sock_accept, loop.getaddrinfo,
     loop.getnameinfo.

   - bpo-32323(22): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): bb1. does not convert
     zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in
     hostnames now.

   - bpo-32302(23): Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it
     binary compatible with CRT v140.

   - bpo-29711(24): Fix ‘stop_serving’ in asyncio proactor loop kill all
     listening servers

   - bpo-32308(25): *note re.sub(): 201. now replaces empty matches
     adjacent to a previous non-empty match.

   - bpo-29970(26): Abort asyncio SSLProtocol connection if handshake
     not complete within 10 seconds.

   - bpo-32314(27): Implement asyncio.run().

   - bpo-17852(28): Revert incorrect fix based on misunderstanding of
     _Py_PyAtExit() semantics.

   - bpo-32296(29): Implement asyncio._get_running_loop() and
     get_event_loop() in C. This makes them 4x faster.

   - bpo-32250(30): Implement ‘asyncio.current_task()’ and
     ‘asyncio.all_tasks()’.  Add helpers intended to be used by
     alternative task implementations: ‘asyncio._register_task’,
     ‘asyncio._enter_task’, ‘asyncio._leave_task’ and
     ‘asyncio._unregister_task’.  Deprecate
     ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’.

   - bpo-32255(31): A single empty field is now always quoted when
     written into a CSV file.  This allows to distinguish an empty row
     from a row consisting of a single empty field.  Patch by Licht
     Takeuchi.

   - bpo-32277(32): Raise ‘NotImplementedError’ instead of ‘SystemError’
     on platforms where ‘chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False)’ is not
     supported.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-30050(33): New argument warn_on_full_buffer to
     signal.set_wakeup_fd lets you control whether Python prints a
     warning on stderr when the wakeup fd buffer overflows.

   - bpo-29137(34): The ‘fpectl’ library has been removed.  It was never
     enabled by default, never worked correctly on x86-64, and it
     changed the Python ABI in ways that caused unexpected breakage of C
     extensions.

   - bpo-32273(35): Move asyncio.test_utils to test.test_asyncio.

   - bpo-32272(36): Remove asyncio.async() function.

   - bpo-32269(37): Add asyncio.get_running_loop() function.

   - bpo-32265(38): All class and static methods of builtin types now
     are correctly classified by inspect.classify_class_attrs() and
     grouped in pydoc ouput.  Added types.ClassMethodDescriptorType for
     unbound class methods of builtin types.

   - bpo-32253(39): Deprecate ‘yield from lock’, ‘await lock’, ‘with
     (yield from lock)’ and ‘with await lock’ for asyncio
     synchronization primitives.

   - bpo-22589(40): Changed MIME type of .bmp from 'image/x-ms-bmp' to
     'image/bmp'

   - bpo-32193(41): Convert asyncio to use 'async/await' syntax.  Old
     styled ‘yield from’ is still supported too.

   - bpo-32206(42): Add support to run modules with pdb

   - bpo-32227(43): ‘functools.singledispatch’ now supports registering
     implementations using type annotations.

   - bpo-15873(44): Added new alternate constructors *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 410, *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 40f. and *note
     datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 40e. as the inverse operation of
     each classes's respective ‘isoformat’ methods.

   - bpo-32199(45): The getnode() ip getter now uses 'ip link' instead
     of 'ip link list'.

   - bpo-32143(46): os.statvfs() includes the f_fsid field from
     statvfs(2)

   - bpo-26439(47): Fix ctypes.util.find_library() for AIX by
     implementing ctypes._aix.find_library() Patch by: Michael Felt

   - bpo-31993(48): The pickler now uses less memory when serializing
     large bytes and str objects into a file.  Pickles created with
     protocol 4 will require less memory for unpickling large bytes and
     str objects.

   - bpo-27456(49): Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux.  Tests by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-31778(50): ast.literal_eval() is now more strict.  Addition and
     subtraction of arbitrary numbers no longer allowed.

   - bpo-31802(51): Importing native path module (‘posixpath’, ‘ntpath’)
     now works even if the ‘os’ module still is not imported.

   - bpo-30241(52): Add contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-31699(53): Fix deadlocks in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. when task arguments or
     results cause pickling or unpickling errors.  This should make sure
     that calls to the ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ API always eventually
     return.

   - bpo-15216(54): ‘TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()’ supports changing
     'encoding', 'errors', and 'newline'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32506

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32279

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32278

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32499

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32422

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31721

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32363

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32357

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29711

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32273

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32272

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26439

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31993

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31699

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<55>,  Next: Tests<54>,  Prev: Library<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.59.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32418(1): Add get_loop() method to Server and AbstractServer
     classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<54>,  Next: Windows<53>,  Prev: Documentation<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.59.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32252(1): Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to
     prevent core dump files when testing crashes.  getrlimit() returns
     zero on success.

   - bpo-32002(2): Adjust C locale coercion testing for the empty locale
     and POSIX locale cases to more readily adjust to platform dependent
     behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32002


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<53>,  Next: Tools/Demos<29>,  Prev: Tests<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.59.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-19764(1): Implement support for
     ‘subprocess.Popen(close_fds=True)’ on Windows.  Patch by Segev
     Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<29>,  Next: C API<48>,  Prev: Windows<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.59.6 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-24960(1): 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files
     using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem.  This
     lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960


File: python.info,  Node: C API<48>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<29>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.59.7 C API
...............

   - bpo-32030(1): Py_Initialize() doesn't reset the memory allocators
     to default if the ‘PYTHONMALLOC’ environment variable is not set.

   - bpo-29084(2): Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded
     from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never
     worked in the limited C API.

   - bpo-32264(3): Moved the pygetopt.h header into internal/, since it
     has no public APIs.

   - bpo-32241(4): *note Py_SetProgramName(): 188c. and *note
     Py_SetPythonHome(): 188d. now take the ‘const wchar *’ arguments
     instead of ‘wchar *’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32030

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32264

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32241


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.60 Python 3.7.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<59>.
* Library: Library<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<56>.
* Tests: Tests<55>.
* Build: Build<54>.
* Windows: Windows<54>.
* macOS: macOS<42>.
* IDLE: IDLE<41>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<30>.
* C API: C API<49>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<59>,  Next: Library<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.60.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32176(1): co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the
     code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than
     needing to be set correctly by the caller.  This ensures it will be
     cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected
     into a modified code object and function.

   - bpo-10544(2): Yield expressions are now deprecated in
     comprehensions and generator expressions.  They are still permitted
     in the definition of the outermost iterable, as that is evaluated
     directly in the enclosing scope.

   - bpo-32137(3): The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a
     RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

   - bpo-32096(4): Revert memory allocator changes in the C API: move
     structures back from _PyRuntime to Objects/obmalloc.c.  The memory
     allocators are once again initialized statically, and so
     PyMem_RawMalloc() and Py_DecodeLocale() can be called before
     _PyRuntime_Initialize().

   - bpo-32043(5): Add a new "developer mode": new "-X dev" command line
     option to enable debug checks at runtime.

   - bpo-32023(6): SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator
     expression without parenthesis is used instead of an inheritance
     list in a class definition.  The duplication of the parentheses can
     be omitted only on calls.

   - bpo-32012(7): SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator
     expression without parenthesis is passed as an argument, but
     followed by a trailing comma.  A generator expression always needs
     to be directly inside a set of parentheses and cannot have a comma
     on either side.

   - bpo-28180(8): A new internal ‘_Py_SetLocaleFromEnv(category)’
     helper function has been added in order to improve the consistency
     of behaviour across different ‘libc’ implementations (e.g.  Android
     doesn't support setting the locale from the environment by
     default).

   - bpo-31949(9): Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
     (PyTraceBack_Print()).  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now
     suppresses printing tracebacks.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None
     now causes using the default limit.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to
     an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX
     rather than the default limit.  Fixed integer overflows in the case
     of more than ‘2**31’ traceback items on Windows.  Fixed output
     errors handling.

   - bpo-30696(10): Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly
     when no memory.

   - bpo-20047(11): Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now
     accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In
     particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus
     result when an integer is passed as a separator.

   - bpo-21720(12): BytesWarning no longer emitted when the 'fromlist'
     argument of ‘__import__()’ or the ‘__all__’ attribute of the module
     contain bytes instances.

   - bpo-31845(13): Environment variables are once more read correctly
     at interpreter startup.

   - bpo-28936(14): Ensure that lexically first syntax error involving a
     parameter and ‘global’ or ‘nonlocal’ is detected first at a given
     scope.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-31825(15): Fixed OverflowError in the 'unicode-escape' codec
     and in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii
     byte.

   - bpo-31618(16): The per-frame tracing logic added in 3.7a1 has been
     altered so that ‘frame->f_lineno’ is updated before either ‘"line"’
     or ‘"opcode"’ events are emitted.  Previously, opcode events were
     emitted first, and therefore would occasionally see stale line
     numbers on the frame.  The behavior of this feature has changed
     slightly as a result: when both ‘f_trace_lines’ and
     ‘f_trace_opcodes’ are enabled, line events now occur first.

   - bpo-28603(17): Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on
     interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable
     or compares equal to later ones.  Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-31786(18): Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31781(19): Prevent crashes when calling methods of an
     uninitialized ‘zipimport.zipimporter’ object.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-30399(20): Standard repr() of BaseException with a single
     argument no longer contains redundant trailing comma.

   - bpo-31626(21): Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a
     write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

   - bpo-30817(22): ‘PyErr_PrintEx()’ clears now the ignored exception
     that may be raised by ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’, for example when no
     memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32096

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28180

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31845

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28936

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31618

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31781

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817


File: python.info,  Node: Library<60>,  Next: Documentation<56>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.60.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28556(1): Two minor fixes for ‘typing’ module: allow shallow
     copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of
     ‘__init_subclass__’ with generics.  Original PRs by Ivan
     Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-32214(2): PEP 557, Data Classes.  Provides a decorator which
     adds boilerplate methods to classes which use type annotations so
     specify fields.

   - bpo-27240(3): The header folding algorithm for the new email
     policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788(4),
     bpo-31831(5), and bpo-32182(6).  In particular, RFC2231 folding is
     now done correctly.

   - bpo-32186(7): io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release
     the GIL when getting the file size.  Fixed hang of all threads with
     inaccessible NFS server.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-32101(8): Add *note sys.flags.dev_mode: 1891. flag

   - bpo-32154(9): The ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ function has
     been removed: use directly *note socket.socketpair(): a58. which is
     available on all platforms since Python 3.5 (before, it wasn't
     available on Windows).  ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ was
     just an alias to ‘socket.socketpair’ on Python 3.5 and newer.

   - bpo-32089(10): warnings: In development (-X dev) and debug mode
     (pydebug build), use the "default" action for ResourceWarning,
     rather than the "always" action, in the default warnings filters.

   - bpo-32107(11): ‘uuid.getnode()’ now preferentially returns
     universally administered MAC addresses if available, over locally
     administered MAC addresses.  This makes a better guarantee for
     global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from ‘uuid.uuid1()’.  If only
     locally administered MAC addresses are available, the first such
     one found is returned.

   - bpo-23033(12): Wildcard is now supported in hostname when it is one
     and only character in the left most segment of hostname in second
     argument of ‘ssl.match_hostname()’.  Patch by Mandeep Singh.

   - bpo-12239(13): Make *note msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty():
     17ce. return ‘None’ when the value of property is ‘VT_EMPTY’.
     Initial patch by Mark Mc Mahon.

   - bpo-28334(14): Use *note os.path.expanduser(): 85b. to find the
     ‘~/.netrc’ file in *note netrc.netrc: 1695.  If it does not exist,
     *note FileNotFoundError: d46. is raised.  Patch by Dimitri
     Merejkowsky.

   - bpo-32121(15): Made ‘tracemalloc.Traceback’ behave more like the
     traceback module, sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.
     ‘Traceback.format()’ now accepts negative 'limit', truncating the
     result to the ‘abs(limit)’ oldest frames.  To get the old
     behaviour, one can use the new 'most_recent_first' argument to
     ‘Traceback.format()’.  (Patch by Jesse Bakker.)

   - bpo-31325(16): Fix wrong usage of *note collections.namedtuple():
     731. in the *note RobotFileParser.parse(): 1892. method.  Initial
     patch by Robin Wellner.

   - bpo-12382(17): *note msilib.OpenDatabase(): 1726. now raises a
     better exception message when it couldn't open or create an MSI
     file.  Initial patch by William Tisäter.

   - bpo-19610(18): ‘setup()’ now warns about invalid types for some
     fields.  The ‘distutils.dist.Distribution’ class now warns when
     ‘classifiers’, ‘keywords’ and ‘platforms’ fields are not specified
     as a list or a string.

   - bpo-32071(19): Added the ‘-k’ command-line option to ‘python -m
     unittest’ to run only tests that match the given pattern(s).

   - bpo-10049(20): Added 'nullcontext' no-op context manager to
     contextlib.  This provides a simpler and faster alternative to
     ExitStack() when handling optional context managers.

   - bpo-28684(21): The new test.support.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket()
     decorator is used here to skip asyncio tests that fail because the
     platform lacks a functional bind() function for unix domain sockets
     (as it is the case for non root users on the recent Android
     versions that run now SELinux in enforcing mode).

   - bpo-32110(22): ‘codecs.StreamReader.read(n)’ now returns not more
     than 'n' characters/bytes for non-negative 'n'.  This makes it
     compatible with ‘read()’ methods of other file-like objects.

   - bpo-27535(23): The warnings module doesn't leak memory anymore in
     the hidden warnings registry for the "ignore" action of warnings
     filters.  warn_explicit() function doesn't add the warning key to
     the registry anymore for the "ignore" action.

   - bpo-32088(24): warnings: When Python is build is debug mode
     (‘Py_DEBUG’), *note DeprecationWarning: 179, *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 700. and *note ImportWarning: 247.
     warnings are now displayed by default.

   - bpo-1647489(25): Fixed searching regular expression patterns that
     could match an empty string.  Non-empty string can now be correctly
     found after matching an empty string.

   - bpo-25054(26): Added support of splitting on a pattern that could
     match an empty string.

   - bpo-32072(27): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-32069(28): Drop legacy SSL transport from asyncio,
     ssl.MemoryBIO is always used anyway.

   - bpo-32066(29): asyncio: Support pathlib.Path in
     create_unix_connection; sock arg should be optional

   - bpo-32046(30): Updates 2to3 to convert from
     operator.isCallable(obj) to callable(obj).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-32018(31): inspect.signature should follow PEP 8(32), if the
     parameter has an annotation and a default value.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-32025(33): Add time.thread_time() and time.thread_time_ns()

   - bpo-32037(34): Integers that fit in a signed 32-bit integer will be
     now pickled with protocol 0 using the INT opcode.  This will
     decrease the size of a pickle, speed up pickling and unpickling,
     and make these integers be unpickled as int instances in Python 2.

   - bpo-32034(35): Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and
     LimitOverrunError pickleable.

   - bpo-32015(36): Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of
     reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the
     socket.

   - bpo-32011(37): Restored support of loading marshal files with the
     TYPE_INT64 code.  These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

   - bpo-28369(38): Enhance add_reader/writer check that socket is not
     used by some transport.  Before, only cases when add_reader/writer
     were called with an int FD were supported.  Now the check is
     implemented correctly for all file-like objects.

   - bpo-31976(39): Fix race condition when flushing a file is slow,
     which can cause a segfault if closing the file from another thread.

   - bpo-31985(40): Formally deprecated aifc.openfp, sunau.openfp, and
     wave.openfp.  Since change 7bc817d5ba917528e8bd07ec461c635291e7b06a
     in 1993, openfp in each of the three modules had been pointing to
     that module's open function as a matter of backwards compatibility,
     though it had been both untested and undocumented.

   - bpo-21862(41): cProfile command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’
     as an alternative to script path.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31970(42): Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

   - bpo-31843(43): 'database' argument of sqlite3.connect() now accepts
     a *note path-like object: 975, instead of just a string.

   - bpo-31945(44): Add Configurable 'blocksize' to ‘HTTPConnection’ and
     ‘HTTPSConnection’ for improved upload throughput.  Patch by Nir
     Soffer.

   - bpo-31943(45): Add a ‘cancelled()’ method to *note asyncio.Handle:
     1893.  Patch by Marat Sharafutdinov.

   - bpo-9678(46): Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:
     Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD,
     NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

   - bpo-30057(47): Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

   - bpo-31933(48): Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big
     endian platforms.  Patch by Jack O'Connor.

   - bpo-21423(49): Add an initializer argument to
     {Process,Thread}PoolExecutor

   - bpo-31927(50): Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.
     Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a
     AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

   - bpo-27666(51): Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and
     curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is
     less than the size of C long.  curses.box() now accepts characters
     as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve Fink.

   - bpo-31917(52): Add 3 new clock identifiers: *note
     time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: 9ed, *note time.CLOCK_PROF: 9ef. and *note
     time.CLOCK_UPTIME: 9f0.

   - bpo-31897(53): plistlib now catches more errors when read binary
     plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected
     exceptions.

   - bpo-25720(54): Fix the method for checking pad state of curses
     WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-31893(55): Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on
     OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event
     objects.

   - bpo-31891(56): Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

   - bpo-31884(57): added required constants to subprocess module for
     setting priority on windows

   - bpo-28281(58): Remove year (1-9999) limits on the
     Calendar.weekday() function.  Patch by Mark Gollahon.

   - bpo-31702(59): crypt.mksalt() now allows to specify the number of
     rounds for SHA-256 and SHA-512 hashing.

   - bpo-30639(60): *note inspect.getfile(): 1894. no longer computes
     the repr of unknown objects to display in an error message, to
     protect against badly behaved custom reprs.

   - bpo-30768(61): Fix the pthread+semaphore implementation of
     PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() when called with timeout > 0 and
     intr_flag=0: recompute the timeout if sem_timedwait() is
     interrupted by a signal (EINTR). See also the PEP 475(62).

   - bpo-31854(63): Add ‘mmap.ACCESS_DEFAULT’ constant.

   - bpo-31834(64): Use optimized code for BLAKE2 only with SSSE3+.  The
     pure SSE2 implementation is slower than the pure C reference
     implementation.

   - bpo-28292(65): Calendar.itermonthdates() will now consistently
     raise an exception when a date falls outside of the 0001-01-01
     through 9999-12-31 range.  To support applications that cannot
     tolerate such exceptions, the new methods itermonthdays3() and
     itermonthdays4() are added.  The new methods return tuples and are
     not restricted by the range supported by datetime.date.

   - bpo-28564(66): The shutil.rmtree() function has been sped up to
     20-40%.  This was done using the os.scandir() function.

   - bpo-28416(67): Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the
     persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the
     persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

   - bpo-31653(68): Don't release the GIL if we can acquire a
     multiprocessing semaphore immediately.

   - bpo-28326(69): Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or
     stderr is closed or None.

   - bpo-20825(70): Add ‘subnet_of’ and ‘superset_of’ containment tests
     to *note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 9a3. and *note
     ipaddress.IPv4Network: 9a4.  Patch by Michel Albert and Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-31827(71): Remove the os.stat_float_times() function.  It was
     introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python
     2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1.

   - bpo-31756(72): Add a ‘subprocess.Popen(text=False)’ keyword
     argument to ‘subprocess’ functions to be more explicit about when
     the library should attempt to decode outputs into text.  Patch by
     Andrew Clegg.

   - bpo-31819(73): Add AbstractEventLoop.sock_recv_into().

   - bpo-31457(74): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-31457(75): The ‘manager’ property on LoggerAdapter objects is
     now properly settable.

   - bpo-31806(76): Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(),
     threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31803(77): time.clock() and time.get_clock_info('clock') now
     emit a DeprecationWarning warning.

   - bpo-31800(78): Extended support for parsing UTC offsets.  strptime
     '%z' can now parse the output generated by datetime.isoformat,
     including seconds and microseconds.

   - bpo-28603(79): traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during
     printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception
     or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable.  Patch by
     Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-30541(80): Add new function to seal a mock and prevent the
     automatically creation of child mocks.  Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-31784(81): Implement the PEP 564(82), add new 6 new functions
     with nanosecond resolution to the *note time: e8. module: *note
     clock_gettime_ns(): 937, *note clock_settime_ns(): 938, *note
     monotonic_ns(): 939, *note perf_counter_ns(): 93a, *note
     process_time_ns(): 93b, *note time_ns(): 93c.

   - bpo-30143(83): 2to3 now generates a code that uses abstract
     collection classes from collections.abc rather than collections.

   - bpo-31770(84): Prevent a crash when calling the ‘__init__()’ method
     of a ‘sqlite3.Cursor’ object more than once.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31764(85): Prevent a crash in ‘sqlite3.Cursor.close()’ in case
     the ‘Cursor’ object is uninitialized.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31752(86): Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called
     with custom integers.

   - bpo-31620(87): an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn't leak memory when
     queue.get pollers timeout

   - bpo-31690(88): Allow the flags re.ASCII, re.LOCALE, and re.UNICODE
     to be used as group flags for regular expressions.

   - bpo-30349(89): FutureWarning is now emitted if a regular expression
     contains character set constructs that will change semantically in
     the future (nested sets and set operations).

   - bpo-31664(90): Added support for the Blowfish hashing in the crypt
     module.

   - bpo-31632(91): Fix method set_protocol() of class
     _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module.  This method was
     previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

   - bpo-15037(92): Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for
     ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

   - bpo-31307(93): Allow use of bytes objects for arguments to *note
     configparser.ConfigParser.read(): 12d8.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-31334(94): Fix ‘poll.poll([timeout])’ in the ‘select’ module
     for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
     non-negative integer or -1.  Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

   - bpo-31310(95): multiprocessing's semaphore tracker should be
     launched again if crashed.

   - bpo-31308(96): Make multiprocessing's forkserver process immune to
     Ctrl-C and other user interruptions.  If it crashes, restart it
     when necessary.

   - bpo-31245(97): Added support for AF_UNIX socket in asyncio
     ‘create_datagram_endpoint’.

   - bpo-30553(98): Add HTTP/2 status code 421 (Misdirected Request) to
     *note http.HTTPStatus: 73b.  Patch by Vitor Pereira.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32214

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32101

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32154

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32089

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28334

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19610

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28684

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27535

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32088

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1647489

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32069

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32046

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32018

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32037

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31976

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31917

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31884

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28281

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30639

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30768

   (62) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31854

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31834

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31653

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31827

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31803

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31800

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31784

   (82) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30143

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31307

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30553


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<56>,  Next: Tests<55>,  Prev: Library<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.60.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32105(1): Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
     versionadded marker.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<55>,  Next: Build<54>,  Prev: Documentation<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.60.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31380(1): Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS:
     fails on APFS.

   - bpo-31705(2): Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older
     than 4.5.  The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le).
     A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

   - bpo-32138(3): Skip on Android test_faulthandler tests that raise
     SIGSEGV and remove the test.support.requires_android_level
     decorator.

   - bpo-32136(4): The runtime embedding tests have been split out from
     ‘Lib/test/test_capi.py’ into a new ‘Lib/test/test_embed.py’ file.

   - bpo-28668(5): test.support.requires_multiprocessing_queue is
     removed.  Skip tests with
     test.support.import_module('multiprocessing.synchronize') instead
     when the semaphore implementation is broken or missing.

   - bpo-32126(6): Skip test_get_event_loop_new_process in
     test.test_asyncio.test_events when sem_open() is not functional.

   - bpo-31174(7): Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now
     stores the names sample to always test the same files.  It prevents
     false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32138

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32136

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32126

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174


File: python.info,  Node: Build<54>,  Next: Windows<54>,  Prev: Tests<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.60.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-28538(1): Revert the previous changes, the if_nameindex
     structure is defined by Unified Headers.

   - bpo-28762(2): Revert the last commit, the F_LOCK macro is defined
     by Android Unified Headers.

   - bpo-29040(3): Support building Android with Unified Headers.  The
     first NDK release to support Unified Headers is android-ndk-r14.

   - bpo-32059(4): ‘detect_modules()’ in ‘setup.py’ now also searches
     the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

   - bpo-31957(5): Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for
     Windows.

   - bpo-31609(6): Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

   - bpo-31934(7): Abort the build when building out of a not clean
     source tree.

   - bpo-31926(8): Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation
     errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c
     file with the same name.

   - bpo-28791(9): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28791(10): Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28643(11): Record profile-opt build progress with stamp files.

   - bpo-31866(12): Finish removing support for AtheOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29040

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28643

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31866


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<54>,  Next: macOS<42>,  Prev: Build<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.60.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-1102(1): Return ‘None’ when ‘View.Fetch()’ returns
     ‘ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS’ instead of raising ‘MSIError’.  Initial patch
     by Anthony Tuininga.

   - bpo-31944(2): Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

   - bpo-20486(3): Implement the ‘Database.Close()’ method to help
     closing MSI database objects.

   - bpo-31857(4): Make the behavior of USE_STACKCHECK deterministic in
     a multi-threaded environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31857


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<42>,  Next: IDLE<41>,  Prev: Windows<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.60.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-31392(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<41>,  Next: Tools/Demos<30>,  Prev: macOS<42>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.60.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32207(1): Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When
     tk event handling is driven by IDLE's run loop, a confusing and
     distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk
     event exception tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when
     event handling is driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion
     by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-32164(2): Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py.  Use of
     TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

   - bpo-32100(3): IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve
     tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31858(4): IDLE - Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the
     shell.  Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt
     line.  This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline
     is inserted.  Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but
     is not set or changed.

   - bpo-31860(5): The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is
     now editable.  Changes persist while IDLE remains open

   - bpo-31836(6): Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle,
     which sets ps1.  The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it
     to '>>> ' if not.  Test_code_module now properly tests both
     behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.

   - bpo-28603(7): Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when
     printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable.
     Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-13802(8): Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE's Font settings
     sample.  Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset
     of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other
     fonts that define a character.  The expanded example give users of
     non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE's
     shell and editors.  To make room for the expanded sample, frames on
     the Font tab are re-arranged.  The Font/Tabs help explains a bit
     about the additions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<30>,  Next: C API<49>,  Prev: IDLE<41>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.60.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-32159(1): Remove CVS and Subversion tools: remove svneol.py and
     treesync.py scripts.  CPython migrated from CVS to Subversion, to
     Mercurial, and then to Git.  CVS and Subversion are no longer used
     to develop CPython.

   - bpo-30722(2): Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.
     Also, remove the ‘LOCALE’ option since it doesn't work with string
     patterns in Python 3.  Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32159

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722


File: python.info,  Node: C API<49>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<30>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.60.10 C API
................

   - bpo-20891(1): Fix PyGILState_Ensure().  When PyGILState_Ensure() is
     called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only
     call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix
     a crash.

   - bpo-32125(2): The ‘Py_UseClassExceptionsFlag’ flag has been
     removed.  It was deprecated and wasn't used anymore since Python
     2.0.

   - bpo-25612(3): Move the current exception state from the frame
     object to the co-routine.  This simplifies the interpreter and
     fixes a couple of obscure bugs caused by having swap exception
     state when entering or exiting a generator.

   - bpo-23699(4): Add Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE macro to reduce boilerplate
     code in rich comparison functions.

   - bpo-30697(5): The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton is removed
     and ‘PyErr_NormalizeException()’ does not use it anymore.  This
     singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may
     cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter.  See also
     bpo-22898(6).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32125

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.61 Python 3.7.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-10-16'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<60>.
* Library: Library<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<57>.
* Build: Build<55>.
* IDLE: IDLE<42>.
* C API: C API<50>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<60>,  Next: Library<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.61.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31558(1): ‘gc.freeze()’ is a new API that allows for moving all
     objects currently tracked by the garbage collector to a permanent
     generation, effectively removing them from future collection
     events.  This can be used to protect those objects from having
     their PyGC_Head mutated.  In effect, this enables great
     copy-on-write stability at fork().

   - bpo-31642(2): Restored blocking "from package import module" by
     setting sys.modules["package.module"] to None.

   - bpo-31708(3): Allow use of asynchronous generator expressions in
     synchronous functions.

   - bpo-31709(4): Drop support of asynchronous __aiter__.

   - bpo-30404(5): The -u option now makes the stdout and stderr streams
     unbuffered rather than line-buffered.

   - bpo-31619(6): Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large
     number of underscores to integer with binary base.

   - bpo-31602(7): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimporter.get_source()’ in case of a bad ‘zlib.decompress()’.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31592(8): Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case
     of a bad ‘unicodedata.normalize()’.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31588(9): Raise a ‘TypeError’ with a helpful error message when
     class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad ‘__prepare__()’
     method.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31574(10): Importlib was instrumented with two dtrace probes to
     profile import timing.

   - bpo-31566(11): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_warnings.warn()’ in
     case of a bad ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31506(12): Improved the error message logic for
     ‘object.__new__’ and ‘object.__init__’.

   - bpo-31505(13): Fix an assertion failure in ‘json’, in case
     ‘_json.make_encoder()’ received a bad ‘encoder()’ argument.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31492(14): Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import
     from a module with a bad ‘__name__’ attribute, and in case of
     failing to access an attribute of such a module.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31478(15): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_random.Random.seed()’
     in case the argument has a bad ‘__abs__()’ method.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31336(16): Speed up class creation by 10-20% by reducing the
     overhead in the necessary special method lookups.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-31415(17): Add ‘-X importtime’ option to show how long each
     import takes.  It can be used to optimize application's startup
     time.  Support the *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: 94a. as an
     equivalent way to enable this.

   - bpo-31410(18): Optimized calling wrapper and classmethod
     descriptors.

   - bpo-31353(19): PEP 553(20) - Add a new built-in called
     ‘breakpoint()’ which calls ‘sys.breakpointhook()’.  By default this
     imports ‘pdb’ and calls ‘pdb.set_trace()’, but users may override
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ to call whatever debugger they want.  The
     original value of the hook is saved in ‘sys.__breakpointhook__’.

   - bpo-17852(21): Maintain a list of open buffered files, flush them
     before exiting the interpreter.  Based on a patch from Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-31315(22): Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(),
     when spec.name is not a string.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31311(23): Fix a crash in the ‘__setstate__()’ method of
     ‘ctypes._CData’, in case of a bad ‘__dict__’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31293(24): Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a
     timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31285(25): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘warnings.warn_explicit’, when the return value of the received
     loader's ‘get_source()’ has a bad ‘splitlines()’ method.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30406(26): Make ‘async’ and ‘await’ proper keywords, as
     specified in PEP 492(27).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30404

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31602

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31336

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31410

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<61>,  Next: Documentation<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.61.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30058(1): Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

   - bpo-31672(2): ‘idpattern’ in ‘string.Template’ matched some
     non-ASCII characters.  Now it uses ‘-i’ regular expression local
     flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-31701(3): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC and
     COM exceptions.

   - bpo-31728(4): Prevent crashes in ‘_elementtree’ due to unsafe
     cleanup of ‘Element.text’ and ‘Element.tail’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31671(5): Now ‘re.compile()’ converts passed RegexFlag to
     normal int object before compiling.  bm_regex_compile benchmark
     shows 14% performance improvements.

   - bpo-30397(6): The types of compiled regular objects and match
     objects are now exposed as ‘re.Pattern’ and ‘re.Match’.  This adds
     information in pydoc output for the ‘re’ module.

   - bpo-31675(7): Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter's methods splitlist()
     and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-31673(8): Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter's method
     adderrorinfo().

   - bpo-31648(9): Improvements to path predicates in ElementTree: Allow
     whitespace around predicate parts, i.e.  "[a = 'text']" instead of
     requiring the less readable "[a='text']".  Add support for text
     comparison of the current node, like "[.='text']".  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-30806(10): Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

   - bpo-31638(11): Add optional argument ‘compressed’ to
     ‘zipapp.create_archive’, and add option ‘--compress’ to the command
     line interface of ‘zipapp’.

   - bpo-25351(12): Avoid venv activate failures with undefined
     variables

   - bpo-20519(13): Avoid ctypes use (if possible) and improve import
     time for uuid.

   - bpo-28293(14): The regular expression cache is no longer completely
     dumped when it is full.

   - bpo-31596(15): Added pthread_getcpuclockid() to the time module

   - bpo-27494(16): Make 2to3 accept a trailing comma in generator
     expressions.  For example, ‘set(x for x in [],)’ is now allowed.

   - bpo-30347(17): Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over
     itertools.groupby() iterators.

   - bpo-30346(18): An iterator produced by itertools.groupby() iterator
     now becomes exhausted after advancing the groupby iterator.

   - bpo-31556(19): Cancel asyncio.wait_for future faster if timeout <=
     0

   - bpo-31540(20): Allow passing a context object in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. constructor.  Also,
     free job resources in *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     727. earlier to improve memory usage when a worker waits for new
     jobs.

   - bpo-31516(21): ‘threading.current_thread()’ should not return a
     dummy thread at shutdown.

   - bpo-31525(22): In the sqlite module, require the sqlite3_prepare_v2
     API. Thus, the sqlite module now requires sqlite version at least
     3.3.9.

   - bpo-26510(23): argparse subparsers are now required by default.
     This matches behaviour in Python 2.  For optional subparsers, use
     the new parameter ‘add_subparsers(required=False)’.  Patch by
     Anthony Sottile.  (As of 3.7.0rc1, the default was changed to not
     required as had been the case since Python 3.3.)

   - bpo-27541(24): Reprs of subclasses of some collection and iterator
     classes (‘bytearray’, ‘array.array’, ‘collections.deque’,
     ‘collections.defaultdict’, ‘itertools.count’, ‘itertools.repeat’)
     now contain actual type name instead of hardcoded names of the base
     class.

   - bpo-31351(25): python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit
     code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

   - bpo-31389(26): ‘pdb.set_trace()’ now takes an optional keyword-only
     argument ‘header’.  If given, this is printed to the console just
     before debugging begins.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30397

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20519

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28293

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31596

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27494

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30346

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31556

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31525

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27541

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<57>,  Next: Build<55>,  Prev: Library<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.61.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31537(1): Fix incorrect usage of ‘get_history_length’ in
     readline documentation example code.  Patch by Brad Smith.

   - bpo-30085(2): The operator functions without double underscores are
     preferred for clarity.  The one with underscores are only kept for
     back-compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085


File: python.info,  Node: Build<55>,  Next: IDLE<42>,  Prev: Documentation<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.61.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-31696(1): Improve compiler version information in *note
     sys.version: b8d. when Python is built with Clang.

   - bpo-31625(2): Stop using ranlib on static libraries.  Instead, we
     assume ar supports the 's' flag.

   - bpo-31624(3): Remove support for BSD/OS.

   - bpo-22140(4): Prevent double substitution of prefix in
     python-config.sh.

   - bpo-31569(5): Correct PCBuild/ case to PCbuild/ in build scripts
     and documentation.

   - bpo-31536(6): Avoid wholesale rebuild after ‘make regen-all’ if
     nothing changed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31696

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31625

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31624

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31569

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<42>,  Next: C API<50>,  Prev: Build<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.61.5 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31460(1): Simplify the API of IDLE's Module Browser.  Passing a
     widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of
     creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a
     full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file
     opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in
     .py.

   - bpo-31649(2): IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

   - bpo-31559(3): Remove test order dependence in
     idle_test.test_browser.

   - bpo-31459(4): Rename IDLE's module browser from Class Browser to
     Module Browser.  The original module-level class and method browser
     became a module browser, with the addition of module-level
     functions, years ago.  Nested classes and functions were added
     yesterday.  For back-compatibility, the virtual event
     <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the
     Settings dialog, is not changed.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31500(5): Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

   - bpo-1612262(6): IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and
     functions.  Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo
     and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262


File: python.info,  Node: C API<50>,  Prev: IDLE<42>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.61.6 C API
...............

   - bpo-28280(1): Make ‘PyMapping_Keys()’, ‘PyMapping_Values()’ and
     ‘PyMapping_Items()’ always return a ‘list’ (rather than a ‘list’ or
     a ‘tuple’).  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31532(2): Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in
     getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

   - bpo-25658(3): Implement PEP 539(4) for Thread Specific Storage
     (TSS) API: it is a new Thread Local Storage (TLS) API to CPython
     which would supersede use of the existing TLS API within the
     CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. PEP
     written by Erik M. Bray, patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 6 6 final,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.62 Python 3.7.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-09-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<38>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<61>.
* Library: Library<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<58>.
* Tests: Tests<56>.
* Build: Build<56>.
* Windows: Windows<55>.
* IDLE: IDLE<43>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<31>.
* C API: C API<51>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<38>,  Next: Core and Builtins<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.62.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29781(1): SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when
     handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

   - bpo-29505(2): Add fuzz tests for float(str), int(str),
     unicode(str); for oss-fuzz.

   - bpo-30947(3): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   - bpo-30730(4): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(5): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(6)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(7) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(8) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0's fix to CVE 2016-0718(9)) and CVE 2012-0876(10) (Counter
     hash flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(11) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn't impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(12): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   - bpo-29591(13): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes
     of CVE 2016-0718(14) and CVE 2016-4472(15).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29505

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (9) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (10) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (11) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (14) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (15) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<61>,  Next: Library<62>,  Prev: Security<38>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.62.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31490(1): Fix an assertion failure in ‘ctypes’ class
     definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is
     specified in ‘_anonymous_’ but not in ‘_fields_’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31471(2): Fix an assertion failure in ‘subprocess.Popen()’ on
     Windows, in case the env argument has a bad ‘keys()’ method.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31418(3): Fix an assertion failure in ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable()’
     in case of an exception with a bad ‘__module__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31416(4): Fix assertion failures in case of a bad
     warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28411(5): Change direct usage of PyInterpreterState.modules to
     PyImport_GetModuleDict().  Also introduce more uniformity in other
     code that deals with sys.modules.  This helps reduce complications
     when working on sys.modules.

   - bpo-28411(6): Switch to the abstract API when dealing with
     ‘PyInterpreterState.modules’.  This allows later support for all
     dict subclasses and other Mapping implementations.  Also add a
     ‘PyImport_GetModule()’ function to reduce a bunch of duplicated
     code.

   - bpo-31411(7): Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
     warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31344(8): For finer control of tracing behaviour when testing
     the interpreter, two new frame attributes have been added to
     control the emission of particular trace events: ‘f_trace_lines’
     (‘True’ by default) to turn off per-line trace events; and
     ‘f_trace_opcodes’ (‘False’ by default) to turn on per-opcode trace
     events.

   - bpo-31373(9): Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior
     due to floating-point demotions.

   - bpo-30465(10): Location information (‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’) in
     f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8
     from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line
     of the file).

   - bpo-30860(11): Consolidate CPython's global runtime state under a
     single struct.  This improves discoverability of the runtime state.

   - bpo-31347(12): Fix possible undefined behavior in
     _PyObject_FastCall_Prepend.

   - bpo-31343(13): Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and
     makedev().  GNU C libray plans to remove the functions from
     sys/types.h.

   - bpo-31291(14): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.get_data’ on Windows, when the return value
     of ‘pathname.replace('/','\\')’ isn't a string.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31271(15): Fix an assertion failure in the ‘write()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’, when the encoder doesn't return a bytes object.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31243(16): Fix a crash in some methods of ‘io.TextIOWrapper’,
     when the decoder's state is invalid.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30721(17): ‘print’ now shows correct usage hint for using
     Python 2 redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31070(18): Fix a race condition in importlib
     _get_module_lock().

   - bpo-30747(19): Add a non-dummy implementation of _Py_atomic_store
     and _Py_atomic_load on MSVC.

   - bpo-31095(20): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn't call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   - bpo-31071(21): Avoid masking original TypeError in call with *
     unpacking when other arguments are passed.

   - bpo-30978(22): str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions
     through.  Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError
     exception.

   - bpo-30808(23): Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal
     state.

   - bpo-30876(24): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30703(25): Improve signal delivery.  Avoid using
     Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
     signal-unsafe functions.  The tests I'm adding here fail without
     the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal
     delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

   - bpo-30765(26): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-31161(27): Make sure the 'Missing parentheses' syntax error
     message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses.  Patch
     by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-30814(28): Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from
     a package.

   - bpo-30736(29): The internal unicodedata database has been upgraded
     to Unicode 10.0.

   - bpo-30604(30): Move co_extra_freefuncs from per-thread to
     per-interpreter to avoid crashes.

   - bpo-30597(31): ‘print’ now shows expected input in custom error
     message when used as a Python 2 statement.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   - bpo-30682(32): Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for
     certain f-strings, such as eval("f'\n'") and eval("f'\r'").

   - bpo-30501(33): The compiler now produces more optimal code for
     complex condition expressions in the "if", "while" and "assert"
     statement, the "if" expression, and generator expressions and
     comprehensions.

   - bpo-28180(34): Implement PEP 538(35) (legacy C locale coercion).
     This means that when a suitable coercion target locale is
     available, both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions
     will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text encoding, rather
     than ASCII.

   - bpo-30486(36): Allows setting cell values for __closure__.  Patch
     by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-30537(37): itertools.islice now accepts integer-like objects
     (having an __index__ method) as start, stop, and slice arguments

   - bpo-25324(38): Tokens needed for parsing in Python moved to C.
     ‘COMMENT’, ‘NL’ and ‘ENCODING’.  This way the tokens and tok_names
     in the token module don't get changed when you import the tokenize
     module.

   - bpo-29104(39): Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

   - bpo-27945(40): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(41): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-30039(42): If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter
     is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested 'yield from' or
     'await' calls, it's now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

   - bpo-28974(43): ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent to
     ‘str(x)’ rather than ‘format(str(self), '')’.

   - bpo-30024(44): Circular imports involving absolute imports with
     binding a submodule to a name are now supported.

   - bpo-12414(45): sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the
     sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it
     references.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29839(46): len() now raises ValueError rather than
     OverflowError if __len__() returned a large negative integer.

   - bpo-11913(47): README.rst is now included in the list of distutils
     standard READMEs and therefore included in source distributions.

   - bpo-29914(48): Fixed default implementations of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__().  object.__reduce__() no longer takes arguments,
     object.__reduce_ex__() now requires one argument.

   - bpo-29949(49): Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset
     object.

   - bpo-29935(50): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-29816(51): Shift operation now has less opportunity to raise
     OverflowError.  ValueError always is raised rather than
     OverflowError for negative counts.  Shifting zero with non-negative
     count always returns zero.

   - bpo-24821(52): Fixed the slowing down to 25 times in the searching
     of some unlucky Unicode characters.

   - bpo-29102(53): Add a unique ID to PyInterpreterState.  This makes
     it easier to identify each subinterpreter.

   - bpo-29894(54): The deprecation warning is emitted if __complex__
     returns an instance of a strict subclass of complex.  In a future
     versions of Python this can be an error.

   - bpo-29859(55): Show correct error messages when any of the
     pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

   - bpo-29849(56): Fix a memory leak when an ImportError is raised
     during from import.

   - bpo-28856(57): Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should
     support objects follow the buffer protocol.

   - bpo-29723(58): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(59) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  The interpreter now
     consistently avoids ever adding the import location's parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.

   - bpo-29568(60): Escaped percent "%%" in the format string for
     classic string formatting no longer allows any characters between
     two percents.

   - bpo-29714(61): Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when
     containing zero bytes inside.

   - bpo-29695(62): bool(), float(), list() and tuple() no longer take
     keyword arguments.  The first argument of int() can now be passes
     only as positional argument.

   - bpo-28893(63): Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid
     awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

   - bpo-28876(64): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises
     *note OverflowError: 6ad.

   - bpo-29683(65): Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.
     Patch by Brian Coleman.

   - bpo-29684(66): Fix minor regression of
     PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords.  It should raise TypeError when
     kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv when args=NULL and
     kwargs is not a dict.

   - bpo-28598(67): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29607(68): Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX.
     Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-29602(69): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(70): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29463(71): Add ‘docstring’ field to Module, ClassDef,
     FunctionDef, and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes.  docstring is not
     first stmt in their body anymore.  It affects ‘co_firstlineno’ and
     ‘co_lnotab’ of code object for module and class.  (Reverted in
     bpo-32911(72).)

   - bpo-29438(73): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29546(74): Set the 'path' and 'name' attribute on ImportError
     for ‘from ... import ...’.

   - bpo-29546(75): Improve from-import error message with location

   - bpo-29478(76): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   - bpo-29319(77): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(78): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29327(79): Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword
     argument to sorted().

   - bpo-29034(80): Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
     (path_converter).

   - bpo-29159(81): Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises
     Exception.

   - bpo-29049(82): Call _PyObject_GC_TRACK() lazily when calling Python
     function.  Calling function is up to 5% faster.

   - bpo-28927(83): bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex() now ignore
     all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces.  Patch by Robert Xiao.

   - bpo-28932(84): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-25677(85): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret
     for indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(86): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding
     in alternate form.

   - bpo-18896(87): Python function can now have more than 255
     parameters.  collections.namedtuple() now supports tuples with more
     than 255 elements.

   - bpo-28596(88): The preferred encoding is UTF-8 on Android.  Patch
     written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22257(89): Clean up interpreter startup (see PEP 432(90)).

   - bpo-26919(91): On Android, operating system data is now always
     encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to
     avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which
     are already using UTF-8.

   - bpo-28991(92): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28147(93): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.  Patch
     written by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28739(94): f-string expressions are no longer accepted as
     docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include
     expressions.

   - bpo-28512(95): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28918(96): Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python
     has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

   - bpo-23722(97): Rather than silently producing a class that doesn't
     support zero-argument ‘super()’ in methods, failing to pass the new
     ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry up to ‘type.__new__’ now results in
     a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and a class that supports zero-argument
     ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28797(98): Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__
     method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer
     prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

   - bpo-28799(99): Remove the ‘PyEval_GetCallStats()’ function and
     deprecate the untested and undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function.
     Remove the ‘CALL_PROFILE’ special build: use the *note
     sys.setprofile(): 1376. function, *note cProfile: 25. or *note
     profile: aa. to profile function calls.

   - bpo-12844(100): More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a
     function.

   - bpo-28782(101): Fix a bug in the implementation ‘yield from’ when
     checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression
     introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647(102)).

   - bpo-28774(103): Fix error position of the unicode error in ASCII
     and Latin1 encoders when a string returned by the error handler
     contains multiple non-encodable characters (non-ASCII for the ASCII
     codec, characters out of the U+0000-U+00FF range for Latin1).

   - bpo-28731(104): Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct
     size dict.  Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to
     30%.

   - bpo-28532(105): Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

   - bpo-27100(106): The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before
     it checks for __exit__.  This gives less confusing error messages
     when both methods are missing.  Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

   - bpo-28746(107): Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on
     platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

   - bpo-26920(108): Fix not getting the locale's charset upon
     initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have
     langinfo.

   - bpo-28648(109): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28665(110): Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

   - bpo-19398(111): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components
     in case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28621(112): Sped up converting int to float by reusing faster
     bits counting implementation.  Patch by Adrian Wielgosik.

   - bpo-28580(113): Optimize iterating split table values.  Patch by
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28583(114): PyDict_SetDefault didn't combine split table when
     needed.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28128(115): Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape
     sequences now prints better information about where the error
     occurs.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-28509(116): dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large
     memory.

   - bpo-28426(117): Fixed potential crash in
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject() in debug build.

   - bpo-28517(118): Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer
     that caused keeping unreachable code.

   - bpo-28214(119): Improved exception reporting for problematic
     __set_name__ attributes.

   - bpo-23782(120): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add()
     and exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28183(121): Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

   - bpo-26081(122): Added C implementation of asyncio.Future.  Original
     patch by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-28379(123): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(124): The type of long range iterator is now registered
     as Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(125): Creating instances of range_iterator by calling
     range_iterator type now is disallowed.  Calling iter() on range
     instance is the only way.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(126): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(127): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(128): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28201(129): Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash
     table when hashes have same lower bits.

   - bpo-28350(130): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(131): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(132): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-28289(133): ImportError.__init__ now resets not specified
     attributes.

   - bpo-21578(134): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(135): Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error
     message.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-28086(136): Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact tuple.

   - bpo-28214(137): Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead
     of the instance.

   - bpo-27955(138): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28192(139): Don't import readline in isolated mode.

   - bpo-27441(140): Remove some redundant assignments to ob_size in
     longobject.c.  Thanks Oren Milman.

   - bpo-27222(141): Clean up redundant code in long_rshift function.
     Thanks Oren Milman.

   - Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

   - bpo-28131(142): Fix a regression in zipimport's compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-28126(143): Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy().  Visual Studio can
     properly optimize memcpy().

   - bpo-28120(144): Fix dict.pop() for splitted dictionary when trying
     to remove a "pending key" (Not yet inserted in split-table).  Patch
     by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26182(145): Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await
     keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

   - bpo-26182(146): Fix a refleak in code that raises
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-28721(147): Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow()
     to handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

   - bpo-26110(148): Speed-up method calls: add LOAD_METHOD and
     CALL_METHOD opcodes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31490

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31471

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31418

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31416

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31411

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31373

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30465

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30860

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31347

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31343

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31291

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31271

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31243

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30721

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31070

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30747

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31071

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30978

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30808

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30703

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31161

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30814

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30736

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30597

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30682

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30501

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28180

   (35) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30486

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25324

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29104

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30039

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12414

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29839

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29914

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29949

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29816

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29894

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29859

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29849

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28856

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29568

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29714

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29695

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28893

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29683

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29684

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29607

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29327

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29034

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29159

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29049

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28927

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18896

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28596

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22257

   (90) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26919

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28739

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28918

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28797

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28782

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28774

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28731

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28532

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27100

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28746

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26920

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28665

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28621

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28580

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28583

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28128

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28509

   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28517

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   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

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   (130) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350

   (131) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617

   (132) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28289

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (135) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (136) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28086

   (137) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (138) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (139) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28192

   (140) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27441

   (141) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27222

   (142) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (143) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28126

   (144) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28120

   (145) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182

   (146) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182

   (147) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28721

   (148) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110


File: python.info,  Node: Library<62>,  Next: Documentation<58>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.62.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-31499(1): xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-31482(2): ‘random.seed()’ now works with bytes in version=1

   - bpo-28556(3): typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns
     for classes and modules by default (when no ‘globalns’ was
     specified by the caller).

   - bpo-28556(4): Speed improvements to the ‘typing’ module.  Original
     PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

   - bpo-31544(5): The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored
     exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in
     XMLParser().

   - bpo-31234(6): socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a
     reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on
     success.

   - bpo-31457(7): LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

   - bpo-31431(8): SSLContext.check_hostname now automatically sets
     SSLContext.verify_mode to ssl.CERT_REQUIRED instead of failing with
     a ValueError.

   - bpo-31233(9): socketserver.ThreadingMixIn now keeps a list of
     non-daemonic threads to wait until all these threads complete in
     server_close().

   - bpo-28638(10): Changed the implementation strategy for
     collections.namedtuple() to substantially reduce the use of exec()
     in favor of precomputed methods.  As a result, the 'verbose'
     parameter and '_source' attribute are no longer supported.  The
     benefits include 1) having a smaller memory footprint for
     applications using multiple named tuples, 2) faster creation of the
     named tuple class (approx 4x to 6x depending on how it is
     measured), and 3) minor speed-ups for instance creation using
     __new__, _make, and _replace.  (The primary patch contributor is
     Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
     Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger.)

   - bpo-31400(11): Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error
     numbers.

   - bpo-27629(12): Make return types of SSLContext.wrap_bio() and
     SSLContext.wrap_socket() customizable.

   - bpo-28958(13): ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information
     when a context cannot be instantiated.

   - bpo-28182(14): The SSL module now raises SSLCertVerificationError
     when OpenSSL fails to verify the peer's certificate.  The exception
     contains more information about the error.

   - bpo-27340(15): SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create
     slices of data.  This fixes support for all bytes-like object.  It
     is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

   - bpo-14191(16): A new function
     ‘argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args’ provides the
     ability to parse command lines where there user intermixes options
     and positional arguments.

   - bpo-31178(17): Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in
     the subprocess module

   - bpo-31350(18): Micro-optimize ‘asyncio._get_running_loop()’ to
     become up to 10% faster.

   - bpo-31170(19): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   - bpo-29136(20): Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

   - bpo-1198569(21): ‘string.Template’ subclasses can optionally define
     ‘braceidpattern’ if they want to specify different placeholder
     patterns inside and outside the braces.  If None (the default) it
     falls back to ‘idpattern’.

   - bpo-31326(22): concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.shutdown()
     now explicitly closes the call queue.  Moreover,
     shutdown(wait=True) now also join the call queue thread, to prevent
     leaking a dangling thread.

   - bpo-27144(23): The ‘map()’ and ‘as_completed()’ iterators in
     ‘concurrent.futures’ now avoid keeping a reference to yielded
     objects.

   - bpo-31281(24): Fix ‘fileinput.FileInput(files, inplace=True)’ when
     ‘files’ contain ‘pathlib.Path’ objects.

   - bpo-10746(25): Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118(26) type codes
     for integer types.

   - bpo-27584(27): ‘AF_VSOCK’ has been added to the socket interface
     which allows communication between virtual machines and their host.

   - bpo-22536(28): The subprocess module now sets the filename when
     FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable
     or cwd not being found.

   - bpo-29741(29): Update some methods in the _pyio module to also
     accept integer types.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31249(30): concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by
     ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an
     exception object and the WorkItem object.

   - bpo-31247(31): xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles
     when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

   - bpo-23835(32): configparser: reading defaults in the
     ‘ConfigParser()’ constructor is now using ‘read_dict()’, making its
     behavior consistent with the rest of the parser.  Non-string keys
     and values in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly
     converted to strings.  Patch by James Tocknell.

   - bpo-31238(33): pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread
     class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and
     then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-5001(34): Many asserts in ‘multiprocessing’ are now more
     informative, and some error types have been changed to more
     specific ones.

   - bpo-31109(35): Convert zipimport to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-30102(36): The ssl and hashlib modules now call
     OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0.  The
     function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU
     architectures such as POWER8.  Patch is based on research from
     Gustavo Serra Scalet.

   - bpo-18966(37): Non-daemonic threads created by a
     multiprocessing.Process are now joined on child exit.

   - bpo-31183(38): ‘dis’ now works with asynchronous generator and
     coroutine objects.  Patch by George Collins based on diagnosis by
     Luciano Ramalho.

   - bpo-5001(39): There are a number of uninformative asserts in the
     ‘multiprocessing’ module, as noted in issue 5001.  This change
     fixes two of the most potentially problematic ones, since they are
     in error-reporting code, in the
     ‘multiprocessing.managers.convert_to_error’ function.  (It also
     makes more informative a ValueError message.)  The only potentially
     problematic change is that the AssertionError is now a TypeError;
     however, this should also help distinguish it from an
     AssertionError being 'reported' by the function/its caller (such as
     in issue 31169).  - Patch by Allen W. Smith (drallensmith on
     github).

   - bpo-31185(40): Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup
     module.

   - bpo-31151(41): socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close() now waits
     until all child processes completed to prevent leaking zombie
     processes.

   - bpo-31072(42): Add an ‘include_file’ parameter to
     ‘zipapp.create_archive()’

   - bpo-24700(43): Optimize array.array comparison.  It is now from 10x
     up to 70x faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same
     integer type.

   - bpo-31135(44): ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and
     OptionMenu classes.  Call the parent destroy() method even if the
     used attribute doesn't exist.  The LabeledScale.destroy() method
     now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the
     garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

   - bpo-31107(45): Fix ‘copyreg._slotnames()’ mangled attribute
     calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore.
     Patch by Shane Harvey.

   - bpo-31080(46): Allow ‘logging.config.fileConfig’ to accept kwargs
     and/or args.

   - bpo-30897(47): ‘pathlib.Path’ objects now include an ‘is_mount()’
     method (only implemented on POSIX). This is similar to
     ‘os.path.ismount(p)’.  Patch by Cooper Ry Lees.

   - bpo-31061(48): Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

   - bpo-30987(49): Added support for CAN ISO-TP protocol in the socket
     module.

   - bpo-30522(50): Added a ‘setStream’ method to
     ‘logging.StreamHandler’ to allow the stream to be set after
     creation.

   - bpo-30502(51): Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-5288(52): Support tzinfo objects with sub-minute offsets.

   - bpo-30919(53): Fix shared memory performance regression in
     multiprocessing in 3.x.  Shared memory used anonymous memory
     mappings in 2.x, while 3.x mmaps actual files.  Try to be careful
     to do as little disk I/O as possible.

   - bpo-26732(54): Fix too many fds in processes started with the
     "forkserver" method.  A child process would inherit as many fds as
     the number of still-running children.

   - bpo-29403(55): Fix ‘unittest.mock’'s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(56): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in
     tracemalloc.

   - bpo-19896(57): Fix multiprocessing.sharedctypes to recognize
     typecodes ‘'q'’ and ‘'Q'’.

   - bpo-30946(58): Remove obsolete code in readline module for
     platforms where GNU readline is older than 2.1 or where select() is
     not available.

   - bpo-25684(59): Change ‘ttk.OptionMenu’ radiobuttons to be unique
     across instances of ‘OptionMenu’.

   - bpo-30886(60): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now
     waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by
     the same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(61): Fix segfault in readline when using readline's
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30794(62): Added multiprocessing.Process.kill method to
     terminate using the SIGKILL signal on Unix.

   - bpo-30319(63): socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

   - bpo-30828(64): Fix out of bounds write in
     ‘asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()’.

   - bpo-30302(65): Use keywords in the ‘repr’ of ‘datetime.timedelta’.

   - bpo-30807(66): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(67): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-29585(68): Avoid importing ‘sysconfig’ from ‘site’ to improve
     startup speed.  Python startup is about 5% faster on Linux and 30%
     faster on macOS.

   - bpo-29293(69): Add missing parameter "n" on
     multiprocessing.Condition.notify().  The doc claims
     multiprocessing.Condition behaves like threading.Condition, but its
     notify() method lacked the optional "n" argument (to specify the
     number of sleepers to wake up) that threading.Condition.notify()
     accepts.

   - bpo-30532(70): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-30596(71): Add a ‘close()’ method to ‘multiprocessing.Process’.

   - bpo-9146(72): Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when
     standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked
     OpenSSL library.  As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

   - bpo-29169(73): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-30119(74): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30879(75): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(76): Prohibited the '=' character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-30664(77): The description of a unittest subtest now preserves
     the order of keyword arguments of TestCase.subTest().

   - bpo-21071(78): struct.Struct.format type is now *note str: 157.
     instead of *note bytes: 2c1.

   - bpo-29212(79): Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor
     threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no
     thread_name_prefix is supplied.  They will now identify themselves
     as "ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n".

   - bpo-29755(80): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   - bpo-30616(81): Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums.
     Patched by Donghee Na

   - bpo-30038(82): Fix race condition between signal delivery and
     wakeup file descriptor.  Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

   - bpo-23894(83): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rb'...'’ and ‘f'...'’
     strings.

   - bpo-24744(84): pkgutil.walk_packages function now raises ValueError
     if 'path' is a string.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-24484(85): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

   - bpo-30589(86): Fix multiprocessing.Process.exitcode to return the
     opposite of the signal number when the process is killed by a
     signal (instead of 255) when using the "forkserver" method.

   - bpo-28994(87): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(88): Don't log exceptions if Task/Future "cancel()"
     method was called.

   - bpo-30645(89): Fix path calculation in ‘imp.load_package()’, fixing
     it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch
     by Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-11822(90): The dis.dis() function now is able to disassemble
     nested code objects.

   - bpo-30624(91): selectors does not take KeyboardInterrupt and
     SystemExit into account, leaving a fd in a bad state in case of
     error.  Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-30595(92): multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls
     its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock
     but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

   - bpo-28556(93): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-30605(94): re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when
     compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch
     by Roy Williams.

   - bpo-29870(95): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(96): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(97): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30014(98): modify() method of poll(), epoll() and devpoll()
     based classes of selectors module is around 10% faster.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-30418(99): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-30463(100): Addded empty __slots__ to abc.ABC. This allows
     subclassers to deny __dict__ and __weakref__ creation.  Patch by
     Aaron Hall.

   - bpo-30520(101): Loggers are now pickleable.

   - bpo-30557(102): faulthandler now correctly filters and displays
     exception codes on Windows

   - bpo-30526(103): Add TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() and a
     TextIOWrapper.write_through attribute.

   - bpo-30245(104): Fix possible overflow when organize
     struct.pack_into error message.  Patch by Yuan Liu.

   - bpo-30378(105): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-16500(106): Allow registering at-fork handlers.

   - bpo-30470(107): Deprecate invalid ctypes call protection on
     Windows.  Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-30414(108): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(109): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30149(110): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30436(111): importlib.find_spec() raises ModuleNotFoundError
     instead of AttributeError if the specified parent module is not a
     package (i.e.  lacks a __path__ attribute).

   - bpo-30301(112): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30375(113): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30329(114): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-29196(115): Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes
     Plist, Dict and _InternalDict in the plistlib module.  Dict values
     in the result of functions readPlist() and readPlistFromBytes() are
     now normal dicts.  You no longer can use attribute access to access
     items of these dictionaries.

   - bpo-9850(116): The ‘macpath’ is now deprecated and will be removed
     in Python 3.8.

   - bpo-30299(117): Compiling regular expression in debug mode on
     CPython now displays the compiled bytecode in human readable form.

   - bpo-30048(118): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-30266(119): contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
     anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
     following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958(120).  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-30340(121): Enhanced regular expressions optimization.  This
     increased the performance of matching some patterns up to 25 times.

   - bpo-30298(122): Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for
     inline modifiers.  Now allowed several subsequential inline
     modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g.  ‘'(?i)(?s)...'’).  In
     verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and
     between inline modifiers (e.g.  ‘'(?x) (?i) (?s)...'’).

   - bpo-30285(123): Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching
     of regular expressions.

   - bpo-29990(124): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-29979(125): rewrite cgi.parse_multipart, reusing the
     FieldStorage class and making its results consistent with those of
     FieldStorage for multipart/form-data requests.  Patch by Pierre
     Quentel.

   - bpo-30243(126): Removed the __init__ methods of _json's scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30215(127): Compiled regular expression objects with the
     re.LOCALE flag no longer depend on the locale at compile time.
     Only the locale at matching time affects the result of matching.

   - bpo-30185(128): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-30103(129): binascii.b2a_uu() and uu.encode() now support using
     ‘'`'’ as zero instead of space.

   - bpo-28556(130): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(131): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30228(132): The seek() and tell() methods of io.FileIO now set
     the internal seekable attribute to avoid one syscall on open() (in
     buffered or text mode).

   - bpo-30190(133): unittest's assertAlmostEqual and
     assertNotAlmostEqual provide a better message in case of failure
     which includes the difference between left and right arguments.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola')

   - bpo-30101(134): Add support for curses.A_ITALIC.

   - bpo-29822(135): inspect.isabstract() now works during
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-29960(136): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30070(137): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-22352(138): Column widths in the output of dis.dis() are now
     adjusted for large line numbers and instruction offsets.

   - bpo-30061(139): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30218(140): Fix PathLike support for shutil.unpack_archive.
     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-10076(141): Compiled regular expression and match objects in
     the re module now support copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy() (they are
     considered atomic).

   - bpo-30068(142): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it's closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(143): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(144): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-26187(145): Test that sqlite3 trace callback is not called
     multiple times when schema is changing.  Indirectly fixed by
     switching to use sqlite3_prepare_v2() in bpo-9303(146).  Patch by
     Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-30017(147): Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry
     writer object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now
     always produces a ValueError.

   - bpo-29998(148): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29995(149): re.escape() now escapes only regex special
     characters.

   - bpo-29962(150): Add math.remainder operation, implementing
     remainder as specified in IEEE 754.

   - bpo-29649(151): Improve struct.pack_into() exception messages for
     problems with the buffer size and offset.  Patch by Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-29654(152): Support If-Modified-Since HTTP header (browser
     cache).  Patch by Pierre Quentel.

   - bpo-29931(153): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-29953(154): Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of
     datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

   - bpo-29942(155): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-10030(156): Sped up reading encrypted ZIP files by 2 times.

   - bpo-29204(157): Element.getiterator() and the html parameter of
     XMLParser() were deprecated only in the documentation (since Python
     3.2 and 3.4 correspondingly).  Now using them emits a deprecation
     warning.

   - bpo-27863(158): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by
     race conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-25996(159): Added support of file descriptors in os.scandir()
     on Unix.  os.fwalk() is sped up by 2 times by using os.scandir().

   - bpo-28699(160): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-23890(161): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually
     breaks a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than
     expected.

   - bpo-29901(162): The zipapp module now supports general path-like
     objects, not just pathlib.Path.

   - bpo-25803(163): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(164): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-19930(165): The mode argument of os.makedirs() no longer
     affects the file permission bits of newly created
     intermediate-level directories.

   - bpo-29884(166): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(167): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(168): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-8256(169): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes "encoding" or "errors" of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28692(170): Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form
     in gettext is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26121(171): Use C library implementation for math functions
     erf() and erfc().

   - bpo-29619(172): os.stat() and os.DirEntry.inode() now convert inode
     (st_ino) using unsigned integers.

   - bpo-28298(173): Fix a bug that prevented array 'Q', 'L' and 'I'
     from accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as
     elements.

   - bpo-29645(174): Speed up importing the webbrowser module.
     webbrowser.register() is now thread-safe.

   - bpo-28231(175): The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects
     for external paths.

   - bpo-26915(176): index() and count() methods of
     collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking
     equality when do comparisons.

   - bpo-28682(177): Added support for bytes paths in os.fwalk().

   - bpo-29728(178): Add new ‘socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ (Linux 3.12)
     constant.  Patch by Nathaniel J. Smith.

   - bpo-29623(179): Allow use of path-like object as a single argument
     in ConfigParser.read().  Patch by David Ellis.

   - bpo-9303(180): Migrate sqlite3 module to _v2 API. Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-28963(181): Fix out of bound iteration in
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

   - bpo-29704(182): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no
     longer closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29271(183): Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks
     implemented in C to accept None argument as their pure Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-29703(184): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29615(185): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError
     (or any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-7769(186): Method register_function() of
     xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher and its subclasses can now be
     used as a decorator.

   - bpo-29376(187): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-28624(188): Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of
     Popen() accepts PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

   - bpo-28518(189): Start a transaction implicitly before a DML
     statement.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-29742(190): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-16285(191): urllib.parse.quote is now based on RFC 3986 and
     hence includes '~' in the set of characters that is not quoted by
     default.  Patch by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath.

   - bpo-29532(192): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-29110(193): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-22807(194): Add uuid.SafeUUID and uuid.UUID.is_safe to relay
     information from the platform about whether generated UUIDs are
     generated with a multiprocessing safe method.

   - bpo-29576(195): Improve some deprecations in importlib.  Some
     deprecated methods now emit DeprecationWarnings and have better
     descriptive messages.

   - bpo-29534(196): Fixed different behaviour of Decimal.from_float()
     for _decimal and _pydecimal.  Thanks Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-10379(197): locale.format_string now supports the 'monetary'
     keyword argument, and locale.format is deprecated.

   - bpo-29851(198): importlib.reload() now raises ModuleNotFoundError
     if the module lacks a spec.

   - bpo-28556(199): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(200): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29416(201): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(202): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29377(203): Add WrapperDescriptorType, MethodWrapperType, and
     MethodDescriptorType built-in types to types module.  Original
     patch by Manuel Krebber.

   - bpo-29218(204): Unused install_misc command is now removed.  It has
     been documented as unused since 2000.  Patch by Eric N. Vander
     Weele.

   - bpo-29368(205): The extend() method is now called instead of the
     append() method when unpickle collections.deque and other list-like
     objects.  This can speed up unpickling to 2 times.

   - bpo-29338(206): The help of a builtin or extension class now
     includes the constructor signature if __text_signature__ is
     provided for the class.

   - bpo-29335(207): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(208): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(209): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29197(210): Removed deprecated function ntpath.splitunc().

   - bpo-29210(211): Removed support of deprecated argument "exclude" in
     tarfile.TarFile.add().

   - bpo-29219(212): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-29192(213): Removed deprecated features in the http.cookies
     module.

   - bpo-29193(214): A format string argument for
     string.Formatter.format() is now positional-only.

   - bpo-29195(215): Removed support of deprecated undocumented keyword
     arguments in methods of regular expression objects.

   - bpo-28969(216): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-20804(217): The unittest.mock.sentinel attributes now preserve
     their identity when they are copied or pickled.

   - bpo-29142(218): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   - bpo-28961(219): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don't ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-15812(220): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the
     first line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-28985(221): Update authorizer constants in sqlite3 module.
     Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - bpo-29079(222): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on
     Windows

   - bpo-13051(223): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-9770(224): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(225): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(226): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-28871(227): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(228): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(229): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a
     sequence that doesn't own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-16255(230): subprocess.Popen uses /system/bin/sh on Android as
     the shell, instead of /bin/sh.

   - bpo-28779(231): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would
     crash the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated
     some multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-26937(232): The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class
     does not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for
     example on Android platforms.

   - bpo-28847(233): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and
     no longer writes the index file when it is not changed.  A
     deprecation warning is now emitted if the index file is missed and
     recreated in the 'r' and 'w' modes (will be an error in future
     Python releases).

   - bpo-27030(234): Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
     letter in re.sub() replacement templates regular expressions now
     are errors.

   - bpo-28835(235): Fix a regression introduced in
     warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was
     overridden inside the context manager.

   - bpo-27172(236): To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously
     documented deprecation of ‘inspect.getfullargspec()’ has been
     reversed.  This decision may be revisited again after the Python
     2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

   - bpo-28740(237): Add sys.getandroidapilevel(): return the build time
     API version of Android as an integer.  Function only available on
     Android.

   - bpo-26273(238): Add new ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (Linux 2.6.13) and
     ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37) constants.  Patch written
     by Omar Sandoval.

   - bpo-28752(239): Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime
     objects.

   - bpo-28727(240): Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern
     objects created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and
     x!=y operators).  This change should fix the bpo-18383(241): don't
     duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded
     (thing usually only done in unit tests).

   - bpo-20572(242): Remove the subprocess.Popen.wait endtime parameter.
     It was deprecated in 3.4 and undocumented prior to that.

   - bpo-25659(243): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the
     from_buffer() and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes
     like Array.

   - bpo-28548(244): In the "http.server" module, parse the protocol
     version if possible, to avoid using HTTP 0.9 in some error
     responses.

   - bpo-19717(245): Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not
     exist.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok

   - bpo-28563(246): Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution
     when handle plural form selections in the gettext module.  The
     expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU
     gettext.

   - bpo-28387(247): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper
     deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.
     Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-27517(248): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(249): Fixed segfault in curses's addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(250): tarfile.open() with mode "r" or "r:" now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(251): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-24241(252): The webbrowser in an X environment now prefers
     using the default browser directly.  Also, the webbrowser
     register() function now has a documented 'preferred' argument, to
     specify browsers to be returned by get() with no arguments.  Patch
     by David Steele

   - bpo-27939(253): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-28255(254): calendar.TextCalendar.prweek() no longer prints a
     space after a weeks's calendar.  calendar.TextCalendar.pryear() no
     longer prints redundant newline after a year's calendar.  Based on
     patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28255(255): calendar.TextCalendar.prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month's calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(256): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(257): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-28430(258): Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future
     doesn't accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

   - bpo-27025(259): Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by
     the "!"  prefix for readability.

   - bpo-25464(260): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module
     by addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(261): shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry "./" to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-25953(262): re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not
     found in the string.  Error message for invalid group reference now
     includes the group index and the position of the reference.  Based
     on patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-28469(263): timeit now uses the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20,
     50,...  instead of 1, 10, 100,...  for autoranging.

   - bpo-28115(264): Command-line interface of the zipfile module now
     uses argparse.  Added support of long options.

   - bpo-18219(265): Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of
     columns.  Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-28448(266): Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn't work on
     Windows.

   - bpo-23214(267): In the "io" module, the argument to BufferedReader
     and BytesIO's read1() methods is now optional and can be -1,
     matching the BufferedIOBase specification.

   - bpo-28480(268): Fix error building socket module when
     multithreading is disabled.

   - bpo-28240(269): timeit: remove ‘-c/--clock’ and ‘-t/--time’ command
     line options which were deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-28240(270): timeit now repeats the benchmarks 5 times instead
     of only 3 to make benchmarks more reliable.

   - bpo-28240(271): timeit autorange now uses a single loop iteration
     if the benchmark takes less than 10 seconds, instead of 10
     iterations.  "python3 -m timeit -s 'import time' 'time.sleep(1)'"
     now takes 4 seconds instead of 40 seconds.

   - Distutils.sdist now looks for README and setup.py files with case
     sensitivity.  This behavior matches that found in Setuptools 6.0
     and later.  See setuptools 100(272) for rationale.

   - bpo-24452(273): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X. Patch
     by Ned Batchelder.

   - bpo-20766(274): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-27998(275): Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on
     Windows.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-28317(276): The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

   - bpo-28380(277): unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly
     support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

   - bpo-28229(278): lzma module now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28321(279): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28225(280): bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by
     Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28227(281): gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28332(282): Deprecated silent truncations in socket.htons and
     socket.ntohs.  Original patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-27358(283): Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and
     improved error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword
     argument.

   - bpo-28257(284): Improved error message when passing a non-iterable
     as a var-positional argument.  Added opcode
     BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

   - bpo-28322(285): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-28228(286): imghdr now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28226(287): compileall now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28314(288): Fix function declaration (C flags) for the
     getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

   - bpo-28148(289): Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time
     module.  Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that
     is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.
     Patch by Ed Schouten.

   - bpo-28253(290): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months:
     0001-01 and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2()
     are reimplemented so that they don't call itermonthdates() which
     can cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(291): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(292): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18844(293): random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only
     argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into
     line with the signature used in other languages.

   - bpo-18893(294): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(295): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.  Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle
     constructor.

   - bpo-27348(296): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like "Exception: None".  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(297): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27778(298): Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the
     getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises
     a Python exception.

   - bpo-28200(299): Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
     path_converter() function).

   - bpo-25400(300): RobotFileParser now correctly returns default
     values for crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter
     Wirtz.

   - bpo-27932(301): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(302): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-22493(303): Warning message emitted by using inline flags in
     the middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex
     pattern.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-25270(304): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(305): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(306): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-28114(307): Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains
     byte strings.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-27599(308): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-27906(309): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(310): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn't properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(311): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(312): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA
     Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(313): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(314): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28325(315): Remove vestigial MacOS 9 macurl2path module and its
     tests.

   - bpo-28368(316): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher
     has no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(317): Raise RuntimeError when transport's FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(318): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(319): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(320): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(321): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch
     by Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(322): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   - bpo-24142(323): Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in
     an invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-29581(324): ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts ‘**kwargs’, allowing
     abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-25532(325): inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an
     object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects
     which create a new object on every attribute access.

   - bpo-30177(326): path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path
     after the first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by
     Antoine Pietri.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31431

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27629

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28182

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27340

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31178

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31350

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1198569

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31326

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27144

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31281

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10746

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27584

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22536

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29741

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31249

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31247

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23835

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31238

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5001

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31109

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30102

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18966

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31183

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5001

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31185

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31151

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31072

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24700

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31135

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31107

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31080

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30897

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31061

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30987

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30522

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30502

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5288

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30919

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26732

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19896

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30946

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25684

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<58>,  Next: Tests<56>,  Prev: Library<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.62.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31294(1): Fix incomplete code snippet in the
     ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt
     them to Python 3.

   - bpo-21649(2): Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
     documentation.

   - bpo-31128(3): Allow the pydoc server to bind to arbitrary
     hostnames.

   - bpo-30803(4): Clarify doc on truth value testing.  Original patch
     by Peter Thomassen.

   - bpo-30176(5): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-30052(6): the link targets for *note bytes(): 2c1. and *note
     bytearray(): 2c0. are now their respective type definitions, rather
     than the corresponding builtin function entries.  Use *note bytes:
     18a9. and *note bytearray: 18aa. to reference the latter.  In order
     to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
     automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the
     default output caching features in Sphinx.

   - bpo-26985(7): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   - bpo-19824(8): Improve the documentation for, and links to, template
     strings by emphasizing their utility for internationalization, and
     by clarifying some usage constraints.  (See also: bpo-20314(9),
     bpo-12518(10))

   - bpo-28929(11): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(12): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add
     a pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(13): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(14): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   - bpo-23722(15): The data model reference and the porting section in
     the 3.6 What's New guide now cover the additional ‘__classcell__’
     handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487(16)
     and zero-argument ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28513(17): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19824

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20314

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12518

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<56>,  Next: Build<56>,  Prev: Documentation<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.62.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-29639(1): test.support.HOST is now "localhost", a new HOSTv4
     constant has been added for your ‘127.0.0.1’ needs, similar to the
     existing HOSTv6 constant.

   - bpo-31320(2): Silence traceback in test_ssl

   - bpo-31346(3): Prefer PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER
     protocols for SSLContext.

   - bpo-25674(4): Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

   - bpo-30715(5): Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f.
     The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts
     handshake.

   - bpo-30822(6): regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest -all.  When
     running the test suite using -use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata
     since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots)
     which then times out on some buildbots.  Fix also regrtest command
     line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run
     test_zipfile64.

   - bpo-30695(7): Add the ‘set_nomemory(start, stop)’ and
     ‘remove_mem_hooks()’ functions to the ‘_testcapi’ module.

   - bpo-30357(8): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-30197(9): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn't exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

   - bpo-24932(10): Use proper command line parsing in _testembed

   - bpo-28950(11): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28683(12): Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
     PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

   - bpo-26936(13): Fix the test_socket failures on Android -
     getservbyname(), getservbyport() and getaddrinfo() are broken on
     some Android API levels.

   - bpo-28666(14): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(15): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   - bpo-26944(16): Fix test_posix for Android where 'id -G' is entirely
     wrong or missing the effective gid.

   - bpo-28409(17): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   - bpo-28217(18): Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

   - bpo-26939(19): Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
     test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29639

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31346

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24932

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26936

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939


File: python.info,  Node: Build<56>,  Next: Windows<55>,  Prev: Tests<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.62.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-31354(1): Allow ‘--with-lto’ to be used on all builds, not just
     ‘make profile-opt’.

   - bpo-31370(2): Remove support for building -without-threads.  This
     option is not really useful anymore in the 21st century.  Removing
     lots of conditional paths allows us to simplify the code base,
     including in difficult to maintain low-level internal code.

   - bpo-31341(3): Per PEP 11(4), support for the IRIX operating system
     was removed.

   - bpo-30854(5): Fix compile error when compiling -without-threads.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-30687(6): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-20210(7): Support the 'disabled' marker in Setup files.
     Extension modules listed after this marker are not built at all,
     neither by the Makefile nor by setup.py.

   - bpo-29941(8): Add ‘--with-assertions’ configure flag to explicitly
     enable C ‘assert()’ checks.  Defaults to off.  ‘--with-pydebug’
     implies ‘--with-assertions’.

   - bpo-28787(9): Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
     ‘--with--dtrace’.

   - bpo-29243(10): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during
     ‘make test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when
     configured with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(11): Don't regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(12): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn't work.

   - bpo-27593(13): sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
     python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git
     information rather than hg when building from a repo.

   - bpo-29572(14): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

   - bpo-27659(15): Prohibit implicit C function declarations: use
     ‘-Werror=implicit-function-declaration’ when possible (GCC and
     Clang, but it depends on the compiler version).  Patch written by
     Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-29384(16): Remove old Be OS helper scripts.

   - bpo-26851(17): Set Android compilation and link flags.

   - bpo-28768(18): Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto

   - bpo-29080(19): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(20): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-28762(21): lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but
     the F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

   - bpo-28538(22): Fix the compilation error that occurs because
     if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     if_nameindex structure is not defined.

   - bpo-20211(23): Do not add the directory for installing C header
     files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the
     cross compilation search paths.  Original patch by Thomas
     Petazzoni.

   - bpo-28849(24): Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on
     Android.

   - bpo-10656(25): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(26): Rename -with-optimiations to -enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28444(27): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28208(28): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     SQLite 3.14.2.

   - bpo-28248(29): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   - bpo-21124(30): Fix building the _struct module on Cygwin by passing
     ‘NULL’ instead of ‘&PyType_Type’ to PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT. Patch by
     Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-13756(31): Fix building extensions modules on Cygwin.  Patch by
     Roumen Petrov, based on original patch by Jason Tishler.

   - bpo-21085(32): Add configure check for siginfo_t.si_band, which
     Cygwin does not provide.  Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto with review
     and rebase by Erik Bray.

   - bpo-28258(33): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(34): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-27979(35): A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use
     when building _ctypes on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy
     of libffi is now required when building _ctypes on such platforms.

   - bpo-15819(36): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-28676(37): Prevent missing 'getentropy' declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31354

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31341

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20210

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27659

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29384

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21124

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13756

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21085

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<55>,  Next: IDLE<43>,  Prev: Build<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.62.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-31392(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0f

   - bpo-30389(2): Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31358(3): zlib is no longer bundled in the CPython source,
     instead it is downloaded on demand just like bz2, lzma, OpenSSL,
     Tcl/Tk, and SQLite.

   - bpo-31340(4): Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with
     Visual Studio 2017)

   - bpo-30581(5): os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of
     processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is
     greater than 64.

   - bpo-30916(6): Pre-build OpenSSL, Tcl and Tk and include the
     binaries in the build.

   - bpo-30731(7): Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it
     matches the schema.

   - bpo-30291(8): Allow requiring 64-bit interpreters from py.exe using
     -64 suffix.  Contributed by Steve (Gadget) Barnes.

   - bpo-30362(9): Adds list options (-0, -0p) to py.exe launcher.
     Contributed by Steve Barnes.

   - bpo-23451(10): Fix socket deprecation warnings in socketmodule.c.
     Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-30450(11): The build process on Windows no longer depends on
     Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python
     script.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py -3.6’),
     NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

   - bpo-29579(12): Removes readme.txt from the installer.

   - bpo-25778(13): winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28896(14): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by
     default

   - bpo-28522(15): Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

   - bpo-28402(16): Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

   - bpo-28333(17): Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts.
     (Patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28251(18): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(19): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-28161(20): Opening CON for write access fails

   - bpo-28162(21): WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line
     starts with Ctrl+Z

   - bpo-28163(22): WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to
     _open_osfhandle

   - bpo-28164(23): _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

   - bpo-28137(24): Renames Windows path file to ._pth

   - bpo-28138(25): Windows ._pth file should allow import site

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31358

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30916

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23451

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<43>,  Next: Tools/Demos<31>,  Prev: Windows<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.62.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31493(1): IDLE code context - fix code update and font update
     timers.  Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle
     completes.

   - bpo-31488(2): IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension
     classes.  When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each
     feature class.  Change ParenMatch so updated options affect
     existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

   - bpo-31477(3): IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc.  Strip trailing
     whitespace strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string
     literals are not skipped.

   - bpo-31480(4): IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension
     disabled by default.

   - bpo-31421(5): Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs.  IDLE calls
     tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction
     and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

   - bpo-31414(6): IDLE - fix tk entry box tests by deleting first.
     Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting
     because int('') will fail.

   - bpo-31051(7): Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window,
     Editor, and Help sections.

   - bpo-30617(8): IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass
     of editor.  Move some data and functions from the class to module
     level.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31287(9): IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in
     test_configdialog.

   - bpo-27099(10): Convert IDLE's built-in 'extensions' to regular
     features.  About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly
     optional extensions.  Their different behavior could be confusing
     or worse for users and not good for maintenance.  Hence the
     conversion.  The main difference for users is that user
     configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled
     uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its
     value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined together in the
     system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.  All
     custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All
     take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.  The affected events
     are '<<force-open-completions>>', '<<expand-word>>',
     '<<force-open-calltip>>', '<<flash-paren>>',
     '<<format-paragraph>>', '<<run-module>>', '<<check-module>>', and
     '<<zoom-height>>'.  Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3
     will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3.
     and vice versa.  Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-31206(11): IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31001(12): Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31205(13): IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  The slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31130(14): IDLE - stop leaks in test_configdialog.  Initial
     patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31002(15): Add tests for configdialog keys tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-19903(16): IDLE: Calltips use ‘inspect.signature’ instead of
     ‘inspect.getfullargspec’.  This improves calltips for builtins
     converted to use Argument Clinic.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-31083(17): IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in
     configdialog.  Update existing classes to match outline.  Initial
     patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31050(18): Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
     slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31004(19): IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Fix
     General tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30781(20): IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog.  Patches by
     Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31060(21): IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog
     Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid
     writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the
     groups into classes.

   - bpo-30853(22): IDLE - Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.
     Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a
     callback function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable
     calls the function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

   - bpo-31003(23): IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

   - bpo-30993(24): IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.  In
     configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab
     docstring.  Simplify some attribute names.  Move set_samples calls
     to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related
     functions to positions after the create widgets function.  In
     test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
     renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
     movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put
     all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.
     Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related
     functions.

   - bpo-30981(25): IDLE - Add more configdialog font page tests.

   - bpo-28523(26): IDLE: replace 'colour' with 'color' in configdialog.

   - bpo-30917(27): Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf.  Increase
     coverage from 46% to 96%.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30934(28): Document coverage details for idlelib tests.  Add
     section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.  Include check that
     branches are taken both ways.  Exclude IDLE-specific code that does
     not run during unit tests.

   - bpo-30913(29): IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and
     widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and
     splitting up the class.  Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30899(30): IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in
     config.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30881(31): IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-30851(32): IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One
     is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30870(33): IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down
     keys as well as mouse.  Initial patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-8231(34): IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

   - bpo-30779(35): IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog,
     put in config; test.  * In config, put dump test code in a
     function; run it and unittest in 'if __name__ == '__main__'.  * Add
     class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo
     issue.  * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using
     configdialog_tests_v1.py.  * Revise configdialog to use
     ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804.  * Revise test_configdialog
     to match configdialog changes.  * Remove configdialog functions
     unused or moved to ConfigChanges.  Cheryl Sabella contributed parts
     of the patch.

   - bpo-30777(36): IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix
     comments.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30495(37): IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names,
     and more tests.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30723(38): IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch.  Add
     'parens' style to highlight both opener and closer.  Make 'default'
     style, which is not default, a synonym for 'opener'.  Make
     time-delay work the same with all styles.  Add help for config
     dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch.  Add new
     tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-30674(39): IDLE: add docstrings to grep module.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella

   - bpo-21519(40): IDLE's basic custom key entry dialog now detects
     duplicates properly.  Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-29910(41): IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting
     out a region by a key shortcut.  Add ‘return 'break'’ for this and
     other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

   - bpo-30728(42): Review and change idlelib.configdialog names.
     Lowercase method and attribute names.  Replace 'colour' with
     'color', expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores.
     Replace ‘import *’ with specific imports.  Patches by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-6739(43): IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to
     bind them with tk.  Add tests for all 3 validation functions.
     Original patch by G Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-15786(44): Fix several problems with IDLE's autocompletion box.
     The following should now work: clicking on selection box items;
     using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return.  Hangs on
     MacOSX should no longer happen.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-25514(45): Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start.
     Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

   - bpo-30642(46): Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests.  Patches by Louie
     Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30495(47): Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names.
     Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30290(48): Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests.  Increase
     coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
     Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30303(49): Add _utest option to textview; add new tests.
     Increase coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan
     Reedy.

   - bpo-29071(50): IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur
     prefixes).

   - bpo-28572(51): Add 10% to coverage of IDLE's test_configdialog.
     Update and augment description of the configuration system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<31>,  Next: C API<51>,  Prev: IDLE<43>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.62.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30983(1): gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.)  work on
     optimized shared builds now, too.  PEP 523(2) introduced
     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on
     non-debug shared builds.  This broke the ability to use py-bt,
     py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations.  The
     problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
     frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno "Polaco"
     Penteado.

   - bpo-29748(3): Added the slice index converter in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-24037(4): Argument Clinic now uses the converter
     ‘bool(accept={int})’ rather than ‘int’ for semantical booleans.
     This avoids repeating the default value for Python and C and will
     help in converting to ‘bool’ in future.

   - bpo-29367(5): python-gdb.py now supports also ‘method-wrapper’
     (‘wrapperobject’) objects.

   - bpo-28023(6): Fix python-gdb.py didn't support new dict
     implementation.

   - bpo-15369(7): The pybench and pystone microbenchmark have been
     removed from Tools.  Please use the new Python benchmark suite
     ‘https://github.com/python/pyperformance’ which is more reliable
     and includes a portable version of pybench working on Python 2 and
     Python 3.

   - bpo-28102(8): The zipfile module CLI now prints usage to stderr.
     Patch by Stephen J. Turnbull.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29748

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24037

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15369

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28102


File: python.info,  Node: C API<51>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<31>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.62.10 C API
................

   - bpo-31338(1): Added the ‘Py_UNREACHABLE()’ macro for code paths
     which are never expected to be reached.  This and a few other
     useful macros are now documented in the C API manual.

   - bpo-30832(2): Remove own implementation for thread-local storage.
     CPython has provided the own implementation for thread-local
     storage (TLS) on Python/thread.c, it's used in the case which a
     platform has not supplied native TLS. However, currently all
     supported platforms (Windows and pthreads) have provided native TLS
     and defined the Py_HAVE_NATIVE_TLS macro with unconditional in any
     case.

   - bpo-30708(3): PyUnicode_AsWideCharString() now raises a ValueError
     if the second argument is NULL and the wchar_t* string contains
     null characters.

   - bpo-16500(4): Deprecate PyOS_AfterFork() and add PyOS_BeforeFork(),
     PyOS_AfterFork_Parent() and PyOS_AfterFork_Child().

   - bpo-6532(5): The type of results of PyThread_start_new_thread() and
     PyThread_get_thread_ident(), and the id parameter of
     PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc() changed from "long" to "unsigned long".

   - bpo-27867(6): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is deprecated and
     replaced with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the
     value between 0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or
     0x03060100 or higher.  Added functions PySlice_Unpack() and
     PySlice_AdjustIndices().

   - bpo-29083(7): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   - bpo-28769(8): The result of PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize() and
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8() is now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char
     *’.

   - bpo-29058(9): All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are
     now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX
     value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

   - bpo-28822(10): The index parameters 'start' and 'end' of
     PyUnicode_FindChar() are now adjusted to behave like
     ‘str[start:end]’.

   - bpo-28808(11): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   - bpo-28761(12): The fields name and doc of structures PyMemberDef,
     PyGetSetDef, PyStructSequence_Field, PyStructSequence_Desc, and
     wrapperbase are now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-28748(13): Private variable _Py_PackageContext is now of type
     ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-19569(14): Compiler warnings are now emitted if use most of
     deprecated functions.

   - bpo-28426(15): Deprecated undocumented functions
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(),
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30832

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28748

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19569

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 6 final,  Next: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.63 Python 3.6.6 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-27'

There were no new changes in version 3.6.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 6 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.64 Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-11'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<62>.
* Library: Library<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<59>.
* Tests: Tests<57>.
* Build: Build<57>.
* Windows: Windows<56>.
* macOS: macOS<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<44>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<32>.
* C API: C API<52>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<62>,  Next: Library<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.64.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33786(1): Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit
     in athrow() correctly

   - bpo-30654(2): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-33622(3): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add
     an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into the
     *note gc.garbage: 1052. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 7d2. can now
     be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-31849(4): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   - bpo-33391(5): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-28055(6): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by Rolf
     Eike Beer.

   - bpo-33231(7): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-29922(8): Improved error messages in 'async with' when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(9): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   - bpo-33041(10): Fixed jumping when the function contains an ‘async
     for’ loop.

   - bpo-32282(11): Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of
     VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

   - bpo-21983(12): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983


File: python.info,  Node: Library<63>,  Next: Documentation<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.64.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30167(1): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33812(2): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-30805(3): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33767(4): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’) sequence
     operations now raise *note TypeError: 2ba. instead of *note
     SystemError: 304. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 84e. objects.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32684(5): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33674(6): Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made()
     of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of
     using call_soon().  Previously, data_received() could be called
     before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or
     fail.

   - bpo-31647(7): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it's already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-33672(8): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython's bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33469(9): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-11874(10): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-30877(11): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON
     decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing
     after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33548(12): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33542(13): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead of
     a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(14): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - bpo-28556(15): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-20087(16): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(17): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-33197(18): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33383(19): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 32. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33329(20): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-991266(21): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 182f.

   - bpo-33131(22): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(23): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when converting
     an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with ‘line_info=False’
     and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-33263(24): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-33256(25): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33203(26): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’ for
     empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(27): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(28).  Convert an
     uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(29): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1831.

   - bpo-32861(30): The urllib.robotparser's ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the "Crawl-delay" and
     "Request-rate" fields.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-33096(31): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-33127(32): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-33021(33): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-27683(34): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 7a. that result
     of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
     containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-32844(35): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-31908(36): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-31457(37): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-16865(38): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 28.  Patch by
     Segev Finer.

   - bpo-31238(39): pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread
     class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and
     then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a
     reference cycle.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31238


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<59>,  Next: Tests<57>,  Prev: Library<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.64.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33503(1): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(2): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   - bpo-33378(3): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(4): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(5): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(6): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’ document.
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it
     is missed in the document.

   - bpo-33126(7): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(8): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(9): Update *note zipapp: 12a. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(10): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(11): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   - bpo-8243(12): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-31432(13): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<57>,  Next: Build<57>,  Prev: Documentation<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.64.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33655(1): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms
     that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-19417(2): Add test_bdb.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417


File: python.info,  Node: Build<57>,  Next: Windows<56>,  Prev: Tests<57>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.64.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-5755(1): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   - bpo-33614(2): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on
     Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33522(3): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33012(4): Add ‘-Wno-cast-function-type’ for gcc 8 for silencing
     warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
     definition lists.

   - bpo-33394(5): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<56>,  Next: macOS<43>,  Prev: Build<57>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.64.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33184(1): Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<43>,  Next: IDLE<44>,  Prev: Windows<56>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.64.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-33184(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<44>,  Next: Tools/Demos<32>,  Prev: macOS<43>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.64.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33656(1): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(2): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top
     of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(3): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(4): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(5): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(6): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   - bpo-33628(7): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(8): IDLE's code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-29706(9): IDLE now colors async and await as keywords in 3.6.
     They become full keywords in 3.7.

   - bpo-21474(10): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(11): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     'u' string prefix cannot be paired with either 'r' or 'f'.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   - bpo-32831(12): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29706

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<32>,  Next: C API<52>,  Prev: IDLE<44>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.64.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-33189(1): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(2): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(3): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-32885(4): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   - bpo-31583(5): Fix 2to3 for using with -add-suffix option but
     without -output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: C API<52>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<32>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.64.10 C API
................

   - bpo-32374(1): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 5 final,  Next: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.65 Python 3.6.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-28'

* Menu:

* Tests: Tests<58>.
* Build: Build<58>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<58>,  Next: Build<58>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 final

1.22.65.1 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32872(1): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872


File: python.info,  Node: Build<58>,  Prev: Tests<58>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 final

1.22.65.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-33163(1): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 5 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.66 Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<63>.
* Library: Library<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<60>.
* Tests: Tests<59>.
* Build: Build<59>.
* Windows: Windows<57>.
* macOS: macOS<44>.
* IDLE: IDLE<45>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<33>.
* C API: C API<53>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<39>,  Next: Core and Builtins<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.66.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-33001(1): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(2): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(3) and CVE 2018-1061(4).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<63>,  Next: Library<64>,  Prev: Security<39>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.66.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33026(1): Fixed jumping out of "with" block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-17288(2): Prevent jumps from 'return' and 'exception' trace
     events.

   - bpo-32889(3): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-32650(4): Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will
     correctly step over (next command) native coroutines.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-32685(5): Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print
     statement is either present on the same line as the header of a
     compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a
     newline.  Patch by Nitish Chandra.

   - bpo-32583(6): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   - bpo-26163(7): Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct
     hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar
     values.

   - bpo-27169(8): The ‘__debug__’ constant is now optimized out at
     compile time.  This fixes also bpo-22091(9).

   - bpo-32329(10): ‘sys.flags.hash_randomization’ is now properly set
     to 0 when hash randomization is turned off by ‘PYTHONHASHSEED=0’.

   - bpo-30416(11): The optimizer is now protected from spending much
     time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for
     creating large constants in constant folding.

   - bpo-18533(12): ‘repr()’ on a dict containing its own ‘values()’ or
     ‘items()’ no longer raises ‘RecursionError’; OrderedDict similarly.
     Instead, use ‘...’, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by
     Ben North.

   - bpo-32028(13): Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when
     generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3
     builtin print function calls.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-32137(14): The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a
     RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137


File: python.info,  Node: Library<64>,  Next: Documentation<60>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.66.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-33064(1): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-31804(2): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33037(3): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-30353(4): Fix ctypes pass-by-value for structs on 64-bit
     Cygwin/MinGW.

   - bpo-33009(5): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(6): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32713(7): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-30622(8): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(9): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32859(10): In ‘os.dup2’, don't check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-21060(11): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     "No dist file created in earlier command" to the more helpful "Must
     create and upload files in one command".

   - bpo-32857(12): In *note tkinter: ea, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 183. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-32852(13): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-32841(14): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-31787(15): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(16): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-32394(17): socket: Remove TCP_FASTOPEN, TCP_KEEPCNT flags on
     older version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-32777(18): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(19): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking
     for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked against
     libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32734(20): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(21): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-27931(22): Fix email address header parsing error when the
     username is an empty quoted string.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-32304(23): distutils' upload command no longer corrupts tar
     files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to
     CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

   - bpo-32502(24): uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit
     hardware address is encountered.

   - bpo-31848(25): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32555(26): On FreeBSD and Solaris, os.strerror() now always
     decode the byte string from the current locale encoding, rather
     than using ASCII/surrogateescape in some cases.

   - bpo-32521(27): The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and
     headers location.

   - bpo-32473(28): Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

   - bpo-32521(29): glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc
     headers and library in nis module.

   - bpo-32228(30): Ensure that ‘truncate()’ preserves the file position
     (as reported by ‘tell()’) after writes longer than the buffer size.

   - bpo-26133(31): Don't unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop
     on interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32185(32): The SSL module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI
     TLS extension on platforms with OpenSSL 1.0.2+ or inet_pton.

   - bpo-32323(33): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): bb1. does not convert
     zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in
     hostnames now.

   - bpo-32302(34): Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it
     binary compatible with CRT v140.

   - bpo-32255(35): A single empty field is now always quoted when
     written into a CSV file.  This allows to distinguish an empty row
     from a row consisting of a single empty field.  Patch by Licht
     Takeuchi.

   - bpo-32277(36): Raise ‘NotImplementedError’ instead of ‘SystemError’
     on platforms where ‘chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False)’ is not
     supported.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-32199(37): The getnode() ip getter now uses 'ip link' instead
     of 'ip link list'.

   - bpo-27456(38): Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux.  Tests by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-31900(39): The *note locale.localeconv(): a61. function now
     sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale
     to decode ‘decimal_point’ and ‘thousands_sep’ byte strings if they
     are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale is
     different than the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale.  This temporary change
     affects other threads.  Same change for the *note str.format():
     41b. method when formatting a number (*note int: 17e, *note float:
     26a, *note float: 26a. and subclasses) with the ‘n’ type (ex:
     ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’).

   - bpo-31802(40): Importing native path module (‘posixpath’, ‘ntpath’)
     now works even if the ‘os’ module still is not imported.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30353

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32555

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<60>,  Next: Tests<59>,  Prev: Library<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.66.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17232(1): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32800(2): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-8722(3): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 3ca.

   - bpo-32614(4): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 179. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-31972(5): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’ subclasses.

   - bpo-17799(6): Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and
     sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of
     events are received in each function.  Patch by Pablo Galindo
     Salgado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<59>,  Next: Build<59>,  Prev: Documentation<60>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.66.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32517(1): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-32721(2): Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is
     not built.

   - bpo-32252(3): Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to
     prevent core dump files when testing crashes.  getrlimit() returns
     zero on success.

   - bpo-31518(4): Debian Unstable has disabled TLS 1.0 and 1.1 for
     SSLv23_METHOD().  Change TLS/SSL protocol of some tests to
     PROTOCOL_TLS or PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 to make them pass on Debian.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31518


File: python.info,  Node: Build<59>,  Next: Windows<57>,  Prev: Tests<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.66.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-32635(1): Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is
     provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<57>,  Next: macOS<44>,  Prev: Build<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.66.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33016(1): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(2): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   - bpo-31966(3): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(4): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(5): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(6): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(7): Fix *note os.readlink(): 75e. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   - bpo-32588(8): Create standalone _distutils_findvs module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<44>,  Next: IDLE<45>,  Prev: Windows<57>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.66.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer
     variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only.
     Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.0.2n, XZ
     5.2.3, and SQLite 3.22.0.  The 10.9+ installer now links with and
     supplies its own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<45>,  Next: Tools/Demos<33>,  Prev: macOS<44>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.66.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32984(1): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e5a.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(2): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   - bpo-32916(3): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(4): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(5): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(6): Using the system and place-dependent default encoding
     for open() is a bad idea for IDLE's system and location-independent
     files.

   - bpo-32826(7): Add "encoding=utf-8" to open() in IDLE's
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to 'ascii' because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32765(8): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<33>,  Next: C API<53>,  Prev: IDLE<45>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.66.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-24960(1): 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files
     using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem.  This
     lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

   - bpo-32222(2): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions
     with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222


File: python.info,  Node: C API<53>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<33>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.66.11 C API
................

   - bpo-29084(1): Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded
     from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never
     worked in the limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 4 final,  Next: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.67 Python 3.6.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-18'

There were no new code changes in version 3.6.4 since v3.6.4rc1.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 4 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.68 Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<64>.
* Library: Library<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<61>.
* Tests: Tests<60>.
* Build: Build<60>.
* Windows: Windows<58>.
* macOS: macOS<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<46>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<34>.
* C API: C API<54>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<64>,  Next: Library<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.68.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32176(1): co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the
     code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than
     needing to be set correctly by the caller.  This ensures it will be
     cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected
     into a modified code object and function.

   - bpo-31949(2): Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
     (PyTraceBack_Print()).  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now
     suppresses printing tracebacks.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None
     now causes using the default limit.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to
     an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX
     rather than the default limit.  Fixed integer overflows in the case
     of more than ‘2**31’ traceback items on Windows.  Fixed output
     errors handling.

   - bpo-30696(3): Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly
     when no memory.

   - bpo-20047(4): Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now
     accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In
     particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus
     result when an integer is passed as a separator.

   - bpo-31852(5): Fix a segmentation fault caused by a combination of
     the async soft keyword and continuation lines.

   - bpo-21720(6): BytesWarning no longer emitted when the 'fromlist'
     argument of ‘__import__()’ or the ‘__all__’ attribute of the module
     contain bytes instances.

   - bpo-31825(7): Fixed OverflowError in the 'unicode-escape' codec and
     in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii byte.

   - bpo-28603(8): Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on
     interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable
     or compares equal to later ones.  Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-31786(9): Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31642(10): Restored blocking "from package import module" by
     setting sys.modules["package.module"] to None.

   - bpo-31626(11): Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a
     write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

   - bpo-31619(12): Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large
     number of underscores to integer with binary base.

   - bpo-31592(13): Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case
     of a bad ‘unicodedata.normalize()’.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31588(14): Raise a ‘TypeError’ with a helpful error message
     when class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad
     ‘__prepare__()’ method.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31566(15): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_warnings.warn()’ in
     case of a bad ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31505(16): Fix an assertion failure in ‘json’, in case
     ‘_json.make_encoder()’ received a bad ‘encoder()’ argument.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31492(17): Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import
     from a module with a bad ‘__name__’ attribute, and in case of
     failing to access an attribute of such a module.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31490(18): Fix an assertion failure in ‘ctypes’ class
     definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is
     specified in ‘_anonymous_’ but not in ‘_fields_’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31478(19): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_random.Random.seed()’
     in case the argument has a bad ‘__abs__()’ method.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31315(20): Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(),
     when spec.name is not a string.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31311(21): Fix a crash in the ‘__setstate__()’ method of
     ‘ctypes._CData’, in case of a bad ‘__dict__’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31293(22): Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a
     timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31285(23): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘warnings.warn_explicit’, when the return value of the received
     loader's ‘get_source()’ has a bad ‘splitlines()’ method.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30817(24): ‘PyErr_PrintEx()’ clears now the ignored exception
     that may be raised by ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’, for example when no
     memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31852

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31490

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817


File: python.info,  Node: Library<65>,  Next: Documentation<61>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.68.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28556(1): Two minor fixes for ‘typing’ module: allow shallow
     copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of
     ‘__init_subclass__’ with generics.  Original PRs by Ivan
     Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-27240(2): The header folding algorithm for the new email
     policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788(3),
     bpo-31831(4), and bpo-32182(5).  In particular, RFC2231 folding is
     now done correctly.

   - bpo-32186(6): io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release
     the GIL when getting the file size.  Fixed hang of all threads with
     inaccessible NFS server.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-12239(7): Make *note msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty():
     17ce. return ‘None’ when the value of property is ‘VT_EMPTY’.
     Initial patch by Mark Mc Mahon.

   - bpo-31325(8): Fix wrong usage of *note collections.namedtuple():
     731. in the *note RobotFileParser.parse(): 1892. method.  Initial
     patch by Robin Wellner.

   - bpo-12382(9): *note msilib.OpenDatabase(): 1726. now raises a
     better exception message when it couldn't open or create an MSI
     file.  Initial patch by William Tisäter.

   - bpo-32110(10): ‘codecs.StreamReader.read(n)’ now returns not more
     than 'n' characters/bytes for non-negative 'n'.  This makes it
     compatible with ‘read()’ methods of other file-like objects.

   - bpo-32072(11): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-32034(12): Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and
     LimitOverrunError pickleable.

   - bpo-32015(13): Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of
     reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the
     socket.

   - bpo-32011(14): Restored support of loading marshal files with the
     TYPE_INT64 code.  These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

   - bpo-31970(15): Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

   - bpo-9678(16): Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:
     Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD,
     NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

   - bpo-30057(17): Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

   - bpo-31933(18): Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big
     endian platforms.  Patch by Jack O'Connor.

   - bpo-31927(19): Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.
     Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a
     AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

   - bpo-27666(20): Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and
     curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is
     less than the size of C long.  curses.box() now accepts characters
     as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve Fink.

   - bpo-31897(21): plistlib now catches more errors when read binary
     plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected
     exceptions.

   - bpo-25720(22): Fix the method for checking pad state of curses
     WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-31893(23): Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on
     OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event
     objects.

   - bpo-31891(24): Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

   - bpo-28416(25): Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the
     persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the
     persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

   - bpo-28326(26): Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or
     stderr is closed or None.

   - bpo-31457(27): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-31457(28): The ‘manager’ property on LoggerAdapter objects is
     now properly settable.

   - bpo-31806(29): Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(),
     threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-28603(30): traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during
     printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception
     or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable.  Patch by
     Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-30058(31): Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

   - bpo-31770(32): Prevent a crash when calling the ‘__init__()’ method
     of a ‘sqlite3.Cursor’ object more than once.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31672(33): ‘idpattern’ in ‘string.Template’ matched some
     non-ASCII characters.  Now it uses ‘-i’ regular expression local
     flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-31764(34): Prevent a crash in ‘sqlite3.Cursor.close()’ in case
     the ‘Cursor’ object is uninitialized.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31752(35): Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called
     with custom integers.

   - bpo-31701(36): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC
     and COM exceptions.

   - bpo-31728(37): Prevent crashes in ‘_elementtree’ due to unsafe
     cleanup of ‘Element.text’ and ‘Element.tail’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31620(38): an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn't leak memory when
     queue.get pollers timeout

   - bpo-31632(39): Fix method set_protocol() of class
     _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module.  This method was
     previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

   - bpo-31675(40): Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter's methods splitlist()
     and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-31673(41): Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter's method
     adderrorinfo().

   - bpo-30806(42): Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

   - bpo-15037(43): Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for
     ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

   - bpo-25351(44): Avoid venv activate failures with undefined
     variables

   - bpo-25532(45): inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an
     object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects
     which create a new object on every attribute access.

   - bpo-30347(46): Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over
     itertools.groupby() iterators.

   - bpo-31516(47): ‘threading.current_thread()’ should not return a
     dummy thread at shutdown.

   - bpo-31351(48): python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit
     code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

   - bpo-31482(49): ‘random.seed()’ now works with bytes in version=1

   - bpo-31334(50): Fix ‘poll.poll([timeout])’ in the ‘select’ module
     for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
     non-negative integer or -1.  Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

   - bpo-31310(51): multiprocessing's semaphore tracker should be
     launched again if crashed.

   - bpo-31308(52): Make multiprocessing's forkserver process immune to
     Ctrl-C and other user interruptions.  If it crashes, restart it
     when necessary.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25532

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<61>,  Next: Tests<60>,  Prev: Library<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.68.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32105(1): Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
     versionadded marker.

   - bpo-31537(2): Fix incorrect usage of ‘get_history_length’ in
     readline documentation example code.  Patch by Brad Smith.

   - bpo-30085(3): The operator functions without double underscores are
     preferred for clarity.  The one with underscores are only kept for
     back-compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<60>,  Next: Build<60>,  Prev: Documentation<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.68.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31380(1): Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS:
     fails on APFS.

   - bpo-31705(2): Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older
     than 4.5.  The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le).
     A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

   - bpo-31174(3): Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now
     stores the names sample to always test the same files.  It prevents
     false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

   - bpo-30695(4): Add the ‘set_nomemory(start, stop)’ and
     ‘remove_mem_hooks()’ functions to the ‘_testcapi’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695


File: python.info,  Node: Build<60>,  Next: Windows<58>,  Prev: Tests<60>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.68.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-32059(1): ‘detect_modules()’ in ‘setup.py’ now also searches
     the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

   - bpo-31957(2): Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for
     Windows.

   - bpo-31609(3): Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

   - bpo-31934(4): Abort the build when building out of a not clean
     source tree.

   - bpo-31926(5): Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation
     errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c
     file with the same name.

   - bpo-28791(6): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28791(7): Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-22140(8): Prevent double substitution of prefix in
     python-config.sh.

   - bpo-31536(9): Avoid wholesale rebuild after ‘make regen-all’ if
     nothing changed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<58>,  Next: macOS<45>,  Prev: Build<60>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.68.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-1102(1): Return ‘None’ when ‘View.Fetch()’ returns
     ‘ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS’ instead of raising ‘MSIError’.  Initial patch
     by Anthony Tuininga.

   - bpo-31944(2): Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<45>,  Next: IDLE<46>,  Prev: Windows<58>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.68.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-31392(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<46>,  Next: Tools/Demos<34>,  Prev: macOS<45>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.68.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32207(1): Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When
     tk event handling is driven by IDLE's run loop, a confusing and
     distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk
     event exception tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when
     event handling is driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion
     by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-32164(2): Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py.  Use of
     TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

   - bpo-32100(3): IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve
     tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31858(4): IDLE - Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the
     shell.  Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt
     line.  This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline
     is inserted.  Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but
     is not set or changed.

   - bpo-31860(5): The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is
     now editable.  Changes persist while IDLE remains open

   - bpo-31836(6): Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle,
     which sets ps1.  The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it
     to '>>> ' if not.  Test_code_module now properly tests both
     behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.

   - bpo-28603(7): Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when
     printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable.
     Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-13802(8): Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE's Font settings
     sample.  Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset
     of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other
     fonts that define a character.  The expanded example give users of
     non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE's
     shell and editors.  To make room for the expanded sample, frames on
     the Font tab are re-arranged.  The Font/Tabs help explains a bit
     about the additions.

   - bpo-31460(9): Simplify the API of IDLE's Module Browser.  Passing a
     widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of
     creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a
     full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file
     opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in
     .py.

   - bpo-31649(10): IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

   - bpo-31559(11): Remove test order dependence in
     idle_test.test_browser.

   - bpo-31459(12): Rename IDLE's module browser from Class Browser to
     Module Browser.  The original module-level class and method browser
     became a module browser, with the addition of module-level
     functions, years ago.  Nested classes and functions were added
     yesterday.  For back-compatibility, the virtual event
     <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the
     Settings dialog, is not changed.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31500(13): Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

   - bpo-1612262(14): IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and
     functions.  Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo
     and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<34>,  Next: C API<54>,  Prev: IDLE<46>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.68.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30722(1): Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.
     Also, remove the ‘LOCALE’ option since it doesn't work with string
     patterns in Python 3.  Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722


File: python.info,  Node: C API<54>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<34>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.68.10 C API
................

   - bpo-20891(1): Fix PyGILState_Ensure().  When PyGILState_Ensure() is
     called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only
     call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix
     a crash.

   - bpo-31532(2): Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in
     getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

   - bpo-30697(3): The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton is removed
     and ‘PyErr_NormalizeException()’ does not use it anymore.  This
     singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may
     cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter.  See also
     bpo-22898(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 3 final,  Next: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.69 Python 3.6.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-10-03'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<66>.
* Build: Build<61>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<66>,  Next: Build<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 final

1.22.69.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-31641(1): Re-allow arbitrary iterables in
     ‘concurrent.futures.as_completed()’.  Fixes regression in 3.6.3rc1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31641


File: python.info,  Node: Build<61>,  Prev: Library<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 final

1.22.69.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-31662(1): Fix typos in Windows ‘uploadrelease.bat’ script.  Fix
     Windows Doc build issues in ‘Doc/make.bat’.

   - bpo-31423(2): Fix building the PDF documentation with newer
     versions of Sphinx.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31423


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 3 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.70 Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-09-18'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<65>.
* Library: Library<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<62>.
* Tests: Tests<61>.
* Build: Build<62>.
* Windows: Windows<59>.
* IDLE: IDLE<47>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<35>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<40>,  Next: Core and Builtins<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.70.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29781(1): SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when
     handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

   - bpo-30947(2): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<65>,  Next: Library<67>,  Prev: Security<40>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.70.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31471(1): Fix an assertion failure in ‘subprocess.Popen()’ on
     Windows, in case the env argument has a bad ‘keys()’ method.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31418(2): Fix an assertion failure in ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable()’
     in case of an exception with a bad ‘__module__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31416(3): Fix assertion failures in case of a bad
     warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31411(4): Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
     warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31373(5): Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior
     due to floating-point demotions.

   - bpo-30465(6): Location information (‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’) in
     f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8
     from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line
     of the file).

   - bpo-31343(7): Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and
     makedev().  GNU C libray plans to remove the functions from
     sys/types.h.

   - bpo-31291(8): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.get_data’ on Windows, when the return value
     of ‘pathname.replace('/','\\')’ isn't a string.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31271(9): Fix an assertion failure in the ‘write()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’, when the encoder doesn't return a bytes object.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31243(10): Fix a crash in some methods of ‘io.TextIOWrapper’,
     when the decoder's state is invalid.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30721(11): ‘print’ now shows correct usage hint for using
     Python 2 redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31070(12): Fix a race condition in importlib
     _get_module_lock().

   - bpo-31095(13): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn't call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   - bpo-31071(14): Avoid masking original TypeError in call with *
     unpacking when other arguments are passed.

   - bpo-30978(15): str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions
     through.  Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError
     exception.

   - bpo-30808(16): Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal
     state.

   - bpo-30876(17): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30703(18): Improve signal delivery.  Avoid using
     Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
     signal-unsafe functions.  The tests I'm adding here fail without
     the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal
     delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

   - bpo-30765(19): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-31161(20): Make sure the 'Missing parentheses' syntax error
     message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses.  Patch
     by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-30814(21): Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from
     a package.

   - bpo-30597(22): ‘print’ now shows expected input in custom error
     message when used as a Python 2 statement.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31471

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31418

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31416

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31411

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31373

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30465

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31343

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31271

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31243

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30721

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31070

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31071

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30978

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30808

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30703

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31161

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30814

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30597


File: python.info,  Node: Library<67>,  Next: Documentation<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.70.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-31499(1): xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-28556(2): typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns
     for classes and modules by default (when no ‘globalns’ was
     specified by the caller).

   - bpo-28556(3): Speed improvements to the ‘typing’ module.  Original
     PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

   - bpo-31544(4): The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored
     exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in
     XMLParser().

   - bpo-31234(5): socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a
     reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on
     success.

   - bpo-31457(6): LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

   - bpo-31400(7): Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error
     numbers.

   - bpo-28958(8): ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information
     when a context cannot be instantiated.

   - bpo-27340(9): SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create
     slices of data.  This fixes support for all bytes-like object.  It
     is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

   - bpo-31178(10): Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in
     the subprocess module

   - bpo-31350(11): Micro-optimize ‘asyncio._get_running_loop()’ to
     become up to 10% faster.

   - bpo-31170(12): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   - bpo-29136(13): Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

   - bpo-29212(14): Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor
     threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no
     thread_name_prefix is supplied.  They will now identify themselves
     as "ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n".

   - bpo-9146(15): Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when
     standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked
     OpenSSL library.  As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

   - bpo-27144(16): The ‘map()’ and ‘as_completed()’ iterators in
     ‘concurrent.futures’ now avoid keeping a reference to yielded
     objects.

   - bpo-10746(17): Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118(18) type codes
     for integer types.

   - bpo-22536(19): The subprocess module now sets the filename when
     FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable
     or cwd not being found.

   - bpo-31249(20): concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by
     ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an
     exception object and the WorkItem object.

   - bpo-31247(21): xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles
     when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

   - bpo-30102(22): The ssl and hashlib modules now call
     OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0.  The
     function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU
     architectures such as POWER8.  Patch is based on research from
     Gustavo Serra Scalet.

   - bpo-31185(23): Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup
     module.

   - bpo-31135(24): ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and
     OptionMenu classes.  Call the parent destroy() method even if the
     used attribute doesn't exist.  The LabeledScale.destroy() method
     now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the
     garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

   - bpo-31107(25): Fix ‘copyreg._slotnames()’ mangled attribute
     calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore.
     Patch by Shane Harvey.

   - bpo-31061(26): Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

   - bpo-30502(27): Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-30119(28): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30595(29): multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls
     its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock
     but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

   - bpo-29403(30): Fix ‘unittest.mock’'s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(31): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in
     tracemalloc.

   - bpo-25684(32): Change ‘ttk.OptionMenu’ radiobuttons to be unique
     across instances of ‘OptionMenu’.

   - bpo-30886(33): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now
     waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by
     the same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(34): Fix segfault in readline when using readline's
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30319(35): socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

   - bpo-30828(36): Fix out of bounds write in
     ‘asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()’.

   - bpo-30807(37): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(38): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-30532(39): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-30879(40): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(41): Prohibited the '=' character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-29755(42): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27340

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31178

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31350

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29212

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9146

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27144

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10746

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22536

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31249

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31247

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30102

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31185

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31135

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31107

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31061

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30502

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30595

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25684

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30319

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30828

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<62>,  Next: Tests<61>,  Prev: Library<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.70.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31294(1): Fix incomplete code snippet in the
     ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt
     them to Python 3.

   - bpo-21649(2): Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
     documentation.

   - bpo-30803(3): Clarify doc on truth value testing.  Original patch
     by Peter Thomassen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<61>,  Next: Build<62>,  Prev: Documentation<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.70.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31320(1): Silence traceback in test_ssl

   - bpo-25674(2): Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

   - bpo-30715(3): Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f.
     The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts
     handshake.

   - bpo-30822(4): regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest -all.  When
     running the test suite using -use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata
     since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots)
     which then times out on some buildbots.  Fix also regrtest command
     line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run
     test_zipfile64.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822


File: python.info,  Node: Build<62>,  Next: Windows<59>,  Prev: Tests<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.70.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-30854(1): Fix compile error when compiling -without-threads.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<59>,  Next: IDLE<47>,  Prev: Build<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.70.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-30389(1): Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31340(2): Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with
     Visual Studio 2017)

   - bpo-30581(3): os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of
     processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is
     greater than 64.

   - bpo-30731(4): Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it
     matches the schema.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<47>,  Next: Tools/Demos<35>,  Prev: Windows<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.70.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31493(1): IDLE code context - fix code update and font update
     timers.  Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle
     completes.

   - bpo-31488(2): IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension
     classes.  When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each
     feature class.  Change ParenMatch so updated options affect
     existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

   - bpo-31477(3): IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc.  Strip trailing
     whitespace strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string
     literals are not skipped.

   - bpo-31480(4): IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension
     disabled by default.

   - bpo-31421(5): Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs.  IDLE calls
     tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction
     and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

   - bpo-31414(6): IDLE - fix tk entry box tests by deleting first.
     Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting
     because int('') will fail.

   - bpo-31051(7): Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window,
     Editor, and Help sections.

   - bpo-30617(8): IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass
     of editor.  Move some data and functions from the class to module
     level.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31287(9): IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in
     test_configdialog.

   - bpo-27099(10): Convert IDLE's built-in 'extensions' to regular
     features.  About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly
     optional extensions.  Their different behavior could be confusing
     or worse for users and not good for maintenance.  Hence the
     conversion.  The main difference for users is that user
     configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled
     uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its
     value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined together in the
     system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.  All
     custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All
     take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.  The affected events
     are '<<force-open-completions>>', '<<expand-word>>',
     '<<force-open-calltip>>', '<<flash-paren>>',
     '<<format-paragraph>>', '<<run-module>>', '<<check-module>>', and
     '<<zoom-height>>'.  Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3
     will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3.
     and vice versa.  Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-31206(11): IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31001(12): Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31205(13): IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  The slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31130(14): IDLE - stop leaks in test_configdialog.  Initial
     patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31002(15): Add tests for configdialog keys tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-19903(16): IDLE: Calltips use ‘inspect.signature’ instead of
     ‘inspect.getfullargspec’.  This improves calltips for builtins
     converted to use Argument Clinic.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-31083(17): IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in
     configdialog.  Update existing classes to match outline.  Initial
     patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31050(18): Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
     slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31004(19): IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Fix
     General tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30781(20): IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog.  Patches by
     Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31060(21): IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog
     Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid
     writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the
     groups into classes.

   - bpo-30853(22): IDLE - Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.
     Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a
     callback function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable
     calls the function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

   - bpo-31003(23): IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

   - bpo-30993(24): IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.  In
     configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab
     docstring.  Simplify some attribute names.  Move set_samples calls
     to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related
     functions to positions after the create widgets function.  In
     test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
     renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
     movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put
     all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.
     Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related
     functions.

   - bpo-30981(25): IDLE - Add more configdialog font page tests.

   - bpo-28523(26): IDLE: replace 'colour' with 'color' in configdialog.

   - bpo-30917(27): Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf.  Increase
     coverage from 46% to 96%.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30934(28): Document coverage details for idlelib tests.  Add
     section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.  Include check that
     branches are taken both ways.  Exclude IDLE-specific code that does
     not run during unit tests.

   - bpo-30913(29): IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and
     widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and
     splitting up the class.  Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30899(30): IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in
     config.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30881(31): IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-30851(32): IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One
     is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30870(33): IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down
     keys as well as mouse.  Initial patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-8231(34): IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

   - bpo-30779(35): IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog,
     put in config; test.  * In config, put dump test code in a
     function; run it and unittest in 'if __name__ == '__main__'.  * Add
     class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo
     issue.  * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using
     configdialog_tests_v1.py.  * Revise configdialog to use
     ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804.  * Revise test_configdialog
     to match configdialog changes.  * Remove configdialog functions
     unused or moved to ConfigChanges.  Cheryl Sabella contributed parts
     of the patch.

   - bpo-30777(36): IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix
     comments.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30495(37): IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names,
     and more tests.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30723(38): IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch.  Add
     'parens' style to highlight both opener and closer.  Make 'default'
     style, which is not default, a synonym for 'opener'.  Make
     time-delay work the same with all styles.  Add help for config
     dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch.  Add new
     tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-30674(39): IDLE: add docstrings to grep module.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella

   - bpo-21519(40): IDLE's basic custom key entry dialog now detects
     duplicates properly.  Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-29910(41): IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting
     out a region by a key shortcut.  Add ‘return 'break'’ for this and
     other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

   - bpo-30728(42): Review and change idlelib.configdialog names.
     Lowercase method and attribute names.  Replace 'colour' with
     'color', expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores.
     Replace ‘import *’ with specific imports.  Patches by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-6739(43): IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to
     bind them with tk.  Add tests for all 3 validation functions.
     Original patch by G Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<35>,  Prev: IDLE<47>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.70.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30983(1): gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.)  work on
     optimized shared builds now, too.  PEP 523(2) introduced
     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on
     non-debug shared builds.  This broke the ability to use py-bt,
     py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations.  The
     problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
     frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno "Polaco"
     Penteado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 final,  Next: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.71 Python 3.6.2 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-17'

No changes since release candidate 2


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.72 Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<41>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<41>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2

1.22.72.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-30730(1): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(2): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(3)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(4) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(5) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0's fix to CVE 2016-0718(6)) and CVE 2012-0876(7) (Counter hash
     flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(8) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn't impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(9): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.73 Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-06-17'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<42>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<66>.
* Library: Library<68>.
* IDLE: IDLE<48>.
* C API: C API<55>.
* Build: Build<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<63>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<36>.
* Tests: Tests<62>.
* Windows: Windows<60>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<42>,  Next: Core and Builtins<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.73.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29591(1): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes of
     CVE 2016-0718(2) and CVE 2016-4472(3).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<66>,  Next: Library<68>,  Prev: Security<42>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.73.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-30682(1): Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for
     certain f-strings, such as eval("f'\n'") and eval("f'\r'").

   - bpo-30604(2): Move co_extra_freefuncs to not be per-thread to avoid
     crashes

   - bpo-29104(3): Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

   - bpo-27945(4): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(5): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-30039(6): If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter
     is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested 'yield from' or
     'await' calls, it's now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

   - bpo-12414(7): sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the
     sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it
     references.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29949(8): Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset
     object.

   - bpo-29935(9): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-29859(10): Show correct error messages when any of the
     pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

   - bpo-28876(11): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises
     *note OverflowError: 6ad.

   - bpo-29600(12): Fix wrapping coroutine return values in
     StopIteration.

   - bpo-28856(13): Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should
     support objects follow the buffer protocol.

   - bpo-29714(14): Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when
     containing zero bytes inside.

   - bpo-29478(15): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30682

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30604

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30039

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12414

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29949

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29859

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28856

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29714

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478


File: python.info,  Node: Library<68>,  Next: IDLE<48>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.73.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-30616(1): Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums.
     Patched by Donghee Na

   - bpo-30038(2): Fix race condition between signal delivery and wakeup
     file descriptor.  Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

   - bpo-23894(3): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rb'...'’ and ‘f'...'’
     strings.

   - bpo-23890(4): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks
     a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

   - bpo-30149(5): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30645(6): Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing it
     for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch by
     Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-29931(7): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-30605(8): re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when
     compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch
     by Roy Williams.

   - bpo-24484(9): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup
     (#2159)

   - bpo-28994(10): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(11): Don't log exceptions if Task/Future "cancel()"
     method was called.

   - bpo-28556(12): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-29870(13): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(14): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(15): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30418(16): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-29822(17): inspect.isabstract() now works during
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-29581(18): ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts ‘**kwargs’, allowing
     abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-30557(19): faulthandler now correctly filters and displays
     exception codes on Windows

   - bpo-30378(20): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-29960(21): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30414(22): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(23): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30301(24): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30329(25): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-30375(26): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30048(27): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-30266(28): contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
     anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
     following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958(29).  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-30298(30): Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for
     inline modifiers.  Now allowed several subsequential inline
     modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g.  ‘'(?i)(?s)...'’).  In
     verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and
     between inline modifiers (e.g.  ‘'(?x) (?i) (?s)...'’).

   - bpo-29990(31): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-26293(32): Change resulted because of zipfile breakage.  (See
     also: bpo-29094(33))

   - bpo-30243(34): Removed the __init__ methods of _json's scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30185(35): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-28556(36): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(37): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30070(38): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-30061(39): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30017(40): Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry
     writer object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now
     always produces a ValueError.

   - bpo-30068(41): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it's closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(42): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(43): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-29998(44): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29953(45): Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of
     datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

   - bpo-29942(46): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-27863(47): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race
     conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-28699(48): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25803(49): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(50): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-29884(51): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(52): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(53): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-29742(54): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-8256(55): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes "encoding" or "errors" of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28298(56): Fix a bug that prevented array 'Q', 'L' and 'I' from
     accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28231(57): The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects for
     external paths.

   - bpo-26915(58): index() and count() methods of
     collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking
     equality when do comparisons.

   - bpo-29615(59): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or
     any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-30177(60): path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path
     after the first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by
     Antoine Pietri.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30616

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30038

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23894

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30605

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29822

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29581

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30557

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30266

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30298

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30017

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29953

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28231

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26915

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30177


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<48>,  Next: C API<55>,  Prev: Library<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.73.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15786(1): Fix several problems with IDLE's autocompletion box.
     The following should now work: clicking on selection box items;
     using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return.  Hangs on
     MacOSX should no longer happen.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-25514(2): Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start.
     Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

   - bpo-30642(3): Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests.  Patches by Louie
     Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30495(4): Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names.
     Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30290(5): Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests.  Increase
     coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
     Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30303(6): Add _utest option to textview; add new tests.
     Increase coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan
     Reedy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303


File: python.info,  Node: C API<55>,  Next: Build<63>,  Prev: IDLE<48>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.73.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() no longer replaced
     with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867


File: python.info,  Node: Build<63>,  Next: Documentation<63>,  Prev: C API<55>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.73.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-29941(1): Add ‘--with-assertions’ configure flag to explicitly
     enable C ‘assert()’ checks.  Defaults to off.  ‘--with-pydebug’
     implies ‘--with-assertions’.

   - bpo-28787(2): Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
     ‘--with--dtrace’.

   - bpo-29243(3): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during ‘make
     test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when configured
     with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(4): Don't regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(5): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn't work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<63>,  Next: Tools/Demos<36>,  Prev: Build<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.73.7 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-30176(1): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-30052(2): the link targets for *note bytes(): 2c1. and *note
     bytearray(): 2c0. are now their respective type definitions, rather
     than the corresponding builtin function entries.  Use *note bytes:
     18a9. and *note bytearray: 18aa. to reference the latter.  In order
     to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
     automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the
     default output caching features in Sphinx.

   - bpo-26985(3): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<36>,  Next: Tests<62>,  Prev: Documentation<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.73.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-29367(1): python-gdb.py now supports also ‘method-wrapper’
     (‘wrapperobject’) objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<62>,  Next: Windows<60>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<36>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.73.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-30357(1): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-30197(2): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn't exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<60>,  Prev: Tests<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.73.10 Windows
..................

   - bpo-30687(1): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-30450(2): The build process on Windows no longer depends on
     Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python
     script.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py -3.6’),
     NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 1 final,  Next: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.74 Python 3.6.1 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-03-21'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<67>.
* Build: Build<64>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<67>,  Next: Build<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 final

1.22.74.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-29723(1): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(2) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  The interpreter now
     consistently avoids ever adding the import location's parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139


File: python.info,  Node: Build<64>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 final

1.22.74.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-27593(1): fix format of git information used in sys.version

   - Fix incompatible comment in python.h

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 1 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.75 Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-03-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<68>.
* Library: Library<69>.
* IDLE: IDLE<49>.
* Windows: Windows<61>.
* C API: C API<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<64>.
* Tests: Tests<63>.
* Build: Build<65>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<68>,  Next: Library<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.75.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28893(1): Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid
     awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

   - bpo-29683(2): Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.
     Patch by Brian Coleman.

   - bpo-29684(3): Fix minor regression of
     PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords.  It should raise TypeError when
     kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv when args=NULL and
     kwargs is not a dict.

   - bpo-28598(4): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29607(5): Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX.
     Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-29602(6): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(7): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29438(8): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29319(9): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(10): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29327(11): Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword
     argument to sorted().

   - bpo-29034(12): Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
     (path_converter).

   - bpo-29159(13): Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises
     Exception.

   - bpo-28932(14): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-25677(15): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret
     for indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(16): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding
     in alternate form.

   - bpo-26919(17): On Android, operating system data is now always
     encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to
     avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which
     are already using UTF-8.

   - bpo-28991(18): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28739(19): f-string expressions are no longer accepted as
     docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include
     expressions.

   - bpo-28512(20): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28918(21): Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python
     has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

   - bpo-28731(22): Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct
     size dict.  Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to
     30%.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28893

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29684

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29607

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29327

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29034

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29159

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26919

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28739

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28918

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28731


File: python.info,  Node: Library<69>,  Next: IDLE<49>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.75.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-29169(1): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-29623(2): Allow use of path-like object as a single argument in
     ConfigParser.read().  Patch by David Ellis.

   - bpo-28963(3): Fix out of bound iteration in
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

   - bpo-29704(4): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no longer
     closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29271(5): Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks implemented
     in C to accept None argument as their pure Python implementation.

   - bpo-29703(6): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29376(7): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-28624(8): Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of Popen()
     accepts PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

   - bpo-28518(9): Start a transaction implicitly before a DML
     statement.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-29532(10): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-29110(11): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-28556(12): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(13): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29519(14): Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter
     shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and
     custom codecs.

   - bpo-29416(15): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(16): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29335(17): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(18): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(19): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29316(20): Restore the provisional status of typing module, add
     corresponding note to documentation.  Patch by Ivan L.

   - bpo-29219(21): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-29011(22): Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the
     typing module.

   - bpo-28969(23): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-29142(24): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   - bpo-28961(25): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don't ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-29203(26): functools.lru_cache() now respects PEP 468(27) and
     preserves the order of keyword arguments.  f(a=1, b=2) is now
     cached separately from f(b=2, a=1) since both calls could
     potentially give different results.

   - bpo-15812(28): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first
     line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-29094(29): Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file
     object and modes "w" and "x" now are relative to the start of the
     file.

   - bpo-29085(30): Allow random.Random.seed() to use high quality OS
     randomness rather than the pid and time.

   - bpo-29061(31): Fixed bug in secrets.randbelow() which would hang
     when given a negative input.  Patch by Brendan Donegan.

   - bpo-29079(32): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on
     Windows

   - bpo-13051(33): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-29119(34): Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
     collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method.  Contributed by Andra
     Bogildea.

   - bpo-9770(35): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(36): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(37): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-29055(38): Neaten-up empty population error on random.choice()
     by suppressing the upstream exception.

   - bpo-28871(39): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(40): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(41): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a
     sequence that doesn't own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-28779(42): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash
     the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some
     multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-28847(43): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no
     longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

   - bpo-26937(44): The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class does
     not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for example
     on Android platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29623

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28963

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29271

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28624

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28518

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29316

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29203

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29085

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29061

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29079

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29055

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26937


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<49>,  Next: Windows<61>,  Prev: Library<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.75.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-29071(1): IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur
     prefixes).

   - bpo-28572(2): Add 10% to coverage of IDLE's test_configdialog.
     Update and augment description of the configuration system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<61>,  Next: C API<56>,  Prev: IDLE<49>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.75.4 Windows
.................

   - bpo-29579(1): Removes readme.txt from the installer

   - bpo-29326(2): Ignores blank lines in ._pth files (Patch by Alexey
     Izbyshev)

   - bpo-28164(3): Correctly handle special console filenames (patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-29409(4): Implement PEP 529(5) for io.FileIO (Patch by Eryk
     Sun)

   - bpo-29392(6): Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into
     msvcrt module.

   - bpo-25778(7): winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28896(8): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by
     default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29326

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29409

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896


File: python.info,  Node: C API<56>,  Next: Documentation<64>,  Prev: Windows<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.75.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a
     macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the value between
     0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

   - bpo-29083(2): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   - bpo-29058(3): All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are
     now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX
     value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<64>,  Next: Tests<63>,  Prev: C API<56>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.75.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28929(1): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(2): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a
     pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(3): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(4): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<63>,  Next: Build<65>,  Prev: Documentation<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.75.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28087(1): Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on
     macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to
     unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some
     macOS versions.

   - bpo-29571(2): to match the behaviour of the ‘re.LOCALE’ flag,
     test_re.test_locale_flag now uses
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ to determine the candidate
     encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test
     when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

   - bpo-28950(3): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28683(4): Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
     PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

   - bpo-26939(5): Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
     test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939


File: python.info,  Node: Build<65>,  Prev: Tests<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.75.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-27593(1): sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
     python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git
     information rather than hg when building from a repo.

   - bpo-29572(2): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

   - bpo-26851(3): Set Android compilation and link flags.

   - bpo-28768(4): Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode.  Patch
     by Masayuki Yamamoto

   - bpo-29080(5): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(6): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-28762(7): lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

   - bpo-28538(8): Fix the compilation error that occurs because
     if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     if_nameindex structure is not defined.

   - bpo-20211(9): Do not add the directory for installing C header
     files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the
     cross compilation search paths.  Original patch by Thomas
     Petazzoni.

   - bpo-28849(10): Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on
     Android.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 final,  Next: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.76 Python 3.6.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-23'

No changes since release candidate 2


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.77 Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-16'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<69>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<37>.
* Windows: Windows<62>.
* Build: Build<66>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<69>,  Next: Tools/Demos<37>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.22.77.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28147(1): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.  Patch
     written by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28990(2): Fix asyncio SSL hanging if connection is closed
     before handshake is completed.  (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28990


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<37>,  Next: Windows<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.22.77.2 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-28770(1): Fix python-gdb.py for fastcalls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28770


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<62>,  Next: Build<66>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<37>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.22.77.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28896(1): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896


File: python.info,  Node: Build<66>,  Prev: Windows<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.22.77.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-28898(1): Prevent gdb build errors due to HAVE_LONG_LONG
     redefinition.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.78 Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-06'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<70>.
* Library: Library<70>.
* C API: C API<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<65>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<70>,  Next: Library<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.22.78.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-23722(1): Rather than silently producing a class that doesn't
     support zero-argument ‘super()’ in methods, failing to pass the new
     ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry up to ‘type.__new__’ now results in
     a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and a class that supports zero-argument
     ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28797(2): Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__
     method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer
     prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

   - bpo-28782(3): Fix a bug in the implementation ‘yield from’ when
     checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression
     introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647(4)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28797

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28782

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647


File: python.info,  Node: Library<70>,  Next: C API<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.22.78.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27030(1): Unknown escapes in re.sub() replacement template are
     allowed again.  But they still are deprecated and will be disabled
     in 3.7.

   - bpo-28835(2): Fix a regression introduced in
     warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was
     overridden inside the context manager.

   - bpo-27172(3): To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously
     documented deprecation of ‘inspect.getfullargspec()’ has been
     reversed.  This decision may be revisited again after the Python
     2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

   - bpo-26273(4): Add new ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (Linux 2.6.13) and
     ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37) constants.  Patch written
     by Omar Sandoval.

   - bpo-24142(5): Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in an
     invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-28843(6): Fix asyncio C Task to handle exceptions
     __traceback__.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28835

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28843


File: python.info,  Node: C API<57>,  Next: Documentation<65>,  Prev: Library<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.22.78.3 C API
...............

   - bpo-28808(1): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<65>,  Next: Tools/Demos<38>,  Prev: C API<57>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.22.78.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-23722(1): The data model reference and the porting section in
     the What's New guide now cover the additional ‘__classcell__’
     handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487(2)
     and zero-argument ‘super()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<38>,  Prev: Documentation<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.22.78.5 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-28023(1): Fix python-gdb.py didn't support new dict
     implementation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.79 Python 3.6.0 beta 4
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-11-21'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<71>.
* Library: Library<71>.
* Documentation: Documentation<66>.
* Tests: Tests<64>.
* Build: Build<67>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<71>,  Next: Library<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.22.79.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28532(1): Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

   - bpo-27100(2): The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before it
     checks for __exit__.  This gives less confusing error messages when
     both methods are missing.  Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

   - bpo-28746(3): Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on
     platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

   - bpo-26920(4): Fix not getting the locale's charset upon
     initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have
     langinfo.

   - bpo-28648(5): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19398(6): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in
     case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28665(7): Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

   - bpo-28583(8): PyDict_SetDefault didn't combine split table when
     needed.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27243(9): Change PendingDeprecationWarning ->
     DeprecationWarning.  As it was agreed in the issue, __aiter__
     returning an awaitable should result in PendingDeprecationWarning
     in 3.5 and in DeprecationWarning in 3.6.

   - bpo-26182(10): Fix a refleak in code that raises
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-28721(11): Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow() to
     handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28532

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27100

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28746

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26920

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28665

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28583

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28721


File: python.info,  Node: Library<71>,  Next: Documentation<66>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.22.79.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28752(1): Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime
     objects.

   - bpo-28727(2): Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern objects
     created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and x!=y
     operators).  This change should fix the bpo-18383(3): don't
     duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded
     (thing usually only done in unit tests).

   - bpo-20572(4): The subprocess.Popen.wait method's undocumented
     endtime parameter now raises a DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-25659(5): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer()
     and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

   - bpo-19717(6): Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not
     exist.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok

   - bpo-28563(7): Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution when
     handle plural form selections in the gettext module.  The
     expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU
     gettext.

   - bpo-28387(8): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper deallocator
     when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.  Based on
     patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-28600(9): Optimize loop.call_soon.

   - bpo-28613(10): Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if
     called from coroutines/callbacks.

   - bpo-28634(11): Fix asyncio.isfuture() to support unittest.Mock.

   - bpo-26081(12): Fix refleak in _asyncio.Future.__iter__().throw.

   - bpo-28639(13): Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch
     by Justin Mayfield.

   - bpo-28652(14): Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not
     support.

   - bpo-28653(15): Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

   - bpo-28703(16): Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock
     objects.

   - bpo-28704(17): Fix create_unix_server to support Path-like objects
     (PEP 519).

   - bpo-28720(18): Add collections.abc.AsyncGenerator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28752

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28727

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20572

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19717

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28563

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28600

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28634

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28639

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28652

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28653

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28703

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28704

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<66>,  Next: Tests<64>,  Prev: Library<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.22.79.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28513(1): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<64>,  Next: Build<67>,  Prev: Documentation<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.22.79.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28666(1): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(2): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839


File: python.info,  Node: Build<67>,  Prev: Tests<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.22.79.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-10656(1): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(2): Rename -with-optimiations to -enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28676(3): Prevent missing 'getentropy' declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.80 Python 3.6.0 beta 3
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-10-31'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<72>.
* Library: Library<72>.
* Windows: Windows<63>.
* Build: Build<68>.
* Tests: Tests<65>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<72>,  Next: Library<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.22.80.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28128(1): Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape
     sequences now prints better information about where the error
     occurs.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-28509(2): dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large
     memory.

   - bpo-28426(3): Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()
     in debug build.

   - bpo-28517(4): Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer that
     caused keeping unreachable code.

   - bpo-28214(5): Improved exception reporting for problematic
     __set_name__ attributes.

   - bpo-23782(6): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and
     exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28471(7): Fix "Python memory allocator called without holding
     the GIL" crash in socket.setblocking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28509

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28517

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28471


File: python.info,  Node: Library<72>,  Next: Windows<63>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.22.80.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27517(1): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(2): Fixed segfault in curses's addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(3): tarfile.open() with mode "r" or "r:" now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(4): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-27939(5): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-18844(6): The various ways of specifying weights for
     random.choices() now produce the same result sequences.

   - bpo-28255(7): calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month's calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(8): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(9): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-28430(10): Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future doesn't
     accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

   - bpo-27025(11): Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by the
     "!"  prefix for readability.

   - bpo-25464(12): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by
     addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(13): shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry "./" to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-25953(14): re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not
     found in the string.  Error message for invalid group reference now
     includes the group index and the position of the reference.  Based
     on patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-18219(15): Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of columns.
     Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-28448(16): Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn't work on
     Windows.

   - bpo-28480(17): Fix error building socket module when multithreading
     is disabled.

   - bpo-24452(18): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

   - bpo-20766(19): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-28492(20): Fix how StopIteration exception is raised in
     _asyncio.Future.

   - bpo-28500(21): Fix asyncio to handle async gens GC from another
     thread.

   - bpo-26923(22): Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once
     all children are done.  Patch by Johannes Ebke.

   - bpo-26796(23): Don't configure the number of workers for default
     threadpool executor.  Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

   - bpo-28544(24): Implement asyncio.Task in C.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28430

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18219

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28448

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28480

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28492

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28500

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26923

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26796

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<63>,  Next: Build<68>,  Prev: Library<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.22.80.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28522(1): Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522


File: python.info,  Node: Build<68>,  Next: Tests<65>,  Prev: Windows<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.22.80.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-28444(1): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28208(2): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     SQLite 3.14.2.

   - bpo-28248(3): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<65>,  Prev: Build<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.22.80.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-26944(1): Fix test_posix for Android where 'id -G' is entirely
     wrong or missing the effective gid.

   - bpo-28409(2): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.81 Python 3.6.0 beta 2
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-10-10'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<73>.
* Library: Library<73>.
* Windows: Windows<64>.
* C API: C API<58>.
* Build: Build<69>.
* Tests: Tests<66>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<73>,  Next: Library<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.81.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28183(1): Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

   - bpo-26081(2): Added C implementation of asyncio.Future.  Original
     patch by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-28379(3): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(4): The type of long range iterator is now registered as
     Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(5): Creating instances of range_iterator by calling
     range_iterator type now is deprecated.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(6): The constructor of range_iterator now checks that
     step is not 0.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(7): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(8): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(9): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28201(10): Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash
     table when hashes have same lower bits.

   - bpo-28350(11): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(12): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(13): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-21578(14): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(15): Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error
     message.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-28086(16): Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact tuple.

   - bpo-28214(17): Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead
     of the instance.

   - bpo-27955(18): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28192(19): Don't import readline in isolated mode.

   - Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

   - bpo-28131(20): Fix a regression in zipimport's compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-28126(21): Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy().  Visual Studio can
     properly optimize memcpy().

   - bpo-28120(22): Fix dict.pop() for splitted dictionary when trying
     to remove a "pending key" (Not yet inserted in split-table).  Patch
     by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26182(23): Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await
     keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28183

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28201

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28086

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28192

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28126

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28120

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182


File: python.info,  Node: Library<73>,  Next: Windows<64>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.81.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27998(1): Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on Windows.
     Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-28317(2): The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

   - bpo-26293(3): Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the
     start of the file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the
     start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

   - bpo-28380(4): unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly
     support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

   - bpo-27181(5): remove statistics.geometric_mean and defer until 3.7.

   - bpo-28229(6): lzma module now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28321(7): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28225(8): bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by
     Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28227(9): gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-27358(10): Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and improved
     error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword argument.

   - bpo-28257(11): Improved error message when passing a non-iterable
     as a var-positional argument.  Added opcode
     BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

   - bpo-28322(12): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-28228(13): imghdr now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28226(14): compileall now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28314(15): Fix function declaration (C flags) for the
     getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

   - bpo-28148(16): Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time
     module.  Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that
     is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.
     Patch by Ed Schouten.

   - bpo-28253(17): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01
     and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are
     reimplemented so that they don't call itermonthdates() which can
     cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(18): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(19): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18844(20): random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only
     argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into
     line with the signature used in other languages.

   - bpo-18893(21): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(22): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.  Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle
     constructor.

   - bpo-27348(23): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like "Exception: None".  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(24): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27778(25): Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the
     getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises
     a Python exception.

   - bpo-28200(26): Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
     path_converter() function).

   - bpo-25400(27): RobotFileParser now correctly returns default values
     for crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter Wirtz.

   - bpo-27932(28): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(29): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-22493(30): Warning message emitted by using inline flags in the
     middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex
     pattern.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-25270(31): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(32): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(33): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-28114(34): Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains
     byte strings.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-27599(35): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-27906(36): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(37): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn't properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(38): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(39): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(40): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(41): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28368(42): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher has
     no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(43): Raise RuntimeError when transport's FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(44): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(45): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(46): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(47): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(48): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27998

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28317

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28229

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28225

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28227

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27358

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28228

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28226

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28314

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28148

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28200

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25400

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28114

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<64>,  Next: C API<58>,  Prev: Library<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.81.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28402(1): Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

   - bpo-28333(2): Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts.
     (Patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28251(3): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(4): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-28161(5): Opening CON for write access fails

   - bpo-28162(6): WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line starts
     with Ctrl+Z

   - bpo-28163(7): WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to
     _open_osfhandle

   - bpo-28164(8): _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

   - bpo-28137(9): Renames Windows path file to ._pth

   - bpo-28138(10): Windows ._pth file should allow import site

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138


File: python.info,  Node: C API<58>,  Next: Build<69>,  Prev: Windows<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.81.4 C API
...............

   - bpo-28426(1): Deprecated undocumented functions
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(),
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426


File: python.info,  Node: Build<69>,  Next: Tests<66>,  Prev: C API<58>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.81.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-28258(1): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(2): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-15819(3): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<66>,  Prev: Build<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.81.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28217(1): Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.82 Python 3.6.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-09-12'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<74>.
* Library: Library<74>.
* IDLE: IDLE<50>.
* C API: C API<59>.
* Tests: Tests<67>.
* Build: Build<70>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<39>.
* Windows: Windows<65>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<74>,  Next: Library<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.82.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-23722(1): The __class__ cell used by zero-argument super() is
     now initialized from type.__new__ rather than __build_class__, so
     class methods relying on that will now work correctly when called
     from metaclass methods during class creation.  Patch by Martin
     Teichmann.

   - bpo-25221(2): Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when
     Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

   - bpo-27080(3): Implement formatting support for PEP 515(4).  Initial
     patch by Chris Angelico.

   - bpo-27199(5): In tarfile, expose copyfileobj bufsize to improve
     throughput.  Patch by Jason Fried.

   - bpo-27948(6): In f-strings, only allow backslashes inside the
     braces (where the expressions are).  This is a breaking change from
     the 3.6 alpha releases, where backslashes are allowed anywhere in
     an f-string.  Also, require that expressions inside f-strings be
     enclosed within literal braces, and not escapes like
     ‘f'\x7b"hi"\x7d'’.

   - bpo-28046(7): Remove platform-specific directories from sys.path.

   - bpo-28071(8): Add early-out for differencing from an empty set.

   - bpo-25758(9): Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a
     filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-25856(10): The __module__ attribute of extension classes and
     functions now is interned.  This leads to more compact pickle data
     with protocol 4.

   - bpo-27213(11): Rework CALL_FUNCTION* opcodes to produce shorter and
     more efficient bytecode.  Patch by Demur Rumed, design by Serhiy
     Storchaka, reviewed by Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-26331(12): Implement tokenizing support for PEP 515(13).  Patch
     by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-27999(14): Make "global after use" a SyntaxError, and ditto for
     nonlocal.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-28003(15): Implement PEP 525(16) - Asynchronous Generators.

   - bpo-27985(17): Implement PEP 526(18) - Syntax for Variable
     Annotations.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-26058(19): Add a new private version to the builtin dict type,
     incremented at each dictionary creation and at each dictionary
     change.  Implementation of the PEP 509.

   - bpo-27364(20): A backslash-character pair that is not a valid
     escape sequence now generates a DeprecationWarning.  Patch by
     Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27350(21): ‘dict’ implementation is changed like PyPy.  It is
     more compact and preserves insertion order.  (Concept developed by
     Raymond Hettinger and patch by Inada Naoki.)

   - bpo-27911(22): Remove unnecessary error checks in
     ‘exec_builtin_or_dynamic()’.

   - bpo-27078(23): Added BUILD_STRING opcode.  Optimized f-strings
     evaluation.

   - bpo-17884(24): Python now requires systems with inttypes.h and
     stdint.h

   - bpo-27961(25): Require platforms to support ‘long long’.  Python
     hasn't compiled without ‘long long’ for years, so this is basically
     a formality.

   - bpo-27355(26): Removed support for Windows CE. It was never
     finished, and Windows CE is no longer a relevant platform for
     Python.

   - Implement PEP 523(27).

   - bpo-27870(28): A left shift of zero by a large integer no longer
     attempts to allocate large amounts of memory.

   - bpo-25402(29): In int-to-decimal-string conversion, improve the
     estimate of the intermediate memory required, and remove an
     unnecessarily strict overflow check.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-27214(30): In long_invert, be more careful about modifying
     object returned by long_add, and remove an unnecessary check for
     small longs.  Thanks Oren Milman for analysis and patch.

   - bpo-27506(31): Support passing the bytes/bytearray.translate()
     "delete" argument by keyword.

   - bpo-27812(32): Properly clear out a generator's frame's
     backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

   - bpo-27811(33): Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been
     awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

   - bpo-27587(34): Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer
     check after use of 'def' in _PyState_AddModule().  Initial patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-27792(35): The modulo operation applied to ‘bool’ and other
     ‘int’ subclasses now always returns an ‘int’.  Previously the
     return type depended on the input values.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26984(36): int() now always returns an instance of exact int.

   - bpo-25604(37): Fix a minor bug in integer true division; this bug
     could potentially have caused off-by-one-ulp results on platforms
     with unreliable ldexp implementations.

   - bpo-24254(38): Make class definition namespace ordered by default.

   - bpo-27662(39): Fix an overflow check in ‘List_New’: the original
     code was checking against ‘Py_SIZE_MAX’ instead of the correct
     upper bound of ‘Py_SSIZE_T_MAX’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27782(40): Multi-phase extension module import now correctly
     allows the ‘m_methods’ field to be used to add module level
     functions to instances of non-module types returned from
     ‘Py_create_mod’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27936(41): The round() function accepted a second None argument
     for some types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by
     accepting None for all numeric types.

   - bpo-27487(42): Warn if a submodule argument to "python -m" or
     runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages
     are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

   - bpo-27157(43): Make only type() itself accept the one-argument
     form.  Patch by Eryk Sun and Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27558(44): Fix a SystemError in the implementation of "raise"
     statement.  In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there
     is no active exception to reraise.  Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28008(45): Implement PEP 530(46) - asynchronous comprehensions.

   - bpo-27942(47): Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27080

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27199

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27948

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28046

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28071

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25856

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26331

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27999

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26058

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27911

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27961

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27355

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27870

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25402

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27214

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27506

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27792

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26984

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25604

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24254

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27662

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27157

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28008

   (46) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942


File: python.info,  Node: Library<74>,  Next: IDLE<50>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.82.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28732(1): Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

   - bpo-28485(2): Always raise ValueError for negative
     compileall.compile_dir(workers=...)  parameter, even when
     multithreading is unavailable.

   - bpo-28037(3): Use sqlite3_get_autocommit() instead of setting
     Connection->inTransaction manually.

   - bpo-25283(4): Attributes tm_gmtoff and tm_zone are now available on
     all platforms in the return values of time.localtime() and
     time.gmtime().

   - bpo-24454(5): Regular expression match object groups are now
     accessible using __getitem__.  "mo[x]" is equivalent to
     "mo.group(x)".

   - bpo-10740(6): sqlite3 no longer implicitly commit an open
     transaction before DDL statements.

   - bpo-17941(7): Add a 'module' parameter to collections.namedtuple().

   - bpo-22493(8): Inline flags now should be used only at the start of
     the regular expression.  Deprecation warning is emitted if uses
     them in the middle of the regular expression.

   - bpo-26885(9): xmlrpc now supports unmarshalling additional data
     types used by Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics and None.

   - bpo-28070(10): Fixed parsing inline verbose flag in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-19500(11): Add client-side SSL session resumption to the ssl
     module.

   - bpo-28022(12): Deprecate ssl-related arguments in favor of
     SSLContext.  The deprecation include manual creation of SSLSocket
     and certfile/keyfile (or similar) in ftplib, httplib, imaplib,
     smtplib, poplib and urllib.

   - bpo-28043(13): SSLContext has improved default settings:
     OP_NO_SSLv2, OP_NO_SSLv3, OP_NO_COMPRESSION,
     OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE, OP_SINGLE_DH_USE, OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE
     and HIGH ciphers without MD5.

   - bpo-24693(14): Changed some RuntimeError's in the zipfile module to
     more appropriate types.  Improved some error messages and debugging
     output.

   - bpo-17909(15): ‘json.load’ and ‘json.loads’ now support binary
     input encoded as UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.  Patch by Serhiy
     Storchaka.

   - bpo-27137(16): the pure Python fallback implementation of
     ‘functools.partial’ now matches the behaviour of its accelerated C
     counterpart for subclassing, pickling and text representation
     purposes.  Patch by Emanuel Barry and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with
     unusual usage patterns.

   - bpo-1703178(17): Fix the ability to pass the -link-objects option
     to the distutils build_ext command.

   - bpo-28019(18): itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step
     in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

   - bpo-18401(19): Pdb now supports the 'readrc' keyword argument to
     control whether .pdbrc files should be read.  Patch by Martin
     Matusiak and Sam Kimbrel.

   - bpo-25969(20): Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
     generalizations added in 3.5.

   - bpo-14977(21): mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the
     mailcap files ("first match"), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by
     Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-28082(22): Convert re flag constants to IntFlag.

   - bpo-28025(23): Convert all ssl module constants to IntEnum and
     IntFlags.  SSLContext properties now return flags and enums.

   - bpo-23591(24): Add Flag, IntFlag, and auto() to enum module.

   - bpo-433028(25): Added support of modifier spans in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-24594(26): Validates persist parameter when opening MSI
     database

   - bpo-17582(27): xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in
     attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by
     Stefan Behnel.)

   - bpo-28047(28): Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64
     CTE in the new email policies.

   - bpo-27576(29): Fix call order in OrderedDict.__init__().

   - email.generator.DecodedGenerator now supports the policy keyword.

   - bpo-28027(30): Remove undocumented modules from ‘Lib/plat-*’: IN,
     CDROM, DLFCN, TYPES, CDIO, and STROPTS.

   - bpo-27445(31): Don't pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload().
     Patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-24277(32): The new email API is no longer provisional, and the
     docs have been reorganized and rewritten to emphasize the new API.

   - bpo-22450(33): urllib now includes an ‘Accept: */*’ header among
     the default headers.  This makes the results of REST API requests
     more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are
     involved.

   - lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
     between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the
     hash randomization setting.

   - bpo-28005(34): Allow ImportErrors in encoding implementation to
     propagate.

   - bpo-26667(35): Support path-like objects in importlib.util.

   - bpo-27570(36): Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null
     source pointers in the "ctypes" and "array" modules.

   - bpo-22233(37): Break email header lines 'only' on the RFC specified
     CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This
     also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

   - bpo-27331(38): The email.mime classes now all accept an optional
     policy keyword.

   - bpo-27988(39): Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of
     payload list.

   - bpo-16113(40): Add SHA-3 and SHAKE support to hashlib module.

   - Eliminate a tautological-pointer-compare warning in _scproxy.c.

   - bpo-27776(41): The *note os.urandom(): 2a3. function does now block
     on Linux 3.17 and newer until the system urandom entropy pool is
     initialized to increase the security.  This change is part of the
     PEP 524(42).

   - bpo-27778(43): Expose the Linux ‘getrandom()’ syscall as a new
     *note os.getrandom(): b2a. function.  This change is part of the
     PEP 524(44).

   - bpo-27691(45): Fix ssl module's parsing of GEN_RID subject
     alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

   - bpo-18844(46): Add random.choices().

   - bpo-25761(47): Improved error reporting about truncated pickle data
     in C implementation of unpickler.  UnpicklingError is now raised
     instead of AttributeError and ValueError in some cases.

   - bpo-26798(48): Add BLAKE2 (blake2b and blake2s) to hashlib.

   - bpo-26032(49): Optimized globbing in pathlib by using os.scandir();
     it is now about 1.5-4 times faster.

   - bpo-25596(50): Optimized glob() and iglob() functions in the glob
     module; they are now about 3-6 times faster.

   - bpo-27928(51): Add scrypt (password-based key derivation function)
     to hashlib module (requires OpenSSL 1.1.0).

   - bpo-27850(52): Remove 3DES from ssl module's default cipher list to
     counter measure sweet32 attack ( CVE 2016-2183(53)).

   - bpo-27766(54): Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module's default cipher
     list.  (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

   - bpo-25387(55): Check return value of winsound.MessageBeep.

   - bpo-27866(56): Add SSLContext.get_ciphers() method to get a list of
     all enabled ciphers.

   - bpo-27744(57): Add AF_ALG (Linux Kernel crypto) to socket module.

   - bpo-26470(58): Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - bpo-11620(59): Fix support for SND_MEMORY in winsound.PlaySound.
     Based on a patch by Tim Lesher.

   - bpo-11734(60): Add support for IEEE 754 half-precision floats to
     the struct module.  Based on a patch by Eli Stevens.

   - bpo-27919(61): Deprecated ‘extra_path’ distribution option in
     distutils packaging.

   - bpo-23229(62): Add new ‘cmath’ constants: ‘cmath.inf’ and
     ‘cmath.nan’ to match ‘math.inf’ and ‘math.nan’, and also
     ‘cmath.infj’ and ‘cmath.nanj’ to match the format used by complex
     repr.

   - bpo-27842(63): The csv.DictReader now returns rows of type
     OrderedDict.  (Contributed by Steve Holden.)

   - Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access.  It
     never worked but previously didn't raise.

   - bpo-12885(64): Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

   - bpo-27881(65): Fixed possible bugs when setting
     sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27861(66): Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a
     factory creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19884(67): Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

   - bpo-27706(68): Restore deterministic behavior of
     random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1.
     Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those
     obtained in Python 2.  Patch by Nofar Schnider.

   - bpo-10513(69): Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements
     should not be reset after a commit.

   - bpo-12319(70): Chunked transfer encoding support added to
     http.client.HTTPConnection requests.  The
     urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler class does not enforce a
     Content-Length header any more.  If a HTTP request has a file or
     iterable body, but no Content-Length header, the library now falls
     back to use chunked transfer-encoding.

   - A new version of typing.py from ‘https://github.com/python/typing’:
     - Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598(71)) - Add FrozenSet to
     __all__ (upstream #261) - fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream
     #259) - Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type
     (upstream #252)

   - bpo-27832(72): Make ‘_normalize’ parameter to ‘Fraction’
     constructor keyword-only, so that ‘Fraction(2, 3, 4)’ now raises
     ‘TypeError’.

   - bpo-27539(73): Fix unnormalised ‘Fraction.__pow__’ result in the
     case of negative exponent and negative base.

   - bpo-21718(74): cursor.description is now available for queries
     using CTEs.

   - bpo-27819(75): In distutils sdists, simply produce the "gztar"
     (gzipped tar format) distributions on all platforms unless
     "formats" is supplied.

   - bpo-2466(76): posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount
     points which the user does not have permission to access.

   - bpo-9998(77): On Linux, ctypes.util.find_library now looks in
     LD_LIBRARY_PATH for shared libraries.

   - bpo-27573(78): exit message for code.interact is now configurable.

   - bpo-27930(79): Improved behaviour of
     logging.handlers.QueueListener.  Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr
     Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

   - bpo-6766(80): Distributed reference counting added to
     multiprocessing to support nesting of shared values / proxy
     objects.

   - bpo-21201(81): Improves readability of multiprocessing error
     message.  Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

   - asyncio: Add set_protocol / get_protocol to Transports.

   - bpo-27456(82): asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25283

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10740

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28070

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24693

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27137

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1703178

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28019

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18401

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25969

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14977

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28082

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24594

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17582

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28047

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27576

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28027

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27445

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22450

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28005

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26667

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27570

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22233

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27988

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27776

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778

   (44) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27691

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25761

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (53) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25387

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27866

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11620

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12885

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27881

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27861

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19884

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27706

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10513

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27832

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27539

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21718

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2466

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27930

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21201

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<50>,  Next: C API<59>,  Prev: Library<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.82.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15308(1): Add 'interrupt execution' (^C) to Shell menu.  Patch
     by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

   - bpo-27922(2): Stop IDLE tests from 'flashing' gui widgets on the
     screen.

   - bpo-27891(3): Consistently group and sort imports within idlelib
     modules.

   - bpo-17642(4): add larger font sizes for classroom projection.

   - Add version to title of IDLE help window.

   - bpo-25564(5): In section on IDLE - console differences, mention
     that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each
     statement.

   - bpo-27821(6): Fix 3.6.0a3 regression that prevented custom key sets
     from being selected when no custom theme was defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27891

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17642

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27821


File: python.info,  Node: C API<59>,  Next: Tests<67>,  Prev: IDLE<50>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.82.4 C API
...............

   - bpo-26900(1): Excluded underscored names and other private API from
     limited API.

   - bpo-26027(2): Add support for path-like objects in
     PyUnicode_FSConverter() & PyUnicode_FSDecoder().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26900

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<67>,  Next: Build<70>,  Prev: C API<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.82.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27427(1): Additional tests for the math module.  Patch by
     Francisco Couzo.

   - bpo-27953(2): Skip math and cmath tests that fail on OS X 10.4 due
     to a poor libm implementation of tan.

   - bpo-26040(3): Improve test_math and test_cmath coverage and rigour.
     Patch by Jeff Allen.

   - bpo-27787(4): Call gc.collect() before checking each test for
     "dangling threads", since the dangling threads are weak references.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27953

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26040

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787


File: python.info,  Node: Build<70>,  Next: Tools/Demos<39>,  Prev: Tests<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.82.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-27566(1): Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa
     Roach)

   - bpo-27705(2): Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

   - bpo-27976(3): Deprecate building _ctypes with the bundled copy of
     libffi on non-OSX UNIX platforms.

   - bpo-27983(4): Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as
     required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than
     make time when ‘--with-optimizations’ is enabled.  Also improve our
     ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

   - bpo-21590(5): Support for DTrace and SystemTap probes.

   - bpo-26307(6): The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the built-in
     modules.

   - bpo-26359(7): Add the -with-optimizations flag to turn on LTO and
     PGO build support when available.

   - bpo-27917(8): Set platform triplets for Android builds.

   - bpo-25825(9): Update references to the $(LIBPL) installation path
     on AIX. This path was changed in 3.2a4.

   - Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.14.1 and XZ 5.2.2.

   - bpo-21122(10): Fix LTO builds on OS X.

   - bpo-17128(11): Build OS X installer with a private copy of OpenSSL.
     Also provide a sample Install Certificates command script to
     install a set of root certificates from the third-party certifi
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27976

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27917

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21122

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<39>,  Next: Windows<65>,  Prev: Build<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.82.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27952(1): Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and
     the current "re" module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes,
     and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<65>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<39>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.82.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28065(1): Update xz dependency to 5.2.2 and build it from
     source.

   - bpo-25144(2): Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with
     custom install.

   - bpo-1602(3): Windows console doesn't input or print Unicode (PEP
     528)

   - bpo-27781(4): Change file system encoding on Windows to UTF-8 (PEP
     529)

   - bpo-27731(5): Opt-out of MAX_PATH on Windows 10

   - bpo-6135(6): Adds encoding and errors parameters to subprocess.

   - bpo-27959(7): Adds oem encoding, alias ansi to mbcs, move aliasmbcs
     to codec lookup.

   - bpo-27982(8): The functions of the winsound module now accept
     keyword arguments.

   - bpo-20366(9): Build full text search support into SQLite on
     Windows.

   - bpo-27756(10): Adds new icons for Python files and processes on
     Windows.  Designs by Cherry Wang.

   - bpo-27883(11): Update sqlite to 3.14.1.0 on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28065

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1602

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27731

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20366

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27756

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27883


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.83 Python 3.6.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-08-15'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<75>.
* Library: Library<75>.
* IDLE: IDLE<51>.
* Tests: Tests<68>.
* Windows: Windows<66>.
* Build: Build<71>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<75>,  Next: Library<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.83.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27704(1): Optimized creating bytes and bytearray from byte-like
     objects and iterables.  Speed up to 3 times for short objects.
     Original patch by Naoki Inada.

   - bpo-26823(2): Large sections of repeated lines in tracebacks are
     now abbreviated as "[Previous line repeated {count} more times]" by
     the builtin traceback rendering.  Patch by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27574(3): Decreased an overhead of parsing keyword arguments in
     functions implemented with using Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-22557(4): Now importing already imported modules is up to 2.5
     times faster.

   - bpo-17596(5): Include <wincrypt.h> to help with Min GW building.

   - bpo-17599(6): On Windows, rename the privately defined
     REPARSE_DATA_BUFFER structure to avoid conflicting with the
     definition from Min GW.

   - bpo-27507(7): Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27581(8): Don't rely on wrapping for overflow check in
     PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-1621(9): Avoid signed integer overflow in list and tuple
     operations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27419(10): Standard __import__() no longer look up "__import__"
     in globals or builtins for importing submodules or "from import".
     Fixed a crash if raise a warning about unabling to resolve package
     from __spec__ or __package__.

   - bpo-27083(11): Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under
     Windows.

   - bpo-27514(12): Make having too many statically nested blocks a
     SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

   - bpo-27366(13): Implemented PEP 487(14) (Simpler customization of
     class creation).  Upon subclassing, the __init_subclass__
     classmethod is called on the base class.  Descriptors are
     initialized with __set_name__ after class creation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27704

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22557

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17596

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17599

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27366

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<75>,  Next: IDLE<51>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.83.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-26027(1): Add PEP 519(2)/__fspath__() support to the os and
     os.path modules.  Includes code from Jelle Zijlstra.  (See also:
     bpo-27524(3))

   - bpo-27598(4): Add Collections to collections.abc.  Patch by Ivan
     Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar.

   - bpo-25958(5): Support "anti-registration" of special methods from
     various ABCs, like __hash__, __iter__ or __len__.  All these (and
     several more) can be set to None in an implementation class and the
     behavior will be as if the method is not defined at all.
     (Previously, this mechanism existed only for __hash__, to make
     mutable classes unhashable.)  Code contributed by Andrew Barnert
     and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-16764(6): Support keyword arguments to zlib.decompress().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27736(7): Prevent segfault after interpreter re-initialization
     due to ref count problem introduced in code for bpo-27038(8) in
     3.6.0a3.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25628(9): The 'verbose' and 'rename' parameters for
     collections.namedtuple are now keyword-only.

   - bpo-12345(10): Add mathematical constant tau to math and cmath.
     See also PEP 628(11).

   - bpo-26823(12): traceback.StackSummary.format now abbreviates large
     sections of repeated lines as "[Previous line repeated {count} more
     times]" (this change then further affects other traceback display
     operations in the module).  Patch by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27664(13): Add to
     concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor() the ability to
     specify a thread name prefix.

   - bpo-27181(14): Add geometric_mean and harmonic_mean to statistics
     module.

   - bpo-27573(15): code.interact now prints an message when exiting.

   - bpo-6422(16): Add autorange method to timeit.Timer objects.

   - bpo-27773(17): Correct some memory management errors
     server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

   - bpo-26750(18): unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly
     for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.  Removes
     the never publicly used, never documented
     unittest.mock.DescriptorTypes tuple.

   - bpo-26754(19): Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects
     as path in compile() and similar functions is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26800(20): Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects
     as paths in os functions is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26981(21): Add _order_ compatibility shim to enum.Enum for
     Python 2/3 code bases.

   - bpo-27661(22): Added tzinfo keyword argument to datetime.combine.

   - In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or
     window.instr() is passed a negative value.

   - bpo-27783(23): Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
     operator.methodcaller.

   - bpo-27774(24): Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

   - bpo-27760(25): Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

   - bpo-27758(26): Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for
     large record lengths.

   - bpo-27568(27): Prevent HTTPoxy attack ( CVE 2016-1000110(28)).
     Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is
     set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

   - bpo-7063(29): Remove dead code from the "array" module's slice
     handling.  Patch by Chuck.

   - bpo-27656(30): Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

   - bpo-27130(31): In the "zlib" module, fix handling of large buffers
     (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously,
     inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression
     operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

   - bpo-24773(32): Implemented PEP 495(33) (Local Time Disambiguation).

   - Expose the EPOLLEXCLUSIVE constant (when it is defined) in the
     select module.

   - bpo-27567(34): Expose the EPOLLRDHUP and POLLRDHUP constants in the
     select module.

   - bpo-1621(35): Avoid signed int negation overflow in the "audioop"
     module.

   - bpo-27533(36): Release GIL in nt._isdir

   - bpo-17711(37): Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol
     0.  Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

   - bpo-27522(38): Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in
     email.feedparser.

   - bpo-27512(39): Fix a segfault when os.fspath() called an
     __fspath__() method that raised an exception.  Patch by Xiang
     Zhang.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27524

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27736

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27773

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26750

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26800

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26981

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27783

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27774

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27760

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27758

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27568

   (28) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-1000110

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7063

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27656

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27130

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27567

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27533

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17711

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27522

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27512


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<51>,  Next: Tests<68>,  Prev: Library<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.83.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27714(1): text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when
     re-run in the same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when
     run with the -w option but without -jn.  Fix warning from
     test_config.

   - bpo-27621(2): Put query response validation error messages in the
     query box itself instead of in a separate messagebox.  Redo tests
     to match.  Add Mac OSX refinements.  Original patch by Mark
     Roseman.

   - bpo-27620(3): Escape key now closes Query box as cancelled.

   - bpo-27609(4): IDLE: tab after initial whitespace should tab, not
     autocomplete.  This fixes problem with writing docstrings at least
     twice indented.

   - bpo-27609(5): Explicitly return None when there are also non-None
     returns.  In a few cases, reverse a condition and eliminate a
     return.

   - bpo-25507(6): IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter
     imports.  Users must include the same imports required to run
     directly in Python.

   - bpo-27173(7): Add 'IDLE Modern Unix' to the built-in key sets.
     Make the default key set depend on the platform.  Add tests for the
     changes to the config module.

   - bpo-27452(8): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27621

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27620

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<68>,  Next: Windows<66>,  Prev: IDLE<51>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.83.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25805(1): Skip a test in test_pkgutil as needed that doesn't
     work when ‘__name__ == __main__’.  Patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-27472(2): Add test.support.unix_shell as the path to the
     default shell.

   - bpo-27369(3): In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message
     detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

   - bpo-27594(4): Prevent assertion error when running test_ast with
     coverage enabled: ensure code object has a valid first line number.
     Patch suggested by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25805

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27472

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27594


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<66>,  Next: Build<71>,  Prev: Tests<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.83.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27647(1): Update bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.6.

   - bpo-27610(2): Adds PEP 514(3) metadata to Windows installer

   - bpo-27469(4): Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag
     and drop works correctly.

   - bpo-27309(5): Enables proper Windows styles in python[w].exe
     manifest.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27610

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309


File: python.info,  Node: Build<71>,  Prev: Windows<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.83.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-27713(1): Suppress spurious build warnings when updating
     importlib's bootstrap files.  Patch by Xiang Zhang

   - bpo-25825(2): Correct the references to Modules/python.exp, which
     is required on AIX. The references were accidentally changed in
     3.5.0a1.

   - bpo-27453(3): CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch
     by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-27641(4): The configure script now inserts comments into the
     makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from
     being cross-compiled.

   - bpo-26662(5): Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python program
     to be used for file generation during the build.

   - bpo-10910(6): Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X.
     Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8
     workaround.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.84 Python 3.6.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-07-11'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<76>.
* Library: Library<76>.
* IDLE: IDLE<52>.
* C API: C API<60>.
* Build: Build<72>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<40>.
* Documentation: Documentation<67>.
* Tests: Tests<69>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<43>,  Next: Core and Builtins<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.84.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-27278(1): Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on
     Linux.  Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough
     random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

   - bpo-22636(2): Avoid shell injection problems with
     ctypes.util.find_library().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<76>,  Next: Library<76>,  Prev: Security<43>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.84.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27473(1): Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and
     bytearray concatenations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-23034(2): The output of a special Python build with defined
     COUNT_ALLOCS, SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT or SHOW_TRACK_COUNT macros is now
     off by default.  It can be re-enabled using the "-X showalloccount"
     option.  It now outputs to stderr instead of stdout.

   - bpo-27443(3): __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer
     return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

   - bpo-27007(4): The fromhex() class methods of bytes and bytearray
     subclasses now return an instance of corresponding subclass.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27007


File: python.info,  Node: Library<76>,  Next: IDLE<52>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.84.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-26844(1): Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to
     'path' instead of 'name'.  Patch by Lev Maximov.

   - bpo-23804(2): Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and not
     raise an error about unclean EOF.

   - bpo-27466(3): Change time format returned by
     http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format
     and making it consistent with documentation.

   - bpo-21708(4): Deprecated dbm.dumb behavior that differs from common
     dbm behavior: creating a database in 'r' and 'w' modes and
     modifying a database in 'r' mode.

   - bpo-26721(5): Change the socketserver.StreamRequestHandler.wfile
     attribute to implement BufferedIOBase.  In particular, the write()
     method no longer does partial writes.

   - bpo-22115(6): Added methods trace_add, trace_remove and trace_info
     in the tkinter.Variable class.  They replace old methods
     trace_variable, trace, trace_vdelete and trace_vinfo that use
     obsolete Tcl commands and might not work in future versions of Tcl.
     Fixed old tracing methods: trace_vdelete() with wrong mode no
     longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always returns a list of
     pairs of strings, tracing in the "u" mode now works.

   - bpo-26243(7): Only the level argument to zlib.compress() is keyword
     argument now.  The first argument is positional-only.

   - bpo-27038(8): Expose the DirEntry type as os.DirEntry.  Code patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27186(9): Update os.fspath()/PyOS_FSPath() to check the return
     value of __fspath__() to be either str or bytes.

   - bpo-18726(10): All optional parameters of the dump(), dumps(),
     load() and loads() functions and JSONEncoder and JSONDecoder class
     constructors in the json module are now keyword-only.

   - bpo-27319(11): Methods selection_set(), selection_add(),
     selection_remove() and selection_toggle() of ttk.TreeView now allow
     passing multiple items as multiple arguments instead of passing
     them as a tuple.  Deprecated undocumented ability of calling the
     selection() method with arguments.

   - bpo-27079(12): Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl()
     and ispunct().

   - bpo-27294(13): Numerical state in the repr for Tkinter event
     objects is now represented as a combination of known flags.

   - bpo-27177(14): Match objects in the re module now support
     index-like objects as group indices.  Based on patches by Jeroen
     Demeyer and Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26754(15): Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename
     argument encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     byte-like objects are accepted.

   - bpo-26536(16): socket.ioctl now supports SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH.
     Patch by Daniel Stokes.

   - bpo-27048(17): Prevents distutils failing on Windows when
     environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

   - bpo-27330(18): Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

   - bpo-27238(19): Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.
     Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27122(20): When an exception is raised within the context being
     managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack
     generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the
     original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through.
     This avoids the PEP 479(21) bug described in issue25782.

   - bpo-16864(22): sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid now supports REPLACE
     statement.  Initial patch by Alex LordThorsen.

   - bpo-26386(23): Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item
     id's containing spaces.

   - bpo-8637(24): Honor a pager set by the env var MANPAGER (in
     preference to one set by the env var PAGER).

   - bpo-16182(25): Fix various functions in the "readline" module to
     use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to
     return code point indexes.

   - bpo-27392(26): Add loop.connect_accepted_socket().  Patch by Jim
     Fulton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26844

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27466

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27319

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27079

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27048

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27330

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27238

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27122

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26386

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16182

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<52>,  Next: C API<60>,  Prev: Library<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.84.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27477(1): IDLE search dialogs now use ttk widgets.

   - bpo-27173(2): Add 'IDLE Modern Unix' to the built-in key sets.
     Make the default key set depend on the platform.  Add tests for the
     changes to the config module.

   - bpo-27452(3): make command line "idle-test> python test_help.py"
     work.  __file__ is relative when python is started in the file's
     directory.

   - bpo-27452(4): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   - bpo-27380(5): IDLE: add query.py with base Query dialog and ttk
     widgets.  Module had subclasses SectionName, ModuleName, and
     HelpSource, which are used to get information from users by
     configdialog and file =>Load Module.  Each subclass has itw own
     validity checks.  Using ModuleName allows users to edit bad module
     names instead of starting over.  Add tests and delete the two files
     combined into the new one.

   - bpo-27372(6): Test_idle no longer changes the locale.

   - bpo-27365(7): Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for
     contributor names.

   - bpo-27245(8): IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
     Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a
     cascade of warnings was emitted.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24137(9): Run IDLE, test_idle, and htest with tkinter default
     root disabled.  Fix code and tests that fail with this restriction.
     Fix htests to not create a second and redundant root and mainloop.

   - bpo-27310(10): Fix IDLE.app failure to launch on OS X due to
     vestigial import.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27477

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27380

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27372

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24137

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27310


File: python.info,  Node: C API<60>,  Next: Build<72>,  Prev: IDLE<52>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.84.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-26754(1): PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument
     encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and byte-like
     objects are accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: Build<72>,  Next: Tools/Demos<40>,  Prev: C API<60>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.84.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-28066(1): Fix the logic that searches build directories for
     generated include files when building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-27442(2): Expose the Android API level that python was built
     against, in sysconfig.get_config_vars() as 'ANDROID_API_LEVEL'.

   - bpo-27434(3): The interpreter that runs the cross-build, found in
     PATH, must now be of the same feature version (e.g.  3.6) as the
     source being built.

   - bpo-26930(4): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   - bpo-23968(5): Rename the platform directory from plat-$(MACHDEP) to
     plat-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET). Rename the config directory (LIBPL) from
     config-$(LDVERSION) to config-$(LDVERSION)-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET).
     Install the platform specific _sysconfigdata module into the
     platform directory and rename it to include the ABIFLAGS.

   - Don't use largefile support for GNU/Hurd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27442

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27434

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23968


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<40>,  Next: Documentation<67>,  Prev: Build<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.84.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27332(1): Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level
     functions generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-27418(2): Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<67>,  Next: Tests<69>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<40>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.84.8 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-19489(1): Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header
     and footer of each page.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-27285(2): Update documentation to reflect the deprecation of
     ‘pyvenv’ and normalize on the term "virtual environment".  Patch by
     Steve Piercy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27285


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<69>,  Prev: Documentation<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.84.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27027(1): Added test.support.is_android that is True when this
     is an Android build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27027


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.85 Python 3.6.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<77>.
* Library: Library<77>.
* IDLE: IDLE<53>.
* Documentation: Documentation<68>.
* Tests: Tests<70>.
* Windows: Windows<67>.
* Build: Build<73>.
* C API: C API<61>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<41>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<44>,  Next: Core and Builtins<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.85.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26556(1): Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283(2).

   - Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772(3).
     Reported by Team Oststrom.

   - bpo-26839(4): On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 2a3. now calls
     ‘getrandom()’ with ‘GRND_NONBLOCK’ to fall back on reading
     ‘/dev/urandom’ if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet.
     Patch written by Colm Buckley.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<77>,  Next: Library<77>,  Prev: Security<44>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.85.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27095(1): Simplified MAKE_FUNCTION and removed MAKE_CLOSURE
     opcodes.  Patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-27190(2): Raise NotSupportedError if sqlite3 is older than
     3.3.1.  Patch by Dave Sawyer.

   - bpo-27286(3): Fixed compiling BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode.
     Calling function with generalized unpacking (PEP 448) and
     conflicting keyword names could cause undefined behavior.

   - bpo-27140(4): Added BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP opcode.

   - bpo-27186(5): Add support for os.PathLike objects to open() (part
     of PEP 519(6)).

   - bpo-27066(7): Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open())
     returns a negative number without setting an exception.

   - bpo-26983(8): float() now always return an instance of exact float.
     The deprecation warning is emitted if __float__ returns an instance
     of a strict subclass of float.  In a future versions of Python this
     can be an error.

   - bpo-27097(9): Python interpreter is now about 7% faster due to
     optimized instruction decoding.  Based on patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-26647(10): Python interpreter now uses 16-bit wordcode instead
     of bytecode.  Patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-23275(11): Allow assigning to an empty target list in round
     brackets: () = iterable.

   - bpo-27243(12): Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning
     an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the
     asynchronous iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the
     former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27190

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27286

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26983

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27097

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23275

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243


File: python.info,  Node: Library<77>,  Next: IDLE<53>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.85.3 Library
.................

   - Comment out socket (SO_REUSEPORT) and posix (O_SHLOCK, O_EXLOCK)
     constants exposed on the API which are not implemented on GNU/Hurd.
     They would not work at runtime anyway.

   - bpo-27025(1): Generated names for Tkinter widgets are now more
     meaningful and recognizable.

   - bpo-25455(2): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive
     ElementTree.Element and functools.partial objects.

   - bpo-27294(3): Improved repr for Tkinter event objects.

   - bpo-20508(4): Improve exception message of
     IPv{4,6}Network.__getitem__.  Patch by Gareth Rees.

   - bpo-21386(5): Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It
     was documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

   - bpo-27029(6): Removed deprecated support of universal newlines mode
     from ZipFile.open().

   - bpo-27030(7): Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
     letter in regular expressions now are errors.  The re.LOCALE flag
     now can be used only with bytes patterns.

   - bpo-27186(8): Add os.PathLike support to DirEntry (part of PEP
     519(9)).  Initial patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-20900(10): distutils register command now decodes HTTP
     responses correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.

   - bpo-27186(11): Add os.PathLike support to pathlib, removing its
     provisional status (part of PEP 519).  Initial patch by Dusty
     Phillips.

   - bpo-27186(12): Add support for os.PathLike objects to os.fsencode()
     and os.fsdecode() (part of PEP 519(13)).

   - bpo-27186(14): Introduce os.PathLike and os.fspath() (part of PEP
     519(15)).

   - A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and
     features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text,
     ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug
     fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented
     in mypy or other static analyzers).  Also classes for PEP 492(16)
     (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact
     they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

   - bpo-25738(17): Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error()
     from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don't
     send Content header fields in responses that don't have a body.
     Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

   - bpo-21313(18): Fix the "platform" module to tolerate when
     sys.version contains truncated build information.

   - bpo-23883(19): Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the
     documented APIs for the following modules: cgi, mailbox, mimetypes,
     plistlib and smtpd.  Patches by Jacek Kołodziej.

   - bpo-27164(20): In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate
     streams with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24291(21): Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to
     completely write data to the client.  Previously it could do
     partial writes and truncate data.  Also,
     wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial
     writes, but this is deprecated.

   - bpo-21272(22): Use _sysconfigdata.py to initialize
     distutils.sysconfig.

   - bpo-19611(23): *note inspect: 78. now reports the implicit ‘.0’
     parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and
     generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only
     parameters called ‘implicit0’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26809(24): Add ‘__all__’ to *note string: cd.  Patch by Emanuel
     Barry.

   - bpo-26373(25): subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
     BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate()
     is called in more/all circumstances.

   - signal, socket, and ssl module IntEnum constant name lookups now
     return a consistent name for values having multiple names.  Ex:
     signal.Signals(6) now refers to itself as signal.SIGALRM rather
     than flipping between that and signal.SIGIOT based on the
     interpreter's hash randomization seed.

   - bpo-27167(26): Clarify the subprocess.CalledProcessError error
     message text when the child process died due to a signal.

   - bpo-25931(27): Don't define socketserver.Forking* names on
     platforms such as Windows that do not support os.fork().

   - bpo-21776(28): distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError.
     Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-26526(29): Replace custom parse tree validation in the parser
     module with a simple DFA validator.

   - bpo-27114(30): Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
     PermissionError

   - bpo-18383(31): Avoid creating duplicate filters when using
     filterwarnings and simplefilter.  Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-23026(32): winreg.QueryValueEx() now return an integer for
     REG_QWORD type.

   - bpo-26741(33): subprocess.Popen destructor now emits a
     ResourceWarning warning if the child process is still running.

   - bpo-27056(34): Optimize pickle.load() and pickle.loads(), up to 10%
     faster to deserialize a lot of small objects.

   - bpo-21271(35): New keyword only parameters in reset_mock call.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20508

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27029

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21272

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27167

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25931

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26526

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<53>,  Next: Documentation<68>,  Prev: Library<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.85.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-5124(1): Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on
     X11.  This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern
     Linux apps, and ttk widgets.  Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24750(2): Switch all scrollbars in IDLE to ttk versions.  Where
     needed, minimal tests are added to cover changes.

   - bpo-24759(3): IDLE requires tk 8.5 and availability ttk widgets.
     Delete now unneeded tk version tests and code for older versions.
     Add test for IDLE syntax colorizer.

   - bpo-27239(4): idlelib.macosx.isXyzTk functions initialize as
     needed.

   - bpo-27262(5): move Aqua unbinding code, which enable context menus,
     to macosx.

   - bpo-24759(6): Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the
     directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool
     for maintainers.

   - bpo-27196(7): Stop 'ThemeChanged' warnings when running IDLE tests.
     These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567.
     Apply Serhiy Storchaka's update_idletasks solution to four test
     files.  Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

   - bpo-20567(8): Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about
     avoiding tk warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several
     IDLE tests.

   - bpo-24225(9): Update idlelib/README.txt with new file names and
     event handlers.

   - bpo-27156(10): Remove obsolete code not used by IDLE.

   - bpo-27117(11): Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark
     themes.  Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new
     function.

   - bpo-24225(12): Rename many ‘idlelib/*.py’ and ‘idle_test/test_*.py’
     files.  Edit files to replace old names with new names when the old
     name referred to the module rather than the class it contained.
     See the issue and IDLE section in What's New in 3.6 for more.

   - bpo-26673(13): When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10.
     Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from
     opening.

   - bpo-21939(14): Add test for IDLE's percolator.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-21676(15): Add test for IDLE's replace dialog.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18410(16): Add test for IDLE's search dialog.  Original patch
     by Westley Martínez.

   - bpo-21703(17): Add test for undo delegator.  Patch mostly by
     Saimadhav Heblikar .

   - bpo-27044(18): Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory
     leaks.

   - bpo-23977(19): Add more asserts to test_delegator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27239

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27262

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27156

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<68>,  Next: Tests<70>,  Prev: IDLE<53>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.85.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-16484(1): Change the default PYTHONDOCS URL to "https:", and
     fix the resulting links to use lowercase.  Patch by Sean Rodman,
     test by Kaushik Nadikuditi.

   - bpo-24136(2): Document the new PEP 448(3) unpacking syntax of 3.5.

   - bpo-22558(4): Add remaining doc links to source code for
     Python-coded modules.  Patch by Yoni Lavi.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16484

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<70>,  Next: Windows<67>,  Prev: Documentation<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.85.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25285(1): regrtest now uses subprocesses when the -j1 command
     line option is used: each test file runs in a fresh child process.
     Before, the -j1 option was ignored.

   - bpo-25285(2): Tools/buildbot/test.bat script now uses -j1 by
     default to run each test file in fresh child process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<67>,  Next: Build<73>,  Prev: Tests<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.85.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27064(1): The py.exe launcher now defaults to Python 3.  The
     Windows launcher ‘py.exe’ no longer prefers an installed Python 2
     version over Python 3 by default when used interactively.

   - bpo-17500(2): Remove unused and outdated icons.  (See also:
     ‘https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945’)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27064

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500


File: python.info,  Node: Build<73>,  Next: C API<61>,  Prev: Windows<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.85.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-27229(1): Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26930(2): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930


File: python.info,  Node: C API<61>,  Next: Tools/Demos<41>,  Prev: Build<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.85.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-27186(1): Add the PyOS_FSPath() function (part of PEP 519(2)).

   - bpo-26282(3): PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() now supports
     positional-only parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<41>,  Prev: C API<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.85.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-26282(1): Argument Clinic now supports positional-only and
     keyword parameters in the same function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 5 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.86 Python 3.6.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-05-16'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<45>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<78>.
* Library: Library<78>.
* IDLE: IDLE<54>.
* Documentation: Documentation<69>.
* Tests: Tests<71>.
* Build: Build<74>.
* Windows: Windows<68>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<42>.
* C API: C API<62>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<45>,  Next: Core and Builtins<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.86.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26657(1): Fix directory traversal vulnerability with
     http.server on Windows.  This fixes a regression that was
     introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp
     Hagemeister.

   - bpo-26313(2): ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows
     cert store is empty.  Patch by Baji.

   - bpo-25939(3): On Windows open the cert store readonly in
     ssl.enum_certificates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<78>,  Next: Library<78>,  Prev: Security<45>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.86.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-20041(1): Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26168(2): Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue()
     with the "N" format unit.

   - bpo-26991(3): Fix possible refleak when creating a function with
     annotations.

   - bpo-27039(4): Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.
     Based on patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23640(5): int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
     subclasses.

   - bpo-27005(6): Optimized the float.fromhex() class method for exact
     float.  It is now 2 times faster.

   - bpo-18531(7): Single var-keyword argument of dict subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact dict.

   - bpo-26811(8): gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple
     with NULL pointer.

   - bpo-20120(9): Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing
     support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python
     3.  Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files,
     matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

   - bpo-26249(10): Memory functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace.
     domain (*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ad1.) now use the *note pymalloc
     allocator: b7e. rather than system ‘malloc()’.  Applications
     calling *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace. without holding the GIL can now
     crash: use ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’ environment variable to validate
     the usage of memory allocators in your application.

   - bpo-26802(11): Optimize function calls only using unpacking like
     ‘func(*tuple)’ (no other positional argument, no keyword): avoid
     copying the tuple.  Patch written by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-26659(12): Make the builtin slice type support cycle
     collection.

   - bpo-26718(13): super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called
     multiple times.  NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not
     endorsed!

   - bpo-27138(14): Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

   - bpo-27147(15): Mention PEP 420(16) in the importlib docs.

   - bpo-25339(17): PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in
     setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

   - bpo-26494(18): Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators.
     Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str,
     bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict,
     corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-26574(19): Optimize ‘bytes.replace(b'', b'.')’ and
     ‘bytearray.replace(b'', b'.')’.  Patch written by Josh Snider.

   - bpo-26581(20): If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a
     line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to
     account.

   - bpo-19711(21): Add tests for reloading namespace packages.

   - bpo-21099(22): Switch applicable importlib tests to use PEP 451(23)
     API.

   - bpo-26563(24): Debug hooks on Python memory allocators now raise a
     fatal error if functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace. family
     are called without holding the GIL.

   - bpo-26564(25): On error, the debug hooks on Python memory
     allocators now use the *note tracemalloc: fa. module to get the
     traceback where a memory block was allocated.

   - bpo-26558(26): The debug hooks on Python memory allocator *note
     PyObject_Malloc(): ad0. now detect when functions are called
     without holding the GIL.

   - bpo-26516(27): Add *note PYTHONMALLOC: acc. environment variable to
     set the Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.

   - bpo-26516(28): The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ad2. function can
     now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.

   - bpo-26516(29): The *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 1946. environment
     variable can now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.
     It now has no effect if set to an empty string.

   - bpo-26516(30): In debug mode, debug hooks are now also installed on
     Python memory allocators when Python is configured without
     pymalloc.

   - bpo-26464(31): Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first
     replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a
     non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character.
     Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-22836(32): Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them
     produces secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
     sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

   - bpo-26302(33): Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal
     character for cookie names.

   - bpo-26136(34): Upgrade the warning when a generator raises
     StopIteration from PendingDeprecationWarning to DeprecationWarning.
     Patch by Anish Shah.

   - bpo-26204(35): The compiler now ignores all constant statements:
     bytes, str, int, float, complex, name constants (None, False,
     True), Ellipsis and ast.Constant; not only str and int.  For
     example, ‘1.0’ is now ignored in ‘def f(): 1.0’.

   - bpo-4806(36): Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when
     using star (‘*’) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by
     Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

   - bpo-26146(37): Add a new kind of AST node: ‘ast.Constant’.  It can
     be used by external AST optimizers, but the compiler does not emit
     directly such node.

   - bpo-23601(38): Sped-up allocation of dict key objects by using
     Python's small object allocator.  (Contributed by Julian Taylor.)

   - bpo-18018(39): Import raises ImportError instead of SystemError if
     a relative import is attempted without a known parent package.

   - bpo-25843(40): When compiling code, don't merge constants if they
     are equal but have a different types.  For example, ‘f1, f2 =
     lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0’ is now correctly compiled to two different
     functions: ‘f1()’ returns ‘1’ (‘int’) and ‘f2()’ returns ‘1.0’
     (‘float’), even if ‘1’ and ‘1.0’ are equal.

   - bpo-26107(41): The format of the ‘co_lnotab’ attribute of code
     objects changes to support negative line number delta.

   - bpo-26154(42): Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()
     function to get the current Python thread state, but don't issue a
     fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead
     of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable.  The
     variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact
     implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

   - bpo-25791(43): If __package__ != __spec__.parent or if neither
     __package__ or __spec__ are defined then ImportWarning is raised.

   - bpo-22995(44): [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability
     tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in
     Cython-based projects.

   - bpo-25961(45): Disallowed null characters in the type name.

   - bpo-25973(46): Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement
     binds a name starting with two underscores.

   - bpo-22995(47): Instances of extension types with a state that
     aren't subclasses of list or dict and haven't implemented any
     pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__,
     __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled.
     Including memoryview.

   - bpo-20440(48): Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with
     special macro Py_SETREF.

   - bpo-25766(49): Special method __bytes__() now works in str
     subclasses.

   - bpo-25421(50): __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic
     basic size.  This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their
     subclasses with __slots__ defined.

   - bpo-25709(51): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   - bpo-5319(52): New Py_FinalizeEx() API allowing Python to set an
     exit status of 120 on failure to flush buffered streams.

   - bpo-25485(53): telnetlib.Telnet is now a context manager.

   - bpo-24097(54): Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is
     freed inside __getattr__.

   - bpo-24731(55): Fixed crash on converting objects with special
     methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of
     subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int,
     and float correspondingly.

   - bpo-25630(56): Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in
     functions that accept filesystem paths.

   - bpo-23564(57): Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the
     _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to
     the child.  The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already
     avoided it.

   - bpo-25388(58): Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code with a null byte.

   - bpo-25462(59): The hash of the key now is calculated only once in
     most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-22995(60): Default implementation of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

   - bpo-24802(61): Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(),
     compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These
     objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the
     functions assumed they were.

   - bpo-25555(62): Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of
     "arg" node when compiling AST from Python objects.

   - bpo-24726(63): Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of
     OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

   - bpo-25449(64): Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash
     now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-25395(65): Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict
     structures were garbage collected.

   - bpo-25401(66): Optimize bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex():
     they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster.

   - bpo-25399(67): Optimize bytearray % args using the new private
     _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now between 2.5 and 5 times
     faster.

   - bpo-25274(68): sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError
     if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current
     recursion depth.  Modify also the "lower-water mark" formula to
     make it monotonic.  This mark is used to decide when the overflowed
     flag of the thread state is reset.

   - bpo-24402(69): Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
     sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

   - bpo-25349(70): Optimize bytes % args using the new private
     _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now up to 2 times faster.

   - bpo-24806(71): Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be
     subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

   - bpo-25301(72): The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for
     error handlers: ‘ignore’, ‘replace’ and ‘surrogateescape’.

   - bpo-24848(73): Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of
     misformed data.

   - bpo-25267(74): The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for
     error handlers: ‘ignore’, ‘replace’, ‘surrogateescape’,
     ‘surrogatepass’.  Patch co-written with Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-25280(75): Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode
     are no longer formatted twice.

   - bpo-25227(76): Optimize ASCII and latin1 encoders with the
     ‘surrogateescape’ error handler: the encoders are now up to 3 times
     as fast.  Initial patch written by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-25003(77): On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the
     getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function.  The
     getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality
     entropy, os.urandom() doesn't need such high-quality entropy.

   - bpo-9232(78): Modify Python's grammar to allow trailing commas in
     the argument list of a function declaration.  For example, "def
     f(*, a = 3,): pass" is now legal.  Patch from Mark Dickinson.

   - bpo-24965(79): Implement PEP 498(80) "Literal String
     Interpolation".  This allows you to embed expressions inside
     f-strings, which are converted to normal strings at run time.
     Given x=3, then f'value={x}' == 'value=3'.  Patch by Eric V. Smith.

   - bpo-26478(81): Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with
     dictionary views and tuples.

   - bpo-26171(82): Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
     zipimporter.get_data().

   - bpo-25660(83): Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

   - bpo-26288(84): Optimize PyLong_AsDouble.

   - bpo-26289(85): Optimize floor and modulo division for single-digit
     longs.  Microbenchmarks show 2-2.5x improvement.  Built-in 'divmod'
     function is now also ~10% faster.  (See also: bpo-26315(86))

   - bpo-25887(87): Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is
     awaited more than once.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27005

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18531

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26802

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19711

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21099

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26563

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26558

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26136

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26204

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23601

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26107

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9232

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24965

   (80) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26288

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26289

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26315

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887


File: python.info,  Node: Library<78>,  Next: IDLE<54>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.86.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-27057(1): Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is
     blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls
     back to fcntl().  Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

   - bpo-27014(2): Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to
     Kalle Tuure!

   - bpo-27031(3): Removed dummy methods in Tkinter widget classes:
     tk_menuBar() and tk_bindForTraversal().

   - bpo-14132(4): Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target
     only has a query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.

   - bpo-17214(5): The "urllib.request" module now percent-encodes
     non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send
     Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but "http.client"
     requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a
     UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-27033(6): The default value of the decode_data parameter for
     smtpd.SMTPChannel and smtpd.SMTPServer constructors is changed to
     False.

   - bpo-27034(7): Removed deprecated class asynchat.fifo.

   - bpo-26870(8): Added readline.set_auto_history(), which can stop
     entries being automatically added to the history list.  Based on
     patch by Tyler Crompton.

   - bpo-26039(9): zipfile.ZipFile.open() can now be used to write data
     into a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data.  Patch by Thomas
     Kluyver.

   - bpo-26892(10): Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler.
     Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22274(11): In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be
     redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-26807(12): mock_open 'files' no longer error on readline at end
     of file.  Patch from Yolanda Robla.

   - bpo-25745(13): Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

   - bpo-26977(14): Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of
     squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

   - bpo-26002(15): Use bisect in statistics.median instead of a linear
     search.  Patch by Upendra Kuma.

   - bpo-25974(16): Make use of new Decimal.as_integer_ratio() method in
     statistics module.  Patch by Stefan Krah.

   - bpo-26996(17): Add secrets module as described in PEP 506(18).

   - bpo-26881(19): The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode
     arguments.

   - bpo-23815(20): Fixed crashes related to directly created instances
     of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

   - bpo-17765(21): weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword
     arguments.  Patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-26873(22): xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type
     tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

   - bpo-26915(23): The __contains__ methods in the collections ABCs now
     check for identity before checking equality.  This better matches
     the behavior of the concrete classes, allows sensible handling of
     NaNs, and makes it easier to reason about container invariants.

   - bpo-26711(24): Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other
     types.

   - bpo-24114(25): Fix an uninitialized variable in ‘ctypes.util’.  The
     bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches
     for the ‘crle’ program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by
     Kees Bos.

   - bpo-26864(26): In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host
     checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match
     unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a
     suffix.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24902(27): Print server URL on http.server startup.  Initial
     patch by Felix Kaiser.

   - bpo-25788(28): fileinput.hook_encoded() now supports an "errors"
     argument for passing to open.  Original patch by Joseph Hackman.

   - bpo-26634(29): recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26804(30): urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy
     environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones.  Patch
     contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

   - bpo-26837(31): assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs
     non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This
     affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

   - bpo-26041(32): Remove "will be removed in Python 3.7" from
     deprecation messages of platform.dist() and
     platform.linux_distribution().  Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara
     Athukorala.

   - bpo-26822(33): itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no
     longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

   - bpo-26733(34): Disassembling a class now disassembles class and
     static methods.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26801(35): Fix error handling in *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): f91, catch *note AttributeError: 3ca.
     instead of *note NameError: 144.  Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-24838(36): tarfile's ustar and gnu formats now correctly
     calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character
     encodings like utf-8.

   - bpo-26717(37): Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-26782(38): Add STARTUPINFO to subprocess.__all__ on Windows.

   - bpo-26404(39): Add context manager to socketserver.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-26735(40): Fix *note os.urandom(): 2a3. on Solaris 11.3 and
     newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call ‘getrandom()’
     multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

   - bpo-26585(41): Eliminate http.server._quote_html() and use
     html.escape(quote=False).  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26685(42): Raise OSError if closing a socket fails.

   - bpo-16329(43): Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-13952(44): Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff
     Wilson.

   - bpo-26587(45): the site module now allows .pth files to specify
     files to be added to sys.path (e.g.  zip files).

   - bpo-25609(46): Introduce contextlib.AbstractContextManager and
     typing.ContextManager.

   - bpo-26709(47): Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

   - bpo-23735(48): Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by
     installing our own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.

   - bpo-25951(49): Change SSLSocket.sendall() to return None, as
     explicitly documented for plain socket objects.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-26586(50): In http.server, respond with "413 Request header
     fields too large" if there are too many header fields to parse,
     rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled
     exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26676(51): Added missing XMLPullParser to ElementTree.__all__.

   - bpo-22854(52): Change BufferedReader.writable() and
     BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

   - bpo-26492(53): Exhausted iterator of array.array now conforms with
     the behavior of iterators of other mutable sequences: it lefts
     exhausted even if iterated array is extended.

   - bpo-26641(54): doctest.DocFileTest and doctest.testfile() now
     support packages (module splitted into multiple directories) for
     the package parameter.

   - bpo-25195(55): Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock.  _Call is a
     subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes)
     so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.

   - bpo-26644(56): Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a
     negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

   - bpo-23804(57): Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero
     bytes instead of up to 1024.

   - bpo-26616(58): Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

   - bpo-26637(59): The *note importlib: 71. module now emits an *note
     ImportError: 145. rather than a *note TypeError: 2ba. if *note
     __import__(): 70d. is tried during the Python shutdown process but
     *note sys.path: 35e. is already cleared (set to ‘None’).

   - bpo-21925(60): *note warnings.formatwarning(): 17fa. now catches
     exceptions when calling *note linecache.getline(): c9d. and *note
     tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(): 1948. to be able to log *note
     ResourceWarning: aa3. emitted late during the Python shutdown
     process.

   - bpo-23848(61): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now also installs
     an exception handler to dump the traceback of all Python threads on
     any Windows exception, not only on UNIX signals (SIGSEGV, SIGFPE,
     SIGABRT).

   - bpo-26530(62): Add C functions ‘_PyTraceMalloc_Track()’ and
     ‘_PyTraceMalloc_Untrack()’ to track memory blocks using the *note
     tracemalloc: fa. module.  Add ‘_PyTraceMalloc_GetTraceback()’ to
     get the traceback of an object.

   - bpo-26588(63): The _tracemalloc now supports tracing memory
     allocations of multiple address spaces (domains).

   - bpo-24266(64): Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels
     the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

   - bpo-26590(65): Implement a safe finalizer for the _socket.socket
     type.  It now releases the GIL to close the socket.

   - bpo-18787(66): spwd.getspnam() now raises a PermissionError if the
     user doesn't have privileges.

   - bpo-26560(67): Avoid potential ValueError in
     BaseHandler.start_response.  Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

   - bpo-26567(68): Add a new function *note PyErr_ResourceWarning():
     b87. function to pass the destroyed object.  Add a 'source'
     attribute to ‘warnings.WarningMessage’.  Add
     warnings._showwarnmsg() which uses tracemalloc to get the traceback
     where source object was allocated.

   - bpo-26569(69): Fix *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 651. and *note
     pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 652. to support importing packages.

   - bpo-26499(70): Account for remaining Content-Length in
     HTTPResponse.readline() and read1().  Based on patch by Silent
     Ghost.  Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

   - bpo-25320(71): Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is
     scanning.  Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

   - bpo-16181(72): cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is
     higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

   - bpo-26513(73): Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

   - bpo-23718(74): Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original
     patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

   - bpo-26323(75): Add Mock.assert_called() and
     Mock.assert_called_once() methods to unittest.mock.  Patch written
     by Amit Saha.

   - bpo-20589(76): Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows
     now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

   - bpo-26177(77): Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar
     widgets.

   - bpo-15068(78): Got rid of excessive buffering in fileinput.  The
     bufsize parameter is now deprecated and ignored.

   - bpo-19475(79): Added an optional argument timespec to the datetime
     isoformat() method to choose the precision of the time component.

   - bpo-2202(80): Fix UnboundLocalError in
     AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls.  Initial patch by
     Mathieu Dupuy.

   - bpo-26167(81): Minimized overhead in copy.copy() and
     copy.deepcopy().  Optimized copying and deepcopying bytearrays,
     NotImplemented, slices, short lists, tuples, dicts, sets.

   - bpo-25718(82): Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator
     with total is None.

   - bpo-26475(83): Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with
     the (?x) flag.

   - bpo-26482(84): Allowed pickling recursive dequeues.

   - bpo-26335(85): Make mmap.write() return the number of bytes written
     like other write methods.  Patch by Jakub Stasiak.

   - bpo-26457(86): Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes
     for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal
     prefix length.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26385(87): Remove the file if the internal open() call in
     NamedTemporaryFile() fails.  Patch by Silent Ghost.

   - bpo-26402(88): Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts
     down a persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the
     new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

   - bpo-25913(89): Leading ‘<~’ is optional now in base64.a85decode()
     with adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-26186(90): Remove an invalid type check in
     importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-26367(91): importlib.__import__() raises ImportError like
     builtins.__import__() when ‘level’ is specified but without an
     accompanying package specified.

   - bpo-26309(92): In the "socketserver" module, shut down the request
     (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.
     Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-23430(93): Change the socketserver module to only catch
     exceptions raised from a request handler that are derived from
     Exception (instead of BaseException).  Therefore SystemExit and
     KeyboardInterrupt no longer trigger the handle_error() method, and
     will now to stop a single-threaded server.

   - bpo-25995(94): os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the
     tree depth.

   - bpo-25994(95): Added the close() method and the support of the
     context manager protocol for the os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-23992(96): multiprocessing: make MapResult not fail-fast upon
     exception.

   - bpo-26243(97): Support keyword arguments to zlib.compress().  Patch
     by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-26117(98): The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor
     not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed
     with error.

   - bpo-25949(99): __dict__ for an OrderedDict instance is now created
     only when needed.

   - bpo-25911(100): Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-26045(101): Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting
     a non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

   - bpo-26039(102): Added zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file() and
     zipinfo.ZipInfo.is_dir().  Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-12923(103): Reset FancyURLopener's redirect counter even if
     there is an exception.  Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel
     Rocco.

   - bpo-25945(104): Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial
     object with wrong state.  Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial
     constructor.  "args" and "keywords" attributes of functools.partial
     have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

   - bpo-26202(105): copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range()
     objects with non-atomic attributes.

   - bpo-23076(106): Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it's called
     with an invalid pattern.  Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

   - bpo-19883(107): Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

   - bpo-26227(108): On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
     gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the
     hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

   - bpo-26099(109): The site module now writes an error into stderr if
     sitecustomize module can be imported but executing the module raise
     an ImportError.  Same change for usercustomize.

   - bpo-26147(110): xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with
     used non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-25935(111): Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-16620(112): Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

   - bpo-26013(113): Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles
     created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

   - bpo-26129(114): Deprecated accepting non-integers in
     grp.getgrgid().

   - bpo-25850(115): Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit
     Windows.

   - bpo-25822(116): Add docstrings to the fields of urllib.parse
     results.  Patch contributed by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-22642(117): Convert trace module option parsing mechanism to
     argparse.  Patch contributed by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-24705(118): Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${}
     vars appearing before $() vars.

   - bpo-26069(119): Remove the deprecated apis in the trace module.

   - bpo-22138(120): Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors.
     Restore original values after patching.  Patch contributed by Sean
     McCully.

   - bpo-25672(121): In the ssl module, enable the
     SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

   - bpo-26012(122): Don't traverse into symlinks for ‘**’ pattern in
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

   - bpo-24120(123): Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().  Patch by Ulrich Petri.

   - bpo-21815(124): Accept ] characters in the data portion of imap
     responses, in order to handle the flags with square brackets
     accepted and produced by servers such as gmail.

   - bpo-25447(125): fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not
     have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

   - bpo-25971(126): Optimized creating Fractions from floats by 2 times
     and from Decimals by 3 times.

   - bpo-25802(127): Document as deprecated the remaining
     implementations of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module().

   - bpo-25928(128): Add Decimal.as_integer_ratio().

   - bpo-25447(129): Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always
     works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by
     returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25768(130): Have the functions in compileall return booleans
     instead of ints and add proper documentation and tests for the
     return values.

   - bpo-24103(131): Fixed possible use after free in
     ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

   - bpo-25860(132): os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories
     when error occurs.  Original patch by Samson Lee.

   - bpo-25914(133): Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

   - bpo-25869(134): Optimized deepcopying ElementTree; it is now 20
     times faster.

   - bpo-25873(135): Optimized iterating ElementTree.  Iterating
     elements Element.iter() is now 40% faster, iterating text
     Element.itertext() is now up to 2.5 times faster.

   - bpo-25902(136): Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree
     iteration.

   - bpo-22227(137): The TarFile iterator is reimplemented using
     generator.  This implementation is simpler that using class.

   - bpo-25638(138): Optimized ElementTree.iterparse(); it is now 2x
     faster.  Optimized ElementTree parsing; it is now 10% faster.

   - bpo-25761(139): Improved detecting errors in broken pickle data.

   - bpo-25717(140): Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most
     fstat() errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1,
     and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special
     cases.

   - bpo-24903(141): Fix regression in number of arguments compileall
     accepts when '-d' is specified.  The check on the number of
     arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly
     anyway.

   - bpo-25764(142): In the subprocess module, preserve any exception
     caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

   - bpo-25771(143): Tweak the exception message for
     importlib.util.resolve_name() when 'package' isn't specified but
     necessary.

   - bpo-6478(144): _strptime's regexp cache now is reset after changing
     timezone with time.tzset().

   - bpo-14285(145): When executing a package with the "python -m
     package" option, and package initialization fails, a proper
     traceback is now reported.  The "runpy" module now lets exceptions
     from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than
     raising ImportError.

   - bpo-19771(146): Also in runpy and the "-m" option, omit the
     irrelevant message ".  .  .  is a package and cannot be directly
     executed" if the package could not even be initialized (e.g.  due
     to a bad ‘*.pyc’ file).

   - bpo-25177(147): Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very
     large numbers.  As a side effect, statistics.mean and
     statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

   - bpo-25718(148): Fixed copying object with state with boolean value
     is false.

   - bpo-10131(149): Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on
     patch by Marian Ganisin.

   - bpo-7990(150): dir() on ElementTree.Element now lists properties:
     "tag", "text", "tail" and "attrib".  Original patch by Santoso
     Wijaya.

   - bpo-25725(151): Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when
     unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

   - bpo-25663(152): In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate
     global names, and search the global namespace before searching
     builtins.

   - bpo-25688(153): Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising
     an error.

   - bpo-23914(154): Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken
     pickle data.

   - bpo-25691(155): Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element
     attributes.

   - bpo-25624(156): ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for
     directory entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - bpo-25626(157): Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that
     fit in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This
     resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read
     chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the
     zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the
     zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
     zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

   - bpo-25583(158): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors
     such as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-25593(159): Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

   - bpo-6973(160): When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do
     not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do
     anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

   - bpo-23883(161): Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the
     documented APIs for the following modules: calendar, csv, enum,
     fileinput, ftplib, logging, optparse, tarfile, threading and wave.
     Also added a test.support.check__all__() helper.  Patches by Jacek
     Kołodziej, Mauro S. M. Rodrigues and Joel Taddei.

   - bpo-25590(162): In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once
     per attribute.  Also complete names of attributes such as
     properties and slots which are listed by dir() but not yet created
     on an instance.

   - bpo-25498(163): Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects
     created by wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in
     3.5a1.  Based on patch by Eryksun.

   - bpo-25584(164): Added "escape" to the __all__ list in the glob
     module.

   - bpo-25584(165): Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with
     ‘**’.

   - bpo-25446(166): Fix regression in smtplib's AUTH LOGIN support.

   - bpo-18010(167): Fix the pydoc web server's module search function
     to handle exceptions from importing packages.

   - bpo-25554(168): Got rid of circular references in regular
     expression parsing.

   - bpo-18973(169): Command-line interface of the calendar module now
     uses argparse instead of optparse.

   - bpo-25510(170): fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b''
     instead of '' at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary
     mode.  Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

   - bpo-25503(171): Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of
     properties.  Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

   - bpo-25515(172): Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in
     uuid.uuid4.

   - bpo-21827(173): Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest
     common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace.
     Based on patch by Robert Li.

   - bpo-25447(174): The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied
     and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25390(175): typing: Don't crash on Union[str, Pattern].

   - bpo-25441(176): asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is
     closed.

   - bpo-25410(177): Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation
     of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-25411(178): Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through
     better use of the email package.  Thanks to user simon04 for the
     patch.

   - Move the imp module from a PendingDeprecationWarning to
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-25407(179): Remove mentions of the formatter module being
     removed in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-25406(180): Fixed a bug in C implementation of
     OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in
     iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

   - bpo-25382(181): pickletools.dis() now outputs implicit memo index
     for the MEMOIZE opcode.

   - bpo-25357(182): Add an optional newline parameter to
     binascii.b2a_base64().  base64.b64encode() uses it to avoid a
     memory copy.

   - bpo-24164(183): Objects that need calling ‘__new__’ with keyword
     arguments, can now be pickled using pickle protocols older than
     protocol version 4.

   - bpo-25364(184): zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

   - bpo-25328(185): smtpd's SMTPChannel now correctly raises a
     ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

   - bpo-16099(186): RobotFileParser now supports Crawl-delay and
     Request-rate extensions.  Patch by Nikolay Bogoychev.

   - bpo-25316(187): distutils raises OSError instead of
     DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

   - bpo-25380(188): Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
     pickletools.opcodes.

   - bpo-23972(189): Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing
     reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding
     the socket.  Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method
     the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the
     O/S is 'posix' (except if the platform is Cygwin).  Patch by Chris
     Laws.

   - bpo-25304(190): Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets
     you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
     concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-25232(191): Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the
     URL at the first question mark (?)  rather than the last.  Patch
     from Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24657(192): Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes
     in the query part of the URL as if it were a path.  Patch from
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25287(193): Don't add crypt.METHOD_CRYPT to crypt.methods if
     it's not supported.  Check if it is supported, it may not be
     supported on OpenBSD for example.

   - bpo-23600(194): Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was
     returning wrong results in some cases.

   - bpo-25203(195): Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer
     left the module in inconsistent state.

   - bpo-25011(196): rlcompleter now omits private and special attribute
     names unless the prefix starts with underscores.

   - bpo-25209(197): rlcompleter now can add a space or a colon after
     completed keyword.

   - bpo-22241(198): timezone.utc name is now plain 'UTC', not
     'UTC-00:00'.

   - bpo-23517(199): fromtimestamp() and utcfromtimestamp() methods of
     datetime.datetime now round microseconds to nearest with ties going
     to nearest even integer (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), as round(float), instead
     of rounding towards -Infinity (ROUND_FLOOR).

   - bpo-23552(200): Timeit now warns when there is substantial (4x)
     variance between best and worst times.  Patch from Serhiy
     Storchaka.

   - bpo-24633(201): site-packages/README -> README.txt.

   - bpo-24879(202): help() and pydoc can now list named tuple fields in
     the order they were defined rather than alphabetically.  The
     ordering is determined by the _fields attribute if present.

   - bpo-24874(203): Improve speed of itertools.cycle() and make its
     pickle more compact.

   - Fix crash in itertools.cycle.__setstate__() when the first argument
     wasn't a list.

   - bpo-20059(204): urllib.parse raises ValueError on all invalid
     ports.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-24360(205): Improve __repr__ of argparse.Namespace() for
     invalid identifiers.  Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-23426(206): run_setup was broken in distutils.  Patch from
     Alexander Belopolsky.

   - bpo-13938(207): 2to3 converts StringTypes to a tuple.  Patch from
     Mark Hammond.

   - bpo-2091(208): open() accepted a 'U' mode string containing '+',
     but 'U' can only be used with 'r'.  Patch from Jeff Balogh and John
     O'Connor.

   - bpo-8585(209): improved tests for zipimporter2.  Patch from Mark
     Lawrence.

   - bpo-18622(210): unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse
     infinitely.  Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

   - bpo-24426(211): Fast searching optimization in regular expressions
     now works for patterns that starts with capturing groups.  Fast
     searching optimization now can't be disabled at compile time.

   - bpo-23661(212): unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions
     again.  This was a regression vs Python 3.4.  Patch from Ignacio
     Rossi

   - bpo-13248(213): Remove deprecated inspect.getmoduleinfo function.

   - bpo-25578(214): Fix (another) memory leak in
     SSLSocket.getpeercer().

   - bpo-25530(215): Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default
     when creating ssl.SSLContext.

   - bpo-25569(216): Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

   - bpo-25471(217): Sockets returned from accept() shouldn't appear to
     be nonblocking.

   - bpo-25319(218): When threading.Event is reinitialized, the
     underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a
     recursive lock.

   - Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved.  Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26050(219): Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method.  Patch
     by Марк Коренберг.

   - bpo-25924(220): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26406(221): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26848(222): Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle
     empty input.  Patch by Jack O'Connor.

   - bpo-27040(223): Add loop.get_exception_handler method

   - bpo-27041(224): asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27031

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27033

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27034

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26977

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25974

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26996

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17765

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26873

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26915

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26711

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24114

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26864

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24902

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25788

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26634

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26804

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26837

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26041

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26822

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26733

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26801

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24838

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26717

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26782

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26404

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26735

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26585

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26685

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16329

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13952

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26587

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26709

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23735

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25951

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26586

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26676

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22854

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26492

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26641

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25195

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26644

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26616

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26637

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21925

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23848

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26530

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26588

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24266

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26590

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18787

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26560

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26569

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26499

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25320

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16181

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26513

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23718

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26323

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20589

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26177

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15068

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19475

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2202

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26167

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25718

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26475

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26482

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26335

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<54>,  Next: Documentation<69>,  Prev: Library<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.86.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-20640(1): Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit.  Patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - In the 'IDLE-console differences' section of the IDLE doc, clarify
     how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

   - bpo-25507(2): fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented
     printing.  Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding
     functions.

   - bpo-25905(3): Revert unwanted conversion of ' to ’ RIGHT SINGLE
     QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with
     'ascii'.  Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with 'utf-8'.

   - bpo-15348(4): Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process)
     before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process).
     This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

   - bpo-24455(5): Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell
     while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with
     the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already
     active (24455).  The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two
     changes.  1.  Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with
     the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of
     root.mainloop & .quit).  2.  In gui.run, allow any existing
     interaction to terminate first.

   - Change 'The program' to 'Your program' in an IDLE 'kill program?'
     message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the
     currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

   - bpo-24750(6): Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window
     status bar.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25313(7): Change the handling of new built-in text color themes
     to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the
     addition of IDLE Dark.  Consistently use the revised
     idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

   - bpo-24782(8): Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE
     Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs
     are now a sorted list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-22726(9): Re-activate the config dialog help button with some
     content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

   - bpo-24820(10): IDLE now has an 'IDLE Dark' built-in text color
     theme.  It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt
     blue background.  Strings, comments, keywords, ...  are still
     green, red, orange, ...  .  To use it with IDLEs released before
     November 2015, hit the 'Save as New Custom Theme' button and enter
     a new name, such as 'Custom Dark'.  The custom theme will work with
     any IDLE release, and can be modified.

   - bpo-25224(11): README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE
     developers and curious users.  The previous user content is now in
     the IDLE doc chapter.  'IDLE' now means 'Integrated Development and
     Learning Environment'.

   - bpo-24820(12): Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings ->
     Custom Highlighting.  Original patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24972(13): Inactive selection background now matches active
     selection background, as configured by users, on all systems.
     Found items are now always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch
     by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24570(14): Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on
     Macs affected by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24988(15): Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger)
     now work on Mac Aqua.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24801(16): Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua.
     Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25173(17): Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific
     widget.  For Mac OSX, make them a 'sheet'.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25198(18): Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle
     Help.  Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman).
     Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background.
     Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor.
     When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section
     header at the top of the screen.

   - bpo-25225(19): Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text
     colors.

   - bpo-21995(20): Explain some differences between IDLE and console
     Python.

   - bpo-22820(21): Explain need for 'print' when running file from Idle
     editor.

   - bpo-25224(22): Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess
     section.

   - bpo-25219(23): Update doc for Idle command line options.  Some were
     missing and notes were not correct.

   - bpo-24861(24): Most of idlelib is private and subject to change.
     Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle.  See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

   - bpo-25199(25): Idle: add synchronization comments for future
     maintainers.

   - bpo-16893(26): Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc
     display.  The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped
     Doc/build/html/library/idle.html.  It looks better than help.txt
     and will better document Idle as released.  The tkinter html viewer
     that works for this file was written by Rose Roseman.  The now
     unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
     deprecated.

   - bpo-24199(27): Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible
     removal in 3.6.

   - bpo-24790(28): Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3
     conflicts).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<69>,  Next: Tests<71>,  Prev: IDLE<54>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.86.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-26736(1): Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if
     possible.

   - bpo-6953(2): Rework the Readline module documentation to group
     related functions together, and add more details such as what
     underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

   - bpo-23606(3): Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding
     cdll.msvcrt.

   - bpo-24952(4): Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in
     the "threading" and "_thread" modules.  Patch from Mattip.

   - bpo-26014(5): Update 3.x packaging documentation: * "See also"
     links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links
     to setuptools documentation have been updated

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<71>,  Next: Build<74>,  Prev: Documentation<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.86.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-21916(1): Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid,
     Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26295(2): When using "python3 -m test -testdir=TESTDIR",
     regrtest doesn't add "test."  prefix to test module names.

   - bpo-26523(3): The multiprocessing thread pool
     (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

   - bpo-26015(4): Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable
     sequences.

   - bpo-26325(5): Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to
     check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

   - bpo-25940(6): Changed test_ssl to use its internal local server
     more.  This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently
     changed root certificate.

   - bpo-25616(7): Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from
     test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

   - bpo-25449(8): Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-25188(9): Add -P/-pgo to test.regrtest to suppress error output
     when running the test suite for the purposes of a PGO build.
     Initial patch by Alecsandru Patrascu.

   - bpo-22806(10): Add ‘python -m test --list-tests’ command to list
     tests.

   - bpo-18174(11): ‘python -m test --huntrleaks ...’ now also checks
     for leak of file descriptors.  Patch written by Richard Oudkerk.

   - bpo-25260(12): Fix ‘python -m test --coverage’ on Windows.  Remove
     the list of ignored directories.

   - ‘PCbuild\rt.bat’ now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to
     pass along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.

   - bpo-26583(13): Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if
     bytecode files cannot be written.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26295

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25188

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22806

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18174

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25260

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583


File: python.info,  Node: Build<74>,  Next: Windows<68>,  Prev: Tests<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.86.7 Build
...............

   - bpo-21277(1): Don't try to link _ctypes with a ffi_convenience
     library.

   - bpo-26884(2): Fix linking extension modules for cross builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26932(3): Fixed support of RTLD_* constants defined as enum
     values, not via macros (in particular on Android).  Patch by Chi
     Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22359(4): Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and
     pgen when cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is
     normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still
     regenerated when doing a native build.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-21668(5): Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to
     libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-25702(6): A -with-lto configure option has been added that will
     enable link time optimizations at build time during a make
     profile-opt.  Some compilers and toolchains are known to not
     produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things
     thoroughly before relying on it.  It can provide a few % speed up
     over profile-opt alone.

   - bpo-26624(7): Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with
     warning for old versions.

   - bpo-17603(8): Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by
     using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

   - bpo-26079(9): Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6.
     Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

   - bpo-26465(10): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-25348(11): Added ‘--pgo’ and ‘--pgo-job’ arguments to
     ‘PCbuild\build.bat’ for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.
     The old ‘PCbuild\build_pgo.bat’ script is removed.

   - bpo-25827(12): Add support for building with ICC to ‘configure’,
     including a new ‘--with-icc’ flag.

   - bpo-25696(13): Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

   - bpo-24986(14): It is now possible to build Python on Windows
     without errors when external libraries are not available.

   - bpo-24421(15): Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building
     extensions.  Previously it could fail to compile properly if the
     math and cmath builds were concurrent.

   - bpo-26465(16): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-26268(17): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

   - bpo-25136(18): Support Apple Xcode 7's new textual SDK stub
     libraries.

   - bpo-24324(19): Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using
     gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc
     and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21277

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26932

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<68>,  Next: Tools/Demos<42>,  Prev: Build<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.86.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27053(1): Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP
     file.

   - bpo-26268(2): Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL
     releases that don't include the contents of the include directory
     (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

   - bpo-26071(3): bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find
     32bit Python

   - bpo-26073(4): Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

   - bpo-26065(5): Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable
     distro.

   - bpo-25022(6): Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<42>,  Next: C API<62>,  Prev: Windows<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.86.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-26799(1): Fix python-gdb.py: don't get C types once when the
     Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand.  The C types can
     change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable.
     Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

   - bpo-26271(2): Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed
     through configure.  Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

   - bpo-26489(3): Add dictionary unpacking support to
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-26316(4): Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-25440(5): Fix output of python-config -extension-suffix.

   - bpo-25154(6): The pyvenv script has been deprecated in favour of
     ‘python3 -m venv’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154


File: python.info,  Node: C API<62>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<42>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.86.10 C API
................

   - bpo-26312(1): SystemError is now raised in all programming bugs
     with using PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords().  RuntimeError did raised
     before in some programming bugs.

   - bpo-26198(2): ValueError is now raised instead of TypeError on
     buffer overflow in parsing "es#" and "et#" format units.
     SystemError is now raised instead of TypeError on programmatical
     error in parsing format string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26312

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26198


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 5 final,  Next: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.87 Python 3.5.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-02-04'

There were no new changes in version 3.5.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 5 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.88 Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<46>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<79>.
* Library: Library<79>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<46>,  Next: Core and Builtins<79>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.22.88.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-32551(1): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(2) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  This is considered a
     potential security issue, as it may lead to privileged processes
     unexpectedly loading code from user controlled directories in
     situations where that was not previously the case.  The interpreter
     now consistently avoids ever adding the import location's parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.  (Originally reported as bpo-29723(3) against
     Python 3.6rc1, but it was missed at the time that the then upcoming
     Python 3.5.4 release would also be affected)

   - bpo-30657(4): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     PyBytes_DecodeEscape, CVE 2017-1000158(5).  Original patch by Jay
     Bosamiya; rebased to Python 3 by Miro Hrončok.

   - bpo-30947(6): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32551

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30657

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-1000158

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<79>,  Next: Library<79>,  Prev: Security<46>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.22.88.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31095(1): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn't call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095


File: python.info,  Node: Library<79>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<79>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.22.88.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-32072(1): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-31170(2): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 4 final,  Next: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.89 Python 3.5.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-08-07'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<80>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 final

1.22.89.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-30119(1): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 4 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.90 Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<47>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<80>.
* Library: Library<81>.
* Documentation: Documentation<70>.
* Tests: Tests<72>.
* Build: Build<75>.
* Windows: Windows<69>.
* C API: C API<63>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<47>,  Next: Core and Builtins<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.90.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-30730(1): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(2): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(3)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(4) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(5) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0's fix to CVE 2016-0718(6)) and CVE 2012-0876(7) (Counter hash
     flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(8) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn't impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(9): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   - bpo-29591(10): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes
     of CVE 2016-0718(11) and CVE 2016-4472(12).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (11) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<80>,  Next: Library<81>,  Prev: Security<47>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.90.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-30876(1): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30765(2): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-27945(3): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(4): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-29935(5): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-28876(6): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises *note
     OverflowError: 6ad.

   - bpo-29600(7): Fix wrapping coroutine return values in
     StopIteration.

   - bpo-29537(8): Restore runtime compatibility with bytecode files
     generated by CPython 3.5.0 to 3.5.2, and adjust the eval loop to
     avoid the problems that could be caused by the malformed variant of
     the BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode that they may contain.  Patch
     by Petr Viktorin, Serhiy Storchaka, and Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-28598(9): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29602(10): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(11): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29438(12): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29319(13): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(14): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29478(15): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29537

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478


File: python.info,  Node: Library<81>,  Next: Documentation<70>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.90.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-29403(1): Fix ‘unittest.mock’'s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(2): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in tracemalloc.

   - bpo-30886(3): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now waits
     until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by the
     same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(4): Fix segfault in readline when using readline's
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30807(5): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(6): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-30532(7): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-29169(8): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-30879(9): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(10): Prohibited the '=' character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-29755(11): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   - bpo-30645(12): Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing
     it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch
     by Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-23890(13): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks
     a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

   - bpo-30149(14): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29931(15): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-24484(16): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

   - bpo-28994(17): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(18): Don't log exceptions if Task/Future "cancel()"
     method was called.

   - bpo-28556(19): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-29870(20): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(21): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(22): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30418(23): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-30378(24): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-29960(25): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30414(26): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(27): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30301(28): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30329(29): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-30375(30): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30048(31): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-29990(32): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-26293(33): Change resulted because of zipfile breakage.  (See
     also: bpo-29094(34))

   - bpo-30243(35): Removed the __init__ methods of _json's scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30185(36): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-28556(37): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(38): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30070(39): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-30061(40): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30068(41): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it's closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(42): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(43): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-29998(44): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29942(45): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-27863(46): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race
     conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-28699(47): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25803(48): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(49): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-29884(50): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(51): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(52): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-29742(53): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-8256(54): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes "encoding" or "errors" of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28298(55): Fix a bug that prevented array 'Q', 'L' and 'I' from
     accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-29615(56): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or
     any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-29704(57): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no
     longer closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29703(58): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29376(59): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-29110(60): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-28961(61): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don't ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-29532(62): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-28556(63): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(64): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29519(65): Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter
     shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and
     custom codecs.

   - bpo-29416(66): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(67): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29335(68): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(69): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(70): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29011(71): Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the
     typing module.

   - bpo-29219(72): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-28969(73): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-29142(74): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<70>,  Next: Tests<72>,  Prev: Library<81>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.90.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-30176(1): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-26985(2): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   - bpo-28929(3): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(4): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a
     pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(5): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(6): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<72>,  Next: Build<75>,  Prev: Documentation<70>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.90.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-30822(1): Fix regrtest command line parser to allow passing -u
     extralargefile to run test_zipfile64.

   - bpo-30383(2): regrtest: Enhance regrtest and backport features from
     the master branch.  Add options: -coverage, -testdir, -list-tests
     (list test files, don't run them), -list-cases (list test
     identifiers, don't run them, bpo-30523(3)), -matchfile (load a list
     of test filters from a text file, bpo-30540(4)), -slowest (alias to
     -slow).  Enhance output: add timestamp, test result, currently
     running tests, "Tests result: xxx" summary with total duration,
     etc.  Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest, -huntrleaks: regrtest
     now warms up caches, create explicitly all internal singletons
     which are created on demand to prevent false positives when
     checking for reference leaks.  (bpo-30675(5)).

   - bpo-30357(6): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-28087(7): Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on
     macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to
     unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some
     macOS versions.

   - bpo-30197(8): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn't exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

   - bpo-29571(9): to match the behaviour of the ‘re.LOCALE’ flag,
     test_re.test_locale_flag now uses
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ to determine the candidate
     encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test
     when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30383

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30675

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571


File: python.info,  Node: Build<75>,  Next: Windows<69>,  Prev: Tests<72>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.90.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-29243(1): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during ‘make
     test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when configured
     with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(2): Don't regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(3): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn't work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<69>,  Next: C API<63>,  Prev: Build<75>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.90.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-30687(1): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-29392(2): Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into
     msvcrt module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392


File: python.info,  Node: C API<63>,  Prev: Windows<69>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.90.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a
     macro if Py_LIMITED_API is set to the value between 0x03050400 and
     0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

   - bpo-29083(2): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 3 final,  Next: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.91 Python 3.5.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-01-17'

There were no code changes between 3.5.3rc1 and 3.5.3 final.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 3 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.92 Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-01-02'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<81>.
* Library: Library<82>.
* IDLE: IDLE<55>.
* C API: C API<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<71>.
* Tests: Tests<73>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<43>.
* Windows: Windows<70>.
* Build: Build<76>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<48>,  Next: Core and Builtins<81>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.92.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-27278(1): Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on
     Linux.  Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough
     random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

   - bpo-22636(2): Avoid shell injection problems with
     ctypes.util.find_library().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<81>,  Next: Library<82>,  Prev: Security<48>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.92.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-29073(1): bytearray formatting no longer truncates on first
     null byte.

   - bpo-28932(2): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-28147(3): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.

   - bpo-25677(4): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret for
     indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(5): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding in
     alternate form.

   - bpo-28512(6): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28991(7): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug caused by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28648(8): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19398(9): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in
     case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28426(10): Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()
     in debug build.

   - bpo-23782(11): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and
     exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28379(12): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(13): The type of long range iterator is now registered as
     Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(14): The constructor of range_iterator now checks that
     step is not 0.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(15): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(16): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(17): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28350(18): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(19): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(20): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-21578(21): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(22): Fix incorrect type in error message from
     ‘complex(1.0, {2:3})’.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-27955(23): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28131(24): Fix a regression in zipimport's compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-25221(25): Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when
     Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

   - bpo-25758(26): Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a
     filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28189(27): dictitems_contains no longer swallows compare
     errors.  (Patch by Xiang Zhang)

   - bpo-27812(28): Properly clear out a generator's frame's
     backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

   - bpo-27811(29): Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been
     awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

   - bpo-27587(30): Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer
     check after use of 'def' in _PyState_AddModule().  Initial patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-26020(31): set literal evaluation order did not match
     documented behaviour.

   - bpo-27782(32): Multi-phase extension module import now correctly
     allows the ‘m_methods’ field to be used to add module level
     functions to instances of non-module types returned from
     ‘Py_create_mod’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27936(33): The round() function accepted a second None argument
     for some types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by
     accepting None for all numeric types.

   - bpo-27487(34): Warn if a submodule argument to "python -m" or
     runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages
     are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

   - bpo-27558(35): Fix a SystemError in the implementation of "raise"
     statement.  In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there
     is no active exception to reraise.  Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27419(36): Standard __import__() no longer look up "__import__"
     in globals or builtins for importing submodules or "from import".
     Fixed handling an error of non-string package name.

   - bpo-27083(37): Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under
     Windows.

   - bpo-27514(38): Make having too many statically nested blocks a
     SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

   - bpo-27473(39): Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and
     bytearray concatenations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27507(40): Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27581(41): Don't rely on wrapping for overflow check in
     PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27443(42): __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer
     return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

   - bpo-27942(43): Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29073

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28189

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26020

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942


File: python.info,  Node: Library<82>,  Next: IDLE<55>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<81>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.92.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-15812(1): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first
     line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-29094(2): Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file object
     and modes "w" and "x" now are relative to the start of the file.

   - bpo-13051(3): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-29119(4): Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
     collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method.  Contributed by Andra
     Bogildea.

   - bpo-9770(5): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(6): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(7): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-28871(8): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(9): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(10): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when pass a
     sequence that doesn't own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-28779(11): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash
     the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some
     multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-28847(12): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no
     longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

   - bpo-25659(13): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer()
     and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

   - bpo-28732(14): Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

   - bpo-28485(15): Always raise ValueError for negative
     compileall.compile_dir(workers=...)  parameter, even when
     multithreading is unavailable.

   - bpo-28387(16): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper
     deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.
     Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-27517(17): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(18): Fixed segfault in curses's addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(19): tarfile.open() with mode "r" or "r:" now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(20): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-27939(21): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-28255(22): calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month's calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(23): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(24): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-25464(25): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by
     addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(26): shutil.make_archive() no longer add entry "./" to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-24452(27): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

   - bpo-20766(28): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-26293(29): Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the
     start of the file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the
     start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

   - bpo-28321(30): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28322(31): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with
     unusual usage patterns.

   - bpo-1703178(32): Fix the ability to pass the -link-objects option
     to the distutils build_ext command.

   - bpo-28253(33): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01
     and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are
     reimplemented so that they don't call itermonthdates() which can
     cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(34): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(35): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18893(36): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(37): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.

   - bpo-27348(38): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like "Exception: None".  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(39): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27932(40): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(41): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-25270(42): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(43): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(44): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-27599(45): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-19003(46): m email.generator now replaces only ‘\r’ and/or ‘\n’
     line endings, per the RFC, instead of all unicode line endings.

   - bpo-28019(47): itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step
     in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

   - bpo-25969(48): Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
     generalizations added in 3.5.

   - bpo-14977(49): mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the
     mailcap files ("first match"), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by
     Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-24594(50): Validates persist parameter when opening MSI
     database

   - bpo-17582(51): xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in
     attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by
     Stefan Behnel.)

   - bpo-28047(52): Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64
     CTE in the new email policies.

   - bpo-27445(53): Don't pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload().
     Patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-22450(54): urllib now includes an ‘Accept: */*’ header among
     the default headers.  This makes the results of REST API requests
     more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are
     involved.

   - lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
     between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the
     hash randomization setting.

   - bpo-27570(55): Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null
     source pointers in the "ctypes" and "array" modules.

   - bpo-22233(56): Break email header lines 'only' on the RFC specified
     CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This
     also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

   - bpo-27988(57): Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of
     payload list.

   - bpo-27691(58): Fix ssl module's parsing of GEN_RID subject
     alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

   - bpo-27850(59): Remove 3DES from ssl module's default cipher list to
     counter measure sweet32 attack ( CVE 2016-2183(60)).

   - bpo-27766(61): Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module's default cipher
     list.  (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

   - bpo-26470(62): Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access.  It
     never worked but previously didn't raise.

   - bpo-12885(63): Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

   - bpo-27881(64): Fixed possible bugs when setting
     sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27861(65): Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a
     factory creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19884(66): Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

   - bpo-27706(67): Restore deterministic behavior of
     random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1.
     Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those
     obtained in Python 2.  Patch by Nofar Schnider.

   - bpo-10513(68): Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements
     should not be reset after a commit.

   - A new version of typing.py from ‘https://github.com/python/typing’:
     Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598(69)).  Add FrozenSet to
     __all__ (upstream #261).  Fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream
     #259).  Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type
     (upstream #252).

   - bpo-27539(70): Fix unnormalised ‘Fraction.__pow__’ result in the
     case of negative exponent and negative base.

   - bpo-21718(71): cursor.description is now available for queries
     using CTEs.

   - bpo-2466(72): posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount
     points which the user does not have permission to access.

   - bpo-27773(73): Correct some memory management errors
     server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

   - bpo-26750(74): unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly
     for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.

   - In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or
     window.instr() is passed a negative value.

   - bpo-27783(75): Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
     operator.methodcaller.

   - bpo-27774(76): Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

   - bpo-27760(77): Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

   - bpo-27758(78): Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for
     large record lengths.

   - bpo-27568(79): Prevent HTTPoxy attack ( CVE 2016-1000110(80)).
     Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is
     set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

   - bpo-27656(81): Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

   - bpo-27130(82): In the "zlib" module, fix handling of large buffers
     (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously,
     inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression
     operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

   - bpo-27533(83): Release GIL in nt._isdir

   - bpo-17711(84): Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol
     0.  Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

   - bpo-27522(85): Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in
     email.feedparser.

   - bpo-26844(86): Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to
     'path' instead of 'name'.  Patch by Lev Maximov.

   - bpo-23804(87): Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and
     not raise an error about unclean EOF.

   - bpo-27466(88): Change time format returned by
     http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format
     and making it consistent with documentation.

   - bpo-26664(89): Fix activate.fish by removing mis-use of ‘$’.

   - bpo-22115(90): Fixed tracing Tkinter variables: trace_vdelete()
     with wrong mode no longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always
     returns a list of pairs of strings, tracing in the "u" mode now
     works.

   - Fix a scoping issue in importlib.util.LazyLoader which triggered an
     UnboundLocalError when lazy-loading a module that was already put
     into sys.modules.

   - bpo-27079(91): Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl()
     and ispunct().

   - bpo-26754(92): Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename
     argument encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     byte-like objects are accepted.

   - bpo-27048(93): Prevents distutils failing on Windows when
     environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

   - bpo-27330(94): Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

   - bpo-27238(95): Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.
     Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27122(96): When an exception is raised within the context being
     managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack
     generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the
     original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through.
     This avoids the PEP 479(97) bug described in issue25782.

   - bpo-26386(98): Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item
     id's containing spaces.

   - bpo-16182(99): Fix various functions in the "readline" module to
     use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to
     return code point indexes.

   - bpo-27392(100): Add loop.connect_accepted_socket().  Patch by Jim
     Fulton.

   - bpo-27930(101): Improved behaviour of
     logging.handlers.QueueListener.  Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr
     Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

   - bpo-21201(102): Improves readability of multiprocessing error
     message.  Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

   - bpo-27456(103): asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

   - bpo-27906(104): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(105): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn't properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(106): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(107): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA
     Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(108): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(109): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28368(110): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher
     has no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(111): Raise RuntimeError when transport's FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(112): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(113): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(114): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(115): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch
     by Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(116): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   - bpo-26923(117): Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once
     all children are done.  Patch by Johannes Ebke.

   - bpo-26796(118): Don't configure the number of workers for default
     threadpool executor.  Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

   - bpo-28600(119): Optimize loop.call_soon().

   - bpo-28613(120): Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if
     called from coroutines/callbacks.

   - bpo-28639(121): Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch
     by Justin Mayfield.

   - bpo-28652(122): Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not
     support.

   - bpo-28653(123): Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

   - bpo-28703(124): Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock
     objects.

   - bpo-24142(125): Reading a corrupt config file left the parser in an
     invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-28990(126): Fix SSL hanging if connection is closed before
     handshake completed.  (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1703178

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19003

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28019

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25969

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14977

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24594

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17582

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28047

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27445

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22450

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27570

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22233

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27988

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27691

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (60) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12885

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27881

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27861

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19884

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27706

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10513

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27539

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21718

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2466

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27773

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26750

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27783

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27774

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27760

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27758

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27568

   (80) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-1000110

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27656

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27130

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27533

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17711

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27522

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26844

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27466

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26664

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27079

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27048

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27330

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27238

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27122

   (97) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26386

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16182

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27930

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21201

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972

   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26923

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26796

   (119) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28600

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (121) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28639

   (122) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28652

   (123) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28653

   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28703

   (125) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28990


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<55>,  Next: C API<64>,  Prev: Library<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.92.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15308(1): Add 'interrupt execution' (^C) to Shell menu.  Patch
     by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

   - bpo-27922(2): Stop IDLE tests from 'flashing' gui widgets on the
     screen.

   - Add version to title of IDLE help window.

   - bpo-25564(3): In section on IDLE - console differences, mention
     that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each
     statement.

   - bpo-27714(4): text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when
     re-run in the same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when
     run with the -w option but without -jn.  Fix warning from
     test_config.

   - bpo-25507(5): IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter
     imports.  Users must include the same imports required to run
     directly in Python.

   - bpo-27452(6): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   - bpo-27365(7): Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for
     contributor names.

   - bpo-27245(8): IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
     Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a
     cascade of warnings was emitted.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245


File: python.info,  Node: C API<64>,  Next: Documentation<71>,  Prev: IDLE<55>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.92.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-28808(1): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   - bpo-26754(2): PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument
     encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     bytes-like objects are accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<71>,  Next: Tests<73>,  Prev: C API<64>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.92.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28513(1): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<73>,  Next: Tools/Demos<43>,  Prev: Documentation<71>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.92.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28950(1): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l/-M in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28666(2): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(3): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   - bpo-28409(4): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   - bpo-27787(5): Call gc.collect() before checking each test for
     "dangling threads", since the dangling threads are weak references.

   - bpo-27369(6): In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message
     detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<43>,  Next: Windows<70>,  Prev: Tests<73>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.92.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27952(1): Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and
     the current "re" module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes,
     and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

   - bpo-27332(2): Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level
     functions generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-27418(3): Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<70>,  Next: Build<76>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<43>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.92.9 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28251(1): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(2): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-25144(3): Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with
     custom install.

   - bpo-27469(4): Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag
     and drop works correctly.

   - bpo-27309(5): Enabled proper Windows styles in python[w].exe
     manifest.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309


File: python.info,  Node: Build<76>,  Prev: Windows<70>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.92.10 Build
................

   - bpo-29080(1): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(2): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-10656(3): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(4): Rename -with-optimiations to -enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28444(5): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28248(6): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   - bpo-28258(7): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(8): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-28066(9): Fix the logic that searches build directories for
     generated include files when building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-15819(10): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-27566(11): Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa
     Roach)

   - bpo-27705(12): Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

   - bpo-27983(13): Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as
     required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than
     make time when -with-optimizations is enabled.  Also improve our
     ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

   - bpo-26307(14): The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the
     built-in modules.

   - bpo-26359(15): Add the -with-optimizations configure flag.

   - bpo-27713(16): Suppress spurious build warnings when updating
     importlib's bootstrap files.  Patch by Xiang Zhang

   - bpo-25825(17): Correct the references to Modules/python.exp and
     ld_so_aix, which are required on AIX. This updates references to an
     installation path that was changed in 3.2a4, and undoes changed
     references to the build tree that were made in 3.5.0a1.

   - bpo-27453(18): CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch
     by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-27641(19): The configure script now inserts comments into the
     makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from
     being cross-compiled.

   - bpo-26662(20): Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python
     program to be used for file generation during the build.

   - bpo-10910(21): Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X.
     Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8
     workaround.

   - bpo-28676(22): Prevent missing 'getentropy' declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 2 final,  Next: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.93 Python 3.5.2 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-26'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<82>.
* Tests: Tests<74>.
* IDLE: IDLE<56>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<82>,  Next: Tests<74>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.22.93.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-26930(1): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<74>,  Next: IDLE<56>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.22.93.2 Tests
...............

   - bpo-26867(1): Ubuntu's openssl OP_NO_SSLv3 is forced on by default;
     fix test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26867


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<56>,  Prev: Tests<74>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.22.93.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27365(1): Allow non-ascii in idlelib/NEWS.txt - minimal part
     for 3.5.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 2 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.94 Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-12'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<83>.
* Library: Library<83>.
* IDLE: IDLE<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<72>.
* Tests: Tests<75>.
* Build: Build<77>.
* Windows: Windows<71>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<44>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<49>,  Next: Core and Builtins<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.94.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26556(1): Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283(2).

   - Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772(3).
     Reported by Team Oststrom.

   - bpo-26839(4): On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 2a3. now calls
     ‘getrandom()’ with ‘GRND_NONBLOCK’ to fall back on reading
     ‘/dev/urandom’ if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet.
     Patch written by Colm Buckley.

   - bpo-26657(5): Fix directory traversal vulnerability with
     http.server on Windows.  This fixes a regression that was
     introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp
     Hagemeister.

   - bpo-26313(6): ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows
     cert store is empty.  Patch by Baji.

   - bpo-25939(7): On Windows open the cert store readonly in
     ssl.enum_certificates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<83>,  Next: Library<83>,  Prev: Security<49>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.94.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27066(1): Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open())
     returns a negative number without setting an exception.

   - bpo-20041(2): Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26168(3): Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue()
     with the "N" format unit.

   - bpo-26991(4): Fix possible refleak when creating a function with
     annotations.

   - bpo-27039(5): Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.
     Patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23640(6): int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
     subclasses.

   - bpo-26811(7): gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple
     with NULL pointer.

   - bpo-20120(8): Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing
     support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python
     3.  Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files,
     matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

   - bpo-26659(9): Make the builtin slice type support cycle collection.

   - bpo-26718(10): super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called
     multiple times.  NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not
     endorsed!

   - bpo-25339(11): PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in
     setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

   - bpo-26494(12): Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators.
     Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str,
     bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict,
     corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-26581(13): If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a
     line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to
     account.

   - bpo-26464(14): Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first
     replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a
     non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character.
     Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-22836(15): Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them
     produces secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
     sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

   - bpo-26302(16): Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal
     character for cookie names.

   - bpo-4806(17): Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when
     using star (‘*’) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by
     Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

   - bpo-27138(18): Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

   - bpo-26154(19): Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()
     function to get the current Python thread state, but don't issue a
     fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead
     of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable.  The
     variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact
     implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

   - bpo-26194(20): Deque.insert() gave odd results for bounded deques
     that had reached their maximum size.  Now an IndexError will be
     raised when attempting to insert into a full deque.

   - bpo-25843(21): When compiling code, don't merge constants if they
     are equal but have a different types.  For example, ‘f1, f2 =
     lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0’ is now correctly compiled to two different
     functions: ‘f1()’ returns ‘1’ (‘int’) and ‘f2()’ returns ‘1.0’
     (‘int’), even if ‘1’ and ‘1.0’ are equal.

   - bpo-22995(22): [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability
     tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in
     Cython-based projects.

   - bpo-25961(23): Disallowed null characters in the type name.

   - bpo-25973(24): Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement
     binds a name starting with two underscores.

   - bpo-22995(25): Instances of extension types with a state that
     aren't subclasses of list or dict and haven't implemented any
     pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__,
     __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled.
     Including memoryview.

   - bpo-20440(26): Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with
     special macro Py_SETREF.

   - bpo-25766(27): Special method __bytes__() now works in str
     subclasses.

   - bpo-25421(28): __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic
     basic size.  This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their
     subclasses with __slots__ defined.

   - bpo-25709(29): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   - bpo-27147(30): Mention PEP 420(31) in the importlib docs.

   - bpo-24097(32): Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is
     freed inside __getattr__.

   - bpo-24731(33): Fixed crash on converting objects with special
     methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of
     subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int,
     and float correspondingly.

   - bpo-26478(34): Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with
     dictionary views and tuples.

   - bpo-26171(35): Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
     zipimporter.get_data().

   - bpo-25660(36): Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

   - bpo-25887(37): Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is
     awaited more than once.

   - bpo-27243(38): Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning
     an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the
     asynchronous iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the
     former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26194

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243


File: python.info,  Node: Library<83>,  Next: IDLE<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.94.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-21386(1): Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It
     was documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

   - bpo-20900(2): distutils register command now decodes HTTP responses
     correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.

   - A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and
     features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text,
     ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug
     fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented
     in mypy or other static analyzers).  Also classes for PEP 492(3)
     (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact
     they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

   - bpo-25738(4): Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error()
     from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don't
     send Content header fields in responses that don't have a body.
     Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

   - bpo-21313(5): Fix the "platform" module to tolerate when
     sys.version contains truncated build information.

   - bpo-27164(6): In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate
     streams with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24291(7): Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to
     completely write data to the client.  Previously it could do
     partial writes and truncate data.  Also,
     wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial
     writes, but this is deprecated.

   - bpo-26809(8): Add ‘__all__’ to *note string: cd.  Patch by Emanuel
     Barry.

   - bpo-26373(9): subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
     BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate()
     is called in more/all circumstances.

   - bpo-21776(10): distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError.
     Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-27114(11): Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
     PermissionError

   - bpo-18383(12): Avoid creating duplicate filters when using
     filterwarnings and simplefilter.  Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-27057(13): Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is
     blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls
     back to fcntl().  Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

   - bpo-27014(14): Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to
     Kalle Tuure!

   - bpo-14132(15): Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target
     only has a query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.

   - bpo-17214(16): The "urllib.request" module now percent-encodes
     non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send
     Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but "http.client"
     requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a
     UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-26892(17): Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler.
     Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22274(18): In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be
     redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-26807(19): mock_open 'files' no longer error on readline at end
     of file.  Patch from Yolanda Robla.

   - bpo-25745(20): Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

   - bpo-26977(21): Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of
     squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

   - bpo-26881(22): The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode
     arguments.

   - bpo-23815(23): Fixed crashes related to directly created instances
     of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

   - bpo-17765(24): weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword
     arguments.  Patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-26873(25): xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type
     tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

   - bpo-26711(26): Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other
     types.

   - bpo-24114(27): Fix an uninitialized variable in ‘ctypes.util’.  The
     bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches
     for the ‘crle’ program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by
     Kees Bos.

   - bpo-26864(28): In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host
     checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match
     unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a
     suffix.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26634(29): recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26804(30): urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy
     environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones.  Patch
     contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

   - bpo-26837(31): assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs
     non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This
     affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

   - bpo-26041(32): Remove "will be removed in Python 3.7" from
     deprecation messages of platform.dist() and
     platform.linux_distribution().  Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara
     Athukorala.

   - bpo-26822(33): itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no
     longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

   - bpo-26733(34): Disassembling a class now disassembles class and
     static methods.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26801(35): Fix error handling in *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): f91, catch *note AttributeError: 3ca.
     instead of *note NameError: 144.  Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-24838(36): tarfile's ustar and gnu formats now correctly
     calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character
     encodings like utf-8.

   - bpo-26717(37): Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-26735(38): Fix *note os.urandom(): 2a3. on Solaris 11.3 and
     newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call ‘getrandom()’
     multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

   - bpo-16329(39): Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-13952(40): Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff
     Wilson.

   - bpo-26709(41): Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

   - bpo-23735(42): Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by
     installing our own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.

   - bpo-26586(43): In http.server, respond with "413 Request header
     fields too large" if there are too many header fields to parse,
     rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled
     exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-22854(44): Change BufferedReader.writable() and
     BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

   - bpo-25195(45): Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock.  _Call is a
     subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes)
     so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.

   - bpo-26644(46): Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a
     negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

   - bpo-23804(47): Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero
     bytes instead of up to 1024.

   - bpo-26616(48): Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

   - bpo-21925(49): *note warnings.formatwarning(): 17fa. now catches
     exceptions on ‘linecache.getline(...)’ to be able to log *note
     ResourceWarning: aa3. emitted late during the Python shutdown
     process.

   - bpo-24266(50): Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels
     the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

   - bpo-26560(51): Avoid potential ValueError in
     BaseHandler.start_response.  Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

   - bpo-26569(52): Fix *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 651. and *note
     pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 652. to support importing packages.

   - bpo-26499(53): Account for remaining Content-Length in
     HTTPResponse.readline() and read1().  Based on patch by Silent
     Ghost.  Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

   - bpo-25320(54): Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is
     scanning.  Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

   - bpo-16181(55): cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is
     higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

   - bpo-26513(56): Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

   - bpo-23718(57): Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original
     patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

   - bpo-20589(58): Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows
     now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

   - bpo-26177(59): Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar
     widgets.

   - bpo-15068(60): Got rid of excessive buffering in the fileinput
     module.  The bufsize parameter is no longer used.

   - bpo-2202(61): Fix UnboundLocalError in
     AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls.  Initial patch by
     Mathieu Dupuy.

   - bpo-25718(62): Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator
     with total is None.

   - bpo-26475(63): Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with
     the (?x) flag.

   - bpo-26457(64): Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes
     for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal
     prefix length.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26385(65): Remove the file if the internal open() call in
     NamedTemporaryFile() fails.  Patch by Silent Ghost.

   - bpo-26402(66): Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts
     down a persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the
     new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

   - bpo-25913(67): Leading ‘<~’ is optional now in base64.a85decode()
     with adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-26186(68): Remove an invalid type check in
     importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-26367(69): importlib.__import__() raises SystemError like
     builtins.__import__() when ‘level’ is specified but without an
     accompanying package specified.

   - bpo-26309(70): In the "socketserver" module, shut down the request
     (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.
     Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-25995(71): os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the
     tree depth.

   - bpo-26117(72): The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor
     not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed
     with error.

   - bpo-25911(73): Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-26045(74): Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting a
     non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

   - bpo-12923(75): Reset FancyURLopener's redirect counter even if
     there is an exception.  Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel
     Rocco.

   - bpo-25945(76): Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial
     object with wrong state.  Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial
     constructor.  "args" and "keywords" attributes of functools.partial
     have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

   - bpo-26202(77): copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range() objects
     with non-atomic attributes.

   - bpo-23076(78): Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it's called
     with an invalid pattern.  Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

   - bpo-19883(79): Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

   - bpo-26227(80): On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
     gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the
     hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

   - bpo-26147(81): xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with
     used non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-25935(82): Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-16620(83): Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

   - bpo-26013(84): Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles
     created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

   - bpo-25850(85): Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit Windows.

   - bpo-17633(86): Improve zipimport's support for namespace packages.

   - bpo-24705(87): Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${} vars
     appearing before $() vars.

   - bpo-22138(88): Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors.
     Restore original values after patching.  Patch contributed by Sean
     McCully.

   - bpo-25672(89): In the ssl module, enable the
     SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

   - bpo-26012(90): Don't traverse into symlinks for ‘**’ pattern in
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

   - bpo-24120(91): Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().  Patch by Ulrich Petri.

   - bpo-25447(92): fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not
     have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

   - bpo-25447(93): Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always
     works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by
     returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-24103(94): Fixed possible use after free in
     ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

   - bpo-25860(95): os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories
     when error occurs.  Original patch by Samson Lee.

   - bpo-25914(96): Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

   - bpo-25902(97): Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree
     iteration.

   - bpo-25717(98): Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most
     fstat() errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1,
     and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special
     cases.

   - bpo-24903(99): Fix regression in number of arguments compileall
     accepts when '-d' is specified.  The check on the number of
     arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly
     anyway.

   - bpo-25764(100): In the subprocess module, preserve any exception
     caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

   - bpo-6478(101): _strptime's regexp cache now is reset after changing
     timezone with time.tzset().

   - bpo-14285(102): When executing a package with the "python -m
     package" option, and package initialization fails, a proper
     traceback is now reported.  The "runpy" module now lets exceptions
     from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than
     raising ImportError.

   - bpo-19771(103): Also in runpy and the "-m" option, omit the
     irrelevant message ".  .  .  is a package and cannot be directly
     executed" if the package could not even be initialized (e.g.  due
     to a bad ‘*.pyc’ file).

   - bpo-25177(104): Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very
     large numbers.  As a side effect, statistics.mean and
     statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

   - bpo-25718(105): Fixed copying object with state with boolean value
     is false.

   - bpo-10131(106): Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on
     patch by Marian Ganisin.

   - bpo-25725(107): Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when
     unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

   - bpo-25663(108): In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate
     global names, and search the global namespace before searching
     builtins.

   - bpo-25688(109): Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising
     an error.

   - bpo-23914(110): Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken
     pickle data.

   - bpo-25691(111): Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element
     attributes.

   - bpo-25624(112): ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for
     directory entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved.  Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26050(113): Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method.  Patch
     by Марк Коренберг.

   - bpo-25924(114): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26406(115): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26848(116): Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle
     empty input.  Patch by Jack O'Connor.

   - bpo-27040(117): Add loop.get_exception_handler method

   - bpo-27041(118): asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

   - bpo-27223(119): asyncio: Fix _read_ready and _write_ready to
     respect _conn_lost.  Patch by Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-22970(120): asyncio: Fix inconsistency cancelling
     Condition.wait.  Patch by David Coles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26977

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17765

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26873

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26711

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24114

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26864

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26634

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26804

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26837

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26041

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26822

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26733

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26801

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24838

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26717

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26735

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16329

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13952

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26709

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23735

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26586

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22854

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25195

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26644

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26616

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21925

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24266

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26560

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26569

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26499

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25320

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16181

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26513

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23718

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20589

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26177

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15068

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2202

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25718

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26475

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26457

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26385

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26402

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25913

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26186

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26367

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26309

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25995

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26117

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25911

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26045

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12923

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25945

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26202

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23076

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19883

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26147

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25935

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   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26013

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25850

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   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26012

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   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447

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   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25860

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25914

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25902

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25717

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24903

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25764

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6478

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14285

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19771

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25177

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25718

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   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23914

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25691

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<57>,  Next: Documentation<72>,  Prev: Library<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.94.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-5124(1): Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on
     X11.  This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern
     Linux apps, and ttk widgets.  Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24759(2): Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the
     directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool
     for maintainers.

   - bpo-27196(3): Stop 'ThemeChanged' warnings when running IDLE tests.
     These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567.
     Apply Serhiy Storchaka's update_idletasks solution to four test
     files.  Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

   - bpo-20567(4): Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about
     avoiding tk warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several
     IDLE tests.

   - bpo-27117(5): Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark
     themes.  Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new
     function.

   - bpo-26673(6): When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10.
     Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from
     opening.

   - bpo-21939(7): Add test for IDLE's percolator.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-21676(8): Add test for IDLE's replace dialog.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18410(9): Add test for IDLE's search dialog.  Original patch by
     Westley Martínez.

   - bpo-21703(10): Add test for IDLE's undo delegator.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar .

   - bpo-27044(11): Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory
     leaks.

   - bpo-23977(12): Add more asserts to test_delegator.

   - bpo-20640(13): Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit.  Patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - In the 'IDLE-console differences' section of the IDLE doc, clarify
     how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

   - bpo-25507(14): fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented
     printing.  Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding
     functions.

   - bpo-25905(15): Revert unwanted conversion of ' to ’ RIGHT SINGLE
     QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with
     'ascii'.  Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with 'utf-8'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<72>,  Next: Tests<75>,  Prev: IDLE<57>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.94.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-19489(1): Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header
     and footer of each page.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-24136(2): Document the new PEP 448(3) unpacking syntax of 3.5.

   - bpo-26736(4): Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if
     possible.

   - bpo-6953(5): Rework the Readline module documentation to group
     related functions together, and add more details such as what
     underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

   - bpo-23606(6): Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding
     cdll.msvcrt.

   - bpo-25500(7): Fix documentation to not claim that __import__ is
     searched for in the global scope.

   - bpo-26014(8): Update 3.x packaging documentation: * "See also"
     links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links
     to setuptools documentation have been updated

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25500

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<75>,  Next: Build<77>,  Prev: Documentation<72>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.94.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-21916(1): Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid,
     Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26523(2): The multiprocessing thread pool
     (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

   - bpo-26015(3): Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable
     sequences.

   - bpo-26325(4): Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to
     check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

   - bpo-25940(5): Changed test_ssl to use self-signed.pythontest.net.
     This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently changed root
     certificate.

   - bpo-25616(6): Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from
     test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

   - bpo-26583(7): Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if
     bytecode files cannot be written.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583


File: python.info,  Node: Build<77>,  Next: Windows<71>,  Prev: Tests<75>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.94.7 Build
...............

   - bpo-26884(1): Fix linking extension modules for cross builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-22359(2): Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and
     pgen when cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is
     normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still
     regenerated when doing a native build.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-27229(3): Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-21668(4): Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to
     libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-25702(5): A -with-lto configure option has been added that will
     enable link time optimizations at build time during a make
     profile-opt.  Some compilers and toolchains are known to not
     produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things
     thoroughly before relying on it.  It can provide a few % speed up
     over profile-opt alone.

   - bpo-26624(6): Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with
     warning for old versions.

   - bpo-17603(7): Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by
     using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

   - bpo-26079(8): Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6.
     Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

   - bpo-26465(9): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-24421(10): Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building
     extensions.  Previously it could fail to compile properly if the
     math and cmath builds were concurrent.

   - bpo-25348(11): Added ‘--pgo’ and ‘--pgo-job’ arguments to
     ‘PCbuild\build.bat’ for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.
     The old ‘PCbuild\build_pgo.bat’ script is now deprecated, and
     simply calls ‘PCbuild\build.bat --pgo %*’.

   - bpo-25827(12): Add support for building with ICC to ‘configure’,
     including a new ‘--with-icc’ flag.

   - bpo-25696(13): Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

   - bpo-26930(14): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   - bpo-26268(15): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

   - bpo-25136(16): Support Apple Xcode 7's new textual SDK stub
     libraries.

   - bpo-24324(17): Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using
     gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc
     and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<71>,  Next: Tools/Demos<44>,  Prev: Build<77>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.94.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27053(1): Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP
     file.

   - bpo-26268(2): Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL
     releases that don't include the contents of the include directory
     (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

   - bpo-26071(3): bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find
     32bit Python

   - bpo-26073(4): Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

   - bpo-26065(5): Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable
     distro.

   - bpo-17500(6): Remove unused and outdated icons.  (See also:
     ‘https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945’)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<44>,  Prev: Windows<71>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.94.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-26799(1): Fix python-gdb.py: don't get C types once when the
     Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand.  The C types can
     change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable.
     Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

   - bpo-26271(2): Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed
     through configure.  Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

   - bpo-26489(3): Add dictionary unpacking support to
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-26316(4): Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 1 final,  Next: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.95 Python 3.5.1 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2015-12-06'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<84>.
* Windows: Windows<72>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<84>,  Next: Windows<72>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 final

1.22.95.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-25709(1): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<72>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 final

1.22.95.2 Windows
.................

   - bpo-25715(1): Python 3.5.1 installer shows wrong upgrade path and
     incorrect logic for launcher detection.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25715


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 1 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.96 Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-11-22'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<85>.
* Library: Library<84>.
* IDLE: IDLE<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<73>.
* Tests: Tests<76>.
* Build: Build<78>.
* Windows: Windows<73>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<45>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<85>,  Next: Library<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.96.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-25630(1): Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in
     functions that accept filesystem paths.

   - bpo-23564(2): Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the
     _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to
     the child.  The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already
     avoided it.

   - bpo-25388(3): Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code with a null byte.

   - bpo-25462(4): The hash of the key now is calculated only once in
     most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-22995(5): Default implementation of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

   - bpo-25555(6): Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of
     "arg" node when compiling AST from Python objects.

   - bpo-24802(7): Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(),
     compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These
     objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the
     functions assumed they were.

   - bpo-24726(8): Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of
     OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

   - bpo-25449(9): Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash
     now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-25395(10): Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict
     structures were garbage collected.

   - bpo-25274(11): sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError
     if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current
     recursion depth.  Modify also the "lower-water mark" formula to
     make it monotonic.  This mark is used to decide when the overflowed
     flag of the thread state is reset.

   - bpo-24402(12): Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
     sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

   - bpo-24806(13): Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be
     subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

   - bpo-24848(14): Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of
     misformed data.

   - bpo-25280(15): Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode
     are no longer formatted twice.

   - bpo-25003(16): On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the
     getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function.  The
     getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality
     entropy, os.urandom() doesn't need such high-quality entropy.

   - bpo-25182(17): The stdprinter (used as sys.stderr before the io
     module is imported at startup) now uses the backslashreplace error
     handler.

   - bpo-25131(18): Make the line number and column offset of set/dict
     literals and comprehensions correspond to the opening brace.

   - bpo-25150(19): Hide the private ‘_Py_atomic_XXX’ symbols from the
     public Python.h header to fix a compilation error with OpenMP.
     PyThreadState_GET() becomes an alias to PyThreadState_Get() to
     avoid ABI incompatibilities.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25182

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25131

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25150


File: python.info,  Node: Library<84>,  Next: IDLE<58>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.96.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-25626(1): Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that fit
     in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This
     resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read
     chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the
     zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the
     zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
     zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

   - bpo-25583(2): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors
     such as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-25593(3): Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

   - bpo-6973(4): When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do
     not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do
     anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

   - bpo-25590(5): In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once
     per attribute.

   - bpo-25498(6): Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects
     created by wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in
     3.5a1.  Based on patch by Eryksun.

   - bpo-25584(7): Added "escape" to the __all__ list in the glob
     module.

   - bpo-25584(8): Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with
     ‘**’.

   - bpo-25446(9): Fix regression in smtplib's AUTH LOGIN support.

   - bpo-18010(10): Fix the pydoc web server's module search function to
     handle exceptions from importing packages.

   - bpo-25554(11): Got rid of circular references in regular expression
     parsing.

   - bpo-25510(12): fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b''
     instead of '' at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary
     mode.  Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

   - bpo-25503(13): Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of
     properties.  Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

   - bpo-25515(14): Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in
     uuid.uuid4.

   - bpo-21827(15): Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest
     common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace.
     Based on patch by Robert Li.

   - bpo-25447(16): The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied
     and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25390(17): typing: Don't crash on Union[str, Pattern].

   - bpo-25441(18): asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is
     closed.

   - bpo-25410(19): Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation
     of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-25411(20): Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through
     better use of the email package.  Thanks to user simon04 for the
     patch.

   - bpo-25407(21): Remove mentions of the formatter module being
     removed in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-25406(22): Fixed a bug in C implementation of
     OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in
     iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

   - bpo-25364(23): zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

   - bpo-25328(24): smtpd's SMTPChannel now correctly raises a
     ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

   - bpo-25316(25): distutils raises OSError instead of
     DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

   - bpo-25380(26): Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
     pickletools.opcodes.

   - bpo-23972(27): Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing
     reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding
     the socket.  Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method
     the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the
     O/S is 'posix' (except if the platform is Cygwin).  Patch by Chris
     Laws.

   - bpo-25304(28): Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets
     you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
     concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-25232(29): Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the
     URL at the first question mark (?)  rather than the last.  Patch
     from Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24657(30): Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes in
     the query part of the URL as if it were a path.  Patch from Xiang
     Zhang.

   - bpo-24483(31): C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now
     calculates key's hash only once.

   - bpo-22958(32): Constructor and update method of
     weakref.WeakValueDictionary now accept the self and the dict
     keyword arguments.

   - bpo-22609(33): Constructor of collections.UserDict now accepts the
     self keyword argument.

   - bpo-25111(34): Fixed comparison of traceback.FrameSummary.

   - bpo-25262(35): Added support for BINBYTES8 opcode in Python
     implementation of unpickler.  Highest 32 bits of 64-bit size for
     BINUNICODE8 and BINBYTES8 opcodes no longer silently ignored on
     32-bit platforms in C implementation.

   - bpo-25034(36): Fix string.Formatter problem with auto-numbering and
     nested format_specs.  Patch by Anthon van der Neut.

   - bpo-25233(37): Rewrite the guts of asyncio.Queue and
     asyncio.Semaphore to be more understandable and correct.

   - bpo-25203(38): Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer
     left the module in inconsistent state.

   - bpo-23600(39): Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was
     returning wrong results in some cases.

   - bpo-23329(40): Allow the ssl module to be built with older versions
     of LibreSSL.

   - Prevent overflow in _Unpickler_Read.

   - bpo-25047(41): The XML encoding declaration written by Element Tree
     now respects the letter case given by the user.  This restores the
     ability to write encoding names in uppercase like "UTF-8", which
     worked in Python 2.

   - bpo-25135(42): Make deque_clear() safer by emptying the deque
     before clearing.  This helps avoid possible reentrancy issues.

   - bpo-19143(43): platform module now reads Windows version from
     kernel32.dll to avoid compatibility shims.

   - bpo-25092(44): Fix datetime.strftime() failure when errno was
     already set to EINVAL.

   - bpo-23517(45): Fix rounding in fromtimestamp() and
     utcfromtimestamp() methods of datetime.datetime: microseconds are
     now rounded to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer
     (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), instead of being rounding towards minus infinity
     (ROUND_FLOOR). It's important that these methods use the same
     rounding mode than datetime.timedelta to keep the property:
     (datetime(1970,1,1) + timedelta(seconds=t)) ==
     datetime.utcfromtimestamp(t).  It also the rounding mode used by
     round(float) for example.

   - bpo-25155(46): Fix datetime.datetime.now() and
     datetime.datetime.utcnow() on Windows to support date after year
     2038.  It was a regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-25108(47): Omitted internal frames in traceback functions
     print_stack(), format_stack(), and extract_stack() called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-25118(48): Fix a regression of Python 3.5.0 in os.waitpid() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-24684(49): socket.socket.getaddrinfo() now calls
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedString() instead of calling the encode() method
     of the host, to handle correctly custom string with an encode()
     method which doesn't return a byte string.  The encoder of the IDNA
     codec is now called directly instead of calling the encode() method
     of the string.

   - bpo-25060(50): Correctly compute stack usage of the BUILD_MAP
     opcode.

   - bpo-24857(51): Comparing call_args to a long sequence now correctly
     returns a boolean result instead of raising an exception.  Patch by
     A Kaptur.

   - bpo-23144(52): Make sure that HTMLParser.feed() returns all the
     data, even when convert_charrefs is True.

   - bpo-24982(53): shutil.make_archive() with the "zip" format now adds
     entries for directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

   - bpo-25019(54): Fixed a crash caused by setting non-string key of
     expat parser.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-16180(55): Exit pdb if file has syntax error, instead of
     trapping user in an infinite loop.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-24891(56): Fix a race condition at Python startup if the file
     descriptor of stdin (0), stdout (1) or stderr (2) is closed while
     Python is creating sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr objects.
     These attributes are now set to None if the creation of the object
     failed, instead of raising an OSError exception.  Initial patch
     written by Marco Paolini.

   - bpo-24992(57): Fix error handling and a race condition (related to
     garbage collection) in collections.OrderedDict constructor.

   - bpo-24881(58): Fixed setting binary mode in Python implementation
     of FileIO on Windows and Cygwin.  Patch from Akira Li.

   - bpo-25578(59): Fix (another) memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercer().

   - bpo-25530(60): Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default
     when creating ssl.SSLContext.

   - bpo-25569(61): Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

   - bpo-25471(62): Sockets returned from accept() shouldn't appear to
     be nonblocking.

   - bpo-25319(63): When threading.Event is reinitialized, the
     underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a
     recursive lock.

   - bpo-21112(64): Fix regression in unittest.expectedFailure on
     subclasses.  Patch from Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-24764(65): cgi.FieldStorage.read_multi() now ignores the
     Content-Length header in part headers.  Patch written by Peter
     Landry and reviewed by Pierre Quentel.

   - bpo-24913(66): Fix overrun error in deque.index().  Found by John
     Leitch and Bryce Darling.

   - bpo-24774(67): Fix docstring in http.server.test.  Patch from
     Chiu-Hsiang Hsu.

   - bpo-21159(68): Improve message in
     configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError.  Patch from Łukasz
     Langa.

   - bpo-20362(69): Honour TestCase.longMessage correctly in
     assertRegex.  Patch from Ilia Kurenkov.

   - bpo-23572(70): Fixed functools.singledispatch on classes with false
     metaclasses.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - asyncio: ensure_future() now accepts awaitable objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25626

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25583

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6973

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25590

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25498

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25446

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18010

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25554

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25510

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25503

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25515

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21827

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25390

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25441

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25410

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25411

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25407

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25406

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25364

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25328

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25316

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25380

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23972

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25304

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25232

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24657

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24483

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22958

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22609

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25111

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25262

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25034

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25233

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25203

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23600

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23329

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25047

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25135

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19143

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25092

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23517

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25155

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25108

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25118

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24684

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25060

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24857

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23144

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24982

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25019

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16180

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24891

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24992

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24881

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25578

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25530

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25569

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25471

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25319

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21112

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24764

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24774

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21159

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20362

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23572


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<58>,  Next: Documentation<73>,  Prev: Library<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.96.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15348(1): Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process)
     before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process).
     This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

   - bpo-24455(2): Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell
     while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with
     the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already
     active (24455).  The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two
     changes.  1.  Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with
     the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of
     root.mainloop & .quit).  2.  In gui.run, allow any existing
     interaction to terminate first.

   - Change 'The program' to 'Your program' in an IDLE 'kill program?'
     message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the
     currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

   - bpo-24750(3): Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window
     status bar.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25313(4): Change the handling of new built-in text color themes
     to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the
     addition of IDLE Dark.  Consistently use the revised
     idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

   - bpo-24782(5): Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE
     Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs
     are now a sorted list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-22726(6): Re-activate the config dialog help button with some
     content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

   - bpo-24820(7): IDLE now has an 'IDLE Dark' built-in text color
     theme.  It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt
     blue background.  Strings, comments, keywords, ...  are still
     green, red, orange, ...  .  To use it with IDLEs released before
     November 2015, hit the 'Save as New Custom Theme' button and enter
     a new name, such as 'Custom Dark'.  The custom theme will work with
     any IDLE release, and can be modified.

   - bpo-25224(8): README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE
     developers and curious users.  The previous user content is now in
     the IDLE doc chapter.  'IDLE' now means 'Integrated Development and
     Learning Environment'.

   - bpo-24820(9): Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings ->
     Custom Highlighting.  Original patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24972(10): Inactive selection background now matches active
     selection background, as configured by users, on all systems.
     Found items are now always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch
     by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24570(11): Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on
     Macs affected by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24988(12): Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger)
     now work on Mac Aqua.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24801(13): Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua.
     Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25173(14): Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific
     widget.  For Mac OSX, make them a 'sheet'.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25198(15): Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle
     Help.  Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman).
     Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background.
     Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor.
     When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section
     header at the top of the screen.

   - bpo-25225(16): Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text
     colors.

   - bpo-21995(17): Explain some differences between IDLE and console
     Python.

   - bpo-22820(18): Explain need for 'print' when running file from Idle
     editor.

   - bpo-25224(19): Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess
     section.

   - bpo-25219(20): Update doc for Idle command line options.  Some were
     missing and notes were not correct.

   - bpo-24861(21): Most of idlelib is private and subject to change.
     Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle.  See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

   - bpo-25199(22): Idle: add synchronization comments for future
     maintainers.

   - bpo-16893(23): Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc
     display.  The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped
     Doc/build/html/library/idle.html.  It looks better than help.txt
     and will better document Idle as released.  The tkinter html viewer
     that works for this file was written by Mark Roseman.  The now
     unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
     deprecated.

   - bpo-24199(24): Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible
     removal in 3.6.

   - bpo-24790(25): Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3
     conflicts).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<73>,  Next: Tests<76>,  Prev: IDLE<58>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.96.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-22558(1): Add remaining doc links to source code for
     Python-coded modules.  Patch by Yoni Lavi.

   - bpo-12067(2): Rewrite Comparisons section in the Expressions
     chapter of the language reference.  Some of the details of
     comparing mixed types were incorrect or ambiguous.  NotImplemented
     is only relevant at a lower level than the Expressions chapter.
     Added details of comparing range() objects, and default behaviour
     and consistency suggestions for user-defined classes.  Patch from
     Andy Maier.

   - bpo-24952(3): Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in
     the "threading" and "_thread" modules.  Patch from Mattip.

   - bpo-23725(4): Overhaul tempfile docs.  Note deprecated status of
     mktemp.  Patch from Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

   - bpo-24808(5): Update the types of some PyTypeObject fields.  Patch
     by Joseph Weston.

   - bpo-22812(6): Fix unittest discovery examples.  Patch from Pam
     McA'Nulty.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12067

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23725

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24808

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22812


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<76>,  Next: Build<78>,  Prev: Documentation<73>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.96.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25449(1): Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-25099(2): Make test_compileall not fail when an entry on
     sys.path cannot be written to (commonly seen in administrative
     installs on Windows).

   - bpo-23919(3): Prevents assert dialogs appearing in the test suite.

   - ‘PCbuild\rt.bat’ now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to
     pass along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25099

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23919


File: python.info,  Node: Build<78>,  Next: Windows<73>,  Prev: Tests<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.96.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-24915(1): Add LLVM support for PGO builds and use the test
     suite to generate the profile data.  Initial patch by Alecsandru
     Patrascu of Intel.

   - bpo-24910(2): Windows MSIs now have unique display names.

   - bpo-24986(3): It is now possible to build Python on Windows without
     errors when external libraries are not available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24915

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24910

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<73>,  Next: Tools/Demos<45>,  Prev: Build<78>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.96.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-25450(1): Updates shortcuts to start Python in installation
     directory.

   - bpo-25164(2): Changes default all-users install directory to match
     per-user directory.

   - bpo-25143(3): Improves installer error messages for unsupported
     platforms.

   - bpo-25163(4): Display correct directory in installer when using
     non-default settings.

   - bpo-25361(5): Disables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit
     build

   - bpo-25089(6): Adds logging to installer for case where launcher is
     not selected on upgrade.

   - bpo-25165(7): Windows uninstallation should not remove launcher if
     other versions remain

   - bpo-25112(8): py.exe launcher is missing icons

   - bpo-25102(9): Windows installer does not precompile for -O or -OO.

   - bpo-25081(10): Makes Back button in installer go back to upgrade
     page when upgrading.

   - bpo-25091(11): Increases font size of the installer.

   - bpo-25126(12): Clarifies that the non-web installer will download
     some components.

   - bpo-25213(13): Restores requestedExecutionLevel to manifest to
     disable UAC virtualization.

   - bpo-25022(14): Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25450

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25143

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25163

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25089

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25165

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25112

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25102

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25081

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25091

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25126

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25213

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<45>,  Prev: Windows<73>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.96.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-25440(1): Fix output of python-config -extension-suffix.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 final,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.97 Python 3.5.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-13'

* Menu:

* Build: Build<79>.


File: python.info,  Node: Build<79>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 final

1.22.97.1 Build
...............

   - bpo-25071(1): Windows installer should not require TargetDir
     parameter when installing quietly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25071


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 final,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.98 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-09'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<85>.
* Build: Build<80>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<85>,  Next: Build<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4

1.22.98.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-25029(1): Fixes MemoryError in test_strptime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25029


File: python.info,  Node: Build<80>,  Prev: Library<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4

1.22.98.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-25027(1): Reverts partial-static build options and adds
     vcruntime140.dll to Windows installation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25027


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.99 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<86>.
* Library: Library<86>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<86>,  Next: Library<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3

1.22.99.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-24305(1): Prevent import subsystem stack frames from being
     counted by the warnings.warn(stacklevel=) parameter.

   - bpo-24912(2): Prevent __class__ assignment to immutable built-in
     objects.

   - bpo-24975(3): Fix AST compilation for PEP 448(4) syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24305

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24912

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24975

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<86>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3

1.22.99.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-24917(1): time_strftime() buffer over-read.

   - bpo-24748(2): To resolve a compatibility problem found with py2exe
     and pywin32, imp.load_dynamic() once again ignores previously
     loaded modules to support Python modules replacing themselves with
     extension modules.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-24635(3): Fixed a bug in typing.py where isinstance([],
     typing.Iterable) would return True once, then False on subsequent
     calls.

   - bpo-24989(4): Fixed buffer overread in BytesIO.readline() if a
     position is set beyond size.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-24913(5): Fix overrun error in deque.index().  Found by John
     Leitch and Bryce Darling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24917

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24748

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24635

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24989

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.100 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-08-25'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<87>.
* Library: Library<87>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<87>,  Next: Library<87>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2

1.22.100.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24769(1): Interpreter now starts properly when dynamic loading
     is disabled.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-21167(2): NAN operations are now handled correctly when python
     is compiled with ICC even if -fp-model strict is not specified.

   - bpo-24492(3): A "package" lacking a __name__ attribute when trying
     to perform a ‘from .. import ...’ statement will trigger an
     ImportError instead of an AttributeError.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24769

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21167

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24492


File: python.info,  Node: Library<87>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<87>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2

1.22.100.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24847(1): Removes vcruntime140.dll dependency from Tcl/Tk.

   - bpo-24839(2): platform._syscmd_ver raises DeprecationWarning

   - bpo-24867(3): Fix Task.get_stack() for 'async def' coroutines

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24847

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24839

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24867


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.101 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-08-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<88>.
* Library: Library<88>.
* IDLE: IDLE<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<74>.
* Tests: Tests<77>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<88>,  Next: Library<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.22.101.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24667(1): Resize odict in all cases that the underlying dict
     resizes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24667


File: python.info,  Node: Library<88>,  Next: IDLE<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.22.101.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24824(1): Signatures of codecs.encode() and codecs.decode() now
     are compatible with pydoc.

   - bpo-24634(2): Importing uuid should not try to load libc on Windows

   - bpo-24798(3): _msvccompiler.py doesn't properly support manifests

   - bpo-4395(4): Better testing and documentation of binary operators.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23973(5): Update typing.py from GitHub repo.

   - bpo-23004(6): mock_open() now reads binary data correctly when the
     type of read_data is bytes.  Initial patch by Aaron Hill.

   - bpo-23888(7): Handle fractional time in cookie expiry.  Patch by
     ssh.

   - bpo-23652(8): Make it possible to compile the select module against
     the libc headers from the Linux Standard Base, which do not include
     some EPOLL macros.  Patch by Matt Frank.

   - bpo-22932(9): Fix timezones in email.utils.formatdate.  Patch from
     Dmitry Shachnev.

   - bpo-23779(10): imaplib raises TypeError if authenticator tries to
     abort.  Patch from Craig Holmquist.

   - bpo-23319(11): Fix ctypes.BigEndianStructure, swap correctly bytes.
     Patch written by Matthieu Gautier.

   - bpo-23254(12): Document how to close the TCPServer listening
     socket.  Patch from Martin Panter.

   - bpo-19450(13): Update Windows and OS X installer builds to use
     SQLite 3.8.11.

   - bpo-17527(14): Add PATCH to wsgiref.validator.  Patch from Luca
     Sbardella.

   - bpo-24791(15): Fix grammar regression for call syntax: 'g(*a or
     b)'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24824

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24634

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24798

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4395

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23004

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23888

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23652

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22932

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23779

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23319

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23254

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19450

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17527

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24791


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<59>,  Next: Documentation<74>,  Prev: Library<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.22.101.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-23672(1): Allow Idle to edit and run files with astral chars in
     name.  Patch by Mohd Sanad Zaki Rizvi.

   - bpo-24745(2): Idle editor default font.  Switch from Courier to
     platform-sensitive TkFixedFont.  This should not affect current
     customized font selections.  If there is a problem, edit
     $HOME/.idlerc/config-main.cfg and remove '‘fontXXX’' entries from
     [Editor Window].  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-21192(3): Idle editor.  When a file is run, put its name in the
     restart bar.  Do not print false prompts.  Original patch by Adnan
     Umer.

   - bpo-13884(4): Idle menus.  Remove tearoff lines.  Patch by Roger
     Serwy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23672

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24745

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21192

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13884


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<74>,  Next: Tests<77>,  Prev: IDLE<59>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.22.101.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-24129(1): Clarify the reference documentation for name
     resolution.  This includes removing the assumption that readers
     will be familiar with the name resolution scheme Python used prior
     to the introduction of lexical scoping for function namespaces.
     Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-20769(2): Improve reload() docs.  Patch by Dorian Pula.

   - bpo-23589(3): Remove duplicate sentence from the FAQ. Patch by
     Yongzhi Pan.

   - bpo-24729(4): Correct IO tutorial to match implementation regarding
     encoding parameter to open function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24129

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20769

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23589

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24729


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<77>,  Prev: Documentation<74>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.22.101.5 Tests
................

   - bpo-24751(1): When running regrtest with the ‘-w’ command line
     option, a test run is no longer marked as a failure if all tests
     succeed when re-run.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24751


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.102 Python 3.5.0 beta 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-07-26'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<89>.
* Library: Library<89>.
* Build: Build<81>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<89>,  Next: Library<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.22.102.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23573(1): Restored optimization of bytes.rfind() and
     bytearray.rfind() for single-byte argument on Linux.

   - bpo-24569(2): Make PEP 448(3) dictionary evaluation more
     consistent.

   - bpo-24583(4): Fix crash when set is mutated while being updated.

   - bpo-24407(5): Fix crash when dict is mutated while being updated.

   - bpo-24619(6): New approach for tokenizing async/await.  As a
     consequence, it is now possible to have one-line 'async def foo():
     await ..'  functions.

   - bpo-24687(7): Plug refleak on SyntaxError in function parameters
     annotations.

   - bpo-15944(8): memoryview: Allow arbitrary formats when casting to
     bytes.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24569

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24583

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24407

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24619

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24687

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15944


File: python.info,  Node: Library<89>,  Next: Build<81>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.22.102.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23441(1): rcompleter now prints a tab character instead of
     displaying possible completions for an empty word.  Initial patch
     by Martin Sekera.

   - bpo-24683(2): Fixed crashes in _json functions called with
     arguments of inappropriate type.

   - bpo-21697(3): shutil.copytree() now correctly handles symbolic
     links that point to directories.  Patch by Eduardo Seabra and
     Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-14373(4): Fixed segmentation fault when gc.collect() is called
     during constructing lru_cache (C implementation).

   - bpo-24695(5): Fix a regression in traceback.print_exception().  If
     exc_traceback is None we shouldn't print a traceback header like
     described in the documentation.

   - bpo-24620(6): Random.setstate() now validates the value of state
     last element.

   - bpo-22485(7): Fixed an issue that caused ‘inspect.getsource’ to
     return incorrect results on nested functions.

   - bpo-22153(8): Improve unittest docs.  Patch from Martin Panter and
     evilzero.

   - bpo-24580(9): Symbolic group references to open group in re
     patterns now are explicitly forbidden as well as numeric group
     references.

   - bpo-24206(10): Fixed __eq__ and __ne__ methods of inspect classes.

   - bpo-24631(11): Fixed regression in the timeit module with multiline
     setup.

   - bpo-18622(12): unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse
     infinitely.  Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

   - bpo-23661(13): unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions
     again.  This was a regression vs Python 3.4.  Patch from Ignacio
     Rossi

   - bpo-24608(14): chunk.Chunk.read() now always returns bytes, not
     str.

   - bpo-18684(15): Fixed reading out of the buffer in the re module.

   - bpo-24259(16): tarfile now raises a ReadError if an archive is
     truncated inside a data segment.

   - bpo-15014(17): SMTP.auth() and SMTP.login() now support RFC 4954's
     optional initial-response argument to the SMTP AUTH command.

   - bpo-24669(18): Fix inspect.getsource() for 'async def' functions.
     Patch by Kai Groner.

   - bpo-24688(19): ast.get_docstring() for 'async def' functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23441

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21697

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24695

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24620

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22485

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22153

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24580

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24206

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24631

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18622

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23661

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24608

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18684

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24259

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24669

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24688


File: python.info,  Node: Build<81>,  Prev: Library<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.22.102.3 Build
................

   - bpo-24603(1): Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24603


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.103 Python 3.5.0 beta 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-07-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<90>.
* Library: Library<90>.
* Tests: Tests<78>.
* Documentation: Documentation<75>.
* Build: Build<82>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<90>,  Next: Library<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.22.103.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24467(1): Fixed possible buffer over-read in bytearray.  The
     bytearray object now always allocates place for trailing null byte
     and it's buffer now is always null-terminated.

   - Upgrade to Unicode 8.0.0.

   - bpo-24345(2): Add Py_tp_finalize slot for the stable ABI.

   - bpo-24400(3): Introduce a distinct type for PEP 492(4) coroutines;
     add types.CoroutineType, inspect.getcoroutinestate,
     inspect.getcoroutinelocals; coroutines no longer use CO_GENERATOR
     flag; sys.set_coroutine_wrapper works only for 'async def'
     coroutines; inspect.iscoroutine no longer uses
     collections.abc.Coroutine, it's intended to test for pure 'async
     def' coroutines only; add new opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER; fix
     generators wrapper used in types.coroutine to be instance of
     collections.abc.Generator; collections.abc.Awaitable and
     collections.abc.Coroutine can no longer be used to detect
     generator-based coroutines-use inspect.isawaitable instead.

   - bpo-24450(5): Add gi_yieldfrom to generators and cr_await to
     coroutines.  Contributed by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-19235(6): Add new RecursionError exception.  Patch by Georg
     Brandl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24467

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24345

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235


File: python.info,  Node: Library<90>,  Next: Tests<78>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.22.103.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-21750(1): mock_open.read_data can now be read from each
     instance, as it could in Python 3.3.

   - bpo-24552(2): Fix use after free in an error case of the _pickle
     module.

   - bpo-24514(3): tarfile now tolerates number fields consisting of
     only whitespace.

   - bpo-19176(4): Fixed doctype() related bugs in C implementation of
     ElementTree.  A deprecation warning no longer issued by XMLParser
     subclass with default doctype() method.  Direct call of doctype()
     now issues a warning.  Parser's doctype() now is not called if
     target's doctype() is called.  Based on patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-20387(5): Restore semantic round-trip correctness in
     tokenize/untokenize for tab-indented blocks.

   - bpo-24456(6): Fixed possible buffer over-read in adpcm2lin() and
     lin2adpcm() functions of the audioop module.

   - bpo-24336(7): The contextmanager decorator now works with functions
     with keyword arguments called "func" and "self".  Patch by Martin
     Panter.

   - bpo-24522(8): Fix possible integer overflow in json accelerator
     module.

   - bpo-24489(9): ensure a previously set C errno doesn't disturb
     cmath.polar().

   - bpo-24408(10): Fixed AttributeError in measure() and metrics()
     methods of tkinter.Font.

   - bpo-14373(11): C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now can be
     used with methods.

   - bpo-24347(12): Set KeyError if PyDict_GetItemWithError returns
     NULL.

   - bpo-24348(13): Drop superfluous incref/decref.

   - bpo-24359(14): Check for changed OrderedDict size during iteration.

   - bpo-24368(15): Support keyword arguments in OrderedDict methods.

   - bpo-24362(16): Simplify the C OrderedDict fast nodes resize logic.

   - bpo-24377(17): Fix a ref leak in OrderedDict.__repr__.

   - bpo-24369(18): Defend against key-changes during iteration.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21750

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24514

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19176

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20387

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24456

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24336

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24522

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24489

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24408

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24347

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24348

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24359

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24368

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24362

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24377

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24369


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<78>,  Next: Documentation<75>,  Prev: Library<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.22.103.3 Tests
................

   - bpo-24373(1): _testmultiphase and xxlimited now use tp_traverse and
     tp_finalize to avoid reference leaks encountered when combining
     tp_dealloc with PyType_FromSpec (see bpo-16690(2) for details)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16690


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<75>,  Next: Build<82>,  Prev: Tests<78>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.22.103.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-24458(1): Update documentation to cover multi-phase
     initialization for extension modules (PEP 489).  Patch by Petr
     Viktorin.

   - bpo-24351(2): Clarify what is meant by "identifier" in the context
     of string.Template instances.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24458

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24351


File: python.info,  Node: Build<82>,  Prev: Documentation<75>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.22.103.5 Build
................

   - bpo-24432(1): Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24432


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.104 Python 3.5.0 beta 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-05-31'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<91>.
* Library: Library<91>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<91>,  Next: Library<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 2

1.22.104.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24284(1): The startswith and endswith methods of the str class
     no longer return True when finding the empty string and the indexes
     are completely out of range.

   - bpo-24115(2): Update uses of PyObject_IsTrue(), PyObject_Not(),
     PyObject_IsInstance(), PyObject_RichCompareBool() and
     _PyDict_Contains() to check for and handle errors correctly.

   - bpo-24328(3): Fix importing one character extension modules.

   - bpo-11205(4): In dictionary displays, evaluate the key before the
     value.

   - bpo-24285(5): Fixed regression that prevented importing extension
     modules from inside packages.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24115

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24328

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24285


File: python.info,  Node: Library<91>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 2

1.22.104.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23247(1): Fix a crash in the StreamWriter.reset() of CJK
     codecs.

   - bpo-24270(2): Add math.isclose() and cmath.isclose() functions as
     per PEP 485(3).  Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat.

   - bpo-5633(4): Fixed timeit when the statement is a string and the
     setup is not.

   - bpo-24326(5): Fixed audioop.ratecv() with non-default weightB
     argument.  Original patch by David Moore.

   - bpo-16991(6): Add a C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-23934(7): Fix inspect.signature to fail correctly for builtin
     types lacking signature information.  Initial patch by James
     Powell.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23247

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5633

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24326

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23934


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.105 Python 3.5.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-05-24'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<92>.
* Library: Library<92>.
* IDLE: IDLE<60>.
* Tests: Tests<79>.
* Documentation: Documentation<76>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<46>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<92>,  Next: Library<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.105.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24276(1): Fixed optimization of property descriptor getter.

   - bpo-24268(2): PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization.
     Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-23955(3): Add pyvenv.cfg option to suppress
     registry/environment lookup for generating sys.path on Windows.

   - bpo-24257(4): Fixed system error in the comparison of faked
     types.SimpleNamespace.

   - bpo-22939(5): Fixed integer overflow in iterator object.  Patch by
     Clement Rouault.

   - bpo-23985(6): Fix a possible buffer overrun when deleting a slice
     from the front of a bytearray and then appending some other bytes
     data.

   - bpo-24102(7): Fixed exception type checking in standard error
     handlers.

   - bpo-15027(8): The UTF-32 encoder is now 3x to 7x faster.

   - bpo-23290(9): Optimize set_merge() for cases where the target is
     empty.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka.)

   - bpo-2292(10): PEP 448: Additional Unpacking Generalizations.

   - bpo-24096(11): Make warnings.warn_explicit more robust against
     mutation of the warnings.filters list.

   - bpo-23996(12): Avoid a crash when a delegated generator raises an
     unnormalized StopIteration exception.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-23910(13): Optimize property() getter calls.  Patch by Joe
     Jevnik.

   - bpo-23911(14): Move path-based importlib bootstrap code to a
     separate frozen module.

   - bpo-24192(15): Fix namespace package imports.

   - bpo-24022(16): Fix tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code.

   - bpo-9951(17): Added a hex() method to bytes, bytearray, and
     memoryview.

   - bpo-22906(18): PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside
     generators.

   - bpo-24017(19): PEP 492: Coroutines with async and await syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24276

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23955

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22939

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23985

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24102

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23290

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2292

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24096

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23996

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23911

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24192

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24022

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22906

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017


File: python.info,  Node: Library<92>,  Next: IDLE<60>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.105.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-14373(1): Added C implementation of functools.lru_cache().
     Based on patches by Matt Joiner and Alexey Kachayev.

   - bpo-24230(2): The tempfile module now accepts bytes for prefix,
     suffix and dir parameters and returns bytes in such situations
     (matching the os module APIs).

   - bpo-22189(3): collections.UserString now supports __getnewargs__(),
     __rmod__(), casefold(), format_map(), isprintable(), and
     maketrans().  Patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-24244(4): Prevents termination when an invalid format string is
     encountered on Windows in strftime.

   - bpo-23973(5): PEP 484: Add the typing module.

   - bpo-23086(6): The collections.abc.Sequence() abstract base class
     added 'start' and 'stop' parameters to the index() mixin.  Patch by
     Devin Jeanpierre.

   - bpo-20035(7): Replaced the ‘tkinter._fix’ module used for setting
     up the Tcl/Tk environment on Windows with a private function in the
     ‘_tkinter’ module that makes no permanent changes to the
     environment.

   - bpo-24257(8): Fixed segmentation fault in sqlite3.Row constructor
     with faked cursor type.

   - bpo-15836(9): assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns()
     and assertWarnsRegex() assertments now check the type of the first
     argument to prevent possible user error.  Based on patch by Daniel
     Wagner-Hall.

   - bpo-9858(10): Add missing method stubs to _io.RawIOBase.  Patch by
     Laura Rupprecht.

   - bpo-22955(11): attrgetter, itemgetter and methodcaller objects in
     the operator module now support pickling.  Added readable and
     evaluable repr for these objects.  Based on patch by Josh
     Rosenberg.

   - bpo-22107(12): tempfile.gettempdir() and tempfile.mkdtemp() now try
     again when a directory with the chosen name already exists on
     Windows as well as on Unix.  tempfile.mkstemp() now fails early if
     parent directory is not valid (not exists or is a file) on Windows.

   - bpo-23780(13): Improved error message in os.path.join() with single
     argument.

   - bpo-6598(14): Increased time precision and random number range in
     email.utils.make_msgid() to strengthen the uniqueness of the
     message ID.

   - bpo-24091(15): Fixed various crashes in corner cases in C
     implementation of ElementTree.

   - bpo-21931(16): msilib.FCICreate() now raises TypeError in the case
     of a bad argument instead of a ValueError with a bogus FCI error
     number.  Patch by Jeffrey Armstrong.

   - bpo-13866(17): 'quote_via' argument added to
     urllib.parse.urlencode.

   - bpo-20098(18): New mangle_from policy option for email, default
     True for compat32, but False for all other policies.

   - bpo-24211(19): The email library now supports RFC 6532: it can
     generate headers using utf-8 instead of encoded words.

   - bpo-16314(20): Added support for the LZMA compression in distutils.

   - bpo-21804(21): poplib now supports RFC 6856 (UTF8).

   - bpo-18682(22): Optimized pprint functions for builtin scalar types.

   - bpo-22027(23): smtplib now supports RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8).

   - bpo-23488(24): Random generator objects now consume 2x less memory
     on 64-bit.

   - bpo-1322(25): platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution()
     functions are now deprecated.  Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-22486(26): Added the math.gcd() function.  The fractions.gcd()
     function now is deprecated.  Based on patch by Mark Dickinson.

   - bpo-24064(27): Property() docstrings are now writeable.  (Patch by
     Berker Peksag.)

   - bpo-22681(28): Added support for the koi8_t encoding.

   - bpo-22682(29): Added support for the kz1048 encoding.

   - bpo-23796(30): peek and read1 methods of BufferedReader now raise
     ValueError if they called on a closed object.  Patch by John
     Hergenroeder.

   - bpo-21795(31): smtpd now supports the 8BITMIME extension whenever
     the new 'decode_data' constructor argument is set to False.

   - bpo-24155(32): optimize heapq.heapify() for better cache
     performance when heapifying large lists.

   - bpo-21800(33): imaplib now supports RFC 5161 (enable), RFC 6855
     (utf8/internationalized email) and automatically encodes non-ASCII
     usernames and passwords to UTF8.

   - bpo-20274(34): When calling a _sqlite.Connection, it now complains
     if passed any keyword arguments.  Previously it silently ignored
     them.

   - bpo-20274(35): Remove ignored and erroneous "kwargs" parameters
     from three METH_VARARGS methods on _sqlite.Connection.

   - bpo-24134(36): assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns()
     and assertWarnsRegex() checks now emits a deprecation warning when
     callable is None or keyword arguments except msg is passed in the
     context manager mode.

   - bpo-24018(37): Add a collections.abc.Generator abstract base class.
     Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-23880(38): Tkinter's getint() and getdouble() now support
     Tcl_Obj.  Tkinter's getdouble() now supports any numbers (in
     particular int).

   - bpo-22619(39): Added negative limit support in the traceback
     module.  Based on patch by Dmitry Kazakov.

   - bpo-24094(40): Fix possible crash in json.encode with poorly
     behaved dict subclasses.

   - bpo-9246(41): On POSIX, os.getcwd() now supports paths longer than
     1025 bytes.  Patch written by William Orr.

   - bpo-17445(42): add difflib.diff_bytes() to support comparison of
     byte strings (fixes a regression from Python 2).

   - bpo-23917(43): Fall back to sequential compilation when
     ProcessPoolExecutor doesn't exist.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23008(44): Fixed resolving attributes with boolean value is
     False in pydoc.

   - Fix asyncio issue 235: LifoQueue and PriorityQueue's put didn't
     increment unfinished tasks (this bug was introduced when
     JoinableQueue was merged with Queue).

   - bpo-23908(45): os functions now reject paths with embedded null
     character on Windows instead of silently truncating them.

   - bpo-23728(46): binascii.crc_hqx() could return an integer outside
     of the range 0-0xffff for empty data.

   - bpo-23887(47): urllib.error.HTTPError now has a proper repr()
     representation.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - asyncio: New event loop APIs: set_task_factory() and
     get_task_factory().

   - asyncio: async() function is deprecated in favour of
     ensure_future().

   - bpo-24178(48): asyncio.Lock, Condition, Semaphore, and
     BoundedSemaphore support new 'async with' syntax.  Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24179(49): Support 'async for' for asyncio.StreamReader.
     Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24184(50): Add AsyncIterator and AsyncIterable ABCs to
     collections.abc.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-22547(51): Implement informative __repr__ for
     inspect.BoundArguments.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24190(52): Implement inspect.BoundArgument.apply_defaults()
     method.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-20691(53): Add 'follow_wrapped' argument to
     inspect.Signature.from_callable() and inspect.signature().
     Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24248(54): Deprecate inspect.Signature.from_function() and
     inspect.Signature.from_builtin().

   - bpo-23898(55): Fix inspect.classify_class_attrs() to support
     attributes with overloaded __eq__ and __bool__.  Patch by Mike
     Bayer.

   - bpo-24298(56): Fix inspect.signature() to correctly unwrap wrappers
     around bound methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24230

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24244

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15836

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9858

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22107

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23780

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6598

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24091

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21931

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18682

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23796

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24155

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24134

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23880

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24094

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9246

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23917

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23008

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23908

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23728

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23887

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24178

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24179

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22547

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23898

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24298


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<60>,  Next: Tests<79>,  Prev: Library<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.105.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-23184(1): remove unused names and imports in idlelib.  Initial
     patch by Al Sweigart.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23184


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<79>,  Next: Documentation<76>,  Prev: IDLE<60>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.105.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-21520(1): test_zipfile no longer fails if the word 'bad'
     appears anywhere in the name of the current directory.

   - bpo-9517(2): Move script_helper into the support package.  Patch by
     Christie Wilson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21520

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9517


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<76>,  Next: Tools/Demos<46>,  Prev: Tests<79>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.105.5 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-22155(1): Add File Handlers subsection with createfilehandler
     to tkinter doc.  Remove obsolete example from FAQ. Patch by Martin
     Panter.

   - bpo-24029(2): Document the name binding behavior for submodule
     imports.

   - bpo-24077(3): Fix typo in man page for -I command option: -s, not
     -S

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22155

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24029

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24077


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<46>,  Prev: Documentation<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.105.6 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-24000(1): Improved Argument Clinic's mapping of converters to
     legacy "format units".  Updated the documentation to match.

   - bpo-24001(2): Argument Clinic converters now use accept={type}
     instead of types={'type'} to specify the types the converter
     accepts.

   - bpo-23330(3): h2py now supports arbitrary filenames in #include.

   - bpo-24031(4): make patchcheck now supports git checkouts, too.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24000

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24001

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23330

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24031


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.106 Python 3.5.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-04-19'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<93>.
* Library: Library<93>.
* Build: Build<83>.
* Tests: Tests<80>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<47>.
* C API: C API<65>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<93>,  Next: Library<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.106.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-22980(1): Under Linux, GNU/KFreeBSD and the Hurd, C extensions
     now include the architecture triplet in the extension name, to make
     it easy to test builds for different ABIs in the same working tree.
     Under OS X, the extension name now includes PEP 3149(2)-style
     information.

   - bpo-22631(3): Added Linux-specific socket constant
     CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES. Patch courtesy of Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23731(4): Implement PEP 488(5): removal of .pyo files.

   - bpo-23726(6): Don't enable GC for user subclasses of non-GC types
     that don't add any new fields.  Patch by Eugene Toder.

   - bpo-23309(7): Avoid a deadlock at shutdown if a daemon thread is
     aborted while it is holding a lock to a buffered I/O object, and
     the main thread tries to use the same I/O object (typically stdout
     or stderr).  A fatal error is emitted instead.

   - bpo-22977(8): Fixed formatting Windows error messages on Wine.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23466(9): %c, %o, %x, and %X in bytes formatting now raise
     TypeError on non-integer input.

   - bpo-24044(10): Fix possible null pointer dereference in list.sort
     in out of memory conditions.

   - bpo-21354(11): PyCFunction_New function is exposed by python DLL
     again.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22631

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23731

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23309

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22977

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23466

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24044

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21354


File: python.info,  Node: Library<93>,  Next: Build<83>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.106.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23840(1): tokenize.open() now closes the temporary binary file
     on error to fix a resource warning.

   - bpo-16914(2): new debuglevel 2 in smtplib adds timestamps to debug
     output.

   - bpo-7159(3): urllib.request now supports sending auth credentials
     automatically after the first 401.  This enhancement is a superset
     of the enhancement from bpo-19494(4) and supersedes that change.

   - bpo-23703(5): Fix a regression in urljoin() introduced in
     901e4e52b20a.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-4254(6): Adds _curses.update_lines_cols().  Patch by Arnon
     Yaari

   - bpo-19933(7): Provide default argument for ndigits in round.  Patch
     by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-23193(8): Add a numeric_owner parameter to
     tarfile.TarFile.extract and tarfile.TarFile.extractall.  Patch by
     Michael Vogt and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-23342(9): Add a subprocess.run() function than returns a
     CalledProcess instance for a more consistent API than the existing
     call* functions.

   - bpo-21217(10): inspect.getsourcelines() now tries to compute the
     start and end lines from the code object, fixing an issue when a
     lambda function is used as decorator argument.  Patch by Thomas
     Ballinger and Allison Kaptur.

   - bpo-24521(11): Fix possible integer overflows in the pickle module.

   - bpo-22931(12): Allow '[' and ']' in cookie values.

   - The keywords attribute of functools.partial is now always a
     dictionary.

   - bpo-23811(13): Add missing newline to the PyCompileError error
     message.  Patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-21116(14): Avoid blowing memory when allocating a
     multiprocessing shared array that's larger than 50% of the
     available RAM. Patch by Médéric Boquien.

   - bpo-22982(15): Improve BOM handling when seeking to multiple
     positions of a writable text file.

   - bpo-23464(16): Removed deprecated asyncio JoinableQueue.

   - bpo-23529(17): Limit the size of decompressed data when reading
     from GzipFile, BZ2File or LZMAFile.  This defeats denial of service
     attacks using compressed bombs (i.e.  compressed payloads which
     decompress to a huge size).  Patch by Martin Panter and Nikolaus
     Rath.

   - bpo-21859(18): Added Python implementation of io.FileIO.

   - bpo-23865(19): close() methods in multiple modules now are
     idempotent and more robust at shutdown.  If they need to release
     multiple resources, all are released even if errors occur.

   - bpo-23400(20): Raise same exception on both Python 2 and 3 if
     sem_open is not available.  Patch by Davin Potts.

   - bpo-10838(21): The subprocess now module includes SubprocessError
     and TimeoutError in its list of exported names for the users wild
     enough to use ‘from subprocess import *’.

   - bpo-23411(22): Added DefragResult, ParseResult, SplitResult,
     DefragResultBytes, ParseResultBytes, and SplitResultBytes to
     urllib.parse.__all__.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23881(23): urllib.request.ftpwrapper constructor now closes the
     socket if the FTP connection failed to fix a ResourceWarning.

   - bpo-23853(24): *note socket.socket.sendall(): c1f. does no more
     reset the socket timeout each time data is sent successfully.  The
     socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data.

   - bpo-22721(25): An order of multiline pprint output of set or dict
     containing orderable and non-orderable elements no longer depends
     on iteration order of set or dict.

   - bpo-15133(26): _tkinter.tkapp.getboolean() now supports Tcl_Obj and
     always returns bool.  tkinter.BooleanVar now validates input values
     (accepted bool, int, str, and Tcl_Obj).  tkinter.BooleanVar.get()
     now always returns bool.

   - bpo-10590(27): xml.sax.parseString() now supports string argument.

   - bpo-23338(28): Fixed formatting ctypes error messages on Cygwin.
     Patch by Makoto Kato.

   - bpo-15582(29): inspect.getdoc() now follows inheritance chains.

   - bpo-2175(30): SAX parsers now support a character stream of
     InputSource object.

   - bpo-16840(31): Tkinter now supports 64-bit integers added in Tcl
     8.4 and arbitrary precision integers added in Tcl 8.5.

   - bpo-23834(32): Fix socket.sendto(), use the C Py_ssize_t type to
     store the result of sendto() instead of the C int type.

   - bpo-23618(33): *note socket.socket.connect(): c1a. now waits until
     the connection completes instead of raising *note InterruptedError:
     bfe. if the connection is interrupted by signals, signal handlers
     don't raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has a
     timeout.  *note socket.socket.connect(): c1a. still raise *note
     InterruptedError: bfe. for non-blocking sockets.

   - bpo-21526(34): Tkinter now supports new boolean type in Tcl 8.5.

   - bpo-23836(35): Fix the faulthandler module to handle reentrant
     calls to its signal handlers.

   - bpo-23838(36): linecache now clears the cache and returns an empty
     result on MemoryError.

   - bpo-10395(37): Added os.path.commonpath().  Implemented in
     posixpath and ntpath.  Based on patch by Rafik Draoui.

   - bpo-23611(38): Serializing more "lookupable" objects (such as
     unbound methods or nested classes) now are supported with pickle
     protocols < 4.

   - bpo-13583(39): sqlite3.Row now supports slice indexing.

   - bpo-18473(40): Fixed 2to3 and 3to2 compatible pickle mappings.
     Fixed ambiguous reverse mappings.  Added many new mappings.  Import
     mapping is no longer applied to modules already mapped with full
     name mapping.

   - bpo-23485(41): select.select() is now retried automatically with
     the recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception.  This change is part of the PEP
     475(42).

   - bpo-23752(43): When built from an existing file descriptor,
     io.FileIO() now only calls fstat() once.  Before fstat() was called
     twice, which was not necessary.

   - bpo-23704(44): collections.deque() objects now support __add__,
     __mul__, and __imul__().

   - bpo-23171(45): csv.Writer.writerow() now supports arbitrary
     iterables.

   - bpo-23745(46): The new email header parser now handles duplicate
     MIME parameter names without error, similar to how get_param
     behaves.

   - bpo-22117(47): Fix os.utime(), it now rounds the timestamp towards
     minus infinity (-inf) instead of rounding towards zero.

   - bpo-23310(48): Fix MagicMock's initializer to work with
     __methods__, just like configure_mock().  Patch by Kasia Jachim.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23840

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23703

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19933

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21217

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24521

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22931

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23811

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21116

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22982

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23529

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21859

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23865

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23400

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10838

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23411

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23881

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22721

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15133

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23338

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16840

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23834

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23618

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21526

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23836

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23838

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18473

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23485

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23752

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23745

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22117

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23310


File: python.info,  Node: Build<83>,  Next: Tests<80>,  Prev: Library<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.106.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23817(1): FreeBSD now uses "1.0" in the SOVERSION as other
     operating systems, instead of just "1".

   - bpo-23501(2): Argument Clinic now generates code into separate
     files by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23817

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23501


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<80>,  Next: Tools/Demos<47>,  Prev: Build<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.106.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-23799(1): Added test.support.start_threads() for running and
     cleaning up multiple threads.

   - bpo-22390(2): test.regrtest now emits a warning if temporary files
     or directories are left after running a test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22390


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<47>,  Next: C API<65>,  Prev: Tests<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.106.5 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-18128(1): pygettext now uses standard +NNNN format in the
     POT-Creation-Date header.

   - bpo-23935(2): Argument Clinic's understanding of format units
     accepting bytes, bytearrays, and buffers is now consistent with
     both the documentation and the implementation.

   - bpo-23944(3): Argument Clinic now wraps long impl prototypes at
     column 78.

   - bpo-20586(4): Argument Clinic now ensures that functions without
     docstrings have signatures.

   - bpo-23492(5): Argument Clinic now generates argument parsing code
     with PyArg_Parse instead of PyArg_ParseTuple if possible.

   - bpo-23500(6): Argument Clinic is now smarter about generating the
     "#ifndef" (empty) definition of the methoddef macro: it's only
     generated once, even if Argument Clinic processes the same symbol
     multiple times, and it's emitted at the end of all processing
     rather than immediately after the first use.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23935

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23944

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20586

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23492

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23500


File: python.info,  Node: C API<65>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<47>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.106.6 C API
................

   - bpo-23998(1): PyImport_ReInitLock() now checks for lock allocation
     error

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23998


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.107 Python 3.5.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-03-28'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<94>.
* Library: Library<94>.
* Build: Build<84>.
* Tests: Tests<81>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<48>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<94>,  Next: Library<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.22.107.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23573(1): Increased performance of string search operations
     (str.find, str.index, str.count, the in operator, str.split,
     str.partition) with arguments of different kinds (UCS1, UCS2,
     UCS4).

   - bpo-23753(2): Python doesn't support anymore platforms without
     stat() or fstat(), these functions are always required.

   - bpo-23681(3): The -b option now affects comparisons of bytes with
     int.

   - bpo-23632(4): Memoryviews now allow tuple indexing (including for
     multi-dimensional memoryviews).

   - bpo-23192(5): Fixed generator lambdas.  Patch by Bruno Cauet.

   - bpo-23629(6): Fix the default __sizeof__ implementation for
     variable-sized objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23753

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23192

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23629


File: python.info,  Node: Library<94>,  Next: Build<84>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.22.107.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-14260(1): The groupindex attribute of regular expression
     pattern object now is non-modifiable mapping.

   - bpo-23792(2): Ignore KeyboardInterrupt when the pydoc pager is
     active.  This mimics the behavior of the standard unix pagers, and
     prevents pipepager from shutting down while the pager itself is
     still running.

   - bpo-23775(3): pprint() of OrderedDict now outputs the same
     representation as repr().

   - bpo-23765(4): Removed IsBadStringPtr calls in ctypes

   - bpo-22364(5): Improved some re error messages using regex for
     hints.

   - bpo-23742(6): ntpath.expandvars() no longer loses unbalanced single
     quotes.

   - bpo-21717(7): The zipfile.ZipFile.open function now supports 'x'
     (exclusive creation) mode.

   - bpo-21802(8): The reader in BufferedRWPair now is closed even when
     closing writer failed in BufferedRWPair.close().

   - bpo-23622(9): Unknown escapes in regular expressions that consist
     of ‘'\'’ and ASCII letter now raise a deprecation warning and will
     be forbidden in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-23671(10): string.Template now allows specifying the "self"
     parameter as a keyword argument.  string.Formatter now allows
     specifying the "self" and the "format_string" parameters as keyword
     arguments.

   - bpo-23502(11): The pprint module now supports mapping proxies.

   - bpo-17530(12): pprint now wraps long bytes objects and bytearrays.

   - bpo-22687(13): Fixed some corner cases in breaking words in
     tetxtwrap.  Got rid of quadratic complexity in breaking long words.

   - bpo-4727(14): The copy module now uses pickle protocol 4 (PEP 3154)
     and supports copying of instances of classes whose __new__ method
     takes keyword-only arguments.

   - bpo-23491(15): Added a zipapp module to support creating executable
     zip file archives of Python code.  Registered ".pyz" and ".pyzw"
     extensions on Windows for these archives (PEP 441).

   - bpo-23657(16): Avoid explicit checks for str in zipapp, adding
     support for pathlib.Path objects as arguments.

   - bpo-23688(17): Added support of arbitrary bytes-like objects and
     avoided unnecessary copying of memoryview in gzip.GzipFile.write().
     Original patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-23252(18): Added support for writing ZIP files to unseekable
     streams.

   - bpo-23647(19): Increase imaplib's MAXLINE to accommodate modern
     mailbox sizes.

   - bpo-23539(20): If body is None, http.client.HTTPConnection.request
     now sets Content-Length to 0 for PUT, POST, and PATCH headers to
     avoid 411 errors from some web servers.

   - bpo-22351(21): The nntplib.NNTP constructor no longer leaves the
     connection and socket open until the garbage collector cleans them
     up.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23704(22): collections.deque() objects now support methods for
     index(), insert(), and copy().  This allows deques to be registered
     as a MutableSequence and it improves their substitutability for
     lists.

   - bpo-23715(23): *note signal.sigwaitinfo(): c22. and *note
     signal.sigtimedwait(): c21. are now retried when interrupted by a
     signal not in the 'sigset' parameter, if the signal handler does
     not raise an exception.  signal.sigtimedwait() recomputes the
     timeout with a monotonic clock when it is retried.

   - bpo-23001(24): Few functions in modules mmap, ossaudiodev, socket,
     ssl, and codecs, that accepted only read-only bytes-like object now
     accept writable bytes-like object too.

   - bpo-23646(25): If time.sleep() is interrupted by a signal, the
     sleep is now retried with the recomputed delay, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (PEP 475).

   - bpo-23136(26): _strptime now uniformly handles all days in week 0,
     including Dec 30 of previous year.  Based on patch by Jim Carroll.

   - bpo-23700(27): Iterator of NamedTemporaryFile now keeps a reference
     to NamedTemporaryFile instance.  Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

   - bpo-22903(28): The fake test case created by unittest.loader when
     it fails importing a test module is now picklable.

   - bpo-22181(29): On Linux, os.urandom() now uses the new getrandom()
     syscall if available, syscall introduced in the Linux kernel 3.17.
     It is more reliable and more secure, because it avoids the need of
     a file descriptor and waits until the kernel has enough entropy.

   - bpo-2211(30): Updated the implementation of the http.cookies.Morsel
     class.  Setting attributes key, value and coded_value directly now
     is deprecated.  update() and setdefault() now transform and check
     keys.  Comparing for equality now takes into account attributes
     key, value and coded_value.  copy() now returns a Morsel, not a
     dict.  repr() now contains all attributes.  Optimized checking keys
     and quoting values.  Added new tests.  Original patch by Demian
     Brecht.

   - bpo-18983(31): Allow selection of output units in timeit.  Patch by
     Julian Gindi.

   - bpo-23631(32): Fix traceback.format_list when a traceback has been
     mutated.

   - bpo-23568(33): Add rdivmod support to MagicMock() objects.  Patch
     by Håkan Lövdahl.

   - bpo-2052(34): Add charset parameter to HtmlDiff.make_file().

   - bpo-23668(35): Support os.truncate and os.ftruncate on Windows.

   - bpo-23138(36): Fixed parsing cookies with absent keys or values in
     cookiejar.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23051(37): multiprocessing.Pool methods imap() and
     imap_unordered() now handle exceptions raised by an iterator.
     Patch by Alon Diamant and Davin Potts.

   - bpo-23581(38): Add matmul support to MagicMock.  Patch by Håkan
     Lövdahl.

   - bpo-23566(39): enable(), register(), dump_traceback() and
     dump_traceback_later() functions of faulthandler now accept file
     descriptors.  Patch by Wei Wu.

   - bpo-22928(40): Disabled HTTP header injections in http.client.
     Original patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23615(41): Modules bz2, tarfile and tokenize now can be
     reloaded with imp.reload().  Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-23605(42): os.walk() now calls os.scandir() instead of
     os.listdir().  The usage of os.scandir() reduces the number of
     calls to os.stat().  Initial patch written by Ben Hoyt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14260

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23792

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23775

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23765

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22364

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23742

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21802

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23502

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17530

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22687

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4727

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23657

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23688

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23647

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23539

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22351

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23715

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23646

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23136

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23700

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22903

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23631

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23138

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23051

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22928

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23615

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605


File: python.info,  Node: Build<84>,  Next: Tests<81>,  Prev: Library<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.22.107.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23585(1): make patchcheck will ensure the interpreter is built.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23585


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<81>,  Next: Tools/Demos<48>,  Prev: Build<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.22.107.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-23583(1): Added tests for standard IO streams in IDLE.

   - bpo-22289(2): Prevent test_urllib2net failures due to ftp
     connection timeout.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23583

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22289


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<48>,  Prev: Tests<81>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.22.107.5 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-22826(1): The result of open() in Tools/freeze/bkfile.py is now
     better compatible with regular files (in particular it now supports
     the context management protocol).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22826


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.108 Python 3.5.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-03-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<95>.
* Library: Library<95>.
* Build: Build<85>.
* C API: C API<66>.
* Windows: Windows<74>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<95>,  Next: Library<95>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.22.108.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23571(1): PyObject_Call() and PyCFunction_Call() now raise a
     SystemError if a function returns a result and raises an exception.
     The SystemError is chained to the previous exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23571


File: python.info,  Node: Library<95>,  Next: Build<85>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<95>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.22.108.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-22524(1): New os.scandir() function, part of the PEP 471(2):
     "os.scandir() function - a better and faster directory iterator".
     Patch written by Ben Hoyt.

   - bpo-23103(3): Reduced the memory consumption of IPv4Address and
     IPv6Address.

   - bpo-21793(4): BaseHTTPRequestHandler again logs response code as
     numeric, not as stringified enum.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23476(5): In the ssl module, enable OpenSSL's
     X509_V_FLAG_TRUSTED_FIRST flag on certificate stores when it is
     available.

   - bpo-23576(6): Avoid stalling in SSL reads when EOF has been reached
     in the SSL layer but the underlying connection hasn't been closed.

   - bpo-23504(7): Added an __all__ to the types module.

   - bpo-23563(8): Optimized utility functions in urllib.parse.

   - bpo-7830(9): Flatten nested functools.partial.

   - bpo-20204(10): Added the __module__ attribute to _tkinter classes.

   - bpo-19980(11): Improved help() for non-recognized strings.
     help('') now shows the help on str.  help('help') now shows the
     help on help().  Original patch by Mark Lawrence.

   - bpo-23521(12): Corrected pure python implementation of timedelta
     division.  Eliminated OverflowError from ‘timedelta * float’ for
     some floats; Corrected rounding in timedelta true division.

   - bpo-21619(13): Popen objects no longer leave a zombie after exit in
     the with statement if the pipe was broken.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22936(14): Make it possible to show local variables in
     tracebacks for both the traceback module and unittest.

   - bpo-15955(15): Add an option to limit the output size in
     bz2.decompress().  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-6639(16): Module-level turtle functions no longer raise
     TclError after closing the window.

   - bpo-814253(17): Group references and conditional group references
     now work in lookbehind assertions in regular expressions.  (See
     also: bpo-9179(18))

   - bpo-23215(19): Multibyte codecs with custom error handlers that
     ignores errors consumed too much memory and raised SystemError or
     MemoryError.  Original patch by Aleksi Torhamo.

   - bpo-5700(20): io.FileIO() called flush() after closing the file.
     flush() was not called in close() if closefd=False.

   - bpo-23374(21): Fixed pydoc failure with non-ASCII files when stdout
     encoding differs from file system encoding (e.g.  on Mac OS).

   - bpo-23481(22): Remove RC4 from the SSL module's default cipher
     list.

   - bpo-21548(23): Fix pydoc.synopsis() and pydoc.apropos() on modules
     with empty docstrings.

   - bpo-22885(24): Fixed arbitrary code execution vulnerability in the
     dbm.dumb module.  Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23239(25): ssl.match_hostname() now supports matching of IP
     addresses.

   - bpo-23146(26): Fix mishandling of absolute Windows paths with
     forward slashes in pathlib.

   - bpo-23096(27): Pickle representation of floats with protocol 0 now
     is the same for both Python and C implementations.

   - bpo-19105(28): pprint now more efficiently uses free space at the
     right.

   - bpo-14910(29): Add allow_abbrev parameter to
     argparse.ArgumentParser.  Patch by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard,
     paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson.

   - bpo-21717(30): tarfile.open() now supports 'x' (exclusive creation)
     mode.

   - bpo-23344(31): marshal.dumps() is now 20-25% faster on average.

   - bpo-20416(32): marshal.dumps() with protocols 3 and 4 is now 40-50%
     faster on average.

   - bpo-23421(33): Fixed compression in tarfile CLI. Patch by wdv4758h.

   - bpo-23367(34): Fix possible overflows in the unicodedata module.

   - bpo-23361(35): Fix possible overflow in Windows subprocess creation
     code.

   - logging.handlers.QueueListener now takes a respect_handler_level
     keyword argument which, if set to True, will pass messages to
     handlers taking handler levels into account.

   - bpo-19705(36): turtledemo now has a visual sorting algorithm demo.
     Original patch from Jason Yeo.

   - bpo-23801(37): Fix issue where cgi.FieldStorage did not always
     ignore the entire preamble to a multipart body.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23103

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23476

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23576

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23504

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23563

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19980

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23521

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21619

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6639

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=814253

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23215

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5700

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23374

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23481

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21548

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22885

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23146

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23096

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19105

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23421

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23367

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23361

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19705

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23801


File: python.info,  Node: Build<85>,  Next: C API<66>,  Prev: Library<95>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.22.108.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23445(1): pydebug builds now use "gcc -Og" where possible, to
     make the resulting executable faster.

   - bpo-23686(2): Update OS X 10.5 installer build to use OpenSSL
     1.0.2a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23445

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23686


File: python.info,  Node: C API<66>,  Next: Windows<74>,  Prev: Build<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.22.108.4 C API
................

   - bpo-20204(1): Deprecation warning is now raised for builtin types
     without the __module__ attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<74>,  Prev: C API<66>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.22.108.5 Windows
..................

   - bpo-23465(1): Implement PEP 486(2) - Make the Python Launcher aware
     of virtual environments.  Patch by Paul Moore.

   - bpo-23437(3): Make user scripts directory versioned on Windows.
     Patch by Paul Moore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23465

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog（更動日誌）

1.22.109 Python 3.5.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-02-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<96>.
* Library: Library<96>.
* IDLE: IDLE<61>.
* Build: Build<86>.
* C API: C API<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<77>.
* Tests: Tests<82>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<49>.
* Windows: Windows<75>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<96>,  Next: Library<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.109.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23285(1): PEP 475 - EINTR handling.

   - bpo-22735(2): Fix many edge cases (including crashes) involving
     custom mro() implementations.

   - bpo-22896(3): Avoid using PyObject_AsCharBuffer(),
     PyObject_AsReadBuffer() and PyObject_AsWriteBuffer().

   - bpo-21295(4): Revert some changes (bpo-16795(5)) to AST line
     numbers and column offsets that constituted a regression.

   - bpo-22986(6): Allow changing an object's __class__ between a
     dynamic type and static type in some cases.

   - bpo-15859(7): PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()
     and PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage() now raise an exception if the object
     is not a Unicode object.  For PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), it was
     already the case on platforms other than Windows.  Patch written by
     Campbell Barton.

   - bpo-21408(8): The default __ne__() now returns NotImplemented if
     __eq__() returned NotImplemented.  Original patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23321(9): Fixed a crash in str.decode() when error handler
     returned replacement string longer than malformed input data.

   - bpo-22286(10): The "backslashreplace" error handlers now works with
     decoding and translating.

   - bpo-23253(11): Delay-load ShellExecute[AW] in os.startfile for
     reduced startup overhead on Windows.

   - bpo-22038(12): pyatomic.h now uses stdatomic.h or GCC built-in
     functions for atomic memory access if available.  Patch written by
     Vitor de Lima and Gustavo Temple.

   - bpo-20284(13): %-interpolation (aka printf) formatting added for
     bytes and bytearray.

   - bpo-23048(14): Fix jumping out of an infinite while loop in the
     pdb.

   - bpo-20335(15): bytes constructor now raises TypeError when encoding
     or errors is specified with non-string argument.  Based on patch by
     Renaud Blanch.

   - bpo-22834(16): If the current working directory ends up being set
     to a non-existent directory then import will no longer raise
     FileNotFoundError.

   - bpo-22869(17): Move the interpreter startup & shutdown code to a
     new dedicated pylifecycle.c module

   - bpo-22847(18): Improve method cache efficiency.

   - bpo-22335(19): Fix crash when trying to enlarge a bytearray to
     0x7fffffff bytes on a 32-bit platform.

   - bpo-22653(20): Fix an assertion failure in debug mode when doing a
     reentrant dict insertion in debug mode.

   - bpo-22643(21): Fix integer overflow in Unicode case operations
     (upper, lower, title, swapcase, casefold).

   - bpo-17636(22): Circular imports involving relative imports are now
     supported.

   - bpo-22604(23): Fix assertion error in debug mode when dividing a
     complex number by (nan+0j).

   - bpo-21052(24): Do not raise ImportWarning when sys.path_hooks or
     sys.meta_path are set to None.

   - bpo-16518(25): Use 'bytes-like object required' in error messages
     that previously used the far more cryptic "'x' does not support the
     buffer protocol.

   - bpo-22470(26): Fixed integer overflow issues in "backslashreplace",
     "xmlcharrefreplace", and "surrogatepass" error handlers.

   - bpo-22540(27): speed up ‘PyObject_IsInstance’ and
     ‘PyObject_IsSubclass’ in the common case that the second argument
     has metaclass ‘type’.

   - bpo-18711(28): Add a new ‘PyErr_FormatV’ function, similar to
     ‘PyErr_Format’ but accepting a ‘va_list’ argument.

   - bpo-22520(29): Fix overflow checking when generating the repr of a
     unicode object.

   - bpo-22519(30): Fix overflow checking in PyBytes_Repr.

   - bpo-22518(31): Fix integer overflow issues in latin-1 encoding.

   - bpo-16324(32): _charset parameter of MIMEText now also accepts
     email.charset.Charset instances.  Initial patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-1764286(33): Fix inspect.getsource() to support decorated
     functions.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-18554(34): os.__all__ includes posix functions.

   - bpo-21391(35): Use os.path.abspath in the shutil module.

   - bpo-11471(36): avoid generating a JUMP_FORWARD instruction at the
     end of an if-block if there is no else-clause.  Original patch by
     Eugene Toder.

   - bpo-22215(37): Now ValueError is raised instead of TypeError when
     str or bytes argument contains not permitted null character or
     byte.

   - bpo-22258(38): Fix the internal function set_inheritable() on
     Illumos.  This platform exposes the function ‘ioctl(FIOCLEX)’, but
     calling it fails with errno is ENOTTY: "Inappropriate ioctl for
     device".  set_inheritable() now falls back to the slower ‘fcntl()’
     (‘F_GETFD’ and then ‘F_SETFD’).

   - bpo-21389(39): Displaying the __qualname__ of the underlying
     function in the repr of a bound method.

   - bpo-22206(40): Using pthread, PyThread_create_key() now sets errno
     to ENOMEM and returns -1 (error) on integer overflow.

   - bpo-20184(41): Argument Clinic based signature introspection added
     for 30 of the builtin functions.

   - bpo-22116(42): C functions and methods (of the
     'builtin_function_or_method' type) can now be weakref'ed.  Patch by
     Wei Wu.

   - bpo-22077(43): Improve index error messages for bytearrays, bytes,
     lists, and tuples by adding 'or slices'.  Added ', not <typename>'
     for bytearrays.  Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-20179(44): Apply Argument Clinic to bytes and bytearray.  Patch
     by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-22082(45): Clear interned strings in slotdefs.

   - Upgrade Unicode database to Unicode 7.0.0.

   - bpo-21897(46): Fix a crash with the f_locals attribute with closure
     variables when frame.clear() has been called.

   - bpo-21205(47): Add a new ‘__qualname__’ attribute to generator, the
     qualified name, and use it in the representation of a generator
     (‘repr(gen)’).  The default name of the generator (‘__name__’
     attribute) is now get from the function instead of the code.  Use
     ‘gen.gi_code.co_name’ to get the name of the code.

   - bpo-21669(48): With the aid of heuristics in SyntaxError.__init__,
     the parser now attempts to generate more meaningful (or at least
     more search engine friendly) error messages when "exec" and "print"
     are used as statements.

   - bpo-21642(49): In the conditional if-else expression, allow an
     integer written with no space between itself and the ‘else’ keyword
     (e.g.  ‘True if 42else False’) to be valid syntax.

   - bpo-21523(50): Fix over-pessimistic computation of the stack effect
     of some opcodes in the compiler.  This also fixes a quadratic
     compilation time issue noticeable when compiling code with a large
     number of "and" and "or" operators.

   - bpo-21418(51): Fix a crash in the builtin function super() when
     called without argument and without current frame (ex: embedded
     Python).

   - bpo-21425(52): Fix flushing of standard streams in the interactive
     interpreter.

   - bpo-21435(53): In rare cases, when running finalizers on objects in
     cyclic trash a bad pointer dereference could occur due to a subtle
     flaw in internal iteration logic.

   - bpo-21377(54): PyBytes_Concat() now tries to concatenate in-place
     when the first argument has a reference count of 1.  Patch by
     Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20355(55): -W command line options now have higher priority
     than the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable.  Patch by Arfrever.

   - bpo-21274(56): Define PATH_MAX for GNU/Hurd in Python/pythonrun.c.

   - bpo-20904(57): Support setting FPU precision on m68k.

   - bpo-21209(58): Fix sending tuples to custom generator objects with
     the yield from syntax.

   - bpo-21193(59): pow(a, b, c) now raises ValueError rather than
     TypeError when b is negative.  Patch by Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-21176(60): PEP 465: Add the '@' operator for matrix
     multiplication.

   - bpo-21134(61): Fix segfault when str is called on an uninitialized
     UnicodeEncodeError, UnicodeDecodeError, or UnicodeTranslateError
     object.

   - bpo-19537(62): Fix PyUnicode_DATA() alignment under m68k.  Patch by
     Andreas Schwab.

   - bpo-20929(63): Add a type cast to avoid shifting a negative number.

   - bpo-20731(64): Properly position in source code files even if they
     are opened in text mode.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-20637(65): Key-sharing now also works for instance dictionaries
     of subclasses.  Patch by Peter Ingebretson.

   - bpo-8297(66): Attributes missing from modules now include the
     module name in the error text.  Original patch by ysj.ray.

   - bpo-19995(67): %c, %o, %x, and %X now raise TypeError on
     non-integer input.

   - bpo-19655(68): The ASDL parser - used by the build process to
     generate code for managing the Python AST in C - was rewritten.
     The new parser is self contained and does not require to carry long
     the spark.py parser-generator library; spark.py was removed from
     the source base.

   - bpo-12546(69): Allow ‘\x00’ to be used as a fill character when
     using str, int, float, and complex __format__ methods.

   - bpo-20480(70): Add ipaddress.reverse_pointer.  Patch by Leon Weber.

   - bpo-13598(71): Modify string.Formatter to support auto-numbering of
     replacement fields.  It now matches the behavior of str.format() in
     this regard.  Patches by Phil Elson and Ramchandra Apte.

   - bpo-8931(72): Make alternate formatting ('#') for type 'c' raise an
     exception.  In versions prior to 3.5, '#' with 'c' had no effect.
     Now specifying it is an error.  Patch by Torsten Landschoff.

   - bpo-23165(73): Perform overflow checks before allocating memory in
     the _Py_char2wchar function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23285

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22735

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22896

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21295

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16795

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15859

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23321

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23253

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22038

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20284

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23048

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20335

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22869

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22335

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22653

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22643

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22604

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21052

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22470

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22520

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22519

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22518

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1764286

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18554

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21391

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11471

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22215

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22258

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21389

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22206

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20184

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22116

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22077

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20179

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22082

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21897

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21669

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21642

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21523

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21418

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21425

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21435

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21377

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20355

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21274

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20904

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21209

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21193

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21134

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19537

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20929

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20731

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20637

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8297

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19995

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19655

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12546

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13598

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8931

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23165


File: python.info,  Node: Library<96>,  Next: IDLE<61>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.109.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23399(1): pyvenv creates relative symlinks where possible.

   - bpo-20289(2): cgi.FieldStorage() now supports the context
     management protocol.

   - bpo-13128(3): Print response headers for CONNECT requests when
     debuglevel > 0.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-15381(4): Optimized io.BytesIO to make less allocations and
     copyings.

   - bpo-22818(5): Splitting on a pattern that could match an empty
     string now raises a warning.  Patterns that can only match empty
     strings are now rejected.

   - bpo-23099(6): Closing io.BytesIO with exported buffer is rejected
     now to prevent corrupting exported buffer.

   - bpo-23326(7): Removed __ne__ implementations.  Since fixing default
     __ne__ implementation in bpo-21408(8) they are redundant.

   - bpo-23363(9): Fix possible overflow in itertools.permutations.

   - bpo-23364(10): Fix possible overflow in itertools.product.

   - bpo-23366(11): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     itertools.combinations.

   - bpo-23369(12): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     _json.encode_basestring_ascii.

   - bpo-23353(13): Fix the exception handling of generators in
     PyEval_EvalFrameEx().  At entry, save or swap the exception state
     even if PyEval_EvalFrameEx() is called with throwflag=0.  At exit,
     the exception state is now always restored or swapped, not only if
     why is WHY_YIELD or WHY_RETURN. Patch co-written with Antoine
     Pitrou.

   - bpo-14099(14): Restored support of writing ZIP files to tellable
     but non-seekable streams.

   - bpo-14099(15): Writing to ZipFile and reading multiple ZipExtFiles
     is threadsafe now.

   - bpo-19361(16): JSON decoder now raises JSONDecodeError instead of
     ValueError.

   - bpo-18518(17): timeit now rejects statements which can't be
     compiled outside a function or a loop (e.g.  "return" or "break").

   - bpo-23094(18): Fixed readline with frames in Python implementation
     of pickle.

   - bpo-23268(19): Fixed bugs in the comparison of ipaddress classes.

   - bpo-21408(20): Removed incorrect implementations of __ne__() which
     didn't returned NotImplemented if __eq__() returned NotImplemented.
     The default __ne__() now works correctly.

   - bpo-19996(21): ‘email.feedparser.FeedParser’ now handles
     (malformed) headers with no key rather than assuming the body has
     started.

   - bpo-20188(22): Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation
     (ALPN) in the ssl module.

   - bpo-23133(23): Pickling of ipaddress objects now produces more
     compact and portable representation.

   - bpo-23248(24): Update ssl error codes from latest OpenSSL git
     master.

   - bpo-23266(25): Much faster implementation of
     ipaddress.collapse_addresses() when there are many non-consecutive
     addresses.

   - bpo-23098(26): 64-bit dev_t is now supported in the os module.

   - bpo-21817(27): When an exception is raised in a task submitted to a
     ProcessPoolExecutor, the remote traceback is now displayed in the
     parent process.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-15955(28): Add an option to limit output size when
     decompressing LZMA data.  Patch by Nikolaus Rath and Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23250(29): In the http.cookies module, capitalize "HttpOnly"
     and "Secure" as they are written in the standard.

   - bpo-23063(30): In the distutils' check command, fix parsing of reST
     with code or code-block directives.

   - bpo-23209(31): selectors.BaseSelector.get_key() now raises a
     RuntimeError if the selector is closed.  And
     selectors.BaseSelector.close() now clears its internal reference to
     the selector mapping to break a reference cycle.  Initial patch
     written by Martin Richard.  (See also: bpo-23225(32))

   - bpo-17911(33): Provide a way to seed the linecache for a PEP-302
     module without actually loading the code.

   - bpo-17911(34): Provide a new object API for traceback, including
     the ability to not lookup lines at all until the traceback is
     actually rendered, without any trace of the original objects being
     kept alive.

   - bpo-19777(35): Provide a home() classmethod on Path objects.
     Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi.

   - bpo-23206(36): Make ‘json.dumps(..., ensure_ascii=False)’ as fast
     as the default case of ‘ensure_ascii=True’.  Patch by Naoki Inada.

   - bpo-23185(37): Add math.inf and math.nan constants.

   - bpo-23186(38): Add ssl.SSLObject.shared_ciphers() and
     ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers() to fetch the client's list ciphers
     sent at handshake.

   - bpo-23143(39): Remove compatibility with OpenSSLs older than 0.9.8.

   - bpo-23132(40): Improve performance and introspection support of
     comparison methods created by functool.total_ordering.

   - bpo-19776(41): Add an expanduser() method on Path objects.

   - bpo-23112(42): Fix SimpleHTTPServer to correctly carry the query
     string and fragment when it redirects to add a trailing slash.

   - bpo-21793(43): Added http.HTTPStatus enums (i.e.  HTTPStatus.OK,
     HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND). Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23093(44): In the io, module allow more operations to work on
     detached streams.

   - bpo-23111(45): In the ftplib, make ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23 the default
     protocol version.

   - bpo-22585(46): On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, os.urandom() now calls
     getentropy(), instead of reading /dev/urandom, to get pseudo-random
     bytes.

   - bpo-19104(47): pprint now produces evaluable output for wrapped
     strings.

   - bpo-23071(48): Added missing names to codecs.__all__.  Patch by
     Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22783(49): Pickling now uses the NEWOBJ opcode instead of the
     NEWOBJ_EX opcode if possible.

   - bpo-15513(50): Added a __sizeof__ implementation for pickle
     classes.

   - bpo-19858(51): pickletools.optimize() now aware of the MEMOIZE
     opcode, can produce more compact result and no longer produces
     invalid output if input data contains MEMOIZE opcodes together with
     PUT or BINPUT opcodes.

   - bpo-22095(52): Fixed HTTPConnection.set_tunnel with default port.
     The port value in the host header was set to "None".  Patch by
     Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23016(53): A warning no longer produces an AttributeError when
     the program is run with pythonw.exe.

   - bpo-21775(54): shutil.copytree(): fix crash when copying to VFAT.
     An exception handler assumed that OSError objects always have a
     'winerror' attribute.  That is not the case, so the exception
     handler itself raised AttributeError when run on Linux (and,
     presumably, any other non-Windows OS). Patch by Greg Ward.

   - bpo-1218234(55): Fix inspect.getsource() to load updated source of
     reloaded module.  Initial patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-21740(56): Support wrapped callables in doctest.  Patch by
     Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23009(57): Make sure selectors.EpollSelector.select() works
     when no FD is registered.

   - bpo-22959(58): In the constructor of http.client.HTTPSConnection,
     prefer the context's check_hostname attribute over the
     'check_hostname' parameter.

   - bpo-22696(59): Add function *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8de. to know
     about interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-16043(60): Add a default limit for the amount of data
     xmlrpclib.gzip_decode will return.  This resolves CVE
     2013-1753(61).

   - bpo-14099(62): ZipFile.open() no longer reopen the underlying file.
     Objects returned by ZipFile.open() can now operate independently of
     the ZipFile even if the ZipFile was created by passing in a
     file-like object as the first argument to the constructor.

   - bpo-22966(63): Fix __pycache__ pyc file name clobber when
     pyc_compile is asked to compile a source file containing multiple
     dots in the source file name.

   - bpo-21971(64): Update turtledemo doc and add module to the index.

   - bpo-21032(65): Fixed socket leak if HTTPConnection.getresponse()
     fails.  Original patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22407(66): Deprecated the use of re.LOCALE flag with str
     patterns or re.ASCII. It was newer worked.

   - bpo-22902(67): The "ip" command is now used on Linux to determine
     MAC address in uuid.getnode().  Pach by Bruno Cauet.

   - bpo-22960(68): Add a context argument to xmlrpclib.ServerProxy
     constructor.

   - bpo-22389(69): Add contextlib.redirect_stderr().

   - bpo-21356(70): Make ssl.RAND_egd() optional to support LibreSSL.
     The availability of the function is checked during the compilation.
     Patch written by Bernard Spil.

   - bpo-22915(71): SAX parser now supports files opened with file
     descriptor or bytes path.

   - bpo-22609(72): Constructors and update methods of mapping classes
     in the collections module now accept the self keyword argument.

   - bpo-22940(73): Add readline.append_history_file.

   - bpo-19676(74): Added the "namereplace" error handler.

   - bpo-22788(75): Add 'context' parameter to
     logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.

   - bpo-22921(76): Allow SSLContext to take the 'hostname' parameter
     even if OpenSSL doesn't support SNI.

   - bpo-22894(77): TestCase.subTest() would cause the test suite to be
     stopped when in failfast mode, even in the absence of failures.

   - bpo-22796(78): HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to
     protect against potential injection attacks.

   - bpo-22370(79): Windows detection in pathlib is now more robust.

   - bpo-22841(80): Reject coroutines in asyncio add_signal_handler().
     Patch by Ludovic.Gasc.

   - bpo-19494(81): Added urllib.request.HTTPBasicPriorAuthHandler.
     Patch by Matej Cepl.

   - bpo-22578(82): Added attributes to the re.error class.

   - bpo-22849(83): Fix possible double free in the io.TextIOWrapper
     constructor.

   - bpo-12728(84): Different Unicode characters having the same
     uppercase but different lowercase are now matched in
     case-insensitive regular expressions.

   - bpo-22821(85): Fixed fcntl() with integer argument on 64-bit
     big-endian platforms.

   - bpo-21650(86): Add an ‘--sort-keys’ option to ‘json.tool’ CLI.

   - bpo-22824(87): Updated reprlib output format for sets to use set
     literals.  Patch contributed by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-22824(88): Updated reprlib output format for arrays to display
     empty arrays without an unnecessary empty list.  Suggested by
     Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-22406(89): Fixed the uu_codec codec incorrectly ported to 3.x.
     Based on patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-17293(90): uuid.getnode() now determines MAC address on AIX
     using netstat.  Based on patch by Aivars Kalvāns.

   - bpo-22769(91): Fixed ttk.Treeview.tag_has() when called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-22417(92): Verify certificates by default in httplib (PEP 476).

   - bpo-22775(93): Fixed unpickling of http.cookies.SimpleCookie with
     protocol 2 and above.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-22776(94): Brought excluded code into the scope of a try block
     in SysLogHandler.emit().

   - bpo-22665(95): Add missing get_terminal_size and SameFileError to
     shutil.__all__.

   - bpo-6623(96): Remove deprecated Netrc class in the ftplib module.
     Patch by Matt Chaput.

   - bpo-17381(97): Fixed handling of case-insensitive ranges in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-22410(98): Module level functions in the re module now cache
     compiled locale-dependent regular expressions taking into account
     the locale.

   - bpo-22759(99): Query methods on pathlib.Path() (exists(), is_dir(),
     etc.)  now return False when the underlying stat call raises
     NotADirectoryError.

   - bpo-8876(100): distutils now falls back to copying files when hard
     linking doesn't work.  This allows use with special filesystems
     such as VirtualBox shared folders.

   - bpo-22217(101): Implemented reprs of classes in the zipfile module.

   - bpo-22457(102): Honour load_tests in the start_dir of discovery.

   - bpo-18216(103): gettext now raises an error when a .mo file has an
     unsupported major version number.  Patch by Aaron Hill.

   - bpo-13918(104): Provide a locale.delocalize() function which can
     remove locale-specific number formatting from a string representing
     a number, without then converting it to a specific type.  Patch by
     Cédric Krier.

   - bpo-22676(105): Make the pickling of global objects which don't
     have a __module__ attribute less slow.

   - bpo-18853(106): Fixed ResourceWarning in shlex.__nain__.

   - bpo-9351(107): Defaults set with set_defaults on an argparse
     subparser are no longer ignored when also set on the parent parser.

   - bpo-7559(108): unittest test loading ImportErrors are reported as
     import errors with their import exception rather than as attribute
     errors after the import has already failed.

   - bpo-19746(109): Make it possible to examine the errors from
     unittest discovery without executing the test suite.  The new
     ‘errors’ attribute on ‘TestLoader’ exposes these non-fatal errors
     encountered during discovery.

   - bpo-21991(110): Make email.headerregistry's header 'params'
     attributes be read-only (MappingProxyType).  Previously the
     dictionary was modifiable but a new one was created on each access
     of the attribute.

   - bpo-22638(111): SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard
     library.  It can still be enabled by instantiating a SSLContext
     manually.

   - bpo-22641(112): In asyncio, the default SSL context for client
     connections is now created using ssl.create_default_context(), for
     stronger security.

   - bpo-17401(113): Include closefd in io.FileIO repr.

   - bpo-21338(114): Add silent mode for compileall.  quiet parameters
     of compile_{dir, file, path} functions now have a multilevel value.
     Also, -q option of the CLI now have a multilevel value.  Patch by
     Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-20152(115): Convert the array and cmath modules to Argument
     Clinic.

   - bpo-18643(116): Add socket.socketpair() on Windows.

   - bpo-22435(117): Fix a file descriptor leak when socketserver bind
     fails.

   - bpo-13096(118): Fixed segfault in CTypes POINTER handling of large
     values.

   - bpo-11694(119): Raise ConversionError in xdrlib as documented.
     Patch by Filip Gruszczyński and Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-19380(120): Optimized parsing of regular expressions.

   - bpo-1519638(121): Now unmatched groups are replaced with empty
     strings in re.sub() and re.subn().

   - bpo-18615(122): sndhdr.what/whathdr now return a namedtuple.

   - bpo-22462(123): Fix pyexpat's creation of a dummy frame to make it
     appear in exception tracebacks.

   - bpo-21965(124): Add support for in-memory SSL to the ssl module.
     Patch by Geert Jansen.

   - bpo-21173(125): Fix len() on a WeakKeyDictionary when .clear() was
     called with an iterator alive.

   - bpo-11866(126): Eliminated race condition in the computation of
     names for new threads.

   - bpo-21905(127): Avoid RuntimeError in pickle.whichmodule() when
     sys.modules is mutated while iterating.  Patch by Olivier Grisel.

   - bpo-11271(128): concurrent.futures.Executor.map() now takes a
     'chunksize' argument to allow batching of tasks in child processes
     and improve performance of ProcessPoolExecutor.  Patch by Dan
     O'Reilly.

   - bpo-21883(129): os.path.join() and os.path.relpath() now raise a
     TypeError with more helpful error message for unsupported or
     mismatched types of arguments.

   - bpo-22219(130): The zipfile module CLI now adds entries for
     directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

   - bpo-22449(131): In the ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs, consult
     the environmental variables SSL_CERT_DIR and SSL_CERT_FILE on
     Windows.

   - bpo-22508(132): The email.__version__ variable has been removed;
     the email code is no longer shipped separately from the stdlib, and
     __version__ hasn't been updated in several releases.

   - bpo-20076(133): Added non derived UTF-8 aliases to locale aliases
     table.

   - bpo-20079(134): Added locales supported in glibc 2.18 to locale
     alias table.

   - bpo-20218(135): Added convenience methods read_text/write_text and
     read_bytes/ write_bytes to pathlib.Path objects.

   - bpo-22396(136): On 32-bit AIX platform, don't expose
     os.posix_fadvise() nor os.posix_fallocate() because their
     prototypes in system headers are wrong.

   - bpo-22517(137): When an io.BufferedRWPair object is deallocated,
     clear its weakrefs.

   - bpo-22437(138): Number of capturing groups in regular expression is
     no longer limited by 100.

   - bpo-17442(139): InteractiveInterpreter now displays the full
     chained traceback in its showtraceback method, to match the built
     in interactive interpreter.

   - bpo-23392(140): Added tests for marshal C API that works with
     FILE*.

   - bpo-10510(141): distutils register and upload methods now use HTML
     standards compliant CRLF line endings.

   - bpo-9850(142): Fixed macpath.join() for empty first component.
     Patch by Oleg Oshmyan.

   - bpo-5309(143): distutils' build and build_ext commands now accept a
     ‘-j’ option to enable parallel building of extension modules.

   - bpo-22448(144): Improve canceled timer handles cleanup to prevent
     unbound memory usage.  Patch by Joshua Moore-Oliva.

   - bpo-22427(145): TemporaryDirectory no longer attempts to clean up
     twice when used in the with statement in generator.

   - bpo-22362(146): Forbidden ambiguous octal escapes out of range
     0-0o377 in regular expressions.

   - bpo-20912(147): Now directories added to ZIP file have correct Unix
     and MS-DOS directory attributes.

   - bpo-21866(148): ZipFile.close() no longer writes ZIP64 central
     directory records if allowZip64 is false.

   - bpo-22278(149): Fix urljoin problem with relative urls, a
     regression observed after changes to issue22118 were submitted.

   - bpo-22415(150): Fixed debugging output of the GROUPREF_EXISTS
     opcode in the re module.  Removed trailing spaces in debugging
     output.

   - bpo-22423(151): Unhandled exception in thread no longer causes
     unhandled AttributeError when sys.stderr is None.

   - bpo-21332(152): Ensure that ‘bufsize=1’ in subprocess.Popen()
     selects line buffering, rather than block buffering.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-21091(153): Fix API bug:
     email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment is now a method.

   - bpo-21079(154): Fix email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment to
     return the correct result when the header has parameters as well as
     a value.

   - bpo-22247(155): Add NNTPError to nntplib.__all__.

   - bpo-22366(156): urllib.request.urlopen will accept a context object
     (SSLContext) as an argument which will then be used for HTTPS
     connection.  Patch by Alex Gaynor.

   - bpo-4180(157): The warnings registries are now reset when the
     filters are modified.

   - bpo-22419(158): Limit the length of incoming HTTP request in
     wsgiref server to 65536 bytes and send a 414 error code for higher
     lengths.  Patch contributed by Devin Cook.

   - Lax cookie parsing in http.cookies could be a security issue when
     combined with non-standard cookie handling in some web browsers.
     Reported by Sergey Bobrov.

   - bpo-20537(159): logging methods now accept an exception instance as
     well as a Boolean value or exception tuple.  Thanks to Yury
     Selivanov for the patch.

   - bpo-22384(160): An exception in Tkinter callback no longer crashes
     the program when it is run with pythonw.exe.

   - bpo-22168(161): Prevent turtle AttributeError with non-default
     Canvas on OS X.

   - bpo-21147(162): sqlite3 now raises an exception if the request
     contains a null character instead of truncating it.  Based on patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-13968(163): The glob module now supports recursive search in
     subdirectories using the ‘**’ pattern.

   - bpo-21951(164): Fixed a crash in Tkinter on AIX when called Tcl
     command with empty string or tuple argument.

   - bpo-21951(165): Tkinter now most likely raises MemoryError instead
     of crash if the memory allocation fails.

   - bpo-22338(166): Fix a crash in the json module on memory allocation
     failure.

   - bpo-12410(167): imaplib.IMAP4 now supports the context management
     protocol.  Original patch by Tarek Ziadé.

   - bpo-21270(168): We now override tuple methods in mock.call objects
     so that they can be used as normal call attributes.

   - bpo-16662(169): ‘load_tests()’ is now unconditionally run when it
     is present in a package's ‘__init__.py’.
     ‘TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()’ still accepts use_load_tests,
     but it is deprecated and ignored.  A new keyword-only attribute
     ‘pattern’ is added and documented.  Patch given by Robert Collins,
     tweaked by Barry Warsaw.

   - bpo-22226(170): First letter no longer is stripped from the
     "status" key in the result of Treeview.heading().

   - bpo-19524(171): Fixed resource leak in the HTTP connection when an
     invalid response is received.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-20421(172): Add a .version() method to SSL sockets exposing the
     actual protocol version in use.

   - bpo-19546(173): configparser exceptions no longer expose
     implementation details.  Chained KeyErrors are removed, which leads
     to cleaner tracebacks.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-22051(174): turtledemo no longer reloads examples to re-run
     them.  Initialization of variables and gui setup should be done in
     main(), which is called each time a demo is run, but not on import.

   - bpo-21933(175): Turtledemo users can change the code font size with
     a menu selection or control(command) '-' or '+' or
     control-mousewheel.  Original patch by Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21597(176): The separator between the turtledemo text pane and
     the drawing canvas can now be grabbed and dragged with a mouse.
     The code text pane can be widened to easily view or copy the full
     width of the text.  The canvas can be widened on small screens.
     Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-18132(177): Turtledemo buttons no longer disappear when the
     window is shrunk.  Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-22043(178): time.monotonic() is now always available.
     ‘threading.Lock.acquire()’, ‘threading.RLock.acquire()’ and socket
     operations now use a monotonic clock, instead of the system clock,
     when a timeout is used.

   - bpo-21527(179): Add a default number of workers to
     ThreadPoolExecutor equal to 5 times the number of CPUs.  Patch by
     Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-22216(180): smtplib now resets its state more completely after
     a quit.  The most obvious consequence of the previous behavior was
     a STARTTLS failure during a connect/starttls/quit/connect/starttls
     sequence.

   - bpo-22098(181): ctypes' BigEndianStructure and
     LittleEndianStructure now define an empty __slots__ so that
     subclasses don't always get an instance dict.  Patch by Claudiu
     Popa.

   - bpo-22185(182): Fix an occasional RuntimeError in
     threading.Condition.wait() caused by mutation of the waiters queue
     without holding the lock.  Patch by Doug Zongker.

   - bpo-22287(183): On UNIX, _PyTime_gettimeofday() now uses
     clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME) if available.  As a side effect,
     Python now depends on the librt library on Solaris and on Linux
     (only with glibc older than 2.17).

   - bpo-22182(184): Use e.args to unpack exceptions correctly in
     distutils.file_util.move_file.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - The webbrowser module now uses subprocess's start_new_session=True
     rather than a potentially risky preexec_fn=os.setsid call.

   - bpo-22042(185): signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd) now raises an exception if
     the file descriptor is in blocking mode.

   - bpo-16808(186): inspect.stack() now returns a named tuple instead
     of a tuple.  Patch by Daniel Shahaf.

   - bpo-22236(187): Fixed Tkinter images copying operations in
     NoDefaultRoot mode.

   - bpo-2527(188): Add a 'globals' argument to timeit functions, in
     order to override the globals namespace in which the timed code is
     executed.  Patch by Ben Roberts.

   - bpo-22118(189): Switch urllib.parse to use RFC 3986 semantics for
     the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFCs 1808 and 2396.
     Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-21549(190): Added the "members" parameter to TarFile.list().

   - bpo-19628(191): Allow compileall recursion depth to be specified
     with a -r option.

   - bpo-15696(192): Add a __sizeof__ implementation for mmap objects on
     Windows.

   - bpo-22068(193): Avoided reference loops with Variables and Fonts in
     Tkinter.

   - bpo-22165(194): SimpleHTTPRequestHandler now supports undecodable
     file names.

   - bpo-15381(195): Optimized line reading in io.BytesIO.

   - bpo-8797(196): Raise HTTPError on failed Basic Authentication
     immediately.  Initial patch by Sam Bull.

   - bpo-20729(197): Restored the use of lazy
     iterkeys()/itervalues()/iteritems() in the mailbox module.

   - bpo-21448(198): Changed FeedParser feed() to avoid 'O'('n'^2)
     behavior when parsing long line.  Original patch by Raymond
     Hettinger.

   - bpo-22184(199): The functools LRU Cache decorator factory now gives
     an earlier and clearer error message when the user forgets the
     required parameters.

   - bpo-17923(200): glob() patterns ending with a slash no longer match
     non-dirs on AIX. Based on patch by Delhallt.

   - bpo-21725(201): Added support for RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8) in smtpd.

   - bpo-22176(202): Update the ctypes module's libffi to v3.1.  This
     release adds support for the Linux AArch64 and POWERPC ELF ABIv2
     little endian architectures.

   - bpo-5411(203): Added support for the "xztar" format in the shutil
     module.

   - bpo-21121(204): Don't force 3rd party C extensions to be built with
     -Werror=declaration-after-statement.

   - bpo-21975(205): Fixed crash when using uninitialized sqlite3.Row
     (in particular when unpickling pickled sqlite3.Row).  sqlite3.Row
     is now initialized in the __new__() method.

   - bpo-20170(206): Convert posixmodule to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-21539(207): Add an 'exists_ok' argument to ‘Pathlib.mkdir()’ to
     mimic ‘mkdir -p’ and ‘os.makedirs()’ functionality.  When true,
     ignore ‘FileExistsErrors’.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-22127(208): Bypass IDNA for pure-ASCII host names in the socket
     module (in particular for numeric IPs).

   - bpo-21047(209): set the default value for the 'convert_charrefs'
     argument of HTMLParser to True.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - Add an __all__ to html.entities.

   - bpo-15114(210): the strict mode and argument of HTMLParser,
     HTMLParser.error, and the HTMLParserError exception have been
     removed.

   - bpo-22085(211): Dropped support of Tk 8.3 in Tkinter.

   - bpo-21580(212): Now Tkinter correctly handles bytes arguments
     passed to Tk.  In particular this allows initializing images from
     binary data.

   - bpo-22003(213): When initialized from a bytes object, io.BytesIO()
     now defers making a copy until it is mutated, improving performance
     and memory use on some use cases.  Patch by David Wilson.

   - bpo-22018(214): On Windows, signal.set_wakeup_fd() now also
     supports sockets.  A side effect is that Python depends to the
     WinSock library.

   - bpo-22054(215): Add os.get_blocking() and os.set_blocking()
     functions to get and set the blocking mode of a file descriptor
     (False if the O_NONBLOCK flag is set, True otherwise).  These
     functions are not available on Windows.

   - bpo-17172(216): Make turtledemo start as active on OS X even when
     run with subprocess.  Patch by Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21704(217): Fix build error for _multiprocessing when
     semaphores are not available.  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar
     Arahesis.

   - bpo-20173(218): Convert sha1, sha256, sha512 and md5 to
     ArgumentClinic.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - Fix repr(_socket.socket) on Windows 64-bit: don't fail with
     OverflowError on closed socket.  repr(socket.socket) already works
     fine.

   - bpo-22033(219): Reprs of most Python implemented classes now
     contain actual class name instead of hardcoded one.

   - bpo-21947(220): The dis module can now disassemble
     generator-iterator objects based on their gi_code attribute.  Patch
     by Clement Rouault.

   - bpo-16133(221): The asynchat.async_chat.handle_read() method now
     ignores BlockingIOError exceptions.

   - bpo-22044(222): Fixed premature DECREF in call_tzinfo_method.
     Patch by Tom Flanagan.

   - bpo-19884(223): readline: Disable the meta modifier key if stdout
     is not a terminal to not write the ANSI sequence ‘"\033[1034h"’
     into stdout.  This sequence is used on some terminal (ex:
     TERM=xterm-256color") to enable support of 8 bit characters.

   - bpo-4350(224): Removed a number of out-of-dated and non-working for
     a long time Tkinter methods.

   - bpo-6167(225): Scrollbar.activate() now returns the name of active
     element if the argument is not specified.  Scrollbar.set() now
     always accepts only 2 arguments.

   - bpo-15275(226): Clean up and speed up the ntpath module.

   - bpo-21888(227): plistlib's load() and loads() now work if the fmt
     parameter is specified.

   - bpo-22032(228): __qualname__ instead of __name__ is now always used
     to format fully qualified class names of Python implemented
     classes.

   - bpo-22031(229): Reprs now always use hexadecimal format with the
     "0x" prefix when contain an id in form " at 0x...".

   - bpo-22018(230): signal.set_wakeup_fd() now raises an OSError
     instead of a ValueError on ‘fstat()’ failure.

   - bpo-21044(231): tarfile.open() now handles fileobj with an integer
     'name' attribute.  Based on patch by Antoine Pietri.

   - bpo-21966(232): Respect -q command-line option when code module is
     ran.

   - bpo-19076(233): Don't pass the redundant 'file' argument to
     self.error().

   - bpo-16382(234): Improve exception message of warnings.warn() for
     bad category.  Initial patch by Phil Elson.

   - bpo-21932(235): os.read() now uses a *note Py_ssize_t(): 8ab. type
     instead of int for the size to support reading more than 2 GB at
     once.  On Windows, the size is truncated to INT_MAX. As any call to
     os.read(), the OS may read less bytes than the number of requested
     bytes.

   - bpo-21942(236): Fixed source file viewing in pydoc's server mode on
     Windows.

   - bpo-11259(237): asynchat.async_chat().set_terminator() now raises a
     ValueError if the number of received bytes is negative.

   - bpo-12523(238): asynchat.async_chat.push() now raises a TypeError
     if it doesn't get a bytes string

   - bpo-21707(239): Add missing kwonlyargcount argument to
     ModuleFinder.replace_paths_in_code().

   - bpo-20639(240): calling Path.with_suffix('') allows removing the
     suffix again.  Patch by July Tikhonov.

   - bpo-21714(241): Disallow the construction of invalid paths using
     Path.with_name().  Original patch by Antony Lee.

   - bpo-15014(242): Added 'auth' method to smtplib to make implementing
     auth mechanisms simpler, and used it internally in the login
     method.

   - bpo-21151(243): Fixed a segfault in the winreg module when ‘None’
     is passed as a ‘REG_BINARY’ value to SetValueEx.  Patch by John
     Ehresman.

   - bpo-21090(244): io.FileIO.readall() does not ignore I/O errors
     anymore.  Before, it ignored I/O errors if at least the first C
     call read() succeed.

   - bpo-5800(245): headers parameter of wsgiref.headers.Headers is now
     optional.  Initial patch by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost.

   - bpo-21781(246): ssl.RAND_add() now supports strings longer than 2
     GB.

   - bpo-21679(247): Prevent extraneous fstat() calls during open().
     Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

   - bpo-21863(248): cProfile now displays the module name of C
     extension functions, in addition to their own name.

   - bpo-11453(249): asyncore: emit a ResourceWarning when an unclosed
     file_wrapper object is destroyed.  The destructor now closes the
     file if needed.  The close() method can now be called twice: the
     second call does nothing.

   - bpo-21858(250): Better handling of Python exceptions in the sqlite3
     module.

   - bpo-21476(251): Make sure the email.parser.BytesParser
     TextIOWrapper is discarded after parsing, so the input file isn't
     unexpectedly closed.

   - bpo-20295(252): imghdr now recognizes OpenEXR format images.

   - bpo-21729(253): Used the "with" statement in the dbm.dumb module to
     ensure files closing.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21491(254): socketserver: Fix a race condition in child
     processes reaping.

   - bpo-21719(255): Added the ‘st_file_attributes’ field to
     os.stat_result on Windows.

   - bpo-21832(256): Require named tuple inputs to be exact strings.

   - bpo-21722(257): The distutils "upload" command now exits with a
     non-zero return code when uploading fails.  Patch by Martin
     Dengler.

   - bpo-21723(258): asyncio.Queue: support any type of number (ex:
     float) for the maximum size.  Patch written by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21711(259): support for "site-python" directories has now been
     removed from the site module (it was deprecated in 3.4).

   - bpo-17552(260): new socket.sendfile() method allowing a file to be
     sent over a socket by using high-performance os.sendfile() on UNIX.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-18039(261): dbm.dump.open() now always creates a new database
     when the flag has the value 'n'.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21326(262): Add a new is_closed() method to
     asyncio.BaseEventLoop.  run_forever() and run_until_complete()
     methods of asyncio.BaseEventLoop now raise an exception if the
     event loop was closed.

   - bpo-21766(263): Prevent a security hole in CGIHTTPServer by URL
     unquoting paths before checking for a CGI script at that path.

   - bpo-21310(264): Fixed possible resource leak in failed open().

   - bpo-21256(265): Printout of keyword args should be in deterministic
     order in a mock function call.  This will help to write better
     doctests.

   - bpo-21677(266): Fixed chaining nonnormalized exceptions in io
     close() methods.

   - bpo-11709(267): Fix the pydoc.help function to not fail when
     sys.stdin is not a valid file.

   - bpo-21515(268): tempfile.TemporaryFile now uses os.O_TMPFILE flag
     is available.

   - bpo-13223(269): Fix pydoc.writedoc so that the HTML documentation
     for methods that use 'self' in the example code is generated
     correctly.

   - bpo-21463(270): In urllib.request, fix pruning of the FTP cache.

   - bpo-21618(271): The subprocess module could fail to close open fds
     that were inherited by the calling process and already higher than
     POSIX resource limits would otherwise allow.  On systems with a
     functioning /proc/self/fd or /dev/fd interface the max is now
     ignored and all fds are closed.

   - bpo-20383(272): Introduce importlib.util.module_from_spec() as the
     preferred way to create a new module.

   - bpo-21552(273): Fixed possible integer overflow of too long string
     lengths in the tkinter module on 64-bit platforms.

   - bpo-14315(274): The zipfile module now ignores extra fields in the
     central directory that are too short to be parsed instead of
     letting a struct.unpack error bubble up as this "bad data" appears
     in many real world zip files in the wild and is ignored by other
     zip tools.

   - bpo-13742(275): Added "key" and "reverse" parameters to
     heapq.merge().  (First draft of patch contributed by Simon Sapin.)

   - bpo-21402(276): tkinter.ttk now works when default root window is
     not set.

   - bpo-3015(277): ‘_tkinter.create()’ now creates ‘tkapp’ object with
     ‘wantobjects=1’ by default.

   - bpo-10203(278): sqlite3.Row now truly supports sequence protocol.
     In particular it supports reverse() and negative indices.  Original
     patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-18807(279): If copying (no symlinks) specified for a venv, then
     the python interpreter aliases (python, python3) are now created by
     copying rather than symlinking.

   - bpo-20197(280): Added support for the WebP image type in the imghdr
     module.  Patch by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21513(281): Speedup some properties of IP addresses
     (IPv4Address, IPv6Address) such as .is_private or .is_multicast.

   - bpo-21137(282): Improve the repr for threading.Lock() and its
     variants by showing the "locked" or "unlocked" status.  Patch by
     Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-21538(283): The plistlib module now supports loading of binary
     plist files when reference or offset size is not a power of two.

   - bpo-21455(284): Add a default backlog to socket.listen().

   - bpo-21525(285): Most Tkinter methods which accepted tuples now
     accept lists too.

   - bpo-22166(286): With the assistance of a new internal
     _codecs._forget_codec helping function, test_codecs now clears the
     encoding caches to avoid the appearance of a reference leak

   - bpo-22236(287): Tkinter tests now don't reuse default root window.
     New root window is created for every test class.

   - bpo-10744(288): Fix PEP 3118(289) format strings on ctypes objects
     with a nontrivial shape.

   - bpo-20826(290): Optimize ipaddress.collapse_addresses().

   - bpo-21487(291): Optimize ipaddress.summarize_address_range() and
     ipaddress.{IPv4Network,IPv6Network}.subnets().

   - bpo-21486(292): Optimize parsing of netmasks in
     ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network.

   - bpo-13916(293): Disallowed the surrogatepass error handler for non
     UTF-* encodings.

   - bpo-20998(294): Fixed re.fullmatch() of repeated single character
     pattern with ignore case.  Original patch by Matthew Barnett.

   - bpo-21075(295): fileinput.FileInput now reads bytes from standard
     stream if binary mode is specified.  Patch by Sam Kimbrel.

   - bpo-19775(296): Add a samefile() method to pathlib Path objects.
     Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21226(297): Set up modules properly in
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (and friends).

   - bpo-21398(298): Fix a unicode error in the pydoc pager when the
     documentation contains characters not encodable to the stdout
     encoding.

   - bpo-16531(299): ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network now
     accept an (address, netmask) tuple argument, so as to easily
     construct network objects from existing addresses.

   - bpo-21156(300): importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code() is now
     a staticmethod.

   - bpo-21424(301): Simplified and optimized heaqp.nlargest() and
     nmsmallest() to make fewer tuple comparisons.

   - bpo-21396(302): Fix TextIOWrapper(..., write_through=True) to not
     force a flush() on the underlying binary stream.  Patch by akira.

   - bpo-18314(303): Unlink now removes junctions on Windows.  Patch by
     Kim Gräsman

   - bpo-21088(304): Bugfix for curses.window.addch() regression in
     3.4.0.  In porting to Argument Clinic, the first two arguments were
     reversed.

   - bpo-21407(305): _decimal: The module now supports function
     signatures.

   - bpo-10650(306): Remove the non-standard 'watchexp' parameter from
     the Decimal.quantize() method in the Python version.  It had never
     been present in the C version.

   - bpo-21469(307): Reduced the risk of false positives in robotparser
     by checking to make sure that robots.txt has been read or does not
     exist prior to returning True in can_fetch().

   - bpo-19414(308): Have the OrderedDict mark deleted links as
     unusable.  This gives an early failure if the link is deleted
     during iteration.

   - bpo-21421(309): Add __slots__ to the MappingViews ABC. Patch by
     Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-21101(310): Eliminate double hashing in the C speed-up code for
     collections.Counter().

   - bpo-21321(311): itertools.islice() now releases the reference to
     the source iterator when the slice is exhausted.  Patch by Anton
     Afanasyev.

   - bpo-21057(312): TextIOWrapper now allows the underlying binary
     stream's read() or read1() method to return an arbitrary bytes-like
     object (such as a memoryview).  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20951(313): SSLSocket.send() now raises either SSLWantReadError
     or SSLWantWriteError on a non-blocking socket if the operation
     would block.  Previously, it would return 0.  Patch by Nikolaus
     Rath.

   - bpo-13248(314): removed previously deprecated asyncore.dispatcher
     __getattr__ cheap inheritance hack.

   - bpo-9815(315): assertRaises now tries to clear references to local
     variables in the exception's traceback.

   - bpo-19940(316): ssl.cert_time_to_seconds() now interprets the given
     time string in the UTC timezone (as specified in RFC 5280), not the
     local timezone.

   - bpo-13204(317): Calling sys.flags.__new__ would crash the
     interpreter, now it raises a TypeError.

   - bpo-19385(318): Make operations on a closed dbm.dumb database
     always raise the same exception.

   - bpo-21207(319): Detect when the os.urandom cached fd has been
     closed or replaced, and open it anew.

   - bpo-21291(320): subprocess's Popen.wait() is now thread safe so
     that multiple threads may be calling wait() or poll() on a Popen
     instance at the same time without losing the Popen.returncode
     value.

   - bpo-21127(321): Path objects can now be instantiated from str
     subclass instances (such as ‘numpy.str_’).

   - bpo-15002(322): urllib.response object to use _TemporaryFileWrapper
     (and _TemporaryFileCloser) facility.  Provides a better way to
     handle file descriptor close.  Patch contributed by Christian
     Theune.

   - bpo-12220(323): mindom now raises a custom ValueError indicating it
     doesn't support spaces in URIs instead of letting a 'split'
     ValueError bubble up.

   - bpo-21068(324): The ssl.PROTOCOL* constants are now enum members.

   - bpo-21276(325): posixmodule: Don't define USE_XATTRS on KFreeBSD
     and the Hurd.

   - bpo-21262(326): New method assert_not_called for Mock.  It raises
     AssertionError if the mock has been called.

   - bpo-21238(327): New keyword argument ‘unsafe’ to Mock.  It raises
     ‘AttributeError’ incase of an attribute startswith assert or
     assret.

   - bpo-20896(328): ssl.get_server_certificate() now uses
     PROTOCOL_SSLv23, not PROTOCOL_SSLv3, for maximum compatibility.

   - bpo-21239(329): patch.stopall() didn't work deterministically when
     the same name was patched more than once.

   - bpo-21203(330): Updated fileConfig and dictConfig to remove
     inconsistencies.  Thanks to Jure Koren for the patch.

   - bpo-21222(331): Passing name keyword argument to
     mock.create_autospec now works.

   - bpo-21197(332): Add lib64 -> lib symlink in venvs on 64-bit non-OS
     X POSIX.

   - bpo-17498(333): Some SMTP servers disconnect after certain errors,
     violating strict RFC conformance.  Instead of losing the error code
     when we issue the subsequent RSET, smtplib now returns the error
     code and defers raising the SMTPServerDisconnected error until the
     next command is issued.

   - bpo-17826(334): setting an iterable side_effect on a mock function
     created by create_autospec now works.  Patch by Kushal Das.

   - bpo-7776(335): Fix ‘Host:’ header and reconnection when using
     http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel().  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20968(336): unittest.mock.MagicMock now supports division.
     Patch by Johannes Baiter.

   - bpo-21529(337): Fix arbitrary memory access in
     JSONDecoder.raw_decode with a negative second parameter.  Bug
     reported by Guido Vranken.  (See also: CVE 2014-4616(338))

   - bpo-21169(339): getpass now handles non-ascii characters that the
     input stream encoding cannot encode by re-encoding using the
     replace error handler.

   - bpo-21171(340): Fixed undocumented filter API of the rot13 codec.
     Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-20539(341): Improved math.factorial error message for large
     positive inputs and changed exception type (OverflowError ->
     ValueError) for large negative inputs.

   - bpo-21172(342): isinstance check relaxed from dict to
     collections.Mapping.

   - bpo-21155(343): asyncio.EventLoop.create_unix_server() now raises a
     ValueError if path and sock are specified at the same time.

   - bpo-21136(344): Avoid unnecessary normalization of Fractions
     resulting from power and other operations.  Patch by Raymond
     Hettinger.

   - bpo-17621(345): Introduce importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-21076(346): signal module constants were turned into enums.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-20636(347): Improved the repr of Tkinter widgets.

   - bpo-19505(348): The items, keys, and values views of OrderedDict
     now support reverse iteration using reversed().

   - bpo-21149(349): Improved thread-safety in logging cleanup during
     interpreter shutdown.  Thanks to Devin Jeanpierre for the patch.

   - bpo-21058(350): Fix a leak of file descriptor in *note
     tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(): 1ed, close the file descriptor if
     *note io.open(): 29d. fails

   - bpo-21200(351): Return None from pkgutil.get_loader() when __spec__
     is missing.

   - bpo-21013(352): Enhance ssl.create_default_context() when used for
     server side sockets to provide better security by default.

   - bpo-20145(353): ‘assertRaisesRegex’ and ‘assertWarnsRegex’ now
     raise a ‘TypeError’ if the second argument is not a string or
     compiled regex.

   - bpo-20633(354): Replace relative import by absolute import.

   - bpo-20980(355): Stop wrapping exception when using ThreadPool.

   - bpo-21082(356): In os.makedirs, do not set the process-wide umask.
     Note this changes behavior of makedirs when exist_ok=True.

   - bpo-20990(357): Fix issues found by pyflakes for multiprocessing.

   - bpo-21015(358): SSL contexts will now automatically select an
     elliptic curve for ECDH key exchange on OpenSSL 1.0.2 and later,
     and otherwise default to "prime256v1".

   - bpo-21000(359): Improve the command-line interface of json.tool.

   - bpo-20995(360): Enhance default ciphers used by the ssl module to
     enable better security and prioritize perfect forward secrecy.

   - bpo-20884(361): Don't assume that __file__ is defined on
     importlib.__init__.

   - bpo-21499(362): Ignore __builtins__ in several
     test_importlib.test_api tests.

   - bpo-20627(363): xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy is now a context manager.

   - bpo-19165(364): The formatter module now raises DeprecationWarning
     instead of PendingDeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-13936(365): Remove the ability of datetime.time instances to be
     considered false in boolean contexts.

   - bpo-18931(366): selectors module now supports /dev/poll on Solaris.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-19977(367): When the ‘LC_TYPE’ locale is the POSIX locale (‘C’
     locale), *note sys.stdin: 2bf. and *note sys.stdout: 92a. are now
     using the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, instead of the ‘strict’
     error handler.

   - bpo-20574(368): Implement incremental decoder for cp65001 code
     (Windows code page 65001, Microsoft UTF-8).

   - bpo-20879(369): Delay the initialization of encoding and decoding
     tables for base32, ascii85 and base85 codecs in the base64 module,
     and delay the initialization of the unquote_to_bytes() table of the
     urllib.parse module, to not waste memory if these modules are not
     used.

   - bpo-19157(370): Include the broadcast address in the usuable hosts
     for IPv6 in ipaddress.

   - bpo-11599(371): When an external command (e.g.  compiler) fails,
     distutils now prints out the whole command line (instead of just
     the command name) if the environment variable DISTUTILS_DEBUG is
     set.

   - bpo-4931(372): distutils should not produce unhelpful "error: None"
     messages anymore.  distutils.util.grok_environment_error is kept
     but doc-deprecated.

   - bpo-20875(373): Prevent possible gzip "'read' is not defined"
     NameError.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-11558(374): ‘email.message.Message.attach’ now returns a more
     useful error message if ‘attach’ is called on a message for which
     ‘is_multipart’ is False.

   - bpo-20283(375): RE pattern methods now accept the string keyword
     parameters as documented.  The pattern and source keyword
     parameters are left as deprecated aliases.

   - bpo-20778(376): Fix modulefinder to work with bytecode-only
     modules.

   - bpo-20791(377): copy.copy() now doesn't make a copy when the input
     is a bytes object.  Initial patch by Peter Otten.

   - bpo-19748(378): On AIX, time.mktime() now raises an OverflowError
     for year outsize range [1902; 2037].

   - bpo-19573(379): inspect.signature: Use enum for parameter kind
     constants.

   - bpo-20726(380): inspect.signature: Make Signature and Parameter
     picklable.

   - bpo-17373(381): Add inspect.Signature.from_callable method.

   - bpo-20378(382): Improve repr of inspect.Signature and
     inspect.Parameter.

   - bpo-20816(383): Fix inspect.getcallargs() to raise correct
     TypeError for missing keyword-only arguments.  Patch by Jeremiah
     Lowin.

   - bpo-20817(384): Fix inspect.getcallargs() to fail correctly if more
     than 3 arguments are missing.  Patch by Jeremiah Lowin.

   - bpo-6676(385): Ensure a meaningful exception is raised when
     attempting to parse more than one XML document per pyexpat
     xmlparser instance.  (Original patches by Hirokazu Yamamoto and
     Amaury Forgeot d'Arc, with suggested wording by David Gutteridge)

   - bpo-21117(386): Fix inspect.signature to better support
     functools.partial.  Due to the specifics of functools.partial
     implementation, positional-or-keyword arguments passed as keyword
     arguments become keyword-only.

   - bpo-20334(387): inspect.Signature and inspect.Parameter are now
     hashable.  Thanks to Antony Lee for bug reports and suggestions.

   - bpo-15916(388): doctest.DocTestSuite returns an empty
     unittest.TestSuite instead of raising ValueError if it finds no
     tests

   - bpo-21209(389): Fix asyncio.tasks.CoroWrapper to workaround a bug
     in yield-from implementation in CPythons prior to 3.4.1.

   - asyncio: Add gi_{frame,running,code} properties to CoroWrapper
     (upstream bpo-163(390)).

   - bpo-21311(391): Avoid exception in _osx_support with non-standard
     compiler configurations.  Patch by John Szakmeister.

   - bpo-11571(392): Ensure that the turtle window becomes the topmost
     window when launched on OS X.

   - bpo-21801(393): Validate that __signature__ is None or an instance
     of Signature.

   - bpo-21923(394): Prevent AttributeError in
     distutils.sysconfig.customize_compiler due to possible
     uninitialized _config_vars.

   - bpo-21323(395): Fix http.server to again handle scripts in CGI
     subdirectories, broken by the fix for security bpo-19435(396).
     Patch by Zach Byrne.

   - bpo-22733(397): Fix ffi_prep_args not zero-extending argument
     values correctly on 64-bit Windows.

   - bpo-23302(398): Default to TCP_NODELAY=1 upon establishing an
     HTTPConnection.  Removed use of hard-coded MSS as it's an
     optimization that's no longer needed with Nagle disabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23399

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23099

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23326

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23363

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23364

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23366

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23369

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23353

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18518

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23094

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23268

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19996

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23248

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23098

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21817

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23250

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23063

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23209

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23225

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19777

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23206

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23185

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23186

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23143

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23132

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19776

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23112

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23093

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23111

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22585

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19104

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23071

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22783

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15513

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19858

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22095

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23016

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21775

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1218234

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21740

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23009

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22959

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22696

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16043

   (61) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2013-1753

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22966

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21971

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21032

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22407

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22902

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22960

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22389

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21356

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22915

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22609

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22940

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

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   (388) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15916

   (389) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21209

   (390) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=163

   (391) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21311

   (392) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11571

   (393) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21801

   (394) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21923

   (395) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21323

   (396) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19435

   (397) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22733

   (398) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23302


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<61>,  Next: Build<86>,  Prev: Library<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.109.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-20577(1): Configuration of the max line length for the
     FormatParagraph extension has been moved from the General tab of
     the Idle preferences dialog to the FormatParagraph tab of the
     Config Extensions dialog.  Patch by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-16893(2): Update Idle doc chapter to match current Idle and add
     new information.

   - bpo-3068(3): Add Idle extension configuration dialog to Options
     menu.  Changes are written to HOME/.idlerc/config-extensions.cfg.
     Original patch by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-16233(4): A module browser (File : Class Browser, Alt+C)
     requires an editor window with a filename.  When Class Browser is
     requested otherwise, from a shell, output window, or 'Untitled'
     editor, Idle no longer displays an error box.  It now pops up an
     Open Module box (Alt+M). If a valid name is entered and a module is
     opened, a corresponding browser is also opened.

   - bpo-4832(5): Save As to type Python files automatically adds .py to
     the name you enter (even if your system does not display it).  Some
     systems automatically add .txt when type is Text files.

   - bpo-21986(6): Code objects are not normally pickled by the pickle
     module.  To match this, they are no longer pickled when running
     under Idle.

   - bpo-17390(7): Adjust Editor window title; remove 'Python', move
     version to end.

   - bpo-14105(8): Idle debugger breakpoints no longer disappear when
     inserting or deleting lines.

   - bpo-17172(9): Turtledemo can now be run from Idle.  Currently, the
     entry is on the Help menu, but it may move to Run.  Patch by
     Ramchandra Apt and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21765(10): Add support for non-ascii identifiers to
     HyperParser.

   - bpo-21940(11): Add unittest for WidgetRedirector.  Initial patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18592(12): Add unittest for SearchDialogBase.  Patch by Phil
     Webster.

   - bpo-21694(13): Add unittest for ParenMatch.  Patch by Saimadhav
     Heblikar.

   - bpo-21686(14): add unittest for HyperParser.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-12387(15): Add missing upper(lower)case versions of default
     Windows key bindings for Idle so Caps Lock does not disable them.
     Patch by Roger Serwy.

   - bpo-21695(16): Closing a Find-in-files output window while the
     search is still in progress no longer closes Idle.

   - bpo-18910(17): Add unittest for textView.  Patch by Phil Webster.

   - bpo-18292(18): Add unittest for AutoExpand.  Patch by Saihadhav
     Heblikar.

   - bpo-18409(19): Add unittest for AutoComplete.  Patch by Phil
     Webster.

   - bpo-21477(20): htest.py - Improve framework, complete set of tests.
     Patches by Saimadhav Heblikar

   - bpo-18104(21): Add idlelib/idle_test/htest.py with a few sample
     tests to begin consolidating and improving human-validated tests of
     Idle.  Change other files as needed to work with htest.  Running
     the module as __main__ runs all tests.

   - bpo-21139(22): Change default paragraph width to 72, the PEP 8(23)
     recommendation.

   - bpo-21284(24): Paragraph reformat test passes after user changes
     reformat width.

   - bpo-17654(25): Ensure IDLE menus are customized properly on OS X
     for non-framework builds and for all variants of Tk.

   - bpo-23180(26): Rename IDLE "Windows" menu item to "Window".  Patch
     by Al Sweigart.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20577

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3068

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16233

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4832

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17390

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14105

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17172

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21765

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21940

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18592

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21694

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21686

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12387

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21695

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18910

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18292

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18409

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21477

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18104

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21139

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21284

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17654

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23180


File: python.info,  Node: Build<86>,  Next: C API<67>,  Prev: IDLE<61>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.109.4 Build
................

   - bpo-15506(1): Use standard PKG_PROG_PKG_CONFIG autoconf macro in
     the configure script.

   - bpo-22935(2): Allow the ssl module to be compiled if openssl
     doesn't support SSL 3.

   - bpo-22592(3): Drop support of the Borland C compiler to build
     Python.  The distutils module still supports it to build
     extensions.

   - bpo-22591(4): Drop support of MS-DOS, especially of the DJGPP
     compiler (MS-DOS port of GCC).

   - bpo-16537(5): Check whether self.extensions is empty in setup.py.
     Patch by Jonathan Hosmer.

   - bpo-22359(6): Remove incorrect uses of recursive make.  Patch by
     Jonas Wagner.

   - bpo-21958(7): Define HAVE_ROUND when building with Visual Studio
     2013 and above.  Patch by Zachary Turner.

   - bpo-18093(8): the programs that embed the CPython runtime are now
     in a separate "Programs" directory, rather than being kept in the
     Modules directory.

   - bpo-15759(9): "make suspicious", "make linkcheck" and "make
     doctest" in Doc/ now display special message when and only when
     there are failures.

   - bpo-21141(10): The Windows build process no longer attempts to find
     Perl, instead relying on OpenSSL source being configured and ready
     to build.  The ‘PCbuild\build_ssl.py’ script has been re-written
     and re-named to ‘PCbuild\prepare_ssl.py’, and takes care of
     configuring OpenSSL source for both 32 and 64 bit platforms.
     OpenSSL sources obtained from svn.python.org will always be
     pre-configured and ready to build.

   - bpo-21037(11): Add a build option to enable AddressSanitizer
     support.

   - bpo-19962(12): The Windows build process now creates "python.bat"
     in the root of the source tree, which passes all arguments through
     to the most recently built interpreter.

   - bpo-21285(13): Refactor and fix curses configure check to always
     search in a ncursesw directory.

   - bpo-15234(14): For BerkeleyDB and Sqlite, only add the found
     library and include directories if they aren't already being
     searched.  This avoids an explicit runtime library dependency.

   - bpo-17861(15): Tools/scripts/generate_opcode_h.py automatically
     regenerates Include/opcode.h from Lib/opcode.py if the latter gets
     any change.

   - bpo-20644(16): OS X installer build support for documentation build
     changes in 3.4.1: assume externally supplied sphinx-build is
     available in /usr/bin.

   - bpo-20022(17): Eliminate use of deprecated bundlebuilder in OS X
     builds.

   - bpo-15968(18): Incorporated Tcl, Tk, and Tix builds into the
     Windows build solution.

   - bpo-17095(19): Fix Modules/Setup 'shared' support.

   - bpo-21811(20): Anticipated fixes to support OS X versions > 10.9.

   - bpo-21166(21): Prevent possible segfaults and other random failures
     of python -generate-posix-vars in pybuilddir.txt build target.

   - bpo-18096(22): Fix library order returned by python-config.

   - bpo-17219(23): Add library build dir for Python extension
     cross-builds.

   - bpo-22919(24): Windows build updated to support VC 14.0 (Visual
     Studio 2015), which will be used for the official release.

   - bpo-21236(25): Build _msi.pyd with cabinet.lib instead of fci.lib

   - bpo-17128(26): Use private version of OpenSSL for OS X 10.5+
     installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15506

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22935

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22592

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22591

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16537

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21958

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18093

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15759

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21141

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21037

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19962

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21285

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15234

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17861

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20644

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20022

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17095

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21811

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21166

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18096

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17219

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22919

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21236

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128


File: python.info,  Node: C API<67>,  Next: Documentation<77>,  Prev: Build<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.109.5 C API
................

   - bpo-14203(1): Remove obsolete support for view==NULL in
     PyBuffer_FillInfo(), bytearray_getbuffer(), bytesiobuf_getbuffer()
     and array_buffer_getbuf().  All functions now raise BufferError in
     that case.

   - bpo-22445(2): PyBuffer_IsContiguous() now implements precise
     contiguity tests, compatible with NumPy's
     NPY_RELAXED_STRIDES_CHECKING compilation flag.  Previously the
     function reported false negatives for corner cases.

   - bpo-22079(3): PyType_Ready() now checks that statically allocated
     type has no dynamically allocated bases.

   - bpo-22453(4): Removed non-documented macro PyObject_REPR().

   - bpo-18395(5): Rename ‘_Py_char2wchar()’ to *note Py_DecodeLocale():
     a28, rename ‘_Py_wchar2char()’ to *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a29, and
     document these functions.

   - bpo-21233(6): Add new C functions: PyMem_RawCalloc(),
     PyMem_Calloc(), PyObject_Calloc(), _PyObject_GC_Calloc().
     bytes(int) is now using ‘calloc()’ instead of ‘malloc()’ for large
     objects which is faster and use less memory.

   - bpo-20942(7): PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject() no longer sets
     __file__ to match what importlib does; this affects
     _frozen_importlib as well as any module loaded using
     imp.init_frozen().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22445

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22079

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20942


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<77>,  Next: Tests<82>,  Prev: C API<67>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.109.6 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-19548(1): Update the codecs module documentation to better
     cover the distinction between text encodings and other codecs,
     together with other clarifications.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22394(2): Doc/Makefile now supports ‘make venv
     PYTHON=../python’ to create a venv for generating the
     documentation, e.g., ‘make html PYTHON=venv/bin/python3’.

   - bpo-21514(3): The documentation of the json module now refers to
     new JSON RFC 7159 instead of obsoleted RFC 4627.

   - bpo-21777(4): The binary sequence methods on bytes and bytearray
     are now documented explicitly, rather than assuming users will be
     able to derive the expected behaviour from the behaviour of the
     corresponding str methods.

   - bpo-6916(5): undocument deprecated asynchat.fifo class.

   - bpo-17386(6): Expanded functionality of the ‘Doc/make.bat’ script
     to make it much more comparable to ‘Doc/Makefile’.

   - bpo-21312(7): Update the thread_foobar.h template file to include
     newer threading APIs.  Patch by Jack McCracken.

   - bpo-21043(8): Remove the recommendation for specific CA
     organizations and to mention the ability to load the OS
     certificates.

   - bpo-20765(9): Add missing documentation for PurePath.with_name()
     and PurePath.with_suffix().

   - bpo-19407(10): New package installation and distribution guides
     based on the Python Packaging Authority tools.  Existing guides
     have been retained as legacy links from the distutils docs, as they
     still contain some required reference material for tool developers
     that isn't recorded anywhere else.

   - bpo-19697(11): Document cases where __main__.__spec__ is None.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22394

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21514

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6916

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17386

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21312

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21043

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20765

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19407

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19697


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<82>,  Next: Tools/Demos<49>,  Prev: Documentation<77>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.109.7 Tests
................

   - bpo-18982(1): Add tests for CLI of the calendar module.

   - bpo-19548(2): Added some additional checks to test_codecs to ensure
     that statements in the updated documentation remain accurate.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22838(3): All test_re tests now work with unittest test
     discovery.

   - bpo-22173(4): Update lib2to3 tests to use unittest test discovery.

   - bpo-16000(5): Convert test_curses to use unittest.

   - bpo-21456(6): Skip two tests in test_urllib2net.py if _ssl module
     not present.  Patch by Remi Pointel.

   - bpo-20746(7): Fix test_pdb to run in refleak mode (-R). Patch by
     Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-22060(8): test_ctypes has been somewhat cleaned up and
     simplified; it now uses unittest test discovery to find its tests.

   - bpo-22104(9): regrtest.py no longer holds a reference to the suite
     of tests loaded from test modules that don't define test_main().

   - bpo-22111(10): Assorted cleanups in test_imaplib.  Patch by Milan
     Oberkirch.

   - bpo-22002(11): Added ‘load_package_tests’ function to test.support
     and used it to implement/augment test discovery in test_asyncio,
     test_email, test_importlib, test_json, and test_tools.

   - bpo-21976(12): Fix test_ssl to accept LibreSSL version strings.
     Thanks to William Orr.

   - bpo-21918(13): Converted test_tools from a module to a package
     containing separate test files for each tested script.

   - bpo-9554(14): Use modern unittest features in test_argparse.
     Initial patch by Denver Coneybeare and Radu Voicilas.

   - bpo-20155(15): Changed HTTP method names in failing tests in
     test_httpservers so that packet filtering software (specifically
     Windows Base Filtering Engine) does not interfere with the
     transaction semantics expected by the tests.

   - bpo-19493(16): Refactored the ctypes test package to skip tests
     explicitly rather than silently.

   - bpo-18492(17): All resources are now allowed when tests are not run
     by regrtest.py.

   - bpo-21634(18): Fix pystone micro-benchmark: use floor division
     instead of true division to benchmark integers instead of
     floating-point numbers.  Set pystone version to 1.2.  Patch written
     by Lennart Regebro.

   - bpo-21605(19): Added tests for Tkinter images.

   - bpo-21493(20): Added test for ntpath.expanduser().  Original patch
     by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-19925(21): Added tests for the spwd module.  Original patch by
     Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21522(22): Added Tkinter tests for Listbox.itemconfigure(),
     PanedWindow.paneconfigure(), and Menu.entryconfigure().

   - bpo-17756(23): Fix test_code test when run from the installed
     location.

   - bpo-17752(24): Fix distutils tests when run from the installed
     location.

   - bpo-18604(25): Consolidated checks for GUI availability.  All
     platforms now at least check whether Tk can be instantiated when
     the GUI resource is requested.

   - bpo-21275(26): Fix a socket test on KFreeBSD.

   - bpo-21223(27): Pass test_site/test_startup_imports when some of the
     extensions are built as builtins.

   - bpo-20635(28): Added tests for Tk geometry managers.

   - Add test case for freeze.

   - bpo-20743(29): Fix a reference leak in test_tcl.

   - bpo-21097(30): Move test_namespace_pkgs into test_importlib.

   - bpo-21503(31): Use test_both() consistently in test_importlib.

   - bpo-20939(32): Avoid various network test failures due to new
     redirect of ‘http://www.python.org/’ to ‘https://www.python.org’:
     use ‘http://www.example.com’ instead.

   - bpo-20668(33): asyncio tests no longer rely on tests.txt file.
     (Patch by Vajrasky Kok)

   - bpo-21093(34): Prevent failures of ctypes test_macholib on OS X if
     a copy of libz exists in $HOME/lib or /usr/local/lib.

   - bpo-22770(35): Prevent some Tk segfaults on OS X when running gui
     tests.

   - bpo-23211(36): Workaround test_logging failure on some OS X 10.6
     systems.

   - bpo-23345(37): Prevent test_ssl failures with large OpenSSL patch
     level values (like 0.9.8zc).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18982

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22838

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22173

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16000

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21456

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20746

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22060

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22104

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22111

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22002

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21976

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21918

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9554

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20155

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19493

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18492

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21634

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21605

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21493

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19925

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21522

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17756

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17752

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18604

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21275

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21223

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20635

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20743

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21097

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21503

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20939

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20668

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21093

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22770

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23211

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23345


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<49>,  Next: Windows<75>,  Prev: Tests<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.109.8 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-22314(1): pydoc now works when the LINES environment variable
     is set.

   - bpo-22615(2): Argument Clinic now supports the "type" argument for
     the int converter.  This permits using the int converter with enums
     and typedefs.

   - bpo-20076(3): The makelocalealias.py script no longer ignores UTF-8
     mapping.

   - bpo-20079(4): The makelocalealias.py script now can parse the
     SUPPORTED file from glibc sources and supports command line options
     for source paths.

   - bpo-22201(5): Command-line interface of the zipfile module now
     correctly extracts ZIP files with directory entries.  Patch by Ryan
     Wilson.

   - bpo-22120(6): For functions using an unsigned integer return
     converter, Argument Clinic now generates a cast to that type for
     the comparison to -1 in the generated code.  (This suppresses a
     compilation warning.)

   - bpo-18974(7): Tools/scripts/diff.py now uses argparse instead of
     optparse.

   - bpo-21906(8): Make Tools/scripts/md5sum.py work in Python 3.  Patch
     by Zachary Ware.

   - bpo-21629(9): Fix Argument Clinic's "-converters" feature.

   - Add support for ‘yield from’ to 2to3.

   - Add support for the PEP 465(10) matrix multiplication operator to
     2to3.

   - bpo-16047(11): Fix module exception list and __file__ handling in
     freeze.  Patch by Meador Inge.

   - bpo-11824(12): Consider ABI tags in freeze.  Patch by Meador Inge.

   - bpo-20535(13): PYTHONWARNING no longer affects the run_tests.py
     script.  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22314

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22615

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20076

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20079

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22201

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22120

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18974

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21906

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21629

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16047

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11824

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20535


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<75>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<49>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.109.9 Windows
..................

   - bpo-23260(1): Update Windows installer

   - The bundled version of Tcl/Tk has been updated to 8.6.3.  The most
     visible result of this change is the addition of new native file
     dialogs when running on Windows Vista or newer.  See Tcl/Tk's TIP
     432 for more information.  Also, this version of Tcl/Tk includes
     support for Windows 10.

   - bpo-17896(2): The Windows build scripts now expect external library
     sources to be in ‘PCbuild\..\externals’ rather than
     ‘PCbuild\..\..’.

   - bpo-17717(3): The Windows build scripts now use a copy of NASM
     pulled from svn.python.org to build OpenSSL.

   - bpo-21907(4): Improved the batch scripts provided for building
     Python.

   - bpo-22644(5): The bundled version of OpenSSL has been updated to
     1.0.1j.

   - bpo-10747(6): Use versioned labels in the Windows start menu.
     Patch by Olive Kilburn.

   - bpo-22980(7): .pyd files with a version and platform tag (for
     example, ".cp35-win32.pyd") will now be loaded in preference to
     those without tags.

'(For information about older versions, consult the HISTORY file.)'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23260

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17896

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17717

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21907

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22644

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10747

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980


File: python.info,  Node: Python 教學,  Next: Python 的設置與使用,  Prev: Python 有什麼新功能？,  Up: Top

2 Python 教學
*************

Python 是一種易學、功能強大的程式語言。它有高效能的高階資料結構，也有簡
單但有效的方法去實現物件導向程式設計。Python 優雅的語法和動態型別，結合
其直譯特性，使它成為眾多領域和大多數平臺上，撰寫腳本和快速開發應用程式的
理想語言。

使用者可以自由且免費地從 Python 官網上 (‘https://www.python.org/’) 取得
各大平台上用的 Python 直譯器和標準函式庫，下載其源碼或二進位形式執行檔，
同時，也可以將其自由地散佈。另外，Python 官網也提供了許多自由且免費的第
三方 Python 模組、程式與工具、以及額外說明文件，有興趣的使用者，可在官網
上找到相關的發行版本與連結網址。

使用 C 或 C++（或其他可被 C 呼叫的程式語言），可以很容易在 Python 直譯器
內新增功能函式及資料型別。同時，對可讓使用者自製功能的應用程式來說，
Python 也適合作為其擴充用界面語言 (extension language)。

這份教學將簡介 Python 語言與系統的基本概念及功能。除了閱讀之外、實際用
Python 直譯器寫程式跑範例，將有助於學習。但如果只用讀的，也是可行的學習
方式，因為所有範例的內容皆獨立且完整。

若想了解 Python 標準物件和模組的描述，請參閱 *note Python 標準函式庫
(Standard Library): 13d.。在 *note Python 語言參考手冊: 13e. 中，你可以
學到 Python 語言更正規的定義。想用 C 或 C++ 寫延伸套件 (extensions) 的讀
者，請閱讀 *note 擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器: 19cb. 和 *note Python/C API
參考手冊: 19cc. 。此外，市面上也能找到更深入的 Python 學習書。

這份教學中，我們不會介紹每一個功能，甚至，也不打算介紹完每一個常用功能。
取而代之，我們的重心將放在介紹 Python 中最值得一提的那些功能，幫助你了解
Python 語言的特色與風格。讀完教學後，你將有能力閱讀和撰寫 Python 模組與
程式，也做好進一步學習 *note Python 標準函式庫 (Standard Library): 13d.
中各類型的 Python 函式庫模組的準備。

*note 術語表: 19cd. 頁面也值得細讀。

* Menu:

* 淺嘗滋味::
* 使用 Python 直譯器::
* 一個非正式的 Python 簡介::
* 深入了解流程控制::
* 資料結構::
* 模組 (Module): 模組 Module.
* 輸入和輸出::
* 錯誤和例外::
* Class（類別）::
* Python 標準函式庫概覽::
* Python 標準函式庫概覽——第二部份::
* 虛擬環境與套件::
* 現在可以來學習些什麼？::
* 互動式輸入編輯和歷史記錄替換::
* 浮點數運算：問題與限制::
* 附錄::


File: python.info,  Node: 淺嘗滋味,  Next: 使用 Python 直譯器,  Up: Python 教學

2.1 淺嘗滋味
============

如果你經常在電腦上工作，最終總能發現有些工作你會想要自動化。舉例來說，你
會想在很多文字檔案裡做相同的搜尋取代，或者是用個複雜的規則重新命名或整理
一群照片。也有可能你想寫個自己的小資料庫，一個專門的 GUI 應用程式，或一
個小遊戲。

如果你是一個職業軟體開發者，你可能要操作數個 C/C++/Java 程式庫，卻覺得平
常寫程式碼、編譯、測試、再編譯的流程太慢；有可能你正為了一個程式庫撰寫一
套測試集，但發現寫測試單調乏味；也有可能你正在開發一個能使用某一語言擴充
的程式，但並不想要為了這程式特別設計一個全新的擴充語言。

在上述的例子中，Python 正是你合適的語言。

也許你可以為了某些任務而寫個 Unix shell 腳本或者 Windows 批次檔來處理，
但 shell 腳本最適合於搬動檔案或更動文字內容，而不適於圖形應用程式或遊戲
。你可以為此寫個 C/C++/Java 程式，但僅僅是完成個草稿也需要很長的開發時間
。相較而言，Python 更易於使用，並能在 Windows、macOS、Unix 作業系統上執
行，且能更快速地幫助你完成工作。

Python 即便易用也是個貨真價實的程式語言。它提供比 shell 腳本、批次檔更多
樣的程式架構與更多的支援。另一方面，Python 提供比 C 更豐富的錯語檢查。相
較於 C，Python 作為一個「非常高階的程式語言」，它內建了高階的資料型別如
彈性的數列與字典。因為這些多用途的資料型別，Python 適用解決比 Awk（甚至
是 Perl）能處理的更多問題上。至少在許多事情中，使用 Python 處理起來跟其
他語言是同樣容易的。

Python 允許你把程式切割成許多模組 (module) 並將他們重覆運用至其他 Python
程式中。Python 自帶了一個很大集合的標準模組，它們能做為你程式的基礎——或
把它們當作一開始學寫 Python 程式的範例。有些模組提供了如檔案 I/O、系統呼
叫、socket 的功能，甚至提供了 Tk 等圖形介面工具庫 (GUI toolkit) 的介面。

Python 是個直譯式語言，因為不需要編譯與連結，能為你在開發過程中省下可觀
的時間。它的直譯器能互動地使用，因此能很方便地實驗每個語言的功能、寫些用
完即丟的程式、幫助測試一些從細部開始開發的函式。它也是個好用的計算機。

Python 讓程式寫得精簡並易讀。用 Python 實作的程式長度往往遠比用 C、C++、
Java 實作的短。這有以下幾個原因：

   * Python 高階的資料型別能在一陳述式 (statement) 中表達很複雜的操作；

   * 陳述式的段落以縮排為區隔而非括號；

   * 不需要宣告變數和引數。

Python 是'可擴充的'：如果你會寫 C 程式，那麼要加個新的內建函式或模組到直
譯器中是很容易的。無論是為了用最快速的執行速度完成一些關鍵的操作，或是讓
Python 連結到一些僅以二進位形式 (binary form) 釋出的程式庫（例如特定供應
商的繪圖程式庫）。如果你想更多這樣的結合，你其實也可以把 Python 直譯器連
結到用 C 寫的應用程式，並在該應用程式中使用 Python 寫擴充或者作為下達指
令的語言。

順帶一提，這個語言是以 BBC 的戲劇《Monty Python's Flying Circus》命名，
與爬蟲類完全沒有關係。在說明文件中引用他們的喜劇不但沒問題，這甚至是個被
鼓勵的行為！

如果你現在已經躍躍欲試，你會想了解 Python 更多細節，而學習語言的最好方式
就是直接使用它。接下來這個教學就將帶領你，一邊閱讀，一邊將所學用在
Python 直譯器中玩耍。

在下個章節中，將會解說如何使用該直譯器。這也許只是個普通的資訊，但你必須
試著操作接下來呈現的範例。

接下來的教學裡，將會透過許多範例介紹 Python 語言與其系統的諸多特色。一開
始是簡單的運算式 (expression)、陳述式 (statement) 和資料型別 (data
type)；接著是函式 (function) 與模組 (module)；最後會接觸一些較進階的主題
如例外 (exception) 與使用者自定義類別 (class)。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 Python 直譯器,  Next: 一個非正式的 Python 簡介,  Prev: 淺嘗滋味,  Up: Python 教學

2.2 使用 Python 直譯器
======================

* Menu:

* 啟動直譯器::
* 直譯器與它的環境::


File: python.info,  Node: 啟動直譯器,  Next: 直譯器與它的環境,  Up: 使用 Python 直譯器

2.2.1 啟動直譯器
----------------

Python 直譯器一般安裝在 ‘/usr/local/bin/python3.12’ 路徑下；將
‘/usr/local/bin’ 加入Unix shell 的搜索路徑，輸入以下指令就可以啟動
Python：

     python3.12

能啟動 Python (1)。因為直譯器存放的目錄是個安裝選項，其他的目錄也是有可
能的；請洽談在地的 Python 達人或者系統管理員。（例如：
‘/usr/local/python’ 是個很常見的另類存放路徑。）

Windows 系統中，從 *note Microsoft Store: 19d6. 安裝 Python 後，就可以使
用 ‘python3.12’ 命令了。如果安裝了 *note py.exe launcher: 3ae. ，則可以
使用 ‘py’ 命令。請參閱附錄：*note Excursus; Setting environment
variables: 19d7.，了解其他啟動 Python 的方式。

在主提示符輸入一個 end-of-file 字元（在 Unix 上為 ‘Control-D’；在
Windows 上為 ‘Control-Z’）會使得直譯器以零退出狀況 (zero exit status) 離
開。如果上述的做法沒有效，也可以輸入指令 ‘quit()’ 離開直譯器。

直譯器的指令列編輯功能有很多，在支援 GNU Readline(2) 函式庫的系統上包含
：互動編輯、歷史取代、指令補完等功能。最快檢查有無支援指令列編輯的方法為
：在第一個 Python 提示符後輸入 ‘Control-P’，如果出現嗶嗶聲，就代表有支援
；見附錄*note 互動式輸入編輯和歷史記錄替換: 19d8.介紹相關的快速鍵。如果
什麼事都沒有發生，或者出現一個 ‘^P’，就代表並沒有指令列編輯功能；此時只
能使用 backspace 去除該行的字元。

這個直譯器使用起來像是 Unix shell：如果它被呼叫時連結至一個 tty 裝置，它
會互動式地讀取並執行指令；如果被呼叫時給定檔名為引數或者使用 stdin 傳入
檔案內容，它會將這個檔案視為'腳本'來閱讀。

另一個啟動直譯器的方式為 ‘python -c command [arg] ...’，它會執行在
'command' 裡的指令（們），行為如同 shell 的 *note -c: 3d3. 選項。因為
Python 的指令包含空白等 shell 用到的特殊字元，通常建議用引號把 'command'
包起來。

有些 Python 模組使用上如腳本般一樣方便。透過 ‘python -m module [arg]
...’ 可以執行 'module' 模組的原始碼，就如同直接傳入那個模組的完整路徑一
樣的行為。

當要執行一個腳本檔時，有時候會希望在腳本結束時進入互動模式。此時可在執行
腳本的指令加入 *note -i: 1352.。

所有指令可用的參數都詳記在*note 命令列與環境: 179c.。

* Menu:

* 傳遞引數::
* 互動模式::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 在 Unix 中，Python 3.x 直譯器預設安裝不會以 ‘python’ 作為執行檔名
稱，以避免與現有的 Python 2.x 執行檔名稱衝突。

   (2) https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html


File: python.info,  Node: 傳遞引數,  Next: 互動模式,  Up: 啟動直譯器

2.2.1.1 傳遞引數
................

當直擇器收到腳本的名稱和額外的引數後，他們會轉換為由字串所組成的 list（
串列）並指派給 ‘sys’ 模組的 ‘argv’ 變數。你可以執行 ‘import sys’ 取得這
個串列。這個串列的長度至少為一；當沒有給任何腳本名稱和引數時，
‘sys.argv[0]’ 為空字串。當腳本名為 ‘'-'’（指標準輸入）時， ‘sys.argv[0]’
為 ‘'-'’。當使用 *note -c: 3d3. 'command' 時， ‘sys.argv[0]’ 為 ‘'-c'’。
當使用 *note -m: 3d4. 'module' 時， ‘sys.argv[0]’ 為該模組存在的完整路徑
。其餘非 *note -c: 3d3. 'command' 或 *note -m: 3d4. 'module' 的選項不會
被 Python 直譯器吸收掉，而是留在 ‘sys.argv’ 變數中給後續的 command 或
module 使用。


File: python.info,  Node: 互動模式,  Prev: 傳遞引數,  Up: 啟動直譯器

2.2.1.2 互動模式
................

在終端 (tty) 輸入並執行指令時，直譯器在'互動模式（interactive mode）'中
運行。在這種模式中，會顯示'主提示符'，提示輸入下一條指令，主提示符通常用
三個大於號（‘>>>’）表示；輸入連續行時，顯示'次要提示符'，預設是三個點（
‘...’）。進入直譯器時，首先顯示歡迎訊息、版本訊息、版權聲明，然後才是提
示符：

     $ python3.12
     Python 3.12 (default, April 4 2022, 09:25:04)
     [GCC 10.2.0] on linux
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>>

接續多行的情況出現在需要多行才能建立完整指令時。舉例來說，像是 *note if:
266. 敘述：

     >>> the_world_is_flat = True
     >>> if the_world_is_flat:
     ...     print("Be careful not to fall off!")
     ...
     Be careful not to fall off!

更多有關互動模式的使用，請見*note 互動模式: 19dc.。


File: python.info,  Node: 直譯器與它的環境,  Prev: 啟動直譯器,  Up: 使用 Python 直譯器

2.2.2 直譯器與它的環境
----------------------

* Menu:

* 原始碼的字元編碼 (encoding): 原始碼的字元編碼 encoding.


File: python.info,  Node: 原始碼的字元編碼 encoding,  Up: 直譯器與它的環境

2.2.2.1 原始碼的字元編碼 (encoding)
...................................

預設 Python 原始碼檔案的字元編碼使用 UTF-8。在這個編碼中，世界上多數語言
的文字可以同時被使用在字串內容、識別名 (identifier) 及註解中 -- 雖然在標
準函式庫中只使用 ASCII 字元作為識別名，這也是個任何 portable 程式碼需遵
守的慣例。如果要正確地顯示所有字元，你的編輯器需要能夠認識檔案為 UTF-8，
並且需要能顯示檔案中所有字元的字型。

如果不使用預設編碼，則要聲明檔案的編碼，檔案的'第一'行要寫成特殊註解。語
法如下：

     # -*- coding: encoding -*-

其中， 'encoding' 可以是 Python 支援的任意一種 *note codecs: 19.。

比如，聲明使用 Windows-1252 編碼，源碼檔案要寫成：

     # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-

'第一行'的規則也有一種例外情況，在源碼以 *note UNIX "shebang" line:
19e1. 行開頭時。此時，編碼聲明要寫在檔案的第二行。例如：

     #!/usr/bin/env python3
     # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: 一個非正式的 Python 簡介,  Next: 深入了解流程控制,  Prev: 使用 Python 直譯器,  Up: Python 教學

2.3 一個非正式的 Python 簡介
============================

在下面的例子中，輸入與輸出的區別在於有無提示字元（prompt，*note >>>:
19e5. 和 *note ...: 19e6.）：如果要重做範例，你必須在提示字元出現的時候
，輸入提示字元後方的所有內容；那些非提示字元開始的文字行是直譯器的輸出。
注意到在範例中，若出現單行只有次提示字元時，代表該行你必須直接換行；這被
使用在多行指令結束輸入時。

在本手冊中的許多範例中，即便他們為互動式地輸入，仍然包含註解。Python 中
的註解 (comments) 由 hash 字元 ‘#’ 開始一直到該行結束。註解可以從該行之
首、空白後、或程式碼之後開始，但不會出現在字串文本 (string literal) 之中
。hash 字元在字串文本之中時仍視為一 hash 字元。因為註解只是用來說明程式
而不會被 Python 解讀，在練習範例時不一定要輸入。

一些範例如下：

     # this is the first comment
     spam = 1  # and this is the second comment
               # ... and now a third!
     text = "# This is not a comment because it's inside quotes."

* Menu:

* 把 Python 當作計算機使用::
* 初探程式設計的前幾步::


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2.3.1 把 Python 當作計算機使用
------------------------------

讓我們來試試一些簡單的 Python 指令。啟動直譯器並等待第一個主提示字元
‘>>>’ 出現。（應該不會等太久）

* Menu:

* 數字 (Number): 數字 Number.
* 文字::
* List（串列）::


File: python.info,  Node: 數字 Number,  Next: 文字,  Up: 把 Python 當作計算機使用

2.3.1.1 數字 (Number)
.....................

直譯器如同一台簡單的計算機：你可以輸入一個 expression（運算式），它會寫
出該式的值。Expression 的語法可以使用：運算子 ‘+’、‘-’、‘*’ 和 ‘/’ 可以
用來執行運算；括號 ‘()’ 可以用來分群。例如：

     >>> 2 + 2
     4
     >>> 50 - 5*6
     20
     >>> (50 - 5*6) / 4
     5.0
     >>> 8 / 5  # division always returns a floating-point number
     1.6

整數數字（即 ‘2’、‘4’、‘20’）為 *note int: 17e. 型態，數字有小數點部份的
（即 ‘5.0’、‘1.6’）為 *note float: 26a. 型態。我們將在之後的教學中看到更
多數字相關的型態。

除法 (‘/’) 永遠回傳一個 float。如果要做 *note floor division: 783. 並拿
到整數的結果，你可以使用 ‘//’ 運算子；計算餘數可以使用 ‘%’：

     >>> 17 / 3  # classic division returns a float
     5.666666666666667
     >>>
     >>> 17 // 3  # floor division discards the fractional part
     5
     >>> 17 % 3  # the % operator returns the remainder of the division
     2
     >>> 5 * 3 + 2  # floored quotient * divisor + remainder
     17

在 Python 中，計算冪次 (powers) 可以使用 ‘**’ 運算子 (1)：

     >>> 5 ** 2  # 5 squared
     25
     >>> 2 ** 7  # 2 to the power of 7
     128

等於符號 (‘=’) 可以用於為變數賦值。賦值完之後，在下個指示字元前並不會顯
示任何結果：

     >>> width = 20
     >>> height = 5 * 9
     >>> width * height
     900

如果一個變數未被「定義 (defined)」（即變數未被賦值），試著使用它時會出現
一個錯誤：

     >>> n  # try to access an undefined variable
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'n' is not defined

浮點數的運算有完善的支援，運算子 (operator) 遇上混合的運算元 (operand) 時
會把整數的運算元轉換為浮點數：

     >>> 4 * 3.75 - 1
     14.0

在互動式模式中，最後一個印出的運算式的結果會被指派至變數 ‘_’ 中。這表示
當你把 Python 當作桌上計算機使用者，要接續計算變得容易許多：

     >>> tax = 12.5 / 100
     >>> price = 100.50
     >>> price * tax
     12.5625
     >>> price + _
     113.0625
     >>> round(_, 2)
     113.06

這個變數應該被使用者視為只能讀取。不應該明確地為它賦值 -- 你可以創一個獨
立但名稱相同的本地變數來覆蓋掉預設變數和它的神奇行為。

除了 *note int: 17e. 和 *note float: 26a.，Python 還支援了其他的數字型態
，包含 *note Decimal: 5f0. 和 *note Fraction: 1a8.。Python 亦內建支援
*note 複數 (complex numbers): 19eb.，並使用 ‘j’ 和 ‘J’ 後綴來指定虛數的
部份（即 ‘3+5j’）。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 因為 ‘**’ 擁有較 ‘-’ 高的優先次序，‘-3**2’ 會被解釋為 ‘-(3**2)’ 並
得到 ‘-9’。如果要避免這樣的優先順序以得到 ‘9’，你可以使用 ‘(-3)**2’。


File: python.info,  Node: 文字,  Next: List（串列）,  Prev: 數字 Number,  Up: 把 Python 當作計算機使用

2.3.1.2 文字
............

Python 可以操作文本（由 *note str: 157. 型別表示，即所謂的「字串
(strings)」）和數字。這包括字元 "‘!’"、單詞 "‘rabbit’"、名稱 "‘Paris’"、
句子 "‘Got your back.’" 等等。"‘Yay! :)’"。它們可以用單引號 (‘'...'’) 或
雙引號 (‘"..."’) 括起來，會具有相同的結果 (1)。

     >>> 'spam eggs'  # single quotes
     'spam eggs'
     >>> "Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!"  # double quotes
     'Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!'
     >>> '1975'  # digits and numerals enclosed in quotes are also strings
     '1975'

要引用引文，我們需要在其前面加上 ‘\’ 來「跳脫」它。或者我們也可以使用其
他種類的引號：

     >>> 'doesn\'t'  # use \' to escape the single quote...
     "doesn't"
     >>> "doesn't"  # ...or use double quotes instead
     "doesn't"
     >>> '"Yes," they said.'
     '"Yes," they said.'
     >>> "\"Yes,\" they said."
     '"Yes," they said.'
     >>> '"Isn\'t," they said.'
     '"Isn\'t," they said.'

在 Python shell 中，字串定義和輸出字串可能看起來不同。*note print():
e02. 函式透過省略引號並印出跳脫字元和特殊字元來生成更具可讀性的輸出：

     >>> s = 'First line.\nSecond line.'  # \n means newline
     >>> s  # without print(), special characters are included in the string
     'First line.\nSecond line.'
     >>> print(s)  # with print(), special characters are interpreted, so \n produces new line
     First line.
     Second line.

如果你不希望字元前出現 ‘\’ 就被當成特殊字元時，可以改使用 'raw string'，
在第一個包圍引號前加上 ‘r’ ：

     >>> print('C:\some\name')  # here \n means newline!
     C:\some
     ame
     >>> print(r'C:\some\name')  # note the r before the quote
     C:\some\name

原始字串有一個微妙的地方：原始字串可能不會以奇數個 ‘\’ 字元結尾；請參閱
*note 常見問答集: 19ee.來了解更多資訊和解決方法。

String literals can span multiple lines.  One way is using
triple-quotes: ‘"""..."""’ or ‘'''...'''’.  End of lines are
automatically included in the string, but it's possible to prevent this
by adding a ‘\’ at the end of the line.  In the following example, the
initial newline is not included:

     >>> print("""\
     ... Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
     ...      -h                        Display this usage message
     ...      -H hostname               Hostname to connect to
     ... """)
     Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
          -h                        Display this usage message
          -H hostname               Hostname to connect to

     >>>

字串可以使用 ‘+’ 運算子連接 (concatenate)，並用 ‘*’ 重覆該字串的內容：

     >>> # 3 times 'un', followed by 'ium'
     >>> 3 * 'un' + 'ium'
     'unununium'

兩個以上相鄰的字串文本（'string literal'，即被引號包圍的字串）會被自動連
接起來：

     >>> 'Py' 'thon'
     'Python'

當你想要分段一個非常長的字串時，兩相鄰字串值自動連接的特性十分有用：

     >>> text = ('Put several strings within parentheses '
     ...         'to have them joined together.')
     >>> text
     'Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.'

但這特性只限於兩相鄰的字串值間，而非兩相鄰變數或表達式：

     >>> prefix = 'Py'
     >>> prefix 'thon'  # can't concatenate a variable and a string literal
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         prefix 'thon'
                ^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax
     >>> ('un' * 3) 'ium'
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         ('un' * 3) 'ium'
                    ^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

如果要連接變數們或一個變數與一個字串值，使用 ‘+’：

     >>> prefix + 'thon'
     'Python'

字串可以被「索引 'indexed'」(下標，即 subscripted)，第一個字元的索引值為
0。沒有獨立表示字元的型別；一個字元就是一個大小為 1 的字串：

     >>> word = 'Python'
     >>> word[0]  # character in position 0
     'P'
     >>> word[5]  # character in position 5
     'n'

索引值可以是負的，此時改成從右開始計數：

     >>> word[-1]  # last character
     'n'
     >>> word[-2]  # second-last character
     'o'
     >>> word[-6]
     'P'

注意到因為 -0 等同於 0，負的索引值由 -1 開始。

除了索引外，字串亦支援「切片 'slicing'」。索引用來拿到單獨的字元，而切片
則可以讓你拿到一個子字串 (substring)：

     >>> word[0:2]  # characters from position 0 (included) to 2 (excluded)
     'Py'
     >>> word[2:5]  # characters from position 2 (included) to 5 (excluded)
     'tho'

切片索引 (slice indices) 有很常用的預設值，省略起點索引值時預設為 0，而
省略第二個索引值時預設整個字串被包含在 slice 中：

     >>> word[:2]   # character from the beginning to position 2 (excluded)
     'Py'
     >>> word[4:]   # characters from position 4 (included) to the end
     'on'
     >>> word[-2:]  # characters from the second-last (included) to the end
     'on'

注意到起點永遠被包含，而結尾永遠不被包含。這確保了 ‘s[:i] + s[i:]’ 永遠
等於 ‘s’：

     >>> word[:2] + word[2:]
     'Python'
     >>> word[:4] + word[4:]
     'Python'

這裡有個簡單記住 slice 是如何運作的方式。想像 slice 的索引值指著字元們之
間，其中第一個字元的左側邊緣由 0 計數。則 'n' 個字元的字串中最後一個字元
的右側邊緣會有索引值 'n'，例如：

      +---+---+---+---+---+---+
      | P | y | t | h | o | n |
      +---+---+---+---+---+---+
      0   1   2   3   4   5   6
     -6  -5  -4  -3  -2  -1

第一行數字給定字串索引值為 0...6 的位置；第二行則標示了負索引值的位置。
由 'i' 至 'j' 的 slice 包含了標示 'i' 和 'j' 邊緣間的所有字元。

對非負數的索引值而言，一個 slice 的長度等於其索引值之差，如果索引值落在
字串邊界內。例如，‘word[1:3]’ 的長度是 2。

嘗試使用一個過大的索引值會造成錯誤：

     >>> word[42]  # the word only has 6 characters
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     IndexError: string index out of range

然而，超出範圍的索引值在 slice 中會被妥善的處理：

     >>> word[4:42]
     'on'
     >>> word[42:]
     ''

Python 字串無法被改變 -- 它們是 *note immutable: 19ef.。因此，嘗試對字串
中某個索引位置賦值會產生錯誤：

     >>> word[0] = 'J'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
     >>> word[2:] = 'py'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

如果你需要一個不一樣的字串，你必須建立一個新的：

     >>> 'J' + word[1:]
     'Jython'
     >>> word[:2] + 'py'
     'Pypy'

內建的函式 *note len(): 429. 回傳一個字串的長度：

     >>> s = 'supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'
     >>> len(s)
     34

也參考
......

*note Text Sequence Type -- str: 19f0.

     字串是 'sequence 型別'的範例之一，並支援該型別常用的操作。

*note String Methods: 19f1.

     字串支援非常多種基本轉換和搜尋的 method（方法）。

*note f-string（f 字串）: 7ed.

     包含有運算式的字串文本。

*note 格式化文字語法: 121f.

     關於透過 *note str.format(): 41b. 字串格式化 (string formatting) 的
     資訊。

*note printf-style String Formatting: 4cb.

     在字串為 ‘%’ 運算子的左運算元時，將觸發舊的字串格式化操作，更多的細
     節在本連結中介紹。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 不像其他語言，特殊符號如 ‘\n’ 在單 (‘'...'’) 和雙 (‘"..."’) 引號
中有相同的意思。兩種引號的唯一差別，在於使用單引號時，不需要跳脫 ‘"’（但
必須跳脫 ‘\'’），反之亦同。


File: python.info,  Node: List（串列）,  Prev: 文字,  Up: 把 Python 當作計算機使用

2.3.1.3 List（串列）
....................

Python 理解數種複合型資料型別，用來組合不同的數值。當中最多樣變化的型別
為 'list'，可以寫成一系列以逗號分隔的數值（稱之元素，即 item），包含在方
括號之中。List 可以包合不同型別的元素，但通常這些元素會有相同的型別：

     >>> squares = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
     >>> squares
     [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

如同字串（以及其他內建的 *note sequence: 238. 型別），list 可以被索引和
切片 (slice)：

     >>> squares[0]  # indexing returns the item
     1
     >>> squares[-1]
     25
     >>> squares[-3:]  # slicing returns a new list
     [9, 16, 25]

List 對支援如接合 (concatenation) 等操作：

     >>> squares + [36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
     [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]

不同於字串是 *note immutable: 19ef.，list 是 *note mutable: 19f4. 型別，
即改變 list 的內容是可能的：

     >>> cubes = [1, 8, 27, 65, 125]  # something's wrong here
     >>> 4 ** 3  # the cube of 4 is 64, not 65!
     64
     >>> cubes[3] = 64  # replace the wrong value
     >>> cubes
     [1, 8, 27, 64, 125]

你也可以在 list 的最後加入新元素，透過使用 ‘list.append()’ '方法'
(method)（我們稍後會看到更多方法的說明）：

     >>> cubes.append(216)  # add the cube of 6
     >>> cubes.append(7 ** 3)  # and the cube of 7
     >>> cubes
     [1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343]

Python 中的簡單賦值永遠不會複製資料。當你將 list 指派給變數時，該變數會
參照'現有 list'。任何透過一個變數對 list 所做的更改都將能夠透過參照該變
數的所有其他變數看到。

     >>> rgb = ["Red", "Green", "Blue"]
     >>> rgba = rgb
     >>> id(rgb) == id(rgba)  # they reference the same object
     True
     >>> rgba.append("Alph")
     >>> rgb
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

所有切片操作都會回傳一個新的 list ，包含要求的元素。這意謂著以下這個切片
回傳了原本 list 的*note 淺複製: 19f5.：

     >>> correct_rgba = rgba[:]
     >>> correct_rgba[-1] = "Alpha"
     >>> correct_rgba
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alpha"]
     >>> rgba
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

也可以對 slice 賦值，這能改變 list 的大小，甚至是清空一個 list：

     >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # replace some values
     >>> letters[2:5] = ['C', 'D', 'E']
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # now remove them
     >>> letters[2:5] = []
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # clear the list by replacing all the elements with an empty list
     >>> letters[:] = []
     >>> letters
     []

內建的函式 *note len(): 429. 亦可以作用在 list 上：

     >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
     >>> len(letters)
     4

也可以嵌套多層 list （建立 list 包含其他 list），例如：

     >>> a = ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> n = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> x = [a, n]
     >>> x
     [['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]]
     >>> x[0]
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> x[0][1]
     'b'


File: python.info,  Node: 初探程式設計的前幾步,  Prev: 把 Python 當作計算機使用,  Up: 一個非正式的 Python 簡介

2.3.2 初探程式設計的前幾步
--------------------------

當然，我們可以用 Python 來處理比 2 加 2 更複雜的工作。例如，我們可以印出
費氏數列(1)的首幾項序列：

     >>> # Fibonacci series:
     >>> # the sum of two elements defines the next
     >>> a, b = 0, 1
     >>> while a < 10:
     ...     print(a)
     ...     a, b = b, a+b
     ...
     0
     1
     1
     2
     3
     5
     8

這例子引入了許多新的特性。

   * 第一行出現了多重賦值：變數 ‘a’ 與 ‘b’ 同時得到了新的值 0 與 1。在最
     後一行同樣的賦值再被使用了一次，示範了等號的右項運算 (expression) 會
     先被計算 (evaluate)，賦值再發生。右項的運算式由左至右依序被計算。

   * *note while: 19f8. 迴圈只要它的條件為真（此範例：‘a < 10’），將會一
     直重覆執行。在 Python 中如同 C 語言，任何非零的整數值為真 (true)；
     零為假 (false)。條件可以是字串、list、甚至是任何序列型別；任何非零
     長度的序列為真，空的序列即為假。本例子使用的條件是個簡單的比較。標
     準的比較運算子 (comparison operators) 使用如同 C 語言一樣的符號：
     ‘<’（小於）、‘>’（大於）、‘==’（等於）、‘<=’（小於等於）、‘>=’（大
     於等於）以及 ‘!=’（不等於）。

   * 迴圈的主體會'縮排'：縮排在 Python 中用來關連一群陳述式。在互動式提
     示字元中，你必須在迴圈內的每一行一開始鍵入 tab 或者（數個）空白來維
     持縮排。實務上，你會先在文字編輯器中準備好比較複雜的輸入；多數編輯
     器都有自動縮排的功能。當一個複合陳述式以互動地方式輸入，必須在結束
     時多加一行空行來代表結束（因為語法剖析器無法判斷你何時輸入複合陳述
     的最後一行）。注意在一個縮排段落內的縮排方式與數量必須維持一致。

   * *note print(): e02. 函式印出它接收到引數（們）的值。不同於先前僅我
     們寫下想要的運算（像是先前的計算機範例），它可以處理複數個引數、浮
     點數數值和字串。印出的字串將不帶有引號，並且不同項目間會插入一個空
     白，因此可以讓你容易格式化輸出，例如：

          >>> i = 256*256
          >>> print('The value of i is', i)
          The value of i is 65536

     關鍵字引數 'end' 可以被用來避免額外的換行符加入到輸出中，或者以不同
     的字串結束輸出：

          >>> a, b = 0, 1
          >>> while a < 1000:
          ...     print(a, end=',')
          ...     a, b = b, a+b
          ...
          0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E6%96%90%E6%B3%A2%E9%82%A3%E5%A5%91%E6%95%B0%E5%88%97


File: python.info,  Node: 深入了解流程控制,  Next: 資料結構,  Prev: 一個非正式的 Python 簡介,  Up: Python 教學

2.4 深入了解流程控制
====================

除了剛才介紹的 *note while: 19f8.，這章節還會介紹一些 Python 的陳述式語
法。

* Menu:

* if 陳述式::
* for 陳述式::
* range() 函式: range 函式.
* break and continue Statements::
* else Clauses on Loops::
* pass 陳述式::
* match 陳述式::
* 定義函式 (function): 定義函式 function.
* 深入了解函式定義::
* 間奏曲：程式碼風格 (Coding Style): 間奏曲：程式碼風格 Coding Style.


File: python.info,  Node: if 陳述式,  Next: for 陳述式,  Up: 深入了解流程控制

2.4.1 ‘if’ 陳述式
-----------------

或許最常見的陳述式種類就是 *note if: 266. 了。舉例來說：

     >>> x = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
     Please enter an integer: 42
     >>> if x < 0:
     ...     x = 0
     ...     print('Negative changed to zero')
     ... elif x == 0:
     ...     print('Zero')
     ... elif x == 1:
     ...     print('Single')
     ... else:
     ...     print('More')
     ...
     More

在陳述式中，可以沒有或有許多個 *note elif: 19fe. 敘述，且 *note else:
264. 敘述並不是必要的。關鍵字 ‘elif’ 是「else if」的縮寫，用來避免過多的
縮排。一個 ‘if’ ...  ‘elif’ ...  ‘elif’ ...  序列可以用來替代其他程式語
言中的 ‘switch’ 或 ‘case’ 陳述式。

如果你要將同一個值與多個常數進行比較，或者檢查特定的型別或屬性，你可能會
發現 ‘match’ 陳述式也很有用。更多的細節，請參閱 *note match 陳述式:
19ff.。


File: python.info,  Node: for 陳述式,  Next: range 函式,  Prev: if 陳述式,  Up: 深入了解流程控制

2.4.2 ‘for’ 陳述式
------------------

在 Python 中的 *note for: 265. 陳述式有點不同於在 C 或 Pascal 中的慣用方
式。相較於只能疊代 (iterate) 一個等差數列（如 Pascal），或給予使用者定義
疊代步驟與終止條件（如 C），Python 的 ‘for’ 陳述式疊代任何序列（list 或
者字串）的元素，順序與它們出現在序列中的順序相同。例如（無意雙關）：

     >>> # Measure some strings:
     >>> words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
     >>> for w in words:
     ...     print(w, len(w))
     ...
     cat 3
     window 6
     defenestrate 12

在疊代一個集合的同時修改該集合的內容，很難獲取想要的結果。比較直觀的替代
方式，是疊代該集合的副本，或建立一個新的集合：

     # Create a sample collection
     users = {'Hans': 'active', 'Éléonore': 'inactive', '景太郎': 'active'}

     # Strategy:  Iterate over a copy
     for user, status in users.copy().items():
         if status == 'inactive':
             del users[user]

     # Strategy:  Create a new collection
     active_users = {}
     for user, status in users.items():
         if status == 'active':
             active_users[user] = status


File: python.info,  Node: range 函式,  Next: break and continue Statements,  Prev: for 陳述式,  Up: 深入了解流程控制

2.4.3 ‘range()’ 函式
--------------------

如果你需要疊代一個數列的話，使用內建 *note range(): 782. 函式就很方便。
它可以生成一等差數列：

     >>> for i in range(5):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     0
     1
     2
     3
     4

給定的結束值永遠不會出現在生成的序列中；‘range(10)’ 生成的 10 個數值，即
對應存取一個長度為 10 的序列內每一個項目的索引值。也可以讓 range 從其他
數值開始計數，或者給定不同的公差（甚至為負；有時稱之為 step）：

     >>> list(range(5, 10))
     [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
     [0, 3, 6, 9]

     >>> list(range(-10, -100, -30))
     [-10, -40, -70]

欲疊代一個序列的索引值，你可以搭配使用 *note range(): 782. 和 *note
len(): 429. 如下：

     >>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']
     >>> for i in range(len(a)):
     ...     print(i, a[i])
     ...
     0 Mary
     1 had
     2 a
     3 little
     4 lamb

然而，在多數的情況，使用 *note enumerate(): 12f0. 函式將更為方便，詳見
*note 迴圈技巧: 1a04.。

如果直接印出一個 range 則會出現奇怪的輸出：

     >>> range(10)
     range(0, 10)

在很多情況下，由 *note range(): 782. 回傳的物件表現得像是一個 list（串列
）一樣，但實際上它並不是。它是一個在疊代時能夠回傳所要求的序列中所有項目
的物件，但它不會真正建出這個序列的 list，以節省空間。

我們稱這樣的物件為 *note iterable: 10ba.（可疊代物件），意即能作為函式及
架構中可以一直獲取項目直到取盡的對象。我們已經了解 *note for: 265. 陳述
式就是如此的架構，另一個使用 iterable 的函式範例是 *note sum(): 181.：

     >>> sum(range(4))  # 0 + 1 + 2 + 3
     6

待會我們可以看到更多回傳 iterable 和使用 iterable 為引數的函式。在*note
資料結構: 1a05.章節中，我們會討論更多關於 *note list(): 40a. 的細節。


File: python.info,  Node: break and continue Statements,  Next: else Clauses on Loops,  Prev: range 函式,  Up: 深入了解流程控制

2.4.4 ‘break’ and ‘continue’ Statements
---------------------------------------

The *note break: 8fc. statement breaks out of the innermost enclosing
*note for: 265. or *note while: 19f8. loop:

     >>> for n in range(2, 10):
     ...     for x in range(2, n):
     ...         if n % x == 0:
     ...             print(f"{n} equals {x} * {n//x}")
     ...             break
     ...
     4 equals 2 * 2
     6 equals 2 * 3
     8 equals 2 * 4
     9 equals 3 * 3

The *note continue: 80d. statement continues with the next iteration of
the loop:

     >>> for num in range(2, 10):
     ...     if num % 2 == 0:
     ...         print(f"Found an even number {num}")
     ...         continue
     ...     print(f"Found an odd number {num}")
     ...
     Found an even number 2
     Found an odd number 3
     Found an even number 4
     Found an odd number 5
     Found an even number 6
     Found an odd number 7
     Found an even number 8
     Found an odd number 9


File: python.info,  Node: else Clauses on Loops,  Next: pass 陳述式,  Prev: break and continue Statements,  Up: 深入了解流程控制

2.4.5 ‘else’ Clauses on Loops
-----------------------------

In a ‘for’ or ‘while’ loop the ‘break’ statement may be paired with an
‘else’ clause.  If the loop finishes without executing the ‘break’, the
‘else’ clause executes.

In a *note for: 265. loop, the ‘else’ clause is executed after the loop
finishes its final iteration, that is, if no break occurred.

在 *note while: 19f8. 迴圈中，它會在迴圈條件變為 false 後執行。

In either kind of loop, the ‘else’ clause is 'not' executed if the loop
was terminated by a *note break: 8fc.  Of course, other ways of ending
the loop early, such as a *note return: 812. or a raised exception, will
also skip execution of the *note else: 264. clause.

下面的 ‘for’ 迴圈對此進行了舉例說明，該迴圈用以搜索質數：

     >>> for n in range(2, 10):
     ...     for x in range(2, n):
     ...         if n % x == 0:
     ...             print(n, 'equals', x, '*', n//x)
     ...             break
     ...     else:
     ...         # loop fell through without finding a factor
     ...         print(n, 'is a prime number')
     ...
     2 is a prime number
     3 is a prime number
     4 equals 2 * 2
     5 is a prime number
     6 equals 2 * 3
     7 is a prime number
     8 equals 2 * 4
     9 equals 3 * 3

(Yes, this is the correct code.  Look closely: the ‘else’ clause belongs
to the ‘for’ loop, 'not' the ‘if’ statement.)

One way to think of the else clause is to imagine it paired with the
‘if’ inside the loop.  As the loop executes, it will run a sequence like
if/if/if/else.  The ‘if’ is inside the loop, encountered a number of
times.  If the condition is ever true, a ‘break’ will happen.  If the
condition is never true, the ‘else’ clause outside the loop will
execute.

When used with a loop, the ‘else’ clause has more in common with the
‘else’ clause of a *note try: 4ea. statement than it does with that of
‘if’ statements: a ‘try’ statement's ‘else’ clause runs when no
exception occurs, and a loop's ‘else’ clause runs when no ‘break’
occurs.  For more on the ‘try’ statement and exceptions, see *note
處理例外: 1a0b.


File: python.info,  Node: pass 陳述式,  Next: match 陳述式,  Prev: else Clauses on Loops,  Up: 深入了解流程控制

2.4.6 ‘pass’ 陳述式
-------------------

*note pass: 1a0e. 陳述式不執行任何動作。它可用在語法上需要一個陳述式但程
式不需要執行任何動作的時候。例如：

     >>> while True:
     ...     pass  # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C)
     ...

這經常用於建立簡單的 class（類別）：

     >>> class MyEmptyClass:
     ...     pass
     ...

*note pass: 1a0e. 亦可作為一個函式或條件判斷主體的預留位置，在你撰寫新的
程式碼時讓你保持在更抽象的思維層次。‘pass’ 會直接被忽略：

     >>> def initlog(*args):
     ...     pass   # Remember to implement this!
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: match 陳述式,  Next: 定義函式 function,  Prev: pass 陳述式,  Up: 深入了解流程控制

2.4.7 ‘match’ 陳述式
--------------------

*note match: 62f. 陳述式會拿取一個運算式，並將其值與多個連續的模式
(pattern) 進行比較，這些模式是以一個或多個 case 區塊來表示。表面上，這類
似 C、Java 或 JavaScript（以及許多其他語言）中的 switch 陳述式，但它與
Rust 或 Haskell 等語言中的模式匹配 (pattern matching) 更為相近。只有第一
個匹配成功的模式會被執行，而它也可以將成分（序列元素或物件屬性）從值中提
取到變數中。

最簡單的形式，是將一個主題值 (subject value) 與一個或多個字面值
(literal) 進行比較：

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"
             case _:
                 return "Something's wrong with the internet"

請注意最後一段：「變數名稱」‘_’ 是作為'通用字元 (wildcard)'的角色，且永
遠不會匹配失敗。如果沒有 case 匹配成功，則不會執行任何的分支。

你可以使用 ‘|’（「或」）來將多個字面值組合在單一模式中：

     case 401 | 403 | 404:
         return "Not allowed"

模式可以看起來像是拆解賦值 (unpacking assignment)，且可以用來連結變數：

     # point is an (x, y) tuple
     match point:
         case (0, 0):
             print("Origin")
         case (0, y):
             print(f"Y={y}")
         case (x, 0):
             print(f"X={x}")
         case (x, y):
             print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
         case _:
             raise ValueError("Not a point")

請仔細研究那個例子！第一個模式有兩個字面值，可以想作是之前所述的字面值模
式的延伸。但是接下來的兩個模式結合了一個字面值和一個變數，且該變數'繫結
(bind)' 了來自主題 (‘point’) 的一個值。第四個模式會擷取兩個值，這使得它
在概念上類似於拆解賦值 ‘(x, y) = point’。

如果你要用 class 來結構化你的資料，你可以使用該 class 的名稱加上一個引數
列表，類似一個建構式 (constructor)，但它能夠將屬性擷取到變數中：

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     def where_is(point):
         match point:
             case Point(x=0, y=0):
                 print("Origin")
             case Point(x=0, y=y):
                 print(f"Y={y}")
             case Point(x=x, y=0):
                 print(f"X={x}")
             case Point():
                 print("Somewhere else")
             case _:
                 print("Not a point")

你可以將位置參數 (positional parameter) 與一些能夠排序其屬性的內建
class（例如 dataclasses）一起使用。你也可以透過在 class 中設定特殊屬性
‘__match_args__’，來定義模式中屬性們的特定位置。如果它被設定為 ("x",
"y")，則以下的模式都是等價的（且都會將屬性 ‘y’ 連結到變數 ‘var’）：

     Point(1, var)
     Point(1, y=var)
     Point(x=1, y=var)
     Point(y=var, x=1)

理解模式的一種推薦方法，是將它們看作是你會放在賦值 (assignment) 左側內容
的一種延伸形式，這樣就可以了解哪些變數會被設為何值。只有獨立的名稱（像是
上面的 ‘var’）能被 match 陳述式賦值。點分隔名稱（如 ‘foo.bar’）、屬性名
稱（上面的 ‘x=’ 及 ‘y=’）或 class 名稱（由它們後面的 "(...)"  被辨識，如
上面的 ‘Point’）則永遠無法被賦值。

模式可以任意地被巢套 (nested)。例如，如果我們有一個由某些點所組成的簡短
list，我們就可以像這樣加入 ‘__match_args__’ 來對它進行匹配：

     class Point:
         __match_args__ = ('x', 'y')
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     match points:
         case []:
             print("No points")
         case [Point(0, 0)]:
             print("The origin")
         case [Point(x, y)]:
             print(f"Single point {x}, {y}")
         case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
             print(f"Two on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2}")
         case _:
             print("Something else")

我們可以在模式中加入一個 ‘if’ 子句，稱為「防護 (guard)」。如果該防護為假
，則 ‘match’ 會繼續嘗試下一個 case 區塊。請注意，值的擷取會發生在防護的
評估之前：

     match point:
         case Point(x, y) if x == y:
             print(f"Y=X at {x}")
         case Point(x, y):
             print(f"Not on the diagonal")

此種陳述式的其他幾個重要特色：

   - 與拆解賦值的情況類似，tuple（元組）和 list 模式具有完全相同的意義，
     而且實際上可以匹配任意的序列。一個重要的例外，是它們不能匹配疊代器
     (iterator) 或字串。

   - 序列模式 (sequence pattern) 可支援擴充拆解 (extended unpacking)：
     ‘[x, y, *rest]’ 與 ‘(x, y, *rest)’ 的作用類似於拆解賦值。‘*’ 後面的
     名稱也可以是 ‘_’，所以 ‘(x, y, *_)’ 會匹配一個至少兩項的序列，且不
     會連結那兩項以外的其餘項。

   - 映射模式 (mapping pattern)：‘{"bandwidth": b, "latency": l}’ 能從一
     個 dictionary（字典）中擷取 ‘"bandwidth"’ 及 ‘"latency"’ 的值。與序
     列模式不同，額外的鍵 (key) 會被忽略。一種像是 ‘**rest’ 的拆解方式，
     也是可被支援的。（但 ‘**_’ 則是多餘的做法，所以它並不被允許。）

   - 使用關鍵字 ‘as’ 可以擷取子模式 (subpattern)：

          case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

     將會擷取輸入的第二個元素作為 ‘p2’（只要該輸入是一個由兩個點所組成的
     序列）。

   - 大部分的字面值是藉由相等性 (equality) 來比較，但是單例物件
     (singleton) ‘True’、‘False’ 和 ‘None’ 是藉由標識值 (identity) 來比
     較。

   - 模式可以使用附名常數 (named constant)。這些模式必須是點分隔名稱，以
     免它們被解釋為擷取變數：

          from enum import Enum
          class Color(Enum):
              RED = 'red'
              GREEN = 'green'
              BLUE = 'blue'

          color = Color(input("Enter your choice of 'red', 'blue' or 'green': "))

          match color:
              case Color.RED:
                  print("I see red!")
              case Color.GREEN:
                  print("Grass is green")
              case Color.BLUE:
                  print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

關於更詳細的解釋和其他範例，你可以閱讀 PEP 636(1)，它是以教學的格式編寫
而成。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: 定義函式 function,  Next: 深入了解函式定義,  Prev: match 陳述式,  Up: 深入了解流程控制

2.4.8 定義函式 (function)
-------------------------

我們可以建立一個函式來產生費式數列到任何一個上界：

     >>> def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series less than n
     ...     """Print a Fibonacci series less than n."""
     ...     a, b = 0, 1
     ...     while a < n:
     ...         print(a, end=' ')
     ...         a, b = b, a+b
     ...     print()
     ...
     >>> # Now call the function we just defined:
     >>> fib(2000)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597

關鍵字 *note def: 12ca. 介紹一個函式的'定義'。它之後必須連著該函式的名稱
和置於括號之中的一串參數。自下一行起，所有縮排的陳述式成為該函式的主體。

一個函式的第一個陳述式可以是一個字串文本；該字串文本被視為該函式的說明文
件字串，即 'docstring'。（關於 docstring 的細節請參見*note 說明文件字串
(Documentation Strings): 1a12.段落。）有些工具可以使用 docstring 來自動
產生線上或可列印的文件，或讓使用者能以互動的方式在原始碼中瀏覽文件。在原
始碼中加入 docstring 是個好慣例，應該養成這樣的習慣。

函式'執行'時會建立一個新的符號表 (symbol table) 來儲存該函式內的區域變數
(local variable)。更精確地說，所有在函式內的變數賦值都會把該值儲存在一個
區域符號表。然而，在引用一個變數時，會先從區域符號表開始搜尋，其次為外層
函式的區域符號表，其次為全域符號表 (global symbol table)，最後為所有內建
的名稱。因此，在函式中，全域變數及外層函式變數雖然可以被引用，但無法被直
接賦值（除非全域變數是在 *note global: 1a13. 陳述式中被定義，或外層函式
變數在 *note nonlocal: 113b. 陳述式中被定義）。

在一個函式被呼叫的時候，實際傳入的參數（引數）會被加入至該函式的區域符號
表。因此，引數傳入的方式為'傳值呼叫 (call by value)'（這裡傳遞的'值'永遠
是一個物件的'參照 (reference)'，而不是該物件的值）。 (1) 當一個函式呼叫
別的函式或遞迴呼叫它自己時，在被呼叫的函式中會建立一個新的區域符號表。

函式定義時，會把該函式名稱加入至當前的符號表。函式名稱的值帶有一個型別，
並被直譯器辨識為使用者自定函式 (user-defined function)。該值可以被指定給
別的變數名，使該變數名也可以被當作函式使用。這是常見的重新命名方式：

     >>> fib
     <function fib at 10042ed0>
     >>> f = fib
     >>> f(100)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89

如果你是來自別的語言，你可能不同意 ‘fib’ 是個函式，而是個程序
(procedure)，因為它並沒有回傳值。實際上，即使一個函式缺少一個 *note
return: 812. 陳述式，它亦有一個固定的回傳值。這個值稱為 ‘None’（它是一個
內建名稱）。在直譯器中單獨使用 ‘None’ 時，通常不會被顯示。你可以使用
*note print(): e02. 來看到它：

     >>> fib(0)
     >>> print(fib(0))
     None

如果要寫一個函式回傳費式數列的 list 而不是直接印出它，這也很容易：

     >>> def fib2(n):  # return Fibonacci series up to n
     ...     """Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n."""
     ...     result = []
     ...     a, b = 0, 1
     ...     while a < n:
     ...         result.append(a)    # see below
     ...         a, b = b, a+b
     ...     return result
     ...
     >>> f100 = fib2(100)    # call it
     >>> f100                # write the result
     [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

這個例子一樣示範了一些新的 Python 特性：

   * *note return: 812. 陳述式會讓一個函式回傳一個值。單獨使用 ‘return’
     不外加一個運算式作為引數時會回傳 ‘None’。一個函式執行到結束也會回傳
     ‘None’。

   * ‘result.append(a)’ 陳述式呼叫了一個 list 物件 ‘result’ 的 'method（
     方法）'。method 為「屬於」一個物件的函式，命名規則為
     ‘obj.methodname’，其中 ‘obj’ 為某個物件（亦可為一運算式），而
     ‘methodname’ 為該 method 的名稱，並由該物件的型別所定義。不同的型別
     定義不同的 method。不同型別的 method 可以擁有一樣的名稱而不會讓
     Python 混淆。（你可以使用 'class'（類別）定義自己的物件型別和
     method，見 *note Class（類別）: 1a14.）範例中的 ‘append()’ method 定
     義在 list 物件中；它會在該 list 的末端加入一個新的元素。這個例子等
     同於 ‘result = result + [a]’，但更有效率。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 實際上，'傳址呼叫 (call by object reference)' 的說法可能較為貼切
。因為，若傳遞的是一個可變物件時，呼叫者將看得見被呼叫者對物件做出的任何
改變（例如被插入 list 內的新項目）。


File: python.info,  Node: 深入了解函式定義,  Next: 間奏曲：程式碼風格 Coding Style,  Prev: 定義函式 function,  Up: 深入了解流程控制

2.4.9 深入了解函式定義
----------------------

定義函式時使用的引數 (argument) 數量是可變的。總共有三種可以組合使用的形
式。

* Menu:

* 預設引數值::
* 關鍵字引數::
* 特殊參數::
* 任意引數列表 (Arbitrary Argument Lists): 任意引數列表 Arbitrary Argument Lists.
* 拆解引數列表（Unpacking Argument Lists）::
* Lambda 運算式::
* 說明文件字串 (Documentation Strings): 說明文件字串 Documentation Strings.
* 函式註釋 (Function Annotations): 函式註釋 Function Annotations.


File: python.info,  Node: 預設引數值,  Next: 關鍵字引數,  Up: 深入了解函式定義

2.4.9.1 預設引數值
..................

為一個或多個引數指定預設值是很有用的方式。函式建立後，可以用比定義時更少
的引數呼叫該函式。例如：

     def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4, reminder='Please try again!'):
         while True:
             reply = input(prompt)
             if reply in {'y', 'ye', 'yes'}:
                 return True
             if reply in {'n', 'no', 'nop', 'nope'}:
                 return False
             retries = retries - 1
             if retries < 0:
                 raise ValueError('invalid user response')
             print(reminder)

該函式可以用以下幾種方式被呼叫：

   * 只給必要引數：‘ask_ok('Do you really want to quit?')’

   * 給予一個選擇性引數：‘ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2)’

   * 給予所有引數：‘ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2, 'Come on,
     only yes or no!')’

此例也使用了關鍵字 *note in: 267.，用於測試序列中是否包含某個特定值。

預設值是在函式定義當下，於'定義時'的作用域中求值，所以：

     i = 5

     def f(arg=i):
         print(arg)

     i = 6
     f()

將會輸出 ‘5’。

'重要警告'：預設值只求值一次。當預設值為可變物件，例如 list、
dictionary（字典）或許多類別實例時，會產生不同的結果。例如，以下函式於後
續呼叫時會累積曾經傳遞的引數：

     def f(a, L=[]):
         L.append(a)
         return L

     print(f(1))
     print(f(2))
     print(f(3))

將會輸出：

     [1]
     [1, 2]
     [1, 2, 3]

如果不想在後續呼叫之間共用預設值，應以如下方式編寫函式：

     def f(a, L=None):
         if L is None:
             L = []
         L.append(a)
         return L


File: python.info,  Node: 關鍵字引數,  Next: 特殊參數,  Prev: 預設引數值,  Up: 深入了解函式定義

2.4.9.2 關鍵字引數
..................

函式也可以使用*note 關鍵字引數: b81.，以 ‘kwarg=value’ 的形式呼叫。舉例
來說，以下函式：

     def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom', type='Norwegian Blue'):
         print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
         print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.")
         print("-- Lovely plumage, the", type)
         print("-- It's", state, "!")

接受一個必要引數 (‘voltage’) 和三個選擇性引數 (‘state’，‘action’，和
‘type’)。該函式可用下列任一方式呼叫：

     parrot(1000)                                          # 1 positional argument
     parrot(voltage=1000)                                  # 1 keyword argument
     parrot(voltage=1000000, action='VOOOOOM')             # 2 keyword arguments
     parrot(action='VOOOOOM', voltage=1000000)             # 2 keyword arguments
     parrot('a million', 'bereft of life', 'jump')         # 3 positional arguments
     parrot('a thousand', state='pushing up the daisies')  # 1 positional, 1 keyword

但以下呼叫方式都無效：

     parrot()                     # required argument missing
     parrot(voltage=5.0, 'dead')  # non-keyword argument after a keyword argument
     parrot(110, voltage=220)     # duplicate value for the same argument
     parrot(actor='John Cleese')  # unknown keyword argument

函式呼叫時，關鍵字引數 (keyword argument) 必須在位置引數 (positional
argument) 後面。所有傳遞的關鍵字引數都必須匹配一個可被函式接受的引數（
‘actor’ 不是 ‘parrot’ 函式的有效引數），而關鍵字引數的順序並不重要。此規
則也包括必要引數，（‘parrot(voltage=1000)’ 也有效）。一個引數不可多次被
賦值，下面就是一個因此限制而無效的例子：

     >>> def function(a):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> function(0, a=0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: function() got multiple values for argument 'a'

當最後一個參數為 ‘**name’ 形式時，它接收一個 dictionary（字典，詳見
*note Mapping Types -- dict: 91a.），該字典包含所有可對應形式參數以外的
關鍵字引數。‘**name’ 可以與 ‘*name’ 參數（下一小節介紹）組合使用，
‘*name’ 接收一個 *note tuple: 1a1b.，該 tuple 包含一般參數以外的位置引數
（‘*name’ 必須出現在 ‘**name’ 前面）。例如，若我們定義這樣的函式：

     def cheeseshop(kind, *arguments, **keywords):
         print("-- Do you have any", kind, "?")
         print("-- I'm sorry, we're all out of", kind)
         for arg in arguments:
             print(arg)
         print("-" * 40)
         for kw in keywords:
             print(kw, ":", keywords[kw])

它可以被如此呼叫：

     cheeseshop("Limburger", "It's very runny, sir.",
                "It's really very, VERY runny, sir.",
                shopkeeper="Michael Palin",
                client="John Cleese",
                sketch="Cheese Shop Sketch")

輸出結果如下：

     -- Do you have any Limburger ?
     -- I'm sorry, we're all out of Limburger
     It's very runny, sir.
     It's really very, VERY runny, sir.
     ----------------------------------------
     shopkeeper : Michael Palin
     client : John Cleese
     sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch

注意，關鍵字引數的輸出順序與呼叫函式時被提供的順序必定一致。


File: python.info,  Node: 特殊參數,  Next: 任意引數列表 Arbitrary Argument Lists,  Prev: 關鍵字引數,  Up: 深入了解函式定義

2.4.9.3 特殊參數
................

在預設情況，引數能以位置或明確地以關鍵字傳遞给 Python 函式。為了程式的可
讀性及效能，限制引數的傳遞方式是合理的，如此，開發者只需查看函式定義，即
可確定各項目是按位置，按位置或關鍵字，還是按關鍵字傳遞。

函式定義可能如以下樣式：

     def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):
           -----------    ----------     ----------
             |             |                  |
             |        Positional or keyword   |
             |                                - Keyword only
              -- Positional only

‘/’ 和 ‘*’ 是選擇性的。這些符號若被使用，是表明引數被傳遞給函式的參數種
類：僅限位置、位置或關鍵字、僅限關鍵字。關鍵字參數也稱為附名參數 (named
parameters)。

* Menu:

* 位置或關鍵字引數 (Positional-or-Keyword Arguments): 位置或關鍵字引數 Positional-or-Keyword Arguments.
* 僅限位置參數 (Positional-Only Parameters): 僅限位置參數 Positional-Only Parameters.
* 僅限關鍵字引數 (Keyword-Only Arguments): 僅限關鍵字引數 Keyword-Only Arguments.
* 函式範例::
* 回顧::


File: python.info,  Node: 位置或關鍵字引數 Positional-or-Keyword Arguments,  Next: 僅限位置參數 Positional-Only Parameters,  Up: 特殊參數

2.4.9.4 位置或關鍵字引數 (Positional-or-Keyword Arguments)
..........................................................

若函式定義中未使用 ‘/’ 和 ‘*’ 時，引數可以按位置或關鍵字傳遞給函式。


File: python.info,  Node: 僅限位置參數 Positional-Only Parameters,  Next: 僅限關鍵字引數 Keyword-Only Arguments,  Prev: 位置或關鍵字引數 Positional-or-Keyword Arguments,  Up: 特殊參數

2.4.9.5 僅限位置參數 (Positional-Only Parameters)
.................................................

此處再詳述一些細節，特定參數可以標記為'僅限位置'。若參數為'僅限位置'時，
它們的順序很重要，且這些參數不能用關鍵字傳遞。僅限位置參數必須放在 ‘/’（
斜線）之前。‘/’ 用於在邏輯上分開僅限位置參數與其餘參數。如果函式定義中沒
有 ‘/’，則表示沒有任何僅限位置參數。

‘/’ 後面的參數可以是'位置或關鍵字'或'僅限關鍵字'參數。


File: python.info,  Node: 僅限關鍵字引數 Keyword-Only Arguments,  Next: 函式範例,  Prev: 僅限位置參數 Positional-Only Parameters,  Up: 特殊參數

2.4.9.6 僅限關鍵字引數 (Keyword-Only Arguments)
...............................................

要把參數標記為'僅限關鍵字'，表明參數必須以關鍵字引數傳遞，必須在引數列表
中第一個'僅限關鍵字'參數前放上 ‘*’。


File: python.info,  Node: 函式範例,  Next: 回顧,  Prev: 僅限關鍵字引數 Keyword-Only Arguments,  Up: 特殊參數

2.4.9.7 函式範例
................

請看以下的函式定義範例，注意 ‘/’ 和 ‘*’ 記號：

     >>> def standard_arg(arg):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def pos_only_arg(arg, /):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def kwd_only_arg(*, arg):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def combined_example(pos_only, /, standard, *, kwd_only):
     ...     print(pos_only, standard, kwd_only)

第一個函式定義 ‘standard_arg’ 是我們最熟悉的形式，對呼叫方式沒有任何限制
，可以按位置或關鍵字傳遞引數：

     >>> standard_arg(2)
     2

     >>> standard_arg(arg=2)
     2

第二個函式 ‘pos_only_arg’ 的函式定義中有 ‘/’，因此僅限使用位置參數：

     >>> pos_only_arg(1)
     1

     >>> pos_only_arg(arg=1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: pos_only_arg() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'arg'

The third function ‘kwd_only_arg’ only allows keyword arguments as
indicated by a ‘*’ in the function definition:

     >>> kwd_only_arg(3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: kwd_only_arg() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given

     >>> kwd_only_arg(arg=3)
     3

最後一個函式在同一個函式定義中，使用了全部三種呼叫方式：

     >>> combined_example(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: combined_example() takes 2 positional arguments but 3 were given

     >>> combined_example(1, 2, kwd_only=3)
     1 2 3

     >>> combined_example(1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
     1 2 3

     >>> combined_example(pos_only=1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: combined_example() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'pos_only'

最後，請看這個函式定義，如果 ‘**kwds’ 內有 ‘name’ 這個鍵，可能與位置引數
‘name’ 產生潛在衝突：

     def foo(name, **kwds):
         return 'name' in kwds

呼叫該函式不可能回傳 ‘True’，因為關鍵字 ‘'name'’ 永遠是連結在第一個參數
。例如：

     >>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: foo() got multiple values for argument 'name'
     >>>

使用 ‘/’（僅限位置引數）後，就可以了。函式定義會允許 ‘name’ 當作位置引數
，而 ‘'name'’ 也可以當作關鍵字引數中的鍵：

     >>> def foo(name, /, **kwds):
     ...     return 'name' in kwds
     ...
     >>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
     True

換句話說，僅限位置參數的名稱可以在 ‘**kwds’ 中使用，而不產生歧義。


File: python.info,  Node: 回顧,  Prev: 函式範例,  Up: 特殊參數

2.4.9.8 回顧
............

此用例決定哪些參數可以用於函式定義：

     def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):

說明：

   * 如果不想讓使用者使用參數名稱，請使用僅限位置。當參數名稱沒有實際意
     義時，若你想控制引數在函式呼叫的排列順序，或同時使用位置參數和任意
     關鍵字時，這種方式很有用。

   * 當參數名稱有意義，且明確的名稱可讓函式定義更易理解，或是你不希望使
     用者依賴引數被傳遞時的位置時，請使用僅限關鍵字。

   * 對於應用程式介面 (API)，使用僅限位置，以防止未來參數名稱被修改時造
     成 API 的中斷性變更。


File: python.info,  Node: 任意引數列表 Arbitrary Argument Lists,  Next: 拆解引數列表（Unpacking Argument Lists）,  Prev: 特殊參數,  Up: 深入了解函式定義

2.4.9.9 任意引數列表 (Arbitrary Argument Lists)
...............................................

最後，有個較不常用的選項，是規定函式被呼叫時，可以使用任意數量的引數。這
些引數會被包裝進一個 tuple 中（詳見 *note Tuples 和序列 (Sequences):
1a1b.）。在可變數量的引數之前，可能有零個或多個普通引數：

     def write_multiple_items(file, separator, *args):
         file.write(separator.join(args))

通常，這些 'variadic'（可變的）引數會出現在參數列表的最末端，這樣它們就
可以把所有傳遞給函式的剩餘輸入引數都撈起來。出現在 ‘*args’ 參數後面的任
何參數必須是「僅限關鍵字」引數，意即它們只能作為關鍵字引數，而不能用作位
置引數。

     >>> def concat(*args, sep="/"):
     ...     return sep.join(args)
     ...
     >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus")
     'earth/mars/venus'
     >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus", sep=".")
     'earth.mars.venus'


File: python.info,  Node: 拆解引數列表（Unpacking Argument Lists）,  Next: Lambda 運算式,  Prev: 任意引數列表 Arbitrary Argument Lists,  Up: 深入了解函式定義

2.4.9.10 拆解引數列表（Unpacking Argument Lists）
.................................................

當引數們已經存在一個 list 或 tuple 裡，但為了滿足一個需要個別位置引數的
函式呼叫，而去拆解它們時，情況就剛好相反。例如，內建的 *note range():
782. 函式要求分開的 'start' 和 'stop' 引數。如果這些引數不是分開的，則要
在呼叫函式時，用 ‘*’ 運算子把引數們從 list 或 tuple 中拆解出來：

     >>> list(range(3, 6))            # normal call with separate arguments
     [3, 4, 5]
     >>> args = [3, 6]
     >>> list(range(*args))            # call with arguments unpacked from a list
     [3, 4, 5]

同樣地，dictionary（字典）可以用 ‘**’ 運算子傳遞關鍵字引數：

     >>> def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom'):
     ...     print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
     ...     print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.", end=' ')
     ...     print("E's", state, "!")
     ...
     >>> d = {"voltage": "four million", "state": "bleedin' demised", "action": "VOOM"}
     >>> parrot(**d)
     -- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demised !


File: python.info,  Node: Lambda 運算式,  Next: 說明文件字串 Documentation Strings,  Prev: 拆解引數列表（Unpacking Argument Lists）,  Up: 深入了解函式定義

2.4.9.11 Lambda 運算式
......................

*note lambda: 1131. 關鍵字用於建立小巧的匿名函式。‘lambda a, b: a+b’ 函
式返回兩個引數的和。Lambda 函式可用於任何需要函式物件的地方。在語法上，
它們被限定只能是單一運算式。在語義上，它就是一個普通函式定義的語法糖
(syntactic sugar)。與巢狀函式定義一樣，lambda 函式可以從包含它的作用域中
引用變數：

     >>> def make_incrementor(n):
     ...     return lambda x: x + n
     ...
     >>> f = make_incrementor(42)
     >>> f(0)
     42
     >>> f(1)
     43

上面的例子用 lambda 運算式回傳了一個函式。另外的用法是傳遞一個小函式當作
引數：

     >>> pairs = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three'), (4, 'four')]
     >>> pairs.sort(key=lambda pair: pair[1])
     >>> pairs
     [(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')]


File: python.info,  Node: 說明文件字串 Documentation Strings,  Next: 函式註釋 Function Annotations,  Prev: Lambda 運算式,  Up: 深入了解函式定義

2.4.9.12 說明文件字串 (Documentation Strings)
.............................................

以下是關於說明文件字串內容和格式的慣例。

第一行都是一段關於此物件目的之簡短摘要。為保持簡潔，不應在這裡明確地陳述
物件的名稱或型別，因為有其他方法可以達到相同目的（除非該名稱剛好是一個描
述函式運算的動詞）。這一行應以大寫字母開頭，以句號結尾。

文件字串為多行時，第二行應為空白行，在視覺上將摘要與其餘描述分開。後面幾
行可包含一或多個段落，描述此物件的呼叫慣例、副作用等。

Python 剖析器 (parser) 不會去除 Python 中多行字串的縮排，因此，處理說明
文件的工具應在必要時去除縮排。這項操作遵循以下慣例：在字串第一行'之後'的
第一個非空白行決定了整個說明文件字串的縮排量（不能用第一行的縮排，因為它
通常與字串的開頭引號們相鄰，其縮排在字串文本中並不明顯），然後，所有字串
行開頭處與此縮排量「等價」的空白字元會被去除。不應出現比上述縮進量更少的
字串行，但若真的出現了，這些行的全部前導空白字元都應被去除。展開 tab 鍵
後（通常為八個空格），應測試空白字元量是否等價。

下面是多行說明字串的一個範例：

     >>> def my_function():
     ...     """Do nothing, but document it.
     ...
     ...     No, really, it doesn't do anything.
     ...     """
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> print(my_function.__doc__)
     Do nothing, but document it.

         No, really, it doesn't do anything.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式註釋 Function Annotations,  Prev: 說明文件字串 Documentation Strings,  Up: 深入了解函式定義

2.4.9.13 函式註釋 (Function Annotations)
........................................

*note 函式註釋: 1a2b.是選擇性的元資料（metadata）資訊，描述使用者定義函
式所使用的型別（更多資訊詳見 PEP 3107(1) 和 PEP 484(2)）。

*note 註釋: 1a2c.以 dictionary（字典）的形式存放在函式的
‘__annotations__’ 屬性中，且不會影響函式的任何其他部分。參數註釋的定義方
式是在參數名稱後加一個冒號，冒號後面跟著一個對註釋求值的運算式。回傳註釋
的定義方式是在參數列表和 *note def: 12ca. 陳述式結尾的冒號中間，用一個
‘->’ 文字接著一個運算式。以下範例註釋了一個必要引數、一個選擇性引數，以
及回傳值：

     >>> def f(ham: str, eggs: str = 'eggs') -> str:
     ...     print("Annotations:", f.__annotations__)
     ...     print("Arguments:", ham, eggs)
     ...     return ham + ' and ' + eggs
     ...
     >>> f('spam')
     Annotations: {'ham': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'str'>, 'eggs': <class 'str'>}
     Arguments: spam eggs
     'spam and eggs'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: 間奏曲：程式碼風格 Coding Style,  Prev: 深入了解函式定義,  Up: 深入了解流程控制

2.4.10 間奏曲：程式碼風格 (Coding Style)
----------------------------------------

現在你即將要寫更長、更複雜的 Python 程式，是時候討論一下'編碼樣式'了。大
多數語言都能以不同的樣式被書寫（或更精確地說，被'格式化'），而有些樣式比
其他的更具可讀性。能讓其他人輕鬆閱讀你的程式碼永遠是一個好主意，而使用優
良的編碼樣式對此有極大的幫助。

對於 Python，大多數的專案都遵循 PEP 8(1) 的樣式指南；它推行的編碼樣式相
當可讀且賞心悅目。每個 Python 開發者都應該花點時間研讀；這裡是該指南的核
心重點：

   * 用 4 個空格縮排，不要用 tab 鍵。

     4 個空格是小縮排（容許更大的巢套深度）和大縮排（較易閱讀）之間的折
     衷方案。Tab 鍵會造成混亂，最好別用。

   * 換行，使一行不超過 79 個字元。

     換行能讓使用小顯示器的使用者方便閱讀，也可以在較大顯示器上並排陳列
     多個程式碼檔案。

   * 用空行分隔函式和 class（類別），及函式內較大塊的程式碼。

   * 如果可以，把註解放在單獨一行。

   * 使用說明字串。

   * 運算子前後、逗號後要加空格，但不要直接放在括號內側：‘a = f(1, 2) +
     g(3, 4)’。

   * Class 和函式的命名樣式要一致；按慣例，命名 class 用
     ‘UpperCamelCase’（駝峰式大小寫），命名函式與 method 用
     ‘lowercase_with_underscores’（小寫加底線）。永遠用 ‘self’ 作為
     method 第一個引數的名稱（關於 class 和 method，詳見 *note 初見
     class: 1a2f.）。

   * 若程式碼是為了用於國際環境時，不要用花俏的編碼。Python 預設的 UTF-8
     或甚至普通的 ASCII，就可以勝任各種情況。

   * 同樣地，若不同語言使用者閱讀或維護程式碼的可能性微乎其微，就不要在
     命名時使用非 ASCII 字元。

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: 資料結構,  Next: 模組 Module,  Prev: 深入了解流程控制,  Up: Python 教學

2.5 資料結構
============

這個章節將會更深入的介紹一些你已經學過的東西的細節上，並且加入一些你還沒
有接觸過的部分。

* Menu:

* 進一步了解 List（串列）::
* del 陳述式::
* Tuples 和序列 (Sequences): Tuples 和序列 Sequences.
* 集合 (Sets): 集合 Sets.
* 字典（Dictionary）::
* 迴圈技巧::
* 深入了解條件 (Condition): 深入了解條件 Condition.
* 序列和其他資料類型之比較::


File: python.info,  Node: 進一步了解 List（串列）,  Next: del 陳述式,  Up: 資料結構

2.5.1 進一步了解 List（串列）
-----------------------------

List（串列）這個資料型態，具有更多操作的方法。下面條列了所有關於 list 物
件的 method：

 -- 方法: list.append (x)

     Add an item to the end of the list.  Similar to ‘a[len(a):] = [x]’.

 -- 方法: list.extend (iterable)

     Extend the list by appending all the items from the iterable.
     Similar to ‘a[len(a):] = iterable’.

 -- 方法: list.insert (i, x)

     將一個項目插入至 list 中給定的位置。第一個引數為插入處前元素的索引
     值，所以 ‘a.insert(0, x)’ 會插入在 list 首位，而 ‘a.insert(len(a),
     x)’ 則相當於 ‘a.append(x)’。

 -- 方法: list.remove (x)

     刪除 list 中第一個值等於 'x' 的元素。若 list 中無此元素則會觸發
     *note ValueError: 183.。

 -- 方法: list.pop ([i])

     移除 list 中給定位置的項目，並回傳它。如果沒有指定位置， ‘a.pop()’
     將會移除 list 中最後的項目並回傳它。若 list 是空的或是索引值超出範
     圍，則會引發 *note IndexError: 13ac. 例外。

 -- 方法: list.clear ()

     Remove all items from the list.  Similar to ‘del a[:]’.

 -- 方法: list.index (x[, start[, end]])

     回傳 list 中第一個值等於 'x' 的項目之索引值（從零開始的索引）。若
     list 中無此項目，則丟出 *note ValueError: 183. 錯誤。

     引數 'start' 和 'end' 的定義跟在 slice 表示法中相同，搜尋的動作被這
     兩個引數限定在 list 中特定的子序列。但要注意的是，回傳的索引值是從
     list 的開頭開始算，而不是從 'start' 開始算。

 -- 方法: list.count (x)

     回傳 'x' 在 list 中所出現的次數。

 -- 方法: list.sort (*, key=None, reverse=False)

     將 list 中的項目排序。（可使用引數來進行客製化的排序，請參考 *note
     sorted(): a2f. 部分的解釋）

 -- 方法: list.reverse ()

     將 list 中的項目前後順序反過來。

 -- 方法: list.copy ()

     Return a shallow copy of the list.  Similar to ‘a[:]’.

以下是一個使用到許多 list 物件方法的例子：

     >>> fruits = ['orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'banana', 'kiwi', 'apple', 'banana']
     >>> fruits.count('apple')
     2
     >>> fruits.count('tangerine')
     0
     >>> fruits.index('banana')
     3
     >>> fruits.index('banana', 4)  # Find next banana starting at position 4
     6
     >>> fruits.reverse()
     >>> fruits
     ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange']
     >>> fruits.append('grape')
     >>> fruits
     ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange', 'grape']
     >>> fruits.sort()
     >>> fruits
     ['apple', 'apple', 'banana', 'banana', 'grape', 'kiwi', 'orange', 'pear']
     >>> fruits.pop()
     'pear'

你可能會注意到一些方法，像是 ‘insert’、‘remove’ 或者是 ‘sort’，並沒有印
出回傳值，事實上，他們回傳預設值 ‘None’ (1)。這是一個用於 Python 中所有
可變資料結構的設計法則。

另外你可能也會發現，不是所有資料都可以被排序或比較。例如，‘[None,
'hello', 10]’ 就不可排序，因為整數不能與字串比較，而 ‘None’ 不能與其他型
別比較。有些型別根本就沒有被定義彼此之間的大小順序，例如，‘3+4j < 5+7j’
就是一個無效的比較。

* Menu:

* 將 List 作為 Stack（堆疊）使用::
* 將 List 作為 Queue（佇列）使用::
* List Comprehensions（串列綜合運算）::
* 巢狀的 List Comprehensions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 其他語言可以回傳變更後的物件，這就允許 method 的串連，例如
‘d->insert("a")->remove("b")->sort();’。


File: python.info,  Node: 將 List 作為 Stack（堆疊）使用,  Next: 將 List 作為 Queue（佇列）使用,  Up: 進一步了解 List（串列）

2.5.1.1 將 List 作為 Stack（堆疊）使用
......................................

List 的操作方法使得它非常簡單可以用來實作 stack（堆疊）。Stack 為一個遵
守最後加入元素最先被取回（後進先出，"last-in, first-out"）規則的資料結構
。你可以使用方法 ‘append()’ 將一個項目放到堆疊的頂層。而使用方法 ‘pop()’
且不給定索引值去取得堆疊最上面的項目。舉例而言：

     >>> stack = [3, 4, 5]
     >>> stack.append(6)
     >>> stack.append(7)
     >>> stack
     [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
     >>> stack.pop()
     7
     >>> stack
     [3, 4, 5, 6]
     >>> stack.pop()
     6
     >>> stack.pop()
     5
     >>> stack
     [3, 4]


File: python.info,  Node: 將 List 作為 Queue（佇列）使用,  Next: List Comprehensions（串列綜合運算）,  Prev: 將 List 作為 Stack（堆疊）使用,  Up: 進一步了解 List（串列）

2.5.1.2 將 List 作為 Queue（佇列）使用
......................................

我們也可以將 list 當作 queue（佇列）使用，即最先加入元素最先被取回（先進
先出，"first-in, first-out"）的資料結構。然而，list 在這種使用方式下效率
較差。使用 ‘append’ 和 ‘pop’ 來加入和取出尾端的元素較快，而使用 ‘insert’
和 ‘pop’ 來插入和取出頭端的元素較慢（因為其他元素都需要挪動一格）。

如果要實作 queue，請使用 *note collections.deque: 3cf.，其被設計成能快速
的從頭尾兩端加入和取出。例如：

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> queue = deque(["Eric", "John", "Michael"])
     >>> queue.append("Terry")           # Terry arrives
     >>> queue.append("Graham")          # Graham arrives
     >>> queue.popleft()                 # The first to arrive now leaves
     'Eric'
     >>> queue.popleft()                 # The second to arrive now leaves
     'John'
     >>> queue                           # Remaining queue in order of arrival
     deque(['Michael', 'Terry', 'Graham'])


File: python.info,  Node: List Comprehensions（串列綜合運算）,  Next: 巢狀的 List Comprehensions,  Prev: 將 List 作為 Queue（佇列）使用,  Up: 進一步了解 List（串列）

2.5.1.3 List Comprehensions（串列綜合運算）
...........................................

List comprehension（串列綜合運算）讓你可以用簡潔的方法建立 list。常見的
應用是基於一個序列或 iterable（可疊代物件），將每一個元素經過某個運算的
結果串接起來成為新的 list，或是建立一個子序列，其每一個元素皆滿足一個特
定的條件。

舉例來說，假設我們要建立一個「平方的 list」：

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(10):
     ...     squares.append(x**2)
     ...
     >>> squares
     [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

注意這是建立（或覆寫）一個變數叫 ‘x’，其在迴圈結束後仍然存在。我們可以這
樣產生平方串列而不造成任何 side effects（副作用）：

     squares = list(map(lambda x: x**2, range(10)))

或與此相等的：

     squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]

這樣更簡潔和易讀。

一個 list comprehension 的組成，是在一對方括號內，放入一個 expression（
運算式）、一個 ‘for’ 子句、再接著零個或多個 ‘for’ 或 ‘if’ 子句。結果會是
一個新的 list，內容是在後面的 ‘for’ 和 ‘if’ 子句情境下，對前面運算式求值
的結果。例如，這個 list comprehension 組合了兩個 list 中彼此相異的元素：

     >>> [(x, y) for x in [1,2,3] for y in [3,1,4] if x != y]
     [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

而它就等於：

     >>> combs = []
     >>> for x in [1,2,3]:
     ...     for y in [3,1,4]:
     ...         if x != y:
     ...             combs.append((x, y))
     ...
     >>> combs
     [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

注意 *note for: 265. 和 *note if: 266. 在這兩段程式裡的順序是相同的。

如果 expression 是一個 tuple（例如上面例子中的 ‘(x, y)’），它必須加上括
號：

     >>> vec = [-4, -2, 0, 2, 4]
     >>> # create a new list with the values doubled
     >>> [x*2 for x in vec]
     [-8, -4, 0, 4, 8]
     >>> # filter the list to exclude negative numbers
     >>> [x for x in vec if x >= 0]
     [0, 2, 4]
     >>> # apply a function to all the elements
     >>> [abs(x) for x in vec]
     [4, 2, 0, 2, 4]
     >>> # call a method on each element
     >>> freshfruit = ['  banana', '  loganberry ', 'passion fruit  ']
     >>> [weapon.strip() for weapon in freshfruit]
     ['banana', 'loganberry', 'passion fruit']
     >>> # create a list of 2-tuples like (number, square)
     >>> [(x, x**2) for x in range(6)]
     [(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)]
     >>> # the tuple must be parenthesized, otherwise an error is raised
     >>> [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
          ^^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?
     >>> # flatten a list using a listcomp with two 'for'
     >>> vec = [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]]
     >>> [num for elem in vec for num in elem]
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

List comprehensions 可以含有複雜的 expression 和巢狀的函式：

     >>> from math import pi
     >>> [str(round(pi, i)) for i in range(1, 6)]
     ['3.1', '3.14', '3.142', '3.1416', '3.14159']


File: python.info,  Node: 巢狀的 List Comprehensions,  Prev: List Comprehensions（串列綜合運算）,  Up: 進一步了解 List（串列）

2.5.1.4 巢狀的 List Comprehensions
..................................

在 list comprehesion 中開頭的 expression 可以是任何形式的 expression，包
括再寫一個 list comprehension。

考慮以下表示 3x4 矩陣的範例，使用 list 包含 3 個長度為 4 的 list ：

     >>> matrix = [
     ...     [1, 2, 3, 4],
     ...     [5, 6, 7, 8],
     ...     [9, 10, 11, 12],
     ... ]

以下的 list comprehesion 會將矩陣的行與列作轉置：

     >>> [[row[i] for row in matrix] for i in range(4)]
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

如同我們在上一節看到的，內部的 list comprehension 會依據後面的 *note
for: 265. 環境被求值，所以這個例子就等於：

     >>> transposed = []
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     transposed.append([row[i] for row in matrix])
     ...
     >>> transposed
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

而它也和這一段相同：

     >>> transposed = []
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     # the following 3 lines implement the nested listcomp
     ...     transposed_row = []
     ...     for row in matrix:
     ...         transposed_row.append(row[i])
     ...     transposed.append(transposed_row)
     ...
     >>> transposed
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

在實際運用上，我們傾向於使用內建函式 (built-in functions) 而不是複雜的流
程控制陳述式。在這個例子中，使用 *note zip(): 5ef. 函式會非常有效率：

     >>> list(zip(*matrix))
     [(1, 5, 9), (2, 6, 10), (3, 7, 11), (4, 8, 12)]

關於星號的更多細節，請參考*note 拆解引數列表（Unpacking Argument
Lists）: 1a24.。


File: python.info,  Node: del 陳述式,  Next: Tuples 和序列 Sequences,  Prev: 進一步了解 List（串列）,  Up: 資料結構

2.5.2 ‘del’ 陳述式
------------------

有一個方法可以藉由索引而不是值來刪除 list 中的項目：*note del: 1570. 陳
述式。這和 ‘pop()’ method 傳回一個值不同，‘del’ 陳述式可以用來刪除 list
中的片段或者清空整個 list（我們之前藉由指派一個空的 list 給想刪除的片段
來完成這件事）。例如：

     >>> a = [-1, 1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[0]
     >>> a
     [1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[2:4]
     >>> a
     [1, 66.25, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[:]
     >>> a
     []

*note del: 1570. 也可以用來刪除整個變數：

     >>> del a

刪除之後，對 ‘a’ 的參照將會造成錯誤（至少在另一個值又被指派到它之前）。
我們將在後面看到更多關於 *note del: 1570. 的其他用法。


File: python.info,  Node: Tuples 和序列 Sequences,  Next: 集合 Sets,  Prev: del 陳述式,  Up: 資料結構

2.5.3 Tuples 和序列 (Sequences)
-------------------------------

我們看到 list 和字串 (string) 有許多共同的特性，像是索引操作 (indexing)
以及切片操作 (slicing) 。他們是'序列'資料類型中的兩個例子（請參考*note
Sequence Types -- list, tuple, range: 1a3e.）。由於 Python 是個持續發展
中的語言，未來可能還會有其他的序列資料類型加入。接著要介紹是下一個標準序
列資料類型：'tuple'。

一個 tuple 是由若干個值藉由逗號區隔而組成，例如：

     >>> t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'
     >>> t[0]
     12345
     >>> t
     (12345, 54321, 'hello!')
     >>> # Tuples may be nested:
     >>> u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
     >>> u
     ((12345, 54321, 'hello!'), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
     >>> # Tuples are immutable:
     >>> t[0] = 88888
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
     >>> # but they can contain mutable objects:
     >>> v = ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
     >>> v
     ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])

如同我們看到的，被輸出的 tuple 總是以括號包著，如此巢狀的 tuple 才能被正
確的直譯 (interpret)；他們可以是以被括號包著或不被包著的方式當作輸入，雖
然括號的使用常常是有其必要的（譬如此 tuple 是一個較大的運算式的一部分）
。指派東西給 tuple 中的個別項目是不行的，但是可以建立含有可變物件（譬如
list）的 tuple。

雖然 tuple 和 list 看起來很類似，但是他們通常用在不同的情況與不同目的。
tuple 是 *note immutable: 19ef.（不可變的），通常儲存異質的元素序列，並
可經由拆解 (unpacking)（請參考本節後段）或索引 (indexing) 來存取（或者在
使用 *note namedtuples: 731. 的時候藉由屬性 (attribute) 來存取）。List 是
*note mutable: 19f4.（可變的），其元素通常是同質的且可藉由疊代整個 list
來存取。

一個特別的議題是，關於建立一個含有 0 個或 1 個項目的 tuple：語法上會採納
一些奇怪的用法。空的 tuple 藉由一對空括號來建立；含有一個項目的 tuple 經
由一個值加上一個逗點來建立（用括號把一個單一的值包住是不夠的）。醜，但有
效率。例如：

     >>> empty = ()
     >>> singleton = 'hello',    # <-- note trailing comma
     >>> len(empty)
     0
     >>> len(singleton)
     1
     >>> singleton
     ('hello',)

陳述式 ‘t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'’ 就是一個 'tuple packing' 的例子：
‘12345’，‘54321’ 和 ‘'hello!'’ 一起被放進 tuple 裡。反向操作也可以：

     >>> x, y, z = t

這個正是我們所說序列拆解 ('sequence unpacking')，可運用在任何位在等號右
邊的序列。序列拆解要求等號左邊的變數數量必須與等號右邊的序列中的元素數量
相同。注意，多重指派就只是 tuple packing 和序列拆解的結合而已。


File: python.info,  Node: 集合 Sets,  Next: 字典（Dictionary）,  Prev: Tuples 和序列 Sequences,  Up: 資料結構

2.5.4 集合 (Sets)
-----------------

Python 也包含了一種用在 'set'（集合）的資料類型。一個 set 是一組無序且沒
有重複的元素。基本的使用方式包括了隸屬資格檢測和消除重複元素。 Set 物件
也支援聯集、交集、差集和互斥等數學運算。

大括號或 *note set(): 3cc. 函式都可以用來建立 set。注意：要建立一個空的
set，你必須使用 ‘set()’ 而不是 ‘{}’；後者會建立一個空的 dictionary，一種
我們將在下一節討論的資料結構。

這裡是一個簡單的演示：

     >>> basket = {'apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana'}
     >>> print(basket)                      # show that duplicates have been removed
     {'orange', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple'}
     >>> 'orange' in basket                 # fast membership testing
     True
     >>> 'crabgrass' in basket
     False

     >>> # Demonstrate set operations on unique letters from two words
     >>>
     >>> a = set('abracadabra')
     >>> b = set('alacazam')
     >>> a                                  # unique letters in a
     {'a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'}
     >>> a - b                              # letters in a but not in b
     {'r', 'd', 'b'}
     >>> a | b                              # letters in a or b or both
     {'a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}
     >>> a & b                              # letters in both a and b
     {'a', 'c'}
     >>> a ^ b                              # letters in a or b but not both
     {'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}

和 *note list comprehensions: 1a39. 類似，也有 set comprehensions（集合
綜合運算）：

     >>> a = {x for x in 'abracadabra' if x not in 'abc'}
     >>> a
     {'r', 'd'}


File: python.info,  Node: 字典（Dictionary）,  Next: 迴圈技巧,  Prev: 集合 Sets,  Up: 資料結構

2.5.5 字典（Dictionary）
------------------------

下一個常用的 Python 內建資料類型為 'dictionary'（請參考*note Mapping
Types -- dict: 91a.）。 Dictionary 有時被稱為「關聯記憶體」(associative
memories) 或「關聯陣列」(associative arrays)。不像序列是由一個範圍內的數
字當作索引，dictionary 是由'鍵' (key) 來當索引，鍵可以是任何不可變的類型
；字串和數字都可以當作鍵。Tuple 也可以當作鍵，如果他們只含有字串、數字或
tuple；若一個 tuple 直接或間接地含有任何可變的物件，它就不能當作鍵。你無
法使用 list 當作鍵，因為 list 可以經由索引指派 (index assignment)、切片
指派 (slice assignment) 或是像 ‘append()’ 和 ‘extend()’ 等 method 被修改
。

思考 dictionary 最好的方式是把它想成是一組'鍵值'對 ('key: value' pair) 的
set，其中鍵在同一個 dictionary 裡必須是獨一無二的。使用一對大括號可建立
一個空的 dictionary：‘{}’。將一串由逗號分隔的鍵值對置於大括號則可初始化
字典的鍵值對。這同樣也是字典輸出時的格式。

Dictionary 主要的操作為藉由鍵來儲存一個值並且可藉由該鍵來取出該值。也可
以使用 ‘del’ 來刪除鍵值對。如果我們使用用過的鍵來儲存，該鍵所對應的較舊
的值會被覆蓋。使用不存在的鍵來取出值會造成錯誤。

對 dictionary 使用 ‘list(d)’ 會得到一個包含該字典所有鍵的 list，其排列順
序為插入時的順序。（若想要排序，則使用 ‘sorted(d)’ 代替即可）。如果想確
認一個鍵是否已存在於字典中，可使用關鍵字 *note in: 267.。

這是個使用一個 dictionary 的簡單範例：

     >>> tel = {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139}
     >>> tel['guido'] = 4127
     >>> tel
     {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127}
     >>> tel['jack']
     4098
     >>> del tel['sape']
     >>> tel['irv'] = 4127
     >>> tel
     {'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127, 'irv': 4127}
     >>> list(tel)
     ['jack', 'guido', 'irv']
     >>> sorted(tel)
     ['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
     >>> 'guido' in tel
     True
     >>> 'jack' not in tel
     False

函式 *note dict(): 239. 可直接透過一串鍵值對序列來建立 dictionary：

     >>> dict([('sape', 4139), ('guido', 4127), ('jack', 4098)])
     {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}

此外，dict comprehensions 也可以透過任意鍵與值的運算式來建立 dictionary
：

     >>> {x: x**2 for x in (2, 4, 6)}
     {2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}

當鍵是簡單的字串時，使用關鍵字引數 (keyword arguments) 有時會較為簡潔：

     >>> dict(sape=4139, guido=4127, jack=4098)
     {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}


File: python.info,  Node: 迴圈技巧,  Next: 深入了解條件 Condition,  Prev: 字典（Dictionary）,  Up: 資料結構

2.5.6 迴圈技巧
--------------

當對 dictionary 作迴圈時，鍵以及其對應的值可以藉由使用 *note items():
5ee. method 來同時取得：

     >>> knights = {'gallahad': 'the pure', 'robin': 'the brave'}
     >>> for k, v in knights.items():
     ...     print(k, v)
     ...
     gallahad the pure
     robin the brave

當對序列作迴圈時，位置索引及其對應的值可以藉由使用 *note enumerate():
12f0. 函式來同時取得：

     >>> for i, v in enumerate(['tic', 'tac', 'toe']):
     ...     print(i, v)
     ...
     0 tic
     1 tac
     2 toe

要同時對兩個以上的序列作迴圈，可以將其以成對的方式放入 *note zip(): 5ef.
函式：

     >>> questions = ['name', 'quest', 'favorite color']
     >>> answers = ['lancelot', 'the holy grail', 'blue']
     >>> for q, a in zip(questions, answers):
     ...     print('What is your {0}?  It is {1}.'.format(q, a))
     ...
     What is your name?  It is lancelot.
     What is your quest?  It is the holy grail.
     What is your favorite color?  It is blue.

要對序列作反向的迴圈，首先先寫出正向的序列，再對其使用 *note reversed():
691. 函式：

     >>> for i in reversed(range(1, 10, 2)):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     9
     7
     5
     3
     1

要以迴圈對序列作排序，使用 *note sorted(): a2f. 函式會得到一個新的經排序
過的 list ，但不會改變原本的序列：

     >>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
     >>> for i in sorted(basket):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     apple
     apple
     banana
     orange
     orange
     pear

對序列使用 *note set(): 3cc. 可去除重複元素。對序列使用 *note sorted():
a2f. 加上 *note set(): 3cc.，則是對經過排序後的非重複元素跑迴圈的慣用方
法：

     >>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
     >>> for f in sorted(set(basket)):
     ...     print(f)
     ...
     apple
     banana
     orange
     pear

有時我們會想要以迴圈來改變的一個 list，但是，通常建立一個新的 list 會更
簡單且安全：

     >>> import math
     >>> raw_data = [56.2, float('NaN'), 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, float('NaN'), 47.8]
     >>> filtered_data = []
     >>> for value in raw_data:
     ...     if not math.isnan(value):
     ...         filtered_data.append(value)
     ...
     >>> filtered_data
     [56.2, 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, 47.8]


File: python.info,  Node: 深入了解條件 Condition,  Next: 序列和其他資料類型之比較,  Prev: 迴圈技巧,  Up: 資料結構

2.5.7 深入了解條件 (Condition)
------------------------------

使用在 ‘while’ 和 ‘if’ 陳述式的條件句可以包含任何運算子，而不是只有比較
運算子 (comparisons) 。

比較運算子 ‘in’ 和 ‘not in’ 用於隸屬資格檢測，在容器中檢查一個值是否存在
（或不存在）。運算子 ‘is’ 和 ‘is not’ 比較兩個物件是否真的是相同的物件。
所有比較運算子的優先度都相同且都低於數值運算子。

比較運算是可以串連在一起的。例如， ‘a < b == c’ 就是在測試 ‘a’ 是否小於
‘b’ 和 ‘b’ 是否等於 ‘c’。

比較運算可以結合布林運算子 ‘and’ 和 ‘or’，且一個比較運算的結果（或任何其
他布林運算式）可以加上 ‘not’ 來否定。這些運算子的優先度都比比較運算子還
低，其中，‘not’ 的優先度最高，‘or’ 的優先度最低，因此 ‘A and not B or C’
等同於 ‘(A and (not B)) or C’。一如往常，括號可以用來表示任何想要的組合
。

布林運算子 ‘and’ 和 ‘or’ 也被稱為'短路 (short-circuit)' 運算子：會將其引
數從左至右進行運算，當結果出現時即結束運算。例如，若 ‘A’ 和 ‘C’ 為真但
‘B’ 為假，則 ‘A and B and C’ 的運算並不會執行到 ‘C’。當運算結果被當成一
般值而非布林值時，短路運算子的回傳值為最後被求值的引數。

將一個比較運算或其他布林運算式的結果指派給一個變數是可以的。例如：

     >>> string1, string2, string3 = '', 'Trondheim', 'Hammer Dance'
     >>> non_null = string1 or string2 or string3
     >>> non_null
     'Trondheim'

注意，Python 與 C 語言不一樣，在運算式裡進行指派必須外顯地使用*note
海象運算子: 1a46. ‘:=’。 這樣做避免了在 C 語言裡常見的一種問題：想要打
‘==’ 卻在運算式裡輸入 ‘=’。


File: python.info,  Node: 序列和其他資料類型之比較,  Prev: 深入了解條件 Condition,  Up: 資料結構

2.5.8 序列和其他資料類型之比較
------------------------------

序列物件通常可以拿來和其他相同類型的物件做比較。這種比較使用'詞典式
(lexicographical)' 順序：首先比較各自最前面的那項，若不相同，便可決定結
果；若相同，則比較下一項，以此類推，直到其中一個序列完全用完。如果被拿出
來比較的兩項本身又是相同的序列類型，則詞典式比較會遞迴地執行。如果兩個序
列所有的項目都相等，則此兩個序列被認為是相等的。如果其中一個序列是另一個
的子序列，則較短的那個序列為較小的序列。字串的詞典式順序使用 Unicode 的
碼位 (code point) 編號來排序個別字元。以下是一些相同序列類型的比較：

     (1, 2, 3)              < (1, 2, 4)
     [1, 2, 3]              < [1, 2, 4]
     'ABC' < 'C' < 'Pascal' < 'Python'
     (1, 2, 3, 4)           < (1, 2, 4)
     (1, 2)                 < (1, 2, -1)
     (1, 2, 3)             == (1.0, 2.0, 3.0)
     (1, 2, ('aa', 'ab'))   < (1, 2, ('abc', 'a'), 4)

注意，若使用 ‘<’ 或 ‘>’ 來比較不同類型的物件是合法的，表示物件擁有適當的
比較方法。例如，混合的數值類型是根據它們數值來做比較，所以 0 等於 0.0，
等等。否則直譯器會選擇丟出一個 *note TypeError: 2ba. 錯誤而不是提供一個
任意的排序。

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: 模組 Module,  Next: 輸入和輸出,  Prev: 資料結構,  Up: Python 教學

2.6 模組 (Module)
=================

如果從 Python 直譯器離開後又再次進入，之前（幫函式或變數）做的定義都會消
失。因此，想要寫一些比較長的程式時，你最好使用編輯器來準備要輸入給直譯器
的內容，並且用該檔案來運行它。這就是一個'腳本 (script)'。隨著你的程式越
變越長，你可能會想要把它分開成幾個檔案，讓它比較好維護。你可能也會想用一
個你之前已經在其他程式寫好的函式，但不想要複製該函式的原始定義到所有使用
它的程式裡。

為了支援這一點，Python 有一種方法可以將定義放入檔案中，並在互動模式下的
直譯器中使用它們。這種檔案稱為'模組 (module)'；模組中的定義可以被
'import' 到其他模組中，或是被 'import' 至'主 (main)' 模組（在最頂層執行
的腳本，以及互動模式下，所使用的變數集合）。

模組是指包含 Python 定義和語句的檔案，檔案名稱是模組名稱加上 ‘.py’。在模
組中，模組的名稱（作為字串）會是全域變數 ‘__name__’ 的值。例如，用你喜歡
的文字編輯器在資料夾中創一個名為 ‘fibo.py’ 的檔案，內容如下：

     # 費波那契數模組

     def fib(n):    # 寫出費波那契數列至第 n 位
         a, b = 0, 1
         while a < n:
             print(a, end=' ')
             a, b = b, a+b
         print()

     def fib2(n):   # 回傳費波那契數列至第 n 位
         result = []
         a, b = 0, 1
         while a < n:
             result.append(a)
             a, b = b, a+b
         return result

現在進入 Python 直譯器並用以下指令 import 這個模組：

     >>> import fibo

這並不會將 ‘fibo’ 中定義的函式名稱直接加入當前的 *note namespace: 1a4c.
中（詳情請見 *note Python 作用域 (Scope) 及命名空間 (Namespace): 1a4d.）
；它只會加入 ‘fibo’ 的模組名稱。使用此模組名稱，就可以存取函式：

     >>> fibo.fib(1000)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987
     >>> fibo.fib2(100)
     [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]
     >>> fibo.__name__
     'fibo'

如果你打算經常使用其中某個函式，可以將其指定至區域變數：

     >>> fib = fibo.fib
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

* Menu:

* 深入了解模組::
* 標準模組::
* dir() 函式: dir 函式.
* 套件 (Package): 套件 Package.


File: python.info,  Node: 深入了解模組,  Next: 標準模組,  Up: 模組 Module

2.6.1 深入了解模組
------------------

模組可以包含可執行的陳述式以及函式的定義。這些陳述式是作為模組的初始化，
它們只會在'第一次'被 import 時才會執行。(1)（如果檔案被當成腳本執行，也
會執行它們）。

每個模組都有它自己的私有命名空間 (namespace)，模組內定義的函式會把該模組
的私有符號表當成全域命名空間使用。因此，模組的作者可以在模組中使用全域變
數，而不必擔心和使用者的全域變數發生意外的名稱衝突。另一方面，如果你知道
自己在做什麼，你可以用這個方式取用模組的全域變數，以和引用函式一樣的寫法
，‘modname.itemname’。

在一個模組中可以 import 其他模組。把所有的 *note import: 3d5. 陳述式放在
模組（就這邊來說，腳本也是一樣）的最開頭是個慣例，但並沒有強制。如放置在
模組的最高層（不在任何函式或 class 中），被 import 的模組名稱將被加入全
域命名空間中。

*note import: 3d5. 陳述式有另一種變形寫法，可以直接將名稱從欲 import 的
模組，直接 import 至原模組的命名空間中。例如：

     >>> from fibo import fib, fib2
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

在 import 之後的名稱會被導入，但定義該函式的整個模組名稱並不會被引入在區
域命名空間中（因此，示例中的 ‘fibo’ 未被定義）。

甚至還有另一種變形寫法，可以 import 模組定義的所有名稱：

     >>> from fibo import *
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

這個寫法會 import 模組中所有的名稱，除了使用底線 (‘_’) 開頭的名稱。大多
數情況下，Python 程式設計師不大使用這個功能，因為它在直譯器中引入了一組
未知的名稱，並且可能覆蓋了某些你已經定義的內容。

請注意，一般情況下並不建議從模組或套件中 import ‘*’ 的做法，因為它通常會
導致可讀性較差的程式碼。但若是使用它來在互動模式中節省打字時間，則是可以
接受的。

如果模組名稱後面出現 ‘as’，則 ‘as’ 之後的名稱將直接和被 import 模組綁定
在一起。

     >>> import fibo as fib
     >>> fib.fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

這個 import 方式和 ‘import fibo’ 實質上是一樣的，唯一的差別是現在要用
‘fib’ 使用模組。

在使用 *note from: 113f. 時也可以用同樣的方式獲得類似的效果：

     >>> from fibo import fib as fibonacci
     >>> fibonacci(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

     備註: 出於效率原因，每個模組在每個直譯器 session 中僅會被 import 一
     次。因此，如果你更改了模組，則必須重啟直譯器——或者，如果只是一個想
     要在互動模式下測試的模組，可以使用 *note importlib.reload(): 299.。
     例如：‘import importlib; importlib.reload(modulename)’。

* Menu:

* 把模組當作腳本執行::
* 模組的搜尋路徑::
* 「編譯」Python 檔案::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 實際上，函式定義也是「被執行」的「陳述式」；在執行模組階層的函式
定義時，會將函式名稱加到模組的全域命名空間。


File: python.info,  Node: 把模組當作腳本執行,  Next: 模組的搜尋路徑,  Up: 深入了解模組

2.6.1.1 把模組當作腳本執行
..........................

當使用以下內容運行 Python 模組時：

     python fibo.py <arguments>

如同使用 import 指令，模組中的程式碼會被執行，但 ‘__name__’ 被設為
‘"__main__"’。這意味著，透過在模組的末尾添加以下程式碼：

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import sys
         fib(int(sys.argv[1]))

你可以將檔案作為腳本也同時可以作為被 import 的模組，因為剖析 (parse) 命
令列的程式碼只會在當模組是「主」檔案時，才會執行：

     $ python fibo.py 50
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

如果此模組是被 import 的，則該段程式碼不會被執行：

     >>> import fibo
     >>>

這通常是用來為模組提供方便的使用者介面，或者用於測試目的（執行測試套件時
，以腳本的方式執行模組）。


File: python.info,  Node: 模組的搜尋路徑,  Next: 「編譯」Python 檔案,  Prev: 把模組當作腳本執行,  Up: 深入了解模組

2.6.1.2 模組的搜尋路徑
......................

Import 一個名為 ‘spam’ 的模組時，直譯器首先會搜尋具有該名稱的內建模組。
模組名稱列在 *note sys.builtin_module_names: 1a54. 當中。如果找不到，接
下來會在變數 *note sys.path: 35e. 所給定的資料夾清單之中，搜尋一個名為
‘spam.py’ 的檔案。*note sys.path: 35e. 從這些位置開始進行初始化：

   * 輸入腳本所位在的資料夾（如未指定檔案時，則是當前資料夾）。

   * *note PYTHONPATH: eb1.（一連串和 shell 變數 ‘PATH’ 的語法相同的資料
     夾名稱）。

   * 與安裝相關的預設值（按慣例會包含一個 ‘site-packages’ 資料夾，它是由
     *note site: c2. 模組所處理）。

在 *note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1a55. 有
更多的細節。

     備註: 在支援符號連結 (symlink) 的檔案系統中，輸入腳本的所在資料夾是
     在跟隨符號連結之後才被計算的。換言之，包含符號連結的資料夾'並沒有
     '增加到模組的搜尋路徑中。

初始化之後，Python 程式可以修改 *note sys.path: 35e.。執行中腳本的所在資
料夾會在搜尋路徑的開頭，在標準函式庫路徑之前。這代表該資料夾中的腳本會優
先被載入，而不是函式庫資料夾中相同名稱的模組。除非是有意要做這樣的替換，
否則這是一個錯誤。 請參見*note 標準模組: 1a56.以瞭解更多資訊。


File: python.info,  Node: 「編譯」Python 檔案,  Prev: 模組的搜尋路徑,  Up: 深入了解模組

2.6.1.3 「編譯」Python 檔案
...........................

為了加快載入模組的速度，Python 將每個模組的編譯版本暫存在 ‘__pycache__’
資料夾下，並命名為 ‘module.`version'.pyc’， 這裡的 version 是編譯後的檔
案的格式名稱，且名稱通常會包含 Python 的版本編號。例如，在 CPython 3.3 中
，spam.py 的編譯版本將被暫存為 ‘__pycache__/spam.cpython-33.pyc’。此命名
準則可以讓來自不同版本的編譯模組和 Python 的不同版本同時共存。

Python 根據原始碼最後修改的日期，檢查編譯版本是否過期而需要重新編譯。這
是一個完全自動的過程。另外，編譯後的模組獨立於平台，因此不同架構的作業系
統之間可以共用同一函式庫。

Python 在兩種情況下不檢查快取 (cache)。首先，它總是重新編譯且不儲存直接
從命令列載入的模組的結果。第二，如果沒有源模組，則不會檢查快取。要支援非
源模組（僅編譯）的發布，編譯後的模組必須位於原始資料夾中，並且不能有源模
組。

一些給專家的秘訣：

   * 可以在 Python 指令上使用開關參數 (switch) *note -O: c2c. 或 *note
     -OO: c2d. 來減小已編譯模組的大小。開關參數 ‘-O’ 刪除 assert（斷言）
     陳述式，而 ‘-OO’ 同時刪除 assert 陳述式和 __doc__ 字串。由於有些程
     式可能依賴於上述這些內容，因此只有在你知道自己在做什麼時，才應使用
     此參數。「已優化」模組有 ‘opt-’ 標記，且通常較小。未來的版本可能會
     改變優化的效果。

   * 讀取 ‘.pyc’ 檔案時，程式的執行速度並不會比讀取 ‘.py’ 檔案快。唯一比
     較快的地方是載入的速度。

   * 模組 *note compileall: 1e. 可以為資料夾中的所有模組建立 .pyc 檔。

   * 更多的細節，包括決策流程圖，請參考 PEP 3147(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: 標準模組,  Next: dir 函式,  Prev: 深入了解模組,  Up: 模組 Module

2.6.2 標準模組
--------------

Python 附帶了一個標準模組庫，詳細的介紹在另一份文件，稱為「Python 函式庫
參考手冊」（簡稱為「函式庫參考手冊」）。有些模組是直譯器中內建的；它們使
一些不屬於語言核心但依然內建的運算得以存取，其目的是為了提高效率，或提供
作業系統基本操作（例如系統呼叫）。這些模組的集合是一個組態選項，它們取決
於底層平台。例如：*note winreg: 111. 模組僅供 Windows 使用。值得注意的模
組是 *note sys: d3.，它被內建在每個 Python 直譯器中。變數 ‘sys.ps1’ 和
‘sys.ps2’ 則用來定義主、次提示字元的字串：

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.ps1
     '>>> '
     >>> sys.ps2
     '... '
     >>> sys.ps1 = 'C> '
     C> print('Yuck!')
     Yuck!
     C>

只有直譯器在互動模式時，才需要定義這兩個變數。

變數 ‘sys.path’ 是一個字串 list，它決定直譯器的模組搜尋路徑。它的初始值
為環境變數 *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. 中提取的預設路徑，或是當 *note
PYTHONPATH: eb1. 未設定時，從內建預設值提取。你可以用標準的 list 操作修
改該變數：

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.append('/ufs/guido/lib/python')


File: python.info,  Node: dir 函式,  Next: 套件 Package,  Prev: 標準模組,  Up: 模組 Module

2.6.3 ‘dir()’ 函式
------------------

內建函式 *note dir(): 42d. 用於找出模組定義的所有名稱。它回傳一個排序後
的字串 list：

     >>> import fibo, sys
     >>> dir(fibo)
     ['__name__', 'fib', 'fib2']
     >>> dir(sys)
     ['__breakpointhook__', '__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__',
      '__interactivehook__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__',
      '__stderr__', '__stdin__', '__stdout__', '__unraisablehook__',
      '_clear_type_cache', '_current_frames', '_debugmallocstats', '_framework',
      '_getframe', '_git', '_home', '_xoptions', 'abiflags', 'addaudithook',
      'api_version', 'argv', 'audit', 'base_exec_prefix', 'base_prefix',
      'breakpointhook', 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder', 'call_tracing',
      'callstats', 'copyright', 'displayhook', 'dont_write_bytecode', 'exc_info',
      'excepthook', 'exec_prefix', 'executable', 'exit', 'flags', 'float_info',
      'float_repr_style', 'get_asyncgen_hooks', 'get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth',
      'getallocatedblocks', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getdlopenflags',
      'getfilesystemencodeerrors', 'getfilesystemencoding', 'getprofile',
      'getrecursionlimit', 'getrefcount', 'getsizeof', 'getswitchinterval',
      'gettrace', 'hash_info', 'hexversion', 'implementation', 'int_info',
      'intern', 'is_finalizing', 'last_traceback', 'last_type', 'last_value',
      'maxsize', 'maxunicode', 'meta_path', 'modules', 'path', 'path_hooks',
      'path_importer_cache', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1', 'ps2', 'pycache_prefix',
      'set_asyncgen_hooks', 'set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth', 'setdlopenflags',
      'setprofile', 'setrecursionlimit', 'setswitchinterval', 'settrace', 'stderr',
      'stdin', 'stdout', 'thread_info', 'unraisablehook', 'version', 'version_info',
      'warnoptions']

沒有給引數時，*note dir(): 42d. 列出目前已定義的名稱：

     >>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
     >>> import fibo
     >>> fib = fibo.fib
     >>> dir()
     ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'a', 'fib', 'fibo', 'sys']

請注意，它列出所有類型的名稱：變數、模組、函式等。

*note dir(): 42d. 不會列出內建函式和變數的名稱。如果你想要列出它們，它們
被定義在標準模組 *note builtins: 10. 內：

     >>> import builtins
     >>> dir(builtins)
     ['ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BaseException',
      'BlockingIOError', 'BrokenPipeError', 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning',
      'ChildProcessError', 'ConnectionAbortedError', 'ConnectionError',
      'ConnectionRefusedError', 'ConnectionResetError', 'DeprecationWarning',
      'EOFError', 'Ellipsis', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'False',
      'FileExistsError', 'FileNotFoundError', 'FloatingPointError',
      'FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError',
      'ImportWarning', 'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'InterruptedError',
      'IsADirectoryError', 'KeyError', 'KeyboardInterrupt', 'LookupError',
      'MemoryError', 'NameError', 'None', 'NotADirectoryError', 'NotImplemented',
      'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError',
      'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'PermissionError', 'ProcessLookupError',
      'ReferenceError', 'ResourceWarning', 'RuntimeError', 'RuntimeWarning',
      'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError', 'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError',
      'SystemExit', 'TabError', 'TimeoutError', 'True', 'TypeError',
      'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError', 'UnicodeEncodeError',
      'UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError', 'UnicodeWarning', 'UserWarning',
      'ValueError', 'Warning', 'ZeroDivisionError', '_', '__build_class__',
      '__debug__', '__doc__', '__import__', '__name__', '__package__', 'abs',
      'all', 'any', 'ascii', 'bin', 'bool', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'callable',
      'chr', 'classmethod', 'compile', 'complex', 'copyright', 'credits',
      'delattr', 'dict', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'eval', 'exec', 'exit',
      'filter', 'float', 'format', 'frozenset', 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr',
      'hash', 'help', 'hex', 'id', 'input', 'int', 'isinstance', 'issubclass',
      'iter', 'len', 'license', 'list', 'locals', 'map', 'max', 'memoryview',
      'min', 'next', 'object', 'oct', 'open', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property',
      'quit', 'range', 'repr', 'reversed', 'round', 'set', 'setattr', 'slice',
      'sorted', 'staticmethod', 'str', 'sum', 'super', 'tuple', 'type', 'vars',
      'zip']


File: python.info,  Node: 套件 Package,  Prev: dir 函式,  Up: 模組 Module

2.6.4 套件 (Package)
--------------------

套件是一種使用「點分隔模組名稱」組織 Python 模組命名空間的方法。例如，模
組名稱 ‘A.B’ 表示套件 ‘A’ 中名為 ‘B’ 的子模組。正如模組使用時，不同模組
的作者不需擔心與其他模組的全域變數名稱重複，點分隔模組名稱的使用，也讓多
模組套件（像 NumPy 或 Pillow）的作者們不須擔心其他套件的模組名稱。

假設你想設計一個能統一處理音訊檔案及音訊數據的模組集（「套件」）。因為音
訊檔案有很多的不同的格式（通常以它們的副檔名來辨識，例如：‘.wav’、
‘.aiff’、‘.au’），因此，為了不同檔案格式之間的轉換，你會需要建立和維護一
個不斷增長的模組集合。為了要達成對音訊數據的許多不同作業（例如，音訊混合
、增加回聲、套用等化器功能、創造人工立體音效），你將編寫一系列無止盡的模
組來執行這些作業。以下是你的套件可能的架構（以階層式檔案系統的方式表示）
：

     sound/                          Top-level package
           __init__.py               Initialize the sound package
           formats/                  Subpackage for file format conversions
                   __init__.py
                   wavread.py
                   wavwrite.py
                   aiffread.py
                   aiffwrite.py
                   auread.py
                   auwrite.py
                   ...
           effects/                  Subpackage for sound effects
                   __init__.py
                   echo.py
                   surround.py
                   reverse.py
                   ...
           filters/                  Subpackage for filters
                   __init__.py
                   equalizer.py
                   vocoder.py
                   karaoke.py
                   ...

Import 套件時，Python 會搜尋 ‘sys.path’ 裡的目錄，尋找套件的子目錄。

目錄中必須含有 ‘__init__.py’ 檔案，才會被 Pyhon 當成套件（除非有使用
*note namespace package: 1a5d.，為一個相對進階的功能）；這樣可以避免一些
以常用名稱命名（例如 ‘string’）的目錄，無意中隱藏了較晚出現在模組搜尋路
徑中的有效模組。在最簡單的情況，‘__init__.py’ 可以只是一個空白檔案；但它
也可以執行套件的初始化程式碼，或設置 ‘__all__’ 變數，之後會詳述。

套件使用者可以從套件中 import 個別模組，例如：

     import sound.effects.echo

這樣就載入了子模組 ‘sound.effects.echo’。引用時必須用它的全名：

     sound.effects.echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

另一種 import 子模組的方法是：

     from sound.effects import echo

這段程式碼一樣可以載入子模組 ‘echo’，並且不加套件前綴也可以使用，因此能
以如下方式使用：

     echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

另一種變化是直接 import 所需的函式或變數：

     from sound.effects.echo import echofilter

同樣地，這樣也會載入子模組 ‘echo’，但它的函式 ‘echofilter()’ 就可以直接
使用：

     echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

請注意，使用 ‘from package import item’ 時，item 可以是套件的子模組（或
子套件），也可以是套件中被定義的名稱，像是函式、class （類別）或變數。
‘import’ 陳述式首先測試套件中有沒有定義該 item；如果沒有，則會假設它是模
組，並嘗試載入。如果還是找不到 item，則會引發 *note ImportError: 145. 例
外。

相反地，使用 ‘import item.subitem.subsubitem’ 語法時，除了最後一項之外，
每一項都必須是套件；最後一項可以是模組或套件，但不能是前一項中定義的
class、函式或變數。

* Menu:

* 從套件中 import *::
* 套件內引用::
* 多目錄中的套件::


File: python.info,  Node: 從套件中 import *,  Next: 套件內引用,  Up: 套件 Package

2.6.4.1 從套件中 import *
.........................

當使用者寫下 ‘from sound.effects import *’ 時，會發生什麼事？理想情況下
，我們可能希望程式碼會去檔案系統，尋找套件中存在的子模組，並將它們全部
import。這會花費較長的時間，且 import 子模組的過程可能會有不必要的副作用
，這些副作用只有在明確地 import 子模組時才會發生。

唯一的解法是由套件作者為套件提供明確的索引。*note import: 3d5. 陳述式使
用以下慣例：如果套件的 ‘__init__.py’ 程式碼有定義一個名為 ‘__all__’ 的
list，若遇到 ‘from package import *’ 的時候，它就會是要被 import 的模組
名稱。發布套件的新版本時，套件作者可自行決定是否更新此 list。如果套件作
者認為沒有人會從他的套件中 import *，他也可能會決定不支援這個 list。舉例
來說，‘sound/effects/__init__.py’ 檔案可包含以下程式碼：

     __all__ = ["echo", "surround", "reverse"]

意思是，‘from sound.effects import *’ 將會 import ‘sound.effects’ 套件中
，這三個被提名的子模組。

請注意，子模組可能會被區域定義 (locally defined) 的名稱遮蔽。例如，如果
你在 ‘sound/effects/__init__.py’ 檔案中新增了一個 ‘reverse’ 函式，則
‘from sound.effects import *’ 只會引入兩個子模組 ‘echo’ 和 ‘surround’，
但'不是' ‘reverse’ 子模組，因為它被區域定義的 ‘reverse’ 函式遮蔽了：

     __all__ = [
         "echo",      # refers to the 'echo.py' file
         "surround",  # refers to the 'surround.py' file
         "reverse",   # !!! refers to the 'reverse' function now !!!
     ]

     def reverse(msg: str):  # <-- this name shadows the 'reverse.py' submodule
         return msg[::-1]    #     in the case of a 'from sound.effects import *'

如果 ‘__all__’ 沒有被定義，‘from sound.effects import *’ 陳述式'並不會
'把 ‘sound.effects’ 套件中所有子模組都 import 到當前的命名空間；它只保證
‘sound.effects’ 套件有被 import（可能會運行 ‘__init__.py’ 中的初始化程式
碼），然後 import 套件中被定義的全部名稱。這包含 ‘__init__.py’ 定義（以
及被明確載入的子模組）的任何名稱。它也包括任何之前被 *note import: 3d5.
陳述式明確載入的套件子模組。請看以下程式碼：

     import sound.effects.echo
     import sound.effects.surround
     from sound.effects import *

此例中，當 ‘from...import’ 陳述式被執行時，‘echo’ 和 ‘surround’ 模組被
import 進當前的命名空間，因為它們是在 ‘sound.effects’ 套件裡定義的。（當
‘__all__’ 有被定義時，這規則也有效。）

雖然，有些特定模組的設計，讓你使用 ‘import *’ 時，該模組只會輸出遵循特定
樣式的名稱，但在正式環境 (production) 的程式碼中這仍然被視為是不良習慣。

記住，使用 ‘from package import specific_submodule’ 不會有任何問題！實際
上，這是推薦用法，除非 import 的模組需要用到的子模組和其他套件的子模組同
名。


File: python.info,  Node: 套件內引用,  Next: 多目錄中的套件,  Prev: 從套件中 import *,  Up: 套件 Package

2.6.4.2 套件內引用
..................

當套件的結構為多個子套件的組合時（如同範例中的 ‘sound’ 套件），可以使用
「絕對 (absolute) import」，引用同層套件中的子模組。例如，要在
‘sound.filters.vocoder’ 模組中使用 ‘sound.effects’ 中的 ‘echo’ 模組時，
可以用 ‘from sound.effects import echo’。

你也可以用 ‘from module import name’ 的 import 陳述式，編寫「相對
(relative) import」。這些 import 使用前導句號指示相對 import 中的當前套
件和母套件。例如，在 ‘urround’ 模組中，你可以使用：

     from . import echo
     from .. import formats
     from ..filters import equalizer

請注意，相對 import 的運作是以目前的模組名稱為依據。因為主模組的名稱永遠
是 ‘"__main__"’，所以如果一個模組預期被用作 Python 應用程式的主模組，那
它必須永遠使用絕對 import。


File: python.info,  Node: 多目錄中的套件,  Prev: 套件內引用,  Up: 套件 Package

2.6.4.3 多目錄中的套件
......................

Packages support one more special attribute, *note __path__: 1a63.  This
is initialized to be a *note sequence: 238. of strings containing the
name of the directory holding the package's ‘__init__.py’ before the
code in that file is executed.  This variable can be modified; doing so
affects future searches for modules and subpackages contained in the
package.

雖然這個特色不太常被需要，但它可用於擴充套件中的模組集合。

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: 輸入和輸出,  Next: 錯誤和例外,  Prev: 模組 Module,  Up: Python 教學

2.7 輸入和輸出
==============

有數種方式可以顯示程式的輸出；資料可以以人類易讀的形式印出，或是寫入檔案
以供未來所使用。這章節會討論幾種不同的方式。

* Menu:

* 更華麗的輸出格式::
* 讀寫檔案::


File: python.info,  Node: 更華麗的輸出格式,  Next: 讀寫檔案,  Up: 輸入和輸出

2.7.1 更華麗的輸出格式
----------------------

目前為止我們已經學過兩種寫值的方式：'運算式陳述 (expression statements)'
與 *note print(): e02. 函式。（第三種方法是使用檔案物件的 *note write():
1a69. 方法；標準輸出的檔案是使用 ‘sys.stdout’ 來達成的。詳細的資訊請參考
對應的函式庫說明。）

通常你會想要對輸出格式有更多地控制，而不是僅列印出以空格隔開的值。以下是
幾種格式化輸出的方式。

   * 要使用*note 格式化字串文本 (formatted string literals): 1a6a.，需在
     字串開始前的引號或連續三個引號前加上 ‘f’ 或 ‘F’。你可以在這個字串中
     使用 ‘{’ 與 ‘}’ 包夾 Python 的運算式，引用變數或其他字面值 (literal
     values)。

          >>> year = 2016
          >>> event = 'Referendum'
          >>> f'Results of the {year} {event}'
          'Results of the 2016 Referendum'

   * 字串的 *note str.format(): 41b. method 需要更多手動操作。你還是可以
     用 ‘{’ 和 ‘}’ 標示欲替代變數的位置，且可給予詳細的格式指令，但你也
     需提供要被格式化的資訊。在以下程式碼區塊中，有兩個如何格式化變數的
     範例：

          >>> yes_votes = 42_572_654
          >>> total_votes = 85_705_149
          >>> percentage = yes_votes / total_votes
          >>> '{:-9} YES votes  {:2.2%}'.format(yes_votes, percentage)
          ' 42572654 YES votes  49.67%'

     請注意 ‘yes_votes’ 如何對於負數用空格和負號填補。該範例還會列出
     ‘percentage’ 乘以 100，並保留 2 位小數且後面跟著一個百分號（有關詳
     細資訊，請參閱 *note 格式規格 (Format Specification) 迷你語言:
     3d6.）。

   * 最後，你還可以自己用字串切片 (slicing) 和串接 (concatenation) 操作
     ，完成所有的字串處理，建立任何你能想像的排版格式。字串型別有一些
     method，能以給定的欄寬填補字串，這些運算也很有用。

如果你不需要華麗的輸出，只想快速顯示變數以進行除錯，可以用 *note repr():
61e. 或 *note str(): 157. 函式把任何的值轉換為字串。

*note str(): 157. 函式的用意是回傳一個人類易讀的表示法，而 *note repr():
61e. 的用意是產生直譯器可讀取的表示法（如果沒有等效的語法，則造成 *note
SyntaxError: 146.）。如果物件沒有人類易讀的特定表示法，*note str(): 157.
會回傳與 *note repr(): 61e. 相同的值。有許多的值，像是數字，或 list 及
dictionary 等結構，使用這兩個函式會有相同的表示法。而字串，則較為特別，
有兩種不同的表示法。

一些範例：

     >>> s = 'Hello, world.'
     >>> str(s)
     'Hello, world.'
     >>> repr(s)
     "'Hello, world.'"
     >>> str(1/7)
     '0.14285714285714285'
     >>> x = 10 * 3.25
     >>> y = 200 * 200
     >>> s = 'The value of x is ' + repr(x) + ', and y is ' + repr(y) + '...'
     >>> print(s)
     The value of x is 32.5, and y is 40000...
     >>> # The repr() of a string adds string quotes and backslashes:
     >>> hello = 'hello, world\n'
     >>> hellos = repr(hello)
     >>> print(hellos)
     'hello, world\n'
     >>> # The argument to repr() may be any Python object:
     >>> repr((x, y, ('spam', 'eggs')))
     "(32.5, 40000, ('spam', 'eggs'))"

*note string: cd. 模組包含一個 *note Template: 484. class（類別），提供
了將值替代為字串的另一種方法。該方法使用 ‘$x’ 佔位符號，並以 dictionary
的值進行取代，但對格式的控制明顯較少。

* Menu:

* 格式化的字串文本 (Formatted String Literals): 格式化的字串文本 Formatted String Literals.
* 字串的 format() method: 字串的 format method.
* 手動格式化字串::
* 格式化字串的舊方法::


File: python.info,  Node: 格式化的字串文本 Formatted String Literals,  Next: 字串的 format method,  Up: 更華麗的輸出格式

2.7.1.1 格式化的字串文本 (Formatted String Literals)
....................................................

*note 格式化的字串文本: 7ed.（簡稱為 f-字串），透過在字串加入前綴 ‘f’ 或
‘F’，並將運算式編寫為 ‘{expression}’，讓你可以在字串內加入 Python 運算式
的值。

格式說明符 (format specifier) 是選擇性的，寫在運算式後面，可以更好地控制
值的格式化方式。以下範例將 pi 捨入到小數點後三位：

     >>> import math
     >>> print(f'The value of pi is approximately {math.pi:.3f}.')
     The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

在 ‘':'’ 後傳遞一個整數，可以設定該欄位至少為幾個字元寬，常用於將每一欄
對齊。

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 7678}
     >>> for name, phone in table.items():
     ...     print(f'{name:10} ==> {phone:10d}')
     ...
     Sjoerd     ==>       4127
     Jack       ==>       4098
     Dcab       ==>       7678

還有一些修飾符號可以在格式化前先將值轉換過。‘'!a'’ 會套用 *note ascii():
1255.，‘'!s'’ 會套用 *note str(): 157.，‘'!r'’ 會套用 *note repr():
61e.：

     >>> animals = 'eels'
     >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals}.')
     My hovercraft is full of eels.
     >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals!r}.')
     My hovercraft is full of 'eels'.

‘=’ 說明符可用於將一個運算式擴充為該運算式的文字、一個等號、以及對該運算
式求值 (evaluate) 後的表示法：

     >>> bugs = 'roaches'
     >>> count = 13
     >>> area = 'living room'
     >>> print(f'Debugging {bugs=} {count=} {area=}')
     Debugging bugs='roaches' count=13 area='living room'

更多關於 ‘=’ 說明符的資訊請見*note 自文件性運算式 (self-documenting
expressions): 7eb.。若要參考這些格式化字串的規格，詳見 *note 格式規格
(Format Specification) 迷你語言: 3d6. 參考指南。


File: python.info,  Node: 字串的 format method,  Next: 手動格式化字串,  Prev: 格式化的字串文本 Formatted String Literals,  Up: 更華麗的輸出格式

2.7.1.2 字串的 format() method
..............................

*note str.format(): 41b. method 的基本用法如下：

     >>> print('We are the {} who say "{}!"'.format('knights', 'Ni'))
     We are the knights who say "Ni!"

大括號及其內的字元（稱為格式欄位）會被取代為傳遞給 *note str.format():
41b. method 的物件。大括號中的數字表示該物件在傳遞給 *note str.format():
41b. method 時所在的位置。

     >>> print('{0} and {1}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
     spam and eggs
     >>> print('{1} and {0}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
     eggs and spam

如果在 *note str.format(): 41b. method 中使用關鍵字引數，可以使用引數名
稱去引用它們的值。

     >>> print('This {food} is {adjective}.'.format(
     ...       food='spam', adjective='absolutely horrible'))
     This spam is absolutely horrible.

位置引數和關鍵字引數可以任意組合：

     >>> print('The story of {0}, {1}, and {other}.'.format('Bill', 'Manfred',
     ...                                                    other='Georg'))
     The story of Bill, Manfred, and Georg.

如果你有一個不想分割的長格式化字串，比較好的方式是按名稱而不是按位置來引
用變數。這項操作可以透過傳遞字典 (dict)，並用方括號 ‘'[]'’ 使用鍵 (key)
來輕鬆完成。

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
     >>> print('Jack: {0[Jack]:d}; Sjoerd: {0[Sjoerd]:d}; '
     ...       'Dcab: {0[Dcab]:d}'.format(table))
     Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

用 '**' 符號，把 ‘table’ 字典當作關鍵字引數來傳遞，也有一樣的結果。

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
     >>> print('Jack: {Jack:d}; Sjoerd: {Sjoerd:d}; Dcab: {Dcab:d}'.format(**table))
     Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

與內建函式 *note vars(): 182e. 組合使用時，這種方式特別實用。該函式可以
回傳一個包含所有區域變數的 dictionary：

     >>> table = {k: str(v) for k, v in vars().items()}
     >>> message = " ".join([f'{k}: ' + '{' + k +'};' for k in table.keys()])
     >>> print(message.format(**table))
     __name__: __main__; __doc__: None; __package__: None; __loader__: ...

例如，下面的程式碼產生一組排列整齊的欄，列出整數及其平方與立方：

     >>> for x in range(1, 11):
     ...     print('{0:2d} {1:3d} {2:4d}'.format(x, x*x, x*x*x))
     ...
      1   1    1
      2   4    8
      3   9   27
      4  16   64
      5  25  125
      6  36  216
      7  49  343
      8  64  512
      9  81  729
     10 100 1000

關於使用 *note str.format(): 41b. 進行字串格式化的完整概述，請見*note
格式化文字語法: 121f.。


File: python.info,  Node: 手動格式化字串,  Next: 格式化字串的舊方法,  Prev: 字串的 format method,  Up: 更華麗的輸出格式

2.7.1.3 手動格式化字串
......................

下面是以手動格式化完成的同一個平方及立方的表：

     >>> for x in range(1, 11):
     ...     print(repr(x).rjust(2), repr(x*x).rjust(3), end=' ')
     ...     # 注意前一列使用的 'end'
     ...     print(repr(x*x*x).rjust(4))
     ...
      1   1    1
      2   4    8
      3   9   27
      4  16   64
      5  25  125
      6  36  216
      7  49  343
      8  64  512
      9  81  729
     10 100 1000

（請注意，使用 *note print(): e02. 讓每欄之間加入一個空格的方法：這種方
法總是在其引數間加入空格。）

字串物件的 *note str.rjust(): 1a6f. method 透過在左側填補空格，使字串以
給定的欄寬進行靠右對齊。類似的 method 還有 *note str.ljust(): 1a70. 和
*note str.center(): 1a71.。這些 method 不寫入任何內容，只回傳一個新字串
，如果輸入的字串太長，它們不會截斷字串，而是不做任何改變地回傳；雖然這樣
會弄亂欄的編排，但這通常還是比另一種情況好，那種情況會讓值變得不正確。（
如果你真的想截斷字串，可以加入像 ‘x.ljust(n)[:n]’ 這樣的切片運算。）

另一種 method 是 *note str.zfill(): 1325.，可在數值字串的左邊填補零，且
能識別正負號：

     >>> '12'.zfill(5)
     '00012'
     >>> '-3.14'.zfill(7)
     '-003.14'
     >>> '3.14159265359'.zfill(5)
     '3.14159265359'


File: python.info,  Node: 格式化字串的舊方法,  Prev: 手動格式化字串,  Up: 更華麗的輸出格式

2.7.1.4 格式化字串的舊方法
..........................

% 運算子（modulo，模數）也可用於字串格式化。在 ‘format % values’ 中（其
中 'format' 是個字串），'format' 內的 ‘%’ 轉換規格會被 'values' 的零個或
多個元素所取代。此運算常被稱為字串插值 (string interpolation)。例如：

     >>> import math
     >>> print('The value of pi is approximately %5.3f.' % math.pi)
     The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

更多資訊請見 *note printf-style String Formatting: 4cb.小節。


File: python.info,  Node: 讀寫檔案,  Prev: 更華麗的輸出格式,  Up: 輸入和輸出

2.7.2 讀寫檔案
--------------

*note open(): 29c. 回傳一個 *note file object: 1054.，而它最常使用的兩個
位置引數和一個關鍵字引數是：‘open(filename, mode, encoding=None)’

     >>> f = open('workfile', 'w', encoding="utf-8")

第一個引數是一個包含檔案名稱的字串。第二個引數是另一個字串，包含了描述檔
案使用方式的幾個字元。'mode' 為 ‘'r'’ 時，表示以唯讀模式開啟檔案；為
‘'w'’ 時，表示以唯寫模式開啟檔案（已存在的同名檔案會被抹除）；為 ‘'a'’ 時
，以附加內容為目的開啟檔案，任何寫入檔案的資料會自動被加入到檔案的結尾。
‘'r+'’ 可以開啟檔案並進行讀取和寫入。'mode' 引數是選擇性的，若省略時會預
設為 ‘'r'’。

通常，檔案以 'text mode' 開啟，意即，從檔案中讀取或寫入字串時，都以特定
編碼方式 'encoding' 進行編碼。如未指定 'encoding'，則預設值會取決於系統
平台（見 *note open(): 29c.）。因為 UTF-8 是現時的標準，除非你很清楚該用
什麼編碼，否則推薦使用 ‘encoding="utf-8"’。在 mode 後面加上 ‘'b'’ 會以
'binary mode'（二進制模式）開啟檔案，二進制模式資料以 *note bytes: 2c1.
物件的形式被讀寫。以二進制模式開啟檔案時不可以指定 'encoding'。

在文字模式 (text mode) 下，讀取時會預設把平台特定的行尾符號（Unix 上為
‘\n’，Windows 上為 ‘\r\n’）轉換為 ‘\n’。在文字模式下寫入時，預設會把
‘\n’ 出現之處轉換回平台特定的行尾符號。這種在幕後對檔案資料的修改方式對
文字檔案來說沒有問題，但會毀壞像是 ‘JPEG’ 或 ‘EXE’ 檔案中的二進制資料。
在讀寫此類檔案時，注意一定要使用二進制模式。

在處理檔案物件時，使用 *note with: 3c5. 關鍵字是個好習慣。優點是，當它的
套件結束後，即使在某個時刻引發了例外，檔案仍會正確地被關閉。使用 ‘with’
也比寫等效的 *note try: 4ea.-*note finally: 80e. 區塊，來得簡短許多：

     >>> with open('workfile', encoding="utf-8") as f:
     ...     read_data = f.read()

     >>> # 我們可以檢查確認該檔案已經自動被關閉。
     >>> f.closed
     True

如果你沒有使用 *note with: 3c5. 關鍵字，則應呼叫 ‘f.close()’ 關閉檔案，
可以立即釋放被它所使用的系統資源。

     警告: 呼叫 ‘f.write()’ 時，若未使用 ‘with’ 關鍵字或呼叫
     ‘f.close()’，即使程式成功退出，也'可能'導致 ‘f.write()’ 的引數沒有
     被完全寫入硬碟。

不論是透過 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式，或呼叫 ‘f.close()’ 關閉一個檔案物件
之後，嘗試使用該檔案物件將會自動失效。

     >>> f.close()
     >>> f.read()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: I/O operation on closed file.

* Menu:

* 檔案物件的 method::
* 使用 json 儲存結構化資料::


File: python.info,  Node: 檔案物件的 method,  Next: 使用 json 儲存結構化資料,  Up: 讀寫檔案

2.7.2.1 檔案物件的 method
.........................

本節其餘的範例皆假設一個名為 ‘f’ 的檔案物件已被建立。

要讀取檔案的內容，可呼叫 ‘f.read(size)’，它可讀取一部份的資料，並以字串
（文字模式）或位元組串物件（二進制模式）形式回傳。'size' 是個選擇性的數
字引數。當 'size' 被省略或為負數時，檔案的全部內容會被讀取並回傳；如果檔
案是機器記憶體容量的兩倍大時，這會是你的問題。否則，最多只有等同於
'size' 數量的字元（文字模式）或 'size' 數量的位元組串（二進制模式）會被
讀取及回傳。如果之前已經到達檔案的末端，‘f.read()’ 會回傳空字串（‘''’）
。

     >>> f.read()
     'This is the entire file.\n'
     >>> f.read()
     ''

‘f.readline()’ 從檔案中讀取單獨一行；換行字元（‘\n’）會被留在字串的結尾
，只有當檔案末端不是換行字元時，它才會在檔案的最後一行被省略。這種方式讓
回傳值清晰明確；只要 ‘f.readline()’ 回傳一個空字串，就表示已經到達了檔案
末端，而空白行的表示法是 ‘'\n'’，也就是只含一個換行字元的字串。

     >>> f.readline()
     'This is the first line of the file.\n'
     >>> f.readline()
     'Second line of the file\n'
     >>> f.readline()
     ''

想從檔案中讀取多行時，可以對檔案物件進行迴圈。這種方法能有效地使用記憶體
、快速，且程式碼簡潔：

     >>> for line in f:
     ...     print(line, end='')
     ...
     This is the first line of the file.
     Second line of the file

如果你想把一個檔案的所有行讀進一個 list 裡，可以用 ‘list(f)’ 或
‘f.readlines()’。

‘f.write(string)’ 把 'string' 的內容寫入檔案，並回傳寫入的字元數。

     >>> f.write('This is a test\n')
     15

寫入其他類型的物件之前，要先把它們轉換為字串（文字模式）或位元組串物件（
二進制模式）：

     >>> value = ('the answer', 42)
     >>> s = str(value)  # 將元組轉換成字串
     >>> f.write(s)
     18

‘f.tell()’ 回傳一個整數，它給出檔案物件在檔案中的當前位置，在二進制模式
下表示為檔案開始至今的位元組數，在文字模式下表示為一個意義不明的數字。

使用 ‘f.seek(offset, whence)’ 可以改變檔案物件的位置。位置計算方法是從一
個參考點增加 'offset' 的偏移量；參考點則由引數 'whence' 來選擇。當
'whence' 值為 0 時，表示使用檔案開頭，1 表示使用當前的檔案位置，2 表示使
用檔案末端作為參考點。'whence' 可省略，其預設值為 0，即以檔案開頭作為參
考點。

     >>> f = open('workfile', 'rb+')
     >>> f.write(b'0123456789abcdef')
     16
     >>> f.seek(5)      # 跳到檔案中的第六個位元組
     5
     >>> f.read(1)
     b'5'
     >>> f.seek(-3, 2)  # 跳到結尾前的第三個位元組
     13
     >>> f.read(1)
     b'd'

在文字檔案（開啟時模式字串未加入 ‘b’ 的檔案）中，只允許以檔案開頭為參考
點進行尋找（但 ‘seek(0, 2)’ 尋找檔案最末端是例外），且只有從 ‘f.tell()’
回傳的值，或是 0，才是有效的 'offset' 值。其他任何 'offset' 值都會產生未
定義的行為。

檔案物件還有一些附加的 method，像是較不常使用的 *note isatty(): 1a77. 和
*note truncate(): 11a3.；檔案物件的完整指南詳見程式庫參考手冊。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 json 儲存結構化資料,  Prev: 檔案物件的 method,  Up: 讀寫檔案

2.7.2.2 使用 ‘json’ 儲存結構化資料
..................................

字串可以簡單地從檔案中被寫入和讀取。數字則稍嫌麻煩，因為 *note read():
1a7a. method 只回傳字串，這些字串必須傳遞給像 *note int(): 17e. 這樣的函
式，它接受 ‘'123'’ 這樣的字串，並回傳數值 123。當你想儲存像是巢狀 list 和
dictionary（字典）等複雜的資料類型時，手動剖析 (parsing) 和序列化
(serializing) 就變得複雜。

相較於讓使用者不斷地編寫和除錯程式碼才能把複雜的資料類型儲存到檔案，
Python 支援一個普及的資料交換格式，稱為 JSON (JavaScript Object
Notation)(1)。標準模組 *note json: 7c. 可接收 Python 資料階層，並將它們
轉換為字串表示法；這個過程稱為 'serializing'（序列化）。從字串表示法中重
建資料則稱為 'deserializing'（反序列化）。在序列化和反序列化之間，表示物
件的字串可以被儲存在檔案或資料中，或通過網路連接發送到遠端的機器。

     備註: JSON 格式經常地使用於現代應用程式的資料交換。許多程序設計師早
     已對它耳熟能詳，使它成為提升互操作性 (interoperability) 的好選擇。

如果你有一個物件 ‘x’，只需一行簡單的程式碼即可檢視它的 JSON 字串表示法：

     >>> import json
     >>> x = [1, 'simple', 'list']
     >>> json.dumps(x)
     '[1, "simple", "list"]'

*note dumps(): bb8. 函式有一個變體，稱為 *note dump(): bb7.，它單純地將
物件序列化為 *note text file: 1a7b.。因此，如果 ‘f’ 是一個為了寫入而開啟
的 *note text file: 1a7b. 物件，我們可以這樣做：

     json.dump(x, f)

若 ‘f’ 是一個已開啟、可讀取的 *note binary file: 1a7c. 或 *note text
file: 1a7b. 物件，要再次解碼物件的話：

     x = json.load(f)

     備註: JSON 檔案必須以 UTF-8 格式編碼。在開啟 JSON 檔案以作為一個可
     讀取與寫入的 *note text file: 1a7b. 時，要用 ‘encoding="utf-8"’。

這種簡單的序列化技術可以處理 list 和 dictionary，但要在 JSON 中序列化任
意的 class（類別）實例，則需要一些額外的工作。*note json: 7c. 模組的參考
資料包含對此的說明。

也參考
......

*note pickle: a1. - pickle 模組

與 *note JSON: 1a79. 不同，'pickle' 是一種允許對任意的複雜 Python 物件進
行序列化的協定。因此，它為 Python 所特有，不能用於與其他語言編寫的應用程
式溝通。在預設情況，它也是不安全的：如果資料是由手段高明的攻擊者精心設計
，將這段來自於不受信任來源的 pickle 資料反序列化，可以執行任意的程式碼。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://json.org


File: python.info,  Node: 錯誤和例外,  Next: Class（類別）,  Prev: 輸入和輸出,  Up: Python 教學

2.8 錯誤和例外
==============

到目前為止還沒有提到錯誤訊息，但如果你嘗試運行範例，你可能會發現一些錯誤
訊息。常見的（至少）兩種不同的錯誤類別為：'語法錯誤 (syntax error)' 和
'例外 (exception)'。

* Menu:

* 語法錯誤 (Syntax Error): 語法錯誤 Syntax Error.
* 例外 (Exception): 例外 Exception.
* 處理例外::
* 引發例外::
* 例外鏈接 (Exception Chaining): 例外鏈接 Exception Chaining.
* 使用者自定的例外::
* 定義清理動作::
* 預定義的清理動作::
* 引發及處理多個無關的例外::
* 用註解使例外更詳細::


File: python.info,  Node: 語法錯誤 Syntax Error,  Next: 例外 Exception,  Up: 錯誤和例外

2.8.1 語法錯誤 (Syntax Error)
-----------------------------

語法錯誤又稱剖析錯誤 (parsing error)，它或許是學習 Python 的過程最常聽見
的抱怨：

     >>> while True print('Hello world')
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         while True print('Hello world')
                    ^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

The parser repeats the offending line and displays little 'arrow's
pointing at the token in the line where the error was detected.  The
error may be caused by the absence of a token 'before' the indicated
token.  In the example, the error is detected at the function *note
print(): e02, since a colon (‘':'’) is missing before it.  File name and
line number are printed so you know where to look in case the input came
from a script.


File: python.info,  Node: 例外 Exception,  Next: 處理例外,  Prev: 語法錯誤 Syntax Error,  Up: 錯誤和例外

2.8.2 例外 (Exception)
----------------------

即使一段陳述式或運算式使用了正確的語法，嘗試執行時仍可能導致錯誤。執行時
檢測到的錯誤稱為'例外'，例外不一定都很嚴重：你很快就能學會在 Python 程式
中如何處理它們。不過大多數的例外不會被程式處理，並且會顯示如下的錯誤訊息
：

     >>> 10 * (1/0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> 4 + spam*3
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'spam' is not defined
     >>> '2' + 2
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "int") to str

錯誤訊息的最後一行指示發生了什麼事。例外有不同的類型，而類型名稱會作為訊
息的一部份被印出。範例中的例外類型為：*note ZeroDivisionError: 784.、
*note NameError: 144. 和 *note TypeError: 2ba.。作為例外類型被印出的字串
，就是發生的內建例外 (built-in exception) 的名稱。所有的內建例外都是如此
運作，但對於使用者自定的例外則不一定需要遵守（雖然這是一個有用的慣例）。
標準例外名稱是內建的識別字 (identifier)，不是保留關鍵字 (reserved
keyword)。

此行其餘部分，根據例外的類型及導致例外的原因，說明例外的細節。

錯誤訊息的開頭，用堆疊回溯 (stack traceback) 的形式顯示發生例外的語境。
一般來說，它含有一個列出源程式碼行 (source line) 的堆疊回溯；但它不會顯
示從標準輸入中讀取的程式碼。

*note 內建的例外: 1657.章節列出內建的例外及它們的意義。


File: python.info,  Node: 處理例外,  Next: 引發例外,  Prev: 例外 Exception,  Up: 錯誤和例外

2.8.3 處理例外
--------------

編寫程式處理選定的例外是可行的。以下範例會要求使用者輸入內容，直到有效的
整數被輸入為止，但它允許使用者中斷程式（使用 ‘Control-C’ 或作業系統支援
的指令）；請注意，由使用者產生的程式中斷會引發 *note KeyboardInterrupt:
815. 例外信號。

     >>> while True:
     ...     try:
     ...         x = int(input("Please enter a number: "))
     ...         break
     ...     except ValueError:
     ...         print("Oops!  That was no valid number.  Try again...")
     ...

*note try: 4ea. 陳述式運作方式如下。

   * 首先，執行 'try 子句'（*note try: 4ea. 和 *note except: 3a8. 關鍵字
     之間的陳述式）。

   * 如果沒有發生例外，則 'except 子句'會被跳過，*note try: 4ea. 陳述式
     執行完畢。

   * 如果執行 *note try: 4ea. 子句時發生了例外，則該子句中剩下的部分會被
     跳過。如果例外的類型與 *note except: 3a8. 關鍵字後面的例外名稱相符
     ，則 'except 子句'被執行，然後，繼續執行 try/except 區塊之後的程式
     碼。

   * 如果發生的例外未符合 'except 子句' 中的例外名稱，則將其傳遞到外層的
     *note try: 4ea. 陳述式；如果仍無法找到處理者，則它是一個'未處理例外
     (unhandled exception)'，執行將停止，並顯示錯誤訊息。

*note try: 4ea. 陳述式可以有不只一個 'except 子句'，為不同的例外指定處理
者，而最多只有一個處理者會被執行。處理者只處理對應的 try 子句中發生的例
外，而不會處理同一 ‘try’ 陳述式裡其他處理者內的例外。一個 'except 子句
'可以用一組括號內的 tuple 列舉多個例外，例如：

     ... except (RuntimeError, TypeError, NameError):
     ...     pass

A class in an *note except: 3a8. clause matches exceptions which are
instances of the class itself or one of its derived classes (but not the
other way around -- an 'except clause' listing a derived class does not
match instances of its base classes).  For example, the following code
will print B, C, D in that order:

     class B(Exception):
         pass

     class C(B):
         pass

     class D(C):
         pass

     for cls in [B, C, D]:
         try:
             raise cls()
         except D:
             print("D")
         except C:
             print("C")
         except B:
             print("B")

請注意，如果 'except 子句'的順序被反轉（把 ‘except B’ 放到第一個），則會
印出 B、B、B ­­——第一個符合的 'except 子句'會被觸發。

當例外發生時，它可能有相關聯的值，也就是例外的'引數'。引數的存在與否及它
的類型，是取決於例外的類型。

'except 子句'可以在例外名稱後面指定一個變數。這個變數被綁定到一個例外實
例 (instance)，其引數通常儲存在 ‘args’ 屬性中。為了方便，內建例外型別定
義了 *note __str__(): 418. 以印出所有引數而不需顯式地取用 ‘.args’：

     >>> try:
     ...     raise Exception('spam', 'eggs')
     ... except Exception as inst:
     ...     print(type(inst))    # the exception type
     ...     print(inst.args)     # arguments stored in .args
     ...     print(inst)          # __str__ allows args to be printed directly,
     ...                          # but may be overridden in exception subclasses
     ...     x, y = inst.args     # unpack args
     ...     print('x =', x)
     ...     print('y =', y)
     ...
     <class 'Exception'>
     ('spam', 'eggs')
     ('spam', 'eggs')
     x = spam
     y = eggs

例外的 *note __str__(): 418. 輸出會被印在未處理例外訊息的最後一部分（「
細節」）。

*note BaseException: 3ab. 是由全部的例外所共用的 base class。它的
subclass（子類別）之一，*note Exception: 81e.，則是所有非嚴重例外
(non-fatal exception) 的 base class。有些例外不是 *note Exception: 81e.
的 subclass，而它們通常不會被處理，因為它們是用來指示程式應該終止。這些
例外包括了由 *note sys.exit(): 11dd. 所引發的 *note SystemExit: bb2.，以
及當使用者想要中斷程式時所引發的 *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815.。

*note Exception: 81e. 可以用作通配符 (wildcard) 來捕獲（幾乎）所有的例外
。然而，比較好的做法是盡可能具體地說明我們打算處理的例外類型，並容許任何
非預期例外的傳遞 (propagate)。

處理 *note Exception: 81e. 的最常見模式，是先將該例外印出或記錄，然後再
重新引發它（也允許一個呼叫函式 (caller) 來處理該例外）：

     import sys

     try:
         f = open('myfile.txt')
         s = f.readline()
         i = int(s.strip())
     except OSError as err:
         print("OS error:", err)
     except ValueError:
         print("Could not convert data to an integer.")
     except Exception as err:
         print(f"Unexpected {err=}, {type(err)=}")
         raise

*note try: 4ea. ...  *note except: 3a8. 陳述式有一個選擇性的 'else 子句
'，使用時，該子句必須放在所有 'except 子句'之後。如果一段程式碼必須被執
行，但 'try 子句'又沒有引發例外時，這個子句很有用。例如：

     for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
         try:
             f = open(arg, 'r')
         except OSError:
             print('cannot open', arg)
         else:
             print(arg, 'has', len(f.readlines()), 'lines')
             f.close()

使用 ‘else’ 子句比向 *note try: 4ea. 子句添加額外的程式碼要好，因為這可
以避免意外地捕獲不是由 ‘try’ ...  ‘except’ 陳述式保護的程式碼所引發的例
外。

例外的處理者不僅處理 'try 子句'內立即發生的例外，還處理 'try 子句'內（即
使是間接地）呼叫的函式內部發生的例外。例如：

     >>> def this_fails():
     ...     x = 1/0
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     this_fails()
     ... except ZeroDivisionError as err:
     ...     print('Handling run-time error:', err)
     ...
     Handling run-time error: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: 引發例外,  Next: 例外鏈接 Exception Chaining,  Prev: 處理例外,  Up: 錯誤和例外

2.8.4 引發例外
--------------

*note raise: 3e1. 陳述式可讓程式設計師強制引發指定的例外。例如：

     >>> raise NameError('HiThere')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: HiThere

*note raise: 3e1. 唯一的引數就是要引發的例外。該引數必須是一個例外實例或
例外 class（衍生自 *note BaseException: 3ab. 的 class，例如 *note
Exception: 81e. 與它的 subclass）。如果一個例外 class 被傳遞，它會不含引
數地呼叫它的建構函式 (constructor) ，使它被自動建立實例 (implicitly
instantiated)：

     raise ValueError  # 'raise ValueError()' 的簡寫

如果你只想判斷是否引發了例外，但並不打算處理它，則可以使用簡單的 *note
raise: 3e1. 陳述式來重新引發該例外：

     >>> try:
     ...     raise NameError('HiThere')
     ... except NameError:
     ...     print('An exception flew by!')
     ...     raise
     ...
     An exception flew by!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     NameError: HiThere


File: python.info,  Node: 例外鏈接 Exception Chaining,  Next: 使用者自定的例外,  Prev: 引發例外,  Up: 錯誤和例外

2.8.5 例外鏈接 (Exception Chaining)
-----------------------------------

如果在 *note except: 3a8. 段落內部發生了一個未處理的例外，則它會讓這個將
要被處理的例外附加在後，並將其包含在錯誤訊息中：

     >>> try:
     ...     open("database.sqlite")
     ... except OSError:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'database.sqlite'

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
     RuntimeError: unable to handle error

為了表明一個例外是另一個例外直接造成的結果，*note raise: 3e1. 陳述式容許
一個選擇性的 *note from: 3e1. 子句：

     # exc 必須是例外實例或 None。
     raise RuntimeError from exc

要變換例外時，這種方式很有用。例如：

     >>> def func():
     ...     raise ConnectionError
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     func()
     ... except ConnectionError as exc:
     ...     raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in func
     ConnectionError

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
     RuntimeError: Failed to open database

它也容許使用慣用語 ‘from None’ 來停用自動例外鏈接：

     >>> try:
     ...     open('database.sqlite')
     ... except OSError:
     ...     raise RuntimeError from None
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
     RuntimeError

更多關於鏈接機制的資訊，詳見*note 內建的例外: 1657.。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用者自定的例外,  Next: 定義清理動作,  Prev: 例外鏈接 Exception Chaining,  Up: 錯誤和例外

2.8.6 使用者自定的例外
----------------------

程式可以通過建立新的例外 class 來命名自己的例外（深入了解 Python class，
詳見*note Class（類別）: 1a14.）。不論是直接還是間接地，例外通常應該從
*note Exception: 81e. class 衍生出來。

例外 class 可被定義來做任何其他 class 能夠做的事，但通常會讓它維持簡單，
只提供一些屬性，讓關於錯誤的資訊可被例外的處理者抽取出來。

大多數的例外定義，都會以「Error」作為名稱結尾，類似於標準例外的命名。

許多標準模組會定義它們自己的例外，以報告在其定義的函式中發生的錯誤。


File: python.info,  Node: 定義清理動作,  Next: 預定義的清理動作,  Prev: 使用者自定的例外,  Up: 錯誤和例外

2.8.7 定義清理動作
------------------

*note try: 4ea. 陳述式有另一個選擇性子句，用於定義在所有情況下都必須被執
行的清理動作。例如：

     >>> try:
     ...     raise KeyboardInterrupt
     ... finally:
     ...     print('Goodbye, world!')
     ...
     Goodbye, world!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     KeyboardInterrupt

如果 *note finally: 80e. 子句存在，則 ‘finally’ 子句會是 *note try: 4ea.
陳述式結束前執行的最後一項任務。不論 ‘try’ 陳述式是否產生例外，都會執行
‘finally’ 子句。以下幾點將探討例外發生時，比較複雜的情況：

   * 若一個例外發生於 ‘try’ 子句的執行過程，則該例外會被某個 *note
     except: 3a8. 子句處理。如果該例外沒有被 ‘except’ 子句處理，它會在
     ‘finally’ 子句執行後被重新引發。

   * 一個例外可能發生於 ‘except’ 或 ‘else’ 子句的執行過程。同樣地，該例
     外會在 ‘finally’ 子句執行後被重新引發。

   * 如果 ‘finally’ 子句執行 *note break: 8fc.、*note continue: 80d. 或
     *note return: 812. 陳述式，則例外不會被重新引發。

   * 如果 ‘try’ 陳述式遇到 *note break: 8fc.、*note continue: 80d. 或
     *note return: 812. 陳述式，則 ‘finally’ 子句會在執行 ‘break’、
     ‘continue’ 或 ‘return’ 陳述式之前先執行。

   * 如果 ‘finally’ 子句中包含 ‘return’ 陳述式，則回傳值會是來自
     ‘finally’ 子句的 ‘return’ 陳述式的回傳值，而不是來自 ‘try’ 子句的
     ‘return’ 陳述式的回傳值。

例如：

     >>> def bool_return():
     ...     try:
     ...         return True
     ...     finally:
     ...         return False
     ...
     >>> bool_return()
     False

另一個比較複雜的範例：

     >>> def divide(x, y):
     ...     try:
     ...         result = x / y
     ...     except ZeroDivisionError:
     ...         print("division by zero!")
     ...     else:
     ...         print("result is", result)
     ...     finally:
     ...         print("executing finally clause")
     ...
     >>> divide(2, 1)
     result is 2.0
     executing finally clause
     >>> divide(2, 0)
     division by zero!
     executing finally clause
     >>> divide("2", "1")
     executing finally clause
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 3, in divide
     TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'

如你所見，*note finally: 80e. 子句在任何情況下都會被執行。兩個字串相除所
引發的 *note TypeError: 2ba. 沒有被 *note except: 3a8. 子句處理，因此會
在 ‘finally’ 子句執行後被重新引發。

在真實應用程式中，*note finally: 80e. 子句對於釋放外部資源（例如檔案或網
路連線）很有用，無論該資源的使用是否成功。


File: python.info,  Node: 預定義的清理動作,  Next: 引發及處理多個無關的例外,  Prev: 定義清理動作,  Up: 錯誤和例外

2.8.8 預定義的清理動作
----------------------

某些物件定義了在物件不再被需要時的標準清理動作，無論使用該物件的作業是成
功或失敗。請看以下範例，它嘗試開啟一個檔案，並印出檔案內容至螢幕。

     for line in open("myfile.txt"):
         print(line, end="")

這段程式碼的問題在於，執行完該程式碼後，它讓檔案在一段不確定的時間內處於
開啟狀態。在簡單腳本中這不是問題，但對於較大的應用程式來說可能會是個問題
。*note with: 3c5. 陳述式讓物件（例如檔案）在被使用時，能保證它們總是及
時、正確地被清理。

     with open("myfile.txt") as f:
         for line in f:
             print(line, end="")

陳述式執行完畢後，就算是在處理內容時遇到問題，檔案 'f' 總是會被關閉。和
檔案一樣，提供預定義清理動作的物件會在說明文件中表明這一點。


File: python.info,  Node: 引發及處理多個無關的例外,  Next: 用註解使例外更詳細,  Prev: 預定義的清理動作,  Up: 錯誤和例外

2.8.9 引發及處理多個無關的例外
------------------------------

在某些情況下，必須回報已經發生的多個例外。在並行框架 (concurrency
framework) 中經常會出現這種情況，當平行的 (parallel) 某些任務可能已經失
效，但還有其他用例 (use case) 希望能繼續執行並收集多個例外，而不是只有引
發第一個例外時。

內建的 *note ExceptionGroup: 17b. 會包裝一個例外實例 (exception
instance) 的 list（串列），使得它們可以一起被引發。由於它本身就是一個例
外，因此它也可以像任何其他例外一樣被捕獲。

     >>> def f():
     ...     excs = [OSError('error 1'), SystemError('error 2')]
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
     ...
     >>> f()
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in f
       | ExceptionGroup: there were problems
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | OSError: error 1
         +---------------- 2 ----------------
         | SystemError: error 2
         +------------------------------------
     >>> try:
     ...     f()
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)}: e')
     ...
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'>: e
     >>>

若使用 ‘except*’ 代替 ‘except’，我們可以選擇性地只處理該群組中與特定類型
匹配的例外。在以下範例中，展示了一個巢狀的例外群組 (exception group)，每
個 ‘except*’ 子句分別從該群組中提取一個特定類型的例外，同時讓所有其他的
例外都傳遞到其他子句，最後再被重新引發。

     >>> def f():
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup(
     ...         "group1",
     ...         [
     ...             OSError(1),
     ...             SystemError(2),
     ...             ExceptionGroup(
     ...                 "group2",
     ...                 [
     ...                     OSError(3),
     ...                     RecursionError(4)
     ...                 ]
     ...             )
     ...         ]
     ...     )
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     f()
     ... except* OSError as e:
     ...     print("There were OSErrors")
     ... except* SystemError as e:
     ...     print("There were SystemErrors")
     ...
     There were OSErrors
     There were SystemErrors
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
       | ExceptionGroup: group1
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | ExceptionGroup: group2
         +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
           | RecursionError: 4
           +------------------------------------
     >>>

請注意，被巢套在例外群組中的例外必須是實例，而不是類型。這是因為在實務上
，這些例外通常是已經被程式引發並捕獲的例外，類似以下的模式：

     >>> excs = []
     ... for test in tests:
     ...     try:
     ...         test.run()
     ...     except Exception as e:
     ...         excs.append(e)
     ...
     >>> if excs:
     ...    raise ExceptionGroup("Test Failures", excs)
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: 用註解使例外更詳細,  Prev: 引發及處理多個無關的例外,  Up: 錯誤和例外

2.8.10 用註解使例外更詳細
-------------------------

當一個例外是為了被引發而建立時，它通常會伴隨著一些資訊被初始化，這些資訊
描述了當下發生的錯誤。在某些情況，在例外被捕獲之後添加資訊會很有用。為此
，例外具有一個 ‘add_note(note)’ method（方法），它可以接受一個字串並將其
添加到例外的註解清單中。標準的回溯呈現會在例外之後列出所有的註解，並按照
其被添加的順序來排列。

     >>> try:
     ...     raise TypeError('bad type')
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     e.add_note('Add some information')
     ...     e.add_note('Add some more information')
     ...     raise
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     TypeError: bad type
     Add some information
     Add some more information
     >>>

例如，在將例外收集到例外群組中時，我們可能希望為各個錯誤添加一些上下文的
資訊。在以下範例中，群組中的每個例外都有一條註解，指示此錯誤是在何時發生
。

     >>> def f():
     ...     raise OSError('operation failed')
     ...
     >>> excs = []
     >>> for i in range(3):
     ...     try:
     ...         f()
     ...     except Exception as e:
     ...         e.add_note(f'Happened in Iteration {i+1}')
     ...         excs.append(e)
     ...
     >>> raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       | ExceptionGroup: We have some problems (3 sub-exceptions)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 1
         +---------------- 2 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 2
         +---------------- 3 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 3
         +------------------------------------
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Class（類別）,  Next: Python 標準函式庫概覽,  Prev: 錯誤和例外,  Up: Python 教學

2.9 Class（類別）
=================

Class 提供了一種結合資料與功能的手段。建立一個 class 將會新增一個物件的
'型別 (type)'，並且允許建立該型別的新'實例 (instance)'。每一個 class 實
例可以擁有一些維持該實例狀態的屬性 (attribute)。Class 實例也可以有一些（
由其 class 所定義的）method（方法），用於修改該實例的狀態。

與其他程式語言相比，Python 的 class 機制為 class 增加了最少的新語法跟語
意。他混合了 C++ 和 Modula-3 的 class 機制。Python 的 class 提供了所有物
件導向程式設計 (Object Oriented Programming) 的標準特色：class 繼承機制
允許多個 base class（基底類別），一個 derived class（衍生類別）可以覆寫
(override) 其 base class 的任何 method，且一個 method 可以用相同的名稱呼
叫其 base class 的 method。物件可以包含任意數量及任意種類的資料。如同模
組一樣，class 也具有 Python 的動態特性：他們在執行期 (runtime) 被建立，
且可以在建立之後被修改。

在 C++ 的術語中，class 成員（包含資料成員）通常都是'公開'的（除了以下內
容：*note 私有變數: 1a95.），而所有的成員函式都是'虛擬'的。如同在
Modula-3 中一樣，Python 並沒有提供簡寫可以從物件的 method 裡參照其成員：
method 函式與一個外顯的 (explicit)、第一個代表物件的引數被宣告，而此引數
是在呼叫時隱性地 (implicitly) 被提供。如同在 Smalltak 中，class 都是物件
，這為 import 及重新命名提供了語意。不像 C++ 和 Modula-3，Pyhon 內建的型
別可以被使用者以 base class 用於其他擴充 (extension)。另外，如同在 C++ 中
，大多數有著特別語法的內建運算子（算術運算子、下標等）都可以為了 class 實
例而被重新定義。

（由於缺乏普遍能接受的術語來討論 class，我偶爾會使用 Smalltalk 和 C++ 的
術語。我會使用 Modula-3 的術語，因為它比 C++ 更接近 Python 的物件導向語
意，但我預期比較少的讀者會聽過它。）

* Menu:

* 關於名稱與物件的一段話::
* Python 作用域 (Scope) 及命名空間 (Namespace): Python 作用域 Scope 及命名空間 Namespace.
* 初見 class::
* 隨意的備註::
* 繼承 (Inheritance): 繼承 Inheritance.
* 私有變數::
* 補充說明::
* 疊代器 (Iterator): 疊代器 Iterator.
* 產生器 (Generator): 產生器 Generator.
* 產生器運算式::


File: python.info,  Node: 關於名稱與物件的一段話,  Next: Python 作用域 Scope 及命名空間 Namespace,  Up: Class（類別）

2.9.1 關於名稱與物件的一段話
----------------------------

物件有個體性 (individuality)，且多個名稱（在多個作用域 (scope) ）可以被
連結到相同的物件。這在其他語言中被稱為別名 (aliasing)。初次接觸 Python 時
通常不會注意這件事，而在處理不可變的基本型別（數值、字串、tuple）時，它
也可以安全地被忽略。然而，別名在含有可變物件（如 list（串列）、
dictionary（字典）、和大多數其他的型別）的 Python 程式碼語意中，可能會有
意外的效果。這通常有利於程式，因為別名在某些方面表現得像指標 (pointer)。
舉例來說，在實作時傳遞一個物件是便宜的，因為只有指標被傳遞；假如函式修改
了一個作為引數傳遞的物件，呼叫函式者 (caller) 能夠見到這些改變——這消除了
在 Pascal 中兩個相異引數傳遞機制的需求。


File: python.info,  Node: Python 作用域 Scope 及命名空間 Namespace,  Next: 初見 class,  Prev: 關於名稱與物件的一段話,  Up: Class（類別）

2.9.2 Python 作用域 (Scope) 及命名空間 (Namespace)
--------------------------------------------------

在介紹 class 之前，我必須先告訴你一些關於 Python 作用域的規則。Class
definition（類別定義）以命名空間展現了一些俐落的技巧，而你需要了解作用域
和命名空間的運作才能完整理解正在發生的事情。順帶一提，關於這個主題的知識
對任何進階的 Python 程式設計師都是很有用的。

讓我們從一些定義開始。

'命名空間'是從名稱到物件的映射。大部分的命名空間現在都是以 Python 的
dictionary 被實作，但通常不會以任何方式被察覺（除了性能），且它可能會在
未來改變。命名空間的例子有：內建名稱的集合（包含如 *note abs(): 1a99. 的
函式，和內建的例外名稱）；模組中的全域 (global) 名稱；和在函式調用中的區
域 (local) 名稱。某種意義上，物件中的屬性集合也會形成一個命名空間。關於
命名空間的重要一點是，不同命名空間中的名稱之間絕對沒有關係；舉例來說，兩
個不一樣的模組都可以定義一個 ‘maximize’ 函式而不會混淆——模組的使用者必須
為它加上前綴 (prefix) 模組名稱。

順帶一提，我使用'屬性 (attribute)' 這個字，統稱句號 (dot) 後面的任何名稱
——例如，運算式中的 ‘z.real’，‘real’ 是物件 ‘z’ 的一個屬性。嚴格來說，模
組中名稱的參照都是屬性參照：在運算式 ‘modname.funcname’ 中，‘modname’ 是
模組物件而 ‘funcname’ 是它的屬性。在這種情況下，模組的屬性和模組中定義的
全域名稱碰巧有一個直接的對映：他們共享了相同的命名空間！(1)

屬性可以是唯讀的或可寫的。在後者的情況下，對屬性的賦值是可能的。模組屬性
是可寫的：你可以寫 ‘modname.the_answer = 42’。可寫屬性也可以用 *note
del: 1570. 陳述式刪除。例如，‘del modname.the_answer’ 將從名為 ‘modname’
的物件中刪除屬性 ‘the_answer’。

命名空間在不同的時刻被建立，並且有不同的壽命。當 Python 直譯器啟動時，含
有內建名稱的命名空間會被建立，並且永遠不會被刪除。當模組定義被讀入時，模
組的全域命名空間會被建立；一般情況下，模組的命名空間也會持續到直譯器結束
。被直譯器的頂層調用 (top-level invocation) 執行的陳述式，不論是從腳本檔
案讀取的或是互動模式中的，會被視為一個稱為 *note __main__: 1. 的模組的一
部分，因此它們具有自己的全域命名空間。（內建名稱實際上也存在一個模組中，
它被稱為 *note builtins: 10.。）

函式的區域命名空間是在呼叫函式時建立的，而當函式返回，或引發了未在函式中
處理的例外時，此命名空間將會被刪除。（實際上，忘記是描述實際發生的事情的
更好方法。） 當然，每個遞迴調用 (recursive invocation) 都有自己的區域命
名空間。

'作用域'是 Python 程式中的一個文本區域 (textual region)，在此區域，命名
空間是可直接存取的。這裡的「可直接存取的」意思是，對一個名稱的非限定參照
(unqualified reference) 可以在命名空間內嘗試尋找該名稱。

儘管作用域是靜態地被決定，但它們是動態地被使用的。在執行期間內的任何時間
點，都會有 3 或 4 個巢狀的作用域，其命名空間是可以被直接存取的：

   * 最內層作用域，會最先被搜尋，而它包含了區域名稱

   * 任何外圍函式 (enclosing function) 的作用域，會從最近的外圍作用域開
     始搜尋，它包含了非區域 (non-local) 和非全域 (non-global) 的名稱

   * 倒數第二個作用域，包含當前模組的全域名稱

   * 最外面的作用域（最後搜尋），是包含內建名稱的命名空間

如果一個名稱被宣告為全域，則所有的參照和賦值將直接轉到包含模組全域名稱的
倒數第二個作用域。要重新連結最內層作用域以外找到的變數，可以使用 *note
nonlocal: 113b. 陳述式；如果那些變數沒有被宣告為 nonlocal，則它們會是唯
讀的（嘗試寫入這樣的變數只會在最內層的作用域內建立一個'新的'區域變數，同
名的外部變數則維持不變）。

通常，區域作用域會參照（文本的）當前函式的區域名稱。在函式外部，區域作用
域與全域作用域參照相同的命名空間：模組的命名空間。然而，Class definition
會在區域作用域中放置另一個命名空間。

務必要了解，作用域是按文本被決定的：在模組中定義的函式，其全域作用域便是
該模組的命名空間，無論函式是從何處或以什麼別名被呼叫。另一方面，對名稱的
實際搜尋是在執行時期 (run time) 動態完成的——但是，語言定義的發展，正朝向
在「編譯」時期 (compile time) 的靜態名稱解析 (static name resolution)，
所以不要太依賴動態名稱解析 (dynamic name resolution)！ （事實上，局部變
數已經是靜態地被決定。）

一個 Python 的特殊癖好是——假如沒有 *note global: 1a13. 或 *note
nonlocal: 113b. 陳述式的效果——名稱的賦值 (assignment) 都會指向最內層作用
域。賦值不會複製資料——它們只會把名稱連結至物件。刪除也是一樣：陳述式
‘del x’ 會從區域作用域參照的命名空間移除 ‘x’ 的連結。事實上，引入新名稱
的所有運算都使用區域作用域：特別是 *note import: 3d5. 陳述式和函式定義，
會連結區域作用域內的模組或函式名稱。

*note global: 1a13. 陳述式可以用來表示特定變數存活在全域作用域，應該被重
新綁定到那裡；*note nonlocal: 113b. 陳述式表示特定變數存活在外圍作用域內
，應該被重新綁定到那裡。

* Menu:

* 作用域和命名空間的範例::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Except for one thing.  Module objects have a secret read-only
attribute called *note __dict__: 2e2. which returns the dictionary used
to implement the module's namespace; the name ‘__dict__’ is an attribute
but not a global name.  Obviously, using this violates the abstraction
of namespace implementation, and should be restricted to things like
post-mortem debuggers.


File: python.info,  Node: 作用域和命名空間的範例,  Up: Python 作用域 Scope 及命名空間 Namespace

2.9.2.1 作用域和命名空間的範例
..............................

這是一個範例，演示如何參照不同的作用域和命名空間，以及 *note global:
1a13. 和 *note nonlocal: 113b. 如何影響變數的綁定：

     def scope_test():
         def do_local():
             spam = "local spam"

         def do_nonlocal():
             nonlocal spam
             spam = "nonlocal spam"

         def do_global():
             global spam
             spam = "global spam"

         spam = "test spam"
         do_local()
         print("After local assignment:", spam)
         do_nonlocal()
         print("After nonlocal assignment:", spam)
         do_global()
         print("After global assignment:", spam)

     scope_test()
     print("In global scope:", spam)

範例程式碼的輸出是：

     After local assignment: test spam
     After nonlocal assignment: nonlocal spam
     After global assignment: nonlocal spam
     In global scope: global spam

請注意，'區域'賦值（預設情況）不會改變 'scope_test' 對 'spam' 的連結。
*note nonlocal: 113b. 賦值改變了 'scope_test' 對 'spam' 的連結，而 *note
global: 1a13. 賦值改變了模組層次的連結。

你還可以發現，在 *note global: 1a13. 賦值之前，沒有對 'spam' 的連結。


File: python.info,  Node: 初見 class,  Next: 隨意的備註,  Prev: Python 作用域 Scope 及命名空間 Namespace,  Up: Class（類別）

2.9.3 初見 class
----------------

Class 採用一些新的語法，三個新的物件型別，以及一些新的語意。

* Menu:

* Class definition（類別定義）語法::
* Class 物件::
* 實例物件::
* Method 物件::
* Class 及實例變數::


File: python.info,  Node: Class definition（類別定義）語法,  Next: Class 物件,  Up: 初見 class

2.9.3.1 Class definition（類別定義）語法
........................................

Class definition 最簡單的形式如下：

     class ClassName:
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

Class definition，如同函式定義（*note def: 12ca. 陳述式），必須在它們有
任何效果前先執行。（你可以想像把 class definition 放在一個 *note if:
266. 陳述式的分支，或在函式裡。）

在實作時，class definition 內的陳述式通常會是函式定義，但其他陳述式也是
允許的，有時很有用——我們稍後會回到這裡。Class 中的函式定義通常會有一個獨
特的引數列表形式，取決於 method 的呼叫慣例——再一次地，這將會在稍後解釋。

當進入 class definition，一個新的命名空間將會被建立，並且作為區域作用域
——因此，所有區域變數的賦值將進入這個新的命名空間。特別是，函式定義會在這
裡連結新函式的名稱。

正常地（從結尾處）離開 class definition 時，一個 'class 物件'會被建立。
基本上這是一個包裝器 (wrapper)，裝著 class definition 建立的命名空間內容
；我們將在下一節中更加了解 class 物件。原始的區域作用域（在進入 class
definition 之前已生效的作用域）會恢復，在此 class 物件會被連結到 class
definition 標頭中給出的 class 名稱（在範例中為 ‘ClassName’）。


File: python.info,  Node: Class 物件,  Next: 實例物件,  Prev: Class definition（類別定義）語法,  Up: 初見 class

2.9.3.2 Class 物件
..................

Class 物件支援兩種運算：屬性參照 (attribute reference) 和實例化
(instantiation)。

'屬性參照'使用 Python 中所有屬性參照的標準語法：‘obj.name’。有效的屬性名
稱是 class 物件被建立時，class 的命名空間中所有的名稱。所以，如果 class
definition 看起來像這樣：

     class MyClass:
         """一個簡單的類別範例"""
         i = 12345

         def f(self):
             return 'hello world'

then ‘MyClass.i’ and ‘MyClass.f’ are valid attribute references,
returning an integer and a function object, respectively.  Class
attributes can also be assigned to, so you can change the value of
‘MyClass.i’ by assignment.  *note __doc__: 1aa1. is also a valid
attribute, returning the docstring belonging to the class: ‘"A simple
example class"’.

Class '實例化'使用了函式記法 (function notation)。就好像 class 物件是一
個沒有參數的函式，它回傳一個新的 class 實例。例如（假設是上述的 class）
：

     x = MyClass()

建立 class 的一個新'實例'，並將此物件指派給區域變數 ‘x’。

實例化運算（「呼叫」一個 class 物件）會建立一個空的物件。許多 class 喜歡
在建立物件時有著自訂的特定實例初始狀態。因此，class 可以定義一個名為
*note __init__(): 4ae. 的特別 method，像這樣：

     def __init__(self):
         self.data = []

當 class 定義了 *note __init__(): 4ae. method，class 實例化會為新建的
class 實例自動調用 ‘__init__()’。所以在這個範例中，一個新的、初始化的實
例可以如此獲得：

     x = MyClass()

當然，*note __init__(): 4ae. method 可能為了更多的彈性而有引數。在這種情
況下，要給 class 實例化運算子的引數會被傳遞給 ‘__init__()’。例如：

     >>> class Complex:
     ...     def __init__(self, realpart, imagpart):
     ...         self.r = realpart
     ...         self.i = imagpart
     ...
     >>> x = Complex(3.0, -4.5)
     >>> x.r, x.i
     (3.0, -4.5)


File: python.info,  Node: 實例物件,  Next: Method 物件,  Prev: Class 物件,  Up: 初見 class

2.9.3.3 實例物件
................

現在，我們可以如何處理實例物件？實例物件能理解的唯一運算就是屬性參照。有
兩種有效的屬性名稱：資料屬性 (data attribute) 和 method。

'資料屬性'對應 Smalltalk 中的「實例變數」，以及 C++ 中的「資料成員」。資
料屬性不需要被宣告；和區域變數一樣，它們在第一次被賦值時就會立即存在。例
如，如果 ‘x’ 是 ‘MyClass’ 在上述例子中建立的實例，下面的程式碼將印出值
‘16’，而不留下蹤跡：

     x.counter = 1
     while x.counter < 10:
         x.counter = x.counter * 2
     print(x.counter)
     del x.counter

The other kind of instance attribute reference is a 'method'.  A method
is a function that "belongs to" an object.

實例物件的有效 method 名稱取決於其 class。根據定義，一個 class 中所有的
函式物件屬性，就定義了實例的對應 method。所以在我們的例子中，‘x.f’ 是一
個有效的 method 參照，因為 ‘MyClass.f’ 是一個函式，但 ‘x.i’ 不是，因為
‘MyClass.i’ 不是。但 ‘x.f’ 與 ‘MyClass.f’ 是不一樣的——它是一個 'method 物
件'，而不是函式物件。


File: python.info,  Node: Method 物件,  Next: Class 及實例變數,  Prev: 實例物件,  Up: 初見 class

2.9.3.4 Method 物件
...................

通常，一個 method 在它被連結後隨即被呼叫：

     x.f()

在 ‘MyClass’ 的例子中，這將回傳字串 ‘'hello world'’。然而，並沒有必要立
即呼叫一個 method：‘x.f’ 是一個 method 物件，並且可以被儲藏起來，之後再
被呼叫。舉例來說：

     xf = x.f
     while True:
         print(xf())

將會持續印出 ‘hello world’ 直到天荒地老。

當一個 method 被呼叫時究竟會發生什麼事？你可能已經注意到 ‘x.f()’ 被呼叫
時沒有任何的引數，儘管 ‘f()’ 的函式定義有指定一個引數。這個引數發生了什
麼事？當一個需要引數的函式被呼叫而沒有給任何引數時，Python 肯定會引發例
外——即使該引數實際上沒有被使用...

事實上，你可能已經猜到了答案：method 的特殊之處在於，實例物件會作為函式
中的第一個引數被傳遞。在我們的例子中，‘x.f()’ 這個呼叫等同於
‘MyClass.f(x)’。一般來說，呼叫一個有 'n' 個引數的 method，等同於呼叫一個
對應函式，其引數列表 (argument list) 被建立時，會在第一個引數前插入該
method 的實例物件。

一般來說，方法的工作原理如下。當一個實例的非資料屬性被參照時，將會搜尋該
實例的 class。如果該名稱是一個有效的 class 屬性，而且是一個函式物件，則
對實例物件和函式物件的參照都會被打包到方法物件中。當使用引數串列呼叫方法
物件時，會根據實例物件和引數串列來建構一個新的引數串列，並使用該新引數串
列來呼叫函式物件。


File: python.info,  Node: Class 及實例變數,  Prev: Method 物件,  Up: 初見 class

2.9.3.5 Class 及實例變數
........................

一般來說，實例變數用於每一個實例的獨特資料，而 class 變數用於該 class 的
所有實例共享的屬性和 method：

     class Dog:

         kind = 'canine'         # class variable shared by all instances

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name    # instance variable unique to each instance

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.kind                  # shared by all dogs
     'canine'
     >>> e.kind                  # shared by all dogs
     'canine'
     >>> d.name                  # unique to d
     'Fido'
     >>> e.name                  # unique to e
     'Buddy'

如同在*note 關於名稱與物件的一段話: 1a97.的討論，共享的資料若涉及 *note
mutable: 19f4. 物件，如 list 和 dictionary，可能會產生意外的影響。舉例來
說，下列程式碼的 'tricks' list 不應該作為一個 class 變數使用，因為這個
list 將會被所有的 'Dog' 實例所共享：

     class Dog:

         tricks = []             # mistaken use of a class variable

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name

         def add_trick(self, trick):
             self.tricks.append(trick)

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
     >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
     >>> d.tricks                # unexpectedly shared by all dogs
     ['roll over', 'play dead']

正確的 class 設計應該使用實例變數：

     class Dog:

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name
             self.tricks = []    # creates a new empty list for each dog

         def add_trick(self, trick):
             self.tricks.append(trick)

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
     >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
     >>> d.tricks
     ['roll over']
     >>> e.tricks
     ['play dead']


File: python.info,  Node: 隨意的備註,  Next: 繼承 Inheritance,  Prev: 初見 class,  Up: Class（類別）

2.9.4 隨意的備註
----------------

如果屬性名稱同時出現在一個實例和一個 class 中，則屬性的尋找會以實例為優
先：

     >>> class Warehouse:
     ...    purpose = 'storage'
     ...    region = 'west'
     ...
     >>> w1 = Warehouse()
     >>> print(w1.purpose, w1.region)
     storage west
     >>> w2 = Warehouse()
     >>> w2.region = 'east'
     >>> print(w2.purpose, w2.region)
     storage east

資料屬性可能被 method 或是被物件的一般使用者（「客戶端」）所參照。也就是
說，class 不可用於實作純粹抽象的資料型別。事實上，在 Python 中沒有任何可
能的方法，可強制隱藏資料——這都是基於慣例。（另一方面，以 C 編寫的 Python
實作可以完全隱藏實作細節並且在必要時控制物件的存取；這可以被以 C 編寫的
Python 擴充所使用。）

客戶端應該小心使用資料屬性——客戶端可能會因為覆寫他們的資料屬性，而破壞了
被 method 維護的不變性。注意，客戶端可以增加他們自己的資料屬性到實例物件
，但不影響 method 的有效性，只要避免名稱衝突即可——再一次提醒，命名慣例可
以在這裡節省很多麻煩。

在 method 中參照資料屬性（或其他 method！）是沒有簡寫的。我發現這實際上
增加了 method 的可閱讀性：在瀏覽 method 時，絕不會混淆區域變數和實例變數
。

通常，方法的第一個引數稱為 ‘self’。這僅僅只是一個慣例：‘self’ 這個名字對
Python 來說完全沒有特別的意義。但請注意，如果不遵循慣例，你的程式碼可能
對其他 Python 程式設計師來說可讀性較低，此外，也可以想像一個可能因信任此
慣例而編寫的 'class 瀏覽器 (browser)' 程式。

任何一個作為 class 屬性的函式物件都為該 class 的實例定義了一個相應的
method。函式定義不一定要包含在 class definition 的文本中：將函式物件指定
給 class 中的區域變數也是可以的。例如：

     # Function defined outside the class
     def f1(self, x, y):
         return min(x, x+y)

     class C:
         f = f1

         def g(self):
             return 'hello world'

         h = g

現在 ‘f’、‘g’ 和 ‘h’ 都是 class ‘C’ 的屬性，並指向函式物件，所以他們都是
class ‘C’ 實例的 method —— ‘h’ 與 ‘g’ 是完全一樣的。請注意，這種做法通常
只會使該程式的讀者感到困惑。

Method 可以藉由使用 ‘self’ 引數的 method 屬性，呼叫其他 method：

     class Bag:
         def __init__(self):
             self.data = []

         def add(self, x):
             self.data.append(x)

         def addtwice(self, x):
             self.add(x)
             self.add(x)

Method 可以用與一般函式相同的方式參照全域名稱。與 method 相關的全域作用
域，就是包含其定義的模組。（class 永遠不會被用作全域作用域。）雖然人們很
少有在 method 中使用全域資料的充分理由，但全域作用域仍有許多合法的使用：
比方說，被 import 至全域作用域的函式和模組，可以被 method 以及在該作用域
中定義的函式和 class 所使用。通常，包含 method 的 class，它本身就是被定
義在這個全域作用域，在下一節，我們將看到 method 想要參照自己的 class 的
一些好原因。

每個值都是一個物件，因此都具有一個 'class'，也可以稱為它的 'type（型別）
'。它以 ‘object.__class__’ 被儲存。


File: python.info,  Node: 繼承 Inheritance,  Next: 私有變數,  Prev: 隨意的備註,  Up: Class（類別）

2.9.5 繼承 (Inheritance)
------------------------

當然，如果沒有支援繼承，「class」這個語言特色就不值得被稱為 class。一個
derived class（衍生類別）定義的語法看起來如下：

     class DerivedClassName(BaseClassName):
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

名稱 ‘BaseClassName’ 必須被定義於作用域可及的命名空間，且該作用域要包含
derived class 定義。要代替 base class（基底類別）的名稱，用其他任意的運
算式也是被允許的。這會很有用，例如，當一個 base class 是在另一個模組中被
定義時：

     class DerivedClassName(modname.BaseClassName):

執行 derived class 定義的過程，與執行 base class 相同。當 class 物件被建
構時，base class 會被記住。這是用於解析屬性參照：如果一個要求的屬性無法
在該 class 中找到，則會繼續在 base class 中搜尋。假如該 base class 本身
也是衍生自其他 class，則這個規則會遞迴地被應用。

關於 derived class 的實例化並沒有特別之處：‘DerivedClassName()’ 會建立該
class 的一個新實例。Method 的參照被解析如下：對應的 class 屬性會被搜尋，
如果需要，沿著 base class 的繼承鍊往下走，如果這產生了一個函式物件，則該
method 的參照是有效的。

Derived class 可以覆寫其 base class 的 method。因為 method 在呼叫同一個
物件的其他 method 時沒有特別的特權，所以當 base class 的一個 method 在呼
叫相同 base class 中定義的另一個 method 時，最終可能會呼叫到一個覆寫它的
derived class 中的 method。（給 C++ 程式設計師：Python 中所有 method 實
際上都是 ‘virtual’。）

一個在 derived class 覆寫的 method 可能事實上是想要擴充而非單純取代 base
class 中相同名稱的 method。要直接呼叫 base class 的 method 有一個簡單的
方法：只要呼叫 ‘BaseClassName.methodname(self, arguments)’。這有時對客戶
端也很有用。（請注意，只有在 base class 在全域作用域可以用
‘BaseClassName’ 被存取時，這方法才有效。）

Python 有兩個內建函式可以用於繼承：

   * 使用 *note isinstance(): 14b. 判斷一個實例的型別：‘isinstance(obj,
     int)’ 只有在 ‘obj.__class__’ 是 *note int: 17e. 或衍伸自 *note int:
     17e. 時，結果才會是 ‘True’。

   * 使用 *note issubclass(): 5df. 判斷 class 繼承：‘issubclass(bool,
     int)’ 會是 ‘True’，因為 *note bool: 17d. 是 *note int: 17e. 的
     subclass（子類別）。但是，‘issubclass(float, int)’ 是 ‘False’，因為
     *note float: 26a. 並不是 *note int: 17e. 的 subclass。

* Menu:

* 多重繼承::


File: python.info,  Node: 多重繼承,  Up: 繼承 Inheritance

2.9.5.1 多重繼承
................

Python 也支援多重繼承的形式。一個有多個 base class 的 class definition 看
起來像這樣子：

     class DerivedClassName(Base1, Base2, Base3):
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

在大多數情況下，最簡單的例子裡，你可以這樣思考，對於繼承自 parent class（
父類別）的屬性，其搜尋規則為：深度優先、從左到右、在階層裡重疊的相同
class 中不重複搜尋。因此，假如有一個屬性在 ‘DerivedClassName’ 沒有被找到
，則在 ‘Base1’ 搜尋它，接著（遞迴地）在 ‘Base1’ 的 base class 中搜尋，假
如在那裡又沒有找到的話，會在 ‘Base2’ 搜尋，依此類推。

事實上，它稍微複雜一些；method 的解析順序是動態地變化，以支援對 *note
super(): 206. 的合作呼叫。這個方式在其他的多重繼承語言中，稱為呼叫下一個
方法 (call-next-method)，且比在單一繼承語言中的 super call（超級呼叫）來
得更強大。

動態排序是必要的，因為多重繼承的所有情況都表現一或多的菱形關係（其中至少
一個 parent class 可以從最底層 class 透過多個路徑存取）。例如，所有的
class 都繼承自 *note object: 8d9.，因此任何多重繼承的情況都提供了多個到
達 *note object: 8d9. 的路徑。為了避免 base class 被多次存取，動態演算法
以這些方式將搜尋順序線性化 (linearize)：保留每個 class 中規定的從左到右
的順序、對每個 parent 只會呼叫一次、使用單調的 (monotonic) 方式（意思是
，一個 class 可以被 subclassed（子類別化），而不會影響其 parent 的搜尋優
先順序）。總之，這些特性使設計出可靠又可擴充、具有多重繼承的 class 成為
可能。更多資訊，請見 *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order:
131d.。


File: python.info,  Node: 私有變數,  Next: 補充說明,  Prev: 繼承 Inheritance,  Up: Class（類別）

2.9.6 私有變數
--------------

「私有」(private) 實例變數，指的是不在物件內部便無法存取的變數，這在
Python 中是不存在的。但是，大多數 Python 的程式碼都遵守一個慣例：前綴為
一個底線的名稱（如：‘_spam’）應被視為 API （應用程式介面）的非公有
(non-public) 部分（無論它是函式、方法或是資料成員）。這被視為一個實作細
節，如有調整，亦不另行通知。

既然 class 私有的成員已有一個有效的用例（即避免名稱與 subclass 定義的名
稱衝突），這種機制也存在另一個有限的支援，稱為 'name mangling'（名稱修飾
）。任何格式為 ‘__spam’（至少兩個前導下底線，最多一個尾隨下底線）的物件
名稱 (identifier) 會被文本地被替換為 ‘_classname__spam’，在此
‘classname’ 就是去掉前導下底線的當前 class 名稱。只要這個修飾是在 class
的定義之中發生，它就會在不考慮該物件名稱的語法位置的情況下完成。

也參考
......

參閱*note 私有名稱修飾規格: 1aaf.的詳情與特殊情況。

名稱修飾對於讓 subclass 覆寫 method 而不用破壞 class 內部的 method 呼叫
，是有幫助的。舉例來說：

     class Mapping:
         def __init__(self, iterable):
             self.items_list = []
             self.__update(iterable)

         def update(self, iterable):
             for item in iterable:
                 self.items_list.append(item)

         __update = update   # private copy of original update() method

     class MappingSubclass(Mapping):

         def update(self, keys, values):
             # provides new signature for update()
             # but does not break __init__()
             for item in zip(keys, values):
                 self.items_list.append(item)

在上例中，就算在 ‘MappingSubclass’ 當中加入 ‘__update’ 識別符，也能順利
運作，因為在 ‘Mapping’ class 中，它會被替換為 ‘_Mapping__update’，而在
‘MappingSubclass’ class 中，它會被替換為 ‘_MappingSubclass__update’。

請注意，修飾規則是被設計來避免意外；它仍可能存取或修改一個被視為私有的變
數。這在特殊情況下甚至可能很有用，例如在除錯器 (debugger)。

另外也注意，傳遞給 ‘exec()’ 或 ‘eval()’ 的程式碼不會把調用 class 的名稱
視為當前的 class；這和 ‘global’ 陳述式的效果類似，該效果同樣僅限於整體被
位元組編譯後 (byte-compiled) 的程式碼。同樣的限制適用於 ‘getattr()’，
‘setattr()’ 和 ‘delattr()’，以及直接參照 ‘__dict__’ 時。


File: python.info,  Node: 補充說明,  Next: 疊代器 Iterator,  Prev: 私有變數,  Up: Class（類別）

2.9.7 補充說明
--------------

如果有一種資料型別，類似於 Pascal 的「record」或 C 的「struct」，可以將
一些有名稱的資料項目捆綁在一起，有時候這會很有用。符合語言習慣的做法是使
用 *note dataclasses: 2d.：

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass
     class Employee:
         name: str
         dept: str
         salary: int

     >>> john = Employee('john', 'computer lab', 1000)
     >>> john.dept
     'computer lab'
     >>> john.salary
     1000

用來處理特殊抽象資料型別的一段 Python 程式碼，經常能以傳遞一個 class 來
替代，此 class 模擬該資料型別的多種 method。例如，如果你有一個函式，它會
從一個檔案物件來格式化某些資料，你也可以定義一個有 *note read(): 1a7a. 和
*note readline(): 1ab2. method 的 class 作為替代方式，從字串緩衝區取得資
料，並將其作為引數來傳遞。

*note 實例的 method 物件: 1ab3.也具有屬性：*note m.__self__: 1237. 就是
帶有 method ‘m()’ 的實例物件，而 *note m.__func__: 118d. 則是該 method 所
對應的*note 函式物件: 1ab4.。


File: python.info,  Node: 疊代器 Iterator,  Next: 產生器 Generator,  Prev: 補充說明,  Up: Class（類別）

2.9.8 疊代器 (Iterator)
-----------------------

到目前為止，你可能已經注意到大多數的容器 (container) 物件都可以使用
*note for: 265. 陳述式來進行迴圈：

     for element in [1, 2, 3]:
         print(element)
     for element in (1, 2, 3):
         print(element)
     for key in {'one':1, 'two':2}:
         print(key)
     for char in "123":
         print(char)
     for line in open("myfile.txt"):
         print(line, end='')

這種存取風格清晰、簡潔且方便。疊代器的使用在 Python 中處處可見且用法一致
。在幕後，*note for: 265. 陳述式會在容器物件上呼叫 *note iter(): 5f7.。
該函式回傳一個疊代器物件，此物件定義了 *note __next__(): 115d. method，
而此 method 會逐一存取容器中的元素。當元素用盡時，*note __next__():
115d. 將引發 *note StopIteration: a5d. 例外，來通知 ‘for’ 終止迴圈。你可
以使用內建函式 *note next(): 5f8. 來呼叫 *note __next__(): 115d. method；
這個例子展示了它的運作方式：

     >>> s = 'abc'
     >>> it = iter(s)
     >>> it
     <str_iterator object at 0x10c90e650>
     >>> next(it)
     'a'
     >>> next(it)
     'b'
     >>> next(it)
     'c'
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         next(it)
     StopIteration

看過疊代器協定的幕後機制後，在你的 class 加入疊代器的行為就很容易了。定
義一個 *note __iter__(): 1ab7. method 來回傳一個帶有 *note __next__():
115d. method 的物件。如果 class 已定義了 ‘__next__()’，則 ‘__iter__()’ 可
以只回傳 ‘self’：

     class Reverse:
         """Iterator for looping over a sequence backwards."""
         def __init__(self, data):
             self.data = data
             self.index = len(data)

         def __iter__(self):
             return self

         def __next__(self):
             if self.index == 0:
                 raise StopIteration
             self.index = self.index - 1
             return self.data[self.index]

     >>> rev = Reverse('spam')
     >>> iter(rev)
     <__main__.Reverse object at 0x00A1DB50>
     >>> for char in rev:
     ...     print(char)
     ...
     m
     a
     p
     s


File: python.info,  Node: 產生器 Generator,  Next: 產生器運算式,  Prev: 疊代器 Iterator,  Up: Class（類別）

2.9.9 產生器 (Generator)
------------------------

*note 產生器: ef7.是一個用於建立疊代器的簡單而強大的工具。它們的寫法和常
規的函式一樣，但當它們要回傳資料時，會使用 *note yield: 811. 陳述式。每
次在產生器上呼叫 *note next(): 5f8. 時，它會從上次離開的位置恢復執行（它
會記得所有資料值以及上一個被執行的陳述式）。以下範例顯示，建立產生器可以
相當地容易：

     def reverse(data):
         for index in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1):
             yield data[index]

     >>> for char in reverse('golf'):
     ...     print(char)
     ...
     f
     l
     o
     g

任何可以用產生器來完成的事，也能用以 class 為基礎的疊代器來完成，如同前
一節的描述。而讓產生器的程式碼更為精簡的原因是，*note __iter__(): 1aba.
和 *note __next__(): 1abb. method 會自動被建立。

另一個關鍵的特性在於，區域變數和執行狀態會在每次呼叫之間自動被儲存。這使
得該函式比使用 ‘self.index’ 和 ‘self.data’ 這種實例變數的方式更容易編寫
且更為清晰。

除了會自動建立 method 和儲存程式狀態，當產生器終止時，它們還會自動引發
*note StopIteration: a5d.。這些特性結合在一起，使建立疊代器能與編寫常規
函式一樣容易。


File: python.info,  Node: 產生器運算式,  Prev: 產生器 Generator,  Up: Class（類別）

2.9.10 產生器運算式
-------------------

某些簡單的產生器可以寫成如運算式一般的簡潔程式碼，所用的語法類似 list
comprehension（串列綜合運算），但外層為括號而非方括號。這種運算式被設計
用於產生器將立即被外圍函式 (enclosing function) 所使用的情況。產生器運算
式與完整的產生器定義相比，程式碼較精簡但功能較少，也比等效的 list
comprehension 更為節省記憶體。

例如：

     >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))                 # sum of squares
     285

     >>> xvec = [10, 20, 30]
     >>> yvec = [7, 5, 3]
     >>> sum(x*y for x,y in zip(xvec, yvec))         # dot product
     260

     >>> unique_words = set(word for line in page  for word in line.split())

     >>> valedictorian = max((student.gpa, student.name) for student in graduates)

     >>> data = 'golf'
     >>> list(data[i] for i in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1))
     ['f', 'l', 'o', 'g']

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: Python 標準函式庫概覽,  Next: Python 標準函式庫概覽——第二部份,  Prev: Class（類別）,  Up: Python 教學

2.10 Python 標準函式庫概覽
==========================

* Menu:

* 作業系統介面::
* 檔案之萬用字元 (File Wildcards): 檔案之萬用字元 File Wildcards.
* 命令列引數::
* 錯誤輸出重新導向與程式終止::
* 字串樣式比對::
* 數學相關::
* 網路存取::
* 日期與時間::
* 資料壓縮::
* 效能量測::
* 品質控管::
* 標準模組庫::


File: python.info,  Node: 作業系統介面,  Next: 檔案之萬用字元 File Wildcards,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.1 作業系統介面
-------------------

*note os: 9c. 模組提供了數十個與作業系統溝通的函式：

     >>> import os
     >>> os.getcwd()      # Return the current working directory
     'C:\\Python312'
     >>> os.chdir('/server/accesslogs')   # Change current working directory
     >>> os.system('mkdir today')   # Run the command mkdir in the system shell
     0

務必使用 ‘import os’ 而非 ‘from os import *’。這將避免因系統不同而有實作
差異的 *note os.open(): c09. 覆蓋內建函式 *note open(): 29c.。

在使用 *note os: 9c. 諸如此類大型模組時搭配內建函式 *note dir(): 42d. 和
*note help(): 710. 是非常有用的：

     >>> import os
     >>> dir(os)
     <returns a list of all module functions>
     >>> help(os)
     <returns an extensive manual page created from the module's docstrings>

對於日常檔案和目錄管理任務，*note shutil: c0. 模組提供了更容易使用的高階
介面：

     >>> import shutil
     >>> shutil.copyfile('data.db', 'archive.db')
     'archive.db'
     >>> shutil.move('/build/executables', 'installdir')
     'installdir'


File: python.info,  Node: 檔案之萬用字元 File Wildcards,  Next: 命令列引數,  Prev: 作業系統介面,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.2 檔案之萬用字元 (File Wildcards)
--------------------------------------

*note glob: 5f. 模組提供了一函式可以從目錄萬用字元中搜尋並產生檔案列表：

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('*.py')
     ['primes.py', 'random.py', 'quote.py']


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列引數,  Next: 錯誤輸出重新導向與程式終止,  Prev: 檔案之萬用字元 File Wildcards,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.3 命令列引數
-----------------

通用工具腳本常需要處理命令列引數。這些引數會以 list（串列）形式存放在
*note sys: d3. 模組的 'argv' 屬性中。例如以下 ‘demo.py’ 檔案：

     # demo.py 檔案
     import sys
     print(sys.argv)

以下是在命令列運行 ‘python demo.py one two three’ 的輸出：

     ['demo.py', 'one', 'two', 'three']

*note argparse: 6. 模組提供了一種更複雜的機制來處理命令列引數。以下腳本
可擷取一個或多個檔案名稱，並可選擇要顯示的行數：

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
         prog='top',
         description='Show top lines from each file')
     parser.add_argument('filenames', nargs='+')
     parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=10)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args)

當 ‘python top.py --lines=5 alpha.txt beta.txt’ 在命令列執行時，該腳本會
將 ‘args.lines’ 設為 ‘5’，並將 ‘args.filenames’ 設為 ‘['alpha.txt',
'beta.txt']’。


File: python.info,  Node: 錯誤輸出重新導向與程式終止,  Next: 字串樣式比對,  Prev: 命令列引數,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.4 錯誤輸出重新導向與程式終止
---------------------------------

*note sys: d3. 模組也有 'stdin'，'stdout'，和 'stderr' 等屬性。即使當
'stdout' 被重新導向時，後者 'stderr' 可輸出警告和錯誤訊息：

     >>> sys.stderr.write('Warning, log file not found starting a new one\n')
     Warning, log file not found starting a new one

終止腳本最直接的方式就是利用 ‘sys.exit()’。


File: python.info,  Node: 字串樣式比對,  Next: 數學相關,  Prev: 錯誤輸出重新導向與程式終止,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.5 字串樣式比對
-------------------

*note re: b4. 模組提供正規表示式 (regular expression) 做進階的字串處理。
當要處理複雜的比對以及操作時，正規表示式是簡潔且經過最佳化的解決方案：

     >>> import re
     >>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
     ['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
     >>> re.sub(r'(\b[a-z]+) \1', r'\1', 'cat in the the hat')
     'cat in the hat'

當只需要簡單的字串操作時，因為可讀性以及方便除錯，字串本身的 method 是比
較建議的：

     >>> 'tea for too'.replace('too', 'two')
     'tea for two'


File: python.info,  Node: 數學相關,  Next: 網路存取,  Prev: 字串樣式比對,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.6 數學相關
---------------

*note math: 89. 模組提供了 C 函式庫中底層的浮點數運算的函式：

     >>> import math
     >>> math.cos(math.pi / 4)
     0.70710678118654757
     >>> math.log(1024, 2)
     10.0

*note random: b3. 模組提供了隨機選擇的工具：

     >>> import random
     >>> random.choice(['apple', 'pear', 'banana'])
     'apple'
     >>> random.sample(range(100), 10)   # sampling without replacement
     [30, 83, 16, 4, 8, 81, 41, 50, 18, 33]
     >>> random.random()    # random float
     0.17970987693706186
     >>> random.randrange(6)    # random integer chosen from range(6)
     4

*note statistics: cc. 模組提供了替數值資料計算基本統計量（包括平均、中位
數、變異量數等）的功能：

     >>> import statistics
     >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
     >>> statistics.mean(data)
     1.6071428571428572
     >>> statistics.median(data)
     1.25
     >>> statistics.variance(data)
     1.3720238095238095

SciPy 專案 <‘https://scipy.org’> 上也有許多數值計算相關的模組。


File: python.info,  Node: 網路存取,  Next: 日期與時間,  Prev: 數學相關,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.7 網路存取
---------------

Python 中有許多存取網路以及處理網路協定。最簡單的兩個例子包括 *note
urllib.request: 106. 模組可以從網址抓取資料以及 *note smtplib: c4. 可以
用來寄郵件：

     >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
     >>> with urlopen('http://worldtimeapi.org/api/timezone/etc/UTC.txt') as response:
     ...     for line in response:
     ...         line = line.decode()             # Convert bytes to a str
     ...         if line.startswith('datetime'):
     ...             print(line.rstrip())         # Remove trailing newline
     ...
     datetime: 2022-01-01T01:36:47.689215+00:00

     >>> import smtplib
     >>> server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     >>> server.sendmail('soothsayer@example.org', 'jcaesar@example.org',
     ... """To: jcaesar@example.org
     ... From: soothsayer@example.org
     ...
     ... Beware the Ides of March.
     ... """)
     >>> server.quit()

（注意第二個例子中需要在本地端執行一個郵件伺服器。）


File: python.info,  Node: 日期與時間,  Next: 資料壓縮,  Prev: 網路存取,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.8 日期與時間
-----------------

*note datetime: 2e. 模組提供許多 class 可以操作日期以及時間，從簡單從複
雜都有。模組支援日期與時間的運算，而實作的重點是有效率的成員擷取以達到輸
出格式化以及操作。模組也提供支援時區換算的類別。

     >>> # dates are easily constructed and formatted
     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> now = date.today()
     >>> now
     datetime.date(2003, 12, 2)
     >>> now.strftime("%m-%d-%y. %d %b %Y is a %A on the %d day of %B.")
     '12-02-03. 02 Dec 2003 is a Tuesday on the 02 day of December.'

     >>> # dates support calendar arithmetic
     >>> birthday = date(1964, 7, 31)
     >>> age = now - birthday
     >>> age.days
     14368


File: python.info,  Node: 資料壓縮,  Next: 效能量測,  Prev: 日期與時間,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.9 資料壓縮
---------------

常見的解壓縮以及壓縮格式都有直接支援的模組。包括：*note zlib: 12d.、
*note gzip: 62.、*note bz2: 11.、*note lzma: 85.、*note zipfile: 12b. 以
及 *note tarfile: d8.。

     >>> import zlib
     >>> s = b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
     >>> len(s)
     41
     >>> t = zlib.compress(s)
     >>> len(t)
     37
     >>> zlib.decompress(t)
     b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
     >>> zlib.crc32(s)
     226805979


File: python.info,  Node: 效能量測,  Next: 品質控管,  Prev: 資料壓縮,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.10 效能量測
----------------

有一些 Python 使用者很想了解同個問題的不同實作方法的效能差異。Python 提
供了評估效能差異的工具。

舉例來說，有人可能會試著用 tuple 的打包機制來交換引數代替傳統的方式。
*note timeit: e9. 模組可以迅速地展示效能的進步：

     >>> from timeit import Timer
     >>> Timer('t=a; a=b; b=t', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
     0.57535828626024577
     >>> Timer('a,b = b,a', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
     0.54962537085770791

相對於 *note timeit: e9. 模組提供這麼細的粒度，*note profile: aa. 模組以
及 *note pstats: ab. 模組則提供了一些在大型的程式碼識別時間使用上關鍵的
區塊 (time critical section) 的工具。


File: python.info,  Node: 品質控管,  Next: 標準模組庫,  Prev: 效能量測,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.11 品質控管
----------------

達到高品質軟體的一個方法，是在開發時對每個函式寫測試，以及在開發過程中要
不斷地跑這些測試。

*note doctest: 36. 模組提供了一個工具，掃描模組並根據程式中內嵌的文件字
串執行測試。撰寫測試如同簡單地將它的呼叫及輸出結果剪下並貼上到文件字串中
。透過提供範例給使用者，它強化了說明文件，並允許 doctest 模組確認程式碼
的結果與說明文件一致：

     def average(values):
         """Computes the arithmetic mean of a list of numbers.

         >>> print(average([20, 30, 70]))
         40.0
         """
         return sum(values) / len(values)

     import doctest
     doctest.testmod()   # automatically validate the embedded tests

*note unittest: 101. 模組不像 *note doctest: 36. 模組這般容易，但是它讓
你可以在另外一個檔案裡撰寫更完整的測試集：

     import unittest

     class TestStatisticalFunctions(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_average(self):
             self.assertEqual(average([20, 30, 70]), 40.0)
             self.assertEqual(round(average([1, 5, 7]), 1), 4.3)
             with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
                 average([])
             with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
                 average(20, 30, 70)

     unittest.main()  # Calling from the command line invokes all tests


File: python.info,  Node: 標準模組庫,  Prev: 品質控管,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽

2.10.12 標準模組庫
------------------

"Batteries included" 是 Python 的設計哲學。這個理念可以透過使用它的大型
套件，感受複雜與強大的功能，來得到印證。例如：

   * 使用 *note xmlrpc.client: 128. 和 *note xmlrpc.server: 129. 模組使
     實作遠端程序呼叫變得更為容易。即使模組名稱裡有 XML，使用者並不需要
     直接操作 XML 檔案或事先具備相關知識。

   * 函式庫 *note email: 37. 套件用來管理 MIME 和其他 RFC 2822(1) 相關電
     子郵件訊息的文件。相異於 *note smtplib: c4. 和 *note poplib: a7. 這
     些實際用來發送與接收訊息的模組，email 套件擁有更完整的工具集，可用
     於建立與解碼複雜訊息結構（包含附件檔案）以及實作編碼與標頭協定。

   * *note json: 7c. 套件對 JSON 資料交換格式的剖析，提供強大的支援。
     *note csv: 27. 模組則提供直接讀寫 CSV（以逗號分隔值的檔案格式，通常
     資料庫和電子表格都有支援）。*note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120.、
     *note xml.dom: 11c. 與 *note xml.sax: 124. 套件則支援 XML 的處理。
     綜觀所有，這些模組和套件都簡化了 Python 應用程式與其他工具之間的資
     料交換。

   * ‘sqllite3’ 模組是 SQLite 資料庫函式庫的一層包裝，提供一個具持久性的
     資料庫，可以使用稍微非標準的 SQL 語法來對它進行更新與存取。

   * 有數種支援國際化的模組，包括 *note gettext: 5e.、*note locale: 81.
     和 *note codecs: 19. 等套件。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Python 標準函式庫概覽——第二部份,  Next: 虛擬環境與套件,  Prev: Python 標準函式庫概覽,  Up: Python 教學

2.11 Python 標準函式庫概覽——第二部份
====================================

第二部分涵蓋更多支援專業程式設計所需要的進階模組。這些模組很少出現在小腳
本中。

* Menu:

* 輸出格式化 (Output Formatting): 輸出格式化 Output Formatting.
* 模板化 (Templating): 模板化 Templating.
* 二進制資料記錄編排 (Binary Data Record Layouts): 二進制資料記錄編排 Binary Data Record Layouts.
* 多執行緒 (Multi-threading): 多執行緒 Multi-threading.
* 日誌記錄 (Logging): 日誌記錄 Logging.
* 弱引用 (Weak References): 弱引用 Weak References.
* 使用於 List 的工具::
* 十進制浮點數運算 (Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic): 十進制浮點數運算 Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic.


File: python.info,  Node: 輸出格式化 Output Formatting,  Next: 模板化 Templating,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽——第二部份

2.11.1 輸出格式化 (Output Formatting)
-------------------------------------

*note reprlib: b6. 模組提供了一個 *note repr(): 61e. 的版本，專門用來以
簡短的形式顯示大型或深層的巢狀容器：

     >>> import reprlib
     >>> reprlib.repr(set('supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'))
     "{'a', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', ...}"

*note pprint: a9. 模組能對內建和使用者自定的物件提供更複雜的列印控制，並
且是以直譯器可讀的方式。當結果超過一行時，「漂亮的印表機」會加入換行和縮
排，以更清楚地顯示資料結構：

     >>> import pprint
     >>> t = [[[['black', 'cyan'], 'white', ['green', 'red']], [['magenta',
     ...     'yellow'], 'blue']]]
     ...
     >>> pprint.pprint(t, width=30)
     [[[['black', 'cyan'],
        'white',
        ['green', 'red']],
       [['magenta', 'yellow'],
        'blue']]]

*note textwrap: e6. 模組能夠格式化文本的段落，以符合指定的螢幕寬度：

     >>> import textwrap
     >>> doc = """The wrap() method is just like fill() except that it returns
     ... a list of strings instead of one big string with newlines to separate
     ... the wrapped lines."""
     ...
     >>> print(textwrap.fill(doc, width=40))
     The wrap() method is just like fill()
     except that it returns a list of strings
     instead of one big string with newlines
     to separate the wrapped lines.

*note locale: 81. 模組能存取一個含有特定文化相關資料格式的資料庫。locale
模組的 format 函式有一個 grouping 屬性，可直接以群分隔符 (group
separator) 將數字格式化：

     >>> import locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'English_United States.1252')
     'English_United States.1252'
     >>> conv = locale.localeconv()          # get a mapping of conventions
     >>> x = 1234567.8
     >>> locale.format_string("%d", x, grouping=True)
     '1,234,567'
     >>> locale.format_string("%s%.*f", (conv['currency_symbol'],
     ...                      conv['frac_digits'], x), grouping=True)
     '$1,234,567.80'


File: python.info,  Node: 模板化 Templating,  Next: 二進制資料記錄編排 Binary Data Record Layouts,  Prev: 輸出格式化 Output Formatting,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽——第二部份

2.11.2 模板化 (Templating)
--------------------------

*note string: cd. 模組包含一個多功能的 *note Template: 484. class，提供
的簡化語法適合使用者進行編輯時使用。它容許使用者客製化自己的應用程式，但
不必對原應用程式做出變更。

格式化方式是使用佔位符號名稱 (placeholder name)，它是由 ‘$’ 加上合法的
Python 識別符（字母、數字和下底線）構成。使用大括號包覆佔位符號以允許在
後面接上更多的字母和數字而無需插入空格。使用 ‘$$’ 將會跳脫為單一字元
‘$’：

     >>> from string import Template
     >>> t = Template('${village}folk send $$10 to $cause.')
     >>> t.substitute(village='Nottingham', cause='the ditch fund')
     'Nottinghamfolk send $10 to the ditch fund.'

如果在 dictionary 或關鍵字引數中未提供某個佔位符號的值，那麼 *note
substitute(): 1ae0. method 將引發 *note KeyError: 8ed.。對於郵件合併
(mail-merge) 類型的應用程式，使用者提供的資料有可能是不完整的，此時使用
*note safe_substitute(): 1ae1. method 會更適當——如果資料有缺少，它會保持
佔位符號不變：

     >>> t = Template('Return the $item to $owner.')
     >>> d = dict(item='unladen swallow')
     >>> t.substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError: 'owner'
     >>> t.safe_substitute(d)
     'Return the unladen swallow to $owner.'

Template 的 subclass（子類別）可以指定自訂的分隔符號 (delimiter)。例如，
一個相片瀏覽器的批次重新命名功能，可以選擇用百分號作為現在日期、照片序號
或檔案格式的佔位符號：

     >>> import time, os.path
     >>> photofiles = ['img_1074.jpg', 'img_1076.jpg', 'img_1077.jpg']
     >>> class BatchRename(Template):
     ...     delimiter = '%'
     ...
     >>> fmt = input('Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  ')
     Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  Ashley_%n%f

     >>> t = BatchRename(fmt)
     >>> date = time.strftime('%d%b%y')
     >>> for i, filename in enumerate(photofiles):
     ...     base, ext = os.path.splitext(filename)
     ...     newname = t.substitute(d=date, n=i, f=ext)
     ...     print('{0} --> {1}'.format(filename, newname))

     img_1074.jpg --> Ashley_0.jpg
     img_1076.jpg --> Ashley_1.jpg
     img_1077.jpg --> Ashley_2.jpg

模板化的另一個應用，是將程式邏輯與多樣的輸出格式細節分離開來。這樣就可以
為 XML 檔案、純文字報表和 HTML 網路報表替換自訂的模板。


File: python.info,  Node: 二進制資料記錄編排 Binary Data Record Layouts,  Next: 多執行緒 Multi-threading,  Prev: 模板化 Templating,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽——第二部份

2.11.3 二進制資料記錄編排 (Binary Data Record Layouts)
------------------------------------------------------

*note struct: cf. 模組提供了 *note pack(): 110b. 和 *note unpack():
1593. 函式，用於處理可變動長度的二進制記錄格式。以下範例說明，如何在不使
用 *note zipfile: 12b. 模組的情況下，使用迴圈瀏覽一個 ZIP 檔案中的標頭資
訊 (header information)。壓縮程式碼 ‘"H"’ 和 ‘"I"’ 分別代表兩個和四個位
元組的無符號數 (unsigned number)。‘"<"’ 表示它們是標準大小，並使用小端
(little-endian) 位元組順序：

     import struct

     with open('myfile.zip', 'rb') as f:
         data = f.read()

     start = 0
     for i in range(3):                      # show the first 3 file headers
         start += 14
         fields = struct.unpack('<IIIHH', data[start:start+16])
         crc32, comp_size, uncomp_size, filenamesize, extra_size = fields

         start += 16
         filename = data[start:start+filenamesize]
         start += filenamesize
         extra = data[start:start+extra_size]
         print(filename, hex(crc32), comp_size, uncomp_size)

         start += extra_size + comp_size     # skip to the next header


File: python.info,  Node: 多執行緒 Multi-threading,  Next: 日誌記錄 Logging,  Prev: 二進制資料記錄編排 Binary Data Record Layouts,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽——第二部份

2.11.4 多執行緒 (Multi-threading)
---------------------------------

執行緒是一種用來對非順序相依 (sequentially dependent) 的多個任務進行解耦
(decoupling) 的技術。當其他任務在背景執行時，多執行緒可以用來提升應用程
式在接收使用者輸入時的反應能力。一個相關的用例是，運行 I/O 的同時，在另
一個執行緒中進行計算。

以下程式碼顯示了高階的 *note threading: e7. 模組如何在背景運行任務，而主
程式同時繼續運行：

     import threading, zipfile

     class AsyncZip(threading.Thread):
         def __init__(self, infile, outfile):
             threading.Thread.__init__(self)
             self.infile = infile
             self.outfile = outfile

         def run(self):
             f = zipfile.ZipFile(self.outfile, 'w', zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED)
             f.write(self.infile)
             f.close()
             print('Finished background zip of:', self.infile)

     background = AsyncZip('mydata.txt', 'myarchive.zip')
     background.start()
     print('The main program continues to run in foreground.')

     background.join()    # 等待背景任務結束
     print('Main program waited until background was done.')

多執行緒應用程式的主要挑戰是，要協調多個彼此共享資料或資源的執行緒。為此
，threading 模組提供了多個同步處理原始物件 (synchronization primitive)，
包括鎖 (lock)、事件 (event)、條件變數 (condition variable) 和號誌
(semaphore)。

儘管這些工具很強大，但很小的設計錯誤也可能導致一些難以重現的問題。所以，
任務協調的首選方法是，把所有對資源的存取集中到單一的執行緒中，然後使用
*note queue: b1. 模組向該執行緒饋送來自其他執行緒的請求。應用程式若使用
*note Queue: 121d. 物件進行執行緒間的通信和協調，會更易於設計、更易讀、
更可靠。


File: python.info,  Node: 日誌記錄 Logging,  Next: 弱引用 Weak References,  Prev: 多執行緒 Multi-threading,  Up: Python 標準函式庫概覽——第二部份

2.11.5 日誌記錄 (Logging)
-------------------------

*note logging: 82. 模組提供功能齊全且富彈性的日誌記錄系統。在最簡單的情
況下，日誌訊息會被發送到檔案或 ‘sys.stderr’：

     import logging
     logging.debug('Debugging information')
     logging.info('Informational message')
     logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
     logging.error('Error occurred')
     logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

這會產生以下輸出：

     WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
     ERROR:root:Error occurred
     CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

在預設情況，資訊和除錯訊息不會被顯示，其輸出會被發送到標準錯誤 (standard
error)。其他輸出選項包括，將訊息轉發到電子郵件、資料報 (datagram)、網路
插座 (socket) 或 HTTP 伺服器。新的過濾器可以根據訊息的優先順序，選擇不同
的路由 (routing) 方式：*note DEBUG: 1ae8.、*note INFO: 1ae9.、*note
WARNING: 1aea.、*note ERROR: 1aeb. 及 *note CRITICAL: 1aec.。

日誌記錄系統可以直接從 Python 配置，也可以透過載入使用者可編輯的配置檔案
以進行客製化的日誌記錄，而無須對應用程式做出變更。


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2.11.6 弱引用 (Weak References)
-------------------------------

Python 會自動進行記憶體管理（對大多數物件進行參照計數 (reference
counting) 並使用 *note garbage collection: 16ef. 來消除循環參照）。當一
個參照從記憶體被移除後不久，該記憶體就會被釋出。

此方式對大多數應用程式來說都沒問題，但偶爾也需要在物件仍然被其他物件所使
用時持續追蹤它們。可惜的是，儘管只是追蹤它們，也會建立一個使它們永久化
(permanent) 的參照。*note weakref: 10f. 模組提供的工具可以不必建立參照就
能追蹤物件。當該物件不再被需要時，它會自動從一個弱引用表 (weakref table)
中被移除，並為弱引用物件觸發一個回呼 (callback)。典型的應用包括暫存
(cache) 那些成本較為昂貴的物件：

     >>> import weakref, gc
     >>> class A:
     ...     def __init__(self, value):
     ...         self.value = value
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return str(self.value)
     ...
     >>> a = A(10)                   # create a reference
     >>> d = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()
     >>> d['primary'] = a            # does not create a reference
     >>> d['primary']                # fetch the object if it is still alive
     10
     >>> del a                       # remove the one reference
     >>> gc.collect()                # run garbage collection right away
     0
     >>> d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
       File "C:/python312/lib/weakref.py", line 46, in __getitem__
         o = self.data[key]()
     KeyError: 'primary'


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2.11.7 使用於 List 的工具
-------------------------

許多對於資料結構的需求，可以透過內建的 list（串列）型別來滿足。但是，有
時也會根據效能的各種取捨，需要一些替代的實作。

*note array: 7. 模組提供了一個 *note array: 18f. 物件，它像是 list，但只
能儲存同類的資料且能緊密地儲存。下面的範例展示一個數值陣列 (array)，以兩
個位元組的無符號二進數 (unsigned binary numbers) 為儲存單位（類型碼為
‘"H"’），而在 Python 整數物件的正規 list 中，每個項目通常使用 16 個位元
組：

     >>> from array import array
     >>> a = array('H', [4000, 10, 700, 22222])
     >>> sum(a)
     26932
     >>> a[1:3]
     array('H', [10, 700])

*note collections: 1b. 模組提供了一個 *note deque: 3cf. 物件，它像是
list，但從左側加入 (append) 和彈出 (pop) 的速度較快，而在中間查找的速度
則較慢。這種物件適用於實作佇列 (queue) 和廣度優先搜尋法 (breadth first
tree search)：

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> d = deque(["task1", "task2", "task3"])
     >>> d.append("task4")
     >>> print("Handling", d.popleft())
     Handling task1

     unsearched = deque([starting_node])
     def breadth_first_search(unsearched):
         node = unsearched.popleft()
         for m in gen_moves(node):
             if is_goal(m):
                 return m
             unsearched.append(m)

除了替代的 list 實作以外，函式庫也提供了其他工具，例如 *note bisect: f.
模組，具有能夠操作 sorted list（已排序串列）的函式：

     >>> import bisect
     >>> scores = [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]
     >>> bisect.insort(scores, (300, 'ruby'))
     >>> scores
     [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (300, 'ruby'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]

*note heapq: 64. 模組提供了一些函式，能基於正規 list 來實作堆積 (heap)。
最小值的項目會永遠保持在位置零。對於一些需要多次存取最小元素，但不想要對
整個 list 進行排序的應用程式來說，這會很有用：

     >>> from heapq import heapify, heappop, heappush
     >>> data = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0]
     >>> heapify(data)                      # rearrange the list into heap order
     >>> heappush(data, -5)                 # add a new entry
     >>> [heappop(data) for i in range(3)]  # fetch the three smallest entries
     [-5, 0, 1]


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2.11.8 十進制浮點數運算 (Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic)
-----------------------------------------------------------

*note decimal: 33. 模組提供了一個 *note Decimal: 5f0. 資料類型，用於十進
制浮點數運算。相較於內建的二進制浮點數 *note float: 26a. 實作，該 class
特別適用於下列情境

   * 金融應用程式及其他需要準確十進位制表示法的應用，

   * 對於精確度 (precision) 的控制，

   * 控制四捨五入，以滿足法律或監管規範，

   * 追蹤有效的小數位數 (decimal place)，或

   * 使用者會期望計算結果與手工計算相符的應用程式。

例如，要計算 70 美分的手機充電加上 5％ 稅金的總價，使用十進制浮點數和二
進制浮點數，會算出不同的答案。如果把計算結果四捨五入到最接近的美分，兩者
的差異會更顯著：

     >>> from decimal import *
     >>> round(Decimal('0.70') * Decimal('1.05'), 2)
     Decimal('0.74')
     >>> round(.70 * 1.05, 2)
     0.73

*note Decimal: 5f0. 的運算結果會保留尾部的零，也會根據有兩個有效位數的被
乘數自動推斷出有四個有效位數的乘積。Decimal 可以重現手工計算的結果，以避
免產生二進制浮點數無法準確表示十進制數值時會導致的問題。

準確的表示法使得 *note Decimal: 5f0. class 能夠執行對於二進制浮點數不適
用的模數計算和相等性檢測：

     >>> Decimal('1.00') % Decimal('.10')
     Decimal('0.00')
     >>> 1.00 % 0.10
     0.09999999999999995

     >>> sum([Decimal('0.1')]*10) == Decimal('1.0')
     True
     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
     False

*note decimal: 33. 模組可提供運算中需要的足夠精確度：

     >>> getcontext().prec = 36
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857')


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2.12 虛擬環境與套件
===================

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<4>.
* 建立虛擬環境::
* 用 pip 管理套件::


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<4>,  Next: 建立虛擬環境,  Up: 虛擬環境與套件

2.12.1 簡介
-----------

Python 應用程式通常會用到不在標準函式庫的套件和模組。應用程式有時候會需
要某個特定版本的函式庫，因為這個應用程式可能需要某個特殊的臭蟲修正，或是
這個應用程式是根據該函式庫特定版本的介面所撰寫。

這意味著不太可能安裝一套 Python 就可以滿足所有應用程式的要求。如果應用程
式 A 需要一個特定的模組的 1.0 版，但另外一個應用程式 B 需要 2.0 版，那麼
這整個需求不管安裝 1.0 或是 2.0 都會衝突，以致於應用程式無法使用。

解決方案是建立一個*note 虛擬環境 (virtual environment): 1af7.，這是一個
獨立的資料夾，並且裡面裝好了特定版本的 Python，以及一系列相關的套件。

不同的應用程式可以使用不同的虛擬環境。以前述中需要被解決的例子中，應用程
式 A 能夠擁有它自己的虛擬環境，並且是裝好 1.0 版，然而應用程式 B 則可以
是用另外一個有 2.0 版的虛擬環境。要是應用程式 B 需要某個函式庫被升級到
3.0 版，這並不會影響到應用程式 A 的環境。


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2.12.2 建立虛擬環境
-------------------

用來建立與管理虛擬環境的模組叫做 *note venv: 10c.。*note venv: 10c. 將安
裝執行命令的 Python 版本（如 *note -version: b8b. 選項所報告的）。例如使
用 ‘python3.12’ 執行命令將安裝 3.12 版本。

在建立虛擬環境的時候，在你決定要放該虛擬環境的資料夾之後，以腳本
(script) 執行 *note venv: 10c. 模組並且給定資料夾路徑：

     python -m venv tutorial-env

如果 ‘tutorial-env’ 不存在的話，這會建立 ‘tutorial-env’ 資料夾，並且也會
在裡面建立一個有 Python 直譯器的複本以及不同的支援檔案的資料夾。

虛擬環境的常用資料夾位置是 ‘.venv’。這個名稱通常會使該資料夾在你的 shell
中保持隱藏，因此這樣命名既可以解釋資料夾存在的原因，也不會造成任何困擾。
它還能防止與某些工具所支援的 ‘.env’ 環境變數定義檔案發生衝突。

一旦你建立了一個虛擬環境，你可以啟動它。

在 Windows 系統中，使用：

     tutorial-env\Scripts\activate

在 Unix 或 MacOS 系統，使用：

     source tutorial-env/bin/activate

（這段程式碼適用於 bash shell。如果你是用 ‘csh’ 或者 ‘fish’ shell，應當
使用替代的 ‘activate.csh’ 與 ‘activate.fish’ 腳本。）

啟動虛擬環境會改變你的 shell 提示字元來顯示你正在使用的虛擬環境，並且修
改環境以讓你在執行 ‘python’ 的時候可以得到特定的 Python 版本，例如：

     $ source ~/envs/tutorial-env/bin/activate
     (tutorial-env) $ python
     Python 3.5.1 (default, May  6 2016, 10:59:36)
       ...
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path
     ['', '/usr/local/lib/python35.zip', ...,
     '~/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.5/site-packages']
     >>>

要停用虛擬環境，輸入：

     deactivate

於終端機中。


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2.12.3 用 pip 管理套件
----------------------

你可以使用一個叫做 ‘pip’ 的程式來安裝、升級和移除套件。‘pip’ 預設會從
Python Package Index(1) 安裝套件。你可以透過你的網頁瀏覽器瀏覽 Python
Package Index。

‘pip’ 有好幾個子命令："install"、"uninstall"、"freeze" 等等。（可以參考
*note 安裝 Python 模組: d79.指南，來取得 ‘pip’ 的完整說明文件。）

你可以透過指定套件名字來安裝最新版本的套件：

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install novas
     Collecting novas
       Downloading novas-3.1.1.3.tar.gz (136kB)
     Installing collected packages: novas
       Running setup.py install for novas
     Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3

你也可以透過在套件名稱之後接上 ‘==’ 和版號來指定特定版本：

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install requests==2.6.0
     Collecting requests==2.6.0
       Using cached requests-2.6.0-py2.py3-none-any.whl
     Installing collected packages: requests
     Successfully installed requests-2.6.0

要是你重新執行此命令，‘pip’ 會知道該版本已經安裝過，然後什麼也不做。你可
以提供不同的版本號碼來取得該版本，或是可以執行 ‘python -m pip install
--upgrade’ 來把套件升級到最新的版本：

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install --upgrade requests
     Collecting requests
     Installing collected packages: requests
       Found existing installation: requests 2.6.0
         Uninstalling requests-2.6.0:
           Successfully uninstalled requests-2.6.0
     Successfully installed requests-2.7.0

‘python -m pip uninstall’ 後面接一個或是多個套件名稱可以從虛擬環境中移除
套件。

‘python -m pip show’ 可以顯示一個特定套件的資訊：

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip show requests
     ---
     Metadata-Version: 2.0
     Name: requests
     Version: 2.7.0
     Summary: Python HTTP for Humans.
     Home-page: http://python-requests.org
     Author: Kenneth Reitz
     Author-email: me@kennethreitz.com
     License: Apache 2.0
     Location: /Users/akuchling/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.4/site-packages
     Requires:

‘python -m pip list’ 會顯示虛擬環境中所有已經安裝的套件：

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip list
     novas (3.1.1.3)
     numpy (1.9.2)
     pip (7.0.3)
     requests (2.7.0)
     setuptools (16.0)

‘python -m pip freeze’ 可以複製一整個已經安裝的套件清單，但是輸出使用
‘python -m pip install’ 可以讀懂的格式。一個常見的慣例是放這整個清單到一
個叫做 ‘requirements.txt’ 的檔案：

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip freeze > requirements.txt
     (tutorial-env) $ cat requirements.txt
     novas==3.1.1.3
     numpy==1.9.2
     requests==2.7.0

‘requirements.txt’ 可以提交到版本控制，並且作為釋出應用程式的一部分。使
用者可以透過 ‘install -r’ 安裝對應的的套件：

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt
     Collecting novas==3.1.1.3 (from -r requirements.txt (line 1))
       ...
     Collecting numpy==1.9.2 (from -r requirements.txt (line 2))
       ...
     Collecting requests==2.7.0 (from -r requirements.txt (line 3))
       ...
     Installing collected packages: novas, numpy, requests
       Running setup.py install for novas
     Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3 numpy-1.9.2 requests-2.7.0

‘pip’ 還有更多功能。可以參考*note 安裝 Python 模組: d79.指南，來取得完整
的 ‘pip’ 說明文件。當你撰寫了一個套件並且想要讓它在 Python Package Index
上可以取得的話，可以參考 Python packaging user guide(2)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/


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2.13 現在可以來學習些什麼？
===========================

閱讀本教學可能增強你對於使用 Python 的興趣——你應該非常渴望使用 Python 來
解決在現實生活中所遭遇的問題。該從哪裡學習更多呢？

本教學是 Python 文件中的一部分。這份文件集裡頭的其他文件包含：

   * *note Python 標準函式庫 (Standard Library): 13d.：

     你該好好的瀏覽這份手冊，它提供了完整（但簡潔）的參考素材像是型別、
     函式與標準函式庫裡的模組。標準的 Python 發行版本會包含'大量'的附加
     程式碼。有些模組可以讀取 Unix 信箱、通過 HTTP 來檢索文件、產生亂數
     、分析命令列選項、壓縮資料、及許多其他任務。瀏覽函式庫參考手冊可以
     讓你了解有哪些模組可以用。

   * *note 安裝 Python 模組: d79.：說明與解釋如何安裝其他 Python 使用者
     所編寫的模組。

   * *note Python 語言參考手冊: 13e.：Python 語法以及語意的詳細說明。這
     份文件閱讀起來會有些吃力，但作為一個語言本身的完整指南是非常有用的
     。

更多 Python 的資源：

   * ‘https://www.python.org’：Python 的主要網站。它包含程式碼、文件以及
     連結到 Python 相關聯的網頁。

   * ‘https://docs.python.org’：快速訪問 Python 的文件。

   * ‘https://pypi.org’：Python 套件索引 (Python Package Index)，之前也
     被暱稱為 Cheese Shop (1)，彙總了使用者開發 Python 模組的索引，並提
     供模組能夠被下載。一旦開始發佈相關程式碼，你可以將開發的作品註冊到
     這裡並且讓其他人找到。

   * ‘https://code.activestate.com/recipes/langs/python/’：Python
     Cookbook 是一個相當大的程式碼集，包含程式碼範例、較大的模組以及有用
     的腳本。特別值得注意的貢獻則被收集在一本名為 Python Cookbook
     (O'Reilly & Associates, ISBN 0-596-00797-3.)  的書籍中。

   * ‘https://pyvideo.org’ 從研討會與使用者群組聚會裡收集與 Python 相關
     的影片連結。

   * ‘https://scipy.org’：The Scientific Python 專案是一個包含用於高速陣
     列運算與操作的模組，以及用於如線性代數、傅利葉變換、非線性求解器、
     隨機數分佈、統計分析等一系列的套件。

對於 Python 相關的疑問與問題回報，你可以張貼到新聞群組
‘comp.lang.python’，或將它們寄至 <python-list@python.org> 的郵寄清單
(mailing list)。新聞群組和郵寄清單是個閘道，因此張貼到其中的郵件都將自動
轉發給另一個。每天會有數以百計的內容，詢問（和回答）問題、建議新功能與發
佈新的模組。郵寄清單會存檔在 ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/’。

在張貼之前，請先確認問題是否在*note 常見問題: 1afd.（也被稱為 FAQ）這個
清單內。FAQ 會回答出現很多次的問題及解答，有很多問題甚至已經包含解決問題
的方法。

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 「Cheese Shop（起司店）」是 Monty Python 的一個短劇：一位顧客進入
一家起司店，但無論他要哪種起司，店員都說沒有貨。


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2.14 互動式輸入編輯和歷史記錄替換
=================================

有些版本的 Python 直譯器支援當前輸入內容的編輯和歷史記錄的替換 (history
substitution)，類似在 Korn shell 和 GNU Bash shell 中的功能。這個功能是
用 GNU Readline(1) 函式庫來實作，它支援多種編輯的風格。這個函式庫有它自
己的說明文件，在這裡我們就不重複了。

* Menu:

* Tab 鍵自動完成 (Tab Completion) 和歷史記錄編輯 (History Editing): Tab 鍵自動完成 Tab Completion 和歷史記錄編輯 History Editing.
* 互動式直譯器的替代方案::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html


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2.14.1 Tab 鍵自動完成 (Tab Completion) 和歷史記錄編輯 (History Editing)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

在直譯器啟動的時候，變數和模組名稱的自動完成功能會被*note 自動啟用:
e5b.，所以可以用 ‘Tab’ 鍵來呼叫自動完成函式；它會查看 Python 的陳述式名
稱、當前區域變數名稱和可用模組名稱。對於像是 ‘string.a’ 的點分隔運算式
(dotted expression)，它會對最後一個 ‘'.'’ 之前的運算式求值，然後根據求值
結果物件的屬性，給予自動完成的建議。請注意，如果一個物件有 *note
__getattr__(): 1fa. method（方法），同時又是該運算式的一部份，這樣可能會
執行應用程式自定義的程式碼。預設設定也會把你的指令歷史記錄儲存在你的使用
者資料夾內，一個名為 ‘.python_history’ 的檔案中。在下一次啟動互動式直譯
器時，這些歷史記錄依然可以被使用。


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2.14.2 互動式直譯器的替代方案
-----------------------------

與早期版本的直譯器相比，上述功能的出現的確是一個巨大的進步；但還是有一些
願望沒有被實現：如果能在每次換行時給予適當的縮排建議（剖析器 (parser) 知
道下一行是否需要縮排標記 (indent token)），那就更棒了。自動完成機制可能
會使用直譯器的符號表。若有一個命令能夠檢查（或甚至建議）括號、引號和其他
符號的匹配，那也會很有用。

有一個功能增強的互動式直譯器替代方案，已經存在一段時間，稱為 IPython(1)，
它具有 Tab 鍵自動完成、物件探索和進階歷史記錄管理等特色。它也可以完全客
製化並被嵌入到其他應用程式中。另一個類似的增強型互動式環境，稱為
bpython(2)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://ipython.org/

   (2) https://bpython-interpreter.org/


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2.15 浮點數運算：問題與限制
===========================

在計算機架構中，浮點數 (floating-point number) 是以基數為 2（二進位）的
小數表示。例如說，在'十進位'小數中 ‘0.625’ 可被分為 6/10 + 2/100 +
5/1000，同樣的道理，'二進位'小數 ‘0.101’ 可被分為 1/2 + 0/4 + 1/8。這兩
個小數有相同的數值，而唯一真正的不同在於前者以十進位表示，後者以二進位表
示。

不幸的是，大多數十進位小數無法精準地以二進位小數表示。一般的結果為，你輸
入的十進位浮點數只能由實際儲存在計算機中的二進位浮點數近似。

在十進位中，這個問題更容易被理解。以分數 1/3 為例，你可以將其近似為十進
位小數：

     0.3

或者，更好的近似：

     0.33

或者，更好的近似：

     0.333

依此類推，不論你使用多少位數表示小數，最後的結果都無法精準地表示 1/3，但
你還是能越來越精準地表示 1/3。

同樣的道理，不論你願意以多少位數表示二進位小數，十進位小數 0.1 都無法被
二進位小數精準地表達。在二進位小數中，1/10 會是一個無限循環小數：

     0.0001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011...

只要你停在任何有限的位數，你就只會得到近似值。而現在大多數的計算機中，浮
點數是透過二進位分數近似的，其中分子是從最高有效位元開始，用 53 個位元表
示，分母則是以二為底的指數。在 1/10 的例子中，二進位分數為
‘3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55’，而這樣的表示十分地接近，但不完全等同於
1/10 的真正數值。

由於數值顯示的方式，很多使用者並沒有發現數值是個近似值。Python 只會印出
一個十進位近似值，其近似了儲存在計算機中的二進位近似值的真正十進位數值。
在大多數的計算機中，如果 Python 真的會印出完整的十進位數值，其表示儲存在
計算機中的 0.1 的二進位近似值，它將顯示為：

     >>> 0.1
     0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

這比一般人感到有用的位數還多，所以 Python 將位數保持在可以接受的範圍，只
顯示捨入後的數值：

     >>> 1 / 10
     0.1

一定要記住，雖然印出的數字看起來是精準的 1/10，但真正儲存的數值是能表示
的二進位分數中，最接近精準數值的數。

有趣的是，有許多不同的十進位數，共用同一個最接近的二進位近似分數。例如說
：數字 ‘0.1’ 和 ‘0.10000000000000001’ 和
‘0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625’，都由
‘3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55’ 近似。由於這三個十進位數值共用同一個近似值
，任何一個數值都可以被顯示，同時保持 ‘eval(repr(x)) == x’。

歷史上，Python 的提示字元 (prompt) 與內建的 *note repr(): 61e. 函式會選
擇上段說明中有 17 個有效位元的數：‘0.10000000000000001’。從 Python 3.1 版
開始，Python（在大部分的系統上）現在能選擇其中最短的數並簡單地顯示為
‘0.1’。

注意，這是二進位浮點數理所當然的特性，並不是 Python 的錯誤 (bug)，更不是
你程式碼的錯誤。只要程式語言有支援硬體的浮點數運算，你將會看到同樣的事情
出現在其中（雖然有些程式語言預設不會'顯示'該差異，有些甚至是在所有的輸出
模式中都不會顯示。）

為求更優雅的輸出，你可能想要使用字串的格式化 (string formatting) 產生限
定的有效位數：

     >>> format(math.pi, '.12g')  # give 12 significant digits
     '3.14159265359'

     >>> format(math.pi, '.2f')   # give 2 digits after the point
     '3.14'

     >>> repr(math.pi)
     '3.141592653589793'

要了解一件很重要的事，在真正意義上，浮點數的表示是一種幻覺：你基本上在捨
入真正機器數值所'展示的值'。

這種幻覺可能會產生下一個幻覺。舉例來說，因為 0.1 不是真正的 1/10，把三個
0.1 的值相加，也不會產生精準的 0.3：

     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 0.3
     False

同時，因為 0.1 不能再更接近精準的 1/10，還有 0.3 不能再更接近精準的
3/10，預先用 *note round(): 116b. 函式捨入並不會有幫助：

     >>> round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) == round(0.3, 1)
     False

雖然數字不會再更接近他們的精準數值，但 *note math.isclose(): c27. 函式可
以用來比較不精確的值：

     >>> math.isclose(0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1, 0.3)
     True

或者，可以使用 *note round(): 116b. 函式來比較粗略的近似值：

     >>> round(math.pi, ndigits=2) == round(22 / 7, ndigits=2)
     True

二進位浮點數架構下還有很多這樣的意外。底下的「表示法誤差 (Representation
Error)」章節，詳細地解釋了「0.1」的問題。Examples of Floating Point
Problems（浮點數問題範例）(1)一文提供了二進位浮點數的作用方式與現實中這
類常見問題的摘錄。如果想要其他常見問題的更完整描述，可以參考 The Perils
of Floating Point（浮點數的風險）(2)。

如同上文的末段所述，「這個問題並沒有簡單的答案。」不過，也不必對浮點過度
擔心！Python 的 float（浮點數）運算中的誤差，是從浮點硬體繼承而來，而在
大多數的計算機上，每次運算的誤差範圍不會大於 2**53 分之 1。這對大多數的
任務來說已經相當足夠，但你需要記住，它並非十進位運算，且每一次 float 運
算都可能會承受新的捨入誤差。

雖然浮點運算確實存在一些問題，但在一般情況下，如果你只是把最終結果的顯示
值，以十進位方式捨入至預期的位數，那麼仍會得到你預期的結果。*note str():
157. 通常就能滿足要求，而若想要更細緻的控制，可參閱*note 格式化文字語法:
121f.中關於 *note str.format(): 41b. method（方法）的格式規範。

對於需要精準十進位表示法的用例，可以試著用 *note decimal: 33. 模組，它可
實作適用於會計應用程式與高精確度應用程式的十進位運算。

另一種支援精準運算的格式為 *note fractions: 58. 模組，該模組基於有理數來
實作運算（因此可以精確表示像 1/3 這樣的數字）。

如果你是浮點運算的重度使用者，你應該看一下 NumPy 套件，以及由 SciPy 專案
提供的許多用於數學和統計學運算的其他套件。請參閱 <‘https://scipy.org’>。

在罕見情況下，當你'真的'想知道一個 float 的精準值，Python 提供的工具可協
助達成。*note float.as_integer_ratio(): 1b07. method 可將一個 float 的值
表示為分數：

     >>> x = 3.14159
     >>> x.as_integer_ratio()
     (3537115888337719, 1125899906842624)

由於該比率是精準的，它可無損地再現該原始值：

     >>> x == 3537115888337719 / 1125899906842624
     True

*note float.hex(): 1b08. method 以十六進位（基數為 16）表示 float，一樣
可以給出你的電腦所儲存的精準值：

     >>> x.hex()
     '0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1'

這種精確的十六進位表示法可用於精準地重建 float 值：

     >>> x == float.fromhex('0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1')
     True

由於該表示法是精準的，因此適用於在不同版本的 Python 之間可靠地傳送數值（
獨立於系統平台），並與支援相同格式的其他語言（如 JAVA 和 C99）交換資料。

另一個有用的工具是 *note sum(): 181. 函式，能在計算總和時幫忙減少精確度
的損失。當數值被加到運行中的總計值時，它會追蹤「失去的位數 (lost
digits)」。這可以明顯改善總體準確度 (overall accuracy)，使得誤差不至於累
積到影響最終總計值的程度：

     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
     False
     >>> sum([0.1] * 10) == 1.0
     True

*note math.fsum(): 1243. 更進一步將數值被加到運行總計中的總計時追蹤所有
「失去的位數」，以便結果僅有一次捨入。這比 *note sum(): 181. 慢，但在不
常見的情況下會更準確，在這種情況下，大量輸入大多相互抵消，最終的總和會接
近於零：

     >>> arr = [-0.10430216751806065, -266310978.67179024, 143401161448607.16,
     ...        -143401161400469.7, 266262841.31058735, -0.003244936839808227]
     >>> float(sum(map(Fraction, arr)))   # Exact summation with single rounding
     8.042173697819788e-13
     >>> math.fsum(arr)                   # Single rounding
     8.042173697819788e-13
     >>> sum(arr)                         # Multiple roundings in extended precision
     8.042178034628478e-13
     >>> total = 0.0
     >>> for x in arr:
     ...     total += x                   # Multiple roundings in standard precision
     ...
     >>> total                            # Straight addition has no correct digits!
     -0.0051575902860057365

* Menu:

* 表示法誤差 (Representation Error): 表示法誤差 Representation Error.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://jvns.ca/blog/2023/01/13/examples-of-floating-point-problems/

   (2) http://www.indowsway.com/floatingpoint.htm


File: python.info,  Node: 表示法誤差 Representation Error,  Up: 浮點數運算：問題與限制

2.15.1 表示法誤差 (Representation Error)
----------------------------------------

本節將會詳細解釋「0.1」的例子，並說明你自己要如何對類似案例執行精準的分
析。 以下假設你對二進位浮點表示法已有基本程度的熟悉。

'Representation error'（表示法誤差）是指在真實情況中，有些（實際上是大多
數）十進位小數並不能精準地以二進位（基數為 2）小數表示。這是 Python（或
Perl、C、C++、JAVA、Fortran 和其他許多）通常不會顯示你期望的精準十進位數
字的主要原因。

為什麼呢？因為 1/10 無法精準地以一個二進位小數來表示。至少自從 2000 年以
來，幾乎所有的計算機皆使用 IEEE-754 浮點數運算標準，並且幾乎所有的平台都
以 IEEE 754 binary64 標準中的「雙精度 (double precision)」來作為 Python
的 float。IEEE 754 binary64 的值包含 53 位元的精度，所以在輸入時，電腦會
努力把 0.1 轉換到最接近的分數，以 'J'/2**'N' 的形式表示，此處 'J' 是一個
正好包含 53 位元的整數。可以將：

     1 / 10 ~= J / (2**N)

重寫為：

     J ~= 2**N / 10

而前面提到 'J' 有精準的 53 位元（即 ‘>= 2**52’ 但 ‘< 2**53’），所以 'N'
的最佳數值是 56：

     >>> 2**52 <=  2**56 // 10  < 2**53
     True

意即，要使 'J' 正好有 53 位元，則 56 會是 'N' 的唯一值。而 'J' 最有可能
的數值就是經過捨入後的該商數：

     >>> q, r = divmod(2**56, 10)
     >>> r
     6

由於餘數超過 10 的一半，所以最佳的近似值是透過進位而得：

     >>> q+1
     7205759403792794

所以，在 IEEE 754 雙精度下，1/10 的最佳近似值是：

     7205759403792794 / 2 ** 56

將分子和分母同除以二，會約分為：

     3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55

請注意，由於我們有進位，所以這實際上比 1/10 大了一點；如果我們沒有進位，
商數將會有點小於 1/10。但在任何情況下都不可能是'精準的' 1/10！

所以電腦從來沒有「看到」1/10：它看到的是上述的精準分數，也就是它能得到的
IEEE 754 double 最佳近似值：

     >>> 0.1 * 2 ** 55
     3602879701896397.0

如果將該分數乘以 10**55，則可以看到該值以 55 個十進位數字顯示：

     >>> 3602879701896397 * 10 ** 55 // 2 ** 55
     1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

這表示儲存在電腦中的精準數值等於十進位值
0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625。與其顯示完整
的十進位數值，許多語言（包括 Python 的舊版本）選擇將結果捨入至 17 個有效
位數：

     >>> format(0.1, '.17f')
     '0.10000000000000001'

*note fractions: 58. 與 *note decimal: 33. 模組能使這些計算變得容易：

     >>> from decimal import Decimal
     >>> from fractions import Fraction

     >>> Fraction.from_float(0.1)
     Fraction(3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

     >>> (0.1).as_integer_ratio()
     (3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

     >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
     Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')

     >>> format(Decimal.from_float(0.1), '.17')
     '0.10000000000000001'


File: python.info,  Node: 附錄,  Prev: 浮點數運算：問題與限制,  Up: Python 教學

2.16 附錄
=========

* Menu:

* 互動模式: 互動模式<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 互動模式<2>,  Up: 附錄

2.16.1 互動模式
---------------

* Menu:

* 錯誤處理::
* 可執行的 Python 腳本::
* 互動式啟動檔案::
* 客製化模組::


File: python.info,  Node: 錯誤處理,  Next: 可執行的 Python 腳本,  Up: 互動模式<2>

2.16.1.1 錯誤處理
.................

當一個錯誤發生時，直譯器會印出一個錯誤訊息和堆疊回溯。在互動模式下，它將
返回主提示字元；當輸入來自檔案時，它在印出堆疊回溯後以非零退出狀態
(nonzero exit status) 退出。 (由 *note except: 3a8. 子句在 *note try:
4ea. 陳述式中處理的例外在這種情況下不是錯誤。) 有些錯誤是無條件嚴重的，
會導致非零退出狀態；這適用於內部不一致和一些記憶體耗盡的情況。所有的錯誤
訊息都被寫入標準錯誤輸出；被執行指令的正常輸出被寫入標準輸出。

向主提示字元或次提示字元輸入中斷字元（通常是 ‘Control-C’ 或 ‘Delete’ ）
會取消輸入並返回到主提示字元。 (1) 在指令執行過程中輸入一個中斷，會引發
*note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. 例外，但可以通過 *note try: 4ea. 陳述式來
處理。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) GNU Readline 套件的一個問題可能會阻止這一點。


File: python.info,  Node: 可執行的 Python 腳本,  Next: 互動式啟動檔案,  Prev: 錯誤處理,  Up: 互動模式<2>

2.16.1.2 可執行的 Python 腳本
.............................

在類 BSD 的 Unix 系統上，Python 腳本可以直接執行，就像 shell 腳本一樣，
通過放置以下這行：

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

（假設直譯器在用戶的 ‘PATH’ 上）在腳本的開頭並給檔案一個可執行模式。
‘#!’ 必須是檔案的前兩個字元。 在某些平台上，第一行必須以 Unix 樣式的換行
(‘'\n'’) 結尾，而不是 Windows (‘'\r\n'’) 換行。 請注意，井號 ‘'#'’ 用於
在 Python 中開始註解。

可以使用 ‘chmod’ 指令為腳本賦予可執行模式或權限。

     $ chmod +x myscript.py

在 Windows 系統上，沒有「可執行模式」的概念。 Python 安裝程式會自動將
‘.py’ 檔案與 ‘python.exe’ 聯繫起來，這樣雙擊 Python 檔案就會作為腳本運行
。副檔名也可以是 ‘.pyw’，在這種情況下，通常會出現的控制台視窗會被隱藏。


File: python.info,  Node: 互動式啟動檔案,  Next: 客製化模組,  Prev: 可執行的 Python 腳本,  Up: 互動模式<2>

2.16.1.3 互動式啟動檔案
.......................

當你互動式地使用 Python 時，每次啟動直譯器時執行一些標準指令是非常方便的
。你可以通過設置一個名為 *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e5a. 的環境變數來實現，該
變數是一個包含啟動指令的檔案名。它的功能類似 Unix shell 的 ‘.profile’ 。

這個檔案只在互動模式中被讀取，當 Python 從腳本中讀取指令時，此檔案不會被
讀取，當 ‘/dev/tty’ 作為指令的明確來源時也不會（否則表現得像互動模式）。
它在執行互動式指令的同一命名空間中執行，因此它所定義或 import 的物件可以
在互動模式中不加限定地使用。你也可以在這個檔案中改變 ‘sys.ps1’ 和
‘sys.ps2’ 等提示字元。

如果你想從當前目錄中讀取一個額外的啟動檔案，你可以在全域啟動檔案中使用類
似 ‘if os.path.isfile('.pythonrc.py'): exec(open('.pythonrc.py').read()’
的程式碼設定這個行為。如果你想在一個腳本中使用啟動檔案，你必須在腳本中明
確地這樣做：

     import os
     filename = os.environ.get('PYTHONSTARTUP')
     if filename and os.path.isfile(filename):
         with open(filename) as fobj:
             startup_file = fobj.read()
         exec(startup_file)


File: python.info,  Node: 客製化模組,  Prev: 互動式啟動檔案,  Up: 互動模式<2>

2.16.1.4 客製化模組
...................

Python 提供了兩個鉤子 (hook) 讓你可以將它客製化： sitecustomize 和
usercustomize 。要看它是如何運作的，你首先需要找到你的 site-packages 的
位置。啟動 Python 並運行這段程式碼：

     >>> import site
     >>> site.getusersitepackages()
     '/home/user/.local/lib/python3.x/site-packages'

現在，你可以在該目錄中建立一個名為 ‘usercustomize.py’ 的檔案，並將你想要
的任何內容放入其中。它會影響 Python 的每次呼叫，除非它以 *note -s: 121a.
選項啟動以禁用自動 import 。

sitecustomize 的運作方式相同，但通常是由電腦的管理員在全域 site-packages
目錄下建立，並在 usercustomize 之前 import 。更多細節請參閱 *note site:
c2. 模組的文件。

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: Python 的設置與使用,  Next: Python 語言參考手冊,  Prev: Python 教學,  Up: Top

3 Python 的設置與使用
*********************

這部分的說明文件是關於在不同平台上設定 Python 環境的綜合資訊、直譯器的呼
叫，以及讓 Python 更容易使用的一些方法。

* Menu:

* 命令列與環境::
* 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python::
* 配置 Python::
* 在 Windows 上使用 Python::
* 在 Mac 系統使用 Python::
* 編輯器與 IDE::


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列與環境,  Next: 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python,  Up: Python 的設置與使用

3.1 命令列與環境
================

The CPython interpreter scans the command line and the environment for
various settings.

'CPython 實作細節：' Other implementations' command line schemes may
differ.  See *note Alternate Implementations: 1b1b. for further
resources.

* Menu:

* 命令列::
* 環境變數::


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列,  Next: 環境變數,  Up: 命令列與環境

3.1.1 命令列
------------

When invoking Python, you may specify any of these options:

     python [-bBdEhiIOPqRsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args]

The most common use case is, of course, a simple invocation of a script:

     python myscript.py

* Menu:

* 介面選項::
* Generic options::
* Miscellaneous options::
* 你不該使用的選項::


File: python.info,  Node: 介面選項,  Next: Generic options,  Up: 命令列

3.1.1.1 介面選項
................

The interpreter interface resembles that of the UNIX shell, but provides
some additional methods of invocation:

   * When called with standard input connected to a tty device, it
     prompts for commands and executes them until an EOF (an end-of-file
     character, you can produce that with ‘Ctrl-D’ on UNIX or ‘Ctrl-Z,
     Enter’ on Windows) is read.

   * When called with a file name argument or with a file as standard
     input, it reads and executes a script from that file.

   * When called with a directory name argument, it reads and executes
     an appropriately named script from that directory.

   * When called with ‘-c command’, it executes the Python statement(s)
     given as 'command'.  Here 'command' may contain multiple statements
     separated by newlines.  Leading whitespace is significant in Python
     statements!

   * When called with ‘-m module-name’, the given module is located on
     the Python module path and executed as a script.

In non-interactive mode, the entire input is parsed before it is
executed.

An interface option terminates the list of options consumed by the
interpreter, all consecutive arguments will end up in *note sys.argv:
10f9. - note that the first element, subscript zero (‘sys.argv[0]’), is
a string reflecting the program's source.

 -- Option: -c <command>

     Execute the Python code in 'command'.  'command' can be one or more
     statements separated by newlines, with significant leading
     whitespace as in normal module code.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 10f9.
     will be ‘"-c"’ and the current directory will be added to the start
     of *note sys.path: 35e. (allowing modules in that directory to be
     imported as top level modules).

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘command’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘cpython.run_command’。

 -- Option: -m <module-name>

     Search *note sys.path: 35e. for the named module and execute its
     contents as the *note __main__: 1. module.

     Since the argument is a 'module' name, you must not give a file
     extension (‘.py’).  The module name should be a valid absolute
     Python module name, but the implementation may not always enforce
     this (e.g.  it may allow you to use a name that includes a hyphen).

     Package names (including namespace packages) are also permitted.
     When a package name is supplied instead of a normal module, the
     interpreter will execute ‘<pkg>.__main__’ as the main module.  This
     behaviour is deliberately similar to the handling of directories
     and zipfiles that are passed to the interpreter as the script
     argument.

          備註: This option cannot be used with built-in modules and
          extension modules written in C, since they do not have Python
          module files.  However, it can still be used for precompiled
          modules, even if the original source file is not available.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 10f9.
     will be the full path to the module file (while the module file is
     being located, the first element will be set to ‘"-m"’).  As with
     the *note -c: 3d3. option, the current directory will be added to
     the start of *note sys.path: 35e.

     *note -I: 79f. option can be used to run the script in isolated
     mode where *note sys.path: 35e. contains neither the current
     directory nor the user's site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.

     Many standard library modules contain code that is invoked on their
     execution as a script.  An example is the *note timeit: e9. module:

          python -m timeit -s "setup here" "benchmarked code here"
          python -m timeit -h # for details

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘module-name’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘cpython.run_module’。

     也參考
     ......

     *note runpy.run_module(): 15da.

          Equivalent functionality directly available to Python code

     PEP 338(1) - Executing modules as scripts

     在 3.1 版的變更: Supply the package name to run a ‘__main__’
     submodule.

     在 3.4 版的變更: namespace packages are also supported

 -- Describe: -

     Read commands from standard input (*note sys.stdin: 2bf.).  If
     standard input is a terminal, *note -i: 1352. is implied.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 10f9.
     will be ‘"-"’ and the current directory will be added to the start
     of *note sys.path: 35e.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘cpython.run_stdin’。

 -- Describe: <script>

     Execute the Python code contained in 'script', which must be a
     filesystem path (absolute or relative) referring to either a Python
     file, a directory containing a ‘__main__.py’ file, or a zipfile
     containing a ‘__main__.py’ file.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 10f9.
     will be the script name as given on the command line.

     If the script name refers directly to a Python file, the directory
     containing that file is added to the start of *note sys.path: 35e,
     and the file is executed as the *note __main__: 1. module.

     If the script name refers to a directory or zipfile, the script
     name is added to the start of *note sys.path: 35e. and the
     ‘__main__.py’ file in that location is executed as the *note
     __main__: 1. module.

     *note -I: 79f. option can be used to run the script in isolated
     mode where *note sys.path: 35e. contains neither the script's
     directory nor the user's site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘filename’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘cpython.run_file’。

     也參考
     ......

     *note runpy.run_path(): 11af.

          Equivalent functionality directly available to Python code

If no interface option is given, *note -i: 1352. is implied,
‘sys.argv[0]’ is an empty string (‘""’) and the current directory will
be added to the start of *note sys.path: 35e.  Also, tab-completion and
history editing is automatically enabled, if available on your platform
(see *note Readline configuration: e5b.).

也參考
......

*note 啟動直譯器: 19d5.

在 3.4 版的變更: Automatic enabling of tab-completion and history
editing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/


File: python.info,  Node: Generic options,  Next: Miscellaneous options,  Prev: 介面選項,  Up: 命令列

3.1.1.2 Generic options
.......................

 -- Option: -?
 -- Option: -h
 -- Option: --help

     Print a short description of all command line options and
     corresponding environment variables and exit.

 -- Option: --help-env

     Print a short description of Python-specific environment variables
     and exit.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Option: --help-xoptions

     Print a description of implementation-specific *note -X: 188.
     options and exit.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Option: --help-all

     印出完整使用資訊並離開。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Option: -V
 -- Option: --version

     Print the Python version number and exit.  Example output could be:

          Python 3.8.0b2+

     When given twice, print more information about the build, like:

          Python 3.8.0b2+ (3.8:0c076caaa8, Apr 20 2019, 21:55:00)
          [GCC 6.2.0 20161005]

     在 3.6 版被加入: ‘-VV’ 選項


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous options,  Next: 你不該使用的選項,  Prev: Generic options,  Up: 命令列

3.1.1.3 Miscellaneous options
.............................

 -- Option: -b

     Issue a warning when converting *note bytes: 2c1. or *note
     bytearray: 2c0. to *note str: 157. without specifying encoding or
     comparing ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearray’ with ‘str’ or ‘bytes’ with *note
     int: 17e.  Issue an error when the option is given twice (‘-bb’).

     在 3.5 版的變更: Affects also comparisons of *note bytes: 2c1. with
     *note int: 17e.

 -- Option: -B

     If given, Python won't try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the import of
     source modules.  See also *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 123d.

 -- Option: --check-hash-based-pycs default|always|never

     Control the validation behavior of hash-based ‘.pyc’ files.  See
     *note Cached bytecode invalidation: 3e0.  When set to ‘default’,
     checked and unchecked hash-based bytecode cache files are validated
     according to their default semantics.  When set to ‘always’, all
     hash-based ‘.pyc’ files, whether checked or unchecked, are
     validated against their corresponding source file.  When set to
     ‘never’, hash-based ‘.pyc’ files are not validated against their
     corresponding source files.

     The semantics of timestamp-based ‘.pyc’ files are unaffected by
     this option.

 -- Option: -d

     Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only).  See also the
     *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1b27. environment variable.

     This option requires a *note debug build of Python: 69f, otherwise
     it's ignored.

 -- Option: -E

     Ignore all ‘PYTHON*’ environment variables, e.g.  *note PYTHONPATH:
     eb1. and *note PYTHONHOME: 365, that might be set.

     另請參閱 *note -P: 391. 和 *note -I: 79f. (isolated) 選項。

 -- Option: -i

     When a script is passed as first argument or the *note -c: 3d3.
     option is used, enter interactive mode after executing the script
     or the command, even when *note sys.stdin: 2bf. does not appear to
     be a terminal.  The *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e5a. file is not read.

     This can be useful to inspect global variables or a stack trace
     when a script raises an exception.  See also *note PYTHONINSPECT:
     1351.

 -- Option: -I

     Run Python in isolated mode.  This also implies *note -E: 79e,
     *note -P: 391. and *note -s: 121a. options.

     In isolated mode *note sys.path: 35e. contains neither the script's
     directory nor the user's site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.  Further restrictions may
     be imposed to prevent the user from injecting malicious code.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- Option: -O

     Remove assert statements and any code conditional on the value of
     *note __debug__: 5fb.  Augment the filename for compiled (*note
     bytecode: 39f.) files by adding ‘.opt-1’ before the ‘.pyc’
     extension (see PEP 488(1)).  See also *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 1b28.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 根據 PEP 488(2) 修改 ‘.pyc’ 檔案名稱。

 -- Option: -OO

     Do *note -O: c2c. and also discard docstrings.  Augment the
     filename for compiled (*note bytecode: 39f.) files by adding
     ‘.opt-2’ before the ‘.pyc’ extension (see PEP 488(3)).

     在 3.5 版的變更: 根據 PEP 488(4) 修改 ‘.pyc’ 檔案名稱。

 -- Option: -P

     Don't prepend a potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 35e.:

        * ‘python -m module’ command line: Don't prepend the current
          working directory.

        * ‘python script.py’ command line: Don't prepend the script's
          directory.  If it's a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links.

        * ‘python -c code’ and ‘python’ (REPL) command lines: Don't
          prepend an empty string, which means the current working
          directory.

     See also the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 392. environment variable, and
     *note -E: 79e. and *note -I: 79f. (isolated) options.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Option: -q

     Don't display the copyright and version messages even in
     interactive mode.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- Option: -R

     Turn on hash randomization.  This option only has an effect if the
     *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f13. environment variable is set to ‘0’,
     since hash randomization is enabled by default.

     On previous versions of Python, this option turns on hash
     randomization, so that the *note __hash__(): 950. values of str and
     bytes objects are "salted" with an unpredictable random value.
     Although they remain constant within an individual Python process,
     they are not predictable between repeated invocations of Python.

     Hash randomization is intended to provide protection against a
     denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that exploit
     the worst case performance of a dict construction, 'O'('n'^2)
     complexity.  See ‘http://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html’
     for details.

     *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f13. allows you to set a fixed value for the
     hash seed secret.

     在 3.2.3 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The option is no longer ignored.

 -- Option: -s

     Don't add the *note user site-packages directory: 1b2a. to *note
     sys.path: 35e.

     另請參閱 *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 121b.。

     也參考
     ......

     PEP 370(5) - Per user site-packages directory

 -- Option: -S

     Disable the import of the module *note site: c2. and the
     site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 35e. that it
     entails.  Also disable these manipulations if *note site: c2. is
     explicitly imported later (call *note site.main(): 1b2b. if you
     want them to be triggered).

 -- Option: -u

     Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.  This option
     has no effect on the stdin stream.

     另請參閱 *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 1781.。

     在 3.7 版的變更: The text layer of the stdout and stderr streams
     now is unbuffered.

 -- Option: -v

     Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the
     place (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.  When
     given twice (‘-vv’), print a message for each file that is checked
     for when searching for a module.  Also provides information on
     module cleanup at exit.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The *note site: c2. module reports the
     site-specific paths and ‘.pth’ files being processed.

     另請參閱 *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1b2c.。

 -- Option: -W arg

     Warning control.  Python's warning machinery by default prints
     warning messages to *note sys.stderr: 778.

     The simplest settings apply a particular action unconditionally to
     all warnings emitted by a process (even those that are otherwise
     ignored by default):

          -Wdefault  # Warn once per call location
          -Werror    # Convert to exceptions
          -Walways   # Warn every time
          -Wall      # Same as -Walways
          -Wmodule   # Warn once per calling module
          -Wonce     # Warn once per Python process
          -Wignore   # Never warn

     The action names can be abbreviated as desired and the interpreter
     will resolve them to the appropriate action name.  For example,
     ‘-Wi’ is the same as ‘-Wignore’.

     完整的引數形式為：

          action:message:category:module:lineno

     Empty fields match all values; trailing empty fields may be
     omitted.  For example ‘-W ignore::DeprecationWarning’ ignores all
     DeprecationWarning warnings.

     The 'action' field is as explained above but only applies to
     warnings that match the remaining fields.

     The 'message' field must match the whole warning message; this
     match is case-insensitive.

     The 'category' field matches the warning category (ex:
     ‘DeprecationWarning’).  This must be a class name; the match test
     whether the actual warning category of the message is a subclass of
     the specified warning category.

     The 'module' field matches the (fully qualified) module name; this
     match is case-sensitive.

     The 'lineno' field matches the line number, where zero matches all
     line numbers and is thus equivalent to an omitted line number.

     Multiple *note -W: 6ff. options can be given; when a warning
     matches more than one option, the action for the last matching
     option is performed.  Invalid *note -W: 6ff. options are ignored
     (though, a warning message is printed about invalid options when
     the first warning is issued).

     Warnings can also be controlled using the *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     a0b. environment variable and from within a Python program using
     the *note warnings: 10d. module.  For example, the *note
     warnings.filterwarnings(): 131c. function can be used to use a
     regular expression on the warning message.

     See *note The Warnings Filter: 701. and *note Describing Warning
     Filters: 1b2e. for more details.

 -- Option: -x

     Skip the first line of the source, allowing use of non-Unix forms
     of ‘#!cmd’.  This is intended for a DOS specific hack only.

 -- Option: -X

     Reserved for various implementation-specific options.  CPython
     currently defines the following possible values:

        * ‘-X faulthandler’ to enable *note faulthandler: 53.  See also
          *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: f16.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

        * ‘-X showrefcount’ to output the total reference count and
          number of used memory blocks when the program finishes or
          after each statement in the interactive interpreter.  This
          only works on *note debug builds: 69f.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

        * ‘-X tracemalloc’ to start tracing Python memory allocations
          using the *note tracemalloc: fa. module.  By default, only the
          most recent frame is stored in a traceback of a trace.  Use
          ‘-X tracemalloc=NFRAME’ to start tracing with a traceback
          limit of 'NFRAME' frames.  See *note tracemalloc.start():
          1b30. and *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1b31. for more information.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

        * ‘-X int_max_str_digits’ configures the *note integer string
          conversion length limitation: 3ea.  See also *note
          PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1589.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

        * ‘-X importtime’ to show how long each import takes.  It shows
          module name, cumulative time (including nested imports) and
          self time (excluding nested imports).  Note that its output
          may be broken in multi-threaded application.  Typical usage is
          ‘python3 -X importtime -c 'import asyncio'’.  See also *note
          PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: 94a.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

        * ‘-X dev’: enable *note Python Development Mode: 703,
          introducing additional runtime checks that are too expensive
          to be enabled by default.  See also *note PYTHONDEVMODE: 942.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

        * ‘-X utf8’ enables the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451.  ‘-X
          utf8=0’ explicitly disables *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451.
          (even when it would otherwise activate automatically).  See
          also *note PYTHONUTF8: 92c.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

        * ‘-X pycache_prefix=PATH’ enables writing ‘.pyc’ files to a
          parallel tree rooted at the given directory instead of to the
          code tree.  See also *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 7e7.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

        * ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ issues a *note EncodingWarning:
          1b32. when the locale-specific default encoding is used for
          opening files.  See also *note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 5da.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

        * ‘-X no_debug_ranges’ disables the inclusion of the tables
          mapping extra location information (end line, start column
          offset and end column offset) to every instruction in code
          objects.  This is useful when smaller code objects and pyc
          files are desired as well as suppressing the extra visual
          location indicators when the interpreter displays tracebacks.
          See also *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 3a4.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

        * ‘-X frozen_modules’ determines whether or not frozen modules
          are ignored by the import machinery.  A value of "on" means
          they get imported and "off" means they are ignored.  The
          default is "on" if this is an installed Python (the normal
          case).  If it's under development (running from the source
          tree) then the default is "off".  Note that the
          "importlib_bootstrap" and "importlib_bootstrap_external"
          frozen modules are always used, even if this flag is set to
          "off".

          在 3.11 版被加入.

        * ‘-X perf’ enables support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler.  When
          this option is provided, the ‘perf’ profiler will be able to
          report Python calls.  This option is only available on some
          platforms and will do nothing if is not supported on the
          current system.  The default value is "off".  See also *note
          PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 187. and *note Python 對 Linux perf
          分析器的支援: 151.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

     It also allows passing arbitrary values and retrieving them through
     the *note sys._xoptions: 1b33. dictionary.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 移除 ‘-X showalloccount’ 選項。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 ‘-X oldparser’ 選項。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: 你不該使用的選項,  Prev: Miscellaneous options,  Up: 命令列

3.1.1.4 你不該使用的選項
........................

 -- Option: -J

     Reserved for use by Jython(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 環境變數,  Prev: 命令列,  Up: 命令列與環境

3.1.2 環境變數
--------------

These environment variables influence Python's behavior, they are
processed before the command-line switches other than -E or -I. It is
customary that command-line switches override environmental variables
where there is a conflict.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONHOME

     Change the location of the standard Python libraries.  By default,
     the libraries are searched in ‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’ and
     ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`version'’, where ‘`prefix'’ and
     ‘`exec_prefix'’ are installation-dependent directories, both
     defaulting to ‘/usr/local’.

     When *note PYTHONHOME: 365. is set to a single directory, its value
     replaces both ‘`prefix'’ and ‘`exec_prefix'’.  To specify different
     values for these, set *note PYTHONHOME: 365. to
     ‘`prefix':`exec_prefix'’.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONPATH

     Augment the default search path for module files.  The format is
     the same as the shell's ‘PATH’: one or more directory pathnames
     separated by *note os.pathsep: 1b36. (e.g.  colons on Unix or
     semicolons on Windows).  Non-existent directories are silently
     ignored.

     In addition to normal directories, individual *note PYTHONPATH:
     eb1. entries may refer to zipfiles containing pure Python modules
     (in either source or compiled form).  Extension modules cannot be
     imported from zipfiles.

     The default search path is installation dependent, but generally
     begins with ‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’ (see *note PYTHONHOME:
     365. above).  It is 'always' appended to *note PYTHONPATH: eb1.

     An additional directory will be inserted in the search path in
     front of *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. as described above under *note
     介面選項: 1b1e.  The search path can be manipulated from within a
     Python program as the variable *note sys.path: 35e.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONSAFEPATH

     If this is set to a non-empty string, don't prepend a potentially
     unsafe path to *note sys.path: 35e.: see the *note -P: 391. option
     for details.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONPLATLIBDIR

     If this is set to a non-empty string, it overrides the *note
     sys.platlibdir: 777. value.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONSTARTUP

     If this is the name of a readable file, the Python commands in that
     file are executed before the first prompt is displayed in
     interactive mode.  The file is executed in the same namespace where
     interactive commands are executed so that objects defined or
     imported in it can be used without qualification in the interactive
     session.  You can also change the prompts *note sys.ps1: 1b37. and
     *note sys.ps2: 1b38. and the hook *note sys.__interactivehook__:
     e59. in this file.

     引發一個附帶呼叫啟動時的檔案名稱為引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘cpython.run_startup’。

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONOPTIMIZE

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -O: c2c. option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent
     to specifying *note -O: c2c. multiple times.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONBREAKPOINT

     If this is set, it names a callable using dotted-path notation.
     The module containing the callable will be imported and then the
     callable will be run by the default implementation of *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): 92e. which itself is called by built-in *note
     breakpoint(): 917.  If not set, or set to the empty string, it is
     equivalent to the value "pdb.set_trace".  Setting this to the
     string "0" causes the default implementation of *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): 92e. to do nothing but return immediately.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONDEBUG

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -d: 1b26. option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent
     to specifying *note -d: 1b26. multiple times.

     This environment variable requires a *note debug build of Python:
     69f, otherwise it's ignored.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONINSPECT

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -i: 1352. option.

     This variable can also be modified by Python code using *note
     os.environ: 104b. to force inspect mode on program termination.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘cpython.run_stdin’。

     在 3.12.5 版的變更: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and 3.8.20)
     Emits audit events.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONUNBUFFERED

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -u: 1780. option.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONVERBOSE

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -v: 1295. option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent
     to specifying *note -v: 1295. multiple times.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONCASEOK

     If this is set, Python ignores case in *note import: 3d5.
     statements.  This only works on Windows and macOS.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE

     If this is set to a non-empty string, Python won't try to write
     ‘.pyc’ files on the import of source modules.  This is equivalent
     to specifying the *note -B: 123c. option.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX

     If this is set, Python will write ‘.pyc’ files in a mirror
     directory tree at this path, instead of in ‘__pycache__’
     directories within the source tree.  This is equivalent to
     specifying the *note -X: 188. ‘pycache_prefix=PATH’ option.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONHASHSEED

     If this variable is not set or set to ‘random’, a random value is
     used to seed the hashes of str and bytes objects.

     If *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f13. is set to an integer value, it is
     used as a fixed seed for generating the hash() of the types covered
     by the hash randomization.

     Its purpose is to allow repeatable hashing, such as for selftests
     for the interpreter itself, or to allow a cluster of python
     processes to share hash values.

     The integer must be a decimal number in the range [0,4294967295].
     Specifying the value 0 will disable hash randomization.

     在 3.2.3 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS

     If this variable is set to an integer, it is used to configure the
     interpreter's global *note integer string conversion length
     limitation: 3ea.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONIOENCODING

     If this is set before running the interpreter, it overrides the
     encoding used for stdin/stdout/stderr, in the syntax
     ‘encodingname:errorhandler’.  Both the ‘encodingname’ and the
     ‘:errorhandler’ parts are optional and have the same meaning as in
     *note str.encode(): 70e.

     For stderr, the ‘:errorhandler’ part is ignored; the handler will
     always be ‘'backslashreplace'’.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The ‘encodingname’ part is now optional.

     在 3.6 版的變更: On Windows, the encoding specified by this
     variable is ignored for interactive console buffers unless *note
     PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: ac3. is also specified.  Files and pipes
     redirected through the standard streams are not affected.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONNOUSERSITE

     If this is set, Python won't add the *note user site-packages
     directory: 1b2a. to *note sys.path: 35e.

     也參考
     ......

     PEP 370(1) - Per user site-packages directory

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONUSERBASE

     Defines the *note user base directory: 11b0, which is used to
     compute the path of the *note user site-packages directory: 1b2a.
     and *note installation paths: 1b39. for ‘python -m pip install
     --user’.

     也參考
     ......

     PEP 370(2) - Per user site-packages directory

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONEXECUTABLE

     If this environment variable is set, ‘sys.argv[0]’ will be set to
     its value instead of the value got through the C runtime.  Only
     works on macOS.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONWARNINGS

     This is equivalent to the *note -W: 6ff. option.  If set to a comma
     separated string, it is equivalent to specifying *note -W: 6ff.
     multiple times, with filters later in the list taking precedence
     over those earlier in the list.

     The simplest settings apply a particular action unconditionally to
     all warnings emitted by a process (even those that are otherwise
     ignored by default):

          PYTHONWARNINGS=default  # Warn once per call location
          PYTHONWARNINGS=error    # Convert to exceptions
          PYTHONWARNINGS=always   # Warn every time
          PYTHONWARNINGS=all      # Same as PYTHONWARNINGS=always
          PYTHONWARNINGS=module   # Warn once per calling module
          PYTHONWARNINGS=once     # Warn once per Python process
          PYTHONWARNINGS=ignore   # Never warn

     See *note The Warnings Filter: 701. and *note Describing Warning
     Filters: 1b2e. for more details.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONFAULTHANDLER

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, *note
     faulthandler.enable(): b0b. is called at startup: install a handler
     for *note SIGSEGV: 1b3b, *note SIGFPE: 1b3c, *note SIGABRT: 1b3d,
     *note SIGBUS: 1b3e. and *note SIGILL: 1b3f. signals to dump the
     Python traceback.  This is equivalent to *note -X: 188.
     ‘faulthandler’ option.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, start
     tracing Python memory allocations using the *note tracemalloc: fa.
     module.  The value of the variable is the maximum number of frames
     stored in a traceback of a trace.  For example,
     ‘PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=1’ stores only the most recent frame.  See the
     *note tracemalloc.start(): 1b30. function for more information.
     This is equivalent to setting the *note -X: 188. ‘tracemalloc’
     option.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, Python
     will show how long each import takes.  This is equivalent to
     setting the *note -X: 188. ‘importtime’ option.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable
     the *note debug mode: 1b41. of the *note asyncio: 9. module.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONMALLOC

     Set the Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.

     Set the family of memory allocators used by Python:

        * ‘default’: use the *note default memory allocators: 1b42.

        * ‘malloc’: use the ‘malloc()’ function of the C library for all
          domains (*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1b43, *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM:
          ad1, *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: acf.).

        * ‘pymalloc’: use the *note pymalloc allocator: b7e. for *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ad1. and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: acf.
          domains and use the ‘malloc()’ function for the *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1b43. domain.

     Install *note debug hooks: 1b44.:

        * ‘debug’: install debug hooks on top of the *note default
          memory allocators: 1b42.

        * ‘malloc_debug’: same as ‘malloc’ but also install debug hooks.

        * ‘pymalloc_debug’: same as ‘pymalloc’ but also install debug
          hooks.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Added the ‘"default"’ allocator.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONMALLOCSTATS

     If set to a non-empty string, Python will print statistics of the
     *note pymalloc memory allocator: b7e. every time a new pymalloc
     object arena is created, and on shutdown.

     This variable is ignored if the *note PYTHONMALLOC: acc.
     environment variable is used to force the ‘malloc()’ allocator of
     the C library, or if Python is configured without ‘pymalloc’
     support.

     在 3.6 版的變更: This variable can now also be used on Python
     compiled in release mode.  It now has no effect if set to an empty
     string.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING

     If set to a non-empty string, the default *note filesystem encoding
     and error handler: 2bd. mode will revert to their pre-3.6 values of
     'mbcs' and 'replace', respectively.  Otherwise, the new defaults
     'utf-8' and 'surrogatepass' are used.

     This may also be enabled at runtime with *note
     sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): ac1.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.6 版被加入: 更多細節請見 PEP 529(3)。

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO

     If set to a non-empty string, does not use the new console reader
     and writer.  This means that Unicode characters will be encoded
     according to the active console code page, rather than using utf-8.

     This variable is ignored if the standard streams are redirected (to
     files or pipes) rather than referring to console buffers.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE

     If set to the value ‘0’, causes the main Python command line
     application to skip coercing the legacy ASCII-based C and POSIX
     locales to a more capable UTF-8 based alternative.

     If this variable is 'not' set (or is set to a value other than
     ‘0’), the ‘LC_ALL’ locale override environment variable is also not
     set, and the current locale reported for the ‘LC_CTYPE’ category is
     either the default ‘C’ locale, or else the explicitly ASCII-based
     ‘POSIX’ locale, then the Python CLI will attempt to configure the
     following locales for the ‘LC_CTYPE’ category in the order listed
     before loading the interpreter runtime:

        * ‘C.UTF-8’

        * ‘C.utf8’

        * ‘UTF-8’

     If setting one of these locale categories succeeds, then the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ environment variable will also be set accordingly in the
     current process environment before the Python runtime is
     initialized.  This ensures that in addition to being seen by both
     the interpreter itself and other locale-aware components running in
     the same process (such as the GNU ‘readline’ library), the updated
     setting is also seen in subprocesses (regardless of whether or not
     those processes are running a Python interpreter), as well as in
     operations that query the environment rather than the current C
     locale (such as Python's own *note locale.getdefaultlocale():
     256.).

     Configuring one of these locales (either explicitly or via the
     above implicit locale coercion) automatically enables the
     ‘surrogateescape’ *note error handler: 15b3. for *note sys.stdin:
     2bf. and *note sys.stdout: 92a. (*note sys.stderr: 778. continues
     to use ‘backslashreplace’ as it does in any other locale).  This
     stream handling behavior can be overridden using *note
     PYTHONIOENCODING: e9d. as usual.

     For debugging purposes, setting ‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn’ will
     cause Python to emit warning messages on ‘stderr’ if either the
     locale coercion activates, or else if a locale that 'would' have
     triggered coercion is still active when the Python runtime is
     initialized.

     Also note that even when locale coercion is disabled, or when it
     fails to find a suitable target locale, *note PYTHONUTF8: 92c. will
     still activate by default in legacy ASCII-based locales.  Both
     features must be disabled in order to force the interpreter to use
     ‘ASCII’ instead of ‘UTF-8’ for system interfaces.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.7 版被加入: 更多細節請見 PEP 538(4)。

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONDEVMODE

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable
     *note Python Development Mode: 703, introducing additional runtime
     checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default.  This is
     equivalent to setting the *note -X: 188. ‘dev’ option.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONUTF8

     如果設為 ‘1’，則啟用 *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451.。

     如果設為 ‘0’，則停用 *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451.。

     Setting any other non-empty string causes an error during
     interpreter initialisation.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, issue a
     *note EncodingWarning: 1b32. when the locale-specific default
     encoding is used.

     細節請見 *note 選擇性加入的編碼警告: 1b46.。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES

     If this variable is set, it disables the inclusion of the tables
     mapping extra location information (end line, start column offset
     and end column offset) to every instruction in code objects.  This
     is useful when smaller code objects and pyc files are desired as
     well as suppressing the extra visual location indicators when the
     interpreter displays tracebacks.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONPERFSUPPORT

     If this variable is set to a nonzero value, it enables support for
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler so Python calls can be detected by it.

     If set to ‘0’, disable Linux ‘perf’ profiler support.

     See also the *note -X perf: 188. command-line option and *note
     Python 對 Linux perf 分析器的支援: 151.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

* Menu:

* 除錯模式變數::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: 除錯模式變數,  Up: 環境變數

3.1.2.1 除錯模式變數
....................

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONDUMPREFS

     If set, Python will dump objects and reference counts still alive
     after shutting down the interpreter.

     Need Python configured with the *note -with-trace-refs: 6d2. build
     option.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE=FILENAME

     If set, Python will dump objects and reference counts still alive
     after shutting down the interpreter into a file called 'FILENAME'.

     Need Python configured with the *note -with-trace-refs: 6d2. build
     option.

     在 3.11 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python,  Next: 配置 Python,  Prev: 命令列與環境,  Up: Python 的設置與使用

3.2 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python
=============================

* Menu:

* 獲得並安裝 Python 的最新版本::
* 建置 Python::
* 與 Python 相關的路徑和檔案::
* 雜項: 雜項<2>.
* 客製化 OpenSSL::


File: python.info,  Node: 獲得並安裝 Python 的最新版本,  Next: 建置 Python,  Up: 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python

3.2.1 獲得並安裝 Python 的最新版本
----------------------------------

* Menu:

* 在 Linux 上::
* 在 FreeBSD 和 OpenBSD 上::


File: python.info,  Node: 在 Linux 上,  Next: 在 FreeBSD 和 OpenBSD 上,  Up: 獲得並安裝 Python 的最新版本

3.2.1.1 在 Linux 上
...................

Python comes preinstalled on most Linux distributions, and is available
as a package on all others.  However there are certain features you
might want to use that are not available on your distro's package.  You
can compile the latest version of Python from source.

In the event that the latest version of Python doesn't come preinstalled
and isn't in the repositories as well, you can make packages for your
own distro.  Have a look at the following links:

也參考
......

‘https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/maint-guide/first.en.html’

     對於 Debian 用戶

‘https://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Packaging’

     對於 OpenSuse 用戶

‘https://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/package-maintainers/Packaging_Tutorial_GNU_Hello/’

     對於 Fedora 用戶

‘https://slackbook.org/html/package-management-making-packages.html’

     對於 Slackware 用戶


File: python.info,  Node: 在 FreeBSD 和 OpenBSD 上,  Prev: 在 Linux 上,  Up: 獲得並安裝 Python 的最新版本

3.2.1.2 在 FreeBSD 和 OpenBSD 上
................................

   * FreeBSD 用戶應使用以下命令增加套件：

          pkg install python3

   * OpenBSD 用戶應使用以下命令增加套件：

          pkg_add -r python

          pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/<insert your architecture here>/python-<version>.tgz

     例如 i386 使用者要獲取 Python 2.5.1 的可用版本：

          pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/i386/python-2.5.1p2.tgz


File: python.info,  Node: 建置 Python,  Next: 與 Python 相關的路徑和檔案,  Prev: 獲得並安裝 Python 的最新版本,  Up: 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python

3.2.2 建置 Python
-----------------

如果你想自己編譯 CPython，首先要做的是獲取原始碼(1)。你可以下載最新版本
的原始碼，也可以直接提取最新的 clone（克隆）(2)。（如果你想要貢獻修補程
式碼，也會需要一份 clone。）

建置過程由幾個常用命令組成：

     ./configure
     make
     make install

特定 Unix 平臺的*note 配置選項: 1b50.和注意事項通常會詳細地記錄在 Python
原始碼樹 (source tree) 根目錄下的 README.rst(3) 檔案中。

     警告: ‘make install’ 可以覆蓋或偽裝 ‘python3’ 二進位制檔案。因此，
     建議使用 ‘make altinstall’ 而不是 ‘make install’，因為它只安裝
     ‘`exec_prefix'/bin/python`version'’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/source/

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/setup/#getting-the-source-code

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: 與 Python 相關的路徑和檔案,  Next: 雜項<2>,  Prev: 建置 Python,  Up: 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python

3.2.3 與 Python 相關的路徑和檔案
--------------------------------

這取決於本地安裝慣例；*note prefix: 1b52. 和 *note exec_prefix: 1b53. 相
依於安裝方式，應被直譯來讓 GNU 軟體使用；它們也可能相同。

例如，在大多數 Linux 系統上，兩者的預設值皆是 ‘/usr’。

檔案/目錄                                           含意
                                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘`exec_prefix'/bin/python3’                         直譯器的推薦位置。
                                                    
                                                    
‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’、                    包含標準模組目錄的推薦位置。
‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`version'’                 

‘`prefix'/include/python`version'’、                包含開發 Python 擴充套件和嵌入直譯器所需
‘`exec_prefix'/include/python`version'’             include 檔案之目錄的推薦位置。
                                                    


File: python.info,  Node: 雜項<2>,  Next: 客製化 OpenSSL,  Prev: 與 Python 相關的路徑和檔案,  Up: 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python

3.2.4 雜項
----------

要在 Unix 上使用 Python 腳本，你需要讓他們是可執行的 (executable)，例如
用

     $ chmod +x script

並在腳本的頂部放一個合適的 Shebang。以下通常是個好選擇：

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

將在整個 ‘PATH’ 中搜索 Python 直譯器。然而某些 Unix 系統可能沒有 ‘env’ 命
令，因此你可能需要將 ‘/usr/bin/python3’ 寫死 (hardcode) 成直譯器路徑。

要在 Python 腳本中使用 shell 命令，請見 *note subprocess: d0. 模組。


File: python.info,  Node: 客製化 OpenSSL,  Prev: 雜項<2>,  Up: 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python

3.2.5 客製化 OpenSSL
--------------------

  1. 要使用你所選擇發行商 (vendor) 的 OpenSSL 配置和系統信任儲存區
     (system trust store)，請找到包含 ‘openssl.cnf’ 檔案的目錄或位於
     ‘/etc’ 的符號連結 (symlink)。在大多數發行版上，該檔案會是在
     ‘/etc/ssl’ 或者 ‘/etc/pki/tls’ 中。該目錄亦應包含一個 ‘cert.pem’ 檔
     案和/或一個 ‘certs’ 目錄。

          $ find /etc/ -name openssl.cnf -printf "%h\n"
          /etc/ssl

  2. 下載、建置並安裝 OpenSSL。請確保你使用 ‘install_sw’ 而不是
     ‘install’。‘install_sw’ 的目標不會覆蓋 ‘openssl.cnf’。

          $ curl -O https://www.openssl.org/source/openssl-VERSION.tar.gz
          $ tar xzf openssl-VERSION
          $ pushd openssl-VERSION
          $ ./config \
              --prefix=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
              --libdir=lib \
              --openssldir=/etc/ssl
          $ make -j1 depend
          $ make -j8
          $ make install_sw
          $ popd

  3. 使用客製化 OpenSSL 建置 Python（參見配置 ‘--with-openssl’ 和
     ‘--with-openssl-rpath’ 選項）

          $ pushd python-3.x.x
          $ ./configure -C \
              --with-openssl=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
              --with-openssl-rpath=auto \
              --prefix=/usr/local/python-3.x.x
          $ make -j8
          $ make altinstall

     備註: OpenSSL 的修補釋出版 (patch releases) 具有向後相容的 ABI。你
     不需要重新編譯 Python 來更新 OpenSSL。使用一個新的版本來替代客製化
     OpenSSL 安裝版就可以了。


File: python.info,  Node: 配置 Python,  Next: 在 Windows 上使用 Python,  Prev: 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python,  Up: Python 的設置與使用

3.3 配置 Python
===============

* Menu:

* 建置需求::
* 產生的檔案::
* 設定選項::
* Python Build System::
* Compiler and linker flags::


File: python.info,  Node: 建置需求,  Next: 產生的檔案,  Up: 配置 Python

3.3.1 建置需求
--------------

建置 CPython 所需的功能：

   * A C11(1) compiler.  Optional C11 features(2) are not required.

   * Support for IEEE 754(3) floating-point numbers and floating-point
     Not-a-Number (NaN)(4).

   * thread 的支援。

   * OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer for the *note ssl: ca. and *note hashlib:
     63. modules.

   * 在 Windows 上需要 Microsoft Visual Studio 2017 或更新版本。

在 3.5 版的變更: 在 Windows 上需要 Visual Studio 2015 或更新版本。

在 3.6 版的變更: Selected C99 features are now required, like
‘<stdint.h>’ and ‘static inline’ functions.

在 3.7 版的變更: 對執行緒與 OpenSSL 1.0.2 的支援現在是必要的。

在 3.10 版的變更: OpenSSL 1.1.1 現在是必要的。

在 3.11 版的變更: C11 compiler, IEEE 754 and NaN support are now
required.  On Windows, Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.

See also PEP 7(5) "Style Guide for C Code" and PEP 11(6) "CPython
platform support".

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NaN#Floating_point

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: 產生的檔案,  Next: 設定選項,  Prev: 建置需求,  Up: 配置 Python

3.3.2 產生的檔案
----------------

To reduce build dependencies, Python source code contains multiple
generated files.  Commands to regenerate all generated files:

     make regen-all
     make regen-stdlib-module-names
     make regen-limited-abi
     make regen-configure

The ‘Makefile.pre.in’ file documents generated files, their inputs, and
tools used to regenerate them.  Search for ‘regen-*’ make targets.

* Menu:

* 設定腳本::


File: python.info,  Node: 設定腳本,  Up: 產生的檔案

3.3.2.1 設定腳本
................

The ‘make regen-configure’ command regenerates the ‘aclocal.m4’ file and
the ‘configure’ script using the ‘Tools/build/regen-configure.sh’ shell
script which uses an Ubuntu container to get the same tools versions and
have a reproducible output.

The container is optional, the following command can be run locally:

     autoreconf -ivf -Werror

The generated files can change depending on the exact
‘autoconf-archive’, ‘aclocal’ and ‘pkg-config’ versions.


File: python.info,  Node: 設定選項,  Next: Python Build System,  Prev: 產生的檔案,  Up: 配置 Python

3.3.3 設定選項
--------------

List all ‘./configure’ script options using:

     ./configure --help

請見 Python 原始碼發行版中的 ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’。

* Menu:

* 一般選項::
* WebAssembly 選項::
* 安裝選項::
* Performance options::
* Python Debug Build::
* Debug options::
* Linker options::
* 函式庫選項::
* Security Options::
* macOS 選項::
* Cross Compiling Options::


File: python.info,  Node: 一般選項,  Next: WebAssembly 選項,  Up: 設定選項

3.3.3.1 一般選項
................

 -- Option: --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions

     Support loadable extensions in the ‘_sqlite’ extension module
     (default is no) of the *note sqlite3: c9. module.

     請見 *note sqlite3: c9. 模組的 *note
     sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 665. 方法。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- Option: --disable-ipv6

     停用 IPv6 支援（如果支援的話預設是啟用的），請見 *note socket: c6.
     模組。

 -- Option: --enable-big-digits=[15|30]

     Define the size in bits of Python *note int: 17e. digits: 15 or 30
     bits.

     By default, the digit size is 30.

     將 ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ 定義為 ‘15’ 或 ‘30’。

     參閱 *note sys.int_info.bits_per_digit: 1128.。

 -- Option: --with-suffix=SUFFIX

     將 Python 執行檔的後綴設定為 'SUFFIX'。

     在 Windows 和 macOS 上預設的後綴是 ‘.exe’ （‘python.exe’ 執行檔）、
     在 Emscripten node 上為 ‘.js’、在 Emscripten 瀏覽器為 ‘.html’、在
     WASI 上為 ‘.wasm’，以及在其他平台為空字串（‘python’ 執行檔）。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 在 WASM 平台上預設的後綴是 ‘.js’、‘.html’ 或
     ‘.wasm’ 中的一個。

 -- Option: --with-tzpath=<list of absolute paths separated by pathsep>

     Select the default time zone search path for *note zoneinfo.TZPATH:
     1b62.  See the *note Compile-time configuration: 1b63. of the *note
     zoneinfo: 12e. module.

     預設值：
     ‘/usr/share/zoneinfo:/usr/lib/zoneinfo:/usr/share/lib/zoneinfo:/etc/zoneinfo’。

     請見 *note os.pathsep: 1b36. 路徑分隔符號。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Option: --without-decimal-contextvar

     Build the ‘_decimal’ extension module using a thread-local context
     rather than a coroutine-local context (default), see the *note
     decimal: 33. module.

     請見 *note decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR: 1b65. 與 *note contextvars: 22.
     模組。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-dbmliborder=<list of backend names>

     Override order to check db backends for the *note dbm: 2f. module

     A valid value is a colon (‘:’) separated string with the backend
     names:

        * ‘ndbm’;

        * ‘gdbm’;

        * ‘bdb’.

 -- Option: --without-c-locale-coercion

     Disable C locale coercion to a UTF-8 based locale (enabled by
     default).

     不要定義 ‘PY_COERCE_C_LOCALE’ 巨集。

     請見 *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: 929. 與 PEP 538(1)。

 -- Option: --without-freelists

     Disable all freelists except the empty tuple singleton.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-platlibdir=DIRNAME

     Python 函式庫目錄名稱（預設為 ‘lib’ ）。

     Fedora 和 SuSE 在 64 位元平台上使用 ‘lib64’。

     參閱 *note sys.platlibdir: 777.。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH

     Directory of wheel packages used by the *note ensurepip: 50. module
     (none by default).

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don't install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-pkg-config=[check|yes|no]

     Whether configure should use ‘pkg-config’ to detect build
     dependencies.

        * ‘check’ （預設）：‘pkg-config’ 是可選的

        * ‘yes’：‘pkg-config’ 是必要的

        * ‘no’：即使存在也不使用 ‘pkg-config’ 來配置

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Option: --enable-pystats

     Turn on internal statistics gathering.

     The statistics will be dumped to a arbitrary (probably unique) file
     in ‘/tmp/py_stats/’, or ‘C:\temp\py_stats\’ on Windows.  If that
     directory does not exist, results will be printed on stdout.

     使用 ‘Tools/scripts/summarize_stats.py’ 來讀取統計資料。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: WebAssembly 選項,  Next: 安裝選項,  Prev: 一般選項,  Up: 設定選項

3.3.3.2 WebAssembly 選項
........................

 -- Option: --with-emscripten-target=[browser|node]

     Set build flavor for ‘wasm32-emscripten’.

        * ‘browser’ (default): preload minimal stdlib, default MEMFS.

        * ‘node’：對 NODERAWFS 和 pthread 支援。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Option: --enable-wasm-dynamic-linking

     Turn on dynamic linking support for WASM.

     Dynamic linking enables ‘dlopen’.  File size of the executable
     increases due to limited dead code elimination and additional
     features.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Option: --enable-wasm-pthreads

     Turn on pthreads support for WASM.

     在 3.11 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 安裝選項,  Next: Performance options,  Prev: WebAssembly 選項,  Up: 設定選項

3.3.3.3 安裝選項
................

 -- Option: --prefix=PREFIX

     Install architecture-independent files in PREFIX. On Unix, it
     defaults to ‘/usr/local’.

     這個值可以在 runtime 使用 *note sys.prefix: 360. 取得。

     As an example, one can use ‘--prefix="$HOME/.local/"’ to install a
     Python in its home directory.

 -- Option: --exec-prefix=EPREFIX

     Install architecture-dependent files in EPREFIX, defaults to *note
     -prefix: 1b52.

     這個值可以在 runtime 使用 *note sys.exec_prefix: 35c. 取得

 -- Option: --disable-test-modules

     Don't build nor install test modules, like the *note test: dc.
     package or the ‘_testcapi’ extension module (built and installed by
     default).

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-ensurepip=[upgrade|install|no]

     選擇在 Python 安裝時執行的 *note ensurepip: 50. 命令：

        * ‘upgrade’ （預設）：執行 ‘python -m ensurepip --altinstall
          --upgrade’ 命令。

        * ‘install’：執行 ‘python -m ensurepip --altinstall’ 命令；

        * ‘no’：不要執行 ensurepip；

     在 3.6 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance options,  Next: Python Debug Build,  Prev: 安裝選項,  Up: 設定選項

3.3.3.4 Performance options
...........................

Configuring Python using ‘--enable-optimizations --with-lto’ (PGO + LTO)
is recommended for best performance.  The experimental ‘--enable-bolt’
flag can also be used to improve performance.

 -- Option: --enable-optimizations

     Enable Profile Guided Optimization (PGO) using *note PROFILE_TASK:
     1b6f. (disabled by default).

     The C compiler Clang requires ‘llvm-profdata’ program for PGO. On
     macOS, GCC also requires it: GCC is just an alias to Clang on
     macOS.

     Disable also semantic interposition in libpython if
     ‘--enable-shared’ and GCC is used: add
     ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ to the compiler and linker flags.

          備註: During the build, you may encounter compiler warnings
          about profile data not being available for some source files.
          These warnings are harmless, as only a subset of the code is
          exercised during profile data acquisition.  To disable these
          warnings on Clang, manually suppress them by adding
          ‘-Wno-profile-instr-unprofiled’ to *note CFLAGS: 132a.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 在 GCC 上使用 ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’。

 -- 環境變數: PROFILE_TASK

     Environment variable used in the Makefile: Python command line
     arguments for the PGO generation task.

     預設值：‘-m test --pgo --timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT)’。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-lto=[full|thin|no|yes]

     Enable Link Time Optimization (LTO) in any build (disabled by
     default).

     The C compiler Clang requires ‘llvm-ar’ for LTO (‘ar’ on macOS), as
     well as an LTO-aware linker (‘ld.gold’ or ‘lld’).

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版被加入: To use ThinLTO feature, use ‘--with-lto=thin’ on
     Clang.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Use ThinLTO as the default optimization policy on
     Clang if the compiler accepts the flag.

 -- Option: --enable-bolt

     Enable usage of the BOLT post-link binary optimizer(1) (disabled by
     default).

     BOLT is part of the LLVM project but is not always included in
     their binary distributions.  This flag requires that ‘llvm-bolt’
     and ‘merge-fdata’ are available.

     BOLT is still a fairly new project so this flag should be
     considered experimental for now.  Because this tool operates on
     machine code its success is dependent on a combination of the build
     environment + the other optimization configure args + the CPU
     architecture, and not all combinations are supported.  BOLT
     versions before LLVM 16 are known to crash BOLT under some
     scenarios.  Use of LLVM 16 or newer for BOLT optimization is
     strongly encouraged.

     The ‘BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS’ and ‘BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS’ ‘configure’
     variables can be defined to override the default set of arguments
     for ‘llvm-bolt’ to instrument and apply BOLT data to binaries,
     respectively.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-computed-gotos

     Enable computed gotos in evaluation loop (enabled by default on
     supported compilers).

 -- Option: --without-pymalloc

     Disable the specialized Python memory allocator *note pymalloc:
     b7e. (enabled by default).

     另請參閱 *note PYTHONMALLOC: acc. 環境變數。

 -- Option: --without-doc-strings

     Disable static documentation strings to reduce the memory footprint
     (enabled by default).  Documentation strings defined in Python are
     not affected.

     不要定義 ‘WITH_DOC_STRINGS’ 巨集。

     請見 ‘PyDoc_STRVAR()’ 巨集。

 -- Option: --enable-profiling

     Enable C-level code profiling with ‘gprof’ (disabled by default).

 -- Option: --with-strict-overflow

     Add ‘-fstrict-overflow’ to the C compiler flags (by default we add
     ‘-fno-strict-overflow’ instead).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/llvm/llvm-project/tree/main/bolt


File: python.info,  Node: Python Debug Build,  Next: Debug options,  Prev: Performance options,  Up: 設定選項

3.3.3.5 Python Debug Build
..........................

A debug build is Python built with the *note -with-pydebug: 1b76.
configure option.

Effects of a debug build:

   * Display all warnings by default: the list of default warning
     filters is empty in the *note warnings: 10d. module.

   * 新增 ‘d’ 到 *note sys.abiflags: 8af.。

   * 新增 ‘sys.gettotalrefcount()’ 函式。

   * 新增 *note -X showrefcount: 188. 命令列選項。

   * Add *note -d: 1b26. command line option and *note PYTHONDEBUG:
     1b27. environment variable to debug the parser.

   * Add support for the ‘__lltrace__’ variable: enable low-level
     tracing in the bytecode evaluation loop if the variable is defined.

   * Install *note debug hooks on memory allocators: 1b42. to detect
     buffer overflow and other memory errors.

   * 定義 ‘Py_DEBUG’ 和 ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’ 巨集。

   * Add runtime checks: code surrounded by ‘#ifdef Py_DEBUG’ and
     ‘#endif’.  Enable ‘assert(...)’ and ‘_PyObject_ASSERT(...)’
     assertions: don't set the ‘NDEBUG’ macro (see also the *note
     -with-assertions: 1b77. configure option).  Main runtime checks:

        * Add sanity checks on the function arguments.

        * Unicode and int objects are created with their memory filled
          with a pattern to detect usage of uninitialized objects.

        * Ensure that functions which can clear or replace the current
          exception are not called with an exception raised.

        * Check that deallocator functions don't change the current
          exception.

        * The garbage collector (*note gc.collect(): 883. function) runs
          some basic checks on objects consistency.

        * The ‘Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST()’ macro checks for integer underflow
          and overflow when downcasting from wide types to narrow types.

See also the *note Python Development Mode: 703. and the *note
-with-trace-refs: 6d2. configure option.

在 3.8 版的變更: Release builds and debug builds are now ABI compatible:
defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’
macro (see the *note -with-trace-refs: 6d2. option), which introduces
the only ABI incompatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: Debug options,  Next: Linker options,  Prev: Python Debug Build,  Up: 設定選項

3.3.3.6 Debug options
.....................

 -- Option: --with-pydebug

     *note Build Python in debug mode: 69f.: define the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro
     (disabled by default).

 -- Option: --with-trace-refs

     Enable tracing references for debugging purpose (disabled by
     default).

     效果：

        * 定義 ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ 巨集。

        * 新增 ‘sys.getobjects()’ 函式。

        * 新增 *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 7ea. 環境變數。

     This build is not ABI compatible with release build (default build)
     or debug build (‘Py_DEBUG’ and ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’ macros).

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-assertions

     Build with C assertions enabled (default is no): ‘assert(...);’ and
     ‘_PyObject_ASSERT(...);’.

     If set, the ‘NDEBUG’ macro is not defined in the *note OPT: 1b79.
     compiler variable.

     See also the *note -with-pydebug: 1b76. option (*note debug build:
     69f.) which also enables assertions.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-valgrind

     啟用 Valgrind 支援（預設不啟用）。

 -- Option: --with-dtrace

     啟用 DTrace 支援（預設不啟用）。

     See *note Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap: ad4.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-address-sanitizer

     Enable AddressSanitizer memory error detector, ‘asan’ (default is
     no).

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-memory-sanitizer

     Enable MemorySanitizer allocation error detector, ‘msan’ (default
     is no).

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer

     Enable UndefinedBehaviorSanitizer undefined behaviour detector,
     ‘ubsan’ (default is no).

     在 3.6 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Linker options,  Next: 函式庫選項,  Prev: Debug options,  Up: 設定選項

3.3.3.7 Linker options
......................

 -- Option: --enable-shared

     Enable building a shared Python library: ‘libpython’ (default is
     no).

 -- Option: --without-static-libpython

     Do not build ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ and do not install ‘python.o’
     (built and enabled by default).

     在 3.10 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式庫選項,  Next: Security Options,  Prev: Linker options,  Up: 設定選項

3.3.3.8 函式庫選項
..................

 -- Option: --with-libs='lib1 ...'

     Link against additional libraries (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-system-expat

     Build the ‘pyexpat’ module using an installed ‘expat’ library
     (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-system-libmpdec

     Build the ‘_decimal’ extension module using an installed ‘mpdec’
     library, see the *note decimal: 33. module (default is no).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-readline=editline

     Use ‘editline’ library for backend of the *note readline: b5.
     module.

     定義 ‘WITH_EDITLINE’ 巨集。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- Option: --without-readline

     Don't build the *note readline: b5. module (built by default).

     不要定義 ‘HAVE_LIBREADLINE’ 巨集。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-libm=STRING

     Override ‘libm’ math library to 'STRING' (default is
     system-dependent).

 -- Option: --with-libc=STRING

     Override ‘libc’ C library to 'STRING' (default is
     system-dependent).

 -- Option: --with-openssl=DIR

     Root of the OpenSSL directory.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-openssl-rpath=[no|auto|DIR]

     Set runtime library directory (rpath) for OpenSSL libraries:

        * ‘no’ (default): don't set rpath;

        * ‘auto’: auto-detect rpath from *note -with-openssl: 1b86. and
          ‘pkg-config’;

        * 'DIR': set an explicit rpath.

     在 3.10 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Security Options,  Next: macOS 選項,  Prev: 函式庫選項,  Up: 設定選項

3.3.3.9 Security Options
........................

 -- Option: --with-hash-algorithm=[fnv|siphash13|siphash24]

     Select hash algorithm for use in ‘Python/pyhash.c’:

        * ‘siphash13’ (default);

        * ‘siphash24’；

        * ‘fnv’。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版被加入: ‘siphash13’ is added and it is the new default.

 -- Option:
          --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=md5,sha1,sha256,sha512,sha3,blake2

     內建雜湊模組：

        * ‘md5’；

        * ‘sha1’；

        * ‘sha256’；

        * ‘sha512’；

        * ‘sha3’ (with shake);

        * ‘blake2’。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Option: --with-ssl-default-suites=[python|openssl|STRING]

     Override the OpenSSL default cipher suites string:

        * ‘python’ (default): use Python's preferred selection;

        * ‘openssl’: leave OpenSSL's defaults untouched;

        * 'STRING': use a custom string

     請見 *note ssl: ca. 模組。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The settings ‘python’ and 'STRING' also set TLS
     1.2 as minimum protocol version.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS 選項,  Next: Cross Compiling Options,  Prev: Security Options,  Up: 設定選項

3.3.3.10 macOS 選項
...................

參閱 ‘Mac/README.rst’。

 -- Option: --enable-universalsdk

 -- Option: --enable-universalsdk=SDKDIR

     Create a universal binary build.  'SDKDIR' specifies which macOS
     SDK should be used to perform the build (default is no).

 -- Option: --enable-framework

 -- Option: --enable-framework=INSTALLDIR

     Create a Python.framework rather than a traditional Unix install.
     Optional 'INSTALLDIR' specifies the installation path (default is
     no).

 -- Option: --with-universal-archs=ARCH

     Specify the kind of universal binary that should be created.  This
     option is only valid when *note -enable-universalsdk: 7ad. is set.

     選項：

        * ‘universal2’；

        * ‘32-bit’；

        * ‘64-bit’；

        * ‘3-way’；

        * ‘intel’；

        * ‘intel-32’；

        * ‘intel-64’；

        * ‘all’。

 -- Option: --with-framework-name=FRAMEWORK

     Specify the name for the python framework on macOS only valid when
     *note -enable-framework: 1b8d. is set (default: ‘Python’).


File: python.info,  Node: Cross Compiling Options,  Prev: macOS 選項,  Up: 設定選項

3.3.3.11 Cross Compiling Options
................................

Cross compiling, also known as cross building, can be used to build
Python for another CPU architecture or platform.  Cross compiling
requires a Python interpreter for the build platform.  The version of
the build Python must match the version of the cross compiled host
Python.

 -- Option: --build=BUILD

     configure for building on BUILD, usually guessed by ‘config.guess’.

 -- Option: --host=HOST

     cross-compile to build programs to run on HOST (target platform)

 -- Option: --with-build-python=path/to/python

     path to build ‘python’ binary for cross compiling

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Option: CONFIG_SITE=file

     An environment variable that points to a file with configure
     overrides.

     Example 'config.site' file:

          # config.site-aarch64
          ac_cv_buggy_getaddrinfo=no
          ac_cv_file__dev_ptmx=yes
          ac_cv_file__dev_ptc=no

Cross compiling example:

     CONFIG_SITE=config.site-aarch64 ../configure \
         --build=x86_64-pc-linux-gnu \
         --host=aarch64-unknown-linux-gnu \
         --with-build-python=../x86_64/python


File: python.info,  Node: Python Build System,  Next: Compiler and linker flags,  Prev: 設定選項,  Up: 配置 Python

3.3.4 Python Build System
-------------------------

* Menu:

* Main files of the build system::
* 主要建置步驟::
* 主要 Makefile 目標::
* C 擴充模組::


File: python.info,  Node: Main files of the build system,  Next: 主要建置步驟,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.1 Main files of the build system
......................................

   * ‘configure.ac’ => ‘configure’；

   * ‘Makefile.pre.in’ => ‘Makefile’ (created by ‘configure’);

   * ‘pyconfig.h’ (created by ‘configure’)；

   * ‘Modules/Setup’: C extensions built by the Makefile using
     ‘Module/makesetup’ shell script;


File: python.info,  Node: 主要建置步驟,  Next: 主要 Makefile 目標,  Prev: Main files of the build system,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.2 主要建置步驟
....................

   * C files (‘.c’) are built as object files (‘.o’).

   * A static ‘libpython’ library (‘.a’) is created from objects files.

   * ‘python.o’ and the static ‘libpython’ library are linked into the
     final ‘python’ program.

   * C extensions are built by the Makefile (see ‘Modules/Setup’).


File: python.info,  Node: 主要 Makefile 目標,  Next: C 擴充模組,  Prev: 主要建置步驟,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.3 主要 Makefile 目標
..........................

   * ‘make’: Build Python with the standard library.

   * ‘make platform:’: build the ‘python’ program, but don't build the
     standard library extension modules.

   * ‘make profile-opt’: build Python using Profile Guided Optimization
     (PGO). You can use the configure *note -enable-optimizations: 68d.
     option to make this the default target of the ‘make’ command (‘make
     all’ or just ‘make’).

   * ‘make buildbottest’: Build Python and run the Python test suite,
     the same way than buildbots test Python.  Set ‘TESTTIMEOUT’
     variable (in seconds) to change the test timeout (1200 by default:
     20 minutes).

   * ‘make install’: Build and install Python.

   * ‘make regen-all’: Regenerate (almost) all generated files; ‘make
     regen-stdlib-module-names’ and ‘autoconf’ must be run separately
     for the remaining generated files.

   * ‘make clean’: Remove built files.

   * ‘make distclean’: Same than ‘make clean’, but remove also files
     created by the configure script.


File: python.info,  Node: C 擴充模組,  Prev: 主要 Makefile 目標,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.4 C 擴充模組
..................

Some C extensions are built as built-in modules, like the ‘sys’ module.
They are built with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ macro defined.  Built-in
modules have no ‘__file__’ attribute:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys
     <module 'sys' (built-in)>
     >>> sys.__file__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: module 'sys' has no attribute '__file__'

Other C extensions are built as dynamic libraries, like the ‘_asyncio’
module.  They are built with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ macro defined.
Example on Linux x86-64:

     >>> import _asyncio
     >>> _asyncio
     <module '_asyncio' from '/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'>
     >>> _asyncio.__file__
     '/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'

‘Modules/Setup’ is used to generate Makefile targets to build C
extensions.  At the beginning of the files, C extensions are built as
built-in modules.  Extensions defined after the ‘*shared*’ marker are
built as dynamic libraries.

The ‘PyAPI_FUNC()’, ‘PyAPI_DATA()’ and *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 134a.
macros of ‘Include/exports.h’ are defined differently depending if the
‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ macro is defined:

   * 如果定義了 ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’，則使用 ‘Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL’

   * 否則使用 ‘Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL’。

If the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ macro is used by mistake on a C extension
built as a shared library, its ‘PyInit_XXX()’ function is not exported,
causing an *note ImportError: 145. on import.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler and linker flags,  Prev: Python Build System,  Up: 配置 Python

3.3.5 Compiler and linker flags
-------------------------------

Options set by the ‘./configure’ script and environment variables and
used by ‘Makefile’.

* Menu:

* Preprocessor flags::
* 編譯器旗標::
* Linker flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Preprocessor flags,  Next: 編譯器旗標,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.1 Preprocessor flags
..........................

 -- 環境變數: CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS

     Value of *note CPPFLAGS: 132c. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: CPPFLAGS

     (Objective) C/C++ preprocessor flags, e.g.  ‘-IINCLUDE_DIR’ if you
     have headers in a nonstandard directory 'include_dir'.

     Both *note CPPFLAGS: 132c. and *note LDFLAGS: 132b. need to contain
     the shell's value to be able to build extension modules using the
     directories specified in the environment variables.

 -- 環境變數: BASECPPFLAGS

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PY_CPPFLAGS

     Extra preprocessor flags added for building the interpreter object
     files.

     Default: ‘$(BASECPPFLAGS) -I. -I$(srcdir)/Include
     $(CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS)’.

     在 3.2 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 編譯器旗標,  Next: Linker flags,  Prev: Preprocessor flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.2 編譯器旗標
..................

 -- 環境變數: CC

     C 編譯器指令。

     Example: ‘gcc -pthread’.

 -- 環境變數: CXX

     C++ 編譯器指令。

     範例：‘g++ -pthread’。

 -- 環境變數: CFLAGS

     C 編譯器旗標。

 -- 環境變數: CFLAGS_NODIST

     *note CFLAGS_NODIST: 1ba2. is used for building the interpreter and
     stdlib C extensions.  Use it when a compiler flag should 'not' be
     part of *note CFLAGS: 132a. once Python is installed (gh-65320(1)).

     In particular, *note CFLAGS: 132a. should not contain:

        * the compiler flag ‘-I’ (for setting the search path for
          include files).  The ‘-I’ flags are processed from left to
          right, and any flags in *note CFLAGS: 132a. would take
          precedence over user- and package-supplied ‘-I’ flags.

        * hardening flags such as ‘-Werror’ because distributions cannot
          control whether packages installed by users conform to such
          heightened standards.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: COMPILEALL_OPTS

     Options passed to the *note compileall: 1e. command line when
     building PYC files in ‘make install’.  Default: ‘-j0’.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: EXTRA_CFLAGS

     額外的 C 編譯器旗標。

 -- 環境變數: CONFIGURE_CFLAGS

     Value of *note CFLAGS: 132a. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST

     Value of *note CFLAGS_NODIST: 1ba2. variable passed to the
     ‘./configure’ script.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: BASECFLAGS

     基本編譯器旗標。

 -- 環境變數: OPT

     最佳化旗標。

 -- 環境變數: CFLAGS_ALIASING

     Strict or non-strict aliasing flags used to compile
     ‘Python/dtoa.c’.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: CCSHARED

     Compiler flags used to build a shared library.

     例如說 ‘-fPIC’ 被使用於 Linux 與 BSD 上。

 -- 環境變數: CFLAGSFORSHARED

     Extra C flags added for building the interpreter object files.

     Default: ‘$(CCSHARED)’ when *note -enable-shared: 68e. is used, or
     an empty string otherwise.

 -- 環境變數: PY_CFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(BASECFLAGS) $(OPT) $(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS) $(CFLAGS)
     $(EXTRA_CFLAGS)’.

 -- 環境變數: PY_CFLAGS_NODIST

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(CFLAGS_NODIST)
     -I$(srcdir)/Include/internal’.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS

     C flags used for building the interpreter object files.

     Default: ‘$(PY_CFLAGS) $(PY_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(PY_CPPFLAGS)
     $(CFLAGSFORSHARED)’.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PY_CORE_CFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE’.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS

     Compiler flags to build a standard library extension module as a
     built-in module, like the *note posix: a8. module.

     Default: ‘$(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PURIFY

     Purify command.  Purify is a memory debugger program.

     Default: empty string (not used).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320


File: python.info,  Node: Linker flags,  Prev: 編譯器旗標,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.3 Linker flags
....................

 -- 環境變數: LINKCC

     Linker command used to build programs like ‘python’ and
     ‘_testembed’.

     Default: ‘$(PURIFY) $(CC)’.

 -- 環境變數: CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS

     Value of *note LDFLAGS: 132b. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Avoid assigning *note CFLAGS: 132a, *note LDFLAGS: 132b, etc.  so
     users can use them on the command line to append to these values
     without stomping the pre-set values.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: LDFLAGS_NODIST

     *note LDFLAGS_NODIST: 1bb4. is used in the same manner as *note
     CFLAGS_NODIST: 1ba2.  Use it when a linker flag should 'not' be
     part of *note LDFLAGS: 132b. once Python is installed
     (gh-65320(1)).

     In particular, *note LDFLAGS: 132b. should not contain:

        * the compiler flag ‘-L’ (for setting the search path for
          libraries).  The ‘-L’ flags are processed from left to right,
          and any flags in *note LDFLAGS: 132b. would take precedence
          over user- and package-supplied ‘-L’ flags.

 -- 環境變數: CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST

     Value of *note LDFLAGS_NODIST: 1bb4. variable passed to the
     ‘./configure’ script.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: LDFLAGS

     Linker flags, e.g.  ‘-LLIB_DIR’ if you have libraries in a
     nonstandard directory 'lib_dir'.

     Both *note CPPFLAGS: 132c. and *note LDFLAGS: 132b. need to contain
     the shell's value to be able to build extension modules using the
     directories specified in the environment variables.

 -- 環境變數: LIBS

     Linker flags to pass libraries to the linker when linking the
     Python executable.

     範例：‘-lrt’。

 -- 環境變數: LDSHARED

     Command to build a shared library.

     預設值：‘@LDSHARED@ $(PY_LDFLAGS)’。

 -- 環境變數: BLDSHARED

     Command to build ‘libpython’ shared library.

     預設值：‘@BLDSHARED@ $(PY_CORE_LDFLAGS)’。

 -- 環境變數: PY_LDFLAGS

     預設值：‘$(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS)’。

 -- 環境變數: PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST

     預設值：‘$(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST) $(LDFLAGS_NODIST)’。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 環境變數: PY_CORE_LDFLAGS

     Linker flags used for building the interpreter object files.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320


File: python.info,  Node: 在 Windows 上使用 Python,  Next: 在 Mac 系統使用 Python,  Prev: 配置 Python,  Up: Python 的設置與使用

3.4 在 Windows 上使用 Python
============================

This document aims to give an overview of Windows-specific behaviour you
should know about when using Python on Microsoft Windows.

Unlike most Unix systems and services, Windows does not include a system
supported installation of Python.  To make Python available, the CPython
team has compiled Windows installers with every release(1) for many
years.  These installers are primarily intended to add a per-user
installation of Python, with the core interpreter and library being used
by a single user.  The installer is also able to install for all users
of a single machine, and a separate ZIP file is available for
application-local distributions.

As specified in PEP 11(2), a Python release only supports a Windows
platform while Microsoft considers the platform under extended support.
This means that Python 3.12 supports Windows 8.1 and newer.  If you
require Windows 7 support, please install Python 3.8.

There are a number of different installers available for Windows, each
with certain benefits and downsides.

*note The full installer: 1bbe. contains all components and is the best
option for developers using Python for any kind of project.

*note The Microsoft Store package: 19d6. is a simple installation of
Python that is suitable for running scripts and packages, and using IDLE
or other development environments.  It requires Windows 10 and above,
but can be safely installed without corrupting other programs.  It also
provides many convenient commands for launching Python and its tools.

*note nuget.org 套件: 1bbf. are lightweight installations intended for
continuous integration systems.  It can be used to build Python packages
or run scripts, but is not updateable and has no user interface tools.

*note The embeddable package: 1bc0. is a minimal package of Python
suitable for embedding into a larger application.

* Menu:

* The full installer::
* The Microsoft Store package::
* nuget.org 套件: nuget org 套件.
* The embeddable package::
* Alternative bundles::
* 設定 Python::
* UTF-8 模式::
* Python Launcher for Windows::
* 找尋模組::
* 額外的模組::
* 編譯 Python 在 Windows::
* 其他平台::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: The full installer,  Next: The Microsoft Store package,  Up: 在 Windows 上使用 Python

3.4.1 The full installer
------------------------

* Menu:

* 安裝步驟::
* Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation::
* 安裝排除使用者介面::
* 當安裝時不下載::
* Modifying an install::


File: python.info,  Node: 安裝步驟,  Next: Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation,  Up: The full installer

3.4.1.1 安裝步驟
................

Four Python 3.12 installers are available for download - two each for
the 32-bit and 64-bit versions of the interpreter.  The 'web installer'
is a small initial download, and it will automatically download the
required components as necessary.  The 'offline installer' includes the
components necessary for a default installation and only requires an
internet connection for optional features.  See *note 當安裝時不下載:
1bc3. for other ways to avoid downloading during installation.

After starting the installer, one of two options may be selected:

[image src="python-figures/win_installer.png"]


如果你選擇「馬上安裝」：

   * You will 'not' need to be an administrator (unless a system update
     for the C Runtime Library is required or you install the *note
     Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae. for all users)

   * Python will be installed into your user directory

   * The *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae. will be installed
     according to the option at the bottom of the first page

   * The standard library, test suite, launcher and pip will be
     installed

   * 如果選擇，安裝目錄將被加入到你的 ‘PATH’

   * 安裝捷徑將只能被目前使用者所看見

選擇「客製化安裝」將允許你選擇所需的項目進行安裝，安裝位置與其他選擇或安
裝後的所需進行的動作。你將需要使用此選項「除錯特徵」或「二進位方式」進行
安裝。

To perform an all-users installation, you should select "Customize
installation".  In this case:

   * You may be required to provide administrative credentials or
     approval

   * Python will be installed into the Program Files directory

   * The *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae. will be installed into
     the Windows directory

   * Optional features may be selected during installation

   * The standard library can be pre-compiled to bytecode

   * If selected, the install directory will be added to the system
     ‘PATH’

   * 捷徑將被所有使用者所見


File: python.info,  Node: Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation,  Next: 安裝排除使用者介面,  Prev: 安裝步驟,  Up: The full installer

3.4.1.2 Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation
........................................

Windows historically has limited path lengths to 260 characters.  This
meant that paths longer than this would not resolve and errors would
result.

In the latest versions of Windows, this limitation can be expanded to
approximately 32,000 characters.  Your administrator will need to
activate the "Enable Win32 long paths" group policy, or set
‘LongPathsEnabled’ to ‘1’ in the registry key
‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem’.

This allows the *note open(): 29c. function, the *note os: 9c. module
and most other path functionality to accept and return paths longer than
260 characters.

After changing the above option, no further configuration is required.

在 3.6 版的變更: Support for long paths was enabled in Python.


File: python.info,  Node: 安裝排除使用者介面,  Next: 當安裝時不下載,  Prev: Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation,  Up: The full installer

3.4.1.3 安裝排除使用者介面
..........................

All of the options available in the installer UI can also be specified
from the command line, allowing scripted installers to replicate an
installation on many machines without user interaction.  These options
may also be set without suppressing the UI in order to change some of
the defaults.

The following options (found by executing the installer with ‘/?’) can
be passed into the installer:

名稱                      描述
                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                          
/passive                  to display progress without requiring user interaction
                          
                          
/quiet                    to install/uninstall without displaying any UI
                          
                          
/simple                   to prevent user customization
                          
                          
/uninstall                to remove Python (without confirmation)
                          
                          
/layout [directory]       to pre-download all components
                          
                          
/log [filename]           to specify log files location
                          

All other options are passed as ‘name=value’, where the value is usually
‘0’ to disable a feature, ‘1’ to enable a feature, or a path.  The full
list of available options is shown below.

名稱                            描述                                       預設
                                                                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
InstallAllUsers                 Perform a system-wide installation.        0
                                                                           
                                                                           
TargetDir                       安裝目錄                                   Selected based on
                                                                           InstallAllUsers
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultAllUsersTargetDir        The default installation directory for     ‘%ProgramFiles%\Python X.Y’
                                all-user installs                          或
                                                                           ‘%ProgramFiles(x86)%\Python
                                                                           X.Y’
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultJustForMeTargetDir       預設安裝目錄給 只有給我 安裝方式           ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY’
                                                                           或
                                                                           ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-32’
                                                                           或
                                                                           ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-64’
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultCustomTargetDir          The default custom install directory       (empty)
                                displayed in the UI                        
                                
                                                                           
AssociateFiles                  當執行程序也被安裝時創造檔案關聯           1
                                                                           
                                                                           
CompileAll                      編譯所有 ‘.py’ 檔案為 ‘.pyc’。             0
                                                                           
                                                                           
PrependPath                     Prepend install and Scripts directories    0
                                to ‘PATH’ and add ‘.PY’ to ‘PATHEXT’       
                                
                                                                           
AppendPath                      Append install and Scripts directories     0
                                to ‘PATH’ and add ‘.PY’ to ‘PATHEXT’       
                                
                                                                           
Shortcuts                       Create shortcuts for the interpreter,      1
                                documentation and IDLE if installed.       
                                
                                                                           
Include_doc                     安裝Python文件                             1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_debug                   Install debug binaries                     0
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_dev                     Install developer headers and libraries.   1
                                Omitting this may lead to an unusable      
                                installation.
                                
                                                                           
Include_exe                     Install ‘python.exe’ and related files.    1
                                Omitting this may lead to an unusable      
                                installation.
                                
                                                                           
Include_launcher                安裝                                       1
                                *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae.。  
                                
                                                                           
InstallLauncherAllUsers         Installs the launcher for all users.       1
                                Also requires ‘Include_launcher’ to be     
                                set to 1
                                
                                                                           
Include_lib                     Install standard library and extension     1
                                modules.  Omitting this may lead to an     
                                unusable installation.
                                
                                                                           
Include_pip                     Install bundled pip and setuptools         1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_symbols                 Install debugging symbols (‘*.pdb’)        0
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_tcltk                   Install Tcl/Tk support and IDLE            1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_test                    Install standard library test suite        1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_tools                   Install utility scripts                    1
                                                                           
                                                                           
LauncherOnly                    Only installs the launcher.  This will     0
                                override most other options.               
                                
                                                                           
SimpleInstall                   Disable most install UI                    0
                                                                           
                                                                           
SimpleInstallDescription        A custom message to display when the       (empty)
                                simplified install UI is used.             
                                

For example, to silently install a default, system-wide Python
installation, you could use the following command (from an elevated
command prompt):

     python-3.9.0.exe /quiet InstallAllUsers=1 PrependPath=1 Include_test=0

To allow users to easily install a personal copy of Python without the
test suite, you could provide a shortcut with the following command.
This will display a simplified initial page and disallow customization:

     python-3.9.0.exe InstallAllUsers=0 Include_launcher=0 Include_test=0
         SimpleInstall=1 SimpleInstallDescription="Just for me, no test suite."

(Note that omitting the launcher also omits file associations, and is
only recommended for per-user installs when there is also a system-wide
installation that included the launcher.)

The options listed above can also be provided in a file named
‘unattend.xml’ alongside the executable.  This file specifies a list of
options and values.  When a value is provided as an attribute, it will
be converted to a number if possible.  Values provided as element text
are always left as strings.  This example file sets the same options as
the previous example:

     <Options>
         <Option Name="InstallAllUsers" Value="no" />
         <Option Name="Include_launcher" Value="0" />
         <Option Name="Include_test" Value="no" />
         <Option Name="SimpleInstall" Value="yes" />
         <Option Name="SimpleInstallDescription">Just for me, no test suite</Option>
     </Options>


File: python.info,  Node: 當安裝時不下載,  Next: Modifying an install,  Prev: 安裝排除使用者介面,  Up: The full installer

3.4.1.4 當安裝時不下載
......................

As some features of Python are not included in the initial installer
download, selecting those features may require an internet connection.
To avoid this need, all possible components may be downloaded on-demand
to create a complete 'layout' that will no longer require an internet
connection regardless of the selected features.  Note that this download
may be bigger than required, but where a large number of installations
are going to be performed it is very useful to have a locally cached
copy.

Execute the following command from Command Prompt to download all
possible required files.  Remember to substitute ‘python-3.9.0.exe’ for
the actual name of your installer, and to create layouts in their own
directories to avoid collisions between files with the same name.

     python-3.9.0.exe /layout [optional target directory]

You may also specify the ‘/quiet’ option to hide the progress display.


File: python.info,  Node: Modifying an install,  Prev: 當安裝時不下載,  Up: The full installer

3.4.1.5 Modifying an install
............................

Once Python has been installed, you can add or remove features through
the Programs and Features tool that is part of Windows.  Select the
Python entry and choose "Uninstall/Change" to open the installer in
maintenance mode.

"Modify" allows you to add or remove features by modifying the
checkboxes - unchanged checkboxes will not install or remove anything.
Some options cannot be changed in this mode, such as the install
directory; to modify these, you will need to remove and then reinstall
Python completely.

"Repair" will verify all the files that should be installed using the
current settings and replace any that have been removed or modified.

"Uninstall" will remove Python entirely, with the exception of the *note
Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae, which has its own entry in Programs
and Features.


File: python.info,  Node: The Microsoft Store package,  Next: nuget org 套件,  Prev: The full installer,  Up: 在 Windows 上使用 Python

3.4.2 The Microsoft Store package
---------------------------------

在 3.7.2 版被加入.

The Microsoft Store package is an easily installable Python interpreter
that is intended mainly for interactive use, for example, by students.

To install the package, ensure you have the latest Windows 10 updates
and search the Microsoft Store app for "Python 3.12".  Ensure that the
app you select is published by the Python Software Foundation, and
install it.

     警告: Python will always be available for free on the Microsoft
     Store.  If you are asked to pay for it, you have not selected the
     correct package.

After installation, Python may be launched by finding it in Start.
Alternatively, it will be available from any Command Prompt or
PowerShell session by typing ‘python’.  Further, pip and IDLE may be
used by typing ‘pip’ or ‘idle’.  IDLE can also be found in Start.

All three commands are also available with version number suffixes, for
example, as ‘python3.exe’ and ‘python3.x.exe’ as well as ‘python.exe’
(where ‘3.x’ is the specific version you want to launch, such as 3.12).
Open "Manage App Execution Aliases" through Start to select which
version of Python is associated with each command.  It is recommended to
make sure that ‘pip’ and ‘idle’ are consistent with whichever version of
‘python’ is selected.

Virtual environments can be created with ‘python -m venv’ and activated
and used as normal.

If you have installed another version of Python and added it to your
‘PATH’ variable, it will be available as ‘python.exe’ rather than the
one from the Microsoft Store.  To access the new installation, use
‘python3.exe’ or ‘python3.x.exe’.

The ‘py.exe’ launcher will detect this Python installation, but will
prefer installations from the traditional installer.

To remove Python, open Settings and use Apps and Features, or else find
Python in Start and right-click to select Uninstall.  Uninstalling will
remove all packages you installed directly into this Python
installation, but will not remove any virtual environments

* Menu:

* Known issues::


File: python.info,  Node: Known issues,  Up: The Microsoft Store package

3.4.2.1 Known issues
....................

* Menu:

* Redirection of local data, registry, and temporary paths: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.


File: python.info,  Node: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths,  Up: Known issues

3.4.2.2 Redirection of local data, registry, and temporary paths
................................................................

Because of restrictions on Microsoft Store apps, Python scripts may not
have full write access to shared locations such as ‘TEMP’ and the
registry.  Instead, it will write to a private copy.  If your scripts
must modify the shared locations, you will need to install the full
installer.

At runtime, Python will use a private copy of well-known Windows folders
and the registry.  For example, if the environment variable ‘%APPDATA%’
is ‘c:\Users\<user>\AppData\’, then when writing to
‘C:\Users\<user>\AppData\Local’ will write to
‘C:\Users\<user>\AppData\Local\Packages\PythonSoftwareFoundation.Python.3.8_qbz5n2kfra8p0\LocalCache\Local\’.

When reading files, Windows will return the file from the private
folder, or if that does not exist, the real Windows directory.  For
example reading ‘C:\Windows\System32’ returns the contents of
‘C:\Windows\System32’ plus the contents of ‘C:\Program
Files\WindowsApps\package_name\VFS\SystemX86’.

You can find the real path of any existing file using *note
os.path.realpath(): 643.:

     >>> import os
     >>> test_file = 'C:\\Users\\example\\AppData\\Local\\test.txt'
     >>> os.path.realpath(test_file)
     'C:\\Users\\example\\AppData\\Local\\Packages\\PythonSoftwareFoundation.Python.3.8_qbz5n2kfra8p0\\LocalCache\\Local\\test.txt'

When writing to the Windows Registry, the following behaviors exist:

   * Reading from ‘HKLM\\Software’ is allowed and results are merged
     with the ‘registry.dat’ file in the package.

   * Writing to ‘HKLM\\Software’ is not allowed if the corresponding
     key/value exists, i.e.  modifying existing keys.

   * Writing to ‘HKLM\\Software’ is allowed as long as a corresponding
     key/value does not exist in the package and the user has the
     correct access permissions.

For more detail on the technical basis for these limitations, please
consult Microsoft's documentation on packaged full-trust apps, currently
available at
docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/msix/desktop/desktop-to-uwp-behind-the-scenes(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/msix/desktop/desktop-to-uwp-behind-the-scenes


File: python.info,  Node: nuget org 套件,  Next: The embeddable package,  Prev: The Microsoft Store package,  Up: 在 Windows 上使用 Python

3.4.3 nuget.org 套件
--------------------

在 3.5.2 版被加入.

The nuget.org package is a reduced size Python environment intended for
use on continuous integration and build systems that do not have a
system-wide install of Python.  While nuget is "the package manager for
.NET", it also works perfectly fine for packages containing build-time
tools.

Visit nuget.org(1) for the most up-to-date information on using nuget.
What follows is a summary that is sufficient for Python developers.

The ‘nuget.exe’ command line tool may be downloaded directly from
‘https://aka.ms/nugetclidl’, for example, using curl or PowerShell.
With the tool, the latest version of Python for 64-bit or 32-bit
machines is installed using:

     nuget.exe install python -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
     nuget.exe install pythonx86 -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .

To select a particular version, add a ‘-Version 3.x.y’.  The output
directory may be changed from ‘.’, and the package will be installed
into a subdirectory.  By default, the subdirectory is named the same as
the package, and without the ‘-ExcludeVersion’ option this name will
include the specific version installed.  Inside the subdirectory is a
‘tools’ directory that contains the Python installation:

     # Without -ExcludeVersion
     > .\python.3.5.2\tools\python.exe -V
     Python 3.5.2

     # With -ExcludeVersion
     > .\python\tools\python.exe -V
     Python 3.5.2

In general, nuget packages are not upgradeable, and newer versions
should be installed side-by-side and referenced using the full path.
Alternatively, delete the package directory manually and install it
again.  Many CI systems will do this automatically if they do not
preserve files between builds.

Alongside the ‘tools’ directory is a ‘build\native’ directory.  This
contains a MSBuild properties file ‘python.props’ that can be used in a
C++ project to reference the Python install.  Including the settings
will automatically use the headers and import libraries in your build.

The package information pages on nuget.org are
www.nuget.org/packages/python(2) for the 64-bit version and
www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86(3) for the 32-bit version.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nuget.org/

   (2) https://www.nuget.org/packages/python

   (3) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86


File: python.info,  Node: The embeddable package,  Next: Alternative bundles,  Prev: nuget org 套件,  Up: 在 Windows 上使用 Python

3.4.4 The embeddable package
----------------------------

在 3.5 版被加入.

The embedded distribution is a ZIP file containing a minimal Python
environment.  It is intended for acting as part of another application,
rather than being directly accessed by end-users.

When extracted, the embedded distribution is (almost) fully isolated
from the user's system, including environment variables, system registry
settings, and installed packages.  The standard library is included as
pre-compiled and optimized ‘.pyc’ files in a ZIP, and ‘python3.dll’,
‘python37.dll’, ‘python.exe’ and ‘pythonw.exe’ are all provided.  Tcl/tk
(including all dependents, such as Idle), pip and the Python
documentation are not included.

     備註: The embedded distribution does not include the Microsoft C
     Runtime(1) and it is the responsibility of the application
     installer to provide this.  The runtime may have already been
     installed on a user's system previously or automatically via
     Windows Update, and can be detected by finding ‘ucrtbase.dll’ in
     the system directory.

Third-party packages should be installed by the application installer
alongside the embedded distribution.  Using pip to manage dependencies
as for a regular Python installation is not supported with this
distribution, though with some care it may be possible to include and
use pip for automatic updates.  In general, third-party packages should
be treated as part of the application ("vendoring") so that the
developer can ensure compatibility with newer versions before providing
updates to users.

The two recommended use cases for this distribution are described below.

* Menu:

* Python Application::
* 嵌入 Python::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-US/cpp/windows/latest-supported-vc-redist#visual-studio-2015-2017-2019-and-2022


File: python.info,  Node: Python Application,  Next: 嵌入 Python,  Up: The embeddable package

3.4.4.1 Python Application
..........................

An application written in Python does not necessarily require users to
be aware of that fact.  The embedded distribution may be used in this
case to include a private version of Python in an install package.
Depending on how transparent it should be (or conversely, how
professional it should appear), there are two options.

Using a specialized executable as a launcher requires some coding, but
provides the most transparent experience for users.  With a customized
launcher, there are no obvious indications that the program is running
on Python: icons can be customized, company and version information can
be specified, and file associations behave properly.  In most cases, a
custom launcher should simply be able to call ‘Py_Main’ with a
hard-coded command line.

The simpler approach is to provide a batch file or generated shortcut
that directly calls the ‘python.exe’ or ‘pythonw.exe’ with the required
command-line arguments.  In this case, the application will appear to be
Python and not its actual name, and users may have trouble
distinguishing it from other running Python processes or file
associations.

With the latter approach, packages should be installed as directories
alongside the Python executable to ensure they are available on the
path.  With the specialized launcher, packages can be located in other
locations as there is an opportunity to specify the search path before
launching the application.


File: python.info,  Node: 嵌入 Python,  Prev: Python Application,  Up: The embeddable package

3.4.4.2 嵌入 Python
...................

Applications written in native code often require some form of scripting
language, and the embedded Python distribution can be used for this
purpose.  In general, the majority of the application is in native code,
and some part will either invoke ‘python.exe’ or directly use
‘python3.dll’.  For either case, extracting the embedded distribution to
a subdirectory of the application installation is sufficient to provide
a loadable Python interpreter.

As with the application use, packages can be installed to any location
as there is an opportunity to specify search paths before initializing
the interpreter.  Otherwise, there is no fundamental differences between
using the embedded distribution and a regular installation.


File: python.info,  Node: Alternative bundles,  Next: 設定 Python,  Prev: The embeddable package,  Up: 在 Windows 上使用 Python

3.4.5 Alternative bundles
-------------------------

Besides the standard CPython distribution, there are modified packages
including additional functionality.  The following is a list of popular
versions and their key features:

ActivePython(1)

     Installer with multi-platform compatibility, documentation, PyWin32

Anaconda(2)

     Popular scientific modules (such as numpy, scipy and pandas) and
     the ‘conda’ package manager.

Enthought Deployment Manager(3)

     "The Next Generation Python Environment and Package Manager".

     Previously Enthought provided Canopy, but it reached end of life in
     2016(4).

WinPython(5)

     Windows-specific distribution with prebuilt scientific packages and
     tools for building packages.

Note that these packages may not include the latest versions of Python
or other libraries, and are not maintained or supported by the core
Python team.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (2) https://www.anaconda.com/download/

   (3) https://assets.enthought.com/downloads/edm/

   (4) 
https://support.enthought.com/hc/en-us/articles/360038600051-Canopy-GUI-end-of-life-transition-to-the-Enthought-Deployment-Manager-EDM-and-Visual-Studio-Code

   (5) https://winpython.github.io/


File: python.info,  Node: 設定 Python,  Next: UTF-8 模式,  Prev: Alternative bundles,  Up: 在 Windows 上使用 Python

3.4.6 設定 Python
-----------------

To run Python conveniently from a command prompt, you might consider
changing some default environment variables in Windows.  While the
installer provides an option to configure the PATH and PATHEXT variables
for you, this is only reliable for a single, system-wide installation.
If you regularly use multiple versions of Python, consider using the
*note Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae.

* Menu:

* Excursus; Setting environment variables: Excursus Setting environment variables.
* Finding the Python executable::


File: python.info,  Node: Excursus Setting environment variables,  Next: Finding the Python executable,  Up: 設定 Python

3.4.6.1 Excursus: Setting environment variables
...............................................

Windows allows environment variables to be configured permanently at
both the User level and the System level, or temporarily in a command
prompt.

To temporarily set environment variables, open Command Prompt and use
the ‘set’ command:

     C:\>set PATH=C:\Program Files\Python 3.9;%PATH%
     C:\>set PYTHONPATH=%PYTHONPATH%;C:\My_python_lib
     C:\>python

These changes will apply to any further commands executed in that
console, and will be inherited by any applications started from the
console.

Including the variable name within percent signs will expand to the
existing value, allowing you to add your new value at either the start
or the end.  Modifying ‘PATH’ by adding the directory containing
‘python.exe’ to the start is a common way to ensure the correct version
of Python is launched.

To permanently modify the default environment variables, click Start and
search for 'edit environment variables', or open System properties,
Advanced system settings and click the Environment Variables button.  In
this dialog, you can add or modify User and System variables.  To change
System variables, you need non-restricted access to your machine (i.e.
Administrator rights).

     備註: Windows will concatenate User variables 'after' System
     variables, which may cause unexpected results when modifying
     ‘PATH’.

     The *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. variable is used by all versions of
     Python, so you should not permanently configure it unless the
     listed paths only include code that is compatible with all of your
     installed Python versions.

也參考
......

‘https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/procthread/environment-variables’

     Windows 上的環境變數概要

‘https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-server/administration/windows-commands/set_1’

     The ‘set’ command, for temporarily modifying environment variables

‘https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-server/administration/windows-commands/setx’

     The ‘setx’ command, for permanently modifying environment variables


File: python.info,  Node: Finding the Python executable,  Prev: Excursus Setting environment variables,  Up: 設定 Python

3.4.6.2 Finding the Python executable
.....................................

在 3.5 版的變更.

Besides using the automatically created start menu entry for the Python
interpreter, you might want to start Python in the command prompt.  The
installer has an option to set that up for you.

On the first page of the installer, an option labelled "Add Python to
PATH" may be selected to have the installer add the install location
into the ‘PATH’.  The location of the ‘Scripts\’ folder is also added.
This allows you to type ‘python’ to run the interpreter, and ‘pip’ for
the package installer.  Thus, you can also execute your scripts with
command line options, see *note 命令列: e9a. documentation.

If you don't enable this option at install time, you can always re-run
the installer, select Modify, and enable it.  Alternatively, you can
manually modify the ‘PATH’ using the directions in *note Excursus;
Setting environment variables: 19d7.  You need to set your ‘PATH’
environment variable to include the directory of your Python
installation, delimited by a semicolon from other entries.  An example
variable could look like this (assuming the first two entries already
existed):

     C:\WINDOWS\system32;C:\WINDOWS;C:\Program Files\Python 3.9


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-8 模式,  Next: Python Launcher for Windows,  Prev: 設定 Python,  Up: 在 Windows 上使用 Python

3.4.7 UTF-8 模式
----------------

在 3.7 版被加入.

Windows still uses legacy encodings for the system encoding (the ANSI
Code Page).  Python uses it for the default encoding of text files (e.g.
*note locale.getencoding(): 258.).

This may cause issues because UTF-8 is widely used on the internet and
most Unix systems, including WSL (Windows Subsystem for Linux).

You can use the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451. to change the default text
encoding to UTF-8.  You can enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451. via
the ‘-X utf8’ command line option, or the ‘PYTHONUTF8=1’ environment
variable.  See *note PYTHONUTF8: 92c. for enabling UTF-8 mode, and *note
Excursus; Setting environment variables: 19d7. for how to modify
environment variables.

When the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451. is enabled, you can still use the
system encoding (the ANSI Code Page) via the "mbcs" codec.

Note that adding ‘PYTHONUTF8=1’ to the default environment variables
will affect all Python 3.7+ applications on your system.  If you have
any Python 3.7+ applications which rely on the legacy system encoding,
it is recommended to set the environment variable temporarily or use the
‘-X utf8’ command line option.

     備註: Even when UTF-8 mode is disabled, Python uses UTF-8 by
     default on Windows for:

        * Console I/O including standard I/O (see PEP 528(1) for
          details).

        * The *note filesystem encoding: 2bd. (see PEP 529(2) for
          details).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Launcher for Windows,  Next: 找尋模組,  Prev: UTF-8 模式,  Up: 在 Windows 上使用 Python

3.4.8 Python Launcher for Windows
---------------------------------

在 3.3 版被加入.

The Python launcher for Windows is a utility which aids in locating and
executing of different Python versions.  It allows scripts (or the
command-line) to indicate a preference for a specific Python version,
and will locate and execute that version.

Unlike the ‘PATH’ variable, the launcher will correctly select the most
appropriate version of Python.  It will prefer per-user installations
over system-wide ones, and orders by language version rather than using
the most recently installed version.

The launcher was originally specified in PEP 397(1).

* Menu:

* 開始::
* Shebang Lines::
* Arguments in shebang lines::
* Customization::
* Diagnostics::
* Dry Run::
* 安裝隨選::
* Return codes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/


File: python.info,  Node: 開始,  Next: Shebang Lines,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.1 開始
............

* Menu:

* From the command-line::
* 虛擬環境（Virtual environment）::
* From a script::
* 從檔案關聯::


File: python.info,  Node: From the command-line,  Next: 虛擬環境（Virtual environment）,  Up: 開始

3.4.8.2 From the command-line
.............................

在 3.6 版的變更.

System-wide installations of Python 3.3 and later will put the launcher
on your ‘PATH’.  The launcher is compatible with all available versions
of Python, so it does not matter which version is installed.  To check
that the launcher is available, execute the following command in Command
Prompt:

     py

You should find that the latest version of Python you have installed is
started - it can be exited as normal, and any additional command-line
arguments specified will be sent directly to Python.

If you have multiple versions of Python installed (e.g., 3.7 and 3.12)
you will have noticed that Python 3.12 was started - to launch Python
3.7, try the command:

     py -3.7

If you want the latest version of Python 2 you have installed, try the
command:

     py -2

If you see the following error, you do not have the launcher installed:

     'py' is not recognized as an internal or external command,
     operable program or batch file.

指令：

     py --list

displays the currently installed version(s) of Python.

The ‘-x.y’ argument is the short form of the ‘-V:Company/Tag’ argument,
which allows selecting a specific Python runtime, including those that
may have come from somewhere other than python.org.  Any runtime
registered by following PEP 514(1) will be discoverable.  The ‘--list’
command lists all available runtimes using the ‘-V:’ format.

When using the ‘-V:’ argument, specifying the Company will limit
selection to runtimes from that provider, while specifying only the Tag
will select from all providers.  Note that omitting the slash implies a
tag:

     # Select any '3.*' tagged runtime
     py -V:3

     # Select any 'PythonCore' released runtime
     py -V:PythonCore/

     # Select PythonCore's latest Python 3 runtime
     py -V:PythonCore/3

The short form of the argument (‘-3’) only ever selects from core Python
releases, and not other distributions.  However, the longer form
(‘-V:3’) will select from any.

The Company is matched on the full string, case-insenitive.  The Tag is
matched oneither the full string, or a prefix, provided the next
character is a dot or a hyphen.  This allows ‘-V:3.1’ to match ‘3.1-32’,
but not ‘3.10’.  Tags are sorted using numerical ordering (‘3.10’ is
newer than ‘3.1’), but are compared using text (‘-V:3.01’ does not match
‘3.1’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/


File: python.info,  Node: 虛擬環境（Virtual environment）,  Next: From a script,  Prev: From the command-line,  Up: 開始

3.4.8.3 虛擬環境（Virtual environment）
.......................................

在 3.5 版被加入.

If the launcher is run with no explicit Python version specification,
and a virtual environment (created with the standard library *note venv:
10c. module or the external ‘virtualenv’ tool) active, the launcher will
run the virtual environment's interpreter rather than the global one.
To run the global interpreter, either deactivate the virtual
environment, or explicitly specify the global Python version.


File: python.info,  Node: From a script,  Next: 從檔案關聯,  Prev: 虛擬環境（Virtual environment）,  Up: 開始

3.4.8.4 From a script
.....................

Let's create a test Python script - create a file called ‘hello.py’ with
the following contents

     #! python
     import sys
     sys.stdout.write("hello from Python %s\n" % (sys.version,))

From the directory in which hello.py lives, execute the command:

     py hello.py

You should notice the version number of your latest Python 2.x
installation is printed.  Now try changing the first line to be:

     #! python3

Re-executing the command should now print the latest Python 3.x
information.  As with the above command-line examples, you can specify a
more explicit version qualifier.  Assuming you have Python 3.7
installed, try changing the first line to ‘#! python3.7’ and you should
find the 3.7 version information printed.

Note that unlike interactive use, a bare "python" will use the latest
version of Python 2.x that you have installed.  This is for backward
compatibility and for compatibility with Unix, where the command
‘python’ typically refers to Python 2.


File: python.info,  Node: 從檔案關聯,  Prev: From a script,  Up: 開始

3.4.8.5 從檔案關聯
..................

The launcher should have been associated with Python files (i.e.  ‘.py’,
‘.pyw’, ‘.pyc’ files) when it was installed.  This means that when you
double-click on one of these files from Windows explorer the launcher
will be used, and therefore you can use the same facilities described
above to have the script specify the version which should be used.

The key benefit of this is that a single launcher can support multiple
Python versions at the same time depending on the contents of the first
line.


File: python.info,  Node: Shebang Lines,  Next: Arguments in shebang lines,  Prev: 開始,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.6 Shebang Lines
.....................

If the first line of a script file starts with ‘#!’, it is known as a
"shebang" line.  Linux and other Unix like operating systems have native
support for such lines and they are commonly used on such systems to
indicate how a script should be executed.  This launcher allows the same
facilities to be used with Python scripts on Windows and the examples
above demonstrate their use.

To allow shebang lines in Python scripts to be portable between Unix and
Windows, this launcher supports a number of 'virtual' commands to
specify which interpreter to use.  The supported virtual commands are:

   * ‘/usr/bin/env’

   * ‘/usr/bin/python’

   * ‘/usr/local/bin/python’

   * ‘python’

For example, if the first line of your script starts with

     #! /usr/bin/python

The default Python will be located and used.  As many Python scripts
written to work on Unix will already have this line, you should find
these scripts can be used by the launcher without modification.  If you
are writing a new script on Windows which you hope will be useful on
Unix, you should use one of the shebang lines starting with ‘/usr’.

Any of the above virtual commands can be suffixed with an explicit
version (either just the major version, or the major and minor version).
Furthermore the 32-bit version can be requested by adding "-32" after
the minor version.  I.e.  ‘/usr/bin/python3.7-32’ will request usage of
the 32-bit python 3.7.

在 3.7 版被加入: Beginning with python launcher 3.7 it is possible to
request 64-bit version by the "-64" suffix.  Furthermore it is possible
to specify a major and architecture without minor (i.e.
‘/usr/bin/python3-64’).

在 3.11 版的變更: The "-64" suffix is deprecated, and now implies "any
architecture that is not provably i386/32-bit".  To request a specific
environment, use the new ‘-V:TAG’ argument with the complete tag.

The ‘/usr/bin/env’ form of shebang line has one further special
property.  Before looking for installed Python interpreters, this form
will search the executable ‘PATH’ for a Python executable matching the
name provided as the first argument.  This corresponds to the behaviour
of the Unix ‘env’ program, which performs a ‘PATH’ search.  If an
executable matching the first argument after the ‘env’ command cannot be
found, but the argument starts with ‘python’, it will be handled as
described for the other virtual commands.  The environment variable
‘PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH’ may be set (to any value) to skip this
search of ‘PATH’.

Shebang lines that do not match any of these patterns are looked up in
the ‘[commands]’ section of the launcher's *note .INI file: 1bdc.  This
may be used to handle certain commands in a way that makes sense for
your system.  The name of the command must be a single argument (no
spaces in the shebang executable), and the value substituted is the full
path to the executable (additional arguments specified in the .INI will
be quoted as part of the filename).

     [commands]
     /bin/xpython=C:\Program Files\XPython\python.exe

Any commands not found in the .INI file are treated as 'Windows'
executable paths that are absolute or relative to the directory
containing the script file.  This is a convenience for Windows-only
scripts, such as those generated by an installer, since the behavior is
not compatible with Unix-style shells.  These paths may be quoted, and
may include multiple arguments, after which the path to the script and
any additional arguments will be appended.


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments in shebang lines,  Next: Customization,  Prev: Shebang Lines,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.7 Arguments in shebang lines
..................................

The shebang lines can also specify additional options to be passed to
the Python interpreter.  For example, if you have a shebang line:

     #! /usr/bin/python -v

Then Python will be started with the ‘-v’ option


File: python.info,  Node: Customization,  Next: Diagnostics,  Prev: Arguments in shebang lines,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.8 Customization
.....................

* Menu:

* Customization via INI files::
* Customizing default Python versions::


File: python.info,  Node: Customization via INI files,  Next: Customizing default Python versions,  Up: Customization

3.4.8.9 Customization via INI files
...................................

Two .ini files will be searched by the launcher - ‘py.ini’ in the
current user's application data directory (‘%LOCALAPPDATA%’ or
‘$env:LocalAppData’) and ‘py.ini’ in the same directory as the launcher.
The same .ini files are used for both the 'console' version of the
launcher (i.e.  py.exe) and for the 'windows' version (i.e.  pyw.exe).

Customization specified in the "application directory" will have
precedence over the one next to the executable, so a user, who may not
have write access to the .ini file next to the launcher, can override
commands in that global .ini file.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing default Python versions,  Prev: Customization via INI files,  Up: Customization

3.4.8.10 Customizing default Python versions
............................................

In some cases, a version qualifier can be included in a command to
dictate which version of Python will be used by the command.  A version
qualifier starts with a major version number and can optionally be
followed by a period ('.')  and a minor version specifier.  Furthermore
it is possible to specify if a 32 or 64 bit implementation shall be
requested by adding "-32" or "-64".

For example, a shebang line of ‘#!python’ has no version qualifier,
while ‘#!python3’ has a version qualifier which specifies only a major
version.

If no version qualifiers are found in a command, the environment
variable ‘PY_PYTHON’ can be set to specify the default version
qualifier.  If it is not set, the default is "3".  The variable can
specify any value that may be passed on the command line, such as "3",
"3.7", "3.7-32" or "3.7-64".  (Note that the "-64" option is only
available with the launcher included with Python 3.7 or newer.)

If no minor version qualifiers are found, the environment variable
‘PY_PYTHON{major}’ (where ‘{major}’ is the current major version
qualifier as determined above) can be set to specify the full version.
If no such option is found, the launcher will enumerate the installed
Python versions and use the latest minor release found for the major
version, which is likely, although not guaranteed, to be the most
recently installed version in that family.

On 64-bit Windows with both 32-bit and 64-bit implementations of the
same (major.minor) Python version installed, the 64-bit version will
always be preferred.  This will be true for both 32-bit and 64-bit
implementations of the launcher - a 32-bit launcher will prefer to
execute a 64-bit Python installation of the specified version if
available.  This is so the behavior of the launcher can be predicted
knowing only what versions are installed on the PC and without regard to
the order in which they were installed (i.e., without knowing whether a
32 or 64-bit version of Python and corresponding launcher was installed
last).  As noted above, an optional "-32" or "-64" suffix can be used on
a version specifier to change this behaviour.

範例：

   * If no relevant options are set, the commands ‘python’ and ‘python2’
     will use the latest Python 2.x version installed and the command
     ‘python3’ will use the latest Python 3.x installed.

   * The command ‘python3.7’ will not consult any options at all as the
     versions are fully specified.

   * If ‘PY_PYTHON=3’, the commands ‘python’ and ‘python3’ will both use
     the latest installed Python 3 version.

   * If ‘PY_PYTHON=3.7-32’, the command ‘python’ will use the 32-bit
     implementation of 3.7 whereas the command ‘python3’ will use the
     latest installed Python (PY_PYTHON was not considered at all as a
     major version was specified.)

   * If ‘PY_PYTHON=3’ and ‘PY_PYTHON3=3.7’, the commands ‘python’ and
     ‘python3’ will both use specifically 3.7

In addition to environment variables, the same settings can be
configured in the .INI file used by the launcher.  The section in the
INI file is called ‘[defaults]’ and the key name will be the same as the
environment variables without the leading ‘PY_’ prefix (and note that
the key names in the INI file are case insensitive.)  The contents of an
environment variable will override things specified in the INI file.

舉例來說：

   * Setting ‘PY_PYTHON=3.7’ is equivalent to the INI file containing:

     [defaults]
     python=3.7

   * Setting ‘PY_PYTHON=3’ and ‘PY_PYTHON3=3.7’ is equivalent to the INI
     file containing:

     [defaults]
     python=3
     python3=3.7


File: python.info,  Node: Diagnostics,  Next: Dry Run,  Prev: Customization,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.11 Diagnostics
....................

If an environment variable ‘PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG’ is set (to any value), the
launcher will print diagnostic information to stderr (i.e.  to the
console).  While this information manages to be simultaneously verbose
'and' terse, it should allow you to see what versions of Python were
located, why a particular version was chosen and the exact command-line
used to execute the target Python.  It is primarily intended for testing
and debugging.


File: python.info,  Node: Dry Run,  Next: 安裝隨選,  Prev: Diagnostics,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.12 Dry Run
................

If an environment variable ‘PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN’ is set (to any value),
the launcher will output the command it would have run, but will not
actually launch Python.  This may be useful for tools that want to use
the launcher to detect and then launch Python directly.  Note that the
command written to standard output is always encoded using UTF-8, and
may not render correctly in the console.


File: python.info,  Node: 安裝隨選,  Next: Return codes,  Prev: Dry Run,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.13 安裝隨選
.................

If an environment variable ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’ is set (to any
value), and the requested Python version is not installed but is
available on the Microsoft Store, the launcher will attempt to install
it.  This may require user interaction to complete, and you may need to
run the command again.

An additional ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL’ variable causes the launcher
to always try to install Python, even if it is detected.  This is mainly
intended for testing (and should be used with ‘PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN’).


File: python.info,  Node: Return codes,  Prev: 安裝隨選,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.14 Return codes
.....................

The following exit codes may be returned by the Python launcher.
Unfortunately, there is no way to distinguish these from the exit code
of Python itself.

The names of codes are as used in the sources, and are only for
reference.  There is no way to access or resolve them apart from reading
this page.  Entries are listed in alphabetical order of names.

名稱                    Value       描述
                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
RC_BAD_VENV_CFG         107         A ‘pyvenv.cfg’ was found but is corrupt.
                                    
                                    
RC_CREATE_PROCESS       101         Failed to launch Python.
                                    
                                    
RC_INSTALLING           111         An install was started, but the command will need
                                    to be re-run after it completes.
                                    
                                    
RC_INTERNAL_ERROR       109         Unexpected error.  Please report a bug.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_COMMANDLINE       108         Unable to obtain command line from the operating
                                    system.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_PYTHON            103         Unable to locate the requested version.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_VENV_CFG          106         A ‘pyvenv.cfg’ was required but not found.
                                    


File: python.info,  Node: 找尋模組,  Next: 額外的模組,  Prev: Python Launcher for Windows,  Up: 在 Windows 上使用 Python

3.4.9 找尋模組
--------------

These notes supplement the description at *note The initialization of
the sys.path module search path: 1a55. with detailed Windows notes.

When no ‘._pth’ file is found, this is how *note sys.path: 35e. is
populated on Windows:

   * An empty entry is added at the start, which corresponds to the
     current directory.

   * If the environment variable *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. exists, as
     described in *note 環境變數: 3e6, its entries are added next.  Note
     that on Windows, paths in this variable must be separated by
     semicolons, to distinguish them from the colon used in drive
     identifiers (‘C:\’ etc.).

   * Additional "application paths" can be added in the registry as
     subkeys of ‘\SOFTWARE\Python\PythonCore{version}\PythonPath’ under
     both the ‘HKEY_CURRENT_USER’ and ‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE’ hives.
     Subkeys which have semicolon-delimited path strings as their
     default value will cause each path to be added to *note sys.path:
     35e.  (Note that all known installers only use HKLM, so HKCU is
     typically empty.)

   * If the environment variable *note PYTHONHOME: 365. is set, it is
     assumed as "Python Home".  Otherwise, the path of the main Python
     executable is used to locate a "landmark file" (either ‘Lib\os.py’
     or ‘pythonXY.zip’) to deduce the "Python Home".  If a Python home
     is found, the relevant sub-directories added to *note sys.path:
     35e. (‘Lib’, ‘plat-win’, etc) are based on that folder.  Otherwise,
     the core Python path is constructed from the PythonPath stored in
     the registry.

   * If the Python Home cannot be located, no *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. is
     specified in the environment, and no registry entries can be found,
     a default path with relative entries is used (e.g.
     ‘.\Lib;.\plat-win’, etc).

If a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file is found alongside the main executable or in the
directory one level above the executable, the following variations
apply:

   * If ‘home’ is an absolute path and *note PYTHONHOME: 365. is not
     set, this path is used instead of the path to the main executable
     when deducing the home location.

最終這所有的結果為：

   * When running ‘python.exe’, or any other .exe in the main Python
     directory (either an installed version, or directly from the
     PCbuild directory), the core path is deduced, and the core paths in
     the registry are ignored.  Other "application paths" in the
     registry are always read.

   * When Python is hosted in another .exe (different directory,
     embedded via COM, etc), the "Python Home" will not be deduced, so
     the core path from the registry is used.  Other "application paths"
     in the registry are always read.

   * If Python can't find its home and there are no registry value
     (frozen .exe, some very strange installation setup) you get a path
     with some default, but relative, paths.

For those who want to bundle Python into their application or
distribution, the following advice will prevent conflicts with other
installations:

   * Include a ‘._pth’ file alongside your executable containing the
     directories to include.  This will ignore paths listed in the
     registry and environment variables, and also ignore *note site: c2.
     unless ‘import site’ is listed.

   * If you are loading ‘python3.dll’ or ‘python37.dll’ in your own
     executable, explicitly call *note Py_SetPath(): 1be6. or (at least)
     *note Py_SetProgramName(): 188c. before *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2.

   * Clear and/or overwrite *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. and set *note
     PYTHONHOME: 365. before launching ‘python.exe’ from your
     application.

   * If you cannot use the previous suggestions (for example, you are a
     distribution that allows people to run ‘python.exe’ directly),
     ensure that the landmark file (‘Lib\os.py’) exists in your install
     directory.  (Note that it will not be detected inside a ZIP file,
     but a correctly named ZIP file will be detected instead.)

These will ensure that the files in a system-wide installation will not
take precedence over the copy of the standard library bundled with your
application.  Otherwise, your users may experience problems using your
application.  Note that the first suggestion is the best, as the others
may still be susceptible to non-standard paths in the registry and user
site-packages.

在 3.6 版的變更: Add ‘._pth’ file support and removes ‘applocal’ option
from ‘pyvenv.cfg’.

在 3.6 版的變更: Add ‘python`XX'.zip’ as a potential landmark when
directly adjacent to the executable.

在 3.6 版之後被棄用: Modules specified in the registry under ‘Modules’
(not ‘PythonPath’) may be imported by *note
importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: b9c.  This finder is enabled
on Windows in 3.6.0 and earlier, but may need to be explicitly added to
*note sys.meta_path: b9d. in the future.


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3.4.10 額外的模組
-----------------

Even though Python aims to be portable among all platforms, there are
features that are unique to Windows.  A couple of modules, both in the
standard library and external, and snippets exist to use these features.

The Windows-specific standard modules are documented in *note MS Windows
特有服務: 1be8.

* Menu:

* PyWin32::
* cx_Freeze::


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3.4.10.1 PyWin32
................

The PyWin32(1) module by Mark Hammond is a collection of modules for
advanced Windows-specific support.  This includes utilities for:

   * Component Object Model(2) (COM)

   * Win32 API 呼叫

   * 登錄檔（Registry）

   * 事件日誌（Event log）

   * Microsoft Foundation Classes(3) (MFC) user interfaces

PythonWin(4) is a sample MFC application shipped with PyWin32.  It is an
embeddable IDE with a built-in debugger.

也參考
......

Win32 How Do I...?(5)

     由 Tim Golden 所著

Python and COM(6)

     由 David 與 Paul Boddie 所著

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/PyWin32/

   (2) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/com/component-object-model-com-portal

   (3) https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/mfc/mfc-desktop-applications

   (4) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20060524042422/https://www.python.org/windows/pythonwin/

   (5) https://timgolden.me.uk/python/win32_how_do_i.html

   (6) https://www.boddie.org.uk/python/COM.html


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3.4.10.2 cx_Freeze
..................

cx_Freeze(1) wraps Python scripts into executable Windows programs
(‘`*'.exe’ files).  When you have done this, you can distribute your
application without requiring your users to install Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cx-freeze.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


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3.4.11 編譯 Python 在 Windows
-----------------------------

If you want to compile CPython yourself, first thing you should do is
get the source(1).  You can download either the latest release's source
or just grab a fresh checkout(2).

The source tree contains a build solution and project files for
Microsoft Visual Studio, which is the compiler used to build the
official Python releases.  These files are in the ‘PCbuild’ directory.

Check ‘PCbuild/readme.txt’ for general information on the build process.

For extension modules, consult *note 建置 Windows 上的 C 和 C++ 擴充:
1bec.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/source/

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/setup/#get-the-source-code


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3.4.12 其他平台
---------------

With ongoing development of Python, some platforms that used to be
supported earlier are no longer supported (due to the lack of users or
developers).  Check PEP 11(1) for details on all unsupported platforms.

   * Windows CE(2) is no longer supported(3) since Python 3 (if it ever
     was).

   * The Cygwin(4) installer offers to install the Python interpreter(5)
     as well

See Python for Windows(6) for detailed information about platforms with
pre-compiled installers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://pythonce.sourceforge.net/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71542

   (4) https://cygwin.com/

   (5) https://cygwin.com/packages/summary/python3.html

   (6) https://www.python.org/downloads/windows/


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3.5 在 Mac 系統使用 Python
==========================


作者: Bob Savage <<bobsavage@mac.com>>

Python 在 Mac 的 macOS 上執行和在其他 Unix 平台上執行的原理非常相似，但
值得一提的是在 macOS 上有其他額外的功能，例如整合開發環境 (IDE) 與套件管
理。
* Menu:

* 取得和安裝 Python::
* 整合化開發工具 (IDE): 整合化開發工具 IDE.
* 安裝額外的 Python 套件::
* 開發 GUI 程式::
* 發行 Python 應用程式::
* 其他資源::


File: python.info,  Node: 取得和安裝 Python,  Next: 整合化開發工具 IDE,  Up: 在 Mac 系統使用 Python

3.5.1 取得和安裝 Python
-----------------------

macOS 自 10.8 版本開始至 12.3 版本(1)之間預設安裝 Python 2.7。你也可以到
Python 網站(2)安裝最新的 Python 3 版本。你可以找到建立在"通用二進位
(universal2 binary)" 上的 Python 建置版本，它能夠原生地運行在 Mac 新的
Apple Silicon CPU 與過去的 Intel CPU 上。

在安裝後你必須要做幾件事：

   * 會有一個 ‘Python 3.12’ 資料夾在你的 ‘Applications’ 資料夾中。在這裡
     你可以找到 IDLE，它是作為官方 Python 發行版標準組成的開發環境；以及
     ‘Python Launcher’，它負責處理在 Finder 中雙擊 Python 腳本的操作。

   * ‘/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’ 框架，包括 Python 可執行檔案
     (executable) 和函式庫 (library)。安裝程式將此位置新增到 shell 路徑
     。要解除安裝 Python ，你可以移除這三個專案。Python 可執行檔案的符號
     連結 (symlink) 則放在 ‘/usr/local/bin/’ 中。

     備註: 在 macOS 10.8-12.3，Apple 提供的 Python 建置版本分別安裝在
     ‘/System/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’ 和 ‘/usr/bin/python’
     中。你不應該去修改或刪除這些內容，因為它們由 Apple 控制並且被 Apple
     或第三方軟體使用。請記住，如果你選擇從 python.org 安裝較新的 Python
     版本，那麼你的計算機上將安裝兩個不同但都可運作的 Python，因此你的路
     徑和用法與你想要執行的操作一致非常重要。

IDLE 包含一個幫助 (Help) 選單，讓你可以參閱 Python 文件。如果你是 Python
的新手，你應該開始閱讀該文件中的教學介紹。

如果你熟悉其他 Unix 平臺上的 Python，那麼你應該閱讀有關從 Unix shell 執
行 Python 腳本的部分。

* Menu:

* 如何執行 Python 腳本::
* 透過 GUI 執行腳本::
* 設定::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://developer.apple.com/documentation/macos-release-notes/macos-12_3-release-notes#Python

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/


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3.5.1.1 如何執行 Python 腳本
............................

在 macOS 上開始使用 Python 的最佳方法是透過 IDLE 整合開發環境；參見
*note 整合化開發工具 (IDE): 1bf5. 部分，並在 IDE 執行時使用幫助選單。

如果要從終端機視窗命令列或 Finder 執行 Python 腳本，首先需要一個編輯器來
建立腳本。macOS 附帶了許多標準的 Unix 命令列編輯器，如 ‘vim’ 和 ‘nano’。
如果你想要一個更 Mac 化的編輯器，那麼來自 Bare Bones Software 的
‘BBEdit’（參見 ‘http://www.barebones.com/products/bbedit/index.html’） 是
不錯的選擇，‘TextMate’ （參見 ‘https://macromates.com/’）也是個選擇。其
他編輯器包括 ‘MacVim’ (‘https://macvim.org’) 和 ‘Aquamacs’
(‘https://aquamacs.org/’)。

要從終端機視窗執行腳本，你必須確保 ‘/usr/local/bin’ 位於 shell 搜尋路徑
中。

從 Finder 執行你的腳本時，你有兩個選項：

   * 把它拖曳到 ‘Python Launcher’

   * 透過 finder Info 視窗選擇 ‘Python Launcher’ 作為開啟腳本（或任何
     ‘.py’ 腳本）的預設應用程式，然後雙擊腳本。‘Python Launcher’ 有各種
     用來控制腳本啟動方式的選項。拖曳選項可以讓你一次更改多個選項，或使
     用其偏好設定選單以全域性地更改內容。


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3.5.1.2 透過 GUI 執行腳本
.........................

對於舊版本的 Python，你需要注意一個 macOS 的怪異之處：與 Aqua 視窗管理器
溝通的程式（換而言之，任何具有 GUI（圖形化使用者介面）的程式）需要以特殊
方式執行。使用 ‘pythonw’ 而不是 ‘python’ 來啟動這樣的腳本。

Python 3.9 上，你可以使用 ‘python’ 或者 ‘pythonw’。


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3.5.1.3 設定
............

macOS 上的 Python 遵循所有標準的 Unix 環境變數，例如 *note PYTHONPATH:
eb1.，但是為 Finder 啟動的程式設定這些變數並非是標準做法，因為 Finder 在
啟動時不會讀取你的 ‘.profile’ 或 ‘.cshrc’。你需要建立一個檔案
‘~/.MacOSX/environment.plist’。相關資訊請參閱 Apple 的技術問答集
QA1067(1)。

更多關於安裝 Python 套件的資訊，參閱 *note 安裝額外的 Python 套件: 1bf9.
部分。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://developer.apple.com/library/archive/qa/qa1067/_index.html


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3.5.2 整合化開發工具 (IDE)
--------------------------

Python 附帶標準的 IDLE 開發環境。有關使用 IDLE 的詳細介紹，請見
‘https://www.hashcollision.org/hkn/python/idle_intro/index.html’。


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3.5.3 安裝額外的 Python 套件
----------------------------

這個章節已經被移動到 Python Packaging User Guide(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/


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3.5.4 開發 GUI 程式
-------------------

於 Mac 上使用 Python 來建立 GUI 應用程式有許多選項。

'PyObjC' 是一個 Apple Objective-C/Cocoa 框架的 Python 繫結 (binding)，這
是大多數現代 Mac 開發的基礎。有關 PyObjC 的資訊，請見 pyobjc(1)。

標準的 Python GUI 工具套件是 *note tkinter: ea.，基於跨平臺的 Tk 工具套
件 (‘https://www.tcl.tk’)。Apple 的 macOS 包含了 Aqua 原生版本的 Tk，最
新版本可以從 ‘https://www.activestate.com’ 下載和安裝；它也可以從原始碼
開始建置。

有許多替代 macOS GUI 工具套件可用：

   * PySide(2)：Qt GUI 工具包(3)的官方 Python 繫結。

   * PyQt(4)：Qt 的替代 Python 繫結。

   * Kivy(5)：一個支援桌面和行動平臺的跨平臺 GUI 工具包。

   * Toga(6)：BeeWare 專案(7)的一部分；支援桌面、行動、網頁和控制台應用
     程式。

   * wxPython(8)：一個支援桌面作業系統的跨平臺工具包。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pyobjc/

   (2) https://www.qt.io/qt-for-python

   (3) https://www.qt.io

   (4) https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro

   (5) https://kivy.org

   (6) https://toga.readthedocs.io

   (7) https://beeware.org

   (8) https://www.wxpython.org


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3.5.5 發行 Python 應用程式
--------------------------

A range of tools exist for converting your Python code into a standalone
distributable application:

   * py2app(1)：支援從 Python 專案打包成 macOS ‘.app’。

   * Briefcase(2): Part of the BeeWare Project(3); a cross-platform
     packaging tool that supports creation of ‘.app’ bundles on macOS,
     as well as managing signing and notarization.

   * PyInstaller(4)：一個跨平臺打包工具，可以將單一檔案或資料夾打包成可
     分發的檔案。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/py2app/

   (2) https://briefcase.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://beeware.org

   (4) https://pyinstaller.org/


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3.5.6 其他資源
--------------

Pythonmac-SIG 郵件清單對於 Mac 上的 Python 使用者和開發者是一個極佳的支
援資源：

‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/pythonmac-sig/’

另一個好用資源是 MacPython wiki：

‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/MacPython’


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3.6 編輯器與 IDE
================

There are a number of IDEs that support Python programming language.
Many editors and IDEs provide syntax highlighting, debugging tools, and
PEP 8(1) checks.

Please go to Python Editors(2) and Integrated Development
Environments(3) for a comprehensive list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors

   (3) https://wiki.python.org/moin/IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironments


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4 Python 語言參考手冊
*********************

這份參考手冊會描述 Python 語言的語法及「核心語意」。它雖然簡潔，但也盡量
保持精確並完整。關於非必要的 (non-essential) 內建物件型別、內建函式及模
組的語意，則在 *note Python 標準函式庫 (Standard Library): 13d. 中說明。
關於此語言的非正式介紹，請參閱 *note Python 教學: 19ca.。對於 C 或 C++ 程
式設計師，還有另外兩個手冊：*note 擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器: 19cb.以高階
的視野說明如何編寫 Python 擴充模組，而 *note Python/C API 參考手冊:
19cc.則詳細說明 C/C++ 程式設計師可用的介面。

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<5>.
* 詞法分析::
* 資料模型::
* 執行模型::
* 模組引入系統::
* 運算式::
* 簡單陳述式::
* 複合陳述式::
* 最高層級元件::
* 完整的語法規格書::


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4.1 簡介
========

This reference manual describes the Python programming language.  It is
not intended as a tutorial.

While I am trying to be as precise as possible, I chose to use English
rather than formal specifications for everything except syntax and
lexical analysis.  This should make the document more understandable to
the average reader, but will leave room for ambiguities.  Consequently,
if you were coming from Mars and tried to re-implement Python from this
document alone, you might have to guess things and in fact you would
probably end up implementing quite a different language.  On the other
hand, if you are using Python and wonder what the precise rules about a
particular area of the language are, you should definitely be able to
find them here.  If you would like to see a more formal definition of
the language, maybe you could volunteer your time -- or invent a cloning
machine :-).

It is dangerous to add too many implementation details to a language
reference document -- the implementation may change, and other
implementations of the same language may work differently.  On the other
hand, CPython is the one Python implementation in widespread use
(although alternate implementations continue to gain support), and its
particular quirks are sometimes worth being mentioned, especially where
the implementation imposes additional limitations.  Therefore, you'll
find short "implementation notes" sprinkled throughout the text.

Every Python implementation comes with a number of built-in and standard
modules.  These are documented in *note Python 標準函式庫 (Standard
Library): 13d.  A few built-in modules are mentioned when they interact
in a significant way with the language definition.

* Menu:

* Alternate Implementations::
* Notation::


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4.1.1 Alternate Implementations
-------------------------------

Though there is one Python implementation which is by far the most
popular, there are some alternate implementations which are of
particular interest to different audiences.

Known implementations include:

CPython

     This is the original and most-maintained implementation of Python,
     written in C. New language features generally appear here first.

Jython

     Python implemented in Java.  This implementation can be used as a
     scripting language for Java applications, or can be used to create
     applications using the Java class libraries.  It is also often used
     to create tests for Java libraries.  More information can be found
     at the Jython website(1).

Python for .NET

     This implementation actually uses the CPython implementation, but
     is a managed .NET application and makes .NET libraries available.
     It was created by Brian Lloyd.  For more information, see the
     Python for .NET home page(2).

IronPython

     An alternate Python for .NET. Unlike Python.NET, this is a complete
     Python implementation that generates IL, and compiles Python code
     directly to .NET assemblies.  It was created by Jim Hugunin, the
     original creator of Jython.  For more information, see the
     IronPython website(3).

PyPy

     An implementation of Python written completely in Python.  It
     supports several advanced features not found in other
     implementations like stackless support and a Just in Time compiler.
     One of the goals of the project is to encourage experimentation
     with the language itself by making it easier to modify the
     interpreter (since it is written in Python).  Additional
     information is available on the PyPy project's home page(4).

Each of these implementations varies in some way from the language as
documented in this manual, or introduces specific information beyond
what's covered in the standard Python documentation.  Please refer to
the implementation-specific documentation to determine what else you
need to know about the specific implementation you're using.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org/

   (2) https://pythonnet.github.io/

   (3) https://ironpython.net/

   (4) https://pypy.org/


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4.1.2 Notation
--------------

The descriptions of lexical analysis and syntax use a modified
Backus–Naur form (BNF)(1) grammar notation.  This uses the following
style of definition:

     name      ::= lc_letter (lc_letter | "_")*
     lc_letter ::= "a"..."z"

The first line says that a ‘name’ is an ‘lc_letter’ followed by a
sequence of zero or more ‘lc_letter’s and underscores.  An ‘lc_letter’
in turn is any of the single characters ‘'a'’ through ‘'z'’.  (This rule
is actually adhered to for the names defined in lexical and grammar
rules in this document.)

Each rule begins with a name (which is the name defined by the rule) and
‘::=’.  A vertical bar (‘|’) is used to separate alternatives; it is the
least binding operator in this notation.  A star (‘*’) means zero or
more repetitions of the preceding item; likewise, a plus (‘+’) means one
or more repetitions, and a phrase enclosed in square brackets (‘[ ]’)
means zero or one occurrences (in other words, the enclosed phrase is
optional).  The ‘*’ and ‘+’ operators bind as tightly as possible;
parentheses are used for grouping.  Literal strings are enclosed in
quotes.  White space is only meaningful to separate tokens.  Rules are
normally contained on a single line; rules with many alternatives may be
formatted alternatively with each line after the first beginning with a
vertical bar.

In lexical definitions (as the example above), two more conventions are
used: Two literal characters separated by three dots mean a choice of
any single character in the given (inclusive) range of ASCII characters.
A phrase between angular brackets (‘<...>’) gives an informal
description of the symbol defined; e.g., this could be used to describe
the notion of 'control character' if needed.

Even though the notation used is almost the same, there is a big
difference between the meaning of lexical and syntactic definitions: a
lexical definition operates on the individual characters of the input
source, while a syntax definition operates on the stream of tokens
generated by the lexical analysis.  All uses of BNF in the next chapter
("Lexical Analysis") are lexical definitions; uses in subsequent
chapters are syntactic definitions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form


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4.2 詞法分析
============

A Python program is read by a 'parser'.  Input to the parser is a stream
of 'tokens', generated by the 'lexical analyzer'.  This chapter
describes how the lexical analyzer breaks a file into tokens.

Python reads program text as Unicode code points; the encoding of a
source file can be given by an encoding declaration and defaults to
UTF-8, see PEP 3120(1) for details.  If the source file cannot be
decoded, a *note SyntaxError: 146. is raised.

* Menu:

* Line structure::
* Other tokens::
* Identifiers and keywords::
* Literals::
* Operators::
* Delimiters::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/


File: python.info,  Node: Line structure,  Next: Other tokens,  Up: 詞法分析

4.2.1 Line structure
--------------------

A Python program is divided into a number of 'logical lines'.

* Menu:

* Logical lines::
* Physical lines::
* Comments::
* Encoding declarations::
* Explicit line joining::
* Implicit line joining::
* Blank lines::
* Indentation::
* Whitespace between tokens::


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4.2.1.1 Logical lines
.....................

The end of a logical line is represented by the token NEWLINE.
Statements cannot cross logical line boundaries except where NEWLINE is
allowed by the syntax (e.g., between statements in compound statements).
A logical line is constructed from one or more 'physical lines' by
following the explicit or implicit 'line joining' rules.


File: python.info,  Node: Physical lines,  Next: Comments,  Prev: Logical lines,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.2 Physical lines
......................

A physical line is a sequence of characters terminated by an end-of-line
sequence.  In source files and strings, any of the standard platform
line termination sequences can be used - the Unix form using ASCII LF
(linefeed), the Windows form using the ASCII sequence CR LF (return
followed by linefeed), or the old Macintosh form using the ASCII CR
(return) character.  All of these forms can be used equally, regardless
of platform.  The end of input also serves as an implicit terminator for
the final physical line.

When embedding Python, source code strings should be passed to Python
APIs using the standard C conventions for newline characters (the ‘\n’
character, representing ASCII LF, is the line terminator).


File: python.info,  Node: Comments,  Next: Encoding declarations,  Prev: Physical lines,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.3 Comments
................

A comment starts with a hash character (‘#’) that is not part of a
string literal, and ends at the end of the physical line.  A comment
signifies the end of the logical line unless the implicit line joining
rules are invoked.  Comments are ignored by the syntax.


File: python.info,  Node: Encoding declarations,  Next: Explicit line joining,  Prev: Comments,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.4 Encoding declarations
.............................

If a comment in the first or second line of the Python script matches
the regular expression ‘coding[=:]\s*([-\w.]+)’, this comment is
processed as an encoding declaration; the first group of this expression
names the encoding of the source code file.  The encoding declaration
must appear on a line of its own.  If it is the second line, the first
line must also be a comment-only line.  The recommended forms of an
encoding expression are

     # -*- coding: <encoding-name> -*-

which is recognized also by GNU Emacs, and

     # vim:fileencoding=<encoding-name>

which is recognized by Bram Moolenaar's VIM.

If no encoding declaration is found, the default encoding is UTF-8.  If
the implicit or explicit encoding of a file is UTF-8, an initial UTF-8
byte-order mark (b'xefxbbxbf') is ignored rather than being a syntax
error.

If an encoding is declared, the encoding name must be recognized by
Python (see *note Standard Encodings: c30.).  The encoding is used for
all lexical analysis, including string literals, comments and
identifiers.


File: python.info,  Node: Explicit line joining,  Next: Implicit line joining,  Prev: Encoding declarations,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.5 Explicit line joining
.............................

Two or more physical lines may be joined into logical lines using
backslash characters (‘\’), as follows: when a physical line ends in a
backslash that is not part of a string literal or comment, it is joined
with the following forming a single logical line, deleting the backslash
and the following end-of-line character.  For example:

     if 1900 < year < 2100 and 1 <= month <= 12 \
        and 1 <= day <= 31 and 0 <= hour < 24 \
        and 0 <= minute < 60 and 0 <= second < 60:   # 看起來像個有效日期
             return 1

A line ending in a backslash cannot carry a comment.  A backslash does
not continue a comment.  A backslash does not continue a token except
for string literals (i.e., tokens other than string literals cannot be
split across physical lines using a backslash).  A backslash is illegal
elsewhere on a line outside a string literal.


File: python.info,  Node: Implicit line joining,  Next: Blank lines,  Prev: Explicit line joining,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.6 Implicit line joining
.............................

Expressions in parentheses, square brackets or curly braces can be split
over more than one physical line without using backslashes.  For
example:

     month_names = ['Januari', 'Februari', 'Maart',      # These are the
                    'April',   'Mei',      'Juni',       # Dutch names
                    'Juli',    'Augustus', 'September',  # for the months
                    'Oktober', 'November', 'December']   # of the year

Implicitly continued lines can carry comments.  The indentation of the
continuation lines is not important.  Blank continuation lines are
allowed.  There is no NEWLINE token between implicit continuation lines.
Implicitly continued lines can also occur within triple-quoted strings
(see below); in that case they cannot carry comments.


File: python.info,  Node: Blank lines,  Next: Indentation,  Prev: Implicit line joining,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.7 Blank lines
...................

A logical line that contains only spaces, tabs, formfeeds and possibly a
comment, is ignored (i.e., no NEWLINE token is generated).  During
interactive input of statements, handling of a blank line may differ
depending on the implementation of the read-eval-print loop.  In the
standard interactive interpreter, an entirely blank logical line (i.e.
one containing not even whitespace or a comment) terminates a multi-line
statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Indentation,  Next: Whitespace between tokens,  Prev: Blank lines,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.8 Indentation
...................

Leading whitespace (spaces and tabs) at the beginning of a logical line
is used to compute the indentation level of the line, which in turn is
used to determine the grouping of statements.

Tabs are replaced (from left to right) by one to eight spaces such that
the total number of characters up to and including the replacement is a
multiple of eight (this is intended to be the same rule as used by
Unix).  The total number of spaces preceding the first non-blank
character then determines the line's indentation.  Indentation cannot be
split over multiple physical lines using backslashes; the whitespace up
to the first backslash determines the indentation.

Indentation is rejected as inconsistent if a source file mixes tabs and
spaces in a way that makes the meaning dependent on the worth of a tab
in spaces; a *note TabError: 2c7. is raised in that case.

'Cross-platform compatibility note:' because of the nature of text
editors on non-UNIX platforms, it is unwise to use a mixture of spaces
and tabs for the indentation in a single source file.  It should also be
noted that different platforms may explicitly limit the maximum
indentation level.

A formfeed character may be present at the start of the line; it will be
ignored for the indentation calculations above.  Formfeed characters
occurring elsewhere in the leading whitespace have an undefined effect
(for instance, they may reset the space count to zero).

The indentation levels of consecutive lines are used to generate INDENT
and DEDENT tokens, using a stack, as follows.

Before the first line of the file is read, a single zero is pushed on
the stack; this will never be popped off again.  The numbers pushed on
the stack will always be strictly increasing from bottom to top.  At the
beginning of each logical line, the line's indentation level is compared
to the top of the stack.  If it is equal, nothing happens.  If it is
larger, it is pushed on the stack, and one INDENT token is generated.
If it is smaller, it 'must' be one of the numbers occurring on the
stack; all numbers on the stack that are larger are popped off, and for
each number popped off a DEDENT token is generated.  At the end of the
file, a DEDENT token is generated for each number remaining on the stack
that is larger than zero.

Here is an example of a correctly (though confusingly) indented piece of
Python code:

     def perm(l):
             # Compute the list of all permutations of l
         if len(l) <= 1:
                       return [l]
         r = []
         for i in range(len(l)):
                  s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
                  p = perm(s)
                  for x in p:
                   r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
         return r

The following example shows various indentation errors:

      def perm(l):                       # error: first line indented
     for i in range(len(l)):             # error: not indented
         s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
             p = perm(l[:i] + l[i+1:])   # error: unexpected indent
             for x in p:
                     r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
                 return r                # error: inconsistent dedent

(Actually, the first three errors are detected by the parser; only the
last error is found by the lexical analyzer -- the indentation of
‘return r’ does not match a level popped off the stack.)


File: python.info,  Node: Whitespace between tokens,  Prev: Indentation,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.9 Whitespace between tokens
.................................

Except at the beginning of a logical line or in string literals, the
whitespace characters space, tab and formfeed can be used
interchangeably to separate tokens.  Whitespace is needed between two
tokens only if their concatenation could otherwise be interpreted as a
different token (e.g., ab is one token, but a b is two tokens).


File: python.info,  Node: Other tokens,  Next: Identifiers and keywords,  Prev: Line structure,  Up: 詞法分析

4.2.2 Other tokens
------------------

Besides NEWLINE, INDENT and DEDENT, the following categories of tokens
exist: 'identifiers', 'keywords', 'literals', 'operators', and
'delimiters'.  Whitespace characters (other than line terminators,
discussed earlier) are not tokens, but serve to delimit tokens.  Where
ambiguity exists, a token comprises the longest possible string that
forms a legal token, when read from left to right.


File: python.info,  Node: Identifiers and keywords,  Next: Literals,  Prev: Other tokens,  Up: 詞法分析

4.2.3 Identifiers and keywords
------------------------------

Identifiers (also referred to as 'names') are described by the following
lexical definitions.

The syntax of identifiers in Python is based on the Unicode standard
annex UAX-31, with elaboration and changes as defined below; see also
PEP 3131(1) for further details.

Within the ASCII range (U+0001..U+007F), the valid characters for
identifiers include the uppercase and lowercase letters ‘A’ through ‘Z’,
the underscore ‘_’ and, except for the first character, the digits ‘0’
through ‘9’.  Python 3.0 introduced additional characters from outside
the ASCII range (see PEP 3131(2)).  For these characters, the
classification uses the version of the Unicode Character Database as
included in the *note unicodedata: 100. module.

Identifiers are unlimited in length.  Case is significant.

     identifier   ::= xid_start xid_continue*
     id_start     ::= <all characters in general categories Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, Lo, Nl, the underscore, and characters with the Other_ID_Start property>
     id_continue  ::= <all characters in id_start, plus characters in the categories Mn, Mc, Nd, Pc and others with the Other_ID_Continue property>
     xid_start    ::= <all characters in id_start whose NFKC normalization is in "id_start xid_continue*">
     xid_continue ::= <all characters in id_continue whose NFKC normalization is in "id_continue*">

The Unicode category codes mentioned above stand for:

   * 'Lu' - 大寫字母

   * 'Ll' - 小寫字母

   * 'Lt' - titlecase letters

   * 'Lm' - modifier letters

   * 'Lo' - 其他字母

   * 'Nl' - letter numbers

   * 'Mn' - nonspacing marks

   * 'Mc' - spacing combining marks

   * 'Nd' - 十進位數字

   * 'Pc' - connector punctuations

   * 'Other_ID_Start' - explicit list of characters in PropList.txt(3)
     to support backwards compatibility

   * 'Other_ID_Continue' - likewise

All identifiers are converted into the normal form NFKC while parsing;
comparison of identifiers is based on NFKC.

A non-normative HTML file listing all valid identifier characters for
Unicode 15.0.0 can be found at
‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd/DerivedCoreProperties.txt’

* Menu:

* 關鍵字::
* 軟關鍵字::
* Reserved classes of identifiers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/

   (3) https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd/PropList.txt


File: python.info,  Node: 關鍵字,  Next: 軟關鍵字,  Up: Identifiers and keywords

4.2.3.1 關鍵字
..............

The following identifiers are used as reserved words, or 'keywords' of
the language, and cannot be used as ordinary identifiers.  They must be
spelled exactly as written here:

     False      await      else       import     pass
     None       break      except     in         raise
     True       class      finally    is         return
     and        continue   for        lambda     try
     as         def        from       nonlocal   while
     assert     del        global     not        with
     async      elif       if         or         yield


File: python.info,  Node: 軟關鍵字,  Next: Reserved classes of identifiers,  Prev: 關鍵字,  Up: Identifiers and keywords

4.2.3.2 軟關鍵字
................

在 3.10 版被加入.

Some identifiers are only reserved under specific contexts.  These are
known as 'soft keywords'.  The identifiers ‘match’, ‘case’, ‘type’ and
‘_’ can syntactically act as keywords in certain contexts, but this
distinction is done at the parser level, not when tokenizing.

As soft keywords, their use in the grammar is possible while still
preserving compatibility with existing code that uses these names as
identifier names.

‘match’, ‘case’, and ‘_’ are used in the *note match: 62f. statement.
‘type’ is used in the *note type: 13a. statement.

在 3.12 版的變更: ‘type’ 現在是軟關鍵字。


File: python.info,  Node: Reserved classes of identifiers,  Prev: 軟關鍵字,  Up: Identifiers and keywords

4.2.3.3 Reserved classes of identifiers
.......................................

Certain classes of identifiers (besides keywords) have special meanings.
These classes are identified by the patterns of leading and trailing
underscore characters:

‘_*’

     Not imported by ‘from module import *’.

‘_’

     In a ‘case’ pattern within a *note match: 62f. statement, ‘_’ is a
     *note soft keyword: 62e. that denotes a *note wildcard: 630.

     Separately, the interactive interpreter makes the result of the
     last evaluation available in the variable ‘_’.  (It is stored in
     the *note builtins: 10. module, alongside built-in functions like
     ‘print’.)

     Elsewhere, ‘_’ is a regular identifier.  It is often used to name
     "special" items, but it is not special to Python itself.

          備註: The name ‘_’ is often used in conjunction with
          internationalization; refer to the documentation for the *note
          gettext: 5e. module for more information on this convention.

          It is also commonly used for unused variables.

‘__*__’

     System-defined names, informally known as "dunder" names.  These
     names are defined by the interpreter and its implementation
     (including the standard library).  Current system names are
     discussed in the *note Special method names: ad6. section and
     elsewhere.  More will likely be defined in future versions of
     Python.  'Any' use of ‘__*__’ names, in any context, that does not
     follow explicitly documented use, is subject to breakage without
     warning.

‘__*’

     Class-private names.  Names in this category, when used within the
     context of a class definition, are re-written to use a mangled form
     to help avoid name clashes between "private" attributes of base and
     derived classes.  See section *note Identifiers (Names): 1c33.


File: python.info,  Node: Literals,  Next: Operators,  Prev: Identifiers and keywords,  Up: 詞法分析

4.2.4 Literals
--------------

Literals are notations for constant values of some built-in types.

* Menu:

* String and Bytes literals::
* String literal concatenation::
* f-string（f 字串）::
* Numeric literals::
* Integer literals::
* 浮點數常數 (Floating-point literals): 浮點數常數 Floating-point literals.
* Imaginary literals::


File: python.info,  Node: String and Bytes literals,  Next: String literal concatenation,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.1 String and Bytes literals
.................................

String literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

     stringliteral   ::= [stringprefix](shortstring | longstring)
     stringprefix    ::= "r" | "u" | "R" | "U" | "f" | "F"
                         | "fr" | "Fr" | "fR" | "FR" | "rf" | "rF" | "Rf" | "RF"
     shortstring     ::= "'" shortstringitem* "'" | '"' shortstringitem* '"'
     longstring      ::= "'''" longstringitem* "'''" | '"""' longstringitem* '"""'
     shortstringitem ::= shortstringchar | stringescapeseq
     longstringitem  ::= longstringchar | stringescapeseq
     shortstringchar ::= <any source character except "\" or newline or the quote>
     longstringchar  ::= <any source character except "\">
     stringescapeseq ::= "\" <any source character>

     bytesliteral   ::= bytesprefix(shortbytes | longbytes)
     bytesprefix    ::= "b" | "B" | "br" | "Br" | "bR" | "BR" | "rb" | "rB" | "Rb" | "RB"
     shortbytes     ::= "'" shortbytesitem* "'" | '"' shortbytesitem* '"'
     longbytes      ::= "'''" longbytesitem* "'''" | '"""' longbytesitem* '"""'
     shortbytesitem ::= shortbyteschar | bytesescapeseq
     longbytesitem  ::= longbyteschar | bytesescapeseq
     shortbyteschar ::= <any ASCII character except "\" or newline or the quote>
     longbyteschar  ::= <any ASCII character except "\">
     bytesescapeseq ::= "\" <any ASCII character>

One syntactic restriction not indicated by these productions is that
whitespace is not allowed between the *note stringprefix: 1c39. or *note
bytesprefix: 1c42. and the rest of the literal.  The source character
set is defined by the encoding declaration; it is UTF-8 if no encoding
declaration is given in the source file; see section *note Encoding
declarations: 1c1a.

In plain English: Both types of literals can be enclosed in matching
single quotes (‘'’) or double quotes (‘"’).  They can also be enclosed
in matching groups of three single or double quotes (these are generally
referred to as 'triple-quoted strings').  The backslash (‘\’) character
is used to give special meaning to otherwise ordinary characters like
‘n’, which means 'newline' when escaped (‘\n’).  It can also be used to
escape characters that otherwise have a special meaning, such as
newline, backslash itself, or the quote character.  See *note escape
sequences: 16a. below for examples.

Bytes literals are always prefixed with ‘'b'’ or ‘'B'’; they produce an
instance of the *note bytes: 2c1. type instead of the *note str: 157.
type.  They may only contain ASCII characters; bytes with a numeric
value of 128 or greater must be expressed with escapes.

Both string and bytes literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter
‘'r'’ or ‘'R'’; such constructs are called 'raw string literals' and
'raw bytes literals' respectively and treat backslashes as literal
characters.  As a result, in raw string literals, ‘'\U'’ and ‘'\u'’
escapes are not treated specially.

在 3.3 版被加入: The ‘'rb'’ prefix of raw bytes literals has been added
as a synonym of ‘'br'’.

Support for the unicode legacy literal (‘u'value'’) was reintroduced to
simplify the maintenance of dual Python 2.x and 3.x codebases.  See PEP
414(1) for more information.

A string literal with ‘'f'’ or ‘'F'’ in its prefix is a 'formatted
string literal'; see *note f-string（f 字串）: 7ed.  The ‘'f'’ may be
combined with ‘'r'’, but not with ‘'b'’ or ‘'u'’, therefore raw
formatted strings are possible, but formatted bytes literals are not.

In triple-quoted literals, unescaped newlines and quotes are allowed
(and are retained), except that three unescaped quotes in a row
terminate the literal.  (A "quote" is the character used to open the
literal, i.e.  either ‘'’ or ‘"’.)

* Menu:

* 跳脫序列::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/


File: python.info,  Node: 跳脫序列,  Up: String and Bytes literals

4.2.4.2 跳脫序列
................

Unless an ‘'r'’ or ‘'R'’ prefix is present, escape sequences in string
and bytes literals are interpreted according to rules similar to those
used by Standard C. The recognized escape sequences are:

Escape Sequence               含義                                  註解
                                                                    
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘\’<newline>                  Backslash and newline ignored         (1)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘\\’                          Backslash (‘\’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\'’                          單引號 (‘'’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\"’                          雙引號 (‘"’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\a’                          ASCII Bell (BEL)
                              
                                                                    
‘\b’                          ASCII Backspace (BS)
                              
                                                                    
‘\f’                          ASCII Formfeed (FF)
                              
                                                                    
‘\n’                          ASCII Linefeed (LF)
                              
                                                                    
‘\r’                          ASCII Carriage Return (CR)
                              
                                                                    
‘\t’                          ASCII Horizontal Tab (TAB)
                              
                                                                    
‘\v’                          ASCII Vertical Tab (VT)
                              
                                                                    
‘\OOO’                        Character with octal value 'ooo'      (2,4)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘\xHH’                        Character with hex value 'hh'         (3,4)
                                                                    

Escape sequences only recognized in string literals are:

Escape Sequence               含義                                  註解
                                                                    
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘\N{NAME}’                    Character named 'name' in the         (5)
                              Unicode database                      
                              
                                                                    
‘\uXXXX’                      Character with 16-bit hex value       (6)
                              'xxxx'                                
                              
                                                                    
‘\UXXXXXXXX’                  Character with 32-bit hex value       (7)
                              'xxxxxxxx'                            
                              

註解：

  1. A backslash can be added at the end of a line to ignore the
     newline:

          >>> 'This string will not include \
          ... backslashes or newline characters.'
          'This string will not include backslashes or newline characters.'

     The same result can be achieved using *note triple-quoted strings:
     1c37, or parentheses and *note string literal concatenation: 1c4b.

  2. As in Standard C, up to three octal digits are accepted.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’
     produce a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’
     produce a *note SyntaxWarning: 178.  In a future Python version
     they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError: 146.

  3. Unlike in Standard C, exactly two hex digits are required.

  4. In a bytes literal, hexadecimal and octal escapes denote the byte
     with the given value.  In a string literal, these escapes denote a
     Unicode character with the given value.

  5. 
     在 3.3 版的變更: Support for name aliases (1) has been added.

  6. Exactly four hex digits are required.

  7. Any Unicode character can be encoded this way.  Exactly eight hex
     digits are required.

Unlike Standard C, all unrecognized escape sequences are left in the
string unchanged, i.e., 'the backslash is left in the result'.  (This
behavior is useful when debugging: if an escape sequence is mistyped,
the resulting output is more easily recognized as broken.)  It is also
important to note that the escape sequences only recognized in string
literals fall into the category of unrecognized escapes for bytes
literals.

在 3.6 版的變更: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a *note
DeprecationWarning: 179.

在 3.12 版的變更: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a *note
SyntaxWarning: 178.  In a future Python version they will be eventually
a *note SyntaxError: 146.

Even in a raw literal, quotes can be escaped with a backslash, but the
backslash remains in the result; for example, ‘r"\""’ is a valid string
literal consisting of two characters: a backslash and a double quote;
‘r"\"’ is not a valid string literal (even a raw string cannot end in an
odd number of backslashes).  Specifically, 'a raw literal cannot end in
a single backslash' (since the backslash would escape the following
quote character).  Note also that a single backslash followed by a
newline is interpreted as those two characters as part of the literal,
'not' as a line continuation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt’


File: python.info,  Node: String literal concatenation,  Next: f-string（f 字串）,  Prev: String and Bytes literals,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.3 String literal concatenation
....................................

Multiple adjacent string or bytes literals (delimited by whitespace),
possibly using different quoting conventions, are allowed, and their
meaning is the same as their concatenation.  Thus, ‘"hello" 'world'’ is
equivalent to ‘"helloworld"’.  This feature can be used to reduce the
number of backslashes needed, to split long strings conveniently across
long lines, or even to add comments to parts of strings, for example:

     re.compile("[A-Za-z_]"       # letter or underscore
                "[A-Za-z0-9_]*"   # letter, digit or underscore
               )

Note that this feature is defined at the syntactical level, but
implemented at compile time.  The '+' operator must be used to
concatenate string expressions at run time.  Also note that literal
concatenation can use different quoting styles for each component (even
mixing raw strings and triple quoted strings), and formatted string
literals may be concatenated with plain string literals.


File: python.info,  Node: f-string（f 字串）,  Next: Numeric literals,  Prev: String literal concatenation,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.4 f-string（f 字串）
..........................

在 3.6 版被加入.

A 'formatted string literal' or 'f-string' is a string literal that is
prefixed with ‘'f'’ or ‘'F'’.  These strings may contain replacement
fields, which are expressions delimited by curly braces ‘{}’.  While
other string literals always have a constant value, formatted strings
are really expressions evaluated at run time.

Escape sequences are decoded like in ordinary string literals (except
when a literal is also marked as a raw string).  After decoding, the
grammar for the contents of the string is:

     f_string          ::= (literal_char | "{{" | "}}" | replacement_field)*
     replacement_field ::= "{" f_expression ["="] ["!" conversion] [":" format_spec] "}"
     f_expression      ::= (conditional_expression | "*" or_expr)
                             ("," conditional_expression | "," "*" or_expr)* [","]
                           | yield_expression
     conversion        ::= "s" | "r" | "a"
     format_spec       ::= (literal_char | replacement_field)*
     literal_char      ::= <any code point except "{", "}" or NULL>

The parts of the string outside curly braces are treated literally,
except that any doubled curly braces ‘'{{'’ or ‘'}}'’ are replaced with
the corresponding single curly brace.  A single opening curly bracket
‘'{'’ marks a replacement field, which starts with a Python expression.
To display both the expression text and its value after evaluation,
(useful in debugging), an equal sign ‘'='’ may be added after the
expression.  A conversion field, introduced by an exclamation point
‘'!'’ may follow.  A format specifier may also be appended, introduced
by a colon ‘':'’.  A replacement field ends with a closing curly bracket
‘'}'’.

Expressions in formatted string literals are treated like regular Python
expressions surrounded by parentheses, with a few exceptions.  An empty
expression is not allowed, and both *note lambda: 1131. and assignment
expressions ‘:=’ must be surrounded by explicit parentheses.  Each
expression is evaluated in the context where the formatted string
literal appears, in order from left to right.  Replacement expressions
can contain newlines in both single-quoted and triple-quoted f-strings
and they can contain comments.  Everything that comes after a ‘#’ inside
a replacement field is a comment (even closing braces and quotes).  In
that case, replacement fields must be closed in a different line.

     >>> f"abc{a # This is a comment }"
     ... + 3}"
     'abc5'

在 3.7 版的變更: Prior to Python 3.7, an *note await: 542. expression
and comprehensions containing an *note async for: 8fe. clause were
illegal in the expressions in formatted string literals due to a problem
with the implementation.

在 3.12 版的變更: Prior to Python 3.12, comments were not allowed inside
f-string replacement fields.

When the equal sign ‘'='’ is provided, the output will have the
expression text, the ‘'='’ and the evaluated value.  Spaces after the
opening brace ‘'{'’, within the expression and after the ‘'='’ are all
retained in the output.  By default, the ‘'='’ causes the *note repr():
61e. of the expression to be provided, unless there is a format
specified.  When a format is specified it defaults to the *note str():
157. of the expression unless a conversion ‘'!r'’ is declared.

在 3.8 版被加入: 等號 ‘'='’。

If a conversion is specified, the result of evaluating the expression is
converted before formatting.  Conversion ‘'!s'’ calls *note str(): 157.
on the result, ‘'!r'’ calls *note repr(): 61e, and ‘'!a'’ calls *note
ascii(): 1255.

The result is then formatted using the *note format(): 417. protocol.
The format specifier is passed to the *note __format__(): 419. method of
the expression or conversion result.  An empty string is passed when the
format specifier is omitted.  The formatted result is then included in
the final value of the whole string.

Top-level format specifiers may include nested replacement fields.
These nested fields may include their own conversion fields and *note
format specifiers: 3d6, but may not include more deeply nested
replacement fields.  The *note format specifier mini-language: 3d6. is
the same as that used by the *note str.format(): 41b. method.

Formatted string literals may be concatenated, but replacement fields
cannot be split across literals.

Some examples of formatted string literals:

     >>> name = "Fred"
     >>> f"He said his name is {name!r}."
     "He said his name is 'Fred'."
     >>> f"He said his name is {repr(name)}."  # repr() is equivalent to !r
     "He said his name is 'Fred'."
     >>> width = 10
     >>> precision = 4
     >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
     >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # nested fields
     'result:      12.35'
     >>> today = datetime(year=2017, month=1, day=27)
     >>> f"{today:%B %d, %Y}"  # using date format specifier
     'January 27, 2017'
     >>> f"{today=:%B %d, %Y}" # using date format specifier and debugging
     'today=January 27, 2017'
     >>> number = 1024
     >>> f"{number:#0x}"  # using integer format specifier
     '0x400'
     >>> foo = "bar"
     >>> f"{ foo = }" # preserves whitespace
     " foo = 'bar'"
     >>> line = "The mill's closed"
     >>> f"{line = }"
     'line = "The mill\'s closed"'
     >>> f"{line = :20}"
     "line = The mill's closed   "
     >>> f"{line = !r:20}"
     'line = "The mill\'s closed" '

Reusing the outer f-string quoting type inside a replacement field is
permitted:

     >>> a = dict(x=2)
     >>> f"abc {a["x"]} def"
     'abc 2 def'

在 3.12 版的變更: Prior to Python 3.12, reuse of the same quoting type
of the outer f-string inside a replacement field was not possible.

Backslashes are also allowed in replacement fields and are evaluated the
same way as in any other context:

     >>> a = ["a", "b", "c"]
     >>> print(f"List a contains:\n{"\n".join(a)}")
     List a contains:
     a
     b
     c

在 3.12 版的變更: Prior to Python 3.12, backslashes were not permitted
inside an f-string replacement field.

Formatted string literals cannot be used as docstrings, even if they do
not include expressions.

     >>> def foo():
     ...     f"Not a docstring"
     ...
     >>> foo.__doc__ is None
     True

See also PEP 498(1) for the proposal that added formatted string
literals, and *note str.format(): 41b, which uses a related format
string mechanism.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/


File: python.info,  Node: Numeric literals,  Next: Integer literals,  Prev: f-string（f 字串）,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.5 Numeric literals
........................

There are three types of numeric literals: integers, floating-point
numbers, and imaginary numbers.  There are no complex literals (complex
numbers can be formed by adding a real number and an imaginary number).

Note that numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like ‘-1’ is
actually an expression composed of the unary operator '‘-’' and the
literal ‘1’.


File: python.info,  Node: Integer literals,  Next: 浮點數常數 Floating-point literals,  Prev: Numeric literals,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.6 Integer literals
........................

Integer literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

     integer      ::= decinteger | bininteger | octinteger | hexinteger
     decinteger   ::= nonzerodigit (["_"] digit)* | "0"+ (["_"] "0")*
     bininteger   ::= "0" ("b" | "B") (["_"] bindigit)+
     octinteger   ::= "0" ("o" | "O") (["_"] octdigit)+
     hexinteger   ::= "0" ("x" | "X") (["_"] hexdigit)+
     nonzerodigit ::= "1"..."9"
     digit        ::= "0"..."9"
     bindigit     ::= "0" | "1"
     octdigit     ::= "0"..."7"
     hexdigit     ::= digit | "a"..."f" | "A"..."F"

There is no limit for the length of integer literals apart from what can
be stored in available memory.

Underscores are ignored for determining the numeric value of the
literal.  They can be used to group digits for enhanced readability.
One underscore can occur between digits, and after base specifiers like
‘0x’.

Note that leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number are not allowed.
This is for disambiguation with C-style octal literals, which Python
used before version 3.0.

Some examples of integer literals:

     7     2147483647                        0o177    0b100110111
     3     79228162514264337593543950336     0o377    0xdeadbeef
           100_000_000_000                   0b_1110_0101

在 3.6 版的變更: Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in
literals.


File: python.info,  Node: 浮點數常數 Floating-point literals,  Next: Imaginary literals,  Prev: Integer literals,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.7 浮點數常數 (Floating-point literals)
............................................

Floating-point literals are described by the following lexical
definitions:

     floatnumber   ::= pointfloat | exponentfloat
     pointfloat    ::= [digitpart] fraction | digitpart "."
     exponentfloat ::= (digitpart | pointfloat) exponent
     digitpart     ::= digit (["_"] digit)*
     fraction      ::= "." digitpart
     exponent      ::= ("e" | "E") ["+" | "-"] digitpart

Note that the integer and exponent parts are always interpreted using
radix 10.  For example, ‘077e010’ is legal, and denotes the same number
as ‘77e10’.  The allowed range of floating-point literals is
implementation-dependent.  As in integer literals, underscores are
supported for digit grouping.

一些浮點數常數的範例：

     3.14    10.    .001    1e100    3.14e-10    0e0    3.14_15_93

在 3.6 版的變更: Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in
literals.


File: python.info,  Node: Imaginary literals,  Prev: 浮點數常數 Floating-point literals,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.8 Imaginary literals
..........................

Imaginary literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

     imagnumber ::= (floatnumber | digitpart) ("j" | "J")

An imaginary literal yields a complex number with a real part of 0.0.
Complex numbers are represented as a pair of floating-point numbers and
have the same restrictions on their range.  To create a complex number
with a nonzero real part, add a floating-point number to it, e.g.,
‘(3+4j)’.  Some examples of imaginary literals:

     3.14j   10.j    10j     .001j   1e100j   3.14e-10j   3.14_15_93j


File: python.info,  Node: Operators,  Next: Delimiters,  Prev: Literals,  Up: 詞法分析

4.2.5 Operators
---------------

The following tokens are operators:

     +       -       *       **      /       //      %      @
     <<      >>      &       |       ^       ~       :=
     <       >       <=      >=      ==      !=


File: python.info,  Node: Delimiters,  Prev: Operators,  Up: 詞法分析

4.2.6 Delimiters
----------------

The following tokens serve as delimiters in the grammar:

     (       )       [       ]       {       }
     ,       :       !       .       ;       @       =
     ->      +=      -=      *=      /=      //=     %=
     @=      &=      |=      ^=      >>=     <<=     **=

The period can also occur in floating-point and imaginary literals.  A
sequence of three periods has a special meaning as an ellipsis literal.
The second half of the list, the augmented assignment operators, serve
lexically as delimiters, but also perform an operation.

The following printing ASCII characters have special meaning as part of
other tokens or are otherwise significant to the lexical analyzer:

     '       "       #       \

The following printing ASCII characters are not used in Python.  Their
occurrence outside string literals and comments is an unconditional
error:

     $       ?       `

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: 資料模型,  Next: 執行模型,  Prev: 詞法分析,  Up: Python 語言參考手冊

4.3 資料模型
============

* Menu:

* Objects, values and types: Objects values and types.
* 標準型別階層::
* Special method names::
* 協程::


File: python.info,  Node: Objects values and types,  Next: 標準型別階層,  Up: 資料模型

4.3.1 Objects, values and types
-------------------------------

'Objects' are Python's abstraction for data.  All data in a Python
program is represented by objects or by relations between objects.  (In
a sense, and in conformance to Von Neumann's model of a "stored program
computer", code is also represented by objects.)

Every object has an identity, a type and a value.  An object's
'identity' never changes once it has been created; you may think of it
as the object's address in memory.  The *note is: 268. operator compares
the identity of two objects; the *note id(): 1293. function returns an
integer representing its identity.

'CPython 實作細節：' For CPython, ‘id(x)’ is the memory address where
‘x’ is stored.

An object's type determines the operations that the object supports
(e.g., "does it have a length?")  and also defines the possible values
for objects of that type.  The *note type(): bbb. function returns an
object's type (which is an object itself).  Like its identity, an
object's 'type' is also unchangeable.  (1)

The 'value' of some objects can change.  Objects whose value can change
are said to be 'mutable'; objects whose value is unchangeable once they
are created are called 'immutable'.  (The value of an immutable
container object that contains a reference to a mutable object can
change when the latter's value is changed; however the container is
still considered immutable, because the collection of objects it
contains cannot be changed.  So, immutability is not strictly the same
as having an unchangeable value, it is more subtle.)  An object's
mutability is determined by its type; for instance, numbers, strings and
tuples are immutable, while dictionaries and lists are mutable.

Objects are never explicitly destroyed; however, when they become
unreachable they may be garbage-collected.  An implementation is allowed
to postpone garbage collection or omit it altogether -- it is a matter
of implementation quality how garbage collection is implemented, as long
as no objects are collected that are still reachable.

'CPython 實作細節：' CPython currently uses a reference-counting scheme
with (optional) delayed detection of cyclically linked garbage, which
collects most objects as soon as they become unreachable, but is not
guaranteed to collect garbage containing circular references.  See the
documentation of the *note gc: 5b. module for information on controlling
the collection of cyclic garbage.  Other implementations act differently
and CPython may change.  Do not depend on immediate finalization of
objects when they become unreachable (so you should always close files
explicitly).

Note that the use of the implementation's tracing or debugging
facilities may keep objects alive that would normally be collectable.
Also note that catching an exception with a *note try: 4ea...*note
except: 3a8. statement may keep objects alive.

Some objects contain references to "external" resources such as open
files or windows.  It is understood that these resources are freed when
the object is garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is not
guaranteed to happen, such objects also provide an explicit way to
release the external resource, usually a ‘close()’ method.  Programs are
strongly recommended to explicitly close such objects.  The *note try:
4ea...*note finally: 80e. statement and the *note with: 3c5. statement
provide convenient ways to do this.

Some objects contain references to other objects; these are called
'containers'.  Examples of containers are tuples, lists and
dictionaries.  The references are part of a container's value.  In most
cases, when we talk about the value of a container, we imply the values,
not the identities of the contained objects; however, when we talk about
the mutability of a container, only the identities of the immediately
contained objects are implied.  So, if an immutable container (like a
tuple) contains a reference to a mutable object, its value changes if
that mutable object is changed.

Types affect almost all aspects of object behavior.  Even the importance
of object identity is affected in some sense: for immutable types,
operations that compute new values may actually return a reference to
any existing object with the same type and value, while for mutable
objects this is not allowed.  For example, after ‘a = 1; b = 1’, 'a' and
'b' may or may not refer to the same object with the value one,
depending on the implementation.  This is because *note int: 17e. is an
immutable type, so the reference to ‘1’ can be reused.  This behaviour
depends on the implementation used, so should not be relied upon, but is
something to be aware of when making use of object identity tests.
However, after ‘c = []; d = []’, 'c' and 'd' are guaranteed to refer to
two different, unique, newly created empty lists.  (Note that ‘e = f =
[]’ assigns the 'same' object to both 'e' and 'f'.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) It 'is' possible in some cases to change an object's type, under
certain controlled conditions.  It generally isn't a good idea though,
since it can lead to some very strange behaviour if it is handled
incorrectly.


File: python.info,  Node: 標準型別階層,  Next: Special method names,  Prev: Objects values and types,  Up: 資料模型

4.3.2 標準型別階層
------------------

Below is a list of the types that are built into Python.  Extension
modules (written in C, Java, or other languages, depending on the
implementation) can define additional types.  Future versions of Python
may add types to the type hierarchy (e.g., rational numbers, efficiently
stored arrays of integers, etc.), although such additions will often be
provided via the standard library instead.

Some of the type descriptions below contain a paragraph listing 'special
attributes.'  These are attributes that provide access to the
implementation and are not intended for general use.  Their definition
may change in the future.

* Menu:

* None::
* NotImplemented::
* Ellipsis::
* numbers.Number: numbers Number.
* Sequences::
* Set types::
* Mappings::
* Callable types::
* 模組: 模組<2>.
* Custom classes::
* Class instances::
* I/O objects (also known as file objects): I/O objects also known as file objects.
* Internal types::


File: python.info,  Node: None,  Next: NotImplemented,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.1 None
............

This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value.
This object is accessed through the built-in name ‘None’.  It is used to
signify the absence of a value in many situations, e.g., it is returned
from functions that don't explicitly return anything.  Its truth value
is false.


File: python.info,  Node: NotImplemented,  Next: Ellipsis,  Prev: None,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.2 NotImplemented
......................

This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value.
This object is accessed through the built-in name *note NotImplemented:
5f2.  Numeric methods and rich comparison methods should return this
value if they do not implement the operation for the operands provided.
(The interpreter will then try the reflected operation, or some other
fallback, depending on the operator.)  It should not be evaluated in a
boolean context.

更多細節請見 *note 實作算術操作: 1c7a.。

在 3.9 版的變更: Evaluating *note NotImplemented: 5f2. in a boolean
context is deprecated.  While it currently evaluates as true, it will
emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  It will raise a *note TypeError:
2ba. in a future version of Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Ellipsis,  Next: numbers Number,  Prev: NotImplemented,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.3 Ellipsis
................

This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value.
This object is accessed through the literal ‘...’ or the built-in name
‘Ellipsis’.  Its truth value is true.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Number,  Next: Sequences,  Prev: Ellipsis,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.4 ‘numbers.Number’
........................

These are created by numeric literals and returned as results by
arithmetic operators and arithmetic built-in functions.  Numeric objects
are immutable; once created their value never changes.  Python numbers
are of course strongly related to mathematical numbers, but subject to
the limitations of numerical representation in computers.

The string representations of the numeric classes, computed by *note
__repr__(): 416. and *note __str__(): 418, have the following
properties:

   * They are valid numeric literals which, when passed to their class
     constructor, produce an object having the value of the original
     numeric.

   * The representation is in base 10, when possible.

   * Leading zeros, possibly excepting a single zero before a decimal
     point, are not shown.

   * Trailing zeros, possibly excepting a single zero after a decimal
     point, are not shown.

   * A sign is shown only when the number is negative.

Python distinguishes between integers, floating-point numbers, and
complex numbers:

* Menu:

* numbers.Integral: numbers Integral.
* numbers.Real (float): numbers Real float.
* numbers.Complex (complex): numbers Complex complex.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Integral,  Next: numbers Real float,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.5 ‘numbers.Integral’
..........................

These represent elements from the mathematical set of integers (positive
and negative).

     備註: 
     The rules for integer representation are intended to give the most
     meaningful interpretation of shift and mask operations involving
     negative integers.

There are two types of integers:

Integers (*note int: 17e.)

     These represent numbers in an unlimited range, subject to available
     (virtual) memory only.  For the purpose of shift and mask
     operations, a binary representation is assumed, and negative
     numbers are represented in a variant of 2's complement which gives
     the illusion of an infinite string of sign bits extending to the
     left.

Booleans (*note bool: 17d.)

     These represent the truth values False and True.  The two objects
     representing the values ‘False’ and ‘True’ are the only Boolean
     objects.  The Boolean type is a subtype of the integer type, and
     Boolean values behave like the values 0 and 1, respectively, in
     almost all contexts, the exception being that when converted to a
     string, the strings ‘"False"’ or ‘"True"’ are returned,
     respectively.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Real float,  Next: numbers Complex complex,  Prev: numbers Integral,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.6 ‘numbers.Real’ (‘float’)
................................

These represent machine-level double precision floating-point numbers.
You are at the mercy of the underlying machine architecture (and C or
Java implementation) for the accepted range and handling of overflow.
Python does not support single-precision floating-point numbers; the
savings in processor and memory usage that are usually the reason for
using these are dwarfed by the overhead of using objects in Python, so
there is no reason to complicate the language with two kinds of
floating-point numbers.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Complex complex,  Prev: numbers Real float,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.7 ‘numbers.Complex’ (‘complex’)
.....................................

These represent complex numbers as a pair of machine-level double
precision floating-point numbers.  The same caveats apply as for
floating-point numbers.  The real and imaginary parts of a complex
number ‘z’ can be retrieved through the read-only attributes ‘z.real’
and ‘z.imag’.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequences,  Next: Set types,  Prev: numbers Number,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.8 Sequences
.................

These represent finite ordered sets indexed by non-negative numbers.
The built-in function *note len(): 429. returns the number of items of a
sequence.  When the length of a sequence is 'n', the index set contains
the numbers 0, 1, ..., 'n'-1.  Item 'i' of sequence 'a' is selected by
‘a[i]’.  Some sequences, including built-in sequences, interpret
negative subscripts by adding the sequence length.  For example, ‘a[-2]’
equals ‘a[n-2]’, the second to last item of sequence a with length ‘n’.

Sequences also support slicing: ‘a[i:j]’ selects all items with index
'k' such that 'i' ‘<=’ 'k' ‘<’ 'j'.  When used as an expression, a slice
is a sequence of the same type.  The comment above about negative
indexes also applies to negative slice positions.

Some sequences also support "extended slicing" with a third "step"
parameter: ‘a[i:j:k]’ selects all items of 'a' with index 'x' where ‘x =
i + n*k’, 'n' ‘>=’ ‘0’ and 'i' ‘<=’ 'x' ‘<’ 'j'.

Sequences are distinguished according to their mutability:

* Menu:

* Immutable sequences::
* Mutable sequences::


File: python.info,  Node: Immutable sequences,  Next: Mutable sequences,  Up: Sequences

4.3.2.9 Immutable sequences
...........................

An object of an immutable sequence type cannot change once it is
created.  (If the object contains references to other objects, these
other objects may be mutable and may be changed; however, the collection
of objects directly referenced by an immutable object cannot change.)

The following types are immutable sequences:

字串 (String)

     A string is a sequence of values that represent Unicode code
     points.  All the code points in the range ‘U+0000 - U+10FFFF’ can
     be represented in a string.  Python doesn't have a char type;
     instead, every code point in the string is represented as a string
     object with length ‘1’.  The built-in function *note ord(): 1c82.
     converts a code point from its string form to an integer in the
     range ‘0 - 10FFFF’; *note chr(): 1c83. converts an integer in the
     range ‘0 - 10FFFF’ to the corresponding length ‘1’ string object.
     *note str.encode(): 70e. can be used to convert a *note str: 157.
     to *note bytes: 2c1. using the given text encoding, and *note
     bytes.decode(): 70f. can be used to achieve the opposite.

Tuples

     The items of a tuple are arbitrary Python objects.  Tuples of two
     or more items are formed by comma-separated lists of expressions.
     A tuple of one item (a 'singleton') can be formed by affixing a
     comma to an expression (an expression by itself does not create a
     tuple, since parentheses must be usable for grouping of
     expressions).  An empty tuple can be formed by an empty pair of
     parentheses.

Bytes

     A bytes object is an immutable array.  The items are 8-bit bytes,
     represented by integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.  Bytes literals
     (like ‘b'abc'’) and the built-in *note bytes(): 2c1. constructor
     can be used to create bytes objects.  Also, bytes objects can be
     decoded to strings via the *note decode(): 70f. method.


File: python.info,  Node: Mutable sequences,  Prev: Immutable sequences,  Up: Sequences

4.3.2.10 Mutable sequences
..........................

Mutable sequences can be changed after they are created.  The
subscription and slicing notations can be used as the target of
assignment and *note del: 1570. (delete) statements.

     備註: 
     The *note collections: 1b. and *note array: 7. module provide
     additional examples of mutable sequence types.

There are currently two intrinsic mutable sequence types:

List（串列）

     The items of a list are arbitrary Python objects.  Lists are formed
     by placing a comma-separated list of expressions in square
     brackets.  (Note that there are no special cases needed to form
     lists of length 0 or 1.)

Byte Arrays

     A bytearray object is a mutable array.  They are created by the
     built-in *note bytearray(): 2c0. constructor.  Aside from being
     mutable (and hence unhashable), byte arrays otherwise provide the
     same interface and functionality as immutable *note bytes: 2c1.
     objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Set types,  Next: Mappings,  Prev: Sequences,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.11 Set types
..................

These represent unordered, finite sets of unique, immutable objects.  As
such, they cannot be indexed by any subscript.  However, they can be
iterated over, and the built-in function *note len(): 429. returns the
number of items in a set.  Common uses for sets are fast membership
testing, removing duplicates from a sequence, and computing mathematical
operations such as intersection, union, difference, and symmetric
difference.

For set elements, the same immutability rules apply as for dictionary
keys.  Note that numeric types obey the normal rules for numeric
comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g., ‘1’ and ‘1.0’), only one
of them can be contained in a set.

There are currently two intrinsic set types:

Sets

     These represent a mutable set.  They are created by the built-in
     *note set(): 3cc. constructor and can be modified afterwards by
     several methods, such as ‘add()’.

Frozen sets

     These represent an immutable set.  They are created by the built-in
     *note frozenset(): 3cd. constructor.  As a frozenset is immutable
     and *note hashable: 409, it can be used again as an element of
     another set, or as a dictionary key.


File: python.info,  Node: Mappings,  Next: Callable types,  Prev: Set types,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.12 Mappings
.................

These represent finite sets of objects indexed by arbitrary index sets.
The subscript notation ‘a[k]’ selects the item indexed by ‘k’ from the
mapping ‘a’; this can be used in expressions and as the target of
assignments or *note del: 1570. statements.  The built-in function *note
len(): 429. returns the number of items in a mapping.

There is currently a single intrinsic mapping type:

* Menu:

* 字典::


File: python.info,  Node: 字典,  Up: Mappings

4.3.2.13 字典
.............

These represent finite sets of objects indexed by nearly arbitrary
values.  The only types of values not acceptable as keys are values
containing lists or dictionaries or other mutable types that are
compared by value rather than by object identity, the reason being that
the efficient implementation of dictionaries requires a key's hash value
to remain constant.  Numeric types used for keys obey the normal rules
for numeric comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g., ‘1’ and
‘1.0’) then they can be used interchangeably to index the same
dictionary entry.

Dictionaries preserve insertion order, meaning that keys will be
produced in the same order they were added sequentially over the
dictionary.  Replacing an existing key does not change the order,
however removing a key and re-inserting it will add it to the end
instead of keeping its old place.

Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the ‘{}’ notation (see
section *note Dictionary displays: bf5.).

The extension modules *note dbm.ndbm: 32. and *note dbm.gnu: 31. provide
additional examples of mapping types, as does the *note collections: 1b.
module.

在 3.7 版的變更: Dictionaries did not preserve insertion order in
versions of Python before 3.6.  In CPython 3.6, insertion order was
preserved, but it was considered an implementation detail at that time
rather than a language guarantee.


File: python.info,  Node: Callable types,  Next: 模組<2>,  Prev: Mappings,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.14 Callable types
.......................

These are the types to which the function call operation (see section
*note Calls: bf3.) can be applied:

* Menu:

* 自訂函式::
* Instance methods::
* Generator functions::
* Coroutine functions::
* Asynchronous generator functions::
* Built-in functions::
* Built-in methods::
* Classes::
* Class Instances::


File: python.info,  Node: 自訂函式,  Next: Instance methods,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.15 自訂函式
.................

A user-defined function object is created by a function definition (see
section *note 函式定義: 1a2b.).  It should be called with an argument
list containing the same number of items as the function's formal
parameter list.

* Menu:

* 特殊唯讀屬性::
* 特殊可寫屬性::


File: python.info,  Node: 特殊唯讀屬性,  Next: 特殊可寫屬性,  Up: 自訂函式

4.3.2.16 特殊唯讀屬性
.....................

屬性                                                   含義
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__globals__                         A reference to the *note dictionary: 239. that holds
                                                       the function's *note global variables: 1c8b. - the
                                                       global namespace of the module in which the function
                                                       was defined.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__closure__                         ‘None’ or a *note tuple: 4e6. of cells that contain
                                                       bindings for the function's free variables.
                                                       
                                                       A cell object has the attribute ‘cell_contents’.
                                                       This can be used to get the value of the cell, as
                                                       well as set the value.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: 特殊可寫屬性,  Prev: 特殊唯讀屬性,  Up: 自訂函式

4.3.2.17 特殊可寫屬性
.....................

Most of these attributes check the type of the assigned value:

屬性                                                   含義
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__doc__                             The function's documentation string, or ‘None’ if
                                                       unavailable.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__name__                            The function's name.  See also:
                                                       *note __name__ attributes: efc.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__qualname__                        The function's *note qualified name: 1716.  See
                                                       also: *note __qualname__ attributes: efb.
                                                       
                                                       在 3.3 版被加入.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__module__                          The name of the module the function was defined in,
                                                       or ‘None’ if unavailable.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__defaults__                        A *note tuple: 4e6. containing default
                                                       *note parameter: 1c8f. values for those parameters
                                                       that have defaults, or ‘None’ if no parameters have
                                                       a default value.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__code__                            代表編譯函式主體的*note 程式碼物件: 5ca.。
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__dict__                            The namespace supporting arbitrary function
                                                       attributes.  See also:
                                                       *note __dict__ attributes: 2e2.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__annotations__                     A *note dictionary: 239. containing annotations of
                                                       *note parameters: 1c8f.  The keys of the dictionary
                                                       are the parameter names, and ‘'return'’ for the
                                                       return annotation, if provided.  See also:
                                                       *note 註釋 (annotation) 最佳實踐: 5fa.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__kwdefaults__                      A *note dictionary: 239. containing defaults for
                                                       keyword-only *note parameters: 1c8f.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: function.__type_params__                     A *note tuple: 4e6. containing the
                                                       *note type parameters: 166. of a
                                                       *note generic function: 15e.
                                                       
                                                       在 3.12 版被加入.
                                                       

Function objects also support getting and setting arbitrary attributes,
which can be used, for example, to attach metadata to functions.
Regular attribute dot-notation is used to get and set such attributes.

'CPython 實作細節：' CPython's current implementation only supports
function attributes on user-defined functions.  Function attributes on
*note built-in functions: 1c91. may be supported in the future.

Additional information about a function's definition can be retrieved
from its *note code object: 5ca. (accessible via the *note __code__:
1161. attribute).


File: python.info,  Node: Instance methods,  Next: Generator functions,  Prev: 自訂函式,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.18 Instance methods
.........................

An instance method object combines a class, a class instance and any
callable object (normally a user-defined function).

特殊唯讀屬性：

 -- 屬性: method.__self__                              Refers to the class instance object to which the
                                                       method is *note bound: 1c93.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: method.__func__                              Refers to the original *note function object: 1ab4.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: method.__doc__                               The method's documentation (same as
                                                       *note method.__func__.__doc__: 106a.).  A
                                                       *note string: 157. if the original function had a
                                                       docstring, else ‘None’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: method.__name__                              The name of the method (same as
                                                       *note method.__func__.__name__: 1165.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: method.__module__                            The name of the module the method was defined in, or
                                                       ‘None’ if unavailable.
                                                       

Methods also support accessing (but not setting) the arbitrary function
attributes on the underlying *note function object: 1ab4.

User-defined method objects may be created when getting an attribute of
a class (perhaps via an instance of that class), if that attribute is a
user-defined *note function object: 1ab4. or a *note classmethod: 24b.
object.  When an instance method object is created by retrieving a
user-defined *note function object: 1ab4. from a class via one of its
instances, its *note __self__: 1237. attribute is the instance, and the
method object is said to be 'bound'.  The new method's *note __func__:
118d. attribute is the original function object.

When an instance method object is created by retrieving a *note
classmethod: 24b. object from a class or instance, its *note __self__:
1237. attribute is the class itself, and its *note __func__: 118d.
attribute is the function object underlying the class method.

When an instance method object is called, the underlying function (*note
__func__: 118d.) is called, inserting the class instance (*note
__self__: 1237.) in front of the argument list.  For instance, when ‘C’
is a class which contains a definition for a function ‘f()’, and ‘x’ is
an instance of ‘C’, calling ‘x.f(1)’ is equivalent to calling ‘C.f(x,
1)’.

When an instance method object is derived from a *note classmethod: 24b.
object, the "class instance" stored in *note __self__: 1237. will
actually be the class itself, so that calling either ‘x.f(1)’ or
‘C.f(1)’ is equivalent to calling ‘f(C,1)’ where ‘f’ is the underlying
function.

It is important to note that user-defined functions which are attributes
of a class instance are not converted to bound methods; this 'only'
happens when the function is an attribute of the class.


File: python.info,  Node: Generator functions,  Next: Coroutine functions,  Prev: Instance methods,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.19 Generator functions
............................

A function or method which uses the *note yield: 811. statement (see
section *note yield 陳述式: 811.) is called a 'generator function'.
Such a function, when called, always returns an *note iterator: 1718.
object which can be used to execute the body of the function: calling
the iterator's *note iterator.__next__(): 115d. method will cause the
function to execute until it provides a value using the ‘yield’
statement.  When the function executes a *note return: 812. statement or
falls off the end, a *note StopIteration: a5d. exception is raised and
the iterator will have reached the end of the set of values to be
returned.


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine functions,  Next: Asynchronous generator functions,  Prev: Generator functions,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.20 Coroutine functions
............................

A function or method which is defined using *note async def: 3c3. is
called a 'coroutine function'.  Such a function, when called, returns a
*note coroutine: 1ae. object.  It may contain *note await: 542.
expressions, as well as *note async with: 3c8. and *note async for: 8fe.
statements.  See also the *note Coroutine Objects: 1c99. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous generator functions,  Next: Built-in functions,  Prev: Coroutine functions,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.21 Asynchronous generator functions
.........................................

A function or method which is defined using *note async def: 3c3. and
which uses the *note yield: 811. statement is called a 'asynchronous
generator function'.  Such a function, when called, returns an *note
asynchronous iterator: bef. object which can be used in an *note async
for: 8fe. statement to execute the body of the function.

Calling the asynchronous iterator's *note aiterator.__anext__: 1c9b.
method will return an *note awaitable: ae0. which when awaited will
execute until it provides a value using the *note yield: 811.
expression.  When the function executes an empty *note return: 812.
statement or falls off the end, a *note StopAsyncIteration: 1813.
exception is raised and the asynchronous iterator will have reached the
end of the set of values to be yielded.


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in functions,  Next: Built-in methods,  Prev: Asynchronous generator functions,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.22 Built-in functions
...........................

A built-in function object is a wrapper around a C function.  Examples
of built-in functions are *note len(): 429. and *note math.sin(): 1331.
(*note math: 89. is a standard built-in module).  The number and type of
the arguments are determined by the C function.  Special read-only
attributes:

   * ‘__doc__’ 是函式的文件字串，若不可用則為 ‘None’。請見 *note
     function.__doc__: 106a.。

   * ‘__name__’ 是函式的名稱。請見 *note function.__name__: 1165.。

   * ‘__self__’ is set to ‘None’ (but see the next item).

   * ‘__module__’ is the name of the module the function was defined in
     or ‘None’ if unavailable.  See *note function.__module__: 1c8e.


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in methods,  Next: Classes,  Prev: Built-in functions,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.23 Built-in methods
.........................

This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time
containing an object passed to the C function as an implicit extra
argument.  An example of a built-in method is ‘alist.append()’, assuming
'alist' is a list object.  In this case, the special read-only attribute
‘__self__’ is set to the object denoted by 'alist'.  (The attribute has
the same semantics as it does with *note other instance methods: 1237.)


File: python.info,  Node: Classes,  Next: Class Instances,  Prev: Built-in methods,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.24 Classes
................

Classes are callable.  These objects normally act as factories for new
instances of themselves, but variations are possible for class types
that override *note __new__(): 30f.  The arguments of the call are
passed to ‘__new__()’ and, in the typical case, to *note __init__():
4ae. to initialize the new instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Class Instances,  Prev: Classes,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.25 Class Instances
........................

Instances of arbitrary classes can be made callable by defining a *note
__call__(): 2dd. method in their class.


File: python.info,  Node: 模組<2>,  Next: Custom classes,  Prev: Callable types,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.26 模組
.............

Modules are a basic organizational unit of Python code, and are created
by the *note import system: 1ca3. as invoked either by the *note import:
3d5. statement, or by calling functions such as *note
importlib.import_module(): 298. and built-in *note __import__(): 70d.  A
module object has a namespace implemented by a *note dictionary: 239.
object (this is the dictionary referenced by the *note __globals__:
1164. attribute of functions defined in the module).  Attribute
references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ‘m.x’ is
equivalent to ‘m.__dict__["x"]’.  A module object does not contain the
code object used to initialize the module (since it isn't needed once
the initialization is done).

Attribute assignment updates the module's namespace dictionary, e.g.,
‘m.x = 1’ is equivalent to ‘m.__dict__["x"] = 1’.

* Menu:

* Import-related attributes on module objects::
* Other writable attributes on module objects::
* Module dictionaries::


File: python.info,  Node: Import-related attributes on module objects,  Next: Other writable attributes on module objects,  Up: 模組<2>

4.3.2.27 Import-related attributes on module objects
....................................................

Module objects have the following attributes that relate to the *note
import system: 1ca3.  When a module is created using the machinery
associated with the import system, these attributes are filled in based
on the module's *note spec: 1ca6, before the *note loader: 1463.
executes and loads the module.

To create a module dynamically rather than using the import system, it's
recommended to use *note importlib.util.module_from_spec(): c8b, which
will set the various import-controlled attributes to appropriate values.
It's also possible to use the *note types.ModuleType: c8c. constructor
to create modules directly, but this technique is more error-prone, as
most attributes must be manually set on the module object after it has
been created when using this approach.

     警示: With the exception of *note __name__: 1217, it is 'strongly'
     recommended that you rely on *note __spec__: 1ca7. and its
     attributes instead of any of the other individual attributes listed
     in this subsection.  Note that updating an attribute on ‘__spec__’
     will not update the corresponding attribute on the module itself:

          >>> import typing
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('typing', 'typing')
          >>> typing.__spec__.name = 'spelling'
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('typing', 'spelling')
          >>> typing.__name__ = 'keyboard_smashing'
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('keyboard_smashing', 'spelling')

 -- 屬性: module.__name__

     The name used to uniquely identify the module in the import system.
     For a directly executed module, this will be set to ‘"__main__"’.

     This attribute must be set to the fully qualified name of the
     module.  It is expected to match the value of *note
     module.__spec__.name: 1ca8.

 -- 屬性: module.__spec__

     A record of the module's import-system-related state.

     Set to the *note module spec: 1ca9. that was used when importing
     the module.  See *note Module specs: 1caa. for more details.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: module.__package__

     The *note package: 1cab. a module belongs to.

     If the module is top-level (that is, not a part of any specific
     package) then the attribute should be set to ‘''’ (the empty
     string).  Otherwise, it should be set to the name of the module's
     package (which can be equal to *note module.__name__: 1217. if the
     module itself is a package).  See PEP 366(1) for further details.

     This attribute is used instead of *note __name__: 1217. to
     calculate explicit relative imports for main modules.  It defaults
     to ‘None’ for modules created dynamically using the *note
     types.ModuleType: c8c. constructor; use *note
     importlib.util.module_from_spec(): c8b. instead to ensure the
     attribute is set to a *note str: 157.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.parent: 246. instead of ‘module.__package__’.
     *note __package__: 245. is now only used as a fallback if
     ‘__spec__.parent’ is not set, and this fallback path is deprecated.

     在 3.4 版的變更: This attribute now defaults to ‘None’ for modules
     created dynamically using the *note types.ModuleType: c8c.
     constructor.  Previously the attribute was optional.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The value of ‘__package__’ is expected to be the
     same as *note __spec__.parent: 246.  *note __package__: 245. is now
     only used as a fallback during import resolution if
     ‘__spec__.parent’ is not defined.

     在 3.10 版的變更: *note ImportWarning: 247. is raised if an import
     resolution falls back to ‘__package__’ instead of *note
     __spec__.parent: 246.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Raise *note DeprecationWarning: 179. instead of
     *note ImportWarning: 247. when falling back to ‘__package__’ during
     import resolution.

 -- 屬性: module.__loader__

     The *note loader: 1463. object that the import machinery used to
     load the module.

     This attribute is mostly useful for introspection, but can be used
     for additional loader-specific functionality, for example getting
     data associated with a loader.

     ‘__loader__’ defaults to ‘None’ for modules created dynamically
     using the *note types.ModuleType: c8c. constructor; use *note
     importlib.util.module_from_spec(): c8b. instead to ensure the
     attribute is set to a *note loader: 1463. object.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.loader: 24e. instead of ‘module.__loader__’.

     在 3.4 版的變更: This attribute now defaults to ‘None’ for modules
     created dynamically using the *note types.ModuleType: c8c.
     constructor.  Previously the attribute was optional.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     Setting ‘__loader__’ on a module while failing to set
     ‘__spec__.loader’ is deprecated.  In Python 3.14, ‘__loader__’ will
     cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or
     the standard library.

 -- 屬性: module.__path__

     A (possibly empty) *note sequence: 238. of strings enumerating the
     locations where the package's submodules will be found.
     Non-package modules should not have a ‘__path__’ attribute.  See
     *note __path__ attributes on modules: 1cac. for more details.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations: 1cad. instead of
     ‘module.__path__’.

 -- 屬性: module.__file__

 -- 屬性: module.__cached__

     ‘__file__’ and ‘__cached__’ are both optional attributes that may
     or may not be set.  Both attributes should be a *note str: 157.
     when they are available.

     ‘__file__’ indicates the pathname of the file from which the module
     was loaded (if loaded from a file), or the pathname of the shared
     library file for extension modules loaded dynamically from a shared
     library.  It might be missing for certain types of modules, such as
     C modules that are statically linked into the interpreter, and the
     *note import system: 1ca3. may opt to leave it unset if it has no
     semantic meaning (for example, a module loaded from a database).

     If ‘__file__’ is set then the ‘__cached__’ attribute might also be
     set, which is the path to any compiled version of the code (for
     example, a byte-compiled file).  The file does not need to exist to
     set this attribute; the path can simply point to where the compiled
     file 'would' exist (see PEP 3147(2)).

     Note that ‘__cached__’ may be set even if ‘__file__’ is not set.
     However, that scenario is quite atypical.  Ultimately, the *note
     loader: 1463. is what makes use of the module spec provided by the
     *note finder: 1caf. (from which ‘__file__’ and ‘__cached__’ are
     derived).  So if a loader can load from a cached module but
     otherwise does not load from a file, that atypical scenario may be
     appropriate.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.cached: 1cb0. instead of ‘module.__cached__’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Other writable attributes on module objects,  Next: Module dictionaries,  Prev: Import-related attributes on module objects,  Up: 模組<2>

4.3.2.28 Other writable attributes on module objects
....................................................

As well as the import-related attributes listed above, module objects
also have the following writable attributes:

 -- 屬性: module.__doc__

     The module's documentation string, or ‘None’ if unavailable.  See
     also: *note __doc__ attributes: 767.

 -- 屬性: module.__annotations__

     A dictionary containing *note variable annotations: bcb. collected
     during module body execution.  For best practices on working with
     *note __annotations__: 1cb2, please see *note 註釋 (annotation)
     最佳實踐: 5fa.


File: python.info,  Node: Module dictionaries,  Prev: Other writable attributes on module objects,  Up: 模組<2>

4.3.2.29 Module dictionaries
............................

Module objects also have the following special read-only attribute:

 -- 屬性: module.__dict__

     The module's namespace as a dictionary object.  Uniquely among the
     attributes listed here, ‘__dict__’ cannot be accessed as a global
     variable from within a module; it can only be accessed as an
     attribute on module objects.

     'CPython 實作細節：' Because of the way CPython clears module
     dictionaries, the module dictionary will be cleared when the module
     falls out of scope even if the dictionary still has live
     references.  To avoid this, copy the dictionary or keep the module
     around while using its dictionary directly.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom classes,  Next: Class instances,  Prev: 模組<2>,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.30 Custom classes
.......................

Custom class types are typically created by class definitions (see
section *note 類別定義: 1168.).  A class has a namespace implemented by
a dictionary object.  Class attribute references are translated to
lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ‘C.x’ is translated to
‘C.__dict__["x"]’ (although there are a number of hooks which allow for
other means of locating attributes).  When the attribute name is not
found there, the attribute search continues in the base classes.  This
search of the base classes uses the C3 method resolution order which
behaves correctly even in the presence of 'diamond' inheritance
structures where there are multiple inheritance paths leading back to a
common ancestor.  Additional details on the C3 MRO used by Python can be
found at *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 131d.

When a class attribute reference (for class ‘C’, say) would yield a
class method object, it is transformed into an instance method object
whose *note __self__: 1237. attribute is ‘C’.  When it would yield a
*note staticmethod: 5f9. object, it is transformed into the object
wrapped by the static method object.  See section *note Implementing
Descriptors: ab5. for another way in which attributes retrieved from a
class may differ from those actually contained in its *note __dict__:
2e2.

Class attribute assignments update the class's dictionary, never the
dictionary of a base class.

A class object can be called (see above) to yield a class instance (see
below).

* Menu:

* Special attributes::
* Special methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Special attributes,  Next: Special methods,  Up: Custom classes

4.3.2.31 Special attributes
...........................

屬性                                                   含義
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- 屬性: type.__name__                                The class's name.  See also:
                                                       *note __name__ attributes: efc.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: type.__qualname__                            The class's *note qualified name: 1716.  See also:
                                                       *note __qualname__ attributes: efb.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: type.__module__                              The name of the module in which the class was
                                                       defined.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: type.__dict__                                A *note mapping proxy: 186. providing a read-only
                                                       view of the class's namespace.  See also:
                                                       *note __dict__ attributes: 2e2.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: type.__bases__                               A *note tuple: 4e6. containing the class's bases.
                                                       In most cases, for a class defined as ‘class X(A, B,
                                                       C)’, ‘X.__bases__’ will be exactly equal to ‘(A, B,
                                                       C)’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: type.__doc__                                 The class's documentation string, or ‘None’ if
                                                       undefined.  Not inherited by subclasses.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: type.__annotations__                         A dictionary containing
                                                       *note variable annotations: bcb. collected during
                                                       class body execution.  For best practices on working
                                                       with ‘__annotations__’, please see
                                                       *note 註釋 (annotation) 最佳實踐: 5fa.
                                                       
                                                            警示: Accessing the ‘__annotations__’ attribute
                                                            of a class object directly may yield incorrect
                                                            results in the presence of metaclasses.  In
                                                            addition, the attribute may not exist for some
                                                            classes.  Use
                                                            *note inspect.get_annotations(): 636. to
                                                            retrieve class annotations safely.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: type.__type_params__                         A *note tuple: 4e6. containing the
                                                       *note type parameters: 166. of a
                                                       *note generic class: 15d.
                                                       
                                                       在 3.12 版被加入.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: type.__mro__                                 The *note tuple: 4e6. of classes that are considered
                                                       when looking for base classes during method
                                                       resolution.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Special methods,  Prev: Special attributes,  Up: Custom classes

4.3.2.32 Special methods
........................

In addition to the special attributes described above, all Python
classes also have the following two methods available:

 -- 方法: type.mro ()

     This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the
     method resolution order for its instances.  It is called at class
     instantiation, and its result is stored in *note __mro__: 1cbb.

 -- 方法: type.__subclasses__ ()

     Each class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate
     subclasses.  This method returns a list of all those references
     still alive.  The list is in definition order.  Example:

          >>> class A: pass
          >>> class B(A): pass
          >>> A.__subclasses__()
          [<class 'B'>]


File: python.info,  Node: Class instances,  Next: I/O objects also known as file objects,  Prev: Custom classes,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.33 Class instances
........................

A class instance is created by calling a class object (see above).  A
class instance has a namespace implemented as a dictionary which is the
first place in which attribute references are searched.  When an
attribute is not found there, and the instance's class has an attribute
by that name, the search continues with the class attributes.  If a
class attribute is found that is a user-defined function object, it is
transformed into an instance method object whose *note __self__: 1237.
attribute is the instance.  Static method and class method objects are
also transformed; see above under "Classes".  See section *note
Implementing Descriptors: ab5. for another way in which attributes of a
class retrieved via its instances may differ from the objects actually
stored in the class's *note __dict__: 2e2.  If no class attribute is
found, and the object's class has a *note __getattr__(): 1fa. method,
that is called to satisfy the lookup.

Attribute assignments and deletions update the instance's dictionary,
never a class's dictionary.  If the class has a *note __setattr__():
1cbf. or *note __delattr__(): 1cc0. method, this is called instead of
updating the instance dictionary directly.

Class instances can pretend to be numbers, sequences, or mappings if
they have methods with certain special names.  See section *note Special
method names: ad6.

* Menu:

* Special attributes: Special attributes<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Special attributes<2>,  Up: Class instances

4.3.2.34 Special attributes
...........................

 -- 屬性: object.__class__

     The class to which a class instance belongs.

 -- 屬性: object.__dict__

     A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object's
     (writable) attributes.  Not all instances have a ‘__dict__’
     attribute; see the section on *note __slots__: 1cc2. for more
     details.


File: python.info,  Node: I/O objects also known as file objects,  Next: Internal types,  Prev: Class instances,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.35 I/O objects (also known as file objects)
.................................................

A *note file object: 1054. represents an open file.  Various shortcuts
are available to create file objects: the *note open(): 29c. built-in
function, and also *note os.popen(): 8d3, *note os.fdopen(): 1cc4, and
the *note makefile(): 1031. method of socket objects (and perhaps by
other functions or methods provided by extension modules).

The objects ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ are initialized
to file objects corresponding to the interpreter's standard input,
output and error streams; they are all open in text mode and therefore
follow the interface defined by the *note io.TextIOBase: 492. abstract
class.


File: python.info,  Node: Internal types,  Prev: I/O objects also known as file objects,  Up: 標準型別階層

4.3.2.36 Internal types
.......................

A few types used internally by the interpreter are exposed to the user.
Their definitions may change with future versions of the interpreter,
but they are mentioned here for completeness.

* Menu:

* Code objects::
* Frame objects::
* Traceback objects::
* Slice objects::
* Static method objects::
* Class method objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Code objects,  Next: Frame objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.37 Code objects
.....................

Code objects represent 'byte-compiled' executable Python code, or *note
bytecode: 39f.  The difference between a code object and a function
object is that the function object contains an explicit reference to the
function's globals (the module in which it was defined), while a code
object contains no context; also the default argument values are stored
in the function object, not in the code object (because they represent
values calculated at run-time).  Unlike function objects, code objects
are immutable and contain no references (directly or indirectly) to
mutable objects.

* Menu:

* 特殊唯讀屬性: 特殊唯讀屬性<2>.
* 用於程式碼物件的方法::


File: python.info,  Node: 特殊唯讀屬性<2>,  Next: 用於程式碼物件的方法,  Up: Code objects

4.3.2.38 特殊唯讀屬性
.....................

 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_name                           函式名稱
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_qualname                       The fully qualified function name
                                                       
                                                       在 3.11 版被加入.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_argcount                       The total number of positional
                                                       *note parameters: 1c8f. (including positional-only
                                                       parameters and parameters with default values) that
                                                       the function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_posonlyargcount                The number of positional-only
                                                       *note parameters: 1c8f. (including arguments with
                                                       default values) that the function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_kwonlyargcount                 The number of keyword-only *note parameters: 1c8f.
                                                       (including arguments with default values) that the
                                                       function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_nlocals                        The number of *note local variables: 1c8b. used by
                                                       the function (including parameters)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_varnames                       A *note tuple: 4e6. containing the names of the
                                                       local variables in the function (starting with the
                                                       parameter names)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_cellvars                       A *note tuple: 4e6. containing the names of
                                                       *note local variables: 1c8b. that are referenced by
                                                       nested functions inside the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_freevars                       A *note tuple: 4e6. containing the names of free
                                                       variables in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_code                           A string representing the sequence of
                                                       *note bytecode: 39f. instructions in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_consts                         A *note tuple: 4e6. containing the literals used by
                                                       the *note bytecode: 39f. in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_names                          A *note tuple: 4e6. containing the names used by the
                                                       *note bytecode: 39f. in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_filename                       The name of the file from which the code was
                                                       compiled
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_firstlineno                    The line number of the first line of the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_lnotab                         A string encoding the mapping from
                                                       *note bytecode: 39f. offsets to line numbers.  For
                                                       details, see the source code of the interpreter.
                                                       
                                                       在 3.12 版之後被棄用: This attribute of code objects
                                                       is deprecated, and may be removed in Python 3.15.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_stacksize                      The required stack size of the code object
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: codeobject.co_flags                          An *note integer: 17e. encoding a number of flags
                                                       for the interpreter.
                                                       

The following flag bits are defined for *note co_flags: 1cd6.: bit
‘0x04’ is set if the function uses the ‘*arguments’ syntax to accept an
arbitrary number of positional arguments; bit ‘0x08’ is set if the
function uses the ‘**keywords’ syntax to accept arbitrary keyword
arguments; bit ‘0x20’ is set if the function is a generator.  See *note
Code Objects Bit Flags: 1cd7. for details on the semantics of each flags
that might be present.

Future feature declarations (‘from __future__ import division’) also use
bits in *note co_flags: 1cd6. to indicate whether a code object was
compiled with a particular feature enabled: bit ‘0x2000’ is set if the
function was compiled with future division enabled; bits ‘0x10’ and
‘0x1000’ were used in earlier versions of Python.

Other bits in *note co_flags: 1cd6. are reserved for internal use.

If a code object represents a function, the first item in *note
co_consts: 1cd2. is the documentation string of the function, or ‘None’
if undefined.


File: python.info,  Node: 用於程式碼物件的方法,  Prev: 特殊唯讀屬性<2>,  Up: Code objects

4.3.2.39 用於程式碼物件的方法
.............................

 -- 方法: codeobject.co_positions ()

     Returns an iterable over the source code positions of each *note
     bytecode: 39f. instruction in the code object.

     The iterator returns *note tuple: 4e6.s containing the
     ‘(start_line, end_line, start_column, end_column)’.  The 'i-th'
     tuple corresponds to the position of the source code that compiled
     to the 'i-th' code unit.  Column information is 0-indexed utf-8
     byte offsets on the given source line.

     This positional information can be missing.  A non-exhaustive lists
     of cases where this may happen:

        - Running the interpreter with *note -X: 188. ‘no_debug_ranges’.

        - Loading a pyc file compiled while using *note -X: 188.
          ‘no_debug_ranges’.

        - Position tuples corresponding to artificial instructions.

        - Line and column numbers that can't be represented due to
          implementation specific limitations.

     When this occurs, some or all of the tuple elements can be *note
     None: 470.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

          備註: This feature requires storing column positions in code
          objects which may result in a small increase of disk usage of
          compiled Python files or interpreter memory usage.  To avoid
          storing the extra information and/or deactivate printing the
          extra traceback information, the *note -X: 188.
          ‘no_debug_ranges’ command line flag or the *note
          PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 3a4. environment variable can be used.

 -- 方法: codeobject.co_lines ()

     Returns an iterator that yields information about successive ranges
     of *note bytecode: 39f.s.  Each item yielded is a ‘(start, end,
     lineno)’ *note tuple: 4e6.:

        * ‘start’ (an *note int: 17e.) represents the offset (inclusive)
          of the start of the *note bytecode: 39f. range

        * ‘end’ (an *note int: 17e.) represents the offset (exclusive)
          of the end of the *note bytecode: 39f. range

        * ‘lineno’ is an *note int: 17e. representing the line number of
          the *note bytecode: 39f. range, or ‘None’ if the bytecodes in
          the given range have no line number

     The items yielded will have the following properties:

        * The first range yielded will have a ‘start’ of 0.

        * The ‘(start, end)’ ranges will be non-decreasing and
          consecutive.  That is, for any pair of *note tuple: 4e6.s, the
          ‘start’ of the second will be equal to the ‘end’ of the first.

        * No range will be backwards: ‘end >= start’ for all triples.

        * The last *note tuple: 4e6. yielded will have ‘end’ equal to
          the size of the *note bytecode: 39f.

     Zero-width ranges, where ‘start == end’, are allowed.  Zero-width
     ranges are used for lines that are present in the source code, but
     have been eliminated by the *note bytecode: 39f. compiler.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

     也參考
     ......

     PEP 626(1) - Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.

          The PEP that introduced the ‘co_lines()’ method.

 -- 方法: codeobject.replace (**kwargs)

     Return a copy of the code object with new values for the specified
     fields.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/


File: python.info,  Node: Frame objects,  Next: Traceback objects,  Prev: Code objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.40 Frame objects
......................

Frame objects represent execution frames.  They may occur in *note
traceback objects: 949, and are also passed to registered trace
functions.

* Menu:

* 特殊唯讀屬性: 特殊唯讀屬性<3>.
* 特殊可寫屬性: 特殊可寫屬性<2>.
* Frame object methods::


File: python.info,  Node: 特殊唯讀屬性<3>,  Next: 特殊可寫屬性<2>,  Up: Frame objects

4.3.2.41 特殊唯讀屬性
.....................

 -- 屬性: frame.f_back                                 Points to the previous stack frame (towards the
                                                       caller), or ‘None’ if this is the bottom stack frame
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: frame.f_code                                 在這個 frame 中執行的
                                                       *note 程式碼物件 (code object): 5ca.。存取這個屬性會
                                                       引發一個附帶引數 ‘obj’ 與 ‘"f_code"’ 的
                                                       *note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘object.__getattr__’。
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: frame.f_locals                               The dictionary used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note local variables: 1c8b.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: frame.f_globals                              The dictionary used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note global variables: 1c8b.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: frame.f_builtins                             The dictionary used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note built-in (intrinsic) names: 1c8b.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: frame.f_lasti                                The "precise instruction" of the frame object (this
                                                       is an index into the *note bytecode: 39f. string of
                                                       the *note code object: 5ca.)
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: 特殊可寫屬性<2>,  Next: Frame object methods,  Prev: 特殊唯讀屬性<3>,  Up: Frame objects

4.3.2.42 特殊可寫屬性
.....................

 -- 屬性: frame.f_trace                                If not ‘None’, this is a function called for various
                                                       events during code execution (this is used by
                                                       debuggers).  Normally an event is triggered for each
                                                       new source line (see *note f_trace_lines: a3c.).
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: frame.f_trace_lines                          Set this attribute to *note False: 98f. to disable
                                                       triggering a tracing event for each source line.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: frame.f_trace_opcodes                        Set this attribute to *note True: a70. to allow
                                                       per-opcode events to be requested.  Note that this
                                                       may lead to undefined interpreter behaviour if
                                                       exceptions raised by the trace function escape to
                                                       the function being traced.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: frame.f_lineno                               The current line number of the frame - writing to
                                                       this from within a trace function jumps to the given
                                                       line (only for the bottom-most frame).  A debugger
                                                       can implement a Jump command (aka Set Next
                                                       Statement) by writing to this attribute.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Frame object methods,  Prev: 特殊可寫屬性<2>,  Up: Frame objects

4.3.2.43 Frame object methods
.............................

Frame objects support one method:

 -- 方法: frame.clear ()

     This method clears all references to *note local variables: 1c8b.
     held by the frame.  Also, if the frame belonged to a *note
     generator: ef7, the generator is finalized.  This helps break
     reference cycles involving frame objects (for example when catching
     an *note exception: 1657. and storing its *note traceback: 949. for
     later use).

     *note RuntimeError: 17a. is raised if the frame is currently
     executing.

     在 3.4 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Traceback objects,  Next: Slice objects,  Prev: Frame objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.44 Traceback objects
..........................

Traceback objects represent the stack trace of an *note exception: 1a7f.
A traceback object is implicitly created when an exception occurs, and
may also be explicitly created by calling *note types.TracebackType:
947.

在 3.7 版的變更: Traceback objects can now be explicitly instantiated
from Python code.

For implicitly created tracebacks, when the search for an exception
handler unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound level a traceback
object is inserted in front of the current traceback.  When an exception
handler is entered, the stack trace is made available to the program.
(See section *note The try statement: 4ea.)  It is accessible as the
third item of the tuple returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 487, and as
the *note __traceback__: 1158. attribute of the caught exception.

When the program contains no suitable handler, the stack trace is
written (nicely formatted) to the standard error stream; if the
interpreter is interactive, it is also made available to the user as
*note sys.last_traceback: 1e8.

For explicitly created tracebacks, it is up to the creator of the
traceback to determine how the *note tb_next: 948. attributes should be
linked to form a full stack trace.

特殊唯讀屬性：

 -- 屬性: traceback.tb_frame                           Points to the execution *note frame: 4de. of the
                                                       current level.
                                                       
                                                       存取此屬性會引發一個附帶引數 ‘obj’ 與 ‘"tb_frame"’ 的
                                                       *note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘object.__getattr__’。
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: traceback.tb_lineno                          Gives the line number where the exception occurred
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: traceback.tb_lasti                           Indicates the "precise instruction".
                                                       

The line number and last instruction in the traceback may differ from
the line number of its *note frame object: 4de. if the exception
occurred in a *note try: 4ea. statement with no matching except clause
or with a *note finally: 80e. clause.

 -- 屬性: traceback.tb_next

     The special writable attribute ‘tb_next’ is the next level in the
     stack trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or
     ‘None’ if there is no next level.

     在 3.7 版的變更: This attribute is now writable


File: python.info,  Node: Slice objects,  Next: Static method objects,  Prev: Traceback objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.45 Slice objects
......................

Slice objects are used to represent slices for *note __getitem__(): 4e7.
methods.  They are also created by the built-in *note slice(): 180.
function.

Special read-only attributes: *note start: 1ce7. is the lower bound;
*note stop: 1ce8. is the upper bound; *note step: 1ce9. is the step
value; each is ‘None’ if omitted.  These attributes can have any type.

Slice objects support one method:

 -- 方法: slice.indices (self, length)

     This method takes a single integer argument 'length' and computes
     information about the slice that the slice object would describe if
     applied to a sequence of 'length' items.  It returns a tuple of
     three integers; respectively these are the 'start' and 'stop'
     indices and the 'step' or stride length of the slice.  Missing or
     out-of-bounds indices are handled in a manner consistent with
     regular slices.


File: python.info,  Node: Static method objects,  Next: Class method objects,  Prev: Slice objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.46 Static method objects
..............................

Static method objects provide a way of defeating the transformation of
function objects to method objects described above.  A static method
object is a wrapper around any other object, usually a user-defined
method object.  When a static method object is retrieved from a class or
a class instance, the object actually returned is the wrapped object,
which is not subject to any further transformation.  Static method
objects are also callable.  Static method objects are created by the
built-in *note staticmethod(): 5f9. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Class method objects,  Prev: Static method objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.47 Class method objects
.............................

A class method object, like a static method object, is a wrapper around
another object that alters the way in which that object is retrieved
from classes and class instances.  The behaviour of class method objects
upon such retrieval is described above, under *note "instance methods":
1ab3.  Class method objects are created by the built-in *note
classmethod(): 24b. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Special method names,  Next: 協程,  Prev: 標準型別階層,  Up: 資料模型

4.3.3 Special method names
--------------------------

A class can implement certain operations that are invoked by special
syntax (such as arithmetic operations or subscripting and slicing) by
defining methods with special names.  This is Python's approach to
'operator overloading', allowing classes to define their own behavior
with respect to language operators.  For instance, if a class defines a
method named *note __getitem__(): 4e7, and ‘x’ is an instance of this
class, then ‘x[i]’ is roughly equivalent to ‘type(x).__getitem__(x, i)’.
Except where mentioned, attempts to execute an operation raise an
exception when no appropriate method is defined (typically *note
AttributeError: 3ca. or *note TypeError: 2ba.).

Setting a special method to ‘None’ indicates that the corresponding
operation is not available.  For example, if a class sets *note
__iter__(): 1ced. to ‘None’, the class is not iterable, so calling *note
iter(): 5f7. on its instances will raise a *note TypeError: 2ba.
(without falling back to *note __getitem__(): 4e7.).  (1)

When implementing a class that emulates any built-in type, it is
important that the emulation only be implemented to the degree that it
makes sense for the object being modelled.  For example, some sequences
may work well with retrieval of individual elements, but extracting a
slice may not make sense.  (One example of this is the ‘NodeList’
interface in the W3C's Document Object Model.)

* Menu:

* Basic customization::
* Customizing attribute access::
* Customizing class creation::
* Customizing instance and subclass checks::
* Emulating generic types::
* Emulating callable objects::
* Emulating container types::
* Emulating numeric types::
* With Statement Context Managers::
* Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching::
* Emulating buffer types::
* Special method lookup::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The *note __hash__(): 950, *note __iter__(): 1ced, *note
__reversed__(): 1cee, and *note __contains__(): 1cef. methods have
special handling for this; others will still raise a *note TypeError:
2ba, but may do so by relying on the behavior that ‘None’ is not
callable.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic customization,  Next: Customizing attribute access,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.1 Basic customization
...........................

 -- 方法: object.__new__ (cls[, ...])

     Called to create a new instance of class 'cls'.  *note __new__():
     30f. is a static method (special-cased so you need not declare it
     as such) that takes the class of which an instance was requested as
     its first argument.  The remaining arguments are those passed to
     the object constructor expression (the call to the class).  The
     return value of *note __new__(): 30f. should be the new object
     instance (usually an instance of 'cls').

     Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by
     invoking the superclass's *note __new__(): 30f. method using
     ‘super().__new__(cls[, ...])’ with appropriate arguments and then
     modifying the newly created instance as necessary before returning
     it.

     If *note __new__(): 30f. is invoked during object construction and
     it returns an instance of 'cls', then the new instance’s *note
     __init__(): 4ae. method will be invoked like ‘__init__(self[,
     ...])’, where 'self' is the new instance and the remaining
     arguments are the same as were passed to the object constructor.

     If *note __new__(): 30f. does not return an instance of 'cls', then
     the new instance's *note __init__(): 4ae. method will not be
     invoked.

     *note __new__(): 30f. is intended mainly to allow subclasses of
     immutable types (like int, str, or tuple) to customize instance
     creation.  It is also commonly overridden in custom metaclasses in
     order to customize class creation.

 -- 方法: object.__init__ (self[, ...])

     Called after the instance has been created (by *note __new__():
     30f.), but before it is returned to the caller.  The arguments are
     those passed to the class constructor expression.  If a base class
     has an *note __init__(): 4ae. method, the derived class's *note
     __init__(): 4ae. method, if any, must explicitly call it to ensure
     proper initialization of the base class part of the instance; for
     example: ‘super().__init__([args...])’.

     Because *note __new__(): 30f. and *note __init__(): 4ae. work
     together in constructing objects (*note __new__(): 30f. to create
     it, and *note __init__(): 4ae. to customize it), no non-‘None’
     value may be returned by *note __init__(): 4ae.; doing so will
     cause a *note TypeError: 2ba. to be raised at runtime.

 -- 方法: object.__del__ (self)

     Called when the instance is about to be destroyed.  This is also
     called a finalizer or (improperly) a destructor.  If a base class
     has a *note __del__(): 1cf2. method, the derived class's *note
     __del__(): 1cf2. method, if any, must explicitly call it to ensure
     proper deletion of the base class part of the instance.

     It is possible (though not recommended!)  for the *note __del__():
     1cf2. method to postpone destruction of the instance by creating a
     new reference to it.  This is called object 'resurrection'.  It is
     implementation-dependent whether *note __del__(): 1cf2. is called a
     second time when a resurrected object is about to be destroyed; the
     current *note CPython: 4f7. implementation only calls it once.

     It is not guaranteed that *note __del__(): 1cf2. methods are called
     for objects that still exist when the interpreter exits.  *note
     weakref.finalize: 8c8. provides a straightforward way to register a
     cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.

          備註: ‘del x’ doesn't directly call ‘x.__del__()’ -- the
          former decrements the reference count for ‘x’ by one, and the
          latter is only called when ‘x’'s reference count reaches zero.

     'CPython 實作細節：' It is possible for a reference cycle to
     prevent the reference count of an object from going to zero.  In
     this case, the cycle will be later detected and deleted by the
     *note cyclic garbage collector: 16ef.  A common cause of reference
     cycles is when an exception has been caught in a local variable.
     The frame's locals then reference the exception, which references
     its own traceback, which references the locals of all frames caught
     in the traceback.

     也參考
     ......

     Documentation for the *note gc: 5b. module.

          警告: Due to the precarious circumstances under which *note
          __del__(): 1cf2. methods are invoked, exceptions that occur
          during their execution are ignored, and a warning is printed
          to ‘sys.stderr’ instead.  In particular:

             * *note __del__(): 1cf2. can be invoked when arbitrary code
               is being executed, including from any arbitrary thread.
               If *note __del__(): 1cf2. needs to take a lock or invoke
               any other blocking resource, it may deadlock as the
               resource may already be taken by the code that gets
               interrupted to execute *note __del__(): 1cf2.

             * *note __del__(): 1cf2. can be executed during interpreter
               shutdown.  As a consequence, the global variables it
               needs to access (including other modules) may already
               have been deleted or set to ‘None’.  Python guarantees
               that globals whose name begins with a single underscore
               are deleted from their module before other globals are
               deleted; if no other references to such globals exist,
               this may help in assuring that imported modules are still
               available at the time when the *note __del__(): 1cf2.
               method is called.

 -- 方法: object.__repr__ (self)

     Called by the *note repr(): 61e. built-in function to compute the
     "official" string representation of an object.  If at all possible,
     this should look like a valid Python expression that could be used
     to recreate an object with the same value (given an appropriate
     environment).  If this is not possible, a string of the form
     ‘<...some useful description...>’ should be returned.  The return
     value must be a string object.  If a class defines *note
     __repr__(): 416. but not *note __str__(): 418, then *note
     __repr__(): 416. is also used when an "informal" string
     representation of instances of that class is required.

     This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the
     representation is information-rich and unambiguous.  A default
     implementation is provided by the *note object: 8d9. class itself.

 -- 方法: object.__str__ (self)

     Called by *note str(object): 157, the default *note __format__():
     419. implementation, and the built-in function *note print(): e02,
     to compute the "informal" or nicely printable string representation
     of an object.  The return value must be a *note str: 19f0. object.

     This method differs from *note object.__repr__(): 416. in that
     there is no expectation that *note __str__(): 418. return a valid
     Python expression: a more convenient or concise representation can
     be used.

     The default implementation defined by the built-in type *note
     object: 8d9. calls *note object.__repr__(): 416.

 -- 方法: object.__bytes__ (self)

     Called by *note bytes: 18a9. to compute a byte-string
     representation of an object.  This should return a *note bytes:
     2c1. object.  The *note object: 8d9. class itself does not provide
     this method.

 -- 方法: object.__format__ (self, format_spec)

     Called by the *note format(): 417. built-in function, and by
     extension, evaluation of *note formatted string literals: 7ed. and
     the *note str.format(): 41b. method, to produce a "formatted"
     string representation of an object.  The 'format_spec' argument is
     a string that contains a description of the formatting options
     desired.  The interpretation of the 'format_spec' argument is up to
     the type implementing *note __format__(): 419, however most classes
     will either delegate formatting to one of the built-in types, or
     use a similar formatting option syntax.

     See *note 格式規格 (Format Specification) 迷你語言: 3d6. for a
     description of the standard formatting syntax.

     The return value must be a string object.

     The default implementation by the *note object: 8d9. class should
     be given an empty 'format_spec' string.  It delegates to *note
     __str__(): 418.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The __format__ method of ‘object’ itself raises a
     *note TypeError: 2ba. if passed any non-empty string.

     在 3.7 版的變更: ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent to
     ‘str(x)’ rather than ‘format(str(x), '')’.

 -- 方法: object.__lt__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__le__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__eq__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__ne__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__gt__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__ge__ (self, other)

     These are the so-called "rich comparison" methods.  The
     correspondence between operator symbols and method names is as
     follows: ‘x<y’ calls ‘x.__lt__(y)’, ‘x<=y’ calls ‘x.__le__(y)’,
     ‘x==y’ calls ‘x.__eq__(y)’, ‘x!=y’ calls ‘x.__ne__(y)’, ‘x>y’ calls
     ‘x.__gt__(y)’, and ‘x>=y’ calls ‘x.__ge__(y)’.

     A rich comparison method may return the singleton *note
     NotImplemented: 5f2. if it does not implement the operation for a
     given pair of arguments.  By convention, ‘False’ and ‘True’ are
     returned for a successful comparison.  However, these methods can
     return any value, so if the comparison operator is used in a
     Boolean context (e.g., in the condition of an ‘if’ statement),
     Python will call *note bool(): 17d. on the value to determine if
     the result is true or false.

     By default, ‘object’ implements *note __eq__(): 94f. by using ‘is’,
     returning *note NotImplemented: 5f2. in the case of a false
     comparison: ‘True if x is y else NotImplemented’.  For *note
     __ne__(): 138f, by default it delegates to *note __eq__(): 94f. and
     inverts the result unless it is ‘NotImplemented’.  There are no
     other implied relationships among the comparison operators or
     default implementations; for example, the truth of ‘(x<y or x==y)’
     does not imply ‘x<=y’.  To automatically generate ordering
     operations from a single root operation, see *note
     functools.total_ordering(): dcf.

     By default, the *note object: 8d9. class provides implementations
     consistent with *note Value comparisons: 164e.: equality compares
     according to object identity, and order comparisons raise *note
     TypeError: 2ba.  Each default method may generate these results
     directly, but may also return *note NotImplemented: 5f2.

     See the paragraph on *note __hash__(): 950. for some important
     notes on creating *note hashable: 409. objects which support custom
     comparison operations and are usable as dictionary keys.

     There are no swapped-argument versions of these methods (to be used
     when the left argument does not support the operation but the right
     argument does); rather, *note __lt__(): 119c. and *note __gt__():
     119e. are each other's reflection, *note __le__(): 119d. and *note
     __ge__(): 119f. are each other's reflection, and *note __eq__():
     94f. and *note __ne__(): 138f. are their own reflection.  If the
     operands are of different types, and the right operand's type is a
     direct or indirect subclass of the left operand's type, the
     reflected method of the right operand has priority, otherwise the
     left operand's method has priority.  Virtual subclassing is not
     considered.

     When no appropriate method returns any value other than *note
     NotImplemented: 5f2, the ‘==’ and ‘!=’ operators will fall back to
     ‘is’ and ‘is not’, respectively.

 -- 方法: object.__hash__ (self)

     Called by built-in function *note hash(): 3df. and for operations
     on members of hashed collections including *note set: 3cc, *note
     frozenset: 3cd, and *note dict: 239.  The ‘__hash__()’ method
     should return an integer.  The only required property is that
     objects which compare equal have the same hash value; it is advised
     to mix together the hash values of the components of the object
     that also play a part in comparison of objects by packing them into
     a tuple and hashing the tuple.  Example:

          def __hash__(self):
              return hash((self.name, self.nick, self.color))

          備註: *note hash(): 3df. truncates the value returned from an
          object's custom *note __hash__(): 950. method to the size of a
          *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.  This is typically 8 bytes on 64-bit
          builds and 4 bytes on 32-bit builds.  If an object's *note
          __hash__(): 950. must interoperate on builds of different bit
          sizes, be sure to check the width on all supported builds.  An
          easy way to do this is with ‘python -c "import sys;
          print(sys.hash_info.width)"’.

     If a class does not define an *note __eq__(): 94f. method it should
     not define a *note __hash__(): 950. operation either; if it defines
     *note __eq__(): 94f. but not *note __hash__(): 950, its instances
     will not be usable as items in hashable collections.  If a class
     defines mutable objects and implements an *note __eq__(): 94f.
     method, it should not implement *note __hash__(): 950, since the
     implementation of *note hashable: 409. collections requires that a
     key's hash value is immutable (if the object's hash value changes,
     it will be in the wrong hash bucket).

     User-defined classes have *note __eq__(): 94f. and *note
     __hash__(): 950. methods by default (inherited from the *note
     object: 8d9. class); with them, all objects compare unequal (except
     with themselves) and ‘x.__hash__()’ returns an appropriate value
     such that ‘x == y’ implies both that ‘x is y’ and ‘hash(x) ==
     hash(y)’.

     A class that overrides *note __eq__(): 94f. and does not define
     *note __hash__(): 950. will have its *note __hash__(): 950.
     implicitly set to ‘None’.  When the *note __hash__(): 950. method
     of a class is ‘None’, instances of the class will raise an
     appropriate *note TypeError: 2ba. when a program attempts to
     retrieve their hash value, and will also be correctly identified as
     unhashable when checking ‘isinstance(obj,
     collections.abc.Hashable)’.

     If a class that overrides *note __eq__(): 94f. needs to retain the
     implementation of *note __hash__(): 950. from a parent class, the
     interpreter must be told this explicitly by setting ‘__hash__ =
     <ParentClass>.__hash__’.

     If a class that does not override *note __eq__(): 94f. wishes to
     suppress hash support, it should include ‘__hash__ = None’ in the
     class definition.  A class which defines its own *note __hash__():
     950. that explicitly raises a *note TypeError: 2ba. would be
     incorrectly identified as hashable by an ‘isinstance(obj,
     collections.abc.Hashable)’ call.

          備註: By default, the *note __hash__(): 950. values of str and
          bytes objects are "salted" with an unpredictable random value.
          Although they remain constant within an individual Python
          process, they are not predictable between repeated invocations
          of Python.

          This is intended to provide protection against a
          denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that
          exploit the worst case performance of a dict insertion,
          'O'('n'^2) complexity.  See
          ‘http://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html’ for details.

          Changing hash values affects the iteration order of sets.
          Python has never made guarantees about this ordering (and it
          typically varies between 32-bit and 64-bit builds).

          另請參閱 *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f13.。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Hash randomization is enabled by default.

 -- 方法: object.__bool__ (self)

     Called to implement truth value testing and the built-in operation
     ‘bool()’; should return ‘False’ or ‘True’.  When this method is not
     defined, *note __len__(): 1cf4. is called, if it is defined, and
     the object is considered true if its result is nonzero.  If a class
     defines neither ‘__len__()’ nor ‘__bool__()’ (which is true of the
     *note object: 8d9. class itself), all its instances are considered
     true.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing attribute access,  Next: Customizing class creation,  Prev: Basic customization,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.2 Customizing attribute access
....................................

The following methods can be defined to customize the meaning of
attribute access (use of, assignment to, or deletion of ‘x.name’) for
class instances.

 -- 方法: object.__getattr__ (self, name)

     Called when the default attribute access fails with an *note
     AttributeError: 3ca. (either *note __getattribute__(): a33. raises
     an *note AttributeError: 3ca. because 'name' is not an instance
     attribute or an attribute in the class tree for ‘self’; or *note
     __get__(): 135e. of a 'name' property raises *note AttributeError:
     3ca.).  This method should either return the (computed) attribute
     value or raise an *note AttributeError: 3ca. exception.  The *note
     object: 8d9. class itself does not provide this method.

     Note that if the attribute is found through the normal mechanism,
     *note __getattr__(): 1fa. is not called.  (This is an intentional
     asymmetry between *note __getattr__(): 1fa. and *note
     __setattr__(): 1cbf.)  This is done both for efficiency reasons and
     because otherwise *note __getattr__(): 1fa. would have no way to
     access other attributes of the instance.  Note that at least for
     instance variables, you can fake total control by not inserting any
     values in the instance attribute dictionary (but instead inserting
     them in another object).  See the *note __getattribute__(): a33.
     method below for a way to actually get total control over attribute
     access.

 -- 方法: object.__getattribute__ (self, name)

     Called unconditionally to implement attribute accesses for
     instances of the class.  If the class also defines *note
     __getattr__(): 1fa, the latter will not be called unless *note
     __getattribute__(): a33. either calls it explicitly or raises an
     *note AttributeError: 3ca.  This method should return the
     (computed) attribute value or raise an *note AttributeError: 3ca.
     exception.  In order to avoid infinite recursion in this method,
     its implementation should always call the base class method with
     the same name to access any attributes it needs, for example,
     ‘object.__getattribute__(self, name)’.

          備註: This method may still be bypassed when looking up
          special methods as the result of implicit invocation via
          language syntax or *note built-in functions: 1c91.  See *note
          Special method lookup: 1cf7.

     For certain sensitive attribute accesses, raises an *note auditing
     event: 168e. ‘object.__getattr__’ with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘name’.

 -- 方法: object.__setattr__ (self, name, value)

     Called when an attribute assignment is attempted.  This is called
     instead of the normal mechanism (i.e.  store the value in the
     instance dictionary).  'name' is the attribute name, 'value' is the
     value to be assigned to it.

     If *note __setattr__(): 1cbf. wants to assign to an instance
     attribute, it should call the base class method with the same name,
     for example, ‘object.__setattr__(self, name, value)’.

     For certain sensitive attribute assignments, raises an *note
     auditing event: 168e. ‘object.__setattr__’ with arguments ‘obj’,
     ‘name’, ‘value’.

 -- 方法: object.__delattr__ (self, name)

     Like *note __setattr__(): 1cbf. but for attribute deletion instead
     of assignment.  This should only be implemented if ‘del obj.name’
     is meaningful for the object.

     For certain sensitive attribute deletions, raises an *note auditing
     event: 168e. ‘object.__delattr__’ with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘name’.

 -- 方法: object.__dir__ (self)

     Called when *note dir(): 42d. is called on the object.  An iterable
     must be returned.  *note dir(): 42d. converts the returned iterable
     to a list and sorts it.

* Menu:

* Customizing module attribute access::
* Implementing Descriptors::
* Invoking Descriptors::
* __slots__: __slots__<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing module attribute access,  Next: Implementing Descriptors,  Up: Customizing attribute access

4.3.3.3 Customizing module attribute access
...........................................

Special names ‘__getattr__’ and ‘__dir__’ can be also used to customize
access to module attributes.  The ‘__getattr__’ function at the module
level should accept one argument which is the name of an attribute and
return the computed value or raise an *note AttributeError: 3ca.  If an
attribute is not found on a module object through the normal lookup,
i.e.  *note object.__getattribute__(): a33, then ‘__getattr__’ is
searched in the module ‘__dict__’ before raising an *note
AttributeError: 3ca.  If found, it is called with the attribute name and
the result is returned.

The ‘__dir__’ function should accept no arguments, and return an
iterable of strings that represents the names accessible on module.  If
present, this function overrides the standard *note dir(): 42d. search
on a module.

For a more fine grained customization of the module behavior (setting
attributes, properties, etc.), one can set the ‘__class__’ attribute of
a module object to a subclass of *note types.ModuleType: c8c.  For
example:

     import sys
     from types import ModuleType

     class VerboseModule(ModuleType):
         def __repr__(self):
             return f'Verbose {self.__name__}'

         def __setattr__(self, attr, value):
             print(f'Setting {attr}...')
             super().__setattr__(attr, value)

     sys.modules[__name__].__class__ = VerboseModule

     備註: Defining module ‘__getattr__’ and setting module ‘__class__’
     only affect lookups made using the attribute access syntax -
     directly accessing the module globals (whether by code within the
     module, or via a reference to the module's globals dictionary) is
     unaffected.

在 3.5 版的變更: ‘__class__’ module attribute is now writable.

在 3.7 版被加入: ‘__getattr__’ and ‘__dir__’ module attributes.

也參考
......

PEP 562(1) - 模組 __getattr__ 和 __dir__

     Describes the ‘__getattr__’ and ‘__dir__’ functions on modules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing Descriptors,  Next: Invoking Descriptors,  Prev: Customizing module attribute access,  Up: Customizing attribute access

4.3.3.4 Implementing Descriptors
................................

The following methods only apply when an instance of the class
containing the method (a so-called 'descriptor' class) appears in an
'owner' class (the descriptor must be in either the owner's class
dictionary or in the class dictionary for one of its parents).  In the
examples below, "the attribute" refers to the attribute whose name is
the key of the property in the owner class' *note __dict__: 2e2.  The
*note object: 8d9. class itself does not implement any of these
protocols.

 -- 方法: object.__get__ (self, instance, owner=None)

     Called to get the attribute of the owner class (class attribute
     access) or of an instance of that class (instance attribute
     access).  The optional 'owner' argument is the owner class, while
     'instance' is the instance that the attribute was accessed through,
     or ‘None’ when the attribute is accessed through the 'owner'.

     This method should return the computed attribute value or raise an
     *note AttributeError: 3ca. exception.

     PEP 252(1) specifies that *note __get__(): 135e. is callable with
     one or two arguments.  Python's own built-in descriptors support
     this specification; however, it is likely that some third-party
     tools have descriptors that require both arguments.  Python's own
     *note __getattribute__(): a33. implementation always passes in both
     arguments whether they are required or not.

 -- 方法: object.__set__ (self, instance, value)

     Called to set the attribute on an instance 'instance' of the owner
     class to a new value, 'value'.

     Note, adding *note __set__(): 1cfb. or *note __delete__(): 1cfc.
     changes the kind of descriptor to a "data descriptor".  See *note
     Invoking Descriptors: 1cfd. for more details.

 -- 方法: object.__delete__ (self, instance)

     Called to delete the attribute on an instance 'instance' of the
     owner class.

Instances of descriptors may also have the ‘__objclass__’ attribute
present:

 -- 屬性: object.__objclass__

     The attribute ‘__objclass__’ is interpreted by the *note inspect:
     78. module as specifying the class where this object was defined
     (setting this appropriately can assist in runtime introspection of
     dynamic class attributes).  For callables, it may indicate that an
     instance of the given type (or a subclass) is expected or required
     as the first positional argument (for example, CPython sets this
     attribute for unbound methods that are implemented in C).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/


File: python.info,  Node: Invoking Descriptors,  Next: __slots__<2>,  Prev: Implementing Descriptors,  Up: Customizing attribute access

4.3.3.5 Invoking Descriptors
............................

In general, a descriptor is an object attribute with "binding behavior",
one whose attribute access has been overridden by methods in the
descriptor protocol: *note __get__(): 135e, *note __set__(): 1cfb, and
*note __delete__(): 1cfc.  If any of those methods are defined for an
object, it is said to be a descriptor.

The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the
attribute from an object's dictionary.  For instance, ‘a.x’ has a lookup
chain starting with ‘a.__dict__['x']’, then ‘type(a).__dict__['x']’, and
continuing through the base classes of ‘type(a)’ excluding metaclasses.

However, if the looked-up value is an object defining one of the
descriptor methods, then Python may override the default behavior and
invoke the descriptor method instead.  Where this occurs in the
precedence chain depends on which descriptor methods were defined and
how they were called.

The starting point for descriptor invocation is a binding, ‘a.x’.  How
the arguments are assembled depends on ‘a’:

Direct Call

     The simplest and least common call is when user code directly
     invokes a descriptor method: ‘x.__get__(a)’.

Instance Binding

     If binding to an object instance, ‘a.x’ is transformed into the
     call: ‘type(a).__dict__['x'].__get__(a, type(a))’.

Class Binding

     If binding to a class, ‘A.x’ is transformed into the call:
     ‘A.__dict__['x'].__get__(None, A)’.

Super Binding

     A dotted lookup such as ‘super(A, a).x’ searches
     ‘a.__class__.__mro__’ for a base class ‘B’ following ‘A’ and then
     returns ‘B.__dict__['x'].__get__(a, A)’.  If not a descriptor, ‘x’
     is returned unchanged.

For instance bindings, the precedence of descriptor invocation depends
on which descriptor methods are defined.  A descriptor can define any
combination of *note __get__(): 135e, *note __set__(): 1cfb. and *note
__delete__(): 1cfc.  If it does not define ‘__get__()’, then accessing
the attribute will return the descriptor object itself unless there is a
value in the object's instance dictionary.  If the descriptor defines
‘__set__()’ and/or ‘__delete__()’, it is a data descriptor; if it
defines neither, it is a non-data descriptor.  Normally, data
descriptors define both ‘__get__()’ and ‘__set__()’, while non-data
descriptors have just the ‘__get__()’ method.  Data descriptors with
‘__get__()’ and ‘__set__()’ (and/or ‘__delete__()’) defined always
override a redefinition in an instance dictionary.  In contrast,
non-data descriptors can be overridden by instances.

Python methods (including those decorated with *note @staticmethod: 5f9.
and *note @classmethod: 24b.) are implemented as non-data descriptors.
Accordingly, instances can redefine and override methods.  This allows
individual instances to acquire behaviors that differ from other
instances of the same class.

The *note property(): 424. function is implemented as a data descriptor.
Accordingly, instances cannot override the behavior of a property.


File: python.info,  Node: __slots__<2>,  Prev: Invoking Descriptors,  Up: Customizing attribute access

4.3.3.6 __slots__
.................

'__slots__' allow us to explicitly declare data members (like
properties) and deny the creation of *note __dict__: 2e2. and
'__weakref__' (unless explicitly declared in '__slots__' or available in
a parent.)

The space saved over using *note __dict__: 2e2. can be significant.
Attribute lookup speed can be significantly improved as well.

 -- 資料: object.__slots__

     This class variable can be assigned a string, iterable, or sequence
     of strings with variable names used by instances.  '__slots__'
     reserves space for the declared variables and prevents the
     automatic creation of *note __dict__: 2e2. and '__weakref__' for
     each instance.
Notes on using '__slots__':

   * When inheriting from a class without '__slots__', the *note
     __dict__: 2e2. and '__weakref__' attribute of the instances will
     always be accessible.

   * Without a *note __dict__: 2e2. variable, instances cannot be
     assigned new variables not listed in the '__slots__' definition.
     Attempts to assign to an unlisted variable name raises *note
     AttributeError: 3ca.  If dynamic assignment of new variables is
     desired, then add ‘'__dict__'’ to the sequence of strings in the
     '__slots__' declaration.

   * Without a '__weakref__' variable for each instance, classes
     defining '__slots__' do not support *note weak references: 10f. to
     its instances.  If weak reference support is needed, then add
     ‘'__weakref__'’ to the sequence of strings in the '__slots__'
     declaration.

   * '__slots__' are implemented at the class level by creating *note
     descriptors: ab5. for each variable name.  As a result, class
     attributes cannot be used to set default values for instance
     variables defined by '__slots__'; otherwise, the class attribute
     would overwrite the descriptor assignment.

   * The action of a '__slots__' declaration is not limited to the class
     where it is defined.  '__slots__' declared in parents are available
     in child classes.  However, instances of a child subclass will get
     a *note __dict__: 2e2. and '__weakref__' unless the subclass also
     defines '__slots__' (which should only contain names of any
     'additional' slots).

   * If a class defines a slot also defined in a base class, the
     instance variable defined by the base class slot is inaccessible
     (except by retrieving its descriptor directly from the base class).
     This renders the meaning of the program undefined.  In the future,
     a check may be added to prevent this.

   * *note TypeError: 2ba. will be raised if nonempty '__slots__' are
     defined for a class derived from a *note "variable-length" built-in
     type: 1d02. such as *note int: 17e, *note bytes: 2c1, and *note
     tuple: 4e6.

   * Any non-string *note iterable: 10ba. may be assigned to
     '__slots__'.

   * If a *note dictionary: 239. is used to assign '__slots__', the
     dictionary keys will be used as the slot names.  The values of the
     dictionary can be used to provide per-attribute docstrings that
     will be recognised by *note inspect.getdoc(): 83f. and displayed in
     the output of *note help(): 710.

   * *note __class__: 1320. assignment works only if both classes have
     the same '__slots__'.

   * *note Multiple inheritance: 1aad. with multiple slotted parent
     classes can be used, but only one parent is allowed to have
     attributes created by slots (the other bases must have empty slot
     layouts) - violations raise *note TypeError: 2ba.

   * If an *note iterator: 1718. is used for '__slots__' then a *note
     descriptor: 1d03. is created for each of the iterator's values.
     However, the '__slots__' attribute will be an empty iterator.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing class creation,  Next: Customizing instance and subclass checks,  Prev: Customizing attribute access,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.7 Customizing class creation
..................................

Whenever a class inherits from another class, *note __init_subclass__():
42c. is called on the parent class.  This way, it is possible to write
classes which change the behavior of subclasses.  This is closely
related to class decorators, but where class decorators only affect the
specific class they're applied to, ‘__init_subclass__’ solely applies to
future subclasses of the class defining the method.

 -- 方法: classmethod object.__init_subclass__ (cls)

     This method is called whenever the containing class is subclassed.
     'cls' is then the new subclass.  If defined as a normal instance
     method, this method is implicitly converted to a class method.

     Keyword arguments which are given to a new class are passed to the
     parent class's ‘__init_subclass__’.  For compatibility with other
     classes using ‘__init_subclass__’, one should take out the needed
     keyword arguments and pass the others over to the base class, as
     in:

          class Philosopher:
              def __init_subclass__(cls, /, default_name, **kwargs):
                  super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
                  cls.default_name = default_name

          class AustralianPhilosopher(Philosopher, default_name="Bruce"):
              pass

     The default implementation ‘object.__init_subclass__’ does nothing,
     but raises an error if it is called with any arguments.

          備註: The metaclass hint ‘metaclass’ is consumed by the rest
          of the type machinery, and is never passed to
          ‘__init_subclass__’ implementations.  The actual metaclass
          (rather than the explicit hint) can be accessed as
          ‘type(cls)’.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

When a class is created, ‘type.__new__()’ scans the class variables and
makes callbacks to those with a *note __set_name__(): ab4. hook.

 -- 方法: object.__set_name__ (self, owner, name)

     Automatically called at the time the owning class 'owner' is
     created.  The object has been assigned to 'name' in that class:

          class A:
              x = C()  # 自動呼叫：x.__set_name__(A, 'x')

     If the class variable is assigned after the class is created, *note
     __set_name__(): ab4. will not be called automatically.  If needed,
     *note __set_name__(): ab4. can be called directly:

          class A:
             pass

          c = C()
          A.x = c                  # The hook is not called
          c.__set_name__(A, 'x')   # Manually invoke the hook

     更多細節請見 *note Creating the class object: ab0.。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

* Menu:

* Metaclasses::
* Resolving MRO entries::
* Determining the appropriate metaclass::
* Preparing the class namespace::
* Executing the class body::
* Creating the class object::
* Uses for metaclasses::


File: python.info,  Node: Metaclasses,  Next: Resolving MRO entries,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.8 Metaclasses
...................

By default, classes are constructed using *note type(): bbb.  The class
body is executed in a new namespace and the class name is bound locally
to the result of ‘type(name, bases, namespace)’.

The class creation process can be customized by passing the ‘metaclass’
keyword argument in the class definition line, or by inheriting from an
existing class that included such an argument.  In the following
example, both ‘MyClass’ and ‘MySubclass’ are instances of ‘Meta’:

     class Meta(type):
         pass

     class MyClass(metaclass=Meta):
         pass

     class MySubclass(MyClass):
         pass

Any other keyword arguments that are specified in the class definition
are passed through to all metaclass operations described below.

When a class definition is executed, the following steps occur:

   * MRO entries are resolved;

   * the appropriate metaclass is determined;

   * the class namespace is prepared;

   * the class body is executed;

   * the class object is created.


File: python.info,  Node: Resolving MRO entries,  Next: Determining the appropriate metaclass,  Prev: Metaclasses,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.9 Resolving MRO entries
.............................

 -- 方法: object.__mro_entries__ (self, bases)

     If a base that appears in a class definition is not an instance of
     *note type: bbb, then an ‘__mro_entries__()’ method is searched on
     the base.  If an ‘__mro_entries__()’ method is found, the base is
     substituted with the result of a call to ‘__mro_entries__()’ when
     creating the class.  The method is called with the original bases
     tuple passed to the 'bases' parameter, and must return a tuple of
     classes that will be used instead of the base.  The returned tuple
     may be empty: in these cases, the original base is ignored.

也參考
......

*note types.resolve_bases(): 9fc.

     Dynamically resolve bases that are not instances of *note type:
     bbb.

*note types.get_original_bases(): 1f5.

     Retrieve a class's "original bases" prior to modifications by *note
     __mro_entries__(): 1d08.

PEP 560(1)

     Core support for typing module and generic types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Determining the appropriate metaclass,  Next: Preparing the class namespace,  Prev: Resolving MRO entries,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.10 Determining the appropriate metaclass
..............................................

The appropriate metaclass for a class definition is determined as
follows:

   * if no bases and no explicit metaclass are given, then *note type():
     bbb. is used;

   * if an explicit metaclass is given and it is 'not' an instance of
     *note type(): bbb, then it is used directly as the metaclass;

   * if an instance of *note type(): bbb. is given as the explicit
     metaclass, or bases are defined, then the most derived metaclass is
     used.

The most derived metaclass is selected from the explicitly specified
metaclass (if any) and the metaclasses (i.e.  ‘type(cls)’) of all
specified base classes.  The most derived metaclass is one which is a
subtype of 'all' of these candidate metaclasses.  If none of the
candidate metaclasses meets that criterion, then the class definition
will fail with ‘TypeError’.


File: python.info,  Node: Preparing the class namespace,  Next: Executing the class body,  Prev: Determining the appropriate metaclass,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.11 Preparing the class namespace
......................................

Once the appropriate metaclass has been identified, then the class
namespace is prepared.  If the metaclass has a ‘__prepare__’ attribute,
it is called as ‘namespace = metaclass.__prepare__(name, bases, **kwds)’
(where the additional keyword arguments, if any, come from the class
definition).  The ‘__prepare__’ method should be implemented as a *note
classmethod: 24b.  The namespace returned by ‘__prepare__’ is passed in
to ‘__new__’, but when the final class object is created the namespace
is copied into a new ‘dict’.

If the metaclass has no ‘__prepare__’ attribute, then the class
namespace is initialised as an empty ordered mapping.

也參考
......

PEP 3115(1) - Metaclasses in Python 3000

     Introduced the ‘__prepare__’ namespace hook

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: Executing the class body,  Next: Creating the class object,  Prev: Preparing the class namespace,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.12 Executing the class body
.................................

The class body is executed (approximately) as ‘exec(body, globals(),
namespace)’.  The key difference from a normal call to *note exec():
6b1. is that lexical scoping allows the class body (including any
methods) to reference names from the current and outer scopes when the
class definition occurs inside a function.

However, even when the class definition occurs inside the function,
methods defined inside the class still cannot see names defined at the
class scope.  Class variables must be accessed through the first
parameter of instance or class methods, or through the implicit
lexically scoped ‘__class__’ reference described in the next section.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating the class object,  Next: Uses for metaclasses,  Prev: Executing the class body,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.13 Creating the class object
..................................

Once the class namespace has been populated by executing the class body,
the class object is created by calling ‘metaclass(name, bases,
namespace, **kwds)’ (the additional keywords passed here are the same as
those passed to ‘__prepare__’).

This class object is the one that will be referenced by the
zero-argument form of *note super(): 206.  ‘__class__’ is an implicit
closure reference created by the compiler if any methods in a class body
refer to either ‘__class__’ or ‘super’.  This allows the zero argument
form of *note super(): 206. to correctly identify the class being
defined based on lexical scoping, while the class or instance that was
used to make the current call is identified based on the first argument
passed to the method.

'CPython 實作細節：' In CPython 3.6 and later, the ‘__class__’ cell is
passed to the metaclass as a ‘__classcell__’ entry in the class
namespace.  If present, this must be propagated up to the ‘type.__new__’
call in order for the class to be initialised correctly.  Failing to do
so will result in a *note RuntimeError: 17a. in Python 3.8.

When using the default metaclass *note type: bbb, or any metaclass that
ultimately calls ‘type.__new__’, the following additional customization
steps are invoked after creating the class object:

  1. The ‘type.__new__’ method collects all of the attributes in the
     class namespace that define a *note __set_name__(): ab4. method;

  2. Those ‘__set_name__’ methods are called with the class being
     defined and the assigned name of that particular attribute;

  3. The *note __init_subclass__(): 42c. hook is called on the immediate
     parent of the new class in its method resolution order.

After the class object is created, it is passed to the class decorators
included in the class definition (if any) and the resulting object is
bound in the local namespace as the defined class.

When a new class is created by ‘type.__new__’, the object provided as
the namespace parameter is copied to a new ordered mapping and the
original object is discarded.  The new copy is wrapped in a read-only
proxy, which becomes the *note __dict__: ac5. attribute of the class
object.

也參考
......

PEP 3135(1) - New super

     Describes the implicit ‘__class__’ closure reference

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/


File: python.info,  Node: Uses for metaclasses,  Prev: Creating the class object,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.14 Uses for metaclasses
.............................

The potential uses for metaclasses are boundless.  Some ideas that have
been explored include enum, logging, interface checking, automatic
delegation, automatic property creation, proxies, frameworks, and
automatic resource locking/synchronization.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing instance and subclass checks,  Next: Emulating generic types,  Prev: Customizing class creation,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.15 Customizing instance and subclass checks
.................................................

The following methods are used to override the default behavior of the
*note isinstance(): 14b. and *note issubclass(): 5df. built-in
functions.

In particular, the metaclass *note abc.ABCMeta: d9d. implements these
methods in order to allow the addition of Abstract Base Classes (ABCs)
as "virtual base classes" to any class or type (including built-in
types), including other ABCs.

 -- 方法: type.__instancecheck__ (self, instance)

     Return true if 'instance' should be considered a (direct or
     indirect) instance of 'class'.  If defined, called to implement
     ‘isinstance(instance, class)’.

 -- 方法: type.__subclasscheck__ (self, subclass)

     Return true if 'subclass' should be considered a (direct or
     indirect) subclass of 'class'.  If defined, called to implement
     ‘issubclass(subclass, class)’.

Note that these methods are looked up on the type (metaclass) of a
class.  They cannot be defined as class methods in the actual class.
This is consistent with the lookup of special methods that are called on
instances, only in this case the instance is itself a class.

也參考
......

PEP 3119(1) - Introducing Abstract Base Classes

     Includes the specification for customizing *note isinstance(): 14b.
     and *note issubclass(): 5df. behavior through *note
     __instancecheck__(): 1d0f. and *note __subclasscheck__(): 1d10,
     with motivation for this functionality in the context of adding
     Abstract Base Classes (see the *note abc: 4. module) to the
     language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating generic types,  Next: Emulating callable objects,  Prev: Customizing instance and subclass checks,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.16 Emulating generic types
................................

When using *note type annotations: 168, it is often useful to
'parameterize' a *note generic type: 13b. using Python's square-brackets
notation.  For example, the annotation ‘list[int]’ might be used to
signify a *note list: 40a. in which all the elements are of type *note
int: 17e.

也參考
......

PEP 484(1) - Type Hints

     Introducing Python's framework for type annotations

*note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

     Documentation for objects representing parameterized generic
     classes

*note 泛型: 1d12, *note user-defined generics: 1f6. and *note typing.Generic: 1418.

     Documentation on how to implement generic classes that can be
     parameterized at runtime and understood by static type-checkers.

A class can 'generally' only be parameterized if it defines the special
class method ‘__class_getitem__()’.

 -- 方法: classmethod object.__class_getitem__ (cls, key)

     Return an object representing the specialization of a generic class
     by type arguments found in 'key'.

     When defined on a class, ‘__class_getitem__()’ is automatically a
     class method.  As such, there is no need for it to be decorated
     with *note @classmethod: 24b. when it is defined.

* Menu:

* The purpose of __class_getitem__::
* __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: The purpose of __class_getitem__,  Next: __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__,  Up: Emulating generic types

4.3.3.17 The purpose of '__class_getitem__'
...........................................

The purpose of *note __class_getitem__(): 54c. is to allow runtime
parameterization of standard-library generic classes in order to more
easily apply *note type hints: 1d14. to these classes.

To implement custom generic classes that can be parameterized at runtime
and understood by static type-checkers, users should either inherit from
a standard library class that already implements *note
__class_getitem__(): 54c, or inherit from *note typing.Generic: 1418,
which has its own implementation of ‘__class_getitem__()’.

Custom implementations of *note __class_getitem__(): 54c. on classes
defined outside of the standard library may not be understood by
third-party type-checkers such as mypy.  Using ‘__class_getitem__()’ on
any class for purposes other than type hinting is discouraged.


File: python.info,  Node: __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__,  Prev: The purpose of __class_getitem__,  Up: Emulating generic types

4.3.3.18 '__class_getitem__' versus '__getitem__'
.................................................

Usually, the *note subscription: 1d17. of an object using square
brackets will call the *note __getitem__(): 4e7. instance method defined
on the object's class.  However, if the object being subscribed is
itself a class, the class method *note __class_getitem__(): 54c. may be
called instead.  ‘__class_getitem__()’ should return a *note
GenericAlias: 4af. object if it is properly defined.

Presented with the *note expression: 1d18. ‘obj[x]’, the Python
interpreter follows something like the following process to decide
whether *note __getitem__(): 4e7. or *note __class_getitem__(): 54c.
should be called:

     from inspect import isclass

     def subscribe(obj, x):
         """Return the result of the expression 'obj[x]'"""

         class_of_obj = type(obj)

         # If the class of obj defines __getitem__,
         # call class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)
         if hasattr(class_of_obj, '__getitem__'):
             return class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)

         # Else, if obj is a class and defines __class_getitem__,
         # call obj.__class_getitem__(x)
         elif isclass(obj) and hasattr(obj, '__class_getitem__'):
             return obj.__class_getitem__(x)

         # Else, raise an exception
         else:
             raise TypeError(
                 f"'{class_of_obj.__name__}' object is not subscriptable"
             )

In Python, all classes are themselves instances of other classes.  The
class of a class is known as that class's *note metaclass: 1d19, and
most classes have the *note type: bbb. class as their metaclass.  *note
type: bbb. does not define *note __getitem__(): 4e7, meaning that
expressions such as ‘list[int]’, ‘dict[str, float]’ and ‘tuple[str,
bytes]’ all result in *note __class_getitem__(): 54c. being called:

     >>> # list has class "type" as its metaclass, like most classes:
     >>> type(list)
     <class 'type'>
     >>> type(dict) == type(list) == type(tuple) == type(str) == type(bytes)
     True
     >>> # "list[int]" calls "list.__class_getitem__(int)"
     >>> list[int]
     list[int]
     >>> # list.__class_getitem__ returns a GenericAlias object:
     >>> type(list[int])
     <class 'types.GenericAlias'>

However, if a class has a custom metaclass that defines *note
__getitem__(): 4e7, subscribing the class may result in different
behaviour.  An example of this can be found in the *note enum: 51.
module:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Menu(Enum):
     ...     """A breakfast menu"""
     ...     SPAM = 'spam'
     ...     BACON = 'bacon'
     ...
     >>> # Enum classes have a custom metaclass:
     >>> type(Menu)
     <class 'enum.EnumMeta'>
     >>> # EnumMeta defines __getitem__,
     >>> # so __class_getitem__ is not called,
     >>> # and the result is not a GenericAlias object:
     >>> Menu['SPAM']
     <Menu.SPAM: 'spam'>
     >>> type(Menu['SPAM'])
     <enum 'Menu'>

也參考
......

PEP 560(1) - Core Support for typing module and generic types

     Introducing *note __class_getitem__(): 54c, and outlining when a
     *note subscription: 1d17. results in ‘__class_getitem__()’ being
     called instead of *note __getitem__(): 4e7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating callable objects,  Next: Emulating container types,  Prev: Emulating generic types,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.19 Emulating callable objects
...................................

 -- 方法: object.__call__ (self[, args...])

     Called when the instance is "called" as a function; if this method
     is defined, ‘x(arg1, arg2, ...)’ roughly translates to
     ‘type(x).__call__(x, arg1, ...)’.  The *note object: 8d9. class
     itself does not provide this method.


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating container types,  Next: Emulating numeric types,  Prev: Emulating callable objects,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.20 Emulating container types
..................................

The following methods can be defined to implement container objects.
None of them are provided by the *note object: 8d9. class itself.
Containers usually are *note sequences: 238. (such as *note lists: 40a.
or *note tuples: 4e6.) or *note mappings: 104d. (like *note
dictionaries: 1d1e.), but can represent other containers as well.  The
first set of methods is used either to emulate a sequence or to emulate
a mapping; the difference is that for a sequence, the allowable keys
should be the integers 'k' for which ‘0 <= k < N’ where 'N' is the
length of the sequence, or *note slice: 180. objects, which define a
range of items.  It is also recommended that mappings provide the
methods ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, ‘items()’, ‘get()’, ‘clear()’,
‘setdefault()’, ‘pop()’, ‘popitem()’, ‘copy()’, and ‘update()’ behaving
similar to those for Python's standard *note dictionary: 239. objects.
The *note collections.abc: 1c. module provides a *note MutableMapping:
f3d. *note abstract base class: 1047. to help create those methods from
a base set of *note __getitem__(): 4e7, *note __setitem__(): 133c, *note
__delitem__(): 133d, and ‘keys()’.  Mutable sequences should provide
methods ‘append()’, ‘count()’, ‘index()’, ‘extend()’, ‘insert()’,
‘pop()’, ‘remove()’, ‘reverse()’ and ‘sort()’, like Python standard
*note list: 40a. objects.  Finally, sequence types should implement
addition (meaning concatenation) and multiplication (meaning repetition)
by defining the methods *note __add__(): 1d1f, *note __radd__(): 1d20,
*note __iadd__(): 1d21, *note __mul__(): 1d22, *note __rmul__(): 1d23.
and *note __imul__(): 1d24. described below; they should not define
other numerical operators.  It is recommended that both mappings and
sequences implement the *note __contains__(): 1cef. method to allow
efficient use of the ‘in’ operator; for mappings, ‘in’ should search the
mapping's keys; for sequences, it should search through the values.  It
is further recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the
*note __iter__(): 1ced. method to allow efficient iteration through the
container; for mappings, ‘__iter__()’ should iterate through the
object's keys; for sequences, it should iterate through the values.

 -- 方法: object.__len__ (self)

     Called to implement the built-in function *note len(): 429.  Should
     return the length of the object, an integer ‘>=’ 0.  Also, an
     object that doesn't define a *note __bool__(): 1166. method and
     whose ‘__len__()’ method returns zero is considered to be false in
     a Boolean context.

     'CPython 實作細節：' In CPython, the length is required to be at
     most *note sys.maxsize: 1056.  If the length is larger than
     ‘sys.maxsize’ some features (such as *note len(): 429.) may raise
     *note OverflowError: 6ad.  To prevent raising ‘OverflowError’ by
     truth value testing, an object must define a *note __bool__():
     1166. method.

 -- 方法: object.__length_hint__ (self)

     Called to implement *note operator.length_hint(): dfa.  Should
     return an estimated length for the object (which may be greater or
     less than the actual length).  The length must be an integer ‘>=’
     0.  The return value may also be *note NotImplemented: 5f2, which
     is treated the same as if the ‘__length_hint__’ method didn't exist
     at all.  This method is purely an optimization and is never
     required for correctness.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     備註: Slicing is done exclusively with the following three methods.
     A call like

          a[1:2] = b

     is translated to

          a[slice(1, 2, None)] = b

     and so forth.  Missing slice items are always filled in with
     ‘None’.

 -- 方法: object.__getitem__ (self, key)

     Called to implement evaluation of ‘self[key]’.  For *note sequence:
     238. types, the accepted keys should be integers.  Optionally, they
     may support *note slice: 180. objects as well.  Negative index
     support is also optional.  If 'key' is of an inappropriate type,
     *note TypeError: 2ba. may be raised; if 'key' is a value outside
     the set of indexes for the sequence (after any special
     interpretation of negative values), *note IndexError: 13ac. should
     be raised.  For *note mapping: 104d. types, if 'key' is missing
     (not in the container), *note KeyError: 8ed. should be raised.

          備註: *note for: 265. loops expect that an *note IndexError:
          13ac. will be raised for illegal indexes to allow proper
          detection of the end of the sequence.

          備註: When *note subscripting: 1d17. a 'class', the special
          class method *note __class_getitem__(): 54c. may be called
          instead of ‘__getitem__()’.  See *note __class_getitem__
          versus __getitem__: 1d16. for more details.

 -- 方法: object.__setitem__ (self, key, value)

     Called to implement assignment to ‘self[key]’.  Same note as for
     *note __getitem__(): 4e7.  This should only be implemented for
     mappings if the objects support changes to the values for keys, or
     if new keys can be added, or for sequences if elements can be
     replaced.  The same exceptions should be raised for improper 'key'
     values as for the *note __getitem__(): 4e7. method.

 -- 方法: object.__delitem__ (self, key)

     Called to implement deletion of ‘self[key]’.  Same note as for
     *note __getitem__(): 4e7.  This should only be implemented for
     mappings if the objects support removal of keys, or for sequences
     if elements can be removed from the sequence.  The same exceptions
     should be raised for improper 'key' values as for the *note
     __getitem__(): 4e7. method.

 -- 方法: object.__missing__ (self, key)

     Called by *note dict: 239.*note __getitem__(): 4e7. to implement
     ‘self[key]’ for dict subclasses when key is not in the dictionary.

 -- 方法: object.__iter__ (self)

     This method is called when an *note iterator: 1718. is required for
     a container.  This method should return a new iterator object that
     can iterate over all the objects in the container.  For mappings,
     it should iterate over the keys of the container.

 -- 方法: object.__reversed__ (self)

     Called (if present) by the *note reversed(): 691. built-in to
     implement reverse iteration.  It should return a new iterator
     object that iterates over all the objects in the container in
     reverse order.

     If the *note __reversed__(): 1cee. method is not provided, the
     *note reversed(): 691. built-in will fall back to using the
     sequence protocol (*note __len__(): 1cf4. and *note __getitem__():
     4e7.).  Objects that support the sequence protocol should only
     provide *note __reversed__(): 1cee. if they can provide an
     implementation that is more efficient than the one provided by
     *note reversed(): 691.

The membership test operators (*note in: 267. and *note not in: 42a.)
are normally implemented as an iteration through a container.  However,
container objects can supply the following special method with a more
efficient implementation, which also does not require the object be
iterable.

 -- 方法: object.__contains__ (self, item)

     Called to implement membership test operators.  Should return true
     if 'item' is in 'self', false otherwise.  For mapping objects, this
     should consider the keys of the mapping rather than the values or
     the key-item pairs.

     For objects that don't define *note __contains__(): 1cef, the
     membership test first tries iteration via *note __iter__(): 1ced,
     then the old sequence iteration protocol via *note __getitem__():
     4e7, see *note this section in the language reference: 1d26.


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating numeric types,  Next: With Statement Context Managers,  Prev: Emulating container types,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.21 Emulating numeric types
................................

The following methods can be defined to emulate numeric objects.
Methods corresponding to operations that are not supported by the
particular kind of number implemented (e.g., bitwise operations for
non-integral numbers) should be left undefined.

 -- 方法: object.__add__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__sub__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__mul__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__matmul__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__truediv__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__floordiv__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__mod__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__divmod__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__pow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- 方法: object.__lshift__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rshift__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__and__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__xor__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__or__ (self, other)

     These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic
     operations (‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’, *note divmod():
     7e5, *note pow(): 816, ‘**’, ‘<<’, ‘>>’, ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’).  For
     instance, to evaluate the expression ‘x + y’, where 'x' is an
     instance of a class that has an *note __add__(): 1d1f. method,
     ‘type(x).__add__(x, y)’ is called.  The *note __divmod__(): 1d2c.
     method should be the equivalent to using *note __floordiv__():
     136b. and *note __mod__(): 1d2b.; it should not be related to *note
     __truediv__(): 136a.  Note that *note __pow__(): 5f3. should be
     defined to accept an optional third argument if the ternary version
     of the built-in *note pow(): 816. function is to be supported.

     If one of those methods does not support the operation with the
     supplied arguments, it should return *note NotImplemented: 5f2.

 -- 方法: object.__radd__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rsub__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rmul__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rmatmul__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rtruediv__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rfloordiv__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rmod__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rdivmod__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rpow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- 方法: object.__rlshift__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rrshift__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rand__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__rxor__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__ror__ (self, other)

     These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic
     operations (‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’, *note divmod():
     7e5, *note pow(): 816, ‘**’, ‘<<’, ‘>>’, ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’) with
     reflected (swapped) operands.  These functions are only called if
     the left operand does not support the corresponding operation (1)
     and the operands are of different types.  (2)  For instance, to
     evaluate the expression ‘x - y’, where 'y' is an instance of a
     class that has an *note __rsub__(): 1d32. method,
     ‘type(y).__rsub__(y, x)’ is called if ‘type(x).__sub__(x, y)’
     returns *note NotImplemented: 5f2.

     Note that ternary *note pow(): 816. will not try calling *note
     __rpow__(): 5f4. (the coercion rules would become too complicated).

          備註: If the right operand's type is a subclass of the left
          operand's type and that subclass provides a different
          implementation of the reflected method for the operation, this
          method will be called before the left operand's non-reflected
          method.  This behavior allows subclasses to override their
          ancestors' operations.

 -- 方法: object.__iadd__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__isub__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__imul__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__imatmul__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__itruediv__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__ifloordiv__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__imod__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__ipow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- 方法: object.__ilshift__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__irshift__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__iand__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__ixor__ (self, other)
 -- 方法: object.__ior__ (self, other)

     These methods are called to implement the augmented arithmetic
     assignments (‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’, ‘@=’, ‘/=’, ‘//=’, ‘%=’, ‘**=’,
     ‘<<=’, ‘>>=’, ‘&=’, ‘^=’, ‘|=’).  These methods should attempt to
     do the operation in-place (modifying 'self') and return the result
     (which could be, but does not have to be, 'self').  If a specific
     method is not defined, or if that method returns *note
     NotImplemented: 5f2, the augmented assignment falls back to the
     normal methods.  For instance, if 'x' is an instance of a class
     with an *note __iadd__(): 1d21. method, ‘x += y’ is equivalent to
     ‘x = x.__iadd__(y)’ .  If *note __iadd__(): 1d21. does not exist,
     or if ‘x.__iadd__(y)’ returns ‘NotImplemented’, ‘x.__add__(y)’ and
     ‘y.__radd__(x)’ are considered, as with the evaluation of ‘x + y’.
     In certain situations, augmented assignment can result in
     unexpected errors (see *note Why does a_tuple[i] += ['item'] raise
     an exception when the addition works?: 1d47.), but this behavior is
     in fact part of the data model.

 -- 方法: object.__neg__ (self)
 -- 方法: object.__pos__ (self)
 -- 方法: object.__abs__ (self)
 -- 方法: object.__invert__ (self)

     Called to implement the unary arithmetic operations (‘-’, ‘+’,
     *note abs(): 1a99. and ‘~’).

 -- 方法: object.__complex__ (self)
 -- 方法: object.__int__ (self)
 -- 方法: object.__float__ (self)

     Called to implement the built-in functions *note complex(): 26b,
     *note int(): 17e. and *note float(): 26a.  Should return a value of
     the appropriate type.

 -- 方法: object.__index__ (self)

     Called to implement *note operator.index(): 16e4, and whenever
     Python needs to losslessly convert the numeric object to an integer
     object (such as in slicing, or in the built-in *note bin(): 113c,
     *note hex(): 115f. and *note oct(): 115e. functions).  Presence of
     this method indicates that the numeric object is an integer type.
     Must return an integer.

     If *note __int__(): 51e, *note __float__(): 810. and *note
     __complex__(): 3dd. are not defined then corresponding built-in
     functions *note int(): 17e, *note float(): 26a. and *note
     complex(): 26b. fall back to *note __index__(): 51f.

 -- 方法: object.__round__ (self[, ndigits])
 -- 方法: object.__trunc__ (self)
 -- 方法: object.__floor__ (self)
 -- 方法: object.__ceil__ (self)

     Called to implement the built-in function *note round(): 116b. and
     *note math: 89. functions *note trunc(): 1232, *note floor(): 1230.
     and *note ceil(): 1231.  Unless 'ndigits' is passed to
     ‘__round__()’ all these methods should return the value of the
     object truncated to an *note Integral: 1d4f. (typically an *note
     int: 17e.).

     The built-in function *note int(): 17e. falls back to *note
     __trunc__(): 51d. if neither *note __int__(): 51e. nor *note
     __index__(): 51f. is defined.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The delegation of *note int(): 17e. to *note
     __trunc__(): 51d. is deprecated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) "Does not support" here means that the class has no such method,
or the method returns *note NotImplemented: 5f2.  Do not set the method
to ‘None’ if you want to force fallback to the right operand's reflected
method—that will instead have the opposite effect of explicitly
'blocking' such fallback.

   (2) For operands of the same type, it is assumed that if the
non-reflected method - such as *note __add__(): 1d1f. - fails then the
overall operation is not supported, which is why the reflected method is
not called.


File: python.info,  Node: With Statement Context Managers,  Next: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching,  Prev: Emulating numeric types,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.22 With Statement Context Managers
........................................

A 'context manager' is an object that defines the runtime context to be
established when executing a *note with: 3c5. statement.  The context
manager handles the entry into, and the exit from, the desired runtime
context for the execution of the block of code.  Context managers are
normally invoked using the ‘with’ statement (described in section *note
The with statement: 3c5.), but can also be used by directly invoking
their methods.

Typical uses of context managers include saving and restoring various
kinds of global state, locking and unlocking resources, closing opened
files, etc.

For more information on context managers, see *note 情境管理器型別:
1d52.  The *note object: 8d9. class itself does not provide the context
manager methods.

 -- 方法: object.__enter__ (self)

     Enter the runtime context related to this object.  The *note with:
     3c5. statement will bind this method's return value to the
     target(s) specified in the ‘as’ clause of the statement, if any.

 -- 方法: object.__exit__ (self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

     Exit the runtime context related to this object.  The parameters
     describe the exception that caused the context to be exited.  If
     the context was exited without an exception, all three arguments
     will be *note None: 470.

     If an exception is supplied, and the method wishes to suppress the
     exception (i.e., prevent it from being propagated), it should
     return a true value.  Otherwise, the exception will be processed
     normally upon exit from this method.

     Note that *note __exit__(): 1191. methods should not reraise the
     passed-in exception; this is the caller's responsibility.

也參考
......

PEP 343(1) - "with" 陳述式

     The specification, background, and examples for the Python *note
     with: 3c5. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching,  Next: Emulating buffer types,  Prev: With Statement Context Managers,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.23 Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching
...................................................................

When using a class name in a pattern, positional arguments in the
pattern are not allowed by default, i.e.  ‘case MyClass(x, y)’ is
typically invalid without special support in ‘MyClass’.  To be able to
use that kind of pattern, the class needs to define a '__match_args__'
attribute.

 -- 資料: object.__match_args__

     This class variable can be assigned a tuple of strings.  When this
     class is used in a class pattern with positional arguments, each
     positional argument will be converted into a keyword argument,
     using the corresponding value in '__match_args__' as the keyword.
     The absence of this attribute is equivalent to setting it to ‘()’.

For example, if ‘MyClass.__match_args__’ is ‘("left", "center",
"right")’ that means that ‘case MyClass(x, y)’ is equivalent to ‘case
MyClass(left=x, center=y)’.  Note that the number of arguments in the
pattern must be smaller than or equal to the number of elements in
'__match_args__'; if it is larger, the pattern match attempt will raise
a *note TypeError: 2ba.

在 3.10 版被加入.

也參考
......

PEP 634(1) - Structural Pattern Matching

     The specification for the Python ‘match’ statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating buffer types,  Next: Special method lookup,  Prev: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.24 Emulating buffer types
...............................

The *note buffer protocol: 148. provides a way for Python objects to
expose efficient access to a low-level memory array.  This protocol is
implemented by builtin types such as *note bytes: 2c1. and *note
memoryview: 17f, and third-party libraries may define additional buffer
types.

While buffer types are usually implemented in C, it is also possible to
implement the protocol in Python.

 -- 方法: object.__buffer__ (self, flags)

     Called when a buffer is requested from 'self' (for example, by the
     *note memoryview: 17f. constructor).  The 'flags' argument is an
     integer representing the kind of buffer requested, affecting for
     example whether the returned buffer is read-only or writable.
     *note inspect.BufferFlags: 171. provides a convenient way to
     interpret the flags.  The method must return a *note memoryview:
     17f. object.

 -- 方法: object.__release_buffer__ (self, buffer)

     Called when a buffer is no longer needed.  The 'buffer' argument is
     a *note memoryview: 17f. object that was previously returned by
     *note __buffer__(): 16f.  The method must release any resources
     associated with the buffer.  This method should return ‘None’.
     Buffer objects that do not need to perform any cleanup are not
     required to implement this method.

在 3.12 版被加入.

也參考
......

PEP 688(1) - Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python

     Introduces the Python ‘__buffer__’ and ‘__release_buffer__’
     methods.

*note collections.abc.Buffer: 170.

     ABC for buffer types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/


File: python.info,  Node: Special method lookup,  Prev: Emulating buffer types,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.25 Special method lookup
..............................

For custom classes, implicit invocations of special methods are only
guaranteed to work correctly if defined on an object's type, not in the
object's instance dictionary.  That behaviour is the reason why the
following code raises an exception:

     >>> class C:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.__len__ = lambda: 5
     >>> len(c)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: object of type 'C' has no len()

The rationale behind this behaviour lies with a number of special
methods such as *note __hash__(): 950. and *note __repr__(): 416. that
are implemented by all objects, including type objects.  If the implicit
lookup of these methods used the conventional lookup process, they would
fail when invoked on the type object itself:

     >>> 1 .__hash__() == hash(1)
     True
     >>> int.__hash__() == hash(int)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: descriptor '__hash__' of 'int' object needs an argument

Incorrectly attempting to invoke an unbound method of a class in this
way is sometimes referred to as 'metaclass confusion', and is avoided by
bypassing the instance when looking up special methods:

     >>> type(1).__hash__(1) == hash(1)
     True
     >>> type(int).__hash__(int) == hash(int)
     True

In addition to bypassing any instance attributes in the interest of
correctness, implicit special method lookup generally also bypasses the
*note __getattribute__(): a33. method even of the object's metaclass:

     >>> class Meta(type):
     ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
     ...         print("Metaclass getattribute invoked")
     ...         return type.__getattribute__(*args)
     ...
     >>> class C(object, metaclass=Meta):
     ...     def __len__(self):
     ...         return 10
     ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
     ...         print("Class getattribute invoked")
     ...         return object.__getattribute__(*args)
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.__len__()                 # Explicit lookup via instance
     Class getattribute invoked
     10
     >>> type(c).__len__(c)          # Explicit lookup via type
     Metaclass getattribute invoked
     10
     >>> len(c)                      # Implicit lookup
     10

Bypassing the *note __getattribute__(): a33. machinery in this fashion
provides significant scope for speed optimisations within the
interpreter, at the cost of some flexibility in the handling of special
methods (the special method 'must' be set on the class object itself in
order to be consistently invoked by the interpreter).


File: python.info,  Node: 協程,  Prev: Special method names,  Up: 資料模型

4.3.4 協程
----------

* Menu:

* Awaitable Objects::
* Coroutine Objects::
* Asynchronous Iterators::
* Asynchronous Context Managers::


File: python.info,  Node: Awaitable Objects,  Next: Coroutine Objects,  Up: 協程

4.3.4.1 Awaitable Objects
.........................

An *note awaitable: ae0. object generally implements an *note
__await__(): 1d5a. method.  *note Coroutine objects: 1ae. returned from
*note async def: 3c3. functions are awaitable.

     備註: The *note generator iterator: a3f. objects returned from
     generators decorated with *note types.coroutine(): d0a. are also
     awaitable, but they do not implement *note __await__(): 1d5a.

 -- 方法: object.__await__ (self)

     Must return an *note iterator: 1718.  Should be used to implement
     *note awaitable: ae0. objects.  For instance, *note asyncio.Future:
     a2e. implements this method to be compatible with the *note await:
     542. expression.  The *note object: 8d9. class itself is not
     awaitable and does not provide this method.

          備註: The language doesn't place any restriction on the type
          or value of the objects yielded by the iterator returned by
          ‘__await__’, as this is specific to the implementation of the
          asynchronous execution framework (e.g.  *note asyncio: 9.)
          that will be managing the *note awaitable: ae0. object.

在 3.5 版被加入.

也參考
......

PEP 492(1) for additional information about awaitable objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine Objects,  Next: Asynchronous Iterators,  Prev: Awaitable Objects,  Up: 協程

4.3.4.2 Coroutine Objects
.........................

*note Coroutine objects: 1ae. are *note awaitable: ae0. objects.  A
coroutine's execution can be controlled by calling *note __await__():
1d5a. and iterating over the result.  When the coroutine has finished
executing and returns, the iterator raises *note StopIteration: a5d, and
the exception's *note value: 1d5c. attribute holds the return value.  If
the coroutine raises an exception, it is propagated by the iterator.
Coroutines should not directly raise unhandled *note StopIteration: a5d.
exceptions.

Coroutines also have the methods listed below, which are analogous to
those of generators (see *note Generator-iterator methods: 1d5d.).
However, unlike generators, coroutines do not directly support
iteration.

在 3.5.2 版的變更: It is a *note RuntimeError: 17a. to await on a
coroutine more than once.

 -- 方法: coroutine.send (value)

     Starts or resumes execution of the coroutine.  If 'value' is
     ‘None’, this is equivalent to advancing the iterator returned by
     *note __await__(): 1d5a.  If 'value' is not ‘None’, this method
     delegates to the *note send(): 1d5f. method of the iterator that
     caused the coroutine to suspend.  The result (return value, *note
     StopIteration: a5d, or other exception) is the same as when
     iterating over the ‘__await__()’ return value, described above.

 -- 方法: coroutine.throw (value)

 -- 方法: coroutine.throw (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Raises the specified exception in the coroutine.  This method
     delegates to the *note throw(): 243. method of the iterator that
     caused the coroutine to suspend, if it has such a method.
     Otherwise, the exception is raised at the suspension point.  The
     result (return value, *note StopIteration: a5d, or other exception)
     is the same as when iterating over the *note __await__(): 1d5a.
     return value, described above.  If the exception is not caught in
     the coroutine, it propagates back to the caller.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The second signature (type[, value[, traceback]])
     is deprecated and may be removed in a future version of Python.

 -- 方法: coroutine.close ()

     Causes the coroutine to clean itself up and exit.  If the coroutine
     is suspended, this method first delegates to the *note close():
     158c. method of the iterator that caused the coroutine to suspend,
     if it has such a method.  Then it raises *note GeneratorExit: 1236.
     at the suspension point, causing the coroutine to immediately clean
     itself up.  Finally, the coroutine is marked as having finished
     executing, even if it was never started.

     Coroutine objects are automatically closed using the above process
     when they are about to be destroyed.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous Iterators,  Next: Asynchronous Context Managers,  Prev: Coroutine Objects,  Up: 協程

4.3.4.3 Asynchronous Iterators
..............................

An 'asynchronous iterator' can call asynchronous code in its ‘__anext__’
method.

Asynchronous iterators can be used in an *note async for: 8fe.
statement.

The *note object: 8d9. class itself does not provide these methods.

 -- 方法: object.__aiter__ (self)

     Must return an 'asynchronous iterator' object.

 -- 方法: object.__anext__ (self)

     Must return an 'awaitable' resulting in a next value of the
     iterator.  Should raise a *note StopAsyncIteration: 1813. error
     when the iteration is over.

An example of an asynchronous iterable object:

     class Reader:
         async def readline(self):
             ...

         def __aiter__(self):
             return self

         async def __anext__(self):
             val = await self.readline()
             if val == b'':
                 raise StopAsyncIteration
             return val

在 3.5 版被加入.

在 3.7 版的變更: Prior to Python 3.7, *note __aiter__(): a5e. could
return an 'awaitable' that would resolve to an *note asynchronous
iterator: bef.

Starting with Python 3.7, *note __aiter__(): a5e. must return an
asynchronous iterator object.  Returning anything else will result in a
*note TypeError: 2ba. error.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous Context Managers,  Prev: Asynchronous Iterators,  Up: 協程

4.3.4.4 Asynchronous Context Managers
.....................................

An 'asynchronous context manager' is a 'context manager' that is able to
suspend execution in its ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’ methods.

Asynchronous context managers can be used in an *note async with: 3c8.
statement.

The *note object: 8d9. class itself does not provide these methods.

 -- 方法: object.__aenter__ (self)

     Semantically similar to *note __enter__(): 3b8, the only difference
     being that it must return an 'awaitable'.

 -- 方法: object.__aexit__ (self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

     Semantically similar to *note __exit__(): 1191, the only difference
     being that it must return an 'awaitable'.

An example of an asynchronous context manager class:

     class AsyncContextManager:
         async def __aenter__(self):
             await log('entering context')

         async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
             await log('exiting context')

在 3.5 版被加入.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: 執行模型,  Next: 模組引入系統,  Prev: 資料模型,  Up: Python 語言參考手冊

4.4 執行模型
============

* Menu:

* Structure of a program::
* Naming and binding::
* 例外::


File: python.info,  Node: Structure of a program,  Next: Naming and binding,  Up: 執行模型

4.4.1 Structure of a program
----------------------------

A Python program is constructed from code blocks.  A 'block' is a piece
of Python program text that is executed as a unit.  The following are
blocks: a module, a function body, and a class definition.  Each command
typed interactively is a block.  A script file (a file given as standard
input to the interpreter or specified as a command line argument to the
interpreter) is a code block.  A script command (a command specified on
the interpreter command line with the *note -c: 3d3. option) is a code
block.  A module run as a top level script (as module ‘__main__’) from
the command line using a *note -m: 3d4. argument is also a code block.
The string argument passed to the built-in functions *note eval(): 6b0.
and *note exec(): 6b1. is a code block.

A code block is executed in an 'execution frame'.  A frame contains some
administrative information (used for debugging) and determines where and
how execution continues after the code block's execution has completed.


File: python.info,  Node: Naming and binding,  Next: 例外,  Prev: Structure of a program,  Up: 執行模型

4.4.2 Naming and binding
------------------------

* Menu:

* Binding of names::
* Resolution of names::
* Annotation scopes::
* Lazy evaluation::
* Builtins and restricted execution::
* Interaction with dynamic features::


File: python.info,  Node: Binding of names,  Next: Resolution of names,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.1 Binding of names
........................

'Names' refer to objects.  Names are introduced by name binding
operations.

The following constructs bind names:

   * formal parameters to functions,

   * class definitions,

   * function definitions,

   * assignment expressions,

   * *note targets: 1d6d. that are identifiers if occurring in an
     assignment:

        + *note for: 265. loop header,

        + after ‘as’ in a *note with: 3c5. statement, *note except: 3a8.
          clause, *note except*: 3a7. clause, or in the as-pattern in
          structural pattern matching,

        + in a capture pattern in structural pattern matching

   * *note import: 3d5. 陳述式。

   * *note type: 13a. 陳述式。

   * *note type parameter lists: 166.

The ‘import’ statement of the form ‘from ... import *’ binds all names
defined in the imported module, except those beginning with an
underscore.  This form may only be used at the module level.

A target occurring in a *note del: 1570. statement is also considered
bound for this purpose (though the actual semantics are to unbind the
name).

Each assignment or import statement occurs within a block defined by a
class or function definition or at the module level (the top-level code
block).

If a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block,
unless declared as *note nonlocal: 113b. or *note global: 1a13.  If a
name is bound at the module level, it is a global variable.  (The
variables of the module code block are local and global.)  If a variable
is used in a code block but not defined there, it is a 'free variable'.

Each occurrence of a name in the program text refers to the 'binding' of
that name established by the following name resolution rules.


File: python.info,  Node: Resolution of names,  Next: Annotation scopes,  Prev: Binding of names,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.2 Resolution of names
...........................

A 'scope' defines the visibility of a name within a block.  If a local
variable is defined in a block, its scope includes that block.  If the
definition occurs in a function block, the scope extends to any blocks
contained within the defining one, unless a contained block introduces a
different binding for the name.

When a name is used in a code block, it is resolved using the nearest
enclosing scope.  The set of all such scopes visible to a code block is
called the block's 'environment'.

When a name is not found at all, a *note NameError: 144. exception is
raised.  If the current scope is a function scope, and the name refers
to a local variable that has not yet been bound to a value at the point
where the name is used, an *note UnboundLocalError: 13ad. exception is
raised.  *note UnboundLocalError: 13ad. is a subclass of *note
NameError: 144.

If a name binding operation occurs anywhere within a code block, all
uses of the name within the block are treated as references to the
current block.  This can lead to errors when a name is used within a
block before it is bound.  This rule is subtle.  Python lacks
declarations and allows name binding operations to occur anywhere within
a code block.  The local variables of a code block can be determined by
scanning the entire text of the block for name binding operations.  See
*note the FAQ entry on UnboundLocalError: 1d70. for examples.

If the *note global: 1a13. statement occurs within a block, all uses of
the names specified in the statement refer to the bindings of those
names in the top-level namespace.  Names are resolved in the top-level
namespace by searching the global namespace, i.e.  the namespace of the
module containing the code block, and the builtins namespace, the
namespace of the module *note builtins: 10.  The global namespace is
searched first.  If the names are not found there, the builtins
namespace is searched next.  If the names are also not found in the
builtins namespace, new variables are created in the global namespace.
The global statement must precede all uses of the listed names.

The *note global: 1a13. statement has the same scope as a name binding
operation in the same block.  If the nearest enclosing scope for a free
variable contains a global statement, the free variable is treated as a
global.

The *note nonlocal: 113b. statement causes corresponding names to refer
to previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing function scope.
*note SyntaxError: 146. is raised at compile time if the given name does
not exist in any enclosing function scope.  *note Type parameters: 166.
cannot be rebound with the ‘nonlocal’ statement.

The namespace for a module is automatically created the first time a
module is imported.  The main module for a script is always called *note
__main__: 1.

Class definition blocks and arguments to *note exec(): 6b1. and *note
eval(): 6b0. are special in the context of name resolution.  A class
definition is an executable statement that may use and define names.
These references follow the normal rules for name resolution with an
exception that unbound local variables are looked up in the global
namespace.  The namespace of the class definition becomes the attribute
dictionary of the class.  The scope of names defined in a class block is
limited to the class block; it does not extend to the code blocks of
methods.  This includes comprehensions and generator expressions, but it
does not include *note annotation scopes: 167, which have access to
their enclosing class scopes.  This means that the following will fail:

     class A:
         a = 42
         b = list(a + i for i in range(10))

However, the following will succeed:

     class A:
         type Alias = Nested
         class Nested: pass

     print(A.Alias.__value__)  # <type 'A.Nested'>


File: python.info,  Node: Annotation scopes,  Next: Lazy evaluation,  Prev: Resolution of names,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.3 Annotation scopes
.........................

*note Type parameter lists: 166. and *note type: 13a. statements
introduce 'annotation scopes', which behave mostly like function scopes,
but with some exceptions discussed below.  *note Annotations: 168.
currently do not use annotation scopes, but they are expected to use
annotation scopes in Python 3.13 when PEP 649(1) is implemented.

Annotation scopes are used in the following contexts:

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic type aliases: 161.

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic functions: 15e.  A generic
     function's annotations are executed within the annotation scope,
     but its defaults and decorators are not.

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic classes: 15d.  A generic
     class's base classes and keyword arguments are executed within the
     annotation scope, but its decorators are not.

   * The bounds and constraints for type variables (*note lazily
     evaluated: 165.).

   * The value of type aliases (*note lazily evaluated: 165.).

Annotation scopes differ from function scopes in the following ways:

   * Annotation scopes have access to their enclosing class namespace.
     If an annotation scope is immediately within a class scope, or
     within another annotation scope that is immediately within a class
     scope, the code in the annotation scope can use names defined in
     the class scope as if it were executed directly within the class
     body.  This contrasts with regular functions defined within
     classes, which cannot access names defined in the class scope.

   * Expressions in annotation scopes cannot contain *note yield: 811,
     ‘yield from’, *note await: 542, or *note ;=: 1d72. expressions.
     (These expressions are allowed in other scopes contained within the
     annotation scope.)

   * Names defined in annotation scopes cannot be rebound with *note
     nonlocal: 113b. statements in inner scopes.  This includes only
     type parameters, as no other syntactic elements that can appear
     within annotation scopes can introduce new names.

   * While annotation scopes have an internal name, that name is not
     reflected in the *note qualified name: 1716. of objects defined
     within the scope.  Instead, the *note __qualname__: efb. of such
     objects is as if the object were defined in the enclosing scope.

在 3.12 版被加入: Annotation scopes were introduced in Python 3.12 as
part of PEP 695(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: Lazy evaluation,  Next: Builtins and restricted execution,  Prev: Annotation scopes,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.4 Lazy evaluation
.......................

The values of type aliases created through the *note type: 13a.
statement are 'lazily evaluated'.  The same applies to the bounds and
constraints of type variables created through the *note type parameter
syntax: 166.  This means that they are not evaluated when the type alias
or type variable is created.  Instead, they are only evaluated when
doing so is necessary to resolve an attribute access.

舉例來說：

     >>> type Alias = 1/0
     >>> Alias.__value__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> def func[T: 1/0](): pass
     >>> T = func.__type_params__[0]
     >>> T.__bound__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Here the exception is raised only when the ‘__value__’ attribute of the
type alias or the ‘__bound__’ attribute of the type variable is
accessed.

This behavior is primarily useful for references to types that have not
yet been defined when the type alias or type variable is created.  For
example, lazy evaluation enables creation of mutually recursive type
aliases:

     from typing import Literal

     type SimpleExpr = int | Parenthesized
     type Parenthesized = tuple[Literal["("], Expr, Literal[")"]]
     type Expr = SimpleExpr | tuple[SimpleExpr, Literal["+", "-"], Expr]

Lazily evaluated values are evaluated in *note annotation scope: 167,
which means that names that appear inside the lazily evaluated value are
looked up as if they were used in the immediately enclosing scope.

在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Builtins and restricted execution,  Next: Interaction with dynamic features,  Prev: Lazy evaluation,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.5 Builtins and restricted execution
.........................................

'CPython 實作細節：' Users should not touch ‘__builtins__’; it is
strictly an implementation detail.  Users wanting to override values in
the builtins namespace should *note import: 3d5. the *note builtins: 10.
module and modify its attributes appropriately.

The builtins namespace associated with the execution of a code block is
actually found by looking up the name ‘__builtins__’ in its global
namespace; this should be a dictionary or a module (in the latter case
the module's dictionary is used).  By default, when in the *note
__main__: 1. module, ‘__builtins__’ is the built-in module *note
builtins: 10.; when in any other module, ‘__builtins__’ is an alias for
the dictionary of the *note builtins: 10. module itself.


File: python.info,  Node: Interaction with dynamic features,  Prev: Builtins and restricted execution,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.6 Interaction with dynamic features
.........................................

Name resolution of free variables occurs at runtime, not at compile
time.  This means that the following code will print 42:

     i = 10
     def f():
         print(i)
     i = 42
     f()

The *note eval(): 6b0. and *note exec(): 6b1. functions do not have
access to the full environment for resolving names.  Names may be
resolved in the local and global namespaces of the caller.  Free
variables are not resolved in the nearest enclosing namespace, but in
the global namespace.  (1)  The *note exec(): 6b1. and *note eval():
6b0. functions have optional arguments to override the global and local
namespace.  If only one namespace is specified, it is used for both.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This limitation occurs because the code that is executed by these
operations is not available at the time the module is compiled.


File: python.info,  Node: 例外,  Prev: Naming and binding,  Up: 執行模型

4.4.3 例外
----------

Exceptions are a means of breaking out of the normal flow of control of
a code block in order to handle errors or other exceptional conditions.
An exception is 'raised' at the point where the error is detected; it
may be 'handled' by the surrounding code block or by any code block that
directly or indirectly invoked the code block where the error occurred.

The Python interpreter raises an exception when it detects a run-time
error (such as division by zero).  A Python program can also explicitly
raise an exception with the *note raise: 3e1. statement.  Exception
handlers are specified with the *note try: 4ea. ...  *note except: 3a8.
statement.  The *note finally: 80e. clause of such a statement can be
used to specify cleanup code which does not handle the exception, but is
executed whether an exception occurred or not in the preceding code.

Python uses the "termination" model of error handling: an exception
handler can find out what happened and continue execution at an outer
level, but it cannot repair the cause of the error and retry the failing
operation (except by re-entering the offending piece of code from the
top).

When an exception is not handled at all, the interpreter terminates
execution of the program, or returns to its interactive main loop.  In
either case, it prints a stack traceback, except when the exception is
*note SystemExit: bb2.

Exceptions are identified by class instances.  The *note except: 3a8.
clause is selected depending on the class of the instance: it must
reference the class of the instance or a *note non-virtual base class:
1047. thereof.  The instance can be received by the handler and can
carry additional information about the exceptional condition.

     備註: Exception messages are not part of the Python API. Their
     contents may change from one version of Python to the next without
     warning and should not be relied on by code which will run under
     multiple versions of the interpreter.

See also the description of the *note try: 4ea. statement in section
*note The try statement: 4ea. and *note raise: 3e1. statement in section
*note raise 陳述式: 3e1.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: 模組引入系統,  Next: 運算式,  Prev: 執行模型,  Up: Python 語言參考手冊

4.5 模組引入系統
================

Python code in one *note module: 14de. gains access to the code in
another module by the process of *note importing: 1d7c. it.  The *note
import: 3d5. statement is the most common way of invoking the import
machinery, but it is not the only way.  Functions such as *note
importlib.import_module(): 298. and built-in *note __import__(): 70d.
can also be used to invoke the import machinery.

The *note import: 3d5. statement combines two operations; it searches
for the named module, then it binds the results of that search to a name
in the local scope.  The search operation of the ‘import’ statement is
defined as a call to the *note __import__(): 70d. function, with the
appropriate arguments.  The return value of *note __import__(): 70d. is
used to perform the name binding operation of the ‘import’ statement.
See the ‘import’ statement for the exact details of that name binding
operation.

A direct call to *note __import__(): 70d. performs only the module
search and, if found, the module creation operation.  While certain
side-effects may occur, such as the importing of parent packages, and
the updating of various caches (including *note sys.modules: 1745.),
only the *note import: 3d5. statement performs a name binding operation.

When an *note import: 3d5. statement is executed, the standard builtin
*note __import__(): 70d. function is called.  Other mechanisms for
invoking the import system (such as *note importlib.import_module():
298.) may choose to bypass *note __import__(): 70d. and use their own
solutions to implement import semantics.

When a module is first imported, Python searches for the module and if
found, it creates a module object (1), initializing it.  If the named
module cannot be found, a *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f. is raised.
Python implements various strategies to search for the named module when
the import machinery is invoked.  These strategies can be modified and
extended by using various hooks described in the sections below.

在 3.3 版的變更: The import system has been updated to fully implement
the second phase of PEP 302(2).  There is no longer any implicit import
machinery - the full import system is exposed through *note
sys.meta_path: b9d.  In addition, native namespace package support has
been implemented (see PEP 420(3)).

* Menu:

* importlib: importlib<9>.
* 套件::
* Searching::
* Loading::
* The Path Based Finder::
* Replacing the standard import system::
* Package Relative Imports::
* Special considerations for __main__::
* References::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 參閱 *note types.ModuleType: c8c.。

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<9>,  Next: 套件,  Up: 模組引入系統

4.5.1 ‘importlib’
-----------------

The *note importlib: 71. module provides a rich API for interacting with
the import system.  For example *note importlib.import_module(): 298.
provides a recommended, simpler API than built-in *note __import__():
70d. for invoking the import machinery.  Refer to the *note importlib:
71. library documentation for additional detail.


File: python.info,  Node: 套件,  Next: Searching,  Prev: importlib<9>,  Up: 模組引入系統

4.5.2 套件
----------

Python has only one type of module object, and all modules are of this
type, regardless of whether the module is implemented in Python, C, or
something else.  To help organize modules and provide a naming
hierarchy, Python has a concept of *note packages: 1cab.

You can think of packages as the directories on a file system and
modules as files within directories, but don't take this analogy too
literally since packages and modules need not originate from the file
system.  For the purposes of this documentation, we'll use this
convenient analogy of directories and files.  Like file system
directories, packages are organized hierarchically, and packages may
themselves contain subpackages, as well as regular modules.

It's important to keep in mind that all packages are modules, but not
all modules are packages.  Or put another way, packages are just a
special kind of module.  Specifically, any module that contains a
‘__path__’ attribute is considered a package.

All modules have a name.  Subpackage names are separated from their
parent package name by a dot, akin to Python's standard attribute access
syntax.  Thus you might have a package called *note email: 37, which in
turn has a subpackage called *note email.mime: 41. and a module within
that subpackage called *note email.mime.text: 49.

* Menu:

* Regular packages::
* Namespace packages::


File: python.info,  Node: Regular packages,  Next: Namespace packages,  Up: 套件

4.5.2.1 Regular packages
........................

Python defines two types of packages, *note regular packages: 1d80. and
*note namespace packages: 1a5d.  Regular packages are traditional
packages as they existed in Python 3.2 and earlier.  A regular package
is typically implemented as a directory containing an ‘__init__.py’
file.  When a regular package is imported, this ‘__init__.py’ file is
implicitly executed, and the objects it defines are bound to names in
the package's namespace.  The ‘__init__.py’ file can contain the same
Python code that any other module can contain, and Python will add some
additional attributes to the module when it is imported.

For example, the following file system layout defines a top level
‘parent’ package with three subpackages:

     parent/
         __init__.py
         one/
             __init__.py
         two/
             __init__.py
         three/
             __init__.py

Importing ‘parent.one’ will implicitly execute ‘parent/__init__.py’ and
‘parent/one/__init__.py’.  Subsequent imports of ‘parent.two’ or
‘parent.three’ will execute ‘parent/two/__init__.py’ and
‘parent/three/__init__.py’ respectively.


File: python.info,  Node: Namespace packages,  Prev: Regular packages,  Up: 套件

4.5.2.2 Namespace packages
..........................

A namespace package is a composite of various *note portions: 1d82,
where each portion contributes a subpackage to the parent package.
Portions may reside in different locations on the file system.  Portions
may also be found in zip files, on the network, or anywhere else that
Python searches during import.  Namespace packages may or may not
correspond directly to objects on the file system; they may be virtual
modules that have no concrete representation.

Namespace packages do not use an ordinary list for their ‘__path__’
attribute.  They instead use a custom iterable type which will
automatically perform a new search for package portions on the next
import attempt within that package if the path of their parent package
(or *note sys.path: 35e. for a top level package) changes.

With namespace packages, there is no ‘parent/__init__.py’ file.  In
fact, there may be multiple ‘parent’ directories found during import
search, where each one is provided by a different portion.  Thus
‘parent/one’ may not be physically located next to ‘parent/two’.  In
this case, Python will create a namespace package for the top-level
‘parent’ package whenever it or one of its subpackages is imported.

See also PEP 420(1) for the namespace package specification.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: Searching,  Next: Loading,  Prev: 套件,  Up: 模組引入系統

4.5.3 Searching
---------------

To begin the search, Python needs the *note fully qualified: 1716. name
of the module (or package, but for the purposes of this discussion, the
difference is immaterial) being imported.  This name may come from
various arguments to the *note import: 3d5. statement, or from the
parameters to the *note importlib.import_module(): 298. or *note
__import__(): 70d. functions.

This name will be used in various phases of the import search, and it
may be the dotted path to a submodule, e.g.  ‘foo.bar.baz’.  In this
case, Python first tries to import ‘foo’, then ‘foo.bar’, and finally
‘foo.bar.baz’.  If any of the intermediate imports fail, a *note
ModuleNotFoundError: 99f. is raised.

* Menu:

* The module cache::
* Finders and loaders::
* Import hooks::
* The meta path::


File: python.info,  Node: The module cache,  Next: Finders and loaders,  Up: Searching

4.5.3.1 The module cache
........................

The first place checked during import search is *note sys.modules: 1745.
This mapping serves as a cache of all modules that have been previously
imported, including the intermediate paths.  So if ‘foo.bar.baz’ was
previously imported, *note sys.modules: 1745. will contain entries for
‘foo’, ‘foo.bar’, and ‘foo.bar.baz’.  Each key will have as its value
the corresponding module object.

During import, the module name is looked up in *note sys.modules: 1745.
and if present, the associated value is the module satisfying the
import, and the process completes.  However, if the value is ‘None’,
then a *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f. is raised.  If the module name is
missing, Python will continue searching for the module.

*note sys.modules: 1745. is writable.  Deleting a key may not destroy
the associated module (as other modules may hold references to it), but
it will invalidate the cache entry for the named module, causing Python
to search anew for the named module upon its next import.  The key can
also be assigned to ‘None’, forcing the next import of the module to
result in a *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f.

Beware though, as if you keep a reference to the module object,
invalidate its cache entry in *note sys.modules: 1745, and then
re-import the named module, the two module objects will 'not' be the
same.  By contrast, *note importlib.reload(): 299. will reuse the 'same'
module object, and simply reinitialise the module contents by rerunning
the module's code.


File: python.info,  Node: Finders and loaders,  Next: Import hooks,  Prev: The module cache,  Up: Searching

4.5.3.2 Finders and loaders
...........................

If the named module is not found in *note sys.modules: 1745, then
Python's import protocol is invoked to find and load the module.  This
protocol consists of two conceptual objects, *note finders: 1caf. and
*note loaders: 1463.  A finder's job is to determine whether it can find
the named module using whatever strategy it knows about.  Objects that
implement both of these interfaces are referred to as *note importers:
1d87. - they return themselves when they find that they can load the
requested module.

Python includes a number of default finders and importers.  The first
one knows how to locate built-in modules, and the second knows how to
locate frozen modules.  A third default finder searches an *note import
path: 1d88. for modules.  The *note import path: 1d88. is a list of
locations that may name file system paths or zip files.  It can also be
extended to search for any locatable resource, such as those identified
by URLs.

The import machinery is extensible, so new finders can be added to
extend the range and scope of module searching.

Finders do not actually load modules.  If they can find the named
module, they return a 'module spec', an encapsulation of the module's
import-related information, which the import machinery then uses when
loading the module.

The following sections describe the protocol for finders and loaders in
more detail, including how you can create and register new ones to
extend the import machinery.

在 3.4 版的變更: In previous versions of Python, finders returned *note
loaders: 1463. directly, whereas now they return module specs which
'contain' loaders.  Loaders are still used during import but have fewer
responsibilities.


File: python.info,  Node: Import hooks,  Next: The meta path,  Prev: Finders and loaders,  Up: Searching

4.5.3.3 Import hooks
....................

The import machinery is designed to be extensible; the primary mechanism
for this are the 'import hooks'.  There are two types of import hooks:
'meta hooks' and 'import path hooks'.

Meta hooks are called at the start of import processing, before any
other import processing has occurred, other than *note sys.modules:
1745. cache look up.  This allows meta hooks to override *note sys.path:
35e. processing, frozen modules, or even built-in modules.  Meta hooks
are registered by adding new finder objects to *note sys.meta_path: b9d,
as described below.

Import path hooks are called as part of *note sys.path: 35e. (or
‘package.__path__’) processing, at the point where their associated path
item is encountered.  Import path hooks are registered by adding new
callables to *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. as described below.


File: python.info,  Node: The meta path,  Prev: Import hooks,  Up: Searching

4.5.3.4 The meta path
.....................

When the named module is not found in *note sys.modules: 1745, Python
next searches *note sys.meta_path: b9d, which contains a list of meta
path finder objects.  These finders are queried in order to see if they
know how to handle the named module.  Meta path finders must implement a
method called *note find_spec(): 694. which takes three arguments: a
name, an import path, and (optionally) a target module.  The meta path
finder can use any strategy it wants to determine whether it can handle
the named module or not.

If the meta path finder knows how to handle the named module, it returns
a spec object.  If it cannot handle the named module, it returns ‘None’.
If *note sys.meta_path: b9d. processing reaches the end of its list
without returning a spec, then a *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f. is
raised.  Any other exceptions raised are simply propagated up, aborting
the import process.

The *note find_spec(): 694. method of meta path finders is called with
two or three arguments.  The first is the fully qualified name of the
module being imported, for example ‘foo.bar.baz’.  The second argument
is the path entries to use for the module search.  For top-level
modules, the second argument is ‘None’, but for submodules or
subpackages, the second argument is the value of the parent package's
‘__path__’ attribute.  If the appropriate ‘__path__’ attribute cannot be
accessed, a *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f. is raised.  The third
argument is an existing module object that will be the target of loading
later.  The import system passes in a target module only during reload.

The meta path may be traversed multiple times for a single import
request.  For example, assuming none of the modules involved has already
been cached, importing ‘foo.bar.baz’ will first perform a top level
import, calling ‘mpf.find_spec("foo", None, None)’ on each meta path
finder (‘mpf’).  After ‘foo’ has been imported, ‘foo.bar’ will be
imported by traversing the meta path a second time, calling
‘mpf.find_spec("foo.bar", foo.__path__, None)’.  Once ‘foo.bar’ has been
imported, the final traversal will call ‘mpf.find_spec("foo.bar.baz",
foo.bar.__path__, None)’.

Some meta path finders only support top level imports.  These importers
will always return ‘None’ when anything other than ‘None’ is passed as
the second argument.

Python's default *note sys.meta_path: b9d. has three meta path finders,
one that knows how to import built-in modules, one that knows how to
import frozen modules, and one that knows how to import modules from an
*note import path: 1d88. (i.e.  the *note path based finder: 1d8b.).

在 3.4 版的變更: The *note find_spec(): 694. method of meta path finders
replaced ‘find_module()’, which is now deprecated.  While it will
continue to work without change, the import machinery will try it only
if the finder does not implement *note find_spec(): 694.

在 3.10 版的變更: Use of ‘find_module()’ by the import system now raises
*note ImportWarning: 247.

在 3.12 版的變更: ‘find_module()’ has been removed.  Use *note
find_spec(): 694. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Loading,  Next: The Path Based Finder,  Prev: Searching,  Up: 模組引入系統

4.5.4 Loading
-------------

If and when a module spec is found, the import machinery will use it
(and the loader it contains) when loading the module.  Here is an
approximation of what happens during the loading portion of import:

     module = None
     if spec.loader is not None and hasattr(spec.loader, 'create_module'):
         # It is assumed 'exec_module' will also be defined on the loader.
         module = spec.loader.create_module(spec)
     if module is None:
         module = ModuleType(spec.name)
     # The import-related module attributes get set here:
     _init_module_attrs(spec, module)

     if spec.loader is None:
         # unsupported
         raise ImportError
     if spec.origin is None and spec.submodule_search_locations is not None:
         # namespace package
         sys.modules[spec.name] = module
     elif not hasattr(spec.loader, 'exec_module'):
         module = spec.loader.load_module(spec.name)
     else:
         sys.modules[spec.name] = module
         try:
             spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         except BaseException:
             try:
                 del sys.modules[spec.name]
             except KeyError:
                 pass
             raise
     return sys.modules[spec.name]

Note the following details:

   * If there is an existing module object with the given name in *note
     sys.modules: 1745, import will have already returned it.

   * The module will exist in *note sys.modules: 1745. before the loader
     executes the module code.  This is crucial because the module code
     may (directly or indirectly) import itself; adding it to *note
     sys.modules: 1745. beforehand prevents unbounded recursion in the
     worst case and multiple loading in the best.

   * If loading fails, the failing module - and only the failing module
     - gets removed from *note sys.modules: 1745.  Any module already in
     the *note sys.modules: 1745. cache, and any module that was
     successfully loaded as a side-effect, must remain in the cache.
     This contrasts with reloading where even the failing module is left
     in *note sys.modules: 1745.

   * After the module is created but before execution, the import
     machinery sets the import-related module attributes
     ("_init_module_attrs" in the pseudo-code example above), as
     summarized in a *note later section: 1ca4.

   * Module execution is the key moment of loading in which the module's
     namespace gets populated.  Execution is entirely delegated to the
     loader, which gets to decide what gets populated and how.

   * The module created during loading and passed to exec_module() may
     not be the one returned at the end of import (1).

在 3.4 版的變更: The import system has taken over the boilerplate
responsibilities of loaders.  These were previously performed by the
*note importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 695. method.

* Menu:

* Loaders::
* 子模組::
* Module specs::
* __path__ attributes on modules::
* Module reprs::
* Cached bytecode invalidation::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The importlib implementation avoids using the return value
directly.  Instead, it gets the module object by looking the module name
up in *note sys.modules: 1745.  The indirect effect of this is that an
imported module may replace itself in *note sys.modules: 1745.  This is
implementation-specific behavior that is not guaranteed to work in other
Python implementations.


File: python.info,  Node: Loaders,  Next: 子模組,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.1 Loaders
...............

Module loaders provide the critical function of loading: module
execution.  The import machinery calls the *note
importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 696. method with a single argument,
the module object to execute.  Any value returned from *note
exec_module(): 696. is ignored.

Loaders must satisfy the following requirements:

   * If the module is a Python module (as opposed to a built-in module
     or a dynamically loaded extension), the loader should execute the
     module's code in the module's global name space
     (‘module.__dict__’).

   * If the loader cannot execute the module, it should raise an *note
     ImportError: 145, although any other exception raised during *note
     exec_module(): 696. will be propagated.

In many cases, the finder and loader can be the same object; in such
cases the *note find_spec(): 694. method would just return a spec with
the loader set to ‘self’.

Module loaders may opt in to creating the module object during loading
by implementing a *note create_module(): b1b. method.  It takes one
argument, the module spec, and returns the new module object to use
during loading.  ‘create_module()’ does not need to set any attributes
on the module object.  If the method returns ‘None’, the import
machinery will create the new module itself.

在 3.4 版被加入: The *note create_module(): b1b. method of loaders.

在 3.4 版的變更: The *note load_module(): 695. method was replaced by
*note exec_module(): 696. and the import machinery assumed all the
boilerplate responsibilities of loading.

For compatibility with existing loaders, the import machinery will use
the ‘load_module()’ method of loaders if it exists and the loader does
not also implement ‘exec_module()’.  However, ‘load_module()’ has been
deprecated and loaders should implement ‘exec_module()’ instead.

The ‘load_module()’ method must implement all the boilerplate loading
functionality described above in addition to executing the module.  All
the same constraints apply, with some additional clarification:

   * If there is an existing module object with the given name in *note
     sys.modules: 1745, the loader must use that existing module.
     (Otherwise, *note importlib.reload(): 299. will not work
     correctly.)  If the named module does not exist in *note
     sys.modules: 1745, the loader must create a new module object and
     add it to *note sys.modules: 1745.

   * The module 'must' exist in *note sys.modules: 1745. before the
     loader executes the module code, to prevent unbounded recursion or
     multiple loading.

   * If loading fails, the loader must remove any modules it has
     inserted into *note sys.modules: 1745, but it must remove 'only'
     the failing module(s), and only if the loader itself has loaded the
     module(s) explicitly.

在 3.5 版的變更: A *note DeprecationWarning: 179. is raised when
‘exec_module()’ is defined but ‘create_module()’ is not.

在 3.6 版的變更: An *note ImportError: 145. is raised when
‘exec_module()’ is defined but ‘create_module()’ is not.

在 3.10 版的變更: Use of ‘load_module()’ will raise *note ImportWarning:
247.


File: python.info,  Node: 子模組,  Next: Module specs,  Prev: Loaders,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.2 子模組
..............

When a submodule is loaded using any mechanism (e.g.  ‘importlib’ APIs,
the ‘import’ or ‘import-from’ statements, or built-in ‘__import__()’) a
binding is placed in the parent module's namespace to the submodule
object.  For example, if package ‘spam’ has a submodule ‘foo’, after
importing ‘spam.foo’, ‘spam’ will have an attribute ‘foo’ which is bound
to the submodule.  Let's say you have the following directory structure:

     spam/
         __init__.py
         foo.py

and ‘spam/__init__.py’ has the following line in it:

     from .foo import Foo

then executing the following puts name bindings for ‘foo’ and ‘Foo’ in
the ‘spam’ module:

     >>> import spam
     >>> spam.foo
     <module 'spam.foo' from '/tmp/imports/spam/foo.py'>
     >>> spam.Foo
     <class 'spam.foo.Foo'>

Given Python's familiar name binding rules this might seem surprising,
but it's actually a fundamental feature of the import system.  The
invariant holding is that if you have ‘sys.modules['spam']’ and
‘sys.modules['spam.foo']’ (as you would after the above import), the
latter must appear as the ‘foo’ attribute of the former.


File: python.info,  Node: Module specs,  Next: __path__ attributes on modules,  Prev: 子模組,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.3 Module specs
....................

The import machinery uses a variety of information about each module
during import, especially before loading.  Most of the information is
common to all modules.  The purpose of a module's spec is to encapsulate
this import-related information on a per-module basis.

Using a spec during import allows state to be transferred between import
system components, e.g.  between the finder that creates the module spec
and the loader that executes it.  Most importantly, it allows the import
machinery to perform the boilerplate operations of loading, whereas
without a module spec the loader had that responsibility.

The module's spec is exposed as *note module.__spec__: 1ca7.  Setting
‘__spec__’ appropriately applies equally to *note modules initialized
during interpreter startup: 1d90.  The one exception is ‘__main__’,
where ‘__spec__’ is *note set to None in some cases: 1d91.

See *note ModuleSpec: 1ca9. for details on the contents of the module
spec.

在 3.4 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: __path__ attributes on modules,  Next: Module reprs,  Prev: Module specs,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.4 __path__ attributes on modules
......................................

The *note __path__: 1a63. attribute should be a (possibly empty) *note
sequence: 238. of strings enumerating the locations where the package's
submodules will be found.  By definition, if a module has a ‘__path__’
attribute, it is a *note package: 1cab.

A package's *note __path__: 1a63. attribute is used during imports of
its subpackages.  Within the import machinery, it functions much the
same as *note sys.path: 35e, i.e.  providing a list of locations to
search for modules during import.  However, ‘__path__’ is typically much
more constrained than ‘sys.path’.

The same rules used for *note sys.path: 35e. also apply to a package's
‘__path__’.  *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. (described below) are consulted
when traversing a package's ‘__path__’.

A package's ‘__init__.py’ file may set or alter the package's *note
__path__: 1a63. attribute, and this was typically the way namespace
packages were implemented prior to PEP 420(1).  With the adoption of PEP
420(2), namespace packages no longer need to supply ‘__init__.py’ files
containing only ‘__path__’ manipulation code; the import machinery
automatically sets ‘__path__’ correctly for the namespace package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: Module reprs,  Next: Cached bytecode invalidation,  Prev: __path__ attributes on modules,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.5 Module reprs
....................

By default, all modules have a usable repr, however depending on the
attributes set above, and in the module's spec, you can more explicitly
control the repr of module objects.

If the module has a spec (‘__spec__’), the import machinery will try to
generate a repr from it.  If that fails or there is no spec, the import
system will craft a default repr using whatever information is available
on the module.  It will try to use the ‘module.__name__’,
‘module.__file__’, and ‘module.__loader__’ as input into the repr, with
defaults for whatever information is missing.

Here are the exact rules used:

   * If the module has a ‘__spec__’ attribute, the information in the
     spec is used to generate the repr.  The "name", "loader", "origin",
     and "has_location" attributes are consulted.

   * If the module has a ‘__file__’ attribute, this is used as part of
     the module's repr.

   * If the module has no ‘__file__’ but does have a ‘__loader__’ that
     is not ‘None’, then the loader's repr is used as part of the
     module's repr.

   * Otherwise, just use the module's ‘__name__’ in the repr.

在 3.12 版的變更: Use of ‘module_repr()’, having been deprecated since
Python 3.4, was removed in Python 3.12 and is no longer called during
the resolution of a module's repr.


File: python.info,  Node: Cached bytecode invalidation,  Prev: Module reprs,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.6 Cached bytecode invalidation
....................................

Before Python loads cached bytecode from a ‘.pyc’ file, it checks
whether the cache is up-to-date with the source ‘.py’ file.  By default,
Python does this by storing the source's last-modified timestamp and
size in the cache file when writing it.  At runtime, the import system
then validates the cache file by checking the stored metadata in the
cache file against the source's metadata.

Python also supports "hash-based" cache files, which store a hash of the
source file's contents rather than its metadata.  There are two variants
of hash-based ‘.pyc’ files: checked and unchecked.  For checked
hash-based ‘.pyc’ files, Python validates the cache file by hashing the
source file and comparing the resulting hash with the hash in the cache
file.  If a checked hash-based cache file is found to be invalid, Python
regenerates it and writes a new checked hash-based cache file.  For
unchecked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files, Python simply assumes the cache file
is valid if it exists.  Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files validation behavior may
be overridden with the *note -check-hash-based-pycs: 1b25. flag.

在 3.7 版的變更: Added hash-based ‘.pyc’ files.  Previously, Python only
supported timestamp-based invalidation of bytecode caches.


File: python.info,  Node: The Path Based Finder,  Next: Replacing the standard import system,  Prev: Loading,  Up: 模組引入系統

4.5.5 The Path Based Finder
---------------------------

As mentioned previously, Python comes with several default meta path
finders.  One of these, called the *note path based finder: 1d8b. (*note
PathFinder: eb7.), searches an *note import path: 1d88, which contains a
list of *note path entries: 1d96.  Each path entry names a location to
search for modules.

The path based finder itself doesn't know how to import anything.
Instead, it traverses the individual path entries, associating each of
them with a path entry finder that knows how to handle that particular
kind of path.

The default set of path entry finders implement all the semantics for
finding modules on the file system, handling special file types such as
Python source code (‘.py’ files), Python byte code (‘.pyc’ files) and
shared libraries (e.g.  ‘.so’ files).  When supported by the *note
zipimport: 12c. module in the standard library, the default path entry
finders also handle loading all of these file types (other than shared
libraries) from zipfiles.

Path entries need not be limited to file system locations.  They can
refer to URLs, database queries, or any other location that can be
specified as a string.

The path based finder provides additional hooks and protocols so that
you can extend and customize the types of searchable path entries.  For
example, if you wanted to support path entries as network URLs, you
could write a hook that implements HTTP semantics to find modules on the
web.  This hook (a callable) would return a *note path entry finder:
f07. supporting the protocol described below, which was then used to get
a loader for the module from the web.

A word of warning: this section and the previous both use the term
'finder', distinguishing between them by using the terms *note meta path
finder: f06. and *note path entry finder: f07.  These two types of
finders are very similar, support similar protocols, and function in
similar ways during the import process, but it's important to keep in
mind that they are subtly different.  In particular, meta path finders
operate at the beginning of the import process, as keyed off the *note
sys.meta_path: b9d. traversal.

By contrast, path entry finders are in a sense an implementation detail
of the path based finder, and in fact, if the path based finder were to
be removed from *note sys.meta_path: b9d, none of the path entry finder
semantics would be invoked.

* Menu:

* Path entry finders::
* Path entry finder protocol::


File: python.info,  Node: Path entry finders,  Next: Path entry finder protocol,  Up: The Path Based Finder

4.5.5.1 Path entry finders
..........................

The *note path based finder: 1d8b. is responsible for finding and
loading Python modules and packages whose location is specified with a
string *note path entry: 1d96.  Most path entries name locations in the
file system, but they need not be limited to this.

As a meta path finder, the *note path based finder: 1d8b. implements the
*note find_spec(): 694. protocol previously described, however it
exposes additional hooks that can be used to customize how modules are
found and loaded from the *note import path: 1d88.

Three variables are used by the *note path based finder: 1d8b, *note
sys.path: 35e, *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. and *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8.  The ‘__path__’ attributes on package
objects are also used.  These provide additional ways that the import
machinery can be customized.

*note sys.path: 35e. contains a list of strings providing search
locations for modules and packages.  It is initialized from the *note
PYTHONPATH: eb1. environment variable and various other installation-
and implementation-specific defaults.  Entries in *note sys.path: 35e.
can name directories on the file system, zip files, and potentially
other "locations" (see the *note site: c2. module) that should be
searched for modules, such as URLs, or database queries.  Only strings
should be present on *note sys.path: 35e.; all other data types are
ignored.

The *note path based finder: 1d8b. is a *note meta path finder: f06, so
the import machinery begins the *note import path: 1d88. search by
calling the path based finder's *note find_spec(): ea4. method as
described previously.  When the ‘path’ argument to *note find_spec():
ea4. is given, it will be a list of string paths to traverse - typically
a package's ‘__path__’ attribute for an import within that package.  If
the ‘path’ argument is ‘None’, this indicates a top level import and
*note sys.path: 35e. is used.

The path based finder iterates over every entry in the search path, and
for each of these, looks for an appropriate *note path entry finder:
f07. (*note PathEntryFinder: 69b.) for the path entry.  Because this can
be an expensive operation (e.g.  there may be ‘stat()’ call overheads
for this search), the path based finder maintains a cache mapping path
entries to path entry finders.  This cache is maintained in *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. (despite the name, this cache actually
stores finder objects rather than being limited to *note importer: 1d87.
objects).  In this way, the expensive search for a particular *note path
entry: 1d96. location's *note path entry finder: f07. need only be done
once.  User code is free to remove cache entries from *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. forcing the path based finder to perform
the path entry search again.

If the path entry is not present in the cache, the path based finder
iterates over every callable in *note sys.path_hooks: eb8.  Each of the
*note path entry hooks: 1d98. in this list is called with a single
argument, the path entry to be searched.  This callable may either
return a *note path entry finder: f07. that can handle the path entry,
or it may raise *note ImportError: 145.  An *note ImportError: 145. is
used by the path based finder to signal that the hook cannot find a
*note path entry finder: f07. for that *note path entry: 1d96.  The
exception is ignored and *note import path: 1d88. iteration continues.
The hook should expect either a string or bytes object; the encoding of
bytes objects is up to the hook (e.g.  it may be a file system encoding,
UTF-8, or something else), and if the hook cannot decode the argument,
it should raise *note ImportError: 145.

If *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. iteration ends with no *note path entry
finder: f07. being returned, then the path based finder's *note
find_spec(): ea4. method will store ‘None’ in *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. (to indicate that there is no finder for
this path entry) and return ‘None’, indicating that this *note meta path
finder: f06. could not find the module.

If a *note path entry finder: f07. 'is' returned by one of the *note
path entry hook: 1d98. callables on *note sys.path_hooks: eb8, then the
following protocol is used to ask the finder for a module spec, which is
then used when loading the module.

The current working directory - denoted by an empty string - is handled
slightly differently from other entries on *note sys.path: 35e.  First,
if the current working directory is found to not exist, no value is
stored in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8.  Second, the value for the
current working directory is looked up fresh for each module lookup.
Third, the path used for *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. and
returned by *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): ea4. will
be the actual current working directory and not the empty string.


File: python.info,  Node: Path entry finder protocol,  Prev: Path entry finders,  Up: The Path Based Finder

4.5.5.2 Path entry finder protocol
..................................

In order to support imports of modules and initialized packages and also
to contribute portions to namespace packages, path entry finders must
implement the *note find_spec(): 698. method.

*note find_spec(): 698. takes two arguments: the fully qualified name of
the module being imported, and the (optional) target module.
‘find_spec()’ returns a fully populated spec for the module.  This spec
will always have "loader" set (with one exception).

To indicate to the import machinery that the spec represents a namespace
*note portion: 1d82, the path entry finder sets
‘submodule_search_locations’ to a list containing the portion.

在 3.4 版的變更: *note find_spec(): 698. replaced ‘find_loader()’ and
‘find_module()’, both of which are now deprecated, but will be used if
‘find_spec()’ is not defined.

Older path entry finders may implement one of these two deprecated
methods instead of ‘find_spec()’.  The methods are still respected for
the sake of backward compatibility.  However, if ‘find_spec()’ is
implemented on the path entry finder, the legacy methods are ignored.

‘find_loader()’ takes one argument, the fully qualified name of the
module being imported.  ‘find_loader()’ returns a 2-tuple where the
first item is the loader and the second item is a namespace *note
portion: 1d82.

For backwards compatibility with other implementations of the import
protocol, many path entry finders also support the same, traditional
‘find_module()’ method that meta path finders support.  However path
entry finder ‘find_module()’ methods are never called with a ‘path’
argument (they are expected to record the appropriate path information
from the initial call to the path hook).

The ‘find_module()’ method on path entry finders is deprecated, as it
does not allow the path entry finder to contribute portions to namespace
packages.  If both ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’ exist on a path
entry finder, the import system will always call ‘find_loader()’ in
preference to ‘find_module()’.

在 3.10 版的變更: Calls to ‘find_module()’ and ‘find_loader()’ by the
import system will raise *note ImportWarning: 247.

在 3.12 版的變更: ‘find_module()’ and ‘find_loader()’ have been removed.


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing the standard import system,  Next: Package Relative Imports,  Prev: The Path Based Finder,  Up: 模組引入系統

4.5.6 Replacing the standard import system
------------------------------------------

The most reliable mechanism for replacing the entire import system is to
delete the default contents of *note sys.meta_path: b9d, replacing them
entirely with a custom meta path hook.

If it is acceptable to only alter the behaviour of import statements
without affecting other APIs that access the import system, then
replacing the builtin *note __import__(): 70d. function may be
sufficient.  This technique may also be employed at the module level to
only alter the behaviour of import statements within that module.

To selectively prevent the import of some modules from a hook early on
the meta path (rather than disabling the standard import system
entirely), it is sufficient to raise *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f.
directly from *note find_spec(): 694. instead of returning ‘None’.  The
latter indicates that the meta path search should continue, while
raising an exception terminates it immediately.


File: python.info,  Node: Package Relative Imports,  Next: Special considerations for __main__,  Prev: Replacing the standard import system,  Up: 模組引入系統

4.5.7 Package Relative Imports
------------------------------

Relative imports use leading dots.  A single leading dot indicates a
relative import, starting with the current package.  Two or more leading
dots indicate a relative import to the parent(s) of the current package,
one level per dot after the first.  For example, given the following
package layout:

     package/
         __init__.py
         subpackage1/
             __init__.py
             moduleX.py
             moduleY.py
         subpackage2/
             __init__.py
             moduleZ.py
         moduleA.py

In either ‘subpackage1/moduleX.py’ or ‘subpackage1/__init__.py’, the
following are valid relative imports:

     from .moduleY import spam
     from .moduleY import spam as ham
     from . import moduleY
     from ..subpackage1 import moduleY
     from ..subpackage2.moduleZ import eggs
     from ..moduleA import foo

Absolute imports may use either the ‘import <>’ or ‘from <> import <>’
syntax, but relative imports may only use the second form; the reason
for this is that:

     import XXX.YYY.ZZZ

should expose ‘XXX.YYY.ZZZ’ as a usable expression, but .moduleY is not
a valid expression.


File: python.info,  Node: Special considerations for __main__,  Next: References,  Prev: Package Relative Imports,  Up: 模組引入系統

4.5.8 Special considerations for __main__
-----------------------------------------

The *note __main__: 1. module is a special case relative to Python's
import system.  As noted *note elsewhere: 1d90, the ‘__main__’ module is
directly initialized at interpreter startup, much like *note sys: d3.
and *note builtins: 10.  However, unlike those two, it doesn't strictly
qualify as a built-in module.  This is because the manner in which
‘__main__’ is initialized depends on the flags and other options with
which the interpreter is invoked.

* Menu:

* __main__.__spec__: __main__ __spec__.


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ __spec__,  Up: Special considerations for __main__

4.5.8.1 __main__.__spec__
.........................

Depending on how *note __main__: 1. is initialized, ‘__main__.__spec__’
gets set appropriately or to ‘None’.

When Python is started with the *note -m: 3d4. option, ‘__spec__’ is set
to the module spec of the corresponding module or package.  ‘__spec__’
is also populated when the ‘__main__’ module is loaded as part of
executing a directory, zipfile or other *note sys.path: 35e. entry.

In *note the remaining cases: 1b1e. ‘__main__.__spec__’ is set to
‘None’, as the code used to populate the *note __main__: 1. does not
correspond directly with an importable module:

   - interactive prompt

   - *note -c: 3d3. 選項

   - running from stdin

   - running directly from a source or bytecode file

Note that ‘__main__.__spec__’ is always ‘None’ in the last case, 'even
if' the file could technically be imported directly as a module instead.
Use the *note -m: 3d4. switch if valid module metadata is desired in
*note __main__: 1.

Note also that even when ‘__main__’ corresponds with an importable
module and ‘__main__.__spec__’ is set accordingly, they're still
considered 'distinct' modules.  This is due to the fact that blocks
guarded by ‘if __name__ == "__main__":’ checks only execute when the
module is used to populate the ‘__main__’ namespace, and not during
normal import.


File: python.info,  Node: References,  Prev: Special considerations for __main__,  Up: 模組引入系統

4.5.9 References
----------------

The import machinery has evolved considerably since Python's early days.
The original specification for packages(1) is still available to read,
although some details have changed since the writing of that document.

The original specification for *note sys.meta_path: b9d. was PEP 302(2),
with subsequent extension in PEP 420(3).

PEP 420(4) introduced *note namespace packages: 1a5d. for Python 3.3.
PEP 420(5) also introduced the ‘find_loader()’ protocol as an
alternative to ‘find_module()’.

PEP 366(6) describes the addition of the ‘__package__’ attribute for
explicit relative imports in main modules.

PEP 328(7) introduced absolute and explicit relative imports and
initially proposed ‘__name__’ for semantics PEP 366(8) would eventually
specify for ‘__package__’.

PEP 338(9) defines executing modules as scripts.

PEP 451(10) adds the encapsulation of per-module import state in spec
objects.  It also off-loads most of the boilerplate responsibilities of
loaders back onto the import machinery.  These changes allow the
deprecation of several APIs in the import system and also addition of
new methods to finders and loaders.

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/


File: python.info,  Node: 運算式,  Next: 簡單陳述式,  Prev: 模組引入系統,  Up: Python 語言參考手冊

4.6 運算式
==========

This chapter explains the meaning of the elements of expressions in
Python.

'Syntax Notes:' In this and the following chapters, extended BNF
notation will be used to describe syntax, not lexical analysis.  When
(one alternative of) a syntax rule has the form

     name ::= othername

and no semantics are given, the semantics of this form of ‘name’ are the
same as for ‘othername’.

* Menu:

* Arithmetic conversions::
* Atoms::
* Primaries::
* Await expression::
* The power operator::
* Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations::
* Binary arithmetic operations::
* Shifting operations::
* Binary bitwise operations::
* Comparisons::
* Boolean operations::
* Assignment expressions: Assignment expressions<2>.
* Conditional expressions::
* Lambdas::
* Expression lists::
* Evaluation order::
* Operator precedence::


File: python.info,  Node: Arithmetic conversions,  Next: Atoms,  Up: 運算式

4.6.1 Arithmetic conversions
----------------------------

When a description of an arithmetic operator below uses the phrase "the
numeric arguments are converted to a common type", this means that the
operator implementation for built-in types works as follows:

   * If either argument is a complex number, the other is converted to
     complex;

   * otherwise, if either argument is a floating-point number, the other
     is converted to floating point;

   * otherwise, both must be integers and no conversion is necessary.

Some additional rules apply for certain operators (e.g., a string as a
left argument to the '%' operator).  Extensions must define their own
conversion behavior.


File: python.info,  Node: Atoms,  Next: Primaries,  Prev: Arithmetic conversions,  Up: 運算式

4.6.2 Atoms
-----------

Atoms are the most basic elements of expressions.  The simplest atoms
are identifiers or literals.  Forms enclosed in parentheses, brackets or
braces are also categorized syntactically as atoms.  The syntax for
atoms is:

     atom      ::= identifier | literal | enclosure
     enclosure ::= parenth_form | list_display | dict_display | set_display
                   | generator_expression | yield_atom

* Menu:

* Identifiers (Names): Identifiers Names.
* Literals: Literals<2>.
* Parenthesized forms::
* Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
* List displays::
* Set displays::
* Dictionary displays::
* Generator expressions::
* Yield expressions::


File: python.info,  Node: Identifiers Names,  Next: Literals<2>,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.1 Identifiers (Names)
...........................

An identifier occurring as an atom is a name.  See section *note
Identifiers and keywords: 1c27. for lexical definition and section *note
Naming and binding: 1c8b. for documentation of naming and binding.

When the name is bound to an object, evaluation of the atom yields that
object.  When a name is not bound, an attempt to evaluate it raises a
*note NameError: 144. exception.

* Menu:

* Private name mangling::


File: python.info,  Node: Private name mangling,  Up: Identifiers Names

4.6.2.2 Private name mangling
.............................

When an identifier that textually occurs in a class definition begins
with two or more underscore characters and does not end in two or more
underscores, it is considered a 'private name' of that class.

也參考
......

The *note class specifications: 1168.

More precisely, private names are transformed to a longer form before
code is generated for them.  If the transformed name is longer than 255
characters, implementation-defined truncation may happen.

The transformation is independent of the syntactical context in which
the identifier is used but only the following private identifiers are
mangled:

   - Any name used as the name of a variable that is assigned or read or
     any name of an attribute being accessed.

     The *note __name__: efc. attribute of nested functions, classes,
     and type aliases is however not mangled.

   - The name of imported modules, e.g., ‘__spam’ in ‘import __spam’.
     If the module is part of a package (i.e., its name contains a dot),
     the name is 'not' mangled, e.g., the ‘__foo’ in ‘import __foo.bar’
     is not mangled.

   - The name of an imported member, e.g., ‘__f’ in ‘from spam import
     __f’.

The transformation rule is defined as follows:

   - The class name, with leading underscores removed and a single
     leading underscore inserted, is inserted in front of the
     identifier, e.g., the identifier ‘__spam’ occurring in a class
     named ‘Foo’, ‘_Foo’ or ‘__Foo’ is transformed to ‘_Foo__spam’.

   - If the class name consists only of underscores, the transformation
     is the identity, e.g., the identifier ‘__spam’ occurring in a class
     named ‘_’ or ‘__’ is left as is.


File: python.info,  Node: Literals<2>,  Next: Parenthesized forms,  Prev: Identifiers Names,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.3 Literals
................

Python supports string and bytes literals and various numeric literals:

     literal ::= stringliteral | bytesliteral
                 | integer | floatnumber | imagnumber

Evaluation of a literal yields an object of the given type (string,
bytes, integer, floating-point number, complex number) with the given
value.  The value may be approximated in the case of floating-point and
imaginary (complex) literals.  See section *note Literals: 1c35. for
details.

All literals correspond to immutable data types, and hence the object's
identity is less important than its value.  Multiple evaluations of
literals with the same value (either the same occurrence in the program
text or a different occurrence) may obtain the same object or a
different object with the same value.


File: python.info,  Node: Parenthesized forms,  Next: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries,  Prev: Literals<2>,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.4 Parenthesized forms
...........................

A parenthesized form is an optional expression list enclosed in
parentheses:

     parenth_form ::= "(" [starred_expression] ")"

A parenthesized expression list yields whatever that expression list
yields: if the list contains at least one comma, it yields a tuple;
otherwise, it yields the single expression that makes up the expression
list.

An empty pair of parentheses yields an empty tuple object.  Since tuples
are immutable, the same rules as for literals apply (i.e., two
occurrences of the empty tuple may or may not yield the same object).

Note that tuples are not formed by the parentheses, but rather by use of
the comma.  The exception is the empty tuple, for which parentheses
'are' required -- allowing unparenthesized "nothing" in expressions
would cause ambiguities and allow common typos to pass uncaught.


File: python.info,  Node: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries,  Next: List displays,  Prev: Parenthesized forms,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.5 Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries
.................................................

For constructing a list, a set or a dictionary Python provides special
syntax called "displays", each of them in two flavors:

   * either the container contents are listed explicitly, or

   * they are computed via a set of looping and filtering instructions,
     called a 'comprehension'.

Common syntax elements for comprehensions are:

     comprehension ::= assignment_expression comp_for
     comp_for      ::= ["async"] "for" target_list "in" or_test [comp_iter]
     comp_iter     ::= comp_for | comp_if
     comp_if       ::= "if" or_test [comp_iter]

The comprehension consists of a single expression followed by at least
one ‘for’ clause and zero or more ‘for’ or ‘if’ clauses.  In this case,
the elements of the new container are those that would be produced by
considering each of the ‘for’ or ‘if’ clauses a block, nesting from left
to right, and evaluating the expression to produce an element each time
the innermost block is reached.

However, aside from the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’
clause, the comprehension is executed in a separate implicitly nested
scope.  This ensures that names assigned to in the target list don't
"leak" into the enclosing scope.

The iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause is evaluated
directly in the enclosing scope and then passed as an argument to the
implicitly nested scope.  Subsequent ‘for’ clauses and any filter
condition in the leftmost ‘for’ clause cannot be evaluated in the
enclosing scope as they may depend on the values obtained from the
leftmost iterable.  For example: ‘[x*y for x in range(10) for y in
range(x, x+10)]’.

To ensure the comprehension always results in a container of the
appropriate type, ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ expressions are prohibited in
the implicitly nested scope.

Since Python 3.6, in an *note async def: 3c3. function, an ‘async for’
clause may be used to iterate over a *note asynchronous iterator: bef.
A comprehension in an ‘async def’ function may consist of either a ‘for’
or ‘async for’ clause following the leading expression, may contain
additional ‘for’ or ‘async for’ clauses, and may also use *note await:
542. expressions.

If a comprehension contains ‘async for’ clauses, or if it contains
‘await’ expressions or other asynchronous comprehensions anywhere except
the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause, it is called an
'asynchronous comprehension'.  An asynchronous comprehension may suspend
the execution of the coroutine function in which it appears.  See also
PEP 530(1).

在 3.6 版被加入: Asynchronous comprehensions were introduced.

在 3.8 版的變更: ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ prohibited in the implicitly
nested scope.

在 3.11 版的變更: Asynchronous comprehensions are now allowed inside
comprehensions in asynchronous functions.  Outer comprehensions
implicitly become asynchronous.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/


File: python.info,  Node: List displays,  Next: Set displays,  Prev: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.6 List displays
.....................

A list display is a possibly empty series of expressions enclosed in
square brackets:

     list_display ::= "[" [flexible_expression_list | comprehension] "]"

A list display yields a new list object, the contents being specified by
either a list of expressions or a comprehension.  When a comma-separated
list of expressions is supplied, its elements are evaluated from left to
right and placed into the list object in that order.  When a
comprehension is supplied, the list is constructed from the elements
resulting from the comprehension.


File: python.info,  Node: Set displays,  Next: Dictionary displays,  Prev: List displays,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.7 Set displays
....................

A set display is denoted by curly braces and distinguishable from
dictionary displays by the lack of colons separating keys and values:

     set_display ::= "{" (flexible_expression_list | comprehension) "}"

A set display yields a new mutable set object, the contents being
specified by either a sequence of expressions or a comprehension.  When
a comma-separated list of expressions is supplied, its elements are
evaluated from left to right and added to the set object.  When a
comprehension is supplied, the set is constructed from the elements
resulting from the comprehension.

An empty set cannot be constructed with ‘{}’; this literal constructs an
empty dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary displays,  Next: Generator expressions,  Prev: Set displays,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.8 Dictionary displays
...........................

A dictionary display is a possibly empty series of dict items (key/value
pairs) enclosed in curly braces:

     dict_display       ::= "{" [dict_item_list | dict_comprehension] "}"
     dict_item_list     ::= dict_item ("," dict_item)* [","]
     dict_item          ::= expression ":" expression | "**" or_expr
     dict_comprehension ::= expression ":" expression comp_for

A dictionary display yields a new dictionary object.

If a comma-separated sequence of dict items is given, they are evaluated
from left to right to define the entries of the dictionary: each key
object is used as a key into the dictionary to store the corresponding
value.  This means that you can specify the same key multiple times in
the dict item list, and the final dictionary's value for that key will
be the last one given.

A double asterisk ‘**’ denotes 'dictionary unpacking'.  Its operand must
be a *note mapping: 104d.  Each mapping item is added to the new
dictionary.  Later values replace values already set by earlier dict
items and earlier dictionary unpackings.

在 3.5 版被加入: Unpacking into dictionary displays, originally proposed
by PEP 448(1).

A dict comprehension, in contrast to list and set comprehensions, needs
two expressions separated with a colon followed by the usual "for" and
"if" clauses.  When the comprehension is run, the resulting key and
value elements are inserted in the new dictionary in the order they are
produced.

Restrictions on the types of the key values are listed earlier in
section *note 標準型別階層: 1c77.  (To summarize, the key type should be
*note hashable: 409, which excludes all mutable objects.)  Clashes
between duplicate keys are not detected; the last value (textually
rightmost in the display) stored for a given key value prevails.

在 3.8 版的變更: Prior to Python 3.8, in dict comprehensions, the
evaluation order of key and value was not well-defined.  In CPython, the
value was evaluated before the key.  Starting with 3.8, the key is
evaluated before the value, as proposed by PEP 572(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Generator expressions,  Next: Yield expressions,  Prev: Dictionary displays,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.9 Generator expressions
.............................

A generator expression is a compact generator notation in parentheses:

     generator_expression ::= "(" expression comp_for ")"

A generator expression yields a new generator object.  Its syntax is the
same as for comprehensions, except that it is enclosed in parentheses
instead of brackets or curly braces.

Variables used in the generator expression are evaluated lazily when the
*note __next__(): 1abb. method is called for the generator object (in
the same fashion as normal generators).  However, the iterable
expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause is immediately evaluated, so
that an error produced by it will be emitted at the point where the
generator expression is defined, rather than at the point where the
first value is retrieved.  Subsequent ‘for’ clauses and any filter
condition in the leftmost ‘for’ clause cannot be evaluated in the
enclosing scope as they may depend on the values obtained from the
leftmost iterable.  For example: ‘(x*y for x in range(10) for y in
range(x, x+10))’.

The parentheses can be omitted on calls with only one argument.  See
section *note Calls: bf3. for details.

To avoid interfering with the expected operation of the generator
expression itself, ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ expressions are prohibited
in the implicitly defined generator.

If a generator expression contains either ‘async for’ clauses or *note
await: 542. expressions it is called an 'asynchronous generator
expression'.  An asynchronous generator expression returns a new
asynchronous generator object, which is an asynchronous iterator (see
*note Asynchronous Iterators: bf0.).

在 3.6 版被加入: Asynchronous generator expressions were introduced.

在 3.7 版的變更: Prior to Python 3.7, asynchronous generator expressions
could only appear in *note async def: 3c3. coroutines.  Starting with
3.7, any function can use asynchronous generator expressions.

在 3.8 版的變更: ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ prohibited in the implicitly
nested scope.


File: python.info,  Node: Yield expressions,  Prev: Generator expressions,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.10 Yield expressions
..........................

     yield_atom       ::= "(" yield_expression ")"
     yield_from       ::= "yield" "from" expression
     yield_expression ::= "yield" yield_list | yield_from

The yield expression is used when defining a *note generator: ef7.
function or an *note asynchronous generator: 1dcb. function and thus can
only be used in the body of a function definition.  Using a yield
expression in a function's body causes that function to be a generator
function, and using it in an *note async def: 3c3. function's body
causes that coroutine function to be an asynchronous generator function.
For example:

     def gen():  # defines a generator function
         yield 123

     async def agen(): # defines an asynchronous generator function
         yield 123

Due to their side effects on the containing scope, ‘yield’ expressions
are not permitted as part of the implicitly defined scopes used to
implement comprehensions and generator expressions.

在 3.8 版的變更: Yield expressions prohibited in the implicitly nested
scopes used to implement comprehensions and generator expressions.

Generator functions are described below, while asynchronous generator
functions are described separately in section *note Asynchronous
generator functions: 1dcc.

When a generator function is called, it returns an iterator known as a
generator.  That generator then controls the execution of the generator
function.  The execution starts when one of the generator's methods is
called.  At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of *note
yield_list: 1dcd. to the generator's caller, or ‘None’ if *note
yield_list: 1dcd. is omitted.  By suspended, we mean that all local
state is retained, including the current bindings of local variables,
the instruction pointer, the internal evaluation stack, and the state of
any exception handling.  When the execution is resumed by calling one of
the generator's methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the
yield expression were just another external call.  The value of the
yield expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the
execution.  If *note __next__(): 1abb. is used (typically via either a
*note for: 265. or the *note next(): 5f8. builtin) then the result is
*note None: 470.  Otherwise, if *note send(): 1d5f. is used, then the
result will be the value passed in to that method.

All of this makes generator functions quite similar to coroutines; they
yield multiple times, they have more than one entry point and their
execution can be suspended.  The only difference is that a generator
function cannot control where the execution should continue after it
yields; the control is always transferred to the generator's caller.

Yield expressions are allowed anywhere in a *note try: 4ea. construct.
If the generator is not resumed before it is finalized (by reaching a
zero reference count or by being garbage collected), the
generator-iterator's *note close(): 158c. method will be called,
allowing any pending *note finally: 80e. clauses to execute.

When ‘yield from <expr>’ is used, the supplied expression must be an
iterable.  The values produced by iterating that iterable are passed
directly to the caller of the current generator's methods.  Any values
passed in with *note send(): 1d5f. and any exceptions passed in with
*note throw(): 243. are passed to the underlying iterator if it has the
appropriate methods.  If this is not the case, then *note send(): 1d5f.
will raise *note AttributeError: 3ca. or *note TypeError: 2ba, while
*note throw(): 243. will just raise the passed in exception immediately.

When the underlying iterator is complete, the *note value: 1d5c.
attribute of the raised *note StopIteration: a5d. instance becomes the
value of the yield expression.  It can be either set explicitly when
raising *note StopIteration: a5d, or automatically when the subiterator
is a generator (by returning a value from the subgenerator).

在 3.3 版的變更: Added ‘yield from <expr>’ to delegate control flow to a
subiterator.

The parentheses may be omitted when the yield expression is the sole
expression on the right hand side of an assignment statement.

也參考
......

PEP 255(1) - Simple Generators

     The proposal for adding generators and the *note yield: 811.
     statement to Python.

PEP 342(2) - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators

     The proposal to enhance the API and syntax of generators, making
     them usable as simple coroutines.

PEP 380(3) - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator

     The proposal to introduce the *note yield_from: 1dc9. syntax,
     making delegation to subgenerators easy.

PEP 525(4) - Asynchronous Generators

     The proposal that expanded on PEP 492(5) by adding generator
     capabilities to coroutine functions.

* Menu:

* Generator-iterator methods::
* 模組: 模組<3>.
* Asynchronous generator functions: Asynchronous generator functions<2>.
* Asynchronous generator-iterator methods::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Generator-iterator methods,  Next: 模組<3>,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.11 Generator-iterator methods
...................................

This subsection describes the methods of a generator iterator.  They can
be used to control the execution of a generator function.

Note that calling any of the generator methods below when the generator
is already executing raises a *note ValueError: 183. exception.

 -- 方法: generator.__next__ ()

     Starts the execution of a generator function or resumes it at the
     last executed yield expression.  When a generator function is
     resumed with a *note __next__(): 1abb. method, the current yield
     expression always evaluates to *note None: 470.  The execution then
     continues to the next yield expression, where the generator is
     suspended again, and the value of the *note yield_list: 1dcd. is
     returned to *note __next__(): 1abb.'s caller.  If the generator
     exits without yielding another value, a *note StopIteration: a5d.
     exception is raised.

     This method is normally called implicitly, e.g.  by a *note for:
     265. loop, or by the built-in *note next(): 5f8. function.

 -- 方法: generator.send (value)

     Resumes the execution and "sends" a value into the generator
     function.  The 'value' argument becomes the result of the current
     yield expression.  The *note send(): 1d5f. method returns the next
     value yielded by the generator, or raises *note StopIteration: a5d.
     if the generator exits without yielding another value.  When *note
     send(): 1d5f. is called to start the generator, it must be called
     with *note None: 470. as the argument, because there is no yield
     expression that could receive the value.

 -- 方法: generator.throw (value)

 -- 方法: generator.throw (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Raises an exception at the point where the generator was paused,
     and returns the next value yielded by the generator function.  If
     the generator exits without yielding another value, a *note
     StopIteration: a5d. exception is raised.  If the generator function
     does not catch the passed-in exception, or raises a different
     exception, then that exception propagates to the caller.

     In typical use, this is called with a single exception instance
     similar to the way the *note raise: 3e1. keyword is used.

     For backwards compatibility, however, the second signature is
     supported, following a convention from older versions of Python.
     The 'type' argument should be an exception class, and 'value'
     should be an exception instance.  If the 'value' is not provided,
     the 'type' constructor is called to get an instance.  If
     'traceback' is provided, it is set on the exception, otherwise any
     existing *note __traceback__: 1158. attribute stored in 'value' may
     be cleared.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The second signature (type[, value[, traceback]])
     is deprecated and may be removed in a future version of Python.

 -- 方法: generator.close ()

     Raises a *note GeneratorExit: 1236. at the point where the
     generator function was paused.  If the generator function then
     exits gracefully, is already closed, or raises *note GeneratorExit:
     1236. (by not catching the exception), close returns to its caller.
     If the generator yields a value, a *note RuntimeError: 17a. is
     raised.  If the generator raises any other exception, it is
     propagated to the caller.  *note close(): 158c. does nothing if the
     generator has already exited due to an exception or normal exit.


File: python.info,  Node: 模組<3>,  Next: Asynchronous generator functions<2>,  Prev: Generator-iterator methods,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.12 模組
.............

Here is a simple example that demonstrates the behavior of generators
and generator functions:

     >>> def echo(value=None):
     ...     print("Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.")
     ...     try:
     ...         while True:
     ...             try:
     ...                 value = (yield value)
     ...             except Exception as e:
     ...                 value = e
     ...     finally:
     ...         print("Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.")
     ...
     >>> generator = echo(1)
     >>> print(next(generator))
     Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.
     1
     >>> print(next(generator))
     None
     >>> print(generator.send(2))
     2
     >>> generator.throw(TypeError, "spam")
     TypeError('spam',)
     >>> generator.close()
     Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.

For examples using ‘yield from’, see *note PEP 380; Syntax for
Delegating to a Subgenerator: ecf. in "What's New in Python."


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous generator functions<2>,  Next: Asynchronous generator-iterator methods,  Prev: 模組<3>,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.13 Asynchronous generator functions
.........................................

The presence of a yield expression in a function or method defined using
*note async def: 3c3. further defines the function as an *note
asynchronous generator: 1dcb. function.

When an asynchronous generator function is called, it returns an
asynchronous iterator known as an asynchronous generator object.  That
object then controls the execution of the generator function.  An
asynchronous generator object is typically used in an *note async for:
8fe. statement in a coroutine function analogously to how a generator
object would be used in a *note for: 265. statement.

Calling one of the asynchronous generator's methods returns an *note
awaitable: ae0. object, and the execution starts when this object is
awaited on.  At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of *note
yield_list: 1dcd. to the awaiting coroutine.  As with a generator,
suspension means that all local state is retained, including the current
bindings of local variables, the instruction pointer, the internal
evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling.  When the
execution is resumed by awaiting on the next object returned by the
asynchronous generator's methods, the function can proceed exactly as if
the yield expression were just another external call.  The value of the
yield expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the
execution.  If *note __anext__(): 1dd1. is used then the result is *note
None: 470.  Otherwise, if *note asend(): 712. is used, then the result
will be the value passed in to that method.

If an asynchronous generator happens to exit early by *note break: 8fc,
the caller task being cancelled, or other exceptions, the generator's
async cleanup code will run and possibly raise exceptions or access
context variables in an unexpected context-perhaps after the lifetime of
tasks it depends, or during the event loop shutdown when the
async-generator garbage collection hook is called.  To prevent this, the
caller must explicitly close the async generator by calling *note
aclose(): 711. method to finalize the generator and ultimately detach it
from the event loop.

In an asynchronous generator function, yield expressions are allowed
anywhere in a *note try: 4ea. construct.  However, if an asynchronous
generator is not resumed before it is finalized (by reaching a zero
reference count or by being garbage collected), then a yield expression
within a ‘try’ construct could result in a failure to execute pending
*note finally: 80e. clauses.  In this case, it is the responsibility of
the event loop or scheduler running the asynchronous generator to call
the asynchronous generator-iterator's *note aclose(): 711. method and
run the resulting coroutine object, thus allowing any pending ‘finally’
clauses to execute.

To take care of finalization upon event loop termination, an event loop
should define a 'finalizer' function which takes an asynchronous
generator-iterator and presumably calls *note aclose(): 711. and
executes the coroutine.  This 'finalizer' may be registered by calling
*note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 1605.  When first iterated over, an
asynchronous generator-iterator will store the registered 'finalizer' to
be called upon finalization.  For a reference example of a 'finalizer'
method see the implementation of ‘asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens’ in
Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(1).

The expression ‘yield from <expr>’ is a syntax error when used in an
asynchronous generator function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous generator-iterator methods,  Prev: Asynchronous generator functions<2>,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.14 Asynchronous generator-iterator methods
................................................

This subsection describes the methods of an asynchronous generator
iterator, which are used to control the execution of a generator
function.

 -- 方法: coroutine agen.__anext__ ()

     Returns an awaitable which when run starts to execute the
     asynchronous generator or resumes it at the last executed yield
     expression.  When an asynchronous generator function is resumed
     with an *note __anext__(): 1dd1. method, the current yield
     expression always evaluates to *note None: 470. in the returned
     awaitable, which when run will continue to the next yield
     expression.  The value of the *note yield_list: 1dcd. of the yield
     expression is the value of the *note StopIteration: a5d. exception
     raised by the completing coroutine.  If the asynchronous generator
     exits without yielding another value, the awaitable instead raises
     a *note StopAsyncIteration: 1813. exception, signalling that the
     asynchronous iteration has completed.

     This method is normally called implicitly by a *note async for:
     8fe. loop.

 -- 方法: coroutine agen.asend (value)

     Returns an awaitable which when run resumes the execution of the
     asynchronous generator.  As with the *note send(): 1d5f. method for
     a generator, this "sends" a value into the asynchronous generator
     function, and the 'value' argument becomes the result of the
     current yield expression.  The awaitable returned by the *note
     asend(): 712. method will return the next value yielded by the
     generator as the value of the raised *note StopIteration: a5d, or
     raises *note StopAsyncIteration: 1813. if the asynchronous
     generator exits without yielding another value.  When *note
     asend(): 712. is called to start the asynchronous generator, it
     must be called with *note None: 470. as the argument, because there
     is no yield expression that could receive the value.

 -- 方法: coroutine agen.athrow (value)

 -- 方法: coroutine agen.athrow (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Returns an awaitable that raises an exception of type ‘type’ at the
     point where the asynchronous generator was paused, and returns the
     next value yielded by the generator function as the value of the
     raised *note StopIteration: a5d. exception.  If the asynchronous
     generator exits without yielding another value, a *note
     StopAsyncIteration: 1813. exception is raised by the awaitable.  If
     the generator function does not catch the passed-in exception, or
     raises a different exception, then when the awaitable is run that
     exception propagates to the caller of the awaitable.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The second signature (type[, value[, traceback]])
     is deprecated and may be removed in a future version of Python.

 -- 方法: coroutine agen.aclose ()

     Returns an awaitable that when run will throw a *note
     GeneratorExit: 1236. into the asynchronous generator function at
     the point where it was paused.  If the asynchronous generator
     function then exits gracefully, is already closed, or raises *note
     GeneratorExit: 1236. (by not catching the exception), then the
     returned awaitable will raise a *note StopIteration: a5d.
     exception.  Any further awaitables returned by subsequent calls to
     the asynchronous generator will raise a *note StopAsyncIteration:
     1813. exception.  If the asynchronous generator yields a value, a
     *note RuntimeError: 17a. is raised by the awaitable.  If the
     asynchronous generator raises any other exception, it is propagated
     to the caller of the awaitable.  If the asynchronous generator has
     already exited due to an exception or normal exit, then further
     calls to *note aclose(): 711. will return an awaitable that does
     nothing.


File: python.info,  Node: Primaries,  Next: Await expression,  Prev: Atoms,  Up: 運算式

4.6.3 Primaries
---------------

Primaries represent the most tightly bound operations of the language.
Their syntax is:

     primary ::= atom | attributeref | subscription | slicing | call

* Menu:

* Attribute references::
* Subscriptions::
* Slicings::
* Calls::


File: python.info,  Node: Attribute references,  Next: Subscriptions,  Up: Primaries

4.6.3.1 Attribute references
............................

An attribute reference is a primary followed by a period and a name:

     attributeref ::= primary "." identifier

The primary must evaluate to an object of a type that supports attribute
references, which most objects do.  This object is then asked to produce
the attribute whose name is the identifier.  The type and value produced
is determined by the object.  Multiple evaluations of the same attribute
reference may yield different objects.

This production can be customized by overriding the *note
__getattribute__(): a33. method or the *note __getattr__(): 1fa. method.
The ‘__getattribute__()’ method is called first and either returns a
value or raises *note AttributeError: 3ca. if the attribute is not
available.

If an *note AttributeError: 3ca. is raised and the object has a
‘__getattr__()’ method, that method is called as a fallback.


File: python.info,  Node: Subscriptions,  Next: Slicings,  Prev: Attribute references,  Up: Primaries

4.6.3.2 Subscriptions
.....................

The subscription of an instance of a *note container class: 1d1d. will
generally select an element from the container.  The subscription of a
*note generic class: 13b. will generally return a *note GenericAlias:
4af. object.

     subscription ::= primary "[" flexible_expression_list "]"

When an object is subscripted, the interpreter will evaluate the primary
and the expression list.

The primary must evaluate to an object that supports subscription.  An
object may support subscription through defining one or both of *note
__getitem__(): 4e7. and *note __class_getitem__(): 54c.  When the
primary is subscripted, the evaluated result of the expression list will
be passed to one of these methods.  For more details on when
‘__class_getitem__’ is called instead of ‘__getitem__’, see *note
__class_getitem__ versus __getitem__: 1d16.

If the expression list contains at least one comma, or if any of the
expressions are starred, the expression list will evaluate to a *note
tuple: 4e6. containing the items of the expression list.  Otherwise, the
expression list will evaluate to the value of the list's sole member.

在 3.11 版的變更: Expressions in an expression list may be starred.  See
PEP 646(1).

For built-in objects, there are two types of objects that support
subscription via *note __getitem__(): 4e7.:

  1. Mappings.  If the primary is a *note mapping: 104d, the expression
     list must evaluate to an object whose value is one of the keys of
     the mapping, and the subscription selects the value in the mapping
     that corresponds to that key.  An example of a builtin mapping
     class is the *note dict: 239. class.

  2. Sequences.  If the primary is a *note sequence: 238, the expression
     list must evaluate to an *note int: 17e. or a *note slice: 180. (as
     discussed in the following section).  Examples of builtin sequence
     classes include the *note str: 157, *note list: 40a. and *note
     tuple: 4e6. classes.

The formal syntax makes no special provision for negative indices in
*note sequences: 238.  However, built-in sequences all provide a *note
__getitem__(): 4e7. method that interprets negative indices by adding
the length of the sequence to the index so that, for example, ‘x[-1]’
selects the last item of ‘x’.  The resulting value must be a nonnegative
integer less than the number of items in the sequence, and the
subscription selects the item whose index is that value (counting from
zero).  Since the support for negative indices and slicing occurs in the
object's *note __getitem__(): 4e7. method, subclasses overriding this
method will need to explicitly add that support.

A *note string: 157. is a special kind of sequence whose items are
'characters'.  A character is not a separate data type but a string of
exactly one character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/


File: python.info,  Node: Slicings,  Next: Calls,  Prev: Subscriptions,  Up: Primaries

4.6.3.3 Slicings
................

A slicing selects a range of items in a sequence object (e.g., a string,
tuple or list).  Slicings may be used as expressions or as targets in
assignment or *note del: 1570. statements.  The syntax for a slicing:

     slicing      ::= primary "[" slice_list "]"
     slice_list   ::= slice_item ("," slice_item)* [","]
     slice_item   ::= expression | proper_slice
     proper_slice ::= [lower_bound] ":" [upper_bound] [ ":" [stride] ]
     lower_bound  ::= expression
     upper_bound  ::= expression
     stride       ::= expression

There is ambiguity in the formal syntax here: anything that looks like
an expression list also looks like a slice list, so any subscription can
be interpreted as a slicing.  Rather than further complicating the
syntax, this is disambiguated by defining that in this case the
interpretation as a subscription takes priority over the interpretation
as a slicing (this is the case if the slice list contains no proper
slice).

The semantics for a slicing are as follows.  The primary is indexed
(using the same *note __getitem__(): 4e7. method as normal subscription)
with a key that is constructed from the slice list, as follows.  If the
slice list contains at least one comma, the key is a tuple containing
the conversion of the slice items; otherwise, the conversion of the lone
slice item is the key.  The conversion of a slice item that is an
expression is that expression.  The conversion of a proper slice is a
slice object (see section *note 標準型別階層: 1c77.) whose *note start:
1ce7, *note stop: 1ce8. and *note step: 1ce9. attributes are the values
of the expressions given as lower bound, upper bound and stride,
respectively, substituting ‘None’ for missing expressions.


File: python.info,  Node: Calls,  Prev: Slicings,  Up: Primaries

4.6.3.4 Calls
.............

A call calls a callable object (e.g., a *note function: 1de6.) with a
possibly empty series of *note arguments: 154.:

     call                 ::= primary "(" [argument_list [","] | comprehension] ")"
     argument_list        ::= positional_arguments ["," starred_and_keywords]
                                ["," keywords_arguments]
                              | starred_and_keywords ["," keywords_arguments]
                              | keywords_arguments
     positional_arguments ::= positional_item ("," positional_item)*
     positional_item      ::= assignment_expression | "*" expression
     starred_and_keywords ::= ("*" expression | keyword_item)
                              ("," "*" expression | "," keyword_item)*
     keywords_arguments   ::= (keyword_item | "**" expression)
                              ("," keyword_item | "," "**" expression)*
     keyword_item         ::= identifier "=" expression

An optional trailing comma may be present after the positional and
keyword arguments but does not affect the semantics.

The primary must evaluate to a callable object (user-defined functions,
built-in functions, methods of built-in objects, class objects, methods
of class instances, and all objects having a *note __call__(): 2dd.
method are callable).  All argument expressions are evaluated before the
call is attempted.  Please refer to section *note 函式定義: 1a2b. for
the syntax of formal *note parameter: 1c8f. lists.

If keyword arguments are present, they are first converted to positional
arguments, as follows.  First, a list of unfilled slots is created for
the formal parameters.  If there are N positional arguments, they are
placed in the first N slots.  Next, for each keyword argument, the
identifier is used to determine the corresponding slot (if the
identifier is the same as the first formal parameter name, the first
slot is used, and so on).  If the slot is already filled, a *note
TypeError: 2ba. exception is raised.  Otherwise, the argument is placed
in the slot, filling it (even if the expression is ‘None’, it fills the
slot).  When all arguments have been processed, the slots that are still
unfilled are filled with the corresponding default value from the
function definition.  (Default values are calculated, once, when the
function is defined; thus, a mutable object such as a list or dictionary
used as default value will be shared by all calls that don't specify an
argument value for the corresponding slot; this should usually be
avoided.)  If there are any unfilled slots for which no default value is
specified, a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception is raised.  Otherwise, the
list of filled slots is used as the argument list for the call.

'CPython 實作細節：' An implementation may provide built-in functions
whose positional parameters do not have names, even if they are 'named'
for the purpose of documentation, and which therefore cannot be supplied
by keyword.  In CPython, this is the case for functions implemented in C
that use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. to parse their arguments.

If there are more positional arguments than there are formal parameter
slots, a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception is raised, unless a formal
parameter using the syntax ‘*identifier’ is present; in this case, that
formal parameter receives a tuple containing the excess positional
arguments (or an empty tuple if there were no excess positional
arguments).

If any keyword argument does not correspond to a formal parameter name,
a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception is raised, unless a formal parameter
using the syntax ‘**identifier’ is present; in this case, that formal
parameter receives a dictionary containing the excess keyword arguments
(using the keywords as keys and the argument values as corresponding
values), or a (new) empty dictionary if there were no excess keyword
arguments.

If the syntax ‘*expression’ appears in the function call, ‘expression’
must evaluate to an *note iterable: 10ba.  Elements from these iterables
are treated as if they were additional positional arguments.  For the
call ‘f(x1, x2, *y, x3, x4)’, if 'y' evaluates to a sequence 'y1', ...,
'yM', this is equivalent to a call with M+4 positional arguments 'x1',
'x2', 'y1', ..., 'yM', 'x3', 'x4'.

A consequence of this is that although the ‘*expression’ syntax may
appear 'after' explicit keyword arguments, it is processed 'before' the
keyword arguments (and any ‘**expression’ arguments - see below).  So:

     >>> def f(a, b):
     ...     print(a, b)
     ...
     >>> f(b=1, *(2,))
     2 1
     >>> f(a=1, *(2,))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: f() got multiple values for keyword argument 'a'
     >>> f(1, *(2,))
     1 2

It is unusual for both keyword arguments and the ‘*expression’ syntax to
be used in the same call, so in practice this confusion does not often
arise.

If the syntax ‘**expression’ appears in the function call, ‘expression’
must evaluate to a *note mapping: 104d, the contents of which are
treated as additional keyword arguments.  If a parameter matching a key
has already been given a value (by an explicit keyword argument, or from
another unpacking), a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception is raised.

When ‘**expression’ is used, each key in this mapping must be a string.
Each value from the mapping is assigned to the first formal parameter
eligible for keyword assignment whose name is equal to the key.  A key
need not be a Python identifier (e.g.  ‘"max-temp °F"’ is acceptable,
although it will not match any formal parameter that could be declared).
If there is no match to a formal parameter the key-value pair is
collected by the ‘**’ parameter, if there is one, or if there is not, a
*note TypeError: 2ba. exception is raised.

Formal parameters using the syntax ‘*identifier’ or ‘**identifier’
cannot be used as positional argument slots or as keyword argument
names.

在 3.5 版的變更: Function calls accept any number of ‘*’ and ‘**’
unpackings, positional arguments may follow iterable unpackings (‘*’),
and keyword arguments may follow dictionary unpackings (‘**’).
Originally proposed by PEP 448(1).

A call always returns some value, possibly ‘None’, unless it raises an
exception.  How this value is computed depends on the type of the
callable object.

If it is--

a user-defined function:

     The code block for the function is executed, passing it the
     argument list.  The first thing the code block will do is bind the
     formal parameters to the arguments; this is described in section
     *note 函式定義: 1a2b.  When the code block executes a *note return:
     812. statement, this specifies the return value of the function
     call.

a built-in function or method:

     The result is up to the interpreter; see *note 內建函式: 10f1. for
     the descriptions of built-in functions and methods.

a class object:

     A new instance of that class is returned.

a class instance method:

     The corresponding user-defined function is called, with an argument
     list that is one longer than the argument list of the call: the
     instance becomes the first argument.

a class instance:

     The class must define a *note __call__(): 2dd. method; the effect
     is then the same as if that method was called.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: Await expression,  Next: The power operator,  Prev: Primaries,  Up: 運算式

4.6.4 Await expression
----------------------

Suspend the execution of *note coroutine: 1ae. on an *note awaitable:
ae0. object.  Can only be used inside a *note coroutine function: bec.

     await_expr ::= "await" primary

在 3.5 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: The power operator,  Next: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations,  Prev: Await expression,  Up: 運算式

4.6.5 The power operator
------------------------

The power operator binds more tightly than unary operators on its left;
it binds less tightly than unary operators on its right.  The syntax is:

     power ::= (await_expr | primary) ["**" u_expr]

Thus, in an unparenthesized sequence of power and unary operators, the
operators are evaluated from right to left (this does not constrain the
evaluation order for the operands): ‘-1**2’ results in ‘-1’.

The power operator has the same semantics as the built-in *note pow():
816. function, when called with two arguments: it yields its left
argument raised to the power of its right argument.  The numeric
arguments are first converted to a common type, and the result is of
that type.

For int operands, the result has the same type as the operands unless
the second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are
converted to float and a float result is delivered.  For example,
‘10**2’ returns ‘100’, but ‘10**-2’ returns ‘0.01’.

Raising ‘0.0’ to a negative power results in a *note ZeroDivisionError:
784.  Raising a negative number to a fractional power results in a *note
complex: 26b. number.  (In earlier versions it raised a *note
ValueError: 183.)

This operation can be customized using the special *note __pow__(): 5f3.
and *note __rpow__(): 5f4. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations,  Next: Binary arithmetic operations,  Prev: The power operator,  Up: 運算式

4.6.6 Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
---------------------------------------------

All unary arithmetic and bitwise operations have the same priority:

     u_expr ::= power | "-" u_expr | "+" u_expr | "~" u_expr

The unary ‘-’ (minus) operator yields the negation of its numeric
argument; the operation can be overridden with the *note __neg__():
1d48. special method.

The unary ‘+’ (plus) operator yields its numeric argument unchanged; the
operation can be overridden with the *note __pos__(): 1d49. special
method.

The unary ‘~’ (invert) operator yields the bitwise inversion of its
integer argument.  The bitwise inversion of ‘x’ is defined as ‘-(x+1)’.
It only applies to integral numbers or to custom objects that override
the *note __invert__(): 1d4b. special method.

In all three cases, if the argument does not have the proper type, a
*note TypeError: 2ba. exception is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary arithmetic operations,  Next: Shifting operations,  Prev: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations,  Up: 運算式

4.6.7 Binary arithmetic operations
----------------------------------

The binary arithmetic operations have the conventional priority levels.
Note that some of these operations also apply to certain non-numeric
types.  Apart from the power operator, there are only two levels, one
for multiplicative operators and one for additive operators:

     m_expr ::= u_expr | m_expr "*" u_expr | m_expr "@" m_expr |
                m_expr "//" u_expr | m_expr "/" u_expr |
                m_expr "%" u_expr
     a_expr ::= m_expr | a_expr "+" m_expr | a_expr "-" m_expr

The ‘*’ (multiplication) operator yields the product of its arguments.
The arguments must either both be numbers, or one argument must be an
integer and the other must be a sequence.  In the former case, the
numbers are converted to a common type and then multiplied together.  In
the latter case, sequence repetition is performed; a negative repetition
factor yields an empty sequence.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __mul__():
1d22. and *note __rmul__(): 1d23. methods.

The ‘@’ (at) operator is intended to be used for matrix multiplication.
No builtin Python types implement this operator.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __matmul__():
1d2a. and *note __rmatmul__(): 1d33. methods.

在 3.5 版被加入.

The ‘/’ (division) and ‘//’ (floor division) operators yield the
quotient of their arguments.  The numeric arguments are first converted
to a common type.  Division of integers yields a float, while floor
division of integers results in an integer; the result is that of
mathematical division with the 'floor' function applied to the result.
Division by zero raises the *note ZeroDivisionError: 784. exception.

The division operation can be customized using the special *note
__truediv__(): 136a. and *note __rtruediv__(): 1d34. methods.  The floor
division operation can be customized using the special *note
__floordiv__(): 136b. and *note __rfloordiv__(): 1d35. methods.

The ‘%’ (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the division of the
first argument by the second.  The numeric arguments are first converted
to a common type.  A zero right argument raises the *note
ZeroDivisionError: 784. exception.  The arguments may be floating-point
numbers, e.g., ‘3.14%0.7’ equals ‘0.34’ (since ‘3.14’ equals ‘4*0.7 +
0.34’.)  The modulo operator always yields a result with the same sign
as its second operand (or zero); the absolute value of the result is
strictly smaller than the absolute value of the second operand (1).

The floor division and modulo operators are connected by the following
identity: ‘x == (x//y)*y + (x%y)’.  Floor division and modulo are also
connected with the built-in function *note divmod(): 7e5.: ‘divmod(x, y)
== (x//y, x%y)’.  (2).

In addition to performing the modulo operation on numbers, the ‘%’
operator is also overloaded by string objects to perform old-style
string formatting (also known as interpolation).  The syntax for string
formatting is described in the Python Library Reference, section *note
printf-style String Formatting: 4cb.

The 'modulo' operation can be customized using the special *note
__mod__(): 1d2b. and *note __rmod__(): 1d36. methods.

The floor division operator, the modulo operator, and the *note
divmod(): 7e5. function are not defined for complex numbers.  Instead,
convert to a floating-point number using the *note abs(): 1a99. function
if appropriate.

The ‘+’ (addition) operator yields the sum of its arguments.  The
arguments must either both be numbers or both be sequences of the same
type.  In the former case, the numbers are converted to a common type
and then added together.  In the latter case, the sequences are
concatenated.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __add__():
1d1f. and *note __radd__(): 1d20. methods.

The ‘-’ (subtraction) operator yields the difference of its arguments.
The numeric arguments are first converted to a common type.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __sub__():
1d29. and *note __rsub__(): 1d32. methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) While ‘abs(x%y) < abs(y)’ is true mathematically, for floats it
may not be true numerically due to roundoff.  For example, and assuming
a platform on which a Python float is an IEEE 754 double-precision
number, in order that ‘-1e-100 % 1e100’ have the same sign as ‘1e100’,
the computed result is ‘-1e-100 + 1e100’, which is numerically exactly
equal to ‘1e100’.  The function *note math.fmod(): 1dfa. returns a
result whose sign matches the sign of the first argument instead, and so
returns ‘-1e-100’ in this case.  Which approach is more appropriate
depends on the application.

   (2) If x is very close to an exact integer multiple of y, it's
possible for ‘x//y’ to be one larger than ‘(x-x%y)//y’ due to rounding.
In such cases, Python returns the latter result, in order to preserve
that ‘divmod(x,y)[0] * y + x % y’ be very close to ‘x’.


File: python.info,  Node: Shifting operations,  Next: Binary bitwise operations,  Prev: Binary arithmetic operations,  Up: 運算式

4.6.8 Shifting operations
-------------------------

The shifting operations have lower priority than the arithmetic
operations:

     shift_expr ::= a_expr | shift_expr ("<<" | ">>") a_expr

These operators accept integers as arguments.  They shift the first
argument to the left or right by the number of bits given by the second
argument.

The left shift operation can be customized using the special *note
__lshift__(): 1d2d. and *note __rlshift__(): 1d38. methods.  The right
shift operation can be customized using the special *note __rshift__():
1d2e. and *note __rrshift__(): 1d39. methods.

A right shift by 'n' bits is defined as floor division by ‘pow(2,n)’.  A
left shift by 'n' bits is defined as multiplication with ‘pow(2,n)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary bitwise operations,  Next: Comparisons,  Prev: Shifting operations,  Up: 運算式

4.6.9 Binary bitwise operations
-------------------------------

Each of the three bitwise operations has a different priority level:

     and_expr ::= shift_expr | and_expr "&" shift_expr
     xor_expr ::= and_expr | xor_expr "^" and_expr
     or_expr  ::= xor_expr | or_expr "|" xor_expr

The ‘&’ operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which must be
integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding *note
__and__(): 1d2f. or *note __rand__(): 1d3a. special methods.

The ‘^’ operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its arguments,
which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding
*note __xor__(): 1d30. or *note __rxor__(): 1d3b. special methods.

The ‘|’ operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its arguments,
which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding
*note __or__(): 1d31. or *note __ror__(): 1d3c. special methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparisons,  Next: Boolean operations,  Prev: Binary bitwise operations,  Up: 運算式

4.6.10 Comparisons
------------------

Unlike C, all comparison operations in Python have the same priority,
which is lower than that of any arithmetic, shifting or bitwise
operation.  Also unlike C, expressions like ‘a < b < c’ have the
interpretation that is conventional in mathematics:

     comparison    ::= or_expr (comp_operator or_expr)*
     comp_operator ::= "<" | ">" | "==" | ">=" | "<=" | "!="
                       | "is" ["not"] | ["not"] "in"

Comparisons yield boolean values: ‘True’ or ‘False’.  Custom 'rich
comparison methods' may return non-boolean values.  In this case Python
will call *note bool(): 17d. on such value in boolean contexts.

Comparisons can be chained arbitrarily, e.g., ‘x < y <= z’ is equivalent
to ‘x < y and y <= z’, except that ‘y’ is evaluated only once (but in
both cases ‘z’ is not evaluated at all when ‘x < y’ is found to be
false).

Formally, if 'a', 'b', 'c', ..., 'y', 'z' are expressions and 'op1',
'op2', ..., 'opN' are comparison operators, then ‘a op1 b op2 c ... y
opN z’ is equivalent to ‘a op1 b and b op2 c and ... y opN z’, except
that each expression is evaluated at most once.

Note that ‘a op1 b op2 c’ doesn't imply any kind of comparison between
'a' and 'c', so that, e.g., ‘x < y > z’ is perfectly legal (though
perhaps not pretty).

* Menu:

* Value comparisons::
* Membership test operations::
* Identity comparisons::


File: python.info,  Node: Value comparisons,  Next: Membership test operations,  Up: Comparisons

4.6.10.1 Value comparisons
..........................

The operators ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘==’, ‘>=’, ‘<=’, and ‘!=’ compare the values of
two objects.  The objects do not need to have the same type.

Chapter *note Objects, values and types: 1c74. states that objects have
a value (in addition to type and identity).  The value of an object is a
rather abstract notion in Python: For example, there is no canonical
access method for an object's value.  Also, there is no requirement that
the value of an object should be constructed in a particular way, e.g.
comprised of all its data attributes.  Comparison operators implement a
particular notion of what the value of an object is.  One can think of
them as defining the value of an object indirectly, by means of their
comparison implementation.

Because all types are (direct or indirect) subtypes of *note object:
8d9, they inherit the default comparison behavior from *note object:
8d9.  Types can customize their comparison behavior by implementing
'rich comparison methods' like *note __lt__(): 119c, described in *note
Basic customization: 1cf1.

The default behavior for equality comparison (‘==’ and ‘!=’) is based on
the identity of the objects.  Hence, equality comparison of instances
with the same identity results in equality, and equality comparison of
instances with different identities results in inequality.  A motivation
for this default behavior is the desire that all objects should be
reflexive (i.e.  ‘x is y’ implies ‘x == y’).

A default order comparison (‘<’, ‘>’, ‘<=’, and ‘>=’) is not provided;
an attempt raises *note TypeError: 2ba.  A motivation for this default
behavior is the lack of a similar invariant as for equality.

The behavior of the default equality comparison, that instances with
different identities are always unequal, may be in contrast to what
types will need that have a sensible definition of object value and
value-based equality.  Such types will need to customize their
comparison behavior, and in fact, a number of built-in types have done
that.

The following list describes the comparison behavior of the most
important built-in types.

   * Numbers of built-in numeric types (*note 數值型別 --
     int、float、complex: 19eb.) and of the standard library types *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1a8. and *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0. can be
     compared within and across their types, with the restriction that
     complex numbers do not support order comparison.  Within the limits
     of the types involved, they compare mathematically
     (algorithmically) correct without loss of precision.

     The not-a-number values ‘float('NaN')’ and ‘decimal.Decimal('NaN')’
     are special.  Any ordered comparison of a number to a not-a-number
     value is false.  A counter-intuitive implication is that
     not-a-number values are not equal to themselves.  For example, if
     ‘x = float('NaN')’, ‘3 < x’, ‘x < 3’ and ‘x == x’ are all false,
     while ‘x != x’ is true.  This behavior is compliant with IEEE 754.

   * ‘None’ and *note NotImplemented: 5f2. are singletons.  PEP 8(1)
     advises that comparisons for singletons should always be done with
     ‘is’ or ‘is not’, never the equality operators.

   * Binary sequences (instances of *note bytes: 2c1. or *note
     bytearray: 2c0.) can be compared within and across their types.
     They compare lexicographically using the numeric values of their
     elements.

   * Strings (instances of *note str: 157.) compare lexicographically
     using the numerical Unicode code points (the result of the built-in
     function *note ord(): 1c82.) of their characters.  (2)

     Strings and binary sequences cannot be directly compared.

   * Sequences (instances of *note tuple: 4e6, *note list: 40a, or *note
     range: 782.) can be compared only within each of their types, with
     the restriction that ranges do not support order comparison.
     Equality comparison across these types results in inequality, and
     ordering comparison across these types raises *note TypeError: 2ba.

     Sequences compare lexicographically using comparison of
     corresponding elements.  The built-in containers typically assume
     identical objects are equal to themselves.  That lets them bypass
     equality tests for identical objects to improve performance and to
     maintain their internal invariants.

     Lexicographical comparison between built-in collections works as
     follows:

        - For two collections to compare equal, they must be of the same
          type, have the same length, and each pair of corresponding
          elements must compare equal (for example, ‘[1,2] == (1,2)’ is
          false because the type is not the same).

        - Collections that support order comparison are ordered the same
          as their first unequal elements (for example, ‘[1,2,x] <=
          [1,2,y]’ has the same value as ‘x <= y’).  If a corresponding
          element does not exist, the shorter collection is ordered
          first (for example, ‘[1,2] < [1,2,3]’ is true).

   * Mappings (instances of *note dict: 239.) compare equal if and only
     if they have equal ‘(key, value)’ pairs.  Equality comparison of
     the keys and values enforces reflexivity.

     Order comparisons (‘<’, ‘>’, ‘<=’, and ‘>=’) raise *note TypeError:
     2ba.

   * Sets (instances of *note set: 3cc. or *note frozenset: 3cd.) can be
     compared within and across their types.

     They define order comparison operators to mean subset and superset
     tests.  Those relations do not define total orderings (for example,
     the two sets ‘{1,2}’ and ‘{2,3}’ are not equal, nor subsets of one
     another, nor supersets of one another).  Accordingly, sets are not
     appropriate arguments for functions which depend on total ordering
     (for example, *note min(): d8c, *note max(): d8d, and *note
     sorted(): a2f. produce undefined results given a list of sets as
     inputs).

     Comparison of sets enforces reflexivity of its elements.

   * Most other built-in types have no comparison methods implemented,
     so they inherit the default comparison behavior.

User-defined classes that customize their comparison behavior should
follow some consistency rules, if possible:

   * Equality comparison should be reflexive.  In other words, identical
     objects should compare equal:

          ‘x is y’ implies ‘x == y’

   * Comparison should be symmetric.  In other words, the following
     expressions should have the same result:

          ‘x == y’ 和 ‘y == x’

          ‘x != y’ 和 ‘y != x’

          ‘x < y’ 和 ‘y > x’

          ‘x <= y’ 和 ‘y >= x’

   * Comparison should be transitive.  The following (non-exhaustive)
     examples illustrate that:

          ‘x > y and y > z’ 暗示了 ‘x > z’

          ‘x < y and y <= z’ 暗示了 ‘x < z’

   * Inverse comparison should result in the boolean negation.  In other
     words, the following expressions should have the same result:

          ‘x == y’ 和 ‘not x != y’

          ‘x < y’ and ‘not x >= y’ (for total ordering)

          ‘x > y’ and ‘not x <= y’ (for total ordering)

     The last two expressions apply to totally ordered collections (e.g.
     to sequences, but not to sets or mappings).  See also the *note
     total_ordering(): dcf. decorator.

   * The *note hash(): 3df. result should be consistent with equality.
     Objects that are equal should either have the same hash value, or
     be marked as unhashable.

Python does not enforce these consistency rules.  In fact, the
not-a-number values are an example for not following these rules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (2) The Unicode standard distinguishes between 'code points' (e.g.
U+0041) and 'abstract characters' (e.g.  "LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A").
While most abstract characters in Unicode are only represented using one
code point, there is a number of abstract characters that can in
addition be represented using a sequence of more than one code point.
For example, the abstract character "LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH
CEDILLA" can be represented as a single 'precomposed character' at code
position U+00C7, or as a sequence of a 'base character' at code position
U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C), followed by a 'combining character' at
code position U+0327 (COMBINING CEDILLA).

The comparison operators on strings compare at the level of Unicode code
points.  This may be counter-intuitive to humans.  For example,
‘"\u00C7" == "\u0043\u0327"’ is ‘False’, even though both strings
represent the same abstract character "LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH
CEDILLA".

To compare strings at the level of abstract characters (that is, in a
way intuitive to humans), use *note unicodedata.normalize(): 4d3.


File: python.info,  Node: Membership test operations,  Next: Identity comparisons,  Prev: Value comparisons,  Up: Comparisons

4.6.10.2 Membership test operations
...................................

The operators *note in: 267. and *note not in: 42a. test for membership.
‘x in s’ evaluates to ‘True’ if 'x' is a member of 's', and ‘False’
otherwise.  ‘x not in s’ returns the negation of ‘x in s’.  All built-in
sequences and set types support this as well as dictionary, for which
‘in’ tests whether the dictionary has a given key.  For container types
such as list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, or collections.deque, the
expression ‘x in y’ is equivalent to ‘any(x is e or x == e for e in y)’.

For the string and bytes types, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if and only if 'x' is
a substring of 'y'.  An equivalent test is ‘y.find(x) != -1’.  Empty
strings are always considered to be a substring of any other string, so
‘"" in "abc"’ will return ‘True’.

For user-defined classes which define the *note __contains__(): 1cef.
method, ‘x in y’ returns ‘True’ if ‘y.__contains__(x)’ returns a true
value, and ‘False’ otherwise.

For user-defined classes which do not define *note __contains__(): 1cef.
but do define *note __iter__(): 1ced, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if some value
‘z’, for which the expression ‘x is z or x == z’ is true, is produced
while iterating over ‘y’.  If an exception is raised during the
iteration, it is as if *note in: 267. raised that exception.

Lastly, the old-style iteration protocol is tried: if a class defines
*note __getitem__(): 4e7, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if and only if there is a
non-negative integer index 'i' such that ‘x is y[i] or x == y[i]’, and
no lower integer index raises the *note IndexError: 13ac. exception.
(If any other exception is raised, it is as if *note in: 267. raised
that exception).

The operator *note not in: 42a. is defined to have the inverse truth
value of *note in: 267.


File: python.info,  Node: Identity comparisons,  Prev: Membership test operations,  Up: Comparisons

4.6.10.3 Identity comparisons
.............................

The operators *note is: 268. and *note is not: 1e0a. test for an
object's identity: ‘x is y’ is true if and only if 'x' and 'y' are the
same object.  An Object's identity is determined using the *note id():
1293. function.  ‘x is not y’ yields the inverse truth value.  (1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Due to automatic garbage-collection, free lists, and the dynamic
nature of descriptors, you may notice seemingly unusual behaviour in
certain uses of the *note is: 268. operator, like those involving
comparisons between instance methods, or constants.  Check their
documentation for more info.


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean operations,  Next: Assignment expressions<2>,  Prev: Comparisons,  Up: 運算式

4.6.11 Boolean operations
-------------------------

     or_test  ::= and_test | or_test "or" and_test
     and_test ::= not_test | and_test "and" not_test
     not_test ::= comparison | "not" not_test

In the context of Boolean operations, and also when expressions are used
by control flow statements, the following values are interpreted as
false: ‘False’, ‘None’, numeric zero of all types, and empty strings and
containers (including strings, tuples, lists, dictionaries, sets and
frozensets).  All other values are interpreted as true.  User-defined
objects can customize their truth value by providing a *note __bool__():
1166. method.

The operator *note not: 1e0d. yields ‘True’ if its argument is false,
‘False’ otherwise.

The expression ‘x and y’ first evaluates 'x'; if 'x' is false, its value
is returned; otherwise, 'y' is evaluated and the resulting value is
returned.

The expression ‘x or y’ first evaluates 'x'; if 'x' is true, its value
is returned; otherwise, 'y' is evaluated and the resulting value is
returned.

Note that neither *note and: 263. nor *note or: 269. restrict the value
and type they return to ‘False’ and ‘True’, but rather return the last
evaluated argument.  This is sometimes useful, e.g., if ‘s’ is a string
that should be replaced by a default value if it is empty, the
expression ‘s or 'foo'’ yields the desired value.  Because *note not:
1e0d. has to create a new value, it returns a boolean value regardless
of the type of its argument (for example, ‘not 'foo'’ produces ‘False’
rather than ‘''’.)


File: python.info,  Node: Assignment expressions<2>,  Next: Conditional expressions,  Prev: Boolean operations,  Up: 運算式

4.6.12 Assignment expressions
-----------------------------

     assignment_expression ::= [identifier ":="] expression

An assignment expression (sometimes also called a "named expression" or
"walrus") assigns an *note expression: 1e12. to an *note identifier:
1c29, while also returning the value of the *note expression: 1e12.

One common use case is when handling matched regular expressions:

     if matching := pattern.search(data):
         do_something(matching)

Or, when processing a file stream in chunks:

     while chunk := file.read(9000):
         process(chunk)

Assignment expressions must be surrounded by parentheses when used as
expression statements and when used as sub-expressions in slicing,
conditional, lambda, keyword-argument, and comprehension-if expressions
and in ‘assert’, ‘with’, and ‘assignment’ statements.  In all other
places where they can be used, parentheses are not required, including
in ‘if’ and ‘while’ statements.

在 3.8 版被加入: See PEP 572(1) for more details about assignment
expressions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Conditional expressions,  Next: Lambdas,  Prev: Assignment expressions<2>,  Up: 運算式

4.6.13 Conditional expressions
------------------------------

     conditional_expression ::= or_test ["if" or_test "else" expression]
     expression             ::= conditional_expression | lambda_expr

Conditional expressions (sometimes called a "ternary operator") have the
lowest priority of all Python operations.

The expression ‘x if C else y’ first evaluates the condition, 'C' rather
than 'x'.  If 'C' is true, 'x' is evaluated and its value is returned;
otherwise, 'y' is evaluated and its value is returned.

See PEP 308(1) for more details about conditional expressions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/


File: python.info,  Node: Lambdas,  Next: Expression lists,  Prev: Conditional expressions,  Up: 運算式

4.6.14 Lambdas
--------------

     lambda_expr ::= "lambda" [parameter_list] ":" expression

Lambda expressions (sometimes called lambda forms) are used to create
anonymous functions.  The expression ‘lambda parameters: expression’
yields a function object.  The unnamed object behaves like a function
object defined with:

     def <lambda>(parameters):
         return expression

See section *note 函式定義: 1a2b. for the syntax of parameter lists.
Note that functions created with lambda expressions cannot contain
statements or annotations.


File: python.info,  Node: Expression lists,  Next: Evaluation order,  Prev: Lambdas,  Up: 運算式

4.6.15 Expression lists
-----------------------

     starred_expression       ::= ["*"] or_expr
     flexible_expression      ::= assignment_expression | starred_expression
     flexible_expression_list ::= flexible_expression ("," flexible_expression)* [","]
     starred_expression_list  ::= starred_expression ("," starred_expression)* [","]
     expression_list          ::= expression ("," expression)* [","]
     yield_list               ::= expression_list | starred_expression "," [starred_expression_list]

Except when part of a list or set display, an expression list containing
at least one comma yields a tuple.  The length of the tuple is the
number of expressions in the list.  The expressions are evaluated from
left to right.

An asterisk ‘*’ denotes 'iterable unpacking'.  Its operand must be an
*note iterable: 10ba.  The iterable is expanded into a sequence of
items, which are included in the new tuple, list, or set, at the site of
the unpacking.

在 3.5 版被加入: Iterable unpacking in expression lists, originally
proposed by PEP 448(1).

在 3.11 版被加入: Any item in an expression list may be starred.  See
PEP 646(2).

A trailing comma is required only to create a one-item tuple, such as
‘1,’; it is optional in all other cases.  A single expression without a
trailing comma doesn't create a tuple, but rather yields the value of
that expression.  (To create an empty tuple, use an empty pair of
parentheses: ‘()’.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/


File: python.info,  Node: Evaluation order,  Next: Operator precedence,  Prev: Expression lists,  Up: 運算式

4.6.16 Evaluation order
-----------------------

Python evaluates expressions from left to right.  Notice that while
evaluating an assignment, the right-hand side is evaluated before the
left-hand side.

In the following lines, expressions will be evaluated in the arithmetic
order of their suffixes:

     expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4
     (expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4)
     {expr1: expr2, expr3: expr4}
     expr1 + expr2 * (expr3 - expr4)
     expr1(expr2, expr3, *expr4, **expr5)
     expr3, expr4 = expr1, expr2


File: python.info,  Node: Operator precedence,  Prev: Evaluation order,  Up: 運算式

4.6.17 Operator precedence
--------------------------

The following table summarizes the operator precedence in Python, from
highest precedence (most binding) to lowest precedence (least binding).
Operators in the same box have the same precedence.  Unless the syntax
is explicitly given, operators are binary.  Operators in the same box
group left to right (except for exponentiation and conditional
expressions, which group from right to left).

Note that comparisons, membership tests, and identity tests, all have
the same precedence and have a left-to-right chaining feature as
described in the *note Comparisons: 1e03. section.

Operator                                            描述
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘(expressions...)’,                                 Binding or parenthesized expression,
                                                    list display, dictionary display, set
‘[expressions...]’, ‘{key: value...}’,              display
‘{expressions...}’                                  

‘x[index]’, ‘x[index:index]’, ‘x(arguments...)’,    Subscription, slicing, call, attribute
‘x.attribute’                                       reference
                                                    
                                                    
*note await x: 542.                                 Await expression
                                                    
                                                    
‘**’                                                Exponentiation (1)
                                                    
                                                    
‘+x’, ‘-x’, ‘~x’                                    Positive, negative, bitwise NOT
                                                    
                                                    
‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’                            Multiplication, matrix multiplication,
                                                    division, floor division, remainder (2)
                                                    
                                                    
‘+’, ‘-’                                            Addition and subtraction
                                                    
                                                    
‘<<’, ‘>>’                                          Shifts
                                                    
                                                    
‘&’                                                 Bitwise AND
                                                    
                                                    
‘^’                                                 Bitwise XOR
                                                    
                                                    
‘|’                                                 Bitwise OR
                                                    
                                                    
*note in: 267, *note not in: 42a, *note is: 268,    Comparisons, including membership tests
*note is not: 1e0a, ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’, ‘!=’,     and identity tests
‘==’                                                

*note not x: 1e0d.                                  Boolean NOT
                                                    
                                                    
*note and: 263.                                     Boolean AND
                                                    
                                                    
*note or: 269.                                      Boolean OR
                                                    
                                                    
*note if: 1e14. - ‘else’                            Conditional expression
                                                    
                                                    
*note lambda: 1131.                                 Lambda expression
                                                    
                                                    
‘:=’                                                Assignment expression
                                                    

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The power operator ‘**’ binds less tightly than an arithmetic or
bitwise unary operator on its right, that is, ‘2**-1’ is ‘0.5’.

   (2) The ‘%’ operator is also used for string formatting; the same
precedence applies.


File: python.info,  Node: 簡單陳述式,  Next: 複合陳述式,  Prev: 運算式,  Up: Python 語言參考手冊

4.7 簡單陳述式
==============

A simple statement is comprised within a single logical line.  Several
simple statements may occur on a single line separated by semicolons.
The syntax for simple statements is:

     simple_stmt ::= expression_stmt
                     | assert_stmt
                     | assignment_stmt
                     | augmented_assignment_stmt
                     | annotated_assignment_stmt
                     | pass_stmt
                     | del_stmt
                     | return_stmt
                     | yield_stmt
                     | raise_stmt
                     | break_stmt
                     | continue_stmt
                     | import_stmt
                     | future_stmt
                     | global_stmt
                     | nonlocal_stmt
                     | type_stmt

* Menu:

* Expression statements::
* Assignment statements::
* assert 陳述式::
* pass 陳述式: pass 陳述式<2>.
* del 陳述式: del 陳述式<2>.
* return 陳述式::
* yield 陳述式::
* raise 陳述式::
* break 陳述式::
* continue 陳述式::
* import 陳述式::
* global 陳述式::
* nonlocal 陳述式::
* type 陳述式::


File: python.info,  Node: Expression statements,  Next: Assignment statements,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.1 Expression statements
---------------------------

Expression statements are used (mostly interactively) to compute and
write a value, or (usually) to call a procedure (a function that returns
no meaningful result; in Python, procedures return the value ‘None’).
Other uses of expression statements are allowed and occasionally useful.
The syntax for an expression statement is:

     expression_stmt ::= starred_expression

An expression statement evaluates the expression list (which may be a
single expression).

In interactive mode, if the value is not ‘None’, it is converted to a
string using the built-in *note repr(): 61e. function and the resulting
string is written to standard output on a line by itself (except if the
result is ‘None’, so that procedure calls do not cause any output.)


File: python.info,  Node: Assignment statements,  Next: assert 陳述式,  Prev: Expression statements,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.2 Assignment statements
---------------------------

Assignment statements are used to (re)bind names to values and to modify
attributes or items of mutable objects:

     assignment_stmt ::= (target_list "=")+ (starred_expression | yield_expression)
     target_list     ::= target ("," target)* [","]
     target          ::= identifier
                         | "(" [target_list] ")"
                         | "[" [target_list] "]"
                         | attributeref
                         | subscription
                         | slicing
                         | "*" target

(See section *note Primaries: 1dd5. for the syntax definitions for
'attributeref', 'subscription', and 'slicing'.)

An assignment statement evaluates the expression list (remember that
this can be a single expression or a comma-separated list, the latter
yielding a tuple) and assigns the single resulting object to each of the
target lists, from left to right.

Assignment is defined recursively depending on the form of the target
(list).  When a target is part of a mutable object (an attribute
reference, subscription or slicing), the mutable object must ultimately
perform the assignment and decide about its validity, and may raise an
exception if the assignment is unacceptable.  The rules observed by
various types and the exceptions raised are given with the definition of
the object types (see section *note 標準型別階層: 1c77.).

Assignment of an object to a target list, optionally enclosed in
parentheses or square brackets, is recursively defined as follows.

   * If the target list is a single target with no trailing comma,
     optionally in parentheses, the object is assigned to that target.

   * Else:

        * If the target list contains one target prefixed with an
          asterisk, called a "starred" target: The object must be an
          iterable with at least as many items as there are targets in
          the target list, minus one.  The first items of the iterable
          are assigned, from left to right, to the targets before the
          starred target.  The final items of the iterable are assigned
          to the targets after the starred target.  A list of the
          remaining items in the iterable is then assigned to the
          starred target (the list can be empty).

        * Else: The object must be an iterable with the same number of
          items as there are targets in the target list, and the items
          are assigned, from left to right, to the corresponding
          targets.

Assignment of an object to a single target is recursively defined as
follows.

   * If the target is an identifier (name):

        * If the name does not occur in a *note global: 1a13. or *note
          nonlocal: 113b. statement in the current code block: the name
          is bound to the object in the current local namespace.

        * Otherwise: the name is bound to the object in the global
          namespace or the outer namespace determined by *note nonlocal:
          113b, respectively.

     The name is rebound if it was already bound.  This may cause the
     reference count for the object previously bound to the name to
     reach zero, causing the object to be deallocated and its destructor
     (if it has one) to be called.

   * If the target is an attribute reference: The primary expression in
     the reference is evaluated.  It should yield an object with
     assignable attributes; if this is not the case, *note TypeError:
     2ba. is raised.  That object is then asked to assign the assigned
     object to the given attribute; if it cannot perform the assignment,
     it raises an exception (usually but not necessarily *note
     AttributeError: 3ca.).  Note: If the object is a class instance and
     the attribute reference occurs on both sides of the assignment
     operator, the right-hand side expression, ‘a.x’ can access either
     an instance attribute or (if no instance attribute exists) a class
     attribute.  The left-hand side target ‘a.x’ is always set as an
     instance attribute, creating it if necessary.  Thus, the two
     occurrences of ‘a.x’ do not necessarily refer to the same
     attribute: if the right-hand side expression refers to a class
     attribute, the left-hand side creates a new instance attribute as
     the target of the assignment:

          class Cls:
              x = 3             # class variable
          inst = Cls()
          inst.x = inst.x + 1   # writes inst.x as 4 leaving Cls.x as 3

     This description does not necessarily apply to descriptor
     attributes, such as properties created with *note property(): 424.

   * If the target is a subscription: The primary expression in the
     reference is evaluated.  It should yield either a mutable sequence
     object (such as a list) or a mapping object (such as a dictionary).
     Next, the subscript expression is evaluated.

     If the primary is a mutable sequence object (such as a list), the
     subscript must yield an integer.  If it is negative, the sequence's
     length is added to it.  The resulting value must be a nonnegative
     integer less than the sequence's length, and the sequence is asked
     to assign the assigned object to its item with that index.  If the
     index is out of range, *note IndexError: 13ac. is raised
     (assignment to a subscripted sequence cannot add new items to a
     list).

     If the primary is a mapping object (such as a dictionary), the
     subscript must have a type compatible with the mapping's key type,
     and the mapping is then asked to create a key/value pair which maps
     the subscript to the assigned object.  This can either replace an
     existing key/value pair with the same key value, or insert a new
     key/value pair (if no key with the same value existed).

     For user-defined objects, the *note __setitem__(): 133c. method is
     called with appropriate arguments.

   * If the target is a slicing: The primary expression in the reference
     is evaluated.  It should yield a mutable sequence object (such as a
     list).  The assigned object should be a sequence object of the same
     type.  Next, the lower and upper bound expressions are evaluated,
     insofar they are present; defaults are zero and the sequence's
     length.  The bounds should evaluate to integers.  If either bound
     is negative, the sequence's length is added to it.  The resulting
     bounds are clipped to lie between zero and the sequence's length,
     inclusive.  Finally, the sequence object is asked to replace the
     slice with the items of the assigned sequence.  The length of the
     slice may be different from the length of the assigned sequence,
     thus changing the length of the target sequence, if the target
     sequence allows it.

'CPython 實作細節：' In the current implementation, the syntax for
targets is taken to be the same as for expressions, and invalid syntax
is rejected during the code generation phase, causing less detailed
error messages.

Although the definition of assignment implies that overlaps between the
left-hand side and the right-hand side are 'simultaneous' (for example
‘a, b = b, a’ swaps two variables), overlaps 'within' the collection of
assigned-to variables occur left-to-right, sometimes resulting in
confusion.  For instance, the following program prints ‘[0, 2]’:

     x = [0, 1]
     i = 0
     i, x[i] = 1, 2         # i is updated, then x[i] is updated
     print(x)

也參考
......

PEP 3132(1) - Extended Iterable Unpacking

     The specification for the ‘*target’ feature.

* Menu:

* Augmented assignment statements::
* Annotated assignment statements::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/


File: python.info,  Node: Augmented assignment statements,  Next: Annotated assignment statements,  Up: Assignment statements

4.7.2.1 Augmented assignment statements
.......................................

Augmented assignment is the combination, in a single statement, of a
binary operation and an assignment statement:

     augmented_assignment_stmt ::= augtarget augop (expression_list | yield_expression)
     augtarget                 ::= identifier | attributeref | subscription | slicing
     augop                     ::= "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "@=" | "/=" | "//=" | "%=" | "**="
                                   | ">>=" | "<<=" | "&=" | "^=" | "|="

(See section *note Primaries: 1dd5. for the syntax definitions of the
last three symbols.)

An augmented assignment evaluates the target (which, unlike normal
assignment statements, cannot be an unpacking) and the expression list,
performs the binary operation specific to the type of assignment on the
two operands, and assigns the result to the original target.  The target
is only evaluated once.

An augmented assignment statement like ‘x += 1’ can be rewritten as ‘x =
x + 1’ to achieve a similar, but not exactly equal effect.  In the
augmented version, ‘x’ is only evaluated once.  Also, when possible, the
actual operation is performed 'in-place', meaning that rather than
creating a new object and assigning that to the target, the old object
is modified instead.

Unlike normal assignments, augmented assignments evaluate the left-hand
side 'before' evaluating the right-hand side.  For example, ‘a[i] +=
f(x)’ first looks-up ‘a[i]’, then it evaluates ‘f(x)’ and performs the
addition, and lastly, it writes the result back to ‘a[i]’.

With the exception of assigning to tuples and multiple targets in a
single statement, the assignment done by augmented assignment statements
is handled the same way as normal assignments.  Similarly, with the
exception of the possible 'in-place' behavior, the binary operation
performed by augmented assignment is the same as the normal binary
operations.

For targets which are attribute references, the same *note caveat about
class and instance attributes: 1e2e. applies as for regular assignments.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotated assignment statements,  Prev: Augmented assignment statements,  Up: Assignment statements

4.7.2.2 Annotated assignment statements
.......................................

*note Annotation: bcb. assignment is the combination, in a single
statement, of a variable or attribute annotation and an optional
assignment statement:

     annotated_assignment_stmt ::= augtarget ":" expression
                                   ["=" (starred_expression | yield_expression)]

The difference from normal *note Assignment statements: 1d6d. is that
only a single target is allowed.

The assignment target is considered "simple" if it consists of a single
name that is not enclosed in parentheses.  For simple assignment
targets, if in class or module scope, the annotations are evaluated and
stored in a special class or module attribute ‘__annotations__’ that is
a dictionary mapping from variable names (mangled if private) to
evaluated annotations.  This attribute is writable and is automatically
created at the start of class or module body execution, if annotations
are found statically.

If the assignment target is not simple (an attribute, subscript node, or
parenthesized name), the annotation is evaluated if in class or module
scope, but not stored.

If a name is annotated in a function scope, then this name is local for
that scope.  Annotations are never evaluated and stored in function
scopes.

If the right hand side is present, an annotated assignment performs the
actual assignment before evaluating annotations (where applicable).  If
the right hand side is not present for an expression target, then the
interpreter evaluates the target except for the last *note
__setitem__(): 133c. or *note __setattr__(): 1cbf. call.

也參考
......

PEP 526(1) - Syntax for Variable Annotations

     The proposal that added syntax for annotating the types of
     variables (including class variables and instance variables),
     instead of expressing them through comments.

PEP 484(2) - Type hints

     The proposal that added the *note typing: ff. module to provide a
     standard syntax for type annotations that can be used in static
     analysis tools and IDEs.

在 3.8 版的變更: Now annotated assignments allow the same expressions in
the right hand side as regular assignments.  Previously, some
expressions (like un-parenthesized tuple expressions) caused a syntax
error.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: assert 陳述式,  Next: pass 陳述式<2>,  Prev: Assignment statements,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.3 ‘assert’ 陳述式
---------------------

Assert statements are a convenient way to insert debugging assertions
into a program:

     assert_stmt ::= "assert" expression ["," expression]

The simple form, ‘assert expression’, is equivalent to

     if __debug__:
         if not expression: raise AssertionError

The extended form, ‘assert expression1, expression2’, is equivalent to

     if __debug__:
         if not expression1: raise AssertionError(expression2)

These equivalences assume that *note __debug__: 5fb. and *note
AssertionError: 4a6. refer to the built-in variables with those names.
In the current implementation, the built-in variable *note __debug__:
5fb. is ‘True’ under normal circumstances, ‘False’ when optimization is
requested (command line option *note -O: c2c.).  The current code
generator emits no code for an assert statement when optimization is
requested at compile time.  Note that it is unnecessary to include the
source code for the expression that failed in the error message; it will
be displayed as part of the stack trace.

Assignments to *note __debug__: 5fb. are illegal.  The value for the
built-in variable is determined when the interpreter starts.


File: python.info,  Node: pass 陳述式<2>,  Next: del 陳述式<2>,  Prev: assert 陳述式,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.4 ‘pass’ 陳述式
-------------------

     pass_stmt ::= "pass"

*note pass: 1a0e. is a null operation -- when it is executed, nothing
happens.  It is useful as a placeholder when a statement is required
syntactically, but no code needs to be executed, for example:

     def f(arg): pass    # a function that does nothing (yet)

     class C: pass       # a class with no methods (yet)


File: python.info,  Node: del 陳述式<2>,  Next: return 陳述式,  Prev: pass 陳述式<2>,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.5 ‘del’ 陳述式
------------------

     del_stmt ::= "del" target_list

Deletion is recursively defined very similar to the way assignment is
defined.  Rather than spelling it out in full details, here are some
hints.

Deletion of a target list recursively deletes each target, from left to
right.

Deletion of a name removes the binding of that name from the local or
global namespace, depending on whether the name occurs in a *note
global: 1a13. statement in the same code block.  If the name is unbound,
a *note NameError: 144. exception will be raised.

Deletion of attribute references, subscriptions and slicings is passed
to the primary object involved; deletion of a slicing is in general
equivalent to assignment of an empty slice of the right type (but even
this is determined by the sliced object).

在 3.2 版的變更: Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the
local namespace if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block.


File: python.info,  Node: return 陳述式,  Next: yield 陳述式,  Prev: del 陳述式<2>,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.6 ‘return’ 陳述式
---------------------

     return_stmt ::= "return" [expression_list]

*note return: 812. may only occur syntactically nested in a function
definition, not within a nested class definition.

If an expression list is present, it is evaluated, else ‘None’ is
substituted.

*note return: 812. leaves the current function call with the expression
list (or ‘None’) as return value.

When *note return: 812. passes control out of a *note try: 4ea.
statement with a *note finally: 80e. clause, that ‘finally’ clause is
executed before really leaving the function.

In a generator function, the *note return: 812. statement indicates that
the generator is done and will cause *note StopIteration: a5d. to be
raised.  The returned value (if any) is used as an argument to construct
*note StopIteration: a5d. and becomes the *note StopIteration.value:
1d5c. attribute.

In an asynchronous generator function, an empty *note return: 812.
statement indicates that the asynchronous generator is done and will
cause *note StopAsyncIteration: 1813. to be raised.  A non-empty
‘return’ statement is a syntax error in an asynchronous generator
function.


File: python.info,  Node: yield 陳述式,  Next: raise 陳述式,  Prev: return 陳述式,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.7 ‘yield’ 陳述式
--------------------

     yield_stmt ::= yield_expression

A *note yield: 811. statement is semantically equivalent to a *note
yield expression: 1dc7.  The yield statement can be used to omit the
parentheses that would otherwise be required in the equivalent yield
expression statement.  For example, the yield statements

     yield <expr>
     yield from <expr>

are equivalent to the yield expression statements

     (yield <expr>)
     (yield from <expr>)

Yield expressions and statements are only used when defining a *note
generator: ef7. function, and are only used in the body of the generator
function.  Using yield in a function definition is sufficient to cause
that definition to create a generator function instead of a normal
function.

For full details of *note yield: 811. semantics, refer to the *note
Yield expressions: 1dc7. section.


File: python.info,  Node: raise 陳述式,  Next: break 陳述式,  Prev: yield 陳述式,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.8 ‘raise’ 陳述式
--------------------

     raise_stmt ::= "raise" [expression ["from" expression]]

If no expressions are present, *note raise: 3e1. re-raises the exception
that is currently being handled, which is also known as the 'active
exception'.  If there isn't currently an active exception, a *note
RuntimeError: 17a. exception is raised indicating that this is an error.

Otherwise, *note raise: 3e1. evaluates the first expression as the
exception object.  It must be either a subclass or an instance of *note
BaseException: 3ab.  If it is a class, the exception instance will be
obtained when needed by instantiating the class with no arguments.

The 'type' of the exception is the exception instance's class, the
'value' is the instance itself.

A traceback object is normally created automatically when an exception
is raised and attached to it as the *note __traceback__: 1158.
attribute.  You can create an exception and set your own traceback in
one step using the *note with_traceback(): 1e43. exception method (which
returns the same exception instance, with its traceback set to its
argument), like so:

     raise Exception("foo occurred").with_traceback(tracebackobj)

The ‘from’ clause is used for exception chaining: if given, the second
'expression' must be another exception class or instance.  If the second
expression is an exception instance, it will be attached to the raised
exception as the *note __cause__: 115a. attribute (which is writable).
If the expression is an exception class, the class will be instantiated
and the resulting exception instance will be attached to the raised
exception as the ‘__cause__’ attribute.  If the raised exception is not
handled, both exceptions will be printed:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except Exception as exc:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         print(1 / 0)
               ~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

A similar mechanism works implicitly if a new exception is raised when
an exception is already being handled.  An exception may be handled when
an *note except: 3a8. or *note finally: 80e. clause, or a *note with:
3c5. statement, is used.  The previous exception is then attached as the
new exception's *note __context__: 1159. attribute:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         print(1 / 0)
               ~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Exception chaining can be explicitly suppressed by specifying *note
None: 470. in the ‘from’ clause:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from None
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Additional information on exceptions can be found in section *note 例外:
1d78, and information about handling exceptions is in section *note The
try statement: 4ea.

在 3.3 版的變更: *note None: 470. is now permitted as ‘Y’ in ‘raise X
from Y’.

Added the *note __suppress_context__: 1e44. attribute to suppress
automatic display of the exception context.

在 3.11 版的變更: If the traceback of the active exception is modified
in an *note except: 3a8. clause, a subsequent ‘raise’ statement
re-raises the exception with the modified traceback.  Previously, the
exception was re-raised with the traceback it had when it was caught.


File: python.info,  Node: break 陳述式,  Next: continue 陳述式,  Prev: raise 陳述式,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.9 ‘break’ 陳述式
--------------------

     break_stmt ::= "break"

*note break: 8fc. may only occur syntactically nested in a *note for:
265. or *note while: 19f8. loop, but not nested in a function or class
definition within that loop.

It terminates the nearest enclosing loop, skipping the optional ‘else’
clause if the loop has one.

If a *note for: 265. loop is terminated by *note break: 8fc, the loop
control target keeps its current value.

When *note break: 8fc. passes control out of a *note try: 4ea. statement
with a *note finally: 80e. clause, that ‘finally’ clause is executed
before really leaving the loop.


File: python.info,  Node: continue 陳述式,  Next: import 陳述式,  Prev: break 陳述式,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.10 ‘continue’ 陳述式
------------------------

     continue_stmt ::= "continue"

*note continue: 80d. may only occur syntactically nested in a *note for:
265. or *note while: 19f8. loop, but not nested in a function or class
definition within that loop.  It continues with the next cycle of the
nearest enclosing loop.

When *note continue: 80d. passes control out of a *note try: 4ea.
statement with a *note finally: 80e. clause, that ‘finally’ clause is
executed before really starting the next loop cycle.


File: python.info,  Node: import 陳述式,  Next: global 陳述式,  Prev: continue 陳述式,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.11 ‘import’ 陳述式
----------------------

     import_stmt     ::= "import" module ["as" identifier] ("," module ["as" identifier])*
                         | "from" relative_module "import" identifier ["as" identifier]
                         ("," identifier ["as" identifier])*
                         | "from" relative_module "import" "(" identifier ["as" identifier]
                         ("," identifier ["as" identifier])* [","] ")"
                         | "from" relative_module "import" "*"
     module          ::= (identifier ".")* identifier
     relative_module ::= "."* module | "."+

The basic import statement (no *note from: 113f. clause) is executed in
two steps:

  1. find a module, loading and initializing it if necessary

  2. define a name or names in the local namespace for the scope where
     the *note import: 3d5. statement occurs.

When the statement contains multiple clauses (separated by commas) the
two steps are carried out separately for each clause, just as though the
clauses had been separated out into individual import statements.

The details of the first step, finding and loading modules, are
described in greater detail in the section on the *note import system:
1ca3, which also describes the various types of packages and modules
that can be imported, as well as all the hooks that can be used to
customize the import system.  Note that failures in this step may
indicate either that the module could not be located, 'or' that an error
occurred while initializing the module, which includes execution of the
module's code.

If the requested module is retrieved successfully, it will be made
available in the local namespace in one of three ways:

   * If the module name is followed by ‘as’, then the name following
     ‘as’ is bound directly to the imported module.

   * If no other name is specified, and the module being imported is a
     top level module, the module's name is bound in the local namespace
     as a reference to the imported module

   * If the module being imported is 'not' a top level module, then the
     name of the top level package that contains the module is bound in
     the local namespace as a reference to the top level package.  The
     imported module must be accessed using its full qualified name
     rather than directly

The *note from: 113f. form uses a slightly more complex process:

  1. find the module specified in the *note from: 113f. clause, loading
     and initializing it if necessary;

  2. for each of the identifiers specified in the *note import: 3d5.
     clauses:

       1. check if the imported module has an attribute by that name

       2. if not, attempt to import a submodule with that name and then
          check the imported module again for that attribute

       3. if the attribute is not found, *note ImportError: 145. is
          raised.

       4. otherwise, a reference to that value is stored in the local
          namespace, using the name in the ‘as’ clause if it is present,
          otherwise using the attribute name

範例：

     import foo                 # foo imported and bound locally
     import foo.bar.baz         # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo bound locally
     import foo.bar.baz as fbb  # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as fbb
     from foo.bar import baz    # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as baz
     from foo import attr       # foo imported and foo.attr bound as attr

If the list of identifiers is replaced by a star (‘'*'’), all public
names defined in the module are bound in the local namespace for the
scope where the *note import: 3d5. statement occurs.

The 'public names' defined by a module are determined by checking the
module's namespace for a variable named ‘__all__’; if defined, it must
be a sequence of strings which are names defined or imported by that
module.  The names given in ‘__all__’ are all considered public and are
required to exist.  If ‘__all__’ is not defined, the set of public names
includes all names found in the module's namespace which do not begin
with an underscore character (‘'_'’).  ‘__all__’ should contain the
entire public API. It is intended to avoid accidentally exporting items
that are not part of the API (such as library modules which were
imported and used within the module).

The wild card form of import -- ‘from module import *’ -- is only
allowed at the module level.  Attempting to use it in class or function
definitions will raise a *note SyntaxError: 146.

When specifying what module to import you do not have to specify the
absolute name of the module.  When a module or package is contained
within another package it is possible to make a relative import within
the same top package without having to mention the package name.  By
using leading dots in the specified module or package after *note from:
113f. you can specify how high to traverse up the current package
hierarchy without specifying exact names.  One leading dot means the
current package where the module making the import exists.  Two dots
means up one package level.  Three dots is up two levels, etc.  So if
you execute ‘from . import mod’ from a module in the ‘pkg’ package then
you will end up importing ‘pkg.mod’.  If you execute ‘from ..subpkg2
import mod’ from within ‘pkg.subpkg1’ you will import ‘pkg.subpkg2.mod’.
The specification for relative imports is contained in the *note Package
Relative Imports: 1d9c. section.

*note importlib.import_module(): 298. is provided to support
applications that determine dynamically the modules to be loaded.

引發一個附帶引數 ‘module’、‘filename’、‘sys.path’、‘sys.meta_path’、
‘sys.path_hooks’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘import’。

* Menu:

* Future statements::


File: python.info,  Node: Future statements,  Up: import 陳述式

4.7.11.1 Future statements
..........................

A 'future statement' is a directive to the compiler that a particular
module should be compiled using syntax or semantics that will be
available in a specified future release of Python where the feature
becomes standard.

The future statement is intended to ease migration to future versions of
Python that introduce incompatible changes to the language.  It allows
use of the new features on a per-module basis before the release in
which the feature becomes standard.

     future_stmt ::= "from" "__future__" "import" feature ["as" identifier]
                     ("," feature ["as" identifier])*
                     | "from" "__future__" "import" "(" feature ["as" identifier]
                     ("," feature ["as" identifier])* [","] ")"
     feature     ::= identifier

A future statement must appear near the top of the module.  The only
lines that can appear before a future statement are:

   * the module docstring (if any),

   * comments,

   * blank lines, and

   * other future statements.

The only feature that requires using the future statement is
‘annotations’ (see PEP 563(1)).

All historical features enabled by the future statement are still
recognized by Python 3.  The list includes ‘absolute_import’,
‘division’, ‘generators’, ‘generator_stop’, ‘unicode_literals’,
‘print_function’, ‘nested_scopes’ and ‘with_statement’.  They are all
redundant because they are always enabled, and only kept for backwards
compatibility.

A future statement is recognized and treated specially at compile time:
Changes to the semantics of core constructs are often implemented by
generating different code.  It may even be the case that a new feature
introduces new incompatible syntax (such as a new reserved word), in
which case the compiler may need to parse the module differently.  Such
decisions cannot be pushed off until runtime.

For any given release, the compiler knows which feature names have been
defined, and raises a compile-time error if a future statement contains
a feature not known to it.

The direct runtime semantics are the same as for any import statement:
there is a standard module *note __future__: 0, described later, and it
will be imported in the usual way at the time the future statement is
executed.

The interesting runtime semantics depend on the specific feature enabled
by the future statement.

Note that there is nothing special about the statement:

     import __future__ [as name]

That is not a future statement; it's an ordinary import statement with
no special semantics or syntax restrictions.

Code compiled by calls to the built-in functions *note exec(): 6b1. and
*note compile(): 554. that occur in a module ‘M’ containing a future
statement will, by default, use the new syntax or semantics associated
with the future statement.  This can be controlled by optional arguments
to *note compile(): 554. -- see the documentation of that function for
details.

A future statement typed at an interactive interpreter prompt will take
effect for the rest of the interpreter session.  If an interpreter is
started with the *note -i: 1352. option, is passed a script name to
execute, and the script includes a future statement, it will be in
effect in the interactive session started after the script is executed.

也參考
......

PEP 236(2) - Back to the __future__

     The original proposal for the __future__ mechanism.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: global 陳述式,  Next: nonlocal 陳述式,  Prev: import 陳述式,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.12 ‘global’ 陳述式
----------------------

     global_stmt ::= "global" identifier ("," identifier)*

The *note global: 1a13. statement is a declaration which holds for the
entire current code block.  It means that the listed identifiers are to
be interpreted as globals.  It would be impossible to assign to a global
variable without ‘global’, although free variables may refer to globals
without being declared global.

Names listed in a *note global: 1a13. statement must not be used in the
same code block textually preceding that ‘global’ statement.

Names listed in a *note global: 1a13. statement must not be defined as
formal parameters, or as targets in *note with: 3c5. statements or *note
except: 3a8. clauses, or in a *note for: 265. target list, *note class:
1168. definition, function definition, *note import: 3d5. statement, or
variable annotation.

'CPython 實作細節：' The current implementation does not enforce some of
these restrictions, but programs should not abuse this freedom, as
future implementations may enforce them or silently change the meaning
of the program.

'Programmer's note:' *note global: 1a13. is a directive to the parser.
It applies only to code parsed at the same time as the ‘global’
statement.  In particular, a ‘global’ statement contained in a string or
code object supplied to the built-in *note exec(): 6b1. function does
not affect the code block 'containing' the function call, and code
contained in such a string is unaffected by ‘global’ statements in the
code containing the function call.  The same applies to the *note
eval(): 6b0. and *note compile(): 554. functions.


File: python.info,  Node: nonlocal 陳述式,  Next: type 陳述式,  Prev: global 陳述式,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.13 ‘nonlocal’ 陳述式
------------------------

     nonlocal_stmt ::= "nonlocal" identifier ("," identifier)*

When the definition of a function or class is nested (enclosed) within
the definitions of other functions, its nonlocal scopes are the local
scopes of the enclosing functions.  The *note nonlocal: 113b. statement
causes the listed identifiers to refer to names previously bound in
nonlocal scopes.  It allows encapsulated code to rebind such nonlocal
identifiers.  If a name is bound in more than one nonlocal scope, the
nearest binding is used.  If a name is not bound in any nonlocal scope,
or if there is no nonlocal scope, a *note SyntaxError: 146. is raised.

The nonlocal statement applies to the entire scope of a function or
class body.  A *note SyntaxError: 146. is raised if a variable is used
or assigned to prior to its nonlocal declaration in the scope.

也參考
......

PEP 3104(1) - Access to Names in Outer Scopes

     The specification for the *note nonlocal: 113b. statement.

'Programmer's note:' *note nonlocal: 113b. is a directive to the parser
and applies only to code parsed along with it.  See the note for the
*note global: 1a13. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/


File: python.info,  Node: type 陳述式,  Prev: nonlocal 陳述式,  Up: 簡單陳述式

4.7.14 ‘type’ 陳述式
--------------------

     type_stmt ::= 'type' identifier [type_params] "=" expression

The ‘type’ statement declares a type alias, which is an instance of
*note typing.TypeAliasType: 160.

For example, the following statement creates a type alias:

     type Point = tuple[float, float]

This code is roughly equivalent to:

     annotation-def VALUE_OF_Point():
         return tuple[float, float]
     Point = typing.TypeAliasType("Point", VALUE_OF_Point())

‘annotation-def’ indicates an *note annotation scope: 167, which behaves
mostly like a function, but with several small differences.

The value of the type alias is evaluated in the annotation scope.  It is
not evaluated when the type alias is created, but only when the value is
accessed through the type alias's ‘__value__’ attribute (see *note Lazy
evaluation: 165.).  This allows the type alias to refer to names that
are not yet defined.

Type aliases may be made generic by adding a *note type parameter list:
166. after the name.  See *note Generic type aliases: 161. for more.

‘type’ is a *note soft keyword: 62e.

在 3.12 版被加入.

也參考
......

PEP 695(1) - Type Parameter Syntax

     Introduced the ‘type’ statement and syntax for generic classes and
     functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: 複合陳述式,  Next: 最高層級元件,  Prev: 簡單陳述式,  Up: Python 語言參考手冊

4.8 複合陳述式
==============

Compound statements contain (groups of) other statements; they affect or
control the execution of those other statements in some way.  In
general, compound statements span multiple lines, although in simple
incarnations a whole compound statement may be contained in one line.

The *note if: 266, *note while: 19f8. and *note for: 265. statements
implement traditional control flow constructs.  *note try: 4ea.
specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code for a group of
statements, while the *note with: 3c5. statement allows the execution of
initialization and finalization code around a block of code.  Function
and class definitions are also syntactically compound statements.

A compound statement consists of one or more 'clauses.'  A clause
consists of a header and a 'suite.'  The clause headers of a particular
compound statement are all at the same indentation level.  Each clause
header begins with a uniquely identifying keyword and ends with a colon.
A suite is a group of statements controlled by a clause.  A suite can be
one or more semicolon-separated simple statements on the same line as
the header, following the header's colon, or it can be one or more
indented statements on subsequent lines.  Only the latter form of a
suite can contain nested compound statements; the following is illegal,
mostly because it wouldn't be clear to which *note if: 266. clause a
following *note else: 264. clause would belong:

     if test1: if test2: print(x)

Also note that the semicolon binds tighter than the colon in this
context, so that in the following example, either all or none of the
*note print(): e02. calls are executed:

     if x < y < z: print(x); print(y); print(z)

Summarizing:

     compound_stmt ::= if_stmt
                       | while_stmt
                       | for_stmt
                       | try_stmt
                       | with_stmt
                       | match_stmt
                       | funcdef
                       | classdef
                       | async_with_stmt
                       | async_for_stmt
                       | async_funcdef
     suite         ::= stmt_list NEWLINE | NEWLINE INDENT statement+ DEDENT
     statement     ::= stmt_list NEWLINE | compound_stmt
     stmt_list     ::= simple_stmt (";" simple_stmt)* [";"]

Note that statements always end in a ‘NEWLINE’ possibly followed by a
‘DEDENT’.  Also note that optional continuation clauses always begin
with a keyword that cannot start a statement, thus there are no
ambiguities (the 'dangling *note else: 264.' problem is solved in Python
by requiring nested *note if: 266. statements to be indented).

The formatting of the grammar rules in the following sections places
each clause on a separate line for clarity.
* Menu:

* The if statement::
* The while statement::
* The for statement::
* The try statement::
* The with statement::
* The match statement::
* 函式定義::
* 類別定義::
* 協程: 協程<2>.
* Type parameter lists::


File: python.info,  Node: The if statement,  Next: The while statement,  Up: 複合陳述式

4.8.1 The ‘if’ statement
------------------------

The *note if: 266. statement is used for conditional execution:

     if_stmt ::= "if" assignment_expression ":" suite
                 ("elif" assignment_expression ":" suite)*
                 ["else" ":" suite]

It selects exactly one of the suites by evaluating the expressions one
by one until one is found to be true (see section *note Boolean
operations: 1e0b. for the definition of true and false); then that suite
is executed (and no other part of the *note if: 266. statement is
executed or evaluated).  If all expressions are false, the suite of the
*note else: 264. clause, if present, is executed.


File: python.info,  Node: The while statement,  Next: The for statement,  Prev: The if statement,  Up: 複合陳述式

4.8.2 The ‘while’ statement
---------------------------

The *note while: 19f8. statement is used for repeated execution as long
as an expression is true:

     while_stmt ::= "while" assignment_expression ":" suite
                    ["else" ":" suite]

This repeatedly tests the expression and, if it is true, executes the
first suite; if the expression is false (which may be the first time it
is tested) the suite of the ‘else’ clause, if present, is executed and
the loop terminates.

A *note break: 8fc. statement executed in the first suite terminates the
loop without executing the ‘else’ clause's suite.  A *note continue:
80d. statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite
and goes back to testing the expression.


File: python.info,  Node: The for statement,  Next: The try statement,  Prev: The while statement,  Up: 複合陳述式

4.8.3 The ‘for’ statement
-------------------------

The *note for: 265. statement is used to iterate over the elements of a
sequence (such as a string, tuple or list) or other iterable object:

     for_stmt ::= "for" target_list "in" starred_list ":" suite
                  ["else" ":" suite]

The ‘starred_list’ expression is evaluated once; it should yield an
*note iterable: 10ba. object.  An *note iterator: 1718. is created for
that iterable.  The first item provided by the iterator is then assigned
to the target list using the standard rules for assignments (see *note
Assignment statements: 1d6d.), and the suite is executed.  This repeats
for each item provided by the iterator.  When the iterator is exhausted,
the suite in the ‘else’ clause, if present, is executed, and the loop
terminates.

A *note break: 8fc. statement executed in the first suite terminates the
loop without executing the ‘else’ clause's suite.  A *note continue:
80d. statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite
and continues with the next item, or with the ‘else’ clause if there is
no next item.

The for-loop makes assignments to the variables in the target list.
This overwrites all previous assignments to those variables including
those made in the suite of the for-loop:

     for i in range(10):
         print(i)
         i = 5             # this will not affect the for-loop
                           # because i will be overwritten with the next
                           # index in the range

Names in the target list are not deleted when the loop is finished, but
if the sequence is empty, they will not have been assigned to at all by
the loop.  Hint: the built-in type *note range(): 782. represents
immutable arithmetic sequences of integers.  For instance, iterating
‘range(3)’ successively yields 0, 1, and then 2.

在 3.11 版的變更: Starred elements are now allowed in the expression
list.


File: python.info,  Node: The try statement,  Next: The with statement,  Prev: The for statement,  Up: 複合陳述式

4.8.4 The ‘try’ statement
-------------------------

The ‘try’ statement specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code for
a group of statements:

     try_stmt  ::= try1_stmt | try2_stmt | try3_stmt
     try1_stmt ::= "try" ":" suite
                   ("except" [expression ["as" identifier]] ":" suite)+
                   ["else" ":" suite]
                   ["finally" ":" suite]
     try2_stmt ::= "try" ":" suite
                   ("except" "*" expression ["as" identifier] ":" suite)+
                   ["else" ":" suite]
                   ["finally" ":" suite]
     try3_stmt ::= "try" ":" suite
                   "finally" ":" suite

Additional information on exceptions can be found in section *note 例外:
1d78, and information on using the *note raise: 3e1. statement to
generate exceptions may be found in section *note raise 陳述式: 3e1.

* Menu:

* except clause::
* except* 子句::
* else clause::
* finally clause::


File: python.info,  Node: except clause,  Next: except* 子句,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.1 ‘except’ clause
.......................

The ‘except’ clause(s) specify one or more exception handlers.  When no
exception occurs in the *note try: 4ea. clause, no exception handler is
executed.  When an exception occurs in the ‘try’ suite, a search for an
exception handler is started.  This search inspects the ‘except’ clauses
in turn until one is found that matches the exception.  An
expression-less ‘except’ clause, if present, must be last; it matches
any exception.

For an ‘except’ clause with an expression, the expression must evaluate
to an exception type or a tuple of exception types.  The raised
exception matches an ‘except’ clause whose expression evaluates to the
class or a *note non-virtual base class: 1047. of the exception object,
or to a tuple that contains such a class.

If no ‘except’ clause matches the exception, the search for an exception
handler continues in the surrounding code and on the invocation stack.
(1)

If the evaluation of an expression in the header of an ‘except’ clause
raises an exception, the original search for a handler is canceled and a
search starts for the new exception in the surrounding code and on the
call stack (it is treated as if the entire *note try: 4ea. statement
raised the exception).

When a matching ‘except’ clause is found, the exception is assigned to
the target specified after the ‘as’ keyword in that ‘except’ clause, if
present, and the ‘except’ clause's suite is executed.  All ‘except’
clauses must have an executable block.  When the end of this block is
reached, execution continues normally after the entire *note try: 4ea.
statement.  (This means that if two nested handlers exist for the same
exception, and the exception occurs in the ‘try’ clause of the inner
handler, the outer handler will not handle the exception.)

When an exception has been assigned using ‘as target’, it is cleared at
the end of the ‘except’ clause.  This is as if

     except E as N:
         foo

was translated to

     except E as N:
         try:
             foo
         finally:
             del N

This means the exception must be assigned to a different name to be able
to refer to it after the ‘except’ clause.  Exceptions are cleared
because with the traceback attached to them, they form a reference cycle
with the stack frame, keeping all locals in that frame alive until the
next garbage collection occurs.

Before an ‘except’ clause's suite is executed, the exception is stored
in the *note sys: d3. module, where it can be accessed from within the
body of the ‘except’ clause by calling *note sys.exception(): 488.  When
leaving an exception handler, the exception stored in the *note sys: d3.
module is reset to its previous value:

     >>> print(sys.exception())
     None
     >>> try:
     ...     raise TypeError
     ... except:
     ...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...     try:
     ...          raise ValueError
     ...     except:
     ...         print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...
     TypeError()
     ValueError()
     TypeError()
     >>> print(sys.exception())
     None

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The exception is propagated to the invocation stack unless there
is a *note finally: 80e. clause which happens to raise another
exception.  That new exception causes the old one to be lost.


File: python.info,  Node: except* 子句,  Next: else clause,  Prev: except clause,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.2 ‘except*’ 子句
......................

The ‘except*’ clause(s) are used for handling *note ExceptionGroup:
17b.s.  The exception type for matching is interpreted as in the case of
*note except: 3a8, but in the case of exception groups we can have
partial matches when the type matches some of the exceptions in the
group.  This means that multiple ‘except*’ clauses can execute, each
handling part of the exception group.  Each clause executes at most once
and handles an exception group of all matching exceptions.  Each
exception in the group is handled by at most one ‘except*’ clause, the
first that matches it.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup("eg",
     ...         [ValueError(1), TypeError(2), OSError(3), OSError(4)])
     ... except* TypeError as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
     ... except* OSError as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
     ...
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (TypeError(2),)
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (OSError(3), OSError(4))
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
       | ExceptionGroup: eg
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | ValueError: 1
         +------------------------------------

Any remaining exceptions that were not handled by any ‘except*’ clause
are re-raised at the end, along with all exceptions that were raised
from within the ‘except*’ clauses.  If this list contains more than one
exception to reraise, they are combined into an exception group.

If the raised exception is not an exception group and its type matches
one of the ‘except*’ clauses, it is caught and wrapped by an exception
group with an empty message string.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise BlockingIOError
     ... except* BlockingIOError as e:
     ...     print(repr(e))
     ...
     ExceptionGroup('', (BlockingIOError()))

An ‘except*’ clause must have a matching expression; it cannot be
‘except*:’.  Furthermore, this expression cannot contain exception group
types, because that would have ambiguous semantics.

It is not possible to mix *note except: 3a8. and ‘except*’ in the same
*note try: 4ea.  *note break: 8fc, *note continue: 80d. and *note
return: 812. cannot appear in an ‘except*’ clause.


File: python.info,  Node: else clause,  Next: finally clause,  Prev: except* 子句,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.3 ‘else’ clause
.....................

The optional ‘else’ clause is executed if the control flow leaves the
*note try: 4ea. suite, no exception was raised, and no *note return:
812, *note continue: 80d, or *note break: 8fc. statement was executed.
Exceptions in the ‘else’ clause are not handled by the preceding *note
except: 3a8. clauses.


File: python.info,  Node: finally clause,  Prev: else clause,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.4 ‘finally’ clause
........................

If ‘finally’ is present, it specifies a 'cleanup' handler.  The *note
try: 4ea. clause is executed, including any *note except: 3a8. and *note
else: 264. clauses.  If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and is
not handled, the exception is temporarily saved.  The ‘finally’ clause
is executed.  If there is a saved exception it is re-raised at the end
of the ‘finally’ clause.  If the ‘finally’ clause raises another
exception, the saved exception is set as the context of the new
exception.  If the ‘finally’ clause executes a *note return: 812, *note
break: 8fc. or *note continue: 80d. statement, the saved exception is
discarded:

     >>> def f():
     ...     try:
     ...         1/0
     ...     finally:
     ...         return 42
     ...
     >>> f()
     42

The exception information is not available to the program during
execution of the ‘finally’ clause.

When a *note return: 812, *note break: 8fc. or *note continue: 80d.
statement is executed in the *note try: 4ea. suite of a
‘try’...‘finally’ statement, the ‘finally’ clause is also executed 'on
the way out.'

The return value of a function is determined by the last *note return:
812. statement executed.  Since the ‘finally’ clause always executes, a
‘return’ statement executed in the ‘finally’ clause will always be the
last one executed:

     >>> def foo():
     ...     try:
     ...         return 'try'
     ...     finally:
     ...         return 'finally'
     ...
     >>> foo()
     'finally'

在 3.8 版的變更: Prior to Python 3.8, a *note continue: 80d. statement
was illegal in the ‘finally’ clause due to a problem with the
implementation.


File: python.info,  Node: The with statement,  Next: The match statement,  Prev: The try statement,  Up: 複合陳述式

4.8.5 The ‘with’ statement
--------------------------

The *note with: 3c5. statement is used to wrap the execution of a block
with methods defined by a context manager (see section *note With
Statement Context Managers: 1d50.).  This allows common *note try:
4ea...*note except: 3a8...*note finally: 80e. usage patterns to be
encapsulated for convenient reuse.

     with_stmt          ::= "with" ( "(" with_stmt_contents ","? ")" | with_stmt_contents ) ":" suite
     with_stmt_contents ::= with_item ("," with_item)*
     with_item          ::= expression ["as" target]

The execution of the *note with: 3c5. statement with one "item" proceeds
as follows:

  1. The context expression (the expression given in the *note
     with_item: 1e71.) is evaluated to obtain a context manager.

  2. The context manager's *note __enter__(): 3b8. is loaded for later
     use.

  3. The context manager's *note __exit__(): 1191. is loaded for later
     use.

  4. The context manager's *note __enter__(): 3b8. method is invoked.

  5. If a target was included in the *note with: 3c5. statement, the
     return value from *note __enter__(): 3b8. is assigned to it.

          備註: The *note with: 3c5. statement guarantees that if the
          *note __enter__(): 3b8. method returns without an error, then
          *note __exit__(): 1191. will always be called.  Thus, if an
          error occurs during the assignment to the target list, it will
          be treated the same as an error occurring within the suite
          would be.  See step 7 below.

  6. The suite is executed.

  7. The context manager's *note __exit__(): 1191. method is invoked.
     If an exception caused the suite to be exited, its type, value, and
     traceback are passed as arguments to *note __exit__(): 1191.
     Otherwise, three *note None: 470. arguments are supplied.

     If the suite was exited due to an exception, and the return value
     from the *note __exit__(): 1191. method was false, the exception is
     reraised.  If the return value was true, the exception is
     suppressed, and execution continues with the statement following
     the *note with: 3c5. statement.

     If the suite was exited for any reason other than an exception, the
     return value from *note __exit__(): 1191. is ignored, and execution
     proceeds at the normal location for the kind of exit that was
     taken.

The following code:

     with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
         SUITE

is semantically equivalent to:

     manager = (EXPRESSION)
     enter = type(manager).__enter__
     exit = type(manager).__exit__
     value = enter(manager)
     hit_except = False

     try:
         TARGET = value
         SUITE
     except:
         hit_except = True
         if not exit(manager, *sys.exc_info()):
             raise
     finally:
         if not hit_except:
             exit(manager, None, None, None)

With more than one item, the context managers are processed as if
multiple *note with: 3c5. statements were nested:

     with A() as a, B() as b:
         SUITE

is semantically equivalent to:

     with A() as a:
         with B() as b:
             SUITE

You can also write multi-item context managers in multiple lines if the
items are surrounded by parentheses.  For example:

     with (
         A() as a,
         B() as b,
     ):
         SUITE

在 3.1 版的變更: Support for multiple context expressions.

在 3.10 版的變更: Support for using grouping parentheses to break the
statement in multiple lines.

也參考
......

PEP 343(1) - The "with" statement

     The specification, background, and examples for the Python *note
     with: 3c5. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: The match statement,  Next: 函式定義,  Prev: The with statement,  Up: 複合陳述式

4.8.6 The ‘match’ statement
---------------------------

在 3.10 版被加入.

The match statement is used for pattern matching.  Syntax:

     match_stmt   ::= 'match' subject_expr ":" NEWLINE INDENT case_block+ DEDENT
     subject_expr ::= star_named_expression "," star_named_expressions?
                      | named_expression
     case_block   ::= 'case' patterns [guard] ":" block

     備註: This section uses single quotes to denote *note soft
     keywords: 62e.

Pattern matching takes a pattern as input (following ‘case’) and a
subject value (following ‘match’).  The pattern (which may contain
subpatterns) is matched against the subject value.  The outcomes are:

   * A match success or failure (also termed a pattern success or
     failure).

   * Possible binding of matched values to a name.  The prerequisites
     for this are further discussed below.

The ‘match’ and ‘case’ keywords are *note soft keywords: 62e.

也參考
......

   * PEP 634(1) - Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

   * PEP 636(2) - Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial

* Menu:

* Overview::
* Guards::
* Irrefutable Case Blocks::
* Patterns::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Overview,  Next: Guards,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.1 Overview
................

Here's an overview of the logical flow of a match statement:

  1. The subject expression ‘subject_expr’ is evaluated and a resulting
     subject value obtained.  If the subject expression contains a
     comma, a tuple is constructed using *note the standard rules: 1e77.

  2. Each pattern in a ‘case_block’ is attempted to match with the
     subject value.  The specific rules for success or failure are
     described below.  The match attempt can also bind some or all of
     the standalone names within the pattern.  The precise pattern
     binding rules vary per pattern type and are specified below.  'Name
     bindings made during a successful pattern match outlive the
     executed block and can be used after the match statement'.

          備註: During failed pattern matches, some subpatterns may
          succeed.  Do not rely on bindings being made for a failed
          match.  Conversely, do not rely on variables remaining
          unchanged after a failed match.  The exact behavior is
          dependent on implementation and may vary.  This is an
          intentional decision made to allow different implementations
          to add optimizations.

  3. If the pattern succeeds, the corresponding guard (if present) is
     evaluated.  In this case all name bindings are guaranteed to have
     happened.

        * If the guard evaluates as true or is missing, the ‘block’
          inside ‘case_block’ is executed.

        * Otherwise, the next ‘case_block’ is attempted as described
          above.

        * If there are no further case blocks, the match statement is
          completed.

     備註: Users should generally never rely on a pattern being
     evaluated.  Depending on implementation, the interpreter may cache
     values or use other optimizations which skip repeated evaluations.

A sample match statement:

     >>> flag = False
     >>> match (100, 200):
     ...    case (100, 300):  # Mismatch: 200 != 300
     ...        print('Case 1')
     ...    case (100, 200) if flag:  # Successful match, but guard fails
     ...        print('Case 2')
     ...    case (100, y):  # Matches and binds y to 200
     ...        print(f'Case 3, y: {y}')
     ...    case _:  # Pattern not attempted
     ...        print('Case 4, I match anything!')
     ...
     Case 3, y: 200

In this case, ‘if flag’ is a guard.  Read more about that in the next
section.


File: python.info,  Node: Guards,  Next: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Prev: Overview,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.2 Guards
..............

     guard ::= "if" named_expression

A ‘guard’ (which is part of the ‘case’) must succeed for code inside the
‘case’ block to execute.  It takes the form: *note if: 266. followed by
an expression.

The logical flow of a ‘case’ block with a ‘guard’ follows:

  1. Check that the pattern in the ‘case’ block succeeded.  If the
     pattern failed, the ‘guard’ is not evaluated and the next ‘case’
     block is checked.

  2. If the pattern succeeded, evaluate the ‘guard’.

        * If the ‘guard’ condition evaluates as true, the case block is
          selected.

        * If the ‘guard’ condition evaluates as false, the case block is
          not selected.

        * If the ‘guard’ raises an exception during evaluation, the
          exception bubbles up.

Guards are allowed to have side effects as they are expressions.  Guard
evaluation must proceed from the first to the last case block, one at a
time, skipping case blocks whose pattern(s) don't all succeed.  (I.e.,
guard evaluation must happen in order.)  Guard evaluation must stop once
a case block is selected.


File: python.info,  Node: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Next: Patterns,  Prev: Guards,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.3 Irrefutable Case Blocks
...............................

An irrefutable case block is a match-all case block.  A match statement
may have at most one irrefutable case block, and it must be last.

A case block is considered irrefutable if it has no guard and its
pattern is irrefutable.  A pattern is considered irrefutable if we can
prove from its syntax alone that it will always succeed.  Only the
following patterns are irrefutable:

   * *note AS Patterns: 1e7c. whose left-hand side is irrefutable

   * *note OR Patterns: 1e7d. containing at least one irrefutable
     pattern

   * *note Capture Patterns: 1e7e.

   * *note Wildcard Patterns: 630.

   * parenthesized irrefutable patterns


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns,  Prev: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.4 Patterns
................

     備註: This section uses grammar notations beyond standard EBNF:

        * the notation ‘SEP.RULE+’ is shorthand for ‘RULE (SEP RULE)*’

        * the notation ‘!RULE’ is shorthand for a negative lookahead
          assertion

The top-level syntax for ‘patterns’ is:

     patterns       ::= open_sequence_pattern | pattern
     pattern        ::= as_pattern | or_pattern
     closed_pattern ::= | literal_pattern
                        | capture_pattern
                        | wildcard_pattern
                        | value_pattern
                        | group_pattern
                        | sequence_pattern
                        | mapping_pattern
                        | class_pattern

The descriptions below will include a description "in simple terms" of
what a pattern does for illustration purposes (credits to Raymond
Hettinger for a document that inspired most of the descriptions).  Note
that these descriptions are purely for illustration purposes and 'may
not' reflect the underlying implementation.  Furthermore, they do not
cover all valid forms.

* Menu:

* OR Patterns::
* AS Patterns::
* Literal Patterns::
* Capture Patterns::
* Wildcard Patterns::
* Value Patterns::
* Group Patterns::
* Sequence Patterns::
* Mapping Patterns::
* Class Patterns::


File: python.info,  Node: OR Patterns,  Next: AS Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.5 OR Patterns
...................

An OR pattern is two or more patterns separated by vertical bars ‘|’.
Syntax:

     or_pattern ::= "|".closed_pattern+

Only the final subpattern may be *note irrefutable: 1e7a, and each
subpattern must bind the same set of names to avoid ambiguity.

An OR pattern matches each of its subpatterns in turn to the subject
value, until one succeeds.  The OR pattern is then considered
successful.  Otherwise, if none of the subpatterns succeed, the OR
pattern fails.

In simple terms, ‘P1 | P2 | ...’ will try to match ‘P1’, if it fails it
will try to match ‘P2’, succeeding immediately if any succeeds, failing
otherwise.


File: python.info,  Node: AS Patterns,  Next: Literal Patterns,  Prev: OR Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.6 AS Patterns
...................

An AS pattern matches an OR pattern on the left of the *note as: 1e6d.
keyword against a subject.  Syntax:

     as_pattern ::= or_pattern "as" capture_pattern

If the OR pattern fails, the AS pattern fails.  Otherwise, the AS
pattern binds the subject to the name on the right of the as keyword and
succeeds.  ‘capture_pattern’ cannot be a ‘_’.

In simple terms ‘P as NAME’ will match with ‘P’, and on success it will
set ‘NAME = <subject>’.


File: python.info,  Node: Literal Patterns,  Next: Capture Patterns,  Prev: AS Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.7 Literal Patterns
........................

A literal pattern corresponds to most *note literals: 1c35. in Python.
Syntax:

     literal_pattern ::= signed_number
                         | signed_number "+" NUMBER
                         | signed_number "-" NUMBER
                         | strings
                         | "None"
                         | "True"
                         | "False"
     signed_number   ::= ["-"] NUMBER

The rule ‘strings’ and the token ‘NUMBER’ are defined in the *note
standard Python grammar: 1e8b.  Triple-quoted strings are supported.
Raw strings and byte strings are supported.  *note f-string（f 字串）:
7ed. are not supported.

The forms ‘signed_number '+' NUMBER’ and ‘signed_number '-' NUMBER’ are
for expressing *note complex numbers: 1c6b.; they require a real number
on the left and an imaginary number on the right.  E.g.  ‘3 + 4j’.

In simple terms, ‘LITERAL’ will succeed only if ‘<subject> == LITERAL’.
For the singletons ‘None’, ‘True’ and ‘False’, the *note is: 268.
operator is used.


File: python.info,  Node: Capture Patterns,  Next: Wildcard Patterns,  Prev: Literal Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.8 Capture Patterns
........................

A capture pattern binds the subject value to a name.  Syntax:

     capture_pattern ::= !'_' NAME

A single underscore ‘_’ is not a capture pattern (this is what ‘!'_'’
expresses).  It is instead treated as a *note wildcard_pattern: 1e8e.

In a given pattern, a given name can only be bound once.  E.g.  ‘case x,
x: ...’ is invalid while ‘case [x] | x: ...’ is allowed.

Capture patterns always succeed.  The binding follows scoping rules
established by the assignment expression operator in PEP 572(1); the
name becomes a local variable in the closest containing function scope
unless there's an applicable *note global: 1a13. or *note nonlocal:
113b. statement.

In simple terms ‘NAME’ will always succeed and it will set ‘NAME =
<subject>’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Wildcard Patterns,  Next: Value Patterns,  Prev: Capture Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.9 Wildcard Patterns
.........................

A wildcard pattern always succeeds (matches anything) and binds no name.
Syntax:

     wildcard_pattern ::= '_'

‘_’ is a *note soft keyword: 62e. within any pattern, but only within
patterns.  It is an identifier, as usual, even within ‘match’ subject
expressions, ‘guard’s, and ‘case’ blocks.

In simple terms, ‘_’ will always succeed.


File: python.info,  Node: Value Patterns,  Next: Group Patterns,  Prev: Wildcard Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.10 Value Patterns
.......................

A value pattern represents a named value in Python.  Syntax:

     value_pattern ::= attr
     attr          ::= name_or_attr "." NAME
     name_or_attr  ::= attr | NAME

The dotted name in the pattern is looked up using standard Python *note
name resolution rules: 1d6f.  The pattern succeeds if the value found
compares equal to the subject value (using the ‘==’ equality operator).

In simple terms ‘NAME1.NAME2’ will succeed only if ‘<subject> ==
NAME1.NAME2’

     備註: If the same value occurs multiple times in the same match
     statement, the interpreter may cache the first value found and
     reuse it rather than repeat the same lookup.  This cache is
     strictly tied to a given execution of a given match statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Group Patterns,  Next: Sequence Patterns,  Prev: Value Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.11 Group Patterns
.......................

A group pattern allows users to add parentheses around patterns to
emphasize the intended grouping.  Otherwise, it has no additional
syntax.  Syntax:

     group_pattern ::= "(" pattern ")"

In simple terms ‘(P)’ has the same effect as ‘P’.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Patterns,  Next: Mapping Patterns,  Prev: Group Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.12 Sequence Patterns
..........................

A sequence pattern contains several subpatterns to be matched against
sequence elements.  The syntax is similar to the unpacking of a list or
tuple.

     sequence_pattern       ::= "[" [maybe_sequence_pattern] "]"
                                | "(" [open_sequence_pattern] ")"
     open_sequence_pattern  ::= maybe_star_pattern "," [maybe_sequence_pattern]
     maybe_sequence_pattern ::= ",".maybe_star_pattern+ ","?
     maybe_star_pattern     ::= star_pattern | pattern
     star_pattern           ::= "*" (capture_pattern | wildcard_pattern)

There is no difference if parentheses or square brackets are used for
sequence patterns (i.e.  ‘(...)’ vs ‘[...]’ ).

     備註: A single pattern enclosed in parentheses without a trailing
     comma (e.g.  ‘(3 | 4)’) is a *note group pattern: 1e95.  While a
     single pattern enclosed in square brackets (e.g.  ‘[3 | 4]’) is
     still a sequence pattern.

At most one star subpattern may be in a sequence pattern.  The star
subpattern may occur in any position.  If no star subpattern is present,
the sequence pattern is a fixed-length sequence pattern; otherwise it is
a variable-length sequence pattern.

The following is the logical flow for matching a sequence pattern
against a subject value:

  1. If the subject value is not a sequence (1), the sequence pattern
     fails.

  2. If the subject value is an instance of ‘str’, ‘bytes’ or
     ‘bytearray’ the sequence pattern fails.

  3. The subsequent steps depend on whether the sequence pattern is
     fixed or variable-length.

     If the sequence pattern is fixed-length:

       1. If the length of the subject sequence is not equal to the
          number of subpatterns, the sequence pattern fails

       2. Subpatterns in the sequence pattern are matched to their
          corresponding items in the subject sequence from left to
          right.  Matching stops as soon as a subpattern fails.  If all
          subpatterns succeed in matching their corresponding item, the
          sequence pattern succeeds.

     Otherwise, if the sequence pattern is variable-length:

       1. If the length of the subject sequence is less than the number
          of non-star subpatterns, the sequence pattern fails.

       2. The leading non-star subpatterns are matched to their
          corresponding items as for fixed-length sequences.

       3. If the previous step succeeds, the star subpattern matches a
          list formed of the remaining subject items, excluding the
          remaining items corresponding to non-star subpatterns
          following the star subpattern.

       4. Remaining non-star subpatterns are matched to their
          corresponding subject items, as for a fixed-length sequence.

          備註: The length of the subject sequence is obtained via *note
          len(): 429. (i.e.  via the ‘__len__()’ protocol).  This length
          may be cached by the interpreter in a similar manner as *note
          value patterns: 1e91.

In simple terms ‘[P1, P2, P3,’ ...  ‘, P<N>]’ matches only if all the
following happens:

   * check ‘<subject>’ is a sequence

   * ‘len(subject) == <N>’

   * ‘P1’ matches ‘<subject>[0]’ (note that this match can also bind
     names)

   * ‘P2’ matches ‘<subject>[1]’ (note that this match can also bind
     names)

   * ...  and so on for the corresponding pattern/element.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In pattern matching, a sequence is defined as one of the
following:

   * a class that inherits from *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1055.

   * a Python class that has been registered as *note
     collections.abc.Sequence: 1055.

   * a builtin class that has its (CPython) *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE:
     1677. bit set

   * a class that inherits from any of the above

The following standard library classes are sequences:

   * *note array.array: 18f.

   * *note collections.deque: 3cf.

   * *note list: 40a.

   * *note memoryview: 17f.

   * *note range: 782.

   * *note tuple: 4e6.

     備註: Subject values of type ‘str’, ‘bytes’, and ‘bytearray’ do not
     match sequence patterns.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Patterns,  Next: Class Patterns,  Prev: Sequence Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.13 Mapping Patterns
.........................

A mapping pattern contains one or more key-value patterns.  The syntax
is similar to the construction of a dictionary.  Syntax:

     mapping_pattern     ::= "{" [items_pattern] "}"
     items_pattern       ::= ",".key_value_pattern+ ","?
     key_value_pattern   ::= (literal_pattern | value_pattern) ":" pattern
                             | double_star_pattern
     double_star_pattern ::= "**" capture_pattern

At most one double star pattern may be in a mapping pattern.  The double
star pattern must be the last subpattern in the mapping pattern.

Duplicate keys in mapping patterns are disallowed.  Duplicate literal
keys will raise a *note SyntaxError: 146.  Two keys that otherwise have
the same value will raise a *note ValueError: 183. at runtime.

The following is the logical flow for matching a mapping pattern against
a subject value:

  1. If the subject value is not a mapping (1),the mapping pattern
     fails.

  2. If every key given in the mapping pattern is present in the subject
     mapping, and the pattern for each key matches the corresponding
     item of the subject mapping, the mapping pattern succeeds.

  3. If duplicate keys are detected in the mapping pattern, the pattern
     is considered invalid.  A *note SyntaxError: 146. is raised for
     duplicate literal values; or a *note ValueError: 183. for named
     keys of the same value.

     備註: Key-value pairs are matched using the two-argument form of
     the mapping subject's ‘get()’ method.  Matched key-value pairs must
     already be present in the mapping, and not created on-the-fly via
     ‘__missing__()’ or *note __getitem__(): 4e7.

In simple terms ‘{KEY1: P1, KEY2: P2, ... }’ matches only if all the
following happens:

   * check ‘<subject>’ is a mapping

   * ‘KEY1 in <subject>’

   * ‘P1’ matches ‘<subject>[KEY1]’

   * ...  and so on for the corresponding KEY/pattern pair.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In pattern matching, a mapping is defined as one of the
following:

   * a class that inherits from *note collections.abc.Mapping: 702.

   * a Python class that has been registered as *note
     collections.abc.Mapping: 702.

   * a builtin class that has its (CPython) *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING:
     1676. bit set

   * a class that inherits from any of the above

The standard library classes *note dict: 239. and *note
types.MappingProxyType: 186. are mappings.


File: python.info,  Node: Class Patterns,  Prev: Mapping Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.14 Class Patterns
.......................

A class pattern represents a class and its positional and keyword
arguments (if any).  Syntax:

     class_pattern       ::= name_or_attr "(" [pattern_arguments ","?] ")"
     pattern_arguments   ::= positional_patterns ["," keyword_patterns]
                             | keyword_patterns
     positional_patterns ::= ",".pattern+
     keyword_patterns    ::= ",".keyword_pattern+
     keyword_pattern     ::= NAME "=" pattern

The same keyword should not be repeated in class patterns.

The following is the logical flow for matching a class pattern against a
subject value:

  1. If ‘name_or_attr’ is not an instance of the builtin *note type:
     bbb. , raise *note TypeError: 2ba.

  2. If the subject value is not an instance of ‘name_or_attr’ (tested
     via *note isinstance(): 14b.), the class pattern fails.

  3. If no pattern arguments are present, the pattern succeeds.
     Otherwise, the subsequent steps depend on whether keyword or
     positional argument patterns are present.

     For a number of built-in types (specified below), a single
     positional subpattern is accepted which will match the entire
     subject; for these types keyword patterns also work as for other
     types.

     If only keyword patterns are present, they are processed as
     follows, one by one:

     I. The keyword is looked up as an attribute on the subject.

             * If this raises an exception other than *note
               AttributeError: 3ca, the exception bubbles up.

             * If this raises *note AttributeError: 3ca, the class
               pattern has failed.

             * Else, the subpattern associated with the keyword pattern
               is matched against the subject's attribute value.  If
               this fails, the class pattern fails; if this succeeds,
               the match proceeds to the next keyword.

     II. If all keyword patterns succeed, the class pattern succeeds.

     If any positional patterns are present, they are converted to
     keyword patterns using the *note __match_args__: 1693. attribute on
     the class ‘name_or_attr’ before matching:

     I. The equivalent of ‘getattr(cls, "__match_args__", ())’ is
     called.

             * If this raises an exception, the exception bubbles up.

             * If the returned value is not a tuple, the conversion
               fails and *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised.

             * If there are more positional patterns than
               ‘len(cls.__match_args__)’, *note TypeError: 2ba. is
               raised.

             * Otherwise, positional pattern ‘i’ is converted to a
               keyword pattern using ‘__match_args__[i]’ as the keyword.
               ‘__match_args__[i]’ must be a string; if not *note
               TypeError: 2ba. is raised.

             * If there are duplicate keywords, *note TypeError: 2ba. is
               raised.

          也參考
          ......

          *note Customizing positional arguments in class pattern
          matching: 1d53.

     II. Once all positional patterns have been converted to keyword patterns,

          the match proceeds as if there were only keyword patterns.

     For the following built-in types the handling of positional
     subpatterns is different:

        * *note bool: 17d.

        * *note bytearray: 2c0.

        * *note bytes: 2c1.

        * *note dict: 239.

        * *note float: 26a.

        * *note frozenset: 3cd.

        * *note int: 17e.

        * *note list: 40a.

        * *note set: 3cc.

        * *note str: 157.

        * *note tuple: 4e6.

     These classes accept a single positional argument, and the pattern
     there is matched against the whole object rather than an attribute.
     For example ‘int(0|1)’ matches the value ‘0’, but not the value
     ‘0.0’.

In simple terms ‘CLS(P1, attr=P2)’ matches only if the following
happens:

   * ‘isinstance(<subject>, CLS)’

   * convert ‘P1’ to a keyword pattern using ‘CLS.__match_args__’

   * For each keyword argument ‘attr=P2’:

        * ‘hasattr(<subject>, "attr")’

        * ‘P2’ matches ‘<subject>.attr’

   * ...  and so on for the corresponding keyword argument/pattern pair.

也參考
......

   * PEP 634(1) - Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

   * PEP 636(2) - Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: 函式定義,  Next: 類別定義,  Prev: The match statement,  Up: 複合陳述式

4.8.7 函式定義
--------------

A function definition defines a user-defined function object (see
section *note 標準型別階層: 1c77.):

     funcdef                   ::= [decorators] "def" funcname [type_params] "(" [parameter_list] ")"
                                   ["->" expression] ":" suite
     decorators                ::= decorator+
     decorator                 ::= "@" assignment_expression NEWLINE
     parameter_list            ::= defparameter ("," defparameter)* "," "/" ["," [parameter_list_no_posonly]]
                                     | parameter_list_no_posonly
     parameter_list_no_posonly ::= defparameter ("," defparameter)* ["," [parameter_list_starargs]]
                                   | parameter_list_starargs
     parameter_list_starargs   ::= "*" [star_parameter] ("," defparameter)* ["," ["**" parameter [","]]]
                                   | "**" parameter [","]
     parameter                 ::= identifier [":" expression]
     star_parameter            ::= identifier [":" ["*"] expression]
     defparameter              ::= parameter ["=" expression]
     funcname                  ::= identifier

A function definition is an executable statement.  Its execution binds
the function name in the current local namespace to a function object (a
wrapper around the executable code for the function).  This function
object contains a reference to the current global namespace as the
global namespace to be used when the function is called.

The function definition does not execute the function body; this gets
executed only when the function is called.  (1)

A function definition may be wrapped by one or more *note decorator:
540. expressions.  Decorator expressions are evaluated when the function
is defined, in the scope that contains the function definition.  The
result must be a callable, which is invoked with the function object as
the only argument.  The returned value is bound to the function name
instead of the function object.  Multiple decorators are applied in
nested fashion.  For example, the following code

     @f1(arg)
     @f2
     def func(): pass

大致等價於：

     def func(): pass
     func = f1(arg)(f2(func))

except that the original function is not temporarily bound to the name
‘func’.

在 3.9 版的變更: Functions may be decorated with any valid *note
assignment_expression: 1d72.  Previously, the grammar was much more
restrictive; see PEP 614(2) for details.

A list of *note type parameters: 166. may be given in square brackets
between the function's name and the opening parenthesis for its
parameter list.  This indicates to static type checkers that the
function is generic.  At runtime, the type parameters can be retrieved
from the function's *note __type_params__: 1c90. attribute.  See *note
Generic functions: 15e. for more.

在 3.12 版的變更: Type parameter lists are new in Python 3.12.

When one or more *note parameters: 1c8f. have the form 'parameter' ‘=’
'expression', the function is said to have "default parameter values."
For a parameter with a default value, the corresponding *note argument:
154. may be omitted from a call, in which case the parameter's default
value is substituted.  If a parameter has a default value, all following
parameters up until the "‘*’" must also have a default value -- this is
a syntactic restriction that is not expressed by the grammar.

'Default parameter values are evaluated from left to right when the
function definition is executed.'  This means that the expression is
evaluated once, when the function is defined, and that the same
"pre-computed" value is used for each call.  This is especially
important to understand when a default parameter value is a mutable
object, such as a list or a dictionary: if the function modifies the
object (e.g.  by appending an item to a list), the default parameter
value is in effect modified.  This is generally not what was intended.
A way around this is to use ‘None’ as the default, and explicitly test
for it in the body of the function, e.g.:

     def whats_on_the_telly(penguin=None):
         if penguin is None:
             penguin = []
         penguin.append("property of the zoo")
         return penguin

Function call semantics are described in more detail in section *note
Calls: bf3.  A function call always assigns values to all parameters
mentioned in the parameter list, either from positional arguments, from
keyword arguments, or from default values.  If the form "‘*identifier’"
is present, it is initialized to a tuple receiving any excess positional
parameters, defaulting to the empty tuple.  If the form "‘**identifier’"
is present, it is initialized to a new ordered mapping receiving any
excess keyword arguments, defaulting to a new empty mapping of the same
type.  Parameters after "‘*’" or "‘*identifier’" are keyword-only
parameters and may only be passed by keyword arguments.  Parameters
before "‘/’" are positional-only parameters and may only be passed by
positional arguments.

在 3.8 版的變更: The ‘/’ function parameter syntax may be used to
indicate positional-only parameters.  See PEP 570(3) for details.

Parameters may have an *note annotation: 1a2c. of the form "‘:
expression’" following the parameter name.  Any parameter may have an
annotation, even those of the form ‘*identifier’ or ‘**identifier’.  (As
a special case, parameters of the form ‘*identifier’ may have an
annotation "‘: *expression’".)  Functions may have "return" annotation
of the form "‘-> expression’" after the parameter list.  These
annotations can be any valid Python expression.  The presence of
annotations does not change the semantics of a function.  The annotation
values are available as values of a dictionary keyed by the parameters'
names in the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of the function object.  If the
‘annotations’ import from *note __future__: 0. is used, annotations are
preserved as strings at runtime which enables postponed evaluation.
Otherwise, they are evaluated when the function definition is executed.
In this case annotations may be evaluated in a different order than they
appear in the source code.

在 3.11 版的變更: Parameters of the form "‘*identifier’" may have an
annotation "‘: *expression’".  See PEP 646(4).

It is also possible to create anonymous functions (functions not bound
to a name), for immediate use in expressions.  This uses lambda
expressions, described in section *note Lambdas: 1131.  Note that the
lambda expression is merely a shorthand for a simplified function
definition; a function defined in a "*note def: 12ca." statement can be
passed around or assigned to another name just like a function defined
by a lambda expression.  The "‘def’" form is actually more powerful
since it allows the execution of multiple statements and annotations.

'Programmer's note:' Functions are first-class objects.  A "‘def’"
statement executed inside a function definition defines a local function
that can be returned or passed around.  Free variables used in the
nested function can access the local variables of the function
containing the def.  See section *note Naming and binding: 1c8b. for
details.

也參考
......

PEP 3107(5) - Function Annotations

     The original specification for function annotations.

PEP 484(6) - Type Hints

     Definition of a standard meaning for annotations: type hints.

PEP 526(7) - Syntax for Variable Annotations

     Ability to type hint variable declarations, including class
     variables and instance variables.

PEP 563(8) - Postponed Evaluation of Annotations

     Support for forward references within annotations by preserving
     annotations in a string form at runtime instead of eager
     evaluation.

PEP 318(9) - Decorators for Functions and Methods

     Function and method decorators were introduced.  Class decorators
     were introduced in PEP 3129(10).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) A string literal appearing as the first statement in the function
body is transformed into the function's *note __doc__: 106a. attribute
and therefore the function's *note docstring: 1eb7.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/


File: python.info,  Node: 類別定義,  Next: 協程<2>,  Prev: 函式定義,  Up: 複合陳述式

4.8.8 類別定義
--------------

A class definition defines a class object (see section *note
標準型別階層: 1c77.):

     classdef    ::= [decorators] "class" classname [type_params] [inheritance] ":" suite
     inheritance ::= "(" [argument_list] ")"
     classname   ::= identifier

A class definition is an executable statement.  The inheritance list
usually gives a list of base classes (see *note Metaclasses: 1d06. for
more advanced uses), so each item in the list should evaluate to a class
object which allows subclassing.  Classes without an inheritance list
inherit, by default, from the base class *note object: 8d9.; hence,

     class Foo:
         pass

is equivalent to

     class Foo(object):
         pass

The class's suite is then executed in a new execution frame (see *note
Naming and binding: 1c8b.), using a newly created local namespace and
the original global namespace.  (Usually, the suite contains mostly
function definitions.)  When the class's suite finishes execution, its
execution frame is discarded but its local namespace is saved.  (1)  A
class object is then created using the inheritance list for the base
classes and the saved local namespace for the attribute dictionary.  The
class name is bound to this class object in the original local
namespace.

The order in which attributes are defined in the class body is preserved
in the new class's *note __dict__: ac5.  Note that this is reliable only
right after the class is created and only for classes that were defined
using the definition syntax.

Class creation can be customized heavily using *note metaclasses: 1d06.

Classes can also be decorated: just like when decorating functions,

     @f1(arg)
     @f2
     class Foo: pass

大致等價於：

     class Foo: pass
     Foo = f1(arg)(f2(Foo))

The evaluation rules for the decorator expressions are the same as for
function decorators.  The result is then bound to the class name.

在 3.9 版的變更: Classes may be decorated with any valid *note
assignment_expression: 1d72.  Previously, the grammar was much more
restrictive; see PEP 614(2) for details.

A list of *note type parameters: 166. may be given in square brackets
immediately after the class's name.  This indicates to static type
checkers that the class is generic.  At runtime, the type parameters can
be retrieved from the class's *note __type_params__: 1cba. attribute.
See *note Generic classes: 15d. for more.

在 3.12 版的變更: Type parameter lists are new in Python 3.12.

'Programmer's note:' Variables defined in the class definition are class
attributes; they are shared by instances.  Instance attributes can be
set in a method with ‘self.name = value’.  Both class and instance
attributes are accessible through the notation "‘self.name’", and an
instance attribute hides a class attribute with the same name when
accessed in this way.  Class attributes can be used as defaults for
instance attributes, but using mutable values there can lead to
unexpected results.  *note Descriptors: ab5. can be used to create
instance variables with different implementation details.

也參考
......

PEP 3115(3) - Metaclasses in Python 3000

     The proposal that changed the declaration of metaclasses to the
     current syntax, and the semantics for how classes with metaclasses
     are constructed.

PEP 3129(4) - 類別裝飾器

     The proposal that added class decorators.  Function and method
     decorators were introduced in PEP 318(5).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) A string literal appearing as the first statement in the class
body is transformed into the namespace's *note __doc__: 1aa1. item and
therefore the class's *note docstring: 1eb7.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/


File: python.info,  Node: 協程<2>,  Next: Type parameter lists,  Prev: 類別定義,  Up: 複合陳述式

4.8.9 協程
----------

在 3.5 版被加入.

* Menu:

* 協程函式定義::
* async for 陳述式::
* async with 陳述式::


File: python.info,  Node: 協程函式定義,  Next: async for 陳述式,  Up: 協程<2>

4.8.9.1 協程函式定義
....................

     async_funcdef ::= [decorators] "async" "def" funcname "(" [parameter_list] ")"
                       ["->" expression] ":" suite

Execution of Python coroutines can be suspended and resumed at many
points (see *note coroutine: 1ae.).  *note await: 542. expressions,
*note async for: 8fe. and *note async with: 3c8. can only be used in the
body of a coroutine function.

Functions defined with ‘async def’ syntax are always coroutine
functions, even if they do not contain ‘await’ or ‘async’ keywords.

It is a *note SyntaxError: 146. to use a ‘yield from’ expression inside
the body of a coroutine function.

一個協程函式範例：

     async def func(param1, param2):
         do_stuff()
         await some_coroutine()

在 3.7 版的變更: ‘await’ and ‘async’ are now keywords; previously they
were only treated as such inside the body of a coroutine function.


File: python.info,  Node: async for 陳述式,  Next: async with 陳述式,  Prev: 協程函式定義,  Up: 協程<2>

4.8.9.2 ‘async for’ 陳述式
..........................

     async_for_stmt ::= "async" for_stmt

An *note asynchronous iterable: bed. provides an ‘__aiter__’ method that
directly returns an *note asynchronous iterator: bef, which can call
asynchronous code in its ‘__anext__’ method.

The ‘async for’ statement allows convenient iteration over asynchronous
iterables.

The following code:

     async for TARGET in ITER:
         SUITE
     else:
         SUITE2

Is semantically equivalent to:

     iter = (ITER)
     iter = type(iter).__aiter__(iter)
     running = True

     while running:
         try:
             TARGET = await type(iter).__anext__(iter)
         except StopAsyncIteration:
             running = False
         else:
             SUITE
     else:
         SUITE2

更多細節請見 *note __aiter__(): a5e. 與 *note __anext__(): 1c9b.。

It is a *note SyntaxError: 146. to use an ‘async for’ statement outside
the body of a coroutine function.


File: python.info,  Node: async with 陳述式,  Prev: async for 陳述式,  Up: 協程<2>

4.8.9.3 ‘async with’ 陳述式
...........................

     async_with_stmt ::= "async" with_stmt

An *note asynchronous context manager: 3c7. is a *note context manager:
3c4. that is able to suspend execution in its 'enter' and 'exit'
methods.

The following code:

     async with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
         SUITE

is semantically equivalent to:

     manager = (EXPRESSION)
     aenter = type(manager).__aenter__
     aexit = type(manager).__aexit__
     value = await aenter(manager)
     hit_except = False

     try:
         TARGET = value
         SUITE
     except:
         hit_except = True
         if not await aexit(manager, *sys.exc_info()):
             raise
     finally:
         if not hit_except:
             await aexit(manager, None, None, None)

更多細節請見 *note __aenter__(): 1d63. 與 *note __aexit__(): 1d64.。

It is a *note SyntaxError: 146. to use an ‘async with’ statement outside
the body of a coroutine function.

也參考
......

PEP 492(1) - Coroutines with async and await syntax

     The proposal that made coroutines a proper standalone concept in
     Python, and added supporting syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Type parameter lists,  Prev: 協程<2>,  Up: 複合陳述式

4.8.10 Type parameter lists
---------------------------

在 3.12 版被加入.

     type_params  ::= "[" type_param ("," type_param)* "]"
     type_param   ::= typevar | typevartuple | paramspec
     typevar      ::= identifier (":" expression)?
     typevartuple ::= "*" identifier
     paramspec    ::= "**" identifier

*note Functions: 12ca. (including *note coroutines: 3c3.), *note
classes: 1168. and *note type aliases: 13a. may contain a type parameter
list:

     def max[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
         ...

     async def amax[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
         ...

     class Bag[T]:
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[T]:
             ...

         def add(self, arg: T) -> None:
             ...

     type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Semantically, this indicates that the function, class, or type alias is
generic over a type variable.  This information is primarily used by
static type checkers, and at runtime, generic objects behave much like
their non-generic counterparts.

Type parameters are declared in square brackets (‘[]’) immediately after
the name of the function, class, or type alias.  The type parameters are
accessible within the scope of the generic object, but not elsewhere.
Thus, after a declaration ‘def func[T](): pass’, the name ‘T’ is not
available in the module scope.  Below, the semantics of generic objects
are described with more precision.  The scope of type parameters is
modeled with a special function (technically, an *note annotation scope:
167.) that wraps the creation of the generic object.

Generic functions, classes, and type aliases have a *note
__type_params__: 1ec9. attribute listing their type parameters.

Type parameters come in three kinds:

   * *note typing.TypeVar: 164, introduced by a plain name (e.g., ‘T’).
     Semantically, this represents a single type to a type checker.

   * *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 162, introduced by a name prefixed with
     a single asterisk (e.g., ‘*Ts’).  Semantically, this stands for a
     tuple of any number of types.

   * *note typing.ParamSpec: 163, introduced by a name prefixed with two
     asterisks (e.g., ‘**P’).  Semantically, this stands for the
     parameters of a callable.

*note typing.TypeVar: 164. declarations can define 'bounds' and
'constraints' with a colon (‘:’) followed by an expression.  A single
expression after the colon indicates a bound (e.g.  ‘T: int’).
Semantically, this means that the ‘typing.TypeVar’ can only represent
types that are a subtype of this bound.  A parenthesized tuple of
expressions after the colon indicates a set of constraints (e.g.  ‘T:
(str, bytes)’).  Each member of the tuple should be a type (again, this
is not enforced at runtime).  Constrained type variables can only take
on one of the types in the list of constraints.

For ‘typing.TypeVar’s declared using the type parameter list syntax, the
bound and constraints are not evaluated when the generic object is
created, but only when the value is explicitly accessed through the
attributes ‘__bound__’ and ‘__constraints__’.  To accomplish this, the
bounds or constraints are evaluated in a separate *note annotation
scope: 167.

*note typing.TypeVarTuple: 162.s and *note typing.ParamSpec: 163.s
cannot have bounds or constraints.

The following example indicates the full set of allowed type parameter
declarations:

     def overly_generic[
        SimpleTypeVar,
        TypeVarWithBound: int,
        TypeVarWithConstraints: (str, bytes),
        *SimpleTypeVarTuple,
        **SimpleParamSpec,
     ](
        a: SimpleTypeVar,
        b: TypeVarWithBound,
        c: Callable[SimpleParamSpec, TypeVarWithConstraints],
        *d: SimpleTypeVarTuple,

* Menu:

* Generic functions::
* Generic classes::
* Generic type aliases::


File: python.info,  Node: Generic functions,  Next: Generic classes,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.1 Generic functions
..........................

Generic functions are declared as follows:

     def func[T](arg: T): ...

語法大致等價於：

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         def func(arg: T): ...
         func.__type_params__ = (T,)
         return func
     func = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func()

Here ‘annotation-def’ indicates an *note annotation scope: 167, which is
not actually bound to any name at runtime.  (One other liberty is taken
in the translation: the syntax does not go through attribute access on
the *note typing: ff. module, but creates an instance of *note
typing.TypeVar: 164. directly.)

The annotations of generic functions are evaluated within the annotation
scope used for declaring the type parameters, but the function's
defaults and decorators are not.

The following example illustrates the scoping rules for these cases, as
well as for additional flavors of type parameters:

     @decorator
     def func[T: int, *Ts, **P](*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = some_default):
         ...

Except for the *note lazy evaluation: 165. of the *note TypeVar: 164.
bound, this is equivalent to:

     DEFAULT_OF_arg = some_default

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():

         annotation-def BOUND_OF_T():
             return int
         # In reality, BOUND_OF_T() is evaluated only on demand.
         T = typing.TypeVar("T", bound=BOUND_OF_T())

         Ts = typing.TypeVarTuple("Ts")
         P = typing.ParamSpec("P")

         def func(*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = DEFAULT_OF_arg):
             ...

         func.__type_params__ = (T, Ts, P)
         return func
     func = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func())

The capitalized names like ‘DEFAULT_OF_arg’ are not actually bound at
runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: Generic classes,  Next: Generic type aliases,  Prev: Generic functions,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.2 Generic classes
........................

Generic classes are declared as follows:

     class Bag[T]: ...

語法大致等價於：

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         class Bag(typing.Generic[T]):
             __type_params__ = (T,)
             ...
         return Bag
     Bag = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag()

Here again ‘annotation-def’ (not a real keyword) indicates an *note
annotation scope: 167, and the name ‘TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag’ is not actually
bound at runtime.

Generic classes implicitly inherit from *note typing.Generic: 1418.  The
base classes and keyword arguments of generic classes are evaluated
within the type scope for the type parameters, and decorators are
evaluated outside that scope.  This is illustrated by this example:

     @decorator
     class Bag(Base[T], arg=T): ...

這等價於：

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         class Bag(Base[T], typing.Generic[T], arg=T):
             __type_params__ = (T,)
             ...
         return Bag
     Bag = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag())


File: python.info,  Node: Generic type aliases,  Prev: Generic classes,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.3 Generic type aliases
.............................

The *note type: 13a. statement can also be used to create a generic type
alias:

     type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Except for the *note lazy evaluation: 165. of the value, this is
equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")

         annotation-def VALUE_OF_ListOrSet():
             return list[T] | set[T]
         # In reality, the value is lazily evaluated
         return typing.TypeAliasType("ListOrSet", VALUE_OF_ListOrSet(), type_params=(T,))
     ListOrSet = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet()

Here, ‘annotation-def’ (not a real keyword) indicates an *note
annotation scope: 167.  The capitalized names like
‘TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet’ are not actually bound at runtime.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: 最高層級元件,  Next: 完整的語法規格書,  Prev: 複合陳述式,  Up: Python 語言參考手冊

4.9 最高層級元件
================

Python 直譯器可以從多種來源獲得輸入：作為標準輸入或程式引數自腳本傳入、
以互動式鍵入、自模組原始檔引入等等。這一章將給出在這些情況下所用的語法。

* Menu:

* 完整的 Python 程式::
* 檔案輸入::
* 互動式輸入::
* 運算式輸入::


File: python.info,  Node: 完整的 Python 程式,  Next: 檔案輸入,  Up: 最高層級元件

4.9.1 完整的 Python 程式
------------------------

雖然語言規範描述不必規定語言直譯器是如何被調用（invoke）的，但對完整的
Python 程式加以說明還是很有用的。一個完整的 Python 程式會在最小初始化環
境中被執行：所有內建和標準模組均為可用，但均處於未初始化狀態，只有 *note
sys: d3.（各種系統服務）、*note builtins: 10.（內建函式、例外和 ‘None’）
和 *note __main__: 1. 除外。後者用於為完整程式的執行提供區域性和全域性命
名空間 (namespace)。

用於一個完整 Python 程式的語法，即下節所描述的檔案輸入。

直譯器也可以透過互動模式被調用；在此情況下，它並不讀取和執行一個完整程式
，而是每讀取一條陳述式就執行一次（可能為複合陳述式）。此時的初始環境與一
個完整程式的相同；每條陳述式會在 *note __main__: 1. 的命名空間中被執行。

一個完整程式可透過三種形式被傳遞給直譯器：使用 *note -c: 3d3. '字串'命令
列選項、使用一個檔案作為第一個命令列引數、或者使用標準輸入。如果檔案或標
準輸入是一個 tty 裝置，直譯器會進入互動模式；否則它會將檔案當作一個完整
程式來執行。


File: python.info,  Node: 檔案輸入,  Next: 互動式輸入,  Prev: 完整的 Python 程式,  Up: 最高層級元件

4.9.2 檔案輸入
--------------

所有從非互動式檔案讀取的輸入都具有相同的形式：

     file_input ::= (NEWLINE | statement)*

此語法用於下列幾種情況：

   * 剖析一個完整 Python 程式時（從檔案或字串）；

   * 剖析一個模組時；

   * 剖析一個傳遞给 *note exec(): 6b1. 函数的字串時；


File: python.info,  Node: 互動式輸入,  Next: 運算式輸入,  Prev: 檔案輸入,  Up: 最高層級元件

4.9.3 互動式輸入
----------------

互動模式下的輸入使用以下語法進行剖析：

     interactive_input ::= [stmt_list] NEWLINE | compound_stmt NEWLINE

注意在互動模式下，一條（最高層級）複合陳述式最後必須帶有一個空行；這能夠
幫助剖析器確定輸入已經結束。


File: python.info,  Node: 運算式輸入,  Prev: 互動式輸入,  Up: 最高層級元件

4.9.4 運算式輸入
----------------

*note eval(): 6b0. 被用於運算式輸入，它會忽略開頭的空白。傳遞給 *note
eval(): 6b0. 的字串引數必須具有以下形式：

     eval_input ::= expression_list NEWLINE*


File: python.info,  Node: 完整的語法規格書,  Prev: 最高層級元件,  Up: Python 語言參考手冊

4.10 完整的語法規格書
=====================

This is the full Python grammar, derived directly from the grammar used
to generate the CPython parser (see Grammar/python.gram(1)).  The
version here omits details related to code generation and error
recovery.

The notation is a mixture of EBNF(2) and PEG(3). In particular, ‘&’
followed by a symbol, token or parenthesized group indicates a positive
lookahead (i.e., is required to match but not consumed), while ‘!’
indicates a negative lookahead (i.e., is required 'not' to match).  We
use the ‘|’ separator to mean PEG's "ordered choice" (written as ‘/’ in
traditional PEG grammars).  See PEP 617(4) for more details on the
grammar's syntax.

     # PEG grammar for Python

     @trailer '''
     void *
     _PyPegen_parse(Parser *p)
     {
         // Initialize keywords
         p->keywords = reserved_keywords;
         p->n_keyword_lists = n_keyword_lists;
         p->soft_keywords = soft_keywords;

         // Run parser
         void *result = NULL;
         if (p->start_rule == Py_file_input) {
             result = file_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_single_input) {
             result = interactive_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_eval_input) {
             result = eval_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_func_type_input) {
             result = func_type_rule(p);
         }

         return result;
     }
     '''

     # ========================= START OF THE GRAMMAR =========================

     # General grammatical elements and rules:
     #
     # * Strings with double quotes (") denote SOFT KEYWORDS
     # * Strings with single quotes (') denote KEYWORDS
     # * Upper case names (NAME) denote tokens in the Grammar/Tokens file
     # * Rule names starting with "invalid_" are used for specialized syntax errors
     #     - These rules are NOT used in the first pass of the parser.
     #     - Only if the first pass fails to parse, a second pass including the invalid
     #       rules will be executed.
     #     - If the parser fails in the second phase with a generic syntax error, the
     #       location of the generic failure of the first pass will be used (this avoids
     #       reporting incorrect locations due to the invalid rules).
     #     - The order of the alternatives involving invalid rules matter
     #       (like any rule in PEG).
     #
     # Grammar Syntax (see PEP 617 for more information):
     #
     # rule_name: expression
     #   Optionally, a type can be included right after the rule name, which
     #   specifies the return type of the C or Python function corresponding to the
     #   rule:
     # rule_name[return_type]: expression
     #   If the return type is omitted, then a void * is returned in C and an Any in
     #   Python.
     # e1 e2
     #   Match e1, then match e2.
     # e1 | e2
     #   Match e1 or e2.
     #   The first alternative can also appear on the line after the rule name for
     #   formatting purposes. In that case, a | must be used before the first
     #   alternative, like so:
     #       rule_name[return_type]:
     #            | first_alt
     #            | second_alt
     # ( e )
     #   Match e (allows also to use other operators in the group like '(e)*')
     # [ e ] or e?
     #   Optionally match e.
     # e*
     #   Match zero or more occurrences of e.
     # e+
     #   Match one or more occurrences of e.
     # s.e+
     #   Match one or more occurrences of e, separated by s. The generated parse tree
     #   does not include the separator. This is otherwise identical to (e (s e)*).
     # &e
     #   Succeed if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
     # !e
     #   Fail if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
     # ~
     #   Commit to the current alternative, even if it fails to parse.
     #

     # STARTING RULES
     # ==============

     file[mod_ty]: a=[statements] ENDMARKER { _PyPegen_make_module(p, a) }
     interactive[mod_ty]: a=statement_newline { _PyAST_Interactive(a, p->arena) }
     eval[mod_ty]: a=expressions NEWLINE* ENDMARKER { _PyAST_Expression(a, p->arena) }
     func_type[mod_ty]: '(' a=[type_expressions] ')' '->' b=expression NEWLINE* ENDMARKER { _PyAST_FunctionType(a, b, p->arena) }

     # GENERAL STATEMENTS
     # ==================

     statements[asdl_stmt_seq*]: a=statement+ { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_flatten(p, a) }

     statement[asdl_stmt_seq*]: a=compound_stmt { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) } | a[asdl_stmt_seq*]=simple_stmts { a }

     statement_newline[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=compound_stmt NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | simple_stmts
         | NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, CHECK(stmt_ty, _PyAST_Pass(EXTRA))) }
         | ENDMARKER { _PyPegen_interactive_exit(p) }

     simple_stmts[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=simple_stmt !';' NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) } # Not needed, there for speedup
         | a[asdl_stmt_seq*]=';'.simple_stmt+ [';'] NEWLINE { a }

     # NOTE: assignment MUST precede expression, else parsing a simple assignment
     # will throw a SyntaxError.
     simple_stmt[stmt_ty] (memo):
         | assignment
         | &"type" type_alias
         | e=star_expressions { _PyAST_Expr(e, EXTRA) }
         | &'return' return_stmt
         | &('import' | 'from') import_stmt
         | &'raise' raise_stmt
         | 'pass' { _PyAST_Pass(EXTRA) }
         | &'del' del_stmt
         | &'yield' yield_stmt
         | &'assert' assert_stmt
         | 'break' { _PyAST_Break(EXTRA) }
         | 'continue' { _PyAST_Continue(EXTRA) }
         | &'global' global_stmt
         | &'nonlocal' nonlocal_stmt

     compound_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | &('def' | '@' | ASYNC) function_def
         | &'if' if_stmt
         | &('class' | '@') class_def
         | &('with' | ASYNC) with_stmt
         | &('for' | ASYNC) for_stmt
         | &'try' try_stmt
         | &'while' while_stmt
         | match_stmt

     # SIMPLE STATEMENTS
     # =================

     # NOTE: annotated_rhs may start with 'yield'; yield_expr must start with 'yield'
     assignment[stmt_ty]:
         | a=NAME ':' b=expression c=['=' d=annotated_rhs { d }] {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 stmt_ty,
                 6,
                 "Variable annotation syntax is",
                 _PyAST_AnnAssign(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), b, c, 1, EXTRA)
             ) }
         | a=('(' b=single_target ')' { b }
              | single_subscript_attribute_target) ':' b=expression c=['=' d=annotated_rhs { d }] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 6, "Variable annotations syntax is", _PyAST_AnnAssign(a, b, c, 0, EXTRA)) }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=(z=star_targets '=' { z })+ b=(yield_expr | star_expressions) !'=' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] {
              _PyAST_Assign(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | a=single_target b=augassign ~ c=(yield_expr | star_expressions) {
              _PyAST_AugAssign(a, b->kind, c, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_assignment

     annotated_rhs[expr_ty]: yield_expr | star_expressions

     augassign[AugOperator*]:
         | '+=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Add) }
         | '-=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Sub) }
         | '*=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Mult) }
         | '@=' { CHECK_VERSION(AugOperator*, 5, "The '@' operator is", _PyPegen_augoperator(p, MatMult)) }
         | '/=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Div) }
         | '%=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Mod) }
         | '&=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitAnd) }
         | '|=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitOr) }
         | '^=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitXor) }
         | '<<=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, LShift) }
         | '>>=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, RShift) }
         | '**=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Pow) }
         | '//=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, FloorDiv) }

     return_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'return' a=[star_expressions] { _PyAST_Return(a, EXTRA) }

     raise_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'raise' a=expression b=['from' z=expression { z }] { _PyAST_Raise(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'raise' { _PyAST_Raise(NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     global_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'global' a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.NAME+ {
         _PyAST_Global(CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p, a)), EXTRA) }

     nonlocal_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'nonlocal' a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.NAME+ {
         _PyAST_Nonlocal(CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p, a)), EXTRA) }

     del_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'del' a=del_targets &(';' | NEWLINE) { _PyAST_Delete(a, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_del_stmt

     yield_stmt[stmt_ty]: y=yield_expr { _PyAST_Expr(y, EXTRA) }

     assert_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'assert' a=expression b=[',' z=expression { z }] { _PyAST_Assert(a, b, EXTRA) }

     import_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_import
         | import_name
         | import_from

     # Import statements
     # -----------------

     import_name[stmt_ty]: 'import' a=dotted_as_names { _PyAST_Import(a, EXTRA) }
     # note below: the ('.' | '...') is necessary because '...' is tokenized as ELLIPSIS
     import_from[stmt_ty]:
         | 'from' a=('.' | '...')* b=dotted_name 'import' c=import_from_targets {
             _PyAST_ImportFrom(b->v.Name.id, c, _PyPegen_seq_count_dots(a), EXTRA) }
         | 'from' a=('.' | '...')+ 'import' b=import_from_targets {
             _PyAST_ImportFrom(NULL, b, _PyPegen_seq_count_dots(a), EXTRA) }
     import_from_targets[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | '(' a=import_from_as_names [','] ')' { a }
         | import_from_as_names !','
         | '*' { (asdl_alias_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, CHECK(alias_ty, _PyPegen_alias_for_star(p, EXTRA))) }
         | invalid_import_from_targets
     import_from_as_names[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_alias_seq*]=','.import_from_as_name+ { a }
     import_from_as_name[alias_ty]:
         | a=NAME b=['as' z=NAME { z }] { _PyAST_alias(a->v.Name.id,
                                                    (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Name.id : NULL,
                                                    EXTRA) }
     dotted_as_names[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_alias_seq*]=','.dotted_as_name+ { a }
     dotted_as_name[alias_ty]:
         | a=dotted_name b=['as' z=NAME { z }] { _PyAST_alias(a->v.Name.id,
                                                           (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Name.id : NULL,
                                                           EXTRA) }
     dotted_name[expr_ty]:
         | a=dotted_name '.' b=NAME { _PyPegen_join_names_with_dot(p, a, b) }
         | NAME

     # COMPOUND STATEMENTS
     # ===================

     # Common elements
     # ---------------

     block[asdl_stmt_seq*] (memo):
         | NEWLINE INDENT a=statements DEDENT { a }
         | simple_stmts
         | invalid_block

     decorators[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=('@' f=named_expression NEWLINE { f })+ { a }

     # Class definitions
     # -----------------

     class_def[stmt_ty]:
         | a=decorators b=class_def_raw { _PyPegen_class_def_decorators(p, a, b) }
         | class_def_raw

     class_def_raw[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_class_def_raw
         | 'class' a=NAME t=[type_params] b=['(' z=[arguments] ')' { z }] ':' c=block {
             _PyAST_ClassDef(a->v.Name.id,
                          (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                          (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                          c, NULL, t, EXTRA) }

     # Function definitions
     # --------------------

     function_def[stmt_ty]:
         | d=decorators f=function_def_raw { _PyPegen_function_def_decorators(p, d, f) }
         | function_def_raw

     function_def_raw[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_def_raw
         | 'def' n=NAME t=[type_params] &&'(' params=[params] ')' a=['->' z=expression { z }] &&':' tc=[func_type_comment] b=block {
             _PyAST_FunctionDef(n->v.Name.id,
                             (params) ? params : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)),
                             b, NULL, a, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), t, EXTRA) }
         | ASYNC 'def' n=NAME t=[type_params] &&'(' params=[params] ')' a=['->' z=expression { z }] &&':' tc=[func_type_comment] b=block {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 stmt_ty,
                 5,
                 "Async functions are",
                 _PyAST_AsyncFunctionDef(n->v.Name.id,
                                 (params) ? params : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)),
                                 b, NULL, a, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), t, EXTRA)
             ) }

     # Function parameters
     # -------------------

     params[arguments_ty]:
         | invalid_parameters
         | parameters

     parameters[arguments_ty]:
         | a=slash_no_default b[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default* c=param_with_default* d=[star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, a, NULL, b, c, d)) }
         | a=slash_with_default b=param_with_default* c=[star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, a, NULL, b, c)) }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ b=param_with_default* c=[star_etc] {
             _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, a, b, c) }
         | a=param_with_default+ b=[star_etc] { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, a, b)}
         | a=star_etc { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, a) }

     # Some duplication here because we can't write (',' | &')'),
     # which is because we don't support empty alternatives (yet).

     slash_no_default[asdl_arg_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ '/' ',' { a }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ '/' &')' { a }
     slash_with_default[SlashWithDefault*]:
         | a=param_no_default* b=param_with_default+ '/' ',' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }
         | a=param_no_default* b=param_with_default+ '/' &')' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }

     star_etc[StarEtc*]:
         | invalid_star_etc
         | '*' a=param_no_default b=param_maybe_default* c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' a=param_no_default_star_annotation b=param_maybe_default* c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' ',' b=param_maybe_default+ c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, b, c) }
         | a=kwds { _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, NULL, a) }

     kwds[arg_ty]:
         | invalid_kwds
         | '**' a=param_no_default { a }

     # One parameter.  This *includes* a following comma and type comment.
     #
     # There are three styles:
     # - No default
     # - With default
     # - Maybe with default
     #
     # There are two alternative forms of each, to deal with type comments:
     # - Ends in a comma followed by an optional type comment
     # - No comma, optional type comment, must be followed by close paren
     # The latter form is for a final parameter without trailing comma.
     #

     param_no_default[arg_ty]:
         | a=param ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
         | a=param tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
     param_no_default_star_annotation[arg_ty]:
         | a=param_star_annotation ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
         | a=param_star_annotation tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
     param_with_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=param c=default ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
         | a=param c=default tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
     param_maybe_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=param c=default? ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
         | a=param c=default? tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
     param[arg_ty]: a=NAME b=annotation? { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
     param_star_annotation[arg_ty]: a=NAME b=star_annotation { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
     annotation[expr_ty]: ':' a=expression { a }
     star_annotation[expr_ty]: ':' a=star_expression { a }
     default[expr_ty]: '=' a=expression { a } | invalid_default

     # If statement
     # ------------

     if_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_if_stmt
         | 'if' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=elif_stmt {
             _PyAST_If(a, b, CHECK(asdl_stmt_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, c)), EXTRA) }
         | 'if' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_If(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
     elif_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_elif_stmt
         | 'elif' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=elif_stmt {
             _PyAST_If(a, b, CHECK(asdl_stmt_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, c)), EXTRA) }
         | 'elif' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_If(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
     else_block[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | invalid_else_stmt
         | 'else' &&':' b=block { b }

     # While statement
     # ---------------

     while_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_while_stmt
         | 'while' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_While(a, b, c, EXTRA) }

     # For statement
     # -------------

     for_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_for_stmt
         | 'for' t=star_targets 'in' ~ ex=star_expressions ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block el=[else_block] {
             _PyAST_For(t, ex, b, el, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | ASYNC 'for' t=star_targets 'in' ~ ex=star_expressions ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block el=[else_block] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async for loops are", _PyAST_AsyncFor(t, ex, b, el, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_for_target

     # With statement
     # --------------

     with_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_with_stmt_indent
         | 'with' '(' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_With(a, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'with' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
             _PyAST_With(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | ASYNC 'with' '(' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' b=block {
            CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async with statements are", _PyAST_AsyncWith(a, b, NULL, EXTRA)) }
         | ASYNC 'with' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
            CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async with statements are", _PyAST_AsyncWith(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_with_stmt

     with_item[withitem_ty]:
         | e=expression 'as' t=star_target &(',' | ')' | ':') { _PyAST_withitem(e, t, p->arena) }
         | invalid_with_item
         | e=expression { _PyAST_withitem(e, NULL, p->arena) }

     # Try statement
     # -------------

     try_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_try_stmt
         | 'try' &&':' b=block f=finally_block { _PyAST_Try(b, NULL, NULL, f, EXTRA) }
         | 'try' &&':' b=block ex[asdl_excepthandler_seq*]=except_block+ el=[else_block] f=[finally_block] { _PyAST_Try(b, ex, el, f, EXTRA) }
         | 'try' &&':' b=block ex[asdl_excepthandler_seq*]=except_star_block+ el=[else_block] f=[finally_block] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 11, "Exception groups are",
                           _PyAST_TryStar(b, ex, el, f, EXTRA)) }


     # Except statement
     # ----------------

     except_block[excepthandler_ty]:
         | invalid_except_stmt_indent
         | 'except' e=expression t=['as' z=NAME { z }] ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, (t) ? ((expr_ty) t)->v.Name.id : NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'except' ':' b=block { _PyAST_ExceptHandler(NULL, NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_except_stmt
     except_star_block[excepthandler_ty]:
         | invalid_except_star_stmt_indent
         | 'except' '*' e=expression t=['as' z=NAME { z }] ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, (t) ? ((expr_ty) t)->v.Name.id : NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_except_stmt
     finally_block[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | invalid_finally_stmt
         | 'finally' &&':' a=block { a }

     # Match statement
     # ---------------

     match_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | "match" subject=subject_expr ':' NEWLINE INDENT cases[asdl_match_case_seq*]=case_block+ DEDENT {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 10, "Pattern matching is", _PyAST_Match(subject, cases, EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_match_stmt

     subject_expr[expr_ty]:
         | value=star_named_expression ',' values=star_named_expressions? {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, value, values)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | named_expression

     case_block[match_case_ty]:
         | invalid_case_block
         | "case" pattern=patterns guard=guard? ':' body=block {
             _PyAST_match_case(pattern, guard, body, p->arena) }

     guard[expr_ty]: 'if' guard=named_expression { guard }

     patterns[pattern_ty]:
         | patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]=open_sequence_pattern {
             _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }
         | pattern

     pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | as_pattern
         | or_pattern

     as_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | pattern=or_pattern 'as' target=pattern_capture_target {
             _PyAST_MatchAs(pattern, target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_as_pattern

     or_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]='|'.closed_pattern+ {
             asdl_seq_LEN(patterns) == 1 ? asdl_seq_GET(patterns, 0) : _PyAST_MatchOr(patterns, EXTRA) }

     closed_pattern[pattern_ty] (memo):
         | literal_pattern
         | capture_pattern
         | wildcard_pattern
         | value_pattern
         | group_pattern
         | sequence_pattern
         | mapping_pattern
         | class_pattern

     # Literal patterns are used for equality and identity constraints
     literal_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | value=signed_number !('+' | '-') { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | value=complex_number { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | value=strings { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | 'None' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_None, EXTRA) }
         | 'True' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_True, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_False, EXTRA) }

     # Literal expressions are used to restrict permitted mapping pattern keys
     literal_expr[expr_ty]:
         | signed_number !('+' | '-')
         | complex_number
         | strings
         | 'None' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_None, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'True' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_True, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_False, NULL, EXTRA) }

     complex_number[expr_ty]:
         | real=signed_real_number '+' imag=imaginary_number {
             _PyAST_BinOp(real, Add, imag, EXTRA) }
         | real=signed_real_number '-' imag=imaginary_number  {
             _PyAST_BinOp(real, Sub, imag, EXTRA) }

     signed_number[expr_ty]:
         | NUMBER
         | '-' number=NUMBER { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, number, EXTRA) }

     signed_real_number[expr_ty]:
         | real_number
         | '-' real=real_number { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, real, EXTRA) }

     real_number[expr_ty]:
         | real=NUMBER { _PyPegen_ensure_real(p, real) }

     imaginary_number[expr_ty]:
         | imag=NUMBER { _PyPegen_ensure_imaginary(p, imag) }

     capture_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | target=pattern_capture_target { _PyAST_MatchAs(NULL, target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }

     pattern_capture_target[expr_ty]:
         | !"_" name=NAME !('.' | '(' | '=') {
             _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, name, Store) }

     wildcard_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | "_" { _PyAST_MatchAs(NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     value_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | attr=attr !('.' | '(' | '=') { _PyAST_MatchValue(attr, EXTRA) }

     attr[expr_ty]:
         | value=name_or_attr '.' attr=NAME {
             _PyAST_Attribute(value, attr->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }

     name_or_attr[expr_ty]:
         | attr
         | NAME

     group_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '(' pattern=pattern ')' { pattern }

     sequence_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '[' patterns=maybe_sequence_pattern? ']' { _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }
         | '(' patterns=open_sequence_pattern? ')' { _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }

     open_sequence_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | pattern=maybe_star_pattern ',' patterns=maybe_sequence_pattern? {
             _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, pattern, patterns) }

     maybe_sequence_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | patterns=','.maybe_star_pattern+ ','? { patterns }

     maybe_star_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | star_pattern
         | pattern

     star_pattern[pattern_ty] (memo):
         | '*' target=pattern_capture_target {
             _PyAST_MatchStar(target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '*' wildcard_pattern {
             _PyAST_MatchStar(NULL, EXTRA) }

     mapping_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '{' '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(NULL, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | '{' rest=double_star_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(NULL, NULL, rest->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '{' items=items_pattern ',' rest=double_star_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, items)),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, items)),
                 rest->v.Name.id,
                 EXTRA) }
         | '{' items=items_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, items)),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, items)),
                 NULL,
                 EXTRA) }

     items_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | ','.key_value_pattern+

     key_value_pattern[KeyPatternPair*]:
         | key=(literal_expr | attr) ':' pattern=pattern {
             _PyPegen_key_pattern_pair(p, key, pattern) }

     double_star_pattern[expr_ty]:
         | '**' target=pattern_capture_target { target }

     class_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(cls, NULL, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' patterns=positional_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(cls, patterns, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' keywords=keyword_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(
                 cls, NULL,
                 CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p,
                     CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, keywords)))),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, keywords)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' patterns=positional_patterns ',' keywords=keyword_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(
                 cls,
                 patterns,
                 CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p,
                     CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, keywords)))),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, keywords)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | invalid_class_pattern

     positional_patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]:
         | args[asdl_pattern_seq*]=','.pattern+ { args }

     keyword_patterns[asdl_seq*]:
         | ','.keyword_pattern+

     keyword_pattern[KeyPatternPair*]:
         | arg=NAME '=' value=pattern { _PyPegen_key_pattern_pair(p, arg, value) }

     # Type statement
     # ---------------

     type_alias[stmt_ty]:
         | "type" n=NAME t=[type_params] '=' b=expression {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 12, "Type statement is",
             _PyAST_TypeAlias(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, n, Store)), t, b, EXTRA)) }

     # Type parameter declaration
     # --------------------------

     type_params[asdl_type_param_seq*]: '[' t=type_param_seq  ']' {
             CHECK_VERSION(asdl_type_param_seq *, 12, "Type parameter lists are", t) }

     type_param_seq[asdl_type_param_seq*]: a[asdl_type_param_seq*]=','.type_param+ [','] { a }

     type_param[type_param_ty] (memo):
         | a=NAME b=[type_param_bound] { _PyAST_TypeVar(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA) }
         | '*' a=NAME colon=':' e=expression {
                 RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(colon, e->kind == Tuple_kind
                     ? "cannot use constraints with TypeVarTuple"
                     : "cannot use bound with TypeVarTuple")
             }
         | '*' a=NAME { _PyAST_TypeVarTuple(a->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '**' a=NAME colon=':' e=expression {
                 RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(colon, e->kind == Tuple_kind
                     ? "cannot use constraints with ParamSpec"
                     : "cannot use bound with ParamSpec")
             }
         | '**' a=NAME { _PyAST_ParamSpec(a->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }

     type_param_bound[expr_ty]: ':' e=expression { e }

     # EXPRESSIONS
     # -----------

     expressions[expr_ty]:
         | a=expression b=(',' c=expression { c })+ [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=expression ',' { _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | expression

     expression[expr_ty] (memo):
         | invalid_expression
         | invalid_legacy_expression
         | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' c=expression { _PyAST_IfExp(b, a, c, EXTRA) }
         | disjunction
         | lambdef

     yield_expr[expr_ty]:
         | 'yield' 'from' a=expression { _PyAST_YieldFrom(a, EXTRA) }
         | 'yield' a=[star_expressions] { _PyAST_Yield(a, EXTRA) }

     star_expressions[expr_ty]:
         | a=star_expression b=(',' c=star_expression { c })+ [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=star_expression ',' { _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | star_expression

     star_expression[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '*' a=bitwise_or { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | expression

     star_named_expressions[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.star_named_expression+ [','] { a }

     star_named_expression[expr_ty]:
         | '*' a=bitwise_or { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | named_expression

     assignment_expression[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME ':=' ~ b=expression {
             CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 8, "Assignment expressions are",
             _PyAST_NamedExpr(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), b, EXTRA)) }

     named_expression[expr_ty]:
         | assignment_expression
         | invalid_named_expression
         | expression !':='

     disjunction[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=conjunction b=('or' c=conjunction { c })+ { _PyAST_BoolOp(
             Or,
             CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)),
             EXTRA) }
         | conjunction

     conjunction[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=inversion b=('and' c=inversion { c })+ { _PyAST_BoolOp(
             And,
             CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)),
             EXTRA) }
         | inversion

     inversion[expr_ty] (memo):
         | 'not' a=inversion { _PyAST_UnaryOp(Not, a, EXTRA) }
         | comparison

     # Comparison operators
     # --------------------

     comparison[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_or b=compare_op_bitwise_or_pair+ {
             _PyAST_Compare(
                 a,
                 CHECK(asdl_int_seq*, _PyPegen_get_cmpops(p, b)),
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_exprs(p, b)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_or

     compare_op_bitwise_or_pair[CmpopExprPair*]:
         | eq_bitwise_or
         | noteq_bitwise_or
         | lte_bitwise_or
         | lt_bitwise_or
         | gte_bitwise_or
         | gt_bitwise_or
         | notin_bitwise_or
         | in_bitwise_or
         | isnot_bitwise_or
         | is_bitwise_or

     eq_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '==' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Eq, a) }
     noteq_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]:
         | (tok='!=' { _PyPegen_check_barry_as_flufl(p, tok) ? NULL : tok}) a=bitwise_or {_PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, NotEq, a) }
     lte_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '<=' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, LtE, a) }
     lt_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '<' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Lt, a) }
     gte_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '>=' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, GtE, a) }
     gt_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '>' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Gt, a) }
     notin_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'not' 'in' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, NotIn, a) }
     in_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'in' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, In, a) }
     isnot_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'is' 'not' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, IsNot, a) }
     is_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'is' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Is, a) }

     # Bitwise operators
     # -----------------

     bitwise_or[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_or '|' b=bitwise_xor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitOr, b, EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_xor

     bitwise_xor[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_xor '^' b=bitwise_and { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitXor, b, EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_and

     bitwise_and[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_and '&' b=shift_expr { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitAnd, b, EXTRA) }
         | shift_expr

     shift_expr[expr_ty]:
         | a=shift_expr '<<' b=sum { _PyAST_BinOp(a, LShift, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=shift_expr '>>' b=sum { _PyAST_BinOp(a, RShift, b, EXTRA) }
         | sum

     # Arithmetic operators
     # --------------------

     sum[expr_ty]:
         | a=sum '+' b=term { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Add, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=sum '-' b=term { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Sub, b, EXTRA) }
         | term

     term[expr_ty]:
         | a=term '*' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Mult, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '/' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Div, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '//' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, FloorDiv, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '%' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Mod, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '@' b=factor { CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 5, "The '@' operator is", _PyAST_BinOp(a, MatMult, b, EXTRA)) }
         | factor

     factor[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '+' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(UAdd, a, EXTRA) }
         | '-' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, a, EXTRA) }
         | '~' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(Invert, a, EXTRA) }
         | power

     power[expr_ty]:
         | a=await_primary '**' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Pow, b, EXTRA) }
         | await_primary

     # Primary elements
     # ----------------

     # Primary elements are things like "obj.something.something", "obj[something]", "obj(something)", "obj" ...

     await_primary[expr_ty] (memo):
         | AWAIT a=primary { CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 5, "Await expressions are", _PyAST_Await(a, EXTRA)) }
         | primary

     primary[expr_ty]:
         | a=primary '.' b=NAME { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=primary b=genexp { _PyAST_Call(a, CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, b)), NULL, EXTRA) }
         | a=primary '(' b=[arguments] ')' {
             _PyAST_Call(a,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                      EXTRA) }
         | a=primary '[' b=slices ']' { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Load, EXTRA) }
         | atom

     slices[expr_ty]:
         | a=slice !',' { a }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.(slice | starred_expression)+ [','] { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     slice[expr_ty]:
         | a=[expression] ':' b=[expression] c=[':' d=[expression] { d }] { _PyAST_Slice(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
         | a=named_expression { a }

     atom[expr_ty]:
         | NAME
         | 'True' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_True, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_False, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'None' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_None, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | &(STRING|FSTRING_START) strings
         | NUMBER
         | &'(' (tuple | group | genexp)
         | &'[' (list | listcomp)
         | &'{' (dict | set | dictcomp | setcomp)
         | '...' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_Ellipsis, NULL, EXTRA) }

     group[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=(yield_expr | named_expression) ')' { a }
         | invalid_group

     # Lambda functions
     # ----------------

     lambdef[expr_ty]:
         | 'lambda' a=[lambda_params] ':' b=expression {
             _PyAST_Lambda((a) ? a : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)), b, EXTRA) }

     lambda_params[arguments_ty]:
         | invalid_lambda_parameters
         | lambda_parameters

     # lambda_parameters etc. duplicates parameters but without annotations
     # or type comments, and if there's no comma after a parameter, we expect
     # a colon, not a close parenthesis.  (For more, see parameters above.)
     #
     lambda_parameters[arguments_ty]:
         | a=lambda_slash_no_default b[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default* c=lambda_param_with_default* d=[lambda_star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, a, NULL, b, c, d)) }
         | a=lambda_slash_with_default b=lambda_param_with_default* c=[lambda_star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, a, NULL, b, c)) }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ b=lambda_param_with_default* c=[lambda_star_etc] {
             _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, a, b, c) }
         | a=lambda_param_with_default+ b=[lambda_star_etc] { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, a, b)}
         | a=lambda_star_etc { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, a) }

     lambda_slash_no_default[asdl_arg_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ '/' ',' { a }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ '/' &':' { a }

     lambda_slash_with_default[SlashWithDefault*]:
         | a=lambda_param_no_default* b=lambda_param_with_default+ '/' ',' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }
         | a=lambda_param_no_default* b=lambda_param_with_default+ '/' &':' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }

     lambda_star_etc[StarEtc*]:
         | invalid_lambda_star_etc
         | '*' a=lambda_param_no_default b=lambda_param_maybe_default* c=[lambda_kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' ',' b=lambda_param_maybe_default+ c=[lambda_kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, b, c) }
         | a=lambda_kwds { _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, NULL, a) }

     lambda_kwds[arg_ty]:
         | invalid_lambda_kwds
         | '**' a=lambda_param_no_default { a }

     lambda_param_no_default[arg_ty]:
         | a=lambda_param ',' { a }
         | a=lambda_param &':' { a }
     lambda_param_with_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=lambda_param c=default ',' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
         | a=lambda_param c=default &':' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
     lambda_param_maybe_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=lambda_param c=default? ',' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
         | a=lambda_param c=default? &':' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
     lambda_param[arg_ty]: a=NAME { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     # LITERALS
     # ========

     fstring_middle[expr_ty]:
         | fstring_replacement_field
         | t=FSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_constant_from_token(p, t) }
     fstring_replacement_field[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=(yield_expr | star_expressions) debug_expr='='? conversion=[fstring_conversion] format=[fstring_full_format_spec] rbrace='}' {
             _PyPegen_formatted_value(p, a, debug_expr, conversion, format, rbrace, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_replacement_field
     fstring_conversion[ResultTokenWithMetadata*]:
         | conv_token="!" conv=NAME { _PyPegen_check_fstring_conversion(p, conv_token, conv) }
     fstring_full_format_spec[ResultTokenWithMetadata*]:
         | colon=':' spec=fstring_format_spec* { _PyPegen_setup_full_format_spec(p, colon, (asdl_expr_seq *) spec, EXTRA) }
     fstring_format_spec[expr_ty]:
         | t=FSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_decoded_constant_from_token(p, t) }
         | fstring_replacement_field
     fstring[expr_ty]:
         | a=FSTRING_START b=fstring_middle* c=FSTRING_END { _PyPegen_joined_str(p, a, (asdl_expr_seq*)b, c) }

     string[expr_ty]: s[Token*]=STRING { _PyPegen_constant_from_string(p, s) }
     strings[expr_ty] (memo): a[asdl_expr_seq*]=(fstring|string)+ { _PyPegen_concatenate_strings(p, a, EXTRA) }

     list[expr_ty]:
         | '[' a=[star_named_expressions] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     tuple[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=[y=star_named_expression ',' z=[star_named_expressions] { _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, y, z) } ] ')' {
             _PyAST_Tuple(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     set[expr_ty]: '{' a=star_named_expressions '}' { _PyAST_Set(a, EXTRA) }

     # Dicts
     # -----

     dict[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=[double_starred_kvpairs] '}' {
             _PyAST_Dict(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_keys(p, a)),
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_values(p, a)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | '{' invalid_double_starred_kvpairs '}'

     double_starred_kvpairs[asdl_seq*]: a=','.double_starred_kvpair+ [','] { a }

     double_starred_kvpair[KeyValuePair*]:
         | '**' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_key_value_pair(p, NULL, a) }
         | kvpair

     kvpair[KeyValuePair*]: a=expression ':' b=expression { _PyPegen_key_value_pair(p, a, b) }

     # Comprehensions & Generators
     # ---------------------------

     for_if_clauses[asdl_comprehension_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_comprehension_seq*]=for_if_clause+ { a }

     for_if_clause[comprehension_ty]:
         | ASYNC 'for' a=star_targets 'in' ~ b=disjunction c[asdl_expr_seq*]=('if' z=disjunction { z })* {
             CHECK_VERSION(comprehension_ty, 6, "Async comprehensions are", _PyAST_comprehension(a, b, c, 1, p->arena)) }
         | 'for' a=star_targets 'in' ~ b=disjunction c[asdl_expr_seq*]=('if' z=disjunction { z })* {
             _PyAST_comprehension(a, b, c, 0, p->arena) }
         | invalid_for_target

     listcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '[' a=named_expression b=for_if_clauses ']' { _PyAST_ListComp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     setcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=named_expression b=for_if_clauses '}' { _PyAST_SetComp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     genexp[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=( assignment_expression | expression !':=') b=for_if_clauses ')' { _PyAST_GeneratorExp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     dictcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=kvpair b=for_if_clauses '}' { _PyAST_DictComp(a->key, a->value, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_dict_comprehension

     # FUNCTION CALL ARGUMENTS
     # =======================

     arguments[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=args [','] &')' { a }
         | invalid_arguments

     args[expr_ty]:
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.(starred_expression | ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') !'=')+ b=[',' k=kwargs {k}] {
             _PyPegen_collect_call_seqs(p, a, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=kwargs { _PyAST_Call(_PyPegen_dummy_name(p),
                               CHECK_NULL_ALLOWED(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_extract_starred_exprs(p, a)),
                               CHECK_NULL_ALLOWED(asdl_keyword_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_delete_starred_exprs(p, a)),
                               EXTRA) }

     kwargs[asdl_seq*]:
         | a=','.kwarg_or_starred+ ',' b=','.kwarg_or_double_starred+ { _PyPegen_join_sequences(p, a, b) }
         | ','.kwarg_or_starred+
         | ','.kwarg_or_double_starred+

     starred_expression[expr_ty]:
         | invalid_starred_expression
         | '*' a=expression { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | '*' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("Invalid star expression") }

     kwarg_or_starred[KeywordOrStarred*]:
         | invalid_kwarg
         | a=NAME '=' b=expression {
             _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA)), 1) }
         | a=starred_expression { _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, a, 0) }

     kwarg_or_double_starred[KeywordOrStarred*]:
         | invalid_kwarg
         | a=NAME '=' b=expression {
             _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA)), 1) }
         | '**' a=expression { _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(NULL, a, EXTRA)), 1) }

     # ASSIGNMENT TARGETS
     # ==================

     # Generic targets
     # ---------------

     # NOTE: star_targets may contain *bitwise_or, targets may not.
     star_targets[expr_ty]:
         | a=star_target !',' { a }
         | a=star_target b=(',' c=star_target { c })* [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Store, EXTRA) }

     star_targets_list_seq[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.star_target+ [','] { a }

     star_targets_tuple_seq[asdl_expr_seq*]:
         | a=star_target b=(',' c=star_target { c })+ [','] { (asdl_expr_seq*) _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b) }
         | a=star_target ',' { (asdl_expr_seq*) _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }

     star_target[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '*' a=(!'*' star_target) {
             _PyAST_Starred(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), Store, EXTRA) }
         | target_with_star_atom

     target_with_star_atom[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Store, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Store, EXTRA) }
         | star_atom

     star_atom[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=target_with_star_atom ')' { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=[star_targets_tuple_seq] ')' { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Store, EXTRA) }
         | '[' a=[star_targets_list_seq] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Store, EXTRA) }

     single_target[expr_ty]:
         | single_subscript_attribute_target
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=single_target ')' { a }

     single_subscript_attribute_target[expr_ty]:
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Store, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Store, EXTRA) }

     t_primary[expr_ty]:
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME &t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' &t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary b=genexp &t_lookahead {
             _PyAST_Call(a, CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, b)), NULL, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '(' b=[arguments] ')' &t_lookahead {
             _PyAST_Call(a,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                      EXTRA) }
         | a=atom &t_lookahead { a }

     t_lookahead: '(' | '[' | '.'

     # Targets for del statements
     # --------------------------

     del_targets[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.del_target+ [','] { a }

     del_target[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Del, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Del, EXTRA) }
         | del_t_atom

     del_t_atom[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Del) }
         | '(' a=del_target ')' { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Del) }
         | '(' a=[del_targets] ')' { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Del, EXTRA) }
         | '[' a=[del_targets] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Del, EXTRA) }

     # TYPING ELEMENTS
     # ---------------

     # type_expressions allow */** but ignore them
     type_expressions[asdl_expr_seq*]:
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '*' b=expression ',' '**' c=expression {
             (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(
                 p,
                 CHECK(asdl_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b)),
                 c) }
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '*' b=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b) }
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '**' b=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b) }
         | '*' a=expression ',' '**' b=expression {
             (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(
                 p,
                 CHECK(asdl_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)),
                 b) }
         | '*' a=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | '**' a=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.expression+ {a}

     func_type_comment[Token*]:
         | NEWLINE t=TYPE_COMMENT &(NEWLINE INDENT) { t }  # Must be followed by indented block
         | invalid_double_type_comments
         | TYPE_COMMENT

     # ========================= END OF THE GRAMMAR ===========================



     # ========================= START OF INVALID RULES =======================

     # From here on, there are rules for invalid syntax with specialised error messages
     invalid_arguments:
         | ((','.(starred_expression | ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') !'=')+ ',' kwargs) | kwargs) a=',' ','.(starred_expression !'=')+ {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "iterable argument unpacking follows keyword argument unpacking") }
         | a=expression b=for_if_clauses ',' [args | expression for_if_clauses] {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, _PyPegen_get_last_comprehension_item(PyPegen_last_item(b, comprehension_ty)), "Generator expression must be parenthesized") }
         | a=NAME b='=' expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?")}
         | (args ',')? a=NAME b='=' &(',' | ')') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "expected argument value expression")}
         | a=args b=for_if_clauses { _PyPegen_nonparen_genexp_in_call(p, a, b) }
         | args ',' a=expression b=for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, _PyPegen_get_last_comprehension_item(PyPegen_last_item(b, comprehension_ty)), "Generator expression must be parenthesized") }
         | a=args ',' args { _PyPegen_arguments_parsing_error(p, a) }
     invalid_kwarg:
         | a[Token*]=('True'|'False'|'None') b='=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to %s", PyBytes_AS_STRING(a->bytes)) }
         | a=NAME b='=' expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?")}
         | !(NAME '=') a=expression b='=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
                 a, b, "expression cannot contain assignment, perhaps you meant \"==\"?") }
         | a='**' expression '=' b=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to keyword argument unpacking") }

     # IMPORTANT: Note that the "_without_invalid" suffix causes the rule to not call invalid rules under it
     expression_without_invalid[expr_ty]:
         | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' c=expression { _PyAST_IfExp(b, a, c, EXTRA) }
         | disjunction
         | lambdef
     invalid_legacy_expression:
         | a=NAME !'(' b=star_expressions {
             _PyPegen_check_legacy_stmt(p, a) ? RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b,
                 "Missing parentheses in call to '%U'. Did you mean %U(...)?", a->v.Name.id, a->v.Name.id) : NULL}

     invalid_expression:
         # !(NAME STRING) is not matched so we don't show this error with some invalid string prefixes like: kf"dsfsdf"
         # Soft keywords need to also be ignored because they can be parsed as NAME NAME
        | !(NAME STRING | SOFT_KEYWORD) a=disjunction b=expression_without_invalid {
             _PyPegen_check_legacy_stmt(p, a) ? NULL : p->tokens[p->mark-1]->level == 0 ? NULL :
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?") }
        | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction !('else'|':') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "expected 'else' after 'if' expression") }
        | a='lambda' [lambda_params] b=':' &FSTRING_MIDDLE  {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "f-string: lambda expressions are not allowed without parentheses") }

     invalid_named_expression(memo):
         | a=expression ':=' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a, "cannot use assignment expressions with %s", _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }
         | a=NAME '=' b=bitwise_or !('='|':=') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?") }
         | !(list|tuple|genexp|'True'|'None'|'False') a=bitwise_or b='=' bitwise_or !('='|':=') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot assign to %s here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?",
                                               _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }

     invalid_assignment:
         | a=invalid_ann_assign_target ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a,
                 "only single target (not %s) can be annotated",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)
             )}
         | a=star_named_expression ',' star_named_expressions* ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "only single target (not tuple) can be annotated") }
         | a=expression ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "illegal target for annotation") }
         | (star_targets '=')* a=star_expressions '=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(STAR_TARGETS, a) }
         | (star_targets '=')* a=yield_expr '=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "assignment to yield expression not possible") }
         | a=star_expressions augassign (yield_expr | star_expressions) {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a,
                 "'%s' is an illegal expression for augmented assignment",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)
             )}
     invalid_ann_assign_target[expr_ty]:
         | list
         | tuple
         | '(' a=invalid_ann_assign_target ')' { a }
     invalid_del_stmt:
         | 'del' a=star_expressions {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(DEL_TARGETS, a) }
     invalid_block:
         | NEWLINE !INDENT { RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block") }
     invalid_comprehension:
         | ('[' | '(' | '{') a=starred_expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "iterable unpacking cannot be used in comprehension") }
         | ('[' | '{') a=star_named_expression ',' b=star_named_expressions for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, PyPegen_last_item(b, expr_ty),
             "did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?") }
         | ('[' | '{') a=star_named_expression b=',' for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?") }
     invalid_dict_comprehension:
         | '{' a='**' bitwise_or for_if_clauses '}' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "dict unpacking cannot be used in dict comprehension") }
     invalid_parameters:
         | a="/" ',' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "at least one argument must precede /") }
         | (slash_no_default | slash_with_default) param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ may appear only once") }
         | slash_no_default? param_no_default* invalid_parameters_helper a=param_no_default {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameter without a default follows parameter with a default") }
         | param_no_default* a='(' param_no_default+ ','? b=')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "Function parameters cannot be parenthesized") }
         | (slash_no_default | slash_with_default)? param_maybe_default* '*' (',' | param_no_default) param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ must be ahead of *") }
         | param_maybe_default+ '/' a='*' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected comma between / and *") }
     invalid_default:
         | a='=' &(')'|',') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected default value expression") }
     invalid_star_etc:
         | a='*' (')' | ',' (')' | '**')) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "named arguments must follow bare *") }
         | '*' ',' TYPE_COMMENT { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("bare * has associated type comment") }
         | '*' param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-positional argument cannot have default value") }
         | '*' (param_no_default | ',') param_maybe_default* a='*' (param_no_default | ',') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "* argument may appear only once") }
     invalid_kwds:
         | '**' param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-keyword argument cannot have default value") }
         | '**' param ',' a=param { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
         | '**' param ',' a[Token*]=('*'|'**'|'/') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
     invalid_parameters_helper: # This is only there to avoid type errors
         | a=slash_with_default { _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | param_with_default+
     invalid_lambda_parameters:
         | a="/" ',' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "at least one argument must precede /") }
         | (lambda_slash_no_default | lambda_slash_with_default) lambda_param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ may appear only once") }
         | lambda_slash_no_default? lambda_param_no_default* invalid_lambda_parameters_helper a=lambda_param_no_default {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameter without a default follows parameter with a default") }
         | lambda_param_no_default* a='(' ','.lambda_param+ ','? b=')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "Lambda expression parameters cannot be parenthesized") }
         | (lambda_slash_no_default | lambda_slash_with_default)? lambda_param_maybe_default* '*' (',' | lambda_param_no_default) lambda_param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ must be ahead of *") }
         | lambda_param_maybe_default+ '/' a='*' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected comma between / and *") }
     invalid_lambda_parameters_helper:
         | a=lambda_slash_with_default { _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | lambda_param_with_default+
     invalid_lambda_star_etc:
         | '*' (':' | ',' (':' | '**')) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("named arguments must follow bare *") }
         | '*' lambda_param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-positional argument cannot have default value") }
         | '*' (lambda_param_no_default | ',') lambda_param_maybe_default* a='*' (lambda_param_no_default | ',') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "* argument may appear only once") }
     invalid_lambda_kwds:
         | '**' lambda_param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-keyword argument cannot have default value") }
         | '**' lambda_param ',' a=lambda_param { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
         | '**' lambda_param ',' a[Token*]=('*'|'**'|'/') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
     invalid_double_type_comments:
         | TYPE_COMMENT NEWLINE TYPE_COMMENT NEWLINE INDENT {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("Cannot have two type comments on def") }
     invalid_with_item:
         | expression 'as' a=expression &(',' | ')' | ':') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(STAR_TARGETS, a) }

     invalid_for_target:
         | ASYNC? 'for' a=star_expressions {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(FOR_TARGETS, a) }

     invalid_group:
         | '(' a=starred_expression ')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use starred expression here") }
         | '(' a='**' expression ')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use double starred expression here") }
     invalid_import:
         | a='import' ','.dotted_name+ 'from' dotted_name {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead?") }

     invalid_import_from_targets:
         | import_from_as_names ',' NEWLINE {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("trailing comma not allowed without surrounding parentheses") }

     invalid_with_stmt:
         | [ASYNC] 'with' ','.(expression ['as' star_target])+ NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | [ASYNC] 'with' '(' ','.(expressions ['as' star_target])+ ','? ')' NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
     invalid_with_stmt_indent:
         | [ASYNC] a='with' ','.(expression ['as' star_target])+ ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'with' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | [ASYNC] a='with' '(' ','.(expressions ['as' star_target])+ ','? ')' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'with' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }

     invalid_try_stmt:
         | a='try' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'try' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | 'try' ':' block !('except' | 'finally') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected 'except' or 'finally' block") }
         | 'try' ':' block* except_block+ a='except' b='*' expression ['as' NAME] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot have both 'except' and 'except*' on the same 'try'") }
         | 'try' ':' block* except_star_block+ a='except' [expression ['as' NAME]] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot have both 'except' and 'except*' on the same 'try'") }
     invalid_except_stmt:
         | 'except' '*'? a=expression ',' expressions ['as' NAME ] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "multiple exception types must be parenthesized") }
         | a='except' '*'? expression ['as' NAME ] NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='except' NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='except' '*' (NEWLINE | ':') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected one or more exception types") }
     invalid_finally_stmt:
         | a='finally' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'finally' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_except_stmt_indent:
         | a='except' expression ['as' NAME ] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | a='except' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT { RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_except_star_stmt_indent:
         | a='except' '*' expression ['as' NAME ] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except*' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_match_stmt:
         | "match" subject_expr NEWLINE { CHECK_VERSION(void*, 10, "Pattern matching is", RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") ) }
         | a="match" subject=subject_expr ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'match' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_case_block:
         | "case" patterns guard? NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a="case" patterns guard? ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'case' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_as_pattern:
         | or_pattern 'as' a="_" { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use '_' as a target") }
         | or_pattern 'as' !NAME a=expression { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "invalid pattern target") }
     invalid_class_pattern:
         | name_or_attr '(' a=invalid_class_argument_pattern  { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
             PyPegen_first_item(a, pattern_ty),
             PyPegen_last_item(a, pattern_ty),
             "positional patterns follow keyword patterns") }
     invalid_class_argument_pattern[asdl_pattern_seq*]:
         | [positional_patterns ','] keyword_patterns ',' a=positional_patterns { a }
     invalid_if_stmt:
         | 'if' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='if' a=named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'if' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_elif_stmt:
         | 'elif' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='elif' named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'elif' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_else_stmt:
         | a='else' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'else' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_while_stmt:
         | 'while' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='while' named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'while' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_for_stmt:
         | [ASYNC] 'for' star_targets 'in' star_expressions NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | [ASYNC] a='for' star_targets 'in' star_expressions ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'for' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_def_raw:
         | [ASYNC] a='def' NAME [type_params] '(' [params] ')' ['->' expression] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after function definition on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_class_def_raw:
         | 'class' NAME [type_params] ['(' [arguments] ')'] NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='class' NAME [type_params] ['(' [arguments] ')'] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after class definition on line %d", a->lineno) }

     invalid_double_starred_kvpairs:
         | ','.double_starred_kvpair+ ',' invalid_kvpair
         | expression ':' a='*' bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "cannot use a starred expression in a dictionary value") }
         | expression a=':' &('}'|',') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expression expected after dictionary key and ':'") }
     invalid_kvpair:
         | a=expression !(':') {
             RAISE_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(p, PyExc_SyntaxError, a->lineno, a->end_col_offset - 1, a->end_lineno, -1, "':' expected after dictionary key") }
         | expression ':' a='*' bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "cannot use a starred expression in a dictionary value") }
         | expression a=':' &('}'|',') {RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expression expected after dictionary key and ':'") }
     invalid_starred_expression:
         | a='*' expression '=' b=expression { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to iterable argument unpacking") }

     invalid_replacement_field:
         | '{' a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '='") }
         | '{' a='!' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '!'") }
         | '{' a=':' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before ':'") }
         | '{' a='}' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '}'") }
         | '{' !(yield_expr | star_expressions) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting a valid expression after '{'")}
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) !('=' | '!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '=', or '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) '=' !('!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) '='? invalid_conversion_character
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) '='? ['!' NAME] !(':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting ':' or '}'") }
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) '='? ['!' NAME] ':' fstring_format_spec* !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '}', or format specs") }
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) '='? ['!' NAME] !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '}'") }

     invalid_conversion_character:
         | '!' &(':' | '}') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: missing conversion character") }
         | '!' !NAME { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: invalid conversion character") }

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Grammar/python.gram

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library,  Next: 擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器,  Prev: Python 語言參考手冊,  Up: Top

5 Python 標準函式庫 (Standard Library)
**************************************

*note Python 語言參考手冊: 13e.說明 Python 這門語言確切的文法及語意，而
這份函式庫參考手冊則是說明隨著 Python 一起發佈的標準函式庫，除此之外，其
內容也包含一些時常出現在 Python 發佈版本中的非必要套件。

Python 的標準函式庫是非常龐大的，其提供了如下所述極多且涵蓋用途極廣的許
多模組。包含一些用 C 語言撰寫，可以操作像是檔案讀寫等系統相關功能的內建
模組，當然也有用 Python 撰寫，並使用標準解法解決許多常見問題的模組。其中
有些模組則是特別針對 Python 的可攜性去設計的，為此特地將一些平台特殊相依
性的功能抽象化成可跨平台的 API。

Python 的 Windows 安裝檔基本上包含整個標準函式庫，且通常也包含許多附加的
組件；而在類 Unix 作業系統方面，Python 通常是以一系列的套件被安裝，因此
對於某些或全部的可選組件，可能都必須使用該作業系統提供的套件管理工具來安
裝。

在標準函式庫之外，還有成千上萬且不斷增加的組件（從個別的程式、模組、套件
到完整的應用程式開發框架），可以從 Python 套件索引 (Python Package
Index)(1) 中取得。

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<6>.
* 內建函式::
* 內建常數::
* 內建型別::
* 內建的例外::
* 文本處理 (Text Processing) 服務: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務.
* 二進位資料服務::
* 資料型別::
* 數值與數學模組::
* 函式編程模組::
* 檔案與目錄存取::
* 資料持久性 (Data Persistence): 資料持久性 Data Persistence.
* 資料壓縮與保存::
* 檔案格式::
* 加密服務::
* 通用作業系統服務::
* 並行執行 (Concurrent Execution): 並行執行 Concurrent Execution.
* Networking and Interprocess Communication::
* 網際網路資料處理::
* Structured Markup Processing Tools::
* 網路協定 (Internet protocols) 及支援: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援.
* 多媒體服務::
* 國際化::
* 程式框架::
* 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 (Graphical User Interfaces): 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces.
* 開發工具::
* 除錯與效能分析::
* 軟體封裝與發布::
* Python Runtime 服務::
* 自訂 Python 直譯器::
* 引入模組::
* Python 語言服務::
* MS Windows 特有服務::
* Unix 特有服務::
* 模組命令列介面::
* 已被取代的模組::
* 安全性注意事項: 安全性注意事項<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<6>,  Next: 內建函式,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.1 簡介
========

「Python 函式庫」包含了許多不同的部分。

函式庫中包括被視為程式語言「核心」部分的資料型態，像是數字 (number) 或是
串列 (list)。對於這些型別，Python 核心對這些字面值 (literal) 的形式做定
義，並對它們的語意制定了一些限制，但在此同時卻不把文字對應的語意完全定義
。（另一方面，Python 在語法面上有確實的定義，例如拼字或是運算元次序）

Python 函式庫也囊括了內建函式與例外處理——這些物件都可以不用透過 *note
import: 3d5. 陳述式來引入 Python 程式中就能使用。函式庫中有部份是被
Python 核心所定義的，但在這裡僅解釋最核心的語意部分。

整個函式庫中包含了許多模組，有許多方法可以從函式庫中取用這些模組。有些模
組是以 C 語言撰寫並建置於 Python 編譯器之中，其他的是由 Python 撰寫並以
源碼的方式 (source form) 引入。有些模組提供的功能是專屬於 Python 的，像
是把 stack trace 印出來；有些則是針對特定作業系統，去試著存取特定硬體；
還有些提供對特定應用的功能與操作介面，像是 World Wide Web。模組的使用情
況會因機器與 Python 的版本而不同，部分模組是開放所有版本以及 Port 的
Python 來使用的，但有些會因系統支援或需求在某些版本或系統下無法使用，甚
至有些僅限在特定的設定環境下才能使用。

這個手冊會「深入淺出」地介紹 Python 函式庫。它會先介紹一些內建函式、資料
型態、和一些例外處理，再來一章章的主題式介紹相關模組。

這代表如果你從這個手冊的最開始讀起，並在感到無聊時跳到下一個章節，你仍然
可以得到一個對 Python 函式庫所支援的模組與其合理應用的概觀。當然，你'沒
有必要'像是在讀一本小說一樣讀這本手冊——你可以快速瀏覽目錄（在手冊的最前
頭）、或是你可以利用最後面的索引來查詢特定的函式或模組。最後，如果你享受
閱讀一些隨機的主題，你可以選擇一個隨機的數字並開始閱讀（見 *note random:
b3. 模組) 。不管你想要以什麼順序來閱讀這個手冊，*note 內建函式: 10f1.會
是一個很好的入門，因為手冊中其他章節都預設你已經對這個章節有一定的熟悉程
度。

讓我們開始吧！

* Menu:

* 可用性之註釋::


File: python.info,  Node: 可用性之註釋,  Up: 簡介<6>

5.1.1 可用性之註釋
------------------

   * 如果出現「適用：Unix」註釋，則代表該函式普遍存在於 Unix 系統中，但
     這並不保證其存在於某特定作業系統。

   * 如果沒有分別註釋的話，有標明「適用：Unix」註釋的所有函式也都於
     macOS 上支援，因其建於 Unix 核心之上。

   * If an availability note contains both a minimum Kernel version and
     a minimum libc version, then both conditions must hold.  For
     example a feature with note 'Availability: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc
     >= 2.27' requires both Linux 3.17 or newer and glibc 2.27 or newer.

* Menu:

* WebAssembly 平台::


File: python.info,  Node: WebAssembly 平台,  Up: 可用性之註釋

5.1.1.1 WebAssembly 平台
........................

The WebAssembly(1) platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ (Emscripten(2)) and
‘wasm32-wasi’ (WASI(3)) provide a subset of POSIX APIs.  WebAssembly
runtimes and browsers are sandboxed and have limited access to the host
and external resources.  Any Python standard library module that uses
processes, threading, networking, signals, or other forms of
inter-process communication (IPC), is either not available or may not
work as on other Unix-like systems.  File I/O, file system, and Unix
permission-related functions are restricted, too.  Emscripten does not
permit blocking I/O. Other blocking operations like *note sleep(): 499.
block the browser event loop.

The properties and behavior of Python on WebAssembly platforms depend on
the Emscripten(4)-SDK or WASI(5)-SDK version, WASM runtimes (browser,
NodeJS, wasmtime(6)), and Python build time flags.  WebAssembly,
Emscripten, and WASI are evolving standards; some features like
networking may be supported in the future.

For Python in the browser, users should consider Pyodide(7) or
PyScript(8).  PyScript is built on top of Pyodide, which itself is built
on top of CPython and Emscripten.  Pyodide provides access to browsers'
JavaScript and DOM APIs as well as limited networking capabilities with
JavaScript's ‘XMLHttpRequest’ and ‘Fetch’ APIs.

   * Process-related APIs are not available or always fail with an
     error.  That includes APIs that spawn new processes (*note fork():
     233, *note execve(): f87.), wait for processes (*note waitpid():
     c11.), send signals (*note kill(): 11f6.), or otherwise interact
     with processes.  The *note subprocess: d0. is importable but does
     not work.

   * The *note socket: c6. module is available, but is limited and
     behaves differently from other platforms.  On Emscripten, sockets
     are always non-blocking and require additional JavaScript code and
     helpers on the server to proxy TCP through WebSockets; see
     Emscripten Networking(9) for more information.  WASI snapshot
     preview 1 only permits sockets from an existing file descriptor.

   * Some functions are stubs that either don't do anything and always
     return hardcoded values.

   * Functions related to file descriptors, file permissions, file
     ownership, and links are limited and don't support some operations.
     For example, WASI does not permit symlinks with absolute file
     names.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://webassembly.org/

   (2) https://emscripten.org/

   (3) https://wasi.dev/

   (4) https://emscripten.org/

   (5) https://wasi.dev/

   (6) https://wasmtime.dev/

   (7) https://pyodide.org/

   (8) https://pyscript.net/

   (9) https://emscripten.org/docs/porting/networking.html


File: python.info,  Node: 內建函式,  Next: 內建常數,  Prev: 簡介<6>,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.2 內建函式
============

Python 直譯器有內建多個可隨時使用的函式和型別。以下按照英文字母排序列出
。

內建函式

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                      
     'A'                           'E'                         'L'                         'R'
     *note abs(): 1a99.            *note enumerate(): 12f0.     *note len(): 429.          *note range(): 1eea.
     *note aiter(): 5f5.           *note eval(): 6b0.          *note list(): 1ee8.         *note repr(): 61e.
     *note all(): 1292.            *note exec(): 6b1.          *note locals(): 173.        *note reversed(): 691.
     *note anext(): 5f6.                                                                   *note round(): 116b.
     *note any(): 1291.            'F'                         'M'                         
     *note ascii(): 1255.          *note filter(): 690.        *note map(): 68f.           'S'
                                   *note float(): 26a.         *note max(): d8d.           *note set(): 1eeb.
     'B'                           *note format(): 417.        *note memoryview(): 1ee9.     *note setattr(): 1eec.
     *note bin(): 113c.            *note frozenset(): 1ee7.     *note min(): d8c.          *note slice(): 180.
     *note bool(): 17d.                                                                    *note sorted(): a2f.
     *note breakpoint(): 917.      'G'                         'N'                         *note staticmethod(): 5f9.
     *note bytearray(): 18aa.      *note getattr(): a32.       *note next(): 5f8.          *note str(): 1eed.
     *note bytes(): 18a9.          *note globals(): 163a.                                  *note sum(): 181.
                                                               'O'                         *note super(): 206.
     'C'                           'H'                         *note object(): 8d9.        
     *note callable(): 1057.       *note hasattr(): 1f9.       *note oct(): 115e.          'T'
     *note chr(): 1c83.            *note hash(): 3df.          *note open(): 29c.          *note tuple(): 1eee.
     *note classmethod(): 24b.     *note help(): 710.          *note ord(): 1c82.          *note type(): bbb.
     *note compile(): 554.         *note hex(): 115f.                                      
     *note complex(): 26b.                                     'P'                         'V'
                                   'I'                         *note pow(): 816.           *note vars(): 182e.
     'D'                           *note id(): 1293.           *note print(): e02.         
     *note delattr(): 1ee5.        *note input(): 1169.        *note property(): 424.      'Z'
     *note dict(): 1ee6.           *note int(): 17e.                                       *note zip(): 5ef.
     *note dir(): 42d.             *note isinstance(): 14b.                                
     *note divmod(): 7e5.          *note issubclass(): 5df.                                '_'
                                   *note iter(): 5f7.                                      *note __import__(): 70d.
                                                                                      

 -- 函式: abs (x)

     回傳一個數的絕對值，引數可以是整數、浮點數或有實現 *note __abs__():
     1d4a. 的物件。如果引數是一個複數，回傳它的純量（大小）。

 -- 函式: aiter (async_iterable)

     回傳 *note 非同步疊代器: bef. 做為 *note 非同步可疊代物件: bed.。相
     當於呼叫 x.__aiter__()。

     注意：與 *note iter(): 5f7. 不同，*note aiter(): 5f5. 沒有兩個引數
     的變體。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: all (iterable)

     如果 'iterable' 的所有元素皆為真（或 iterable 為空）則回傳 ‘True’。
     等價於：

          def all(iterable):
              for element in iterable:
                  if not element:
                      return False
              return True

 -- 函式: awaitable anext (async_iterator)

 -- 函式: awaitable anext (async_iterator, default)

     當進入 await 時，從給定的 *note asynchronous iterator: bef. 中回傳
     下一個項目（item），疊代完畢則回傳 'default' 。

     這是內建函式 *note next(): 5f8. 的非同步版本，其行為類似於：

     呼叫 'async_iterator' 的 *note __anext__(): 1c9b. 方法，回傳 *note
     awaitable: ae0.。等待返回疊代器的下一個值。如果指定 'default'，當疊
     代器結束時會返回該值，否則會引發 *note StopAsyncIteration: 1813. 。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: any (iterable)

     如果 'iterable' 的任一元素為真，回傳 ‘True’。如果 iterable 是空的，
     則回傳 ‘False’。等價於：

          def any(iterable):
              for element in iterable:
                  if element:
                      return True
              return False

 -- 函式: ascii (object)

     就像函式 *note repr(): 61e.，回傳一個表示物件的字串，但是 *note
     repr(): 61e. 回傳的字串中非 ASCII 編碼的字元會被跳脫 (escape)，像是
     ‘\x’、‘\u’ 和 ‘\U’。這個函式生成的字串和 Python 2 的 *note repr():
     61e. 回傳的結果相似。

 -- 函式: bin (x)

     將一個整數轉變為一個前綴為 "0b" 的二進位制字串。結果是一個有效的
     Python 運算式。如果 'x' 不是 Python 的 *note int: 17e. 物件，那它需
     要定義 *note __index__(): 51f. method 回傳一個整數。舉例來說：

          >>> bin(3)
          '0b11'
          >>> bin(-10)
          '-0b1010'

     如果不一定需要 "0b" 前綴，還可以使用如下的方法。

          >>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
          ('0b1110', '1110')
          >>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
          ('0b1110', '1110')

     可參考 *note format(): 417. 獲取更多資訊。

 -- 類別: bool (object=False, /)

     Return a Boolean value, i.e.  one of ‘True’ or ‘False’.  The
     argument is converted using the standard *note truth testing
     procedure: 1eef.  If the argument is false or omitted, this returns
     ‘False’; otherwise, it returns ‘True’.  The *note bool: 17d. class
     is a subclass of *note int: 17e. (see *note 數值型別 --
     int、float、complex: 19eb.).  It cannot be subclassed further.  Its
     only instances are ‘False’ and ‘True’ (see *note Boolean 型別 -
     bool: 1ef0.).

     在 3.7 版的變更: 現在為僅限位置參數。

 -- 函式: breakpoint (*args, **kws)

     這個函式將呼叫 *note sys.breakpointhook(): 92e. 函式，並將 ‘args’ 和
     ‘kws’ 傳遞給它。這將有效地讓你在特定的呼叫點進入除錯器。預設情況下
     ，‘sys.breakpointhook()’ 呼叫 *note pdb.set_trace(): 9c2. 不須帶任
     何引數。這樣的設計是為了方便使用者，讓他們不需要額外地導入 *note
     pdb: a0. 模組或輸入太多程式就可以進入除錯器。然而，可以將 *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): 92e. 設置為其他函式，並且 *note breakpoint():
     917. 將自動呼叫該函式，讓你進入所選擇的除錯器。如果無法存取 *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): 92e. 這個函式，則此函式將引發 *note
     RuntimeError: 17a.。

     預設情況下，*note breakpoint(): 917. 的行為可以透過 *note
     PYTHONBREAKPOINT: 92f. 環境變數來更改。有關使用詳情，請參考 *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): 92e.。

     請注意，如果 *note sys.breakpointhook(): 92e. 被替換了，則無法保證
     此功能。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘breakpointhook’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘builtins.breakpoint’。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 類別: bytearray (source=b'')

 -- 類別: bytearray (source, encoding)

 -- 類別: bytearray (source, encoding, errors)

     回傳一個新的 bytes 陣列。*note bytearray: 2c0. class 是一個可變的整
     數序列，包含範圍為 0 <= x < 256 的整數。它有可變序列大部分常見的
     method（如在 *note Mutable Sequence Types: 1ef1. 中所述），同時也有
     *note bytes: 2c1. 型別大部分的 method，參見 *note Bytes and
     Bytearray Operations: 1ef2.。

     選擇性參數 'source' 可以被用來以不同的方式初始化陣列：

        * 如果是一個 'string'，你必須提供 'encoding' 參數（以及選擇性地
          提供 'errors' ）；*note bytearray(): 2c0. 會使用 *note
          str.encode(): 70e. method 來將 string 轉變成 bytes。

        * 如果是一個 'integer'，陣列則會有該數值的長度，並以 null bytes
          來當作初始值。

        * 如果是一個符合 *note buffer 介面: 148.的物件，該物件的唯讀
          buffer 會被用來初始化 bytes 陣列。

        * 如果是一個 'iterable'，它的元素必須是範圍為 ‘0 <= x < 256’ 的
          整數，並且會被用作陣列的初始值。

     如果沒有引數，則建立長度為 0 的陣列。

     可參考 *note Binary Sequence Types -- bytes, bytearray, memoryview:
     1ef3. 和 *note Bytearray Objects: 1ef4.。

 -- 類別: bytes (source=b'')

 -- 類別: bytes (source, encoding)

 -- 類別: bytes (source, encoding, errors)

     回傳一個新的 "bytes" 物件，會是一個元素是範圍為 ‘0 <= x < 256’ 整數
     的不可變序列。*note bytes: 2c1. 是 *note bytearray: 2c0. 的不可變版
     本 — 它的同樣具備不改變物件的 method，也有相同的索引和切片操作。

     因此，建構函式的引數和 *note bytearray(): 2c0. 相同。

     Bytes 物件還可以用文字建立，參見 *note String and Bytes literals:
     1c37.。

     可參考 *note Binary Sequence Types -- bytes, bytearray, memoryview:
     1ef3.、*note Bytes Objects: 1ef5. 和 *note Bytes and Bytearray
     Operations: 1ef2.。

 -- 函式: callable (object)

     如果引數 'object' 是可呼叫的，回傳 *note True: a70.，否則回傳 *note
     False: 98f.。如果回傳 ‘True’，呼叫仍可能會失敗；但如果回傳 ‘False’，
     則呼叫 'object' 肯定會失敗。注意 class 是可呼叫的（呼叫 class 會回
     傳一個新的實例）；如果實例的 class 有定義 *note __call__(): 2dd.
     method，則它是可呼叫的。

     在 3.2 版被加入: 這個函式一開始在 Python 3.0 被移除，但在 Python
     3.2 又被重新加入。

 -- 函式: chr (i)

     回傳代表字元之 Unicode 編碼位置為整數 'i' 的字串。例如，‘chr(97)’ 回
     傳字串 ‘'a'’，而 ‘chr(8364)’ 回傳字串 ‘'€'’。這是 *note ord():
     1c82. 的逆函式。

     引數的有效範圍是 0 到 1,114,111（16 進制表示為 0x10FFFF）。如果 'i'
     超過這個範圍，會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

 -- 函式: @classmethod

     把一個 method 封裝成 class method（類別方法）。

     一個 class method 把自己的 class 作為第一個引數，就像一個實例
     method 把實例自己作為第一個引數。請用以下慣例來宣告 class method：

          class C:
              @classmethod
              def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

     ‘@classmethod’ 語法是一個函式 *note decorator: 540. — 參見 *note
     函式定義: 1a2b. 中關於函式定義的詳細介紹。

     一個 class method 可以在 class（如 ‘C.f()’）或實例（如 ‘C().f()’）
     上呼叫。實例除了它的 class 資訊，其他都會被忽略。如果一個 class
     method 在 subclass 上呼叫，subclass 會作為第一個引數傳入。

     Class method 和 C++ 與 Java 的 static method 是有區別的。如果你想瞭
     解 static method，請看本節的 *note staticmethod(): 5f9.。關於 class
     method 的更多資訊，請參考*note 標準型別階層: 1c77.。

     在 3.9 版的變更: Class methods 現在可以包裝其他*note 描述器: 1d03.，
     例如 *note property(): 424.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Class methods now inherit the method attributes
     (*note __module__: 1c8e, *note __name__: 1165, *note __qualname__:
     1c8d, *note __doc__: 106a. and *note __annotations__: 1069.) and
     have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Class methods 不能再包裝其他的*note 描述器:
     1d03.，例如 *note property(): 424.。

 -- 函式: compile (source, filename, mode, flags=0, dont_inherit=False,
          optimize=-1)

     將 'source' 編譯成程式碼或 AST 物件。程式碼物件可以被 *note exec():
     6b1. 或 *note eval(): 6b0. 執行。'source' 可以是一般的字串、bytes 字
     串、或者 AST 物件。參見 *note ast: 8. module（模組）的說明文件瞭解
     如何使用 AST 物件。

     'filename' 引數必須是程式碼的檔名；如果程式碼不是從檔案中讀取，可以
     傳入一些可辨識的值（經常會使用 ‘'<string>'’ 來替代）。

     'mode' 引數指定了編譯程式碼時必須用的模式。如果 'source' 是一系列的
     陳述式，可以是 ‘'exec'’；如果是單一運算式，可以是 ‘'eval'’；如果是
     單個互動式陳述式，可以是 ‘'single'’（在最後一種情況下，如果運算式執
     行結果不是 ‘None’ 則會被印出來）。

     可選引數 'flags' 和 'dont_inherit' 控制啟用哪個*note 編譯器選項:
     1ef6.以及允許哪個*note 未來功能: 3bf.。如果兩者都不存在（或兩者都為
     零），則會呼叫與 *note compile(): 554. 相同旗標的程式碼來編譯。如果
     給定 'flags' 引數而未給定 'dont_inherit*（或為零）則無論如何都會使
     用由 *flags' 引數所指定的編譯器選項和未來陳述式。如果
     'dont_inherit' 是一個非零整數，則使用 'flags' 引數 －－ 周圍程式碼
     中的旗標（未來功能和編譯器選項）將被忽略。

     編譯器選項和 future 陳述式使用 bits 來表示，可以一起被位元操作 OR 來
     表示複數個選項。需要被具體定義特徵的位元域可以透過 *note
     __future__: 0. module 中 *note _Feature: 1ef7. 實例中的 *note
     compiler_flag: 1ef8. 屬性來獲得。*note 編譯器旗標: 1ef6.可以在
     *note ast: 8. module 中搜尋有 ‘PyCF_’ 前綴的名稱。

     引數 'optimize' 用來指定編譯器的最佳化級別；預設值 ‘-1’ 選擇與直譯
     器的 *note -O: c2c. 選項相同的最佳化級別。其他級別為 ‘0’（沒有最佳
     化；‘__debug__’ 為真值）、‘1’（assert 被刪除，‘__debug__’ 為假值）
     或 ‘2’（說明字串 (docstring) 也被刪除）。

     如果編譯的原始碼無效，此函式會引發 *note SyntaxError: 146.，如果原
     始碼包含 null bytes，則會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

     如果你想解析 Python 程式碼為 AST 運算式，請參閱 *note ast.parse():
     182.。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘source’、‘filename’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘compile’。此事件也可能由隱式編譯 (implicit compilation) 所引發。

          備註: 在 ‘'single'’ 或 ‘'eval'’ 模式編譯多行程式碼時，輸入必須
          以至少一個換行符結尾。這使 *note code: 18. module 更容易檢測陳
          述式的完整性。

          警告: 如果編譯足夠大或者足夠複雜的字串成 AST 物件時，Python 直
          譯器會因為 Python AST 編譯器的 stack 深度限制而崩潰。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 允許使用 Windows 和 Mac 的換行符號。此外，在
     ‘'exec'’ 模式不需要以換行符號結尾。增加了 'optimize' 參數。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 在之前的版本，'source' 中包含 null bytes 會引發
     *note TypeError: 2ba.。

     在 3.8 版被加入: ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ 現在可以傳遞旗標
     以啟用對頂層 ‘await’、‘async for’ 和 ‘async with’ 的支援。

 -- 類別: complex (number=0, /)

 -- 類別: complex (string, /)

 -- 類別: complex (real=0, imag=0)

     Convert a single string or number to a complex number, or create a
     complex number from real and imaginary parts.

     例如：

          >>> complex('+1.23')
          (1.23+0j)
          >>> complex('-4.5j')
          -4.5j
          >>> complex('-1.23+4.5j')
          (-1.23+4.5j)
          >>> complex('\t( -1.23+4.5J )\n')
          (-1.23+4.5j)
          >>> complex('-Infinity+NaNj')
          (-inf+nanj)
          >>> complex(1.23)
          (1.23+0j)
          >>> complex(imag=-4.5)
          -4.5j
          >>> complex(-1.23, 4.5)
          (-1.23+4.5j)

     If the argument is a string, it must contain either a real part (in
     the same format as for *note float(): 26a.) or an imaginary part
     (in the same format but with a ‘'j'’ or ‘'J'’ suffix), or both real
     and imaginary parts (the sign of the imaginary part is mandatory in
     this case).  The string can optionally be surrounded by whitespaces
     and the round parentheses ‘'('’ and ‘')'’, which are ignored.  The
     string must not contain whitespace between ‘'+'’, ‘'-'’, the ‘'j'’
     or ‘'J'’ suffix, and the decimal number.  For example,
     ‘complex('1+2j')’ is fine, but ‘complex('1 + 2j')’ raises *note
     ValueError: 183.  More precisely, the input must conform to the
     *note complexvalue: 1ef9. production rule in the following grammar,
     after parentheses and leading and trailing whitespace characters
     are removed:

          complexvalue ::= floatvalue |
                           floatvalue ("j" | "J") |
                           floatvalue sign absfloatvalue ("j" | "J")

     If the argument is a number, the constructor serves as a numeric
     conversion like *note int: 17e. and *note float: 26a.  For a
     general Python object ‘x’, ‘complex(x)’ delegates to
     ‘x.__complex__()’.  If *note __complex__(): 3dd. is not defined
     then it falls back to *note __float__(): 810.  If ‘__float__()’ is
     not defined then it falls back to *note __index__(): 51f.

     If two arguments are provided or keyword arguments are used, each
     argument may be any numeric type (including complex).  If both
     arguments are real numbers, return a complex number with the real
     component 'real' and the imaginary component 'imag'.  If both
     arguments are complex numbers, return a complex number with the
     real component ‘real.real-imag.imag’ and the imaginary component
     ‘real.imag+imag.real’.  If one of arguments is a real number, only
     its real component is used in the above expressions.

     If all arguments are omitted, returns ‘0j’.

     複數型別在 *note 數值型別 -- int、float、complex: 19eb. 中有相關描
     述。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 可以使用底線將程式碼文字中的數字進行分組。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 如果 *note __complex__(): 3dd. 和 *note
     __float__(): 810. 未定義，則會回退到 *note __index__(): 51f.。

 -- 函式: delattr (object, name)

     這是 *note setattr(): 1eec. 相關的函式。引數是一個物件和一個字串，
     該字串必須是物件中某個屬性名稱。如果物件允許，該函式將刪除指定的屬
     性。例如 ‘delattr(x, 'foobar')’ 等價於 ‘del x.foobar’。'name' 不必
     是個 Python 識別符 (identifier)（請見 *note setattr(): 1eec.）。

 -- 類別: dict (**kwarg)

 -- 類別: dict (mapping, **kwarg)

 -- 類別: dict (iterable, **kwarg)

     建立一個新的 dictionary（字典）。*note dict: 239. 物件是一個
     dictionary class。參見 *note dict: 239. 和 *note Mapping Types --
     dict: 91a. 來瞭解這個 class。

     其他容器型別，請參見內建的 *note list: 40a.、*note set: 3cc. 和
     *note tuple: 4e6. class，以及 *note collections: 1b. module。

 -- 函式: dir ()

 -- 函式: dir (object)

     如果沒有引數，則回傳當前區域作用域 (local scope) 中的名稱列表。如果
     有引數，它會嘗試回傳該物件的有效屬性列表。

     如果物件有一個名為 *note __dir__(): 1cf8. 的 method，那麼該 method
     將被呼叫，並且必須回傳一個屬性列表。這允許實現自定義 *note
     __getattr__(): 1fa. 或 *note __getattribute__(): a33. 函式的物件能
     夠自定義 *note dir(): 42d. 來報告它們的屬性。

     如果物件不提供 *note __dir__(): 1cf8.，這個函式會嘗試從物件已定義的
     *note __dict__: 2e2. 屬性和型別物件收集資訊。結果列表並不總是完整的
     ，如果物件有自定義 *note __getattr__(): 1fa.，那結果可能不準確。

     預設的 *note dir(): 42d. 機制對不同型別的物件有不同行為，它會試圖回
     傳最相關而非最完整的資訊：

        * 如果物件是 module 物件，則列表包含 module 的屬性名稱。

        * 如果物件是型別或 class 物件，則列表包含它們的屬性名稱，並且遞
          迴查詢其基礎的所有屬性。

        * 否則，包含物件的屬性名稱列表、它的 class 屬性名稱，並且遞迴查
          詢它的 class 的所有基礎 class 的屬性。

     回傳的列表按字母表排序，例如：

          >>> import struct
          >>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace
          ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
          >>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module
          ['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
           '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
           '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
           'unpack', 'unpack_from']
          >>> class Shape:
          ...     def __dir__(self):
          ...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
          ...
          >>> s = Shape()
          >>> dir(s)
          ['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

          備註: 因為 *note dir(): 42d. 主要是為了便於在互動式提示字元時
          使用，所以它會試圖回傳人們感興趣的名稱集合，而不是試圖保證結果
          的嚴格性或一致性，它具體的行為也可能在不同版本之間改變。例如，
          當引數是一個 class 時，metaclass 的屬性不包含在結果列表中。

 -- 函式: divmod (a, b)

     它將兩個（非複數）數字作為引數，並在執行整數除法時回傳一對商和餘數
     。對於混合運算元型別，適用二進位算術運算子的規則。對於整數，運算結
     果和 ‘(a // b, a % b)’ 一致。對於浮點數，運算結果是 ‘(q, a % b)’，
     'q' 通常是 ‘math.floor(a / b)’ 但可能會比 1 小。在任何情況下，‘q *
     b + a % b’ 和 'a' 基本相等，如果 ‘a % b’ 非零，則它的符號和 'b' 一
     樣，且 ‘0 <= abs(a % b) < abs(b)’。

 -- 函式: enumerate (iterable, start=0)

     回傳一個列舉 (enumerate) 物件。'iterable' 必須是一個序列、*note
     iterator: 1718. 或其他支援疊代的物件。*note enumerate(): 12f0. 回傳
     之 iterator 的 *note __next__(): 115d. method 回傳一個 tuple（元組
     ），裡面包含一個計數值（從 'start' 開始，預設為 0）和透過疊代
     'iterable' 獲得的值。

          >>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
          >>> list(enumerate(seasons))
          [(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
          >>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
          [(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]

     等價於：

          def enumerate(iterable, start=0):
              n = start
              for elem in iterable:
                  yield n, elem
                  n += 1

 -- 函式: eval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)


     參數:

        * ‘expression’ (*note str: 157. | *note code object: 5ca.) - A
          Python expression.

        * ‘globals’ (*note dict: 239. | ‘None’) - The global namespace
          (default: ‘None’).

        * ‘locals’ (*note mapping: 104d. | ‘None’) - The local namespace
          (default: ‘None’).


     回傳: The result of the evaluated expression.


     引發: Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.

          警告: This function executes arbitrary code.  Calling it with
          user-supplied input may lead to security vulnerabilities.

     'expression' 引數會被視為一條 Python 運算式（技術上而言，是條件列表
     ）來剖析及求值，而 'globals' 和 'locals' dictionaries 分別用作全域
     和區域命名空間。如果 'globals' dictionary 存在但缺少 ‘__builtins__’
     的鍵值，那 'expression' 被剖析之前，將為該鍵插入對內建 *note
     builtins: 10. module dictionary 的引用。這麼一來，在將
     ‘__builtins__’ dictionary 傳入 *note eval(): 6b0. 之前，你可以透過
     將它插入 'globals' 來控制你需要哪些內建函式來執行程式碼。如果
     'locals' 被省略，那它的預設值是 'globals' dictionary。如果兩個
     dictionary 引數都被省略，則在 *note eval(): 6b0. 被呼叫的環境中執行
     運算式。請注意，'eval()' 在封閉 (enclosing) 環境中無法存取*note
     巢狀作用域: 1efb. (non-locals)。

     範例：

          >>> x = 1
          >>> eval('x+1')
          2

     這個函式也可以用來執行任意程式碼物件（如被 *note compile(): 554. 建
     立的那些）。這種情況下，傳入的引數是程式碼物件而不是字串。如果編譯
     該物件時的 'mode' 引數是 ‘'exec'’，那麼 *note eval(): 6b0. 回傳值為
     ‘None’。

     提示：*note exec(): 6b1. 函式支援動態執行陳述式。*note globals():
     163a. 和 *note locals(): 173. 函式分別回傳當前的全域性和局部性
     dictionary，它們對於將引數傳遞給 *note eval(): 6b0. 或 *note
     exec(): 6b1. 可能會方便許多。

     如果給定來源是一個字串，那麼其前後的空格和定位字元會被移除。

     另外可以參閱 *note ast.literal_eval(): a7b.，該函式可以安全執行僅包
     含文字的運算式字串。

     引發一個附帶程式碼物件為引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘exec’。也可能
     會引發程式碼編譯事件。

 -- 函式: exec (object, globals=None, locals=None, /, *, closure=None)

          警告: This function executes arbitrary code.  Calling it with
          user-supplied input may lead to security vulnerabilities.

     這個函式支援動態執行 Python 程式碼。'object' 必須是字串或者程式碼物
     件。如果是字串，那麼該字串將被剖析為一系列 Python 陳述式並執行（除
     非發生語法錯誤）。(1) 如果是程式碼物件，它將被直接執行。無論哪種情
     況，被執行的程式碼都需要和檔案輸入一樣是有效的（可參閱語言參考手冊
     中關於*note 檔案輸入: 1ed1.的章節）。請注意，即使在傳遞給 *note
     exec(): 6b1. 函式的程式碼的上下文中，*note nonlocal: 113b.、*note
     yield: 811. 和 *note return: 812. 陳述式也不能在函式之外使用。該函
     式回傳值是 ‘None’。

     In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is
     executed in the current scope.  If only 'globals' is provided, it
     must be a dictionary (and not a subclass of dictionary), which will
     be used for both the global and the local variables.  If 'globals'
     and 'locals' are given, they are used for the global and local
     variables, respectively.  If provided, 'locals' can be any mapping
     object.  Remember that at the module level, globals and locals are
     the same dictionary.

          備註: 大部分使用者只需要傳入 'globals' 引數，而不用傳遞
          'locals'。如果 exec 有兩個不同的 'globals' 和 'locals' 物件，
          程式碼就像嵌入在 class 定義中一樣執行。

     如果 'globals' dictionary 不包含 ‘__builtins__’ 鍵值，則將為該鍵插
     入對內建 *note builtins: 10. module dictionary 的引用。這麼一來，在
     將 ‘__builtins__’ dictionary 傳入 *note exec(): 6b1. 之前，你可以透
     過將它插入 'globals' 來控制你需要哪些內建函式來執行程式碼。

     'closure' 引數會指定一個閉包 (closure) — 它是一個 cellvar（格變數）
     的 tuple。只有在 'object' 是一個含有自由變數 (free variable) 的程式
     碼物件時，它才有效。Tuple 的長度必須與程式碼物件所引用的自由變數數
     量完全匹配。

     引發一個附帶程式碼物件為引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘exec’。也可能
     會引發程式碼編譯事件。

          備註: 內建 *note globals(): 163a. 和 *note locals(): 173. 函式
          各自回傳當前的全域性和本地 dictionary，因此可以將它們傳遞給
          *note exec(): 6b1. 的第二個和第三個引數。

          備註: 預設情況下，'locals' 的行為如下面 *note locals(): 173. 函
          式描述的一樣：不要試圖改變預設的 'locals' dictionary。如果你想
          在 *note exec(): 6b1. 函式回傳時知道程式碼對 'locals' 的變動，
          請明確地傳遞 'locals' dictionary 。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 增加了 'closure' 參數。

 -- 函式: filter (function, iterable)

     用 'iterable' 中函式 'function' 為 True 的那些元素，構建一個新的
     iterator。'iterable' 可以是一個序列、一個支援疊代的容器、或一個
     iterator。如果 'function' 是 ‘None’，則會假設它是一個識別性函式，即
     'iterable' 中所有假值元素會被移除。

     請注意，‘filter(function, iterable)’ 相當於一個生成器運算式，當
     function 不是 ‘None’ 的時候為 ‘(item for item in iterable if
     function(item))’；function 是 ‘None’ 的時候為 ‘(item for item in
     iterable if item)’。

     請參閱 *note itertools.filterfalse(): 1efc.，只有 'function' 為
     false 時才選取 'iterable' 中元素的互補函式。

 -- 類別: float (number=0.0, /)

 -- 類別: float (string, /)

     回傳從數字或字串生成的浮點數。

     例如：

          >>> float('+1.23')
          1.23
          >>> float('   -12345\n')
          -12345.0
          >>> float('1e-003')
          0.001
          >>> float('+1E6')
          1000000.0
          >>> float('-Infinity')
          -inf

     如果引數是字串，則它必須是包含十進位制數字的字串，字串前面可以有符
     號，之前也可以有空格。選擇性的符號有 ‘'+'’ 和 ‘'-'’；‘'+'’ 對建立的
     值沒有影響。引數也可以是 NaN（非數字）或正負無窮大的字串。確切地說
     ，除去首尾的空格後，輸入必須遵循以下語法中 *note floatvalue: 1efd.
     的生成規則：

          sign          ::= "+" | "-"
          infinity      ::= "Infinity" | "inf"
          nan           ::= "nan"
          digit         ::= <a Unicode decimal digit, i.e. characters in Unicode general category Nd>
          digitpart     ::= digit (["_"] digit)*
          number        ::= [digitpart] "." digitpart | digitpart ["."]
          exponent      ::= ("e" | "E") [sign] digitpart
          floatnumber   ::= number [exponent]
          absfloatvalue ::= floatnumber | infinity | nan
          floatvalue    ::= [sign] absfloatvalue

     字母大小寫不影響，例如，"inf"、"Inf"、"INFINITY"、"iNfINity" 都可以
     表示正無窮大。

     否則，如果引數是整數或浮點數，則回傳具有相同值（在 Python 浮點精度
     範圍內）的浮點數。如果引數在 Python 浮點精度範圍外，則會引發 *note
     OverflowError: 6ad.。

     對於一般的 Python 物件 ‘x’，‘float(x)’ 會委派給 ‘x.__float__()’。如
     果未定義 *note __float__(): 810. 則會回退到 *note __index__():
     51f.。

     如果沒有引數，則回傳 ‘0.0’。

     *note 數值型別 -- int、float、complex: 19eb. 描述了浮點數型別。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 可以使用底線將程式碼文字中的數字進行分組。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 現在為僅限位置參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 如果 *note __float__(): 810. 未定義，則會回退到
     *note __index__(): 51f.。

 -- 函式: format (value, format_spec='')

     將 'value' 轉換為 'format_spec' 控制的 "格式化" 表示。'format_spec'
     的解釋取決於 'value' 引數的型別，但是大多數內建型別使用標準格式化語
     法：*note 格式規格 (Format Specification) 迷你語言: 3d6.。

     預設的 'format_spec' 是一個空字串，它通常和呼叫 *note str(value):
     157. 的效果相同。

     呼叫 ‘format(value, format_spec)’ 會轉換成
     ‘type(value).__format__(value, format_spec)’，當搜尋 value 的 *note
     __format__(): 419. method 時，會忽略實例中的字典。如果搜尋到 *note
     object: 8d9. 這個 method 但 'format_spec' 不為空，或是
     'format_spec' 或回傳值不是字串，則會引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 當 'format_spec' 不是空字串時，
     ‘object().__format__(format_spec)’ 會引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

 -- 類別: frozenset (iterable=set())

     回傳一個新的 *note frozenset: 3cd. 物件，它包含選擇性引數
     'iterable' 中的元素。‘frozenset’ 是一個內建的 class。有關此 class 的
     文件，請參閱 *note frozenset: 3cd. 和 *note Set Types -- set,
     frozenset: 1f07.。

     請參閱內建的 *note set: 3cc.、*note list: 40a.、*note tuple: 4e6. 和
     *note dict: 239. class，以及 *note collections: 1b. module 來了解其
     它的容器。

 -- 函式: getattr (object, name)

 -- 函式: getattr (object, name, default)

     回傳 'object' 之具名屬性的值。'name' 必須是字串。如果該字串是物件屬
     性之一的名稱，則回傳該屬性的值。例如，‘getattr(x, 'foobar')’ 等同於
     ‘x.foobar’。如果指定的屬性不存在，且提供了 'default' 值，則回傳其值
     ，否則引發 *note AttributeError: 3ca.。'name' 不必是個 Python 識別
     符 (identifier)（請見 *note setattr(): 1eec.）。

          備註: 由於*note 私有名稱改編 (private name mangling): 1aaf. 是
          發生在編譯期，因此你必須手動改編私有屬性（有兩個前導底線的屬性
          ）的名稱，才能使用 *note getattr(): a32. 來取得它。

 -- 函式: globals ()

     回傳代表當前 module 命名空間的 dictionary。對於在函式中的程式碼來說
     ，這在定義函式時設定且不論該函式是在何處呼叫都會保持相同。

 -- 函式: hasattr (object, name)

     該引數是一個物件和一個字串。如果字串是物件屬性之一的名稱，則回傳
     ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。（此功能是透過呼叫 ‘getattr(object,
     name)’ 並檢查是否引發 *note AttributeError: 3ca. 來實作的。）

 -- 函式: hash (object)

     回傳該物件的雜湊值（如果它有的話）。雜湊值是整數。它們在 dictionary
     查詢元素時用來快速比較 dictionary 的鍵。相同大小的數字數值有相同的
     雜湊值（即使它們型別不同，如 1 和 1.0）。

          備註: 請注意，如果物件帶有自訂的 *note __hash__(): 950. 方法，
          *note hash(): 3df. 將根據運行機器的位元長度來截斷回傳值。

 -- 函式: help ()

 -- 函式: help (request)

     啟動內建的幫助系統（此函式主要以互動式使用）。如果沒有引數，直譯器
     控制台裡會啟動互動式幫助系統。如果引數是一個字串，則會在 module、函
     式、class、method、關鍵字或說明文件主題中搜索該字串，並在控制台上列
     印幫助資訊。如果引數是其他任意物件，則會生成該物件的幫助頁。

     請注意，呼叫 *note help(): 710. 時，如果斜線 (/) 出現在函式的參數列
     表中，這表示斜線前面的參數是僅限位置 (positional-only) 參數。有關更
     多資訊，請參閱*note 常見問答集中的僅限位置參數條目: 1f08.。

     此函式會被 *note site: c2. module 加入到內建命名空間。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 對於 *note pydoc: b0. 和 *note inspect: 78. 的變更
     ，使得可呼叫物件回報的的簽名 (signature) 更加全面和一致。

 -- 函式: hex (x)

     將整數轉換為以 "0x" 為前綴的小寫十六進位制字串。如果 'x' 不是
     Python *note int: 17e. 物件，則必須定義一個 *note __index__(): 51f.
     method 並且回傳一個整數。舉例來說：

          >>> hex(255)
          '0xff'
          >>> hex(-42)
          '-0x2a'

     如果要將整數轉換為大寫或小寫的十六進位制字串，並可選擇有無 "0x" 前
     綴，則可以使用如下方法：

          >>> '%#x' % 255, '%x' % 255, '%X' % 255
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
          >>> format(255, '#x'), format(255, 'x'), format(255, 'X')
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
          >>> f'{255:#x}', f'{255:x}', f'{255:X}'
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')

     可參考 *note format(): 417. 獲取更多資訊。

     另請參閱 *note int(): 17e. 將十六進位制字串轉換為以 16 為基數的整數
     。

          備註: 如果要獲取浮點數的十六進位制字串形式，請使用 *note
          float.hex(): 1b08. method。

 -- 函式: id (object)

     回傳物件的 "識別性" 。該值是一個整數，在此物件的生命週期中保證是唯
     一且恆定的。兩個生命期不重疊的物件可能具有相同的 *note id(): 1293.
     值。

     'CPython 實作細節：' 這是該物件在記憶體中的位址。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘id’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘builtins.id’。

 -- 函式: input ()

 -- 函式: input (prompt)

     如果有提供 'prompt' 引數，則將其寫入標準輸出，末尾不帶換行符。接下
     來，該函式從輸入中讀取一行，將其轉換為字串（去除末尾的換行符）並回
     傳。當讀取到 EOF 時，則引發 *note EOFError: 116a.。例如：

          >>> s = input('--> ')
          --> Monty Python's Flying Circus
          >>> s
          "Monty Python's Flying Circus"

     如果載入了 *note readline: b5. module，*note input(): 1169. 將使用
     它來提供複雜的行編輯和歷史記錄功能。

     引發一個附帶讀取輸入前的引數 ‘prompt’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘builtins.input’。

     引發一個附帶成功讀取結果的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘builtins.input/result’。

 -- 類別: int (number=0, /)

 -- 類別: int (string, /, base=10)

     Return an integer object constructed from a number or a string, or
     return ‘0’ if no arguments are given.

     例如：

          >>> int(123.45)
          123
          >>> int('123')
          123
          >>> int('   -12_345\n')
          -12345
          >>> int('FACE', 16)
          64206
          >>> int('0xface', 0)
          64206
          >>> int('01110011', base=2)
          115

     如果引數定義了 *note __int__(): 51e.，則 ‘int(x)’ 回傳
     ‘x.__int__()’。如果引數定義了 *note __index__(): 51f. 則回傳
     ‘x.__index__()’。如果引數定義了 *note __trunc__(): 51d. 則回傳
     ‘x.__trunc__()’。對於浮點數，則會向零的方向無條件捨去。

     如果引數不是數字或如果有給定 'base'，則它必須是個字串、*note bytes:
     2c1. 或 *note bytearray: 2c0. 實例，表示基數 (radix) 'base' 中的整
     數。可選地，字串之前可以有 ‘+’ 或 ‘-’（中間沒有空格）、可有個前導的
     零、也可被空格包圍、或在數字間有單一底線。

     一個 n 進制的整數字串，包含各個代表 0 到 n-1 的數字，0–9 可以用任何
     Unicode 十進制數字表示，10–35 可以用 ‘a’ 到 ‘z’（或 ‘A’ 到 ‘Z’）表
     示。預設的 'base' 是 10。允許的進位制有 0、2–36。2、8、16 進位制的
     字串可以在程式碼中用 ‘0b’/‘0B’、‘0o’/‘0O’、‘0x’/‘0X’ 前綴來表示，如
     同程式碼中的整數文字。進位制為 0 的字串將以和*note 程式碼整數字面值
     (integer literal in code): 1c58. 類似的方式來直譯，最後由前綴決定的
     結果會是 2、8、10、16 進制中的一個，所以 ‘int('010', 0)’ 是非法的，
     但 ‘int('010')’ 和 ‘int('010', 8)’ 是有效的。

     整數型別定義請參閱*note 數值型別 -- int、float、complex: 19eb.。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 如果 'base' 不是 *note int: 17e. 的實例，但 'base'
     物件有 *note base.__index__: 51f. method，則會呼叫該 method 來獲取
     此進位制所需的整數。以前的版本使用 *note base.__int__: 51e. 而不是
     *note base.__index__: 51f.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 可以使用底線將程式碼文字中的數字進行分組。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 第一個參數為僅限位置參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 如果未定義 *note __int__(): 51e. 則會回退到 *note
     __index__(): 51f.。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 對 *note __trunc__(): 51d. 的委派已棄用。

     在 3.11 版的變更: *note int: 17e. 的字串輸入和字串表示法可以被限制
     ，以避免阻斷服務攻擊 (denial of service attack)。在字串 'x' 轉換為
     *note int: 17e. 時已超出限制，或是在 *note int: 17e. 轉換為字串時將
     會超出限制時，會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。請參閱*note
     整數字串轉換的長度限制: 3ea.說明文件。

 -- 函式: isinstance (object, classinfo)

     如果 'object' 引數是 'classinfo' 引數的實例，或者是（直接、間接或
     *note virtual: 1047.）subclass 的實例，則回傳 ‘True’。如果 'object'
     不是給定型別的物件，函式始終回傳 ‘False’。如果 'classinfo' 是包含物
     件型別的 tuple（或多個遞迴 tuple）或一個包含多種型別的 *note
     聯合型別 (Union Type): 5e0.，若 'object' 是其中的任何一個物件的實例
     則回傳 ‘True’。如果 'classinfo' 既不是型別，也不是型別 tuple 或型別
     的遞迴 tuple，那麼會引發 *note TypeError: 2ba. 異常。若是先前檢查已
     經成功，*note TypeError: 2ba. 可能不會再因為不合格的型別而被引發。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 'classinfo' 可以是一個 *note 聯合型別 (Union
     Type): 5e0.。

 -- 函式: issubclass (class, classinfo)

     如果 'class' 是 'classinfo' 的 subclass（直接、間接或 *note
     virtual: 1047.），則回傳 ‘True’。'classinfo' 可以是 class 物件的
     tuple（或遞迴地其他類似 tuple）或是一個 *note 聯合型別 (Union
     Type): 5e0.，此時若 'class' 是 'classinfo' 中任一元素的 subclass 時
     則回傳 ‘True’。其他情況，會引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 'classinfo' 可以是一個 *note 聯合型別 (Union
     Type): 5e0.。

 -- 函式: iter (object)

 -- 函式: iter (object, sentinel)

     回傳一個 *note iterator: 1718. 物件。根據是否存在第二個引數，第一個
     引數的意義是非常不同的。如果沒有第二個引數，'object' 必須是支援
     *note iterable: 10ba. 協定（有 *note __iter__(): 1ced. method）的集
     合物件，或必須支援序列協定（有 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 方法，且數
     字引數從 ‘0’ 開始）。如果它不支援這些協定，會引發 *note TypeError:
     2ba.。如果有第二個引數 'sentinel'，那麼 'object' 必須是可呼叫的物件
     ，這種情況下生成的 iterator，每次疊代呼叫 *note __next__(): 115d. 時
     會不帶引數地呼叫 'object'；如果回傳的結果是 'sentinel' 則引發 *note
     StopIteration: a5d.，否則回傳呼叫結果。

     另請參閱 *note 疊代器型別: 1f09.。

     *note iter(): 5f7. 的第二種形式有一個好用的應用，是能夠建立一個區塊
     閱讀器 (block-reader)。例如，從二進位資料庫檔案中讀取固定寬度的區塊
     ，直到檔案的結尾：

          from functools import partial
          with open('mydata.db', 'rb') as f:
              for block in iter(partial(f.read, 64), b''):
                  process_block(block)

 -- 函式: len (s)

     回傳物件的長度（元素個數）。引數可以是序列（如 string、bytes、
     tuple、list 或 range）或集合（如 dictionary、set 或 frozen set）。

     'CPython 實作細節：' 如果物件長度大於 *note sys.maxsize: 1056.，像
     是 *note range(2 ** 100): 782.，則 ‘len’ 會引發 *note
     OverflowError: 6ad.。

 -- 類別: list

 -- 類別: list (iterable)

     除了是函式，*note list: 40a. 也是可變序列型別，詳情請參閱 *note
     List（串列）: 1f0a. 和 *note Sequence Types -- list, tuple, range:
     1a3e.。

 -- 函式: locals ()

     更新並回傳表示當前本地符號表的 dictionary。在函式區塊而不是 class 區
     塊中呼叫 *note locals(): 173. 時會回傳自由變數。請注意，在 module 階
     層中，*note locals(): 173. 和 *note globals(): 163a. 是相同的
     dictionary。

          備註: 此 dictionary 的內容不應該被更動；更改可能不會影響直譯器
          使用的本地變數或自由變數的值。

 -- 函式: map (function, iterable, *iterables)

     產生一個將 'function' 應用於 'iterable' 中所有元素，並收集回傳結果
     的 iterator。如果傳遞了額外的 'iterables' 引數，則 'function' 必須
     接受相同個數的引數，並使用所有從 iterables 中同時獲取的元素。當有多
     個 iterables 時，最短的 iteratable 耗盡時 iterator 也會結束。如果函
     式的輸入已經被編排為引數的 tuple，請參閱 *note itertools.starmap():
     f72.。

 -- 函式: max (iterable, *, key=None)

 -- 函式: max (iterable, *, default, key=None)

 -- 函式: max (arg1, arg2, *args, key=None)

     回傳 iterable 中最大的元素，或者回傳兩個以上的引數中最大的。

     如果只提供了一個位置引數，它必須是個 *note iterable: 10ba.，
     iterable 中最大的元素會被回傳。如果提供了兩個或以上的位置引數，則回
     傳最大的位置引數。

     這個函式有兩個選擇性的僅限關鍵字引數。'key' 引數能指定單一引數所使
     用的排序函式，如同 *note list.sort(): a30. 的使用方式。'default' 引
     數是當 iterable 為空時回傳的物件。如果 iterable 為空，並且沒有提供
     'default'，則會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

     如果有多個最大元素，則此函式將回傳第一個找到的。這和其他穩定排序工
     具如 ‘sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc, reverse=True)[0]’ 和
     ‘heapq.nlargest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc)’ 一致。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'default' 僅限關鍵字參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 'key' 可以為 ‘None’。

 -- 類別: memoryview (object)

     回傳由給定的引數所建立之「memory view（記憶體檢視）」物件。有關詳細
     資訊，請參閱*note Memory Views: 1f0b.。

 -- 函式: min (iterable, *, key=None)

 -- 函式: min (iterable, *, default, key=None)

 -- 函式: min (arg1, arg2, *args, key=None)

     回傳 iterable 中最小的元素，或者回傳兩個以上的引數中最小的。

     如果只提供了一個位置引數，它必須是 *note iterable: 10ba.，iterable
     中最小的元素會被回傳。如果提供了兩個以上的位置引數，則回傳最小的位
     置引數。

     這個函式有兩個選擇性的僅限關鍵字引數。'key' 引數能指定單一引數所使
     用的排序函式，如同 *note list.sort(): a30. 的使用方式。'default' 引
     數是當 iterable 為空時回傳的物件。如果 iterable 為空，並且沒有提供
     'default'，則會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

     如果有多個最小元素，則此函式將回傳第一個找到的。這和其他穩定排序工
     具如 ‘sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc)[0]’ 和 ‘heapq.nsmallest(1,
     iterable, key=keyfunc)’ 一致。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'default' 僅限關鍵字參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 'key' 可以為 ‘None’。

 -- 函式: next (iterator)

 -- 函式: next (iterator, default)

     透過呼叫 *note iterator: 1718. 的 *note __next__(): 115d. method 獲
     取下一個元素。如果 iterator 耗盡，則回傳給定的預設值 'default'，如
     果沒有預設值則引發 *note StopIteration: a5d.。

 -- 類別: object

     This is the ultimate base class of all other classes.  It has
     methods that are common to all instances of Python classes.  When
     the constructor is called, it returns a new featureless object.
     The constructor does not accept any arguments.

          備註: *note object: 8d9. instances do 'not' have *note
          __dict__: 2e2. attributes, so you can't assign arbitrary
          attributes to an instance of *note object: 8d9.

 -- 函式: oct (x)

     將一個整數轉變為一個前綴為 "0o" 的八進位制字串。回傳結果是一個有效
     的 Python 運算式。如果 'x' 不是 Python 的 *note int: 17e. 物件，那
     它需要定義 *note __index__(): 51f. method 回傳一個整數。舉例來說：

          >>> oct(8)
          '0o10'
          >>> oct(-56)
          '-0o70'

     如果要將整數轉換為八進位制字串，不論是否具備 "0o" 前綴，都可以使用
     下面的方法。

          >>> '%#o' % 10, '%o' % 10
          ('0o12', '12')
          >>> format(10, '#o'), format(10, 'o')
          ('0o12', '12')
          >>> f'{10:#o}', f'{10:o}'
          ('0o12', '12')

     可參考 *note format(): 417. 獲取更多資訊。

 -- 函式: open (file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

     開啟 'file' 並回傳對應的*note 檔案物件: 1054.。如果該檔案不能開啟，
     則引發 *note OSError: 644.。關於使用此函式的更多方法，請參閱*note
     讀寫檔案: 1a74.。

     'file' 是一個*note 類路徑物件: 975.，是將被開啟之檔案的路徑（絕對路
     徑或當前工作目錄的相對路徑），或是要被包裝 (wrap) 檔案的整數檔案描
     述器 (file descriptor)。（如果有給定檔案描述器，它會隨著回傳的 I/O
     物件關閉而關閉，除非 'closefd' 被設為 ‘False’。）

     'mode' 是一個選擇性字串，用於指定開啟檔案的模式。預設值是 ‘'r'’，這
     意味著它以文字模式開啟並讀取。其他常見模式有：寫入 ‘'w'’（會捨去已
     經存在的檔案）、唯一性建立 ‘'x'’、追加寫入 ‘'a'’（在'一些' Unix 系
     統上，無論當前的檔案指標在什麼位置，'所有' 寫入都會追加到檔案末尾）
     。在文字模式，如果沒有指定 'encoding'，則根據電腦平臺來決定使用的編
     碼：呼叫 *note locale.getencoding(): 258. 來獲取當前的本地編碼。（
     要讀取和寫入原始 bytes，請使用二進位制模式且不要指定 'encoding'。）
     可用的模式有：

     字元          意義
                   
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'r'’         讀取（預設）
                   
                   
     ‘'w'’         寫入，會先清除檔案內容
                   
                   
     ‘'x'’         唯一性建立，如果文件已存在則會失敗
                   
                   
     ‘'a'’         寫入，如果檔案存在則在其末端附加內容
                   
                   
     ‘'b'’         二進制模式
                   
                   
     ‘'t'’         文字模式（預設）
                   
                   
     ‘'+'’         更新（讀取並寫入）
                   

     預設的模式是 ‘'r'’（開啟並讀取文字，同 ‘'rt'’）。‘'w+'’ 和 ‘'w+b'’
     模式會開啟並清除檔案。‘'r+'’ 和 ‘'r+b'’ 模式會開啟且保留檔案內容。

     如*note 總覽: 1f0d.中所述，Python 能區分二進制和文字的 I/O。在二進
     制模式下開啟的檔案（'mode' 引數中含有 ‘'b'’）會將其內容以 *note
     bytes: 2c1. 物件回傳，而不進行任何解碼。在文字模式（預設情況，或當
     'mode' 引數中含有 ‘'t'’），檔案的內容會以 *note str: 157. 回傳，其
     位元組已經先被解碼，使用的是取決於平台的編碼系統或是給定的
     'encoding'。

          備註: Python 不會使用底層作業系統對於文字檔案的操作概念；所有
          的處理都是由 Python 獨自完成的，因此能獨立於不同平台。

     'buffering' 是一個選擇性的整數，用於設定緩衝策略。傳入 0 表示關閉緩
     衝（僅在二進制模式下被允許），1 表示行緩衝（line buffering，僅在文
     字模式下可用），而 >1 的整數是指示一個大小固定的區塊緩衝區 (chunk
     buffer)，其位元組的數量。請注意，此類指定緩衝區大小的方式適用於二進
     制緩衝 I/O，但是 ‘TextIOWrapper’（以 ‘mode='r+'’ 開啟的檔案）會有另
     一種緩衝方式。若要在 ‘TextIOWrapper’ 中停用緩衝，可考慮使用 *note
     io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(): 9a1. 的 ‘write_through’ 旗標。若未
     給定 'buffering' 引數，則預設的緩衝策略會運作如下：

        * 二進制檔案會以固定大小的區塊進行緩衝；緩衝區的大小是使用啟發式
          嘗試 (heuristic trying) 來決定底層設備的「區塊大小」，並會回退
          到 *note io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1468.。在許多系統上，緩衝區的
          長度通常為 4096 或 8192 個位元組。

        * 「互動式」文字檔（*note isatty(): 1a77. 回傳 ‘True’ 的檔案）會
          使用列緩衝。其他文字檔則使用上述的二進制檔案緩衝策略。

     'encoding' 是用於解碼或編碼檔案的編碼系統之名稱。它只應該在文字模式
     下使用。預設的編碼系統會取決於平台（根據 *note
     locale.getencoding(): 258. 回傳的內容），但 Python 支援的任何 *note
     text encoding: 1f0e.（文字編碼）都是可以使用的。關於支援的編碼系統
     清單，請參閱 *note codecs: 19. module。

     'errors' 是一個選擇性的字串，用於指定要如何處理編碼和解碼的錯誤——它
     不能在二進制模式下使用。有許多不同的標準錯誤處理程式（error
     handler，在*note Error Handlers: 15b3.有列出清單），不過任何已註冊
     到 *note codecs.register_error(): 130b. 的錯誤處理程式名稱也都是有
     效的。標準的名稱包括：

        * ‘'strict'’ 如果發生編碼錯誤，則引發 *note ValueError: 183. 例
          外。預設值 ‘None’ 也有相同的效果。

        * ‘'ignore'’ 忽略錯誤。請注意，忽略編碼錯誤可能導致資料遺失。

        * ‘'replace'’ 會在格式不正確的資料位置插入一個替換標誌（像是
          ‘'?'’）。

        * ‘'surrogateescape'’ 會將任何不正確的位元組表示為低位代理碼元
          (low surrogate code unit)，範圍從 U+DC80 到 U+DCFF。在寫入資料
          時，這些代理碼元將會被還原回 ‘surrogateescape’ 錯誤處理程式當
          時所處理的那些相同位元組。這對於處理未知編碼方式的檔案會很好用
          。

        * ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ 僅在寫入檔案時可支援。編碼系統不支援的字
          元會被替換為適當的 XML 字元參考 (character reference)
          ‘&#nnn;’。

        * ‘'backslashreplace'’ 會用 Python 的反斜線跳脫序列 (backslashed
          escape sequence) 替換格式不正確的資料。

        * ‘'namereplace'’（也僅在寫入時支援）會將不支援的字元替換為
          ‘\N{...}’ 跳脫序列。

     'newline' 會決定如何剖析資料串流 (stream) 中的換行字元。它可以是
     ‘None’、‘''’、‘'\n'’、‘'\r'’ 或 ‘'\r\n'’。它的運作規則如下：

        * 從資料串流讀取輸入時，如果 'newline' 是 ‘None’，則會啟用通用換
          行模式。輸入資料中的行結尾可以是 ‘'\n'’、‘'\r'’ 或 ‘'\r\n'’，
          這些符號會被轉換為 ‘'\n'’ 之後再回傳給呼叫方。如果是 ‘''’，也
          會啟用通用換行模式，但在回傳給呼叫方時，行尾符號不會被轉換。如
          果它是任何其他有效的值，則輸入資料的行只會由給定的字串做結尾，
          且在回傳給呼叫方時，行尾符號不會被轉換。

        * 將輸出寫入資料串流時，如果 'newline' 是 ‘None’，則被寫入的任何
          ‘'\n'’ 字元都會轉換為系統預設的行分隔符號 *note os.linesep:
          1f0f.。如果 'newline' 是 ‘''’ 或 ‘'\n'’，則不做任何轉換。如果
          'newline' 是任何其他有效的值，則寫入的任何 ‘'\n'’ 字元都將轉換
          為給定的字串。

     如果 'closefd' 是 ‘False’，且給定的 'file' 引數是一個檔案描述器而不
     是檔名，則當檔案關閉時，底層的檔案描述器會保持開啟狀態。如果有給定
     一個檔名，則 'closefd' 必須是 ‘True’（預設值）；否則將引發錯誤。

     透過以 'opener' 傳遞一個可呼叫物件，就可以自訂開啟函式。然後透過以
     引數 ('file', 'flags') 呼叫 'opener'，就能取得檔案物件的底層檔案描
     述器。'opener' 必須回傳一個開啟的檔案描述器（將 *note os.open: c09.
     作為 'opener' 傳入，在功能上的結果會相當於傳入 ‘None’）。

     新建立的檔案是*note 不可繼承的: d7d.。

     下面的範例使用 *note os.open(): c09. 函式回傳值當作 *note dir_fd:
     f78. 的參數，從給定的目錄中用相對路徑開啟檔案：

          >>> import os
          >>> dir_fd = os.open('somedir', os.O_RDONLY)
          >>> def opener(path, flags):
          ...     return os.open(path, flags, dir_fd=dir_fd)
          ...
          >>> with open('spamspam.txt', 'w', opener=opener) as f:
          ...     print('This will be written to somedir/spamspam.txt', file=f)
          ...
          >>> os.close(dir_fd)  # don't leak a file descriptor

     *note open(): 29c. 函式回傳的 *note file object: 1054. 型別取決於模
     式。當 *note open(): 29c. 是在文字模式中開啟檔案時（‘'w'’、‘'r'’、
     ‘'wt'’、‘'rt'’ 等），它會回傳 *note io.TextIOBase: 492. 的一個
     subclass（具體來說，就是 *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9.）。使用有緩衝
     的二進制模式開啟檔案時，回傳的 class 則會是 *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 491. 的 subclass。確切的 class 各不相同：在讀取
     的二進制模式，它會回傳 *note io.BufferedReader: 109f.；在寫入和附加
     的二進制模式，它會回傳 *note io.BufferedWriter: 1f10.，而在讀／寫模
     式，它會回傳 *note io.BufferedRandom: 1f11.。當緩衝被停用時，會回傳
     原始資料串流 *note io.FileIO: 11a2.，它是 *note io.RawIOBase: f5f.
     的一個 subclass。

     另請參閱檔案操作模組，例如 *note fileinput: 56.、*note io: 79.（定
     義了 *note open(): 29c. 的 module ）、*note os: 9c.、*note os.path:
     9d.、*note tempfile: da. 以及 *note shutil: c0.。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘mode’、‘flags’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘open’。

     ‘mode’ 和 ‘flags’ 引數可能會被原始的呼叫所修改或推論 (infer)。

     在 3.3 版的變更:

        * 增加了 'opener' 參數。

        * 增加了 ‘'x'’ 模式。

        * 過去引發的 *note IOError: ee8.，現在是 *note OSError: 644. 的
          別名。

        * 如果檔案已存在但使用了唯一性建立模式 (‘'x'’)，現在會引發 *note
          FileExistsError: eb4.。

     在 3.4 版的變更:

        * 檔案在此版本開始是不可繼承的。

     在 3.5 版的變更:

        * 如果系統呼叫被中斷，但訊號處理程式沒有引發例外，此函式現在會重
          試系統呼叫，而不是引發 *note InterruptedError: bfe. 例外（原因
          詳見 PEP 475(2)）。

        * 增加了 ‘'namereplace'’ 錯誤處理程式。

     在 3.6 版的變更:

        * 增加對於實作 *note os.PathLike: ab7. 物件的支援。

        * 在 Windows 上，開啟一個控制臺緩衝區可能會回傳 *note
          io.RawIOBase: f5f. 的 subclass，而不是 *note io.FileIO: 11a2.。

     在 3.11 版的變更: ‘'U'’ 模式被移除。

 -- 函式: ord (c)

     對於代表單個 Unicode 字元的字串，回傳代表它 Unicode 編碼位置的整數
     。例如 ‘ord('a')’ 回傳整數 ‘97’、‘ord('€')’（歐元符號）回傳 ‘8364’。
     這是 *note chr(): 1c83. 的逆函式。

 -- 函式: pow (base, exp, mod=None)

     回傳 'base' 的 'exp' 次方；如果 'mod' 存在，則回傳 'base' 的 'exp'
     次方對 'mod' 取餘數（比直接呼叫 ‘pow(base, exp) % mod’ 計算更高效）
     。兩個引數形式的 ‘pow(exp, exp)’ 等價於次方運算子：‘base**exp’。

     The arguments must have numeric types.  With mixed operand types,
     the coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For
     *note int: 17e. operands, the result has the same type as the
     operands (after coercion) unless the second argument is negative;
     in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a float
     result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(10, 2)’ returns ‘100’, but
     ‘pow(10, -2)’ returns ‘0.01’.  For a negative base of type *note
     int: 17e. or *note float: 26a. and a non-integral exponent, a
     complex result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(-9, 0.5)’ returns a
     value close to ‘3j’.  Whereas, for a negative base of type *note
     int: 17e. or *note float: 26a. with an integral exponent, a float
     result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(-9, 2.0)’ returns ‘81.0’.

     對於 *note int: 17e. 運算元 'base' 和 'exp'，如果有給定 'mod'，則
     'mod' 也必須是整數型別，且 'mod' 必須不為零。如果有給定 'mod' 且
     'exp' 為負，則 'base' 必須與 'mod' 互質。在這種情況下，會回傳
     ‘pow(inv_base, -exp, mod)’，其中 'inv_base' 是 'base' 對 'mod' 的模
     倒數 (inverse modulo)。

     以下是一個計算 ‘38’ 對 ‘97’ 取模倒數的範例：

          >>> pow(38, -1, mod=97)
          23
          >>> 23 * 38 % 97 == 1
          True

     在 3.8 版的變更: 對於 *note int: 17e. 運算元，現在 ‘pow’ 的三引數形
     式允許第二個引數為負數，也容許模倒數的計算。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 允許關鍵字引數。在此之前只支援位置引數。

 -- 函式: print (*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None, flush=False)

     將 'objects' 列印到文字資料串流 'file'，用 'sep' 分隔並以 'end' 結
     尾。如果有給定 'sep'、'end'、'file' 和 'flush'，那麼它們必須是關鍵
     字引數的形式。

     所有的非關鍵字引數都會像是 *note str(): 157. 操作一樣地被轉換為字串
     ，並寫入資料串流，彼此以 'sep' 分隔，並以 'end' 結尾。'sep' 和
     'end' 都必須是字串；它們也可以是 ‘None’，這表示使用預設值。如果沒有
     給定 'objects'，*note print(): e02. 就只會寫入 'end'。

     'file' 引數必須是一個有 ‘write(string)’ method 的物件；如果沒有給定
     或被設為 ‘None’，則將使用 *note sys.stdout: 92a.。因為要列印的引數
     會被轉換為文字字串，所以 *note print(): e02. 不能用於二進位模式的檔
     案物件。對於此類物件，請改用 ‘file.write(...)’。

     輸出緩衝通常會由 'file' 決定。但是如果 'flush' 為 true，則資料串流
     會被強制清除。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 增加了 'flush' 關鍵字引數。

 -- 類別: property (fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

     回傳 property 屬性。

     'fget' 是一個用於取得屬性值的函式，'fset' 是一個用於設定屬性值的函
     式，'fdel' 是一個用於刪除屬性值的函式，而 'doc' 會為該屬性建立一個
     說明字串。

     一個典型的用途是定義一個受管理的屬性 ‘x’：

          class C:
              def __init__(self):
                  self._x = None

              def getx(self):
                  return self._x

              def setx(self, value):
                  self._x = value

              def delx(self):
                  del self._x

              x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

     如果 'c' 是 'C' 的一個實例，則 ‘c.x’ 將會呼叫取得器 (getter)，‘c.x
     = value’ 會呼叫設定器 (setter)，而 ‘del c.x’ 會呼叫刪除器
     (deleter)。

     如果有給定 'doc'，它將會是 property 屬性的說明字串。否則，property
     會複製 'fget' 的說明字串（如果它存在的話）。這樣一來，就能夠輕鬆地
     使用 *note property(): 424. 作為*note 裝飾器: 540.來建立唯讀屬性：

          class Parrot:
              def __init__(self):
                  self._voltage = 100000

              @property
              def voltage(self):
                  """Get the current voltage."""
                  return self._voltage

     The ‘@property’ decorator turns the ‘voltage()’ method into a
     "getter" for a read-only attribute with the same name, and it sets
     the docstring for 'voltage' to "Get the current voltage."

      -- 函式: @getter

      -- 函式: @setter

      -- 函式: @deleter

          A property object has ‘getter’, ‘setter’, and ‘deleter’
          methods usable as decorators that create a copy of the
          property with the corresponding accessor function set to the
          decorated function.  This is best explained with an example:

               class C:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self._x = None

                   @property
                   def x(self):
                       """I'm the 'x' property."""
                       return self._x

                   @x.setter
                   def x(self, value):
                       self._x = value

                   @x.deleter
                   def x(self):
                       del self._x

          This code is exactly equivalent to the first example.  Be sure
          to give the additional functions the same name as the original
          property (‘x’ in this case.)

          The returned property object also has the attributes ‘fget’,
          ‘fset’, and ‘fdel’ corresponding to the constructor arguments.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The docstrings of property objects are now
     writeable.

 -- 類別: range (stop)

 -- 類別: range (start, stop, step=1)

     Rather than being a function, *note range: 782. is actually an
     immutable sequence type, as documented in *note Ranges: 1f12. and
     *note Sequence Types -- list, tuple, range: 1a3e.

 -- 函式: repr (object)

     Return a string containing a printable representation of an object.
     For many types, this function makes an attempt to return a string
     that would yield an object with the same value when passed to *note
     eval(): 6b0.; otherwise, the representation is a string enclosed in
     angle brackets that contains the name of the type of the object
     together with additional information often including the name and
     address of the object.  A class can control what this function
     returns for its instances by defining a *note __repr__(): 416.
     method.  If *note sys.displayhook(): 1397. is not accessible, this
     function will raise *note RuntimeError: 17a.

     This class has a custom representation that can be evaluated:

          class Person:
             def __init__(self, name, age):
                self.name = name
                self.age = age

             def __repr__(self):
                return f"Person('{self.name}', {self.age})"

 -- 函式: reversed (seq)

     Return a reverse *note iterator: 1718.  'seq' must be an object
     which has a *note __reversed__(): 1cee. method or supports the
     sequence protocol (the *note __len__(): 1cf4. method and the *note
     __getitem__(): 4e7. method with integer arguments starting at ‘0’).

 -- 函式: round (number, ndigits=None)

     Return 'number' rounded to 'ndigits' precision after the decimal
     point.  If 'ndigits' is omitted or is ‘None’, it returns the
     nearest integer to its input.

     For the built-in types supporting *note round(): 116b, values are
     rounded to the closest multiple of 10 to the power minus 'ndigits';
     if two multiples are equally close, rounding is done toward the
     even choice (so, for example, both ‘round(0.5)’ and ‘round(-0.5)’
     are ‘0’, and ‘round(1.5)’ is ‘2’).  Any integer value is valid for
     'ndigits' (positive, zero, or negative).  The return value is an
     integer if 'ndigits' is omitted or ‘None’.  Otherwise, the return
     value has the same type as 'number'.

     For a general Python object ‘number’, ‘round’ delegates to
     ‘number.__round__’.

          備註: The behavior of *note round(): 116b. for floats can be
          surprising: for example, ‘round(2.675, 2)’ gives ‘2.67’
          instead of the expected ‘2.68’.  This is not a bug: it's a
          result of the fact that most decimal fractions can't be
          represented exactly as a float.  See *note
          浮點數運算：問題與限制: 1b06. for more information.

 -- 類別: set

 -- 類別: set (iterable)

     Return a new *note set: 3cc. object, optionally with elements taken
     from 'iterable'.  ‘set’ is a built-in class.  See *note set: 3cc.
     and *note Set Types -- set, frozenset: 1f07. for documentation
     about this class.

     For other containers see the built-in *note frozenset: 3cd, *note
     list: 40a, *note tuple: 4e6, and *note dict: 239. classes, as well
     as the *note collections: 1b. module.

 -- 函式: setattr (object, name, value)

     This is the counterpart of *note getattr(): a32.  The arguments are
     an object, a string, and an arbitrary value.  The string may name
     an existing attribute or a new attribute.  The function assigns the
     value to the attribute, provided the object allows it.  For
     example, ‘setattr(x, 'foobar', 123)’ is equivalent to ‘x.foobar =
     123’.

     'name' need not be a Python identifier as defined in *note
     Identifiers and keywords: 1c27. unless the object chooses to
     enforce that, for example in a custom *note __getattribute__():
     a33. or via *note __slots__: 1361.  An attribute whose name is not
     an identifier will not be accessible using the dot notation, but is
     accessible through *note getattr(): a32. etc..

          備註: Since *note private name mangling: 1aaf. happens at
          compilation time, one must manually mangle a private
          attribute's (attributes with two leading underscores) name in
          order to set it with *note setattr(): 1eec.

 -- 類別: slice (stop)

 -- 類別: slice (start, stop, step=None)

     Return a *note slice: 1f13. object representing the set of indices
     specified by ‘range(start, stop, step)’.  The 'start' and 'step'
     arguments default to ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: start

      -- 屬性: stop

      -- 屬性: step

          Slice objects have read-only data attributes ‘start’, ‘stop’,
          and ‘step’ which merely return the argument values (or their
          default).  They have no other explicit functionality; however,
          they are used by NumPy and other third-party packages.

     Slice objects are also generated when extended indexing syntax is
     used.  For example: ‘a[start:stop:step]’ or ‘a[start:stop, i]’.
     See *note itertools.islice(): 9a6. for an alternate version that
     returns an *note iterator: 1718.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Slice objects are now *note hashable: 409.
     (provided *note start: 1ce7, *note stop: 1ce8, and *note step:
     1ce9. are hashable).

 -- 函式: sorted (iterable, /, *, key=None, reverse=False)

     Return a new sorted list from the items in 'iterable'.

     有兩個選擇性引數，只能使用關鍵字引數來指定。

     'key' specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract
     a comparison key from each element in 'iterable' (for example,
     ‘key=str.lower’).  The default value is ‘None’ (compare the
     elements directly).

     'reverse' is a boolean value.  If set to ‘True’, then the list
     elements are sorted as if each comparison were reversed.

     Use *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 106b. to convert an old-style
     'cmp' function to a 'key' function.

     The built-in *note sorted(): a2f. function is guaranteed to be
     stable.  A sort is stable if it guarantees not to change the
     relative order of elements that compare equal -- this is helpful
     for sorting in multiple passes (for example, sort by department,
     then by salary grade).

     The sort algorithm uses only ‘<’ comparisons between items.  While
     defining an *note __lt__(): 119c. method will suffice for sorting,
     PEP 8(3) recommends that all six *note rich comparisons: 1e03. be
     implemented.  This will help avoid bugs when using the same data
     with other ordering tools such as *note max(): d8d. that rely on a
     different underlying method.  Implementing all six comparisons also
     helps avoid confusion for mixed type comparisons which can call
     reflected the *note __gt__(): 119e. method.

     For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see *note
     排序技法: 1f14.

 -- 函式: @staticmethod

     Transform a method into a static method.

     A static method does not receive an implicit first argument.  To
     declare a static method, use this idiom:

          class C:
              @staticmethod
              def f(arg1, arg2, argN): ...

     ‘@staticmethod’ 語法是一個函式 *note decorator: 540. - 參見 *note
     函式定義: 1a2b. 中的詳細介紹。

     A static method can be called either on the class (such as ‘C.f()’)
     or on an instance (such as ‘C().f()’).  Moreover, the static method
     *note descriptor: 1d03. is also callable, so it can be used in the
     class definition (such as ‘f()’).

     Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++.
     Also, see *note classmethod(): 24b. for a variant that is useful
     for creating alternate class constructors.

     Like all decorators, it is also possible to call ‘staticmethod’ as
     a regular function and do something with its result.  This is
     needed in some cases where you need a reference to a function from
     a class body and you want to avoid the automatic transformation to
     instance method.  For these cases, use this idiom:

          def regular_function():
              ...

          class C:
              method = staticmethod(regular_function)

     關於 static method 的更多資訊，請參考 *note 標準型別階層: 1c77.。

     在 3.10 版的變更: Static methods now inherit the method attributes
     (*note __module__: 1c8e, *note __name__: 1165, *note __qualname__:
     1c8d, *note __doc__: 106a. and *note __annotations__: 1069.), have
     a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute, and are now callable as regular
     functions.

 -- 類別: str (object='')

 -- 類別: str (object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Return a *note str: 157. version of 'object'.  See *note str():
     157. for details.

     ‘str’ is the built-in string *note class: 1707.  For general
     information about strings, see *note Text Sequence Type -- str:
     19f0.

 -- 函式: sum (iterable, /, start=0)

     Sums 'start' and the items of an 'iterable' from left to right and
     returns the total.  The 'iterable"s items are normally numbers, and
     the start value is not allowed to be a string.

     For some use cases, there are good alternatives to *note sum():
     181.  The preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings
     is by calling ‘''.join(sequence)’.  To add floating-point values
     with extended precision, see *note math.fsum(): 1243.  To
     concatenate a series of iterables, consider using *note
     itertools.chain(): 1f15.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 'start' 參數可被指定為關鍵字引數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: Summation of floats switched to an algorithm that
     gives higher accuracy on most builds.

 -- 類別: super

 -- 類別: super (type, object_or_type=None)

     Return a proxy object that delegates method calls to a parent or
     sibling class of 'type'.  This is useful for accessing inherited
     methods that have been overridden in a class.

     The 'object_or_type' determines the *note method resolution order:
     1f16. to be searched.  The search starts from the class right after
     the 'type'.

     For example, if *note __mro__: 1cbb. of 'object_or_type' is ‘D -> B
     -> C -> A -> object’ and the value of 'type' is ‘B’, then *note
     super(): 206. searches ‘C -> A -> object’.

     The *note __mro__: 1cbb. attribute of the class corresponding to
     'object_or_type' lists the method resolution search order used by
     both *note getattr(): a32. and *note super(): 206.  The attribute
     is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is
     updated.

     If the second argument is omitted, the super object returned is
     unbound.  If the second argument is an object, ‘isinstance(obj,
     type)’ must be true.  If the second argument is a type,
     ‘issubclass(type2, type)’ must be true (this is useful for
     classmethods).

     There are two typical use cases for 'super'.  In a class hierarchy
     with single inheritance, 'super' can be used to refer to parent
     classes without naming them explicitly, thus making the code more
     maintainable.  This use closely parallels the use of 'super' in
     other programming languages.

     The second use case is to support cooperative multiple inheritance
     in a dynamic execution environment.  This use case is unique to
     Python and is not found in statically compiled languages or
     languages that only support single inheritance.  This makes it
     possible to implement "diamond diagrams" where multiple base
     classes implement the same method.  Good design dictates that such
     implementations have the same calling signature in every case
     (because the order of calls is determined at runtime, because that
     order adapts to changes in the class hierarchy, and because that
     order can include sibling classes that are unknown prior to
     runtime).

     For both use cases, a typical superclass call looks like this:

          class C(B):
              def method(self, arg):
                  super().method(arg)    # This does the same thing as:
                                         # super(C, self).method(arg)

     In addition to method lookups, *note super(): 206. also works for
     attribute lookups.  One possible use case for this is calling *note
     descriptors: 1d03. in a parent or sibling class.

     Note that *note super(): 206. is implemented as part of the binding
     process for explicit dotted attribute lookups such as
     ‘super().__getitem__(name)’.  It does so by implementing its own
     *note __getattribute__(): a33. method for searching classes in a
     predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
     Accordingly, *note super(): 206. is undefined for implicit lookups
     using statements or operators such as ‘super()[name]’.

     Also note that, aside from the zero argument form, *note super():
     206. is not limited to use inside methods.  The two argument form
     specifies the arguments exactly and makes the appropriate
     references.  The zero argument form only works inside a class
     definition, as the compiler fills in the necessary details to
     correctly retrieve the class being defined, as well as accessing
     the current instance for ordinary methods.

     For practical suggestions on how to design cooperative classes
     using *note super(): 206, see guide to using super()(4).

 -- 類別: tuple

 -- 類別: tuple (iterable)

     Rather than being a function, *note tuple: 4e6. is actually an
     immutable sequence type, as documented in *note Tuples: 1e77. and
     *note Sequence Types -- list, tuple, range: 1a3e.

 -- 類別: type (object)

 -- 類別: type (name, bases, dict, **kwds)

     With one argument, return the type of an 'object'.  The return
     value is a type object and generally the same object as returned by
     *note object.__class__: 1320.

     The *note isinstance(): 14b. built-in function is recommended for
     testing the type of an object, because it takes subclasses into
     account.

     With three arguments, return a new type object.  This is
     essentially a dynamic form of the *note class: 1168. statement.
     The 'name' string is the class name and becomes the *note __name__:
     131e. attribute.  The 'bases' tuple contains the base classes and
     becomes the *note __bases__: 131f. attribute; if empty, *note
     object: 8d9, the ultimate base of all classes, is added.  The
     'dict' dictionary contains attribute and method definitions for the
     class body; it may be copied or wrapped before becoming the *note
     __dict__: ac5. attribute.  The following two statements create
     identical ‘type’ objects:

          >>> class X:
          ...     a = 1
          ...
          >>> X = type('X', (), dict(a=1))

     See also:

        * *note Documentation on attributes and methods on classes:
          1cb5.

        * *note Type Objects: 1f17.

     Keyword arguments provided to the three argument form are passed to
     the appropriate metaclass machinery (usually *note
     __init_subclass__(): 42c.) in the same way that keywords in a class
     definition (besides 'metaclass') would.

     另請參閱 *note Customizing class creation: ab1.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Subclasses of ‘type’ which don't override
     ‘type.__new__’ may no longer use the one-argument form to get the
     type of an object.

 -- 函式: vars ()

 -- 函式: vars (object)

     Return the *note __dict__: 2e2. attribute for a module, class,
     instance, or any other object with a ‘__dict__’ attribute.

     Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable *note
     __dict__: 2e2. attribute; however, other objects may have write
     restrictions on their ‘__dict__’ attributes (for example, classes
     use a *note types.MappingProxyType: 186. to prevent direct
     dictionary updates).

     Without an argument, *note vars(): 182e. acts like *note locals():
     173.  Note, the locals dictionary is only useful for reads since
     updates to the locals dictionary are ignored.

     A *note TypeError: 2ba. exception is raised if an object is
     specified but it doesn't have a *note __dict__: 2e2. attribute (for
     example, if its class defines the *note __slots__: 1361.
     attribute).

 -- 函式: zip (*iterables, strict=False)

     Iterate over several iterables in parallel, producing tuples with
     an item from each one.

     例如：

          >>> for item in zip([1, 2, 3], ['sugar', 'spice', 'everything nice']):
          ...     print(item)
          ...
          (1, 'sugar')
          (2, 'spice')
          (3, 'everything nice')

     More formally: *note zip(): 5ef. returns an iterator of tuples,
     where the 'i'-th tuple contains the 'i'-th element from each of the
     argument iterables.

     Another way to think of *note zip(): 5ef. is that it turns rows
     into columns, and columns into rows.  This is similar to
     transposing a matrix(5).

     *note zip(): 5ef. is lazy: The elements won't be processed until
     the iterable is iterated on, e.g.  by a ‘for’ loop or by wrapping
     in a *note list: 40a.

     One thing to consider is that the iterables passed to *note zip():
     5ef. could have different lengths; sometimes by design, and
     sometimes because of a bug in the code that prepared these
     iterables.  Python offers three different approaches to dealing
     with this issue:

        * By default, *note zip(): 5ef. stops when the shortest iterable
          is exhausted.  It will ignore the remaining items in the
          longer iterables, cutting off the result to the length of the
          shortest iterable:

               >>> list(zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum']))
               [(0, 'fee'), (1, 'fi'), (2, 'fo')]

        * *note zip(): 5ef. is often used in cases where the iterables
          are assumed to be of equal length.  In such cases, it's
          recommended to use the ‘strict=True’ option.  Its output is
          the same as regular *note zip(): 5ef.:

               >>> list(zip(('a', 'b', 'c'), (1, 2, 3), strict=True))
               [('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)]

          Unlike the default behavior, it raises a *note ValueError:
          183. if one iterable is exhausted before the others:

               >>> for item in zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum'], strict=True):
               ...     print(item)
               ...
               (0, 'fee')
               (1, 'fi')
               (2, 'fo')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               ValueError: zip() argument 2 is longer than argument 1

          Without the ‘strict=True’ argument, any bug that results in
          iterables of different lengths will be silenced, possibly
          manifesting as a hard-to-find bug in another part of the
          program.

        * Shorter iterables can be padded with a constant value to make
          all the iterables have the same length.  This is done by *note
          itertools.zip_longest(): 1132.

     Edge cases: With a single iterable argument, *note zip(): 5ef.
     returns an iterator of 1-tuples.  With no arguments, it returns an
     empty iterator.

     Tips and tricks:

        * The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is
          guaranteed.  This makes possible an idiom for clustering a
          data series into n-length groups using ‘zip(*[iter(s)]*n,
          strict=True)’.  This repeats the 'same' iterator ‘n’ times so
          that each output tuple has the result of ‘n’ calls to the
          iterator.  This has the effect of dividing the input into
          n-length chunks.

        * *note zip(): 5ef. in conjunction with the ‘*’ operator can be
          used to unzip a list:

               >>> x = [1, 2, 3]
               >>> y = [4, 5, 6]
               >>> list(zip(x, y))
               [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
               >>> x2, y2 = zip(*zip(x, y))
               >>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
               True

     在 3.10 版的變更: 增加了 ‘strict’ 引數。

 -- 函式: __import__ (name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(),
          level=0)

          備註: This is an advanced function that is not needed in
          everyday Python programming, unlike *note
          importlib.import_module(): 298.

     This function is invoked by the *note import: 3d5. statement.  It
     can be replaced (by importing the *note builtins: 10. module and
     assigning to ‘builtins.__import__’) in order to change semantics of
     the ‘import’ statement, but doing so is 'strongly' discouraged as
     it is usually simpler to use import hooks (see PEP 302(6)) to
     attain the same goals and does not cause issues with code which
     assumes the default import implementation is in use.  Direct use of
     *note __import__(): 70d. is also discouraged in favor of *note
     importlib.import_module(): 298.

     The function imports the module 'name', potentially using the given
     'globals' and 'locals' to determine how to interpret the name in a
     package context.  The 'fromlist' gives the names of objects or
     submodules that should be imported from the module given by 'name'.
     The standard implementation does not use its 'locals' argument at
     all and uses its 'globals' only to determine the package context of
     the *note import: 3d5. statement.

     'level' specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports.  ‘0’
     (the default) means only perform absolute imports.  Positive values
     for 'level' indicate the number of parent directories to search
     relative to the directory of the module calling *note __import__():
     70d. (see PEP 328(7) for the details).

     When the 'name' variable is of the form ‘package.module’, normally,
     the top-level package (the name up till the first dot) is returned,
     'not' the module named by 'name'.  However, when a non-empty
     'fromlist' argument is given, the module named by 'name' is
     returned.

     For example, the statement ‘import spam’ results in bytecode
     resembling the following code:

          spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

     The statement ‘import spam.ham’ results in this call:

          spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

     Note how *note __import__(): 70d. returns the toplevel module here
     because this is the object that is bound to a name by the *note
     import: 3d5. statement.

     On the other hand, the statement ‘from spam.ham import eggs,
     sausage as saus’ results in

          _temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], 0)
          eggs = _temp.eggs
          saus = _temp.sausage

     Here, the ‘spam.ham’ module is returned from *note __import__():
     70d.  From this object, the names to import are retrieved and
     assigned to their respective names.

     If you simply want to import a module (potentially within a
     package) by name, use *note importlib.import_module(): 298.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Negative values for 'level' are no longer
     supported (which also changes the default value to 0).

     在 3.9 版的變更: When the command line options *note -E: 79e. or
     *note -I: 79f. are being used, the environment variable *note
     PYTHONCASEOK: 79d. is now ignored.

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 剖析器只接受 Unix 風格的行結束符。如果你從檔案中讀取程式碼，請確
保用換行符號轉換模式轉換 Windows 或 Mac 風格的換行符號。

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (4) 
https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpose

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: 內建常數,  Next: 內建型別,  Prev: 內建函式,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.3 內建常數
============

有一小部分的常數存在於內建命名空間中。他們是：

 -- 資料: False

     在 *note bool: 17d. 型別中的 false 值。對於 ‘False’ 的賦值是不合法
     的，並且會拋出 *note SyntaxError: 146.。

 -- 資料: True

     在 *note bool: 17d. 型別中的 true 值。對於 ‘True’ 的賦值是不合法的
     ，並且會拋出 *note SyntaxError: 146.。

 -- 資料: None

     型別 ‘NoneType’ 的唯一值。‘None’ 經常被使用來表達缺少值，例如未傳送
     預設的引數至函式時，相對應參數即會被賦予 ‘None’。對於 ‘None’ 的賦值
     是不合法的，並且會拋出 *note SyntaxError: 146.。‘None’ 是型別 *note
     NoneType: 679. 的唯一實例。

 -- 資料: NotImplemented

     會被二元特殊方法 (binary special methods)（如：*note __eq__():
     94f.、*note __lt__(): 119c.、*note __add__(): 1d1f.、*note
     __rsub__(): 1d32. 等）所回傳的特殊值，代表著該運算沒有針對其他型別
     的實作。同理也可以被原地二元特殊方法 (in-place binary special
     methods) （如：*note __imul__(): 1d24.、*note __iand__(): 1d44. 等
     ）回傳。它不應該被作為 boolean（布林）來解讀。‘NotImplemented’ 是型
     別 *note types.NotImplementedType: 67a. 的唯一實例。

          備註: 當一個二元 (binary) 或原地 (in-place) 方法回傳
          ‘NotImplemented’，直譯器會嘗試反映該操作到其他型別（或是其他後
          援 (fallback)，取決於是哪種運算子）。如果所有的常識都回傳
          ‘NotImplemented’，直譯器會拋出適當的例外。不正確的回傳
          ‘NotImplemented’ 會造成誤導的錯誤訊息或是 ‘NotImplemented’ 值
          被傳回到 Python 程式碼中。

          請參見 *note 實作算術操作: 1c7a. 以找到更多範例。

          備註: ‘NotImplementedError’ 與 ‘NotImplemented’ 並不一樣且不可
          互換。即使它們有相似的名稱與用途。欲知更多如何使用它們的細節，
          請參見 *note NotImplementedError: bc0.。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 在 boolean（布林）上下文中解讀 ‘NotImplemented’ 已
     經被棄用。雖然目前會被解讀成 true，但會發出一個 *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179.。在未來版本的 Python 將會拋出 *note
     TypeError: 2ba.。

 -- 資料: Ellipsis

     與刪節號 "‘...’" 字面相同。為一特殊值，大多用於結合使用者定義資料型
     別的延伸切片語法 (extended slicing syntax)。‘Ellipsis’ 是型別 *note
     types.EllipsisType: 678. 的唯一實例。

 -- 資料: __debug__

     如果 Python 沒有被以 *note -O: c2c. 選項啟動，則此常數為 true。請參
     見 *note assert: 7aa. 陳述式。

     備註: *note None: 470.，*note False: 98f.，*note True: a70.，以及
     *note __debug__: 5fb. 都是不能被重新賦值的（任何對它們的賦值，即使
     是屬性的名稱，也會拋出 *note SyntaxError: 146.）。因此，它們可以被
     視為”真正的”常數。

* Menu:

* 由 site module（模組）所添增的常數::


File: python.info,  Node: 由 site module（模組）所添增的常數,  Up: 內建常數

5.3.1 由 ‘site’ module（模組）所添增的常數
------------------------------------------

*note site: c2. module（模組）（在啟動期間自動 import ，除非有給予 *note
-S: 103a. 指令行選項）會添增一些常數到內建命名空間 (built-in namespace)
中。它們在互動式直譯器中是很有幫助的，但不應該在程式 (programs) 中被使用
。

 -- 資料: quit (code=None)
 -- 資料: exit (code=None)

     當印出物件時，會印出一個訊息： "Use quit() or Ctrl-D (i.e.  EOF) to
     exit" 。當被呼叫時，則會拋出 *note SystemExit: bb2. 並帶有指定的返
     回碼（exit code）。

 -- 資料: help

     當印出此物件時，會印出訊息 "Type help() for interactive help, or
     help(object) for help about object."，並在呼叫時按所述的方式操作
     *note elsewhere: 710.。

 -- 資料: copyright
 -- 資料: credits

     當印出或是呼叫此物件時，分別會印出版權與致謝的文字。

 -- 資料: license

     當印出此物件時，會印出訊息 "Type license() to see the full license
     text"，並在呼叫時以分頁形式印出完整的許可證文字（一次一整個畫面）。


File: python.info,  Node: 內建型別,  Next: 內建的例外,  Prev: 內建常數,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.4 內建型別
============

以下章節描述了直譯器中内建的標準型別。

主要內建型別為數字、序列、映射、class（類別）、實例和例外。

有些集合類別是 mutable（可變的）。那些用於原地 (in-place) 加入、移除或重
新排列其成員且不回傳特定項的 method（方法），也只會回傳 ‘None’ 而非集合
實例自己。

某些操作已被多種物件型別支援；特別是實務上所有物件都已經可以做相等性比較
、真值檢測及被轉換為字串（使用 *note repr(): 61e. 函式或稍有差異的 *note
str(): 157. 函式），後者為當物件傳入 *note print(): e02. 函式印出時在背
後被呼叫的函式。

* Menu:

* 真值檢測::
* Boolean（布林）運算: Boolean（布林）運算 --- and or not. and, or, not
* 比較運算::
* 數值型別: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex. int、float、complex
* Boolean 型別 - bool::
* 疊代器型別::
* Sequence Types: Sequence Types --- list tuple range. list, tuple, range
* Text Sequence Type: Text Sequence Type --- str. str
* Binary Sequence Types: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview. bytes, bytearray, memoryview
* Set Types: Set Types --- set frozenset. set, frozenset
* Mapping Types: Mapping Types --- dict. dict
* 情境管理器型別::
* 型別註釋的型別: 型別註釋的型別 --- 泛型別名 Generic Alias 、聯合 Union. 泛型別名 (Generic Alias)、聯合 (Union)
* Other Built-in Types::
* 特殊屬性::
* Integer string conversion length limitation::


File: python.info,  Node: 真值檢測,  Next: Boolean（布林）運算 --- and or not,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.1 真值檢測
--------------

任何物件都可以進行檢測以判斷是否為真值，以便在 *note if: 266. 或 *note
while: 19f8. 條件中使用，或是作為如下所述 boolean（布林）運算之運算元所
用。

預設情況下，一個物件會被視為真值，除非它的 class 定義了會回傳 ‘False’ 的
*note __bool__(): 1166. method 或是定義了會回傳零的 *note __len__():
1cf4. method。(1) 以下列出了大部分會被視為 false 的內建物件：

   * 定義為 false 之常數：‘None’ 與 ‘False’

   * 任何數值型別的零：‘0’、‘0.0’、‘0j’、‘Decimal(0)’、‘Fraction(0, 1)’

   * 空的序列和集合：‘''’、‘()’、‘[]’、‘{}’、‘set()’、‘range(0)’

除非另有特別說明，產生 boolean 結果的操作或內建函式都會回傳 ‘0’ 或
‘False’ 作為假值、‘1’ 或 ‘True’ 作為真值。（重要例外： boolean 運算 ‘or’
和 ‘and’ 回傳的是其中一個運算元。）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Additional information on these special methods may be found in
the Python Reference Manual (*note Basic customization: 1cf1.).


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean（布林）運算 --- and or not,  Next: 比較運算,  Prev: 真值檢測,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.2 Boolean（布林）運算 -- ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘not’
-----------------------------------------------

下方為 Boolean 運算，按優先順序排序：

運算              結果                                  註解
                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
‘x or y’          假如 'x' 為真，則 'x'，否則 'y'       (1)
                                                        
                                                        
‘x and y’         假如 'x' 為假，則 'x'，否則 'y'       (2)
                                                        
                                                        
‘not x’           假如 'x' 為假，則 ‘True’，否則        (3)
                  ‘False’                               
                  

註解：

  1. 這是一個短路運算子，所以他只有在第一個引數為假時，才會對第二個引數
     求值。

  2. 這是一個短路運算子，所以他只有在第一個引數為真時，才會對第二個引數
     求值。

  3. ‘not’ 比非 Boolean 運算子有較低的優先權，因此 ‘not a == b’ 可直譯為
     ‘not (a == b)’，而 ‘a == not b’ 會導致語法錯誤。


File: python.info,  Node: 比較運算,  Next: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex,  Prev: Boolean（布林）運算 --- and or not,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.3 比較運算
--------------

在 Python 裡共有 8 種比較運算。他們的優先順序都相同（皆優先於 Boolean 運
算）。比較運算可以任意的串連；例如，‘x < y <= z’ 等同於 ‘x < y and y <=
z’，差異只在於前者的 'y' 只有被求值一次（但在這兩個例子中，當 ‘x < y’ 為
假時，'z' 皆不會被求值）。

這個表格統整所有比較運算：

運算             含義
                 
-----------------------------------------------
                 
‘<’              小於
                 
                 
‘<=’             小於等於
                 
                 
‘>’              大於
                 
                 
‘>=’             大於等於
                 
                 
‘==’             等於
                 
                 
‘!=’             不等於
                 
                 
‘is’             物件識別性
                 
                 
‘is not’         否定的物件識別性
                 

除了不同的數值型別外，不同型別的物件不能進行相等比較。運算子 ‘==’ 總有定
義，但在某些物件型別（例如，class 物件）時，運算子會等同於 *note is:
268.。其他運算子 ‘<’、‘<=’、‘>’ 及 ‘>=’ 皆僅在有意義的部分有所定義；例如
，當其中一個引數為複數時，將引發一個 *note TypeError: 2ba. 的例外。

一個 class 的非相同實例通常會比較為不相等，除非 class 有定義 *note
__eq__(): 94f. method。

一個 class 的實例不可以與其他相同 class 的實例或其他物件型別進行排序，除
非 class 定義足夠的 method ，包含 *note __lt__(): 119c.、*note __le__():
119d.、*note __gt__(): 119e. 及 *note __ge__(): 119f.（一般來說，使用
*note __lt__(): 119c. 及 *note __eq__(): 94f. 就可以滿足常規意義上的比較
運算子）。

無法自定義 *note is: 268. 與 *note is not: 1e0a. 運算子的行為；這兩個運
算子也可以運用在任意兩個物件且不會引發例外。

此外，擁有相同的語法優先序的 *note in: 267. 及 *note not in: 42a. 兩種運
算皆被*note 可疊代物件: 10ba.或者有實作 *note __contains__(): 1cef.
method 的型別所支援。


File: python.info,  Node: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex,  Next: Boolean 型別 - bool,  Prev: 比較運算,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.4 數值型別 -- ‘int’、‘float’、‘complex’
-------------------------------------------

數值型別共有三種：'整數'、'浮點數' 及 '複數'。此外，Boolean 為整數中的一
個子型別。整數有無限的精度。浮點數通常使用 C 裡面的 double 實作。關於在
你程式所運作的機器上之浮點數的精度及內部表示法可以在 *note
sys.float_info: 17cc. 進行查找。複數包含實數及虛數的部分，這兩部分各自是
一個浮點數。若要從一個複數 'z' 提取這兩部分，需使用 ‘z.real’ 及
‘z.imag’。（標準函式庫包含額外的數值型別，像是 *note fractions.Fraction:
1a8. 表示有理數，而 *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0. 表示可由使用者制定精度的
浮點數。）

數字是由字面數值或內建公式及運算子的結果所產生的。未經修飾的字面數值（含
十六進位、八進位及二進位數值）會 yield 整數。包含小數點或指數符號的字面
數值會 yield 浮點數。在數值後面加上 ‘'j'’ 或是 ‘'J'’ 會 yield 一個虛數（
意即一個實數為 0 的複數）。你也可以將整數與浮點數相加以得到一個有實部與
虛部的複數。

Python 完全支援混和運算：當一個二元運算子的運算元有不同數值型別時，「較
窄」型別的運算元會被拓寬到另一個型別的運算元；在此處，整數窄於浮點數，浮
點數又窄於複數。不同型別的數字間的比較等同於這些數字的精確值進行比較。
(1)

建構函式： *note int(): 17e.、*note float(): 26a. 及 *note complex():
26b. 可以用來產生特定型別的數字。

所有數值型別（除複數外）皆支援以下的運算（有關運算的先後順序，詳見 *note
Operator precedence: 1e22.）：

運算                      結果                                  註解          完整文件
                                                                              
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                              
‘x + y’                   'x' 及 'y' 的加總
                          
                                                                              
‘x - y’                   'x' 及 'y' 的相減
                          
                                                                              
‘x * y’                   'x' 及 'y' 的相乘
                          
                                                                              
‘x / y’                   'x' 及 'y' 相除之商
                          
                                                                              
‘x // y’                  'x' 及 'y' 的整數除法                 (1)(2)
                                                                
                                                                              
‘x % y’                   ‘x / y’ 的餘數                        (2)
                                                                
                                                                              
‘-x’                      'x' 的負數
                          
                                                                              
‘+x’                      'x' 不變
                          
                                                                              
‘abs(x)’                  'x' 的絕對值或量 (magnitude)                        *note abs(): 1a99.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘int(x)’                  將 'x' 轉為整數                       (3)(6)        *note int(): 17e.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘float(x)’                將 'x' 轉為浮點數                     (4)(6)        *note float(): 26a.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘complex(re, im)’         一個複數，其實部為 're'，虛部為       (6)           *note complex(): 26b.
                          'im'。'im' 預設為零。                               
                          
                                                                              
‘c.conjugate()’           為複數 'c' 的共軛複數
                          
                                                                              
‘divmod(x, y)’            一對 ‘(x // y, x % y)’                (2)           *note divmod(): 7e5.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘pow(x, y)’               'x' 的 'y' 次方                       (5)           *note pow(): 816.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘x ** y’                  'x' 的 'y' 次方                       (5)
                                                                

註解：

  1. 也被稱為整數除法。對於型別為 *note int: 17e. 的運算元來說，結果之型
     別會是 *note int: 17e.。對於型別為 *note float: 26a. 的運算元來說，
     結果之型別會是 *note float: 26a.。一般來說，結果會是一個整數，但其
     型別不一定會是 *note int: 17e.。結果總是會往負無窮大的方向取整數值
     ： ‘1//2’ 為 ‘0’、‘(-1)//2’ 為 ‘-1’、‘1//(-2)’ 為 ‘-1’ 及
     ‘(-1)//(-2)’ 為 ‘0’。

  2. 不可用於複數。在適當情形下，可使用 *note abs(): 1a99. 轉換為浮點數
     。

  3. 
     從 *note float: 26a. 轉換為 *note int: 17e. 會導致截斷並排除小數部
     分。詳見 *note math.floor(): 1230. 及 *note math.ceil(): 1231. 以了
     解更多轉換方式。

  4. 浮點數也接受帶有可選的前綴 "+" 及 "-" 的 "nan" 及 "inf" 字串，其分
     別代表非數字（NaN）及正負無窮。

  5. Python 將 ‘pow(0, 0)’ 及 ‘0 ** 0’ 定義為 ‘1’ 這是程式語言的普遍做法
     。

  6. 字面數值接受包含數字 ‘0’ 到 ‘9’ 或任何等效的 Unicode 字元（具有
     ‘Nd’ 屬性的 code points（碼位））。

     請參閱 Unicode 標準(2)以了解具有 ‘Nd’ 屬性的 code points 完整列表。

所有 *note numbers.Real: 1f2c. 型別（*note int: 17e. 及 *note float:
26a.）也適用下列運算：

運算                     結果
                         
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
*note math.trunc(x): 1232.'x' 截斷為 *note Integral: 1d4f.
                         
                         
*note round(x[, n]): 116b.'x' 進位至小數點後第 'n' 位，使用偶數捨入法。若
                         省略 'n' ，則預設為 0。
                         
                         
*note math.floor(x): 1230.小於等於 'x' 的最大 *note Integral: 1d4f.
                         
                         
*note math.ceil(x): 1231.大於等於 'x' 的最小 *note Integral: 1d4f.
                         

關於其他數值運算請詳見 *note math: 89. 及 *note cmath: 16. modules（模組
）。

* Menu:

* 整數型別的位元運算::
* 整數型別的附加 methods::
* 浮點數的附加 methods::
* 數值型別的雜湊::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) As a consequence, the list ‘[1, 2]’ is considered equal to ‘[1.0,
2.0]’, and similarly for tuples.

   (2) 
https://unicode.org/Public/UNIDATA/extracted/DerivedNumericType.txt


File: python.info,  Node: 整數型別的位元運算,  Next: 整數型別的附加 methods,  Up: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex

5.4.4.1 整數型別的位元運算
..........................

位元運算只對整數有意義。位元運算的計算結果就如同對二的補數執行無窮多個符
號位元。

二元位元運算的優先順序皆低於數字運算，但高於比較運算；一元運算 ‘~’ 與其
他一元數值運算有一致的優先順序（‘+’ 及 ‘-’）。

這個表格列出所有位元運算並以優先順序由先至後排序。

運算             結果                                 註解
                                                      
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
‘x | y’          'x' 及 'y' 的位元 '或'               (4)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x ^ y’          'x' 及 'y' 的位元 '邏輯互斥或'       (4)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x & y’          'x' 及 'y' 的位元 '與'               (4)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x << n’         'x' 往左移動 'n' 個位元              (1)(2)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x >> n’         'x' 往右移動 'n' 個位元              (1)(3)
                                                      
                                                      
‘~x’             反轉 'x' 的位元
                 

註解：

  1. 負數位移是不被允許並會引發 *note ValueError: 183. 的錯誤。

  2. 向左移動 'n' 個位元等同於乘以 ‘pow(2, n)’。

  3. 向右移動 'n' 個位元等同於向下除法除以 ‘pow(2, n)’。

  4. 在有限的二的補數表示法中執行這些計算（一個有效位元寬度為 ‘1 +
     max(x.bit_length(), y.bit_length())’ 或以上）並至少有一個額外的符號
     擴展位元，便足以得到與無窮多個符號位元相同的結果。


File: python.info,  Node: 整數型別的附加 methods,  Next: 浮點數的附加 methods,  Prev: 整數型別的位元運算,  Up: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex

5.4.4.2 整數型別的附加 methods
..............................

整數型別實作了 *note numbers.Integral: 1d4f. *note 抽象基底類別: 1047.。
此外，它提供了一些 methods：

 -- 方法: int.bit_length ()

     回傳以二進位表示一個整數所需要的位元數，不包括符號及首位的零：

          >>> n = -37
          >>> bin(n)
          '-0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6

     更準確來說，若 ‘x’ 非為零，則 ‘x.bit_length()’ 會得出滿足 ‘2**(k-1)
     <= abs(x) < 2**k’ 的單一正整數 ‘k’。同樣地，當 ‘abs(x)’ 足夠小到能
     正確地取得捨入的對數，則 ‘k = 1 + int(log(abs(x), 2))’。若 ‘x’ 為零
     ，則 ‘x.bit_length()’ 會回傳 ‘0’。

     等同於：

          def bit_length(self):
              s = bin(self)       # binary representation:  bin(-37) --> '-0b100101'
              s = s.lstrip('-0b') # remove leading zeros and minus sign
              return len(s)       # len('100101') --> 6

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- 方法: int.bit_count ()

     回傳在絕對值表示的二進位中 1 的個數。這也被稱作母體計數。舉例來說：

          >>> n = 19
          >>> bin(n)
          '0b10011'
          >>> n.bit_count()
          3
          >>> (-n).bit_count()
          3

     等同於：

          def bit_count(self):
              return bin(self).count("1")

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 方法: int.to_bytes (length=1, byteorder='big', *, signed=False)

     回傳表示一個整數的一列位元組。

          >>> (1024).to_bytes(2, byteorder='big')
          b'\x04\x00'
          >>> (1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big')
          b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00'
          >>> (-1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big', signed=True)
          b'\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00'
          >>> x = 1000
          >>> x.to_bytes((x.bit_length() + 7) // 8, byteorder='little')
          b'\xe8\x03'

     此整數會使用 'length' 位元組表示，並且預設為 1。如果該整數無法用給
     定的位元組數來表示，則會引發 *note OverflowError: 6ad.。

     'byteorder' 引數決定了用來表示整數的位元組順序並且預設為 ‘"big"’。
     如果 byteorder 是 ‘"big"’，最重要的位元組位於位元組陣列的開頭。如果
     byteorder 是 ‘"little"’，最重要的位元組位於位元組陣列的結尾。

     'signed' 引數決定是否使用二的補數來表示整數。如果 'signed' 是
     ‘False’ 並且給定了一個負整數，則會引發 *note OverflowError: 6ad.。
     'signed' 的預設值是 ‘False’。

     預設值可以方便地將一個整數轉換為單一位元組物件：

          >>> (65).to_bytes()
          b'A'

     然而，使用預設引數時，不要嘗試轉換大於 255 的值，否則你將會得到一個
     *note OverflowError: 6ad.。

     等同於：

          def to_bytes(n, length=1, byteorder='big', signed=False):
              if byteorder == 'little':
                  order = range(length)
              elif byteorder == 'big':
                  order = reversed(range(length))
              else:
                  raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

              return bytes((n >> i*8) & 0xff for i in order)

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 為 ‘length’ 和 ‘byteorder’ 添加了預設引數值。

 -- 方法: classmethod int.from_bytes (bytes, byteorder='big', *,
          signed=False)

     回傳由給定的位元組陣列表示的整數。

          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='big')
          16
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='little')
          4096
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=True)
          -1024
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=False)
          64512
          >>> int.from_bytes([255, 0, 0], byteorder='big')
          16711680

     引數 'bytes' 必須是一個*note 類位元組物件: b9f.或是一個產生位元組的
     可疊代物件。

     'byteorder' 引數決定了用來表示整數的位元組順序並且預設為 ‘"big"’。
     如果 'byteorder' 是 ‘"big"’，最重要的位元組位於位元組陣列的開頭。如
     果 'byteorder' 是 ‘"little"’，最重要的位元組位於位元組陣列的結尾。
     若要請求主機系統的本機位元組順序，請使用 *note sys.byteorder: 1f31.
     作為位元組順序值。

     'signed' 引數指示是否使用二的補數來表示整數。

     等同於：

          def from_bytes(bytes, byteorder='big', signed=False):
              if byteorder == 'little':
                  little_ordered = list(bytes)
              elif byteorder == 'big':
                  little_ordered = list(reversed(bytes))
              else:
                  raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

              n = sum(b << i*8 for i, b in enumerate(little_ordered))
              if signed and little_ordered and (little_ordered[-1] & 0x80):
                  n -= 1 << 8*len(little_ordered)

              return n

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 為 ‘byteorder’ 添加了預設引數值。

 -- 方法: int.as_integer_ratio ()

     回傳一對整數，其比率等於原始整數並且有一個正分母。整數（整個數值）
     的整數比率總是整數作為分子，並且 ‘1’ 作為分母。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 方法: int.is_integer ()

     回傳 ‘True’。為了與 *note float.is_integer(): 1f32. 的鴨子型別相容
     而存在。

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 浮點數的附加 methods,  Next: 數值型別的雜湊,  Prev: 整數型別的附加 methods,  Up: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex

5.4.4.3 浮點數的附加 methods
............................

浮點數型別實作了 *note numbers.Real: 1f2c. *note 抽象基底類別: 1047.。浮
點數也有下列附加 methods。

 -- 方法: float.as_integer_ratio ()

     回傳一對整數，其比率完全等於原始浮點數。比率是在最低條件下並且有一
     個正分母。在無窮大時引發 *note OverflowError: 6ad.，在 NaN 時引發
     *note ValueError: 183.。

 -- 方法: float.is_integer ()

     如果浮點數實例是有限的並且具有整數值，則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳
     ‘False’：

          >>> (-2.0).is_integer()
          True
          >>> (3.2).is_integer()
          False

兩個 methods 皆支援十六進位字串之間的轉換。由於 Python 的浮點數內部以二
進位數值儲存，將浮點數轉換為或從 '十進位' 字串通常涉及一個小的四捨五入誤
差。相反地，十六進位字串允許精確表示和指定浮點數。這在除錯和數值工作中可
能會有用。

 -- 方法: float.hex ()

     回傳浮點數的十六進位字串表示。對於有限浮點數，此表示方式總是包含一
     個前導 ‘0x’ 及一個尾部 ‘p’ 和指數。

 -- 方法: classmethod float.fromhex (s)

     Class method 回傳由十六進位字串 's' 表示的浮點數。字串 's' 可能有前
     導及尾部的空白。

請注意 *note float.hex(): 1b08. 是一個實例 method，而 *note
float.fromhex(): 1f34. 是一個 class method。

一個十六進位字串的形式如下：

     [sign] ['0x'] integer ['.' fraction] ['p' exponent]

其中可選的 ‘sign’ 可以是 ‘+’ 或 ‘-’，‘integer’ 和 ‘fraction’ 是十六進位
數字的字串，而 ‘exponent’ 是一個十進位整數並且有一個可選的前導符號。大小
寫不重要，並且整數或小數部分至少有一個十六進位數字。這個語法與 C99 標準
的第 6.4.4.2 節指定的語法相似，也與 Java 1.5 以後的語法相似。特別是
*note float.hex(): 1b08. 的輸出可用作 C 或 Java 程式碼中的十六進位浮點數
文字，並且 C 的 ‘%a’ 格式字元或 Java 的 ‘Double.toHexString’ 產生的十六
進位字串可被 *note float.fromhex(): 1f34. 接受。

請注意指數是以十進位而非十六進位寫入，並且它給出了乘以係數的 2 的次方。
例如，十六進位字串 ‘0x3.a7p10’ 表示浮點數 ‘(3 + 10./16 + 7./16**2) *
2.0**10’，或 ‘3740.0’：

     >>> float.fromhex('0x3.a7p10')
     3740.0

對 ‘3740.0’ 應用反向轉換會給出一個不同的十六進位字串，它表示相同的數字：

     >>> float.hex(3740.0)
     '0x1.d380000000000p+11'


File: python.info,  Node: 數值型別的雜湊,  Prev: 浮點數的附加 methods,  Up: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex

5.4.4.4 數值型別的雜湊
......................

對於數字 ‘x’ 和 ‘y’，可能是不同型別，當 ‘x == y’ 時，‘hash(x) ==
hash(y)’ 是一個要求（ 詳見 *note __hash__(): 950. method 的文件以獲得更
多細節）。為了實作的便利性和效率跨越各種數值型別（包括 *note int: 17e.、
*note float: 26a.、*note decimal.Decimal: 5f0. 和 *note
fractions.Fraction: 1a8.）Python 的數值型別的雜湊是基於一個數學函式，它
對於任何有理數都是定義的，因此適用於所有 *note int: 17e. 和 *note
fractions.Fraction: 1a8. 的實例，以及所有有限的 *note float: 26a. 和
*note decimal.Decimal: 5f0. 的實例。基本上，這個函式是由簡化的 modulo（
模數） ‘P’ 給出的一個固定的質數 ‘P’。‘P’ 的值作為 *note sys.hash_info:
e91. 的 *note modulus: 1f37. 屬性提供給 Python。

'CPython 實作細節：' 目前在具有 32 位元 C longs 的機器上所使用的質數是
‘P = 2**31 - 1’，而在具有 64 位元 C longs 的機器上為 ‘P = 2**61 - 1’ 。

以下是詳細的規則：

   - 如果 ‘x = m / n’ 是一個非負的有理數，並且 ‘n’ 不可被 ‘P’ 整除，則將
     ‘hash(x)’ 定義為 ‘m * invmod(n, P) % P’。其中 ‘invmod(n, P)’ 為 ‘n’
     對模數 ‘P’ 的倒數。

   - 如果 ‘x = m / n’ 是一個非負的有理數，並且 ‘n’ 可被 ‘P’ 整除（但 ‘m’
     不行），則 ‘n’ 沒有 inverse modulo（模倒數） ‘P’ ，並且不適用於上述
     規則；在這種情況下，將 ‘hash(x)’ 定義為常數值 ‘sys.hash_info.inf’。

   - 如果 ‘x = m / n’ 是一個負的有理數，則將 ‘hash(x)’ 定義為
     ‘-hash(-x)’。如果結果的雜湊是 ‘-1’，則將其替換為 ‘-2’。

   - 特定值 ‘sys.hash_info.inf’ 和 ‘-sys.hash_info.inf’ （分別）被用作正
     無窮大或負無窮大的雜湊值。

   - 對於一個 *note complex: 26b. 值 ‘z’，實部和虛部的雜湊值藉由
     ‘hash(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag)’ 的計算進行組合，
     對 ‘2**sys.hash_info.width’ 取模數使其介於
     ‘range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2**(sys.hash_info.width -
     1))’。同樣地，如果結果是 ‘-1’，則將其替換為 ‘-2’。

為了闡明上述規則，這裡有一些 Python 程式碼範例，等同於內建的雜湊，用於計
算有理數、*note float: 26a. 或 *note complex: 26b. 的雜湊：

     import sys, math

     def hash_fraction(m, n):
         """Compute the hash of a rational number m / n.

         Assumes m and n are integers, with n positive.
         Equivalent to hash(fractions.Fraction(m, n)).

         """
         P = sys.hash_info.modulus
         # Remove common factors of P.  (Unnecessary if m and n already coprime.)
         while m % P == n % P == 0:
             m, n = m // P, n // P

         if n % P == 0:
             hash_value = sys.hash_info.inf
         else:
             # Fermat's Little Theorem: pow(n, P-1, P) is 1, so
             # pow(n, P-2, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P.
             hash_value = (abs(m) % P) * pow(n, P - 2, P) % P
         if m < 0:
             hash_value = -hash_value
         if hash_value == -1:
             hash_value = -2
         return hash_value

     def hash_float(x):
         """Compute the hash of a float x."""

         if math.isnan(x):
             return object.__hash__(x)
         elif math.isinf(x):
             return sys.hash_info.inf if x > 0 else -sys.hash_info.inf
         else:
             return hash_fraction(*x.as_integer_ratio())

     def hash_complex(z):
         """Compute the hash of a complex number z."""

         hash_value = hash_float(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash_float(z.imag)
         # do a signed reduction modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width
         M = 2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1)
         hash_value = (hash_value & (M - 1)) - (hash_value & M)
         if hash_value == -1:
             hash_value = -2
         return hash_value


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean 型別 - bool,  Next: 疊代器型別,  Prev: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.5 Boolean 型別 - ‘bool’
---------------------------

Boolean 值代表 truth values（真值）。*note bool: 17d. 型別有兩個常數實例
：‘True’ 和 ‘False’。

內建函式 *note bool(): 17d. 將任何值轉換為 boolean 值，如果該值可以被直
譯為一個 truth value（真值）（見上面的*note 真值檢測: 1eef.章節）。

對於邏輯運算，使用 *note boolean 運算子: 1f27. ‘and’、‘or’ 和 ‘not’。當
將位元運算子 ‘&’、‘|’、‘^’ 應用於兩個 boolean 值時，它們會回傳一個等同於
邏輯運算 "and"、"or"、"xor" 的 boolean 值。然而，應該優先使用邏輯運算子
‘and’、‘or’ 和 ‘!=’ 而不是 ‘&’、‘|’ 和 ‘^’。

在 3.12 版之後被棄用: 位元反轉運算子 ‘~’ 的使用已被棄用並且將在 Python
3.16 中引發錯誤。

*note bool: 17d. 是 *note int: 17e. 的子類別（見*note 數值型別 --
int、float、complex: 19eb.）。在許多數值情境中，‘False’ 和 ‘True’ 分別像
整數 0 和 1 一樣。然而，不鼓勵依賴這一點；請使用 *note int(): 17e. 進行
顯式轉換。


File: python.info,  Node: 疊代器型別,  Next: Sequence Types --- list tuple range,  Prev: Boolean 型別 - bool,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.6 疊代器型別
----------------

Python 支援對容器的疊代概念。這是實作兩種不同的 methods；這些方法被用於
允許使用者自定義的 classes 以支援疊代。序列則總是支援這些疊代 methods，
在下方有更詳細的描述。

需要為容器物件定義一個 method 來提供*note 可疊代物件: 10ba.支援：

 -- 方法: container.__iter__ ()

     回傳一個*note 疊代器: 1718.物件。該物件需要支援下述的疊代器協定。如
     果一個容器支援不同型別的疊代，則可以提供額外的 methods 來專門請求這
     些疊代型別的疊代器。（支援多種形式疊代的物件的一個例子是支援廣度優
     先和深度優先遍歷的樹結構。）此 method 對應 Python/C API 中 Python 物
     件的型別結構的 *note tp_iter: 1365. 插槽。

疊代器物件本身需要支援下列兩個 methods，他們一起形成了 '疊代器協定'：

 -- 方法: iterator.__iter__ ()

     回傳*note 疊代器: 1718.物件本身。這是為了允許容器和疊代器都可以與
     *note for: 265. 和 *note in: 267. 在陳述式中使用。此 method 對應於
     Python/C API 中 Python 物件的型別結構的 *note tp_iter: 1365. 插槽。

 -- 方法: iterator.__next__ ()

     從*note 疊代器: 1718.回傳下一個項目。如果沒有更多項目，則引發 *note
     StopIteration: a5d. 例外。此 method 對應於 Python/C API 中Python 物
     件的型別結構的 *note tp_iternext: 1366. 插槽。

Python 定義了幾個疊代器物件來支援對一般和特定序列型別、字典和其他更專門
的形式的疊代。這些特定型別除了實作疊代器協定外並不重要。

一旦疊代器的 *note __next__(): 115d. method 引發 *note StopIteration:
a5d.，則它必須在後續呼叫中繼續這樣做。不遵守此屬性的實作被認為是有問題的
。

* Menu:

* Generator Types::


File: python.info,  Node: Generator Types,  Up: 疊代器型別

5.4.6.1 Generator Types
.......................

Python's *note generator: ef7.s provide a convenient way to implement
the iterator protocol.  If a container object's *note __iter__(): 1aba.
method is implemented as a generator, it will automatically return an
iterator object (technically, a generator object) supplying the
‘__iter__()’ and *note __next__(): 1abb. methods.  More information
about generators can be found in *note the documentation for the yield
expression: 1dc7.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Types --- list tuple range,  Next: Text Sequence Type --- str,  Prev: 疊代器型別,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.7 Sequence Types -- ‘list’, ‘tuple’, ‘range’
------------------------------------------------

There are three basic sequence types: lists, tuples, and range objects.
Additional sequence types tailored for processing of *note binary data:
1ef3. and *note text strings: 19f0. are described in dedicated sections.

* Menu:

* Common Sequence Operations::
* Immutable Sequence Types::
* Mutable Sequence Types::
* List（串列）: List（串列）<2>.
* Tuples::
* Ranges::


File: python.info,  Node: Common Sequence Operations,  Next: Immutable Sequence Types,  Up: Sequence Types --- list tuple range

5.4.7.1 Common Sequence Operations
..................................

The operations in the following table are supported by most sequence
types, both mutable and immutable.  The *note collections.abc.Sequence:
1055. ABC is provided to make it easier to correctly implement these
operations on custom sequence types.

This table lists the sequence operations sorted in ascending priority.
In the table, 's' and 't' are sequences of the same type, 'n', 'i', 'j'
and 'k' are integers and 'x' is an arbitrary object that meets any type
and value restrictions imposed by 's'.

The ‘in’ and ‘not in’ operations have the same priorities as the
comparison operations.  The ‘+’ (concatenation) and ‘*’ (repetition)
operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric
operations.  (1)

運算                           結果                                 註解
                                                                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘x in s’                       ‘True’ if an item of 's' is equal    (1)
                               to 'x', else ‘False’                 
                               
                                                                    
‘x not in s’                   ‘False’ if an item of 's' is equal   (1)
                               to 'x', else ‘True’                  
                               
                                                                    
‘s + t’                        the concatenation of 's' and 't'     (6)(7)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘s * n’ 或 ‘n * s’             equivalent to adding 's' to itself   (2)(7)
                               'n' times                            
                               
                                                                    
‘s[i]’                         'i'th item of 's', origin 0          (3)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘s[i:j]’                       slice of 's' from 'i' to 'j'         (3)(4)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘s[i:j:k]’                     slice of 's' from 'i' to 'j' with    (3)(5)
                               step 'k'                             
                               
                                                                    
‘len(s)’                       's' 的長度
                               
                                                                    
‘min(s)’                       's' 中最小的項目
                               
                                                                    
‘max(s)’                       's' 中最大的項目
                               
                                                                    
‘s.index(x[, i[, j]])’         index of the first occurrence of     (8)
                               'x' in 's' (at or after index 'i'    
                               and before index 'j')
                               
                                                                    
‘s.count(x)’                   total number of occurrences of 'x'
                               in 's'
                               

Sequences of the same type also support comparisons.  In particular,
tuples and lists are compared lexicographically by comparing
corresponding elements.  This means that to compare equal, every element
must compare equal and the two sequences must be of the same type and
have the same length.  (For full details see *note Comparisons: 1e03. in
the language reference.)

Forward and reversed iterators over mutable sequences access values
using an index.  That index will continue to march forward (or backward)
even if the underlying sequence is mutated.  The iterator terminates
only when an *note IndexError: 13ac. or a *note StopIteration: a5d. is
encountered (or when the index drops below zero).

註解：

  1. While the ‘in’ and ‘not in’ operations are used only for simple
     containment testing in the general case, some specialised sequences
     (such as *note str: 157, *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray:
     2c0.) also use them for subsequence testing:

          >>> "gg" in "eggs"
          True

  2. Values of 'n' less than ‘0’ are treated as ‘0’ (which yields an
     empty sequence of the same type as 's').  Note that items in the
     sequence 's' are not copied; they are referenced multiple times.
     This often haunts new Python programmers; consider:

          >>> lists = [[]] * 3
          >>> lists
          [[], [], []]
          >>> lists[0].append(3)
          >>> lists
          [[3], [3], [3]]

     What has happened is that ‘[[]]’ is a one-element list containing
     an empty list, so all three elements of ‘[[]] * 3’ are references
     to this single empty list.  Modifying any of the elements of
     ‘lists’ modifies this single list.  You can create a list of
     different lists this way:

          >>> lists = [[] for i in range(3)]
          >>> lists[0].append(3)
          >>> lists[1].append(5)
          >>> lists[2].append(7)
          >>> lists
          [[3], [5], [7]]

     Further explanation is available in the FAQ entry *note How do I
     create a multidimensional list?: 1f40.

  3. If 'i' or 'j' is negative, the index is relative to the end of
     sequence 's': ‘len(s) + i’ or ‘len(s) + j’ is substituted.  But
     note that ‘-0’ is still ‘0’.

  4. The slice of 's' from 'i' to 'j' is defined as the sequence of
     items with index 'k' such that ‘i <= k < j’.  If 'i' or 'j' is
     greater than ‘len(s)’, use ‘len(s)’.  If 'i' is omitted or ‘None’,
     use ‘0’.  If 'j' is omitted or ‘None’, use ‘len(s)’.  If 'i' is
     greater than or equal to 'j', the slice is empty.

  5. The slice of 's' from 'i' to 'j' with step 'k' is defined as the
     sequence of items with index ‘x = i + n*k’ such that ‘0 <= n <
     (j-i)/k’.  In other words, the indices are ‘i’, ‘i+k’, ‘i+2*k’,
     ‘i+3*k’ and so on, stopping when 'j' is reached (but never
     including 'j').  When 'k' is positive, 'i' and 'j' are reduced to
     ‘len(s)’ if they are greater.  When 'k' is negative, 'i' and 'j'
     are reduced to ‘len(s) - 1’ if they are greater.  If 'i' or 'j' are
     omitted or ‘None’, they become "end" values (which end depends on
     the sign of 'k').  Note, 'k' cannot be zero.  If 'k' is ‘None’, it
     is treated like ‘1’.

  6. Concatenating immutable sequences always results in a new object.
     This means that building up a sequence by repeated concatenation
     will have a quadratic runtime cost in the total sequence length.
     To get a linear runtime cost, you must switch to one of the
     alternatives below:

        * if concatenating *note str: 157. objects, you can build a list
          and use *note str.join(): 1f41. at the end or else write to an
          *note io.StringIO: db1. instance and retrieve its value when
          complete

        * if concatenating *note bytes: 2c1. objects, you can similarly
          use *note bytes.join(): 1f42. or *note io.BytesIO: d24, or you
          can do in-place concatenation with a *note bytearray: 2c0.
          object.  *note bytearray: 2c0. objects are mutable and have an
          efficient overallocation mechanism

        * if concatenating *note tuple: 4e6. objects, extend a *note
          list: 40a. instead

        * for other types, investigate the relevant class documentation

  7. Some sequence types (such as *note range: 782.) only support item
     sequences that follow specific patterns, and hence don't support
     sequence concatenation or repetition.

  8. ‘index’ raises *note ValueError: 183. when 'x' is not found in 's'.
     Not all implementations support passing the additional arguments
     'i' and 'j'.  These arguments allow efficient searching of
     subsections of the sequence.  Passing the extra arguments is
     roughly equivalent to using ‘s[i:j].index(x)’, only without copying
     any data and with the returned index being relative to the start of
     the sequence rather than the start of the slice.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) They must have since the parser can't tell the type of the
operands.


File: python.info,  Node: Immutable Sequence Types,  Next: Mutable Sequence Types,  Prev: Common Sequence Operations,  Up: Sequence Types --- list tuple range

5.4.7.2 Immutable Sequence Types
................................

The only operation that immutable sequence types generally implement
that is not also implemented by mutable sequence types is support for
the *note hash(): 3df. built-in.

This support allows immutable sequences, such as *note tuple: 4e6.
instances, to be used as *note dict: 239. keys and stored in *note set:
3cc. and *note frozenset: 3cd. instances.

Attempting to hash an immutable sequence that contains unhashable values
will result in *note TypeError: 2ba.


File: python.info,  Node: Mutable Sequence Types,  Next: List（串列）<2>,  Prev: Immutable Sequence Types,  Up: Sequence Types --- list tuple range

5.4.7.3 Mutable Sequence Types
..............................

The operations in the following table are defined on mutable sequence
types.  The *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: c4c. ABC is provided
to make it easier to correctly implement these operations on custom
sequence types.

In the table 's' is an instance of a mutable sequence type, 't' is any
iterable object and 'x' is an arbitrary object that meets any type and
value restrictions imposed by 's' (for example, *note bytearray: 2c0.
only accepts integers that meet the value restriction ‘0 <= x <= 255’).

運算                               結果                                 註解
                                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                        
‘s[i] = x’                         item 'i' of 's' is replaced by 'x'
                                   
                                                                        
‘s[i:j] = t’                       slice of 's' from 'i' to 'j' is
                                   replaced by the contents of the
                                   iterable 't'
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i:j]’                       same as ‘s[i:j] = []’
                                   
                                                                        
‘s[i:j:k] = t’                     the elements of ‘s[i:j:k]’ are       (1)
                                   replaced by those of 't'             
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i:j:k]’                     removes the elements of ‘s[i:j:k]’
                                   from the list
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.append(x)’                      appends 'x' to the end of the
                                   sequence (same as
                                   ‘s[len(s):len(s)] = [x]’)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.clear()’                        removes all items from 's' (same     (5)
                                   as ‘del s[:]’)                       
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.copy()’                         creates a shallow copy of 's'        (5)
                                   (same as ‘s[:]’)                     
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.extend(t)’ 或 ‘s += t’          extends 's' with the contents of
                                   't' (for the most part the same as
                                   ‘s[len(s):len(s)] = t’)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s *= n’                           updates 's' with its contents        (6)
                                   repeated 'n' times                   
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.insert(i, x)’                   inserts 'x' into 's' at the index
                                   given by 'i' (same as ‘s[i:i] =
                                   [x]’)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.pop()’ 或 ‘s.pop(i)’            retrieves the item at 'i' and also   (2)
                                   removes it from 's'                  
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.remove(x)’                      removes the first item from 's'      (3)
                                   where ‘s[i]’ is equal to 'x'         
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.reverse()’                      reverses the items of 's' in place   (4)
                                                                        

註解：

  1. If 'k' is not equal to ‘1’, 't' must have the same length as the
     slice it is replacing.

  2. The optional argument 'i' defaults to ‘-1’, so that by default the
     last item is removed and returned.

  3. ‘remove()’ raises *note ValueError: 183. when 'x' is not found in
     's'.

  4. The ‘reverse()’ method modifies the sequence in place for economy
     of space when reversing a large sequence.  To remind users that it
     operates by side effect, it does not return the reversed sequence.

  5. ‘clear()’ and ‘copy()’ are included for consistency with the
     interfaces of mutable containers that don't support slicing
     operations (such as *note dict: 239. and *note set: 3cc.).
     ‘copy()’ is not part of the *note collections.abc.MutableSequence:
     c4c. ABC, but most concrete mutable sequence classes provide it.

     在 3.3 版被加入: ‘clear()’ and ‘copy()’ methods.

  6. The value 'n' is an integer, or an object implementing *note
     __index__(): 51f.  Zero and negative values of 'n' clear the
     sequence.  Items in the sequence are not copied; they are
     referenced multiple times, as explained for ‘s * n’ under *note
     Common Sequence Operations: 1f3f.


File: python.info,  Node: List（串列）<2>,  Next: Tuples,  Prev: Mutable Sequence Types,  Up: Sequence Types --- list tuple range

5.4.7.4 List（串列）
....................

Lists are mutable sequences, typically used to store collections of
homogeneous items (where the precise degree of similarity will vary by
application).

 -- 類別: list ([iterable])

     Lists may be constructed in several ways:

        * Using a pair of square brackets to denote the empty list: ‘[]’

        * Using square brackets, separating items with commas: ‘[a]’,
          ‘[a, b, c]’

        * Using a list comprehension: ‘[x for x in iterable]’

        * Using the type constructor: ‘list()’ or ‘list(iterable)’

     The constructor builds a list whose items are the same and in the
     same order as 'iterable"s items.  'iterable' may be either a
     sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an iterator
     object.  If 'iterable' is already a list, a copy is made and
     returned, similar to ‘iterable[:]’.  For example, ‘list('abc')’
     returns ‘['a', 'b', 'c']’ and ‘list( (1, 2, 3) )’ returns ‘[1, 2,
     3]’.  If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty
     list, ‘[]’.

     Many other operations also produce lists, including the *note
     sorted(): a2f. built-in.

     Lists implement all of the *note common: 1f3f. and *note mutable:
     1ef1. sequence operations.  Lists also provide the following
     additional method:

      -- 方法: sort (*, key=None, reverse=False)

          This method sorts the list in place, using only ‘<’
          comparisons between items.  Exceptions are not suppressed - if
          any comparison operations fail, the entire sort operation will
          fail (and the list will likely be left in a partially modified
          state).

          *note sort(): a30. accepts two arguments that can only be
          passed by keyword (*note keyword-only arguments: 8d6.):

          'key' specifies a function of one argument that is used to
          extract a comparison key from each list element (for example,
          ‘key=str.lower’).  The key corresponding to each item in the
          list is calculated once and then used for the entire sorting
          process.  The default value of ‘None’ means that list items
          are sorted directly without calculating a separate key value.

          The *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 106b. utility is available
          to convert a 2.x style 'cmp' function to a 'key' function.

          'reverse' is a boolean value.  If set to ‘True’, then the list
          elements are sorted as if each comparison were reversed.

          This method modifies the sequence in place for economy of
          space when sorting a large sequence.  To remind users that it
          operates by side effect, it does not return the sorted
          sequence (use *note sorted(): a2f. to explicitly request a new
          sorted list instance).

          The *note sort(): a30. method is guaranteed to be stable.  A
          sort is stable if it guarantees not to change the relative
          order of elements that compare equal -- this is helpful for
          sorting in multiple passes (for example, sort by department,
          then by salary grade).

          For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see *note
          排序技法: 1f14.

          'CPython 實作細節：' While a list is being sorted, the effect
          of attempting to mutate, or even inspect, the list is
          undefined.  The C implementation of Python makes the list
          appear empty for the duration, and raises *note ValueError:
          183. if it can detect that the list has been mutated during a
          sort.


File: python.info,  Node: Tuples,  Next: Ranges,  Prev: List（串列）<2>,  Up: Sequence Types --- list tuple range

5.4.7.5 Tuples
..............

Tuples are immutable sequences, typically used to store collections of
heterogeneous data (such as the 2-tuples produced by the *note
enumerate(): 12f0. built-in).  Tuples are also used for cases where an
immutable sequence of homogeneous data is needed (such as allowing
storage in a *note set: 3cc. or *note dict: 239. instance).

 -- 類別: tuple ([iterable])

     Tuples may be constructed in a number of ways:

        * Using a pair of parentheses to denote the empty tuple: ‘()’

        * Using a trailing comma for a singleton tuple: ‘a,’ or ‘(a,)’

        * Separating items with commas: ‘a, b, c’ or ‘(a, b, c)’

        * Using the *note tuple(): 4e6. built-in: ‘tuple()’ or
          ‘tuple(iterable)’

     The constructor builds a tuple whose items are the same and in the
     same order as 'iterable"s items.  'iterable' may be either a
     sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an iterator
     object.  If 'iterable' is already a tuple, it is returned
     unchanged.  For example, ‘tuple('abc')’ returns ‘('a', 'b', 'c')’
     and ‘tuple( [1, 2, 3] )’ returns ‘(1, 2, 3)’.  If no argument is
     given, the constructor creates a new empty tuple, ‘()’.

     Note that it is actually the comma which makes a tuple, not the
     parentheses.  The parentheses are optional, except in the empty
     tuple case, or when they are needed to avoid syntactic ambiguity.
     For example, ‘f(a, b, c)’ is a function call with three arguments,
     while ‘f((a, b, c))’ is a function call with a 3-tuple as the sole
     argument.

     Tuples implement all of the *note common: 1f3f. sequence
     operations.

For heterogeneous collections of data where access by name is clearer
than access by index, *note collections.namedtuple(): 731. may be a more
appropriate choice than a simple tuple object.


File: python.info,  Node: Ranges,  Prev: Tuples,  Up: Sequence Types --- list tuple range

5.4.7.6 Ranges
..............

The *note range: 782. type represents an immutable sequence of numbers
and is commonly used for looping a specific number of times in *note
for: 265. loops.

 -- 類別: range (stop)

 -- 類別: range (start, stop[, step])

     The arguments to the range constructor must be integers (either
     built-in *note int: 17e. or any object that implements the *note
     __index__(): 51f. special method).  If the 'step' argument is
     omitted, it defaults to ‘1’.  If the 'start' argument is omitted,
     it defaults to ‘0’.  If 'step' is zero, *note ValueError: 183. is
     raised.

     For a positive 'step', the contents of a range ‘r’ are determined
     by the formula ‘r[i] = start + step*i’ where ‘i >= 0’ and ‘r[i] <
     stop’.

     For a negative 'step', the contents of the range are still
     determined by the formula ‘r[i] = start + step*i’, but the
     constraints are ‘i >= 0’ and ‘r[i] > stop’.

     A range object will be empty if ‘r[0]’ does not meet the value
     constraint.  Ranges do support negative indices, but these are
     interpreted as indexing from the end of the sequence determined by
     the positive indices.

     Ranges containing absolute values larger than *note sys.maxsize:
     1056. are permitted but some features (such as *note len(): 429.)
     may raise *note OverflowError: 6ad.

     Range examples:

          >>> list(range(10))
          [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
          >>> list(range(1, 11))
          [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
          >>> list(range(0, 30, 5))
          [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
          >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
          [0, 3, 6, 9]
          >>> list(range(0, -10, -1))
          [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
          >>> list(range(0))
          []
          >>> list(range(1, 0))
          []

     Ranges implement all of the *note common: 1f3f. sequence operations
     except concatenation and repetition (due to the fact that range
     objects can only represent sequences that follow a strict pattern
     and repetition and concatenation will usually violate that
     pattern).

      -- 屬性: start

          The value of the 'start' parameter (or ‘0’ if the parameter
          was not supplied)

      -- 屬性: stop

          The value of the 'stop' parameter

      -- 屬性: step

          The value of the 'step' parameter (or ‘1’ if the parameter was
          not supplied)

The advantage of the *note range: 782. type over a regular *note list:
40a. or *note tuple: 4e6. is that a *note range: 782. object will always
take the same (small) amount of memory, no matter the size of the range
it represents (as it only stores the ‘start’, ‘stop’ and ‘step’ values,
calculating individual items and subranges as needed).

Range objects implement the *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1055. ABC,
and provide features such as containment tests, element index lookup,
slicing and support for negative indices (see *note Sequence Types --
list, tuple, range: 1a3e.):

     >>> r = range(0, 20, 2)
     >>> r
     range(0, 20, 2)
     >>> 11 in r
     False
     >>> 10 in r
     True
     >>> r.index(10)
     5
     >>> r[5]
     10
     >>> r[:5]
     range(0, 10, 2)
     >>> r[-1]
     18

Testing range objects for equality with ‘==’ and ‘!=’ compares them as
sequences.  That is, two range objects are considered equal if they
represent the same sequence of values.  (Note that two range objects
that compare equal might have different *note start: 1f49, *note stop:
1f4a. and *note step: 1f4b. attributes, for example ‘range(0) ==
range(2, 1, 3)’ or ‘range(0, 3, 2) == range(0, 4, 2)’.)

在 3.2 版的變更: Implement the Sequence ABC. Support slicing and
negative indices.  Test *note int: 17e. objects for membership in
constant time instead of iterating through all items.

在 3.3 版的變更: Define '==' and '!=' to compare range objects based on
the sequence of values they define (instead of comparing based on object
identity).

Added the *note start: 1f49, *note stop: 1f4a. and *note step: 1f4b.
attributes.

也參考
......

   * The linspace recipe(1) shows how to implement a lazy version of
     range suitable for floating-point applications.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/579000-equally-spaced-numbers-linspace/


File: python.info,  Node: Text Sequence Type --- str,  Next: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview,  Prev: Sequence Types --- list tuple range,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.8 Text Sequence Type -- ‘str’
---------------------------------

Textual data in Python is handled with *note str: 157. objects, or
'strings'.  Strings are immutable *note sequences: 1a3e. of Unicode code
points.  String literals are written in a variety of ways:

   * Single quotes: ‘'allows embedded "double" quotes'’

   * Double quotes: ‘"allows embedded 'single' quotes"’

   * Triple quoted: ‘'''Three single quotes'''’, ‘"""Three double
     quotes"""’

Triple quoted strings may span multiple lines - all associated
whitespace will be included in the string literal.

String literals that are part of a single expression and have only
whitespace between them will be implicitly converted to a single string
literal.  That is, ‘("spam " "eggs") == "spam eggs"’.

See *note String and Bytes literals: 1c37. for more about the various
forms of string literal, including supported *note escape sequences:
16a, and the ‘r’ ("raw") prefix that disables most escape sequence
processing.

Strings may also be created from other objects using the *note str: 157.
constructor.

Since there is no separate "character" type, indexing a string produces
strings of length 1.  That is, for a non-empty string 's', ‘s[0] ==
s[0:1]’.

There is also no mutable string type, but *note str.join(): 1f41. or
*note io.StringIO: db1. can be used to efficiently construct strings
from multiple fragments.

在 3.3 版的變更: For backwards compatibility with the Python 2 series,
the ‘u’ prefix is once again permitted on string literals.  It has no
effect on the meaning of string literals and cannot be combined with the
‘r’ prefix.

 -- 類別: str (object='')

 -- 類別: str (object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Return a *note string: 19f0. version of 'object'.  If 'object' is
     not provided, returns the empty string.  Otherwise, the behavior of
     ‘str()’ depends on whether 'encoding' or 'errors' is given, as
     follows.

     If neither 'encoding' nor 'errors' is given, ‘str(object)’ returns
     *note type(object).__str__(object): 418, which is the "informal" or
     nicely printable string representation of 'object'.  For string
     objects, this is the string itself.  If 'object' does not have a
     *note __str__(): 418. method, then *note str(): 157. falls back to
     returning *note repr(object): 61e.

     If at least one of 'encoding' or 'errors' is given, 'object' should
     be a *note bytes-like object: b9f. (e.g.  *note bytes: 2c1. or
     *note bytearray: 2c0.).  In this case, if 'object' is a *note
     bytes: 2c1. (or *note bytearray: 2c0.) object, then ‘str(bytes,
     encoding, errors)’ is equivalent to *note bytes.decode(encoding,
     errors): 70f.  Otherwise, the bytes object underlying the buffer
     object is obtained before calling *note bytes.decode(): 70f.  See
     *note Binary Sequence Types -- bytes, bytearray, memoryview: 1ef3.
     and *note 緩衝協定 (Buffer Protocol): 148. for information on
     buffer objects.

     Passing a *note bytes: 2c1. object to *note str(): 157. without the
     'encoding' or 'errors' arguments falls under the first case of
     returning the informal string representation (see also the *note
     -b: 3d7. command-line option to Python).  For example:

          >>> str(b'Zoot!')
          "b'Zoot!'"

     For more information on the ‘str’ class and its methods, see *note
     Text Sequence Type -- str: 19f0. and the *note String Methods:
     19f1. section below.  To output formatted strings, see the *note
     f-string（f 字串）: 7ed. and *note 格式化文字語法: 121f. sections.
     In addition, see the *note 文本處理 (Text Processing) 服務: 1f4d.
     section.

* Menu:

* String Methods: String Methods<2>.
* printf-style String Formatting::


File: python.info,  Node: String Methods<2>,  Next: printf-style String Formatting,  Up: Text Sequence Type --- str

5.4.8.1 String Methods
......................

Strings implement all of the *note common: 1f3f. sequence operations,
along with the additional methods described below.

Strings also support two styles of string formatting, one providing a
large degree of flexibility and customization (see *note str.format():
41b, *note 格式化文字語法: 121f. and *note 自訂字串格式: 1f4f.) and the
other based on C ‘printf’ style formatting that handles a narrower range
of types and is slightly harder to use correctly, but is often faster
for the cases it can handle (*note printf-style String Formatting:
4cb.).

The *note 文本處理 (Text Processing) 服務: 1f50. section of the standard
library covers a number of other modules that provide various text
related utilities (including regular expression support in the *note re:
b4. module).

 -- 方法: str.capitalize ()

     Return a copy of the string with its first character capitalized
     and the rest lowercased.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The first character is now put into titlecase
     rather than uppercase.  This means that characters like digraphs
     will only have their first letter capitalized, instead of the full
     character.

 -- 方法: str.casefold ()

     Return a casefolded copy of the string.  Casefolded strings may be
     used for caseless matching.

     Casefolding is similar to lowercasing but more aggressive because
     it is intended to remove all case distinctions in a string.  For
     example, the German lowercase letter ‘'ß'’ is equivalent to ‘"ss"’.
     Since it is already lowercase, *note lower(): 15ba. would do
     nothing to ‘'ß'’; *note casefold(): c4e. converts it to ‘"ss"’.

     The casefolding algorithm is described in section 3.13 'Default
     Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard(1).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 方法: str.center (width[, fillchar])

     Return centered in a string of length 'width'.  Padding is done
     using the specified 'fillchar' (default is an ASCII space).  The
     original string is returned if 'width' is less than or equal to
     ‘len(s)’.

 -- 方法: str.count (sub[, start[, end]])

     Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring 'sub'
     in the range ['start', 'end'].  Optional arguments 'start' and
     'end' are interpreted as in slice notation.

     If 'sub' is empty, returns the number of empty strings between
     characters which is the length of the string plus one.

 -- 方法: str.encode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Return the string encoded to *note bytes: 2c1.

     'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’; see *note Standard Encodings:
     c30. for possible values.

     'errors' controls how encoding errors are handled.  If ‘'strict'’
     (the default), a *note UnicodeError: 1137. exception is raised.
     Other possible values are ‘'ignore'’, ‘'replace'’,
     ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’, ‘'backslashreplace'’ and any other name
     registered via *note codecs.register_error(): 130b.  See *note
     Error Handlers: 15b3. for details.

     For performance reasons, the value of 'errors' is not checked for
     validity unless an encoding error actually occurs, *note Python
     開發模式: 703. is enabled or a *note debug build: 69f. is used.

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增關鍵字引數的支援。

     在 3.9 版的變更: The value of the 'errors' argument is now checked
     in *note Python 開發模式: 703. and in *note debug mode: 69f.

 -- 方法: str.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])

     Return ‘True’ if the string ends with the specified 'suffix',
     otherwise return ‘False’.  'suffix' can also be a tuple of suffixes
     to look for.  With optional 'start', test beginning at that
     position.  With optional 'end', stop comparing at that position.

 -- 方法: str.expandtabs (tabsize=8)

     Return a copy of the string where all tab characters are replaced
     by one or more spaces, depending on the current column and the
     given tab size.  Tab positions occur every 'tabsize' characters
     (default is 8, giving tab positions at columns 0, 8, 16 and so on).
     To expand the string, the current column is set to zero and the
     string is examined character by character.  If the character is a
     tab (‘\t’), one or more space characters are inserted in the result
     until the current column is equal to the next tab position.  (The
     tab character itself is not copied.)  If the character is a newline
     (‘\n’) or return (‘\r’), it is copied and the current column is
     reset to zero.  Any other character is copied unchanged and the
     current column is incremented by one regardless of how the
     character is represented when printed.

          >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
          '01      012     0123    01234'
          >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
          '01  012 0123    01234'

 -- 方法: str.find (sub[, start[, end]])

     Return the lowest index in the string where substring 'sub' is
     found within the slice ‘s[start:end]’.  Optional arguments 'start'
     and 'end' are interpreted as in slice notation.  Return ‘-1’ if
     'sub' is not found.

          備註: The *note find(): d28. method should be used only if you
          need to know the position of 'sub'.  To check if 'sub' is a
          substring or not, use the *note in: 267. operator:

               >>> 'Py' in 'Python'
               True

 -- 方法: str.format (*args, **kwargs)

     Perform a string formatting operation.  The string on which this
     method is called can contain literal text or replacement fields
     delimited by braces ‘{}’.  Each replacement field contains either
     the numeric index of a positional argument, or the name of a
     keyword argument.  Returns a copy of the string where each
     replacement field is replaced with the string value of the
     corresponding argument.

          >>> "The sum of 1 + 2 is {0}".format(1+2)
          'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3'

     See *note 格式化文字語法: 121f. for a description of the various
     formatting options that can be specified in format strings.

          備註: When formatting a number (*note int: 17e, *note float:
          26a, *note complex: 26b, *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0. and
          subclasses) with the ‘n’ type (ex: ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’), the
          function temporarily sets the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the
          ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale to decode ‘decimal_point’ and
          ‘thousands_sep’ fields of ‘localeconv()’ if they are non-ASCII
          or longer than 1 byte, and the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale is
          different than the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale.  This temporary change
          affects other threads.

     在 3.7 版的變更: When formatting a number with the ‘n’ type, the
     function sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’
     locale in some cases.

 -- 方法: str.format_map (mapping)

     Similar to ‘str.format(**mapping)’, except that ‘mapping’ is used
     directly and not copied to a *note dict: 239.  This is useful if
     for example ‘mapping’ is a dict subclass:

          >>> class Default(dict):
          ...     def __missing__(self, key):
          ...         return key
          ...
          >>> '{name} was born in {country}'.format_map(Default(name='Guido'))
          'Guido was born in country'

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 方法: str.index (sub[, start[, end]])

     Like *note find(): d28, but raise *note ValueError: 183. when the
     substring is not found.

 -- 方法: str.isalnum ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and
     there is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.  A character
     ‘c’ is alphanumeric if one of the following returns ‘True’:
     ‘c.isalpha()’, ‘c.isdecimal()’, ‘c.isdigit()’, or ‘c.isnumeric()’.

 -- 方法: str.isalpha ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are alphabetic and
     there is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.  Alphabetic
     characters are those characters defined in the Unicode character
     database as "Letter", i.e., those with general category property
     being one of "Lm", "Lt", "Lu", "Ll", or "Lo".  Note that this is
     different from the Alphabetic property defined in the section 4.10
     'Letters, Alphabetic, and Ideographic' of the Unicode Standard(2).

 -- 方法: str.isascii ()

     Return ‘True’ if the string is empty or all characters in the
     string are ASCII, ‘False’ otherwise.  ASCII characters have code
     points in the range U+0000-U+007F.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 方法: str.isdecimal ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are decimal
     characters and there is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.
     Decimal characters are those that can be used to form numbers in
     base 10, e.g.  U+0660, ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT ZERO. Formally a decimal
     character is a character in the Unicode General Category "Nd".

 -- 方法: str.isdigit ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are digits and there
     is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.  Digits include
     decimal characters and digits that need special handling, such as
     the compatibility superscript digits.  This covers digits which
     cannot be used to form numbers in base 10, like the Kharosthi
     numbers.  Formally, a digit is a character that has the property
     value Numeric_Type=Digit or Numeric_Type=Decimal.

 -- 方法: str.isidentifier ()

     Return ‘True’ if the string is a valid identifier according to the
     language definition, section *note Identifiers and keywords: 1c27.

     *note keyword.iskeyword(): 1f59. can be used to test whether string
     ‘s’ is a reserved identifier, such as *note def: 12ca. and *note
     class: 1168.

     範例：

          >>> from keyword import iskeyword

          >>> 'hello'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('hello')
          (True, False)
          >>> 'def'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('def')
          (True, True)

 -- 方法: str.islower ()

     Return ‘True’ if all cased characters (3) in the string are
     lowercase and there is at least one cased character, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- 方法: str.isnumeric ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are numeric
     characters, and there is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.
     Numeric characters include digit characters, and all characters
     that have the Unicode numeric value property, e.g.  U+2155, VULGAR
     FRACTION ONE FIFTH. Formally, numeric characters are those with the
     property value Numeric_Type=Digit, Numeric_Type=Decimal or
     Numeric_Type=Numeric.

 -- 方法: str.isprintable ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are printable or the
     string is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  Nonprintable characters are
     those characters defined in the Unicode character database as
     "Other" or "Separator", excepting the ASCII space (0x20) which is
     considered printable.  (Note that printable characters in this
     context are those which should not be escaped when *note repr():
     61e. is invoked on a string.  It has no bearing on the handling of
     strings written to *note sys.stdout: 92a. or *note sys.stderr:
     778.)

 -- 方法: str.isspace ()

     Return ‘True’ if there are only whitespace characters in the string
     and there is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.

     A character is 'whitespace' if in the Unicode character database
     (see *note unicodedata: 100.), either its general category is ‘Zs’
     ("Separator, space"), or its bidirectional class is one of ‘WS’,
     ‘B’, or ‘S’.

 -- 方法: str.istitle ()

     Return ‘True’ if the string is a titlecased string and there is at
     least one character, for example uppercase characters may only
     follow uncased characters and lowercase characters only cased ones.
     Return ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- 方法: str.isupper ()

     Return ‘True’ if all cased characters (4) in the string are
     uppercase and there is at least one cased character, ‘False’
     otherwise.

          >>> 'BANANA'.isupper()
          True
          >>> 'banana'.isupper()
          False
          >>> 'baNana'.isupper()
          False
          >>> ' '.isupper()
          False

 -- 方法: str.join (iterable)

     Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in
     'iterable'.  A *note TypeError: 2ba. will be raised if there are
     any non-string values in 'iterable', including *note bytes: 2c1.
     objects.  The separator between elements is the string providing
     this method.

 -- 方法: str.ljust (width[, fillchar])

     Return the string left justified in a string of length 'width'.
     Padding is done using the specified 'fillchar' (default is an ASCII
     space).  The original string is returned if 'width' is less than or
     equal to ‘len(s)’.

 -- 方法: str.lower ()

     Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters (5)
     converted to lowercase.

     The lowercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13
     'Default Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard(6).

 -- 方法: str.lstrip ([chars])

     Return a copy of the string with leading characters removed.  The
     'chars' argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be
     removed.  If omitted or ‘None’, the 'chars' argument defaults to
     removing whitespace.  The 'chars' argument is not a prefix; rather,
     all combinations of its values are stripped:

          >>> '   spacious   '.lstrip()
          'spacious   '
          >>> 'www.example.com'.lstrip('cmowz.')
          'example.com'

     See *note str.removeprefix(): 708. for a method that will remove a
     single prefix string rather than all of a set of characters.  For
     example:

          >>> 'Arthur: three!'.lstrip('Arthur: ')
          'ee!'
          >>> 'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix('Arthur: ')
          'three!'

 -- 方法: static str.maketrans (x[, y[, z]])

     This static method returns a translation table usable for *note
     str.translate(): 1f60.

     If there is only one argument, it must be a dictionary mapping
     Unicode ordinals (integers) or characters (strings of length 1) to
     Unicode ordinals, strings (of arbitrary lengths) or ‘None’.
     Character keys will then be converted to ordinals.

     If there are two arguments, they must be strings of equal length,
     and in the resulting dictionary, each character in x will be mapped
     to the character at the same position in y.  If there is a third
     argument, it must be a string, whose characters will be mapped to
     ‘None’ in the result.

 -- 方法: str.partition (sep)

     Split the string at the first occurrence of 'sep', and return a
     3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator
     itself, and the part after the separator.  If the separator is not
     found, return a 3-tuple containing the string itself, followed by
     two empty strings.

 -- 方法: str.removeprefix (prefix, /)

     If the string starts with the 'prefix' string, return
     ‘string[len(prefix):]’.  Otherwise, return a copy of the original
     string:

          >>> 'TestHook'.removeprefix('Test')
          'Hook'
          >>> 'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix('Test')
          'BaseTestCase'

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 方法: str.removesuffix (suffix, /)

     If the string ends with the 'suffix' string and that 'suffix' is
     not empty, return ‘string[:-len(suffix)]’.  Otherwise, return a
     copy of the original string:

          >>> 'MiscTests'.removesuffix('Tests')
          'Misc'
          >>> 'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix('Tests')
          'TmpDirMixin'

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 方法: str.replace (old, new[, count])

     Return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring 'old'
     replaced by 'new'.  If the optional argument 'count' is given, only
     the first 'count' occurrences are replaced.

 -- 方法: str.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

     Return the highest index in the string where substring 'sub' is
     found, such that 'sub' is contained within ‘s[start:end]’.
     Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are interpreted as in slice
     notation.  Return ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- 方法: str.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])

     Like *note rfind(): d29. but raises *note ValueError: 183. when the
     substring 'sub' is not found.

 -- 方法: str.rjust (width[, fillchar])

     Return the string right justified in a string of length 'width'.
     Padding is done using the specified 'fillchar' (default is an ASCII
     space).  The original string is returned if 'width' is less than or
     equal to ‘len(s)’.

 -- 方法: str.rpartition (sep)

     Split the string at the last occurrence of 'sep', and return a
     3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator
     itself, and the part after the separator.  If the separator is not
     found, return a 3-tuple containing two empty strings, followed by
     the string itself.

 -- 方法: str.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Return a list of the words in the string, using 'sep' as the
     delimiter string.  If 'maxsplit' is given, at most 'maxsplit'
     splits are done, the 'rightmost' ones.  If 'sep' is not specified
     or ‘None’, any whitespace string is a separator.  Except for
     splitting from the right, *note rsplit(): 10e9. behaves like *note
     split(): d2a. which is described in detail below.

 -- 方法: str.rstrip ([chars])

     Return a copy of the string with trailing characters removed.  The
     'chars' argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be
     removed.  If omitted or ‘None’, the 'chars' argument defaults to
     removing whitespace.  The 'chars' argument is not a suffix; rather,
     all combinations of its values are stripped:

          >>> '   spacious   '.rstrip()
          '   spacious'
          >>> 'mississippi'.rstrip('ipz')
          'mississ'

     See *note str.removesuffix(): 709. for a method that will remove a
     single suffix string rather than all of a set of characters.  For
     example:

          >>> 'Monty Python'.rstrip(' Python')
          'M'
          >>> 'Monty Python'.removesuffix(' Python')
          'Monty'

 -- 方法: str.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Return a list of the words in the string, using 'sep' as the
     delimiter string.  If 'maxsplit' is given, at most 'maxsplit'
     splits are done (thus, the list will have at most ‘maxsplit+1’
     elements).  If 'maxsplit' is not specified or ‘-1’, then there is
     no limit on the number of splits (all possible splits are made).

     If 'sep' is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together
     and are deemed to delimit empty strings (for example,
     ‘'1,,2'.split(',')’ returns ‘['1', '', '2']’).  The 'sep' argument
     may consist of multiple characters as a single delimiter (to split
     with multiple delimiters, use *note re.split(): 9ca.).  Splitting
     an empty string with a specified separator returns ‘['']’.

     舉例來說：

          >>> '1,2,3'.split(',')
          ['1', '2', '3']
          >>> '1,2,3'.split(',', maxsplit=1)
          ['1', '2,3']
          >>> '1,2,,3,'.split(',')
          ['1', '2', '', '3', '']
          >>> '1<>2<>3<4'.split('<>')
          ['1', '2', '3<4']

     If 'sep' is not specified or is ‘None’, a different splitting
     algorithm is applied: runs of consecutive whitespace are regarded
     as a single separator, and the result will contain no empty strings
     at the start or end if the string has leading or trailing
     whitespace.  Consequently, splitting an empty string or a string
     consisting of just whitespace with a ‘None’ separator returns ‘[]’.

     舉例來說：

          >>> '1 2 3'.split()
          ['1', '2', '3']
          >>> '1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
          ['1', '2 3']
          >>> '   1   2   3   '.split()
          ['1', '2', '3']

 -- 方法: str.splitlines (keepends=False)

     Return a list of the lines in the string, breaking at line
     boundaries.  Line breaks are not included in the resulting list
     unless 'keepends' is given and true.

     This method splits on the following line boundaries.  In
     particular, the boundaries are a superset of *note universal
     newlines: bac.

     Representation              描述
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
     ‘\n’                        Line Feed
                                 
                                 
     ‘\r’                        Carriage Return
                                 
                                 
     ‘\r\n’                      Carriage Return + Line Feed
                                 
                                 
     ‘\v’ 或 ‘\x0b’              Line Tabulation
                                 
                                 
     ‘\f’ 或 ‘\x0c’              Form Feed
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1c’                      File Separator
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1d’                      Group Separator
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1e’                      Record Separator
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x85’                      Next Line (C1 Control Code)
                                 
                                 
     ‘\u2028’                    Line Separator
                                 
                                 
     ‘\u2029’                    Paragraph Separator
                                 

     在 3.2 版的變更: ‘\v’ and ‘\f’ added to list of line boundaries.

     舉例來說：

          >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
          ['ab c', '', 'de fg', 'kl']
          >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
          ['ab c\n', '\n', 'de fg\r', 'kl\r\n']

     Unlike *note split(): d2a. when a delimiter string 'sep' is given,
     this method returns an empty list for the empty string, and a
     terminal line break does not result in an extra line:

          >>> "".splitlines()
          []
          >>> "One line\n".splitlines()
          ['One line']

     For comparison, ‘split('\n')’ gives:

          >>> ''.split('\n')
          ['']
          >>> 'Two lines\n'.split('\n')
          ['Two lines', '']

 -- 方法: str.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])

     Return ‘True’ if string starts with the 'prefix', otherwise return
     ‘False’.  'prefix' can also be a tuple of prefixes to look for.
     With optional 'start', test string beginning at that position.
     With optional 'end', stop comparing string at that position.

 -- 方法: str.strip ([chars])

     Return a copy of the string with the leading and trailing
     characters removed.  The 'chars' argument is a string specifying
     the set of characters to be removed.  If omitted or ‘None’, the
     'chars' argument defaults to removing whitespace.  The 'chars'
     argument is not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its
     values are stripped:

          >>> '   spacious   '.strip()
          'spacious'
          >>> 'www.example.com'.strip('cmowz.')
          'example'

     The outermost leading and trailing 'chars' argument values are
     stripped from the string.  Characters are removed from the leading
     end until reaching a string character that is not contained in the
     set of characters in 'chars'.  A similar action takes place on the
     trailing end.  For example:

          >>> comment_string = '#....... Section 3.2.1 Issue #32 .......'
          >>> comment_string.strip('.#! ')
          'Section 3.2.1 Issue #32'

 -- 方法: str.swapcase ()

     Return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to
     lowercase and vice versa.  Note that it is not necessarily true
     that ‘s.swapcase().swapcase() == s’.

 -- 方法: str.title ()

     Return a titlecased version of the string where words start with an
     uppercase character and the remaining characters are lowercase.

     舉例來說：

          >>> 'Hello world'.title()
          'Hello World'

     The algorithm uses a simple language-independent definition of a
     word as groups of consecutive letters.  The definition works in
     many contexts but it means that apostrophes in contractions and
     possessives form word boundaries, which may not be the desired
     result:

          >>> "they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
          "They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

     The *note string.capwords(): 1f63. function does not have this
     problem, as it splits words on spaces only.

     Alternatively, a workaround for apostrophes can be constructed
     using regular expressions:

          >>> import re
          >>> def titlecase(s):
          ...     return re.sub(r"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
          ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0).capitalize(),
          ...                   s)
          ...
          >>> titlecase("they're bill's friends.")
          "They're Bill's Friends."

 -- 方法: str.translate (table)

     Return a copy of the string in which each character has been mapped
     through the given translation table.  The table must be an object
     that implements indexing via *note __getitem__(): 4e7, typically a
     *note mapping: 104d. or *note sequence: 238.  When indexed by a
     Unicode ordinal (an integer), the table object can do any of the
     following: return a Unicode ordinal or a string, to map the
     character to one or more other characters; return ‘None’, to delete
     the character from the return string; or raise a *note LookupError:
     1f64. exception, to map the character to itself.

     You can use *note str.maketrans(): c51. to create a translation map
     from character-to-character mappings in different formats.

     See also the *note codecs: 19. module for a more flexible approach
     to custom character mappings.

 -- 方法: str.upper ()

     Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters (7)
     converted to uppercase.  Note that ‘s.upper().isupper()’ might be
     ‘False’ if ‘s’ contains uncased characters or if the Unicode
     category of the resulting character(s) is not "Lu" (Letter,
     uppercase), but e.g.  "Lt" (Letter, titlecase).

     The uppercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13
     'Default Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard(8).

 -- 方法: str.zfill (width)

     Return a copy of the string left filled with ASCII ‘'0'’ digits to
     make a string of length 'width'.  A leading sign prefix
     (‘'+'’/‘'-'’) is handled by inserting the padding 'after' the sign
     character rather than before.  The original string is returned if
     'width' is less than or equal to ‘len(s)’.

     舉例來說：

          >>> "42".zfill(5)
          '00042'
          >>> "-42".zfill(5)
          '-0042'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch03.pdf

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch04.pdf

   (3) Cased characters are those with general category property being
one of "Lu" (Letter, uppercase), "Ll" (Letter, lowercase), or "Lt"
(Letter, titlecase).

   (4) Cased characters are those with general category property being
one of "Lu" (Letter, uppercase), "Ll" (Letter, lowercase), or "Lt"
(Letter, titlecase).

   (5) Cased characters are those with general category property being
one of "Lu" (Letter, uppercase), "Ll" (Letter, lowercase), or "Lt"
(Letter, titlecase).

   (6) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch03.pdf

   (7) Cased characters are those with general category property being
one of "Lu" (Letter, uppercase), "Ll" (Letter, lowercase), or "Lt"
(Letter, titlecase).

   (8) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch03.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: printf-style String Formatting,  Prev: String Methods<2>,  Up: Text Sequence Type --- str

5.4.8.2 ‘printf’-style String Formatting
........................................

     備註: The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of
     quirks that lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to
     display tuples and dictionaries correctly).  Using the newer *note
     formatted string literals: 7ed, the *note str.format(): 41b.
     interface, or *note template strings: 1f67. may help avoid these
     errors.  Each of these alternatives provides their own trade-offs
     and benefits of simplicity, flexibility, and/or extensibility.

String objects have one unique built-in operation: the ‘%’ operator
(modulo).  This is also known as the string 'formatting' or
'interpolation' operator.  Given ‘format % values’ (where 'format' is a
string), ‘%’ conversion specifications in 'format' are replaced with
zero or more elements of 'values'.  The effect is similar to using the
‘sprintf()’ in the C language.

If 'format' requires a single argument, 'values' may be a single
non-tuple object.  (1)  Otherwise, 'values' must be a tuple with exactly
the number of items specified by the format string, or a single mapping
object (for example, a dictionary).

A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the
following components, which must occur in this order:

  1. The ‘'%'’ character, which marks the start of the specifier.

  2. Mapping key (optional), consisting of a parenthesised sequence of
     characters (for example, ‘(somename)’).

  3. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some
     conversion types.

  4. Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an ‘'*'’
     (asterisk), the actual width is read from the next element of the
     tuple in 'values', and the object to convert comes after the
     minimum field width and optional precision.

  5. Precision (optional), given as a ‘'.'’ (dot) followed by the
     precision.  If specified as ‘'*'’ (an asterisk), the actual
     precision is read from the next element of the tuple in 'values',
     and the value to convert comes after the precision.

  6. Length modifier (optional).

  7. Conversion type.

When the right argument is a dictionary (or other mapping type), then
the formats in the string 'must' include a parenthesised mapping key
into that dictionary inserted immediately after the ‘'%'’ character.
The mapping key selects the value to be formatted from the mapping.  For
example:

     >>> print('%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
     ...       {'language': "Python", "number": 2})
     Python has 002 quote types.

In this case no ‘*’ specifiers may occur in a format (since they require
a sequential parameter list).

The conversion flag characters are:

Flag          含義
              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'#'’         The value conversion will use the "alternate form" (where defined
              below).
              
              
‘'0'’         The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.
              
              
‘'-'’         The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ‘'0'’ conversion if
              both are given).
              
              
‘' '’         (a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty
              string) produced by a signed conversion.
              
              
‘'+'’         A sign character (‘'+'’ or ‘'-'’) will precede the conversion
              (overrides a "space" flag).
              

A length modifier (‘h’, ‘l’, or ‘L’) may be present, but is ignored as
it is not necessary for Python - so e.g.  ‘%ld’ is identical to ‘%d’.

The conversion types are:

Conversion       含義                                                      註解
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'d'’            Signed integer decimal.
                 
                                                                           
‘'i'’            Signed integer decimal.
                 
                                                                           
‘'o'’            Signed octal value.                                       (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'u'’            Obsolete type - it is identical to ‘'d'’.                 (6)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'x'’            Signed hexadecimal (lowercase).                           (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'X'’            Signed hexadecimal (uppercase).                           (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'e'’            Floating-point exponential format (lowercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'E'’            Floating-point exponential format (uppercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'f'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'F'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'g'’            Floating-point format.  Uses lowercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'G'’            Floating-point format.  Uses uppercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'c'’            Single character (accepts integer or single character
                 string).
                 
                                                                           
‘'r'’            String (converts any Python object using                  (5)
                 *note repr(): 61e.).                                      
                 
                                                                           
‘'s'’            String (converts any Python object using                  (5)
                 *note str(): 157.).                                       
                 
                                                                           
‘'a'’            String (converts any Python object using                  (5)
                 *note ascii(): 1255.).                                    
                 
                                                                           
‘'%'’            No argument is converted, results in a ‘'%'’ character
                 in the result.
                 

註解：

  1. The alternate form causes a leading octal specifier (‘'0o'’) to be
     inserted before the first digit.

  2. The alternate form causes a leading ‘'0x'’ or ‘'0X'’ (depending on
     whether the ‘'x'’ or ‘'X'’ format was used) to be inserted before
     the first digit.

  3. The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal
     point, even if no digits follow it.

     The precision determines the number of digits after the decimal
     point and defaults to 6.

  4. The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal
     point, and trailing zeroes are not removed as they would otherwise
     be.

     The precision determines the number of significant digits before
     and after the decimal point and defaults to 6.

  5. If precision is ‘N’, the output is truncated to ‘N’ characters.

  6. 參閱 PEP 237(2)。

Since Python strings have an explicit length, ‘%s’ conversions do not
assume that ‘'\0'’ is the end of the string.

在 3.1 版的變更: ‘%f’ conversions for numbers whose absolute value is
over 1e50 are no longer replaced by ‘%g’ conversions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) To format only a tuple you should therefore provide a singleton
tuple whose only element is the tuple to be formatted.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview,  Next: Set Types --- set frozenset,  Prev: Text Sequence Type --- str,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.9 Binary Sequence Types -- ‘bytes’, ‘bytearray’, ‘memoryview’
-----------------------------------------------------------------

The core built-in types for manipulating binary data are *note bytes:
2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0.  They are supported by *note memoryview:
17f. which uses the *note buffer protocol: 148. to access the memory of
other binary objects without needing to make a copy.

The *note array: 7. module supports efficient storage of basic data
types like 32-bit integers and IEEE754 double-precision floating values.

* Menu:

* Bytes Objects::
* Bytearray Objects::
* Bytes and Bytearray Operations::
* printf-style Bytes Formatting::
* Memory Views::


File: python.info,  Node: Bytes Objects,  Next: Bytearray Objects,  Up: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.1 Bytes Objects
.....................

Bytes objects are immutable sequences of single bytes.  Since many major
binary protocols are based on the ASCII text encoding, bytes objects
offer several methods that are only valid when working with ASCII
compatible data and are closely related to string objects in a variety
of other ways.

 -- 類別: bytes ([source[, encoding[, errors]]])

     Firstly, the syntax for bytes literals is largely the same as that
     for string literals, except that a ‘b’ prefix is added:

        * Single quotes: ‘b'still allows embedded "double" quotes'’

        * Double quotes: ‘b"still allows embedded 'single' quotes"’

        * Triple quoted: ‘b'''3 single quotes'''’, ‘b"""3 double
          quotes"""’

     Only ASCII characters are permitted in bytes literals (regardless
     of the declared source code encoding).  Any binary values over 127
     must be entered into bytes literals using the appropriate escape
     sequence.

     As with string literals, bytes literals may also use a ‘r’ prefix
     to disable processing of escape sequences.  See *note String and
     Bytes literals: 1c37. for more about the various forms of bytes
     literal, including supported escape sequences.

     While bytes literals and representations are based on ASCII text,
     bytes objects actually behave like immutable sequences of integers,
     with each value in the sequence restricted such that ‘0 <= x < 256’
     (attempts to violate this restriction will trigger *note
     ValueError: 183.).  This is done deliberately to emphasise that
     while many binary formats include ASCII based elements and can be
     usefully manipulated with some text-oriented algorithms, this is
     not generally the case for arbitrary binary data (blindly applying
     text processing algorithms to binary data formats that are not
     ASCII compatible will usually lead to data corruption).

     In addition to the literal forms, bytes objects can be created in a
     number of other ways:

        * A zero-filled bytes object of a specified length: ‘bytes(10)’

        * From an iterable of integers: ‘bytes(range(20))’

        * Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol:
          ‘bytes(obj)’

     Also see the *note bytes: 18a9. built-in.

     Since 2 hexadecimal digits correspond precisely to a single byte,
     hexadecimal numbers are a commonly used format for describing
     binary data.  Accordingly, the bytes type has an additional class
     method to read data in that format:

      -- 方法: classmethod fromhex (string)

          This *note bytes: 2c1. class method returns a bytes object,
          decoding the given string object.  The string must contain two
          hexadecimal digits per byte, with ASCII whitespace being
          ignored.

               >>> bytes.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
               b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2'

          在 3.7 版的變更: *note bytes.fromhex(): 944. now skips all
          ASCII whitespace in the string, not just spaces.

     A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytes object
     into its hexadecimal representation.

      -- 方法: hex ([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])

          Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for
          each byte in the instance.

               >>> b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'.hex()
               'f0f1f2'

          If you want to make the hex string easier to read, you can
          specify a single character separator 'sep' parameter to
          include in the output.  By default, this separator will be
          included between each byte.  A second optional 'bytes_per_sep'
          parameter controls the spacing.  Positive values calculate the
          separator position from the right, negative values from the
          left.

               >>> value = b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'
               >>> value.hex('-')
               'f0-f1-f2'
               >>> value.hex('_', 2)
               'f0_f1f2'
               >>> b'UUDDLRLRAB'.hex(' ', -4)
               '55554444 4c524c52 4142'

          在 3.5 版被加入.

          在 3.8 版的變更: *note bytes.hex(): bde. now supports optional
          'sep' and 'bytes_per_sep' parameters to insert separators
          between bytes in the hex output.

Since bytes objects are sequences of integers (akin to a tuple), for a
bytes object 'b', ‘b[0]’ will be an integer, while ‘b[0:1]’ will be a
bytes object of length 1.  (This contrasts with text strings, where both
indexing and slicing will produce a string of length 1)

The representation of bytes objects uses the literal format (‘b'...'’)
since it is often more useful than e.g.  ‘bytes([46, 46, 46])’.  You can
always convert a bytes object into a list of integers using ‘list(b)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Bytearray Objects,  Next: Bytes and Bytearray Operations,  Prev: Bytes Objects,  Up: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.2 Bytearray Objects
.........................

*note bytearray: 2c0. objects are a mutable counterpart to *note bytes:
2c1. objects.

 -- 類別: bytearray ([source[, encoding[, errors]]])

     There is no dedicated literal syntax for bytearray objects, instead
     they are always created by calling the constructor:

        * Creating an empty instance: ‘bytearray()’

        * Creating a zero-filled instance with a given length:
          ‘bytearray(10)’

        * From an iterable of integers: ‘bytearray(range(20))’

        * Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol:
          ‘bytearray(b'Hi!')’

     As bytearray objects are mutable, they support the *note mutable:
     1ef1. sequence operations in addition to the common bytes and
     bytearray operations described in *note Bytes and Bytearray
     Operations: 1ef2.

     Also see the *note bytearray: 18aa. built-in.

     Since 2 hexadecimal digits correspond precisely to a single byte,
     hexadecimal numbers are a commonly used format for describing
     binary data.  Accordingly, the bytearray type has an additional
     class method to read data in that format:

      -- 方法: classmethod fromhex (string)

          This *note bytearray: 2c0. class method returns bytearray
          object, decoding the given string object.  The string must
          contain two hexadecimal digits per byte, with ASCII whitespace
          being ignored.

               >>> bytearray.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
               bytearray(b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2')

          在 3.7 版的變更: *note bytearray.fromhex(): 945. now skips all
          ASCII whitespace in the string, not just spaces.

     A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytearray
     object into its hexadecimal representation.

      -- 方法: hex ([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])

          Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for
          each byte in the instance.

               >>> bytearray(b'\xf0\xf1\xf2').hex()
               'f0f1f2'

          在 3.5 版被加入.

          在 3.8 版的變更: Similar to *note bytes.hex(): bde, *note
          bytearray.hex(): bdf. now supports optional 'sep' and
          'bytes_per_sep' parameters to insert separators between bytes
          in the hex output.

Since bytearray objects are sequences of integers (akin to a list), for
a bytearray object 'b', ‘b[0]’ will be an integer, while ‘b[0:1]’ will
be a bytearray object of length 1.  (This contrasts with text strings,
where both indexing and slicing will produce a string of length 1)

The representation of bytearray objects uses the bytes literal format
(‘bytearray(b'...')’) since it is often more useful than e.g.
‘bytearray([46, 46, 46])’.  You can always convert a bytearray object
into a list of integers using ‘list(b)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Bytes and Bytearray Operations,  Next: printf-style Bytes Formatting,  Prev: Bytearray Objects,  Up: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.3 Bytes and Bytearray Operations
......................................

Both bytes and bytearray objects support the *note common: 1f3f.
sequence operations.  They interoperate not just with operands of the
same type, but with any *note bytes-like object: b9f.  Due to this
flexibility, they can be freely mixed in operations without causing
errors.  However, the return type of the result may depend on the order
of operands.

     備註: The methods on bytes and bytearray objects don't accept
     strings as their arguments, just as the methods on strings don't
     accept bytes as their arguments.  For example, you have to write:

          a = "abc"
          b = a.replace("a", "f")

     和：

          a = b"abc"
          b = a.replace(b"a", b"f")

Some bytes and bytearray operations assume the use of ASCII compatible
binary formats, and hence should be avoided when working with arbitrary
binary data.  These restrictions are covered below.

     備註: Using these ASCII based operations to manipulate binary data
     that is not stored in an ASCII based format may lead to data
     corruption.

The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects can be used with
arbitrary binary data.

 -- 方法: bytes.count (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- 方法: bytearray.count (sub[, start[, end]])

     Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of subsequence
     'sub' in the range ['start', 'end'].  Optional arguments 'start'
     and 'end' are interpreted as in slice notation.

     The subsequence to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     b9f. or an integer in the range 0 to 255.

     If 'sub' is empty, returns the number of empty slices between
     characters which is the length of the bytes object plus one.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as
     the subsequence.

 -- 方法: bytes.removeprefix (prefix, /)
 -- 方法: bytearray.removeprefix (prefix, /)

     If the binary data starts with the 'prefix' string, return
     ‘bytes[len(prefix):]’.  Otherwise, return a copy of the original
     binary data:

          >>> b'TestHook'.removeprefix(b'Test')
          b'Hook'
          >>> b'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix(b'Test')
          b'BaseTestCase'

     The 'prefix' may be any *note bytes-like object: b9f.

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 方法: bytes.removesuffix (suffix, /)
 -- 方法: bytearray.removesuffix (suffix, /)

     If the binary data ends with the 'suffix' string and that 'suffix'
     is not empty, return ‘bytes[:-len(suffix)]’.  Otherwise, return a
     copy of the original binary data:

          >>> b'MiscTests'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
          b'Misc'
          >>> b'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
          b'TmpDirMixin'

     The 'suffix' may be any *note bytes-like object: b9f.

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 方法: bytes.decode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
 -- 方法: bytearray.decode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Return the bytes decoded to a *note str: 157.

     'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’; see *note Standard Encodings:
     c30. for possible values.

     'errors' controls how decoding errors are handled.  If ‘'strict'’
     (the default), a *note UnicodeError: 1137. exception is raised.
     Other possible values are ‘'ignore'’, ‘'replace'’, and any other
     name registered via *note codecs.register_error(): 130b.  See *note
     Error Handlers: 15b3. for details.

     For performance reasons, the value of 'errors' is not checked for
     validity unless a decoding error actually occurs, *note Python
     開發模式: 703. is enabled or a *note debug build: 69f. is used.

          備註: Passing the 'encoding' argument to *note str: 157.
          allows decoding any *note bytes-like object: b9f. directly,
          without needing to make a temporary ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearray’
          object.

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增關鍵字引數的支援。

     在 3.9 版的變更: The value of the 'errors' argument is now checked
     in *note Python 開發模式: 703. and in *note debug mode: 69f.

 -- 方法: bytes.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])
 -- 方法: bytearray.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])

     Return ‘True’ if the binary data ends with the specified 'suffix',
     otherwise return ‘False’.  'suffix' can also be a tuple of suffixes
     to look for.  With optional 'start', test beginning at that
     position.  With optional 'end', stop comparing at that position.

     The suffix(es) to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     b9f.

 -- 方法: bytes.find (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- 方法: bytearray.find (sub[, start[, end]])

     Return the lowest index in the data where the subsequence 'sub' is
     found, such that 'sub' is contained in the slice ‘s[start:end]’.
     Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are interpreted as in slice
     notation.  Return ‘-1’ if 'sub' is not found.

     The subsequence to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     b9f. or an integer in the range 0 to 255.

          備註: The *note find(): 160f. method should be used only if
          you need to know the position of 'sub'.  To check if 'sub' is
          a substring or not, use the *note in: 267. operator:

               >>> b'Py' in b'Python'
               True

     在 3.3 版的變更: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as
     the subsequence.

 -- 方法: bytes.index (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- 方法: bytearray.index (sub[, start[, end]])

     Like *note find(): 160f, but raise *note ValueError: 183. when the
     subsequence is not found.

     The subsequence to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     b9f. or an integer in the range 0 to 255.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as
     the subsequence.

 -- 方法: bytes.join (iterable)
 -- 方法: bytearray.join (iterable)

     Return a bytes or bytearray object which is the concatenation of
     the binary data sequences in 'iterable'.  A *note TypeError: 2ba.
     will be raised if there are any values in 'iterable' that are not
     *note bytes-like objects: b9f, including *note str: 157. objects.
     The separator between elements is the contents of the bytes or
     bytearray object providing this method.

 -- 方法: static bytes.maketrans (from, to)
 -- 方法: static bytearray.maketrans (from, to)

     This static method returns a translation table usable for *note
     bytes.translate(): 1f79. that will map each character in 'from'
     into the character at the same position in 'to'; 'from' and 'to'
     must both be *note bytes-like objects: b9f. and have the same
     length.

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- 方法: bytes.partition (sep)
 -- 方法: bytearray.partition (sep)

     Split the sequence at the first occurrence of 'sep', and return a
     3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator
     itself or its bytearray copy, and the part after the separator.  If
     the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing a copy of
     the original sequence, followed by two empty bytes or bytearray
     objects.

     The separator to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     b9f.

 -- 方法: bytes.replace (old, new[, count])
 -- 方法: bytearray.replace (old, new[, count])

     Return a copy of the sequence with all occurrences of subsequence
     'old' replaced by 'new'.  If the optional argument 'count' is
     given, only the first 'count' occurrences are replaced.

     The subsequence to search for and its replacement may be any *note
     bytes-like object: b9f.

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- 方法: bytearray.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

     Return the highest index in the sequence where the subsequence
     'sub' is found, such that 'sub' is contained within ‘s[start:end]’.
     Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are interpreted as in slice
     notation.  Return ‘-1’ on failure.

     The subsequence to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     b9f. or an integer in the range 0 to 255.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as
     the subsequence.

 -- 方法: bytes.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- 方法: bytearray.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])

     Like *note rfind(): 1610. but raises *note ValueError: 183. when
     the subsequence 'sub' is not found.

     The subsequence to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     b9f. or an integer in the range 0 to 255.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as
     the subsequence.

 -- 方法: bytes.rpartition (sep)
 -- 方法: bytearray.rpartition (sep)

     Split the sequence at the last occurrence of 'sep', and return a
     3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator
     itself or its bytearray copy, and the part after the separator.  If
     the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing two empty
     bytes or bytearray objects, followed by a copy of the original
     sequence.

     The separator to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     b9f.

 -- 方法: bytes.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])
 -- 方法: bytearray.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])

     Return ‘True’ if the binary data starts with the specified
     'prefix', otherwise return ‘False’.  'prefix' can also be a tuple
     of prefixes to look for.  With optional 'start', test beginning at
     that position.  With optional 'end', stop comparing at that
     position.

     The prefix(es) to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     b9f.

 -- 方法: bytes.translate (table, /, delete=b'')
 -- 方法: bytearray.translate (table, /, delete=b'')

     Return a copy of the bytes or bytearray object where all bytes
     occurring in the optional argument 'delete' are removed, and the
     remaining bytes have been mapped through the given translation
     table, which must be a bytes object of length 256.

     You can use the *note bytes.maketrans(): 1109. method to create a
     translation table.

     Set the 'table' argument to ‘None’ for translations that only
     delete characters:

          >>> b'read this short text'.translate(None, b'aeiou')
          b'rd ths shrt txt'

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'delete' is now supported as a keyword argument.

The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects have default
behaviours that assume the use of ASCII compatible binary formats, but
can still be used with arbitrary binary data by passing appropriate
arguments.  Note that all of the bytearray methods in this section do
'not' operate in place, and instead produce new objects.

 -- 方法: bytes.center (width[, fillbyte])
 -- 方法: bytearray.center (width[, fillbyte])

     Return a copy of the object centered in a sequence of length
     'width'.  Padding is done using the specified 'fillbyte' (default
     is an ASCII space).  For *note bytes: 2c1. objects, the original
     sequence is returned if 'width' is less than or equal to ‘len(s)’.

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.ljust (width[, fillbyte])
 -- 方法: bytearray.ljust (width[, fillbyte])

     Return a copy of the object left justified in a sequence of length
     'width'.  Padding is done using the specified 'fillbyte' (default
     is an ASCII space).  For *note bytes: 2c1. objects, the original
     sequence is returned if 'width' is less than or equal to ‘len(s)’.

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.lstrip ([chars])
 -- 方法: bytearray.lstrip ([chars])

     Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading bytes removed.
     The 'chars' argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of
     byte values to be removed - the name refers to the fact this method
     is usually used with ASCII characters.  If omitted or ‘None’, the
     'chars' argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace.  The
     'chars' argument is not a prefix; rather, all combinations of its
     values are stripped:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.lstrip()
          b'spacious   '
          >>> b'www.example.com'.lstrip(b'cmowz.')
          b'example.com'

     The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any *note
     bytes-like object: b9f.  See *note removeprefix(): 1f6e. for a
     method that will remove a single prefix string rather than all of a
     set of characters.  For example:

          >>> b'Arthur: three!'.lstrip(b'Arthur: ')
          b'ee!'
          >>> b'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix(b'Arthur: ')
          b'three!'

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.rjust (width[, fillbyte])
 -- 方法: bytearray.rjust (width[, fillbyte])

     Return a copy of the object right justified in a sequence of length
     'width'.  Padding is done using the specified 'fillbyte' (default
     is an ASCII space).  For *note bytes: 2c1. objects, the original
     sequence is returned if 'width' is less than or equal to ‘len(s)’.

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
 -- 方法: bytearray.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Split the binary sequence into subsequences of the same type, using
     'sep' as the delimiter string.  If 'maxsplit' is given, at most
     'maxsplit' splits are done, the 'rightmost' ones.  If 'sep' is not
     specified or ‘None’, any subsequence consisting solely of ASCII
     whitespace is a separator.  Except for splitting from the right,
     *note rsplit(): 1f8e. behaves like *note split(): 1f8f. which is
     described in detail below.

 -- 方法: bytes.rstrip ([chars])
 -- 方法: bytearray.rstrip ([chars])

     Return a copy of the sequence with specified trailing bytes
     removed.  The 'chars' argument is a binary sequence specifying the
     set of byte values to be removed - the name refers to the fact this
     method is usually used with ASCII characters.  If omitted or
     ‘None’, the 'chars' argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace.
     The 'chars' argument is not a suffix; rather, all combinations of
     its values are stripped:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.rstrip()
          b'   spacious'
          >>> b'mississippi'.rstrip(b'ipz')
          b'mississ'

     The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any *note
     bytes-like object: b9f.  See *note removesuffix(): 1f70. for a
     method that will remove a single suffix string rather than all of a
     set of characters.  For example:

          >>> b'Monty Python'.rstrip(b' Python')
          b'M'
          >>> b'Monty Python'.removesuffix(b' Python')
          b'Monty'

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
 -- 方法: bytearray.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Split the binary sequence into subsequences of the same type, using
     'sep' as the delimiter string.  If 'maxsplit' is given and
     non-negative, at most 'maxsplit' splits are done (thus, the list
     will have at most ‘maxsplit+1’ elements).  If 'maxsplit' is not
     specified or is ‘-1’, then there is no limit on the number of
     splits (all possible splits are made).

     If 'sep' is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together
     and are deemed to delimit empty subsequences (for example,
     ‘b'1,,2'.split(b',')’ returns ‘[b'1', b'', b'2']’).  The 'sep'
     argument may consist of a multibyte sequence as a single delimiter.
     Splitting an empty sequence with a specified separator returns
     ‘[b'']’ or ‘[bytearray(b'')]’ depending on the type of object being
     split.  The 'sep' argument may be any *note bytes-like object: b9f.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',')
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']
          >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',', maxsplit=1)
          [b'1', b'2,3']
          >>> b'1,2,,3,'.split(b',')
          [b'1', b'2', b'', b'3', b'']
          >>> b'1<>2<>3<4'.split(b'<>')
          [b'1', b'2', b'3<4']

     If 'sep' is not specified or is ‘None’, a different splitting
     algorithm is applied: runs of consecutive ASCII whitespace are
     regarded as a single separator, and the result will contain no
     empty strings at the start or end if the sequence has leading or
     trailing whitespace.  Consequently, splitting an empty sequence or
     a sequence consisting solely of ASCII whitespace without a
     specified separator returns ‘[]’.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'1 2 3'.split()
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']
          >>> b'1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
          [b'1', b'2 3']
          >>> b'   1   2   3   '.split()
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']

 -- 方法: bytes.strip ([chars])
 -- 方法: bytearray.strip ([chars])

     Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading and trailing
     bytes removed.  The 'chars' argument is a binary sequence
     specifying the set of byte values to be removed - the name refers
     to the fact this method is usually used with ASCII characters.  If
     omitted or ‘None’, the 'chars' argument defaults to removing ASCII
     whitespace.  The 'chars' argument is not a prefix or suffix;
     rather, all combinations of its values are stripped:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.strip()
          b'spacious'
          >>> b'www.example.com'.strip(b'cmowz.')
          b'example'

     The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any *note
     bytes-like object: b9f.

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects assume the use of
ASCII compatible binary formats and should not be applied to arbitrary
binary data.  Note that all of the bytearray methods in this section do
'not' operate in place, and instead produce new objects.

 -- 方法: bytes.capitalize ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.capitalize ()

     Return a copy of the sequence with each byte interpreted as an
     ASCII character, and the first byte capitalized and the rest
     lowercased.  Non-ASCII byte values are passed through unchanged.

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.expandtabs (tabsize=8)
 -- 方法: bytearray.expandtabs (tabsize=8)

     Return a copy of the sequence where all ASCII tab characters are
     replaced by one or more ASCII spaces, depending on the current
     column and the given tab size.  Tab positions occur every 'tabsize'
     bytes (default is 8, giving tab positions at columns 0, 8, 16 and
     so on).  To expand the sequence, the current column is set to zero
     and the sequence is examined byte by byte.  If the byte is an ASCII
     tab character (‘b'\t'’), one or more space characters are inserted
     in the result until the current column is equal to the next tab
     position.  (The tab character itself is not copied.)  If the
     current byte is an ASCII newline (‘b'\n'’) or carriage return
     (‘b'\r'’), it is copied and the current column is reset to zero.
     Any other byte value is copied unchanged and the current column is
     incremented by one regardless of how the byte value is represented
     when printed:

          >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
          b'01      012     0123    01234'
          >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
          b'01  012 0123    01234'

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.isalnum ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.isalnum ()

     Return ‘True’ if all bytes in the sequence are alphabetical ASCII
     characters or ASCII decimal digits and the sequence is not empty,
     ‘False’ otherwise.  Alphabetic ASCII characters are those byte
     values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.  ASCII
     decimal digits are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'0123456789'’.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalnum()
          True
          >>> b'ABC abc1'.isalnum()
          False

 -- 方法: bytes.isalpha ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.isalpha ()

     Return ‘True’ if all bytes in the sequence are alphabetic ASCII
     characters and the sequence is not empty, ‘False’ otherwise.
     Alphabetic ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'ABCabc'.isalpha()
          True
          >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalpha()
          False

 -- 方法: bytes.isascii ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.isascii ()

     Return ‘True’ if the sequence is empty or all bytes in the sequence
     are ASCII, ‘False’ otherwise.  ASCII bytes are in the range 0-0x7F.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 方法: bytes.isdigit ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.isdigit ()

     Return ‘True’ if all bytes in the sequence are ASCII decimal digits
     and the sequence is not empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  ASCII decimal
     digits are those byte values in the sequence ‘b'0123456789'’.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'1234'.isdigit()
          True
          >>> b'1.23'.isdigit()
          False

 -- 方法: bytes.islower ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.islower ()

     Return ‘True’ if there is at least one lowercase ASCII character in
     the sequence and no uppercase ASCII characters, ‘False’ otherwise.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'hello world'.islower()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.islower()
          False

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

 -- 方法: bytes.isspace ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.isspace ()

     Return ‘True’ if all bytes in the sequence are ASCII whitespace and
     the sequence is not empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  ASCII whitespace
     characters are those byte values in the sequence ‘b' \t\n\r\x0b\f'’
     (space, tab, newline, carriage return, vertical tab, form feed).

 -- 方法: bytes.istitle ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.istitle ()

     Return ‘True’ if the sequence is ASCII titlecase and the sequence
     is not empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  See *note bytes.title(): 1fa7.
     for more details on the definition of "titlecase".

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'Hello World'.istitle()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.istitle()
          False

 -- 方法: bytes.isupper ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.isupper ()

     Return ‘True’ if there is at least one uppercase alphabetic ASCII
     character in the sequence and no lowercase ASCII characters,
     ‘False’ otherwise.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'HELLO WORLD'.isupper()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.isupper()
          False

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

 -- 方法: bytes.lower ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.lower ()

     Return a copy of the sequence with all the uppercase ASCII
     characters converted to their corresponding lowercase counterpart.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'Hello World'.lower()
          b'hello world'

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.splitlines (keepends=False)
 -- 方法: bytearray.splitlines (keepends=False)

     Return a list of the lines in the binary sequence, breaking at
     ASCII line boundaries.  This method uses the *note universal
     newlines: bac. approach to splitting lines.  Line breaks are not
     included in the resulting list unless 'keepends' is given and true.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
          [b'ab c', b'', b'de fg', b'kl']
          >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
          [b'ab c\n', b'\n', b'de fg\r', b'kl\r\n']

     Unlike *note split(): 1f92. when a delimiter string 'sep' is given,
     this method returns an empty list for the empty string, and a
     terminal line break does not result in an extra line:

          >>> b"".split(b'\n'), b"Two lines\n".split(b'\n')
          ([b''], [b'Two lines', b''])
          >>> b"".splitlines(), b"One line\n".splitlines()
          ([], [b'One line'])

 -- 方法: bytes.swapcase ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.swapcase ()

     Return a copy of the sequence with all the lowercase ASCII
     characters converted to their corresponding uppercase counterpart
     and vice-versa.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'Hello World'.swapcase()
          b'hELLO wORLD'

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

     Unlike *note str.swapcase(): 1f61, it is always the case that
     ‘bin.swapcase().swapcase() == bin’ for the binary versions.  Case
     conversions are symmetrical in ASCII, even though that is not
     generally true for arbitrary Unicode code points.

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.title ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.title ()

     Return a titlecased version of the binary sequence where words
     start with an uppercase ASCII character and the remaining
     characters are lowercase.  Uncased byte values are left unmodified.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'Hello world'.title()
          b'Hello World'

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.
     All other byte values are uncased.

     The algorithm uses a simple language-independent definition of a
     word as groups of consecutive letters.  The definition works in
     many contexts but it means that apostrophes in contractions and
     possessives form word boundaries, which may not be the desired
     result:

          >>> b"they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
          b"They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

     A workaround for apostrophes can be constructed using regular
     expressions:

          >>> import re
          >>> def titlecase(s):
          ...     return re.sub(rb"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
          ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0)[0:1].upper() +
          ...                              mo.group(0)[1:].lower(),
          ...                   s)
          ...
          >>> titlecase(b"they're bill's friends.")
          b"They're Bill's Friends."

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.upper ()
 -- 方法: bytearray.upper ()

     Return a copy of the sequence with all the lowercase ASCII
     characters converted to their corresponding uppercase counterpart.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b'Hello World'.upper()
          b'HELLO WORLD'

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- 方法: bytes.zfill (width)
 -- 方法: bytearray.zfill (width)

     Return a copy of the sequence left filled with ASCII ‘b'0'’ digits
     to make a sequence of length 'width'.  A leading sign prefix
     (‘b'+'’/ ‘b'-'’) is handled by inserting the padding 'after' the
     sign character rather than before.  For *note bytes: 2c1. objects,
     the original sequence is returned if 'width' is less than or equal
     to ‘len(seq)’.

     舉例來說：

          >>> b"42".zfill(5)
          b'00042'
          >>> b"-42".zfill(5)
          b'-0042'

          備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.


File: python.info,  Node: printf-style Bytes Formatting,  Next: Memory Views,  Prev: Bytes and Bytearray Operations,  Up: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.4 ‘printf’-style Bytes Formatting
.......................................

     備註: The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of
     quirks that lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to
     display tuples and dictionaries correctly).  If the value being
     printed may be a tuple or dictionary, wrap it in a tuple.

Bytes objects (‘bytes’/‘bytearray’) have one unique built-in operation:
the ‘%’ operator (modulo).  This is also known as the bytes 'formatting'
or 'interpolation' operator.  Given ‘format % values’ (where 'format' is
a bytes object), ‘%’ conversion specifications in 'format' are replaced
with zero or more elements of 'values'.  The effect is similar to using
the ‘sprintf()’ in the C language.

If 'format' requires a single argument, 'values' may be a single
non-tuple object.  (1)  Otherwise, 'values' must be a tuple with exactly
the number of items specified by the format bytes object, or a single
mapping object (for example, a dictionary).

A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the
following components, which must occur in this order:

  1. The ‘'%'’ character, which marks the start of the specifier.

  2. Mapping key (optional), consisting of a parenthesised sequence of
     characters (for example, ‘(somename)’).

  3. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some
     conversion types.

  4. Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an ‘'*'’
     (asterisk), the actual width is read from the next element of the
     tuple in 'values', and the object to convert comes after the
     minimum field width and optional precision.

  5. Precision (optional), given as a ‘'.'’ (dot) followed by the
     precision.  If specified as ‘'*'’ (an asterisk), the actual
     precision is read from the next element of the tuple in 'values',
     and the value to convert comes after the precision.

  6. Length modifier (optional).

  7. Conversion type.

When the right argument is a dictionary (or other mapping type), then
the formats in the bytes object 'must' include a parenthesised mapping
key into that dictionary inserted immediately after the ‘'%'’ character.
The mapping key selects the value to be formatted from the mapping.  For
example:

     >>> print(b'%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
     ...       {b'language': b"Python", b"number": 2})
     b'Python has 002 quote types.'

In this case no ‘*’ specifiers may occur in a format (since they require
a sequential parameter list).

The conversion flag characters are:

Flag          含義
              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'#'’         The value conversion will use the "alternate form" (where defined
              below).
              
              
‘'0'’         The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.
              
              
‘'-'’         The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ‘'0'’ conversion if
              both are given).
              
              
‘' '’         (a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty
              string) produced by a signed conversion.
              
              
‘'+'’         A sign character (‘'+'’ or ‘'-'’) will precede the conversion
              (overrides a "space" flag).
              

A length modifier (‘h’, ‘l’, or ‘L’) may be present, but is ignored as
it is not necessary for Python - so e.g.  ‘%ld’ is identical to ‘%d’.

The conversion types are:

Conversion       含義                                                      註解
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'d'’            Signed integer decimal.
                 
                                                                           
‘'i'’            Signed integer decimal.
                 
                                                                           
‘'o'’            Signed octal value.                                       (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'u'’            Obsolete type - it is identical to ‘'d'’.                 (8)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'x'’            Signed hexadecimal (lowercase).                           (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'X'’            Signed hexadecimal (uppercase).                           (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'e'’            Floating-point exponential format (lowercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'E'’            Floating-point exponential format (uppercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'f'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'F'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'g'’            Floating-point format.  Uses lowercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'G'’            Floating-point format.  Uses uppercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'c'’            Single byte (accepts integer or single byte objects).
                 
                                                                           
‘'b'’            Bytes (any object that follows the                        (5)
                 *note buffer protocol: 148. or has                        
                 *note __bytes__(): 3de.).
                 
                                                                           
‘'s'’            ‘'s'’ is an alias for ‘'b'’ and should only be used for   (6)
                 Python2/3 code bases.                                     
                 
                                                                           
‘'a'’            Bytes (converts any Python object using                   (5)
                 ‘repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')’).         
                 
                                                                           
‘'r'’            ‘'r'’ is an alias for ‘'a'’ and should only be used for   (7)
                 Python2/3 code bases.                                     
                 
                                                                           
‘'%'’            No argument is converted, results in a ‘'%'’ character
                 in the result.
                 

註解：

  1. The alternate form causes a leading octal specifier (‘'0o'’) to be
     inserted before the first digit.

  2. The alternate form causes a leading ‘'0x'’ or ‘'0X'’ (depending on
     whether the ‘'x'’ or ‘'X'’ format was used) to be inserted before
     the first digit.

  3. The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal
     point, even if no digits follow it.

     The precision determines the number of digits after the decimal
     point and defaults to 6.

  4. The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal
     point, and trailing zeroes are not removed as they would otherwise
     be.

     The precision determines the number of significant digits before
     and after the decimal point and defaults to 6.

  5. If precision is ‘N’, the output is truncated to ‘N’ characters.

  6. ‘b'%s'’ is deprecated, but will not be removed during the 3.x
     series.

  7. ‘b'%r'’ is deprecated, but will not be removed during the 3.x
     series.

  8. 參閱 PEP 237(2)。

     備註: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate in
     place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes were
     made.

也參考
......

PEP 461(3) - Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray

在 3.5 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) To format only a tuple you should therefore provide a singleton
tuple whose only element is the tuple to be formatted.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/


File: python.info,  Node: Memory Views,  Prev: printf-style Bytes Formatting,  Up: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.5 Memory Views
....................

*note memoryview: 17f. objects allow Python code to access the internal
data of an object that supports the *note buffer protocol: 148. without
copying.

 -- 類別: memoryview (object)

     Create a *note memoryview: 17f. that references 'object'.  'object'
     must support the buffer protocol.  Built-in objects that support
     the buffer protocol include *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray:
     2c0.

     A *note memoryview: 17f. has the notion of an 'element', which is
     the atomic memory unit handled by the originating 'object'.  For
     many simple types such as *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray:
     2c0, an element is a single byte, but other types such as *note
     array.array: 18f. may have bigger elements.

     ‘len(view)’ is equal to the length of *note tolist: 1fb7, which is
     the nested list representation of the view.  If ‘view.ndim = 1’,
     this is equal to the number of elements in the view.

     在 3.12 版的變更: If ‘view.ndim == 0’, ‘len(view)’ now raises *note
     TypeError: 2ba. instead of returning 1.

     The *note itemsize: 1fb8. attribute will give you the number of
     bytes in a single element.

     A *note memoryview: 17f. supports slicing and indexing to expose
     its data.  One-dimensional slicing will result in a subview:

          >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
          >>> v[1]
          98
          >>> v[-1]
          103
          >>> v[1:4]
          <memory at 0x7f3ddc9f4350>
          >>> bytes(v[1:4])
          b'bce'

     If *note format: 1fb9. is one of the native format specifiers from
     the *note struct: cf. module, indexing with an integer or a tuple
     of integers is also supported and returns a single 'element' with
     the correct type.  One-dimensional memoryviews can be indexed with
     an integer or a one-integer tuple.  Multi-dimensional memoryviews
     can be indexed with tuples of exactly 'ndim' integers where 'ndim'
     is the number of dimensions.  Zero-dimensional memoryviews can be
     indexed with the empty tuple.

     Here is an example with a non-byte format:

          >>> import array
          >>> a = array.array('l', [-11111111, 22222222, -33333333, 44444444])
          >>> m = memoryview(a)
          >>> m[0]
          -11111111
          >>> m[-1]
          44444444
          >>> m[::2].tolist()
          [-11111111, -33333333]

     If the underlying object is writable, the memoryview supports
     one-dimensional slice assignment.  Resizing is not allowed:

          >>> data = bytearray(b'abcefg')
          >>> v = memoryview(data)
          >>> v.readonly
          False
          >>> v[0] = ord(b'z')
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'zbcefg')
          >>> v[1:4] = b'123'
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'z123fg')
          >>> v[2:3] = b'spam'
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          ValueError: memoryview assignment: lvalue and rvalue have different structures
          >>> v[2:6] = b'spam'
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'z1spam')

     One-dimensional memoryviews of *note hashable: 409. (read-only)
     types with formats 'B', 'b' or 'c' are also hashable.  The hash is
     defined as ‘hash(m) == hash(m.tobytes())’:

          >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
          >>> hash(v) == hash(b'abcefg')
          True
          >>> hash(v[2:4]) == hash(b'ce')
          True
          >>> hash(v[::-2]) == hash(b'abcefg'[::-2])
          True

     在 3.3 版的變更: One-dimensional memoryviews can now be sliced.
     One-dimensional memoryviews with formats 'B', 'b' or 'c' are now
     *note hashable: 409.

     在 3.4 版的變更: memoryview is now registered automatically with
     *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1055.

     在 3.5 版的變更: memoryviews can now be indexed with tuple of
     integers.

     *note memoryview: 17f. has several methods:

      -- 方法: __eq__ (exporter)

          A memoryview and a PEP 3118(1) exporter are equal if their
          shapes are equivalent and if all corresponding values are
          equal when the operands' respective format codes are
          interpreted using *note struct: cf. syntax.

          For the subset of *note struct: cf. format strings currently
          supported by *note tolist(): 1fb7, ‘v’ and ‘w’ are equal if
          ‘v.tolist() == w.tolist()’:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('I', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
               >>> b = array.array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])
               >>> c = array.array('b', [5, 3, 1])
               >>> x = memoryview(a)
               >>> y = memoryview(b)
               >>> x == a == y == b
               True
               >>> x.tolist() == a.tolist() == y.tolist() == b.tolist()
               True
               >>> z = y[::-2]
               >>> z == c
               True
               >>> z.tolist() == c.tolist()
               True

          If either format string is not supported by the *note struct:
          cf. module, then the objects will always compare as unequal
          (even if the format strings and buffer contents are
          identical):

               >>> from ctypes import BigEndianStructure, c_long
               >>> class BEPoint(BigEndianStructure):
               ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_long), ("y", c_long)]
               ...
               >>> point = BEPoint(100, 200)
               >>> a = memoryview(point)
               >>> b = memoryview(point)
               >>> a == point
               False
               >>> a == b
               False

          Note that, as with floating-point numbers, ‘v is w’ does 'not'
          imply ‘v == w’ for memoryview objects.

          在 3.3 版的變更: Previous versions compared the raw memory
          disregarding the item format and the logical array structure.

      -- 方法: tobytes (order='C')

          Return the data in the buffer as a bytestring.  This is
          equivalent to calling the *note bytes: 2c1. constructor on the
          memoryview.

               >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
               >>> m.tobytes()
               b'abc'
               >>> bytes(m)
               b'abc'

          For non-contiguous arrays the result is equal to the flattened
          list representation with all elements converted to bytes.
          *note tobytes(): 1fbb. supports all format strings, including
          those that are not in *note struct: cf. module syntax.

          在 3.8 版被加入: 'order' can be {'C', 'F', 'A'}.  When 'order'
          is 'C' or 'F', the data of the original array is converted to
          C or Fortran order.  For contiguous views, 'A' returns an
          exact copy of the physical memory.  In particular, in-memory
          Fortran order is preserved.  For non-contiguous views, the
          data is converted to C first.  'order=None' is the same as
          'order='C".

      -- 方法: hex ([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])

          Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for
          each byte in the buffer.

               >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
               >>> m.hex()
               '616263'

          在 3.5 版被加入.

          在 3.8 版的變更: Similar to *note bytes.hex(): bde, *note
          memoryview.hex(): be0. now supports optional 'sep' and
          'bytes_per_sep' parameters to insert separators between bytes
          in the hex output.

      -- 方法: tolist ()

          Return the data in the buffer as a list of elements.

               >>> memoryview(b'abc').tolist()
               [97, 98, 99]
               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('d', [1.1, 2.2, 3.3])
               >>> m = memoryview(a)
               >>> m.tolist()
               [1.1, 2.2, 3.3]

          在 3.3 版的變更: *note tolist(): 1fb7. now supports all single
          character native formats in *note struct: cf. module syntax as
          well as multi-dimensional representations.

      -- 方法: toreadonly ()

          Return a readonly version of the memoryview object.  The
          original memoryview object is unchanged.

               >>> m = memoryview(bytearray(b'abc'))
               >>> mm = m.toreadonly()
               >>> mm.tolist()
               [97, 98, 99]
               >>> mm[0] = 42
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
               >>> m[0] = 43
               >>> mm.tolist()
               [43, 98, 99]

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: release ()

          Release the underlying buffer exposed by the memoryview
          object.  Many objects take special actions when a view is held
          on them (for example, a *note bytearray: 2c0. would
          temporarily forbid resizing); therefore, calling release() is
          handy to remove these restrictions (and free any dangling
          resources) as soon as possible.

          After this method has been called, any further operation on
          the view raises a *note ValueError: 183. (except *note
          release(): 104f. itself which can be called multiple times):

               >>> m = memoryview(b'abc')
               >>> m.release()
               >>> m[0]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

          The context management protocol can be used for a similar
          effect, using the ‘with’ statement:

               >>> with memoryview(b'abc') as m:
               ...     m[0]
               ...
               97
               >>> m[0]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: cast (format[, shape])

          Cast a memoryview to a new format or shape.  'shape' defaults
          to ‘[byte_length//new_itemsize]’, which means that the result
          view will be one-dimensional.  The return value is a new
          memoryview, but the buffer itself is not copied.  Supported
          casts are 1D -> C-*note contiguous: 1fbe. and C-contiguous ->
          1D.

          The destination format is restricted to a single element
          native format in *note struct: cf. syntax.  One of the formats
          must be a byte format ('B', 'b' or 'c').  The byte length of
          the result must be the same as the original length.  Note that
          all byte lengths may depend on the operating system.

          Cast 1D/long to 1D/unsigned bytes:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('l', [1,2,3])
               >>> x = memoryview(a)
               >>> x.format
               'l'
               >>> x.itemsize
               8
               >>> len(x)
               3
               >>> x.nbytes
               24
               >>> y = x.cast('B')
               >>> y.format
               'B'
               >>> y.itemsize
               1
               >>> len(y)
               24
               >>> y.nbytes
               24

          Cast 1D/unsigned bytes to 1D/char:

               >>> b = bytearray(b'zyz')
               >>> x = memoryview(b)
               >>> x[0] = b'a'
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               TypeError: memoryview: invalid type for format 'B'
               >>> y = x.cast('c')
               >>> y[0] = b'a'
               >>> b
               bytearray(b'ayz')

          Cast 1D/bytes to 3D/ints to 1D/signed char:

               >>> import struct
               >>> buf = struct.pack("i"*12, *list(range(12)))
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('i', shape=[2,2,3])
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]], [[6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11]]]
               >>> y.format
               'i'
               >>> y.itemsize
               4
               >>> len(y)
               2
               >>> y.nbytes
               48
               >>> z = y.cast('b')
               >>> z.format
               'b'
               >>> z.itemsize
               1
               >>> len(z)
               48
               >>> z.nbytes
               48

          Cast 1D/unsigned long to 2D/unsigned long:

               >>> buf = struct.pack("L"*6, *list(range(6)))
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('L', shape=[2,3])
               >>> len(y)
               2
               >>> y.nbytes
               48
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]

          在 3.3 版被加入.

          在 3.5 版的變更: The source format is no longer restricted
          when casting to a byte view.

     There are also several readonly attributes available:

      -- 屬性: obj

          The underlying object of the memoryview:

               >>> b  = bytearray(b'xyz')
               >>> m = memoryview(b)
               >>> m.obj is b
               True

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: nbytes

          ‘nbytes == product(shape) * itemsize == len(m.tobytes())’.
          This is the amount of space in bytes that the array would use
          in a contiguous representation.  It is not necessarily equal
          to ‘len(m)’:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('i', [1,2,3,4,5])
               >>> m = memoryview(a)
               >>> len(m)
               5
               >>> m.nbytes
               20
               >>> y = m[::2]
               >>> len(y)
               3
               >>> y.nbytes
               12
               >>> len(y.tobytes())
               12

          Multi-dimensional arrays:

               >>> import struct
               >>> buf = struct.pack("d"*12, *[1.5*x for x in range(12)])
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('d', shape=[3,4])
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5], [6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5], [12.0, 13.5, 15.0, 16.5]]
               >>> len(y)
               3
               >>> y.nbytes
               96

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: readonly

          A bool indicating whether the memory is read only.

      -- 屬性: format

          A string containing the format (in *note struct: cf. module
          style) for each element in the view.  A memoryview can be
          created from exporters with arbitrary format strings, but some
          methods (e.g.  *note tolist(): 1fb7.) are restricted to native
          single element formats.

          在 3.3 版的變更: format ‘'B'’ is now handled according to the
          struct module syntax.  This means that ‘memoryview(b'abc')[0]
          == b'abc'[0] == 97’.

      -- 屬性: itemsize

          The size in bytes of each element of the memoryview:

               >>> import array, struct
               >>> m = memoryview(array.array('H', [32000, 32001, 32002]))
               >>> m.itemsize
               2
               >>> m[0]
               32000
               >>> struct.calcsize('H') == m.itemsize
               True

      -- 屬性: ndim

          An integer indicating how many dimensions of a
          multi-dimensional array the memory represents.

      -- 屬性: shape

          A tuple of integers the length of *note ndim: 1fc2. giving the
          shape of the memory as an N-dimensional array.

          在 3.3 版的變更: An empty tuple instead of ‘None’ when ndim =
          0.

      -- 屬性: strides

          A tuple of integers the length of *note ndim: 1fc2. giving the
          size in bytes to access each element for each dimension of the
          array.

          在 3.3 版的變更: An empty tuple instead of ‘None’ when ndim =
          0.

      -- 屬性: suboffsets

          Used internally for PIL-style arrays.  The value is
          informational only.

      -- 屬性: c_contiguous

          A bool indicating whether the memory is C-*note contiguous:
          1fbe.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: f_contiguous

          A bool indicating whether the memory is Fortran *note
          contiguous: 1fbe.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: contiguous

          A bool indicating whether the memory is *note contiguous:
          1fbe.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: Set Types --- set frozenset,  Next: Mapping Types --- dict,  Prev: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.10 Set Types -- ‘set’, ‘frozenset’
--------------------------------------

A 'set' object is an unordered collection of distinct *note hashable:
409. objects.  Common uses include membership testing, removing
duplicates from a sequence, and computing mathematical operations such
as intersection, union, difference, and symmetric difference.  (For
other containers see the built-in *note dict: 239, *note list: 40a, and
*note tuple: 4e6. classes, and the *note collections: 1b. module.)

Like other collections, sets support ‘x in set’, ‘len(set)’, and ‘for x
in set’.  Being an unordered collection, sets do not record element
position or order of insertion.  Accordingly, sets do not support
indexing, slicing, or other sequence-like behavior.

There are currently two built-in set types, *note set: 3cc. and *note
frozenset: 3cd.  The *note set: 3cc. type is mutable -- the contents can
be changed using methods like ‘add()’ and ‘remove()’.  Since it is
mutable, it has no hash value and cannot be used as either a dictionary
key or as an element of another set.  The *note frozenset: 3cd. type is
immutable and *note hashable: 409. -- its contents cannot be altered
after it is created; it can therefore be used as a dictionary key or as
an element of another set.

Non-empty sets (not frozensets) can be created by placing a
comma-separated list of elements within braces, for example: ‘{'jack',
'sjoerd'}’, in addition to the *note set: 3cc. constructor.

The constructors for both classes work the same:

 -- 類別: set ([iterable])
 -- 類別: frozenset ([iterable])

     Return a new set or frozenset object whose elements are taken from
     'iterable'.  The elements of a set must be *note hashable: 409.  To
     represent sets of sets, the inner sets must be *note frozenset:
     3cd. objects.  If 'iterable' is not specified, a new empty set is
     returned.

     Sets can be created by several means:

        * Use a comma-separated list of elements within braces:
          ‘{'jack', 'sjoerd'}’

        * Use a set comprehension: ‘{c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not
          in 'abc'}’

        * Use the type constructor: ‘set()’, ‘set('foobar')’, ‘set(['a',
          'b', 'foo'])’

     Instances of *note set: 3cc. and *note frozenset: 3cd. provide the
     following operations:

      -- Describe: len(s)

          Return the number of elements in set 's' (cardinality of 's').

      -- Describe: x in s

          Test 'x' for membership in 's'.

      -- Describe: x not in s

          Test 'x' for non-membership in 's'.

      -- 方法: isdisjoint (other)

          Return ‘True’ if the set has no elements in common with
          'other'.  Sets are disjoint if and only if their intersection
          is the empty set.

      -- 方法: issubset (other)

      -- 方法: set <= other

          Test whether every element in the set is in 'other'.

      -- 方法: set < other

          Test whether the set is a proper subset of 'other', that is,
          ‘set <= other and set != other’.

      -- 方法: issuperset (other)

      -- 方法: set >= other

          Test whether every element in 'other' is in the set.

      -- 方法: set > other

          Test whether the set is a proper superset of 'other', that is,
          ‘set >= other and set != other’.

      -- 方法: union (*others)

      -- 方法: set | other | ...

          Return a new set with elements from the set and all others.

      -- 方法: intersection (*others)

      -- 方法: set & other & ...

          Return a new set with elements common to the set and all
          others.

      -- 方法: difference (*others)

      -- 方法: set - other - ...

          Return a new set with elements in the set that are not in the
          others.

      -- 方法: symmetric_difference (other)

      -- 方法: set ^ other

          Return a new set with elements in either the set or 'other'
          but not both.

      -- 方法: copy ()

          Return a shallow copy of the set.

     Note, the non-operator versions of *note union(): 12f2, *note
     intersection(): 12f3, *note difference(): 1fcd, *note
     symmetric_difference(): 1fce, *note issubset(): 1fcb, and *note
     issuperset(): 1fcc. methods will accept any iterable as an
     argument.  In contrast, their operator based counterparts require
     their arguments to be sets.  This precludes error-prone
     constructions like ‘set('abc') & 'cbs'’ in favor of the more
     readable ‘set('abc').intersection('cbs')’.

     Both *note set: 3cc. and *note frozenset: 3cd. support set to set
     comparisons.  Two sets are equal if and only if every element of
     each set is contained in the other (each is a subset of the other).
     A set is less than another set if and only if the first set is a
     proper subset of the second set (is a subset, but is not equal).  A
     set is greater than another set if and only if the first set is a
     proper superset of the second set (is a superset, but is not
     equal).

     Instances of *note set: 3cc. are compared to instances of *note
     frozenset: 3cd. based on their members.  For example, ‘set('abc')
     == frozenset('abc')’ returns ‘True’ and so does ‘set('abc') in
     set([frozenset('abc')])’.

     The subset and equality comparisons do not generalize to a total
     ordering function.  For example, any two nonempty disjoint sets are
     not equal and are not subsets of each other, so 'all' of the
     following return ‘False’: ‘a<b’, ‘a==b’, or ‘a>b’.

     Since sets only define partial ordering (subset relationships), the
     output of the *note list.sort(): a30. method is undefined for lists
     of sets.

     Set elements, like dictionary keys, must be *note hashable: 409.

     Binary operations that mix *note set: 3cc. instances with *note
     frozenset: 3cd. return the type of the first operand.  For example:
     ‘frozenset('ab') | set('bc')’ returns an instance of *note
     frozenset: 3cd.

     The following table lists operations available for *note set: 3cc.
     that do not apply to immutable instances of *note frozenset: 3cd.:

      -- 方法: update (*others)

      -- 方法: set |= other | ...

          Update the set, adding elements from all others.

      -- 方法: intersection_update (*others)

      -- 方法: set &= other & ...

          Update the set, keeping only elements found in it and all
          others.

      -- 方法: difference_update (*others)

      -- 方法: set -= other | ...

          Update the set, removing elements found in others.

      -- 方法: symmetric_difference_update (other)

      -- 方法: set ^= other

          Update the set, keeping only elements found in either set, but
          not in both.

      -- 方法: add (elem)

          Add element 'elem' to the set.

      -- 方法: remove (elem)

          Remove element 'elem' from the set.  Raises *note KeyError:
          8ed. if 'elem' is not contained in the set.

      -- 方法: discard (elem)

          Remove element 'elem' from the set if it is present.

      -- 方法: pop ()

          Remove and return an arbitrary element from the set.  Raises
          *note KeyError: 8ed. if the set is empty.

      -- 方法: clear ()

          Remove all elements from the set.

     Note, the non-operator versions of the *note update(): 1fd0, *note
     intersection_update(): 12f4, *note difference_update(): 1fd1, and
     *note symmetric_difference_update(): 12f5. methods will accept any
     iterable as an argument.

     Note, the 'elem' argument to the *note __contains__(): 1cef, *note
     remove(): 1fd3, and *note discard(): 1fd4. methods may be a set.
     To support searching for an equivalent frozenset, a temporary one
     is created from 'elem'.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Types --- dict,  Next: 情境管理器型別,  Prev: Set Types --- set frozenset,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.11 Mapping Types -- ‘dict’
------------------------------

A *note mapping: 104d. object maps *note hashable: 409. values to
arbitrary objects.  Mappings are mutable objects.  There is currently
only one standard mapping type, the 'dictionary'.  (For other containers
see the built-in *note list: 40a, *note set: 3cc, and *note tuple: 4e6.
classes, and the *note collections: 1b. module.)

A dictionary's keys are 'almost' arbitrary values.  Values that are not
*note hashable: 409, that is, values containing lists, dictionaries or
other mutable types (that are compared by value rather than by object
identity) may not be used as keys.  Values that compare equal (such as
‘1’, ‘1.0’, and ‘True’) can be used interchangeably to index the same
dictionary entry.

 -- 類別: dict (**kwargs)

 -- 類別: dict (mapping, **kwargs)

 -- 類別: dict (iterable, **kwargs)

     Return a new dictionary initialized from an optional positional
     argument and a possibly empty set of keyword arguments.

     Dictionaries can be created by several means:

        * Use a comma-separated list of ‘key: value’ pairs within
          braces: ‘{'jack': 4098, 'sjoerd': 4127}’ or ‘{4098: 'jack',
          4127: 'sjoerd'}’

        * Use a dict comprehension: ‘{}’, ‘{x: x ** 2 for x in
          range(10)}’

        * Use the type constructor: ‘dict()’, ‘dict([('foo', 100),
          ('bar', 200)])’, ‘dict(foo=100, bar=200)’

     If no positional argument is given, an empty dictionary is created.
     If a positional argument is given and it defines a ‘keys()’ method,
     a dictionary is created by calling *note __getitem__(): 4e7. on the
     argument with each returned key from the method.  Otherwise, the
     positional argument must be an *note iterable: 10ba. object.  Each
     item in the iterable must itself be an iterable with exactly two
     elements.  The first element of each item becomes a key in the new
     dictionary, and the second element the corresponding value.  If a
     key occurs more than once, the last value for that key becomes the
     corresponding value in the new dictionary.

     If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their
     values are added to the dictionary created from the positional
     argument.  If a key being added is already present, the value from
     the keyword argument replaces the value from the positional
     argument.

     To illustrate, the following examples all return a dictionary equal
     to ‘{"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}’:

          >>> a = dict(one=1, two=2, three=3)
          >>> b = {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3}
          >>> c = dict(zip(['one', 'two', 'three'], [1, 2, 3]))
          >>> d = dict([('two', 2), ('one', 1), ('three', 3)])
          >>> e = dict({'three': 3, 'one': 1, 'two': 2})
          >>> f = dict({'one': 1, 'three': 3}, two=2)
          >>> a == b == c == d == e == f
          True

     Providing keyword arguments as in the first example only works for
     keys that are valid Python identifiers.  Otherwise, any valid keys
     can be used.

     These are the operations that dictionaries support (and therefore,
     custom mapping types should support too):

      -- Describe: list(d)

          Return a list of all the keys used in the dictionary 'd'.

      -- Describe: len(d)

          Return the number of items in the dictionary 'd'.

      -- Describe: d[key]

          Return the item of 'd' with key 'key'.  Raises a *note
          KeyError: 8ed. if 'key' is not in the map.

          If a subclass of dict defines a method ‘__missing__()’ and
          'key' is not present, the ‘d[key]’ operation calls that method
          with the key 'key' as argument.  The ‘d[key]’ operation then
          returns or raises whatever is returned or raised by the
          ‘__missing__(key)’ call.  No other operations or methods
          invoke ‘__missing__()’.  If ‘__missing__()’ is not defined,
          *note KeyError: 8ed. is raised.  ‘__missing__()’ must be a
          method; it cannot be an instance variable:

               >>> class Counter(dict):
               ...     def __missing__(self, key):
               ...         return 0
               ...
               >>> c = Counter()
               >>> c['red']
               0
               >>> c['red'] += 1
               >>> c['red']
               1

          The example above shows part of the implementation of *note
          collections.Counter: f28.  A different ‘__missing__’ method is
          used by *note collections.defaultdict: 104e.

      -- Describe: d[key] = value

          Set ‘d[key]’ to 'value'.

      -- Describe: del d[key]

          Remove ‘d[key]’ from 'd'.  Raises a *note KeyError: 8ed. if
          'key' is not in the map.

      -- Describe: key in d

          Return ‘True’ if 'd' has a key 'key', else ‘False’.

      -- Describe: key not in d

          Equivalent to ‘not key in d’.

      -- Describe: iter(d)

          Return an iterator over the keys of the dictionary.  This is a
          shortcut for ‘iter(d.keys())’.

      -- 方法: clear ()

          Remove all items from the dictionary.

      -- 方法: copy ()

          Return a shallow copy of the dictionary.

      -- 方法: classmethod fromkeys (iterable, value=None, /)

          Create a new dictionary with keys from 'iterable' and values
          set to 'value'.

          *note fromkeys(): 1fd9. is a class method that returns a new
          dictionary.  'value' defaults to ‘None’.  All of the values
          refer to just a single instance, so it generally doesn't make
          sense for 'value' to be a mutable object such as an empty
          list.  To get distinct values, use a *note dict comprehension:
          bf5. instead.

      -- 方法: get (key, default=None)

          Return the value for 'key' if 'key' is in the dictionary, else
          'default'.  If 'default' is not given, it defaults to ‘None’,
          so that this method never raises a *note KeyError: 8ed.

      -- 方法: items ()

          Return a new view of the dictionary's items (‘(key, value)’
          pairs).  See the *note documentation of view objects: 1fdb.

      -- 方法: keys ()

          Return a new view of the dictionary's keys.  See the *note
          documentation of view objects: 1fdb.

      -- 方法: pop (key[, default])

          If 'key' is in the dictionary, remove it and return its value,
          else return 'default'.  If 'default' is not given and 'key' is
          not in the dictionary, a *note KeyError: 8ed. is raised.

      -- 方法: popitem ()

          Remove and return a ‘(key, value)’ pair from the dictionary.
          Pairs are returned in LIFO (last-in, first-out) order.

          *note popitem(): 139e. is useful to destructively iterate over
          a dictionary, as often used in set algorithms.  If the
          dictionary is empty, calling *note popitem(): 139e. raises a
          *note KeyError: 8ed.

          在 3.7 版的變更: LIFO order is now guaranteed.  In prior
          versions, *note popitem(): 139e. would return an arbitrary
          key/value pair.

      -- Describe: reversed(d)

          Return a reverse iterator over the keys of the dictionary.
          This is a shortcut for ‘reversed(d.keys())’.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: setdefault (key, default=None)

          If 'key' is in the dictionary, return its value.  If not,
          insert 'key' with a value of 'default' and return 'default'.
          'default' defaults to ‘None’.

      -- 方法: update ([other])

          Update the dictionary with the key/value pairs from 'other',
          overwriting existing keys.  Return ‘None’.

          *note update(): 12d5. accepts either another object with a
          ‘keys()’ method (in which case *note __getitem__(): 4e7. is
          called with every key returned from the method) or an iterable
          of key/value pairs (as tuples or other iterables of length
          two).  If keyword arguments are specified, the dictionary is
          then updated with those key/value pairs: ‘d.update(red=1,
          blue=2)’.

      -- 方法: values ()

          Return a new view of the dictionary's values.  See the *note
          documentation of view objects: 1fdb.

          An equality comparison between one ‘dict.values()’ view and
          another will always return ‘False’.  This also applies when
          comparing ‘dict.values()’ to itself:

               >>> d = {'a': 1}
               >>> d.values() == d.values()
               False

      -- Describe: d | other

          Create a new dictionary with the merged keys and values of 'd'
          and 'other', which must both be dictionaries.  The values of
          'other' take priority when 'd' and 'other' share keys.

          在 3.9 版被加入.

      -- Describe: d |= other

          Update the dictionary 'd' with keys and values from 'other',
          which may be either a *note mapping: 104d. or an *note
          iterable: 10ba. of key/value pairs.  The values of 'other'
          take priority when 'd' and 'other' share keys.

          在 3.9 版被加入.

     Dictionaries compare equal if and only if they have the same ‘(key,
     value)’ pairs (regardless of ordering).  Order comparisons ('<',
     '<=', '>=', '>') raise *note TypeError: 2ba.

     Dictionaries preserve insertion order.  Note that updating a key
     does not affect the order.  Keys added after deletion are inserted
     at the end.

          >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
          >>> d
          {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> list(d)
          ['one', 'two', 'three', 'four']
          >>> list(d.values())
          [1, 2, 3, 4]
          >>> d["one"] = 42
          >>> d
          {'one': 42, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> del d["two"]
          >>> d["two"] = None
          >>> d
          {'one': 42, 'three': 3, 'four': 4, 'two': None}

     在 3.7 版的變更: Dictionary order is guaranteed to be insertion
     order.  This behavior was an implementation detail of CPython from
     3.6.

     Dictionaries and dictionary views are reversible.

          >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
          >>> d
          {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> list(reversed(d))
          ['four', 'three', 'two', 'one']
          >>> list(reversed(d.values()))
          [4, 3, 2, 1]
          >>> list(reversed(d.items()))
          [('four', 4), ('three', 3), ('two', 2), ('one', 1)]

     在 3.8 版的變更: Dictionaries are now reversible.

也參考
......

*note types.MappingProxyType: 186. can be used to create a read-only
view of a *note dict: 239.

* Menu:

* 字典視圖物件::


File: python.info,  Node: 字典視圖物件,  Up: Mapping Types --- dict

5.4.11.1 字典視圖物件
.....................

The objects returned by *note dict.keys(): 5ec, *note dict.values():
5ed. and *note dict.items(): 5ee. are 'view objects'.  They provide a
dynamic view on the dictionary's entries, which means that when the
dictionary changes, the view reflects these changes.

Dictionary views can be iterated over to yield their respective data,
and support membership tests:

 -- Describe: len(dictview)

     Return the number of entries in the dictionary.

 -- Describe: iter(dictview)

     Return an iterator over the keys, values or items (represented as
     tuples of ‘(key, value)’) in the dictionary.

     Keys and values are iterated over in insertion order.  This allows
     the creation of ‘(value, key)’ pairs using *note zip(): 5ef.:
     ‘pairs = zip(d.values(), d.keys())’.  Another way to create the
     same list is ‘pairs = [(v, k) for (k, v) in d.items()]’.

     Iterating views while adding or deleting entries in the dictionary
     may raise a *note RuntimeError: 17a. or fail to iterate over all
     entries.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Dictionary order is guaranteed to be insertion
     order.

 -- Describe: x in dictview

     Return ‘True’ if 'x' is in the underlying dictionary's keys, values
     or items (in the latter case, 'x' should be a ‘(key, value)’
     tuple).

 -- Describe: reversed(dictview)

     Return a reverse iterator over the keys, values or items of the
     dictionary.  The view will be iterated in reverse order of the
     insertion.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Dictionary views are now reversible.

 -- Describe: dictview.mapping

     Return a *note types.MappingProxyType: 186. that wraps the original
     dictionary to which the view refers.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

Keys views are set-like since their entries are unique and *note
hashable: 409.  Items views also have set-like operations since the
(key, value) pairs are unique and the keys are hashable.  If all values
in an items view are hashable as well, then the items view can
interoperate with other sets.  (Values views are not treated as set-like
since the entries are generally not unique.)  For set-like views, all of
the operations defined for the abstract base class *note
collections.abc.Set: 1fde. are available (for example, ‘==’, ‘<’, or
‘^’).  While using set operators, set-like views accept any iterable as
the other operand, unlike sets which only accept sets as the input.

An example of dictionary view usage:

     >>> dishes = {'eggs': 2, 'sausage': 1, 'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500}
     >>> keys = dishes.keys()
     >>> values = dishes.values()

     >>> # iteration
     >>> n = 0
     >>> for val in values:
     ...     n += val
     ...
     >>> print(n)
     504

     >>> # keys and values are iterated over in the same order (insertion order)
     >>> list(keys)
     ['eggs', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam']
     >>> list(values)
     [2, 1, 1, 500]

     >>> # view objects are dynamic and reflect dict changes
     >>> del dishes['eggs']
     >>> del dishes['sausage']
     >>> list(keys)
     ['bacon', 'spam']

     >>> # set operations
     >>> keys & {'eggs', 'bacon', 'salad'}
     {'bacon'}
     >>> keys ^ {'sausage', 'juice'} == {'juice', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam'}
     True
     >>> keys | ['juice', 'juice', 'juice'] == {'bacon', 'spam', 'juice'}
     True

     >>> # get back a read-only proxy for the original dictionary
     >>> values.mapping
     mappingproxy({'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500})
     >>> values.mapping['spam']
     500


File: python.info,  Node: 情境管理器型別,  Next: 型別註釋的型別 --- 泛型別名 Generic Alias 、聯合 Union,  Prev: Mapping Types --- dict,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.12 情境管理器型別
---------------------

Python 的 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式支援了由情境管理器定義之 runtime 情境的
概念，要使用兩個方法來實作，該方法讓使用者定義類別能夠去定義 runtime 情
境，且該情境在執行陳述式主體 (statement body) 之前進入、在陳述式結束時退
出：

 -- 方法: contextmanager.__enter__ ()

     輸入 runtime 情境並回傳此物件或者與 runtime 情境相關的另一個物件。
     此方法回傳的值有被綁定到使用此情境管理器的 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式
     的 ‘as’ 子句中的識別字。

     一個會回傳自己的情境管理器範例是 *note file object: 1054.。檔案物件
     從 __enter__() 回傳自己，以允許將 *note open(): 29c. 用作 *note
     with: 3c5. 陳述式中的情境運算式。

     一個會回傳相關物件的情境管理器範例是由 *note
     decimal.localcontext(): 15d2. 回傳的管理器。這些管理器將有效的十進
     位情境設定為原始十進位情境的副本，然後回傳該副本。這允許對 *note
     with: 3c5. 陳述式主體中的當前十進位情境進行更改，而不會影響 ‘with’
     陳述式外部的程式碼。

 -- 方法: contextmanager.__exit__ (exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb)

     退出 runtime 情境並回傳布林旗標以表示是否應抑制曾發生的任何例外。如
     果在執行 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式主體時發生例外，則引數包含例外型別
     、值和回溯 (traceback) 資訊。否則，所有三個引數都是 ‘None’。

     從此方法回傳 true 值將導致 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式抑制例外並繼續執
     行緊接著 ‘with’ 陳述式之後的陳述式。否則，該例外將在該方法執行完畢
     後繼續傳播 (propagate)。執行此方法期間發生的例外會取代 ‘with’ 陳述
     式主體中發生的任何例外。

     傳入的例外不應明確重新引發 - 取而代之的是，此方法應回傳 false 值以
     指示該方法已成功完成且不希望抑制引發的例外。這讓情境管理程式碼能輕
     鬆檢測 ‘__exit__()’ 方法是否曾實際失敗過。

Python 定義了多個情境管理器來支援簡單的執行緒同步、檔案或其他物件的提示
關閉以及對有效十進位算術情境的更簡單操作。除了情境管理協定的實作之外，不
會對特定型別進行特殊處理。更多範例請參閱 *note contextlib: 21. 模組。

Python 的 *note generator: ef7. 和 *note contextlib.contextmanager:
1093. 裝飾器提供了一種便捷的方法來實作這些協定。如果產生器函式以 *note
contextlib.contextmanager: 1093. 裝飾器裝飾，它將回傳一個有實作出需要的
*note __enter__(): 1fe0. 和 *note __exit__(): 1fe1. 方法的情境管理器，而
不是由未裝飾產生器函式產生的疊代器。

請注意，Python/C API 中 Python 物件的型別結構中的任何方法都沒有特定的槽
。想要定義這些方法的擴充型別必須將它們作為普通的 Python 可存取方法提供。
與設定 runtime 情境的開銷相比，單一類別字典查找的開銷可以忽略不計。


File: python.info,  Node: 型別註釋的型別 --- 泛型別名 Generic Alias 、聯合 Union,  Next: Other Built-in Types,  Prev: 情境管理器型別,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.13 型別註釋的型別 -- 泛型別名 (Generic Alias)、聯合 (Union)
---------------------------------------------------------------

*note 型別註釋: 168. 的核心內建型別是*note 泛型別名: 4af.和*note 聯合:
5e0.。

* Menu:

* 泛型別名型別::
* 聯合型別 (Union Type): 聯合型別 Union Type.


File: python.info,  Node: 泛型別名型別,  Next: 聯合型別 Union Type,  Up: 型別註釋的型別 --- 泛型別名 Generic Alias 、聯合 Union

5.4.13.1 泛型別名型別
.....................

‘GenericAlias’ 物件通常是透過*note 下標 (subscripting): 1d17. 一個類別來
建立的。它們最常與*note 容器類別: 1d1d. 一起使用，像是 *note list: 40a.
或 *note dict: 239.。例如 ‘list[int]’ 是一個''GenericAlias'' 物件，它是
透過使用引數 *note int: 17e. 來下標 ‘list’ 類別而建立的。‘GenericAlias’
物件主要會與*note 型別註釋: 168. 一起使用。

     備註: 通常只有當類別有實作特殊方法 *note __class_getitem__(): 54c.
     時才可以去下標該類別。

將一個 ‘GenericAlias’ 物件用作 *note generic type: 13b. 的代理，實作'參
數化泛型 (parameterized generics)'。

對於一個容器類別，提供給該類別的*note 下標: 1d17.引數可以代表物件所包含
元素的型別。例如 ‘set[bytes]’ 可以用於型別註釋來表示一個 *note set:
3cc.，其中所有元素的型別都是 *note bytes: 2c1.。

對於定義 *note __class_getitem__(): 54c. 但不是容器的類別，提供給該類別
的下標引數通常會指示物件上有定義的一個或多個方法的回傳型別。例如*note
正規表示式: b4.可以用於 *note str: 157. 和 *note bytes: 2c1. 資料型別：

   * 如果 ‘x = re.search('foo', 'foo')’，‘x’ 將會是一個 *note re.Match:
     e14. 物件，其中 ‘x.group(0)’ 和 ‘x[0]’ 的回傳值都是 *note str: 157.
     型別。我們就可以用 ‘GenericAlias’ ‘re.Match[str]’ 在型別註釋中表示
     這種物件。

   * 如果 ‘y = re.search(b'bar', b'bar')’（注意 *note bytes: 2c1. 的
     ‘b’）， ‘y’ 也會是 ‘re.Match’ 的實例，但 ‘y.group(0)’ 和 ‘y[0]’ 的
     回傳值的型別都是 *note bytes: 2c1.。在型別註釋中，我們將用
     ‘re.Match[bytes]’ 來表示各種 *note re.Match: e14. 物件。

‘GenericAlias’ 物件是 *note types.GenericAlias: 60c. 類別的實例，也可以
用來直接建立 ‘GenericAlias’ 物件。

 -- Describe: T[X, Y, ...]

     建立一個 ‘GenericAlias’ 來表示一個型別 ‘T’，其以型別 'X'、'Y' 等（
     取決於所使用的 ‘T’）來參數化。例如，一個函式需要一個包含 *note
     float: 26a. 元素的 *note list: 40a.：

          def average(values: list[float]) -> float:
              return sum(values) / len(values)

     *note 對映: 104d.物件的另一個範例，使用 *note dict: 239.，它是一個
     泛型型別，需要兩個型別參數，分別表示鍵型別和值型別。在此範例中，函
     式需要一個 ‘dict’，其帶有 *note str: 157. 型別的鍵和 *note int:
     17e. 型別的值：

          def send_post_request(url: str, body: dict[str, int]) -> None:
              ...

內建函式 *note isinstance(): 14b. 和 *note issubclass(): 5df. 不接受
‘GenericAlias’ 型別作為第二個引數：

     >>> isinstance([1, 2], list[str])
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

Python runtime 不強制執行*note 型別註釋: 168.。這也擴展到泛型型別及其型
別參數。當從 ‘GenericAlias’ 建立容器物件時，不會檢查容器中元素的型別。例
如，不鼓勵使用以下程式碼，但 runtime 不會出現錯誤：

     >>> t = list[str]
     >>> t([1, 2, 3])
     [1, 2, 3]

此外，參數化泛型在物件建立期間會擦除 (erase) 型別參數：

     >>> t = list[str]
     >>> type(t)
     <class 'types.GenericAlias'>

     >>> l = t()
     >>> type(l)
     <class 'list'>

在泛型上呼叫 *note repr(): 61e. 或 *note str(): 157. 會顯示參數化型別：

     >>> repr(list[int])
     'list[int]'

     >>> str(list[int])
     'list[int]'

為防止像是 ‘dict[str][str]’ 的錯誤出現，泛型容器的 *note __getitem__():
4e7. 方法會在這種情況下引發例外：

     >>> dict[str][str]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: dict[str] is not a generic class

然而當使用*note 型別變數 (type variable): 1d12. 時，此類運算式是有效的。
索引的元素數量必須與 ‘GenericAlias’ 物件的 *note __args__: 1fe4. 中的型
別變數項目一樣多：

     >>> from typing import TypeVar
     >>> Y = TypeVar('Y')
     >>> dict[str, Y][int]
     dict[str, int]

* Menu:

* 標準泛型類別::
* GenericAlias 物件的特殊屬性::


File: python.info,  Node: 標準泛型類別,  Next: GenericAlias 物件的特殊屬性,  Up: 泛型別名型別

5.4.13.2 標準泛型類別
.....................

以下標準函式庫類別有支援參數化泛型。此列表並非詳盡無遺。

   * *note tuple: 4e6.

   * *note list: 40a.

   * *note dict: 239.

   * *note set: 3cc.

   * *note frozenset: 3cd.

   * *note type: bbb.

   * *note collections.deque: 3cf.

   * *note collections.defaultdict: 104e.

   * *note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce.

   * *note collections.Counter: f28.

   * *note collections.ChainMap: a7f.

   * *note collections.abc.Awaitable: c54.

   * *note collections.abc.Coroutine: c55.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: c57.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: c56.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: af4.

   * *note collections.abc.Iterable: 1fe6.

   * *note collections.abc.Iterator: 1fe7.

   * *note collections.abc.Generator: c53.

   * *note collections.abc.Reversible: af3.

   * *note collections.abc.Container: 1fe8.

   * *note collections.abc.Collection: af2.

   * *note collections.abc.Callable: 60b.

   * *note collections.abc.Set: 1fde.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 1fe9.

   * *note collections.abc.Mapping: 702.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: f3d.

   * *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1055.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: c4c.

   * *note collections.abc.ByteString: 223.

   * *note collections.abc.MappingView: 1fea.

   * *note collections.abc.KeysView: 1feb.

   * *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 1fec.

   * *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 1fed.

   * *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: af8.

   * *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: 982.

   * *note dataclasses.Field: 1fee.

   * *note functools.cached_property: 2c5.

   * *note functools.partialmethod: 8c7.

   * *note os.PathLike: ab7.

   * *note queue.LifoQueue: 1fef.

   * *note queue.Queue: 121d.

   * *note queue.PriorityQueue: 1ff0.

   * *note queue.SimpleQueue: 9c6.

   * *note re.Pattern: e13.

   * *note re.Match: e14.

   * *note shelve.BsdDbShelf: 1ff1.

   * *note shelve.DbfilenameShelf: 1ff2.

   * *note shelve.Shelf: e27.

   * *note types.MappingProxyType: 186.

   * *note weakref.WeakKeyDictionary: 1748.

   * *note weakref.WeakMethod: e81.

   * *note weakref.WeakSet: 3d0.

   * *note weakref.WeakValueDictionary: 1747.


File: python.info,  Node: GenericAlias 物件的特殊屬性,  Prev: 標準泛型類別,  Up: 泛型別名型別

5.4.13.3 ‘GenericAlias’ 物件的特殊屬性
......................................

所有參數化泛型都有實作特殊的唯讀屬性。

 -- 屬性: genericalias.__origin__

     此屬性指向非參數化泛型類別：

          >>> list[int].__origin__
          <class 'list'>

 -- 屬性: genericalias.__args__

     此屬性是傳遞給泛型類別之原始 *note __class_getitem__(): 54c. 的泛型
     型別 *note tuple: 4e6.（長度可以為 1）：

          >>> dict[str, list[int]].__args__
          (<class 'str'>, list[int])

 -- 屬性: genericalias.__parameters__

     此屬性是個會被延遲計算 (lazily computed) 的元組（可能為空），包含了
     在 ‘__args__’ 中找得到的不重複型別變數：

          >>> from typing import TypeVar

          >>> T = TypeVar('T')
          >>> list[T].__parameters__
          (~T,)

          備註: 具有 *note typing.ParamSpec: 163. 參數的一個
          ‘GenericAlias’ 物件在替換後可能沒有正確的 ‘__parameters__’，因
          為 *note typing.ParamSpec: 163. 主要用於靜態型別檢查。

 -- 屬性: genericalias.__unpacked__

     如果別名已使用 ‘*’ 運算子解包 (unpack) 則為 true 的布林值（請參閱
     *note TypeVarTuple: 162.）。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

也參考
......

PEP 484(1) - 型別提示

     引入 Python 的型別註釋框架。

PEP 585(2) - 標準集合 (Standard Collections) 中的型別提示泛型

     引入原生參數化標準函式庫類別的能力，前提是它們有實作特殊的類別方法
     *note __class_getitem__(): 54c.。

*note 泛型: 1d12.、*note 使用者定義泛型: 1f6.和 *note typing.Generic: 1418.

     有關如何實作可以在 runtime 參數化並能被靜態型別檢查器理解的泛型類別
     的文件。

在 3.9 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: 聯合型別 Union Type,  Prev: 泛型別名型別,  Up: 型別註釋的型別 --- 泛型別名 Generic Alias 、聯合 Union

5.4.13.4 聯合型別 (Union Type)
..............................

一個聯合物件可以保存多個*note 型別物件 (type object): 1f17.之 ‘|’（位元
or）運算的值。這些型別主要用於*note 型別註釋 (type annotation): 168.。與
*note typing.Union: 436. 相比，聯合型別運算式可以讓型別提示語法更清晰簡
潔。

 -- Describe: X | Y | ...

     定義一個包含 'X'、'Y' 等型別的聯合物件。‘X | Y’ 表示 X 或 Y。它相當
     於 ‘typing.Union[X, Y]’。舉例來說，下列函式需要一個型別為 *note
     int: 17e. 或 *note float: 26a. 的引數：

          def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
              return number ** 2

          備註: 不能在 runtime 使用 ‘|’ 運算元 (operand) 來定義有一個以
          上的成員為向前參照 (forward reference) 的聯合。例如 ‘int |
          "Foo"’，其中 ‘"Foo"’ 是對未定義類別的參照，將在 runtime 失敗。
          對於包含向前參照的聯合，請將整個運算式以字串呈現，例如 ‘"int |
          Foo"’。

 -- Describe: union_object == other

     聯合物件可以與其他聯合物件一起進行相等性測試。細節如下：

        * 聯合的聯合會被扁平化：

               (int | str) | float == int | str | float

        * 冗餘型別會被刪除：

               int | str | int == int | str

        * 比較聯合時，順序會被忽略：

               int | str == str | int

        * 它與 *note typing.Union: 436. 相容：

               int | str == typing.Union[int, str]

        * 可選型別可以表示為與 ‘None’ 的聯合：

               str | None == typing.Optional[str]

 -- Describe: isinstance(obj, union_object)

 -- Describe: issubclass(obj, union_object)

     聯合物件也支援 *note isinstance(): 14b. 和 *note issubclass(): 5df.
     的呼叫：

          >>> isinstance("", int | str)
          True

     然而聯合物件中的*note 參數化泛型: 4af.則無法被檢查：

          >>> isinstance(1, int | list[int])  # short-circuit evaluation
          True
          >>> isinstance([1], int | list[int])
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

構成聯合物件的對使用者公開型別 (user-exposed type) 可以透過 *note
types.UnionType: 435. 存取並用於 *note isinstance(): 14b. 檢查。物件不能
以型別來實例化：

     >>> import types
     >>> isinstance(int | str, types.UnionType)
     True
     >>> types.UnionType()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: cannot create 'types.UnionType' instances

     備註: 新增了型別物件的 ‘__or__()’ 方法來支援 ‘X | Y’ 語法。如果元類
     別有實作 ‘__or__()’，則 Union 可以覆寫 (override) 它：

          >>> class M(type):
          ...     def __or__(self, other):
          ...         return "Hello"
          ...
          >>> class C(metaclass=M):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> C | int
          'Hello'
          >>> int | C
          int | C

也參考
......

PEP 604(1) - PEP 提出 ‘X | Y’ 語法和聯合型別。

在 3.10 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Built-in Types,  Next: 特殊屬性,  Prev: 型別註釋的型別 --- 泛型別名 Generic Alias 、聯合 Union,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.14 Other Built-in Types
---------------------------

The interpreter supports several other kinds of objects.  Most of these
support only one or two operations.

* Menu:

* 模組: 模組<4>.
* Classes and Class Instances::
* 函式::
* Methods::
* Code Objects::
* Type Objects::
* The Null Object::
* The Ellipsis Object::
* NotImplemented 物件::
* Internal Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: 模組<4>,  Next: Classes and Class Instances,  Up: Other Built-in Types

5.4.14.1 模組
.............

The only special operation on a module is attribute access: ‘m.name’,
where 'm' is a module and 'name' accesses a name defined in 'm"s symbol
table.  Module attributes can be assigned to.  (Note that the *note
import: 3d5. statement is not, strictly speaking, an operation on a
module object; ‘import foo’ does not require a module object named 'foo'
to exist, rather it requires an (external) 'definition' for a module
named 'foo' somewhere.)

A special attribute of every module is *note __dict__: 2e2.  This is the
dictionary containing the module's symbol table.  Modifying this
dictionary will actually change the module's symbol table, but direct
assignment to the *note __dict__: 2e2. attribute is not possible (you
can write ‘m.__dict__['a'] = 1’, which defines ‘m.a’ to be ‘1’, but you
can't write ‘m.__dict__ = {}’).  Modifying *note __dict__: 2e2. directly
is not recommended.

Modules built into the interpreter are written like this: ‘<module 'sys'
(built-in)>’.  If loaded from a file, they are written as ‘<module 'os'
from '/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/os.pyc'>’.


File: python.info,  Node: Classes and Class Instances,  Next: 函式,  Prev: 模組<4>,  Up: Other Built-in Types

5.4.14.2 Classes and Class Instances
....................................

See *note Objects, values and types: 1c74. and *note 類別定義: 1168. for
these.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式,  Next: Methods,  Prev: Classes and Class Instances,  Up: Other Built-in Types

5.4.14.3 函式
.............

Function objects are created by function definitions.  The only
operation on a function object is to call it: ‘func(argument-list)’.

There are really two flavors of function objects: built-in functions and
user-defined functions.  Both support the same operation (to call the
function), but the implementation is different, hence the different
object types.

更多資訊請見 *note 函式定義: 1a2b.。


File: python.info,  Node: Methods,  Next: Code Objects,  Prev: 函式,  Up: Other Built-in Types

5.4.14.4 Methods
................

Methods are functions that are called using the attribute notation.
There are two flavors: *note built-in methods: 1c9e. (such as ‘append()’
on lists) and *note class instance method: 1ab3.  Built-in methods are
described with the types that support them.

If you access a method (a function defined in a class namespace) through
an instance, you get a special object: a 'bound method' (also called
*note instance method: 1ab3.) object.  When called, it will add the
‘self’ argument to the argument list.  Bound methods have two special
read-only attributes: *note m.__self__: 1237. is the object on which the
method operates, and *note m.__func__: 118d. is the function
implementing the method.  Calling ‘m(arg-1, arg-2, ..., arg-n)’ is
completely equivalent to calling ‘m.__func__(m.__self__, arg-1, arg-2,
..., arg-n)’.

Like *note function objects: 1ab4, bound method objects support getting
arbitrary attributes.  However, since method attributes are actually
stored on the underlying function object (*note method.__func__: 118d.),
setting method attributes on bound methods is disallowed.  Attempting to
set an attribute on a method results in an *note AttributeError: 3ca.
being raised.  In order to set a method attribute, you need to
explicitly set it on the underlying function object:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.method.whoami = 'my name is method'  # 不得設定於方法
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: 'method' object has no attribute 'whoami'
     >>> c.method.__func__.whoami = 'my name is method'
     >>> c.method.whoami
     'my name is method'

更多資訊請見 *note Instance methods: 1ab3.。


File: python.info,  Node: Code Objects,  Next: Type Objects,  Prev: Methods,  Up: Other Built-in Types

5.4.14.5 Code Objects
.....................

Code objects are used by the implementation to represent
"pseudo-compiled" executable Python code such as a function body.  They
differ from function objects because they don't contain a reference to
their global execution environment.  Code objects are returned by the
built-in *note compile(): 554. function and can be extracted from
function objects through their *note __code__: 1161. attribute.  See
also the *note code: 18. module.

存取 *note __code__: 1161. 會引發一個附帶引數 ‘obj’ 與 ‘"__code__"’ 的
*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘object.__getattr__’。

A code object can be executed or evaluated by passing it (instead of a
source string) to the *note exec(): 6b1. or *note eval(): 6b0. built-in
functions.

更多資訊請見 *note 標準型別階層: 1c77.。


File: python.info,  Node: Type Objects,  Next: The Null Object,  Prev: Code Objects,  Up: Other Built-in Types

5.4.14.6 Type Objects
.....................

Type objects represent the various object types.  An object's type is
accessed by the built-in function *note type(): bbb.  There are no
special operations on types.  The standard module *note types: fe.
defines names for all standard built-in types.

Types are written like this: ‘<class 'int'>’.


File: python.info,  Node: The Null Object,  Next: The Ellipsis Object,  Prev: Type Objects,  Up: Other Built-in Types

5.4.14.7 The Null Object
........................

This object is returned by functions that don't explicitly return a
value.  It supports no special operations.  There is exactly one null
object, named ‘None’ (a built-in name).  ‘type(None)()’ produces the
same singleton.

它被寫為 ‘None’。


File: python.info,  Node: The Ellipsis Object,  Next: NotImplemented 物件,  Prev: The Null Object,  Up: Other Built-in Types

5.4.14.8 The Ellipsis Object
............................

This object is commonly used by slicing (see *note Slicings: 1ddd.).  It
supports no special operations.  There is exactly one ellipsis object,
named *note Ellipsis: 1f1b. (a built-in name).  ‘type(Ellipsis)()’
produces the *note Ellipsis: 1f1b. singleton.

它被寫為 ‘Ellipsis’ 或 ‘...’。


File: python.info,  Node: NotImplemented 物件,  Next: Internal Objects,  Prev: The Ellipsis Object,  Up: Other Built-in Types

5.4.14.9 NotImplemented 物件
............................

This object is returned from comparisons and binary operations when they
are asked to operate on types they don't support.  See *note
Comparisons: 1e03. for more information.  There is exactly one *note
NotImplemented: 5f2. object.  ‘type(NotImplemented)()’ produces the
singleton instance.

It is written as ‘NotImplemented’.


File: python.info,  Node: Internal Objects,  Prev: NotImplemented 物件,  Up: Other Built-in Types

5.4.14.10 Internal Objects
..........................

See *note 標準型別階層: 1c77. for this information.  It describes *note
stack frame objects: 4de, *note traceback objects: 949, and slice
objects.


File: python.info,  Node: 特殊屬性,  Next: Integer string conversion length limitation,  Prev: Other Built-in Types,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.15 特殊屬性
---------------

The implementation adds a few special read-only attributes to several
object types, where they are relevant.  Some of these are not reported
by the *note dir(): 42d. built-in function.

 -- 屬性: definition.__name__

     The name of the class, function, method, descriptor, or generator
     instance.

 -- 屬性: definition.__qualname__

     The *note qualified name: 1716. of the class, function, method,
     descriptor, or generator instance.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: definition.__module__

     The name of the module in which a class or function was defined.

 -- 屬性: definition.__doc__

     The documentation string of a class or function, or ‘None’ if
     undefined.

 -- 屬性: definition.__type_params__

     The *note type parameters: 166. of generic classes, functions, and
     *note type aliases: 15f.  For classes and functions that are not
     generic, this will be an empty tuple.

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Integer string conversion length limitation,  Prev: 特殊屬性,  Up: 內建型別

5.4.16 Integer string conversion length limitation
--------------------------------------------------

CPython has a global limit for converting between *note int: 17e. and
*note str: 157. to mitigate denial of service attacks.  This limit
'only' applies to decimal or other non-power-of-two number bases.
Hexadecimal, octal, and binary conversions are unlimited.  The limit can
be configured.

The *note int: 17e. type in CPython is an arbitrary length number stored
in binary form (commonly known as a "bignum").  There exists no
algorithm that can convert a string to a binary integer or a binary
integer to a string in linear time, 'unless' the base is a power of 2.
Even the best known algorithms for base 10 have sub-quadratic
complexity.  Converting a large value such as ‘int('1' * 500_000)’ can
take over a second on a fast CPU.

Limiting conversion size offers a practical way to avoid CVE
2020-10735(1).

The limit is applied to the number of digit characters in the input or
output string when a non-linear conversion algorithm would be involved.
Underscores and the sign are not counted towards the limit.

When an operation would exceed the limit, a *note ValueError: 183. is
raised:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.set_int_max_str_digits(4300)  # Illustrative, this is the default.
     >>> _ = int('2' * 5432)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion: value has 5432 digits; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
     >>> i = int('2' * 4300)
     >>> len(str(i))
     4300
     >>> i_squared = i*i
     >>> len(str(i_squared))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
     >>> len(hex(i_squared))
     7144
     >>> assert int(hex(i_squared), base=16) == i*i  # Hexadecimal is unlimited.

The default limit is 4300 digits as provided in *note
sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 1128.  The lowest limit that can be
configured is 640 digits as provided in *note
sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold: 1128.

Verification:

     >>> import sys
     >>> assert sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits == 4300, sys.int_info
     >>> assert sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold == 640, sys.int_info
     >>> msg = int('578966293710682886880994035146873798396722250538762761564'
     ...           '9252925514383915483333812743580549779436104706260696366600'
     ...           '571186405732').to_bytes(53, 'big')
     ...

在 3.11 版被加入.

* Menu:

* 受影響的 API::
* 設定限制::
* 建議的配置::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: 受影響的 API,  Next: 設定限制,  Up: Integer string conversion length limitation

5.4.16.1 受影響的 API
.....................

The limitation only applies to potentially slow conversions between
*note int: 17e. and *note str: 157. or *note bytes: 2c1.:

   * ‘int(string)’ 以預設的 10 為底。

   * ‘int(string, base)’ for all bases that are not a power of 2.

   * ‘str(integer)’。

   * ‘repr(integer)’。

   * any other string conversion to base 10, for example ‘f"{integer}"’,
     ‘"{}".format(integer)’, or ‘b"%d" % integer’.

The limitations do not apply to functions with a linear algorithm:

   * ‘int(string, base)’ with base 2, 4, 8, 16, or 32.

   * *note int.from_bytes(): 1622. 和 *note int.to_bytes(): 1663.。

   * *note hex(): 115f.、*note oct(): 115e.、*note bin(): 113c.。

   * *note 格式規格 (Format Specification) 迷你語言: 3d6. for hex,
     octal, and binary numbers.

   * *note str: 157. to *note float: 26a.

   * *note str: 157. to *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0.


File: python.info,  Node: 設定限制,  Next: 建議的配置,  Prev: 受影響的 API,  Up: Integer string conversion length limitation

5.4.16.2 設定限制
.................

Before Python starts up you can use an environment variable or an
interpreter command line flag to configure the limit:

   * *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1589, e.g.  ‘PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=640
     python3’ to set the limit to 640 or ‘PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=0
     python3’ to disable the limitation.

   * *note -X int_max_str_digits: 188.，例如 ‘python3 -X
     int_max_str_digits=640’

   * *note sys.flags.int_max_str_digits: 2013. contains the value of
     *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1589. or *note -X int_max_str_digits:
     188.  If both the env var and the ‘-X’ option are set, the ‘-X’
     option takes precedence.  A value of '-1' indicates that both were
     unset, thus a value of *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits:
     2014. was used during initialization.

From code, you can inspect the current limit and set a new one using
these *note sys: d3. APIs:

   * *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits(): 2015. and *note
     sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 158a. are a getter and setter for the
     interpreter-wide limit.  Subinterpreters have their own limit.

Information about the default and minimum can be found in *note
sys.int_info: 1128.:

   * *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 1128. is the compiled-in
     default limit.

   * *note sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold: 1128. is the lowest
     accepted value for the limit (other than 0 which disables it).

在 3.11 版被加入.

     警示: Setting a low limit 'can' lead to problems.  While rare, code
     exists that contains integer constants in decimal in their source
     that exceed the minimum threshold.  A consequence of setting the
     limit is that Python source code containing decimal integer
     literals longer than the limit will encounter an error during
     parsing, usually at startup time or import time or even at
     installation time - anytime an up to date ‘.pyc’ does not already
     exist for the code.  A workaround for source that contains such
     large constants is to convert them to ‘0x’ hexadecimal form as it
     has no limit.

     Test your application thoroughly if you use a low limit.  Ensure
     your tests run with the limit set early via the environment or flag
     so that it applies during startup and even during any installation
     step that may invoke Python to precompile ‘.py’ sources to ‘.pyc’
     files.


File: python.info,  Node: 建議的配置,  Prev: 設定限制,  Up: Integer string conversion length limitation

5.4.16.3 建議的配置
...................

The default *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 2014. is expected
to be reasonable for most applications.  If your application requires a
different limit, set it from your main entry point using Python version
agnostic code as these APIs were added in security patch releases in
versions before 3.12.

範例：

     >>> import sys
     >>> if hasattr(sys, "set_int_max_str_digits"):
     ...     upper_bound = 68000
     ...     lower_bound = 4004
     ...     current_limit = sys.get_int_max_str_digits()
     ...     if current_limit == 0 or current_limit > upper_bound:
     ...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(upper_bound)
     ...     elif current_limit < lower_bound:
     ...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(lower_bound)

If you need to disable it entirely, set it to ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: 內建的例外,  Next: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務,  Prev: 內建型別,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.5 內建的例外
==============

在 Python 中，所有例外必須是從 *note BaseException: 3ab. 衍生的類別的實
例。在陳述式 *note try: 4ea. 搭配 *note except: 3a8. 子句裡提到一個特定
的類別時，那個子句也會處理任何從該類別衍生的例外類別（但不會處理該類別
'衍生自'的例外類別）。兩個不是由子類別關係關聯起來的例外類別永遠不相等，
就算它們有相同的名稱也是如此。

此章節裡列出的內建例外可以從直譯器或內建函式產生。除了特別提到的地方之外
，它們會有一個'關聯值'表示錯誤發生的詳細原因。這可能是一個字串，或者是一
些資訊項目組成的元組（例如一個錯誤代碼及一個解釋該代碼的字串）。這個關聯
值通常當作引數傳遞給例外類別的建構函式。

使用者的程式碼可以引發內建例外。這可以用來測試例外處理器或者用來回報一個
錯誤條件，'就像'直譯器會引發相同例外的情況；但需要注意的是沒有任何方式可
以避免使用者的程式碼引發不適當的錯誤。

可以從內建的例外類別定義新的例外子類別；程式設計師被鼓勵從 *note
Exception: 81e. 類別或其子類別衍生新的例外，而不是從 *note
BaseException: 3ab. 來衍生。更多關於定義例外的資訊可以在 Python 教學中的
*note 使用者自定的例外: 1a89.裡取得。

* Menu:

* 例外的情境::
* 繼承自內建的例外::
* 基底類別 (base classes): 基底類別 base classes.
* 實體例外::
* 警告::
* 例外群組::
* 例外階層::


File: python.info,  Node: 例外的情境,  Next: 繼承自內建的例外,  Up: 內建的例外

5.5.1 例外的情境
----------------

三個例外物件上的屬性提供關於引發此例外的情境的資訊：

 -- 屬性: BaseException.__context__
 -- 屬性: BaseException.__cause__
 -- 屬性: BaseException.__suppress_context__

     當引發一個新的例外而同時有另一個例外已經正在被處理時，這個新例外的
     ‘__context__’ 屬性會自動被設成那個已處理的例外。當使用 *note
     except: 3a8. 或 *note finally: 80e. 子句或 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式
     的時候例外會被處理。

     這個隱含的例外情境可以透過使用 ‘from’ 搭配 *note raise: 3e1. 來補充
     明確的原因：

          raise new_exc from original_exc

     在 *note from: 3e1. 後面的運算式必須是一個例外或 ‘None’。它將會被設
     定成所引發例外的 ‘__cause__’。設定 ‘__cause__’ 也隱含地設定
     ‘__suppress_context__’ 屬性為 ‘True’，因此使用 ‘raise new_exc from
     None’ 實際上會以新的例外取代舊的例外以利於顯示（例如轉換 *note
     KeyError: 8ed. 為 *note AttributeError: 3ca.），同時保持舊的例外可
     以透過 ‘__context__’ 取得以方便 debug 的時候檢查。

     預設的回溯 (traceback) 顯示程式碼會顯示這些連鎖的例外 (chained
     exception) 加上例外本身的回溯。當存在的時候，在 ‘__cause__’ 中明確
     地連鎖的例外總是會被顯示。而在 ‘__context__’ 中隱含地連鎖的例外只有
     當 ‘__cause__’ 是 *note None: 470. 且 ‘__suppress_context__’ 是
     false 時才會顯示。

     在任一種情況下，例外本身總是會顯示在任何連鎖例外的後面，因此回溯的
     最後一列總是顯示最後一個被引發的例外。


File: python.info,  Node: 繼承自內建的例外,  Next: 基底類別 base classes,  Prev: 例外的情境,  Up: 內建的例外

5.5.2 繼承自內建的例外
----------------------

使用者的程式碼可以建立繼承自例外類型的子類別。建議一次只繼承一種例外類型
以避免在基底類別之間如何處理 ‘args’ 屬性的任何可能衝突，以及可能的記憶體
佈局 (memory layout) 不相容。

'CPython 實作細節：' 為了效率，大部分的內建例外使用 C 來實作，參考
Objects/exceptions.c(1)。一些例外有客製化的記憶體佈局，使其不可能建立一
個繼承多種例外類型的子類別。類型的記憶體佈局是實作細節且可能會在不同
Python 版本間改變，造成未來新的衝突。因此，總之建議避免繼承多種例外類型
。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Objects/exceptions.c


File: python.info,  Node: 基底類別 base classes,  Next: 實體例外,  Prev: 繼承自內建的例外,  Up: 內建的例外

5.5.3 基底類別 (base classes)
-----------------------------

以下的例外大部分被用在當作其他例外的基底類別。

 -- 例外: BaseException

     所有內建例外的基底類別。這不是為了讓使用者定義的類別直接繼承（可以
     使用 *note Exception: 81e.）。如果在這個類別的實例上呼叫 *note
     str(): 157.，會回傳實例的引數的表示，或者沒有引數的時候會回傳空字串
     。

      -- 屬性: args

          提供給該例外建構函式的引數元組。一些內建的例外（像是 *note
          OSError: 644.）預期接受特定數量的引數並賦予該元組的每一個元素
          一個特別的意義，其他例外則通常用一個提供錯誤訊息的單一字串來呼
          叫。

      -- 方法: with_traceback (tb)

          此方法設定 'tb' 為該例外的新的回溯並回傳該例外物件。在 PEP
          3134(1) 的例外連鎖功能變得可用之前，此方法曾被更普遍使用。下面
          的範例顯示我們如何將 ‘SomeException’ 的實例轉換為
          ‘OtherException’ 的實例同時保留回溯。一旦被引發，目前的 frame
          會被加進 ‘OtherException’ 的回溯，就像原來 ‘SomeException’ 的
          回溯會發生的一樣，我們允許它被傳遞給呼叫者：

               try:
                   ...
               except SomeException:
                   tb = sys.exception().__traceback__
                   raise OtherException(...).with_traceback(tb)

      -- 屬性: __traceback__

          可寫入的欄位，儲存關聯到該例外的*note 回溯物件: 949.。也可以參
          考 *note raise 陳述式: 3e1.。

      -- 方法: add_note (note)

          新增字串 ‘note’ 到例外的備註，在標準的回溯裡，備註出現在例外字
          串的後面。如果 ‘note’ 不是字串則引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: __notes__

          該例外的備註串列，使用 *note add_note(): 3aa. 來新增。此屬性在
          *note add_note(): 3aa. 被呼叫的時候建立。

          在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 例外: Exception

     所有內建、非系統退出 (non-system-exiting) 的例外都衍生自此類別。所
     有使用者定義的例外應該也要衍生自此類別。

 -- 例外: ArithmeticError

     各種運算錯誤所引發的那些內建例外：*note OverflowError: 6ad.、*note
     ZeroDivisionError: 784.、*note FloatingPointError: 201e. 的基底類別
     。

 -- 例外: BufferError

     當*note 緩衝 (buffer): 148. 相關的操作無法被執行時會引發此例外。

 -- 例外: LookupError

     當使用在對映或序列上的鍵或索引是無效的時候所引發的例外：*note
     IndexError: 13ac.、*note KeyError: 8ed. 的基底類別。這可以被 *note
     codecs.lookup(): 7a4. 直接引發。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/


File: python.info,  Node: 實體例外,  Next: 警告,  Prev: 基底類別 base classes,  Up: 內建的例外

5.5.4 實體例外
--------------

以下的例外是通常會被引發的例外。

 -- 例外: AssertionError

     當 *note assert: 7aa. 陳述式失敗的時候被引發。

 -- 例外: AttributeError

     當屬性參照（參考 *note Attribute references: 1dd7.）或賦值失敗的時
     候被引發。（當物件根本不支援屬性參照或屬性賦值的時候，*note
     TypeError: 2ba. 會被引發。）

     ‘name’ 和 ‘obj’ 屬性可以使用建構函式的僅限關鍵字 (keyword-only) 引
     數來設定。當被設定的時候，它們分別代表被嘗試存取的屬性名稱以及被以
     該屬性存取的物件。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 ‘name’ 與 ‘obj’ 屬性。

 -- 例外: EOFError

     當 *note input(): 1169. 函式在沒有讀到任何資料而到達檔案結尾
     (end-of-file, EOF) 條件的時候被引發。（注意：‘io.IOBase.read()’ 和
     *note io.IOBase.readline(): 11bd. 方法當達到 EOF 時會回傳空字串。）

 -- 例外: FloatingPointError

     目前沒有被使用。

 -- 例外: GeneratorExit

     當 *note generator: ef7. 或 *note coroutine: 1ae. 被關閉的時候被引
     發；參考 *note generator.close(): 158c. 和 *note coroutine.close():
     1d60.。此例外直接繼承自 *note BaseException: 3ab. 而不是 *note
     Exception: 81e.，因為技術上來說這不是一個錯誤。

 -- 例外: ImportError

     當 *note import: 3d5. 陳述式嘗試載入模組遇到問題的時候會被引發。當
     ‘from ... import’ 裡的 "from list" 包含找不到的名稱時也會被引發。

     可選的僅限關鍵字引數 'name' 和 'path' 設定對應的屬性：

      -- 屬性: name

          嘗試引入 (import) 的模組名稱。

      -- 屬性: path

          觸發此例外的任何檔案的路徑。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 *note name: 2020. 與 *note path: 2021. 屬性。

 -- 例外: ModuleNotFoundError

     *note ImportError: 145. 的子類別，當模組不能被定位的時候會被 *note
     import: 3d5. 所引發。當在 *note sys.modules: 1745. 裡找到 ‘None’ 時
     也會被引發。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 例外: IndexError

     當序列的索引超出範圍的時候會被引發。（切片索引 (slice indices) 會默
     默地被截短使其能落在允許的範圍內；如果索引不是整數，*note
     TypeError: 2ba. 會被引發。）

 -- 例外: KeyError

     當對映（字典）的鍵無法在已存在的鍵的集合中被找到時會被引發。

 -- 例外: KeyboardInterrupt

     當使用者輸入中斷鍵 (interrupt key)（一般來說是 ‘Control-C’ 或
     ‘Delete’）時會被引發。在執行過程中，會定期檢查是否產生中斷。此例外
     繼承自 *note BaseException: 3ab. 以防止意外地被捕捉 *note
     Exception: 81e. 的程式碼所捕捉，而因此讓直譯器無法結束。

          備註: 捕捉 *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. 需要特殊的考量。因為
          它可以在無法預期的時間點被引發，可能在某些情況下讓正在跑的程式
          處在一個不一致的狀態。一般來說最好讓 *note KeyboardInterrupt:
          815. 越快結束程式越好，或者完全避免引發它。（參考 *note Note
          on Signal Handlers and Exceptions: 2022.。）

 -- 例外: MemoryError

     當一個操作用光了記憶體但情況還可能被修復 (rescued)（透過刪除一些物
     件）的時候被引發。關聯值是一個字串，表示什麼類型的（內部）操作用光
     了記憶體。需注意的是因為底層的記憶體管理架構（C 的 ‘malloc()’ 函式
     ），直譯器可能無法總是完整地從該情況中修復；僅管如此，它還是引發例
     外以讓堆疊回溯可以被印出，以防原因出在失控的程式。

 -- 例外: NameError

     當找不到本地或全域的名稱時會被引發。這只應用在不合格的名稱
     (unqualified name) 上。關聯值是一個錯誤訊息，包含那個無法被找到的名
     稱。

     ‘name’ 屬性可以使用僅限關鍵字引數來設定到建構函式。當被設定的時候它
     代表被嘗試存取的變數名稱。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 ‘name’ 屬性。

 -- 例外: NotImplementedError

     此例外衍生自 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。在使用者定義的基礎類別裡，當
     抽象方法要求衍生類別覆寫該方法時應該要引發此例外，或者當類別正在開
     發中，可用此例外表示還需要加入真正的實作。

          備註: 此例外不應該用來表示根本沒有要支援的運算子或方法 ── 在這
          個情況下可以讓該運算子或方法保持未定義，或者如果是子類別的話將
          其設成 *note None: 470.。

          備註: ‘NotImplementedError’ 和 *note NotImplemented: 5f2. 雖然
          有相似的名稱和目的但並不是可互換的。參考 ‘NotImplemented’ 裡關
          於何時使用的細節。

 -- 例外: OSError ([arg])

 -- 例外: OSError (errno, strerror[, filename[, winerror[, filename2]]])

     當系統函式回傳系統相關錯誤，包含像"找不到檔案"或"硬碟已滿"的 I/O 失
     敗會引發此例外（而非不合法的引數或其他次要的錯誤）。

     建構函式的第二種形式會設定以下描述的相對應屬性。如果沒有給定則屬性
     預設為 *note None: 470.。為了向後相容，如果傳入三個引數，*note
     args: 2f8. 屬性只會是包含建構函式前兩個引數的雙元素元組。

     如同下面的*note 作業系統例外: 2023.所描述，實際上建構函式通常回傳
     *note OSError: 644. 的子類別。會依據最後 *note errno: 2024. 的值決
     定特定子類別。這個行為只發生在直接建構 *note OSError: 644. 或透過別
     名，且產生子類別的時候不會被繼承。

      -- 屬性: errno

          從 C 變數 ‘errno’ 而來的數值錯誤代碼。

      -- 屬性: winerror

          在 Windows 下，這會提供你原生的 Windows 錯誤代碼。而 *note
          errno: 2024. 屬性是一個該原生錯誤代碼對於 POSIX 來說的近似翻譯
          。

          在 Windows 下，如果建構函式引數 'winerror' 是整數，則 *note
          errno: 2024. 屬性會根據該 Windows 錯誤代碼來決定，且 'errno' 引
          數會被忽略。在其他平台上，'winerror' 引數會被忽略，而 *note
          winerror: 2025. 屬性會不存在。

      -- 屬性: strerror

          作業系統提供的對應錯誤訊息。在 POSIX 下會使用 C 函式
          ‘perror()’ 做格式化，而在 Windows 下會使用 ‘FormatMessage()’。

      -- 屬性: filename
      -- 屬性: filename2

          對於包含檔案系統路徑的例外（像是 *note open(): 29c. 或 *note
          os.unlink(): f84.），*note filename: 2027. 是傳入函式的檔案名
          稱。對於包含兩個檔案系統路徑的函式（像是 *note os.rename():
          f80.），*note filename2: 2028. 對應到傳入函式的第二個檔案名稱
          。

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note EnvironmentError: ee9.、*note IOError: ee8.、
     *note WindowsError: eea.、*note socket.error: eeb.、*note
     select.error: eec. 及 ‘mmap.error’ 已合併進 *note OSError: 644.，而
     建構函式可能會回傳子類別。

     在 3.4 版的變更: *note filename: 2027. 屬性現在是傳入函式的原始檔名
     ，而不是從*note 檔案系統編碼和錯誤處理函式: 2bd.編碼或解碼過的名稱
     。並且新增 'filename2' 建構函式引數與屬性。

 -- 例外: OverflowError

     當運算操作的結果太大而無法表示的時候會引發此例外。這不會發生在整數
     上（會改成引發 *note MemoryError: 1460. 而不是放棄）。然而，因為一
     些歷史因素，OverflowError 有時候會因為整數在要求範圍之外而引發。因
     為在 C 裡面缺乏浮點數例外處理的標準化，大部分的浮點數運算都沒有被檢
     查。

 -- 例外: RecursionError

     此例外衍生自 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。當直譯器偵測到超過最大的遞迴
     深度（參考 *note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 1eb.）時會引發此例外。

     在 3.5 版被加入: 在之前，會引發一般的 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。

 -- 例外: ReferenceError

     當一個被 *note weakref.proxy(): 89c. 函式建立的弱參照代理 (weak
     reference proxy) 被用來存取已經被垃圾回收 (garbage collected) 的參
     照物屬性時會引發此例外。更多關於弱參照的資訊參考 *note weakref:
     10f. 模組。

 -- 例外: RuntimeError

     當偵測到一個不屬於任何其他種類的錯誤時會引發此例外。關聯值是一個表
     示確切什麼地方出錯的字串。

 -- 例外: StopIteration

     會被內建函式 *note next(): 5f8. 及 *note iterator: 1718. 的 *note
     __next__(): 115d. 方法引發，用來表示疊代器沒有更多項目可以產生。

      -- 屬性: value

          此例外物件有單一屬性 ‘value’，當建構此例外時會以引數給定，預設
          為 *note None: 470.。

     當 *note generator: ef7. 或 *note coroutine: 1ae. 函式回傳時，新的
     *note StopIteration: a5d. 實例會被引發，而該函式的回傳值會被用來當
     作此例外建構函式的 *note value: 1d5c. 參數。

     如果產生器程式直接或間接引發 *note StopIteration: a5d.，則其會被轉
     換成 *note RuntimeError: 17a.（保留 *note StopIteration: a5d. 作為
     新例外的成因）。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 ‘value’ 屬性且產生器函式可以用它來回傳值。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 透過 ‘from __future__ import generator_stop’ 引入
     RuntimeError 的轉換，參考 PEP 479(1)。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 預設對所有程式啟用 PEP 479(2)：在產生器引發的
     *note StopIteration: a5d. 錯誤會轉換成 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。

 -- 例外: StopAsyncIteration

     此例外必須被 *note asynchronous iterator: bef. 物件的 *note
     __anext__(): 1c9b. 方法引發來停止疊代。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 例外: SyntaxError (message, details)

     當剖析器遇到語法錯誤時會引發此例外。這可能發生在 *note import: 3d5.
     陳述式、在呼叫內建函式 *note compile(): 554.、*note exec(): 6b1. 或
     *note eval(): 6b0. 的時候，或者在讀取初始腳本或標準輸入（也包含互動
     式）的時候。

     例外實例的 *note str(): 157. 只回傳錯誤訊息。Details 是個元組，其成
     員也能夠以分開的屬性取得。

      -- 屬性: filename

          發生語法錯誤所在的檔案名稱。

      -- 屬性: lineno

          發生錯誤所在檔案的列號。這是以 1 開始的索引：檔案第一列的
          ‘lineno’ 是 1。

      -- 屬性: offset

          發生錯誤所在該列的欄號 (column)。這是以 1 開始的索引：該列第一
          個字元的 ‘offset’ 是 1。

      -- 屬性: text

          涉及該錯誤的原始程式碼文字。

      -- 屬性: end_lineno

          發生錯誤所在檔案的結束列號。這是以 1 開始的索引：檔案第一列的
          ‘lineno’ 是 1。

      -- 屬性: end_offset

          發生錯誤所在該結束列的欄號。這是以 1 開始的索引：該列第一個字
          元的 ‘offset’ 是 1。

     對於發生在 f-string 欄位的錯誤，訊息會以 "f-string: " 為前綴，而偏
     移量 (offset) 是從替代表達式建構的文字的偏移量。例如編譯 f'Bad {a
     b} field' 會得到這個 args 屬性：('f-string: ...', ('', 1, 2, '(a
     b)n', 1, 5))。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 *note end_lineno: 202d. 與 *note end_offset:
     202e. 屬性。

 -- 例外: IndentationError

     與不正確的縮排有關的語法錯誤的基礎類別。這是 *note SyntaxError:
     146. 的子類別。

 -- 例外: TabError

     當縮排包含製表符號 (tab) 和空白的不一致用法時會引發此例外。這是
     *note IndentationError: 5c5. 的子類別。

 -- 例外: SystemError

     當直譯器找到一個內部錯誤，但該情況看起來沒有嚴重到要讓它放棄所有的
     希望時會引發此例外。關聯值是一個表示什麼地方出錯的字串（以低階的方
     式表達）。

     你應該向你的 Python 直譯器作者或維護者回報此錯誤。務必要回報該
     Python 直譯器的版本（‘sys.version’；這也會在互動式 Python 會話的開
     頭被印出）、確切的錯誤訊息（該例外的關聯值）及如果可能的話，觸發此
     錯誤的程式來源。

 -- 例外: SystemExit

     此例外會被 *note sys.exit(): 11dd. 函式引發。它繼承自 *note
     BaseException: 3ab. 而不是 *note Exception: 81e. 因此不會被捕捉
     *note Exception: 81e. 的程式意外地捕捉。這允許例外可以正確地向上傳
     遞並導致直譯器結束。當它未被處理時，Python 直譯器會結束；不會印出堆
     疊回溯。建構函式接受跟傳入 *note sys.exit(): 11dd. 一樣的可選引數。
     如果該值是整數，它會指定系統的結束狀態（傳入 C 的 ‘exit()’ 函式 ）
     ；如果它是 ‘None’，結束狀態會是 0；如果它是其他類型（例如字串），則
     物件的值會被印出而結束狀態是 1。

     對 *note sys.exit(): 11dd. 的呼叫會轉譯成例外讓負責清理的處理函式（
     *note try: 4ea. 陳述式的 *note finally: 80e. 子句）可以被執行，且讓
     除錯器可以在不冒著失去控制的風險下執行腳本。如果在絕對有必要立即結
     束的情況（例如在子行程呼叫完 *note os.fork(): 233. 之後 ）可以使用
     *note os._exit(): 202f. 函式。

      -- 屬性: code

          傳入建構函式的結束狀態或錯誤訊息。（預設是 ‘None’。 ）

 -- 例外: TypeError

     當一個操作或函式被用在不適合的類型的物件時會引發此例外。關聯值是一
     個字串，提供關於不相符類型的細節。

     此例外可能被使用者程式碼引發，以表示並不支援物件上所嘗試的操作，且
     本來就無意這樣做。如果一個物件有意要支援某個給定的操作但尚未提供實
     作，該引發的正確例外是 *note NotImplementedError: bc0.。

     傳入錯誤類型的引數（例如當預期傳入 *note int: 17e. 卻傳入 *note
     list: 40a.）應該要導致 *note TypeError: 2ba.，但傳入帶有錯誤值的引
     數（例如超出預期範圍的數值）應該要導致 *note ValueError: 183.。

 -- 例外: UnboundLocalError

     當在函式或方法裡引用某個區域變數，但該變數尚未被繫結到任何值的時候
     會引發此例外。這是 *note NameError: 144. 的子類別。

 -- 例外: UnicodeError

     當 Unicode 相關的編碼或解碼錯誤發生時會引發此例外。這是 *note
     ValueError: 183. 的子類別。

     *note UnicodeError: 1137. 有屬性描述編碼或解碼錯誤。例如
     ‘err.object[err.start:err.end]’ 會提供讓編解碼器失敗的具體無效輸入
     。

      -- 屬性: encoding

          引發錯誤的編碼名稱。

      -- 屬性: reason

          描述特定編解碼器錯誤的字串。

      -- 屬性: object

          編解碼器嘗試編碼或解碼的物件。

      -- 屬性: start

          在 *note object: 8d9. 中無效資料的開始索引。

      -- 屬性: end

          在 *note object: 8d9. 中最後的無效資料後的索引。

 -- 例外: UnicodeEncodeError

     在編碼當中發生 Unicode 相關錯誤時會引發此例外。這是 *note
     UnicodeError: 1137. 的子類別。

 -- 例外: UnicodeDecodeError

     在解碼當中發生 Unicode 相關錯誤時會引發此例外。這是 *note
     UnicodeError: 1137. 的子類別。

 -- 例外: UnicodeTranslateError

     在轉譯當中發生 Unicode 相關錯誤時會引發此例外。這是 *note
     UnicodeError: 1137. 的子類別。

 -- 例外: ValueError

     當一個操作或函式收到引數是正確類型但是不適合的值，且該情況無法被更
     精確的例外例如 *note IndexError: 13ac. 所描述時會引發此例外。

 -- 例外: ZeroDivisionError

     當除法或模數運算 (modulo operation) 的第二個引數是 0 的時候會引發此
     例外。關聯值是一個字串，表示運算元及運算的類型。

以下例外是為了相容於之前版本而保留；從 Python 3.3 開始，它們是 *note
OSError: 644. 的別名。

 -- 例外: EnvironmentError

 -- 例外: IOError

 -- 例外: WindowsError

     僅限於在 Windows 中使用。

* Menu:

* 作業系統例外::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/


File: python.info,  Node: 作業系統例外,  Up: 實體例外

5.5.4.1 作業系統例外
....................

以下的例外是 *note OSError: 644. 的子類別，它們根據系統錯誤代碼來引發。

 -- 例外: BlockingIOError

     當設置為非阻塞操作的物件（例如 socket）上的操作將要阻塞時會引發此例
     外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note EAGAIN: 2035.、*note EALREADY: 2036.、
     *note EWOULDBLOCK: 2037. 及 *note EINPROGRESS: 2038.。

     除了 *note OSError: 644. 的那些屬性之外，*note BlockingIOError:
     eed. 有多一個屬性：

      -- 屬性: characters_written

          一個整數，內容為在其阻塞之前，已寫進串流的字元數。當使用 *note
          io: 79. 模組裡的緩衝 I/O 類別時這個屬性是可用的。

 -- 例外: ChildProcessError

     當子行程上的操作失敗時會引發此例外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note ECHILD:
     203a.。

 -- 例外: ConnectionError

     連線相關問題的基礎類別。

     子類別有 *note BrokenPipeError: ef2.、*note ConnectionAbortedError:
     ef3.、*note ConnectionRefusedError: ef4. 及 *note
     ConnectionResetError: ef5.。

 -- 例外: BrokenPipeError

     *note ConnectionError: c82. 的子類別，當嘗試寫入管道 (pipe) 同時另
     一端已經被關閉時會引發此例外，或者當嘗試寫入已關閉寫入的 socket 時
     也會引發。對應到 ‘errno’ *note EPIPE: 203b. 及 *note ESHUTDOWN:
     203c.。

 -- 例外: ConnectionAbortedError

     *note ConnectionError: c82. 的子類別。當一個連線的嘗試被對等端點
     (peer) 中斷時會引發此例外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note ECONNABORTED:
     203d.。

 -- 例外: ConnectionRefusedError

     *note ConnectionError: c82. 的子類別。當一個連線的嘗試被對等端點拒
     絕時會引發此例外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note ECONNREFUSED: 203e.。

 -- 例外: ConnectionResetError

     *note ConnectionError: c82. 的子類別。當一個連線被對等端點重置時會
     引發此例外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note ECONNRESET: 203f.。

 -- 例外: FileExistsError

     當嘗試建立已存在的檔案或目錄時會引發此例外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note
     EEXIST: 2040.。

 -- 例外: FileNotFoundError

     當請求不存在的檔案或目錄時會引發此例外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note
     ENOENT: 2041.。

 -- 例外: InterruptedError

     當系統呼叫被傳入的信號中斷時會引發此例外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note
     EINTR: bfd.。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 現在當 syscall 被信號中斷時 Python 會重試系統呼叫
     而不會引發 *note InterruptedError: bfe.，除非信號處理器引發例外（理
     由可參考 PEP 475(1)）。

 -- 例外: IsADirectoryError

     當在目錄上請求檔案操作（例如 *note os.remove(): f7f.）時會引發此例
     外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note EISDIR: 2042.。

 -- 例外: NotADirectoryError

     當在某個不是目錄的東西上請求目錄操作（例如 *note os.listdir():
     f88.）時會引發此例外。在大多數的 POSIX 平台上，如果嘗試操作開啟或遍
     歷一個當作目錄的非目錄檔案也會引發此例外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note
     ENOTDIR: 2043.。

 -- 例外: PermissionError

     當嘗試執行一個沒有合乎存取權限的操作時會引發此例外 — 例如檔案系統權
     限。對應到 ‘errno’ *note EACCES: 2044.、*note EPERM: 1599. 及 *note
     ENOTCAPABLE: 158b.。

     在 3.11.1 版的變更: WASI 的 *note ENOTCAPABLE: 158b. 現在對應到
     *note PermissionError: bb5.。

 -- 例外: ProcessLookupError

     當給定的行程不存在時會引發此例外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note ESRCH:
     2045.。

 -- 例外: TimeoutError

     當系統函式在系統層級超時會引發此例外。對應到 ‘errno’ *note
     ETIMEDOUT: 2046.。

在 3.3 版被加入: 加入以上所有的 *note OSError: 644. 子類別。

也參考
......

PEP 3151(2) — 改寫作業系統與 IO 例外階層

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: 警告,  Next: 例外群組,  Prev: 實體例外,  Up: 內建的例外

5.5.5 警告
----------

以下的例外是當作警告的種類使用；更多細節參考 *note Warning Categories:
2049. 文件。

 -- 例外: Warning

     警告種類的基礎類別。

 -- 例外: UserWarning

     使用者程式碼產生的警告的基礎類別。

 -- 例外: DeprecationWarning

     關於已棄用功能的警告的基礎類別，且當那些警告是針對其他 Python 開發
     者。

     會被預設的警告過濾器忽略，在 ‘__main__’ 模組裡除外 ( PEP 565(1))。
     啟用 *note Python 開發模式: 703.會顯示此警告。

     棄用原則描述在 PEP 387(2) 裡。

 -- 例外: PendingDeprecationWarning

     關於過時且預期未來要被棄用，但目前尚未被棄用的功能的警告的基礎類別
     。

     因為發出關於可能即將被棄用的警告是不尋常的，此類別很少被使用，而對
     已經被棄用的情況會優先使用 *note DeprecationWarning: 179.。

     會被預設的警告過濾器忽略。啟用 *note Python 開發模式: 703.會顯示此
     警告。

     棄用原則描述在 PEP 387(3) 裡。

 -- 例外: SyntaxWarning

     關於可疑語法的警告的基礎類別。

 -- 例外: RuntimeWarning

     關於可疑執行環境行為的警告的基礎類別。

 -- 例外: FutureWarning

     關於已棄用功能的警告的基礎類別，且當那些警告是針對以 Python 寫的應
     用程式的終端使用者。

 -- 例外: ImportWarning

     關於在模組引入的可能錯誤的警告的基礎類別。

     會被預設的警告過濾器忽略。啟用 *note Python 開發模式: 703.會顯示此
     警告。

 -- 例外: UnicodeWarning

     Unicode 相關警告的基礎類別。

 -- 例外: EncodingWarning

     編碼相關警告的基礎類別。

     細節參考*note 選擇性加入的編碼警告: 1b46.。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 例外: BytesWarning

     *note bytes: 2c1. 及 *note bytearray: 2c0. 相關警告的基礎類別。

 -- 例外: ResourceWarning

     資源用法相關警告的基礎類別。

     會被預設的警告過濾器忽略。啟用 *note Python 開發模式: 703.會顯示此
     警告。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: 例外群組,  Next: 例外階層,  Prev: 警告,  Up: 內建的例外

5.5.6 例外群組
--------------

當需要引發多個不相關例外時會使用下列的類別。它們是例外階層的一部分所以可
以像所有其他例外一樣使用 *note except: 3a8. 來處理。此外，它們會以包含的
例外類型為基礎來比對其子群組而被 *note except*: 3a7. 辨認出來。

 -- 例外: ExceptionGroup (msg, excs)

 -- 例外: BaseExceptionGroup (msg, excs)

     這兩個例外類型都將例外包裝在序列 ‘excs’ 中。‘msg’ 參數必須是字串。
     這兩個類別的差異是 *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3a6. 擴充了 *note
     BaseException: 3ab. 且可以包裝任何例外，而 *note ExceptionGroup:
     17b. 擴充了 *note Exception: 81e. 且只能包裝 *note Exception: 81e.
     的子類別。這個設計使得 ‘except Exception’ 可以捕捉 *note
     ExceptionGroup: 17b. 但不能捕捉 *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3a6.。

     如果所有包含的例外都是 *note Exception: 81e. 實例，*note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 3a6. 建構函式會回傳 *note ExceptionGroup: 17b.
     而不是 *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3a6.，因此可以被使用來讓這樣的選擇
     自動化。另一方面來說，如果任何包含的例外不是 *note Exception: 81e.
     的子類別，*note ExceptionGroup: 17b. 建構函式會引發 *note
     TypeError: 2ba.。

      -- 屬性: message

          建構函式的 ‘msg’ 引數。這是一個唯讀的屬性。

      -- 屬性: exceptions

          指定給建構函式 ‘excs’ 序列中的例外組成的元組。這是一個唯讀的屬
          性。

      -- 方法: subgroup (condition)

          回傳只包含從現有群組比對到 'condition' 的例外的例外群組，或者
          當結果為空時回傳 ‘None’。

          條件可以是一個函式，接受一個例外並對那些應該要在子群組裡的例外
          回傳 true，或者可以是一個例外類型或例外類型的元組，並使用與
          ‘except’ 子句所使用的相同檢查來檢查是否有比對到。

          現有例外的巢狀結構會保留在結果裡，其 *note message: 204e.、
          *note __traceback__: 1158.、*note __cause__: 115a.、*note
          __context__: 1159. 及 *note __notes__: 201c. 欄位的值也一樣。
          空的巢狀群組會從結果裡排除。

          條件會對巢狀例外群組裡的所有例外做檢查，包括頂層及任何巢狀的例
          外群組。如果條件對這樣的例外群組為 true，它會被完整包含在結果
          裡。

      -- 方法: split (condition)

          像 *note subgroup(): 2050. 一樣，但回傳一對 ‘(match, rest)’，
          其中 ‘match’ 是 ‘subgroup(condition)’ 而 ‘rest’ 是剩下沒有比對
          到的部分。

      -- 方法: derive (excs)

          回傳有相同 *note message: 204e. 但將例外包裝在 ‘excs’ 的例外群
          組。

          此方法被 *note subgroup(): 2050. 及 *note split(): 2051. 使用
          ，被用來在各種情境下拆分例外群組。子類別需要覆寫它來讓 *note
          subgroup(): 2050. 及 *note split(): 2051. 回傳子類別而不是
          *note ExceptionGroup: 17b. 的實例。

          *note subgroup(): 2050. 及 *note split(): 2051. 會從原始的例外
          群組複製 *note __traceback__: 1158.、*note __cause__: 115a.、
          *note __context__: 1159. 和 *note __notes__: 201c. 欄位到
          *note derive(): 2052. 所回傳的例外群組上，因此這些欄位不需要被
          *note derive(): 2052. 更新。

               >>> class MyGroup(ExceptionGroup):
               ...     def derive(self, excs):
               ...         return MyGroup(self.message, excs)
               ...
               >>> e = MyGroup("eg", [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)])
               >>> e.add_note("a note")
               >>> e.__context__ = Exception("context")
               >>> e.__cause__ = Exception("cause")
               >>> try:
               ...    raise e
               ... except Exception as e:
               ...    exc = e
               ...
               >>> match, rest = exc.split(ValueError)
               >>> exc, exc.__context__, exc.__cause__, exc.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> match, match.__context__, match.__cause__, match.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> rest, rest.__context__, rest.__cause__, rest.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> exc.__traceback__ is match.__traceback__ is rest.__traceback__
               True

     需注意 *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3a6. 定義了 *note __new__(): 30f.，
     因此需要不同建構函式簽名的子類別需要覆寫它而不是 *note __init__():
     4ae.。例如下面定義了一個例外群組子類別接受 exit_code 並從中建構群組
     的訊息。：

          class Errors(ExceptionGroup):
             def __new__(cls, errors, exit_code):
                self = super().__new__(Errors, f"exit code: {exit_code}", errors)
                self.exit_code = exit_code
                return self

             def derive(self, excs):
                return Errors(excs, self.exit_code)

     像 *note ExceptionGroup: 17b. 一樣，任何 *note BaseExceptionGroup:
     3a6. 的子類別且也是 *note Exception: 81e. 的子類別只能包裝 *note
     Exception: 81e. 的實例。

     在 3.11 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 例外階層,  Prev: 例外群組,  Up: 內建的例外

5.5.7 例外階層
--------------

內建例外的類別階層如下：

     BaseException
      ├── BaseExceptionGroup
      ├── GeneratorExit
      ├── KeyboardInterrupt
      ├── SystemExit
      └── Exception
           ├── ArithmeticError
           │    ├── FloatingPointError
           │    ├── OverflowError
           │    └── ZeroDivisionError
           ├── AssertionError
           ├── AttributeError
           ├── BufferError
           ├── EOFError
           ├── ExceptionGroup [BaseExceptionGroup]
           ├── ImportError
           │    └── ModuleNotFoundError
           ├── LookupError
           │    ├── IndexError
           │    └── KeyError
           ├── MemoryError
           ├── NameError
           │    └── UnboundLocalError
           ├── OSError
           │    ├── BlockingIOError
           │    ├── ChildProcessError
           │    ├── ConnectionError
           │    │    ├── BrokenPipeError
           │    │    ├── ConnectionAbortedError
           │    │    ├── ConnectionRefusedError
           │    │    └── ConnectionResetError
           │    ├── FileExistsError
           │    ├── FileNotFoundError
           │    ├── InterruptedError
           │    ├── IsADirectoryError
           │    ├── NotADirectoryError
           │    ├── PermissionError
           │    ├── ProcessLookupError
           │    └── TimeoutError
           ├── ReferenceError
           ├── RuntimeError
           │    ├── NotImplementedError
           │    └── RecursionError
           ├── StopAsyncIteration
           ├── StopIteration
           ├── SyntaxError
           │    └── IndentationError
           │         └── TabError
           ├── SystemError
           ├── TypeError
           ├── ValueError
           │    └── UnicodeError
           │         ├── UnicodeDecodeError
           │         ├── UnicodeEncodeError
           │         └── UnicodeTranslateError
           └── Warning
                ├── BytesWarning
                ├── DeprecationWarning
                ├── EncodingWarning
                ├── FutureWarning
                ├── ImportWarning
                ├── PendingDeprecationWarning
                ├── ResourceWarning
                ├── RuntimeWarning
                ├── SyntaxWarning
                ├── UnicodeWarning
                └── UserWarning


File: python.info,  Node: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務,  Next: 二進位資料服務,  Prev: 內建的例外,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.6 文本處理 (Text Processing) 服務
===================================

本章節介紹的模組 (module) 提供了廣泛的字串操作與其他文本處理服務。

在 *note 二進位資料服務: 2056. 下所描述的 *note codecs: 19. 模組也與文本
處理高度相關。另外也請參閱在 *note Text Sequence Type -- str: 19f0. 中所
描述的 Python 內建字串型別。

* Menu:

* string: string --- 常見的字串操作. 常見的字串操作
* re: re --- 正規表示式 regular expression 操作. 正規表示式 (regular expression) 操作
* difflib: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具. 計算差異的輔助工具
* textwrap: textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充. 文字包裝與填充
* unicodedata: unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫. Unicode 資料庫
* stringprep: stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備. 網際網路字串準備
* readline: readline --- GNU readline 介面. GNU readline 介面
* rlcompleter: rlcompleter --- GNU readline 的補全函式. GNU readline 的補全函式


File: python.info,  Node: string --- 常見的字串操作,  Next: re --- 正規表示式 regular expression 操作,  Up: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務

5.6.1 ‘string’ -- 常見的字串操作
--------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/string.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

也參考
......

*note Text Sequence Type -- str: 19f0.

*note String Methods: 19f1.

* Menu:

* 字串常數::
* 自訂字串格式::
* 格式化文字語法::
* 模板字串::
* 輔助函式::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/string.py


File: python.info,  Node: 字串常數,  Next: 自訂字串格式,  Up: string --- 常見的字串操作

5.6.1.1 字串常數
................

此模組中定義的常數為：

 -- 資料: string.ascii_letters

     下文描述的 *note ascii_lowercase: 205a. 和 *note ascii_uppercase:
     205b. 常數的串接，該值不依賴於區域設定。

 -- 資料: string.ascii_lowercase

     小寫字母 ‘'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’。該值與地區設定無關且不會改
     變。

 -- 資料: string.ascii_uppercase

     大寫字母 ‘’ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ’’。 此值與地區設定無關且不會
     改變。

 -- 資料: string.digits

     字串 ‘’0123456789’’。

 -- 資料: string.hexdigits

     字串 ‘’0123456789abcdefABCDEF’’。

 -- 資料: string.octdigits

     字串 ‘'01234567'’。

 -- 資料: string.punctuation

     在 ‘C’ 語言中被視為標點符號的 ASCII 字元的字串：
     ‘!”#$%&’()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~’。

 -- 資料: string.printable

     ASCII 字元的字串是可被列印輸出的。 這是 *note digits: 205c.、*note
     ascii_letters: 1155.、*note punctuation: 205f. 和 *note whitespace:
     2061. 的組合。

 -- 資料: string.whitespace

     包含所有 ASCII 字元的字串都視為空白字元 (whitespace)。 包含空格
     (space)、製表符號 (tab)、換行符號 (linefeed)、return、換頁符號
     (formfeed) 和垂直製表符號 (vertical tab) 這些字元。


File: python.info,  Node: 自訂字串格式,  Next: 格式化文字語法,  Prev: 字串常數,  Up: string --- 常見的字串操作

5.6.1.2 自訂字串格式
....................

透過 PEP 3101(1) 中描述的 *note format(): 41b. 方法，內建字串類別提供了
進行複雜變數替換和數值格式化的能力。*note string: cd. 模組中的 *note
Formatter: d3d. 類別模組可讓你使用與內建 *note format(): 41b. 方法相同的
實作來建立和自訂你自己的字串格式化行為。

 -- 類別: string.Formatter

     *note Formatter: d3d. 類別有以下的公開方法：

      -- 方法: format (format_string, /, *args, **kwargs)

          主要的 API 方法。它接收一個格式字串及一組任意的位置引數與關鍵
          字引數，是呼叫 *note vformat(): 2063. 的包裝器 (wrapper)。

          在 3.7 版的變更: 現在格式字串引數是*note 僅限位置參數: 8d1.。

      -- 方法: vformat (format_string, args, kwargs)

          This function does the actual work of formatting.  It is
          exposed as a separate function for cases where you want to
          pass in a predefined dictionary of arguments, rather than
          unpacking and repacking the dictionary as individual arguments
          using the ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ syntax.  *note vformat():
          2063. does the work of breaking up the format string into
          character data and replacement fields.  It calls the various
          methods described below.

     In addition, the *note Formatter: d3d. defines a number of methods
     that are intended to be replaced by subclasses:

      -- 方法: parse (format_string)

          將 format_string 放入迴圈，並回傳一個可疊代物件，其元素為
          ('literal_text', 'field_name', 'format_spec', 'conversion')。
          這會被 *note vformat(): 2063. 用於將字串裁切為字面文本或替換欄
          位。

          The values in the tuple conceptually represent a span of
          literal text followed by a single replacement field.  If there
          is no literal text (which can happen if two replacement fields
          occur consecutively), then 'literal_text' will be a
          zero-length string.  If there is no replacement field, then
          the values of 'field_name', 'format_spec' and 'conversion'
          will be ‘None’.

      -- 方法: get_field (field_name, args, kwargs)

          Given 'field_name' as returned by *note parse(): 2064. (see
          above), convert it to an object to be formatted.  Returns a
          tuple (obj, used_key).  The default version takes strings of
          the form defined in PEP 3101(2), such as "0[name]" or
          "label.title".  'args' and 'kwargs' are as passed in to *note
          vformat(): 2063.  The return value 'used_key' has the same
          meaning as the 'key' parameter to *note get_value(): 2066.

      -- 方法: get_value (key, args, kwargs)

          Retrieve a given field value.  The 'key' argument will be
          either an integer or a string.  If it is an integer, it
          represents the index of the positional argument in 'args'; if
          it is a string, then it represents a named argument in
          'kwargs'.

          The 'args' parameter is set to the list of positional
          arguments to *note vformat(): 2063, and the 'kwargs' parameter
          is set to the dictionary of keyword arguments.

          For compound field names, these functions are only called for
          the first component of the field name; subsequent components
          are handled through normal attribute and indexing operations.

          So for example, the field expression '0.name' would cause
          *note get_value(): 2066. to be called with a 'key' argument of
          0.  The ‘name’ attribute will be looked up after *note
          get_value(): 2066. returns by calling the built-in *note
          getattr(): a32. function.

          If the index or keyword refers to an item that does not exist,
          then an *note IndexError: 13ac. or *note KeyError: 8ed. should
          be raised.

      -- 方法: check_unused_args (used_args, args, kwargs)

          Implement checking for unused arguments if desired.  The
          arguments to this function is the set of all argument keys
          that were actually referred to in the format string (integers
          for positional arguments, and strings for named arguments),
          and a reference to the 'args' and 'kwargs' that was passed to
          vformat.  The set of unused args can be calculated from these
          parameters.  *note check_unused_args(): 2067. is assumed to
          raise an exception if the check fails.

      -- 方法: format_field (value, format_spec)

          *note format_field(): 2068. simply calls the global *note
          format(): 417. built-in.  The method is provided so that
          subclasses can override it.

      -- 方法: convert_field (value, conversion)

          Converts the value (returned by *note get_field(): 2065.)
          given a conversion type (as in the tuple returned by the *note
          parse(): 2064. method).  The default version understands 's'
          (str), 'r' (repr) and 'a' (ascii) conversion types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: 格式化文字語法,  Next: 模板字串,  Prev: 自訂字串格式,  Up: string --- 常見的字串操作

5.6.1.3 格式化文字語法
......................

The *note str.format(): 41b. method and the *note Formatter: d3d. class
share the same syntax for format strings (although in the case of *note
Formatter: d3d, subclasses can define their own format string syntax).
The syntax is related to that of *note formatted string literals: 7ed,
but it is less sophisticated and, in particular, does not support
arbitrary expressions.

Format strings contain "replacement fields" surrounded by curly braces
‘{}’.  Anything that is not contained in braces is considered literal
text, which is copied unchanged to the output.  If you need to include a
brace character in the literal text, it can be escaped by doubling: ‘{{’
and ‘}}’.

The grammar for a replacement field is as follows:

     replacement_field ::= "{" [field_name] ["!" conversion] [":" format_spec] "}"
     field_name        ::= arg_name ("." attribute_name | "[" element_index "]")*
     arg_name          ::= [identifier | digit+]
     attribute_name    ::= identifier
     element_index     ::= digit+ | index_string
     index_string      ::= <any source character except "]"> +
     conversion        ::= "r" | "s" | "a"
     format_spec       ::= format-spec:format_spec

In less formal terms, the replacement field can start with a
'field_name' that specifies the object whose value is to be formatted
and inserted into the output instead of the replacement field.  The
'field_name' is optionally followed by a 'conversion' field, which is
preceded by an exclamation point ‘'!'’, and a 'format_spec', which is
preceded by a colon ‘':'’.  These specify a non-default format for the
replacement value.

另請參閱 *note 格式規格 (Format Specification) 迷你語言: 3d6. 部份。

The 'field_name' itself begins with an 'arg_name' that is either a
number or a keyword.  If it's a number, it refers to a positional
argument, and if it's a keyword, it refers to a named keyword argument.
An 'arg_name' is treated as a number if a call to *note str.isdecimal():
1f57. on the string would return true.  If the numerical arg_names in a
format string are 0, 1, 2, ...  in sequence, they can all be omitted
(not just some) and the numbers 0, 1, 2, ...  will be automatically
inserted in that order.  Because 'arg_name' is not quote-delimited, it
is not possible to specify arbitrary dictionary keys (e.g., the strings
‘'10'’ or ‘':-]'’) within a format string.  The 'arg_name' can be
followed by any number of index or attribute expressions.  An expression
of the form ‘'.name'’ selects the named attribute using *note getattr():
a32, while an expression of the form ‘'[index]'’ does an index lookup
using *note __getitem__(): 4e7.

在 3.1 版的變更: The positional argument specifiers can be omitted for
*note str.format(): 41b, so ‘'{} {}'.format(a, b)’ is equivalent to
‘'{0} {1}'.format(a, b)’.

在 3.4 版的變更: The positional argument specifiers can be omitted for
*note Formatter: d3d.

Some simple format string examples:

     "First, thou shalt count to {0}"  # References first positional argument
     "Bring me a {}"                   # Implicitly references the first positional argument
     "From {} to {}"                   # Same as "From {0} to {1}"
     "My quest is {name}"              # References keyword argument 'name'
     "Weight in tons {0.weight}"       # 'weight' attribute of first positional arg
     "Units destroyed: {players[0]}"   # First element of keyword argument 'players'.

The 'conversion' field causes a type coercion before formatting.
Normally, the job of formatting a value is done by the *note
__format__(): 419. method of the value itself.  However, in some cases
it is desirable to force a type to be formatted as a string, overriding
its own definition of formatting.  By converting the value to a string
before calling *note __format__(): 419, the normal formatting logic is
bypassed.

目前支援三種轉換旗標：‘'!s'’ 會對該值呼叫 *note str(): 157.，‘'!r'’ 會對
該值呼叫 *note repr(): 61e.，而 ‘'!a'’ 則會對該值呼叫 *note ascii():
1255.。

一些範例：

     "Harold's a clever {0!s}"        # Calls str() on the argument first
     "Bring out the holy {name!r}"    # Calls repr() on the argument first
     "More {!a}"                      # Calls ascii() on the argument first

'format_spec' 欄位描述了值的呈現規格，例如欄位寬度、對齊、填充
(padding)、小數精度等細節資訊。每種值類型都可以定義自己的「格式化迷你語
言 (formatting mini-language)」或對 'format_spec' 的解釋。

大多數內建型別都支援常見的格式化迷你語言，下一節將會詳細說明。

'format_spec' 欄位還可以在其內部包含巢狀的替換欄位。這些巢狀的替換欄位可
能包含欄位名稱、轉換旗標、格式規格描述，但是不允許再更深層的巢狀結構。
format_spec 内部的替換欄位會在 'format_spec' 字串被直譯前被替換。這讓數
值的格式能夠被動態地指定。

範例請見 *note 格式範例: 2073.。

* Menu:

* 格式規格 (Format Specification) 迷你語言: 格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
* 格式範例::


File: python.info,  Node: 格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言,  Next: 格式範例,  Up: 格式化文字語法

5.6.1.4 格式規格 (Format Specification) 迷你語言
................................................

「格式規格」在格式字串 (format string) 中包含的替換欄位中使用，以定義各
個值如何被呈現（請參考 *note 格式化文字語法: 121f. 和 *note f-string（f
字串）: 7ed.）。它們也能夠直接傳遞給內建的 *note format(): 417. 函式。每
個可格式化型別 (formattable type) 可以定義格式規格如何被直譯。

大部分內建型別為了格式規格實作了下列選項，不過有些選項只被數值型別支援。

一般來說，輸入空格式規格會產生和對值呼叫 *note str(): 157. 函式相同的結
果，非空的格式規格才會修改結果。

'標準格式說明符號 (standard format specifier)' 的一般型式如下：

     format_spec     ::= [[fill]align][sign]["z"]["#"]["0"][width][grouping_option]["." precision][type]
     fill            ::= <any character>
     align           ::= "<" | ">" | "=" | "^"
     sign            ::= "+" | "-" | " "
     width           ::= digit+
     grouping_option ::= "_" | ","
     precision       ::= digit+
     type            ::= "b" | "c" | "d" | "e" | "E" | "f" | "F" | "g" | "G" | "n" | "o" | "s" | "x" | "X" | "%"

如果給定了一個有效的 'align' 值，則可以在它之前加一個 'fill' 字元，且該
字元可為任意字元，若不加的話預設為空格。使用*note 格式字串: 7ed.或 *note
str.format(): 41b. 時是無法在其中使用大括號（"‘{’" 或 "‘}’"）作為 'fill'
字元的，但仍可透過巢狀替換欄位的方式插入大括號。此限制不影響 *note
format(): 417. 函式。

The meaning of the various alignment options is as follows:

選項          含義
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'<'’         強制欄位在可用空間內靠左對齊（這是大多數物件的預設值）。
              
              
‘'>'’         強制欄位在可用空間內靠右對齊（這是數字的預設值）。
              
              
‘'='’         Forces the padding to be placed after the sign (if any) but
              before the digits.  This is used for printing fields in the
              form '+000000120'.  This alignment option is only valid for
              numeric types, excluding *note complex: 26b.  It becomes the
              default for numbers when '0' immediately precedes the field
              width.
              
              
‘'^'’         強制欄位在可用空間內置中。
              

請注意，除非有定義了最小欄位寬度，否則欄位寬度將始終與填充它的資料大小相
同，故在該情況下的對齊選項是沒有意義的。

'sign' 選項只適用於數字型別，並可為以下之一：

選項          含義
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'+'’         表示正數與負數均需使用符號。
              
              
‘'-'’         indicates that a sign should be used only for negative
              numbers (this is the default behavior).
              
              
space         表示正數應使用前導空格，負數應使用減號。
              

The ‘'z'’ option coerces negative zero floating-point values to positive
zero after rounding to the format precision.  This option is only valid
for floating-point presentation types.

在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 ‘'z'’ 選項（請見 PEP 682(1)）。

The ‘'#'’ option causes the "alternate form" to be used for the
conversion.  The alternate form is defined differently for different
types.  This option is only valid for integer, float and complex types.
For integers, when binary, octal, or hexadecimal output is used, this
option adds the respective prefix ‘'0b'’, ‘'0o'’, ‘'0x'’, or ‘'0X'’ to
the output value.  For float and complex the alternate form causes the
result of the conversion to always contain a decimal-point character,
even if no digits follow it.  Normally, a decimal-point character
appears in the result of these conversions only if a digit follows it.
In addition, for ‘'g'’ and ‘'G'’ conversions, trailing zeros are not
removed from the result.

The ‘','’ option signals the use of a comma for a thousands separator.
For a locale aware separator, use the ‘'n'’ integer presentation type
instead.

在 3.1 版的變更: 新增 ‘','’ 選項（請見 PEP 378(2)）。

‘'_'’ 選項表示對於浮點表示型別和整數表示型別 ‘'d'’ 使用底線作為千位分隔
符號。對於整數表示型別 ‘'b'’，‘'o'’，‘'x'’ 和 ‘'X'’，每 4 位數字會插入底
線。對於其他表示型別，指定此選項會出錯。

在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 ‘'_'’ 選項（請見 PEP 515(3)）。

'width' 是一個十進位整數，定義了最小總欄位寬度，包括任何前綴、分隔符號和
其他格式字元。如果未指定，則欄位寬度將由內容決定。

When no explicit alignment is given, preceding the 'width' field by a
zero (‘'0'’) character enables sign-aware zero-padding for numeric
types, excluding *note complex: 26b.  This is equivalent to a 'fill'
character of ‘'0'’ with an 'alignment' type of ‘'='’.

在 3.10 版的變更: 在 'width' 欄位前面加上 ‘'0'’ 不再影響字串的預設對齊方
式。

'precision' 是一個十進位整數，指定表示類型 ‘'f'’ 和 ‘'F'’ 的小數點後應顯
示多少位，或表示類型 ‘'g'’ 或 ‘'G'’ 的小數點前後應顯示多少位。對於字串表
示類型，該欄位指定最大欄位大小 - 換言之，將使用欄位中的多少字元。整數表
示類型不允許使用 'precision'。

最終，型別決定了資料將會如何呈現

可用的字串表示型別有：

     型別          含義
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'s'’         String format.  This is the default type for strings and may
                   be omitted.
                   
                   
     None          The same as ‘'s'’.
                   

The available integer presentation types are:

     型別          含義
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'b'’         Binary format.  Outputs the number in base 2.
                   
                   
     ‘'c'’         Character.  Converts the integer to the corresponding
                   unicode character before printing.
                   
                   
     ‘'d'’         Decimal Integer.  Outputs the number in base 10.
                   
                   
     ‘'o'’         Octal format.  Outputs the number in base 8.
                   
                   
     ‘'x'’         十六進位格式。輸出以 16 為基數的數字，9 以上的數字使用小寫字
                   母。
                   
                   
     ‘'X'’         十六進位格式。輸出以 16 為基數的數字，9 以上的數字使用大寫字
                   母。如果指定了 ‘'#'’，則前綴 ‘'0x'’ 也會被轉成大寫的 ‘'0X'’。
                   
                   
     ‘'n'’         Number.  This is the same as ‘'d'’, except that it uses the
                   current locale setting to insert the appropriate number
                   separator characters.
                   
                   
     None          The same as ‘'d'’.
                   

In addition to the above presentation types, integers can be formatted
with the floating-point presentation types listed below (except ‘'n'’
and ‘None’).  When doing so, *note float(): 26a. is used to convert the
integer to a floating-point number before formatting.

The available presentation types for *note float: 26a. and *note
Decimal: 5f0. values are:

     型別          含義
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'e'’         Scientific notation.  For a given precision ‘p’, formats the
                   number in scientific notation with the letter 'e' separating
                   the coefficient from the exponent.  The coefficient has one
                   digit before and ‘p’ digits after the decimal point, for a
                   total of ‘p + 1’ significant digits.  With no precision
                   given, uses a precision of ‘6’ digits after the decimal
                   point for *note float: 26a, and shows all coefficient digits
                   for *note Decimal: 5f0.  If ‘p=0’, the decimal point is
                   omitted unless the ‘#’ option is used.
                   
                   
     ‘'E'’         Scientific notation.  Same as ‘'e'’ except it uses an upper
                   case 'E' as the separator character.
                   
                   
     ‘'f'’         Fixed-point notation.  For a given precision ‘p’, formats
                   the number as a decimal number with exactly ‘p’ digits
                   following the decimal point.  With no precision given, uses
                   a precision of ‘6’ digits after the decimal point for
                   *note float: 26a, and uses a precision large enough to show
                   all coefficient digits for *note Decimal: 5f0.  If ‘p=0’,
                   the decimal point is omitted unless the ‘#’ option is used.
                   
                   
     ‘'F'’         Fixed-point notation.  Same as ‘'f'’, but converts ‘nan’ to
                   ‘NAN’ and ‘inf’ to ‘INF’.
                   
                   
     ‘'g'’         General format.  For a given precision ‘p >= 1’, this rounds
                   the number to ‘p’ significant digits and then formats the
                   result in either fixed-point format or in scientific
                   notation, depending on its magnitude.  A precision of ‘0’ is
                   treated as equivalent to a precision of ‘1’.
                   
                   The precise rules are as follows: suppose that the result
                   formatted with presentation type ‘'e'’ and precision ‘p-1’
                   would have exponent ‘exp’.  Then, if ‘m <= exp < p’, where
                   ‘m’ is -4 for floats and -6 for *note Decimals: 5f0, the
                   number is formatted with presentation type ‘'f'’ and
                   precision ‘p-1-exp’.  Otherwise, the number is formatted
                   with presentation type ‘'e'’ and precision ‘p-1’.  In both
                   cases insignificant trailing zeros are removed from the
                   significand, and the decimal point is also removed if there
                   are no remaining digits following it, unless the ‘'#'’
                   option is used.
                   
                   With no precision given, uses a precision of ‘6’ significant
                   digits for *note float: 26a.  For *note Decimal: 5f0, the
                   coefficient of the result is formed from the coefficient
                   digits of the value; scientific notation is used for values
                   smaller than ‘1e-6’ in absolute value and values where the
                   place value of the least significant digit is larger than 1,
                   and fixed-point notation is used otherwise.
                   
                   Positive and negative infinity, positive and negative zero,
                   and nans, are formatted as ‘inf’, ‘-inf’, ‘0’, ‘-0’ and
                   ‘nan’ respectively, regardless of the precision.
                   
                   
     ‘'G'’         General format.  Same as ‘'g'’ except switches to ‘'E'’ if
                   the number gets too large.  The representations of infinity
                   and NaN are uppercased, too.
                   
                   
     ‘'n'’         Number.  This is the same as ‘'g'’, except that it uses the
                   current locale setting to insert the appropriate number
                   separator characters.
                   
                   
     ‘'%'’         Percentage.  Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in
                   fixed (‘'f'’) format, followed by a percent sign.
                   
                   
     None          For *note float: 26a. this is like the ‘'g'’ type, except
                   that when fixed-point notation is used to format the result,
                   it always includes at least one digit past the decimal
                   point, and switches to the scientific notation when ‘exp >=
                   p - 1’.  When the precision is not specified, the latter
                   will be as large as needed to represent the given value
                   faithfully.
                   
                   For *note Decimal: 5f0, this is the same as either ‘'g'’ or
                   ‘'G'’ depending on the value of ‘context.capitals’ for the
                   current decimal context.
                   
                   The overall effect is to match the output of
                   *note str(): 157. as altered by the other format modifiers.
                   

The available presentation types for *note complex: 26b. are the same as
those for *note float: 26a. (‘'%'’ is not allowed).  Both the real and
imaginary components of a complex number are formatted as floating-point
numbers, according to the specified presentation type.  They are
separated by the mandatory sign of the imaginary part, the latter being
terminated by a ‘j’ suffix.  If the presentation type is missing, the
result will match the output of *note str(): 157. (complex numbers with
a non-zero real part are also surrounded by parentheses), possibly
altered by other format modifiers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: 格式範例,  Prev: 格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言,  Up: 格式化文字語法

5.6.1.5 格式範例
................

本節包含 *note str.format(): 41b. 語法以及與舊式 ‘%’ 格式的比較。

此語法在大多情況下與舊式的 ‘%’ 格式類似，只是增加了 ‘{}’ 和 ‘:’ 來取代
‘%’。例如，‘'%03.2f'’ 可以改寫為 ‘'{:03.2f}'’。

新的語法還支援新的選項，將在以下的範例中說明。

按位置存取引數：

     >>> '{0}, {1}, {2}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
     'a, b, c'
     >>> '{}, {}, {}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')  # 3.1+ only
     'a, b, c'
     >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
     'c, b, a'
     >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format(*'abc')      # unpacking argument sequence
     'c, b, a'
     >>> '{0}{1}{0}'.format('abra', 'cad')   # arguments' indices can be repeated
     'abracadabra'

按名稱存取引數：

     >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(latitude='37.24N', longitude='-115.81W')
     'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'
     >>> coord = {'latitude': '37.24N', 'longitude': '-115.81W'}
     >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(**coord)
     'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'

存取引數的屬性：

     >>> c = 3-5j
     >>> ('The complex number {0} is formed from the real part {0.real} '
     ...  'and the imaginary part {0.imag}.').format(c)
     'The complex number (3-5j) is formed from the real part 3.0 and the imaginary part -5.0.'
     >>> class Point:
     ...     def __init__(self, x, y):
     ...         self.x, self.y = x, y
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'Point({self.x}, {self.y})'.format(self=self)
     ...
     >>> str(Point(4, 2))
     'Point(4, 2)'

存取引數的內容：

     >>> coord = (3, 5)
     >>> 'X: {0[0]};  Y: {0[1]}'.format(coord)
     'X: 3;  Y: 5'

替換 ‘%s’ 和 ‘%r’：

     >>> "repr() shows quotes: {!r}; str() doesn't: {!s}".format('test1', 'test2')
     "repr() shows quotes: 'test1'; str() doesn't: test2"

對齊文字以及指定寬度：

     >>> '{:<30}'.format('left aligned')
     'left aligned                  '
     >>> '{:>30}'.format('right aligned')
     '                 right aligned'
     >>> '{:^30}'.format('centered')
     '           centered           '
     >>> '{:*^30}'.format('centered')  # use '*' as a fill char
     '***********centered***********'

替換 ‘%+f’、‘%-f’ 和 ‘% f’ 以及指定正負號：

     >>> '{:+f}; {:+f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show it always
     '+3.140000; -3.140000'
     >>> '{: f}; {: f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show a space for positive numbers
     ' 3.140000; -3.140000'
     >>> '{:-f}; {:-f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show only the minus -- same as '{:f}; {:f}'
     '3.140000; -3.140000'

替換 ‘%x’ 和 ‘%o’ 並將其值轉換為不同的進位制：

     >>> # format also supports binary numbers
     >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:x};  oct: {0:o};  bin: {0:b}".format(42)
     'int: 42;  hex: 2a;  oct: 52;  bin: 101010'
     >>> # with 0x, 0o, or 0b as prefix:
     >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:#x};  oct: {0:#o};  bin: {0:#b}".format(42)
     'int: 42;  hex: 0x2a;  oct: 0o52;  bin: 0b101010'

使用逗號作為千位分隔符：

     >>> '{:,}'.format(1234567890)
     '1,234,567,890'

表示為百分比：

     >>> points = 19
     >>> total = 22
     >>> 'Correct answers: {:.2%}'.format(points/total)
     'Correct answers: 86.36%'

作為特定型別格式：

     >>> import datetime
     >>> d = datetime.datetime(2010, 7, 4, 12, 15, 58)
     >>> '{:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S}'.format(d)
     '2010-07-04 12:15:58'

巢狀引數及更多複雜範例：

     >>> for align, text in zip('<^>', ['left', 'center', 'right']):
     ...     '{0:{fill}{align}16}'.format(text, fill=align, align=align)
     ...
     'left<<<<<<<<<<<<'
     '^^^^^center^^^^^'
     '>>>>>>>>>>>right'
     >>>
     >>> octets = [192, 168, 0, 1]
     >>> '{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}'.format(*octets)
     'C0A80001'
     >>> int(_, 16)
     3232235521
     >>>
     >>> width = 5
     >>> for num in range(5,12):
     ...     for base in 'dXob':
     ...         print('{0:{width}{base}}'.format(num, base=base, width=width), end=' ')
     ...     print()
     ...
         5     5     5   101
         6     6     6   110
         7     7     7   111
         8     8    10  1000
         9     9    11  1001
        10     A    12  1010
        11     B    13  1011


File: python.info,  Node: 模板字串,  Next: 輔助函式,  Prev: 格式化文字語法,  Up: string --- 常見的字串操作

5.6.1.6 模板字串
................

模板字串提供如 PEP 292(1) 所述更簡單的字串替換。模板字串的主要用例是國際
化 (i18n)，因為在這種情況下，更簡單的語法和功能使得它比其他 Python 內建
字串格式化工具更容易翻譯。基於模板字串建構的 i18n 函式庫範例，請參閱
flufl.i18n(2) 套件。

Template strings support ‘$’-based substitutions, using the following
rules:

   * ‘$$’ is an escape; it is replaced with a single ‘$’.

   * ‘$identifier’ names a substitution placeholder matching a mapping
     key of ‘"identifier"’.  By default, ‘"identifier"’ is restricted to
     any case-insensitive ASCII alphanumeric string (including
     underscores) that starts with an underscore or ASCII letter.  The
     first non-identifier character after the ‘$’ character terminates
     this placeholder specification.

   * ‘${identifier}’ is equivalent to ‘$identifier’.  It is required
     when valid identifier characters follow the placeholder but are not
     part of the placeholder, such as ‘"${noun}ification"’.

Any other appearance of ‘$’ in the string will result in a *note
ValueError: 183. being raised.

The *note string: cd. module provides a *note Template: 484. class that
implements these rules.  The methods of *note Template: 484. are:

 -- 類別: string.Template (template)

     The constructor takes a single argument which is the template
     string.

      -- 方法: substitute (mapping={}, /, **kwds)

          進行模板替換，並回傳一個新的字串。 'mapping' 是任何有金鑰並符
          合模板裡佔位符號的字典型物件。或者如果關鍵字就是佔位符號時，你
          也可以改提供關鍵字引數。當 'mapping' 跟 'kwds' 同時給定並存在
          重複時，'kwds' 的佔位符號會被優先使用。

      -- 方法: safe_substitute (mapping={}, /, **kwds)

          類似於 *note substitute(): 1ae0.，但如果 'mapping' 與 'kwds' 中
          缺少佔位符號的話，原始的佔位符號會完整地出現在結果字串裡，而不
          會引發 *note KeyError: 8ed. 例外。此外，與 *note substitute():
          1ae0. 不同的是，任何包含 ‘$’ 的字句會直接回傳 ‘$’ 而非引發
          *note ValueError: 183.。

          雖然仍可能發生其他例外，但這個方法被認為是「安全」的，因為它總
          是試圖回傳一個有用的字串而不是引發例外。從另一個角度來看，
          *note safe_substitute(): 1ae1. 可能並非完全安全，因為它會默默
          忽略格式錯誤的模板，這些模板包含了多餘的左右定界符、不匹配的括
          號，或者不是有效的 Python 識別字的佔位符號。

      -- 方法: is_valid ()

          如果模板有將導致 *note substitute(): 1ae0. 引發 *note
          ValueError: 183. 的無效佔位符號，就會回傳 false。

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: get_identifiers ()

          回傳模板中有效識別字的串列，按照它們首次出現的順序，並忽略任何
          無效的識別字。

          在 3.11 版被加入.

     *note Template: 484. 實例也提供一個公開的資料屬性：

      -- 屬性: template

          這是傳遞給建構函式 'template' 引數的物件。一般來說，你不應該改
          變它，但並沒有強制設定成唯讀。

以下是如何使用 Template 的一個範例：

     >>> from string import Template
     >>> s = Template('$who likes $what')
     >>> s.substitute(who='tim', what='kung pao')
     'tim likes kung pao'
     >>> d = dict(who='tim')
     >>> Template('Give $who $100').substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Invalid placeholder in string: line 1, col 11
     >>> Template('$who likes $what').substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     KeyError: 'what'
     >>> Template('$who likes $what').safe_substitute(d)
     'tim likes $what'

進階用法：你可以衍生 *note Template: 484. 類別來自定義佔位符號語法、左右
定界符字元，或者用於剖析模板字串的正規表示式。你可以透過覆寫這些類別屬性
來達成：

   * 'delimiter' - 這是描述引入左右定界符的文字字串。預設值是 ‘$’。請注
     意這'不是'正規表示式，因為實作會在需要時對這個字串呼叫 *note
     re.escape(): a6c.。也請注意你不能在建立類別後修改左右定界符。（意即
     在子類別的命名空間中必須設置不同的左右定界符）

   * 'idpattern' - This is the regular expression describing the pattern
     for non-braced placeholders.  The default value is the regular
     expression ‘(?a:[_a-z][_a-z0-9]*)’.  If this is given and
     'braceidpattern' is ‘None’ this pattern will also apply to braced
     placeholders.

          備註: Since default 'flags' is ‘re.IGNORECASE’, pattern
          ‘[a-z]’ can match with some non-ASCII characters.  That's why
          we use the local ‘a’ flag here.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 'braceidpattern' can be used to define separate
     patterns used inside and outside the braces.

   * 'braceidpattern' - This is like 'idpattern' but describes the
     pattern for braced placeholders.  Defaults to ‘None’ which means to
     fall back to 'idpattern' (i.e.  the same pattern is used both
     inside and outside braces).  If given, this allows you to define
     different patterns for braced and unbraced placeholders.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

   * 'flags' - The regular expression flags that will be applied when
     compiling the regular expression used for recognizing
     substitutions.  The default value is ‘re.IGNORECASE’.  Note that
     ‘re.VERBOSE’ will always be added to the flags, so custom
     'idpattern's must follow conventions for verbose regular
     expressions.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

Alternatively, you can provide the entire regular expression pattern by
overriding the class attribute 'pattern'.  If you do this, the value
must be a regular expression object with four named capturing groups.
The capturing groups correspond to the rules given above, along with the
invalid placeholder rule:

   * 'escaped' - 此群組與跳脫序列匹配，例如在預設模式下為 ‘$$’。

   * 'named' - 此群組與不帶大括號的佔位符號名稱匹配；它不應包含擷取群組
     中的左右定界符號。

   * 'braced' - 此群組與大括號括起來的佔位符號名稱匹配；它不應在擷取群組
     中包含左右定界符或大括號。

   * 'invalid' - 此群組與任何其他左右定界符模式（通常是單一左右定界符）
     匹配，且它應該出現在正規表示式的最後。

當此模式有匹配於模板但這些命名組中卻有任一個不匹配，此類別的方法將引發
*note ValueError: 183.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/

   (2) https://flufli18n.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: 輔助函式,  Prev: 模板字串,  Up: string --- 常見的字串操作

5.6.1.7 輔助函式
................

 -- 函式: string.capwords (s, sep=None)

     使用 *note str.split(): d2a. 將引數分割為字詞，使用 *note
     str.capitalize(): 1f51. 將每個單字大寫，並使用 *note str.join():
     1f41. 將大寫字詞連接起來。如果可選的第二引數 'sep' 不存在或為
     ‘None’，則連續的空白字元將替換為單一空格，並且刪除前導和尾隨空白；
     在其他情況下則使用 'sep' 來分割和連接單字。


File: python.info,  Node: re --- 正規表示式 regular expression 操作,  Next: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具,  Prev: string --- 常見的字串操作,  Up: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務

5.6.2 ‘re’ -- 正規表示式 (regular expression) 操作
--------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/re/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組提供類似於 Perl 中正規表示式的配對操作。

被搜尋的模式 (pattern) 與字串可以是 Unicode 字串 (*note str: 157.)，也可
以是 8-bit 字串 (*note bytes: 2c1.)。然而，Unicode 字串和 8-bit 字串不能
混用：也就是，你不能用 byte 模式配對 Unicode 字串，反之亦然；同樣地，替
換時，用來替換的字串必須與模式和搜尋字串是相同的型別 (type)。

正規表示式使用反斜線字元 (‘'\'’) 表示特別的形式，或是使用特殊字元而不調
用它們的特殊意義。這與 Python 在字串文本 (literal) 中，為了一樣的目的使
用同一個字元的目的相衝突；舉例來說，為了配對一個反斜線文字，一個人可能需
要寫 ‘'\\\\'’ 當作模式字串，因為正規表示式必須是 ‘\\’，而且每個反斜線在
一個普通的 Python 字串文本中必須表示為 ‘\\’。另外，請注意在 Python 的字
串文本中使用反斜線的任何無效跳脫序列目前會產生一個 *note SyntaxWarning:
178.，而在未來這會變成一個 *note SyntaxError: 146.。儘管它對正規表示式是
一個有效的跳脫序列，這種行為也會發生。

解決方法是對正規表示式模式使用 Python 的原始字串符號；反斜線在一個以
‘'r'’ 為前綴的字串文本中不會被用任何特別的方式處理。所以 ‘r"\n"’ 是一個
兩個字元的字串，包含 ‘'\'’ 和 ‘'n'’，同時 ‘"\n"’ 是一個單個字元的字串，
包含一個換行符號。通常模式在 Python 程式中會使用這個原始字串符號表示。

請務必注意到大部分的正規表示式操作是可以在模組層級的函式和 *note
compiled regular expressions: e13. 中的方法使用的。這些函式是個捷徑且讓
你不需要先編譯一個正規表示式物件，但是會缺少一些微調參數。

也參考
......

第三方的 regex(2) 模組，有著和標準函式庫 *note re: b4. 模組相容的 API，
但是提供額外的功能以及更完整的 Unicode 支援。

* Menu:

* 正規表示式語法::
* 模組內容::
* Regular Expression Objects::
* Match Objects::
* Regular Expression Examples::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/re/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/regex/


File: python.info,  Node: 正規表示式語法,  Next: 模組內容,  Up: re --- 正規表示式 regular expression 操作

5.6.2.1 正規表示式語法
......................

A regular expression (or RE) specifies a set of strings that matches it;
the functions in this module let you check if a particular string
matches a given regular expression (or if a given regular expression
matches a particular string, which comes down to the same thing).

Regular expressions can be concatenated to form new regular expressions;
if 'A' and 'B' are both regular expressions, then 'AB' is also a regular
expression.  In general, if a string 'p' matches 'A' and another string
'q' matches 'B', the string 'pq' will match AB. This holds unless 'A' or
'B' contain low precedence operations; boundary conditions between 'A'
and 'B'; or have numbered group references.  Thus, complex expressions
can easily be constructed from simpler primitive expressions like the
ones described here.  For details of the theory and implementation of
regular expressions, consult the Friedl book *note [Frie09]: 2084, or
almost any textbook about compiler construction.

A brief explanation of the format of regular expressions follows.  For
further information and a gentler presentation, consult the *note
如何使用正規表示式: 2085.

Regular expressions can contain both special and ordinary characters.
Most ordinary characters, like ‘'A'’, ‘'a'’, or ‘'0'’, are the simplest
regular expressions; they simply match themselves.  You can concatenate
ordinary characters, so ‘last’ matches the string ‘'last'’.  (In the
rest of this section, we'll write RE's in ‘this special style’, usually
without quotes, and strings to be matched ‘'in single quotes'’.)

Some characters, like ‘'|'’ or ‘'('’, are special.  Special characters
either stand for classes of ordinary characters, or affect how the
regular expressions around them are interpreted.

Repetition operators or quantifiers (‘*’, ‘+’, ‘?’, ‘{m,n}’, etc) cannot
be directly nested.  This avoids ambiguity with the non-greedy modifier
suffix ‘?’, and with other modifiers in other implementations.  To apply
a second repetition to an inner repetition, parentheses may be used.
For example, the expression ‘(?:a{6})*’ matches any multiple of six
‘'a'’ characters.

The special characters are:

‘.’

     (Dot.)  In the default mode, this matches any character except a
     newline.  If the *note DOTALL: 2086. flag has been specified, this
     matches any character including a newline.  ‘(?s:.)’ matches any
     character regardless of flags.

‘^’

     (Caret.)  Matches the start of the string, and in *note MULTILINE:
     2087. mode also matches immediately after each newline.

‘$’

     Matches the end of the string or just before the newline at the end
     of the string, and in *note MULTILINE: 2087. mode also matches
     before a newline.  ‘foo’ matches both 'foo' and 'foobar', while the
     regular expression ‘foo$’ matches only 'foo'.  More interestingly,
     searching for ‘foo.$’ in ‘'foo1\nfoo2\n'’ matches 'foo2' normally,
     but 'foo1' in *note MULTILINE: 2087. mode; searching for a single
     ‘$’ in ‘'foo\n'’ will find two (empty) matches: one just before the
     newline, and one at the end of the string.

‘*’

     Causes the resulting RE to match 0 or more repetitions of the
     preceding RE, as many repetitions as are possible.  ‘ab*’ will
     match 'a', 'ab', or 'a' followed by any number of 'b's.

‘+’

     Causes the resulting RE to match 1 or more repetitions of the
     preceding RE. ‘ab+’ will match 'a' followed by any non-zero number
     of 'b's; it will not match just 'a'.

‘?’

     Causes the resulting RE to match 0 or 1 repetitions of the
     preceding RE. ‘ab?’ will match either 'a' or 'ab'.

‘*?’, ‘+?’, ‘??’

     The ‘'*'’, ‘'+'’, and ‘'?'’ quantifiers are all 'greedy'; they
     match as much text as possible.  Sometimes this behaviour isn't
     desired; if the RE ‘<.*>’ is matched against ‘'<a> b <c>'’, it will
     match the entire string, and not just ‘'<a>'’.  Adding ‘?’ after
     the quantifier makes it perform the match in 'non-greedy' or
     'minimal' fashion; as 'few' characters as possible will be matched.
     Using the RE ‘<.*?>’ will match only ‘'<a>'’.

‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’

     Like the ‘'*'’, ‘'+'’, and ‘'?'’ quantifiers, those where ‘'+'’ is
     appended also match as many times as possible.  However, unlike the
     true greedy quantifiers, these do not allow back-tracking when the
     expression following it fails to match.  These are known as
     'possessive' quantifiers.  For example, ‘a*a’ will match ‘'aaaa'’
     because the ‘a*’ will match all 4 ‘'a'’s, but, when the final ‘'a'’
     is encountered, the expression is backtracked so that in the end
     the ‘a*’ ends up matching 3 ‘'a'’s total, and the fourth ‘'a'’ is
     matched by the final ‘'a'’.  However, when ‘a*+a’ is used to match
     ‘'aaaa'’, the ‘a*+’ will match all 4 ‘'a'’, but when the final
     ‘'a'’ fails to find any more characters to match, the expression
     cannot be backtracked and will thus fail to match.  ‘x*+’, ‘x++’
     and ‘x?+’ are equivalent to ‘(?>x*)’, ‘(?>x+)’ and ‘(?>x?)’
     correspondingly.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

‘{m}’

     Specifies that exactly 'm' copies of the previous RE should be
     matched; fewer matches cause the entire RE not to match.  For
     example, ‘a{6}’ will match exactly six ‘'a'’ characters, but not
     five.

‘{m,n}’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as many repetitions as possible.
     For example, ‘a{3,5}’ will match from 3 to 5 ‘'a'’ characters.
     Omitting 'm' specifies a lower bound of zero, and omitting 'n'
     specifies an infinite upper bound.  As an example, ‘a{4,}b’ will
     match ‘'aaaab'’ or a thousand ‘'a'’ characters followed by a ‘'b'’,
     but not ‘'aaab'’.  The comma may not be omitted or the modifier
     would be confused with the previously described form.

‘{m,n}?’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as 'few' repetitions as possible.
     This is the non-greedy version of the previous quantifier.  For
     example, on the 6-character string ‘'aaaaaa'’, ‘a{3,5}’ will match
     5 ‘'a'’ characters, while ‘a{3,5}?’ will only match 3 characters.

‘{m,n}+’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as many repetitions as possible
     'without' establishing any backtracking points.  This is the
     possessive version of the quantifier above.  For example, on the
     6-character string ‘'aaaaaa'’, ‘a{3,5}+aa’ attempt to match 5 ‘'a'’
     characters, then, requiring 2 more ‘'a'’s, will need more
     characters than available and thus fail, while ‘a{3,5}aa’ will
     match with ‘a{3,5}’ capturing 5, then 4 ‘'a'’s by backtracking and
     then the final 2 ‘'a'’s are matched by the final ‘aa’ in the
     pattern.  ‘x{m,n}+’ is equivalent to ‘(?>x{m,n})’.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

‘\’

     Either escapes special characters (permitting you to match
     characters like ‘'*'’, ‘'?'’, and so forth), or signals a special
     sequence; special sequences are discussed below.

     If you're not using a raw string to express the pattern, remember
     that Python also uses the backslash as an escape sequence in string
     literals; if the escape sequence isn't recognized by Python's
     parser, the backslash and subsequent character are included in the
     resulting string.  However, if Python would recognize the resulting
     sequence, the backslash should be repeated twice.  This is
     complicated and hard to understand, so it's highly recommended that
     you use raw strings for all but the simplest expressions.

‘[]’

     Used to indicate a set of characters.  In a set:

        * Characters can be listed individually, e.g.  ‘[amk]’ will
          match ‘'a'’, ‘'m'’, or ‘'k'’.

        * Ranges of characters can be indicated by giving two characters
          and separating them by a ‘'-'’, for example ‘[a-z]’ will match
          any lowercase ASCII letter, ‘[0-5][0-9]’ will match all the
          two-digits numbers from ‘00’ to ‘59’, and ‘[0-9A-Fa-f]’ will
          match any hexadecimal digit.  If ‘-’ is escaped (e.g.
          ‘[a\-z]’) or if it's placed as the first or last character
          (e.g.  ‘[-a]’ or ‘[a-]’), it will match a literal ‘'-'’.

        * Special characters lose their special meaning inside sets.
          For example, ‘[(+*)]’ will match any of the literal characters
          ‘'('’, ‘'+'’, ‘'*'’, or ‘')'’.

        * Character classes such as ‘\w’ or ‘\S’ (defined below) are
          also accepted inside a set, although the characters they match
          depend on the *note flags: 2088. used.

        * Characters that are not within a range can be matched by
          'complementing' the set.  If the first character of the set is
          ‘'^'’, all the characters that are 'not' in the set will be
          matched.  For example, ‘[^5]’ will match any character except
          ‘'5'’, and ‘[^^]’ will match any character except ‘'^'’.  ‘^’
          has no special meaning if it's not the first character in the
          set.

        * To match a literal ‘']'’ inside a set, precede it with a
          backslash, or place it at the beginning of the set.  For
          example, both ‘[()[\]{}]’ and ‘[]()[{}]’ will match a right
          bracket, as well as left bracket, braces, and parentheses.

        * Support of nested sets and set operations as in Unicode
          Technical Standard #18(1) might be added in the future.  This
          would change the syntax, so to facilitate this change a *note
          FutureWarning: 241. will be raised in ambiguous cases for the
          time being.  That includes sets starting with a literal ‘'['’
          or containing literal character sequences ‘'--'’, ‘'&&'’,
          ‘'~~'’, and ‘'||'’.  To avoid a warning escape them with a
          backslash.

     在 3.7 版的變更: *note FutureWarning: 241. is raised if a character
     set contains constructs that will change semantically in the
     future.

‘|’

     ‘A|B’, where 'A' and 'B' can be arbitrary REs, creates a regular
     expression that will match either 'A' or 'B'. An arbitrary number
     of REs can be separated by the ‘'|'’ in this way.  This can be used
     inside groups (see below) as well.  As the target string is
     scanned, REs separated by ‘'|'’ are tried from left to right.  When
     one pattern completely matches, that branch is accepted.  This
     means that once 'A' matches, 'B' will not be tested further, even
     if it would produce a longer overall match.  In other words, the
     ‘'|'’ operator is never greedy.  To match a literal ‘'|'’, use
     ‘\|’, or enclose it inside a character class, as in ‘[|]’.

‘(...)’

     Matches whatever regular expression is inside the parentheses, and
     indicates the start and end of a group; the contents of a group can
     be retrieved after a match has been performed, and can be matched
     later in the string with the ‘\number’ special sequence, described
     below.  To match the literals ‘'('’ or ‘')'’, use ‘\(’ or ‘\)’, or
     enclose them inside a character class: ‘[(]’, ‘[)]’.

‘(?...)’

     This is an extension notation (a ‘'?'’ following a ‘'('’ is not
     meaningful otherwise).  The first character after the ‘'?'’
     determines what the meaning and further syntax of the construct is.
     Extensions usually do not create a new group; ‘(?P<name>...)’ is
     the only exception to this rule.  Following are the currently
     supported extensions.

‘(?aiLmsux)’

     (One or more letters from the set ‘'a'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'m'’,
     ‘'s'’, ‘'u'’, ‘'x'’.)  The group matches the empty string; the
     letters set the corresponding flags for the entire regular
     expression:

        * *note re.A: 2089. (ASCII-only matching)

        * *note re.I: 208a. (ignore case)

        * *note re.L: 208b. (locale dependent)

        * *note re.M: 208c. (multi-line)

        * *note re.S: 208d. (dot matches all)

        * *note re.U: 208e. (Unicode matching)

        * *note re.X: 208f. (verbose)

     (The flags are described in *note 模組內容: 2090.)  This is useful
     if you wish to include the flags as part of the regular expression,
     instead of passing a 'flag' argument to the *note re.compile():
     a34. function.  Flags should be used first in the expression
     string.

     在 3.11 版的變更: This construction can only be used at the start
     of the expression.

‘(?:...)’

     A non-capturing version of regular parentheses.  Matches whatever
     regular expression is inside the parentheses, but the substring
     matched by the group 'cannot' be retrieved after performing a match
     or referenced later in the pattern.

‘(?aiLmsux-imsx:...)’

     (Zero or more letters from the set ‘'a'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'m'’,
     ‘'s'’, ‘'u'’, ‘'x'’, optionally followed by ‘'-'’ followed by one
     or more letters from the ‘'i'’, ‘'m'’, ‘'s'’, ‘'x'’.)  The letters
     set or remove the corresponding flags for the part of the
     expression:

        * *note re.A: 2089. (ASCII-only matching)

        * *note re.I: 208a. (ignore case)

        * *note re.L: 208b. (locale dependent)

        * *note re.M: 208c. (multi-line)

        * *note re.S: 208d. (dot matches all)

        * *note re.U: 208e. (Unicode matching)

        * *note re.X: 208f. (verbose)

     (The flags are described in *note 模組內容: 2090.)

     The letters ‘'a'’, ‘'L'’ and ‘'u'’ are mutually exclusive when used
     as inline flags, so they can't be combined or follow ‘'-'’.
     Instead, when one of them appears in an inline group, it overrides
     the matching mode in the enclosing group.  In Unicode patterns
     ‘(?a:...)’ switches to ASCII-only matching, and ‘(?u:...)’ switches
     to Unicode matching (default).  In bytes patterns ‘(?L:...)’
     switches to locale dependent matching, and ‘(?a:...)’ switches to
     ASCII-only matching (default).  This override is only in effect for
     the narrow inline group, and the original matching mode is restored
     outside of the group.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The letters ‘'a'’, ‘'L'’ and ‘'u'’ also can be
     used in a group.

‘(?>...)’

     Attempts to match ‘...’ as if it was a separate regular expression,
     and if successful, continues to match the rest of the pattern
     following it.  If the subsequent pattern fails to match, the stack
     can only be unwound to a point 'before' the ‘(?>...)’ because once
     exited, the expression, known as an 'atomic group', has thrown away
     all stack points within itself.  Thus, ‘(?>.*).’ would never match
     anything because first the ‘.*’ would match all characters
     possible, then, having nothing left to match, the final ‘.’ would
     fail to match.  Since there are no stack points saved in the Atomic
     Group, and there is no stack point before it, the entire expression
     would thus fail to match.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

‘(?P<name>...)’

     Similar to regular parentheses, but the substring matched by the
     group is accessible via the symbolic group name 'name'.  Group
     names must be valid Python identifiers, and in *note bytes: 2c1.
     patterns they can only contain bytes in the ASCII range.  Each
     group name must be defined only once within a regular expression.
     A symbolic group is also a numbered group, just as if the group
     were not named.

     Named groups can be referenced in three contexts.  If the pattern
     is ‘(?P<quote>['"]).*?(?P=quote)’ (i.e.  matching a string quoted
     with either single or double quotes):

     Context of reference to group "quote"       Ways to reference it
                                                 
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     in the same pattern itself                     * ‘(?P=quote)’ (as shown)
                                                 
                                                    * ‘\1’
                                                 
                                                 
     when processing match object 'm'               * ‘m.group('quote')’
                                                 
                                                    * ‘m.end('quote')’ (etc.)
                                                 
                                                 
     in a string passed to the 'repl' argument      * ‘\g<quote>’
     of ‘re.sub()’                               
                                                    * ‘\g<1>’
                                                 
                                                    * ‘\1’
                                                 

     在 3.12 版的變更: In *note bytes: 2c1. patterns, group 'name' can
     only contain bytes in the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

‘(?P=name)’

     A backreference to a named group; it matches whatever text was
     matched by the earlier group named 'name'.

‘(?#...)’

     A comment; the contents of the parentheses are simply ignored.

‘(?=...)’

     Matches if ‘...’ matches next, but doesn't consume any of the
     string.  This is called a 'lookahead assertion'.  For example,
     ‘Isaac (?=Asimov)’ will match ‘'Isaac '’ only if it's followed by
     ‘'Asimov'’.

‘(?!...)’

     Matches if ‘...’ doesn't match next.  This is a 'negative lookahead
     assertion'.  For example, ‘Isaac (?!Asimov)’ will match ‘'Isaac '’
     only if it's 'not' followed by ‘'Asimov'’.

‘(?<=...)’

     Matches if the current position in the string is preceded by a
     match for ‘...’ that ends at the current position.  This is called
     a 'positive lookbehind assertion'.  ‘(?<=abc)def’ will find a match
     in ‘'abcdef'’, since the lookbehind will back up 3 characters and
     check if the contained pattern matches.  The contained pattern must
     only match strings of some fixed length, meaning that ‘abc’ or
     ‘a|b’ are allowed, but ‘a*’ and ‘a{3,4}’ are not.  Note that
     patterns which start with positive lookbehind assertions will not
     match at the beginning of the string being searched; you will most
     likely want to use the *note search(): 10bf. function rather than
     the *note match(): 10c0. function:

          >>> import re
          >>> m = re.search('(?<=abc)def', 'abcdef')
          >>> m.group(0)
          'def'

     This example looks for a word following a hyphen:

          >>> m = re.search(r'(?<=-)\w+', 'spam-egg')
          >>> m.group(0)
          'egg'

     在 3.5 版的變更: Added support for group references of fixed
     length.

‘(?<!...)’

     Matches if the current position in the string is not preceded by a
     match for ‘...’.  This is called a 'negative lookbehind assertion'.
     Similar to positive lookbehind assertions, the contained pattern
     must only match strings of some fixed length.  Patterns which start
     with negative lookbehind assertions may match at the beginning of
     the string being searched.

‘(?(id/name)yes-pattern|no-pattern)’

     Will try to match with ‘yes-pattern’ if the group with given 'id'
     or 'name' exists, and with ‘no-pattern’ if it doesn't.
     ‘no-pattern’ is optional and can be omitted.  For example,
     ‘(<)?(\w+@\w+(?:\.\w+)+)(?(1)>|$)’ is a poor email matching
     pattern, which will match with ‘'<user@host.com>'’ as well as
     ‘'user@host.com'’, but not with ‘'<user@host.com'’ nor
     ‘'user@host.com>'’.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Group 'id' can only contain ASCII digits.  In
     *note bytes: 2c1. patterns, group 'name' can only contain bytes in
     the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

The special sequences consist of ‘'\'’ and a character from the list
below.  If the ordinary character is not an ASCII digit or an ASCII
letter, then the resulting RE will match the second character.  For
example, ‘\$’ matches the character ‘'$'’.

‘\number’

     Matches the contents of the group of the same number.  Groups are
     numbered starting from 1.  For example, ‘(.+) \1’ matches ‘'the
     the'’ or ‘'55 55'’, but not ‘'thethe'’ (note the space after the
     group).  This special sequence can only be used to match one of the
     first 99 groups.  If the first digit of 'number' is 0, or 'number'
     is 3 octal digits long, it will not be interpreted as a group
     match, but as the character with octal value 'number'.  Inside the
     ‘'['’ and ‘']'’ of a character class, all numeric escapes are
     treated as characters.

‘\A’

     Matches only at the start of the string.

‘\b’

     Matches the empty string, but only at the beginning or end of a
     word.  A word is defined as a sequence of word characters.  Note
     that formally, ‘\b’ is defined as the boundary between a ‘\w’ and a
     ‘\W’ character (or vice versa), or between ‘\w’ and the beginning
     or end of the string.  This means that ‘r'\bat\b'’ matches ‘'at'’,
     ‘'at.'’, ‘'(at)'’, and ‘'as at ay'’ but not ‘'attempt'’ or
     ‘'atlas'’.

     The default word characters in Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode
     alphanumerics and the underscore, but this can be changed by using
     the *note ASCII: 428. flag.  Word boundaries are determined by the
     current locale if the *note LOCALE: 9c8. flag is used.

          備註: Inside a character range, ‘\b’ represents the backspace
          character, for compatibility with Python's string literals.

‘\B’

     Matches the empty string, but only when it is 'not' at the
     beginning or end of a word.  This means that ‘r'at\B'’ matches
     ‘'athens'’, ‘'atom'’, ‘'attorney'’, but not ‘'at'’, ‘'at.'’, or
     ‘'at!'’.  ‘\B’ is the opposite of ‘\b’, so word characters in
     Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode alphanumerics or the underscore,
     although this can be changed by using the *note ASCII: 428. flag.
     Word boundaries are determined by the current locale if the *note
     LOCALE: 9c8. flag is used.

          備註: Note that ‘\B’ does not match an empty string, which
          differs from RE implementations in other programming languages
          such as Perl.  This behavior is kept for compatibility
          reasons.

‘\d’

     For Unicode (str) patterns:

          Matches any Unicode decimal digit (that is, any character in
          Unicode character category [Nd](2)).  This includes ‘[0-9]’,
          and also many other digit characters.

          Matches ‘[0-9]’ if the *note ASCII: 428. flag is used.

     For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:

          Matches any decimal digit in the ASCII character set; this is
          equivalent to ‘[0-9]’.

‘\D’

     Matches any character which is not a decimal digit.  This is the
     opposite of ‘\d’.

     Matches ‘[^0-9]’ if the *note ASCII: 428. flag is used.

‘\s’

     For Unicode (str) patterns:

          Matches Unicode whitespace characters (as defined by *note
          str.isspace(): 1f5c.).  This includes ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’, and
          also many other characters, for example the non-breaking
          spaces mandated by typography rules in many languages.

          Matches ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’ if the *note ASCII: 428. flag is used.

     For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:

          Matches characters considered whitespace in the ASCII
          character set; this is equivalent to ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\S’

     Matches any character which is not a whitespace character.  This is
     the opposite of ‘\s’.

     Matches ‘[^ \t\n\r\f\v]’ if the *note ASCII: 428. flag is used.

‘\w’

     For Unicode (str) patterns:

          Matches Unicode word characters; this includes all Unicode
          alphanumeric characters (as defined by *note str.isalnum():
          1f55.), as well as the underscore (‘_’).

          Matches ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ if the *note ASCII: 428. flag is used.

     For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:

          Matches characters considered alphanumeric in the ASCII
          character set; this is equivalent to ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.  If the
          *note LOCALE: 9c8. flag is used, matches characters considered
          alphanumeric in the current locale and the underscore.

‘\W’

     Matches any character which is not a word character.  This is the
     opposite of ‘\w’.  By default, matches non-underscore (‘_’)
     characters for which *note str.isalnum(): 1f55. returns ‘False’.

     Matches ‘[^a-zA-Z0-9_]’ if the *note ASCII: 428. flag is used.

     If the *note LOCALE: 9c8. flag is used, matches characters which
     are neither alphanumeric in the current locale nor the underscore.

‘\Z’

     Matches only at the end of the string.

Most of the *note escape sequences: 16a. supported by Python string
literals are also accepted by the regular expression parser:

     \a      \b      \f      \n
     \N      \r      \t      \u
     \U      \v      \x      \\

(Note that ‘\b’ is used to represent word boundaries, and means
"backspace" only inside character classes.)

‘'\u'’, ‘'\U'’, and ‘'\N'’ escape sequences are only recognized in
Unicode (str) patterns.  In bytes patterns they are errors.  Unknown
escapes of ASCII letters are reserved for future use and treated as
errors.

Octal escapes are included in a limited form.  If the first digit is a
0, or if there are three octal digits, it is considered an octal escape.
Otherwise, it is a group reference.  As for string literals, octal
escapes are always at most three digits in length.

在 3.3 版的變更: The ‘'\u'’ and ‘'\U'’ escape sequences have been added.

在 3.6 版的變更: Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter
now are errors.

在 3.8 版的變更: The ‘'\N{NAME}'’ escape sequence has been added.  As in
string literals, it expands to the named Unicode character (e.g.
‘'\N{EM DASH}'’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch04.pdf#G134153


File: python.info,  Node: 模組內容,  Next: Regular Expression Objects,  Prev: 正規表示式語法,  Up: re --- 正規表示式 regular expression 操作

5.6.2.2 模組內容
................

The module defines several functions, constants, and an exception.  Some
of the functions are simplified versions of the full featured methods
for compiled regular expressions.  Most non-trivial applications always
use the compiled form.

* Menu:

* 旗標::
* Functions::
* Exceptions::


File: python.info,  Node: 旗標,  Next: Functions,  Up: 模組內容

5.6.2.3 旗標
............

在 3.6 版的變更: Flag constants are now instances of *note RegexFlag:
427, which is a subclass of *note enum.IntFlag: 2093.

 -- 類別: re.RegexFlag

     An *note enum.IntFlag: 2093. class containing the regex options
     listed below.

     在 3.11 版被加入: - added to ‘__all__’

 -- 資料: re.A
 -- 資料: re.ASCII

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’, ‘\d’, ‘\D’, ‘\s’ and ‘\S’ perform
     ASCII-only matching instead of full Unicode matching.  This is only
     meaningful for Unicode (str) patterns, and is ignored for bytes
     patterns.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?a)’.

          備註: The *note U: 208e. flag still exists for backward
          compatibility, but is redundant in Python 3 since matches are
          Unicode by default for ‘str’ patterns, and Unicode matching
          isn't allowed for bytes patterns.  *note UNICODE: 9c9. and the
          inline flag ‘(?u)’ are similarly redundant.

 -- 資料: re.DEBUG

     Display debug information about compiled expression.

     No corresponding inline flag.

 -- 資料: re.I
 -- 資料: re.IGNORECASE

     Perform case-insensitive matching; expressions like ‘[A-Z]’ will
     also match lowercase letters.  Full Unicode matching (such as ‘Ü’
     matching ‘ü’) also works unless the *note ASCII: 428. flag is used
     to disable non-ASCII matches.  The current locale does not change
     the effect of this flag unless the *note LOCALE: 9c8. flag is also
     used.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?i)’.

     Note that when the Unicode patterns ‘[a-z]’ or ‘[A-Z]’ are used in
     combination with the *note IGNORECASE: 14e2. flag, they will match
     the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters: 'İ'
     (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), 'ı' (U+0131, Latin
     small letter dotless i), 'ſ' (U+017F, Latin small letter long s)
     and 'K' (U+212A, Kelvin sign).  If the *note ASCII: 428. flag is
     used, only letters 'a' to 'z' and 'A' to 'Z' are matched.

 -- 資料: re.L
 -- 資料: re.LOCALE

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’ and case-insensitive matching dependent
     on the current locale.  This flag can be used only with bytes
     patterns.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?L)’.

          警告: This flag is discouraged; consider Unicode matching
          instead.  The locale mechanism is very unreliable as it only
          handles one "culture" at a time and only works with 8-bit
          locales.  Unicode matching is enabled by default for Unicode
          (str) patterns and it is able to handle different locales and
          languages.

     在 3.6 版的變更: *note LOCALE: 9c8. can be used only with bytes
     patterns and is not compatible with *note ASCII: 428.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Compiled regular expression objects with the *note
     LOCALE: 9c8. flag no longer depend on the locale at compile time.
     Only the locale at matching time affects the result of matching.

 -- 資料: re.M
 -- 資料: re.MULTILINE

     When specified, the pattern character ‘'^'’ matches at the
     beginning of the string and at the beginning of each line
     (immediately following each newline); and the pattern character
     ‘'$'’ matches at the end of the string and at the end of each line
     (immediately preceding each newline).  By default, ‘'^'’ matches
     only at the beginning of the string, and ‘'$'’ only at the end of
     the string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the end
     of the string.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?m)’.

 -- 資料: re.NOFLAG

     Indicates no flag being applied, the value is ‘0’.  This flag may
     be used as a default value for a function keyword argument or as a
     base value that will be conditionally ORed with other flags.
     Example of use as a default value:

          def myfunc(text, flag=re.NOFLAG):
              return re.match(text, flag)

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 資料: re.S
 -- 資料: re.DOTALL

     Make the ‘'.'’ special character match any character at all,
     including a newline; without this flag, ‘'.'’ will match anything
     'except' a newline.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?s)’.

 -- 資料: re.U
 -- 資料: re.UNICODE

     In Python 3, Unicode characters are matched by default for ‘str’
     patterns.  This flag is therefore redundant with 'no effect' and is
     only kept for backward compatibility.

     See *note ASCII: 428. to restrict matching to ASCII characters
     instead.

 -- 資料: re.X
 -- 資料: re.VERBOSE

     This flag allows you to write regular expressions that look nicer
     and are more readable by allowing you to visually separate logical
     sections of the pattern and add comments.  Whitespace within the
     pattern is ignored, except when in a character class, or when
     preceded by an unescaped backslash, or within tokens like ‘*?’,
     ‘(?:’ or ‘(?P<...>’.  For example, ‘(? :’ and ‘* ?’ are not
     allowed.  When a line contains a ‘#’ that is not in a character
     class and is not preceded by an unescaped backslash, all characters
     from the leftmost such ‘#’ through the end of the line are ignored.

     This means that the two following regular expression objects that
     match a decimal number are functionally equal:

          a = re.compile(r"""\d +  # the integral part
                             \.    # the decimal point
                             \d *  # some fractional digits""", re.X)
          b = re.compile(r"\d+\.\d*")

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?x)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions,  Next: Exceptions,  Prev: 旗標,  Up: 模組內容

5.6.2.4 Functions
.................

 -- 函式: re.compile (pattern, flags=0)

     Compile a regular expression pattern into a *note regular
     expression object: e13, which can be used for matching using its
     *note match(): 2098, *note search(): 2099. and other methods,
     described below.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2088. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     The sequence

          prog = re.compile(pattern)
          result = prog.match(string)

     等價於：

          result = re.match(pattern, string)

     but using *note re.compile(): a34. and saving the resulting regular
     expression object for reuse is more efficient when the expression
     will be used several times in a single program.

          備註: The compiled versions of the most recent patterns passed
          to *note re.compile(): a34. and the module-level matching
          functions are cached, so programs that use only a few regular
          expressions at a time needn't worry about compiling regular
          expressions.

 -- 函式: re.search (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Scan through 'string' looking for the first location where the
     regular expression 'pattern' produces a match, and return a
     corresponding *note Match: b35.  Return ‘None’ if no position in
     the string matches the pattern; note that this is different from
     finding a zero-length match at some point in the string.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2088. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- 函式: re.match (pattern, string, flags=0)

     If zero or more characters at the beginning of 'string' match the
     regular expression 'pattern', return a corresponding *note Match:
     b35.  Return ‘None’ if the string does not match the pattern; note
     that this is different from a zero-length match.

     Note that even in *note MULTILINE: 2087. mode, *note re.match():
     10c0. will only match at the beginning of the string and not at the
     beginning of each line.

     If you want to locate a match anywhere in 'string', use *note
     search(): 10bf. instead (see also *note search() vs.  match():
     209a.).

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2088. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- 函式: re.fullmatch (pattern, string, flags=0)

     If the whole 'string' matches the regular expression 'pattern',
     return a corresponding *note Match: b35.  Return ‘None’ if the
     string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from
     a zero-length match.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2088. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: re.split (pattern, string, maxsplit=0, flags=0)

     Split 'string' by the occurrences of 'pattern'.  If capturing
     parentheses are used in 'pattern', then the text of all groups in
     the pattern are also returned as part of the resulting list.  If
     'maxsplit' is nonzero, at most 'maxsplit' splits occur, and the
     remainder of the string is returned as the final element of the
     list.

          >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
          >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
          >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.', 1)
          ['Words', 'words, words.']
          >>> re.split('[a-f]+', '0a3B9', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
          ['0', '3', '9']

     If there are capturing groups in the separator and it matches at
     the start of the string, the result will start with an empty
     string.  The same holds for the end of the string:

          >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', '...words, words...')
          ['', '...', 'words', ', ', 'words', '...', '']

     That way, separator components are always found at the same
     relative indices within the result list.

     Empty matches for the pattern split the string only when not
     adjacent to a previous empty match.

          >>> re.split(r'\b', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['', 'Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.']
          >>> re.split(r'\W*', '...words...')
          ['', '', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'd', 's', '', '']
          >>> re.split(r'(\W*)', '...words...')
          ['', '...', '', '', 'w', '', 'o', '', 'r', '', 'd', '', 's', '...', '', '', '']

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2088. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增可選的旗標引數。

     在 3.7 版的變更: Added support of splitting on a pattern that could
     match an empty string.

 -- 函式: re.findall (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Return all non-overlapping matches of 'pattern' in 'string', as a
     list of strings or tuples.  The 'string' is scanned left-to-right,
     and matches are returned in the order found.  Empty matches are
     included in the result.

     The result depends on the number of capturing groups in the
     pattern.  If there are no groups, return a list of strings matching
     the whole pattern.  If there is exactly one group, return a list of
     strings matching that group.  If multiple groups are present,
     return a list of tuples of strings matching the groups.
     Non-capturing groups do not affect the form of the result.

          >>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
          ['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
          >>> re.findall(r'(\w+)=(\d+)', 'set width=20 and height=10')
          [('width', '20'), ('height', '10')]

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2088. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     在 3.7 版的變更: Non-empty matches can now start just after a
     previous empty match.

 -- 函式: re.finditer (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Return an *note iterator: 1718. yielding *note Match: b35. objects
     over all non-overlapping matches for the RE 'pattern' in 'string'.
     The 'string' is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in
     the order found.  Empty matches are included in the result.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2088. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     在 3.7 版的變更: Non-empty matches can now start just after a
     previous empty match.

 -- 函式: re.sub (pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

     Return the string obtained by replacing the leftmost
     non-overlapping occurrences of 'pattern' in 'string' by the
     replacement 'repl'.  If the pattern isn't found, 'string' is
     returned unchanged.  'repl' can be a string or a function; if it is
     a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed.  That is, ‘\n’
     is converted to a single newline character, ‘\r’ is converted to a
     carriage return, and so forth.  Unknown escapes of ASCII letters
     are reserved for future use and treated as errors.  Other unknown
     escapes such as ‘\&’ are left alone.  Backreferences, such as ‘\6’,
     are replaced with the substring matched by group 6 in the pattern.
     For example:

          >>> re.sub(r'def\s+([a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z_0-9]*)\s*\(\s*\):',
          ...        r'static PyObject*\npy_\1(void)\n{',
          ...        'def myfunc():')
          'static PyObject*\npy_myfunc(void)\n{'

     If 'repl' is a function, it is called for every non-overlapping
     occurrence of 'pattern'.  The function takes a single *note Match:
     b35. argument, and returns the replacement string.  For example:

          >>> def dashrepl(matchobj):
          ...     if matchobj.group(0) == '-': return ' '
          ...     else: return '-'
          ...
          >>> re.sub('-{1,2}', dashrepl, 'pro----gram-files')
          'pro--gram files'
          >>> re.sub(r'\sAND\s', ' & ', 'Baked Beans And Spam', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
          'Baked Beans & Spam'

     The pattern may be a string or a *note Pattern: 14cd.

     The optional argument 'count' is the maximum number of pattern
     occurrences to be replaced; 'count' must be a non-negative integer.
     If omitted or zero, all occurrences will be replaced.  Empty
     matches for the pattern are replaced only when not adjacent to a
     previous empty match, so ‘sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')’ returns
     ‘'-a-b--d-'’.

     In string-type 'repl' arguments, in addition to the character
     escapes and backreferences described above, ‘\g<name>’ will use the
     substring matched by the group named ‘name’, as defined by the
     ‘(?P<name>...)’ syntax.  ‘\g<number>’ uses the corresponding group
     number; ‘\g<2>’ is therefore equivalent to ‘\2’, but isn't
     ambiguous in a replacement such as ‘\g<2>0’.  ‘\20’ would be
     interpreted as a reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2
     followed by the literal character ‘'0'’.  The backreference ‘\g<0>’
     substitutes in the entire substring matched by the RE.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2088. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增可選的旗標引數。

     在 3.5 版的變更: Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty
     string.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Unknown escapes in 'pattern' consisting of ‘'\'’
     and an ASCII letter now are errors.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Unknown escapes in 'repl' consisting of ‘'\'’ and
     an ASCII letter now are errors.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Empty matches for the pattern are replaced when
     adjacent to a previous non-empty match.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Group 'id' can only contain ASCII digits.  In
     *note bytes: 2c1. replacement strings, group 'name' can only
     contain bytes in the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

 -- 函式: re.subn (pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

     Perform the same operation as *note sub(): 201, but return a tuple
     ‘(new_string, number_of_subs_made)’.

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增可選的旗標引數。

     在 3.5 版的變更: Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty
     string.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2088. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- 函式: re.escape (pattern)

     Escape special characters in 'pattern'.  This is useful if you want
     to match an arbitrary literal string that may have regular
     expression metacharacters in it.  For example:

          >>> print(re.escape('https://www.python.org'))
          https://www\.python\.org

          >>> legal_chars = string.ascii_lowercase + string.digits + "!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:"
          >>> print('[%s]+' % re.escape(legal_chars))
          [abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789!\#\$%\&'\*\+\-\.\^_`\|\~:]+

          >>> operators = ['+', '-', '*', '/', '**']
          >>> print('|'.join(map(re.escape, sorted(operators, reverse=True))))
          /|\-|\+|\*\*|\*

     This function must not be used for the replacement string in *note
     sub(): 201. and *note subn(): 202, only backslashes should be
     escaped.  For example:

          >>> digits_re = r'\d+'
          >>> sample = '/usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 12 warnings'
          >>> print(re.sub(digits_re, digits_re.replace('\\', r'\\'), sample))
          /usr/sbin/sendmail - \d+ errors, \d+ warnings

     在 3.3 版的變更: The ‘'_'’ character is no longer escaped.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Only characters that can have special meaning in a
     regular expression are escaped.  As a result, ‘'!'’, ‘'"'’, ‘'%'’,
     ‘"'"’, ‘','’, ‘'/'’, ‘':'’, ‘';'’, ‘'<'’, ‘'='’, ‘'>'’, ‘'@'’, and
     ‘"`"’ are no longer escaped.

 -- 函式: re.purge ()

     Clear the regular expression cache.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions,  Prev: Functions,  Up: 模組內容

5.6.2.5 Exceptions
..................

 -- 例外: re.error (msg, pattern=None, pos=None)

     Exception raised when a string passed to one of the functions here
     is not a valid regular expression (for example, it might contain
     unmatched parentheses) or when some other error occurs during
     compilation or matching.  It is never an error if a string contains
     no match for a pattern.  The error instance has the following
     additional attributes:

      -- 屬性: msg

          The unformatted error message.

      -- 屬性: pattern

          The regular expression pattern.

      -- 屬性: pos

          The index in 'pattern' where compilation failed (may be
          ‘None’).

      -- 屬性: lineno

          The line corresponding to 'pos' (may be ‘None’).

      -- 屬性: colno

          The column corresponding to 'pos' (may be ‘None’).

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增額外屬性。


File: python.info,  Node: Regular Expression Objects,  Next: Match Objects,  Prev: 模組內容,  Up: re --- 正規表示式 regular expression 操作

5.6.2.6 Regular Expression Objects
..................................

 -- 類別: re.Pattern

     Compiled regular expression object returned by *note re.compile():
     a34.

     在 3.9 版的變更: *note re.Pattern: 14cd. supports ‘[]’ to indicate
     a Unicode (str) or bytes pattern.  See *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 方法: Pattern.search (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Scan through 'string' looking for the first location where this
     regular expression produces a match, and return a corresponding
     *note Match: b35.  Return ‘None’ if no position in the string
     matches the pattern; note that this is different from finding a
     zero-length match at some point in the string.

     The optional second parameter 'pos' gives an index in the string
     where the search is to start; it defaults to ‘0’.  This is not
     completely equivalent to slicing the string; the ‘'^'’ pattern
     character matches at the real beginning of the string and at
     positions just after a newline, but not necessarily at the index
     where the search is to start.

     The optional parameter 'endpos' limits how far the string will be
     searched; it will be as if the string is 'endpos' characters long,
     so only the characters from 'pos' to ‘endpos - 1’ will be searched
     for a match.  If 'endpos' is less than 'pos', no match will be
     found; otherwise, if 'rx' is a compiled regular expression object,
     ‘rx.search(string, 0, 50)’ is equivalent to ‘rx.search(string[:50],
     0)’.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("d")
          >>> pattern.search("dog")     # Match at index 0
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='d'>
          >>> pattern.search("dog", 1)  # No match; search doesn't include the "d"

 -- 方法: Pattern.match (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     If zero or more characters at the 'beginning' of 'string' match
     this regular expression, return a corresponding *note Match: b35.
     Return ‘None’ if the string does not match the pattern; note that
     this is different from a zero-length match.

     The optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters have the same meaning as
     for the *note search(): 2099. method.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("o")
          >>> pattern.match("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
          >>> pattern.match("dog", 1)   # Match as "o" is the 2nd character of "dog".
          <re.Match object; span=(1, 2), match='o'>

     If you want to locate a match anywhere in 'string', use *note
     search(): 2099. instead (see also *note search() vs.  match():
     209a.).

 -- 方法: Pattern.fullmatch (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     If the whole 'string' matches this regular expression, return a
     corresponding *note Match: b35.  Return ‘None’ if the string does
     not match the pattern; note that this is different from a
     zero-length match.

     The optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters have the same meaning as
     for the *note search(): 2099. method.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("o[gh]")
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("ogre")     # No match as not the full string matches.
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("doggie", 1, 3)   # Matches within given limits.
          <re.Match object; span=(1, 3), match='og'>

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 方法: Pattern.split (string, maxsplit=0)

     Identical to the *note split(): 9ca. function, using the compiled
     pattern.

 -- 方法: Pattern.findall (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Similar to the *note findall(): ebe. function, using the compiled
     pattern, but also accepts optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters
     that limit the search region like for *note search(): 10bf.

 -- 方法: Pattern.finditer (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Similar to the *note finditer(): 1371. function, using the compiled
     pattern, but also accepts optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters
     that limit the search region like for *note search(): 10bf.

 -- 方法: Pattern.sub (repl, string, count=0)

     Identical to the *note sub(): 201. function, using the compiled
     pattern.

 -- 方法: Pattern.subn (repl, string, count=0)

     Identical to the *note subn(): 202. function, using the compiled
     pattern.

 -- 屬性: Pattern.flags

     The regex matching flags.  This is a combination of the flags given
     to *note compile(): a34, any ‘(?...)’ inline flags in the pattern,
     and implicit flags such as *note UNICODE: 9c9. if the pattern is a
     Unicode string.

 -- 屬性: Pattern.groups

     The number of capturing groups in the pattern.

 -- 屬性: Pattern.groupindex

     A dictionary mapping any symbolic group names defined by ‘(?P<id>)’
     to group numbers.  The dictionary is empty if no symbolic groups
     were used in the pattern.

 -- 屬性: Pattern.pattern

     The pattern string from which the pattern object was compiled.

在 3.7 版的變更: Added support of *note copy.copy(): 2b5. and *note
copy.deepcopy(): 9cb.  Compiled regular expression objects are
considered atomic.


File: python.info,  Node: Match Objects,  Next: Regular Expression Examples,  Prev: Regular Expression Objects,  Up: re --- 正規表示式 regular expression 操作

5.6.2.7 Match Objects
.....................

Match objects always have a boolean value of ‘True’.  Since *note
match(): 2098. and *note search(): 2099. return ‘None’ when there is no
match, you can test whether there was a match with a simple ‘if’
statement:

     match = re.search(pattern, string)
     if match:
         process(match)

 -- 類別: re.Match

     Match object returned by successful ‘match’es and ‘search’es.

     在 3.9 版的變更: *note re.Match: b35. supports ‘[]’ to indicate a
     Unicode (str) or bytes match.  See *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 方法: Match.expand (template)

     Return the string obtained by doing backslash substitution on the
     template string 'template', as done by the *note sub(): 20a1.
     method.  Escapes such as ‘\n’ are converted to the appropriate
     characters, and numeric backreferences (‘\1’, ‘\2’) and named
     backreferences (‘\g<1>’, ‘\g<name>’) are replaced by the contents
     of the corresponding group.  The backreference ‘\g<0>’ will be
     replaced by the entire match.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty
     string.

 -- 方法: Match.group ([group1, ...])

     Returns one or more subgroups of the match.  If there is a single
     argument, the result is a single string; if there are multiple
     arguments, the result is a tuple with one item per argument.
     Without arguments, 'group1' defaults to zero (the whole match is
     returned).  If a 'groupN' argument is zero, the corresponding
     return value is the entire matching string; if it is in the
     inclusive range [1..99], it is the string matching the
     corresponding parenthesized group.  If a group number is negative
     or larger than the number of groups defined in the pattern, an
     *note IndexError: 13ac. exception is raised.  If a group is
     contained in a part of the pattern that did not match, the
     corresponding result is ‘None’.  If a group is contained in a part
     of the pattern that matched multiple times, the last match is
     returned.

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
          >>> m.group(0)       # The entire match
          'Isaac Newton'
          >>> m.group(1)       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
          'Isaac'
          >>> m.group(2)       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
          'Newton'
          >>> m.group(1, 2)    # Multiple arguments give us a tuple.
          ('Isaac', 'Newton')

     If the regular expression uses the ‘(?P<name>...)’ syntax, the
     'groupN' arguments may also be strings identifying groups by their
     group name.  If a string argument is not used as a group name in
     the pattern, an *note IndexError: 13ac. exception is raised.

     A moderately complicated example:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
          >>> m.group('first_name')
          'Malcolm'
          >>> m.group('last_name')
          'Reynolds'

     Named groups can also be referred to by their index:

          >>> m.group(1)
          'Malcolm'
          >>> m.group(2)
          'Reynolds'

     If a group matches multiple times, only the last match is
     accessible:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(..)+", "a1b2c3")  # Matches 3 times.
          >>> m.group(1)                        # Returns only the last match.
          'c3'

 -- 方法: Match.__getitem__ (g)

     This is identical to ‘m.group(g)’.  This allows easier access to an
     individual group from a match:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
          >>> m[0]       # The entire match
          'Isaac Newton'
          >>> m[1]       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
          'Isaac'
          >>> m[2]       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
          'Newton'

     Named groups are supported as well:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Isaac Newton")
          >>> m['first_name']
          'Isaac'
          >>> m['last_name']
          'Newton'

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 方法: Match.groups (default=None)

     Return a tuple containing all the subgroups of the match, from 1 up
     to however many groups are in the pattern.  The 'default' argument
     is used for groups that did not participate in the match; it
     defaults to ‘None’.

     舉例來說：

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.(\d+)", "24.1632")
          >>> m.groups()
          ('24', '1632')

     If we make the decimal place and everything after it optional, not
     all groups might participate in the match.  These groups will
     default to ‘None’ unless the 'default' argument is given:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.?(\d+)?", "24")
          >>> m.groups()      # Second group defaults to None.
          ('24', None)
          >>> m.groups('0')   # Now, the second group defaults to '0'.
          ('24', '0')

 -- 方法: Match.groupdict (default=None)

     Return a dictionary containing all the 'named' subgroups of the
     match, keyed by the subgroup name.  The 'default' argument is used
     for groups that did not participate in the match; it defaults to
     ‘None’.  For example:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
          >>> m.groupdict()
          {'first_name': 'Malcolm', 'last_name': 'Reynolds'}

 -- 方法: Match.start ([group])
 -- 方法: Match.end ([group])

     Return the indices of the start and end of the substring matched by
     'group'; 'group' defaults to zero (meaning the whole matched
     substring).  Return ‘-1’ if 'group' exists but did not contribute
     to the match.  For a match object 'm', and a group 'g' that did
     contribute to the match, the substring matched by group 'g'
     (equivalent to ‘m.group(g)’) is

          m.string[m.start(g):m.end(g)]

     Note that ‘m.start(group)’ will equal ‘m.end(group)’ if 'group'
     matched a null string.  For example, after ‘m = re.search('b(c?)',
     'cba')’, ‘m.start(0)’ is 1, ‘m.end(0)’ is 2, ‘m.start(1)’ and
     ‘m.end(1)’ are both 2, and ‘m.start(2)’ raises an *note IndexError:
     13ac. exception.

     An example that will remove 'remove_this' from email addresses:

          >>> email = "tony@tiremove_thisger.net"
          >>> m = re.search("remove_this", email)
          >>> email[:m.start()] + email[m.end():]
          'tony@tiger.net'

 -- 方法: Match.span ([group])

     For a match 'm', return the 2-tuple ‘(m.start(group),
     m.end(group))’.  Note that if 'group' did not contribute to the
     match, this is ‘(-1, -1)’.  'group' defaults to zero, the entire
     match.

 -- 屬性: Match.pos

     The value of 'pos' which was passed to the *note search(): 2099. or
     *note match(): 2098. method of a *note regex object: e13.  This is
     the index into the string at which the RE engine started looking
     for a match.

 -- 屬性: Match.endpos

     The value of 'endpos' which was passed to the *note search(): 2099.
     or *note match(): 2098. method of a *note regex object: e13.  This
     is the index into the string beyond which the RE engine will not
     go.

 -- 屬性: Match.lastindex

     The integer index of the last matched capturing group, or ‘None’ if
     no group was matched at all.  For example, the expressions ‘(a)b’,
     ‘((a)(b))’, and ‘((ab))’ will have ‘lastindex == 1’ if applied to
     the string ‘'ab'’, while the expression ‘(a)(b)’ will have
     ‘lastindex == 2’, if applied to the same string.

 -- 屬性: Match.lastgroup

     The name of the last matched capturing group, or ‘None’ if the
     group didn't have a name, or if no group was matched at all.

 -- 屬性: Match.re

     The *note regular expression object: e13. whose *note match():
     2098. or *note search(): 2099. method produced this match instance.

 -- 屬性: Match.string

     The string passed to *note match(): 2098. or *note search(): 2099.

在 3.7 版的變更: Added support of *note copy.copy(): 2b5. and *note
copy.deepcopy(): 9cb.  Match objects are considered atomic.


File: python.info,  Node: Regular Expression Examples,  Prev: Match Objects,  Up: re --- 正規表示式 regular expression 操作

5.6.2.8 Regular Expression Examples
...................................

* Menu:

* Checking for a Pair::
* 模擬 scanf(): 模擬 scanf.
* search() vs. match(): search vs match.
* Making a Phonebook::
* Text Munging::
* Finding all Adverbs::
* Finding all Adverbs and their Positions::
* Raw String Notation::
* Writing a Tokenizer::


File: python.info,  Node: Checking for a Pair,  Next: 模擬 scanf,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.9 Checking for a Pair
...........................

In this example, we'll use the following helper function to display
match objects a little more gracefully:

     def displaymatch(match):
         if match is None:
             return None
         return '<Match: %r, groups=%r>' % (match.group(), match.groups())

Suppose you are writing a poker program where a player's hand is
represented as a 5-character string with each character representing a
card, "a" for ace, "k" for king, "q" for queen, "j" for jack, "t" for
10, and "2" through "9" representing the card with that value.

To see if a given string is a valid hand, one could do the following:

     >>> valid = re.compile(r"^[a2-9tjqk]{5}$")
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5q"))  # Valid.
     "<Match: 'akt5q', groups=()>"
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5e"))  # Invalid.
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt"))    # Invalid.
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("727ak"))  # Valid.
     "<Match: '727ak', groups=()>"

That last hand, ‘"727ak"’, contained a pair, or two of the same valued
cards.  To match this with a regular expression, one could use
backreferences as such:

     >>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("717ak"))     # Pair of 7s.
     "<Match: '717', groups=('7',)>"
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("718ak"))     # No pairs.
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("354aa"))     # Pair of aces.
     "<Match: '354aa', groups=('a',)>"

To find out what card the pair consists of, one could use the *note
group(): 20a9. method of the match object in the following manner:

     >>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
     >>> pair.match("717ak").group(1)
     '7'

     # Error because re.match() returns None, which doesn't have a group() method:
     >>> pair.match("718ak").group(1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#23>", line 1, in <module>
         re.match(r".*(.).*\1", "718ak").group(1)
     AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'group'

     >>> pair.match("354aa").group(1)
     'a'


File: python.info,  Node: 模擬 scanf,  Next: search vs match,  Prev: Checking for a Pair,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.10 模擬 scanf()
.....................

Python does not currently have an equivalent to ‘scanf()’.  Regular
expressions are generally more powerful, though also more verbose, than
‘scanf()’ format strings.  The table below offers some more-or-less
equivalent mappings between ‘scanf()’ format tokens and regular
expressions.

‘scanf()’ Token                      Regular Expression
                                     
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
‘%c’                                 ‘.’
                                     
                                     
‘%5c’                                ‘.{5}’
                                     
                                     
‘%d’                                 ‘[-+]?\d+’
                                     
                                     
‘%e’, ‘%E’, ‘%f’, ‘%g’               ‘[-+]?(\d+(\.\d*)?|\.\d+)([eE][-+]?\d+)?’
                                     
                                     
‘%i’                                 ‘[-+]?(0[xX][\dA-Fa-f]+|0[0-7]*|\d+)’
                                     
                                     
‘%o’                                 ‘[-+]?[0-7]+’
                                     
                                     
‘%s’                                 ‘\S+’
                                     
                                     
‘%u’                                 ‘\d+’
                                     
                                     
‘%x’、‘%X’                           ‘[-+]?(0[xX])?[\dA-Fa-f]+’
                                     

To extract the filename and numbers from a string like

     /usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 4 warnings

you would use a ‘scanf()’ format like

     %s - %d errors, %d warnings

The equivalent regular expression would be

     (\S+) - (\d+) errors, (\d+) warnings


File: python.info,  Node: search vs match,  Next: Making a Phonebook,  Prev: 模擬 scanf,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.11 search() vs. match()
.............................

Python offers different primitive operations based on regular
expressions:

   + *note re.match(): 10c0. checks for a match only at the beginning of
     the string

   + *note re.search(): 10bf. checks for a match anywhere in the string
     (this is what Perl does by default)

   + *note re.fullmatch(): e12. checks for entire string to be a match

舉例來說：

     >>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
     >>> re.search("c", "abcdef")   # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(2, 3), match='c'>
     >>> re.fullmatch("p.*n", "python") # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 6), match='python'>
     >>> re.fullmatch("r.*n", "python") # No match

Regular expressions beginning with ‘'^'’ can be used with *note
search(): 10bf. to restrict the match at the beginning of the string:

     >>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
     >>> re.search("^c", "abcdef")  # No match
     >>> re.search("^a", "abcdef")  # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='a'>

Note however that in *note MULTILINE: 2087. mode *note match(): 10c0.
only matches at the beginning of the string, whereas using *note
search(): 10bf. with a regular expression beginning with ‘'^'’ will
match at the beginning of each line.

     >>> re.match("X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # No match
     >>> re.search("^X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(4, 5), match='X'>


File: python.info,  Node: Making a Phonebook,  Next: Text Munging,  Prev: search vs match,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.12 Making a Phonebook
...........................

*note split(): 9ca. splits a string into a list delimited by the passed
pattern.  The method is invaluable for converting textual data into data
structures that can be easily read and modified by Python as
demonstrated in the following example that creates a phonebook.

First, here is the input.  Normally it may come from a file, here we are
using triple-quoted string syntax

     >>> text = """Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street
     ...
     ... Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue
     ... Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way
     ...
     ...
     ... Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place"""

The entries are separated by one or more newlines.  Now we convert the
string into a list with each nonempty line having its own entry:

     >>> entries = re.split("\n+", text)
     >>> entries
     ['Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street',
     'Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue',
     'Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way',
     'Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place']

Finally, split each entry into a list with first name, last name,
telephone number, and address.  We use the ‘maxsplit’ parameter of *note
split(): 9ca. because the address has spaces, our splitting pattern, in
it:

     >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, 3) for entry in entries]
     [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155 Elm Street'],
     ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436 Finley Avenue'],
     ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662 South Dogwood Way'],
     ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919 Park Place']]

The ‘:?’ pattern matches the colon after the last name, so that it does
not occur in the result list.  With a ‘maxsplit’ of ‘4’, we could
separate the house number from the street name:

     >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, 4) for entry in entries]
     [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155', 'Elm Street'],
     ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436', 'Finley Avenue'],
     ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662', 'South Dogwood Way'],
     ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919', 'Park Place']]


File: python.info,  Node: Text Munging,  Next: Finding all Adverbs,  Prev: Making a Phonebook,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.13 Text Munging
.....................

*note sub(): 201. replaces every occurrence of a pattern with a string
or the result of a function.  This example demonstrates using *note
sub(): 201. with a function to "munge" text, or randomize the order of
all the characters in each word of a sentence except for the first and
last characters:

     >>> def repl(m):
     ...     inner_word = list(m.group(2))
     ...     random.shuffle(inner_word)
     ...     return m.group(1) + "".join(inner_word) + m.group(3)
     ...
     >>> text = "Professor Abdolmalek, please report your absences promptly."
     >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
     'Poefsrosr Aealmlobdk, pslaee reorpt your abnseces plmrptoy.'
     >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
     'Pofsroser Aodlambelk, plasee reoprt yuor asnebces potlmrpy.'


File: python.info,  Node: Finding all Adverbs,  Next: Finding all Adverbs and their Positions,  Prev: Text Munging,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.14 Finding all Adverbs
............................

*note findall(): ebe. matches 'all' occurrences of a pattern, not just
the first one as *note search(): 10bf. does.  For example, if a writer
wanted to find all of the adverbs in some text, they might use *note
findall(): ebe. in the following manner:

     >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
     >>> re.findall(r"\w+ly\b", text)
     ['carefully', 'quickly']


File: python.info,  Node: Finding all Adverbs and their Positions,  Next: Raw String Notation,  Prev: Finding all Adverbs,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.15 Finding all Adverbs and their Positions
................................................

If one wants more information about all matches of a pattern than the
matched text, *note finditer(): 1371. is useful as it provides *note
Match: b35. objects instead of strings.  Continuing with the previous
example, if a writer wanted to find all of the adverbs 'and their
positions' in some text, they would use *note finditer(): 1371. in the
following manner:

     >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
     >>> for m in re.finditer(r"\w+ly\b", text):
     ...     print('%02d-%02d: %s' % (m.start(), m.end(), m.group(0)))
     07-16: carefully
     40-47: quickly


File: python.info,  Node: Raw String Notation,  Next: Writing a Tokenizer,  Prev: Finding all Adverbs and their Positions,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.16 Raw String Notation
............................

Raw string notation (‘r"text"’) keeps regular expressions sane.  Without
it, every backslash (‘'\'’) in a regular expression would have to be
prefixed with another one to escape it.  For example, the two following
lines of code are functionally identical:

     >>> re.match(r"\W(.)\1\W", " ff ")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>
     >>> re.match("\\W(.)\\1\\W", " ff ")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>

When one wants to match a literal backslash, it must be escaped in the
regular expression.  With raw string notation, this means ‘r"\\"’.
Without raw string notation, one must use ‘"\\\\"’, making the following
lines of code functionally identical:

     >>> re.match(r"\\", r"\\")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>
     >>> re.match("\\\\", r"\\")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>


File: python.info,  Node: Writing a Tokenizer,  Prev: Raw String Notation,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.17 Writing a Tokenizer
............................

A tokenizer or scanner(1) analyzes a string to categorize groups of
characters.  This is a useful first step in writing a compiler or
interpreter.

The text categories are specified with regular expressions.  The
technique is to combine those into a single master regular expression
and to loop over successive matches:

     from typing import NamedTuple
     import re

     class Token(NamedTuple):
         type: str
         value: str
         line: int
         column: int

     def tokenize(code):
         keywords = {'IF', 'THEN', 'ENDIF', 'FOR', 'NEXT', 'GOSUB', 'RETURN'}
         token_specification = [
             ('NUMBER',   r'\d+(\.\d*)?'),  # Integer or decimal number
             ('ASSIGN',   r':='),           # Assignment operator
             ('END',      r';'),            # Statement terminator
             ('ID',       r'[A-Za-z]+'),    # Identifiers
             ('OP',       r'[+\-*/]'),      # Arithmetic operators
             ('NEWLINE',  r'\n'),           # Line endings
             ('SKIP',     r'[ \t]+'),       # Skip over spaces and tabs
             ('MISMATCH', r'.'),            # Any other character
         ]
         tok_regex = '|'.join('(?P<%s>%s)' % pair for pair in token_specification)
         line_num = 1
         line_start = 0
         for mo in re.finditer(tok_regex, code):
             kind = mo.lastgroup
             value = mo.group()
             column = mo.start() - line_start
             if kind == 'NUMBER':
                 value = float(value) if '.' in value else int(value)
             elif kind == 'ID' and value in keywords:
                 kind = value
             elif kind == 'NEWLINE':
                 line_start = mo.end()
                 line_num += 1
                 continue
             elif kind == 'SKIP':
                 continue
             elif kind == 'MISMATCH':
                 raise RuntimeError(f'{value!r} unexpected on line {line_num}')
             yield Token(kind, value, line_num, column)

     statements = '''
         IF quantity THEN
             total := total + price * quantity;
             tax := price * 0.05;
         ENDIF;
     '''

     for token in tokenize(statements):
         print(token)

The tokenizer produces the following output:

     Token(type='IF', value='IF', line=2, column=4)
     Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=2, column=7)
     Token(type='THEN', value='THEN', line=2, column=16)
     Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=8)
     Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=3, column=14)
     Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=17)
     Token(type='OP', value='+', line=3, column=23)
     Token(type='ID', value='price', line=3, column=25)
     Token(type='OP', value='*', line=3, column=31)
     Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=3, column=33)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=3, column=41)
     Token(type='ID', value='tax', line=4, column=8)
     Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=4, column=12)
     Token(type='ID', value='price', line=4, column=15)
     Token(type='OP', value='*', line=4, column=21)
     Token(type='NUMBER', value=0.05, line=4, column=23)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=4, column=27)
     Token(type='ENDIF', value='ENDIF', line=5, column=4)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=5, column=9)

(Frie09) Friedl, Jeffrey.  Mastering Regular Expressions.  3rd ed.,
O'Reilly Media, 2009.  The third edition of the book no longer covers
Python at all, but the first edition covered writing good regular
expression patterns in great detail.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis


File: python.info,  Node: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具,  Next: textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充,  Prev: re --- 正規表示式 regular expression 操作,  Up: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務

5.6.3 ‘difflib’ -- 計算差異的輔助工具
-------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/difflib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides classes and functions for comparing sequences.  It
can be used for example, for comparing files, and can produce
information about file differences in various formats, including HTML
and context and unified diffs.  For comparing directories and files, see
also, the *note filecmp: 55. module.

 -- 類別: difflib.SequenceMatcher

     This is a flexible class for comparing pairs of sequences of any
     type, so long as the sequence elements are *note hashable: 409.
     The basic algorithm predates, and is a little fancier than, an
     algorithm published in the late 1980's by Ratcliff and Obershelp
     under the hyperbolic name "gestalt pattern matching."  The idea is
     to find the longest contiguous matching subsequence that contains
     no "junk" elements; these "junk" elements are ones that are
     uninteresting in some sense, such as blank lines or whitespace.
     (Handling junk is an extension to the Ratcliff and Obershelp
     algorithm.)  The same idea is then applied recursively to the
     pieces of the sequences to the left and to the right of the
     matching subsequence.  This does not yield minimal edit sequences,
     but does tend to yield matches that "look right" to people.

     'Timing:' The basic Ratcliff-Obershelp algorithm is cubic time in
     the worst case and quadratic time in the expected case.  *note
     SequenceMatcher: ead. is quadratic time for the worst case and has
     expected-case behavior dependent in a complicated way on how many
     elements the sequences have in common; best case time is linear.

     'Automatic junk heuristic:' *note SequenceMatcher: ead. supports a
     heuristic that automatically treats certain sequence items as junk.
     The heuristic counts how many times each individual item appears in
     the sequence.  If an item's duplicates (after the first one)
     account for more than 1% of the sequence and the sequence is at
     least 200 items long, this item is marked as "popular" and is
     treated as junk for the purpose of sequence matching.  This
     heuristic can be turned off by setting the ‘autojunk’ argument to
     ‘False’ when creating the *note SequenceMatcher: ead.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'autojunk' 參數。

 -- 類別: difflib.Differ

     This is a class for comparing sequences of lines of text, and
     producing human-readable differences or deltas.  Differ uses *note
     SequenceMatcher: ead. both to compare sequences of lines, and to
     compare sequences of characters within similar (near-matching)
     lines.

     Each line of a *note Differ: 20c2. delta begins with a two-letter
     code:

     Code           含義
                    
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     ‘'- '’         line unique to sequence 1
                    
                    
     ‘'+ '’         line unique to sequence 2
                    
                    
     ‘' '’          line common to both sequences
                    
                    
     ‘'? '’         line not present in either input sequence
                    

     Lines beginning with '‘?’' attempt to guide the eye to intraline
     differences, and were not present in either input sequence.  These
     lines can be confusing if the sequences contain whitespace
     characters, such as spaces, tabs or line breaks.

 -- 類別: difflib.HtmlDiff

     This class can be used to create an HTML table (or a complete HTML
     file containing the table) showing a side by side, line by line
     comparison of text with inter-line and intra-line change
     highlights.  The table can be generated in either full or
     contextual difference mode.

     The constructor for this class is:

      -- 方法: __init__ (tabsize=8, wrapcolumn=None, linejunk=None,
               charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

          Initializes instance of *note HtmlDiff: 20c3.

          'tabsize' is an optional keyword argument to specify tab stop
          spacing and defaults to ‘8’.

          'wrapcolumn' is an optional keyword to specify column number
          where lines are broken and wrapped, defaults to ‘None’ where
          lines are not wrapped.

          'linejunk' and 'charjunk' are optional keyword arguments
          passed into *note ndiff(): 20c5. (used by *note HtmlDiff:
          20c3. to generate the side by side HTML differences).  See
          *note ndiff(): 20c5. documentation for argument default values
          and descriptions.

     The following methods are public:

      -- 方法: make_file (fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='', todesc='',
               context=False, numlines=5, *, charset='utf-8')

          Compares 'fromlines' and 'tolines' (lists of strings) and
          returns a string which is a complete HTML file containing a
          table showing line by line differences with inter-line and
          intra-line changes highlighted.

          'fromdesc' and 'todesc' are optional keyword arguments to
          specify from/to file column header strings (both default to an
          empty string).

          'context' and 'numlines' are both optional keyword arguments.
          Set 'context' to ‘True’ when contextual differences are to be
          shown, else the default is ‘False’ to show the full files.
          'numlines' defaults to ‘5’.  When 'context' is ‘True’
          'numlines' controls the number of context lines which surround
          the difference highlights.  When 'context' is ‘False’
          'numlines' controls the number of lines which are shown before
          a difference highlight when using the "next" hyperlinks
          (setting to zero would cause the "next" hyperlinks to place
          the next difference highlight at the top of the browser
          without any leading context).

               備註: 'fromdesc' and 'todesc' are interpreted as
               unescaped HTML and should be properly escaped while
               receiving input from untrusted sources.

          在 3.5 版的變更: 'charset' keyword-only argument was added.
          The default charset of HTML document changed from
          ‘'ISO-8859-1'’ to ‘'utf-8'’.

      -- 方法: make_table (fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='', todesc='',
               context=False, numlines=5)

          Compares 'fromlines' and 'tolines' (lists of strings) and
          returns a string which is a complete HTML table showing line
          by line differences with inter-line and intra-line changes
          highlighted.

          The arguments for this method are the same as those for the
          *note make_file(): c67. method.

 -- 函式: difflib.context_diff (a, b, fromfile='', tofile='',
          fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n')

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of strings); return a delta (a *note
     generator: ef7. generating the delta lines) in context diff format.

     Context diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have
     changed plus a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in a
     before/after style.  The number of context lines is set by 'n'
     which defaults to three.

     By default, the diff control lines (those with ‘***’ or ‘---’) are
     created with a trailing newline.  This is helpful so that inputs
     created from *note io.IOBase.readlines(): 20c8. result in diffs
     that are suitable for use with *note io.IOBase.writelines(): 20c9.
     since both the inputs and outputs have trailing newlines.

     For inputs that do not have trailing newlines, set the 'lineterm'
     argument to ‘""’ so that the output will be uniformly newline free.

     The context diff format normally has a header for filenames and
     modification times.  Any or all of these may be specified using
     strings for 'fromfile', 'tofile', 'fromfiledate', and 'tofiledate'.
     The modification times are normally expressed in the ISO 8601
     format.  If not specified, the strings default to blanks.

          >>> import sys
          >>> from difflib import *
          >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> sys.stdout.writelines(context_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py',
          ...                        tofile='after.py'))
          *** before.py
          --- after.py
          ***************
          *** 1,4 ****
          ! bacon
          ! eggs
          ! ham
            guido
          --- 1,4 ----
          ! python
          ! eggy
          ! hamster
            guido

     一個更詳盡的範例請見 *note A command-line interface to difflib:
     20ca.。

 -- 函式: difflib.get_close_matches (word, possibilities, n=3,
          cutoff=0.6)

     Return a list of the best "good enough" matches.  'word' is a
     sequence for which close matches are desired (typically a string),
     and 'possibilities' is a list of sequences against which to match
     'word' (typically a list of strings).

     Optional argument 'n' (default ‘3’) is the maximum number of close
     matches to return; 'n' must be greater than ‘0’.

     Optional argument 'cutoff' (default ‘0.6’) is a float in the range
     [0, 1].  Possibilities that don't score at least that similar to
     'word' are ignored.

     The best (no more than 'n') matches among the possibilities are
     returned in a list, sorted by similarity score, most similar first.

          >>> get_close_matches('appel', ['ape', 'apple', 'peach', 'puppy'])
          ['apple', 'ape']
          >>> import keyword
          >>> get_close_matches('wheel', keyword.kwlist)
          ['while']
          >>> get_close_matches('pineapple', keyword.kwlist)
          []
          >>> get_close_matches('accept', keyword.kwlist)
          ['except']

 -- 函式: difflib.ndiff (a, b, linejunk=None,
          charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of strings); return a *note Differ:
     20c2.-style delta (a *note generator: ef7. generating the delta
     lines).

     Optional keyword parameters 'linejunk' and 'charjunk' are filtering
     functions (or ‘None’):

     'linejunk': A function that accepts a single string argument, and
     returns true if the string is junk, or false if not.  The default
     is ‘None’.  There is also a module-level function *note
     IS_LINE_JUNK(): 20cc, which filters out lines without visible
     characters, except for at most one pound character (‘'#'’) -
     however the underlying *note SequenceMatcher: ead. class does a
     dynamic analysis of which lines are so frequent as to constitute
     noise, and this usually works better than using this function.

     'charjunk': A function that accepts a character (a string of length
     1), and returns if the character is junk, or false if not.  The
     default is module-level function *note IS_CHARACTER_JUNK(): 20cd,
     which filters out whitespace characters (a blank or tab; it's a bad
     idea to include newline in this!).

          >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
          ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
          >>> print(''.join(diff), end="")
          - one
          ?  ^
          + ore
          ?  ^
          - two
          - three
          ?  -
          + tree
          + emu

 -- 函式: difflib.restore (sequence, which)

     Return one of the two sequences that generated a delta.

     Given a 'sequence' produced by *note Differ.compare(): 20cf. or
     *note ndiff(): 20c5, extract lines originating from file 1 or 2
     (parameter 'which'), stripping off line prefixes.

     範例：

          >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
          ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
          >>> diff = list(diff) # materialize the generated delta into a list
          >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 1)), end="")
          one
          two
          three
          >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 2)), end="")
          ore
          tree
          emu

 -- 函式: difflib.unified_diff (a, b, fromfile='', tofile='',
          fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n')

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of strings); return a delta (a *note
     generator: ef7. generating the delta lines) in unified diff format.

     Unified diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have
     changed plus a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in an
     inline style (instead of separate before/after blocks).  The number
     of context lines is set by 'n' which defaults to three.

     By default, the diff control lines (those with ‘---’, ‘+++’, or
     ‘@@’) are created with a trailing newline.  This is helpful so that
     inputs created from *note io.IOBase.readlines(): 20c8. result in
     diffs that are suitable for use with *note io.IOBase.writelines():
     20c9. since both the inputs and outputs have trailing newlines.

     For inputs that do not have trailing newlines, set the 'lineterm'
     argument to ‘""’ so that the output will be uniformly newline free.

     The unified diff format normally has a header for filenames and
     modification times.  Any or all of these may be specified using
     strings for 'fromfile', 'tofile', 'fromfiledate', and 'tofiledate'.
     The modification times are normally expressed in the ISO 8601
     format.  If not specified, the strings default to blanks.

          >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> sys.stdout.writelines(unified_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py', tofile='after.py'))
          --- before.py
          +++ after.py
          @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
          -bacon
          -eggs
          -ham
          +python
          +eggy
          +hamster
           guido

     一個更詳盡的範例請見 *note A command-line interface to difflib:
     20ca.。

 -- 函式: difflib.diff_bytes (dfunc, a, b, fromfile=b'', tofile=b'',
          fromfiledate=b'', tofiledate=b'', n=3, lineterm=b'\n')

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of bytes objects) using 'dfunc'; yield a
     sequence of delta lines (also bytes) in the format returned by
     'dfunc'.  'dfunc' must be a callable, typically either *note
     unified_diff(): 20d0. or *note context_diff(): 20c7.

     Allows you to compare data with unknown or inconsistent encoding.
     All inputs except 'n' must be bytes objects, not str.  Works by
     losslessly converting all inputs (except 'n') to str, and calling
     ‘dfunc(a, b, fromfile, tofile, fromfiledate, tofiledate, n,
     lineterm)’.  The output of 'dfunc' is then converted back to bytes,
     so the delta lines that you receive have the same
     unknown/inconsistent encodings as 'a' and 'b'.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK (line)

     Return ‘True’ for ignorable lines.  The line 'line' is ignorable if
     'line' is blank or contains a single ‘'#'’, otherwise it is not
     ignorable.  Used as a default for parameter 'linejunk' in *note
     ndiff(): 20c5. in older versions.

 -- 函式: difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK (ch)

     Return ‘True’ for ignorable characters.  The character 'ch' is
     ignorable if 'ch' is a space or tab, otherwise it is not ignorable.
     Used as a default for parameter 'charjunk' in *note ndiff(): 20c5.

也參考
......

Pattern Matching: The Gestalt Approach(2)

     Discussion of a similar algorithm by John W. Ratcliff and D. E.
     Metzener.  This was published in Dr.  Dobb's Journal(3) in July,
     1988.

* Menu:

* SequenceMatcher 物件::
* SequenceMatcher 範例::
* Differ Objects::
* Differ Example::
* A command-line interface to difflib::
* ndiff 範例：::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/difflib.py

   (2) 
https://www.drdobbs.com/database/pattern-matching-the-gestalt-approach/184407970

   (3) https://www.drdobbs.com/


File: python.info,  Node: SequenceMatcher 物件,  Next: SequenceMatcher 範例,  Up: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具

5.6.3.1 SequenceMatcher 物件
............................

The *note SequenceMatcher: ead. class has this constructor:

 -- 類別: difflib.SequenceMatcher (isjunk=None, a='', b='',
          autojunk=True)

     Optional argument 'isjunk' must be ‘None’ (the default) or a
     one-argument function that takes a sequence element and returns
     true if and only if the element is "junk" and should be ignored.
     Passing ‘None’ for 'isjunk' is equivalent to passing ‘lambda x:
     False’; in other words, no elements are ignored.  For example,
     pass:

          lambda x: x in " \t"

     if you're comparing lines as sequences of characters, and don't
     want to synch up on blanks or hard tabs.

     The optional arguments 'a' and 'b' are sequences to be compared;
     both default to empty strings.  The elements of both sequences must
     be *note hashable: 409.

     The optional argument 'autojunk' can be used to disable the
     automatic junk heuristic.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'autojunk' 參數。

     SequenceMatcher objects get three data attributes: 'bjunk' is the
     set of elements of 'b' for which 'isjunk' is ‘True’; 'bpopular' is
     the set of non-junk elements considered popular by the heuristic
     (if it is not disabled); 'b2j' is a dict mapping the remaining
     elements of 'b' to a list of positions where they occur.  All three
     are reset whenever 'b' is reset with *note set_seqs(): 20d3. or
     *note set_seq2(): 20d4.

     在 3.2 版被加入: The 'bjunk' and 'bpopular' attributes.

     *note SequenceMatcher: ead. objects have the following methods:

      -- 方法: set_seqs (a, b)

          Set the two sequences to be compared.

     *note SequenceMatcher: ead. computes and caches detailed
     information about the second sequence, so if you want to compare
     one sequence against many sequences, use *note set_seq2(): 20d4. to
     set the commonly used sequence once and call *note set_seq1():
     20d5. repeatedly, once for each of the other sequences.

      -- 方法: set_seq1 (a)

          Set the first sequence to be compared.  The second sequence to
          be compared is not changed.

      -- 方法: set_seq2 (b)

          Set the second sequence to be compared.  The first sequence to
          be compared is not changed.

      -- 方法: find_longest_match (alo=0, ahi=None, blo=0, bhi=None)

          Find longest matching block in ‘a[alo:ahi]’ and ‘b[blo:bhi]’.

          If 'isjunk' was omitted or ‘None’, *note find_longest_match():
          1738. returns ‘(i, j, k)’ such that ‘a[i:i+k]’ is equal to
          ‘b[j:j+k]’, where ‘alo <= i <= i+k <= ahi’ and ‘blo <= j <=
          j+k <= bhi’.  For all ‘(i', j', k')’ meeting those conditions,
          the additional conditions ‘k >= k'’, ‘i <= i'’, and if ‘i ==
          i'’, ‘j <= j'’ are also met.  In other words, of all maximal
          matching blocks, return one that starts earliest in 'a', and
          of all those maximal matching blocks that start earliest in
          'a', return the one that starts earliest in 'b'.

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, " abcd", "abcd abcd")
               >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
               Match(a=0, b=4, size=5)

          If 'isjunk' was provided, first the longest matching block is
          determined as above, but with the additional restriction that
          no junk element appears in the block.  Then that block is
          extended as far as possible by matching (only) junk elements
          on both sides.  So the resulting block never matches on junk
          except as identical junk happens to be adjacent to an
          interesting match.

          Here's the same example as before, but considering blanks to
          be junk.  That prevents ‘' abcd'’ from matching the ‘' abcd'’
          at the tail end of the second sequence directly.  Instead only
          the ‘'abcd'’ can match, and matches the leftmost ‘'abcd'’ in
          the second sequence:

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x==" ", " abcd", "abcd abcd")
               >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
               Match(a=1, b=0, size=4)

          If no blocks match, this returns ‘(alo, blo, 0)’.

          This method returns a *note named tuple: 449. ‘Match(a, b,
          size)’.

          在 3.9 版的變更: 新增預設引數。

      -- 方法: get_matching_blocks ()

          Return list of triples describing non-overlapping matching
          subsequences.  Each triple is of the form ‘(i, j, n)’, and
          means that ‘a[i:i+n] == b[j:j+n]’.  The triples are
          monotonically increasing in 'i' and 'j'.

          The last triple is a dummy, and has the value ‘(len(a),
          len(b), 0)’.  It is the only triple with ‘n == 0’.  If ‘(i, j,
          n)’ and ‘(i', j', n')’ are adjacent triples in the list, and
          the second is not the last triple in the list, then ‘i+n < i'’
          or ‘j+n < j'’; in other words, adjacent triples always
          describe non-adjacent equal blocks.

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abxcd", "abcd")
               >>> s.get_matching_blocks()
               [Match(a=0, b=0, size=2), Match(a=3, b=2, size=2), Match(a=5, b=4, size=0)]

      -- 方法: get_opcodes ()

          Return list of 5-tuples describing how to turn 'a' into 'b'.
          Each tuple is of the form ‘(tag, i1, i2, j1, j2)’.  The first
          tuple has ‘i1 == j1 == 0’, and remaining tuples have 'i1'
          equal to the 'i2' from the preceding tuple, and, likewise,
          'j1' equal to the previous 'j2'.

          The 'tag' values are strings, with these meanings:

          Value               含義
                              
          ----------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
          ‘'replace'’         ‘a[i1:i2]’ should be replaced by ‘b[j1:j2]’.
                              
                              
          ‘'delete'’          ‘a[i1:i2]’ should be deleted.  Note that ‘j1 ==
                              j2’ in this case.
                              
                              
          ‘'insert'’          ‘b[j1:j2]’ should be inserted at ‘a[i1:i1]’.
                              Note that ‘i1 == i2’ in this case.
                              
                              
          ‘'equal'’           ‘a[i1:i2] == b[j1:j2]’ (the sub-sequences are
                              equal).
                              

          舉例來說：

               >>> a = "qabxcd"
               >>> b = "abycdf"
               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, a, b)
               >>> for tag, i1, i2, j1, j2 in s.get_opcodes():
               ...     print('{:7}   a[{}:{}] --> b[{}:{}] {!r:>8} --> {!r}'.format(
               ...         tag, i1, i2, j1, j2, a[i1:i2], b[j1:j2]))
               delete    a[0:1] --> b[0:0]      'q' --> ''
               equal     a[1:3] --> b[0:2]     'ab' --> 'ab'
               replace   a[3:4] --> b[2:3]      'x' --> 'y'
               equal     a[4:6] --> b[3:5]     'cd' --> 'cd'
               insert    a[6:6] --> b[5:6]       '' --> 'f'

      -- 方法: get_grouped_opcodes (n=3)

          Return a *note generator: ef7. of groups with up to 'n' lines
          of context.

          Starting with the groups returned by *note get_opcodes():
          20d7, this method splits out smaller change clusters and
          eliminates intervening ranges which have no changes.

          The groups are returned in the same format as *note
          get_opcodes(): 20d7.

      -- 方法: ratio ()

          Return a measure of the sequences' similarity as a float in
          the range [0, 1].

          Where T is the total number of elements in both sequences, and
          M is the number of matches, this is 2.0*M / T. Note that this
          is ‘1.0’ if the sequences are identical, and ‘0.0’ if they
          have nothing in common.

          This is expensive to compute if *note get_matching_blocks():
          20d6. or *note get_opcodes(): 20d7. hasn't already been
          called, in which case you may want to try *note quick_ratio():
          20da. or *note real_quick_ratio(): 20db. first to get an upper
          bound.

               備註: Caution: The result of a *note ratio(): 20d9. call
               may depend on the order of the arguments.  For instance:

                    >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'tide', 'diet').ratio()
                    0.25
                    >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'diet', 'tide').ratio()
                    0.5

      -- 方法: quick_ratio ()

          Return an upper bound on *note ratio(): 20d9. relatively
          quickly.

      -- 方法: real_quick_ratio ()

          Return an upper bound on *note ratio(): 20d9. very quickly.

The three methods that return the ratio of matching to total characters
can give different results due to differing levels of approximation,
although *note quick_ratio(): 20da. and *note real_quick_ratio(): 20db.
are always at least as large as *note ratio(): 20d9.:

     >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abcd", "bcde")
     >>> s.ratio()
     0.75
     >>> s.quick_ratio()
     0.75
     >>> s.real_quick_ratio()
     1.0


File: python.info,  Node: SequenceMatcher 範例,  Next: Differ Objects,  Prev: SequenceMatcher 物件,  Up: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具

5.6.3.2 SequenceMatcher 範例
............................

This example compares two strings, considering blanks to be "junk":

     >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x == " ",
     ...                     "private Thread currentThread;",
     ...                     "private volatile Thread currentThread;")

*note ratio(): 20d9. returns a float in [0, 1], measuring the similarity
of the sequences.  As a rule of thumb, a *note ratio(): 20d9. value over
0.6 means the sequences are close matches:

     >>> print(round(s.ratio(), 3))
     0.866

If you're only interested in where the sequences match, *note
get_matching_blocks(): 20d6. is handy:

     >>> for block in s.get_matching_blocks():
     ...     print("a[%d] and b[%d] match for %d elements" % block)
     a[0] and b[0] match for 8 elements
     a[8] and b[17] match for 21 elements
     a[29] and b[38] match for 0 elements

Note that the last tuple returned by *note get_matching_blocks(): 20d6.
is always a dummy, ‘(len(a), len(b), 0)’, and this is the only case in
which the last tuple element (number of elements matched) is ‘0’.

If you want to know how to change the first sequence into the second,
use *note get_opcodes(): 20d7.:

     >>> for opcode in s.get_opcodes():
     ...     print("%6s a[%d:%d] b[%d:%d]" % opcode)
      equal a[0:8] b[0:8]
     insert a[8:8] b[8:17]
      equal a[8:29] b[17:38]

也參考
......

   * The *note get_close_matches(): 20cb. function in this module which
     shows how simple code building on *note SequenceMatcher: ead. can
     be used to do useful work.

   * Simple version control recipe(1) for a small application built with
     *note SequenceMatcher: ead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576729-simple-version-control/


File: python.info,  Node: Differ Objects,  Next: Differ Example,  Prev: SequenceMatcher 範例,  Up: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具

5.6.3.3 Differ Objects
......................

Note that *note Differ: 20c2.-generated deltas make no claim to be
'minimal' diffs.  To the contrary, minimal diffs are often
counter-intuitive, because they synch up anywhere possible, sometimes
accidental matches 100 pages apart.  Restricting synch points to
contiguous matches preserves some notion of locality, at the occasional
cost of producing a longer diff.

The *note Differ: 20c2. class has this constructor:

 -- 類別: difflib.Differ (linejunk=None, charjunk=None)

     Optional keyword parameters 'linejunk' and 'charjunk' are for
     filter functions (or ‘None’):

     'linejunk': A function that accepts a single string argument, and
     returns true if the string is junk.  The default is ‘None’, meaning
     that no line is considered junk.

     'charjunk': A function that accepts a single character argument (a
     string of length 1), and returns true if the character is junk.
     The default is ‘None’, meaning that no character is considered
     junk.

     These junk-filtering functions speed up matching to find
     differences and do not cause any differing lines or characters to
     be ignored.  Read the description of the *note
     find_longest_match(): 1738. method's 'isjunk' parameter for an
     explanation.

     *note Differ: 20c2. objects are used (deltas generated) via a
     single method:

      -- 方法: compare (a, b)

          Compare two sequences of lines, and generate the delta (a
          sequence of lines).

          Each sequence must contain individual single-line strings
          ending with newlines.  Such sequences can be obtained from the
          *note readlines(): 20c8. method of file-like objects.  The
          delta generated also consists of newline-terminated strings,
          ready to be printed as-is via the *note writelines(): 20c9.
          method of a file-like object.


File: python.info,  Node: Differ Example,  Next: A command-line interface to difflib,  Prev: Differ Objects,  Up: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具

5.6.3.4 Differ Example
......................

This example compares two texts.  First we set up the texts, sequences
of individual single-line strings ending with newlines (such sequences
can also be obtained from the *note readlines(): 20c8. method of
file-like objects):

     >>> text1 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     ...   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
     ...   3. Simple is better than complex.
     ...   4. Complex is better than complicated.
     ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)
     >>> len(text1)
     4
     >>> text1[0][-1]
     '\n'
     >>> text2 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     ...   3.   Simple is better than complex.
     ...   4. Complicated is better than complex.
     ...   5. Flat is better than nested.
     ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)

Next we instantiate a Differ object:

     >>> d = Differ()

Note that when instantiating a *note Differ: 20c2. object we may pass
functions to filter out line and character "junk."  See the *note
Differ(): 20c2. constructor for details.

Finally, we compare the two:

     >>> result = list(d.compare(text1, text2))

‘result’ is a list of strings, so let's pretty-print it:

     >>> from pprint import pprint
     >>> pprint(result)
     ['    1. Beautiful is better than ugly.\n',
      '-   2. Explicit is better than implicit.\n',
      '-   3. Simple is better than complex.\n',
      '+   3.   Simple is better than complex.\n',
      '?     ++\n',
      '-   4. Complex is better than complicated.\n',
      '?            ^                     ---- ^\n',
      '+   4. Complicated is better than complex.\n',
      '?           ++++ ^                      ^\n',
      '+   5. Flat is better than nested.\n']

As a single multi-line string it looks like this:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.stdout.writelines(result)
         1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     -   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
     -   3. Simple is better than complex.
     +   3.   Simple is better than complex.
     ?     ++
     -   4. Complex is better than complicated.
     ?            ^                     ---- ^
     +   4. Complicated is better than complex.
     ?           ++++ ^                      ^
     +   5. Flat is better than nested.


File: python.info,  Node: A command-line interface to difflib,  Next: ndiff 範例：,  Prev: Differ Example,  Up: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具

5.6.3.5 A command-line interface to difflib
...........................................

This example shows how to use difflib to create a ‘diff’-like utility.

     """ Command line interface to difflib.py providing diffs in four formats:

     * ndiff:    lists every line and highlights interline changes.
     * context:  highlights clusters of changes in a before/after format.
     * unified:  highlights clusters of changes in an inline format.
     * html:     generates side by side comparison with change highlights.

     """

     import sys, os, difflib, argparse
     from datetime import datetime, timezone

     def file_mtime(path):
         t = datetime.fromtimestamp(os.stat(path).st_mtime,
                                    timezone.utc)
         return t.astimezone().isoformat()

     def main():

         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-c', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a context format diff (default)')
         parser.add_argument('-u', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a unified format diff')
         parser.add_argument('-m', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce HTML side by side diff '
                                  '(can use -c and -l in conjunction)')
         parser.add_argument('-n', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a ndiff format diff')
         parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=3,
                             help='Set number of context lines (default 3)')
         parser.add_argument('fromfile')
         parser.add_argument('tofile')
         options = parser.parse_args()

         n = options.lines
         fromfile = options.fromfile
         tofile = options.tofile

         fromdate = file_mtime(fromfile)
         todate = file_mtime(tofile)
         with open(fromfile) as ff:
             fromlines = ff.readlines()
         with open(tofile) as tf:
             tolines = tf.readlines()

         if options.u:
             diff = difflib.unified_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)
         elif options.n:
             diff = difflib.ndiff(fromlines, tolines)
         elif options.m:
             diff = difflib.HtmlDiff().make_file(fromlines,tolines,fromfile,tofile,context=options.c,numlines=n)
         else:
             diff = difflib.context_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)

         sys.stdout.writelines(diff)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: ndiff 範例：,  Prev: A command-line interface to difflib,  Up: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具

5.6.3.6 ndiff 範例：
....................

This example shows how to use *note difflib.ndiff(): 20c5.

     """ndiff [-q] file1 file2
         or
     ndiff (-r1 | -r2) < ndiff_output > file1_or_file2

     Print a human-friendly file difference report to stdout.  Both inter-
     and intra-line differences are noted.  In the second form, recreate file1
     (-r1) or file2 (-r2) on stdout, from an ndiff report on stdin.

     In the first form, if -q ("quiet") is not specified, the first two lines
     of output are

     -: file1
     +: file2

     Each remaining line begins with a two-letter code:

         "- "    line unique to file1
         "+ "    line unique to file2
         "  "    line common to both files
         "? "    line not present in either input file

     Lines beginning with "? " attempt to guide the eye to intraline
     differences, and were not present in either input file.  These lines can be
     confusing if the source files contain tab characters.

     The first file can be recovered by retaining only lines that begin with
     "  " or "- ", and deleting those 2-character prefixes; use ndiff with -r1.

     The second file can be recovered similarly, but by retaining only "  " and
     "+ " lines; use ndiff with -r2; or, on Unix, the second file can be
     recovered by piping the output through

         sed -n '/^[+ ] /s/^..//p'
     """

     __version__ = 1, 7, 0

     import difflib, sys

     def fail(msg):
         out = sys.stderr.write
         out(msg + "\n\n")
         out(__doc__)
         return 0

     # open a file & return the file object; gripe and return 0 if it
     # couldn't be opened
     def fopen(fname):
         try:
             return open(fname)
         except IOError as detail:
             return fail("couldn't open " + fname + ": " + str(detail))

     # open two files & spray the diff to stdout; return false iff a problem
     def fcompare(f1name, f2name):
         f1 = fopen(f1name)
         f2 = fopen(f2name)
         if not f1 or not f2:
             return 0

         a = f1.readlines(); f1.close()
         b = f2.readlines(); f2.close()
         for line in difflib.ndiff(a, b):
             print(line, end=' ')

         return 1

     # crack args (sys.argv[1:] is normal) & compare;
     # return false iff a problem

     def main(args):
         import getopt
         try:
             opts, args = getopt.getopt(args, "qr:")
         except getopt.error as detail:
             return fail(str(detail))
         noisy = 1
         qseen = rseen = 0
         for opt, val in opts:
             if opt == "-q":
                 qseen = 1
                 noisy = 0
             elif opt == "-r":
                 rseen = 1
                 whichfile = val
         if qseen and rseen:
             return fail("can't specify both -q and -r")
         if rseen:
             if args:
                 return fail("no args allowed with -r option")
             if whichfile in ("1", "2"):
                 restore(whichfile)
                 return 1
             return fail("-r value must be 1 or 2")
         if len(args) != 2:
             return fail("need 2 filename args")
         f1name, f2name = args
         if noisy:
             print('-:', f1name)
             print('+:', f2name)
         return fcompare(f1name, f2name)

     # read ndiff output from stdin, and print file1 (which=='1') or
     # file2 (which=='2') to stdout

     def restore(which):
         restored = difflib.restore(sys.stdin.readlines(), which)
         sys.stdout.writelines(restored)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main(sys.argv[1:])


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充,  Next: unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫,  Prev: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具,  Up: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務

5.6.4 ‘textwrap’ -- 文字包裝與填充
----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/textwrap.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note textwrap: e6. module provides some convenience functions, as
well as *note TextWrapper: e5f, the class that does all the work.  If
you're just wrapping or filling one or two text strings, the convenience
functions should be good enough; otherwise, you should use an instance
of *note TextWrapper: e5f. for efficiency.

 -- 函式: textwrap.wrap (text, width=70, *, initial_indent='',
          subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True,
          replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None,
          placeholder=' [...]')

     Wraps the single paragraph in 'text' (a string) so every line is at
     most 'width' characters long.  Returns a list of output lines,
     without final newlines.

     Optional keyword arguments correspond to the instance attributes of
     *note TextWrapper: e5f, documented below.

     See the *note TextWrapper.wrap(): 20e6. method for additional
     details on how *note wrap(): 133a. behaves.

 -- 函式: textwrap.fill (text, width=70, *, initial_indent='',
          subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True,
          replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None,
          placeholder=' [...]')

     Wraps the single paragraph in 'text', and returns a single string
     containing the wrapped paragraph.  *note fill(): 1339. is shorthand
     for

          "\n".join(wrap(text, ...))

     In particular, *note fill(): 1339. accepts exactly the same keyword
     arguments as *note wrap(): 133a.

 -- 函式: textwrap.shorten (text, width, *, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, break_on_hyphens=True, placeholder='
          [...]')

     Collapse and truncate the given 'text' to fit in the given 'width'.

     First the whitespace in 'text' is collapsed (all whitespace is
     replaced by single spaces).  If the result fits in the 'width', it
     is returned.  Otherwise, enough words are dropped from the end so
     that the remaining words plus the 'placeholder' fit within 'width':

          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=12)
          'Hello world!'
          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=11)
          'Hello [...]'
          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello world", width=10, placeholder="...")
          'Hello...'

     Optional keyword arguments correspond to the instance attributes of
     *note TextWrapper: e5f, documented below.  Note that the whitespace
     is collapsed before the text is passed to the *note TextWrapper:
     e5f. *note fill(): 1339. function, so changing the value of *note
     tabsize: 20e7, *note expand_tabs: 20e8, *note drop_whitespace:
     20e9, and *note replace_whitespace: 20ea. will have no effect.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: textwrap.dedent (text)

     Remove any common leading whitespace from every line in 'text'.

     This can be used to make triple-quoted strings line up with the
     left edge of the display, while still presenting them in the source
     code in indented form.

     Note that tabs and spaces are both treated as whitespace, but they
     are not equal: the lines ‘" hello"’ and ‘"\thello"’ are considered
     to have no common leading whitespace.

     Lines containing only whitespace are ignored in the input and
     normalized to a single newline character in the output.

     舉例來說：

          def test():
              # end first line with \ to avoid the empty line!
              s = '''\
              hello
                world
              '''
              print(repr(s))          # prints '    hello\n      world\n    '
              print(repr(dedent(s)))  # prints 'hello\n  world\n'

 -- 函式: textwrap.indent (text, prefix, predicate=None)

     Add 'prefix' to the beginning of selected lines in 'text'.

     Lines are separated by calling ‘text.splitlines(True)’.

     By default, 'prefix' is added to all lines that do not consist
     solely of whitespace (including any line endings).

     舉例來說：

          >>> s = 'hello\n\n \nworld'
          >>> indent(s, '  ')
          '  hello\n\n \n  world'

     The optional 'predicate' argument can be used to control which
     lines are indented.  For example, it is easy to add 'prefix' to
     even empty and whitespace-only lines:

          >>> print(indent(s, '+ ', lambda line: True))
          + hello
          +
          +
          + world

     在 3.3 版被加入.

*note wrap(): 133a, *note fill(): 1339. and *note shorten(): e62. work
by creating a *note TextWrapper: e5f. instance and calling a single
method on it.  That instance is not reused, so for applications that
process many text strings using *note wrap(): 133a. and/or *note fill():
1339, it may be more efficient to create your own *note TextWrapper:
e5f. object.

Text is preferably wrapped on whitespaces and right after the hyphens in
hyphenated words; only then will long words be broken if necessary,
unless *note TextWrapper.break_long_words: 20ec. is set to false.

 -- 類別: textwrap.TextWrapper (**kwargs)

     The *note TextWrapper: e5f. constructor accepts a number of
     optional keyword arguments.  Each keyword argument corresponds to
     an instance attribute, so for example

          wrapper = TextWrapper(initial_indent="* ")

     is the same as

          wrapper = TextWrapper()
          wrapper.initial_indent = "* "

     You can reuse the same *note TextWrapper: e5f. object many times,
     and you can change any of its options through direct assignment to
     instance attributes between uses.

     The *note TextWrapper: e5f. instance attributes (and keyword
     arguments to the constructor) are as follows:

      -- 屬性: width

          (default: ‘70’) The maximum length of wrapped lines.  As long
          as there are no individual words in the input text longer than
          *note width: 20ed, *note TextWrapper: e5f. guarantees that no
          output line will be longer than *note width: 20ed. characters.

      -- 屬性: expand_tabs

          (default: ‘True’) If true, then all tab characters in 'text'
          will be expanded to spaces using the *note expandtabs(): 1f53.
          method of 'text'.

      -- 屬性: tabsize

          (default: ‘8’) If *note expand_tabs: 20e8. is true, then all
          tab characters in 'text' will be expanded to zero or more
          spaces, depending on the current column and the given tab
          size.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: replace_whitespace

          (default: ‘True’) If true, after tab expansion but before
          wrapping, the *note wrap(): 133a. method will replace each
          whitespace character with a single space.  The whitespace
          characters replaced are as follows: tab, newline, vertical
          tab, formfeed, and carriage return (‘'\t\n\v\f\r'’).

               備註: If *note expand_tabs: 20e8. is false and *note
               replace_whitespace: 20ea. is true, each tab character
               will be replaced by a single space, which is 'not' the
               same as tab expansion.

               備註: If *note replace_whitespace: 20ea. is false,
               newlines may appear in the middle of a line and cause
               strange output.  For this reason, text should be split
               into paragraphs (using *note str.splitlines(): 10ea. or
               similar) which are wrapped separately.

      -- 屬性: drop_whitespace

          (default: ‘True’) If true, whitespace at the beginning and
          ending of every line (after wrapping but before indenting) is
          dropped.  Whitespace at the beginning of the paragraph,
          however, is not dropped if non-whitespace follows it.  If
          whitespace being dropped takes up an entire line, the whole
          line is dropped.

      -- 屬性: initial_indent

          (default: ‘''’) String that will be prepended to the first
          line of wrapped output.  Counts towards the length of the
          first line.  The empty string is not indented.

      -- 屬性: subsequent_indent

          (default: ‘''’) String that will be prepended to all lines of
          wrapped output except the first.  Counts towards the length of
          each line except the first.

      -- 屬性: fix_sentence_endings

          (default: ‘False’) If true, *note TextWrapper: e5f. attempts
          to detect sentence endings and ensure that sentences are
          always separated by exactly two spaces.  This is generally
          desired for text in a monospaced font.  However, the sentence
          detection algorithm is imperfect: it assumes that a sentence
          ending consists of a lowercase letter followed by one of
          ‘'.'’, ‘'!'’, or ‘'?'’, possibly followed by one of ‘'"'’ or
          ‘"'"’, followed by a space.  One problem with this algorithm
          is that it is unable to detect the difference between "Dr."
          in

               [...] Dr. Frankenstein's monster [...]

          and "Spot."  in

               [...] See Spot. See Spot run [...]

          *note fix_sentence_endings: 20f0. is false by default.

          Since the sentence detection algorithm relies on
          ‘string.lowercase’ for the definition of "lowercase letter",
          and a convention of using two spaces after a period to
          separate sentences on the same line, it is specific to
          English-language texts.

      -- 屬性: break_long_words

          (default: ‘True’) If true, then words longer than *note width:
          20ed. will be broken in order to ensure that no lines are
          longer than *note width: 20ed.  If it is false, long words
          will not be broken, and some lines may be longer than *note
          width: 20ed.  (Long words will be put on a line by themselves,
          in order to minimize the amount by which *note width: 20ed. is
          exceeded.)

      -- 屬性: break_on_hyphens

          (default: ‘True’) If true, wrapping will occur preferably on
          whitespaces and right after hyphens in compound words, as it
          is customary in English.  If false, only whitespaces will be
          considered as potentially good places for line breaks, but you
          need to set *note break_long_words: 20ec. to false if you want
          truly insecable words.  Default behaviour in previous versions
          was to always allow breaking hyphenated words.

      -- 屬性: max_lines

          (default: ‘None’) If not ‘None’, then the output will contain
          at most 'max_lines' lines, with 'placeholder' appearing at the
          end of the output.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: placeholder

          (default: ‘' [...]'’) String that will appear at the end of
          the output text if it has been truncated.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

     *note TextWrapper: e5f. also provides some public methods,
     analogous to the module-level convenience functions:

      -- 方法: wrap (text)

          Wraps the single paragraph in 'text' (a string) so every line
          is at most *note width: 20ed. characters long.  All wrapping
          options are taken from instance attributes of the *note
          TextWrapper: e5f. instance.  Returns a list of output lines,
          without final newlines.  If the wrapped output has no content,
          the returned list is empty.

      -- 方法: fill (text)

          Wraps the single paragraph in 'text', and returns a single
          string containing the wrapped paragraph.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/textwrap.py


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫,  Next: stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備,  Prev: textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充,  Up: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務

5.6.5 ‘unicodedata’ -- Unicode 資料庫
-------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unicode Character Database (UCD)
which defines character properties for all Unicode characters.  The data
contained in this database is compiled from the UCD version 15.0.0(1).

The module uses the same names and symbols as defined by Unicode
Standard Annex #44, "Unicode Character Database"(2).  It defines the
following functions:

 -- 函式: unicodedata.lookup (name)

     Look up character by name.  If a character with the given name is
     found, return the corresponding character.  If not found, *note
     KeyError: 8ed. is raised.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Support for name aliases (3) and named sequences
     (4) has been added.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.name (chr[, default])

     Returns the name assigned to the character 'chr' as a string.  If
     no name is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not given, *note
     ValueError: 183. is raised.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.decimal (chr[, default])

     Returns the decimal value assigned to the character 'chr' as
     integer.  If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or,
     if not given, *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.digit (chr[, default])

     Returns the digit value assigned to the character 'chr' as integer.
     If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not
     given, *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.numeric (chr[, default])

     Returns the numeric value assigned to the character 'chr' as float.
     If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not
     given, *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.category (chr)

     Returns the general category assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.bidirectional (chr)

     Returns the bidirectional class assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.  If no such value is defined, an empty string is returned.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.combining (chr)

     Returns the canonical combining class assigned to the character
     'chr' as integer.  Returns ‘0’ if no combining class is defined.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.east_asian_width (chr)

     Returns the east asian width assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.mirrored (chr)

     Returns the mirrored property assigned to the character 'chr' as
     integer.  Returns ‘1’ if the character has been identified as a
     "mirrored" character in bidirectional text, ‘0’ otherwise.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.decomposition (chr)

     Returns the character decomposition mapping assigned to the
     character 'chr' as string.  An empty string is returned in case no
     such mapping is defined.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.normalize (form, unistr)

     Return the normal form 'form' for the Unicode string 'unistr'.
     Valid values for 'form' are 'NFC', 'NFKC', 'NFD', and 'NFKD'.

     The Unicode standard defines various normalization forms of a
     Unicode string, based on the definition of canonical equivalence
     and compatibility equivalence.  In Unicode, several characters can
     be expressed in various way.  For example, the character U+00C7
     (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA) can also be expressed as the
     sequence U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C) U+0327 (COMBINING
     CEDILLA).

     For each character, there are two normal forms: normal form C and
     normal form D. Normal form D (NFD) is also known as canonical
     decomposition, and translates each character into its decomposed
     form.  Normal form C (NFC) first applies a canonical decomposition,
     then composes pre-combined characters again.

     In addition to these two forms, there are two additional normal
     forms based on compatibility equivalence.  In Unicode, certain
     characters are supported which normally would be unified with other
     characters.  For example, U+2160 (ROMAN NUMERAL ONE) is really the
     same thing as U+0049 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I). However, it is
     supported in Unicode for compatibility with existing character sets
     (e.g.  gb2312).

     The normal form KD (NFKD) will apply the compatibility
     decomposition, i.e.  replace all compatibility characters with
     their equivalents.  The normal form KC (NFKC) first applies the
     compatibility decomposition, followed by the canonical composition.

     Even if two unicode strings are normalized and look the same to a
     human reader, if one has combining characters and the other
     doesn't, they may not compare equal.

 -- 函式: unicodedata.is_normalized (form, unistr)

     Return whether the Unicode string 'unistr' is in the normal form
     'form'.  Valid values for 'form' are 'NFC', 'NFKC', 'NFD', and
     'NFKD'.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

In addition, the module exposes the following constant:

 -- 資料: unicodedata.unidata_version

     The version of the Unicode database used in this module.

 -- 資料: unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0

     This is an object that has the same methods as the entire module,
     but uses the Unicode database version 3.2 instead, for applications
     that require this specific version of the Unicode database (such as
     IDNA).

範例：

     >>> import unicodedata
     >>> unicodedata.lookup('LEFT CURLY BRACKET')
     '{'
     >>> unicodedata.name('/')
     'SOLIDUS'
     >>> unicodedata.decimal('9')
     9
     >>> unicodedata.decimal('a')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: not a decimal
     >>> unicodedata.category('A')  # 'L'etter, 'u'ppercase
     'Lu'
     >>> unicodedata.bidirectional('\u0660') # 'A'rabic, 'N'umber
     'AN'

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/

   (3) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt’

   (4) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd/NamedSequences.txt’


File: python.info,  Node: stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備,  Next: readline --- GNU readline 介面,  Prev: unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫,  Up: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務

5.6.6 ‘stringprep’ -- 網際網路字串準備
--------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/stringprep.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

When identifying things (such as host names) in the internet, it is
often necessary to compare such identifications for "equality".  Exactly
how this comparison is executed may depend on the application domain,
e.g.  whether it should be case-insensitive or not.  It may be also
necessary to restrict the possible identifications, to allow only
identifications consisting of "printable" characters.

RFC 3454(2) defines a procedure for "preparing" Unicode strings in
internet protocols.  Before passing strings onto the wire, they are
processed with the preparation procedure, after which they have a
certain normalized form.  The RFC defines a set of tables, which can be
combined into profiles.  Each profile must define which tables it uses,
and what other optional parts of the ‘stringprep’ procedure are part of
the profile.  One example of a ‘stringprep’ profile is ‘nameprep’, which
is used for internationalized domain names.

The module *note stringprep: ce. only exposes the tables from RFC
3454(3).  As these tables would be very large to represent as
dictionaries or lists, the module uses the Unicode character database
internally.  The module source code itself was generated using the
‘mkstringprep.py’ utility.

As a result, these tables are exposed as functions, not as data
structures.  There are two kinds of tables in the RFC: sets and
mappings.  For a set, *note stringprep: ce. provides the "characteristic
function", i.e.  a function that returns ‘True’ if the parameter is part
of the set.  For mappings, it provides the mapping function: given the
key, it returns the associated value.  Below is a list of all functions
available in the module.

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_a1 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableA.1 (Unassigned code points in
     Unicode 3.2).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_b1 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableB.1 (Commonly mapped to
     nothing).

 -- 函式: stringprep.map_table_b2 (code)

     Return the mapped value for 'code' according to tableB.2 (Mapping
     for case-folding used with NFKC).

 -- 函式: stringprep.map_table_b3 (code)

     Return the mapped value for 'code' according to tableB.3 (Mapping
     for case-folding used with no normalization).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c11 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.1.1 (ASCII space characters).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c12 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.1.2 (Non-ASCII space
     characters).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c11_c12 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.1 (Space characters, union of
     C.1.1 and C.1.2).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c21 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.2.1 (ASCII control
     characters).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c22 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.2.2 (Non-ASCII control
     characters).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c21_c22 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.2 (Control characters, union
     of C.2.1 and C.2.2).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c3 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.3 (Private use).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c4 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.4 (Non-character code
     points).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c5 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.5 (Surrogate codes).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c6 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.6 (Inappropriate for plain
     text).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c7 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.7 (Inappropriate for
     canonical representation).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c8 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.8 (Change display properties
     or are deprecated).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_c9 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.9 (Tagging characters).

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_d1 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableD.1 (Characters with
     bidirectional property "R" or "AL").

 -- 函式: stringprep.in_table_d2 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableD.2 (Characters with
     bidirectional property "L").

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/stringprep.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html


File: python.info,  Node: readline --- GNU readline 介面,  Next: rlcompleter --- GNU readline 的補全函式,  Prev: stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備,  Up: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務

5.6.7 ‘readline’ -- GNU readline 介面
-------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The *note readline: b5. module defines a number of functions to
facilitate completion and reading/writing of history files from the
Python interpreter.  This module can be used directly, or via the *note
rlcompleter: b8. module, which supports completion of Python identifiers
at the interactive prompt.  Settings made using this module affect the
behaviour of both the interpreter's interactive prompt and the prompts
offered by the built-in *note input(): 1169. function.

Readline keybindings may be configured via an initialization file,
typically ‘.inputrc’ in your home directory.  See Readline Init File(1)
in the GNU Readline manual for information about the format and
allowable constructs of that file, and the capabilities of the Readline
library in general.

     備註: The underlying Readline library API may be implemented by the
     ‘libedit’ library instead of GNU readline.  On macOS the *note
     readline: b5. module detects which library is being used at run
     time.

     The configuration file for ‘libedit’ is different from that of GNU
     readline.  If you programmatically load configuration strings you
     can check for the text "libedit" in ‘readline.__doc__’ to
     differentiate between GNU readline and libedit.

     If you use 'editline'/‘libedit’ readline emulation on macOS, the
     initialization file located in your home directory is named
     ‘.editrc’.  For example, the following content in ‘~/.editrc’ will
     turn ON 'vi' keybindings and TAB completion:

          python:bind -v
          python:bind ^I rl_complete

     Also note that different libraries may use different history file
     formats.  When switching the underlying library, existing history
     files may become unusable.

* Menu:

* Init file::
* Line buffer::
* History file::
* History list::
* Startup hooks::
* Completion::
* 範例::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tiswww.cwru.edu/php/chet/readline/rluserman.html#Readline-Init-File


File: python.info,  Node: Init file,  Next: Line buffer,  Up: readline --- GNU readline 介面

5.6.7.1 Init file
.................

The following functions relate to the init file and user configuration:

 -- 函式: readline.parse_and_bind (string)

     Execute the init line provided in the 'string' argument.  This
     calls ‘rl_parse_and_bind()’ in the underlying library.

 -- 函式: readline.read_init_file ([filename])

     Execute a readline initialization file.  The default filename is
     the last filename used.  This calls ‘rl_read_init_file()’ in the
     underlying library.


File: python.info,  Node: Line buffer,  Next: History file,  Prev: Init file,  Up: readline --- GNU readline 介面

5.6.7.2 Line buffer
...................

The following functions operate on the line buffer:

 -- 函式: readline.get_line_buffer ()

     Return the current contents of the line buffer (‘rl_line_buffer’ in
     the underlying library).

 -- 函式: readline.insert_text (string)

     Insert text into the line buffer at the cursor position.  This
     calls ‘rl_insert_text()’ in the underlying library, but ignores the
     return value.

 -- 函式: readline.redisplay ()

     Change what's displayed on the screen to reflect the current
     contents of the line buffer.  This calls ‘rl_redisplay()’ in the
     underlying library.


File: python.info,  Node: History file,  Next: History list,  Prev: Line buffer,  Up: readline --- GNU readline 介面

5.6.7.3 History file
....................

The following functions operate on a history file:

 -- 函式: readline.read_history_file ([filename])

     Load a readline history file, and append it to the history list.
     The default filename is ‘~/.history’.  This calls ‘read_history()’
     in the underlying library.

 -- 函式: readline.write_history_file ([filename])

     Save the history list to a readline history file, overwriting any
     existing file.  The default filename is ‘~/.history’.  This calls
     ‘write_history()’ in the underlying library.

 -- 函式: readline.append_history_file (nelements[, filename])

     Append the last 'nelements' items of history to a file.  The
     default filename is ‘~/.history’.  The file must already exist.
     This calls ‘append_history()’ in the underlying library.  This
     function only exists if Python was compiled for a version of the
     library that supports it.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: readline.get_history_length ()
 -- 函式: readline.set_history_length (length)

     Set or return the desired number of lines to save in the history
     file.  The *note write_history_file(): 211e. function uses this
     value to truncate the history file, by calling
     ‘history_truncate_file()’ in the underlying library.  Negative
     values imply unlimited history file size.


File: python.info,  Node: History list,  Next: Startup hooks,  Prev: History file,  Up: readline --- GNU readline 介面

5.6.7.4 History list
....................

The following functions operate on a global history list:

 -- 函式: readline.clear_history ()

     Clear the current history.  This calls ‘clear_history()’ in the
     underlying library.  The Python function only exists if Python was
     compiled for a version of the library that supports it.

 -- 函式: readline.get_current_history_length ()

     Return the number of items currently in the history.  (This is
     different from *note get_history_length(): 211f, which returns the
     maximum number of lines that will be written to a history file.)

 -- 函式: readline.get_history_item (index)

     Return the current contents of history item at 'index'.  The item
     index is one-based.  This calls ‘history_get()’ in the underlying
     library.

 -- 函式: readline.remove_history_item (pos)

     Remove history item specified by its position from the history.
     The position is zero-based.  This calls ‘remove_history()’ in the
     underlying library.

 -- 函式: readline.replace_history_item (pos, line)

     Replace history item specified by its position with 'line'.  The
     position is zero-based.  This calls ‘replace_history_entry()’ in
     the underlying library.

 -- 函式: readline.add_history (line)

     Append 'line' to the history buffer, as if it was the last line
     typed.  This calls ‘add_history()’ in the underlying library.

 -- 函式: readline.set_auto_history (enabled)

     Enable or disable automatic calls to ‘add_history()’ when reading
     input via readline.  The 'enabled' argument should be a Boolean
     value that when true, enables auto history, and that when false,
     disables auto history.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     'CPython 實作細節：' Auto history is enabled by default, and
     changes to this do not persist across multiple sessions.


File: python.info,  Node: Startup hooks,  Next: Completion,  Prev: History list,  Up: readline --- GNU readline 介面

5.6.7.5 Startup hooks
.....................

 -- 函式: readline.set_startup_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the function invoked by the ‘rl_startup_hook’
     callback of the underlying library.  If 'function' is specified, it
     will be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ‘None’, any
     function already installed is removed.  The hook is called with no
     arguments just before readline prints the first prompt.

 -- 函式: readline.set_pre_input_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the function invoked by the ‘rl_pre_input_hook’
     callback of the underlying library.  If 'function' is specified, it
     will be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ‘None’, any
     function already installed is removed.  The hook is called with no
     arguments after the first prompt has been printed and just before
     readline starts reading input characters.  This function only
     exists if Python was compiled for a version of the library that
     supports it.


File: python.info,  Node: Completion,  Next: 範例,  Prev: Startup hooks,  Up: readline --- GNU readline 介面

5.6.7.6 Completion
..................

The following functions relate to implementing a custom word completion
function.  This is typically operated by the Tab key, and can suggest
and automatically complete a word being typed.  By default, Readline is
set up to be used by *note rlcompleter: b8. to complete Python
identifiers for the interactive interpreter.  If the *note readline: b5.
module is to be used with a custom completer, a different set of word
delimiters should be set.

 -- 函式: readline.set_completer ([function])

     Set or remove the completer function.  If 'function' is specified,
     it will be used as the new completer function; if omitted or
     ‘None’, any completer function already installed is removed.  The
     completer function is called as ‘function(text, state)’, for
     'state' in ‘0’, ‘1’, ‘2’, ..., until it returns a non-string value.
     It should return the next possible completion starting with 'text'.

     The installed completer function is invoked by the 'entry_func'
     callback passed to ‘rl_completion_matches()’ in the underlying
     library.  The 'text' string comes from the first parameter to the
     ‘rl_attempted_completion_function’ callback of the underlying
     library.

 -- 函式: readline.get_completer ()

     Get the completer function, or ‘None’ if no completer function has
     been set.

 -- 函式: readline.get_completion_type ()

     Get the type of completion being attempted.  This returns the
     ‘rl_completion_type’ variable in the underlying library as an
     integer.

 -- 函式: readline.get_begidx ()
 -- 函式: readline.get_endidx ()

     Get the beginning or ending index of the completion scope.  These
     indexes are the 'start' and 'end' arguments passed to the
     ‘rl_attempted_completion_function’ callback of the underlying
     library.  The values may be different in the same input editing
     scenario based on the underlying C readline implementation.  Ex:
     libedit is known to behave differently than libreadline.

 -- 函式: readline.set_completer_delims (string)
 -- 函式: readline.get_completer_delims ()

     Set or get the word delimiters for completion.  These determine the
     start of the word to be considered for completion (the completion
     scope).  These functions access the
     ‘rl_completer_word_break_characters’ variable in the underlying
     library.

 -- 函式: readline.set_completion_display_matches_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the completion display function.  If 'function' is
     specified, it will be used as the new completion display function;
     if omitted or ‘None’, any completion display function already
     installed is removed.  This sets or clears the
     ‘rl_completion_display_matches_hook’ callback in the underlying
     library.  The completion display function is called as
     ‘function(substitution, [matches], longest_match_length)’ once each
     time matches need to be displayed.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例,  Prev: Completion,  Up: readline --- GNU readline 介面

5.6.7.7 範例
............

The following example demonstrates how to use the *note readline: b5.
module's history reading and writing functions to automatically load and
save a history file named ‘.python_history’ from the user's home
directory.  The code below would normally be executed automatically
during interactive sessions from the user's *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e5a.
file.

     import atexit
     import os
     import readline

     histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")
     try:
         readline.read_history_file(histfile)
         # default history len is -1 (infinite), which may grow unruly
         readline.set_history_length(1000)
     except FileNotFoundError:
         pass

     atexit.register(readline.write_history_file, histfile)

This code is actually automatically run when Python is run in *note
interactive mode: e58. (see *note Readline configuration: e5b.).

The following example achieves the same goal but supports concurrent
interactive sessions, by only appending the new history.

     import atexit
     import os
     import readline
     histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")

     try:
         readline.read_history_file(histfile)
         h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
     except FileNotFoundError:
         open(histfile, 'wb').close()
         h_len = 0

     def save(prev_h_len, histfile):
         new_h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
         readline.set_history_length(1000)
         readline.append_history_file(new_h_len - prev_h_len, histfile)
     atexit.register(save, h_len, histfile)

The following example extends the *note code.InteractiveConsole: 2131.
class to support history save/restore.

     import atexit
     import code
     import os
     import readline

     class HistoryConsole(code.InteractiveConsole):
         def __init__(self, locals=None, filename="<console>",
                      histfile=os.path.expanduser("~/.console-history")):
             code.InteractiveConsole.__init__(self, locals, filename)
             self.init_history(histfile)

         def init_history(self, histfile):
             readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
             if hasattr(readline, "read_history_file"):
                 try:
                     readline.read_history_file(histfile)
                 except FileNotFoundError:
                     pass
                 atexit.register(self.save_history, histfile)

         def save_history(self, histfile):
             readline.set_history_length(1000)
             readline.write_history_file(histfile)


File: python.info,  Node: rlcompleter --- GNU readline 的補全函式,  Prev: readline --- GNU readline 介面,  Up: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務

5.6.8 ‘rlcompleter’ -- GNU readline 的補全函式
----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/rlcompleter.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘rlcompleter’ module defines a completion function suitable to be
passed to *note set_completer(): 212a. in the *note readline: b5.
module.

When this module is imported on a Unix platform with the *note readline:
b5. module available, an instance of the *note Completer: 171a. class is
automatically created and its *note complete(): 2134. method is set as
the *note readline completer: 2129.  The method provides completion of
valid Python *note identifiers and keywords: 1c27.

範例：

     >>> import rlcompleter
     >>> import readline
     >>> readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
     >>> readline. <TAB PRESSED>
     readline.__doc__          readline.get_line_buffer(  readline.read_init_file(
     readline.__file__         readline.insert_text(      readline.set_completer(
     readline.__name__         readline.parse_and_bind(
     >>> readline.

The ‘rlcompleter’ module is designed for use with Python's *note
interactive mode: e58.  Unless Python is run with the *note -S: 103a.
option, the module is automatically imported and configured (see *note
Readline configuration: e5b.).

On platforms without *note readline: b5, the *note Completer: 171a.
class defined by this module can still be used for custom purposes.

 -- 類別: rlcompleter.Completer

     Completer objects have the following method:

      -- 方法: complete (text, state)

          Return the next possible completion for 'text'.

          When called by the *note readline: b5. module, this method is
          called successively with ‘state == 0, 1, 2, ...’ until the
          method returns ‘None’.

          If called for 'text' that doesn't include a period character
          (‘'.'’), it will complete from names currently defined in
          *note __main__: 1, *note builtins: 10. and keywords (as
          defined by the *note keyword: 7e. module).

          If called for a dotted name, it will try to evaluate anything
          without obvious side-effects (functions will not be evaluated,
          but it can generate calls to *note __getattr__(): 1fa.) up to
          the last part, and find matches for the rest via the *note
          dir(): 42d. function.  Any exception raised during the
          evaluation of the expression is caught, silenced and *note
          None: 470. is returned.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/rlcompleter.py


File: python.info,  Node: 二進位資料服務,  Next: 資料型別,  Prev: 文本處理 Text Processing 服務,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.7 二進位資料服務
==================

本章所描述的模組提供了一些基本的二進位資料操作服務。而針對二進位資料的其
他操作──尤其是關於檔案格式和網路協定的部分──則會在相關章節中詳細描述。

一些在 *note 文本處理 (Text Processing) 服務: 1f50. 中提及的函式庫也可處
理 ASCII 相容的二進位格式（例如，*note re: b4.）及所有的二進位資料（例如
，*note difflib: 34.）。

此外，請參閱 Python 內建的二進位資料類型的文件，詳情請參考 *note Binary
Sequence Types -- bytes, bytearray, memoryview: 1ef3.。

* Menu:

* struct: struct --- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料. 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料
* codecs: codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別. 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別


File: python.info,  Node: struct --- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料,  Next: codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別,  Up: 二進位資料服務

5.7.1 ‘struct’ -- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料
----------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/struct.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module converts between Python values and C structs represented as
Python *note bytes: 2c1. objects.  Compact *note format strings: 213a.
describe the intended conversions to/from Python values.  The module's
functions and objects can be used for two largely distinct applications,
data exchange with external sources (files or network connections), or
data transfer between the Python application and the C layer.

     備註: When no prefix character is given, native mode is the
     default.  It packs or unpacks data based on the platform and
     compiler on which the Python interpreter was built.  The result of
     packing a given C struct includes pad bytes which maintain proper
     alignment for the C types involved; similarly, alignment is taken
     into account when unpacking.  In contrast, when communicating data
     between external sources, the programmer is responsible for
     defining byte ordering and padding between elements.  See *note
     Byte Order, Size, and Alignment: 213b. for details.

Several *note struct: cf. functions (and methods of *note Struct: 1464.)
take a 'buffer' argument.  This refers to objects that implement the
*note 緩衝協定 (Buffer Protocol): 148. and provide either a readable or
read-writable buffer.  The most common types used for that purpose are
*note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0, but many other types that
can be viewed as an array of bytes implement the buffer protocol, so
that they can be read/filled without additional copying from a *note
bytes: 2c1. object.

* Menu:

* 函式與例外::
* Format Strings::
* Applications::
* Classes: Classes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/struct.py


File: python.info,  Node: 函式與例外,  Next: Format Strings,  Up: struct --- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料

5.7.1.1 函式與例外
..................

The module defines the following exception and functions:

 -- 例外: struct.error

     Exception raised on various occasions; argument is a string
     describing what is wrong.

 -- 函式: struct.pack (format, v1, v2, ...)

     Return a bytes object containing the values 'v1', 'v2', ...  packed
     according to the format string 'format'.  The arguments must match
     the values required by the format exactly.

 -- 函式: struct.pack_into (format, buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

     Pack the values 'v1', 'v2', ...  according to the format string
     'format' and write the packed bytes into the writable buffer
     'buffer' starting at position 'offset'.  Note that 'offset' is a
     required argument.

 -- 函式: struct.unpack (format, buffer)

     Unpack from the buffer 'buffer' (presumably packed by ‘pack(format,
     ...)’) according to the format string 'format'.  The result is a
     tuple even if it contains exactly one item.  The buffer's size in
     bytes must match the size required by the format, as reflected by
     *note calcsize(): 17a1.

 -- 函式: struct.unpack_from (format, /, buffer, offset=0)

     Unpack from 'buffer' starting at position 'offset', according to
     the format string 'format'.  The result is a tuple even if it
     contains exactly one item.  The buffer's size in bytes, starting at
     position 'offset', must be at least the size required by the
     format, as reflected by *note calcsize(): 17a1.

 -- 函式: struct.iter_unpack (format, buffer)

     Iteratively unpack from the buffer 'buffer' according to the format
     string 'format'.  This function returns an iterator which will read
     equally sized chunks from the buffer until all its contents have
     been consumed.  The buffer's size in bytes must be a multiple of
     the size required by the format, as reflected by *note calcsize():
     17a1.

     Each iteration yields a tuple as specified by the format string.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: struct.calcsize (format)

     Return the size of the struct (and hence of the bytes object
     produced by ‘pack(format, ...)’) corresponding to the format string
     'format'.


File: python.info,  Node: Format Strings,  Next: Applications,  Prev: 函式與例外,  Up: struct --- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料

5.7.1.2 Format Strings
......................

Format strings describe the data layout when packing and unpacking data.
They are built up from *note format characters: 2140, which specify the
type of data being packed/unpacked.  In addition, special characters
control the *note byte order, size and alignment: 213b.  Each format
string consists of an optional prefix character which describes the
overall properties of the data and one or more format characters which
describe the actual data values and padding.

* Menu:

* Byte Order, Size, and Alignment: Byte Order Size and Alignment.
* Format Characters::
* 範例: 範例<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Byte Order Size and Alignment,  Next: Format Characters,  Up: Format Strings

5.7.1.3 Byte Order, Size, and Alignment
.......................................

By default, C types are represented in the machine's native format and
byte order, and properly aligned by skipping pad bytes if necessary
(according to the rules used by the C compiler).  This behavior is
chosen so that the bytes of a packed struct correspond exactly to the
memory layout of the corresponding C struct.  Whether to use native byte
ordering and padding or standard formats depends on the application.

Alternatively, the first character of the format string can be used to
indicate the byte order, size and alignment of the packed data,
according to the following table:

Character       Byte order                   Size           Alignment
                                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
‘@’             native                       native         native
                                                            
                                                            
‘=’             native                       standard       none
                                                            
                                                            
‘<’             little-endian                standard       none
                                                            
                                                            
‘>’             big-endian                   standard       none
                                                            
                                                            
‘!’             network (= big-endian)       standard       none
                                                            

If the first character is not one of these, ‘'@'’ is assumed.

     備註: The number 1023 (‘0x3ff’ in hexadecimal) has the following
     byte representations:

        * ‘03 ff’ in big-endian (‘>’)

        * ‘ff 03’ in little-endian (‘<’)

     Python example:

          >>> import struct
          >>> struct.pack('>h', 1023)
          b'\x03\xff'
          >>> struct.pack('<h', 1023)
          b'\xff\x03'

Native byte order is big-endian or little-endian, depending on the host
system.  For example, Intel x86, AMD64 (x86-64), and Apple M1 are
little-endian; IBM z and many legacy architectures are big-endian.  Use
*note sys.byteorder: 1f31. to check the endianness of your system.

Native size and alignment are determined using the C compiler's ‘sizeof’
expression.  This is always combined with native byte order.

Standard size depends only on the format character; see the table in the
*note Format Characters: 2140. section.

Note the difference between ‘'@'’ and ‘'='’: both use native byte order,
but the size and alignment of the latter is standardized.

The form ‘'!'’ represents the network byte order which is always
big-endian as defined in IETF RFC 1700(1).

There is no way to indicate non-native byte order (force byte-swapping);
use the appropriate choice of ‘'<'’ or ‘'>'’.

註解：

  1. Padding is only automatically added between successive structure
     members.  No padding is added at the beginning or the end of the
     encoded struct.

  2. No padding is added when using non-native size and alignment, e.g.
     with '<', '>', '=', and '!'.

  3. To align the end of a structure to the alignment requirement of a
     particular type, end the format with the code for that type with a
     repeat count of zero.  See *note 範例: 2142.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1700


File: python.info,  Node: Format Characters,  Next: 範例<2>,  Prev: Byte Order Size and Alignment,  Up: Format Strings

5.7.1.4 Format Characters
.........................

Format characters have the following meaning; the conversion between C
and Python values should be obvious given their types.  The 'Standard
size' column refers to the size of the packed value in bytes when using
standard size; that is, when the format string starts with one of ‘'<'’,
‘'>'’, ‘'!'’ or ‘'='’.  When using native size, the size of the packed
value is platform-dependent.

Format       C Type                         Python type              Standard size        註解
                                                                                          
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
‘x’          pad byte                       no value                                      (7)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘c’          char                           bytes of length 1        1
                                                                     
                                                                                          
‘b’          signed char                    integer                  1                    (1), (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘B’          unsigned char                  integer                  1                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘?’          _Bool                          bool                     1                    (1)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘h’          short                          integer                  2                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘H’          unsigned short                 integer                  2                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘i’          int                            integer                  4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘I’          unsigned int                   integer                  4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘l’          long                           integer                  4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘L’          unsigned long                  integer                  4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘q’          long long                      integer                  8                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘Q’          unsigned long long             integer                  8                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘n’          ‘ssize_t’                      integer                                       (3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘N’          ‘size_t’                       integer                                       (3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘e’          (6)                            float                    2                    (4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘f’          float                          float                    4                    (4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘d’          double                         float                    8                    (4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘s’          char[]                         bytes                                         (9)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘p’          char[]                         bytes                                         (8)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘P’          void*                          integer                                       (5)
                                                                                          

在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 ‘'n'’ 與 ‘'N'’ 格式的支援。

在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 ‘'e'’ 格式的支援。

註解：

  1. 
     The ‘'?'’ conversion code corresponds to the _Bool type defined by
     C standards since C99.  In standard mode, it is represented by one
     byte.

  2. When attempting to pack a non-integer using any of the integer
     conversion codes, if the non-integer has a *note __index__(): 51f.
     method then that method is called to convert the argument to an
     integer before packing.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Added use of the *note __index__(): 51f. method
     for non-integers.

  3. The ‘'n'’ and ‘'N'’ conversion codes are only available for the
     native size (selected as the default or with the ‘'@'’ byte order
     character).  For the standard size, you can use whichever of the
     other integer formats fits your application.

  4. For the ‘'f'’, ‘'d'’ and ‘'e'’ conversion codes, the packed
     representation uses the IEEE 754 binary32, binary64 or binary16
     format (for ‘'f'’, ‘'d'’ or ‘'e'’ respectively), regardless of the
     floating-point format used by the platform.

  5. The ‘'P'’ format character is only available for the native byte
     ordering (selected as the default or with the ‘'@'’ byte order
     character).  The byte order character ‘'='’ chooses to use little-
     or big-endian ordering based on the host system.  The struct module
     does not interpret this as native ordering, so the ‘'P'’ format is
     not available.

  6. The IEEE 754 binary16 "half precision" type was introduced in the
     2008 revision of the IEEE 754 standard(1).  It has a sign bit, a
     5-bit exponent and 11-bit precision (with 10 bits explicitly
     stored), and can represent numbers between approximately ‘6.1e-05’
     and ‘6.5e+04’ at full precision.  This type is not widely supported
     by C compilers: on a typical machine, an unsigned short can be used
     for storage, but not for math operations.  See the Wikipedia page
     on the half-precision floating-point format(2) for more
     information.

  7. When packing, ‘'x'’ inserts one NUL byte.

  8. The ‘'p'’ format character encodes a "Pascal string", meaning a
     short variable-length string stored in a 'fixed number of bytes',
     given by the count.  The first byte stored is the length of the
     string, or 255, whichever is smaller.  The bytes of the string
     follow.  If the string passed in to *note pack(): 110b. is too long
     (longer than the count minus 1), only the leading ‘count-1’ bytes
     of the string are stored.  If the string is shorter than ‘count-1’,
     it is padded with null bytes so that exactly count bytes in all are
     used.  Note that for *note unpack(): 1593, the ‘'p'’ format
     character consumes ‘count’ bytes, but that the string returned can
     never contain more than 255 bytes.

  9. For the ‘'s'’ format character, the count is interpreted as the
     length of the bytes, not a repeat count like for the other format
     characters; for example, ‘'10s'’ means a single 10-byte string
     mapping to or from a single Python byte string, while ‘'10c'’ means
     10 separate one byte character elements (e.g., ‘cccccccccc’)
     mapping to or from ten different Python byte objects.  (See *note
     範例: 2142. for a concrete demonstration of the difference.)  If a
     count is not given, it defaults to 1.  For packing, the string is
     truncated or padded with null bytes as appropriate to make it fit.
     For unpacking, the resulting bytes object always has exactly the
     specified number of bytes.  As a special case, ‘'0s'’ means a
     single, empty string (while ‘'0c'’ means 0 characters).

A format character may be preceded by an integral repeat count.  For
example, the format string ‘'4h'’ means exactly the same as ‘'hhhh'’.

Whitespace characters between formats are ignored; a count and its
format must not contain whitespace though.

When packing a value ‘x’ using one of the integer formats (‘'b'’, ‘'B'’,
‘'h'’, ‘'H'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'I'’, ‘'l'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'q'’, ‘'Q'’), if ‘x’ is
outside the valid range for that format then *note struct.error: 11b7.
is raised.

在 3.1 版的變更: Previously, some of the integer formats wrapped
out-of-range values and raised *note DeprecationWarning: 179. instead of
*note struct.error: 11b7.

For the ‘'?'’ format character, the return value is either *note True:
a70. or *note False: 98f.  When packing, the truth value of the argument
object is used.  Either 0 or 1 in the native or standard bool
representation will be packed, and any non-zero value will be ‘True’
when unpacking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754-2008_revision

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<2>,  Prev: Format Characters,  Up: Format Strings

5.7.1.5 範例
............

     備註: Native byte order examples (designated by the ‘'@'’ format
     prefix or lack of any prefix character) may not match what the
     reader's machine produces as that depends on the platform and
     compiler.

Pack and unpack integers of three different sizes, using big endian
ordering:

     >>> from struct import *
     >>> pack(">bhl", 1, 2, 3)
     b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03'
     >>> unpack('>bhl', b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03')
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> calcsize('>bhl')
     7

Attempt to pack an integer which is too large for the defined field:

     >>> pack(">h", 99999)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     struct.error: 'h' format requires -32768 <= number <= 32767

Demonstrate the difference between ‘'s'’ and ‘'c'’ format characters:

     >>> pack("@ccc", b'1', b'2', b'3')
     b'123'
     >>> pack("@3s", b'123')
     b'123'

Unpacked fields can be named by assigning them to variables or by
wrapping the result in a named tuple:

     >>> record = b'raymond   \x32\x12\x08\x01\x08'
     >>> name, serialnum, school, gradelevel = unpack('<10sHHb', record)

     >>> from collections import namedtuple
     >>> Student = namedtuple('Student', 'name serialnum school gradelevel')
     >>> Student._make(unpack('<10sHHb', record))
     Student(name=b'raymond   ', serialnum=4658, school=264, gradelevel=8)

The ordering of format characters may have an impact on size in native
mode since padding is implicit.  In standard mode, the user is
responsible for inserting any desired padding.  Note in the first ‘pack’
call below that three NUL bytes were added after the packed ‘'#'’ to
align the following integer on a four-byte boundary.  In this example,
the output was produced on a little endian machine:

     >>> pack('@ci', b'#', 0x12131415)
     b'#\x00\x00\x00\x15\x14\x13\x12'
     >>> pack('@ic', 0x12131415, b'#')
     b'\x15\x14\x13\x12#'
     >>> calcsize('@ci')
     8
     >>> calcsize('@ic')
     5

The following format ‘'llh0l'’ results in two pad bytes being added at
the end, assuming the platform's longs are aligned on 4-byte boundaries:

     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3)
     b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x03\x00\x00'

也參考
......

*note array: 7. 模組

     Packed binary storage of homogeneous data.

*note json: 7c. 模組

     JSON encoder and decoder.

*note pickle: a1. 模組

     Python object serialization.


File: python.info,  Node: Applications,  Next: Classes<2>,  Prev: Format Strings,  Up: struct --- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料

5.7.1.6 Applications
....................

Two main applications for the *note struct: cf. module exist, data
interchange between Python and C code within an application or another
application compiled using the same compiler (*note native formats:
2147.), and data interchange between applications using agreed upon data
layout (*note standard formats: 2148.).  Generally speaking, the format
strings constructed for these two domains are distinct.

* Menu:

* Native Formats::
* Standard Formats::


File: python.info,  Node: Native Formats,  Next: Standard Formats,  Up: Applications

5.7.1.7 Native Formats
......................

When constructing format strings which mimic native layouts, the
compiler and machine architecture determine byte ordering and padding.
In such cases, the ‘@’ format character should be used to specify native
byte ordering and data sizes.  Internal pad bytes are normally inserted
automatically.  It is possible that a zero-repeat format code will be
needed at the end of a format string to round up to the correct byte
boundary for proper alignment of consecutive chunks of data.

Consider these two simple examples (on a 64-bit, little-endian machine):

     >>> calcsize('@lhl')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh')
     18

Data is not padded to an 8-byte boundary at the end of the second format
string without the use of extra padding.  A zero-repeat format code
solves that problem:

     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     24

The ‘'x'’ format code can be used to specify the repeat, but for native
formats it is better to use a zero-repeat format like ‘'0l'’.

By default, native byte ordering and alignment is used, but it is better
to be explicit and use the ‘'@'’ prefix character.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Formats,  Prev: Native Formats,  Up: Applications

5.7.1.8 Standard Formats
........................

When exchanging data beyond your process such as networking or storage,
be precise.  Specify the exact byte order, size, and alignment.  Do not
assume they match the native order of a particular machine.  For
example, network byte order is big-endian, while many popular CPUs are
little-endian.  By defining this explicitly, the user need not care
about the specifics of the platform their code is running on.  The first
character should typically be ‘<’ or ‘>’ (or ‘!’).  Padding is the
responsibility of the programmer.  The zero-repeat format character
won't work.  Instead, the user must explicitly add ‘'x'’ pad bytes where
needed.  Revisiting the examples from the previous section, we have:

     >>> calcsize('<qh6xq')
     24
     >>> pack('<qh6xq', 1, 2, 3) == pack('@lhl', 1, 2, 3)
     True
     >>> calcsize('@llh')
     18
     >>> pack('@llh', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh', 1, 2, 3)
     True
     >>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     24
     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
     True

The above results (executed on a 64-bit machine) aren't guaranteed to
match when executed on different machines.  For example, the examples
below were executed on a 32-bit machine:

     >>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     12
     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Classes<2>,  Prev: Applications,  Up: struct --- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料

5.7.1.9 Classes
...............

The *note struct: cf. module also defines the following type:

 -- 類別: struct.Struct (format)

     Return a new Struct object which writes and reads binary data
     according to the format string 'format'.  Creating a ‘Struct’
     object once and calling its methods is more efficient than calling
     module-level functions with the same format since the format string
     is only compiled once.

          備註: The compiled versions of the most recent format strings
          passed to the module-level functions are cached, so programs
          that use only a few format strings needn't worry about reusing
          a single *note Struct: 1464. instance.

     Compiled Struct objects support the following methods and
     attributes:

      -- 方法: pack (v1, v2, ...)

          Identical to the *note pack(): 110b. function, using the
          compiled format.  (‘len(result)’ will equal *note size: 214e.)

      -- 方法: pack_into (buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

          Identical to the *note pack_into(): 213d. function, using the
          compiled format.

      -- 方法: unpack (buffer)

          Identical to the *note unpack(): 1593. function, using the
          compiled format.  The buffer's size in bytes must equal *note
          size: 214e.

      -- 方法: unpack_from (buffer, offset=0)

          Identical to the *note unpack_from(): 213e. function, using
          the compiled format.  The buffer's size in bytes, starting at
          position 'offset', must be at least *note size: 214e.

      -- 方法: iter_unpack (buffer)

          Identical to the *note iter_unpack(): e4d. function, using the
          compiled format.  The buffer's size in bytes must be a
          multiple of *note size: 214e.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: format

          The format string used to construct this Struct object.

          在 3.7 版的變更: The format string type is now *note str: 157.
          instead of *note bytes: 2c1.

      -- 屬性: size

          The calculated size of the struct (and hence of the bytes
          object produced by the *note pack(): 110b. method)
          corresponding to *note format: 417.


File: python.info,  Node: codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別,  Prev: struct --- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料,  Up: 二進位資料服務

5.7.2 ‘codecs’ -- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別
------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/codecs.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines base classes for standard Python codecs (encoders
and decoders) and provides access to the internal Python codec registry,
which manages the codec and error handling lookup process.  Most
standard codecs are *note text encodings: 1f0e, which encode text to
bytes (and decode bytes to text), but there are also codecs provided
that encode text to text, and bytes to bytes.  Custom codecs may encode
and decode between arbitrary types, but some module features are
restricted to be used specifically with *note text encodings: 1f0e. or
with codecs that encode to *note bytes: 2c1.

The module defines the following functions for encoding and decoding
with any codec:

 -- 函式: codecs.encode (obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Encodes 'obj' using the codec registered for 'encoding'.

     'Errors' may be given to set the desired error handling scheme.
     The default error handler is ‘'strict'’ meaning that encoding
     errors raise *note ValueError: 183. (or a more codec specific
     subclass, such as *note UnicodeEncodeError: 473.).  Refer to *note
     Codec Base Classes: 2154. for more information on codec error
     handling.

 -- 函式: codecs.decode (obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Decodes 'obj' using the codec registered for 'encoding'.

     'Errors' may be given to set the desired error handling scheme.
     The default error handler is ‘'strict'’ meaning that decoding
     errors raise *note ValueError: 183. (or a more codec specific
     subclass, such as *note UnicodeDecodeError: 85a.).  Refer to *note
     Codec Base Classes: 2154. for more information on codec error
     handling.

The full details for each codec can also be looked up directly:

 -- 函式: codecs.lookup (encoding)

     Looks up the codec info in the Python codec registry and returns a
     *note CodecInfo: 2155. object as defined below.

     Encodings are first looked up in the registry's cache.  If not
     found, the list of registered search functions is scanned.  If no
     *note CodecInfo: 2155. object is found, a *note LookupError: 1f64.
     is raised.  Otherwise, the *note CodecInfo: 2155. object is stored
     in the cache and returned to the caller.

 -- 類別: codecs.CodecInfo (encode, decode, streamreader=None,
          streamwriter=None, incrementalencoder=None,
          incrementaldecoder=None, name=None)

     Codec details when looking up the codec registry.  The constructor
     arguments are stored in attributes of the same name:

      -- 屬性: name

          The name of the encoding.

      -- 屬性: encode
      -- 屬性: decode

          The stateless encoding and decoding functions.  These must be
          functions or methods which have the same interface as the
          *note encode(): 2159. and *note decode(): 215a. methods of
          Codec instances (see *note Codec Interface: 215b.).  The
          functions or methods are expected to work in a stateless mode.

      -- 屬性: incrementalencoder
      -- 屬性: incrementaldecoder

          Incremental encoder and decoder classes or factory functions.
          These have to provide the interface defined by the base
          classes *note IncrementalEncoder: 215e. and *note
          IncrementalDecoder: 215f, respectively.  Incremental codecs
          can maintain state.

      -- 屬性: streamwriter
      -- 屬性: streamreader

          Stream writer and reader classes or factory functions.  These
          have to provide the interface defined by the base classes
          *note StreamWriter: 2162. and *note StreamReader: 2163,
          respectively.  Stream codecs can maintain state.

To simplify access to the various codec components, the module provides
these additional functions which use *note lookup(): 7a4. for the codec
lookup:

 -- 函式: codecs.getencoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its encoder
     function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1f64. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

 -- 函式: codecs.getdecoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its decoder
     function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1f64. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

 -- 函式: codecs.getincrementalencoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental
     encoder class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1f64. in case the encoding cannot be
     found or the codec doesn't support an incremental encoder.

 -- 函式: codecs.getincrementaldecoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental
     decoder class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1f64. in case the encoding cannot be
     found or the codec doesn't support an incremental decoder.

 -- 函式: codecs.getreader (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its *note
     StreamReader: 2163. class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1f64. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

 -- 函式: codecs.getwriter (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its *note
     StreamWriter: 2162. class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1f64. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

Custom codecs are made available by registering a suitable codec search
function:

 -- 函式: codecs.register (search_function)

     Register a codec search function.  Search functions are expected to
     take one argument, being the encoding name in all lower case
     letters with hyphens and spaces converted to underscores, and
     return a *note CodecInfo: 2155. object.  In case a search function
     cannot find a given encoding, it should return ‘None’.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Hyphens and spaces are converted to underscore.

 -- 函式: codecs.unregister (search_function)

     Unregister a codec search function and clear the registry's cache.
     If the search function is not registered, do nothing.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

While the builtin *note open(): 29c. and the associated *note io: 79.
module are the recommended approach for working with encoded text files,
this module provides additional utility functions and classes that allow
the use of a wider range of codecs when working with binary files:

 -- 函式: codecs.open (filename, mode='r', encoding=None,
          errors='strict', buffering=-1)

     Open an encoded file using the given 'mode' and return an instance
     of *note StreamReaderWriter: 216b, providing transparent
     encoding/decoding.  The default file mode is ‘'r'’, meaning to open
     the file in read mode.

          備註: If 'encoding' is not ‘None’, then the underlying encoded
          files are always opened in binary mode.  No automatic
          conversion of ‘'\n'’ is done on reading and writing.  The
          'mode' argument may be any binary mode acceptable to the
          built-in *note open(): 29c. function; the ‘'b'’ is
          automatically added.

     'encoding' specifies the encoding which is to be used for the file.
     Any encoding that encodes to and decodes from bytes is allowed, and
     the data types supported by the file methods depend on the codec
     used.

     'errors' may be given to define the error handling.  It defaults to
     ‘'strict'’ which causes a *note ValueError: 183. to be raised in
     case an encoding error occurs.

     'buffering' has the same meaning as for the built-in *note open():
     29c. function.  It defaults to -1 which means that the default
     buffer size will be used.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The ‘'U'’ mode has been removed.

 -- 函式: codecs.EncodedFile (file, data_encoding, file_encoding=None,
          errors='strict')

     Return a *note StreamRecoder: 17d5. instance, a wrapped version of
     'file' which provides transparent transcoding.  The original file
     is closed when the wrapped version is closed.

     Data written to the wrapped file is decoded according to the given
     'data_encoding' and then written to the original file as bytes
     using 'file_encoding'.  Bytes read from the original file are
     decoded according to 'file_encoding', and the result is encoded
     using 'data_encoding'.

     If 'file_encoding' is not given, it defaults to 'data_encoding'.

     'errors' may be given to define the error handling.  It defaults to
     ‘'strict'’, which causes *note ValueError: 183. to be raised in
     case an encoding error occurs.

 -- 函式: codecs.iterencode (iterator, encoding, errors='strict',
          **kwargs)

     Uses an incremental encoder to iteratively encode the input
     provided by 'iterator'.  This function is a *note generator: ef7.
     The 'errors' argument (as well as any other keyword argument) is
     passed through to the incremental encoder.

     This function requires that the codec accept text *note str: 157.
     objects to encode.  Therefore it does not support bytes-to-bytes
     encoders such as ‘base64_codec’.

 -- 函式: codecs.iterdecode (iterator, encoding, errors='strict',
          **kwargs)

     Uses an incremental decoder to iteratively decode the input
     provided by 'iterator'.  This function is a *note generator: ef7.
     The 'errors' argument (as well as any other keyword argument) is
     passed through to the incremental decoder.

     This function requires that the codec accept *note bytes: 2c1.
     objects to decode.  Therefore it does not support text-to-text
     encoders such as ‘rot_13’, although ‘rot_13’ may be used
     equivalently with *note iterencode(): 216d.

The module also provides the following constants which are useful for
reading and writing to platform dependent files:

 -- 資料: codecs.BOM
 -- 資料: codecs.BOM_BE
 -- 資料: codecs.BOM_LE
 -- 資料: codecs.BOM_UTF8
 -- 資料: codecs.BOM_UTF16
 -- 資料: codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE
 -- 資料: codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE
 -- 資料: codecs.BOM_UTF32
 -- 資料: codecs.BOM_UTF32_BE
 -- 資料: codecs.BOM_UTF32_LE

     These constants define various byte sequences, being Unicode byte
     order marks (BOMs) for several encodings.  They are used in UTF-16
     and UTF-32 data streams to indicate the byte order used, and in
     UTF-8 as a Unicode signature.  *note BOM_UTF16: 2173. is either
     *note BOM_UTF16_BE: 2174. or *note BOM_UTF16_LE: 2175. depending on
     the platform's native byte order, *note BOM: 216f. is an alias for
     *note BOM_UTF16: 2173, *note BOM_LE: 2171. for *note BOM_UTF16_LE:
     2175. and *note BOM_BE: 2170. for *note BOM_UTF16_BE: 2174.  The
     others represent the BOM in UTF-8 and UTF-32 encodings.

* Menu:

* Codec Base Classes::
* Encodings and Unicode::
* Standard Encodings::
* Python Specific Encodings::
* encodings.idna: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
* encodings.mbcs: encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage. Windows ANSI codepage
* encodings.utf_8_sig: encodings utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature. UTF-8 codec with BOM signature

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/codecs.py


File: python.info,  Node: Codec Base Classes,  Next: Encodings and Unicode,  Up: codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別

5.7.2.1 Codec Base Classes
..........................

The *note codecs: 19. module defines a set of base classes which define
the interfaces for working with codec objects, and can also be used as
the basis for custom codec implementations.

Each codec has to define four interfaces to make it usable as codec in
Python: stateless encoder, stateless decoder, stream reader and stream
writer.  The stream reader and writers typically reuse the stateless
encoder/decoder to implement the file protocols.  Codec authors also
need to define how the codec will handle encoding and decoding errors.
* Menu:

* Error Handlers::
* Stateless Encoding and Decoding::
* Incremental Encoding and Decoding::
* Stream Encoding and Decoding::


File: python.info,  Node: Error Handlers,  Next: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.7.2.2 Error Handlers
......................

To simplify and standardize error handling, codecs may implement
different error handling schemes by accepting the 'errors' string
argument:

     >>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='backslashreplace')
     b'German \\xdf, \\u266c'
     >>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='xmlcharrefreplace')
     b'German &#223;, &#9836;'

The following error handlers can be used with all Python *note Standard
Encodings: c30. codecs:

Value                         含義
                              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘'strict'’                    Raise *note UnicodeError: 1137. (or a subclass),
                              this is the default.  Implemented in
                              *note strict_errors(): 217c.
                              
                              
‘'ignore'’                    Ignore the malformed data and continue without
                              further notice.  Implemented in
                              *note ignore_errors(): 217d.
                              
                              
‘'replace'’                   Replace with a replacement marker.  On encoding,
                              use ‘?’ (ASCII character).  On decoding, use ‘�’
                              (U+FFFD, the official REPLACEMENT CHARACTER).
                              Implemented in *note replace_errors(): 217e.
                              
                              
‘'backslashreplace'’          Replace with backslashed escape sequences.  On
                              encoding, use hexadecimal form of Unicode code
                              point with formats ‘\xHH’ ‘\uXXXX’ ‘\UXXXXXXXX’.
                              On decoding, use hexadecimal form of byte value
                              with format ‘\xHH’.  Implemented in
                              *note backslashreplace_errors(): 217f.
                              
                              
‘'surrogateescape'’           On decoding, replace byte with individual
                              surrogate code ranging from ‘U+DC80’ to ‘U+DCFF’.
                              This code will then be turned back into the same
                              byte when the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler
                              is used when encoding the data.  (See PEP 383(1)
                              for more.)
                              

The following error handlers are only applicable to encoding (within
*note text encodings: 1f0e.):

Value                         含義
                              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’         Replace with XML/HTML numeric character
                              reference, which is a decimal form of Unicode
                              code point with format ‘&#NUM;’.  Implemented in
                              *note xmlcharrefreplace_errors(): 2180.
                              
                              
‘'namereplace'’               Replace with ‘\N{...}’ escape sequences, what
                              appears in the braces is the Name property from
                              Unicode Character Database.  Implemented in
                              *note namereplace_errors(): 2181.
                              

In addition, the following error handler is specific to the given
codecs:

Value                   Codecs                       含義
                                                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     
‘'surrogatepass'’       utf-8, utf-16, utf-32,       Allow encoding and decoding surrogate code
                        utf-16-be, utf-16-le,        point (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’) as normal code
                        utf-32-be, utf-32-le         point.  Otherwise these codecs treat the
                                                     presence of surrogate code point in
                                                     *note str: 157. as an error.
                                                     

在 3.1 版被加入: The ‘'surrogateescape'’ and ‘'surrogatepass'’ error
handlers.

在 3.4 版的變更: The ‘'surrogatepass'’ error handler now works with
utf-16* and utf-32* codecs.

在 3.5 版被加入: The ‘'namereplace'’ error handler.

在 3.5 版的變更: The ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler now works with
decoding and translating.

The set of allowed values can be extended by registering a new named
error handler:

 -- 函式: codecs.register_error (name, error_handler)

     Register the error handling function 'error_handler' under the name
     'name'.  The 'error_handler' argument will be called during
     encoding and decoding in case of an error, when 'name' is specified
     as the errors parameter.

     For encoding, 'error_handler' will be called with a *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 473. instance, which contains information about
     the location of the error.  The error handler must either raise
     this or a different exception, or return a tuple with a replacement
     for the unencodable part of the input and a position where encoding
     should continue.  The replacement may be either *note str: 157. or
     *note bytes: 2c1.  If the replacement is bytes, the encoder will
     simply copy them into the output buffer.  If the replacement is a
     string, the encoder will encode the replacement.  Encoding
     continues on original input at the specified position.  Negative
     position values will be treated as being relative to the end of the
     input string.  If the resulting position is out of bound an *note
     IndexError: 13ac. will be raised.

     Decoding and translating works similarly, except *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: 85a. or *note UnicodeTranslateError: 2034. will
     be passed to the handler and that the replacement from the error
     handler will be put into the output directly.

Previously registered error handlers (including the standard error
handlers) can be looked up by name:

 -- 函式: codecs.lookup_error (name)

     Return the error handler previously registered under the name
     'name'.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1f64. in case the handler cannot be
     found.

The following standard error handlers are also made available as module
level functions:

 -- 函式: codecs.strict_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'strict'’ error handling.

     Each encoding or decoding error raises a *note UnicodeError: 1137.

 -- 函式: codecs.ignore_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'ignore'’ error handling.

     Malformed data is ignored; encoding or decoding is continued
     without further notice.

 -- 函式: codecs.replace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'replace'’ error handling.

     Substitutes ‘?’ (ASCII character) for encoding errors or ‘�’
     (U+FFFD, the official REPLACEMENT CHARACTER) for decoding errors.

 -- 函式: codecs.backslashreplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handling.

     Malformed data is replaced by a backslashed escape sequence.  On
     encoding, use the hexadecimal form of Unicode code point with
     formats ‘\xHH’ ‘\uXXXX’ ‘\UXXXXXXXX’.  On decoding, use the
     hexadecimal form of byte value with format ‘\xHH’.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Works with decoding and translating.

 -- 函式: codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ error handling (for encoding
     within *note text encoding: 1f0e. only).

     The unencodable character is replaced by an appropriate XML/HTML
     numeric character reference, which is a decimal form of Unicode
     code point with format ‘&#NUM;’ .

 -- 函式: codecs.namereplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'namereplace'’ error handling (for encoding within
     *note text encoding: 1f0e. only).

     The unencodable character is replaced by a ‘\N{...}’ escape
     sequence.  The set of characters that appear in the braces is the
     Name property from Unicode Character Database.  For example, the
     German lowercase letter ‘'ß'’ will be converted to byte sequence
     ‘\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER SHARP S}’ .

     在 3.5 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/


File: python.info,  Node: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Next: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Error Handlers,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.7.2.3 Stateless Encoding and Decoding
.......................................

The base *note Codec: 2183. class defines these methods which also
define the function interfaces of the stateless encoder and decoder:

 -- 類別: codecs.Codec

      -- 方法: encode (input, errors='strict')

          Encodes the object 'input' and returns a tuple (output object,
          length consumed).  For instance, *note text encoding: 1f0e.
          converts a string object to a bytes object using a particular
          character set encoding (e.g., ‘cp1252’ or ‘iso-8859-1’).

          The 'errors' argument defines the error handling to apply.  It
          defaults to ‘'strict'’ handling.

          The method may not store state in the *note Codec: 2183.
          instance.  Use *note StreamWriter: 2162. for codecs which have
          to keep state in order to make encoding efficient.

          The encoder must be able to handle zero length input and
          return an empty object of the output object type in this
          situation.

      -- 方法: decode (input, errors='strict')

          Decodes the object 'input' and returns a tuple (output object,
          length consumed).  For instance, for a *note text encoding:
          1f0e, decoding converts a bytes object encoded using a
          particular character set encoding to a string object.

          For text encodings and bytes-to-bytes codecs, 'input' must be
          a bytes object or one which provides the read-only buffer
          interface - for example, buffer objects and memory mapped
          files.

          The 'errors' argument defines the error handling to apply.  It
          defaults to ‘'strict'’ handling.

          The method may not store state in the *note Codec: 2183.
          instance.  Use *note StreamReader: 2163. for codecs which have
          to keep state in order to make decoding efficient.

          The decoder must be able to handle zero length input and
          return an empty object of the output object type in this
          situation.


File: python.info,  Node: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Next: Stream Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.7.2.4 Incremental Encoding and Decoding
.........................................

The *note IncrementalEncoder: 215e. and *note IncrementalDecoder: 215f.
classes provide the basic interface for incremental encoding and
decoding.  Encoding/decoding the input isn't done with one call to the
stateless encoder/decoder function, but with multiple calls to the *note
encode(): 2185./*note decode(): 2186. method of the incremental
encoder/decoder.  The incremental encoder/decoder keeps track of the
encoding/decoding process during method calls.

The joined output of calls to the *note encode(): 2185./*note decode():
2186. method is the same as if all the single inputs were joined into
one, and this input was encoded/decoded with the stateless
encoder/decoder.

* Menu:

* IncrementalEncoder 物件::
* IncrementalDecoder 物件::


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalEncoder 物件,  Next: IncrementalDecoder 物件,  Up: Incremental Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.5 IncrementalEncoder 物件
...............................

The *note IncrementalEncoder: 215e. class is used for encoding an input
in multiple steps.  It defines the following methods which every
incremental encoder must define in order to be compatible with the
Python codec registry.

 -- 類別: codecs.IncrementalEncoder (errors='strict')

     Constructor for an *note IncrementalEncoder: 215e. instance.

     All incremental encoders must provide this constructor interface.
     They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the
     ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The *note IncrementalEncoder: 215e. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Error Handlers: 15b3. for possible values.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note IncrementalEncoder: 215e. object.

      -- 方法: encode (object, final=False)

          Encodes 'object' (taking the current state of the encoder into
          account) and returns the resulting encoded object.  If this is
          the last call to *note encode(): d85. 'final' must be true
          (the default is false).

      -- 方法: reset ()

          Reset the encoder to the initial state.  The output is
          discarded: call ‘.encode(object, final=True)’, passing an
          empty byte or text string if necessary, to reset the encoder
          and to get the output.

      -- 方法: getstate ()

          Return the current state of the encoder which must be an
          integer.  The implementation should make sure that ‘0’ is the
          most common state.  (States that are more complicated than
          integers can be converted into an integer by
          marshaling/pickling the state and encoding the bytes of the
          resulting string into an integer.)

      -- 方法: setstate (state)

          Set the state of the encoder to 'state'.  'state' must be an
          encoder state returned by *note getstate(): 218a.


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalDecoder 物件,  Prev: IncrementalEncoder 物件,  Up: Incremental Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.6 IncrementalDecoder 物件
...............................

The *note IncrementalDecoder: 215f. class is used for decoding an input
in multiple steps.  It defines the following methods which every
incremental decoder must define in order to be compatible with the
Python codec registry.

 -- 類別: codecs.IncrementalDecoder (errors='strict')

     Constructor for an *note IncrementalDecoder: 215f. instance.

     All incremental decoders must provide this constructor interface.
     They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the
     ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The *note IncrementalDecoder: 215f. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Error Handlers: 15b3. for possible values.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note IncrementalDecoder: 215f. object.

      -- 方法: decode (object, final=False)

          Decodes 'object' (taking the current state of the decoder into
          account) and returns the resulting decoded object.  If this is
          the last call to *note decode(): d86. 'final' must be true
          (the default is false).  If 'final' is true the decoder must
          decode the input completely and must flush all buffers.  If
          this isn't possible (e.g.  because of incomplete byte
          sequences at the end of the input) it must initiate error
          handling just like in the stateless case (which might raise an
          exception).

      -- 方法: reset ()

          Reset the decoder to the initial state.

      -- 方法: getstate ()

          Return the current state of the decoder.  This must be a tuple
          with two items, the first must be the buffer containing the
          still undecoded input.  The second must be an integer and can
          be additional state info.  (The implementation should make
          sure that ‘0’ is the most common additional state info.)  If
          this additional state info is ‘0’ it must be possible to set
          the decoder to the state which has no input buffered and ‘0’
          as the additional state info, so that feeding the previously
          buffered input to the decoder returns it to the previous state
          without producing any output.  (Additional state info that is
          more complicated than integers can be converted into an
          integer by marshaling/pickling the info and encoding the bytes
          of the resulting string into an integer.)

      -- 方法: setstate (state)

          Set the state of the decoder to 'state'.  'state' must be a
          decoder state returned by *note getstate(): 218f.


File: python.info,  Node: Stream Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.7.2.7 Stream Encoding and Decoding
....................................

The *note StreamWriter: 2162. and *note StreamReader: 2163. classes
provide generic working interfaces which can be used to implement new
encoding submodules very easily.  See ‘encodings.utf_8’ for an example
of how this is done.

* Menu:

* StreamWriter 物件::
* StreamReader 物件::
* StreamReaderWriter 物件::
* StreamRecoder 物件::


File: python.info,  Node: StreamWriter 物件,  Next: StreamReader 物件,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.8 StreamWriter 物件
.........................

The *note StreamWriter: 2162. class is a subclass of *note Codec: 2183.
and defines the following methods which every stream writer must define
in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

 -- 類別: codecs.StreamWriter (stream, errors='strict')

     Constructor for a *note StreamWriter: 2162. instance.

     All stream writers must provide this constructor interface.  They
     are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones
     defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object open for writing
     text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.

     The *note StreamWriter: 2162. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Error Handlers: 15b3. for the standard error handlers the
     underlying stream codec may support.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note StreamWriter: 2162. object.

      -- 方法: write (object)

          Writes the object's contents encoded to the stream.

      -- 方法: writelines (list)

          Writes the concatenated iterable of strings to the stream
          (possibly by reusing the *note write(): 2194. method).
          Infinite or very large iterables are not supported.  The
          standard bytes-to-bytes codecs do not support this method.

      -- 方法: reset ()

          Resets the codec buffers used for keeping internal state.

          Calling this method should ensure that the data on the output
          is put into a clean state that allows appending of new fresh
          data without having to rescan the whole stream to recover
          state.

In addition to the above methods, the *note StreamWriter: 2162. must
also inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReader 物件,  Next: StreamReaderWriter 物件,  Prev: StreamWriter 物件,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.9 StreamReader 物件
.........................

The *note StreamReader: 2163. class is a subclass of *note Codec: 2183.
and defines the following methods which every stream reader must define
in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

 -- 類別: codecs.StreamReader (stream, errors='strict')

     Constructor for a *note StreamReader: 2163. instance.

     All stream readers must provide this constructor interface.  They
     are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones
     defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object open for reading
     text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.

     The *note StreamReader: 2163. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Error Handlers: 15b3. for the standard error handlers the
     underlying stream codec may support.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note StreamReader: 2163. object.

     The set of allowed values for the 'errors' argument can be extended
     with *note register_error(): 130b.

      -- 方法: read (size=-1, chars=-1, firstline=False)

          Decodes data from the stream and returns the resulting object.

          The 'chars' argument indicates the number of decoded code
          points or bytes to return.  The *note read(): 2199. method
          will never return more data than requested, but it might
          return less, if there is not enough available.

          The 'size' argument indicates the approximate maximum number
          of encoded bytes or code points to read for decoding.  The
          decoder can modify this setting as appropriate.  The default
          value -1 indicates to read and decode as much as possible.
          This parameter is intended to prevent having to decode huge
          files in one step.

          The 'firstline' flag indicates that it would be sufficient to
          only return the first line, if there are decoding errors on
          later lines.

          The method should use a greedy read strategy meaning that it
          should read as much data as is allowed within the definition
          of the encoding and the given size, e.g.  if optional encoding
          endings or state markers are available on the stream, these
          should be read too.

      -- 方法: readline (size=None, keepends=True)

          Read one line from the input stream and return the decoded
          data.

          'size', if given, is passed as size argument to the stream's
          *note read(): 2199. method.

          If 'keepends' is false line-endings will be stripped from the
          lines returned.

      -- 方法: readlines (sizehint=None, keepends=True)

          Read all lines available on the input stream and return them
          as a list of lines.

          Line-endings are implemented using the codec's *note decode():
          d86. method and are included in the list entries if 'keepends'
          is true.

          'sizehint', if given, is passed as the 'size' argument to the
          stream's *note read(): 2199. method.

      -- 方法: reset ()

          Resets the codec buffers used for keeping internal state.

          Note that no stream repositioning should take place.  This
          method is primarily intended to be able to recover from
          decoding errors.

In addition to the above methods, the *note StreamReader: 2163. must
also inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReaderWriter 物件,  Next: StreamRecoder 物件,  Prev: StreamReader 物件,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.10 StreamReaderWriter 物件
................................

The *note StreamReaderWriter: 216b. is a convenience class that allows
wrapping streams which work in both read and write modes.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by
the *note lookup(): 7a4. function to construct the instance.

 -- 類別: codecs.StreamReaderWriter (stream, Reader, Writer,
          errors='strict')

     Creates a *note StreamReaderWriter: 216b. instance.  'stream' must
     be a file-like object.  'Reader' and 'Writer' must be factory
     functions or classes providing the *note StreamReader: 2163. and
     *note StreamWriter: 2162. interface resp.  Error handling is done
     in the same way as defined for the stream readers and writers.

*note StreamReaderWriter: 216b. instances define the combined interfaces
of *note StreamReader: 2163. and *note StreamWriter: 2162. classes.
They inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamRecoder 物件,  Prev: StreamReaderWriter 物件,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.11 StreamRecoder 物件
...........................

The *note StreamRecoder: 17d5. translates data from one encoding to
another, which is sometimes useful when dealing with different encoding
environments.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by
the *note lookup(): 7a4. function to construct the instance.

 -- 類別: codecs.StreamRecoder (stream, encode, decode, Reader, Writer,
          errors='strict')

     Creates a *note StreamRecoder: 17d5. instance which implements a
     two-way conversion: 'encode' and 'decode' work on the frontend —
     the data visible to code calling *note read(): 2199. and *note
     write(): 2194, while 'Reader' and 'Writer' work on the backend —
     the data in 'stream'.

     You can use these objects to do transparent transcodings, e.g.,
     from Latin-1 to UTF-8 and back.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object.

     The 'encode' and 'decode' arguments must adhere to the *note Codec:
     2183. interface.  'Reader' and 'Writer' must be factory functions
     or classes providing objects of the *note StreamReader: 2163. and
     *note StreamWriter: 2162. interface respectively.

     Error handling is done in the same way as defined for the stream
     readers and writers.

*note StreamRecoder: 17d5. instances define the combined interfaces of
*note StreamReader: 2163. and *note StreamWriter: 2162. classes.  They
inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.


File: python.info,  Node: Encodings and Unicode,  Next: Standard Encodings,  Prev: Codec Base Classes,  Up: codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別

5.7.2.12 Encodings and Unicode
..............................

Strings are stored internally as sequences of code points in range
‘U+0000’-‘U+10FFFF’.  (See PEP 393(1) for more details about the
implementation.)  Once a string object is used outside of CPU and
memory, endianness and how these arrays are stored as bytes become an
issue.  As with other codecs, serialising a string into a sequence of
bytes is known as 'encoding', and recreating the string from the
sequence of bytes is known as 'decoding'.  There are a variety of
different text serialisation codecs, which are collectivity referred to
as *note text encodings: 1f0e.

The simplest text encoding (called ‘'latin-1'’ or ‘'iso-8859-1'’) maps
the code points 0-255 to the bytes ‘0x0’-‘0xff’, which means that a
string object that contains code points above ‘U+00FF’ can't be encoded
with this codec.  Doing so will raise a *note UnicodeEncodeError: 473.
that looks like the following (although the details of the error message
may differ): ‘UnicodeEncodeError: 'latin-1' codec can't encode character
'\u1234' in position 3: ordinal not in range(256)’.

There's another group of encodings (the so called charmap encodings)
that choose a different subset of all Unicode code points and how these
code points are mapped to the bytes ‘0x0’-‘0xff’.  To see how this is
done simply open e.g.  ‘encodings/cp1252.py’ (which is an encoding that
is used primarily on Windows).  There's a string constant with 256
characters that shows you which character is mapped to which byte value.

All of these encodings can only encode 256 of the 1114112 code points
defined in Unicode.  A simple and straightforward way that can store
each Unicode code point, is to store each code point as four consecutive
bytes.  There are two possibilities: store the bytes in big endian or in
little endian order.  These two encodings are called ‘UTF-32-BE’ and
‘UTF-32-LE’ respectively.  Their disadvantage is that if e.g.  you use
‘UTF-32-BE’ on a little endian machine you will always have to swap
bytes on encoding and decoding.  ‘UTF-32’ avoids this problem: bytes
will always be in natural endianness.  When these bytes are read by a
CPU with a different endianness, then bytes have to be swapped though.
To be able to detect the endianness of a ‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’ byte
sequence, there's the so called BOM ("Byte Order Mark").  This is the
Unicode character ‘U+FEFF’.  This character can be prepended to every
‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’ byte sequence.  The byte swapped version of this
character (‘0xFFFE’) is an illegal character that may not appear in a
Unicode text.  So when the first character in a ‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’
byte sequence appears to be a ‘U+FFFE’ the bytes have to be swapped on
decoding.  Unfortunately the character ‘U+FEFF’ had a second purpose as
a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’: a character that has no width and doesn't
allow a word to be split.  It can e.g.  be used to give hints to a
ligature algorithm.  With Unicode 4.0 using ‘U+FEFF’ as a ‘ZERO WIDTH
NO-BREAK SPACE’ has been deprecated (with ‘U+2060’ (‘WORD JOINER’)
assuming this role).  Nevertheless Unicode software still must be able
to handle ‘U+FEFF’ in both roles: as a BOM it's a device to determine
the storage layout of the encoded bytes, and vanishes once the byte
sequence has been decoded into a string; as a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK
SPACE’ it's a normal character that will be decoded like any other.

There's another encoding that is able to encode the full range of
Unicode characters: UTF-8.  UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding, which means
there are no issues with byte order in UTF-8.  Each byte in a UTF-8 byte
sequence consists of two parts: marker bits (the most significant bits)
and payload bits.  The marker bits are a sequence of zero to four ‘1’
bits followed by a ‘0’ bit.  Unicode characters are encoded like this
(with x being payload bits, which when concatenated give the Unicode
character):

Range                                   Encoding
                                        
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                        
‘U-00000000’ ...  ‘U-0000007F’          0xxxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00000080’ ...  ‘U-000007FF’          110xxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00000800’ ...  ‘U-0000FFFF’          1110xxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00010000’ ...  ‘U-0010FFFF’          11110xxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        

The least significant bit of the Unicode character is the rightmost x
bit.

As UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding no BOM is required and any ‘U+FEFF’
character in the decoded string (even if it's the first character) is
treated as a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’.

Without external information it's impossible to reliably determine which
encoding was used for encoding a string.  Each charmap encoding can
decode any random byte sequence.  However that's not possible with
UTF-8, as UTF-8 byte sequences have a structure that doesn't allow
arbitrary byte sequences.  To increase the reliability with which a
UTF-8 encoding can be detected, Microsoft invented a variant of UTF-8
(that Python calls ‘"utf-8-sig"’) for its Notepad program: Before any of
the Unicode characters is written to the file, a UTF-8 encoded BOM
(which looks like this as a byte sequence: ‘0xef’, ‘0xbb’, ‘0xbf’) is
written.  As it's rather improbable that any charmap encoded file starts
with these byte values (which would e.g.  map to

          LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH DIAERESIS
          RIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK
          INVERTED QUESTION MARK

in iso-8859-1), this increases the probability that a ‘utf-8-sig’
encoding can be correctly guessed from the byte sequence.  So here the
BOM is not used to be able to determine the byte order used for
generating the byte sequence, but as a signature that helps in guessing
the encoding.  On encoding the utf-8-sig codec will write ‘0xef’,
‘0xbb’, ‘0xbf’ as the first three bytes to the file.  On decoding
‘utf-8-sig’ will skip those three bytes if they appear as the first
three bytes in the file.  In UTF-8, the use of the BOM is discouraged
and should generally be avoided.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Encodings,  Next: Python Specific Encodings,  Prev: Encodings and Unicode,  Up: codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別

5.7.2.13 Standard Encodings
...........................

Python comes with a number of codecs built-in, either implemented as C
functions or with dictionaries as mapping tables.  The following table
lists the codecs by name, together with a few common aliases, and the
languages for which the encoding is likely used.  Neither the list of
aliases nor the list of languages is meant to be exhaustive.  Notice
that spelling alternatives that only differ in case or use a hyphen
instead of an underscore are also valid aliases; therefore, e.g.
‘'utf-8'’ is a valid alias for the ‘'utf_8'’ codec.

'CPython 實作細節：' Some common encodings can bypass the codecs lookup
machinery to improve performance.  These optimization opportunities are
only recognized by CPython for a limited set of (case insensitive)
aliases: utf-8, utf8, latin-1, latin1, iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, mbcs
(Windows only), ascii, us-ascii, utf-16, utf16, utf-32, utf32, and the
same using underscores instead of dashes.  Using alternative aliases for
these encodings may result in slower execution.

在 3.6 版的變更: Optimization opportunity recognized for us-ascii.

Many of the character sets support the same languages.  They vary in
individual characters (e.g.  whether the EURO SIGN is supported or not),
and in the assignment of characters to code positions.  For the European
languages in particular, the following variants typically exist:

   * an ISO 8859 codeset

   * a Microsoft Windows code page, which is typically derived from an
     8859 codeset, but replaces control characters with additional
     graphic characters

   * an IBM EBCDIC code page

   * an IBM PC code page, which is ASCII compatible

Codec                 Aliases                              語言
                                                           
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
ascii                 646, us-ascii                        英文
                                                           
                                                           
big5                  big5-tw, csbig5                      繁體中文
                                                           
                                                           
big5hkscs             big5-hkscs, hkscs                    繁體中文
                                                           
                                                           
cp037                 IBM037, IBM039                       英文
                                                           
                                                           
cp273                 273, IBM273, csIBM273                德文
                                                           
                                                           在 3.4 版被加入.
                                                           
                                                           
cp424                 EBCDIC-CP-HE, IBM424                 希伯來文
                                                           
                                                           
cp437                 437, IBM437                          英文
                                                           
                                                           
cp500                 EBCDIC-CP-BE, EBCDIC-CP-CH, IBM500   Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp720                                                      阿拉伯文
                                                           
                                                           
cp737                                                      希臘文
                                                           
                                                           
cp775                 IBM775                               Baltic languages
                                                           
                                                           
cp850                 850, IBM850                          Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp852                 852, IBM852                          Central and Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp855                 855, IBM855                          Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
                                                           Macedonian, Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
cp856                                                      希伯來文
                                                           
                                                           
cp857                 857, IBM857                          土耳其文
                                                           
                                                           
cp858                 858, IBM858                          Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp860                 860, IBM860                          Portuguese
                                                           
                                                           
cp861                 861, CP-IS, IBM861                   Icelandic
                                                           
                                                           
cp862                 862, IBM862                          希伯來文
                                                           
                                                           
cp863                 863, IBM863                          Canadian
                                                           
                                                           
cp864                 IBM864                               阿拉伯文
                                                           
                                                           
cp865                 865, IBM865                          Danish, Norwegian
                                                           
                                                           
cp866                 866, IBM866                          俄羅斯文
                                                           
                                                           
cp869                 869, CP-GR, IBM869                   希臘文
                                                           
                                                           
cp874                                                      泰文
                                                           
                                                           
cp875                                                      希臘文
                                                           
                                                           
cp932                 932, ms932, mskanji, ms-kanji        日文
                                                           
                                                           
cp949                 949, ms949, uhc                      韓文
                                                           
                                                           
cp950                 950, ms950                           繁體中文
                                                           
                                                           
cp1006                                                     Urdu
                                                           
                                                           
cp1026                ibm1026                              土耳其文
                                                           
                                                           
cp1125                1125, ibm1125, cp866u, ruscii        烏克蘭文
                                                           
                                                           在 3.4 版被加入.
                                                           
                                                           
cp1140                ibm1140                              Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp1250                windows-1250                         Central and Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp1251                windows-1251                         Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
                                                           Macedonian, Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
cp1252                windows-1252                         Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp1253                windows-1253                         希臘文
                                                           
                                                           
cp1254                windows-1254                         土耳其文
                                                           
                                                           
cp1255                windows-1255                         希伯來文
                                                           
                                                           
cp1256                windows-1256                         阿拉伯文
                                                           
                                                           
cp1257                windows-1257                         Baltic languages
                                                           
                                                           
cp1258                windows-1258                         越南文
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jp                eucjp, ujis, u-jis                   日文
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jis_2004          jisx0213, eucjis2004                 日文
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jisx0213          eucjisx0213                          日文
                                                           
                                                           
euc_kr                euckr, korean, ksc5601, ks_c-5601,   韓文
                      ks_c-5601-1987, ksx1001, ks_x-1001   
                      
                                                           
gb2312                chinese, csiso58gb231280, euc-cn,    簡體中文
                      euccn, eucgb2312-cn, gb2312-1980,    
                      gb2312-80, iso-ir-58
                      
                                                           
gbk                   936, cp936, ms936                    Unified Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
gb18030               gb18030-2000                         Unified Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
hz                    hzgb, hz-gb, hz-gb-2312              簡體中文
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp            csiso2022jp, iso2022jp,              日文
                      iso-2022-jp                          
                      
                                                           
iso2022_jp_1          iso2022jp-1, iso-2022-jp-1           日文
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_2          iso2022jp-2, iso-2022-jp-2           Japanese, Korean, Simplified
                                                           Chinese, Western Europe, Greek
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_2004       iso2022jp-2004, iso-2022-jp-2004     日文
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_3          iso2022jp-3, iso-2022-jp-3           日文
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_ext        iso2022jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-ext       日文
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_kr            csiso2022kr, iso2022kr,              韓文
                      iso-2022-kr                          
                      
                                                           
latin_1               iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, 8859,         Western Europe
                      cp819, latin, latin1, L1             
                      
                                                           
iso8859_2             iso-8859-2, latin2, L2               Central and Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_3             iso-8859-3, latin3, L3               Esperanto, Maltese
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_4             iso-8859-4, latin4, L4               Baltic languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_5             iso-8859-5, cyrillic                 Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
                                                           Macedonian, Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_6             iso-8859-6, arabic                   阿拉伯文
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_7             iso-8859-7, greek, greek8            希臘文
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_8             iso-8859-8, hebrew                   希伯來文
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_9             iso-8859-9, latin5, L5               土耳其文
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_10            iso-8859-10, latin6, L6              Nordic languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_11            iso-8859-11, thai                    Thai languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_13            iso-8859-13, latin7, L7              Baltic languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_14            iso-8859-14, latin8, L8              Celtic languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_15            iso-8859-15, latin9, L9              Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_16            iso-8859-16, latin10, L10            South-Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
johab                 cp1361, ms1361                       韓文
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_r                                                     俄羅斯文
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_t                                                     Tajik
                                                           
                                                           在 3.5 版被加入.
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_u                                                     烏克蘭文
                                                           
                                                           
kz1048                kz_1048, strk1048_2002, rk1048       Kazakh
                                                           
                                                           在 3.5 版被加入.
                                                           
                                                           
mac_cyrillic          maccyrillic                          Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
                                                           Macedonian, Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
mac_greek             macgreek                             希臘文
                                                           
                                                           
mac_iceland           maciceland                           Icelandic
                                                           
                                                           
mac_latin2            maclatin2, maccentraleurope,         Central and Eastern Europe
                      mac_centeuro                         
                      
                                                           
mac_roman             macroman, macintosh                  Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
mac_turkish           macturkish                           土耳其文
                                                           
                                                           
ptcp154               csptcp154, pt154, cp154,             Kazakh
                      cyrillic-asian                       
                      
                                                           
shift_jis             csshiftjis, shiftjis, sjis, s_jis    日文
                                                           
                                                           
shift_jis_2004        shiftjis2004, sjis_2004, sjis2004    日文
                                                           
                                                           
shift_jisx0213        shiftjisx0213, sjisx0213,            日文
                      s_jisx0213                           
                      
                                                           
utf_32                U32, utf32                           all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_32_be             UTF-32BE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_32_le             UTF-32LE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16                U16, utf16                           all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16_be             UTF-16BE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16_le             UTF-16LE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_7                 U7, unicode-1-1-utf-7                all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_8                 U8, UTF, utf8, cp65001               all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_8_sig                                                  all languages
                                                           

在 3.4 版的變更: The utf-16* and utf-32* encoders no longer allow
surrogate code points (‘U+D800’-‘U+DFFF’) to be encoded.  The utf-32*
decoders no longer decode byte sequences that correspond to surrogate
code points.

在 3.8 版的變更: ‘cp65001’ is now an alias to ‘utf_8’.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Specific Encodings,  Next: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Prev: Standard Encodings,  Up: codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別

5.7.2.14 Python Specific Encodings
..................................

A number of predefined codecs are specific to Python, so their codec
names have no meaning outside Python.  These are listed in the tables
below based on the expected input and output types (note that while text
encodings are the most common use case for codecs, the underlying codec
infrastructure supports arbitrary data transforms rather than just text
encodings).  For asymmetric codecs, the stated meaning describes the
encoding direction.

* Menu:

* Text Encodings::
* Binary Transforms::
* Text Transforms::


File: python.info,  Node: Text Encodings,  Next: Binary Transforms,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.7.2.15 Text Encodings
.......................

The following codecs provide *note str: 157. to *note bytes: 2c1.
encoding and *note bytes-like object: b9f. to *note str: 157. decoding,
similar to the Unicode text encodings.

Codec                    Aliases       含義
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
idna                                   Implement RFC 3490(1), see
                                       also
                                       *note encodings.idna: 4d.
                                       Only ‘errors='strict'’ is
                                       supported.
                                       
                                       
mbcs                     ansi, dbcs    Windows only: Encode the
                                       operand according to the ANSI
                                       codepage (CP_ACP).
                                       
                                       
oem                                    Windows only: Encode the
                                       operand according to the OEM
                                       codepage (CP_OEMCP).
                                       
                                       在 3.6 版被加入.
                                       
                                       
palmos                                 Encoding of PalmOS 3.5.
                                       
                                       
punycode                               Implement RFC 3492(2).
                                       Stateful codecs are not
                                       supported.
                                       
                                       
raw_unicode_escape                     Latin-1 encoding with
                                       ‘\uXXXX’ and ‘\UXXXXXXXX’ for
                                       other code points.  Existing
                                       backslashes are not escaped
                                       in any way.  It is used in
                                       the Python pickle protocol.
                                       
                                       
undefined                              Raise an exception for all
                                       conversions, even empty
                                       strings.  The error handler
                                       is ignored.
                                       
                                       
unicode_escape                         Encoding suitable as the
                                       contents of a Unicode literal
                                       in ASCII-encoded Python
                                       source code, except that
                                       quotes are not escaped.
                                       Decode from Latin-1 source
                                       code.  Beware that Python
                                       source code actually uses
                                       UTF-8 by default.
                                       

在 3.8 版的變更: "unicode_internal" codec is removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Transforms,  Next: Text Transforms,  Prev: Text Encodings,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.7.2.16 Binary Transforms
..........................

The following codecs provide binary transforms: *note bytes-like object:
b9f. to *note bytes: 2c1. mappings.  They are not supported by *note
bytes.decode(): 70f. (which only produces *note str: 157. output).

Codec                      Aliases                含義                               Encoder / decoder
                                                                                     
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
base64_codec (1)           base64, base_64        Convert the operand to multiline   *note base64.encodebytes(): 794.
                                                  MIME base64 (the result always     /
                                                  includes a trailing ‘'\n'’).       *note base64.decodebytes(): 795.
                                                                                     
                                                  在 3.4 版的變更: accepts any
                                                  *note bytes-like object: b9f. as
                                                  input for encoding and decoding
                                                  
                                                                                     
bz2_codec                  bz2                    Compress the operand using bz2.    *note bz2.compress(): 21a7. /
                                                                                     *note bz2.decompress(): f25.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
hex_codec                  hex                    Convert the operand to             *note binascii.b2a_hex(): 21a8.
                                                  hexadecimal representation, with   /
                                                  two digits per byte.               *note binascii.a2b_hex(): 21a9.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
quopri_codec               quopri,                Convert the operand to MIME        *note quopri.encode(): 21aa.
                           quotedprintable,       quoted printable.                  with ‘quotetabs=True’ /
                           quoted_printable                                          *note quopri.decode(): 21ab.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
uu_codec                   uu                     Convert the operand using          ‘uu.encode()’ / ‘uu.decode()’
                                                  uuencode.                          (Note: *note uu: 10a. is
                                                                                     deprecated.)
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
zlib_codec                 zip, zlib              Compress the operand using gzip.   *note zlib.compress(): 43a. /
                                                                                     *note zlib.decompress(): b7c.
                                                                                     

在 3.2 版被加入: Restoration of the binary transforms.

在 3.4 版的變更: Restoration of the aliases for the binary transforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In addition to *note bytes-like objects: b9f, ‘'base64_codec'’
also accepts ASCII-only instances of *note str: 157. for decoding


File: python.info,  Node: Text Transforms,  Prev: Binary Transforms,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.7.2.17 Text Transforms
........................

The following codec provides a text transform: a *note str: 157. to
*note str: 157. mapping.  It is not supported by *note str.encode():
70e. (which only produces *note bytes: 2c1. output).

Codec                    Aliases       含義
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
rot_13                   rot13         Return the Caesar-cypher
                                       encryption of the operand.
                                       

在 3.2 版被加入: Restoration of the ‘rot_13’ text transform.

在 3.4 版的變更: Restoration of the ‘rot13’ alias.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Next: encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage,  Prev: Python Specific Encodings,  Up: codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別

5.7.2.18 ‘encodings.idna’ -- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
...........................................................................

This module implements RFC 3490(1) (Internationalized Domain Names in
Applications) and RFC 3492(2) (Nameprep: A Stringprep Profile for
Internationalized Domain Names (IDN)). It builds upon the ‘punycode’
encoding and *note stringprep: ce.

If you need the IDNA 2008 standard from RFC 5891(3) and RFC 5895(4), use
the third-party idna(5) module.

These RFCs together define a protocol to support non-ASCII characters in
domain names.  A domain name containing non-ASCII characters (such as
‘www.Alliancefrançaise.nu’) is converted into an ASCII-compatible
encoding (ACE, such as ‘www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu’).  The ACE form
of the domain name is then used in all places where arbitrary characters
are not allowed by the protocol, such as DNS queries, HTTP ‘Host’
fields, and so on.  This conversion is carried out in the application;
if possible invisible to the user: The application should transparently
convert Unicode domain labels to IDNA on the wire, and convert back ACE
labels to Unicode before presenting them to the user.

Python supports this conversion in several ways: the ‘idna’ codec
performs conversion between Unicode and ACE, separating an input string
into labels based on the separator characters defined in section 3.1 of
RFC 3490(6) and converting each label to ACE as required, and conversely
separating an input byte string into labels based on the ‘.’ separator
and converting any ACE labels found into unicode.  Furthermore, the
*note socket: c6. module transparently converts Unicode host names to
ACE, so that applications need not be concerned about converting host
names themselves when they pass them to the socket module.  On top of
that, modules that have host names as function parameters, such as *note
http.client: 6a. and *note ftplib: 59, accept Unicode host names (*note
http.client: 6a. then also transparently sends an IDNA hostname in the
‘Host’ field if it sends that field at all).

When receiving host names from the wire (such as in reverse name
lookup), no automatic conversion to Unicode is performed: applications
wishing to present such host names to the user should decode them to
Unicode.

The module *note encodings.idna: 4d. also implements the nameprep
procedure, which performs certain normalizations on host names, to
achieve case-insensitivity of international domain names, and to unify
similar characters.  The nameprep functions can be used directly if
desired.

 -- 函式: encodings.idna.nameprep (label)

     Return the nameprepped version of 'label'.  The implementation
     currently assumes query strings, so ‘AllowUnassigned’ is true.

 -- 函式: encodings.idna.ToASCII (label)

     Convert a label to ASCII, as specified in RFC 3490(7).
     ‘UseSTD3ASCIIRules’ is assumed to be false.

 -- 函式: encodings.idna.ToUnicode (label)

     Convert a label to Unicode, as specified in RFC 3490(8).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5891.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5895.html

   (5) https://pypi.org/project/idna/

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html#section-3.1

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html


File: python.info,  Node: encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage,  Next: encodings utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature,  Prev: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Up: codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別

5.7.2.19 ‘encodings.mbcs’ -- Windows ANSI codepage
..................................................

This module implements the ANSI codepage (CP_ACP).

*note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

在 3.2 版的變更: Before 3.2, the 'errors' argument was ignored;
‘'replace'’ was always used to encode, and ‘'ignore'’ to decode.

在 3.3 版的變更: Support any error handler.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature,  Prev: encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage,  Up: codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別

5.7.2.20 ‘encodings.utf_8_sig’ -- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
................................................................

This module implements a variant of the UTF-8 codec.  On encoding, a
UTF-8 encoded BOM will be prepended to the UTF-8 encoded bytes.  For the
stateful encoder this is only done once (on the first write to the byte
stream).  On decoding, an optional UTF-8 encoded BOM at the start of the
data will be skipped.


File: python.info,  Node: 資料型別,  Next: 數值與數學模組,  Prev: 二進位資料服務,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.8 資料型別
============

本章節所描述的模組 (module) 提供了多樣的專門資料型別，例如日期與時間、固
定型別陣列 (fixed-type arrays)、堆積佇列 (heap queues)、雙端佇列
(double-ended queues) 與列舉 (enumerations)。

Python 也有提供一些內建資料型別，特別是 *note dict: 239.、*note list:
40a.、*note set: 3cc. 與 *note frozenset: 3cd. 和 *note tuple: 4e6.。
*note str: 157. 類別是用來儲存 Unicode 字串，*note bytes: 2c1. 與 *note
bytearray: 2c0. 類別則是用來儲存二進位制資料。

本章節包含下列模組的文件：

* Menu:

* datetime: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別. 日期與時間的基本型別
* zoneinfo: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援. IANA 時區支援
* calendar: calendar --- 日曆相關函式. 日曆相關函式
* collections: collections --- 容器資料型態. 容器資料型態
* collections.abc: collections abc --- 容器的抽象基底類別. 容器的抽象基底類別
* heapq: heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法. 堆積佇列 (heap queue) 演算法
* bisect: bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm. 陣列二分演算法 (Array bisection algorithm)
* array: array --- 高效率的數值型陣列. 高效率的數值型陣列
* weakref: weakref --- 弱參照. 弱參照
* types: types --- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱. 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱
* copy: copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作. 淺層 (shallow) 和深層 (deep) 複製操作
* pprint: pprint --- 資料美化列印器. 資料美化列印器
* reprlib: reprlib --- repr 的替代實作. repr() 的替代實作
* enum: enum --- 對列舉的支援. 對列舉的支援
* graphlib —- 使用類圖 (graph-like) 結構進行操作的功能: graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能.


File: python.info,  Node: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別,  Next: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.1 ‘datetime’ -- 日期與時間的基本型別
----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/datetime.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘datetime’ 模組提供操作日期與時間的類別。

While date and time arithmetic is supported, the focus of the
implementation is on efficient attribute extraction for output
formatting and manipulation.

     小訣竅: 跳轉至*note 格式碼 (format codes): 21b8.。

也參考
......

*note calendar: 12. 模組

     與日曆相關的一般函式。

*note time: e8. 模組

     Time access and conversions.

*note zoneinfo: 12e. 模組

     Concrete time zones representing the IANA time zone database.

Package dateutil(2)

     帶有時區與剖析擴充支援的第三方函式庫。

DateType(3) 套件

     Third-party library that introduces distinct static types to e.g.
     allow *note static type checkers: 21b9. to differentiate between
     naive and aware datetimes.

* Menu:

* Aware and Naive Objects::
* 常數::
* Available Types::
* timedelta 物件::
* date 物件::
* datetime 物件::
* time 物件::
* tzinfo 物件::
* timezone 物件::
* strftime() 與 strptime() 的行為: strftime 與 strptime 的行為.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/datetime.py

   (2) https://dateutil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/DateType/


File: python.info,  Node: Aware and Naive Objects,  Next: 常數,  Up: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別

5.8.1.1 Aware and Naive Objects
...............................

Date and time objects may be categorized as "aware" or "naive" depending
on whether or not they include time zone information.

With sufficient knowledge of applicable algorithmic and political time
adjustments, such as time zone and daylight saving time information, an
'aware' object can locate itself relative to other aware objects.  An
aware object represents a specific moment in time that is not open to
interpretation.  (1)

A 'naive' object does not contain enough information to unambiguously
locate itself relative to other date/time objects.  Whether a naive
object represents Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), local time, or time
in some other time zone is purely up to the program, just like it is up
to the program whether a particular number represents metres, miles, or
mass.  Naive objects are easy to understand and to work with, at the
cost of ignoring some aspects of reality.

For applications requiring aware objects, *note datetime: 224. and *note
time: 6c5. objects have an optional time zone information attribute,
‘tzinfo’, that can be set to an instance of a subclass of the abstract
*note tzinfo: 3d1. class.  These *note tzinfo: 3d1. objects capture
information about the offset from UTC time, the time zone name, and
whether daylight saving time is in effect.

Only one concrete *note tzinfo: 3d1. class, the *note timezone: f4e.
class, is supplied by the ‘datetime’ module.  The ‘timezone’ class can
represent simple time zones with fixed offsets from UTC, such as UTC
itself or North American EST and EDT time zones.  Supporting time zones
at deeper levels of detail is up to the application.  The rules for time
adjustment across the world are more political than rational, change
frequently, and there is no standard suitable for every application
aside from UTC.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 也就是說，我們會忽略相對論的效應


File: python.info,  Node: 常數,  Next: Available Types,  Prev: Aware and Naive Objects,  Up: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別

5.8.1.2 常數
............

‘datetime’ 模組匯出以下常數：

 -- 資料: datetime.MINYEAR

     The smallest year number allowed in a *note date: 72f. or *note
     datetime: 224. object.  *note MINYEAR: 21bd. is 1.

 -- 資料: datetime.MAXYEAR

     The largest year number allowed in a *note date: 72f. or *note
     datetime: 224. object.  *note MAXYEAR: 21be. is 9999.

 -- 屬性: datetime.UTC

     Alias for the UTC time zone singleton *note datetime.timezone.utc:
     40d.

     在 3.11 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Available Types,  Next: timedelta 物件,  Prev: 常數,  Up: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別

5.8.1.3 Available Types
.......................

 -- 類別: datetime.date

     An idealized naive date, assuming the current Gregorian calendar
     always was, and always will be, in effect.  Attributes: *note year:
     21c0, *note month: 21c1, and *note day: 21c2.

 -- 類別: datetime.time

     An idealized time, independent of any particular day, assuming that
     every day has exactly 24*60*60 seconds.  (There is no notion of
     "leap seconds" here.)  Attributes: *note hour: 21c3, *note minute:
     21c4, *note second: 21c5, *note microsecond: 21c6, and *note
     tzinfo: 21c7.

 -- 類別: datetime.datetime

     A combination of a date and a time.  Attributes: *note year: 21c8,
     *note month: 21c9, *note day: 21ca, *note hour: 21cb, *note minute:
     21cc, *note second: 21cd, *note microsecond: 21ce, and *note
     tzinfo: 21cf.

 -- 類別: datetime.timedelta

     表示兩個 *note datetime: 224. 或 *note date: 72f. 實例之間時間的差
     異，以微秒為解析度。

 -- 類別: datetime.tzinfo

     An abstract base class for time zone information objects.  These
     are used by the *note datetime: 224. and *note time: 6c5. classes
     to provide a customizable notion of time adjustment (for example,
     to account for time zone and/or daylight saving time).

 -- 類別: datetime.timezone

     A class that implements the *note tzinfo: 3d1. abstract base class
     as a fixed offset from the UTC.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

Objects of these types are immutable.

Subclass relationships:

     object
         timedelta
         tzinfo
             timezone
         time
         date
             datetime

* Menu:

* 常見屬性::
* Determining if an Object is Aware or Naive::


File: python.info,  Node: 常見屬性,  Next: Determining if an Object is Aware or Naive,  Up: Available Types

5.8.1.4 常見屬性
................

The *note date: 72f, *note datetime: 224, *note time: 6c5, and *note
timezone: f4e. types share these common features:

   - Objects of these types are immutable.

   - Objects of these types are *note hashable: 409, meaning that they
     can be used as dictionary keys.

   - Objects of these types support efficient pickling via the *note
     pickle: a1. module.


File: python.info,  Node: Determining if an Object is Aware or Naive,  Prev: 常見屬性,  Up: Available Types

5.8.1.5 Determining if an Object is Aware or Naive
..................................................

Objects of the *note date: 72f. type are always naive.

An object of type *note time: 6c5. or *note datetime: 224. may be aware
or naive.

A *note datetime: 224. object ‘d’ is aware if both of the following
hold:

  1. ‘d.tzinfo’ 不是 ‘None’

  2. ‘d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d)’ 不會回傳 ‘None’

Otherwise, ‘d’ is naive.

A *note time: 6c5. object ‘t’ is aware if both of the following hold:

  1. ‘t.tzinfo’ 不是 ‘None’

  2. ‘t.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)’ 沒有回傳 ‘None’。

Otherwise, ‘t’ is naive.

The distinction between aware and naive doesn't apply to *note
timedelta: 813. objects.


File: python.info,  Node: timedelta 物件,  Next: date 物件,  Prev: Available Types,  Up: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別

5.8.1.6 ‘timedelta’ 物件
........................

一個 *note timedelta: 813. 物件代表著一段持續時間，即兩個 *note
datetime: 224. 或 *note date: 72f. 之間的差異。

 -- 類別: datetime.timedelta (days=0, seconds=0, microseconds=0,
          milliseconds=0, minutes=0, hours=0, weeks=0)

     All arguments are optional and default to 0.  Arguments may be
     integers or floats, and may be positive or negative.

     Only 'days', 'seconds' and 'microseconds' are stored internally.
     Arguments are converted to those units:

        * 一毫秒會被轉換為 1000 微秒。

        * 一分鐘會被轉換為 60 秒。

        * 一小時會被轉換為 3600 秒。

        * 一週會被轉換為 7 天。

     and days, seconds and microseconds are then normalized so that the
     representation is unique, with

        * ‘0 <= microseconds < 1000000’

        * ‘0 <= seconds < 3600*24’ (the number of seconds in one day)

        * ‘-999999999 <= days <= 999999999’

     The following example illustrates how any arguments besides 'days',
     'seconds' and 'microseconds' are "merged" and normalized into those
     three resulting attributes:

          >>> from datetime import timedelta
          >>> delta = timedelta(
          ...     days=50,
          ...     seconds=27,
          ...     microseconds=10,
          ...     milliseconds=29000,
          ...     minutes=5,
          ...     hours=8,
          ...     weeks=2
          ... )
          >>> # Only days, seconds, and microseconds remain
          >>> delta
          datetime.timedelta(days=64, seconds=29156, microseconds=10)

     If any argument is a float and there are fractional microseconds,
     the fractional microseconds left over from all arguments are
     combined and their sum is rounded to the nearest microsecond using
     round-half-to-even tiebreaker.  If no argument is a float, the
     conversion and normalization processes are exact (no information is
     lost).

     If the normalized value of days lies outside the indicated range,
     *note OverflowError: 6ad. is raised.

     Note that normalization of negative values may be surprising at
     first.  For example:

          >>> from datetime import timedelta
          >>> d = timedelta(microseconds=-1)
          >>> (d.days, d.seconds, d.microseconds)
          (-1, 86399, 999999)

類別屬性：

 -- 屬性: timedelta.min

     The most negative *note timedelta: 813. object,
     ‘timedelta(-999999999)’.

 -- 屬性: timedelta.max

     The most positive *note timedelta: 813. object,
     ‘timedelta(days=999999999, hours=23, minutes=59, seconds=59,
     microseconds=999999)’.

 -- 屬性: timedelta.resolution

     The smallest possible difference between non-equal *note timedelta:
     813. objects, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’.

Note that, because of normalization, ‘timedelta.max’ is greater than
‘-timedelta.min’.  ‘-timedelta.max’ is not representable as a *note
timedelta: 813. object.

Instance attributes (read-only):

 -- 屬性: timedelta.days

     在 -999,999,999 到 999,999,999 （含）之間

 -- 屬性: timedelta.seconds

     在 0 到 86,399 （含）之間

          警示: It is a somewhat common bug for code to unintentionally
          use this attribute when it is actually intended to get a *note
          total_seconds(): 1197. value instead:

               >>> from datetime import timedelta
               >>> duration = timedelta(seconds=11235813)
               >>> duration.days, duration.seconds
               (130, 3813)
               >>> duration.total_seconds()
               11235813.0

 -- 屬性: timedelta.microseconds

     在 0 到 999,999 （含）之間

Supported operations:

Operation                            Result
                                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
‘t1 = t2 + t3’                       Sum of ‘t2’ and ‘t3’.  Afterwards ‘t1 - t2 == t3’
                                     and ‘t1 - t3 == t2’ are true.  (1)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 - t3’                       Difference of ‘t2’ and ‘t3’.  Afterwards ‘t1 ==
                                     t2 - t3’ and ‘t2 == t1 + t3’ are true.  (1)(6)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 * i or t1 = i * t2’         Delta multiplied by an integer.  Afterwards ‘t1
                                     // i == t2’ is true, provided ‘i != 0’.
                                     
                                     
                                     In general, ‘t1 * i == t1 * (i-1) + t1’ is true.
                                     (1)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 * f or t1 = f * t2’         Delta multiplied by a float.  The result is
                                     rounded to the nearest multiple of
                                     timedelta.resolution using round-half-to-even.
                                     
                                     
‘f = t2 / t3’                        Division (3) of overall duration ‘t2’ by interval
                                     unit ‘t3’.  Returns a *note float: 26a. object.
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 / f or t1 = t2 / i’         Delta divided by a float or an int.  The result
                                     is rounded to the nearest multiple of
                                     timedelta.resolution using round-half-to-even.
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 // i’ or ‘t1 = t2 // t3’    The floor is computed and the remainder (if any)
                                     is thrown away.  In the second case, an integer
                                     is returned.  (3)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 % t3’                       The remainder is computed as a
                                     *note timedelta: 813. object.  (3)
                                     
                                     
‘q, r = divmod(t1, t2)’              Computes the quotient and the remainder: ‘q = t1
                                     // t2’ (3) and ‘r = t1 % t2’.  ‘q’ is an integer
                                     and ‘r’ is a *note timedelta: 813. object.
                                     
                                     
‘+t1’                                Returns a *note timedelta: 813. object with the
                                     same value.  (2)
                                     
                                     
‘-t1’                                Equivalent to ‘timedelta(-t1.days, -t1.seconds,
                                     -t1.microseconds)’, and to ‘t1 * -1’.  (1)(4)
                                     
                                     
‘abs(t)’                             Equivalent to ‘+t’ when ‘t.days >= 0’, and to
                                     ‘-t’ when ‘t.days < 0’.  (2)
                                     
                                     
‘str(t)’                             Returns a string in the form ‘[D day[s],
                                     ][H]H:MM:SS[.UUUUUU]’, where D is negative for
                                     negative ‘t’.  (5)
                                     
                                     
‘repr(t)’                            Returns a string representation of the
                                     *note timedelta: 813. object as a constructor
                                     call with canonical attribute values.
                                     

註解：

  1. 這是精確的，但可能會溢位。

  2. 這是精確的，且不會溢位。

  3. Division by zero raises *note ZeroDivisionError: 784.

  4. ‘-timedelta.max’ is not representable as a *note timedelta: 813.
     object.

  5. String representations of *note timedelta: 813. objects are
     normalized similarly to their internal representation.  This leads
     to somewhat unusual results for negative timedeltas.  For example:

          >>> timedelta(hours=-5)
          datetime.timedelta(days=-1, seconds=68400)
          >>> print(_)
          -1 day, 19:00:00

  6. The expression ‘t2 - t3’ will always be equal to the expression ‘t2
     + (-t3)’ except when t3 is equal to ‘timedelta.max’; in that case
     the former will produce a result while the latter will overflow.

In addition to the operations listed above, *note timedelta: 813.
objects support certain additions and subtractions with *note date: 72f.
and *note datetime: 224. objects (see below).

在 3.2 版的變更: Floor division and true division of a *note timedelta:
813. object by another *note timedelta: 813. object are now supported,
as are remainder operations and the *note divmod(): 7e5. function.  True
division and multiplication of a *note timedelta: 813. object by a *note
float: 26a. object are now supported.

*note timedelta: 813. objects support equality and order comparisons.

In Boolean contexts, a *note timedelta: 813. object is considered to be
true if and only if it isn't equal to ‘timedelta(0)’.

實例方法：

 -- 方法: timedelta.total_seconds ()

     Return the total number of seconds contained in the duration.
     Equivalent to ‘td / timedelta(seconds=1)’.  For interval units
     other than seconds, use the division form directly (e.g.  ‘td /
     timedelta(microseconds=1)’).

     Note that for very large time intervals (greater than 270 years on
     most platforms) this method will lose microsecond accuracy.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

* Menu:

* 用法範例：timedelta::


File: python.info,  Node: 用法範例：timedelta,  Up: timedelta 物件

5.8.1.7 用法範例：‘timedelta’
.............................

An additional example of normalization:

     >>> # Components of another_year add up to exactly 365 days
     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> year = timedelta(days=365)
     >>> another_year = timedelta(weeks=40, days=84, hours=23,
     ...                          minutes=50, seconds=600)
     >>> year == another_year
     True
     >>> year.total_seconds()
     31536000.0

Examples of *note timedelta: 813. arithmetic:

     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> year = timedelta(days=365)
     >>> ten_years = 10 * year
     >>> ten_years
     datetime.timedelta(days=3650)
     >>> ten_years.days // 365
     10
     >>> nine_years = ten_years - year
     >>> nine_years
     datetime.timedelta(days=3285)
     >>> three_years = nine_years // 3
     >>> three_years, three_years.days // 365
     (datetime.timedelta(days=1095), 3)


File: python.info,  Node: date 物件,  Next: datetime 物件,  Prev: timedelta 物件,  Up: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別

5.8.1.8 ‘date’ 物件
...................

A *note date: 72f. object represents a date (year, month and day) in an
idealized calendar, the current Gregorian calendar indefinitely extended
in both directions.

January 1 of year 1 is called day number 1, January 2 of year 1 is
called day number 2, and so on.  (1)

 -- 類別: datetime.date (year, month, day)

     All arguments are required.  Arguments must be integers, in the
     following ranges:

        * ‘MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR’

        * ‘1 <= month <= 12’

        * ‘1 <= day <= number of days in the given month and year’

     If an argument outside those ranges is given, *note ValueError:
     183. is raised.

Other constructors, all class methods:

 -- 方法: classmethod date.today ()

     回傳目前的本地日期。

     這等同於 ‘date.fromtimestamp(time.time())’。

 -- 方法: classmethod date.fromtimestamp (timestamp)

     Return the local date corresponding to the POSIX timestamp, such as
     is returned by *note time.time(): 936.

     This may raise *note OverflowError: 6ad, if the timestamp is out of
     the range of values supported by the platform C ‘localtime()’
     function, and *note OSError: 644. on ‘localtime()’ failure.  It's
     common for this to be restricted to years from 1970 through 2038.
     Note that on non-POSIX systems that include leap seconds in their
     notion of a timestamp, leap seconds are ignored by *note
     fromtimestamp(): 1407.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. instead of *note
     ValueError: 183. if the timestamp is out of the range of values
     supported by the platform C ‘localtime()’ function.  Raise *note
     OSError: 644. instead of *note ValueError: 183. on ‘localtime()’
     failure.

 -- 方法: classmethod date.fromordinal (ordinal)

     Return the date corresponding to the proleptic Gregorian ordinal,
     where January 1 of year 1 has ordinal 1.

     *note ValueError: 183. is raised unless ‘1 <= ordinal <=
     date.max.toordinal()’.  For any date ‘d’,
     ‘date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d’.

 -- 方法: classmethod date.fromisoformat (date_string)

     Return a *note date: 72f. corresponding to a 'date_string' given in
     any valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Reduced precision dates are not currently supported
          (‘YYYY-MM’, ‘YYYY’).

       2. Extended date representations are not currently supported
          (‘±YYYYYY-MM-DD’).

       3. Ordinal dates are not currently supported (‘YYYY-OOO’).

     範例：

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date.fromisoformat('2019-12-04')
          datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
          >>> date.fromisoformat('20191204')
          datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
          >>> date.fromisoformat('2021-W01-1')
          datetime.date(2021, 1, 4)

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Previously, this method only supported the format
     ‘YYYY-MM-DD’.

 -- 方法: classmethod date.fromisocalendar (year, week, day)

     Return a *note date: 72f. corresponding to the ISO calendar date
     specified by year, week and day.  This is the inverse of the
     function *note date.isocalendar(): 72e.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

類別屬性：

 -- 屬性: date.min

     The earliest representable date, ‘date(MINYEAR, 1, 1)’.

 -- 屬性: date.max

     The latest representable date, ‘date(MAXYEAR, 12, 31)’.

 -- 屬性: date.resolution

     The smallest possible difference between non-equal date objects,
     ‘timedelta(days=1)’.

Instance attributes (read-only):

 -- 屬性: date.year

     Between *note MINYEAR: 21bd. and *note MAXYEAR: 21be. inclusive.

 -- 屬性: date.month

     在 1 到 12 （含）之間。

 -- 屬性: date.day

     Between 1 and the number of days in the given month of the given
     year.

Supported operations:

Operation                           Result
                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘date2 = date1 + timedelta’         ‘date2’ will be ‘timedelta.days’ days after
                                    ‘date1’.  (1)
                                    
                                    
‘date2 = date1 - timedelta’         Computes ‘date2’ such that ‘date2 + timedelta ==
                                    date1’.  (2)
                                    
                                    
‘timedelta = date1 - date2’         (3)
                                    
                                    
     ‘date1 == date2’               Equality comparison.  (4)
     ‘date1 != date2’               

     ‘date1 < date2’                Order comparison.  (5)
     ‘date1 > date2’                
     ‘date1 <= date2’
     ‘date1 >= date2’

註解：

  1. 'date2' is moved forward in time if ‘timedelta.days > 0’, or
     backward if ‘timedelta.days < 0’.  Afterward ‘date2 - date1 ==
     timedelta.days’.  ‘timedelta.seconds’ and ‘timedelta.microseconds’
     are ignored.  *note OverflowError: 6ad. is raised if ‘date2.year’
     would be smaller than *note MINYEAR: 21bd. or larger than *note
     MAXYEAR: 21be.

  2. ‘timedelta.seconds’ 和 ‘timedelta.microseconds’ 被忽略。

  3. This is exact, and cannot overflow.  ‘timedelta.seconds’ and
     ‘timedelta.microseconds’ are 0, and ‘date2 + timedelta == date1’
     after.

  4. *note date: 72f. objects are equal if they represent the same date.

  5. 'date1' is considered less than 'date2' when 'date1' precedes
     'date2' in time.  In other words, ‘date1 < date2’ if and only if
     ‘date1.toordinal() < date2.toordinal()’.

In Boolean contexts, all *note date: 72f. objects are considered to be
true.

實例方法：

 -- 方法: date.replace (year=self.year, month=self.month, day=self.day)

     Return a date with the same value, except for those parameters
     given new values by whichever keyword arguments are specified.

     範例：

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> d = date(2002, 12, 31)
          >>> d.replace(day=26)
          datetime.date(2002, 12, 26)

 -- 方法: date.timetuple ()

     回傳一個 *note time.struct_time: b58.，如同 *note time.localtime():
     1370. 所回傳。

     The hours, minutes and seconds are 0, and the DST flag is -1.

     ‘d.timetuple()’ 等價於：

          time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day, 0, 0, 0, d.weekday(), yday, -1))

     where ‘yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1’
     is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for
     January 1st.

 -- 方法: date.toordinal ()

     Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date, where January 1
     of year 1 has ordinal 1.  For any *note date: 72f. object ‘d’,
     ‘date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d’.

 -- 方法: date.weekday ()

     回傳一個代表星期幾的整數，星期一為 0、星期日為 6。例如 ‘date(2002,
     12, 4).weekday() == 2’ 為星期三。也請參考 *note isoweekday():
     21e5.。

 -- 方法: date.isoweekday ()

     Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 1 and
     Sunday is 7.  For example, ‘date(2002, 12, 4).isoweekday() == 3’, a
     Wednesday.  See also *note weekday(): 21e4, *note isocalendar():
     72e.

 -- 方法: date.isocalendar ()

     Return a *note named tuple: 449. object with three components:
     ‘year’, ‘week’ and ‘weekday’.

     The ISO calendar is a widely used variant of the Gregorian
     calendar.  (2)

     The ISO year consists of 52 or 53 full weeks, and where a week
     starts on a Monday and ends on a Sunday.  The first week of an ISO
     year is the first (Gregorian) calendar week of a year containing a
     Thursday.  This is called week number 1, and the ISO year of that
     Thursday is the same as its Gregorian year.

     For example, 2004 begins on a Thursday, so the first week of ISO
     year 2004 begins on Monday, 29 Dec 2003 and ends on Sunday, 4 Jan
     2004:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2003, 12, 29).isocalendar()
          datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=1)
          >>> date(2004, 1, 4).isocalendar()
          datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=7)

     在 3.9 版的變更: Result changed from a tuple to a *note named
     tuple: 449.

 -- 方法: date.isoformat ()

     回傳一以 ISO 8601 格式 ‘YYYY-MM-DD’ 表示的日期字串：

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2002, 12, 4).isoformat()
          '2002-12-04'

 -- 方法: date.__str__ ()

     For a date ‘d’, ‘str(d)’ is equivalent to ‘d.isoformat()’.

 -- 方法: date.ctime ()

     Return a string representing the date:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2002, 12, 4).ctime()
          'Wed Dec  4 00:00:00 2002'

     ‘d.ctime()’ 等價於：

          time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

     on platforms where the native C ‘ctime()’ function (which *note
     time.ctime(): 21e9. invokes, but which *note date.ctime(): 21e8.
     does not invoke) conforms to the C standard.

 -- 方法: date.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the date, controlled by an explicit
     format string.  Format codes referring to hours, minutes or seconds
     will see 0 values.  See also *note strftime() 與 strptime() 的行為:
     1596. and *note date.isoformat(): 21e6.

 -- 方法: date.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note date.strftime(): afc.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note date: 72f. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 7ed. and when using *note str.format():
     41b.  See also *note strftime() 與 strptime() 的行為: 1596. and
     *note date.isoformat(): 21e6.

* Menu:

* 用法範例：date::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This matches the definition of the "proleptic Gregorian" calendar
in Dershowitz and Reingold's book 'Calendrical Calculations', where it's
the base calendar for all computations.  See the book for algorithms for
converting between proleptic Gregorian ordinals and many other calendar
systems.

   (2) See R. H. van Gent's guide to the mathematics of the ISO 8601
calendar
(https://web.archive.org/web/20220531051136/https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/calendar/isocalendar.htm)
for a good explanation.


File: python.info,  Node: 用法範例：date,  Up: date 物件

5.8.1.9 用法範例：‘date’
........................

計算一個事件的天數的範例：

     >>> import time
     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> today = date.today()
     >>> today
     datetime.date(2007, 12, 5)
     >>> today == date.fromtimestamp(time.time())
     True
     >>> my_birthday = date(today.year, 6, 24)
     >>> if my_birthday < today:
     ...     my_birthday = my_birthday.replace(year=today.year + 1)
     ...
     >>> my_birthday
     datetime.date(2008, 6, 24)
     >>> time_to_birthday = abs(my_birthday - today)
     >>> time_to_birthday.days
     202

更多 *note date: 72f. 的用法範例：

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> d = date.fromordinal(730920) # 730920th day after 1. 1. 0001
     >>> d
     datetime.date(2002, 3, 11)

     >>> # Methods related to formatting string output
     >>> d.isoformat()
     '2002-03-11'
     >>> d.strftime("%d/%m/%y")
     '11/03/02'
     >>> d.strftime("%A %d. %B %Y")
     'Monday 11. March 2002'
     >>> d.ctime()
     'Mon Mar 11 00:00:00 2002'
     >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}.'.format(d, "day", "month")
     'The day is 11, the month is March.'

     >>> # Methods for to extracting 'components' under different calendars
     >>> t = d.timetuple()
     >>> for i in t:
     ...     print(i)
     2002                # year
     3                   # month
     11                  # day
     0
     0
     0
     0                   # weekday (0 = Monday)
     70                  # 70th day in the year
     -1
     >>> ic = d.isocalendar()
     >>> for i in ic:
     ...     print(i)
     2002                # ISO year
     11                  # ISO week number
     1                   # ISO day number ( 1 = Monday )

     >>> # A date object is immutable; all operations produce a new object
     >>> d.replace(year=2005)
     datetime.date(2005, 3, 11)


File: python.info,  Node: datetime 物件,  Next: time 物件,  Prev: date 物件,  Up: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別

5.8.1.10 ‘datetime’ 物件
........................

A *note datetime: 224. object is a single object containing all the
information from a *note date: 72f. object and a *note time: 6c5.
object.

Like a *note date: 72f. object, *note datetime: 224. assumes the current
Gregorian calendar extended in both directions; like a *note time: 6c5.
object, *note datetime: 224. assumes there are exactly 3600*24 seconds
in every day.

Constructor:

 -- 類別: datetime.datetime (year, month, day, hour=0, minute=0,
          second=0, microsecond=0, tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

     The 'year', 'month' and 'day' arguments are required.  'tzinfo' may
     be ‘None’, or an instance of a *note tzinfo: 3d1. subclass.  The
     remaining arguments must be integers in the following ranges:

        * ‘MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR’,

        * ‘1 <= month <= 12’,

        * ‘1 <= day <= number of days in the given month and year’,

        * ‘0 <= hour < 24’,

        * ‘0 <= minute < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= second < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= microsecond < 1000000’,

        * ‘fold in [0, 1]’.

     If an argument outside those ranges is given, *note ValueError:
     183. is raised.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'fold' 參數。

Other constructors, all class methods:

 -- 方法: classmethod datetime.today ()

     回傳目前的本地日期與時間，且 *note tzinfo: 21cf. 為 ‘None’。

     等價於：

          datetime.fromtimestamp(time.time())

     也請見 *note now(): 227.、*note fromtimestamp(): 228.。

     This method is functionally equivalent to *note now(): 227, but
     without a ‘tz’ parameter.

 -- 方法: classmethod datetime.now (tz=None)

     Return the current local date and time.

     如果選用的引數 'tz' 為 ‘None’ 或未指定，則會像是 *note today():
     21ee.，但盡可能提供比透過 *note time.time(): 936. 取得的時間戳記更
     多位數的資訊（例如，這在有提供 C ‘gettimeofday()’ 函式的平台上可能
     可行）。

     If 'tz' is not ‘None’, it must be an instance of a *note tzinfo:
     3d1. subclass, and the current date and time are converted to
     'tz'’s time zone.

     This function is preferred over *note today(): 21ee. and *note
     utcnow(): 225.

          備註: Subsequent calls to ‘datetime.now()’ may return the same
          instant depending on the precision of the underlying clock.

 -- 方法: classmethod datetime.utcnow ()

     Return the current UTC date and time, with *note tzinfo: 21cf.
     ‘None’.

     This is like *note now(): 227, but returns the current UTC date and
     time, as a naive *note datetime: 224. object.  An aware current UTC
     datetime can be obtained by calling ‘datetime.now(timezone.utc)’.
     See also *note now(): 227.

          警告: Because naive ‘datetime’ objects are treated by many
          ‘datetime’ methods as local times, it is preferred to use
          aware datetimes to represent times in UTC. As such, the
          recommended way to create an object representing the current
          time in UTC is by calling ‘datetime.now(timezone.utc)’.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用: Use *note datetime.now(): 227. with *note
     UTC: 229. instead.

 -- 方法: classmethod datetime.fromtimestamp (timestamp, tz=None)

     Return the local date and time corresponding to the POSIX
     timestamp, such as is returned by *note time.time(): 936.  If
     optional argument 'tz' is ‘None’ or not specified, the timestamp is
     converted to the platform's local date and time, and the returned
     *note datetime: 224. object is naive.

     If 'tz' is not ‘None’, it must be an instance of a *note tzinfo:
     3d1. subclass, and the timestamp is converted to 'tz'’s time zone.

     *note fromtimestamp(): 228. may raise *note OverflowError: 6ad, if
     the timestamp is out of the range of values supported by the
     platform C ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ functions, and *note
     OSError: 644. on ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ failure.  It's common
     for this to be restricted to years in 1970 through 2038.  Note that
     on non-POSIX systems that include leap seconds in their notion of a
     timestamp, leap seconds are ignored by *note fromtimestamp(): 228,
     and then it's possible to have two timestamps differing by a second
     that yield identical *note datetime: 224. objects.  This method is
     preferred over *note utcfromtimestamp(): 226.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. instead of *note
     ValueError: 183. if the timestamp is out of the range of values
     supported by the platform C ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ functions.
     Raise *note OSError: 644. instead of *note ValueError: 183. on
     ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ failure.

     在 3.6 版的變更: *note fromtimestamp(): 228. may return instances
     with *note fold: abd. set to 1.

 -- 方法: classmethod datetime.utcfromtimestamp (timestamp)

     Return the UTC *note datetime: 224. corresponding to the POSIX
     timestamp, with *note tzinfo: 21cf. ‘None’.  (The resulting object
     is naive.)

     This may raise *note OverflowError: 6ad, if the timestamp is out of
     the range of values supported by the platform C ‘gmtime()’
     function, and *note OSError: 644. on ‘gmtime()’ failure.  It's
     common for this to be restricted to years in 1970 through 2038.

     To get an aware *note datetime: 224. object, call *note
     fromtimestamp(): 228.:

          datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, timezone.utc)

     On the POSIX compliant platforms, it is equivalent to the following
     expression:

          datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc) + timedelta(seconds=timestamp)

     except the latter formula always supports the full years range:
     between *note MINYEAR: 21bd. and *note MAXYEAR: 21be. inclusive.

          警告: Because naive ‘datetime’ objects are treated by many
          ‘datetime’ methods as local times, it is preferred to use
          aware datetimes to represent times in UTC. As such, the
          recommended way to create an object representing a specific
          timestamp in UTC is by calling
          ‘datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=timezone.utc)’.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. instead of *note
     ValueError: 183. if the timestamp is out of the range of values
     supported by the platform C ‘gmtime()’ function.  Raise *note
     OSError: 644. instead of *note ValueError: 183. on ‘gmtime()’
     failure.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用: Use *note datetime.fromtimestamp(): 228. with
     *note UTC: 229. instead.

 -- 方法: classmethod datetime.fromordinal (ordinal)

     Return the *note datetime: 224. corresponding to the proleptic
     Gregorian ordinal, where January 1 of year 1 has ordinal 1.  *note
     ValueError: 183. is raised unless ‘1 <= ordinal <=
     datetime.max.toordinal()’.  The hour, minute, second and
     microsecond of the result are all 0, and *note tzinfo: 21cf. is
     ‘None’.

 -- 方法: classmethod datetime.combine (date, time, tzinfo=time.tzinfo)

     Return a new *note datetime: 224. object whose date components are
     equal to the given *note date: 72f. object's, and whose time
     components are equal to the given *note time: 6c5. object's.  If
     the 'tzinfo' argument is provided, its value is used to set the
     *note tzinfo: 21cf. attribute of the result, otherwise the *note
     tzinfo: 21c7. attribute of the 'time' argument is used.  If the
     'date' argument is a *note datetime: 224. object, its time
     components and *note tzinfo: 21cf. attributes are ignored.

     For any *note datetime: 224. object ‘d’, ‘d ==
     datetime.combine(d.date(), d.time(), d.tzinfo)’.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'tzinfo' 引數。

 -- 方法: classmethod datetime.fromisoformat (date_string)

     Return a *note datetime: 224. corresponding to a 'date_string' in
     any valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Time zone offsets may have fractional seconds.

       2. The ‘T’ separator may be replaced by any single unicode
          character.

       3. Fractional hours and minutes are not supported.

       4. Reduced precision dates are not currently supported
          (‘YYYY-MM’, ‘YYYY’).

       5. Extended date representations are not currently supported
          (‘±YYYYYY-MM-DD’).

       6. Ordinal dates are not currently supported (‘YYYY-OOO’).

     範例：

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('20111104')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23Z')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('20111104T000523')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-W01-2T00:05:23.283')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 1, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283+00:00')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23+04:00')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23,
              tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Previously, this method only supported formats
     that could be emitted by *note date.isoformat(): 21e6. or *note
     datetime.isoformat(): 988.

 -- 方法: classmethod datetime.fromisocalendar (year, week, day)

     Return a *note datetime: 224. corresponding to the ISO calendar
     date specified by year, week and day.  The non-date components of
     the datetime are populated with their normal default values.  This
     is the inverse of the function *note datetime.isocalendar(): 730.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 方法: classmethod datetime.strptime (date_string, format)

     Return a *note datetime: 224. corresponding to 'date_string',
     parsed according to 'format'.

     If 'format' does not contain microseconds or time zone information,
     this is equivalent to:

          datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

     *note ValueError: 183. is raised if the date_string and format
     can't be parsed by *note time.strptime(): 129d. or if it returns a
     value which isn't a time tuple.  See also *note strftime() 與
     strptime() 的行為: 1596. and *note datetime.fromisoformat(): 410.

類別屬性：

 -- 屬性: datetime.min

     The earliest representable *note datetime: 224, ‘datetime(MINYEAR,
     1, 1, tzinfo=None)’.

 -- 屬性: datetime.max

     The latest representable *note datetime: 224, ‘datetime(MAXYEAR,
     12, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999, tzinfo=None)’.

 -- 屬性: datetime.resolution

     The smallest possible difference between non-equal *note datetime:
     224. objects, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’.

Instance attributes (read-only):

 -- 屬性: datetime.year

     Between *note MINYEAR: 21bd. and *note MAXYEAR: 21be. inclusive.

 -- 屬性: datetime.month

     在 1 到 12 （含）之間。

 -- 屬性: datetime.day

     Between 1 and the number of days in the given month of the given
     year.

 -- 屬性: datetime.hour

     In ‘range(24)’.

 -- 屬性: datetime.minute

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- 屬性: datetime.second

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- 屬性: datetime.microsecond

     In ‘range(1000000)’.

 -- 屬性: datetime.tzinfo

     The object passed as the 'tzinfo' argument to the *note datetime:
     224. constructor, or ‘None’ if none was passed.

 -- 屬性: datetime.fold

     In ‘[0, 1]’.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated
     interval.  (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back
     at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the
     current zone is decreased for political reasons.)  The values 0 and
     1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments
     with the same wall time representation.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

Supported operations:

Operation                                   Result
                                            
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
‘datetime2 = datetime1 + timedelta’         (1)
                                            
                                            
‘datetime2 = datetime1 - timedelta’         (2)
                                            
                                            
‘timedelta = datetime1 - datetime2’         (3)
                                            
                                            
     ‘datetime1 == datetime2’               Equality comparison.  (4)
     ‘datetime1 != datetime2’               

     ‘datetime1 < datetime2’                Order comparison.  (5)
     ‘datetime1 > datetime2’                
     ‘datetime1 <= datetime2’
     ‘datetime1 >= datetime2’

  1. ‘datetime2’ is a duration of ‘timedelta’ removed from ‘datetime1’,
     moving forward in time if ‘timedelta.days > 0’, or backward if
     ‘timedelta.days < 0’.  The result has the same *note tzinfo: 21cf.
     attribute as the input datetime, and ‘datetime2 - datetime1 ==
     timedelta’ after.  *note OverflowError: 6ad. is raised if
     ‘datetime2.year’ would be smaller than *note MINYEAR: 21bd. or
     larger than *note MAXYEAR: 21be.  Note that no time zone
     adjustments are done even if the input is an aware object.

  2. Computes the ‘datetime2’ such that ‘datetime2 + timedelta ==
     datetime1’.  As for addition, the result has the same *note tzinfo:
     21cf. attribute as the input datetime, and no time zone adjustments
     are done even if the input is aware.

  3. Subtraction of a *note datetime: 224. from a *note datetime: 224.
     is defined only if both operands are naive, or if both are aware.
     If one is aware and the other is naive, *note TypeError: 2ba. is
     raised.

     If both are naive, or both are aware and have the same *note
     tzinfo: 21cf. attribute, the *note tzinfo: 21cf. attributes are
     ignored, and the result is a *note timedelta: 813. object ‘t’ such
     that ‘datetime2 + t == datetime1’.  No time zone adjustments are
     done in this case.

     If both are aware and have different *note tzinfo: 21cf.
     attributes, ‘a-b’ acts as if ‘a’ and ‘b’ were first converted to
     naive UTC datetimes.  The result is ‘(a.replace(tzinfo=None) -
     a.utcoffset()) - (b.replace(tzinfo=None) - b.utcoffset())’ except
     that the implementation never overflows.

  4. *note datetime: 224. objects are equal if they represent the same
     date and time, taking into account the time zone.

     Naive and aware ‘datetime’ objects are never equal.  ‘datetime’
     objects are never equal to *note date: 72f. objects that are not
     also ‘datetime’ instances, even if they represent the same date.

     If both comparands are aware, and have the same ‘tzinfo’ attribute,
     the ‘tzinfo’ and *note fold: abd. attributes are ignored and the
     base datetimes are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have
     different *note tzinfo: 21cf. attributes, the comparison acts as
     comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the
     implementation never overflows.  ‘datetime’ instances in a repeated
     interval are never equal to ‘datetime’ instances in other time
     zone.

  5. 'datetime1' is considered less than 'datetime2' when 'datetime1'
     precedes 'datetime2' in time, taking into account the time zone.

     Order comparison between naive and aware *note datetime: 224.
     objects, as well as a ‘datetime’ object and a ‘date’ object that is
     not also a ‘datetime’ instance, raises *note TypeError: 2ba.

     If both comparands are aware, and have the same ‘tzinfo’ attribute,
     the ‘tzinfo’ and *note fold: abd. attributes are ignored and the
     base datetimes are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have
     different *note tzinfo: 21cf. attributes, the comparison acts as
     comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the
     implementation never overflows.

在 3.3 版的變更: Equality comparisons between aware and naive *note
datetime: 224. instances don't raise *note TypeError: 2ba.

實例方法：

 -- 方法: datetime.date ()

     Return *note date: 72f. object with same year, month and day.

 -- 方法: datetime.time ()

     Return *note time: 6c5. object with same hour, minute, second,
     microsecond and fold.  *note tzinfo: 21cf. is ‘None’.  See also
     method *note timetz(): 21f4.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The fold value is copied to the returned *note
     time: 6c5. object.

 -- 方法: datetime.timetz ()

     Return *note time: 6c5. object with same hour, minute, second,
     microsecond, fold, and tzinfo attributes.  See also method *note
     time(): e8.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The fold value is copied to the returned *note
     time: 6c5. object.

 -- 方法: datetime.replace (year=self.year, month=self.month,
          day=self.day, hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute,
          second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond,
          tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

     Return a datetime with the same attributes, except for those
     attributes given new values by whichever keyword arguments are
     specified.  Note that ‘tzinfo=None’ can be specified to create a
     naive datetime from an aware datetime with no conversion of date
     and time data.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'fold' 參數。

 -- 方法: datetime.astimezone (tz=None)

     Return a *note datetime: 224. object with new *note tzinfo: 21cf.
     attribute 'tz', adjusting the date and time data so the result is
     the same UTC time as 'self', but in 'tz"s local time.

     If provided, 'tz' must be an instance of a *note tzinfo: 3d1.
     subclass, and its *note utcoffset(): 21f5. and *note dst(): 21f6.
     methods must not return ‘None’.  If 'self' is naive, it is presumed
     to represent time in the system time zone.

     If called without arguments (or with ‘tz=None’) the system local
     time zone is assumed for the target time zone.  The ‘.tzinfo’
     attribute of the converted datetime instance will be set to an
     instance of *note timezone: f4e. with the zone name and offset
     obtained from the OS.

     If ‘self.tzinfo’ is 'tz', ‘self.astimezone(tz)’ is equal to 'self':
     no adjustment of date or time data is performed.  Else the result
     is local time in the time zone 'tz', representing the same UTC time
     as 'self': after ‘astz = dt.astimezone(tz)’, ‘astz -
     astz.utcoffset()’ will have the same date and time data as ‘dt -
     dt.utcoffset()’.

     If you merely want to attach a *note timezone: f4e. object 'tz' to
     a datetime 'dt' without adjustment of date and time data, use
     ‘dt.replace(tzinfo=tz)’.  If you merely want to remove the
     ‘timezone’ object from an aware datetime 'dt' without conversion of
     date and time data, use ‘dt.replace(tzinfo=None)’.

     Note that the default *note tzinfo.fromutc(): 21f7. method can be
     overridden in a *note tzinfo: 3d1. subclass to affect the result
     returned by *note astimezone(): 814.  Ignoring error cases, *note
     astimezone(): 814. acts like:

          def astimezone(self, tz):
              if self.tzinfo is tz:
                  return self
              # Convert self to UTC, and attach the new timezone object.
              utc = (self - self.utcoffset()).replace(tzinfo=tz)
              # Convert from UTC to tz's local time.
              return tz.fromutc(utc)

     在 3.3 版的變更: 'tz' now can be omitted.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The *note astimezone(): 814. method can now be
     called on naive instances that are presumed to represent system
     local time.

 -- 方法: datetime.utcoffset ()

     If *note tzinfo: 21cf. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.utcoffset(self)’, and raises an exception if the
     latter doesn't return ‘None’ or a *note timedelta: 813. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number
     of minutes.

 -- 方法: datetime.dst ()

     If *note tzinfo: 21cf. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.dst(self)’, and raises an exception if the latter
     doesn't return ‘None’ or a *note timedelta: 813. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The DST offset is not restricted to a whole number
     of minutes.

 -- 方法: datetime.tzname ()

     If *note tzinfo: 21cf. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.tzname(self)’, raises an exception if the latter
     doesn't return ‘None’ or a string object,

 -- 方法: datetime.timetuple ()

     回傳一個 *note time.struct_time: b58.，如同 *note time.localtime():
     1370. 所回傳。

     ‘d.timetuple()’ 等價於：

          time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day,
                            d.hour, d.minute, d.second,
                            d.weekday(), yday, dst))

     where ‘yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1’
     is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for
     January 1st.  The *note tm_isdst: 21fa. flag of the result is set
     according to the *note dst(): 21f6. method: *note tzinfo: 21cf. is
     ‘None’ or *note dst(): 21f6. returns ‘None’, ‘tm_isdst’ is set to
     ‘-1’; else if *note dst(): 21f6. returns a non-zero value,
     ‘tm_isdst’ is set to 1; else ‘tm_isdst’ is set to 0.

 -- 方法: datetime.utctimetuple ()

     If *note datetime: 224. instance ‘d’ is naive, this is the same as
     ‘d.timetuple()’ except that *note tm_isdst: 21fa. is forced to 0
     regardless of what ‘d.dst()’ returns.  DST is never in effect for a
     UTC time.

     If ‘d’ is aware, ‘d’ is normalized to UTC time, by subtracting
     ‘d.utcoffset()’, and a *note time.struct_time: b58. for the
     normalized time is returned.  ‘tm_isdst’ is forced to 0.  Note that
     an *note OverflowError: 6ad. may be raised if ‘d.year’ was
     ‘MINYEAR’ or ‘MAXYEAR’ and UTC adjustment spills over a year
     boundary.

          警告: Because naive ‘datetime’ objects are treated by many
          ‘datetime’ methods as local times, it is preferred to use
          aware datetimes to represent times in UTC; as a result, using
          *note datetime.utctimetuple(): 21fb. may give misleading
          results.  If you have a naive ‘datetime’ representing UTC, use
          ‘datetime.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc)’ to make it aware, at
          which point you can use *note datetime.timetuple(): 21f9.

 -- 方法: datetime.toordinal ()

     Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date.  The same as
     ‘self.date().toordinal()’.

 -- 方法: datetime.timestamp ()

     Return POSIX timestamp corresponding to the *note datetime: 224.
     instance.  The return value is a *note float: 26a. similar to that
     returned by *note time.time(): 936.

     Naive *note datetime: 224. instances are assumed to represent local
     time and this method relies on the platform C ‘mktime()’ function
     to perform the conversion.  Since *note datetime: 224. supports
     wider range of values than ‘mktime()’ on many platforms, this
     method may raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. or *note OSError: 644.
     for times far in the past or far in the future.

     For aware *note datetime: 224. instances, the return value is
     computed as:

          (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc)).total_seconds()

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The *note timestamp(): f30. method uses the *note
     fold: abd. attribute to disambiguate the times during a repeated
     interval.

          備註: There is no method to obtain the POSIX timestamp
          directly from a naive *note datetime: 224. instance
          representing UTC time.  If your application uses this
          convention and your system time zone is not set to UTC, you
          can obtain the POSIX timestamp by supplying
          ‘tzinfo=timezone.utc’:

               timestamp = dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc).timestamp()

          or by calculating the timestamp directly:

               timestamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1)) / timedelta(seconds=1)

 -- 方法: datetime.weekday ()

     Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 0 and
     Sunday is 6.  The same as ‘self.date().weekday()’.  See also *note
     isoweekday(): 21fe.

 -- 方法: datetime.isoweekday ()

     Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 1 and
     Sunday is 7.  The same as ‘self.date().isoweekday()’.  See also
     *note weekday(): 21fd, *note isocalendar(): 730.

 -- 方法: datetime.isocalendar ()

     Return a *note named tuple: 449. with three components: ‘year’,
     ‘week’ and ‘weekday’.  The same as ‘self.date().isocalendar()’.

 -- 方法: datetime.isoformat (sep='T', timespec='auto')

     Return a string representing the date and time in ISO 8601 format:

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff’，如果 *note microsecond: 21ce. 不
          是 0

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS’，如果 *note microsecond: 21ce. 是 0

     如果 *note utcoffset(): 21f5. 没有回傳 ‘None’，則會附加一个字串，給
     出 UTC 偏移：

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’，如果 *note
          microsecond: 21ce. 不是 0

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’，如果 *note
          microsecond: 21ce. 是 0

     範例：

          >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
          >>> datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, 8, 132263).isoformat()
          '2019-05-18T15:17:08.132263'
          >>> datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, tzinfo=timezone.utc).isoformat()
          '2019-05-18T15:17:00+00:00'

     The optional argument 'sep' (default ‘'T'’) is a one-character
     separator, placed between the date and time portions of the result.
     For example:

          >>> from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime
          >>> class TZ(tzinfo):
          ...     """A time zone with an arbitrary, constant -06:39 offset."""
          ...     def utcoffset(self, dt):
          ...         return timedelta(hours=-6, minutes=-39)
          ...
          >>> datetime(2002, 12, 25, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat(' ')
          '2002-12-25 00:00:00-06:39'
          >>> datetime(2009, 11, 27, microsecond=100, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat()
          '2009-11-27T00:00:00.000100-06:39'

     The optional argument 'timespec' specifies the number of additional
     components of the time to include (the default is ‘'auto'’).  It
     can be one of the following:

        - ‘'auto'’: Same as ‘'seconds'’ if *note microsecond: 21ce. is
          0, same as ‘'microseconds'’ otherwise.

        - ‘'hours'’: Include the *note hour: 21cb. in the two-digit ‘HH’
          format.

        - ‘'minutes'’: Include *note hour: 21cb. and *note minute: 21cc.
          in ‘HH:MM’ format.

        - ‘'seconds'’: Include *note hour: 21cb, *note minute: 21cc, and
          *note second: 21cd. in ‘HH:MM:SS’ format.

        - ‘'milliseconds'’: Include full time, but truncate fractional
          second part to milliseconds.  ‘HH:MM:SS.sss’ format.

        - ‘'microseconds'’: Include full time in ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’
          format.

          備註: Excluded time components are truncated, not rounded.

     *note ValueError: 183. will be raised on an invalid 'timespec'
     argument:

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime.now().isoformat(timespec='minutes')
          '2002-12-25T00:00'
          >>> dt = datetime(2015, 1, 1, 12, 30, 59, 0)
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
          '2015-01-01T12:30:59.000000'

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'timespec' 參數。

 -- 方法: datetime.__str__ ()

     For a *note datetime: 224. instance ‘d’, ‘str(d)’ is equivalent to
     ‘d.isoformat(' ')’.

 -- 方法: datetime.ctime ()

     Return a string representing the date and time:

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime(2002, 12, 4, 20, 30, 40).ctime()
          'Wed Dec  4 20:30:40 2002'

     The output string will 'not' include time zone information,
     regardless of whether the input is aware or naive.

     ‘d.ctime()’ 等價於：

          time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

     on platforms where the native C ‘ctime()’ function (which *note
     time.ctime(): 21e9. invokes, but which *note datetime.ctime():
     2200. does not invoke) conforms to the C standard.

 -- 方法: datetime.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the date and time, controlled by an
     explicit format string.  See also *note strftime() 與 strptime()
     的行為: 1596. and *note datetime.isoformat(): 988.

 -- 方法: datetime.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note datetime.strftime(): afb.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note datetime: 224. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 7ed. and when using *note str.format():
     41b.  See also *note strftime() 與 strptime() 的行為: 1596. and
     *note datetime.isoformat(): 988.

* Menu:

* 用法範例：datetime::


File: python.info,  Node: 用法範例：datetime,  Up: datetime 物件

5.8.1.11 用法範例：‘datetime’
.............................

更多 *note datetime: 224. 的用法範例：

     >>> from datetime import datetime, date, time, timezone

     >>> # Using datetime.combine()
     >>> d = date(2005, 7, 14)
     >>> t = time(12, 30)
     >>> datetime.combine(d, t)
     datetime.datetime(2005, 7, 14, 12, 30)

     >>> # Using datetime.now()
     >>> datetime.now()
     datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 16, 29, 43, 79043)   # GMT +1
     >>> datetime.now(timezone.utc)
     datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 15, 29, 43, 79060, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

     >>> # Using datetime.strptime()
     >>> dt = datetime.strptime("21/11/06 16:30", "%d/%m/%y %H:%M")
     >>> dt
     datetime.datetime(2006, 11, 21, 16, 30)

     >>> # Using datetime.timetuple() to get tuple of all attributes
     >>> tt = dt.timetuple()
     >>> for it in tt:
     ...     print(it)
     ...
     2006    # year
     11      # month
     21      # day
     16      # hour
     30      # minute
     0       # second
     1       # weekday (0 = Monday)
     325     # number of days since 1st January
     -1      # dst - method tzinfo.dst() returned None

     >>> # Date in ISO format
     >>> ic = dt.isocalendar()
     >>> for it in ic:
     ...     print(it)
     ...
     2006    # ISO year
     47      # ISO week
     2       # ISO weekday

     >>> # Formatting a datetime
     >>> dt.strftime("%A, %d. %B %Y %I:%M%p")
     'Tuesday, 21. November 2006 04:30PM'
     >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}, the {3} is {0:%I:%M%p}.'.format(dt, "day", "month", "time")
     'The day is 21, the month is November, the time is 04:30PM.'

The example below defines a *note tzinfo: 3d1. subclass capturing time
zone information for Kabul, Afghanistan, which used +4 UTC until 1945
and then +4:30 UTC thereafter:

     from datetime import timedelta, datetime, tzinfo, timezone

     class KabulTz(tzinfo):
         # Kabul used +4 until 1945, when they moved to +4:30
         UTC_MOVE_DATE = datetime(1944, 12, 31, 20, tzinfo=timezone.utc)

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             if dt.year < 1945:
                 return timedelta(hours=4)
             elif (1945, 1, 1, 0, 0) <= dt.timetuple()[:5] < (1945, 1, 1, 0, 30):
                 # An ambiguous ("imaginary") half-hour range representing
                 # a 'fold' in time due to the shift from +4 to +4:30.
                 # If dt falls in the imaginary range, use fold to decide how
                 # to resolve. See PEP495.
                 return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=(30 if dt.fold else 0))
             else:
                 return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             # Follow same validations as in datetime.tzinfo
             if not isinstance(dt, datetime):
                 raise TypeError("fromutc() requires a datetime argument")
             if dt.tzinfo is not self:
                 raise ValueError("dt.tzinfo is not self")

             # A custom implementation is required for fromutc as
             # the input to this function is a datetime with utc values
             # but with a tzinfo set to self.
             # See datetime.astimezone or fromtimestamp.
             if dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc) >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
                 return dt + timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
             else:
                 return dt + timedelta(hours=4)

         def dst(self, dt):
             # Kabul does not observe daylight saving time.
             return timedelta(0)

         def tzname(self, dt):
             if dt >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
                 return "+04:30"
             return "+04"

Usage of ‘KabulTz’ from above:

     >>> tz1 = KabulTz()

     >>> # Datetime before the change
     >>> dt1 = datetime(1900, 11, 21, 16, 30, tzinfo=tz1)
     >>> print(dt1.utcoffset())
     4:00:00

     >>> # Datetime after the change
     >>> dt2 = datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=tz1)
     >>> print(dt2.utcoffset())
     4:30:00

     >>> # Convert datetime to another time zone
     >>> dt3 = dt2.astimezone(timezone.utc)
     >>> dt3
     datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 8, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
     >>> dt2
     datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=KabulTz())
     >>> dt2 == dt3
     True


File: python.info,  Node: time 物件,  Next: tzinfo 物件,  Prev: datetime 物件,  Up: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別

5.8.1.12 ‘time’ 物件
....................

A *note time: 6c5. object represents a (local) time of day, independent
of any particular day, and subject to adjustment via a *note tzinfo:
3d1. object.

 -- 類別: datetime.time (hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsecond=0,
          tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

     All arguments are optional.  'tzinfo' may be ‘None’, or an instance
     of a *note tzinfo: 3d1. subclass.  The remaining arguments must be
     integers in the following ranges:

        * ‘0 <= hour < 24’,

        * ‘0 <= minute < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= second < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= microsecond < 1000000’,

        * ‘fold in [0, 1]’.

     If an argument outside those ranges is given, *note ValueError:
     183. is raised.  All default to 0 except 'tzinfo', which defaults
     to ‘None’.

類別屬性：

 -- 屬性: time.min

     The earliest representable *note time: 6c5, ‘time(0, 0, 0, 0)’.

 -- 屬性: time.max

     The latest representable *note time: 6c5, ‘time(23, 59, 59,
     999999)’.

 -- 屬性: time.resolution

     The smallest possible difference between non-equal *note time: 6c5.
     objects, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’, although note that arithmetic
     on *note time: 6c5. objects is not supported.

Instance attributes (read-only):

 -- 屬性: time.hour

     In ‘range(24)’.

 -- 屬性: time.minute

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- 屬性: time.second

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- 屬性: time.microsecond

     In ‘range(1000000)’.

 -- 屬性: time.tzinfo

     The object passed as the tzinfo argument to the *note time: 6c5.
     constructor, or ‘None’ if none was passed.

 -- 屬性: time.fold

     In ‘[0, 1]’.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated
     interval.  (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back
     at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the
     current zone is decreased for political reasons.)  The values 0 and
     1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments
     with the same wall time representation.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

*note time: 6c5. objects support equality and order comparisons, where
‘a’ is considered less than ‘b’ when ‘a’ precedes ‘b’ in time.

Naive and aware ‘time’ objects are never equal.  Order comparison
between naive and aware ‘time’ objects raises *note TypeError: 2ba.

If both comparands are aware, and have the same *note tzinfo: 21c7.
attribute, the ‘tzinfo’ and ‘fold’ attributes are ignored and the base
times are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have different
‘tzinfo’ attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by subtracting
their UTC offsets (obtained from ‘self.utcoffset()’).

在 3.3 版的變更: Equality comparisons between aware and naive *note
time: 6c5. instances don't raise *note TypeError: 2ba.

In Boolean contexts, a *note time: 6c5. object is always considered to
be true.

在 3.5 版的變更: Before Python 3.5, a *note time: 6c5. object was
considered to be false if it represented midnight in UTC. This behavior
was considered obscure and error-prone and has been removed in Python
3.5.  See bpo-13936(1) for full details.

Other constructor:

 -- 方法: classmethod time.fromisoformat (time_string)

     Return a *note time: 6c5. corresponding to a 'time_string' in any
     valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Time zone offsets may have fractional seconds.

       2. The leading ‘T’, normally required in cases where there may be
          ambiguity between a date and a time, is not required.

       3. Fractional seconds may have any number of digits (anything
          beyond 6 will be truncated).

       4. Fractional hours and minutes are not supported.

     範例：

          >>> from datetime import time
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('T04:23:01')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('T042301')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01.000384')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01,000384')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+04:00')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01Z')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+00:00')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Previously, this method only supported formats
     that could be emitted by *note time.isoformat(): 2209.

實例方法：

 -- 方法: time.replace (hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute,
          second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond,
          tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

     Return a *note time: 6c5. with the same value, except for those
     attributes given new values by whichever keyword arguments are
     specified.  Note that ‘tzinfo=None’ can be specified to create a
     naive *note time: 6c5. from an aware *note time: 6c5, without
     conversion of the time data.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'fold' 參數。

 -- 方法: time.isoformat (timespec='auto')

     Return a string representing the time in ISO 8601 format, one of:

        - ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’, if *note microsecond: 21c6. is not 0

        - ‘HH:MM:SS’, if *note microsecond: 21c6. is 0

        - ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, if *note utcoffset():
          220b. does not return ‘None’

        - ‘HH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, if *note microsecond: 21c6. is
          0 and *note utcoffset(): 220b. does not return ‘None’

     The optional argument 'timespec' specifies the number of additional
     components of the time to include (the default is ‘'auto'’).  It
     can be one of the following:

        - ‘'auto'’: Same as ‘'seconds'’ if *note microsecond: 21c6. is
          0, same as ‘'microseconds'’ otherwise.

        - ‘'hours'’: Include the *note hour: 21c3. in the two-digit ‘HH’
          format.

        - ‘'minutes'’: Include *note hour: 21c3. and *note minute: 21c4.
          in ‘HH:MM’ format.

        - ‘'seconds'’: Include *note hour: 21c3, *note minute: 21c4, and
          *note second: 21c5. in ‘HH:MM:SS’ format.

        - ‘'milliseconds'’: Include full time, but truncate fractional
          second part to milliseconds.  ‘HH:MM:SS.sss’ format.

        - ‘'microseconds'’: Include full time in ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’
          format.

          備註: Excluded time components are truncated, not rounded.

     *note ValueError: 183. will be raised on an invalid 'timespec'
     argument.

     範例：

          >>> from datetime import time
          >>> time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=123456).isoformat(timespec='minutes')
          '12:34'
          >>> dt = time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=0)
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
          '12:34:56.000000'
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='auto')
          '12:34:56'

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'timespec' 參數。

 -- 方法: time.__str__ ()

     For a time ‘t’, ‘str(t)’ is equivalent to ‘t.isoformat()’.

 -- 方法: time.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the time, controlled by an explicit
     format string.  See also *note strftime() 與 strptime() 的行為:
     1596. and *note time.isoformat(): 2209.

 -- 方法: time.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note time.strftime(): 154d.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note time: 6c5. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 7ed. and when using *note str.format():
     41b.  See also *note strftime() 與 strptime() 的行為: 1596. and
     *note time.isoformat(): 2209.

 -- 方法: time.utcoffset ()

     If *note tzinfo: 21c7. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)’, and raises an exception if the
     latter doesn't return ‘None’ or a *note timedelta: 813. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number
     of minutes.

 -- 方法: time.dst ()

     If *note tzinfo: 21c7. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.dst(None)’, and raises an exception if the latter
     doesn't return ‘None’, or a *note timedelta: 813. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The DST offset is not restricted to a whole number
     of minutes.

 -- 方法: time.tzname ()

     If *note tzinfo: 21c7. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.tzname(None)’, or raises an exception if the latter
     doesn't return ‘None’ or a string object.

* Menu:

* 用法範例：time::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936


File: python.info,  Node: 用法範例：time,  Up: time 物件

5.8.1.13 用法範例：‘time’
.........................

Examples of working with a *note time: 6c5. object:

     >>> from datetime import time, tzinfo, timedelta
     >>> class TZ1(tzinfo):
     ...     def utcoffset(self, dt):
     ...         return timedelta(hours=1)
     ...     def dst(self, dt):
     ...         return timedelta(0)
     ...     def tzname(self,dt):
     ...         return "+01:00"
     ...     def  __repr__(self):
     ...         return f"{self.__class__.__name__}()"
     ...
     >>> t = time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
     >>> t
     datetime.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
     >>> t.isoformat()
     '12:10:30+01:00'
     >>> t.dst()
     datetime.timedelta(0)
     >>> t.tzname()
     '+01:00'
     >>> t.strftime("%H:%M:%S %Z")
     '12:10:30 +01:00'
     >>> 'The {} is {:%H:%M}.'.format("time", t)
     'The time is 12:10.'


File: python.info,  Node: tzinfo 物件,  Next: timezone 物件,  Prev: time 物件,  Up: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別

5.8.1.14 ‘tzinfo’ 物件
......................

 -- 類別: datetime.tzinfo

     This is an abstract base class, meaning that this class should not
     be instantiated directly.  Define a subclass of *note tzinfo: 3d1.
     to capture information about a particular time zone.

     An instance of (a concrete subclass of) *note tzinfo: 3d1. can be
     passed to the constructors for *note datetime: 224. and *note time:
     6c5. objects.  The latter objects view their attributes as being in
     local time, and the *note tzinfo: 3d1. object supports methods
     revealing offset of local time from UTC, the name of the time zone,
     and DST offset, all relative to a date or time object passed to
     them.

     You need to derive a concrete subclass, and (at least) supply
     implementations of the standard *note tzinfo: 3d1. methods needed
     by the *note datetime: 224. methods you use.  The ‘datetime’ module
     provides *note timezone: f4e, a simple concrete subclass of *note
     tzinfo: 3d1. which can represent time zones with fixed offset from
     UTC such as UTC itself or North American EST and EDT.

     Special requirement for pickling: A *note tzinfo: 3d1. subclass
     must have an *note __init__(): 4ae. method that can be called with
     no arguments, otherwise it can be pickled but possibly not
     unpickled again.  This is a technical requirement that may be
     relaxed in the future.

     A concrete subclass of *note tzinfo: 3d1. may need to implement the
     following methods.  Exactly which methods are needed depends on the
     uses made of aware ‘datetime’ objects.  If in doubt, simply
     implement all of them.

 -- 方法: tzinfo.utcoffset (dt)

     Return offset of local time from UTC, as a *note timedelta: 813.
     object that is positive east of UTC. If local time is west of UTC,
     this should be negative.

     This represents the 'total' offset from UTC; for example, if a
     *note tzinfo: 3d1. object represents both time zone and DST
     adjustments, *note utcoffset(): 2213. should return their sum.  If
     the UTC offset isn't known, return ‘None’.  Else the value returned
     must be a *note timedelta: 813. object strictly between
     ‘-timedelta(hours=24)’ and ‘timedelta(hours=24)’ (the magnitude of
     the offset must be less than one day).  Most implementations of
     *note utcoffset(): 2213. will probably look like one of these two:

          return CONSTANT                 # fixed-offset class
          return CONSTANT + self.dst(dt)  # daylight-aware class

     If *note utcoffset(): 2213. does not return ‘None’, *note dst():
     2214. should not return ‘None’ either.

     The default implementation of *note utcoffset(): 2213. raises *note
     NotImplementedError: bc0.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number
     of minutes.

 -- 方法: tzinfo.dst (dt)

     Return the daylight saving time (DST) adjustment, as a *note
     timedelta: 813. object or ‘None’ if DST information isn't known.

     Return ‘timedelta(0)’ if DST is not in effect.  If DST is in
     effect, return the offset as a *note timedelta: 813. object (see
     *note utcoffset(): 2213. for details).  Note that DST offset, if
     applicable, has already been added to the UTC offset returned by
     *note utcoffset(): 2213, so there's no need to consult *note dst():
     2214. unless you're interested in obtaining DST info separately.
     For example, *note datetime.timetuple(): 21f9. calls its *note
     tzinfo: 21cf. attribute's *note dst(): 2214. method to determine
     how the *note tm_isdst: 21fa. flag should be set, and *note
     tzinfo.fromutc(): 21f7. calls *note dst(): 2214. to account for DST
     changes when crossing time zones.

     An instance 'tz' of a *note tzinfo: 3d1. subclass that models both
     standard and daylight times must be consistent in this sense:

     ‘tz.utcoffset(dt) - tz.dst(dt)’

     must return the same result for every *note datetime: 224. 'dt'
     with ‘dt.tzinfo == tz’.  For sane *note tzinfo: 3d1. subclasses,
     this expression yields the time zone's "standard offset", which
     should not depend on the date or the time, but only on geographic
     location.  The implementation of *note datetime.astimezone(): 814.
     relies on this, but cannot detect violations; it's the programmer's
     responsibility to ensure it.  If a *note tzinfo: 3d1. subclass
     cannot guarantee this, it may be able to override the default
     implementation of *note tzinfo.fromutc(): 21f7. to work correctly
     with *note astimezone(): 814. regardless.

     Most implementations of *note dst(): 2214. will probably look like
     one of these two:

          def dst(self, dt):
              # a fixed-offset class:  doesn't account for DST
              return timedelta(0)

     或是：

          def dst(self, dt):
              # Code to set dston and dstoff to the time zone's DST
              # transition times based on the input dt.year, and expressed
              # in standard local time.

              if dston <= dt.replace(tzinfo=None) < dstoff:
                  return timedelta(hours=1)
              else:
                  return timedelta(0)

     The default implementation of *note dst(): 2214. raises *note
     NotImplementedError: bc0.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The DST offset is not restricted to a whole number
     of minutes.

 -- 方法: tzinfo.tzname (dt)

     Return the time zone name corresponding to the *note datetime: 224.
     object 'dt', as a string.  Nothing about string names is defined by
     the ‘datetime’ module, and there's no requirement that it mean
     anything in particular.  For example, ‘"GMT"’, ‘"UTC"’, ‘"-500"’,
     ‘"-5:00"’, ‘"EDT"’, ‘"US/Eastern"’, ‘"America/New York"’ are all
     valid replies.  Return ‘None’ if a string name isn't known.  Note
     that this is a method rather than a fixed string primarily because
     some *note tzinfo: 3d1. subclasses will wish to return different
     names depending on the specific value of 'dt' passed, especially if
     the *note tzinfo: 3d1. class is accounting for daylight time.

     The default implementation of *note tzname(): 2215. raises *note
     NotImplementedError: bc0.

These methods are called by a *note datetime: 224. or *note time: 6c5.
object, in response to their methods of the same names.  A *note
datetime: 224. object passes itself as the argument, and a *note time:
6c5. object passes ‘None’ as the argument.  A *note tzinfo: 3d1.
subclass's methods should therefore be prepared to accept a 'dt'
argument of ‘None’, or of class *note datetime: 224.

When ‘None’ is passed, it's up to the class designer to decide the best
response.  For example, returning ‘None’ is appropriate if the class
wishes to say that time objects don't participate in the *note tzinfo:
3d1. protocols.  It may be more useful for ‘utcoffset(None)’ to return
the standard UTC offset, as there is no other convention for discovering
the standard offset.

When a *note datetime: 224. object is passed in response to a *note
datetime: 224. method, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is the same object as 'self'.  *note
tzinfo: 3d1. methods can rely on this, unless user code calls *note
tzinfo: 3d1. methods directly.  The intent is that the *note tzinfo:
3d1. methods interpret 'dt' as being in local time, and not need worry
about objects in other time zones.

There is one more *note tzinfo: 3d1. method that a subclass may wish to
override:

 -- 方法: tzinfo.fromutc (dt)

     This is called from the default *note datetime.astimezone(): 814.
     implementation.  When called from that, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is 'self', and
     'dt"s date and time data are to be viewed as expressing a UTC time.
     The purpose of *note fromutc(): 21f7. is to adjust the date and
     time data, returning an equivalent datetime in 'self"s local time.

     Most *note tzinfo: 3d1. subclasses should be able to inherit the
     default *note fromutc(): 21f7. implementation without problems.
     It's strong enough to handle fixed-offset time zones, and time
     zones accounting for both standard and daylight time, and the
     latter even if the DST transition times differ in different years.
     An example of a time zone the default *note fromutc(): 21f7.
     implementation may not handle correctly in all cases is one where
     the standard offset (from UTC) depends on the specific date and
     time passed, which can happen for political reasons.  The default
     implementations of *note astimezone(): 814. and *note fromutc():
     21f7. may not produce the result you want if the result is one of
     the hours straddling the moment the standard offset changes.

     Skipping code for error cases, the default *note fromutc(): 21f7.
     implementation acts like:

          def fromutc(self, dt):
              # raise ValueError error if dt.tzinfo is not self
              dtoff = dt.utcoffset()
              dtdst = dt.dst()
              # raise ValueError if dtoff is None or dtdst is None
              delta = dtoff - dtdst  # this is self's standard offset
              if delta:
                  dt += delta   # convert to standard local time
                  dtdst = dt.dst()
                  # raise ValueError if dtdst is None
              if dtdst:
                  return dt + dtdst
              else:
                  return dt

In the following ‘tzinfo_examples.py’ file there are some examples of
*note tzinfo: 3d1. classes:

     from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime

     ZERO = timedelta(0)
     HOUR = timedelta(hours=1)
     SECOND = timedelta(seconds=1)

     # A class capturing the platform's idea of local time.
     # (May result in wrong values on historical times in
     #  timezones where UTC offset and/or the DST rules had
     #  changed in the past.)
     import time as _time

     STDOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.timezone)
     if _time.daylight:
         DSTOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.altzone)
     else:
         DSTOFFSET = STDOFFSET

     DSTDIFF = DSTOFFSET - STDOFFSET

     class LocalTimezone(tzinfo):

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             stamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=self)) // SECOND
             args = _time.localtime(stamp)[:6]
             dst_diff = DSTDIFF // SECOND
             # Detect fold
             fold = (args == _time.localtime(stamp - dst_diff))
             return datetime(*args, microsecond=dt.microsecond,
                             tzinfo=self, fold=fold)

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             if self._isdst(dt):
                 return DSTOFFSET
             else:
                 return STDOFFSET

         def dst(self, dt):
             if self._isdst(dt):
                 return DSTDIFF
             else:
                 return ZERO

         def tzname(self, dt):
             return _time.tzname[self._isdst(dt)]

         def _isdst(self, dt):
             tt = (dt.year, dt.month, dt.day,
                   dt.hour, dt.minute, dt.second,
                   dt.weekday(), 0, 0)
             stamp = _time.mktime(tt)
             tt = _time.localtime(stamp)
             return tt.tm_isdst > 0

     Local = LocalTimezone()


     # A complete implementation of current DST rules for major US time zones.

     def first_sunday_on_or_after(dt):
         days_to_go = 6 - dt.weekday()
         if days_to_go:
             dt += timedelta(days_to_go)
         return dt


     # US DST Rules
     #
     # This is a simplified (i.e., wrong for a few cases) set of rules for US
     # DST start and end times. For a complete and up-to-date set of DST rules
     # and timezone definitions, visit the Olson Database (or try pytz):
     # http://www.twinsun.com/tz/tz-link.htm
     # https://sourceforge.net/projects/pytz/ (might not be up-to-date)
     #
     # In the US, since 2007, DST starts at 2am (standard time) on the second
     # Sunday in March, which is the first Sunday on or after Mar 8.
     DSTSTART_2007 = datetime(1, 3, 8, 2)
     # and ends at 2am (DST time) on the first Sunday of Nov.
     DSTEND_2007 = datetime(1, 11, 1, 2)
     # From 1987 to 2006, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the first
     # Sunday in April and to end at 2am (DST time) on the last
     # Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday on or after Oct 25.
     DSTSTART_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 4, 1, 2)
     DSTEND_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 10, 25, 2)
     # From 1967 to 1986, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the last
     # Sunday in April (the one on or after April 24) and to end at 2am (DST time)
     # on the last Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday
     # on or after Oct 25.
     DSTSTART_1967_1986 = datetime(1, 4, 24, 2)
     DSTEND_1967_1986 = DSTEND_1987_2006

     def us_dst_range(year):
         # Find start and end times for US DST. For years before 1967, return
         # start = end for no DST.
         if 2006 < year:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_2007, DSTEND_2007
         elif 1986 < year < 2007:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1987_2006, DSTEND_1987_2006
         elif 1966 < year < 1987:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1967_1986, DSTEND_1967_1986
         else:
             return (datetime(year, 1, 1), ) * 2

         start = first_sunday_on_or_after(dststart.replace(year=year))
         end = first_sunday_on_or_after(dstend.replace(year=year))
         return start, end


     class USTimeZone(tzinfo):

         def __init__(self, hours, reprname, stdname, dstname):
             self.stdoffset = timedelta(hours=hours)
             self.reprname = reprname
             self.stdname = stdname
             self.dstname = dstname

         def __repr__(self):
             return self.reprname

         def tzname(self, dt):
             if self.dst(dt):
                 return self.dstname
             else:
                 return self.stdname

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             return self.stdoffset + self.dst(dt)

         def dst(self, dt):
             if dt is None or dt.tzinfo is None:
                 # An exception may be sensible here, in one or both cases.
                 # It depends on how you want to treat them.  The default
                 # fromutc() implementation (called by the default astimezone()
                 # implementation) passes a datetime with dt.tzinfo is self.
                 return ZERO
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
             # Can't compare naive to aware objects, so strip the timezone from
             # dt first.
             dt = dt.replace(tzinfo=None)
             if start + HOUR <= dt < end - HOUR:
                 # DST is in effect.
                 return HOUR
             if end - HOUR <= dt < end:
                 # Fold (an ambiguous hour): use dt.fold to disambiguate.
                 return ZERO if dt.fold else HOUR
             if start <= dt < start + HOUR:
                 # Gap (a non-existent hour): reverse the fold rule.
                 return HOUR if dt.fold else ZERO
             # DST is off.
             return ZERO

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
             start = start.replace(tzinfo=self)
             end = end.replace(tzinfo=self)
             std_time = dt + self.stdoffset
             dst_time = std_time + HOUR
             if end <= dst_time < end + HOUR:
                 # Repeated hour
                 return std_time.replace(fold=1)
             if std_time < start or dst_time >= end:
                 # Standard time
                 return std_time
             if start <= std_time < end - HOUR:
                 # Daylight saving time
                 return dst_time


     Eastern  = USTimeZone(-5, "Eastern",  "EST", "EDT")
     Central  = USTimeZone(-6, "Central",  "CST", "CDT")
     Mountain = USTimeZone(-7, "Mountain", "MST", "MDT")
     Pacific  = USTimeZone(-8, "Pacific",  "PST", "PDT")

Note that there are unavoidable subtleties twice per year in a *note
tzinfo: 3d1. subclass accounting for both standard and daylight time, at
the DST transition points.  For concreteness, consider US Eastern (UTC
-0500), where EDT begins the minute after 1:59 (EST) on the second
Sunday in March, and ends the minute after 1:59 (EDT) on the first
Sunday in November:

       UTC   3:MM  4:MM  5:MM  6:MM  7:MM  8:MM
       EST  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM
       EDT  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM  4:MM

     start  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  3:MM  4:MM

       end  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM

When DST starts (the "start" line), the local wall clock leaps from 1:59
to 3:00.  A wall time of the form 2:MM doesn't really make sense on that
day, so ‘astimezone(Eastern)’ won't deliver a result with ‘hour == 2’ on
the day DST begins.  For example, at the Spring forward transition of
2016, we get:

     >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
     >>> from tzinfo_examples import HOUR, Eastern
     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 3, 13, 5, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname())
     ...
     05:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EST
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST
     07:00:00 UTC = 03:00:00 EDT
     08:00:00 UTC = 04:00:00 EDT

When DST ends (the "end" line), there's a potentially worse problem:
there's an hour that can't be spelled unambiguously in local wall time:
the last hour of daylight time.  In Eastern, that's times of the form
5:MM UTC on the day daylight time ends.  The local wall clock leaps from
1:59 (daylight time) back to 1:00 (standard time) again.  Local times of
the form 1:MM are ambiguous.  *note astimezone(): 814. mimics the local
clock's behavior by mapping two adjacent UTC hours into the same local
hour then.  In the Eastern example, UTC times of the form 5:MM and 6:MM
both map to 1:MM when converted to Eastern, but earlier times have the
*note fold: abd. attribute set to 0 and the later times have it set to
1.  For example, at the Fall back transition of 2016, we get:

     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
     ...
     04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
     05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
     07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

Note that the *note datetime: 224. instances that differ only by the
value of the *note fold: abd. attribute are considered equal in
comparisons.

Applications that can't bear wall-time ambiguities should explicitly
check the value of the *note fold: abd. attribute or avoid using hybrid
*note tzinfo: 3d1. subclasses; there are no ambiguities when using *note
timezone: f4e, or any other fixed-offset *note tzinfo: 3d1. subclass
(such as a class representing only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only
EDT (fixed offset -4 hours)).

也參考
......

     *note zoneinfo: 12e.

          The ‘datetime’ module has a basic *note timezone: f4e. class
          (for handling arbitrary fixed offsets from UTC) and its *note
          timezone.utc: 40d. attribute (a UTC ‘timezone’ instance).

          ‘zoneinfo’ brings the 'IANA time zone database' (also known as
          the Olson database) to Python, and its usage is recommended.

IANA 時區資料庫(1)

     The Time Zone Database (often called tz, tzdata or zoneinfo)
     contains code and data that represent the history of local time for
     many representative locations around the globe.  It is updated
     periodically to reflect changes made by political bodies to time
     zone boundaries, UTC offsets, and daylight-saving rules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.iana.org/time-zones


File: python.info,  Node: timezone 物件,  Next: strftime 與 strptime 的行為,  Prev: tzinfo 物件,  Up: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別

5.8.1.15 ‘timezone’ 物件
........................

The *note timezone: f4e. class is a subclass of *note tzinfo: 3d1, each
instance of which represents a time zone defined by a fixed offset from
UTC.

Objects of this class cannot be used to represent time zone information
in the locations where different offsets are used in different days of
the year or where historical changes have been made to civil time.

 -- 類別: datetime.timezone (offset, name=None)

     The 'offset' argument must be specified as a *note timedelta: 813.
     object representing the difference between the local time and UTC.
     It must be strictly between ‘-timedelta(hours=24)’ and
     ‘timedelta(hours=24)’, otherwise *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

     The 'name' argument is optional.  If specified it must be a string
     that will be used as the value returned by the *note
     datetime.tzname(): 21f8. method.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number
     of minutes.

 -- 方法: timezone.utcoffset (dt)

     Return the fixed value specified when the *note timezone: f4e.
     instance is constructed.

     The 'dt' argument is ignored.  The return value is a *note
     timedelta: 813. instance equal to the difference between the local
     time and UTC.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number
     of minutes.

 -- 方法: timezone.tzname (dt)

     Return the fixed value specified when the *note timezone: f4e.
     instance is constructed.

     If 'name' is not provided in the constructor, the name returned by
     ‘tzname(dt)’ is generated from the value of the ‘offset’ as
     follows.  If 'offset' is ‘timedelta(0)’, the name is "UTC",
     otherwise it is a string in the format ‘UTC±HH:MM’, where ± is the
     sign of ‘offset’, HH and MM are two digits of ‘offset.hours’ and
     ‘offset.minutes’ respectively.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Name generated from ‘offset=timedelta(0)’ is now
     plain ‘'UTC'’, not ‘'UTC+00:00'’.

 -- 方法: timezone.dst (dt)

     總是回傳 ‘None’。

 -- 方法: timezone.fromutc (dt)

     Return ‘dt + offset’.  The 'dt' argument must be an aware *note
     datetime: 224. instance, with ‘tzinfo’ set to ‘self’.

類別屬性：

 -- 屬性: timezone.utc

     UTC 時區，‘timezone(timedelta(0))’。


File: python.info,  Node: strftime 與 strptime 的行為,  Prev: timezone 物件,  Up: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別

5.8.1.16 ‘strftime()’ 與 ‘strptime()’ 的行為
............................................

*note date: 72f, *note datetime: 224, and *note time: 6c5. objects all
support a ‘strftime(format)’ method, to create a string representing the
time under the control of an explicit format string.

Conversely, the *note datetime.strptime(): 1408. class method creates a
*note datetime: 224. object from a string representing a date and time
and a corresponding format string.

The table below provides a high-level comparison of *note strftime():
afb. versus *note strptime(): 1408.:

                     ‘strftime’                                                   ‘strptime’
                                                                                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
用法                 Convert object to a string according to a given format       Parse a string into a *note datetime: 224. object given a corresponding format
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
Type of method       實例方法                                                     類別方法
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
Method of            *note date: 72f.; *note datetime: 224.; *note time: 6c5.     *note datetime: 224.
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
Signature            ‘strftime(format)’                                           ‘strptime(date_string, format)’
                                                                                  

* Menu:

* strftime() 與 strptime() 格式碼: strftime 與 strptime 格式碼.
* 技術細節::


File: python.info,  Node: strftime 與 strptime 格式碼,  Next: 技術細節,  Up: strftime 與 strptime 的行為

5.8.1.17 ‘strftime()’ 與 ‘strptime()’ 格式碼
............................................

These methods accept format codes that can be used to parse and format
dates:

     >>> datetime.strptime('31/01/22 23:59:59.999999',
     ...                   '%d/%m/%y %H:%M:%S.%f')
     datetime.datetime(2022, 1, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999)
     >>> _.strftime('%a %d %b %Y, %I:%M%p')
     'Mon 31 Jan 2022, 11:59PM'

The following is a list of all the format codes that the 1989 C standard
requires, and these work on all platforms with a standard C
implementation.

Directive       含義                                 範例                         註解
                                                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
‘%a’            Weekday as locale's abbreviated           Sun, Mon, ..., Sat (en_US);(1)
                name.                                     So, Mo, ..., Sa (de_DE) 
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%A’            Weekday as locale's full name.            Sunday, Monday, ..., Saturday (en_US);(1)
                                                          Sonntag, Montag, ..., Samstag (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%w’            Weekday as a decimal number, where   0, 1, ..., 6
                0 is Sunday and 6 is Saturday.       
                
                                                                                  
‘%d’            Day of the month as a zero-padded    01, 02, ..., 31              (9)
                decimal number.                                                   
                
                                                                                  
‘%b’            Month as locale's abbreviated             Jan, Feb, ..., Dec (en_US);(1)
                name.                                     Jan, Feb, ..., Dez (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%B’            Month as locale's full name.              January, February, ..., December (en_US);(1)
                                                          Januar, Februar, ..., Dezember (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%m’            以零填充的並以十進位數字表示的月份   01, 02, ..., 12              (9)
                。                                                                
                
                                                                                  
‘%y’            Year without century as a            00, 01, ..., 99              (9)
                zero-padded decimal number.                                       
                
                                                                                  
‘%Y’            Year with century as a decimal       0001, 0002, ..., 2013,       (2)
                number.                              2014, ..., 9998, 9999        
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%H’            Hour (24-hour clock) as a            00, 01, ..., 23              (9)
                zero-padded decimal number.                                       
                
                                                                                  
‘%I’            Hour (12-hour clock) as a            01, 02, ..., 12              (9)
                zero-padded decimal number.                                       
                
                                                                                  
‘%p’            Locale's equivalent of either AM          AM, PM (en_US);         (1), (3)
                or PM.                                    am, pm (de_DE)          
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%M’            Minute as a zero-padded decimal      00, 01, ..., 59              (9)
                number.                                                           
                
                                                                                  
‘%S’            Second as a zero-padded decimal      00, 01, ..., 59              (4), (9)
                number.                                                           
                
                                                                                  
‘%f’            Microsecond as a decimal number,     000000, 000001, ...,         (5)
                zero-padded to 6 digits.             999999                       
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%z’            UTC offset in the form               (empty), +0000, -0400,       (6)
                ‘±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]]’ (empty string   +1030, +063415,              
                if the object is naive).             -030712.345216
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%Z’            Time zone name (empty string if      (empty), UTC, GMT            (6)
                the object is naive).                                             
                
                                                                                  
‘%j’            Day of the year as a zero-padded     001, 002, ..., 366           (9)
                decimal number.                                                   
                
                                                                                  
‘%U’            Week number of the year (Sunday as   00, 01, ..., 53              (7), (9)
                the first day of the week) as a                                   
                zero-padded decimal number.  All
                days in a new year preceding the
                first Sunday are considered to be
                in week 0.
                
                                                                                  
‘%W’            Week number of the year (Monday as   00, 01, ..., 53              (7), (9)
                the first day of the week) as a                                   
                zero-padded decimal number.  All
                days in a new year preceding the
                first Monday are considered to be
                in week 0.
                
                                                                                  
‘%c’            Locale's appropriate date and time        Tue Aug 16 21:30:00 1988 (en_US);(1)
                representation.                           Di 16 Aug 21:30:00 1988 (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%x’            Locale's appropriate date                 08/16/88 (None);        (1)
                representation.                           08/16/1988 (en_US);     
                                                          16.08.1988 (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%X’            Locale's appropriate time                 21:30:00 (en_US);       (1)
                representation.                           21:30:00 (de_DE)        
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%%’            A literal ‘'%'’ character.           %
                                                     

Several additional directives not required by the C89 standard are
included for convenience.  These parameters all correspond to ISO 8601
date values.

Directive       含義                                 範例                         註解
                                                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
‘%G’            ISO 8601 year with century           0001, 0002, ..., 2013,       (8)
                representing the year that           2014, ..., 9998, 9999        
                contains the greater part of the     
                ISO week (‘%V’).
                
                                                                                  
‘%u’            ISO 8601 weekday as a decimal        1, 2, ..., 7
                number where 1 is Monday.            
                
                                                                                  
‘%V’            ISO 8601 week as a decimal number    01, 02, ..., 53              (8), (9)
                with Monday as the first day of                                   
                the week.  Week 01 is the week
                containing Jan 4.
                
                                                                                  
‘%:z’           UTC offset in the form               (empty), +00:00, -04:00,     (6)
                ‘±HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’ (empty        +10:30, +06:34:15,           
                string if the object is naive).      -03:07:12.345216
                                                     

These may not be available on all platforms when used with the *note
strftime(): afb. method.  The ISO 8601 year and ISO 8601 week directives
are not interchangeable with the year and week number directives above.
Calling *note strptime(): 1408. with incomplete or ambiguous ISO 8601
directives will raise a *note ValueError: 183.

The full set of format codes supported varies across platforms, because
Python calls the platform C library's ‘strftime()’ function, and
platform variations are common.  To see the full set of format codes
supported on your platform, consult the ‘strftime(3)(1)’ documentation.
There are also differences between platforms in handling of unsupported
format specifiers.

在 3.6 版被加入: 新增 ‘%G’、‘%u’ 與 ‘%V’。

在 3.12 版被加入: 新增 ‘%:z’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)


File: python.info,  Node: 技術細節,  Prev: strftime 與 strptime 格式碼,  Up: strftime 與 strptime 的行為

5.8.1.18 技術細節
.................

Broadly speaking, ‘d.strftime(fmt)’ acts like the *note time: e8.
module's ‘time.strftime(fmt, d.timetuple())’ although not all objects
support a *note timetuple(): 21e2. method.

For the *note datetime.strptime(): 1408. class method, the default value
is ‘1900-01-01T00:00:00.000’: any components not specified in the format
string will be pulled from the default value.  (1)

Using ‘datetime.strptime(date_string, format)’ is equivalent to:

     datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

except when the format includes sub-second components or time zone
offset information, which are supported in ‘datetime.strptime’ but are
discarded by ‘time.strptime’.

對 *note time: 6c5. 物件來說，不應該使用年、月、日的格式碼，因為 ‘time’
物件並沒有這些值。如果使用這些格式碼，年份會以 1900 代替、月及日會以 1 代
替。

對 *note date: 72f. 物件來說，不應該使用時、分、秒、微秒的格式碼，因為
*note date: 72f. 物件並沒有這些值。如果使用這些格式碼，這些值都會以 0 代
替。

For the same reason, handling of format strings containing Unicode code
points that can't be represented in the charset of the current locale is
also platform-dependent.  On some platforms such code points are
preserved intact in the output, while on others ‘strftime’ may raise
*note UnicodeError: 1137. or return an empty string instead.

註解：

  1. Because the format depends on the current locale, care should be
     taken when making assumptions about the output value.  Field
     orderings will vary (for example, "month/day/year" versus
     "day/month/year"), and the output may contain non-ASCII characters.

  2. The *note strptime(): 1408. method can parse years in the full [1,
     9999] range, but years < 1000 must be zero-filled to 4-digit width.

     在 3.2 版的變更: In previous versions, *note strftime(): afb.
     method was restricted to years >= 1900.

     在 3.3 版的變更: In version 3.2, *note strftime(): afb. method was
     restricted to years >= 1000.

  3. When used with the *note strptime(): 1408. method, the ‘%p’
     directive only affects the output hour field if the ‘%I’ directive
     is used to parse the hour.

  4. Unlike the *note time: e8. module, the ‘datetime’ module does not
     support leap seconds.

  5. When used with the *note strptime(): 1408. method, the ‘%f’
     directive accepts from one to six digits and zero pads on the
     right.  ‘%f’ is an extension to the set of format characters in the
     C standard (but implemented separately in datetime objects, and
     therefore always available).

  6. For a naive object, the ‘%z’, ‘%:z’ and ‘%Z’ format codes are
     replaced by empty strings.

     For an aware object:

     ‘%z’

          *note utcoffset(): 21f5. is transformed into a string of the
          form ‘±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]]’, where ‘HH’ is a 2-digit string
          giving the number of UTC offset hours, ‘MM’ is a 2-digit
          string giving the number of UTC offset minutes, ‘SS’ is a
          2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset seconds and
          ‘ffffff’ is a 6-digit string giving the number of UTC offset
          microseconds.  The ‘ffffff’ part is omitted when the offset is
          a whole number of seconds and both the ‘ffffff’ and the ‘SS’
          part is omitted when the offset is a whole number of minutes.
          For example, if *note utcoffset(): 21f5. returns
          ‘timedelta(hours=-3, minutes=-30)’, ‘%z’ is replaced with the
          string ‘'-0330'’.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number
     of minutes.

     在 3.7 版的變更: When the ‘%z’ directive is provided to the *note
     strptime(): 1408. method, the UTC offsets can have a colon as a
     separator between hours, minutes and seconds.  For example,
     ‘'+01:00:00'’ will be parsed as an offset of one hour.  In
     addition, providing ‘'Z'’ is identical to ‘'+00:00'’.

     ‘%:z’

          Behaves exactly as ‘%z’, but has a colon separator added
          between hours, minutes and seconds.

     ‘%Z’

          In *note strftime(): afb, ‘%Z’ is replaced by an empty string
          if *note tzname(): 21f8. returns ‘None’; otherwise ‘%Z’ is
          replaced by the returned value, which must be a string.

          *note strptime(): 1408. only accepts certain values for ‘%Z’:

            1. any value in ‘time.tzname’ for your machine's locale

            2. the hard-coded values ‘UTC’ and ‘GMT’

          So someone living in Japan may have ‘JST’, ‘UTC’, and ‘GMT’ as
          valid values, but probably not ‘EST’.  It will raise
          ‘ValueError’ for invalid values.

     在 3.2 版的變更: When the ‘%z’ directive is provided to the *note
     strptime(): 1408. method, an aware *note datetime: 224. object will
     be produced.  The ‘tzinfo’ of the result will be set to a *note
     timezone: f4e. instance.

  7. When used with the *note strptime(): 1408. method, ‘%U’ and ‘%W’
     are only used in calculations when the day of the week and the
     calendar year (‘%Y’) are specified.

  8. Similar to ‘%U’ and ‘%W’, ‘%V’ is only used in calculations when
     the day of the week and the ISO year (‘%G’) are specified in a
     *note strptime(): 1408. format string.  Also note that ‘%G’ and
     ‘%Y’ are not interchangeable.

  9. When used with the *note strptime(): 1408. method, the leading zero
     is optional for formats ‘%d’, ‘%m’, ‘%H’, ‘%I’, ‘%M’, ‘%S’, ‘%j’,
     ‘%U’, ‘%W’, and ‘%V’.  Format ‘%y’ does require a leading zero.

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Passing ‘datetime.strptime('Feb 29', '%b %d')’ will fail since
1900 is not a leap year.


File: python.info,  Node: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援,  Next: calendar --- 日曆相關函式,  Prev: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.2 ‘zoneinfo’ -- IANA 時區支援
---------------------------------

在 3.9 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/zoneinfo(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note zoneinfo: 12e. module provides a concrete time zone
implementation to support the IANA time zone database as originally
specified in PEP 615(2).  By default, *note zoneinfo: 12e. uses the
system's time zone data if available; if no system time zone data is
available, the library will fall back to using the first-party tzdata(3)
package available on PyPI.

也參考
......

*note datetime: 2e. 模組

     Provides the *note time: 6c5. and *note datetime: 224. types with
     which the *note ZoneInfo: 718. class is designed to be used.

Package tzdata(4)

     First-party package maintained by the CPython core developers to
     supply time zone data via PyPI.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

* Menu:

* Using ZoneInfo::
* Data sources::
* The ZoneInfo class::
* 函式: 函式<2>.
* Globals::
* Exceptions and warnings::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/zoneinfo

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/


File: python.info,  Node: Using ZoneInfo,  Next: Data sources,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援

5.8.2.1 Using ‘ZoneInfo’
........................

*note ZoneInfo: 718. is a concrete implementation of the *note
datetime.tzinfo: 3d1. abstract base class, and is intended to be
attached to ‘tzinfo’, either via the constructor, the *note
datetime.replace: 1342. method or *note datetime.astimezone: 814.:

     >>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
     >>> from datetime import datetime, timedelta

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00

     >>> dt.tzname()
     'PDT'

Datetimes constructed in this way are compatible with datetime
arithmetic and handle daylight saving time transitions with no further
intervention:

     >>> dt_add = dt + timedelta(days=1)

     >>> print(dt_add)
     2020-11-01 12:00:00-08:00

     >>> dt_add.tzname()
     'PST'

These time zones also support the *note fold: abd. attribute introduced
in PEP 495(1).  During offset transitions which induce ambiguous times
(such as a daylight saving time to standard time transition), the offset
from 'before' the transition is used when ‘fold=0’, and the offset
'after' the transition is used when ‘fold=1’, for example:

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 11, 1, 1, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

     >>> print(dt.replace(fold=1))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

When converting from another time zone, the fold will be set to the
correct value:

     >>> from datetime import timezone
     >>> LOS_ANGELES = ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles")
     >>> dt_utc = datetime(2020, 11, 1, 8, tzinfo=timezone.utc)

     >>> # Before the PDT -> PST transition
     >>> print(dt_utc.astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

     >>> # After the PDT -> PST transition
     >>> print((dt_utc + timedelta(hours=1)).astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/


File: python.info,  Node: Data sources,  Next: The ZoneInfo class,  Prev: Using ZoneInfo,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援

5.8.2.2 Data sources
....................

The ‘zoneinfo’ module does not directly provide time zone data, and
instead pulls time zone information from the system time zone database
or the first-party PyPI package tzdata(1), if available.  Some systems,
including notably Windows systems, do not have an IANA database
available, and so for projects targeting cross-platform compatibility
that require time zone data, it is recommended to declare a dependency
on tzdata.  If neither system data nor tzdata are available, all calls
to *note ZoneInfo: 718. will raise *note ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 2223.

* Menu:

* Configuring the data sources::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring the data sources,  Up: Data sources

5.8.2.3 Configuring the data sources
....................................

When ‘ZoneInfo(key)’ is called, the constructor first searches the
directories specified in *note TZPATH: 1b62. for a file matching ‘key’,
and on failure looks for a match in the tzdata package.  This behavior
can be configured in three ways:

  1. The default *note TZPATH: 1b62. when not otherwise specified can be
     configured at *note compile time: 1b63.

  2. *note TZPATH: 1b62. can be configured using *note an environment
     variable: 2226.

  3. At *note runtime: 2227, the search path can be manipulated using
     the *note reset_tzpath(): 2228. function.

* Menu:

* Compile-time configuration::
* Environment configuration::
* Runtime configuration::


File: python.info,  Node: Compile-time configuration,  Next: Environment configuration,  Up: Configuring the data sources

5.8.2.4 Compile-time configuration
..................................

The default *note TZPATH: 1b62. includes several common deployment
locations for the time zone database (except on Windows, where there are
no "well-known" locations for time zone data).  On POSIX systems,
downstream distributors and those building Python from source who know
where their system time zone data is deployed may change the default
time zone path by specifying the compile-time option ‘TZPATH’ (or, more
likely, the *note configure flag -with-tzpath: 1b61.), which should be a
string delimited by *note os.pathsep: 1b36.

On all platforms, the configured value is available as the ‘TZPATH’ key
in *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): ebf.


File: python.info,  Node: Environment configuration,  Next: Runtime configuration,  Prev: Compile-time configuration,  Up: Configuring the data sources

5.8.2.5 Environment configuration
.................................

When initializing *note TZPATH: 1b62. (either at import time or whenever
*note reset_tzpath(): 2228. is called with no arguments), the ‘zoneinfo’
module will use the environment variable ‘PYTHONTZPATH’, if it exists,
to set the search path.

 -- 環境變數: PYTHONTZPATH

     This is an *note os.pathsep: 1b36.-separated string containing the
     time zone search path to use.  It must consist of only absolute
     rather than relative paths.  Relative components specified in
     ‘PYTHONTZPATH’ will not be used, but otherwise the behavior when a
     relative path is specified is implementation-defined; CPython will
     raise *note InvalidTZPathWarning: 222c, but other implementations
     are free to silently ignore the erroneous component or raise an
     exception.

To set the system to ignore the system data and use the tzdata package
instead, set ‘PYTHONTZPATH=""’.


File: python.info,  Node: Runtime configuration,  Prev: Environment configuration,  Up: Configuring the data sources

5.8.2.6 Runtime configuration
.............................

The TZ search path can also be configured at runtime using the *note
reset_tzpath(): 2228. function.  This is generally not an advisable
operation, though it is reasonable to use it in test functions that
require the use of a specific time zone path (or require disabling
access to the system time zones).


File: python.info,  Node: The ZoneInfo class,  Next: 函式<2>,  Prev: Data sources,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援

5.8.2.7 The ‘ZoneInfo’ class
............................

 -- 類別: zoneinfo.ZoneInfo (key)

     A concrete *note datetime.tzinfo: 3d1. subclass that represents an
     IANA time zone specified by the string ‘key’.  Calls to the primary
     constructor will always return objects that compare identically;
     put another way, barring cache invalidation via *note
     ZoneInfo.clear_cache(): 222f, for all values of ‘key’, the
     following assertion will always be true:

          a = ZoneInfo(key)
          b = ZoneInfo(key)
          assert a is b

     ‘key’ must be in the form of a relative, normalized POSIX path,
     with no up-level references.  The constructor will raise *note
     ValueError: 183. if a non-conforming key is passed.

     If no file matching ‘key’ is found, the constructor will raise
     *note ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 2223.

The ‘ZoneInfo’ class has two alternate constructors:

 -- 方法: classmethod ZoneInfo.from_file (fobj, /, key=None)

     Constructs a ‘ZoneInfo’ object from a file-like object returning
     bytes (e.g.  a file opened in binary mode or an *note io.BytesIO:
     d24. object).  Unlike the primary constructor, this always
     constructs a new object.

     The ‘key’ parameter sets the name of the zone for the purposes of
     *note __str__(): 418. and *note __repr__(): 416.

     Objects created via this constructor cannot be pickled (see *note
     pickling: 2231.).

 -- 方法: classmethod ZoneInfo.no_cache (key)

     An alternate constructor that bypasses the constructor's cache.  It
     is identical to the primary constructor, but returns a new object
     on each call.  This is most likely to be useful for testing or
     demonstration purposes, but it can also be used to create a system
     with a different cache invalidation strategy.

     Objects created via this constructor will also bypass the cache of
     a deserializing process when unpickled.

          警示: Using this constructor may change the semantics of your
          datetimes in surprising ways, only use it if you know that you
          need to.

The following class methods are also available:

 -- 方法: classmethod ZoneInfo.clear_cache (*, only_keys=None)

     A method for invalidating the cache on the ‘ZoneInfo’ class.  If no
     arguments are passed, all caches are invalidated and the next call
     to the primary constructor for each key will return a new instance.

     If an iterable of key names is passed to the ‘only_keys’ parameter,
     only the specified keys will be removed from the cache.  Keys
     passed to ‘only_keys’ but not found in the cache are ignored.

          警告: Invoking this function may change the semantics of
          datetimes using ‘ZoneInfo’ in surprising ways; this modifies
          module state and thus may have wide-ranging effects.  Only use
          it if you know that you need to.

The class has one attribute:

 -- 屬性: ZoneInfo.key

     This is a read-only *note attribute: 2234. that returns the value
     of ‘key’ passed to the constructor, which should be a lookup key in
     the IANA time zone database (e.g.  ‘America/New_York’,
     ‘Europe/Paris’ or ‘Asia/Tokyo’).

     For zones constructed from file without specifying a ‘key’
     parameter, this will be set to ‘None’.

          備註: Although it is a somewhat common practice to expose
          these to end users, these values are designed to be primary
          keys for representing the relevant zones and not necessarily
          user-facing elements.  Projects like CLDR (the Unicode Common
          Locale Data Repository) can be used to get more user-friendly
          strings from these keys.

* Menu:

* String representations::
* Pickle serialization::


File: python.info,  Node: String representations,  Next: Pickle serialization,  Up: The ZoneInfo class

5.8.2.8 String representations
..............................

The string representation returned when calling *note str: 157. on a
*note ZoneInfo: 718. object defaults to using the *note ZoneInfo.key:
2233. attribute (see the note on usage in the attribute documentation):

     >>> zone = ZoneInfo("Pacific/Kwajalein")
     >>> str(zone)
     'Pacific/Kwajalein'

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 4, 1, 3, 15, tzinfo=zone)
     >>> f"{dt.isoformat()} [{dt.tzinfo}]"
     '2020-04-01T03:15:00+12:00 [Pacific/Kwajalein]'

For objects constructed from a file without specifying a ‘key’
parameter, ‘str’ falls back to calling *note repr(): 61e.  ‘ZoneInfo’'s
‘repr’ is implementation-defined and not necessarily stable between
versions, but it is guaranteed not to be a valid ‘ZoneInfo’ key.


File: python.info,  Node: Pickle serialization,  Prev: String representations,  Up: The ZoneInfo class

5.8.2.9 Pickle serialization
............................

Rather than serializing all transition data, ‘ZoneInfo’ objects are
serialized by key, and ‘ZoneInfo’ objects constructed from files (even
those with a value for ‘key’ specified) cannot be pickled.

The behavior of a ‘ZoneInfo’ file depends on how it was constructed:

  1. ‘ZoneInfo(key)’: When constructed with the primary constructor, a
     ‘ZoneInfo’ object is serialized by key, and when deserialized, the
     deserializing process uses the primary and thus it is expected that
     these are expected to be the same object as other references to the
     same time zone.  For example, if ‘europe_berlin_pkl’ is a string
     containing a pickle constructed from ‘ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")’,
     one would expect the following behavior:

          >>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
          >>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl)
          >>> a is b
          True

  2. ‘ZoneInfo.no_cache(key)’: When constructed from the cache-bypassing
     constructor, the ‘ZoneInfo’ object is also serialized by key, but
     when deserialized, the deserializing process uses the cache
     bypassing constructor.  If ‘europe_berlin_pkl_nc’ is a string
     containing a pickle constructed from
     ‘ZoneInfo.no_cache("Europe/Berlin")’, one would expect the
     following behavior:

          >>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
          >>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl_nc)
          >>> a is b
          False

  3. ‘ZoneInfo.from_file(fobj, /, key=None)’: When constructed from a
     file, the ‘ZoneInfo’ object raises an exception on pickling.  If an
     end user wants to pickle a ‘ZoneInfo’ constructed from a file, it
     is recommended that they use a wrapper type or a custom
     serialization function: either serializing by key or storing the
     contents of the file object and serializing that.

This method of serialization requires that the time zone data for the
required key be available on both the serializing and deserializing
side, similar to the way that references to classes and functions are
expected to exist in both the serializing and deserializing
environments.  It also means that no guarantees are made about the
consistency of results when unpickling a ‘ZoneInfo’ pickled in an
environment with a different version of the time zone data.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<2>,  Next: Globals,  Prev: The ZoneInfo class,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援

5.8.2.10 函式
.............

 -- 函式: zoneinfo.available_timezones ()

     Get a set containing all the valid keys for IANA time zones
     available anywhere on the time zone path.  This is recalculated on
     every call to the function.

     This function only includes canonical zone names and does not
     include "special" zones such as those under the ‘posix/’ and
     ‘right/’ directories, or the ‘posixrules’ zone.

          警示: This function may open a large number of files, as the
          best way to determine if a file on the time zone path is a
          valid time zone is to read the "magic string" at the
          beginning.

          備註: These values are not designed to be exposed to
          end-users; for user facing elements, applications should use
          something like CLDR (the Unicode Common Locale Data
          Repository) to get more user-friendly strings.  See also the
          cautionary note on *note ZoneInfo.key: 2233.

 -- 函式: zoneinfo.reset_tzpath (to=None)

     Sets or resets the time zone search path (*note TZPATH: 1b62.) for
     the module.  When called with no arguments, *note TZPATH: 1b62. is
     set to the default value.

     Calling ‘reset_tzpath’ will not invalidate the *note ZoneInfo: 718.
     cache, and so calls to the primary ‘ZoneInfo’ constructor will only
     use the new ‘TZPATH’ in the case of a cache miss.

     The ‘to’ parameter must be a *note sequence: 238. of strings or
     *note os.PathLike: ab7. and not a string, all of which must be
     absolute paths.  *note ValueError: 183. will be raised if something
     other than an absolute path is passed.


File: python.info,  Node: Globals,  Next: Exceptions and warnings,  Prev: 函式<2>,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援

5.8.2.11 Globals
................

 -- 資料: zoneinfo.TZPATH

     A read-only sequence representing the time zone search path - when
     constructing a ‘ZoneInfo’ from a key, the key is joined to each
     entry in the ‘TZPATH’, and the first file found is used.

     ‘TZPATH’ may contain only absolute paths, never relative paths,
     regardless of how it is configured.

     The object that ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’ points to may change in response
     to a call to *note reset_tzpath(): 2228, so it is recommended to
     use ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’ rather than importing ‘TZPATH’ from
     ‘zoneinfo’ or assigning a long-lived variable to ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’.

     For more information on configuring the time zone search path, see
     *note Configuring the data sources: 2225.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions and warnings,  Prev: Globals,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援

5.8.2.12 Exceptions and warnings
................................

 -- 例外: zoneinfo.ZoneInfoNotFoundError

     Raised when construction of a *note ZoneInfo: 718. object fails
     because the specified key could not be found on the system.  This
     is a subclass of *note KeyError: 8ed.

 -- 例外: zoneinfo.InvalidTZPathWarning

     Raised when *note PYTHONTZPATH: 222b. contains an invalid component
     that will be filtered out, such as a relative path.


File: python.info,  Node: calendar --- 日曆相關函式,  Next: collections --- 容器資料型態,  Prev: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.3 ‘calendar’ -- 日曆相關函式
--------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/calendar.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組讓你可以像 Unix 的 ‘cal’ 程式一樣輸出日曆，並額外提供有用的日曆
相關函式。這些日曆預設把週一當作一週的第一天，而週日當作最後一天（歐洲的
慣例）。可以使用 *note setfirstweekday(): 223c. 設定一週的第一天為週日
(6) 或一週的其它任一天，其中指定日期的參數是整數。相關功能參考 *note
datetime: 2e. 和 *note time: e8. 模組。

這個模組定義的函式和類別使用理想化的日曆，也就是公曆 (Gregorian
calendar) 無限往前後兩個方向延伸。這符合 Dershowitz 和 Reingold 在「
Calendrical Calculations」這本書定義的「逆推公曆」(proleptic Gregorian)，
是做所有計算的基礎日曆。0 及負數年份的解讀跟 ISO 8601 標準裡規定的一樣，
0 年是公元前 1 年，-1 年是公元前 2 年依此類推。

 -- 類別: calendar.Calendar (firstweekday=0)

     建立 *note Calendar: 223d. 物件。'firstweekday' 是一個指定一週第一
     天的整數，*note MONDAY: 223e. 是 ‘0’（預設值），*note SUNDAY: 223f.
     是 ‘6’。

     *note Calendar: 223d. 物件提供一些方法來為日曆資料的格式化做準備。
     這個類別本身不做任何格式化，這是子類別的工作。

     *note Calendar: 223d. 實例有以下方法：

      -- 方法: iterweekdays ()

          回傳一個以數字代表一週的每一天的疊代器 (iterator)。疊代器的第
          一個值和 *note firstweekday: 2241. 屬性的值一樣。

      -- 方法: itermonthdates (year, month)

          回傳一個在 'year' 年 'month' (1-12) 月的疊代器。這個疊代器會回
          傳該月的所有日期（*note datetime.date: 72f. 物件）以及在該月之
          前及之後用來組成完整一週的日期。

      -- 方法: itermonthdays (year, month)

          類似 *note itermonthdates(): a7c.，回傳一個在 'year' 年
          'month' 月的疊代器，但不受限於 *note datetime.date: 72f. 的範
          圍。回傳的日期單純是該月當日的數字，對於該月之外的日期數字會是
          ‘0’。

      -- 方法: itermonthdays2 (year, month)

          類似 *note itermonthdates(): a7c.，回傳一個在 'year' 年
          'month' 月的疊代器，但不受限於 *note datetime.date: 72f. 的範
          圍。回傳的日期是一個由該月當日的數字及代表週幾的數字組成的元組
          。

      -- 方法: itermonthdays3 (year, month)

          類似 *note itermonthdates(): a7c.，回傳一個在 'year' 年
          'month' 月的疊代器，但不受限於 *note datetime.date: 72f. 的範
          圍。回傳的日期是一個由年、月、日的數字組成的元組。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 方法: itermonthdays4 (year, month)

          類似 *note itermonthdates(): a7c.，回傳一個在 'year' 年
          'month' 月的疊代器，但不受限於 *note datetime.date: 72f. 的範
          圍。回傳的日期是一個由年、月、日及代表週幾的數字組成的元組。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 方法: monthdatescalendar (year, month)

          回傳一個在 'year' 年 'month' 月每一週組成的串列。每一週是一個
          串列，包含七個 *note datetime.date: 72f. 物件。

      -- 方法: monthdays2calendar (year, month)

          回傳一個在 'year' 年 'month' 月每一週組成的串列。每一週是一個
          串列，包含七個該月當日的數字及代表週幾的數字組成的元組。

      -- 方法: monthdayscalendar (year, month)

          回傳一個在 'year' 年 'month' 月每一週組成的串列。每一週是一個
          串列，包含七個該月當日的數字。

      -- 方法: yeardatescalendar (year, width=3)

          回傳用來格式化的指定年份的資料。回傳值是月份列的串列，每個月份
          列最多由 'width' 個月份組成（預設為 3）。每個月份包含四到六週
          ，每一週包含一到七天，每一天則是一個 *note datetime.date: 72f.
          物件。

      -- 方法: yeardays2calendar (year, width=3)

          回傳用來格式化的指定年份的資料（類似 *note
          yeardatescalendar(): 2247.）。每一天是一個該月當日的數字及代表
          週幾的數字組成的元組，該月外的日期的該月當日數字為 0。

      -- 方法: yeardayscalendar (year, width=3)

          回傳用來格式化的指定年份的資料（類似 *note
          yeardatescalendar(): 2247.）。每一天是一個該月當日的數字，該月
          外的日期的該月當日數字為 0。

 -- 類別: calendar.TextCalendar (firstweekday=0)

     這個類別用來產生純文字的日曆。

     *note TextCalendar: 224a. 實例有以下方法：

      -- 方法: formatmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

          以多行字串的形式回傳一個月份的日曆。如果給定 'w'，它會指定置中
          的日期欄的寬度。如果給定 'l'，它會指定每一週使用的行數。這個日
          曆會依據在建構函式中指定或者透過 *note setfirstweekday():
          223c. 方法設定的一週的第一天來輸出。

      -- 方法: prmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

          印出一個月份的日曆，內容和 *note formatmonth(): 224b. 回傳的一
          樣。

      -- 方法: formatyear (theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

          以多行字串的形式回傳有 'm' 欄的一整年的日曆。可選的參數 'w'、
          'l' 及 'c' 分別是日期欄寬度、每週行數及月份欄中間的空白數。這
          個日曆會依據在建構函式中指定或者透過 *note setfirstweekday():
          223c. 方法設定的一週的第一天來輸出。最早可以產生日曆的年份會依
          據平台而不同。

      -- 方法: pryear (theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

          印出一整年的日曆，內容和 *note formatyear(): 224d. 回傳的一樣
          。

 -- 類別: calendar.HTMLCalendar (firstweekday=0)

     這個類別用來產生 HTML 日曆。

     ‘HTMLCalendar’ 實例有以下方法：

      -- 方法: formatmonth (theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

          以 HTML 表格的形式回傳一個月份的日曆。如果 'withyear' 是 true
          則標題會包含年份，否則只會有月份名稱。

      -- 方法: formatyear (theyear, width=3)

          以 HTML 表格的形式回傳一整年的日曆。'width'（預設為 3）指定一
          列有幾個月。

      -- 方法: formatyearpage (theyear, width=3, css='calendar.css',
               encoding=None)

          以完整 HTML 頁面的形式回傳一整年的日曆。'width'（預設為 3）指
          定一列有幾個月。'css' 是要使用的 CSS (cascading style sheet) 名
          稱，可以給 *note None: 470. 表示不使用任何 CSS。'encoding' 指
          定輸出使用的編碼（預設使用系統預設編碼）。

      -- 方法: formatmonthname (theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

          以 HTML 表列的形式回傳一個月份的名稱。如果 'withyear' 是 true
          則該列會包含年份，否則只會有月份名稱。

     ‘HTMLCalendar’ 可以覆寫以下屬性來客製日曆所使用的 CSS 類別：

      -- 屬性: cssclasses

          對應一週每一天 CSS 類別的串列。預設的串列內容為：

               cssclasses = ["mon", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun"]

          可以針對每一天增加更多樣式：

               cssclasses = ["mon text-bold", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun red"]

          注意這個串列的長度必須是七個項目。

      -- 屬性: cssclass_noday

          跟當月為同一週且屬於前一個或下一個月份的日期使用的 CSS 類別。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: cssclasses_weekday_head

          在標題列中一週每一天名稱的 CSS 類別的串列。預設內容和 *note
          cssclasses: 2253. 相同。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: cssclass_month_head

          月份標題的 CSS 類別（由 *note formatmonthname(): 2252. 所使用
          ），預設值是 ‘"month"’。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: cssclass_month

          整個月份表格的 CSS 類別（由 *note formatmonth(): 224f. 所使用
          ），預設值是 ‘"month"’。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: cssclass_year

          整年表格的 CSS 類別（由 *note formatyear(): 2250. 所使用），預
          設值是 ‘"year"’。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: cssclass_year_head

          整年表格標題的 CSS 類別（由 *note formatyear(): 2250. 所使用）
          ，預設值是 ‘"year"’。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

     注意雖然上面提到的 CSS 屬性名稱是單數（例如 ‘cssclass_month’、
     ‘cssclass_noday’），你可以使用多個以空格隔開的 CSS 類別取代單一 CSS
     類別，例如：

          "text-bold text-red"

     以下是客製化 ‘HTMLCalendar’ 的範例：

          class CustomHTMLCal(calendar.HTMLCalendar):
              cssclasses = [style + " text-nowrap" for style in
                            calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses]
              cssclass_month_head = "text-center month-head"
              cssclass_month = "text-center month"
              cssclass_year = "text-italic lead"

 -- 類別: calendar.LocaleTextCalendar (firstweekday=0, locale=None)

     *note TextCalendar: 224a. 的子類別，可以在建構函式傳入語系名稱，它
     會回傳指定語系的月份及一週每一天的名稱。

 -- 類別: calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar (firstweekday=0, locale=None)

     *note HTMLCalendar: 97a. 的子類別，可以在建構函式傳入語系名稱，它會
     回傳指定語系的月份及一週每一天的名稱。

     備註: 這兩個類別的建構函式、‘formatweekday()’ 及
     ‘formatmonthname()’ 方法會把 ‘LC_TIME’ 語系暫時改成給定的 'locale'。
     因為目前的語系是屬於整個行程 (process-wide) 的設定，它們不是執行緒
     安全的。

這個模組提供以下函式給單純的文字日曆使用。

 -- 函式: calendar.setfirstweekday (weekday)

     設定一週的第一天（‘0’ 是週一、‘6’ 是週日）。提供 *note MONDAY:
     223e.、*note TUESDAY: 225a.、*note WEDNESDAY: 225b.、*note
     THURSDAY: 225c.、*note FRIDAY: 225d.、*note SATURDAY: 225e. 及
     *note SUNDAY: 223f. 可以方便設定。例如設定一週的第一天為週日：

          import calendar
          calendar.setfirstweekday(calendar.SUNDAY)

 -- 函式: calendar.firstweekday ()

     回傳目前設定的一週的第一天。

 -- 函式: calendar.isleap (year)

     如果 'year' 是閏年回傳 *note True: a70.，否則回傳 *note False:
     98f.。

 -- 函式: calendar.leapdays (y1, y2)

     回傳從 'y1' 到 'y2'（不包含）間有幾個閏年，其中 'y1' 和 'y2' 是年份
     。

     這個函式也適用在跨越世紀的時間範圍。

 -- 函式: calendar.weekday (year, month, day)

     回傳 'year' 年 (‘1970’-...)  'month' 月 (‘1’-‘12’) 'day' 日
     (‘1’-‘31’) 是週幾（‘0’ 是星期一）。

 -- 函式: calendar.weekheader (n)

     回傳包含一週每一天的名稱縮寫的標題。'n' 指定每一天的字元寬度。

 -- 函式: calendar.monthrange (year, month)

     回傳指定 'year' 年 'month' 月該月第一天代表週幾的數字及該月有多少天
     。

 -- 函式: calendar.monthcalendar (year, month)

     回傳代表一個月份日曆的矩陣。每一列為一週；該月以外的日期以 0 表示。
     每一週以週一開始，除非有使用 *note setfirstweekday(): 223c. 改變設
     定。

 -- 函式: calendar.prmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

     印出一個月份的日曆，跟 *note month(): 2266. 回傳的內容一樣。

 -- 函式: calendar.month (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

     以多行字串的形式回傳一個月的日曆，使用 *note TextCalendar: 224a. 類
     別的 *note formatmonth(): 224b.。

 -- 函式: calendar.prcal (year, w=0, l=0, c=6, m=3)

     印出一整年的日曆，跟 *note calendar(): 12. 回傳的內容一樣。

 -- 函式: calendar.calendar (year, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

     以多行字串回傳三欄形式的一整年日曆，使用 *note TextCalendar: 224a.
     類別的 *note formatyear(): 224d.。

 -- 函式: calendar.timegm (tuple)

     一個跟日曆無關但方便的函式，它接受一個像 *note time: e8. 模組裡的
     *note gmtime(): 1051. 函式回傳的元組，並回傳對應的 Unix 時間戳，假
     設從 1970 開始及 POSIX 編碼。事實上，*note time.gmtime(): 1051. 和
     *note timegm(): 2269. 是彼此相反的。

*note calendar: 12. 模組匯出以下資料屬性：

 -- 資料: calendar.day_name

     A sequence that represents the days of the week in the current
     locale, where Monday is day number 0.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.day_name)
          ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday', 'Sunday']

 -- 資料: calendar.day_abbr

     A sequence that represents the abbreviated days of the week in the
     current locale, where Mon is day number 0.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.day_abbr)
          ['Mon', 'Tue', 'Wed', 'Thu', 'Fri', 'Sat', 'Sun']

 -- 資料: calendar.MONDAY
 -- 資料: calendar.TUESDAY
 -- 資料: calendar.WEDNESDAY
 -- 資料: calendar.THURSDAY
 -- 資料: calendar.FRIDAY
 -- 資料: calendar.SATURDAY
 -- 資料: calendar.SUNDAY

     一週每一天的別名，其中 ‘MONDAY’ 是 ‘0’ 而 ‘SUNDAY’ 是 ‘6’。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 類別: calendar.Day

     將一週中的幾天定義為整數常數的列舉。此列舉的成員將作為 *note
     MONDAY: 223e. 到 *note SUNDAY: 223f. 匯出到模組作用域。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 資料: calendar.month_name

     A sequence that represents the months of the year in the current
     locale.  This follows normal convention of January being month
     number 1, so it has a length of 13 and ‘month_name[0]’ is the empty
     string.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.month_name)
          ['', 'January', 'February', 'March', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'July', 'August', 'September', 'October', 'November', 'December']

 -- 資料: calendar.month_abbr

     A sequence that represents the abbreviated months of the year in
     the current locale.  This follows normal convention of January
     being month number 1, so it has a length of 13 and ‘month_abbr[0]’
     is the empty string.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.month_abbr)
          ['', 'Jan', 'Feb', 'Mar', 'Apr', 'May', 'Jun', 'Jul', 'Aug', 'Sep', 'Oct', 'Nov', 'Dec']

 -- 資料: calendar.JANUARY
 -- 資料: calendar.FEBRUARY
 -- 資料: calendar.MARCH
 -- 資料: calendar.APRIL
 -- 資料: calendar.MAY
 -- 資料: calendar.JUNE
 -- 資料: calendar.JULY
 -- 資料: calendar.AUGUST
 -- 資料: calendar.SEPTEMBER
 -- 資料: calendar.OCTOBER
 -- 資料: calendar.NOVEMBER
 -- 資料: calendar.DECEMBER

     一年內每個月的別名，其中 ‘JANUARY’ 是 ‘ㄅ’ 而 ‘DECEMBER’ 是 ‘12’。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 類別: calendar.Month

     將一年中的月份定義為整數常數的列舉。此列舉的成員將作為 *note
     JANUARY: 221. 到 *note DECEMBER: 2277. 匯出到模組作用域。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

*note calendar: 12. 模組定義了以下例外：

 -- 例外: calendar.IllegalMonthError (month)

     *note ValueError: 183. 的子類別，當給定的月份數字超出 1-12 範圍（含
     ）時引發。

      -- 屬性: month

          無效的月份號。

 -- 例外: calendar.IllegalWeekdayError (weekday)

     *note ValueError: 183. 的子類別，當給定的週幾的數字超出 0-6（含）範
     圍時引發。

      -- 屬性: weekday

          無效的週幾編號。

也參考
......

*note datetime: 2e. 模組

     日期與時間的物件導向介面，和 *note time: e8. 模組有相似的功能。

*note time: e8. 模組

     底層的時間相關函式。

* Menu:

* 命令列用法::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/calendar.py


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列用法,  Up: calendar --- 日曆相關函式

5.8.3.1 命令列用法
..................

在 2.5 版被加入.

*note calendar: 12. 模組可以作為腳本從命令列執行，並以互動方式列印日曆。

     python -m calendar [-h] [-L LOCALE] [-e ENCODING] [-t {text,html}]
                        [-w WIDTH] [-l LINES] [-s SPACING] [-m MONTHS] [-c CSS]
                        [year] [month]

例如，要列印 2000 年的日曆：

     $ python -m calendar 2000
                                       2000

           January                   February                   March
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6             1  2  3  4  5
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       6  7  8  9 10 11 12
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      13 14 15 16 17 18 19
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      20 21 22 23 24 25 26
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29                     27 28 29 30 31
     31

            April                      May                       June
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2       1  2  3  4  5  6  7                1  2  3  4
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       8  9 10 11 12 13 14       5  6  7  8  9 10 11
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      15 16 17 18 19 20 21      12 13 14 15 16 17 18
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      22 23 24 25 26 27 28      19 20 21 22 23 24 25
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      29 30 31                  26 27 28 29 30

             July                     August                  September
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6                   1  2  3
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29 30 31               25 26 27 28 29 30
     31

           October                   November                  December
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                        1             1  2  3  4  5                   1  2  3
      2  3  4  5  6  7  8       6  7  8  9 10 11 12       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
      9 10 11 12 13 14 15      13 14 15 16 17 18 19      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
     16 17 18 19 20 21 22      20 21 22 23 24 25 26      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
     23 24 25 26 27 28 29      27 28 29 30               25 26 27 28 29 30 31
     30 31

接受以下選項：

 -- Option: --help, -h

     顯示幫助訊息並退出。

 -- Option: --locale LOCALE, -L LOCALE

     用於月份和週幾名稱的語系。預設為英語。

 -- Option: --encoding ENCODING, -e ENCODING

     用於輸出的編碼。如有設定 *note -locale: 2280. 則必須給定 *note
     -encoding: 2282.。

 -- Option: --type {text,html}, -t {text,html}

     將日曆以文字或 HTML 文件的形式印出到終端機。

 -- Option: year

     印出日曆的年份。必須是 1 到 9999 之間的數字。預設為當前年份。

 -- Option: month

     要列印日曆的指定 *note year: 2286. 的月份。必須是 1 到 12 之間的數
     字，並且只能在文字模式下使用。預設列印全年日曆。

'文字模式選項：'

 -- Option: --width WIDTH, -w WIDTH

     終端機行中日期行的寬度。日期印出在行的中央。任何小於 2 的值都會被忽
     略。預設為 2。

 -- Option: --lines LINES, -l LINES

     終端機列中每週的列數。日期印出時頂部會對齊。任何小於 1 的值都會被忽
     略。預設為 1。

 -- Option: --spacing SPACING, -s SPACING

     行中月份之間的間距。任何小於 2 的值都會被忽略。預設為 6。

 -- Option: --months MONTHS, -m MONTHS

     每列印出的月份數量。預設為 3。

'HTML 模式選項：'

 -- Option: --css CSS, -c CSS

     用於日曆的 CSS 樣式表路徑。這必須是相對於產生之 HTML 的，或者為絕對
     的 HTTP 或 ‘file:///’ URL。


File: python.info,  Node: collections --- 容器資料型態,  Next: collections abc --- 容器的抽象基底類別,  Prev: calendar --- 日曆相關函式,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.4 ‘collections’ -- 容器資料型態
-----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/collections/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組實作了一些特別的容器資料型態，用來替代 Python 一般內建的容器，例
如 *note dict: 239.（字典）、*note list: 40a.（串列）、*note set: 3cc.（
集合）和 *note tuple: 4e6.（元組）。

*note namedtuple(): 731.  用來建立具名欄位的 tuple 子類別的工廠函式
                          
                          
*note deque: 3cf.         一個類似 list 的容器，可以快速的在頭尾加入 (append) 元素與移除 (pop) 元
                          素
                          
                          
*note ChainMap: a7f.      一個類似 dict 的類別，用來為多個對映 (mapping) 建立單一的視圖 (view)
                          
                          
*note Counter: f28.       dict 的子類別，用來計算*note 可雜湊: 409.物件的數量
                          
                          
*note OrderedDict: 3ce.   dict 的子類別，會記錄物件被加入的順序
                          
                          
*note defaultdict: 104e.  dict 的子類別，當值不存在 dict 中時會呼叫一個提供預設值的工廠函式
                          
                          
*note UserDict: 1770.     dict 物件的包裝器 (wrapper)，簡化了 dict 的子類別化過程
                          
                          
*note UserList: 135a.     list 物件的包裝器，簡化了 list 的子類別化過程
                          
                          
*note UserString: c4d.    字串物件的包裝器，簡化了字串的子類別化過程
                          

* Menu:

* ChainMap 物件::
* Counter 物件::
* deque 物件::
* defaultdict 物件::
* namedtuple() 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式: namedtuple 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式.
* OrderedDict 物件::
* UserDict 物件::
* UserList 物件::
* UserString 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/collections/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: ChainMap 物件,  Next: Counter 物件,  Up: collections --- 容器資料型態

5.8.4.1 ‘ChainMap’ 物件
.......................

在 3.3 版被加入.

*note ChainMap: a7f.（對映鏈結）類別的目的是快速將數個對映連結在一起，讓
它們可以被當作一個單元來處理。它通常會比建立一個新的字典並多次呼叫 *note
update(): 12d5. 來得更快。

這個類別可用於模擬巢狀作用域 (nested scopes)，且在模板化 (templating) 時
能派上用場。

 -- 類別: collections.ChainMap (*maps)

     一個 *note ChainMap: a7f. 將多個 dict 或其他對映組合在一起，建立一
     個獨立、可更新的視圖。如果沒有指定 'maps'，預設會提供一個空字典讓每
     個新鏈結都至少有一個對映。

     底層的對映儲存於一個 list 中，這個 list 是公開的且可透過 'maps' 屬
     性存取或更新，沒有其他狀態 (state)。

     檢索 (lookup) 陸續查詢底層對映，直到鍵被找到，然而讀取、更新和刪除
     就只會對第一個對映操作。

     *note ChainMap: a7f. 透過參照將底層對映合併，所以當一個底層對映被更
     新，這些改變也會反映到 *note ChainMap: a7f.。

     所有常見的字典方法都有支援。此外，還有一個 'maps' 屬性 (attribute)、
     一個建立子上下文 (subcontext) 的方法、和一個能夠存取除了第一個以外
     其他所有對映的特性 (property)：

      -- 屬性: maps

          一個可被更新的對映列表，這個列表是按照被搜索的順序來排列，在
          ChainMap 中它是唯一被儲存的狀態，可被修改來變換搜索順序。回傳
          的列表都至少包含一個對映。

      -- 方法: new_child (m=None, **kwargs)

          回傳包含一個新對映的 *note ChainMap: a7f.， 新對映後面接著當前
          實例的所有現存對映。如果有給定 ‘m’，‘m’ 會成為那個最前面的新對
          映；若沒有指定，則會加上一個空 dict，如此一來呼叫
          ‘d.new_child()’ 就等同於 ‘ChainMap({}, *d.maps)’。這個方法用於
          建立子上下文，而保持父對映的不變。

          在 3.4 版的變更: 加入可選參數 ‘m’。

          在 3.10 版的變更: 增加了對關鍵字引數的支援。

      -- 屬性: parents

          回傳一個包含除了第一個以外所有其他對映的新 *note ChainMap:
          a7f. 的特性，可用於需要跳過第一個對映的搜索。使用情境類似於在
          *note 巢狀作用域: 1efb.當中使用 *note nonlocal: 113b. 關鍵字，
          也可與內建函式 *note super(): 206. 做類比。引用 ‘d.parents’ 等
          同於 ‘ChainMap(*d.maps[1:])’。

     注意，一個 *note ChainMap: a7f. 的疊代順序是透過由後往前掃描對映而
     定：

          >>> baseline = {'music': 'bach', 'art': 'rembrandt'}
          >>> adjustments = {'art': 'van gogh', 'opera': 'carmen'}
          >>> list(ChainMap(adjustments, baseline))
          ['music', 'art', 'opera']

     這和呼叫 *note dict.update(): 12d5. 結果的順序一樣是從最後一個對映
     開始：

          >>> combined = baseline.copy()
          >>> combined.update(adjustments)
          >>> list(combined)
          ['music', 'art', 'opera']

     在 3.9 版的變更: 支援 ‘|’ 和 ‘|=’ 運算子，詳見 PEP 584(1)。

也參考
......

   * Enthought CodeTools package(2) 中的 MultiContext class(3) 支援在鏈
     中選定任意對映寫入。

   * Django 中用於模板的 Context class(4) 是唯讀的對映鏈，也具有加入
     (push) 和移除 (pop) 上下文的功能，與 *note new_child(): dad. 方法和
     *note parents: 2296. 特性類似。

   * Nested Contexts recipe(5) 提供了控制是否只對鏈中第一個或其他對映做
     寫入或其他操作的選項。

   * 一個極度簡化、維讀版本的 Chainmap(6)。

* Menu:

* ChainMap 範例和用法::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://github.com/enthought/codetools

   (3) 
https://github.com/enthought/codetools/blob/4.0.0/codetools/contexts/multi_context.py

   (4) 
https://github.com/django/django/blob/main/django/template/context.py

   (5) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577434-nested-contexts-a-chain-of-mapping-objects/

   (6) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/305268/


File: python.info,  Node: ChainMap 範例和用法,  Up: ChainMap 物件

5.8.4.2 ‘ChainMap’ 範例和用法
.............................

此章節提供了多種操作 ChainMap 的案例。

模擬 Python 內部檢索鏈結的例子：

     import builtins
     pylookup = ChainMap(locals(), globals(), vars(builtins))

讓使用者指定的命令列引數優先於環境變數、再優先於預設值的範例：

     import os, argparse

     defaults = {'color': 'red', 'user': 'guest'}

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('-u', '--user')
     parser.add_argument('-c', '--color')
     namespace = parser.parse_args()
     command_line_args = {k: v for k, v in vars(namespace).items() if v is not None}

     combined = ChainMap(command_line_args, os.environ, defaults)
     print(combined['color'])
     print(combined['user'])

用 *note ChainMap: a7f. 類別模擬巢狀上下文的範例模式：

     c = ChainMap()        # Create root context
     d = c.new_child()     # Create nested child context
     e = c.new_child()     # Child of c, independent from d
     e.maps[0]             # Current context dictionary -- like Python's locals()
     e.maps[-1]            # Root context -- like Python's globals()
     e.parents             # Enclosing context chain -- like Python's nonlocals

     d['x'] = 1            # Set value in current context
     d['x']                # Get first key in the chain of contexts
     del d['x']            # Delete from current context
     list(d)               # All nested values
     k in d                # Check all nested values
     len(d)                # Number of nested values
     d.items()             # All nested items
     dict(d)               # Flatten into a regular dictionary

*note ChainMap: a7f. 類別只對鏈結中第一個對映來做寫入或刪除，但檢索則會
掃過整個鏈結。但如果需要對更深層的鍵寫入或刪除，透過定義一個子類別來實作
也不困難：

     class DeepChainMap(ChainMap):
         'Variant of ChainMap that allows direct updates to inner scopes'

         def __setitem__(self, key, value):
             for mapping in self.maps:
                 if key in mapping:
                     mapping[key] = value
                     return
             self.maps[0][key] = value

         def __delitem__(self, key):
             for mapping in self.maps:
                 if key in mapping:
                     del mapping[key]
                     return
             raise KeyError(key)

     >>> d = DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black'}, {'elephant': 'blue'}, {'lion': 'yellow'})
     >>> d['lion'] = 'orange'         # update an existing key two levels down
     >>> d['snake'] = 'red'           # new keys get added to the topmost dict
     >>> del d['elephant']            # remove an existing key one level down
     >>> d                            # display result
     DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black', 'snake': 'red'}, {}, {'lion': 'orange'})


File: python.info,  Node: Counter 物件,  Next: deque 物件,  Prev: ChainMap 物件,  Up: collections --- 容器資料型態

5.8.4.3 ‘Counter’ 物件
......................

提供一個支援方便且快速計數的計數器工具，例如：

     >>> # Tally occurrences of words in a list
     >>> cnt = Counter()
     >>> for word in ['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue']:
     ...     cnt[word] += 1
     ...
     >>> cnt
     Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

     >>> # Find the ten most common words in Hamlet
     >>> import re
     >>> words = re.findall(r'\w+', open('hamlet.txt').read().lower())
     >>> Counter(words).most_common(10)
     [('the', 1143), ('and', 966), ('to', 762), ('of', 669), ('i', 631),
      ('you', 554),  ('a', 546), ('my', 514), ('hamlet', 471), ('in', 451)]

 -- 類別: collections.Counter ([iterable-or-mapping])

     *note Counter: f28. 是 *note dict: 239. 的子類別，用來計算*note
     可雜湊: 409.物件的數量。它是將物件與其計數作為字典的鍵值對儲存的集
     合容器。計數可以是包含 0 與負數的任何整數值。*note Counter: f28. 類
     別類似其他程式語言中的 bags 或 multisets。

     被計數的元素來自一個 'iterable' 或是被其他的 'mapping'（或 Counter）
     初始化：

          >>> c = Counter()                           # a new, empty counter
          >>> c = Counter('gallahad')                 # a new counter from an iterable
          >>> c = Counter({'red': 4, 'blue': 2})      # a new counter from a mapping
          >>> c = Counter(cats=4, dogs=8)             # a new counter from keyword args

     Counter 物件擁有一個字典的使用介面，除了遇到 Counter 中沒有的值時會
     回傳計數 0 取代 *note KeyError: 8ed. 這點不同：

          >>> c = Counter(['eggs', 'ham'])
          >>> c['bacon']                              # count of a missing element is zero
          0

     將一個值的計數設為 0 並不會真的從 Counter 中刪除這個元素，要使用
     ‘del’ 來將其刪除：

          >>> c['sausage'] = 0                        # counter entry with a zero count
          >>> del c['sausage']                        # del actually removes the entry

     在 3.1 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 作為 *note dict: 239. 的子類別，*note Counter:
     f28. 繼承了記憶插入順序的功能。對 'Counter' 做數學運算後同樣保留順
     序性，其結果是依照各個元素在運算元左邊出現的時間先後、再按照運算元
     右邊出現的時間先後來排列。

     除了字典原本就有的方法外，Counter 物件額外支援數個新方法：

      -- 方法: elements ()

          回傳每個元素都重複出現計算次數的 iterator（疊代器）物件，其中
          元素的回傳順序是依照各元素首次出現的時間先後。如果元素的出現次
          數小於 1，*note elements(): 1195. 方法會忽略這些元素。

               >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
               >>> sorted(c.elements())
               ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b']

      -- 方法: most_common ([n])

          回傳一個 list，包含出現最多次的 'n' 個元素及其出現次數，並按照
          出現次數排序。如果 'n' 被省略或者為 ‘None’，*note
          most_common(): 1194. 會回傳'所有' counter 中的元素。出現次數相
          同的元素會按照首次出現的時間先後來排列：

               >>> Counter('abracadabra').most_common(3)
               [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('r', 2)]

      -- 方法: subtract ([iterable-or-mapping])

          減去自一個 'iterable' 或另一個'對映'（或 Counter）中的計數元素
          ，行為類似 *note dict.update(): 12d5. 但是是為了減去計數而非取
          代其值。輸入和輸出都可以是 0 或是負數。

               >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
               >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4)
               >>> c.subtract(d)
               >>> c
               Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 0, 'c': -3, 'd': -6})

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: total ()

          計算總計數值。

               >>> c = Counter(a=10, b=5, c=0)
               >>> c.total()
               15

          在 3.10 版被加入.

     通常來說字典方法也可以用於 *note Counter: f28. 物件，除了以下兩個作
     用方式與計數器不同。

      -- 方法: fromkeys (iterable)

          此類別方法沒有被實作於 *note Counter: f28. 物件中。

      -- 方法: update ([iterable-or-mapping])

          加上自一個 'iterable' 計算出的計數或加上另一個 'mapping'（或
          Counter）中的計數，行為類似 *note dict.update(): 12d5. 但是是
          為了加上計數而非取代其值。另外，'iterable' 需要是一串將被計算
          個數元素的序列，而非元素為 ‘(key, value)’ 形式的序列。

Counter 支援相等性、子集和超集關係的 rich comparison 運算子：‘==’、
‘!=’、‘<’、‘<=’、‘>’、‘>=’。這些檢測會將不存在的元素之計數值當作零，因此
‘Counter(a=1) == Counter(a=1, b=0)’ 將回傳真值。

在 3.10 版的變更: 增加了 rich comparison 運算。

在 3.10 版的變更: 在相等性運算中，不存在的元素之計數值會被當作零。在此之
前，‘Counter(a=3)’ 和 ‘Counter(a=3, b=0)’ 被視為不同。

使用 *note Counter: f28. 物件的常見使用模式：

     c.total()                       # total of all counts
     c.clear()                       # reset all counts
     list(c)                         # list unique elements
     set(c)                          # convert to a set
     dict(c)                         # convert to a regular dictionary
     c.items()                       # convert to a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
     Counter(dict(list_of_pairs))    # convert from a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
     c.most_common()[:-n-1:-1]       # n least common elements
     +c                              # remove zero and negative counts

為結合多個 *note Counter: f28. 物件以產生 multiset（多重集合，擁有大於 0
計數元素的計數器），有提供了幾種數學操作。加法和減法是根據各個對應元素分
別將 Counter 加上和減去計數，交集和聯集分別回傳各個元素最小和最大計數，
相等性與包含性運算則會比較對應的計數。每一個操作都可以接受輸入帶有正負號
的計數，但輸出的 Counter 則會將擁有小於或等於 0 計數的元素剔除。

     >>> c = Counter(a=3, b=1)
     >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2)
     >>> c + d                       # add two counters together:  c[x] + d[x]
     Counter({'a': 4, 'b': 3})
     >>> c - d                       # subtract (keeping only positive counts)
     Counter({'a': 2})
     >>> c & d                       # intersection:  min(c[x], d[x])
     Counter({'a': 1, 'b': 1})
     >>> c | d                       # union:  max(c[x], d[x])
     Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 2})
     >>> c == d                      # equality:  c[x] == d[x]
     False
     >>> c <= d                      # inclusion:  c[x] <= d[x]
     False

加減法的一元運算子分別是加上空的 Counter 和從空 Counter 減去的簡寫。

     >>> c = Counter(a=2, b=-4)
     >>> +c
     Counter({'a': 2})
     >>> -c
     Counter({'b': 4})

在 3.3 版被加入: 開始支援加減一元運算子和 multiset 的原地 (in-place) 操
作。

     備註: Counter 主要是被設計來操作正整數以當作使用中的計數，但為了某
     些會用到計數之值為負數或為其他型別的案例中，Counter 也小心地被設計
     成不會預先排除這些特殊元素。為了輔助使用於上述案例，這一小節記錄了
     最小範圍和型別限制。

        * *note Counter: f28. 類別本身是字典的子類別，且不限制其鍵與值。
          值被用來表示計數，但實際上你'可以'儲存任何值。

        * 使用 *note most_common(): 1194. 方法的唯一條件是其值要是可被排
          序的。

        * 像是 ‘c[key] += 1’ 的原地操作中，其值之型別只必須支援加減，所
          以分數、浮點數、十進位數與其負值都可以使用。同理，*note
          update(): 229b. 和 *note subtract(): 106f. 也都允許 0 或負值為
          輸入或輸出。

        * Multiset 相關方法只為了處理正值而設計，其輸入允許是 0 或負值但
          只有正值會被輸出。並無型別限制，但其值的型別須支援加、減及比較
          運算。

        * *note elements(): 1195. 方法需要其計數為正值，如為 0 或負值則
          忽略。

也參考
......

   * Smalltalk 中的 Bag class(1)。

   * 維基百科上的多重集合(2)條目。

   * C++ multisets(3) 教學與範例。

   * Multiset 的數學運算及其使用時機，參考 'Knuth, Donald.  The Art of
     Computer Programming Volume II, Section 4.6.3, Exercise 19'。

   * 若要根據給定的元素集合來列舉出所有不重複且擁有指定元素數量的
     multiset，請見 *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement():
     1116.：

          map(Counter, combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2)) # --> AA AB AC BB BC CC

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual-base/html_node/Bag.html

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset

   (3) 
http://www.java2s.com/Tutorial/Cpp/0380__set-multiset/Catalog0380__set-multiset.htm


File: python.info,  Node: deque 物件,  Next: defaultdict 物件,  Prev: Counter 物件,  Up: collections --- 容器資料型態

5.8.4.4 ‘deque’ 物件
....................

 -- 類別: collections.deque ([iterable[, maxlen]])

     回傳一個新的 deque（雙端佇列）物件，將 'iterable' 中的資料由左至右
     （使用 *note append(): 229d.）加入來做初始化。如果 'iterable' 並未
     給定，回傳的則是一個空的 deque。

     Deque（發音為 "deck"，為 "double-ended queue" 的簡稱）為 stack 和
     queue 的一般化。deque 支援執行緒安全 (thread-safe)，且能夠有效率地
     節省記憶體在頭和尾加入和移除元素，兩個方向的表現都大致為 'O'(1) 複
     雜度。

     雖然 *note list: 40a. 物件也支援類似操作，但 list 優化了長度固定時
     的操作，而會改變底層資料的長度及位置的 ‘pop(0)’ 和 ‘insert(0, v)’ 操
     作，記憶體移動則為 'O'('n') 複雜度。

     如果 'maxlen' 沒有給定或者為 ‘None’，deque 可以增長到任意長度；但若
     有給定的話，deque 的最大長度就會被限制。一個被限制長度的 deque 一但
     滿了，若在一端加入數個新元素，則同時會在另一端移除相同數量的元素。
     限定長度的 deque 提供了和 Unix ‘tail’ filter 類似的功能，可用於追蹤
     使用者在意的那些最新執行事項或數據源。

     Deque 物件支援以下方法：

      -- 方法: append (x)

          將 'x' 自 deque 的右側加入。

      -- 方法: appendleft (x)

          將 'x' 自 deque 的左側加入。

      -- 方法: clear ()

          將所有元素從 deque 中移除，使其長度為 0。

      -- 方法: copy ()

          建立一個 deque 的淺複製 (shallow copy)。

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 方法: count (x)

          計算 deque 內元素為 'x' 的個數。

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: extend (iterable)

          將 iterable 引數加入 deque 的右側。

      -- 方法: extendleft (iterable)

          將 iterable 引數加入 deque 的左側。要注意的是，加入後的元素順
          序和 iterable 參數是相反的。

      -- 方法: index (x[, start[, stop]])

          回傳 deque 中 'x' 的位置（或在索引 'start' 之後、索引 'stop' 之
          前的位置）。回傳第一個匹配的位置，如果沒找到就引發 *note
          ValueError: 183.。

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 方法: insert (i, x)

          在 deque 位置 'i' 中插入 'x'。

          如果此插入操作導致 deque 超過其長度上限 'maxlen' 的話，會引發
          *note IndexError: 13ac. 例外。

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 方法: pop ()

          移除並回傳 deque 的最右側元素，若本來就沒有任何元素，則會引發
          *note IndexError: 13ac.。

      -- 方法: popleft ()

          移除並回傳 deque 的最左側元素，若本來就沒有任何元素，則會引發
          *note IndexError: 13ac.。

      -- 方法: remove (value)

          移除第一個出現的 'value'，如果沒找到的話就引發一個 *note
          ValueError: 183.。

      -- 方法: reverse ()

          將 deque 中的元素原地 (in-place) 倒序排列並回傳 ‘None’。

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: rotate (n=1)

          將 deque 向右輪轉 'n' 步。若 'n' 為負值則向左輪轉。

          當 deque 不是空的，向右輪轉一步和 ‘d.appendleft(d.pop())’ 有相
          同意義，而向左輪轉亦等價於 ‘d.append(d.popleft())’。

     Deque 物件也提供了一個唯讀屬性：

      -- 屬性: maxlen

          Deque 的最大長度，如果不限制長度的話則為 ‘None’。

          在 3.1 版被加入.

除了以上使用方式，deque 亦支援了疊代、pickle、‘len(d)’、‘reversed(d)’、
‘copy.copy(d)’、‘copy.deepcopy(d)’、用 *note in: 267. 運算子來作隸屬資格
檢測以及像是 ‘d[0]’ 的標號引用來取得第一個元素。在兩端做索引存取的複雜度
為 'O'(1) 但越靠近中間則減慢至 'O'('n')。若想要隨機而快速的存取，使用
list 會較為合適。

自從 3.5 版本起，deque 開始支援 ‘__add__()’、‘__mul__()’ 和
‘__imul__()’。

範例：

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> d = deque('ghi')                 # make a new deque with three items
     >>> for elem in d:                   # iterate over the deque's elements
     ...     print(elem.upper())
     G
     H
     I

     >>> d.append('j')                    # add a new entry to the right side
     >>> d.appendleft('f')                # add a new entry to the left side
     >>> d                                # show the representation of the deque
     deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])

     >>> d.pop()                          # return and remove the rightmost item
     'j'
     >>> d.popleft()                      # return and remove the leftmost item
     'f'
     >>> list(d)                          # list the contents of the deque
     ['g', 'h', 'i']
     >>> d[0]                             # peek at leftmost item
     'g'
     >>> d[-1]                            # peek at rightmost item
     'i'

     >>> list(reversed(d))                # list the contents of a deque in reverse
     ['i', 'h', 'g']
     >>> 'h' in d                         # search the deque
     True
     >>> d.extend('jkl')                  # add multiple elements at once
     >>> d
     deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])
     >>> d.rotate(1)                      # right rotation
     >>> d
     deque(['l', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k'])
     >>> d.rotate(-1)                     # left rotation
     >>> d
     deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])

     >>> deque(reversed(d))               # make a new deque in reverse order
     deque(['l', 'k', 'j', 'i', 'h', 'g'])
     >>> d.clear()                        # empty the deque
     >>> d.pop()                          # cannot pop from an empty deque
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in -toplevel-
             d.pop()
     IndexError: pop from an empty deque

     >>> d.extendleft('abc')              # extendleft() reverses the input order
     >>> d
     deque(['c', 'b', 'a'])

* Menu:

* deque 用法::


File: python.info,  Node: deque 用法,  Up: deque 物件

5.8.4.5 ‘deque’ 用法
....................

這一章節提供了多種操作 deque 的案例。

被限制長度的 deque 功能類似 Unix 中的 ‘tail’ filter：

     def tail(filename, n=10):
         'Return the last n lines of a file'
         with open(filename) as f:
             return deque(f, n)

另一用法是透過從右邊加入、從左邊移除來維護最近加入元素的 list：

     def moving_average(iterable, n=3):
         # moving_average([40, 30, 50, 46, 39, 44]) --> 40.0 42.0 45.0 43.0
         # https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_average
         it = iter(iterable)
         d = deque(itertools.islice(it, n-1))
         d.appendleft(0)
         s = sum(d)
         for elem in it:
             s += elem - d.popleft()
             d.append(elem)
             yield s / n

一個輪詢調度器(1)可以透過在 *note deque: 3cf. 中放入 iterator 來實現，值
自當前 iterator 的位置 0 取出，如果 iterator 已經消耗完畢就用 *note
popleft(): 22a3. 將其從佇列中移除，否則利用 *note rotate(): 16ac. 來將其
移至佇列尾端：

     def roundrobin(*iterables):
         "roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') --> A D E B F C"
         iterators = deque(map(iter, iterables))
         while iterators:
             try:
                 while True:
                     yield next(iterators[0])
                     iterators.rotate(-1)
             except StopIteration:
                 # Remove an exhausted iterator.
                 iterators.popleft()

*note rotate(): 16ac. 提供了可以用來實作 *note deque: 3cf. 切片和刪除的
方法。舉例來說，用純 Python 實作 ‘del d[n]’ 需要用 ‘rotate()’ 來定位要被
移除的元素：

     def delete_nth(d, n):
         d.rotate(-n)
         d.popleft()
         d.rotate(n)

要實現 *note deque: 3cf. 切片，可使用近似以下方法：使用 *note rotate():
16ac. 來將目標元素移動到 deque 最左側，用 *note popleft(): 22a3. 移除舊
元素並用 *note extend(): 22a0. 加入新元素，最後再反向 rotate。在這個方法
上做小小的更動就能簡單地實現 Forth 風格的 stack 操作，例如 ‘dup’、
‘drop’、‘swap’、‘over’、‘pick’、‘rot’ 和 ‘roll’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling


File: python.info,  Node: defaultdict 物件,  Next: namedtuple 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式,  Prev: deque 物件,  Up: collections --- 容器資料型態

5.8.4.6 ‘defaultdict’ 物件
..........................

 -- 類別: collections.defaultdict (default_factory=None, /[, ...])

     回傳一個新的類似字典的物件。*note defaultdict: 104e. 是內建類別
     *note dict: 239. 的子類別。它覆蓋掉了一個方法並添加了一個可寫入的實
     例變數。其餘功能與 *note dict: 239. 相同，此文件不再複述。

     第一個引數為 *note default_factory: 22a6. 屬性提供了初始值，他被預
     設為 ‘None’，所有其他的引數（包括關鍵字引數）都會被傳遞給 *note
     dict: 239. 的建構函式 (constructor)。

     *note defaultdict: 104e. 物件支援以下 *note dict: 239. 所沒有的方法
     ：

      -- 方法: __missing__ (key)

          如果 *note default_factory: 22a6. 屬性為 ‘None’，呼叫此方法會
          引發一個附帶引數 'key' 的 *note KeyError: 8ed. 例外。

          如果 *note default_factory: 22a6. 不為 ‘None’，它會不帶引數地
          被呼叫來為給定的 'key' 提供一個預設值，這個值和 'key' 被作為鍵
          值對來插入到字典中，並且被此方法所回傳。

          如果呼叫 *note default_factory: 22a6. 時發生例外，則該例外將會
          保持不變地向外傳遞。

          在無法找到所要求的鍵時，此方法會被 *note dict: 239. 類別的
          *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 方法呼叫。無論此方法回傳了值還是引發
          了例外，都會被 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 所傳遞。

          注意，*note __missing__(): 22a7. '不會'被 *note __getitem__():
          4e7. 以外的其他方法呼叫，這意味著 ‘get()’ 會像一般的 dict 那樣
          回傳 ‘None’ 做為預設值，而非使用 *note default_factory: 22a6.。

     *note defaultdict: 104e. 物件支援以下實例變數：

      -- 屬性: default_factory

          此屬性為 *note __missing__(): 22a7. 方法所使用。如果有引數被傳
          入建構函式，則此屬性會被初始化成第一個引數，如未提供引數則被初
          始化為 ‘None’。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增合併 (‘|’) 和更新 (‘|=’) 運算子，請見 PEP
     584(1)。

* Menu:

* defaultdict 範例::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: defaultdict 範例,  Up: defaultdict 物件

5.8.4.7 ‘defaultdict’ 範例
..........................

使用 *note list: 40a. 作為 *note default_factory: 22a6. 可以很輕鬆地將鍵
值對序列轉換為包含 list 之字典：

     >>> s = [('yellow', 1), ('blue', 2), ('yellow', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1)]
     >>> d = defaultdict(list)
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d[k].append(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

當每個鍵第一次被存取時，它還沒有存在於對映中，所以會自動呼叫 *note
default_factory: 22a6. 方法來回傳一個空的 *note list: 40a. 以建立一個條
目，‘list.append()’ 操作後續會再新增值到這個新的列表裡。當再次存取該鍵時
，就如普通字典般操作（回傳該鍵所對應到的 list），‘list.append()’ 也會新
增另一個值到 list 中。和使用與其等價的 *note dict.setdefault(): f0f. 相
比，這個技巧更加快速和簡單：

     >>> d = {}
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d.setdefault(k, []).append(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

設定 *note default_factory: 22a6. 為 *note int: 17e. 使得 *note
defaultdict: 104e. 可被用於計數（類似其他語言中的 bag 或 multiset）：

     >>> s = 'mississippi'
     >>> d = defaultdict(int)
     >>> for k in s:
     ...     d[k] += 1
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('i', 4), ('m', 1), ('p', 2), ('s', 4)]

當一個字母首次被存取時，它並不存在於對映中，則 *note default_factory:
22a6. 函式會呼叫 *note int(): 17e. 來提供一個整數 0 作為預設值。後續的增
加操作繼續對每個字母做計數。

函式 *note int(): 17e. 總是回傳 0，這是常數函式的特殊情況。一個更快、更
有彈性的方法是使用 lambda 函式來提供任何常數值（不用一定要是 0）：

     >>> def constant_factory(value):
     ...     return lambda: value
     ...
     >>> d = defaultdict(constant_factory('<missing>'))
     >>> d.update(name='John', action='ran')
     >>> '%(name)s %(action)s to %(object)s' % d
     'John ran to <missing>'

將 *note default_factory: 22a6. 設為 *note set: 3cc. 使 *note
defaultdict: 104e. 可用於構建一個值為 set 的字典：

     >>> s = [('red', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1), ('blue', 4)]
     >>> d = defaultdict(set)
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d[k].add(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', {2, 4}), ('red', {1, 3})]


File: python.info,  Node: namedtuple 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式,  Next: OrderedDict 物件,  Prev: defaultdict 物件,  Up: collections --- 容器資料型態

5.8.4.8 ‘namedtuple()’ 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式
......................................................

Named tuple（具名元組）賦予 tuple 中各個位置意義，使程式碼更有可讀性與自
我文件性。它們可以用於任何普通 tuple 可使用的場合，賦予其透過名稱（而非
位置索引）來存取欄位的能力。

 -- 函式: collections.namedtuple (typename, field_names, *,
          rename=False, defaults=None, module=None)

     回傳一個名為 'typename' 的新 tuple 子類別。這個新的子類別被用於建立
     類似 tuple 的物件，可以透過屬性名稱來存取欄位，它同時也是可索引
     (indexable) 和可疊代的 (iterable)。子類別實例同樣有文件字串
     (docstring)（有類別名 typename 和欄位名 field_names）和一個好用的
     ‘__repr__()’ 方法，可將 tuple 內容以 ‘name=value’ 格式列出。

     'field_names' 是一個像 ‘['x', 'y']’ 一樣的字串序列。'field_names' 也
     可以是一個用空白或逗號分隔各個欄位名稱的字串，比如 ‘'x y'’ 或者
     ‘'x, y'’。

     除了底線開頭以外的其他任何有效 Python 識別字 (identifier) 都可以作
     為欄位名稱，有效識別字由字母、數字、底線所組成，但不能是數字或底線
     開頭，也不能是關鍵詞 *note keyword: 7e.，例如 'class'、'for'、
     'return'、'global'、'pass' 或 'raise'。

     如果 'rename' 為真值，無效的欄位名稱會自動被位置名稱取代。比如
     ‘['abc', 'def', 'ghi', 'abc']’ 會被轉換成 ‘['abc', '_1', 'ghi',
     '_3']’，移除了關鍵字 ‘def’ 和重複欄位名 ‘abc’。

     'defaults' 可以為 ‘None’ 或者是一個預設值的 *note iterable: 10ba.。
     因為有預設值的欄位必須出現在那些沒有預設值的欄位之後，'defaults' 是
     被應用在右側的引數。例如 fieldnames 為 ‘['x', 'y', 'z']’ 且
     defaults 為 ‘(1, 2)’，那麼 ‘x’ 就必須被給定一個引數，‘y’ 被預設為
     ‘1’，‘z’ 則被預設為 ‘2’。

     If 'module' is defined, the *note __module__: af5. attribute of the
     named tuple is set to that value.

     Named tuple 實例中沒有字典，所以它們更加輕量，且和一般 tuple 相比佔
     用更少記憶體。

     要支援 pickle，應將 named tuple 類別賦值給一個符合 'typename' 的變
     數。

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增對於 'rename' 的支援。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'verbose' 和 'rename' 參數成為*note
     僅限關鍵字引數: 8d6.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'module' 參數。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 移除 'verbose' 參數和 ‘_source’ 屬性。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'defaults' 參數和 ‘_field_defaults’ 屬性。

     >>> # Basic example
     >>> Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
     >>> p = Point(11, y=22)     # instantiate with positional or keyword arguments
     >>> p[0] + p[1]             # indexable like the plain tuple (11, 22)
     33
     >>> x, y = p                # unpack like a regular tuple
     >>> x, y
     (11, 22)
     >>> p.x + p.y               # fields also accessible by name
     33
     >>> p                       # readable __repr__ with a name=value style
     Point(x=11, y=22)

Named tuple 在賦予欄位名稱於 *note csv: 27. 或 *note sqlite3: c9. 模組回
傳之 tuple 時相當有用：

     EmployeeRecord = namedtuple('EmployeeRecord', 'name, age, title, department, paygrade')

     import csv
     for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, csv.reader(open("employees.csv", "rb"))):
         print(emp.name, emp.title)

     import sqlite3
     conn = sqlite3.connect('/companydata')
     cursor = conn.cursor()
     cursor.execute('SELECT name, age, title, department, paygrade FROM employees')
     for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, cursor.fetchall()):
         print(emp.name, emp.title)

除了繼承自 tuple 的方法，named tuple 還支援三個額外的方法和兩個屬性。為
了防止欄位名稱有衝突，方法和屬性的名稱以底線開頭。

 -- 方法: classmethod somenamedtuple._make (iterable)

     從已存在的序列或可疊代物件建立一個新實例的類別方法。

          >>> t = [11, 22]
          >>> Point._make(t)
          Point(x=11, y=22)

 -- 方法: somenamedtuple._asdict ()

     回傳一個將欄位名稱對映至對應值的 *note dict: 239.：

          >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
          >>> p._asdict()
          {'x': 11, 'y': 22}

     在 3.1 版的變更: 回傳一個 *note OrderedDict: 3ce. 而非 *note dict:
     239.。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 回傳一個常規 *note dict: 239. 而非 *note
     OrderedDict: 3ce.，自從 Python 3.7 開始，dict 已經保證有順序性，如
     果需要 *note OrderedDict: 3ce. 所專屬的特性，推薦的解法是將結果專換
     成所需的類型：‘OrderedDict(nt._asdict())’。

 -- 方法: somenamedtuple._replace (**kwargs)

     回傳一個新的 named tuple 實例，並將指定欄位替換為新的值：

          >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
          >>> p._replace(x=33)
          Point(x=33, y=22)

          >>> for partnum, record in inventory.items():
          ...     inventory[partnum] = record._replace(price=newprices[partnum], timestamp=time.now())

 -- 屬性: somenamedtuple._fields

     列出 tuple 欄位名稱的字串，用於自我檢查或是從現有 named tuple 建立
     一個新的 named tuple 型別。

          >>> p._fields            # view the field names
          ('x', 'y')

          >>> Color = namedtuple('Color', 'red green blue')
          >>> Pixel = namedtuple('Pixel', Point._fields + Color._fields)
          >>> Pixel(11, 22, 128, 255, 0)
          Pixel(x=11, y=22, red=128, green=255, blue=0)

 -- 屬性: somenamedtuple._field_defaults

     將欄位名稱對映至預設值的字典。

          >>> Account = namedtuple('Account', ['type', 'balance'], defaults=[0])
          >>> Account._field_defaults
          {'balance': 0}
          >>> Account('premium')
          Account(type='premium', balance=0)

要取得這個名稱存於字串的欄位，要使用 *note getattr(): a32. 函式：

     >>> getattr(p, 'x')
     11

（如*note 拆解引數列表（Unpacking Argument Lists）: 1a24.所述）將一個字
典轉換成 named tuple，要使用 ** 雙星號運算子：

     >>> d = {'x': 11, 'y': 22}
     >>> Point(**d)
     Point(x=11, y=22)

因為一個 named tuple 是一個常規的 Python 類別，我們可以很容易的透過子類
別來新增或更改功能，以下是如何新增一個計算得到的欄位和固定寬度的輸出列印
格式：

     >>> class Point(namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])):
     ...     __slots__ = ()
     ...     @property
     ...     def hypot(self):
     ...         return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'Point: x=%6.3f  y=%6.3f  hypot=%6.3f' % (self.x, self.y, self.hypot)

     >>> for p in Point(3, 4), Point(14, 5/7):
     ...     print(p)
     Point: x= 3.000  y= 4.000  hypot= 5.000
     Point: x=14.000  y= 0.714  hypot=14.018

上面的子類別將 ‘__slots__’ 設定為空 tuple，這樣一來就防止了字典實例被建
立，因而保持了較低的記憶體用量。

子類別化無法用於增加新的、已被儲存的欄位，應當透過 *note _fields: 22ac.
屬性以建立一個新的 named tuple 來實現：

     >>> Point3D = namedtuple('Point3D', Point._fields + ('z',))

透過直接賦值給 ‘__doc__’，可以自訂說明文件字串：

     >>> Book = namedtuple('Book', ['id', 'title', 'authors'])
     >>> Book.__doc__ += ': Hardcover book in active collection'
     >>> Book.id.__doc__ = '13-digit ISBN'
     >>> Book.title.__doc__ = 'Title of first printing'
     >>> Book.authors.__doc__ = 'List of authors sorted by last name'

在 3.5 版的變更: 文件字串屬性變成可寫入。

也參考
......

   * 關於為 named tuple 新增型別提示的方法，請參閱 *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 1fb.，它運用 *note class: 1168. 關鍵字以提供了一
     個簡潔的表示法：

          class Component(NamedTuple):
              part_number: int
              weight: float
              description: Optional[str] = None

   * 關於以 dict 而非 tuple 為底層的可變命名空間，請參考 *note
     types.SimpleNamespace(): 765.。

   * *note dataclasses: 2d. 模組提供了一個裝飾器和一些函式，用於自動將被
     生成的特殊方法新增到使用者定義的類別中。


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedDict 物件,  Next: UserDict 物件,  Prev: namedtuple 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式,  Up: collections --- 容器資料型態

5.8.4.9 ‘OrderedDict’ 物件
..........................

Ordered dictionary（有序字典）就像常規字典一樣，但有一些與排序操作相關的
額外功能，但由於內建的 *note dict: 239. 類別現在已經有記憶插入順序的能力
（Python 3.7 中確保了這種新行為），它們變得不那麼重要了。

仍存在一些與 *note dict: 239. 的不同之處：

   * 常規的 *note dict: 239. 被設計成非常擅長於對映相關操作，追蹤插入的
     順序為次要目標。

   * *note OrderedDict: 3ce. 則被設計成擅長於重新排序相關的操作，空間效
     率、疊代速度和更新操作的效能則為次要設計目標。

   * *note OrderedDict: 3ce. 比起 *note dict: 239. 更適合處理頻繁的重新
     排序操作，如在下方用法中所示，這讓它適合用於多種 LRU cache 的實作中
     。

   * *note OrderedDict: 3ce. 之相等性運算會檢查順序是否相同。

     一個一般的 *note dict: 239. 可以用 ‘p == q and all(k1 == k2 for k1,
     k2 in zip(p, q))’ 來效仿有檢查順序的相等性運算。

   * *note OrderedDict: 3ce. 類別的 ‘popitem()’ 方法有不同的函式簽名
     (signature)，它接受傳入一個選擇性引數來指定要移除哪個元素。

     一個一般的 *note dict: 239. 可以用 ‘d.popitem()’ 來效仿 OrderedDict
     的 ‘od.popitem(last=True)’，這保證會移除最右邊（最後一個）的元素。

     一個一般的 *note dict: 239. 可以用 ‘(k := next(iter(d)), d.pop(k))’
     來效仿 OrderedDict 的 ‘od.popitem(last=False)’，若最左邊（第一個）
     的元素存在，則將其回傳並移除。

   * *note OrderedDict: 3ce. 有個 ‘move_to_end()’ 方法可有效率地將一個元
     素重新排列到任一端。

     一個一般的 *note dict: 239. 可以用 ‘d[k] = d.pop(k)’ 來效仿
     OrderedDict 的 ‘od.move_to_end(k, last=True)’，這會將該鍵與其對應到
     的值移動至最右（最後面）的位置。

     一個一般的 *note dict: 239. 沒有和 OrderedDict 的
     ‘od.move_to_end(k, last=False)’ 等價的有效方式，這是將鍵與其對應到
     的值移動至最左（最前面）位置的方法。

   * 在 Python 3.8 之前，*note dict: 239. 並沒有 ‘__reversed__()’ 方法。

 -- 類別: collections.OrderedDict ([items])

     回傳一個 *note dict: 239. 子類別的實例，它具有專門用於重新排列字典
     順序的方法。

     在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: popitem (last=True)

          Ordered dictionary 的 *note popitem(): 117e. 方法移除並回傳一
          個鍵值 (key, value) 對。如果 'last' 為真值，則按 LIFO 後進先出
          的順序回傳鍵值對，否則就按 FIFO (first-in, first-out) 先進先出
          的順序回傳鍵值對。

      -- 方法: move_to_end (key, last=True)

          將現有的 'key' 移動到 ordered dictionary 的任一端。如果 'last'
          為真值（此為預設值）則將元素移至右端；如果 'last' 為假值則將元
          素移至左端。如果 'key' 不存在則會引發 *note KeyError: 8ed.：

               >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys('abcde')
               >>> d.move_to_end('b')
               >>> ''.join(d)
               'acdeb'
               >>> d.move_to_end('b', last=False)
               >>> ''.join(d)
               'bacde'

          在 3.2 版被加入.

除了普通的對映方法，ordered dictionary 還支援了透過 *note reversed():
691. 來做倒序疊代。 Equality tests between *note OrderedDict: 3ce.
objects are order-sensitive and are roughly equivalent to
‘list(od1.items())==list(od2.items())’.

Equality tests between *note OrderedDict: 3ce. objects and other *note
Mapping: 702. objects are order-insensitive like regular dictionaries.
This allows *note OrderedDict: 3ce. objects to be substituted anywhere a
regular dictionary is used.

在 3.5 版的變更: *note OrderedDict: 3ce. 的項 (item)、鍵與值之*note
視圖: 22af.現在可透過 *note reversed(): 691. 來倒序疊代。

在 3.6 版的變更: 隨著 PEP 468(1) 被核可，被傳入給 *note OrderedDict:
3ce. 建構函式與其 ‘update()’ 方法的關鍵字引數之順序被保留了下來。

在 3.9 版的變更: 新增合併 (‘|’) 和更新 (‘|=’) 運算子，請見 PEP 584(2)。

* Menu:

* OrderedDict 範例與用法::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedDict 範例與用法,  Up: OrderedDict 物件

5.8.4.10 ‘OrderedDict’ 範例與用法
.................................

建立一個能夠記住鍵'最後'插入順序的 ordered dictionary 變體很簡單。如果新
條目覆蓋了現有條目，則原本插入位置會被更改並移動至末端：

     class LastUpdatedOrderedDict(OrderedDict):
         'Store items in the order the keys were last added'

         def __setitem__(self, key, value):
             super().__setitem__(key, value)
             self.move_to_end(key)

*note OrderedDict: 3ce. 在實現一個 *note functools.lru_cache(): 834. 的
變形版本時也非常有用：

     from collections import OrderedDict
     from time import time

     class TimeBoundedLRU:
         "LRU Cache that invalidates and refreshes old entries."

         def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxage=30):
             self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { args : (timestamp, result)}
             self.func = func
             self.maxsize = maxsize
             self.maxage = maxage

         def __call__(self, *args):
             if args in self.cache:
                 self.cache.move_to_end(args)
                 timestamp, result = self.cache[args]
                 if time() - timestamp <= self.maxage:
                     return result
             result = self.func(*args)
             self.cache[args] = time(), result
             if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
                 self.cache.popitem(0)
             return result

     class MultiHitLRUCache:
         """ LRU cache that defers caching a result until
             it has been requested multiple times.

             To avoid flushing the LRU cache with one-time requests,
             we don't cache until a request has been made more than once.

         """

         def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxrequests=4096, cache_after=1):
             self.requests = OrderedDict()   # { uncached_key : request_count }
             self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { cached_key : function_result }
             self.func = func
             self.maxrequests = maxrequests  # max number of uncached requests
             self.maxsize = maxsize          # max number of stored return values
             self.cache_after = cache_after

         def __call__(self, *args):
             if args in self.cache:
                 self.cache.move_to_end(args)
                 return self.cache[args]
             result = self.func(*args)
             self.requests[args] = self.requests.get(args, 0) + 1
             if self.requests[args] <= self.cache_after:
                 self.requests.move_to_end(args)
                 if len(self.requests) > self.maxrequests:
                     self.requests.popitem(0)
             else:
                 self.requests.pop(args, None)
                 self.cache[args] = result
                 if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
                     self.cache.popitem(0)
             return result


File: python.info,  Node: UserDict 物件,  Next: UserList 物件,  Prev: OrderedDict 物件,  Up: collections --- 容器資料型態

5.8.4.11 ‘UserDict’ 物件
........................

*note UserDict: 1770. 類別是作為 dict 物件的包裝器。因為已經可以直接自
*note dict: 239. 建立子類別，這個類別的需求已部分被滿足，不過這個類別使
用起來更方便，因為被包裝的字典可以作為其屬性來存取。

 -- 類別: collections.UserDict ([initialdata])

     模擬字典的類別。實例的內容被存於一個字典，可透過 *note UserDict:
     1770. 的 *note data: 22b2. 屬性來做存取。如果有提供 'initialdata'，
     *note data: 22b2. 屬性會被初始化為其值；要注意指到 'initialdata' 的
     參照不會被保留，使其可被用於其他目的。

     除了支援作為對映所需的方法與操作，*note UserDict: 1770. 實例提供了
     以下屬性：

      -- 屬性: data

          一個真實的字典，用於儲存 *note UserDict: 1770. 類別的資料內容
          。


File: python.info,  Node: UserList 物件,  Next: UserString 物件,  Prev: UserDict 物件,  Up: collections --- 容器資料型態

5.8.4.12 ‘UserList’ 物件
........................

此類別是 list 物件的包裝器。它是個方便的基礎類別，可繼承它並覆寫現有方法
或加入新方法來定義你所需的一個類似於 list 的類別。如此一來，我們可以為
list 加入新的特性。

因為已經可以直接自 *note list: 40a. 建立子類別，這個類別的需求已部分被滿
足，不過這個類別使用起來更方便，因為被包裝的 list 可以作為其屬性來存取。

 -- 類別: collections.UserList ([list])

     模擬 list 的類別。實例的內容被存於一個 list，可透過 *note UserList:
     135a. 的 *note data: 22b4. 屬性來做存取。實例內容被初始化為 'list'
     的複製，預設為一個空的 list ‘[]’。'list' 可以是任何 iterable，例如
     一個真實的 Python list 或是一個 *note UserList: 135a. 物件。

     除了支援可變序列的方法與操作，*note UserList: 135a. 實例提供了以下
     屬性：

      -- 屬性: data

          一個真實的 *note list: 40a. 物件，用於儲存 *note UserList:
          135a. 類別的資料內容。

'子類別化的條件：'*note UserList: 135a. 的子類別應該要提供一個不需要引數
或一個引數的建構函式。回傳一個新序列的 list 操作會從那些實作出來的類別建
立一個實例，為了達成上述目的，它假設建構函式可傳入單一參數來呼叫，該參數
即是做為數據來源的一個序列物件。

如果希望一個自此獲得的子類別不遵從上述要求，那所有該類別支援的特殊方法則
必須被覆寫；請參考原始碼來理解在這情況下哪些方法是必須提供的。


File: python.info,  Node: UserString 物件,  Prev: UserList 物件,  Up: collections --- 容器資料型態

5.8.4.13 ‘UserString’ 物件
..........................

*note UserString: c4d. 類別是字串物件的包裝器，因為已經可以從 *note str:
157. 直接建立子類別，這個類別的需求已經部分被滿足，不過這個類別使用起來
更方便，因為被包裝的字串可以作為其屬性來存取。

 -- 類別: collections.UserString (seq)

     模擬字串物件的類別。實例的內容被存於一個字串物件，可透過 *note
     UserString: c4d. 的 *note data: 22b6. 屬性來做存取。實例內容被初始
     化為 'seq' 的複製，'seq' 引數可以是任何可被內建函式 *note str():
     157. 轉換成字串的物件。

     除了支援字串的方法和操作以外，*note UserString: c4d. 實例也提供了以
     下屬性：

      -- 屬性: data

          一個真實的 *note str: 157. 物件，用來儲存 *note UserString:
          c4d. 類別的資料內容。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增方法 ‘__getnewargs__’、‘__rmod__’、
     ‘casefold’、‘format_map’、‘isprintable’ 以及 ‘maketrans’。


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc --- 容器的抽象基底類別,  Next: heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法,  Prev: collections --- 容器資料型態,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.5 ‘collections.abc’ -- 容器的抽象基底類別
---------------------------------------------

在 3.3 版被加入: Formerly, this module was part of the *note
collections: 1b. module.

'原始碼：'Lib/_collections_abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides *note abstract base classes: 1047. that can be used
to test whether a class provides a particular interface; for example,
whether it is *note hashable: 409. or whether it is a *note mapping:
104d.

An *note issubclass(): 5df. or *note isinstance(): 14b. test for an
interface works in one of three ways.

1) A newly written class can inherit directly from one of the abstract
base classes.  The class must supply the required abstract methods.  The
remaining mixin methods come from inheritance and can be overridden if
desired.  Other methods may be added as needed:

     class C(Sequence):                      # Direct inheritance
         def __init__(self): ...             # Extra method not required by the ABC
         def __getitem__(self, index):  ...  # Required abstract method
         def __len__(self):  ...             # Required abstract method
         def count(self, value): ...         # Optionally override a mixin method

     >>> issubclass(C, Sequence)
     True
     >>> isinstance(C(), Sequence)
     True

2) Existing classes and built-in classes can be registered as "virtual
subclasses" of the ABCs.  Those classes should define the full API
including all of the abstract methods and all of the mixin methods.
This lets users rely on *note issubclass(): 5df. or *note isinstance():
14b. tests to determine whether the full interface is supported.  The
exception to this rule is for methods that are automatically inferred
from the rest of the API:

     class D:                                 # No inheritance
         def __init__(self): ...              # Extra method not required by the ABC
         def __getitem__(self, index):  ...   # Abstract method
         def __len__(self):  ...              # Abstract method
         def count(self, value): ...          # Mixin method
         def index(self, value): ...          # Mixin method

     Sequence.register(D)                     # Register instead of inherit

     >>> issubclass(D, Sequence)
     True
     >>> isinstance(D(), Sequence)
     True

In this example, class ‘D’ does not need to define ‘__contains__’,
‘__iter__’, and ‘__reversed__’ because the *note in-operator: 1e03, the
*note iteration: 10ba. logic, and the *note reversed(): 691. function
automatically fall back to using ‘__getitem__’ and ‘__len__’.

3) Some simple interfaces are directly recognizable by the presence of
the required methods (unless those methods have been set to *note None:
470.):

     class E:
         def __iter__(self): ...
         def __next__(self): ...

     >>> issubclass(E, Iterable)
     True
     >>> isinstance(E(), Iterable)
     True

Complex interfaces do not support this last technique because an
interface is more than just the presence of method names.  Interfaces
specify semantics and relationships between methods that cannot be
inferred solely from the presence of specific method names.  For
example, knowing that a class supplies ‘__getitem__’, ‘__len__’, and
‘__iter__’ is insufficient for distinguishing a *note Sequence: 1055.
from a *note Mapping: 702.

在 3.9 版被加入: These abstract classes now support ‘[]’.  See *note
泛型別名型別: 4af. and PEP 585(2).

* Menu:

* Collections Abstract Base Classes::
* Collections Abstract Base Classes: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions. Detailed Descriptions
* Examples and Recipes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/_collections_abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Collections Abstract Base Classes,  Next: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions,  Up: collections abc --- 容器的抽象基底類別

5.8.5.1 Collections Abstract Base Classes
.........................................

The collections module offers the following *note ABCs: 1047.:

ABC                                Inherits from              Abstract Methods            Mixin Methods
                                                                                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
*note Container: 1fe8. (1)                                    ‘__contains__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Hashable: 23d. (2)                                      ‘__hash__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Iterable: 1fe6. (3) (4)                                 ‘__iter__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Iterator: 1fe7. (5)          *note Iterable: 1fe6.      ‘__next__’                  ‘__iter__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Reversible: af3. (6)         *note Iterable: 1fe6.      ‘__reversed__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Generator: c53. (7)          *note Iterator: 1fe7.      ‘send’、‘throw’             ‘close’、‘__iter__’、‘__next__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Sized: 23e. (8)                                         ‘__len__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Callable: 60b. (9)                                      ‘__call__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Collection: af2. (10)        *note Sized: 23e.、        ‘__contains__’、
                                   *note Iterable: 1fe6.、    ‘__iter__’、‘__len__’
                                   *note Container: 1fe8.     
                                   
                                                                                          
*note Sequence: 1055.              *note Reversible: af3,     ‘__getitem__’、‘__len__’    ‘__contains__’、‘__iter__’、‘__reversed__’、‘index’ 和
                                   *note Collection: af2.                                 ‘count’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableSequence: c4c.        *note Sequence: 1055.      ‘__getitem__’、             Inherited *note Sequence: 1055. methods and ‘append’,
                                                              ‘__setitem__’、             ‘clear’, ‘reverse’, ‘extend’, ‘pop’, ‘remove’, and
                                                              ‘__delitem__’、             ‘__iadd__’
                                                              ‘__len__’、‘insert’         
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note ByteString: 223.             *note Sequence: 1055.      ‘__getitem__’、‘__len__’    Inherited *note Sequence: 1055. methods
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Set: 1fde.                   *note Collection: af2.     ‘__contains__’、            ‘__le__’、‘__lt__’、‘__eq__’、‘__ne__’、‘__gt__’、
                                                              ‘__iter__’、‘__len__’       ‘__ge__’、‘__and__’、‘__or__’、‘__sub__’、‘__xor__’ 與
                                                                                          ‘isdisjoint’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableSet: 1fe9.            *note Set: 1fde.           ‘__contains__’、            Inherited *note Set: 1fde. methods and ‘clear’, ‘pop’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’、‘__len__’、     ‘remove’, ‘__ior__’, ‘__iand__’, ‘__ixor__’, and
                                                              ‘add’、‘discard’            ‘__isub__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Mapping: 702.                *note Collection: af2.     ‘__getitem__’、             ‘__contains__’、‘keys’、‘items’、‘values’、‘get’、
                                                              ‘__iter__’、‘__len__’       ‘__eq__’ 和 ‘__ne__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableMapping: f3d.         *note Mapping: 702.        ‘__getitem__’、             Inherited *note Mapping: 702. methods and ‘pop’,
                                                              ‘__setitem__’、             ‘popitem’, ‘clear’, ‘update’, and ‘setdefault’
                                                              ‘__delitem__’、             
                                                              ‘__iter__’、‘__len__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note MappingView: 1fea.           *note Sized: 23e.                                      ‘__len__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note ItemsView: 1fec.             *note MappingView: 1fea.、                             ‘__contains__’、‘__iter__’
                                   *note Set: 1fde.                                       
                                   
                                                                                          
*note KeysView: 1feb.              *note MappingView: 1fea.、                             ‘__contains__’、‘__iter__’
                                   *note Set: 1fde.                                       
                                   
                                                                                          
*note ValuesView: 1fed.            *note MappingView: 1fea.、                             ‘__contains__’、‘__iter__’
                                   *note Collection: af2.                                 
                                   
                                                                                          
*note Awaitable: c54. (11)                                    ‘__await__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Coroutine: c55. (12)         *note Awaitable: c54.      ‘send’、‘throw’             ‘close’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note AsyncIterable: c57. (13)                                ‘__aiter__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note AsyncIterator: c56. (14)     *note AsyncIterable: c57.  ‘__anext__’                 ‘__aiter__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note AsyncGenerator: af4. (15)    *note AsyncIterator: c56.  ‘asend’、‘athrow’           ‘aclose’、‘__aiter__’、‘__anext__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Buffer: 170. (16)                                       ‘__buffer__’
                                                              

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (2) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (3) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (4) Checking ‘isinstance(obj, Iterable)’ detects classes that are
registered as *note Iterable: 1fe6. or that have an *note __iter__():
1ab7. method, but it does not detect classes that iterate with the *note
__getitem__(): 4e7. method.  The only reliable way to determine whether
an object is *note iterable: 10ba. is to call ‘iter(obj)’.

   (5) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (6) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (7) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (8) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (9) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (10) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (11) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (12) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (13) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (14) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (15) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (16) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 470.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.


File: python.info,  Node: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions,  Next: Examples and Recipes,  Prev: Collections Abstract Base Classes,  Up: collections abc --- 容器的抽象基底類別

5.8.5.2 Collections Abstract Base Classes - Detailed Descriptions
.................................................................

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Container

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __contains__(): 1cef.
     method.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Hashable

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __hash__(): 950. method.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Sized

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __len__(): 1cf4. method.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Callable

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __call__(): 2dd. method.

     See *note 註釋 callable 物件: 22bc. for details on how to use
     ‘Callable’ in type annotations.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Iterable

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __iter__(): 1ab7. method.

     Checking ‘isinstance(obj, Iterable)’ detects classes that are
     registered as *note Iterable: 1fe6. or that have an *note
     __iter__(): 1ab7. method, but it does not detect classes that
     iterate with the *note __getitem__(): 4e7. method.  The only
     reliable way to determine whether an object is *note iterable:
     10ba. is to call ‘iter(obj)’.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Collection

     ABC for sized iterable container classes.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Iterator

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __iter__(): 1aba. and *note
     __next__(): 115d. methods.  See also the definition of *note
     iterator: 1718.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Reversible

     ABC for iterable classes that also provide the *note
     __reversed__(): 1cee. method.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Generator

     ABC for *note generator: ef7. classes that implement the protocol
     defined in PEP 342(1) that extends *note iterators: 1718. with the
     *note send(): 1d5f, *note throw(): 243. and *note close(): 158c.
     methods.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 22bd. for details
     on using ‘Generator’ in type annotations.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Sequence
 -- 類別: collections.abc.MutableSequence
 -- 類別: collections.abc.ByteString

     ABCs for read-only and mutable *note sequences: 238.

     Implementation note: Some of the mixin methods, such as *note
     __iter__(): 1ab7, *note __reversed__(): 1cee. and ‘index()’, make
     repeated calls to the underlying *note __getitem__(): 4e7. method.
     Consequently, if *note __getitem__(): 4e7. is implemented with
     constant access speed, the mixin methods will have linear
     performance; however, if the underlying method is linear (as it
     would be with a linked list), the mixins will have quadratic
     performance and will likely need to be overridden.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The index() method added support for 'stop' and
     'start' arguments.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: The
     *note ByteString: 223. ABC has been deprecated.  For use in typing,
     prefer a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note
     collections.abc.Buffer: 170.  For use as an ABC, prefer *note
     Sequence: 1055. or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 170.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Set
 -- 類別: collections.abc.MutableSet

     ABCs for read-only and mutable *note sets: 1f07.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Mapping
 -- 類別: collections.abc.MutableMapping

     ABCs for read-only and mutable *note mappings: 104d.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.MappingView
 -- 類別: collections.abc.ItemsView
 -- 類別: collections.abc.KeysView
 -- 類別: collections.abc.ValuesView

     ABCs for mapping, items, keys, and values *note views: 22af.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Awaitable

     ABC for *note awaitable: ae0. objects, which can be used in *note
     await: 542. expressions.  Custom implementations must provide the
     *note __await__(): 1d5a. method.

     *note Coroutine: 1ae. objects and instances of the *note Coroutine:
     c55. ABC are all instances of this ABC.

          備註: In CPython, generator-based coroutines (*note
          generators: ef7. decorated with *note @types.coroutine: d0a.)
          are 'awaitables', even though they do not have an *note
          __await__(): 1d5a. method.  Using ‘isinstance(gencoro,
          Awaitable)’ for them will return ‘False’.  Use *note
          inspect.isawaitable(): c91. to detect them.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Coroutine

     ABC for *note coroutine: 1ae. compatible classes.  These implement
     the following methods, defined in *note Coroutine Objects: 1c99.:
     *note send(): 1d5e, *note throw(): 242, and *note close(): 1d60.
     Custom implementations must also implement *note __await__(): 1d5a.
     All *note Coroutine: c55. instances are also instances of *note
     Awaitable: c54.

          備註: In CPython, generator-based coroutines (*note
          generators: ef7. decorated with *note @types.coroutine: d0a.)
          are 'awaitables', even though they do not have an *note
          __await__(): 1d5a. method.  Using ‘isinstance(gencoro,
          Coroutine)’ for them will return ‘False’.  Use *note
          inspect.isawaitable(): c91. to detect them.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 22bd. for details
     on using ‘Coroutine’ in type annotations.  The variance and order
     of type parameters correspond to those of *note Generator: c53.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.AsyncIterable

     ABC for classes that provide an ‘__aiter__’ method.  See also the
     definition of *note asynchronous iterable: bed.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.AsyncIterator

     ABC for classes that provide ‘__aiter__’ and ‘__anext__’ methods.
     See also the definition of *note asynchronous iterator: bef.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.AsyncGenerator

     ABC for *note asynchronous generator: 1dcb. classes that implement
     the protocol defined in PEP 525(2) and PEP 492(3).

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 22bd. for details
     on using ‘AsyncGenerator’ in type annotations.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 類別: collections.abc.Buffer

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __buffer__(): 16f. method,
     implementing the *note buffer protocol: 148.  See PEP 688(4).

     在 3.12 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples and Recipes,  Prev: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions,  Up: collections abc --- 容器的抽象基底類別

5.8.5.3 Examples and Recipes
............................

ABCs allow us to ask classes or instances if they provide particular
functionality, for example:

     size = None
     if isinstance(myvar, collections.abc.Sized):
         size = len(myvar)

Several of the ABCs are also useful as mixins that make it easier to
develop classes supporting container APIs.  For example, to write a
class supporting the full *note Set: 1fde. API, it is only necessary to
supply the three underlying abstract methods: *note __contains__():
1cef, *note __iter__(): 1ab7, and *note __len__(): 1cf4.  The ABC
supplies the remaining methods such as ‘__and__()’ and *note
isdisjoint(): 1fca.:

     class ListBasedSet(collections.abc.Set):
         ''' Alternate set implementation favoring space over speed
             and not requiring the set elements to be hashable. '''
         def __init__(self, iterable):
             self.elements = lst = []
             for value in iterable:
                 if value not in lst:
                     lst.append(value)

         def __iter__(self):
             return iter(self.elements)

         def __contains__(self, value):
             return value in self.elements

         def __len__(self):
             return len(self.elements)

     s1 = ListBasedSet('abcdef')
     s2 = ListBasedSet('defghi')
     overlap = s1 & s2            # The __and__() method is supported automatically

Notes on using *note Set: 1fde. and *note MutableSet: 1fe9. as a mixin:

  1. Since some set operations create new sets, the default mixin
     methods need a way to create new instances from an *note iterable:
     10ba.  The class constructor is assumed to have a signature in the
     form ‘ClassName(iterable)’.  That assumption is factored-out to an
     internal *note classmethod: 24b. called ‘_from_iterable()’ which
     calls ‘cls(iterable)’ to produce a new set.  If the *note Set:
     1fde. mixin is being used in a class with a different constructor
     signature, you will need to override ‘_from_iterable()’ with a
     classmethod or regular method that can construct new instances from
     an iterable argument.

  2. To override the comparisons (presumably for speed, as the semantics
     are fixed), redefine *note __le__(): 119d. and *note __ge__():
     119f, then the other operations will automatically follow suit.

  3. The *note Set: 1fde. mixin provides a ‘_hash()’ method to compute a
     hash value for the set; however, *note __hash__(): 950. is not
     defined because not all sets are *note hashable: 409. or immutable.
     To add set hashability using mixins, inherit from both *note Set():
     1fde. and *note Hashable(): 23d, then define ‘__hash__ =
     Set._hash’.

也參考
......

   * OrderedSet recipe(1) for an example built on *note MutableSet:
     1fe9.

   * 關於 ABC 的更多資訊請見 *note abc: 4. module 和 PEP 3119(2)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576694/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法,  Next: bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm,  Prev: collections abc --- 容器的抽象基底類別,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.6 ‘heapq’ -- 堆積佇列 (heap queue) 演算法
---------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/heapq.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組實作了堆積佇列 (heap queue) 演算法，亦被稱為優先佇列 (priority
queue) 演算法。

Heap（堆積）是一顆二元樹，樹上所有父節點的值都小於等於他的子節點的值，我
們將這種情況稱為堆積的性質不變。

使用陣列實作，對於所有從0開始的 'k' 都滿足 ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1]’ 和
‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]’ 。為了比較節點的值，不存在的元素被視為無限大。
heap 存在一個有趣的性質：樹上最小的元素永遠會在根節點 ‘heap[0]’ 上。

下方的 API 跟一般教科書的 heap queue 演算法有兩個方面不同：第一，我們的
索引從 0 開始計算，這會父節點與子節點之間的關係產生很微小的差異，但更符
合 Python 從 0 開始索引的設計。第二，我們的 pop 方法會回傳最小的元素而不
是最大的元素 （ 在教科書中被稱作 "min heap"，而 "max heap" 因為他很適合
做原地排序，所以更常出現在教科書中 ）。

這兩個特性使得把 heap 當作一個標準的 Python list 檢視時不會出現意外：
‘heap[0]’ 是最小的物件，‘heap.sort()’ 能保持 heap 的性質不變！

建立一個 heap 可以使用 list 初始化為 ‘[]’，或者使用函式 *note heapify():
22c1. 將一個已經有元素的 list轉成一個 heap。

此模組提供下面的函式

 -- 函式: heapq.heappush (heap, item)

     把 'item' 放進 'heap'，並保持 heap 性質不變。

 -- 函式: heapq.heappop (heap)

     從 'heap' 取出並回傳最小的元素，同時保持 heap 性質不變。如果 heap 是
     空的會產生 *note IndexError: 13ac. 錯誤。只存取最小元素但不取出可以
     使用 ‘heap[0]’ 。

 -- 函式: heapq.heappushpop (heap, item)

     將 'item' 放入 heap ，接著從 'heap' 取出並回傳最小的元素。這個組合
     函式比呼叫 *note heappush(): 132f. 之後呼叫 *note heappop(): 1330.
     更有效率。

 -- 函式: heapq.heapify (x)

     在線性時間內將 list 'x' 轉為 heap，且過程不會申請額外記憶體。

 -- 函式: heapq.heapreplace (heap, item)

     從 'heap' 取出並回傳最小的元素，接著將新的 'item' 放進heap。heap 的
     大小不會改變。如果 heap 是空的會產生 *note IndexError: 13ac. 錯誤。

     這個一次完成的操作會比呼叫 *note heappop(): 1330. 之後呼叫 *note
     heappush(): 132f. 更有效率，並在維護 heap 的大小不變時更為適當，取
     出/放入的組合函式一定會從 heap 回傳一個元素並用 'item' 取代他。

     函式的回傳值可能會大於被加入的 'item' 。如果這不是你期望發生的，可
     以考慮使用 *note heappushpop(): 22c2. 替代，他會回傳 heap 的最小值
     和 'item' 兩個當中比較小的那個，並將大的留在 heap 內。

這個模組也提供三個利用 heap 實作的一般用途函式

 -- 函式: heapq.merge (*iterables, key=None, reverse=False)

     合併多個已排序的輸入並產生單一且已排序的輸出（舉例：合併來自多個
     log 檔中有時間戳記的項目）。回傳一個 *note iterator: 1718. 包含已經
     排序的值。

     和 ‘sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables))’ 類似但回傳值是一個
     iterable ，不會一次把所有資料都放進記憶體中，並且假設每一個輸入都已
     經（由小到大）排序過了。

     有兩個選用參數，指定時必須被當作關鍵字參數指定。

     'key' 參數指定了一個 *note key function: c7d. 引數，用來從每一個輸
     入的元素中決定一個比較的依據。預設的值是 ‘None’ （直接比較元素）。

     'reverse' 是一個布林值，如果設定為 ‘True’ ，則輸入的元素將以相反的
     比較順序進行合併。為了達成類似 ‘sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables),
     reverse=True)’ 的行為，所有 iterables 必須由大到小排序。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 加入選用參數 'key' 和 'reverse' 。

 -- 函式: heapq.nlargest (n, iterable, key=None)

     回傳一個包含資料 'iterable' 中前 'n' 大元素的 list 。如果有指定
     'key' 引數，'key' 會是只有一個引數的函式，用來從每一個在 'iterable'
     中的元素提取一個比較的依據（例如 ‘key=str.lower’ ）。效果相當於
     ‘sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=True)[:n]’ 。

 -- 函式: heapq.nsmallest (n, iterable, key=None)

     回傳一個包含資料 'iterable' 中前 'n' 小元素的 list 。如果有指定
     'key' 引數，'key' 會是只有一個引數的函式，用來從每一個在 'iterable'
     中的元素提取一個比較的依據（例如 ‘key=str.lower’ ）。效果相當於
     ‘sorted(iterable, key=key)[:n]’ 。

後兩個函式在 'n' 值比較小時有最好的表現。對於較大的 'n' 值，只用 *note
sorted(): a2f. 函式會更有效率。同樣地，當 ‘n==1’ 時，使用內建函式 *note
min(): d8c. 和 *note max(): d8d. 會有更好的效率。如果需要重複使用這些函
式，可以考慮將 iterable 轉成真正的 heap 。

* Menu:

* 基礎範例::
* 優先佇列實作細節::
* 原理::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/heapq.py


File: python.info,  Node: 基礎範例,  Next: 優先佇列實作細節,  Up: heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法

5.8.6.1 基礎範例
................

堆積排序 (heapsort)(1) 可以透過將所有的值推入一個 heap，並且從 heap 中一
個接一個彈出最小元素來實作：

     >>> def heapsort(iterable):
     ...     h = []
     ...     for value in iterable:
     ...         heappush(h, value)
     ...     return [heappop(h) for i in range(len(h))]
     ...
     >>> heapsort([1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0])
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

雖然類似 ‘sorted(iterable)’ ，但跟 *note sorted(): a2f. 不同的是，這個實
作不是 stable 的排序。

Heap 中的元素可以是 tuple 。這有利於將要比較的值（例如一個 task 的優先度
）和主要資料放在一起排序：

     >>> h = []
     >>> heappush(h, (5, 'write code'))
     >>> heappush(h, (7, 'release product'))
     >>> heappush(h, (1, 'write spec'))
     >>> heappush(h, (3, 'create tests'))
     >>> heappop(h)
     (1, 'write spec')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heapsort


File: python.info,  Node: 優先佇列實作細節,  Next: 原理,  Prev: 基礎範例,  Up: heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法

5.8.6.2 優先佇列實作細節
........................

優先佇列 (priority queue)(1) 是 heap 的常見用途之一，實作優先佇列伴隨著
下列挑戰：

   * 排序的穩定性：如何將兩個擁有相同優先次序 (priority) 的 task 按照他
     們被加入的順序回傳?

   * Tuple的排序在某些情況下會壞掉，例如當 Tuple (priority, task) 的
     priorities 相等且 tasks 沒有一個預設的排序時。

   * 當一個 heap 中 task 的 priority 改變時，如何將它移到 heap 正確的位
     置上?

   * 或者一個還沒被解決的 task 需要被刪除時，要如何從佇列中找到並刪除指
     定的 task?

一個針對前兩個問題的解法是：儲存一個包含 priority 、 entry count 和 task
三個元素的 tuple 。兩個 task 有相同 priority 時， entry count 會讓兩個
task 能根據加入的順序排序。因為沒有任何兩個 task 擁有相同的 entry count
，所以永遠不會直接使用 task 做比較。

task 無法比較的另一個解決方案是建立一個包裝器類別，該類別忽略 task 項目
，只比較優先等級：

     from dataclasses import dataclass, field
     from typing import Any

     @dataclass(order=True)
     class PrioritizedItem:
         priority: int
         item: Any=field(compare=False)

剩下的問題可以藉由找到要刪除的 task 並更改它的 priority 或者直接將它移除
。尋找一個 task 可以使用一個 dictionary 指向佇列當中的 entry 。

移除 entry 或更改它的 priority 更為困難，因為這會破壞 heap 的性質。所以
一個可行的方案是將原本的 entry 做一個標記表示它已經被刪除，並新增一個擁
有新的 priority 的 entry：

     pq = []                         # list of entries arranged in a heap
     entry_finder = {}               # mapping of tasks to entries
     REMOVED = '<removed-task>'      # placeholder for a removed task
     counter = itertools.count()     # unique sequence count

     def add_task(task, priority=0):
         'Add a new task or update the priority of an existing task'
         if task in entry_finder:
             remove_task(task)
         count = next(counter)
         entry = [priority, count, task]
         entry_finder[task] = entry
         heappush(pq, entry)

     def remove_task(task):
         'Mark an existing task as REMOVED.  Raise KeyError if not found.'
         entry = entry_finder.pop(task)
         entry[-1] = REMOVED

     def pop_task():
         'Remove and return the lowest priority task. Raise KeyError if empty.'
         while pq:
             priority, count, task = heappop(pq)
             if task is not REMOVED:
                 del entry_finder[task]
                 return task
         raise KeyError('pop from an empty priority queue')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_queue


File: python.info,  Node: 原理,  Prev: 優先佇列實作細節,  Up: heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法

5.8.6.3 原理
............

Heap 是一個陣列對於所有從0開始的 index 'k' 都存在性質 ‘a[k] <= a[2*k+1]’
和 ‘a[k] <= a[2*k+2]’ 。為了方便比較，不存在的元素被視為無限大。Heap 的
一個有趣的性質是：‘a[0]’ 永遠是最小的元素。

上述乍看之下有些奇怪的不變式，是為了實作一個對記憶體來說有效率的方法，其
表示方式如同錦標賽一般。下列的數字為 'k'，而不是 ‘a[k]’：

                                    0

                   1                                 2

           3               4                5               6

       7       8       9       10      11      12      13      14

     15 16   17 18   19 20   21 22   23 24   25 26   27 28   29 30

在上面的樹當中，每個單元 'k' 都會位在 ‘2*k+1’ 與 ‘2*k+2’ 上方。如同體育
賽事常見的錦標賽般，每個單元可視為其下方兩個單元當中的贏家，我們可以透過
追溯整棵樹來找到該贏家曾經對戰過的所有對手。然而，在許多電腦應用中，我們
不需要追溯贏家的完整對戰歷史。為了能更有效率地使用記憶體，當一個贏家晉級
勝出時，我們用下方較低層級的另一個項目來取代它，至此規則變為一個單元以及
它下方兩個單元，包含三個不同項目，但是最上方的單元「勝過」下方兩個單元。

如果能確保滿足這個 heap 的不變式，那麼索引 0 顯然是最終的贏家。移除並找
到「下一個」贏家最簡單的演算法為：將一個輸家（例如上圖中的單元 30）移動
到位置 0，然後從新的位置 0 不斷與下方的位置交換值來向下傳遞，直到滿足不
變式為止。這個過程的複雜度顯然是樹的節點數目的對數級別。透過對所有項目疊
代，可以得到一個複雜度為 'O'('n' log 'n') 的排序。

這種排序有個好處，只要插入的項目沒有「贏過」你最後提取、索引為 0 的元素
，你就可以在排序進行的同時有效率地插入新項目。這在模擬情境當中特別有用，
其中樹能夠保存所有輸入事件，而「贏」意味著最小排程時間。當一個事件排程其
它事件的執行時，因這些事件仍在等待進行，所以很容易將它們插入 heap 當中。
因此， heap 是一個實現排程器的優秀資料結構（這就是我用以實作 MIDI 編曲器
的方法 :-）。

多種用於實作排程器的結構現今已被廣泛研究，heap 對此非常有用，因為它們速
度相當快，且速度幾乎不受其他因素影響，最壞情況與平均狀況差異無幾。也有其
它整體說來更有效率的方法，然而它們的最壞情況可能會非常糟糕。

Heap 在為儲存於硬碟上的大量資料進行排序也非常有用。你可能已經知道，大量
資料排序涉及 "runs" 的產生（也就是預先排序的序列，其大小通常與 CPU 記憶
體的大小有關），之後再對這些 run 合併，而這些合併的過程通常相當巧妙 (1)。
很重要的一點是，初始排序產生的 run 越長越好。錦標賽是達成這一點的好方法
，若你用所有可用記憶體來舉行一場錦標賽，並透過替換與向下交換來處理所有適
配當前 run 的值，那麼對於隨機產生的輸入，將可以產生長度兩倍於記憶體大小
的 run。對於已模糊排序過的輸入，效果更好。

此外，若你將索引為 0 的項目輸出至磁碟，並取得一個無法適配當前錦標賽的輸
入（因為該值「勝過」最後的輸出值），則該輸入值就無法插入至 heap 當中，因
此 heap 的大小會減小。釋放出來的記憶體可以巧妙地立即再被運用，逐步建構出
第二個 heap，其大小增加的速度會與第一個 heap 減少的速度一致。當第一個
heap 完全消失時，你可以切換至第二個 heap 開啟一個新 run 。這真是個聰明且
相當有效率的做法！

總結來說，heap 是值得了解的有用記憶體結構。我在一些應用中使用它們，我認
為能有一個 'heap' 模組是很棒的。:-)

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 現今的磁碟平衡演算法因為硬碟查找能力而更加複雜難解。在沒有查找功
能的裝置如大型磁帶機，狀況又不一樣了，人們必須機智地確保（遠遠提前）每次
於磁帶上移動都盡可能是最有效率的（也就是盡可能更好地「推進」合併的過程）
。有些磁帶甚至能夠向後讀取，這也被用來避免倒轉的時間。相信我，真正優秀的
磁帶排序看起來相當壯觀！排序一直以來都是一門偉大的藝術！:-)


File: python.info,  Node: bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm,  Next: array --- 高效率的數值型陣列,  Prev: heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.7 ‘bisect’ -- 陣列二分演算法 (Array bisection algorithm)
------------------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/bisect.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組維護一個已經排序過的 list ，當我們每次做完插入後不需要再次排序整
個 list 。一個很長的 list 的比較操作很花費時間，可以透過線性搜索或頻繁地
詢問來改善。

這個模組被稱為 *note bisect: f. 是因為它使用基本二分演算法來完成其工作。
不像其它搜尋特定值的二分法工具，本模組中的函式旨在定位插入點。因此，這些
函式永遠不會呼叫 *note __eq__(): 94f. 方法來確認是否找到一個值。相反地，
這些函式只呼叫 *note __lt__(): 119c. 方法，並在陣列中的值回傳一個插入點
。 此模組提供下面的函式：

 -- 函式: bisect.bisect_left (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     在 'a' 當中找到一個位置，讓 'x' 插入後 'a' 仍然是排序好的。參數
     'lo' 和 'hi' 用來指定 list 中應該被考慮的子區間，預設是考慮整個
     list 。如果 'a' 裡面已經有 'x' 出現，插入的位置會在所有 'x' 的前面
     （左邊）。回傳值可以被當作 ‘list.insert()’ 的第一個參數，但列表 'a'
     必須先排序過。

     回傳的插入點 'ip' 將陣列 'a' 劃分為左右兩個切片，使得對於左切片而言
     ‘all(elem < x for elem in a[lo : ip])’ 為真，對於右切片而言
     ‘all(elem >= x for elem in a[ip : hi])’ 為真。

     'key' 可指定一個單一參數的 *note key function: c7d.。函式將套用此
     function 在陣列所有元素以得到比較值來計算順位。注意此 function 只會
     套用在陣列中的元素，不會套用在 'x'。

     若 'key' 為 ‘None’，元素將直接進行比較，不會呼叫任何鍵函式。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'key' 參數。

 -- 函式: bisect.bisect_right (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)
 -- 函式: bisect.bisect (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     類似 *note bisect_left(): 22cc.，但回傳的插入位置會在所有 'a' 當中
     的 'x' 的後面（右邊）。

     回傳的插入點 'ip' 將陣列 'a' 劃分為左右兩個切片，使得對於左切片而言
     ‘all(elem <= x for elem in a[lo : ip])’ 為真，對於右切片而言
     ‘all(elem > x for elem in a[ip : hi])’ 為真。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'key' 參數。

 -- 函式: bisect.insort_left (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     將元素 'x' 插入 list 'a'，並維持順序。

     此函式先使用 *note bisect_left(): 22cc. 搜索插入位置，接著用
     ‘insert()’ 於 'a' 以將 'x' 插入，並維持添加元素後的順序。

     此函式只有在搜索時會使用 'key' 函式，插入時不會。

     注意雖然搜索是 'O'(log 'n')，但插入是 'O'('n')，因此此函式整體時間
     複雜度是 'O'('n')。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'key' 參數。

 -- 函式: bisect.insort_right (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)
 -- 函式: bisect.insort (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     類似 *note insort_left(): 22cf.，但插入的位置會在所有 'a' 當中的
     'x' 的後面（右邊）。

     此函式先使用 *note bisect_right(): 22cd. 搜索插入位置，接著用
     ‘insert()’ 於 'a' 以將 'x' 插入，並維持添加元素後的順序。

     此函式只有在搜索時會使用 'key' 函式，插入時不會。

     注意雖然搜索是 'O'(log 'n')，但插入是 'O'('n')，因此此函式整體時間
     複雜度是 'O'('n')。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'key' 參數。

* Menu:

* 效能考量::
* 搜尋一個已排序的 list::
* 範例: 範例<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/bisect.py


File: python.info,  Node: 效能考量,  Next: 搜尋一個已排序的 list,  Up: bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm

5.8.7.1 效能考量
................

若在需要關注寫入時間的程式當中使用 'bisect()' 和 'insort()'，請特別注意
幾個事項：

   * 二分法在一段範圍的數值中做搜索的效率較佳，但若是要存取特定數值，使
     用字典的表現還是比較好。

   * 'insort()' 函式的複雜度為 'O'('n')，因為對數搜尋是以線性時間的插入
     步驟所主導 (dominate)。

   * 搜索函式為無狀態的 (stateless)，且鍵函式會在使用過後被丟棄。因此，
     如果搜索函式被使用於迴圈當中，鍵函式會不斷被重複呼叫於相同的 list 元
     素。如果鍵函式執行速度不快，請考慮將其以 *note functools.cache():
     22d3. 包裝起來以減少重複的計算。另外，也可以透過搜尋預先計算好的鍵
     列表 (array of precomputed keys) 來定位插入點（如下方範例所示）。

也參考
......

   * 有序容器 (Sorted Collections)(1) 是一個使用 'bisect' 來管理資料之有
     序集合的高效能模組。

   * SortedCollection recipe(2) 使用二分法來建立一個功能完整的集合類別
     (collection class) 並帶有符合直覺的搜索方法 (search methods) 與支援
     鍵函式。鍵會預先被計算好，以減少搜索過程中多餘的鍵函式呼叫。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://grantjenks.com/docs/sortedcollections/

   (2) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577197-sortedcollection/


File: python.info,  Node: 搜尋一個已排序的 list,  Next: 範例<3>,  Prev: 效能考量,  Up: bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm

5.8.7.2 搜尋一個已排序的 list
.............................

上面的 *note bisect functions: 22cb. 在找到數值插入點上很有用，但一般的
數值搜尋任務上就不是那麼的方便。以下的五個函式展示了如何將其轉換成標準的
有序列表查找函式：

     def index(a, x):
         'Locate the leftmost value exactly equal to x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i != len(a) and a[i] == x:
             return i
         raise ValueError

     def find_lt(a, x):
         'Find rightmost value less than x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i:
             return a[i-1]
         raise ValueError

     def find_le(a, x):
         'Find rightmost value less than or equal to x'
         i = bisect_right(a, x)
         if i:
             return a[i-1]
         raise ValueError

     def find_gt(a, x):
         'Find leftmost value greater than x'
         i = bisect_right(a, x)
         if i != len(a):
             return a[i]
         raise ValueError

     def find_ge(a, x):
         'Find leftmost item greater than or equal to x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i != len(a):
             return a[i]
         raise ValueError


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<3>,  Prev: 搜尋一個已排序的 list,  Up: bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm

5.8.7.3 範例
............

*note bisect(): 22ce. 函式可用於數值表中的查找 (numeric table lookup)，
這個範例使用 *note bisect(): 22ce. 以基於一組有序的數值分界點來為一個考
試成績找到相對應的字母等級：90 以上是 'A'、80 到 89 為 'B'，依此類推：

     >>> def grade(score, breakpoints=[60, 70, 80, 90], grades='FDCBA'):
     ...     i = bisect(breakpoints, score)
     ...     return grades[i]
     ...
     >>> [grade(score) for score in [33, 99, 77, 70, 89, 90, 100]]
     ['F', 'A', 'C', 'C', 'B', 'A', 'A']

*note bisect(): 22ce. 與 *note insort(): 22d1. 函式也適用於內容為
tuples（元組）的 lists，'key' 引數可被用以取出在數值表中作為排序依據的欄
位：

     >>> from collections import namedtuple
     >>> from operator import attrgetter
     >>> from bisect import bisect, insort
     >>> from pprint import pprint

     >>> Movie = namedtuple('Movie', ('name', 'released', 'director'))

     >>> movies = [
     ...     Movie('Jaws', 1975, 'Spielberg'),
     ...     Movie('Titanic', 1997, 'Cameron'),
     ...     Movie('The Birds', 1963, 'Hitchcock'),
     ...     Movie('Aliens', 1986, 'Cameron')
     ... ]

     >>> # Find the first movie released after 1960
     >>> by_year = attrgetter('released')
     >>> movies.sort(key=by_year)
     >>> movies[bisect(movies, 1960, key=by_year)]
     Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock')

     >>> # Insert a movie while maintaining sort order
     >>> romance = Movie('Love Story', 1970, 'Hiller')
     >>> insort(movies, romance, key=by_year)
     >>> pprint(movies)
     [Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock'),
      Movie(name='Love Story', released=1970, director='Hiller'),
      Movie(name='Jaws', released=1975, director='Spielberg'),
      Movie(name='Aliens', released=1986, director='Cameron'),
      Movie(name='Titanic', released=1997, director='Cameron')]

如果鍵函式會消耗較多運算資源，那可以在預先計算好的鍵列表中搜索該紀錄的索
引值，以減少重複的函式呼叫：

     >>> data = [('red', 5), ('blue', 1), ('yellow', 8), ('black', 0)]
     >>> data.sort(key=lambda r: r[1])       # Or use operator.itemgetter(1).
     >>> keys = [r[1] for r in data]         # Precompute a list of keys.
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 0)]
     ('black', 0)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 1)]
     ('blue', 1)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 5)]
     ('red', 5)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 8)]
     ('yellow', 8)


File: python.info,  Node: array --- 高效率的數值型陣列,  Next: weakref --- 弱參照,  Prev: bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.8 ‘array’ -- 高效率的數值型陣列
-----------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組定義了一個物件型別，可以簡潔的表達一個包含基本數值的陣列：字元、
整數、浮點數。陣列是一個非常類似 list（串列）的序列型別，除了陣列會限制
儲存的物件型別。在建立陣列時可以使用一個字元的 'type code' 來指定儲存的
資料型別。以下為有被定義的 type codes：

Type code       C Type                   Python Type             所需的最小位元組 (bytes)    註解
                                                                                             
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                             
‘'b'’           signed char              int                     1
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'B'’           unsigned char            int                     1
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'u'’           wchar_t                  Unicode character       2                           (1)
                                                                                             
                                                                                             
‘'h'’           signed short             int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'H'’           unsigned short           int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'i'’           signed int               int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'I'’           unsigned int             int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'l'’           signed long              int                     4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'L'’           unsigned long            int                     4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'q'’           signed long long         int                     8
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'Q'’           unsigned long long       int                     8
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'f'’           float                    float                   4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'d'’           double                   float                   8
                                                                 

註解：

  1. 根據平台的不同，它有可能是 16 位元或者 32 位元。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 目前 ‘array('u')’ 使用 ‘wchar_t’ 取代已棄用的
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ 作為 C type。這個異動並沒有影響到它的作用，因爲自從
     Python 3.3 開始 ‘Py_UNICODE’ 即為 ‘wchar_t’ 的別名。

     Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0.

實際上數值的表示方法是被機器的架構所決定（更精準地說，被 C 的實作方法決
定）。實際的大小可以透過 *note array.itemsize: 22d9. 屬性存取。

這個模組定義了以下項目：

 -- 資料: array.typecodes

     一個包含所有可用的 type codes 的字串。

這個模組定義了下方的型別：

 -- 類別: array.array (typecode[, initializer])

     一個新的陣列中的元素被 'typecode' 限制，並由選用的 'initializer' 參
     數初始化，'initializer' 必須是一個 *note bytes: 2c1. 或 *note
     bytearray: 2c0. 物件、一個 Unicode 字串或包含適當型別元素的可疊代物
     件 (iterable)。

     如果給定的是一個 *note bytes: 2c1. 或 *note bytearray: 2c0. 物件，
     新的陣列初始化時會傳入 *note frombytes(): 1106. 方法；如為 Unicode
     字串則會傳入 *note fromunicode(): 22db. 方法；其他情況時， 一個
     initializer 的可疊代物件將被傳入 *note extend(): 22dc. 方法之中來將
     初始項目新增至陣列。

     陣列支援常見的序列操作，包含索引 (indexing)、切片 (slicing)、串接
     (concatenation)、相乘 (multiplication) 等。當使用切片進行賦值時，賦
     值的陣列必須具備相同的 type code，其他型別的數值將導致 *note
     TypeError: 2ba.。陣列同時也實作了緩衝區介面，可以在任何支援 *note
     bytes-like objects: b9f. 的地方使用。

     引發*note 稽核事件 (auditing event): 168e. ‘array.__new__’ 並附帶引
     數 ‘typecode’、‘initializer’。

      -- 屬性: typecode

          typecode 字元被用在建立陣列時。

      -- 屬性: itemsize

          陣列當中的一個元素在內部需要的位元組長度。

      -- 方法: append (x)

          新增一個元素 'x' 到陣列的最尾端。

      -- 方法: buffer_info ()

          回傳一個 tuple ‘(address, length)’ 表示當前的記憶體位置和陣列
          儲存元素的緩衝區記憶體長度。緩衝區的長度單位是位元組，並可以用
          ‘array.buffer_info()[1] * array.itemsize’ 計算得到。這偶爾會在
          底層操作需要記憶體位置的輸出輸入時很有用，例如 ‘ioctl()’ 指令
          。只要陣列存在且沒有使用任何更改長度的操作時，回傳的數值就有效
          。

               備註: 當使用來自 C 或 C++ 程式碼（這是唯一使得這個資訊有
               效的途徑）的陣列物件時，更適當的做法是使用陣列物件支援的
               緩衝區介面。這個方法維護了向後兼容性，並應該在新的程式碼
               中避免。關於緩衝區介面的文件在*note 緩衝協定 (Buffer
               Protocol): 148.。

      -- 方法: byteswap ()

          "Byteswap" 所有陣列中的物件。這只有支援物件長度為 1、2、4 或 8
          位元組的陣列，其他型別的值會導致 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。這
          在從機器讀取位元順序不同的檔案時很有用。

      -- 方法: count (x)

          回傳 'x' 在陣列中出現了幾次。

      -- 方法: extend (iterable)

          從 'iterable' 中新增元素到陣列的尾端，如果 'iterable' 是另一個
          陣列，它必須有完全相同的 type code，如果不同會導致 *note
          TypeError: 2ba.。如果 'iterable' 不是一個陣列，它必須可以被疊
          代 (iterable) 且其中的元素必須是可以被加入陣列中的正確型別。

      -- 方法: frombytes (buffer)

          從 *note bytes-like object: b9f. 中新增元素。讀取時會將其內容
          當作一個機器數值組成的陣列（就像從檔案中使用 *note fromfile():
          22e2. 方法讀出的資料）。

          在 3.2 版被加入: 將 ‘fromstring()’ 更名為 *note frombytes():
          1106.，使其更加清晰易懂。

      -- 方法: fromfile (f, n)

          從 *note file object: 1054. 'f' 讀取 'n' 個元素（作為機器數值
          ），接著將這些元素加入陣列的最尾端。如果只有少於 'n' 個有效的
          元素會導致 *note EOFError: 116a.，但有效的元素仍然會被加入陣列
          中。

      -- 方法: fromlist (list)

          從 list 中新增元素。這等價於 ‘for x in list: a.append(x)’，除
          了有型別錯誤產生時，陣列會保持原狀不會被更改。

      -- 方法: fromunicode (s)

          用給定的 Unicode 字串擴展這個陣列。陣列的 type code 必須是
          ‘u’；其他的型別會導致 *note ValueError: 183. 被引發。使用
          ‘array.frombytes(unicodestring.encode(enc))’ 來新增 Unicode 資
          料到一個其他型別的陣列。

      -- 方法: index (x[, start[, stop]])

          回傳 'i' 的最小數值，使得 'i' 成為陣列之中第一次出現 'x' 的索
          引。選擇性的引數 'start' 及 'stop' 則可以被用來在指定的陣列空
          間中搜尋 'x'。如果 'x' 不存在將導致 *note ValueError: 183.。

          在 3.10 版的變更: 新增選擇性的參數 'start' 及 'stop'。

      -- 方法: insert (i, x)

          在位置 'i' 之前插入一個元素 'x'。負數的索引值會從陣列尾端開始
          數。

      -- 方法: pop ([i])

          移除並回傳陣列索引值 'i' 的元素。選擇性的引數 'i' 預設為 ‘-1’，
          所以預設會刪除並回傳最後一個元素。

      -- 方法: remove (x)

          從陣列中刪除第一個出現的 'x'。

      -- 方法: reverse ()

          反轉陣列中元素的順序。

      -- 方法: tobytes ()

          將陣列轉為另一個機器數值組成的陣列並回傳它的位元組表示（跟用
          *note tofile(): 22e8. 方法寫入檔案時的位元序列相同）。

          在 3.2 版被加入: 為了明確性，過去的 ‘tostring()’ 已更名為
          *note tobytes(): 1105.。

      -- 方法: tofile (f)

          將所有元素（作為機器數值）寫入 *note file object: 1054. 'f'。

      -- 方法: tolist ()

          不更改元素，將陣列轉為一般的 list。

      -- 方法: tounicode ()

          將陣列轉為一個 Unicode 字串。陣列的型別必須為 ‘u’。其他型別的
          陣列會導致 *note ValueError: 183. 錯誤。請使用
          ‘array.tobytes().decode(enc)’ 來為其他型別的陣列轉為 Unicode 字
          串。

陣列物件的字串表示形式為 ‘array(typecode, initializer)’。若為空陣列則參
數 'initializer' 被省略，若 'typecode' 是 ‘'u'’ 將被表示為 Unicode 字串
，其他情況則被表示為由數字組成的 list。只要 *note array: 18f. class（類
別）透過 ‘from array import array’ 的方式引入，便能確保該字串表示能透過
*note eval(): 6b0. 轉換回一個擁有相同型別及數值的陣列。範例：

     array('l')
     array('u', 'hello \u2641')
     array('l', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
     array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.14, -inf, nan])

也參考
......

*note struct: cf. 模組

     將包含不同資料類型的二進位資料包裝與解開包裝。

*note xdrlib: 11a. 模組

     將 External Data Representation (XDR) 的資料包裝與解開包裝，這用在
     一些遠端操作的系統 (remote procedure call systems)。

NumPy(1)

     NumPy 套件定義了另一個陣列型別

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: weakref --- 弱參照,  Next: types --- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱,  Prev: array --- 高效率的數值型陣列,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.9 ‘weakref’ -- 弱參照
-------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/weakref.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note weakref: 10f. 模組允許 Python 程式設計師建立對物件的 '弱參照'。

在以下文章中，術語 '參照目標 (referent)' 表示被弱參照所參考的物件。

對物件的弱參照不足以使物件保持存在：當對參照目標的唯一剩下的參照是弱參照
時，*note garbage collection: 16ef. 可以自由地銷毀參照目標並將其記憶體重
新用於其他用途。然而，在物件被確實銷毀之前，即使沒有對該物件的強參照
(strong reference)，弱參照也可能會回傳該物件。

弱參照的主要用途是實作保存大型物件的快取或對映，其不希望大型物件僅僅因為
它出現在快取或對映中而保持存在。

例如，如果你有許多大型的二進位影像物件，你可能會想要為每個物件關聯
(associate) 一個名稱。如果你使用 Python 字典將名稱對映到影像，或將影像對
映到名稱，則影像物件將保持存活，僅因為它們在字典中作為值 (value) 或鍵
(key) 出現。*note weakref: 10f. 模組提供的 *note WeakKeyDictionary:
1748. 和 *note WeakValueDictionary: 1747. 類別是另一種選擇，它們使用弱參
照來建構對映，這些對映不會僅因為物件出現在對映物件中而使物件保持存活。例
如，如果一個影像物件是 *note WeakValueDictionary: 1747. 中的一個值，那麼
當對該影像物件最後的參照是弱對映 (weak mapping) 所持有的弱參照時，垃圾回
收 (garbage collection) 可以回收該物件，且其對應的條目在弱對映中會被完全
地刪除。

*note WeakKeyDictionary: 1748. 和 *note WeakValueDictionary: 1747. 在其
實作中使用弱參照，在弱參照上設定回呼函式，此弱參照在垃圾回收取回鍵或值時
通知弱字典。*note WeakSet: 3d0. 實作了 *note set: 3cc. 介面，但保留對其
元素的弱參照，就像 *note WeakKeyDictionary: 1748. 一樣。

*note finalize: 8c8. 提供了一種直接的方法來註冊在物件被垃圾回收時呼叫的
清理函式。這比在原始弱參照上設定回呼函式更容易使用，因為模組在物件被回收
前會自動確保最終化器 (finalizer) 保持存活。

大多數程式應該發現使用這些弱容器種類之一或 *note finalize: 8c8. 就足夠了
—通常不需要直接建立自己的弱參照。低層級的機制由 *note weakref: 10f. 模組
公開，以利於進階用途。

並非所有物件都可以被弱參照。支援弱參照的物件包括類別實例、用 Python （但
不是C）編寫的函式、實例方法、集合、凍結集合 (frozenset)、一些*note
檔案物件: 1054.、*note 產生器: ef7.、類型物件、socket、陣列、雙向佇列、
正規表示式模式物件和程式碼物件。

在 3.2 版的變更: 新增了對 thread.lock、threading.Lock 和程式碼物件的支援
。

一些內建型別，例如 *note list: 40a. 和 *note dict: 239. 不直接支援弱參照
，但可以透過子類別化來支援：

     class Dict(dict):
         pass

     obj = Dict(red=1, green=2, blue=3)   # 這個物件是可被弱參照的

'CPython 實作細節：' 其他內建型別，例如 *note tuple: 4e6. 和 *note int:
17e. 即使在子類別化時也不支援弱參照。

擴充型別 (extension type) 可以輕易地支援弱參照；請參閱 *note Weak
Reference Support: 22ed.。

當為給定的型別定義 ‘__slots__’ 時，弱參照支援將被停用，除非
‘'__weakref__'’ 字串也存在於 ‘__slots__’ 宣告的字串序列中。詳情請參閱
*note __slots__ 文件: 1cc2.。

 -- 類別: weakref.ref (object[, callback])

     回傳對 'object' 的弱參照。如果參照目標仍存活，則可以透過呼叫參照物
     件來取回原始物件；如果參照目標已不存活，呼叫參照物件將導致 *note
     None: 470. 被回傳。如果 'callback' 被提供而非 *note None: 470.，且
     回傳的弱參照物件仍存活，那麼當物件即將被最終化 (finalize) 時，回呼
     將被呼叫；弱參照物件將作為唯一的參數傳遞給回呼；參照物件將不再可用
     。

     為同一個物件建構多個弱參照是可行的。為每個弱參照註冊的回呼將按照最
     新到最舊註冊的回呼順序來被呼叫。

     回呼引發的例外將在標準錯誤輸出中被註明，但無法被傳播；它們的處理方
     式與物件的 *note __del__(): 1cf2. 方法引發的例外完全相同。

     如果 'object' 是*note 可雜湊的: 409.，那麼弱參照就是可雜湊的。即使
     在 'object' 被刪除後，它們仍將保留其雜湊值。如果僅在 'object' 刪除
     後才第一次呼叫 *note hash(): 3df.，則該呼叫將引發 *note TypeError:
     2ba.。

     弱參照支援相等性的測試，但不支援排序。如果參照目標仍存活，則兩個參
     照與其參照目標具有相同的相等關係（無論 'callback' 如何）。如果任一
     參照目標已被刪除，則僅當參照物件是同一物件時，參照才相等。

     這是一個可子類別化的型別，而不是一個工廠函式。

      -- 屬性: __callback__

          此唯讀屬性回傳目前與弱參照關聯的回呼。如果沒有回呼或弱參照的參
          照目標已不存活，那麼該屬性的值為 ‘None’。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 *note __callback__: e83. 屬性。

 -- 函式: weakref.proxy (object[, callback])

     回傳一個使用弱參照的 'object' 的代理 (proxy)。這支援在大多數情境中
     使用代理，而不需要對弱參照物件明確地取消參照。回傳的物件將具有
     ‘ProxyType’ 或 ‘CallableProxyType’ 型別，具體取決於 'object' 是否為
     可呼叫物件。無論參照目標如何，代理物件都不是 *note hashable: 409.；
     這避免了與其基本可變物件本質相關的許多問題，並阻止它們作為字典的鍵
     被使用。'callback' 與 *note ref(): e82. 函式的同名參數是相同的。

     在參照目標被垃圾回收後存取代理物件的屬性會引發 *note
     ReferenceError: 1386.。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 提供對代理物件的運算子支援，以包括矩陣乘法運算子
     ‘@’ 和 ‘@=’。

 -- 函式: weakref.getweakrefcount (object)

     回傳參照 'object' 的弱參照和代理的數量。

 -- 函式: weakref.getweakrefs (object)

     回傳參照 'object' 的所有弱參照和代理物件的一個串列。

 -- 類別: weakref.WeakKeyDictionary ([dict])

     弱參照鍵的對映類別。當不再有對鍵的強參照時，字典中的條目將被丟棄。
     這可用於將附加資料與應用程式其他部分擁有的物件相關聯，而無需向這些
     物件新增屬性。這對於覆蓋屬性存取的物件特別有用。

     請注意，當將與現有鍵具有相同值的鍵（但識別性不相等）插入字典時，它
     會替換該值，但不會替換現有鍵。因此，當刪除對原始鍵的參照時，它也會
     刪除字典中的條目：

          >>> class T(str): pass
          ...
          >>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
          >>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
          >>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
          >>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k1: 2}
          >>> del k1      # d = {}

     一個變通的解法是在重新賦值 (reassignment) 之前刪除鍵：

          >>> class T(str): pass
          ...
          >>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
          >>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
          >>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
          >>> del d[k1]
          >>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k2: 2}
          >>> del k1      # d = {k2: 2}

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增對 ‘|’ 和 ‘|=’ 運算子的支持，如 PEP 584(2) 中
     所說明。

*note WeakKeyDictionary: 1748. 物件有一個直接公開內部參照的附加方法。參
照在被使用時不保證是 "存活的"，因此在使用之前需要檢查呼叫參照的結果。這
可以用來防止建立會導致垃圾回收器保留鍵的時間超過其所需時間的參照。

 -- 方法: WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs ()

     回傳對鍵的弱參照的可疊代物件。

 -- 類別: weakref.WeakValueDictionary ([dict])

     弱參照值的對映類別。當不再存在對值的強參照時，字典中的條目將被丟棄
     。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增對 ‘|’ 和 ‘|=’ 運算子的支持，如 PEP 584(3) 中
     所說明。

*note WeakValueDictionary: 1747. 物件有一個附加方法，它與 *note
WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs(): 22f0. 方法有相同的問題。

 -- 方法: WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs ()

     回傳對值的弱參照的可疊代物件。

 -- 類別: weakref.WeakSet ([elements])

     保留對其元素的弱參照的集合類別。當不再存在對某個元素的強參照時，該
     元素將被丟棄。

 -- 類別: weakref.WeakMethod (method[, callback])

     一個特製的 *note ref: e82. 子類別，其模擬對繫結方法 (bound method)
     （即在類別上定義並在實例上查找的方法）的弱參照。由於繫結方法是短暫
     存在的，因此標準弱參照無法保留它。*note WeakMethod: e81. 有特殊的程
     式碼來重新建立繫結方法，直到物件或原始函式死亡：

          >>> class C:
          ...     def method(self):
          ...         print("method called!")
          ...
          >>> c = C()
          >>> r = weakref.ref(c.method)
          >>> r()
          >>> r = weakref.WeakMethod(c.method)
          >>> r()
          <bound method C.method of <__main__.C object at 0x7fc859830220>>
          >>> r()()
          method called!
          >>> del c
          >>> gc.collect()
          0
          >>> r()
          >>>

     'callback' 與 *note ref(): e82. 函式的同名參數是相同的。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 類別: weakref.finalize (obj, func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     回傳可呼叫的最終化器物件，此物件在 'obj' 被垃圾回收時會被呼叫。與一
     般的弱參照不同，最終化器將始終存在，直到參照物件被回收為止，從而大
     大簡化了生命週期管理。

     最終化器在被呼叫（明確呼叫或在垃圾回收時）之前被視為'存活'，之後它
     就會'死亡'。呼叫存活的最終化器會回傳 ‘func(*arg, **kwargs)’ 的計算
     結果，而呼叫死亡的最終化器會回傳 *note None: 470.。

     垃圾回收期間最終化器回呼引發的例外會在標準錯誤輸出中顯示，但無法傳
     播。它們的處理方式與從物件的 *note __del__(): 1cf2. 方法或弱參照的
     回呼引發的例外相同。

     當程式結束時，除非該最終化器的 *note atexit: a. 屬性已被設定為
     false，否則每個存活的最終化器會被呼叫。它們以與建立相反的順序被呼叫
     。

     當模組的 globals 可能被 *note None: 470. 取代時，最終化器永遠不會在
     *note interpreter shutdown: cf3. 的後期調用（invoke）其回呼。

      -- 方法: __call__ ()

          如果 'self' 仍存活，則將其標記為死亡並回傳呼叫 ‘func(*args,
          **kwargs)’ 的結果。如果 'self' 已死亡，則回傳 *note None:
          470.。

      -- 方法: detach ()

          如果 'self' 仍存活，則將其標記為死亡並回傳元組 ‘(obj, func,
          args, kwargs)’。如果 'self' 已死亡，則回傳 *note None: 470.。

      -- 方法: peek ()

          如果 'self' 仍存活，則回傳元組 ‘(obj, func, args, kwargs)’。如
          果 'self' 已死亡，則回傳 *note None: 470.。

      -- 屬性: alive

          如果最終化器仍存活，則屬性為 true，否則為 false。

      -- 屬性: atexit

          一個可寫的布林屬性，預設為 true。當程式結束時，它會呼叫 *note
          atexit: 22f6. 為 true 的所有剩餘且仍存活的最終化器。它們以與建
          立相反的順序被呼叫。

          備註: 確保 'func'、'args' 和 'kwargs' 不直接或間接擁有對 'obj'
          的任何參照非常重要，否則 'obj' 將永遠不會被垃圾回收。尤其
          'func' 不應該是 'obj' 的繫結方法。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: weakref.ReferenceType

     弱參照物件的型別物件。

 -- 資料: weakref.ProxyType

     非可呼叫物件的代理的型別物件。

 -- 資料: weakref.CallableProxyType

     可呼叫物件的代理的型別物件。

 -- 資料: weakref.ProxyTypes

     包含代理的所有型別物件的序列。這可以讓測試物件是否為代理變得更簡單
     ，而無需依賴命名兩種代理型別。

也參考
......

PEP 205(4) - 弱參照

     此功能的提案和理由，包括早期實作的連結以及其他語言中類似功能的資訊
     。

* Menu:

* 弱參照物件::
* 範例: 範例<4>.
* 最終化器物件::
* 最終化器與 __del__() 方法的比較: 最終化器與 __del__ 方法的比較.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/weakref.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/


File: python.info,  Node: 弱參照物件,  Next: 範例<4>,  Up: weakref --- 弱參照

5.8.9.1 弱參照物件
..................

弱參照物件除了 *note ref.__callback__: e83. 之外沒有任何方法和屬性。弱參
照物件允許透過呼叫來獲取參照目標（如果它仍然存在）：

     >>> import weakref
     >>> class Object:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> o = Object()
     >>> r = weakref.ref(o)
     >>> o2 = r()
     >>> o is o2
     True

如果參照目標不再存活，則呼叫參照物件將回傳 *note None: 470.：

     >>> del o, o2
     >>> print(r())
     None

應該使用運算式 ‘ref() is not None’ 來測試弱參照物件是否仍然存活。需要使
用參照物件的應用程式程式碼通常應遵循以下模式：

     # r is a weak reference object
     o = r()
     if o is None:
         # referent has been garbage collected
         print("Object has been deallocated; can't frobnicate.")
     else:
         print("Object is still live!")
         o.do_something_useful()

使用對「活性 (liveness)」的單獨測試會在執行緒應用程式中建立競爭條件
(race condition)；另一個執行緒可能在弱參照被呼叫之前讓該弱參照失效；上方
顯示的慣用作法在執行緒應用程式和單執行緒應用程式中都是安全的。

可以透過子類別化來建立 *note ref: e82. 物件的特殊版本。這在 *note
WeakValueDictionary: 1747. 的實作中被使用，以減少對映中每個條目的記憶體
開銷。這對於將附加資訊與參照相關聯最有用，但也可用於在呼叫上插入附加處理
以檢索參照目標。

這個範例展示如何使用 *note ref: e82. 的子類別來儲存有關物件的附加資訊並
影響存取參照目標時回傳的值：

     import weakref

     class ExtendedRef(weakref.ref):
         def __init__(self, ob, callback=None, /, **annotations):
             super().__init__(ob, callback)
             self.__counter = 0
             for k, v in annotations.items():
                 setattr(self, k, v)

         def __call__(self):
             """Return a pair containing the referent and the number of
             times the reference has been called.
             """
             ob = super().__call__()
             if ob is not None:
                 self.__counter += 1
                 ob = (ob, self.__counter)
             return ob


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<4>,  Next: 最終化器物件,  Prev: 弱參照物件,  Up: weakref --- 弱參照

5.8.9.2 範例
............

這個簡單的範例展示了應用程式如何使用物件 ID 來檢索它以前見過​​的物件。物件
的 ID 之後可以在其他資料結構中使用，而不必強制物件保持存活，但如果這樣做
，仍然可以透過 ID 檢索物件。

     import weakref

     _id2obj_dict = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()

     def remember(obj):
         oid = id(obj)
         _id2obj_dict[oid] = obj
         return oid

     def id2obj(oid):
         return _id2obj_dict[oid]


File: python.info,  Node: 最終化器物件,  Next: 最終化器與 __del__ 方法的比較,  Prev: 範例<4>,  Up: weakref --- 弱參照

5.8.9.3 最終化器物件
....................

使用 *note finalize: 8c8. 的最大優點是可以輕鬆註冊回呼，而無需保留回傳的
最終化器物件。例如

     >>> import weakref
     >>> class Object:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> kenny = Object()
     >>> weakref.finalize(kenny, print, "You killed Kenny!")
     <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
     >>> del kenny
     You killed Kenny!

最終化器也可以直接被呼叫。然而，最終化器最多會調用回呼一次。

     >>> def callback(x, y, z):
     ...     print("CALLBACK")
     ...     return x + y + z
     ...
     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
     >>> assert f.alive
     >>> assert f() == 6
     CALLBACK
     >>> assert not f.alive
     >>> f()                     # callback not called because finalizer dead
     >>> del obj                 # callback not called because finalizer dead

你可以使用最終化器的 *note detach(): 22f3. 方法來取消註冊最終化器。這會
殺死最終化器並回傳建立建構函式時傳遞給建構函式的引數。

     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
     >>> f.detach()
     (<...Object object ...>, <function callback ...>, (1, 2), {'z': 3})
     >>> newobj, func, args, kwargs = _
     >>> assert not f.alive
     >>> assert newobj is obj
     >>> assert func(*args, **kwargs) == 6
     CALLBACK

除非你將 *note atexit: 22f6. 屬性設為 *note False: 98f.，否則當程式結束
時，最終化器將會被呼叫如果其仍然存在。例如

     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> weakref.finalize(obj, print, "obj dead or exiting")
     <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
     >>> exit()
     obj dead or exiting


File: python.info,  Node: 最終化器與 __del__ 方法的比較,  Prev: 最終化器物件,  Up: weakref --- 弱參照

5.8.9.4 最終化器與 ‘__del__()’ 方法的比較
.........................................

假設我們要建立一個類別，其實例代表臨時目錄。當以下任一事件發生時，應刪除
目錄及其內容：

   * 該物件被垃圾回收，

   * 該物件的 ‘remove()’ 方法被呼叫，或者

   * 程式結束。

我們可以用以下的方式來嘗試使用 *note __del__(): 1cf2. 方法實作該類別：

     class TempDir:
         def __init__(self):
             self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()

         def remove(self):
             if self.name is not None:
                 shutil.rmtree(self.name)
                 self.name = None

         @property
         def removed(self):
             return self.name is None

         def __del__(self):
             self.remove()

從 Python 3.4 開始，*note __del__(): 1cf2. 方法不再阻止參照循環
(reference cycle) 被垃圾回收，並且在 *note interpreter shutdown: cf3. 期
間不再強制將模組的 globals 設為 *note None: 470.。所以這段程式碼在
CPython 上應該可以正常運作。

然而，眾所周知，對 *note __del__(): 1cf2. 方法的處理是特地實作的，因為它
依賴於直譯器的垃圾回收器實作的內部細節。

更耐用的替代方案可以是定義一個最終化器，其僅參照需要的特定函式和物件，而
不是存取物件的完整狀態：

     class TempDir:
         def __init__(self):
             self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()
             self._finalizer = weakref.finalize(self, shutil.rmtree, self.name)

         def remove(self):
             self._finalizer()

         @property
         def removed(self):
             return not self._finalizer.alive

定義如下，我們的最終化器僅接收對適當清理目錄所需的詳細資訊的參照。如果物
件從未被垃圾回收，則最終化器仍將在結束時被呼叫。

基於 weakref 的最終化器的另一個優點是它們可用於為定義由第三方控制的類別
註冊最終化器，例如在卸載模組時執行程式碼：

     import weakref, sys
     def unloading_module():
         # implicit reference to the module globals from the function body
     weakref.finalize(sys.modules[__name__], unloading_module)

     備註: 如果在程式結束時在常駐的 (daemonic) 執行緒中建立最終化器物件
     ，則最終化器有可能在結束時不會被呼叫。然而，在常駐的執行緒中 *note
     atexit.register(): 6a9.、‘try: ... finally: ...’ 和 ‘with: ...’ 也
     不保證清理會發生。


File: python.info,  Node: types --- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱,  Next: copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作,  Prev: weakref --- 弱參照,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.10 ‘types’ -- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱
--------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/types.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines utility functions to assist in dynamic creation of
new types.

It also defines names for some object types that are used by the
standard Python interpreter, but not exposed as builtins like *note int:
17e. or *note str: 157. are.

Finally, it provides some additional type-related utility classes and
functions that are not fundamental enough to be builtins.

* Menu:

* Dynamic Type Creation::
* Standard Interpreter Types::
* Additional Utility Classes and Functions::
* Coroutine Utility Functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/types.py


File: python.info,  Node: Dynamic Type Creation,  Next: Standard Interpreter Types,  Up: types --- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱

5.8.10.1 Dynamic Type Creation
..............................

 -- 函式: types.new_class (name, bases=(), kwds=None, exec_body=None)

     Creates a class object dynamically using the appropriate metaclass.

     The first three arguments are the components that make up a class
     definition header: the class name, the base classes (in order), the
     keyword arguments (such as ‘metaclass’).

     The 'exec_body' argument is a callback that is used to populate the
     freshly created class namespace.  It should accept the class
     namespace as its sole argument and update the namespace directly
     with the class contents.  If no callback is provided, it has the
     same effect as passing in ‘lambda ns: None’.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: types.prepare_class (name, bases=(), kwds=None)

     Calculates the appropriate metaclass and creates the class
     namespace.

     The arguments are the components that make up a class definition
     header: the class name, the base classes (in order) and the keyword
     arguments (such as ‘metaclass’).

     The return value is a 3-tuple: ‘metaclass, namespace, kwds’

     'metaclass' is the appropriate metaclass, 'namespace' is the
     prepared class namespace and 'kwds' is an updated copy of the
     passed in 'kwds' argument with any ‘'metaclass'’ entry removed.  If
     no 'kwds' argument is passed in, this will be an empty dict.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The default value for the ‘namespace’ element of
     the returned tuple has changed.  Now an insertion-order-preserving
     mapping is used when the metaclass does not have a ‘__prepare__’
     method.

也參考
......

*note Metaclasses: 1d06.

     Full details of the class creation process supported by these
     functions

PEP 3115(1) - Metaclasses in Python 3000

     Introduced the ‘__prepare__’ namespace hook

 -- 函式: types.resolve_bases (bases)

     Resolve MRO entries dynamically as specified by PEP 560(2).

     This function looks for items in 'bases' that are not instances of
     *note type: bbb, and returns a tuple where each such object that
     has an *note __mro_entries__(): 1d08. method is replaced with an
     unpacked result of calling this method.  If a 'bases' item is an
     instance of *note type: bbb, or it doesn't have an
     ‘__mro_entries__()’ method, then it is included in the return tuple
     unchanged.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: types.get_original_bases (cls, /)

     Return the tuple of objects originally given as the bases of 'cls'
     before the *note __mro_entries__(): 1d08. method has been called on
     any bases (following the mechanisms laid out in PEP 560(3)).  This
     is useful for introspecting *note Generics: 1f6.

     For classes that have an ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute, this function
     returns the value of ‘cls.__orig_bases__’.  For classes without the
     ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute, *note cls.__bases__: 131f. is returned.

     舉例來說：

          from typing import TypeVar, Generic, NamedTuple, TypedDict

          T = TypeVar("T")
          class Foo(Generic[T]): ...
          class Bar(Foo[int], float): ...
          class Baz(list[str]): ...
          Eggs = NamedTuple("Eggs", [("a", int), ("b", str)])
          Spam = TypedDict("Spam", {"a": int, "b": str})

          assert Bar.__bases__ == (Foo, float)
          assert get_original_bases(Bar) == (Foo[int], float)

          assert Baz.__bases__ == (list,)
          assert get_original_bases(Baz) == (list[str],)

          assert Eggs.__bases__ == (tuple,)
          assert get_original_bases(Eggs) == (NamedTuple,)

          assert Spam.__bases__ == (dict,)
          assert get_original_bases(Spam) == (TypedDict,)

          assert int.__bases__ == (object,)
          assert get_original_bases(int) == (object,)

     在 3.12 版被加入.

也參考
......

PEP 560(4) - Core support for typing module and generic types

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Interpreter Types,  Next: Additional Utility Classes and Functions,  Prev: Dynamic Type Creation,  Up: types --- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱

5.8.10.2 Standard Interpreter Types
...................................

This module provides names for many of the types that are required to
implement a Python interpreter.  It deliberately avoids including some
of the types that arise only incidentally during processing such as the
‘listiterator’ type.

Typical use of these names is for *note isinstance(): 14b. or *note
issubclass(): 5df. checks.

If you instantiate any of these types, note that signatures may vary
between Python versions.

Standard names are defined for the following types:

 -- 資料: types.NoneType

     The type of *note None: 470.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: types.FunctionType
 -- 資料: types.LambdaType

     The type of user-defined functions and functions created by *note
     lambda: 1131. expressions.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘code’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘function.__new__’。

     The audit event only occurs for direct instantiation of function
     objects, and is not raised for normal compilation.

 -- 資料: types.GeneratorType

     The type of *note generator: ef7.-iterator objects, created by
     generator functions.

 -- 資料: types.CoroutineType

     The type of *note coroutine: 1ae. objects, created by *note async
     def: 3c3. functions.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 資料: types.AsyncGeneratorType

     The type of *note asynchronous generator: 1dcb.-iterator objects,
     created by asynchronous generator functions.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 類別: types.CodeType (**kwargs)

     The type of *note code objects: 5ca. such as returned by *note
     compile(): 554.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘code’、‘filename’、‘name’、‘argcount’、
     ‘posonlyargcount’、‘kwonlyargcount’、‘nlocals’、‘stacksize’、
     ‘flags’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘code.__new__’。

     Note that the audited arguments may not match the names or
     positions required by the initializer.  The audit event only occurs
     for direct instantiation of code objects, and is not raised for
     normal compilation.

 -- 資料: types.CellType

     The type for cell objects: such objects are used as containers for
     a function's free variables.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 資料: types.MethodType

     The type of methods of user-defined class instances.

 -- 資料: types.BuiltinFunctionType
 -- 資料: types.BuiltinMethodType

     The type of built-in functions like *note len(): 429. or *note
     sys.exit(): 11dd, and methods of built-in classes.  (Here, the term
     "built-in" means "written in C".)

 -- 資料: types.WrapperDescriptorType

     The type of methods of some built-in data types and base classes
     such as *note object.__init__(): 4ae. or *note object.__lt__():
     119c.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: types.MethodWrapperType

     The type of 'bound' methods of some built-in data types and base
     classes.  For example it is the type of ‘object().__str__’.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: types.NotImplementedType

     The type of *note NotImplemented: 5f2.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: types.MethodDescriptorType

     The type of methods of some built-in data types such as *note
     str.join(): 1f41.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: types.ClassMethodDescriptorType

     The type of 'unbound' class methods of some built-in data types
     such as ‘dict.__dict__['fromkeys']’.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 類別: types.ModuleType (name, doc=None)

     The type of *note modules: 14de.  The constructor takes the name of
     the module to be created and optionally its *note docstring: 1eb7.

     也參考
     ......

     *note Documentation on module objects: 1ca1.

          Provides details on the special attributes that can be found
          on instances of ‘ModuleType’.

     *note importlib.util.module_from_spec(): c8b.

          Modules created using the ‘ModuleType’ constructor are created
          with many of their special attributes unset or set to default
          values.  ‘module_from_spec()’ provides a more robust way of
          creating ‘ModuleType’ instances which ensures the various
          attributes are set appropriately.

 -- 資料: types.EllipsisType

     The type of *note Ellipsis: 1f1b.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: types.GenericAlias (t_origin, t_args)

     The type of *note parameterized generics: 4af. such as ‘list[int]’.

     ‘t_origin’ should be a non-parameterized generic class, such as
     ‘list’, ‘tuple’ or ‘dict’.  ‘t_args’ should be a *note tuple: 4e6.
     (possibly of length 1) of types which parameterize ‘t_origin’:

          >>> from types import GenericAlias

          >>> list[int] == GenericAlias(list, (int,))
          True
          >>> dict[str, int] == GenericAlias(dict, (str, int))
          True

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     在 3.9.2 版的變更: This type can now be subclassed.

     也參考
     ......

     *note Generic Alias Types: 4af.

          In-depth documentation on instances of ‘types.GenericAlias’

     PEP 585(1) - Type Hinting Generics In Standard Collections

          Introducing the ‘types.GenericAlias’ class

 -- 類別: types.UnionType

     The type of *note union type expressions: 5e0.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: types.TracebackType (tb_next, tb_frame, tb_lasti, tb_lineno)

     The type of traceback objects such as found in
     ‘sys.exception().__traceback__’.

     See *note the language reference: 949. for details of the available
     attributes and operations, and guidance on creating tracebacks
     dynamically.

 -- 資料: types.FrameType

     The type of *note frame objects: 4de. such as found in *note
     tb.tb_frame: 1ce3. if ‘tb’ is a traceback object.

 -- 資料: types.GetSetDescriptorType

     The type of objects defined in extension modules with
     ‘PyGetSetDef’, such as *note FrameType.f_locals: 5a5. or
     ‘array.array.typecode’.  This type is used as descriptor for object
     attributes; it has the same purpose as the *note property: 424.
     type, but for classes defined in extension modules.

 -- 資料: types.MemberDescriptorType

     The type of objects defined in extension modules with
     ‘PyMemberDef’, such as ‘datetime.timedelta.days’.  This type is
     used as descriptor for simple C data members which use standard
     conversion functions; it has the same purpose as the *note
     property: 424. type, but for classes defined in extension modules.

     In addition, when a class is defined with a *note __slots__: 1361.
     attribute, then for each slot, an instance of
     ‘MemberDescriptorType’ will be added as an attribute on the class.
     This allows the slot to appear in the class's *note __dict__: ac5.

     'CPython 實作細節：' In other implementations of Python, this type
     may be identical to ‘GetSetDescriptorType’.

 -- 類別: types.MappingProxyType (mapping)

     Read-only proxy of a mapping.  It provides a dynamic view on the
     mapping's entries, which means that when the mapping changes, the
     view reflects these changes.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Updated to support the new union (‘|’) operator
     from PEP 584(2), which simply delegates to the underlying mapping.

      -- Describe: key in proxy

          Return ‘True’ if the underlying mapping has a key 'key', else
          ‘False’.

      -- Describe: proxy[key]

          Return the item of the underlying mapping with key 'key'.
          Raises a *note KeyError: 8ed. if 'key' is not in the
          underlying mapping.

      -- Describe: iter(proxy)

          Return an iterator over the keys of the underlying mapping.
          This is a shortcut for ‘iter(proxy.keys())’.

      -- Describe: len(proxy)

          Return the number of items in the underlying mapping.

      -- 方法: copy ()

          Return a shallow copy of the underlying mapping.

      -- 方法: get (key[, default])

          Return the value for 'key' if 'key' is in the underlying
          mapping, else 'default'.  If 'default' is not given, it
          defaults to ‘None’, so that this method never raises a *note
          KeyError: 8ed.

      -- 方法: items ()

          Return a new view of the underlying mapping's items (‘(key,
          value)’ pairs).

      -- 方法: keys ()

          Return a new view of the underlying mapping's keys.

      -- 方法: values ()

          Return a new view of the underlying mapping's values.

      -- Describe: reversed(proxy)

          Return a reverse iterator over the keys of the underlying
          mapping.

          在 3.9 版被加入.

      -- Describe: hash(proxy)

          Return a hash of the underlying mapping.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: Additional Utility Classes and Functions,  Next: Coroutine Utility Functions,  Prev: Standard Interpreter Types,  Up: types --- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱

5.8.10.3 Additional Utility Classes and Functions
.................................................

 -- 類別: types.SimpleNamespace

     A simple *note object: 8d9. subclass that provides attribute access
     to its namespace, as well as a meaningful repr.

     Unlike *note object: 8d9, with ‘SimpleNamespace’ you can add and
     remove attributes.  If a ‘SimpleNamespace’ object is initialized
     with keyword arguments, those are directly added to the underlying
     namespace.

     The type is roughly equivalent to the following code:

          class SimpleNamespace:
              def __init__(self, /, **kwargs):
                  self.__dict__.update(kwargs)

              def __repr__(self):
                  items = (f"{k}={v!r}" for k, v in self.__dict__.items())
                  return "{}({})".format(type(self).__name__, ", ".join(items))

              def __eq__(self, other):
                  if isinstance(self, SimpleNamespace) and isinstance(other, SimpleNamespace):
                     return self.__dict__ == other.__dict__
                  return NotImplemented

     ‘SimpleNamespace’ may be useful as a replacement for ‘class NS:
     pass’.  However, for a structured record type use *note
     namedtuple(): 731. instead.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Attribute order in the repr changed from
     alphabetical to insertion (like ‘dict’).

 -- 函式: types.DynamicClassAttribute (fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None,
          doc=None)

     Route attribute access on a class to __getattr__.

     This is a descriptor, used to define attributes that act
     differently when accessed through an instance and through a class.
     Instance access remains normal, but access to an attribute through
     a class will be routed to the class's __getattr__ method; this is
     done by raising AttributeError.

     This allows one to have properties active on an instance, and have
     virtual attributes on the class with the same name (see *note
     enum.Enum: 42b. for an example).

     在 3.4 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine Utility Functions,  Prev: Additional Utility Classes and Functions,  Up: types --- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱

5.8.10.4 Coroutine Utility Functions
....................................

 -- 函式: types.coroutine (gen_func)

     This function transforms a *note generator: ef7. function into a
     *note coroutine function: bec. which returns a generator-based
     coroutine.  The generator-based coroutine is still a *note
     generator iterator: a3f, but is also considered to be a *note
     coroutine: 1ae. object and is *note awaitable: ae0.  However, it
     may not necessarily implement the *note __await__(): 1d5a. method.

     If 'gen_func' is a generator function, it will be modified
     in-place.

     If 'gen_func' is not a generator function, it will be wrapped.  If
     it returns an instance of *note collections.abc.Generator: c53, the
     instance will be wrapped in an 'awaitable' proxy object.  All other
     types of objects will be returned as is.

     在 3.5 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作,  Next: pprint --- 資料美化列印器,  Prev: types --- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.11 ‘copy’ -- 淺層 (shallow) 和深層 (deep) 複製操作
------------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/copy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Python 的賦值陳述式不複製物件，而是建立目標和物件的繫結 (binding) 關係。
對於可變 (mutable) 或包含可變項目 (mutable item) 的集合，有時會需要一份
副本來改變特定副本，而不必改變其他副本。本模組提供了通用的淺層複製和深層
複製操作（如下所述）。

介面摘要：

 -- 函式: copy.copy (x)

     回傳 'x' 的淺層複製。

 -- 函式: copy.deepcopy (x[, memo])

     回傳 'x' 的深層複製。

 -- 例外: copy.Error

     引發針對特定模組的錯誤。
淺層與深層複製的區別僅與複合物件（即包含 list 或類別的實例等其他物件的物
件）相關：

   * '淺層複製'建構一個新的複合物件，然後（在儘可能的範圍內）將原始物件
     中找到的物件的'參照'插入其中。

   * '深層複製'建構一個新的複合物件，然後遞迴地將在原始物件裡找到的物件
     的'副本'插入其中。

深層複製操作通常存在兩個問題，而淺層複製操作並不存在這些問題：

   * 遞迴物件（直接或間接包含對自身參照的複合物件）可能會導致遞迴迴圈。

   * 由於深層複製會複製所有內容，因此可能會有過多複製（例如應該在副本之
     間共享的資料）。

*note deepcopy(): 9cb. 函式用以下方式避免了這些問題：

   * 保留在當前複製過程中已複製的物件的 ‘memo’ 字典；以及

   * 允許使用者定義的類別複寫 (override) 複製操作或複製的元件集合。

該模組不複製模組、方法、堆疊追蹤（stack trace）、堆疊框（stack frame）、
檔案、socket、視窗、陣列以及任何類似的型別。它透過不變更原始物件並將其回
傳來（淺層或深層地）"複製"函式和類別；這與 *note pickle: a1. 模組處理這
類問題的方式是相似的。

字典的淺層複製可以使用 *note dict.copy(): a31.，而 list 的淺層複製可以透
過賦值整個 list 的切片 (slice) 完成，例如，‘copied_list =
original_list[:]’。

類別可以使用與操作 pickle 相同的介面來控制複製操作，關於這些方法的描述資
訊請參考 *note pickle: a1. 模組。實際上，*note copy: 23. 模組使用的正是
從 *note copyreg: 24. 模組中註冊的 pickle 函式。

想要為一個類別定義它自己的複製操作實作，可以透過定義特殊方法
‘__copy__()’ 和 ‘__deepcopy__()’。呼叫前者以實現淺層複製操作；不必傳入額
外引數。呼叫後者以實現深層複製操作；它應傳入一個引數，即 ‘memo’ 字典。如
果 ‘__deepcopy__()’ 實現需要建立一個元件的深層複製，它應當呼叫 *note
deepcopy(): 9cb. 函式並以該元件作為第一個引數、以該 memo 字典作為第二個
引數。memo 字典應當被當作不透明物件 (opaque object) 來處理。

也參考
......

*note pickle: a1. 模組

     支援物件之狀態檢索 (state retrieval) 和恢復 (restoration) 相關特殊
     方法的討論。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/copy.py


File: python.info,  Node: pprint --- 資料美化列印器,  Next: reprlib --- repr 的替代實作,  Prev: copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.12 ‘pprint’ -- 資料美化列印器
---------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/pprint.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note pprint: a9. module provides a capability to "pretty-print"
arbitrary Python data structures in a form which can be used as input to
the interpreter.  If the formatted structures include objects which are
not fundamental Python types, the representation may not be loadable.
This may be the case if objects such as files, sockets or classes are
included, as well as many other objects which are not representable as
Python literals.

The formatted representation keeps objects on a single line if it can,
and breaks them onto multiple lines if they don't fit within the allowed
width, adjustable by the 'width' parameter defaulting to 80 characters.

Dictionaries are sorted by key before the display is computed.

在 3.9 版的變更: Added support for pretty-printing *note
types.SimpleNamespace: 765.

在 3.10 版的變更: Added support for pretty-printing *note
dataclasses.dataclass: 3bc.

* Menu:

* 函式: 函式<3>.
* PrettyPrinter 物件::
* 範例: 範例<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pprint.py


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<3>,  Next: PrettyPrinter 物件,  Up: pprint --- 資料美化列印器

5.8.12.1 函式
.............

 -- 函式: pprint.pp (object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80,
          depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=False,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Prints the formatted representation of 'object', followed by a
     newline.  This function may be used in the interactive interpreter
     instead of the *note print(): e02. function for inspecting values.
     Tip: you can reassign ‘print = pprint.pp’ for use within a scope.


     參數:

        * ‘object’ - The object to be printed.

        * ‘stream’ (*note file-like object: 2319. | None) - A file-like
          object to which the output will be written by calling its
          ‘write()’ method.  If ‘None’ (the default), *note sys.stdout:
          92a. is used.

        * ‘indent’ (*note int: 17e.) - The amount of indentation added
          for each nesting level.

        * ‘width’ (*note int: 17e.) - The desired maximum number of
          characters per line in the output.  If a structure cannot be
          formatted within the width constraint, a best effort will be
          made.

        * ‘depth’ (*note int: 17e.‘ | ’‘None’) - The number of nesting
          levels which may be printed.  If the data structure being
          printed is too deep, the next contained level is replaced by
          ‘...’.  If ‘None’ (the default), there is no constraint on the
          depth of the objects being formatted.

        * ‘compact’ (*note bool: 17d.) - Control the way long *note
          sequences: 238. are formatted.  If ‘False’ (the default), each
          item of a sequence will be formatted on a separate line,
          otherwise as many items as will fit within the 'width' will be
          formatted on each output line.

        * ‘sort_dicts’ (*note bool: 17d.) - If ‘True’, dictionaries will
          be formatted with their keys sorted, otherwise they will be
          displayed in insertion order (the default).

        * ‘underscore_numbers’ (*note bool: 17d.) - If ‘True’, integers
          will be formatted with the ‘_’ character for a thousands
          separator, otherwise underscores are not displayed (the
          default).

          >>> import pprint
          >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
          >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff)
          >>> pprint.pp(stuff)
          [<Recursion on list with id=...>,
           'spam',
           'eggs',
           'lumberjack',
           'knights',
           'ni']

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: pprint.pprint (object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80,
          depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Alias for *note pp(): 86c. with 'sort_dicts' set to ‘True’ by
     default, which would automatically sort the dictionaries' keys, you
     might want to use *note pp(): 86c. instead where it is ‘False’ by
     default.

 -- 函式: pprint.pformat (object, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *,
          compact=False, sort_dicts=True, underscore_numbers=False)

     Return the formatted representation of 'object' as a string.
     'indent', 'width', 'depth', 'compact', 'sort_dicts' and
     'underscore_numbers' are passed to the *note PrettyPrinter: e0c.
     constructor as formatting parameters and their meanings are as
     described in the documentation above.

 -- 函式: pprint.isreadable (object)

     Determine if the formatted representation of 'object' is
     "readable", or can be used to reconstruct the value using *note
     eval(): 6b0.  This always returns ‘False’ for recursive objects.

          >>> pprint.isreadable(stuff)
          False

 -- 函式: pprint.isrecursive (object)

     Determine if 'object' requires a recursive representation.  This
     function is subject to the same limitations as noted in *note
     saferepr(): 231c. below and may raise an *note RecursionError: be1.
     if it fails to detect a recursive object.

 -- 函式: pprint.saferepr (object)

     Return a string representation of 'object', protected against
     recursion in some common data structures, namely instances of *note
     dict: 239, *note list: 40a. and *note tuple: 4e6. or subclasses
     whose ‘__repr__’ has not been overridden.  If the representation of
     object exposes a recursive entry, the recursive reference will be
     represented as ‘<Recursion on typename with id=number>’.  The
     representation is not otherwise formatted.

          >>> pprint.saferepr(stuff)
          "[<Recursion on list with id=...>, 'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']"


File: python.info,  Node: PrettyPrinter 物件,  Next: 範例<5>,  Prev: 函式<3>,  Up: pprint --- 資料美化列印器

5.8.12.2 PrettyPrinter 物件
...........................

 -- 類別: pprint.PrettyPrinter (indent=1, width=80, depth=None,
          stream=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Construct a *note PrettyPrinter: e0c. instance.

     Arguments have the same meaning as for *note pp(): 86c.  Note that
     they are in a different order, and that 'sort_dicts' defaults to
     ‘True’.

          >>> import pprint
          >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
          >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff[:])
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(indent=4)
          >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
          [   ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni'],
              'spam',
              'eggs',
              'lumberjack',
              'knights',
              'ni']
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(width=41, compact=True)
          >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
          [['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack',
            'knights', 'ni'],
           'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights',
           'ni']
          >>> tup = ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead',
          ... ('parrot', ('fresh fruit',))))))))
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(depth=6)
          >>> pp.pprint(tup)
          ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead', (...)))))))

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'compact' 參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'sort_dicts' 參數。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'underscore_numbers' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: No longer attempts to write to ‘sys.stdout’ if it
     is ‘None’.

*note PrettyPrinter: e0c. instances have the following methods:

 -- 方法: PrettyPrinter.pformat (object)

     Return the formatted representation of 'object'.  This takes into
     account the options passed to the *note PrettyPrinter: e0c.
     constructor.

 -- 方法: PrettyPrinter.pprint (object)

     Print the formatted representation of 'object' on the configured
     stream, followed by a newline.

The following methods provide the implementations for the corresponding
functions of the same names.  Using these methods on an instance is
slightly more efficient since new *note PrettyPrinter: e0c. objects
don't need to be created.

 -- 方法: PrettyPrinter.isreadable (object)

     Determine if the formatted representation of the object is
     "readable," or can be used to reconstruct the value using *note
     eval(): 6b0.  Note that this returns ‘False’ for recursive objects.
     If the 'depth' parameter of the *note PrettyPrinter: e0c. is set
     and the object is deeper than allowed, this returns ‘False’.

 -- 方法: PrettyPrinter.isrecursive (object)

     Determine if the object requires a recursive representation.

This method is provided as a hook to allow subclasses to modify the way
objects are converted to strings.  The default implementation uses the
internals of the *note saferepr(): 231c. implementation.

 -- 方法: PrettyPrinter.format (object, context, maxlevels, level)

     Returns three values: the formatted version of 'object' as a
     string, a flag indicating whether the result is readable, and a
     flag indicating whether recursion was detected.  The first argument
     is the object to be presented.  The second is a dictionary which
     contains the *note id(): 1293. of objects that are part of the
     current presentation context (direct and indirect containers for
     'object' that are affecting the presentation) as the keys; if an
     object needs to be presented which is already represented in
     'context', the third return value should be ‘True’.  Recursive
     calls to the *note format(): 16f4. method should add additional
     entries for containers to this dictionary.  The third argument,
     'maxlevels', gives the requested limit to recursion; this will be
     ‘0’ if there is no requested limit.  This argument should be passed
     unmodified to recursive calls.  The fourth argument, 'level', gives
     the current level; recursive calls should be passed a value less
     than that of the current call.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<5>,  Prev: PrettyPrinter 物件,  Up: pprint --- 資料美化列印器

5.8.12.3 範例
.............

To demonstrate several uses of the *note pp(): 86c. function and its
parameters, let's fetch information about a project from PyPI(1):

     >>> import json
     >>> import pprint
     >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
     >>> with urlopen('https://pypi.org/pypi/sampleproject/json') as resp:
     ...     project_info = json.load(resp)['info']

In its basic form, *note pp(): 86c. shows the whole object:

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': ['Development Status :: 3 - Alpha',
                      'Intended Audience :: Developers',
                      'License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.6',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.2',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.3',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.4',
                      'Topic :: Software Development :: Build Tools'],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
                     'ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
                     'should be written for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
                     'the project, basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
                     'changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
                     'most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {'last_day': -1, 'last_month': -1, 'last_week': -1},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {'Download': 'UNKNOWN',
                       'Homepage': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject'},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

The result can be limited to a certain 'depth' (ellipsis is used for
deeper contents):

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': [...],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
                     'ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
                     'should be written for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
                     'the project, basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
                     'changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
                     'most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {...},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {...},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

Additionally, maximum character 'width' can be suggested.  If a long
object cannot be split, the specified width will be exceeded:

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1, width=60)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': [...],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the '
                     'project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be '
                     'written using ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project '
                     'webpage on PyPI, and should be written '
                     'for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would '
                     'include an overview of the project, '
                     'basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including '
                     'the project changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s '
                     'New" section for the most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {...},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {...},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: reprlib --- repr 的替代實作,  Next: enum --- 對列舉的支援,  Prev: pprint --- 資料美化列印器,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.13 ‘reprlib’ -- ‘repr()’ 的替代實作
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/reprlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘reprlib’ module provides a means for producing object
representations with limits on the size of the resulting strings.  This
is used in the Python debugger and may be useful in other contexts as
well.

This module provides a class, an instance, and a function:

 -- 類別: reprlib.Repr (*, maxlevel=6, maxtuple=6, maxlist=6,
          maxarray=5, maxdict=4, maxset=6, maxfrozenset=6, maxdeque=6,
          maxstring=30, maxlong=40, maxother=30, fillvalue='...',
          indent=None)

     Class which provides formatting services useful in implementing
     functions similar to the built-in *note repr(): 61e.; size limits
     for different object types are added to avoid the generation of
     representations which are excessively long.

     The keyword arguments of the constructor can be used as a shortcut
     to set the attributes of the *note Repr: 2327. instance.  Which
     means that the following initialization:

          aRepr = reprlib.Repr(maxlevel=3)

     等價於：

          aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
          aRepr.maxlevel = 3

     See section *note Repr Objects: 2328. for more information about
     *note Repr: 2327. attributes.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Allow attributes to be set via keyword arguments.

 -- 資料: reprlib.aRepr

     This is an instance of *note Repr: 2327. which is used to provide
     the *note repr(): 232a. function described below.  Changing the
     attributes of this object will affect the size limits used by *note
     repr(): 232a. and the Python debugger.

 -- 函式: reprlib.repr (obj)

     This is the *note repr(): 232b. method of ‘aRepr’.  It returns a
     string similar to that returned by the built-in function of the
     same name, but with limits on most sizes.

In addition to size-limiting tools, the module also provides a decorator
for detecting recursive calls to *note __repr__(): 416. and substituting
a placeholder string instead.

 -- 函式: @reprlib.recursive_repr (fillvalue='...')

     Decorator for *note __repr__(): 416. methods to detect recursive
     calls within the same thread.  If a recursive call is made, the
     'fillvalue' is returned, otherwise, the usual ‘__repr__()’ call is
     made.  For example:

          >>> from reprlib import recursive_repr
          >>> class MyList(list):
          ...     @recursive_repr()
          ...     def __repr__(self):
          ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
          ...
          >>> m = MyList('abc')
          >>> m.append(m)
          >>> m.append('x')
          >>> print(m)
          <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

     在 3.2 版被加入.

* Menu:

* Repr 物件::
* Subclassing Repr Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/reprlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Repr 物件,  Next: Subclassing Repr Objects,  Up: reprlib --- repr 的替代實作

5.8.13.1 Repr 物件
..................

*note Repr: 2327. instances provide several attributes which can be used
to provide size limits for the representations of different object
types, and methods which format specific object types.

 -- 屬性: Repr.fillvalue

     This string is displayed for recursive references.  It defaults to
     ‘...’.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: Repr.maxlevel

     Depth limit on the creation of recursive representations.  The
     default is ‘6’.

 -- 屬性: Repr.maxdict
 -- 屬性: Repr.maxlist
 -- 屬性: Repr.maxtuple
 -- 屬性: Repr.maxset
 -- 屬性: Repr.maxfrozenset
 -- 屬性: Repr.maxdeque
 -- 屬性: Repr.maxarray

     Limits on the number of entries represented for the named object
     type.  The default is ‘4’ for *note maxdict: 232f, ‘5’ for *note
     maxarray: 2335, and ‘6’ for the others.

 -- 屬性: Repr.maxlong

     Maximum number of characters in the representation for an integer.
     Digits are dropped from the middle.  The default is ‘40’.

 -- 屬性: Repr.maxstring

     Limit on the number of characters in the representation of the
     string.  Note that the "normal" representation of the string is
     used as the character source: if escape sequences are needed in the
     representation, these may be mangled when the representation is
     shortened.  The default is ‘30’.

 -- 屬性: Repr.maxother

     This limit is used to control the size of object types for which no
     specific formatting method is available on the *note Repr: 2327.
     object.  It is applied in a similar manner as *note maxstring:
     2337.  The default is ‘20’.

 -- 屬性: Repr.indent

     If this attribute is set to ‘None’ (the default), the output is
     formatted with no line breaks or indentation, like the standard
     *note repr(): 61e.  For example:

          >>> example = [
          ...     1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']
          >>> import reprlib
          >>> aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']

     If *note indent: 2339. is set to a string, each recursion level is
     placed on its own line, indented by that string:

          >>> aRepr.indent = '-->'
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [
          -->1,
          -->'spam',
          -->{
          -->-->'a': 2,
          -->-->'b': 'spam eggs',
          -->-->'c': {
          -->-->-->3: 4.5,
          -->-->-->6: [],
          -->-->},
          -->},
          -->'ham',
          ]

     Setting *note indent: 2339. to a positive integer value behaves as
     if it was set to a string with that number of spaces:

          >>> aRepr.indent = 4
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [
              1,
              'spam',
              {
                  'a': 2,
                  'b': 'spam eggs',
                  'c': {
                      3: 4.5,
                      6: [],
                  },
              },
              'ham',
          ]

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 方法: Repr.repr (obj)

     The equivalent to the built-in *note repr(): 61e. that uses the
     formatting imposed by the instance.

 -- 方法: Repr.repr1 (obj, level)

     Recursive implementation used by *note repr(): 232b.  This uses the
     type of 'obj' to determine which formatting method to call, passing
     it 'obj' and 'level'.  The type-specific methods should call *note
     repr1(): 233a. to perform recursive formatting, with ‘level - 1’
     for the value of 'level' in the recursive call.

 -- 方法: Repr.repr_TYPE (obj, level)

     Formatting methods for specific types are implemented as methods
     with a name based on the type name.  In the method name, 'TYPE' is
     replaced by ‘'_'.join(type(obj).__name__.split())’.  Dispatch to
     these methods is handled by *note repr1(): 233a.  Type-specific
     methods which need to recursively format a value should call
     ‘self.repr1(subobj, level - 1)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing Repr Objects,  Prev: Repr 物件,  Up: reprlib --- repr 的替代實作

5.8.13.2 Subclassing Repr Objects
.................................

The use of dynamic dispatching by *note Repr.repr1(): 233a. allows
subclasses of *note Repr: 2327. to add support for additional built-in
object types or to modify the handling of types already supported.  This
example shows how special support for file objects could be added:

     import reprlib
     import sys

     class MyRepr(reprlib.Repr):

         def repr_TextIOWrapper(self, obj, level):
             if obj.name in {'<stdin>', '<stdout>', '<stderr>'}:
                 return obj.name
             return repr(obj)

     aRepr = MyRepr()
     print(aRepr.repr(sys.stdin))         # 印出 '<stdin>'

     <stdin>


File: python.info,  Node: enum --- 對列舉的支援,  Next: graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能,  Prev: reprlib --- repr 的替代實作,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.14 ‘enum’ -- 對列舉的支援
-----------------------------

在 3.4 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/enum.py(1)

Important
.........

本頁包含 API 的參考資訊。關於教學資訊及更多進階主題的討論請參考

   * *note 基本教學: 233f.

   * *note 進階教學: 2340.

   * *note 列舉指南: 2341.

__________________________________________________________________

列舉：

   * 是一組綁定唯一值的代表名稱（成員）

   * 可以用疊代的方式以定義的順序回傳其正式 (canonical)（即非別名）成員

   * 使用 'call' 語法來透過值回傳成員

   * 使用 'index' 語法來透過名稱回傳成員

列舉透過 *note class: 1168. 語法或函式呼叫的語法來建立：

     >>> from enum import Enum

     >>> # class syntax
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3

     >>> # functional syntax
     >>> Color = Enum('Color', [('RED', 1), ('GREEN', 2), ('BLUE', 3)])

雖然我們可以用 *note class: 1168. 語法來建立列舉，列舉並不是標準的
Python 類別。參考*note 列舉有何差異: 2342.以取得更多細節。

     備註: 命名方式

        - ‘Color’ 類別是一個'列舉'（或 'enum'）

        - ‘Color.RED’、‘Color.GREEN’ 等屬性是'列舉成員'（或'成員'），並
          且使用上可以看作常數。

        - 列舉成員有'名稱'和'值'（‘Color.RED’ 的名稱是 ‘RED’，
          ‘Color.BLUE’ 的值是 ‘3’ 諸如此類）

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 模組內容: 模組內容<2>.
* 資料型別: 資料型別<2>.
* 通用項目與裝飾器::
* 備註::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/enum.py


File: python.info,  Node: 模組內容<2>,  Next: 資料型別<2>,  Up: enum --- 對列舉的支援

5.8.14.1 模組內容
.................

     *note EnumType: 413.

          Enum 及其子類別的 ‘type’。

     *note Enum: 42b.

          用來建立列舉常數的基礎類別。

     *note IntEnum: b4c.

          用來建立列舉常數的基礎類別，同時也是 *note int: 17e. 的子類別
          。（*note 備註: 2344.）

     *note StrEnum: 414.

          用來建立列舉常數的基礎類別，同時也是 *note str: 157. 的子類別
          。（*note 備註: 2344.）

     *note Flag: 41d.

          用來建立列舉常數的基礎類別，可以使用位元操作來結合成員且其結果
          不失去 *note Flag: 41d. 的成員資格。

     *note IntFlag: 2093.

          用來建立列舉常數的基礎類別，可以使用位元操作來結合成員且其結果
          不失去 *note IntFlag: 2093. 的成員資格。*note IntFlag: 2093. 的
          成員也是 *note int: 17e. 的子類別。（*note 備註: 2344.）

     *note ReprEnum: 415.

          由 *note IntEnum: b4c.、*note StrEnum: 414. 及 *note IntFlag:
          2093. 所使用來保留這些混合類型的 *note str(): 157.。

     *note EnumCheck: 420.

          一個有 ‘CONTINUOUS’、‘NAMED_FLAGS’ 及 ‘UNIQUE’ 這些值的列舉，
          和 *note verify(): 41f. 一起使用來確保給定的列舉符合多種限制。

     *note FlagBoundary: 41e.

          一個有 ‘STRICT’、‘CONFORM’、‘EJECT’ 及 ‘KEEP’ 這些值的列舉，允
          許列舉對如何處理非法值做更細微的控制。

     *note auto: b09.

          列舉成員的實例會被取代成合適的值。*note StrEnum: 414. 預設是小
          寫版本的成員名稱，其它列舉則預設是 1 且往後遞增。

     *note property(): 423.

          允許 *note Enum: 42b. 成員擁有屬性且不會與成員名稱有衝突。
          ‘value’ 及 ‘name’ 屬性是用這個方式來實作。

     *note unique(): 2345.

          Enum 類別的裝飾器，用來確保任何值只有綁定到一個名稱上。

     *note verify(): 41f.

          Enum 類別的裝飾器，用來檢查列舉上使用者所選的限制。

     *note member(): 421.

          讓 ‘obj’ 變成成員。可以當作裝飾器使用。

     *note nonmember(): 422.

          不讓 ‘obj’ 變成成員。可以當作裝飾器使用。

     *note global_enum(): 426.

          修改列舉上的 *note str(): 157. 及 *note repr(): 61e. ，讓成員
          顯示為屬於模組而不是類別，並將該列舉成員匯出到全域命名空間。

     *note show_flag_values(): 2346.

          回傳旗標 (flag) 裡包含的所有 2 的次方的整數串列。

在 3.6 版被加入: ‘Flag’, ‘IntFlag’, ‘auto’

在 3.11 版被加入: ‘StrEnum’, ‘EnumCheck’, ‘ReprEnum’, ‘FlagBoundary’,
‘property’, ‘member’, ‘nonmember’, ‘global_enum’, ‘show_flag_values’

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: 資料型別<2>,  Next: 通用項目與裝飾器,  Prev: 模組內容<2>,  Up: enum --- 對列舉的支援

5.8.14.2 資料型別
.................

 -- 類別: enum.EnumType

     'EnumType' 是'列舉'的 *note metaclass: 1d19.。'EnumType' 可以有子類
     別 - 細節請參考 *note 建立 EnumType 的子類別: 2348.。

     'EnumType' 負責在最後的'列舉'上面設定正確的 ‘__repr__()’、
     ‘__str__()’、‘__format__()’ 及 ‘__reduce__()’ 方法，以及建立列舉成
     員，並正確處理重複，提供列舉類別的疊代等等。

      -- 方法: __call__ (cls, value, names=None, *, module=None,
               qualname=None, type=None, start=1, boundary=None)

          這個方法可以用兩種不同的方式呼叫：

             * 查詢已存在的成員：


                    cls: 所呼叫的列舉類別。


                    value: 要查詢的值。

             * 使用 ‘cls’ 列舉來建立新列舉（只有在現有列舉沒有任何成員時
               ）


                    cls: 所呼叫的列舉類別。


                    value: 要建立的新列舉的名稱。


                    names: 新列舉的成員的名稱/值。


                    module: 新列舉要建立在哪個模組名稱下。


                    qualname: 這個列舉在模組裡實際上的位置。


                    type: 新列舉的混合類型。


                    start: 列舉的第一個整數值（由 *note auto: b09. 所使
                    用）


                    boundary: 在位元操作時怎麼處理範圍外的值（只有 *note
                    Flag: 41d. 會用到）

      -- 方法: __contains__ (cls, member)

          如果 member 屬於 ‘cls’ 則回傳 ‘True’：

               >>> some_var = Color.RED
               >>> some_var in Color
               True
               >>> Color.RED.value in Color
               True

     在 3.12 版的變更: 在 Python 3.12 之前，如果用非列舉成員做屬於檢查
     (containment check) 會引發 ‘TypeError’。

      -- 方法: __dir__ (cls)

          回傳 ‘['__class__', '__doc__', '__members__', '__module__']’ 及
          'cls' 的成員名稱：

               >>> dir(Color)
               ['BLUE', 'GREEN', 'RED', '__class__', '__contains__', '__doc__', '__getitem__', '__init_subclass__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__members__', '__module__', '__name__', '__qualname__']

      -- 方法: __getitem__ (cls, name)

          回傳 'cls' 中符合 'name' 的列舉成員，或引發 *note KeyError:
          8ed.：

               >>> Color['BLUE']
               <Color.BLUE: 3>

      -- 方法: __iter__ (cls)

          以定義的順序回傳在 'cls' 中的每個成員：

               >>> list(Color)
               [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 3>]

      -- 方法: __len__ (cls)

          回傳 'cls' 的成員數量：

               >>> len(Color)
               3

      -- 屬性: __members__

          回傳每個列舉名稱到其成員的對映，包括別名

      -- 方法: __reversed__ (cls)

          以跟定義相反的順序回傳 'cls' 的每個成員：

               >>> list(reversed(Color))
               [<Color.BLUE: 3>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.RED: 1>]

     在 3.11 版被加入: 在 3.11 之前，‘enum’ 使用 ‘EnumMeta’ 類型，目前保
     留此類型當作別名。

 -- 類別: enum.Enum

     'Enum' 是所有 'enum' 列舉的基礎類別。

      -- 屬性: name

          用來定義 ‘Enum’ 成員的名稱：

               >>> Color.BLUE.name
               'BLUE'

      -- 屬性: value

          ‘Enum’ 成員給定的值：

               >>> Color.RED.value
               1

          成員的值，可以在 *note __new__(): 2353. 設定。

               備註: 列舉成員的值

               成員的值可以是任何值：*note int: 17e.、*note str: 157. 等
               等。如果實際使用什麼值並不重要，你可以使用 *note auto:
               b09. 實例，它會為你選擇合適的值。更多細節請參考 *note
               auto: b09.。

               While mutable/unhashable values, such as *note dict: 239,
               *note list: 40a. or a mutable *note dataclass: 3bc, can
               be used, they will have a quadratic performance impact
               during creation relative to the total number of
               mutable/unhashable values in the enum.

      -- 屬性: _name_

          成員名稱。

      -- 屬性: _value_

          成員的值，可以在 *note __new__(): 2353. 設定。

      -- 屬性: _order_

          已不再使用，只為了向後相容而保留（類別屬性，在類別建立時移除）

      -- 屬性: _ignore_

          ‘_ignore_’ 只有在建立的時候用到，在列舉建立完成後會被移除。

          ‘_ignore_’ 是一個不會變成成員的名稱串列，在列舉建立完成後其名
          稱會被移除。範例請參考 *note TimePeriod: 2358.。

      -- 方法: __dir__ (self)

          回傳 ‘['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'name', 'value']’
          及任何 'self.__class__' 上定義的公開方法：

               >>> from datetime import date
               >>> class Weekday(Enum):
               ...     MONDAY = 1
               ...     TUESDAY = 2
               ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
               ...     THURSDAY = 4
               ...     FRIDAY = 5
               ...     SATURDAY = 6
               ...     SUNDAY = 7
               ...     @classmethod
               ...     def today(cls):
               ...         print('today is %s' % cls(date.today().isoweekday()).name)
               ...
               >>> dir(Weekday.SATURDAY)
               ['__class__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__hash__', '__module__', 'name', 'today', 'value']

      -- 方法: _generate_next_value_ (name, start, count, last_values)


               name: 定義的成員名稱（例如 'RED'）。


               start: 列舉的開始值，預設為 1。


               count: 已定義的成員數量，不包含目前這一個。


               last_values: 一個之前值的串列。

          一個 'staticmethod'，用來決定 *note auto: b09. 下一個要回傳的
          值的：

               >>> from enum import auto
               >>> class PowersOfThree(Enum):
               ...     @staticmethod
               ...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
               ...         return 3 ** (count + 1)
               ...     FIRST = auto()
               ...     SECOND = auto()
               ...
               >>> PowersOfThree.SECOND.value
               9

      -- 方法: __init__ (self, *args, **kwds)

          預設情況下，不執行任何操作。如果在成員賦值中給出多個值，這些值
          將成為與 ‘__init__’ 分別的引數；例如

               >>> from enum import Enum
               >>> class Weekday(Enum):
               ...     MONDAY = 1, 'Mon'

          ‘Weekday.__init__()’ 將被稱為 ‘Weekday.__init__(self, 1,
          'Mon')’

      -- 方法: __init_subclass__ (cls, **kwds)

          一個 'classmethod'，用來進一步設定後續的子類別，預設不做任何事
          。

      -- 方法: _missing_ (cls, value)

          一個 'classmethod'，用來查詢在 'cls' 裡找不到的值。預設不做任
          何事，但可以被覆寫以實作客製化的搜尋行為：

               >>> from enum import StrEnum
               >>> class Build(StrEnum):
               ...     DEBUG = auto()
               ...     OPTIMIZED = auto()
               ...     @classmethod
               ...     def _missing_(cls, value):
               ...         value = value.lower()
               ...         for member in cls:
               ...             if member.value == value:
               ...                 return member
               ...         return None
               ...
               >>> Build.DEBUG.value
               'debug'
               >>> Build('deBUG')
               <Build.DEBUG: 'debug'>

      -- 方法: __new__ (cls, *args, **kwds)

          預設情況下不存在。如果有指定，無論是在列舉類別定義中還是在
          mixin 類別中（例如 ‘int’），都將傳遞成員賦值中給出的所有值；例
          如

               >>> from enum import Enum
               >>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
               ...     TWENTYSIX = '1a', 16

          results in the call ‘int('1a', 16)’ and a value of ‘26’ for
          the member.

               備註: 當寫自訂的 ‘__new__’ 時，不要使用
               ‘super().__new__’，而是要呼叫適當的 ‘__new__’。

      -- 方法: __repr__ (self)

          回傳呼叫 'repr()' 時使用的字串。預設回傳 'Enum' 名稱、成員名稱
          及值，但可以被覆寫：

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __repr__(self):
               ...         cls_name = self.__class__.__name__
               ...         return f'{cls_name}.{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE')

      -- 方法: __str__ (self)

          回傳呼叫 'str()' 時使用的字串。預設回傳 'Enum' 名稱及成員名稱
          ，但可以被覆寫：

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __str__(self):
               ...         return f'{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

      -- 方法: __format__ (self)

          回傳呼叫 'format()' 及 'f-string' 時使用的字串。預設回傳 *note
          __str__(): 41c. 的回傳值，但可以被覆寫：

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __format__(self, spec):
               ...         return f'{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

          備註: *note Enum: 42b. 使用 *note auto: b09. 會產生從 ‘1’ 開始
          遞增的整數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 *note Dataclass support: 154e.

 -- 類別: enum.IntEnum

     'IntEnum' 和 'Enum' 一樣，但其成員同時也是整數而可以被用在任何使用
     整數的地方。如果 'IntEnum' 成員經過任何整數運算，其結果會失去列舉狀
     態。

          >>> from enum import IntEnum
          >>> class Number(IntEnum):
          ...     ONE = 1
          ...     TWO = 2
          ...     THREE = 3
          ...
          >>> Number.THREE
          <Number.THREE: 3>
          >>> Number.ONE + Number.TWO
          3
          >>> Number.THREE + 5
          8
          >>> Number.THREE == 3
          True

          備註: *note IntEnum: b4c. 使用 *note auto: b09. 會產生從 ‘1’ 開
          始遞增的整數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 為了更好地支援'現存常數取代 (replacement of
     existing constants)' 的使用情境，*note __str__(): 418. 現在會是
     ‘int.__str__()’。為了同樣的理由，*note __format__(): 419. 已經是
     ‘int.__format__()’。

 -- 類別: enum.StrEnum

     'StrEnum' 和 'Enum' 一樣，但其成員同時也是字串而可以被用在幾乎所有
     使用字串的地方。'StrEnum' 成員經過任何字串操作的結果會不再是列舉的
     一部份。

          備註: stdlib 裡有些地方會檢查只能是 *note str: 157. 而不是
          *note str: 157. 的子類別（也就是 ‘type(unknown) == str’ 而不是
          ‘isinstance(unknown, str)’），在這些地方你需要使用
          ‘str(StrEnum.member)’。

          備註: *note StrEnum: 414. 使用 *note auto: b09. 會產生小寫的成
          員名稱當作值。

          備註: 為了更好地支援'現存常數取代 (replacement of existing
          constants)' 的使用情境，*note __str__(): 418. 現在會是
          ‘str.__str__()’。為了同樣的理由，*note __format__(): 419. 也會
          是 ‘str.__format__()’。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 類別: enum.Flag

     ‘Flag’ 與 *note Enum: 42b. 相同，但其成員支援位元運算子 ‘&’
     ('AND')、‘|’ ('OR')、‘^’ ('XOR') 和 ‘~’ ('INVERT')；這些操作的結果
     是列舉的成員（的別名）。

      -- 方法: __contains__ (self, value)

          如果 value 在 self 裡則回傳 'True'：

               >>> from enum import Flag, auto
               >>> class Color(Flag):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
               >>> white = Color.RED | Color.GREEN | Color.BLUE
               >>> Color.GREEN in purple
               False
               >>> Color.GREEN in white
               True
               >>> purple in white
               True
               >>> white in purple
               False

      -- 方法: __iter__(self):

          回傳所有包含的非別名成員：

               >>> list(Color.RED)
               [<Color.RED: 1>]
               >>> list(purple)
               [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: __len__(self):

          回傳旗標裡的成員數量：

               >>> len(Color.GREEN)
               1
               >>> len(white)
               3

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: __bool__(self):

          如果成員在旗標裡則回傳 'True'，否則回傳 'False'：

               >>> bool(Color.GREEN)
               True
               >>> bool(white)
               True
               >>> black = Color(0)
               >>> bool(black)
               False

      -- 方法: __or__ (self, other)

          回傳和 other 做 OR 過後的二進位旗標：

               >>> Color.RED | Color.GREEN
               <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

      -- 方法: __and__ (self, other)

          回傳和 other 做 AND 過後的二進位旗標：

               >>> purple & white
               <Color.RED|BLUE: 5>
               >>> purple & Color.GREEN
               <Color: 0>

      -- 方法: __xor__ (self, other)

          回傳和 other 做 XOR 過後的二進位旗標：

               >>> purple ^ white
               <Color.GREEN: 2>
               >>> purple ^ Color.GREEN
               <Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>

      -- 方法: __invert__(self):

          回傳所有在 'type(self)' 但不在 self 裡的旗標：

               >>> ~white
               <Color: 0>
               >>> ~purple
               <Color.GREEN: 2>
               >>> ~Color.RED
               <Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

      -- 方法: _numeric_repr_ ()

          用來格式化任何剩下未命名數值的函式。預設是值的 repr，常見選擇
          是 *note hex(): 115f. 和 *note oct(): 115e.。

          備註: *note Flag: 41d. 使用 *note auto: b09. 會產生從 ‘1’ 開始
          2 的次方的整數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 值為 0 的旗標的 'repr()' 已改變。現在是：

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color: 0>

 -- 類別: enum.IntFlag

     'IntFlag' 和 'Flag' 一樣，但其成員同時也是整數而可以被用在任何使用
     整數的地方。

          >>> from enum import IntFlag, auto
          >>> class Color(IntFlag):
          ...     RED = auto()
          ...     GREEN = auto()
          ...     BLUE = auto()
          ...
          >>> Color.RED & 2
          <Color: 0>
          >>> Color.RED | 2
          <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

     如果 'IntFlag' 成員經過任何整數運算，其結果不是 'IntFlag'：

          >>> Color.RED + 2
          3

     如果 'IntFlag' 成員經過 'Flag' 操作且：

        * 結果是合法的 'IntFlag'：回傳 'IntFlag'

        * 結果不是合法的 'IntFlag'：結果會根據 'FlagBoundary' 的設定

     未命名且值為 0 的旗標的 'repr()' 已改變。現在是：

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color: 0>

          備註: *note IntFlag: 2093. 使用 *note auto: b09. 會產生從 ‘1’
          開始 2 的次方的整數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 為了更好地支援'現存常數取代 (replacement of
     existing constants)' 的使用情境，*note __str__(): 418. 現在會是
     ‘int.__str__()’。為了同樣的理由，*note __format__(): 419. 已經是
     ‘int.__format__()’。

     ‘IntFlag’ 的反轉 (inversion) 現在會回傳正值，該值是不在給定旗標的所
     有旗標聯集，而不是一個負值。這符合現有 *note Flag: 41d. 的行為。

 -- 類別: enum.ReprEnum

     ‘ReprEnum’ 使用 *note Enum: 42b. 的 *note repr(): 154f.，但使用混合
     資料類型的 *note str(): 157.：

        * 對 *note IntEnum: b4c. 和 *note IntFlag: 2093. 是
          ‘int.__str__()’

        * 對 *note StrEnum: 414. 是 ‘str.__str__()’

     繼承 ‘ReprEnum’ 來保留混合資料類型的 *note str(): 157. / *note
     format(): 417.，而不是使用 *note Enum: 42b. 預設的 *note str():
     41c.。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 類別: enum.EnumCheck

     'EnumCheck' 包含 *note verify(): 41f. 裝飾器使用的選項，以確保多樣
     的限制，不符合限制會產生 *note ValueError: 183.。

      -- 屬性: UNIQUE

          確保每個值只有一個名稱：

               >>> from enum import Enum, verify, UNIQUE
               >>> @verify(UNIQUE)
               ... class Color(Enum):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 3
               ...     CRIMSON = 1
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: aliases found in <enum 'Color'>: CRIMSON -> RED

      -- 屬性: CONTINUOUS

          確保在最小值成員跟最大值成員間沒有缺少值：

               >>> from enum import Enum, verify, CONTINUOUS
               >>> @verify(CONTINUOUS)
               ... class Color(Enum):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 5
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: invalid enum 'Color': missing values 3, 4

      -- 屬性: NAMED_FLAGS

          確保任何旗標群組 / 遮罩只包含命名旗標 - 當值是用指定而不是透過
          *note auto(): b09. 產生時是很實用的：

               >>> from enum import Flag, verify, NAMED_FLAGS
               >>> @verify(NAMED_FLAGS)
               ... class Color(Flag):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 4
               ...     WHITE = 15
               ...     NEON = 31
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: invalid Flag 'Color': aliases WHITE and NEON are missing combined values of 0x18 [use enum.show_flag_values(value) for details]

          備註: CONTINUOUS 和 NAMED_FLAGS 是設計用來運作在整數值的成員上
          。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 類別: enum.FlagBoundary

     'FlagBoundary' 控制在 'Flag' 及其子類別中如何處理範圍外的值。

      -- 屬性: STRICT

          範圍外的值會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。這是 *note Flag: 41d.
          的預設行為：

               >>> from enum import Flag, STRICT, auto
               >>> class StrictFlag(Flag, boundary=STRICT):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> StrictFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: <flag 'StrictFlag'> invalid value 20
                   given 0b0 10100
                 allowed 0b0 00111

      -- 屬性: CONFORM

          範圍外的值會移除非法值，留下合法的 'Flag' 值：

               >>> from enum import Flag, CONFORM, auto
               >>> class ConformFlag(Flag, boundary=CONFORM):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> ConformFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               <ConformFlag.BLUE: 4>

      -- 屬性: EJECT

          範圍外的值會失去它們的 'Flag' 成員資格且恢復成 *note int:
          17e.。

               >>> from enum import Flag, EJECT, auto
               >>> class EjectFlag(Flag, boundary=EJECT):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> EjectFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               20

      -- 屬性: KEEP

          範圍外的值會被保留，'Flag' 成員資格也會被保留。這是 *note
          IntFlag: 2093. 的預設行為：

               >>> from enum import Flag, KEEP, auto
               >>> class KeepFlag(Flag, boundary=KEEP):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> KeepFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               <KeepFlag.BLUE|16: 20>

在 3.11 版被加入.

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 支援 __dunder__ 名稱::
* 支援 _sunder_ 名稱::


File: python.info,  Node: 支援 __dunder__ 名稱,  Next: 支援 _sunder_ 名稱,  Up: 資料型別<2>

5.8.14.3 支援 ‘__dunder__’ 名稱
...............................

*note __members__: 234f. 是一個唯讀有序的‘成員名稱’：‘成員’項目的對映。
只有在類別上可用。

如果指定了 *note __new__(): 2353.，它必須建立並回傳列舉成員；適當地設定
成員的 ‘_value_’ 也是一個很好的主意。一旦所有成員都建立之後就不會再被用
到。


File: python.info,  Node: 支援 _sunder_ 名稱,  Prev: 支援 __dunder__ 名稱,  Up: 資料型別<2>

5.8.14.4 支援 ‘_sunder_’ 名稱
.............................

   - *note _name_: 2354. - 成員名稱

   - *note _value_: 2355. - 成員的值；可以在 ‘__new__’ 設定

   - *note _missing_(): 235c. - 當值沒有被找到時會使用的查詢函式；可以被
     覆寫

   - *note _ignore_: 2357. - 一個名稱的串列，可以是 *note list: 40a. 或
     *note str: 157.，它不會被轉換成成員，且在最後的類別上會被移除

   - *note _order_: 2356. - 不再被使用，僅為了向後相容而保留（類別屬性，
     在類別建立時移除）

   - *note _generate_next_value_(): 2359. - 用來為列舉成員取得合適的值；
     可以被覆寫

          備註: 對標準的 *note Enum: 42b. 類別來說，下一個被選擇的值是最
          後一個看見的值加一。

          對 *note Flag: 41d. 類別來說，下一個被選擇的值是下一個最大的 2
          的次方，不管最後一個看見的值是什麼。

在 3.6 版被加入: ‘_missing_’、‘_order_’、‘_generate_next_value_’

在 3.7 版被加入: ‘_ignore_’

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: 通用項目與裝飾器,  Next: 備註,  Prev: 資料型別<2>,  Up: enum --- 對列舉的支援

5.8.14.5 通用項目與裝飾器
.........................

 -- 類別: enum.auto

     'auto' 可以用來取代給值。如果使用的話，'Enum' 系統會呼叫 'Enum' 的
     *note _generate_next_value_(): 2359. 來取得合適的值。對 'Enum' 和
     'IntEnum' 來說，合適的值是最後一個值加一；對 'Flag' 和 'IntFlag' 來
     說，是第一個比最大值還大的 2 的次方的數字；對 'StrEnum' 來說，是成
     員名稱的小寫版本。如果混用 'auto()' 和手動指定值的話要特別注意。

     'auto' 實例只有在最上層的賦值時才會被解析：

        * ‘FIRST = auto()’ 可以運作（auto() 會被取代成 ‘1’）

        * ‘SECOND = auto(), -2’ 可以運作（auto 會被取代成 ‘2’, 因此 ‘2,
          -2’ 會被用來建立列舉成員 ‘SECOND’；

        * ‘THREE = [auto(), -3]’ '無法'運作（‘<auto 實例>, -3’ 會被用來
          建立列舉成員 ‘THREE’）

     在 3.11.1 版的變更: 在之前的版本中，‘auto()’ 必須是賦值行裡的唯一內
     容才能運作正確。

     可以覆寫 ‘_generate_next_value_’ 來客製 'auto' 使用的值。

          備註: 在 3.13 預設 ‘_generate_next_value_’ 總是回傳最大的成員
          值加一，如果任何成員是不相容的類型就會失敗。

 -- 函式: @enum.property

     和內建的 'property' 相似的裝飾器，但只專門針對列舉。它允許成員屬性
     和成員本身有相同名稱。

          備註: '屬性'和成員必須定義在分開的類別裡；例如 'value' 和
          'name' 屬性定義在 'Enum' 類別而 'Enum' 子類別可以定義成員名稱
          為 ‘value’ 和 ‘name’。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @enum.unique

     專門針對列舉的 *note class: 1168. 裝飾器。它搜尋列舉的 *note
     __members__: 234f.，蒐集任何它找到的別名；如果有找到任何別名則引發
     *note ValueError: 183. 並附上細節：

          >>> from enum import Enum, unique
          >>> @unique
          ... class Mistake(Enum):
          ...     ONE = 1
          ...     TWO = 2
          ...     THREE = 3
          ...     FOUR = 3
          ...
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE

 -- 函式: @enum.verify

     專門針對列舉的 *note class: 1168. 裝飾器。使用 *note EnumCheck:
     420. 裡的成員來指定在裝飾的列舉上應該檢查什麼限制。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @enum.member

     列舉所使用的裝飾器：其目標會變成成員。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @enum.nonmember

     列舉所使用的裝飾器：其目標不會變成成員。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @enum.global_enum

     修改列舉的 *note str(): 157. 及 *note repr(): 61e. 的裝飾器，讓成員
     顯示為屬於模組而不是其類別。應該只有當列舉成員被匯出到模組的全域命
     名空間才使用（範例請參考 *note re.RegexFlag: 427.）。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: enum.show_flag_values (value)

     回傳在旗標'值'中包含的所有 2 的次方的整數串列。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: 備註,  Prev: 通用項目與裝飾器,  Up: enum --- 對列舉的支援

5.8.14.6 備註
.............

*note IntEnum: b4c.、*note StrEnum: 414. 及 *note IntFlag: 2093.

     這三種列舉類型是設計來直接取代現有以整數及字串為基底的值；因此它們
     有額外的限制：

        - ‘__str__’ 使用值而不是列舉成員的名稱

        - ‘__format__’ 因為使用 ‘__str__’，也會使用值而不是列舉成員的名
          稱

     如果你不需要或不想要這些限制，你可以透過混合 ‘int’ 或 ‘str’ 類型來
     建立自己的基礎類別：

          >>> from enum import Enum
          >>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
          ...     pass

     或者你也可以在你的列舉重新給定合適的 *note str(): 157.：

          >>> from enum import Enum, IntEnum
          >>> class MyIntEnum(IntEnum):
          ...     __str__ = Enum.__str__


File: python.info,  Node: graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能,  Prev: enum --- 對列舉的支援,  Up: 資料型別

5.8.15 ‘graphlib’ —- 使用類圖 (graph-like) 結構進行操作的功能
-------------------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/graphlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- 類別: graphlib.TopologicalSorter (graph=None)

     提供對包含*note 可雜湊 (hashable): 409. 節點之圖 (graph) 進行拓撲排
     序 (topologically sort) 的功能。

     拓撲排序是圖中頂點 (vertex) 的線性排序，使得對於從頂點 u 到頂點 v 的
     每條有向邊 (directed edge) u -> v，頂點 u 在排序中會位於頂點 v 之前
     。例如，圖的頂點可能代表要執行的任務，而邊可能代表一個任務必須在另
     一個任務之前執行的限制；在此範例中，拓撲排序只是任務的一種有效序列
     。若且唯若 (if and only if) 圖沒有有向環 (directed cycle) 時，即如
     果它是個有向無環圖 (directed acyclic graph)，則完整的拓撲排序才是可
     行的。

     如果提供了可選的 'graph' 引數，它必須是表示有向無環圖的字典，其中鍵
     是節點，值是圖中該節點的包含所有前驅節點 (predecessor) 之可疊代物件
     （這些前驅節點具有指向以鍵表示之節點的邊）。可以使用 *note add():
     236e. 方法將其他節點新增到圖中。

     在一般情況下，對給定的圖執行排序所需的步驟如下：

        * 以選用的初始圖建立 *note TopologicalSorter: 71a. 的實例。

        * 在圖中新增其他節點。

        * 呼叫圖的 *note prepare(): 236f.。

        * 當 *note is_active(): 2370. 為 ‘True’ 時，疊代 *note
          get_ready(): 2371. 回傳的節點並處理它們。在每個節點完成處理時
          呼叫 *note done(): 2372.。

     如果只需要立即對圖中的節點進行排序且不涉及平行性 (parallelism)，則
     可以直接使用便捷方法 *note TopologicalSorter.static_order(): 2373.：

          >>> graph = {"D": {"B", "C"}, "C": {"A"}, "B": {"A"}}
          >>> ts = TopologicalSorter(graph)
          >>> tuple(ts.static_order())
          ('A', 'C', 'B', 'D')

     該類別設計為在節點準備就緒時，簡單支援節點的平行處理。例如：

          topological_sorter = TopologicalSorter()

          # Add nodes to 'topological_sorter'...

          topological_sorter.prepare()
          while topological_sorter.is_active():
              for node in topological_sorter.get_ready():
                  # Worker threads or processes take nodes to work on off the
                  # 'task_queue' queue.
                  task_queue.put(node)

              # When the work for a node is done, workers put the node in
              # 'finalized_tasks_queue' so we can get more nodes to work on.
              # The definition of 'is_active()' guarantees that, at this point, at
              # least one node has been placed on 'task_queue' that hasn't yet
              # been passed to 'done()', so this blocking 'get()' must (eventually)
              # succeed.  After calling 'done()', we loop back to call 'get_ready()'
              # again, so put newly freed nodes on 'task_queue' as soon as
              # logically possible.
              node = finalized_tasks_queue.get()
              topological_sorter.done(node)

      -- 方法: add (node, *predecessors)

          向圖中新增新節點及其前驅節點。'node' 和 'predecessors' 中的所
          有元素都必須是*note 可雜湊: 409.的。

          如果以相同節點引數多次呼叫，則依賴項的集合將會是傳入的所有依賴
          項的聯集。

          可以新增一個沒有依賴關係的節點（'predecessors' 未提供）或提供
          兩次依賴關係。如果有之前未曾提供的節點被包含在 'predecessors'
          中，它將自動新增到沒有前驅節點的圖中。

          如果在 *note prepare(): 236f. 之後呼叫，則引發 *note
          ValueError: 183.。

      -- 方法: prepare ()

          將圖標記為已完成並檢查圖中的循環。如果檢測到任何循環，將引發
          *note CycleError: 2374.，但 *note get_ready(): 2371. 仍可用於
          盡可能獲得更多的節點，直到循環阻塞了進度。呼叫此函式後就無法修
          改圖，因此無法使用 *note add(): 236e. 來新增更多節點。

      -- 方法: is_active ()

          如果可以有更多進度則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。如果循環不
          阻塞解析 (resolution) 並且仍有節點準備就緒但尚未由 *note
          TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 2371. 回傳或標記為 *note
          TopologicalSorter.done(): 2372. 的節點數量較 *note
          TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 2371. 所回傳的少，則可以繼續取
          得進度。

          此類別的 *note __bool__(): 1166. 方法遵循此函式，因此以下做法
          ：

               if ts.is_active():
                   ...

          可以簡單地用以下方式替換：

               if ts:
                   ...

          如果呼叫之前沒有先呼叫 *note prepare(): 236f. 則引發 *note
          ValueError: 183.。

      -- 方法: done (*nodes)

          將 *note TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 2371. 回傳的一組節點標
          記為已處理，停止阻塞 'nodes' 中每個節點的任何後繼節點
          (successor)，以便將來通過呼叫 *note
          TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 2371. 回傳。

          若沒有和該呼叫一起呼叫 *note prepare(): 236f. 或節點還沒有被
          *note get_ready(): 2371. 回傳，且如果 'nodes' 中有任何節點已被
          先前對此方法的呼叫標記為已處理、或者未使用 *note
          TopologicalSorter.add(): 236e. 將節點新增到圖中，則引發 *note
          ValueError: 183.。

      -- 方法: get_ready ()

          回傳一個包含所有準備就緒節點的 ‘tuple’。最初它回傳沒有前驅節點
          的所有節點，一旦通過呼叫 *note TopologicalSorter.done(): 2372.
          來將這些節點標記為已處理後，進一步的呼叫將回傳所有其全部前驅節
          點都已被處理的新節點。若無法取得更多進度，將回傳空 tuple。

          如果呼叫之前沒有先呼叫 *note prepare(): 236f. 則引發 *note
          ValueError: 183.。

      -- 方法: static_order ()

          回傳一個可疊代物件，它將按拓撲排序疊代節點。使用此方法時，不應
          呼叫 *note prepare(): 236f. 和 *note done(): 2372.。此方法等效
          於：

               def static_order(self):
                   self.prepare()
                   while self.is_active():
                       node_group = self.get_ready()
                       yield from node_group
                       self.done(*node_group)

          回傳的特定順序可能取決於將項目插入圖中的特定順序。例如：

               >>> ts = TopologicalSorter()
               >>> ts.add(3, 2, 1)
               >>> ts.add(1, 0)
               >>> print([*ts.static_order()])
               [2, 0, 1, 3]

               >>> ts2 = TopologicalSorter()
               >>> ts2.add(1, 0)
               >>> ts2.add(3, 2, 1)
               >>> print([*ts2.static_order()])
               [0, 2, 1, 3]

          這是因為 "0" 和 "2" 在圖中處於同一級別（它們將在對 *note
          get_ready(): 2371. 的同一呼叫中回傳）並且它們之間的順序取決於
          插入順序。

          如果檢測到任何循環，則引發 *note CycleError: 2374.。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

* Menu:

* 例外: 例外<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/graphlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<2>,  Up: graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能

5.8.15.1 例外
.............

*note graphlib: 60. 模組定義了以下例外類別：

 -- 例外: graphlib.CycleError

     *note ValueError: 183. 的子類別，如果作用的圖中存在循環則由 *note
     TopologicalSorter.prepare(): 236f. 引發。如果存在多個循環，則只會報
     告未定義的其中一個並包含在例外中。

     檢測到的循環可以通過例外實例的 *note args: 2f8. 屬性中第二個元素來
     存取，其為一個節點列表，每個節點在圖中都是列表中下一個節點的直接前
     驅節點（immediate predecessor，即父節點）。在報告列表中，第一個和最
     後一個節點將會是相同的，用以明確表示它是循環的。


File: python.info,  Node: 數值與數學模組,  Next: 函式編程模組,  Prev: 資料型別,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.9 數值與數學模組
==================

The modules described in this chapter provide numeric and math-related
functions and data types.  The *note numbers: 99. module defines an
abstract hierarchy of numeric types.  The *note math: 89. and *note
cmath: 16. modules contain various mathematical functions for
floating-point and complex numbers.  The *note decimal: 33. module
supports exact representations of decimal numbers, using arbitrary
precision arithmetic.

The following modules are documented in this chapter:

* Menu:

* numbers: numbers --- 數值的抽象基底類別. 數值的抽象基底類別
* math: math --- 數學函式. 數學函式
* cmath: cmath --- 複數的數學函式. 複數的數學函式
* decimal: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算. 十進位固定點和浮點運算
* fractions: fractions --- 有理數. 有理數
* random: random --- 生成偽隨機數. 生成偽隨機數
* statistics: statistics --- 數學統計函式. 數學統計函式


File: python.info,  Node: numbers --- 數值的抽象基底類別,  Next: math --- 數學函式,  Up: 數值與數學模組

5.9.1 ‘numbers’ -- 數值的抽象基底類別
-------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/numbers.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘numbers’ 模組 ( PEP 3141(2)) 定義了數值*note 抽象基底類別: 1047. 的階層
結構，其中逐一定義了更多操作。此模組中定義的型別都不可被實例化。

 -- 類別: numbers.Number

     數值階層結構的基礎。如果你只想確認引數 'x' 是不是數值、並不關心其型
     別，請使用 ‘isinstance(x, Number)’。

* Menu:

* 數值的階層::
* 給型別實作者的註記::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/numbers.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/


File: python.info,  Node: 數值的階層,  Next: 給型別實作者的註記,  Up: numbers --- 數值的抽象基底類別

5.9.1.1 數值的階層
..................

 -- 類別: numbers.Complex

     這個型別的子類別描述了複數並包含適用於內建 *note complex: 26b. 型別
     的操作。這些操作有：*note complex: 26b. 和 *note bool: 17d. 的轉換
     、*note real: 237e.、*note imag: 237f.、‘+’、‘-’、‘*’、‘/’、‘**’、
     *note abs(): 1a99.、*note conjugate(): 2380.、‘==’ 以及 ‘!=’。除
     ‘-’ 和 ‘!=’ 之外所有操作都是抽象的。

      -- 屬性: real

          為抽象的。取得該數值的實數部分。

      -- 屬性: imag

          為抽象的。取得該數值的虛數部分。

      -- 方法: abstractmethod conjugate ()

          為抽象的。回傳共軛複數，例如 ‘(1+3j).conjugate() == (1-3j)’。

 -- 類別: numbers.Real

     相對於 *note Complex: 237d.，‘Real’ 加入了只有實數才能進行的操作。

     簡單的說，有 *note float: 26a. 的轉換、*note math.trunc(): 1232.、
     *note round(): 116b.、*note math.floor(): 1230.、*note math.ceil():
     1231.、*note divmod(): 7e5.、‘//’、‘%’、 ‘<’、‘<=’、‘>’、和 ‘>=’。

     實數同樣提供 *note complex(): 26b.、*note real: 237e.、*note imag:
     237f. 和 *note conjugate(): 2380. 的預設值。

 -- 類別: numbers.Rational

     *note Real: 1f2c. 的子型別，並增加了 *note numerator: 2381. 和
     *note denominator: 2382. 這兩種特性。它也會提供 *note float(): 26a.
     的預設值。

     *note numerator: 2381. 和 *note denominator: 2382. 的值必須是 *note
     Integral: 1d4f. 的實例且 *note denominator: 2382. 要是正數。

      -- 屬性: numerator

          為抽象的。

      -- 屬性: denominator

          為抽象的。

 -- 類別: numbers.Integral

     *note Rational: 1152. 的子型別，並增加了 *note int: 17e. 的轉換操作
     。為 *note float(): 26a.、*note numerator: 2381. 和 *note
     denominator: 2382. 提供了預設值。為 *note pow(): 816. 方法增加了求
     餘 (modulus) 和位元字串運算 (bit-string operations) 的抽象方法：
     ‘<<’、‘>>’、‘&’、‘^’、‘|’、‘~’。


File: python.info,  Node: 給型別實作者的註記,  Prev: 數值的階層,  Up: numbers --- 數值的抽象基底類別

5.9.1.2 給型別實作者的註記
..........................

實作者需注意，相等的數值除了大小相等外，還必須擁有同樣的雜湊值。當使用兩
個不同的實數擴充時，這可能是很微妙的。例如，*note fractions.Fraction:
1a8. 底下的 *note hash(): 3df. 實作如下：

     def __hash__(self):
         if self.denominator == 1:
             # Get integers right.
             return hash(self.numerator)
         # Expensive check, but definitely correct.
         if self == float(self):
             return hash(float(self))
         else:
             # Use tuple's hash to avoid a high collision rate on
             # simple fractions.
             return hash((self.numerator, self.denominator))

* Menu:

* 加入更多數值 ABC::
* 實作算術操作::


File: python.info,  Node: 加入更多數值 ABC,  Next: 實作算術操作,  Up: 給型別實作者的註記

5.9.1.3 加入更多數值 ABC
........................

當然，還有更多用於數值的 ABC，如果不加入它們就不會有健全的階層。你可以在
*note Complex: 237d. 和 *note Real: 1f2c. 中加入 ‘MyFoo’，像是：

     class MyFoo(Complex): ...
     MyFoo.register(Real)


File: python.info,  Node: 實作算術操作,  Prev: 加入更多數值 ABC,  Up: 給型別實作者的註記

5.9.1.4 實作算術操作
....................

我們想要實作算術操作，來使得混合模式操作要麼呼叫一個作者知道兩個引數之型
別的實作，要麼將其轉換成最接近的內建型別並執行這個操作。對於 *note
Integral: 1d4f. 的子型別，這意味著 *note __add__(): 1d1f. 和 *note
__radd__(): 1d20. 必須用如下方式定義：

     class MyIntegral(Integral):

         def __add__(self, other):
             if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
                 return do_my_adding_stuff(self, other)
             elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
                 return do_my_other_adding_stuff(self, other)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented

         def __radd__(self, other):
             if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
                 return do_my_adding_stuff(other, self)
             elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
                 return do_my_other_adding_stuff(other, self)
             elif isinstance(other, Integral):
                 return int(other) + int(self)
             elif isinstance(other, Real):
                 return float(other) + float(self)
             elif isinstance(other, Complex):
                 return complex(other) + complex(self)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented

*note Complex: 237d. 的子類別有 5 種不同的混合型別操作。我將上面提到所有
不涉及 ‘MyIntegral’ 和 ‘OtherTypeIKnowAbout’ 的程式碼稱作「模板
(boilerplate)」。‘a’ 是 *note Complex: 237d. 之子型別 ‘A’ 的實例 (‘a : A
<: Complex’)，同時 ‘b : B <: Complex’。我將要計算 ‘a + b’：

  1. 如果 ‘A’ 有定義成一個接受 ‘b’ 的 *note __add__(): 1d1f.，不會發生問
     題。

  2. 如果 ‘A’ 回退成模板程式碼，它將回傳一個來自 *note __add__(): 1d1f.
     的值，並喪失讓 ‘B’ 定義一個更完善的 *note __radd__(): 1d20. 的機會
     ，因此模板需要回傳一個來自 ‘__add__()’ 的 *note NotImplemented:
     5f2.。（或者 ‘A’ 可能完全不實作 ‘__add__()’。）

  3. 接著看 ‘B’ 的 *note __radd__(): 1d20.。如果它接受 ‘a’ ，不會發生問
     題。

  4. 如果沒有成功回退到模板，就沒有更多的方法可以去嘗試，因此這裡將使用
     預設的實作。

  5. 如果 ‘B <: A’，Python 會在 ‘A.__add__’ 之前嘗試 ‘B.__radd__’。這是
     可行的，因為它是透過對 ‘A’ 的理解而實作的，所以這可以在交給 *note
     Complex: 237d. 之前處理好這些實例。

如果 ‘A <: Complex’ 和 ‘B <: Real’ 且沒有共享任何其他型別上的理解，那麼
適當的共享操作會涉及內建的 *note complex: 26b.，並且分別用到 *note
__radd__(): 1d20.，因此 ‘a+b == b+a’。

由於大部分對任意給定類型的操作都十分相似的，定義一個為任意給定運算子生成
向前 (forward) 與向後 (reverse) 實例的輔助函式可能會非常有用。例如，
*note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. 使用了：

     def _operator_fallbacks(monomorphic_operator, fallback_operator):
         def forward(a, b):
             if isinstance(b, (int, Fraction)):
                 return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
             elif isinstance(b, float):
                 return fallback_operator(float(a), b)
             elif isinstance(b, complex):
                 return fallback_operator(complex(a), b)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented
         forward.__name__ = '__' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
         forward.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

         def reverse(b, a):
             if isinstance(a, Rational):
                 # 包含整數。
                 return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
             elif isinstance(a, Real):
                 return fallback_operator(float(a), float(b))
             elif isinstance(a, Complex):
                 return fallback_operator(complex(a), complex(b))
             else:
                 return NotImplemented
         reverse.__name__ = '__r' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
         reverse.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

         return forward, reverse

     def _add(a, b):
         """a + b"""
         return Fraction(a.numerator * b.denominator +
                         b.numerator * a.denominator,
                         a.denominator * b.denominator)

     __add__, __radd__ = _operator_fallbacks(_add, operator.add)

     # ...


File: python.info,  Node: math --- 數學函式,  Next: cmath --- 複數的數學函式,  Prev: numbers --- 數值的抽象基底類別,  Up: 數值與數學模組

5.9.2 ‘math’ -- 數學函式
------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

此模組提供對 C 標準中定義的數學相關函式的存取。

這些函式不支援複數；若你需要計算複數，請使用 *note cmath: 16. 模組的同名
函式。這是因為大多數的使用者並不想學習那麼多理解複數所需的數學概念，所以
根據支援複數與否分為兩種函式。收到一個例外而非複數回傳值，有助於程式設計
師提早察覺參數中包含非預期的複數，進而從源頭查出導致此情況的原因。

此模組提供下列函式。除非特意註明，否則回傳值皆為浮點數。

* Menu:

* 數論與表現函式::
* Power and logarithmic functions::
* Trigonometric functions::
* Angular conversion::
* Hyperbolic functions::
* Special functions::
* 常數: 常數<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 數論與表現函式,  Next: Power and logarithmic functions,  Up: math --- 數學函式

5.9.2.1 數論與表現函式
......................

 -- 函式: math.ceil (x)

     回傳 'x' 經上取整的值，即大於或等於 'x' 的最小整數。若 'x' 並非浮點
     數，此函式將委派給 *note x.__ceil__: 1d4e.，並回傳 *note Integral:
     1d4f. 型別的值。

 -- 函式: math.comb (n, k)

     回傳從 'n' 個物品中不重複且不考慮排序地取出 'k' 個物品的方法數。

     當 ‘k <= n’ 時其值為 ‘n! / (k! * (n - k)!)’，否則其值為 ‘0’。

     因為此值等同於 ‘(1 + x)ⁿ’ 進行多項式展開後第 k 項的係數，所以又稱為
     二項式係數。

     當任一參數非整數型別時會引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。當任一參數為負
     數時會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.copysign (x, y)

     回傳與 'x' 相同長度（絕對值）且與 'y' 同號的浮點數。在支援帶符號零
     的平臺上，‘copysign(1.0, -0.0)’ 回傳 '-1.0'。

 -- 函式: math.fabs (x)

     回傳 'x' 的絕對值。

 -- 函式: math.factorial (n)

     以整數回傳 'n' 的階乘。若 'n' 非整數型別或其值為負會引發 *note
     ValueError: 183.。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: 允許傳入其值為整數的浮點數（如：‘5.0’）已被棄
     用。

 -- 函式: math.floor (x)

     回傳 'x' 經下取整的值，即小於或等於 'x' 的最大整數。若 'x' 並非浮點
     數，此函式將委派給 *note x.__floor__: 1d4d.，並回傳 *note Integral:
     1d4f. 型別的值。

 -- 函式: math.fmod (x, y)

     回傳 C 函式庫所定義的 ‘fmod(x, y)’ 函式值。請注意此函式與 Python 運
     算式 ‘x % y’ 可能會回傳不同結果。C 標準要求 ‘fmod(x, y)’ 的回傳值完
     全等同（數學定義上，即無限精度）於 ‘x - n*y’，'n' 為可使回傳值與
     'x' 同號且長度小於 ‘abs(y)’ 的整數。Python 運算式 ‘x % y’ 的回傳值
     則與 'y' 同號，且可能無法精確地計算浮點數引數。例如：‘fmod(-1e-100,
     1e100)’ 的值為 ‘-1e-100’，但 Python 運算式 ‘-1e-100 % 1e100’ 的結果
     為 ‘1e100-1e-100’，此值無法準確地表示成浮點數，並會四捨五入為出乎意
     料的 ‘1e100’。因此，處理浮點數時通常會選擇函式 *note fmod(): 1dfa.，
     而處理整數時會選擇 Python 運算式 ‘x % y’。

 -- 函式: math.frexp (x)

     以 ‘(m, e)’ 對的格式回傳 'x' 的尾數 'm' 及指數 'e'。'm' 是浮點數而
     'e' 是整數，且兩者精確地使 ‘x == m * 2**e’。若 'x' 為零，回傳
     ‘(0.0, 0)’，否則令 ‘0.5 <= abs(m) < 1’。此函式用於以可攜的方式「分
     割」浮點數內部表示法。

 -- 函式: math.fsum (iterable)

     回傳可疊代物件（iterable）中所有值的精確浮點數和。透過追蹤過程中多
     個部分和（partial sum）以避免精確度損失。

     此演算法準確性奠基於保證 IEEE-754 浮點標準及典型奇進偶捨（
     half-even）模式。於有些非 Windows 平台建置時，底層 C 函式庫使用延伸
     精度加法運算，而可能導致對過程中同一部分和重複捨入，並使其最低有效
     位不如預期。

     更深入的討論及兩種替代做法請參閱 ASPN cookbook recipes 精準的浮點數
     總和(1)。

 -- 函式: math.gcd (*integers)

     回傳指定整數引數的最大公因數。若存在任一非零引數，回傳值為所有引數
     共有因數中最大的正整數。若所有引數皆為零，則回傳值為 ‘0’。‘gcd()’ 若
     未傳入任何引數也將回傳 ‘0’。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增支援任意數量的引數。先前僅支援兩個引數。

 -- 函式: math.isclose (a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

     若 'a' 及 'b' 兩值足夠接近便回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

     Whether or not two values are considered close is determined
     according to given absolute and relative tolerances.  If no errors
     occur, the result will be: ‘abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a),
     abs(b)), abs_tol)’.

     'rel_tol' is the relative tolerance - it is the maximum allowed
     difference between 'a' and 'b', relative to the larger absolute
     value of 'a' or 'b'.  For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass
     ‘rel_tol=0.05’.  The default tolerance is ‘1e-09’, which assures
     that the two values are the same within about 9 decimal digits.
     'rel_tol' must be nonnegative and less than ‘1.0’.

     'abs_tol' is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to ‘0.0’ and it
     must be nonnegative.  When comparing ‘x’ to ‘0.0’, ‘isclose(x, 0)’
     is computed as ‘abs(x) <= rel_tol * abs(x)’, which is ‘False’ for
     any ‘x’ and rel_tol less than ‘1.0’.  So add an appropriate
     positive abs_tol argument to the call.

     定義於 IEEE 754 浮點標準中的特殊值 ‘NaN’、‘inf’ 和 ‘-inf’ 會根據該
     標準處理。更明確地說，‘NaN’ 不會與包含自身在內的任何數字足夠接近，
     而 ‘inf’ 及 ‘-inf’ 皆只與自身接近。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     也參考
     ......

     PEP 485(2) ── 用於測試近似相等的函式

 -- 函式: math.isfinite (x)

     若 'x' 不是無限值或 ‘NaN’ 便回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。（注意
     ‘0.0’ 被視為有限數。）

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.isinf (x)

     若 'x' 是正無限值或負無限值便回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

 -- 函式: math.isnan (x)

     若 'x' 是 ‘NaN’ ── 即非數字（NaN, not a number）── 便回傳 ‘True’，
     否則回傳 ‘False’。

 -- 函式: math.isqrt (n)

     回傳非負整數 'n' 的整數平方根。此值為 'n' 精確平方根經下取整的值，
     亦等同於滿足 'a'² ≤ 'n' 的最大整數值 'a'。

     於有些應用程式中，取得滿足 'n' ≤ 'a'² 的最小整數值 'a' ── 或者說
     'n' 精確平方根經上取整的值 ── 會更加方便。對正數 'n'，此值可使用 ‘a
     = 1 + isqrt(n - 1)’ 計算。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.lcm (*integers)

     回傳指定整數引數的最小公倍數。若所有引數值皆非零，回傳值為所有引數
     共有倍數中最小的正整數。若存在任一引數值為零，則回傳值為 ‘0’。
     ‘lcm()’ 若未傳入任何引數將回傳 ‘1’。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.ldexp (x, i)

     回傳 ‘x * (2**i)’。此函式本質上為 *note frexp(): 238a. 的反函式。

 -- 函式: math.modf (x)

     Return the fractional and integer parts of 'x'.  Both results carry
     the sign of 'x' and are floats.

 -- 函式: math.nextafter (x, y, steps=1)

     Return the floating-point value 'steps' steps after 'x' towards
     'y'.

     If 'x' is equal to 'y', return 'y', unless 'steps' is zero.

     範例：

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, math.inf)’ goes up: towards positive
          infinity.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, -math.inf)’ goes down: towards minus
          infinity.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, 0.0)’ goes towards zero.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, math.copysign(math.inf, x))’ goes away from
          zero.

     另請參閱 *note math.ulp(): 74e.。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'steps' 引數。

 -- 函式: math.perm (n, k=None)

     Return the number of ways to choose 'k' items from 'n' items
     without repetition and with order.

     Evaluates to ‘n! / (n - k)!’ when ‘k <= n’ and evaluates to zero
     when ‘k > n’.

     If 'k' is not specified or is ‘None’, then 'k' defaults to 'n' and
     the function returns ‘n!’.

     當任一參數非整數型別時會引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。當任一參數為負
     數時會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.prod (iterable, *, start=1)

     Calculate the product of all the elements in the input 'iterable'.
     The default 'start' value for the product is ‘1’.

     When the iterable is empty, return the start value.  This function
     is intended specifically for use with numeric values and may reject
     non-numeric types.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.remainder (x, y)

     Return the IEEE 754-style remainder of 'x' with respect to 'y'.
     For finite 'x' and finite nonzero 'y', this is the difference ‘x -
     n*y’, where ‘n’ is the closest integer to the exact value of the
     quotient ‘x / y’.  If ‘x / y’ is exactly halfway between two
     consecutive integers, the nearest 'even' integer is used for ‘n’.
     The remainder ‘r = remainder(x, y)’ thus always satisfies ‘abs(r)
     <= 0.5 * abs(y)’.

     Special cases follow IEEE 754: in particular, ‘remainder(x,
     math.inf)’ is 'x' for any finite 'x', and ‘remainder(x, 0)’ and
     ‘remainder(math.inf, x)’ raise *note ValueError: 183. for any
     non-NaN 'x'.  If the result of the remainder operation is zero,
     that zero will have the same sign as 'x'.

     On platforms using IEEE 754 binary floating point, the result of
     this operation is always exactly representable: no rounding error
     is introduced.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.sumprod (p, q)

     Return the sum of products of values from two iterables 'p' and
     'q'.

     Raises *note ValueError: 183. if the inputs do not have the same
     length.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          sum(itertools.starmap(operator.mul, zip(p, q, strict=True)))

     For float and mixed int/float inputs, the intermediate products and
     sums are computed with extended precision.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.trunc (x)

     Return 'x' with the fractional part removed, leaving the integer
     part.  This rounds toward 0: ‘trunc()’ is equivalent to *note
     floor(): 1230. for positive 'x', and equivalent to *note ceil():
     1231. for negative 'x'.  If 'x' is not a float, delegates to *note
     x.__trunc__: 51d, which should return an *note Integral: 1d4f.
     value.

 -- 函式: math.ulp (x)

     Return the value of the least significant bit of the float 'x':

        * If 'x' is a NaN (not a number), return 'x'.

        * If 'x' is negative, return ‘ulp(-x)’.

        * If 'x' is a positive infinity, return 'x'.

        * If 'x' is equal to zero, return the smallest positive
          'denormalized' representable float (smaller than the minimum
          positive 'normalized' float, *note sys.float_info.min: 17cc.).

        * If 'x' is equal to the largest positive representable float,
          return the value of the least significant bit of 'x', such
          that the first float smaller than 'x' is ‘x - ulp(x)’.

        * Otherwise ('x' is a positive finite number), return the value
          of the least significant bit of 'x', such that the first float
          bigger than 'x' is ‘x + ulp(x)’.

     ULP stands for "Unit in the Last Place".

     See also *note math.nextafter(): 1b7. and *note
     sys.float_info.epsilon: 17cc.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

Note that *note frexp(): 238a. and *note modf(): 238c. have a different
call/return pattern than their C equivalents: they take a single
argument and return a pair of values, rather than returning their second
return value through an 'output parameter' (there is no such thing in
Python).

For the *note ceil(): 1231, *note floor(): 1230, and *note modf(): 238c.
functions, note that 'all' floating-point numbers of sufficiently large
magnitude are exact integers.  Python floats typically carry no more
than 53 bits of precision (the same as the platform C double type), in
which case any float 'x' with ‘abs(x) >= 2**52’ necessarily has no
fractional bits.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: Power and logarithmic functions,  Next: Trigonometric functions,  Prev: 數論與表現函式,  Up: math --- 數學函式

5.9.2.2 Power and logarithmic functions
.......................................

 -- 函式: math.cbrt (x)

     Return the cube root of 'x'.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.exp (x)

     Return 'e' raised to the power 'x', where 'e' = 2.718281...  is the
     base of natural logarithms.  This is usually more accurate than
     ‘math.e ** x’ or ‘pow(math.e, x)’.

 -- 函式: math.exp2 (x)

     Return '2' raised to the power 'x'.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.expm1 (x)

     Return 'e' raised to the power 'x', minus 1.  Here 'e' is the base
     of natural logarithms.  For small floats 'x', the subtraction in
     ‘exp(x) - 1’ can result in a significant loss of precision(1); the
     *note expm1(): 107d. function provides a way to compute this
     quantity to full precision:

          >>> from math import exp, expm1
          >>> exp(1e-5) - 1  # gives result accurate to 11 places
          1.0000050000069649e-05
          >>> expm1(1e-5)    # result accurate to full precision
          1.0000050000166668e-05

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.log (x[, base])

     With one argument, return the natural logarithm of 'x' (to base
     'e').

     With two arguments, return the logarithm of 'x' to the given
     'base', calculated as ‘log(x)/log(base)’.

 -- 函式: math.log1p (x)

     Return the natural logarithm of '1+x' (base 'e').  The result is
     calculated in a way which is accurate for 'x' near zero.

 -- 函式: math.log2 (x)

     Return the base-2 logarithm of 'x'.  This is usually more accurate
     than ‘log(x, 2)’.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     也參考
     ......

     *note int.bit_length(): 1f30. returns the number of bits necessary
     to represent an integer in binary, excluding the sign and leading
     zeros.

 -- 函式: math.log10 (x)

     Return the base-10 logarithm of 'x'.  This is usually more accurate
     than ‘log(x, 10)’.

 -- 函式: math.pow (x, y)

     Return ‘x’ raised to the power ‘y’.  Exceptional cases follow the
     IEEE 754 standard as far as possible.  In particular, ‘pow(1.0, x)’
     and ‘pow(x, 0.0)’ always return ‘1.0’, even when ‘x’ is a zero or a
     NaN. If both ‘x’ and ‘y’ are finite, ‘x’ is negative, and ‘y’ is
     not an integer then ‘pow(x, y)’ is undefined, and raises *note
     ValueError: 183.

     Unlike the built-in ‘**’ operator, *note math.pow(): 45d. converts
     both its arguments to type *note float: 26a.  Use ‘**’ or the
     built-in *note pow(): 816. function for computing exact integer
     powers.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The special cases ‘pow(0.0, -inf)’ and ‘pow(-0.0,
     -inf)’ were changed to return ‘inf’ instead of raising *note
     ValueError: 183, for consistency with IEEE 754.

 -- 函式: math.sqrt (x)

     Return the square root of 'x'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance


File: python.info,  Node: Trigonometric functions,  Next: Angular conversion,  Prev: Power and logarithmic functions,  Up: math --- 數學函式

5.9.2.3 Trigonometric functions
...............................

 -- 函式: math.acos (x)

     Return the arc cosine of 'x', in radians.  The result is between
     ‘0’ and ‘pi’.

 -- 函式: math.asin (x)

     Return the arc sine of 'x', in radians.  The result is between
     ‘-pi/2’ and ‘pi/2’.

 -- 函式: math.atan (x)

     Return the arc tangent of 'x', in radians.  The result is between
     ‘-pi/2’ and ‘pi/2’.

 -- 函式: math.atan2 (y, x)

     Return ‘atan(y / x)’, in radians.  The result is between ‘-pi’ and
     ‘pi’.  The vector in the plane from the origin to point ‘(x, y)’
     makes this angle with the positive X axis.  The point of *note
     atan2(): 2393. is that the signs of both inputs are known to it, so
     it can compute the correct quadrant for the angle.  For example,
     ‘atan(1)’ and ‘atan2(1, 1)’ are both ‘pi/4’, but ‘atan2(-1, -1)’ is
     ‘-3*pi/4’.

 -- 函式: math.cos (x)

     Return the cosine of 'x' radians.

 -- 函式: math.dist (p, q)

     Return the Euclidean distance between two points 'p' and 'q', each
     given as a sequence (or iterable) of coordinates.  The two points
     must have the same dimension.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          sqrt(sum((px - qx) ** 2.0 for px, qx in zip(p, q)))

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.hypot (*coordinates)

     Return the Euclidean norm, ‘sqrt(sum(x**2 for x in coordinates))’.
     This is the length of the vector from the origin to the point given
     by the coordinates.

     For a two dimensional point ‘(x, y)’, this is equivalent to
     computing the hypotenuse of a right triangle using the Pythagorean
     theorem, ‘sqrt(x*x + y*y)’.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Added support for n-dimensional points.  Formerly,
     only the two dimensional case was supported.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Improved the algorithm's accuracy so that the
     maximum error is under 1 ulp (unit in the last place).  More
     typically, the result is almost always correctly rounded to within
     1/2 ulp.

 -- 函式: math.sin (x)

     Return the sine of 'x' radians.

 -- 函式: math.tan (x)

     Return the tangent of 'x' radians.


File: python.info,  Node: Angular conversion,  Next: Hyperbolic functions,  Prev: Trigonometric functions,  Up: math --- 數學函式

5.9.2.4 Angular conversion
..........................

 -- 函式: math.degrees (x)

     Convert angle 'x' from radians to degrees.

 -- 函式: math.radians (x)

     Convert angle 'x' from degrees to radians.


File: python.info,  Node: Hyperbolic functions,  Next: Special functions,  Prev: Angular conversion,  Up: math --- 數學函式

5.9.2.5 Hyperbolic functions
............................

Hyperbolic functions(1) are analogs of trigonometric functions that are
based on hyperbolas instead of circles.

 -- 函式: math.acosh (x)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of 'x'.

 -- 函式: math.asinh (x)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of 'x'.

 -- 函式: math.atanh (x)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of 'x'.

 -- 函式: math.cosh (x)

     Return the hyperbolic cosine of 'x'.

 -- 函式: math.sinh (x)

     Return the hyperbolic sine of 'x'.

 -- 函式: math.tanh (x)

     Return the hyperbolic tangent of 'x'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_functions


File: python.info,  Node: Special functions,  Next: 常數<2>,  Prev: Hyperbolic functions,  Up: math --- 數學函式

5.9.2.6 Special functions
.........................

 -- 函式: math.erf (x)

     Return the error function(1) at 'x'.

     The *note erf(): a39. function can be used to compute traditional
     statistical functions such as the cumulative standard normal
     distribution(2):

          def phi(x):
              'Cumulative distribution function for the standard normal distribution'
              return (1.0 + erf(x / sqrt(2.0))) / 2.0

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.erfc (x)

     Return the complementary error function at 'x'.  The complementary
     error function(3) is defined as ‘1.0 - erf(x)’.  It is used for
     large values of 'x' where a subtraction from one would cause a loss
     of significance(4).

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.gamma (x)

     Return the Gamma function(5) at 'x'.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: math.lgamma (x)

     Return the natural logarithm of the absolute value of the Gamma
     function at 'x'.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function


File: python.info,  Node: 常數<2>,  Prev: Special functions,  Up: math --- 數學函式

5.9.2.7 常數
............

 -- 資料: math.pi

     The mathematical constant 'π' = 3.141592..., to available
     precision.

 -- 資料: math.e

     The mathematical constant 'e' = 2.718281..., to available
     precision.

 -- 資料: math.tau

     The mathematical constant 'τ' = 6.283185..., to available
     precision.  Tau is a circle constant equal to 2'π', the ratio of a
     circle's circumference to its radius.  To learn more about Tau,
     check out Vi Hart's video Pi is (still) Wrong(1), and start
     celebrating Tau day(2) by eating twice as much pie!

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: math.inf

     A floating-point positive infinity.  (For negative infinity, use
     ‘-math.inf’.)  Equivalent to the output of ‘float('inf')’.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 資料: math.nan

     A floating-point "not a number" (NaN) value.  Equivalent to the
     output of ‘float('nan')’.  Due to the requirements of the IEEE-754
     standard(3), ‘math.nan’ and ‘float('nan')’ are not considered to
     equal to any other numeric value, including themselves.  To check
     whether a number is a NaN, use the *note isnan(): 1241. function to
     test for NaNs instead of ‘is’ or ‘==’.  Example:

          >>> import math
          >>> math.nan == math.nan
          False
          >>> float('nan') == float('nan')
          False
          >>> math.isnan(math.nan)
          True
          >>> math.isnan(float('nan'))
          True

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: It is now always available.

'CPython 實作細節：' The *note math: 89. module consists mostly of thin
wrappers around the platform C math library functions.  Behavior in
exceptional cases follows Annex F of the C99 standard where appropriate.
The current implementation will raise *note ValueError: 183. for invalid
operations like ‘sqrt(-1.0)’ or ‘log(0.0)’ (where C99 Annex F recommends
signaling invalid operation or divide-by-zero), and *note OverflowError:
6ad. for results that overflow (for example, ‘exp(1000.0)’).  A NaN will
not be returned from any of the functions above unless one or more of
the input arguments was a NaN; in that case, most functions will return
a NaN, but (again following C99 Annex F) there are some exceptions to
this rule, for example ‘pow(float('nan'), 0.0)’ or ‘hypot(float('nan'),
float('inf'))’.

Note that Python makes no effort to distinguish signaling NaNs from
quiet NaNs, and behavior for signaling NaNs remains unspecified.
Typical behavior is to treat all NaNs as though they were quiet.

也參考
......

*note cmath: 16. 模組

     Complex number versions of many of these functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jG7vhMMXagQ

   (2) https://tauday.com/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754


File: python.info,  Node: cmath --- 複數的數學函式,  Next: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算,  Prev: math --- 數學函式,  Up: 數值與數學模組

5.9.3 ‘cmath’ -- 複數的數學函式
-------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

本模組提供一些適用於複數的數學函式。本模組中的函式接受整數、浮點數或複數
作為引數。它們也接受任何具有 *note __complex__(): 3dd. 或 *note
__float__(): 810. 方法的 Python 物件：這些方法分別用於將物件轉換為複數或
浮點數，然後再將函式應用於轉換後的結果。

     備註: 對於涉及分枝切割 (branch cut) 的函式，我們面臨的問題是決定如
     何定義在切割本身上的這些函式。遵循 Kahan 的論文 "Branch cuts for
     complex elementary functions"，以及 C99 的附錄 G 和後來的 C 標準，
     我們使用零符號來區分分枝切割的兩側：對於沿著（一部分）實數軸的分枝
     切割，我們查看虛部的符號，而對於沿虛軸的分枝切割，我們則查看實部的
     符號。

     例如 *note cmath.sqrt(): 23a3. 函式具有一條沿負實軸的分枝切割。 引
     數 ‘complex(-2.0, -0.0)’ 被視為位於分枝切割 '下方' 處理，因此給出的
     結果在負虛軸上：

          >>> cmath.sqrt(complex(-2.0, -0.0))
          -1.4142135623730951j

     但是引數 ‘complex(-2.0, 0.0)’ 會被當成位於分枝切割上方處理：

          >>> cmath.sqrt(complex(-2.0, 0.0))
          1.4142135623730951j

* Menu:

* 轉換到極座標和從極座標做轉換::
* 冪函數和對數函數::
* 三角函數::
* 雙曲函數::
* 分類函式::
* 常數: 常數<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: 轉換到極座標和從極座標做轉換,  Next: 冪函數和對數函數,  Up: cmath --- 複數的數學函式

5.9.3.1 轉換到極座標和從極座標做轉換
....................................

Python 複數 ‘z’ 是用 '直角坐標' 或 '笛卡爾坐標' 儲存在內部的。它完全是由
其 '實部' ‘z.real’ 和 '虛部' ‘z.imag’ 所決定。

'極座標' 提供了另一種表示複數的方法。在極座標中，複數 'z' 由絕對值
(modulus) 'r' 和相位角 (phase) 'phi' 定義。絕對值 'r' 是從 'z' 到原點的
距離，而相位角 'phi' 是從正 x 軸到連接原點到 'z' 的線段的逆時針角度（以
弧度為單位）。

以下的函式可用於原始直角座標與極座標之間的相互轉換。

 -- 函式: cmath.phase (x)

     以浮點數的形式回傳 'x' 的相位角（也稱為 'x' 的 '引數' ）。
     ‘phase(x)’ 等價於 ‘math.atan2(x.imag, x.real)’。結果將位於 [-'π',
     'π'] 的範圍內，且此操作的分枝切割將位於負實軸上。結果的符號會與
     ‘x.imag’ 的符號相同，即使 ‘x.imag’ 為零：

          >>> phase(complex(-1.0, 0.0))
          3.141592653589793
          >>> phase(complex(-1.0, -0.0))
          -3.141592653589793

     備註: 複數 'x' 的絕對值可以使用內建的 *note abs(): 1a99. 函式計算。
     沒有單獨的 *note cmath: 16. 模組函式適用於此操作。

 -- 函式: cmath.polar (x)

     回傳 'x' 在極座標中的表達方式。回傳一組數對 ‘(r, phi)’， 'r' 是 'x'
     的絕對值， 'phi' 是 'x' 的相位角。 ‘polar(x)’ 相當於 ‘(abs(x),
     phase(x))’。

 -- 函式: cmath.rect (r, phi)

     透過極座標 'r' 和 'phi' 回傳複數 'x'。相當於 ‘complex(r *
     math.cos(phi), r * math.sin(phi))’。


File: python.info,  Node: 冪函數和對數函數,  Next: 三角函數,  Prev: 轉換到極座標和從極座標做轉換,  Up: cmath --- 複數的數學函式

5.9.3.2 冪函數和對數函數
........................

 -- 函式: cmath.exp (x)

     回傳 'e' 的 'x' 次方，其中 'e' 是自然對數的底數。

 -- 函式: cmath.log (x[, base])

     回傳 'x' 給定 'base' 的對數。如果未指定 'base'，則傳回 'x' 的自然對
     數。存在一條分枝切割，從 0 沿負實數軸到 -∞。

 -- 函式: cmath.log10 (x)

     回傳 'x' 以 10 為底的對數。它與 *note log(): 23aa. 具有相同的分枝切
     割。

 -- 函式: cmath.sqrt (x)

     回傳 'x' 的平方根。它與 *note log(): 23aa. 具有相同的分枝切割。


File: python.info,  Node: 三角函數,  Next: 雙曲函數,  Prev: 冪函數和對數函數,  Up: cmath --- 複數的數學函式

5.9.3.3 三角函數
................

 -- 函式: cmath.acos (x)

     回傳 'x' 的反餘弦值。存在兩條分枝切割：一條是從 1 沿著實數軸向右延
     伸到 ∞。另一條從 -1 沿實數軸向左延伸到 -∞。

 -- 函式: cmath.asin (x)

     回傳 'x' 的反正弦值。它與 *note acos(): 23ad. 具有相同的分枝切割。

 -- 函式: cmath.atan (x)

     回傳 'x' 的反正切值。有兩條分枝切割：一條是從 ‘1j’ 沿著虛軸延伸到
     ‘∞j’。另一條從 ‘-1j’ 沿著虛軸延伸到 ‘-∞j’。

 -- 函式: cmath.cos (x)

     回傳 'x' 的餘弦值。

 -- 函式: cmath.sin (x)

     回傳 'x' 的正弦值。

 -- 函式: cmath.tan (x)

     回傳 'x' 的正切值。


File: python.info,  Node: 雙曲函數,  Next: 分類函式,  Prev: 三角函數,  Up: cmath --- 複數的數學函式

5.9.3.4 雙曲函數
................

 -- 函式: cmath.acosh (x)

     回傳 'x' 的反雙曲餘弦值。存在一條分枝切割，從 1 沿實數軸向左延伸到
     -∞。

 -- 函式: cmath.asinh (x)

     回傳 'x' 的反雙曲正弦值。存在兩條分枝切割：一條是從 ‘1j’ 沿著虛軸延
     伸到 ‘∞j’。另一條從 ‘-1j’ 沿著虛軸延伸到 ‘-∞j’。

 -- 函式: cmath.atanh (x)

     回傳 'x' 的反雙曲正切值。存在兩條分枝切割：一條是從 ‘1’ 沿著實數軸
     延伸到 ‘∞’。另一條從 ‘-1’ 沿著實數軸延伸到 ‘-∞’。

 -- 函式: cmath.cosh (x)

     回傳 'x' 的反雙曲餘弦值。

 -- 函式: cmath.sinh (x)

     回傳 'x' 的反雙曲正弦值。

 -- 函式: cmath.tanh (x)

     回傳 'x' 的反雙曲正切值。


File: python.info,  Node: 分類函式,  Next: 常數<3>,  Prev: 雙曲函數,  Up: cmath --- 複數的數學函式

5.9.3.5 分類函式
................

 -- 函式: cmath.isfinite (x)

     如果 'x' 的實部和虛部都是有限的，則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: cmath.isinf (x)

     如果 'x' 的實部或虛部是無窮大，則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

 -- 函式: cmath.isnan (x)

     如果 'x' 的實部或虛部為 NaN，則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

 -- 函式: cmath.isclose (a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

     如果 'a' 和 'b' 的值相互接近，則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

     Whether or not two values are considered close is determined
     according to given absolute and relative tolerances.  If no errors
     occur, the result will be: ‘abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a),
     abs(b)), abs_tol)’.

     'rel_tol' is the relative tolerance - it is the maximum allowed
     difference between 'a' and 'b', relative to the larger absolute
     value of 'a' or 'b'.  For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass
     ‘rel_tol=0.05’.  The default tolerance is ‘1e-09’, which assures
     that the two values are the same within about 9 decimal digits.
     'rel_tol' must be nonnegative and less than ‘1.0’.

     'abs_tol' is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to ‘0.0’ and it
     must be nonnegative.  When comparing ‘x’ to ‘0.0’, ‘isclose(x, 0)’
     is computed as ‘abs(x) <= rel_tol * abs(x)’, which is ‘False’ for
     any ‘x’ and rel_tol less than ‘1.0’.  So add an appropriate
     positive abs_tol argument to the call.

     IEEE 754 特殊值 ‘NaN’ 、 ‘inf’ 和 ‘-inf’ 將會根據 IEEE 規則進行處理
     。具體來說， ‘NaN’ 不被認為接近任何其他值，包括 ‘NaN’。 ‘inf’ 和
     ‘-inf’ 只被認為是接近它們自己的。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     也參考
     ......

     PEP 485(1) - 一個用來測試近似相等的函式

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: 常數<3>,  Prev: 分類函式,  Up: cmath --- 複數的數學函式

5.9.3.6 常數
............

 -- 資料: cmath.pi

     數學常數 'π'，作為一個浮點數。

 -- 資料: cmath.e

     數學常數 'e'，作為一個浮點數。

 -- 資料: cmath.tau

     數學常數 'τ'，作為一個浮點數。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: cmath.inf

     正無窮大的浮點數。相當於 ‘float('inf')’。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: cmath.infj

     實部為零和虛部為正無窮的複數。相當於 ‘complex(0.0, float('inf'))’。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: cmath.nan

     浮點「非數字」 (NaN) 值。相當於 ‘float('nan')’。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: cmath.nanj

     實部為零和虛部為 NaN 的複數。相當於 ‘complex(0.0, float('nan'))’。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

請注意，函式的選擇與模組 *note math: 89. 的類似，但並不完全相同。擁有兩
個模組的原因是有些用戶對複數不感興趣，甚至根本就不知道它們是什麼。他們寧
願讓 ‘math.sqrt(-1)’ 引發異常，也不願它回傳複數。另請注意， *note cmath:
16. 中所定義的函式始終都會回傳複數，即使答案可以表示為實數（在這種情況下
，複數的虛部為零）。

關於分枝切割的註釋：它們是沿著給定的不連續函式的曲線。它們是許多複變函數
的必要特徵。假設你需要使用複變函數進行計算，你將會了解分枝切割的概念。請
參閱幾乎所有關於複變函數的（不是太初級的）書籍以獲得啟發。對於如何正確地
基於數值目的選擇分枝切割的相關訊息，以下內容應該是一個很好的參考：

也參考
......

Kahan, W: Branch cuts for complex elementary functions; or, Much ado
about nothing's sign bit.  In Iserles, A., and Powell, M. (eds.), The
state of the art in numerical analysis.  Clarendon Press (1987)
pp165-211.


File: python.info,  Node: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算,  Next: fractions --- 有理數,  Prev: cmath --- 複數的數學函式,  Up: 數值與數學模組

5.9.4 ‘decimal’ -- 十進位固定點和浮點運算
-----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/decimal.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note decimal: 33. module provides support for fast correctly
rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic.  It offers several advantages
over the *note float: 26a. datatype:

   * Decimal "is based on a floating-point model which was designed with
     people in mind, and necessarily has a paramount guiding principle -
     computers must provide an arithmetic that works in the same way as
     the arithmetic that people learn at school."  - excerpt from the
     decimal arithmetic specification.

   * Decimal numbers can be represented exactly.  In contrast, numbers
     like ‘1.1’ and ‘2.2’ do not have exact representations in binary
     floating point.  End users typically would not expect ‘1.1 + 2.2’
     to display as ‘3.3000000000000003’ as it does with binary floating
     point.

   * The exactness carries over into arithmetic.  In decimal floating
     point, ‘0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 - 0.3’ is exactly equal to zero.  In binary
     floating point, the result is ‘5.5511151231257827e-017’.  While
     near to zero, the differences prevent reliable equality testing and
     differences can accumulate.  For this reason, decimal is preferred
     in accounting applications which have strict equality invariants.

   * The decimal module incorporates a notion of significant places so
     that ‘1.30 + 1.20’ is ‘2.50’.  The trailing zero is kept to
     indicate significance.  This is the customary presentation for
     monetary applications.  For multiplication, the "schoolbook"
     approach uses all the figures in the multiplicands.  For instance,
     ‘1.3 * 1.2’ gives ‘1.56’ while ‘1.30 * 1.20’ gives ‘1.5600’.

   * Unlike hardware based binary floating point, the decimal module has
     a user alterable precision (defaulting to 28 places) which can be
     as large as needed for a given problem:

          >>> from decimal import *
          >>> getcontext().prec = 6
          >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
          Decimal('0.142857')
          >>> getcontext().prec = 28
          >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
          Decimal('0.1428571428571428571428571429')

   * Both binary and decimal floating point are implemented in terms of
     published standards.  While the built-in float type exposes only a
     modest portion of its capabilities, the decimal module exposes all
     required parts of the standard.  When needed, the programmer has
     full control over rounding and signal handling.  This includes an
     option to enforce exact arithmetic by using exceptions to block any
     inexact operations.

   * The decimal module was designed to support "without prejudice, both
     exact unrounded decimal arithmetic (sometimes called fixed-point
     arithmetic) and rounded floating-point arithmetic."  - excerpt from
     the decimal arithmetic specification.

The module design is centered around three concepts: the decimal number,
the context for arithmetic, and signals.

A decimal number is immutable.  It has a sign, coefficient digits, and
an exponent.  To preserve significance, the coefficient digits do not
truncate trailing zeros.  Decimals also include special values such as
‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’, and ‘NaN’.  The standard also differentiates
‘-0’ from ‘+0’.

The context for arithmetic is an environment specifying precision,
rounding rules, limits on exponents, flags indicating the results of
operations, and trap enablers which determine whether signals are
treated as exceptions.  Rounding options include *note ROUND_CEILING:
23c3, *note ROUND_DOWN: 23c4, *note ROUND_FLOOR: 23c5, *note
ROUND_HALF_DOWN: 23c6, *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 23c7, *note ROUND_HALF_UP:
23c8, *note ROUND_UP: 23c9, and *note ROUND_05UP: 23ca.

Signals are groups of exceptional conditions arising during the course
of computation.  Depending on the needs of the application, signals may
be ignored, considered as informational, or treated as exceptions.  The
signals in the decimal module are: *note Clamped: 23cb, *note
InvalidOperation: f39, *note DivisionByZero: 23cc, *note Inexact: 23cd,
*note Rounded: 23ce, *note Subnormal: 23cf, *note Overflow: 23d0, *note
Underflow: 23d1. and *note FloatOperation: f33.

For each signal there is a flag and a trap enabler.  When a signal is
encountered, its flag is set to one, then, if the trap enabler is set to
one, an exception is raised.  Flags are sticky, so the user needs to
reset them before monitoring a calculation.

也參考
......

   * IBM's General Decimal Arithmetic Specification, The General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification(2).

* Menu:

* Quick-start Tutorial::
* Decimal objects::
* Context objects::
* 常數: 常數<4>.
* Rounding modes::
* Signals::
* Floating-Point Notes::
* Working with threads::
* Recipes::
* Decimal FAQ::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/decimal.py

   (2) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html


File: python.info,  Node: Quick-start Tutorial,  Next: Decimal objects,  Up: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算

5.9.4.1 Quick-start Tutorial
............................

The usual start to using decimals is importing the module, viewing the
current context with *note getcontext(): 23d4. and, if necessary,
setting new values for precision, rounding, or enabled traps:

     >>> from decimal import *
     >>> getcontext()
     Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[Overflow, DivisionByZero,
             InvalidOperation])

     >>> getcontext().prec = 7       # Set a new precision

Decimal instances can be constructed from integers, strings, floats, or
tuples.  Construction from an integer or a float performs an exact
conversion of the value of that integer or float.  Decimal numbers
include special values such as ‘NaN’ which stands for "Not a number",
positive and negative ‘Infinity’, and ‘-0’:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 28
     >>> Decimal(10)
     Decimal('10')
     >>> Decimal('3.14')
     Decimal('3.14')
     >>> Decimal(3.14)
     Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
     >>> Decimal((0, (3, 1, 4), -2))
     Decimal('3.14')
     >>> Decimal(str(2.0 ** 0.5))
     Decimal('1.4142135623730951')
     >>> Decimal(2) ** Decimal('0.5')
     Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
     >>> Decimal('NaN')
     Decimal('NaN')
     >>> Decimal('-Infinity')
     Decimal('-Infinity')

If the *note FloatOperation: f33. signal is trapped, accidental mixing
of decimals and floats in constructors or ordering comparisons raises an
exception:

     >>> c = getcontext()
     >>> c.traps[FloatOperation] = True
     >>> Decimal(3.14)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
     >>> Decimal('3.5') < 3.7
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
     >>> Decimal('3.5') == 3.5
     True

在 3.3 版被加入.

The significance of a new Decimal is determined solely by the number of
digits input.  Context precision and rounding only come into play during
arithmetic operations.

     >>> getcontext().prec = 6
     >>> Decimal('3.0')
     Decimal('3.0')
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535')
     Decimal('3.1415926535')
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
     Decimal('5.85987')
     >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_UP
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
     Decimal('5.85988')

If the internal limits of the C version are exceeded, constructing a
decimal raises *note InvalidOperation: f39.:

     >>> Decimal("1e9999999999999999999")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.InvalidOperation: [<class 'decimal.InvalidOperation'>]

在 3.3 版的變更.

Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python.  Here is a small
decimal floating-point flying circus:

     >>> data = list(map(Decimal, '1.34 1.87 3.45 2.35 1.00 0.03 9.25'.split()))
     >>> max(data)
     Decimal('9.25')
     >>> min(data)
     Decimal('0.03')
     >>> sorted(data)
     [Decimal('0.03'), Decimal('1.00'), Decimal('1.34'), Decimal('1.87'),
      Decimal('2.35'), Decimal('3.45'), Decimal('9.25')]
     >>> sum(data)
     Decimal('19.29')
     >>> a,b,c = data[:3]
     >>> str(a)
     '1.34'
     >>> float(a)
     1.34
     >>> round(a, 1)
     Decimal('1.3')
     >>> int(a)
     1
     >>> a * 5
     Decimal('6.70')
     >>> a * b
     Decimal('2.5058')
     >>> c % a
     Decimal('0.77')

And some mathematical functions are also available to Decimal:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 28
     >>> Decimal(2).sqrt()
     Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
     >>> Decimal(1).exp()
     Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
     >>> Decimal('10').ln()
     Decimal('2.302585092994045684017991455')
     >>> Decimal('10').log10()
     Decimal('1')

The *note quantize(): f3f. method rounds a number to a fixed exponent.
This method is useful for monetary applications that often round results
to a fixed number of places:

     >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('.01'), rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
     Decimal('7.32')
     >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('1.'), rounding=ROUND_UP)
     Decimal('8')

As shown above, the *note getcontext(): 23d4. function accesses the
current context and allows the settings to be changed.  This approach
meets the needs of most applications.

For more advanced work, it may be useful to create alternate contexts
using the Context() constructor.  To make an alternate active, use the
*note setcontext(): 23d5. function.

In accordance with the standard, the *note decimal: 33. module provides
two ready to use standard contexts, *note BasicContext: f37. and *note
ExtendedContext: f38.  The former is especially useful for debugging
because many of the traps are enabled:

     >>> myothercontext = Context(prec=60, rounding=ROUND_HALF_DOWN)
     >>> setcontext(myothercontext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857')

     >>> ExtendedContext
     Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[])
     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857143')
     >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     Decimal('Infinity')

     >>> setcontext(BasicContext)
     >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#143>", line 1, in -toplevel-
         Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     DivisionByZero: x / 0

Contexts also have signal flags for monitoring exceptional conditions
encountered during computations.  The flags remain set until explicitly
cleared, so it is best to clear the flags before each set of monitored
computations by using the *note clear_flags(): 23d6. method.

     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> getcontext().clear_flags()
     >>> Decimal(355) / Decimal(113)
     Decimal('3.14159292')
     >>> getcontext()
     Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[Inexact, Rounded], traps=[])

The 'flags' entry shows that the rational approximation to pi was
rounded (digits beyond the context precision were thrown away) and that
the result is inexact (some of the discarded digits were non-zero).

Individual traps are set using the dictionary in the ‘traps’ attribute
of a context:

     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     Decimal('Infinity')
     >>> getcontext().traps[DivisionByZero] = 1
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#112>", line 1, in -toplevel-
         Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     DivisionByZero: x / 0

Most programs adjust the current context only once, at the beginning of
the program.  And, in many applications, data is converted to *note
Decimal: 5f0. with a single cast inside a loop.  With context set and
decimals created, the bulk of the program manipulates the data no
differently than with other Python numeric types.


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal objects,  Next: Context objects,  Prev: Quick-start Tutorial,  Up: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算

5.9.4.2 Decimal objects
.......................

 -- 類別: decimal.Decimal (value='0', context=None)

     Construct a new *note Decimal: 5f0. object based from 'value'.

     'value' can be an integer, string, tuple, *note float: 26a, or
     another *note Decimal: 5f0. object.  If no 'value' is given,
     returns ‘Decimal('0')’.  If 'value' is a string, it should conform
     to the decimal numeric string syntax after leading and trailing
     whitespace characters, as well as underscores throughout, are
     removed:

          sign           ::=  '+' | '-'
          digit          ::=  '0' | '1' | '2' | '3' | '4' | '5' | '6' | '7' | '8' | '9'
          indicator      ::=  'e' | 'E'
          digits         ::=  digit [digit]...
          decimal-part   ::=  digits '.' [digits] | ['.'] digits
          exponent-part  ::=  indicator [sign] digits
          infinity       ::=  'Infinity' | 'Inf'
          nan            ::=  'NaN' [digits] | 'sNaN' [digits]
          numeric-value  ::=  decimal-part [exponent-part] | infinity
          numeric-string ::=  [sign] numeric-value | [sign] nan

     Other Unicode decimal digits are also permitted where ‘digit’
     appears above.  These include decimal digits from various other
     alphabets (for example, Arabic-Indic and Devanāgarī digits) along
     with the fullwidth digits ‘'\uff10'’ through ‘'\uff19'’.

     If 'value' is a *note tuple: 4e6, it should have three components,
     a sign (‘0’ for positive or ‘1’ for negative), a *note tuple: 4e6.
     of digits, and an integer exponent.  For example, ‘Decimal((0, (1,
     4, 1, 4), -3))’ returns ‘Decimal('1.414')’.

     If 'value' is a *note float: 26a, the binary floating-point value
     is losslessly converted to its exact decimal equivalent.  This
     conversion can often require 53 or more digits of precision.  For
     example, ‘Decimal(float('1.1'))’ converts to
     ‘Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')’.

     The 'context' precision does not affect how many digits are stored.
     That is determined exclusively by the number of digits in 'value'.
     For example, ‘Decimal('3.00000')’ records all five zeros even if
     the context precision is only three.

     The purpose of the 'context' argument is determining what to do if
     'value' is a malformed string.  If the context traps *note
     InvalidOperation: f39, an exception is raised; otherwise, the
     constructor returns a new Decimal with the value of ‘NaN’.

     Once constructed, *note Decimal: 5f0. objects are immutable.

     在 3.2 版的變更: The argument to the constructor is now permitted
     to be a *note float: 26a. instance.

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note float: 26a. arguments raise an exception if
     the *note FloatOperation: f33. trap is set.  By default the trap is
     off.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Underscores are allowed for grouping, as with
     integral and floating-point literals in code.

     Decimal floating-point objects share many properties with the other
     built-in numeric types such as *note float: 26a. and *note int:
     17e.  All of the usual math operations and special methods apply.
     Likewise, decimal objects can be copied, pickled, printed, used as
     dictionary keys, used as set elements, compared, sorted, and
     coerced to another type (such as *note float: 26a. or *note int:
     17e.).

     There are some small differences between arithmetic on Decimal
     objects and arithmetic on integers and floats.  When the remainder
     operator ‘%’ is applied to Decimal objects, the sign of the result
     is the sign of the 'dividend' rather than the sign of the divisor:

          >>> (-7) % 4
          1
          >>> Decimal(-7) % Decimal(4)
          Decimal('-3')

     The integer division operator ‘//’ behaves analogously, returning
     the integer part of the true quotient (truncating towards zero)
     rather than its floor, so as to preserve the usual identity ‘x ==
     (x // y) * y + x % y’:

          >>> -7 // 4
          -2
          >>> Decimal(-7) // Decimal(4)
          Decimal('-1')

     The ‘%’ and ‘//’ operators implement the ‘remainder’ and
     ‘divide-integer’ operations (respectively) as described in the
     specification.

     Decimal objects cannot generally be combined with floats or
     instances of *note fractions.Fraction: 1a8. in arithmetic
     operations: an attempt to add a *note Decimal: 5f0. to a *note
     float: 26a, for example, will raise a *note TypeError: 2ba.
     However, it is possible to use Python's comparison operators to
     compare a *note Decimal: 5f0. instance ‘x’ with another number ‘y’.
     This avoids confusing results when doing equality comparisons
     between numbers of different types.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Mixed-type comparisons between *note Decimal: 5f0.
     instances and other numeric types are now fully supported.

     In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal
     floating-point objects also have a number of specialized methods:

      -- 方法: adjusted ()

          Return the adjusted exponent after shifting out the
          coefficient's rightmost digits until only the lead digit
          remains: ‘Decimal('321e+5').adjusted()’ returns seven.  Used
          for determining the position of the most significant digit
          with respect to the decimal point.

      -- 方法: as_integer_ratio ()

          Return a pair ‘(n, d)’ of integers that represent the given
          *note Decimal: 5f0. instance as a fraction, in lowest terms
          and with a positive denominator:

               >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
               (-157, 50)

          The conversion is exact.  Raise OverflowError on infinities
          and ValueError on NaNs.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

      -- 方法: as_tuple ()

          Return a *note named tuple: 449. representation of the number:
          ‘DecimalTuple(sign, digits, exponent)’.

      -- 方法: canonical ()

          Return the canonical encoding of the argument.  Currently, the
          encoding of a *note Decimal: 5f0. instance is always
          canonical, so this operation returns its argument unchanged.

      -- 方法: compare (other, context=None)

          Compare the values of two Decimal instances.  *note compare():
          23dc. returns a Decimal instance, and if either operand is a
          NaN then the result is a NaN:

               a or b is a NaN  ==> Decimal('NaN')
               a < b            ==> Decimal('-1')
               a == b           ==> Decimal('0')
               a > b            ==> Decimal('1')

      -- 方法: compare_signal (other, context=None)

          This operation is identical to the *note compare(): 23dc.
          method, except that all NaNs signal.  That is, if neither
          operand is a signaling NaN then any quiet NaN operand is
          treated as though it were a signaling NaN.

      -- 方法: compare_total (other, context=None)

          Compare two operands using their abstract representation
          rather than their numerical value.  Similar to the *note
          compare(): 23dc. method, but the result gives a total ordering
          on *note Decimal: 5f0. instances.  Two *note Decimal: 5f0.
          instances with the same numeric value but different
          representations compare unequal in this ordering:

               >>> Decimal('12.0').compare_total(Decimal('12'))
               Decimal('-1')

          Quiet and signaling NaNs are also included in the total
          ordering.  The result of this function is ‘Decimal('0')’ if
          both operands have the same representation, ‘Decimal('-1')’ if
          the first operand is lower in the total order than the second,
          and ‘Decimal('1')’ if the first operand is higher in the total
          order than the second operand.  See the specification for
          details of the total order.

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- 方法: compare_total_mag (other, context=None)

          Compare two operands using their abstract representation
          rather than their value as in *note compare_total(): 23de, but
          ignoring the sign of each operand.  ‘x.compare_total_mag(y)’
          is equivalent to ‘x.copy_abs().compare_total(y.copy_abs())’.

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- 方法: conjugate ()

          Just returns self, this method is only to comply with the
          Decimal Specification.

      -- 方法: copy_abs ()

          Return the absolute value of the argument.  This operation is
          unaffected by the context and is quiet: no flags are changed
          and no rounding is performed.

      -- 方法: copy_negate ()

          Return the negation of the argument.  This operation is
          unaffected by the context and is quiet: no flags are changed
          and no rounding is performed.

      -- 方法: copy_sign (other, context=None)

          Return a copy of the first operand with the sign set to be the
          same as the sign of the second operand.  For example:

               >>> Decimal('2.3').copy_sign(Decimal('-1.5'))
               Decimal('-2.3')

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- 方法: exp (context=None)

          Return the value of the (natural) exponential function ‘e**x’
          at the given number.  The result is correctly rounded using
          the *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 23c7. rounding mode.

               >>> Decimal(1).exp()
               Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
               >>> Decimal(321).exp()
               Decimal('2.561702493119680037517373933E+139')

      -- 方法: classmethod from_float (f)

          Alternative constructor that only accepts instances of *note
          float: 26a. or *note int: 17e.

          Note ‘Decimal.from_float(0.1)’ is not the same as
          ‘Decimal('0.1')’.  Since 0.1 is not exactly representable in
          binary floating point, the value is stored as the nearest
          representable value which is ‘0x1.999999999999ap-4’.  That
          equivalent value in decimal is
          ‘0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625’.

               備註: From Python 3.2 onwards, a *note Decimal: 5f0.
               instance can also be constructed directly from a *note
               float: 26a.

               >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
               Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('nan'))
               Decimal('NaN')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('inf'))
               Decimal('Infinity')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('-inf'))
               Decimal('-Infinity')

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: fma (other, third, context=None)

          Fused multiply-add.  Return self*other+third with no rounding
          of the intermediate product self*other.

               >>> Decimal(2).fma(3, 5)
               Decimal('11')

      -- 方法: is_canonical ()

          Return *note True: a70. if the argument is canonical and *note
          False: 98f. otherwise.  Currently, a *note Decimal: 5f0.
          instance is always canonical, so this operation always returns
          *note True: a70.

      -- 方法: is_finite ()

          Return *note True: a70. if the argument is a finite number,
          and *note False: 98f. if the argument is an infinity or a NaN.

      -- 方法: is_infinite ()

          Return *note True: a70. if the argument is either positive or
          negative infinity and *note False: 98f. otherwise.

      -- 方法: is_nan ()

          Return *note True: a70. if the argument is a (quiet or
          signaling) NaN and *note False: 98f. otherwise.

      -- 方法: is_normal (context=None)

          Return *note True: a70. if the argument is a 'normal' finite
          number.  Return *note False: 98f. if the argument is zero,
          subnormal, infinite or a NaN.

      -- 方法: is_qnan ()

          Return *note True: a70. if the argument is a quiet NaN, and
          *note False: 98f. otherwise.

      -- 方法: is_signed ()

          Return *note True: a70. if the argument has a negative sign
          and *note False: 98f. otherwise.  Note that zeros and NaNs can
          both carry signs.

      -- 方法: is_snan ()

          Return *note True: a70. if the argument is a signaling NaN and
          *note False: 98f. otherwise.

      -- 方法: is_subnormal (context=None)

          Return *note True: a70. if the argument is subnormal, and
          *note False: 98f. otherwise.

      -- 方法: is_zero ()

          Return *note True: a70. if the argument is a (positive or
          negative) zero and *note False: 98f. otherwise.

      -- 方法: ln (context=None)

          Return the natural (base e) logarithm of the operand.  The
          result is correctly rounded using the *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN:
          23c7. rounding mode.

      -- 方法: log10 (context=None)

          Return the base ten logarithm of the operand.  The result is
          correctly rounded using the *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 23c7.
          rounding mode.

      -- 方法: logb (context=None)

          For a nonzero number, return the adjusted exponent of its
          operand as a *note Decimal: 5f0. instance.  If the operand is
          a zero then ‘Decimal('-Infinity')’ is returned and the *note
          DivisionByZero: 23cc. flag is raised.  If the operand is an
          infinity then ‘Decimal('Infinity')’ is returned.

      -- 方法: logical_and (other, context=None)

          *note logical_and(): 23f1. is a logical operation which takes
          two 'logical operands' (see *note Logical operands: 23f2.).
          The result is the digit-wise ‘and’ of the two operands.

      -- 方法: logical_invert (context=None)

          *note logical_invert(): 23f3. is a logical operation.  The
          result is the digit-wise inversion of the operand.

      -- 方法: logical_or (other, context=None)

          *note logical_or(): 23f4. is a logical operation which takes
          two 'logical operands' (see *note Logical operands: 23f2.).
          The result is the digit-wise ‘or’ of the two operands.

      -- 方法: logical_xor (other, context=None)

          *note logical_xor(): 23f5. is a logical operation which takes
          two 'logical operands' (see *note Logical operands: 23f2.).
          The result is the digit-wise exclusive or of the two operands.

      -- 方法: max (other, context=None)

          Like ‘max(self, other)’ except that the context rounding rule
          is applied before returning and that ‘NaN’ values are either
          signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they
          are signaling or quiet).

      -- 方法: max_mag (other, context=None)

          Similar to the *note max(): 23f6. method, but the comparison
          is done using the absolute values of the operands.

      -- 方法: min (other, context=None)

          Like ‘min(self, other)’ except that the context rounding rule
          is applied before returning and that ‘NaN’ values are either
          signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they
          are signaling or quiet).

      -- 方法: min_mag (other, context=None)

          Similar to the *note min(): 23f8. method, but the comparison
          is done using the absolute values of the operands.

      -- 方法: next_minus (context=None)

          Return the largest number representable in the given context
          (or in the current thread's context if no context is given)
          that is smaller than the given operand.

      -- 方法: next_plus (context=None)

          Return the smallest number representable in the given context
          (or in the current thread's context if no context is given)
          that is larger than the given operand.

      -- 方法: next_toward (other, context=None)

          If the two operands are unequal, return the number closest to
          the first operand in the direction of the second operand.  If
          both operands are numerically equal, return a copy of the
          first operand with the sign set to be the same as the sign of
          the second operand.

      -- 方法: normalize (context=None)

          Used for producing canonical values of an equivalence class
          within either the current context or the specified context.

          This has the same semantics as the unary plus operation,
          except that if the final result is finite it is reduced to its
          simplest form, with all trailing zeros removed and its sign
          preserved.  That is, while the coefficient is non-zero and a
          multiple of ten the coefficient is divided by ten and the
          exponent is incremented by 1.  Otherwise (the coefficient is
          zero) the exponent is set to 0.  In all cases the sign is
          unchanged.

          For example, ‘Decimal('32.100')’ and ‘Decimal('0.321000e+2')’
          both normalize to the equivalent value ‘Decimal('32.1')’.

          Note that rounding is applied 'before' reducing to simplest
          form.

          In the latest versions of the specification, this operation is
          also known as ‘reduce’.

      -- 方法: number_class (context=None)

          Return a string describing the 'class' of the operand.  The
          returned value is one of the following ten strings.

             * ‘"-Infinity"’, indicating that the operand is negative
               infinity.

             * ‘"-Normal"’, indicating that the operand is a negative
               normal number.

             * ‘"-Subnormal"’, indicating that the operand is negative
               and subnormal.

             * ‘"-Zero"’, indicating that the operand is a negative
               zero.

             * ‘"+Zero"’, indicating that the operand is a positive
               zero.

             * ‘"+Subnormal"’, indicating that the operand is positive
               and subnormal.

             * ‘"+Normal"’, indicating that the operand is a positive
               normal number.

             * ‘"+Infinity"’, indicating that the operand is positive
               infinity.

             * ‘"NaN"’, indicating that the operand is a quiet NaN (Not
               a Number).

             * ‘"sNaN"’, indicating that the operand is a signaling NaN.

      -- 方法: quantize (exp, rounding=None, context=None)

          Return a value equal to the first operand after rounding and
          having the exponent of the second operand.

               >>> Decimal('1.41421356').quantize(Decimal('1.000'))
               Decimal('1.414')

          Unlike other operations, if the length of the coefficient
          after the quantize operation would be greater than precision,
          then an *note InvalidOperation: f39. is signaled.  This
          guarantees that, unless there is an error condition, the
          quantized exponent is always equal to that of the right-hand
          operand.

          Also unlike other operations, quantize never signals
          Underflow, even if the result is subnormal and inexact.

          If the exponent of the second operand is larger than that of
          the first then rounding may be necessary.  In this case, the
          rounding mode is determined by the ‘rounding’ argument if
          given, else by the given ‘context’ argument; if neither
          argument is given the rounding mode of the current thread's
          context is used.

          An error is returned whenever the resulting exponent is
          greater than ‘Emax’ or less than *note Etiny(): 23ff.

      -- 方法: radix ()

          Return ‘Decimal(10)’, the radix (base) in which the *note
          Decimal: 5f0. class does all its arithmetic.  Included for
          compatibility with the specification.

      -- 方法: remainder_near (other, context=None)

          Return the remainder from dividing 'self' by 'other'.  This
          differs from ‘self % other’ in that the sign of the remainder
          is chosen so as to minimize its absolute value.  More
          precisely, the return value is ‘self - n * other’ where ‘n’ is
          the integer nearest to the exact value of ‘self / other’, and
          if two integers are equally near then the even one is chosen.

          If the result is zero then its sign will be the sign of
          'self'.

               >>> Decimal(18).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('-2')
               >>> Decimal(25).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('5')
               >>> Decimal(35).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('-5')

      -- 方法: rotate (other, context=None)

          Return the result of rotating the digits of the first operand
          by an amount specified by the second operand.  The second
          operand must be an integer in the range -precision through
          precision.  The absolute value of the second operand gives the
          number of places to rotate.  If the second operand is positive
          then rotation is to the left; otherwise rotation is to the
          right.  The coefficient of the first operand is padded on the
          left with zeros to length precision if necessary.  The sign
          and exponent of the first operand are unchanged.

      -- 方法: same_quantum (other, context=None)

          Test whether self and other have the same exponent or whether
          both are ‘NaN’.

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- 方法: scaleb (other, context=None)

          Return the first operand with exponent adjusted by the second.
          Equivalently, return the first operand multiplied by
          ‘10**other’.  The second operand must be an integer.

      -- 方法: shift (other, context=None)

          Return the result of shifting the digits of the first operand
          by an amount specified by the second operand.  The second
          operand must be an integer in the range -precision through
          precision.  The absolute value of the second operand gives the
          number of places to shift.  If the second operand is positive
          then the shift is to the left; otherwise the shift is to the
          right.  Digits shifted into the coefficient are zeros.  The
          sign and exponent of the first operand are unchanged.

      -- 方法: sqrt (context=None)

          Return the square root of the argument to full precision.

      -- 方法: to_eng_string (context=None)

          Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent
          is needed.

          Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3.
          This can leave up to 3 digits to the left of the decimal place
          and may require the addition of either one or two trailing
          zeros.

          For example, this converts ‘Decimal('123E+1')’ to
          ‘Decimal('1.23E+3')’.

      -- 方法: to_integral (rounding=None, context=None)

          Identical to the *note to_integral_value(): 2409. method.  The
          ‘to_integral’ name has been kept for compatibility with older
          versions.

      -- 方法: to_integral_exact (rounding=None, context=None)

          Round to the nearest integer, signaling *note Inexact: 23cd.
          or *note Rounded: 23ce. as appropriate if rounding occurs.
          The rounding mode is determined by the ‘rounding’ parameter if
          given, else by the given ‘context’.  If neither parameter is
          given then the rounding mode of the current context is used.

      -- 方法: to_integral_value (rounding=None, context=None)

          Round to the nearest integer without signaling *note Inexact:
          23cd. or *note Rounded: 23ce.  If given, applies 'rounding';
          otherwise, uses the rounding method in either the supplied
          'context' or the current context.

     Decimal numbers can be rounded using the *note round(): 116b.
     function:

      -- Describe: round(number)

      -- Describe: round(number, ndigits)

          If 'ndigits' is not given or ‘None’, returns the nearest *note
          int: 17e. to 'number', rounding ties to even, and ignoring the
          rounding mode of the *note Decimal: 5f0. context.  Raises
          *note OverflowError: 6ad. if 'number' is an infinity or *note
          ValueError: 183. if it is a (quiet or signaling) NaN.

          If 'ndigits' is an *note int: 17e, the context's rounding mode
          is respected and a *note Decimal: 5f0. representing 'number'
          rounded to the nearest multiple of ‘Decimal('1E-ndigits')’ is
          returned; in this case, ‘round(number, ndigits)’ is equivalent
          to ‘self.quantize(Decimal('1E-ndigits'))’.  Returns
          ‘Decimal('NaN')’ if 'number' is a quiet NaN. Raises *note
          InvalidOperation: f39. if 'number' is an infinity, a signaling
          NaN, or if the length of the coefficient after the quantize
          operation would be greater than the current context's
          precision.  In other words, for the non-corner cases:

             * if 'ndigits' is positive, return 'number' rounded to
               'ndigits' decimal places;

             * if 'ndigits' is zero, return 'number' rounded to the
               nearest integer;

             * if 'ndigits' is negative, return 'number' rounded to the
               nearest multiple of ‘10**abs(ndigits)’.

          For example:

               >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext, ROUND_DOWN
               >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_DOWN
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'))     # context rounding ignored
               4
               >>> round(Decimal('3.5'))      # round-ties-to-even
               4
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 0)  # uses the context rounding
               Decimal('3')
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 1)
               Decimal('3.7')
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), -1)
               Decimal('0E+1')

* Menu:

* Logical operands::


File: python.info,  Node: Logical operands,  Up: Decimal objects

5.9.4.3 Logical operands
........................

The *note logical_and(): 23f1, *note logical_invert(): 23f3, *note
logical_or(): 23f4, and *note logical_xor(): 23f5. methods expect their
arguments to be 'logical operands'.  A 'logical operand' is a *note
Decimal: 5f0. instance whose exponent and sign are both zero, and whose
digits are all either ‘0’ or ‘1’.


File: python.info,  Node: Context objects,  Next: 常數<4>,  Prev: Decimal objects,  Up: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算

5.9.4.4 Context objects
.......................

Contexts are environments for arithmetic operations.  They govern
precision, set rules for rounding, determine which signals are treated
as exceptions, and limit the range for exponents.

Each thread has its own current context which is accessed or changed
using the *note getcontext(): 23d4. and *note setcontext(): 23d5.
functions:

 -- 函式: decimal.getcontext ()

     Return the current context for the active thread.

 -- 函式: decimal.setcontext (c)

     Set the current context for the active thread to 'c'.

You can also use the *note with: 3c5. statement and the *note
localcontext(): 15d2. function to temporarily change the active context.

 -- 函式: decimal.localcontext (ctx=None, **kwargs)

     Return a context manager that will set the current context for the
     active thread to a copy of 'ctx' on entry to the with-statement and
     restore the previous context when exiting the with-statement.  If
     no context is specified, a copy of the current context is used.
     The 'kwargs' argument is used to set the attributes of the new
     context.

     For example, the following code sets the current decimal precision
     to 42 places, performs a calculation, and then automatically
     restores the previous context:

          from decimal import localcontext

          with localcontext() as ctx:
              ctx.prec = 42   # Perform a high precision calculation
              s = calculate_something()
          s = +s  # Round the final result back to the default precision

     Using keyword arguments, the code would be the following:

          from decimal import localcontext

          with localcontext(prec=42) as ctx:
              s = calculate_something()
          s = +s

     Raises *note TypeError: 2ba. if 'kwargs' supplies an attribute that
     *note Context: f3e. doesn't support.  Raises either *note
     TypeError: 2ba. or *note ValueError: 183. if 'kwargs' supplies an
     invalid value for an attribute.

     在 3.11 版的變更: *note localcontext(): 15d2. now supports setting
     context attributes through the use of keyword arguments.

New contexts can also be created using the *note Context: f3e.
constructor described below.  In addition, the module provides three
pre-made contexts:

 -- 類別: decimal.BasicContext

     This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification.  Precision is set to nine.  Rounding is
     set to *note ROUND_HALF_UP: 23c8.  All flags are cleared.  All
     traps are enabled (treated as exceptions) except *note Inexact:
     23cd, *note Rounded: 23ce, and *note Subnormal: 23cf.

     Because many of the traps are enabled, this context is useful for
     debugging.

 -- 類別: decimal.ExtendedContext

     This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification.  Precision is set to nine.  Rounding is
     set to *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 23c7.  All flags are cleared.  No
     traps are enabled (so that exceptions are not raised during
     computations).

     Because the traps are disabled, this context is useful for
     applications that prefer to have result value of ‘NaN’ or
     ‘Infinity’ instead of raising exceptions.  This allows an
     application to complete a run in the presence of conditions that
     would otherwise halt the program.

 -- 類別: decimal.DefaultContext

     This context is used by the *note Context: f3e. constructor as a
     prototype for new contexts.  Changing a field (such a precision)
     has the effect of changing the default for new contexts created by
     the *note Context: f3e. constructor.

     This context is most useful in multi-threaded environments.
     Changing one of the fields before threads are started has the
     effect of setting system-wide defaults.  Changing the fields after
     threads have started is not recommended as it would require thread
     synchronization to prevent race conditions.

     In single threaded environments, it is preferable to not use this
     context at all.  Instead, simply create contexts explicitly as
     described below.

     The default values are ‘Context.prec’=‘28’,
     ‘Context.rounding’=*note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 23c7, and enabled traps
     for *note Overflow: 23d0, *note InvalidOperation: f39, and *note
     DivisionByZero: 23cc.

In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created
with the *note Context: f3e. constructor.

 -- 類別: decimal.Context (prec=None, rounding=None, Emin=None,
          Emax=None, capitals=None, clamp=None, flags=None, traps=None)

     Creates a new context.  If a field is not specified or is *note
     None: 470, the default values are copied from the *note
     DefaultContext: f36.  If the 'flags' field is not specified or is
     *note None: 470, all flags are cleared.

     'prec' is an integer in the range [‘1’, *note MAX_PREC: 240e.] that
     sets the precision for arithmetic operations in the context.

     The 'rounding' option is one of the constants listed in the section
     *note Rounding Modes: 240f.

     The 'traps' and 'flags' fields list any signals to be set.
     Generally, new contexts should only set traps and leave the flags
     clear.

     The 'Emin' and 'Emax' fields are integers specifying the outer
     limits allowable for exponents.  'Emin' must be in the range [*note
     MIN_EMIN: 2410, ‘0’], 'Emax' in the range [‘0’, *note MAX_EMAX:
     2411.].

     The 'capitals' field is either ‘0’ or ‘1’ (the default).  If set to
     ‘1’, exponents are printed with a capital ‘E’; otherwise, a
     lowercase ‘e’ is used: ‘Decimal('6.02e+23')’.

     The 'clamp' field is either ‘0’ (the default) or ‘1’.  If set to
     ‘1’, the exponent ‘e’ of a *note Decimal: 5f0. instance
     representable in this context is strictly limited to the range
     ‘Emin - prec + 1 <= e <= Emax - prec + 1’.  If 'clamp' is ‘0’ then
     a weaker condition holds: the adjusted exponent of the *note
     Decimal: 5f0. instance is at most ‘Emax’.  When 'clamp' is ‘1’, a
     large normal number will, where possible, have its exponent reduced
     and a corresponding number of zeros added to its coefficient, in
     order to fit the exponent constraints; this preserves the value of
     the number but loses information about significant trailing zeros.
     For example:

          >>> Context(prec=6, Emax=999, clamp=1).create_decimal('1.23e999')
          Decimal('1.23000E+999')

     A 'clamp' value of ‘1’ allows compatibility with the fixed-width
     decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754.

     The *note Context: f3e. class defines several general purpose
     methods as well as a large number of methods for doing arithmetic
     directly in a given context.  In addition, for each of the *note
     Decimal: 5f0. methods described above (with the exception of the
     *note adjusted(): 23d9. and *note as_tuple(): 23da. methods) there
     is a corresponding *note Context: f3e. method.  For example, for a
     *note Context: f3e. instance ‘C’ and *note Decimal: 5f0. instance
     ‘x’, ‘C.exp(x)’ is equivalent to ‘x.exp(context=C)’.  Each *note
     Context: f3e. method accepts a Python integer (an instance of *note
     int: 17e.) anywhere that a Decimal instance is accepted.

      -- 方法: clear_flags ()

          Resets all of the flags to ‘0’.

      -- 方法: clear_traps ()

          Resets all of the traps to ‘0’.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: copy ()

          Return a duplicate of the context.

      -- 方法: copy_decimal (num)

          Return a copy of the Decimal instance num.

      -- 方法: create_decimal (num)

          Creates a new Decimal instance from 'num' but using 'self' as
          context.  Unlike the *note Decimal: 5f0. constructor, the
          context precision, rounding method, flags, and traps are
          applied to the conversion.

          This is useful because constants are often given to a greater
          precision than is needed by the application.  Another benefit
          is that rounding immediately eliminates unintended effects
          from digits beyond the current precision.  In the following
          example, using unrounded inputs means that adding zero to a
          sum can change the result:

               >>> getcontext().prec = 3
               >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal('1.0023')
               Decimal('4.45')
               >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal(0) + Decimal('1.0023')
               Decimal('4.44')

          This method implements the to-number operation of the IBM
          specification.  If the argument is a string, no leading or
          trailing whitespace or underscores are permitted.

      -- 方法: create_decimal_from_float (f)

          Creates a new Decimal instance from a float 'f' but rounding
          using 'self' as the context.  Unlike the *note
          Decimal.from_float(): 1095. class method, the context
          precision, rounding method, flags, and traps are applied to
          the conversion.

               >>> context = Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
               >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
               Decimal('3.1415')
               >>> context = Context(prec=5, traps=[Inexact])
               >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                   ...
               decimal.Inexact: None

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: Etiny ()

          Returns a value equal to ‘Emin - prec + 1’ which is the
          minimum exponent value for subnormal results.  When underflow
          occurs, the exponent is set to *note Etiny: 23ff.

      -- 方法: Etop ()

          Returns a value equal to ‘Emax - prec + 1’.

     The usual approach to working with decimals is to create *note
     Decimal: 5f0. instances and then apply arithmetic operations which
     take place within the current context for the active thread.  An
     alternative approach is to use context methods for calculating
     within a specific context.  The methods are similar to those for
     the *note Decimal: 5f0. class and are only briefly recounted here.

      -- 方法: abs (x)

          Returns the absolute value of 'x'.

      -- 方法: add (x, y)

          Return the sum of 'x' and 'y'.

      -- 方法: canonical (x)

          Returns the same Decimal object 'x'.

      -- 方法: compare (x, y)

          Compares 'x' and 'y' numerically.

      -- 方法: compare_signal (x, y)

          Compares the values of the two operands numerically.

      -- 方法: compare_total (x, y)

          Compares two operands using their abstract representation.

      -- 方法: compare_total_mag (x, y)

          Compares two operands using their abstract representation,
          ignoring sign.

      -- 方法: copy_abs (x)

          Returns a copy of 'x' with the sign set to 0.

      -- 方法: copy_negate (x)

          Returns a copy of 'x' with the sign inverted.

      -- 方法: copy_sign (x, y)

          Copies the sign from 'y' to 'x'.

      -- 方法: divide (x, y)

          Return 'x' divided by 'y'.

      -- 方法: divide_int (x, y)

          Return 'x' divided by 'y', truncated to an integer.

      -- 方法: divmod (x, y)

          Divides two numbers and returns the integer part of the
          result.

      -- 方法: exp (x)

          Returns ‘e ** x’.

      -- 方法: fma (x, y, z)

          Returns 'x' multiplied by 'y', plus 'z'.

      -- 方法: is_canonical (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is canonical; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- 方法: is_finite (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is finite; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- 方法: is_infinite (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is infinite; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- 方法: is_nan (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a qNaN or sNaN; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- 方法: is_normal (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a normal number; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- 方法: is_qnan (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a quiet NaN; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- 方法: is_signed (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is negative; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- 方法: is_snan (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a signaling NaN; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- 方法: is_subnormal (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is subnormal; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- 方法: is_zero (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a zero; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- 方法: ln (x)

          Returns the natural (base e) logarithm of 'x'.

      -- 方法: log10 (x)

          Returns the base 10 logarithm of 'x'.

      -- 方法: logb (x)

          Returns the exponent of the magnitude of the operand's MSD.

      -- 方法: logical_and (x, y)

          Applies the logical operation 'and' between each operand's
          digits.

      -- 方法: logical_invert (x)

          Invert all the digits in 'x'.

      -- 方法: logical_or (x, y)

          Applies the logical operation 'or' between each operand's
          digits.

      -- 方法: logical_xor (x, y)

          Applies the logical operation 'xor' between each operand's
          digits.

      -- 方法: max (x, y)

          Compares two values numerically and returns the maximum.

      -- 方法: max_mag (x, y)

          Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.

      -- 方法: min (x, y)

          Compares two values numerically and returns the minimum.

      -- 方法: min_mag (x, y)

          Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.

      -- 方法: minus (x)

          Minus corresponds to the unary prefix minus operator in
          Python.

      -- 方法: multiply (x, y)

          Return the product of 'x' and 'y'.

      -- 方法: next_minus (x)

          Returns the largest representable number smaller than 'x'.

      -- 方法: next_plus (x)

          Returns the smallest representable number larger than 'x'.

      -- 方法: next_toward (x, y)

          Returns the number closest to 'x', in direction towards 'y'.

      -- 方法: normalize (x)

          Reduces 'x' to its simplest form.

      -- 方法: number_class (x)

          Returns an indication of the class of 'x'.

      -- 方法: plus (x)

          Plus corresponds to the unary prefix plus operator in Python.
          This operation applies the context precision and rounding, so
          it is 'not' an identity operation.

      -- 方法: power (x, y, modulo=None)

          Return ‘x’ to the power of ‘y’, reduced modulo ‘modulo’ if
          given.

          With two arguments, compute ‘x**y’.  If ‘x’ is negative then
          ‘y’ must be integral.  The result will be inexact unless ‘y’
          is integral and the result is finite and can be expressed
          exactly in 'precision' digits.  The rounding mode of the
          context is used.  Results are always correctly rounded in the
          Python version.

          ‘Decimal(0) ** Decimal(0)’ results in ‘InvalidOperation’, and
          if ‘InvalidOperation’ is not trapped, then results in
          ‘Decimal('NaN')’.

          在 3.3 版的變更: The C module computes *note power(): 2441. in
          terms of the correctly rounded *note exp(): 2423. and *note
          ln(): 242e. functions.  The result is well-defined but only
          "almost always correctly rounded".

          With three arguments, compute ‘(x**y) % modulo’.  For the
          three argument form, the following restrictions on the
          arguments hold:

             - all three arguments must be integral

             - ‘y’ must be nonnegative

             - at least one of ‘x’ or ‘y’ must be nonzero

             - ‘modulo’ must be nonzero and have at most 'precision'
               digits

          The value resulting from ‘Context.power(x, y, modulo)’ is
          equal to the value that would be obtained by computing ‘(x**y)
          % modulo’ with unbounded precision, but is computed more
          efficiently.  The exponent of the result is zero, regardless
          of the exponents of ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘modulo’.  The result is
          always exact.

      -- 方法: quantize (x, y)

          Returns a value equal to 'x' (rounded), having the exponent of
          'y'.

      -- 方法: radix ()

          Just returns 10, as this is Decimal, :)

      -- 方法: remainder (x, y)

          Returns the remainder from integer division.

          The sign of the result, if non-zero, is the same as that of
          the original dividend.

      -- 方法: remainder_near (x, y)

          Returns ‘x - y * n’, where 'n' is the integer nearest the
          exact value of ‘x / y’ (if the result is 0 then its sign will
          be the sign of 'x').

      -- 方法: rotate (x, y)

          Returns a rotated copy of 'x', 'y' times.

      -- 方法: same_quantum (x, y)

          Returns ‘True’ if the two operands have the same exponent.

      -- 方法: scaleb (x, y)

          Returns the first operand after adding the second value its
          exp.

      -- 方法: shift (x, y)

          Returns a shifted copy of 'x', 'y' times.

      -- 方法: sqrt (x)

          Square root of a non-negative number to context precision.

      -- 方法: subtract (x, y)

          Return the difference between 'x' and 'y'.

      -- 方法: to_eng_string (x)

          Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent
          is needed.

          Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3.
          This can leave up to 3 digits to the left of the decimal place
          and may require the addition of either one or two trailing
          zeros.

      -- 方法: to_integral_exact (x)

          Rounds to an integer.

      -- 方法: to_sci_string (x)

          Converts a number to a string using scientific notation.


File: python.info,  Node: 常數<4>,  Next: Rounding modes,  Prev: Context objects,  Up: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算

5.9.4.5 常數
............

The constants in this section are only relevant for the C module.  They
are also included in the pure Python version for compatibility.

                          32 位元                   64 位元
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
 -- 資料:                 ‘425000000’               ‘999999999999999999’
          decimal.MAX_PREC                          

 -- 資料:                 ‘425000000’               ‘999999999999999999’
          decimal.MAX_EMAX                          

 -- 資料:                 ‘-425000000’              ‘-999999999999999999’
          decimal.MIN_EMIN                          

 -- 資料:                 ‘-849999999’              ‘-1999999999999999997’
          decimal.MIN_ETINY                         

 -- 資料: decimal.HAVE_THREADS

     The value is ‘True’.  Deprecated, because Python now always has
     threads.

在 3.9 版之後被棄用.

 -- 資料: decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR

     The default value is ‘True’.  If Python is *note configured using
     the -without-decimal-contextvar option: 1b64, the C version uses a
     thread-local rather than a coroutine-local context and the value is
     ‘False’.  This is slightly faster in some nested context scenarios.

     在 3.8.3 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Rounding modes,  Next: Signals,  Prev: 常數<4>,  Up: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算

5.9.4.6 Rounding modes
......................

 -- 資料: decimal.ROUND_CEILING

     Round towards ‘Infinity’.

 -- 資料: decimal.ROUND_DOWN

     Round towards zero.

 -- 資料: decimal.ROUND_FLOOR

     Round towards ‘-Infinity’.

 -- 資料: decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN

     Round to nearest with ties going towards zero.

 -- 資料: decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN

     Round to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer.

 -- 資料: decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP

     Round to nearest with ties going away from zero.

 -- 資料: decimal.ROUND_UP

     Round away from zero.

 -- 資料: decimal.ROUND_05UP

     Round away from zero if last digit after rounding towards zero
     would have been 0 or 5; otherwise round towards zero.


File: python.info,  Node: Signals,  Next: Floating-Point Notes,  Prev: Rounding modes,  Up: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算

5.9.4.7 Signals
...............

Signals represent conditions that arise during computation.  Each
corresponds to one context flag and one context trap enabler.

The context flag is set whenever the condition is encountered.  After
the computation, flags may be checked for informational purposes (for
instance, to determine whether a computation was exact).  After checking
the flags, be sure to clear all flags before starting the next
computation.

If the context's trap enabler is set for the signal, then the condition
causes a Python exception to be raised.  For example, if the *note
DivisionByZero: 23cc. trap is set, then a *note DivisionByZero: 23cc.
exception is raised upon encountering the condition.

 -- 類別: decimal.Clamped

     Altered an exponent to fit representation constraints.

     Typically, clamping occurs when an exponent falls outside the
     context's ‘Emin’ and ‘Emax’ limits.  If possible, the exponent is
     reduced to fit by adding zeros to the coefficient.

 -- 類別: decimal.DecimalException

     Base class for other signals and a subclass of *note
     ArithmeticError: 201d.

 -- 類別: decimal.DivisionByZero

     Signals the division of a non-infinite number by zero.

     Can occur with division, modulo division, or when raising a number
     to a negative power.  If this signal is not trapped, returns
     ‘Infinity’ or ‘-Infinity’ with the sign determined by the inputs to
     the calculation.

 -- 類別: decimal.Inexact

     Indicates that rounding occurred and the result is not exact.

     Signals when non-zero digits were discarded during rounding.  The
     rounded result is returned.  The signal flag or trap is used to
     detect when results are inexact.

 -- 類別: decimal.InvalidOperation

     An invalid operation was performed.

     Indicates that an operation was requested that does not make sense.
     If not trapped, returns ‘NaN’.  Possible causes include:

          Infinity - Infinity
          0 * Infinity
          Infinity / Infinity
          x % 0
          Infinity % x
          sqrt(-x) and x > 0
          0 ** 0
          x ** (non-integer)
          x ** Infinity

 -- 類別: decimal.Overflow

     Numerical overflow.

     Indicates the exponent is larger than ‘Context.Emax’ after rounding
     has occurred.  If not trapped, the result depends on the rounding
     mode, either pulling inward to the largest representable finite
     number or rounding outward to ‘Infinity’.  In either case, *note
     Inexact: 23cd. and *note Rounded: 23ce. are also signaled.

 -- 類別: decimal.Rounded

     Rounding occurred though possibly no information was lost.

     Signaled whenever rounding discards digits; even if those digits
     are zero (such as rounding ‘5.00’ to ‘5.0’).  If not trapped,
     returns the result unchanged.  This signal is used to detect loss
     of significant digits.

 -- 類別: decimal.Subnormal

     Exponent was lower than ‘Emin’ prior to rounding.

     Occurs when an operation result is subnormal (the exponent is too
     small).  If not trapped, returns the result unchanged.

 -- 類別: decimal.Underflow

     Numerical underflow with result rounded to zero.

     Occurs when a subnormal result is pushed to zero by rounding.
     *note Inexact: 23cd. and *note Subnormal: 23cf. are also signaled.

 -- 類別: decimal.FloatOperation

     Enable stricter semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.

     If the signal is not trapped (default), mixing floats and Decimals
     is permitted in the *note Decimal: 5f0. constructor, *note
     create_decimal(): f3a. and all comparison operators.  Both
     conversion and comparisons are exact.  Any occurrence of a mixed
     operation is silently recorded by setting *note FloatOperation:
     f33. in the context flags.  Explicit conversions with *note
     from_float(): 1095. or *note create_decimal_from_float(): 2415. do
     not set the flag.

     Otherwise (the signal is trapped), only equality comparisons and
     explicit conversions are silent.  All other mixed operations raise
     *note FloatOperation: f33.

The following table summarizes the hierarchy of signals:

     exceptions.ArithmeticError(exceptions.Exception)
         DecimalException
             Clamped
             DivisionByZero(DecimalException, exceptions.ZeroDivisionError)
             Inexact
                 Overflow(Inexact, Rounded)
                 Underflow(Inexact, Rounded, Subnormal)
             InvalidOperation
             Rounded
             Subnormal
             FloatOperation(DecimalException, exceptions.TypeError)


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-Point Notes,  Next: Working with threads,  Prev: Signals,  Up: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算

5.9.4.8 Floating-Point Notes
............................

* Menu:

* Mitigating round-off error with increased precision::
* 特殊值::


File: python.info,  Node: Mitigating round-off error with increased precision,  Next: 特殊值,  Up: Floating-Point Notes

5.9.4.9 Mitigating round-off error with increased precision
...........................................................

The use of decimal floating point eliminates decimal representation
error (making it possible to represent ‘0.1’ exactly); however, some
operations can still incur round-off error when non-zero digits exceed
the fixed precision.

The effects of round-off error can be amplified by the addition or
subtraction of nearly offsetting quantities resulting in loss of
significance.  Knuth provides two instructive examples where rounded
floating-point arithmetic with insufficient precision causes the
breakdown of the associative and distributive properties of addition:

     # Examples from Seminumerical Algorithms, Section 4.2.2.
     >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext
     >>> getcontext().prec = 8

     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
     >>> (u + v) + w
     Decimal('9.5111111')
     >>> u + (v + w)
     Decimal('10')

     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
     >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
     Decimal('0.01')
     >>> u * (v+w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')

The *note decimal: 33. module makes it possible to restore the
identities by expanding the precision sufficiently to avoid loss of
significance:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 20
     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
     >>> (u + v) + w
     Decimal('9.51111111')
     >>> u + (v + w)
     Decimal('9.51111111')
     >>>
     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
     >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')
     >>> u * (v+w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')


File: python.info,  Node: 特殊值,  Prev: Mitigating round-off error with increased precision,  Up: Floating-Point Notes

5.9.4.10 特殊值
...............

The number system for the *note decimal: 33. module provides special
values including ‘NaN’, ‘sNaN’, ‘-Infinity’, ‘Infinity’, and two zeros,
‘+0’ and ‘-0’.

Infinities can be constructed directly with: ‘Decimal('Infinity')’.
Also, they can arise from dividing by zero when the *note
DivisionByZero: 23cc. signal is not trapped.  Likewise, when the *note
Overflow: 23d0. signal is not trapped, infinity can result from rounding
beyond the limits of the largest representable number.

The infinities are signed (affine) and can be used in arithmetic
operations where they get treated as very large, indeterminate numbers.
For instance, adding a constant to infinity gives another infinite
result.

Some operations are indeterminate and return ‘NaN’, or if the *note
InvalidOperation: f39. signal is trapped, raise an exception.  For
example, ‘0/0’ returns ‘NaN’ which means "not a number".  This variety
of ‘NaN’ is quiet and, once created, will flow through other
computations always resulting in another ‘NaN’.  This behavior can be
useful for a series of computations that occasionally have missing
inputs -- it allows the calculation to proceed while flagging specific
results as invalid.

A variant is ‘sNaN’ which signals rather than remaining quiet after
every operation.  This is a useful return value when an invalid result
needs to interrupt a calculation for special handling.

The behavior of Python's comparison operators can be a little surprising
where a ‘NaN’ is involved.  A test for equality where one of the
operands is a quiet or signaling ‘NaN’ always returns *note False: 98f.
(even when doing ‘Decimal('NaN')==Decimal('NaN')’), while a test for
inequality always returns *note True: a70.  An attempt to compare two
Decimals using any of the ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ or ‘>=’ operators will raise
the *note InvalidOperation: f39. signal if either operand is a ‘NaN’,
and return *note False: 98f. if this signal is not trapped.  Note that
the General Decimal Arithmetic specification does not specify the
behavior of direct comparisons; these rules for comparisons involving a
‘NaN’ were taken from the IEEE 854 standard (see Table 3 in section
5.7).  To ensure strict standards-compliance, use the *note compare():
23dc. and *note compare_signal(): 23dd. methods instead.

The signed zeros can result from calculations that underflow.  They keep
the sign that would have resulted if the calculation had been carried
out to greater precision.  Since their magnitude is zero, both positive
and negative zeros are treated as equal and their sign is informational.

In addition to the two signed zeros which are distinct yet equal, there
are various representations of zero with differing precisions yet
equivalent in value.  This takes a bit of getting used to.  For an eye
accustomed to normalized floating-point representations, it is not
immediately obvious that the following calculation returns a value equal
to zero:

     >>> 1 / Decimal('Infinity')
     Decimal('0E-1000026')


File: python.info,  Node: Working with threads,  Next: Recipes,  Prev: Floating-Point Notes,  Up: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算

5.9.4.11 Working with threads
.............................

The *note getcontext(): 23d4. function accesses a different *note
Context: f3e. object for each thread.  Having separate thread contexts
means that threads may make changes (such as ‘getcontext().prec=10’)
without interfering with other threads.

Likewise, the *note setcontext(): 23d5. function automatically assigns
its target to the current thread.

If *note setcontext(): 23d5. has not been called before *note
getcontext(): 23d4, then *note getcontext(): 23d4. will automatically
create a new context for use in the current thread.

The new context is copied from a prototype context called
'DefaultContext'.  To control the defaults so that each thread will use
the same values throughout the application, directly modify the
'DefaultContext' object.  This should be done 'before' any threads are
started so that there won't be a race condition between threads calling
*note getcontext(): 23d4.  For example:

     # Set applicationwide defaults for all threads about to be launched
     DefaultContext.prec = 12
     DefaultContext.rounding = ROUND_DOWN
     DefaultContext.traps = ExtendedContext.traps.copy()
     DefaultContext.traps[InvalidOperation] = 1
     setcontext(DefaultContext)

     # Afterwards, the threads can be started
     t1.start()
     t2.start()
     t3.start()
      . . .


File: python.info,  Node: Recipes,  Next: Decimal FAQ,  Prev: Working with threads,  Up: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算

5.9.4.12 Recipes
................

Here are a few recipes that serve as utility functions and that
demonstrate ways to work with the *note Decimal: 5f0. class:

     def moneyfmt(value, places=2, curr='', sep=',', dp='.',
                  pos='', neg='-', trailneg=''):
         """Convert Decimal to a money formatted string.

         places:  required number of places after the decimal point
         curr:    optional currency symbol before the sign (may be blank)
         sep:     optional grouping separator (comma, period, space, or blank)
         dp:      decimal point indicator (comma or period)
                  only specify as blank when places is zero
         pos:     optional sign for positive numbers: '+', space or blank
         neg:     optional sign for negative numbers: '-', '(', space or blank
         trailneg:optional trailing minus indicator:  '-', ')', space or blank

         >>> d = Decimal('-1234567.8901')
         >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$')
         '-$1,234,567.89'
         >>> moneyfmt(d, places=0, sep='.', dp='', neg='', trailneg='-')
         '1.234.568-'
         >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$', neg='(', trailneg=')')
         '($1,234,567.89)'
         >>> moneyfmt(Decimal(123456789), sep=' ')
         '123 456 789.00'
         >>> moneyfmt(Decimal('-0.02'), neg='<', trailneg='>')
         '<0.02>'

         """
         q = Decimal(10) ** -places      # 2 places --> '0.01'
         sign, digits, exp = value.quantize(q).as_tuple()
         result = []
         digits = list(map(str, digits))
         build, next = result.append, digits.pop
         if sign:
             build(trailneg)
         for i in range(places):
             build(next() if digits else '0')
         if places:
             build(dp)
         if not digits:
             build('0')
         i = 0
         while digits:
             build(next())
             i += 1
             if i == 3 and digits:
                 i = 0
                 build(sep)
         build(curr)
         build(neg if sign else pos)
         return ''.join(reversed(result))

     def pi():
         """Compute Pi to the current precision.

         >>> print(pi())
         3.141592653589793238462643383

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2  # extra digits for intermediate steps
         three = Decimal(3)      # substitute "three=3.0" for regular floats
         lasts, t, s, n, na, d, da = 0, three, 3, 1, 0, 0, 24
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             n, na = n+na, na+8
             d, da = d+da, da+32
             t = (t * n) / d
             s += t
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s               # unary plus applies the new precision

     def exp(x):
         """Return e raised to the power of x.  Result type matches input type.

         >>> print(exp(Decimal(1)))
         2.718281828459045235360287471
         >>> print(exp(Decimal(2)))
         7.389056098930650227230427461
         >>> print(exp(2.0))
         7.38905609893
         >>> print(exp(2+0j))
         (7.38905609893+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 1
             fact *= i
             num *= x
             s += num / fact
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s

     def cos(x):
         """Return the cosine of x as measured in radians.

         The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
         For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

         >>> print(cos(Decimal('0.5')))
         0.8775825618903727161162815826
         >>> print(cos(0.5))
         0.87758256189
         >>> print(cos(0.5+0j))
         (0.87758256189+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 2
             fact *= i * (i-1)
             num *= x * x
             sign *= -1
             s += num / fact * sign
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s

     def sin(x):
         """Return the sine of x as measured in radians.

         The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
         For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

         >>> print(sin(Decimal('0.5')))
         0.4794255386042030002732879352
         >>> print(sin(0.5))
         0.479425538604
         >>> print(sin(0.5+0j))
         (0.479425538604+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 1, 0, x, 1, x, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 2
             fact *= i * (i-1)
             num *= x * x
             sign *= -1
             s += num / fact * sign
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal FAQ,  Prev: Recipes,  Up: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算

5.9.4.13 Decimal FAQ
....................

Q. It is cumbersome to type ‘decimal.Decimal('1234.5')’.  Is there a way
to minimize typing when using the interactive interpreter?

A. Some users abbreviate the constructor to just a single letter:

     >>> D = decimal.Decimal
     >>> D('1.23') + D('3.45')
     Decimal('4.68')

Q. In a fixed-point application with two decimal places, some inputs
have many places and need to be rounded.  Others are not supposed to
have excess digits and need to be validated.  What methods should be
used?

A. The *note quantize(): f3f. method rounds to a fixed number of decimal
places.  If the *note Inexact: 23cd. trap is set, it is also useful for
validation:

     >>> TWOPLACES = Decimal(10) ** -2       # same as Decimal('0.01')

     >>> # Round to two places
     >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES)
     Decimal('3.21')

     >>> # Validate that a number does not exceed two places
     >>> Decimal('3.21').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
     Decimal('3.21')

     >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     Inexact: None

Q. Once I have valid two place inputs, how do I maintain that invariant
throughout an application?

A. Some operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication by an
integer will automatically preserve fixed point.  Others operations,
like division and non-integer multiplication, will change the number of
decimal places and need to be followed-up with a *note quantize(): f3f.
step:

     >>> a = Decimal('102.72')           # Initial fixed-point values
     >>> b = Decimal('3.17')
     >>> a + b                           # Addition preserves fixed-point
     Decimal('105.89')
     >>> a - b
     Decimal('99.55')
     >>> a * 42                          # So does integer multiplication
     Decimal('4314.24')
     >>> (a * b).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # Must quantize non-integer multiplication
     Decimal('325.62')
     >>> (b / a).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # And quantize division
     Decimal('0.03')

In developing fixed-point applications, it is convenient to define
functions to handle the *note quantize(): f3f. step:

     >>> def mul(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
     ...     return (x * y).quantize(fp)
     ...
     >>> def div(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
     ...     return (x / y).quantize(fp)

     >>> mul(a, b)                       # Automatically preserve fixed-point
     Decimal('325.62')
     >>> div(b, a)
     Decimal('0.03')

Q. There are many ways to express the same value.  The numbers ‘200’,
‘200.000’, ‘2E2’, and ‘.02E+4’ all have the same value at various
precisions.  Is there a way to transform them to a single recognizable
canonical value?

A. The *note normalize(): 23fd. method maps all equivalent values to a
single representative:

     >>> values = map(Decimal, '200 200.000 2E2 .02E+4'.split())
     >>> [v.normalize() for v in values]
     [Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2')]

Q. When does rounding occur in a computation?

A. It occurs 'after' the computation.  The philosophy of the decimal
specification is that numbers are considered exact and are created
independent of the current context.  They can even have greater
precision than current context.  Computations process with those exact
inputs and then rounding (or other context operations) is applied to the
'result' of the computation:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 5
     >>> pi = Decimal('3.1415926535')   # More than 5 digits
     >>> pi                             # All digits are retained
     Decimal('3.1415926535')
     >>> pi + 0                         # Rounded after an addition
     Decimal('3.1416')
     >>> pi - Decimal('0.00005')        # Subtract unrounded numbers, then round
     Decimal('3.1415')
     >>> pi + 0 - Decimal('0.00005').   # Intermediate values are rounded
     Decimal('3.1416')

Q. Some decimal values always print with exponential notation.  Is there
a way to get a non-exponential representation?

A. For some values, exponential notation is the only way to express the
number of significant places in the coefficient.  For example,
expressing ‘5.0E+3’ as ‘5000’ keeps the value constant but cannot show
the original's two-place significance.

If an application does not care about tracking significance, it is easy
to remove the exponent and trailing zeroes, losing significance, but
keeping the value unchanged:

     >>> def remove_exponent(d):
     ...     return d.quantize(Decimal(1)) if d == d.to_integral() else d.normalize()

     >>> remove_exponent(Decimal('5E+3'))
     Decimal('5000')

Q. Is there a way to convert a regular float to a *note Decimal: 5f0.?

A. Yes, any binary floating-point number can be exactly expressed as a
Decimal though an exact conversion may take more precision than
intuition would suggest:

     >>> Decimal(math.pi)
     Decimal('3.141592653589793115997963468544185161590576171875')

Q. Within a complex calculation, how can I make sure that I haven't
gotten a spurious result because of insufficient precision or rounding
anomalies.

A. The decimal module makes it easy to test results.  A best practice is
to re-run calculations using greater precision and with various rounding
modes.  Widely differing results indicate insufficient precision,
rounding mode issues, ill-conditioned inputs, or a numerically unstable
algorithm.

Q. I noticed that context precision is applied to the results of
operations but not to the inputs.  Is there anything to watch out for
when mixing values of different precisions?

A. Yes.  The principle is that all values are considered to be exact and
so is the arithmetic on those values.  Only the results are rounded.
The advantage for inputs is that "what you type is what you get".  A
disadvantage is that the results can look odd if you forget that the
inputs haven't been rounded:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 3
     >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('2.104')
     Decimal('5.21')
     >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('0.000') + Decimal('2.104')
     Decimal('5.20')

The solution is either to increase precision or to force rounding of
inputs using the unary plus operation:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 3
     >>> +Decimal('1.23456789')      # unary plus triggers rounding
     Decimal('1.23')

Alternatively, inputs can be rounded upon creation using the *note
Context.create_decimal(): f3a. method:

     >>> Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN).create_decimal('1.2345678')
     Decimal('1.2345')

Q. Is the CPython implementation fast for large numbers?

A. Yes.  In the CPython and PyPy3 implementations, the C/CFFI versions
of the decimal module integrate the high speed libmpdec(1) library for
arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic
(2).  ‘libmpdec’ uses Karatsuba multiplication(3) for medium-sized
numbers and the Number Theoretic Transform(4) for very large numbers.

The context must be adapted for exact arbitrary precision arithmetic.
‘Emin’ and ‘Emax’ should always be set to the maximum values, ‘clamp’
should always be 0 (the default).  Setting ‘prec’ requires some care.

The easiest approach for trying out bignum arithmetic is to use the
maximum value for ‘prec’ as well (5):

     >>> setcontext(Context(prec=MAX_PREC, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN))
     >>> x = Decimal(2) ** 256
     >>> x / 128
     Decimal('904625697166532776746648320380374280103671755200316906558262375061821325312')

For inexact results, *note MAX_PREC: 240e. is far too large on 64-bit
platforms and the available memory will be insufficient:

     >>> Decimal(1) / 3
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     MemoryError

On systems with overallocation (e.g.  Linux), a more sophisticated
approach is to adjust ‘prec’ to the amount of available RAM. Suppose
that you have 8GB of RAM and expect 10 simultaneous operands using a
maximum of 500MB each:

     >>> import sys
     >>>
     >>> # Maximum number of digits for a single operand using 500MB in 8-byte words
     >>> # with 19 digits per word (4-byte and 9 digits for the 32-bit build):
     >>> maxdigits = 19 * ((500 * 1024**2) // 8)
     >>>
     >>> # Check that this works:
     >>> c = Context(prec=maxdigits, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN)
     >>> c.traps[Inexact] = True
     >>> setcontext(c)
     >>>
     >>> # Fill the available precision with nines:
     >>> x = Decimal(0).logical_invert() * 9
     >>> sys.getsizeof(x)
     524288112
     >>> x + 2
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       decimal.Inexact: [<class 'decimal.Inexact'>]

In general (and especially on systems without overallocation), it is
recommended to estimate even tighter bounds and set the *note Inexact:
23cd. trap if all calculations are expected to be exact.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/index.html

   (2) 
在 3.3 版被加入.

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm

   (4) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform_(general)#Number-theoretic_transform

   (5) 
在 3.9 版的變更: This approach now works for all exact results except
for non-integer powers.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions --- 有理數,  Next: random --- 生成偽隨機數,  Prev: decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算,  Up: 數值與數學模組

5.9.5 ‘fractions’ -- 有理數
---------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/fractions.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note fractions: 58. module provides support for rational number
arithmetic.

A Fraction instance can be constructed from a pair of integers, from
another rational number, or from a string.

 -- 類別: fractions.Fraction (numerator=0, denominator=1)

 -- 類別: fractions.Fraction (other_fraction)

 -- 類別: fractions.Fraction (float)

 -- 類別: fractions.Fraction (decimal)

 -- 類別: fractions.Fraction (string)

     The first version requires that 'numerator' and 'denominator' are
     instances of *note numbers.Rational: 1152. and returns a new *note
     Fraction: 1a8. instance with value ‘numerator/denominator’.  If
     'denominator' is ‘0’, it raises a *note ZeroDivisionError: 784.
     The second version requires that 'other_fraction' is an instance of
     *note numbers.Rational: 1152. and returns a *note Fraction: 1a8.
     instance with the same value.  The next two versions accept either
     a *note float: 26a. or a *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0. instance, and
     return a *note Fraction: 1a8. instance with exactly the same value.
     Note that due to the usual issues with binary floating point (see
     *note 浮點數運算：問題與限制: 1b06.), the argument to
     ‘Fraction(1.1)’ is not exactly equal to 11/10, and so
     ‘Fraction(1.1)’ does 'not' return ‘Fraction(11, 10)’ as one might
     expect.  (But see the documentation for the *note
     limit_denominator(): 2461. method below.)  The last version of the
     constructor expects a string or unicode instance.  The usual form
     for this instance is:

          [sign] numerator ['/' denominator]

     where the optional ‘sign’ may be either '+' or '-' and ‘numerator’
     and ‘denominator’ (if present) are strings of decimal digits
     (underscores may be used to delimit digits as with integral
     literals in code).  In addition, any string that represents a
     finite value and is accepted by the *note float: 26a. constructor
     is also accepted by the *note Fraction: 1a8. constructor.  In
     either form the input string may also have leading and/or trailing
     whitespace.  Here are some examples:

          >>> from fractions import Fraction
          >>> Fraction(16, -10)
          Fraction(-8, 5)
          >>> Fraction(123)
          Fraction(123, 1)
          >>> Fraction()
          Fraction(0, 1)
          >>> Fraction('3/7')
          Fraction(3, 7)
          >>> Fraction(' -3/7 ')
          Fraction(-3, 7)
          >>> Fraction('1.414213 \t\n')
          Fraction(1414213, 1000000)
          >>> Fraction('-.125')
          Fraction(-1, 8)
          >>> Fraction('7e-6')
          Fraction(7, 1000000)
          >>> Fraction(2.25)
          Fraction(9, 4)
          >>> Fraction(1.1)
          Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)
          >>> from decimal import Decimal
          >>> Fraction(Decimal('1.1'))
          Fraction(11, 10)

     The *note Fraction: 1a8. class inherits from the abstract base
     class *note numbers.Rational: 1152, and implements all of the
     methods and operations from that class.  *note Fraction: 1a8.
     instances are *note hashable: 409, and should be treated as
     immutable.  In addition, *note Fraction: 1a8. has the following
     properties and methods:

     在 3.2 版的變更: The *note Fraction: 1a8. constructor now accepts
     *note float: 26a. and *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0. instances.

     在 3.9 版的變更: The *note math.gcd(): 74c. function is now used to
     normalize the 'numerator' and 'denominator'.  *note math.gcd():
     74c. always returns an *note int: 17e. type.  Previously, the GCD
     type depended on 'numerator' and 'denominator'.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Underscores are now permitted when creating a
     *note Fraction: 1a8. instance from a string, following PEP 515(2)
     rules.

     在 3.11 版的變更: *note Fraction: 1a8. implements ‘__int__’ now to
     satisfy ‘typing.SupportsInt’ instance checks.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Space is allowed around the slash for string
     inputs: ‘Fraction('2 / 3')’.

     在 3.12 版的變更: *note Fraction: 1a8. instances now support
     float-style formatting, with presentation types ‘"e"’, ‘"E"’,
     ‘"f"’, ‘"F"’, ‘"g"’, ‘"G"’ and ‘"%""’.

      -- 屬性: numerator

          Numerator of the Fraction in lowest term.

      -- 屬性: denominator

          Denominator of the Fraction in lowest term.

      -- 方法: as_integer_ratio ()

          Return a tuple of two integers, whose ratio is equal to the
          original Fraction.  The ratio is in lowest terms and has a
          positive denominator.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: is_integer ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Fraction is an integer.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- 方法: classmethod from_float (flt)

          Alternative constructor which only accepts instances of *note
          float: 26a. or *note numbers.Integral: 1d4f.  Beware that
          ‘Fraction.from_float(0.3)’ is not the same value as
          ‘Fraction(3, 10)’.

               備註: From Python 3.2 onwards, you can also construct a
               *note Fraction: 1a8. instance directly from a *note
               float: 26a.

      -- 方法: classmethod from_decimal (dec)

          Alternative constructor which only accepts instances of *note
          decimal.Decimal: 5f0. or *note numbers.Integral: 1d4f.

               備註: From Python 3.2 onwards, you can also construct a
               *note Fraction: 1a8. instance directly from a *note
               decimal.Decimal: 5f0. instance.

      -- 方法: limit_denominator (max_denominator=1000000)

          Finds and returns the closest *note Fraction: 1a8. to ‘self’
          that has denominator at most max_denominator.  This method is
          useful for finding rational approximations to a given
          floating-point number:

               >>> from fractions import Fraction
               >>> Fraction('3.1415926535897932').limit_denominator(1000)
               Fraction(355, 113)

          or for recovering a rational number that's represented as a
          float:

               >>> from math import pi, cos
               >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3))
               Fraction(4503599627370497, 9007199254740992)
               >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3)).limit_denominator()
               Fraction(1, 2)
               >>> Fraction(1.1).limit_denominator()
               Fraction(11, 10)

      -- 方法: __floor__ ()

          Returns the greatest *note int: 17e. ‘<= self’.  This method
          can also be accessed through the *note math.floor(): 1230.
          function:

               >>> from math import floor
               >>> floor(Fraction(355, 113))
               3

      -- 方法: __ceil__ ()

          Returns the least *note int: 17e. ‘>= self’.  This method can
          also be accessed through the *note math.ceil(): 1231.
          function.

      -- 方法: __round__ ()

      -- 方法: __round__ (ndigits)

          The first version returns the nearest *note int: 17e. to
          ‘self’, rounding half to even.  The second version rounds
          ‘self’ to the nearest multiple of ‘Fraction(1, 10**ndigits)’
          (logically, if ‘ndigits’ is negative), again rounding half
          toward even.  This method can also be accessed through the
          *note round(): 116b. function.

      -- 方法: __format__ (format_spec, /)

          Provides support for float-style formatting of *note Fraction:
          1a8. instances via the *note str.format(): 41b. method, the
          *note format(): 417. built-in function, or *note Formatted
          string literals: 7ed.  The presentation types ‘"e"’, ‘"E"’,
          ‘"f"’, ‘"F"’, ‘"g"’, ‘"G"’ and ‘"%"’ are supported.  For these
          presentation types, formatting for a *note Fraction: 1a8.
          object ‘x’ follows the rules outlined for the *note float:
          26a. type in the *note 格式規格 (Format Specification)
          迷你語言: 3d6. section.

          Here are some examples:

               >>> from fractions import Fraction
               >>> format(Fraction(1, 7), '.40g')
               '0.1428571428571428571428571428571428571429'
               >>> format(Fraction('1234567.855'), '_.2f')
               '1_234_567.86'
               >>> f"{Fraction(355, 113):*>20.6e}"
               '********3.141593e+00'
               >>> old_price, new_price = 499, 672
               >>> "{:.2%} price increase".format(Fraction(new_price, old_price) - 1)
               '34.67% price increase'

也參考
......

*note numbers: 99. 模組

     The abstract base classes making up the numeric tower.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/fractions.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


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5.9.6 ‘random’ -- 生成偽隨機數
------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/random.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

本章中所提及的 module（模組）用來實現各種分佈的虛擬隨機數產生器。

對於整數，可以從範圍中進行均勻選擇。對於序列，有一個隨機元素的均勻選擇，
一個用來原地 (in-place) 產生隨機排列清單的函式，以及一個用來隨機採樣不替
換的函式。

在實數線上，有一些函式用於處理均勻分佈、常態分佈（高斯分佈）、對數常態分
佈、負指數分佈、gamma 分佈和 Beta 分佈。對於生成角度分佈，可以使用馮·米
塞斯分佈 (von Mises distribution)。

幾乎所有 module 函式都相依於基本函式 *note random(): 55b.，此函式在半開
放範圍 ‘0.0 <= X < 1.0’ 內均勻地生成一個隨機 float（浮點數）。Python 使
用 Mersenne Twister（梅森旋轉演算法）作為核心的產生器，它產生 53 位元精
度 float，其週期為 2**19937-1，透過 C 語言進行底層的實作既快速又支援執行
緒安全 (threadsafe)。Mersenne Twister 是現存最廣泛被驗證的隨機數產生器之
一，但是基於完全確定性，它並不適合所有目的，並且完全不適合加密目的。

該 module 提供的函式實際上是 *note random.Random: 167a. class（類別）中
一個隱藏實例的綁定方法 (bound method)。你可以實例化自己的 *note Random:
167a. 實例，以得到不共享狀態的產生器。

如果你想使用你自己設計的基本產生器，*note Random: 167a. 也可以進行子類別
化 (subclass)。有關詳細資訊，請參考該類別的文件。

*note random: b3. module 也提供了 *note SystemRandom: 2469. class，使用
系統函式 *note os.urandom(): 2a3. 從作業系統提供的來源產生隨機數。

     警告: 本章所提及的虛擬隨機數產生器不應該使用於安全目的。有關安全性
     或加密用途，請參考 *note secrets: bb. module。

也參考
......

M. Matsumoto and T. Nishimura, "Mersenne Twister: A 623-dimensionally
equidistributed uniform pseudorandom number generator", ACM Transactions
on Modeling and Computer Simulation Vol.  8, No.  1, January pp.3-30
1998.

進位互補乘法 (Complementary-Multiply-with-Carry) 用法(2)，可作為隨機數產
生器的一個可相容替代方案，具有較長的週期和相對簡單的更新操作。

* Menu:

* 簿記函式 (bookkeeping functions): 簿記函式 bookkeeping functions.
* 回傳位元組的函式::
* 回傳整數的函式::
* 回傳序列的函式::
* 離散分布::
* 實數分布::
* 替代產生器::
* 關於 Reproducibility（復現性）的注意事項::
* 範例: 範例<6>.
* 使用方案::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/random.py

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576707-long-period-random-number-generator/


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5.9.6.1 簿記函式 (bookkeeping functions)
........................................

 -- 函式: random.seed (a=None, version=2)

     初始化隨機數產生器。

     如果 'a' 被省略或為 ‘None’，則使用當前系統時間。如果隨機來源由作業
     系統提供，則使用它們而不是系統時間（有關可用性的詳細資訊，請參考
     *note os.urandom(): 2a3. 函式）。

     如果 'a' 為 int（整數），則直接使用它。

     如使用版本 2（預設值），*note str: 157.、*note bytes: 2c1. 或 *note
     bytearray: 2c0. 物件將轉換為 *note int: 17e.，並使用其所有位元。

     若使用版本 1（為復現於舊版本 Python 中產生隨機序列而提供），*note
     str: 157. 和 *note bytes: 2c1. 的演算法會生成範圍更窄的種子 (seed)。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 移至版本 2 方案，該方案使用字串種子中的所有位元。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'seed' 必須是以下型別之一：‘None’、*note int:
     17e.、*note float: 26a.、*note str: 157.、*note bytes: 2c1.、*note
     bytearray: 2c0.。

 -- 函式: random.getstate ()

     回傳一個物件，捕獲產生器的當前內部狀態。此物件可以傳遞給 *note
     setstate(): 246c. 以恢復狀態。

 -- 函式: random.setstate (state)

     'state' 應該要從之前對 *note getstate(): 246b. 的呼叫中獲得，並且以
     *note setstate(): 246c. 將產生器的內部狀態恢復到呼叫 *note
     getstate(): 246b. 時的狀態。


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5.9.6.2 回傳位元組的函式
........................

 -- 函式: random.randbytes (n)

     產生 'n' 個隨機位元組。

     此方法不應使用於產生安全性權杖 (Token)。請改用 *note
     secrets.token_bytes(): 246e.。

     在 3.9 版被加入.


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5.9.6.3 回傳整數的函式
......................

 -- 函式: random.randrange (stop)

 -- 函式: random.randrange (start, stop[, step])

     傳回從 ‘range(start, stop, step)’ 中隨機選擇的元素。

     這大致相當於 ‘choice(range(start, stop, step))’，但支援任意大的範圍
     ，並針對常見情況進行了最佳化。

     位置引數模式與 *note range(): 782. 函式相符。

     不應使用關鍵字引數，因為它們可能會以意想不到的方式被直譯。例如
     ‘randrange(start=100)’ 會被直譯為 ‘randrange(0, 100, 1)’。

     在 3.2 版的變更: *note randrange(): 697. 在產生均勻分佈的值方面更為
     複雜。以前，它使用像 ‘int(random()*n)’ 這樣的樣式，這可能會產生稍微
     不均勻的分佈。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 已經不再支援非整數類型到等效整數的自動轉換。像是
     ‘randrange(10.0)’ 和 ‘randrange(Fraction(10, 1))’ 的呼叫將會引發
     *note TypeError: 2ba.。

 -- 函式: random.randint (a, b)

     回傳一個隨機整數 'N'，使得 ‘a <= N <= b’。為 ‘randrange(a, b+1)’ 的
     別名。

 -- 函式: random.getrandbits (k)

     回傳一個具有 'k' 個隨機位元的非負 Python 整數。此方法會隨 Mersenne
     Twister 產生器一起提供，一些其他的產生器也可能將其作為 API 的可選部
     分。如果可用，*note getrandbits(): ea0. 使 *note randrange(): 697.
     能夠處理任意大的範圍。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 此方法現在接受 'k' 為零。


File: python.info,  Node: 回傳序列的函式,  Next: 離散分布,  Prev: 回傳整數的函式,  Up: random --- 生成偽隨機數

5.9.6.4 回傳序列的函式
......................

 -- 函式: random.choice (seq)

     從非空序列 'seq' 回傳一個隨機元素。如果 'seq' 為空，則引發 *note
     IndexError: 13ac.。

 -- 函式: random.choices (population, weights=None, *, cum_weights=None,
          k=1)

     回傳從 'population' 中重置取樣出的一個大小為 'k' 的元素 list。如果
     'population' 為空，則引發 *note IndexError: 13ac.。

     如果指定了 'weights' 序列，則根據相對權重進行選擇。另外，如果給定
     'cum_weights' 序列，則根據累積權重進行選擇（可能使用 *note
     itertools.accumulate(): 843. 計算）。例如，相對權重 ‘[10, 5, 30,
     5]’ 等同於累積權重 ‘[10, 15, 45, 50]’。在內部，相對權重在進行選擇之
     前會轉換為累積權重，因此提供累積權重可以節省工作。

     如果既未指定 'weights' 也未指定 'cum_weights'，則以相等的機率進行選
     擇。如果提供了加權序列，則該序列的長度必須與 'population' 序列的長
     度相同。它是一個 *note TypeError: 2ba. 來指定 'weights' 和
     'cum_weights'。

     'weights' 或 'cum_weights' 可以使用任何與 *note random(): b3. 所回
     傳的 *note float: 26a. 值（包括整數、float 和分數，但不包括小數）交
     互操作 (interoperates) 的數值類型。權重假定為非負數和有限的。如果所
     有權重均為零，則引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

     對於給定的種子，具有相等權重的 *note choices(): b33. 函式通常產生與
     重複呼叫 *note choice(): 10c3. 不同的序列。*note choices(): b33. 使
     用的演算法使用浮點運算來實現內部一致性和速度。*note choice(): 10c3.
     使用的演算法預設為整數運算和重複選擇，以避免捨入誤差產生的小偏差。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 如果所有權重均為零，則引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

 -- 函式: random.shuffle (x)

     將序列 'x' 原地 (in place) 隨機打亂位置。

     要打亂一個不可變的序列並回傳一個新的被打亂的 list（串列），請使用
     ‘sample(x, k=len(x))’。

     請注意，即使對於較小的 ‘len(x)’，'x' 的置換總數也會快速成長到大於大
     多數隨機數產生器的週期。這意味著長序列的大多數置換永遠無法產生。例
     如，長度為 2080 的序列是 Mersenne Twister 隨機數產生器週期內可以容
     納的最大序列。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 移除可選參數 'random'。

 -- 函式: random.sample (population, k, *, counts=None)

     回傳從母體序列中選擇出的一個包含獨特元素、長度為 'k' 的 list。用於
     不重置的隨機取樣。

     回傳包含母體元素的新清單，同時保持原始母體不變。產生的清單按選擇順
     序排列，因此所有子切片也會是有效的隨機樣本。這允許抽獎獲獎者（樣本
     ）分為大獎和第二名獲獎者（子切片）。

     母體成員不必是 *note hashable: 409. 或唯一的。如果母體包含重複項，
     則每次出現都是樣本中可能出現的一個選擇。

     可以一次指定一個重複元素，也可以使用可選的僅關鍵字 'counts' 參數指
     定重複元素。例如 ‘sample(['red', 'blue'], counts=[4, 2], k=5)’ 等同
     於 ‘sample(['red', 'red', 'red', 'red', 'blue', 'blue'], k=5)’。

     若要從整數範圍中選擇範例，請使用 *note range(): 782. 物件作為引數。
     這對於從大型母體中取樣特別快速且節省空間：‘sample(range(10000000),
     k=60)’。

     如果樣本大小大於母體大小，*note ValueError: 183. 會被引發。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'counts' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'population' 必須是一個序列。不再支援將 set 自動
     轉換為 list。


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5.9.6.5 離散分布
................

以下函式產生離散分佈。

 -- 函式: random.binomialvariate (n=1, p=0.5)

     二項分佈 (Binomial distribution)(1)。回傳 'n' 個獨立試驗的成功次數
     ，每個試驗的成功機率為 'p'：

     數學上等價於：

          sum(random() < p for i in range(n))

     試驗次數 'n' 應為非負整數。成功的機率 'p' 應在 ‘0.0 <= p <= 1.0’ 之
     間。結果是 ‘0 <= X <= n’ 範圍內的整數。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html


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5.9.6.6 實數分布
................

以下函式產生特定的實數分佈。函式參數以分佈方程中的對應變數命名，如常見的
數學實踐所示；這些方程式中的大多數都可以在任意統計文本中找到。

 -- 函式: random.random ()

     回傳範圍 ‘0.0 <= X < 1.0’ 中的下一個隨機浮點數

 -- 函式: random.uniform (a, b)

     回傳一個隨機浮點數 'N'，當 ‘a <= b’ 時確保 N 為 ‘a <= N <= b’ 、‘b
     < a’ 時確保 N 為 ‘b <= N <= a’。

     終點值 ‘b’ 可能包含在範圍內，也可能不包含在範圍內，取決於運算式 ‘a
     + (b-a) * random()’ 中的浮點捨入。

 -- 函式: random.triangular (low, high, mode)

     回傳一個隨機浮點數 'N'，使得 ‘low <= N <= high’，並在這些邊界之間具
     有指定的 'mode'。'low' 和 'high' 邊界預設為零和一。'mode' 引數預設
     為邊界之間的中點，從而給出對稱分佈。

 -- 函式: random.betavariate (alpha, beta)

     Beta（貝它）分布。參數的條件為 ‘alpha > 0’ 和 ‘beta > 0’。回傳值的
     範圍介於 0 和 1 之間。

 -- 函式: random.expovariate (lambd=1.0)

     指數分佈。'lambd' 為 1.0 除以所需的平均數。它應該不為零。（該參數將
     被稱為 "lambda"，但這是 Python 中的保留字）如果 'lambd' 為正，則回
     傳值的範圍從 0 到正無窮大；如果 'lambd' 為負，則回傳值的範圍從負無
     窮大到 0。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 ‘lambd’ 的預設值。

 -- 函式: random.gammavariate (alpha, beta)

     Gamma（伽瑪）分佈。（'不是' Gamma 函式！）。形狀 (shape) 和比例
     (scale) 參數 'alpha' 和 'beta' 必須具有正值。（根據呼叫習慣不同，部
     分來源會將 'beta' 定義為比例的倒數）。

     Probability distribution function（機率密度函式）是：

                    x ** (alpha - 1) * math.exp(-x / beta)
          pdf(x) =  --------------------------------------
                      math.gamma(alpha) * beta ** alpha

 -- 函式: random.gauss (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     常態分佈，也稱為高斯分佈。'mu' 是平均數，'sigma' 是標準差。這比下面
     定義的 *note normalvariate(): 1614. 函式快一點。

     多執行緒須注意：當兩個執行緒同時呼叫此函式時，它們可能會收到相同的
     傳回值。這可以透過三種方式避免。1）讓每個執行緒使用隨機數產生器的不
     同實例。2）在所有呼叫周圍加鎖。3）使用較慢但執行緒安全的 *note
     normalvariate(): 1614. 函式代替。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'mu' 和 'sigma' 現在有預設引數。

 -- 函式: random.lognormvariate (mu, sigma)

     對數常態分佈。如果你取此分佈的自然對數，你將獲得一個具有平均數 'mu'
     和標準差 'sigma' 的常態分佈。'mu' 可以為任何值，並且 'sigma' 必須大
     於零。

 -- 函式: random.normalvariate (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     常態分佈。'mu' 是平均數，'sigma' 是標準差。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'mu' 和 'sigma' 現在有預設引數。

 -- 函式: random.vonmisesvariate (mu, kappa)

     'mu' 是平均角度，以 0 到 2*'pi' 之間的弧度表示，'kappa' 是濃度參數
     ，必須大於或等於零。如果 'kappa' 等於零，則此分佈在 0 到 2*'pi' 的
     範圍內將減小為均勻的隨機角度。

 -- 函式: random.paretovariate (alpha)

     Pareto distribution（柏拉圖分佈）。'alpha' 是形狀參數。

 -- 函式: random.weibullvariate (alpha, beta)

     Weibull distribution（韋伯分佈）。'alpha' 是比例參數，'beta' 是形狀
     參數。


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5.9.6.7 替代產生器
..................

 -- 類別: random.Random ([seed])

     實現 *note random: b3. 模組使用的預設偽隨機數產生器的 class。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 過去 'seed' 可以是任何可雜湊物件，但現在必須是以
     下類型之一：‘None’、*note int: 17e.、*note float: 26a.、*note str:
     157.、*note bytes: 2c1.、*note bytearray: 2c0.。

     如果 ‘Random’ 的子類別希望使用不同的基礎產生器，則應該覆寫以下方法
     ：

      -- 方法: seed (a=None, version=2)

          在子類別中覆寫此方法以自訂 ‘Random’ 實例的 *note seed(): 1108.
          行為。

      -- 方法: getstate ()

          在子類別中覆寫此方法以自訂 ‘Random’ 實例的 *note getstate():
          246b. 行為。

      -- 方法: setstate (state)

          在子類別中覆寫此方法以自訂 ‘Random’ 實例的 *note setstate():
          246c. 行為。

      -- 方法: random ()

          在子類別中覆寫此方法以自訂 ‘Random’ 實例的 *note random():
          55b. 行為。

     或者，自訂產生器子類別還可以提供以下方法：

      -- 方法: getrandbits (k)

          在子類別中覆寫此方法以自訂 ‘Random’ 實例的 *note
          getrandbits(): ea0. 行為。

 -- 類別: random.SystemRandom ([seed])

     使用 *note os.urandom(): 2a3. 函式從作業系統提供的來源產生隨機數的
     Class。並非在所有系統上都可用。不依賴於軟體狀態，並且序列不可復現。
     因此 *note seed(): 1108. 方法沒有效果且被忽略。如果呼叫 *note
     getstate(): 246b. 和 *note setstate(): 246c. 方法會引發 *note
     NotImplementedError: bc0.。


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5.9.6.8 關於 Reproducibility（復現性）的注意事項
................................................

有時，能夠重現偽隨機數產生器給出的序列很有用。只要多執行緒未運行，透過重
複使用種子值，同一序列就應該可以被復現。

大多數隨機 module 的演算法和 seed 設定函式在 Python 版本中可能會發生變化
，但可以保證兩個方面不會改變：

   * 如果增加了新的 seed 設定函式，則將提供向後相容的播種器 (seeder)。

   * 當相容的播種器被賦予相同的種子時，產生器的 *note random(): 247f. 方
     法將持續產生相同的序列。


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<6>,  Next: 使用方案,  Prev: 關於 Reproducibility（復現性）的注意事項,  Up: random --- 生成偽隨機數

5.9.6.9 範例
............

基礎範例：

     >>> random()                          # Random float:  0.0 <= x < 1.0
     0.37444887175646646

     >>> uniform(2.5, 10.0)                # Random float:  2.5 <= x <= 10.0
     3.1800146073117523

     >>> expovariate(1 / 5)                # Interval between arrivals averaging 5 seconds
     5.148957571865031

     >>> randrange(10)                     # Integer from 0 to 9 inclusive
     7

     >>> randrange(0, 101, 2)              # Even integer from 0 to 100 inclusive
     26

     >>> choice(['win', 'lose', 'draw'])   # Single random element from a sequence
     'draw'

     >>> deck = 'ace two three four'.split()
     >>> shuffle(deck)                     # Shuffle a list
     >>> deck
     ['four', 'two', 'ace', 'three']

     >>> sample([10, 20, 30, 40, 50], k=4) # Four samples without replacement
     [40, 10, 50, 30]

模擬：

     >>> # Six roulette wheel spins (weighted sampling with replacement)
     >>> choices(['red', 'black', 'green'], [18, 18, 2], k=6)
     ['red', 'green', 'black', 'black', 'red', 'black']

     >>> # Deal 20 cards without replacement from a deck
     >>> # of 52 playing cards, and determine the proportion of cards
     >>> # with a ten-value:  ten, jack, queen, or king.
     >>> deal = sample(['tens', 'low cards'], counts=[16, 36], k=20)
     >>> deal.count('tens') / 20
     0.15

     >>> # Estimate the probability of getting 5 or more heads from 7 spins
     >>> # of a biased coin that settles on heads 60% of the time.
     >>> sum(binomialvariate(n=7, p=0.6) >= 5 for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
     0.4169

     >>> # Probability of the median of 5 samples being in middle two quartiles
     >>> def trial():
     ...     return 2_500 <= sorted(choices(range(10_000), k=5))[2] < 7_500
     ...
     >>> sum(trial() for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
     0.7958

統計 bootstrapping（自助法）(1)的範例，使用有重置的重新取樣來估計樣本平
均數的信賴區間：

     # https://www.thoughtco.com/example-of-bootstrapping-3126155
     from statistics import fmean as mean
     from random import choices

     data = [41, 50, 29, 37, 81, 30, 73, 63, 20, 35, 68, 22, 60, 31, 95]
     means = sorted(mean(choices(data, k=len(data))) for i in range(100))
     print(f'The sample mean of {mean(data):.1f} has a 90% confidence '
           f'interval from {means[5]:.1f} to {means[94]:.1f}')

重新取樣排列測試(2)的範例，來確定觀察到的藥物與安慰劑之間差異的統計學意
義或 p 值(3)：

     # Example from "Statistics is Easy" by Dennis Shasha and Manda Wilson
     from statistics import fmean as mean
     from random import shuffle

     drug = [54, 73, 53, 70, 73, 68, 52, 65, 65]
     placebo = [54, 51, 58, 44, 55, 52, 42, 47, 58, 46]
     observed_diff = mean(drug) - mean(placebo)

     n = 10_000
     count = 0
     combined = drug + placebo
     for i in range(n):
         shuffle(combined)
         new_diff = mean(combined[:len(drug)]) - mean(combined[len(drug):])
         count += (new_diff >= observed_diff)

     print(f'{n} label reshufflings produced only {count} instances with a difference')
     print(f'at least as extreme as the observed difference of {observed_diff:.1f}.')
     print(f'The one-sided p-value of {count / n:.4f} leads us to reject the null')
     print(f'hypothesis that there is no difference between the drug and the placebo.')

模擬多伺服器佇列 (queue) 的到達時間與服務交付：

     from heapq import heapify, heapreplace
     from random import expovariate, gauss
     from statistics import mean, quantiles

     average_arrival_interval = 5.6
     average_service_time = 15.0
     stdev_service_time = 3.5
     num_servers = 3

     waits = []
     arrival_time = 0.0
     servers = [0.0] * num_servers  # time when each server becomes available
     heapify(servers)
     for i in range(1_000_000):
         arrival_time += expovariate(1.0 / average_arrival_interval)
         next_server_available = servers[0]
         wait = max(0.0, next_server_available - arrival_time)
         waits.append(wait)
         service_duration = max(0.0, gauss(average_service_time, stdev_service_time))
         service_completed = arrival_time + wait + service_duration
         heapreplace(servers, service_completed)

     print(f'Mean wait: {mean(waits):.1f}   Max wait: {max(waits):.1f}')
     print('Quartiles:', [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(waits)])

也參考
......

Statistics for Hackers(4) 是由 Jake Vanderplas(5) 製作的教學影片，僅使用
幾個基本概念（包括模擬、取樣、洗牌、交叉驗證）進行統計分析。

Economics Simulation(6)是由 Peter Norvig(7) 對市場進行的模擬，顯示了該模
組提供的許多工具和分佈（高斯、均勻、樣本、 beta 變數、選擇，三角形、隨機
數）的有效使用。

機率的具體介紹（使用Python）(8)為 Peter Norvig(9) 的教學課程，涵蓋了機率
理論的基礎知識與如何模擬以及使用 Python 執行數據分析。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)#Permutation_tests

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value

   (4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iq9DzN6mvYA

   (5) https://us.pycon.org/2016/speaker/profile/295/

   (6) https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Economics.ipynb

   (7) https://norvig.com/bio.html

   (8) https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Probability.ipynb

   (9) https://norvig.com/bio.html


File: python.info,  Node: 使用方案,  Prev: 範例<6>,  Up: random --- 生成偽隨機數

5.9.6.10 使用方案
.................

這些使用方案展示了如何有效地從 *note itertools: 7b. 模組的組合疊代器
(combinatoric iterators) 中進行隨機選擇：

     def random_product(*args, repeat=1):
         "Random selection from itertools.product(*args, **kwds)"
         pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in args] * repeat
         return tuple(map(random.choice, pools))

     def random_permutation(iterable, r=None):
         "Random selection from itertools.permutations(iterable, r)"
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         r = len(pool) if r is None else r
         return tuple(random.sample(pool, r))

     def random_combination(iterable, r):
         "Random selection from itertools.combinations(iterable, r)"
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         n = len(pool)
         indices = sorted(random.sample(range(n), r))
         return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

     def random_combination_with_replacement(iterable, r):
         "Choose r elements with replacement.  Order the result to match the iterable."
         # Result will be in set(itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)).
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         n = len(pool)
         indices = sorted(random.choices(range(n), k=r))
         return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

預設的 *note random(): 55b. 回傳 '0.0 ≤ x < 1.0' 範圍內 2⁻⁵³ 的倍數。所
有數字都是均勻分佈的，並且可以完全表示為 Python float。但是，該間隔中的
許多其他可表示的 float 不是可能的選擇。 例如 ‘0.05954861408025609’ 不是
2⁻⁵³ 的整數倍。

以下範例採用不同的方法。間隔中的所有 float 都是可能的選擇。尾數來自 '2⁵²
≤ 尾數 < 2⁵³' 範圍內的整數均勻分佈。指數來自幾何分佈，其中小於 '-53' 的
指數的出現頻率是下一個較大指數的一半。

     from random import Random
     from math import ldexp

     class FullRandom(Random):

         def random(self):
             mantissa = 0x10_0000_0000_0000 | self.getrandbits(52)
             exponent = -53
             x = 0
             while not x:
                 x = self.getrandbits(32)
                 exponent += x.bit_length() - 32
             return ldexp(mantissa, exponent)

Class 中的所有*note 實數分佈: 2473.都將使用新方法：

     >>> fr = FullRandom()
     >>> fr.random()
     0.05954861408025609
     >>> fr.expovariate(0.25)
     8.87925541791544

該範例在概念上等效於一種演算法，該演算法從 '0.0 ≤ x < 1.0' 範圍內 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴
的所有倍數中進行選擇。這些數字都是均勻分佈的，但大多數必須向下捨入到最接
近的可表示的 Python float。（2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴ 是最小為正的非正規化 float，等於
‘math.ulp(0.0)’）

也參考
......

產生偽隨機浮點值(1) Allen B. Downey 的一篇論文描述了產生比通常由 *note
random(): 55b. 產生的 float 更 fine-grained（細粒的）的方法。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://allendowney.com/research/rand/downey07randfloat.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: statistics --- 數學統計函式,  Prev: random --- 生成偽隨機數,  Up: 數值與數學模組

5.9.7 ‘statistics’ -- 數學統計函式
----------------------------------

在 3.4 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/statistics.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組提供計算數值 (‘Real’-valued) 資料的數學統計函式。

這個模組並非旨在與 NumPy(2)、SciPy(3) 等第三方函式庫，或者像 Minitab、
SAS 和 Matlab 等專門設計給專業統計學家的高階統計軟體互相競爭。此模組的目
標在於繪圖和科學計算。

除非特別註明，這些函數支援 *note int: 17e.、*note float: 26a.、*note
Decimal: 5f0. 以及 *note Fraction: 1a8.。目前不支援其他型別（無論是否為
數值型別）。含有混合型別的資料的集合亦是尚未定義，且取決於該型別的實作。
若你的輸入資料含有混合型別，你可以考慮使用 *note map(): 68f. 來確保結果
是一致的，例如：‘map(float, input_data)’。

有些資料集使用 ‘NaN’ （非數）來表示缺漏的資料。由於 NaN 具有特殊的比較語
義，在排序資料或是統計出現次數的統計函數中，會引發意料之外或是未定義的行
為。受影響的函數包含 ‘median()’、‘median_low()’、 ‘median_high()’、
‘median_grouped()’、 ‘mode()’、 ‘multimode()’ 以及 ‘quantiles()’。在呼叫
這些函數之前，應該先移除 NaN 值：

     >>> from statistics import median
     >>> from math import isnan
     >>> from itertools import filterfalse

     >>> data = [20.7, float('NaN'),19.2, 18.3, float('NaN'), 14.4]
     >>> sorted(data)  # This has surprising behavior
     [20.7, nan, 14.4, 18.3, 19.2, nan]
     >>> median(data)  # This result is unexpected
     16.35

     >>> sum(map(isnan, data))    # Number of missing values
     2
     >>> clean = list(filterfalse(isnan, data))  # Strip NaN values
     >>> clean
     [20.7, 19.2, 18.3, 14.4]
     >>> sorted(clean)  # Sorting now works as expected
     [14.4, 18.3, 19.2, 20.7]
     >>> median(clean)       # This result is now well defined
     18.75

* Menu:

* 平均值與中央位置量數::
* 離度 (spread) 的測量: 離度 spread 的測量.
* 兩個輸入之間的關係統計::
* 函式細節::
* 例外: 例外<3>.
* NormalDist 物件::
* 範例與錦囊妙計::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/statistics.py

   (2) https://numpy.org

   (3) https://scipy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 平均值與中央位置量數,  Next: 離度 spread 的測量,  Up: statistics --- 數學統計函式

5.9.7.1 平均值與中央位置量數
............................

這些函式計算來自一個母體或樣本的平均值或代表值。

*note mean(): 4d0.          資料的算術平均數（平均值）。
                            
                            
*note fmean(): 87d.         快速浮點數算數平均數，可調整權重。
                            
                            
*note geometric_mean(): 87e.資料的幾何平均數。
                            
                            
*note harmonic_mean(): b4e. 資料的調和平均數。
                            
                            
*note median(): 2487.       資料的中位數（中間值）。
                            
                            
*note median_low(): 2488.   資料中較小的中位數。
                            
                            
*note median_high(): 2489.  資料中較大的中位數。
                            
                            
*note median_grouped(): 248a.分組資料的中位數（第 50 百分位數）。
                            
                            
*note mode(): 8e2.          離散 (discrete) 或名目 (nomial) 資料中的眾數（出現次數最多次的值
                            ），只回傳一個。
                            
                            
*note multimode(): 87f.     離散或名目資料中的眾數（出現次數最多次的值）組成的 list。
                            
                            
*note quantiles(): 880.     將資料分成數個具有相等機率的區間，即分位數 (quantile)。
                            


File: python.info,  Node: 離度 spread 的測量,  Next: 兩個輸入之間的關係統計,  Prev: 平均值與中央位置量數,  Up: statistics --- 數學統計函式

5.9.7.2 離度 (spread) 的測量
............................

這些函式計算母體或樣本偏離平均值的程度。

*note pstdev(): 248c.       資料的母體標準差。
                            
                            
*note pvariance(): 248d.    資料的母體變異數。
                            
                            
*note stdev(): 4d2.         資料的樣本標準差。
                            
                            
*note variance(): 4d1.      資料的樣本變異數。
                            


File: python.info,  Node: 兩個輸入之間的關係統計,  Next: 函式細節,  Prev: 離度 spread 的測量,  Up: statistics --- 數學統計函式

5.9.7.3 兩個輸入之間的關係統計
..............................

這些函式計算兩個輸入之間的關係統計數據。

*note covariance(): 656.      兩變數的樣本共變異數。
                              
                              
*note correlation(): 1e3.     Pearson 與 Spearman 相關係數 (correlation coefficient)。
                              
                              
*note linear_regression(): 657.簡單線性迴歸的斜率和截距。
                              


File: python.info,  Node: 函式細節,  Next: 例外<3>,  Prev: 兩個輸入之間的關係統計,  Up: statistics --- 數學統計函式

5.9.7.4 函式細節
................

註：這些函數並不要求輸入的資料必須排序過。為了閱讀方便，大部份的範例仍已
排序過。

 -- 函式: statistics.mean (data)

     回傳 'data' 的樣本算數平均數，輸入可為一個 sequence 或者 iterable。

     算數平均數為資料總和除以資料點的數目。他通常被稱為「平均值」，儘管
     它只是眾多不同的數學平均值之一。它是衡量資料集中位置的一種指標。

     若 'data' 為空，則會引發 *note StatisticsError: 2490.。

     使用範例：

          >>> mean([1, 2, 3, 4, 4])
          2.8
          >>> mean([-1.0, 2.5, 3.25, 5.75])
          2.625

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> mean([F(3, 7), F(1, 21), F(5, 3), F(1, 3)])
          Fraction(13, 21)

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> mean([D("0.5"), D("0.75"), D("0.625"), D("0.375")])
          Decimal('0.5625')

          備註: 平均值強烈受到離群值 (outliers)(1) 的影響，且不一定能當
          作這些資料點的典型範例。若要使用更穩健但效率較低的集中趨勢
          (central tendency)(2) 度量，請參考 *note median(): 2487.。

          樣本平均數提供了對真實母體平均數的不偏估計 (unbiased
          estimate)，所以從所有可能的樣本中取平均值時，‘mean(sample)’ 會
          收斂至整個母體的真實平均值。若 'data' 為整個母體而非單一樣本，
          則 ‘mean(data)’ 等同於計算真實的母體平均數 μ。

 -- 函式: statistics.fmean (data, weights=None)

     將 'data' 轉換為浮點數並計算其算數平均數。

     這個函式運算比 *note mean(): 4d0. 更快，並且它總是回傳一個 *note
     float: 26a.。'data' 可以是一個 sequence 或者 iterable。如果輸入的資
     料為空，則引發 *note StatisticsError: 2490.。

          >>> fmean([3.5, 4.0, 5.25])
          4.25

     支援選擇性的加權。例如，一位教授以 20% 的比重計算小考分數，20% 的比
     重計算作業分數，30% 的比重計算期中考試分數，以及 30% 的比重計算期末
     考試分數：

          >>> grades = [85, 92, 83, 91]
          >>> weights = [0.20, 0.20, 0.30, 0.30]
          >>> fmean(grades, weights)
          87.6

     如果有提供 'weights'，它必須與 'data' 長度相同，否則將引發 *note
     ValueError: 183.。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'weights' 的支援。

 -- 函式: statistics.geometric_mean (data)

     將 'data' 轉換成浮點數並計算其幾何平均數。

     幾何平均數使用數值的乘積（與之對照，算數平均數使用的是數值的和）來
     表示 'data' 的集中趨勢或典型值。

     若輸入的資料集為空、包含零、包含負值，則引發 *note StatisticsError:
     2490.。'data' 可為 sequence 或者 iterable。

     目前沒有特別為了精確結果而特別多下什麼工夫。（然而，未來或許會有。
     ）

          >>> round(geometric_mean([54, 24, 36]), 1)
          36.0

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: statistics.harmonic_mean (data, weights=None)

     回傳 'data' 的調和平均數。'data' 可為實數 (real-valued) sequence 或
     者 iterable。如果省略 'weights' 或者 'weights' 為 ‘None’，則假設各
     權重相等。

     調和平均數是資料的倒數 (reciprocal) 經過 *note mean(): 4d0. 運算過
     後的倒數。例如，三個數 'a'，'b' 與 'c' 的調和平均數等於 ‘3/(1/a +
     1/b + 1/c)’。若其中一個值為零，結果將為零。

     調和平均數是一種平均數，是衡量資料中心位置的一種方法。它通常用於計
     算比率 (ratio) 或率 (rate) 的平均，例如速率（speed）。

     假設一輛汽車以時速 40 公里的速率行駛 10 公里，然後再以時速 60 公里
     的速率行駛 10 公里，求汽車的平均速率？

          >>> harmonic_mean([40, 60])
          48.0

     假設一輛汽車以時速 40 公里的速率行駛 5 公里，然後在交通順暢時，加速
     到時速 60 公里，以此速度行駛剩下的 30 公里。求汽車的平均速率？

          >>> harmonic_mean([40, 60], weights=[5, 30])
          56.0

     若 'data' 為空、含有任何小於零的元素、或者加權總和不為正數，則引發
     *note StatisticsError: 2490.。

     目前的演算法設計為，若在輸入當中遇到零，則會提前退出。這意味著後續
     的輸入並未進行有效性檢查。（這種行為在未來可能會改變。）

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'weights' 的支援。

 -- 函式: statistics.median (data)

     使用常見的「中間兩數取平均」方法回傳數值資料的中位數 （中間值）。若
     'data' 為空，則會引發 *note StatisticsError: 2490.。'data' 可為一個
     sequence 或者 iterable。

     中位數是一種穩健的衡量資料中心位置的方法，較不易被離群值影響。當資
     料點數量為奇數時，會回傳中間的資料點：

          >>> median([1, 3, 5])
          3

     當資料點數量為偶數時，中位數透過中間兩個值的平均數來插值計算：

          >>> median([1, 3, 5, 7])
          4.0

     若你的資料為離散資料，並且你不介意中位數可能並非真實的資料點，那這
     函式適合你。

     若你的資料為順序 (ordinal) 資料（支援排序操作）但並非數值型（不支援
     加法），可以考慮改用 *note median_low(): 2488. 或是 *note
     median_high(): 2489. 代替。

 -- 函式: statistics.median_low (data)

     回傳數值型資料的低中位數 (low median)。若 'data' 為空，則引發 *note
     StatisticsError: 2490.。'data' 可為 sequence 或者 iterable。

     低中位數一定會在原本的資料集當中。當資料點數量為奇數時，回傳中間值
     。當數量為偶數時，回傳兩個中間值當中較小的值。

          >>> median_low([1, 3, 5])
          3
          >>> median_low([1, 3, 5, 7])
          3

     當你的資料為離散資料，且你希望中位數是實際的資料點而不是插值時，可
     以用低中位數。

 -- 函式: statistics.median_high (data)

     回傳數值型資料的高中位數 (high median)。若 'data' 為空，則引發
     *note StatisticsError: 2490.。'data' 可為 sequence 或者 iterable。

     高中位數一定會在原本的資料集當中。當資料點數量為奇數時，回傳中間值
     。當數量為偶數時，回傳兩個中間值當中較大的值。

          >>> median_high([1, 3, 5])
          3
          >>> median_high([1, 3, 5, 7])
          5

     當你的資料為離散資料，且你希望中位數是實際的資料點而不是插值時，可
     以用高中位數。

 -- 函式: statistics.median_grouped (data, interval=1.0)

     Estimates the median for numeric data that has been grouped or
     binned(3) around the midpoints of consecutive, fixed-width
     intervals.

     The 'data' can be any iterable of numeric data with each value
     being exactly the midpoint of a bin.  At least one value must be
     present.

     The 'interval' is the width of each bin.

     For example, demographic information may have been summarized into
     consecutive ten-year age groups with each group being represented
     by the 5-year midpoints of the intervals:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> demographics = Counter({
          ...    25: 172,   # 20 to 30 years old
          ...    35: 484,   # 30 to 40 years old
          ...    45: 387,   # 40 to 50 years old
          ...    55:  22,   # 50 to 60 years old
          ...    65:   6,   # 60 to 70 years old
          ... })
          ...

     The 50th percentile (median) is the 536th person out of the 1071
     member cohort.  That person is in the 30 to 40 year old age group.

     The regular *note median(): 2487. function would assume that
     everyone in the tricenarian age group was exactly 35 years old.  A
     more tenable assumption is that the 484 members of that age group
     are evenly distributed between 30 and 40.  For that, we use *note
     median_grouped(): 248a.:

          >>> data = list(demographics.elements())
          >>> median(data)
          35
          >>> round(median_grouped(data, interval=10), 1)
          37.5

     The caller is responsible for making sure the data points are
     separated by exact multiples of 'interval'.  This is essential for
     getting a correct result.  The function does not check this
     precondition.

     Inputs may be any numeric type that can be coerced to a float
     during the interpolation step.

 -- 函式: statistics.mode (data)

     回傳離散或名目 'data' 中出現次數最多次的值，只回傳一個。眾數（如果
     存在）是最典型的值，並用來衡量資料的中心位置。

     若有多個出現次數相同的眾數，則回傳在 'data' 中最先出現的眾數。如果
     希望回傳其中最小或最大的眾數，可以使用 ‘min(multimode(data))’ 或
     ‘max(multimode(data))’。如果輸入的 'data' 為空，則會引發 *note
     StatisticsError: 2490.。

     ‘mode’ 假定為離散資料，並回傳單一的值。這也是一般學校教授的標準眾數
     定義：

          >>> mode([1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4])
          3

     眾數特別之處在於它是此套件中唯一也適用於名目（非數值型）資料的統計
     量：

          >>> mode(["red", "blue", "blue", "red", "green", "red", "red"])
          'red'

     Only hashable inputs are supported.  To handle type *note set: 3cc,
     consider casting to *note frozenset: 3cd.  To handle type *note
     list: 40a, consider casting to *note tuple: 4e6.  For mixed or
     nested inputs, consider using this slower quadratic algorithm that
     only depends on equality tests: ‘max(data, key=data.count)’.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 現在，遇到資料中有多個眾數時，會回傳第一個遇到的眾
     數。在以前，當找到大於一個眾數時，會引發 *note StatisticsError:
     2490.。

 -- 函式: statistics.multimode (data)

     回傳一個 list，其組成為 'data' 中出現次數最多次的值，並按照它們在
     'data' 中首次出現的順序排列。如果有多個眾數，將會回傳所有結果。若
     'data' 為空，則回傳空的 list：

          >>> multimode('aabbbbccddddeeffffgg')
          ['b', 'd', 'f']
          >>> multimode('')
          []

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: statistics.pstdev (data, mu=None)

     回傳母體標準差（即母體變異數的平方根）。有關引數以及其他細節，請參
     見 *note pvariance(): 248d.。

          >>> pstdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
          0.986893273527251

 -- 函式: statistics.pvariance (data, mu=None)

     回傳 'data' 的母體變異數。'data' 可為非空實數 sequence 或者
     iterable。變異數，或者以平均數為中心的二階動差，用於衡量資料的變異
     性（離度或分散程度）。變異數大表示資料分散，變異數小表示資料集中在
     平均數附近。

     若有傳入選擇性的第二個引數 'mu'，該引數應該要是 'data' 的'母體'平均
     值 (population mean)。它也可以用於計算非以平均值為中心的第二動差。
     如果沒有傳入此引數或者引數為 ‘None’ （預設值），則自動計算資料的算
     數平均數。

     使用此函式來計算整個母體的變異數。如果要從樣本估算變異數，*note
     variance(): 4d1. 通常是較好的選擇。

     若 'data' 為空，則引發 *note StatisticsError: 2490.。

     範例：

          >>> data = [0.0, 0.25, 0.25, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.75, 3.25]
          >>> pvariance(data)
          1.25

     如果已經計算出資料的平均值，你可以將其作為選擇性的第二個引數 'mu' 傳
     遞以避免重新計算：

          >>> mu = mean(data)
          >>> pvariance(data, mu)
          1.25

     支援小數 (decimal) 與分數 (fraction)：

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> pvariance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
          Decimal('24.815')

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> pvariance([F(1, 4), F(5, 4), F(1, 2)])
          Fraction(13, 72)

          備註: 當在整個母體上呼叫此函式時，會回傳母體變異數 σ²。當在樣
          本上呼叫此函式時，會回傳有偏差的樣本變異數 s²，也就是具有 N 個
          自由度的變異數。

          若你以某種方式知道真正的母體平均數 μ，你可以將一個已知的母體平
          均數作為第二個引數提供給此函式，用以計算樣本的變異數。只要資料
          點是母體的隨機樣本，結果將是母體變異數的不偏估計。

 -- 函式: statistics.stdev (data, xbar=None)

     回傳樣本標準差（即樣本變異數的平方根）。有關引數以及其他細節，請參
     見 *note variance(): 4d1.。

          >>> stdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
          1.0810874155219827

 -- 函式: statistics.variance (data, xbar=None)

     回傳 'data' 的樣本變異數。'data' 為兩個值以上的實數 iterable。變異
     數，或者以平均數為中心的二階動差，用於衡量資料的變異性（離度或分散
     程度）。變異數大表示資料分散，變異數小表示資料集中在平均數附近。

     若有傳入選擇性的第二個引數 'xbar'，它應該是 'data' 的'樣本'平均值
     (sample mean)。如果沒有傳入或者為 ‘None’ （預設值），則自動計算資料
     的平均值。

     當你的資料是來自母體的樣本時，請使用此函式。若要從整個母體計算變異
     數，請參見 *note pvariance(): 248d.。

     若 'data' 內少於兩個值，則引發 *note StatisticsError: 2490.。

     範例：

          >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
          >>> variance(data)
          1.3720238095238095

     如果已經計算出資料的樣本平均值，你可以將其作為選擇性的第二個引數
     'mu' 傳遞以避免重新計算：

          >>> m = mean(data)
          >>> variance(data, m)
          1.3720238095238095

     此函式不會驗證你傳入的 'xbar' 是否為實際的平均數。傳入任意的 'xbar'
     會導致無效或不可能的結果。

     支援小數 (decimal) 與分數 (fraction)：

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> variance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
          Decimal('31.01875')

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> variance([F(1, 6), F(1, 2), F(5, 3)])
          Fraction(67, 108)

          備註: 這是經過 Bessel 校正 (Bessel's correction) 後的樣本變異
          數 s² ，又稱為自由度為 N-1 的變異數。只要資料點具有代表性（例
          如：獨立且具有相同分布），結果應該會是對真實母體變異數的不偏估
          計。

          若你剛好知道真正的母體平均數 μ，你應該將其作為 'mu' 參數傳入
          *note pvariance(): 248d. 函式來計算樣本變異數。

 -- 函式: statistics.quantiles (data, *, n=4, method='exclusive')

     將 'data' 分成 'n' 個具有相等機率的連續區間。回傳一個包含 ‘n - 1’ 個
     用於切分各區間的分隔點的 list。

     將 'n' 設為 4 以表示四分位數 (quartile) （預設值）。將 'n' 設置為
     100 表示百分位數 (percentile)，這將給出 99 個分隔點將 'data' 分成
     100 個大小相等的組。如果 'n' 不是至少為 1，則引發 *note
     StatisticsError: 2490.。

     'data' 可以是包含樣本資料的任何 iterable。為了取得有意義的結果，
     'data' 中的資料點數量應大於 'n'。如果資料點少於兩個，則引發 *note
     StatisticsError: 2490.。

     分隔點是從兩個最近的資料點線性內插值計算出來的。舉例來說，如果分隔
     點落在兩個樣本值 ‘100’ 與 ‘112’ 之間的距離三分之一處，則分隔點的值
     將為 ‘104’。

     計算分位數的 'method' 可以根據 'data' 是否包含或排除來自母體的最小
     與最大可能的值而改變。

     預設的 'method' 是 "exclusive"，用於從可能找到比樣本更極端的值的母
     體中抽樣的樣本資料。對於 'm' 個已排序的資料點，計算出低於 'i-th' 的
     部分為 ‘i / (m + 1)’。給定九個樣本資料，此方法將對資料排序且計算下
     列百分位數：10%、20%、30%、40%、50%、60%、70%、80%、90%。

     若將 'method' 設為 "inclusive"，則用於描述母體或者已知包含母體中最
     極端值的樣本資料。在 'data' 中的最小值被視為第 0 百分位數，最大值為
     第 100 百分位數。對於 'm' 個已排序的資料點，計算出低於 'i-th' 的部
     分為 ‘(i - 1) / (m - 1)’。給定十一個個樣本資料，此方法將對資料排序
     且計算下列百分位數：0%、10%、20%、30%、40%、50%、60%、70%、80%、
     90%、100%。

          # Decile cut points for empirically sampled data
          >>> data = [105, 129, 87, 86, 111, 111, 89, 81, 108, 92, 110,
          ...         100, 75, 105, 103, 109, 76, 119, 99, 91, 103, 129,
          ...         106, 101, 84, 111, 74, 87, 86, 103, 103, 106, 86,
          ...         111, 75, 87, 102, 121, 111, 88, 89, 101, 106, 95,
          ...         103, 107, 101, 81, 109, 104]
          >>> [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(data, n=10)]
          [81.0, 86.2, 89.0, 99.4, 102.5, 103.6, 106.0, 109.8, 111.0]

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: statistics.covariance (x, y, /)

     回傳兩輸入 'x' 與 'y' 的樣本共變異數 (sample covariance)。共變異數
     是衡量兩輸入的聯合變異性 (joint variability) 的指標。

     兩輸入必須具有相同長度（至少兩個），否則會引發 *note
     StatisticsError: 2490.。

     範例：

          >>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
          >>> y = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
          >>> covariance(x, y)
          0.75
          >>> z = [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
          >>> covariance(x, z)
          -7.5
          >>> covariance(z, x)
          -7.5

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: statistics.correlation (x, y, /, *, method='linear')

     回傳兩輸入的 Pearson 相關係數 (Pearson’s correlation
     coefficient)(4)。Pearson 相關係數 'r' 的值介於 -1 與 +1 之間。它衡
     量線性關係的強度與方向。

     如果 'method' 為 "ranked"，則計算兩輸入的 Spearman 等級相關係數
     (Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient)(5)。資料將被取代為等級。
     平手的情況則取平均，令相同的值排名也相同。所得係數衡量單調關係
     (monotonic relationship) 的強度。

     Spearman 相關係數適用於順序型資料，或者不符合 Pearson 相關係數要求
     的線性比例關係的連續型 (continuous) 資料。

     兩輸入必須具有相同長度（至少兩個），且不須為常數，否則會引發 *note
     StatisticsError: 2490.。

     以 Kepler 行星運動定律(6)為例：

          >>> # Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and  Neptune
          >>> orbital_period = [88, 225, 365, 687, 4331, 10_756, 30_687, 60_190]    # days
          >>> dist_from_sun = [58, 108, 150, 228, 778, 1_400, 2_900, 4_500] # million km

          >>> # Show that a perfect monotonic relationship exists
          >>> correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun, method='ranked')
          1.0

          >>> # Observe that a linear relationship is imperfect
          >>> round(correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun), 4)
          0.9882

          >>> # Demonstrate Kepler's third law: There is a linear correlation
          >>> # between the square of the orbital period and the cube of the
          >>> # distance from the sun.
          >>> period_squared = [p * p for p in orbital_period]
          >>> dist_cubed = [d * d * d for d in dist_from_sun]
          >>> round(correlation(period_squared, dist_cubed), 4)
          1.0

     在 3.10 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增了對 Spearman 等級相關係數的支援。

 -- 函式: statistics.linear_regression (x, y, /, *, proportional=False)

     回傳使用普通最小平方法 (ordinary least square) 估計出的簡單線性迴歸
     (simple linear regression)(7) 參數中的斜率 (slope) 與截距
     (intercept)。簡單線性迴歸描述自變數 (independent variable) 'x' 與應
     變數 (dependent variable) 'y' 之間的關係，用以下的線性函式表示：

          'y = slope * x + intercept + noise'

     其中 ‘slope’ 和 ‘intercept’ 是被估計的迴歸參數，而 ‘noise’ 表示由線
     性迴歸未解釋的資料變異性（它等於應變數的預測值與實際值之差）。

     兩輸入必須具有相同長度（至少兩個），且自變數 'x' 不得為常數，否則會
     引發 *note StatisticsError: 2490.。

     舉例來說，我們可以使用 Monty Python 系列電影的上映日期(8)來預測至
     2019 年為止，假設他們保持固定的製作速度，應該會產生的 Monty Python
     電影的累計數量。

          >>> year = [1971, 1975, 1979, 1982, 1983]
          >>> films_total = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
          >>> slope, intercept = linear_regression(year, films_total)
          >>> round(slope * 2019 + intercept)
          16

     若將 'proportional' 設為 True，則假設自變數 'x' 與應變數 'y' 是直接
     成比例的，資料座落在通過原點的一直線上。由於 'intercept' 始終為
     0.0，因此線性函式可簡化如下：

          'y = slope * x + noise'

     繼續 *note correlation(): 1e3. 中的範例，我們看看基於主要行星的模型
     可以如何很好地預測矮行星的軌道距離：

          >>> model = linear_regression(period_squared, dist_cubed, proportional=True)
          >>> slope = model.slope

          >>> # Dwarf planets:   Pluto,  Eris,    Makemake, Haumea, Ceres
          >>> orbital_periods = [90_560, 204_199, 111_845, 103_410, 1_680]  # days
          >>> predicted_dist = [math.cbrt(slope * (p * p)) for p in orbital_periods]
          >>> list(map(round, predicted_dist))
          [5912, 10166, 6806, 6459, 414]

          >>> [5_906, 10_152, 6_796, 6_450, 414]  # actual distance in million km
          [5906, 10152, 6796, 6450, 414]

     在 3.10 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'proportional' 的支援。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlier

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_tendency

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_binning

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient

   (5) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_linear_regression

   (8) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python#Films


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<3>,  Next: NormalDist 物件,  Prev: 函式細節,  Up: statistics --- 數學統計函式

5.9.7.5 例外
............

定義了一個單一的例外：

 -- 例外: statistics.StatisticsError

     *note ValueError: 183. 的子類別，用於和統計相關的例外。


File: python.info,  Node: NormalDist 物件,  Next: 範例與錦囊妙計,  Prev: 例外<3>,  Up: statistics --- 數學統計函式

5.9.7.6 ‘NormalDist’ 物件
.........................

*note NormalDist: 881. 是一種用於建立與操作隨機變數 (random variable)(1)
的常態分布的工具。它是一個將量測資料的平均數與標準差視為單一實體的類別。

常態分布源自於中央極限定理 (Central Limit Theorem)(2)，在統計學中有著廣
泛的應用。

 -- 類別: statistics.NormalDist (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     此方法會回傳一個新 'NormalDist' 物件，其中 'mu' 代表算數平均數(3)而
     'sigma' 代表標準差(4)。

     若 'sigma' 為負值，則引發 *note StatisticsError: 2490.。

      -- 屬性: mean

          常態分布中的算數平均數(5)唯讀屬性。

      -- 屬性: median

          常態分布中的中位數(6)唯讀屬性。

      -- 屬性: mode

          常態分布中的眾數(7)唯讀屬性。

      -- 屬性: stdev

          常態分布中的標準差(8)唯讀屬性。

      -- 屬性: variance

          常態分布中的變異數(9)唯讀屬性。

      -- 方法: classmethod from_samples (data)

          利用 *note fmean(): 87d. 與 *note stdev(): 4d2. 函式，估計
          'data' 的 'mu' 與 'sigma' 參數，建立一個常態分布的實例。

          'data' 可以是任何 *note iterable: 10ba.，並應包含可以轉換為
          *note float: 26a. 的值。若 'data' 沒有包含至少兩個以上的元素在
          內，則引發 *note StatisticsError: 2490.，因為至少需要一個點來
          估計中央值且至少需要兩個點來估計分散情形。

      -- 方法: samples (n, *, seed=None)

          給定平均值與標準差，產生 'n' 個隨機樣本。回傳一個由 *note
          float: 26a. 組成的 *note list: 40a.。

          若有給定 'seed'，則會建立一個以此為基礎的亂數產生器實例。這對
          於建立可重現的結果很有幫助，即使在多執行緒情境下也是如此。

      -- 方法: pdf (x)

          利用機率密度函數 (probability density function, pdf)(10) 計算
          隨機變數 'X' 接近給定值 'x' 的相對概度 (relative likelihood)。
          數學上，它是比率 ‘P(x <= X < x+dx) / dx’ 在 'dx' 趨近於零時的
          極限值。

          相對概度是樣本出現在狹窄範圍的機率，除以該範圍的寬度（故稱為「
          密度」）計算而得。由於概度是相對於其它點，故其值可大於 ‘1.0’。

      -- 方法: cdf (x)

          利用累積分布函式 (cumulative distribution function, cdf)(11) 計
          算隨機變數 'X' 小於或等於 'x' 的機率。數學上，它記為 ‘P(X <=
          x)’。

      -- 方法: inv_cdf (p)

          計算反累計分布函式 (inverse cumulative distribution function)，
          也稱為分位數函式 (quantile function)(12) 或者百分率點
          (percent-point)(13) 函式。數學上記為 ‘x : P(X <= x) = p’。

          找出一個值 'x'，使得隨機變數 'X' 小於或等於該值的機率等於給定
          的機率 'p'。

      -- 方法: overlap (other)

          衡量兩常態分布之間的一致性。回傳一個介於 0.0 與 1.0 之間的值，
          表示兩機率密度函式的重疊區域(14)。

      -- 方法: quantiles (n=4)

          將常態分布分割成 'n' 個具有相等機率的連續區間。回傳一個 list，
          包含 (n-1) 個切割區間的分隔點。

          將 'n' 設定為 4 表示四分位數（預設值）。將 'n' 設定為 10 表示
          十分位數。將 'n' 設定為 100 表示百分位數，這會產生 99 個分隔點
          ，將常態分布切割成大小相等的群組。

      -- 方法: zscore (x)

          計算標準分數 (Standard Score)(15)，用以描述在常態分布中，'x' 高
          出或低於平均數幾個標準差：‘(x - mean) / stdev’。

          在 3.9 版被加入.

     *note NormalDist: 881. 的實例支援對常數的加法、減法、乘法與除法。這
     些操作用於平移與縮放。例如：

          >>> temperature_february = NormalDist(5, 2.5)             # Celsius
          >>> temperature_february * (9/5) + 32                     # Fahrenheit
          NormalDist(mu=41.0, sigma=4.5)

     不支援將常數除以 *note NormalDist: 881. 的實例，因為結果將不符合常
     態分布。

     由於常態分布源自於自變數的加法效應 (additive effects)，因此可以將兩
     個獨立的常態分布隨機變數相加與相減(16)，並且表示為 *note
     NormalDist: 881. 的實例。例如：

          >>> birth_weights = NormalDist.from_samples([2.5, 3.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7, 3.5])
          >>> drug_effects = NormalDist(0.4, 0.15)
          >>> combined = birth_weights + drug_effects
          >>> round(combined.mean, 1)
          3.1
          >>> round(combined.stdev, 1)
          0.5

     在 3.8 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.stat.yale.edu/Courses/1997-98/101/ranvar.htm

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(statistics)

   (8) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_density_function

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function

   (12) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantile_function

   (13) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20190203145224/https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/inverse-distribution-function/

   (14) https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt101r.htm

   (15) 
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/z-score/

   (16) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum_of_normally_distributed_random_variables


File: python.info,  Node: 範例與錦囊妙計,  Prev: NormalDist 物件,  Up: statistics --- 數學統計函式

5.9.7.7 範例與錦囊妙計
......................

* Menu:

* 經典機率問題::
* 用於模擬的蒙地卡羅 (Monte Carlo) 輸入: 用於模擬的蒙地卡羅 Monte Carlo 輸入.
* 近似二項分布::
* 單純貝氏分類器 (Naive bayesian classifier): 單純貝氏分類器 Naive bayesian classifier.
* 核密度估計 (Kernel density estimation): 核密度估計 Kernel density estimation.


File: python.info,  Node: 經典機率問題,  Next: 用於模擬的蒙地卡羅 Monte Carlo 輸入,  Up: 範例與錦囊妙計

5.9.7.8 經典機率問題
....................

*note NormalDist: 881. 可以輕易地解決經典的機率問題。

例如，給定 SAT 測驗的歷史資料(1)，顯示成績為平均 1060、標準差 195 的常態
分布。我們要求出分數在 1100 與 1200 之間（四捨五入至最接近的整數）的學生
的百分比：

     >>> sat = NormalDist(1060, 195)
     >>> fraction = sat.cdf(1200 + 0.5) - sat.cdf(1100 - 0.5)
     >>> round(fraction * 100.0, 1)
     18.4

找出 SAT 分數的四分位數(2)以及十分位數(3)：

     >>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles()))
     [928, 1060, 1192]
     >>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles(n=10)))
     [810, 896, 958, 1011, 1060, 1109, 1162, 1224, 1310]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_226.40.asp

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartile

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decile


File: python.info,  Node: 用於模擬的蒙地卡羅 Monte Carlo 輸入,  Next: 近似二項分布,  Prev: 經典機率問題,  Up: 範例與錦囊妙計

5.9.7.9 用於模擬的蒙地卡羅 (Monte Carlo) 輸入
.............................................

欲估計一個不易透過解析方法求解的模型的分布，*note NormalDist: 881. 可以
產生輸入樣本以進行蒙地卡羅模擬(1)：

     >>> def model(x, y, z):
     ...     return (3*x + 7*x*y - 5*y) / (11 * z)
     ...
     >>> n = 100_000
     >>> X = NormalDist(10, 2.5).samples(n, seed=3652260728)
     >>> Y = NormalDist(15, 1.75).samples(n, seed=4582495471)
     >>> Z = NormalDist(50, 1.25).samples(n, seed=6582483453)
     >>> quantiles(map(model, X, Y, Z))
     [1.4591308524824727, 1.8035946855390597, 2.175091447274739]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method


File: python.info,  Node: 近似二項分布,  Next: 單純貝氏分類器 Naive bayesian classifier,  Prev: 用於模擬的蒙地卡羅 Monte Carlo 輸入,  Up: 範例與錦囊妙計

5.9.7.10 近似二項分布
.....................

當樣本數量夠大，且試驗成功的機率接近 50%，可以使用常態分布來近似二項分布
(Binomial distributions)(1)。

例如，一場有 750 位參加者的開源研討會中，有兩間可容納 500 人的會議室。一
場是關於 Python 的講座，另一場則是關於 Ruby 的。在過去的會議中，有 65% 的
參加者傾向參與 Python 講座。假設參與者的偏好沒有改變，那麼 Python 會議室
未超過自身容量限制的機率是？

     >>> n = 750             # Sample size
     >>> p = 0.65            # Preference for Python
     >>> q = 1.0 - p         # Preference for Ruby
     >>> k = 500             # Room capacity

     >>> # Approximation using the cumulative normal distribution
     >>> from math import sqrt
     >>> round(NormalDist(mu=n*p, sigma=sqrt(n*p*q)).cdf(k + 0.5), 4)
     0.8402

     >>> # Exact solution using the cumulative binomial distribution
     >>> from math import comb, fsum
     >>> round(fsum(comb(n, r) * p**r * q**(n-r) for r in range(k+1)), 4)
     0.8402

     >>> # Approximation using a simulation
     >>> from random import seed, binomialvariate
     >>> seed(8675309)
     >>> mean(binomialvariate(n, p) <= k for i in range(10_000))
     0.8406

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html


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5.9.7.11 單純貝氏分類器 (Naive bayesian classifier)
...................................................

常態分布常在機器學習問題中出現。

維基百科有個 Naive Bayesian Classifier 的優良範例(1)。課題為從身高、體重
與鞋子尺寸等符合常態分布的特徵量測值中判斷一個人的性別。

給定一組包含八個人的量測值的訓練資料集。假設這些量測值服從常態分布，我們
可以利用 *note NormalDist: 881. 來總結資料：

     >>> height_male = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 5.92, 5.58, 5.92])
     >>> height_female = NormalDist.from_samples([5, 5.5, 5.42, 5.75])
     >>> weight_male = NormalDist.from_samples([180, 190, 170, 165])
     >>> weight_female = NormalDist.from_samples([100, 150, 130, 150])
     >>> foot_size_male = NormalDist.from_samples([12, 11, 12, 10])
     >>> foot_size_female = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 8, 7, 9])

接著，我們遇到一個新的人，他的特徵量測值已知，但性別未知：

     >>> ht = 6.0        # height
     >>> wt = 130        # weight
     >>> fs = 8          # foot size

從可能為男性或女性的 50% 先驗機率 (prior probability)(2) 為開端，我們將
後驗機率 (posterior probability) 計算為先驗機率乘以給定性別下，各特徵量
測值的概度乘積：

     >>> prior_male = 0.5
     >>> prior_female = 0.5
     >>> posterior_male = (prior_male * height_male.pdf(ht) *
     ...                   weight_male.pdf(wt) * foot_size_male.pdf(fs))

     >>> posterior_female = (prior_female * height_female.pdf(ht) *
     ...                     weight_female.pdf(wt) * foot_size_female.pdf(fs))

最終的預測結果將取決於最大的後驗機率。這被稱為最大後驗機率 (maximum a
posteriori)(3) 或者 MAP：

     >>> 'male' if posterior_male > posterior_female else 'female'
     'female'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naive_Bayes_classifier#Person_classification

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prior_probability

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_a_posteriori_estimation


File: python.info,  Node: 核密度估計 Kernel density estimation,  Prev: 單純貝氏分類器 Naive bayesian classifier,  Up: 範例與錦囊妙計

5.9.7.12 核密度估計 (Kernel density estimation)
...............................................

可以從固定數量的離散樣本估計出連續機率分布。

基本想法是使用一個核函式如常態分布、三角分布或均勻分布(1)來使資料更加平
滑。平滑程度由一個縮放參數 ‘h’ 控制，被稱為 'bandwidth'。

     from random import choice, random

     def kde_normal(data, h):
         "Create a continuous probability distribution from discrete samples."

         # Smooth the data with a normal distribution kernel scaled by h.
         K_h = NormalDist(0.0, h)

         def pdf(x):
             'Probability density function.  P(x <= X < x+dx) / dx'
             return sum(K_h.pdf(x - x_i) for x_i in data) / len(data)

         def cdf(x):
             'Cumulative distribution function.  P(X <= x)'
             return sum(K_h.cdf(x - x_i) for x_i in data) / len(data)

         def rand():
             'Random selection from the probability distribution.'
             return choice(data) + K_h.inv_cdf(random())

         return pdf, cdf, rand

維基百科有一個範例(2)，我們可以使用 ‘kde_normal()’ 這個錦囊妙計來生成並
繪製從小樣本估計的機率密度函式：

     >>> sample = [-2.1, -1.3, -0.4, 1.9, 5.1, 6.2]
     >>> pdf, cdf, rand = kde_normal(sample, h=1.5)
     >>> xarr = [i/100 for i in range(-750, 1100)]
     >>> yarr = [pdf(x) for x in xarr]

‘xarr’ 和 ‘yarr’ 中的點可用於繪製 PDF 圖：

[image src="python-figures/kde_example.png" alt="估計機率密度函式的散點圖 (scatter plot)。"]


Resample(3) the data to produce 100 new selections:

     >>> new_selections = [rand() for i in range(100)]

Determine the probability of a new selection being below ‘2.0’:

     >>> round(cdf(2.0), 4)
     0.5794

Add a new sample data point and find the new CDF at ‘2.0’:

     >>> sample.append(4.9)
     >>> round(cdf(2.0), 4)
     0.5005

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(statistics)#Kernel_functions_in_common_use

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_density_estimation#Example

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)


File: python.info,  Node: 函式編程模組,  Next: 檔案與目錄存取,  Prev: 數值與數學模組,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.10 函式編程模組
=================

The modules described in this chapter provide functions and classes that
support a functional programming style, and general operations on
callables.

本章包含下列的模組：

* Menu:

* itertools: itertools --- 建立產生高效率迴圈之疊代器的函式. 建立產生高效率迴圈之疊代器的函式
* functools: functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作. 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作
* operator: operator --- 標準運算子替代函式. 標準運算子替代函式


File: python.info,  Node: itertools --- 建立產生高效率迴圈之疊代器的函式,  Next: functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作,  Up: 函式編程模組

5.10.1 ‘itertools’ -- 建立產生高效率迴圈之疊代器的函式
------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組實作了許多 *note 疊代器 (iterator): 1718. 構建塊 (building
block)，其靈感來自 APL、Haskell 和 SML 的結構。每個構建塊都以適合 Python
的形式來重新設計。

這個模組標準化了快速且高效率利用記憶體的核心工具集，這些工具本身或組合使
用都很有用。它們共同構成了一個「疊代器代數 (iterator algebra)」，使得在
純 Python 中簡潔且高效地建構專用工具成為可能。

例如，SML 提供了一個造表工具：‘tabulate(f)’，它產生一個序列 ‘f(0), f(1),
...’。在 Python 中，可以透過結合 *note map(): 68f. 和 *note count():
1118. 組成 ‘map(f, count())’ 以達到同樣的效果。

這些工具及其內建的對等部分 (counterpart) 也可以很好地與 *note operator:
9a. 模組中的高速函式配合使用。例如，乘法運算子可以對映到兩個向量上以組成
高效率的內積：‘sum(starmap(operator.mul, zip(vec1, vec2,
strict=True)))’。

'無限疊代器：'

疊代器                 引數                  結果                                                  範例
                                                                                                   
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                   
*note count(): 1118.   [start[, step]]       start, start+step, start+2*step, ...                  ‘count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...’
                                                                                                   
                                                                                                   
*note cycle(): 24aa.   p                     p0, p1, ...  plast, p0, p1, ...                       ‘cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D ...’
                                                                                                   
                                                                                                   
*note repeat(): 24ab.  elem [,n]             elem, elem, elem，...  重複無限次或 n 次              ‘repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10’
                                                                                                   

'在最短輸入序列 (shortest input sequence) 處終止的疊代器：'

疊代器                           引數                             結果                                                  範例
                                                                                                                        
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                        
*note accumulate(): 843.         p [,func]                        p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, ...                              ‘accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note batched(): 1b4.            p, n                             (p0, p1, ..., p_n-1), ...                             ‘batched('ABCDEFG', n=3) → ABC DEF G’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note chain(): 1f15.             p, q, ...                        p0, p1, ...  plast, q0, q1, ...                       ‘chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note chain.from_iterable(): 24ac.可疊代物件                      p0, p1, ...  plast, q0, q1, ...                       ‘chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note compress(): 1117.          data, selectors                  (d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), ...                   ‘compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note dropwhile(): 24ad.         predicate, seq                   seq[n], seq[n+1]，當 predicate 失敗時開始             ‘dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note filterfalse(): 1efc.       predicate, seq                   當 predicate(elem) 失敗時 seq 的元素                  ‘filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note groupby(): 24ae.           iterable[, key]                  根據 key(v) 的值分組的子疊代器
                                                                  
                                                                                                                        
*note islice(): 9a6.             seq, [start,] stop [, step]      seq[start:stop:step] 的元素                           ‘islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note pairwise(): 638.           可疊代物件                       (p[0], p[1]), (p[1], p[2])                            ‘pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note starmap(): f72.            func, seq                        func(*seq[0]), func(*seq[1]), ...                     ‘starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note takewhile(): 24af.         predicate, seq                   seq[0], seq[1]，直到 predicate 失敗                   ‘takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note tee(): 24b0.               it, n                            it1, it2, ...  itn，將一個疊代器分成 n 個
                                                                  
                                                                                                                        
*note zip_longest(): 1132.       p, q, ...                        (p[0], q[0]), (p[1], q[1]), ...                       ‘zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-’
                                                                                                                        

'組合疊代器：'

疊代器                                             引數                     結果
                                                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                            
*note product(): 11a5.                             p, q, ...  [repeat=1]    笛卡爾乘積 (cartesian product)，相當於巢狀的 for 迴圈
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note permutations(): 16f0.                        p[, r]                   長度為 r 的元組，所有可能的定序，無重複元素
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note combinations(): 11a4.                        p, r                     長度為 r 的元組，按照排序過後的定序，無重複元素
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note combinations_with_replacement(): 1116.       p, r                     長度為 r 的元組，按照排序過後的定序，有重複元素
                                                                            

範例                                               結果
                                                   
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                   
‘product('ABCD', repeat=2)’                        ‘AA AB AC AD BA BB BC BD CA CB CC CD DA DB DC DD’
                                                   
                                                   
‘permutations('ABCD', 2)’                          ‘AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC’
                                                   
                                                   
‘combinations('ABCD', 2)’                          ‘AB AC AD BC BD CD’
                                                   
                                                   
‘combinations_with_replacement('ABCD', 2)’         ‘AA AB AC AD BB BC BD CC CD DD’
                                                   

* Menu:

* Itertool 函式::
* Itertools 應用技巧::


File: python.info,  Node: Itertool 函式,  Next: Itertools 應用技巧,  Up: itertools --- 建立產生高效率迴圈之疊代器的函式

5.10.1.1 Itertool 函式
......................

以下的模組函式都會建構並回傳疊代器。一些函式提供無限長度的串流 (stream)，
因此應僅由截斷串流的函式或迴圈來存取它們。

 -- 函式: itertools.accumulate (iterable[, function, *, initial=None])

     建立一個回傳累積和的疊代器，或其他二進位函式的累積結果。

     'function' 預設為加法。'function' 應接受兩個引數，即累積總和和來自
     'iterable' 的值。

     如果提供了 'initial' 值，則累積將從該值開始，並且輸出的元素數將比輸
     入的可疊代物件多一個。

     大致等價於：

          def accumulate(iterable, function=operator.add, *, initial=None):
              'Return running totals'
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], initial=100) → 100 101 103 106 110 115
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) → 1 2 6 24 120

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              total = initial
              if initial is None:
                  try:
                      total = next(iterator)
                  except StopIteration:
                      return

              yield total
              for element in iterator:
                  total = function(total, element)
                  yield total

     'function' 引數可以被設定為 *note min(): d8c. 以得到連續的最小值，
     設定為 *note max(): d8d. 以得到連續的最大值，或者設定為 *note
     operator.mul(): 24b3. 以得到連續的乘積。也可以透過累積利息和付款來
     建立攤銷表 (Amortization tables)(1) ：

          >>> data = [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 0, 7, 5, 8]
          >>> list(accumulate(data, max))              # running maximum
          [3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9]
          >>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul))     # running product
          [3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]

          # Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 10 annual payments of 90
          >>> update = lambda balance, payment: round(balance * 1.05) - payment
          >>> list(accumulate(repeat(90, 10), update, initial=1_000))
          [1000, 960, 918, 874, 828, 779, 728, 674, 618, 559, 497]

     可參見 *note functools.reduce(): 116d.，其是個類似的函式，但僅回傳
     最終的累積值。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增可選的 'function' 參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增可選的 'initial' 參數。

 -- 函式: itertools.batched (iterable, n)

     將來自 'iterable' 的資料分批為長度為 'n' 的元組。最後一個批次可能比
     'n' 短。

     對輸入的可疊代物件進行迴圈，並將資料累積到大小為 'n' 的元組中。輸入
     是惰性地被消耗 (consumed lazily) 的，會剛好足夠填充一批的資料。一旦
     批次填滿或輸入的可疊代物件耗盡，就會 yield 出結果：

          >>> flattened_data = ['roses', 'red', 'violets', 'blue', 'sugar', 'sweet']
          >>> unflattened = list(batched(flattened_data, 2))
          >>> unflattened
          [('roses', 'red'), ('violets', 'blue'), ('sugar', 'sweet')]

     大致等價於：

          def batched(iterable, n):
              # batched('ABCDEFG', 3) → ABC DEF G
              if n < 1:
                  raise ValueError('n must be at least one')
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              while batch := tuple(islice(iterator, n)):
                  yield batch

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: itertools.chain (*iterables)

     建立一個疊代器，從第一個可疊代物件回傳元素直到其耗盡，然後繼續處理
     下一個可疊代物件，直到所有可疊代物件都耗盡。用於將連續的序列做為單
     一序列處理。大致等價於：

          def chain(*iterables):
              # chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F
              for iterable in iterables:
                  yield from iterable

 -- 方法: classmethod chain.from_iterable (iterable)

     *note chain(): 1f15. 的另一個建構函式。從單個可疊代的引數中得到鏈接
     的輸入，該引數是惰性計算的。大致等價於：

          def from_iterable(iterables):
              # chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F
              for iterable in iterables:
                  yield from iterable

 -- 函式: itertools.combinations (iterable, r)

     從輸入 'iterable' 中回傳長度為 'r' 的元素的子序列。

     輸出是 *note product(): 11a5. 的子序列，僅保留作為 'iterable' 子序
     列的條目。輸出的長度由 *note math.comb(): 4ce. 給定，當 ‘0 ≤ r ≤ n’
     時，長度為 ‘n! / r! / (n - r)!’，當 ‘r > n’ 時為零。

     根據輸入值 'iterable' 的順序，組合的元組會按照字典順序輸出。如果輸
     入的 'iterable' 已經排序，則輸出的元組也將按排序的順序產生。

     元素是根據它們的位置（而非值）來決定其唯一性。如果輸入的元素都是獨
     特的，則每個組合內將不會有重複的值。

     大致等價於：

          def combinations(iterable, r):
              # combinations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BC BD CD
              # combinations(range(4), 3) → 012 013 023 123

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              if r > n:
                  return
              indices = list(range(r))

              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
              while True:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      if indices[i] != i + n - r:
                          break
                  else:
                      return
                  indices[i] += 1
                  for j in range(i+1, r):
                      indices[j] = indices[j-1] + 1
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

 -- 函式: itertools.combinations_with_replacement (iterable, r)

     回傳來自輸入 'iterable' 的長度為 'r' 的子序列，且允許個別元素重複多
     次。

     其輸出是一個 *note product(): 11a5. 的子序列，僅保留作為 'iterable'
     子序列（可能有重複元素）的條目。當 ‘n > 0’ 時，回傳的子序列數量為
     ‘(n + r - 1)! / r! / (n - 1)!’。

     根據輸入值 'iterable' 的順序，組合的元組會按照字典順序輸出。如果輸
     入的 'iterable' 已經排序，則輸出的元組也將按排序的順序產生。

     元素是根據它們的位置（而非值）來決定其唯一性。如果輸入的元素都是獨
     特的，生成的組合也將是獨特的。

     大致等價於：

          def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
              # combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2) → AA AB AC BB BC CC

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              if not n and r:
                  return
              indices = [0] * r

              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
              while True:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      if indices[i] != n - 1:
                          break
                  else:
                      return
                  indices[i:] = [indices[i] + 1] * (r - i)
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- 函式: itertools.compress (data, selectors)

     建立一個疊代器，回傳 'data' 中對應 'selectors' 的元素為 true 的元素
     。當 'data' 或 'selectors' 可疊代物件耗盡時停止。大致等價於：

          def compress(data, selectors):
              # compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F
              return (datum for datum, selector in zip(data, selectors) if selector)

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- 函式: itertools.count (start=0, step=1)

     建立一個疊代器，回傳從 'start' 開始的等差的值。可以與 *note map():
     68f. 一起使用來產生連續的資料點，或與 *note zip(): 5ef. 一起使用來
     增加序列號。大致等價於：

          def count(start=0, step=1):
              # count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...
              # count(2.5, 0.5) → 2.5 3.0 3.5 ...
              n = start
              while True:
                  yield n
                  n += step

     當用浮點數計數時，將上述程式碼替換為乘法有時可以獲得更好的精確度，
     例如：‘(start + step * i for i in count())’。

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增 'step' 引數並允許非整數引數。

 -- 函式: itertools.cycle (iterable)

     建立一個疊代器，回傳 'iterable' 中的元素並保存每個元素的副本。當可
     疊代物件耗盡時，從保存的副本中回傳元素。會無限次的重複。大致等價於
     ：

          def cycle(iterable):
              # cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D A B C D ...
              saved = []
              for element in iterable:
                  yield element
                  saved.append(element)
              while saved:
                  for element in saved:
                      yield element

     此 itertool 可能需要大量的輔助儲存空間（取決於可疊代物件的長度）。

 -- 函式: itertools.dropwhile (predicate, iterable)

     建立一個疊代器，在 'predicate' 為 true 時丟棄 'iterable' 中的元素，
     之後回傳每個元素。大致等價於：

          def dropwhile(predicate, iterable):
              # dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              for x in iterator:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      yield x
                      break

              for x in iterator:
                  yield x

     注意，在 predicate 首次變為 False 之前，這不會產生'任何'輸出，所以
     此 itertool 可能會有較長的啟動時間。

 -- 函式: itertools.filterfalse (predicate, iterable)

     建立一個疊代器，過濾 'iterable' 中的元素，僅回傳 'predicate' 為
     False 值的元素。如果 'predicate' 是 ‘None’，則回傳為 False 的項目。
     大致等價於：

          def filterfalse(predicate, iterable):
              # filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8
              if predicate is None:
                  predicate = bool
              for x in iterable:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      yield x

 -- 函式: itertools.groupby (iterable, key=None)

     建立一個疊代器，回傳 'iterable' 中連續的鍵和群組。'key' 是一個為每
     個元素計算鍵值的函式。如果其未指定或為 ‘None’，則 'key' 預設為一個
     識別性函式 (identity function)，並回傳未被更改的元素。一般來說，可
     疊代物件需要已經用相同的鍵函式進行排序。

     *note groupby(): 24ae. 的操作類似於 Unix 中的 ‘uniq’ 過濾器。每當鍵
     函式的值發生變化時，它會產生一個 break 或新的群組（這就是為什麼通常
     需要使用相同的鍵函式對資料進行排序）。這種行為不同於 SQL 的 GROUP
     BY，其無論輸入順序如何都會聚合相同的元素。

     回傳的群組本身是一個與 *note groupby(): 24ae. 共享底層可疊代物件的
     疊代器。由於來源是共享的，當 *note groupby(): 24ae. 物件前進時，前
     一個群組將不再可見。因此，如果之後需要該資料，應將其儲存為串列：

          groups = []
          uniquekeys = []
          data = sorted(data, key=keyfunc)
          for k, g in groupby(data, keyfunc):
              groups.append(list(g))      # Store group iterator as a list
              uniquekeys.append(k)

     *note groupby(): 24ae. 大致等價於：

          def groupby(iterable, key=None):
              # [k for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCDAABBB')] → A B C D A B
              # [list(g) for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCD')] → AAAA BBB CC D

              keyfunc = (lambda x: x) if key is None else key
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              exhausted = False

              def _grouper(target_key):
                  nonlocal curr_value, curr_key, exhausted
                  yield curr_value
                  for curr_value in iterator:
                      curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)
                      if curr_key != target_key:
                          return
                      yield curr_value
                  exhausted = True

              try:
                  curr_value = next(iterator)
              except StopIteration:
                  return
              curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)

              while not exhausted:
                  target_key = curr_key
                  curr_group = _grouper(target_key)
                  yield curr_key, curr_group
                  if curr_key == target_key:
                      for _ in curr_group:
                          pass

 -- 函式: itertools.islice (iterable, stop)

 -- 函式: itertools.islice (iterable, start, stop[, step])

     建立一個疊代器，回傳從 iterable 中選取的元素。其作用類似於序列切片
     (sequence slicing)，但不支援負數的 'start'、'stop' 或 'step' 的值。

     如果 'start' 為零或 ‘None’，則從零開始疊代。否則在達到 'start' 之前
     ，會跳過 iterable 中的元素。

     如果 'stop' 為 ‘None’，則疊代將繼續前進直到疊代器耗盡。如果指定了
     'stop'，則在達到指定位置時停止。

     如果 'step' 為 ‘None’，則步長 (step) 預設為一。元素會連續回傳，除非
     將 'step' 設定為大於一，這會導致一些項目被跳過。

     大致等價於：

          def islice(iterable, *args):
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2) → A B
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, 4) → C D
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 0, None, 2) → A C E G

              s = slice(*args)
              start = 0 if s.start is None else s.start
              stop = s.stop
              step = 1 if s.step is None else s.step
              if start < 0 or (stop is not None and stop < 0) or step <= 0:
                  raise ValueError

              indices = count() if stop is None else range(max(start, stop))
              next_i = start
              for i, element in zip(indices, iterable):
                  if i == next_i:
                      yield element
                      next_i += step

 -- 函式: itertools.pairwise (iterable)

     回傳從輸入的 'iterable' 中提取的連續重疊對。

     輸出疊代器中的 2 元組數量將比輸入少一個。如果輸入的可疊代物件中的值
     少於兩個，則輸出將為空值。

     大致等價於：

          def pairwise(iterable):
              # pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              a = next(iterator, None)
              for b in iterator:
                  yield a, b
                  a = b

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: itertools.permutations (iterable, r=None)

     回傳 'iterable' 中連續且長度為 'r' 的元素排列(2) 。

     如果未指定 'r' 或其值為 ‘None’，則 'r' 預設為 'iterable' 的長度，並
     產生所有可能的完整長度的排列。

     輸出是 *note product(): 11a5. 的子序列，其中重複元素的條目已被濾除
     。輸出的長度由 *note math.perm(): 4cf. 給定，當 ‘0 ≤ r ≤ n’ 時，長
     度為 ‘n! / (n - r)!’，當 ‘r > n’ 時為零。

     根據輸入值 'iterable' 的順序，排列的元組會按照字典順序輸出。如果輸
     入的 'iterable' 已排序，則輸出的元組也將按排序的順序產生。

     元素是根據它們的位置（而非值）來決定其唯一性。如果輸入的元素都是獨
     特的，則排列中將不會有重複的值。

     大致等價於：

          def permutations(iterable, r=None):
              # permutations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC
              # permutations(range(3)) → 012 021 102 120 201 210

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              r = n if r is None else r
              if r > n:
                  return

              indices = list(range(n))
              cycles = list(range(n, n-r, -1))
              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])

              while n:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      cycles[i] -= 1
                      if cycles[i] == 0:
                          indices[i:] = indices[i+1:] + indices[i:i+1]
                          cycles[i] = n - i
                      else:
                          j = cycles[i]
                          indices[i], indices[-j] = indices[-j], indices[i]
                          yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
                          break
                  else:
                      return

 -- 函式: itertools.product (*iterables, repeat=1)

     輸入的 iterables 的笛卡爾乘積。

     大致等價於產生器運算式中的巢狀 for 迴圈。例如，‘product(A, B)’ 的回
     傳結果與 ‘((x,y) for x in A for y in B)’ 相同。

     巢狀迴圈的循環類似於里程表，最右邊的元素在每次疊代時前進。這種模式
     會建立字典順序，因此如果輸入的 iterables 已排序，則輸出的乘積元組也
     將按排序的順序產生。

     要計算可疊代物件自身的乘積，可以使用可選的 'repeat' 關鍵字引數來指
     定重複次數。例如，‘product(A, repeat=4)’ 與 ‘product(A, A, A, A)’ 相
     同。

     此函式大致等價於以下的程式碼，不同之處在於真正的實作不會在記憶體中
     建立中間結果：

          def product(*iterables, repeat=1):
              # product('ABCD', 'xy') → Ax Ay Bx By Cx Cy Dx Dy
              # product(range(2), repeat=3) → 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

              pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in iterables] * repeat

              result = [[]]
              for pool in pools:
                  result = [x+[y] for x in result for y in pool]

              for prod in result:
                  yield tuple(prod)

     在 *note product(): 11a5. 執行之前，它會完全消耗輸入的 iterables，
     並將值的池 (pools of values) 保存在記憶體中以產生乘積。因此，它僅對
     有限的輸入有用。

 -- 函式: itertools.repeat (object[, times])

     建立一個疊代器，反覆回傳 'object'。除非指定了 'times' 引數，否則會
     執行無限次。

     大致等價於：

          def repeat(object, times=None):
              # repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10
              if times is None:
                  while True:
                      yield object
              else:
                  for i in range(times):
                      yield object

     'repeat' 的常見用途是為 'map' 或 'zip' 提供定值的串流：

          >>> list(map(pow, range(10), repeat(2)))
          [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

 -- 函式: itertools.starmap (function, iterable)

     建立一個疊代器，使用從 'iterable' 獲取的引數計算 'function' 。當引
     數參數已經被「預先壓縮 (pre-zipped)」成元組時，使用此方法代替 *note
     map(): 68f.。

     *note map(): 68f. 和 *note starmap(): f72. 之間的區別類似於
     ‘function(a,b)’ 和 ‘function(*c)’ 之間的區別。大致等價於：

          def starmap(function, iterable):
              # starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000
              for args in iterable:
                  yield function(*args)

 -- 函式: itertools.takewhile (predicate, iterable)

     建立一個疊代器，只在 'predicate' 為 true 時回傳 'iterable' 中的元素
     。大致等價於：

          def takewhile(predicate, iterable):
              # takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4
              for x in iterable:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      break
                  yield x

     注意，第一個不符合條件判斷的元素將從輸入疊代器中被消耗，且無法再存
     取它。如果應用程式希望在 'takewhile' 耗盡後進一步消耗輸入疊代器，這
     可能會是個問題。為了解決這個問題，可以考慮使用 more-itertools 中的
     before_and_after()(3) 作為替代。

 -- 函式: itertools.tee (iterable, n=2)

     從一個 iterable 中回傳 'n' 個獨立的疊代器。

     大致等價於：

          def tee(iterable, n=2):
              if n < 0:
                  raise ValueError
              if n == 0:
                  return ()
              iterator = _tee(iterable)
              result = [iterator]
              for _ in range(n - 1):
                  result.append(_tee(iterator))
              return tuple(result)

          class _tee:

              def __init__(self, iterable):
                  it = iter(iterable)
                  if isinstance(it, _tee):
                      self.iterator = it.iterator
                      self.link = it.link
                  else:
                      self.iterator = it
                      self.link = [None, None]

              def __iter__(self):
                  return self

              def __next__(self):
                  link = self.link
                  if link[1] is None:
                      link[0] = next(self.iterator)
                      link[1] = [None, None]
                  value, self.link = link
                  return value

     ‘tee’ 疊代器不是執行緒安全 (threadsafe) 的。當同時使用由同一個
     *note tee(): 24b0. 呼叫所回傳的疊代器時，即使原始的 'iterable' 是執
     行緒安全的，也可能引發 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。

     此 itertool 可能需要大量的輔助儲存空間（取決於需要儲存多少臨時資料
     ）。通常如果一個疊代器在另一個疊代器開始之前使用了大部分或全部的資
     料，使用 *note list(): 40a. 會比 *note tee(): 24b0. 更快。

 -- 函式: itertools.zip_longest (*iterables, fillvalue=None)

     建立一個疊代器，聚合來自每個 'iterables' 中的元素。

     如果 iterables 的長度不一，則使用 'fillvalue' 填充缺少的值。如果未
     指定，'fillvalue' 會預設為 ‘None’。

     疊代將持續直到最長的可疊代物件耗盡為止。

     大致等價於：

          def zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None):
              # zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-

              iterators = list(map(iter, iterables))
              num_active = len(iterators)
              if not num_active:
                  return

              while True:
                  values = []
                  for i, iterator in enumerate(iterators):
                      try:
                          value = next(iterator)
                      except StopIteration:
                          num_active -= 1
                          if not num_active:
                              return
                          iterators[i] = repeat(fillvalue)
                          value = fillvalue
                      values.append(value)
                  yield tuple(values)

     如果其中一個 iterables 可能是無限的，那麼應該用別的可以限制呼叫次數
     的方法來包裝 *note zip_longest(): 1132. 函式（例如 *note islice():
     9a6. 或 *note takewhile(): 24af.）。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.ramseysolutions.com/real-estate/amortization-schedule

   (2) https://www.britannica.com/science/permutation

   (3) 
https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.before_and_after


File: python.info,  Node: Itertools 應用技巧,  Prev: Itertool 函式,  Up: itertools --- 建立產生高效率迴圈之疊代器的函式

5.10.1.2 Itertools 應用技巧
...........................

此段落展示了使用現有的 itertools 作為構建塊來建立擴展工具集的應用技巧。

itertools 應用技巧的主要目的是教學。這些應用技巧展示了對單個工具進行思考
的各種方式 —— 例如，‘chain.from_iterable’ 與攤平 (flattening) 的概念相關
。這些應用技巧還提供了組合使用工具的想法 —— 例如，‘starmap()’ 和
‘repeat()’ 如何一起工作。另外還展示了將 itertools 與 *note operator: 9a.
和 *note collections: 1b. 模組一同使用以及與內建 itertools（如 ‘map()’、
‘filter()’、‘reversed()’ 和 ‘enumerate()’）一同使用的模式。

應用技巧的次要目的是作為 itertools 的孵化器。‘accumulate()’,
‘compress()’ 和 ‘pairwise()’ itertools 最初都是作為應用技巧出現的。目前
，‘sliding_window()’、‘iter_index()’ 和 ‘sieve()’ 的應用技巧正在被測試，
以確定它們是否有價值被收錄到內建的 itertools 中。

幾乎所有這些應用技巧以及許多其他應用技巧都可以從 Python Package Index 上
的 more-itertools(1) 專案中安裝：

     python -m pip install more-itertools

許多應用技巧提供了與底層工具集相同的高性能。透過一次處理一個元素而不是將
整個可疊代物件一次性引入記憶體，能保持優異的記憶體性能。以函式風格
(functional style)(2) 將工具連接在一起，能將程式碼的數量維持在較少的情況
。透過優先使用「向量化 (vectorized)」的構建塊而不是使用會造成直譯器負擔
的 for 迴圈和*note 產生器: ef7.，則能保持高速度。

     import collections
     import contextlib
     import functools
     import math
     import operator
     import random

     def take(n, iterable):
         "Return first n items of the iterable as a list."
         return list(islice(iterable, n))

     def prepend(value, iterable):
         "Prepend a single value in front of an iterable."
         # prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]) → 1 2 3 4
         return chain([value], iterable)

     def tabulate(function, start=0):
         "Return function(0), function(1), ..."
         return map(function, count(start))

     def repeatfunc(func, times=None, *args):
         "Repeat calls to func with specified arguments."
         if times is None:
             return starmap(func, repeat(args))
         return starmap(func, repeat(args, times))

     def flatten(list_of_lists):
         "Flatten one level of nesting."
         return chain.from_iterable(list_of_lists)

     def ncycles(iterable, n):
         "Returns the sequence elements n times."
         return chain.from_iterable(repeat(tuple(iterable), n))

     def tail(n, iterable):
         "Return an iterator over the last n items."
         # tail(3, 'ABCDEFG') → E F G
         return iter(collections.deque(iterable, maxlen=n))

     def consume(iterator, n=None):
         "Advance the iterator n-steps ahead. If n is None, consume entirely."
         # Use functions that consume iterators at C speed.
         if n is None:
             collections.deque(iterator, maxlen=0)
         else:
             next(islice(iterator, n, n), None)

     def nth(iterable, n, default=None):
         "Returns the nth item or a default value."
         return next(islice(iterable, n, None), default)

     def quantify(iterable, predicate=bool):
         "Given a predicate that returns True or False, count the True results."
         return sum(map(predicate, iterable))

     def first_true(iterable, default=False, predicate=None):
         "Returns the first true value or the *default* if there is no true value."
         # first_true([a,b,c], x) → a or b or c or x
         # first_true([a,b], x, f) → a if f(a) else b if f(b) else x
         return next(filter(predicate, iterable), default)

     def all_equal(iterable, key=None):
         "Returns True if all the elements are equal to each other."
         # all_equal('4٤௪౪໔', key=int) → True
         return len(take(2, groupby(iterable, key))) <= 1

     def unique_justseen(iterable, key=None):
         "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen."
         # unique_justseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D A B
         # unique_justseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c A D
         if key is None:
             return map(operator.itemgetter(0), groupby(iterable))
         return map(next, map(operator.itemgetter(1), groupby(iterable, key)))

     def unique_everseen(iterable, key=None):
         "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen."
         # unique_everseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D
         # unique_everseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c D
         seen = set()
         if key is None:
             for element in filterfalse(seen.__contains__, iterable):
                 seen.add(element)
                 yield element
         else:
             for element in iterable:
                 k = key(element)
                 if k not in seen:
                     seen.add(k)
                     yield element

     def unique(iterable, key=None, reverse=False):
        "Yield unique elements in sorted order. Supports unhashable inputs."
        # unique([[1, 2], [3, 4], [1, 2]]) → [1, 2] [3, 4]
        return unique_justseen(sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=reverse), key=key)

     def sliding_window(iterable, n):
         "Collect data into overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
         # sliding_window('ABCDEFG', 4) → ABCD BCDE CDEF DEFG
         iterator = iter(iterable)
         window = collections.deque(islice(iterator, n - 1), maxlen=n)
         for x in iterator:
             window.append(x)
             yield tuple(window)

     def grouper(iterable, n, *, incomplete='fill', fillvalue=None):
         "Collect data into non-overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, fillvalue='x') → ABC DEF Gxx
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='strict') → ABC DEF ValueError
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='ignore') → ABC DEF
         iterators = [iter(iterable)] * n
         match incomplete:
             case 'fill':
                 return zip_longest(*iterators, fillvalue=fillvalue)
             case 'strict':
                 return zip(*iterators, strict=True)
             case 'ignore':
                 return zip(*iterators)
             case _:
                 raise ValueError('Expected fill, strict, or ignore')

     def roundrobin(*iterables):
         "Visit input iterables in a cycle until each is exhausted."
         # roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') → A D E B F C
         # Algorithm credited to George Sakkis
         iterators = map(iter, iterables)
         for num_active in range(len(iterables), 0, -1):
             iterators = cycle(islice(iterators, num_active))
             yield from map(next, iterators)

     def partition(predicate, iterable):
         """Partition entries into false entries and true entries.

         If *predicate* is slow, consider wrapping it with functools.lru_cache().
         """
         # partition(is_odd, range(10)) → 0 2 4 6 8   and  1 3 5 7 9
         t1, t2 = tee(iterable)
         return filterfalse(predicate, t1), filter(predicate, t2)

     def subslices(seq):
         "Return all contiguous non-empty subslices of a sequence."
         # subslices('ABCD') → A AB ABC ABCD B BC BCD C CD D
         slices = starmap(slice, combinations(range(len(seq) + 1), 2))
         return map(operator.getitem, repeat(seq), slices)

     def iter_index(iterable, value, start=0, stop=None):
         "Return indices where a value occurs in a sequence or iterable."
         # iter_index('AABCADEAF', 'A') → 0 1 4 7
         seq_index = getattr(iterable, 'index', None)
         if seq_index is None:
             iterator = islice(iterable, start, stop)
             for i, element in enumerate(iterator, start):
                 if element is value or element == value:
                     yield i
         else:
             stop = len(iterable) if stop is None else stop
             i = start
             with contextlib.suppress(ValueError):
                 while True:
                     yield (i := seq_index(value, i, stop))
                     i += 1

     def iter_except(func, exception, first=None):
         "Convert a call-until-exception interface to an iterator interface."
         # iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError) → non-blocking dictionary iterator
         with contextlib.suppress(exception):
             if first is not None:
                 yield first()
             while True:
                 yield func()

以下的應用技巧具有更多的數學風格：

     def powerset(iterable):
         "powerset([1,2,3]) → () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)"
         s = list(iterable)
         return chain.from_iterable(combinations(s, r) for r in range(len(s)+1))

     def sum_of_squares(iterable):
         "Add up the squares of the input values."
         # sum_of_squares([10, 20, 30]) → 1400
         return math.sumprod(*tee(iterable))

     def reshape(matrix, cols):
         "Reshape a 2-D matrix to have a given number of columns."
         # reshape([(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5)], 3) →  (0, 1, 2), (3, 4, 5)
         return batched(chain.from_iterable(matrix), cols)

     def transpose(matrix):
         "Swap the rows and columns of a 2-D matrix."
         # transpose([(1, 2, 3), (11, 22, 33)]) → (1, 11) (2, 22) (3, 33)
         return zip(*matrix, strict=True)

     def matmul(m1, m2):
         "Multiply two matrices."
         # matmul([(7, 5), (3, 5)], [(2, 5), (7, 9)]) → (49, 80), (41, 60)
         n = len(m2[0])
         return batched(starmap(math.sumprod, product(m1, transpose(m2))), n)

     def convolve(signal, kernel):
         """Discrete linear convolution of two iterables.
         Equivalent to polynomial multiplication.

         Convolutions are mathematically commutative; however, the inputs are
         evaluated differently.  The signal is consumed lazily and can be
         infinite. The kernel is fully consumed before the calculations begin.

         Article:  https://betterexplained.com/articles/intuitive-convolution/
         Video:    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuXjwB4LzSA
         """
         # convolve([1, -1, -20], [1, -3]) → 1 -4 -17 60
         # convolve(data, [0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25]) → Moving average (blur)
         # convolve(data, [1/2, 0, -1/2]) → 1st derivative estimate
         # convolve(data, [1, -2, 1]) → 2nd derivative estimate
         kernel = tuple(kernel)[::-1]
         n = len(kernel)
         padded_signal = chain(repeat(0, n-1), signal, repeat(0, n-1))
         windowed_signal = sliding_window(padded_signal, n)
         return map(math.sumprod, repeat(kernel), windowed_signal)

     def polynomial_from_roots(roots):
         """Compute a polynomial's coefficients from its roots.

            (x - 5) (x + 4) (x - 3)  expands to:   x³ -4x² -17x + 60
         """
         # polynomial_from_roots([5, -4, 3]) → [1, -4, -17, 60]
         factors = zip(repeat(1), map(operator.neg, roots))
         return list(functools.reduce(convolve, factors, [1]))

     def polynomial_eval(coefficients, x):
         """Evaluate a polynomial at a specific value.

         Computes with better numeric stability than Horner's method.
         """
         # Evaluate x³ -4x² -17x + 60 at x = 5
         # polynomial_eval([1, -4, -17, 60], x=5) → 0
         n = len(coefficients)
         if not n:
             return type(x)(0)
         powers = map(pow, repeat(x), reversed(range(n)))
         return math.sumprod(coefficients, powers)

     def polynomial_derivative(coefficients):
         """Compute the first derivative of a polynomial.

            f(x)  =  x³ -4x² -17x + 60
            f'(x) = 3x² -8x  -17
         """
         # polynomial_derivative([1, -4, -17, 60]) → [3, -8, -17]
         n = len(coefficients)
         powers = reversed(range(1, n))
         return list(map(operator.mul, coefficients, powers))

     def sieve(n):
         "Primes less than n."
         # sieve(30) → 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29
         if n > 2:
             yield 2
         data = bytearray((0, 1)) * (n // 2)
         for p in iter_index(data, 1, start=3, stop=math.isqrt(n) + 1):
             data[p*p : n : p+p] = bytes(len(range(p*p, n, p+p)))
         yield from iter_index(data, 1, start=3)

     def factor(n):
         "Prime factors of n."
         # factor(99) → 3 3 11
         # factor(1_000_000_000_000_007) → 47 59 360620266859
         # factor(1_000_000_000_000_403) → 1000000000000403
         for prime in sieve(math.isqrt(n) + 1):
             while not n % prime:
                 yield prime
                 n //= prime
                 if n == 1:
                     return
         if n > 1:
             yield n

     def totient(n):
         "Count of natural numbers up to n that are coprime to n."
         # https://mathworld.wolfram.com/TotientFunction.html
         # totient(12) → 4 because len([1, 5, 7, 11]) == 4
         for prime in set(factor(n)):
             n -= n // prime
         return n

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/more-itertools/

   (2) https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/dat/miranda/whyfp90.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作,  Next: operator --- 標準運算子替代函式,  Prev: itertools --- 建立產生高效率迴圈之疊代器的函式,  Up: 函式編程模組

5.10.2 ‘functools’ -- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作
--------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/functools.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note functools: 5a. 模組用於高階函式：作用於或回傳其他函式的函式。一般
來說，任何可呼叫物件都可以被視為用於此模組的函式。

*note functools: 5a. 模組定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: @functools.cache (user_function)

     簡單的輕量級無繫結函式快取 (Simple lightweight unbounded function
     cache)。有時稱之為 "memoize"（記憶化）(2)。

     和 ‘lru_cache(maxsize=None)’ 回傳相同的值，為函式引數建立一個字典查
     找的薄包裝器。因為它永遠不需要丟棄舊值，所以這比有大小限制的 *note
     lru_cache(): 834. 更小、更快。

     舉例來說：

          @cache
          def factorial(n):
              return n * factorial(n-1) if n else 1

          >>> factorial(10)      # no previously cached result, makes 11 recursive calls
          3628800
          >>> factorial(5)       # just looks up cached value result
          120
          >>> factorial(12)      # makes two new recursive calls, the other 10 are cached
          479001600

     該快取是執行緒安全的 (threadsafe)，因此包裝的函式可以在多個執行緒中
     使用。這意味著底層資料結構在並行更新期間將保持連貫 (coherent)。

     如果另一個執行緒在初始呼叫完成並快取之前進行額外的呼叫，則包裝的函
     式可能會被多次呼叫。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @functools.cached_property (func)

     將類別的一個方法轉換為屬性 (property)，其值會計算一次，然後在實例的
     生命週期內快取為普通屬性。類似 *note property(): 424.，但增加了快取
     機制。對於除使用該裝飾器的屬性外實質上幾乎是不可變 (immutable) 的實
     例，針對其所需要繁重計算會很有用。

     範例：

          class DataSet:

              def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
                  self._data = tuple(sequence_of_numbers)

              @cached_property
              def stdev(self):
                  return statistics.stdev(self._data)

     *note cached_property(): 2c5. 的機制與 *note property(): 424. 有所
     不同。除非定義了 setter，否則常規屬性會阻止屬性的寫入。相反地，
     'cached_property' 則允許寫入。

     'cached_property' 裝飾器僅在查找時且僅在同名屬性不存在時運行。當它
     運行時，'cached_property' 會寫入同名的屬性。後續屬性讀取和寫入優先
     於 'cached_property' 方法，並且它的工作方式與普通屬性類似。

     可以透過刪除屬性來清除快取的值，這使得 'cached_property' 方法可以再
     次運行。

     'cached_property' 無法防止多執行緒使用中可能出現的競爭條件 (race
     condition)。getter 函式可以在同一個實例上運行多次，最後一次運行會設
     定快取的值。所以快取的屬性最好是冪等的 (idempotent)，或者在一個實例
     上運行多次不會有害，就不會有問題。如果同步是必要的，請在裝飾的
     getter 函式內部或在快取的屬性存取周圍實作必要的鎖。

     請注意，此裝飾器會干擾 PEP 412(3) 金鑰共用字典的操作。這意味著實例
     字典可能比平常佔用更多的空間。

     此外，此裝飾器要求每個實例上的 ‘__dict__’ 屬性是可變對映 (mutable
     mapping)。這意味著它不適用於某些型別，例如元類別 (metaclass)（因為
     型別實例上的 ‘__dict__’ 屬性是類別命名空間的唯讀代理），以及那些指
     定 ‘__slots__’ 而不包含 ‘__dict__’ 的型別作為有定義的插槽之一（因為
     此種類別根本不提供 ‘__dict__’ 屬性）。

     如果可變對映不可用或需要金鑰共享以節省空間，則也可以透過在 *note
     lru_cache(): 834. 之上堆疊 *note property(): 424. 來實作類似於
     *note cached_property(): 2c5. 的效果。請參閱*note
     如何快取方法呼叫？: 24b7.以了解有關這與 *note cached_property():
     2c5. 間不同之處的更多詳細資訊。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 在 Python 3.12 之前，‘cached_property’ 包含一個未
     以文件記錄的鎖，以確保在多執行緒使用中能保證 getter 函式對於每個實
     例只會執行一次。然而，鎖是針對每個屬性，而不是針對每個實例，這可能
     會導致無法被接受的嚴重鎖爭用 (lock contention)。在 Python 3.12+ 中
     ，此鎖已被刪除。

 -- 函式: functools.cmp_to_key (func)

     將舊式比較函式轉換為*note 鍵函式: c7d.，能與接受鍵函式的工具一起使
     用（例如 *note sorted(): a2f.、*note min(): d8c.、*note max():
     d8d.、*note heapq.nlargest(): 22c4.、*note heapq.nsmallest():
     22c5.、*note itertools.groupby(): 24ae.）。此函式主要作為轉換工具，
     用於從有支援使用比較函式的 Python 2 轉換成的程式。

     比較函式是任何能接受兩個引數、對它們進行比較，並回傳負數（小於）、
     零（相等）或正數（大於）的可呼叫物件。鍵函式是接受一個引數並回傳另
     一個用作排序鍵之值的可呼叫物件。

     範例：

          sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))  # locale-aware sort order

     有關排序範例和簡短的排序教學，請參閱*note 排序技法: 1f14.。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @functools.lru_cache (user_function)

 -- 函式: @functools.lru_cache (maxsize=128, typed=False)

     以記憶化可呼叫物件來包裝函式的裝飾器，最多可省去 'maxsize' 個最近的
     呼叫。當使用相同引數定期呼叫繁重的或 I/O 密集的函式時，它可以節省時
     間。

     該快取是執行緒安全的 (threadsafe)，因此包裝的函式可以在多個執行緒中
     使用。這意味著底層資料結構在並行更新期間將保持連貫 (coherent)。

     如果另一個執行緒在初始呼叫完成並快取之前進行額外的呼叫，則包裝的函
     式可能會被多次呼叫。

     由於字典用於快取結果，因此函式的位置引數和關鍵字引數必須是*note
     可雜湊的: 409.。

     不同的引數模式可以被認為是具有不同快取條目的不同呼叫。例如，‘f(a=1,
     b=2)’ 和 ‘f(b=2, a=1)’ 的關鍵字引數順序不同，並且可能有兩個不同的快
     取條目。

     如果指定了 'user_function'，則它必須是個可呼叫物件。這使得
     'lru_cache' 裝飾器能夠直接應用於使用者函式，將 'maxsize' 保留為其預
     設值 128：

          @lru_cache
          def count_vowels(sentence):
              return sum(sentence.count(vowel) for vowel in 'AEIOUaeiou')

     如果 'maxsize' 設定為 ‘None’，則 LRU 功能將被停用，且快取可以無限制
     地成長。

     如果 'typed' 設定為 true，不同型別的函式引數將會被單獨快取起來。如
     果 'typed' 為 false，則實作通常會將它們視為等效呼叫，並且僅快取單一
     結果。（某些型別，例如 'str' 和 'int' 可能會被單獨快取起來，即使
     'typed' 為 false。）

     請注意，型別特異性 (type specificity) 僅適用於函式的直接引數而不是
     其內容。純量 (scalar) 引數 ‘Decimal(42)’ 和 ‘Fraction(42)’ 被視為具
     有不同結果的不同呼叫。相反地，元組引數 ‘('answer', Decimal(42))’ 和
     ‘('answer', Fraction(42))’ 被視為等效。

     包裝的函式使用一個 ‘cache_parameters()’ 函式來進行偵測，該函式回傳
     一個新的 *note dict: 239. 以顯示 'maxsize' 和 'typed' 的值。這僅能
     顯示資訊，改變其值不會有任何效果。

     為了輔助測量快取的有效性並調整 'maxsize' 參數，包裝的函式使用了一個
     ‘cache_info()’ 函式來做檢測，該函式會回傳一個*note 附名元組: 449.來
     顯示 'hits'、'misses'、'maxsize' 和 'currsize'。

     裝飾器還提供了一個 ‘cache_clear()’ 函式來清除或使快取失效。

     原本的底層函式可以透過 ‘__wrapped__’ 屬性存取。這對於要自我檢查
     (introspection)、繞過快取或使用不同的快取重新包裝函式時非常有用。

     快取會保留對引數和回傳值的參照，直到快取過時 (age out) 或快取被清除
     為止。

     如果方法被快取起來，則 ‘self’ 實例引數將包含在快取中。請參閱*note
     如何快取方法呼叫？: 24b7.

     當最近的呼叫是即將發生之呼叫的最佳預測因子時（例如新聞伺服器上最受
     歡迎的文章往往每天都會發生變化），LRU (least recently used) 快取
     (4)能發揮最好的效果。快取的大小限制可確保快取不會在長時間運行的行程
     （例如 Web 伺服器）上無限制地成長。

     一般來說，僅當你想要重複使用先前計算的值時才應使用 LRU 快取。因此，
     快取具有 side-effects 的函式、需要在每次呼叫時建立不同可變物件的函
     式（例如產生器和非同步函式）或不純函式（impure function，例如
     time() 或 random()）是沒有意義的。

     靜態網頁內容的 LRU 快取範例：

          @lru_cache(maxsize=32)
          def get_pep(num):
              'Retrieve text of a Python Enhancement Proposal'
              resource = f'https://peps.python.org/pep-{num:04d}'
              try:
                  with urllib.request.urlopen(resource) as s:
                      return s.read()
              except urllib.error.HTTPError:
                  return 'Not Found'

          >>> for n in 8, 290, 308, 320, 8, 218, 320, 279, 289, 320, 9991:
          ...     pep = get_pep(n)
          ...     print(n, len(pep))

          >>> get_pep.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=3, misses=8, maxsize=32, currsize=8)

     使用快取來實作動態規劃 (dynamic programming)(5) 技法以有效率地計算
     費波那契數 (Fibonacci numbers)(6) 的範例：

          @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
          def fib(n):
              if n < 2:
                  return n
              return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)

          >>> [fib(n) for n in range(16)]
          [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610]

          >>> fib.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=28, misses=16, maxsize=None, currsize=16)

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'typed' 選項。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'user_function' 選項。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 ‘cache_parameters()’ 函式。

 -- 函式: @functools.total_ordering

     給定一個定義一個或多個 rich comparison 排序方法的類別，該類別裝飾器
     會提供其餘部分。這簡化了指定所有可能的 rich comparison 操作所涉及的
     工作：

     類別必須定義 ‘__lt__()’、‘__le__()’、‘__gt__()’ 或 ‘__ge__()’ 其中
     之一。此外，該類別應該提供 ‘__eq__()’ 方法。

     舉例來說：

          @total_ordering
          class Student:
              def _is_valid_operand(self, other):
                  return (hasattr(other, "lastname") and
                          hasattr(other, "firstname"))
              def __eq__(self, other):
                  if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
                      return NotImplemented
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))
              def __lt__(self, other):
                  if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
                      return NotImplemented
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

          備註: 雖然此裝飾器可以輕鬆建立能好好運作的完全有序型別
          (totally ordered types)，但它'的確'以衍生比較方法的執行速度較
          慢和堆疊追蹤 (stack trace) 較複雜做為其代價。如果效能基準測試
          顯示這是給定應用程式的效能瓶頸，那麼實作全部六種 rich
          comparison 方法通常能輕鬆地提升速度。

          備註: 此裝飾器不會嘗試覆寫類別'或其超類別 (superclass)'中宣告
          的方法。這意味著如果超類別定義了比較運算子，'total_ordering' 將
          不會再次實作它，即使原始方法是抽象的。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 現在支援從底層對於未識別型別的比較函式回傳
     ‘NotImplemented’。

 -- 函式: functools.partial (func, /, *args, **keywords)

     回傳一個新的 *note partial 物件: 24b8.，它在被呼叫時的行為類似於使
     用位置引數 'args' 和關鍵字引數 'keywords' 呼叫的 'func'。如果向呼叫
     提供更多引數，它們將被附加到 'args'。如果提供了額外的關鍵字引數，它
     們會擴充並覆寫 'keywords'。大致相當於：

          def partial(func, /, *args, **keywords):
              def newfunc(*fargs, **fkeywords):
                  newkeywords = {**keywords, **fkeywords}
                  return func(*args, *fargs, **newkeywords)
              newfunc.func = func
              newfunc.args = args
              newfunc.keywords = keywords
              return newfunc

     *note partial(): d4e. 用於部分函式應用程序，它「凍結」函式引數和/或
     關鍵字的某些部分，從而產生具有簡化簽名的新物件。例如，*note
     partial(): d4e. 可用來建立可呼叫函式，其行為類似於 *note int():
     17e. 函式，其中 'base' 引數預設為 2：

          >>> from functools import partial
          >>> basetwo = partial(int, base=2)
          >>> basetwo.__doc__ = 'Convert base 2 string to an int.'
          >>> basetwo('10010')
          18

 -- 類別: functools.partialmethod (func, /, *args, **keywords)

     回傳一個新的 *note partialmethod: 8c7. 描述器 (descriptor)，其行為
     類似於 *note partial: d4e.，只不過它被設計為用於方法定義而不能直接
     呼叫。

     'func' 必須是一個 *note descriptor: 1d03. 或可呼叫物件（兩者兼具的
     物件，就像普通函式一樣，會被當作描述器處理）。

     當 'func' 是描述器時（例如普通的 Python 函式、*note classmethod():
     24b.、*note staticmethod(): 5f9.、‘abstractmethod()’ 或 *note
     partialmethod: 8c7. 的另一個實例），對 ‘__get__’ 的呼叫將被委託
     (delegated) 給底層描述器，且一個適當的 *note partial 物件: 24b8.會
     被作為結果回傳。

     當 'func' 是非描述器可呼叫物件 (non-descriptor callable) 時，會動態
     建立適當的繫結方法 (bound method)。當被作為方法使用時，其行為類似於
     普通的 Python 函式：'self' 引數將作為第一個位置引數插入，甚至會在提
     供給 *note partialmethod: 8c7. 建構函式的 'args' 和 'keywords' 的前
     面。

     範例：

          >>> class Cell:
          ...     def __init__(self):
          ...         self._alive = False
          ...     @property
          ...     def alive(self):
          ...         return self._alive
          ...     def set_state(self, state):
          ...         self._alive = bool(state)
          ...     set_alive = partialmethod(set_state, True)
          ...     set_dead = partialmethod(set_state, False)
          ...
          >>> c = Cell()
          >>> c.alive
          False
          >>> c.set_alive()
          >>> c.alive
          True

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: functools.reduce (function, iterable[, initializer])

     從左到右，將兩個引數的 'function' 累加運用到 'iterable' 的項目上，
     從而將可疊代物件減少為單一值。例如，‘reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1,
     2, 3, 4, 5])’ 會計算出 ‘((((1+2)+3)+4)+5)’。左邊的引數 'x' 是累積值
     ，右邊的引數 'y' 是來自 'iterable' 的更新值。如果可選的
     'initializer' 存在，則在計算中會將其放置在可疊代物件的項目之前，並
     在可疊代物件為空時作為預設值。如果未給定 'initializer' 且
     'iterable' 僅包含一個項目，則回傳第一個項目。

     大致相當於：

          def reduce(function, iterable, initializer=None):
              it = iter(iterable)
              if initializer is None:
                  value = next(it)
              else:
                  value = initializer
              for element in it:
                  value = function(value, element)
              return value

     請參閱 *note itertools.accumulate(): 843. 以了解產生 (yield) 所有中
     間值 (intermediate value) 的疊代器。

 -- 函式: @functools.singledispatch

     將函式轉換為*note 單一調度: 837.*note 泛型函式: 836.。

     若要定義泛型函式，請使用 ‘@singledispatch’ 裝飾器對其裝飾。請注意，
     使用 ‘@singledispatch’ 定義函式時，分派調度 (dispatch) 是發生在第一
     個引數的型別上：

          >>> from functools import singledispatch
          >>> @singledispatch
          ... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)

     若要為函式新增過載實作，請使用泛型函式的 ‘register()’ 屬性，該屬性
     可用作裝飾器。對於以型別來註釋的函式，裝飾器將自動推斷第一個引數的
     型別：

          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: list, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)

     也可以使用 *note types.UnionType: 435. 和 *note typing.Union: 436.：

          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> from typing import Union
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)
          ...

     對於不使用型別註釋的程式碼，可以將適當的型別引數明確傳遞給裝飾器本
     身：

          >>> @fun.register(complex)
          ... def _(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Better than complicated.", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg.real, arg.imag)
          ...

     For code that dispatches on a collections type (e.g., ‘list’), but
     wants to typehint the items of the collection (e.g., ‘list[int]’),
     the dispatch type should be passed explicitly to the decorator
     itself with the typehint going into the function definition:

          >>> @fun.register(list)
          ... def _(arg: list[int], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)

          備註: At runtime the function will dispatch on an instance of
          a list regardless of the type contained within the list i.e.
          ‘[1,2,3]’ will be dispatched the same as ‘["foo", "bar",
          "baz"]’.  The annotation provided in this example is for
          static type checkers only and has no runtime impact.

     若要啟用註冊 *note lambdas: 24b9. 和預先存在的函式，‘register()’ 屬
     性也能以函式形式使用：

          >>> def nothing(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     print("Nothing.")
          ...
          >>> fun.register(type(None), nothing)

     ‘register()’ 屬性回傳未加裝飾器的函式。這讓使得裝飾器堆疊
     (decorator stacking)、*note pickling: a1. 以及為每個變體獨立建立單
     元測試成為可能：

          >>> @fun.register(float)
          ... @fun.register(Decimal)
          ... def fun_num(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Half of your number:", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg / 2)
          ...
          >>> fun_num is fun
          False

     呼叫時，泛型函式會分派第一個引數的型別：

          >>> fun("Hello, world.")
          Hello, world.
          >>> fun("test.", verbose=True)
          Let me just say, test.
          >>> fun(42, verbose=True)
          Strength in numbers, eh? 42
          >>> fun(['spam', 'spam', 'eggs', 'spam'], verbose=True)
          Enumerate this:
          0 spam
          1 spam
          2 eggs
          3 spam
          >>> fun(None)
          Nothing.
          >>> fun(1.23)
          0.615

     如果沒有為特定型別註冊實作，則使用其方法解析順序 (method resolution
     order) 來尋找更通用的實作。用 ‘@singledispatch’ 裝飾的原始函式是為
     基底 *note object: 8d9. 型別註冊的，這意味著如果沒有找到更好的實作
     就會使用它。

     如果一個實作有被註冊到一個*note 抽象基底類別: 1047.，則基底類別的虛
     擬子類別將被分派到該實作：

          >>> from collections.abc import Mapping
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Mapping, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Keys & Values")
          ...     for key, value in arg.items():
          ...         print(key, "=>", value)
          ...
          >>> fun({"a": "b"})
          a => b

     若要檢查泛型函式將為給定型別選擇哪種實作，請使用 ‘dispatch()’ 屬性
     ：

          >>> fun.dispatch(float)
          <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
          >>> fun.dispatch(dict)    # note: default implementation
          <function fun at 0x103fe0000>

     若要存取所有已註冊的實作，請使用唯讀 ‘registry’ 屬性：

          >>> fun.registry.keys()
          dict_keys([<class 'NoneType'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'object'>,
                    <class 'decimal.Decimal'>, <class 'list'>,
                    <class 'float'>])
          >>> fun.registry[float]
          <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
          >>> fun.registry[object]
          <function fun at 0x103fe0000>

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: ‘register()’ 屬性現在支援使用型別註釋。

     在 3.11 版的變更: ‘register()’ 屬性現在支援以 *note
     types.UnionType: 435. 和 *note typing.Union: 436. 作為型別註釋。

 -- 類別: functools.singledispatchmethod (func)

     將方法轉換為*note 單一調度: 837.*note 泛型函式: 836.。

     若要定義泛型方法，請使用 ‘@singledispatchmethod’ 裝飾器對其裝飾。請
     注意，使用 ‘@singledispatchmethod’ 定義函式時，分派調度是發生在第一
     個非 'self' 或非 'cls' 引數的型別上：

          class Negator:
              @singledispatchmethod
              def neg(self, arg):
                  raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

              @neg.register
              def _(self, arg: int):
                  return -arg

              @neg.register
              def _(self, arg: bool):
                  return not arg

     ‘@singledispatchmethod’ 支援與其他裝飾器巢狀使用 (nesting)，例如
     *note @classmethod: 24b.。請注意，為了使 ‘dispatcher.register’ 可用
     ，‘singledispatchmethod’ 必須是'最外面的'裝飾器。以下範例是
     ‘Negator’ 類別，其 ‘neg’ 方法繫結到該類別，而不是該類別的實例：

          class Negator:
              @singledispatchmethod
              @classmethod
              def neg(cls, arg):
                  raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

              @neg.register
              @classmethod
              def _(cls, arg: int):
                  return -arg

              @neg.register
              @classmethod
              def _(cls, arg: bool):
                  return not arg

     相同的模式可用於其他類似的裝飾器：*note @staticmethod: 5f9.、*note
     @abstractmethod: f1c. 等。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: functools.update_wrapper (wrapper, wrapped,
          assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

     Update a 'wrapper' function to look like the 'wrapped' function.
     The optional arguments are tuples to specify which attributes of
     the original function are assigned directly to the matching
     attributes on the wrapper function and which attributes of the
     wrapper function are updated with the corresponding attributes from
     the original function.  The default values for these arguments are
     the module level constants ‘WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS’ (which assigns to
     the wrapper function's *note __module__: 1c8e, *note __name__:
     1165, *note __qualname__: 1c8d, *note __annotations__: 1069, *note
     __type_params__: 1c90, and *note __doc__: 106a, the documentation
     string) and ‘WRAPPER_UPDATES’ (which updates the wrapper function's
     *note __dict__: 1163, i.e.  the instance dictionary).

     為了允許出於內省 (introspection) 和其他目的所對原始函式的存取（例如
     繞過快取裝飾器，如 *note lru_cache(): 834.），此函式會自動向包裝器
     新增 ‘__wrapped__’ 屬性，該包裝器參照被包裝的函式。

     此函式的主要用途是在 *note decorator: 540. 函式中，它包裝函式並回傳
     包裝器。如果包裝器函式未更新，則回傳函式的元資料 (metadata) 將反映
     包裝器定義而非原始函式定義，這通常不太會有幫助。

     *note update_wrapper(): eb6. 可以與函式以外的可呼叫物件一起使用。被
     包裝的物件中缺少的 'assigned' 或 'updated' 中指定的任何屬性都將被忽
     略（即此函式不會嘗試在包裝器函式上設定它們）。如果包裝函式本身缺少
     'updated' 中指定的任何屬性，仍然會引發 *note AttributeError: 3ca.。

     在 3.2 版的變更: The ‘__wrapped__’ attribute is now automatically
     added.  The *note __annotations__: 1069. attribute is now copied by
     default.  Missing attributes no longer trigger an *note
     AttributeError: 3ca.

     在 3.4 版的變更: ‘__wrapped__’ 屬性現在都會參照包裝函式，即便函式有
     定義 ‘__wrapped__’ 屬性。（參見 bpo-17482(7)）

     在 3.12 版的變更: The *note __type_params__: 1c90. attribute is now
     copied by default.

 -- 函式: @functools.wraps (wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS,
          updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

     這是一個方便的函式，用於在定義包裝器函式時呼叫 *note
     update_wrapper(): eb6. 作為函式裝飾器。它相當於
     ‘partial(update_wrapper, wrapped=wrapped, assigned=assigned,
     updated=updated)’。例如：

          >>> from functools import wraps
          >>> def my_decorator(f):
          ...     @wraps(f)
          ...     def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
          ...         print('Calling decorated function')
          ...         return f(*args, **kwds)
          ...     return wrapper
          ...
          >>> @my_decorator
          ... def example():
          ...     """Docstring"""
          ...     print('Called example function')
          ...
          >>> example()
          Calling decorated function
          Called example function
          >>> example.__name__
          'example'
          >>> example.__doc__
          'Docstring'

     如果不使用這個裝飾器工廠 (decorator factory)，範例函式的名稱將會是
     ‘'wrapper'’，並且原始 ‘example()’ 的文件字串將會遺失。

* Menu:

* partial 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/functools.py

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoization

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/

   (4) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Least_Recently_Used_(LRU)

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17482


File: python.info,  Node: partial 物件,  Up: functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作

5.10.2.1 ‘partial’ 物件
.......................

*note partial: d4e. 物件是由 *note partial(): d4e. 所建立的可呼叫物件。
它們有三個唯讀屬性：

 -- 屬性: partial.func

     一個可呼叫的物件或函式。對 *note partial: d4e. 物件的呼叫將被轉送到
     帶有新引數和關鍵字的 *note func: 24bb.。

 -- 屬性: partial.args

     最左邊的位置引數將會被加入到提供給 *note partial: d4e. 物件呼叫的位
     置引數的前面。

 -- 屬性: partial.keywords

     呼叫 *note partial: d4e. 物件時將提供的關鍵字引數。

*note partial: d4e. objects are like *note function objects: 1ab4. in
that they are callable, weak referenceable, and can have attributes.
There are some important differences.  For instance, the *note __name__:
1165. and *note function.__doc__: 106a. attributes are not created
automatically.  Also, *note partial: d4e. objects defined in classes
behave like static methods and do not transform into bound methods
during instance attribute look-up.


File: python.info,  Node: operator --- 標準運算子替代函式,  Prev: functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作,  Up: 函式編程模組

5.10.3 ‘operator’ -- 標準運算子替代函式
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/operator.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note operator: 9a. module（模組）提供了一套與 Python 原生運算子對應的高
效率函式。例如，‘operator.add(x, y)’ 與表示式 ‘x+y’ 相同。許多函式名與特
殊方法名相同，只是沒有雙底線。為了向後相容，許多包含雙底線的函式被保留了
下來，但為了易於表達，建議使用沒有雙底線的函式。

函式種類有物件的比較運算、邏輯運算、數學運算以及序列運算。

物件比較函式適用於所有物件，函式根據它們對應的 rich comparison 運算子命
名：

 -- 函式: operator.lt (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.le (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.eq (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.ne (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.ge (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.gt (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__lt__ (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__le__ (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__eq__ (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__ne__ (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__ge__ (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__gt__ (a, b)

     在 'a' 和 'b' 之間進行 "rich comparison"。具體來說，‘lt(a, b)’ 與
     ‘a < b’ 相同，‘le(a, b)’ 與 ‘a <= b’ 相同，‘eq(a, b)’ 與 ‘a == b’ 相
     同，‘ne(a, b)’ 與 ‘a != b’ 相同，‘gt(a, b)’ 與 ‘a > b’ 相同，‘ge(a,
     b)’ 與 ‘a >= b’ 相同。注意這些函式可以回傳任何值，無論它是否可當作
     boolean（布林）值。關於 rich comparison 的更多資訊請參考 *note
     Comparisons: 1e03.。

邏輯運算通常也適用於所有物件，並且支援真值檢測、識別性測試和 boolean 運
算：

 -- 函式: operator.not_ (obj)
 -- 函式: operator.__not__ (obj)

     回傳 *note not: 1e0d. 'obj' 的結果。（請注意物件實例並沒有
     ‘__not__()’ method（方法）；只有直譯器核心定義此操作。結果會受
     *note __bool__(): 1166. 和 *note __len__(): 1cf4. method 影響。）

 -- 函式: operator.truth (obj)

     如果 'obj' 為真值則回傳 *note True: a70.，否則回傳 *note False:
     98f.。這等價於使用 *note bool: 17d. 建構器。

 -- 函式: operator.is_ (a, b)

     回傳 ‘a is b’。測試物件識別性。

 -- 函式: operator.is_not (a, b)

     回傳 ‘a is not b’。測試物件識別性。

數學和位元運算的種類是最多的：

 -- 函式: operator.abs (obj)
 -- 函式: operator.__abs__ (obj)

     回傳 'obj' 的絕對值。

 -- 函式: operator.add (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__add__ (a, b)

     對於數字 'a' 和 'b'，回傳 ‘a + b’。

 -- 函式: operator.and_ (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__and__ (a, b)

     回傳 'x' 和 'y' 位元運算與 (and) 的結果。

 -- 函式: operator.floordiv (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__floordiv__ (a, b)

     回傳 ‘a // b’。

 -- 函式: operator.index (a)
 -- 函式: operator.__index__ (a)

     回傳 'a' 轉換為整數的結果。等價於 ‘a.__index__()’。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 結果總是 *note int: 17e. 型別。在過去的版本中，結
     果可能為 ‘int’ 子類別的實例。

 -- 函式: operator.inv (obj)
 -- 函式: operator.invert (obj)
 -- 函式: operator.__inv__ (obj)
 -- 函式: operator.__invert__ (obj)

     回傳數字 'obj' 按位元取反 (inverse) 的結果。這等價於 ‘~obj’。

 -- 函式: operator.lshift (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__lshift__ (a, b)

     回傳 'a' 左移 'b' 位的結果。

 -- 函式: operator.mod (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__mod__ (a, b)

     回傳 ‘a % b’。

 -- 函式: operator.mul (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__mul__ (a, b)

     對於數字 'a' 和 'b'，回傳 ‘a * b’。

 -- 函式: operator.matmul (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__matmul__ (a, b)

     回傳 ‘a @ b’。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: operator.neg (obj)
 -- 函式: operator.__neg__ (obj)

     回傳 'obj' 取負值的結果 (‘-obj’)。

 -- 函式: operator.or_ (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__or__ (a, b)

     回傳 'a' 和 'b' 按位元或 (or) 的結果。

 -- 函式: operator.pos (obj)
 -- 函式: operator.__pos__ (obj)

     回傳 'obj' 取正的結果 (‘+obj’)。

 -- 函式: operator.pow (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__pow__ (a, b)

     對於數字 'a' 和 'b'，回傳 ‘a ** b’。

 -- 函式: operator.rshift (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__rshift__ (a, b)

     回傳 'a' 右移 'b' 位的結果。

 -- 函式: operator.sub (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__sub__ (a, b)

     回傳 ‘a - b’。

 -- 函式: operator.truediv (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__truediv__ (a, b)

     回傳 ‘a / b’，例如 2/3 將等於 .66 而不是 0。這也被稱為「真」除法。

 -- 函式: operator.xor (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__xor__ (a, b)

     回傳 'a' 和 'b' 按位元異或 (exclusive or) 的結果。

適用於序列的操作（其中一些也適用於對映 (mapping)），包括：

 -- 函式: operator.concat (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__concat__ (a, b)

     對於序列 'a' 和 'b'，回傳 ‘a + b’。

 -- 函式: operator.contains (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__contains__ (a, b)

     回傳 ‘b in a’ 檢測的結果。請注意運算元是反序的。

 -- 函式: operator.countOf (a, b)

     回傳 'b' 在 'a' 中的出現次數。

 -- 函式: operator.delitem (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__delitem__ (a, b)

     移除 'a' 中索引為 'b' 的值。

 -- 函式: operator.getitem (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__getitem__ (a, b)

     回傳 'a' 中索引為 'b' 的值。

 -- 函式: operator.indexOf (a, b)

     回傳 'b' 在 'a' 中首次出現所在的索引。

 -- 函式: operator.setitem (a, b, c)
 -- 函式: operator.__setitem__ (a, b, c)

     將 'a' 中索引為 'b' 的值設為 'c'。

 -- 函式: operator.length_hint (obj, default=0)

     回傳物件 'obj' 的估計長度。首先嘗試回傳其實際長度，再使用 *note
     object.__length_hint__(): d90. 得出估計值，最後才是回傳預設值。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

The following operation works with callables:

 -- 函式: operator.call (obj, /, *args, **kwargs)
 -- 函式: operator.__call__ (obj, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Return ‘obj(*args, **kwargs)’.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

*note operator: 9a. module 還定義了一些用於常規屬性和條目查詢的工具。這
些工具適合用來編寫快速欄位提取器以作為 *note map(): 68f.、*note
sorted(): a2f.、*note itertools.groupby(): 24ae. 或其他需要函式引數的函
式之引數。

 -- 函式: operator.attrgetter (attr)

 -- 函式: operator.attrgetter (*attrs)

     回傳一個可從運算元中獲取 'attr' 的可呼叫 (callable) 物件。如果請求
     了一個以上的屬性，則回傳一個包含屬性的 tupple（元組）。屬性名稱還可
     包含點號。例如：

        * 在 ‘f = attrgetter('name')’ 之後，呼叫 ‘f(b)’ 將回傳 ‘b.name’。

        * 在 ‘f = attrgetter('name', 'date')’ 之後，呼叫 ‘f(b)’ 將回傳
          ‘(b.name, b.date)’。

        * 在 ‘f = attrgetter('name.first', 'name.last')’ 之後，呼叫
          ‘f(b)’ 將回傳 ‘(b.name.first, b.name.last)’。

     等價於：

          def attrgetter(*items):
              if any(not isinstance(item, str) for item in items):
                  raise TypeError('attribute name must be a string')
              if len(items) == 1:
                  attr = items[0]
                  def g(obj):
                      return resolve_attr(obj, attr)
              else:
                  def g(obj):
                      return tuple(resolve_attr(obj, attr) for attr in items)
              return g

          def resolve_attr(obj, attr):
              for name in attr.split("."):
                  obj = getattr(obj, name)
              return obj

 -- 函式: operator.itemgetter (item)

 -- 函式: operator.itemgetter (*items)

     回傳一個使用運算元的 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 方法從運算元中獲取
     'item' 的可呼叫物件。如果指定了多個條目，則回傳一個查詢值的 tupple。
     例如：

        * 在 ‘f = itemgetter(2)’ 之後，呼叫 ‘f(r)’ 將回傳 ‘r[2]’。

        * 在 ‘g = itemgetter(2, 5, 3)’ 之後，呼叫 ‘g(r)’ 將回傳 ‘(r[2],
          r[5], r[3])’。

     等價於：

          def itemgetter(*items):
              if len(items) == 1:
                  item = items[0]
                  def g(obj):
                      return obj[item]
              else:
                  def g(obj):
                      return tuple(obj[item] for item in items)
              return g

     傳入的條目可以為運算元的 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 所接受的任何型別
     。dictionary（字典）接受任意*note 可雜湊: 409.的值。list、tupple 和
     字串接受索引或切片：

          >>> itemgetter(1)('ABCDEFG')
          'B'
          >>> itemgetter(1, 3, 5)('ABCDEFG')
          ('B', 'D', 'F')
          >>> itemgetter(slice(2, None))('ABCDEFG')
          'CDEFG'
          >>> soldier = dict(rank='captain', name='dotterbart')
          >>> itemgetter('rank')(soldier)
          'captain'

     使用 *note itemgetter(): 8ad. 從 tuple 中提取特定欄位的例子：

          >>> inventory = [('apple', 3), ('banana', 2), ('pear', 5), ('orange', 1)]
          >>> getcount = itemgetter(1)
          >>> list(map(getcount, inventory))
          [3, 2, 5, 1]
          >>> sorted(inventory, key=getcount)
          [('orange', 1), ('banana', 2), ('apple', 3), ('pear', 5)]

 -- 函式: operator.methodcaller (name, /, *args, **kwargs)

     回傳一個在運算元上呼叫 'name' method 的可呼叫物件。如果給定額外的引
     數和/或關鍵字引數，它們也將被傳給該 method。例如：

        * 在 ‘f = methodcaller('name')’ 之後，呼叫 ‘f(b)’ 將回傳
          ‘b.name()’。

        * 在 ‘f = methodcaller('name', 'foo', bar=1)’ 之後，呼叫 ‘f(b)’
          將回傳 ‘b.name('foo', bar=1)’。

     等價於：

          def methodcaller(name, /, *args, **kwargs):
              def caller(obj):
                  return getattr(obj, name)(*args, **kwargs)
              return caller

* Menu:

* 運算子與函式間的對映::
* 原地 (in-place) 運算子: 原地 in-place 運算子.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/operator.py


File: python.info,  Node: 運算子與函式間的對映,  Next: 原地 in-place 運算子,  Up: operator --- 標準運算子替代函式

5.10.3.1 運算子與函式間的對映
.............................

以下表格表示了抽象運算是如何對應於 Python 語法中的運算子和 *note
operator: 9a. module中的函式。

運算                        語法                          函式
                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                          
加法                        ‘a + b’                       ‘add(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
字串串接                    ‘seq1 + seq2’                 ‘concat(seq1, seq2)’
                                                          
                                                          
包含性檢測                  ‘obj in seq’                  ‘contains(seq, obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
除法                        ‘a / b’                       ‘truediv(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
除法                        ‘a // b’                      ‘floordiv(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
按位元與 (And)              ‘a & b’                       ‘and_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
按位元互斥或 (Exclusive     ‘a ^ b’                       ‘xor(a, b)’
Or)                                                       

按位元取反 (Inversion)      ‘~ a’                         ‘invert(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
按位元或 (Or)               ‘a | b’                       ‘or_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
取冪                        ‘a ** b’                      ‘pow(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
識別性                      ‘a is b’                      ‘is_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
識別性                      ‘a is not b’                  ‘is_not(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
索引賦值                    ‘obj[k] = v’                  ‘setitem(obj, k, v)’
                                                          
                                                          
索引刪除                    ‘del obj[k]’                  ‘delitem(obj, k)’
                                                          
                                                          
索引取值                    ‘obj[k]’                      ‘getitem(obj, k)’
                                                          
                                                          
左移                        ‘a << b’                      ‘lshift(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
模除 (Modulo)               ‘a % b’                       ‘mod(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
乘法                        ‘a * b’                       ‘mul(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
矩陣乘法                    ‘a @ b’                       ‘matmul(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
反相（算術）                ‘- a’                         ‘neg(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
反相（邏輯）                ‘not a’                       ‘not_(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
正數                        ‘+ a’                         ‘pos(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
右移                        ‘a >> b’                      ‘rshift(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
切片賦值                    ‘seq[i:j] = values’           ‘setitem(seq, slice(i, j), values)’
                                                          
                                                          
切片刪除                    ‘del seq[i:j]’                ‘delitem(seq, slice(i, j))’
                                                          
                                                          
切片取值                    ‘seq[i:j]’                    ‘getitem(seq, slice(i, j))’
                                                          
                                                          
字串格式化                  ‘s % obj’                     ‘mod(s, obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
減法                        ‘a - b’                       ‘sub(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
真值檢測                    ‘obj’                         ‘truth(obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
比較大小                    ‘a < b’                       ‘lt(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
比較大小                    ‘a <= b’                      ‘le(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
相等性                      ‘a == b’                      ‘eq(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
不等性                      ‘a != b’                      ‘ne(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
比較大小                    ‘a >= b’                      ‘ge(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
比較大小                    ‘a > b’                       ‘gt(a, b)’
                                                          


File: python.info,  Node: 原地 in-place 運算子,  Prev: 運算子與函式間的對映,  Up: operator --- 標準運算子替代函式

5.10.3.2 原地 (in-place) 運算子
...............................

許多運算都有「原地」版本。以下列出的是提供對原地運算子（與一般語法相比）
更底層存取的函式，例如 *note statement: 2501. ‘x += y’ 相當於 ‘x =
operator.iadd(x, y)’。換一種方式來講就是 ‘z = operator.iadd(x, y)’ 等價
於複合陳述式 ‘z = x; z += y’。

在這些例子中，請注意當呼叫一個原地方法時，運算和賦值是分成兩個步驟來執行
的。下面列出的原地函式只執行第一步，即呼叫原地方法，第二步賦值則不加處理
。

對於不可變 (immutable) 的目標例如字串、數字和 tupple，更新的值會被計算，
但不會被再被賦值給輸入變數：

     >>> a = 'hello'
     >>> iadd(a, ' world')
     'hello world'
     >>> a
     'hello'

對於可變 (mutable) 的目標例如 list 和 dictionary，原地方法將執行更新，因
此不需要後續賦值操作：

     >>> s = ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
     >>> iadd(s, [' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd'])
     ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']
     >>> s
     ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']

 -- 函式: operator.iadd (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__iadd__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iadd(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a += b’。

 -- 函式: operator.iand (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__iand__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iand(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a &= b’。

 -- 函式: operator.iconcat (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__iconcat__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iconcat(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a += b’，其中 'a' 和 'b' 為序列。

 -- 函式: operator.ifloordiv (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__ifloordiv__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ifloordiv(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a //= b’。

 -- 函式: operator.ilshift (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__ilshift__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ilshift(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a <<= b’。

 -- 函式: operator.imod (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__imod__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imod(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a %= b’。

 -- 函式: operator.imul (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__imul__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imul(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a *= b’。

 -- 函式: operator.imatmul (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__imatmul__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imatmul(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a @= b’。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: operator.ior (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__ior__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ior(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a |= b’。

 -- 函式: operator.ipow (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__ipow__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ipow(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a **= b’。

 -- 函式: operator.irshift (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__irshift__ (a, b)

     ‘a = irshift(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a >>= b’。

 -- 函式: operator.isub (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__isub__ (a, b)

     ‘a = isub(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a -= b’。

 -- 函式: operator.itruediv (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__itruediv__ (a, b)

     ‘a = itruediv(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a /= b’。

 -- 函式: operator.ixor (a, b)
 -- 函式: operator.__ixor__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ixor(a, b)’ 等價於 ‘a ^= b’。


File: python.info,  Node: 檔案與目錄存取,  Next: 資料持久性 Data Persistence,  Prev: 函式編程模組,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.11 檔案與目錄存取
===================

本章中描述的 module（模組）用於處理硬碟檔案和目錄。例如，有一些 module 用
於讀取檔案的屬性、以可攜 (portable) 方式操作路徑以及建立暫存檔。本章中的
完整 module 清單是：

* Menu:

* pathlib: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑. 物件導向檔案系統路徑
* os.path: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作. 常見的路徑名操作
* fileinput: fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流. 逐列疊代多個輸入串流
* stat: stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果. 直譯 stat() 的結果
* filecmp: filecmp --- 檔案與目錄比較. 檔案與目錄比較
* tempfile: tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄. 生成臨時檔案和目錄
* glob: glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展. Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展
* fnmatch: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對. Unix 檔案名稱模式比對
* linecache: linecache --- 隨機存取文字列. 隨機存取文字列
* shutil — 高階檔案操作::


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑,  Next: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作,  Up: 檔案與目錄存取

5.11.1 ‘pathlib’ -- 物件導向檔案系統路徑
----------------------------------------

在 3.4 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/pathlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組提供代表檔案系統路徑的類別，能適用不同作業系統的語意。路徑類別分成
兩種，一種是*note 純路徑 (pure paths): 2522.，提供沒有 I/O 的單純計算操
作，另一種是*note 實體路徑 (concrete paths): 2523.，繼承自純路徑但也提供
IO 操作。

[image src="python-figures/pathlib-inheritance.png" alt="Inheritance diagram showing the classes available in pathlib. The most basic class is PurePath, which has three direct subclasses: PurePosixPath, PureWindowsPath, and Path. Further to these four classes, there are two classes that use multiple inheritance: PosixPath subclasses PurePosixPath and Path, and WindowsPath subclasses PureWindowsPath and Path."]


如果你之前從未使用過此模組或不確定哪個類別適合你的任務，那你需要的最有可
能是 *note Path: 149.。它針對程式執行所在的平台實例化一個*note 實體路徑:
2523.。

純路徑在某些特殊情境下是有用的，例如：

  1. 如果你想在 Unix 機器上處理 Windows 路徑（或反過來），你無法在 Unix
     上實例化 *note WindowsPath: 2524.，但你可以實例化 *note
     PureWindowsPath: 14ce.。

  2. 你想確保你的程式在操作路徑的時候不會真的存取到 OS。在這個情況下，實
     例化其中一種純路徑類別可能是有用的，因為它們不會有任何存取 OS 的操
     作。

也參考
......

PEP 428(2)：pathlib 模組 - 物件導向檔案系統路徑。

也參考
......

針對字串上的底層路徑操作，你也可以使用 *note os.path: 9d. 模組。

* Menu:

* 基本用法::
* 純路徑::
* 實體路徑::
* 與 os 模組裡的工具的對應關係::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pathlib.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/


File: python.info,  Node: 基本用法,  Next: 純路徑,  Up: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑

5.11.1.1 基本用法
.................

匯入主要類別：

     >>> from pathlib import Path

列出子目錄：

     >>> p = Path('.')
     >>> [x for x in p.iterdir() if x.is_dir()]
     [PosixPath('.hg'), PosixPath('docs'), PosixPath('dist'),
      PosixPath('__pycache__'), PosixPath('build')]

在當前目錄樹下列出 Python 原始碼檔案：

     >>> list(p.glob('**/*.py'))
     [PosixPath('test_pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'),
      PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
      PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py')]

瀏覽目錄樹內部：

     >>> p = Path('/etc')
     >>> q = p / 'init.d' / 'reboot'
     >>> q
     PosixPath('/etc/init.d/reboot')
     >>> q.resolve()
     PosixPath('/etc/rc.d/init.d/halt')

查詢路徑屬性：

     >>> q.exists()
     True
     >>> q.is_dir()
     False

開啟檔案：

     >>> with q.open() as f: f.readline()
     ...
     '#!/bin/bash\n'


File: python.info,  Node: 純路徑,  Next: 實體路徑,  Prev: 基本用法,  Up: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑

5.11.1.2 純路徑
...............

純路徑物件提供處理路徑的操作，實際上不會存取檔案系統。有三種方式可以存取
這些類別，我們也稱之為'類型 (flavours)'：

 -- 類別: pathlib.PurePath (*pathsegments)

     一個通用的類別，表示系統的路徑類型（實例化時會建立一個 *note
     PurePosixPath: 2527. 或 *note PureWindowsPath: 14ce.)：

          >>> PurePath('setup.py')      # Running on a Unix machine
          PurePosixPath('setup.py')

     'pathsegments' 中的每個元素可以是以下的其中一種：一個表示路徑片段的
     字串，或一個物件，它實作了 *note os.PathLike: ab7. 介面且其中的
     *note __fspath__(): ab8. 方法會回傳字串，就像是另一個路徑物件：

          >>> PurePath('foo', 'some/path', 'bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/some/path/bar')
          >>> PurePath(Path('foo'), Path('bar'))
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')

     當沒有給 'pathsegments' 的時候，會假設是目前的目錄：

          >>> PurePath()
          PurePosixPath('.')

     如果一個片段是絕對路徑，則所有之前的片段會被忽略（類似 *note
     os.path.join(): 14ed.)：

          >>> PurePath('/etc', '/usr', 'lib64')
          PurePosixPath('/usr/lib64')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', 'd:bar')
          PureWindowsPath('d:bar')

     在 Windows 系統上，當遇到具有根目錄的相對路徑片段（例如 ‘r'\foo'’）
     時，磁碟機 (drive) 部分不會被重置：

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

     不必要的斜線和單點會被合併，但雙點 (‘'..'’) 和前置的雙斜線 (‘'//'’)
     不會被合併，因為這樣會因為各種原因改變路徑的意義（例如符號連結
     (symbolic links)、UNC 路徑）：

          >>> PurePath('foo//bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('//foo/bar')
          PurePosixPath('//foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('foo/./bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('foo/../bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')

     （一個使得 ‘PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')’ 等同於
     ‘PurePosixPath('bar')’ 的單純方法，但如果 ‘foo’ 是指到另一個目錄的
     符號連結，就會是錯誤的。）

     純路徑物件實作了 *note os.PathLike: ab7. 介面，使得它們可以在任何接
     受該介面的地方使用。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增了對於 *note os.PathLike: ab7. 介面的支援。

 -- 類別: pathlib.PurePosixPath (*pathsegments)

     *note PurePath: 1c8. 的一個子類別，該路徑類型表示非 Windows 檔案系
     統的路徑：

          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     'pathsegments' 的指定方式與 *note PurePath: 1c8. 類似。

 -- 類別: pathlib.PureWindowsPath (*pathsegments)

     *note PurePath: 1c8. 的一個子類別，該路徑類型表示 Windows 檔案系統
     的路徑，包括 UNC paths(1)：

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')
          PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')

     'pathsegments' 的指定方式與 *note PurePath: 1c8. 類似。

不論你使用的是什麼系統，你都可以實例化這些類別，因為它們不提供任何涉及系
統呼叫的操作。

* Menu:

* 通用屬性::
* 運算子::
* 對個別組成的存取::
* 方法與屬性::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(computing)#UNC


File: python.info,  Node: 通用屬性,  Next: 運算子,  Up: 純路徑

5.11.1.3 通用屬性
.................

路徑物件是不可變 (immutable) 且可雜湊 (*note hashable: 409.) 的。相同類
型的路徑物件可以被比較和排序。這些屬性遵守該類型的大小寫語意規則：

     >>> PurePosixPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('FOO')
     False
     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PureWindowsPath('FOO')
     True
     >>> PureWindowsPath('FOO') in { PureWindowsPath('foo') }
     True
     >>> PureWindowsPath('C:') < PureWindowsPath('d:')
     True

不同類型的路徑物件在比較時視為不相等且無法被排序：

     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('foo')
     False
     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') < PurePosixPath('foo')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'PureWindowsPath' and 'PurePosixPath'


File: python.info,  Node: 運算子,  Next: 對個別組成的存取,  Prev: 通用屬性,  Up: 純路徑

5.11.1.4 運算子
...............

斜線運算子 (slash operator) 用於建立子路徑，就像是 *note os.path.join():
14ed. 函式一樣。如果引數是絕對路徑，則忽略前一個路徑。在 Windows 系統上
，當引數是具有根目錄的相對路徑（例如，‘r'\foo'’），磁碟機部分不會被重置
：

     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> p
     PurePosixPath('/etc')
     >>> p / 'init.d' / 'apache2'
     PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
     >>> q = PurePath('bin')
     >>> '/usr' / q
     PurePosixPath('/usr/bin')
     >>> p / '/an_absolute_path'
     PurePosixPath('/an_absolute_path')
     >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
     PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

路徑物件可以被用在任何可以接受實作 *note os.PathLike: ab7. 的物件的地方
：

     >>> import os
     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> os.fspath(p)
     '/etc'

路徑的字串表示是原始的檔案系統路徑本身（以原生的形式，例如在 Windows 下
是反斜線），你可以將其傳入任何將檔案路徑當作字串傳入的函式：

     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> str(p)
     '/etc'
     >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
     >>> str(p)
     'c:\\Program Files'

類似地，對路徑呼叫 *note bytes: 2c1. 會得到原始檔案系統路徑的 bytes 物件
，就像使用 *note os.fsencode(): abb. 編碼過的一樣：

     >>> bytes(p)
     b'/etc'

     備註: 只建議在 Unix 下呼叫 *note bytes: 2c1.。在 Windows 裡，
     unicode 形式是檔案系統路徑的權威表示方式。


File: python.info,  Node: 對個別組成的存取,  Next: 方法與屬性,  Prev: 運算子,  Up: 純路徑

5.11.1.5 對個別組成的存取
.........................

可以使用下列屬性來存取路徑的個別「組成」(parts, components)：

 -- 屬性: PurePath.parts

     一個可存取路徑的各組成的元組：

          >>> p = PurePath('/usr/bin/python3')
          >>> p.parts
          ('/', 'usr', 'bin', 'python3')

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/PSF')
          >>> p.parts
          ('c:\\', 'Program Files', 'PSF')

     （特別注意磁碟機跟本地根目錄是如何被重新組合成一個單一組成）


File: python.info,  Node: 方法與屬性,  Prev: 對個別組成的存取,  Up: 純路徑

5.11.1.6 方法與屬性
...................

純路徑提供以下方法與屬性：

 -- 屬性: PurePath.drive

     若存在則為一個表示磁碟機字母 (drive letter) 或磁碟機名稱 (drive
     name) 的字串：

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').drive
          'c:'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('/Program Files/').drive
          ''
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').drive
          ''

     UNC shares 也被視為磁碟機：

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share/foo.txt').drive
          '\\\\host\\share'

 -- 屬性: PurePath.root

     若存在則為一個表示（本地或全域）根目錄的字串：

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').root
          '\\'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').root
          ''
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').root
          '/'

     UNC shares 都會有一個根目錄：

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').root
          '\\'

     如果路徑以超過兩個連續的斜線開頭，*note PurePosixPath: 2527. 會合併
     它們：

          >>> PurePosixPath('//etc').root
          '//'
          >>> PurePosixPath('///etc').root
          '/'
          >>> PurePosixPath('////etc').root
          '/'

          備註: 此行為符合 'The Open Group Base Specifications Issue 6'，
          章節 4.11 路徑名稱解析(1)：

          '「以兩個連續斜線開頭的路徑名稱可以根據實作定義的方式來解讀，
          儘管如此，開頭超過兩個斜線應該視為單一斜線。」'

 -- 屬性: PurePath.anchor

     磁碟機與根目錄的結合：

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').anchor
          'c:\\'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').anchor
          'c:'
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').anchor
          '/'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').anchor
          '\\\\host\\share\\'

 -- 屬性: PurePath.parents

     一個不可變的序列，為路徑邏輯上的祖先 (logical ancestors) 提供存取：

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar/setup.py')
          >>> p.parents[0]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar')
          >>> p.parents[1]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/foo')
          >>> p.parents[2]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/')

     在 3.10 版的變更: 父序列現在支援 *note slices: 1f13. 及負的索引值。

 -- 屬性: PurePath.parent

     邏輯上的父路徑：

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/a/b/c/d')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('/a/b/c')

     你不能越過一個 anchor 或空路徑：

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('/')
          >>> p = PurePosixPath('.')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('.')

          備註: 這是一個純粹字句上的 (lexical) 運算，因此會有以下行為：

               >>> p = PurePosixPath('foo/..')
               >>> p.parent
               PurePosixPath('foo')

          如果你想要沿任意的檔案系統路徑往上走，建議要先呼叫 *note
          Path.resolve(): 2530. 來解析符號連結 (symlink) 及去除其中的
          ‘”..”’。

 -- 屬性: PurePath.name

     最後的路徑組成 (final path component) 的字串表示，不包含任何磁碟機
     或根目錄：

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').name
          'setup.py'

     UNC 磁碟機名稱並沒有算在內：

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share/setup.py').name
          'setup.py'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').name
          ''

 -- 屬性: PurePath.suffix

     若存在則為最後的路徑組成的檔案副檔名：

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').suffix
          '.py'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffix
          '.gz'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffix
          ''

 -- 屬性: PurePath.suffixes

     路徑檔案副檔名的串列：

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gar').suffixes
          ['.tar', '.gar']
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffixes
          ['.tar', '.gz']
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffixes
          []

 -- 屬性: PurePath.stem

     最後的路徑組成，不包括後綴 (suffix)：

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').stem
          'library.tar'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar').stem
          'library'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').stem
          'library'

 -- 方法: PurePath.as_posix ()

     回傳一個使用正斜線 (‘/’) 的路徑的字串表示：

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:\\windows')
          >>> str(p)
          'c:\\windows'
          >>> p.as_posix()
          'c:/windows'

 -- 方法: PurePath.as_uri ()

     以 ‘file’ URI 來表示一個路徑。如果不是絕對路徑會引發 *note
     ValueError: 183.。

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.as_uri()
          'file:///etc/passwd'
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows')
          >>> p.as_uri()
          'file:///c:/Windows'

 -- 方法: PurePath.is_absolute ()

     回傳一個路徑是否是絕對路徑。一個路徑被視為絕對路徑的條件是它同時有
     根目錄及（如果該系統類型允許的話）磁碟機：

          >>> PurePosixPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
          True
          >>> PurePosixPath('a/b').is_absolute()
          False

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/a/b').is_absolute()
          True
          >>> PureWindowsPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').is_absolute()
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').is_absolute()
          True

 -- 方法: PurePath.is_relative_to (other)

     回傳此路徑是否為 'other' 路徑的相對路徑。

          >>> p = PurePath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.is_relative_to('/etc')
          True
          >>> p.is_relative_to('/usr')
          False

     該方法是基於字串的；它既不存取檔案系統，也不特別處理 "‘..’" 片段。
     以下程式碼是等效的：

          >>> u = PurePath('/usr')
          >>> u == p or u in p.parents
          False

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: 額
     外引數的傳入已棄用；如果有的話，它們會與 'other' 連接在一起。

 -- 方法: PurePath.is_reserved ()

     對 *note PureWindowsPath: 14ce. 來說，當路徑在 Windows 下被視為保留
     的話會回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。對 *note PurePosixPath: 2527.
     來說，總是回傳 ‘False’。

          >>> PureWindowsPath('nul').is_reserved()
          True
          >>> PurePosixPath('nul').is_reserved()
          False

     在保留路徑上的檔案系統呼叫會神秘地失敗或有意外的效果。

 -- 方法: PurePath.joinpath (*pathsegments)

     呼叫此方法會依序結合每個所給定的 'pathsegments' 到路徑上：

          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('passwd')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath(PurePosixPath('passwd'))
          PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('init.d', 'apache2')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').joinpath('/Program Files')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

 -- 方法: PurePath.match (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     將路徑與 glob 形式的樣式 (glob-style pattern) 做比對。如果比對成功
     則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

     如果 'pattern' 是相對的，則路徑可以是相對或絕對的，而且會從右邊來完
     成比對：

          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').match('*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('b/*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('a/*.py')
          False

     如果 'pattern' 是絕對的，則路徑必須是絕對的，且整個路徑都要比對到：

          >>> PurePath('/a.py').match('/*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').match('/*.py')
          False

     'pattern' 可以是另一個路徑物件；這會加速對多個檔案比對相同的樣式：

          >>> pattern = PurePath('*.py')
          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').match(pattern)
          True

          備註: The recursive wildcard "‘**’" isn't supported by this
          method (it acts like non-recursive "‘*’".)

     在 3.12 版的變更: 接受一個有實作 *note os.PathLike: ab7. 介面的物件
     。

     像其它方法一樣，是否區分大小寫會遵循平台的預設行為：

          >>> PurePosixPath('b.py').match('*.PY')
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('b.py').match('*.PY')
          True

     將 'case_sensitive' 設定成 ‘True’ 或 ‘False’ 會覆蓋這個行為。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'case_sensitive' 參數。

 -- 方法: PurePath.relative_to (other, walk_up=False)

     計算這個路徑相對於 'other' 所表示路徑的版本。如果做不到會引發 *note
     ValueError: 183.：

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/')
          PurePosixPath('etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/etc')
          PurePosixPath('passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/usr')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
              raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
          ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not in the subpath of '/usr' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

     當 'walk_up' 是 False（預設值），路徑必須以 'other' 為開始。當此引
     數是 True，可能會加入 ‘..’ 以組成相對路徑。在其他情況下，例如路徑參
     考到不同的磁碟機，則會引發 *note ValueError: 183.：

          >>> p.relative_to('/usr', walk_up=True)
          PurePosixPath('../etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('foo', walk_up=True)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
              raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
          ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not on the same drive as 'foo' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

          警告: 這個函式是 *note PurePath: 1c8. 的一部分且可以在字串上運
          作。它不會檢查或存取實際的檔案架構。這會影響到 'walk_up' 選項
          ，因為它假設路徑中沒有符號連結；如果需要解析符號連結的話可以先
          呼叫 *note resolve(): 2530.。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 加入 'walk_up' 參數（舊的行為和 ‘walk_up=False’ 相
     同）。

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: 額
     外位置引數的傳入已棄用；如果有的話，它們會與 'other' 連接在一起。

 -- 方法: PurePath.with_name (name)

     回傳一個修改 *note name: 2531. 後的新路徑。如果原始路徑沒有名稱則引
     發 ValueError：

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/setup.py')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
          >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 751, in with_name
              raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
          ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

 -- 方法: PurePath.with_stem (stem)

     回傳一個修改 *note stem: 2534. 後的新路徑。如果原始路徑沒有名稱則引
     發 ValueError：

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/draft.txt')
          >>> p.with_stem('final')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/final.txt')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_stem('lib')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/lib.gz')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
          >>> p.with_stem('')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 861, in with_stem
              return self.with_name(stem + self.suffix)
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 851, in with_name
              raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
          ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 方法: PurePath.with_suffix (suffix)

     回傳一個修改 *note suffix: 2532. 後的新路徑。如果原始路徑沒有後綴，
     新的 'suffix' 會附加在後面。如果 'suffix' 是一個空字串，原來的後綴
     會被移除：

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_suffix('.bz2')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.bz2')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README')
          >>> p.with_suffix('.txt')
          PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
          >>> p.with_suffix('')
          PureWindowsPath('README')

 -- 方法: PurePath.with_segments (*pathsegments)

     透過結合給定的 'pathsegments' 建立一個相同類型的新路徑物件，當一個
     衍生路徑被建立的時候會呼叫這個方法，例如從 *note parent: 14ec. 和
     *note relative_to(): 1cc. 建立衍生路徑。子類別可以覆寫此方法來傳遞
     資訊給衍生路徑，例如：

          from pathlib import PurePosixPath

          class MyPath(PurePosixPath):
              def __init__(self, *pathsegments, session_id):
                  super().__init__(*pathsegments)
                  self.session_id = session_id

              def with_segments(self, *pathsegments):
                  return type(self)(*pathsegments, session_id=self.session_id)

          etc = MyPath('/etc', session_id=42)
          hosts = etc / 'hosts'
          print(hosts.session_id)  # 42

     在 3.12 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/basedefs/xbd_chap04.html#tag_04_11


File: python.info,  Node: 實體路徑,  Next: 與 os 模組裡的工具的對應關係,  Prev: 純路徑,  Up: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑

5.11.1.7 實體路徑
.................

實體路徑是純路徑類別的子類別。除了後者本來就有提供的操作，它們也提供方法
可以對路徑物件做系統呼叫。有三種方式可以實例化實體路徑：

 -- 類別: pathlib.Path (*pathsegments)

     *note PurePath: 1c8. 的子類別，此類別表示系統的路徑類型的實體路徑（
     實例化時會建立一個 *note PosixPath: 253a. 或 *note WindowsPath:
     2524.）：

          >>> Path('setup.py')
          PosixPath('setup.py')

     'pathsegments' 的指定方式與 *note PurePath: 1c8. 類似。

 -- 類別: pathlib.PosixPath (*pathsegments)

     *note Path: 149. 和 *note PurePosixPath: 2527. 的子類別，此類別表示
     實體非 Windows 檔案系統路徑：

          >>> PosixPath('/etc/hosts')
          PosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     'pathsegments' 的指定方式與 *note PurePath: 1c8. 類似。

 -- 類別: pathlib.WindowsPath (*pathsegments)

     *note Path: 149. 和 *note PureWindowsPath: 14ce. 的子類別，此類別表
     示實體 Windows 檔案系統路徑：

          >>> WindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
          WindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')

     'pathsegments' 的指定方式與 *note PurePath: 1c8. 類似。

你只能實例化對應你的系統的類別類型（允許在不相容的路徑類型上做系統呼叫可
能在你的應用程式導致漏洞或故障）：

     >>> import os
     >>> os.name
     'posix'
     >>> Path('setup.py')
     PosixPath('setup.py')
     >>> PosixPath('setup.py')
     PosixPath('setup.py')
     >>> WindowsPath('setup.py')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "pathlib.py", line 798, in __new__
         % (cls.__name__,))
     NotImplementedError: cannot instantiate 'WindowsPath' on your system

有些實體路徑方法會在系統呼叫失敗（例如因為路徑不存在）時引發 *note
OSError: 644.

* Menu:

* Expanding and resolving paths::
* Querying file type and status::
* Reading and writing files::
* 讀取目錄::
* 建立檔案與目錄::
* Renaming and deleting::
* Permissions and ownership::


File: python.info,  Node: Expanding and resolving paths,  Next: Querying file type and status,  Up: 實體路徑

5.11.1.8 Expanding and resolving paths
......................................

 -- 方法: classmethod Path.home ()

     回傳一個代表使用者家目錄的新的路徑物件（像以 ‘~’ 構成的 *note
     os.path.expanduser(): 85b. 的回傳一樣）。如果無法解析家目錄，會引發
     *note RuntimeError: 17a.。

          >>> Path.home()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine')

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 方法: Path.expanduser ()

     回傳一個展開 ‘~’ 和 ‘~user’ 構成的新路徑，像 *note
     os.path.expanduser(): 85b. 回傳的一樣。如果無法解析家目錄，會引發
     *note RuntimeError: 17a.。

          >>> p = PosixPath('~/films/Monty Python')
          >>> p.expanduser()
          PosixPath('/home/eric/films/Monty Python')

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 方法: classmethod Path.cwd ()

     回傳一個代表目前目錄的新的路徑物件（像 *note os.getcwd(): 17e6. 回
     傳的一樣）：

          >>> Path.cwd()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

 -- 方法: Path.absolute ()

     將路徑轉換為絕對路徑，不進行標準化或解析符號連結。回傳一個新的路徑
     物件：

          >>> p = Path('tests')
          >>> p
          PosixPath('tests')
          >>> p.absolute()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/tests')

 -- 方法: Path.resolve (strict=False)

     將路徑轉換為絕對路徑，解析所有符號連結。回傳一個新的路徑物件：

          >>> p = Path()
          >>> p
          PosixPath('.')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

     同時也會消除 "‘..’" 的路徑組成（只有此方法這樣做）：

          >>> p = Path('docs/../setup.py')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')

     如果路徑不存在且 'strict' 為 ‘True’，則引發 *note
     FileNotFoundError: d46.。如果 'strict' 為 ‘False’，則將盡可能解析該
     路徑，並將任何剩餘部分追加到路徑中，而不檢查其是否存在。如果在解析
     過程中遇到無窮迴圈，則引發 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'strict' 參數（在 3.6 版本之前的行為是嚴格的
     ）。

 -- 方法: Path.readlink ()

     回傳符號連結指向的路徑（如 *note os.readlink(): 75e. 的回傳值）：

          >>> p = Path('mylink')
          >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
          >>> p.readlink()
          PosixPath('setup.py')

     在 3.9 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying file type and status,  Next: Reading and writing files,  Prev: Expanding and resolving paths,  Up: 實體路徑

5.11.1.9 Querying file type and status
......................................

在 3.8 版的變更: *note exists(): 85d.、*note is_dir(): 85e.、*note
is_file(): 85f.、*note is_mount(): 860.、*note is_symlink(): 861.、*note
is_block_device(): 862.、*note is_char_device(): 863.、*note is_fifo():
864.、*note is_socket(): 865. 遇到路徑包含 OS 層無法表示的字元時現在會回
傳 ‘False’ 而不是引發例外。

 -- 方法: Path.stat (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     回傳一個包含該路徑資訊的 *note os.stat_result: 1334. 物件，像 *note
     os.stat(): 1bf. 一樣。每次呼叫此方法都會重新查詢結果。

     此方法通常會跟隨 (follow) 符號連結；想要取得符號連結的資訊，可以加
     上引數 ‘follow_symlinks=False’ 或使用 *note lstat(): 253d.。

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_size
          956
          >>> p.stat().st_mtime
          1327883547.852554

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'follow_symlinks' 參數。

 -- 方法: Path.lstat ()

     類似 *note Path.stat(): 649.，但如果該路徑指向一個符號連結，則回傳
     符號連結的資訊而不是其指向的目標。

 -- 方法: Path.exists (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     如果路徑指向存在的檔案或目錄則回傳 ‘True’。

     此方法通常會跟隨符號連結；如果想檢查符號連結是否存在，可以加上引數
     ‘follow_symlinks=False’。

          >>> Path('.').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('setup.py').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('/etc').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('nonexistentfile').exists()
          False

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'follow_symlinks' 參數。

 -- 方法: Path.is_file ()

     如果該路徑指向一個普通檔案（或者是一個指向普通檔案的符號連結）則回
     傳 ‘True’，如果指向其他類型的檔案則回傳 ‘False’。

     如果路徑不存在或者是一個斷掉的符號連結則也會回傳 ‘False’；其他錯誤
     （例如權限錯誤）則會傳遞出來。

 -- 方法: Path.is_dir ()

     如果該路徑指向一個目錄（或者是一個指向目錄的符號連結）則回傳
     ‘True’，如果指向其他類型的檔案則回傳 ‘False’。

     如果路徑不存在或者是一個斷掉的符號連結則也會回傳 ‘False’；其他錯誤
     （例如權限錯誤）則會傳遞出來。

 -- 方法: Path.is_symlink ()

     如果該路徑指向一個符號連結則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

     如果該路徑不存在也會回傳 ‘False’；其他錯誤（例如權限錯誤）則會傳遞
     出來。

 -- 方法: Path.is_junction ()

     如果該路徑指向一個連接點 (junction) 則回傳 ‘True’，對其他類型的檔案
     則回傳 ‘False’。目前只有 Windows 支援連接點。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 方法: Path.is_mount ()

     如果路徑是一個 'mount point'（一個檔案系統裡掛載不同檔案系統的存取
     點）則回傳 ‘True’。在 POSIX 上，此函式檢查 'path' 的父路徑
     ‘path/..’ 是否和 'path' 在不同的裝置上，或者 ‘path/..’ 和 'path' 是
     否指向相同裝置的相同 i-node ── 這對於所有 Unix 和 POSIX 變體來說應
     該會偵測出掛載點。在 Windows 上，一個掛載點被視為一個根磁碟機字母（
     例如 ‘c:\’）、一個 UNC share（例如 ‘\\server\share’）或是掛載的檔案
     系統目錄。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 加入對 Windows 的支援。

 -- 方法: Path.is_socket ()

     如果該路徑指向一個 Unix socket（或者是一個指向 Unix socket 的符號連
     結）則會回傳 ‘True’，如果指向其他類型的檔案則回傳 ‘False’。

     如果路徑不存在或者是一個斷掉的符號連結則也會回傳 ‘False’；其他錯誤
     （例如權限錯誤）則會傳遞出來。

 -- 方法: Path.is_fifo ()

     如果該路徑指向一個 FIFO（或者是一個指向 FIFO 的符號連結）則會回傳
     ‘True’，如果指向其他類型的檔案則回傳 ‘False’。

     如果路徑不存在或者是一個斷掉的符號連結則也會回傳 ‘False’；其他錯誤
     （例如權限錯誤）則會傳遞出來。

 -- 方法: Path.is_block_device ()

     如果該路徑指向一個區塊裝置 (block device)（或者是一個指向區塊裝置的
     符號連結）則會回傳 ‘True’，如果指向其他類型的檔案則回傳 ‘False’。

     如果路徑不存在或者是一個斷掉的符號連結則也會回傳 ‘False’；其他錯誤
     （例如權限錯誤）則會傳遞出來。

 -- 方法: Path.is_char_device ()

     如果該路徑指向一個字元裝置 (character device)（或者是一個指向字元裝
     置的符號連結）則會回傳 ‘True’，如果指向其他類型的檔案則回傳
     ‘False’。

     如果路徑不存在或者是一個斷掉的符號連結則也會回傳 ‘False’；其他錯誤
     （例如權限錯誤）則會傳遞出來。

 -- 方法: Path.samefile (other_path)

     回傳此路徑是否指向與 'other_path' 相同的檔案，'other_path' 可以是路
     徑 (Path) 物件或字串。其語義類似於 *note os.path.samefile(): dfe. 和
     *note os.path.samestat(): dfd.。

     若任何一個檔案因為某些原因無法存取，則引發 *note OSError: 644.。

          >>> p = Path('spam')
          >>> q = Path('eggs')
          >>> p.samefile(q)
          False
          >>> p.samefile('spam')
          True

     在 3.5 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and writing files,  Next: 讀取目錄,  Prev: Querying file type and status,  Up: 實體路徑

5.11.1.10 Reading and writing files
...................................

 -- 方法: Path.open (mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     開啟該路徑指向的檔案，像內建的 *note open(): 29c. 函式做的一樣：

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> with p.open() as f:
          ...     f.readline()
          ...
          '#!/usr/bin/env python3\n'

 -- 方法: Path.read_text (encoding=None, errors=None)

     將路徑指向的檔案的解碼內容以字串形式回傳：

          >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
          >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
          18
          >>> p.read_text()
          'Text file contents'

     該檔案被打開並且隨後關閉。可選參數的含義與 *note open(): 29c. 中的
     相同。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 方法: Path.read_bytes ()

     將路徑指向的檔案的二進位內容以一個位元組物件回傳：

          >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
          >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
          20
          >>> p.read_bytes()
          b'Binary file contents'

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 方法: Path.write_text (data, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     以文字模式開啟指向的檔案，將 'data' 寫到檔案，並關閉檔案:: ：

          >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
          >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
          18
          >>> p.read_text()
          'Text file contents'

     一個名稱相同的已存在檔案會被覆寫。可選參數和 *note open(): 29c. 的
     參數有相同意義。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'newline' 參數。

 -- 方法: Path.write_bytes (data)

     以位元組模式開啟指向的檔案，將 'data' 寫到檔案，並關閉檔案:: ：

          >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
          >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
          20
          >>> p.read_bytes()
          b'Binary file contents'

     一個名稱相同的已存在檔案會被覆寫。

     在 3.5 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 讀取目錄,  Next: 建立檔案與目錄,  Prev: Reading and writing files,  Up: 實體路徑

5.11.1.11 讀取目錄
..................

 -- 方法: Path.iterdir ()

     當該路徑指向一個目錄，會 yield 目錄裡面的路徑物件：

          >>> p = Path('docs')
          >>> for child in p.iterdir(): child
          ...
          PosixPath('docs/conf.py')
          PosixPath('docs/_templates')
          PosixPath('docs/make.bat')
          PosixPath('docs/index.rst')
          PosixPath('docs/_build')
          PosixPath('docs/_static')
          PosixPath('docs/Makefile')

     子路徑會以任意順序被 yield，且不會包含特殊項目 ‘'.'’ 和 ‘'..'’。如
     果一個檔案在建立這個疊代器之後加到該目錄或從目錄刪除，這個檔案的路
     徑物件是否會被包含是沒有明定的。

     If the path is not a directory or otherwise inaccessible, *note
     OSError: 644. is raised.

 -- 方法: Path.glob (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     在該路徑表示的目錄裡，以 glob 方式比對所給定的相對 'pattern'，並
     yield 所有比對到的檔案（任意類型）：

          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*.py'))
          [PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'), PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*/*.py'))
          [PosixPath('docs/conf.py')]

     模式 (pattern) 和給 *note fnmatch: 57. 的一樣，加上 "‘**’" 代表「目
     前目錄及所有遞迴的子目錄」。也就是說它能夠做遞迴的 glob 比對：

          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('**/*.py'))
          [PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
           PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('setup.py'),
           PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]

     此方法在頂層目錄上呼叫 *note Path.is_dir(): 85e. 並傳遞引發的任何
     *note OSError: 644. 例外。將會抑制在目錄對於 *note OSError: 644. 例
     外的後續掃描。

     預設情況下，或者當 'case_sensitive' 僅限關鍵字引數被設定為 ‘None’ 的
     時候，此方法會使用平台特定的大小寫規則來比對路徑；通常在 POSIX 上會
     區分大小寫，而在 Windows 上不區分大小寫。將 'case_sensitive' 設成
     ‘True’ 或 ‘False’ 會覆寫這個行為。

          備註: 在很大的目錄樹裡使用 "‘**’" 可能會耗費過多的時間。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘pattern’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘pathlib.Path.glob’。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 如果 'pattern' 以路徑名稱組成的分隔符號（*note
     sep: 465. 或 *note altsep: 466.）作結尾則只會回傳目錄。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'case_sensitive' 參數。

 -- 方法: Path.rglob (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     遞迴地 glob 給定的相對 'pattern'。這相當於在給定的相對 'pattern' 前
     面加上 "‘**/’" 並呼叫 *note Path.glob(): 1cf.，其中 'patterns' 和給
     *note fnmatch: 57. 的相同：

          >>> sorted(Path().rglob("*.py"))
          [PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
           PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('setup.py'),
           PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]

     預設情況下，或者當 'case_sensitive' 僅限關鍵字引數被設定為 ‘None’ 的
     時候，此方法會使用平台特定的大小寫規則來比對路徑；通常在 POSIX 上會
     區分大小寫，而在 Windows 上不區分大小寫。將 'case_sensitive' 設成
     ‘True’ 或 ‘False’ 會覆寫這個行為。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘pattern’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘pathlib.Path.rglob’。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 如果 'pattern' 以路徑名稱組成的分隔符號（*note
     sep: 465. 或 *note altsep: 466.）作結尾則只會回傳目錄。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'case_sensitive' 參數。

 -- 方法: Path.walk (top_down=True, on_error=None,
          follow_symlinks=False)

     透過由上而下或由下而上地走訪目錄樹產生目錄樹裡的檔案名稱。

     對每個以 'self' 為根且在目錄樹裡的目錄（包含 'self' 但不包含 '.'  和
     '..'  ），此方法會 yield 一個 ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames)’ 的三
     元素元組。

     'dirpath' 是一個目前走訪到的目錄的 *note Path: 149.，'dirnames' 是
     一個 'dirpath' 裡的子目錄名稱的字串串列（不包含 ‘'.'’ 和 ‘'..'’ ）
     ，而 'filenames' 是一個 'dirpath' 裡非目錄檔案名稱的字串串列。要取
     得在 'dirpath' 裡檔案或目錄的完整路徑（以 'self' 開頭），可以使用
     ‘dirpath / name’。會根據檔案系統來決定串列是否有排序。

     如果可選引數 'top_down' 是 true（預設值），一個目錄的三元素元組會在
     其任何子目錄的三元素元組之前產生（目錄是由上而下走訪）。如果
     'top_down' 是 false，一個目錄的三元素元組會在其所有子目錄的三元素元
     組之後產生（目錄是由下而上走訪）。不論 'top_down' 的值是什麼，子目
     錄的串列會在走訪該目錄及其子目錄的三元素元組之前取得。

     當 'top_down' 是 true，呼叫者可以原地 (in-place) 修改 'dirnames' 串
     列（例如使用 *note del: 1570. 或切片賦值 (slice assignment)），且
     *note Path.walk(): 1ca. 只會遞迴進名稱依然留在 'dirnames' 裡的子目
     錄。這可以用來修剪搜尋，或者強加特定順序的訪問，或者甚至在繼續
     *note Path.walk(): 1ca. 之前，用來告訴 *note Path.walk(): 1ca. 關於
     呼叫者建立或重新命名的目錄。當 'top_down' 是 false 的時候，修改
     'dirnames' 對 *note Path.walk(): 1ca. 的行為沒有影響，因為
     'dirnames' 裡的目錄已經在 'dirnames' yield 給呼叫者之前被產生。

     預設來自 *note os.scandir(): 8aa. 的錯誤會被忽略。如果指定了可選引
     數 'on_error'（它應該要是一個可呼叫物件），它會被以一個 *note
     OSError: 644. 實例為引數來呼叫。這個可呼叫物件可以處理錯誤以繼續走
     訪，或者再次引發錯誤來停止走訪。注意，檔案名稱可以從例外物件的
     ‘filename’ 屬性來取得。

     預設 *note Path.walk(): 1ca. 不會跟隨符號連結，而是會把它們加到
     'filenames' 串列。將 'follow_symlinks' 設定為 true 會解析符號連結，
     並將它們根據其指向的目標放在適當的 'dirnames' 和 'filenames'，而因
     此訪問到符號連結指向的目錄（在有支援符號連結的地方）。

          備註: 需要注意的是如果符號連結指向一個其本身的父目錄，則將
          'follow_symlinks' 設定為 true 會導致無窮的遞迴。*note
          Path.walk(): 1ca. 不會紀錄其已經訪問過的目錄。

          備註: *note Path.walk(): 1ca. 假設其走訪的目錄在執行過程中不會
          被修改。舉例來說，如果在 'dirnames' 裡的目錄已經被一個符號連結
          取代，且 'follow_symlinks' 是 false，*note Path.walk(): 1ca. 依
          然會試著往下進入它。為了防止這樣的行為，可以從 'dirnames' 適當
          地移除目錄。

          備註: 如果 'follow_symlinks' 是 false，和 *note os.walk():
          1cb. 行為不同的是 *note Path.walk(): 1ca. 會將指向目錄的符號連
          結放在 'filenames' 串列。

     這個範例會顯示在每個目錄裡所有檔案使用的位元組數量，同時間忽略
     ‘__pycache__’ 目錄：

          from pathlib import Path
          for root, dirs, files in Path("cpython/Lib/concurrent").walk(on_error=print):
            print(
                root,
                "consumes",
                sum((root / file).stat().st_size for file in files),
                "bytes in",
                len(files),
                "non-directory files"
            )
            if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')

     下一個範例是 *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. 的一個簡單的實作方式。由下
     而上走訪目錄樹是必要的，因為 *note rmdir(): 2541. 不允許在目錄為空
     之前刪除它：

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory "top".
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous! For example, if top == Path('/'),
          # it could delete all of your files.
          for root, dirs, files in top.walk(top_down=False):
              for name in files:
                  (root / name).unlink()
              for name in dirs:
                  (root / name).rmdir()

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 建立檔案與目錄,  Next: Renaming and deleting,  Prev: 讀取目錄,  Up: 實體路徑

5.11.1.12 建立檔案與目錄
........................

 -- 方法: Path.touch (mode=0o666, exist_ok=True)

     根據給定路徑來建立一個檔案。如果 'mode' 有給定，它會與行程的
     ‘umask’ 值結合，以確定檔案模式和存取旗標。當檔案已經存在時，若
     'exist_ok' 為 true 則函式不會失敗（其變更時間會被更新為當下時間），
     否則會引發 *note FileExistsError: eb4.。

     也參考
     ......

     The *note open(): 253f, *note write_text(): cbe. and *note
     write_bytes(): cc0. methods are often used to create files.

 -- 方法: Path.mkdir (mode=0o777, parents=False, exist_ok=False)

     在給定路徑下建立一個新的目錄。如果有給 'mode' 則會結合行程
     (process) 的 ‘umask’ 值來決定檔案模式與存取旗標 (access flag)。如果
     路徑已經存在，會引發 *note FileExistsError: eb4.。

     如果 'parents' 是 true，則任何缺少的父路徑都會依需要被建立；它們不
     考慮 'mode' 而會以預設的權限來建立（模仿 POSIX 的 ‘mkdir -p’ 指令）
     。

     如果 'parents' 是 false（預設值），缺少的父路徑會引發 *note
     FileNotFoundError: d46.。

     如果 'exist_ok' 是 false（預設值），則當目標目錄已經存在的話會引發
     *note FileExistsError: eb4.。

     如果 'exist_ok' 是 true，只有當最後的路徑組成不是一個已存在的非目錄
     檔案，*note FileExistsError: eb4. 例外會被忽略（與 POSIX 的 ‘mkdir
     -p’ 指令行為相同）。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'exist_ok' 參數。

 -- 方法: Path.symlink_to (target, target_is_directory=False)

     使這個路徑成為一個指向 'target' 的符號連結。

     在 Windows 上，符號連結代表一個檔案或目錄，且不會隨著目標 (target)
     動態改變。如果目標存在，則符號連結的類型會被建立來符合其目標。否則
     如果 'target_is_directory' 是 true，該符號連結會被建立成目錄，如果
     不是則建立成檔案（預設值）。在非 Windows 平台上，
     'target_is_directory' 會被忽略。

          >>> p = Path('mylink')
          >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_size
          956
          >>> p.lstat().st_size
          8

          備註: 引數的順序 (link, target) 和 *note os.symlink(): f83. 相
          反。

 -- 方法: Path.hardlink_to (target)

     使這個路徑成為與 'target' 相同檔案的一個硬連結 (hard link)。

          備註: 引數的順序 (link, target) 和 *note os.link(): f7e. 相反
          。

     在 3.10 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Renaming and deleting,  Next: Permissions and ownership,  Prev: 建立檔案與目錄,  Up: 實體路徑

5.11.1.13 Renaming and deleting
...............................

 -- 方法: Path.rename (target)

     將此檔案或目錄重新命名為給定的 'target' ，並回傳一個新的 ‘Path’ 實
     例指向該 'target'。在 Unix 系統上，若 'target' 存在且為一個檔案，若
     使用者有權限，則會在不顯示訊息的情況下進行取代。在 Windows 系統上，
     若 'target' 存在，則會引發 *note FileExistsError: eb4. 錯誤。
     'target' 可以是字串或另一個路徑物件：

          >>> p = Path('foo')
          >>> p.open('w').write('some text')
          9
          >>> target = Path('bar')
          >>> p.rename(target)
          PosixPath('bar')
          >>> target.open().read()
          'some text'

     目標路徑可以是絕對路徑或相對路徑。相對路徑會相對於當前的工作目錄進
     行解釋，'而不是'相對於 ‘Path’ 物件所在的目錄。

     此功能是使用 *note os.rename(): f80. 實現的，並提供相同的保證。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增了回傳值，回傳新的 ‘Path’ 實例。

 -- 方法: Path.replace (target)

     將此檔案或目錄重新命名為給定的 'target'，並回傳一個指向 'target' 的
     新 ‘Path’ 實例。如果 'target' 指向一個現有的檔案或空目錄，它將被無
     條件地取代。

     目標路徑可以是絕對路徑或相對路徑。相對路徑會相對於當前的工作目錄進
     行解釋，'而不是'相對於 ‘Path’ 物件所在的目錄。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增了回傳值，回傳新的 ‘Path’ 實例。

 -- 方法: Path.unlink (missing_ok=False)

     移除這個檔案或符號連結。如果路徑指向目錄，請改用 *note
     Path.rmdir(): 2541.。

     如果 'missing_ok' 是 false（預設值），*note FileNotFoundError: d46.
     會在路徑不存在時被引發。

     如果 'missing_ok' 是 true，*note FileNotFoundError: d46. 例外會被忽
     略（行為與 POSIX ‘rm -f’ 指令相同）。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'missing_ok' 參數。

 -- 方法: Path.rmdir ()

     移除此目錄。該目錄必須為空。


File: python.info,  Node: Permissions and ownership,  Prev: Renaming and deleting,  Up: 實體路徑

5.11.1.14 Permissions and ownership
...................................

 -- 方法: Path.owner ()

     回傳擁有該檔案的用戶名稱。如果在系統資料庫中找不到該檔案的使用者識
     別字 (UID)，則會引發 *note KeyError: 8ed.。

 -- 方法: Path.group ()

     回傳擁有該檔案的群組名稱。如果在系統資料庫裡找不到檔案的群組識別字
     (GID) 會引發 *note KeyError: 8ed.。

 -- 方法: Path.chmod (mode, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     修改檔案模式 (file mode) 與權限，像 *note os.chmod(): f7c. 一樣。

     此方法通常會跟隨符號連結。一些 Unix 類型支援修改符號連結本身的權限
     ；在這些平台上你可以加上引數 ‘follow_symlinks=False’ 或使用 *note
     lchmod(): 254a.。

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_mode
          33277
          >>> p.chmod(0o444)
          >>> p.stat().st_mode
          33060

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'follow_symlinks' 參數。

 -- 方法: Path.lchmod (mode)

     類似 *note Path.chmod(): 64a.，但如果該路徑指向一個符號連結，則符號
     連結的模式 (mode) 會被改變而不是其指向的目標。


File: python.info,  Node: 與 os 模組裡的工具的對應關係,  Prev: 實體路徑,  Up: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑

5.11.1.15 與 ‘os’ 模組裡的工具的對應關係
........................................

以下是一張表格，對應許多 *note os: 9c. 函式及其相符於 *note PurePath:
1c8./*note Path: 149. 的項目。

*note os: 9c. 和 *note os.path: 9d.       *note pathlib: 9f.
                                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
*note os.path.dirname(): 254c.            *note PurePath.parent: 14ec.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.basename(): 254d.           *note PurePath.name: 2531.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.splitext(): 254e.           *note PurePath.stem: 2534. 和
                                          *note PurePath.suffix: 2532.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.join(): 14ed.               *note PurePath.joinpath(): 2537.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isabs(): 254f.              *note PurePath.is_absolute(): 14ea.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.relpath(): 1cd.             *note PurePath.relative_to(): 1cc. (1)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.expanduser(): 85b.          *note Path.expanduser(): cbc. (2)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.realpath(): 643.            *note Path.resolve(): 2530.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.abspath(): 11ae.            *note Path.absolute(): 14e8. (3)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.exists(): 855.              *note Path.exists(): 85d.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isfile(): 858.              *note Path.is_file(): 85f.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isdir(): 857.               *note Path.is_dir(): 85e.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.islink(): 853.              *note Path.is_symlink(): 861.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isjunction(): 1c5.          *note Path.is_junction(): 1ce.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.ismount(): 859.             *note Path.is_mount(): 860.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.samefile(): dfe.            *note Path.samefile(): cba.
                                          
                                          
*note os.getcwd(): 17e6.                  *note Path.cwd(): 14e9.
                                          
                                          
*note os.stat(): 1bf.                     *note Path.stat(): 649.
                                          
                                          
*note os.lstat(): 1c0.                    *note Path.lstat(): 253d.
                                          
                                          
*note os.listdir(): f88.                  *note Path.iterdir(): 157a.
                                          
                                          
*note os.walk(): 1cb.                     *note Path.walk(): 1ca. (4)
                                          
                                          
*note os.mkdir(): 1c1.、                  *note Path.mkdir(): cbb.
*note os.makedirs(): 1c2.                 

*note os.link(): f7e.                     *note Path.hardlink_to(): 647.
                                          
                                          
*note os.symlink(): f83.                  *note Path.symlink_to(): 648.
                                          
                                          
*note os.readlink(): 75e.                 *note Path.readlink(): 75d.
                                          
                                          
*note os.rename(): f80.                   *note Path.rename(): 2545.
                                          
                                          
*note os.replace(): f81.                  *note Path.replace(): 2546.
                                          
                                          
*note os.remove(): f7f.、                 *note Path.unlink(): 17d6.
*note os.unlink(): f84.                   

*note os.rmdir(): f82.                    *note Path.rmdir(): 2541.
                                          
                                          
*note os.chmod(): f7c.                    *note Path.chmod(): 64a.
                                          
                                          
*note os.lchmod(): 1825.                  *note Path.lchmod(): 254a.
                                          

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) *note os.path.relpath(): 1cd. calls *note abspath(): 11ae. to
make paths absolute and remove "‘..’" parts, whereas *note
PurePath.relative_to(): 1cc. is a lexical operation that raises *note
ValueError: 183. when its inputs' anchors differ (e.g.  if one path is
absolute and the other relative.)

   (2) *note os.path.expanduser(): 85b. returns the path unchanged if
the home directory can't be resolved, whereas *note Path.expanduser():
cbc. raises *note RuntimeError: 17a.

   (3) *note os.path.abspath(): 11ae. removes "‘..’" components without
resolving symlinks, which may change the meaning of the path, whereas
*note Path.absolute(): 14e8. leaves any "‘..’" components in the path.

   (4) *note os.walk(): 1cb. always follows symlinks when categorizing
paths into 'dirnames' and 'filenames', whereas *note Path.walk(): 1ca.
categorizes all symlinks into 'filenames' when 'follow_symlinks' is
false (the default.)


File: python.info,  Node: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作,  Next: fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流,  Prev: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑,  Up: 檔案與目錄存取

5.11.2 ‘os.path’ -- 常見的路徑名操作
------------------------------------

'原始碼：' Lib/genericpath.py(1)、Lib/posixpath.py(2) (用於 POSIX 系統)
和 Lib/ntpath.py(3) (用於 Windows).

__________________________________________________________________

該模組實現了一些有用的路徑名操作函式。若要讀取或寫入檔案，請參閱 *note
open(): 29c. 函數，要存取檔案系統，請參閱 *note os: 9c. 模組。路徑參數可
以以字串、位元組或任何依照 *note os.PathLike: ab7. 協議實作的物件傳遞。

與 Unix shell 不同，Python 不會'自動'進行路徑展開 (path expansions)。當
應用程式需要進行類似 shell 的路徑展開時，可以明確地呼叫 *note
expanduser(): 85b. 和 *note expandvars(): 1248. 等函式。（另請參閱 *note
glob: 5f. 模組。）

也參考
......

*note pathlib: 9f. 模組提供了高階的路徑物件。

     備註: 所有這些函數都只接受位元組或字串物件作為參數。如果回傳的是路
     徑或檔案名稱，結果將是相同型別的物件。

     備註: 由於不同的作業系統具有不同的路徑命名慣例，在標準函式庫中的路
     徑模組有數個版本可供使用，而 *note os.path: 9d. 模組都會是運行
     Python 之作業系統所適用本地路徑。然而，如果你想要操作'始終'以某個不
     同於本機格式表示的路徑，你也可以引入並使用對應的模組。它們都具有相
     同的介面：

        * ‘posixpath’ 用於 UNIX 形式的路徑

        * ‘ntpath’ 用於 Windows 的路徑

在 3.8 版的變更: 對於包含有作業系統層級無法表示之字元或位元組的路徑，
*note exists(): 855.、*note lexists(): 856.、*note isdir(): 857.、*note
isfile(): 858.、*note islink(): 853. 和 *note ismount(): 859. 函式現在會
回傳 ‘False’，而不是引發例外。

 -- 函式: os.path.abspath (path)

     回傳經正規化的絕對路徑名 'path' 。在大多數平台上，這等效於按照以下
     方式呼叫 *note normpath(): 11ad. 函式：‘normpath(join(os.getcwd(),
     path))’。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.basename (path)

     回傳路徑名 'path' 的基底名稱。這是將 'path' 傳遞給函式 *note
     split(): 2552. 後回傳結果中的第二個元素。請注意，此函式的結果與
     Unix 的 ‘basename’ 程式不同；對於 ‘'/foo/bar/'’，‘basename’ 回傳
     ‘'bar'’，而 *note basename(): 254d. 函式回傳空字串（‘''’）。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.commonpath (paths)

     回傳序列 'paths' 中每個路徑名的最長共同子路徑。如果 'paths' 同時包
     含絕對路徑和相對路徑、'paths' 位於不同的驅動機或 'paths' 為空，則引
     發 *note ValueError: 183.。與 *note commonprefix(): cb8. 不同，此函
     式回傳的是有效路徑。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個*note 類路徑物件: 975.的序列。

 -- 函式: os.path.commonprefix (list)

     回傳 'list' 中所有路徑的最長路徑前綴（逐字元比較）。如果 'list' 為
     空，則回傳空字串（‘''’）。

          備註: 由於此函式是逐字元比較，因此可能會回傳無效的路徑。若要獲
          得有效的路徑，請參考 *note commonpath(): cb7. 函式。

               >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
               '/usr/l'

               >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
               '/usr'

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.dirname (path)

     回傳路徑名 'path' 的目錄名稱。這是將 'path' 傳遞給函式 *note
     split(): 2552. 後回傳之成對結果中的第一個元素。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.exists (path)

     如果 'path' 是一個存在的路徑或一個開啟的檔案描述器則回傳 ‘True’。對
     於已損壞的符號連結則回傳 ‘False’。在某些平台上，即使 'path' 實際存
     在，如果未被授予執行 *note os.stat(): 1bf. 的權限，此函式仍可能回傳
     ‘False’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 現在 'path' 可以是一個整數：如果它是一個開啟的檔案
     描述器，則回傳 ‘True’；否則回傳 ‘False’。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.lexists (path)

     如果 'path' 是一個存在的路徑則回傳 ‘True’，對已損壞的符號連結也是。
     在缺乏 *note os.lstat(): 1c0. 的平台上，與 *note exists(): 855. 函
     式等效。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.expanduser (path)

     在 Unix 和 Windows 上，將引數中以 ‘~’ 或 ‘~user’ 開頭的部分替換為該
     'user' 的家目錄。

     在 Unix 上，如果環境變數 ‘HOME’ 有被設置，則將初始的 ‘~’ 替換為該變
     數的值；否則將使用內建模組 *note pwd: ad. 在密碼目錄中查找當前使用
     者的家目錄。對於初始的 ‘~user’，直接在密碼目錄中查找該使用者的家目
     錄。

     在 Windows 上，如果 ‘USERPROFILE’ 有被設置，則使用該變數的值；否則
     將結合 ‘HOMEPATH’ 和 ‘HOMEDRIVE’。對於初始的 ‘~user’，會檢查當前使
     用者的家目錄的最後一個目錄元件是否與 ‘USERNAME’ 相符，如果相符則替
     換它。

     如果展開失敗或路徑不以波浪符號 (tilde) 開頭，則回傳原始路徑，不做任
     何變更。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 在 Windows 上不再使用 ‘HOME’ 變數。

 -- 函式: os.path.expandvars (path)

     回傳已展開環境變數的引數。形如 ‘$name’ 或 ‘${name}’ 的子字串會被替
     換為環境變數 'name' 的值。無效的變數名稱和對不存在變數的引用保持不
     變。

     在 Windows 上，除了支援 ‘$name’ 和 ‘${name}’ 形式的展開外，還支援
     ‘%name%’ 形式的展開。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.getatime (path)

     回傳 'path' 的最後存取時間。回傳值是一個浮點數，表示自紀元（參見
     *note time: e8. 模組）以來的秒數。如果檔案不存在或無法存取，則引發
     *note OSError: 644.。

 -- 函式: os.path.getmtime (path)

     回傳 'path' 的最後修改時間。回傳值是一個浮點數，表示自紀元（參見
     *note time: e8. 模組）以來的秒數。如果檔案不存在或無法存取，則引發
     *note OSError: 644.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.getctime (path)

     回傳系統的 ctime。在某些系統（如 Unix）上，這是最後一次元數據
     (metadata) 更改的時間，在其他系統（如 Windows）上則是 'path' 的建立
     時間。回傳值是一個浮點數，表示自紀元（參見 *note time: e8. 模組）以
     來的秒數。如果檔案不存在或無法存取），則引發 *note OSError: 644.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.getsize (path)

     回傳 'path' 的大小（以位元組為單位）。如果檔案不存在或無法存取，則
     引發 *note OSError: 644.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.isabs (path)

     如果 'path' 是絕對路徑名，則回傳 ‘True’。在 Unix 上，這表示它以斜線
     開頭；在 Windows 上，表示在去除可能的驅動機字母後，以（反）斜線開頭
     。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.isfile (path)

     如果 'path' 是一個*note 已存在的: 855.常規檔案，則回傳 ‘True’。這將
     跟隨符號連結，因此同一個路徑可以同時回傳 *note islink(): 853. 和
     *note isfile(): 858. 的結果為真。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.isdir (path)

     如果 'path' 是一個*note 已存在的: 855.目錄，則回傳 ‘True’。這將跟隨
     符號連結，因此同一個路徑可以同時回傳 *note islink(): 853. 和 *note
     isfile(): 858. 的結果為真。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.isjunction (path)

     如果 'path' 是指向*note 已存在的: 856.目錄條目且為聯接點
     (junction)，則回傳 ‘True’。如果目前平台不支援聯接點，則始終返回
     ‘False’。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.path.islink (path)

     如果 'path' 是指向*note 已存在的: 855.目錄項目且為符號連結，則回傳
     ‘True’。如果 Python 執行時不支援符號連結，則始終回傳 ‘False’。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.ismount (path)

     如果路徑名 'path' 是一個掛載點 ('mount point')，則回傳 ‘True’：即在
     檔案系統中掛載了不同的檔案系統。在 POSIX 系統上，該函式檢查 'path'
     的父目錄 ‘`path'/..’ 是否位於不同的設備上，或者 ‘`path'/..’ 和
     'path' 是否指向同一設備上的相同 i-node -- 這應該能夠檢測出所有 Unix
     和 POSIX 變體的掛載點。但無法可靠地檢測出相同檔案系統上的綁定掛載點
     (bind mount)。在 Windows 上，以驅動機字母開頭的根目錄和 UNC 共享路
     徑始終是掛載點，對於任何其他路徑，會呼叫 ‘GetVolumePathName’ 函式來
     檢查它是否與輸入路徑不同。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增在 Windows 上檢測非根目錄掛載點的支援。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.isdevdrive (path)

     如果路徑名 'path' 位於 Windows Dev 驅動機上，則回傳 ‘True’。Dev 驅
     動機針對開發人員場景進行了優化，提供更快的讀寫檔案性能。建議將其用
     於原始程式碼、臨時建置目錄、封包快取和其他 I/O 密集型操作。

     可能會對無效的路徑引發錯誤，例如，沒有可識別的驅動機的路徑，但在不
     支援 Dev 磁碟機的平台上返回 ‘False’。請參閱 Windows 文件(4)以了解有
     關啟用和建立 Dev 驅動機的資訊。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.path.join (path, *paths)

     聰明地連接一個或多個路徑段。回傳值是 'path' 和 '*paths' 的所有成員
     的串聯，每個非空部分後面都有一個目錄分隔符號，除了最後一個部分。換
     句話說，如果最後一個部分為空或以分隔符號結尾，結果只會以分隔符號結
     尾。如果一個段是絕對路徑（在 Windows 上需要驅動機和根），則忽略所有
     之前的段，並從絕對路徑段繼續連接。

     在 Windows 上，當遇到根路徑段（例如，‘r'\foo'’）時，驅動機不會被重
     置。如果一個段位於不同的驅動機上，或者是絕對路徑，則將忽略所有之前
     的段並重置驅動機。請注意，由於每個驅動機都有當前目錄，
     ‘os.path.join("c:", "foo")’ 表示相對於驅動機 ‘C:’ 的當前目錄的路徑
     （即 ‘c:foo’），而不是 ‘c:\foo’。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'path' 和 'paths' 接受 *note path-like object:
     975. 作為參數。

 -- 函式: os.path.normcase (path)

     將路徑名的大小寫規範化。在 Windows 上，將路徑名中的所有字元轉換為小
     寫，並將正斜線轉換為反斜線。在其他作業系統上，回傳原始路徑。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.normpath (path)

     通過合併多餘的分隔符號和上層引用來標準化路徑名，使得 ‘A//B’、
     ‘A/B/’、‘A/./B’ 和 ‘A/foo/../B’ 都變成 ‘A/B’。這種字串操作可能會改
     變包含符號連結的路徑的含義。在 Windows 上，它將正斜線轉換為反斜線。
     要標準化大小寫，請使用 *note normcase(): 2557.。

          備註: 在 POSIX 系統中，根據 IEEE Std 1003.1 2013 版; 4.13
          Pathname Resolution(5) 標準，如果一個路徑名恰好以兩個斜線開頭
          ，則在前導字元後的第一個部分可能會以由實作品自行定義的方式解釋
          ，雖然多於兩個前導字元應該被視為單個字元。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.realpath (path, *, strict=False)

     回傳指定檔案名稱的規範路徑，消除路徑中遇到的所有符號連結（如果作業
     系統支援）。

     如果路徑不存在或遇到符號連結迴圈，且 'strict' 為 ‘True’，則引發
     *note OSError: 644.。如果 'strict' 為 ‘False’，則將路徑盡可能解析，
     並將任何剩餘部分附加在後面，而不檢查其是否存在。

          備註: 此函式模擬作業系統使路徑成為規範的過程，Windows 和 UNIX
          之間在鏈接和後續路徑部份交互方式方面略有不同。

          作業系統的 API 會根據需要自動使路徑正則，因此通常不需要呼叫此
          函式。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 在 Windows 上，現在會解析符號連結和連接點。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'strict' 參數。

 -- 函式: os.path.relpath (path, start=os.curdir)

     從當前目錄或可選的 'start' 目錄回傳到 'path' 的相對檔案路徑。這是一
     個路徑計算：不會訪問檔案系統來確認 'path' 或 'start' 的存在或屬性。
     在 Windows 上，當 'path' 和 'start' 在不同的驅動機上時，會引發
     *note ValueError: 183.。

     'start' 的預設值為 *note os.curdir: 2558.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.samefile (path1, path2)

     如果兩個路徑名引數指向同一個檔案或目錄，則回傳 ‘True’。這是通過設備
     編號和 i-node 編號來確定的，如果對任一路徑名的 *note os.stat():
     1bf. 呼叫失敗，則會引發異常。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增對 Windows 的支援。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 現在在 Windows 上使用與其他所有平台相同的實作方式
     。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.sameopenfile (fp1, fp2)

     如果文件描述符 'fp1' 和 'fp2' 指向同一個檔案，則回傳 ‘True’。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增對 Windows 的支援。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.samestat (stat1, stat2)

     如果 stat 值組 'stat1' 和 'stat2' 指向同一個檔案，則回傳 ‘True’。這
     些結構可能由 *note os.fstat(): c03.、*note os.lstat(): 1c0. 或
     *note os.stat(): 1bf. 回傳。此函式使用 *note samefile(): dfe. 和
     *note sameopenfile(): 2559. 實現了底層比較。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增對 Windows 的支援。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.split (path)

     將路徑名 'path' 拆分為 ‘(head, tail)’ 一對，其中 'tail' 是最後一個
     路徑名部份，'head' 是在它之前的所有部分。'tail' 部分不會包含斜線；
     如果 'path' 以斜線結尾，則 'tail' 將為空。如果 'path' 中沒有斜線，
     則 'head' 將為空。如果 'path' 為空，則 'head' 和 'tail' 都為空。除
     非 'head' 是根目錄（僅有一個或多個斜線），否則從 'head' 中刪除尾部
     的斜線。在所有情況下，‘join(head, tail)’ 回傳指向與 'path' 相同位置
     的路徑（但字串可能不同）。還可以參考函式 *note dirname(): 254c. 和
     *note basename(): 254d.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.splitdrive (path)

     將路徑名 'path' 拆分為 ‘(drive, tail)’ 一對，其中 'drive' 是掛載點
     或空字串。在不使用驅動機規範的系統上，'drive' 將始終為空字串。在所
     有情況下，‘drive + tail’ 將與 'path' 相同。

     在 Windows 上，將路徑名拆分為驅動機或 UNC 共享點以及相對路徑。

     如果路徑包含驅動機字母，則 'drive' 將包含從頭到冒號（包括冒號）的所
     有內容：

          >>> splitdrive("c:/dir")
          ("c:", "/dir")

     如果路徑包含 UNC 路徑，則驅動機將包含主機名和共享名：

          >>> splitdrive("//host/computer/dir")
          ("//host/computer", "/dir")

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 函式: os.path.splitroot (path)

     將路徑名 'path' 拆分為一個 3 項值組 ‘(drive, root, tail)’，其中
     'drive' 是設備名稱或掛載點，'root' 是驅動機後的分隔符字串，'tail' 是
     在根後的所有內容。這些項目中的任何一個都可能是空字串。在所有情況下
     ，‘drive + root + tail’ 將與 'path' 相同。

     在 POSIX 系統上，'drive' 始終為空。'root' 可能為空（如果 'path' 是
     相對路徑），一個斜線（如果 'path' 是絕對路徑），或者兩個斜線（根據
     IEEE Std 1003.1-2017; 4.13 Pathname Resolution(6) 的實作定義）。例
     如：

          >>> splitroot('/home/sam')
          ('', '/', 'home/sam')
          >>> splitroot('//home/sam')
          ('', '//', 'home/sam')
          >>> splitroot('///home/sam')
          ('', '/', '//home/sam')

     在 Windows 上，'drive' 可能為空、驅動機名稱、UNC 共享或設備名稱。
     'root' 可能為空，斜線或反斜線。例如：

          >>> splitroot('C:/Users/Sam')
          ('C:', '/', 'Users/Sam')
          >>> splitroot('//Server/Share/Users/Sam')
          ('//Server/Share', '/', 'Users/Sam')

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.path.splitext (path)

     將路徑名 'path' 拆分為一對 ‘(root, ext)’，使得 ‘root + ext ==
     path’，且副檔名 'ext' 為空或以點開頭且最多包含一個點 (period)。

     如果路徑不包含副檔名，則 'ext' 將為 ‘''’：

          >>> splitext('bar')
          ('bar', '')

     如果路徑包含副檔名，則 'ext' 將設置為該副檔名，包括前導的點。請注意
     ，前面的點將被忽略：

          >>> splitext('foo.bar.exe')
          ('foo.bar', '.exe')
          >>> splitext('/foo/bar.exe')
          ('/foo/bar', '.exe')

     路徑的最後一個部份的前導點被認為是根的一部分：

          >>> splitext('.cshrc')
          ('.cshrc', '')
          >>> splitext('/foo/....jpg')
          ('/foo/....jpg', '')

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受一個 *note path-like object: 975.。

 -- 資料: os.path.supports_unicode_filenames

     如果可以使用任意的 Unicode 字串作為檔案名（在檔案系統所施加的限制範
     圍內），則回傳 ‘True’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/genericpath.py

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/posixpath.py

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ntpath.py

   (4) https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/dev-drive/

   (5) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13

   (6) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流,  Next: stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果,  Prev: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作,  Up: 檔案與目錄存取

5.11.3 ‘fileinput’ -- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流
------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/fileinput.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements a helper class and functions to quickly write a
loop over standard input or a list of files.  If you just want to read
or write one file see *note open(): 29c.

The typical use is:

     import fileinput
     for line in fileinput.input(encoding="utf-8"):
         process(line)

This iterates over the lines of all files listed in ‘sys.argv[1:]’,
defaulting to ‘sys.stdin’ if the list is empty.  If a filename is ‘'-'’,
it is also replaced by ‘sys.stdin’ and the optional arguments 'mode' and
'openhook' are ignored.  To specify an alternative list of filenames,
pass it as the first argument to *note input(): 620.  A single file name
is also allowed.

All files are opened in text mode by default, but you can override this
by specifying the 'mode' parameter in the call to *note input(): 620. or
*note FileInput: 547.  If an I/O error occurs during opening or reading
a file, *note OSError: 644. is raised.

在 3.3 版的變更: *note IOError: ee8. used to be raised; it is now an
alias of *note OSError: 644.

If ‘sys.stdin’ is used more than once, the second and further use will
return no lines, except perhaps for interactive use, or if it has been
explicitly reset (e.g.  using ‘sys.stdin.seek(0)’).

Empty files are opened and immediately closed; the only time their
presence in the list of filenames is noticeable at all is when the last
file opened is empty.

Lines are returned with any newlines intact, which means that the last
line in a file may not have one.

You can control how files are opened by providing an opening hook via
the 'openhook' parameter to *note fileinput.input(): 620. or *note
FileInput(): 547.  The hook must be a function that takes two arguments,
'filename' and 'mode', and returns an accordingly opened file-like
object.  If 'encoding' and/or 'errors' are specified, they will be
passed to the hook as additional keyword arguments.  This module
provides a *note hook_compressed(): 621. to support compressed files.

The following function is the primary interface of this module:

 -- 函式: fileinput.input (files=None, inplace=False, backup='', *,
          mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Create an instance of the *note FileInput: 547. class.  The
     instance will be used as global state for the functions of this
     module, and is also returned to use during iteration.  The
     parameters to this function will be passed along to the constructor
     of the *note FileInput: 547. class.

     The *note FileInput: 547. instance can be used as a context manager
     in the *note with: 3c5. statement.  In this example, 'input' is
     closed after the ‘with’ statement is exited, even if an exception
     occurs:

          with fileinput.input(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt'), encoding="utf-8") as f:
              for line in f:
                  process(line)

     在 3.2 版的變更: Can be used as a context manager.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The keyword parameters 'mode' and 'openhook' are
     now keyword-only.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding' and
     'errors' are added.

The following functions use the global state created by *note
fileinput.input(): 620.; if there is no active state, *note
RuntimeError: 17a. is raised.

 -- 函式: fileinput.filename ()

     Return the name of the file currently being read.  Before the first
     line has been read, returns ‘None’.

 -- 函式: fileinput.fileno ()

     Return the integer "file descriptor" for the current file.  When no
     file is opened (before the first line and between files), returns
     ‘-1’.

 -- 函式: fileinput.lineno ()

     Return the cumulative line number of the line that has just been
     read.  Before the first line has been read, returns ‘0’.  After the
     last line of the last file has been read, returns the line number
     of that line.

 -- 函式: fileinput.filelineno ()

     Return the line number in the current file.  Before the first line
     has been read, returns ‘0’.  After the last line of the last file
     has been read, returns the line number of that line within the
     file.

 -- 函式: fileinput.isfirstline ()

     Return ‘True’ if the line just read is the first line of its file,
     otherwise return ‘False’.

 -- 函式: fileinput.isstdin ()

     Return ‘True’ if the last line was read from ‘sys.stdin’, otherwise
     return ‘False’.

 -- 函式: fileinput.nextfile ()

     Close the current file so that the next iteration will read the
     first line from the next file (if any); lines not read from the
     file will not count towards the cumulative line count.  The
     filename is not changed until after the first line of the next file
     has been read.  Before the first line has been read, this function
     has no effect; it cannot be used to skip the first file.  After the
     last line of the last file has been read, this function has no
     effect.

 -- 函式: fileinput.close ()

     Close the sequence.

The class which implements the sequence behavior provided by the module
is available for subclassing as well:

 -- 類別: fileinput.FileInput (files=None, inplace=False, backup='', *,
          mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Class *note FileInput: 547. is the implementation; its methods
     *note filename(): 255c, *note fileno(): 129e, *note lineno(): 255d,
     *note filelineno(): 255e, *note isfirstline(): 255f, *note
     isstdin(): 2560, *note nextfile(): 2561. and *note close(): 2562.
     correspond to the functions of the same name in the module.  In
     addition it is *note iterable: 10ba. and has a *note readline():
     1ab2. method which returns the next input line.  The sequence must
     be accessed in strictly sequential order; random access and *note
     readline(): 1ab2. cannot be mixed.

     With 'mode' you can specify which file mode will be passed to *note
     open(): 29c.  It must be one of ‘'r'’ and ‘'rb'’.

     The 'openhook', when given, must be a function that takes two
     arguments, 'filename' and 'mode', and returns an accordingly opened
     file-like object.  You cannot use 'inplace' and 'openhook'
     together.

     You can specify 'encoding' and 'errors' that is passed to *note
     open(): 29c. or 'openhook'.

     A *note FileInput: 547. instance can be used as a context manager
     in the *note with: 3c5. statement.  In this example, 'input' is
     closed after the ‘with’ statement is exited, even if an exception
     occurs:

          with FileInput(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt')) as input:
              process(input)

     在 3.2 版的變更: Can be used as a context manager.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The keyword parameter 'mode' and 'openhook' are
     now keyword-only.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding' and
     'errors' are added.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The ‘'rU'’ and ‘'U'’ modes and the
     ‘__getitem__()’ method have been removed.

'Optional in-place filtering:' if the keyword argument ‘inplace=True’ is
passed to *note fileinput.input(): 620. or to the *note FileInput: 547.
constructor, the file is moved to a backup file and standard output is
directed to the input file (if a file of the same name as the backup
file already exists, it will be replaced silently).  This makes it
possible to write a filter that rewrites its input file in place.  If
the 'backup' parameter is given (typically as ‘backup='.<some
extension>'’), it specifies the extension for the backup file, and the
backup file remains around; by default, the extension is ‘'.bak'’ and it
is deleted when the output file is closed.  In-place filtering is
disabled when standard input is read.

The two following opening hooks are provided by this module:

 -- 函式: fileinput.hook_compressed (filename, mode, *, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Transparently opens files compressed with gzip and bzip2
     (recognized by the extensions ‘'.gz'’ and ‘'.bz2'’) using the *note
     gzip: 62. and *note bz2: 11. modules.  If the filename extension is
     not ‘'.gz'’ or ‘'.bz2'’, the file is opened normally (ie, using
     *note open(): 29c. without any decompression).

     The 'encoding' and 'errors' values are passed to *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. for compressed files and open for normal
     files.

     Usage example: ‘fi =
     fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_compressed,
     encoding="utf-8")’

     在 3.10 版的變更: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding' and
     'errors' are added.

 -- 函式: fileinput.hook_encoded (encoding, errors=None)

     Returns a hook which opens each file with *note open(): 29c, using
     the given 'encoding' and 'errors' to read the file.

     Usage example: ‘fi =
     fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_encoded("utf-8",
     "surrogateescape"))’

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增可選參數 'errors'。

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: This function is deprecated since *note
     fileinput.input(): 620. and *note FileInput: 547. now have
     'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/fileinput.py


File: python.info,  Node: stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果,  Next: filecmp --- 檔案與目錄比較,  Prev: fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流,  Up: 檔案與目錄存取

5.11.4 ‘stat’ -- 直譯 ‘stat()’ 的結果
-------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/stat.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note stat: cb. module defines constants and functions for
interpreting the results of *note os.stat(): 1bf, *note os.fstat(): c03.
and *note os.lstat(): 1c0. (if they exist).  For complete details about
the ‘stat()’, ‘fstat()’ and ‘lstat()’ calls, consult the documentation
for your system.

在 3.4 版的變更: The stat module is backed by a C implementation.

The *note stat: cb. module defines the following functions to test for
specific file types:

 -- 函式: stat.S_ISDIR (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a directory.

 -- 函式: stat.S_ISCHR (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a character special device
     file.

 -- 函式: stat.S_ISBLK (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a block special device file.

 -- 函式: stat.S_ISREG (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a regular file.

 -- 函式: stat.S_ISFIFO (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a FIFO (named pipe).

 -- 函式: stat.S_ISLNK (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a symbolic link.

 -- 函式: stat.S_ISSOCK (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a socket.

 -- 函式: stat.S_ISDOOR (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a door.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: stat.S_ISPORT (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from an event port.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: stat.S_ISWHT (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a whiteout.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

Two additional functions are defined for more general manipulation of
the file's mode:

 -- 函式: stat.S_IMODE (mode)

     Return the portion of the file's mode that can be set by *note
     os.chmod(): f7c.--that is, the file's permission bits, plus the
     sticky bit, set-group-id, and set-user-id bits (on systems that
     support them).

 -- 函式: stat.S_IFMT (mode)

     Return the portion of the file's mode that describes the file type
     (used by the ‘S_IS*()’ functions above).

Normally, you would use the ‘os.path.is*()’ functions for testing the
type of a file; the functions here are useful when you are doing
multiple tests of the same file and wish to avoid the overhead of the
‘stat()’ system call for each test.  These are also useful when checking
for information about a file that isn't handled by *note os.path: 9d,
like the tests for block and character devices.

範例：

     import os, sys
     from stat import *

     def walktree(top, callback):
         '''recursively descend the directory tree rooted at top,
            calling the callback function for each regular file'''

         for f in os.listdir(top):
             pathname = os.path.join(top, f)
             mode = os.lstat(pathname).st_mode
             if S_ISDIR(mode):
                 # It's a directory, recurse into it
                 walktree(pathname, callback)
             elif S_ISREG(mode):
                 # It's a file, call the callback function
                 callback(pathname)
             else:
                 # Unknown file type, print a message
                 print('Skipping %s' % pathname)

     def visitfile(file):
         print('visiting', file)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         walktree(sys.argv[1], visitfile)

An additional utility function is provided to convert a file's mode in a
human readable string:

 -- 函式: stat.filemode (mode)

     Convert a file's mode to a string of the form '-rwxrwxrwx'.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The function supports *note S_IFDOOR: e49, *note
     S_IFPORT: e4a. and *note S_IFWHT: e4b.

All the variables below are simply symbolic indexes into the 10-tuple
returned by *note os.stat(): 1bf, *note os.fstat(): c03. or *note
os.lstat(): 1c0.

 -- 資料: stat.ST_MODE

     Inode protection mode.

 -- 資料: stat.ST_INO

     Inode number.

 -- 資料: stat.ST_DEV

     Device inode resides on.

 -- 資料: stat.ST_NLINK

     Number of links to the inode.

 -- 資料: stat.ST_UID

     User id of the owner.

 -- 資料: stat.ST_GID

     Group id of the owner.

 -- 資料: stat.ST_SIZE

     Size in bytes of a plain file; amount of data waiting on some
     special files.

 -- 資料: stat.ST_ATIME

     Time of last access.

 -- 資料: stat.ST_MTIME

     Time of last modification.

 -- 資料: stat.ST_CTIME

     The "ctime" as reported by the operating system.  On some systems
     (like Unix) is the time of the last metadata change, and, on others
     (like Windows), is the creation time (see platform documentation
     for details).

The interpretation of "file size" changes according to the file type.
For plain files this is the size of the file in bytes.  For FIFOs and
sockets under most flavors of Unix (including Linux in particular), the
"size" is the number of bytes waiting to be read at the time of the call
to *note os.stat(): 1bf, *note os.fstat(): c03, or *note os.lstat():
1c0.; this can sometimes be useful, especially for polling one of these
special files after a non-blocking open.  The meaning of the size field
for other character and block devices varies more, depending on the
implementation of the underlying system call.

The variables below define the flags used in the *note ST_MODE: e48.
field.

Use of the functions above is more portable than use of the first set of
flags:

 -- 資料: stat.S_IFSOCK

     Socket.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IFLNK

     Symbolic link.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IFREG

     Regular file.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IFBLK

     Block device.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IFDIR

     Directory.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IFCHR

     Character device.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IFIFO

     FIFO.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IFDOOR

     Door.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IFPORT

     Event port.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IFWHT

     Whiteout.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     備註: *note S_IFDOOR: e49, *note S_IFPORT: e4a. or *note S_IFWHT:
     e4b. are defined as 0 when the platform does not have support for
     the file types.

The following flags can also be used in the 'mode' argument of *note
os.chmod(): f7c.:

 -- 資料: stat.S_ISUID

     Set UID bit.

 -- 資料: stat.S_ISGID

     Set-group-ID bit.  This bit has several special uses.  For a
     directory it indicates that BSD semantics is to be used for that
     directory: files created there inherit their group ID from the
     directory, not from the effective group ID of the creating process,
     and directories created there will also get the *note S_ISGID:
     257f. bit set.  For a file that does not have the group execution
     bit (*note S_IXGRP: 2580.) set, the set-group-ID bit indicates
     mandatory file/record locking (see also *note S_ENFMT: 2581.).

 -- 資料: stat.S_ISVTX

     Sticky bit.  When this bit is set on a directory it means that a
     file in that directory can be renamed or deleted only by the owner
     of the file, by the owner of the directory, or by a privileged
     process.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IRWXU

     Mask for file owner permissions.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IRUSR

     Owner has read permission.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IWUSR

     Owner has write permission.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IXUSR

     Owner has execute permission.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IRWXG

     Mask for group permissions.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IRGRP

     Group has read permission.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IWGRP

     Group has write permission.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IXGRP

     Group has execute permission.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IRWXO

     Mask for permissions for others (not in group).

 -- 資料: stat.S_IROTH

     Others have read permission.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IWOTH

     Others have write permission.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IXOTH

     Others have execute permission.

 -- 資料: stat.S_ENFMT

     System V file locking enforcement.  This flag is shared with *note
     S_ISGID: 257f.: file/record locking is enforced on files that do
     not have the group execution bit (*note S_IXGRP: 2580.) set.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IREAD

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IRUSR: 2584.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IWRITE

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IWUSR: 2585.

 -- 資料: stat.S_IEXEC

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IXUSR: 2586.

The following flags can be used in the 'flags' argument of *note
os.chflags(): f7b.:

 -- 資料: stat.UF_NODUMP

     Do not dump the file.

 -- 資料: stat.UF_IMMUTABLE

     The file may not be changed.

 -- 資料: stat.UF_APPEND

     The file may only be appended to.

 -- 資料: stat.UF_OPAQUE

     The directory is opaque when viewed through a union stack.

 -- 資料: stat.UF_NOUNLINK

     The file may not be renamed or deleted.

 -- 資料: stat.UF_COMPRESSED

     The file is stored compressed (macOS 10.6+).

 -- 資料: stat.UF_HIDDEN

     The file should not be displayed in a GUI (macOS 10.5+).

 -- 資料: stat.SF_ARCHIVED

     The file may be archived.

 -- 資料: stat.SF_IMMUTABLE

     The file may not be changed.

 -- 資料: stat.SF_APPEND

     The file may only be appended to.

 -- 資料: stat.SF_NOUNLINK

     The file may not be renamed or deleted.

 -- 資料: stat.SF_SNAPSHOT

     The file is a snapshot file.

See the *BSD or macOS systems man page ‘chflags(2)(2)’ for more
information.

On Windows, the following file attribute constants are available for use
when testing bits in the ‘st_file_attributes’ member returned by *note
os.stat(): 1bf.  See the Windows API documentation(3) for more detail on
the meaning of these constants.

 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY
 -- 資料: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL

     在 3.5 版被加入.

On Windows, the following constants are available for comparing against
the ‘st_reparse_tag’ member returned by *note os.lstat(): 1c0.  These
are well-known constants, but are not an exhaustive list.

 -- 資料: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK
 -- 資料: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT
 -- 資料: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK

     在 3.8 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/stat.py

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/chflags(2)

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/gg258117.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: filecmp --- 檔案與目錄比較,  Next: tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄,  Prev: stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果,  Up: 檔案與目錄存取

5.11.5 ‘filecmp’ -- 檔案與目錄比較
----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/filecmp.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note filecmp: 55. module defines functions to compare files and
directories, with various optional time/correctness trade-offs.  For
comparing files, see also the *note difflib: 34. module.

The *note filecmp: 55. module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: filecmp.cmp (f1, f2, shallow=True)

     Compare the files named 'f1' and 'f2', returning ‘True’ if they
     seem equal, ‘False’ otherwise.

     If 'shallow' is true and the *note os.stat(): 1bf. signatures (file
     type, size, and modification time) of both files are identical, the
     files are taken to be equal.

     Otherwise, the files are treated as different if their sizes or
     contents differ.

     Note that no external programs are called from this function,
     giving it portability and efficiency.

     This function uses a cache for past comparisons and the results,
     with cache entries invalidated if the *note os.stat(): 1bf.
     information for the file changes.  The entire cache may be cleared
     using *note clear_cache(): dcb.

 -- 函式: filecmp.cmpfiles (dir1, dir2, common, shallow=True)

     Compare the files in the two directories 'dir1' and 'dir2' whose
     names are given by 'common'.

     Returns three lists of file names: 'match', 'mismatch', 'errors'.
     'match' contains the list of files that match, 'mismatch' contains
     the names of those that don't, and 'errors' lists the names of
     files which could not be compared.  Files are listed in 'errors' if
     they don't exist in one of the directories, the user lacks
     permission to read them or if the comparison could not be done for
     some other reason.

     The 'shallow' parameter has the same meaning and default value as
     for *note filecmp.cmp(): 167f.

     For example, ‘cmpfiles('a', 'b', ['c', 'd/e'])’ will compare ‘a/c’
     with ‘b/c’ and ‘a/d/e’ with ‘b/d/e’.  ‘'c'’ and ‘'d/e'’ will each
     be in one of the three returned lists.

 -- 函式: filecmp.clear_cache ()

     Clear the filecmp cache.  This may be useful if a file is compared
     so quickly after it is modified that it is within the mtime
     resolution of the underlying filesystem.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

* Menu:

* The dircmp class::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/filecmp.py


File: python.info,  Node: The dircmp class,  Up: filecmp --- 檔案與目錄比較

5.11.5.1 The ‘dircmp’ class
...........................

 -- 類別: filecmp.dircmp (a, b, ignore=None, hide=None)

     Construct a new directory comparison object, to compare the
     directories 'a' and 'b'.  'ignore' is a list of names to ignore,
     and defaults to *note filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES: dcc.  'hide' is a
     list of names to hide, and defaults to ‘[os.curdir, os.pardir]’.

     The *note dircmp: dcd. class compares files by doing 'shallow'
     comparisons as described for *note filecmp.cmp(): 167f.

     The *note dircmp: dcd. class provides the following methods:

      -- 方法: report ()

          Print (to *note sys.stdout: 92a.) a comparison between 'a' and
          'b'.

      -- 方法: report_partial_closure ()

          Print a comparison between 'a' and 'b' and common immediate
          subdirectories.

      -- 方法: report_full_closure ()

          Print a comparison between 'a' and 'b' and common
          subdirectories (recursively).

     The *note dircmp: dcd. class offers a number of interesting
     attributes that may be used to get various bits of information
     about the directory trees being compared.

     Note that via *note __getattr__(): 1fa. hooks, all attributes are
     computed lazily, so there is no speed penalty if only those
     attributes which are lightweight to compute are used.

      -- 屬性: left

          The directory 'a'.

      -- 屬性: right

          The directory 'b'.

      -- 屬性: left_list

          Files and subdirectories in 'a', filtered by 'hide' and
          'ignore'.

      -- 屬性: right_list

          Files and subdirectories in 'b', filtered by 'hide' and
          'ignore'.

      -- 屬性: common

          Files and subdirectories in both 'a' and 'b'.

      -- 屬性: left_only

          Files and subdirectories only in 'a'.

      -- 屬性: right_only

          Files and subdirectories only in 'b'.

      -- 屬性: common_dirs

          Subdirectories in both 'a' and 'b'.

      -- 屬性: common_files

          Files in both 'a' and 'b'.

      -- 屬性: common_funny

          Names in both 'a' and 'b', such that the type differs between
          the directories, or names for which *note os.stat(): 1bf.
          reports an error.

      -- 屬性: same_files

          Files which are identical in both 'a' and 'b', using the
          class's file comparison operator.

      -- 屬性: diff_files

          Files which are in both 'a' and 'b', whose contents differ
          according to the class's file comparison operator.

      -- 屬性: funny_files

          Files which are in both 'a' and 'b', but could not be
          compared.

      -- 屬性: subdirs

          A dictionary mapping names in *note common_dirs: 25bf. to
          *note dircmp: dcd. instances (or MyDirCmp instances if this
          instance is of type MyDirCmp, a subclass of *note dircmp:
          dcd.).

          在 3.10 版的變更: Previously entries were always *note dircmp:
          dcd. instances.  Now entries are the same type as 'self', if
          'self' is a subclass of *note dircmp: dcd.

 -- 屬性: filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     List of directories ignored by *note dircmp: dcd. by default.

Here is a simplified example of using the ‘subdirs’ attribute to search
recursively through two directories to show common different files:

     >>> from filecmp import dircmp
     >>> def print_diff_files(dcmp):
     ...     for name in dcmp.diff_files:
     ...         print("diff_file %s found in %s and %s" % (name, dcmp.left,
     ...               dcmp.right))
     ...     for sub_dcmp in dcmp.subdirs.values():
     ...         print_diff_files(sub_dcmp)
     ...
     >>> dcmp = dircmp('dir1', 'dir2')
     >>> print_diff_files(dcmp)


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄,  Next: glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展,  Prev: filecmp --- 檔案與目錄比較,  Up: 檔案與目錄存取

5.11.6 ‘tempfile’ -- 生成臨時檔案和目錄
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tempfile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

該 module（模組）用於建立臨時檔案和目錄，它可以在所有有支援的平臺上使用
。*note TemporaryFile: 25c7.、*note NamedTemporaryFile: 1ed.、*note
TemporaryDirectory: 10c7. 和 *note SpooledTemporaryFile: 490. 是有自動清
除功能的高階介面，可作為*note 情境管理器 (context manager): 3c4. 使用。
*note mkstemp(): 25c8. 和 *note mkdtemp(): 1c3. 是低階函式，使用完畢後需
手動清理。

所有可被使用者呼叫的函式和建構函式都帶有可以設定臨時檔案和臨時目錄的路徑
和名稱的引數。此 module 所使用的檔名為一個隨機字元組成的字串，這讓檔案可
以更安全地在共享的臨時目錄中被建立。為了維持向後相容性，引數的順序會稍微
奇怪，所以為了讓程式更容易被理解，建議使用關鍵字引數。

這個 module 定義了以下可供使用者呼叫的項目：

 -- 函式: tempfile.TemporaryFile (mode='w+b', buffering=-1,
          encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, *, errors=None)

     回傳一個可當作臨時儲存區域的*note 類檔案物件: 2319.。建立該檔案使用
     了與 *note mkstemp(): 25c8. 相同的安全規則。它將在關閉（包括當物件
     被垃圾回收 (garbage collect) 時的隱式關閉）後立即銷毀。在 Unix 下，
     該檔案所在的目錄可能根本不被建立、或者在建立檔案後立即就被刪除，其
     他平臺不支援此功能；你的程式不應依賴使用此功能建立的臨時檔案名稱，
     因為它在檔案系統中的名稱有可能是不可見的。

     生成的物件可以作為*note 情境管理器: 3c4.使用（參見 *note 範例:
     25c9.）。完成情境或銷毀臨時檔案物件後，臨時檔案將從檔案系統中刪除。

     'mode' 參數預設為 ‘'w+b'’，所以建立的檔案不用關閉就可以讀取或寫入。
     因為用的是二進位制模式，所以無論存的是什麼資料，它在所有平臺上的行
     為都一致。'buffering'、'encoding'、'errors' 和 'newline' 的含義與
     *note open(): 29c. 中的相同。

     參數 'dir'、'prefix' 和 'suffix' 的含義和預設值都與它們在 *note
     mkstemp(): 25c8. 中的相同。

     在 POSIX 平臺上，回傳物件是真實的檔案物件。在其他平臺上，它是一個
     file-like object，它的 ‘file’ 屬性為底層的真實檔案物件。

     如果可用且可運作，則使用 *note os.O_TMPFILE: e00. 旗標（僅限於
     Linux，需要 3.11 版本以上的核心）。

     在不是 Posix 或 Cygwin 的平臺上，TemporaryFile 是
     NamedTemporaryFile 的別名。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fullpath’ 的 ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ *note 稽核事件:
     168e.。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 如果可用，自此開始使用 *note os.O_TMPFILE: e00. 旗
     標。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'errors' 參數。

 -- 函式: tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile (mode='w+b', buffering=-1,
          encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, delete=True, *, errors=None, delete_on_close=True)

     此函式的操作與 *note TemporaryFile(): 25c7. 完全相同，但存在以下差
     異：

        * 此函式回傳一個保證在檔案系統中具有可見名稱的檔案。

        * 為了管理指定檔案，它使用 'delete' 和 'delete_on_close' 參數擴
          充 *note TemporaryFile(): 25c7. 來指定是否以及如何自動刪除指定
          檔案。

     回傳的物件始終是一個*note 類檔案物件: 2319.，其 ‘file’ 屬性是底層的
     真實檔案物件。這個類檔案物件可以在 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式中使用，
     就像普通檔案一樣。臨時檔案的名稱可以從回傳的類檔案物件的
     :attr:!name' 屬性中取得。在 Unix 上則與 *note TemporaryFile():
     25c7. 不同，目錄條目不會在檔案建立後立即被取消鏈接 (unlink)。

     如果 'delete' 為 true（預設值）並且 'delete_on_close' 為 true（預設
     值），則檔案在關閉後會立即被刪除。如果 'delete' 為 true 並且
     'delete_on_close' 為 false，則僅在情境管理器退出時刪除檔案，或者在
     *note 類檔案物件: 2319.完結時刪除檔案。在這種情況下，並不總是保證能
     成功刪除（請參閱 *note object.__del__(): 1cf2.）。如果 'delete' 為
     false，則會忽略 'delete_on_close' 的值。

     因此，要在關閉檔案後使用臨時檔案的名稱重新打開檔案，請確保在關閉時
     不刪除檔案（將 'delete' 參數設定為 false），或者如果臨時檔案是以
     *note with: 3c5. 陳述式建立，要將 'delete_on_close' 參數設定為
     false。建議使用後者，因為它有助於在情境管理器退出時自動清理臨時檔案
     。

     在臨時檔案仍處於打開狀態時再次按其名稱打開它，其作用方式如下：

        * 在 POSIX 上，檔案始終可以再次打開。

        * 在 Windows 上，確保至少滿足以下條件之一：

             * 'delete' 為 false

             * 額外的 open 會共享刪除存取權限（例如，通過使用旗標
               ‘O_TEMPORARY’ 來呼叫 *note os.open(): c09.）

             * 'delete' 為 true 但 'delete_on_close' 為 false。請注意，
               在這種情況下不共享刪除存取權限的其他 open（例如透過內建的
               *note open(): 29c. 建立）必須在退出情境管理器之前關閉，否
               則情境管理器上的 *note os.unlink(): f84. 呼叫退出將失敗並
               出現 *note PermissionError: bb5.。

     在 Windows 上，如果 'delete_on_close' 為 false，並且檔案是在使用者
     缺乏刪除存取權限的目錄中建立的，則情境管理器退出時的 *note
     os.unlink(): f84. 呼叫將失敗，並引發 *note PermissionError: bb5.。
     當 'delete_on_close' 為 true 時，不會發生這種情況，因為刪除存取權限
     是由 open 來要求的，如果未授予存取權限則會立即失敗。

     （僅）在 POSIX 上，因使用 SIGKILL 而被終止的行程無法自動刪除它建立
     的任何 NamedTemporaryFiles。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fullpath’ 的 ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ *note 稽核事件:
     168e.。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'errors' 參數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'delete_on_close' 參數。

 -- 類別: tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile (max_size=0, mode='w+b',
          buffering=-1, encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None,
          prefix=None, dir=None, *, errors=None)

     此類別執行的操作與 *note TemporaryFile(): 25c7. 完全相同，但會將資
     料排存 (spool) 於在記憶體中，直到檔案大小超過 'max_size'，或檔案的
     *note fileno(): 25ca. 方法被呼叫為止，此時資料會被寫入磁碟，並且之
     後的操作與 *note TemporaryFile(): 25c7. 相同。

      -- 方法: rollover ()

          生成的檔案物件有一個額外的方法 ‘rollover()’，忽略檔案大小並立
          即將其寫入磁碟。

     回傳的物件是 file-like object，它的 ‘_file’ 屬性是 *note
     io.BytesIO: d24. 或 *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. 物件（取決於指定的
     是二進位制模式還是文字模式）或真實的檔案物件（取決於是否已呼叫
     *note rollover(): 25cb.）。file-like object 可以像普通檔案一樣在
     *note with: 3c5. 陳述式中使用。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 現在，檔案的截斷方法 (truncate method) 可接受一個
     'size' 引數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'errors' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 完全實作 *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491. 和 *note
     io.TextIOBase: 492. 抽象基底類別（取決於指定的是二進位還是文本
     'mode'）。

 -- 類別: tempfile.TemporaryDirectory (suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, ignore_cleanup_errors=False, *, delete=True)

     此類別會使用與 *note mkdtemp(): 1c3. 相同安全規則來建立一個臨時目錄
     。回傳物件可當作*note 情境管理器: 3c4.使用（參見*note 範例: 25c9.）
     。在完成情境或銷毀臨時目錄物件時，新建立的臨時目錄及其所有內容會從
     檔案系統中被移除。

      -- 屬性: name

          可以從回傳物件的 ‘name’ 屬性中找到的臨時目錄名稱。當回傳的物件
          用作*note 情境管理器: 3c4.時，這個 ‘name’ 會作為 *note with:
          3c5. 陳述句中 ‘as’ 子句的目標（如果有 as 的話）。

      -- 方法: cleanup ()

          此目錄可透過呼叫 ‘cleanup()’ 方法來顯式地清理。如果
          'ignore_cleanup_errors' 為 true，則在顯式或隱式清理期間出現的
          未處理例外（例如在 Windows 上移除開啟的檔案而引發的 *note
          PermissionError: bb5.）將被忽略，並且剩餘的可移除條目會「儘可
          能」地被刪除。在其他情況下，錯誤將在任何情境清理發生時被引發（
          ‘cleanup()’ 呼叫、退出情境管理器、物件被作為垃圾回收或直譯器關
          閉等）。

     'delete' 參數可以停用在退出情境時對目錄樹的清理，雖然停用情境管理器
     在退出情境時所採取的操作似乎不常見，但它在除錯期間或當你需要基於其
     他邏輯的清理行為時會非常有用。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fullpath’ 的 ‘tempfile.mkdtemp’ *note 稽核事件:
     168e.。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'ignore_cleanup_errors' 參數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'delete' 參數。

 -- 函式: tempfile.mkstemp (suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None,
          text=False)

     盡可能以最安全的方式建立一個臨時檔案。假設所在平臺正確實作了 *note
     os.open(): c09. 的 *note os.O_EXCL: 25ce. 旗標，則建立檔案時不會有
     race condition（競爭條件）的情況。該檔案只能由建立者讀寫，如果所在
     平臺用 permission bit（許可權位元）來表示檔案是否可執行，則沒有人有
     執行權。檔案描述器不會被子行程繼承。

     與 *note TemporaryFile(): 25c7. 不同，*note mkstemp(): 25c8. 使用者
     用完臨時檔案後需要自行將其刪除。

     如果 'suffix' 不是 ‘None’ 則檔名將以該後綴結尾，若為 ‘None’ 則沒有
     後綴。*note mkstemp(): 25c8. 不會在檔名和後綴之間加點 (dot)，如果需
     要加一個點號，請將其放在 'suffix' 的開頭。

     如果 'prefix' 不是 ‘None’ 則檔名將以該字首開頭，若為 ‘None’ 則使用
     預設前綴。預設前綴是 *note gettempprefix(): 25cf. 或 *note
     gettempprefixb(): 25d0. 函式的回傳值（自動呼叫合適的函式）。

     如果 'dir' 不為 ‘None’ 則在指定的目錄建立檔案，若為 ‘None’ 則使用預
     設目錄。預設目錄是從一個相依於平臺的列表中選擇出來的，但是使用者可
     以設定 'TMPDIR'、'TEMP' 或 'TMP' 環境變數來設定目錄的位置。因此，不
     能保證生成的臨時檔案路徑是使用者友善的，比如透過 ‘os.popen()’ 將路
     徑傳遞給外部命令時仍需要加引號 (quoting)。

     如果 'suffix'、'prefix' 和 'dir' 中的任何一個不是 ‘None’，就要保證
     它們資料型別相同。如果它們是位元組串，則回傳名稱的型別就是位元組串
     而非字串。如果不想遵循預設行為但又想要回傳值是位元組串型別，請傳入
     ‘suffix=b''’。

     如果指定了 'text' 且為真值，檔案會以文字模式開啟。否則，檔案（預設
     ）以二進位制模式開啟。

     *note mkstemp(): 25c8. 回傳一個 tuple，tuple 中，第一個元素是一個作
     業系統層級 (OS-level) 控制代碼，指向一個開啟的檔案（如同 *note
     os.open(): c09. 的回傳值），第二元素是該檔案的絕對路徑。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fullpath’ 的 ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ *note 稽核事件:
     168e.。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 現在，'suffix'、'prefix' 和 'dir' 可以以位元組串型
     別按順序提供，以獲得位元組串型別的回傳值。在之前只允許使用字串。
     'suffix' 和 'prefix' 現在可以接受 ‘None’，並且預設為 ‘None’ 以使用
     合適的預設值。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'dir' 參數現在可接受一個類路徑物件 (*note
     path-like object: 975.)。

 -- 函式: tempfile.mkdtemp (suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None)

     盡可能以最安全的方式建立一個臨時目錄，建立該目錄時不會有 race
     condition 的情況，該目錄只能由建立者讀取、寫入和搜尋。

     *note mkdtemp(): 1c3. 的使用者用完臨時目錄後需要自行將其刪除。

     引數 'prefix'、'suffix' 和 'dir' 的含義與它們在 *note mkstemp():
     25c8. 中相同。

     *note mkdtemp(): 1c3. 回傳新目錄的絕對路徑名稱。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fullpath’ 的 ‘tempfile.mkdtemp’ *note 稽核事件:
     168e.。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 現在，'suffix'、'prefix' 和 'dir' 可以以位元組串型
     別按順序提供，以獲得位元組串型別的回傳值。在之前只允許使用字串。
     'suffix' 和 'prefix' 現在可以接受 ‘None’，並且預設為 ‘None’ 以使用
     合適的預設值。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'dir' 參數現在可接受一個類路徑物件 (*note
     path-like object: 975.)。

     在 3.12 版的變更: *note mkdtemp(): 1c3. 現在都會回傳絕對路徑，即使
     'dir' 是相對路徑。

 -- 函式: tempfile.gettempdir ()

     回傳儲存臨時檔案的目錄名稱。這設定了此 module 所有函式 'dir' 引數的
     預設值。

     Python 搜尋標準目錄列表來找到呼叫者可以在其中建立檔案的目錄。這個列
     表是：

       1. ‘TMPDIR’ 環境變數指向的目錄。

       2. ‘TEMP’ 環境變數指向的目錄。

       3. ‘TMP’ 環境變數指向的目錄。

       4. 與平臺相關的位置：

             * 在 Windows 上，目錄依次為 ‘C:\TEMP’、‘C:\TMP’、‘\TEMP’ 和
               ‘\TMP’。

             * 在所有其他平臺上，目錄依次為 ‘/tmp’、‘/var/tmp’ 和
               ‘/usr/tmp’。

       5. 不得已時，使用當前工作目錄。

     搜尋的結果會被 cache（快取）起來，請見下面 *note tempdir: 16ae. 的
     描述。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 回傳一個字串。在之前的版本中它會回傳任意 *note
     tempdir: 16ae. 的值而不考慮它的型別，只要它不為 ‘None’。

 -- 函式: tempfile.gettempdirb ()

     與 *note gettempdir(): 16af. 相同，但回傳值為位元組串型別。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: tempfile.gettempprefix ()

     回傳用於建立臨時檔案的檔名前綴，它不包含目錄部分。

 -- 函式: tempfile.gettempprefixb ()

     與 *note gettempprefix(): 25cf. 相同，但回傳值為位元組串型別。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

此 module 使用一個全域性變數來儲存由 *note gettempdir(): 16af. 回傳的臨
時檔案使用的目錄路徑。它可被直接設定以覆蓋選擇過程，但不建議這樣做。此
module 中的所有函式都接受一個 'dir' 引數，它可被用於指定目錄。這是個推薦
的做法，它不會透過改變全域性 API 行為而對其他不預期此行為的程式造成影響
。

 -- 資料: tempfile.tempdir

     當被設為 ‘None’ 以外的值時，此變數會為此 module 所定義函式的引數
     'dir' 定義預設值，包括確定其型別為位元組串還是字串。它不可以為
     *note path-like object: 975.。

     如果在呼叫除 *note gettempprefix(): 25cf. 外的上述任何函式時
     ‘tempdir’ 為 ‘None’ (預設值) 則它會按照 *note gettempdir(): 16af. 中
     所描述的演算法來初始化。

          備註: 請注意如果你將 ‘tempdir’ 設為位元組串值，會有一個麻煩的
          副作用：*note mkstemp(): 25c8. 和 *note mkdtemp(): 1c3. 的全域
          性預設回傳型別會在沒有提供明顯字串型別的 ‘prefix’、‘suffix’ 或
          ‘dir’ 時被改為位元組串。請不要編寫預期此行為或依賴於此行為的程
          式。這個奇怪的行為是為了維持與以往實作版本的相容性。

* Menu:

* 範例: 範例<7>.
* 已棄用的函式和變數::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tempfile.py


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<7>,  Next: 已棄用的函式和變數,  Up: tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄

5.11.6.1 範例
.............

以下是 *note tempfile: da. module 的一些常見用法範例：

     >>> import tempfile

     # create a temporary file and write some data to it
     >>> fp = tempfile.TemporaryFile()
     >>> fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     # read data from file
     >>> fp.seek(0)
     >>> fp.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     # close the file, it will be removed
     >>> fp.close()

     # create a temporary file using a context manager
     >>> with tempfile.TemporaryFile() as fp:
     ...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     ...     fp.seek(0)
     ...     fp.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     >>>
     # file is now closed and removed

     # create a temporary file using a context manager
     # close the file, use the name to open the file again
     >>> with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete_on_close=False) as fp:
     ...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     ...     fp.close()
     ... # the file is closed, but not removed
     ... # open the file again by using its name
     ...     with open(fp.name, mode='rb') as f:
     ...         f.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     >>>
     # file is now removed

     # create a temporary directory using the context manager
     >>> with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
     ...     print('created temporary directory', tmpdirname)
     >>>
     # directory and contents have been removed


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用的函式和變數,  Prev: 範例<7>,  Up: tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄

5.11.6.2 已棄用的函式和變數
...........................

在過去，建立臨時檔案首先使用 *note mktemp(): 1661. 函式生成一個檔名，然
後使用該檔名建立檔案。不幸的是這並不安全的，因為在呼叫 *note mktemp():
1661. 與隨後嘗試建立檔案之間的時間裡，其他程式可能會使用該名稱建立檔案。
解決方案是將兩個步驟結合起來，並立即建立檔案。這個方案目前被 *note
mkstemp(): 25c8. 和上述其他函式所採用。

 -- 函式: tempfile.mktemp (suffix='', prefix='tmp', dir=None)

     在 2.3 版之後被棄用: 使用 *note mkstemp(): 25c8. 代替。

     回傳一個在呼叫本方法時不存在檔案的絕對路徑。引數 'prefix'、'suffix'
     和 'dir' 與 *note mkstemp(): 25c8. 中所用的類似，除了在於不支援位元
     組串型別的檔名且不支援 ‘suffix=None’ 和 ‘prefix=None’。

          警告: 使用此功能可能會在程式中引入安全漏洞。當你開始使用本方法
          回傳的檔案執行任何操作時，可能有人已經捷足先登了。*note
          mktemp(): 1661. 的功能可以很輕鬆地用帶有 ‘delete=False’ 參數的
          *note NamedTemporaryFile(): 1ed. 代替：

               >>> f = NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False)
               >>> f.name
               '/tmp/tmptjujjt'
               >>> f.write(b"Hello World!\n")
               13
               >>> f.close()
               >>> os.unlink(f.name)
               >>> os.path.exists(f.name)
               False


File: python.info,  Node: glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展,  Next: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對,  Prev: tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄,  Up: 檔案與目錄存取

5.11.7 ‘glob’ -- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展
--------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/glob.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note glob: 5f. 模組根據 Unix shell 使用的規則查找與指定模式匹配的所有路
徑名稱，結果以任意順序回傳。沒有波浪號 (tilde) 擴展，但是 ‘*’、‘?’ 和用
‘[]’ 表示的字元範圍將被正確匹配。這是透過同時使用 *note os.scandir():
8aa. 和 *note fnmatch.fnmatch(): 1672. 函式來完成的，而沒有實際調用
subshell。

請注意，以點 (‘.’) 開頭的檔案只能與同樣以點開頭的模式匹配，這與 *note
fnmatch.fnmatch(): 1672. 或 *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1cf. 不同。（對於
波浪號和 shell 變數擴展，請使用 *note os.path.expanduser(): 85b. 和
*note os.path.expandvars(): 1248.。）

對於文本 (literal) 匹配，將元字元 (meta-character) 括在方括號中。例如，
‘'[?]'’ 會匹配 ‘'?'’ 字元。

也參考
......

*note pathlib: 9f. 模組提供高階路徑物件。

 -- 函式: glob.glob (pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None,
          recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

     回傳與 'pathname' 匹配、可能為空的路徑名稱 list，它必須是包含路徑規
     範的字串。 'pathname' 可以是絕對的（如
     ‘/usr/src/Python-1.5/Makefile’）或相對的（如 ‘../../Tools/*/*.gif’）
     ，並且可以包含 shell 樣式的通用字元 (wildcard)。已損壞的符號連接也
     會（如同在 shell）被包含在結果中。結果是否排序取決於檔案系統 (file
     system)。如果在呼叫此函式期間刪除或新增滿足條件的檔案，則結果不一定
     會包含該檔案的路徑名稱。

     如果 'root_dir' 不是 ‘None’，它應該是一個指定搜索根目錄的 *note
     path-like object: 975.。它在呼叫它之前更改當前目錄的影響與 *note
     glob(): 5f. 相同。如果 'pathname' 是相對的，結果將包含相對於
     'root_dir' 的路徑。

     此函式可以支援以 'dir_fd' 參數使用*note 相對目錄描述器的路徑: f78.。

     如果 'recursive' 為真，模式 "‘**’" 將匹配任何檔案、零個或多個目錄、
     子目錄和目錄的符號連結。如果模式後面有 *note os.sep: 465. 或 *note
     os.altsep: 466. 那麼檔案將不會被匹配。

     如果 'include_hidden' 為真，"‘**’" 模式將匹配被隱藏的目錄。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘pathname’、‘recursive’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘glob.glob’。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘pathname’、‘recursive’、‘root_dir’、‘dir_fd’ 的
     *note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘glob.glob/2’。

          備註: 在大型目錄樹中使用 "‘**’" 模式可能會消耗過多的時間。

          備註: This function may return duplicate path names if
          'pathname' contains multiple "‘**’" patterns and 'recursive'
          is true.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 支援以 "‘**’" 使用遞迴 glob。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'root_dir' 與 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'include_hidden' 參數。

 -- 函式: glob.iglob (pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None,
          recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

     回傳一個會產生與 *note glob(): 5f. 相同的值的 *note iterator: 1718.
     ，而不是同時存儲全部的值。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘pathname’、‘recursive’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘glob.glob’。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘pathname’、‘recursive’、‘root_dir’、‘dir_fd’ 的
     *note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘glob.glob/2’。

          備註: This function may return duplicate path names if
          'pathname' contains multiple "‘**’" patterns and 'recursive'
          is true.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 支援以 "‘**’" 使用遞迴 glob。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'root_dir' 與 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'include_hidden' 參數。

 -- 函式: glob.escape (pathname)

     跳脫 (escape) 所有特殊字元（‘'?'’、‘'*'’ 和 ‘'['’）。如果你想匹配其
     中可能包含特殊字元的任意文本字串，這將會很有用。驅動器 (drive)/UNC
     共享點 (sharepoints) 中的特殊字元不會被跳脫，例如在 Windows 上，
     ‘escape('//?/c:/Quo vadis?.txt')’ 會回傳 ‘'//?/c:/Quo
     vadis[?].txt'’。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

例如，在一個包含以下檔案的目錄：‘1.gif’、‘2.txt’、‘card.gif’，和一個僅包
含 ‘3.txt’ 檔案的子目錄 ‘sub’，*note glob(): 5f. 將產生以下結果。請注意
路徑的任何前導部分是如何保留的。

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('./[0-9].*')
     ['./1.gif', './2.txt']
     >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
     ['1.gif', 'card.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('?.gif')
     ['1.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('**/*.txt', recursive=True)
     ['2.txt', 'sub/3.txt']
     >>> glob.glob('./**/', recursive=True)
     ['./', './sub/']

如果目錄包含以 ‘.’ 開頭的檔案，則預設情況下不會去匹配到它們。例如，一個
包含 ‘card.gif’ 和 ‘.card.gif’ 的目錄：

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
     ['card.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('.c*')
     ['.card.gif']

也參考
......

*note fnmatch: 57. 模組

     Shell 風格檔案名（不是路徑）的擴展

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/glob.py


File: python.info,  Node: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對,  Next: linecache --- 隨機存取文字列,  Prev: glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展,  Up: 檔案與目錄存取

5.11.8 ‘fnmatch’ -- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對
-----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/fnmatch.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides support for Unix shell-style wildcards, which are
'not' the same as regular expressions (which are documented in the *note
re: b4. module).  The special characters used in shell-style wildcards
are:

Pattern          含義
                 
----------------------------------------------------------
                 
‘*’              matches everything
                 
                 
‘?’              matches any single character
                 
                 
‘[seq]’          matches any character in 'seq'
                 
                 
‘[!seq]’         matches any character not in 'seq'
                 

For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.  For example,
‘'[?]'’ matches the character ‘'?'’.

Note that the filename separator (‘'/'’ on Unix) is 'not' special to
this module.  See module *note glob: 5f. for pathname expansion (*note
glob: 5f. uses *note filter(): 1674. to match pathname segments).
Similarly, filenames starting with a period are not special for this
module, and are matched by the ‘*’ and ‘?’ patterns.

Also note that *note functools.lru_cache(): 834. with the 'maxsize' of
32768 is used to cache the compiled regex patterns in the following
functions: *note fnmatch(): 57, *note fnmatchcase(): 1673, *note
filter(): 1674.

 -- 函式: fnmatch.fnmatch (name, pat)

     Test whether the filename string 'name' matches the pattern string
     'pat', returning ‘True’ or ‘False’.  Both parameters are
     case-normalized using *note os.path.normcase(): 2557.  *note
     fnmatchcase(): 1673. can be used to perform a case-sensitive
     comparison, regardless of whether that's standard for the operating
     system.

     This example will print all file names in the current directory
     with the extension ‘.txt’:

          import fnmatch
          import os

          for file in os.listdir('.'):
              if fnmatch.fnmatch(file, '*.txt'):
                  print(file)

 -- 函式: fnmatch.fnmatchcase (name, pat)

     Test whether the filename string 'name' matches the pattern string
     'pat', returning ‘True’ or ‘False’; the comparison is
     case-sensitive and does not apply *note os.path.normcase(): 2557.

 -- 函式: fnmatch.filter (names, pat)

     Construct a list from those elements of the *note iterable: 10ba.
     'names' that match pattern 'pat'.  It is the same as ‘[n for n in
     names if fnmatch(n, pat)]’, but implemented more efficiently.

 -- 函式: fnmatch.translate (pat)

     Return the shell-style pattern 'pat' converted to a regular
     expression for using with *note re.match(): 10c0.

     範例：

          >>> import fnmatch, re
          >>>
          >>> regex = fnmatch.translate('*.txt')
          >>> regex
          '(?s:.*\\.txt)\\Z'
          >>> reobj = re.compile(regex)
          >>> reobj.match('foobar.txt')
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 10), match='foobar.txt'>

也參考
......

*note glob: 5f. 模組

     Unix shell-style path expansion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/fnmatch.py


File: python.info,  Node: linecache --- 隨機存取文字列,  Next: shutil — 高階檔案操作,  Prev: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對,  Up: 檔案與目錄存取

5.11.9 ‘linecache’ -- 隨機存取文字列
------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/linecache.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note linecache: 80. module allows one to get any line from a Python
source file, while attempting to optimize internally, using a cache, the
common case where many lines are read from a single file.  This is used
by the *note traceback: f9. module to retrieve source lines for
inclusion in the formatted traceback.

The *note tokenize.open(): 25da. function is used to open files.  This
function uses *note tokenize.detect_encoding(): 25db. to get the
encoding of the file; in the absence of an encoding token, the file
encoding defaults to UTF-8.

The *note linecache: 80. module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: linecache.getline (filename, lineno, module_globals=None)

     Get line 'lineno' from file named 'filename'.  This function will
     never raise an exception -- it will return ‘''’ on errors (the
     terminating newline character will be included for lines that are
     found).

     If a file named 'filename' is not found, the function first checks
     for a PEP 302(2) ‘__loader__’ in 'module_globals'.  If there is
     such a loader and it defines a ‘get_source’ method, then that
     determines the source lines (if ‘get_source()’ returns ‘None’, then
     ‘''’ is returned).  Finally, if 'filename' is a relative filename,
     it is looked up relative to the entries in the module search path,
     ‘sys.path’.

 -- 函式: linecache.clearcache ()

     Clear the cache.  Use this function if you no longer need lines
     from files previously read using *note getline(): c9d.

 -- 函式: linecache.checkcache (filename=None)

     Check the cache for validity.  Use this function if files in the
     cache may have changed on disk, and you require the updated
     version.  If 'filename' is omitted, it will check all the entries
     in the cache.

 -- 函式: linecache.lazycache (filename, module_globals)

     Capture enough detail about a non-file-based module to permit
     getting its lines later via *note getline(): c9d. even if
     'module_globals' is ‘None’ in the later call.  This avoids doing
     I/O until a line is actually needed, without having to carry the
     module globals around indefinitely.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

範例：

     >>> import linecache
     >>> linecache.getline(linecache.__file__, 8)
     'import sys\n'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/linecache.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: shutil — 高階檔案操作,  Prev: linecache --- 隨機存取文字列,  Up: 檔案與目錄存取

5.11.10 ‘shutil’ — 高階檔案操作
-------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/shutil.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note shutil: c0. module offers a number of high-level operations on
files and collections of files.  In particular, functions are provided
which support file copying and removal.  For operations on individual
files, see also the *note os: 9c. module.

     警告: Even the higher-level file copying functions (*note
     shutil.copy(): 8a5, *note shutil.copy2(): 8a6.) cannot copy all
     file metadata.

     On POSIX platforms, this means that file owner and group are lost
     as well as ACLs.  On Mac OS, the resource fork and other metadata
     are not used.  This means that resources will be lost and file type
     and creator codes will not be correct.  On Windows, file owners,
     ACLs and alternate data streams are not copied.

* Menu:

* Directory and files operations::
* Archiving operations::
* Querying the size of the output terminal::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/shutil.py


File: python.info,  Node: Directory and files operations,  Next: Archiving operations,  Up: shutil — 高階檔案操作

5.11.10.1 Directory and files operations
........................................

 -- 函式: shutil.copyfileobj (fsrc, fdst[, length])

     Copy the contents of the *note file-like object: 1054. 'fsrc' to
     the file-like object 'fdst'.  The integer 'length', if given, is
     the buffer size.  In particular, a negative 'length' value means to
     copy the data without looping over the source data in chunks; by
     default the data is read in chunks to avoid uncontrolled memory
     consumption.  Note that if the current file position of the 'fsrc'
     object is not 0, only the contents from the current file position
     to the end of the file will be copied.

 -- 函式: shutil.copyfile (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the contents (no metadata) of the file named 'src' to a file
     named 'dst' and return 'dst' in the most efficient way possible.
     'src' and 'dst' are *note path-like objects: 975. or path names
     given as strings.

     'dst' must be the complete target file name; look at *note copy():
     8a5. for a copy that accepts a target directory path.  If 'src' and
     'dst' specify the same file, *note SameFileError: e2a. is raised.

     The destination location must be writable; otherwise, an *note
     OSError: 644. exception will be raised.  If 'dst' already exists,
     it will be replaced.  Special files such as character or block
     devices and pipes cannot be copied with this function.

     If 'follow_symlinks' is false and 'src' is a symbolic link, a new
     symbolic link will be created instead of copying the file 'src'
     points to.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘shutil.copyfile’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note IOError: ee8. used to be raised instead of
     *note OSError: 644.  Added 'follow_symlinks' argument.  Now returns
     'dst'.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Raise *note SameFileError: e2a. instead of *note
     Error: e29.  Since the former is a subclass of the latter, this
     change is backward compatible.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be used
     internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See *note
     Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: 8a9. section.

 -- 例外: shutil.SameFileError

     This exception is raised if source and destination in *note
     copyfile(): 8a4. are the same file.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: shutil.copymode (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the permission bits from 'src' to 'dst'.  The file contents,
     owner, and group are unaffected.  'src' and 'dst' are *note
     path-like objects: 975. or path names given as strings.  If
     'follow_symlinks' is false, and both 'src' and 'dst' are symbolic
     links, *note copymode(): 144c. will attempt to modify the mode of
     'dst' itself (rather than the file it points to).  This
     functionality is not available on every platform; please see *note
     copystat(): fbe. for more information.  If *note copymode(): 144c.
     cannot modify symbolic links on the local platform, and it is asked
     to do so, it will do nothing and return.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘shutil.copymode’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'follow_symlinks' 引數。

 -- 函式: shutil.copystat (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the permission bits, last access time, last modification time,
     and flags from 'src' to 'dst'.  On Linux, *note copystat(): fbe.
     also copies the "extended attributes" where possible.  The file
     contents, owner, and group are unaffected.  'src' and 'dst' are
     *note path-like objects: 975. or path names given as strings.

     If 'follow_symlinks' is false, and 'src' and 'dst' both refer to
     symbolic links, *note copystat(): fbe. will operate on the symbolic
     links themselves rather than the files the symbolic links refer
     to—reading the information from the 'src' symbolic link, and
     writing the information to the 'dst' symbolic link.

          備註: Not all platforms provide the ability to examine and
          modify symbolic links.  Python itself can tell you what
          functionality is locally available.

             * If ‘os.chmod in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ is ‘True’,
               *note copystat(): fbe. can modify the permission bits of
               a symbolic link.

             * If ‘os.utime in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ is ‘True’,
               *note copystat(): fbe. can modify the last access and
               modification times of a symbolic link.

             * If ‘os.chflags in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ is ‘True’,
               *note copystat(): fbe. can modify the flags of a symbolic
               link.  (‘os.chflags’ is not available on all platforms.)

          On platforms where some or all of this functionality is
          unavailable, when asked to modify a symbolic link, *note
          copystat(): fbe. will copy everything it can.  *note
          copystat(): fbe. never returns failure.

          更多資訊請見 *note os.supports_follow_symlinks: 25e2.。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘shutil.copystat’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument and support for
     Linux extended attributes.

 -- 函式: shutil.copy (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copies the file 'src' to the file or directory 'dst'.  'src' and
     'dst' should be *note path-like objects: 975. or strings.  If 'dst'
     specifies a directory, the file will be copied into 'dst' using the
     base filename from 'src'.  If 'dst' specifies a file that already
     exists, it will be replaced.  Returns the path to the newly created
     file.

     If 'follow_symlinks' is false, and 'src' is a symbolic link, 'dst'
     will be created as a symbolic link.  If 'follow_symlinks' is true
     and 'src' is a symbolic link, 'dst' will be a copy of the file
     'src' refers to.

     *note copy(): 8a5. copies the file data and the file's permission
     mode (see *note os.chmod(): f7c.).  Other metadata, like the file's
     creation and modification times, is not preserved.  To preserve all
     file metadata from the original, use *note copy2(): 8a6. instead.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘shutil.copyfile’。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘shutil.copymode’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument.  Now returns
     path to the newly created file.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be used
     internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See *note
     Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: 8a9. section.

 -- 函式: shutil.copy2 (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Identical to *note copy(): 8a5. except that *note copy2(): 8a6.
     also attempts to preserve file metadata.

     When 'follow_symlinks' is false, and 'src' is a symbolic link,
     *note copy2(): 8a6. attempts to copy all metadata from the 'src'
     symbolic link to the newly created 'dst' symbolic link.  However,
     this functionality is not available on all platforms.  On platforms
     where some or all of this functionality is unavailable, *note
     copy2(): 8a6. will preserve all the metadata it can; *note copy2():
     8a6. never raises an exception because it cannot preserve file
     metadata.

     *note copy2(): 8a6. uses *note copystat(): fbe. to copy the file
     metadata.  Please see *note copystat(): fbe. for more information
     about platform support for modifying symbolic link metadata.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘shutil.copyfile’。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘shutil.copystat’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument, try to copy
     extended file system attributes too (currently Linux only).  Now
     returns path to the newly created file.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be used
     internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See *note
     Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: 8a9. section.

 -- 函式: shutil.ignore_patterns (*patterns)

     This factory function creates a function that can be used as a
     callable for *note copytree(): 872.'s 'ignore' argument, ignoring
     files and directories that match one of the glob-style 'patterns'
     provided.  See the example below.

 -- 函式: shutil.copytree (src, dst, symlinks=False, ignore=None,
          copy_function=copy2, ignore_dangling_symlinks=False,
          dirs_exist_ok=False)

     Recursively copy an entire directory tree rooted at 'src' to a
     directory named 'dst' and return the destination directory.  All
     intermediate directories needed to contain 'dst' will also be
     created by default.

     Permissions and times of directories are copied with *note
     copystat(): fbe, individual files are copied using *note copy2():
     8a6.

     If 'symlinks' is true, symbolic links in the source tree are
     represented as symbolic links in the new tree and the metadata of
     the original links will be copied as far as the platform allows; if
     false or omitted, the contents and metadata of the linked files are
     copied to the new tree.

     When 'symlinks' is false, if the file pointed to by the symlink
     doesn't exist, an exception will be added in the list of errors
     raised in an *note Error: e29. exception at the end of the copy
     process.  You can set the optional 'ignore_dangling_symlinks' flag
     to true if you want to silence this exception.  Notice that this
     option has no effect on platforms that don't support *note
     os.symlink(): f83.

     If 'ignore' is given, it must be a callable that will receive as
     its arguments the directory being visited by *note copytree(): 872,
     and a list of its contents, as returned by *note os.listdir(): f88.
     Since *note copytree(): 872. is called recursively, the 'ignore'
     callable will be called once for each directory that is copied.
     The callable must return a sequence of directory and file names
     relative to the current directory (i.e.  a subset of the items in
     its second argument); these names will then be ignored in the copy
     process.  *note ignore_patterns(): 25e3. can be used to create such
     a callable that ignores names based on glob-style patterns.

     If exception(s) occur, an *note Error: e29. is raised with a list
     of reasons.

     If 'copy_function' is given, it must be a callable that will be
     used to copy each file.  It will be called with the source path and
     the destination path as arguments.  By default, *note copy2(): 8a6.
     is used, but any function that supports the same signature (like
     *note copy(): 8a5.) can be used.

     If 'dirs_exist_ok' is false (the default) and 'dst' already exists,
     a *note FileExistsError: eb4. is raised.  If 'dirs_exist_ok' is
     true, the copying operation will continue if it encounters existing
     directories, and files within the 'dst' tree will be overwritten by
     corresponding files from the 'src' tree.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘shutil.copytree’。

     在 3.2 版的變更: Added the 'copy_function' argument to be able to
     provide a custom copy function.  Added the
     'ignore_dangling_symlinks' argument to silence dangling symlinks
     errors when 'symlinks' is false.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Copy metadata when 'symlinks' is false.  Now
     returns 'dst'.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be used
     internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See *note
     Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: 8a9. section.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'dirs_exist_ok' 參數。

 -- 函式: shutil.rmtree (path, ignore_errors=False, onerror=None, *,
          onexc=None, dir_fd=None)

     Delete an entire directory tree; 'path' must point to a directory
     (but not a symbolic link to a directory).  If 'ignore_errors' is
     true, errors resulting from failed removals will be ignored; if
     false or omitted, such errors are handled by calling a handler
     specified by 'onexc' or 'onerror' or, if both are omitted,
     exceptions are propagated to the caller.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78.

          備註: On platforms that support the necessary fd-based
          functions a symlink attack resistant version of *note
          rmtree(): 1d8. is used by default.  On other platforms, the
          *note rmtree(): 1d8. implementation is susceptible to a
          symlink attack: given proper timing and circumstances,
          attackers can manipulate symlinks on the filesystem to delete
          files they wouldn't be able to access otherwise.  Applications
          can use the *note rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks: 25e4.
          function attribute to determine which case applies.

     If 'onexc' is provided, it must be a callable that accepts three
     parameters: 'function', 'path', and 'excinfo'.

     The first parameter, 'function', is the function which raised the
     exception; it depends on the platform and implementation.  The
     second parameter, 'path', will be the path name passed to
     'function'.  The third parameter, 'excinfo', is the exception that
     was raised.  Exceptions raised by 'onexc' will not be caught.

     The deprecated 'onerror' is similar to 'onexc', except that the
     third parameter it receives is the tuple returned from *note
     sys.exc_info(): 487.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘shutil.rmtree’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added a symlink attack resistant version that is
     used automatically if platform supports fd-based functions.

     在 3.8 版的變更: On Windows, will no longer delete the contents of
     a directory junction before removing the junction.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'onexc' 參數並棄用 'onerror'。

      -- 屬性: rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks

          Indicates whether the current platform and implementation
          provides a symlink attack resistant version of *note rmtree():
          1d8.  Currently this is only true for platforms supporting
          fd-based directory access functions.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: shutil.move (src, dst, copy_function=copy2)

     Recursively move a file or directory ('src') to another location
     and return the destination.

     If 'dst' is an existing directory or a symlink to a directory, then
     'src' is moved inside that directory.  The destination path in that
     directory must not already exist.

     If 'dst' already exists but is not a directory, it may be
     overwritten depending on *note os.rename(): f80. semantics.

     If the destination is on the current filesystem, then *note
     os.rename(): f80. is used.  Otherwise, 'src' is copied to the
     destination using 'copy_function' and then removed.  In case of
     symlinks, a new symlink pointing to the target of 'src' will be
     created as the destination and 'src' will be removed.

     If 'copy_function' is given, it must be a callable that takes two
     arguments, 'src' and the destination, and will be used to copy
     'src' to the destination if *note os.rename(): f80. cannot be used.
     If the source is a directory, *note copytree(): 872. is called,
     passing it the 'copy_function'.  The default 'copy_function' is
     *note copy2(): 8a6.  Using *note copy(): 8a5. as the
     'copy_function' allows the move to succeed when it is not possible
     to also copy the metadata, at the expense of not copying any of the
     metadata.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘shutil.move’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added explicit symlink handling for foreign
     filesystems, thus adapting it to the behavior of GNU's ‘mv’.  Now
     returns 'dst'.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'copy_function' 關鍵字引數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be used
     internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See *note
     Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: 8a9. section.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. for both
     'src' and 'dst'.

 -- 函式: shutil.disk_usage (path)

     Return disk usage statistics about the given path as a *note named
     tuple: 449. with the attributes 'total', 'used' and 'free', which
     are the amount of total, used and free space, in bytes.  'path' may
     be a file or a directory.

          備註: On Unix filesystems, 'path' must point to a path within
          a 'mounted' filesystem partition.  On those platforms, CPython
          doesn't attempt to retrieve disk usage information from
          non-mounted filesystems.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: On Windows, 'path' can now be a file or directory.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 函式: shutil.chown (path, user=None, group=None)

     Change owner 'user' and/or 'group' of the given 'path'.

     'user' can be a system user name or a uid; the same applies to
     'group'.  At least one argument is required.

     See also *note os.chown(): f7d, the underlying function.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘user’、‘group’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘shutil.chown’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: shutil.which (cmd, mode=os.F_OK | os.X_OK, path=None)

     Return the path to an executable which would be run if the given
     'cmd' was called.  If no 'cmd' would be called, return ‘None’.

     'mode' is a permission mask passed to *note os.access(): f7a, by
     default determining if the file exists and is executable.

     'path' is a "‘PATH’ string" specifying the directories to look in,
     delimited by *note os.pathsep: 1b36.  When no 'path' is specified,
     the ‘PATH’ environment variable is read from *note os.environ:
     104b, falling back to *note os.defpath: 17e7. if it is not set.

     On Windows, the current directory is prepended to the 'path' if
     'mode' does not include ‘os.X_OK’.  When the 'mode' does include
     ‘os.X_OK’, the Windows API ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW’ will
     be consulted to determine if the current directory should be
     prepended to 'path'.  To avoid consulting the current working
     directory for executables: set the environment variable
     ‘NoDefaultCurrentDirectoryInExePath’.

     Also on Windows, the ‘PATHEXT’ environment variable is used to
     resolve commands that may not already include an extension.  For
     example, if you call ‘shutil.which("python")’, *note which(): 1d9.
     will search ‘PATHEXT’ to know that it should look for ‘python.exe’
     within the 'path' directories.  For example, on Windows:

          >>> shutil.which("python")
          'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

     This is also applied when 'cmd' is a path that contains a directory
     component:

          >> shutil.which("C:\\Python33\\python")
          'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The *note bytes: 2c1. type is now accepted.  If
     'cmd' type is *note bytes: 2c1, the result type is also *note
     bytes: 2c1.

     在 3.12 版的變更: On Windows, the current directory is no longer
     prepended to the search path if 'mode' includes ‘os.X_OK’ and
     WinAPI ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW(cmd)’ is false, else the
     current directory is prepended even if it is already in the search
     path; ‘PATHEXT’ is used now even when 'cmd' includes a directory
     component or ends with an extension that is in ‘PATHEXT’; and
     filenames that have no extension can now be found.

     在 3.12.1 版的變更: On Windows, if 'mode' includes ‘os.X_OK’,
     executables with an extension in ‘PATHEXT’ will be preferred over
     executables without a matching extension.  This brings behavior
     closer to that of Python 3.11.

 -- 例外: shutil.Error

     This exception collects exceptions that are raised during a
     multi-file operation.  For *note copytree(): 872, the exception
     argument is a list of 3-tuples ('srcname', 'dstname', 'exception').

* Menu:

* Platform-dependent efficient copy operations::
* copytree example::
* rmtree 範例::


File: python.info,  Node: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations,  Next: copytree example,  Up: Directory and files operations

5.11.10.2 Platform-dependent efficient copy operations
......................................................

Starting from Python 3.8, all functions involving a file copy (*note
copyfile(): 8a4, *note copy(): 8a5, *note copy2(): 8a6, *note
copytree(): 872, and *note move(): 8a7.) may use platform-specific
"fast-copy" syscalls in order to copy the file more efficiently (see
bpo-33671(1)).  "fast-copy" means that the copying operation occurs
within the kernel, avoiding the use of userspace buffers in Python as in
"‘outfd.write(infd.read())’".

On macOS fcopyfile(2) is used to copy the file content (not metadata).

On Linux *note os.sendfile(): 964. is used.

On Windows *note shutil.copyfile(): 8a4. uses a bigger default buffer
size (1 MiB instead of 64 KiB) and a *note memoryview(): 17f.-based
variant of *note shutil.copyfileobj(): 8a8. is used.

If the fast-copy operation fails and no data was written in the
destination file then shutil will silently fallback on using less
efficient *note copyfileobj(): 8a8. function internally.

在 3.8 版的變更.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671

   (2) http://www.manpagez.com/man/3/copyfile/


File: python.info,  Node: copytree example,  Next: rmtree 範例,  Prev: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations,  Up: Directory and files operations

5.11.10.3 copytree example
..........................

An example that uses the *note ignore_patterns(): 25e3. helper:

     from shutil import copytree, ignore_patterns

     copytree(source, destination, ignore=ignore_patterns('*.pyc', 'tmp*'))

This will copy everything except ‘.pyc’ files and files or directories
whose name starts with ‘tmp’.

Another example that uses the 'ignore' argument to add a logging call:

     from shutil import copytree
     import logging

     def _logpath(path, names):
         logging.info('Working in %s', path)
         return []   # nothing will be ignored

     copytree(source, destination, ignore=_logpath)


File: python.info,  Node: rmtree 範例,  Prev: copytree example,  Up: Directory and files operations

5.11.10.4 rmtree 範例
.....................

This example shows how to remove a directory tree on Windows where some
of the files have their read-only bit set.  It uses the onexc callback
to clear the readonly bit and reattempt the remove.  Any subsequent
failure will propagate.

     import os, stat
     import shutil

     def remove_readonly(func, path, _):
         "Clear the readonly bit and reattempt the removal"
         os.chmod(path, stat.S_IWRITE)
         func(path)

     shutil.rmtree(directory, onexc=remove_readonly)


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving operations,  Next: Querying the size of the output terminal,  Prev: Directory and files operations,  Up: shutil — 高階檔案操作

5.11.10.5 Archiving operations
..............................

在 3.2 版被加入.

在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'xztar' 格式的支援。

High-level utilities to create and read compressed and archived files
are also provided.  They rely on the *note zipfile: 12b. and *note
tarfile: d8. modules.

 -- 函式: shutil.make_archive (base_name, format[, root_dir[, base_dir[,
          verbose[, dry_run[, owner[, group[, logger]]]]]]])

     Create an archive file (such as zip or tar) and return its name.

     'base_name' is the name of the file to create, including the path,
     minus any format-specific extension.

     'format' is the archive format: one of "zip" (if the *note zlib:
     12d. module is available), "tar", "gztar" (if the *note zlib: 12d.
     module is available), "bztar" (if the *note bz2: 11. module is
     available), or "xztar" (if the *note lzma: 85. module is
     available).

     'root_dir' is a directory that will be the root directory of the
     archive, all paths in the archive will be relative to it; for
     example, we typically chdir into 'root_dir' before creating the
     archive.

     'base_dir' is the directory where we start archiving from; i.e.
     'base_dir' will be the common prefix of all files and directories
     in the archive.  'base_dir' must be given relative to 'root_dir'.
     See *note Archiving example with base_dir: 25eb. for how to use
     'base_dir' and 'root_dir' together.

     'root_dir' and 'base_dir' both default to the current directory.

     If 'dry_run' is true, no archive is created, but the operations
     that would be executed are logged to 'logger'.

     'owner' and 'group' are used when creating a tar archive.  By
     default, uses the current owner and group.

     'logger' must be an object compatible with PEP 282(1), usually an
     instance of *note logging.Logger: 9a9.

     The 'verbose' argument is unused and deprecated.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘base_name’、‘format’、‘root_dir’、‘base_dir’ 的
     *note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘shutil.make_archive’。

          備註: This function is not thread-safe when custom archivers
          registered with *note register_archive_format(): 25ec. do not
          support the 'root_dir' argument.  In this case it temporarily
          changes the current working directory of the process to
          'root_dir' to perform archiving.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The modern pax (POSIX.1-2001) format is now used
     instead of the legacy GNU format for archives created with
     ‘format="tar"’.

     在 3.10.6 版的變更: This function is now made thread-safe during
     creation of standard ‘.zip’ and tar archives.

 -- 函式: shutil.get_archive_formats ()

     Return a list of supported formats for archiving.  Each element of
     the returned sequence is a tuple ‘(name, description)’.

     By default *note shutil: c0. provides these formats:

        - 'zip': ZIP file (if the *note zlib: 12d. module is available).

        - 'tar': Uncompressed tar file.  Uses POSIX.1-2001 pax format
          for new archives.

        - 'gztar': gzip'ed tar-file (if the *note zlib: 12d. module is
          available).

        - 'bztar': bzip2'ed tar-file (if the *note bz2: 11. module is
          available).

        - 'xztar': xz'ed tar-file (if the *note lzma: 85. module is
          available).

     You can register new formats or provide your own archiver for any
     existing formats, by using *note register_archive_format(): 25ec.

 -- 函式: shutil.register_archive_format (name, function[, extra_args[,
          description]])

     Register an archiver for the format 'name'.

     'function' is the callable that will be used to unpack archives.
     The callable will receive the 'base_name' of the file to create,
     followed by the 'base_dir' (which defaults to *note os.curdir:
     2558.) to start archiving from.  Further arguments are passed as
     keyword arguments: 'owner', 'group', 'dry_run' and 'logger' (as
     passed in *note make_archive(): 1d7.).

     If 'function' has the custom attribute ‘function.supports_root_dir’
     set to ‘True’, the 'root_dir' argument is passed as a keyword
     argument.  Otherwise the current working directory of the process
     is temporarily changed to 'root_dir' before calling 'function'.  In
     this case *note make_archive(): 1d7. is not thread-safe.

     If given, 'extra_args' is a sequence of ‘(name, value)’ pairs that
     will be used as extra keywords arguments when the archiver callable
     is used.

     'description' is used by *note get_archive_formats(): 25ed. which
     returns the list of archivers.  Defaults to an empty string.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Added support for functions supporting the
     'root_dir' argument.

 -- 函式: shutil.unregister_archive_format (name)

     Remove the archive format 'name' from the list of supported
     formats.

 -- 函式: shutil.unpack_archive (filename[, extract_dir[, format[,
          filter]]])

     Unpack an archive.  'filename' is the full path of the archive.

     'extract_dir' is the name of the target directory where the archive
     is unpacked.  If not provided, the current working directory is
     used.

     'format' is the archive format: one of "zip", "tar", "gztar",
     "bztar", or "xztar".  Or any other format registered with *note
     register_unpack_format(): 25ef.  If not provided, *note
     unpack_archive(): 184. will use the archive file name extension and
     see if an unpacker was registered for that extension.  In case none
     is found, a *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

     The keyword-only 'filter' argument is passed to the underlying
     unpacking function.  For zip files, 'filter' is not accepted.  For
     tar files, it is recommended to set it to ‘'data'’, unless using
     features specific to tar and UNIX-like filesystems.  (See *note
     Extraction filters: 185. for details.)  The ‘'data'’ filter will
     become the default for tar files in Python 3.14.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘filename’、‘extract_dir’、‘format’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘shutil.unpack_archive’。

          警告: Never extract archives from untrusted sources without
          prior inspection.  It is possible that files are created
          outside of the path specified in the 'extract_dir' argument,
          e.g.  members that have absolute filenames starting with "/"
          or filenames with two dots "..".

     在 3.7 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. for
     'filename' and 'extract_dir'.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'filter' 引數。

 -- 函式: shutil.register_unpack_format (name, extensions, function[,
          extra_args[, description]])

     Registers an unpack format.  'name' is the name of the format and
     'extensions' is a list of extensions corresponding to the format,
     like ‘.zip’ for Zip files.

     'function' is the callable that will be used to unpack archives.
     The callable will receive:

        - the path of the archive, as a positional argument;

        - the directory the archive must be extracted to, as a
          positional argument;

        - possibly a 'filter' keyword argument, if it was given to *note
          unpack_archive(): 184.;

        - additional keyword arguments, specified by 'extra_args' as a
          sequence of ‘(name, value)’ tuples.

     'description' can be provided to describe the format, and will be
     returned by the *note get_unpack_formats(): 25f0. function.

 -- 函式: shutil.unregister_unpack_format (name)

     Unregister an unpack format.  'name' is the name of the format.

 -- 函式: shutil.get_unpack_formats ()

     Return a list of all registered formats for unpacking.  Each
     element of the returned sequence is a tuple ‘(name, extensions,
     description)’.

     By default *note shutil: c0. provides these formats:

        - 'zip': ZIP file (unpacking compressed files works only if the
          corresponding module is available).

        - 'tar': uncompressed tar file.

        - 'gztar': gzip'ed tar-file (if the *note zlib: 12d. module is
          available).

        - 'bztar': bzip2'ed tar-file (if the *note bz2: 11. module is
          available).

        - 'xztar': xz'ed tar-file (if the *note lzma: 85. module is
          available).

     You can register new formats or provide your own unpacker for any
     existing formats, by using *note register_unpack_format(): 25ef.

* Menu:

* Archiving example::
* Archiving example with base_dir::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving example,  Next: Archiving example with base_dir,  Up: Archiving operations

5.11.10.6 Archiving example
...........................

In this example, we create a gzip'ed tar-file archive containing all
files found in the ‘.ssh’ directory of the user:

     >>> from shutil import make_archive
     >>> import os
     >>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
     >>> root_dir = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', '.ssh'))
     >>> make_archive(archive_name, 'gztar', root_dir)
     '/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz'

The resulting archive contains:

     $ tar -tzvf /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz
     drwx------ tarek/staff       0 2010-02-01 16:23:40 ./
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./authorized_keys
     -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff      65 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./config
     -rwx------ tarek/staff     668 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa
     -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa.pub
     -rw------- tarek/staff    1675 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     397 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa.pub
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff   37192 2010-02-06 18:23:10 ./known_hosts


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving example with base_dir,  Prev: Archiving example,  Up: Archiving operations

5.11.10.7 Archiving example with 'base_dir'
...........................................

In this example, similar to the *note one above: 25f3, we show how to
use *note make_archive(): 1d7, but this time with the usage of
'base_dir'.  We now have the following directory structure:

     $ tree tmp
     tmp
     └── root
         └── structure
             ├── content
                 └── please_add.txt
             └── do_not_add.txt

In the final archive, ‘please_add.txt’ should be included, but
‘do_not_add.txt’ should not.  Therefore we use the following:

     >>> from shutil import make_archive
     >>> import os
     >>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
     >>> make_archive(
     ...     archive_name,
     ...     'tar',
     ...     root_dir='tmp/root',
     ...     base_dir='structure/content',
     ... )
     '/Users/tarek/my_archive.tar'

Listing the files in the resulting archive gives us:

     $ python -m tarfile -l /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar
     structure/content/
     structure/content/please_add.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Querying the size of the output terminal,  Prev: Archiving operations,  Up: shutil — 高階檔案操作

5.11.10.8 Querying the size of the output terminal
..................................................

 -- 函式: shutil.get_terminal_size (fallback=(columns, lines))

     Get the size of the terminal window.

     For each of the two dimensions, the environment variable, ‘COLUMNS’
     and ‘LINES’ respectively, is checked.  If the variable is defined
     and the value is a positive integer, it is used.

     When ‘COLUMNS’ or ‘LINES’ is not defined, which is the common case,
     the terminal connected to *note sys.__stdout__: 25f6. is queried by
     invoking *note os.get_terminal_size(): f90.

     If the terminal size cannot be successfully queried, either because
     the system doesn't support querying, or because we are not
     connected to a terminal, the value given in ‘fallback’ parameter is
     used.  ‘fallback’ defaults to ‘(80, 24)’ which is the default size
     used by many terminal emulators.

     The value returned is a named tuple of type *note os.terminal_size:
     25f7.

     See also: The Single UNIX Specification, Version 2, Other
     Environment Variables(1).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The ‘fallback’ values are also used if *note
     os.get_terminal_size(): f90. returns zeroes.

也參考
......

Module *note os: 9c.

     作業系統介面，包括處理比 Python *note 檔案物件: 1054.更低階檔案的函
     式。

Module *note io: 79.

     Python 的內建 I/O 函式庫，包含抽象類別和一些具體類別 (concrete
     class)，如檔案 I/O。

內建函式 *note open(): 29c.

     使用 Python 打開檔案以進行讀寫檔案的標準方法。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/7908799/xbd/envvar.html#tag_002_003


File: python.info,  Node: 資料持久性 Data Persistence,  Next: 資料壓縮與保存,  Prev: 檔案與目錄存取,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.12 資料持久性 (Data Persistence)
==================================

The modules described in this chapter support storing Python data in a
persistent form on disk.  The *note pickle: a1. and *note marshal: 88.
modules can turn many Python data types into a stream of bytes and then
recreate the objects from the bytes.  The various DBM-related modules
support a family of hash-based file formats that store a mapping of
strings to other strings.

本章節所描述的模組列表為：

* Menu:

* pickle: pickle --- Python 物件序列化. Python 物件序列化
* copyreg: copyreg --- 註冊 pickle 支援函式. 註冊 pickle 支援函式
* shelve: shelve --- Python object persistence. Python object persistence
* marshal: marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化. 内部 Python 物件序列化
* dbm: dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面. Unix "databases" 的介面
* sqlite3: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面. SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2.0 介面


File: python.info,  Node: pickle --- Python 物件序列化,  Next: copyreg --- 註冊 pickle 支援函式,  Up: 資料持久性 Data Persistence

5.12.1 ‘pickle’ -- Python 物件序列化
------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/pickle.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note pickle: a1. module implements binary protocols for serializing
and de-serializing a Python object structure.  '"Pickling"' is the
process whereby a Python object hierarchy is converted into a byte
stream, and '"unpickling"' is the inverse operation, whereby a byte
stream (from a *note binary file: 1a7c. or *note bytes-like object:
b9f.) is converted back into an object hierarchy.  Pickling (and
unpickling) is alternatively known as "serialization", "marshalling,"
(2) or "flattening"; however, to avoid confusion, the terms used here
are "pickling" and "unpickling".

     警告: The ‘pickle’ module 'is not secure'.  Only unpickle data you
     trust.

     It is possible to construct malicious pickle data which will
     'execute arbitrary code during unpickling'.  Never unpickle data
     that could have come from an untrusted source, or that could have
     been tampered with.

     Consider signing data with *note hmac: 65. if you need to ensure
     that it has not been tampered with.

     Safer serialization formats such as *note json: 7c. may be more
     appropriate if you are processing untrusted data.  See *note 和
     json 的比較: 25fd.

* Menu:

* 和其他 Python 模組的關係::
* Data stream format::
* 模組介面::
* What can be pickled and unpickled?::
* Pickling Class Instances::
* Custom Reduction for Types, Functions, and Other Objects: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects.
* Out-of-band Buffers::
* Restricting Globals::
* Performance: Performance<2>.
* 範例: 範例<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pickle.py

   (2) Don't confuse this with the *note marshal: 88. module


File: python.info,  Node: 和其他 Python 模組的關係,  Next: Data stream format,  Up: pickle --- Python 物件序列化

5.12.1.1 和其他 Python 模組的關係
.................................

* Menu:

* 和 marshal 的比較::
* 和 json 的比較::


File: python.info,  Node: 和 marshal 的比較,  Next: 和 json 的比較,  Up: 和其他 Python 模組的關係

5.12.1.2 和 ‘marshal’ 的比較
............................

Python has a more primitive serialization module called *note marshal:
88, but in general *note pickle: a1. should always be the preferred way
to serialize Python objects.  *note marshal: 88. exists primarily to
support Python's ‘.pyc’ files.

The *note pickle: a1. module differs from *note marshal: 88. in several
significant ways:

   * The *note pickle: a1. module keeps track of the objects it has
     already serialized, so that later references to the same object
     won't be serialized again.  *note marshal: 88. doesn't do this.

     This has implications both for recursive objects and object
     sharing.  Recursive objects are objects that contain references to
     themselves.  These are not handled by marshal, and in fact,
     attempting to marshal recursive objects will crash your Python
     interpreter.  Object sharing happens when there are multiple
     references to the same object in different places in the object
     hierarchy being serialized.  *note pickle: a1. stores such objects
     only once, and ensures that all other references point to the
     master copy.  Shared objects remain shared, which can be very
     important for mutable objects.

   * *note marshal: 88. cannot be used to serialize user-defined classes
     and their instances.  *note pickle: a1. can save and restore class
     instances transparently, however the class definition must be
     importable and live in the same module as when the object was
     stored.

   * The *note marshal: 88. serialization format is not guaranteed to be
     portable across Python versions.  Because its primary job in life
     is to support ‘.pyc’ files, the Python implementers reserve the
     right to change the serialization format in non-backwards
     compatible ways should the need arise.  The *note pickle: a1.
     serialization format is guaranteed to be backwards compatible
     across Python releases provided a compatible pickle protocol is
     chosen and pickling and unpickling code deals with Python 2 to
     Python 3 type differences if your data is crossing that unique
     breaking change language boundary.


File: python.info,  Node: 和 json 的比較,  Prev: 和 marshal 的比較,  Up: 和其他 Python 模組的關係

5.12.1.3 和 ‘json’ 的比較
.........................

There are fundamental differences between the pickle protocols and JSON
(JavaScript Object Notation)(1):

   * JSON is a text serialization format (it outputs unicode text,
     although most of the time it is then encoded to ‘utf-8’), while
     pickle is a binary serialization format;

   * JSON 是人類可讀的，而 pickle 不是；

   * JSON is interoperable and widely used outside of the Python
     ecosystem, while pickle is Python-specific;

   * JSON, by default, can only represent a subset of the Python
     built-in types, and no custom classes; pickle can represent an
     extremely large number of Python types (many of them automatically,
     by clever usage of Python's introspection facilities; complex cases
     can be tackled by implementing *note specific object APIs: 2601.);

   * Unlike pickle, deserializing untrusted JSON does not in itself
     create an arbitrary code execution vulnerability.

也參考
......

The *note json: 7c. module: a standard library module allowing JSON
serialization and deserialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://json.org


File: python.info,  Node: Data stream format,  Next: 模組介面,  Prev: 和其他 Python 模組的關係,  Up: pickle --- Python 物件序列化

5.12.1.4 Data stream format
...........................

The data format used by *note pickle: a1. is Python-specific.  This has
the advantage that there are no restrictions imposed by external
standards such as JSON or XDR (which can't represent pointer sharing);
however it means that non-Python programs may not be able to reconstruct
pickled Python objects.

By default, the *note pickle: a1. data format uses a relatively compact
binary representation.  If you need optimal size characteristics, you
can efficiently *note compress: 2603. pickled data.

The module *note pickletools: a2. contains tools for analyzing data
streams generated by *note pickle: a1.  *note pickletools: a2. source
code has extensive comments about opcodes used by pickle protocols.

There are currently 6 different protocols which can be used for
pickling.  The higher the protocol used, the more recent the version of
Python needed to read the pickle produced.

   * Protocol version 0 is the original "human-readable" protocol and is
     backwards compatible with earlier versions of Python.

   * Protocol version 1 is an old binary format which is also compatible
     with earlier versions of Python.

   * Protocol version 2 was introduced in Python 2.3.  It provides much
     more efficient pickling of *note new-style classes: 2604.  Refer to
     PEP 307(1) for information about improvements brought by protocol
     2.

   * Protocol version 3 was added in Python 3.0.  It has explicit
     support for *note bytes: 2c1. objects and cannot be unpickled by
     Python 2.x.  This was the default protocol in Python 3.0-3.7.

   * Protocol version 4 was added in Python 3.4.  It adds support for
     very large objects, pickling more kinds of objects, and some data
     format optimizations.  It is the default protocol starting with
     Python 3.8.  Refer to PEP 3154(2) for information about
     improvements brought by protocol 4.

   * Protocol version 5 was added in Python 3.8.  It adds support for
     out-of-band data and speedup for in-band data.  Refer to PEP 574(3)
     for information about improvements brought by protocol 5.

     備註: Serialization is a more primitive notion than persistence;
     although *note pickle: a1. reads and writes file objects, it does
     not handle the issue of naming persistent objects, nor the (even
     more complicated) issue of concurrent access to persistent objects.
     The *note pickle: a1. module can transform a complex object into a
     byte stream and it can transform the byte stream into an object
     with the same internal structure.  Perhaps the most obvious thing
     to do with these byte streams is to write them onto a file, but it
     is also conceivable to send them across a network or store them in
     a database.  The *note shelve: be. module provides a simple
     interface to pickle and unpickle objects on DBM-style database
     files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/


File: python.info,  Node: 模組介面,  Next: What can be pickled and unpickled?,  Prev: Data stream format,  Up: pickle --- Python 物件序列化

5.12.1.5 模組介面
.................

To serialize an object hierarchy, you simply call the *note dumps():
1315. function.  Similarly, to de-serialize a data stream, you call the
*note loads(): b80. function.  However, if you want more control over
serialization and de-serialization, you can create a *note Pickler: 867.
or an *note Unpickler: 1475. object, respectively.

*note pickle: a1. 模組提供以下常數：

 -- 資料: pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL

     An integer, the highest *note protocol version: b2e. available.
     This value can be passed as a 'protocol' value to functions *note
     dump(): 2606. and *note dumps(): 1315. as well as the *note
     Pickler: 867. constructor.

 -- 資料: pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL

     An integer, the default *note protocol version: b2e. used for
     pickling.  May be less than *note HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1316.
     Currently the default protocol is 4, first introduced in Python 3.4
     and incompatible with previous versions.

     在 3.0 版的變更: 預設協定為 3。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 預設協定為 4。

The *note pickle: a1. module provides the following functions to make
the pickling process more convenient:

 -- 函式: pickle.dump (obj, file, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     Write the pickled representation of the object 'obj' to the open
     *note file object: 1054. 'file'.  This is equivalent to
     ‘Pickler(file, protocol).dump(obj)’.

     Arguments 'file', 'protocol', 'fix_imports' and 'buffer_callback'
     have the same meaning as in the *note Pickler: 867. constructor.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'buffer_callback' 引數。

 -- 函式: pickle.dumps (obj, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     Return the pickled representation of the object 'obj' as a *note
     bytes: 2c1. object, instead of writing it to a file.

     Arguments 'protocol', 'fix_imports' and 'buffer_callback' have the
     same meaning as in the *note Pickler: 867. constructor.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'buffer_callback' 引數。

 -- 函式: pickle.load (file, *, fix_imports=True, encoding='ASCII',
          errors='strict', buffers=None)

     Read the pickled representation of an object from the open *note
     file object: 1054. 'file' and return the reconstituted object
     hierarchy specified therein.  This is equivalent to
     ‘Unpickler(file).load()’.

     The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
     protocol argument is needed.  Bytes past the pickled representation
     of the object are ignored.

     Arguments 'file', 'fix_imports', 'encoding', 'errors', 'strict' and
     'buffers' have the same meaning as in the *note Unpickler: 1475.
     constructor.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'buffer' 引數。

 -- 函式: pickle.loads (data, /, *, fix_imports=True, encoding='ASCII',
          errors='strict', buffers=None)

     Return the reconstituted object hierarchy of the pickled
     representation 'data' of an object.  'data' must be a *note
     bytes-like object: b9f.

     The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
     protocol argument is needed.  Bytes past the pickled representation
     of the object are ignored.

     Arguments 'fix_imports', 'encoding', 'errors', 'strict' and
     'buffers' have the same meaning as in the *note Unpickler: 1475.
     constructor.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'buffer' 引數。

The *note pickle: a1. module defines three exceptions:

 -- 例外: pickle.PickleError

     Common base class for the other pickling exceptions.  It inherits
     from *note Exception: 81e.

 -- 例外: pickle.PicklingError

     Error raised when an unpicklable object is encountered by *note
     Pickler: 867.  It inherits from *note PickleError: 2607.

     Refer to *note What can be pickled and unpickled?: 2609. to learn
     what kinds of objects can be pickled.

 -- 例外: pickle.UnpicklingError

     Error raised when there is a problem unpickling an object, such as
     a data corruption or a security violation.  It inherits from *note
     PickleError: 2607.

     Note that other exceptions may also be raised during unpickling,
     including (but not necessarily limited to) AttributeError,
     EOFError, ImportError, and IndexError.

The *note pickle: a1. module exports three classes, *note Pickler: 867,
*note Unpickler: 1475. and *note PickleBuffer: 15c7.:

 -- 類別: pickle.Pickler (file, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     This takes a binary file for writing a pickle data stream.

     The optional 'protocol' argument, an integer, tells the pickler to
     use the given protocol; supported protocols are 0 to *note
     HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1316.  If not specified, the default is *note
     DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 654.  If a negative number is specified, *note
     HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1316. is selected.

     The 'file' argument must have a write() method that accepts a
     single bytes argument.  It can thus be an on-disk file opened for
     binary writing, an *note io.BytesIO: d24. instance, or any other
     custom object that meets this interface.

     If 'fix_imports' is true and 'protocol' is less than 3, pickle will
     try to map the new Python 3 names to the old module names used in
     Python 2, so that the pickle data stream is readable with Python 2.

     If 'buffer_callback' is ‘None’ (the default), buffer views are
     serialized into 'file' as part of the pickle stream.

     If 'buffer_callback' is not ‘None’, then it can be called any
     number of times with a buffer view.  If the callback returns a
     false value (such as ‘None’), the given buffer is *note
     out-of-band: 260b.; otherwise the buffer is serialized in-band,
     i.e.  inside the pickle stream.

     It is an error if 'buffer_callback' is not ‘None’ and 'protocol' is
     ‘None’ or smaller than 5.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'buffer_callback' 引數。

      -- 方法: dump (obj)

          Write the pickled representation of 'obj' to the open file
          object given in the constructor.

      -- 方法: persistent_id (obj)

          Do nothing by default.  This exists so a subclass can override
          it.

          If *note persistent_id(): 260c. returns ‘None’, 'obj' is
          pickled as usual.  Any other value causes *note Pickler: 867.
          to emit the returned value as a persistent ID for 'obj'.  The
          meaning of this persistent ID should be defined by *note
          Unpickler.persistent_load(): 260d.  Note that the value
          returned by *note persistent_id(): 260c. cannot itself have a
          persistent ID.

          關於細節與用法範例請見 *note Persistence of External Objects:
          260e.。

      -- 屬性: dispatch_table

          A pickler object's dispatch table is a registry of 'reduction
          functions' of the kind which can be declared using *note
          copyreg.pickle(): 260f.  It is a mapping whose keys are
          classes and whose values are reduction functions.  A reduction
          function takes a single argument of the associated class and
          should conform to the same interface as a *note __reduce__():
          817. method.

          By default, a pickler object will not have a *note
          dispatch_table: fb0. attribute, and it will instead use the
          global dispatch table managed by the *note copyreg: 24.
          module.  However, to customize the pickling for a specific
          pickler object one can set the *note dispatch_table: fb0.
          attribute to a dict-like object.  Alternatively, if a subclass
          of *note Pickler: 867. has a *note dispatch_table: fb0.
          attribute then this will be used as the default dispatch table
          for instances of that class.

          關於用法範例請見 *note Dispatch Tables: 2610.。

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: reducer_override (obj)

          Special reducer that can be defined in *note Pickler: 867.
          subclasses.  This method has priority over any reducer in the
          *note dispatch_table: fb0.  It should conform to the same
          interface as a *note __reduce__(): 817. method, and can
          optionally return *note NotImplemented: 5f2. to fallback on
          *note dispatch_table: fb0.-registered reducers to pickle
          ‘obj’.

          For a detailed example, see *note Custom Reduction for Types,
          Functions, and Other Objects: 2611.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: fast

          Deprecated.  Enable fast mode if set to a true value.  The
          fast mode disables the usage of memo, therefore speeding the
          pickling process by not generating superfluous PUT opcodes.
          It should not be used with self-referential objects, doing
          otherwise will cause *note Pickler: 867. to recurse
          infinitely.

          Use *note pickletools.optimize(): 2613. if you need more
          compact pickles.

 -- 類別: pickle.Unpickler (file, *, fix_imports=True, encoding='ASCII',
          errors='strict', buffers=None)

     This takes a binary file for reading a pickle data stream.

     The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
     protocol argument is needed.

     The argument 'file' must have three methods, a read() method that
     takes an integer argument, a readinto() method that takes a buffer
     argument and a readline() method that requires no arguments, as in
     the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491. interface.  Thus 'file' can be an
     on-disk file opened for binary reading, an *note io.BytesIO: d24.
     object, or any other custom object that meets this interface.

     The optional arguments 'fix_imports', 'encoding' and 'errors' are
     used to control compatibility support for pickle stream generated
     by Python 2.  If 'fix_imports' is true, pickle will try to map the
     old Python 2 names to the new names used in Python 3.  The
     'encoding' and 'errors' tell pickle how to decode 8-bit string
     instances pickled by Python 2; these default to 'ASCII' and
     'strict', respectively.  The 'encoding' can be 'bytes' to read
     these 8-bit string instances as bytes objects.  Using
     ‘encoding='latin1'’ is required for unpickling NumPy arrays and
     instances of *note datetime: 224, *note date: 72f. and *note time:
     6c5. pickled by Python 2.

     If 'buffers' is ‘None’ (the default), then all data necessary for
     deserialization must be contained in the pickle stream.  This means
     that the 'buffer_callback' argument was ‘None’ when a *note
     Pickler: 867. was instantiated (or when *note dump(): 2606. or
     *note dumps(): 1315. was called).

     If 'buffers' is not ‘None’, it should be an iterable of
     buffer-enabled objects that is consumed each time the pickle stream
     references an *note out-of-band: 260b. buffer view.  Such buffers
     have been given in order to the 'buffer_callback' of a Pickler
     object.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'buffer' 引數。

      -- 方法: load ()

          Read the pickled representation of an object from the open
          file object given in the constructor, and return the
          reconstituted object hierarchy specified therein.  Bytes past
          the pickled representation of the object are ignored.

      -- 方法: persistent_load (pid)

          Raise an *note UnpicklingError: 260a. by default.

          If defined, *note persistent_load(): 260d. should return the
          object specified by the persistent ID 'pid'.  If an invalid
          persistent ID is encountered, an *note UnpicklingError: 260a.
          should be raised.

          關於細節與用法範例請見 *note Persistence of External Objects:
          260e.。

      -- 方法: find_class (module, name)

          Import 'module' if necessary and return the object called
          'name' from it, where the 'module' and 'name' arguments are
          *note str: 157. objects.  Note, unlike its name suggests,
          *note find_class(): 2615. is also used for finding functions.

          Subclasses may override this to gain control over what type of
          objects and how they can be loaded, potentially reducing
          security risks.  Refer to *note Restricting Globals: 2616. for
          details.

          引發一個附帶引數 ‘module’、‘name’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
          ‘pickle.find_class’。

 -- 類別: pickle.PickleBuffer (buffer)

     A wrapper for a buffer representing picklable data.  'buffer' must
     be a *note buffer-providing: 148. object, such as a *note
     bytes-like object: b9f. or a N-dimensional array.

     *note PickleBuffer: 15c7. is itself a buffer provider, therefore it
     is possible to pass it to other APIs expecting a buffer-providing
     object, such as *note memoryview: 17f.

     *note PickleBuffer: 15c7. objects can only be serialized using
     pickle protocol 5 or higher.  They are eligible for *note
     out-of-band serialization: 260b.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: raw ()

          Return a *note memoryview: 17f. of the memory area underlying
          this buffer.  The returned object is a one-dimensional,
          C-contiguous memoryview with format ‘B’ (unsigned bytes).
          *note BufferError: 15f5. is raised if the buffer is neither C-
          nor Fortran-contiguous.

      -- 方法: release ()

          Release the underlying buffer exposed by the PickleBuffer
          object.


File: python.info,  Node: What can be pickled and unpickled?,  Next: Pickling Class Instances,  Prev: 模組介面,  Up: pickle --- Python 物件序列化

5.12.1.6 What can be pickled and unpickled?
...........................................

The following types can be pickled:

   * built-in constants (‘None’, ‘True’, ‘False’, ‘Ellipsis’, and *note
     NotImplemented: 5f2.);

   * integers, floating-point numbers, complex numbers;

   * strings, bytes, bytearrays;

   * tuples, lists, sets, and dictionaries containing only picklable
     objects;

   * functions (built-in and user-defined) accessible from the top level
     of a module (using *note def: 12ca, not *note lambda: 1131.);

   * classes accessible from the top level of a module;

   * instances of such classes whose the result of calling *note
     __getstate__(): 3cb. is picklable (see section *note Pickling Class
     Instances: 2601. for details).

Attempts to pickle unpicklable objects will raise the *note
PicklingError: 2608. exception; when this happens, an unspecified number
of bytes may have already been written to the underlying file.  Trying
to pickle a highly recursive data structure may exceed the maximum
recursion depth, a *note RecursionError: be1. will be raised in this
case.  You can carefully raise this limit with *note
sys.setrecursionlimit(): 1ea.

Note that functions (built-in and user-defined) are pickled by fully
*note qualified name: 1716, not by value.  (1)  This means that only the
function name is pickled, along with the name of the containing module
and classes.  Neither the function's code, nor any of its function
attributes are pickled.  Thus the defining module must be importable in
the unpickling environment, and the module must contain the named
object, otherwise an exception will be raised.  (2)

Similarly, classes are pickled by fully qualified name, so the same
restrictions in the unpickling environment apply.  Note that none of the
class's code or data is pickled, so in the following example the class
attribute ‘attr’ is not restored in the unpickling environment:

     class Foo:
         attr = 'A class attribute'

     picklestring = pickle.dumps(Foo)

These restrictions are why picklable functions and classes must be
defined at the top level of a module.

Similarly, when class instances are pickled, their class's code and data
are not pickled along with them.  Only the instance data are pickled.
This is done on purpose, so you can fix bugs in a class or add methods
to the class and still load objects that were created with an earlier
version of the class.  If you plan to have long-lived objects that will
see many versions of a class, it may be worthwhile to put a version
number in the objects so that suitable conversions can be made by the
class's *note __setstate__(): 1317. method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This is why *note lambda: 1131. functions cannot be pickled: all
‘lambda’ functions share the same name: ‘<lambda>’.

   (2) The exception raised will likely be an *note ImportError: 145. or
an *note AttributeError: 3ca. but it could be something else.


File: python.info,  Node: Pickling Class Instances,  Next: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects,  Prev: What can be pickled and unpickled?,  Up: pickle --- Python 物件序列化

5.12.1.7 Pickling Class Instances
.................................

In this section, we describe the general mechanisms available to you to
define, customize, and control how class instances are pickled and
unpickled.

In most cases, no additional code is needed to make instances picklable.
By default, pickle will retrieve the class and the attributes of an
instance via introspection.  When a class instance is unpickled, its
*note __init__(): 4ae. method is usually 'not' invoked.  The default
behaviour first creates an uninitialized instance and then restores the
saved attributes.  The following code shows an implementation of this
behaviour:

     def save(obj):
         return (obj.__class__, obj.__dict__)

     def restore(cls, attributes):
         obj = cls.__new__(cls)
         obj.__dict__.update(attributes)
         return obj

Classes can alter the default behaviour by providing one or several
special methods:

 -- 方法: object.__getnewargs_ex__ ()

     In protocols 2 and newer, classes that implements the *note
     __getnewargs_ex__(): 261b. method can dictate the values passed to
     the *note __new__(): 30f. method upon unpickling.  The method must
     return a pair ‘(args, kwargs)’ where 'args' is a tuple of
     positional arguments and 'kwargs' a dictionary of named arguments
     for constructing the object.  Those will be passed to the *note
     __new__(): 30f. method upon unpickling.

     You should implement this method if the *note __new__(): 30f.
     method of your class requires keyword-only arguments.  Otherwise,
     it is recommended for compatibility to implement *note
     __getnewargs__(): 1318.

     在 3.6 版的變更: *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 261b. is now used in
     protocols 2 and 3.

 -- 方法: object.__getnewargs__ ()

     This method serves a similar purpose as *note __getnewargs_ex__():
     261b, but supports only positional arguments.  It must return a
     tuple of arguments ‘args’ which will be passed to the *note
     __new__(): 30f. method upon unpickling.

     *note __getnewargs__(): 1318. will not be called if *note
     __getnewargs_ex__(): 261b. is defined.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Before Python 3.6, *note __getnewargs__(): 1318.
     was called instead of *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 261b. in protocols
     2 and 3.

 -- 方法: object.__getstate__ ()

     Classes can further influence how their instances are pickled by
     overriding the method *note __getstate__(): 3cb.  It is called and
     the returned object is pickled as the contents for the instance,
     instead of a default state.  There are several cases:

        * For a class that has no instance *note __dict__: 2e2. and no
          *note __slots__: 1361, the default state is ‘None’.

        * For a class that has an instance *note __dict__: 2e2. and no
          *note __slots__: 1361, the default state is ‘self.__dict__’.

        * For a class that has an instance *note __dict__: 2e2. and
          *note __slots__: 1361, the default state is a tuple consisting
          of two dictionaries: ‘self.__dict__’, and a dictionary mapping
          slot names to slot values.  Only slots that have a value are
          included in the latter.

        * For a class that has *note __slots__: 1361. and no instance
          *note __dict__: 2e2, the default state is a tuple whose first
          item is ‘None’ and whose second item is a dictionary mapping
          slot names to slot values described in the previous bullet.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Added the default implementation of the
     ‘__getstate__()’ method in the *note object: 8d9. class.

 -- 方法: object.__setstate__ (state)

     Upon unpickling, if the class defines *note __setstate__(): 1317,
     it is called with the unpickled state.  In that case, there is no
     requirement for the state object to be a dictionary.  Otherwise,
     the pickled state must be a dictionary and its items are assigned
     to the new instance's dictionary.

          備註: If *note __reduce__(): 817. returns a state with value
          ‘None’ at pickling, the *note __setstate__(): 1317. method
          will not be called upon unpickling.

Refer to the section *note Handling Stateful Objects: 261c. for more
information about how to use the methods *note __getstate__(): 3cb. and
*note __setstate__(): 1317.

     備註: At unpickling time, some methods like *note __getattr__():
     1fa, *note __getattribute__(): a33, or *note __setattr__(): 1cbf.
     may be called upon the instance.  In case those methods rely on
     some internal invariant being true, the type should implement *note
     __new__(): 30f. to establish such an invariant, as *note
     __init__(): 4ae. is not called when unpickling an instance.

As we shall see, pickle does not use directly the methods described
above.  In fact, these methods are part of the copy protocol which
implements the *note __reduce__(): 817. special method.  The copy
protocol provides a unified interface for retrieving the data necessary
for pickling and copying objects.  (1)

Although powerful, implementing *note __reduce__(): 817. directly in
your classes is error prone.  For this reason, class designers should
use the high-level interface (i.e., *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 261b,
*note __getstate__(): 3cb. and *note __setstate__(): 1317.) whenever
possible.  We will show, however, cases where using ‘__reduce__()’ is
the only option or leads to more efficient pickling or both.

 -- 方法: object.__reduce__ ()

     The interface is currently defined as follows.  The *note
     __reduce__(): 817. method takes no argument and shall return either
     a string or preferably a tuple (the returned object is often
     referred to as the "reduce value").

     If a string is returned, the string should be interpreted as the
     name of a global variable.  It should be the object's local name
     relative to its module; the pickle module searches the module
     namespace to determine the object's module.  This behaviour is
     typically useful for singletons.

     When a tuple is returned, it must be between two and six items
     long.  Optional items can either be omitted, or ‘None’ can be
     provided as their value.  The semantics of each item are in order:

        * A callable object that will be called to create the initial
          version of the object.

        * A tuple of arguments for the callable object.  An empty tuple
          must be given if the callable does not accept any argument.

        * Optionally, the object's state, which will be passed to the
          object's *note __setstate__(): 1317. method as previously
          described.  If the object has no such method then, the value
          must be a dictionary and it will be added to the object's
          *note __dict__: 2e2. attribute.

        * Optionally, an iterator (and not a sequence) yielding
          successive items.  These items will be appended to the object
          either using ‘obj.append(item)’ or, in batch, using
          ‘obj.extend(list_of_items)’.  This is primarily used for list
          subclasses, but may be used by other classes as long as they
          have *note append and extend methods: 1f3f. with the
          appropriate signature.  (Whether ‘append()’ or ‘extend()’ is
          used depends on which pickle protocol version is used as well
          as the number of items to append, so both must be supported.)

        * Optionally, an iterator (not a sequence) yielding successive
          key-value pairs.  These items will be stored to the object
          using ‘obj[key] = value’.  This is primarily used for
          dictionary subclasses, but may be used by other classes as
          long as they implement *note __setitem__(): 133c.

        * Optionally, a callable with a ‘(obj, state)’ signature.  This
          callable allows the user to programmatically control the
          state-updating behavior of a specific object, instead of using
          ‘obj’'s static *note __setstate__(): 1317. method.  If not
          ‘None’, this callable will have priority over ‘obj’'s *note
          __setstate__(): 1317.

          在 3.8 版被加入: The optional sixth tuple item, ‘(obj,
          state)’, was added.

 -- 方法: object.__reduce_ex__ (protocol)

     Alternatively, a *note __reduce_ex__(): 261d. method may be
     defined.  The only difference is this method should take a single
     integer argument, the protocol version.  When defined, pickle will
     prefer it over the *note __reduce__(): 817. method.  In addition,
     *note __reduce__(): 817. automatically becomes a synonym for the
     extended version.  The main use for this method is to provide
     backwards-compatible reduce values for older Python releases.

* Menu:

* Persistence of External Objects::
* Dispatch Tables::
* Handling Stateful Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The *note copy: 23. module uses this protocol for shallow and
deep copying operations.


File: python.info,  Node: Persistence of External Objects,  Next: Dispatch Tables,  Up: Pickling Class Instances

5.12.1.8 Persistence of External Objects
........................................

For the benefit of object persistence, the *note pickle: a1. module
supports the notion of a reference to an object outside the pickled data
stream.  Such objects are referenced by a persistent ID, which should be
either a string of alphanumeric characters (for protocol 0) (1) or just
an arbitrary object (for any newer protocol).

The resolution of such persistent IDs is not defined by the *note
pickle: a1. module; it will delegate this resolution to the user-defined
methods on the pickler and unpickler, *note persistent_id(): 260c. and
*note persistent_load(): 260d. respectively.

To pickle objects that have an external persistent ID, the pickler must
have a custom *note persistent_id(): 260c. method that takes an object
as an argument and returns either ‘None’ or the persistent ID for that
object.  When ‘None’ is returned, the pickler simply pickles the object
as normal.  When a persistent ID string is returned, the pickler will
pickle that object, along with a marker so that the unpickler will
recognize it as a persistent ID.

To unpickle external objects, the unpickler must have a custom *note
persistent_load(): 260d. method that takes a persistent ID object and
returns the referenced object.

Here is a comprehensive example presenting how persistent ID can be used
to pickle external objects by reference.

     # Simple example presenting how persistent ID can be used to pickle
     # external objects by reference.

     import pickle
     import sqlite3
     from collections import namedtuple

     # Simple class representing a record in our database.
     MemoRecord = namedtuple("MemoRecord", "key, task")

     class DBPickler(pickle.Pickler):

         def persistent_id(self, obj):
             # Instead of pickling MemoRecord as a regular class instance, we emit a
             # persistent ID.
             if isinstance(obj, MemoRecord):
                 # Here, our persistent ID is simply a tuple, containing a tag and a
                 # key, which refers to a specific record in the database.
                 return ("MemoRecord", obj.key)
             else:
                 # If obj does not have a persistent ID, return None. This means obj
                 # needs to be pickled as usual.
                 return None


     class DBUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

         def __init__(self, file, connection):
             super().__init__(file)
             self.connection = connection

         def persistent_load(self, pid):
             # This method is invoked whenever a persistent ID is encountered.
             # Here, pid is the tuple returned by DBPickler.
             cursor = self.connection.cursor()
             type_tag, key_id = pid
             if type_tag == "MemoRecord":
                 # Fetch the referenced record from the database and return it.
                 cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos WHERE key=?", (str(key_id),))
                 key, task = cursor.fetchone()
                 return MemoRecord(key, task)
             else:
                 # Always raises an error if you cannot return the correct object.
                 # Otherwise, the unpickler will think None is the object referenced
                 # by the persistent ID.
                 raise pickle.UnpicklingError("unsupported persistent object")


     def main():
         import io
         import pprint

         # Initialize and populate our database.
         conn = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
         cursor = conn.cursor()
         cursor.execute("CREATE TABLE memos(key INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, task TEXT)")
         tasks = (
             'give food to fish',
             'prepare group meeting',
             'fight with a zebra',
             )
         for task in tasks:
             cursor.execute("INSERT INTO memos VALUES(NULL, ?)", (task,))

         # Fetch the records to be pickled.
         cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos")
         memos = [MemoRecord(key, task) for key, task in cursor]
         # Save the records using our custom DBPickler.
         file = io.BytesIO()
         DBPickler(file).dump(memos)

         print("Pickled records:")
         pprint.pprint(memos)

         # Update a record, just for good measure.
         cursor.execute("UPDATE memos SET task='learn italian' WHERE key=1")

         # Load the records from the pickle data stream.
         file.seek(0)
         memos = DBUnpickler(file, conn).load()

         print("Unpickled records:")
         pprint.pprint(memos)


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The limitation on alphanumeric characters is due to the fact that
persistent IDs in protocol 0 are delimited by the newline character.
Therefore if any kind of newline characters occurs in persistent IDs,
the resulting pickled data will become unreadable.


File: python.info,  Node: Dispatch Tables,  Next: Handling Stateful Objects,  Prev: Persistence of External Objects,  Up: Pickling Class Instances

5.12.1.9 Dispatch Tables
........................

If one wants to customize pickling of some classes without disturbing
any other code which depends on pickling, then one can create a pickler
with a private dispatch table.

The global dispatch table managed by the *note copyreg: 24. module is
available as ‘copyreg.dispatch_table’.  Therefore, one may choose to use
a modified copy of ‘copyreg.dispatch_table’ as a private dispatch table.

舉例來說：

     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = pickle.Pickler(f)
     p.dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
     p.dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass

creates an instance of *note pickle.Pickler: 867. with a private
dispatch table which handles the ‘SomeClass’ class specially.
Alternatively, the code

     class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
         dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
         dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass
     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = MyPickler(f)

does the same but all instances of ‘MyPickler’ will by default share the
private dispatch table.  On the other hand, the code

     copyreg.pickle(SomeClass, reduce_SomeClass)
     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = pickle.Pickler(f)

modifies the global dispatch table shared by all users of the *note
copyreg: 24. module.


File: python.info,  Node: Handling Stateful Objects,  Prev: Dispatch Tables,  Up: Pickling Class Instances

5.12.1.10 Handling Stateful Objects
...................................

Here's an example that shows how to modify pickling behavior for a
class.  The ‘TextReader’ class below opens a text file, and returns the
line number and line contents each time its ‘readline()’ method is
called.  If a ‘TextReader’ instance is pickled, all attributes 'except'
the file object member are saved.  When the instance is unpickled, the
file is reopened, and reading resumes from the last location.  The
‘__setstate__()’ and ‘__getstate__()’ methods are used to implement this
behavior.

     class TextReader:
         """Print and number lines in a text file."""

         def __init__(self, filename):
             self.filename = filename
             self.file = open(filename)
             self.lineno = 0

         def readline(self):
             self.lineno += 1
             line = self.file.readline()
             if not line:
                 return None
             if line.endswith('\n'):
                 line = line[:-1]
             return "%i: %s" % (self.lineno, line)

         def __getstate__(self):
             # Copy the object's state from self.__dict__ which contains
             # all our instance attributes. Always use the dict.copy()
             # method to avoid modifying the original state.
             state = self.__dict__.copy()
             # Remove the unpicklable entries.
             del state['file']
             return state

         def __setstate__(self, state):
             # Restore instance attributes (i.e., filename and lineno).
             self.__dict__.update(state)
             # Restore the previously opened file's state. To do so, we need to
             # reopen it and read from it until the line count is restored.
             file = open(self.filename)
             for _ in range(self.lineno):
                 file.readline()
             # Finally, save the file.
             self.file = file

A sample usage might be something like this:

     >>> reader = TextReader("hello.txt")
     >>> reader.readline()
     '1: Hello world!'
     >>> reader.readline()
     '2: I am line number two.'
     >>> new_reader = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(reader))
     >>> new_reader.readline()
     '3: Goodbye!'


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects,  Next: Out-of-band Buffers,  Prev: Pickling Class Instances,  Up: pickle --- Python 物件序列化

5.12.1.11 Custom Reduction for Types, Functions, and Other Objects
..................................................................

在 3.8 版被加入.

Sometimes, *note dispatch_table: fb0. may not be flexible enough.  In
particular we may want to customize pickling based on another criterion
than the object's type, or we may want to customize the pickling of
functions and classes.

For those cases, it is possible to subclass from the *note Pickler: 867.
class and implement a *note reducer_override(): 868. method.  This
method can return an arbitrary reduction tuple (see *note __reduce__():
817.).  It can alternatively return *note NotImplemented: 5f2. to
fallback to the traditional behavior.

If both the *note dispatch_table: fb0. and *note reducer_override():
868. are defined, then *note reducer_override(): 868. method takes
priority.

     備註: For performance reasons, *note reducer_override(): 868. may
     not be called for the following objects: ‘None’, ‘True’, ‘False’,
     and exact instances of *note int: 17e, *note float: 26a, *note
     bytes: 2c1, *note str: 157, *note dict: 239, *note set: 3cc, *note
     frozenset: 3cd, *note list: 40a. and *note tuple: 4e6.

Here is a simple example where we allow pickling and reconstructing a
given class:

     import io
     import pickle

     class MyClass:
         my_attribute = 1

     class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
         def reducer_override(self, obj):
             """Custom reducer for MyClass."""
             if getattr(obj, "__name__", None) == "MyClass":
                 return type, (obj.__name__, obj.__bases__,
                               {'my_attribute': obj.my_attribute})
             else:
                 # For any other object, fallback to usual reduction
                 return NotImplemented

     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = MyPickler(f)
     p.dump(MyClass)

     del MyClass

     unpickled_class = pickle.loads(f.getvalue())

     assert isinstance(unpickled_class, type)
     assert unpickled_class.__name__ == "MyClass"
     assert unpickled_class.my_attribute == 1


File: python.info,  Node: Out-of-band Buffers,  Next: Restricting Globals,  Prev: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects,  Up: pickle --- Python 物件序列化

5.12.1.12 Out-of-band Buffers
.............................

在 3.8 版被加入.

In some contexts, the *note pickle: a1. module is used to transfer
massive amounts of data.  Therefore, it can be important to minimize the
number of memory copies, to preserve performance and resource
consumption.  However, normal operation of the *note pickle: a1. module,
as it transforms a graph-like structure of objects into a sequential
stream of bytes, intrinsically involves copying data to and from the
pickle stream.

This constraint can be eschewed if both the 'provider' (the
implementation of the object types to be transferred) and the 'consumer'
(the implementation of the communications system) support the
out-of-band transfer facilities provided by pickle protocol 5 and
higher.

* Menu:

* Provider API::
* Consumer API::
* 範例: 範例<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Provider API,  Next: Consumer API,  Up: Out-of-band Buffers

5.12.1.13 Provider API
......................

The large data objects to be pickled must implement a *note
__reduce_ex__(): 261d. method specialized for protocol 5 and higher,
which returns a *note PickleBuffer: 15c7. instance (instead of e.g.  a
*note bytes: 2c1. object) for any large data.

A *note PickleBuffer: 15c7. object 'signals' that the underlying buffer
is eligible for out-of-band data transfer.  Those objects remain
compatible with normal usage of the *note pickle: a1. module.  However,
consumers can also opt-in to tell *note pickle: a1. that they will
handle those buffers by themselves.


File: python.info,  Node: Consumer API,  Next: 範例<8>,  Prev: Provider API,  Up: Out-of-band Buffers

5.12.1.14 Consumer API
......................

A communications system can enable custom handling of the *note
PickleBuffer: 15c7. objects generated when serializing an object graph.

On the sending side, it needs to pass a 'buffer_callback' argument to
*note Pickler: 867. (or to the *note dump(): 2606. or *note dumps():
1315. function), which will be called with each *note PickleBuffer:
15c7. generated while pickling the object graph.  Buffers accumulated by
the 'buffer_callback' will not see their data copied into the pickle
stream, only a cheap marker will be inserted.

On the receiving side, it needs to pass a 'buffers' argument to *note
Unpickler: 1475. (or to the *note load(): b7f. or *note loads(): b80.
function), which is an iterable of the buffers which were passed to
'buffer_callback'.  That iterable should produce buffers in the same
order as they were passed to 'buffer_callback'.  Those buffers will
provide the data expected by the reconstructors of the objects whose
pickling produced the original *note PickleBuffer: 15c7. objects.

Between the sending side and the receiving side, the communications
system is free to implement its own transfer mechanism for out-of-band
buffers.  Potential optimizations include the use of shared memory or
datatype-dependent compression.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<8>,  Prev: Consumer API,  Up: Out-of-band Buffers

5.12.1.15 範例
..............

Here is a trivial example where we implement a *note bytearray: 2c0.
subclass able to participate in out-of-band buffer pickling:

     class ZeroCopyByteArray(bytearray):

         def __reduce_ex__(self, protocol):
             if protocol >= 5:
                 return type(self)._reconstruct, (PickleBuffer(self),), None
             else:
                 # PickleBuffer is forbidden with pickle protocols <= 4.
                 return type(self)._reconstruct, (bytearray(self),)

         @classmethod
         def _reconstruct(cls, obj):
             with memoryview(obj) as m:
                 # Get a handle over the original buffer object
                 obj = m.obj
                 if type(obj) is cls:
                     # Original buffer object is a ZeroCopyByteArray, return it
                     # as-is.
                     return obj
                 else:
                     return cls(obj)

The reconstructor (the ‘_reconstruct’ class method) returns the buffer's
providing object if it has the right type.  This is an easy way to
simulate zero-copy behaviour on this toy example.

On the consumer side, we can pickle those objects the usual way, which
when unserialized will give us a copy of the original object:

     b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
     data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5)
     new_b = pickle.loads(data)
     print(b == new_b)  # True
     print(b is new_b)  # False: a copy was made

But if we pass a 'buffer_callback' and then give back the accumulated
buffers when unserializing, we are able to get back the original object:

     b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
     buffers = []
     data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5, buffer_callback=buffers.append)
     new_b = pickle.loads(data, buffers=buffers)
     print(b == new_b)  # True
     print(b is new_b)  # True: no copy was made

This example is limited by the fact that *note bytearray: 2c0. allocates
its own memory: you cannot create a *note bytearray: 2c0. instance that
is backed by another object's memory.  However, third-party datatypes
such as NumPy arrays do not have this limitation, and allow use of
zero-copy pickling (or making as few copies as possible) when
transferring between distinct processes or systems.

也參考
......

PEP 574(1) - Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/


File: python.info,  Node: Restricting Globals,  Next: Performance<2>,  Prev: Out-of-band Buffers,  Up: pickle --- Python 物件序列化

5.12.1.16 Restricting Globals
.............................

By default, unpickling will import any class or function that it finds
in the pickle data.  For many applications, this behaviour is
unacceptable as it permits the unpickler to import and invoke arbitrary
code.  Just consider what this hand-crafted pickle data stream does when
loaded:

     >>> import pickle
     >>> pickle.loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
     hello world
     0

In this example, the unpickler imports the *note os.system(): 12cd.
function and then apply the string argument "echo hello world".
Although this example is inoffensive, it is not difficult to imagine one
that could damage your system.

For this reason, you may want to control what gets unpickled by
customizing *note Unpickler.find_class(): 2615.  Unlike its name
suggests, *note Unpickler.find_class(): 2615. is called whenever a
global (i.e., a class or a function) is requested.  Thus it is possible
to either completely forbid globals or restrict them to a safe subset.

Here is an example of an unpickler allowing only few safe classes from
the *note builtins: 10. module to be loaded:

     import builtins
     import io
     import pickle

     safe_builtins = {
         'range',
         'complex',
         'set',
         'frozenset',
         'slice',
     }

     class RestrictedUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

         def find_class(self, module, name):
             # Only allow safe classes from builtins.
             if module == "builtins" and name in safe_builtins:
                 return getattr(builtins, name)
             # Forbid everything else.
             raise pickle.UnpicklingError("global '%s.%s' is forbidden" %
                                          (module, name))

     def restricted_loads(s):
         """Helper function analogous to pickle.loads()."""
         return RestrictedUnpickler(io.BytesIO(s)).load()

A sample usage of our unpickler working as intended:

     >>> restricted_loads(pickle.dumps([1, 2, range(15)]))
     [1, 2, range(0, 15)]
     >>> restricted_loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'os.system' is forbidden
     >>> restricted_loads(b'cbuiltins\neval\n'
     ...                  b'(S\'getattr(__import__("os"), "system")'
     ...                  b'("echo hello world")\'\ntR.')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'builtins.eval' is forbidden

As our examples shows, you have to be careful with what you allow to be
unpickled.  Therefore if security is a concern, you may want to consider
alternatives such as the marshalling API in *note xmlrpc.client: 128. or
third-party solutions.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance<2>,  Next: 範例<9>,  Prev: Restricting Globals,  Up: pickle --- Python 物件序列化

5.12.1.17 Performance
.....................

Recent versions of the pickle protocol (from protocol 2 and upwards)
feature efficient binary encodings for several common features and
built-in types.  Also, the *note pickle: a1. module has a transparent
optimizer written in C.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<9>,  Prev: Performance<2>,  Up: pickle --- Python 物件序列化

5.12.1.18 範例
..............

For the simplest code, use the *note dump(): 2606. and *note load():
b7f. functions.

     import pickle

     # An arbitrary collection of objects supported by pickle.
     data = {
         'a': [1, 2.0, 3+4j],
         'b': ("character string", b"byte string"),
         'c': {None, True, False}
     }

     with open('data.pickle', 'wb') as f:
         # Pickle the 'data' dictionary using the highest protocol available.
         pickle.dump(data, f, pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL)

The following example reads the resulting pickled data.

     import pickle

     with open('data.pickle', 'rb') as f:
         # The protocol version used is detected automatically, so we do not
         # have to specify it.
         data = pickle.load(f)

也參考
......

*note copyreg: 24. 模組

     Pickle interface constructor registration for extension types.

*note pickletools: a2. 模組

     Tools for working with and analyzing pickled data.

*note shelve: be. 模組

     Indexed databases of objects; uses *note pickle: a1.

*note copy: 23. 模組

     Shallow and deep object copying.

*note marshal: 88. 模組

     High-performance serialization of built-in types.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: copyreg --- 註冊 pickle 支援函式,  Next: shelve --- Python object persistence,  Prev: pickle --- Python 物件序列化,  Up: 資料持久性 Data Persistence

5.12.2 ‘copyreg’ -- 註冊 ‘pickle’ 支援函式
------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/copyreg.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note copyreg: 24. 模組提供了一種用以定義在 pickle 特定物件時使用之函式
的方式。*note pickle: a1. 和 *note copy: 23. 模組在 pickle/copy 這些物件
時使用這些函式。此模組提供有關非類別物件之建構函式的配置資訊。此類建構函
式可以是工廠函式 (factory function) 或類別實例。

 -- 函式: copyreg.constructor (object)

     宣告 'object' 是一個有效的建構函式。如果 'object' 不可呼叫（因此不
     可作為有效的建構函式），則會引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

 -- 函式: copyreg.pickle (type, function, constructor_ob=None)

     宣告 'function' 應該用作 'type' 型別之物件的「歸約 ("reduction")」
     函式。'function' 必須回傳字串或包含 2 到 6 個元素的元組。有關
     'function' 介面的更多詳細資訊，請參閱 *note dispatch_table: fb0.。

     'constructor_ob' 參數是一個遺留功能，現在已被忽略，但如果要傳遞它的
     話則必須是個可呼叫物件。

     請注意，pickler 物件或 *note pickle.Pickler: 867. 子類別的 *note
     dispatch_table: fb0. 屬性也可用於宣告歸約函式。

* Menu:

* 範例: 範例<10>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/copyreg.py


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<10>,  Up: copyreg --- 註冊 pickle 支援函式

5.12.2.1 範例
.............

下面範例展示如何註冊一個 pickle 函式以及如何使用它：

     >>> import copyreg, copy, pickle
     >>> class C:
     ...     def __init__(self, a):
     ...         self.a = a
     ...
     >>> def pickle_c(c):
     ...     print("pickling a C instance...")
     ...     return C, (c.a,)
     ...
     >>> copyreg.pickle(C, pickle_c)
     >>> c = C(1)
     >>> d = copy.copy(c)
     pickling a C instance...
     >>> p = pickle.dumps(c)
     pickling a C instance...


File: python.info,  Node: shelve --- Python object persistence,  Next: marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化,  Prev: copyreg --- 註冊 pickle 支援函式,  Up: 資料持久性 Data Persistence

5.12.3 ‘shelve’ -- Python object persistence
--------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/shelve.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

A "shelf" is a persistent, dictionary-like object.  The difference with
"dbm" databases is that the values (not the keys!)  in a shelf can be
essentially arbitrary Python objects -- anything that the *note pickle:
a1. module can handle.  This includes most class instances, recursive
data types, and objects containing lots of shared sub-objects.  The keys
are ordinary strings.

 -- 函式: shelve.open (filename, flag='c', protocol=None,
          writeback=False)

     Open a persistent dictionary.  The filename specified is the base
     filename for the underlying database.  As a side-effect, an
     extension may be added to the filename and more than one file may
     be created.  By default, the underlying database file is opened for
     reading and writing.  The optional 'flag' parameter has the same
     interpretation as the 'flag' parameter of *note dbm.open(): db4.

     By default, pickles created with *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
     654. are used to serialize values.  The version of the pickle
     protocol can be specified with the 'protocol' parameter.

     Because of Python semantics, a shelf cannot know when a mutable
     persistent-dictionary entry is modified.  By default modified
     objects are written 'only' when assigned to the shelf (see *note
     範例: 2631.).  If the optional 'writeback' parameter is set to
     ‘True’, all entries accessed are also cached in memory, and written
     back on *note sync(): 2632. and *note close(): 2633.; this can make
     it handier to mutate mutable entries in the persistent dictionary,
     but, if many entries are accessed, it can consume vast amounts of
     memory for the cache, and it can make the close operation very slow
     since all accessed entries are written back (there is no way to
     determine which accessed entries are mutable, nor which ones were
     actually mutated).

     在 3.10 版的變更: *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 654. is now used
     as the default pickle protocol.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Accepts *note path-like object: 975. for
     filename.

          備註: Do not rely on the shelf being closed automatically;
          always call *note close(): 2633. explicitly when you don't
          need it any more, or use *note shelve.open(): 2630. as a
          context manager:

               with shelve.open('spam') as db:
                   db['eggs'] = 'eggs'
     警告: Because the *note shelve: be. module is backed by *note
     pickle: a1, it is insecure to load a shelf from an untrusted
     source.  Like with pickle, loading a shelf can execute arbitrary
     code.

Shelf objects support most of methods and operations supported by
dictionaries (except copying, constructors and operators ‘|’ and ‘|=’).
This eases the transition from dictionary based scripts to those
requiring persistent storage.

Two additional methods are supported:

 -- 方法: Shelf.sync ()

     Write back all entries in the cache if the shelf was opened with
     'writeback' set to *note True: a70.  Also empty the cache and
     synchronize the persistent dictionary on disk, if feasible.  This
     is called automatically when the shelf is closed with *note
     close(): 2633.

 -- 方法: Shelf.close ()

     Synchronize and close the persistent 'dict' object.  Operations on
     a closed shelf will fail with a *note ValueError: 183.

也參考
......

Persistent dictionary recipe(2) with widely supported storage formats
and having the speed of native dictionaries.

* Menu:

* Restrictions::
* 範例: 範例<11>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/shelve.py

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576642-persistent-dict-with-multiple-standard-file-format/


File: python.info,  Node: Restrictions,  Next: 範例<11>,  Up: shelve --- Python object persistence

5.12.3.1 Restrictions
.....................

   * The choice of which database package will be used (such as *note
     dbm.ndbm: 32. or *note dbm.gnu: 31.) depends on which interface is
     available.  Therefore it is not safe to open the database directly
     using *note dbm: 2f.  The database is also (unfortunately) subject
     to the limitations of *note dbm: 2f, if it is used -- this means
     that (the pickled representation of) the objects stored in the
     database should be fairly small, and in rare cases key collisions
     may cause the database to refuse updates.

   * The *note shelve: be. module does not support 'concurrent'
     read/write access to shelved objects.  (Multiple simultaneous read
     accesses are safe.)  When a program has a shelf open for writing,
     no other program should have it open for reading or writing.  Unix
     file locking can be used to solve this, but this differs across
     Unix versions and requires knowledge about the database
     implementation used.

   * On macOS *note dbm.ndbm: 32. can silently corrupt the database file
     on updates, which can cause hard crashes when trying to read from
     the database.

 -- 類別: shelve.Shelf (dict, protocol=None, writeback=False,
          keyencoding='utf-8')

     A subclass of *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: f3d. which
     stores pickled values in the 'dict' object.

     By default, pickles created with *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
     654. are used to serialize values.  The version of the pickle
     protocol can be specified with the 'protocol' parameter.  See the
     *note pickle: a1. documentation for a discussion of the pickle
     protocols.

     If the 'writeback' parameter is ‘True’, the object will hold a
     cache of all entries accessed and write them back to the 'dict' at
     sync and close times.  This allows natural operations on mutable
     entries, but can consume much more memory and make sync and close
     take a long time.

     The 'keyencoding' parameter is the encoding used to encode keys
     before they are used with the underlying dict.

     A *note Shelf: e27. object can also be used as a context manager,
     in which case it will be automatically closed when the *note with:
     3c5. block ends.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Added the 'keyencoding' parameter; previously,
     keys were always encoded in UTF-8.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增情境管理器的支援。

     在 3.10 版的變更: *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 654. is now used
     as the default pickle protocol.

 -- 類別: shelve.BsdDbShelf (dict, protocol=None, writeback=False,
          keyencoding='utf-8')

     A subclass of *note Shelf: e27. which exposes ‘first()’, ‘next()’,
     ‘previous()’, ‘last()’ and ‘set_location()’ methods.  These are
     available in the third-party ‘bsddb’ module from pybsddb(1) but not
     in other database modules.  The 'dict' object passed to the
     constructor must support those methods.  This is generally
     accomplished by calling one of ‘bsddb.hashopen()’, ‘bsddb.btopen()’
     or ‘bsddb.rnopen()’.  The optional 'protocol', 'writeback', and
     'keyencoding' parameters have the same interpretation as for the
     *note Shelf: e27. class.

 -- 類別: shelve.DbfilenameShelf (filename, flag='c', protocol=None,
          writeback=False)

     A subclass of *note Shelf: e27. which accepts a 'filename' instead
     of a dict-like object.  The underlying file will be opened using
     *note dbm.open(): db4.  By default, the file will be created and
     opened for both read and write.  The optional 'flag' parameter has
     the same interpretation as for the *note open(): 2630. function.
     The optional 'protocol' and 'writeback' parameters have the same
     interpretation as for the *note Shelf: e27. class.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<11>,  Prev: Restrictions,  Up: shelve --- Python object persistence

5.12.3.2 範例
.............

To summarize the interface (‘key’ is a string, ‘data’ is an arbitrary
object):

     import shelve

     d = shelve.open(filename)  # open -- file may get suffix added by low-level
                                # library

     d[key] = data              # store data at key (overwrites old data if
                                # using an existing key)
     data = d[key]              # retrieve a COPY of data at key (raise KeyError
                                # if no such key)
     del d[key]                 # delete data stored at key (raises KeyError
                                # if no such key)

     flag = key in d            # true if the key exists
     klist = list(d.keys())     # a list of all existing keys (slow!)

     # as d was opened WITHOUT writeback=True, beware:
     d['xx'] = [0, 1, 2]        # this works as expected, but...
     d['xx'].append(3)          # *this doesn't!* -- d['xx'] is STILL [0, 1, 2]!

     # having opened d without writeback=True, you need to code carefully:
     temp = d['xx']             # extracts the copy
     temp.append(5)             # mutates the copy
     d['xx'] = temp             # stores the copy right back, to persist it

     # or, d=shelve.open(filename,writeback=True) would let you just code
     # d['xx'].append(5) and have it work as expected, BUT it would also
     # consume more memory and make the d.close() operation slower.

     d.close()                  # close it

也參考
......

*note dbm: 2f. 模組

     Generic interface to ‘dbm’-style databases.

*note pickle: a1. 模組

     Object serialization used by *note shelve: be.


File: python.info,  Node: marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化,  Next: dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面,  Prev: shelve --- Python object persistence,  Up: 資料持久性 Data Persistence

5.12.4 ‘marshal’ -- 内部 Python 物件序列化
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

此 module（模組）包含一個能以二進位制格式來讀寫 Python 值的函式。這種格
式是 Python 專屬但獨立於機器架構的（例如，你可以在一臺 PC 上寫入某個
Python 值，再將檔案傳到一臺 Mac 上並在那裡讀取它）。這種格式的細節是有意
地不在文件上說明的；它可能在不同 Python 版本中被改變（雖然這種情況極少發
生）。(1)

這不是一個通用「持續性 (persistence)」module 。關於通用持續性以及透過
RPC 呼叫傳遞 Python 物件，請參閱 *note pickle: a1. 和 *note shelve: be.
等 module 。*note marshal: 88. module 主要是為了支援用來讀寫「偽編譯
(pseudo-compiled)」 ‘.pyc’ 檔案的 Python module。因此，Python 維護者保留
了在必要時以不向後相容的方式修改 marshal 格式的權利。如果你要序列化和反
序列化 Python 物件，請改用 *note pickle: a1. module - 其執行效率相當、有
保證版本獨立性，且實質上 pickle 還支援比 marshal 更多樣的物件。

     警告: *note marshal: 88. module 對於錯誤或惡意構建的資料來說是不安
     全的。永遠不要 unmarshal 來自不受信任的或來源未經驗證的資料。

不是所有 Python 物件型別都有支援；一般來說，此 module 只能寫入和讀取不依
賴於特定 Python 調用 (invocation) 的物件。下列型別是有支援的：布林
(boolean)、整數、浮點數 (floating-point number)、複數、字串、位元組串
(bytes)、位元組陣列 (bytearray)、元組 (tuple)、list、集合 (set)、凍結集
合 (frozenset)、dictionary 和程式碼物件，需要了解的一點是元組、list、集
合、凍結集合和 dictionary 只在其所包含的值也屬於這些型別時才會支援。單例
(singleton) 物件 *note None: 470.、*note Ellipsis: 1f1b. 和 *note
StopIteration: a5d. 也可以被 marshal 和 unmarshal。對於 'version' 低於 3
的格式，遞迴 list、集合和 dictionary 無法被寫入（見下文）。

有些函式可以讀/寫檔案，還有些函式可以操作類位元組串物件 (bytes-like
object)。

這個 module 定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: marshal.dump (value, file[, version])

     將值寫入被開啟的檔案。值必須為受支援的型別，檔案必須為可寫入的
     *note binary file: 1a7c.。

     如果值具有（或其所包含的物件具有）不支援的型別，則會引發 *note
     ValueError: 183. 例外 -- 但是垃圾資料 (garbage data) 也將寫入檔案，
     物件也無法正確地透過 *note load(): 17f8. 重新讀取。

     'version' 引數指明 ‘dump’ 應該使用的資料格式（見下文）。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘value’ 與 ‘version’ 的*note 稽核事件 (auditing
     event): 168e. ‘marshal.dumps’。

 -- 函式: marshal.load (file)

     從開啟的檔案讀取一個值並回傳。如果讀不到有效的值（例如，由於資料為
     不同 Python 版本的不相容 marshal 格式），則會引發 *note EOFError:
     116a.、*note ValueError: 183. 或 *note TypeError: 2ba.。檔案必須為
     可讀取的 *note binary file: 1a7c.。

     引發一個沒有附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘marshal.load’。

          備註: 如果透過 *note dump(): 2639. marshal 了一個包含不支援型
          別的物件，*note load(): 17f8. 會將不可 marshal 的型別替換為
          ‘None’。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 使用此呼叫為每個程式碼物件引發一個 ‘code.__new__’
     稽核事件。現在它會為整個載入操作引發單個 ‘marshal.load’ 事件。

 -- 函式: marshal.dumps (value[, version])

     回傳將透過 ‘dump(value, file)’ 來被寫入一個檔案的位元組串物件，其值
     必須是有支援的型別，如果值（或其包含的任一物件）為不支援的型別則會
     引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

     'version' 引數指明 ‘dumps’ 應當使用的資料型別（見下文）。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘value’ 與 ‘version’ 的*note 稽核事件 (auditing
     event): 168e. ‘marshal.dumps’。

 -- 函式: marshal.loads (bytes)

     將 *note bytes-like object: b9f. 轉換為一個值。如果找不到有效的值，
     則會引發 *note EOFError: 116a.、*note ValueError: 183. 或 *note
     TypeError: 2ba.。輸入中額外的位元組串會被忽略。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘bytes’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘marshal.loads’。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 使用此呼叫為每個程式碼物件引發一個 ‘code.__new__’
     稽核事件。現在它會為整個載入操作引發單個 ‘marshal.loads’ 事件。

此外，還定義了以下常數：

 -- 資料: marshal.version

     表示 module 所使用的格式。第 0 版為歷史格式，第 1 版共享了駐留字串
     (interned string)，第 2 版對浮點數使用二進位制格式。第 3 版添加了對
     於物件實例化和遞迴的支援。目前使用的是第 4 版。

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 此 module 的名稱來源於 Modula-3 (及其他語言) 的設計者所使用的術語
，他們使用 "marshal" 來表示自包含 (self-contained) 形式資料的傳輸。嚴格
來說，將資料從內部形式轉換為外部形式 (例如用於 RPC 緩衝區) 稱為
"marshal"，而其反向過程則稱為 "unmarshal"。


File: python.info,  Node: dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面,  Next: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面,  Prev: marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化,  Up: 資料持久性 Data Persistence

5.12.5 ‘dbm’ -- Unix "databases" 的介面
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/dbm/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note dbm: 2f. is a generic interface to variants of the DBM database --
*note dbm.gnu: 31. or *note dbm.ndbm: 32.  If none of these modules is
installed, the slow-but-simple implementation in module *note dbm.dumb:
30. will be used.  There is a third party interface(2) to the Oracle
Berkeley DB.

 -- 例外: dbm.error

     A tuple containing the exceptions that can be raised by each of the
     supported modules, with a unique exception also named *note
     dbm.error: 263e. as the first item -- the latter is used when *note
     dbm.error: 263e. is raised.

 -- 函式: dbm.whichdb (filename)

     This function attempts to guess which of the several simple
     database modules available -- *note dbm.gnu: 31, *note dbm.ndbm:
     32. or *note dbm.dumb: 30. -- should be used to open a given file.

     回傳以下其中一個值：

        * ‘None’ if the file can't be opened because it's unreadable or
          doesn't exist

        * the empty string (‘''’) if the file's format can't be guessed

        * a string containing the required module name, such as
          ‘'dbm.ndbm'’ or ‘'dbm.gnu'’

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: dbm.open (file, flag='r', mode=0o666)

     Open a database and return the corresponding database object.


     參數:

        * ‘file’ (*note path-like object: 975.) - 要打開的資料庫檔案

          If the database file already exists, the *note whichdb():
          263f. function is used to determine its type and the
          appropriate module is used; if it does not exist, the first
          submodule listed above that can be imported is used.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 157.) -

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn't exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 17e.) - The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'file' 接受一個*note 類路徑物件: 975.。

The object returned by *note open(): db4. supports the same basic
functionality as a *note dict: 239.; keys and their corresponding values
can be stored, retrieved, and deleted, and the *note in: 267. operator
and the ‘keys()’ method are available, as well as ‘get()’ and
‘setdefault()’ methods.

Key and values are always stored as *note bytes: 2c1.  This means that
when strings are used they are implicitly converted to the default
encoding before being stored.

These objects also support being used in a *note with: 3c5. statement,
which will automatically close them when done.

在 3.2 版的變更: ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods are now available
for all *note dbm: 2f. backends.

在 3.4 版的變更: Added native support for the context management
protocol to the objects returned by *note open(): db4.

在 3.8 版的變更: Deleting a key from a read-only database raises a
database module specific exception instead of *note KeyError: 8ed.

The following example records some hostnames and a corresponding title,
and then prints out the contents of the database:

     import dbm

     # Open database, creating it if necessary.
     with dbm.open('cache', 'c') as db:

         # Record some values
         db[b'hello'] = b'there'
         db['www.python.org'] = 'Python Website'
         db['www.cnn.com'] = 'Cable News Network'

         # Note that the keys are considered bytes now.
         assert db[b'www.python.org'] == b'Python Website'
         # Notice how the value is now in bytes.
         assert db['www.cnn.com'] == b'Cable News Network'

         # Often-used methods of the dict interface work too.
         print(db.get('python.org', b'not present'))

         # Storing a non-string key or value will raise an exception (most
         # likely a TypeError).
         db['www.yahoo.com'] = 4

     # db is automatically closed when leaving the with statement.

也參考
......

*note shelve: be. 模組

     Persistence module which stores non-string data.

The individual submodules are described in the following sections.

* Menu:

* dbm.gnu: dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器. GNU 資料庫管理器
* dbm.ndbm: dbm ndbm --- 新資料庫管理器. 新資料庫管理器
* dbm.dumb: dbm dumb --- 可攜式 DBM 實作. 可攜式 DBM 實作

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dbm/__init__.py

   (2) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm


File: python.info,  Node: dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器,  Next: dbm ndbm --- 新資料庫管理器,  Up: dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面

5.12.5.1 ‘dbm.gnu’ -- GNU 資料庫管理器
......................................

'原始碼：'Lib/dbm/gnu.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note dbm.gnu: 31. module provides an interface to the GDBM (GNU
dbm) library, similar to the *note dbm.ndbm: 32. module, but with
additional functionality like crash tolerance.

     備註: The file formats created by *note dbm.gnu: 31. and *note
     dbm.ndbm: 32. are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

 -- 例外: dbm.gnu.error

     Raised on *note dbm.gnu: 31.-specific errors, such as I/O errors.
     *note KeyError: 8ed. is raised for general mapping errors like
     specifying an incorrect key.

 -- 函式: dbm.gnu.open (filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

     Open a GDBM database and return a ‘gdbm’ object.


     參數:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 975.) - 要打開的資料庫檔案

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 157.) -

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn't exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

          The following additional characters may be appended to control
          how the database is opened:

             * ‘'f'’: Open the database in fast mode.  Writes to the
               database will not be synchronized.

             * ‘'s'’: Synchronized mode.  Changes to the database will
               be written immediately to the file.

             * ‘'u'’: 不要鎖住資料庫。

          Not all flags are valid for all versions of GDBM. See the
          *note open_flags: 2641. member for a list of supported flag
          characters.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 17e.) - The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.


     引發: *note error: 8eb. - 如果一個無效的 'flag' 引數被傳入。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

      -- 資料: dbm.gnu.open_flags

          A string of characters the 'flag' parameter of *note open():
          182a. supports.

     ‘gdbm’ objects behave similar to *note mappings: 104d, but
     ‘items()’ and ‘values()’ methods are not supported.  The following
     methods are also provided:

      -- 方法: gdbm.firstkey ()

          It's possible to loop over every key in the database using
          this method and the *note nextkey(): 2643. method.  The
          traversal is ordered by GDBM's internal hash values, and won't
          be sorted by the key values.  This method returns the starting
          key.

      -- 方法: gdbm.nextkey (key)

          Returns the key that follows 'key' in the traversal.  The
          following code prints every key in the database ‘db’, without
          having to create a list in memory that contains them all:

               k = db.firstkey()
               while k is not None:
                   print(k)
                   k = db.nextkey(k)

      -- 方法: gdbm.reorganize ()

          If you have carried out a lot of deletions and would like to
          shrink the space used by the GDBM file, this routine will
          reorganize the database.  ‘gdbm’ objects will not shorten the
          length of a database file except by using this reorganization;
          otherwise, deleted file space will be kept and reused as new
          (key, value) pairs are added.

      -- 方法: gdbm.sync ()

          When the database has been opened in fast mode, this method
          forces any unwritten data to be written to the disk.

      -- 方法: gdbm.close ()

          關閉 GDBM 資料庫。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dbm/gnu.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm ndbm --- 新資料庫管理器,  Next: dbm dumb --- 可攜式 DBM 實作,  Prev: dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器,  Up: dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面

5.12.5.2 ‘dbm.ndbm’ -- 新資料庫管理器
.....................................

'原始碼：'Lib/dbm/ndbm.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note dbm.ndbm: 32. module provides an interface to the NDBM (New
Database Manager) library.  This module can be used with the "classic"
NDBM interface or the GDBM compatibility interface.

     備註: The file formats created by *note dbm.gnu: 31. and *note
     dbm.ndbm: 32. are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

     警告: The NDBM library shipped as part of macOS has an undocumented
     limitation on the size of values, which can result in corrupted
     database files when storing values larger than this limit.  Reading
     such corrupted files can result in a hard crash (segmentation
     fault).

 -- 例外: dbm.ndbm.error

     Raised on *note dbm.ndbm: 32.-specific errors, such as I/O errors.
     *note KeyError: 8ed. is raised for general mapping errors like
     specifying an incorrect key.

 -- 資料: dbm.ndbm.library

     Name of the NDBM implementation library used.

 -- 函式: dbm.ndbm.open (filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

     Open an NDBM database and return an ‘ndbm’ object.


     參數:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 975.) - The basename of
          the database file (without the ‘.dir’ or ‘.pag’ extensions).

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 157.) -

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn't exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 17e.) - The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

     ‘ndbm’ objects behave similar to *note mappings: 104d, but
     ‘items()’ and ‘values()’ methods are not supported.  The following
     methods are also provided:

     在 3.11 版的變更: Accepts *note path-like object: 975. for
     filename.

      -- 方法: ndbm.close ()

          關閉 NDBM 資料庫。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dbm/ndbm.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm dumb --- 可攜式 DBM 實作,  Prev: dbm ndbm --- 新資料庫管理器,  Up: dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面

5.12.5.3 ‘dbm.dumb’ -- 可攜式 DBM 實作
......................................

'原始碼：'Lib/dbm/dumb.py(1)

     備註: The *note dbm.dumb: 30. module is intended as a last resort
     fallback for the *note dbm: 2f. module when a more robust module is
     not available.  The *note dbm.dumb: 30. module is not written for
     speed and is not nearly as heavily used as the other database
     modules.

__________________________________________________________________

The *note dbm.dumb: 30. module provides a persistent *note dict:
239.-like interface which is written entirely in Python.  Unlike other
*note dbm: 2f. backends, such as *note dbm.gnu: 31, no external library
is required.

‘dbm.dumb’ 模組定義了以下項目：

 -- 例外: dbm.dumb.error

     Raised on *note dbm.dumb: 30.-specific errors, such as I/O errors.
     *note KeyError: 8ed. is raised for general mapping errors like
     specifying an incorrect key.

 -- 函式: dbm.dumb.open (filename, flag='c', mode=0o666)

     Open a ‘dbm.dumb’ database.  The returned database object behaves
     similar to a *note mapping: 104d, in addition to providing *note
     sync(): 264b. and *note close(): 264c. methods.


     參數:

        * ‘filename’ - The basename of the database file (without
          extensions).  A new database creates the following files:

             - ‘`filename'.dat’

             - ‘`filename'.dir’

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 157.) -

             * ‘'r'’: Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’ (default): Open database for reading and writing,
               creating it if it doesn't exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 17e.) - The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

          警告: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter when
          loading a database with a sufficiently large/complex entry due
          to stack depth limitations in Python's AST compiler.

     在 3.5 版的變更: *note open(): 8e6. always creates a new database
     when 'flag' is ‘'n'’.

     在 3.8 版的變更: A database opened read-only if 'flag' is ‘'r'’.  A
     database is not created if it does not exist if 'flag' is ‘'r'’ or
     ‘'w'’.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

     In addition to the methods provided by the *note
     collections.abc.MutableMapping: f3d. class, the following methods
     are provided:

      -- 方法: dumbdbm.sync ()

          Synchronize the on-disk directory and data files.  This method
          is called by the ‘Shelve.sync()’ method.

      -- 方法: dumbdbm.close ()

          關閉資料庫。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dbm/dumb.py


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面,  Prev: dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面,  Up: 資料持久性 Data Persistence

5.12.6 ‘sqlite3’ -- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2.0 介面
---------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/sqlite3/(1)

SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database
that doesn't require a separate server process and allows accessing the
database using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language.  Some
applications can use SQLite for internal data storage.  It's also
possible to prototype an application using SQLite and then port the code
to a larger database such as PostgreSQL or Oracle.

The ‘sqlite3’ module was written by Gerhard Häring.  It provides an SQL
interface compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP
249(2), and requires SQLite 3.7.15 or newer.

此文件包含四個主要章節：

   * *note 教學: 2650. 教導如何使用 ‘sqlite3’ 模組。

   * *note Reference: 2651. 描述此模組定義的類別與函式。

   * *note How-to guides: 2652. 詳細說明如何處理特定工作。

   * *note 解釋: 2653. 深入提供交易 (transaction) 控制的背景。

也參考
......

‘https://www.sqlite.org’

     The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the
     available data types for the supported SQL dialect.

‘https://www.w3schools.com/sql/’

     Tutorial, reference and examples for learning SQL syntax.

PEP 249(3) - 資料庫 API 規格 2.0

     PEP 由 Marc-André Lemburg 撰寫。

* Menu:

* 教學::
* Reference::
* How-to guides::
* 解釋::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sqlite3/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: 教學,  Next: Reference,  Up: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面

5.12.6.1 教學
.............

In this tutorial, you will create a database of Monty Python movies
using basic ‘sqlite3’ functionality.  It assumes a fundamental
understanding of database concepts, including cursors(1) and
transactions(2).

First, we need to create a new database and open a database connection
to allow ‘sqlite3’ to work with it.  Call *note sqlite3.connect(): 1dd.
to create a connection to the database ‘tutorial.db’ in the current
working directory, implicitly creating it if it does not exist:

     import sqlite3
     con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")

The returned *note Connection: 1dc. object ‘con’ represents the
connection to the on-disk database.

In order to execute SQL statements and fetch results from SQL queries,
we will need to use a database cursor.  Call *note con.cursor(): 2655.
to create the *note Cursor: 2656.:

     cur = con.cursor()

Now that we've got a database connection and a cursor, we can create a
database table ‘movie’ with columns for title, release year, and review
score.  For simplicity, we can just use column names in the table
declaration - thanks to the flexible typing(3) feature of SQLite,
specifying the data types is optional.  Execute the ‘CREATE TABLE’
statement by calling *note cur.execute(...): 236.:

     cur.execute("CREATE TABLE movie(title, year, score)")

We can verify that the new table has been created by querying the
‘sqlite_master’ table built-in to SQLite, which should now contain an
entry for the ‘movie’ table definition (see The Schema Table(4) for
details).  Execute that query by calling *note cur.execute(...): 236,
assign the result to ‘res’, and call *note res.fetchone(): 2657. to
fetch the resulting row:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master")
     >>> res.fetchone()
     ('movie',)

We can see that the table has been created, as the query returns a *note
tuple: 4e6. containing the table's name.  If we query ‘sqlite_master’
for a non-existent table ‘spam’, ‘res.fetchone()’ will return ‘None’:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master WHERE name='spam'")
     >>> res.fetchone() is None
     True

Now, add two rows of data supplied as SQL literals by executing an
‘INSERT’ statement, once again by calling *note cur.execute(...): 236.:

     cur.execute("""
         INSERT INTO movie VALUES
             ('Monty Python and the Holy Grail', 1975, 8.2),
             ('And Now for Something Completely Different', 1971, 7.5)
     """)

The ‘INSERT’ statement implicitly opens a transaction, which needs to be
committed before changes are saved in the database (see *note
Transaction control: 2658. for details).  Call *note con.commit(): 2659.
on the connection object to commit the transaction:

     con.commit()

We can verify that the data was inserted correctly by executing a
‘SELECT’ query.  Use the now-familiar *note cur.execute(...): 236. to
assign the result to ‘res’, and call *note res.fetchall(): 265a. to
return all resulting rows:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT score FROM movie")
     >>> res.fetchall()
     [(8.2,), (7.5,)]

The result is a *note list: 40a. of two ‘tuple’s, one per row, each
containing that row's ‘score’ value.

Now, insert three more rows by calling *note cur.executemany(...): 253.:

     data = [
         ("Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl", 1982, 7.9),
         ("Monty Python's The Meaning of Life", 1983, 7.5),
         ("Monty Python's Life of Brian", 1979, 8.0),
     ]
     cur.executemany("INSERT INTO movie VALUES(?, ?, ?)", data)
     con.commit()  # Remember to commit the transaction after executing INSERT.

Notice that ‘?’ placeholders are used to bind ‘data’ to the query.
Always use placeholders instead of *note string formatting: 1a68. to
bind Python values to SQL statements, to avoid SQL injection attacks(5)
(see *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries: 237.
for more details).

We can verify that the new rows were inserted by executing a ‘SELECT’
query, this time iterating over the results of the query:

     >>> for row in cur.execute("SELECT year, title FROM movie ORDER BY year"):
     ...     print(row)
     (1971, 'And Now for Something Completely Different')
     (1975, 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail')
     (1979, "Monty Python's Life of Brian")
     (1982, 'Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl')
     (1983, "Monty Python's The Meaning of Life")

Each row is a two-item *note tuple: 4e6. of ‘(year, title)’, matching
the columns selected in the query.

Finally, verify that the database has been written to disk by calling
*note con.close(): 1493. to close the existing connection, opening a new
one, creating a new cursor, then querying the database:

     >>> con.close()
     >>> new_con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")
     >>> new_cur = new_con.cursor()
     >>> res = new_cur.execute("SELECT title, year FROM movie ORDER BY score DESC")
     >>> title, year = res.fetchone()
     >>> print(f'The highest scoring Monty Python movie is {title!r}, released in {year}')
     The highest scoring Monty Python movie is 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail', released in 1975
     >>> new_con.close()

You've now created an SQLite database using the ‘sqlite3’ module,
inserted data and retrieved values from it in multiple ways.

也參考
......

   * 進一步參考 *note How-to guides: 2652.：

        * *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries:
          237.

        * *note How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values: 265b.

        * *note How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types:
          265c.

        * *note How to use the connection context manager: 15b0.

        * *note How to create and use row factories: 265d.

   * *note 解釋: 2653. for in-depth background on transaction control.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_transaction

   (3) https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html

   (4) https://www.sqlite.org/schematab.html

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection


File: python.info,  Node: Reference,  Next: How-to guides,  Prev: 教學,  Up: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面

5.12.6.2 Reference
..................

* Menu:

* Module functions::
* Module constants::
* Connection 物件::
* Cursor 物件::
* Row 物件::
* Blob 物件::
* PrepareProtocol 物件::
* 例外: 例外<4>.
* SQLite and Python types::
* Default adapters and converters (deprecated): Default adapters and converters deprecated.
* 命令列介面::


File: python.info,  Node: Module functions,  Next: Module constants,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.3 Module functions
.........................

 -- 函式: sqlite3.connect (database, timeout=5.0, detect_types=0,
          isolation_level='DEFERRED', check_same_thread=True,
          factory=sqlite3.Connection, cached_statements=128, uri=False,
          *, autocommit=sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL)

     Open a connection to an SQLite database.


     參數:

        * ‘database’ (*note path-like object: 975.) - The path to the
          database file to be opened.  You can pass ‘":memory:"’ to
          create an SQLite database existing only in memory(1), and open
          a connection to it.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 26a.) - How many seconds the
          connection should wait before raising an *note
          OperationalError: 1670. when a table is locked.  If another
          connection opens a transaction to modify a table, that table
          will be locked until the transaction is committed.  Default
          five seconds.

        * ‘detect_types’ (*note int: 17e.) - Control whether and how
          data types not *note natively supported by SQLite: 2662. are
          looked up to be converted to Python types, using the
          converters registered with *note register_converter(): 2663.
          Set it to any combination (using ‘|’, bitwise or) of *note
          PARSE_DECLTYPES: 2664. and *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 2665. to
          enable this.  Column names takes precedence over declared
          types if both flags are set.  Types cannot be detected for
          generated fields (for example ‘max(data)’), even when the
          'detect_types' parameter is set; *note str: 157. will be
          returned instead.  By default (‘0’), type detection is
          disabled.

        * ‘isolation_level’ (*note str: 157.‘ | ’‘None’) - Control
          legacy transaction handling behaviour.  See *note
          Connection.isolation_level: 2666. and *note Transaction
          control via the isolation_level attribute: 2667. for more
          information.  Can be ‘"DEFERRED"’ (default), ‘"EXCLUSIVE"’ or
          ‘"IMMEDIATE"’; or ‘None’ to disable opening transactions
          implicitly.  Has no effect unless *note Connection.autocommit:
          1db. is set to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2668. (the
          default).

        * ‘check_same_thread’ (*note bool: 17d.) - If ‘True’ (default),
          *note ProgrammingError: 23a. will be raised if the database
          connection is used by a thread other than the one that created
          it.  If ‘False’, the connection may be accessed in multiple
          threads; write operations may need to be serialized by the
          user to avoid data corruption.  See *note threadsafety: 478.
          for more information.

        * ‘factory’ (*note Connection: 1dc.) - A custom subclass of
          *note Connection: 1dc. to create the connection with, if not
          the default *note Connection: 1dc. class.

        * ‘cached_statements’ (*note int: 17e.) - The number of
          statements that ‘sqlite3’ should internally cache for this
          connection, to avoid parsing overhead.  By default, 128
          statements.

        * ‘uri’ (*note bool: 17d.) - If set to ‘True’, 'database' is
          interpreted as a URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) with a file
          path and an optional query string.  The scheme part 'must' be
          ‘"file:"’, and the path can be relative or absolute.  The
          query string allows passing parameters to SQLite, enabling
          various *note How to work with SQLite URIs: 2669.

        * ‘autocommit’ (*note bool: 17d.) - Control PEP 249(2)
          transaction handling behaviour.  See *note
          Connection.autocommit: 1db. and *note Transaction control via
          the autocommit attribute: 1de. for more information.
          'autocommit' currently defaults to *note
          LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2668.  The default will change to
          ‘False’ in a future Python release.


     回傳型別: *note Connection: 1dc.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘database’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘sqlite3.connect’。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘connection_handle’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'uri' 參數。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 'database' can now also be a *note path-like
     object: 975, not only a string.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ 稽核事件。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'autocommit' 參數。

 -- 函式: sqlite3.complete_statement (statement)

     Return ‘True’ if the string 'statement' appears to contain one or
     more complete SQL statements.  No syntactic verification or parsing
     of any kind is performed, other than checking that there are no
     unclosed string literals and the statement is terminated by a
     semicolon.

     範例：

          >>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo FROM bar;")
          True
          >>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo")
          False

     This function may be useful during command-line input to determine
     if the entered text seems to form a complete SQL statement, or if
     additional input is needed before calling *note execute(): 236.

     See ‘runsource()’ in Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py(3) for real-world use.

 -- 函式: sqlite3.enable_callback_tracebacks (flag, /)

     Enable or disable callback tracebacks.  By default you will not get
     any tracebacks in user-defined functions, aggregates, converters,
     authorizer callbacks etc.  If you want to debug them, you can call
     this function with 'flag' set to ‘True’.  Afterwards, you will get
     tracebacks from callbacks on *note sys.stderr: 778.  Use ‘False’ to
     disable the feature again.

          備註: Errors in user-defined function callbacks are logged as
          unraisable exceptions.  Use an *note unraisable hook handler:
          479. for introspection of the failed callback.

 -- 函式: sqlite3.register_adapter (type, adapter, /)

     Register an 'adapter' *note callable: 266d. to adapt the Python
     type 'type' into an SQLite type.  The adapter is called with a
     Python object of type 'type' as its sole argument, and must return
     a value of a *note type that SQLite natively understands: 2662.

 -- 函式: sqlite3.register_converter (typename, converter, /)

     Register the 'converter' *note callable: 266d. to convert SQLite
     objects of type 'typename' into a Python object of a specific type.
     The converter is invoked for all SQLite values of type 'typename';
     it is passed a *note bytes: 2c1. object and should return an object
     of the desired Python type.  Consult the parameter 'detect_types'
     of *note connect(): 1dd. for information regarding how type
     detection works.

     Note: 'typename' and the name of the type in your query are matched
     case-insensitively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/inmemorydb.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module constants,  Next: Connection 物件,  Prev: Module functions,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.4 Module constants
.........................

 -- 資料: sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL

     Set *note autocommit: 1db. to this constant to select old style
     (pre-Python 3.12) transaction control behaviour.  See *note
     Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute: 2667. for
     more information.

 -- 資料: sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES

     Pass this flag value to the 'detect_types' parameter of *note
     connect(): 1dd. to look up a converter function by using the type
     name, parsed from the query column name, as the converter
     dictionary key.  The type name must be wrapped in square brackets
     (‘[]’).

          SELECT p as "p [point]" FROM test;  ! will look up converter "point"

     This flag may be combined with *note PARSE_DECLTYPES: 2664. using
     the ‘|’ (bitwise or) operator.

 -- 資料: sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES

     Pass this flag value to the 'detect_types' parameter of *note
     connect(): 1dd. to look up a converter function using the declared
     types for each column.  The types are declared when the database
     table is created.  ‘sqlite3’ will look up a converter function
     using the first word of the declared type as the converter
     dictionary key.  For example:

          CREATE TABLE test(
             i integer primary key,  ! will look up a converter named "integer"
             p point,                ! will look up a converter named "point"
             n number(10)            ! will look up a converter named "number"
           )

     This flag may be combined with *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 2665. using
     the ‘|’ (bitwise or) operator.

 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_OK
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DENY
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_IGNORE

     Flags that should be returned by the 'authorizer_callback' *note
     callable: 266d. passed to *note Connection.set_authorizer(): 471,
     to indicate whether:

        * Access is allowed (‘SQLITE_OK’),

        * The SQL statement should be aborted with an error
          (‘SQLITE_DENY’)

        * The column should be treated as a ‘NULL’ value
          (‘SQLITE_IGNORE’)

 -- 資料: sqlite3.apilevel

     String constant stating the supported DB-API level.  Required by
     the DB-API. Hard-coded to ‘"2.0"’.

 -- 資料: sqlite3.paramstyle

     String constant stating the type of parameter marker formatting
     expected by the ‘sqlite3’ module.  Required by the DB-API.
     Hard-coded to ‘"qmark"’.

          備註: The ‘named’ DB-API parameter style is also supported.

 -- 資料: sqlite3.sqlite_version

     Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a *note string:
     157.

 -- 資料: sqlite3.sqlite_version_info

     Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a *note tuple: 4e6.
     of *note integers: 17e.

 -- 資料: sqlite3.threadsafety

     Integer constant required by the DB-API 2.0, stating the level of
     thread safety the ‘sqlite3’ module supports.  This attribute is set
     based on the default threading mode(1) the underlying SQLite
     library is compiled with.  The SQLite threading modes are:

       1. 'Single-thread': In this mode, all mutexes are disabled and
          SQLite is unsafe to use in more than a single thread at once.

       2. 'Multi-thread': In this mode, SQLite can be safely used by
          multiple threads provided that no single database connection
          is used simultaneously in two or more threads.

       3. 'Serialized': In serialized mode, SQLite can be safely used by
          multiple threads with no restriction.

     The mappings from SQLite threading modes to DB-API 2.0 threadsafety
     levels are as follows:

     SQLite threading       threadsafety(2)            SQLITE_THREADSAFE(3)       DB-API 2.0 meaning
     mode                                                                         

     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
     single-thread          0                          0                          Threads may not share the module
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     multi-thread           1                          2                          Threads may share the module, but
                                                                                  not connections
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     serialized             3                          1                          Threads may share the module,
                                                                                  connections and cursors
                                                                                  

     在 3.11 版的變更: Set 'threadsafety' dynamically instead of
     hard-coding it to ‘1’.

 -- 資料: sqlite3.version

     Version number of this module as a *note string: 157.  This is not
     the version of the SQLite library.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     This constant used to reflect the version number of the ‘pysqlite’
     package, a third-party library which used to upstream changes to
     ‘sqlite3’.  Today, it carries no meaning or practical value.

 -- 資料: sqlite3.version_info

     Version number of this module as a *note tuple: 4e6. of *note
     integers: 17e.  This is not the version of the SQLite library.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     This constant used to reflect the version number of the ‘pysqlite’
     package, a third-party library which used to upstream changes to
     ‘sqlite3’.  Today, it carries no meaning or practical value.

 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA
 -- 資料: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA

     These constants are used for the *note Connection.setconfig(): 1e1.
     and *note getconfig(): 1e0. methods.

     The availability of these constants varies depending on the version
     of SQLite Python was compiled with.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

     也參考
     ......

     ‘https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_dbconfig_defensive.html’

          SQLite docs: Database Connection Configuration Options

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/threadsafe.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/#threadsafety

   (3) https://sqlite.org/compile.html#threadsafe


File: python.info,  Node: Connection 物件,  Next: Cursor 物件,  Prev: Module constants,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.5 Connection 物件
........................

 -- 類別: sqlite3.Connection

     Each open SQLite database is represented by a ‘Connection’ object,
     which is created using *note sqlite3.connect(): 1dd.  Their main
     purpose is creating *note Cursor: 2656. objects, and *note
     Transaction control: 2658.

     也參考
     ......

        * *note How to use connection shortcut methods: 268a.

        * *note How to use the connection context manager: 15b0.

     An SQLite database connection has the following attributes and
     methods:

      -- 方法: cursor (factory=Cursor)

          Create and return a *note Cursor: 2656. object.  The cursor
          method accepts a single optional parameter 'factory'.  If
          supplied, this must be a *note callable: 266d. returning an
          instance of *note Cursor: 2656. or its subclasses.

      -- 方法: blobopen (table, column, row, /, *, readonly=False,
               name='main')

          Open a *note Blob: 47f. handle to an existing BLOB (Binary
          Large OBject).


          參數:

             * ‘table’ (*note str: 157.) - The name of the table where
               the blob is located.

             * ‘column’ (*note str: 157.) - The name of the column where
               the blob is located.

             * ‘row’ (*note str: 157.) - The name of the row where the
               blob is located.

             * ‘readonly’ (*note bool: 17d.) - Set to ‘True’ if the blob
               should be opened without write permissions.  Defaults to
               ‘False’.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 157.) - The name of the database where
               the blob is located.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          引發: *note OperationalError: 1670. - When trying to open a
          blob in a ‘WITHOUT ROWID’ table.


          回傳型別: *note Blob: 47f.

               備註: The blob size cannot be changed using the *note
               Blob: 47f. class.  Use the SQL function ‘zeroblob’ to
               create a blob with a fixed size.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: commit ()

          Commit any pending transaction to the database.  If *note
          autocommit: 1db. is ‘True’, or there is no open transaction,
          this method does nothing.  If ‘autocommit’ is ‘False’, a new
          transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was
          committed by this method.

      -- 方法: rollback ()

          Roll back to the start of any pending transaction.  If *note
          autocommit: 1db. is ‘True’, or there is no open transaction,
          this method does nothing.  If ‘autocommit’ is ‘False’, a new
          transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was
          rolled back by this method.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Close the database connection.  If *note autocommit: 1db. is
          ‘False’, any pending transaction is implicitly rolled back.
          If ‘autocommit’ is ‘True’ or *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL:
          2668, no implicit transaction control is executed.  Make sure
          to *note commit(): 2659. before closing to avoid losing
          pending changes.

      -- 方法: execute (sql, parameters=(), /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 2656. object and call *note
          execute(): 236. on it with the given 'sql' and 'parameters'.
          Return the new cursor object.

      -- 方法: executemany (sql, parameters, /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 2656. object and call *note
          executemany(): 253. on it with the given 'sql' and
          'parameters'.  Return the new cursor object.

      -- 方法: executescript (sql_script, /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 2656. object and call *note
          executescript(): 268f. on it with the given 'sql_script'.
          Return the new cursor object.

      -- 方法: create_function (name, narg, func, *,
               deterministic=False)

          Create or remove a user-defined SQL function.


          參數:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 157.) - The name of the SQL function.

             * ‘narg’ (*note int: 17e.) - The number of arguments the
               SQL function can accept.  If ‘-1’, it may take any number
               of arguments.

             * ‘func’ (*note callback: 2690. | None) - A *note callable:
               266d. that is called when the SQL function is invoked.
               The callable must return *note a type natively supported
               by SQLite: 2662.  Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL
               function.

             * ‘deterministic’ (*note bool: 17d.) - If ‘True’, the
               created SQL function is marked as deterministic(1), which
               allows SQLite to perform additional optimizations.


          引發: *note NotSupportedError: 2691. - If 'deterministic' is
          used with SQLite versions older than 3.8.3.

          在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'deterministic' 參數。

          範例：

               >>> import hashlib
               >>> def md5sum(t):
               ...     return hashlib.md5(t).hexdigest()
               >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               >>> con.create_function("md5", 1, md5sum)
               >>> for row in con.execute("SELECT md5(?)", (b"foo",)):
               ...     print(row)
               ('acbd18db4cc2f85cedef654fccc4a4d8',)
               >>> con.close()

      -- 方法: create_aggregate (name, n_arg, aggregate_class)

          Create or remove a user-defined SQL aggregate function.


          參數:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 157.) - The name of the SQL aggregate
               function.

             * ‘n_arg’ (*note int: 17e.) - The number of arguments the
               SQL aggregate function can accept.  If ‘-1’, it may take
               any number of arguments.

             * ‘aggregate_class’ (*note class: 1707. | None) - A class
               must implement the following methods:

                  * ‘step()’: Add a row to the aggregate.

                  * ‘finalize()’: Return the final result of the
                    aggregate as *note a type natively supported by
                    SQLite: 2662.

               The number of arguments that the ‘step()’ method must
               accept is controlled by 'n_arg'.

               Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL aggregate
               function.

          範例：

               class MySum:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self.count = 0

                   def step(self, value):
                       self.count += value

                   def finalize(self):
                       return self.count

               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               con.create_aggregate("mysum", 1, MySum)
               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(i)")
               cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(1)")
               cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(2)")
               cur.execute("SELECT mysum(i) FROM test")
               print(cur.fetchone()[0])

               con.close()

      -- 方法: create_window_function (name, num_params,
               aggregate_class, /)

          Create or remove a user-defined aggregate window function.


          參數:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 157.) - The name of the SQL aggregate
               window function to create or remove.

             * ‘num_params’ (*note int: 17e.) - The number of arguments
               the SQL aggregate window function can accept.  If ‘-1’,
               it may take any number of arguments.

             * ‘aggregate_class’ (*note class: 1707. | None) - A class
               that must implement the following methods:

                  * ‘step()’: Add a row to the current window.

                  * ‘value()’: Return the current value of the
                    aggregate.

                  * ‘inverse()’: Remove a row from the current window.

                  * ‘finalize()’: Return the final result of the
                    aggregate as *note a type natively supported by
                    SQLite: 2662.

               The number of arguments that the ‘step()’ and ‘value()’
               methods must accept is controlled by 'num_params'.

               Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL aggregate window
               function.


          引發: *note NotSupportedError: 2691. - If used with a version
          of SQLite older than 3.25.0, which does not support aggregate
          window functions.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

          範例：

               # Example taken from https://www.sqlite.org/windowfunctions.html#udfwinfunc
               class WindowSumInt:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self.count = 0

                   def step(self, value):
                       """Add a row to the current window."""
                       self.count += value

                   def value(self):
                       """Return the current value of the aggregate."""
                       return self.count

                   def inverse(self, value):
                       """Remove a row from the current window."""
                       self.count -= value

                   def finalize(self):
                       """Return the final value of the aggregate.

                       Any clean-up actions should be placed here.
                       """
                       return self.count


               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x, y)")
               values = [
                   ("a", 4),
                   ("b", 5),
                   ("c", 3),
                   ("d", 8),
                   ("e", 1),
               ]
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test VALUES(?, ?)", values)
               con.create_window_function("sumint", 1, WindowSumInt)
               cur.execute("""
                   SELECT x, sumint(y) OVER (
                       ORDER BY x ROWS BETWEEN 1 PRECEDING AND 1 FOLLOWING
                   ) AS sum_y
                   FROM test ORDER BY x
               """)
               print(cur.fetchall())
               con.close()

      -- 方法: create_collation (name, callable, /)

          Create a collation named 'name' using the collating function
          'callable'.  'callable' is passed two *note string: 157.
          arguments, and it should return an *note integer: 17e.:

             * ‘1’ if the first is ordered higher than the second

             * ‘-1’ if the first is ordered lower than the second

             * ‘0’ if they are ordered equal

          The following example shows a reverse sorting collation:

               def collate_reverse(string1, string2):
                   if string1 == string2:
                       return 0
                   elif string1 < string2:
                       return 1
                   else:
                       return -1

               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               con.create_collation("reverse", collate_reverse)

               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x)")
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test(x) VALUES(?)", [("a",), ("b",)])
               cur.execute("SELECT x FROM test ORDER BY x COLLATE reverse")
               for row in cur:
                   print(row)
               con.close()

          Remove a collation function by setting 'callable' to ‘None’.

          在 3.11 版的變更: The collation name can contain any Unicode
          character.  Earlier, only ASCII characters were allowed.

      -- 方法: interrupt ()

          Call this method from a different thread to abort any queries
          that might be executing on the connection.  Aborted queries
          will raise an *note OperationalError: 1670.

      -- 方法: set_authorizer (authorizer_callback)

          Register *note callable: 266d. 'authorizer_callback' to be
          invoked for each attempt to access a column of a table in the
          database.  The callback should return one of *note SQLITE_OK:
          2670, *note SQLITE_DENY: 2671, or *note SQLITE_IGNORE: 2672.
          to signal how access to the column should be handled by the
          underlying SQLite library.

          The first argument to the callback signifies what kind of
          operation is to be authorized.  The second and third argument
          will be arguments or ‘None’ depending on the first argument.
          The 4th argument is the name of the database ("main", "temp",
          etc.)  if applicable.  The 5th argument is the name of the
          inner-most trigger or view that is responsible for the access
          attempt or ‘None’ if this access attempt is directly from
          input SQL code.

          Please consult the SQLite documentation about the possible
          values for the first argument and the meaning of the second
          and third argument depending on the first one.  All necessary
          constants are available in the ‘sqlite3’ module.

          Passing ‘None’ as 'authorizer_callback' will disable the
          authorizer.

          在 3.11 版的變更: Added support for disabling the authorizer
          using ‘None’.

      -- 方法: set_progress_handler (progress_handler, n)

          Register *note callable: 266d. 'progress_handler' to be
          invoked for every 'n' instructions of the SQLite virtual
          machine.  This is useful if you want to get called from SQLite
          during long-running operations, for example to update a GUI.

          If you want to clear any previously installed progress
          handler, call the method with ‘None’ for 'progress_handler'.

          Returning a non-zero value from the handler function will
          terminate the currently executing query and cause it to raise
          a *note DatabaseError: 2693. exception.

      -- 方法: set_trace_callback (trace_callback)

          Register *note callable: 266d. 'trace_callback' to be invoked
          for each SQL statement that is actually executed by the SQLite
          backend.

          The only argument passed to the callback is the statement (as
          *note str: 157.) that is being executed.  The return value of
          the callback is ignored.  Note that the backend does not only
          run statements passed to the *note Cursor.execute(): 236.
          methods.  Other sources include the *note transaction
          management: 2658. of the ‘sqlite3’ module and the execution of
          triggers defined in the current database.

          Passing ‘None’ as 'trace_callback' will disable the trace
          callback.

               備註: Exceptions raised in the trace callback are not
               propagated.  As a development and debugging aid, use
               *note enable_callback_tracebacks(): 266b. to enable
               printing tracebacks from exceptions raised in the trace
               callback.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: enable_load_extension (enabled, /)

          Enable the SQLite engine to load SQLite extensions from shared
          libraries if 'enabled' is ‘True’; else, disallow loading
          SQLite extensions.  SQLite extensions can define new
          functions, aggregates or whole new virtual table
          implementations.  One well-known extension is the
          fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

               備註: The ‘sqlite3’ module is not built with loadable
               extension support by default, because some platforms
               (notably macOS) have SQLite libraries which are compiled
               without this feature.  To get loadable extension support,
               you must pass the *note
               -enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions: 1b5e. option to
               ‘configure’.

          引發一個附帶引數 ‘connection’、‘enabled’ 的*note 稽核事件:
          168e. ‘sqlite3.enable_load_extension’。

          在 3.2 版被加入.

          在 3.10 版的變更: 加入 ‘sqlite3.enable_load_extension’ 稽核事
          件。

               con.enable_load_extension(True)

               # Load the fulltext search extension
               con.execute("select load_extension('./fts3.so')")

               # alternatively you can load the extension using an API call:
               # con.load_extension("./fts3.so")

               # disable extension loading again
               con.enable_load_extension(False)

               # example from SQLite wiki
               con.execute("CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE recipe USING fts3(name, ingredients)")
               con.executescript("""
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli stew', 'broccoli peppers cheese tomatoes');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin stew', 'pumpkin onions garlic celery');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli pie', 'broccoli cheese onions flour');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin pie', 'pumpkin sugar flour butter');
                   """)
               for row in con.execute("SELECT rowid, name, ingredients FROM recipe WHERE name MATCH 'pie'"):
                   print(row)

      -- 方法: load_extension (path, /, *, entrypoint=None)

          Load an SQLite extension from a shared library.  Enable
          extension loading with *note enable_load_extension(): 665.
          before calling this method.


          參數:

             * ‘path’ (*note str: 157.) - The path to the SQLite
               extension.

             * ‘entrypoint’ (*note str: 157.‘ | ’‘None’) - Entry point
               name.  If ‘None’ (the default), SQLite will come up with
               an entry point name of its own; see the SQLite docs
               Loading an Extension(2) for details.

          引發一個附帶引數 ‘connection’、‘path’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
          ‘sqlite3.load_extension’。

          在 3.2 版被加入.

          在 3.10 版的變更: 加入 ‘sqlite3.load_extension’ 稽核事件。

          在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'entrypoint' 參數。

      -- 方法: iterdump ()

          Return an *note iterator: 1718. to dump the database as SQL
          source code.  Useful when saving an in-memory database for
          later restoration.  Similar to the ‘.dump’ command in the
          ‘sqlite3’ shell.

          範例：

               # Convert file example.db to SQL dump file dump.sql
               con = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               with open('dump.sql', 'w') as f:
                   for line in con.iterdump():
                       f.write('%s\n' % line)
               con.close()

          也參考
          ......

          *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 2694.

      -- 方法: backup (target, *, pages=-1, progress=None, name='main',
               sleep=0.250)

          Create a backup of an SQLite database.

          Works even if the database is being accessed by other clients
          or concurrently by the same connection.


          參數:

             * ‘target’ (*note Connection: 1dc.) - The database
               connection to save the backup to.

             * ‘pages’ (*note int: 17e.) - The number of pages to copy
               at a time.  If equal to or less than ‘0’, the entire
               database is copied in a single step.  Defaults to ‘-1’.

             * ‘progress’ (*note callback: 2690. | None) - If set to a
               *note callable: 266d, it is invoked with three integer
               arguments for every backup iteration: the 'status' of the
               last iteration, the 'remaining' number of pages still to
               be copied, and the 'total' number of pages.  Defaults to
               ‘None’.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 157.) - The name of the database to
               back up.  Either ‘"main"’ (the default) for the main
               database, ‘"temp"’ for the temporary database, or the
               name of a custom database as attached using the ‘ATTACH
               DATABASE’ SQL statement.

             * ‘sleep’ (*note float: 26a.) - The number of seconds to
               sleep between successive attempts to back up remaining
               pages.

          Example 1, copy an existing database into another:

               def progress(status, remaining, total):
                   print(f'Copied {total-remaining} of {total} pages...')

               src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               dst = sqlite3.connect('backup.db')
               with dst:
                   src.backup(dst, pages=1, progress=progress)
               dst.close()
               src.close()

          Example 2, copy an existing database into a transient copy:

               src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               dst = sqlite3.connect(':memory:')
               src.backup(dst)
               dst.close()
               src.close()

          在 3.7 版被加入.

          也參考
          ......

          *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 2694.

      -- 方法: getlimit (category, /)

          Get a connection runtime limit.


          參數: ‘category’ (*note int: 17e.) - The SQLite limit
          category(3) to be queried.


          回傳型別: *note int: 17e.


          引發: *note ProgrammingError: 23a. - If 'category' is not
          recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

          Example, query the maximum length of an SQL statement for
          *note Connection: 1dc. ‘con’ (the default is 1000000000):

               >>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH)
               1000000000

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: setlimit (category, limit, /)

          Set a connection runtime limit.  Attempts to increase a limit
          above its hard upper bound are silently truncated to the hard
          upper bound.  Regardless of whether or not the limit was
          changed, the prior value of the limit is returned.


          參數:

             * ‘category’ (*note int: 17e.) - The SQLite limit
               category(4) to be set.

             * ‘limit’ (*note int: 17e.) - The value of the new limit.
               If negative, the current limit is unchanged.


          回傳型別: *note int: 17e.


          引發: *note ProgrammingError: 23a. - If 'category' is not
          recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

          Example, limit the number of attached databases to 1 for *note
          Connection: 1dc. ‘con’ (the default limit is 10):

               >>> con.setlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED, 1)
               10
               >>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED)
               1

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: getconfig (op, /)

          Query a boolean connection configuration option.


          參數: ‘op’ (*note int: 17e.) - A *note SQLITE_DBCONFIG code:
          2677.


          回傳型別: *note bool: 17d.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- 方法: setconfig (op, enable=True, /)

          Set a boolean connection configuration option.


          參數:

             * ‘op’ (*note int: 17e.) - A *note SQLITE_DBCONFIG code:
               2677.

             * ‘enable’ (*note bool: 17d.) - ‘True’ if the configuration
               option should be enabled (default); ‘False’ if it should
               be disabled.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- 方法: serialize (*, name='main')

          Serialize a database into a *note bytes: 2c1. object.  For an
          ordinary on-disk database file, the serialization is just a
          copy of the disk file.  For an in-memory database or a "temp"
          database, the serialization is the same sequence of bytes
          which would be written to disk if that database were backed up
          to disk.


          參數: ‘name’ (*note str: 157.) - The database name to be
          serialized.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          回傳型別: *note bytes: 2c1.

               備註: This method is only available if the underlying
               SQLite library has the serialize API.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: deserialize (data, /, *, name='main')

          Deserialize a *note serialized: 47b. database into a *note
          Connection: 1dc.  This method causes the database connection
          to disconnect from database 'name', and reopen 'name' as an
          in-memory database based on the serialization contained in
          'data'.


          參數:

             * ‘data’ (*note bytes: 2c1.) - A serialized database.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 157.) - The database name to
               deserialize into.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          引發:

             * *note OperationalError: 1670. - If the database
               connection is currently involved in a read transaction or
               a backup operation.

             * *note DatabaseError: 2693. - If 'data' does not contain a
               valid SQLite database.

             * *note OverflowError: 6ad. - If *note len(data): 429. is
               larger than ‘2**63 - 1’.

               備註: This method is only available if the underlying
               SQLite library has the deserialize API.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: autocommit

          This attribute controls PEP 249(5)-compliant transaction
          behaviour.  ‘autocommit’ has three allowed values:

             * ‘False’: Select PEP 249(6)-compliant transaction
               behaviour, implying that ‘sqlite3’ ensures a transaction
               is always open.  Use *note commit(): 2659. and *note
               rollback(): 268b. to close transactions.

               This is the recommended value of ‘autocommit’.

             * ‘True’: Use SQLite's autocommit mode(7).  *note commit():
               2659. and *note rollback(): 268b. have no effect in this
               mode.

             * *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2668.: Pre-Python 3.12
               (non- PEP 249(8)-compliant) transaction control.  See
               *note isolation_level: 2666. for more details.

               This is currently the default value of ‘autocommit’.

          Changing ‘autocommit’ to ‘False’ will open a new transaction,
          and changing it to ‘True’ will commit any pending transaction.

          更多詳情請見 *note Transaction control via the autocommit
          attribute: 1de.。

               備註: The *note isolation_level: 2666. attribute has no
               effect unless *note autocommit: 1db. is *note
               LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2668.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: in_transaction

          This read-only attribute corresponds to the low-level SQLite
          autocommit mode(9).

          ‘True’ if a transaction is active (there are uncommitted
          changes), ‘False’ otherwise.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: isolation_level

          Controls the *note legacy transaction handling mode: 2667. of
          ‘sqlite3’.  If set to ‘None’, transactions are never
          implicitly opened.  If set to one of ‘"DEFERRED"’,
          ‘"IMMEDIATE"’, or ‘"EXCLUSIVE"’, corresponding to the
          underlying SQLite transaction behaviour(10), *note implicit
          transaction management: 2667. is performed.

          If not overridden by the 'isolation_level' parameter of *note
          connect(): 1dd, the default is ‘""’, which is an alias for
          ‘"DEFERRED"’.

               備註: Using *note autocommit: 1db. to control transaction
               handling is recommended over using ‘isolation_level’.
               ‘isolation_level’ has no effect unless *note autocommit:
               1db. is set to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2668.
               (the default).

      -- 屬性: row_factory

          The initial *note row_factory: 2696. for *note Cursor: 2656.
          objects created from this connection.  Assigning to this
          attribute does not affect the ‘row_factory’ of existing
          cursors belonging to this connection, only new ones.  Is
          ‘None’ by default, meaning each row is returned as a *note
          tuple: 4e6.

          更多詳情請見 *note How to create and use row factories: 265d.。

      -- 屬性: text_factory

          A *note callable: 266d. that accepts a *note bytes: 2c1.
          parameter and returns a text representation of it.  The
          callable is invoked for SQLite values with the ‘TEXT’ data
          type.  By default, this attribute is set to *note str: 157.

          更多詳情請見 *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings:
          2694.。

      -- 屬性: total_changes

          Return the total number of database rows that have been
          modified, inserted, or deleted since the database connection
          was opened.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/deterministic.html

   (2) https://www.sqlite.org/loadext.html#loading_an_extension

   (3) https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html

   (4) https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (7) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (9) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (10) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions


File: python.info,  Node: Cursor 物件,  Next: Row 物件,  Prev: Connection 物件,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.6 Cursor 物件
....................

     A ‘Cursor’ object represents a database cursor(1) which is used to
     execute SQL statements, and manage the context of a fetch
     operation.  Cursors are created using *note Connection.cursor():
     2655, or by using any of the *note connection shortcut methods:
     268a.

     Cursor objects are *note iterators: 1718, meaning that if you *note
     execute(): 236. a ‘SELECT’ query, you can simply iterate over the
     cursor to fetch the resulting rows:

          for row in cur.execute("SELECT t FROM data"):
              print(row)

 -- 類別: sqlite3.Cursor

     A *note Cursor: 2656. instance has the following attributes and
     methods.

      -- 方法: execute (sql, parameters=(), /)

          Execute a single SQL statement, optionally binding Python
          values using *note placeholders: 237.


          參數:

             * ‘sql’ (*note str: 157.) - 單一個 SQL 陳述式。

             * ‘parameters’ (*note dict: 239. | *note sequence: 238.) -
               Python values to bind to placeholders in 'sql'.  A ‘dict’
               if named placeholders are used.  A sequence if unnamed
               placeholders are used.  See *note How to use placeholders
               to bind values in SQL queries: 237.


          引發: *note ProgrammingError: 23a. - If 'sql' contains more
          than one SQL statement.

          If *note autocommit: 1db. is *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL:
          2668, *note isolation_level: 2666. is not ‘None’, 'sql' is an
          ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, or ‘REPLACE’ statement, and
          there is no open transaction, a transaction is implicitly
          opened before executing 'sql'.

          Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version
          3.14: *note DeprecationWarning: 179. is emitted if *note named
          placeholders: 237. are used and 'parameters' is a sequence
          instead of a *note dict: 239.  Starting with Python 3.14,
          *note ProgrammingError: 23a. will be raised instead.

          Use *note executescript(): 268f. to execute multiple SQL
          statements.

      -- 方法: executemany (sql, parameters, /)

          For every item in 'parameters', repeatedly execute the *note
          parameterized: 237. DML (Data Manipulation Language) SQL
          statement 'sql'.

          Uses the same implicit transaction handling as *note
          execute(): 236.


          參數:

             * ‘sql’ (*note str: 157.) - A single SQL DML statement.

             * ‘parameters’ (*note iterable: 10ba.) - An iterable of
               parameters to bind with the placeholders in 'sql'.  See
               *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL
               queries: 237.


          引發: *note ProgrammingError: 23a. - If 'sql' contains more
          than one SQL statement, or is not a DML statement.

          範例：

               rows = [
                   ("row1",),
                   ("row2",),
               ]
               # cur 是一個 sqlite3.Cursor 物件
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO data VALUES(?)", rows)

               備註: Any resulting rows are discarded, including DML
               statements with RETURNING clauses(2).

          Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version
          3.14: *note DeprecationWarning: 179. is emitted if *note named
          placeholders: 237. are used and the items in 'parameters' are
          sequences instead of *note dict: 239.s.  Starting with Python
          3.14, *note ProgrammingError: 23a. will be raised instead.

      -- 方法: executescript (sql_script, /)

          Execute the SQL statements in 'sql_script'.  If the *note
          autocommit: 1db. is *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2668.
          and there is a pending transaction, an implicit ‘COMMIT’
          statement is executed first.  No other implicit transaction
          control is performed; any transaction control must be added to
          'sql_script'.

          'sql_script' must be a *note string: 157.

          範例：

               # cur 是一個 sqlite3.Cursor 物件
               cur.executescript("""
                   BEGIN;
                   CREATE TABLE person(firstname, lastname, age);
                   CREATE TABLE book(title, author, published);
                   CREATE TABLE publisher(name, address);
                   COMMIT;
               """)

      -- 方法: fetchone ()

          If *note row_factory: 2696. is ‘None’, return the next row
          query result set as a *note tuple: 4e6.  Else, pass it to the
          row factory and return its result.  Return ‘None’ if no more
          data is available.

      -- 方法: fetchmany (size=cursor.arraysize)

          Return the next set of rows of a query result as a *note list:
          40a.  Return an empty list if no more rows are available.

          The number of rows to fetch per call is specified by the
          'size' parameter.  If 'size' is not given, *note arraysize:
          269c. determines the number of rows to be fetched.  If fewer
          than 'size' rows are available, as many rows as are available
          are returned.

          Note there are performance considerations involved with the
          'size' parameter.  For optimal performance, it is usually best
          to use the arraysize attribute.  If the 'size' parameter is
          used, then it is best for it to retain the same value from one
          *note fetchmany(): 269b. call to the next.

      -- 方法: fetchall ()

          Return all (remaining) rows of a query result as a *note list:
          40a.  Return an empty list if no rows are available.  Note
          that the *note arraysize: 269c. attribute can affect the
          performance of this operation.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Close the cursor now (rather than whenever ‘__del__’ is
          called).

          The cursor will be unusable from this point forward; a *note
          ProgrammingError: 23a. exception will be raised if any
          operation is attempted with the cursor.

      -- 方法: setinputsizes (sizes, /)

          Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in ‘sqlite3’.

      -- 方法: setoutputsize (size, column=None, /)

          Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in ‘sqlite3’.

      -- 屬性: arraysize

          Read/write attribute that controls the number of rows returned
          by *note fetchmany(): 269b.  The default value is 1 which
          means a single row would be fetched per call.

      -- 屬性: connection

          Read-only attribute that provides the SQLite database *note
          Connection: 1dc. belonging to the cursor.  A *note Cursor:
          2656. object created by calling *note con.cursor(): 2655. will
          have a *note connection: 26a0. attribute that refers to 'con':

               >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               >>> cur = con.cursor()
               >>> cur.connection == con
               True
               >>> con.close()

      -- 屬性: description

          Read-only attribute that provides the column names of the last
          query.  To remain compatible with the Python DB API, it
          returns a 7-tuple for each column where the last six items of
          each tuple are ‘None’.

          It is set for ‘SELECT’ statements without any matching rows as
          well.

      -- 屬性: lastrowid

          Read-only attribute that provides the row id of the last
          inserted row.  It is only updated after successful ‘INSERT’ or
          ‘REPLACE’ statements using the *note execute(): 236. method.
          For other statements, after *note executemany(): 253. or *note
          executescript(): 268f, or if the insertion failed, the value
          of ‘lastrowid’ is left unchanged.  The initial value of
          ‘lastrowid’ is ‘None’.

               備註: Inserts into ‘WITHOUT ROWID’ tables are not
               recorded.

          在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 ‘REPLACE’ 陳述式的支援。

      -- 屬性: rowcount

          Read-only attribute that provides the number of modified rows
          for ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, and ‘REPLACE’ statements; is
          ‘-1’ for other statements, including CTE (Common Table
          Expression) queries.  It is only updated by the *note
          execute(): 236. and *note executemany(): 253. methods, after
          the statement has run to completion.  This means that any
          resulting rows must be fetched in order for ‘rowcount’ to be
          updated.

      -- 屬性: row_factory

          Control how a row fetched from this ‘Cursor’ is represented.
          If ‘None’, a row is represented as a *note tuple: 4e6.  Can be
          set to the included *note sqlite3.Row: cef.; or a *note
          callable: 266d. that accepts two arguments, a *note Cursor:
          2656. object and the ‘tuple’ of row values, and returns a
          custom object representing an SQLite row.

          Defaults to what *note Connection.row_factory: 1416. was set
          to when the ‘Cursor’ was created.  Assigning to this attribute
          does not affect *note Connection.row_factory: 1416. of the
          parent connection.

          更多詳情請見 *note How to create and use row factories: 265d.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)

   (2) https://www.sqlite.org/lang_returning.html


File: python.info,  Node: Row 物件,  Next: Blob 物件,  Prev: Cursor 物件,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.7 Row 物件
.................

 -- 類別: sqlite3.Row

     A ‘Row’ instance serves as a highly optimized *note row_factory:
     1416. for *note Connection: 1dc. objects.  It supports iteration,
     equality testing, *note len(): 429, and *note mapping: 104d. access
     by column name and index.

     Two ‘Row’ objects compare equal if they have identical column names
     and values.

     更多詳情請見 *note How to create and use row factories: 265d.。

      -- 方法: keys ()

          Return a *note list: 40a. of column names as *note strings:
          157.  Immediately after a query, it is the first member of
          each tuple in *note Cursor.description: 26a1.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增對切片的支援。


File: python.info,  Node: Blob 物件,  Next: PrepareProtocol 物件,  Prev: Row 物件,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.8 Blob 物件
..................

 -- 類別: sqlite3.Blob

     在 3.11 版被加入.

     A *note Blob: 47f. instance is a *note file-like object: 2319. that
     can read and write data in an SQLite BLOB.  Call *note len(blob):
     429. to get the size (number of bytes) of the blob.  Use indices
     and *note slices: 1f13. for direct access to the blob data.

     Use the *note Blob: 47f. as a *note context manager: 3c4. to ensure
     that the blob handle is closed after use.

          con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
          con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(blob_col blob)")
          con.execute("INSERT INTO test(blob_col) VALUES(zeroblob(13))")

          # Write to our blob, using two write operations:
          with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
              blob.write(b"hello, ")
              blob.write(b"world.")
              # Modify the first and last bytes of our blob
              blob[0] = ord("H")
              blob[-1] = ord("!")

          # Read the contents of our blob
          with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
              greeting = blob.read()

          print(greeting)  # outputs "b'Hello, world!'"
          con.close()

      -- 方法: close ()

          Close the blob.

          The blob will be unusable from this point onward.  An *note
          Error: 1654. (or subclass) exception will be raised if any
          further operation is attempted with the blob.

      -- 方法: read (length=-1, /)

          Read 'length' bytes of data from the blob at the current
          offset position.  If the end of the blob is reached, the data
          up to EOF (End of File) will be returned.  When 'length' is
          not specified, or is negative, *note read(): 26a9. will read
          until the end of the blob.

      -- 方法: write (data, /)

          Write 'data' to the blob at the current offset.  This function
          cannot change the blob length.  Writing beyond the end of the
          blob will raise *note ValueError: 183.

      -- 方法: tell ()

          Return the current access position of the blob.

      -- 方法: seek (offset, origin=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Set the current access position of the blob to 'offset'.  The
          'origin' argument defaults to *note os.SEEK_SET: 1122.
          (absolute blob positioning).  Other values for 'origin' are
          *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1123. (seek relative to the current
          position) and *note os.SEEK_END: 1124. (seek relative to the
          blob’s end).


File: python.info,  Node: PrepareProtocol 物件,  Next: 例外<4>,  Prev: Blob 物件,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.9 PrepareProtocol 物件
.............................

 -- 類別: sqlite3.PrepareProtocol

     The PrepareProtocol type's single purpose is to act as a PEP 246(1)
     style adaption protocol for objects that can *note adapt
     themselves: 26ae. to *note native SQLite types: 2662.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<4>,  Next: SQLite and Python types,  Prev: PrepareProtocol 物件,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.10 例外
..............

The exception hierarchy is defined by the DB-API 2.0 ( PEP 249(1)).

 -- 例外: sqlite3.Warning

     This exception is not currently raised by the ‘sqlite3’ module, but
     may be raised by applications using ‘sqlite3’, for example if a
     user-defined function truncates data while inserting.  ‘Warning’ is
     a subclass of *note Exception: 81e.

 -- 例外: sqlite3.Error

     The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  Use this to
     catch all errors with one single *note except: 3a8. statement.
     ‘Error’ is a subclass of *note Exception: 81e.

     If the exception originated from within the SQLite library, the
     following two attributes are added to the exception:

      -- 屬性: sqlite_errorcode

          The numeric error code from the SQLite API(2)

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: sqlite_errorname

          The symbolic name of the numeric error code from the SQLite
          API(3)

          在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 例外: sqlite3.InterfaceError

     Exception raised for misuse of the low-level SQLite C API. In other
     words, if this exception is raised, it probably indicates a bug in
     the ‘sqlite3’ module.  ‘InterfaceError’ is a subclass of *note
     Error: 1654.

 -- 例外: sqlite3.DatabaseError

     Exception raised for errors that are related to the database.  This
     serves as the base exception for several types of database errors.
     It is only raised implicitly through the specialised subclasses.
     ‘DatabaseError’ is a subclass of *note Error: 1654.

 -- 例外: sqlite3.DataError

     Exception raised for errors caused by problems with the processed
     data, like numeric values out of range, and strings which are too
     long.  ‘DataError’ is a subclass of *note DatabaseError: 2693.

 -- 例外: sqlite3.OperationalError

     Exception raised for errors that are related to the database's
     operation, and not necessarily under the control of the programmer.
     For example, the database path is not found, or a transaction could
     not be processed.  ‘OperationalError’ is a subclass of *note
     DatabaseError: 2693.

 -- 例外: sqlite3.IntegrityError

     Exception raised when the relational integrity of the database is
     affected, e.g.  a foreign key check fails.  It is a subclass of
     *note DatabaseError: 2693.

 -- 例外: sqlite3.InternalError

     Exception raised when SQLite encounters an internal error.  If this
     is raised, it may indicate that there is a problem with the runtime
     SQLite library.  ‘InternalError’ is a subclass of *note
     DatabaseError: 2693.

 -- 例外: sqlite3.ProgrammingError

     Exception raised for ‘sqlite3’ API programming errors, for example
     supplying the wrong number of bindings to a query, or trying to
     operate on a closed *note Connection: 1dc.  ‘ProgrammingError’ is a
     subclass of *note DatabaseError: 2693.

 -- 例外: sqlite3.NotSupportedError

     Exception raised in case a method or database API is not supported
     by the underlying SQLite library.  For example, setting
     'deterministic' to ‘True’ in *note create_function(): 17ad, if the
     underlying SQLite library does not support deterministic functions.
     ‘NotSupportedError’ is a subclass of *note DatabaseError: 2693.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) https://sqlite.org/rescode.html

   (3) https://sqlite.org/rescode.html


File: python.info,  Node: SQLite and Python types,  Next: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Prev: 例外<4>,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.11 SQLite and Python types
.................................

SQLite natively supports the following types: ‘NULL’, ‘INTEGER’, ‘REAL’,
‘TEXT’, ‘BLOB’.

The following Python types can thus be sent to SQLite without any
problem:

Python type                         SQLite type
                                    
------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘None’                              ‘NULL’
                                    
                                    
*note int: 17e.                     ‘INTEGER’
                                    
                                    
*note float: 26a.                   ‘REAL’
                                    
                                    
*note str: 157.                     ‘TEXT’
                                    
                                    
*note bytes: 2c1.                   ‘BLOB’
                                    

This is how SQLite types are converted to Python types by default:

SQLite type       Python type
                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                  
‘NULL’            ‘None’
                  
                  
‘INTEGER’         *note int: 17e.
                  
                  
‘REAL’            *note float: 26a.
                  
                  
‘TEXT’            depends on *note text_factory: 2697,
                  *note str: 157. by default
                  
                  
‘BLOB’            *note bytes: 2c1.
                  

The type system of the ‘sqlite3’ module is extensible in two ways: you
can store additional Python types in an SQLite database via *note object
adapters: 265b, and you can let the ‘sqlite3’ module convert SQLite
types to Python types via *note converters: 265c.


File: python.info,  Node: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Next: 命令列介面,  Prev: SQLite and Python types,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.12 Default adapters and converters (deprecated)
......................................................

     備註: The default adapters and converters are deprecated as of
     Python 3.12.  Instead, use the *note Adapter and converter recipes:
     235. and tailor them to your needs.

The deprecated default adapters and converters consist of:

   * An adapter for *note datetime.date: 72f. objects to *note strings:
     157. in ISO 8601(1) format.

   * An adapter for *note datetime.datetime: 224. objects to strings in
     ISO 8601 format.

   * A converter for *note declared: 265c. "date" types to *note
     datetime.date: 72f. objects.

   * A converter for declared "timestamp" types to *note
     datetime.datetime: 224. objects.  Fractional parts will be
     truncated to 6 digits (microsecond precision).

     備註: The default "timestamp" converter ignores UTC offsets in the
     database and always returns a naive *note datetime.datetime: 224.
     object.  To preserve UTC offsets in timestamps, either leave
     converters disabled, or register an offset-aware converter with
     *note register_converter(): 2663.

在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_8601


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列介面,  Prev: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.13 命令列介面
....................

The ‘sqlite3’ module can be invoked as a script, using the interpreter's
*note -m: 3d4. switch, in order to provide a simple SQLite shell.  The
argument signature is as follows:

     python -m sqlite3 [-h] [-v] [filename] [sql]

Type ‘.quit’ or CTRL-D to exit the shell.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Print CLI help.

 -- Option: -v, --version

     Print underlying SQLite library version.

在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: How-to guides,  Next: 解釋,  Prev: Reference,  Up: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面

5.12.6.14 How-to guides
.......................

* Menu:

* How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries::
* How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values::
* How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types::
* Adapter and converter recipes::
* How to use connection shortcut methods::
* How to use the connection context manager::
* How to work with SQLite URIs::
* How to create and use row factories::
* How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings::


File: python.info,  Node: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries,  Next: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.15 How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries
...............................................................

SQL operations usually need to use values from Python variables.
However, beware of using Python's string operations to assemble queries,
as they are vulnerable to SQL injection attacks(1).  For example, an
attacker can simply close the single quote and inject ‘OR TRUE’ to
select all rows:

     >>> # Never do this -- insecure!
     >>> symbol = input()
     ' OR TRUE; --
     >>> sql = "SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '%s'" % symbol
     >>> print(sql)
     SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '' OR TRUE; --'
     >>> cur.execute(sql)

Instead, use the DB-API's parameter substitution.  To insert a variable
into a query string, use a placeholder in the string, and substitute the
actual values into the query by providing them as a *note tuple: 4e6. of
values to the second argument of the cursor's *note execute(): 236.
method.

An SQL statement may use one of two kinds of placeholders: question
marks (qmark style) or named placeholders (named style).  For the qmark
style, 'parameters' must be a *note sequence: 238. whose length must
match the number of placeholders, or a *note ProgrammingError: 23a. is
raised.  For the named style, 'parameters' must be an instance of a
*note dict: 239. (or a subclass), which must contain keys for all named
parameters; any extra items are ignored.  Here's an example of both
styles:

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")

     # This is the named style used with executemany():
     data = (
         {"name": "C", "year": 1972},
         {"name": "Fortran", "year": 1957},
         {"name": "Python", "year": 1991},
         {"name": "Go", "year": 2009},
     )
     cur.executemany("INSERT INTO lang VALUES(:name, :year)", data)

     # This is the qmark style used in a SELECT query:
     params = (1972,)
     cur.execute("SELECT * FROM lang WHERE first_appeared = ?", params)
     print(cur.fetchall())
     con.close()

     備註: PEP 249(2) numeric placeholders are 'not' supported.  If
     used, they will be interpreted as named placeholders.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Next: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Prev: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.16 How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values
...........................................................

SQLite supports only a limited set of data types natively.  To store
custom Python types in SQLite databases, 'adapt' them to one of the
*note Python types SQLite natively understands: 2662.

There are two ways to adapt Python objects to SQLite types: letting your
object adapt itself, or using an 'adapter callable'.  The latter will
take precedence above the former.  For a library that exports a custom
type, it may make sense to enable that type to adapt itself.  As an
application developer, it may make more sense to take direct control by
registering custom adapter functions.

* Menu:

* How to write adaptable objects::
* How to register adapter callables::


File: python.info,  Node: How to write adaptable objects,  Next: How to register adapter callables,  Up: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

5.12.6.17 How to write adaptable objects
........................................

Suppose we have a ‘Point’ class that represents a pair of coordinates,
‘x’ and ‘y’, in a Cartesian coordinate system.  The coordinate pair will
be stored as a text string in the database, using a semicolon to
separate the coordinates.  This can be implemented by adding a
‘__conform__(self, protocol)’ method which returns the adapted value.
The object passed to 'protocol' will be of type *note PrepareProtocol:
15af.

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

         def __conform__(self, protocol):
             if protocol is sqlite3.PrepareProtocol:
                 return f"{self.x};{self.y}"

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.cursor()

     cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(4.0, -3.2),))
     print(cur.fetchone()[0])
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to register adapter callables,  Prev: How to write adaptable objects,  Up: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

5.12.6.18 How to register adapter callables
...........................................

The other possibility is to create a function that converts the Python
object to an SQLite-compatible type.  This function can then be
registered using *note register_adapter(): 266c.

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

     def adapt_point(point):
         return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

     sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.cursor()

     cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(1.0, 2.5),))
     print(cur.fetchone()[0])
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Next: Adapter and converter recipes,  Prev: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.19 How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types
.............................................................

Writing an adapter lets you convert 'from' custom Python types 'to'
SQLite values.  To be able to convert 'from' SQLite values 'to' custom
Python types, we use 'converters'.

Let's go back to the ‘Point’ class.  We stored the x and y coordinates
separated via semicolons as strings in SQLite.

First, we'll define a converter function that accepts the string as a
parameter and constructs a ‘Point’ object from it.

     備註: Converter functions are 'always' passed a *note bytes: 2c1.
     object, no matter the underlying SQLite data type.

     def convert_point(s):
         x, y = map(float, s.split(b";"))
         return Point(x, y)

We now need to tell ‘sqlite3’ when it should convert a given SQLite
value.  This is done when connecting to a database, using the
'detect_types' parameter of *note connect(): 1dd.  There are three
options:

   * Implicit: set 'detect_types' to *note PARSE_DECLTYPES: 2664.

   * Explicit: set 'detect_types' to *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 2665.

   * Both: set 'detect_types' to ‘sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES |
     sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES’.  Column names take precedence over
     declared types.

The following example illustrates the implicit and explicit approaches:

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

         def __repr__(self):
             return f"Point({self.x}, {self.y})"

     def adapt_point(point):
         return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

     def convert_point(s):
         x, y = list(map(float, s.split(b";")))
         return Point(x, y)

     # Register the adapter and converter
     sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)
     sqlite3.register_converter("point", convert_point)

     # 1) Parse using declared types
     p = Point(4.0, -3.2)
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES)
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p point)")

     cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
     cur.execute("SELECT p FROM test")
     print("with declared types:", cur.fetchone()[0])
     cur.close()
     con.close()

     # 2) Parse using column names
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES)
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p)")

     cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
     cur.execute('SELECT p AS "p [point]" FROM test')
     print("with column names:", cur.fetchone()[0])
     cur.close()
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Adapter and converter recipes,  Next: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Prev: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.20 Adapter and converter recipes
.......................................

This section shows recipes for common adapters and converters.

     import datetime
     import sqlite3

     def adapt_date_iso(val):
         """Adapt datetime.date to ISO 8601 date."""
         return val.isoformat()

     def adapt_datetime_iso(val):
         """Adapt datetime.datetime to timezone-naive ISO 8601 date."""
         return val.isoformat()

     def adapt_datetime_epoch(val):
         """Adapt datetime.datetime to Unix timestamp."""
         return int(val.timestamp())

     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.date, adapt_date_iso)
     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.datetime, adapt_datetime_iso)
     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.datetime, adapt_datetime_epoch)

     def convert_date(val):
         """Convert ISO 8601 date to datetime.date object."""
         return datetime.date.fromisoformat(val.decode())

     def convert_datetime(val):
         """Convert ISO 8601 datetime to datetime.datetime object."""
         return datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(val.decode())

     def convert_timestamp(val):
         """Convert Unix epoch timestamp to datetime.datetime object."""
         return datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(int(val))

     sqlite3.register_converter("date", convert_date)
     sqlite3.register_converter("datetime", convert_datetime)
     sqlite3.register_converter("timestamp", convert_timestamp)


File: python.info,  Node: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Next: How to use the connection context manager,  Prev: Adapter and converter recipes,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.21 How to use connection shortcut methods
................................................

Using the *note execute(): 268c, *note executemany(): 268d, and *note
executescript(): 268e. methods of the *note Connection: 1dc. class, your
code can be written more concisely because you don't have to create the
(often superfluous) *note Cursor: 2656. objects explicitly.  Instead,
the *note Cursor: 2656. objects are created implicitly and these
shortcut methods return the cursor objects.  This way, you can execute a
‘SELECT’ statement and iterate over it directly using only a single call
on the *note Connection: 1dc. object.

     # Create and fill the table.
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")
     data = [
         ("C++", 1985),
         ("Objective-C", 1984),
     ]
     con.executemany("INSERT INTO lang(name, first_appeared) VALUES(?, ?)", data)

     # Print the table contents
     for row in con.execute("SELECT name, first_appeared FROM lang"):
         print(row)

     print("I just deleted", con.execute("DELETE FROM lang").rowcount, "rows")

     # close() is not a shortcut method and it's not called automatically;
     # the connection object should be closed manually
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to use the connection context manager,  Next: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Prev: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.22 How to use the connection context manager
...................................................

A *note Connection: 1dc. object can be used as a context manager that
automatically commits or rolls back open transactions when leaving the
body of the context manager.  If the body of the *note with: 3c5.
statement finishes without exceptions, the transaction is committed.  If
this commit fails, or if the body of the ‘with’ statement raises an
uncaught exception, the transaction is rolled back.  If *note
autocommit: 1db. is ‘False’, a new transaction is implicitly opened
after committing or rolling back.

If there is no open transaction upon leaving the body of the ‘with’
statement, or if *note autocommit: 1db. is ‘True’, the context manager
does nothing.

     備註: The context manager neither implicitly opens a new
     transaction nor closes the connection.  If you need a closing
     context manager, consider using *note contextlib.closing(): 26c3.

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR UNIQUE)")

     # Successful, con.commit() is called automatically afterwards
     with con:
         con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))

     # con.rollback() is called after the with block finishes with an exception,
     # the exception is still raised and must be caught
     try:
         with con:
             con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))
     except sqlite3.IntegrityError:
         print("couldn't add Python twice")

     # Connection object used as context manager only commits or rollbacks transactions,
     # so the connection object should be closed manually
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Next: How to create and use row factories,  Prev: How to use the connection context manager,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.23 How to work with SQLite URIs
......................................

Some useful URI tricks include:

   * Open a database in read-only mode:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:tutorial.db?mode=ro", uri=True)
     >>> con.execute("CREATE TABLE readonly(data)")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     OperationalError: attempt to write a readonly database
     >>> con.close()

   * Do not implicitly create a new database file if it does not already
     exist; will raise *note OperationalError: 1670. if unable to create
     a new file:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:nosuchdb.db?mode=rw", uri=True)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     OperationalError: unable to open database file

   * Create a shared named in-memory database:

     db = "file:mem1?mode=memory&cache=shared"
     con1 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
     con2 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
     with con1:
         con1.execute("CREATE TABLE shared(data)")
         con1.execute("INSERT INTO shared VALUES(28)")
     res = con2.execute("SELECT data FROM shared")
     assert res.fetchone() == (28,)

     con1.close()
     con2.close()

More information about this feature, including a list of parameters, can
be found in the SQLite URI documentation(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html


File: python.info,  Node: How to create and use row factories,  Next: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings,  Prev: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.24 How to create and use row factories
.............................................

By default, ‘sqlite3’ represents each row as a *note tuple: 4e6.  If a
‘tuple’ does not suit your needs, you can use the *note sqlite3.Row:
cef. class or a custom *note row_factory: 2696.

While ‘row_factory’ exists as an attribute both on the *note Cursor:
2656. and the *note Connection: 1dc, it is recommended to set *note
Connection.row_factory: 1416, so all cursors created from the connection
will use the same row factory.

‘Row’ provides indexed and case-insensitive named access to columns,
with minimal memory overhead and performance impact over a ‘tuple’.  To
use ‘Row’ as a row factory, assign it to the ‘row_factory’ attribute:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = sqlite3.Row

Queries now return ‘Row’ objects:

     >>> res = con.execute("SELECT 'Earth' AS name, 6378 AS radius")
     >>> row = res.fetchone()
     >>> row.keys()
     ['name', 'radius']
     >>> row[0]         # Access by index.
     'Earth'
     >>> row["name"]    # Access by name.
     'Earth'
     >>> row["RADIUS"]  # Column names are case-insensitive.
     6378
     >>> con.close()

     備註: The ‘FROM’ clause can be omitted in the ‘SELECT’ statement,
     as in the above example.  In such cases, SQLite returns a single
     row with columns defined by expressions, e.g.  literals, with the
     given aliases ‘expr AS alias’.

You can create a custom *note row_factory: 2696. that returns each row
as a *note dict: 239, with column names mapped to values:

     def dict_factory(cursor, row):
         fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
         return {key: value for key, value in zip(fields, row)}

Using it, queries now return a ‘dict’ instead of a ‘tuple’:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = dict_factory
     >>> for row in con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b"):
     ...     print(row)
     {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
     >>> con.close()

The following row factory returns a *note named tuple: 449.:

     from collections import namedtuple

     def namedtuple_factory(cursor, row):
         fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
         cls = namedtuple("Row", fields)
         return cls._make(row)

‘namedtuple_factory()’ can be used as follows:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = namedtuple_factory
     >>> cur = con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b")
     >>> row = cur.fetchone()
     >>> row
     Row(a=1, b=2)
     >>> row[0]  # Indexed access.
     1
     >>> row.b   # Attribute access.
     2
     >>> con.close()

With some adjustments, the above recipe can be adapted to use a *note
dataclass: 3bc, or any other custom class, instead of a *note
namedtuple: 731.


File: python.info,  Node: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings,  Prev: How to create and use row factories,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.25 How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings
................................................

By default, ‘sqlite3’ uses *note str: 157. to adapt SQLite values with
the ‘TEXT’ data type.  This works well for UTF-8 encoded text, but it
might fail for other encodings and invalid UTF-8.  You can use a custom
*note text_factory: 2697. to handle such cases.

Because of SQLite's flexible typing(1), it is not uncommon to encounter
table columns with the ‘TEXT’ data type containing non-UTF-8 encodings,
or even arbitrary data.  To demonstrate, let's assume we have a database
with ISO-8859-2 (Latin-2) encoded text, for example a table of
Czech-English dictionary entries.  Assuming we now have a *note
Connection: 1dc. instance ‘con’ connected to this database, we can
decode the Latin-2 encoded text using this *note text_factory: 2697.:

     con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, encoding="latin2")

For invalid UTF-8 or arbitrary data in stored in ‘TEXT’ table columns,
you can use the following technique, borrowed from the *note Unicode
HOWTO: 1138.:

     con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, errors="surrogateescape")

     備註: The ‘sqlite3’ module API does not support strings containing
     surrogates.

也參考
......

*note Unicode HOWTO: 1138.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html


File: python.info,  Node: 解釋,  Prev: How-to guides,  Up: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面

5.12.6.26 解釋
..............

* Menu:

* Transaction control::


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control,  Up: 解釋

5.12.6.27 Transaction control
.............................

‘sqlite3’ offers multiple methods of controlling whether, when and how
database transactions are opened and closed.  *note Transaction control
via the autocommit attribute: 1de. is recommended, while *note
Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute: 2667. retains the
pre-Python 3.12 behaviour.

* Menu:

* Transaction control via the autocommit attribute::
* Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute::


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute,  Next: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute,  Up: Transaction control

5.12.6.28 Transaction control via the ‘autocommit’ attribute
............................................................

The recommended way of controlling transaction behaviour is through the
*note Connection.autocommit: 1db. attribute, which should preferably be
set using the 'autocommit' parameter of *note connect(): 1dd.

It is suggested to set 'autocommit' to ‘False’, which implies PEP
249(1)-compliant transaction control.  This means:

   * ‘sqlite3’ ensures that a transaction is always open, so *note
     connect(): 1dd, *note Connection.commit(): 2659, and *note
     Connection.rollback(): 268b. will implicitly open a new transaction
     (immediately after closing the pending one, for the latter two).
     ‘sqlite3’ uses ‘BEGIN DEFERRED’ statements when opening
     transactions.

   * Transactions should be committed explicitly using ‘commit()’.

   * Transactions should be rolled back explicitly using ‘rollback()’.

   * An implicit rollback is performed if the database is *note close():
     1493.-ed with pending changes.

Set 'autocommit' to ‘True’ to enable SQLite's autocommit mode(2).  In
this mode, *note Connection.commit(): 2659. and *note
Connection.rollback(): 268b. have no effect.  Note that SQLite's
autocommit mode is distinct from the PEP 249(3)-compliant *note
Connection.autocommit: 1db. attribute; use *note
Connection.in_transaction: 2695. to query the low-level SQLite
autocommit mode.

Set 'autocommit' to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2668. to leave
transaction control behaviour to the *note Connection.isolation_level:
2666. attribute.  See *note Transaction control via the isolation_level
attribute: 2667. for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute,  Prev: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute,  Up: Transaction control

5.12.6.29 Transaction control via the ‘isolation_level’ attribute
.................................................................

     備註: The recommended way of controlling transactions is via the
     *note autocommit: 1db. attribute.  See *note Transaction control
     via the autocommit attribute: 1de.

If *note Connection.autocommit: 1db. is set to *note
LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2668. (the default), transaction behaviour
is controlled using the *note Connection.isolation_level: 2666.
attribute.  Otherwise, ‘isolation_level’ has no effect.

If the connection attribute *note isolation_level: 2666. is not ‘None’,
new transactions are implicitly opened before *note execute(): 236. and
*note executemany(): 253. executes ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, or
‘REPLACE’ statements; for other statements, no implicit transaction
handling is performed.  Use the *note commit(): 2659. and *note
rollback(): 268b. methods to respectively commit and roll back pending
transactions.  You can choose the underlying SQLite transaction
behaviour(1) — that is, whether and what type of ‘BEGIN’ statements
‘sqlite3’ implicitly executes – via the *note isolation_level: 2666.
attribute.

If *note isolation_level: 2666. is set to ‘None’, no transactions are
implicitly opened at all.  This leaves the underlying SQLite library in
autocommit mode(2), but also allows the user to perform their own
transaction handling using explicit SQL statements.  The underlying
SQLite library autocommit mode can be queried using the *note
in_transaction: 2695. attribute.

The *note executescript(): 268f. method implicitly commits any pending
transaction before execution of the given SQL script, regardless of the
value of *note isolation_level: 2666.

在 3.6 版的變更: ‘sqlite3’ used to implicitly commit an open transaction
before DDL statements.  This is no longer the case.

在 3.12 版的變更: The recommended way of controlling transactions is now
via the *note autocommit: 1db. attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions

   (2) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions


File: python.info,  Node: 資料壓縮與保存,  Next: 檔案格式,  Prev: 資料持久性 Data Persistence,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.13 資料壓縮與保存
===================

本章中描述的模組支援使用 zlib、gzip、bzip2 和 lzma 演算法進行資料壓縮，
以及建立 ZIP 和 tar 格式的存檔。另請參閱 *note shutil: c0. 模組提供的
*note Archiving operations: 10aa.。

* Menu:

* zlib: zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮. 相容於 gzip 的壓縮
* gzip: gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援. gzip 檔案的支援
* bz2: bz2 --- bzip2 壓縮的支援. bzip2 壓縮的支援
* lzma: lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮. 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮
* zipfile: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案. 處理 ZIP 封存檔案
* tarfile: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案. 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案


File: python.info,  Node: zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮,  Next: gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援,  Up: 資料壓縮與保存

5.13.1 ‘zlib’ -- 相容於 ‘gzip’ 的壓縮
-------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

對於需要資料壓縮的應用程式，此模組提供了能夠使用 zlib 函式庫進行壓縮和解
壓縮的函式。zlib 函式庫有自己的主頁 ‘https://www.zlib.net’。已知 Python
模組與早於 1.1.3 的 zlib 函式庫版本之間並不相容；1.1.3 存在安全漏洞(1)，
因此我們建議使用 1.1.4 或更新的版本。

zlib 的函式有很多選項，且通常需要按特定順序使用。本文件並不打算解說所有
選項排列組合的效果；相關官方資訊，請參閱
‘http://www.zlib.net/manual.html’ 上的 zlib 手冊。

若要讀寫 ‘.gz’ 文件，請參閱 *note gzip: 62. 模組。

該模組中可用的例外和函式是：

 -- 例外: zlib.error

     當壓縮和解壓縮發生錯誤時引發的例外。

 -- 函式: zlib.adler32 (data[, value])

     計算 'data' 的 Adler-32 核對和 (checksum)。（Adler-32 核對和幾乎與
     CRC32 一樣可靠，但計算速度更快。）結果是一個 unsigned（無符號的）
     32-bit 整數。如果有提供 'value'，則將其用作核對和的起始值，否則使用
     預設值 1。傳入 'value' 允許了於多個輸入的串聯 (concatenation) 上計
     算核對和。該演算法的加密強度不夠高，不該用於身份驗證
     (authentication) 或數位簽章 (digital signature)。由於該演算法是為核
     對和演算法而設計的，它並不適合作為通用的雜湊演算法。

     在 3.0 版的變更: 結果總是為 unsigned。

 -- 函式: zlib.compress (data, /, level=-1, wbits=MAX_WBITS)

     壓縮 'data' 中的位元組，回傳一個包含壓縮資料的位元組物件。 'level'
     是從 ‘0’ 到 ‘9’ 或 ‘-1’ 的整數，控制了壓縮的級別；‘1’
     (Z_BEST_SPEED) 最快但壓縮程度較小，‘9’ (Z_BEST_COMPRESSION) 最慢但
     壓縮最多。 ‘0’ (Z_NO_COMPRESSION) 代表不壓縮。預設值為 ‘-1’
     (Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION)。Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION 表示預設的速度和壓縮
     間折衷方案（目前相當於級別 6）。 'wbits' 引數控制了壓縮資料時所使用
     的歷史紀錄緩衝區 (history buffer) 大小（或「視窗大小」），以及輸出
     中是否包含標題和尾末 (trailer)。它可以採用多個值的範圍，預設為 ‘15’
     (MAX_WBITS)：

        * +9 到 +15：視窗大小的以二為底的對數，因此範圍在 512 到 32768 之
          間。較大的值會產生更佳的壓縮，但會佔用更多的記憶體。生成輸出將
          包含特定於 zlib 的標頭和尾末。

        * −9 到 −15：使用 'wbits' 的絕對值作為視窗大小的對數，同時生成沒
          有標頭或尾末核對和的原始輸出串流。

        * +25 到 +31 = 16 +（9 到 15）：使用數值的最低 4 位元作為視窗大
          小的對數，同時在輸出中包含基本的 gzip 標頭和尾末核對和。

     如果發生任何錯誤，則引發 *note error: 26d0. 例外。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'level' 現在可以用作關鍵字參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'wbits' 參數現在可用於設定視窗位元和壓縮型別。

 -- 函式: zlib.compressobj (level=-1, method=DEFLATED, wbits=MAX_WBITS,
          memLevel=DEF_MEM_LEVEL, strategy=Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY[, zdict])

     回傳一個壓縮物件，用於壓縮不能一次全部放入記憶體中的資料串流。

     'level' 是壓縮級別 - 從 ‘0’ 到 ‘9’ 或 ‘-1’ 的整數。‘1’
     (Z_BEST_SPEED) 最快但壓縮程度較小，而 ‘9’ (Z_BEST_COMPRESSION) 最慢
     但壓縮最多。‘0’ (Z_NO_COMPRESSION) 代表不壓縮。預設值為 ‘-1’
     (Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION)。Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION 表示預設的速度和壓縮
     間折衷方案（目前相當於級別 6）。

     'method' 代表壓縮演算法。目前唯一支援的值是 ‘DEFLATED’。

     'wbits' 參數控制歷史紀錄緩衝區的大小（或「視窗大小」），以及將使用
     的標頭和尾末格式。它與*note 前面敘述的 compress(): 26d1. 具有相同的
     含義。

     'memLevel' 引數控制用於內部壓縮狀態的記憶體大小。有效值範圍為 ‘1’ 到
     ‘9’。較高的值會使用更多的記憶體，但速度更快並產生更小的輸出。

     'strategy' 被用於調整壓縮演算法。可用的值為 ‘Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY’、
     ‘Z_FILTERED’、‘Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY’、‘Z_RLE’ (zlib 1.2.0.1) 和 ‘Z_FIXED’
     (zlib 1.2.2.2)。

     'zdict' 是事先定義好的的壓縮字典。這是一個位元組序列（例如一個
     *note bytes: 2c1. 物件），其中包含預期在要壓縮的資料中頻繁出現的子
     序列。那些預期會最常見的子序列應該出現在字典的尾末。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'zdict' 參數與支援關鍵字引數。

 -- 函式: zlib.crc32 (data[, value])

     計算 'data' 的 CRC（Cyclic Redundancy Check，循環冗餘核對）核對和，
     結果會是一個 unsigned 32-bit 整數。如果 'value' 存在，則將其用作核
     對和的起始值，否則使用預設值 0。傳入 'value' 允許在多個輸入的串聯上
     計算核對和。該演算法的加密強度不夠高，不該用於身份驗證或數位簽章。
     由於該演算法是為核對和演算法而設計的，它並不適合作為通用的雜湊演算
     法。

     在 3.0 版的變更: 結果總是為 unsigned。

 -- 函式: zlib.decompress (data, /, wbits=MAX_WBITS,
          bufsize=DEF_BUF_SIZE)

     解壓縮 'data' 中的位元組，回傳包含未壓縮資料的位元組物件。 'wbits'
     參數依賴於 'data' 的格式，下面將進一步討論。如果有給定 'bufsize'，
     它會被用作輸出緩衝區的初始大小。如果發生任何錯誤，則引發 *note
     error: 26d0. 例外。 'wbits' 參數控制歷史紀錄緩衝區的大小（或「視窗
     大小」），以及期望的標頭和尾末格式。它類似於 *note compressobj():
     26d2. 的參數，但接受更多範圍的值：

        * +8 到 +15：視窗大小的以二為底的對數。輸入必須包括一個 zlib 標
          頭和尾末。

        * 0：根據 zlib 標頭檔自動決定視窗大小。僅有在 zlib 1.2.3.5 或更
          新的版本支援。

        * −8 to −15：使用 'wbits' 的絕對值作為視窗大小的對數，輸入必須是
          沒有標頭或尾末的原始串流。

        * +24 到 +31 = 16 + （8 到 15）：取值的最低4位元作為視窗大小的對
          數，輸入必須包含 gzip 標頭和尾末。

        * +40 到 +47 = 32 + （8 到 15）：使用值的最低 4 位元作為視窗大小
          的對數，並自動接受 zlib 或 gzip 格式。

     當解壓縮一個串流時，視窗大小不得小於最初用於壓縮串流的大小；使用太
     小的值可能會導致 *note error: 26d0. 例外。預設的 'wbits' 值對應於最
     大的視窗大小，並且需要包含 zlib 標頭和尾末。

     'bufsize' 是用於保存解壓縮資料的緩衝區的初始大小。如果需要更多空間
     ，緩衝區大小將根據需求來增加，因此你不需要讓該值完全剛好；調整它只
     會節省幾次對 ‘malloc()’ 的呼叫。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'wbits' 和 'bufsize' 可以用作關鍵字引數。

 -- 函式: zlib.decompressobj (wbits=MAX_WBITS[, zdict])

     回傳一個解壓縮物件，用於解壓縮不能一次全部放入記憶體的資料串流。

     'wbits' 引數控制歷史紀錄緩衝區的大小（或「視窗大小」），以及期望的
     標頭和尾末格式。它與*note 前面敘述的 decompress(): 26d3. 具有相同的
     含義。

     'zdict' 參數指定是先定義好的壓縮字典。如果有提供，這必須與生成要解
     壓縮資料的壓縮器所使用的字典相同。

          備註: 如果 'zdict' 是一個可變物件 (mutable object)（例如一個
          *note bytearray: 2c0.），你不能在呼叫 *note decompressobj():
          26d4. 和第一次呼叫解壓縮器的 ‘decompress()’ 方法之間修改它的內
          容。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'zdict' 參數。

壓縮物件支援以下方法：

 -- 方法: Compress.compress (data)

     壓縮 'data'，回傳一個位元組物件，其中至少包含 'data' 中部分資料的壓
     縮資料。此資料應串聯到任何先前呼叫 *note compress(): 43a. 方法所產
     生的輸出。一些輸入可能會保存在內部緩衝區中以供後續處理。

 -- 方法: Compress.flush ([mode])

     處理所有待處理的輸入，並回傳包含剩餘壓縮輸出的位元組物件。'mode' 可
     以從以下常數中選擇：‘Z_NO_FLUSH’、‘Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH’、
     ‘Z_SYNC_FLUSH’、‘Z_FULL_FLUSH’、‘Z_BLOCK’ (zlib 1.2.3.4) 或
     ‘Z_FINISH’，預設為 ‘Z_FINISH’。除了 ‘Z_FINISH’ 之外，所有常數都允許
     壓縮更多的資料位元組字串，而 ‘Z_FINISH’ 會完成壓縮串流並同時防止壓
     縮更多資料。在 'mode' 設定為 ‘Z_FINISH’ 的情況下呼叫 *note flush():
     26d6. 後，無法再次呼叫 *note compress(): 43a. 方法；唯一可行的作法
     是刪除物件。

 -- 方法: Compress.copy ()

     回傳壓縮物件的副本，這可用於有效壓縮一組共用初始前綴的資料。

在 3.8 版的變更: 於壓縮物件新增對 *note copy.copy(): 2b5. 和 *note
copy.deepcopy(): 9cb. 的支援。

解壓縮物件支援以下方法和屬性：

 -- 屬性: Decompress.unused_data

     一個位元組物件，它包含壓縮資料結束之後的任何位元組。也就是說，在包
     含壓縮資料的最後一個位元組可用之前，它會一直保持為 ‘b""’。如果整個
     位元組字串 (bytestring) 有包含壓縮資料，這會是 ‘b""’，也就是一個空
     位元組物件。

 -- 屬性: Decompress.unconsumed_tail

     一個位元組物件，包含前一次 *note decompress(): b7c. 的呼叫因超出了
     未壓縮資料緩衝區的限制而沒消耗掉的任何資料。 zlib 機制尚未看到此資
     料，因此你必須將其（和可能有和它串聯的其他資料）反饋給後續的 *note
     decompress(): b7c. 方法呼叫以獲得正確的輸出。

 -- 屬性: Decompress.eof

     一個布林值，代表是否已到達壓縮資料串流的尾末。

     這使其能夠區分有正確建構的壓縮串流和不完整或被截斷的串流。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 方法: Decompress.decompress (data, max_length=0)

     解壓縮 'data' 並回傳一個位元組物件，其包含與 'string' 中至少與部分
     資料相對應的未壓縮資料。此資料應串聯到任何先前呼叫 *note
     decompress(): b7c. 方法所產生的輸出。一些輸入資料可能會保存在內部緩
     衝區中以供後續處理。

     如果可選參數 'max_length' 不是零，則回傳值長度將不超過
     'max_length'。這代表著並不是所有的已壓縮輸入都可以被處理；未使用的
     資料將被存儲在屬性 *note unconsumed_tail: 26d9. 中。如果要繼續解壓
     縮，則必須將此位元組字串傳遞給後續對 *note decompress(): b7c. 的呼
     叫。如果 'max_length' 為零，則整個輸入會被解壓縮，並且 *note
     unconsumed_tail: 26d9. 為空。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'max_length' 可以用作關鍵字引數。

 -- 方法: Decompress.flush ([length])

     處理所有待處理的輸入，並回傳包含剩餘未壓縮輸出的位元組物件。呼叫
     *note flush(): 26db. 後，無法再次呼叫 *note decompress(): b7c. 方法
     ；唯一可行的方法是刪除該物件。

     可選參數 'length' 設定了輸出緩衝區的初始大小。

 -- 方法: Decompress.copy ()

     回傳解壓物件的副本，這可用於在資料串流中途保存解壓縮器的狀態，以便
     在未來某個時間點加速對串流的隨機搜索 (random seek)。

在 3.8 版的變更: 於解壓縮物件新增對 *note copy.copy(): 2b5. 和 *note
copy.deepcopy(): 9cb. 支援。

有關正在使用的 zlib 函式庫版本資訊可通過以下常數獲得：

 -- 資料: zlib.ZLIB_VERSION

     用於建置模組的 zlib 函式庫版本字串。這可能與實際在執行環境
     (runtime) 使用的 zlib 函式庫不同，後者以 *note
     ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1001. 提供。

 -- 資料: zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION

     直譯器實際載入的 zlib 函式庫版本字串。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

也參考
......

*note gzip: 62. 模組

     讀寫 ‘gzip’ 格式的檔案。

‘http://www.zlib.net’

     zlib 函式庫首頁。

‘http://www.zlib.net/manual.html’

     zlib 手冊解釋了函式庫中許多函式的語義和用法。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://zlib.net/zlib_faq.html#faq33


File: python.info,  Node: gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援,  Next: bz2 --- bzip2 壓縮的支援,  Prev: zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮,  Up: 資料壓縮與保存

5.13.2 ‘gzip’ -- ‘gzip’ 檔案的支援
----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/gzip.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a simple interface to compress and decompress files
just like the GNU programs ‘gzip’ and ‘gunzip’ would.

The data compression is provided by the *note zlib: 12d. module.

The *note gzip: 62. module provides the *note GzipFile: 28d. class, as
well as the *note open(): 26e0, *note compress(): 439. and *note
decompress(): 109e. convenience functions.  The *note GzipFile: 28d.
class reads and writes ‘gzip’-format files, automatically compressing or
decompressing the data so that it looks like an ordinary *note file
object: 1054.

Note that additional file formats which can be decompressed by the
‘gzip’ and ‘gunzip’ programs, such as those produced by ‘compress’ and
‘pack’, are not supported by this module.

此模組定義了以下項目：

 -- 函式: gzip.open (filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9,
          encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Open a gzip-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a
     *note file object: 1054.

     The 'filename' argument can be an actual filename (a *note str:
     157. or *note bytes: 2c1. object), or an existing file object to
     read from or write to.

     The 'mode' argument can be any of ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'a'’, ‘'ab'’,
     ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'xb'’ for binary mode, or ‘'rt'’, ‘'at'’,
     ‘'wt'’, or ‘'xt'’ for text mode.  The default is ‘'rb'’.

     The 'compresslevel' argument is an integer from 0 to 9, as for the
     *note GzipFile: 28d. constructor.

     For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the *note GzipFile:
     28d. constructor: ‘GzipFile(filename, mode, compresslevel)’.  In
     this case, the 'encoding', 'errors' and 'newline' arguments must
     not be provided.

     For text mode, a *note GzipFile: 28d. object is created, and
     wrapped in an *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. instance with the
     specified encoding, error handling behavior, and line ending(s).

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added support for 'filename' being a file object,
     support for text mode, and the 'encoding', 'errors' and 'newline'
     arguments.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 ‘'x'’、‘'xb'’ 和 ‘'xt'’ 模式的支援。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受*note 類路徑物件: 975.。

 -- 例外: gzip.BadGzipFile

     An exception raised for invalid gzip files.  It inherits from *note
     OSError: 644.  *note EOFError: 116a. and *note zlib.error: 26d0.
     can also be raised for invalid gzip files.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 類別: gzip.GzipFile (filename=None, mode=None, compresslevel=9,
          fileobj=None, mtime=None)

     Constructor for the *note GzipFile: 28d. class, which simulates
     most of the methods of a *note file object: 1054, with the
     exception of the *note truncate(): 11a3. method.  At least one of
     'fileobj' and 'filename' must be given a non-trivial value.

     The new class instance is based on 'fileobj', which can be a
     regular file, an *note io.BytesIO: d24. object, or any other object
     which simulates a file.  It defaults to ‘None’, in which case
     'filename' is opened to provide a file object.

     When 'fileobj' is not ‘None’, the 'filename' argument is only used
     to be included in the ‘gzip’ file header, which may include the
     original filename of the uncompressed file.  It defaults to the
     filename of 'fileobj', if discernible; otherwise, it defaults to
     the empty string, and in this case the original filename is not
     included in the header.

     The 'mode' argument can be any of ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'a'’, ‘'ab'’,
     ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'x'’, or ‘'xb'’, depending on whether the file will
     be read or written.  The default is the mode of 'fileobj' if
     discernible; otherwise, the default is ‘'rb'’.  In future Python
     releases the mode of 'fileobj' will not be used.  It is better to
     always specify 'mode' for writing.

     Note that the file is always opened in binary mode.  To open a
     compressed file in text mode, use *note open(): 26e0. (or wrap your
     *note GzipFile: 28d. with an *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9.).

     The 'compresslevel' argument is an integer from ‘0’ to ‘9’
     controlling the level of compression; ‘1’ is fastest and produces
     the least compression, and ‘9’ is slowest and produces the most
     compression.  ‘0’ is no compression.  The default is ‘9’.

     The 'mtime' argument is an optional numeric timestamp to be written
     to the last modification time field in the stream when compressing.
     It should only be provided in compression mode.  If omitted or
     ‘None’, the current time is used.  See the *note mtime: 26e1.
     attribute for more details.

     Calling a *note GzipFile: 28d. object's ‘close()’ method does not
     close 'fileobj', since you might wish to append more material after
     the compressed data.  This also allows you to pass an *note
     io.BytesIO: d24. object opened for writing as 'fileobj', and
     retrieve the resulting memory buffer using the *note io.BytesIO:
     d24. object's *note getvalue(): 26e2. method.

     *note GzipFile: 28d. supports the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491.
     interface, including iteration and the *note with: 3c5. statement.
     Only the *note truncate(): 11a3. method isn't implemented.

     *note GzipFile: 28d. 也提供了以下的方法和屬性：

      -- 方法: peek (n)

          Read 'n' uncompressed bytes without advancing the file
          position.  At most one single read on the compressed stream is
          done to satisfy the call.  The number of bytes returned may be
          more or less than requested.

               備註: While calling *note peek(): 109d. does not change
               the file position of the *note GzipFile: 28d, it may
               change the position of the underlying file object (e.g.
               if the *note GzipFile: 28d. was constructed with the
               'fileobj' parameter).

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: mtime

          When decompressing, the value of the last modification time
          field in the most recently read header may be read from this
          attribute, as an integer.  The initial value before reading
          any headers is ‘None’.

          All ‘gzip’ compressed streams are required to contain this
          timestamp field.  Some programs, such as ‘gunzip’, make use of
          the timestamp.  The format is the same as the return value of
          *note time.time(): 936. and the *note st_mtime: 26e3.
          attribute of the object returned by *note os.stat(): 1bf.

      -- 屬性: name

          The path to the gzip file on disk, as a *note str: 157. or
          *note bytes: 2c1.  Equivalent to the output of *note
          os.fspath(): ab9. on the original input path, with no other
          normalization, resolution or expansion.

     在 3.1 版的變更: Support for the *note with: 3c5. statement was
     added, along with the 'mtime' constructor argument and *note mtime:
     26e1. attribute.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Support for zero-padded and unseekable files was
     added.

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note io.BufferedIOBase.read1(): 26e4. 方法現在已
     有實作。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 ‘'x'’ 和 ‘'xb'’ 模式的支援。

     在 3.5 版的變更: Added support for writing arbitrary *note
     bytes-like objects: b9f.  The *note read(): 11bc. method now
     accepts an argument of ‘None’.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 接受*note 類路徑物件: 975.。

     在 3.12 版的變更: Remove the ‘filename’ attribute, use the *note
     name: 28e. attribute instead.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: Opening *note GzipFile: 28d. for writing
     without specifying the 'mode' argument is deprecated.

 -- 函式: gzip.compress (data, compresslevel=9, *, mtime=None)

     Compress the 'data', returning a *note bytes: 2c1. object
     containing the compressed data.  'compresslevel' and 'mtime' have
     the same meaning as in the *note GzipFile: 28d. constructor above.
     When 'mtime' is set to ‘0’, this function is equivalent to *note
     zlib.compress(): 43a. with 'wbits' set to ‘31’.  The zlib function
     is faster.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Added the 'mtime' parameter for reproducible
     output.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Speed is improved by compressing all data at once
     instead of in a streamed fashion.  Calls with 'mtime' set to ‘0’
     are delegated to *note zlib.compress(): 43a. for better speed.  In
     this situation the output may contain a gzip header "OS" byte value
     other than 255 "unknown" as supplied by the underlying zlib
     implementation.

 -- 函式: gzip.decompress (data)

     Decompress the 'data', returning a *note bytes: 2c1. object
     containing the uncompressed data.  This function is capable of
     decompressing multi-member gzip data (multiple gzip blocks
     concatenated together).  When the data is certain to contain only
     one member the *note zlib.decompress(): b7c. function with 'wbits'
     set to 31 is faster.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Speed is improved by decompressing members at
     once in memory instead of in a streamed fashion.

* Menu:

* 用法範例::
* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/gzip.py


File: python.info,  Node: 用法範例,  Next: 命令列介面<2>,  Up: gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援

5.13.2.1 用法範例
.................

如何讀取壓縮檔案的範例：

     import gzip
     with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'rb') as f:
         file_content = f.read()

如何建立一個壓縮的 GZIP 檔案的範例：

     import gzip
     content = b"Lots of content here"
     with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f:
         f.write(content)

如何壓縮一個已存在的檔案的範例：

     import gzip
     import shutil
     with open('/home/joe/file.txt', 'rb') as f_in:
         with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f_out:
             shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)

如何壓縮一個二進位字串的範例：

     import gzip
     s_in = b"Lots of content here"
     s_out = gzip.compress(s_in)

也參考
......

*note zlib: 12d. 模組

     The basic data compression module needed to support the ‘gzip’ file
     format.


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列介面<2>,  Prev: 用法範例,  Up: gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援

5.13.2.2 命令列介面
...................

The *note gzip: 62. module provides a simple command line interface to
compress or decompress files.

Once executed the *note gzip: 62. module keeps the input file(s).

在 3.8 版的變更: Add a new command line interface with a usage.  By
default, when you will execute the CLI, the default compression level is
6.

* Menu:

* 命令列選項::


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列選項,  Up: 命令列介面<2>

5.13.2.3 命令列選項
...................

 -- Option: file

     如果未指定 'file'，則從 *note sys.stdin: 2bf. 讀取。

 -- Option: --fast

     Indicates the fastest compression method (less compression).

 -- Option: --best

     Indicates the slowest compression method (best compression).

 -- Option: -d, --decompress

     解壓縮指定的檔案。

 -- Option: -h, --help

     顯示幫助訊息。


File: python.info,  Node: bz2 --- bzip2 壓縮的支援,  Next: lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮,  Prev: gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援,  Up: 資料壓縮與保存

5.13.3 ‘bz2’ -- ‘bzip2’ 壓縮的支援
----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/bz2.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a comprehensive interface for compressing and
decompressing data using the bzip2 compression algorithm.

The *note bz2: 11. module contains:

   * The *note open(): f24. function and *note BZ2File: 692. class for
     reading and writing compressed files.

   * The *note BZ2Compressor: 1524. and *note BZ2Decompressor: 1522.
     classes for incremental (de)compression.

   * The *note compress(): 21a7. and *note decompress(): f25. functions
     for one-shot (de)compression.

* Menu:

* (De)compression of files: De compression of files.
* Incremental (de)compression: Incremental de compression.
* One-shot (de)compression: One-shot de compression.
* 用法範例: 用法範例<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/bz2.py


File: python.info,  Node: De compression of files,  Next: Incremental de compression,  Up: bz2 --- bzip2 壓縮的支援

5.13.3.1 (De)compression of files
.................................

 -- 函式: bz2.open (filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None)

     Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a
     *note file object: 1054.

     As with the constructor for *note BZ2File: 692, the 'filename'
     argument can be an actual filename (a *note str: 157. or *note
     bytes: 2c1. object), or an existing file object to read from or
     write to.

     The 'mode' argument can be any of ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’,
     ‘'x'’, ‘'xb'’, ‘'a'’ or ‘'ab'’ for binary mode, or ‘'rt'’, ‘'wt'’,
     ‘'xt'’, or ‘'at'’ for text mode.  The default is ‘'rb'’.

     The 'compresslevel' argument is an integer from 1 to 9, as for the
     *note BZ2File: 692. constructor.

     For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the *note BZ2File:
     692. constructor: ‘BZ2File(filename, mode,
     compresslevel=compresslevel)’.  In this case, the 'encoding',
     'errors' and 'newline' arguments must not be provided.

     For text mode, a *note BZ2File: 692. object is created, and wrapped
     in an *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. instance with the specified
     encoding, error handling behavior, and line ending(s).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was added.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 類別: bz2.BZ2File (filename, mode='r', *, compresslevel=9)

     Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary mode.

     If 'filename' is a *note str: 157. or *note bytes: 2c1. object,
     open the named file directly.  Otherwise, 'filename' should be a
     *note file object: 1054, which will be used to read or write the
     compressed data.

     The 'mode' argument can be either ‘'r'’ for reading (default),
     ‘'w'’ for overwriting, ‘'x'’ for exclusive creation, or ‘'a'’ for
     appending.  These can equivalently be given as ‘'rb'’, ‘'wb'’,
     ‘'xb'’ and ‘'ab'’ respectively.

     If 'filename' is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a
     mode of ‘'w'’ does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent
     to ‘'a'’.

     If 'mode' is ‘'w'’ or ‘'a'’, 'compresslevel' can be an integer
     between ‘1’ and ‘9’ specifying the level of compression: ‘1’
     produces the least compression, and ‘9’ (default) produces the most
     compression.

     If 'mode' is ‘'r'’, the input file may be the concatenation of
     multiple compressed streams.

     *note BZ2File: 692. provides all of the members specified by the
     *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491, except for *note detach(): 26f4. and
     *note truncate(): 11a3.  Iteration and the *note with: 3c5.
     statement are supported.

     *note BZ2File: 692. also provides the following methods:

      -- 方法: peek ([n])

          Return buffered data without advancing the file position.  At
          least one byte of data will be returned (unless at EOF). The
          exact number of bytes returned is unspecified.

               備註: While calling *note peek(): 26f5. does not change
               the file position of the *note BZ2File: 692, it may
               change the position of the underlying file object (e.g.
               if the *note BZ2File: 692. was constructed by passing a
               file object for 'filename').

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: fileno ()

          Return the file descriptor for the underlying file.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: readable ()

          Return whether the file was opened for reading.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: seekable ()

          Return whether the file supports seeking.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: writable ()

          Return whether the file was opened for writing.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: read1 (size=-1)

          Read up to 'size' uncompressed bytes, while trying to avoid
          making multiple reads from the underlying stream.  Reads up to
          a buffer's worth of data if size is negative.

          Returns ‘b''’ if the file is at EOF.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: readinto (b)

          Read bytes into 'b'.

          Returns the number of bytes read (0 for EOF).

          在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.1 版的變更: Support for the *note with: 3c5. statement was
     added.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Support was added for 'filename' being a *note
     file object: 1054. instead of an actual filename.

     The ‘'a'’ (append) mode was added, along with support for reading
     multi-stream files.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was added.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The *note read(): 11bc. method now accepts an
     argument of ‘None’.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

     在 3.9 版的變更: The 'buffering' parameter has been removed.  It
     was ignored and deprecated since Python 3.0.  Pass an open file
     object to control how the file is opened.

     The 'compresslevel' parameter became keyword-only.

     在 3.10 版的變更: This class is thread unsafe in the face of
     multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its equivalent
     classes in *note gzip: 62. and *note lzma: 85. have always been.


File: python.info,  Node: Incremental de compression,  Next: One-shot de compression,  Prev: De compression of files,  Up: bz2 --- bzip2 壓縮的支援

5.13.3.2 Incremental (de)compression
....................................

 -- 類別: bz2.BZ2Compressor (compresslevel=9)

     Create a new compressor object.  This object may be used to
     compress data incrementally.  For one-shot compression, use the
     *note compress(): 21a7. function instead.

     'compresslevel', if given, must be an integer between ‘1’ and ‘9’.
     The default is ‘9’.

      -- 方法: compress (data)

          Provide data to the compressor object.  Returns a chunk of
          compressed data if possible, or an empty byte string
          otherwise.

          When you have finished providing data to the compressor, call
          the *note flush(): 26fe. method to finish the compression
          process.

      -- 方法: flush ()

          Finish the compression process.  Returns the compressed data
          left in internal buffers.

          The compressor object may not be used after this method has
          been called.

 -- 類別: bz2.BZ2Decompressor

     Create a new decompressor object.  This object may be used to
     decompress data incrementally.  For one-shot compression, use the
     *note decompress(): f25. function instead.

          備註: This class does not transparently handle inputs
          containing multiple compressed streams, unlike *note
          decompress(): f25. and *note BZ2File: 692.  If you need to
          decompress a multi-stream input with *note BZ2Decompressor:
          1522, you must use a new decompressor for each stream.

      -- 方法: decompress (data, max_length=-1)

          Decompress 'data' (a *note bytes-like object: b9f.), returning
          uncompressed data as bytes.  Some of 'data' may be buffered
          internally, for use in later calls to *note decompress(): f25.
          The returned data should be concatenated with the output of
          any previous calls to *note decompress(): f25.

          If 'max_length' is nonnegative, returns at most 'max_length'
          bytes of decompressed data.  If this limit is reached and
          further output can be produced, the *note needs_input: 26ff.
          attribute will be set to ‘False’.  In this case, the next call
          to *note decompress(): c43. may provide 'data' as ‘b''’ to
          obtain more of the output.

          If all of the input data was decompressed and returned (either
          because this was less than 'max_length' bytes, or because
          'max_length' was negative), the *note needs_input: 26ff.
          attribute will be set to ‘True’.

          Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is
          reached raises an *note EOFError: 116a.  Any data found after
          the end of the stream is ignored and saved in the *note
          unused_data: 2700. attribute.

          在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'max_length' 參數。

      -- 屬性: eof

          ‘True’ if the end-of-stream marker has been reached.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: unused_data

          Data found after the end of the compressed stream.

          If this attribute is accessed before the end of the stream has
          been reached, its value will be ‘b''’.

      -- 屬性: needs_input

          ‘False’ if the *note decompress(): c43. method can provide
          more decompressed data before requiring new uncompressed
          input.

          在 3.5 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: One-shot de compression,  Next: 用法範例<2>,  Prev: Incremental de compression,  Up: bz2 --- bzip2 壓縮的支援

5.13.3.3 One-shot (de)compression
.................................

 -- 函式: bz2.compress (data, compresslevel=9)

     Compress 'data', a *note bytes-like object: b9f.

     'compresslevel', if given, must be an integer between ‘1’ and ‘9’.
     The default is ‘9’.

     For incremental compression, use a *note BZ2Compressor: 1524.
     instead.

 -- 函式: bz2.decompress (data)

     Decompress 'data', a *note bytes-like object: b9f.

     If 'data' is the concatenation of multiple compressed streams,
     decompress all of the streams.

     For incremental decompression, use a *note BZ2Decompressor: 1522.
     instead.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Support for multi-stream inputs was added.


File: python.info,  Node: 用法範例<2>,  Prev: One-shot de compression,  Up: bz2 --- bzip2 壓縮的支援

5.13.3.4 用法範例
.................

Below are some examples of typical usage of the *note bz2: 11. module.

Using *note compress(): 21a7. and *note decompress(): f25. to
demonstrate round-trip compression:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> data = b"""\
     ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
     ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
     ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
     ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
     ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
     ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
     ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
     >>> c = bz2.compress(data)
     >>> len(data) / len(c)  # Data compression ratio
     1.513595166163142
     >>> d = bz2.decompress(c)
     >>> data == d  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
     True

Using *note BZ2Compressor: 1524. for incremental compression:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> def gen_data(chunks=10, chunksize=1000):
     ...     """Yield incremental blocks of chunksize bytes."""
     ...     for _ in range(chunks):
     ...         yield b"z" * chunksize
     ...
     >>> comp = bz2.BZ2Compressor()
     >>> out = b""
     >>> for chunk in gen_data():
     ...     # Provide data to the compressor object
     ...     out = out + comp.compress(chunk)
     ...
     >>> # Finish the compression process.  Call this once you have
     >>> # finished providing data to the compressor.
     >>> out = out + comp.flush()

The example above uses a very "nonrandom" stream of data (a stream of
‘b"z"’ chunks).  Random data tends to compress poorly, while ordered,
repetitive data usually yields a high compression ratio.

Writing and reading a bzip2-compressed file in binary mode:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> data = b"""\
     ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
     ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
     ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
     ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
     ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
     ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
     ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
     >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "wb") as f:
     ...     # Write compressed data to file
     ...     unused = f.write(data)
     ...
     >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "rb") as f:
     ...     # Decompress data from file
     ...     content = f.read()
     ...
     >>> content == data  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
     True


File: python.info,  Node: lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮,  Next: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案,  Prev: bz2 --- bzip2 壓縮的支援,  Up: 資料壓縮與保存

5.13.4 ‘lzma’ -- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮
-----------------------------------------

在 3.3 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/lzma.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides classes and convenience functions for compressing
and decompressing data using the LZMA compression algorithm.  Also
included is a file interface supporting the ‘.xz’ and legacy ‘.lzma’
file formats used by the ‘xz’ utility, as well as raw compressed
streams.

The interface provided by this module is very similar to that of the
*note bz2: 11. module.  Note that *note LZMAFile: e9f. and *note
bz2.BZ2File: 692. are 'not' thread-safe, so if you need to use a single
*note LZMAFile: e9f. instance from multiple threads, it is necessary to
protect it with a lock.

 -- 例外: lzma.LZMAError

     This exception is raised when an error occurs during compression or
     decompression, or while initializing the compressor/decompressor
     state.

* Menu:

* Reading and writing compressed files::
* Compressing and decompressing data in memory::
* Miscellaneous::
* Specifying custom filter chains::
* 範例: 範例<12>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/lzma.py


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and writing compressed files,  Next: Compressing and decompressing data in memory,  Up: lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮

5.13.4.1 Reading and writing compressed files
.............................................

 -- 函式: lzma.open (filename, mode='rb', *, format=None, check=-1,
          preset=None, filters=None, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a
     *note file object: 1054.

     The 'filename' argument can be either an actual file name (given as
     a *note str: 157, *note bytes: 2c1. or *note path-like: 975.
     object), in which case the named file is opened, or it can be an
     existing file object to read from or write to.

     The 'mode' argument can be any of ‘"r"’, ‘"rb"’, ‘"w"’, ‘"wb"’,
     ‘"x"’, ‘"xb"’, ‘"a"’ or ‘"ab"’ for binary mode, or ‘"rt"’, ‘"wt"’,
     ‘"xt"’, or ‘"at"’ for text mode.  The default is ‘"rb"’.

     When opening a file for reading, the 'format' and 'filters'
     arguments have the same meanings as for *note LZMADecompressor:
     1521.  In this case, the 'check' and 'preset' arguments should not
     be used.

     When opening a file for writing, the 'format', 'check', 'preset'
     and 'filters' arguments have the same meanings as for *note
     LZMACompressor: 1523.

     For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the *note LZMAFile:
     e9f. constructor: ‘LZMAFile(filename, mode, ...)’.  In this case,
     the 'encoding', 'errors' and 'newline' arguments must not be
     provided.

     For text mode, a *note LZMAFile: e9f. object is created, and
     wrapped in an *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. instance with the
     specified encoding, error handling behavior, and line ending(s).

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 ‘"x"’、‘"xb"’ 和 ‘"xt"’ 模式的支援。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 類別: lzma.LZMAFile (filename=None, mode='r', *, format=None,
          check=-1, preset=None, filters=None)

     Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary mode.

     An *note LZMAFile: e9f. can wrap an already-open *note file object:
     1054, or operate directly on a named file.  The 'filename' argument
     specifies either the file object to wrap, or the name of the file
     to open (as a *note str: 157, *note bytes: 2c1. or *note path-like:
     975. object).  When wrapping an existing file object, the wrapped
     file will not be closed when the *note LZMAFile: e9f. is closed.

     The 'mode' argument can be either ‘"r"’ for reading (default),
     ‘"w"’ for overwriting, ‘"x"’ for exclusive creation, or ‘"a"’ for
     appending.  These can equivalently be given as ‘"rb"’, ‘"wb"’,
     ‘"xb"’ and ‘"ab"’ respectively.

     If 'filename' is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a
     mode of ‘"w"’ does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent
     to ‘"a"’.

     When opening a file for reading, the input file may be the
     concatenation of multiple separate compressed streams.  These are
     transparently decoded as a single logical stream.

     When opening a file for reading, the 'format' and 'filters'
     arguments have the same meanings as for *note LZMADecompressor:
     1521.  In this case, the 'check' and 'preset' arguments should not
     be used.

     When opening a file for writing, the 'format', 'check', 'preset'
     and 'filters' arguments have the same meanings as for *note
     LZMACompressor: 1523.

     *note LZMAFile: e9f. supports all the members specified by *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 491, except for *note detach(): 26f4. and *note
     truncate(): 11a3.  Iteration and the *note with: 3c5. statement are
     supported.

     The following method is also provided:

      -- 方法: peek (size=-1)

          Return buffered data without advancing the file position.  At
          least one byte of data will be returned, unless EOF has been
          reached.  The exact number of bytes returned is unspecified
          (the 'size' argument is ignored).

               備註: While calling *note peek(): 270a. does not change
               the file position of the *note LZMAFile: e9f, it may
               change the position of the underlying file object (e.g.
               if the *note LZMAFile: e9f. was constructed by passing a
               file object for 'filename').

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 ‘"x"’ 和 ‘"xb"’ 模式的支援。

     在 3.5 版的變更: The *note read(): 11bc. method now accepts an
     argument of ‘None’.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.


File: python.info,  Node: Compressing and decompressing data in memory,  Next: Miscellaneous,  Prev: Reading and writing compressed files,  Up: lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮

5.13.4.2 Compressing and decompressing data in memory
.....................................................

 -- 類別: lzma.LZMACompressor (format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1, preset=None,
          filters=None)

     Create a compressor object, which can be used to compress data
     incrementally.

     For a more convenient way of compressing a single chunk of data,
     see *note compress(): 270c.

     The 'format' argument specifies what container format should be
     used.  Possible values are:

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_XZ’: The ‘.xz’ container format.

               This is the default format.

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_ALONE’: The legacy ‘.lzma’ container format.

               This format is more limited than ‘.xz’ - it does not
               support integrity checks or multiple filters.

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_RAW’: A raw data stream, not using any container format.

               This format specifier does not support integrity checks,
               and requires that you always specify a custom filter
               chain (for both compression and decompression).
               Additionally, data compressed in this manner cannot be
               decompressed using ‘FORMAT_AUTO’ (see *note
               LZMADecompressor: 1521.).

     The 'check' argument specifies the type of integrity check to
     include in the compressed data.  This check is used when
     decompressing, to ensure that the data has not been corrupted.
     Possible values are:

        * ‘CHECK_NONE’: No integrity check.  This is the default (and
          the only acceptable value) for ‘FORMAT_ALONE’ and
          ‘FORMAT_RAW’.

        * ‘CHECK_CRC32’: 32-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.

        * ‘CHECK_CRC64’: 64-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.  This is the
          default for ‘FORMAT_XZ’.

        * ‘CHECK_SHA256’: 256-bit Secure Hash Algorithm.

     If the specified check is not supported, an *note LZMAError: 2707.
     is raised.

     The compression settings can be specified either as a preset
     compression level (with the 'preset' argument), or in detail as a
     custom filter chain (with the 'filters' argument).

     The 'preset' argument (if provided) should be an integer between
     ‘0’ and ‘9’ (inclusive), optionally OR-ed with the constant
     ‘PRESET_EXTREME’.  If neither 'preset' nor 'filters' are given, the
     default behavior is to use ‘PRESET_DEFAULT’ (preset level ‘6’).
     Higher presets produce smaller output, but make the compression
     process slower.

          備註: In addition to being more CPU-intensive, compression
          with higher presets also requires much more memory (and
          produces output that needs more memory to decompress).  With
          preset ‘9’ for example, the overhead for an *note
          LZMACompressor: 1523. object can be as high as 800 MiB. For
          this reason, it is generally best to stick with the default
          preset.

     The 'filters' argument (if provided) should be a filter chain
     specifier.  See *note Specifying custom filter chains: 270d. for
     details.

      -- 方法: compress (data)

          Compress 'data' (a *note bytes: 2c1. object), returning a
          *note bytes: 2c1. object containing compressed data for at
          least part of the input.  Some of 'data' may be buffered
          internally, for use in later calls to *note compress(): 270c.
          and *note flush(): 270f.  The returned data should be
          concatenated with the output of any previous calls to *note
          compress(): 270c.

      -- 方法: flush ()

          Finish the compression process, returning a *note bytes: 2c1.
          object containing any data stored in the compressor's internal
          buffers.

          The compressor cannot be used after this method has been
          called.

 -- 類別: lzma.LZMADecompressor (format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None,
          filters=None)

     Create a decompressor object, which can be used to decompress data
     incrementally.

     For a more convenient way of decompressing an entire compressed
     stream at once, see *note decompress(): 2710.

     The 'format' argument specifies the container format that should be
     used.  The default is ‘FORMAT_AUTO’, which can decompress both
     ‘.xz’ and ‘.lzma’ files.  Other possible values are ‘FORMAT_XZ’,
     ‘FORMAT_ALONE’, and ‘FORMAT_RAW’.

     The 'memlimit' argument specifies a limit (in bytes) on the amount
     of memory that the decompressor can use.  When this argument is
     used, decompression will fail with an *note LZMAError: 2707. if it
     is not possible to decompress the input within the given memory
     limit.

     The 'filters' argument specifies the filter chain that was used to
     create the stream being decompressed.  This argument is required if
     'format' is ‘FORMAT_RAW’, but should not be used for other formats.
     See *note Specifying custom filter chains: 270d. for more
     information about filter chains.

          備註: This class does not transparently handle inputs
          containing multiple compressed streams, unlike *note
          decompress(): 2710. and *note LZMAFile: e9f.  To decompress a
          multi-stream input with *note LZMADecompressor: 1521, you must
          create a new decompressor for each stream.

      -- 方法: decompress (data, max_length=-1)

          Decompress 'data' (a *note bytes-like object: b9f.), returning
          uncompressed data as bytes.  Some of 'data' may be buffered
          internally, for use in later calls to *note decompress():
          2710.  The returned data should be concatenated with the
          output of any previous calls to *note decompress(): 2710.

          If 'max_length' is nonnegative, returns at most 'max_length'
          bytes of decompressed data.  If this limit is reached and
          further output can be produced, the *note needs_input: 2711.
          attribute will be set to ‘False’.  In this case, the next call
          to *note decompress(): ca8. may provide 'data' as ‘b''’ to
          obtain more of the output.

          If all of the input data was decompressed and returned (either
          because this was less than 'max_length' bytes, or because
          'max_length' was negative), the *note needs_input: 2711.
          attribute will be set to ‘True’.

          Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is
          reached raises an *note EOFError: 116a.  Any data found after
          the end of the stream is ignored and saved in the *note
          unused_data: 2712. attribute.

          在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'max_length' 參數。

      -- 屬性: check

          The ID of the integrity check used by the input stream.  This
          may be ‘CHECK_UNKNOWN’ until enough of the input has been
          decoded to determine what integrity check it uses.

      -- 屬性: eof

          ‘True’ if the end-of-stream marker has been reached.

      -- 屬性: unused_data

          Data found after the end of the compressed stream.

          Before the end of the stream is reached, this will be ‘b""’.

      -- 屬性: needs_input

          ‘False’ if the *note decompress(): ca8. method can provide
          more decompressed data before requiring new uncompressed
          input.

          在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: lzma.compress (data, format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1, preset=None,
          filters=None)

     Compress 'data' (a *note bytes: 2c1. object), returning the
     compressed data as a *note bytes: 2c1. object.

     See *note LZMACompressor: 1523. above for a description of the
     'format', 'check', 'preset' and 'filters' arguments.

 -- 函式: lzma.decompress (data, format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None,
          filters=None)

     Decompress 'data' (a *note bytes: 2c1. object), returning the
     uncompressed data as a *note bytes: 2c1. object.

     If 'data' is the concatenation of multiple distinct compressed
     streams, decompress all of these streams, and return the
     concatenation of the results.

     See *note LZMADecompressor: 1521. above for a description of the
     'format', 'memlimit' and 'filters' arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous,  Next: Specifying custom filter chains,  Prev: Compressing and decompressing data in memory,  Up: lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮

5.13.4.3 Miscellaneous
......................

 -- 函式: lzma.is_check_supported (check)

     Return ‘True’ if the given integrity check is supported on this
     system.

     ‘CHECK_NONE’ and ‘CHECK_CRC32’ are always supported.  ‘CHECK_CRC64’
     and ‘CHECK_SHA256’ may be unavailable if you are using a version of
     ‘liblzma’ that was compiled with a limited feature set.


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying custom filter chains,  Next: 範例<12>,  Prev: Miscellaneous,  Up: lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮

5.13.4.4 Specifying custom filter chains
........................................

A filter chain specifier is a sequence of dictionaries, where each
dictionary contains the ID and options for a single filter.  Each
dictionary must contain the key ‘"id"’, and may contain additional keys
to specify filter-dependent options.  Valid filter IDs are as follows:

   * Compression filters:

        * ‘FILTER_LZMA1’ (for use with ‘FORMAT_ALONE’)

        * ‘FILTER_LZMA2’ (for use with ‘FORMAT_XZ’ and ‘FORMAT_RAW’)

   * Delta filter:

        * ‘FILTER_DELTA’

   * Branch-Call-Jump (BCJ) filters:

        * ‘FILTER_X86’

        * ‘FILTER_IA64’

        * ‘FILTER_ARM’

        * ‘FILTER_ARMTHUMB’

        * ‘FILTER_POWERPC’

        * ‘FILTER_SPARC’

A filter chain can consist of up to 4 filters, and cannot be empty.  The
last filter in the chain must be a compression filter, and any other
filters must be delta or BCJ filters.

Compression filters support the following options (specified as
additional entries in the dictionary representing the filter):

   * ‘preset’: A compression preset to use as a source of default values
     for options that are not specified explicitly.

   * ‘dict_size’: Dictionary size in bytes.  This should be between 4
     KiB and 1.5 GiB (inclusive).

   * ‘lc’: Number of literal context bits.

   * ‘lp’: Number of literal position bits.  The sum ‘lc + lp’ must be
     at most 4.

   * ‘pb’: Number of position bits; must be at most 4.

   * ‘mode’: ‘MODE_FAST’ or ‘MODE_NORMAL’.

   * ‘nice_len’: What should be considered a "nice length" for a match.
     This should be 273 or less.

   * ‘mf’: What match finder to use - ‘MF_HC3’, ‘MF_HC4’, ‘MF_BT2’,
     ‘MF_BT3’, or ‘MF_BT4’.

   * ‘depth’: Maximum search depth used by match finder.  0 (default)
     means to select automatically based on other filter options.

The delta filter stores the differences between bytes, producing more
repetitive input for the compressor in certain circumstances.  It
supports one option, ‘dist’.  This indicates the distance between bytes
to be subtracted.  The default is 1, i.e.  take the differences between
adjacent bytes.

The BCJ filters are intended to be applied to machine code.  They
convert relative branches, calls and jumps in the code to use absolute
addressing, with the aim of increasing the redundancy that can be
exploited by the compressor.  These filters support one option,
‘start_offset’.  This specifies the address that should be mapped to the
beginning of the input data.  The default is 0.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<12>,  Prev: Specifying custom filter chains,  Up: lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮

5.13.4.5 範例
.............

Reading in a compressed file:

     import lzma
     with lzma.open("file.xz") as f:
         file_content = f.read()

Creating a compressed file:

     import lzma
     data = b"Insert Data Here"
     with lzma.open("file.xz", "w") as f:
         f.write(data)

Compressing data in memory:

     import lzma
     data_in = b"Insert Data Here"
     data_out = lzma.compress(data_in)

Incremental compression:

     import lzma
     lzc = lzma.LZMACompressor()
     out1 = lzc.compress(b"Some data\n")
     out2 = lzc.compress(b"Another piece of data\n")
     out3 = lzc.compress(b"Even more data\n")
     out4 = lzc.flush()
     # Concatenate all the partial results:
     result = b"".join([out1, out2, out3, out4])

Writing compressed data to an already-open file:

     import lzma
     with open("file.xz", "wb") as f:
         f.write(b"This data will not be compressed\n")
         with lzma.open(f, "w") as lzf:
             lzf.write(b"This *will* be compressed\n")
         f.write(b"Not compressed\n")

Creating a compressed file using a custom filter chain:

     import lzma
     my_filters = [
         {"id": lzma.FILTER_DELTA, "dist": 5},
         {"id": lzma.FILTER_LZMA2, "preset": 7 | lzma.PRESET_EXTREME},
     ]
     with lzma.open("file.xz", "w", filters=my_filters) as f:
         f.write(b"blah blah blah")


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案,  Next: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案,  Prev: lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮,  Up: 資料壓縮與保存

5.13.5 ‘zipfile’ -- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案
-------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/zipfile/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ZIP file format is a common archive and compression standard.  This
module provides tools to create, read, write, append, and list a ZIP
file.  Any advanced use of this module will require an understanding of
the format, as defined in PKZIP Application Note(2).

This module does not currently handle multi-disk ZIP files.  It can
handle ZIP files that use the ZIP64 extensions (that is ZIP files that
are more than 4 GiB in size).  It supports decryption of encrypted files
in ZIP archives, but it currently cannot create an encrypted file.
Decryption is extremely slow as it is implemented in native Python
rather than C.

The module defines the following items:

 -- 例外: zipfile.BadZipFile

     The error raised for bad ZIP files.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 例外: zipfile.BadZipfile

     Alias of *note BadZipFile: 15ab, for compatibility with older
     Python versions.

     在 3.2 版之後被棄用.

 -- 例外: zipfile.LargeZipFile

     The error raised when a ZIP file would require ZIP64 functionality
     but that has not been enabled.

 -- 類別: zipfile.ZipFile

     The class for reading and writing ZIP files.  See section *note
     ZipFile 物件: 271d. for constructor details.

 -- 類別: zipfile.Path

     Class that implements a subset of the interface provided by *note
     pathlib.Path: 149, including the full *note
     importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 22b. interface.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 類別: zipfile.PyZipFile

     Class for creating ZIP archives containing Python libraries.

 -- 類別: zipfile.ZipInfo (filename='NoName', date_time=(1980, 1, 1, 0,
          0, 0))

     Class used to represent information about a member of an archive.
     Instances of this class are returned by the *note getinfo(): 271e.
     and *note infolist(): 271f. methods of *note ZipFile: 4c3. objects.
     Most users of the *note zipfile: 12b. module will not need to
     create these, but only use those created by this module.
     'filename' should be the full name of the archive member, and
     'date_time' should be a tuple containing six fields which describe
     the time of the last modification to the file; the fields are
     described in section *note ZipInfo 物件: 2720.

 -- 函式: zipfile.is_zipfile (filename)

     Returns ‘True’ if 'filename' is a valid ZIP file based on its magic
     number, otherwise returns ‘False’.  'filename' may be a file or
     file-like object too.

     在 3.1 版的變更: Support for file and file-like objects.

 -- 資料: zipfile.ZIP_STORED

     The numeric constant for an uncompressed archive member.

 -- 資料: zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED

     The numeric constant for the usual ZIP compression method.  This
     requires the *note zlib: 12d. module.

 -- 資料: zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2

     The numeric constant for the BZIP2 compression method.  This
     requires the *note bz2: 11. module.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: zipfile.ZIP_LZMA

     The numeric constant for the LZMA compression method.  This
     requires the *note lzma: 85. module.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

          備註: The ZIP file format specification has included support
          for bzip2 compression since 2001, and for LZMA compression
          since 2006.  However, some tools (including older Python
          releases) do not support these compression methods, and may
          either refuse to process the ZIP file altogether, or fail to
          extract individual files.

也參考
......

PKZIP Application Note(3)

     Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of
     the format and algorithms used.

Info-ZIP 首頁(4)

     Information about the Info-ZIP project's ZIP archive programs and
     development libraries.

* Menu:

* ZipFile 物件::
* Path Objects::
* PyZipFile 物件::
* ZipInfo 物件::
* Command-Line Interface::
* Decompression pitfalls::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/zipfile/

   (2) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (3) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (4) https://infozip.sourceforge.net/


File: python.info,  Node: ZipFile 物件,  Next: Path Objects,  Up: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案

5.13.5.1 ZipFile 物件
.....................

 -- 類別: zipfile.ZipFile (file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED,
          allowZip64=True, compresslevel=None, *,
          strict_timestamps=True, metadata_encoding=None)

     Open a ZIP file, where 'file' can be a path to a file (a string), a
     file-like object or a *note path-like object: 975.

     The 'mode' parameter should be ‘'r'’ to read an existing file,
     ‘'w'’ to truncate and write a new file, ‘'a'’ to append to an
     existing file, or ‘'x'’ to exclusively create and write a new file.
     If 'mode' is ‘'x'’ and 'file' refers to an existing file, a *note
     FileExistsError: eb4. will be raised.  If 'mode' is ‘'a'’ and
     'file' refers to an existing ZIP file, then additional files are
     added to it.  If 'file' does not refer to a ZIP file, then a new
     ZIP archive is appended to the file.  This is meant for adding a
     ZIP archive to another file (such as ‘python.exe’).  If 'mode' is
     ‘'a'’ and the file does not exist at all, it is created.  If 'mode'
     is ‘'r'’ or ‘'a'’, the file should be seekable.

     'compression' is the ZIP compression method to use when writing the
     archive, and should be *note ZIP_STORED: 2721, *note ZIP_DEFLATED:
     2722, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 2723. or *note ZIP_LZMA: 2724.; unrecognized
     values will cause *note NotImplementedError: bc0. to be raised.  If
     *note ZIP_DEFLATED: 2722, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 2723. or *note ZIP_LZMA:
     2724. is specified but the corresponding module (*note zlib: 12d,
     *note bz2: 11. or *note lzma: 85.) is not available, *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. is raised.  The default is *note ZIP_STORED:
     2721.

     If 'allowZip64' is ‘True’ (the default) zipfile will create ZIP
     files that use the ZIP64 extensions when the zipfile is larger than
     4 GiB. If it is ‘false’ *note zipfile: 12b. will raise an exception
     when the ZIP file would require ZIP64 extensions.

     The 'compresslevel' parameter controls the compression level to use
     when writing files to the archive.  When using *note ZIP_STORED:
     2721. or *note ZIP_LZMA: 2724. it has no effect.  When using *note
     ZIP_DEFLATED: 2722. integers ‘0’ through ‘9’ are accepted (see
     *note zlib: 26d2. for more information).  When using *note
     ZIP_BZIP2: 2723. integers ‘1’ through ‘9’ are accepted (see *note
     bz2: 692. for more information).

     The 'strict_timestamps' argument, when set to ‘False’, allows to
     zip files older than 1980-01-01 at the cost of setting the
     timestamp to 1980-01-01.  Similar behavior occurs with files newer
     than 2107-12-31, the timestamp is also set to the limit.

     When mode is ‘'r'’, 'metadata_encoding' may be set to the name of a
     codec, which will be used to decode metadata such as the names of
     members and ZIP comments.

     If the file is created with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’ and then
     *note closed: 2726. without adding any files to the archive, the
     appropriate ZIP structures for an empty archive will be written to
     the file.

     ZipFile is also a context manager and therefore supports the *note
     with: 3c5. statement.  In the example, 'myzip' is closed after the
     ‘with’ statement's suite is finished--even if an exception occurs:

          with ZipFile('spam.zip', 'w') as myzip:
              myzip.write('eggs.txt')

          備註: 'metadata_encoding' is an instance-wide setting for the
          ZipFile.  It is not currently possible to set this on a
          per-member basis.

          This attribute is a workaround for legacy implementations
          which produce archives with names in the current locale
          encoding or code page (mostly on Windows).  According to the
          .ZIP standard, the encoding of metadata may be specified to be
          either IBM code page (default) or UTF-8 by a flag in the
          archive header.  That flag takes precedence over
          'metadata_encoding', which is a Python-specific extension.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 *note ZipFile: 4c3. 作為情境管理器使用的能力
     。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增對於 *note bzip2: 11. 和 *note lzma: 85. 壓縮
     的支援。

     在 3.4 版的變更: ZIP64 extensions are enabled by default.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Added support for writing to unseekable streams.
     Added support for the ‘'x'’ mode.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Previously, a plain *note RuntimeError: 17a. was
     raised for unrecognized compression values.

     在 3.6.2 版的變更: The 'file' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 975.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Add the 'compresslevel' parameter.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The 'strict_timestamps' keyword-only parameter.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Added support for specifying member name encoding
     for reading metadata in the zipfile's directory and file headers.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.close ()

     Close the archive file.  You must call *note close(): 2726. before
     exiting your program or essential records will not be written.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.getinfo (name)

     Return a *note ZipInfo: b78. object with information about the
     archive member 'name'.  Calling *note getinfo(): 271e. for a name
     not currently contained in the archive will raise a *note KeyError:
     8ed.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.infolist ()

     Return a list containing a *note ZipInfo: b78. object for each
     member of the archive.  The objects are in the same order as their
     entries in the actual ZIP file on disk if an existing archive was
     opened.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.namelist ()

     Return a list of archive members by name.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.open (name, mode='r', pwd=None, *, force_zip64=False)

     Access a member of the archive as a binary file-like object.
     'name' can be either the name of a file within the archive or a
     *note ZipInfo: b78. object.  The 'mode' parameter, if included,
     must be ‘'r'’ (the default) or ‘'w'’.  'pwd' is the password used
     to decrypt encrypted ZIP files as a *note bytes: 2c1. object.

     *note open(): b7a. is also a context manager and therefore supports
     the *note with: 3c5. statement:

          with ZipFile('spam.zip') as myzip:
              with myzip.open('eggs.txt') as myfile:
                  print(myfile.read())

     With 'mode' ‘'r'’ the file-like object (‘ZipExtFile’) is read-only
     and provides the following methods: *note read(): 11bc, *note
     readline(): 11bd, *note readlines(): 20c8, *note seek(): 1121,
     *note tell(): 2728, *note __iter__(): 1ab7, *note __next__(): 115d.
     These objects can operate independently of the ZipFile.

     With ‘mode='w'’, a writable file handle is returned, which supports
     the *note write(): b48. method.  While a writable file handle is
     open, attempting to read or write other files in the ZIP file will
     raise a *note ValueError: 183.

     When writing a file, if the file size is not known in advance but
     may exceed 2 GiB, pass ‘force_zip64=True’ to ensure that the header
     format is capable of supporting large files.  If the file size is
     known in advance, construct a *note ZipInfo: b78. object with *note
     file_size: 2729. set, and use that as the 'name' parameter.

          備註: The *note open(): b7a, *note read(): 272a. and *note
          extract(): 272b. methods can take a filename or a *note
          ZipInfo: b78. object.  You will appreciate this when trying to
          read a ZIP file that contains members with duplicate names.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Removed support of ‘mode='U'’.  Use *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. for reading compressed text files in *note
     universal newlines: bac. mode.

     在 3.6 版的變更: *note ZipFile.open(): b7a. can now be used to
     write files into the archive with the ‘mode='w'’ option.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Calling *note open(): b7a. on a closed ZipFile
     will raise a *note ValueError: 183.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. was raised.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.extract (member, path=None, pwd=None)

     Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory;
     'member' must be its full name or a *note ZipInfo: b78. object.
     Its file information is extracted as accurately as possible.
     'path' specifies a different directory to extract to.  'member' can
     be a filename or a *note ZipInfo: b78. object.  'pwd' is the
     password used for encrypted files as a *note bytes: 2c1. object.

     Returns the normalized path created (a directory or new file).

          備註: If a member filename is an absolute path, a drive/UNC
          sharepoint and leading (back)slashes will be stripped, e.g.:
          ‘///foo/bar’ becomes ‘foo/bar’ on Unix, and ‘C:\foo\bar’
          becomes ‘foo\bar’ on Windows.  And all ‘".."’ components in a
          member filename will be removed, e.g.: ‘../../foo../../ba..r’
          becomes ‘foo../ba..r’.  On Windows illegal characters (‘:’,
          ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘|’, ‘"’, ‘?’, and ‘*’) replaced by underscore
          (‘_’).

     在 3.6 版的變更: Calling *note extract(): 272b. on a closed ZipFile
     will raise a *note ValueError: 183.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. was raised.

     在 3.6.2 版的變更: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 975.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.extractall (path=None, members=None, pwd=None)

     Extract all members from the archive to the current working
     directory.  'path' specifies a different directory to extract to.
     'members' is optional and must be a subset of the list returned by
     *note namelist(): 2727.  'pwd' is the password used for encrypted
     files as a *note bytes: 2c1. object.

          警告: Never extract archives from untrusted sources without
          prior inspection.  It is possible that files are created
          outside of 'path', e.g.  members that have absolute filenames
          starting with ‘"/"’ or filenames with two dots ‘".."’.  This
          module attempts to prevent that.  See *note extract(): 272b.
          note.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Calling *note extractall(): 272c. on a closed
     ZipFile will raise a *note ValueError: 183.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. was raised.

     在 3.6.2 版的變更: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 975.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.printdir ()

     Print a table of contents for the archive to ‘sys.stdout’.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.setpassword (pwd)

     Set 'pwd' (a *note bytes: 2c1. object) as default password to
     extract encrypted files.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.read (name, pwd=None)

     Return the bytes of the file 'name' in the archive.  'name' is the
     name of the file in the archive, or a *note ZipInfo: b78. object.
     The archive must be open for read or append.  'pwd' is the password
     used for encrypted files as a *note bytes: 2c1. object and, if
     specified, overrides the default password set with *note
     setpassword(): 272e.  Calling *note read(): 272a. on a ZipFile that
     uses a compression method other than *note ZIP_STORED: 2721, *note
     ZIP_DEFLATED: 2722, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 2723. or *note ZIP_LZMA: 2724.
     will raise a *note NotImplementedError: bc0.  An error will also be
     raised if the corresponding compression module is not available.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Calling *note read(): 272a. on a closed ZipFile
     will raise a *note ValueError: 183.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. was raised.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.testzip ()

     Read all the files in the archive and check their CRC's and file
     headers.  Return the name of the first bad file, or else return
     ‘None’.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Calling *note testzip(): 272f. on a closed ZipFile
     will raise a *note ValueError: 183.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. was raised.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.write (filename, arcname=None, compress_type=None,
          compresslevel=None)

     Write the file named 'filename' to the archive, giving it the
     archive name 'arcname' (by default, this will be the same as
     'filename', but without a drive letter and with leading path
     separators removed).  If given, 'compress_type' overrides the value
     given for the 'compression' parameter to the constructor for the
     new entry.  Similarly, 'compresslevel' will override the
     constructor if given.  The archive must be open with mode ‘'w'’,
     ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’.

          備註: The ZIP file standard historically did not specify a
          metadata encoding, but strongly recommended CP437 (the
          original IBM PC encoding) for interoperability.  Recent
          versions allow use of UTF-8 (only).  In this module, UTF-8
          will automatically be used to write the member names if they
          contain any non-ASCII characters.  It is not possible to write
          member names in any encoding other than ASCII or UTF-8.

          備註: Archive names should be relative to the archive root,
          that is, they should not start with a path separator.

          備註: If ‘arcname’ (or ‘filename’, if ‘arcname’ is not given)
          contains a null byte, the name of the file in the archive will
          be truncated at the null byte.

          備註: A leading slash in the filename may lead to the archive
          being impossible to open in some zip programs on Windows
          systems.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Calling *note write(): bc1. on a ZipFile created
     with mode ‘'r'’ or a closed ZipFile will raise a *note ValueError:
     183.  Previously, a *note RuntimeError: 17a. was raised.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.writestr (zinfo_or_arcname, data, compress_type=None,
          compresslevel=None)

     Write a file into the archive.  The contents is 'data', which may
     be either a *note str: 157. or a *note bytes: 2c1. instance; if it
     is a *note str: 157, it is encoded as UTF-8 first.
     'zinfo_or_arcname' is either the file name it will be given in the
     archive, or a *note ZipInfo: b78. instance.  If it's an instance,
     at least the filename, date, and time must be given.  If it's a
     name, the date and time is set to the current date and time.  The
     archive must be opened with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’.

     If given, 'compress_type' overrides the value given for the
     'compression' parameter to the constructor for the new entry, or in
     the 'zinfo_or_arcname' (if that is a *note ZipInfo: b78. instance).
     Similarly, 'compresslevel' will override the constructor if given.

          備註: When passing a *note ZipInfo: b78. instance as the
          'zinfo_or_arcname' parameter, the compression method used will
          be that specified in the 'compress_type' member of the given
          *note ZipInfo: b78. instance.  By default, the *note ZipInfo:
          b78. constructor sets this member to *note ZIP_STORED: 2721.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 'compress_type' 引數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Calling *note writestr(): 11bf. on a ZipFile
     created with mode ‘'r'’ or a closed ZipFile will raise a *note
     ValueError: 183.  Previously, a *note RuntimeError: 17a. was
     raised.

 -- 方法: ZipFile.mkdir (zinfo_or_directory, mode=511)

     Create a directory inside the archive.  If 'zinfo_or_directory' is
     a string, a directory is created inside the archive with the mode
     that is specified in the 'mode' argument.  If, however,
     'zinfo_or_directory' is a *note ZipInfo: b78. instance then the
     'mode' argument is ignored.

     The archive must be opened with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

The following data attributes are also available:

 -- 屬性: ZipFile.filename

     Name of the ZIP file.

 -- 屬性: ZipFile.debug

     The level of debug output to use.  This may be set from ‘0’ (the
     default, no output) to ‘3’ (the most output).  Debugging
     information is written to ‘sys.stdout’.

 -- 屬性: ZipFile.comment

     The comment associated with the ZIP file as a *note bytes: 2c1.
     object.  If assigning a comment to a *note ZipFile: 4c3. instance
     created with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’, it should be no longer
     than 65535 bytes.  Comments longer than this will be truncated.


File: python.info,  Node: Path Objects,  Next: PyZipFile 物件,  Prev: ZipFile 物件,  Up: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案

5.13.5.2 Path Objects
.....................

 -- 類別: zipfile.Path (root, at='')

     Construct a Path object from a ‘root’ zipfile (which may be a *note
     ZipFile: 4c3. instance or ‘file’ suitable for passing to the *note
     ZipFile: 4c3. constructor).

     ‘at’ specifies the location of this Path within the zipfile, e.g.
     'dir/file.txt', 'dir/', or ''.  Defaults to the empty string,
     indicating the root.

Path objects expose the following features of *note pathlib.Path: 149.
objects:

Path objects are traversable using the ‘/’ operator or ‘joinpath’.

 -- 屬性: Path.name

     The final path component.

 -- 方法: Path.open (mode='r', *, pwd, **)

     Invoke *note ZipFile.open(): b7a. on the current path.  Allows
     opening for read or write, text or binary through supported modes:
     'r', 'w', 'rb', 'wb'.  Positional and keyword arguments are passed
     through to *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. when opened as text and
     ignored otherwise.  ‘pwd’ is the ‘pwd’ parameter to *note
     ZipFile.open(): b7a.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Added support for text and binary modes for open.
     Default mode is now text.

     在 3.11.2 版的變更: The ‘encoding’ parameter can be supplied as a
     positional argument without causing a *note TypeError: 2ba.  As it
     could in 3.9.  Code needing to be compatible with unpatched 3.10
     and 3.11 versions must pass all *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9.
     arguments, ‘encoding’ included, as keywords.

 -- 方法: Path.iterdir ()

     Enumerate the children of the current directory.

 -- 方法: Path.is_dir ()

     Return ‘True’ if the current context references a directory.

 -- 方法: Path.is_file ()

     Return ‘True’ if the current context references a file.

 -- 方法: Path.exists ()

     Return ‘True’ if the current context references a file or directory
     in the zip file.

 -- 資料: Path.suffix

     The file extension of the final component.

     在 3.11 版被加入: 新增 *note Path.suffix: 4c7. 特性。

 -- 資料: Path.stem

     The final path component, without its suffix.

     在 3.11 版被加入: 新增 *note Path.stem: 4c6. 特性。

 -- 資料: Path.suffixes

     A list of the path’s file extensions.

     在 3.11 版被加入: 新增 *note Path.suffixes: 4c8. 特性。

 -- 方法: Path.read_text (*, **)

     Read the current file as unicode text.  Positional and keyword
     arguments are passed through to *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9.
     (except ‘buffer’, which is implied by the context).

     在 3.11.2 版的變更: The ‘encoding’ parameter can be supplied as a
     positional argument without causing a *note TypeError: 2ba.  As it
     could in 3.9.  Code needing to be compatible with unpatched 3.10
     and 3.11 versions must pass all *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9.
     arguments, ‘encoding’ included, as keywords.

 -- 方法: Path.read_bytes ()

     Read the current file as bytes.

 -- 方法: Path.joinpath (*other)

     Return a new Path object with each of the 'other' arguments joined.
     The following are equivalent:

          >>> Path(...).joinpath('child').joinpath('grandchild')
          >>> Path(...).joinpath('child', 'grandchild')
          >>> Path(...) / 'child' / 'grandchild'

     在 3.10 版的變更: Prior to 3.10, ‘joinpath’ was undocumented and
     accepted exactly one parameter.

The zipp(1) project provides backports of the latest path object
functionality to older Pythons.  Use ‘zipp.Path’ in place of
‘zipfile.Path’ for early access to changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/zipp/


File: python.info,  Node: PyZipFile 物件,  Next: ZipInfo 物件,  Prev: Path Objects,  Up: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案

5.13.5.3 PyZipFile 物件
.......................

The *note PyZipFile: e8c. constructor takes the same parameters as the
*note ZipFile: 4c3. constructor, and one additional parameter,
'optimize'.

 -- 類別: zipfile.PyZipFile (file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED,
          allowZip64=True, optimize=-1)

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'optimize' 參數。

     在 3.4 版的變更: ZIP64 extensions are enabled by default.

     Instances have one method in addition to those of *note ZipFile:
     4c3. objects:

      -- 方法: writepy (pathname, basename='', filterfunc=None)

          Search for files ‘*.py’ and add the corresponding file to the
          archive.

          If the 'optimize' parameter to *note PyZipFile: e8c. was not
          given or ‘-1’, the corresponding file is a ‘*.pyc’ file,
          compiling if necessary.

          If the 'optimize' parameter to *note PyZipFile: e8c. was ‘0’,
          ‘1’ or ‘2’, only files with that optimization level (see *note
          compile(): 554.) are added to the archive, compiling if
          necessary.

          If 'pathname' is a file, the filename must end with ‘.py’, and
          just the (corresponding ‘*.pyc’) file is added at the top
          level (no path information).  If 'pathname' is a file that
          does not end with ‘.py’, a *note RuntimeError: 17a. will be
          raised.  If it is a directory, and the directory is not a
          package directory, then all the files ‘*.pyc’ are added at the
          top level.  If the directory is a package directory, then all
          ‘*.pyc’ are added under the package name as a file path, and
          if any subdirectories are package directories, all of these
          are added recursively in sorted order.

          'basename' is intended for internal use only.

          'filterfunc', if given, must be a function taking a single
          string argument.  It will be passed each path (including each
          individual full file path) before it is added to the archive.
          If 'filterfunc' returns a false value, the path will not be
          added, and if it is a directory its contents will be ignored.
          For example, if our test files are all either in ‘test’
          directories or start with the string ‘test_’, we can use a
          'filterfunc' to exclude them:

               >>> zf = PyZipFile('myprog.zip')
               >>> def notests(s):
               ...     fn = os.path.basename(s)
               ...     return (not (fn == 'test' or fn.startswith('test_')))
               ...
               >>> zf.writepy('myprog', filterfunc=notests)

          The *note writepy(): e8b. method makes archives with file
          names like this:

               string.pyc                   # Top level name
               test/__init__.pyc            # Package directory
               test/testall.pyc             # Module test.testall
               test/bogus/__init__.pyc      # Subpackage directory
               test/bogus/myfile.pyc        # Submodule test.bogus.myfile

          在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'filterfunc' 參數。

          在 3.6.2 版的變更: The 'pathname' parameter accepts a *note
          path-like object: 975.

          在 3.7 版的變更: Recursion sorts directory entries.


File: python.info,  Node: ZipInfo 物件,  Next: Command-Line Interface,  Prev: PyZipFile 物件,  Up: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案

5.13.5.4 ZipInfo 物件
.....................

Instances of the *note ZipInfo: b78. class are returned by the *note
getinfo(): 271e. and *note infolist(): 271f. methods of *note ZipFile:
4c3. objects.  Each object stores information about a single member of
the ZIP archive.

There is one classmethod to make a *note ZipInfo: b78. instance for a
filesystem file:

 -- 方法: classmethod ZipInfo.from_file (filename, arcname=None, *,
          strict_timestamps=True)

     Construct a *note ZipInfo: b78. instance for a file on the
     filesystem, in preparation for adding it to a zip file.

     'filename' should be the path to a file or directory on the
     filesystem.

     If 'arcname' is specified, it is used as the name within the
     archive.  If 'arcname' is not specified, the name will be the same
     as 'filename', but with any drive letter and leading path
     separators removed.

     The 'strict_timestamps' argument, when set to ‘False’, allows to
     zip files older than 1980-01-01 at the cost of setting the
     timestamp to 1980-01-01.  Similar behavior occurs with files newer
     than 2107-12-31, the timestamp is also set to the limit.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.6.2 版的變更: The 'filename' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 975.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'strict_timestamps' 僅限關鍵字參數。

Instances have the following methods and attributes:

 -- 方法: ZipInfo.is_dir ()

     Return ‘True’ if this archive member is a directory.

     This uses the entry's name: directories should always end with ‘/’.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.filename

     Name of the file in the archive.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.date_time

     The time and date of the last modification to the archive member.
     This is a tuple of six values:

     Index       Value
                 
     -------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         Year (>= 1980)
                 
                 
     ‘1’         Month (one-based)
                 
                 
     ‘2’         Day of month (one-based)
                 
                 
     ‘3’         Hours (zero-based)
                 
                 
     ‘4’         Minutes (zero-based)
                 
                 
     ‘5’         Seconds (zero-based)
                 

          備註: The ZIP file format does not support timestamps before
          1980.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.compress_type

     Type of compression for the archive member.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.comment

     Comment for the individual archive member as a *note bytes: 2c1.
     object.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.extra

     Expansion field data.  The PKZIP Application Note(1) contains some
     comments on the internal structure of the data contained in this
     *note bytes: 2c1. object.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.create_system

     System which created ZIP archive.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.create_version

     PKZIP version which created ZIP archive.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.extract_version

     PKZIP version needed to extract archive.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.reserved

     Must be zero.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.flag_bits

     ZIP flag bits.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.volume

     Volume number of file header.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.internal_attr

     Internal attributes.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.external_attr

     External file attributes.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.header_offset

     Byte offset to the file header.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.CRC

     CRC-32 of the uncompressed file.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.compress_size

     Size of the compressed data.

 -- 屬性: ZipInfo.file_size

     Size of the uncompressed file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface,  Next: Decompression pitfalls,  Prev: ZipInfo 物件,  Up: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案

5.13.5.5 Command-Line Interface
...............................

The *note zipfile: 12b. module provides a simple command-line interface
to interact with ZIP archives.

If you want to create a new ZIP archive, specify its name after the
*note -c: 2751. option and then list the filename(s) that should be
included:

     $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip spam.txt eggs.txt

Passing a directory is also acceptable:

     $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip life-of-brian_1979/

If you want to extract a ZIP archive into the specified directory, use
the *note -e: 2752. option:

     $ python -m zipfile -e monty.zip target-dir/

For a list of the files in a ZIP archive, use the *note -l: 2753.
option:

     $ python -m zipfile -l monty.zip

* Menu:

* Command-line options::


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line options,  Up: Command-Line Interface

5.13.5.6 Command-line options
.............................

 -- Option: -l <zipfile>
 -- Option: --list <zipfile>

     List files in a zipfile.

 -- Option: -c <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
 -- Option: --create <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

     Create zipfile from source files.

 -- Option: -e <zipfile> <output_dir>
 -- Option: --extract <zipfile> <output_dir>

     Extract zipfile into target directory.

 -- Option: -t <zipfile>
 -- Option: --test <zipfile>

     Test whether the zipfile is valid or not.

 -- Option: --metadata-encoding <encoding>

     Specify encoding of member names for *note -l: 2753, *note -e:
     2752. and *note -t: 2758.

     在 3.11 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Decompression pitfalls,  Prev: Command-Line Interface,  Up: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案

5.13.5.7 Decompression pitfalls
...............................

The extraction in zipfile module might fail due to some pitfalls listed
below.

* Menu:

* From file itself::
* File System limitations::
* Resources limitations::
* Interruption::
* Default behaviors of extraction::


File: python.info,  Node: From file itself,  Next: File System limitations,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.13.5.8 From file itself
.........................

Decompression may fail due to incorrect password / CRC checksum / ZIP
format or unsupported compression method / decryption.


File: python.info,  Node: File System limitations,  Next: Resources limitations,  Prev: From file itself,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.13.5.9 File System limitations
................................

Exceeding limitations on different file systems can cause decompression
failed.  Such as allowable characters in the directory entries, length
of the file name, length of the pathname, size of a single file, and
number of files, etc.


File: python.info,  Node: Resources limitations,  Next: Interruption,  Prev: File System limitations,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.13.5.10 Resources limitations
...............................

The lack of memory or disk volume would lead to decompression failed.
For example, decompression bombs (aka ZIP bomb(1)) apply to zipfile
library that can cause disk volume exhaustion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb


File: python.info,  Node: Interruption,  Next: Default behaviors of extraction,  Prev: Resources limitations,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.13.5.11 Interruption
......................

Interruption during the decompression, such as pressing control-C or
killing the decompression process may result in incomplete decompression
of the archive.


File: python.info,  Node: Default behaviors of extraction,  Prev: Interruption,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.13.5.12 Default behaviors of extraction
.........................................

Not knowing the default extraction behaviors can cause unexpected
decompression results.  For example, when extracting the same archive
twice, it overwrites files without asking.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案,  Prev: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案,  Up: 資料壓縮與保存

5.13.6 ‘tarfile’ -- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案
-------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tarfile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tarfile: d8. module makes it possible to read and write tar
archives, including those using gzip, bz2 and lzma compression.  Use the
*note zipfile: 12b. module to read or write ‘.zip’ files, or the
higher-level functions in *note shutil: 10aa.

Some facts and figures:

   * reads and writes *note gzip: 62, *note bz2: 11. and *note lzma: 85.
     compressed archives if the respective modules are available.

   * read/write support for the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) format.

   * read/write support for the GNU tar format including 'longname' and
     'longlink' extensions, read-only support for all variants of the
     'sparse' extension including restoration of sparse files.

   * read/write support for the POSIX.1-2001 (pax) format.

   * handles directories, regular files, hardlinks, symbolic links,
     fifos, character devices and block devices and is able to acquire
     and restore file information like timestamp, access permissions and
     owner.

在 3.3 版的變更: Added support for *note lzma: 85. compression.

在 3.12 版的變更: Archives are extracted using a *note filter: 185,
which makes it possible to either limit surprising/dangerous features,
or to acknowledge that they are expected and the archive is fully
trusted.  By default, archives are fully trusted, but this default is
deprecated and slated to change in Python 3.14.

 -- 函式: tarfile.open (name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None,
          bufsize=10240, **kwargs)

     Return a *note TarFile: 10a1. object for the pathname 'name'.  For
     detailed information on *note TarFile: 10a1. objects and the
     keyword arguments that are allowed, see *note TarFile 物件: 2764.

     'mode' has to be a string of the form ‘'filemode[:compression]'’,
     it defaults to ‘'r'’.  Here is a full list of mode combinations:

     mode                   action
                            
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
     ‘'r' 或 'r:*'’         Open for reading with transparent compression
                            (recommended).
                            
                            
     ‘'r:'’                 Open for reading exclusively without
                            compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:gz'’               Open for reading with gzip compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:bz2'’              Open for reading with bzip2 compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:xz'’               Open for reading with lzma compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'x'’ 或 ‘'x:'’        Create a tarfile exclusively without
                            compression.  Raise a
                            *note FileExistsError: eb4. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:gz'’               Create a tarfile with gzip compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: eb4. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:bz2'’              Create a tarfile with bzip2 compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: eb4. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:xz'’               Create a tarfile with lzma compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: eb4. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'a' 或 'a:'’          Open for appending with no compression.  The
                            file is created if it does not exist.
                            
                            
     ‘'w' 或 'w:'’          Open for uncompressed writing.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:gz'’               Open for gzip compressed writing.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:bz2'’              Open for bzip2 compressed writing.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:xz'’               Open for lzma compressed writing.
                            

     Note that ‘'a:gz'’, ‘'a:bz2'’ or ‘'a:xz'’ is not possible.  If
     'mode' is not suitable to open a certain (compressed) file for
     reading, *note ReadError: 166d. is raised.  Use 'mode' ‘'r'’ to
     avoid this.  If a compression method is not supported, *note
     CompressionError: 2765. is raised.

     If 'fileobj' is specified, it is used as an alternative to a *note
     file object: 1054. opened in binary mode for 'name'.  It is
     supposed to be at position 0.

     For modes ‘'w:gz'’, ‘'x:gz'’, ‘'w|gz'’, ‘'w:bz2'’, ‘'x:bz2'’,
     ‘'w|bz2'’, *note tarfile.open(): cf6. accepts the keyword argument
     'compresslevel' (default ‘9’) to specify the compression level of
     the file.

     For modes ‘'w:xz'’ and ‘'x:xz'’, *note tarfile.open(): cf6. accepts
     the keyword argument 'preset' to specify the compression level of
     the file.

     For special purposes, there is a second format for 'mode':
     ‘'filemode|[compression]'’.  *note tarfile.open(): cf6. will return
     a *note TarFile: 10a1. object that processes its data as a stream
     of blocks.  No random seeking will be done on the file.  If given,
     'fileobj' may be any object that has a *note read(): c96. or *note
     write(): 2766. method (depending on the 'mode') that works with
     bytes.  'bufsize' specifies the blocksize and defaults to ‘20 *
     512’ bytes.  Use this variant in combination with e.g.
     ‘sys.stdin.buffer’, a socket *note file object: 1054. or a tape
     device.  However, such a *note TarFile: 10a1. object is limited in
     that it does not allow random access, see *note 範例: 2767.  The
     currently possible modes:

     Mode              Action
                       
     -------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
     ‘'r|*'’           Open a 'stream' of tar blocks for reading with
                       transparent compression.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|'’            Open a 'stream' of uncompressed tar blocks for
                       reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|gz'’          Open a gzip compressed 'stream' for reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|bz2'’         Open a bzip2 compressed 'stream' for reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|xz'’          Open an lzma compressed 'stream' for reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|'’            Open an uncompressed 'stream' for writing.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|gz'’          Open a gzip compressed 'stream' for writing.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|bz2'’         Open a bzip2 compressed 'stream' for writing.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|xz'’          Open an lzma compressed 'stream' for writing.
                       

     在 3.5 版的變更: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was added.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The 'name' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 975.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The 'compresslevel' keyword argument also works
     for streams.

 -- 類別: tarfile.TarFile

     Class for reading and writing tar archives.  Do not use this class
     directly: use *note tarfile.open(): cf6. instead.  See *note
     TarFile 物件: 2764.

 -- 函式: tarfile.is_tarfile (name)

     Return *note True: a70. if 'name' is a tar archive file, that the
     *note tarfile: d8. module can read.  'name' may be a *note str:
     157, file, or file-like object.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Support for file and file-like objects.

The *note tarfile: d8. module defines the following exceptions:

 -- 例外: tarfile.TarError

     Base class for all *note tarfile: d8. exceptions.

 -- 例外: tarfile.ReadError

     Is raised when a tar archive is opened, that either cannot be
     handled by the *note tarfile: d8. module or is somehow invalid.

 -- 例外: tarfile.CompressionError

     Is raised when a compression method is not supported or when the
     data cannot be decoded properly.

 -- 例外: tarfile.StreamError

     Is raised for the limitations that are typical for stream-like
     *note TarFile: 10a1. objects.

 -- 例外: tarfile.ExtractError

     Is raised for 'non-fatal' errors when using *note
     TarFile.extract(): cf8, but only if *note TarFile.errorlevel:
     276b.‘== 2’.

 -- 例外: tarfile.HeaderError

     Is raised by *note TarInfo.frombuf(): 276d. if the buffer it gets
     is invalid.

 -- 例外: tarfile.FilterError

     Base class for members *note refused: 276f. by filters.

      -- 屬性: tarinfo

          Information about the member that the filter refused to
          extract, as *note TarInfo: 2771.

 -- 例外: tarfile.AbsolutePathError

     Raised to refuse extracting a member with an absolute path.

 -- 例外: tarfile.OutsideDestinationError

     Raised to refuse extracting a member outside the destination
     directory.

 -- 例外: tarfile.SpecialFileError

     Raised to refuse extracting a special file (e.g.  a device or
     pipe).

 -- 例外: tarfile.AbsoluteLinkError

     Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link with an absolute path.

 -- 例外: tarfile.LinkOutsideDestinationError

     Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link pointing outside the
     destination directory.

The following constants are available at the module level:

 -- 資料: tarfile.ENCODING

     The default character encoding: ‘'utf-8'’ on Windows, the value
     returned by *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): abf. otherwise.

 -- 資料: tarfile.REGTYPE
 -- 資料: tarfile.AREGTYPE

     A regular file *note type: 277a.

 -- 資料: tarfile.LNKTYPE

     A link (inside tarfile) *note type: 277a.

 -- 資料: tarfile.SYMTYPE

     A symbolic link *note type: 277a.

 -- 資料: tarfile.CHRTYPE

     A character special device *note type: 277a.

 -- 資料: tarfile.BLKTYPE

     A block special device *note type: 277a.

 -- 資料: tarfile.DIRTYPE

     A directory *note type: 277a.

 -- 資料: tarfile.FIFOTYPE

     A FIFO special device *note type: 277a.

 -- 資料: tarfile.CONTTYPE

     A contiguous file *note type: 277a.

 -- 資料: tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGNAME

     A GNU tar longname *note type: 277a.

 -- 資料: tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGLINK

     A GNU tar longlink *note type: 277a.

 -- 資料: tarfile.GNUTYPE_SPARSE

     A GNU tar sparse file *note type: 277a.

Each of the following constants defines a tar archive format that the
*note tarfile: d8. module is able to create.  See section *note
Supported tar formats: 2785. for details.

 -- 資料: tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT

     POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) format.

 -- 資料: tarfile.GNU_FORMAT

     GNU tar format.

 -- 資料: tarfile.PAX_FORMAT

     POSIX.1-2001 (pax) format.

 -- 資料: tarfile.DEFAULT_FORMAT

     The default format for creating archives.  This is currently *note
     PAX_FORMAT: 2788.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The default format for new archives was changed to
     *note PAX_FORMAT: 2788. from *note GNU_FORMAT: 2787.

也參考
......

*note zipfile: 12b. 模組

     Documentation of the *note zipfile: 12b. standard module.

*note Archiving operations: 10aa.

     Documentation of the higher-level archiving facilities provided by
     the standard *note shutil: c0. module.

GNU tar manual, Basic Tar Format(2)

     Documentation for tar archive files, including GNU tar extensions.

* Menu:

* TarFile 物件::
* TarInfo 物件::
* Extraction filters::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<2>.
* 範例: 範例<13>.
* Supported tar formats::
* Unicode issues::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tarfile.py

   (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/tar/manual/html_node/Standard.html


File: python.info,  Node: TarFile 物件,  Next: TarInfo 物件,  Up: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案

5.13.6.1 TarFile 物件
.....................

The *note TarFile: 10a1. object provides an interface to a tar archive.
A tar archive is a sequence of blocks.  An archive member (a stored
file) is made up of a header block followed by data blocks.  It is
possible to store a file in a tar archive several times.  Each archive
member is represented by a *note TarInfo: 10a2. object, see *note
TarInfo 物件: 2771. for details.

A *note TarFile: 10a1. object can be used as a context manager in a
*note with: 3c5. statement.  It will automatically be closed when the
block is completed.  Please note that in the event of an exception an
archive opened for writing will not be finalized; only the internally
used file object will be closed.  See the *note 範例: 2767. section for
a use case.

在 3.2 版被加入: Added support for the context management protocol.

 -- 類別: tarfile.TarFile (name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None,
          format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, tarinfo=TarInfo, dereference=False,
          ignore_zeros=False, encoding=ENCODING,
          errors='surrogateescape', pax_headers=None, debug=0,
          errorlevel=1)

     All following arguments are optional and can be accessed as
     instance attributes as well.

     'name' is the pathname of the archive.  'name' may be a *note
     path-like object: 975.  It can be omitted if 'fileobj' is given.
     In this case, the file object's ‘name’ attribute is used if it
     exists.

     'mode' is either ‘'r'’ to read from an existing archive, ‘'a'’ to
     append data to an existing file, ‘'w'’ to create a new file
     overwriting an existing one, or ‘'x'’ to create a new file only if
     it does not already exist.

     If 'fileobj' is given, it is used for reading or writing data.  If
     it can be determined, 'mode' is overridden by 'fileobj"s mode.
     'fileobj' will be used from position 0.

          備註: 'fileobj' is not closed, when *note TarFile: 10a1. is
          closed.

     'format' controls the archive format for writing.  It must be one
     of the constants *note USTAR_FORMAT: 2786, *note GNU_FORMAT: 2787.
     or *note PAX_FORMAT: 2788. that are defined at module level.  When
     reading, format will be automatically detected, even if different
     formats are present in a single archive.

     The 'tarinfo' argument can be used to replace the default *note
     TarInfo: 10a2. class with a different one.

     If 'dereference' is *note False: 98f, add symbolic and hard links
     to the archive.  If it is *note True: a70, add the content of the
     target files to the archive.  This has no effect on systems that do
     not support symbolic links.

     If 'ignore_zeros' is *note False: 98f, treat an empty block as the
     end of the archive.  If it is *note True: a70, skip empty (and
     invalid) blocks and try to get as many members as possible.  This
     is only useful for reading concatenated or damaged archives.

     'debug' can be set from ‘0’ (no debug messages) up to ‘3’ (all
     debug messages).  The messages are written to ‘sys.stderr’.

     'errorlevel' controls how extraction errors are handled, see *note
     the corresponding attribute: 276b.

     The 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments define the character encoding
     to be used for reading or writing the archive and how conversion
     errors are going to be handled.  The default settings will work for
     most users.  See section *note Unicode issues: 278b. for in-depth
     information.

     The 'pax_headers' argument is an optional dictionary of strings
     which will be added as a pax global header if 'format' is *note
     PAX_FORMAT: 2788.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Use ‘'surrogateescape'’ as the default for the
     'errors' argument.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was added.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The 'name' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 975.

 -- 方法: classmethod TarFile.open (...)

     Alternative constructor.  The *note tarfile.open(): cf6. function
     is actually a shortcut to this classmethod.

 -- 方法: TarFile.getmember (name)

     Return a *note TarInfo: 10a2. object for member 'name'.  If 'name'
     can not be found in the archive, *note KeyError: 8ed. is raised.

          備註: If a member occurs more than once in the archive, its
          last occurrence is assumed to be the most up-to-date version.

 -- 方法: TarFile.getmembers ()

     Return the members of the archive as a list of *note TarInfo: 10a2.
     objects.  The list has the same order as the members in the
     archive.

 -- 方法: TarFile.getnames ()

     Return the members as a list of their names.  It has the same order
     as the list returned by *note getmembers(): cfa.

 -- 方法: TarFile.list (verbose=True, *, members=None)

     Print a table of contents to ‘sys.stdout’.  If 'verbose' is *note
     False: 98f, only the names of the members are printed.  If it is
     *note True: a70, output similar to that of ‘ls -l’ is produced.  If
     optional 'members' is given, it must be a subset of the list
     returned by *note getmembers(): cfa.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'members' 參數。

 -- 方法: TarFile.next ()

     Return the next member of the archive as a *note TarInfo: 10a2.
     object, when *note TarFile: 10a1. is opened for reading.  Return
     *note None: 470. if there is no more available.

 -- 方法: TarFile.extractall (path='.', members=None, *,
          numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

     Extract all members from the archive to the current working
     directory or directory 'path'.  If optional 'members' is given, it
     must be a subset of the list returned by *note getmembers(): cfa.
     Directory information like owner, modification time and permissions
     are set after all members have been extracted.  This is done to
     work around two problems: A directory's modification time is reset
     each time a file is created in it.  And, if a directory's
     permissions do not allow writing, extracting files to it will fail.

     If 'numeric_owner' is *note True: a70, the uid and gid numbers from
     the tarfile are used to set the owner/group for the extracted
     files.  Otherwise, the named values from the tarfile are used.

     The 'filter' argument specifies how ‘members’ are modified or
     rejected before extraction.  See *note Extraction filters: 185. for
     details.  It is recommended to set this explicitly depending on
     which 'tar' features you need to support.

          警告: Never extract archives from untrusted sources without
          prior inspection.  It is possible that files are created
          outside of 'path', e.g.  members that have absolute filenames
          starting with ‘"/"’ or filenames with two dots ‘".."’.

          Set ‘filter='data'’ to prevent the most dangerous security
          issues, and read the *note Extraction filters: 185. section
          for details.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'numeric_owner' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 975.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'filter' 參數。

 -- 方法: TarFile.extract (member, path='', set_attrs=True, *,
          numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

     Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory,
     using its full name.  Its file information is extracted as
     accurately as possible.  'member' may be a filename or a *note
     TarInfo: 10a2. object.  You can specify a different directory using
     'path'.  'path' may be a *note path-like object: 975.  File
     attributes (owner, mtime, mode) are set unless 'set_attrs' is
     false.

     The 'numeric_owner' and 'filter' arguments are the same as for
     *note extractall(): cf7.

          備註: The *note extract(): cf8. method does not take care of
          several extraction issues.  In most cases you should consider
          using the *note extractall(): cf7. method.

          警告: 參閱 *note extractall(): cf7. 的警告。

          Set ‘filter='data'’ to prevent the most dangerous security
          issues, and read the *note Extraction filters: 185. section
          for details.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 增加 'set_attrs' 參數。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'numeric_owner' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 975.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'filter' 參數。

 -- 方法: TarFile.extractfile (member)

     Extract a member from the archive as a file object.  'member' may
     be a filename or a *note TarInfo: 10a2. object.  If 'member' is a
     regular file or a link, an *note io.BufferedReader: 109f. object is
     returned.  For all other existing members, *note None: 470. is
     returned.  If 'member' does not appear in the archive, *note
     KeyError: 8ed. is raised.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Return an *note io.BufferedReader: 109f. object.

 -- 屬性: TarFile.errorlevel: *note int: 17e.

     If 'errorlevel' is ‘0’, errors are ignored when using *note
     TarFile.extract(): cf8. and *note TarFile.extractall(): cf7.
     Nevertheless, they appear as error messages in the debug output
     when 'debug' is greater than 0.  If ‘1’ (the default), all 'fatal'
     errors are raised as *note OSError: 644. or *note FilterError:
     276e. exceptions.  If ‘2’, all 'non-fatal' errors are raised as
     *note TarError: 2768. exceptions as well.

     Some exceptions, e.g.  ones caused by wrong argument types or data
     corruption, are always raised.

     Custom *note extraction filters: 185. should raise *note
     FilterError: 276e. for 'fatal' errors and *note ExtractError: 276a.
     for 'non-fatal' ones.

     Note that when an exception is raised, the archive may be partially
     extracted.  It is the user’s responsibility to clean up.

 -- 屬性: TarFile.extraction_filter

     在 3.12 版被加入.

     The *note extraction filter: 185. used as a default for the
     'filter' argument of *note extract(): cf8. and *note extractall():
     cf7.

     The attribute may be ‘None’ or a callable.  String names are not
     allowed for this attribute, unlike the 'filter' argument to *note
     extract(): cf8.

     If ‘extraction_filter’ is ‘None’ (the default), calling an
     extraction method without a 'filter' argument will raise a
     ‘DeprecationWarning’, and fall back to the *note fully_trusted:
     2790. filter, whose dangerous behavior matches previous versions of
     Python.

     In Python 3.14+, leaving ‘extraction_filter=None’ will cause
     extraction methods to use the *note data: 1495. filter by default.

     The attribute may be set on instances or overridden in subclasses.
     It also is possible to set it on the ‘TarFile’ class itself to set
     a global default, although, since it affects all uses of 'tarfile',
     it is best practice to only do so in top-level applications or
     *note site configuration: c2.  To set a global default this way, a
     filter function needs to be wrapped in *note staticmethod(): 5f9.
     to prevent injection of a ‘self’ argument.

 -- 方法: TarFile.add (name, arcname=None, recursive=True, *,
          filter=None)

     Add the file 'name' to the archive.  'name' may be any type of file
     (directory, fifo, symbolic link, etc.).  If given, 'arcname'
     specifies an alternative name for the file in the archive.
     Directories are added recursively by default.  This can be avoided
     by setting 'recursive' to *note False: 98f.  Recursion adds entries
     in sorted order.  If 'filter' is given, it should be a function
     that takes a *note TarInfo: 10a2. object argument and returns the
     changed *note TarInfo: 10a2. object.  If it instead returns *note
     None: 470. the *note TarInfo: 10a2. object will be excluded from
     the archive.  See *note 範例: 2767. for an example.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'filter' 參數。

     在 3.7 版的變更: Recursion adds entries in sorted order.

 -- 方法: TarFile.addfile (tarinfo, fileobj=None)

     Add the *note TarInfo: 10a2. object 'tarinfo' to the archive.  If
     'fileobj' is given, it should be a *note binary file: 1a7c, and
     ‘tarinfo.size’ bytes are read from it and added to the archive.
     You can create *note TarInfo: 10a2. objects directly, or by using
     *note gettarinfo(): 2792.

 -- 方法: TarFile.gettarinfo (name=None, arcname=None, fileobj=None)

     Create a *note TarInfo: 10a2. object from the result of *note
     os.stat(): 1bf. or equivalent on an existing file.  The file is
     either named by 'name', or specified as a *note file object: 1054.
     'fileobj' with a file descriptor.  'name' may be a *note path-like
     object: 975.  If given, 'arcname' specifies an alternative name for
     the file in the archive, otherwise, the name is taken from
     'fileobj'’s *note name: 2793. attribute, or the 'name' argument.
     The name should be a text string.

     You can modify some of the *note TarInfo: 10a2.’s attributes before
     you add it using *note addfile(): 2791.  If the file object is not
     an ordinary file object positioned at the beginning of the file,
     attributes such as *note size: 2794. may need modifying.  This is
     the case for objects such as *note GzipFile: 28d.  The *note name:
     2795. may also be modified, in which case 'arcname' could be a
     dummy string.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The 'name' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 975.

 -- 方法: TarFile.close ()

     Close the *note TarFile: 10a1.  In write mode, two finishing zero
     blocks are appended to the archive.

 -- 屬性: TarFile.pax_headers: *note dict: 239.

     A dictionary containing key-value pairs of pax global headers.


File: python.info,  Node: TarInfo 物件,  Next: Extraction filters,  Prev: TarFile 物件,  Up: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案

5.13.6.2 TarInfo 物件
.....................

A *note TarInfo: 10a2. object represents one member in a *note TarFile:
10a1.  Aside from storing all required attributes of a file (like file
type, size, time, permissions, owner etc.), it provides some useful
methods to determine its type.  It does 'not' contain the file's data
itself.

*note TarInfo: 10a2. objects are returned by *note TarFile: 10a1.'s
methods *note getmember(): 1626, *note getmembers(): cfa. and *note
gettarinfo(): 2792.

Modifying the objects returned by *note getmember(): 1626. or *note
getmembers(): cfa. will affect all subsequent operations on the archive.
For cases where this is unwanted, you can use *note copy.copy(): 23. or
call the *note replace(): 2799. method to create a modified copy in one
step.

Several attributes can be set to ‘None’ to indicate that a piece of
metadata is unused or unknown.  Different *note TarInfo: 10a2. methods
handle ‘None’ differently:

   - The *note extract(): cf8. or *note extractall(): cf7. methods will
     ignore the corresponding metadata, leaving it set to a default.

   - *note addfile(): 2791. will fail.

   - *note list(): cf9. will print a placeholder string.

 -- 類別: tarfile.TarInfo (name='')

     Create a *note TarInfo: 10a2. object.

 -- 方法: classmethod TarInfo.frombuf (buf, encoding, errors)

     Create and return a *note TarInfo: 10a2. object from string buffer
     'buf'.

     Raises *note HeaderError: 276c. if the buffer is invalid.

 -- 方法: classmethod TarInfo.fromtarfile (tarfile)

     Read the next member from the *note TarFile: 10a1. object 'tarfile'
     and return it as a *note TarInfo: 10a2. object.

 -- 方法: TarInfo.tobuf (format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, encoding=ENCODING,
          errors='surrogateescape')

     Create a string buffer from a *note TarInfo: 10a2. object.  For
     information on the arguments see the constructor of the *note
     TarFile: 10a1. class.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Use ‘'surrogateescape'’ as the default for the
     'errors' argument.

A ‘TarInfo’ object has the following public data attributes:

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.name: *note str: 157.

     Name of the archive member.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.size: *note int: 17e.

     Size in bytes.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.mtime: *note int: 17e. | *note float: 26a.

     Time of last modification in seconds since the *note epoch: 279d,
     as in *note os.stat_result.st_mtime: 26e3.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): cf8.
     and *note extractall(): cf7, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.mode: *note int: 17e.

     Permission bits, as for *note os.chmod(): f7c.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): cf8.
     and *note extractall(): cf7, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.type

     File type.  'type' is usually one of these constants: *note
     REGTYPE: 2778, *note AREGTYPE: 2779, *note LNKTYPE: 277b, *note
     SYMTYPE: 277c, *note DIRTYPE: 277f, *note FIFOTYPE: 2780, *note
     CONTTYPE: 2781, *note CHRTYPE: 277d, *note BLKTYPE: 277e, *note
     GNUTYPE_SPARSE: 2784.  To determine the type of a *note TarInfo:
     10a2. object more conveniently, use the ‘is*()’ methods below.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.linkname: *note str: 157.

     Name of the target file name, which is only present in *note
     TarInfo: 10a2. objects of type *note LNKTYPE: 277b. and *note
     SYMTYPE: 277c.

     For symbolic links (‘SYMTYPE’), the 'linkname' is relative to the
     directory that contains the link.  For hard links (‘LNKTYPE’), the
     'linkname' is relative to the root of the archive.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.uid: *note int: 17e.

     User ID of the user who originally stored this member.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): cf8.
     and *note extractall(): cf7, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.gid: *note int: 17e.

     Group ID of the user who originally stored this member.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): cf8.
     and *note extractall(): cf7, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.uname: *note str: 157.

     User name.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): cf8.
     and *note extractall(): cf7, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.gname: *note str: 157.

     Group name.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): cf8.
     and *note extractall(): cf7, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.chksum: *note int: 17e.

     Header checksum.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.devmajor: *note int: 17e.

     Device major number.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.devminor: *note int: 17e.

     Device minor number.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.offset: *note int: 17e.

     The tar header starts here.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.offset_data: *note int: 17e.

     The file's data starts here.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.sparse

     Sparse member information.

 -- 屬性: TarInfo.pax_headers: *note dict: 239.

     A dictionary containing key-value pairs of an associated pax
     extended header.

 -- 方法: TarInfo.replace (name=..., mtime=..., mode=..., linkname=...,
          uid=..., gid=..., uname=..., gname=..., deep=True)

     在 3.12 版被加入.

     Return a 'new' copy of the ‘TarInfo’ object with the given
     attributes changed.  For example, to return a ‘TarInfo’ with the
     group name set to ‘'staff'’, use:

          new_tarinfo = old_tarinfo.replace(gname='staff')

     By default, a deep copy is made.  If 'deep' is false, the copy is
     shallow, i.e.  ‘pax_headers’ and any custom attributes are shared
     with the original ‘TarInfo’ object.

A *note TarInfo: 10a2. object also provides some convenient query
methods:

 -- 方法: TarInfo.isfile ()

     Return *note True: a70. if the *note TarInfo: 10a2. object is a
     regular file.

 -- 方法: TarInfo.isreg ()

     Same as *note isfile(): 27ab.

 -- 方法: TarInfo.isdir ()

     Return *note True: a70. if it is a directory.

 -- 方法: TarInfo.issym ()

     Return *note True: a70. if it is a symbolic link.

 -- 方法: TarInfo.islnk ()

     Return *note True: a70. if it is a hard link.

 -- 方法: TarInfo.ischr ()

     Return *note True: a70. if it is a character device.

 -- 方法: TarInfo.isblk ()

     Return *note True: a70. if it is a block device.

 -- 方法: TarInfo.isfifo ()

     Return *note True: a70. if it is a FIFO.

 -- 方法: TarInfo.isdev ()

     Return *note True: a70. if it is one of character device, block
     device or FIFO.


File: python.info,  Node: Extraction filters,  Next: Command-Line Interface<2>,  Prev: TarInfo 物件,  Up: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案

5.13.6.3 Extraction filters
...........................

在 3.12 版被加入.

The 'tar' format is designed to capture all details of a UNIX-like
filesystem, which makes it very powerful.  Unfortunately, the features
make it easy to create tar files that have unintended - and possibly
malicious - effects when extracted.  For example, extracting a tar file
can overwrite arbitrary files in various ways (e.g.  by using absolute
paths, ‘..’ path components, or symlinks that affect later members).

In most cases, the full functionality is not needed.  Therefore,
'tarfile' supports extraction filters: a mechanism to limit
functionality, and thus mitigate some of the security issues.

也參考
......

PEP 706(1)

     Contains further motivation and rationale behind the design.

The 'filter' argument to *note TarFile.extract(): cf8. or *note
extractall(): cf7. can be:

   * the string ‘'fully_trusted'’: Honor all metadata as specified in
     the archive.  Should be used if the user trusts the archive
     completely, or implements their own complex verification.

   * the string ‘'tar'’: Honor most 'tar'-specific features (i.e.
     features of UNIX-like filesystems), but block features that are
     very likely to be surprising or malicious.  See *note tar_filter():
     27b5. for details.

   * the string ‘'data'’: Ignore or block most features specific to
     UNIX-like filesystems.  Intended for extracting cross-platform data
     archives.  See *note data_filter(): 1495. for details.

   * ‘None’ (default): Use *note TarFile.extraction_filter: 278f.

     If that is also ‘None’ (the default), raise a ‘DeprecationWarning’,
     and fall back to the ‘'fully_trusted'’ filter, whose dangerous
     behavior matches previous versions of Python.

     In Python 3.14, the ‘'data'’ filter will become the default
     instead.  It's possible to switch earlier; see *note
     TarFile.extraction_filter: 278f.

   * A callable which will be called for each extracted member with a
     *note TarInfo: 2771. describing the member and the destination path
     to where the archive is extracted (i.e.  the same path is used for
     all members):

          filter(member: TarInfo, path: str, /) -> TarInfo | None

     The callable is called just before each member is extracted, so it
     can take the current state of the disk into account.  It can:

        - return a *note TarInfo: 10a2. object which will be used
          instead of the metadata in the archive, or

        - return ‘None’, in which case the member will be skipped, or

        - raise an exception to abort the operation or skip the member,
          depending on *note errorlevel: 276b.  Note that when
          extraction is aborted, *note extractall(): cf7. may leave the
          archive partially extracted.  It does not attempt to clean up.

* Menu:

* Default named filters::
* Filter errors::
* Hints for further verification::
* Supporting older Python versions::
* Stateful extraction filter example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Default named filters,  Next: Filter errors,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.4 Default named filters
..............................

The pre-defined, named filters are available as functions, so they can
be reused in custom filters:

 -- 函式: tarfile.fully_trusted_filter (member, path)

     Return 'member' unchanged.

     This implements the ‘'fully_trusted'’ filter.

 -- 函式: tarfile.tar_filter (member, path)

     Implements the ‘'tar'’ filter.

        - Strip leading slashes (‘/’ and *note os.sep: 465.) from
          filenames.

        - *note Refuse: 276f. to extract files with absolute paths (in
          case the name is absolute even after stripping slashes, e.g.
          ‘C:/foo’ on Windows).  This raises *note AbsolutePathError:
          2772.

        - *note Refuse: 276f. to extract files whose absolute path
          (after following symlinks) would end up outside the
          destination.  This raises *note OutsideDestinationError: 2773.

        - Clear high mode bits (setuid, setgid, sticky) and group/other
          write bits (*note S_IWGRP: 2589. | *note S_IWOTH: 258c.).

     Return the modified ‘TarInfo’ member.

 -- 函式: tarfile.data_filter (member, path)

     Implements the ‘'data'’ filter.  In addition to what ‘tar_filter’
     does:

        - *note Refuse: 276f. to extract links (hard or soft) that link
          to absolute paths, or ones that link outside the destination.

          This raises *note AbsoluteLinkError: 2775. or *note
          LinkOutsideDestinationError: 2776.

          Note that such files are refused even on platforms that do not
          support symbolic links.

        - *note Refuse: 276f. to extract device files (including pipes).
          This raises *note SpecialFileError: 2774.

        - For regular files, including hard links:

             - Set the owner read and write permissions (*note S_IRUSR:
               2584. | *note S_IWUSR: 2585.).

             - Remove the group & other executable permission (*note
               S_IXGRP: 2580. | *note S_IXOTH: 258d.) if the owner
               doesn’t have it (*note S_IXUSR: 2586.).

        - For other files (directories), set ‘mode’ to ‘None’, so that
          extraction methods skip applying permission bits.

        - Set user and group info (‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘uname’, ‘gname’) to
          ‘None’, so that extraction methods skip setting it.

     Return the modified ‘TarInfo’ member.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter errors,  Next: Hints for further verification,  Prev: Default named filters,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.5 Filter errors
......................

When a filter refuses to extract a file, it will raise an appropriate
exception, a subclass of *note FilterError: 276e.  This will abort the
extraction if *note TarFile.errorlevel: 276b. is 1 or more.  With
‘errorlevel=0’ the error will be logged and the member will be skipped,
but extraction will continue.


File: python.info,  Node: Hints for further verification,  Next: Supporting older Python versions,  Prev: Filter errors,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.6 Hints for further verification
.......................................

Even with ‘filter='data'’, 'tarfile' is not suited for extracting
untrusted files without prior inspection.  Among other issues, the
pre-defined filters do not prevent denial-of-service attacks.  Users
should do additional checks.

Here is an incomplete list of things to consider:

   * Extract to a *note new temporary directory: 1c3. to prevent e.g.
     exploiting pre-existing links, and to make it easier to clean up
     after a failed extraction.

   * When working with untrusted data, use external (e.g.  OS-level)
     limits on disk, memory and CPU usage.

   * Check filenames against an allow-list of characters (to filter out
     control characters, confusables, foreign path separators, etc.).

   * Check that filenames have expected extensions (discouraging files
     that execute when you “click on them”, or extension-less files like
     Windows special device names).

   * Limit the number of extracted files, total size of extracted data,
     filename length (including symlink length), and size of individual
     files.

   * Check for files that would be shadowed on case-insensitive
     filesystems.

Also note that:

   * Tar files may contain multiple versions of the same file.  Later
     ones are expected to overwrite any earlier ones.  This feature is
     crucial to allow updating tape archives, but can be abused
     maliciously.

   * 'tarfile' does not protect against issues with “live” data, e.g.
     an attacker tinkering with the destination (or source) directory
     while extraction (or archiving) is in progress.


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting older Python versions,  Next: Stateful extraction filter example,  Prev: Hints for further verification,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.7 Supporting older Python versions
.........................................

Extraction filters were added to Python 3.12, but may be backported to
older versions as security updates.  To check whether the feature is
available, use e.g.  ‘hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter')’ rather than
checking the Python version.

The following examples show how to support Python versions with and
without the feature.  Note that setting ‘extraction_filter’ will affect
any subsequent operations.

   * Fully trusted archive:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = (lambda member, path: member)
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter if available, but revert to Python 3.11
     behavior (‘'fully_trusted'’) if this feature is not available:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = getattr(tarfile, 'data_filter',
                                                 (lambda member, path: member))
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter; 'fail' if it is not available:

          my_tarfile.extractall(filter=tarfile.data_filter)

     或：

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = tarfile.data_filter
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter; 'warn' if it is not available:

          if hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter'):
              my_tarfile.extractall(filter='data')
          else:
              # remove this when no longer needed
              warn_the_user('Extracting may be unsafe; consider updating Python')
              my_tarfile.extractall()


File: python.info,  Node: Stateful extraction filter example,  Prev: Supporting older Python versions,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.8 Stateful extraction filter example
...........................................

While 'tarfile"s extraction methods take a simple 'filter' callable,
custom filters may be more complex objects with an internal state.  It
may be useful to write these as context managers, to be used like this:

     with StatefulFilter() as filter_func:
         tar.extractall(path, filter=filter_func)

Such a filter can be written as, for example:

     class StatefulFilter:
         def __init__(self):
             self.file_count = 0

         def __enter__(self):
             return self

         def __call__(self, member, path):
             self.file_count += 1
             return member

         def __exit__(self, *exc_info):
             print(f'{self.file_count} files extracted')


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface<2>,  Next: 範例<13>,  Prev: Extraction filters,  Up: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案

5.13.6.9 Command-Line Interface
...............................

在 3.4 版被加入.

The *note tarfile: d8. module provides a simple command-line interface
to interact with tar archives.

If you want to create a new tar archive, specify its name after the
*note -c: 27bc. option and then list the filename(s) that should be
included:

     $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar  spam.txt eggs.txt

Passing a directory is also acceptable:

     $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar life-of-brian_1979/

If you want to extract a tar archive into the current directory, use the
*note -e: 27bd. option:

     $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar

You can also extract a tar archive into a different directory by passing
the directory's name:

     $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar  other-dir/

For a list of the files in a tar archive, use the *note -l: 27be.
option:

     $ python -m tarfile -l monty.tar

* Menu:

* 命令列選項: 命令列選項<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列選項<2>,  Up: Command-Line Interface<2>

5.13.6.10 命令列選項
....................

 -- Option: -l <tarfile>
 -- Option: --list <tarfile>

     List files in a tarfile.

 -- Option: -c <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
 -- Option: --create <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

     Create tarfile from source files.

 -- Option: -e <tarfile> [<output_dir>]
 -- Option: --extract <tarfile> [<output_dir>]

     Extract tarfile into the current directory if 'output_dir' is not
     specified.

 -- Option: -t <tarfile>
 -- Option: --test <tarfile>

     Test whether the tarfile is valid or not.

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     Verbose output.

 -- Option: --filter <filtername>

     Specifies the 'filter' for ‘--extract’.  See *note Extraction
     filters: 185. for details.  Only string names are accepted (that
     is, ‘fully_trusted’, ‘tar’, and ‘data’).


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<13>,  Next: Supported tar formats,  Prev: Command-Line Interface<2>,  Up: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案

5.13.6.11 範例
..............

How to extract an entire tar archive to the current working directory:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
     tar.extractall(filter='data')
     tar.close()

How to extract a subset of a tar archive with *note
TarFile.extractall(): cf7. using a generator function instead of a list:

     import os
     import tarfile

     def py_files(members):
         for tarinfo in members:
             if os.path.splitext(tarinfo.name)[1] == ".py":
                 yield tarinfo

     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
     tar.extractall(members=py_files(tar))
     tar.close()

How to create an uncompressed tar archive from a list of filenames:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w")
     for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
         tar.add(name)
     tar.close()

The same example using the *note with: 3c5. statement:

     import tarfile
     with tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w") as tar:
         for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
             tar.add(name)

How to read a gzip compressed tar archive and display some member
information:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "r:gz")
     for tarinfo in tar:
         print(tarinfo.name, "is", tarinfo.size, "bytes in size and is ", end="")
         if tarinfo.isreg():
             print("a regular file.")
         elif tarinfo.isdir():
             print("a directory.")
         else:
             print("something else.")
     tar.close()

How to create an archive and reset the user information using the
'filter' parameter in *note TarFile.add(): a56.:

     import tarfile
     def reset(tarinfo):
         tarinfo.uid = tarinfo.gid = 0
         tarinfo.uname = tarinfo.gname = "root"
         return tarinfo
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "w:gz")
     tar.add("foo", filter=reset)
     tar.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Supported tar formats,  Next: Unicode issues,  Prev: 範例<13>,  Up: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案

5.13.6.12 Supported tar formats
...............................

There are three tar formats that can be created with the *note tarfile:
d8. module:

   * The POSIX.1-1988 ustar format (*note USTAR_FORMAT: 2786.).  It
     supports filenames up to a length of at best 256 characters and
     linknames up to 100 characters.  The maximum file size is 8 GiB.
     This is an old and limited but widely supported format.

   * The GNU tar format (*note GNU_FORMAT: 2787.).  It supports long
     filenames and linknames, files bigger than 8 GiB and sparse files.
     It is the de facto standard on GNU/Linux systems.  *note tarfile:
     d8. fully supports the GNU tar extensions for long names, sparse
     file support is read-only.

   * The POSIX.1-2001 pax format (*note PAX_FORMAT: 2788.).  It is the
     most flexible format with virtually no limits.  It supports long
     filenames and linknames, large files and stores pathnames in a
     portable way.  Modern tar implementations, including GNU tar,
     bsdtar/libarchive and star, fully support extended 'pax' features;
     some old or unmaintained libraries may not, but should treat 'pax'
     archives as if they were in the universally supported 'ustar'
     format.  It is the current default format for new archives.

     It extends the existing 'ustar' format with extra headers for
     information that cannot be stored otherwise.  There are two
     flavours of pax headers: Extended headers only affect the
     subsequent file header, global headers are valid for the complete
     archive and affect all following files.  All the data in a pax
     header is encoded in 'UTF-8' for portability reasons.

There are some more variants of the tar format which can be read, but
not created:

   * The ancient V7 format.  This is the first tar format from Unix
     Seventh Edition, storing only regular files and directories.  Names
     must not be longer than 100 characters, there is no user/group name
     information.  Some archives have miscalculated header checksums in
     case of fields with non-ASCII characters.

   * The SunOS tar extended format.  This format is a variant of the
     POSIX.1-2001 pax format, but is not compatible.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode issues,  Prev: Supported tar formats,  Up: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案

5.13.6.13 Unicode issues
........................

The tar format was originally conceived to make backups on tape drives
with the main focus on preserving file system information.  Nowadays tar
archives are commonly used for file distribution and exchanging archives
over networks.  One problem of the original format (which is the basis
of all other formats) is that there is no concept of supporting
different character encodings.  For example, an ordinary tar archive
created on a 'UTF-8' system cannot be read correctly on a 'Latin-1'
system if it contains non-'ASCII' characters.  Textual metadata (like
filenames, linknames, user/group names) will appear damaged.
Unfortunately, there is no way to autodetect the encoding of an archive.
The pax format was designed to solve this problem.  It stores non-ASCII
metadata using the universal character encoding 'UTF-8'.

The details of character conversion in *note tarfile: d8. are controlled
by the 'encoding' and 'errors' keyword arguments of the *note TarFile:
10a1. class.

'encoding' defines the character encoding to use for the metadata in the
archive.  The default value is *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): abf.
or ‘'ascii'’ as a fallback.  Depending on whether the archive is read or
written, the metadata must be either decoded or encoded.  If 'encoding'
is not set appropriately, this conversion may fail.

The 'errors' argument defines how characters are treated that cannot be
converted.  Possible values are listed in section *note Error Handlers:
15b3.  The default scheme is ‘'surrogateescape'’ which Python also uses
for its file system calls, see *note File Names, Command Line Arguments,
and Environment Variables: 27cb.

For *note PAX_FORMAT: 2788. archives (the default), 'encoding' is
generally not needed because all the metadata is stored using 'UTF-8'.
'encoding' is only used in the rare cases when binary pax headers are
decoded or when strings with surrogate characters are stored.


File: python.info,  Node: 檔案格式,  Next: 加密服務,  Prev: 資料壓縮與保存,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.14 檔案格式
=============

The modules described in this chapter parse various miscellaneous file
formats that aren't markup languages and are not related to e-mail.

* Menu:

* csv: csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入. CSV 檔案讀取及寫入
* configparser: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器. 設定檔剖析器
* tomllib: tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案. 剖析 TOML 檔案
* netrc: netrc --- netrc 檔案處理. netrc 檔案處理
* plistlib: plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案. 產生和剖析 Apple .plist 檔案


File: python.info,  Node: csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入,  Next: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器,  Up: 檔案格式

5.14.1 ‘csv’ -- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入
----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/csv.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

所謂的 CSV (Comma Separated Values) 檔案格式是試算表及資料庫中最常見的匯
入、匯出檔案格式。在嘗試以 RFC 4180(2) 中的標準化方式來描述格式之前，CSV
格式已經使用了許多年。由於缺少一個完善定義的標準，意味著各個不同的應用程
式會在資料產生及銷毀時有微妙的差別。這些不同之處使得從不同資料來源處理
CSV 檔案時會非常擾人。儘管如此，雖然分隔符號和引號字元有所不同，整體的格
式非常相似，可以寫個單一模組來高效率的操作這樣的資料，讓程式設計師可以隱
藏讀取及寫入資料的細節。

*note csv: 27. 模組實作透過 class 去讀取、寫入 CSV 格式的表格資料。它讓
程式設計師可以說出：「以 Excel 為首選並寫入該種格式的資料」或是「從
Excel 產生的檔案來讀取資料」，且無需知道這是 Excel 所使用的 CSV 格式等精
確的細節。程式設計師也可以描述其他應用程式所理解的 CSV 格式或他們自行定
義具有特殊意義的 CSV 格式。

*note csv: 27. 模組的 *note reader: 1312. 及 *note writer: 1a2. 物件可以
讀取及寫入序列。程式設計師也可以透過 *note DictReader: 82a. 及 *note
DictWriter: 108f. class（類別）使用 dictionary （字典）讀取及寫入資料。

也參考
......

PEP 305(3) - CSV 檔案 API

     Python Enhancement Proposal (PEP) 所提出的 Python 附加功能。

* Menu:

* 模組內容: 模組內容<3>.
* Dialect 與格式參數::
* 讀取器物件::
* 寫入器物件::
* 範例: 範例<14>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/csv.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4180.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/


File: python.info,  Node: 模組內容<3>,  Next: Dialect 與格式參數,  Up: csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入

5.14.1.1 模組內容
.................

*note csv: 27. 模組定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: csv.reader (csvfile, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

     回傳一個*note 讀取器物件 (reader object): 27d3. 並處理在指定的
     'csvfile' 中的每一行，csvfile 必須是字串的可疊代物件 (iterable of
     strings)，其中每個字串都要是讀取器所定義的 csv 格式，csvfile 通常是
     個類檔案物件或者 list。如果 'csvfile' 是個檔案物件，則需開啟時使用
     ‘newline=''’。 (1) 'dialect' 為一個可選填的參數，可以用為特定的 CSV
     dialect（方言） 定義一組參數。它可能為 *note Dialect: 1653. 的一個
     子類別 (subclass) 的實例或是由 *note list_dialects(): 15d7. 函式回
     傳的多個字串中的其中之一。另一個可選填的關鍵字引數 'fmtparams' 可以
     在這個 dialect 中覆寫 (override) 個別的格式化參數 (formatting
     parameter)。關於 dialect 及格式化參數的完整說明，請見段落 *note
     Dialect 與格式參數: 27d4.。

     從 CSV 檔案讀取的每一列會回傳為一個字串列表。除非格式選項
     ‘QUOTE_NONNUMERIC’ 有被指定（在這個情況之下，沒有引號的欄位都會被轉
     換成浮點數），否則不會進行自動資料型別轉換。

     一個簡短的用法範例：

          >>> import csv
          >>> with open('eggs.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
          ...     spamreader = csv.reader(csvfile, delimiter=' ', quotechar='|')
          ...     for row in spamreader:
          ...         print(', '.join(row))
          Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Baked Beans
          Spam, Lovely Spam, Wonderful Spam

 -- 函式: csv.writer (csvfile, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

     回傳一個寫入器物件 (writer object)，其負責在給定的類檔案物件
     (file-like object) 上將使用者的資料轉換為分隔字串 (delimited
     string)。'csvfile' 可以為具有 *note write(): 1a69. method 的任何物
     件。若 'csvfile' 為一個檔案物件，它應該使用 ‘newline=''’ 開啟 (2) 。
     'dialect' 為一個可選填的參數，可以用為特定的 CSV dialect 定義一組參
     數。它可能為 *note Dialect: 1653. 的一個子類別的實例或是由 *note
     list_dialects(): 15d7. 函式回傳的多個字串中的其中之一。另一個可選填
     的關鍵字引數 'fmtparams' 可以在這個 dialect 中覆寫個別的格式化參數
     。關於 dialect 及格式化參數的完整說明，請見段落 *note Dialect
     與格式參數: 27d4.。為了更容易與有實作 DB API 的模組互相接合，*note
     None: 470. 值會被寫成空字串。雖然這不是一個可逆的變換，這使得dump （
     傾印） SQL NULL 資料值到 CSV 檔案上就無需讓 ‘cursor.fetch*’ 呼叫回
     傳的資料進行預處理 (preprocessing)。其餘非字串的資料則會在寫入之前
     用 *note str(): 157. 函式進行字串化 (stringify)。

     一個簡短的用法範例：

          import csv
          with open('eggs.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              spamwriter = csv.writer(csvfile, delimiter=' ',
                                      quotechar='|', quoting=csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL)
              spamwriter.writerow(['Spam'] * 5 + ['Baked Beans'])
              spamwriter.writerow(['Spam', 'Lovely Spam', 'Wonderful Spam'])

 -- 函式: csv.register_dialect (name[, dialect[, **fmtparams]])

     將 'dialect' 與 'name' 進行關聯 (associate)。'name' 必須為字串。這
     個 dialect 可以透過傳遞 *note Dialect: 1653. 的子類別進行指定；或是
     關鍵字引數 'fmtparams'；或是以上兩者皆是，並透過關鍵字引數來覆寫
     dialect 的參數。關於 dialect 及格式化參數的完整說明，請見段落 *note
     Dialect 與格式參數: 27d4.。

 -- 函式: csv.unregister_dialect (name)

     從 dialect 註冊表 (registry) 中，刪除與 'name' 關聯的 dialect。若
     'name' 如果不是註冊的 dialect 名稱，則會產生一個 *note Error:
     27d6.。

 -- 函式: csv.get_dialect (name)

     回傳一個與 'name' 關聯的 dialect。若 'name' 如果不是註冊的 dialect
     名稱，則會產生一個 *note Error: 27d6.。這個函式會回傳一個 immutable
     （不可變物件） *note Dialect: 1653.。

 -- 函式: csv.list_dialects ()

     回傳所有已註冊的 dialect 名稱。

 -- 函式: csv.field_size_limit ([new_limit])

     回傳當前的剖析器 (parser) 允許的最大字串大小。如果 'new_limit' 被給
     定，則會變成新的最大字串大小。

*note csv: 27. 模組定義了下列的類別：

 -- 類別: csv.DictReader (f, fieldnames=None, restkey=None,
          restval=None, dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

     建立一個物件，其運作上就像一般的讀取器，但可以將每一列資訊 map （對
     映） 到 *note dict: 239. 中，可以透過選填的參數 'fieldnames' 設定
     key。

     參數 'fieldnames' 是一個 *note sequence: 238.。如果 'fieldnames' 被
     省略了，檔案 'f' 中第一列的值會被當作欄位標題，且於結果中會被省略。
     如果 'fieldname' 有提供，它們就會被使用，且第一列會被包含在結果中。
     不管欄位標題是如何決定的，dictionary 都會保留原始的排序。

     如果一列資料中的欄位比欄位標題還多，其餘的資料及以 'restkey' （預設
     為 ‘None’）特指的欄位標題會放入列表當中並儲存。如果一個非空的
     (non-blank) 列中的欄位比欄位標題還少，缺少的值則會填入 'restval' （
     預設為 ‘None’）的值。

     所有其他選填的引數或關鍵字引數皆會傳遞至下層的 *note reader: 1312.
     實例。

     如果傳遞至 'fieldnames' 的引數是個疊代器，則會被迫成為一個 *note
     list: 40a.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 回傳的列已成為型別 ‘OrderedDict’。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 回傳的列已成為型別 *note dict: 239.。

     一個簡短的用法範例：

          >>> import csv
          >>> with open('names.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
          ...     reader = csv.DictReader(csvfile)
          ...     for row in reader:
          ...         print(row['first_name'], row['last_name'])
          ...
          Eric Idle
          John Cleese

          >>> print(row)
          {'first_name': 'John', 'last_name': 'Cleese'}

 -- 類別: csv.DictWriter (f, fieldnames, restval='',
          extrasaction='raise', dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

     建立一個物件，其運作上就像一般的寫入器，但可以將 dictionary map 到
     輸出的列上。參數 'fieldnames' 是一個鍵值的 *note sequence: 1c. 且可
     以辨識 dictionary 中傳遞至 *note writerow(): c62. method 寫入至檔案
     'f' 中的值。如果 dictionary 中缺少了 'fieldnames' 的鍵值，則會寫入
     選填的參數 'restval' 的值。如果傳遞至 *note writerow(): c62. method
     的 dictionary 包含了一個 'fieldnames' 中不存在的鍵值，選填的參數
     'extrasaction' 可以指出該執行的動作。如果它被設定為 ‘'raise'’，預設
     會觸發 *note ValueError: 183.。如果它被設定為 ‘'ignore'’，
     dictionary 中額外的值會被忽略。其他選填的引數或關鍵字引數皆會傳遞至
     下層的 *note writer: 1a2. 實例。

     請記得這不像類別 *note DictReader: 82a.，在類別 *note DictWriter:
     108f. 中，參數 'fieldnames' 並不是選填的。

     如果傳遞至 'fieldnames' 的引數是個疊代器，則會被迫成為一個 *note
     list: 40a.。

     一個簡短的用法範例：

          import csv

          with open('names.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              fieldnames = ['first_name', 'last_name']
              writer = csv.DictWriter(csvfile, fieldnames=fieldnames)

              writer.writeheader()
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Baked', 'last_name': 'Beans'})
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Lovely', 'last_name': 'Spam'})
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Wonderful', 'last_name': 'Spam'})

 -- 類別: csv.Dialect

     類別 *note Dialect: 1653. 是一個容器類別，其屬性 (attribute) 包含如
     何處理雙引號、空白、分隔符號等資訊。由於缺少一個嚴謹的 CSV 技術規範
     ，不同的應用程式會產出有巧妙不同的 CSV 資料。*note Dialect: 1653. 實
     例定義了 *note reader: 1312. 以及 *note writer: 1a2. 的實例該如何表
     示。

     所有可用的 *note Dialect: 1653. 名稱會透過 *note list_dialects():
     15d7. 回傳，且它們可以透過特定 *note reader: 1312. 及 *note writer:
     1a2. 類別的初始器 (initializer, ‘__init__’) 函式進行註冊，就像這樣
     ：

          import csv

          with open('students.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              writer = csv.writer(csvfile, dialect='unix')

 -- 類別: csv.excel

     類別 *note excel: 27d7. 定義了透過 Excel 產生的 CSV 檔案的慣用屬性
     。它被註冊的 dialect 名稱為 ‘'excel'’。

 -- 類別: csv.excel_tab

     類別 *note excel_tab: 27d8. 定義了透過 Excel 產生並以 Tab 作為分隔
     的 CSV 檔案的慣用屬性。它被註冊的 dialect 名稱為 ‘'excel-tab'’。

 -- 類別: csv.unix_dialect

     類別 *note unix_dialect: 108e. 定義了透過 UNIX 系統產生的 CSV 檔案
     的慣用屬性，換句話說，使用 ‘'\n'’ 作為換行符號且所有欄位都被引號包
     覆起來。它被註冊的 dialect 名稱為 ‘'unix'’。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 類別: csv.Sniffer

     類別 *note Sniffer: 27d9. 被用來推斷 CSV 檔案的格式。

     類別 *note Sniffer: 27d9. 提供了兩個 method：

      -- 方法: sniff (sample, delimiters=None)

          分析給定的 'sample' 且回傳一個 *note Dialect: 1653. 子類別，反
          應出找到的格式參數。如果給定選填的參數 'delimiters'，它會被解
          釋為一個字串且含有可能、有效的分隔字元。

      -- 方法: has_header (sample)

          如果第一列的文字顯示將作為一系列的欄位標題，會分析 sample 文字
          （假定他是 CSV 格式）並回傳 *note True: a70.。檢查每一欄時，會
          考慮是否滿足兩個關鍵標準其中之一，判斷 sample 是否包含標題：

             - 第二列至第 n 列包含數字

             - 第二列到第 n 列包含的字串中至少有一個值的長度與該行的假定
               標題的長度不同。

          對第一列之後的二十個列進行採樣；如果超過一半的行及列滿足條件，
          則返回 *note True: a70.。

          備註: 此方法是一個粗略的啟發，可能會產生偽陽性及偽陰性 (false
          positives and negatives)。

一個 *note Sniffer: 27d9. 的使用範例：

     with open('example.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
         dialect = csv.Sniffer().sniff(csvfile.read(1024))
         csvfile.seek(0)
         reader = csv.reader(csvfile, dialect)
         # ... 在這邊處理 CSV 檔案 ...
*note csv: 27. 模組定義了以下常數：

 -- 資料: csv.QUOTE_ALL

     引導 *note writer: 1a2. 物件引用所有欄位。

 -- 資料: csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL

     引導 *note writer: 1a2. 物件只引用包含特殊字元的欄位，例如：'分隔符
     號'、'引號'、或是 '分行符號' 的其他字元。

 -- 資料: csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC

     引導 *note writer: 1a2. 物件引用所有非數字的欄位。

     引導 *note reader: 1312. 物件轉換所有非引用的欄位為 'float'。

 -- 資料: csv.QUOTE_NONE

     引導 *note writer: 1a2. 物件不得引用欄位。當前的 '分隔符號' 出現在
     輸出資料時，在他之前的字元是當前的*逸出字元 (escape character)*。如
     果沒有設定*逸出字元*，若遇到任何字元需要逸出，寫入器則會引發 *note
     Error: 27d6. 。

     引導 *note reader: 1312. 物件不對引號進行特別處理。

 -- 資料: csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL

     引導 *note writer: 1a2. 物件引用所有非 ‘None’ 的欄位。這與 *note
     QUOTE_ALL: 27dc. 相似，除非如果欄位值為 ‘None’，該欄位則被寫成空（
     沒有引號）字串。

     引導 *note reader: 1312. 物件將空（沒有引號）欄位直譯 (interpret) 為
     ‘None’，否則會和 *note QUOTE_ALL: 27dc. 有相同的表現方式。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 資料: csv.QUOTE_STRINGS

     引導 *note writer: 1a2. 物件永遠在字串的欄位前後放置引號。這與
     *note QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 13f6. 相似，除非如果欄位值為 ‘None’，該欄位
     則被寫成空（沒有引號）字串。

     引導 *note reader: 1312. 物件將空（沒有引號）字串直譯為 ‘None’，否
     則會和 *note QUOTE_ALL: 27dc. 有相同的表現方式。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

     備註: Due to a bug, constants *note QUOTE_NOTNULL: 1a0. and *note
     QUOTE_STRINGS: 1a1. do not affect behaviour of *note reader: 1312.
     objects.  This bug is fixed in Python 3.13.

*note csv: 27. 模組定義下列例外：

 -- 例外: csv.Error

     當偵測到錯誤時，任何函式都可以引發。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 如果 ‘newline=''’ 沒有被指定，則嵌入引號中的換行符號不會被正確直
譯，使用 ‘\r\n’ 行尾 (linending) 的平台會寫入額外的 ‘\r’。自從 csv 模組
有自己 (*note 統一的: bac.) 換行處理方式，因此指定 ‘newline=''’ 會永遠是
安全的。

   (2) 如果 ‘newline=''’ 沒有被指定，則嵌入引號中的換行符號不會被正確直
譯，使用 ‘\r\n’ 行尾 (linending) 的平台會寫入額外的 ‘\r’。自從 csv 模組
有自己 (*note 統一的: bac.) 換行處理方式，因此指定 ‘newline=''’ 會永遠是
安全的。


File: python.info,  Node: Dialect 與格式參數,  Next: 讀取器物件,  Prev: 模組內容<3>,  Up: csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入

5.14.1.2 Dialect 與格式參數
...........................

為了讓指定輸入及輸出紀錄的格式更方便，特定的格式化參數會被組成 dialect。
一個 dialect 是 *note Dialect: 1653. class 的子類別，其包含多個描述 CSV
檔案格式的多個屬性。當建立 *note reader: 1312. 或 *note writer: 1a2. 物
件時，程式設計師可以指定一個字串或是一個 *note Dialect: 1653. 的子類別作
為 dialect 參數。此外，或是作為替代，在'dialect'參數中，程式設計師可以指
定個別的格式化參數，其與 *note Dialect: 1653. 類別定義的屬性具有相同的名
字。

Dialect 支援下列屬性：

 -- 屬性: Dialect.delimiter

     一個單一字元 (one-character) 的字串可已用來分割欄位。預設為 ‘','’。

 -- 屬性: Dialect.doublequote

     控制 'quotechar' 的實例何時出現在欄位之中，並讓它們自己被放在引號之
     內。當屬性為 *note True: a70.，字元會是雙引號。若為 *note False:
     98f.，在 'quotechar' 之前會先使用 'escapechar' 作為前綴字。預設為
     *note True: a70.。

     在輸出時，若 'doublequote' 是 *note False: 98f. 且'逸出字元'沒有被
     設定，當一個'引號'在欄位中被發現時，*note Error: 27d6. 會被引發。

 -- 屬性: Dialect.escapechar

     一個會被寫入器使用的單一字元的字串，當 'quoting' 設定為 *note
     QUOTE_NONE: 27de. 時逸出'分隔符號'；當 'doublequote' 設定為 *note
     False: 98f. 時逸出'引號'。在讀取時，'逸出字元'會移除後面的字元以及
     任何特殊意義。預設為 *note None: 470.，表示禁止逸出。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'escapechar' 為空是不被接受的。

 -- 屬性: Dialect.lineterminator

     由 *note writer: 1a2. 產生被用來分行的字串。預設為 ‘'\r\n'’。

          備註: *note reader: 1312. 是 hard-coded 辨別 ‘'\r'’ or ‘'\n'’
          作為行尾 (end-of-line)，並忽略'分行符號'。未來可能會改變這個行
          為。

 -- 屬性: Dialect.quotechar

     一個單一字元的字串被用於引用包含特殊字元的欄位，像是 'delimiter'、
     'quotechar' 或是換行字元。預設為 ‘'"'’。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'quotechar' 為空是不被允許的。

 -- 屬性: Dialect.quoting

     控制 writer 何時產生引號，以及 reader 如何辨識引號。他可以使用任何
     *note QUOTE_* 常數: 27db.且預設為 *note QUOTE_MINIMAL: 27dd.。

 -- 屬性: Dialect.skipinitialspace

     若為 *note True: a70.，在緊接著'分隔符號'後的空格會被忽略。預設為
     *note False: 98f.。

 -- 屬性: Dialect.strict

     若為 ‘True’，若有錯誤的 CSV 輸入則會引發 *note Error: 27d6.。預設為
     ‘False’。


File: python.info,  Node: 讀取器物件,  Next: 寫入器物件,  Prev: Dialect 與格式參數,  Up: csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入

5.14.1.3 讀取器物件
...................

讀取器物件（*note reader(): 1312. 函式回傳的 *note DictReader: 82a. 實例
與物件）有下列公用方法 (public method)：

 -- 方法: csvreader.__next__ ()

     回傳一個列表為讀入器的可疊代物件的下一列內容（若該物件是由 *note
     reader(): 1312. 回傳）或是一個 dict（若為 *note DictReader: 82a. 實
     例），會依據當前的 *note Dialect: 1653. 進行剖析。通常會用
     ‘next(reader)’ 來進行呼叫。

讀取器物件有下列公用屬性 (public attributes)：

 -- 屬性: csvreader.dialect

     dialect 的唯讀敘述，會被剖析器使用。

 -- 屬性: csvreader.line_num

     來源疊代器所讀取的行數。這與回傳的紀錄數不同，因為可以進行跨行紀錄
     。

DictReader 物件有下列公用屬性：

 -- 屬性: DictReader.fieldnames

     若在建立物件時沒有作為參數傳遞，這個屬性會在第一次存取之前或是第一
     筆資料被讀取之前進行初始化 (initialize)。


File: python.info,  Node: 寫入器物件,  Next: 範例<14>,  Prev: 讀取器物件,  Up: csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入

5.14.1.4 寫入器物件
...................

*note writer: 1a2. 物件（*note writer(): 1a2. 函式回傳的 *note
DictWriter: 108f. 實例與物件）有下列公用方法。對於 *note writer: 1a2. 物
件而言，一個'列'中必須為一個可疊代的字串或是數字；對於 *note DictWriter:
108f. 物件而言，則必須為一個 dictionary ，且可以對應欄位標題至字串或數字
（會先透過 *note str(): 157. 進行傳遞）。請注意，在寫入複數 (complex
number) 時會用小括號 (parens) 包起來。這可能在其他程式讀取 CSV 檔案時導
致某些問題（假設他們完全支援複雜數字）。

 -- 方法: csvwriter.writerow (row)

     將參數 'row' 寫入至寫入器的檔案物件中，並依照當前的 *note Dialect:
     1653. 進行格式化。回傳下層檔案物件 'write' 方法的回傳值。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增對任意可疊代物件 (arbitrary iterables) 的支援
     。

 -- 方法: csvwriter.writerows (rows)

     將 'rows' 中所有元素（為上述的一個可疊代的 'row' 物件）寫入至寫入器
     的檔案物件中，並依照當前的 dialect 進行格式化。

寫入器物件有下列公用屬性：

 -- 屬性: csvwriter.dialect

     dialect 的唯讀敘述，會被寫入器使用。

DictWriter 物件有下列公用方法：

 -- 方法: DictWriter.writeheader ()

     將具欄位標題的一列（於建構函式 (constructor) 中指定的）寫入至寫入器
     的檔案物件中，並依照當前的 dialect 進行格式化。回傳內部呼叫 *note
     csvwriter.writerow(): c62. 的回傳值。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: *note writeheader(): 1090. 現在也會回傳內部呼叫
     *note csvwriter.writerow(): c62. 的回傳值。


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<14>,  Prev: 寫入器物件,  Up: csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入

5.14.1.5 範例
.............

最簡單的讀取 CSV 檔案範例：

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

讀取一個其他格式的檔案：

     import csv
     with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f, delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

相對最簡單、可行的寫入範例為：

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', 'w', newline='') as f:
         writer = csv.writer(f)
         writer.writerows(someiterable)

當 *note open(): 29c. 被使用於開啟並讀取一個 CSV 檔案，該檔案會預設使用
系統預設的編碼格式（請見 *note locale.getencoding(): 258.），並解碼為
unicode。若要使用不同編碼格式進行檔案解碼，請使用 open 函式的 ‘encoding’
引數：

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', newline='', encoding='utf-8') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

同理可以應用到使用不同編碼格式進行寫入：當開啟輸出檔案時，指定
‘encoding’ 引數。

註冊一個新的 dialect ：

     import csv
     csv.register_dialect('unixpwd', delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
     with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f, 'unixpwd')

稍微進階的讀取器用法 - 擷取及回報錯誤：

     import csv, sys
     filename = 'some.csv'
     with open(filename, newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         try:
             for row in reader:
                 print(row)
         except csv.Error as e:
             sys.exit('file {}, line {}: {}'.format(filename, reader.line_num, e))

而當模組無法直接支援剖析字串時，仍可以輕鬆的解決：

     import csv
     for row in csv.reader(['one,two,three']):
         print(row)

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器,  Next: tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案,  Prev: csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入,  Up: 檔案格式

5.14.2 ‘configparser’ -- 設定檔剖析器
-------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/configparser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides the *note ConfigParser: 286. class which implements
a basic configuration language which provides a structure similar to
what's found in Microsoft Windows INI files.  You can use this to write
Python programs which can be customized by end users easily.

     備註: This library does 'not' interpret or write the value-type
     prefixes used in the Windows Registry extended version of INI
     syntax.

也參考
......

*note tomllib: f7. 模組

     TOML is a well-specified format for application configuration
     files.  It is specifically designed to be an improved version of
     INI.

*note shlex: bf. 模組

     Support for creating Unix shell-like mini-languages which can also
     be used for application configuration files.

*note json: 7c. 模組

     The ‘json’ module implements a subset of JavaScript syntax which is
     sometimes used for configuration, but does not support comments.

* Menu:

* Quick Start::
* Supported Datatypes::
* Fallback Values::
* Supported INI File Structure::
* Interpolation of values::
* Mapping Protocol Access::
* Customizing Parser Behaviour::
* Legacy API Examples::
* ConfigParser 物件::
* RawConfigParser 物件::
* 例外: 例外<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/configparser.py


File: python.info,  Node: Quick Start,  Next: Supported Datatypes,  Up: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器

5.14.2.1 Quick Start
....................

Let's take a very basic configuration file that looks like this:

     [DEFAULT]
     ServerAliveInterval = 45
     Compression = yes
     CompressionLevel = 9
     ForwardX11 = yes

     [forge.example]
     User = hg

     [topsecret.server.example]
     Port = 50022
     ForwardX11 = no

The structure of INI files is described *note in the following section:
27f5.  Essentially, the file consists of sections, each of which
contains keys with values.  *note configparser: 20. classes can read and
write such files.  Let's start by creating the above configuration file
programmatically.

     >>> import configparser
     >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '45',
     ...                      'Compression': 'yes',
     ...                      'CompressionLevel': '9'}
     >>> config['forge.example'] = {}
     >>> config['forge.example']['User'] = 'hg'
     >>> config['topsecret.server.example'] = {}
     >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
     >>> topsecret['Port'] = '50022'     # mutates the parser
     >>> topsecret['ForwardX11'] = 'no'  # same here
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['ForwardX11'] = 'yes'
     >>> with open('example.ini', 'w') as configfile:
     ...   config.write(configfile)
     ...

As you can see, we can treat a config parser much like a dictionary.
There are differences, *note outlined later: 27f6, but the behavior is
very close to what you would expect from a dictionary.

Now that we have created and saved a configuration file, let's read it
back and explore the data it holds.

     >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config.sections()
     []
     >>> config.read('example.ini')
     ['example.ini']
     >>> config.sections()
     ['forge.example', 'topsecret.server.example']
     >>> 'forge.example' in config
     True
     >>> 'python.org' in config
     False
     >>> config['forge.example']['User']
     'hg'
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['Compression']
     'yes'
     >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
     >>> topsecret['ForwardX11']
     'no'
     >>> topsecret['Port']
     '50022'
     >>> for key in config['forge.example']:
     ...     print(key)
     user
     compressionlevel
     serveraliveinterval
     compression
     forwardx11
     >>> config['forge.example']['ForwardX11']
     'yes'

As we can see above, the API is pretty straightforward.  The only bit of
magic involves the ‘DEFAULT’ section which provides default values for
all other sections (1).  Note also that keys in sections are
case-insensitive and stored in lowercase (2).

It is possible to read several configurations into a single *note
ConfigParser: 286, where the most recently added configuration has the
highest priority.  Any conflicting keys are taken from the more recent
configuration while the previously existing keys are retained.  The
example below reads in an ‘override.ini’ file, which will override any
conflicting keys from the ‘example.ini’ file.

     [DEFAULT]
     ServerAliveInterval = -1

     >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
     >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
     ...     config_override.write(configfile)
     ...
     >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
     ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
     >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
     -1

This behaviour is equivalent to a *note ConfigParser.read(): 12d8. call
with several files passed to the 'filenames' parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 27f7. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 27f7. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Supported Datatypes,  Next: Fallback Values,  Prev: Quick Start,  Up: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器

5.14.2.2 Supported Datatypes
............................

Config parsers do not guess datatypes of values in configuration files,
always storing them internally as strings.  This means that if you need
other datatypes, you should convert on your own:

     >>> int(topsecret['Port'])
     50022
     >>> float(topsecret['CompressionLevel'])
     9.0

Since this task is so common, config parsers provide a range of handy
getter methods to handle integers, floats and booleans.  The last one is
the most interesting because simply passing the value to ‘bool()’ would
do no good since ‘bool('False')’ is still ‘True’.  This is why config
parsers also provide *note getboolean(): 27f9.  This method is
case-insensitive and recognizes Boolean values from ‘'yes'’/‘'no'’,
‘'on'’/‘'off'’, ‘'true'’/‘'false'’ and ‘'1'’/‘'0'’ (1).  For example:

     >>> topsecret.getboolean('ForwardX11')
     False
     >>> config['forge.example'].getboolean('ForwardX11')
     True
     >>> config.getboolean('forge.example', 'Compression')
     True

Apart from *note getboolean(): 27f9, config parsers also provide
equivalent *note getint(): 27fa. and *note getfloat(): 27fb. methods.
You can register your own converters and customize the provided ones.
(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 27f7. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 27f7. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Fallback Values,  Next: Supported INI File Structure,  Prev: Supported Datatypes,  Up: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器

5.14.2.3 Fallback Values
........................

As with a dictionary, you can use a section's *note get(): 1100. method
to provide fallback values:

     >>> topsecret.get('Port')
     '50022'
     >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel')
     '9'
     >>> topsecret.get('Cipher')
     >>> topsecret.get('Cipher', '3des-cbc')
     '3des-cbc'

Please note that default values have precedence over fallback values.
For instance, in our example the ‘'CompressionLevel'’ key was specified
only in the ‘'DEFAULT'’ section.  If we try to get it from the section
‘'topsecret.server.example'’, we will always get the default, even if we
specify a fallback:

     >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel', '3')
     '9'

One more thing to be aware of is that the parser-level *note get():
1100. method provides a custom, more complex interface, maintained for
backwards compatibility.  When using this method, a fallback value can
be provided via the ‘fallback’ keyword-only argument:

     >>> config.get('forge.example', 'monster',
     ...            fallback='No such things as monsters')
     'No such things as monsters'

The same ‘fallback’ argument can be used with the *note getint(): 27fa,
*note getfloat(): 27fb. and *note getboolean(): 27f9. methods, for
example:

     >>> 'BatchMode' in topsecret
     False
     >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
     True
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['BatchMode'] = 'no'
     >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Supported INI File Structure,  Next: Interpolation of values,  Prev: Fallback Values,  Up: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器

5.14.2.4 Supported INI File Structure
.....................................

A configuration file consists of sections, each led by a ‘[section]’
header, followed by key/value entries separated by a specific string
(‘=’ or ‘:’ by default (1)).  By default, section names are case
sensitive but keys are not (2).  Leading and trailing whitespace is
removed from keys and values.  Values can be omitted if the parser is
configured to allow it (3), in which case the key/value delimiter may
also be left out.  Values can also span multiple lines, as long as they
are indented deeper than the first line of the value.  Depending on the
parser's mode, blank lines may be treated as parts of multiline values
or ignored.

By default, a valid section name can be any string that does not contain
'\n'.  To change this, see *note ConfigParser.SECTCRE: 27fd.

Configuration files may include comments, prefixed by specific
characters (‘#’ and ‘;’ by default (4)).  Comments may appear on their
own on an otherwise empty line, possibly indented.  (5)

舉例來說：

     [Simple Values]
     key=value
     spaces in keys=allowed
     spaces in values=allowed as well
     spaces around the delimiter = obviously
     you can also use : to delimit keys from values

     [All Values Are Strings]
     values like this: 1000000
     or this: 3.14159265359
     are they treated as numbers? : no
     integers, floats and booleans are held as: strings
     can use the API to get converted values directly: true

     [Multiline Values]
     chorus: I'm a lumberjack, and I'm okay
         I sleep all night and I work all day

     [No Values]
     key_without_value
     empty string value here =

     [You can use comments]
     # like this
     ; or this

     # By default only in an empty line.
     # Inline comments can be harmful because they prevent users
     # from using the delimiting characters as parts of values.
     # That being said, this can be customized.

         [Sections Can Be Indented]
             can_values_be_as_well = True
             does_that_mean_anything_special = False
             purpose = formatting for readability
             multiline_values = are
                 handled just fine as
                 long as they are indented
                 deeper than the first line
                 of a value
             # Did I mention we can indent comments, too?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 27f7. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 27f7. section.

   (3) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 27f7. section.

   (4) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 27f7. section.

   (5) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 27f7. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Interpolation of values,  Next: Mapping Protocol Access,  Prev: Supported INI File Structure,  Up: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器

5.14.2.5 Interpolation of values
................................

On top of the core functionality, *note ConfigParser: 286. supports
interpolation.  This means values can be preprocessed before returning
them from ‘get()’ calls.

 -- 類別: configparser.BasicInterpolation

     The default implementation used by *note ConfigParser: 286.  It
     enables values to contain format strings which refer to other
     values in the same section, or values in the special default
     section (1).  Additional default values can be provided on
     initialization.

     舉例來說：

          [Paths]
          home_dir: /Users
          my_dir: %(home_dir)s/lumberjack
          my_pictures: %(my_dir)s/Pictures

          [Escape]
          # use a %% to escape the % sign (% is the only character that needs to be escaped):
          gain: 80%%

     In the example above, *note ConfigParser: 286. with 'interpolation'
     set to ‘BasicInterpolation()’ would resolve ‘%(home_dir)s’ to the
     value of ‘home_dir’ (‘/Users’ in this case).  ‘%(my_dir)s’ in
     effect would resolve to ‘/Users/lumberjack’.  All interpolations
     are done on demand so keys used in the chain of references do not
     have to be specified in any specific order in the configuration
     file.

     With ‘interpolation’ set to ‘None’, the parser would simply return
     ‘%(my_dir)s/Pictures’ as the value of ‘my_pictures’ and
     ‘%(home_dir)s/lumberjack’ as the value of ‘my_dir’.

 -- 類別: configparser.ExtendedInterpolation

     An alternative handler for interpolation which implements a more
     advanced syntax, used for instance in ‘zc.buildout’.  Extended
     interpolation is using ‘${section:option}’ to denote a value from a
     foreign section.  Interpolation can span multiple levels.  For
     convenience, if the ‘section:’ part is omitted, interpolation
     defaults to the current section (and possibly the default values
     from the special section).

     For example, the configuration specified above with basic
     interpolation, would look like this with extended interpolation:

          [Paths]
          home_dir: /Users
          my_dir: ${home_dir}/lumberjack
          my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures

          [Escape]
          # use a $$ to escape the $ sign ($ is the only character that needs to be escaped):
          cost: $$80

     Values from other sections can be fetched as well:

          [Common]
          home_dir: /Users
          library_dir: /Library
          system_dir: /System
          macports_dir: /opt/local

          [Frameworks]
          Python: 3.2
          path: ${Common:system_dir}/Library/Frameworks/

          [Arthur]
          nickname: Two Sheds
          last_name: Jackson
          my_dir: ${Common:home_dir}/twosheds
          my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures
          python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 27f7. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Protocol Access,  Next: Customizing Parser Behaviour,  Prev: Interpolation of values,  Up: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器

5.14.2.6 Mapping Protocol Access
................................

在 3.2 版被加入.

Mapping protocol access is a generic name for functionality that enables
using custom objects as if they were dictionaries.  In case of *note
configparser: 20, the mapping interface implementation is using the
‘parser['section']['option']’ notation.

‘parser['section']’ in particular returns a proxy for the section's data
in the parser.  This means that the values are not copied but they are
taken from the original parser on demand.  What's even more important is
that when values are changed on a section proxy, they are actually
mutated in the original parser.

*note configparser: 20. objects behave as close to actual dictionaries
as possible.  The mapping interface is complete and adheres to the *note
MutableMapping: f3d. ABC. However, there are a few differences that
should be taken into account:

   * By default, all keys in sections are accessible in a
     case-insensitive manner (1).  E.g.  ‘for option in
     parser["section"]’ yields only ‘optionxform’'ed option key names.
     This means lowercased keys by default.  At the same time, for a
     section that holds the key ‘'a'’, both expressions return ‘True’:

          "a" in parser["section"]
          "A" in parser["section"]

   * All sections include ‘DEFAULTSECT’ values as well which means that
     ‘.clear()’ on a section may not leave the section visibly empty.
     This is because default values cannot be deleted from the section
     (because technically they are not there).  If they are overridden
     in the section, deleting causes the default value to be visible
     again.  Trying to delete a default value causes a *note KeyError:
     8ed.

   * ‘DEFAULTSECT’ cannot be removed from the parser:

        * trying to delete it raises *note ValueError: 183,

        * ‘parser.clear()’ leaves it intact,

        * ‘parser.popitem()’ never returns it.

   * ‘parser.get(section, option, **kwargs)’ - the second argument is
     'not' a fallback value.  Note however that the section-level
     ‘get()’ methods are compatible both with the mapping protocol and
     the classic configparser API.

   * ‘parser.items()’ is compatible with the mapping protocol (returns a
     list of 'section_name', 'section_proxy' pairs including the
     DEFAULTSECT). However, this method can also be invoked with
     arguments: ‘parser.items(section, raw, vars)’.  The latter call
     returns a list of 'option', 'value' pairs for a specified
     ‘section’, with all interpolations expanded (unless ‘raw=True’ is
     provided).

The mapping protocol is implemented on top of the existing legacy API so
that subclasses overriding the original interface still should have
mappings working as expected.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 27f7. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing Parser Behaviour,  Next: Legacy API Examples,  Prev: Mapping Protocol Access,  Up: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器

5.14.2.7 Customizing Parser Behaviour
.....................................

There are nearly as many INI format variants as there are applications
using it.  *note configparser: 20. goes a long way to provide support
for the largest sensible set of INI styles available.  The default
functionality is mainly dictated by historical background and it's very
likely that you will want to customize some of the features.

The most common way to change the way a specific config parser works is
to use the ‘__init__()’ options:

   * 'defaults', default value: ‘None’

     This option accepts a dictionary of key-value pairs which will be
     initially put in the ‘DEFAULT’ section.  This makes for an elegant
     way to support concise configuration files that don't specify
     values which are the same as the documented default.

     Hint: if you want to specify default values for a specific section,
     use *note read_dict(): 27ff. before you read the actual file.

   * 'dict_type', default value: *note dict: 239.

     This option has a major impact on how the mapping protocol will
     behave and how the written configuration files look.  With the
     standard dictionary, every section is stored in the order they were
     added to the parser.  Same goes for options within sections.

     An alternative dictionary type can be used for example to sort
     sections and options on write-back.

     Please note: there are ways to add a set of key-value pairs in a
     single operation.  When you use a regular dictionary in those
     operations, the order of the keys will be ordered.  For example:

          >>> parser = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> parser.read_dict({'section1': {'key1': 'value1',
          ...                                'key2': 'value2',
          ...                                'key3': 'value3'},
          ...                   'section2': {'keyA': 'valueA',
          ...                                'keyB': 'valueB',
          ...                                'keyC': 'valueC'},
          ...                   'section3': {'foo': 'x',
          ...                                'bar': 'y',
          ...                                'baz': 'z'}
          ... })
          >>> parser.sections()
          ['section1', 'section2', 'section3']
          >>> [option for option in parser['section3']]
          ['foo', 'bar', 'baz']

   * 'allow_no_value', default value: ‘False’

     Some configuration files are known to include settings without
     values, but which otherwise conform to the syntax supported by
     *note configparser: 20.  The 'allow_no_value' parameter to the
     constructor can be used to indicate that such values should be
     accepted:

          >>> import configparser

          >>> sample_config = """
          ... [mysqld]
          ...   user = mysql
          ...   pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
          ...   skip-external-locking
          ...   old_passwords = 1
          ...   skip-bdb
          ...   # we don't need ACID today
          ...   skip-innodb
          ... """
          >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
          >>> config.read_string(sample_config)

          >>> # Settings with values are treated as before:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["user"]
          'mysql'

          >>> # Settings without values provide None:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["skip-bdb"]

          >>> # Settings which aren't specified still raise an error:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["does-not-exist"]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          KeyError: 'does-not-exist'

   * 'delimiters', default value: ‘('=', ':')’

     Delimiters are substrings that delimit keys from values within a
     section.  The first occurrence of a delimiting substring on a line
     is considered a delimiter.  This means values (but not keys) can
     contain the delimiters.

     See also the 'space_around_delimiters' argument to *note
     ConfigParser.write(): 2800.

   * 'comment_prefixes', default value: ‘('#', ';')’

   * 'inline_comment_prefixes', default value: ‘None’

     Comment prefixes are strings that indicate the start of a valid
     comment within a config file.  'comment_prefixes' are used only on
     otherwise empty lines (optionally indented) whereas
     'inline_comment_prefixes' can be used after every valid value (e.g.
     section names, options and empty lines as well).  By default inline
     comments are disabled and ‘'#'’ and ‘';'’ are used as prefixes for
     whole line comments.

     在 3.2 版的變更: In previous versions of *note configparser: 20.
     behaviour matched ‘comment_prefixes=('#',';')’ and
     ‘inline_comment_prefixes=(';',)’.

     Please note that config parsers don't support escaping of comment
     prefixes so using 'inline_comment_prefixes' may prevent users from
     specifying option values with characters used as comment prefixes.
     When in doubt, avoid setting 'inline_comment_prefixes'.  In any
     circumstances, the only way of storing comment prefix characters at
     the beginning of a line in multiline values is to interpolate the
     prefix, for example:

          >>> from configparser import ConfigParser, ExtendedInterpolation
          >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
          >>> # the default BasicInterpolation could be used as well
          >>> parser.read_string("""
          ... [DEFAULT]
          ... hash = #
          ...
          ... [hashes]
          ... shebang =
          ...   ${hash}!/usr/bin/env python
          ...   ${hash} -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
          ...
          ... extensions =
          ...   enabled_extension
          ...   another_extension
          ...   #disabled_by_comment
          ...   yet_another_extension
          ...
          ... interpolation not necessary = if # is not at line start
          ... even in multiline values = line #1
          ...   line #2
          ...   line #3
          ... """)
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['shebang'])

          #!/usr/bin/env python
          # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['extensions'])

          enabled_extension
          another_extension
          yet_another_extension
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['interpolation not necessary'])
          if # is not at line start
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['even in multiline values'])
          line #1
          line #2
          line #3

   * 'strict', default value: ‘True’

     When set to ‘True’, the parser will not allow for any section or
     option duplicates while reading from a single source (using *note
     read_file(): 287, *note read_string(): 2801. or *note read_dict():
     27ff.).  It is recommended to use strict parsers in new
     applications.

     在 3.2 版的變更: In previous versions of *note configparser: 20.
     behaviour matched ‘strict=False’.

   * 'empty_lines_in_values', default value: ‘True’

     In config parsers, values can span multiple lines as long as they
     are indented more than the key that holds them.  By default parsers
     also let empty lines to be parts of values.  At the same time, keys
     can be arbitrarily indented themselves to improve readability.  In
     consequence, when configuration files get big and complex, it is
     easy for the user to lose track of the file structure.  Take for
     instance:

          [Section]
          key = multiline
            value with a gotcha

           this = is still a part of the multiline value of 'key'

     This can be especially problematic for the user to see if she's
     using a proportional font to edit the file.  That is why when your
     application does not need values with empty lines, you should
     consider disallowing them.  This will make empty lines split keys
     every time.  In the example above, it would produce two keys, ‘key’
     and ‘this’.

   * 'default_section', default value: ‘configparser.DEFAULTSECT’ (that
     is: ‘"DEFAULT"’)

     The convention of allowing a special section of default values for
     other sections or interpolation purposes is a powerful concept of
     this library, letting users create complex declarative
     configurations.  This section is normally called ‘"DEFAULT"’ but
     this can be customized to point to any other valid section name.
     Some typical values include: ‘"general"’ or ‘"common"’.  The name
     provided is used for recognizing default sections when reading from
     any source and is used when writing configuration back to a file.
     Its current value can be retrieved using the
     ‘parser_instance.default_section’ attribute and may be modified at
     runtime (i.e.  to convert files from one format to another).

   * 'interpolation', default value: ‘configparser.BasicInterpolation’

     Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom
     handler through the 'interpolation' argument.  ‘None’ can be used
     to turn off interpolation completely, ‘ExtendedInterpolation()’
     provides a more advanced variant inspired by ‘zc.buildout’.  More
     on the subject in the *note dedicated documentation section: 27fe.
     *note RawConfigParser: df1. has a default value of ‘None’.

   * 'converters', default value: not set

     Config parsers provide option value getters that perform type
     conversion.  By default *note getint(): 27fa, *note getfloat():
     27fb, and *note getboolean(): 27f9. are implemented.  Should other
     getters be desirable, users may define them in a subclass or pass a
     dictionary where each key is a name of the converter and each value
     is a callable implementing said conversion.  For instance, passing
     ‘{'decimal': decimal.Decimal}’ would add ‘getdecimal()’ on both the
     parser object and all section proxies.  In other words, it will be
     possible to write both ‘parser_instance.getdecimal('section',
     'key', fallback=0)’ and
     ‘parser_instance['section'].getdecimal('key', 0)’.

     If the converter needs to access the state of the parser, it can be
     implemented as a method on a config parser subclass.  If the name
     of this method starts with ‘get’, it will be available on all
     section proxies, in the dict-compatible form (see the
     ‘getdecimal()’ example above).

More advanced customization may be achieved by overriding default values
of these parser attributes.  The defaults are defined on the classes, so
they may be overridden by subclasses or by attribute assignment.

 -- 屬性: ConfigParser.BOOLEAN_STATES

     By default when using *note getboolean(): 27f9, config parsers
     consider the following values ‘True’: ‘'1'’, ‘'yes'’, ‘'true'’,
     ‘'on'’ and the following values ‘False’: ‘'0'’, ‘'no'’, ‘'false'’,
     ‘'off'’.  You can override this by specifying a custom dictionary
     of strings and their Boolean outcomes.  For example:

          >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> custom['section1'] = {'funky': 'nope'}
          >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          ValueError: Not a boolean: nope
          >>> custom.BOOLEAN_STATES = {'sure': True, 'nope': False}
          >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
          False

     Other typical Boolean pairs include ‘accept’/‘reject’ or
     ‘enabled’/‘disabled’.

 -- 方法: ConfigParser.optionxform (option)

     This method transforms option names on every read, get, or set
     operation.  The default converts the name to lowercase.  This also
     means that when a configuration file gets written, all keys will be
     lowercase.  Override this method if that's unsuitable.  For
     example:

          >>> config = """
          ... [Section1]
          ... Key = Value
          ...
          ... [Section2]
          ... AnotherKey = Value
          ... """
          >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> typical.read_string(config)
          >>> list(typical['Section1'].keys())
          ['key']
          >>> list(typical['Section2'].keys())
          ['anotherkey']
          >>> custom = configparser.RawConfigParser()
          >>> custom.optionxform = lambda option: option
          >>> custom.read_string(config)
          >>> list(custom['Section1'].keys())
          ['Key']
          >>> list(custom['Section2'].keys())
          ['AnotherKey']

          備註: The optionxform function transforms option names to a
          canonical form.  This should be an idempotent function: if the
          name is already in canonical form, it should be returned
          unchanged.

 -- 屬性: ConfigParser.SECTCRE

     A compiled regular expression used to parse section headers.  The
     default matches ‘[section]’ to the name ‘"section"’.  Whitespace is
     considered part of the section name, thus ‘[ larch ]’ will be read
     as a section of name ‘" larch "’.  Override this attribute if
     that's unsuitable.  For example:

          >>> import re
          >>> config = """
          ... [Section 1]
          ... option = value
          ...
          ... [  Section 2  ]
          ... another = val
          ... """
          >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> typical.read_string(config)
          >>> typical.sections()
          ['Section 1', '  Section 2  ']
          >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> custom.SECTCRE = re.compile(r"\[ *(?P<header>[^]]+?) *\]")
          >>> custom.read_string(config)
          >>> custom.sections()
          ['Section 1', 'Section 2']

          備註: While ConfigParser objects also use an ‘OPTCRE’
          attribute for recognizing option lines, it's not recommended
          to override it because that would interfere with constructor
          options 'allow_no_value' and 'delimiters'.


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy API Examples,  Next: ConfigParser 物件,  Prev: Customizing Parser Behaviour,  Up: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器

5.14.2.8 Legacy API Examples
............................

Mainly because of backwards compatibility concerns, *note configparser:
20. provides also a legacy API with explicit ‘get’/‘set’ methods.  While
there are valid use cases for the methods outlined below, mapping
protocol access is preferred for new projects.  The legacy API is at
times more advanced, low-level and downright counterintuitive.

An example of writing to a configuration file:

     import configparser

     config = configparser.RawConfigParser()

     # Please note that using RawConfigParser's set functions, you can assign
     # non-string values to keys internally, but will receive an error when
     # attempting to write to a file or when you get it in non-raw mode. Setting
     # values using the mapping protocol or ConfigParser's set() does not allow
     # such assignments to take place.
     config.add_section('Section1')
     config.set('Section1', 'an_int', '15')
     config.set('Section1', 'a_bool', 'true')
     config.set('Section1', 'a_float', '3.1415')
     config.set('Section1', 'baz', 'fun')
     config.set('Section1', 'bar', 'Python')
     config.set('Section1', 'foo', '%(bar)s is %(baz)s!')

     # Writing our configuration file to 'example.cfg'
     with open('example.cfg', 'w') as configfile:
         config.write(configfile)

An example of reading the configuration file again:

     import configparser

     config = configparser.RawConfigParser()
     config.read('example.cfg')

     # getfloat() raises an exception if the value is not a float
     # getint() and getboolean() also do this for their respective types
     a_float = config.getfloat('Section1', 'a_float')
     an_int = config.getint('Section1', 'an_int')
     print(a_float + an_int)

     # Notice that the next output does not interpolate '%(bar)s' or '%(baz)s'.
     # This is because we are using a RawConfigParser().
     if config.getboolean('Section1', 'a_bool'):
         print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))

To get interpolation, use *note ConfigParser: 286.:

     import configparser

     cfg = configparser.ConfigParser()
     cfg.read('example.cfg')

     # Set the optional *raw* argument of get() to True if you wish to disable
     # interpolation in a single get operation.
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=False))  # -> "Python is fun!"
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=True))   # -> "%(bar)s is %(baz)s!"

     # The optional *vars* argument is a dict with members that will take
     # precedence in interpolation.
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', vars={'bar': 'Documentation',
                                            'baz': 'evil'}))

     # The optional *fallback* argument can be used to provide a fallback value
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo'))
           # -> "Python is fun!"

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', fallback='Monty is not.'))
           # -> "Python is fun!"

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback='No such things as monsters.'))
           # -> "No such things as monsters."

     # A bare print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster')) would raise NoOptionError
     # but we can also use:

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback=None))
           # -> None

Default values are available in both types of ConfigParsers.  They are
used in interpolation if an option used is not defined elsewhere.

     import configparser

     # New instance with 'bar' and 'baz' defaulting to 'Life' and 'hard' each
     config = configparser.ConfigParser({'bar': 'Life', 'baz': 'hard'})
     config.read('example.cfg')

     print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Python is fun!"
     config.remove_option('Section1', 'bar')
     config.remove_option('Section1', 'baz')
     print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Life is hard!"


File: python.info,  Node: ConfigParser 物件,  Next: RawConfigParser 物件,  Prev: Legacy API Examples,  Up: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器

5.14.2.9 ConfigParser 物件
..........................

 -- 類別: configparser.ConfigParser (defaults=None, dict_type=dict,
          allow_no_value=False, delimiters=('=', ':'),
          comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None,
          strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True,
          default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT,
          interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={})

     The main configuration parser.  When 'defaults' is given, it is
     initialized into the dictionary of intrinsic defaults.  When
     'dict_type' is given, it will be used to create the dictionary
     objects for the list of sections, for the options within a section,
     and for the default values.

     When 'delimiters' is given, it is used as the set of substrings
     that divide keys from values.  When 'comment_prefixes' is given, it
     will be used as the set of substrings that prefix comments in
     otherwise empty lines.  Comments can be indented.  When
     'inline_comment_prefixes' is given, it will be used as the set of
     substrings that prefix comments in non-empty lines.

     When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the parser won't allow for
     any section or option duplicates while reading from a single source
     (file, string or dictionary), raising *note DuplicateSectionError:
     1103. or *note DuplicateOptionError: 1104.  When
     'empty_lines_in_values' is ‘False’ (default: ‘True’), each empty
     line marks the end of an option.  Otherwise, internal empty lines
     of a multiline option are kept as part of the value.  When
     'allow_no_value' is ‘True’ (default: ‘False’), options without
     values are accepted; the value held for these is ‘None’ and they
     are serialized without the trailing delimiter.

     When 'default_section' is given, it specifies the name for the
     special section holding default values for other sections and
     interpolation purposes (normally named ‘"DEFAULT"’).  This value
     can be retrieved and changed at runtime using the ‘default_section’
     instance attribute.  This won't re-evaluate an already parsed
     config file, but will be used when writing parsed settings to a new
     config file.

     Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom
     handler through the 'interpolation' argument.  ‘None’ can be used
     to turn off interpolation completely, ‘ExtendedInterpolation()’
     provides a more advanced variant inspired by ‘zc.buildout’.  More
     on the subject in the *note dedicated documentation section: 27fe.

     All option names used in interpolation will be passed through the
     *note optionxform(): 2806. method just like any other option name
     reference.  For example, using the default implementation of *note
     optionxform(): 2806. (which converts option names to lower case),
     the values ‘foo %(bar)s’ and ‘foo %(BAR)s’ are equivalent.

     When 'converters' is given, it should be a dictionary where each
     key represents the name of a type converter and each value is a
     callable implementing the conversion from string to the desired
     datatype.  Every converter gets its own corresponding ‘get*()’
     method on the parser object and section proxies.

     It is possible to read several configurations into a single *note
     ConfigParser: 286, where the most recently added configuration has
     the highest priority.  Any conflicting keys are taken from the more
     recent configuration while the previously existing keys are
     retained.  The example below reads in an ‘override.ini’ file, which
     will override any conflicting keys from the ‘example.ini’ file.

          [DEFAULT]
          ServerAliveInterval = -1

          >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
          >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
          ...     config_override.write(configfile)
          ...
          >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
          ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
          >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
          -1

     在 3.1 版的變更: The default 'dict_type' is *note
     collections.OrderedDict: 3ce.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 'allow_no_value', 'delimiters',
     'comment_prefixes', 'strict', 'empty_lines_in_values',
     'default_section' and 'interpolation' were added.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'converters' 引數。

     在 3.7 版的變更: The 'defaults' argument is read with *note
     read_dict(): 27ff, providing consistent behavior across the parser:
     non-string keys and values are implicitly converted to strings.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The default 'dict_type' is *note dict: 239, since
     it now preserves insertion order.

      -- 方法: defaults ()

          Return a dictionary containing the instance-wide defaults.

      -- 方法: sections ()

          Return a list of the sections available; the 'default section'
          is not included in the list.

      -- 方法: add_section (section)

          Add a section named 'section' to the instance.  If a section
          by the given name already exists, *note DuplicateSectionError:
          1103. is raised.  If the 'default section' name is passed,
          *note ValueError: 183. is raised.  The name of the section
          must be a string; if not, *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised.

          在 3.2 版的變更: Non-string section names raise *note
          TypeError: 2ba.

      -- 方法: has_section (section)

          Indicates whether the named 'section' is present in the
          configuration.  The 'default section' is not acknowledged.

      -- 方法: options (section)

          Return a list of options available in the specified 'section'.

      -- 方法: has_option (section, option)

          If the given 'section' exists, and contains the given
          'option', return *note True: a70.; otherwise return *note
          False: 98f.  If the specified 'section' is *note None: 470. or
          an empty string, DEFAULT is assumed.

      -- 方法: read (filenames, encoding=None)

          Attempt to read and parse an iterable of filenames, returning
          a list of filenames which were successfully parsed.

          If 'filenames' is a string, a *note bytes: 2c1. object or a
          *note path-like object: 975, it is treated as a single
          filename.  If a file named in 'filenames' cannot be opened,
          that file will be ignored.  This is designed so that you can
          specify an iterable of potential configuration file locations
          (for example, the current directory, the user's home
          directory, and some system-wide directory), and all existing
          configuration files in the iterable will be read.

          If none of the named files exist, the *note ConfigParser: 286.
          instance will contain an empty dataset.  An application which
          requires initial values to be loaded from a file should load
          the required file or files using *note read_file(): 287.
          before calling *note read(): 12d8. for any optional files:

               import configparser, os

               config = configparser.ConfigParser()
               config.read_file(open('defaults.cfg'))
               config.read(['site.cfg', os.path.expanduser('~/.myapp.cfg')],
                           encoding='cp1250')

          在 3.2 版的變更: Added the 'encoding' parameter.  Previously,
          all files were read using the default encoding for *note
          open(): 29c.

          在 3.6.1 版的變更: The 'filenames' parameter accepts a *note
          path-like object: 975.

          在 3.7 版的變更: The 'filenames' parameter accepts a *note
          bytes: 2c1. object.

      -- 方法: read_file (f, source=None)

          Read and parse configuration data from 'f' which must be an
          iterable yielding Unicode strings (for example files opened in
          text mode).

          Optional argument 'source' specifies the name of the file
          being read.  If not given and 'f' has a ‘name’ attribute, that
          is used for 'source'; the default is ‘'<???>'’.

          在 3.2 版被加入: 取代 ‘readfp()’。

      -- 方法: read_string (string, source='<string>')

          Parse configuration data from a string.

          Optional argument 'source' specifies a context-specific name
          of the string passed.  If not given, ‘'<string>'’ is used.
          This should commonly be a filesystem path or a URL.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: read_dict (dictionary, source='<dict>')

          Load configuration from any object that provides a dict-like
          ‘items()’ method.  Keys are section names, values are
          dictionaries with keys and values that should be present in
          the section.  If the used dictionary type preserves order,
          sections and their keys will be added in order.  Values are
          automatically converted to strings.

          Optional argument 'source' specifies a context-specific name
          of the dictionary passed.  If not given, ‘<dict>’ is used.

          This method can be used to copy state between parsers.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: get (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          Get an 'option' value for the named 'section'.  If 'vars' is
          provided, it must be a dictionary.  The 'option' is looked up
          in 'vars' (if provided), 'section', and in 'DEFAULTSECT' in
          that order.  If the key is not found and 'fallback' is
          provided, it is used as a fallback value.  ‘None’ can be
          provided as a 'fallback' value.

          All the ‘'%'’ interpolations are expanded in the return
          values, unless the 'raw' argument is true.  Values for
          interpolation keys are looked up in the same manner as the
          option.

          在 3.2 版的變更: Arguments 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback' are
          keyword only to protect users from trying to use the third
          argument as the 'fallback' fallback (especially when using the
          mapping protocol).

      -- 方法: getint (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to an integer.  See *note get(): 1100. for
          explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- 方法: getfloat (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to a floating-point number.  See *note
          get(): 1100. for explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- 方法: getboolean (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to a Boolean value.  Note that the
          accepted values for the option are ‘'1'’, ‘'yes'’, ‘'true'’,
          and ‘'on'’, which cause this method to return ‘True’, and
          ‘'0'’, ‘'no'’, ‘'false'’, and ‘'off'’, which cause it to
          return ‘False’.  These string values are checked in a
          case-insensitive manner.  Any other value will cause it to
          raise *note ValueError: 183.  See *note get(): 1100. for
          explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- 方法: items (raw=False, vars=None)

      -- 方法: items (section, raw=False, vars=None)

          When 'section' is not given, return a list of 'section_name',
          'section_proxy' pairs, including DEFAULTSECT.

          Otherwise, return a list of 'name', 'value' pairs for the
          options in the given 'section'.  Optional arguments have the
          same meaning as for the *note get(): 1100. method.

          在 3.8 版的變更: Items present in 'vars' no longer appear in
          the result.  The previous behaviour mixed actual parser
          options with variables provided for interpolation.

      -- 方法: set (section, option, value)

          If the given section exists, set the given option to the
          specified value; otherwise raise *note NoSectionError: 280d.
          'option' and 'value' must be strings; if not, *note TypeError:
          2ba. is raised.

      -- 方法: write (fileobject, space_around_delimiters=True)

          Write a representation of the configuration to the specified
          *note file object: 1054, which must be opened in text mode
          (accepting strings).  This representation can be parsed by a
          future *note read(): 12d8. call.  If 'space_around_delimiters'
          is true, delimiters between keys and values are surrounded by
          spaces.

          備註: Comments in the original configuration file are not
          preserved when writing the configuration back.  What is
          considered a comment, depends on the given values for
          'comment_prefix' and 'inline_comment_prefix'.

      -- 方法: remove_option (section, option)

          Remove the specified 'option' from the specified 'section'.
          If the section does not exist, raise *note NoSectionError:
          280d.  If the option existed to be removed, return *note True:
          a70.; otherwise return *note False: 98f.

      -- 方法: remove_section (section)

          Remove the specified 'section' from the configuration.  If the
          section in fact existed, return ‘True’.  Otherwise return
          ‘False’.

      -- 方法: optionxform (option)

          Transforms the option name 'option' as found in an input file
          or as passed in by client code to the form that should be used
          in the internal structures.  The default implementation
          returns a lower-case version of 'option'; subclasses may
          override this or client code can set an attribute of this name
          on instances to affect this behavior.

          You don't need to subclass the parser to use this method, you
          can also set it on an instance, to a function that takes a
          string argument and returns a string.  Setting it to ‘str’,
          for example, would make option names case sensitive:

               cfgparser = ConfigParser()
               cfgparser.optionxform = str

          Note that when reading configuration files, whitespace around
          the option names is stripped before *note optionxform(): 2806.
          is called.

 -- 資料: configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH

     The maximum depth for recursive interpolation for *note get():
     1100. when the 'raw' parameter is false.  This is relevant only
     when the default 'interpolation' is used.


File: python.info,  Node: RawConfigParser 物件,  Next: 例外<5>,  Prev: ConfigParser 物件,  Up: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器

5.14.2.10 RawConfigParser 物件
..............................

 -- 類別: configparser.RawConfigParser (defaults=None, dict_type=dict,
          allow_no_value=False, *, delimiters=('=', ':'),
          comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None,
          strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True,
          default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT[, interpolation])

     Legacy variant of the *note ConfigParser: 286.  It has
     interpolation disabled by default and allows for non-string section
     names, option names, and values via its unsafe ‘add_section’ and
     ‘set’ methods, as well as the legacy ‘defaults=’ keyword argument
     handling.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The default 'dict_type' is *note dict: 239, since
     it now preserves insertion order.

          備註: Consider using *note ConfigParser: 286. instead which
          checks types of the values to be stored internally.  If you
          don't want interpolation, you can use
          ‘ConfigParser(interpolation=None)’.

      -- 方法: add_section (section)

          Add a section named 'section' to the instance.  If a section
          by the given name already exists, *note DuplicateSectionError:
          1103. is raised.  If the 'default section' name is passed,
          *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

          Type of 'section' is not checked which lets users create
          non-string named sections.  This behaviour is unsupported and
          may cause internal errors.

      -- 方法: set (section, option, value)

          If the given section exists, set the given option to the
          specified value; otherwise raise *note NoSectionError: 280d.
          While it is possible to use *note RawConfigParser: df1. (or
          *note ConfigParser: 286. with 'raw' parameters set to true)
          for 'internal' storage of non-string values, full
          functionality (including interpolation and output to files)
          can only be achieved using string values.

          This method lets users assign non-string values to keys
          internally.  This behaviour is unsupported and will cause
          errors when attempting to write to a file or get it in non-raw
          mode.  'Use the mapping protocol API' which does not allow
          such assignments to take place.


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<5>,  Prev: RawConfigParser 物件,  Up: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器

5.14.2.11 例外
..............

 -- 例外: configparser.Error

     Base class for all other *note configparser: 20. exceptions.

 -- 例外: configparser.NoSectionError

     Exception raised when a specified section is not found.

 -- 例外: configparser.DuplicateSectionError

     Exception raised if *note add_section(): 1102. is called with the
     name of a section that is already present or in strict parsers when
     a section if found more than once in a single input file, string or
     dictionary.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Added the optional 'source' and 'lineno'
     attributes and parameters to ‘__init__()’.

 -- 例外: configparser.DuplicateOptionError

     Exception raised by strict parsers if a single option appears twice
     during reading from a single file, string or dictionary.  This
     catches misspellings and case sensitivity-related errors, e.g.  a
     dictionary may have two keys representing the same case-insensitive
     configuration key.

 -- 例外: configparser.NoOptionError

     Exception raised when a specified option is not found in the
     specified section.

 -- 例外: configparser.InterpolationError

     Base class for exceptions raised when problems occur performing
     string interpolation.

 -- 例外: configparser.InterpolationDepthError

     Exception raised when string interpolation cannot be completed
     because the number of iterations exceeds *note
     MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH: 2810.  Subclass of *note
     InterpolationError: 2818.

 -- 例外: configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError

     Exception raised when an option referenced from a value does not
     exist.  Subclass of *note InterpolationError: 2818.

 -- 例外: configparser.InterpolationSyntaxError

     Exception raised when the source text into which substitutions are
     made does not conform to the required syntax.  Subclass of *note
     InterpolationError: 2818.

 -- 例外: configparser.MissingSectionHeaderError

     Exception raised when attempting to parse a file which has no
     section headers.

 -- 例外: configparser.ParsingError

     Exception raised when errors occur attempting to parse a file.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The ‘filename’ attribute and ‘__init__()’
     constructor argument were removed.  They have been available using
     the name ‘source’ since 3.2.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案,  Next: netrc --- netrc 檔案處理,  Prev: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器,  Up: 檔案格式

5.14.3 ‘tomllib’ -- 剖析 TOML 檔案
----------------------------------

在 3.11 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/tomllib(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組提供了剖析 TOML 1.0.0 (Tom's Obvious Minimal Language,
https://toml.io(2)) 的一個介面，此模組並不支援寫入 TOML。

也參考
......

Tomli-W 套件(3)是一個 TOML 編寫器，可以與此模組結合使用，以提供標準函式
庫中 *note marshal: 88. 和 *note pickle: a1. 模組之使用者所熟悉的寫入
API。

也參考
......

TOML 工具套件(4)是一個保留風格且具有讀寫能力的 TOML 函式庫。若要編輯已存
在的 TOML 文件，建議用它來替換此模組。

此模組定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: tomllib.load (fp, /, *, parse_float=float)

     讀取一個 TOML 檔案。第一個引數應為一個可讀取的二進位檔案物件。回傳
     一個 *note dict: 239.。用這個*note 轉換表: 2820.將 TOML 型別轉換成
     Python 的。

     'parse_float' 會被呼叫於要解碼的每個 TOML 浮點數字串。預設情況下，
     這相當於 ‘float(num_str)’。若有使用另一種資料型別或剖析器的 TOML 浮
     點數（例如 *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0.），這就派得上用場。可呼叫物
     件不得回傳 *note dict: 239. 或 *note list: 40a.，否則會引發 *note
     ValueError: 183.。

     不合格的 TOML 文件會使得 *note TOMLDecodeError: 2821. 被引發。

 -- 函式: tomllib.loads (s, /, *, parse_float=float)

     自一個 *note str: 157. 物件載入成 TOML。回傳一個 *note dict: 239.。
     用這個*note 轉換表: 2820.轉換 TOML 型別成 Python 的。'parse_float'
     引數和 *note load(): 281f. 中的相同。

     不合格的 TOML 文件會使得 *note TOMLDecodeError: 2821. 被引發。

以下為可用的例外：

 -- 例外: tomllib.TOMLDecodeError

     *note ValueError: 183. 的子類別。

* Menu:

* 範例: 範例<15>.
* 轉換表::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tomllib

   (2) https://toml.io/en/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/tomli-w/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/tomlkit/


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<15>,  Next: 轉換表,  Up: tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案

5.14.3.1 範例
.............

剖析一個 TOML 檔案：

     import tomllib

     with open("pyproject.toml", "rb") as f:
         data = tomllib.load(f)

剖析一個 TOML 字串：

     import tomllib

     toml_str = """
     python-version = "3.11.0"
     python-implementation = "CPython"
     """

     data = tomllib.loads(toml_str)


File: python.info,  Node: 轉換表,  Prev: 範例<15>,  Up: tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案

5.14.3.2 轉換表
...............

TOML                   Python
                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
TOML 文件              dict
                       
                       
string                 str
                       
                       
integer                int
                       
                       
float                  float（可透過 'parse_float' 調整）
                       
                       
boolean                bool
                       
                       
偏移日期時間 (offset   datetime.datetime（設定 ‘tzinfo’ 屬性為 ‘datetime.timezone’ 的實例）
date-time)             

本地日期時間 (local    datetime.datetime（設定 ‘tzinfo’ 為 ‘None’）
date-time)             

本地日期 (local        datetime.date
date)                  

本地時間 (local        datetime.time
time)                  

array                  list
                       
                       
table                  dict
                       
                       
行內表格 (inline       dict
table)                 

表格陣列 (array of     dict 串列 (list of dicts)
tables)                


File: python.info,  Node: netrc --- netrc 檔案處理,  Next: plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案,  Prev: tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案,  Up: 檔案格式

5.14.4 ‘netrc’ -- netrc 檔案處理
--------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/netrc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note netrc: 1695. 類別能夠剖析 (parse) 並封裝 (encapsulate) netrc 檔案
格式，以供 Unix ‘ftp’ 程式和其他 FTP 用戶端使用。

 -- 類別: netrc.netrc ([file])

     *note netrc: 1695. 實例或其子類別實例能夠封裝來自 netrc 檔案的資料
     。可用初始化引數（如有給定）指定要剖析的檔案，如果未給定引數，則將
     讀取（由 *note os.path.expanduser(): 85b. 指定的）使用者主目錄中的
     ‘.netrc’ 檔案，否則將引發 *note FileNotFoundError: d46. 例外。剖析
     錯誤會引發 *note NetrcParseError: 2827.，其帶有包括檔案名稱、列號和
     終止 token 的診斷資訊。如果在 POSIX 系統上未指定引數，且若檔案所有
     權或權限不安全（擁有者與運行該行程的使用者不同，或者可供任何其他使
     用者讀取或寫入），存有密碼的 ‘.netrc’ 檔案將會引發 *note
     NetrcParseError: 2827.。這實作了與 ftp 和其他使用 ‘.netrc’ 程式等效
     的安全行為。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增了 POSIX 權限檢查。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 當未傳遞 'file' 引數時，*note
     os.path.expanduser(): 85b. 可用於查找 ‘.netrc’ 檔案的位置。

     在 3.10 版的變更: *note netrc: 96. 在使用特定語言環境編碼前會先嘗試
     UTF-8 編碼。netrc 檔案中的條目就不再需要包含所有 token，缺少的
     token 值被預設為空字串。現在所有 token 及其值都可以包含任意字元，例
     如空格和非 ASCII 字元。如果登入名稱為匿名，就不會觸發安全檢查。

 -- 例外: netrc.NetrcParseError

     當原始文本中遇到語法錯誤時，*note netrc: 1695. 類別會引發例外。此例
     外的實例提供了三個有趣的屬性：

      -- 屬性: msg

          錯誤的文字解釋。

      -- 屬性: filename

          原始檔案的名稱。

      -- 屬性: lineno

          發現錯誤的列號。

* Menu:

* netrc 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/netrc.py


File: python.info,  Node: netrc 物件,  Up: netrc --- netrc 檔案處理

5.14.4.1 netrc 物件
...................

*note netrc: 1695. 實例具有以下方法：

 -- 方法: netrc.authenticators (host)

     回傳 'host' 身份驗證器的三元素 tuple ‘(login, account, password)’。
     如果 netrc 檔案不包含給定主機的條目，則回傳與 'default' 條目關聯的
     tuple。如果並無匹配主機且預設條目也不可用則回傳 ‘None’。

 -- 方法: netrc.__repr__ ()

     將類別資料傾印 (dump) 為 netrc 檔案格式的字串。（這會將註解移除，並
     可能會對條目重新排序。）

*note netrc: 1695. 的實例具有公開實例變數：

 -- 屬性: netrc.hosts

     將主機名稱對映到 ‘(login, account, password)’ tuple 的字典。
     'default' 條目（如存在）表示為該名稱對應到的偽主機 (pseudo-host)。

 -- 屬性: netrc.macros

     巨集 (macro) 名稱與字串 list（串列）的對映字典。


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案,  Prev: netrc --- netrc 檔案處理,  Up: 檔案格式

5.14.5 ‘plistlib’ -- 產生和剖析 Apple ‘.plist’ 檔案
---------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/plistlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface for reading and writing the "property
list" files used by Apple, primarily on macOS and iOS. This module
supports both binary and XML plist files.

The property list (‘.plist’) file format is a simple serialization
supporting basic object types, like dictionaries, lists, numbers and
strings.  Usually the top level object is a dictionary.

To write out and to parse a plist file, use the *note dump(): 792. and
*note load(): 790. functions.

To work with plist data in bytes objects, use *note dumps(): 793. and
*note loads(): 791.

Values can be strings, integers, floats, booleans, tuples, lists,
dictionaries (but only with string keys), *note bytes: 2c1, *note
bytearray: 2c0. or *note datetime.datetime: 224. objects.

在 3.4 版的變更: New API, old API deprecated.  Support for binary format
plists added.

在 3.8 版的變更: Support added for reading and writing *note UID: 86a.
tokens in binary plists as used by NSKeyedArchiver and
NSKeyedUnarchiver.

在 3.9 版的變更: Old API removed.

也參考
......

PList manual page(2)

     Apple's documentation of the file format.

This module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: plistlib.load (fp, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict)

     Read a plist file.  'fp' should be a readable and binary file
     object.  Return the unpacked root object (which usually is a
     dictionary).

     The 'fmt' is the format of the file and the following values are
     valid:

        * *note None: 470.: Autodetect the file format

        * *note FMT_XML: e06.: XML file format

        * *note FMT_BINARY: e07.: Binary plist format

     The 'dict_type' is the type used for dictionaries that are read
     from the plist file.

     XML data for the *note FMT_XML: e06. format is parsed using the
     Expat parser from *note xml.parsers.expat: 121. - see its
     documentation for possible exceptions on ill-formed XML. Unknown
     elements will simply be ignored by the plist parser.

     The parser for the binary format raises ‘InvalidFileException’ when
     the file cannot be parsed.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: plistlib.loads (data, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict)

     Load a plist from a bytes object.  See *note load(): 790. for an
     explanation of the keyword arguments.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: plistlib.dump (value, fp, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True,
          skipkeys=False)

     Write 'value' to a plist file.  'Fp' should be a writable, binary
     file object.

     The 'fmt' argument specifies the format of the plist file and can
     be one of the following values:

        * *note FMT_XML: e06.: XML formatted plist file

        * *note FMT_BINARY: e07.: Binary formatted plist file

     When 'sort_keys' is true (the default) the keys for dictionaries
     will be written to the plist in sorted order, otherwise they will
     be written in the iteration order of the dictionary.

     When 'skipkeys' is false (the default) the function raises *note
     TypeError: 2ba. when a key of a dictionary is not a string,
     otherwise such keys are skipped.

     A *note TypeError: 2ba. will be raised if the object is of an
     unsupported type or a container that contains objects of
     unsupported types.

     An *note OverflowError: 6ad. will be raised for integer values that
     cannot be represented in (binary) plist files.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: plistlib.dumps (value, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True,
          skipkeys=False)

     Return 'value' as a plist-formatted bytes object.  See the
     documentation for *note dump(): 792. for an explanation of the
     keyword arguments of this function.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

The following classes are available:

 -- 類別: plistlib.UID (data)

     Wraps an *note int: 17e.  This is used when reading or writing
     NSKeyedArchiver encoded data, which contains UID (see PList
     manual).

     It has one attribute, ‘data’, which can be used to retrieve the int
     value of the UID. ‘data’ must be in the range ‘0 <= data < 2**64’.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

The following constants are available:

 -- 資料: plistlib.FMT_XML

     The XML format for plist files.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: plistlib.FMT_BINARY

     The binary format for plist files

     在 3.4 版被加入.

* Menu:

* 範例: 範例<16>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/plistlib.py

   (2) 
https://developer.apple.com/library/archive/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/PropertyLists/


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<16>,  Up: plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案

5.14.5.1 範例
.............

Generating a plist:

     import datetime
     import plistlib

     pl = dict(
         aString = "Doodah",
         aList = ["A", "B", 12, 32.1, [1, 2, 3]],
         aFloat = 0.1,
         anInt = 728,
         aDict = dict(
             anotherString = "<hello & hi there!>",
             aThirdString = "M\xe4ssig, Ma\xdf",
             aTrueValue = True,
             aFalseValue = False,
         ),
         someData = b"<binary gunk>",
         someMoreData = b"<lots of binary gunk>" * 10,
         aDate = datetime.datetime.now()
     )
     print(plistlib.dumps(pl).decode())

Parsing a plist:

     import plistlib

     plist = b"""<plist version="1.0">
     <dict>
         <key>foo</key>
         <string>bar</string>
     </dict>
     </plist>"""
     pl = plistlib.loads(plist)
     print(pl["foo"])


File: python.info,  Node: 加密服務,  Next: 通用作業系統服務,  Prev: 檔案格式,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.15 加密服務
=============

本章所描述的模組 (module) 實作了多種加密演算法。它們可以在安裝時選擇是否
一同安裝。在 Unix 系統上，*note crypt: 26. 模組也有機會能夠被使用。以下
為概述：

* Menu:

* hashlib: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要. 安全雜湊與訊息摘要
* hmac: hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證. 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證
* secrets: secrets --- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數. 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要,  Next: hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證,  Up: 加密服務

5.15.1 ‘hashlib’ -- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要
--------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/hashlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

該模組實作了許多不同安全雜湊和訊息摘要演算法的通用介面，其中包括 FIPS 安
全雜湊演算法 SHA1、SHA224、SHA256、SHA384、SHA512（定義於 FIPS 180-4 標
準(2)）、SHA-3 系列（定義於 FIPS 202 標準(3)）以及 RSA 的 MD5 演算法（定
義於網際網路 RFC 1321(4)）。「安全雜湊 (secure hash)」和「訊息摘要
(message digest)」這兩個術語是可以互換的。較舊的演算法稱為訊息摘要、現代
則較常稱之安全雜湊。

     備註: 如果你需要 adler32 或 crc32 雜湊函式，可以在 *note zlib: 12d.
     模組中找到它們。

* Menu:

* 雜湊演算法::
* 用法::
* 建構函式::
* 屬性::
* 雜湊物件::
* SHAKE 可變長度摘要::
* 檔案雜湊::
* 密鑰的生成::
* BLAKE2::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/hashlib.py

   (2) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/180-4/upd1/final

   (3) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1321.html


File: python.info,  Node: 雜湊演算法,  Next: 用法,  Up: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要

5.15.1.1 雜湊演算法
...................

每種種類的 'hash' 都有一個以其命名的建構函式方法。全部都會回傳具有相同簡
單介面的雜湊物件。例如：可使用 *note sha256(): 283b. 來建立 SHA-256 雜湊
物件。現在你可以使用 *note update: 283c. 方法向此物件提供*note
類位元組物件 (bytes-like objects): b9f.（通常是 *note bytes: 2c1.）。在
任何時候，你都可以使用 *note digest(): 283d. 或 *note hexdigest(): 283e.
方法來要求它提供迄今為止傳遞給它的資料串聯的'摘要 (digest)'。

為了允許多執行緒 (multithreading)，Python *note GIL: 6df. 被釋放，同時在
其建構函式或 *note .update: 283c. 方法中計算一次提供超過 2047 位元組資料
的雜湊值。

此模組中始終存在的雜湊演算法之建構函式有 *note sha1(): 283f.、*note
sha224(): 2840.、*note sha256(): 283b.、*note sha384(): 2841.、*note
sha512(): 2842.、*note sha3_224(): b0f.、*note sha3_256(): b10.、*note
sha3_384(): b11.、*note sha3_512(): b12.、*note shake_128(): b13.、*note
shake_256(): b14.、*note blake2b(): 43d. 和 *note blake2s(): 43e.。*note
md5(): 2843. 通常也可用，但如果你使用罕見的「符合 FIPS (FIPS compliant)」
的 Python 建置版本，它可能不存在或者不被允許使用。以上會對應到 *note
algorithms_guaranteed: 1202.。

如果你的 Python 發行版的 *note hashlib: 63. 與提供其他演算法的 OpenSSL 版
本鏈結，也可能有其他演算法可用。其他則'不保證可用'於在所有安裝上，並且只
能以名稱來透過 *note new(): 171d. 存取。請參閱 *note
algorithms_available: 1203.。

     警告: 某些演算法具有已知的雜湊碰撞 (hash collision) 弱點（包括 MD5
     和 SHA1）。請參閱 Attacks on cryptographic hash algorithms(1) 和本
     文件後面的*note 也參考: 2844.部分。

在 3.6 版被加入: 新增了 SHA3 (Keccak) 和 SHAKE 建構函式 *note
sha3_224(): b0f.、*note sha3_256(): b10.、*note sha3_384(): b11.、*note
sha3_512(): b12.、*note shake_128(): b13.、*note shake_256(): b14.。也新
增了 *note blake2b(): 43d. 和 *note blake2s(): 43e.。

在 3.9 版的變更: 所有 hashlib 建構函式都採用一個僅限關鍵字引數
(keyword-only argument) 'usedforsecurity'，其預設值為 ‘True’。False 值則
會允許在受限環境中使用不安全 (insecure) 和阻塞的 (blocked) 雜湊演算法。
‘False’ 表示雜湊演算法未在安全情境中使用，例如作為一種非加密用途的單向壓
縮函式。

在 3.9 版的變更: Hashlib 現在使用 OpenSSL 中的 SHA3 和 SHAKE（如果有提供
的話）。

在 3.12 版的變更: 對於鏈結之 OpenSSL 未提供的任何 MD5、SHA1、SHA2 或
SHA3 演算法，我們會回退使用 HACL* 專案(2)中經過驗證的實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function#Attacks_on_cryptographic_hash_algorithms

   (2) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star


File: python.info,  Node: 用法,  Next: 建構函式,  Prev: 雜湊演算法,  Up: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要

5.15.1.2 用法
.............

獲取位元組字串 ‘b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition"’ 的摘要：

     >>> import hashlib
     >>> m = hashlib.sha256()
     >>> m.update(b"Nobody inspects")
     >>> m.update(b" the spammish repetition")
     >>> m.digest()
     b'\x03\x1e\xdd}Ae\x15\x93\xc5\xfe\\\x00o\xa5u+7\xfd\xdf\xf7\xbcN\x84:\xa6\xaf\x0c\x95\x0fK\x94\x06'
     >>> m.hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

更濃縮：

     >>> hashlib.sha256(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition").hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'


File: python.info,  Node: 建構函式,  Next: 屬性,  Prev: 用法,  Up: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要

5.15.1.3 建構函式
.................

 -- 函式: hashlib.new (name[, data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

     是一個通用建構函式，它將目標演算法的字串 'name' 作為其第一個參數。
     它還允許使用者取得上面列出的雜湊值以及 OpenSSL 函式庫可能提供的任何
     其他演算法。

使用 *note new(): 171d. 和演算法名稱：

     >>> h = hashlib.new('sha256')
     >>> h.update(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition")
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

 -- 函式: hashlib.md5 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 函式: hashlib.sha1 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 函式: hashlib.sha224 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 函式: hashlib.sha256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 函式: hashlib.sha384 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 函式: hashlib.sha512 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 函式: hashlib.sha3_224 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 函式: hashlib.sha3_256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 函式: hashlib.sha3_384 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 函式: hashlib.sha3_512 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

諸如此類的附名建構函式比將演算法名稱傳遞給 *note new(): 171d. 更快。


File: python.info,  Node: 屬性,  Next: 雜湊物件,  Prev: 建構函式,  Up: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要

5.15.1.4 屬性
.............

Hashlib 提供以下常數模組屬性：

 -- 資料: hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed

     包含所有平台上該模組保證支援的雜湊演算法名稱的集合。請注意，'md5' 有
     出現在此列表中，儘管有一些上游供應商提供了奇怪的「符合 FIPS (FIPS
     compliant)」的 Python 建置，並將其排除在外。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: hashlib.algorithms_available

     包含正在運行的 Python 直譯器中可用的雜湊演算法名稱的集合。這些名稱
     在傳遞給 *note new(): 171d. 時將被識別。*note
     algorithms_guaranteed: 1202. 都會是它的一個子集。相同的演算法可能會
     以不同的名稱多次出現在該集合中（多虧了 OpenSSL）。

     在 3.2 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 雜湊物件,  Next: SHAKE 可變長度摘要,  Prev: 屬性,  Up: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要

5.15.1.5 雜湊物件
.................

以下的值皆為建構函式回傳之雜湊物件的常數屬性：

 -- 資料: hash.digest_size

     生成雜湊的大小（以位元組為單位）。

 -- 資料: hash.block_size

     雜湊演算法的內部區塊大小（以位元組為單位）。

雜湊物件具有以下屬性：

 -- 屬性: hash.name

     該雜湊的規範名稱，都會是小寫，且都會適合作為 *note new(): 171d. 的
     參數以建立此型別的另一個雜湊。

     在 3.4 版的變更: name 屬性自 CPython 誕生以來就存在於其中，但直到
     Python 3.4 才正式確立，因此在某些平台上可能不存在。

雜湊物件具有以下方法：

 -- 方法: hash.update (data)

     使用*note 類位元組物件: b9f.來更新雜湊物件。重複呼叫相當於連接所有
     引數的單一呼叫：‘m.update(a); m.update(b)’ 等價於 ‘m.update(a+b)’。

 -- 方法: hash.digest ()

     回傳目前有傳遞給 *note update(): 283c. 方法的資料之摘要。這是一個大
     小為 *note digest_size: 284a. 的位元組物件，它可能包含從 0 到 255 的
     整個範圍內的位元組。

 -- 方法: hash.hexdigest ()

     與 *note digest(): 283d. 類似，只不過摘要會是作為雙倍長度的字串物件
     回傳，僅包含十六進位數字。這可用於在電子郵件或其他非二進位環境中安
     全地交換值。

 -- 方法: hash.copy ()

     回傳雜湊物件的副本（「複製 (clone)」），這可用於高效率地計算出共享
     同一初始子字串的資料之摘要。


File: python.info,  Node: SHAKE 可變長度摘要,  Next: 檔案雜湊,  Prev: 雜湊物件,  Up: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要

5.15.1.6 SHAKE 可變長度摘要
...........................

 -- 函式: hashlib.shake_128 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 函式: hashlib.shake_256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

*note shake_128(): b13. 和 *note shake_256(): b14. 演算法提供了可變長度
摘要，其 length_in_bits//2 最高為 128 或 256 位元安全性。因此，他們的摘
要方法會需要長度。最大長度不受 SHAKE 演算法限制。

 -- 方法: shake.digest (length)

     回傳目前有傳遞給 *note update(): 283c. 方法的資料之摘要。這是一個大
     小為 'length' 的位元組物件，可能包含從 0 到 255 的整個範圍內的位元
     組。

 -- 方法: shake.hexdigest (length)

     與 *note digest(): 1822. 類似，只不過摘要作為雙倍長度的字串物件回傳
     ，僅包含十六進位數字。這可用於交換電子郵件或其他非二進位環境中的值
     。

範例：

     >>> h = hashlib.shake_256(b'Nobody inspects the spammish repetition')
     >>> h.hexdigest(20)
     '44709d6fcb83d92a76dcb0b668c98e1b1d3dafe7'


File: python.info,  Node: 檔案雜湊,  Next: 密鑰的生成,  Prev: SHAKE 可變長度摘要,  Up: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要

5.15.1.7 檔案雜湊
.................

hashlib 模組提供了一個輔助函式，用於對檔案或類檔案物件 (file-like
object) 進行有效率的雜湊。

 -- 函式: hashlib.file_digest (fileobj, digest, /)

     回傳已用檔案物件內容更新的摘要物件。

     'fileobj' 必須是以二進位模式讀取的類檔案物件。它接受來自內建 *note
     open(): 29c. 的檔案物件、*note BytesIO: d24. 實例、來自 *note
     socket.socket.makefile(): 1031. 的 SocketIO 物件等。該函式可以繞過
     Python 的 I/O 並直接使用 *note fileno(): 25ca. 中的檔案描述器 (file
     descriptor)。在此函式回傳或引發後，必須假定 'fileobj' 處於未知狀態
     (unknown state)。由呼叫者決定是否關閉 'fileobj'。

     'digest' 必須是名稱作為 'str' 的雜湊演算法、雜湊建構函式或會回傳雜
     湊物件的可呼叫函式。

     範例：

          >>> import io, hashlib, hmac
          >>> with open(hashlib.__file__, "rb") as f:
          ...     digest = hashlib.file_digest(f, "sha256")
          ...
          >>> digest.hexdigest()
          '...'

          >>> buf = io.BytesIO(b"somedata")
          >>> mac1 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
          >>> digest = hashlib.file_digest(buf, lambda: mac1)

          >>> digest is mac1
          True
          >>> mac2 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", b"somedata", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
          >>> mac1.digest() == mac2.digest()
          True

     在 3.11 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 密鑰的生成,  Next: BLAKE2,  Prev: 檔案雜湊,  Up: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要

5.15.1.8 密鑰的生成
...................

密鑰生成 (key derivation) 和密鑰延伸 (key stretching) 演算法專為安全密碼
雜湊而設計。像是 ‘sha1(password)’ 這樣過於單純的演算法無法抵抗暴力攻擊。
一個好的密碼雜湊函式必須是可調校的 (tunable)、緩慢的，並且有包含 salt（
鹽）(1)。

 -- 函式: hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac (hash_name, password, salt, iterations,
          dklen=None)

     該函式提供基於密碼的 PKCS#5 密鑰生成函式 2。它使用 HMAC 作為偽隨機
     函式 (pseudorandom function)。

     字串 'hash_name' 是 HMAC 的雜湊摘要演算法所需的名稱，例如 ‘sha1’ 或
     ‘sha256’。'password' 和 'salt' 被直譯為位元組緩衝區。應用程式和函式
     庫應為 'password' 設下合理的長度限制（例如 1024）。'salt' 應該是來
     自適當來源（例如 *note os.urandom(): 2a3.）且大約 16 或更多位元組。

     應根據雜湊演算法和計算能力選擇 'iterations' 次數。截至 2022 年，建
     議進行數十萬次 SHA-256 疊代。有關為什麼以及如何選擇最適合你的應用程
     式的基本原理，請閱讀 NIST-SP-800-132(2) 的 'Appendix A.2.2'。
     stackexchange pbkdf2 疊代問題(3)上的答案有詳細解釋。

     'dklen' 是生成的密鑰長度。如果 'dklen' 為 ‘None’，則會使用雜湊演算
     法 'hash_name' 的摘要大小，例如 SHA-512 為 64。

          >>> from hashlib import pbkdf2_hmac
          >>> our_app_iters = 500_000  # Application specific, read above.
          >>> dk = pbkdf2_hmac('sha256', b'password', b'bad salt' * 2, our_app_iters)
          >>> dk.hex()
          '15530bba69924174860db778f2c6f8104d3aaf9d26241840c8c4a641c8d000a9'

     僅當有使用 OpenSSL 編譯 Python 時該函式才可用。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 該函式現在僅在有使用 OpenSSL 建置 Python 時可用。
     緩慢的純 Python 實作已被刪除。

 -- 函式: hashlib.scrypt (password, *, salt, n, r, p, maxmem=0,
          dklen=64)

     該函式提供（如 RFC 7914(4) 中所定義的）scrypt 基於密碼的密鑰衍生函
     式。

     'password' 和 'salt' 必須是*note 類位元組物件: b9f.。應用程式和函式
     庫應為 'password' 設下合理的長度限制（例如 1024）。'salt' 應該是來
     自適當來源（例如 *note os.urandom(): 2a3.）且大約 16 或更多位元組。

     'n' 是 CPU/記憶體開銷係數、'r' 是區塊大小、'p' 為平行化係數、
     'maxmem' 為記憶體限制（OpenSSL 1.1.0 預設為 32 MiB）。'dklen' 是生
     成密鑰的長度。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E7%9B%90_(%E5%AF%86%E7%A0%81%E5%AD%A6)

   (2) 
https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf

   (3) 
https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/3959/recommended-of-iterations-when-using-pbkdf2-sha256/

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7914.html


File: python.info,  Node: BLAKE2,  Prev: 密鑰的生成,  Up: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要

5.15.1.9 BLAKE2
...............

BLAKE2(1) 是在 RFC 7693(2) 中定義的加密雜湊函式，有兩種類型：

   * 'BLAKE2b'，針對 64 位元平台進行了最佳化，可生成 1 到 64 位元組之間
     任意大小的摘要，

   * 'BLAKE2s'，針對 8 至 32 位元平台進行了最佳化，可生成 1 至 32 位元組
     之間任意大小的摘要。

BLAKE2 支援'密鑰模式 (keyed mode)' （更快、更簡單的 HMAC(3) 替代品）、
'加鹽雜湊 (salted hashing)'、'個人化'和'樹狀雜湊'。

該模組中的雜湊物件遵循標準函式庫的 *note hashlib: 63. 物件 API。

* Menu:

* 建立雜湊物件::
* 常數: 常數<5>.
* 範例: 範例<17>.
* 製作人員::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7693.html

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash-based_message_authentication_code


File: python.info,  Node: 建立雜湊物件,  Next: 常數<5>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.10 建立雜湊物件
......................

新的雜湊物件是透過呼叫建構函式建立的：

 -- 函式: hashlib.blake2b (data=b'', *, digest_size=64, key=b'',
          salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0,
          node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False,
          usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 函式: hashlib.blake2s (data=b'', *, digest_size=32, key=b'',
          salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0,
          node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False,
          usedforsecurity=True)

這些函式回傳相應的雜湊物件以計算 BLAKE2b 或 BLAKE2s。他們可以選擇採用這
些通用參數：

   * 'data'：要雜湊的初始資料塊 (data chunk)，它必須是*note
     類位元組物件: b9f.。它只能作為位置引數傳遞。

   * 'digest_size'：輸出摘要的大小（以位元組為單位）。

   * 'key'：用於密鑰雜湊的密鑰（BLAKE2b 最多 64 位元組、BLAKE2s 最多 32
     位元組）。

   * 'salt'：用於隨機雜湊的鹽（BLAKE2b 最多 16 個位元組、BLAKE2s 最多 8
     個位元組）。

   * 'person'：個人化字串（BLAKE2b 最多 16 個位元組、BLAKE2s 最多 8 個位
     元組）。

下表顯示了一般參數的限制（以位元組為單位）：

雜湊        digest_size     len(key)     len(salt)     len(person)
                                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
BLAKE2b     64              64           16            16
                                                       
                                                       
BLAKE2s     32              32           8             8
                                                       

     備註: BLAKE2 規範定義了鹽和個人化參數的恆定長度，但為了方便起見，此
     實作接受任意大小的位元組字串，最多可達指定長度。如果參數的長度小於
     指定的長度，則用零補滿，所以像是 ‘b'salt’ 和 ‘b'salt\x00’ 是相同的
     值。（但 'key' 的情況並非如此。）

這些大小可作為模組*note 常數: 2852.使用，如下所述。

建構函式還接受以下樹狀雜湊參數：

   * 'fanout'：扇出（0 到 255，如果無限制則為 0、順序模式為 1）。

   * 'depth'：樹的最大深度（1 到 255，如果無限制則為 255、順序模式為 1）
     。

   * 'leaf_size'：葉的最大位元組長度（0 到 ‘2**32-1’，如果無限制或處於順
     序模式則為 0）。

   * 'node_offset'：節點偏移量（BLAKE2b 為 0 到 ‘2**64-1’，BLAKE2s 為 0
     到 ‘2**48-1’，0 表示第一個、最左邊、葉子或在順序模式下）。

   * 'node_depth'：節點深度（0 到 255，葉為 0，或在順序模式下）。

   * 'inner_size'：內部摘要大小（BLAKE2b 為 0 到 64，BLAKE2s 為 0 到 32，
     順序模式為 0）。

   * 'last_node'：布林值，代表處理的節點是否為最後一個（‘False’ 代表順序
     模式）。

[image src="python-figures/hashlib-blake2-tree.png" alt="樹狀模式參數說明。"]


Figure
關於樹狀雜湊的綜合回顧，請參閱 BLAKE2 規範(1)中的第 2.10 節。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net/blake2_20130129.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: 常數<5>,  Next: 範例<17>,  Prev: 建立雜湊物件,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.11 常數
..............

 -- 資料: blake2b.SALT_SIZE

 -- 資料: blake2s.SALT_SIZE

鹽長度（建構函式接受的最大長度）。

 -- 資料: blake2b.PERSON_SIZE

 -- 資料: blake2s.PERSON_SIZE

個人化字串長度（建構函式接受的最大長度）。

 -- 資料: blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE

 -- 資料: blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE

最大密鑰大小。

 -- 資料: blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

 -- 資料: blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

雜湊函式可以輸出的最大摘要大小。


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<17>,  Next: 製作人員,  Prev: 常數<5>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.12 範例
..............

* Menu:

* 簡單雜湊::
* 使用不同的摘要大小::
* 密鑰雜湊 (Keyed hashing): 密鑰雜湊 Keyed hashing.
* 隨機雜湊 (Randomized hashing): 隨機雜湊 Randomized hashing.
* 個人化::
* 樹狀模式::


File: python.info,  Node: 簡單雜湊,  Next: 使用不同的摘要大小,  Up: 範例<17>

5.15.1.13 簡單雜湊
..................

要計算某些資料的雜湊值，你應該首先透過呼叫適當的建構函式（*note
blake2b(): 43d. 或 *note blake2s(): 43e.）以建構一個雜湊物件，然後透過於
物件呼叫 *note update(): 283c. 來以資料對它更新，最後透過呼叫 *note
digest(): 283d.（或對於十六進位編碼字串則為 *note hexdigest(): 283e.）從
物件中獲得摘要。

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b()
     >>> h.update(b'Hello world')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

作為一個快捷方式，你可以將要更新的第一個資料塊作為位置引數直接傳遞給建構
函式：

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> blake2b(b'Hello world').hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

你可以根據需求來多次呼叫 *note hash.update(): 283c. 以疊代更新雜湊：

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> items = [b'Hello', b' ', b'world']
     >>> h = blake2b()
     >>> for item in items:
     ...     h.update(item)
     ...
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'


File: python.info,  Node: 使用不同的摘要大小,  Next: 密鑰雜湊 Keyed hashing,  Prev: 簡單雜湊,  Up: 範例<17>

5.15.1.14 使用不同的摘要大小
............................

BLAKE2 有可調整的摘要大小，BLAKE2b 最多為 64 位元組，BLAKE2s 最多為 32 位
元組。例如，要在不改變輸出大小的情況下用 BLAKE2b 替換 SHA-1，我們可以指
定 BLAKE2b 生成 20 位元組的摘要：

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=20)
     >>> h.update(b'Replacing SHA1 with the more secure function')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     'd24f26cf8de66472d58d4e1b1774b4c9158b1f4c'
     >>> h.digest_size
     20
     >>> len(h.digest())
     20

具有不同摘要大小的雜湊物件具有完全不同的輸出（較短的雜湊值'不是'較長雜湊
值的前綴）；即使輸出長度相同，BLAKE2b 和 BLAKE2s 也會產生不同的輸出：

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b, blake2s
     >>> blake2b(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
     '6fa1d8fcfd719046d762'
     >>> blake2b(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
     'eb6ec15daf9546254f0809'
     >>> blake2s(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
     '1bf21a98c78a1c376ae9'
     >>> blake2s(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
     '567004bf96e4a25773ebf4'


File: python.info,  Node: 密鑰雜湊 Keyed hashing,  Next: 隨機雜湊 Randomized hashing,  Prev: 使用不同的摘要大小,  Up: 範例<17>

5.15.1.15 密鑰雜湊 (Keyed hashing)
..................................

密鑰雜湊可用於身份驗證，作為基於雜湊的訊息驗證碼 (Hash-based message
authentication code)(1) (HMAC) 的更快、更簡單的替代方案。由於繼承自
BLAKE 的不可微特性 (indifferentiability property)，BLAKE2 可以安全地用於
prefix-MAC 模式。

此範例示範了如何使用密鑰 ‘b'pseudorandom key'’ 獲取訊息 ‘b'message
data'’ 的（十六進位編碼）128 位元驗證碼：

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b(key=b'pseudorandom key', digest_size=16)
     >>> h.update(b'message data')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '3d363ff7401e02026f4a4687d4863ced'

舉一個實際的例子，網頁應用程式可以對發送給使用者的 cookie 進行對稱簽名
(symmetrically sign)，然後驗證它們以確保它們沒有被篡改：

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> from hmac import compare_digest
     >>>
     >>> SECRET_KEY = b'pseudorandomly generated server secret key'
     >>> AUTH_SIZE = 16
     >>>
     >>> def sign(cookie):
     ...     h = blake2b(digest_size=AUTH_SIZE, key=SECRET_KEY)
     ...     h.update(cookie)
     ...     return h.hexdigest().encode('utf-8')
     >>>
     >>> def verify(cookie, sig):
     ...     good_sig = sign(cookie)
     ...     return compare_digest(good_sig, sig)
     >>>
     >>> cookie = b'user-alice'
     >>> sig = sign(cookie)
     >>> print("{0},{1}".format(cookie.decode('utf-8'), sig))
     user-alice,b'43b3c982cf697e0c5ab22172d1ca7421'
     >>> verify(cookie, sig)
     True
     >>> verify(b'user-bob', sig)
     False
     >>> verify(cookie, b'0102030405060708090a0b0c0d0e0f00')
     False

儘管有原生密鑰雜湊模式，BLAKE2 還是可以透過 *note hmac: 65. 模組用於建構
HMAC：

     >>> import hmac, hashlib
     >>> m = hmac.new(b'secret key', digestmod=hashlib.blake2s)
     >>> m.update(b'message')
     >>> m.hexdigest()
     'e3c8102868d28b5ff85fc35dda07329970d1a01e273c37481326fe0c861c8142'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/HMAC


File: python.info,  Node: 隨機雜湊 Randomized hashing,  Next: 個人化,  Prev: 密鑰雜湊 Keyed hashing,  Up: 範例<17>

5.15.1.16 隨機雜湊 (Randomized hashing)
.......................................

透過設定 'salt' 參數，使用者可以向雜湊函式引入隨機化。隨機雜湊在防止針對
數位簽章中雜湊函式的碰撞攻擊 (collision attacks) 非常有用。

     隨機雜湊是為這樣的情況而設計的：一方（訊息準備者）生成全部或部分訊
     息並由另一方（訊息簽名者）簽名。如果訊息準備者能夠發現加密雜湊函式
     發生碰撞（collision，即兩條訊息產生相同的雜湊值），那麼他們可能會準
     備有意義的訊息版本，該版本將產生相同的雜湊值和數位簽章，但結果不同
     （例如，將 $1,000,000 轉入賬戶，而不是 $10）。加密雜湊函式的設計以
     抗碰撞性為主要目標，但當前對加密雜湊函式攻擊的關注可能會導致給定的
     加密雜湊函式所提供的抗碰撞性低於預期。隨機雜湊透過降低準備者在數位
     簽章生成過程中生成最終產生相同雜湊值的兩個或多個訊息的可能性，為簽
     名者提供額外的保護 —— 即便嘗試去找到雜湊函式碰撞的發生是實際可行的
     。然而，若訊息的所有部分都是由簽名者所準備好的，使用隨機雜湊可能會
     降低數位簽章提供的安全性。

     （NIST SP-800-106 「數位簽章的隨機雜湊 (Randomized Hashing for
     Digital Signatures)」(1)）

在 BLAKE2 中，鹽在初始化期間作為雜湊函式的一次性輸入被處理，而不是作為每
個壓縮函式的輸入。

     警告: 使用 BLAKE2 或任何其他通用加密雜湊函式（例如 SHA-256）的'加鹽
     雜湊' （或單純雜湊）不適合對密碼進行雜湊處理。有關更多資訊，請參閱
     BLAKE2 FAQ(2) 。

     >>> import os
     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> msg = b'some message'
     >>> # Calculate the first hash with a random salt.
     >>> salt1 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
     >>> h1 = blake2b(salt=salt1)
     >>> h1.update(msg)
     >>> # Calculate the second hash with a different random salt.
     >>> salt2 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
     >>> h2 = blake2b(salt=salt2)
     >>> h2.update(msg)
     >>> # The digests are different.
     >>> h1.digest() != h2.digest()
     True

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/sp/800/106/final

   (2) https://www.blake2.net/#qa


File: python.info,  Node: 個人化,  Next: 樹狀模式,  Prev: 隨機雜湊 Randomized hashing,  Up: 範例<17>

5.15.1.17 個人化
................

有時候強制雜湊函式為不同目的的相同輸入生成不同的摘要是很有用的。引用
Skein 雜湊函式的作者的話：

     我們建議所有應用程式設計者認真考慮這樣做；我們已經看到許多協議，其
     中在協議的一個部分中計算的雜湊可以在完全不同的部分中使用，因為兩次
     雜湊計算是在相似或相關的資料上完成的，並且攻擊者可以強制應用程式將
     雜湊輸入設為相同的。對協議中使用的每個雜湊函式進行個人化可以立即阻
     止此類攻擊。

     （Skein 雜湊函式系列(1)，第 21 頁）

BLAKE2 可以透過將位元組傳遞給 'person' 引數來做個人化：

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> FILES_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Files Hash'
     >>> BLOCK_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Block Hash'
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=FILES_HASH_PERSON)
     >>> h.update(b'the same content')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '20d9cd024d4fb086aae819a1432dd2466de12947831b75c5a30cf2676095d3b4'
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=BLOCK_HASH_PERSON)
     >>> h.update(b'the same content')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     'cf68fb5761b9c44e7878bfb2c4c9aea52264a80b75005e65619778de59f383a3'

個人化與密鑰模式還可以一起用於從單個密鑰得出不同的密鑰。

     >>> from hashlib import blake2s
     >>> from base64 import b64decode, b64encode
     >>> orig_key = b64decode(b'Rm5EPJai72qcK3RGBpW3vPNfZy5OZothY+kHY6h21KM=')
     >>> enc_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kEncrypt').digest()
     >>> mac_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kMAC').digest()
     >>> print(b64encode(enc_key).decode('utf-8'))
     rbPb15S/Z9t+agffno5wuhB77VbRi6F9Iv2qIxU7WHw=
     >>> print(b64encode(mac_key).decode('utf-8'))
     G9GtHFE1YluXY1zWPlYk1e/nWfu0WSEb0KRcjhDeP/o=

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.schneier.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/skein.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: 樹狀模式,  Prev: 個人化,  Up: 範例<17>

5.15.1.18 樹狀模式
..................

下面是對具有兩個葉節點的最小樹進行雜湊處理的範例：

       10
      /  \
     00  01

此範例使用 64-byte 內部摘要，並回傳 32-byte 最終摘要：

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>>
     >>> FANOUT = 2
     >>> DEPTH = 2
     >>> LEAF_SIZE = 4096
     >>> INNER_SIZE = 64
     >>>
     >>> buf = bytearray(6000)
     >>>
     >>> # Left leaf
     ... h00 = blake2b(buf[0:LEAF_SIZE], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=0, last_node=False)
     >>> # Right leaf
     ... h01 = blake2b(buf[LEAF_SIZE:], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=1, node_depth=0, last_node=True)
     >>> # Root node
     ... h10 = blake2b(digest_size=32, fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=1, last_node=True)
     >>> h10.update(h00.digest())
     >>> h10.update(h01.digest())
     >>> h10.hexdigest()
     '3ad2a9b37c6070e374c7a8c508fe20ca86b6ed54e286e93a0318e95e881db5aa'


File: python.info,  Node: 製作人員,  Prev: 範例<17>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.19 製作人員
..................

BLAKE2(1) 由 'Jean-Philippe Aumasson'、'Samuel Neves'、'Zooko
Wilcox-O'Hearn' 和 'Christian Winnerlein' 設計，基於由 'Jean-Philippe
Aumasson'、'Luca Henzen'、'Willi Meier' 和 'Raphael C.-W. Phan' 所建立的
SHA-3(2) 最終版本 BLAKE(3)。

它使用 'Daniel J. Bernstein' 設計的 ChaCha(4) 密碼的核心演算法。

標準函式庫實作是基於 pyblake2(5) 模組。它是由 'Dmitry Chestnykh' 在
'Samuel Neves' 的 C 版本實作為基礎所編寫的。該文件是由 'Dmitry
Chestnykh' 編寫並從 pyblake2(6) 複製過來的。

'Christian Heimes' 為 Python 重寫了部分 C 程式碼。

以下公開領域貢獻適用於 C 雜湊函式實作、擴充程式碼和此文件：

     在法律允許的範圍內，作者已將該軟體的所有版權以及相關和鄰接權利奉獻
     給全球的公開領域。該軟體的發布沒有任何授權 (warranty)。

     你應會隨本軟體一起收到一份 CC0 公眾領域貢獻宣告 (CC0 Public Domain
     Dedication) 的副本。如果沒有，請參閱
     ‘https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/’ 。

以下人員根據創用 CC 通用公眾領域貢獻宣告 1.0 (Creative Commons Public
Domain Dedication 1.0 Universal) 於專案和公開領域做出了開發或貢獻：

   * 'Alexandr Sokolovskiy'

也參考
......

*note hmac: 65. 模組

     使用雜湊生成訊息驗證程式碼的模組。

*note base64: c. 模組

     另一種在非二進位環境中編碼二進位雜湊的方法。

‘https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/fips/nist.fips.180-4.pdf’

     有關安全雜湊演算法的 FIPS 180-4 出版物。

‘https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final’

     有關 SHA-3 標準的 FIPS 202 出版物。

‘https://www.blake2.net/’

     BLAKE2 官方網站。

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function’

     包含有關哪些演算法存在已知問題以及這些問題對其使用意味著什麼資訊的
     維基百科文章。

‘https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc8018.txt’

     PKCS #5：基於密碼的加密規範版本 2.1

‘https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf’

     NIST（美國國家標準技術研究院）針對基於密碼的密鑰衍生的建議。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Hash_Algorithms

   (3) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200918190133/https://131002.net/blake/

   (4) https://cr.yp.to/chacha.html

   (5) https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/

   (6) https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/


File: python.info,  Node: hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證,  Next: secrets --- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數,  Prev: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要,  Up: 加密服務

5.15.2 ‘hmac’ -- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/hmac.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組 (module) 實現了 RFC 2014(2) 所描述的 HMAC 演算法。

 -- 函式: hmac.new (key, msg=None, digestmod)

     回傳一個新的 hmac 物件。'key' 是一個指定密鑰的 bytes（位元組）或
     bytearray 物件。如果提供了 'msg'，將會呼叫 ‘update(msg)’ 方法。
     'digestmod' 為 HMAC 物件所用的摘要名稱、摘要建構函式 (constructor)
     或模組。它可以是適用於 *note hashlib.new(): 171d. 的任何名稱。儘管
     該引數的位置在後，但它卻是必須的。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 參數 'key' 可以為 bytes 或 bytearray 物件。參數
     'msg' 可以為 *note hashlib: 63. 所支援的任意型別。參數 'digestmod'
     可以為雜湊演算法的名稱。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 'digestmod' 引數現在是必須的。請將其作為關鍵字引數
     傳入以避免當你沒有初始 'msg' 時導致的麻煩。

 -- 函式: hmac.digest (key, msg, digest)

     基於給定密鑰 'key' 和 'digest' 回傳 'msg' 的摘要。此函式等價於
     ‘HMAC(key, msg, digest).digest()’，但使用了優化的 C 或 行內實作（
     inline implementation），對放入記憶體的訊息能處理得更快。參數
     'key'、'msg' 和 'digest' 在 *note new(): 8f1. 中具有相同含義。

     作為 CPython 的實現細節，C 的優化實作只有當 'digest' 為字串並且是一
     個 OpenSSL 所支持的摘要演算法的名稱時才會被使用。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

HMAC 物件具有下列方法 (method)：

 -- 方法: HMAC.update (msg)

     用 'msg' 來更新 hmac 物件。重複呼叫相當於單次呼叫並傳入所有引數的拼
     接結果：‘m.update(a); m.update(b)’ 等價於 ‘m.update(a + b)’。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 參數 'msg' 可以是 *note hashlib: 63. 所支援的任何
     型別。

 -- 方法: HMAC.digest ()

     回傳當前已傳給 *note update(): dd7. 方法的 bytes 摘要。這個 bytes 物
     件的長度會與傳給建構函式的摘要 'digest_size' 的長度相同。它可以包含
     NUL bytes 以及 non-ASCII bytes。

          警告: 在一個例行的驗證事務運行期間，將 *note digest(): 996. 的
          輸出與外部提供的摘要進行比較時，建議使用 *note
          compare_digest(): f58. 函式而不是 ‘==’ 運算子以減少被定時攻擊
          時的漏洞。

 -- 方法: HMAC.hexdigest ()

     像是 *note digest(): 996. 但摘要的回傳形式為兩倍長度的字串，且此字
     串只包含十六進位數位。這可以被用於在電子郵件或其他非二進位制環境中
     安全地交換數據。

          警告: 在一個例行的驗證事務運行期間，將 *note hexdigest():
          2866. 的輸出與外部提供的摘要進行比較時，建議使用 *note
          compare_digest(): f58. 函式而不是 ‘==’ 運算子以減少被定時攻擊
          時的漏洞。

 -- 方法: HMAC.copy ()

     回傳 hmac 物件的拷貝 ("clone")。這可以被用來有效率地計算那些共享相
     同初始子字串的字串的摘要。

一個 hash 物件具有以下屬性：

 -- 屬性: HMAC.digest_size

     以 bytes 表示最終 HMAC 摘要的大小。

 -- 屬性: HMAC.block_size

     以 bytes 表示雜湊演算法的內部區塊大小。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: HMAC.name

     HMAC 的正準名稱總是為小寫形式，例如 ‘hmac-md5’。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

在 3.10 版的變更: 未寫入文件的屬性 ‘HMAC.digest_cons’，‘HMAC.inner’ 和
‘HMAC.outer’ 已被移除。

這個模組還提供了下列輔助函式：

 -- 函式: hmac.compare_digest (a, b)

     回傳 ‘a == b’。此函式使用一種經專門設計的方式通過避免基於內容的短路
     行為來防止定時分析，使得它適合處理密碼學。'a' 和 'b' 必須為相同的型
     別：可以是 *note str: 157.（僅限 ASCII，如 *note HMAC.hexdigest():
     2866. 的回傳值），或者是 *note bytes-like object: b9f.。

          備註: 如果 'a' 和 'b' 具有不同的長度，或者如果發生了錯誤，定時
          攻擊在理論上可以獲取有關 'a' 和 'b' 的型別和長度的訊息 — 但不
          能獲取他們的值。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 此函式在可能的情況下會在內部使用 OpenSSL 的
     ‘CRYPTO_memcmp()’。

也參考
......

*note hashlib: 63. 模組

     Python 模組提供安全的雜湊函式。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/hmac.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2014.html


File: python.info,  Node: secrets --- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數,  Prev: hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證,  Up: 加密服務

5.15.3 ‘secrets’ -- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數
----------------------------------------------

在 3.6 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/secrets.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note secrets: bb. 模組可用於產生高加密強度的亂數，適合用來管理諸如密碼
、帳號認證、安全性權杖（security tokens）這類資料，以及管理其他相關的機
密資料。

尤其應優先使用 *note secrets: bb. 作為預設來替代 *note random: b3. 模組
中的預設偽亂數產生器（pseudo-random number generator），該模組被設計用於
建模和模擬，而非用於安全性和加密。

也參考
......

PEP 506(2)

* Menu:

* 亂數::
* 產生權杖（token）::
* 其他函式::
* 應用技巧和典範實務（best practices）::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/secrets.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/


File: python.info,  Node: 亂數,  Next: 產生權杖（token）,  Up: secrets --- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數

5.15.3.1 亂數
.............

*note secrets: bb. 模組使你得以存取作業系統所提供安全性最高的亂數產生器
。

 -- 類別: secrets.SystemRandom

     一個用來產生亂數的類別，用的是作業系統提供的最高品質來源。 請參閱
     *note random.SystemRandom: 2469. 以獲取更多細節。

 -- 函式: secrets.choice (seq)

     從一非空序列中，回傳一個隨機選取的元素。

 -- 函式: secrets.randbelow (exclusive_upper_bound)

     回傳一個 [0, 'exclusive_upper_bound') 範圍之內的隨機整數。

 -- 函式: secrets.randbits (k)

     回傳一個具 'k' 個隨機位元的非負整數。


File: python.info,  Node: 產生權杖（token）,  Next: 其他函式,  Prev: 亂數,  Up: secrets --- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數

5.15.3.2 產生權杖（token）
..........................

*note secrets: bb. 模組提供了一些產生安全性權杖的函式，適合用於諸如重設
密碼、難以猜測的 URL，或類似的應用。

 -- 函式: secrets.token_bytes ([nbytes=None])

     回傳一個隨機位元組字串，其中含有 'nbytes' 位元組的數字。 如果
     'nbytes' 為 ‘None’ 或未提供，則會使用一合理預設值。

          >>> token_bytes(16)
          b'\xebr\x17D*t\xae\xd4\xe3S\xb6\xe2\xebP1\x8b'

 -- 函式: secrets.token_hex ([nbytes=None])

     回傳一以十六進位表示的隨機字串。 字串具有 'nbytes' 個隨機位元組，每
     個位元組會轉成兩個十六進位的數字。 如果 'nbytes' 為 ‘None’ 或未提供
     ，則會使用一個合理的預設值。

          >>> token_hex(16)
          'f9bf78b9a18ce6d46a0cd2b0b86df9da'

 -- 函式: secrets.token_urlsafe ([nbytes=None])

     回傳一個 URL 安全的隨機文本字串，包含 'nbytes' 個隨機位元組。 文本
     將使用 Base64 編碼，因此平均來說每個位元組會對應到約 1.3 個字元。 如
     果 'nbytes' 為 ‘None’ 或未提供，則會使用一個合理的預設值。

          >>> token_urlsafe(16)
          'Drmhze6EPcv0fN_81Bj-nA'

* Menu:

* 權杖應當使用多少個位元組？::


File: python.info,  Node: 權杖應當使用多少個位元組？,  Up: 產生權杖（token）

5.15.3.3 權杖應當使用多少個位元組？
...................................

為了在面對暴力攻擊(1)時能保證安全，權杖必須具有足夠的隨機性。 不幸的是，
對隨機性是否足夠的標準，會隨著電腦越來越強大並能夠在更短時間內進行更多猜
測而不斷提高。 在 2015 年時，人們認為 32 位元組（256 位元）的隨機性對於
*note secrets: bb. 模組所預期的一般使用場景來說是足夠的。

對於想自行管理權杖長度的使用者，你可以對各種 ‘token_*’ 函式明白地指定
*note int: 17e. 引數（argument）來指定權杖要使用的隨機性程度。 該引數以
位元組數來表示要使用的隨機性程度。

否則，如未提供引數，或者如果引數為 ‘None’，則 ‘token_*’ 函式則會使用一個
合理的預設值。

     備註: 該預設值可能在任何時候被改變，包括在維護版本更新的時候。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack


File: python.info,  Node: 其他函式,  Next: 應用技巧和典範實務（best practices）,  Prev: 產生權杖（token）,  Up: secrets --- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數

5.15.3.4 其他函式
.................

 -- 函式: secrets.compare_digest (a, b)

     如果字串或*note 類位元組串物件: b9f. 'a' 與 'b' 相等則回傳 ‘True’，
     否則回傳 ‘False’，以"恆定時間比較 (constant-time compare) "的處理方
     式可降低時序攻擊(1)的風險。 請參閱 *note hmac.compare_digest():
     f58. 以了解更多細節。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://codahale.com/a-lesson-in-timing-attacks/


File: python.info,  Node: 應用技巧和典範實務（best practices）,  Prev: 其他函式,  Up: secrets --- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數

5.15.3.5 應用技巧和典範實務（best practices）
.............................................

本節展示了一些使用 *note secrets: bb. 來管理基本安全等級的應用技巧和典範
實務。

產生八個字元長的字母數字密碼：

     import string
     import secrets
     alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
     password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(8))

     備註: 應用程式不能 以可復原的格式存儲密碼(1)，無論是用純文本還是經
     過加密。 它們應當先加鹽（salt），再使用高加密強度的單向（不可逆）雜
     湊函式來產生雜湊值。

產生十個字元長的字母數字密碼，其中包含至少一個小寫字母，至少一個大寫字母
以及至少三個數字:

     import string
     import secrets
     alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
     while True:
         password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(10))
         if (any(c.islower() for c in password)
                 and any(c.isupper() for c in password)
                 and sum(c.isdigit() for c in password) >= 3):
             break

產生 XKCD 風格的 passphrase(2):

     import secrets
     # On standard Linux systems, use a convenient dictionary file.
     # Other platforms may need to provide their own word-list.
     with open('/usr/share/dict/words') as f:
         words = [word.strip() for word in f]
         password = ' '.join(secrets.choice(words) for i in range(4))

產生難以猜測的暫時性 URL，內含回復密碼時所用的一個安全性權杖：

     import secrets
     url = 'https://example.com/reset=' + secrets.token_urlsafe()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/257.html

   (2) https://xkcd.com/936/


File: python.info,  Node: 通用作業系統服務,  Next: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution,  Prev: 加密服務,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.16 通用作業系統服務
=====================

此章節所描述的模組 (module) 提供了作業系統特性的使用介面，例如檔案與時鐘
，（幾乎）在所有作業系統上皆能使用。這些介面通常是參考 Unix 或 C 的介面
來實作，不過在其他大多數系統上也能使用。以下為概述：

* Menu:

* os: os --- 各種作業系統介面. 各種作業系統介面
* io — 處理資料串流的核心工具::
* time: time --- 時間存取與轉換. 時間存取與轉換
* argparse: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands. Parser for command-line options, arguments and
                        subcommands
* getopt: getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器. 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器
* logging: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具. Python 的日誌記錄工具
* logging.config: logging config --- 日誌記錄配置. 日誌記錄配置
* logging.handlers: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器. 日誌紀錄處理器
* getpass: getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具. 可攜式密碼輸入工具
* curses: curses --- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理. 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理
* curses.textpad: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs. Text input widget for curses programs
* curses.ascii: curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式. ASCII 字元的工具程式
* curses.panel: curses panel --- curses 的面板堆疊擴充. curses 的面板堆疊擴充
* platform: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取. 對底層平臺識別資料的存取
* errno: errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號. 標準 errno 系統符號
* ctypes: ctypes --- 用於 Python 的外部函式庫. 用於 Python 的外部函式庫


File: python.info,  Node: os --- 各種作業系統介面,  Next: io — 處理資料串流的核心工具,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.1 ‘os’ -- 各種作業系統介面
-------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/os.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

該模組提供了一種便利的方式來操作與作業系統相關的功能。如果你想讀取或寫入
檔案，請參閱 *note open(): 29c. ，如果你想操作檔案路徑，請參閱 *note
os.path: 9d. 模組，如果你想透過命令列查看所有檔案中的所有內容，請查看
*note fileinput: 56. 模組。要建立臨時檔案和目錄，請參閱 *note tempfile:
da. 模組，要操作高級檔案和目錄，請參閱 *note shutil: c0. 模組。

關於這些功能的可用性說明：

   * Python 所有內建作業系統相關的模組設計是這樣：只要有相同的函式可使用
     ，就會使用相同的介面 （interface）。舉例來說，‘os.stat(path)’ 函式
     會以相同格式回傳關於 'path' 的統計資訊（這剛好來自於 POSIX 的介面。
     ）。

   * 對於特定的作業系統獨有的擴充功能也可以透過 *note os: 9c. 取得，但使
     用它們的時候對於可移植性無疑會是個問題。

   * 所有接受檔案路徑和檔案名稱的函式皆接受位元組 (bytes) 和字串物件
     (string objects)，且如果回傳檔案路徑或檔案名稱，則會產出相同型別的
     物件。

   * 在 VxWorks, 不支援 os.popen、os.fork、os.execv 和 os.spawn*p*。

   * 在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上，大部分
     *note os: 9c. 模組無法使用或行為不同。與行程（Process）（例如 *note
     fork(): 233.、*note execve(): f87.）、訊號（例如 *note kill():
     11f6.、*note wait(): c0f.），與資源（例如 *note nice(): f8f.）相關
     的 API 不可使用。其他諸如 *note getuid(): 287a. 和 *note getpid():
     287b. 的相關 API 是 emulated 或 stubs。

     備註: 在檔案名稱和路徑找不到或無效的時候，或引數型別正確但作業系統
     不接受的時候，在此模組中的所有的函式都會引發 *note OSError: 644.（
     或其子類別）。

 -- 例外: os.error

     內建例外 *note OSError: 644. 的別名。

 -- 資料: os.name

     The name of the operating system dependent module imported.  The
     following names have currently been registered: ‘'posix'’, ‘'nt'’,
     ‘'java'’.

     也參考
     ......

     *note sys.platform: 8da. has a finer granularity.  *note
     os.uname(): fa4. gives system-dependent version information.

     The *note platform: a5. module provides detailed checks for the
     system's identity.

* Menu:

* File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables.
* Python UTF-8 模式::
* 行程參數::
* File Object Creation::
* File Descriptor Operations::
* Files and Directories::
* 行程管理::
* Interface to the scheduler::
* Miscellaneous System Information::
* Random numbers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/os.py


File: python.info,  Node: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables,  Next: Python UTF-8 模式,  Up: os --- 各種作業系統介面

5.16.1.1 File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables
......................................................................

In Python, file names, command line arguments, and environment variables
are represented using the string type.  On some systems, decoding these
strings to and from bytes is necessary before passing them to the
operating system.  Python uses the *note filesystem encoding and error
handler: 2bd. to perform this conversion (see *note
sys.getfilesystemencoding(): abf.).

The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd. are configured at
Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa. function: see *note
filesystem_encoding: 340. and *note filesystem_errors: 341. members of
*note PyConfig: 345.

在 3.1 版的變更: On some systems, conversion using the file system
encoding may fail.  In this case, Python uses the *note surrogateescape
encoding error handler: 217a, which means that undecodable bytes are
replaced by a Unicode character U+DC'xx' on decoding, and these are
again translated to the original byte on encoding.

The *note file system encoding: 2bd. must guarantee to successfully
decode all bytes below 128.  If the file system encoding fails to
provide this guarantee, API functions can raise *note UnicodeError:
1137.

另請參閱 *note locale encoding: 1419.。


File: python.info,  Node: Python UTF-8 模式,  Next: 行程參數,  Prev: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables,  Up: os --- 各種作業系統介面

5.16.1.2 Python UTF-8 模式
..........................

在 3.7 版被加入: 更多資訊請見 PEP 540(1)。

Python 在 UTF-8 模式下會忽略 *note locale encoding: 1419. 並且強制使用
UTF-8 去編碼：

   * Use UTF-8 as the *note filesystem encoding: 2bd.

   * *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): abf. 回傳 ‘'utf-8'’。

   * *note locale.getpreferredencoding(): 2bc. returns ‘'utf-8'’ (the
     'do_setlocale' argument has no effect).

   * *note sys.stdin: 2bf, *note sys.stdout: 92a, and *note sys.stderr:
     778. all use UTF-8 as their text encoding, with the
     ‘surrogateescape’ *note error handler: 15b3. being enabled for
     *note sys.stdin: 2bf. and *note sys.stdout: 92a. (*note sys.stderr:
     778. continues to use ‘backslashreplace’ as it does in the default
     locale-aware mode)

   * On Unix, *note os.device_encoding(): 1665. returns ‘'utf-8'’ rather
     than the device encoding.

Note that the standard stream settings in UTF-8 mode can be overridden
by *note PYTHONIOENCODING: e9d. (just as they can be in the default
locale-aware mode).

As a consequence of the changes in those lower level APIs, other higher
level APIs also exhibit different default behaviours:

   * Command line arguments, environment variables and filenames are
     decoded to text using the UTF-8 encoding.

   * *note os.fsdecode(): aba. and *note os.fsencode(): abb. use the
     UTF-8 encoding.

   * *note open(): 29c, *note io.open(): 29d, and *note codecs.open():
     551. use the UTF-8 encoding by default.  However, they still use
     the strict error handler by default so that attempting to open a
     binary file in text mode is likely to raise an exception rather
     than producing nonsense data.

The *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451. is enabled if the LC_CTYPE locale is
‘C’ or ‘POSIX’ at Python startup (see the *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa.
function).

It can be enabled or disabled using the *note -X utf8: 188. command line
option and the *note PYTHONUTF8: 92c. environment variable.

If the *note PYTHONUTF8: 92c. environment variable is not set at all,
then the interpreter defaults to using the current locale settings,
'unless' the current locale is identified as a legacy ASCII-based locale
(as described for *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: 929.), and locale coercion
is either disabled or fails.  In such legacy locales, the interpreter
will default to enabling UTF-8 mode unless explicitly instructed not to
do so.

The Python UTF-8 Mode can only be enabled at the Python startup.  Its
value can be read from *note sys.flags.utf8_mode: 489.

See also the *note UTF-8 mode on Windows: 1bd4. and the *note filesystem
encoding and error handler: 2bd.

也參考
......

PEP 686(2)

     Python 3.15 預設使用 *note Python UTF-8 模式: 451.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/


File: python.info,  Node: 行程參數,  Next: File Object Creation,  Prev: Python UTF-8 模式,  Up: os --- 各種作業系統介面

5.16.1.3 行程參數
.................

These functions and data items provide information and operate on the
current process and user.

 -- 函式: os.ctermid ()

     Return the filename corresponding to the controlling terminal of
     the process.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.environ

     A *note mapping: 104d. object where keys and values are strings
     that represent the process environment.  For example,
     ‘environ['HOME']’ is the pathname of your home directory (on some
     platforms), and is equivalent to ‘getenv("HOME")’ in C.

     This mapping is captured the first time the *note os: 9c. module is
     imported, typically during Python startup as part of processing
     ‘site.py’.  Changes to the environment made after this time are not
     reflected in *note os.environ: 104b, except for changes made by
     modifying *note os.environ: 104b. directly.

     This mapping may be used to modify the environment as well as query
     the environment.  *note putenv(): 75a. will be called automatically
     when the mapping is modified.

     On Unix, keys and values use *note sys.getfilesystemencoding():
     abf. and ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler.  Use *note environb:
     10a8. if you would like to use a different encoding.

     On Windows, the keys are converted to uppercase.  This also applies
     when getting, setting, or deleting an item.  For example,
     ‘environ['monty'] = 'python'’ maps the key ‘'MONTY'’ to the value
     ‘'python'’.

          備註: Calling *note putenv(): 75a. directly does not change
          *note os.environ: 104b, so it's better to modify *note
          os.environ: 104b.

          備註: On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting
          ‘environ’ may cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system
          documentation for ‘putenv()’.

     You can delete items in this mapping to unset environment
     variables.  *note unsetenv(): 759. will be called automatically
     when an item is deleted from *note os.environ: 104b, and when one
     of the ‘pop()’ or ‘clear()’ methods is called.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Updated to support PEP 584(1)'s merge (‘|’) and
     update (‘|=’) operators.

 -- 資料: os.environb

     Bytes version of *note environ: 104b.: a *note mapping: 104d.
     object where both keys and values are *note bytes: 2c1. objects
     representing the process environment.  *note environ: 104b. and
     *note environb: 10a8. are synchronized (modifying *note environb:
     10a8. updates *note environ: 104b, and vice versa).

     *note environb: 10a8. is only available if *note
     supports_bytes_environ: 10a6. is ‘True’.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Updated to support PEP 584(2)'s merge (‘|’) and
     update (‘|=’) operators.

 -- 函式: os.chdir (path)

 -- 函式: os.fchdir (fd)

 -- 函式: os.getcwd ()

     These functions are described in *note Files and Directories: 2884.

 -- 函式: os.fsencode (filename)

     Encode *note path-like: 975. 'filename' to the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 2bd.; return *note bytes: 2c1.
     unchanged.

     *note fsdecode(): aba. is the reverse function.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Support added to accept objects implementing the
     *note os.PathLike: ab7. interface.

 -- 函式: os.fsdecode (filename)

     Decode the *note path-like: 975. 'filename' from the *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.; return *note str: 157.
     unchanged.

     *note fsencode(): abb. is the reverse function.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Support added to accept objects implementing the
     *note os.PathLike: ab7. interface.

 -- 函式: os.fspath (path)

     Return the file system representation of the path.

     If *note str: 157. or *note bytes: 2c1. is passed in, it is
     returned unchanged.  Otherwise *note __fspath__(): ab8. is called
     and its value is returned as long as it is a *note str: 157. or
     *note bytes: 2c1. object.  In all other cases, *note TypeError:
     2ba. is raised.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 類別: os.PathLike

     An *note abstract base class: 1047. for objects representing a file
     system path, e.g.  *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod __fspath__ ()

          Return the file system path representation of the object.

          The method should only return a *note str: 157. or *note
          bytes: 2c1. object, with the preference being for *note str:
          157.

 -- 函式: os.getenv (key, default=None)

     Return the value of the environment variable 'key' as a string if
     it exists, or 'default' if it doesn't.  'key' is a string.  Note
     that since *note getenv(): 2885. uses *note os.environ: 104b, the
     mapping of *note getenv(): 2885. is similarly also captured on
     import, and the function may not reflect future environment
     changes.

     On Unix, keys and values are decoded with *note
     sys.getfilesystemencoding(): abf. and ‘'surrogateescape'’ error
     handler.  Use *note os.getenvb(): 10a7. if you would like to use a
     different encoding.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 函式: os.getenvb (key, default=None)

     Return the value of the environment variable 'key' as bytes if it
     exists, or 'default' if it doesn't.  'key' must be bytes.  Note
     that since *note getenvb(): 10a7. uses *note os.environb: 10a8, the
     mapping of *note getenvb(): 10a7. is similarly also captured on
     import, and the function may not reflect future environment
     changes.

     *note getenvb(): 10a7. is only available if *note
     supports_bytes_environ: 10a6. is ‘True’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.get_exec_path (env=None)

     Returns the list of directories that will be searched for a named
     executable, similar to a shell, when launching a process.  'env',
     when specified, should be an environment variable dictionary to
     lookup the PATH in.  By default, when 'env' is ‘None’, *note
     environ: 104b. is used.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.getegid ()

     Return the effective group id of the current process.  This
     corresponds to the "set id" bit on the file being executed in the
     current process.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.geteuid ()

     Return the current process's effective user id.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.getgid ()

     Return the real group id of the current process.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     The function is a stub on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly 平台: 15ae. for more information.

 -- 函式: os.getgrouplist (user, group, /)

     Return list of group ids that 'user' belongs to.  If 'group' is not
     in the list, it is included; typically, 'group' is specified as the
     group ID field from the password record for 'user', because that
     group ID will otherwise be potentially omitted.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.getgroups ()

     Return list of supplemental group ids associated with the current
     process.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

          備註: On macOS, *note getgroups(): 2889. behavior differs
          somewhat from other Unix platforms.  If the Python interpreter
          was built with a deployment target of ‘10.5’ or earlier, *note
          getgroups(): 2889. returns the list of effective group ids
          associated with the current user process; this list is limited
          to a system-defined number of entries, typically 16, and may
          be modified by calls to *note setgroups(): 288a. if suitably
          privileged.  If built with a deployment target greater than
          ‘10.5’, *note getgroups(): 2889. returns the current group
          access list for the user associated with the effective user id
          of the process; the group access list may change over the
          lifetime of the process, it is not affected by calls to *note
          setgroups(): 288a, and its length is not limited to 16.  The
          deployment target value, ‘MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’, can be
          obtained with *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): ebf.

 -- 函式: os.getlogin ()

     Return the name of the user logged in on the controlling terminal
     of the process.  For most purposes, it is more useful to use *note
     getpass.getuser(): 288c. since the latter checks the environment
     variables ‘LOGNAME’ or ‘USERNAME’ to find out who the user is, and
     falls back to ‘pwd.getpwuid(os.getuid())[0]’ to get the login name
     of the current real user id.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.getpgid (pid)

     Return the process group id of the process with process id 'pid'.
     If 'pid' is 0, the process group id of the current process is
     returned.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.getpgrp ()

     Return the id of the current process group.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.getpid ()

     Return the current process id.

     The function is a stub on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly 平台: 15ae. for more information.

 -- 函式: os.getppid ()

     Return the parent's process id.  When the parent process has
     exited, on Unix the id returned is the one of the init process (1),
     on Windows it is still the same id, which may be already reused by
     another process.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增對 Windows 的支援。

 -- 函式: os.getpriority (which, who)

     Get program scheduling priority.  The value 'which' is one of *note
     PRIO_PROCESS: 2890, *note PRIO_PGRP: 2891, or *note PRIO_USER:
     2892, and 'who' is interpreted relative to 'which' (a process
     identifier for *note PRIO_PROCESS: 2890, process group identifier
     for *note PRIO_PGRP: 2891, and a user ID for *note PRIO_USER:
     2892.).  A zero value for 'who' denotes (respectively) the calling
     process, the process group of the calling process, or the real user
     ID of the calling process.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.PRIO_PROCESS
 -- 資料: os.PRIO_PGRP
 -- 資料: os.PRIO_USER

     Parameters for the *note getpriority(): f8d. and *note
     setpriority(): f8e. functions.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD
 -- 資料: os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS
 -- 資料: os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG
 -- 資料: os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI

     Parameters for the *note getpriority(): f8d. and *note
     setpriority(): f8e. functions.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: macOS

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.getresuid ()

     Return a tuple (ruid, euid, suid) denoting the current process's
     real, effective, and saved user ids.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.getresgid ()

     Return a tuple (rgid, egid, sgid) denoting the current process's
     real, effective, and saved group ids.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.getuid ()

     Return the current process's real user id.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     The function is a stub on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly 平台: 15ae. for more information.

 -- 函式: os.initgroups (username, gid, /)

     Call the system initgroups() to initialize the group access list
     with all of the groups of which the specified username is a member,
     plus the specified group id.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.putenv (key, value, /)

     Set the environment variable named 'key' to the string 'value'.
     Such changes to the environment affect subprocesses started with
     *note os.system(): 12cd, *note popen(): 8d3. or *note fork(): 233.
     and *note execv(): 2897.

     Assignments to items in *note os.environ: 104b. are automatically
     translated into corresponding calls to *note putenv(): 75a.;
     however, calls to *note putenv(): 75a. don't update *note
     os.environ: 104b, so it is actually preferable to assign to items
     of *note os.environ: 104b.  This also applies to *note getenv():
     2885. and *note getenvb(): 10a7, which respectively use *note
     os.environ: 104b. and *note os.environb: 10a8. in their
     implementations.

          備註: On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting
          ‘environ’ may cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system
          documentation for ‘putenv()’.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘value’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.putenv’。

     在 3.9 版的變更: The function is now always available.

 -- 函式: os.setegid (egid, /)

     Set the current process's effective group id.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.seteuid (euid, /)

     Set the current process's effective user id.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.setgid (gid, /)

     Set the current process' group id.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.setgroups (groups, /)

     Set the list of supplemental group ids associated with the current
     process to 'groups'.  'groups' must be a sequence, and each element
     must be an integer identifying a group.  This operation is
     typically available only to the superuser.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

          備註: On macOS, the length of 'groups' may not exceed the
          system-defined maximum number of effective group ids,
          typically 16.  See the documentation for *note getgroups():
          2889. for cases where it may not return the same group list
          set by calling setgroups().

 -- 函式: os.setns (fd, nstype=0)

     Reassociate the current thread with a Linux namespace.  See the
     ‘setns(2)(3)’ and ‘namespaces(7)(4)’ man pages for more details.

     If 'fd' refers to a ‘/proc/`pid'/ns/’ link, ‘setns()’ reassociates
     the calling thread with the namespace associated with that link,
     and 'nstype' may be set to one of the *note CLONE_NEW* constants:
     289b. to impose constraints on the operation (‘0’ means no
     constraints).

     Since Linux 5.8, 'fd' may refer to a PID file descriptor obtained
     from *note pidfd_open(): 195.  In this case, ‘setns()’ reassociates
     the calling thread into one or more of the same namespaces as the
     thread referred to by 'fd'.  This is subject to any constraints
     imposed by 'nstype', which is a bit mask combining one or more of
     the *note CLONE_NEW* constants: 289b, e.g.  ‘setns(fd,
     os.CLONE_NEWUTS | os.CLONE_NEWPID)’.  The caller's memberships in
     unspecified namespaces are left unchanged.

     'fd' can be any object with a *note fileno(): 25ca. method, or a
     raw file descriptor.

     This example reassociates the thread with the ‘init’ process's
     network namespace:

          fd = os.open("/proc/1/ns/net", os.O_RDONLY)
          os.setns(fd, os.CLONE_NEWNET)
          os.close(fd)

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 3.0 with glibc >= 2.14.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

     也參考
     ......

     *note unshare(): 158e. 函式。

 -- 函式: os.setpgrp ()

     Call the system call ‘setpgrp()’ or ‘setpgrp(0, 0)’ depending on
     which version is implemented (if any).  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.setpgid (pid, pgrp, /)

     Call the system call ‘setpgid()’ to set the process group id of the
     process with id 'pid' to the process group with id 'pgrp'.  See the
     Unix manual for the semantics.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.setpriority (which, who, priority)

     Set program scheduling priority.  The value 'which' is one of *note
     PRIO_PROCESS: 2890, *note PRIO_PGRP: 2891, or *note PRIO_USER:
     2892, and 'who' is interpreted relative to 'which' (a process
     identifier for *note PRIO_PROCESS: 2890, process group identifier
     for *note PRIO_PGRP: 2891, and a user ID for *note PRIO_USER:
     2892.).  A zero value for 'who' denotes (respectively) the calling
     process, the process group of the calling process, or the real user
     ID of the calling process.  'priority' is a value in the range -20
     to 19.  The default priority is 0; lower priorities cause more
     favorable scheduling.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.setregid (rgid, egid, /)

     Set the current process's real and effective group ids.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.setresgid (rgid, egid, sgid, /)

     Set the current process's real, effective, and saved group ids.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.setresuid (ruid, euid, suid, /)

     Set the current process's real, effective, and saved user ids.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.setreuid (ruid, euid, /)

     Set the current process's real and effective user ids.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.getsid (pid, /)

     Call the system call ‘getsid()’.  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.setsid ()

     Call the system call ‘setsid()’.  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.setuid (uid, /)

     Set the current process's user id.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.strerror (code, /)

     Return the error message corresponding to the error code in 'code'.
     On platforms where ‘strerror()’ returns ‘NULL’ when given an
     unknown error number, *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

 -- 資料: os.supports_bytes_environ

     ‘True’ if the native OS type of the environment is bytes (eg.
     ‘False’ on Windows).

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.umask (mask, /)

     Set the current numeric umask and return the previous umask.

     The function is a stub on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly 平台: 15ae. for more information.

 -- 函式: os.uname ()

     Returns information identifying the current operating system.  The
     return value is an object with five attributes:

        * ‘sysname’ - 作業系統名稱

        * ‘nodename’ - name of machine on network
          (implementation-defined)

        * ‘release’ - operating system release

        * ‘version’ - 作業系統版本

        * ‘machine’ - hardware identifier

     For backwards compatibility, this object is also iterable, behaving
     like a five-tuple containing ‘sysname’, ‘nodename’, ‘release’,
     ‘version’, and ‘machine’ in that order.

     Some systems truncate ‘nodename’ to 8 characters or to the leading
     component; a better way to get the hostname is *note
     socket.gethostname(): 28a4. or even
     ‘socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like
     object with named attributes.

 -- 函式: os.unsetenv (key, /)

     Unset (delete) the environment variable named 'key'.  Such changes
     to the environment affect subprocesses started with *note
     os.system(): 12cd, *note popen(): 8d3. or *note fork(): 233. and
     *note execv(): 2897.

     Deletion of items in *note os.environ: 104b. is automatically
     translated into a corresponding call to *note unsetenv(): 759.;
     however, calls to *note unsetenv(): 759. don't update *note
     os.environ: 104b, so it is actually preferable to delete items of
     *note os.environ: 104b.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.unsetenv’。

     在 3.9 版的變更: The function is now always available and is also
     available on Windows.

 -- 函式: os.unshare (flags)

     Disassociate parts of the process execution context, and move them
     into a newly created namespace.  See the ‘unshare(2)(5)’ man page
     for more details.  The 'flags' argument is a bit mask, combining
     zero or more of the *note CLONE_* constants: 289b, that specifies
     which parts of the execution context should be unshared from their
     existing associations and moved to a new namespace.  If the 'flags'
     argument is ‘0’, no changes are made to the calling process's
     execution context.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.16.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

     也參考
     ......

     *note setns(): 158d. 函式。

Flags to the *note unshare(): 158e. function, if the implementation
supports them.  See ‘unshare(2)(6)’ in the Linux manual for their exact
effect and availability.

 -- 資料: os.CLONE_FILES
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_FS
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_NEWCGROUP
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_NEWIPC
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_NEWNET
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_NEWNS
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_NEWPID
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_NEWTIME
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_NEWUSER
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_NEWUTS
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_SIGHAND
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_SYSVSEM
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_THREAD
 -- 資料: os.CLONE_VM

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/setns(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/namespaces(7)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)


File: python.info,  Node: File Object Creation,  Next: File Descriptor Operations,  Prev: 行程參數,  Up: os --- 各種作業系統介面

5.16.1.4 File Object Creation
.............................

These functions create new *note file objects: 1054.  (See also *note
open(): c09. for opening file descriptors.)

 -- 函式: os.fdopen (fd, *args, **kwargs)

     Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor 'fd'.
     This is an alias of the *note open(): 29c. built-in function and
     accepts the same arguments.  The only difference is that the first
     argument of *note fdopen(): 1cc4. must always be an integer.


File: python.info,  Node: File Descriptor Operations,  Next: Files and Directories,  Prev: File Object Creation,  Up: os --- 各種作業系統介面

5.16.1.5 File Descriptor Operations
...................................

These functions operate on I/O streams referenced using file
descriptors.

File descriptors are small integers corresponding to a file that has
been opened by the current process.  For example, standard input is
usually file descriptor 0, standard output is 1, and standard error is
2.  Further files opened by a process will then be assigned 3, 4, 5, and
so forth.  The name "file descriptor" is slightly deceptive; on Unix
platforms, sockets and pipes are also referenced by file descriptors.

The *note fileno(): 25ca. method can be used to obtain the file
descriptor associated with a *note file object: 1054. when required.
Note that using the file descriptor directly will bypass the file object
methods, ignoring aspects such as internal buffering of data.

 -- 函式: os.close (fd)

     Close file descriptor 'fd'.

          備註: This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be
          applied to a file descriptor as returned by *note os.open():
          c09. or *note pipe(): 15a8.  To close a "file object" returned
          by the built-in function *note open(): 29c. or by *note
          popen(): 8d3. or *note fdopen(): 1cc4, use its *note close():
          1811. method.

 -- 函式: os.closerange (fd_low, fd_high, /)

     Close all file descriptors from 'fd_low' (inclusive) to 'fd_high'
     (exclusive), ignoring errors.  Equivalent to (but much faster
     than):

          for fd in range(fd_low, fd_high):
              try:
                  os.close(fd)
              except OSError:
                  pass

 -- 函式: os.copy_file_range (src, dst, count, offset_src=None,
          offset_dst=None)

     Copy 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'src', starting from offset
     'offset_src', to file descriptor 'dst', starting from offset
     'offset_dst'.  If 'offset_src' is ‘None’, then 'src' is read from
     the current position; respectively for 'offset_dst'.

     In Linux kernel older than 5.3, the files pointed to by 'src' and
     'dst' must reside in the same filesystem, otherwise an *note
     OSError: 644. is raised with *note errno: 2024. set to *note
     errno.EXDEV: 28b9.

     This copy is done without the additional cost of transferring data
     from the kernel to user space and then back into the kernel.
     Additionally, some filesystems could implement extra optimizations,
     such as the use of reflinks (i.e., two or more inodes that share
     pointers to the same copy-on-write disk blocks; supported file
     systems include btrfs and XFS) and server-side copy (in the case of
     NFS).

     The function copies bytes between two file descriptors.  Text
     options, like the encoding and the line ending, are ignored.

     The return value is the amount of bytes copied.  This could be less
     than the amount requested.

          備註: On Linux, *note os.copy_file_range(): 28b8. should not
          be used for copying a range of a pseudo file from a special
          filesystem like procfs and sysfs.  It will always copy no
          bytes and return 0 as if the file was empty because of a known
          Linux kernel issue.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 4.5 with glibc >= 2.27.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.device_encoding (fd)

     Return a string describing the encoding of the device associated
     with 'fd' if it is connected to a terminal; else return *note None:
     470.

     On Unix, if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451. is enabled, return
     ‘'UTF-8'’ rather than the device encoding.

     在 3.10 版的變更: On Unix, the function now implements the Python
     UTF-8 Mode.

 -- 函式: os.dup (fd, /)

     Return a duplicate of file descriptor 'fd'.  The new file
     descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     On Windows, when duplicating a standard stream (0: stdin, 1:
     stdout, 2: stderr), the new file descriptor is *note inheritable:
     d7d.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.

 -- 函式: os.dup2 (fd, fd2, inheritable=True)

     Duplicate file descriptor 'fd' to 'fd2', closing the latter first
     if necessary.  Return 'fd2'.  The new file descriptor is *note
     inheritable: d7d. by default or non-inheritable if 'inheritable' is
     ‘False’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Add the optional 'inheritable' parameter.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Return 'fd2' on success.  Previously, ‘None’ was
     always returned.

 -- 函式: os.fchmod (fd, mode)

     Change the mode of the file given by 'fd' to the numeric 'mode'.
     See the docs for *note chmod(): f7c. for possible values of 'mode'.
     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chmod(fd, mode)’.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘mode’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.chmod’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly 平台: 15ae. for more information.

 -- 函式: os.fchown (fd, uid, gid)

     Change the owner and group id of the file given by 'fd' to the
     numeric 'uid' and 'gid'.  To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it
     to -1.  See *note chown(): f7d.  As of Python 3.3, this is
     equivalent to ‘os.chown(fd, uid, gid)’.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘uid’、‘gid’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件:
     168e. ‘os.chown’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly 平台: 15ae. for more information.

 -- 函式: os.fdatasync (fd)

     Force write of file with filedescriptor 'fd' to disk.  Does not
     force update of metadata.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

          備註: This function is not available on MacOS.

 -- 函式: os.fpathconf (fd, name, /)

     Return system configuration information relevant to an open file.
     'name' specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a
     string which is the name of a defined system value; these names are
     specified in a number of standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and
     others).  Some platforms define additional names as well.  The
     names known to the host operating system are given in the
     ‘pathconf_names’ dictionary.  For configuration variables not
     included in that mapping, passing an integer for 'name' is also
     accepted.

     If 'name' is a string and is not known, *note ValueError: 183. is
     raised.  If a specific value for 'name' is not supported by the
     host system, even if it is included in ‘pathconf_names’, an *note
     OSError: 644. is raised with *note errno.EINVAL: 17d3. for the
     error number.

     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.pathconf(fd, name)’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: os.fstat (fd)

     Get the status of the file descriptor 'fd'.  Return a *note
     stat_result: 1334. object.

     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.stat(fd)’.

     也參考
     ......

     The *note stat(): 1bf. function.

 -- 函式: os.fstatvfs (fd, /)

     Return information about the filesystem containing the file
     associated with file descriptor 'fd', like *note statvfs(): f8a.
     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.statvfs(fd)’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: os.fsync (fd)

     Force write of file with filedescriptor 'fd' to disk.  On Unix,
     this calls the native ‘fsync()’ function; on Windows, the MS
     ‘_commit()’ function.

     If you're starting with a buffered Python *note file object: 1054.
     'f', first do ‘f.flush()’, and then do ‘os.fsync(f.fileno())’, to
     ensure that all internal buffers associated with 'f' are written to
     disk.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 函式: os.ftruncate (fd, length, /)

     Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor 'fd', so that it
     is at most 'length' bytes in size.  As of Python 3.3, this is
     equivalent to ‘os.truncate(fd, length)’.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fd’、‘length’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.truncate’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增對 Windows 的支援

 -- 函式: os.get_blocking (fd, /)

     Get the blocking mode of the file descriptor: ‘False’ if the *note
     O_NONBLOCK: cb5. flag is set, ‘True’ if the flag is cleared.

     另請參閱 *note set_blocking(): cb4. 與 *note
     socket.socket.setblocking(): 28bb.。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly 平台: 15ae. for more information.

     On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增對 Windows 上的 pipe 支援。

 -- 函式: os.isatty (fd, /)

     Return ‘True’ if the file descriptor 'fd' is open and connected to
     a tty(-like) device, else ‘False’.

 -- 函式: os.lockf (fd, cmd, len, /)

     Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor.
     'fd' is an open file descriptor.  'cmd' specifies the command to
     use - one of *note F_LOCK: 28bc, *note F_TLOCK: 28bd, *note
     F_ULOCK: 28be. or *note F_TEST: 28bf.  'len' specifies the section
     of the file to lock.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fd’、‘cmd’、‘len’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.lockf’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.F_LOCK
 -- 資料: os.F_TLOCK
 -- 資料: os.F_ULOCK
 -- 資料: os.F_TEST

     Flags that specify what action *note lockf(): fa1. will take.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.login_tty (fd, /)

     Prepare the tty of which fd is a file descriptor for a new login
     session.  Make the calling process a session leader; make the tty
     the controlling tty, the stdin, the stdout, and the stderr of the
     calling process; close fd.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.lseek (fd, pos, whence, /)

     Set the current position of file descriptor 'fd' to position 'pos',
     modified by 'whence', and return the new position in bytes relative
     to the start of the file.  Valid values for 'whence' are:

        * *note SEEK_SET: 1122. or ‘0’ - set 'pos' relative to the
          beginning of the file

        * *note SEEK_CUR: 1123. or ‘1’ - set 'pos' relative to the
          current file position

        * *note SEEK_END: 1124. or ‘2’ - set 'pos' relative to the end
          of the file

        * *note SEEK_HOLE: 28c0. - set 'pos' to the next data location,
          relative to 'pos'

        * *note SEEK_DATA: 28c1. - set 'pos' to the next data hole,
          relative to 'pos'

     在 3.3 版的變更: Add support for ‘SEEK_HOLE’ and ‘SEEK_DATA’.

 -- 資料: os.SEEK_SET
 -- 資料: os.SEEK_CUR
 -- 資料: os.SEEK_END

     Parameters to the *note lseek(): fa5. function and the *note
     seek(): 1121. method on *note file-like objects: 1054, for whence
     to adjust the file position indicator.

     *note SEEK_SET: 1122.

          Adjust the file position relative to the beginning of the
          file.

     *note SEEK_CUR: 1123.

          Adjust the file position relative to the current file
          position.

     *note SEEK_END: 1124.

          Adjust the file position relative to the end of the file.

     Their values are 0, 1, and 2, respectively.

 -- 資料: os.SEEK_HOLE
 -- 資料: os.SEEK_DATA

     Parameters to the *note lseek(): fa5. function and the *note
     seek(): 1121. method on *note file-like objects: 1054, for seeking
     file data and holes on sparsely allocated files.

     ‘SEEK_DATA’

          Adjust the file offset to the next location containing data,
          relative to the seek position.

     ‘SEEK_HOLE’

          Adjust the file offset to the next location containing a hole,
          relative to the seek position.  A hole is defined as a
          sequence of zeros.

          備註: These operations only make sense for filesystems that
          support them.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 3.1, macOS, Unix

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.open (path, flags, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

     Open the file 'path' and set various flags according to 'flags' and
     possibly its mode according to 'mode'.  When computing 'mode', the
     current umask value is first masked out.  Return the file
     descriptor for the newly opened file.  The new file descriptor is
     *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     For a description of the flag and mode values, see the C run-time
     documentation; flag constants (like *note O_RDONLY: 28c2. and *note
     O_WRONLY: 28c3.) are defined in the *note os: 9c. module.  In
     particular, on Windows adding *note O_BINARY: 28c4. is needed to
     open files in binary mode.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78. with the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘mode’、‘flags’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘open’。

     在 3.4 版的變更: The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.

          備註: This function is intended for low-level I/O. For normal
          usage, use the built-in function *note open(): 29c, which
          returns a *note file object: 1054. with ‘read()’ and ‘write()’
          methods (and many more).  To wrap a file descriptor in a file
          object, use *note fdopen(): 1cc4.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the function now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(1) for the rationale).

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

The following constants are options for the 'flags' parameter to the
*note open(): c09. function.  They can be combined using the bitwise OR
operator ‘|’.  Some of them are not available on all platforms.  For
descriptions of their availability and use, consult the ‘open(2)(2)’
manual page on Unix or the MSDN(3) on Windows.

 -- 資料: os.O_RDONLY
 -- 資料: os.O_WRONLY
 -- 資料: os.O_RDWR
 -- 資料: os.O_APPEND
 -- 資料: os.O_CREAT
 -- 資料: os.O_EXCL
 -- 資料: os.O_TRUNC

     The above constants are available on Unix and Windows.

 -- 資料: os.O_DSYNC
 -- 資料: os.O_RSYNC
 -- 資料: os.O_SYNC
 -- 資料: os.O_NDELAY
 -- 資料: os.O_NONBLOCK
 -- 資料: os.O_NOCTTY
 -- 資料: os.O_CLOEXEC

     The above constants are only available on Unix.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Add *note O_CLOEXEC: f12. constant.

 -- 資料: os.O_BINARY
 -- 資料: os.O_NOINHERIT
 -- 資料: os.O_SHORT_LIVED
 -- 資料: os.O_TEMPORARY
 -- 資料: os.O_RANDOM
 -- 資料: os.O_SEQUENTIAL
 -- 資料: os.O_TEXT

     The above constants are only available on Windows.

 -- 資料: os.O_EVTONLY
 -- 資料: os.O_FSYNC
 -- 資料: os.O_SYMLINK
 -- 資料: os.O_NOFOLLOW_ANY

     The above constants are only available on macOS.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Add *note O_EVTONLY: 63e, *note O_FSYNC: 63f,
     *note O_SYMLINK: 640. and *note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 641. constants.

 -- 資料: os.O_ASYNC
 -- 資料: os.O_DIRECT
 -- 資料: os.O_DIRECTORY
 -- 資料: os.O_NOFOLLOW
 -- 資料: os.O_NOATIME
 -- 資料: os.O_PATH
 -- 資料: os.O_TMPFILE
 -- 資料: os.O_SHLOCK
 -- 資料: os.O_EXLOCK

     The above constants are extensions and not present if they are not
     defined by the C library.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Add *note O_PATH: dff. on systems that support it.
     Add *note O_TMPFILE: e00, only available on Linux Kernel 3.11 or
     newer.

 -- 函式: os.openpty ()

     Open a new pseudo-terminal pair.  Return a pair of file descriptors
     ‘(master, slave)’ for the pty and the tty, respectively.  The new
     file descriptors are *note non-inheritable: d7d.  For a (slightly)
     more portable approach, use the *note pty: ac. module.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The new file descriptors are now non-inheritable.

 -- 函式: os.pipe ()

     Create a pipe.  Return a pair of file descriptors ‘(r, w)’ usable
     for reading and writing, respectively.  The new file descriptor is
     *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The new file descriptors are now non-inheritable.

 -- 函式: os.pipe2 (flags, /)

     Create a pipe with 'flags' set atomically.  'flags' can be
     constructed by ORing together one or more of these values: *note
     O_NONBLOCK: cb5, *note O_CLOEXEC: f12.  Return a pair of file
     descriptors ‘(r, w)’ usable for reading and writing, respectively.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.posix_fallocate (fd, offset, len, /)

     Ensures that enough disk space is allocated for the file specified
     by 'fd' starting from 'offset' and continuing for 'len' bytes.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.posix_fadvise (fd, offset, len, advice, /)

     Announces an intention to access data in a specific pattern thus
     allowing the kernel to make optimizations.  The advice applies to
     the region of the file specified by 'fd' starting at 'offset' and
     continuing for 'len' bytes.  'advice' is one of *note
     POSIX_FADV_NORMAL: 28da, *note POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL: 28db, *note
     POSIX_FADV_RANDOM: 28dc, *note POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE: 28dd, *note
     POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED: 28de. or *note POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED: 28df.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL
 -- 資料: os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL
 -- 資料: os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM
 -- 資料: os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE
 -- 資料: os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED
 -- 資料: os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED

     Flags that can be used in 'advice' in *note posix_fadvise(): c0a.
     that specify the access pattern that is likely to be used.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.pread (fd, n, offset, /)

     Read at most 'n' bytes from file descriptor 'fd' at a position of
     'offset', leaving the file offset unchanged.

     Return a bytestring containing the bytes read.  If the end of the
     file referred to by 'fd' has been reached, an empty bytes object is
     returned.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.preadv (fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

     Read from a file descriptor 'fd' at a position of 'offset' into
     mutable *note bytes-like objects: b9f. 'buffers', leaving the file
     offset unchanged.  Transfer data into each buffer until it is full
     and then move on to the next buffer in the sequence to hold the
     rest of the data.

     The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the
     following flags:

        - *note RWF_HIPRI: 28e0.

        - *note RWF_NOWAIT: 28e1.

     Return the total number of bytes actually read which can be less
     than the total capacity of all the objects.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 28e2. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     Combine the functionality of *note os.readv(): 9b9. and *note
     os.pread(): 9ba.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD
     >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

     Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.RWF_NOWAIT

     Do not wait for data which is not immediately available.  If this
     flag is specified, the system call will return instantly if it
     would have to read data from the backing storage or wait for a
     lock.

     If some data was successfully read, it will return the number of
     bytes read.  If no bytes were read, it will return ‘-1’ and set
     errno to *note errno.EAGAIN: 2035.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 4.14.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.RWF_HIPRI

     High priority read/write.  Allows block-based filesystems to use
     polling of the device, which provides lower latency, but may use
     additional resources.

     Currently, on Linux, this feature is usable only on a file
     descriptor opened using the *note O_DIRECT: 28d5. flag.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 4.6.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.pwrite (fd, str, offset, /)

     Write the bytestring in 'str' to file descriptor 'fd' at position
     of 'offset', leaving the file offset unchanged.

     Return the number of bytes actually written.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.pwritev (fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

     Write the 'buffers' contents to file descriptor 'fd' at an offset
     'offset', leaving the file offset unchanged.  'buffers' must be a
     sequence of *note bytes-like objects: b9f.  Buffers are processed
     in array order.  Entire contents of the first buffer is written
     before proceeding to the second, and so on.

     The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the
     following flags:

        - *note RWF_DSYNC: 28e3.

        - *note RWF_SYNC: 28e4.

        - *note RWF_APPEND: 171c.

     Return the total number of bytes actually written.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 28e2. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     Combine the functionality of *note os.writev(): 9bc. and *note
     os.pwrite(): 9bd.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD
     >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

     Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.RWF_DSYNC

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_DSYNC: 28c9. *note
     os.open(): c09. flag.  This flag effect applies only to the data
     range written by the system call.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 4.7.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.RWF_SYNC

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_SYNC: 28cb. *note
     os.open(): c09. flag.  This flag effect applies only to the data
     range written by the system call.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 4.7.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.RWF_APPEND

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_APPEND: 28c6. *note
     os.open(): c09. flag.  This flag is meaningful only for *note
     os.pwritev(): 9bb, and its effect applies only to the data range
     written by the system call.  The 'offset' argument does not affect
     the write operation; the data is always appended to the end of the
     file.  However, if the 'offset' argument is ‘-1’, the current file
     'offset' is updated.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 4.16.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.read (fd, n, /)

     Read at most 'n' bytes from file descriptor 'fd'.

     Return a bytestring containing the bytes read.  If the end of the
     file referred to by 'fd' has been reached, an empty bytes object is
     returned.

          備註: This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be
          applied to a file descriptor as returned by *note os.open():
          c09. or *note pipe(): 15a8.  To read a "file object" returned
          by the built-in function *note open(): 29c. or by *note
          popen(): 8d3. or *note fdopen(): 1cc4, or *note sys.stdin:
          2bf, use its ‘read()’ or ‘readline()’ methods.

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the function now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(4) for the rationale).

 -- 函式: os.sendfile (out_fd, in_fd, offset, count)

 -- 函式: os.sendfile (out_fd, in_fd, offset, count, headers=(),
          trailers=(), flags=0)

     Copy 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'in_fd' to file descriptor
     'out_fd' starting at 'offset'.  Return the number of bytes sent.
     When EOF is reached return ‘0’.

     The first function notation is supported by all platforms that
     define *note sendfile(): 964.

     On Linux, if 'offset' is given as ‘None’, the bytes are read from
     the current position of 'in_fd' and the position of 'in_fd' is
     updated.

     The second case may be used on macOS and FreeBSD where 'headers'
     and 'trailers' are arbitrary sequences of buffers that are written
     before and after the data from 'in_fd' is written.  It returns the
     same as the first case.

     On macOS and FreeBSD, a value of ‘0’ for 'count' specifies to send
     until the end of 'in_fd' is reached.

     All platforms support sockets as 'out_fd' file descriptor, and some
     platforms allow other types (e.g.  regular file, pipe) as well.

     Cross-platform applications should not use 'headers', 'trailers'
     and 'flags' arguments.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

          備註: For a higher-level wrapper of *note sendfile(): 964, see
          *note socket.socket.sendfile(): cdb.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Parameters 'out' and 'in' was renamed to 'out_fd'
     and 'in_fd'.

 -- 資料: os.SF_NODISKIO
 -- 資料: os.SF_MNOWAIT
 -- 資料: os.SF_SYNC

     Parameters to the *note sendfile(): 964. function, if the
     implementation supports them.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.SF_NOCACHE

     Parameter to the *note sendfile(): 964. function, if the
     implementation supports it.  The data won't be cached in the
     virtual memory and will be freed afterwards.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.set_blocking (fd, blocking, /)

     Set the blocking mode of the specified file descriptor.  Set the
     *note O_NONBLOCK: cb5. flag if blocking is ‘False’, clear the flag
     otherwise.

     另請參閱 *note get_blocking(): cb3. 與 *note
     socket.socket.setblocking(): 28bb.。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly 平台: 15ae. for more information.

     On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增對 Windows 上的 pipe 支援。

 -- 函式: os.splice (src, dst, count, offset_src=None, offset_dst=None)

     Transfer 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'src', starting from
     offset 'offset_src', to file descriptor 'dst', starting from offset
     'offset_dst'.  At least one of the file descriptors must refer to a
     pipe.  If 'offset_src' is ‘None’, then 'src' is read from the
     current position; respectively for 'offset_dst'.  The offset
     associated to the file descriptor that refers to a pipe must be
     ‘None’.  The files pointed to by 'src' and 'dst' must reside in the
     same filesystem, otherwise an *note OSError: 644. is raised with
     *note errno: 2024. set to *note errno.EXDEV: 28b9.

     This copy is done without the additional cost of transferring data
     from the kernel to user space and then back into the kernel.
     Additionally, some filesystems could implement extra optimizations.
     The copy is done as if both files are opened as binary.

     Upon successful completion, returns the number of bytes spliced to
     or from the pipe.  A return value of 0 means end of input.  If
     'src' refers to a pipe, then this means that there was no data to
     transfer, and it would not make sense to block because there are no
     writers connected to the write end of the pipe.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.17 with glibc >= 2.5

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.SPLICE_F_MOVE
 -- 資料: os.SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK
 -- 資料: os.SPLICE_F_MORE

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.readv (fd, buffers, /)

     Read from a file descriptor 'fd' into a number of mutable *note
     bytes-like objects: b9f. 'buffers'.  Transfer data into each buffer
     until it is full and then move on to the next buffer in the
     sequence to hold the rest of the data.

     Return the total number of bytes actually read which can be less
     than the total capacity of all the objects.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 28e2. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.tcgetpgrp (fd, /)

     Return the process group associated with the terminal given by 'fd'
     (an open file descriptor as returned by *note os.open(): c09.).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.tcsetpgrp (fd, pg, /)

     Set the process group associated with the terminal given by 'fd'
     (an open file descriptor as returned by *note os.open(): c09.) to
     'pg'.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.ttyname (fd, /)

     Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with
     file descriptor 'fd'.  If 'fd' is not associated with a terminal
     device, an exception is raised.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: os.write (fd, str, /)

     Write the bytestring in 'str' to file descriptor 'fd'.

     Return the number of bytes actually written.

          備註: This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be
          applied to a file descriptor as returned by *note os.open():
          c09. or *note pipe(): 15a8.  To write a "file object" returned
          by the built-in function *note open(): 29c. or by *note
          popen(): 8d3. or *note fdopen(): 1cc4, or *note sys.stdout:
          92a. or *note sys.stderr: 778, use its ‘write()’ method.

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the function now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(5) for the rationale).

 -- 函式: os.writev (fd, buffers, /)

     Write the contents of 'buffers' to file descriptor 'fd'.  'buffers'
     must be a sequence of *note bytes-like objects: b9f.  Buffers are
     processed in array order.  Entire contents of the first buffer is
     written before proceeding to the second, and so on.

     Returns the total number of bytes actually written.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 28e2. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

* Menu:

* Querying the size of a terminal::
* Inheritance of File Descriptors::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/open(2)

   (3) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Querying the size of a terminal,  Next: Inheritance of File Descriptors,  Up: File Descriptor Operations

5.16.1.6 Querying the size of a terminal
........................................

在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.get_terminal_size (fd=STDOUT_FILENO, /)

     Return the size of the terminal window as ‘(columns, lines)’, tuple
     of type *note terminal_size: 25f7.

     The optional argument ‘fd’ (default ‘STDOUT_FILENO’, or standard
     output) specifies which file descriptor should be queried.

     If the file descriptor is not connected to a terminal, an *note
     OSError: 644. is raised.

     *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): f91. is the high-level function
     which should normally be used, ‘os.get_terminal_size’ is the
     low-level implementation.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 類別: os.terminal_size

     A subclass of tuple, holding ‘(columns, lines)’ of the terminal
     window size.

      -- 屬性: columns

          Width of the terminal window in characters.

      -- 屬性: lines

          Height of the terminal window in characters.


File: python.info,  Node: Inheritance of File Descriptors,  Prev: Querying the size of a terminal,  Up: File Descriptor Operations

5.16.1.7 Inheritance of File Descriptors
........................................

在 3.4 版被加入.

A file descriptor has an "inheritable" flag which indicates if the file
descriptor can be inherited by child processes.  Since Python 3.4, file
descriptors created by Python are non-inheritable by default.

On UNIX, non-inheritable file descriptors are closed in child processes
at the execution of a new program, other file descriptors are inherited.

On Windows, non-inheritable handles and file descriptors are closed in
child processes, except for standard streams (file descriptors 0, 1 and
2: stdin, stdout and stderr), which are always inherited.  Using *note
spawn*: 14f2. functions, all inheritable handles and all inheritable
file descriptors are inherited.  Using the *note subprocess: d0. module,
all file descriptors except standard streams are closed, and inheritable
handles are only inherited if the 'close_fds' parameter is ‘False’.

On WebAssembly platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’, the file
descriptor cannot be modified.

 -- 函式: os.get_inheritable (fd, /)

     Get the "inheritable" flag of the specified file descriptor (a
     boolean).

 -- 函式: os.set_inheritable (fd, inheritable, /)

     Set the "inheritable" flag of the specified file descriptor.

 -- 函式: os.get_handle_inheritable (handle, /)

     Get the "inheritable" flag of the specified handle (a boolean).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

 -- 函式: os.set_handle_inheritable (handle, inheritable, /)

     Set the "inheritable" flag of the specified handle.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Files and Directories,  Next: 行程管理,  Prev: File Descriptor Operations,  Up: os --- 各種作業系統介面

5.16.1.8 Files and Directories
..............................

On some Unix platforms, many of these functions support one or more of
these features:

   * 'specifying a file descriptor:' Normally the 'path' argument
     provided to functions in the *note os: 9c. module must be a string
     specifying a file path.  However, some functions now alternatively
     accept an open file descriptor for their 'path' argument.  The
     function will then operate on the file referred to by the
     descriptor.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of
     the function prefixed with ‘f’ (e.g.  call ‘fchdir’ instead of
     ‘chdir’).)

     You can check whether or not 'path' can be specified as a file
     descriptor for a particular function on your platform using *note
     os.supports_fd: f8b.  If this functionality is unavailable, using
     it will raise a *note NotImplementedError: bc0.

     If the function also supports 'dir_fd' or 'follow_symlinks'
     arguments, it's an error to specify one of those when supplying
     'path' as a file descriptor.

   * 'paths relative to directory descriptors:' If 'dir_fd' is not
     ‘None’, it should be a file descriptor referring to a directory,
     and the path to operate on should be relative; path will then be
     relative to that directory.  If the path is absolute, 'dir_fd' is
     ignored.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of the
     function with an ‘at’ suffix and possibly prefixed with ‘f’ (e.g.
     call ‘faccessat’ instead of ‘access’).

     You can check whether or not 'dir_fd' is supported for a particular
     function on your platform using *note os.supports_dir_fd: f86.  If
     it's unavailable, using it will raise a *note NotImplementedError:
     bc0.

   * 'not following symlinks:' If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, and the
     last element of the path to operate on is a symbolic link, the
     function will operate on the symbolic link itself rather than the
     file pointed to by the link.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call
     the ‘l...’ variant of the function.)

     You can check whether or not 'follow_symlinks' is supported for a
     particular function on your platform using *note
     os.supports_follow_symlinks: 25e2.  If it's unavailable, using it
     will raise a *note NotImplementedError: bc0.

 -- 函式: os.access (path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, effective_ids=False,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Use the real uid/gid to test for access to 'path'.  Note that most
     operations will use the effective uid/gid, therefore this routine
     can be used in a suid/sgid environment to test if the invoking user
     has the specified access to 'path'.  'mode' should be *note F_OK:
     28f5. to test the existence of 'path', or it can be the inclusive
     OR of one or more of *note R_OK: 28f6, *note W_OK: 28f7, and *note
     X_OK: 28f8. to test permissions.  Return *note True: a70. if access
     is allowed, *note False: 98f. if not.  See the Unix man page
     ‘access(2)(1)’ for more information.

     This function can support specifying *note paths relative to
     directory descriptors: f78. and *note not following symlinks: f79.

     If 'effective_ids' is ‘True’, *note access(): f7a. will perform its
     access checks using the effective uid/gid instead of the real
     uid/gid.  'effective_ids' may not be supported on your platform;
     you can check whether or not it is available using *note
     os.supports_effective_ids: f8c.  If it is unavailable, using it
     will raise a *note NotImplementedError: bc0.

          備註: Using *note access(): f7a. to check if a user is
          authorized to e.g.  open a file before actually doing so using
          *note open(): 29c. creates a security hole, because the user
          might exploit the short time interval between checking and
          opening the file to manipulate it.  It's preferable to use
          *note EAFP: 28f9. techniques.  For example:

               if os.access("myfile", os.R_OK):
                   with open("myfile") as fp:
                       return fp.read()
               return "some default data"

          is better written as:

               try:
                   fp = open("myfile")
               except PermissionError:
                   return "some default data"
               else:
                   with fp:
                       return fp.read()

          備註: I/O operations may fail even when *note access(): f7a.
          indicates that they would succeed, particularly for operations
          on network filesystems which may have permissions semantics
          beyond the usual POSIX permission-bit model.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd'、'effective_ids' 與
     'follow_symlinks' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 資料: os.F_OK
 -- 資料: os.R_OK
 -- 資料: os.W_OK
 -- 資料: os.X_OK

     Values to pass as the 'mode' parameter of *note access(): f7a. to
     test the existence, readability, writability and executability of
     'path', respectively.

 -- 函式: os.chdir (path)

     Change the current working directory to 'path'.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7.
     The descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an open file.

     This function can raise *note OSError: 644. and subclasses such as
     *note FileNotFoundError: d46, *note PermissionError: bb5, and *note
     NotADirectoryError: ef0.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.chdir’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added support for specifying 'path' as a file
     descriptor on some platforms.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.chflags (path, flags, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Set the flags of 'path' to the numeric 'flags'.  'flags' may take a
     combination (bitwise OR) of the following values (as defined in the
     *note stat: cb. module):

        * *note stat.UF_NODUMP: 2591.

        * *note stat.UF_IMMUTABLE: 2592.

        * *note stat.UF_APPEND: 2593.

        * *note stat.UF_OPAQUE: 2594.

        * *note stat.UF_NOUNLINK: 2595.

        * *note stat.UF_COMPRESSED: 2596.

        * *note stat.UF_HIDDEN: 2597.

        * *note stat.SF_ARCHIVED: 2598.

        * *note stat.SF_IMMUTABLE: 2599.

        * *note stat.SF_APPEND: 259a.

        * *note stat.SF_NOUNLINK: 259b.

        * *note stat.SF_SNAPSHOT: 259c.

     This function can support *note not following symlinks: f79.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘flags’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.chflags’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'follow_symlinks' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.chmod (path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

     Change the mode of 'path' to the numeric 'mode'.  'mode' may take
     one of the following values (as defined in the *note stat: cb.
     module) or bitwise ORed combinations of them:

        * *note stat.S_ISUID: 257e.

        * *note stat.S_ISGID: 257f.

        * *note stat.S_ENFMT: 2581.

        * *note stat.S_ISVTX: 2582.

        * *note stat.S_IREAD: 258e.

        * *note stat.S_IWRITE: 258f.

        * *note stat.S_IEXEC: 2590.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXU: 2583.

        * *note stat.S_IRUSR: 2584.

        * *note stat.S_IWUSR: 2585.

        * *note stat.S_IXUSR: 2586.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXG: 2587.

        * *note stat.S_IRGRP: 2588.

        * *note stat.S_IWGRP: 2589.

        * *note stat.S_IXGRP: 2580.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXO: 258a.

        * *note stat.S_IROTH: 258b.

        * *note stat.S_IWOTH: 258c.

        * *note stat.S_IXOTH: 258d.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7,
     *note paths relative to directory descriptors: f78. and *note not
     following symlinks: f79.

          備註: Although Windows supports *note chmod(): f7c, you can
          only set the file's read-only flag with it (via the
          ‘stat.S_IWRITE’ and ‘stat.S_IREAD’ constants or a
          corresponding integer value).  All other bits are ignored.

          The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
          WebAssembly 平台: 15ae. for more information.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘mode’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.chmod’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added support for specifying 'path' as an open
     file descriptor, and the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks' arguments.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.chown (path, uid, gid, *, dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Change the owner and group id of 'path' to the numeric 'uid' and
     'gid'.  To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7,
     *note paths relative to directory descriptors: f78. and *note not
     following symlinks: f79.

     See *note shutil.chown(): fbd. for a higher-level function that
     accepts names in addition to numeric ids.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘uid’、‘gid’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件:
     168e. ‘os.chown’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly 平台: 15ae. for more information.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added support for specifying 'path' as an open
     file descriptor, and the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks' arguments.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Supports a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.chroot (path)

     Change the root directory of the current process to 'path'.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.fchdir (fd)

     Change the current working directory to the directory represented
     by the file descriptor 'fd'.  The descriptor must refer to an
     opened directory, not an open file.  As of Python 3.3, this is
     equivalent to ‘os.chdir(fd)’.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.chdir’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: os.getcwd ()

     Return a string representing the current working directory.

 -- 函式: os.getcwdb ()

     Return a bytestring representing the current working directory.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on
     Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP 529(2) for the
     rationale.  The function is no longer deprecated on Windows.

 -- 函式: os.lchflags (path, flags)

     Set the flags of 'path' to the numeric 'flags', like *note
     chflags(): f7b, but do not follow symbolic links.  As of Python
     3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chflags(path, flags,
     follow_symlinks=False)’.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘flags’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.chflags’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.lchmod (path, mode)

     Change the mode of 'path' to the numeric 'mode'.  If path is a
     symlink, this affects the symlink rather than the target.  See the
     docs for *note chmod(): f7c. for possible values of 'mode'.  As of
     Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chmod(path, mode,
     follow_symlinks=False)’.

     ‘lchmod()’ is not part of POSIX, but Unix implementations may have
     it if changing the mode of symbolic links is supported.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘mode’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.chmod’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Linux, FreeBSD >= 1.3, NetBSD
     >= 1.3, not OpenBSD

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.lchown (path, uid, gid)

     Change the owner and group id of 'path' to the numeric 'uid' and
     'gid'.  This function will not follow symbolic links.  As of Python
     3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chown(path, uid, gid,
     follow_symlinks=False)’.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘uid’、‘gid’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件:
     168e. ‘os.chown’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.link (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Create a hard link pointing to 'src' named 'dst'.

     This function can support specifying 'src_dir_fd' and/or
     'dst_dir_fd' to supply *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78, and *note not following symlinks: f79.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’、‘src_dir_fd’、‘dst_dir_fd’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.link’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新支援 Windows。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'src_dir_fd'、'dst_dir_fd' 與
     'follow_symlinks' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. for 'src'
     and 'dst'.

 -- 函式: os.listdir (path='.')

     Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory
     given by 'path'.  The list is in arbitrary order, and does not
     include the special entries ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’ even if they are
     present in the directory.  If a file is removed from or added to
     the directory during the call of this function, whether a name for
     that file be included is unspecified.

     'path' may be a *note path-like object: 975.  If 'path' is of type
     ‘bytes’ (directly or indirectly through the *note PathLike: ab7.
     interface), the filenames returned will also be of type ‘bytes’; in
     all other circumstances, they will be of type ‘str’.

     This function can also support *note specifying a file descriptor:
     9b7.; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.listdir’。

          備註: To encode ‘str’ filenames to ‘bytes’, use *note
          fsencode(): abb.

     也參考
     ......

     The *note scandir(): 8aa. function returns directory entries along
     with file attribute information, giving better performance for many
     common use cases.

     在 3.2 版的變更: The 'path' parameter became optional.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added support for specifying 'path' as an open
     file descriptor.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.listdrives ()

     Return a list containing the names of drives on a Windows system.

     A drive name typically looks like ‘'C:\\'’.  Not every drive name
     will be associated with a volume, and some may be inaccessible for
     a variety of reasons, including permissions, network connectivity
     or missing media.  This function does not test for access.

     May raise *note OSError: 644. if an error occurs collecting the
     drive names.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.listdrives’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.listmounts (volume)

     Return a list containing the mount points for a volume on a Windows
     system.

     'volume' must be represented as a GUID path, like those returned by
     *note os.listvolumes(): 1bd.  Volumes may be mounted in multiple
     locations or not at all.  In the latter case, the list will be
     empty.  Mount points that are not associated with a volume will not
     be returned by this function.

     The mount points return by this function will be absolute paths,
     and may be longer than the drive name.

     Raises *note OSError: 644. if the volume is not recognized or if an
     error occurs collecting the paths.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘volume’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.listmounts’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.listvolumes ()

     Return a list containing the volumes in the system.

     Volumes are typically represented as a GUID path that looks like
     ‘\\?\Volume{xxxxxxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx}\’.  Files can
     usually be accessed through a GUID path, permissions allowing.
     However, users are generally not familiar with them, and so the
     recommended use of this function is to retrieve mount points using
     *note os.listmounts(): 1be.

     May raise *note OSError: 644. if an error occurs collecting the
     volumes.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.listvolumes’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.lstat (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Perform the equivalent of an ‘lstat()’ system call on the given
     path.  Similar to *note stat(): 1bf, but does not follow symbolic
     links.  Return a *note stat_result: 1334. object.

     On platforms that do not support symbolic links, this is an alias
     for *note stat(): 1bf.

     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.stat(path,
     dir_fd=dir_fd, follow_symlinks=False)’.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78.

     也參考
     ......

     The *note stat(): 1bf. function.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic
     links.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

     在 3.8 版的變更: On Windows, now opens reparse points that
     represent another path (name surrogates), including symbolic links
     and directory junctions.  Other kinds of reparse points are
     resolved by the operating system as for *note stat(): 1bf.

 -- 函式: os.mkdir (path, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

     Create a directory named 'path' with numeric mode 'mode'.

     If the directory already exists, *note FileExistsError: eb4. is
     raised.  If a parent directory in the path does not exist, *note
     FileNotFoundError: d46. is raised.  On some systems, 'mode' is
     ignored.  Where it is used, the current umask value is first masked
     out.  If bits other than the last 9 (i.e.  the last 3 digits of the
     octal representation of the 'mode') are set, their meaning is
     platform-dependent.  On some platforms, they are ignored and you
     should call *note chmod(): f7c. explicitly to set them.

     On Windows, a 'mode' of ‘0o700’ is specifically handled to apply
     access control to the new directory such that only the current user
     and administrators have access.  Other values of 'mode' are
     ignored.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78.

     It is also possible to create temporary directories; see the *note
     tempfile: da. module's *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c3. function.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘mode’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.mkdir’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

     在 3.12.4 版的變更: Windows now handles a 'mode' of ‘0o700’.

 -- 函式: os.makedirs (name, mode=0o777, exist_ok=False)

     Recursive directory creation function.  Like *note mkdir(): 1c1,
     but makes all intermediate-level directories needed to contain the
     leaf directory.

     The 'mode' parameter is passed to *note mkdir(): 1c1. for creating
     the leaf directory; see *note the mkdir() description: 28fc. for
     how it is interpreted.  To set the file permission bits of any
     newly created parent directories you can set the umask before
     invoking *note makedirs(): 1c2.  The file permission bits of
     existing parent directories are not changed.

     If 'exist_ok' is ‘False’ (the default), a *note FileExistsError:
     eb4. is raised if the target directory already exists.

          備註: *note makedirs(): 1c2. will become confused if the path
          elements to create include *note pardir: 28fd. (eg.  ".."  on
          UNIX systems).

     This function handles UNC paths correctly.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘mode’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.mkdir’。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'exist_ok' 參數。

     在 3.4.1 版的變更: Before Python 3.4.1, if 'exist_ok' was ‘True’
     and the directory existed, *note makedirs(): 1c2. would still raise
     an error if 'mode' did not match the mode of the existing
     directory.  Since this behavior was impossible to implement safely,
     it was removed in Python 3.4.1.  See bpo-21082(3).

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The 'mode' argument no longer affects the file
     permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories.

 -- 函式: os.mkfifo (path, mode=0o666, *, dir_fd=None)

     Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named 'path' with numeric mode 'mode'.
     The current umask value is first masked out from the mode.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78.

     FIFOs are pipes that can be accessed like regular files.  FIFOs
     exist until they are deleted (for example with *note os.unlink():
     f84.).  Generally, FIFOs are used as rendezvous between "client"
     and "server" type processes: the server opens the FIFO for reading,
     and the client opens it for writing.  Note that *note mkfifo():
     c07. doesn't open the FIFO -- it just creates the rendezvous point.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.mknod (path, mode=0o600, device=0, *, dir_fd=None)

     Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe)
     named 'path'.  'mode' specifies both the permissions to use and the
     type of node to be created, being combined (bitwise OR) with one of
     ‘stat.S_IFREG’, ‘stat.S_IFCHR’, ‘stat.S_IFBLK’, and ‘stat.S_IFIFO’
     (those constants are available in *note stat: cb.).  For
     ‘stat.S_IFCHR’ and ‘stat.S_IFBLK’, 'device' defines the newly
     created device special file (probably using *note os.makedev():
     1422.), otherwise it is ignored.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.major (device, /)

     Extract the device major number from a raw device number (usually
     the ‘st_dev’ or ‘st_rdev’ field from ‘stat’).

 -- 函式: os.minor (device, /)

     Extract the device minor number from a raw device number (usually
     the ‘st_dev’ or ‘st_rdev’ field from ‘stat’).

 -- 函式: os.makedev (major, minor, /)

     Compose a raw device number from the major and minor device
     numbers.

 -- 函式: os.pathconf (path, name)

     Return system configuration information relevant to a named file.
     'name' specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a
     string which is the name of a defined system value; these names are
     specified in a number of standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and
     others).  Some platforms define additional names as well.  The
     names known to the host operating system are given in the
     ‘pathconf_names’ dictionary.  For configuration variables not
     included in that mapping, passing an integer for 'name' is also
     accepted.

     If 'name' is a string and is not known, *note ValueError: 183. is
     raised.  If a specific value for 'name' is not supported by the
     host system, even if it is included in ‘pathconf_names’, an *note
     OSError: 644. is raised with *note errno.EINVAL: 17d3. for the
     error number.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 資料: os.pathconf_names

     Dictionary mapping names accepted by *note pathconf(): f89. and
     *note fpathconf(): 28ba. to the integer values defined for those
     names by the host operating system.  This can be used to determine
     the set of names known to the system.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: os.readlink (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link
     points.  The result may be either an absolute or relative pathname;
     if it is relative, it may be converted to an absolute pathname
     using ‘os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path), result)’.

     If the 'path' is a string object (directly or indirectly through a
     *note PathLike: ab7. interface), the result will also be a string
     object, and the call may raise a UnicodeDecodeError.  If the 'path'
     is a bytes object (direct or indirectly), the result will be a
     bytes object.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78.

     When trying to resolve a path that may contain links, use *note
     realpath(): 643. to properly handle recursion and platform
     differences.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic
     links.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. on Unix.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. and a bytes
     object on Windows.

     Added support for directory junctions, and changed to return the
     substitution path (which typically includes ‘\\?\’ prefix) rather
     than the optional "print name" field that was previously returned.

 -- 函式: os.remove (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the file 'path'.  If 'path' is a directory, an
     *note OSError: 644. is raised.  Use *note rmdir(): f82. to remove
     directories.  If the file does not exist, a *note
     FileNotFoundError: d46. is raised.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78.

     On Windows, attempting to remove a file that is in use causes an
     exception to be raised; on Unix, the directory entry is removed but
     the storage allocated to the file is not made available until the
     original file is no longer in use.

     This function is semantically identical to *note unlink(): f84.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.remove’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.removedirs (name)

     Remove directories recursively.  Works like *note rmdir(): f82.
     except that, if the leaf directory is successfully removed, *note
     removedirs(): 28ff. tries to successively remove every parent
     directory mentioned in 'path' until an error is raised (which is
     ignored, because it generally means that a parent directory is not
     empty).  For example, ‘os.removedirs('foo/bar/baz')’ will first
     remove the directory ‘'foo/bar/baz'’, and then remove ‘'foo/bar'’
     and ‘'foo'’ if they are empty.  Raises *note OSError: 644. if the
     leaf directory could not be successfully removed.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.remove’。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.rename (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)

     Rename the file or directory 'src' to 'dst'.  If 'dst' exists, the
     operation will fail with an *note OSError: 644. subclass in a
     number of cases:

     On Windows, if 'dst' exists a *note FileExistsError: eb4. is always
     raised.  The operation may fail if 'src' and 'dst' are on different
     filesystems.  Use *note shutil.move(): 8a7. to support moves to a
     different filesystem.

     On Unix, if 'src' is a file and 'dst' is a directory or vice-versa,
     an *note IsADirectoryError: eef. or a *note NotADirectoryError:
     ef0. will be raised respectively.  If both are directories and
     'dst' is empty, 'dst' will be silently replaced.  If 'dst' is a
     non-empty directory, an *note OSError: 644. is raised.  If both are
     files, 'dst' will be replaced silently if the user has permission.
     The operation may fail on some Unix flavors if 'src' and 'dst' are
     on different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
     atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

     This function can support specifying 'src_dir_fd' and/or
     'dst_dir_fd' to supply *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78.

     If you want cross-platform overwriting of the destination, use
     *note replace(): f81.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’、‘src_dir_fd’、‘dst_dir_fd’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.rename’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'src_dir_fd' 與 'dst_dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. for 'src'
     and 'dst'.

 -- 函式: os.renames (old, new)

     Recursive directory or file renaming function.  Works like *note
     rename(): f80, except creation of any intermediate directories
     needed to make the new pathname good is attempted first.  After the
     rename, directories corresponding to rightmost path segments of the
     old name will be pruned away using *note removedirs(): 28ff.

          備註: This function can fail with the new directory structure
          made if you lack permissions needed to remove the leaf
          directory or file.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’、‘src_dir_fd’、‘dst_dir_fd’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.rename’。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. for 'old'
     and 'new'.

 -- 函式: os.replace (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)

     Rename the file or directory 'src' to 'dst'.  If 'dst' is a
     non-empty directory, *note OSError: 644. will be raised.  If 'dst'
     exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has
     permission.  The operation may fail if 'src' and 'dst' are on
     different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
     atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

     This function can support specifying 'src_dir_fd' and/or
     'dst_dir_fd' to supply *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’、‘src_dir_fd’、‘dst_dir_fd’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.rename’。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. for 'src'
     and 'dst'.

 -- 函式: os.rmdir (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the directory 'path'.  If the directory does not
     exist or is not empty, a *note FileNotFoundError: d46. or an *note
     OSError: 644. is raised respectively.  In order to remove whole
     directory trees, *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. can be used.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.rmdir’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.scandir (path='.')

     Return an iterator of *note os.DirEntry: 1ba. objects corresponding
     to the entries in the directory given by 'path'.  The entries are
     yielded in arbitrary order, and the special entries ‘'.'’ and
     ‘'..'’ are not included.  If a file is removed from or added to the
     directory after creating the iterator, whether an entry for that
     file be included is unspecified.

     Using *note scandir(): 8aa. instead of *note listdir(): f88. can
     significantly increase the performance of code that also needs file
     type or file attribute information, because *note os.DirEntry: 1ba.
     objects expose this information if the operating system provides it
     when scanning a directory.  All *note os.DirEntry: 1ba. methods may
     perform a system call, but *note is_dir(): 2901. and *note
     is_file(): bfa. usually only require a system call for symbolic
     links; *note os.DirEntry.stat(): 1472. always requires a system
     call on Unix but only requires one for symbolic links on Windows.

     'path' may be a *note path-like object: 975.  If 'path' is of type
     ‘bytes’ (directly or indirectly through the *note PathLike: ab7.
     interface), the type of the *note name: 2902. and *note path: 2903.
     attributes of each *note os.DirEntry: 1ba. will be ‘bytes’; in all
     other circumstances, they will be of type ‘str’.

     This function can also support *note specifying a file descriptor:
     9b7.; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.scandir’。

     The *note scandir(): 8aa. iterator supports the *note context
     manager: 3c4. protocol and has the following method:

      -- 方法: scandir.close ()

          Close the iterator and free acquired resources.

          This is called automatically when the iterator is exhausted or
          garbage collected, or when an error happens during iterating.
          However it is advisable to call it explicitly or use the *note
          with: 3c5. statement.

          在 3.6 版被加入.

     The following example shows a simple use of *note scandir(): 8aa.
     to display all the files (excluding directories) in the given
     'path' that don't start with ‘'.'’.  The ‘entry.is_file()’ call
     will generally not make an additional system call:

          with os.scandir(path) as it:
              for entry in it:
                  if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
                      print(entry.name)

          備註: On Unix-based systems, *note scandir(): 8aa. uses the
          system's opendir()(4) and readdir()(5) functions.  On Windows,
          it uses the Win32 FindFirstFileW(6) and FindNextFileW(7)
          functions.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Added support for the *note context manager: 3c4.
     protocol and the *note close(): b29. method.  If a *note scandir():
     8aa. iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed a *note
     ResourceWarning: aa3. will be emitted in its destructor.

     The function accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Added support for *note file descriptors: 9b7. on
     Unix.

 -- 類別: os.DirEntry

     Object yielded by *note scandir(): 8aa. to expose the file path and
     other file attributes of a directory entry.

     *note scandir(): 8aa. will provide as much of this information as
     possible without making additional system calls.  When a ‘stat()’
     or ‘lstat()’ system call is made, the ‘os.DirEntry’ object will
     cache the result.

     ‘os.DirEntry’ instances are not intended to be stored in long-lived
     data structures; if you know the file metadata has changed or if a
     long time has elapsed since calling *note scandir(): 8aa, call
     ‘os.stat(entry.path)’ to fetch up-to-date information.

     Because the ‘os.DirEntry’ methods can make operating system calls,
     they may also raise *note OSError: 644.  If you need very
     fine-grained control over errors, you can catch *note OSError: 644.
     when calling one of the ‘os.DirEntry’ methods and handle as
     appropriate.

     To be directly usable as a *note path-like object: 975,
     ‘os.DirEntry’ implements the *note PathLike: ab7. interface.

     Attributes and methods on a ‘os.DirEntry’ instance are as follows:

      -- 屬性: name

          The entry's base filename, relative to the *note scandir():
          8aa. 'path' argument.

          The *note name: 287d. attribute will be ‘bytes’ if the *note
          scandir(): 8aa. 'path' argument is of type ‘bytes’ and ‘str’
          otherwise.  Use *note fsdecode(): aba. to decode byte
          filenames.

      -- 屬性: path

          The entry's full path name: equivalent to
          ‘os.path.join(scandir_path, entry.name)’ where 'scandir_path'
          is the *note scandir(): 8aa. 'path' argument.  The path is
          only absolute if the *note scandir(): 8aa. 'path' argument was
          absolute.  If the *note scandir(): 8aa. 'path' argument was a
          *note file descriptor: 9b7, the *note path: 9d. attribute is
          the same as the *note name: 287d. attribute.

          The *note path: 9d. attribute will be ‘bytes’ if the *note
          scandir(): 8aa. 'path' argument is of type ‘bytes’ and ‘str’
          otherwise.  Use *note fsdecode(): aba. to decode byte
          filenames.

      -- 方法: inode ()

          Return the inode number of the entry.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Use
          ‘os.stat(entry.path, follow_symlinks=False).st_ino’ to fetch
          up-to-date information.

          On the first, uncached call, a system call is required on
          Windows but not on Unix.

      -- 方法: is_dir (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a directory or a symbolic link
          pointing to a directory; return ‘False’ if the entry is or
          points to any other kind of file, or if it doesn't exist
          anymore.

          If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, return ‘True’ only if this
          entry is a directory (without following symlinks); return
          ‘False’ if the entry is any other kind of file or if it
          doesn't exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object, with a
          separate cache for 'follow_symlinks' ‘True’ and ‘False’.  Call
          *note os.stat(): 1bf. along with *note stat.S_ISDIR(): 2565.
          to fetch up-to-date information.

          On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in
          most cases.  Specifically, for non-symlinks, neither Windows
          or Unix require a system call, except on certain Unix file
          systems, such as network file systems, that return
          ‘dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN’.  If the entry is a symlink, a
          system call will be required to follow the symlink unless
          'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’.

          This method can raise *note OSError: 644, such as *note
          PermissionError: bb5, but *note FileNotFoundError: d46. is
          caught and not raised.

      -- 方法: is_file (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a file or a symbolic link
          pointing to a file; return ‘False’ if the entry is or points
          to a directory or other non-file entry, or if it doesn't exist
          anymore.

          If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, return ‘True’ only if this
          entry is a file (without following symlinks); return ‘False’
          if the entry is a directory or other non-file entry, or if it
          doesn't exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Caching,
          system calls made, and exceptions raised are as per *note
          is_dir(): 2901.

      -- 方法: is_symlink ()

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a symbolic link (even if
          broken); return ‘False’ if the entry points to a directory or
          any kind of file, or if it doesn't exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Call *note
          os.path.islink(): 853. to fetch up-to-date information.

          On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in
          most cases.  Specifically, neither Windows or Unix require a
          system call, except on certain Unix file systems, such as
          network file systems, that return ‘dirent.d_type ==
          DT_UNKNOWN’.

          This method can raise *note OSError: 644, such as *note
          PermissionError: bb5, but *note FileNotFoundError: d46. is
          caught and not raised.

      -- 方法: is_junction ()

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a junction (even if broken);
          return ‘False’ if the entry points to a regular directory, any
          kind of file, a symlink, or if it doesn't exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Call *note
          os.path.isjunction(): 1c5. to fetch up-to-date information.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- 方法: stat (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return a *note stat_result: 1334. object for this entry.  This
          method follows symbolic links by default; to stat a symbolic
          link add the ‘follow_symlinks=False’ argument.

          On Unix, this method always requires a system call.  On
          Windows, it only requires a system call if 'follow_symlinks'
          is ‘True’ and the entry is a reparse point (for example, a
          symbolic link or directory junction).

          On Windows, the ‘st_ino’, ‘st_dev’ and ‘st_nlink’ attributes
          of the *note stat_result: 1334. are always set to zero.  Call
          *note os.stat(): 1bf. to get these attributes.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object, with a
          separate cache for 'follow_symlinks' ‘True’ and ‘False’.  Call
          *note os.stat(): 1bf. to fetch up-to-date information.

     Note that there is a nice correspondence between several attributes
     and methods of ‘os.DirEntry’ and of *note pathlib.Path: 149.  In
     particular, the ‘name’ attribute has the same meaning, as do the
     ‘is_dir()’, ‘is_file()’, ‘is_symlink()’, ‘is_junction()’, and
     ‘stat()’ methods.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Added support for the *note PathLike: ab7.
     interface.  Added support for *note bytes: 2c1. paths on Windows.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The ‘st_ctime’ attribute of a stat result is
     deprecated on Windows.  The file creation time is properly
     available as ‘st_birthtime’, and in the future ‘st_ctime’ may be
     changed to return zero or the metadata change time, if available.

 -- 函式: os.stat (path, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

     Get the status of a file or a file descriptor.  Perform the
     equivalent of a ‘stat()’ system call on the given path.  'path' may
     be specified as either a string or bytes - directly or indirectly
     through the *note PathLike: ab7. interface - or as an open file
     descriptor.  Return a *note stat_result: 1334. object.

     This function normally follows symlinks; to stat a symlink add the
     argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’, or use *note lstat(): 1c0.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7.
     and *note not following symlinks: f79.

     On Windows, passing ‘follow_symlinks=False’ will disable following
     all name-surrogate reparse points, which includes symlinks and
     directory junctions.  Other types of reparse points that do not
     resemble links or that the operating system is unable to follow
     will be opened directly.  When following a chain of multiple links,
     this may result in the original link being returned instead of the
     non-link that prevented full traversal.  To obtain stat results for
     the final path in this case, use the *note os.path.realpath(): 643.
     function to resolve the path name as far as possible and call *note
     lstat(): 1c0. on the result.  This does not apply to dangling
     symlinks or junction points, which will raise the usual exceptions.

     範例：

          >>> import os
          >>> statinfo = os.stat('somefile.txt')
          >>> statinfo
          os.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=7876932, st_dev=234881026,
          st_nlink=1, st_uid=501, st_gid=501, st_size=264, st_atime=1297230295,
          st_mtime=1297230027, st_ctime=1297230027)
          >>> statinfo.st_size
          264

     也參考
     ......

     *note fstat(): c03. 和 *note lstat(): 1c0. 函式。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd' 與 'follow_symlinks' 參數，指定一個
     檔案描述器而非路徑。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

     在 3.8 版的變更: On Windows, all reparse points that can be
     resolved by the operating system are now followed, and passing
     ‘follow_symlinks=False’ disables following all name surrogate
     reparse points.  If the operating system reaches a reparse point
     that it is not able to follow, 'stat' now returns the information
     for the original path as if ‘follow_symlinks=False’ had been
     specified instead of raising an error.

 -- 類別: os.stat_result

     Object whose attributes correspond roughly to the members of the
     ‘stat’ structure.  It is used for the result of *note os.stat():
     1bf, *note os.fstat(): c03. and *note os.lstat(): 1c0.

     屬性：

      -- 屬性: st_mode

          File mode: file type and file mode bits (permissions).

      -- 屬性: st_ino

          Platform dependent, but if non-zero, uniquely identifies the
          file for a given value of ‘st_dev’.  Typically:

             * the inode number on Unix,

             * the file index(8) on Windows

      -- 屬性: st_dev

          Identifier of the device on which this file resides.

      -- 屬性: st_nlink

          Number of hard links.

      -- 屬性: st_uid

          User identifier of the file owner.

      -- 屬性: st_gid

          Group identifier of the file owner.

      -- 屬性: st_size

          Size of the file in bytes, if it is a regular file or a
          symbolic link.  The size of a symbolic link is the length of
          the pathname it contains, without a terminating null byte.

     Timestamps:

      -- 屬性: st_atime

          Time of most recent access expressed in seconds.

      -- 屬性: st_mtime

          Time of most recent content modification expressed in seconds.

      -- 屬性: st_ctime

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in seconds.

          在 3.12 版的變更: ‘st_ctime’ is deprecated on Windows.  Use
          ‘st_birthtime’ for the file creation time.  In the future,
          ‘st_ctime’ will contain the time of the most recent metadata
          change, as for other platforms.

      -- 屬性: st_atime_ns

          Time of most recent access expressed in nanoseconds as an
          integer.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: st_mtime_ns

          Time of most recent content modification expressed in
          nanoseconds as an integer.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: st_ctime_ns

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in nanoseconds
          as an integer.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

          在 3.12 版的變更: ‘st_ctime_ns’ is deprecated on Windows.  Use
          ‘st_birthtime_ns’ for the file creation time.  In the future,
          ‘st_ctime’ will contain the time of the most recent metadata
          change, as for other platforms.

      -- 屬性: st_birthtime

          Time of file creation expressed in seconds.  This attribute is
          not always available, and may raise *note AttributeError: 3ca.

          在 3.12 版的變更: ‘st_birthtime’ is now available on Windows.

      -- 屬性: st_birthtime_ns

          Time of file creation expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.
          This attribute is not always available, and may raise *note
          AttributeError: 3ca.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

          備註: The exact meaning and resolution of the *note st_atime:
          290c, *note st_mtime: 26e3, *note st_ctime: 290d. and *note
          st_birthtime: 2911. attributes depend on the operating system
          and the file system.  For example, on Windows systems using
          the FAT32 file systems, *note st_mtime: 26e3. has 2-second
          resolution, and *note st_atime: 290c. has only 1-day
          resolution.  See your operating system documentation for
          details.

          Similarly, although *note st_atime_ns: 290e, *note
          st_mtime_ns: 290f, *note st_ctime_ns: 2910. and *note
          st_birthtime_ns: 2912. are always expressed in nanoseconds,
          many systems do not provide nanosecond precision.  On systems
          that do provide nanosecond precision, the floating-point
          object used to store *note st_atime: 290c, *note st_mtime:
          26e3, *note st_ctime: 290d. and *note st_birthtime: 2911.
          cannot preserve all of it, and as such will be slightly
          inexact.  If you need the exact timestamps you should always
          use *note st_atime_ns: 290e, *note st_mtime_ns: 290f, *note
          st_ctime_ns: 2910. and *note st_birthtime_ns: 2912.

     On some Unix systems (such as Linux), the following attributes may
     also be available:

      -- 屬性: st_blocks

          Number of 512-byte blocks allocated for file.  This may be
          smaller than *note st_size: 290b./512 when the file has holes.

      -- 屬性: st_blksize

          "Preferred" blocksize for efficient file system I/O. Writing
          to a file in smaller chunks may cause an inefficient
          read-modify-rewrite.

      -- 屬性: st_rdev

          Type of device if an inode device.

      -- 屬性: st_flags

          User defined flags for file.

     On other Unix systems (such as FreeBSD), the following attributes
     may be available (but may be only filled out if root tries to use
     them):

      -- 屬性: st_gen

          File generation number.

     On Solaris and derivatives, the following attributes may also be
     available:

      -- 屬性: st_fstype

          String that uniquely identifies the type of the filesystem
          that contains the file.

     On macOS systems, the following attributes may also be available:

      -- 屬性: st_rsize

          Real size of the file.

      -- 屬性: st_creator

          Creator of the file.

      -- 屬性: st_type

          File type.

     On Windows systems, the following attributes are also available:

      -- 屬性: st_file_attributes

          Windows file attributes: ‘dwFileAttributes’ member of the
          ‘BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION’ structure returned by
          ‘GetFileInformationByHandle()’.  See the ‘FILE_ATTRIBUTE_*
          <stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE>’ constants in the *note stat:
          cb. module.

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: st_reparse_tag

          When *note st_file_attributes: cb2. has the *note
          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT: 25a9. set, this field contains
          the tag identifying the type of reparse point.  See the *note
          IO_REPARSE_TAG_*: 25ae. constants in the *note stat: cb.
          module.

     The standard module *note stat: cb. defines functions and constants
     that are useful for extracting information from a ‘stat’ structure.
     (On Windows, some items are filled with dummy values.)

     For backward compatibility, a *note stat_result: 1334. instance is
     also accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most
     important (and portable) members of the ‘stat’ structure, in the
     order *note st_mode: 2905, *note st_ino: 2906, *note st_dev: 2907,
     *note st_nlink: 2908, *note st_uid: 2909, *note st_gid: 290a, *note
     st_size: 290b, *note st_atime: 290c, *note st_mtime: 26e3, *note
     st_ctime: 290d.  More items may be added at the end by some
     implementations.  For compatibility with older Python versions,
     accessing *note stat_result: 1334. as a tuple always returns
     integers.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Windows now returns the file index as *note
     st_ino: 2906. when available.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Added the *note st_fstype: 9bf. member to
     Solaris/derivatives.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 在 Windows 上新增 *note st_reparse_tag: 291b. 成員
     。

     在 3.8 版的變更: On Windows, the *note st_mode: 2905. member now
     identifies special files as ‘S_IFCHR’, ‘S_IFIFO’ or ‘S_IFBLK’ as
     appropriate.

     在 3.12 版的變更: On Windows, *note st_ctime: 290d. is deprecated.
     Eventually, it will contain the last metadata change time, for
     consistency with other platforms, but for now still contains
     creation time.  Use *note st_birthtime: 2911. for the creation
     time.

     On Windows, *note st_ino: 2906. may now be up to 128 bits,
     depending on the file system.  Previously it would not be above 64
     bits, and larger file identifiers would be arbitrarily packed.

     On Windows, *note st_rdev: 2915. no longer returns a value.
     Previously it would contain the same as *note st_dev: 2907, which
     was incorrect.

     在 Windows 上新增 *note st_birthtime: 2911. 成員。

 -- 函式: os.statvfs (path)

     Perform a ‘statvfs()’ system call on the given path.  The return
     value is an object whose attributes describe the filesystem on the
     given path, and correspond to the members of the ‘statvfs’
     structure, namely: ‘f_bsize’, ‘f_frsize’, ‘f_blocks’, ‘f_bfree’,
     ‘f_bavail’, ‘f_files’, ‘f_ffree’, ‘f_favail’, ‘f_flag’,
     ‘f_namemax’, ‘f_fsid’.

     Two module-level constants are defined for the ‘f_flag’ attribute's
     bit-flags: if ‘ST_RDONLY’ is set, the filesystem is mounted
     read-only, and if ‘ST_NOSUID’ is set, the semantics of
     setuid/setgid bits are disabled or not supported.

     Additional module-level constants are defined for GNU/glibc based
     systems.  These are ‘ST_NODEV’ (disallow access to device special
     files), ‘ST_NOEXEC’ (disallow program execution), ‘ST_SYNCHRONOUS’
     (writes are synced at once), ‘ST_MANDLOCK’ (allow mandatory locks
     on an FS), ‘ST_WRITE’ (write on file/directory/symlink),
     ‘ST_APPEND’ (append-only file), ‘ST_IMMUTABLE’ (immutable file),
     ‘ST_NOATIME’ (do not update access times), ‘ST_NODIRATIME’ (do not
     update directory access times), ‘ST_RELATIME’ (update atime
     relative to mtime/ctime).

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 ‘ST_RDONLY’ 與 ‘ST_NOSUID’ 常數。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added support for specifying 'path' as an open
     file descriptor.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The ‘ST_NODEV’, ‘ST_NOEXEC’, ‘ST_SYNCHRONOUS’,
     ‘ST_MANDLOCK’, ‘ST_WRITE’, ‘ST_APPEND’, ‘ST_IMMUTABLE’,
     ‘ST_NOATIME’, ‘ST_NODIRATIME’, and ‘ST_RELATIME’ constants were
     added.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 ‘f_fsid’ 屬性。

 -- 資料: os.supports_dir_fd

     A *note set: 3cc. object indicating which functions in the *note
     os: 9c. module accept an open file descriptor for their 'dir_fd'
     parameter.  Different platforms provide different features, and the
     underlying functionality Python uses to implement the 'dir_fd'
     parameter is not available on all platforms Python supports.  For
     consistency's sake, functions that may support 'dir_fd' always
     allow specifying the parameter, but will throw an exception if the
     functionality is used when it's not locally available.  (Specifying
     ‘None’ for 'dir_fd' is always supported on all platforms.)

     To check whether a particular function accepts an open file
     descriptor for its 'dir_fd' parameter, use the ‘in’ operator on
     ‘supports_dir_fd’.  As an example, this expression evaluates to
     ‘True’ if *note os.stat(): 1bf. accepts open file descriptors for
     'dir_fd' on the local platform:

          os.stat in os.supports_dir_fd

     Currently 'dir_fd' parameters only work on Unix platforms; none of
     them work on Windows.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.supports_effective_ids

     A *note set: 3cc. object indicating whether *note os.access(): f7a.
     permits specifying ‘True’ for its 'effective_ids' parameter on the
     local platform.  (Specifying ‘False’ for 'effective_ids' is always
     supported on all platforms.)  If the local platform supports it,
     the collection will contain *note os.access(): f7a.; otherwise it
     will be empty.

     This expression evaluates to ‘True’ if *note os.access(): f7a.
     supports ‘effective_ids=True’ on the local platform:

          os.access in os.supports_effective_ids

     Currently 'effective_ids' is only supported on Unix platforms; it
     does not work on Windows.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.supports_fd

     A *note set: 3cc. object indicating which functions in the *note
     os: 9c. module permit specifying their 'path' parameter as an open
     file descriptor on the local platform.  Different platforms provide
     different features, and the underlying functionality Python uses to
     accept open file descriptors as 'path' arguments is not available
     on all platforms Python supports.

     To determine whether a particular function permits specifying an
     open file descriptor for its 'path' parameter, use the ‘in’
     operator on ‘supports_fd’.  As an example, this expression
     evaluates to ‘True’ if *note os.chdir(): 406. accepts open file
     descriptors for 'path' on your local platform:

          os.chdir in os.supports_fd

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.supports_follow_symlinks

     A *note set: 3cc. object indicating which functions in the *note
     os: 9c. module accept ‘False’ for their 'follow_symlinks' parameter
     on the local platform.  Different platforms provide different
     features, and the underlying functionality Python uses to implement
     'follow_symlinks' is not available on all platforms Python
     supports.  For consistency's sake, functions that may support
     'follow_symlinks' always allow specifying the parameter, but will
     throw an exception if the functionality is used when it's not
     locally available.  (Specifying ‘True’ for 'follow_symlinks' is
     always supported on all platforms.)

     To check whether a particular function accepts ‘False’ for its
     'follow_symlinks' parameter, use the ‘in’ operator on
     ‘supports_follow_symlinks’.  As an example, this expression
     evaluates to ‘True’ if you may specify ‘follow_symlinks=False’ when
     calling *note os.stat(): 1bf. on the local platform:

          os.stat in os.supports_follow_symlinks

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.symlink (src, dst, target_is_directory=False, *,
          dir_fd=None)

     Create a symbolic link pointing to 'src' named 'dst'.

     On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and
     does not morph to the target dynamically.  If the target is
     present, the type of the symlink will be created to match.
     Otherwise, the symlink will be created as a directory if
     'target_is_directory' is ‘True’ or a file symlink (the default)
     otherwise.  On non-Windows platforms, 'target_is_directory' is
     ignored.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78.

          備註: On newer versions of Windows 10, unprivileged accounts
          can create symlinks if Developer Mode is enabled.  When
          Developer Mode is not available/enabled, the
          'SeCreateSymbolicLinkPrivilege' privilege is required, or the
          process must be run as an administrator.

          *note OSError: 644. is raised when the function is called by
          an unprivileged user.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘src’、‘dst’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.symlink’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly 平台: 15ae. for more information.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic
     links.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter, and now allow
     'target_is_directory' on non-Windows platforms.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. for 'src'
     and 'dst'.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Added support for unelevated symlinks on Windows
     with Developer Mode.

 -- 函式: os.sync ()

     Force write of everything to disk.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.truncate (path, length)

     Truncate the file corresponding to 'path', so that it is at most
     'length' bytes in size.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘length’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.truncate’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增對 Windows 的支援

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.unlink (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the file 'path'.  This function is semantically
     identical to *note remove(): f7f.; the ‘unlink’ name is its
     traditional Unix name.  Please see the documentation for *note
     remove(): f7f. for further information.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.remove’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'dir_fd' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.utime (path, times=None, *[, ns], dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Set the access and modified times of the file specified by 'path'.

     *note utime(): f85. takes two optional parameters, 'times' and
     'ns'.  These specify the times set on 'path' and are used as
     follows:

        - If 'ns' is specified, it must be a 2-tuple of the form
          ‘(atime_ns, mtime_ns)’ where each member is an int expressing
          nanoseconds.

        - If 'times' is not ‘None’, it must be a 2-tuple of the form
          ‘(atime, mtime)’ where each member is an int or float
          expressing seconds.

        - If 'times' is ‘None’ and 'ns' is unspecified, this is
          equivalent to specifying ‘ns=(atime_ns, mtime_ns)’ where both
          times are the current time.

     It is an error to specify tuples for both 'times' and 'ns'.

     Note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a
     subsequent *note stat(): 1bf. call, depending on the resolution
     with which your operating system records access and modification
     times; see *note stat(): 1bf.  The best way to preserve exact times
     is to use the 'st_atime_ns' and 'st_mtime_ns' fields from the *note
     os.stat(): 1bf. result object with the 'ns' parameter to *note
     utime(): f85.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7,
     *note paths relative to directory descriptors: f78. and *note not
     following symlinks: f79.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘times’、‘ns’、‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件:
     168e. ‘os.utime’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added support for specifying 'path' as an open
     file descriptor, and the 'dir_fd', 'follow_symlinks', and 'ns'
     parameters.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.walk (top, topdown=True, onerror=None, followlinks=False)

     Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree
     either top-down or bottom-up.  For each directory in the tree
     rooted at directory 'top' (including 'top' itself), it yields a
     3-tuple ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames)’.

     'dirpath' is a string, the path to the directory.  'dirnames' is a
     list of the names of the subdirectories in 'dirpath' (including
     symlinks to directories, and excluding ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’).
     'filenames' is a list of the names of the non-directory files in
     'dirpath'.  Note that the names in the lists contain no path
     components.  To get a full path (which begins with 'top') to a file
     or directory in 'dirpath', do ‘os.path.join(dirpath, name)’.
     Whether or not the lists are sorted depends on the file system.  If
     a file is removed from or added to the 'dirpath' directory during
     generating the lists, whether a name for that file be included is
     unspecified.

     If optional argument 'topdown' is ‘True’ or not specified, the
     triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any of
     its subdirectories (directories are generated top-down).  If
     'topdown' is ‘False’, the triple for a directory is generated after
     the triples for all of its subdirectories (directories are
     generated bottom-up).  No matter the value of 'topdown', the list
     of subdirectories is retrieved before the tuples for the directory
     and its subdirectories are generated.

     When 'topdown' is ‘True’, the caller can modify the 'dirnames' list
     in-place (perhaps using *note del: 1570. or slice assignment), and
     *note walk(): 1cb. will only recurse into the subdirectories whose
     names remain in 'dirnames'; this can be used to prune the search,
     impose a specific order of visiting, or even to inform *note
     walk(): 1cb. about directories the caller creates or renames before
     it resumes *note walk(): 1cb. again.  Modifying 'dirnames' when
     'topdown' is ‘False’ has no effect on the behavior of the walk,
     because in bottom-up mode the directories in 'dirnames' are
     generated before 'dirpath' itself is generated.

     By default, errors from the *note scandir(): 8aa. call are ignored.
     If optional argument 'onerror' is specified, it should be a
     function; it will be called with one argument, an *note OSError:
     644. instance.  It can report the error to continue with the walk,
     or raise the exception to abort the walk.  Note that the filename
     is available as the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception object.

     By default, *note walk(): 1cb. will not walk down into symbolic
     links that resolve to directories.  Set 'followlinks' to ‘True’ to
     visit directories pointed to by symlinks, on systems that support
     them.

          備註: Be aware that setting 'followlinks' to ‘True’ can lead
          to infinite recursion if a link points to a parent directory
          of itself.  *note walk(): 1cb. does not keep track of the
          directories it visited already.

          備註: If you pass a relative pathname, don't change the
          current working directory between resumptions of *note walk():
          1cb.  *note walk(): 1cb. never changes the current directory,
          and assumes that its caller doesn't either.

     This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory
     files in each directory under the starting directory, except that
     it doesn't look under any CVS subdirectory:

          import os
          from os.path import join, getsize
          for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/email'):
              print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
              print(sum(getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files), end=" ")
              print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
              if 'CVS' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('CVS')  # don't visit CVS directories

     In the next example (simple implementation of *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 1d8.), walking the tree bottom-up is essential,
     *note rmdir(): f82. doesn't allow deleting a directory before the
     directory is empty:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
          # assuming there are no symbolic links.
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
          # could delete all your disk files.
          import os
          for root, dirs, files in os.walk(top, topdown=False):
              for name in files:
                  os.remove(os.path.join(root, name))
              for name in dirs:
                  os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name))
          os.rmdir(top)

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘top’、‘topdown’、‘onerror’、‘followlinks’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.walk’。

     在 3.5 版的變更: This function now calls *note os.scandir(): 8aa.
     instead of *note os.listdir(): f88, making it faster by reducing
     the number of calls to *note os.stat(): 1bf.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.fwalk (top='.', topdown=True, onerror=None, *,
          follow_symlinks=False, dir_fd=None)

     This behaves exactly like *note walk(): 1cb, except that it yields
     a 4-tuple ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames, dirfd)’, and it supports
     ‘dir_fd’.

     'dirpath', 'dirnames' and 'filenames' are identical to *note
     walk(): 1cb. output, and 'dirfd' is a file descriptor referring to
     the directory 'dirpath'.

     This function always supports *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f78. and *note not following symlinks: f79.  Note
     however that, unlike other functions, the *note fwalk(): 9b6.
     default value for 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’.

          備註: Since *note fwalk(): 9b6. yields file descriptors, those
          are only valid until the next iteration step, so you should
          duplicate them (e.g.  with *note dup(): 17bd.) if you want to
          keep them longer.

     This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory
     files in each directory under the starting directory, except that
     it doesn't look under any CVS subdirectory:

          import os
          for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/email'):
              print(root, "consumes", end="")
              print(sum([os.stat(name, dir_fd=rootfd).st_size for name in files]),
                    end="")
              print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
              if 'CVS' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('CVS')  # don't visit CVS directories

     In the next example, walking the tree bottom-up is essential: *note
     rmdir(): f82. doesn't allow deleting a directory before the
     directory is empty:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
          # assuming there are no symbolic links.
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
          # could delete all your disk files.
          import os
          for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk(top, topdown=False):
              for name in files:
                  os.unlink(name, dir_fd=rootfd)
              for name in dirs:
                  os.rmdir(name, dir_fd=rootfd)

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘top’、‘topdown’、‘onerror’、‘follow_symlinks’、
     ‘dir_fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.fwalk’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增對 *note bytes: 2c1. 路徑的支援。

 -- 函式: os.memfd_create (name[, flags=os.MFD_CLOEXEC])

     Create an anonymous file and return a file descriptor that refers
     to it.  'flags' must be one of the ‘os.MFD_*’ constants available
     on the system (or a bitwise ORed combination of them).  By default,
     the new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     The name supplied in 'name' is used as a filename and will be
     displayed as the target of the corresponding symbolic link in the
     directory ‘/proc/self/fd/’.  The displayed name is always prefixed
     with ‘memfd:’ and serves only for debugging purposes.  Names do not
     affect the behavior of the file descriptor, and as such multiple
     files can have the same name without any side effects.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.MFD_CLOEXEC
 -- 資料: os.MFD_ALLOW_SEALING
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGETLB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_SHIFT
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_MASK
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_64KB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_512KB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_1MB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_2MB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_8MB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_16MB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_32MB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_256MB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_512MB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_1GB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_2GB
 -- 資料: os.MFD_HUGE_16GB

     這些旗標可以傳給 *note memfd_create(): 852.。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27

     ‘MFD_HUGE*’ 旗標僅在 Linux 4.14 以上可用。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.eventfd (initval[, flags=os.EFD_CLOEXEC])

     Create and return an event file descriptor.  The file descriptors
     supports raw *note read(): c0c. and *note write(): c12. with a
     buffer size of 8, *note select(): c17, *note poll(): 292d. and
     similar.  See man page ‘eventfd(2)(9)’ for more information.  By
     default, the new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     'initval' is the initial value of the event counter.  The initial
     value must be a 32 bit unsigned integer.  Please note that the
     initial value is limited to a 32 bit unsigned int although the
     event counter is an unsigned 64 bit integer with a maximum value of
     2^64-2.

     'flags' can be constructed from *note EFD_CLOEXEC: 159b, *note
     EFD_NONBLOCK: 159c, and *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 159d.

     If *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 159d. is specified and the event counter is
     non-zero, *note eventfd_read(): 292e. returns 1 and decrements the
     counter by one.

     If *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 159d. is not specified and the event
     counter is non-zero, *note eventfd_read(): 292e. returns the
     current event counter value and resets the counter to zero.

     If the event counter is zero and *note EFD_NONBLOCK: 159c. is not
     specified, *note eventfd_read(): 292e. blocks.

     *note eventfd_write(): 292f. increments the event counter.  Write
     blocks if the write operation would increment the counter to a
     value larger than 2^64-2.

     範例：

          import os

          # semaphore with start value '1'
          fd = os.eventfd(1, os.EFD_SEMAPHORE | os.EFC_CLOEXEC)
          try:
              # acquire semaphore
              v = os.eventfd_read(fd)
              try:
                  do_work()
              finally:
                  # release semaphore
                  os.eventfd_write(fd, v)
          finally:
              os.close(fd)

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.eventfd_read (fd)

     Read value from an *note eventfd(): 63c. file descriptor and return
     a 64 bit unsigned int.  The function does not verify that 'fd' is
     an *note eventfd(): 63c.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.eventfd_write (fd, value)

     Add value to an *note eventfd(): 63c. file descriptor.  'value'
     must be a 64 bit unsigned int.  The function does not verify that
     'fd' is an *note eventfd(): 63c.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.EFD_CLOEXEC

     Set close-on-exec flag for new *note eventfd(): 63c. file
     descriptor.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.EFD_NONBLOCK

     設定新的 *note eventfd(): 63c. 檔案描述器的 *note O_NONBLOCK: cb5.
     狀態旗標。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.EFD_SEMAPHORE

     Provide semaphore-like semantics for reads from an *note eventfd():
     63c. file descriptor.  On read the internal counter is decremented
     by one.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.30

     在 3.10 版被加入.

* Menu:

* Linux extended attributes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/access(2)

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21082

   (4) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/opendir.html

   (5) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/readdir_r.html

   (6) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364418(v=vs.85).aspx

   (7) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364428(v=vs.85).aspx

   (8) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa363788

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/eventfd(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Linux extended attributes,  Up: Files and Directories

5.16.1.9 Linux extended attributes
..................................

在 3.3 版被加入.

These functions are all available on Linux only.

 -- 函式: os.getxattr (path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return the value of the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute'
     for 'path'.  'attribute' can be bytes or str (directly or
     indirectly through the *note PathLike: ab7. interface).  If it is
     str, it is encoded with the filesystem encoding.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7.
     and *note not following symlinks: f79.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘attribute’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.getxattr’。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. for 'path'
     and 'attribute'.

 -- 函式: os.listxattr (path=None, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return a list of the extended filesystem attributes on 'path'.  The
     attributes in the list are represented as strings decoded with the
     filesystem encoding.  If 'path' is ‘None’, *note listxattr(): f93.
     will examine the current directory.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7.
     and *note not following symlinks: f79.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.listxattr’。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os.removexattr (path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Removes the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute' from 'path'.
     'attribute' should be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through
     the *note PathLike: ab7. interface).  If it is a string, it is
     encoded with the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7.
     and *note not following symlinks: f79.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘attribute’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.removexattr’。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. for 'path'
     and 'attribute'.

 -- 函式: os.setxattr (path, attribute, value, flags=0, *,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Set the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute' on 'path' to
     'value'.  'attribute' must be a bytes or str with no embedded NULs
     (directly or indirectly through the *note PathLike: ab7.
     interface).  If it is a str, it is encoded with the *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.  'flags' may be *note
     XATTR_REPLACE: 2931. or *note XATTR_CREATE: 2932.  If *note
     XATTR_REPLACE: 2931. is given and the attribute does not exist,
     ‘ENODATA’ will be raised.  If *note XATTR_CREATE: 2932. is given
     and the attribute already exists, the attribute will not be created
     and ‘EEXISTS’ will be raised.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9b7.
     and *note not following symlinks: f79.

          備註: A bug in Linux kernel versions less than 2.6.39 caused
          the flags argument to be ignored on some filesystems.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘attribute’、‘value’、‘flags’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.setxattr’。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975. for 'path'
     and 'attribute'.

 -- 資料: os.XATTR_SIZE_MAX

     The maximum size the value of an extended attribute can be.
     Currently, this is 64 KiB on Linux.

 -- 資料: os.XATTR_CREATE

     This is a possible value for the flags argument in *note
     setxattr(): f95.  It indicates the operation must create an
     attribute.

 -- 資料: os.XATTR_REPLACE

     This is a possible value for the flags argument in *note
     setxattr(): f95.  It indicates the operation must replace an
     existing attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: 行程管理,  Next: Interface to the scheduler,  Prev: Files and Directories,  Up: os --- 各種作業系統介面

5.16.1.10 行程管理
..................

These functions may be used to create and manage processes.

The various *note exec*: 2936. functions take a list of arguments for
the new program loaded into the process.  In each case, the first of
these arguments is passed to the new program as its own name rather than
as an argument a user may have typed on a command line.  For the C
programmer, this is the ‘argv[0]’ passed to a program's ‘main()’.  For
example, ‘os.execv('/bin/echo', ['foo', 'bar'])’ will only print ‘bar’
on standard output; ‘foo’ will seem to be ignored.

 -- 函式: os.abort ()

     Generate a ‘SIGABRT’ signal to the current process.  On Unix, the
     default behavior is to produce a core dump; on Windows, the process
     immediately returns an exit code of ‘3’.  Be aware that calling
     this function will not call the Python signal handler registered
     for ‘SIGABRT’ with *note signal.signal(): fc4.

 -- 函式: os.add_dll_directory (path)

     Add a path to the DLL search path.

     This search path is used when resolving dependencies for imported
     extension modules (the module itself is resolved through *note
     sys.path: 35e.), and also by *note ctypes: 28.

     Remove the directory by calling 'close()' on the returned object or
     using it in a *note with: 3c5. statement.

     See the Microsoft documentation(1) for more information about how
     DLLs are loaded.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.add_dll_directory’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.8 版被加入: Previous versions of CPython would resolve DLLs
     using the default behavior for the current process.  This led to
     inconsistencies, such as only sometimes searching ‘PATH’ or the
     current working directory, and OS functions such as
     ‘AddDllDirectory’ having no effect.

     In 3.8, the two primary ways DLLs are loaded now explicitly
     override the process-wide behavior to ensure consistency.  See the
     *note porting notes: 8f0. for information on updating libraries.

 -- 函式: os.execl (path, arg0, arg1, ...)
 -- 函式: os.execle (path, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
 -- 函式: os.execlp (file, arg0, arg1, ...)
 -- 函式: os.execlpe (file, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
 -- 函式: os.execv (path, args)
 -- 函式: os.execve (path, args, env)
 -- 函式: os.execvp (file, args)
 -- 函式: os.execvpe (file, args, env)

     These functions all execute a new program, replacing the current
     process; they do not return.  On Unix, the new executable is loaded
     into the current process, and will have the same process id as the
     caller.  Errors will be reported as *note OSError: 644. exceptions.

     The current process is replaced immediately.  Open file objects and
     descriptors are not flushed, so if there may be data buffered on
     these open files, you should flush them using ‘sys.stdout.flush()’
     or *note os.fsync(): c05. before calling an *note exec*: 2936.
     function.

     The "l" and "v" variants of the *note exec*: 2936. functions differ
     in how command-line arguments are passed.  The "l" variants are
     perhaps the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is
     fixed when the code is written; the individual parameters simply
     become additional parameters to the ‘execl*()’ functions.  The "v"
     variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with
     the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the 'args'
     parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process
     should start with the name of the command being run, but this is
     not enforced.

     The variants which include a "p" near the end (*note execlp():
     2939, *note execlpe(): 293a, *note execvp(): 293b, and *note
     execvpe(): 293c.) will use the ‘PATH’ environment variable to
     locate the program 'file'.  When the environment is being replaced
     (using one of the *note exec*e: 2936. variants, discussed in the
     next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of the
     ‘PATH’ variable.  The other variants, *note execl(): 2936, *note
     execle(): 2938, *note execv(): 2897, and *note execve(): f87, will
     not use the ‘PATH’ variable to locate the executable; 'path' must
     contain an appropriate absolute or relative path.  Relative paths
     must include at least one slash, even on Windows, as plain names
     will not be resolved.

     For *note execle(): 2938, *note execlpe(): 293a, *note execve():
     f87, and *note execvpe(): 293c. (note that these all end in "e"),
     the 'env' parameter must be a mapping which is used to define the
     environment variables for the new process (these are used instead
     of the current process' environment); the functions *note execl():
     2936, *note execlp(): 2939, *note execv(): 2897, and *note
     execvp(): 293b. all cause the new process to inherit the
     environment of the current process.

     For *note execve(): f87. on some platforms, 'path' may also be
     specified as an open file descriptor.  This functionality may not
     be supported on your platform; you can check whether or not it is
     available using *note os.supports_fd: f8b.  If it is unavailable,
     using it will raise a *note NotImplementedError: bc0.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘args’、‘env’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.exec’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Added support for specifying 'path' as an open
     file descriptor for *note execve(): f87.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: os._exit (n)

     Exit the process with status 'n', without calling cleanup handlers,
     flushing stdio buffers, etc.

          備註: The standard way to exit is *note sys.exit(n): 11dd.
          ‘_exit()’ should normally only be used in the child process
          after a *note fork(): 233.

The following exit codes are defined and can be used with *note _exit():
202f, although they are not required.  These are typically used for
system programs written in Python, such as a mail server's external
command delivery program.

     備註: Some of these may not be available on all Unix platforms,
     since there is some variation.  These constants are defined where
     they are defined by the underlying platform.

 -- 資料: os.EX_OK

     Exit code that means no error occurred.  May be taken from the
     defined value of ‘EXIT_SUCCESS’ on some platforms.  Generally has a
     value of zero.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 資料: os.EX_USAGE

     Exit code that means the command was used incorrectly, such as when
     the wrong number of arguments are given.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_DATAERR

     Exit code that means the input data was incorrect.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_NOINPUT

     Exit code that means an input file did not exist or was not
     readable.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_NOUSER

     Exit code that means a specified user did not exist.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_NOHOST

     Exit code that means a specified host did not exist.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_UNAVAILABLE

     Exit code that means that a required service is unavailable.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_SOFTWARE

     Exit code that means an internal software error was detected.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_OSERR

     Exit code that means an operating system error was detected, such
     as the inability to fork or create a pipe.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_OSFILE

     Exit code that means some system file did not exist, could not be
     opened, or had some other kind of error.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_CANTCREAT

     Exit code that means a user specified output file could not be
     created.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_IOERR

     Exit code that means that an error occurred while doing I/O on some
     file.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_TEMPFAIL

     Exit code that means a temporary failure occurred.  This indicates
     something that may not really be an error, such as a network
     connection that couldn't be made during a retryable operation.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_PROTOCOL

     Exit code that means that a protocol exchange was illegal, invalid,
     or not understood.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_NOPERM

     Exit code that means that there were insufficient permissions to
     perform the operation (but not intended for file system problems).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_CONFIG

     Exit code that means that some kind of configuration error
     occurred.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.EX_NOTFOUND

     Exit code that means something like "an entry was not found".

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.fork ()

     Fork a child process.  Return ‘0’ in the child and the child's
     process id in the parent.  If an error occurs *note OSError: 644.
     is raised.

     Note that some platforms including FreeBSD <= 6.3 and Cygwin have
     known issues when using ‘fork()’ from a thread.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.fork’。

          警告: If you use TLS sockets in an application calling
          ‘fork()’, see the warning in the *note ssl: ca. documentation.

          警告: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed
          with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using
          *note urllib.request: 106.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Calling ‘fork()’ in a subinterpreter is no longer
     supported (*note RuntimeError: 17a. is raised).

     在 3.12 版的變更: If Python is able to detect that your process has
     multiple threads, *note os.fork(): 233. now raises a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179.

     We chose to surface this as a warning, when detectable, to better
     inform developers of a design problem that the POSIX platform
     specifically notes as not supported.  Even in code that 'appears'
     to work, it has never been safe to mix threading with *note
     os.fork(): 233. on POSIX platforms.  The CPython runtime itself has
     always made API calls that are not safe for use in the child
     process when threads existed in the parent (such as ‘malloc’ and
     ‘free’).

     Users of macOS or users of libc or malloc implementations other
     than those typically found in glibc to date are among those already
     more likely to experience deadlocks running such code.

     See this discussion on fork being incompatible with threads(2) for
     technical details of why we're surfacing this longstanding platform
     compatibility problem to developers.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: POSIX, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.forkpty ()

     Fork a child process, using a new pseudo-terminal as the child's
     controlling terminal.  Return a pair of ‘(pid, fd)’, where 'pid' is
     ‘0’ in the child, the new child's process id in the parent, and
     'fd' is the file descriptor of the master end of the
     pseudo-terminal.  For a more portable approach, use the *note pty:
     ac. module.  If an error occurs *note OSError: 644. is raised.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.forkpty’。

          警告: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed
          with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using
          *note urllib.request: 106.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Calling ‘forkpty()’ in a subinterpreter is no
     longer supported (*note RuntimeError: 17a. is raised).

     在 3.12 版的變更: If Python is able to detect that your process has
     multiple threads, this now raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.
     See the longer explanation on *note os.fork(): 233.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.kill (pid, sig, /)

     Send signal 'sig' to the process 'pid'.  Constants for the specific
     signals available on the host platform are defined in the *note
     signal: c1. module.

     Windows: The *note signal.CTRL_C_EVENT: 11f7. and *note
     signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: 11f8. signals are special signals which
     can only be sent to console processes which share a common console
     window, e.g., some subprocesses.  Any other value for 'sig' will
     cause the process to be unconditionally killed by the
     TerminateProcess API, and the exit code will be set to 'sig'.  The
     Windows version of *note kill(): 11f6. additionally takes process
     handles to be killed.

     另請參閱 *note signal.pthread_kill(): fc1.。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘pid’、‘sig’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.kill’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新支援 Windows。

 -- 函式: os.killpg (pgid, sig, /)

     Send the signal 'sig' to the process group 'pgid'.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘pgid’、‘sig’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.killpg’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.nice (increment, /)

     Add 'increment' to the process's "niceness".  Return the new
     niceness.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.pidfd_open (pid, flags=0)

     Return a file descriptor referring to the process 'pid' with
     'flags' set.  This descriptor can be used to perform process
     management without races and signals.

     更多細節請見 ‘pidfd_open(2)(3)’ 手冊頁。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 5.3

     在 3.9 版被加入.

      -- 資料: os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK

          This flag indicates that the file descriptor will be
          non-blocking.  If the process referred to by the file
          descriptor has not yet terminated, then an attempt to wait on
          the file descriptor using ‘waitid(2)(4)’ will immediately
          return the error *note EAGAIN: 2035. rather than blocking.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 5.10

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.plock (op, /)

     Lock program segments into memory.  The value of 'op' (defined in
     ‘<sys/lock.h>’) determines which segments are locked.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.popen (cmd, mode='r', buffering=-1)

     Open a pipe to or from command 'cmd'.  The return value is an open
     file object connected to the pipe, which can be read or written
     depending on whether 'mode' is ‘'r'’ (default) or ‘'w'’.  The
     'buffering' argument have the same meaning as the corresponding
     argument to the built-in *note open(): 29c. function.  The returned
     file object reads or writes text strings rather than bytes.

     The ‘close’ method returns *note None: 470. if the subprocess
     exited successfully, or the subprocess's return code if there was
     an error.  On POSIX systems, if the return code is positive it
     represents the return value of the process left-shifted by one
     byte.  If the return code is negative, the process was terminated
     by the signal given by the negated value of the return code.  (For
     example, the return value might be ‘- signal.SIGKILL’ if the
     subprocess was killed.)  On Windows systems, the return value
     contains the signed integer return code from the child process.

     On Unix, *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 75b. can be used to
     convert the ‘close’ method result (exit status) into an exit code
     if it is not ‘None’.  On Windows, the ‘close’ method result is
     directly the exit code (or ‘None’).

     This is implemented using *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1.; see that
     class's documentation for more powerful ways to manage and
     communicate with subprocesses.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

          備註: The *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451. affects encodings used
          for 'cmd' and pipe contents.

          *note popen(): 8d3. is a simple wrapper around *note
          subprocess.Popen: 8e1.  Use *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. or
          *note subprocess.run(): 9e5. to control options like
          encodings.

 -- 函式: os.posix_spawn (path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
          setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
          setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

     Wraps the ‘posix_spawn()’ C library API for use from Python.

     Most users should use *note subprocess.run(): 9e5. instead of *note
     posix_spawn(): 8a3.

     The positional-only arguments 'path', 'args', and 'env' are similar
     to *note execve(): f87.

     The 'path' parameter is the path to the executable file.  The
     'path' should contain a directory.  Use *note posix_spawnp(): 1815.
     to pass an executable file without directory.

     The 'file_actions' argument may be a sequence of tuples describing
     actions to take on specific file descriptors in the child process
     between the C library implementation's ‘fork()’ and ‘exec()’ steps.
     The first item in each tuple must be one of the three type
     indicator listed below describing the remaining tuple elements:

      -- 資料: os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN’, 'fd', 'path', 'flags', 'mode')

          Performs ‘os.dup2(os.open(path, flags, mode), fd)’.

      -- 資料: os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE’, 'fd')

          Performs ‘os.close(fd)’.

      -- 資料: os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2’, 'fd', 'new_fd')

          Performs ‘os.dup2(fd, new_fd)’.

     These tuples correspond to the C library
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addopen()’,
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose()’, and
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_adddup2()’ API calls used to prepare for
     the ‘posix_spawn()’ call itself.

     The 'setpgroup' argument will set the process group of the child to
     the value specified.  If the value specified is 0, the child's
     process group ID will be made the same as its process ID. If the
     value of 'setpgroup' is not set, the child will inherit the
     parent's process group ID. This argument corresponds to the C
     library ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETPGROUP’ flag.

     If the 'resetids' argument is ‘True’ it will reset the effective
     UID and GID of the child to the real UID and GID of the parent
     process.  If the argument is ‘False’, then the child retains the
     effective UID and GID of the parent.  In either case, if the
     set-user-ID and set-group-ID permission bits are enabled on the
     executable file, their effect will override the setting of the
     effective UID and GID. This argument corresponds to the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_RESETIDS’ flag.

     If the 'setsid' argument is ‘True’, it will create a new session ID
     for ‘posix_spawn’.  'setsid' requires ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID’ or
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID_NP’ flag.  Otherwise, *note
     NotImplementedError: bc0. is raised.

     The 'setsigmask' argument will set the signal mask to the signal
     set specified.  If the parameter is not used, then the child
     inherits the parent's signal mask.  This argument corresponds to
     the C library ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGMASK’ flag.

     The 'sigdef' argument will reset the disposition of all signals in
     the set specified.  This argument corresponds to the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGDEF’ flag.

     The 'scheduler' argument must be a tuple containing the (optional)
     scheduler policy and an instance of *note sched_param: 13ca. with
     the scheduler parameters.  A value of ‘None’ in the place of the
     scheduler policy indicates that is not being provided.  This
     argument is a combination of the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDPARAM’ and ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDULER’ flags.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘argv’、‘env’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.posix_spawn’。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.posix_spawnp (path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
          setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
          setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

     Wraps the ‘posix_spawnp()’ C library API for use from Python.

     Similar to *note posix_spawn(): 8a3. except that the system
     searches for the 'executable' file in the list of directories
     specified by the ‘PATH’ environment variable (in the same way as
     for ‘execvp(3)’).

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘argv’、‘env’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.posix_spawn’。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: POSIX, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     見 *note posix_spawn(): 8a3. 文件。

 -- 函式: os.register_at_fork (*, before=None, after_in_parent=None,
          after_in_child=None)

     Register callables to be executed when a new child process is
     forked using *note os.fork(): 233. or similar process cloning APIs.
     The parameters are optional and keyword-only.  Each specifies a
     different call point.

        * 'before' is a function called before forking a child process.

        * 'after_in_parent' is a function called from the parent process
          after forking a child process.

        * 'after_in_child' is a function called from the child process.

     These calls are only made if control is expected to return to the
     Python interpreter.  A typical *note subprocess: d0. launch will
     not trigger them as the child is not going to re-enter the
     interpreter.

     Functions registered for execution before forking are called in
     reverse registration order.  Functions registered for execution
     after forking (either in the parent or in the child) are called in
     registration order.

     Note that ‘fork()’ calls made by third-party C code may not call
     those functions, unless it explicitly calls *note
     PyOS_BeforeFork(): a20, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): a21. and
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 36c.

     There is no way to unregister a function.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.spawnl (mode, path, ...)
 -- 函式: os.spawnle (mode, path, ..., env)
 -- 函式: os.spawnlp (mode, file, ...)
 -- 函式: os.spawnlpe (mode, file, ..., env)
 -- 函式: os.spawnv (mode, path, args)
 -- 函式: os.spawnve (mode, path, args, env)
 -- 函式: os.spawnvp (mode, file, args)
 -- 函式: os.spawnvpe (mode, file, args, env)

     Execute the program 'path' in a new process.

     (Note that the *note subprocess: d0. module provides more powerful
     facilities for spawning new processes and retrieving their results;
     using that module is preferable to using these functions.  Check
     especially the *note Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess
     Module: 101c. section.)

     If 'mode' is *note P_NOWAIT: 2959, this function returns the
     process id of the new process; if 'mode' is *note P_WAIT: 295a,
     returns the process's exit code if it exits normally, or ‘-signal’,
     where 'signal' is the signal that killed the process.  On Windows,
     the process id will actually be the process handle, so can be used
     with the *note waitpid(): c11. function.

     Note on VxWorks, this function doesn't return ‘-signal’ when the
     new process is killed.  Instead it raises OSError exception.

     The "l" and "v" variants of the *note spawn*: 14f2. functions
     differ in how command-line arguments are passed.  The "l" variants
     are perhaps the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is
     fixed when the code is written; the individual parameters simply
     become additional parameters to the ‘spawnl*()’ functions.  The "v"
     variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with
     the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the 'args'
     parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process must
     start with the name of the command being run.

     The variants which include a second "p" near the end (*note
     spawnlp(): 2953, *note spawnlpe(): 2954, *note spawnvp(): 2957, and
     *note spawnvpe(): 2958.) will use the ‘PATH’ environment variable
     to locate the program 'file'.  When the environment is being
     replaced (using one of the *note spawn*e: 14f2. variants, discussed
     in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source
     of the ‘PATH’ variable.  The other variants, *note spawnl(): 14f2,
     *note spawnle(): 2952, *note spawnv(): 2955, and *note spawnve():
     2956, will not use the ‘PATH’ variable to locate the executable;
     'path' must contain an appropriate absolute or relative path.

     For *note spawnle(): 2952, *note spawnlpe(): 2954, *note spawnve():
     2956, and *note spawnvpe(): 2958. (note that these all end in "e"),
     the 'env' parameter must be a mapping which is used to define the
     environment variables for the new process (they are used instead of
     the current process' environment); the functions *note spawnl():
     14f2, *note spawnlp(): 2953, *note spawnv(): 2955, and *note
     spawnvp(): 2957. all cause the new process to inherit the
     environment of the current process.  Note that keys and values in
     the 'env' dictionary must be strings; invalid keys or values will
     cause the function to fail, with a return value of ‘127’.

     As an example, the following calls to *note spawnlp(): 2953. and
     *note spawnvpe(): 2958. are equivalent:

          import os
          os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', 'cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null')

          L = ['cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null']
          os.spawnvpe(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', L, os.environ)

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘mode’、‘path’、‘args’、‘env’ 的*note 稽核事件:
     168e. ‘os.spawn’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     *note spawnlp(): 2953, *note spawnlpe(): 2954, *note spawnvp():
     2957. and *note spawnvpe(): 2958. are not available on Windows.
     *note spawnle(): 2952. and *note spawnve(): 2956. are not
     thread-safe on Windows; we advise you to use the *note subprocess:
     d0. module instead.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 資料: os.P_NOWAIT
 -- 資料: os.P_NOWAITO

     Possible values for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 14f2.
     family of functions.  If either of these values is given, the *note
     spawn*: 14f2. functions will return as soon as the new process has
     been created, with the process id as the return value.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 資料: os.P_WAIT

     Possible value for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 14f2.
     family of functions.  If this is given as 'mode', the *note spawn*:
     14f2. functions will not return until the new process has run to
     completion and will return the exit code of the process the run is
     successful, or ‘-signal’ if a signal kills the process.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 資料: os.P_DETACH
 -- 資料: os.P_OVERLAY

     Possible values for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 14f2.
     family of functions.  These are less portable than those listed
     above.  *note P_DETACH: 295c. is similar to *note P_NOWAIT: 2959,
     but the new process is detached from the console of the calling
     process.  If *note P_OVERLAY: 295d. is used, the current process
     will be replaced; the *note spawn*: 14f2. function will not return.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

 -- 函式: os.startfile (path[, operation][, arguments][, cwd][,
          show_cmd])

     Start a file with its associated application.

     When 'operation' is not specified, this acts like double-clicking
     the file in Windows Explorer, or giving the file name as an
     argument to the ‘start’ command from the interactive command shell:
     the file is opened with whatever application (if any) its extension
     is associated.

     When another 'operation' is given, it must be a "command verb" that
     specifies what should be done with the file.  Common verbs
     documented by Microsoft are ‘'open'’, ‘'print'’ and ‘'edit'’ (to be
     used on files) as well as ‘'explore'’ and ‘'find'’ (to be used on
     directories).

     When launching an application, specify 'arguments' to be passed as
     a single string.  This argument may have no effect when using this
     function to launch a document.

     The default working directory is inherited, but may be overridden
     by the 'cwd' argument.  This should be an absolute path.  A
     relative 'path' will be resolved against this argument.

     Use 'show_cmd' to override the default window style.  Whether this
     has any effect will depend on the application being launched.
     Values are integers as supported by the Win32 ‘ShellExecute()’
     function.

     *note startfile(): 16a1. returns as soon as the associated
     application is launched.  There is no option to wait for the
     application to close, and no way to retrieve the application's exit
     status.  The 'path' parameter is relative to the current directory
     or 'cwd'.  If you want to use an absolute path, make sure the first
     character is not a slash (‘'/'’) Use *note pathlib: 9f. or the
     *note os.path.normpath(): 11ad. function to ensure that paths are
     properly encoded for Win32.

     To reduce interpreter startup overhead, the Win32 ‘ShellExecute()’
     function is not resolved until this function is first called.  If
     the function cannot be resolved, *note NotImplementedError: bc0.
     will be raised.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘operation’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘os.startfile’。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘path’、‘operation’、‘arguments’、‘cwd’、
     ‘show_cmd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.startfile/2’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Added the 'arguments', 'cwd' and 'show_cmd'
     arguments, and the ‘os.startfile/2’ audit event.

 -- 函式: os.system (command)

     Execute the command (a string) in a subshell.  This is implemented
     by calling the Standard C function ‘system()’, and has the same
     limitations.  Changes to *note sys.stdin: 2bf, etc.  are not
     reflected in the environment of the executed command.  If 'command'
     generates any output, it will be sent to the interpreter standard
     output stream.  The C standard does not specify the meaning of the
     return value of the C function, so the return value of the Python
     function is system-dependent.

     On Unix, the return value is the exit status of the process encoded
     in the format specified for *note wait(): c0f.

     On Windows, the return value is that returned by the system shell
     after running 'command'.  The shell is given by the Windows
     environment variable ‘COMSPEC’: it is usually ‘cmd.exe’, which
     returns the exit status of the command run; on systems using a
     non-native shell, consult your shell documentation.

     The *note subprocess: d0. module provides more powerful facilities
     for spawning new processes and retrieving their results; using that
     module is preferable to using this function.  See the *note
     Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module: 101c. section
     in the *note subprocess: d0. documentation for some helpful
     recipes.

     On Unix, *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 75b. can be used to
     convert the result (exit status) into an exit code.  On Windows,
     the result is directly the exit code.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘command’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘os.system’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.times ()

     Returns the current global process times.  The return value is an
     object with five attributes:

        * ‘user’ - 使用者時間

        * ‘system’ - 系統時間

        * ‘children_user’ - 所有子行程的使用者時間

        * ‘children_system’ - 所有子行程的系統時間

        * ‘elapsed’ - elapsed real time since a fixed point in the past

     For backwards compatibility, this object also behaves like a
     five-tuple containing ‘user’, ‘system’, ‘children_user’,
     ‘children_system’, and ‘elapsed’ in that order.

     See the Unix manual page ‘times(2)(5)’ and times(3)(6) manual page
     on Unix or the GetProcessTimes MSDN(7) on Windows.  On Windows,
     only ‘user’ and ‘system’ are known; the other attributes are zero.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like
     object with named attributes.

 -- 函式: os.wait ()

     Wait for completion of a child process, and return a tuple
     containing its pid and exit status indication: a 16-bit number,
     whose low byte is the signal number that killed the process, and
     whose high byte is the exit status (if the signal number is zero);
     the high bit of the low byte is set if a core file was produced.

     If there are no children that could be waited for, *note
     ChildProcessError: eee. is raised.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 75b. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exit code.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     也參考
     ......

     The other ‘wait*()’ functions documented below can be used to wait
     for the completion of a specific child process and have more
     options.  *note waitpid(): c11. is the only one also available on
     Windows.

 -- 函式: os.waitid (idtype, id, options, /)

     Wait for the completion of a child process.

     'idtype' can be *note P_PID: 295e, *note P_PGID: 295f, *note P_ALL:
     2960, or (on Linux) *note P_PIDFD: 758.  The interpretation of 'id'
     depends on it; see their individual descriptions.

     'options' is an OR combination of flags.  At least one of *note
     WEXITED: 2961, *note WSTOPPED: 2962. or *note WCONTINUED: 2963. is
     required; *note WNOHANG: 2964. and *note WNOWAIT: 2965. are
     additional optional flags.

     The return value is an object representing the data contained in
     the ‘siginfo_t’ structure with the following attributes:

        * ‘si_pid’ (process ID)

        * ‘si_uid’ (real user ID of the child)

        * ‘si_signo’ (always *note SIGCHLD: 2966.)

        * ‘si_status’ (the exit status or signal number, depending on
          ‘si_code’)

        * ‘si_code’ (see *note CLD_EXITED: 2967. for possible values)

     If *note WNOHANG: 2964. is specified and there are no matching
     children in the requested state, ‘None’ is returned.  Otherwise, if
     there are no matching children that could be waited for, *note
     ChildProcessError: eee. is raised.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

          備註: This function is not available on macOS.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.waitpid (pid, options, /)

     The details of this function differ on Unix and Windows.

     On Unix: Wait for completion of a child process given by process id
     'pid', and return a tuple containing its process id and exit status
     indication (encoded as for *note wait(): c0f.).  The semantics of
     the call are affected by the value of the integer 'options', which
     should be ‘0’ for normal operation.

     If 'pid' is greater than ‘0’, *note waitpid(): c11. requests status
     information for that specific process.  If 'pid' is ‘0’, the
     request is for the status of any child in the process group of the
     current process.  If 'pid' is ‘-1’, the request pertains to any
     child of the current process.  If 'pid' is less than ‘-1’, status
     is requested for any process in the process group ‘-pid’ (the
     absolute value of 'pid').

     'options' is an OR combination of flags.  If it contains *note
     WNOHANG: 2964. and there are no matching children in the requested
     state, ‘(0, 0)’ is returned.  Otherwise, if there are no matching
     children that could be waited for, *note ChildProcessError: eee. is
     raised.  Other options that can be used are *note WUNTRACED: 2968.
     and *note WCONTINUED: 2963.

     On Windows: Wait for completion of a process given by process
     handle 'pid', and return a tuple containing 'pid', and its exit
     status shifted left by 8 bits (shifting makes cross-platform use of
     the function easier).  A 'pid' less than or equal to ‘0’ has no
     special meaning on Windows, and raises an exception.  The value of
     integer 'options' has no effect.  'pid' can refer to any process
     whose id is known, not necessarily a child process.  The *note
     spawn*: 14f2. functions called with *note P_NOWAIT: 2959. return
     suitable process handles.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 75b. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exit code.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the function now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(8) for the rationale).

 -- 函式: os.wait3 (options)

     Similar to *note waitpid(): c11, except no process id argument is
     given and a 3-element tuple containing the child's process id, exit
     status indication, and resource usage information is returned.
     Refer to *note resource.getrusage(): 12a3. for details on resource
     usage information.  The 'options' argument is the same as that
     provided to *note waitpid(): c11. and *note wait4(): c0e.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 75b. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exitcode.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.wait4 (pid, options)

     Similar to *note waitpid(): c11, except a 3-element tuple,
     containing the child's process id, exit status indication, and
     resource usage information is returned.  Refer to *note
     resource.getrusage(): 12a3. for details on resource usage
     information.  The arguments to *note wait4(): c0e. are the same as
     those provided to *note waitpid(): c11.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 75b. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exitcode.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.P_PID
 -- 資料: os.P_PGID
 -- 資料: os.P_ALL
 -- 資料: os.P_PIDFD

     These are the possible values for 'idtype' in *note waitid(): c10.
     They affect how 'id' is interpreted:

        * ‘P_PID’ - wait for the child whose PID is 'id'.

        * ‘P_PGID’ - wait for any child whose progress group ID is 'id'.

        * ‘P_ALL’ - wait for any child; 'id' is ignored.

        * ‘P_PIDFD’ - wait for the child identified by the file
          descriptor 'id' (a process file descriptor created with *note
          pidfd_open(): 195.).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

          備註: ‘P_PIDFD’ is only available on Linux >= 5.4.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版被加入: The ‘P_PIDFD’ constant.

 -- 資料: os.WCONTINUED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitpid(): c11, *note wait3(): c0d,
     *note wait4(): c0e, and *note waitid(): c10. causes child processes
     to be reported if they have been continued from a job control stop
     since they were last reported.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.WEXITED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitid(): c10. causes child processes
     that have terminated to be reported.

     The other ‘wait*’ functions always report children that have
     terminated, so this option is not available for them.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.WSTOPPED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitid(): c10. causes child processes
     that have been stopped by the delivery of a signal to be reported.

     This option is not available for the other ‘wait*’ functions.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.WUNTRACED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitpid(): c11, *note wait3(): c0d,
     and *note wait4(): c0e. causes child processes to also be reported
     if they have been stopped but their current state has not been
     reported since they were stopped.

     This option is not available for *note waitid(): c10.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.WNOHANG

     This 'options' flag causes *note waitpid(): c11, *note wait3():
     c0d, *note wait4(): c0e, and *note waitid(): c10. to return right
     away if no child process status is available immediately.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.WNOWAIT

     This 'options' flag causes *note waitid(): c10. to leave the child
     in a waitable state, so that a later ‘wait*()’ call can be used to
     retrieve the child status information again.

     This option is not available for the other ‘wait*’ functions.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 資料: os.CLD_EXITED
 -- 資料: os.CLD_KILLED
 -- 資料: os.CLD_DUMPED
 -- 資料: os.CLD_TRAPPED
 -- 資料: os.CLD_STOPPED
 -- 資料: os.CLD_CONTINUED

     These are the possible values for ‘si_code’ in the result returned
     by *note waitid(): c10.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Added *note CLD_KILLED: 756. and *note
     CLD_STOPPED: 757. values.

 -- 函式: os.waitstatus_to_exitcode (status)

     Convert a wait status to an exit code.

     On Unix:

        * If the process exited normally (if ‘WIFEXITED(status)’ is
          true), return the process exit status (return
          ‘WEXITSTATUS(status)’): result greater than or equal to 0.

        * If the process was terminated by a signal (if
          ‘WIFSIGNALED(status)’ is true), return ‘-signum’ where
          'signum' is the number of the signal that caused the process
          to terminate (return ‘-WTERMSIG(status)’): result less than 0.

        * Otherwise, raise a *note ValueError: 183.

     On Windows, return 'status' shifted right by 8 bits.

     On Unix, if the process is being traced or if *note waitpid(): c11.
     was called with *note WUNTRACED: 2968. option, the caller must
     first check if ‘WIFSTOPPED(status)’ is true.  This function must
     not be called if ‘WIFSTOPPED(status)’ is true.

     也參考
     ......

     *note WIFEXITED(): 296c, *note WEXITSTATUS(): 296d, *note
     WIFSIGNALED(): 296e, *note WTERMSIG(): 296f, *note WIFSTOPPED():
     2970, *note WSTOPSIG(): 2971. functions.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

The following functions take a process status code as returned by *note
system(): 12cd, *note wait(): c0f, or *note waitpid(): c11. as a
parameter.  They may be used to determine the disposition of a process.

 -- 函式: os.WCOREDUMP (status, /)

     Return ‘True’ if a core dump was generated for the process,
     otherwise return ‘False’.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSIGNALED(): 296e.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.WIFCONTINUED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if a stopped child has been resumed by delivery of
     *note SIGCONT: 2974. (if the process has been continued from a job
     control stop), otherwise return ‘False’.

     參閱 *note WCONTINUED: 2963. 選項。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.WIFSTOPPED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process was stopped by delivery of a signal,
     otherwise return ‘False’.

     *note WIFSTOPPED(): 2970. only returns ‘True’ if the *note
     waitpid(): c11. call was done using *note WUNTRACED: 2968. option
     or when the process is being traced (see ‘ptrace(2)(9)’).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.WIFSIGNALED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process was terminated by a signal, otherwise
     return ‘False’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.WIFEXITED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process exited terminated normally, that is,
     by calling ‘exit()’ or ‘_exit()’, or by returning from ‘main()’;
     otherwise return ‘False’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.WEXITSTATUS (status)

     Return the process exit status.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFEXITED(): 296c.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.WSTOPSIG (status)

     Return the signal which caused the process to stop.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSTOPPED(): 2970.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- 函式: os.WTERMSIG (status)

     Return the number of the signal that caused the process to
     terminate.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSIGNALED(): 296e.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/44228cf2-6306-466c-8f16-f513cd3ba8b5

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/t/33555

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_open(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/waitid(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/times(2)

   (6) https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?time(3)

   (7) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/windows/win32/api/processthreadsapi/nf-processthreadsapi-getprocesstimes

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/ptrace(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Interface to the scheduler,  Next: Miscellaneous System Information,  Prev: 行程管理,  Up: os --- 各種作業系統介面

5.16.1.11 Interface to the scheduler
....................................

These functions control how a process is allocated CPU time by the
operating system.  They are only available on some Unix platforms.  For
more detailed information, consult your Unix manpages.

在 3.3 版被加入.

The following scheduling policies are exposed if they are supported by
the operating system.

 -- 資料: os.SCHED_OTHER

     The default scheduling policy.

 -- 資料: os.SCHED_BATCH

     Scheduling policy for CPU-intensive processes that tries to
     preserve interactivity on the rest of the computer.

 -- 資料: os.SCHED_IDLE

     Scheduling policy for extremely low priority background tasks.

 -- 資料: os.SCHED_SPORADIC

     Scheduling policy for sporadic server programs.

 -- 資料: os.SCHED_FIFO

     A First In First Out scheduling policy.

 -- 資料: os.SCHED_RR

     A round-robin scheduling policy.

 -- 資料: os.SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK

     This flag can be OR'ed with any other scheduling policy.  When a
     process with this flag set forks, its child's scheduling policy and
     priority are reset to the default.

 -- 類別: os.sched_param (sched_priority)

     This class represents tunable scheduling parameters used in *note
     sched_setparam(): f9d, *note sched_setscheduler(): f9e, and *note
     sched_getparam(): f99.  It is immutable.

     At the moment, there is only one possible parameter:

      -- 屬性: sched_priority

          The scheduling priority for a scheduling policy.

 -- 函式: os.sched_get_priority_min (policy)

     Get the minimum priority value for 'policy'.  'policy' is one of
     the scheduling policy constants above.

 -- 函式: os.sched_get_priority_max (policy)

     Get the maximum priority value for 'policy'.  'policy' is one of
     the scheduling policy constants above.

 -- 函式: os.sched_setscheduler (pid, policy, param, /)

     Set the scheduling policy for the process with PID 'pid'.  A 'pid'
     of 0 means the calling process.  'policy' is one of the scheduling
     policy constants above.  'param' is a *note sched_param: 13ca.
     instance.

 -- 函式: os.sched_getscheduler (pid, /)

     Return the scheduling policy for the process with PID 'pid'.  A
     'pid' of 0 means the calling process.  The result is one of the
     scheduling policy constants above.

 -- 函式: os.sched_setparam (pid, param, /)

     Set the scheduling parameters for the process with PID 'pid'.  A
     'pid' of 0 means the calling process.  'param' is a *note
     sched_param: 13ca. instance.

 -- 函式: os.sched_getparam (pid, /)

     Return the scheduling parameters as a *note sched_param: 13ca.
     instance for the process with PID 'pid'.  A 'pid' of 0 means the
     calling process.

 -- 函式: os.sched_rr_get_interval (pid, /)

     Return the round-robin quantum in seconds for the process with PID
     'pid'.  A 'pid' of 0 means the calling process.

 -- 函式: os.sched_yield ()

     Voluntarily relinquish the CPU.

 -- 函式: os.sched_setaffinity (pid, mask, /)

     Restrict the process with PID 'pid' (or the current process if
     zero) to a set of CPUs.  'mask' is an iterable of integers
     representing the set of CPUs to which the process should be
     restricted.

 -- 函式: os.sched_getaffinity (pid, /)

     Return the set of CPUs the process with PID 'pid' is restricted to.

     If 'pid' is zero, return the set of CPUs the calling thread of the
     current process is restricted to.


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous System Information,  Next: Random numbers,  Prev: Interface to the scheduler,  Up: os --- 各種作業系統介面

5.16.1.12 Miscellaneous System Information
..........................................

 -- 函式: os.confstr (name, /)

     Return string-valued system configuration values.  'name' specifies
     the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is
     the name of a defined system value; these names are specified in a
     number of standards (POSIX, Unix 95, Unix 98, and others).  Some
     platforms define additional names as well.  The names known to the
     host operating system are given as the keys of the ‘confstr_names’
     dictionary.  For configuration variables not included in that
     mapping, passing an integer for 'name' is also accepted.

     If the configuration value specified by 'name' isn't defined,
     ‘None’ is returned.

     If 'name' is a string and is not known, *note ValueError: 183. is
     raised.  If a specific value for 'name' is not supported by the
     host system, even if it is included in ‘confstr_names’, an *note
     OSError: 644. is raised with *note errno.EINVAL: 17d3. for the
     error number.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: os.confstr_names

     Dictionary mapping names accepted by *note confstr(): 2980. to the
     integer values defined for those names by the host operating
     system.  This can be used to determine the set of names known to
     the system.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: os.cpu_count ()

     Return the number of logical CPUs in the system.  Returns ‘None’ if
     undetermined.

     This number is not equivalent to the number of logical CPUs the
     current process can use.  ‘len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))’ gets the
     number of logical CPUs the calling thread of the current process is
     restricted to

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.getloadavg ()

     Return the number of processes in the system run queue averaged
     over the last 1, 5, and 15 minutes or raises *note OSError: 644. if
     the load average was unobtainable.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: os.sysconf (name, /)

     Return integer-valued system configuration values.  If the
     configuration value specified by 'name' isn't defined, ‘-1’ is
     returned.  The comments regarding the 'name' parameter for *note
     confstr(): 2980. apply here as well; the dictionary that provides
     information on the known names is given by ‘sysconf_names’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: os.sysconf_names

     Dictionary mapping names accepted by *note sysconf(): 28e2. to the
     integer values defined for those names by the host operating
     system.  This can be used to determine the set of names known to
     the system.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Add ‘'SC_MINSIGSTKSZ'’ name.

The following data values are used to support path manipulation
operations.  These are defined for all platforms.

Higher-level operations on pathnames are defined in the *note os.path:
9d. module.

 -- 資料: os.curdir

     The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the
     current directory.  This is ‘'.'’ for Windows and POSIX. Also
     available via *note os.path: 9d.

 -- 資料: os.pardir

     The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the
     parent directory.  This is ‘'..'’ for Windows and POSIX. Also
     available via *note os.path: 9d.

 -- 資料: os.sep

     The character used by the operating system to separate pathname
     components.  This is ‘'/'’ for POSIX and ‘'\\'’ for Windows.  Note
     that knowing this is not sufficient to be able to parse or
     concatenate pathnames -- use *note os.path.split(): 2552. and *note
     os.path.join(): 14ed. -- but it is occasionally useful.  Also
     available via *note os.path: 9d.

 -- 資料: os.altsep

     An alternative character used by the operating system to separate
     pathname components, or ‘None’ if only one separator character
     exists.  This is set to ‘'/'’ on Windows systems where ‘sep’ is a
     backslash.  Also available via *note os.path: 9d.

 -- 資料: os.extsep

     The character which separates the base filename from the extension;
     for example, the ‘'.'’ in ‘os.py’.  Also available via *note
     os.path: 9d.

 -- 資料: os.pathsep

     The character conventionally used by the operating system to
     separate search path components (as in ‘PATH’), such as ‘':'’ for
     POSIX or ‘';'’ for Windows.  Also available via *note os.path: 9d.

 -- 資料: os.defpath

     The default search path used by *note exec*p*: 2936. and *note
     spawn*p*: 14f2. if the environment doesn't have a ‘'PATH'’ key.
     Also available via *note os.path: 9d.

 -- 資料: os.linesep

     The string used to separate (or, rather, terminate) lines on the
     current platform.  This may be a single character, such as ‘'\n'’
     for POSIX, or multiple characters, for example, ‘'\r\n'’ for
     Windows.  Do not use 'os.linesep' as a line terminator when writing
     files opened in text mode (the default); use a single ‘'\n'’
     instead, on all platforms.

 -- 資料: os.devnull

     The file path of the null device.  For example: ‘'/dev/null'’ for
     POSIX, ‘'nul'’ for Windows.  Also available via *note os.path: 9d.

 -- 資料: os.RTLD_LAZY
 -- 資料: os.RTLD_NOW
 -- 資料: os.RTLD_GLOBAL
 -- 資料: os.RTLD_LOCAL
 -- 資料: os.RTLD_NODELETE
 -- 資料: os.RTLD_NOLOAD
 -- 資料: os.RTLD_DEEPBIND

     Flags for use with the *note setdlopenflags(): fad. and *note
     getdlopenflags(): 1387. functions.  See the Unix manual page
     ‘dlopen(3)(1)’ for what the different flags mean.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Random numbers,  Prev: Miscellaneous System Information,  Up: os --- 各種作業系統介面

5.16.1.13 Random numbers
........................

 -- 函式: os.getrandom (size, flags=0)

     Get up to 'size' random bytes.  The function can return less bytes
     than requested.

     These bytes can be used to seed user-space random number generators
     or for cryptographic purposes.

     ‘getrandom()’ relies on entropy gathered from device drivers and
     other sources of environmental noise.  Unnecessarily reading large
     quantities of data will have a negative impact on other users of
     the ‘/dev/random’ and ‘/dev/urandom’ devices.

     The flags argument is a bit mask that can contain zero or more of
     the following values ORed together: *note os.GRND_RANDOM: 2985. and
     *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 2986.

     See also the Linux getrandom() manual page(1).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 3.17.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 函式: os.urandom (size, /)

     Return a bytestring of 'size' random bytes suitable for
     cryptographic use.

     This function returns random bytes from an OS-specific randomness
     source.  The returned data should be unpredictable enough for
     cryptographic applications, though its exact quality depends on the
     OS implementation.

     On Linux, if the ‘getrandom()’ syscall is available, it is used in
     blocking mode: block until the system urandom entropy pool is
     initialized (128 bits of entropy are collected by the kernel).  See
     the PEP 524(2) for the rationale.  On Linux, the *note getrandom():
     b2a. function can be used to get random bytes in non-blocking mode
     (using the *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 2986. flag) or to poll until the
     system urandom entropy pool is initialized.

     On a Unix-like system, random bytes are read from the
     ‘/dev/urandom’ device.  If the ‘/dev/urandom’ device is not
     available or not readable, the *note NotImplementedError: bc0.
     exception is raised.

     On Windows, it will use ‘BCryptGenRandom()’.

     也參考
     ......

     The *note secrets: bb. module provides higher level functions.  For
     an easy-to-use interface to the random number generator provided by
     your platform, please see *note random.SystemRandom: 2469.

     在 3.5 版的變更: On Linux 3.17 and newer, the ‘getrandom()’ syscall
     is now used when available.  On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, the C
     ‘getentropy()’ function is now used.  These functions avoid the
     usage of an internal file descriptor.

     在 3.5.2 版的變更: On Linux, if the ‘getrandom()’ syscall blocks
     (the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet), fall back on
     reading ‘/dev/urandom’.

     在 3.6 版的變更: On Linux, ‘getrandom()’ is now used in blocking
     mode to increase the security.

     在 3.11 版的變更: On Windows, ‘BCryptGenRandom()’ is used instead
     of ‘CryptGenRandom()’ which is deprecated.

 -- 資料: os.GRND_NONBLOCK

     By default, when reading from ‘/dev/random’, *note getrandom():
     b2a. blocks if no random bytes are available, and when reading from
     ‘/dev/urandom’, it blocks if the entropy pool has not yet been
     initialized.

     If the *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 2986. flag is set, then *note
     getrandom(): b2a. does not block in these cases, but instead
     immediately raises *note BlockingIOError: eed.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: os.GRND_RANDOM

     If this bit is set, then random bytes are drawn from the
     ‘/dev/random’ pool instead of the ‘/dev/urandom’ pool.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/getrandom.2.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: io — 處理資料串流的核心工具,  Next: time --- 時間存取與轉換,  Prev: os --- 各種作業系統介面,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.2 ‘io’ — 處理資料串流的核心工具
------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/io.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 總覽::
* 文字編碼::
* 高階模組介面::
* 類別階層::
* Performance: Performance<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/io.py


File: python.info,  Node: 總覽,  Next: 文字編碼,  Up: io — 處理資料串流的核心工具

5.16.2.1 總覽
.............

*note io: 79. 模組替 Python 提供處理各種類型 IO 的主要工具。有三種主要的
IO 類型： '文字 I/O (text I/O)'、'二進位 I/O (binary I/O)' 以及'原始 I/O
(raw I/O)'。這些均為泛用 (generic) 類型，且每種類型都可以使用各式後端儲
存 (backing store)。任一種屬於這些類型的具體物件稱為 *note file object:
1054.。其它常見的名詞還有'資料串流 (stream)' 以及'類檔案物件 (file-like
objects)'。

無論其類型為何，每個具體的資料串流物件也將具有各種能力：唯讀的、只接受寫
入的、或者讀寫兼具的。它還允許任意的隨機存取（向前或向後尋找至任意位置）
，或者只能依順序存取（例如 socket 或 pipe 的情形下）。

所有的資料串流都會謹慎處理你所提供的資料的型別。舉例來說，提供一個 *note
str: 157. 物件給二進位資料串流的 ‘write()’ 方法將會引發 *note TypeError:
2ba.。同樣地，若提供一個 *note bytes: 2c1. 物件給文字資料串流的
‘write()’ 方法，也會引發同樣的錯誤。

在 3.3 版的變更: 原本會引發 *note IOError: ee8. 的操作，現在將改成引發
*note OSError: 644.。因為 *note IOError: ee8. 現在是 *note OSError: 644.
的別名。

* Menu:

* 文字 I/O::
* 二進位 (Binary) I/O: 二進位 Binary I/O.
* 原始 (Raw) I/O: 原始 Raw I/O.


File: python.info,  Node: 文字 I/O,  Next: 二進位 Binary I/O,  Up: 總覽

5.16.2.2 文字 I/O
.................

文字 I/O 要求和產出 *note str: 157. 物件。這意味著每當後端儲存為原生
bytes 時（例如在檔案的情形下），資料的編碼與解碼會以清楚易懂的方式進行，
也可選擇同時轉換特定於平台的換行字元。

建立文字資料串流最簡單的方法是使用 *note open(): 29c.，可選擇性地指定編
碼：

     f = open("myfile.txt", "r", encoding="utf-8")

記憶體內的文字資料串流也可以使用 *note StringIO: db1. 物件建立：

     f = io.StringIO("some initial text data")

文字資料串流 API 的詳細說明在 *note TextIOBase: 492. 文件當中。


File: python.info,  Node: 二進位 Binary I/O,  Next: 原始 Raw I/O,  Prev: 文字 I/O,  Up: 總覽

5.16.2.3 二進位 (Binary) I/O
............................

二進位 I/O（也稱為'緩衝 I/O (buffered I/O)'）要求的是*note 類位元組物件
(bytes-like objects): b9f. 且產生 *note bytes: 2c1. 物件。不進行編碼、解
碼或者換行字元轉換。這種類型的資料串流可用於各種非文字資料，以及需要手動
控制對文字資料的處理時。

建立二進位資料串流最簡單的方法是使用 *note open(): 29c.，並在 mode 字串
中加入 ‘'b'’：

     f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb")

記憶體內的二進位資料串流也可以透過 *note BytesIO: d24. 物件來建立：

     f = io.BytesIO(b"some initial binary data: \x00\x01")

二進位資料串流 API 的詳細說明在 *note BufferedIOBase: 491. 文件當中。

其它函式庫模組可能提供額外的方法來建立文字或二進位資料串流。例如 *note
socket.socket.makefile(): 1031.。


File: python.info,  Node: 原始 Raw I/O,  Prev: 二進位 Binary I/O,  Up: 總覽

5.16.2.4 原始 (Raw) I/O
.......................

原始 I/O（也稱為'無緩衝 I/O (unbuffered I/O)'）通常作為二進位以及文字資
料串流的低階 building-block 使用；在使用者程式碼中直接操作原始資料串流很
少有用。然而，你可以透過以無緩衝的二進位模式開啟一個檔案來建立一個原始資
料串流：

     f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb", buffering=0)

原始串流 API 在 *note RawIOBase: f5f. 文件中有詳細描述。


File: python.info,  Node: 文字編碼,  Next: 高階模組介面,  Prev: 總覽,  Up: io — 處理資料串流的核心工具

5.16.2.5 文字編碼
.................

*note TextIOWrapper: 5d9. 和 *note open(): 29c. 預設編碼是根據區域設定的
(locale-specific) (*note locale.getencoding(): 258.)。

然而，許多開發人員在開啟以 UTF-8 編碼的文字檔案（例如：JSON、TOML、
Markdown等）時忘記指定編碼，因為多數 Unix 平台預設使用 UTF-8 區域設定。
這會導致錯誤，因為對於大多數 Windows 使用者來說，預設地區編碼並非 UTF-8。
舉例來說：

     # May not work on Windows when non-ASCII characters in the file.
     with open("README.md") as f:
         long_description = f.read()

因此，強烈建議在開啟文字檔案時，明確指定編碼。若你想使用 UTF-8 編碼，請
傳入 ‘encoding="utf-8"’。若想使用目前的地區編碼，Python 3.10 以後的版本
支援使用 ‘encoding="locale"’。

也參考
......

*note Python UTF-8 模式: 451.

     在 Python UTF-8 模式下，可以將預設編碼從特定地區編碼改為 UTF-8。

PEP 686(1)

     Python 3.15 將預設使用 *note Python UTF-8 模式: 451.。

* Menu:

* 選擇性加入的編碼警告::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/


File: python.info,  Node: 選擇性加入的編碼警告,  Up: 文字編碼

5.16.2.6 選擇性加入的編碼警告
.............................

在 3.10 版被加入: 更多資訊請見 PEP 597(1)。

要找出哪些地方使用到預設的地區編碼，你可以啟用 *note -X
warn_default_encoding: 188. 命令列選項，或者設定環境變數 *note
PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 5da.。當使用到預設編碼時，會引發 *note
EncodingWarning: 1b32.。

如果你正在提供一個使用 *note open(): 29c. 或 *note TextIOWrapper: 5d9. 且
傳遞 ‘encoding=None’ 作為參數的 API，你可以使用 *note text_encoding():
1467.。如此一來如果 API 的呼叫方沒有傳遞 ‘encoding’，呼叫方就會發出一個
*note EncodingWarning: 1b32.。然而，對於新的 API，請考慮預設使用 UTF-8（
即 ‘encoding="utf-8"’）。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/


File: python.info,  Node: 高階模組介面,  Next: 類別階層,  Prev: 文字編碼,  Up: io — 處理資料串流的核心工具

5.16.2.7 高階模組介面
.....................

 -- 資料: io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE

     一個包含模組中緩衝 I/O 類別所使用的預設緩衝區大小的整數。若可能的話
     ，*note open(): 29c. 會使用檔案的 blksize （透過 *note os.stat():
     1bf. 取得）。

 -- 函式: io.open (file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

     這是內建函式 *note open(): 29c. 的別名。

     此函式會引發一個帶有引數 'path'、'mode' 以及 'flags' 的*note
     稽核事件 (auditing event): 168e. ‘open’。'mode' 與 'flags' 引數可能
     已經被修改或者從原始呼叫中被推斷出來。

 -- 函式: io.open_code (path)

     以 ‘'rb'’ 模式開啟提供的檔案。此函式應用於意圖將內容視為可執行的程
     式碼的情況下。

     'path' 應該要屬於 *note str: 157. 類別，且是個絕對路徑。

     這個函式的行為可能會被之前對 *note PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 14e7.
     的呼叫覆寫。然而，假設 'path' 是個 *note str: 157. 且為絕對路徑，則
     ‘open_code(path)’ 總是與 ‘open(path, 'rb')’ 有相同行為。覆寫這個行
     為是為了對檔案進行額外驗證或預處理。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: io.text_encoding (encoding, stacklevel=2, /)

     這是個輔助函數，適用於使用 *note open(): 29c. 或 *note
     TextIOWrapper: 5d9. 且具有 ‘encoding=None’ 參數的可呼叫物件。

     若 'encoding' 不為 ‘None’，此函式將回傳 'encoding'。否則，將根據
     *note UTF-8 Mode: 451. 回傳 ‘"locale"’ 或 ‘"utf-8"’。

     若 *note sys.flags.warn_default_encoding: 489. 為真，且 'encoding'
     為 ‘None’，此函式會發出一個 *note EncodingWarning: 1b32.。
     'stacklevel' 指定警告在哪層發出。範例：

          def read_text(path, encoding=None):
              encoding = io.text_encoding(encoding)  # stacklevel=2
              with open(path, encoding) as f:
                  return f.read()

     在此範例中，對於 ‘read_text()’ 的呼叫方會引發一個 *note
     EncodingWarning: 1b32.。

     更多資訊請見 *note 文字編碼: 5db.。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 當 UTF-8 模式啟用且 'encoding' 為 ‘None’ 時，
     *note text_encoding(): 1467. 會回傳 "utf-8"。

 -- 例外: io.BlockingIOError

     這是內建的 *note BlockingIOError: eed. 例外的相容性別名。

 -- 例外: io.UnsupportedOperation

     當在資料串流上呼叫不支援的操作時，會引發繼承自 *note OSError: 644.
     與 *note ValueError: 183. 的例外。

也參考
......

*note sys: d3.

     包含標準的 IO 資料串流：*note sys.stdin: 2bf.、*note sys.stdout:
     92a. 以及 *note sys.stderr: 778.。


File: python.info,  Node: 類別階層,  Next: Performance<3>,  Prev: 高階模組介面,  Up: io — 處理資料串流的核心工具

5.16.2.8 類別階層
.................

I/O 串流的實作是由多個類別組合成的階層結構所構成。首先是 *note abstract
base classes: 1047. （抽象基底類別，ABCs），它們被用來規範各種不同類型的
串流，接著具體類別會提供標準串流的實作。

     備註: 為了協助具體串流類別的實作，抽象基底類別提供了某些方法的預設
     實作。舉例來說，*note BufferedIOBase: 491. 提供未經最佳化的
     ‘readinto()’ 與 ‘readline()’ 實作。

I/O 階層結構的最上層是抽象基底類別 *note IOBase: 841.。它定義了串流的基
礎的介面。然而，請注意，讀取串流與寫入串流之間並沒有分離；若不支援給定的
操作，實作是允許引發 *note UnsupportedOperation: 1772. 例外的。

抽象基底類別 *note RawIOBase: f5f. 繼承 *note IOBase: 841.。此類別處理對
串流的位元組讀寫。*note FileIO: 11a2. 則繼承 *note RawIOBase: f5f. 來提
供一個介面以存取機器檔案系統內的檔案。

抽象基底類別 *note BufferedIOBase: 491. 繼承 *note IOBase: 841.。此類別
緩衝原始二進位串流 (*note RawIOBase: f5f.)。它的子類別 *note
BufferedWriter: 1f10.、*note BufferedReader: 109f. 與 *note
BufferedRWPair: 2992. 分別緩衝可寫、可讀、可讀也可寫的的原始二進位串流。
類別 *note BufferedRandom: 1f11. 則提供一個對可搜尋串流 (seekable
stream) 的緩衝介面。另一個類別 *note BufferedIOBase: 491. 的子類別 *note
BytesIO: d24.，是一個記憶體內位元組串流。

抽象基底類別 *note TextIOBase: 492. 繼承 *note IOBase: 841.。此類別處理
文本位元組串流，並處理字串的編碼和解碼。類別 *note TextIOWrapper: 5d9. 繼
承自 *note TextIOBase: 492.，這是個對緩衝原始串流 (*note BufferedIOBase:
491.) 的緩衝文本介面。最後，*note StringIO: db1. 是個文字記憶體內串流。

引數名稱不是規範的一部份，只有 *note open(): 29c. 的引數將作為關鍵字引數
。

以下表格總結了 *note io: 79. 模組提供的抽象基底類別 (ABC)：

抽象基底類別 (ABC)            繼承                   Stub 方法                    Mixin 方法與屬性
                                                                                  
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
*note IOBase: 841.                                   ‘fileno’、‘seek’ 和          ‘close’、‘closed’、‘__enter__’、‘__exit__’、
                                                     ‘truncate’                   ‘flush’、‘isatty’、‘__iter__’、‘__next__’、
                                                                                  ‘readable’、‘readline’、‘readlines’、‘seekable’、
                                                                                  ‘tell’、‘writable’ 與 ‘writelines’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note RawIOBase: f5f.         *note IOBase: 841.     ‘readinto’ 和 ‘write’        繼承自 *note IOBase: 841. 的方法，‘read’ 與
                                                                                  ‘readall’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note BufferedIOBase: 491.    *note IOBase: 841.     ‘detach’、‘read’、‘read1’    繼承自 *note IOBase: 841. 的方法，‘readinto’ 與
                                                     和 ‘write’                   ‘readinto1’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note TextIOBase: 492.        *note IOBase: 841.     ‘detach’、‘read’、           繼承自 *note IOBase: 841. 的方法，‘encoding’、
                                                     ‘readline’ 和 ‘write’        ‘errors’ 與 ‘newlines’
                                                                                  

* Menu:

* I/O 基礎類別::
* 原始檔案 I/O::
* Buffered Streams::
* 文字 I/O: 文字 I/O<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: I/O 基礎類別,  Next: 原始檔案 I/O,  Up: 類別階層

5.16.2.9 I/O 基礎類別
.....................

 -- 類別: io.IOBase

     所有 I/O 類別的抽象基礎類別。

     為許多方法提供了空的抽象實作，衍生類別可以選擇性地覆寫這些方法；預
     設的實作代表一個無法讀取、寫入或搜尋的檔案。

     即使 *note IOBase: 841. 因為實作的簽名差異巨大而沒有宣告 ‘read()’ 或
     ‘write()’ 方法，實作與用戶端應把這些方法視為介面的一部份。此外，當
     呼叫不被它們支援的操作時，可能會引發 *note ValueError: 183. （或
     *note UnsupportedOperation: 1772.）例外。

     The basic type used for binary data read from or written to a file
     is *note bytes: 2c1.  Other *note bytes-like objects: b9f. are
     accepted as method arguments too.  Text I/O classes work with *note
     str: 157. data.

     請注意，在一個已經關閉的串流上呼叫任何方法（即使只是查詢）都是未定
     義的。在這種情況下，實作可能會引發 *note ValueError: 183. 例外。

     *note IOBase: 841. (and its subclasses) supports the iterator
     protocol, meaning that an *note IOBase: 841. object can be iterated
     over yielding the lines in a stream.  Lines are defined slightly
     differently depending on whether the stream is a binary stream
     (yielding bytes), or a text stream (yielding character strings).
     See *note readline(): 11bd. below.

     *note IOBase: 841. 也是個情境管理器，因此支援 *note with: 3c5. 陳述
     式。在這個例子中，'file' 會在 ‘with’ 陳述式執行完畢後關閉——即使發生
     了異常。

          with open('spam.txt', 'w') as file:
              file.write('Spam and eggs!')

     *note IOBase: 841. 提供這些資料屬性與方法：

      -- 方法: close ()

          清除並關閉這個串流。若檔案已經關閉，則此方法沒有作用。一旦檔案
          被關閉，任何對檔案的操作（例如讀取或寫入）將引發 *note
          ValueError: 183. 異常。

          為了方便起見，允許多次呼叫這個方法；然而，只有第一次呼叫會有效
          果。

      -- 屬性: closed

          如果串流已關閉，則為 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: fileno ()

          如果串流存在，則回傳其底層的檔案描述器（一個整數）。如果 IO 物
          件不使用檔案描述器，則會引發一個 *note OSError: 644. 例外。

      -- 方法: flush ()

          如果適用，清空串流的寫入緩衝區。對於唯讀和非阻塞串流，此操作不
          會執行任何操作。

      -- 方法: isatty ()

          如果串流是互動式的（即連接到終端機/tty 設備），則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: readable ()

          如果串流可以被讀取，則回傳 ‘True’。如果是 ‘False’，‘read()’ 將
          會引發 *note OSError: 644. 例外。

      -- 方法: readline (size=-1, /)

          從串流讀取並回傳一行。如果指定了 'size'，則最多讀取 'size' 個
          位元組。

          對於二進位檔案，行結束符總是 ‘b'\n'’；對於文字檔案，可以使用
          *note open(): 29c. 函式的 'newline' 引數來選擇識別的行結束符號
          。

      -- 方法: readlines (hint=-1, /)

          從串流讀取並回傳一個含有一或多行的 list。可以指定 'hint' 來控
          制讀取的行數：如果到目前為止所有行的總大小（以位元組/字元計）
          超過 'hint'，則不會再讀取更多行。

          'hint' 值為 ‘0’ 或更小，以及 ‘None’，都被視為沒有提供 hint。

          請注意，已經可以使用 ‘for line in file: ...’ 在檔案物件上進行
          疊代，而不一定需要呼叫 ‘file.readlines()’。

      -- 方法: seek (offset, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          將串流位置改變到給定的位元組 'offset'，此位置是相對於由
          'whence' 指示的位置解釋的，並回傳新的絕對位置。'whence' 的值可
          為：

             * *note os.SEEK_SET: 1122. 或 ‘0’ - 串流的起點（預設值）；
               'offset' 應為零或正數

             * *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1123. 或 ‘1’ - 目前串流位置；'offset'
               可以是負數

             * *note os.SEEK_END: 1124. 或 ‘2’ - 串流的結尾；'offset' 通
               常是負數

          在 3.1 版被加入: ‘SEEK_*’ 常數。

          在 3.3 版被加入: 某些作業系統可以支援額外的值，例如 *note
          os.SEEK_HOLE: 28c0. 或 *note os.SEEK_DATA: 28c1.。檔案的合法值
          取決於它是以文字模式還是二進位模式開啟。

      -- 方法: seekable ()

          如果串流支援隨機存取，則回傳 ‘True’。如果是 ‘False’，則 *note
          seek(): 1121.、*note tell(): 2728. 和 *note truncate(): 11a3.
          會引發 *note OSError: 644.。

      -- 方法: tell ()

          回傳目前串流的位置。

      -- 方法: truncate (size=None, /)

          將串流的大小調整為指定的 'size' 位元組（如果沒有指定 'size'，
          則調整為目前位置）。目前串流位置不會改變。這種調整可以擴展或縮
          減當前檔案大小。在擴展的情況下，新檔案區域的內容取決於平台（在
          大多數系統上，額外的位元組會被填充為零）。回傳新的檔案大小。

          在 3.5 版的變更: Windows 現在在擴展時會對檔案進行零填充
          (zero-fill)。

      -- 方法: writable ()

          如果串流支援寫入，則回傳 ‘True’。如果是 ‘False’，‘write()’ 和
          *note truncate(): 11a3. 將會引發 *note OSError: 644.。

      -- 方法: writelines (lines, /)

          將一個包含每一行的 list 寫入串流。這不會新增行分隔符號，因此通
          常提供的每一行末尾都有一個行分隔符號。

      -- 方法: __del__ ()

          為物件銷毀做準備。*note IOBase: 841. 提供了這個方法的預設實作
          ，該實作會呼叫實例的 *note close(): 1811. 方法。

 -- 類別: io.RawIOBase

     原始二進位串流的基底類別。它繼承自 *note IOBase: 841.。

     原始二進位串流通常提供對底層作業系統設備或 API 的低階存取，並不嘗試
     將其封裝在高階基元 (primitive) 中（這項功能在緩衝二進位串流和文字串
     流中的更高階層級完成，後面的頁面會有描述）。

     *note RawIOBase: f5f. 除了 *note IOBase: 841. 的方法外，還提供以下
     這些方法：

      -- 方法: read (size=-1, /)

          從物件中讀取最多 'size' 個位元組並回傳。方便起見，如果 'size'
          未指定或為 -1，則回傳直到檔案結尾 (EOF) 的所有位元組。否則，只
          會進行一次系統呼叫。如果作業系統呼叫回傳的位元組少於 'size'，
          則可能回傳少於 'size' 的位元組。

          如果回傳了 0 位元組，且 'size' 不是 0，這表示檔案結尾 (end of
          file)。如果物件處於非阻塞模式且沒有可用的位元組，則回傳
          ‘None’。

          預設的實作會遵守 *note readall(): 2999. 和 *note readinto():
          c97. 的實作。

      -- 方法: readall ()

          讀取並回傳串流中直到檔案結尾的所有位元組，必要時使用多次對串流
          的呼叫。

      -- 方法: readinto (b, /)

          將位元組讀入一個預先分配的、可寫的 *note bytes-like object:
          b9f. （類位元組物件） 'b' 中，並回傳讀取的位元組數量。例如，
          'b' 可能是一個 *note bytearray: 2c0.。如果物件處於非阻塞模式且
          沒有可用的位元組，則回傳 ‘None’。

      -- 方法: write (b, /)

          將給定的 *note bytes-like object: b9f. （類位元組物件），'b'，
          寫入底層的原始串流，並回傳寫入的位元組大小。根據底層原始串流的
          具體情況，這可能少於 'b' 的位元組長度，尤其是當它處於非阻塞模
          式時。如果原始串流設置為非阻塞且無法立即寫入任何單一位元組，則
          回傳 ‘None’。呼叫者在此方法回傳後可以釋放或變更 'b'，因此實作
          應該只在方法呼叫期間存取 'b'。

 -- 類別: io.BufferedIOBase

     支援某種緩衝的二進位串流的基底類別。它繼承自 *note IOBase: 841.。

     與 *note RawIOBase: f5f. 的主要差異在於，*note read(): 11bc.、*note
     readinto(): 299a. 及 *note write(): b48. 方法將分別嘗試讀取所請求的
     盡可能多的輸入，或消耗所有給定的輸出，即使可能需要進行多於一次的系
     統呼叫。

     此外，如果底層的原始串流處於非阻塞模式且無法提供或接收足夠的資料，
     這些方法可能會引發 *note BlockingIOError: eed. 例外；與 *note
     RawIOBase: f5f. 不同之處在於，它們永遠不會回傳 ‘None’。

     此外，*note read(): 11bc. 方法不存在一個遵從 *note readinto():
     299a. 的預設實作。

     一個典型的 *note BufferedIOBase: 491. 實作不應該繼承自一個 *note
     RawIOBase: f5f. 的實作，而是應該改用包裝的方式，像 *note
     BufferedWriter: 1f10. 和 *note BufferedReader: 109f. 那樣的作法。

     *note BufferedIOBase: 491. 除了提供或覆寫來自 *note IOBase: 841. 的
     資料屬性和方法以外，還包含了這些：

      -- 屬性: raw

          底層的原始串流（一個 *note RawIOBase: f5f. 實例），*note
          BufferedIOBase: 491. 處理的對象。這不是 *note BufferedIOBase:
          491. API 的一部分，且在某些實作可能不存在。

      -- 方法: detach ()

          將底層的原始串流從緩衝區中分離出來，並回傳它。

          在原始串流被分離後，緩衝區處於一個不可用的狀態。

          某些緩衝區，如 *note BytesIO: d24.，沒有單一原始串流的概念可從
          此方法回傳。它們會引發 *note UnsupportedOperation: 1772.。

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: read (size=-1, /)

          讀取並回傳最多 'size' 個位元組。如果引數被省略、為 ‘None’ 或為
          負值，將讀取並回傳資料直到達到 EOF 為止。如果串流已經處於 EOF，
          則回傳一個空的 *note bytes: 2c1. 物件。

          如果引數為正數，且底層原始串流不是互動式的，可能會發出多次原始
          讀取來滿足位元組數量（除非首先達到 EOF）。但對於互動式原始串流
          ，最多只會發出一次原始讀取，且短少的資料不表示 EOF 即將到來。

          如果底層原始串流處於非阻塞模式，且當前沒有可用資料，則會引發
          *note BlockingIOError: eed.。

      -- 方法: read1 (size=-1, /)

          讀取並回傳最多 'size' 個位元組，最多呼叫一次底層原始串流的
          *note read(): c96. (或 *note readinto(): c97.) 方法。如果你正
          在 *note BufferedIOBase: 491. 物件之上實作自己的緩衝區，這可能
          會很有用。

          如果 'size' 為 ‘-1’ （預設值），則會回傳任意數量的位元組（除非
          達到 EOF，否則會超過零）。

      -- 方法: readinto (b, /)

          讀取位元組到一個預先分配的、可寫的 *note bytes-like object:
          b9f. 'b' 當中，並回傳讀取的位元組數量。例如，'b' 可能是一個
          *note bytearray: 2c0.。

          類似於 *note read(): 11bc.，除非後者是互動式的，否則可能會對底
          層原始串流發出多次讀取。

          如果底層原始串流處於非阻塞模式，且當前沒有可用資料，則會引發
          *note BlockingIOError: eed.。

      -- 方法: readinto1 (b, /)

          讀取位元組到一個預先分配的、可寫的 *note bytes-like object:
          b9f. 'b' 中，最多呼叫一次底層原始串流的 *note read(): c96. （
          或 *note readinto(): c97.）方法。此方法回傳讀取的位元組數量。

          如果底層原始串流處於非阻塞模式，且當前沒有可用資料，則會引發
          *note BlockingIOError: eed.。

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 方法: write (b, /)

          寫入給定的 *note bytes-like object: b9f.，'b'，並回傳寫入的位
          元組數量（總是等於 'b' 的長度，以位元組計，因為如果寫入失敗將
          會引發 *note OSError: 644.）。根據實際的實作，這些位元組可能會
          立即寫入底層串流，或出於性能和延遲的緣故而被留在緩衝區當中。

          當處於非阻塞模式時，如果需要將資料寫入原始串流，但它無法接受所
          有資料而不阻塞，則會引發 *note BlockingIOError: eed.。

          呼叫者可以在此方法回傳後釋放或變更 'b'，因此實作應該僅在方法呼
          叫期間存取 'b'。


File: python.info,  Node: 原始檔案 I/O,  Next: Buffered Streams,  Prev: I/O 基礎類別,  Up: 類別階層

5.16.2.10 原始檔案 I/O
......................

 -- 類別: io.FileIO (name, mode='r', closefd=True, opener=None)

     一個代表包含位元組資料的 OS 層級檔案的原始二進制串流。它繼承自
     *note RawIOBase: f5f.。

     'name' 可以是兩種事物之一：

        * 代表將要打開的檔案路徑的一個字元串或 *note bytes: 2c1. 物件。
          在這種情況下，closefd 必須是 ‘True’ （預設值），否則將引發錯誤
          。

        * an integer representing the number of an existing OS-level
          file descriptor to which the resulting *note FileIO: 11a2.
          object will give access.  When the FileIO object is closed
          this fd will be closed as well, unless 'closefd' is set to
          ‘False’.

     The 'mode' can be ‘'r'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’ for reading
     (default), writing, exclusive creation or appending.  The file will
     be created if it doesn't exist when opened for writing or
     appending; it will be truncated when opened for writing.  *note
     FileExistsError: eb4. will be raised if it already exists when
     opened for creating.  Opening a file for creating implies writing,
     so this mode behaves in a similar way to ‘'w'’.  Add a ‘'+'’ to the
     mode to allow simultaneous reading and writing.

     The *note read(): c96. (when called with a positive argument),
     *note readinto(): c97. and *note write(): 2766. methods on this
     class will only make one system call.

     A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as 'opener'.  The
     underlying file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by
     calling 'opener' with ('name', 'flags').  'opener' must return an
     open file descriptor (passing *note os.open: c09. as 'opener'
     results in functionality similar to passing ‘None’).

     The newly created file is *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     See the *note open(): 29c. built-in function for examples on using
     the 'opener' parameter.

     在 3.3 版的變更: The 'opener' parameter was added.  The ‘'x'’ mode
     was added.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The file is now non-inheritable.

     *note FileIO: 11a2. provides these data attributes in addition to
     those from *note RawIOBase: f5f. and *note IOBase: 841.:

      -- 屬性: mode

          The mode as given in the constructor.

      -- 屬性: name

          The file name.  This is the file descriptor of the file when
          no name is given in the constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffered Streams,  Next: 文字 I/O<2>,  Prev: 原始檔案 I/O,  Up: 類別階層

5.16.2.11 Buffered Streams
..........................

Buffered I/O streams provide a higher-level interface to an I/O device
than raw I/O does.

 -- 類別: io.BytesIO (initial_bytes=b'')

     A binary stream using an in-memory bytes buffer.  It inherits from
     *note BufferedIOBase: 491.  The buffer is discarded when the *note
     close(): 1811. method is called.

     The optional argument 'initial_bytes' is a *note bytes-like object:
     b9f. that contains initial data.

     *note BytesIO: d24. provides or overrides these methods in addition
     to those from *note BufferedIOBase: 491. and *note IOBase: 841.:

      -- 方法: getbuffer ()

          Return a readable and writable view over the contents of the
          buffer without copying them.  Also, mutating the view will
          transparently update the contents of the buffer:

               >>> b = io.BytesIO(b"abcdef")
               >>> view = b.getbuffer()
               >>> view[2:4] = b"56"
               >>> b.getvalue()
               b'ab56ef'

               備註: As long as the view exists, the *note BytesIO: d24.
               object cannot be resized or closed.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: getvalue ()

          Return *note bytes: 2c1. containing the entire contents of the
          buffer.

      -- 方法: read1 (size=-1, /)

          In *note BytesIO: d24, this is the same as *note read(): 11bc.

          在 3.7 版的變更: The 'size' argument is now optional.

      -- 方法: readinto1 (b, /)

          In *note BytesIO: d24, this is the same as *note readinto():
          299a.

          在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 類別: io.BufferedReader (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     readable, non seekable *note RawIOBase: f5f. raw binary stream.  It
     inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: 491.

     When reading data from this object, a larger amount of data may be
     requested from the underlying raw stream, and kept in an internal
     buffer.  The buffered data can then be returned directly on
     subsequent reads.

     The constructor creates a *note BufferedReader: 109f. for the given
     readable 'raw' stream and 'buffer_size'.  If 'buffer_size' is
     omitted, *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1468. is used.

     *note BufferedReader: 109f. provides or overrides these methods in
     addition to those from *note BufferedIOBase: 491. and *note IOBase:
     841.:

      -- 方法: peek (size=0, /)

          Return bytes from the stream without advancing the position.
          At most one single read on the raw stream is done to satisfy
          the call.  The number of bytes returned may be less or more
          than requested.

      -- 方法: read (size=-1, /)

          Read and return 'size' bytes, or if 'size' is not given or
          negative, until EOF or if the read call would block in
          non-blocking mode.

      -- 方法: read1 (size=-1, /)

          Read and return up to 'size' bytes with only one call on the
          raw stream.  If at least one byte is buffered, only buffered
          bytes are returned.  Otherwise, one raw stream read call is
          made.

          在 3.7 版的變更: The 'size' argument is now optional.

 -- 類別: io.BufferedWriter (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     writeable, non seekable *note RawIOBase: f5f. raw binary stream.
     It inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: 491.

     When writing to this object, data is normally placed into an
     internal buffer.  The buffer will be written out to the underlying
     *note RawIOBase: f5f. object under various conditions, including:

        * when the buffer gets too small for all pending data;

        * when *note flush(): 29a4. is called;

        * when a *note seek(): 1121. is requested (for *note
          BufferedRandom: 1f11. objects);

        * when the *note BufferedWriter: 1f10. object is closed or
          destroyed.

     The constructor creates a *note BufferedWriter: 1f10. for the given
     writeable 'raw' stream.  If the 'buffer_size' is not given, it
     defaults to *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1468.

     *note BufferedWriter: 1f10. provides or overrides these methods in
     addition to those from *note BufferedIOBase: 491. and *note IOBase:
     841.:

      -- 方法: flush ()

          Force bytes held in the buffer into the raw stream.  A *note
          BlockingIOError: eed. should be raised if the raw stream
          blocks.

      -- 方法: write (b, /)

          Write the *note bytes-like object: b9f, 'b', and return the
          number of bytes written.  When in non-blocking mode, a *note
          BlockingIOError: eed. is raised if the buffer needs to be
          written out but the raw stream blocks.

 -- 類別: io.BufferedRandom (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     seekable *note RawIOBase: f5f. raw binary stream.  It inherits from
     *note BufferedReader: 109f. and *note BufferedWriter: 1f10.

     The constructor creates a reader and writer for a seekable raw
     stream, given in the first argument.  If the 'buffer_size' is
     omitted it defaults to *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1468.

     *note BufferedRandom: 1f11. is capable of anything *note
     BufferedReader: 109f. or *note BufferedWriter: 1f10. can do.  In
     addition, *note seek(): 1121. and *note tell(): 2728. are
     guaranteed to be implemented.

 -- 類別: io.BufferedRWPair (reader, writer,
          buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE, /)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to two non
     seekable *note RawIOBase: f5f. raw binary streams--one readable,
     the other writeable.  It inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: 491.

     'reader' and 'writer' are *note RawIOBase: f5f. objects that are
     readable and writeable respectively.  If the 'buffer_size' is
     omitted it defaults to *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1468.

     *note BufferedRWPair: 2992. implements all of *note BufferedIOBase:
     491.'s methods except for *note detach(): 26f4, which raises *note
     UnsupportedOperation: 1772.

          警告: *note BufferedRWPair: 2992. does not attempt to
          synchronize accesses to its underlying raw streams.  You
          should not pass it the same object as reader and writer; use
          *note BufferedRandom: 1f11. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: 文字 I/O<2>,  Prev: Buffered Streams,  Up: 類別階層

5.16.2.12 文字 I/O
..................

 -- 類別: io.TextIOBase

     Base class for text streams.  This class provides a character and
     line based interface to stream I/O. It inherits from *note IOBase:
     841.

     *note TextIOBase: 492. provides or overrides these data attributes
     and methods in addition to those from *note IOBase: 841.:

      -- 屬性: encoding

          The name of the encoding used to decode the stream's bytes
          into strings, and to encode strings into bytes.

      -- 屬性: errors

          The error setting of the decoder or encoder.

      -- 屬性: newlines

          A string, a tuple of strings, or ‘None’, indicating the
          newlines translated so far.  Depending on the implementation
          and the initial constructor flags, this may not be available.

      -- 屬性: buffer

          The underlying binary buffer (a *note BufferedIOBase: 491.
          instance) that *note TextIOBase: 492. deals with.  This is not
          part of the *note TextIOBase: 492. API and may not exist in
          some implementations.

      -- 方法: detach ()

          Separate the underlying binary buffer from the *note
          TextIOBase: 492. and return it.

          After the underlying buffer has been detached, the *note
          TextIOBase: 492. is in an unusable state.

          Some *note TextIOBase: 492. implementations, like *note
          StringIO: db1, may not have the concept of an underlying
          buffer and calling this method will raise *note
          UnsupportedOperation: 1772.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: read (size=-1, /)

          Read and return at most 'size' characters from the stream as a
          single *note str: 157.  If 'size' is negative or ‘None’, reads
          until EOF.

      -- 方法: readline (size=-1, /)

          Read until newline or EOF and return a single *note str: 157.
          If the stream is already at EOF, an empty string is returned.

          If 'size' is specified, at most 'size' characters will be
          read.

      -- 方法: seek (offset, whence=SEEK_SET, /)

          Change the stream position to the given 'offset'.  Behaviour
          depends on the 'whence' parameter.  The default value for
          'whence' is ‘SEEK_SET’.

             * ‘SEEK_SET’ or ‘0’: seek from the start of the stream (the
               default); 'offset' must either be a number returned by
               *note TextIOBase.tell(): 29ab, or zero.  Any other
               'offset' value produces undefined behaviour.

             * ‘SEEK_CUR’ or ‘1’: "seek" to the current position;
               'offset' must be zero, which is a no-operation (all other
               values are unsupported).

             * ‘SEEK_END’ or ‘2’: seek to the end of the stream;
               'offset' must be zero (all other values are unsupported).

          Return the new absolute position as an opaque number.

          在 3.1 版被加入: ‘SEEK_*’ 常數。

      -- 方法: tell ()

          Return the current stream position as an opaque number.  The
          number does not usually represent a number of bytes in the
          underlying binary storage.

      -- 方法: write (s, /)

          Write the string 's' to the stream and return the number of
          characters written.

 -- 類別: io.TextIOWrapper (buffer, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None, line_buffering=False, write_through=False)

     A buffered text stream providing higher-level access to a *note
     BufferedIOBase: 491. buffered binary stream.  It inherits from
     *note TextIOBase: 492.

     'encoding' gives the name of the encoding that the stream will be
     decoded or encoded with.  It defaults to *note
     locale.getencoding(): 258.  ‘encoding="locale"’ can be used to
     specify the current locale's encoding explicitly.  See *note
     文字編碼: 5db. for more information.

     'errors' is an optional string that specifies how encoding and
     decoding errors are to be handled.  Pass ‘'strict'’ to raise a
     *note ValueError: 183. exception if there is an encoding error (the
     default of ‘None’ has the same effect), or pass ‘'ignore'’ to
     ignore errors.  (Note that ignoring encoding errors can lead to
     data loss.)  ‘'replace'’ causes a replacement marker (such as
     ‘'?'’) to be inserted where there is malformed data.
     ‘'backslashreplace'’ causes malformed data to be replaced by a
     backslashed escape sequence.  When writing, ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’
     (replace with the appropriate XML character reference) or
     ‘'namereplace'’ (replace with ‘\N{...}’ escape sequences) can be
     used.  Any other error handling name that has been registered with
     *note codecs.register_error(): 130b. is also valid.

     'newline' controls how line endings are handled.  It can be ‘None’,
     ‘''’, ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, and ‘'\r\n'’.  It works as follows:

        * When reading input from the stream, if 'newline' is ‘None’,
          *note universal newlines: bac. mode is enabled.  Lines in the
          input can end in ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, or ‘'\r\n'’, and these are
          translated into ‘'\n'’ before being returned to the caller.
          If 'newline' is ‘''’, universal newlines mode is enabled, but
          line endings are returned to the caller untranslated.  If
          'newline' has any of the other legal values, input lines are
          only terminated by the given string, and the line ending is
          returned to the caller untranslated.

        * When writing output to the stream, if 'newline' is ‘None’, any
          ‘'\n'’ characters written are translated to the system default
          line separator, *note os.linesep: 1f0f.  If 'newline' is ‘''’
          or ‘'\n'’, no translation takes place.  If 'newline' is any of
          the other legal values, any ‘'\n'’ characters written are
          translated to the given string.

     If 'line_buffering' is ‘True’, *note flush(): 2994. is implied when
     a call to write contains a newline character or a carriage return.

     If 'write_through' is ‘True’, calls to *note write(): b48. are
     guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the *note
     TextIOWrapper: 5d9. object is immediately handled to its underlying
     binary 'buffer'.

     在 3.3 版的變更: The 'write_through' argument has been added.

     在 3.3 版的變更: The default 'encoding' is now
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ instead of
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’.  Don't change temporary the locale
     encoding using *note locale.setlocale(): 257, use the current
     locale encoding instead of the user preferred encoding.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The 'encoding' argument now supports the
     ‘"locale"’ dummy encoding name.

     *note TextIOWrapper: 5d9. provides these data attributes and
     methods in addition to those from *note TextIOBase: 492. and *note
     IOBase: 841.:

      -- 屬性: line_buffering

          Whether line buffering is enabled.

      -- 屬性: write_through

          Whether writes are passed immediately to the underlying binary
          buffer.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 方法: reconfigure (*, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None,
               line_buffering=None, write_through=None)

          Reconfigure this text stream using new settings for
          'encoding', 'errors', 'newline', 'line_buffering' and
          'write_through'.

          Parameters not specified keep current settings, except
          ‘errors='strict'’ is used when 'encoding' is specified but
          'errors' is not specified.

          It is not possible to change the encoding or newline if some
          data has already been read from the stream.  On the other
          hand, changing encoding after write is possible.

          This method does an implicit stream flush before setting the
          new parameters.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

          在 3.11 版的變更: The method supports ‘encoding="locale"’
          option.

      -- 方法: seek (cookie, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Set the stream position.  Return the new stream position as an
          *note int: 17e.

          Four operations are supported, given by the following argument
          combinations:

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_SET)’: Rewind to the start of the stream.

             * ‘seek(cookie, SEEK_SET)’: Restore a previous position;
               'cookie' 'must be' a number returned by *note tell():
               29af.

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_END)’: Fast-forward to the end of the
               stream.

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_CUR)’: Leave the current stream position
               unchanged.

          Any other argument combinations are invalid, and may raise
          exceptions.

          也參考
          ......

          *note os.SEEK_SET: 1122, *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1123, and *note
          os.SEEK_END: 1124.

      -- 方法: tell ()

          Return the stream position as an opaque number.  The return
          value of ‘tell()’ can be given as input to *note seek(): 29ae,
          to restore a previous stream position.

 -- 類別: io.StringIO (initial_value='', newline='\n')

     A text stream using an in-memory text buffer.  It inherits from
     *note TextIOBase: 492.

     The text buffer is discarded when the *note close(): 1811. method
     is called.

     The initial value of the buffer can be set by providing
     'initial_value'.  If newline translation is enabled, newlines will
     be encoded as if by *note write(): 1a69.  The stream is positioned
     at the start of the buffer which emulates opening an existing file
     in a ‘w+’ mode, making it ready for an immediate write from the
     beginning or for a write that would overwrite the initial value.
     To emulate opening a file in an ‘a+’ mode ready for appending, use
     ‘f.seek(0, io.SEEK_END)’ to reposition the stream at the end of the
     buffer.

     The 'newline' argument works like that of *note TextIOWrapper: 5d9,
     except that when writing output to the stream, if 'newline' is
     ‘None’, newlines are written as ‘\n’ on all platforms.

     *note StringIO: db1. provides this method in addition to those from
     *note TextIOBase: 492. and *note IOBase: 841.:

      -- 方法: getvalue ()

          Return a *note str: 157. containing the entire contents of the
          buffer.  Newlines are decoded as if by *note read(): 1a7a,
          although the stream position is not changed.

     使用範例：

          import io

          output = io.StringIO()
          output.write('First line.\n')
          print('Second line.', file=output)

          # Retrieve file contents -- this will be
          # 'First line.\nSecond line.\n'
          contents = output.getvalue()

          # Close object and discard memory buffer --
          # .getvalue() will now raise an exception.
          output.close()

 -- 類別: io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder

     A helper codec that decodes newlines for *note universal newlines:
     bac. mode.  It inherits from *note codecs.IncrementalDecoder: 215f.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance<3>,  Prev: 類別階層,  Up: io — 處理資料串流的核心工具

5.16.2.13 Performance
.....................

This section discusses the performance of the provided concrete I/O
implementations.

* Menu:

* 二進位 (Binary) I/O: 二進位 Binary I/O<2>.
* 文字 I/O: 文字 I/O<3>.
* Multi-threading: Multi-threading<2>.
* Reentrancy::


File: python.info,  Node: 二進位 Binary I/O<2>,  Next: 文字 I/O<3>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.16.2.14 二進位 (Binary) I/O
.............................

By reading and writing only large chunks of data even when the user asks
for a single byte, buffered I/O hides any inefficiency in calling and
executing the operating system's unbuffered I/O routines.  The gain
depends on the OS and the kind of I/O which is performed.  For example,
on some modern OSes such as Linux, unbuffered disk I/O can be as fast as
buffered I/O. The bottom line, however, is that buffered I/O offers
predictable performance regardless of the platform and the backing
device.  Therefore, it is almost always preferable to use buffered I/O
rather than unbuffered I/O for binary data.


File: python.info,  Node: 文字 I/O<3>,  Next: Multi-threading<2>,  Prev: 二進位 Binary I/O<2>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.16.2.15 文字 I/O
..................

Text I/O over a binary storage (such as a file) is significantly slower
than binary I/O over the same storage, because it requires conversions
between unicode and binary data using a character codec.  This can
become noticeable handling huge amounts of text data like large log
files.  Also, *note tell(): 29ab. and *note seek(): 29aa. are both quite
slow due to the reconstruction algorithm used.

*note StringIO: db1, however, is a native in-memory unicode container
and will exhibit similar speed to *note BytesIO: d24.


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-threading<2>,  Next: Reentrancy,  Prev: 文字 I/O<3>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.16.2.16 Multi-threading
.........................

*note FileIO: 11a2. objects are thread-safe to the extent that the
operating system calls (such as ‘read(2)(1)’ under Unix) they wrap are
thread-safe too.

Binary buffered objects (instances of *note BufferedReader: 109f, *note
BufferedWriter: 1f10, *note BufferedRandom: 1f11. and *note
BufferedRWPair: 2992.) protect their internal structures using a lock;
it is therefore safe to call them from multiple threads at once.

*note TextIOWrapper: 5d9. objects are not thread-safe.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/read(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Reentrancy,  Prev: Multi-threading<2>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.16.2.17 Reentrancy
....................

Binary buffered objects (instances of *note BufferedReader: 109f, *note
BufferedWriter: 1f10, *note BufferedRandom: 1f11. and *note
BufferedRWPair: 2992.) are not reentrant.  While reentrant calls will
not happen in normal situations, they can arise from doing I/O in a
*note signal: c1. handler.  If a thread tries to re-enter a buffered
object which it is already accessing, a *note RuntimeError: 17a. is
raised.  Note this doesn't prohibit a different thread from entering the
buffered object.

The above implicitly extends to text files, since the *note open(): 29c.
function will wrap a buffered object inside a *note TextIOWrapper: 5d9.
This includes standard streams and therefore affects the built-in *note
print(): e02. function as well.


File: python.info,  Node: time --- 時間存取與轉換,  Next: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Prev: io — 處理資料串流的核心工具,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.3 ‘time’ -- 時間存取與轉換
-------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組提供了各種與時間相關的函式。若要查看相關功能，請參閱 *note
datetime: 2e. 和 *note calendar: 12. 模組。

雖然這個模組隨時可用，但並非所有函式在所有平台上都可用。這個模組中定義的
大多數函式都會呼叫 C 語言平台的函式庫中具有相同名稱的函式。由於這些函式
的語義因平台而異，所以偶爾查閱平台文件可能會有所幫助。

以下是對一些術語和慣例的說明。

   * 'epoch' 是起始的時間點，即 ‘time.gmtime(0)’ 的回傳值。在所有平台上
     ，它是 1970 年 1 月 1 日，00:00:00（UTC）。

   * 術語 'seconds since the epoch（紀元秒數）' 是指從 epoch（紀元）開始
     經過的總秒數，通常不包括 leap seconds(1)。在所有符合 POSIX 標準的平
     台上，leap seconds （閏秒）都不計入這個總數。

   * 這個模組中的函式可能無法處理 *note epoch: 279d. 之前或遙遠未來的日
     期和時間。未來的臨界點由 C 函式庫決定；對於 32 位元系統來說通常是在
     2038 年。

   * 函式 *note strptime(): 129d. 在給定 ‘%y’ 格式碼時可以剖析 (parse) 兩
     位數的年份。當剖析兩位數的年份時，它們會根據 POSIX 和 ISO C 標準進
     行轉換：69-99 的值對映到 1969-1999，0-68 的值對映到 2000-2068。

   * UTC 是 Coordinated Universal Time -- 世界協調時間（原稱為格林威治標
     準時間，或 GMT）。縮寫 UTC 並不是寫錯，而是英文和法文之間折衷的結果
     。

   * DST 是 Daylight Saving Time（日光節約時間），一年中的某些時段（通常
     ）將會時區調整一小時。DST 的規則是根據當地法律決定的，且可能每年不
     同。C 函式庫有一個包含當地規則的表（通常會為了靈活性而從系統文件中
     讀取），在這方面是唯一的真正依據。

   * 各種即時 (real-time) 函式的精確度可能低於其值或引數所表示的單位所建
     議的精確度。例如，在大多數 Unix 系統上，時鐘每秒只「跳」50 次或 100
     次。

   * 另一方面，*note time(): 936. 和 *note sleep(): 499. 的精確度比它們
     的在 Unix 的等效函式更高：時間以浮點數表示，*note time(): 936. 回傳
     最精確的可用時間（如果可以會使用 Unix 的 ‘gettimeofday()’），而
     *note sleep(): 499. 可以接受帶有非零分數的時間（如果可以會使用 Unix
     的 ‘select()’ 來實作）。

   * 由 *note gmtime(): 1051.、*note localtime(): 1370. 和 *note
     strptime(): 129d. 回傳，並由 *note asctime(): 1078.、*note
     mktime(): 1079. 和 *note strftime(): 107a. 接受的時間值，是一個 9 個
     整數的序列。*note gmtime(): 1051.、*note localtime(): 1370. 和
     *note strptime(): 129d. 的回傳值也為各個欄位提供屬性名稱。

     關於這些物件的敘述請見 *note struct_time: b58.。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 當平台支援對應的 ‘struct tm’ 成員時，*note
     struct_time: b58. 型別被擴展以提供 *note tm_gmtoff: 29b8. 和 *note
     tm_zone: 29b9. 屬性。

     在 3.6 版的變更: *note struct_time: b58. 的屬性 *note tm_gmtoff:
     29b8. 和 *note tm_zone: 29b9. 現在在所有平台上都可用。

   * 使用以下函式在時間表示之間進行轉換：

     轉換來源                      轉換目標                      使用
                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                 
     紀元秒數                      世界協調時間的                *note gmtime(): 1051.
                                   *note struct_time: b58.       
                                   
                                                                 
     紀元秒數                      本地時間的                    *note localtime(): 1370.
                                   *note struct_time: b58.       
                                   
                                                                 
     世界協調時間的                紀元秒數                      *note calendar.timegm(): 2269.
     *note struct_time: b58.                                     

     本地時間的                    紀元秒數                      *note mktime(): 1079.
     *note struct_time: b58.                                     

* Menu:

* 函式: 函式<4>.
* Clock ID Constants::
* Timezone Constants::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<4>,  Next: Clock ID Constants,  Up: time --- 時間存取與轉換

5.16.3.1 函式
.............

 -- 函式: time.asctime ([t])

     將由 *note gmtime(): 1051. 或 *note localtime(): 1370. 回傳的元組或
     *note struct_time: b58. 表示的時間轉換為以下格式的字串：‘'Sun Jun
     20 23:21:05 1993'’。日期欄位為兩個字元長，如果日期是個位數，則用空
     格填充，例如：‘'Wed Jun 9 04:26:40 1993'’。

     如果沒有提供 't'，則使用由 *note localtime(): 1370. 回傳的當前時間
     。*note asctime(): 1078. 不使用區域資訊。

          備註: 與同名的 C 函式不同，*note asctime(): 1078. 不會添加結尾
          的換行字元。

 -- 函式: time.pthread_getcpuclockid (thread_id)

     為指定的 'thread_id' 回傳執行緒專用 CPU-time 時鐘的 'clk_id'。

     使用 *note threading.get_ident(): fed. 或 *note threading.Thread:
     78d. 物件的 *note ident: 29bc. 屬性來獲取適用於 'thread_id' 的值。

          警告: 傳遞無效或過期的 'thread_id' 可能會導致未定義的行為，例
          如分段錯誤 (segmentation fault)。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix

     若需更多資訊，請參閱 ‘pthread_getcpuclockid(3)(1)’ 的說明文件。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.clock_getres (clk_id)

     回傳指定時鐘 'clk_id' 的解析度（精確度）。有關 'clk_id' 可接受的值
     的串列，請參閱 *note Clock ID Constants: 29bd.。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.clock_gettime (clk_id) -> float

     回傳指定時鐘 'clk_id' 的時間。有關 'clk_id' 可接受的值的串列，請參
     閱 *note Clock ID Constants: 29bd.。

     使用 *note clock_gettime_ns(): 937. 以避免 *note float: 26a. 型別造
     成的精確度損失。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.clock_gettime_ns (clk_id) -> int

     類似於 *note clock_gettime(): ff1.，但回傳以奈秒 (nanoseconds) 為單
     位的時間。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.clock_settime (clk_id, time: float)

     設定指定時鐘 'clk_id' 的時間。目前，*note CLOCK_REALTIME: 496. 是
     'clk_id' 唯一可以接受的值。

     使用 *note clock_settime_ns(): 938. 以避免 *note float: 26a. 型別造
     成的精確度損失。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.clock_settime_ns (clk_id, time: int)

     類似於 *note clock_settime(): ff2.，但設定以奈秒為單位的時間。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.ctime ([secs])

     將自 *note epoch: 279d. 起以秒表示的時間轉換為表示當地時間且符合以
     下格式的字串：‘'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05 1993'’。日期欄位為兩個字元長，
     如果日期是個位數，則用空格填充，例如：‘'Wed Jun 9 04:26:40 1993'’。

     如果未提供 'secs' 或其為 *note None: 470.，則使用由 *note time():
     936. 回傳的當前時間。‘ctime(secs)’ 等同於
     ‘asctime(localtime(secs))’。*note ctime(): 21e9. 不使用區域資訊。

 -- 函式: time.get_clock_info (name)

     獲取指定時鐘的資訊作為命名空間物件。支援的時鐘名稱及讀取他們的值的
     對應函式如下：

        * ‘'monotonic'’：*note time.monotonic(): cfe.

        * ‘'perf_counter'’：*note time.perf_counter(): 8d4.

        * ‘'process_time'’：*note time.process_time(): 8d5.

        * ‘'thread_time'’：*note time.thread_time(): 775.

        * ‘'time'’：*note time.time(): 936.

     其結果具有以下屬性：

        - 'adjustable': 如果時鐘可以自動（例如，透過 NTP 常駐程式）或由
          系統管理員手動更改，則為 ‘True’，否則為 ‘False’

        - 'implementation': 用於獲取時鐘的值的底層 C 函式名稱。有關可能
          的值，請參閱 *note Clock ID Constants: 29bd.。

        - 'monotonic': 如果時鐘不能倒轉，則為 ‘True’，否則為 ‘False’

        - 'resolution': 以秒 (*note float: 26a.) 為單位的時鐘的解析度

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.gmtime ([secs])

     將自 *note epoch: 279d. 起以秒表示的時間轉換為 UTC 中的 *note
     struct_time: b58.，其中 dst 旗標始終為零。如果未提供 'secs' 或其為
     *note None: 470.，則使用由 *note time(): 936. 回傳的當前時間。忽略
     秒的分數部分。關於 *note struct_time: b58. 物件的描述，請參閱上文。
     此函式的反運算請參閱 *note calendar.timegm(): 2269.。

 -- 函式: time.localtime ([secs])

     類似於 *note gmtime(): 1051.，但轉換為當地時間。如果未提供 'secs' 或
     其為 *note None: 470.，則使用由 *note time(): 936. 回傳的當前時間。
     當 DST 適用於給定時間時，dst 旗標會被設定為 ‘1’。

     如果時間戳超出 C 平台的 ‘localtime()’ 或 ‘gmtime()’ 函式支援的範圍
     ，*note localtime(): 1370. 可能會引發 *note OverflowError: 6ad.；在
     ‘localtime()’ 或 ‘gmtime()’ 失敗時，會引發 *note OSError: 644.。通
     常會把年份限制在 1970 年到 2038 年之間。

 -- 函式: time.mktime (t)

     這是 *note localtime(): 1370. 的反函式。其引數是表示'當地'時間（不
     是 UTC）的 *note struct_time: b58. 或完整的 9 元組（因為需要 dst 旗
     標；如果 dst 為未知，則使用 ‘-1’ 作為 dst 旗標）。它回傳一個浮點數
     ，以與 *note time(): 936. 相容。如果輸入值不能表示為有效時間，將引
     發 *note OverflowError: 6ad. 或 *note ValueError: 183.（取決於無效
     值是被 Python 還是底層 C 函式庫捕獲）。它能生成時間的最早日期根據平
     台而有所不同。

 -- 函式: time.monotonic () -> float

     回傳單調時鐘（monotonic clock，即不能倒轉的時鐘）的值（以帶有小數的
     秒數表示）。該時鐘不受系統時鐘更新的影響。回傳值的參考點沒有定義，
     因此只有兩次呼叫結果之間的差異才是有效的。

     使用 *note monotonic_ns(): 939. 以避免 *note float: 26a. 型別造成的
     精確度損失。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 此函式現在始終可用且涵蓋整個系統。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 在 macOS 上，此函式現在涵蓋整個系統。

 -- 函式: time.monotonic_ns () -> int

     類似於 *note monotonic(): cfe.，但回傳以奈秒為單位的時間。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.perf_counter () -> float

     回傳性能計數器的值（以帶有小數的秒數表示），即具有最高可用解析度來
     測量短時間間隔的時鐘。它包括睡眠時經過的時間，並且涵蓋整個系統。回
     傳值的參考點沒有定義，因此只有兩次呼叫結果之間的差異才是有效的。

     使用 *note perf_counter_ns(): 93a. 以避免 *note float: 26a. 型別造
     成的精確度損失。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 在 Windows 上，此函式現在涵蓋整個系統。

 -- 函式: time.perf_counter_ns () -> int

     類似於 *note perf_counter(): 8d4.，但回傳以奈秒為單位的時間。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.process_time () -> float

     回傳當前行程的系統和用戶 CPU 時間之和（以帶有小數的秒數表示）。它不
     包括睡眠時經過的時間。根據定義，它涵蓋整個行程。回傳值的參考點沒有
     定義，因此只有兩次呼叫結果之間的差異才是有效的。

     使用 *note process_time_ns(): 93b. 以避免 *note float: 26a. 型別造
     成的精確度損失。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.process_time_ns () -> int

     類似於 *note process_time(): 8d5.，但回傳以奈秒為單位的時間。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.sleep (secs)

     在一個給定的秒數內暫停呼叫執行緒 (calling thread) 的執行。引數可以
     是浮點數，以表示更精確的睡眠時間。

     如果睡眠被訊號中斷且訊號處理器未引發例外，則睡眠將以重新計算過的逾
     時 (timeout) 重新開始。

     由於系統中其他活動的調度，暫停時間可能會比請求的時間長任意的量。

     在 Windows 上，如果 'secs' 為零，則執行緒將其剩餘的時間片段讓給任何
     準備運行的其他執行緒。如果沒有其他執行緒準備運行，該函式將立即回傳
     ，而執行緒會繼續執行。在 Windows 8.1 及更新的版本中，此實作使用高解
     析度計時器(2)，其解析度為 100 奈秒。如果 'secs' 為零，則使用
     ‘Sleep(0)’。

     Unix 實作：

        * 如果可以，使用 ‘clock_nanosleep()’（解析度：1 奈秒）；

        * 或者使用 ‘nanosleep()’（解析度：1 奈秒）；

        * 或使用 ‘select()’（解析度：1 微秒）。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 即使睡眠被訊號中斷，此函式現在至少還是會睡眠
     'secs'，除非訊號處理器引發例外（理由請參閱 PEP 475(3)）。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 在 Unix 上，如果可以的話現在會使用
     ‘clock_nanosleep()’ 和 ‘nanosleep()’ 函式。在 Windows 上，現在使用
     可等待的計時器。

 -- 函式: time.strftime (format[, t])

     將由 *note gmtime(): 1051. 或 *note localtime(): 1370. 回傳代表時間
     的一個元組或 *note struct_time: b58. 轉換為由 'format' 引數指定的字
     串。如果未提供 't'，則使用由 *note localtime(): 1370. 回傳的當前時
     間。'format' 必須是一個字串。如果 't' 中的任何欄位超出允許範圍，將
     會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

     0 在時間元組中的任何位置都是合法引數；如果元組中出現常見的錯誤，該
     值將被強制更改為正確的值。

     以下指令可以嵌入在 'format' 字串中。它們顯示時不帶可選的欄位寬度和
     精度規範，並在 *note strftime(): 107a. 的結果中被標示的字元替換：

     指令            意義                                                 註解
                                                                          
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
     ‘%a’            區域設定的週間日 (weekday) 縮寫名稱。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%A’            區域設定的完整週間日名稱。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%b’            區域設定的縮寫月份名稱。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%B’            區域設定的完整月份名稱。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%c’            區域設定的合適的日期和時間的表示法。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%d’            月份中的日期，表示為十進位數 [01,31]。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%f’            微秒，表示為十進位數                                 (1)
                                                                          
                          [000000,999999]。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%H’            小時（24 小時制），表示為十進位數 [00,23]。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%I’            小時（12 小時制），表示為十進位數 [01,12]。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%j’            一年中的第幾天，表示為十進位數 [001,366]。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%m’            月份，表示為十進位數 [01,12]。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%M’            分鐘，表示為十進位數 [00,59]。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%p’            區域設定中相當於 AM 或 PM 的表示。                   (2)
                                                                          
                                                                          
     ‘%S’            秒，表示為十進位數 [00,61]。                         (3)
                                                                          
                                                                          
     ‘%U’            一年中的週數（星期天作為一週的第一天），表示為十進   (4)
                     位數 [00,53]。新的一年中，在第一個星期天之前的所有   
                     日子都被認定為第 0 週。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%u’            Day of the week (Monday is 1; Sunday is 7) as a
                     decimal number [1, 7].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%w’            週間日，表示為十進位數 [0（星期天）,6]。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%W’            一年中的週數（星期一作為一週的第一天），表示為十進   (4)
                     位數 [00,53]。新的一年中，在第一個星期一之前的所有   
                     日子都被認定為第 0 週。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%x’            區域設定的合適的日期表示法。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%X’            區域設定的合適的時間表示法。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%y’            去掉世紀的年份，表示為十進位數 [00,99]。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%Y’            帶世紀的年份，表示為十進位數。
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%z’            時區偏移量，表示與 UTC/GMT 的正或負時間差，形式為
                     +HHMM 或 -HHMM，其中 H 代表十進位的小時數碼
                     (digits)，M 代表十進位的分鐘數碼 [-23:59, +23:59]。
                     (4)
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%Z’            時區名稱（如果不存在時區，則無字元）。已被棄用。
                     (5)
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%G’            ISO 8601 year (similar to ‘%Y’ but follows the
                     rules for the ISO 8601 calendar year).  The year
                     starts with the week that contains the first
                     Thursday of the calendar year.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%V’            ISO 8601 week number (as a decimal number
                     [01,53]).  The first week of the year is the one
                     that contains the first Thursday of the year.
                     Weeks start on Monday.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%%’            字面意義上的 ‘'%'’ 字元。
                     

     註解：

       1. ‘%f’ 格式的指令僅適用於 *note strptime(): 129d.，不適用於
          *note strftime(): 107a.。然而，在 *note
          datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1408. 和 *note
          datetime.datetime.strftime(): afb. 其中的 ‘%f’ 格式的指令*note
          適用於微秒: 21b8.。

       2. 當與 *note strptime(): 129d. 函式一起使用時，‘%p’ 指令僅在使用
          ‘%I’ 指令剖析小時時影響輸出小時的欄位。

       3. 範圍確實是從 ‘0’ 到 ‘61’；數值 ‘60’ 在表示 leap seconds(6) 的
          時間戳中是有效的，而數值 ‘61’ 是出於歷史因素而被支援。

       4. 當與 *note strptime(): 129d. 函式一起使用時，‘%U’ 和 ‘%W’ 僅在
          指定週間的某天和年份時用於計算中。

     以下是一個範例，其為一種與 RFC 2822(7) 網際網路電子郵件標準中指定的
     日期格式兼容的格式。 (8)：

          >>> from time import gmtime, strftime
          >>> strftime("%a, %d %b %Y %H:%M:%S +0000", gmtime())
          'Thu, 28 Jun 2001 14:17:15 +0000'

     某些平台可能支援額外的指令，但只有這裡列出的指令具有 ANSI C 標準化
     的意義。要查看你的平台上支援的完整格式碼集，請參閱 ‘strftime(3)(9)’
     文件。

     在某些平台上，可選的欄位寬度和精度規範可以以此順序緊跟在指令初始的
     ‘'%'’ 之後；這也是不可攜 (portable) 的。欄位寬度通常為 2，除了 ‘%j’
     為 3。

 -- 函式: time.strptime (string[, format])

     根據格式剖析表示時間的字串。回傳值是 *note struct_time: b58.，如同
     由 *note gmtime(): 1051. 或 *note localtime(): 1370. 回傳的一樣。

     'format' 參數使用與 *note strftime(): 107a. 相同的指令；預設為 ‘"%a
     %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y"’，與 *note ctime(): 21e9. 回傳的格式匹配。如果
     'string' 無法根據 'format' 解析，或剖析後有多餘的資料，將引發 *note
     ValueError: 183.。當無法推斷更精確的值時，用來填充任何缺失資料的預
     設值為 ‘(1900, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, -1)’。'string' 和 'format' 都必
     須是字串。

     例如：

          >>> import time
          >>> time.strptime("30 Nov 00", "%d %b %y")
          time.struct_time(tm_year=2000, tm_mon=11, tm_mday=30, tm_hour=0, tm_min=0,
                           tm_sec=0, tm_wday=3, tm_yday=335, tm_isdst=-1)

     對 ‘%Z’ 指令的支援基於 ‘tzname’ 中包含的值以及 ‘daylight’ 是否為
     true。因此，除了識別始終已知的 UTC 和 GMT（且被考慮為非日光節約時區
     ）外，這是特定於平台的。

     僅支援文檔中指定的指令。由於 ‘strftime()’ 是根據每個平台實作的，有
     時它可以提供比列出的還要更多的指令。但是 ‘strptime()’ 與任何平台無
     關，因此不一定支援所有未記載為支援的指令。

 -- 類別: time.struct_time

     由 *note gmtime(): 1051.、*note localtime(): 1370. 和 *note
     strptime(): 129d. 回傳的時間值序列的型別。它是一個具有 *note named
     tuple: 449. 介面的物件：值可以通過索引和屬性名稱存取。包含以下值：

     索引                                  屬性                                  值
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     0                                      -- 屬性: tm_year                     （例如 1993）
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     1                                      -- 屬性: tm_mon                      範圍 [1, 12]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     2                                      -- 屬性: tm_mday                     範圍 [1, 31]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     3                                      -- 屬性: tm_hour                     範圍 [0, 23]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     4                                      -- 屬性: tm_min                      範圍 [0, 59]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     5                                      -- 屬性: tm_sec                      範圍 [0, 61]；參見
                                                                                 *note strftime(): 107a. 中的
                                                                                 *note 註釋 (2): 29be.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     6                                      -- 屬性: tm_wday                     範圍 [0, 6]；星期一是 0
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     7                                      -- 屬性: tm_yday                     範圍 [1, 366]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     8                                      -- 屬性: tm_isdst                    0、1 或 -1；見下文
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     N/A                                    -- 屬性: tm_zone                     時區名稱的縮寫
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     N/A                                    -- 屬性: tm_gmtoff                   UTC 向東的偏移量（以秒為單位）
                                                                                 

     請注意，與 C 結構不同，月份值的範圍是 [1, 12]，而不是 [0, 11]。

     在呼叫 *note mktime(): 1079. 時，當日光節約時間生效的時候，*note
     tm_isdst: 21fa. 可以設定為 1，不生效時設定為 0。值 -1 表示未知是否
     生效，通常結果會填入正確的狀態。

     當一個長度不正確的元組被傳遞給預期得到 *note struct_time: b58. 的函
     式時，或者其中有元素型別錯誤時，將引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

 -- 函式: time.time () -> float

     回傳自 *note epoch: 279d. 起的時間（秒）至今的浮點數。對 leap
     seconds(10) 的處理是與平台有關的。在 Windows 和大多數 Unix 系統上，
     閏秒不計入自 *note epoch: 279d. 起的秒數中。這通常被稱為 Unix 時間
     (11)。

     請注意，即使時間始終作為浮點數回傳，但並非所有系統都提供比 1 秒還更
     精確的時間。雖然此函式通常回傳非遞減的值，但如果在兩次呼叫之間系統
     時鐘被回調，則它可能回傳比之前呼叫更小的值。

     由 *note time(): 936. 回傳的數字可以通過傳遞給 *note gmtime():
     1051. 函式轉換為 UTC 內更常見的時間格式（即年、月、日、小時等）或通
     過傳遞給 *note localtime(): 1370. 函式轉換為當地時間。在這兩種情況
     下都會回傳一個 *note struct_time: b58. 物件，從中可以作為屬性存取日
     曆日期的組成部分。

     使用 *note time_ns(): 93c. 以避免 *note float: 26a. 型別造成的精確
     度損失。

 -- 函式: time.time_ns () -> int

     類似於 *note time(): 936.，但回傳自 *note epoch: 279d. 起的以奈秒為
     單位的整數。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.thread_time () -> float

     Return the value (in fractional seconds) of the sum of the system
     and user CPU time of the current thread.  It does not include time
     elapsed during sleep.  It is thread-specific by definition.  The
     reference point of the returned value is undefined, so that only
     the difference between the results of two calls in the same thread
     is valid.

     Use *note thread_time_ns(): 9f1. to avoid the precision loss caused
     by the *note float: 26a. type.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux, Unix, Windows.

     Unix systems supporting ‘CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID’.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.thread_time_ns () -> int

     Similar to *note thread_time(): 775. but return time as
     nanoseconds.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: time.tzset ()

     Reset the time conversion rules used by the library routines.  The
     environment variable ‘TZ’ specifies how this is done.  It will also
     set the variables ‘tzname’ (from the ‘TZ’ environment variable),
     ‘timezone’ (non-DST seconds West of UTC), ‘altzone’ (DST seconds
     west of UTC) and ‘daylight’ (to 0 if this timezone does not have
     any daylight saving time rules, or to nonzero if there is a time,
     past, present or future when daylight saving time applies).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

          備註: Although in many cases, changing the ‘TZ’ environment
          variable may affect the output of functions like *note
          localtime(): 1370. without calling *note tzset(): 29c6, this
          behavior should not be relied on.

          The ‘TZ’ environment variable should contain no whitespace.

     The standard format of the ‘TZ’ environment variable is (whitespace
     added for clarity):

          std offset [dst [offset [,start[/time], end[/time]]]]

     Where the components are:

     ‘std’ 和 ‘dst’

          Three or more alphanumerics giving the timezone abbreviations.
          These will be propagated into time.tzname

     ‘offset’

          The offset has the form: ‘± hh[:mm[:ss]]’.  This indicates the
          value added the local time to arrive at UTC. If preceded by a
          '-', the timezone is east of the Prime Meridian; otherwise, it
          is west.  If no offset follows dst, summer time is assumed to
          be one hour ahead of standard time.

     ‘start[/time], end[/time]’

          Indicates when to change to and back from DST. The format of
          the start and end dates are one of the following:

          ‘JN’

               The Julian day 'n' (1 <= 'n' <= 365).  Leap days are not
               counted, so in all years February 28 is day 59 and March
               1 is day 60.

          ‘N’

               The zero-based Julian day (0 <= 'n' <= 365).  Leap days
               are counted, and it is possible to refer to February 29.

          ‘MM.N.D’

               The 'd"th day (0 <= 'd' <= 6) of week 'n' of month 'm' of
               the year (1 <= 'n' <= 5, 1 <= 'm' <= 12, where week 5
               means "the last 'd' day in month 'm'" which may occur in
               either the fourth or the fifth week).  Week 1 is the
               first week in which the 'd"th day occurs.  Day zero is a
               Sunday.

          ‘time’ has the same format as ‘offset’ except that no leading
          sign ('-' or '+') is allowed.  The default, if time is not
          given, is 02:00:00.

          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
          '02:07:36 05/08/03 EDT'
          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
          '16:08:12 05/08/03 AEST'

     On many Unix systems (including *BSD, Linux, Solaris, and Darwin),
     it is more convenient to use the system's zoneinfo
     (‘tzfile(5)(12)’) database to specify the timezone rules.  To do
     this, set the ‘TZ’ environment variable to the path of the required
     timezone datafile, relative to the root of the systems 'zoneinfo'
     timezone database, usually located at ‘/usr/share/zoneinfo’.  For
     example, ‘'US/Eastern'’, ‘'Australia/Melbourne'’, ‘'Egypt'’ or
     ‘'Europe/Amsterdam'’.

          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'US/Eastern'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.tzname
          ('EST', 'EDT')
          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'Egypt'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.tzname
          ('EET', 'EEST')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_getcpuclockid(3)

   (2) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (4) The use of ‘%Z’ is now deprecated, but the ‘%z’ escape that
expands to the preferred hour/minute offset is not supported by all ANSI
C libraries.  Also, a strict reading of the original 1982 RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) standard calls for a
two-digit year (‘%y’ rather than ‘%Y’), but practice moved to 4-digit
years long before the year 2000.  After that, RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) became obsolete and
the 4-digit year has been first recommended by RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html) and then mandated
by RFC 2822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html).

   (5) The use of ‘%Z’ is now deprecated, but the ‘%z’ escape that
expands to the preferred hour/minute offset is not supported by all ANSI
C libraries.  Also, a strict reading of the original 1982 RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) standard calls for a
two-digit year (‘%y’ rather than ‘%Y’), but practice moved to 4-digit
years long before the year 2000.  After that, RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) became obsolete and
the 4-digit year has been first recommended by RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html) and then mandated
by RFC 2822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html).

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (8) The use of ‘%Z’ is now deprecated, but the ‘%z’ escape that
expands to the preferred hour/minute offset is not supported by all ANSI
C libraries.  Also, a strict reading of the original 1982 RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) standard calls for a
two-digit year (‘%y’ rather than ‘%Y’), but practice moved to 4-digit
years long before the year 2000.  After that, RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) became obsolete and
the 4-digit year has been first recommended by RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html) and then mandated
by RFC 2822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html).

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time

   (12) https://manpages.debian.org/tzfile(5)


File: python.info,  Node: Clock ID Constants,  Next: Timezone Constants,  Prev: 函式<4>,  Up: time --- 時間存取與轉換

5.16.3.2 Clock ID Constants
...........................

These constants are used as parameters for *note clock_getres(): ff0.
and *note clock_gettime(): ff1.

 -- 資料: time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME

     Identical to *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 9ee, except it also includes
     any time that the system is suspended.

     This allows applications to get a suspend-aware monotonic clock
     without having to deal with the complications of *note
     CLOCK_REALTIME: 496, which may have discontinuities if the time is
     changed using ‘settimeofday()’ or similar.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.39.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: time.CLOCK_HIGHRES

     The Solaris OS has a ‘CLOCK_HIGHRES’ timer that attempts to use an
     optimal hardware source, and may give close to nanosecond
     resolution.  ‘CLOCK_HIGHRES’ is the nonadjustable, high-resolution
     clock.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Solaris.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC

     Clock that cannot be set and represents monotonic time since some
     unspecified starting point.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW

     Similar to *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 9ee, but provides access to a raw
     hardware-based time that is not subject to NTP adjustments.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.28, macOS >= 10.12.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: time.CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID

     High-resolution per-process timer from the CPU.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: time.CLOCK_PROF

     High-resolution per-process timer from the CPU.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: FreeBSD, NetBSD >= 7, OpenBSD.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: time.CLOCK_TAI

     International Atomic Time(1)

     The system must have a current leap second table in order for this
     to give the correct answer.  PTP or NTP software can maintain a
     leap second table.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 資料: time.CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID

     Thread-specific CPU-time clock.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: time.CLOCK_UPTIME

     Time whose absolute value is the time the system has been running
     and not suspended, providing accurate uptime measurement, both
     absolute and interval.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: FreeBSD, OpenBSD >= 5.5.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW

     Clock that increments monotonically, tracking the time since an
     arbitrary point, unaffected by frequency or time adjustments and
     not incremented while the system is asleep.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: macOS >= 10.12.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

The following constant is the only parameter that can be sent to *note
clock_settime(): ff2.

 -- 資料: time.CLOCK_REALTIME

     System-wide real-time clock.  Setting this clock requires
     appropriate privileges.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/nist-time-frequently-asked-questions-faq#tai


File: python.info,  Node: Timezone Constants,  Prev: Clock ID Constants,  Up: time --- 時間存取與轉換

5.16.3.3 Timezone Constants
...........................

 -- 資料: time.altzone

     The offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if
     one is defined.  This is negative if the local DST timezone is east
     of UTC (as in Western Europe, including the UK). Only use this if
     ‘daylight’ is nonzero.  See note below.

 -- 資料: time.daylight

     Nonzero if a DST timezone is defined.  See note below.

 -- 資料: time.timezone

     The offset of the local (non-DST) timezone, in seconds west of UTC
     (negative in most of Western Europe, positive in the US, zero in
     the UK). See note below.

 -- 資料: time.tzname

     A tuple of two strings: the first is the name of the local non-DST
     timezone, the second is the name of the local DST timezone.  If no
     DST timezone is defined, the second string should not be used.  See
     note below.

     備註: For the above Timezone constants (*note altzone: 29ce, *note
     daylight: 29cf, *note timezone: 29d0, and *note tzname: 29d1.), the
     value is determined by the timezone rules in effect at module load
     time or the last time *note tzset(): 29c6. is called and may be
     incorrect for times in the past.  It is recommended to use the
     *note tm_gmtoff: 29b8. and *note tm_zone: 29b9. results from *note
     localtime(): 1370. to obtain timezone information.

也參考
......

*note datetime: 2e. 模組

     More object-oriented interface to dates and times.

*note locale: 81. 模組

     Internationalization services.  The locale setting affects the
     interpretation of many format specifiers in *note strftime(): 107a.
     and *note strptime(): 129d.

*note calendar: 12. 模組

     General calendar-related functions.  *note timegm(): 2269. is the
     inverse of *note gmtime(): 1051. from this module.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Next: getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器,  Prev: time --- 時間存取與轉換,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.4 ‘argparse’ -- Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

在 3.2 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/argparse.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

教學
....

This page contains the API reference information.  For a more gentle
introduction to Python command-line parsing, have a look at the *note
argparse tutorial: 29d4.

The ‘argparse’ module makes it easy to write user-friendly command-line
interfaces.  The program defines what arguments it requires, and
‘argparse’ will figure out how to parse those out of *note sys.argv:
10f9.  The ‘argparse’ module also automatically generates help and usage
messages.  The module will also issue errors when users give the program
invalid arguments.

The ‘argparse’ module's support for command-line interfaces is built
around an instance of *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 2bb.  It is a
container for argument specifications and has options that apply to the
parser as whole:

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
                         prog='ProgramName',
                         description='What the program does',
                         epilog='Text at the bottom of help')

The *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 151b. method attaches
individual argument specifications to the parser.  It supports
positional arguments, options that accept values, and on/off flags:

     parser.add_argument('filename')           # positional argument
     parser.add_argument('-c', '--count')      # option that takes a value
     parser.add_argument('-v', '--verbose',
                         action='store_true')  # on/off flag

The *note ArgumentParser.parse_args(): 29d5. method runs the parser and
places the extracted data in a *note argparse.Namespace: 29d6. object:

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.filename, args.count, args.verbose)

     備註: If you're looking for a guide about how to upgrade *note
     optparse: 9b. code to ‘argparse’, see *note Upgrading Optparse
     Code: 103f.

* Menu:

* ArgumentParser 物件::
* The add_argument() method: The add_argument method.
* The parse_args() method: The parse_args method.
* Other utilities::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/argparse.py


File: python.info,  Node: ArgumentParser 物件,  Next: The add_argument method,  Up: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.16.4.1 ArgumentParser 物件
............................

 -- 類別: argparse.ArgumentParser (prog=None, usage=None,
          description=None, epilog=None, parents=[],
          formatter_class=argparse.HelpFormatter, prefix_chars='-',
          fromfile_prefix_chars=None, argument_default=None,
          conflict_handler='error', add_help=True, allow_abbrev=True,
          exit_on_error=True)

     Create a new *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. object.  All parameters
     should be passed as keyword arguments.  Each parameter has its own
     more detailed description below, but in short they are:

        * *note prog: 29d8. - The name of the program (default:
          ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’)

        * *note usage: 29d9. - The string describing the program usage
          (default: generated from arguments added to parser)

        * *note description: 29da. - Text to display before the argument
          help (by default, no text)

        * *note epilog: 29db. - Text to display after the argument help
          (by default, no text)

        * *note parents: 29dc. - A list of *note ArgumentParser: 2bb.
          objects whose arguments should also be included

        * *note formatter_class: 29dd. - A class for customizing the
          help output

        * *note prefix_chars: 29de. - The set of characters that prefix
          optional arguments (default: '-')

        * *note fromfile_prefix_chars: 29df. - The set of characters
          that prefix files from which additional arguments should be
          read (default: ‘None’)

        * *note argument_default: 29e0. - The global default value for
          arguments (default: ‘None’)

        * *note conflict_handler: 29e1. - The strategy for resolving
          conflicting optionals (usually unnecessary)

        * *note add_help: 29e2. - Add a ‘-h/--help’ option to the parser
          (default: ‘True’)

        * *note allow_abbrev: c37. - Allows long options to be
          abbreviated if the abbreviation is unambiguous.  (default:
          ‘True’)

        * *note exit_on_error: 29e3. - Determines whether or not
          ‘ArgumentParser’ exits with error info when an error occurs.
          (default: ‘True’)

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'allow_abbrev' 參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: In previous versions, 'allow_abbrev' also disabled
     grouping of short flags such as ‘-vv’ to mean ‘-v -v’.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'exit_on_error' 參數。

The following sections describe how each of these are used.

* Menu:

* prog::
* usage::
* 描述::
* epilog::
* parents::
* formatter_class::
* prefix_chars::
* fromfile_prefix_chars::
* argument_default::
* allow_abbrev::
* conflict_handler::
* add_help::
* exit_on_error::


File: python.info,  Node: prog,  Next: usage,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.2 prog
.............

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. calculates the name of the
program to display in help messages depending on the way the Python
interpreter was run:

   * The *note base name: 254d. of ‘sys.argv[0]’ if a file was passed as
     argument.

   * The Python interpreter name followed by ‘sys.argv[0]’ if a
     directory or a zipfile was passed as argument.

   * The Python interpreter name followed by ‘-m’ followed by the module
     or package name if the *note -m: 3d4. option was used.

This default is almost always desirable because it will make the help
messages match the string that was used to invoke the program on the
command line.  However, to change this default behavior, another value
can be supplied using the ‘prog=’ argument to *note ArgumentParser:
2bb.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: myprogram [-h]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

Note that the program name, whether determined from ‘sys.argv[0]’ or
from the ‘prog=’ argument, is available to help messages using the
‘%(prog)s’ format specifier.

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo of the %(prog)s program')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: myprogram [-h] [--foo FOO]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO   foo of the myprogram program


File: python.info,  Node: usage,  Next: 描述,  Prev: prog,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.3 usage
..............

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. calculates the usage message from
the arguments it contains.  The default message can be overridden with
the ‘usage=’ keyword argument:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', usage='%(prog)s [options]')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', help='foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='+', help='bar help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [options]

     positional arguments:
      bar          bar help

     options:
      -h, --help   show this help message and exit
      --foo [FOO]  foo help

The ‘%(prog)s’ format specifier is available to fill in the program name
in your usage messages.


File: python.info,  Node: 描述,  Next: epilog,  Prev: usage,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.4 描述
.............

Most calls to the *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. constructor will use the
‘description=’ keyword argument.  This argument gives a brief
description of what the program does and how it works.  In help
messages, the description is displayed between the command-line usage
string and the help messages for the various arguments.

By default, the description will be line-wrapped so that it fits within
the given space.  To change this behavior, see the *note
formatter_class: 29dd. argument.


File: python.info,  Node: epilog,  Next: parents,  Prev: 描述,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.5 epilog
...............

Some programs like to display additional description of the program
after the description of the arguments.  Such text can be specified
using the ‘epilog=’ argument to *note ArgumentParser: 2bb.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     description='A foo that bars',
     ...     epilog="And that's how you'd foo a bar")
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: argparse.py [-h]

     A foo that bars

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

     And that's how you'd foo a bar

As with the *note description: 29da. argument, the ‘epilog=’ text is by
default line-wrapped, but this behavior can be adjusted with the *note
formatter_class: 29dd. argument to *note ArgumentParser: 2bb.


File: python.info,  Node: parents,  Next: formatter_class,  Prev: epilog,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.6 parents
................

Sometimes, several parsers share a common set of arguments.  Rather than
repeating the definitions of these arguments, a single parser with all
the shared arguments and passed to ‘parents=’ argument to *note
ArgumentParser: 2bb. can be used.  The ‘parents=’ argument takes a list
of *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. objects, collects all the positional and
optional actions from them, and adds these actions to the *note
ArgumentParser: 2bb. object being constructed:

     >>> parent_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(add_help=False)
     >>> parent_parser.add_argument('--parent', type=int)

     >>> foo_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
     >>> foo_parser.add_argument('foo')
     >>> foo_parser.parse_args(['--parent', '2', 'XXX'])
     Namespace(foo='XXX', parent=2)

     >>> bar_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
     >>> bar_parser.add_argument('--bar')
     >>> bar_parser.parse_args(['--bar', 'YYY'])
     Namespace(bar='YYY', parent=None)

Note that most parent parsers will specify ‘add_help=False’.  Otherwise,
the *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. will see two ‘-h/--help’ options (one in
the parent and one in the child) and raise an error.

     備註: You must fully initialize the parsers before passing them via
     ‘parents=’.  If you change the parent parsers after the child
     parser, those changes will not be reflected in the child.


File: python.info,  Node: formatter_class,  Next: prefix_chars,  Prev: parents,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.7 formatter_class
........................

*note ArgumentParser: 2bb. objects allow the help formatting to be
customized by specifying an alternate formatting class.  Currently,
there are four such classes:

 -- 類別: argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter
 -- 類別: argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter
 -- 類別: argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
 -- 類別: argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter

*note RawDescriptionHelpFormatter: 29e7. and *note RawTextHelpFormatter:
29e8. give more control over how textual descriptions are displayed.  By
default, *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. objects line-wrap the *note
description: 29da. and *note epilog: 29db. texts in command-line help
messages:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     description='''this description
     ...         was indented weird
     ...             but that is okay''',
     ...     epilog='''
     ...             likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will
     ...         be cleaned up and whose words will be wrapped
     ...         across a couple lines''')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h]

     this description was indented weird but that is okay

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

     likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will be cleaned up and whose words
     will be wrapped across a couple lines

Passing *note RawDescriptionHelpFormatter: 29e7. as ‘formatter_class=’
indicates that *note description: 29da. and *note epilog: 29db. are
already correctly formatted and should not be line-wrapped:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter,
     ...     description=textwrap.dedent('''\
     ...         Please do not mess up this text!
     ...         --------------------------------
     ...             I have indented it
     ...             exactly the way
     ...             I want it
     ...         '''))
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h]

     Please do not mess up this text!
     --------------------------------
        I have indented it
        exactly the way
        I want it

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

*note RawTextHelpFormatter: 29e8. maintains whitespace for all sorts of
help text, including argument descriptions.  However, multiple newlines
are replaced with one.  If you wish to preserve multiple blank lines,
add spaces between the newlines.

*note ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter: 166e. automatically adds
information about default values to each of the argument help messages:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int, default=42, help='FOO!')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='*', default=[1, 2, 3], help='BAR!')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar ...]

     positional arguments:
      bar         BAR! (default: [1, 2, 3])

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO   FOO! (default: 42)

*note MetavarTypeHelpFormatter: 29e9. uses the name of the *note type:
29ea. argument for each argument as the display name for its values
(rather than using the *note dest: 29eb. as the regular formatter does):

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', type=float)
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo int] float

     positional arguments:
       float

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       --foo int


File: python.info,  Node: prefix_chars,  Next: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Prev: formatter_class,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.8 prefix_chars
.....................

Most command-line options will use ‘-’ as the prefix, e.g.  ‘-f/--foo’.
Parsers that need to support different or additional prefix characters,
e.g.  for options like ‘+f’ or ‘/foo’, may specify them using the
‘prefix_chars=’ argument to the *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. constructor:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='-+')
     >>> parser.add_argument('+f')
     >>> parser.add_argument('++bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('+f X ++bar Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='Y', f='X')

The ‘prefix_chars=’ argument defaults to ‘'-'’.  Supplying a set of
characters that does not include ‘-’ will cause ‘-f/--foo’ options to be
disallowed.


File: python.info,  Node: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Next: argument_default,  Prev: prefix_chars,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.9 fromfile_prefix_chars
..............................

Sometimes, when dealing with a particularly long argument list, it may
make sense to keep the list of arguments in a file rather than typing it
out at the command line.  If the ‘fromfile_prefix_chars=’ argument is
given to the *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. constructor, then arguments that
start with any of the specified characters will be treated as files, and
will be replaced by the arguments they contain.  For example:

     >>> with open('args.txt', 'w', encoding=sys.getfilesystemencoding()) as fp:
     ...     fp.write('-f\nbar')
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(fromfile_prefix_chars='@')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-f', 'foo', '@args.txt'])
     Namespace(f='bar')

Arguments read from a file must by default be one per line (but see also
*note convert_arg_line_to_args(): 29ec.) and are treated as if they were
in the same place as the original file referencing argument on the
command line.  So in the example above, the expression ‘['-f', 'foo',
'@args.txt']’ is considered equivalent to the expression ‘['-f', 'foo',
'-f', 'bar']’.

*note ArgumentParser: 2bb. uses *note filesystem encoding and error
handler: 2bd. to read the file containing arguments.

The ‘fromfile_prefix_chars=’ argument defaults to ‘None’, meaning that
arguments will never be treated as file references.

在 3.12 版的變更: *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. changed encoding and errors
to read arguments files from default (e.g.  *note
locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 2bc. and ‘"strict"’) to the *note
filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.  Arguments file should be
encoded in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: argument_default,  Next: allow_abbrev,  Prev: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.10 argument_default
..........................

Generally, argument defaults are specified either by passing a default
to *note add_argument(): 151b. or by calling the *note set_defaults():
29ed. methods with a specific set of name-value pairs.  Sometimes
however, it may be useful to specify a single parser-wide default for
arguments.  This can be accomplished by passing the ‘argument_default=’
keyword argument to *note ArgumentParser: 2bb.  For example, to globally
suppress attribute creation on *note parse_args(): 29d5. calls, we
supply ‘argument_default=SUPPRESS’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(argument_default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1', 'BAR'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='1')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace()


File: python.info,  Node: allow_abbrev,  Next: conflict_handler,  Prev: argument_default,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.11 allow_abbrev
......................

Normally, when you pass an argument list to the *note parse_args():
29d5. method of an *note ArgumentParser: 2bb, it *note recognizes
abbreviations: c36. of long options.

This feature can be disabled by setting ‘allow_abbrev’ to ‘False’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', allow_abbrev=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foobar', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foonley', action='store_false')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foon'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foobar] [--foonley]
     PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: --foon

在 3.5 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: conflict_handler,  Next: add_help,  Prev: allow_abbrev,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.12 conflict_handler
..........................

*note ArgumentParser: 2bb. objects do not allow two actions with the
same option string.  By default, *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. objects
raise an exception if an attempt is made to create an argument with an
option string that is already in use:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ..
     ArgumentError: argument --foo: conflicting option string(s): --foo

Sometimes (e.g.  when using *note parents: 29dc.) it may be useful to
simply override any older arguments with the same option string.  To get
this behavior, the value ‘'resolve'’ can be supplied to the
‘conflict_handler=’ argument of *note ArgumentParser: 2bb.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', conflict_handler='resolve')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] [--foo FOO]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      -f FOO      old foo help
      --foo FOO   new foo help

Note that *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. objects only remove an action if
all of its option strings are overridden.  So, in the example above, the
old ‘-f/--foo’ action is retained as the ‘-f’ action, because only the
‘--foo’ option string was overridden.


File: python.info,  Node: add_help,  Next: exit_on_error,  Prev: conflict_handler,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.13 add_help
..................

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. objects add an option which
simply displays the parser's help message.  If ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ is
supplied at the command line, the ‘ArgumentParser’ help will be printed.

Occasionally, it may be useful to disable the addition of this help
option.  This can be achieved by passing ‘False’ as the ‘add_help=’
argument to *note ArgumentParser: 2bb.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [--foo FOO]

     options:
      --foo FOO  foo help

The help option is typically ‘-h/--help’.  The exception to this is if
the ‘prefix_chars=’ is specified and does not include ‘-’, in which case
‘-h’ and ‘--help’ are not valid options.  In this case, the first
character in ‘prefix_chars’ is used to prefix the help options:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='+/')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [+h]

     options:
       +h, ++help  show this help message and exit


File: python.info,  Node: exit_on_error,  Prev: add_help,  Up: ArgumentParser 物件

5.16.4.14 exit_on_error
.......................

Normally, when you pass an invalid argument list to the *note
parse_args(): 29d5. method of an *note ArgumentParser: 2bb, it will
print a 'message' to *note sys.stderr: 778. and exit with a status code
of 2.

If the user would like to catch errors manually, the feature can be
enabled by setting ‘exit_on_error’ to ‘False’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(exit_on_error=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--integers', type=int)
     _StoreAction(option_strings=['--integers'], dest='integers', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type=<class 'int'>, choices=None, help=None, metavar=None)
     >>> try:
     ...     parser.parse_args('--integers a'.split())
     ... except argparse.ArgumentError:
     ...     print('Catching an argumentError')
     ...
     Catching an argumentError

在 3.9 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: The add_argument method,  Next: The parse_args method,  Prev: ArgumentParser 物件,  Up: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.16.4.15 The add_argument() method
...................................

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.add_argument (name or flags..., *[, action][,
          nargs][, const][, default][, type][, choices][, required][,
          help][, metavar][, dest])

     Define how a single command-line argument should be parsed.  Each
     parameter has its own more detailed description below, but in short
     they are:

        * *note name or flags: 29f0. - Either a name or a list of option
          strings, e.g.  ‘'foo'’ or ‘'-f', '--foo'’.

        * *note action: 29f1. - The basic type of action to be taken
          when this argument is encountered at the command line.

        * *note nargs: 13e0. - The number of command-line arguments that
          should be consumed.

        * *note const: 29f2. - A constant value required by some *note
          action: 29f1. and *note nargs: 13e0. selections.

        * *note default: 29f3. - The value produced if the argument is
          absent from the command line and if it is absent from the
          namespace object.

        * *note type: 29ea. - The type to which the command-line
          argument should be converted.

        * *note choices: 13df. - A sequence of the allowable values for
          the argument.

        * *note required: 29f4. - Whether or not the command-line option
          may be omitted (optionals only).

        * *note help: 29f5. - A brief description of what the argument
          does.

        * *note metavar: 29f6. - A name for the argument in usage
          messages.

        * *note dest: 29eb. - The name of the attribute to be added to
          the object returned by *note parse_args(): 29d5.

The following sections describe how each of these are used.

* Menu:

* name or flags::
* action::
* nargs::
* const::
* default::
* type::
* choices::
* required::
* 幫助::
* metavar::
* dest::
* Action classes::


File: python.info,  Node: name or flags,  Next: action,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.16 name or flags
.......................

The *note add_argument(): 151b. method must know whether an optional
argument, like ‘-f’ or ‘--foo’, or a positional argument, like a list of
filenames, is expected.  The first arguments passed to *note
add_argument(): 151b. must therefore be either a series of flags, or a
simple argument name.

For example, an optional argument could be created like:

     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')

while a positional argument could be created like:

     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')

When *note parse_args(): 29d5. is called, optional arguments will be
identified by the ‘-’ prefix, and the remaining arguments will be
assumed to be positional:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=None)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR', '--foo', 'FOO'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='FOO')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] bar
     PROG: error: the following arguments are required: bar


File: python.info,  Node: action,  Next: nargs,  Prev: name or flags,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.17 action
................

*note ArgumentParser: 2bb. objects associate command-line arguments with
actions.  These actions can do just about anything with the command-line
arguments associated with them, though most actions simply add an
attribute to the object returned by *note parse_args(): 29d5.  The
‘action’ keyword argument specifies how the command-line arguments
should be handled.  The supplied actions are:

   * ‘'store'’ - This just stores the argument's value.  This is the
     default action.

   * ‘'store_const'’ - This stores the value specified by the *note
     const: 29f2. keyword argument; note that the *note const: 29f2.
     keyword argument defaults to ‘None’.  The ‘'store_const'’ action is
     most commonly used with optional arguments that specify some sort
     of flag.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_const', const=42)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
          Namespace(foo=42)

   * ‘'store_true'’ and ‘'store_false'’ - These are special cases of
     ‘'store_const'’ used for storing the values ‘True’ and ‘False’
     respectively.  In addition, they create default values of ‘False’
     and ‘True’ respectively:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--baz', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args('--foo --bar'.split())
          Namespace(foo=True, bar=False, baz=True)

   * ‘'append'’ - This stores a list, and appends each argument value to
     the list.  It is useful to allow an option to be specified multiple
     times.  If the default value is non-empty, the default elements
     will be present in the parsed value for the option, with any values
     from the command line appended after those default values.  Example
     usage:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='append')
          >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 --foo 2'.split())
          Namespace(foo=['1', '2'])

   * ‘'append_const'’ - This stores a list, and appends the value
     specified by the *note const: 29f2. keyword argument to the list;
     note that the *note const: 29f2. keyword argument defaults to
     ‘None’.  The ‘'append_const'’ action is typically useful when
     multiple arguments need to store constants to the same list.  For
     example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--str', dest='types', action='append_const', const=str)
          >>> parser.add_argument('--int', dest='types', action='append_const', const=int)
          >>> parser.parse_args('--str --int'.split())
          Namespace(types=[<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>])

   * ‘'extend'’ - This stores a list and appends each item from the
     multi-value argument list to it.  The ‘'extend'’ action is
     typically used with the *note nargs: 13e0. keyword argument value
     ‘'+'’ or ‘'*'’.  Note that when *note nargs: 13e0. is ‘None’ (the
     default) or ‘'?'’, each character of the argument string will be
     appended to the list.  Example usage:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument("--foo", action="extend", nargs="+", type=str)
          >>> parser.parse_args(["--foo", "f1", "--foo", "f2", "f3", "f4"])
          Namespace(foo=['f1', 'f2', 'f3', 'f4'])

     在 3.8 版被加入.

   * ‘'count'’ - This counts the number of times a keyword argument
     occurs.  For example, this is useful for increasing verbosity
     levels:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--verbose', '-v', action='count', default=0)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-vvv'])
          Namespace(verbose=3)

     Note, the 'default' will be ‘None’ unless explicitly set to '0'.

   * ‘'help'’ - This prints a complete help message for all the options
     in the current parser and then exits.  By default a help action is
     automatically added to the parser.  See *note ArgumentParser: 2bb.
     for details of how the output is created.

   * ‘'version'’ - This expects a ‘version=’ keyword argument in the
     *note add_argument(): 151b. call, and prints version information
     and exits when invoked:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--version', action='version', version='%(prog)s 2.0')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--version'])
          PROG 2.0

Only actions that consume command-line arguments (e.g.  ‘'store'’,
‘'append'’ or ‘'extend'’) can be used with positional arguments.

 -- 類別: argparse.BooleanOptionalAction

     You may also specify an arbitrary action by passing an *note
     Action: 15cd. subclass or other object that implements the same
     interface.  The ‘BooleanOptionalAction’ is available in ‘argparse’
     and adds support for boolean actions such as ‘--foo’ and
     ‘--no-foo’:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=argparse.BooleanOptionalAction)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--no-foo'])
          Namespace(foo=False)

     在 3.9 版被加入.

The recommended way to create a custom action is to extend *note Action:
15cd, overriding the ‘__call__()’ method and optionally the ‘__init__()’
and ‘format_usage()’ methods.

An example of a custom action:

     >>> class FooAction(argparse.Action):
     ...     def __init__(self, option_strings, dest, nargs=None, **kwargs):
     ...         if nargs is not None:
     ...             raise ValueError("nargs not allowed")
     ...         super().__init__(option_strings, dest, **kwargs)
     ...     def __call__(self, parser, namespace, values, option_string=None):
     ...         print('%r %r %r' % (namespace, values, option_string))
     ...         setattr(namespace, self.dest, values)
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=FooAction)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', action=FooAction)
     >>> args = parser.parse_args('1 --foo 2'.split())
     Namespace(bar=None, foo=None) '1' None
     Namespace(bar='1', foo=None) '2' '--foo'
     >>> args
     Namespace(bar='1', foo='2')

For more details, see *note Action: 15cd.


File: python.info,  Node: nargs,  Next: const,  Prev: action,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.18 nargs
...............

*note ArgumentParser: 2bb. objects usually associate a single
command-line argument with a single action to be taken.  The ‘nargs’
keyword argument associates a different number of command-line arguments
with a single action.  See also *note 指定不明確的引數: 29fa.  The
supported values are:

   * ‘N’ (an integer).  ‘N’ arguments from the command line will be
     gathered together into a list.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2)
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs=1)
          >>> parser.parse_args('c --foo a b'.split())
          Namespace(bar=['c'], foo=['a', 'b'])

     Note that ‘nargs=1’ produces a list of one item.  This is different
     from the default, in which the item is produced by itself.

   * ‘'?'’.  One argument will be consumed from the command line if
     possible, and produced as a single item.  If no command-line
     argument is present, the value from *note default: 29f3. will be
     produced.  Note that for optional arguments, there is an additional
     case - the option string is present but not followed by a
     command-line argument.  In this case the value from *note const:
     29f2. will be produced.  Some examples to illustrate this:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', const='c', default='d')
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', default='d')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo', 'YY'])
          Namespace(bar='XX', foo='YY')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo'])
          Namespace(bar='XX', foo='c')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(bar='d', foo='d')

     One of the more common uses of ‘nargs='?'’ is to allow optional
     input and output files:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('infile', nargs='?', type=argparse.FileType('r'),
          ...                     default=sys.stdin)
          >>> parser.add_argument('outfile', nargs='?', type=argparse.FileType('w'),
          ...                     default=sys.stdout)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['input.txt', 'output.txt'])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='input.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>,
                    outfile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='output.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>)
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>,
                    outfile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdout>' encoding='UTF-8'>)

   * ‘'*'’.  All command-line arguments present are gathered into a
     list.  Note that it generally doesn't make much sense to have more
     than one positional argument with ‘nargs='*'’, but multiple
     optional arguments with ‘nargs='*'’ is possible.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.add_argument('baz', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.parse_args('a b --foo x y --bar 1 2'.split())
          Namespace(bar=['1', '2'], baz=['a', 'b'], foo=['x', 'y'])

   * ‘'+'’.  Just like ‘'*'’, all command-line args present are gathered
     into a list.  Additionally, an error message will be generated if
     there wasn't at least one command-line argument present.  For
     example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='+')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', 'b'])
          Namespace(foo=['a', 'b'])
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          usage: PROG [-h] foo [foo ...]
          PROG: error: the following arguments are required: foo

If the ‘nargs’ keyword argument is not provided, the number of arguments
consumed is determined by the *note action: 29f1.  Generally this means
a single command-line argument will be consumed and a single item (not a
list) will be produced.  Actions that do not consume command-line
arguments (e.g.  ‘'store_const'’) set ‘nargs=0’.


File: python.info,  Node: const,  Next: default,  Prev: nargs,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.19 const
...............

The ‘const’ argument of *note add_argument(): 151b. is used to hold
constant values that are not read from the command line but are required
for the various *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. actions.  The two most common
uses of it are:

   * When *note add_argument(): 151b. is called with
     ‘action='store_const'’ or ‘action='append_const'’.  These actions
     add the ‘const’ value to one of the attributes of the object
     returned by *note parse_args(): 29d5.  See the *note action: 29f1.
     description for examples.  If ‘const’ is not provided to *note
     add_argument(): 151b, it will receive a default value of ‘None’.

   * When *note add_argument(): 151b. is called with option strings
     (like ‘-f’ or ‘--foo’) and ‘nargs='?'’.  This creates an optional
     argument that can be followed by zero or one command-line
     arguments.  When parsing the command line, if the option string is
     encountered with no command-line argument following it, the value
     of ‘const’ will be assumed to be ‘None’ instead.  See the *note
     nargs: 13e0. description for examples.

在 3.11 版的變更: ‘const=None’ by default, including when
‘action='append_const'’ or ‘action='store_const'’.


File: python.info,  Node: default,  Next: type,  Prev: const,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.20 default
.................

All optional arguments and some positional arguments may be omitted at
the command line.  The ‘default’ keyword argument of *note
add_argument(): 151b, whose value defaults to ‘None’, specifies what
value should be used if the command-line argument is not present.  For
optional arguments, the ‘default’ value is used when the option string
was not present at the command line:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '2'])
     Namespace(foo='2')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(foo=42)

If the target namespace already has an attribute set, the action
'default' will not overwrite it:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args([], namespace=argparse.Namespace(foo=101))
     Namespace(foo=101)

If the ‘default’ value is a string, the parser parses the value as if it
were a command-line argument.  In particular, the parser applies any
*note type: 29ea. conversion argument, if provided, before setting the
attribute on the *note Namespace: 29d6. return value.  Otherwise, the
parser uses the value as is:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--length', default='10', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--width', default=10.5, type=int)
     >>> parser.parse_args()
     Namespace(length=10, width=10.5)

For positional arguments with *note nargs: 13e0. equal to ‘?’ or ‘*’,
the ‘default’ value is used when no command-line argument was present:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['a'])
     Namespace(foo='a')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(foo=42)

For *note required: 29f4. arguments, the ‘default’ value is ignored.
For example, this applies to positional arguments with *note nargs:
13e0. values other than ‘?’ or ‘*’, or optional arguments marked as
‘required=True’.

Providing ‘default=argparse.SUPPRESS’ causes no attribute to be added if
the command-line argument was not present:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace()
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1'])
     Namespace(foo='1')


File: python.info,  Node: type,  Next: choices,  Prev: default,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.21 type
..............

By default, the parser reads command-line arguments in as simple
strings.  However, quite often the command-line string should instead be
interpreted as another type, such as a *note float: 26a. or *note int:
17e.  The ‘type’ keyword for *note add_argument(): 151b. allows any
necessary type-checking and type conversions to be performed.

If the *note type: 29ea. keyword is used with the *note default: 29f3.
keyword, the type converter is only applied if the default is a string.

The argument to ‘type’ can be any callable that accepts a single string.
If the function raises *note ArgumentTypeError: 29fe, *note TypeError:
2ba, or *note ValueError: 183, the exception is caught and a nicely
formatted error message is displayed.  No other exception types are
handled.

Common built-in types and functions can be used as type converters:

     import argparse
     import pathlib

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('count', type=int)
     parser.add_argument('distance', type=float)
     parser.add_argument('street', type=ascii)
     parser.add_argument('code_point', type=ord)
     parser.add_argument('dest_file', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='latin-1'))
     parser.add_argument('datapath', type=pathlib.Path)

User defined functions can be used as well:

     >>> def hyphenated(string):
     ...     return '-'.join([word[:4] for word in string.casefold().split()])
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> _ = parser.add_argument('short_title', type=hyphenated)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['"The Tale of Two Cities"'])
     Namespace(short_title='"the-tale-of-two-citi')

The *note bool(): 17d. function is not recommended as a type converter.
All it does is convert empty strings to ‘False’ and non-empty strings to
‘True’.  This is usually not what is desired.

In general, the ‘type’ keyword is a convenience that should only be used
for simple conversions that can only raise one of the three supported
exceptions.  Anything with more interesting error-handling or resource
management should be done downstream after the arguments are parsed.

For example, JSON or YAML conversions have complex error cases that
require better reporting than can be given by the ‘type’ keyword.  A
*note JSONDecodeError: c9a. would not be well formatted and a *note
FileNotFoundError: d46. exception would not be handled at all.

Even *note FileType: da4. has its limitations for use with the ‘type’
keyword.  If one argument uses *note FileType: da4. and then a
subsequent argument fails, an error is reported but the file is not
automatically closed.  In this case, it would be better to wait until
after the parser has run and then use the *note with: 3c5.-statement to
manage the files.

For type checkers that simply check against a fixed set of values,
consider using the *note choices: 13df. keyword instead.


File: python.info,  Node: choices,  Next: required,  Prev: type,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.22 choices
.................

Some command-line arguments should be selected from a restricted set of
values.  These can be handled by passing a sequence object as the
'choices' keyword argument to *note add_argument(): 151b.  When the
command line is parsed, argument values will be checked, and an error
message will be displayed if the argument was not one of the acceptable
values:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='game.py')
     >>> parser.add_argument('move', choices=['rock', 'paper', 'scissors'])
     >>> parser.parse_args(['rock'])
     Namespace(move='rock')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['fire'])
     usage: game.py [-h] {rock,paper,scissors}
     game.py: error: argument move: invalid choice: 'fire' (choose from 'rock',
     'paper', 'scissors')

Note that inclusion in the 'choices' sequence is checked after any *note
type: 29ea. conversions have been performed, so the type of the objects
in the 'choices' sequence should match the *note type: 29ea. specified.

Any sequence can be passed as the 'choices' value, so *note list: 40a.
objects, *note tuple: 4e6. objects, and custom sequences are all
supported.

Use of *note enum.Enum: 42b. is not recommended because it is difficult
to control its appearance in usage, help, and error messages.

Formatted choices override the default 'metavar' which is normally
derived from 'dest'.  This is usually what you want because the user
never sees the 'dest' parameter.  If this display isn't desirable
(perhaps because there are many choices), just specify an explicit *note
metavar: 29f6.


File: python.info,  Node: required,  Next: 幫助,  Prev: choices,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.23 required
..................

In general, the ‘argparse’ module assumes that flags like ‘-f’ and
‘--bar’ indicate 'optional' arguments, which can always be omitted at
the command line.  To make an option 'required', ‘True’ can be specified
for the ‘required=’ keyword argument to *note add_argument(): 151b.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', required=True)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
     Namespace(foo='BAR')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     usage: [-h] --foo FOO
     : error: the following arguments are required: --foo

As the example shows, if an option is marked as ‘required’, *note
parse_args(): 29d5. will report an error if that option is not present
at the command line.

     備註: Required options are generally considered bad form because
     users expect 'options' to be 'optional', and thus they should be
     avoided when possible.


File: python.info,  Node: 幫助,  Next: metavar,  Prev: required,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.24 幫助
..............

The ‘help’ value is a string containing a brief description of the
argument.  When a user requests help (usually by using ‘-h’ or ‘--help’
at the command line), these ‘help’ descriptions will be displayed with
each argument.

The ‘help’ strings can include various format specifiers to avoid
repetition of things like the program name or the argument *note
default: 29f3.  The available specifiers include the program name,
‘%(prog)s’ and most keyword arguments to *note add_argument(): 151b,
e.g.  ‘%(default)s’, ‘%(type)s’, etc.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', type=int, default=42,
     ...                     help='the bar to %(prog)s (default: %(default)s)')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: frobble [-h] [bar]

     positional arguments:
      bar     the bar to frobble (default: 42)

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

As the help string supports %-formatting, if you want a literal ‘%’ to
appear in the help string, you must escape it as ‘%%’.

‘argparse’ supports silencing the help entry for certain options, by
setting the ‘help’ value to ‘argparse.SUPPRESS’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: frobble [-h]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit


File: python.info,  Node: metavar,  Next: dest,  Prev: 幫助,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.25 metavar
.................

When *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. generates help messages, it needs some
way to refer to each expected argument.  By default, ‘ArgumentParser’
objects use the *note dest: 29eb. value as the "name" of each object.
By default, for positional argument actions, the *note dest: 29eb. value
is used directly, and for optional argument actions, the *note dest:
29eb. value is uppercased.  So, a single positional argument with
‘dest='bar'’ will be referred to as ‘bar’.  A single optional argument
‘--foo’ that should be followed by a single command-line argument will
be referred to as ‘FOO’.  An example:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage:  [-h] [--foo FOO] bar

     positional arguments:
      bar

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO

An alternative name can be specified with ‘metavar’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', metavar='YYY')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', metavar='XXX')
     >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage:  [-h] [--foo YYY] XXX

     positional arguments:
      XXX

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo YYY

Note that ‘metavar’ only changes the 'displayed' name - the name of the
attribute on the *note parse_args(): 29d5. object is still determined by
the *note dest: 29eb. value.

Different values of ‘nargs’ may cause the metavar to be used multiple
times.  Providing a tuple to ‘metavar’ specifies a different display for
each of the arguments:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', nargs=2)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2, metavar=('bar', 'baz'))
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [-x X X] [--foo bar baz]

     options:
      -h, --help     show this help message and exit
      -x X X
      --foo bar baz


File: python.info,  Node: dest,  Next: Action classes,  Prev: metavar,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.26 dest
..............

Most *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. actions add some value as an attribute
of the object returned by *note parse_args(): 29d5.  The name of this
attribute is determined by the ‘dest’ keyword argument of *note
add_argument(): 151b.  For positional argument actions, ‘dest’ is
normally supplied as the first argument to *note add_argument(): 151b.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['XXX'])
     Namespace(bar='XXX')

For optional argument actions, the value of ‘dest’ is normally inferred
from the option strings.  *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. generates the value
of ‘dest’ by taking the first long option string and stripping away the
initial ‘--’ string.  If no long option strings were supplied, ‘dest’
will be derived from the first short option string by stripping the
initial ‘-’ character.  Any internal ‘-’ characters will be converted to
‘_’ characters to make sure the string is a valid attribute name.  The
examples below illustrate this behavior:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo-bar', '--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', '-y')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-f 1 -x 2'.split())
     Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')
     >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 -y 2'.split())
     Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')

‘dest’ allows a custom attribute name to be provided:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', dest='bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('--foo XXX'.split())
     Namespace(bar='XXX')


File: python.info,  Node: Action classes,  Prev: dest,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.27 Action classes
........................

‘Action’ classes implement the Action API, a callable which returns a
callable which processes arguments from the command-line.  Any object
which follows this API may be passed as the ‘action’ parameter to *note
add_argument(): 151b.

 -- 類別: argparse.Action (option_strings, dest, nargs=None, const=None,
          default=None, type=None, choices=None, required=False,
          help=None, metavar=None)

     ‘Action’ objects are used by an *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. to
     represent the information needed to parse a single argument from
     one or more strings from the command line.  The ‘Action’ class must
     accept the two positional arguments plus any keyword arguments
     passed to *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 151b. except for the
     ‘action’ itself.

     Instances of ‘Action’ (or return value of any callable to the
     ‘action’ parameter) should have attributes ‘dest’,
     ‘option_strings’, ‘default’, ‘type’, ‘required’, ‘help’, etc.
     defined.  The easiest way to ensure these attributes are defined is
     to call ‘Action.__init__()’.

      -- 方法: __call__ (parser, namespace, values, option_string=None)

          ‘Action’ instances should be callable, so subclasses must
          override the ‘__call__()’ method, which should accept four
          parameters:

             * 'parser' - The *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. object which
               contains this action.

             * 'namespace' - The *note Namespace: 29d6. object that will
               be returned by *note parse_args(): 29d5.  Most actions
               add an attribute to this object using *note setattr():
               1eec.

             * 'values' - The associated command-line arguments, with
               any type conversions applied.  Type conversions are
               specified with the *note type: 29ea. keyword argument to
               *note add_argument(): 151b.

             * 'option_string' - The option string that was used to
               invoke this action.  The ‘option_string’ argument is
               optional, and will be absent if the action is associated
               with a positional argument.

          The ‘__call__()’ method may perform arbitrary actions, but
          will typically set attributes on the ‘namespace’ based on
          ‘dest’ and ‘values’.

      -- 方法: format_usage ()

          ‘Action’ subclasses can define a ‘format_usage()’ method that
          takes no argument and return a string which will be used when
          printing the usage of the program.  If such method is not
          provided, a sensible default will be used.


File: python.info,  Node: The parse_args method,  Next: Other utilities,  Prev: The add_argument method,  Up: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.16.4.28 The parse_args() method
.................................

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.parse_args (args=None, namespace=None)

     Convert argument strings to objects and assign them as attributes
     of the namespace.  Return the populated namespace.

     Previous calls to *note add_argument(): 151b. determine exactly
     what objects are created and how they are assigned.  See the
     documentation for ‘add_argument()’ for details.

        * *note args: 2a08. - List of strings to parse.  The default is
          taken from *note sys.argv: 10f9.

        * *note namespace: 2a09. - An object to take the attributes.
          The default is a new empty *note Namespace: 29d6. object.

* Menu:

* Option value syntax::
* Invalid arguments::
* Arguments containing -::
* Argument abbreviations (prefix matching): Argument abbreviations prefix matching.
* Beyond sys.argv: Beyond sys argv.
* The Namespace object::


File: python.info,  Node: Option value syntax,  Next: Invalid arguments,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.29 Option value syntax
.............................

The *note parse_args(): 29d5. method supports several ways of specifying
the value of an option (if it takes one).  In the simplest case, the
option and its value are passed as two separate arguments:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', 'X'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='X')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
     Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

For long options (options with names longer than a single character),
the option and value can also be passed as a single command-line
argument, using ‘=’ to separate them:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo=FOO'])
     Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

For short options (options only one character long), the option and its
value can be concatenated:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['-xX'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='X')

Several short options can be joined together, using only a single ‘-’
prefix, as long as only the last option (or none of them) requires a
value:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-y', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-z')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-xyzZ'])
     Namespace(x=True, y=True, z='Z')


File: python.info,  Node: Invalid arguments,  Next: Arguments containing -,  Prev: Option value syntax,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.30 Invalid arguments
...........................

While parsing the command line, *note parse_args(): 29d5. checks for a
variety of errors, including ambiguous options, invalid types, invalid
options, wrong number of positional arguments, etc.  When it encounters
such an error, it exits and prints the error along with a usage message:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')

     >>> # invalid type
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'spam'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid int value: 'spam'

     >>> # invalid option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: no such option: --bar

     >>> # wrong number of arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['spam', 'badger'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: extra arguments found: badger


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments containing -,  Next: Argument abbreviations prefix matching,  Prev: Invalid arguments,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.31 Arguments containing ‘-’
..................................

The *note parse_args(): 29d5. method attempts to give errors whenever
the user has clearly made a mistake, but some situations are inherently
ambiguous.  For example, the command-line argument ‘-1’ could either be
an attempt to specify an option or an attempt to provide a positional
argument.  The *note parse_args(): 29d5. method is cautious here:
positional arguments may only begin with ‘-’ if they look like negative
numbers and there are no options in the parser that look like negative
numbers:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

     >>> # no negative number options, so -1 is a positional argument
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='-1')

     >>> # no negative number options, so -1 and -5 are positional arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1', '-5'])
     Namespace(foo='-5', x='-1')

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-1', dest='one')
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

     >>> # negative number options present, so -1 is an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', 'X'])
     Namespace(foo=None, one='X')

     >>> # negative number options present, so -2 is an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-2'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
     PROG: error: no such option: -2

     >>> # negative number options present, so both -1s are options
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', '-1'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
     PROG: error: argument -1: expected one argument

If you have positional arguments that must begin with ‘-’ and don't look
like negative numbers, you can insert the pseudo-argument ‘'--'’ which
tells *note parse_args(): 29d5. that everything after that is a
positional argument:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
     Namespace(foo='-f', one=None)

See also *note the argparse howto on ambiguous arguments: 29fa. for more
details.


File: python.info,  Node: Argument abbreviations prefix matching,  Next: Beyond sys argv,  Prev: Arguments containing -,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.32 Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)
..................................................

The *note parse_args(): 29d5. method *note by default: c37. allows long
options to be abbreviated to a prefix, if the abbreviation is
unambiguous (the prefix matches a unique option):

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-bacon')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-badger')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-bac MMM'.split())
     Namespace(bacon='MMM', badger=None)
     >>> parser.parse_args('-bad WOOD'.split())
     Namespace(bacon=None, badger='WOOD')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-ba BA'.split())
     usage: PROG [-h] [-bacon BACON] [-badger BADGER]
     PROG: error: ambiguous option: -ba could match -badger, -bacon

An error is produced for arguments that could produce more than one
options.  This feature can be disabled by setting *note allow_abbrev:
c37. to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Beyond sys argv,  Next: The Namespace object,  Prev: Argument abbreviations prefix matching,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.33 Beyond ‘sys.argv’
...........................

Sometimes it may be useful to have an *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. parse
arguments other than those of *note sys.argv: 10f9.  This can be
accomplished by passing a list of strings to *note parse_args(): 29d5.
This is useful for testing at the interactive prompt:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument(
     ...     'integers', metavar='int', type=int, choices=range(10),
     ...     nargs='+', help='an integer in the range 0..9')
     >>> parser.add_argument(
     ...     '--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const', const=sum,
     ...     default=max, help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4'])
     Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function max>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])
     >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4', '--sum'])
     Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function sum>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])


File: python.info,  Node: The Namespace object,  Prev: Beyond sys argv,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.34 The Namespace object
..............................

 -- 類別: argparse.Namespace

     Simple class used by default by *note parse_args(): 29d5. to create
     an object holding attributes and return it.

     This class is deliberately simple, just an *note object: 8d9.
     subclass with a readable string representation.  If you prefer to
     have dict-like view of the attributes, you can use the standard
     Python idiom, *note vars(): 182e.:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> args = parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
          >>> vars(args)
          {'foo': 'BAR'}

     It may also be useful to have an *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. assign
     attributes to an already existing object, rather than a new *note
     Namespace: 29d6. object.  This can be achieved by specifying the
     ‘namespace=’ keyword argument:

          >>> class C:
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> c = C()
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> parser.parse_args(args=['--foo', 'BAR'], namespace=c)
          >>> c.foo
          'BAR'


File: python.info,  Node: Other utilities,  Next: Exceptions<2>,  Prev: The parse_args method,  Up: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.16.4.35 Other utilities
.........................

* Menu:

* Sub-commands::
* FileType 物件::
* Argument groups::
* Mutual exclusion::
* Parser defaults::
* Printing help::
* Partial parsing::
* Customizing file parsing::
* Exiting methods::
* Intermixed parsing::


File: python.info,  Node: Sub-commands,  Next: FileType 物件,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.36 Sub-commands
......................

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.add_subparsers (*[, title][, description][,
          prog][, parser_class][, action][, dest][, required][, help][,
          metavar])

     Many programs split up their functionality into a number of
     subcommands, for example, the ‘svn’ program can invoke subcommands
     like ‘svn checkout’, ‘svn update’, and ‘svn commit’.  Splitting up
     functionality this way can be a particularly good idea when a
     program performs several different functions which require
     different kinds of command-line arguments.  *note ArgumentParser:
     2bb. supports the creation of such subcommands with the
     ‘add_subparsers()’ method.  The ‘add_subparsers()’ method is
     normally called with no arguments and returns a special action
     object.  This object has a single method, ‘add_parser()’, which
     takes a command name and any ‘ArgumentParser’ constructor
     arguments, and returns an ‘ArgumentParser’ object that can be
     modified as usual.

     Description of parameters:

        * 'title' - title for the sub-parser group in help output; by
          default "subcommands" if description is provided, otherwise
          uses title for positional arguments

        * 'description' - description for the sub-parser group in help
          output, by default ‘None’

        * 'prog' - usage information that will be displayed with
          sub-command help, by default the name of the program and any
          positional arguments before the subparser argument

        * 'parser_class' - class which will be used to create sub-parser
          instances, by default the class of the current parser (e.g.
          *note ArgumentParser: 2bb.)

        * *note action: 29f1. - the basic type of action to be taken
          when this argument is encountered at the command line

        * *note dest: 29eb. - name of the attribute under which
          sub-command name will be stored; by default ‘None’ and no
          value is stored

        * *note required: 29f4. - Whether or not a subcommand must be
          provided, by default ‘False’ (added in 3.7)

        * *note help: 29f5. - help for sub-parser group in help output,
          by default ‘None’

        * *note metavar: 29f6. - string presenting available subcommands
          in help; by default it is ‘None’ and presents subcommands in
          form {cmd1, cmd2, ..}

     一些使用範例：

          >>> # create the top-level parser
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true', help='foo help')
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(help='subcommand help')
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "a" command
          >>> parser_a = subparsers.add_parser('a', help='a help')
          >>> parser_a.add_argument('bar', type=int, help='bar help')
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "b" command
          >>> parser_b = subparsers.add_parser('b', help='b help')
          >>> parser_b.add_argument('--baz', choices=('X', 'Y', 'Z'), help='baz help')
          >>>
          >>> # parse some argument lists
          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '12'])
          Namespace(bar=12, foo=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'b', '--baz', 'Z'])
          Namespace(baz='Z', foo=True)

     Note that the object returned by *note parse_args(): 29d5. will
     only contain attributes for the main parser and the subparser that
     was selected by the command line (and not any other subparsers).
     So in the example above, when the ‘a’ command is specified, only
     the ‘foo’ and ‘bar’ attributes are present, and when the ‘b’
     command is specified, only the ‘foo’ and ‘baz’ attributes are
     present.

     Similarly, when a help message is requested from a subparser, only
     the help for that particular parser will be printed.  The help
     message will not include parent parser or sibling parser messages.
     (A help message for each subparser command, however, can be given
     by supplying the ‘help=’ argument to ‘add_parser()’ as above.)

          >>> parser.parse_args(['--help'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo] {a,b} ...

          positional arguments:
            {a,b}   subcommand help
              a     a help
              b     b help

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit
            --foo   foo help

          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '--help'])
          usage: PROG a [-h] bar

          positional arguments:
            bar     bar help

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          >>> parser.parse_args(['b', '--help'])
          usage: PROG b [-h] [--baz {X,Y,Z}]

          options:
            -h, --help     show this help message and exit
            --baz {X,Y,Z}  baz help

     The *note add_subparsers(): a7a. method also supports ‘title’ and
     ‘description’ keyword arguments.  When either is present, the
     subparser's commands will appear in their own group in the help
     output.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(title='subcommands',
          ...                                    description='valid subcommands',
          ...                                    help='additional help')
          >>> subparsers.add_parser('foo')
          >>> subparsers.add_parser('bar')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-h'])
          usage:  [-h] {foo,bar} ...

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          subcommands:
            valid subcommands

            {foo,bar}   additional help

     Furthermore, ‘add_parser’ supports an additional ‘aliases’
     argument, which allows multiple strings to refer to the same
     subparser.  This example, like ‘svn’, aliases ‘co’ as a shorthand
     for ‘checkout’:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
          >>> checkout = subparsers.add_parser('checkout', aliases=['co'])
          >>> checkout.add_argument('foo')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['co', 'bar'])
          Namespace(foo='bar')

     One particularly effective way of handling sub-commands is to
     combine the use of the *note add_subparsers(): a7a. method with
     calls to *note set_defaults(): 29ed. so that each subparser knows
     which Python function it should execute.  For example:

          >>> # subcommand functions
          >>> def foo(args):
          ...     print(args.x * args.y)
          ...
          >>> def bar(args):
          ...     print('((%s))' % args.z)
          ...
          >>> # create the top-level parser
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(required=True)
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "foo" command
          >>> parser_foo = subparsers.add_parser('foo')
          >>> parser_foo.add_argument('-x', type=int, default=1)
          >>> parser_foo.add_argument('y', type=float)
          >>> parser_foo.set_defaults(func=foo)
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "bar" command
          >>> parser_bar = subparsers.add_parser('bar')
          >>> parser_bar.add_argument('z')
          >>> parser_bar.set_defaults(func=bar)
          >>>
          >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
          >>> args = parser.parse_args('foo 1 -x 2'.split())
          >>> args.func(args)
          2.0
          >>>
          >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
          >>> args = parser.parse_args('bar XYZYX'.split())
          >>> args.func(args)
          ((XYZYX))

     This way, you can let *note parse_args(): 29d5. do the job of
     calling the appropriate function after argument parsing is
     complete.  Associating functions with actions like this is
     typically the easiest way to handle the different actions for each
     of your subparsers.  However, if it is necessary to check the name
     of the subparser that was invoked, the ‘dest’ keyword argument to
     the *note add_subparsers(): a7a. call will work:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='subparser_name')
          >>> subparser1 = subparsers.add_parser('1')
          >>> subparser1.add_argument('-x')
          >>> subparser2 = subparsers.add_parser('2')
          >>> subparser2.add_argument('y')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['2', 'frobble'])
          Namespace(subparser_name='2', y='frobble')

     在 3.7 版的變更: New 'required' keyword-only parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: FileType 物件,  Next: Argument groups,  Prev: Sub-commands,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.37 FileType 物件
.......................

 -- 類別: argparse.FileType (mode='r', bufsize=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     The *note FileType: da4. factory creates objects that can be passed
     to the type argument of *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 151b.
     Arguments that have *note FileType: da4. objects as their type will
     open command-line arguments as files with the requested modes,
     buffer sizes, encodings and error handling (see the *note open():
     29c. function for more details):

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--raw', type=argparse.FileType('wb', 0))
          >>> parser.add_argument('out', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='UTF-8'))
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--raw', 'raw.dat', 'file.txt'])
          Namespace(out=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='file.txt' mode='w' encoding='UTF-8'>, raw=<_io.FileIO name='raw.dat' mode='wb'>)

     FileType objects understand the pseudo-argument ‘'-'’ and
     automatically convert this into *note sys.stdin: 2bf. for readable
     *note FileType: da4. objects and *note sys.stdout: 92a. for
     writable *note FileType: da4. objects:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('infile', type=argparse.FileType('r'))
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-'])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>)

     在 3.4 版的變更: Added the 'encodings' and 'errors' parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: Argument groups,  Next: Mutual exclusion,  Prev: FileType 物件,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.38 Argument groups
.........................

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.add_argument_group (title=None,
          description=None, *[, argument_default][, conflict_handler])

     By default, *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. groups command-line
     arguments into "positional arguments" and "options" when displaying
     help messages.  When there is a better conceptual grouping of
     arguments than this default one, appropriate groups can be created
     using the ‘add_argument_group()’ method:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
          >>> group = parser.add_argument_group('group')
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
          >>> group.add_argument('bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [--foo FOO] bar

          group:
            bar    bar help
            --foo FOO  foo help

     The *note add_argument_group(): 2a14. method returns an argument
     group object which has an *note add_argument(): 151b. method just
     like a regular *note ArgumentParser: 2bb.  When an argument is
     added to the group, the parser treats it just like a normal
     argument, but displays the argument in a separate group for help
     messages.  The ‘add_argument_group()’ method accepts 'title' and
     'description' arguments which can be used to customize this
     display:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
          >>> group1 = parser.add_argument_group('group1', 'group1 description')
          >>> group1.add_argument('foo', help='foo help')
          >>> group2 = parser.add_argument_group('group2', 'group2 description')
          >>> group2.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [--bar BAR] foo

          group1:
            group1 description

            foo    foo help

          group2:
            group2 description

            --bar BAR  bar help

     The optional, keyword-only parameters *note argument_default: 29e0.
     and *note conflict_handler: 29e1. allow for finer-grained control
     of the behavior of the argument group.  These parameters have the
     same meaning as in the *note ArgumentParser: 2bb. constructor, but
     apply specifically to the argument group rather than the entire
     parser.

     Note that any arguments not in your user-defined groups will end up
     back in the usual "positional arguments" and "optional arguments"
     sections.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Calling *note add_argument_group(): 2a14. on an
     argument group is deprecated.  This feature was never supported and
     does not always work correctly.  The function exists on the API by
     accident through inheritance and will be removed in the future.


File: python.info,  Node: Mutual exclusion,  Next: Parser defaults,  Prev: Argument groups,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.39 Mutual exclusion
..........................

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group (required=False)

     Create a mutually exclusive group.  ‘argparse’ will make sure that
     only one of the arguments in the mutually exclusive group was
     present on the command line:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
          Namespace(bar=True, foo=True)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
          Namespace(bar=False, foo=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '--bar'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo | --bar]
          PROG: error: argument --bar: not allowed with argument --foo

     The *note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2a16. method also accepts
     a 'required' argument, to indicate that at least one of the
     mutually exclusive arguments is required:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          usage: PROG [-h] (--foo | --bar)
          PROG: error: one of the arguments --foo --bar is required

     Note that currently mutually exclusive argument groups do not
     support the 'title' and 'description' arguments of *note
     add_argument_group(): 2a14.  However, a mutually exclusive group
     can be added to an argument group that has a title and description.
     For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_argument_group('Group title', 'Group description')
          >>> exclusive_group = group.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
          >>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
          >>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [-h] (--foo FOO | --bar BAR)

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          Group title:
            Group description

            --foo FOO   foo help
            --bar BAR   bar help

     在 3.11 版的變更: Calling *note add_argument_group(): 2a14. or
     *note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2a16. on a mutually exclusive
     group is deprecated.  These features were never supported and do
     not always work correctly.  The functions exist on the API by
     accident through inheritance and will be removed in the future.


File: python.info,  Node: Parser defaults,  Next: Printing help,  Prev: Mutual exclusion,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.40 Parser defaults
.........................

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.set_defaults (**kwargs)

     Most of the time, the attributes of the object returned by *note
     parse_args(): 29d5. will be fully determined by inspecting the
     command-line arguments and the argument actions.  *note
     set_defaults(): 29ed. allows some additional attributes that are
     determined without any inspection of the command line to be added:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('foo', type=int)
          >>> parser.set_defaults(bar=42, baz='badger')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['736'])
          Namespace(bar=42, baz='badger', foo=736)

     Note that parser-level defaults always override argument-level
     defaults:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='bar')
          >>> parser.set_defaults(foo='spam')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(foo='spam')

     Parser-level defaults can be particularly useful when working with
     multiple parsers.  See the *note add_subparsers(): a7a. method for
     an example of this type.

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.get_default (dest)

     Get the default value for a namespace attribute, as set by either
     *note add_argument(): 151b. or by *note set_defaults(): 29ed.:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='badger')
          >>> parser.get_default('foo')
          'badger'


File: python.info,  Node: Printing help,  Next: Partial parsing,  Prev: Parser defaults,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.41 Printing help
.......................

In most typical applications, *note parse_args(): 29d5. will take care
of formatting and printing any usage or error messages.  However,
several formatting methods are available:

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.print_usage (file=None)

     Print a brief description of how the *note ArgumentParser: 2bb.
     should be invoked on the command line.  If 'file' is ‘None’, *note
     sys.stdout: 92a. is assumed.

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.print_help (file=None)

     Print a help message, including the program usage and information
     about the arguments registered with the *note ArgumentParser: 2bb.
     If 'file' is ‘None’, *note sys.stdout: 92a. is assumed.

There are also variants of these methods that simply return a string
instead of printing it:

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.format_usage ()

     Return a string containing a brief description of how the *note
     ArgumentParser: 2bb. should be invoked on the command line.

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.format_help ()

     Return a string containing a help message, including the program
     usage and information about the arguments registered with the *note
     ArgumentParser: 2bb.


File: python.info,  Node: Partial parsing,  Next: Customizing file parsing,  Prev: Printing help,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.42 Partial parsing
.........................

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.parse_known_args (args=None, namespace=None)

     Sometimes a script may only parse a few of the command-line
     arguments, passing the remaining arguments on to another script or
     program.  In these cases, the *note parse_known_args(): 2a1e.
     method can be useful.  It works much like *note parse_args(): 29d5.
     except that it does not produce an error when extra arguments are
     present.  Instead, it returns a two item tuple containing the
     populated namespace and the list of remaining argument strings.

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
          >>> parser.parse_known_args(['--foo', '--badger', 'BAR', 'spam'])
          (Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=True), ['--badger', 'spam'])

     警告: *note Prefix matching: c36. rules apply to *note
     parse_known_args(): 2a1e.  The parser may consume an option even if
     it's just a prefix of one of its known options, instead of leaving
     it in the remaining arguments list.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing file parsing,  Next: Exiting methods,  Prev: Partial parsing,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.43 Customizing file parsing
..................................

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args (arg_line)

     Arguments that are read from a file (see the
     'fromfile_prefix_chars' keyword argument to the *note
     ArgumentParser: 2bb. constructor) are read one argument per line.
     *note convert_arg_line_to_args(): 29ec. can be overridden for
     fancier reading.

     This method takes a single argument 'arg_line' which is a string
     read from the argument file.  It returns a list of arguments parsed
     from this string.  The method is called once per line read from the
     argument file, in order.

     A useful override of this method is one that treats each
     space-separated word as an argument.  The following example
     demonstrates how to do this:

          class MyArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
              def convert_arg_line_to_args(self, arg_line):
                  return arg_line.split()


File: python.info,  Node: Exiting methods,  Next: Intermixed parsing,  Prev: Customizing file parsing,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.44 Exiting methods
.........................

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.exit (status=0, message=None)

     This method terminates the program, exiting with the specified
     'status' and, if given, it prints a 'message' to *note sys.stderr:
     778. before that.  The user can override this method to handle
     these steps differently:

          class ErrorCatchingArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
              def exit(self, status=0, message=None):
                  if status:
                      raise Exception(f'Exiting because of an error: {message}')
                  exit(status)

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.error (message)

     This method prints a usage message, including the 'message', to
     *note sys.stderr: 778. and terminates the program with a status
     code of 2.


File: python.info,  Node: Intermixed parsing,  Prev: Exiting methods,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.45 Intermixed parsing
............................

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args (args=None,
          namespace=None)

 -- 方法: ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args (args=None,
          namespace=None)

     A number of Unix commands allow the user to intermix optional
     arguments with positional arguments.  The *note
     parse_intermixed_args(): 955. and *note
     parse_known_intermixed_args(): 2a24. methods support this parsing
     style.

     These parsers do not support all the ‘argparse’ features, and will
     raise exceptions if unsupported features are used.  In particular,
     subparsers, and mutually exclusive groups that include both
     optionals and positionals are not supported.

     The following example shows the difference between *note
     parse_known_args(): 2a1e. and *note parse_intermixed_args(): 955.:
     the former returns ‘['2', '3']’ as unparsed arguments, while the
     latter collects all the positionals into ‘rest’.

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> parser.add_argument('cmd')
          >>> parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*', type=int)
          >>> parser.parse_known_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
          (Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1]), ['2', '3'])
          >>> parser.parse_intermixed_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
          Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1, 2, 3])

     *note parse_known_intermixed_args(): 2a24. returns a two item tuple
     containing the populated namespace and the list of remaining
     argument strings.  *note parse_intermixed_args(): 955. raises an
     error if there are any remaining unparsed argument strings.

     在 3.7 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<2>,  Prev: Other utilities,  Up: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.16.4.46 Exceptions
....................

 -- 例外: argparse.ArgumentError

     An error from creating or using an argument (optional or
     positional).

     The string value of this exception is the message, augmented with
     information about the argument that caused it.

 -- 例外: argparse.ArgumentTypeError

     Raised when something goes wrong converting a command line string
     to a type.

Guides and Tutorials
....................

* Menu:

* Argparse 教學::
* Upgrading optparse code::


File: python.info,  Node: Argparse 教學,  Next: Upgrading optparse code,  Up: Exceptions<2>

5.16.4.47 Argparse 教學
.......................


作者: Tshepang Mbambo

本教學旨在簡要介紹 *note argparse: 6. 這個 Python 標準函式庫中推薦的命令
列剖析模組。

     備註: 另外還有兩個模組可以完成相同的任務，即 *note getopt: 5c.（相
     當於 C 語言中的 ‘getopt()’）和已棄用的 *note optparse: 9b.。另請注
     意，*note argparse: 6. 是基於 *note optparse: 9b. 的，因此在用法上
     非常相似。

* Menu:

* 概念::
* 基本用法: 基本用法<2>.
* 位置引數的介紹::
* 可選引數的介紹::
* 組合位置引數和可選引數::
* 更進階一點::
* 如何翻譯 argparse 輸出::
* Custom type converters::
* 結論::


File: python.info,  Node: 概念,  Next: 基本用法<2>,  Up: Argparse 教學

5.16.4.48 概念
..............

讓我們透過使用 ‘ls’ 指令來展示我們將在本介紹教學中探索的功能類型：

     $ ls
     cpython  devguide  prog.py  pypy  rm-unused-function.patch
     $ ls pypy
     ctypes_configure  demo  dotviewer  include  lib_pypy  lib-python ...
     $ ls -l
     total 20
     drwxr-xr-x 19 wena wena 4096 Feb 18 18:51 cpython
     drwxr-xr-x  4 wena wena 4096 Feb  8 12:04 devguide
     -rwxr-xr-x  1 wena wena  535 Feb 19 00:05 prog.py
     drwxr-xr-x 14 wena wena 4096 Feb  7 00:59 pypy
     -rw-r--r--  1 wena wena  741 Feb 18 01:01 rm-unused-function.patch
     $ ls --help
     Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]...
     List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default).
     Sort entries alphabetically if none of -cftuvSUX nor --sort is specified.
     ...

我們可以從這四個命令中學到一些概念：

   * ‘ls’ 命令即便在沒有任何選項的情況下執行仍非常有用。它預設顯示目前目
     錄的內容。

   * 如果我們想要看到比它預設提供更多的內容，我們也需要多告訴它一點。在
     本例中，我們希望它顯示不同的目錄 ‘pypy’，我們做的是指定所謂的位置引
     數。之所以如此命名是因為程式應該只根據該值在命令列中出現的位置來知
     道如何處理該值。這個概念與 ‘cp’ 這樣的指令更相關，其最基本的用法是
     ‘cp SRC DEST’。第一個是'你想要複製的位置'，第二個是'你想要複製過去
     的位置'。

   * 現在假設我們想要改變程式的行為。在我們的範例中，我們顯示每個檔案的
     更多資訊，而不僅是顯示檔案名稱。在這種情況下，‘-l’ 被稱為可選引數。

   * 這是幫助文字的片段。它非常有用，因為當你遇到以前從未使用過的程式時
     ，只需閱讀其幫助文字即可了解它的工作原理。


File: python.info,  Node: 基本用法<2>,  Next: 位置引數的介紹,  Prev: 概念,  Up: Argparse 教學

5.16.4.49 基本用法
..................

讓我們從一個非常簡單的例子開始，它（幾乎）什麼都不做：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.parse_args()

程式碼執行結果如下：

     $ python prog.py
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
     $ python prog.py --verbose
     usage: prog.py [-h]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: --verbose
     $ python prog.py foo
     usage: prog.py [-h]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: foo

這是發生的事情：

   * 執行不帶任何選項的腳本不會在標準輸出中顯示任何內容。不太有用。

   * 第二個開始能夠顯現 *note argparse: 6. 模組的有用之處。我們幾乎什麼
     也沒做，但我們已經收到了一個很好的幫助訊息。

   * ‘--help’ 選項也可以縮寫為 ‘-h’，是我們能隨意獲得的唯一選項（即無需
     指定它）。指定任何其他內容都會導致錯誤。但即便如此，我們也還是輕鬆
     地獲得了有用的使用資訊。


File: python.info,  Node: 位置引數的介紹,  Next: 可選引數的介紹,  Prev: 基本用法<2>,  Up: Argparse 教學

5.16.4.50 位置引數的介紹
........................

例如：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("echo")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.echo)

執行這段程式碼：

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: echo
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo

     positional arguments:
       echo

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
     $ python prog.py foo
     foo

這是會發生的事情：

   * 我們新增了 *note add_argument(): 151b. 方法，我們用它來指定程式願意
     接受哪些命令列選項。在本例中，我將其命名為 ‘echo’，以便與其功能一致
     。

   * 現在呼叫我們的程式時需要指定一個選項。

   * *note parse_args(): 29d5. 方法實際上從指定的選項中回傳一些資料，在
     本例中為 ‘echo’。

   * 該變數是某種形式的「魔法」，*note argparse: 6. 可以自由執行（即無需
     指定該值儲存在哪個變數中）。你還會注意到，它的名稱與提供給方法
     ‘echo’ 的字串引數相符。

但請注意，儘管幫助顯示看起來不錯，但它目前還沒有發揮出應有的用處。例如，
我們看到 ‘echo’ 作為位置引數，但除了猜測或閱讀原始程式碼之外，我們不知道
它的作用。那麼，我們來讓它變得更有用一點：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("echo", help="echo the string you use here")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.echo)

然後我們得到：

     $ python prog.py -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo

     positional arguments:
       echo        echo the string you use here

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit

現在來做一些更有用處的事情：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.square**2)

程式碼執行結果如下：

     $ python prog.py 4
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "prog.py", line 5, in <module>
         print(args.square**2)
     TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for ** or pow(): 'str' and 'int'

進展不太順利。這是因為，除非我們另有說明，*note argparse: 6. 會將我們給
它的選項視為字串。因此，讓我們告訴 *note argparse: 6. 將該輸入視為整數：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number",
                         type=int)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.square**2)

程式碼執行結果如下：

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py four
     usage: prog.py [-h] square
     prog.py: error: argument square: invalid int value: 'four'

順利進展。現在該程式甚至可以在繼續操作之前因錯誤的非法輸入而退出。


File: python.info,  Node: 可選引數的介紹,  Next: 組合位置引數和可選引數,  Prev: 位置引數的介紹,  Up: Argparse 教學

5.16.4.51 可選引數的介紹
........................

到目前為止，我們一直在討論位置引數。我們來看看如何新增可選引數：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("--verbosity", help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbosity:
         print("verbosity turned on")

接者是結果：

     $ python prog.py --verbosity 1
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       --verbosity VERBOSITY
                             increase output verbosity
     $ python prog.py --verbosity
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]
     prog.py: error: argument --verbosity: expected one argument

這是發生的事情：

   * 程式被編寫為在指定 ‘--verbosity’ 時顯示一些內容，並在未指定時不顯示
     任何內容。

   * 為了表示該選項實際上是可選的，沒使用它來執行程式並不會出現錯誤。請
     注意，預設情況下，如果未使用可選引數，則相關變數（在本例中為
     ‘args.verbosity’）將被賦予 ‘None’ 作為值，這就是它未能通過 *note
     if: 266. 陳述式真值測試的原因。

   * 幫助訊息有點不同。

   * 當使用 ‘--verbosity’ 選項時必須要指定一些值，任何值都可以。

在上面的例子中，‘--verbosity’ 接受任意的整數，但對我們的程式來說只接受兩
個輸入值， ‘True’ 或 ‘False’。所以我們來修改一下程式碼使其符合：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                         action="store_true")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbose:
         print("verbosity turned on")

接者是結果：

     $ python prog.py --verbose
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py --verbose 1
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       --verbose   increase output verbosity

這是發生的事情：

   * 這個選項現在更像是一個旗標，而不是需要值的東西。我們甚至更改了選項
     的名稱以符合這個想法。請注意，我們現在指定一個新的關鍵字 ‘action’，
     並為其指定值 ‘"store_true"’。這意味著，如果指定了該選項，則將值
     ‘True’ 指派給 ‘args.verbose’。不指定它代表為 ‘False’。

   * 當你指定一個值時，它會本著旗標的實際精神來抱怨。

   * 請注意不同的幫助文字。

* Menu:

* 短選項::


File: python.info,  Node: 短選項,  Up: 可選引數的介紹

5.16.4.52 短選項
................

如果你熟悉命令列用法，你會注意到我尚未提及選項的簡短版本。這很簡單：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                         action="store_true")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbose:
         print("verbosity turned on")

而這為：

     $ python prog.py -v
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v]

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose  increase output verbosity

請注意，新功能也反映在幫助文字中。


File: python.info,  Node: 組合位置引數和可選引數,  Next: 更進階一點,  Prev: 可選引數的介紹,  Up: Argparse 教學

5.16.4.53 組合位置引數和可選引數
................................

我們的程式的複雜性不斷增加：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbose:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

然後現在的輸出結果：

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: square
     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 --verbose
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py --verbose 4
     the square of 4 equals 16

   * 我們帶回了位置引數，因而被抱怨。

   * 請注意，順序並不重要。

我們讓這個程式擁有多個訊息詳細級別 (verbosity) 之值的能力，並實際使用它
們：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int,
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

接者是結果：

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v VERBOSITY] square
     prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: expected one argument
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 1
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 2
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 3
     16

除了最後一個外都看起來正常，它透露了我們程式中的一個錯誤。我們可透過限制
‘--verbosity’ 選項可以接受的值來修復它：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int, choices=[0, 1, 2],
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

接者是結果：

     $ python prog.py 4 -v 3
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square
     prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: invalid choice: 3 (choose from 0, 1, 2)
     $ python prog.py 4 -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square

     positional arguments:
       square                display a square of a given number

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v {0,1,2}, --verbosity {0,1,2}
                             increase output verbosity

請注意，更改也會反映在錯誤訊息和幫助字串中。

現在，讓我們使用另一種常見方法來玩玩訊息詳細級別。它也與 CPython 執行檔
處理其自身訊息詳細級別引數的方式相符（請見 ‘python --help’ 的輸出）：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display the square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

我們已經介紹過另一個操作 "count" 用來計算指定的選項出現的次數。

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -vv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 --verbosity --verbosity
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 1
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
     $ python prog.py 4 -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square

     positional arguments:
       square           display a square of a given number

     options:
       -h, --help       show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity  increase output verbosity
     $ python prog.py 4 -vvv
     16

   * 是的，現在它更像是我們上一版腳本中的旗標（類似於
     ‘action="store_true"’），這應該可以解釋抱怨的原因。

   * 它的行為也類似 "store_true" 操作。

   * 現在這裡示範了 "count" 動作的作用。你可能以前見過這種用法。

   * 如果你不指定 ‘-v’ 旗標，則該旗標被視為具有 ‘None’ 值。

   * 正如預期的那樣，指定長形式旗標，我們應該得到相同的輸出。

   * 遺憾的是，我們的幫助輸出對於我們腳本獲得的新功能並沒有提供太多資訊
     ，但我們都可以透過改進腳本的文件來解決這個問題（例如：透過 ‘help’ 關
     鍵字引數）。

   * 最後的輸出透露了我們程式中的一個錯誤。

讓我們來解決問題：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2

     # bugfix: replace == with >=
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

這就是它給出的：

     $ python prog.py 4 -vvv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -vvvv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "prog.py", line 11, in <module>
         if args.verbosity >= 2:
     TypeError: '>=' not supported between instances of 'NoneType' and 'int'

   * 第一次輸出順利進行，並修復了我們之前遇到的錯誤。也就是說，我們希望
     任何 >= 2 的值都盡可能詳細。

   * 第三個輸出不太好。

我們來修復這個錯誤：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0,
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

我們剛剛引入了另一個關鍵字 ‘default’。我們將其設為 ‘0’，以便使其與其他
int 值進行比較。請記住，預設情況下，如果未指定可選引數，它將獲得 ‘None’
值，並且不能與 int 值進行比較（因此會出現 *note TypeError: 2ba. 例外）。

而且：

     $ python prog.py 4
     16

僅憑我們迄今為止所學到的知識就可以做到很多事情了，不過其實這樣只有學到一
點皮毛而已。*note argparse: 6. 模組非常強大，在結束本教學之前我們會對它
進行更多探索。


File: python.info,  Node: 更進階一點,  Next: 如何翻譯 argparse 輸出,  Prev: 組合位置引數和可選引數,  Up: Argparse 教學

5.16.4.54 更進階一點
....................

如果我們想擴充我們的小程式來執行其他次方的運算，而不僅是平方：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

結果：

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: x, y
     $ python prog.py -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y

     positional arguments:
       x                the base
       y                the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help       show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4^2 == 16

請注意，到目前為止，我們一直在使用詳細級別來'更改'顯示的文字。以下範例使
用詳細級別來顯示'更多'文字：

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"Running '{__file__}'")
     if args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == ", end="")
     print(answer)

結果：

     $ python prog.py 4 2
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -vv
     Running 'prog.py'
     4^2 == 16

* Menu:

* 指定不明確的引數::
* 相互衝突的選項::


File: python.info,  Node: 指定不明確的引數,  Next: 相互衝突的選項,  Up: 更進階一點

5.16.4.55 指定不明確的引數
..........................

當決定一個引數是位置引數還是引數會有歧義，可以使用 ‘--’ 來告訴 *note
parse_args(): 29d5. 之後的所有內容都是位置引數：

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-n', nargs='+')
     >>> parser.add_argument('args', nargs='*')

     >>> # ambiguous, so parse_args assumes it's an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-f'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-n N [N ...]] [args ...]
     PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: -f

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
     Namespace(args=['-f'], n=None)

     >>> # ambiguous, so the -n option greedily accepts arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '2', '3'])
     Namespace(args=[], n=['1', '2', '3'])

     >>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '--', '2', '3'])
     Namespace(args=['2', '3'], n=['1'])


File: python.info,  Node: 相互衝突的選項,  Prev: 指定不明確的引數,  Up: 更進階一點

5.16.4.56 相互衝突的選項
........................

到目前為止，我們一直在使用 *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 2bb. 實例的兩
種方法。讓我們介紹第三個，*note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2a16.，
它允許我們指定彼此衝突的選項。我們還可以更改程式的其餘部分，以使得新功能
更有意義：我們將引入 ‘--quiet’ 選項，該選項與 ‘--verbose’ 選項相反：

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
     group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
     group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y

     if args.quiet:
         print(answer)
     elif args.verbose:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

我們的程式現在更簡單了，我們因為功能展示失去了一些功能，但無論如何，以下
這是輸出：

     $ python prog.py 4 2
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -q
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4 to the power 2 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -vq
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
     prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v --quiet
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
     prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose

這應該很容易理解。我新增了最後一個輸出，以便看到所獲得的靈活性，即可以混
合長形式與短形式選項。

在我們結束之前，你可能想告訴使用者你的程式的主要目的，以防他們不知道：

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="calculate X to the power of Y")
     group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
     group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
     group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y

     if args.quiet:
         print(answer)
     elif args.verbose:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

請注意用法文字中的細微差別。注意 ‘[-v | -q]’，它告訴我們可以使用 ‘-v’ 或
‘-q’，但不能同時使用：

     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

     calculate X to the power of Y

     positional arguments:
       x              the base
       y              the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose
       -q, --quiet


File: python.info,  Node: 如何翻譯 argparse 輸出,  Next: Custom type converters,  Prev: 更進階一點,  Up: Argparse 教學

5.16.4.57 如何翻譯 argparse 輸出
................................

*note argparse: 6. 模組的輸出，例如幫助文字和錯誤訊息，都可以透過使用
*note gettext: 5e. 模組進行翻譯。這允許應用程式能輕鬆本地化 *note
argparse: 6. 生成的訊息。另請參閱 *note Internationalizing your programs
and modules: 2a33.。

例如，在此 *note argparse: 6. 輸出中：

     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

     calculate X to the power of Y

     positional arguments:
       x              the base
       y              the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose
       -q, --quiet

字串 ‘usage:’、‘positional arguments:’、‘options:’ 和 ‘show this help
message and exit’ 都是可被翻譯的。

為了翻譯這些字串，必須先將它們提取到 ‘.po’ 檔案中。例如，使用 Babel(1) 並
執行下列命令：

     $ pybabel extract -o messages.po /usr/lib/python3.12/argparse.py

此命令將從 *note argparse: 6. 模組中提取出所有可翻譯的字串，並將它們輸出
到名為 ‘messages.po’ 的檔案中。這個指令假設你的 Python 是安裝在
‘/usr/lib’ 中。

你可以使用以下腳本找到 *note argparse: 6. 模組在系統上的位置：

     import argparse
     print(argparse.__file__)

一旦翻譯了 ‘.po’ 檔案中的訊息並使用 *note gettext: 5e. 安裝了翻譯，*note
argparse: 6. 將能夠顯示翻譯後的訊息。

若要在 *note argparse: 6. 輸出中翻譯你自己的字串，請使用 *note gettext:
5e.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://babel.pocoo.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Custom type converters,  Next: 結論,  Prev: 如何翻譯 argparse 輸出,  Up: Argparse 教學

5.16.4.58 Custom type converters
................................

The *note argparse: 6. module allows you to specify custom type
converters for your command-line arguments.  This allows you to modify
user input before it's stored in the *note argparse.Namespace: 29d6.
This can be useful when you need to pre-process the input before it is
used in your program.

When using a custom type converter, you can use any callable that takes
a single string argument (the argument value) and returns the converted
value.  However, if you need to handle more complex scenarios, you can
use a custom action class with the 'action' parameter instead.

For example, let's say you want to handle arguments with different
prefixes and process them accordingly:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prefix_chars='-+')

     parser.add_argument('-a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                         type=lambda x: ('-', x))
     parser.add_argument('+a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                         type=lambda x: ('+', x))

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args)

結果：

     $ python prog.py -a value1 +a value2
     Namespace(a=[('-', 'value1'), ('+', 'value2')])

In this example, we:

   * Created a parser with custom prefix characters using the
     ‘prefix_chars’ parameter.

   * Defined two arguments, ‘-a’ and ‘+a’, which used the ‘type’
     parameter to create custom type converters to store the value in a
     tuple with the prefix.

Without the custom type converters, the arguments would have treated the
‘-a’ and ‘+a’ as the same argument, which would have been undesirable.
By using custom type converters, we were able to differentiate between
the two arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: 結論,  Prev: Custom type converters,  Up: Argparse 教學

5.16.4.59 結論
..............

*note argparse: 6. 模組提供的功能比此篇內容的要多得多。它的文件非常詳細
與透徹並有很多範例。讀完本教學後，你應該可以輕鬆消化它們，而不會感到不知
所措。


File: python.info,  Node: Upgrading optparse code,  Prev: Argparse 教學,  Up: Exceptions<2>

5.16.4.60 Upgrading optparse code
.................................

Originally, the *note argparse: 6. module had attempted to maintain
compatibility with *note optparse: 9b.  However, *note optparse: 9b. was
difficult to extend transparently, particularly with the changes
required to support ‘nargs=’ specifiers and better usage messages.  When
most everything in *note optparse: 9b. had either been copy-pasted over
or monkey-patched, it no longer seemed practical to try to maintain the
backwards compatibility.

The *note argparse: 6. module improves on the *note optparse: 9b. module
in a number of ways including:

   * Handling positional arguments.

   * Supporting subcommands.

   * Allowing alternative option prefixes like ‘+’ and ‘/’.

   * Handling zero-or-more and one-or-more style arguments.

   * Producing more informative usage messages.

   * Providing a much simpler interface for custom ‘type’ and ‘action’.

A partial upgrade path from *note optparse: 9b. to *note argparse: 6.:

   * Replace all *note optparse.OptionParser.add_option(): 2a38. calls
     with *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 151b. calls.

   * Replace ‘(options, args) = parser.parse_args()’ with ‘args =
     parser.parse_args()’ and add additional *note
     ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 151b. calls for the positional
     arguments.  Keep in mind that what was previously called ‘options’,
     now in the *note argparse: 6. context is called ‘args’.

   * Replace *note optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args():
     2a39. by using *note parse_intermixed_args(): 955. instead of *note
     parse_args(): 29d5.

   * Replace callback actions and the ‘callback_*’ keyword arguments
     with ‘type’ or ‘action’ arguments.

   * Replace string names for ‘type’ keyword arguments with the
     corresponding type objects (e.g.  int, float, complex, etc).

   * Replace *note optparse.Values: 2a3a. with *note Namespace: 29d6.
     and *note optparse.OptionError: 2a3b. and *note
     optparse.OptionValueError: 2a3c. with *note ArgumentError: 2a26.

   * Replace strings with implicit arguments such as ‘%default’ or
     ‘%prog’ with the standard Python syntax to use dictionaries to
     format strings, that is, ‘%(default)s’ and ‘%(prog)s’.

   * Replace the OptionParser constructor ‘version’ argument with a call
     to ‘parser.add_argument('--version', action='version',
     version='<the version>')’.


File: python.info,  Node: getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器,  Next: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具,  Prev: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.5 ‘getopt’ -- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器
------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/getopt.py(1)

     備註: The *note getopt: 5c. module is a parser for command line
     options whose API is designed to be familiar to users of the C
     ‘getopt()’ function.  Users who are unfamiliar with the C
     ‘getopt()’ function or who would like to write less code and get
     better help and error messages should consider using the *note
     argparse: 6. module instead.

__________________________________________________________________

This module helps scripts to parse the command line arguments in
‘sys.argv’.  It supports the same conventions as the Unix ‘getopt()’
function (including the special meanings of arguments of the form '‘-’'
and '‘--’').  Long options similar to those supported by GNU software
may be used as well via an optional third argument.

This module provides two functions and an exception:

 -- 函式: getopt.getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[])

     Parses command line options and parameter list.  'args' is the
     argument list to be parsed, without the leading reference to the
     running program.  Typically, this means ‘sys.argv[1:]’.
     'shortopts' is the string of option letters that the script wants
     to recognize, with options that require an argument followed by a
     colon (‘':'’; i.e., the same format that Unix ‘getopt()’ uses).

          備註: Unlike GNU ‘getopt()’, after a non-option argument, all
          further arguments are considered also non-options.  This is
          similar to the way non-GNU Unix systems work.

     'longopts', if specified, must be a list of strings with the names
     of the long options which should be supported.  The leading ‘'--'’
     characters should not be included in the option name.  Long options
     which require an argument should be followed by an equal sign
     (‘'='’).  Optional arguments are not supported.  To accept only
     long options, 'shortopts' should be an empty string.  Long options
     on the command line can be recognized so long as they provide a
     prefix of the option name that matches exactly one of the accepted
     options.  For example, if 'longopts' is ‘['foo', 'frob']’, the
     option ‘--fo’ will match as ‘--foo’, but ‘--f’ will not match
     uniquely, so *note GetoptError: 2a3f. will be raised.

     The return value consists of two elements: the first is a list of
     ‘(option, value)’ pairs; the second is the list of program
     arguments left after the option list was stripped (this is a
     trailing slice of 'args').  Each option-and-value pair returned has
     the option as its first element, prefixed with a hyphen for short
     options (e.g., ‘'-x'’) or two hyphens for long options (e.g.,
     ‘'--long-option'’), and the option argument as its second element,
     or an empty string if the option has no argument.  The options
     occur in the list in the same order in which they were found, thus
     allowing multiple occurrences.  Long and short options may be
     mixed.

 -- 函式: getopt.gnu_getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[])

     This function works like *note getopt(): 5c, except that GNU style
     scanning mode is used by default.  This means that option and
     non-option arguments may be intermixed.  The *note getopt(): 5c.
     function stops processing options as soon as a non-option argument
     is encountered.

     If the first character of the option string is ‘'+'’, or if the
     environment variable ‘POSIXLY_CORRECT’ is set, then option
     processing stops as soon as a non-option argument is encountered.

 -- 例外: getopt.GetoptError

     This is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument
     list or when an option requiring an argument is given none.  The
     argument to the exception is a string indicating the cause of the
     error.  For long options, an argument given to an option which does
     not require one will also cause this exception to be raised.  The
     attributes ‘msg’ and ‘opt’ give the error message and related
     option; if there is no specific option to which the exception
     relates, ‘opt’ is an empty string.

 -- 例外: getopt.error

     Alias for *note GetoptError: 2a3f.; for backward compatibility.

An example using only Unix style options:

     >>> import getopt
     >>> args = '-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2'.split()
     >>> args
     ['-a', '-b', '-cfoo', '-d', 'bar', 'a1', 'a2']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'abc:d:')
     >>> optlist
     [('-a', ''), ('-b', ''), ('-c', 'foo'), ('-d', 'bar')]
     >>> args
     ['a1', 'a2']

Using long option names is equally easy:

     >>> s = '--condition=foo --testing --output-file abc.def -x a1 a2'
     >>> args = s.split()
     >>> args
     ['--condition=foo', '--testing', '--output-file', 'abc.def', '-x', 'a1', 'a2']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'x', [
     ...     'condition=', 'output-file=', 'testing'])
     >>> optlist
     [('--condition', 'foo'), ('--testing', ''), ('--output-file', 'abc.def'), ('-x', '')]
     >>> args
     ['a1', 'a2']

In a script, typical usage is something like this:

     import getopt, sys

     def main():
         try:
             opts, args = getopt.getopt(sys.argv[1:], "ho:v", ["help", "output="])
         except getopt.GetoptError as err:
             # print help information and exit:
             print(err)  # will print something like "option -a not recognized"
             usage()
             sys.exit(2)
         output = None
         verbose = False
         for o, a in opts:
             if o == "-v":
                 verbose = True
             elif o in ("-h", "--help"):
                 usage()
                 sys.exit()
             elif o in ("-o", "--output"):
                 output = a
             else:
                 assert False, "unhandled option"
         # ...

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

Note that an equivalent command line interface could be produced with
less code and more informative help and error messages by using the
*note argparse: 6. module:

     import argparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         # ... do something with args.output ...
         # ... do something with args.verbose ..

也參考
......

*note argparse: 6. 模組

     Alternative command line option and argument parsing library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/getopt.py


File: python.info,  Node: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具,  Next: logging config --- 日誌記錄配置,  Prev: getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.6 ‘logging’ -- Python 的日誌記錄工具
-----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/logging/__init__.py(1)

Important
.........

此頁面包含 API 參考訊息。有關教學流程和更進階的主題討論，請參閱

   * *note 基礎教學: 1086.

   * *note 進階教學: 1087.

   * *note 日誌記錄手冊: 1088.

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組定義了函式與類別 (class)，為應用程式和函式庫實作彈性的日誌管理系
統。

由標準函式庫模組提供的日誌記錄 API 的主要好處是，所有的 Python 模組都能
參與日誌記錄，因此你的應用程式日誌可以包含你自己的訊息，並與來自第三方模
組的訊息整合在一起。

Here's a simple example of idiomatic usage:

     # myapp.py
     import logging
     import mylib
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(filename='myapp.log', level=logging.INFO)
         logger.info('Started')
         mylib.do_something()
         logger.info('Finished')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

     # mylib.py
     import logging
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def do_something():
         logger.info('Doing something')

If you run 'myapp.py', you should see this in 'myapp.log':

     INFO:__main__:Started
     INFO:mylib:Doing something
     INFO:__main__:Finished

The key feature of this idiomatic usage is that the majority of code is
simply creating a module level logger with ‘getLogger(__name__)’, and
using that logger to do any needed logging.  This is concise, while
allowing downstream code fine-grained control if needed.  Logged
messages to the module-level logger get forwarded to handlers of loggers
in higher-level modules, all the way up to the highest-level logger
known as the root logger; this approach is known as hierarchical
logging.

For logging to be useful, it needs to be configured: setting the levels
and destinations for each logger, potentially changing how specific
modules log, often based on command-line arguments or application
configuration.  In most cases, like the one above, only the root logger
needs to be so configured, since all the lower level loggers at module
level eventually forward their messages to its handlers.  *note
basicConfig(): 846. provides a quick way to configure the root logger
that handles many use cases.

這個模組提供了很多的功能性以及彈性。如果你對於 logging 不熟悉，熟悉它最
好的方法就是去看教學（'請看右上方的連結'）。

The basic classes defined by the module, together with their attributes
and methods, are listed in the sections below.

   * Loggers expose the interface that application code directly uses.

   * Handlers send the log records (created by loggers) to the
     appropriate destination.

   * Filters provide a finer grained facility for determining which log
     records to output.

   * 格式器指定日誌記錄在最終輸出中的佈局。

* Menu:

* Logger 物件::
* Logging Levels::
* Handler Objects::
* Formatter Objects::
* Filter Objects::
* LogRecord 物件::
* LogRecord attributes::
* LoggerAdapter 物件::
* Thread Safety::
* Module-Level Functions::
* Module-Level Attributes::
* Integration with the warnings module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/logging/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Logger 物件,  Next: Logging Levels,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.1 Logger 物件
....................

Loggers have the following attributes and methods.  Note that Loggers
should 'NEVER' be instantiated directly, but always through the
module-level function ‘logging.getLogger(name)’.  Multiple calls to
*note getLogger(): 7a1. with the same name will always return a
reference to the same Logger object.

The ‘name’ is potentially a period-separated hierarchical value, like
‘foo.bar.baz’ (though it could also be just plain ‘foo’, for example).
Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list are children of
loggers higher up in the list.  For example, given a logger with a name
of ‘foo’, loggers with names of ‘foo.bar’, ‘foo.bar.baz’, and ‘foo.bam’
are all descendants of ‘foo’.  In addition, all loggers are descendants
of the root logger.  The logger name hierarchy is analogous to the
Python package hierarchy, and identical to it if you organise your
loggers on a per-module basis using the recommended construction
‘logging.getLogger(__name__)’.  That's because in a module, ‘__name__’
is the module's name in the Python package namespace.

 -- 類別: logging.Logger

      -- 屬性: name

          This is the logger's name, and is the value that was passed to
          *note getLogger(): 7a1. to obtain the logger.

               備註: This attribute should be treated as read-only.

      -- 屬性: level

          The threshold of this logger, as set by the *note setLevel():
          1302. method.

               備註: Do not set this attribute directly - always use
               *note setLevel(): 1302, which has checks for the level
               passed to it.

      -- 屬性: parent

          The parent logger of this logger.  It may change based on
          later instantiation of loggers which are higher up in the
          namespace hierarchy.

               備註: This value should be treated as read-only.

      -- 屬性: propagate

          如果此屬性評估為 true，則在此日誌紀錄器被記錄的事件會被傳到更
          高階（上代）日誌記錄器 的處理函式和所有附加在此日誌記錄器的任
          何處理器。訊息會直接傳到上代 loggers 的處理器 - 在問題中上代日
          誌記錄器的層級或是篩選器都不會被考慮。

          If this evaluates to false, logging messages are not passed to
          the handlers of ancestor loggers.

          Spelling it out with an example: If the propagate attribute of
          the logger named ‘A.B.C’ evaluates to true, any event logged
          to ‘A.B.C’ via a method call such as
          ‘logging.getLogger('A.B.C').error(...)’ will [subject to
          passing that logger's level and filter settings] be passed in
          turn to any handlers attached to loggers named ‘A.B’, ‘A’ and
          the root logger, after first being passed to any handlers
          attached to ‘A.B.C’.  If any logger in the chain ‘A.B.C’,
          ‘A.B’, ‘A’ has its ‘propagate’ attribute set to false, then
          that is the last logger whose handlers are offered the event
          to handle, and propagation stops at that point.

          此建構函式將該屬性設為 ‘True’。

               備註: If you attach a handler to a logger 'and' one or
               more of its ancestors, it may emit the same record
               multiple times.  In general, you should not need to
               attach a handler to more than one logger - if you just
               attach it to the appropriate logger which is highest in
               the logger hierarchy, then it will see all events logged
               by all descendant loggers, provided that their propagate
               setting is left set to ‘True’.  A common scenario is to
               attach handlers only to the root logger, and to let
               propagation take care of the rest.

      -- 屬性: handlers

          The list of handlers directly attached to this logger
          instance.

               備註: This attribute should be treated as read-only; it
               is normally changed via the *note addHandler(): 2a49. and
               *note removeHandler(): 2a4a. methods, which use locks to
               ensure thread-safe operation.

      -- 屬性: disabled

          This attribute disables handling of any events.  It is set to
          ‘False’ in the initializer, and only changed by logging
          configuration code.

               備註: This attribute should be treated as read-only.

      -- 方法: setLevel (level)

          Sets the threshold for this logger to 'level'.  Logging
          messages which are less severe than 'level' will be ignored;
          logging messages which have severity 'level' or higher will be
          emitted by whichever handler or handlers service this logger,
          unless a handler's level has been set to a higher severity
          level than 'level'.

          當一個日誌記錄器被建立時，記錄層級會被設定成 *note NOTSET:
          2a4c. （當此日誌記錄器是根日誌記錄器，或是代表父日誌記錄器的非
          根日誌記錄器時，會使所有訊息被處理）。請注意根日誌記錄器會以記
          錄等級 *note WARNING: 1aea. 被建立。

          The term 'delegation to the parent' means that if a logger has
          a level of NOTSET, its chain of ancestor loggers is traversed
          until either an ancestor with a level other than NOTSET is
          found, or the root is reached.

          If an ancestor is found with a level other than NOTSET, then
          that ancestor's level is treated as the effective level of the
          logger where the ancestor search began, and is used to
          determine how a logging event is handled.

          If the root is reached, and it has a level of NOTSET, then all
          messages will be processed.  Otherwise, the root's level will
          be used as the effective level.

          層級清單請見 *note Logging Levels: 455.。

          在 3.2 版的變更: The 'level' parameter now accepts a string
          representation of the level such as 'INFO' as an alternative
          to the integer constants such as *note INFO: 1ae9.  Note,
          however, that levels are internally stored as integers, and
          methods such as e.g.  *note getEffectiveLevel(): 2a4d. and
          *note isEnabledFor(): 1187. will return/expect to be passed
          integers.

      -- 方法: isEnabledFor (level)

          Indicates if a message of severity 'level' would be processed
          by this logger.  This method checks first the module-level
          level set by ‘logging.disable(level)’ and then the logger's
          effective level as determined by *note getEffectiveLevel():
          2a4d.

      -- 方法: getEffectiveLevel ()

          Indicates the effective level for this logger.  If a value
          other than *note NOTSET: 2a4c. has been set using *note
          setLevel(): 1302, it is returned.  Otherwise, the hierarchy is
          traversed towards the root until a value other than *note
          NOTSET: 2a4c. is found, and that value is returned.  The value
          returned is an integer, typically one of *note logging.DEBUG:
          1ae8, *note logging.INFO: 1ae9. etc.

      -- 方法: getChild (suffix)

          Returns a logger which is a descendant to this logger, as
          determined by the suffix.  Thus,
          ‘logging.getLogger('abc').getChild('def.ghi')’ would return
          the same logger as would be returned by
          ‘logging.getLogger('abc.def.ghi')’.  This is a convenience
          method, useful when the parent logger is named using e.g.
          ‘__name__’ rather than a literal string.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: getChildren ()

          Returns a set of loggers which are immediate children of this
          logger.  So for example ‘logging.getLogger().getChildren()’
          might return a set containing loggers named ‘foo’ and ‘bar’,
          but a logger named ‘foo.bar’ wouldn't be included in the set.
          Likewise, ‘logging.getLogger('foo').getChildren()’ might
          return a set including a logger named ‘foo.bar’, but it
          wouldn't include one named ‘foo.bar.baz’.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- 方法: debug (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note DEBUG: 1ae8. on this logger.
          The 'msg' is the message format string, and the 'args' are the
          arguments which are merged into 'msg' using the string
          formatting operator.  (Note that this means that you can use
          keywords in the format string, together with a single
          dictionary argument.)  No % formatting operation is performed
          on 'msg' when no 'args' are supplied.

          There are four keyword arguments in 'kwargs' which are
          inspected: 'exc_info', 'stack_info', 'stacklevel' and 'extra'.

          If 'exc_info' does not evaluate as false, it causes exception
          information to be added to the logging message.  If an
          exception tuple (in the format returned by *note
          sys.exc_info(): 487.) or an exception instance is provided, it
          is used; otherwise, *note sys.exc_info(): 487. is called to
          get the exception information.

          The second optional keyword argument is 'stack_info', which
          defaults to ‘False’.  If true, stack information is added to
          the logging message, including the actual logging call.  Note
          that this is not the same stack information as that displayed
          through specifying 'exc_info': The former is stack frames from
          the bottom of the stack up to the logging call in the current
          thread, whereas the latter is information about stack frames
          which have been unwound, following an exception, while
          searching for exception handlers.

          You can specify 'stack_info' independently of 'exc_info', e.g.
          to just show how you got to a certain point in your code, even
          when no exceptions were raised.  The stack frames are printed
          following a header line which says:

               Stack (most recent call last):

          This mimics the ‘Traceback (most recent call last):’ which is
          used when displaying exception frames.

          The third optional keyword argument is 'stacklevel', which
          defaults to ‘1’.  If greater than 1, the corresponding number
          of stack frames are skipped when computing the line number and
          function name set in the *note LogRecord: e78. created for the
          logging event.  This can be used in logging helpers so that
          the function name, filename and line number recorded are not
          the information for the helper function/method, but rather its
          caller.  The name of this parameter mirrors the equivalent one
          in the *note warnings: 10d. module.

          The fourth keyword argument is 'extra' which can be used to
          pass a dictionary which is used to populate the *note
          __dict__: 2e2. of the *note LogRecord: e78. created for the
          logging event with user-defined attributes.  These custom
          attributes can then be used as you like.  For example, they
          could be incorporated into logged messages.  For example:

               FORMAT = '%(asctime)s %(clientip)-15s %(user)-8s %(message)s'
               logging.basicConfig(format=FORMAT)
               d = {'clientip': '192.168.0.1', 'user': 'fbloggs'}
               logger = logging.getLogger('tcpserver')
               logger.warning('Protocol problem: %s', 'connection reset', extra=d)

          would print something like

               2006-02-08 22:20:02,165 192.168.0.1 fbloggs  Protocol problem: connection reset

          The keys in the dictionary passed in 'extra' should not clash
          with the keys used by the logging system.  (See the section on
          *note LogRecord attributes: 2a4e. for more information on
          which keys are used by the logging system.)

          If you choose to use these attributes in logged messages, you
          need to exercise some care.  In the above example, for
          instance, the *note Formatter: 1307. has been set up with a
          format string which expects 'clientip' and 'user' in the
          attribute dictionary of the *note LogRecord: e78.  If these
          are missing, the message will not be logged because a string
          formatting exception will occur.  So in this case, you always
          need to pass the 'extra' dictionary with these keys.

          While this might be annoying, this feature is intended for use
          in specialized circumstances, such as multi-threaded servers
          where the same code executes in many contexts, and interesting
          conditions which arise are dependent on this context (such as
          remote client IP address and authenticated user name, in the
          above example).  In such circumstances, it is likely that
          specialized *note Formatter: 1307.s would be used with
          particular *note Handler: 1306.s.

          If no handler is attached to this logger (or any of its
          ancestors, taking into account the relevant *note
          Logger.propagate: 1305. attributes), the message will be sent
          to the handler set on *note lastResort: 108b.

          在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'stack_info' 參數。

          在 3.5 版的變更: The 'exc_info' parameter can now accept
          exception instances.

          在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'stacklevel' 參數。

      -- 方法: info (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note INFO: 1ae9. on this logger.
          The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 2a50.

      -- 方法: warning (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          在此記錄器上記錄一條層級為 *note WARNING: 1aea. 的訊息。這些引
          數被直譯的方式與 *note debug(): 2a50. 相同。

               備註: There is an obsolete method ‘warn’ which is
               functionally identical to ‘warning’.  As ‘warn’ is
               deprecated, please do not use it - use ‘warning’ instead.

      -- 方法: error (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 1aeb. on this logger.
          The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 2a50.

      -- 方法: critical (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note CRITICAL: 1aec. on this
          logger.  The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug():
          2a50.

      -- 方法: log (level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with integer level 'level' on this logger.  The
          other arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 2a50.

      -- 方法: exception (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 1aeb. on this logger.
          The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 2a50.
          Exception info is added to the logging message.  This method
          should only be called from an exception handler.

      -- 方法: addFilter (filter)

          在該 logger 內增加指定的 filter 'filter'。

      -- 方法: removeFilter (filter)

          在該 logger 內移除指定的 filter 'filter'。

      -- 方法: filter (record)

          Apply this logger's filters to the record and return ‘True’ if
          the record is to be processed.  The filters are consulted in
          turn, until one of them returns a false value.  If none of
          them return a false value, the record will be processed
          (passed to handlers).  If one returns a false value, no
          further processing of the record occurs.

      -- 方法: addHandler (hdlr)

          Adds the specified handler 'hdlr' to this logger.

      -- 方法: removeHandler (hdlr)

          Removes the specified handler 'hdlr' from this logger.

      -- 方法: findCaller (stack_info=False, stacklevel=1)

          Finds the caller's source filename and line number.  Returns
          the filename, line number, function name and stack information
          as a 4-element tuple.  The stack information is returned as
          ‘None’ unless 'stack_info' is ‘True’.

          The 'stacklevel' parameter is passed from code calling the
          *note debug(): 2a50. and other APIs.  If greater than 1, the
          excess is used to skip stack frames before determining the
          values to be returned.  This will generally be useful when
          calling logging APIs from helper/wrapper code, so that the
          information in the event log refers not to the helper/wrapper
          code, but to the code that calls it.

      -- 方法: handle (record)

          Handles a record by passing it to all handlers associated with
          this logger and its ancestors (until a false value of
          'propagate' is found).  This method is used for unpickled
          records received from a socket, as well as those created
          locally.  Logger-level filtering is applied using *note
          filter(): 2a55.

      -- 方法: makeRecord (name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info,
               func=None, extra=None, sinfo=None)

          This is a factory method which can be overridden in subclasses
          to create specialized *note LogRecord: e78. instances.

      -- 方法: hasHandlers ()

          Checks to see if this logger has any handlers configured.
          This is done by looking for handlers in this logger and its
          parents in the logger hierarchy.  Returns ‘True’ if a handler
          was found, else ‘False’.  The method stops searching up the
          hierarchy whenever a logger with the 'propagate' attribute set
          to false is found - that will be the last logger which is
          checked for the existence of handlers.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Loggers can now be pickled and unpickled.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Levels,  Next: Handler Objects,  Prev: Logger 物件,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.2 Logging Levels
.......................

The numeric values of logging levels are given in the following table.
These are primarily of interest if you want to define your own levels,
and need them to have specific values relative to the predefined levels.
If you define a level with the same numeric value, it overwrites the
predefined value; the predefined name is lost.

Level                       Numeric value       What it means / When to use it
                                                
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                
 -- 資料: logging.NOTSET    0                   When set on a logger, indicates that
                                                ancestor loggers are to be consulted to
                                                determine the effective level.  If that
                                                still resolves to ‘NOTSET’, then all
                                                events are logged.  When set on a
                                                handler, all events are handled.
                                                
                                                
 -- 資料: logging.DEBUG     10                  Detailed information, typically only of
                                                interest to a developer trying to
                                                diagnose a problem.
                                                
                                                
 -- 資料: logging.INFO      20                  Confirmation that things are working as
                                                expected.
                                                
                                                
 -- 資料: logging.WARNING   30                  An indication that something unexpected
                                                happened, or that a problem might occur
                                                in the near future (e.g.  'disk space
                                                low').  The software is still working
                                                as expected.
                                                
                                                
 -- 資料: logging.ERROR     40                  Due to a more serious problem, the
                                                software has not been able to perform
                                                some function.
                                                
                                                
 -- 資料:                   50                  A serious error, indicating that the
          logging.CRITICAL                      program itself may be unable to
                                                continue running.
                                                


File: python.info,  Node: Handler Objects,  Next: Formatter Objects,  Prev: Logging Levels,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.3 Handler Objects
........................

Handlers have the following attributes and methods.  Note that *note
Handler: 1306. is never instantiated directly; this class acts as a base
for more useful subclasses.  However, the ‘__init__()’ method in
subclasses needs to call *note Handler.__init__(): 2a5d.

 -- 類別: logging.Handler

      -- 方法: __init__ (level=NOTSET)

          Initializes the *note Handler: 1306. instance by setting its
          level, setting the list of filters to the empty list and
          creating a lock (using *note createLock(): 2a5e.) for
          serializing access to an I/O mechanism.

      -- 方法: createLock ()

          Initializes a thread lock which can be used to serialize
          access to underlying I/O functionality which may not be
          threadsafe.

      -- 方法: acquire ()

          Acquires the thread lock created with *note createLock():
          2a5e.

      -- 方法: release ()

          Releases the thread lock acquired with *note acquire(): 2a5f.

      -- 方法: setLevel (level)

          Sets the threshold for this handler to 'level'.  Logging
          messages which are less severe than 'level' will be ignored.
          When a handler is created, the level is set to *note NOTSET:
          2a4c. (which causes all messages to be processed).

          層級清單請見 *note Logging Levels: 455.。

          在 3.2 版的變更: The 'level' parameter now accepts a string
          representation of the level such as 'INFO' as an alternative
          to the integer constants such as *note INFO: 1ae9.

      -- 方法: setFormatter (fmt)

          Sets the *note Formatter: 1307. for this handler to 'fmt'.

      -- 方法: addFilter (filter)

          Adds the specified filter 'filter' to this handler.

      -- 方法: removeFilter (filter)

          Removes the specified filter 'filter' from this handler.

      -- 方法: filter (record)

          Apply this handler's filters to the record and return ‘True’
          if the record is to be processed.  The filters are consulted
          in turn, until one of them returns a false value.  If none of
          them return a false value, the record will be emitted.  If one
          returns a false value, the handler will not emit the record.

      -- 方法: flush ()

          Ensure all logging output has been flushed.  This version does
          nothing and is intended to be implemented by subclasses.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Tidy up any resources used by the handler.  This version does
          no output but removes the handler from an internal list of
          handlers which is closed when *note shutdown(): 2a68. is
          called.  Subclasses should ensure that this gets called from
          overridden *note close(): 2a67. methods.

      -- 方法: handle (record)

          Conditionally emits the specified logging record, depending on
          filters which may have been added to the handler.  Wraps the
          actual emission of the record with acquisition/release of the
          I/O thread lock.

      -- 方法: handleError (record)

          This method should be called from handlers when an exception
          is encountered during an *note emit(): 2a6b. call.  If the
          module-level attribute *note raiseExceptions: 108a. is
          ‘False’, exceptions get silently ignored.  This is what is
          mostly wanted for a logging system - most users will not care
          about errors in the logging system, they are more interested
          in application errors.  You could, however, replace this with
          a custom handler if you wish.  The specified record is the one
          which was being processed when the exception occurred.  (The
          default value of *note raiseExceptions: 108a. is ‘True’, as
          that is more useful during development).

      -- 方法: format (record)

          Do formatting for a record - if a formatter is set, use it.
          Otherwise, use the default formatter for the module.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          Do whatever it takes to actually log the specified logging
          record.  This version is intended to be implemented by
          subclasses and so raises a *note NotImplementedError: bc0.

               警告: This method is called after a handler-level lock is
               acquired, which is released after this method returns.
               When you override this method, note that you should be
               careful when calling anything that invokes other parts of
               the logging API which might do locking, because that
               might result in a deadlock.  Specifically:

                  * Logging configuration APIs acquire the module-level
                    lock, and then individual handler-level locks as
                    those handlers are configured.

                  * Many logging APIs lock the module-level lock.  If
                    such an API is called from this method, it could
                    cause a deadlock if a configuration call is made on
                    another thread, because that thread will try to
                    acquire the module-level lock 'before' the
                    handler-level lock, whereas this thread tries to
                    acquire the module-level lock 'after' the
                    handler-level lock (because in this method, the
                    handler-level lock has already been acquired).

For a list of handlers included as standard, see *note logging.handlers:
84.


File: python.info,  Node: Formatter Objects,  Next: Filter Objects,  Prev: Handler Objects,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.4 Formatter Objects
..........................

 -- 類別: logging.Formatter (fmt=None, datefmt=None, style='%',
          validate=True, *, defaults=None)

     Responsible for converting a *note LogRecord: e78. to an output
     string to be interpreted by a human or external system.


     參數:

        * ‘fmt’ (*note str: 157.) - A format string in the given 'style'
          for the logged output as a whole.  The possible mapping keys
          are drawn from the *note LogRecord: e78. object's *note
          LogRecord attributes: 2a4e.  If not specified, ‘'%(message)s'’
          is used, which is just the logged message.

        * ‘datefmt’ (*note str: 157.) - A format string in the given
          'style' for the date/time portion of the logged output.  If
          not specified, the default described in *note formatTime():
          2a6f. is used.

        * ‘style’ (*note str: 157.) - Can be one of ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’ or
          ‘'$'’ and determines how the format string will be merged with
          its data: using one of *note printf-style String Formatting:
          4cb. (‘%’), *note str.format(): 41b. (‘{’) or *note
          string.Template: 484. (‘$’).  This only applies to 'fmt' and
          'datefmt' (e.g.  ‘'%(message)s'’ versus ‘'{message}'’), not to
          the actual log messages passed to the logging methods.
          However, there are *note other ways: 2a70. to use ‘{’- and
          ‘$’-formatting for log messages.

        * ‘validate’ (*note bool: 17d.) - If ‘True’ (the default),
          incorrect or mismatched 'fmt' and 'style' will raise a *note
          ValueError: 183.; for example, ‘logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s
          - %(message)s', style='{')’.

        * ‘defaults’ (*note dict: 239.‘[’*note str: 157.‘, ’‘Any’‘]’) -
          A dictionary with default values to use in custom fields.  For
          example, ‘logging.Formatter('%(ip)s %(message)s',
          defaults={"ip": None})’

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'style' 參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'validate' 參數。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'defaults' 參數。

      -- 方法: format (record)

          The record's attribute dictionary is used as the operand to a
          string formatting operation.  Returns the resulting string.
          Before formatting the dictionary, a couple of preparatory
          steps are carried out.  The 'message' attribute of the record
          is computed using 'msg' % 'args'.  If the formatting string
          contains ‘'(asctime)'’, *note formatTime(): 2a6f. is called to
          format the event time.  If there is exception information, it
          is formatted using *note formatException(): 2a72. and appended
          to the message.  Note that the formatted exception information
          is cached in attribute 'exc_text'.  This is useful because the
          exception information can be pickled and sent across the wire,
          but you should be careful if you have more than one *note
          Formatter: 1307. subclass which customizes the formatting of
          exception information.  In this case, you will have to clear
          the cached value (by setting the 'exc_text' attribute to
          ‘None’) after a formatter has done its formatting, so that the
          next formatter to handle the event doesn't use the cached
          value, but recalculates it afresh.

          If stack information is available, it's appended after the
          exception information, using *note formatStack(): 2a73. to
          transform it if necessary.

      -- 方法: formatTime (record, datefmt=None)

          This method should be called from *note format(): 417. by a
          formatter which wants to make use of a formatted time.  This
          method can be overridden in formatters to provide for any
          specific requirement, but the basic behavior is as follows: if
          'datefmt' (a string) is specified, it is used with *note
          time.strftime(): 107a. to format the creation time of the
          record.  Otherwise, the format '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S,uuu' is
          used, where the uuu part is a millisecond value and the other
          letters are as per the *note time.strftime(): 107a.
          documentation.  An example time in this format is ‘2003-01-23
          00:29:50,411’.  The resulting string is returned.

          This function uses a user-configurable function to convert the
          creation time to a tuple.  By default, *note time.localtime():
          1370. is used; to change this for a particular formatter
          instance, set the ‘converter’ attribute to a function with the
          same signature as *note time.localtime(): 1370. or *note
          time.gmtime(): 1051.  To change it for all formatters, for
          example if you want all logging times to be shown in GMT, set
          the ‘converter’ attribute in the ‘Formatter’ class.

          在 3.3 版的變更: Previously, the default format was hard-coded
          as in this example: ‘2010-09-06 22:38:15,292’ where the part
          before the comma is handled by a strptime format string
          (‘'%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'’), and the part after the comma is a
          millisecond value.  Because strptime does not have a format
          placeholder for milliseconds, the millisecond value is
          appended using another format string, ‘'%s,%03d'’ -- and both
          of these format strings have been hardcoded into this method.
          With the change, these strings are defined as class-level
          attributes which can be overridden at the instance level when
          desired.  The names of the attributes are
          ‘default_time_format’ (for the strptime format string) and
          ‘default_msec_format’ (for appending the millisecond value).

          在 3.9 版的變更: The ‘default_msec_format’ can be ‘None’.

      -- 方法: formatException (exc_info)

          Formats the specified exception information (a standard
          exception tuple as returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 487.) as
          a string.  This default implementation just uses *note
          traceback.print_exception(): 676.  The resulting string is
          returned.

      -- 方法: formatStack (stack_info)

          Formats the specified stack information (a string as returned
          by *note traceback.print_stack(): d08, but with the last
          newline removed) as a string.  This default implementation
          just returns the input value.

 -- 類別: logging.BufferingFormatter (linefmt=None)

     A base formatter class suitable for subclassing when you want to
     format a number of records.  You can pass a *note Formatter: 1307.
     instance which you want to use to format each line (that
     corresponds to a single record).  If not specified, the default
     formatter (which just outputs the event message) is used as the
     line formatter.

      -- 方法: formatHeader (records)

          Return a header for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string.  You will need
          to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g.
          to show the count of records, a title or a separator line.

      -- 方法: formatFooter (records)

          Return a footer for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string.  You will need
          to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g.
          to show the count of records or a separator line.

      -- 方法: format (records)

          Return formatted text for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string if there are no
          records; otherwise, it returns the concatenation of the
          header, each record formatted with the line formatter, and the
          footer.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter Objects,  Next: LogRecord 物件,  Prev: Formatter Objects,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.5 Filter Objects
.......................

‘Filters’ can be used by ‘Handlers’ and ‘Loggers’ for more sophisticated
filtering than is provided by levels.  The base filter class only allows
events which are below a certain point in the logger hierarchy.  For
example, a filter initialized with 'A.B' will allow events logged by
loggers 'A.B', 'A.B.C', 'A.B.C.D', 'A.B.D' etc.  but not 'A.BB', 'B.A.B'
etc.  If initialized with the empty string, all events are passed.

 -- 類別: logging.Filter (name='')

     Returns an instance of the *note Filter: 108c. class.  If 'name' is
     specified, it names a logger which, together with its children,
     will have its events allowed through the filter.  If 'name' is the
     empty string, allows every event.

      -- 方法: filter (record)

          Is the specified record to be logged?  Returns false for no,
          true for yes.  Filters can either modify log records in-place
          or return a completely different record instance which will
          replace the original log record in any future processing of
          the event.

Note that filters attached to handlers are consulted before an event is
emitted by the handler, whereas filters attached to loggers are
consulted whenever an event is logged (using *note debug(): 2a50, *note
info(): 2a7b, etc.), before sending an event to handlers.  This means
that events which have been generated by descendant loggers will not be
filtered by a logger's filter setting, unless the filter has also been
applied to those descendant loggers.

You don't actually need to subclass ‘Filter’: you can pass any instance
which has a ‘filter’ method with the same semantics.

在 3.2 版的變更: You don't need to create specialized ‘Filter’ classes,
or use other classes with a ‘filter’ method: you can use a function (or
other callable) as a filter.  The filtering logic will check to see if
the filter object has a ‘filter’ attribute: if it does, it's assumed to
be a ‘Filter’ and its *note filter(): 2a7a. method is called.
Otherwise, it's assumed to be a callable and called with the record as
the single parameter.  The returned value should conform to that
returned by *note filter(): 2a7a.

在 3.12 版的變更: You can now return a *note LogRecord: e78. instance
from filters to replace the log record rather than modifying it in
place.  This allows filters attached to a *note Handler: 1306. to modify
the log record before it is emitted, without having side effects on
other handlers.

Although filters are used primarily to filter records based on more
sophisticated criteria than levels, they get to see every record which
is processed by the handler or logger they're attached to: this can be
useful if you want to do things like counting how many records were
processed by a particular logger or handler, or adding, changing or
removing attributes in the *note LogRecord: e78. being processed.
Obviously changing the LogRecord needs to be done with some care, but it
does allow the injection of contextual information into logs (see *note
Using Filters to impart contextual information: 2a7c.).


File: python.info,  Node: LogRecord 物件,  Next: LogRecord attributes,  Prev: Filter Objects,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.6 LogRecord 物件
.......................

*note LogRecord: e78. instances are created automatically by the *note
Logger: 9a9. every time something is logged, and can be created manually
via *note makeLogRecord(): 2a7f. (for example, from a pickled event
received over the wire).

 -- 類別: logging.LogRecord (name, level, pathname, lineno, msg, args,
          exc_info, func=None, sinfo=None)

     Contains all the information pertinent to the event being logged.

     The primary information is passed in 'msg' and 'args', which are
     combined using ‘msg % args’ to create the ‘message’ attribute of
     the record.


     參數:

        * ‘name’ (*note str: 157.) - The name of the logger used to log
          the event represented by this ‘LogRecord’.  Note that the
          logger name in the ‘LogRecord’ will always have this value,
          even though it may be emitted by a handler attached to a
          different (ancestor) logger.

        * ‘level’ (*note int: 17e.) - The *note numeric level: 455. of
          the logging event (such as ‘10’ for ‘DEBUG’, ‘20’ for ‘INFO’,
          etc).  Note that this is converted to 'two' attributes of the
          LogRecord: ‘levelno’ for the numeric value and ‘levelname’ for
          the corresponding level name.

        * ‘pathname’ (*note str: 157.) - The full string path of the
          source file where the logging call was made.

        * ‘lineno’ (*note int: 17e.) - The line number in the source
          file where the logging call was made.

        * ‘msg’ (*note Any: 4a9.) - The event description message, which
          can be a %-format string with placeholders for variable data,
          or an arbitrary object (see *note Using arbitrary objects as
          messages: 2a80.).

        * ‘args’ (*note tuple: 4e6.‘ | ’*note dict: 239.‘[’*note str:
          157.‘, ’*note Any: 4a9.‘]’) - Variable data to merge into the
          'msg' argument to obtain the event description.

        * ‘exc_info’ (*note tuple: 4e6.‘[’*note type: bbb.‘[’*note
          BaseException: 3ab.‘]’‘, ’*note BaseException: 3ab.‘, ’*note
          types.TracebackType: 947.‘] ’‘| ’‘None’) - An exception tuple
          with the current exception information, as returned by *note
          sys.exc_info(): 487, or ‘None’ if no exception information is
          available.

        * ‘func’ (*note str: 157.‘ | ’‘None’) - The name of the function
          or method from which the logging call was invoked.

        * ‘sinfo’ (*note str: 157.‘ | ’‘None’) - A text string
          representing stack information from the base of the stack in
          the current thread, up to the logging call.

      -- 方法: getMessage ()

          Returns the message for this *note LogRecord: e78. instance
          after merging any user-supplied arguments with the message.
          If the user-supplied message argument to the logging call is
          not a string, *note str(): 157. is called on it to convert it
          to a string.  This allows use of user-defined classes as
          messages, whose ‘__str__’ method can return the actual format
          string to be used.

     在 3.2 版的變更: The creation of a *note LogRecord: e78. has been
     made more configurable by providing a factory which is used to
     create the record.  The factory can be set using *note
     getLogRecordFactory(): 2a82. and *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2a83.
     (see this for the factory's signature).

     This functionality can be used to inject your own values into a
     *note LogRecord: e78. at creation time.  You can use the following
     pattern:

          old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

          def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
              record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
              record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
              return record

          logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

     With this pattern, multiple factories could be chained, and as long
     as they don't overwrite each other's attributes or unintentionally
     overwrite the standard attributes listed above, there should be no
     surprises.


File: python.info,  Node: LogRecord attributes,  Next: LoggerAdapter 物件,  Prev: LogRecord 物件,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.7 LogRecord attributes
.............................

The LogRecord has a number of attributes, most of which are derived from
the parameters to the constructor.  (Note that the names do not always
correspond exactly between the LogRecord constructor parameters and the
LogRecord attributes.)  These attributes can be used to merge data from
the record into the format string.  The following table lists (in
alphabetical order) the attribute names, their meanings and the
corresponding placeholder in a %-style format string.

If you are using {}-formatting (*note str.format(): 41b.), you can use
‘{attrname}’ as the placeholder in the format string.  If you are using
$-formatting (*note string.Template: 484.), use the form ‘${attrname}’.
In both cases, of course, replace ‘attrname’ with the actual attribute
name you want to use.

In the case of {}-formatting, you can specify formatting flags by
placing them after the attribute name, separated from it with a colon.
For example: a placeholder of ‘{msecs:03.0f}’ would format a millisecond
value of ‘4’ as ‘004’.  Refer to the *note str.format(): 41b.
documentation for full details on the options available to you.

Attribute name       格式                          描述
                                                   
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                   
args                 你不應該需要自己格式化它。    The tuple of arguments merged into ‘msg’ to
                                                   produce ‘message’, or a dict whose values are
                                                   used for the merge (when there is only one
                                                   argument, and it is a dictionary).
                                                   
                                                   
asctime              ‘%(asctime)s’                 Human-readable time when the
                                                   *note LogRecord: e78. was created.  By default
                                                   this is of the form '2003-07-08 16:49:45,896'
                                                   (the numbers after the comma are millisecond
                                                   portion of the time).
                                                   
                                                   
created              ‘%(created)f’                 Time when the *note LogRecord: e78. was created
                                                   (as returned by *note time.time(): 936.).
                                                   
                                                   
exc_info             你不應該需要自己格式化它。    Exception tuple (à la ‘sys.exc_info’) or, if no
                                                   exception has occurred, ‘None’.
                                                   
                                                   
filename             ‘%(filename)s’                Filename portion of ‘pathname’.
                                                   
                                                   
funcName             ‘%(funcName)s’                Name of function containing the logging call.
                                                   
                                                   
levelname            ‘%(levelname)s’               Text logging level for the message (‘'DEBUG'’,
                                                   ‘'INFO'’, ‘'WARNING'’, ‘'ERROR'’, ‘'CRITICAL'’).
                                                   
                                                   
levelno              ‘%(levelno)s’                 Numeric logging level for the message
                                                   (*note DEBUG: 1ae8, *note INFO: 1ae9,
                                                   *note WARNING: 1aea, *note ERROR: 1aeb,
                                                   *note CRITICAL: 1aec.).
                                                   
                                                   
lineno               ‘%(lineno)d’                  Source line number where the logging call was
                                                   issued (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
message              ‘%(message)s’                 The logged message, computed as ‘msg % args’.
                                                   This is set when *note Formatter.format(): 2a71.
                                                   is invoked.
                                                   
                                                   
模組                 ‘%(module)s’                  Module (name portion of ‘filename’).
                                                   
                                                   
msecs                ‘%(msecs)d’                   Millisecond portion of the time when the
                                                   *note LogRecord: e78. was created.
                                                   
                                                   
msg                  你不應該需要自己格式化它。    The format string passed in the original logging
                                                   call.  Merged with ‘args’ to produce ‘message’,
                                                   or an arbitrary object (see
                                                   *note Using arbitrary objects as messages: 2a80.).
                                                   
                                                   
name                 ‘%(name)s’                    Name of the logger used to log the call.
                                                   
                                                   
pathname             ‘%(pathname)s’                Full pathname of the source file where the
                                                   logging call was issued (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
process              ‘%(process)d’                 Process ID (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
processName          ‘%(processName)s’             Process name (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
relativeCreated      ‘%(relativeCreated)d’         Time in milliseconds when the LogRecord was
                                                   created, relative to the time the logging module
                                                   was loaded.
                                                   
                                                   
stack_info           你不應該需要自己格式化它。    Stack frame information (where available) from
                                                   the bottom of the stack in the current thread, up
                                                   to and including the stack frame of the logging
                                                   call which resulted in the creation of this
                                                   record.
                                                   
                                                   
thread               ‘%(thread)d’                  Thread ID (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
threadName           ‘%(threadName)s’              Thread name (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
taskName             ‘%(taskName)s’                *note asyncio.Task: 203. name (if available).
                                                   

在 3.1 版的變更: 新增 'processName'。

在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'taskName'。


File: python.info,  Node: LoggerAdapter 物件,  Next: Thread Safety,  Prev: LogRecord attributes,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.8 LoggerAdapter 物件
...........................

*note LoggerAdapter: 1186. instances are used to conveniently pass
contextual information into logging calls.  For a usage example, see the
section on *note adding contextual information to your logging output:
2a87.

 -- 類別: logging.LoggerAdapter (logger, extra)

     Returns an instance of *note LoggerAdapter: 1186. initialized with
     an underlying *note Logger: 9a9. instance and a dict-like object.

      -- 方法: process (msg, kwargs)

          Modifies the message and/or keyword arguments passed to a
          logging call in order to insert contextual information.  This
          implementation takes the object passed as 'extra' to the
          constructor and adds it to 'kwargs' using key 'extra'.  The
          return value is a ('msg', 'kwargs') tuple which has the
          (possibly modified) versions of the arguments passed in.

      -- 屬性: manager

          Delegates to the underlying ‘manager’ on 'logger'.

      -- 屬性: _log

          Delegates to the underlying ‘_log()’ method on 'logger'.

     In addition to the above, *note LoggerAdapter: 1186. supports the
     following methods of *note Logger: 9a9.: *note debug(): ca4, *note
     info(): 2a4f, *note warning(): 2a51, *note error(): 2a52, *note
     exception(): ca2, *note critical(): ca3, *note log(): ca1, *note
     isEnabledFor(): 1187, *note getEffectiveLevel(): 2a4d, *note
     setLevel(): 1302. and *note hasHandlers(): 2a59.  These methods
     have the same signatures as their counterparts in *note Logger:
     9a9, so you can use the two types of instances interchangeably.

     在 3.2 版的變更: The *note isEnabledFor(): 1187, *note
     getEffectiveLevel(): 2a4d, *note setLevel(): 1302. and *note
     hasHandlers(): 2a59. methods were added to *note LoggerAdapter:
     1186.  These methods delegate to the underlying logger.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Attribute ‘manager’ and method ‘_log()’ were
     added, which delegate to the underlying logger and allow adapters
     to be nested.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Safety,  Next: Module-Level Functions,  Prev: LoggerAdapter 物件,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.9 Thread Safety
......................

The logging module is intended to be thread-safe without any special
work needing to be done by its clients.  It achieves this though using
threading locks; there is one lock to serialize access to the module's
shared data, and each handler also creates a lock to serialize access to
its underlying I/O.

If you are implementing asynchronous signal handlers using the *note
signal: c1. module, you may not be able to use logging from within such
handlers.  This is because lock implementations in the *note threading:
e7. module are not always re-entrant, and so cannot be invoked from such
signal handlers.


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Functions,  Next: Module-Level Attributes,  Prev: Thread Safety,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.10 Module-Level Functions
................................

In addition to the classes described above, there are a number of
module-level functions.

 -- 函式: logging.getLogger (name=None)

     Return a logger with the specified name or, if name is ‘None’,
     return the root logger of the hierarchy.  If specified, the name is
     typically a dot-separated hierarchical name like ''a", ''a.b" or
     ''a.b.c.d".  Choice of these names is entirely up to the developer
     who is using logging, though it is recommended that ‘__name__’ be
     used unless you have a specific reason for not doing that, as
     mentioned in *note Logger 物件: 2a43.

     All calls to this function with a given name return the same logger
     instance.  This means that logger instances never need to be passed
     between different parts of an application.

 -- 函式: logging.getLoggerClass ()

     Return either the standard *note Logger: 9a9. class, or the last
     class passed to *note setLoggerClass(): 2a8e.  This function may be
     called from within a new class definition, to ensure that
     installing a customized *note Logger: 9a9. class will not undo
     customizations already applied by other code.  For example:

          class MyLogger(logging.getLoggerClass()):
              # ... override behaviour here

 -- 函式: logging.getLogRecordFactory ()

     Return a callable which is used to create a *note LogRecord: e78.

     在 3.2 版被加入: This function has been provided, along with *note
     setLogRecordFactory(): 2a83, to allow developers more control over
     how the *note LogRecord: e78. representing a logging event is
     constructed.

     See *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2a83. for more information about
     the how the factory is called.

 -- 函式: logging.debug (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     This is a convenience function that calls *note Logger.debug():
     ca4, on the root logger.  The handling of the arguments is in every
     way identical to what is described in that method.

     The only difference is that if the root logger has no handlers,
     then *note basicConfig(): 846. is called, prior to calling ‘debug’
     on the root logger.

     For very short scripts or quick demonstrations of ‘logging’
     facilities, ‘debug’ and the other module-level functions may be
     convenient.  However, most programs will want to carefully and
     explicitly control the logging configuration, and should therefore
     prefer creating a module-level logger and calling *note
     Logger.debug(): ca4. (or other level-specific methods) on it, as
     described at the beginnning of this documentation.

 -- 函式: logging.info (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note INFO: 1ae9. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2a50.

 -- 函式: logging.warning (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note WARNING: 1aea. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2a50.

          備註: There is an obsolete function ‘warn’ which is
          functionally identical to ‘warning’.  As ‘warn’ is deprecated,
          please do not use it - use ‘warning’ instead.

 -- 函式: logging.error (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 1aeb. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2a50.

 -- 函式: logging.critical (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note CRITICAL: 1aec. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2a50.

 -- 函式: logging.exception (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 1aeb. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2a50.  Exception info is added to the logging message.
     This function should only be called from an exception handler.

 -- 函式: logging.log (level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level 'level' on the root logger.  The
     arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note debug():
     2a50.

 -- 函式: logging.disable (level=CRITICAL)

     Provides an overriding level 'level' for all loggers which takes
     precedence over the logger's own level.  When the need arises to
     temporarily throttle logging output down across the whole
     application, this function can be useful.  Its effect is to disable
     all logging calls of severity 'level' and below, so that if you
     call it with a value of INFO, then all INFO and DEBUG events would
     be discarded, whereas those of severity WARNING and above would be
     processed according to the logger's effective level.  If
     ‘logging.disable(logging.NOTSET)’ is called, it effectively removes
     this overriding level, so that logging output again depends on the
     effective levels of individual loggers.

     Note that if you have defined any custom logging level higher than
     ‘CRITICAL’ (this is not recommended), you won't be able to rely on
     the default value for the 'level' parameter, but will have to
     explicitly supply a suitable value.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The 'level' parameter was defaulted to level
     ‘CRITICAL’.  See bpo-28524(1) for more information about this
     change.

 -- 函式: logging.addLevelName (level, levelName)

     Associates level 'level' with text 'levelName' in an internal
     dictionary, which is used to map numeric levels to a textual
     representation, for example when a *note Formatter: 1307. formats a
     message.  This function can also be used to define your own levels.
     The only constraints are that all levels used must be registered
     using this function, levels should be positive integers and they
     should increase in increasing order of severity.

          備註: If you are thinking of defining your own levels, please
          see the section on *note Custom Levels: 2a94.

 -- 函式: logging.getLevelNamesMapping ()

     Returns a mapping from level names to their corresponding logging
     levels.  For example, the string "CRITICAL" maps to *note CRITICAL:
     1aec.  The returned mapping is copied from an internal mapping on
     each call to this function.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: logging.getLevelName (level)

     Returns the textual or numeric representation of logging level
     'level'.

     If 'level' is one of the predefined levels *note CRITICAL: 1aec,
     *note ERROR: 1aeb, *note WARNING: 1aea, *note INFO: 1ae9. or *note
     DEBUG: 1ae8. then you get the corresponding string.  If you have
     associated levels with names using *note addLevelName(): 2a93. then
     the name you have associated with 'level' is returned.  If a
     numeric value corresponding to one of the defined levels is passed
     in, the corresponding string representation is returned.

     The 'level' parameter also accepts a string representation of the
     level such as 'INFO'. In such cases, this functions returns the
     corresponding numeric value of the level.

     If no matching numeric or string value is passed in, the string
     'Level %s' % level is returned.

          備註: Levels are internally integers (as they need to be
          compared in the logging logic).  This function is used to
          convert between an integer level and the level name displayed
          in the formatted log output by means of the ‘%(levelname)s’
          format specifier (see *note LogRecord attributes: 2a4e.), and
          vice versa.

     在 3.4 版的變更: In Python versions earlier than 3.4, this function
     could also be passed a text level, and would return the
     corresponding numeric value of the level.  This undocumented
     behaviour was considered a mistake, and was removed in Python 3.4,
     but reinstated in 3.4.2 due to retain backward compatibility.

 -- 函式: logging.getHandlerByName (name)

     Returns a handler with the specified 'name', or ‘None’ if there is
     no handler with that name.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: logging.getHandlerNames ()

     Returns an immutable set of all known handler names.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: logging.makeLogRecord (attrdict)

     Creates and returns a new *note LogRecord: e78. instance whose
     attributes are defined by 'attrdict'.  This function is useful for
     taking a pickled *note LogRecord: e78. attribute dictionary, sent
     over a socket, and reconstituting it as a *note LogRecord: e78.
     instance at the receiving end.

 -- 函式: logging.basicConfig (**kwargs)

     Does basic configuration for the logging system by creating a *note
     StreamHandler: 1089. with a default *note Formatter: 1307. and
     adding it to the root logger.  The functions *note debug(): 2a50,
     *note info(): 2a7b, *note warning(): 1303, *note error(): 2a8f. and
     *note critical(): 2a90. will call *note basicConfig(): 846.
     automatically if no handlers are defined for the root logger.

     This function does nothing if the root logger already has handlers
     configured, unless the keyword argument 'force' is set to ‘True’.

          備註: This function should be called from the main thread
          before other threads are started.  In versions of Python prior
          to 2.7.1 and 3.2, if this function is called from multiple
          threads, it is possible (in rare circumstances) that a handler
          will be added to the root logger more than once, leading to
          unexpected results such as messages being duplicated in the
          log.

     The following keyword arguments are supported.

     格式               描述
                        
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                        
     'filename'         Specifies that a *note FileHandler: 1671. be
                        created, using the specified filename, rather
                        than a *note StreamHandler: 1089.
                        
                        
     'filemode'         If 'filename' is specified, open the file in
                        this *note mode: 1f0c.  Defaults to ‘'a'’.
                        
                        
     'format'           Use the specified format string for the
                        handler.  Defaults to attributes ‘levelname’,
                        ‘name’ and ‘message’ separated by colons.
                        
                        
     'datefmt'          Use the specified date/time format, as accepted
                        by *note time.strftime(): 107a.
                        
                        
     'style'            If 'format' is specified, use this style for
                        the format string.  One of ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’ or
                        ‘'$'’ for *note printf-style: 4cb,
                        *note str.format(): 41b. or
                        *note string.Template: 484. respectively.
                        Defaults to ‘'%'’.
                        
                        
     'level'            Set the root logger level to the specified
                        *note level: 455.
                        
                        
     'stream'           Use the specified stream to initialize the
                        *note StreamHandler: 1089.  Note that this
                        argument is incompatible with 'filename' - if
                        both are present, a ‘ValueError’ is raised.
                        
                        
     'handlers'         If specified, this should be an iterable of
                        already created handlers to add to the root
                        logger.  Any handlers which don't already have
                        a formatter set will be assigned the default
                        formatter created in this function.  Note that
                        this argument is incompatible with 'filename'
                        or 'stream' - if both are present, a
                        ‘ValueError’ is raised.
                        
                        
     'force'            If this keyword argument is specified as true,
                        any existing handlers attached to the root
                        logger are removed and closed, before carrying
                        out the configuration as specified by the other
                        arguments.
                        
                        
     'encoding'         If this keyword argument is specified along
                        with 'filename', its value is used when the
                        *note FileHandler: 1671. is created, and thus
                        used when opening the output file.
                        
                        
     'errors'           If this keyword argument is specified along
                        with 'filename', its value is used when the
                        *note FileHandler: 1671. is created, and thus
                        used when opening the output file.  If not
                        specified, the value 'backslashreplace' is
                        used.  Note that if ‘None’ is specified, it
                        will be passed as such to *note open(): 29c,
                        which means that it will be treated the same as
                        passing 'errors'.
                        

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'style' 引數。

     在 3.3 版的變更: The 'handlers' argument was added.  Additional
     checks were added to catch situations where incompatible arguments
     are specified (e.g.  'handlers' together with 'stream' or
     'filename', or 'stream' together with 'filename').

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'force' 引數。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'encoding' 與 'errors' 引數。

 -- 函式: logging.shutdown ()

     Informs the logging system to perform an orderly shutdown by
     flushing and closing all handlers.  This should be called at
     application exit and no further use of the logging system should be
     made after this call.

     When the logging module is imported, it registers this function as
     an exit handler (see *note atexit: a.), so normally there's no need
     to do that manually.

 -- 函式: logging.setLoggerClass (klass)

     Tells the logging system to use the class 'klass' when
     instantiating a logger.  The class should define ‘__init__()’ such
     that only a name argument is required, and the ‘__init__()’ should
     call ‘Logger.__init__()’.  This function is typically called before
     any loggers are instantiated by applications which need to use
     custom logger behavior.  After this call, as at any other time, do
     not instantiate loggers directly using the subclass: continue to
     use the *note logging.getLogger(): 7a1. API to get your loggers.

 -- 函式: logging.setLogRecordFactory (factory)

     Set a callable which is used to create a *note LogRecord: e78.


     參數: ‘factory’ - The factory callable to be used to instantiate a
     log record.

     在 3.2 版被加入: This function has been provided, along with *note
     getLogRecordFactory(): 2a82, to allow developers more control over
     how the *note LogRecord: e78. representing a logging event is
     constructed.

     The factory has the following signature:

     ‘factory(name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info, func=None,
     sinfo=None, **kwargs)’


          name: The logger name.


          level: The logging level (numeric).


          fn: The full pathname of the file where the logging call was
          made.


          lno: The line number in the file where the logging call was
          made.


          msg: The logging message.


          args: The arguments for the logging message.


          exc_info: An exception tuple, or ‘None’.


          func: The name of the function or method which invoked the
          logging call.


          sinfo: A stack traceback such as is provided by *note
          traceback.print_stack(): d08, showing the call hierarchy.


          kwargs: 額外的關鍵字引數。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28524


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Attributes,  Next: Integration with the warnings module,  Prev: Module-Level Functions,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.11 Module-Level Attributes
.................................

 -- 屬性: logging.lastResort

     A "handler of last resort" is available through this attribute.
     This is a *note StreamHandler: 1089. writing to ‘sys.stderr’ with a
     level of ‘WARNING’, and is used to handle logging events in the
     absence of any logging configuration.  The end result is to just
     print the message to ‘sys.stderr’.  This replaces the earlier error
     message saying that "no handlers could be found for logger XYZ". If
     you need the earlier behaviour for some reason, ‘lastResort’ can be
     set to ‘None’.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: logging.raiseExceptions

     Used to see if exceptions during handling should be propagated.

     Default: ‘True’.

     If *note raiseExceptions: 108a. is ‘False’, exceptions get silently
     ignored.  This is what is mostly wanted for a logging system - most
     users will not care about errors in the logging system, they are
     more interested in application errors.


File: python.info,  Node: Integration with the warnings module,  Prev: Module-Level Attributes,  Up: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具

5.16.6.12 Integration with the warnings module
..............................................

The *note captureWarnings(): 2a98. function can be used to integrate
*note logging: 82. with the *note warnings: 10d. module.

 -- 函式: logging.captureWarnings (capture)

     This function is used to turn the capture of warnings by logging on
     and off.

     If 'capture' is ‘True’, warnings issued by the *note warnings: 10d.
     module will be redirected to the logging system.  Specifically, a
     warning will be formatted using *note warnings.formatwarning():
     17fa. and the resulting string logged to a logger named
     ‘'py.warnings'’ with a severity of *note WARNING: 1aea.

     If 'capture' is ‘False’, the redirection of warnings to the logging
     system will stop, and warnings will be redirected to their original
     destinations (i.e.  those in effect before ‘captureWarnings(True)’
     was called).

也參考
......

Module *note logging.config: 83.

     Configuration API for the logging module.

Module *note logging.handlers: 84.

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.

PEP 282(1) - A Logging System

     The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the
     Python standard library.

Original Python logging package(2)

     This is the original source for the *note logging: 82. package.
     The version of the package available from this site is suitable for
     use with Python 1.5.2, 2.1.x and 2.2.x, which do not include the
     *note logging: 82. package in the standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/

   (2) https://old.red-dove.com/python_logging.html


File: python.info,  Node: logging config --- 日誌記錄配置,  Next: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器,  Prev: logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.7 ‘logging.config’ -- 日誌記錄配置
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/logging/config.py(1)

Important
.........

This page contains only reference information.  For tutorials, please
see

   * *note 基礎教學: 1086.

   * *note 進階教學: 1087.

   * *note Logging Cookbook: 1088.

__________________________________________________________________

This section describes the API for configuring the logging module.

* Menu:

* Configuration functions::
* Security considerations::
* Configuration dictionary schema::
* Configuration file format::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/logging/config.py


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration functions,  Next: Security considerations,  Up: logging config --- 日誌記錄配置

5.16.7.1 Configuration functions
................................

The following functions configure the logging module.  They are located
in the *note logging.config: 83. module.  Their use is optional -- you
can configure the logging module using these functions or by making
calls to the main API (defined in *note logging: 82. itself) and
defining handlers which are declared either in *note logging: 82. or
*note logging.handlers: 84.

 -- 函式: logging.config.dictConfig (config)

     Takes the logging configuration from a dictionary.  The contents of
     this dictionary are described in *note Configuration dictionary
     schema: 2a9c. below.

     If an error is encountered during configuration, this function will
     raise a *note ValueError: 183, *note TypeError: 2ba, *note
     AttributeError: 3ca. or *note ImportError: 145. with a suitably
     descriptive message.  The following is a (possibly incomplete) list
     of conditions which will raise an error:

        * A ‘level’ which is not a string or which is a string not
          corresponding to an actual logging level.

        * A ‘propagate’ value which is not a boolean.

        * An id which does not have a corresponding destination.

        * A non-existent handler id found during an incremental call.

        * An invalid logger name.

        * Inability to resolve to an internal or external object.

     Parsing is performed by the ‘DictConfigurator’ class, whose
     constructor is passed the dictionary used for configuration, and
     has a ‘configure()’ method.  The *note logging.config: 83. module
     has a callable attribute ‘dictConfigClass’ which is initially set
     to ‘DictConfigurator’.  You can replace the value of
     ‘dictConfigClass’ with a suitable implementation of your own.

     *note dictConfig(): 1041. calls ‘dictConfigClass’ passing the
     specified dictionary, and then calls the ‘configure()’ method on
     the returned object to put the configuration into effect:

          def dictConfig(config):
              dictConfigClass(config).configure()

     For example, a subclass of ‘DictConfigurator’ could call
     ‘DictConfigurator.__init__()’ in its own ‘__init__()’, then set up
     custom prefixes which would be usable in the subsequent
     ‘configure()’ call.  ‘dictConfigClass’ would be bound to this new
     subclass, and then *note dictConfig(): 1041. could be called
     exactly as in the default, uncustomized state.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: logging.config.fileConfig (fname, defaults=None,
          disable_existing_loggers=True, encoding=None)

     Reads the logging configuration from a *note configparser:
     20.-format file.  The format of the file should be as described in
     *note Configuration file format: 2a9d.  This function can be called
     several times from an application, allowing an end user to select
     from various pre-canned configurations (if the developer provides a
     mechanism to present the choices and load the chosen
     configuration).

     It will raise *note FileNotFoundError: d46. if the file doesn't
     exist and *note RuntimeError: 17a. if the file is invalid or empty.


     參數:

        * ‘fname’ - A filename, or a file-like object, or an instance
          derived from *note RawConfigParser: df1.  If a
          ‘RawConfigParser’-derived instance is passed, it is used as
          is.  Otherwise, a *note ConfigParser: 286. is instantiated,
          and the configuration read by it from the object passed in
          ‘fname’.  If that has a *note readline(): b5. method, it is
          assumed to be a file-like object and read using *note
          read_file(): 287.; otherwise, it is assumed to be a filename
          and passed to *note read(): 12d8.

        * ‘defaults’ - Defaults to be passed to the ‘ConfigParser’ can
          be specified in this argument.

        * ‘disable_existing_loggers’ - If specified as ‘False’, loggers
          which exist when this call is made are left enabled.  The
          default is ‘True’ because this enables old behaviour in a
          backward-compatible way.  This behaviour is to disable any
          existing non-root loggers unless they or their ancestors are
          explicitly named in the logging configuration.

        * ‘encoding’ - The encoding used to open file when 'fname' is
          filename.

     在 3.4 版的變更: An instance of a subclass of *note
     RawConfigParser: df1. is now accepted as a value for ‘fname’.  This
     facilitates:

             * Use of a configuration file where logging configuration
               is just part of the overall application configuration.

             * Use of a configuration read from a file, and then
               modified by the using application (e.g.  based on
               command-line parameters or other aspects of the runtime
               environment) before being passed to ‘fileConfig’.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Added the 'encoding' parameter.

     在 3.12 版的變更: An exception will be thrown if the provided file
     doesn't exist or is invalid or empty.

 -- 函式: logging.config.listen (port=DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT,
          verify=None)

     Starts up a socket server on the specified port, and listens for
     new configurations.  If no port is specified, the module's default
     ‘DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT’ is used.  Logging configurations will
     be sent as a file suitable for processing by *note dictConfig():
     1041. or *note fileConfig(): 9ab.  Returns a *note Thread: 78d.
     instance on which you can call *note start(): 2a9e. to start the
     server, and which you can *note join(): 1075. when appropriate.  To
     stop the server, call *note stopListening(): 2a9f.

     The ‘verify’ argument, if specified, should be a callable which
     should verify whether bytes received across the socket are valid
     and should be processed.  This could be done by encrypting and/or
     signing what is sent across the socket, such that the ‘verify’
     callable can perform signature verification and/or decryption.  The
     ‘verify’ callable is called with a single argument - the bytes
     received across the socket - and should return the bytes to be
     processed, or ‘None’ to indicate that the bytes should be
     discarded.  The returned bytes could be the same as the passed in
     bytes (e.g.  when only verification is done), or they could be
     completely different (perhaps if decryption were performed).

     To send a configuration to the socket, read in the configuration
     file and send it to the socket as a sequence of bytes preceded by a
     four-byte length string packed in binary using ‘struct.pack('>L',
     n)’.
          備註: Because portions of the configuration are passed through
          *note eval(): 6b0, use of this function may open its users to
          a security risk.  While the function only binds to a socket on
          ‘localhost’, and so does not accept connections from remote
          machines, there are scenarios where untrusted code could be
          run under the account of the process which calls *note
          listen(): df2.  Specifically, if the process calling *note
          listen(): df2. runs on a multi-user machine where users cannot
          trust each other, then a malicious user could arrange to run
          essentially arbitrary code in a victim user's process, simply
          by connecting to the victim's *note listen(): df2. socket and
          sending a configuration which runs whatever code the attacker
          wants to have executed in the victim's process.  This is
          especially easy to do if the default port is used, but not
          hard even if a different port is used.  To avoid the risk of
          this happening, use the ‘verify’ argument to *note listen():
          df2. to prevent unrecognised configurations from being
          applied.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 ‘verify’ 引數。

          備註: If you want to send configurations to the listener which
          don't disable existing loggers, you will need to use a JSON
          format for the configuration, which will use *note
          dictConfig(): 1041. for configuration.  This method allows you
          to specify ‘disable_existing_loggers’ as ‘False’ in the
          configuration you send.

 -- 函式: logging.config.stopListening ()

     Stops the listening server which was created with a call to *note
     listen(): df2.  This is typically called before calling ‘join()’ on
     the return value from *note listen(): df2.


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations,  Next: Configuration dictionary schema,  Prev: Configuration functions,  Up: logging config --- 日誌記錄配置

5.16.7.2 Security considerations
................................

The logging configuration functionality tries to offer convenience, and
in part this is done by offering the ability to convert text in
configuration files into Python objects used in logging configuration -
for example, as described in *note User-defined objects: 2aa2.  However,
these same mechanisms (importing callables from user-defined modules and
calling them with parameters from the configuration) could be used to
invoke any code you like, and for this reason you should treat
configuration files from untrusted sources with 'extreme caution' and
satisfy yourself that nothing bad can happen if you load them, before
actually loading them.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration dictionary schema,  Next: Configuration file format,  Prev: Security considerations,  Up: logging config --- 日誌記錄配置

5.16.7.3 Configuration dictionary schema
........................................

Describing a logging configuration requires listing the various objects
to create and the connections between them; for example, you may create
a handler named 'console' and then say that the logger named 'startup'
will send its messages to the 'console' handler.  These objects aren't
limited to those provided by the *note logging: 82. module because you
might write your own formatter or handler class.  The parameters to
these classes may also need to include external objects such as
‘sys.stderr’.  The syntax for describing these objects and connections
is defined in *note Object connections: 2aa4. below.

* Menu:

* Dictionary Schema Details::
* Incremental Configuration::
* Object connections::
* User-defined objects::
* Handler configuration order::
* Access to external objects::
* Access to internal objects::
* Import resolution and custom importers::
* Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener::


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary Schema Details,  Next: Incremental Configuration,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.4 Dictionary Schema Details
..................................

The dictionary passed to *note dictConfig(): 1041. must contain the
following keys:

   * 'version' - to be set to an integer value representing the schema
     version.  The only valid value at present is 1, but having this key
     allows the schema to evolve while still preserving backwards
     compatibility.

All other keys are optional, but if present they will be interpreted as
described below.  In all cases below where a 'configuring dict' is
mentioned, it will be checked for the special ‘'()'’ key to see if a
custom instantiation is required.  If so, the mechanism described in
*note User-defined objects: 2aa2. below is used to create an instance;
otherwise, the context is used to determine what to instantiate.

   * 'formatters' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a formatter id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding *note Formatter: 1307. instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following optional keys
     which correspond to the arguments passed to create a *note
     Formatter: 1307. object:

        * ‘format’

        * ‘datefmt’

        * ‘style’

        * ‘validate’ (since version >=3.8)

        * ‘defaults’ (since version >=3.12)

     An optional ‘class’ key indicates the name of the formatter's class
     (as a dotted module and class name).  The instantiation arguments
     are as for *note Formatter: 1307, thus this key is most useful for
     instantiating a customised subclass of *note Formatter: 1307.  For
     example, the alternative class might present exception tracebacks
     in an expanded or condensed format.  If your formatter requires
     different or extra configuration keys, you should use *note
     User-defined objects: 2aa2.

   * 'filters' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a filter id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Filter instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the key ‘name’ (defaulting to
     the empty string) and this is used to construct a *note
     logging.Filter: 108c. instance.

   * 'handlers' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a handler id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Handler instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:

        * ‘class’ (mandatory).  This is the fully qualified name of the
          handler class.

        * ‘level’ (optional).  The level of the handler.

        * ‘formatter’ (optional).  The id of the formatter for this
          handler.

        * ‘filters’ (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
          handler.

          在 3.11 版的變更: ‘filters’ can take filter instances in
          addition to ids.

     All 'other' keys are passed through as keyword arguments to the
     handler's constructor.  For example, given the snippet:

          handlers:
            console:
              class : logging.StreamHandler
              formatter: brief
              level   : INFO
              filters: [allow_foo]
              stream  : ext://sys.stdout
            file:
              class : logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler
              formatter: precise
              filename: logconfig.log
              maxBytes: 1024
              backupCount: 3

     the handler with id ‘console’ is instantiated as a *note
     logging.StreamHandler: 1089, using ‘sys.stdout’ as the underlying
     stream.  The handler with id ‘file’ is instantiated as a *note
     logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 13f4. with the keyword
     arguments ‘filename='logconfig.log', maxBytes=1024, backupCount=3’.

   * 'loggers' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a logger name and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Logger instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:

        * ‘level’ (optional).  The level of the logger.

        * ‘propagate’ (optional).  The propagation setting of the
          logger.

        * ‘filters’ (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
          logger.

          在 3.11 版的變更: ‘filters’ can take filter instances in
          addition to ids.

        * ‘handlers’ (optional).  A list of ids of the handlers for this
          logger.

     The specified loggers will be configured according to the level,
     propagation, filters and handlers specified.

   * 'root' - this will be the configuration for the root logger.
     Processing of the configuration will be as for any logger, except
     that the ‘propagate’ setting will not be applicable.

   * 'incremental' - whether the configuration is to be interpreted as
     incremental to the existing configuration.  This value defaults to
     ‘False’, which means that the specified configuration replaces the
     existing configuration with the same semantics as used by the
     existing *note fileConfig(): 9ab. API.

     If the specified value is ‘True’, the configuration is processed as
     described in the section on *note Incremental Configuration: 2aa7.

   * 'disable_existing_loggers' - whether any existing non-root loggers
     are to be disabled.  This setting mirrors the parameter of the same
     name in *note fileConfig(): 9ab.  If absent, this parameter
     defaults to ‘True’.  This value is ignored if 'incremental' is
     ‘True’.


File: python.info,  Node: Incremental Configuration,  Next: Object connections,  Prev: Dictionary Schema Details,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.5 Incremental Configuration
..................................

It is difficult to provide complete flexibility for incremental
configuration.  For example, because objects such as filters and
formatters are anonymous, once a configuration is set up, it is not
possible to refer to such anonymous objects when augmenting a
configuration.

Furthermore, there is not a compelling case for arbitrarily altering the
object graph of loggers, handlers, filters, formatters at run-time, once
a configuration is set up; the verbosity of loggers and handlers can be
controlled just by setting levels (and, in the case of loggers,
propagation flags).  Changing the object graph arbitrarily in a safe way
is problematic in a multi-threaded environment; while not impossible,
the benefits are not worth the complexity it adds to the implementation.

Thus, when the ‘incremental’ key of a configuration dict is present and
is ‘True’, the system will completely ignore any ‘formatters’ and
‘filters’ entries, and process only the ‘level’ settings in the
‘handlers’ entries, and the ‘level’ and ‘propagate’ settings in the
‘loggers’ and ‘root’ entries.

Using a value in the configuration dict lets configurations to be sent
over the wire as pickled dicts to a socket listener.  Thus, the logging
verbosity of a long-running application can be altered over time with no
need to stop and restart the application.


File: python.info,  Node: Object connections,  Next: User-defined objects,  Prev: Incremental Configuration,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.6 Object connections
...........................

The schema describes a set of logging objects - loggers, handlers,
formatters, filters - which are connected to each other in an object
graph.  Thus, the schema needs to represent connections between the
objects.  For example, say that, once configured, a particular logger
has attached to it a particular handler.  For the purposes of this
discussion, we can say that the logger represents the source, and the
handler the destination, of a connection between the two.  Of course in
the configured objects this is represented by the logger holding a
reference to the handler.  In the configuration dict, this is done by
giving each destination object an id which identifies it unambiguously,
and then using the id in the source object's configuration to indicate
that a connection exists between the source and the destination object
with that id.

So, for example, consider the following YAML snippet:

     formatters:
       brief:
         # configuration for formatter with id 'brief' goes here
       precise:
         # configuration for formatter with id 'precise' goes here
     handlers:
       h1: #This is an id
        # configuration of handler with id 'h1' goes here
        formatter: brief
       h2: #This is another id
        # configuration of handler with id 'h2' goes here
        formatter: precise
     loggers:
       foo.bar.baz:
         # other configuration for logger 'foo.bar.baz'
         handlers: [h1, h2]

(Note: YAML used here because it's a little more readable than the
equivalent Python source form for the dictionary.)

The ids for loggers are the logger names which would be used
programmatically to obtain a reference to those loggers, e.g.
‘foo.bar.baz’.  The ids for Formatters and Filters can be any string
value (such as ‘brief’, ‘precise’ above) and they are transient, in that
they are only meaningful for processing the configuration dictionary and
used to determine connections between objects, and are not persisted
anywhere when the configuration call is complete.

The above snippet indicates that logger named ‘foo.bar.baz’ should have
two handlers attached to it, which are described by the handler ids ‘h1’
and ‘h2’.  The formatter for ‘h1’ is that described by id ‘brief’, and
the formatter for ‘h2’ is that described by id ‘precise’.


File: python.info,  Node: User-defined objects,  Next: Handler configuration order,  Prev: Object connections,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.7 User-defined objects
.............................

The schema supports user-defined objects for handlers, filters and
formatters.  (Loggers do not need to have different types for different
instances, so there is no support in this configuration schema for
user-defined logger classes.)

Objects to be configured are described by dictionaries which detail
their configuration.  In some places, the logging system will be able to
infer from the context how an object is to be instantiated, but when a
user-defined object is to be instantiated, the system will not know how
to do this.  In order to provide complete flexibility for user-defined
object instantiation, the user needs to provide a 'factory' - a callable
which is called with a configuration dictionary and which returns the
instantiated object.  This is signalled by an absolute import path to
the factory being made available under the special key ‘'()'’.  Here's a
concrete example:

     formatters:
       brief:
         format: '%(message)s'
       default:
         format: '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s'
         datefmt: '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
       custom:
           (): my.package.customFormatterFactory
           bar: baz
           spam: 99.9
           answer: 42

The above YAML snippet defines three formatters.  The first, with id
‘brief’, is a standard *note logging.Formatter: 1307. instance with the
specified format string.  The second, with id ‘default’, has a longer
format and also defines the time format explicitly, and will result in a
*note logging.Formatter: 1307. initialized with those two format
strings.  Shown in Python source form, the ‘brief’ and ‘default’
formatters have configuration sub-dictionaries:

     {
       'format' : '%(message)s'
     }

和：

     {
       'format' : '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s',
       'datefmt' : '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
     }

respectively, and as these dictionaries do not contain the special key
‘'()'’, the instantiation is inferred from the context: as a result,
standard *note logging.Formatter: 1307. instances are created.  The
configuration sub-dictionary for the third formatter, with id ‘custom’,
is:

     {
       '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
       'bar' : 'baz',
       'spam' : 99.9,
       'answer' : 42
     }

and this contains the special key ‘'()'’, which means that user-defined
instantiation is wanted.  In this case, the specified factory callable
will be used.  If it is an actual callable it will be used directly -
otherwise, if you specify a string (as in the example) the actual
callable will be located using normal import mechanisms.  The callable
will be called with the 'remaining' items in the configuration
sub-dictionary as keyword arguments.  In the above example, the
formatter with id ‘custom’ will be assumed to be returned by the call:

     my.package.customFormatterFactory(bar='baz', spam=99.9, answer=42)

     警告: The values for keys such as ‘bar’, ‘spam’ and ‘answer’ in the
     above example should not be configuration dictionaries or
     references such as ‘cfg://foo’ or ‘ext://bar’, because they will
     not be processed by the configuration machinery, but passed to the
     callable as-is.

The key ‘'()'’ has been used as the special key because it is not a
valid keyword parameter name, and so will not clash with the names of
the keyword arguments used in the call.  The ‘'()'’ also serves as a
mnemonic that the corresponding value is a callable.

在 3.11 版的變更: The ‘filters’ member of ‘handlers’ and ‘loggers’ can
take filter instances in addition to ids.

You can also specify a special key ‘'.'’ whose value is a dictionary is
a mapping of attribute names to values.  If found, the specified
attributes will be set on the user-defined object before it is returned.
Thus, with the following configuration:

     {
       '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
       'bar' : 'baz',
       'spam' : 99.9,
       'answer' : 42,
       '.' {
         'foo': 'bar',
         'baz': 'bozz'
       }
     }

the returned formatter will have attribute ‘foo’ set to ‘'bar'’ and
attribute ‘baz’ set to ‘'bozz'’.

     警告: The values for attributes such as ‘foo’ and ‘baz’ in the
     above example should not be configuration dictionaries or
     references such as ‘cfg://foo’ or ‘ext://bar’, because they will
     not be processed by the configuration machinery, but set as
     attribute values as-is.


File: python.info,  Node: Handler configuration order,  Next: Access to external objects,  Prev: User-defined objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.8 Handler configuration order
....................................

Handlers are configured in alphabetical order of their keys, and a
configured handler replaces the configuration dictionary in (a working
copy of) the ‘handlers’ dictionary in the schema.  If you use a
construct such as ‘cfg://handlers.foo’, then initially ‘handlers['foo']’
points to the configuration dictionary for the handler named ‘foo’, and
later (once that handler has been configured) it points to the
configured handler instance.  Thus, ‘cfg://handlers.foo’ could resolve
to either a dictionary or a handler instance.  In general, it is wise to
name handlers in a way such that dependent handlers are configured
_after_ any handlers they depend on; that allows something like
‘cfg://handlers.foo’ to be used in configuring a handler that depends on
handler ‘foo’.  If that dependent handler were named ‘bar’, problems
would result, because the configuration of ‘bar’ would be attempted
before that of ‘foo’, and ‘foo’ would not yet have been configured.
However, if the dependent handler were named ‘foobar’, it would be
configured after ‘foo’, with the result that ‘cfg://handlers.foo’ would
resolve to configured handler ‘foo’, and not its configuration
dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Access to external objects,  Next: Access to internal objects,  Prev: Handler configuration order,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.9 Access to external objects
...................................

There are times where a configuration needs to refer to objects external
to the configuration, for example ‘sys.stderr’.  If the configuration
dict is constructed using Python code, this is straightforward, but a
problem arises when the configuration is provided via a text file (e.g.
JSON, YAML). In a text file, there is no standard way to distinguish
‘sys.stderr’ from the literal string ‘'sys.stderr'’.  To facilitate this
distinction, the configuration system looks for certain special prefixes
in string values and treat them specially.  For example, if the literal
string ‘'ext://sys.stderr'’ is provided as a value in the configuration,
then the ‘ext://’ will be stripped off and the remainder of the value
processed using normal import mechanisms.

The handling of such prefixes is done in a way analogous to protocol
handling: there is a generic mechanism to look for prefixes which match
the regular expression ‘^(?P<prefix>[a-z]+)://(?P<suffix>.*)$’ whereby,
if the ‘prefix’ is recognised, the ‘suffix’ is processed in a
prefix-dependent manner and the result of the processing replaces the
string value.  If the prefix is not recognised, then the string value
will be left as-is.


File: python.info,  Node: Access to internal objects,  Next: Import resolution and custom importers,  Prev: Access to external objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.10 Access to internal objects
....................................

As well as external objects, there is sometimes also a need to refer to
objects in the configuration.  This will be done implicitly by the
configuration system for things that it knows about.  For example, the
string value ‘'DEBUG'’ for a ‘level’ in a logger or handler will
automatically be converted to the value ‘logging.DEBUG’, and the
‘handlers’, ‘filters’ and ‘formatter’ entries will take an object id and
resolve to the appropriate destination object.

However, a more generic mechanism is needed for user-defined objects
which are not known to the *note logging: 82. module.  For example,
consider *note logging.handlers.MemoryHandler: 2ab1, which takes a
‘target’ argument which is another handler to delegate to.  Since the
system already knows about this class, then in the configuration, the
given ‘target’ just needs to be the object id of the relevant target
handler, and the system will resolve to the handler from the id.  If,
however, a user defines a ‘my.package.MyHandler’ which has an
‘alternate’ handler, the configuration system would not know that the
‘alternate’ referred to a handler.  To cater for this, a generic
resolution system allows the user to specify:

     handlers:
       file:
         # configuration of file handler goes here

       custom:
         (): my.package.MyHandler
         alternate: cfg://handlers.file

The literal string ‘'cfg://handlers.file'’ will be resolved in an
analogous way to strings with the ‘ext://’ prefix, but looking in the
configuration itself rather than the import namespace.  The mechanism
allows access by dot or by index, in a similar way to that provided by
‘str.format’.  Thus, given the following snippet:

     handlers:
       email:
         class: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler
         mailhost: localhost
         fromaddr: my_app@domain.tld
         toaddrs:
           - support_team@domain.tld
           - dev_team@domain.tld
         subject: Houston, we have a problem.

in the configuration, the string ‘'cfg://handlers'’ would resolve to the
dict with key ‘handlers’, the string ‘'cfg://handlers.email’ would
resolve to the dict with key ‘email’ in the ‘handlers’ dict, and so on.
The string ‘'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[1]’ would resolve to
‘'dev_team@domain.tld'’ and the string
‘'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[0]'’ would resolve to the value
‘'support_team@domain.tld'’.  The ‘subject’ value could be accessed
using either ‘'cfg://handlers.email.subject'’ or, equivalently,
‘'cfg://handlers.email[subject]'’.  The latter form only needs to be
used if the key contains spaces or non-alphanumeric characters.  If an
index value consists only of decimal digits, access will be attempted
using the corresponding integer value, falling back to the string value
if needed.

Given a string ‘cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey.123’, this will resolve
to ‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']’.  If the
string is specified as ‘cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey[123]’, the system
will attempt to retrieve the value from
‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey'][123]’, and fall back to
‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']’ if that fails.


File: python.info,  Node: Import resolution and custom importers,  Next: Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener,  Prev: Access to internal objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.11 Import resolution and custom importers
................................................

Import resolution, by default, uses the builtin *note __import__(): 70d.
function to do its importing.  You may want to replace this with your
own importing mechanism: if so, you can replace the ‘importer’ attribute
of the ‘DictConfigurator’ or its superclass, the ‘BaseConfigurator’
class.  However, you need to be careful because of the way functions are
accessed from classes via descriptors.  If you are using a Python
callable to do your imports, and you want to define it at class level
rather than instance level, you need to wrap it with *note
staticmethod(): 5f9.  For example:

     from importlib import import_module
     from logging.config import BaseConfigurator

     BaseConfigurator.importer = staticmethod(import_module)

You don't need to wrap with *note staticmethod(): 5f9. if you're setting
the import callable on a configurator 'instance'.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener,  Prev: Import resolution and custom importers,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.12 Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener
....................................................

If you want to configure a *note QueueHandler: 15a4, noting that this is
normally used in conjunction with a *note QueueListener: ca6, you can
configure both together.  After the configuration, the ‘QueueListener’
instance will be available as the *note listener: 2ab5. attribute of the
created handler, and that in turn will be available to you using *note
getHandlerByName(): 15a5. and passing the name you have used for the
‘QueueHandler’ in your configuration.  The dictionary schema for
configuring the pair is shown in the example YAML snippet below.

     handlers:
       qhand:
         class: logging.handlers.QueueHandler
         queue: my.module.queue_factory
         listener: my.package.CustomListener
         handlers:
           - hand_name_1
           - hand_name_2
           ...

The ‘queue’ and ‘listener’ keys are optional.

If the ‘queue’ key is present, the corresponding value can be one of the
following:

   * An object implementing the *note Queue.put_nowait: 2ab6. and *note
     Queue.get: 2ab7. public API. For instance, this may be an actual
     instance of *note queue.Queue: 121d. or a subclass thereof, or a
     proxy obtained by *note
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Queue(): 2ab8.

     This is of course only possible if you are constructing or
     modifying the configuration dictionary in code.

   * A string that resolves to a callable which, when called with no
     arguments, returns the queue instance to use.  That callable could
     be a *note queue.Queue: 121d. subclass or a function which returns
     a suitable queue instance, such as ‘my.module.queue_factory()’.

   * A dict with a ‘'()'’ key which is constructed in the usual way as
     discussed in *note User-defined objects: 2aa2.  The result of this
     construction should be a *note queue.Queue: 121d. instance.

If the ‘queue’ key is absent, a standard unbounded *note queue.Queue:
121d. instance is created and used.

If the ‘listener’ key is present, the corresponding value can be one of
the following:

   * A subclass of *note logging.handlers.QueueListener: ca6.  This is
     of course only possible if you are constructing or modifying the
     configuration dictionary in code.

   * A string which resolves to a class which is a subclass of
     ‘QueueListener’, such as ‘'my.package.CustomListener'’.

   * A dict with a ‘'()'’ key which is constructed in the usual way as
     discussed in *note User-defined objects: 2aa2.  The result of this
     construction should be a callable with the same signature as the
     ‘QueueListener’ initializer.

If the ‘listener’ key is absent, *note logging.handlers.QueueListener:
ca6. is used.

The values under the ‘handlers’ key are the names of other handlers in
the configuration (not shown in the above snippet) which will be passed
to the queue listener.

Any custom queue handler and listener classes will need to be defined
with the same initialization signatures as *note QueueHandler: 15a4. and
*note QueueListener: ca6.

在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration file format,  Prev: Configuration dictionary schema,  Up: logging config --- 日誌記錄配置

5.16.7.13 Configuration file format
...................................

The configuration file format understood by *note fileConfig(): 9ab. is
based on *note configparser: 20. functionality.  The file must contain
sections called ‘[loggers]’, ‘[handlers]’ and ‘[formatters]’ which
identify by name the entities of each type which are defined in the
file.  For each such entity, there is a separate section which
identifies how that entity is configured.  Thus, for a logger named
‘log01’ in the ‘[loggers]’ section, the relevant configuration details
are held in a section ‘[logger_log01]’.  Similarly, a handler called
‘hand01’ in the ‘[handlers]’ section will have its configuration held in
a section called ‘[handler_hand01]’, while a formatter called ‘form01’
in the ‘[formatters]’ section will have its configuration specified in a
section called ‘[formatter_form01]’.  The root logger configuration must
be specified in a section called ‘[logger_root]’.

     備註: The *note fileConfig(): 9ab. API is older than the *note
     dictConfig(): 1041. API and does not provide functionality to cover
     certain aspects of logging.  For example, you cannot configure
     *note Filter: 108c. objects, which provide for filtering of
     messages beyond simple integer levels, using *note fileConfig():
     9ab.  If you need to have instances of *note Filter: 108c. in your
     logging configuration, you will need to use *note dictConfig():
     1041.  Note that future enhancements to configuration functionality
     will be added to *note dictConfig(): 1041, so it's worth
     considering transitioning to this newer API when it's convenient to
     do so.

Examples of these sections in the file are given below.

     [loggers]
     keys=root,log02,log03,log04,log05,log06,log07

     [handlers]
     keys=hand01,hand02,hand03,hand04,hand05,hand06,hand07,hand08,hand09

     [formatters]
     keys=form01,form02,form03,form04,form05,form06,form07,form08,form09

The root logger must specify a level and a list of handlers.  An example
of a root logger section is given below.

     [logger_root]
     level=NOTSET
     handlers=hand01

The ‘level’ entry can be one of ‘DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, ERROR, CRITICAL’
or ‘NOTSET’.  For the root logger only, ‘NOTSET’ means that all messages
will be logged.  Level values are *note evaluated: 1efa. in the context
of the ‘logging’ package's namespace.

The ‘handlers’ entry is a comma-separated list of handler names, which
must appear in the ‘[handlers]’ section.  These names must appear in the
‘[handlers]’ section and have corresponding sections in the
configuration file.

For loggers other than the root logger, some additional information is
required.  This is illustrated by the following example.

     [logger_parser]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=hand01
     propagate=1
     qualname=compiler.parser

The ‘level’ and ‘handlers’ entries are interpreted as for the root
logger, except that if a non-root logger's level is specified as
‘NOTSET’, the system consults loggers higher up the hierarchy to
determine the effective level of the logger.  The ‘propagate’ entry is
set to 1 to indicate that messages must propagate to handlers higher up
the logger hierarchy from this logger, or 0 to indicate that messages
are 'not' propagated to handlers up the hierarchy.  The ‘qualname’ entry
is the hierarchical channel name of the logger, that is to say the name
used by the application to get the logger.

Sections which specify handler configuration are exemplified by the
following.

     [handler_hand01]
     class=StreamHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form01
     args=(sys.stdout,)

The ‘class’ entry indicates the handler's class (as determined by *note
eval(): 6b0. in the ‘logging’ package's namespace).  The ‘level’ is
interpreted as for loggers, and ‘NOTSET’ is taken to mean 'log
everything'.

The ‘formatter’ entry indicates the key name of the formatter for this
handler.  If blank, a default formatter (‘logging._defaultFormatter’) is
used.  If a name is specified, it must appear in the ‘[formatters]’
section and have a corresponding section in the configuration file.

The ‘args’ entry, when *note evaluated: 1efa. in the context of the
‘logging’ package's namespace, is the list of arguments to the
constructor for the handler class.  Refer to the constructors for the
relevant handlers, or to the examples below, to see how typical entries
are constructed.  If not provided, it defaults to ‘()’.

The optional ‘kwargs’ entry, when *note evaluated: 1efa. in the context
of the ‘logging’ package's namespace, is the keyword argument dict to
the constructor for the handler class.  If not provided, it defaults to
‘{}’.

     [handler_hand02]
     class=FileHandler
     level=DEBUG
     formatter=form02
     args=('python.log', 'w')

     [handler_hand03]
     class=handlers.SocketHandler
     level=INFO
     formatter=form03
     args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)

     [handler_hand04]
     class=handlers.DatagramHandler
     level=WARN
     formatter=form04
     args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_UDP_LOGGING_PORT)

     [handler_hand05]
     class=handlers.SysLogHandler
     level=ERROR
     formatter=form05
     args=(('localhost', handlers.SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), handlers.SysLogHandler.LOG_USER)

     [handler_hand06]
     class=handlers.NTEventLogHandler
     level=CRITICAL
     formatter=form06
     args=('Python Application', '', 'Application')

     [handler_hand07]
     class=handlers.SMTPHandler
     level=WARN
     formatter=form07
     args=('localhost', 'from@abc', ['user1@abc', 'user2@xyz'], 'Logger Subject')
     kwargs={'timeout': 10.0}

     [handler_hand08]
     class=handlers.MemoryHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form08
     target=
     args=(10, ERROR)

     [handler_hand09]
     class=handlers.HTTPHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form09
     args=('localhost:9022', '/log', 'GET')
     kwargs={'secure': True}

Sections which specify formatter configuration are typified by the
following.

     [formatter_form01]
     format=F1 %(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(message)s %(customfield)s
     datefmt=
     style=%
     validate=True
     defaults={'customfield': 'defaultvalue'}
     class=logging.Formatter

The arguments for the formatter configuration are the same as the keys
in the dictionary schema *note formatters section: 2aa6.

The ‘defaults’ entry, when *note evaluated: 1efa. in the context of the
‘logging’ package's namespace, is a dictionary of default values for
custom formatting fields.  If not provided, it defaults to ‘None’.

     備註: Due to the use of *note eval(): 6b0. as described above,
     there are potential security risks which result from using the
     *note listen(): df2. to send and receive configurations via
     sockets.  The risks are limited to where multiple users with no
     mutual trust run code on the same machine; see the *note listen():
     df2. documentation for more information.

也參考
......

*note logging: 82. 模組

     API reference for the logging module.

*note logging.handlers: 84. 模組

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.


File: python.info,  Node: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器,  Next: getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具,  Prev: logging config --- 日誌記錄配置,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.8 ‘logging.handlers’ -- 日誌紀錄處理器
-------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/logging/handlers.py(1)

Important
.........

This page contains only reference information.  For tutorials, please
see

   * *note 基礎教學: 1086.

   * *note 進階教學: 1087.

   * *note Logging Cookbook: 1088.

__________________________________________________________________

The following useful handlers are provided in the package.  Note that
three of the handlers (*note StreamHandler: 1089, *note FileHandler:
1671. and *note NullHandler: 1119.) are actually defined in the *note
logging: 82. module itself, but have been documented here along with the
other handlers.

* Menu:

* StreamHandler::
* FileHandler::
* NullHandler::
* WatchedFileHandler::
* BaseRotatingHandler::
* RotatingFileHandler::
* TimedRotatingFileHandler::
* SocketHandler::
* DatagramHandler::
* SysLogHandler::
* NTEventLogHandler::
* SMTPHandler::
* MemoryHandler::
* HTTPHandler::
* QueueHandler::
* QueueListener::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/logging/handlers.py


File: python.info,  Node: StreamHandler,  Next: FileHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.1 StreamHandler
......................

The *note StreamHandler: 1089. class, located in the core *note logging:
82. package, sends logging output to streams such as 'sys.stdout',
'sys.stderr' or any file-like object (or, more precisely, any object
which supports ‘write()’ and ‘flush()’ methods).

 -- 類別: logging.StreamHandler (stream=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note StreamHandler: 1089. class.  If
     'stream' is specified, the instance will use it for logging output;
     otherwise, 'sys.stderr' will be used.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          If a formatter is specified, it is used to format the record.
          The record is then written to the stream followed by *note
          terminator: 2abf.  If exception information is present, it is
          formatted using *note traceback.print_exception(): 676. and
          appended to the stream.

      -- 方法: flush ()

          Flushes the stream by calling its *note flush(): 2ac0. method.
          Note that the ‘close()’ method is inherited from *note
          Handler: 1306. and so does no output, so an explicit *note
          flush(): 2ac0. call may be needed at times.

      -- 方法: setStream (stream)

          Sets the instance's stream to the specified value, if it is
          different.  The old stream is flushed before the new stream is
          set.


          參數: ‘stream’ - The stream that the handler should use.


          回傳: the old stream, if the stream was changed, or ‘None’ if
          it wasn't.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: terminator

          String used as the terminator when writing a formatted record
          to a stream.  Default value is ‘'\n'’.

          If you don't want a newline termination, you can set the
          handler instance's ‘terminator’ attribute to the empty string.

          In earlier versions, the terminator was hardcoded as ‘'\n'’.

          在 3.2 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: FileHandler,  Next: NullHandler,  Prev: StreamHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.2 FileHandler
....................

The *note FileHandler: 1671. class, located in the core *note logging:
82. package, sends logging output to a disk file.  It inherits the
output functionality from *note StreamHandler: 1089.

 -- 類別: logging.FileHandler (filename, mode='a', encoding=None,
          delay=False, errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note FileHandler: 1671. class.  The
     specified file is opened and used as the stream for logging.  If
     'mode' is not specified, ‘'a'’ is used.  If 'encoding' is not
     ‘None’, it is used to open the file with that encoding.  If 'delay'
     is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call to
     *note emit(): 2ac3.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.  If
     'errors' is specified, it's used to determine how encoding errors
     are handled.

     在 3.6 版的變更: As well as string values, *note Path: 149. objects
     are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'errors' 參數。

      -- 方法: close ()

          Closes the file.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file.

          Note that if the file was closed due to logging shutdown at
          exit and the file mode is 'w', the record will not be emitted
          (see bpo-42378(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42378


File: python.info,  Node: NullHandler,  Next: WatchedFileHandler,  Prev: FileHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.3 NullHandler
....................

在 3.1 版被加入.

The *note NullHandler: 1119. class, located in the core *note logging:
82. package, does not do any formatting or output.  It is essentially a
'no-op' handler for use by library developers.

 -- 類別: logging.NullHandler

     Returns a new instance of the *note NullHandler: 1119. class.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          This method does nothing.

      -- 方法: handle (record)

          This method does nothing.

      -- 方法: createLock ()

          This method returns ‘None’ for the lock, since there is no
          underlying I/O to which access needs to be serialized.

See *note Configuring Logging for a Library: 2aca. for more information
on how to use *note NullHandler: 1119.


File: python.info,  Node: WatchedFileHandler,  Next: BaseRotatingHandler,  Prev: NullHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.4 WatchedFileHandler
...........................

The *note WatchedFileHandler: 2acd. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, is a ‘FileHandler’ which watches the file
it is logging to.  If the file changes, it is closed and reopened using
the file name.

A file change can happen because of usage of programs such as
'newsyslog' and 'logrotate' which perform log file rotation.  This
handler, intended for use under Unix/Linux, watches the file to see if
it has changed since the last emit.  (A file is deemed to have changed
if its device or inode have changed.)  If the file has changed, the old
file stream is closed, and the file opened to get a new stream.

This handler is not appropriate for use under Windows, because under
Windows open log files cannot be moved or renamed - logging opens the
files with exclusive locks - and so there is no need for such a handler.
Furthermore, 'ST_INO' is not supported under Windows; *note stat(): 1bf.
always returns zero for this value.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler (filename, mode='a',
          encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note WatchedFileHandler: 2acd.
     class.  The specified file is opened and used as the stream for
     logging.  If 'mode' is not specified, ‘'a'’ is used.  If 'encoding'
     is not ‘None’, it is used to open the file with that encoding.  If
     'delay' is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call
     to *note emit(): 2ace.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.
     If 'errors' is provided, it determines how encoding errors are
     handled.

     在 3.6 版的變更: As well as string values, *note Path: 149. objects
     are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'errors' 參數。

      -- 方法: reopenIfNeeded ()

          Checks to see if the file has changed.  If it has, the
          existing stream is flushed and closed and the file opened
          again, typically as a precursor to outputting the record to
          the file.

          在 3.6 版被加入.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file, but first calls *note
          reopenIfNeeded(): b23. to reopen the file if it has changed.


File: python.info,  Node: BaseRotatingHandler,  Next: RotatingFileHandler,  Prev: WatchedFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.5 BaseRotatingHandler
............................

The *note BaseRotatingHandler: 2ad1. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, is the base class for the rotating file
handlers, *note RotatingFileHandler: 13f4. and *note
TimedRotatingFileHandler: dee.  You should not need to instantiate this
class, but it has attributes and methods you may need to override.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler (filename, mode,
          encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

     The parameters are as for ‘FileHandler’.  The attributes are:

      -- 屬性: namer

          If this attribute is set to a callable, the *note
          rotation_filename(): 2ad3. method delegates to this callable.
          The parameters passed to the callable are those passed to
          *note rotation_filename(): 2ad3.

               備註: The namer function is called quite a few times
               during rollover, so it should be as simple and as fast as
               possible.  It should also return the same output every
               time for a given input, otherwise the rollover behaviour
               may not work as expected.

               It's also worth noting that care should be taken when
               using a namer to preserve certain attributes in the
               filename which are used during rotation.  For example,
               *note RotatingFileHandler: 13f4. expects to have a set of
               log files whose names contain successive integers, so
               that rotation works as expected, and *note
               TimedRotatingFileHandler: dee. deletes old log files
               (based on the ‘backupCount’ parameter passed to the
               handler's initializer) by determining the oldest files to
               delete.  For this to happen, the filenames should be
               sortable using the date/time portion of the filename, and
               a namer needs to respect this.  (If a namer is wanted
               that doesn't respect this scheme, it will need to be used
               in a subclass of *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: dee.
               which overrides the *note getFilesToDelete(): 2ad4.
               method to fit in with the custom naming scheme.)

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: rotator

          If this attribute is set to a callable, the *note rotate():
          2ad6. method delegates to this callable.  The parameters
          passed to the callable are those passed to *note rotate():
          2ad6.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: rotation_filename (default_name)

          Modify the filename of a log file when rotating.

          This is provided so that a custom filename can be provided.

          The default implementation calls the 'namer' attribute of the
          handler, if it's callable, passing the default name to it.  If
          the attribute isn't callable (the default is ‘None’), the name
          is returned unchanged.


          參數: ‘default_name’ - The default name for the log file.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: rotate (source, dest)

          When rotating, rotate the current log.

          The default implementation calls the 'rotator' attribute of
          the handler, if it's callable, passing the source and dest
          arguments to it.  If the attribute isn't callable (the default
          is ‘None’), the source is simply renamed to the destination.


          參數:

             * ‘source’ - The source filename.  This is normally the
               base filename, e.g.  'test.log'.

             * ‘dest’ - The destination filename.  This is normally what
               the source is rotated to, e.g.  'test.log.1'.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

The reason the attributes exist is to save you having to subclass - you
can use the same callables for instances of *note RotatingFileHandler:
13f4. and *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: dee.  If either the namer or
rotator callable raises an exception, this will be handled in the same
way as any other exception during an ‘emit()’ call, i.e.  via the
‘handleError()’ method of the handler.

If you need to make more significant changes to rotation processing, you
can override the methods.

For an example, see *note Using a rotator and namer to customize log
rotation processing: 2ad7.


File: python.info,  Node: RotatingFileHandler,  Next: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Prev: BaseRotatingHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.6 RotatingFileHandler
............................

The *note RotatingFileHandler: 13f4. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, supports rotation of disk log files.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler (filename, mode='a',
          maxBytes=0, backupCount=0, encoding=None, delay=False,
          errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note RotatingFileHandler: 13f4.
     class.  The specified file is opened and used as the stream for
     logging.  If 'mode' is not specified, ‘'a'’ is used.  If 'encoding'
     is not ‘None’, it is used to open the file with that encoding.  If
     'delay' is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call
     to *note emit(): 2ada.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.
     If 'errors' is provided, it determines how encoding errors are
     handled.

     You can use the 'maxBytes' and 'backupCount' values to allow the
     file to 'rollover' at a predetermined size.  When the size is about
     to be exceeded, the file is closed and a new file is silently
     opened for output.  Rollover occurs whenever the current log file
     is nearly 'maxBytes' in length; but if either of 'maxBytes' or
     'backupCount' is zero, rollover never occurs, so you generally want
     to set 'backupCount' to at least 1, and have a non-zero 'maxBytes'.
     When 'backupCount' is non-zero, the system will save old log files
     by appending the extensions '.1', '.2' etc., to the filename.  For
     example, with a 'backupCount' of 5 and a base file name of
     ‘app.log’, you would get ‘app.log’, ‘app.log.1’, ‘app.log.2’, up to
     ‘app.log.5’.  The file being written to is always ‘app.log’.  When
     this file is filled, it is closed and renamed to ‘app.log.1’, and
     if files ‘app.log.1’, ‘app.log.2’, etc.  exist, then they are
     renamed to ‘app.log.2’, ‘app.log.3’ etc.  respectively.

     在 3.6 版的變更: As well as string values, *note Path: 149. objects
     are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'errors' 參數。

      -- 方法: doRollover ()

          Does a rollover, as described above.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file, catering for rollover as
          described previously.


File: python.info,  Node: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Next: SocketHandler,  Prev: RotatingFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.7 TimedRotatingFileHandler
.................................

The *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: dee. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, supports rotation of disk log files at
certain timed intervals.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler (filename, when='h',
          interval=1, backupCount=0, encoding=None, delay=False,
          utc=False, atTime=None, errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: dee.
     class.  The specified file is opened and used as the stream for
     logging.  On rotating it also sets the filename suffix.  Rotating
     happens based on the product of 'when' and 'interval'.

     You can use the 'when' to specify the type of 'interval'.  The list
     of possible values is below.  Note that they are not case
     sensitive.

     Value                Type of interval                 If/how 'atTime' is used
                                                           
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
     ‘'S'’                Seconds                          Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'M'’                Minutes                          Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'H'’                Hours                            Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'D'’                Days                             Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'W0'-'W6'’          Weekday (0=Monday)               Used to compute initial
                                                           rollover time
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'midnight'’         Roll over at midnight, if        Used to compute initial
                          'atTime' not specified, else     rollover time
                          at time 'atTime'                 
                          

     When using weekday-based rotation, specify 'W0' for Monday, 'W1'
     for Tuesday, and so on up to 'W6' for Sunday.  In this case, the
     value passed for 'interval' isn't used.

     The system will save old log files by appending extensions to the
     filename.  The extensions are date-and-time based, using the
     strftime format ‘%Y-%m-%d_%H-%M-%S’ or a leading portion thereof,
     depending on the rollover interval.

     When computing the next rollover time for the first time (when the
     handler is created), the last modification time of an existing log
     file, or else the current time, is used to compute when the next
     rotation will occur.

     If the 'utc' argument is true, times in UTC will be used; otherwise
     local time is used.

     If 'backupCount' is nonzero, at most 'backupCount' files will be
     kept, and if more would be created when rollover occurs, the oldest
     one is deleted.  The deletion logic uses the interval to determine
     which files to delete, so changing the interval may leave old files
     lying around.

     If 'delay' is true, then file opening is deferred until the first
     call to *note emit(): 2ade.

     If 'atTime' is not ‘None’, it must be a ‘datetime.time’ instance
     which specifies the time of day when rollover occurs, for the cases
     where rollover is set to happen "at midnight" or "on a particular
     weekday".  Note that in these cases, the 'atTime' value is
     effectively used to compute the 'initial' rollover, and subsequent
     rollovers would be calculated via the normal interval calculation.

     If 'errors' is specified, it's used to determine how encoding
     errors are handled.

          備註: Calculation of the initial rollover time is done when
          the handler is initialised.  Calculation of subsequent
          rollover times is done only when rollover occurs, and rollover
          occurs only when emitting output.  If this is not kept in
          mind, it might lead to some confusion.  For example, if an
          interval of "every minute" is set, that does not mean you will
          always see log files with times (in the filename) separated by
          a minute; if, during application execution, logging output is
          generated more frequently than once a minute, 'then' you can
          expect to see log files with times separated by a minute.  If,
          on the other hand, logging messages are only output once every
          five minutes (say), then there will be gaps in the file times
          corresponding to the minutes where no output (and hence no
          rollover) occurred.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'atTime' 參數。

     在 3.6 版的變更: As well as string values, *note Path: 149. objects
     are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'errors' 參數。

      -- 方法: doRollover ()

          Does a rollover, as described above.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file, catering for rollover as
          described above.

      -- 方法: getFilesToDelete ()

          Returns a list of filenames which should be deleted as part of
          rollover.  These are the absolute paths of the oldest backup
          log files written by the handler.


File: python.info,  Node: SocketHandler,  Next: DatagramHandler,  Prev: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.8 SocketHandler
......................

The *note SocketHandler: def. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, sends logging output to a network socket.
The base class uses a TCP socket.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.SocketHandler (host, port)

     Returns a new instance of the *note SocketHandler: def. class
     intended to communicate with a remote machine whose address is
     given by 'host' and 'port'.

     在 3.4 版的變更: If ‘port’ is specified as ‘None’, a Unix domain
     socket is created using the value in ‘host’ - otherwise, a TCP
     socket is created.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Closes the socket.

      -- 方法: emit ()

          Pickles the record's attribute dictionary and writes it to the
          socket in binary format.  If there is an error with the
          socket, silently drops the packet.  If the connection was
          previously lost, re-establishes the connection.  To unpickle
          the record at the receiving end into a *note LogRecord: e78,
          use the *note makeLogRecord(): 2a7f. function.

      -- 方法: handleError ()

          Handles an error which has occurred during *note emit(): 2ae3.
          The most likely cause is a lost connection.  Closes the socket
          so that we can retry on the next event.

      -- 方法: makeSocket ()

          This is a factory method which allows subclasses to define the
          precise type of socket they want.  The default implementation
          creates a TCP socket (*note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 1184.).

      -- 方法: makePickle (record)

          Pickles the record's attribute dictionary in binary format
          with a length prefix, and returns it ready for transmission
          across the socket.  The details of this operation are
          equivalent to:

               data = pickle.dumps(record_attr_dict, 1)
               datalen = struct.pack('>L', len(data))
               return datalen + data

          Note that pickles aren't completely secure.  If you are
          concerned about security, you may want to override this method
          to implement a more secure mechanism.  For example, you can
          sign pickles using HMAC and then verify them on the receiving
          end, or alternatively you can disable unpickling of global
          objects on the receiving end.

      -- 方法: send (packet)

          Send a pickled byte-string 'packet' to the socket.  The format
          of the sent byte-string is as described in the documentation
          for *note makePickle(): 2ae6.

          This function allows for partial sends, which can happen when
          the network is busy.

      -- 方法: createSocket ()

          Tries to create a socket; on failure, uses an exponential
          back-off algorithm.  On initial failure, the handler will drop
          the message it was trying to send.  When subsequent messages
          are handled by the same instance, it will not try connecting
          until some time has passed.  The default parameters are such
          that the initial delay is one second, and if after that delay
          the connection still can't be made, the handler will double
          the delay each time up to a maximum of 30 seconds.

          This behaviour is controlled by the following handler
          attributes:

             * ‘retryStart’ (initial delay, defaulting to 1.0 seconds).

             * ‘retryFactor’ (multiplier, defaulting to 2.0).

             * ‘retryMax’ (maximum delay, defaulting to 30.0 seconds).

          This means that if the remote listener starts up 'after' the
          handler has been used, you could lose messages (since the
          handler won't even attempt a connection until the delay has
          elapsed, but just silently drop messages during the delay
          period).


File: python.info,  Node: DatagramHandler,  Next: SysLogHandler,  Prev: SocketHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.9 DatagramHandler
........................

The *note DatagramHandler: df0. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, inherits from *note SocketHandler: def. to
support sending logging messages over UDP sockets.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.DatagramHandler (host, port)

     Returns a new instance of the *note DatagramHandler: df0. class
     intended to communicate with a remote machine whose address is
     given by 'host' and 'port'.

          備註: As UDP is not a streaming protocol, there is no
          persistent connection between an instance of this handler and
          'host'.  For this reason, when using a network socket, a DNS
          lookup might have to be made each time an event is logged,
          which can introduce some latency into the system.  If this
          affects you, you can do a lookup yourself and initialize this
          handler using the looked-up IP address rather than the
          hostname.

     在 3.4 版的變更: If ‘port’ is specified as ‘None’, a Unix domain
     socket is created using the value in ‘host’ - otherwise, a UDP
     socket is created.

      -- 方法: emit ()

          Pickles the record's attribute dictionary and writes it to the
          socket in binary format.  If there is an error with the
          socket, silently drops the packet.  To unpickle the record at
          the receiving end into a *note LogRecord: e78, use the *note
          makeLogRecord(): 2a7f. function.

      -- 方法: makeSocket ()

          The factory method of *note SocketHandler: def. is here
          overridden to create a UDP socket (*note socket.SOCK_DGRAM:
          1183.).

      -- 方法: send (s)

          Send a pickled byte-string to a socket.  The format of the
          sent byte-string is as described in the documentation for
          *note SocketHandler.makePickle(): 2ae6.


File: python.info,  Node: SysLogHandler,  Next: NTEventLogHandler,  Prev: DatagramHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.10 SysLogHandler
.......................

The *note SysLogHandler: 457. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, supports sending logging messages to a
remote or local Unix syslog.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.SysLogHandler (address=('localhost',
          SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), facility=LOG_USER,
          socktype=socket.SOCK_DGRAM)

     Returns a new instance of the *note SysLogHandler: 457. class
     intended to communicate with a remote Unix machine whose address is
     given by 'address' in the form of a ‘(host, port)’ tuple.  If
     'address' is not specified, ‘('localhost', 514)’ is used.  The
     address is used to open a socket.  An alternative to providing a
     ‘(host, port)’ tuple is providing an address as a string, for
     example '/dev/log'.  In this case, a Unix domain socket is used to
     send the message to the syslog.  If 'facility' is not specified,
     ‘LOG_USER’ is used.  The type of socket opened depends on the
     'socktype' argument, which defaults to *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM:
     1183. and thus opens a UDP socket.  To open a TCP socket (for use
     with the newer syslog daemons such as rsyslog), specify a value of
     *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 1184.

     Note that if your server is not listening on UDP port 514, *note
     SysLogHandler: 457. may appear not to work.  In that case, check
     what address you should be using for a domain socket - it's system
     dependent.  For example, on Linux it's usually '/dev/log' but on
     OS/X it's '/var/run/syslog'.  You'll need to check your platform
     and use the appropriate address (you may need to do this check at
     runtime if your application needs to run on several platforms).  On
     Windows, you pretty much have to use the UDP option.

          備註: On macOS 12.x (Monterey), Apple has changed the
          behaviour of their syslog daemon - it no longer listens on a
          domain socket.  Therefore, you cannot expect *note
          SysLogHandler: 457. to work on this system.

          See gh-91070(1) for more information.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'socktype'。

      -- 方法: close ()

          Closes the socket to the remote host.

      -- 方法: createSocket ()

          Tries to create a socket and, if it's not a datagram socket,
          connect it to the other end.  This method is called during
          handler initialization, but it's not regarded as an error if
          the other end isn't listening at this point - the method will
          be called again when emitting an event, if there is no socket
          at that point.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          The record is formatted, and then sent to the syslog server.
          If exception information is present, it is 'not' sent to the
          server.

          在 3.2.1 版的變更: (See: bpo-12168(2).)  In earlier versions,
          the message sent to the syslog daemons was always terminated
          with a NUL byte, because early versions of these daemons
          expected a NUL terminated message - even though it's not in
          the relevant specification ( RFC 5424(3)).  More recent
          versions of these daemons don't expect the NUL byte but strip
          it off if it's there, and even more recent daemons (which
          adhere more closely to RFC 5424) pass the NUL byte on as part
          of the message.

          To enable easier handling of syslog messages in the face of
          all these differing daemon behaviours, the appending of the
          NUL byte has been made configurable, through the use of a
          class-level attribute, ‘append_nul’.  This defaults to ‘True’
          (preserving the existing behaviour) but can be set to ‘False’
          on a ‘SysLogHandler’ instance in order for that instance to
          'not' append the NUL terminator.

          在 3.3 版的變更: (See: bpo-12419(4).)  In earlier versions,
          there was no facility for an "ident" or "tag" prefix to
          identify the source of the message.  This can now be specified
          using a class-level attribute, defaulting to ‘""’ to preserve
          existing behaviour, but which can be overridden on a
          ‘SysLogHandler’ instance in order for that instance to prepend
          the ident to every message handled.  Note that the provided
          ident must be text, not bytes, and is prepended to the message
          exactly as is.

      -- 方法: encodePriority (facility, priority)

          Encodes the facility and priority into an integer.  You can
          pass in strings or integers - if strings are passed, internal
          mapping dictionaries are used to convert them to integers.

          The symbolic ‘LOG_’ values are defined in *note SysLogHandler:
          457. and mirror the values defined in the ‘sys/syslog.h’
          header file.

          'Priorities'

          Name (string)                  Symbolic value
                                         
          ---------------------------------------------------
                                         
          ‘alert’                        LOG_ALERT
                                         
                                         
          ‘crit’ 或 ‘critical’           LOG_CRIT
                                         
                                         
          ‘debug’                        LOG_DEBUG
                                         
                                         
          ‘emerg’ 或 ‘panic’             LOG_EMERG
                                         
                                         
          ‘err’ 或 ‘error’               LOG_ERR
                                         
                                         
          ‘info’                         LOG_INFO
                                         
                                         
          ‘notice’                       LOG_NOTICE
                                         
                                         
          ‘warn’ 或 ‘warning’            LOG_WARNING
                                         

          'Facilities'

          Name (string)       Symbolic value
                              
          ----------------------------------------
                              
          ‘auth’              LOG_AUTH
                              
                              
          ‘authpriv’          LOG_AUTHPRIV
                              
                              
          ‘cron’              LOG_CRON
                              
                              
          ‘daemon’            LOG_DAEMON
                              
                              
          ‘ftp’               LOG_FTP
                              
                              
          ‘kern’              LOG_KERN
                              
                              
          ‘lpr’               LOG_LPR
                              
                              
          ‘mail’              LOG_MAIL
                              
                              
          ‘news’              LOG_NEWS
                              
                              
          ‘syslog’            LOG_SYSLOG
                              
                              
          ‘user’              LOG_USER
                              
                              
          ‘uucp’              LOG_UUCP
                              
                              
          ‘local0’            LOG_LOCAL0
                              
                              
          ‘local1’            LOG_LOCAL1
                              
                              
          ‘local2’            LOG_LOCAL2
                              
                              
          ‘local3’            LOG_LOCAL3
                              
                              
          ‘local4’            LOG_LOCAL4
                              
                              
          ‘local5’            LOG_LOCAL5
                              
                              
          ‘local6’            LOG_LOCAL6
                              
                              
          ‘local7’            LOG_LOCAL7
                              

      -- 方法: mapPriority (levelname)

          Maps a logging level name to a syslog priority name.  You may
          need to override this if you are using custom levels, or if
          the default algorithm is not suitable for your needs.  The
          default algorithm maps ‘DEBUG’, ‘INFO’, ‘WARNING’, ‘ERROR’ and
          ‘CRITICAL’ to the equivalent syslog names, and all other level
          names to 'warning'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91070

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12168

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12419


File: python.info,  Node: NTEventLogHandler,  Next: SMTPHandler,  Prev: SysLogHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.11 NTEventLogHandler
...........................

The *note NTEventLogHandler: 2af5. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, supports sending logging messages to a
local Windows NT, Windows 2000 or Windows XP event log.  Before you can
use it, you need Mark Hammond's Win32 extensions for Python installed.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler (appname, dllname=None,
          logtype='Application')

     Returns a new instance of the *note NTEventLogHandler: 2af5. class.
     The 'appname' is used to define the application name as it appears
     in the event log.  An appropriate registry entry is created using
     this name.  The 'dllname' should give the fully qualified pathname
     of a .dll or .exe which contains message definitions to hold in the
     log (if not specified, ‘'win32service.pyd'’ is used - this is
     installed with the Win32 extensions and contains some basic
     placeholder message definitions.  Note that use of these
     placeholders will make your event logs big, as the entire message
     source is held in the log.  If you want slimmer logs, you have to
     pass in the name of your own .dll or .exe which contains the
     message definitions you want to use in the event log).  The
     'logtype' is one of ‘'Application'’, ‘'System'’ or ‘'Security'’,
     and defaults to ‘'Application'’.

      -- 方法: close ()

          At this point, you can remove the application name from the
          registry as a source of event log entries.  However, if you do
          this, you will not be able to see the events as you intended
          in the Event Log Viewer - it needs to be able to access the
          registry to get the .dll name.  The current version does not
          do this.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          Determines the message ID, event category and event type, and
          then logs the message in the NT event log.

      -- 方法: getEventCategory (record)

          Returns the event category for the record.  Override this if
          you want to specify your own categories.  This version returns
          0.

      -- 方法: getEventType (record)

          Returns the event type for the record.  Override this if you
          want to specify your own types.  This version does a mapping
          using the handler's typemap attribute, which is set up in
          ‘__init__()’ to a dictionary which contains mappings for
          ‘DEBUG’, ‘INFO’, ‘WARNING’, ‘ERROR’ and ‘CRITICAL’.  If you
          are using your own levels, you will either need to override
          this method or place a suitable dictionary in the handler's
          'typemap' attribute.

      -- 方法: getMessageID (record)

          Returns the message ID for the record.  If you are using your
          own messages, you could do this by having the 'msg' passed to
          the logger being an ID rather than a format string.  Then, in
          here, you could use a dictionary lookup to get the message ID.
          This version returns 1, which is the base message ID in
          ‘win32service.pyd’.


File: python.info,  Node: SMTPHandler,  Next: MemoryHandler,  Prev: NTEventLogHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.12 SMTPHandler
.....................

The *note SMTPHandler: 2afd. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, supports sending logging messages to an
email address via SMTP.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler (mailhost, fromaddr, toaddrs,
          subject, credentials=None, secure=None, timeout=1.0)

     Returns a new instance of the *note SMTPHandler: 2afd. class.  The
     instance is initialized with the from and to addresses and subject
     line of the email.  The 'toaddrs' should be a list of strings.  To
     specify a non-standard SMTP port, use the (host, port) tuple format
     for the 'mailhost' argument.  If you use a string, the standard
     SMTP port is used.  If your SMTP server requires authentication,
     you can specify a (username, password) tuple for the 'credentials'
     argument.

     To specify the use of a secure protocol (TLS), pass in a tuple to
     the 'secure' argument.  This will only be used when authentication
     credentials are supplied.  The tuple should be either an empty
     tuple, or a single-value tuple with the name of a keyfile, or a
     2-value tuple with the names of the keyfile and certificate file.
     (This tuple is passed to the *note smtplib.SMTP.starttls(): fc8.
     method.)

     A timeout can be specified for communication with the SMTP server
     using the 'timeout' argument.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'timeout' 參數。

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          Formats the record and sends it to the specified addressees.

      -- 方法: getSubject (record)

          If you want to specify a subject line which is
          record-dependent, override this method.


File: python.info,  Node: MemoryHandler,  Next: HTTPHandler,  Prev: SMTPHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.13 MemoryHandler
.......................

The *note MemoryHandler: 2ab1. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, supports buffering of logging records in
memory, periodically flushing them to a 'target' handler.  Flushing
occurs whenever the buffer is full, or when an event of a certain
severity or greater is seen.

*note MemoryHandler: 2ab1. is a subclass of the more general *note
BufferingHandler: 2b02, which is an abstract class.  This buffers
logging records in memory.  Whenever each record is added to the buffer,
a check is made by calling ‘shouldFlush()’ to see if the buffer should
be flushed.  If it should, then ‘flush()’ is expected to do the
flushing.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.BufferingHandler (capacity)

     Initializes the handler with a buffer of the specified capacity.
     Here, 'capacity' means the number of logging records buffered.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          Append the record to the buffer.  If *note shouldFlush():
          2b04. returns true, call *note flush(): 2b05. to process the
          buffer.

      -- 方法: flush ()

          For a *note BufferingHandler: 2b02. instance, flushing means
          that it sets the buffer to an empty list.  This method can be
          overwritten to implement more useful flushing behavior.

      -- 方法: shouldFlush (record)

          Return ‘True’ if the buffer is up to capacity.  This method
          can be overridden to implement custom flushing strategies.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.MemoryHandler (capacity, flushLevel=ERROR,
          target=None, flushOnClose=True)

     Returns a new instance of the *note MemoryHandler: 2ab1. class.
     The instance is initialized with a buffer size of 'capacity'
     (number of records buffered).  If 'flushLevel' is not specified,
     ‘ERROR’ is used.  If no 'target' is specified, the target will need
     to be set using *note setTarget(): 2b06. before this handler does
     anything useful.  If 'flushOnClose' is specified as ‘False’, then
     the buffer is 'not' flushed when the handler is closed.  If not
     specified or specified as ‘True’, the previous behaviour of
     flushing the buffer will occur when the handler is closed.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'flushOnClose' 參數。

      -- 方法: close ()

          Calls *note flush(): 2b08, sets the target to ‘None’ and
          clears the buffer.

      -- 方法: flush ()

          For a *note MemoryHandler: 2ab1. instance, flushing means just
          sending the buffered records to the target, if there is one.
          The buffer is also cleared when buffered records are sent to
          the target.  Override if you want different behavior.

      -- 方法: setTarget (target)

          Sets the target handler for this handler.

      -- 方法: shouldFlush (record)

          Checks for buffer full or a record at the 'flushLevel' or
          higher.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPHandler,  Next: QueueHandler,  Prev: MemoryHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.14 HTTPHandler
.....................

The *note HTTPHandler: ca5. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, supports sending logging messages to a web
server, using either ‘GET’ or ‘POST’ semantics.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.HTTPHandler (host, url, method='GET',
          secure=False, credentials=None, context=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note HTTPHandler: ca5. class.  The
     'host' can be of the form ‘host:port’, should you need to use a
     specific port number.  If no 'method' is specified, ‘GET’ is used.
     If 'secure' is true, a HTTPS connection will be used.  The
     'context' parameter may be set to a *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f.
     instance to configure the SSL settings used for the HTTPS
     connection.  If 'credentials' is specified, it should be a 2-tuple
     consisting of userid and password, which will be placed in a HTTP
     'Authorization' header using Basic authentication.  If you specify
     credentials, you should also specify secure=True so that your
     userid and password are not passed in cleartext across the wire.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'context' 參數。

      -- 方法: mapLogRecord (record)

          Provides a dictionary, based on ‘record’, which is to be
          URL-encoded and sent to the web server.  The default
          implementation just returns ‘record.__dict__’.  This method
          can be overridden if e.g.  only a subset of *note LogRecord:
          e78. is to be sent to the web server, or if more specific
          customization of what's sent to the server is required.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          Sends the record to the web server as a URL-encoded
          dictionary.  The *note mapLogRecord(): 2b0c. method is used to
          convert the record to the dictionary to be sent.

          備註: Since preparing a record for sending it to a web server
          is not the same as a generic formatting operation, using *note
          setFormatter(): 2a62. to specify a *note Formatter: 1307. for
          a *note HTTPHandler: ca5. has no effect.  Instead of calling
          *note format(): 2a6c, this handler calls *note mapLogRecord():
          2b0c. and then *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d15. to encode
          the dictionary in a form suitable for sending to a web server.


File: python.info,  Node: QueueHandler,  Next: QueueListener,  Prev: HTTPHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.15 QueueHandler
......................

在 3.2 版被加入.

The *note QueueHandler: 15a4. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, supports sending logging messages to a
queue, such as those implemented in the *note queue: b1. or *note
multiprocessing: 8f. modules.

Along with the *note QueueListener: ca6. class, *note QueueHandler:
15a4. can be used to let handlers do their work on a separate thread
from the one which does the logging.  This is important in web
applications and also other service applications where threads servicing
clients need to respond as quickly as possible, while any potentially
slow operations (such as sending an email via *note SMTPHandler: 2afd.)
are done on a separate thread.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.QueueHandler (queue)

     Returns a new instance of the *note QueueHandler: 15a4. class.  The
     instance is initialized with the queue to send messages to.  The
     'queue' can be any queue-like object; it's used as-is by the *note
     enqueue(): 2b10. method, which needs to know how to send messages
     to it.  The queue is not 'required' to have the task tracking API,
     which means that you can use *note SimpleQueue: 9c6. instances for
     'queue'.

          備註: If you are using *note multiprocessing: 8f, you should
          avoid using *note SimpleQueue: 9c6. and instead use *note
          multiprocessing.Queue: 144f.

      -- 方法: emit (record)

          Enqueues the result of preparing the LogRecord.  Should an
          exception occur (e.g.  because a bounded queue has filled up),
          the *note handleError(): 2a6a. method is called to handle the
          error.  This can result in the record silently being dropped
          (if *note logging.raiseExceptions: 108a. is ‘False’) or a
          message printed to ‘sys.stderr’ (if *note
          logging.raiseExceptions: 108a. is ‘True’).

      -- 方法: prepare (record)

          Prepares a record for queuing.  The object returned by this
          method is enqueued.

          The base implementation formats the record to merge the
          message, arguments, exception and stack information, if
          present.  It also removes unpickleable items from the record
          in-place.  Specifically, it overwrites the record's ‘msg’ and
          ‘message’ attributes with the merged message (obtained by
          calling the handler's *note format(): 417. method), and sets
          the ‘args’, ‘exc_info’ and ‘exc_text’ attributes to ‘None’.

          You might want to override this method if you want to convert
          the record to a dict or JSON string, or send a modified copy
          of the record while leaving the original intact.

               備註: The base implementation formats the message with
               arguments, sets the ‘message’ and ‘msg’ attributes to the
               formatted message and sets the ‘args’ and ‘exc_text’
               attributes to ‘None’ to allow pickling and to prevent
               further attempts at formatting.  This means that a
               handler on the *note QueueListener: ca6. side won't have
               the information to do custom formatting, e.g.  of
               exceptions.  You may wish to subclass ‘QueueHandler’ and
               override this method to e.g.  avoid setting ‘exc_text’ to
               ‘None’.  Note that the ‘message’ / ‘msg’ / ‘args’ changes
               are related to ensuring the record is pickleable, and you
               might or might not be able to avoid doing that depending
               on whether your ‘args’ are pickleable.  (Note that you
               may have to consider not only your own code but also code
               in any libraries that you use.)

      -- 方法: enqueue (record)

          Enqueues the record on the queue using ‘put_nowait()’; you may
          want to override this if you want to use blocking behaviour,
          or a timeout, or a customized queue implementation.

      -- 屬性: listener

          When created via configuration using *note dictConfig(): 1041,
          this attribute will contain a *note QueueListener: ca6.
          instance for use with this handler.  Otherwise, it will be
          ‘None’.

          在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: QueueListener,  Prev: QueueHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器

5.16.8.16 QueueListener
.......................

在 3.2 版被加入.

The *note QueueListener: ca6. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module, supports receiving logging messages from a
queue, such as those implemented in the *note queue: b1. or *note
multiprocessing: 8f. modules.  The messages are received from a queue in
an internal thread and passed, on the same thread, to one or more
handlers for processing.  While *note QueueListener: ca6. is not itself
a handler, it is documented here because it works hand-in-hand with
*note QueueHandler: 15a4.

Along with the *note QueueHandler: 15a4. class, *note QueueListener:
ca6. can be used to let handlers do their work on a separate thread from
the one which does the logging.  This is important in web applications
and also other service applications where threads servicing clients need
to respond as quickly as possible, while any potentially slow operations
(such as sending an email via *note SMTPHandler: 2afd.) are done on a
separate thread.

 -- 類別: logging.handlers.QueueListener (queue, *handlers,
          respect_handler_level=False)

     Returns a new instance of the *note QueueListener: ca6. class.  The
     instance is initialized with the queue to send messages to and a
     list of handlers which will handle entries placed on the queue.
     The queue can be any queue-like object; it's passed as-is to the
     *note dequeue(): 2b15. method, which needs to know how to get
     messages from it.  The queue is not 'required' to have the task
     tracking API (though it's used if available), which means that you
     can use *note SimpleQueue: 9c6. instances for 'queue'.

          備註: If you are using *note multiprocessing: 8f, you should
          avoid using *note SimpleQueue: 9c6. and instead use *note
          multiprocessing.Queue: 144f.

     If ‘respect_handler_level’ is ‘True’, a handler's level is
     respected (compared with the level for the message) when deciding
     whether to pass messages to that handler; otherwise, the behaviour
     is as in previous Python versions - to always pass each message to
     each handler.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 ‘respect_handler_level’ 引數。

      -- 方法: dequeue (block)

          Dequeues a record and return it, optionally blocking.

          The base implementation uses ‘get()’.  You may want to
          override this method if you want to use timeouts or work with
          custom queue implementations.

      -- 方法: prepare (record)

          Prepare a record for handling.

          This implementation just returns the passed-in record.  You
          may want to override this method if you need to do any custom
          marshalling or manipulation of the record before passing it to
          the handlers.

      -- 方法: handle (record)

          Handle a record.

          This just loops through the handlers offering them the record
          to handle.  The actual object passed to the handlers is that
          which is returned from *note prepare(): 2b16.

      -- 方法: start ()

          Starts the listener.

          This starts up a background thread to monitor the queue for
          LogRecords to process.

      -- 方法: stop ()

          Stops the listener.

          This asks the thread to terminate, and then waits for it to do
          so.  Note that if you don't call this before your application
          exits, there may be some records still left on the queue,
          which won't be processed.

      -- 方法: enqueue_sentinel ()

          Writes a sentinel to the queue to tell the listener to quit.
          This implementation uses ‘put_nowait()’.  You may want to
          override this method if you want to use timeouts or work with
          custom queue implementations.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

也參考
......

*note logging: 82. 模組

     API reference for the logging module.

*note logging.config: 83. 模組

     Configuration API for the logging module.


File: python.info,  Node: getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具,  Next: curses --- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理,  Prev: logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.9 ‘getpass’ -- 可攜式密碼輸入工具
--------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/getpass.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

*note getpass: 5d. 模組 (module) 提供了兩個函式：

 -- 函式: getpass.getpass (prompt='Password: ', stream=None)

     提示使用者輸入一個密碼且不會有回音 (echo)。使用者會看到字串
     'prompt' 作為提示，其預設值為 ‘'Password: '’。在 Unix 上，如有必要
     的話會使用替換錯誤處理函式 (replace error handler) 寫入到類檔案物件
     (file-like object) 'stream'中。'stream' 預設為主控終端機
     (controlling terminal) (‘/dev/tty’)，如果不可用則為 ‘sys.stderr’ (此
     引數在 Windows 上會被忽略)。

     如果無回音輸入 (echo-free input) 無法使用則 getpass() 將回退為印出
     一條警告訊息到 'stream'，並從 ‘sys.stdin’ 讀取且同時發出 *note
     GetPassWarning: 2b1e.。

          備註: 如果你從 IDLE 內部呼叫 getpass，輸入可能會在你啟動 IDLE
          的終端機中完成，而非在 IDLE 視窗中。

 -- 例外: getpass.GetPassWarning

     當密碼輸入可能被回音時會發出的 *note UserWarning: 204b. 子類別。

 -- 函式: getpass.getuser ()

     回傳使用者的"登入名稱"。

     此函式會按順序檢查環境變數 ‘LOGNAME’、 ‘USER’、‘LNAME’ 和
     ‘USERNAME’，並回傳其中第一個被設定成非空字串的值。如果均未設定，則
     在支援 *note pwd: ad. 模組的系統上將會回傳來自密碼資料庫的登入名稱
     ，否則將引發一個例外。

     大部分情況下，此函式應該要比 *note os.getlogin(): 288b. 優先使用。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/getpass.py


File: python.info,  Node: curses --- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理,  Next: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs,  Prev: getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.10 ‘curses’ -- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理
--------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/curses(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note curses: 29. module provides an interface to the curses
library, the de-facto standard for portable advanced terminal handling.

While curses is most widely used in the Unix environment, versions are
available for Windows, DOS, and possibly other systems as well.  This
extension module is designed to match the API of ncurses, an open-source
curses library hosted on Linux and the BSD variants of Unix.

     備註: Whenever the documentation mentions a 'character' it can be
     specified as an integer, a one-character Unicode string or a
     one-byte byte string.

     Whenever the documentation mentions a 'character string' it can be
     specified as a Unicode string or a byte string.

也參考
......

*note curses.ascii: 2a. 模組

     Utilities for working with ASCII characters, regardless of your
     locale settings.

*note curses.panel: 2b. 模組

     A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses windows.

*note curses.textpad: 2c. 模組

     Editable text widget for curses supporting ‘Emacs’-like bindings.

*note Curses Programming with Python: 2b21.

     Tutorial material on using curses with Python, by Andrew Kuchling
     and Eric Raymond.

* Menu:

* 函式: 函式<5>.
* Window Objects::
* Constants::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/curses


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<5>,  Next: Window Objects,  Up: curses --- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理

5.16.10.1 函式
..............

The module *note curses: 29. defines the following exception:

 -- 例外: curses.error

     Exception raised when a curses library function returns an error.

     備註: Whenever 'x' or 'y' arguments to a function or a method are
     optional, they default to the current cursor location.  Whenever
     'attr' is optional, it defaults to *note A_NORMAL: 2b25.

The module *note curses: 29. defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: curses.baudrate ()

     Return the output speed of the terminal in bits per second.  On
     software terminal emulators it will have a fixed high value.
     Included for historical reasons; in former times, it was used to
     write output loops for time delays and occasionally to change
     interfaces depending on the line speed.

 -- 函式: curses.beep ()

     Emit a short attention sound.

 -- 函式: curses.can_change_color ()

     Return ‘True’ or ‘False’, depending on whether the programmer can
     change the colors displayed by the terminal.

 -- 函式: curses.cbreak ()

     Enter cbreak mode.  In cbreak mode (sometimes called "rare" mode)
     normal tty line buffering is turned off and characters are
     available to be read one by one.  However, unlike raw mode, special
     characters (interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control) retain
     their effects on the tty driver and calling program.  Calling first
     *note raw(): 2b2a. then *note cbreak(): 2b29. leaves the terminal
     in cbreak mode.

 -- 函式: curses.color_content (color_number)

     Return the intensity of the red, green, and blue (RGB) components
     in the color 'color_number', which must be between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS
     - 1’.  Return a 3-tuple, containing the R,G,B values for the given
     color, which will be between ‘0’ (no component) and ‘1000’ (maximum
     amount of component).

 -- 函式: curses.color_pair (pair_number)

     Return the attribute value for displaying text in the specified
     color pair.  Only the first 256 color pairs are supported.  This
     attribute value can be combined with *note A_STANDOUT: 2b2c, *note
     A_REVERSE: 2b2d, and the other ‘A_*’ attributes.  *note
     pair_number(): 2b2e. is the counterpart to this function.

 -- 函式: curses.curs_set (visibility)

     Set the cursor state.  'visibility' can be set to ‘0’, ‘1’, or ‘2’,
     for invisible, normal, or very visible.  If the terminal supports
     the visibility requested, return the previous cursor state;
     otherwise raise an exception.  On many terminals, the "visible"
     mode is an underline cursor and the "very visible" mode is a block
     cursor.

 -- 函式: curses.def_prog_mode ()

     Save the current terminal mode as the "program" mode, the mode when
     the running program is using curses.  (Its counterpart is the
     "shell" mode, for when the program is not in curses.)  Subsequent
     calls to *note reset_prog_mode(): 2b31. will restore this mode.

 -- 函式: curses.def_shell_mode ()

     Save the current terminal mode as the "shell" mode, the mode when
     the running program is not using curses.  (Its counterpart is the
     "program" mode, when the program is using curses capabilities.)
     Subsequent calls to *note reset_shell_mode(): 2b33. will restore
     this mode.

 -- 函式: curses.delay_output (ms)

     Insert an 'ms' millisecond pause in output.

 -- 函式: curses.doupdate ()

     Update the physical screen.  The curses library keeps two data
     structures, one representing the current physical screen contents
     and a virtual screen representing the desired next state.  The
     *note doupdate(): 2b35. ground updates the physical screen to match
     the virtual screen.

     The virtual screen may be updated by a *note noutrefresh(): 2b36.
     call after write operations such as *note addstr(): 2b37. have been
     performed on a window.  The normal *note refresh(): 2b38. call is
     simply ‘noutrefresh()’ followed by ‘doupdate()’; if you have to
     update multiple windows, you can speed performance and perhaps
     reduce screen flicker by issuing ‘noutrefresh()’ calls on all
     windows, followed by a single ‘doupdate()’.

 -- 函式: curses.echo ()

     Enter echo mode.  In echo mode, each character input is echoed to
     the screen as it is entered.

 -- 函式: curses.endwin ()

     De-initialize the library, and return terminal to normal status.

 -- 函式: curses.erasechar ()

     Return the user's current erase character as a one-byte bytes
     object.  Under Unix operating systems this is a property of the
     controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by the curses
     library itself.

 -- 函式: curses.filter ()

     The *note filter(): 2b3c. routine, if used, must be called before
     *note initscr(): 2b3d. is called.  The effect is that, during those
     calls, ‘LINES’ is set to ‘1’; the capabilities ‘clear’, ‘cup’,
     ‘cud’, ‘cud1’, ‘cuu1’, ‘cuu’, ‘vpa’ are disabled; and the ‘home’
     string is set to the value of ‘cr’.  The effect is that the cursor
     is confined to the current line, and so are screen updates.  This
     may be used for enabling character-at-a-time line editing without
     touching the rest of the screen.

 -- 函式: curses.flash ()

     Flash the screen.  That is, change it to reverse-video and then
     change it back in a short interval.  Some people prefer such as
     'visible bell' to the audible attention signal produced by *note
     beep(): 2b27.

 -- 函式: curses.flushinp ()

     Flush all input buffers.  This throws away any typeahead that has
     been typed by the user and has not yet been processed by the
     program.

 -- 函式: curses.getmouse ()

     After *note getch(): 2b41. returns *note KEY_MOUSE: 2b42. to signal
     a mouse event, this method should be called to retrieve the queued
     mouse event, represented as a 5-tuple ‘(id, x, y, z, bstate)’.
     'id' is an ID value used to distinguish multiple devices, and 'x',
     'y', 'z' are the event's coordinates.  ('z' is currently unused.)
     'bstate' is an integer value whose bits will be set to indicate the
     type of event, and will be the bitwise OR of one or more of the
     following constants, where 'n' is the button number from 1 to 5:
     *note BUTTONn_PRESSED: 2b43, *note BUTTONn_RELEASED: 2b44, *note
     BUTTONn_CLICKED: 2b45, *note BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED: 2b46, *note
     BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED: 2b47, *note BUTTON_SHIFT: 2b48, *note
     BUTTON_CTRL: 2b49, *note BUTTON_ALT: 2b4a.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed if they
     are provided by the underlying curses library.

 -- 函式: curses.getsyx ()

     Return the current coordinates of the virtual screen cursor as a
     tuple ‘(y, x)’.  If *note leaveok: 2b4c. is currently ‘True’, then
     return ‘(-1, -1)’.

 -- 函式: curses.getwin (file)

     Read window related data stored in the file by an earlier *note
     window.putwin(): 2b4e. call.  The routine then creates and
     initializes a new window using that data, returning the new window
     object.

 -- 函式: curses.has_colors ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal can display colors; otherwise, return
     ‘False’.

 -- 函式: curses.has_extended_color_support ()

     Return ‘True’ if the module supports extended colors; otherwise,
     return ‘False’.  Extended color support allows more than 256 color
     pairs for terminals that support more than 16 colors (e.g.
     xterm-256color).

     Extended color support requires ncurses version 6.1 or later.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: curses.has_ic ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal has insert- and delete-character
     capabilities.  This function is included for historical reasons
     only, as all modern software terminal emulators have such
     capabilities.

 -- 函式: curses.has_il ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal has insert- and delete-line
     capabilities, or can simulate them using scrolling regions.  This
     function is included for historical reasons only, as all modern
     software terminal emulators have such capabilities.

 -- 函式: curses.has_key (ch)

     Take a key value 'ch', and return ‘True’ if the current terminal
     type recognizes a key with that value.

 -- 函式: curses.halfdelay (tenths)

     Used for half-delay mode, which is similar to cbreak mode in that
     characters typed by the user are immediately available to the
     program.  However, after blocking for 'tenths' tenths of seconds,
     raise an exception if nothing has been typed.  The value of
     'tenths' must be a number between ‘1’ and ‘255’.  Use *note
     nocbreak(): 2b54. to leave half-delay mode.

 -- 函式: curses.init_color (color_number, r, g, b)

     Change the definition of a color, taking the number of the color to
     be changed followed by three RGB values (for the amounts of red,
     green, and blue components).  The value of 'color_number' must be
     between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS - 1’.  Each of 'r', 'g', 'b', must be a
     value between ‘0’ and ‘1000’.  When *note init_color(): 613. is
     used, all occurrences of that color on the screen immediately
     change to the new definition.  This function is a no-op on most
     terminals; it is active only if *note can_change_color(): 2b28.
     returns ‘True’.

 -- 函式: curses.init_pair (pair_number, fg, bg)

     Change the definition of a color-pair.  It takes three arguments:
     the number of the color-pair to be changed, the foreground color
     number, and the background color number.  The value of
     'pair_number' must be between ‘1’ and ‘COLOR_PAIRS - 1’ (the ‘0’
     color pair is wired to white on black and cannot be changed).  The
     value of 'fg' and 'bg' arguments must be between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS -
     1’, or, after calling *note use_default_colors(): 2b55, ‘-1’.  If
     the color-pair was previously initialized, the screen is refreshed
     and all occurrences of that color-pair are changed to the new
     definition.

 -- 函式: curses.initscr ()

     Initialize the library.  Return a *note window: 2b56. object which
     represents the whole screen.

          備註: If there is an error opening the terminal, the
          underlying curses library may cause the interpreter to exit.

 -- 函式: curses.is_term_resized (nlines, ncols)

     Return ‘True’ if *note resize_term(): 13d0. would modify the window
     structure, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- 函式: curses.isendwin ()

     Return ‘True’ if *note endwin(): 2b3a. has been called (that is,
     the curses library has been deinitialized).

 -- 函式: curses.keyname (k)

     Return the name of the key numbered 'k' as a bytes object.  The
     name of a key generating printable ASCII character is the key's
     character.  The name of a control-key combination is a two-byte
     bytes object consisting of a caret (‘b'^'’) followed by the
     corresponding printable ASCII character.  The name of an alt-key
     combination (128-255) is a bytes object consisting of the prefix
     ‘b'M-'’ followed by the name of the corresponding ASCII character.

 -- 函式: curses.killchar ()

     Return the user's current line kill character as a one-byte bytes
     object.  Under Unix operating systems this is a property of the
     controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by the curses
     library itself.

 -- 函式: curses.longname ()

     Return a bytes object containing the terminfo long name field
     describing the current terminal.  The maximum length of a verbose
     description is 128 characters.  It is defined only after the call
     to *note initscr(): 2b3d.

 -- 函式: curses.meta (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, allow 8-bit characters to be input.  If 'flag'
     is ‘False’, allow only 7-bit chars.

 -- 函式: curses.mouseinterval (interval)

     Set the maximum time in milliseconds that can elapse between press
     and release events in order for them to be recognized as a click,
     and return the previous interval value.  The default value is 200
     milliseconds, or one fifth of a second.

 -- 函式: curses.mousemask (mousemask)

     Set the mouse events to be reported, and return a tuple
     ‘(availmask, oldmask)’.  'availmask' indicates which of the
     specified mouse events can be reported; on complete failure it
     returns ‘0’.  'oldmask' is the previous value of the given window's
     mouse event mask.  If this function is never called, no mouse
     events are ever reported.

 -- 函式: curses.napms (ms)

     Sleep for 'ms' milliseconds.

 -- 函式: curses.newpad (nlines, ncols)

     Create and return a pointer to a new pad data structure with the
     given number of lines and columns.  Return a pad as a window
     object.

     A pad is like a window, except that it is not restricted by the
     screen size, and is not necessarily associated with a particular
     part of the screen.  Pads can be used when a large window is
     needed, and only a part of the window will be on the screen at one
     time.  Automatic refreshes of pads (such as from scrolling or
     echoing of input) do not occur.  The *note refresh(): 2b38. and
     *note noutrefresh(): 2b36. methods of a pad require 6 arguments to
     specify the part of the pad to be displayed and the location on the
     screen to be used for the display.  The arguments are 'pminrow',
     'pmincol', 'sminrow', 'smincol', 'smaxrow', 'smaxcol'; the 'p'
     arguments refer to the upper left corner of the pad region to be
     displayed and the 's' arguments define a clipping box on the screen
     within which the pad region is to be displayed.

 -- 函式: curses.newwin (nlines, ncols)

 -- 函式: curses.newwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a new *note window: 2b56, whose left-upper corner is at
     ‘(begin_y, begin_x)’, and whose height/width is 'nlines'/'ncols'.

     By default, the window will extend from the specified position to
     the lower right corner of the screen.

 -- 函式: curses.nl ()

     Enter newline mode.  This mode translates the return key into
     newline on input, and translates newline into return and line-feed
     on output.  Newline mode is initially on.

 -- 函式: curses.nocbreak ()

     Leave cbreak mode.  Return to normal "cooked" mode with line
     buffering.

 -- 函式: curses.noecho ()

     Leave echo mode.  Echoing of input characters is turned off.

 -- 函式: curses.nonl ()

     Leave newline mode.  Disable translation of return into newline on
     input, and disable low-level translation of newline into
     newline/return on output (but this does not change the behavior of
     ‘addch('\n')’, which always does the equivalent of return and line
     feed on the virtual screen).  With translation off, curses can
     sometimes speed up vertical motion a little; also, it will be able
     to detect the return key on input.

 -- 函式: curses.noqiflush ()

     When the ‘noqiflush()’ routine is used, normal flush of input and
     output queues associated with the ‘INTR’, ‘QUIT’ and ‘SUSP’
     characters will not be done.  You may want to call ‘noqiflush()’ in
     a signal handler if you want output to continue as though the
     interrupt had not occurred, after the handler exits.

 -- 函式: curses.noraw ()

     Leave raw mode.  Return to normal "cooked" mode with line
     buffering.

 -- 函式: curses.pair_content (pair_number)

     Return a tuple ‘(fg, bg)’ containing the colors for the requested
     color pair.  The value of 'pair_number' must be between ‘0’ and
     ‘COLOR_PAIRS - 1’.

 -- 函式: curses.pair_number (attr)

     Return the number of the color-pair set by the attribute value
     'attr'.  *note color_pair(): 2b2b. is the counterpart to this
     function.

 -- 函式: curses.putp (str)

     Equivalent to ‘tputs(str, 1, putchar)’; emit the value of a
     specified terminfo capability for the current terminal.  Note that
     the output of *note putp(): 2b67. always goes to standard output.

 -- 函式: curses.qiflush ([flag])

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, the effect is the same as calling *note
     noqiflush(): 2b65.  If 'flag' is ‘True’, or no argument is
     provided, the queues will be flushed when these control characters
     are read.

 -- 函式: curses.raw ()

     Enter raw mode.  In raw mode, normal line buffering and processing
     of interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control keys are turned off;
     characters are presented to curses input functions one by one.

 -- 函式: curses.reset_prog_mode ()

     Restore the terminal to "program" mode, as previously saved by
     *note def_prog_mode(): 2b30.

 -- 函式: curses.reset_shell_mode ()

     Restore the terminal to "shell" mode, as previously saved by *note
     def_shell_mode(): 2b32.

 -- 函式: curses.resetty ()

     Restore the state of the terminal modes to what it was at the last
     call to *note savetty(): 2b6a.

 -- 函式: curses.resize_term (nlines, ncols)

     Backend function used by *note resizeterm(): 13cf, performing most
     of the work; when resizing the windows, *note resize_term(): 13d0.
     blank-fills the areas that are extended.  The calling application
     should fill in these areas with appropriate data.  The
     ‘resize_term()’ function attempts to resize all windows.  However,
     due to the calling convention of pads, it is not possible to resize
     these without additional interaction with the application.

 -- 函式: curses.resizeterm (nlines, ncols)

     Resize the standard and current windows to the specified
     dimensions, and adjusts other bookkeeping data used by the curses
     library that record the window dimensions (in particular the
     SIGWINCH handler).

 -- 函式: curses.savetty ()

     Save the current state of the terminal modes in a buffer, usable by
     *note resetty(): 2b69.

 -- 函式: curses.get_escdelay ()

     Retrieves the value set by *note set_escdelay(): 72a.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: curses.set_escdelay (ms)

     Sets the number of milliseconds to wait after reading an escape
     character, to distinguish between an individual escape character
     entered on the keyboard from escape sequences sent by cursor and
     function keys.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: curses.get_tabsize ()

     Retrieves the value set by *note set_tabsize(): 72c.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: curses.set_tabsize (size)

     Sets the number of columns used by the curses library when
     converting a tab character to spaces as it adds the tab to a
     window.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: curses.setsyx (y, x)

     Set the virtual screen cursor to 'y', 'x'.  If 'y' and 'x' are both
     ‘-1’, then *note leaveok: 2b4c. is set ‘True’.

 -- 函式: curses.setupterm (term=None, fd=-1)

     Initialize the terminal.  'term' is a string giving the terminal
     name, or ‘None’; if omitted or ‘None’, the value of the ‘TERM’
     environment variable will be used.  'fd' is the file descriptor to
     which any initialization sequences will be sent; if not supplied or
     ‘-1’, the file descriptor for ‘sys.stdout’ will be used.

 -- 函式: curses.start_color ()

     Must be called if the programmer wants to use colors, and before
     any other color manipulation routine is called.  It is good
     practice to call this routine right after *note initscr(): 2b3d.

     *note start_color(): 2b6d. initializes eight basic colors (black,
     red, green, yellow, blue, magenta, cyan, and white), and two global
     variables in the *note curses: 29. module, *note COLORS: 2b6e. and
     *note COLOR_PAIRS: 2b6f, containing the maximum number of colors
     and color-pairs the terminal can support.  It also restores the
     colors on the terminal to the values they had when the terminal was
     just turned on.

 -- 函式: curses.termattrs ()

     Return a logical OR of all video attributes supported by the
     terminal.  This information is useful when a curses program needs
     complete control over the appearance of the screen.

 -- 函式: curses.termname ()

     Return the value of the environment variable ‘TERM’, as a bytes
     object, truncated to 14 characters.

 -- 函式: curses.tigetflag (capname)

     Return the value of the Boolean capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as an integer.  Return the value
     ‘-1’ if 'capname' is not a Boolean capability, or ‘0’ if it is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- 函式: curses.tigetnum (capname)

     Return the value of the numeric capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as an integer.  Return the value
     ‘-2’ if 'capname' is not a numeric capability, or ‘-1’ if it is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- 函式: curses.tigetstr (capname)

     Return the value of the string capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as a bytes object.  Return
     ‘None’ if 'capname' is not a terminfo "string capability", or is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- 函式: curses.tparm (str[, ...])

     Instantiate the bytes object 'str' with the supplied parameters,
     where 'str' should be a parameterized string obtained from the
     terminfo database.  E.g.  ‘tparm(tigetstr("cup"), 5, 3)’ could
     result in ‘b'\033[6;4H'’, the exact result depending on terminal
     type.

 -- 函式: curses.typeahead (fd)

     Specify that the file descriptor 'fd' be used for typeahead
     checking.  If 'fd' is ‘-1’, then no typeahead checking is done.

     The curses library does "line-breakout optimization" by looking for
     typeahead periodically while updating the screen.  If input is
     found, and it is coming from a tty, the current update is postponed
     until refresh or doupdate is called again, allowing faster response
     to commands typed in advance.  This function allows specifying a
     different file descriptor for typeahead checking.

 -- 函式: curses.unctrl (ch)

     Return a bytes object which is a printable representation of the
     character 'ch'.  Control characters are represented as a caret
     followed by the character, for example as ‘b'^C'’.  Printing
     characters are left as they are.

 -- 函式: curses.ungetch (ch)

     Push 'ch' so the next *note getch(): 2b41. will return it.

          備註: Only one 'ch' can be pushed before ‘getch()’ is called.

 -- 函式: curses.update_lines_cols ()

     Update the *note LINES: 14ab. and *note COLS: 14ac. module
     variables.  Useful for detecting manual screen resize.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: curses.unget_wch (ch)

     Push 'ch' so the next *note get_wch(): f2d. will return it.

          備註: Only one 'ch' can be pushed before ‘get_wch()’ is
          called.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: curses.ungetmouse (id, x, y, z, bstate)

     Push a *note KEY_MOUSE: 2b42. event onto the input queue,
     associating the given state data with it.

 -- 函式: curses.use_env (flag)

     If used, this function should be called before *note initscr():
     2b3d. or newterm are called.  When 'flag' is ‘False’, the values of
     lines and columns specified in the terminfo database will be used,
     even if environment variables ‘LINES’ and ‘COLUMNS’ (used by
     default) are set, or if curses is running in a window (in which
     case default behavior would be to use the window size if ‘LINES’
     and ‘COLUMNS’ are not set).

 -- 函式: curses.use_default_colors ()

     Allow use of default values for colors on terminals supporting this
     feature.  Use this to support transparency in your application.
     The default color is assigned to the color number ‘-1’.  After
     calling this function, ‘init_pair(x, curses.COLOR_RED, -1)’
     initializes, for instance, color pair 'x' to a red foreground color
     on the default background.

 -- 函式: curses.wrapper (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Initialize curses and call another callable object, 'func', which
     should be the rest of your curses-using application.  If the
     application raises an exception, this function will restore the
     terminal to a sane state before re-raising the exception and
     generating a traceback.  The callable object 'func' is then passed
     the main window 'stdscr' as its first argument, followed by any
     other arguments passed to ‘wrapper()’.  Before calling 'func',
     ‘wrapper()’ turns on cbreak mode, turns off echo, enables the
     terminal keypad, and initializes colors if the terminal has color
     support.  On exit (whether normally or by exception) it restores
     cooked mode, turns on echo, and disables the terminal keypad.


File: python.info,  Node: Window Objects,  Next: Constants,  Prev: 函式<5>,  Up: curses --- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理

5.16.10.2 Window Objects
........................

Window objects, as returned by *note initscr(): 2b3d. and *note
newwin(): 2b61. above, have the following methods and attributes:

 -- 方法: window.addch (ch[, attr])

 -- 方法: window.addch (y, x, ch[, attr])

     Paint character 'ch' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes 'attr',
     overwriting any character previously painted at that location.  By
     default, the character position and attributes are the current
     settings for the window object.

          備註: Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises a
          *note curses.error: 2b24.  Attempting to write to the lower
          right corner of a window, subwindow, or pad will cause an
          exception to be raised after the character is printed.

 -- 方法: window.addnstr (str, n[, attr])

 -- 方法: window.addnstr (y, x, str, n[, attr])

     Paint at most 'n' characters of the character string 'str' at ‘(y,
     x)’ with attributes 'attr', overwriting anything previously on the
     display.

 -- 方法: window.addstr (str[, attr])

 -- 方法: window.addstr (y, x, str[, attr])

     Paint the character string 'str' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes
     'attr', overwriting anything previously on the display.

          備註: 
             * Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises
               *note curses.error: 2b24.  Attempting to write to the
               lower right corner of a window, subwindow, or pad will
               cause an exception to be raised after the string is
               printed.

             * A bug in ncurses(1), the backend for this Python module,
               can cause SegFaults when resizing windows.  This is fixed
               in ncurses-6.1-20190511.  If you are stuck with an
               earlier ncurses, you can avoid triggering this if you do
               not call *note addstr(): 2b37. with a 'str' that has
               embedded newlines.  Instead, call *note addstr(): 2b37.
               separately for each line.

 -- 方法: window.attroff (attr)

     Remove attribute 'attr' from the "background" set applied to all
     writes to the current window.

 -- 方法: window.attron (attr)

     Add attribute 'attr' from the "background" set applied to all
     writes to the current window.

 -- 方法: window.attrset (attr)

     Set the "background" set of attributes to 'attr'.  This set is
     initially ‘0’ (no attributes).

 -- 方法: window.bkgd (ch[, attr])

     Set the background property of the window to the character 'ch',
     with attributes 'attr'.  The change is then applied to every
     character position in that window:

        * The attribute of every character in the window is changed to
          the new background attribute.

        * Wherever the former background character appears, it is
          changed to the new background character.

 -- 方法: window.bkgdset (ch[, attr])

     Set the window's background.  A window's background consists of a
     character and any combination of attributes.  The attribute part of
     the background is combined (OR'ed) with all non-blank characters
     that are written into the window.  Both the character and attribute
     parts of the background are combined with the blank characters.
     The background becomes a property of the character and moves with
     the character through any scrolling and insert/delete
     line/character operations.

 -- 方法: window.border ([ls[, rs[, ts[, bs[, tl[, tr[, bl[, br]]]]]]]])

     Draw a border around the edges of the window.  Each parameter
     specifies the character to use for a specific part of the border;
     see the table below for more details.

          備註: A ‘0’ value for any parameter will cause the default
          character to be used for that parameter.  Keyword parameters
          can 'not' be used.  The defaults are listed in this table:

     參數            描述                      Default value
                                               
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                               
     'ls'            Left side                 *note ACS_VLINE: 2b84.
                                               
                                               
     'rs'            Right side                *note ACS_VLINE: 2b84.
                                               
                                               
     'ts'            Top                       *note ACS_HLINE: 2b85.
                                               
                                               
     'bs'            Bottom                    *note ACS_HLINE: 2b85.
                                               
                                               
     'tl'            Upper-left corner         *note ACS_ULCORNER: 2b86.
                                               
                                               
     'tr'            Upper-right corner        *note ACS_URCORNER: 2b87.
                                               
                                               
     'bl'            Bottom-left corner        *note ACS_LLCORNER: 2b88.
                                               
                                               
     'br'            Bottom-right corner       *note ACS_LRCORNER: 2b89.
                                               

 -- 方法: window.box ([vertch, horch])

     Similar to *note border(): 2b83, but both 'ls' and 'rs' are
     'vertch' and both 'ts' and 'bs' are 'horch'.  The default corner
     characters are always used by this function.

 -- 方法: window.chgat (attr)

 -- 方法: window.chgat (num, attr)

 -- 方法: window.chgat (y, x, attr)

 -- 方法: window.chgat (y, x, num, attr)

     Set the attributes of 'num' characters at the current cursor
     position, or at position ‘(y, x)’ if supplied.  If 'num' is not
     given or is ‘-1’, the attribute will be set on all the characters
     to the end of the line.  This function moves cursor to position
     ‘(y, x)’ if supplied.  The changed line will be touched using the
     *note touchline(): 2b8c. method so that the contents will be
     redisplayed by the next window refresh.

 -- 方法: window.clear ()

     Like *note erase(): 2b8e, but also cause the whole window to be
     repainted upon next call to *note refresh(): 2b38.

 -- 方法: window.clearok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, the next call to *note refresh(): 2b38. will
     clear the window completely.

 -- 方法: window.clrtobot ()

     Erase from cursor to the end of the window: all lines below the
     cursor are deleted, and then the equivalent of *note clrtoeol():
     2b91. is performed.

 -- 方法: window.clrtoeol ()

     Erase from cursor to the end of the line.

 -- 方法: window.cursyncup ()

     Update the current cursor position of all the ancestors of the
     window to reflect the current cursor position of the window.

 -- 方法: window.delch ([y, x])

     Delete any character at ‘(y, x)’.

 -- 方法: window.deleteln ()

     Delete the line under the cursor.  All following lines are moved up
     by one line.

 -- 方法: window.derwin (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- 方法: window.derwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     An abbreviation for "derive window", *note derwin(): 2b95. is the
     same as calling *note subwin(): 2b96, except that 'begin_y' and
     'begin_x' are relative to the origin of the window, rather than
     relative to the entire screen.  Return a window object for the
     derived window.

 -- 方法: window.echochar (ch[, attr])

     Add character 'ch' with attribute 'attr', and immediately call
     *note refresh(): 2b38. on the window.

 -- 方法: window.enclose (y, x)

     Test whether the given pair of screen-relative character-cell
     coordinates are enclosed by the given window, returning ‘True’ or
     ‘False’.  It is useful for determining what subset of the screen
     windows enclose the location of a mouse event.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Previously it returned ‘1’ or ‘0’ instead of
     ‘True’ or ‘False’.

 -- 屬性: window.encoding

     Encoding used to encode method arguments (Unicode strings and
     characters).  The encoding attribute is inherited from the parent
     window when a subwindow is created, for example with *note
     window.subwin(): 2b96.  By default, current locale encoding is used
     (see *note locale.getencoding(): 258.).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 方法: window.erase ()

     Clear the window.

 -- 方法: window.getbegyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of coordinates of upper-left corner.

 -- 方法: window.getbkgd ()

     Return the given window's current background character/attribute
     pair.

 -- 方法: window.getch ([y, x])

     Get a character.  Note that the integer returned does 'not' have to
     be in ASCII range: function keys, keypad keys and so on are
     represented by numbers higher than 255.  In no-delay mode, return
     ‘-1’ if there is no input, otherwise wait until a key is pressed.

 -- 方法: window.get_wch ([y, x])

     Get a wide character.  Return a character for most keys, or an
     integer for function keys, keypad keys, and other special keys.  In
     no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 方法: window.getkey ([y, x])

     Get a character, returning a string instead of an integer, as *note
     getch(): 2b41. does.  Function keys, keypad keys and other special
     keys return a multibyte string containing the key name.  In
     no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.

 -- 方法: window.getmaxyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of the height and width of the window.

 -- 方法: window.getparyx ()

     Return the beginning coordinates of this window relative to its
     parent window as a tuple ‘(y, x)’.  Return ‘(-1, -1)’ if this
     window has no parent.

 -- 方法: window.getstr ()

 -- 方法: window.getstr (n)

 -- 方法: window.getstr (y, x)

 -- 方法: window.getstr (y, x, n)

     Read a bytes object from the user, with primitive line editing
     capacity.

 -- 方法: window.getyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of current cursor position relative to the
     window's upper-left corner.

 -- 方法: window.hline (ch, n)

 -- 方法: window.hline (y, x, ch, n)

     Display a horizontal line starting at ‘(y, x)’ with length 'n'
     consisting of the character 'ch'.

 -- 方法: window.idcok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, curses no longer considers using the hardware
     insert/delete character feature of the terminal; if 'flag' is
     ‘True’, use of character insertion and deletion is enabled.  When
     curses is first initialized, use of character insert/delete is
     enabled by default.

 -- 方法: window.idlok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, *note curses: 29. will try and use hardware
     line editing facilities.  Otherwise, line insertion/deletion are
     disabled.

 -- 方法: window.immedok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, any change in the window image automatically
     causes the window to be refreshed; you no longer have to call *note
     refresh(): 2b38. yourself.  However, it may degrade performance
     considerably, due to repeated calls to wrefresh.  This option is
     disabled by default.

 -- 方法: window.inch ([y, x])

     Return the character at the given position in the window.  The
     bottom 8 bits are the character proper, and upper bits are the
     attributes.

 -- 方法: window.insch (ch[, attr])

 -- 方法: window.insch (y, x, ch[, attr])

     Paint character 'ch' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes 'attr', moving the
     line from position 'x' right by one character.

 -- 方法: window.insdelln (nlines)

     Insert 'nlines' lines into the specified window above the current
     line.  The 'nlines' bottom lines are lost.  For negative 'nlines',
     delete 'nlines' lines starting with the one under the cursor, and
     move the remaining lines up.  The bottom 'nlines' lines are
     cleared.  The current cursor position remains the same.

 -- 方法: window.insertln ()

     Insert a blank line under the cursor.  All following lines are
     moved down by one line.

 -- 方法: window.insnstr (str, n[, attr])

 -- 方法: window.insnstr (y, x, str, n[, attr])

     Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the
     line) before the character under the cursor, up to 'n' characters.
     If 'n' is zero or negative, the entire string is inserted.  All
     characters to the right of the cursor are shifted right, with the
     rightmost characters on the line being lost.  The cursor position
     does not change (after moving to 'y', 'x', if specified).

 -- 方法: window.insstr (str[, attr])

 -- 方法: window.insstr (y, x, str[, attr])

     Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the
     line) before the character under the cursor.  All characters to the
     right of the cursor are shifted right, with the rightmost
     characters on the line being lost.  The cursor position does not
     change (after moving to 'y', 'x', if specified).

 -- 方法: window.instr ([n])

 -- 方法: window.instr (y, x[, n])

     Return a bytes object of characters, extracted from the window
     starting at the current cursor position, or at 'y', 'x' if
     specified.  Attributes are stripped from the characters.  If 'n' is
     specified, *note instr(): 2ba9. returns a string at most 'n'
     characters long (exclusive of the trailing NUL).

 -- 方法: window.is_linetouched (line)

     Return ‘True’ if the specified line was modified since the last
     call to *note refresh(): 2b38.; otherwise return ‘False’.  Raise a
     *note curses.error: 2b24. exception if 'line' is not valid for the
     given window.

 -- 方法: window.is_wintouched ()

     Return ‘True’ if the specified window was modified since the last
     call to *note refresh(): 2b38.; otherwise return ‘False’.

 -- 方法: window.keypad (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, escape sequences generated by some keys
     (keypad, function keys) will be interpreted by *note curses: 29.
     If 'flag' is ‘False’, escape sequences will be left as is in the
     input stream.

 -- 方法: window.leaveok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, cursor is left where it is on update, instead
     of being at "cursor position."  This reduces cursor movement where
     possible.  If possible the cursor will be made invisible.

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, cursor will always be at "cursor position"
     after an update.

 -- 方法: window.move (new_y, new_x)

     Move cursor to ‘(new_y, new_x)’.

 -- 方法: window.mvderwin (y, x)

     Move the window inside its parent window.  The screen-relative
     parameters of the window are not changed.  This routine is used to
     display different parts of the parent window at the same physical
     position on the screen.

 -- 方法: window.mvwin (new_y, new_x)

     Move the window so its upper-left corner is at ‘(new_y, new_x)’.

 -- 方法: window.nodelay (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, *note getch(): 2b41. will be non-blocking.

 -- 方法: window.notimeout (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, escape sequences will not be timed out.

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, after a few milliseconds, an escape sequence
     will not be interpreted, and will be left in the input stream as
     is.

 -- 方法: window.noutrefresh ()

     Mark for refresh but wait.  This function updates the data
     structure representing the desired state of the window, but does
     not force an update of the physical screen.  To accomplish that,
     call *note doupdate(): 2b35.

 -- 方法: window.overlay (destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow, dmincol,
          dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

     Overlay the window on top of 'destwin'.  The windows need not be
     the same size, only the overlapping region is copied.  This copy is
     non-destructive, which means that the current background character
     does not overwrite the old contents of 'destwin'.

     To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form
     of *note overlay(): 2bb2. can be used.  'sminrow' and 'smincol' are
     the upper-left coordinates of the source window, and the other
     variables mark a rectangle in the destination window.

 -- 方法: window.overwrite (destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow,
          dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

     Overwrite the window on top of 'destwin'.  The windows need not be
     the same size, in which case only the overlapping region is copied.
     This copy is destructive, which means that the current background
     character overwrites the old contents of 'destwin'.

     To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form
     of *note overwrite(): 2bb3. can be used.  'sminrow' and 'smincol'
     are the upper-left coordinates of the source window, the other
     variables mark a rectangle in the destination window.

 -- 方法: window.putwin (file)

     Write all data associated with the window into the provided file
     object.  This information can be later retrieved using the *note
     getwin(): 2b4d. function.

 -- 方法: window.redrawln (beg, num)

     Indicate that the 'num' screen lines, starting at line 'beg', are
     corrupted and should be completely redrawn on the next *note
     refresh(): 2b38. call.

 -- 方法: window.redrawwin ()

     Touch the entire window, causing it to be completely redrawn on the
     next *note refresh(): 2b38. call.

 -- 方法: window.refresh ([pminrow, pmincol, sminrow, smincol, smaxrow,
          smaxcol])

     Update the display immediately (sync actual screen with previous
     drawing/deleting methods).

     The 6 optional arguments can only be specified when the window is a
     pad created with *note newpad(): 2b60.  The additional parameters
     are needed to indicate what part of the pad and screen are
     involved.  'pminrow' and 'pmincol' specify the upper left-hand
     corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad.  'sminrow',
     'smincol', 'smaxrow', and 'smaxcol' specify the edges of the
     rectangle to be displayed on the screen.  The lower right-hand
     corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad is calculated
     from the screen coordinates, since the rectangles must be the same
     size.  Both rectangles must be entirely contained within their
     respective structures.  Negative values of 'pminrow', 'pmincol',
     'sminrow', or 'smincol' are treated as if they were zero.

 -- 方法: window.resize (nlines, ncols)

     Reallocate storage for a curses window to adjust its dimensions to
     the specified values.  If either dimension is larger than the
     current values, the window's data is filled with blanks that have
     the current background rendition (as set by *note bkgdset(): 2b82.)
     merged into them.

 -- 方法: window.scroll ([lines=1])

     Scroll the screen or scrolling region upward by 'lines' lines.

 -- 方法: window.scrollok (flag)

     Control what happens when the cursor of a window is moved off the
     edge of the window or scrolling region, either as a result of a
     newline action on the bottom line, or typing the last character of
     the last line.  If 'flag' is ‘False’, the cursor is left on the
     bottom line.  If 'flag' is ‘True’, the window is scrolled up one
     line.  Note that in order to get the physical scrolling effect on
     the terminal, it is also necessary to call *note idlok(): 2ba1.

 -- 方法: window.setscrreg (top, bottom)

     Set the scrolling region from line 'top' to line 'bottom'.  All
     scrolling actions will take place in this region.

 -- 方法: window.standend ()

     Turn off the standout attribute.  On some terminals this has the
     side effect of turning off all attributes.

 -- 方法: window.standout ()

     Turn on attribute 'A_STANDOUT'.

 -- 方法: window.subpad (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- 方法: window.subpad (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ‘(begin_y,
     begin_x)’, and whose width/height is 'ncols'/'nlines'.

 -- 方法: window.subwin (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- 方法: window.subwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ‘(begin_y,
     begin_x)’, and whose width/height is 'ncols'/'nlines'.

     By default, the sub-window will extend from the specified position
     to the lower right corner of the window.

 -- 方法: window.syncdown ()

     Touch each location in the window that has been touched in any of
     its ancestor windows.  This routine is called by *note refresh():
     2b38, so it should almost never be necessary to call it manually.

 -- 方法: window.syncok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, then *note syncup(): 2bbf. is called
     automatically whenever there is a change in the window.

 -- 方法: window.syncup ()

     Touch all locations in ancestors of the window that have been
     changed in the window.

 -- 方法: window.timeout (delay)

     Set blocking or non-blocking read behavior for the window.  If
     'delay' is negative, blocking read is used (which will wait
     indefinitely for input).  If 'delay' is zero, then non-blocking
     read is used, and *note getch(): 2b41. will return ‘-1’ if no input
     is waiting.  If 'delay' is positive, then *note getch(): 2b41. will
     block for 'delay' milliseconds, and return ‘-1’ if there is still
     no input at the end of that time.

 -- 方法: window.touchline (start, count[, changed])

     Pretend 'count' lines have been changed, starting with line
     'start'.  If 'changed' is supplied, it specifies whether the
     affected lines are marked as having been changed ('changed'‘=True’)
     or unchanged ('changed'‘=False’).

 -- 方法: window.touchwin ()

     Pretend the whole window has been changed, for purposes of drawing
     optimizations.

 -- 方法: window.untouchwin ()

     Mark all lines in the window as unchanged since the last call to
     *note refresh(): 2b38.

 -- 方法: window.vline (ch, n[, attr])

 -- 方法: window.vline (y, x, ch, n[, attr])

     Display a vertical line starting at ‘(y, x)’ with length 'n'
     consisting of the character 'ch' with attributes 'attr'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue35924


File: python.info,  Node: Constants,  Prev: Window Objects,  Up: curses --- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理

5.16.10.3 Constants
...................

The *note curses: 29. module defines the following data members:

 -- 資料: curses.ERR

     Some curses routines that return an integer, such as *note getch():
     2b41, return *note ERR: 2bc4. upon failure.

 -- 資料: curses.OK

     Some curses routines that return an integer, such as *note napms():
     2b5f, return *note OK: 2bc5. upon success.

 -- 資料: curses.version

 -- 資料: curses.__version__

     A bytes object representing the current version of the module.

 -- 資料: curses.ncurses_version

     A named tuple containing the three components of the ncurses
     library version: 'major', 'minor', and 'patch'.  All values are
     integers.  The components can also be accessed by name, so
     ‘curses.ncurses_version[0]’ is equivalent to
     ‘curses.ncurses_version.major’ and so on.

     Availability: if the ncurses library is used.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 資料: curses.COLORS

     The maximum number of colors the terminal can support.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note start_color(): 2b6d.

 -- 資料: curses.COLOR_PAIRS

     The maximum number of color pairs the terminal can support.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note start_color(): 2b6d.

 -- 資料: curses.COLS

     The width of the screen, i.e., the number of columns.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note initscr(): 2b3d.  Updated by
     *note update_lines_cols(): c64, *note resizeterm(): 13cf. and *note
     resize_term(): 13d0.

 -- 資料: curses.LINES

     The height of the screen, i.e., the number of lines.  It is defined
     only after the call to *note initscr(): 2b3d.  Updated by *note
     update_lines_cols(): c64, *note resizeterm(): 13cf. and *note
     resize_term(): 13d0.

Some constants are available to specify character cell attributes.  The
exact constants available are system dependent.

Attribute                    含義
                             
-----------------------------------------------------------------
                             
 -- 資料:                    Alternate character set mode
          curses.A_ALTCHARSET

 -- 資料: curses.A_BLINK     Blink mode
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.A_BOLD      Bold mode
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.A_DIM       Dim mode
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.A_INVIS     Invisible or blank mode
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.A_ITALIC    Italic mode
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.A_NORMAL    Normal attribute
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.A_PROTECT   Protected mode
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.A_REVERSE   Reverse background and foreground
                             colors
                             
                             
 -- 資料:                    Standout mode
          curses.A_STANDOUT  

 -- 資料:                    Underline mode
          curses.A_UNDERLINE 

 -- 資料:                    Horizontal highlight
          curses.A_HORIZONTAL

 -- 資料: curses.A_LEFT      Left highlight
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.A_LOW       Low highlight
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.A_RIGHT     Right highlight
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.A_TOP       Top highlight
                             
                             
 -- 資料:                    Vertical highlight
          curses.A_VERTICAL  

在 3.7 版被加入: ‘A_ITALIC’ was added.

Several constants are available to extract corresponding attributes
returned by some methods.

Bit-mask                      含義
                              
------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- 資料:                     Bit-mask to extract attributes
          curses.A_ATTRIBUTES 

 -- 資料: curses.A_CHARTEXT   Bit-mask to extract a character
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.A_COLOR      Bit-mask to extract color-pair
                              field information
                              

Keys are referred to by integer constants with names starting with
‘KEY_’.  The exact keycaps available are system dependent.

Key constant                  Key
                              
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_MIN      Minimum key value
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_BREAK    Break key (unreliable)
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_DOWN     Down-arrow
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_UP       Up-arrow
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_LEFT     Left-arrow
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_RIGHT    Right-arrow
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_HOME     Home key (upward+left arrow)
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Backspace (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_BACKSPACE

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_F0       Function keys.  Up to 64 function keys are
                              supported.
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_Fn       Value of function key 'n'
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_DL       Delete line
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_IL       Insert line
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_DC       Delete character
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_IC       Insert char or enter insert mode
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_EIC      Exit insert char mode
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_CLEAR    Clear screen
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_EOS      Clear to end of screen
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_EOL      Clear to end of line
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SF       Scroll 1 line forward
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SR       Scroll 1 line backward (reverse)
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_NPAGE    Next page
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_PPAGE    Previous page
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_STAB     Set tab
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_CTAB     Clear tab
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_CATAB    Clear all tabs
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_ENTER    Enter or send (unreliable)
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SRESET   Soft (partial) reset (unreliable)
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_RESET    Reset or hard reset (unreliable)
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_PRINT    Print
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_LL       Home down or bottom (lower left)
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_A1       Upper left of keypad
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_A3       Upper right of keypad
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_B2       Center of keypad
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_C1       Lower left of keypad
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_C3       Lower right of keypad
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_BTAB     Back tab
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_BEG      Beg (beginning)
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_CANCEL   Cancel
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_CLOSE    Close
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Cmd (command)
          curses.KEY_COMMAND  

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_COPY     Copy
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_CREATE   Create
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_END      End
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_EXIT     Exit
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_FIND     Find
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_HELP     Help
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_MARK     Mark
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Message
          curses.KEY_MESSAGE  

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_MOVE     Move
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_NEXT     Next
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_OPEN     Open
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Options
          curses.KEY_OPTIONS  

 -- 資料:                     Prev (previous)
          curses.KEY_PREVIOUS 

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_REDO     Redo
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Ref (reference)
          curses.KEY_REFERENCE

 -- 資料:                     Refresh
          curses.KEY_REFRESH  

 -- 資料:                     Replace
          curses.KEY_REPLACE  

 -- 資料:                     Restart
          curses.KEY_RESTART  

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_RESUME   Resume
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SAVE     Save
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SBEG     Shifted Beg (beginning)
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Shifted Cancel
          curses.KEY_SCANCEL  

 -- 資料:                     Shifted Command
          curses.KEY_SCOMMAND 

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SCOPY    Shifted Copy
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Shifted Create
          curses.KEY_SCREATE  

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SDC      Shifted Delete char
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SDL      Shifted Delete line
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SELECT   Select
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SEND     Shifted End
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SEOL     Shifted Clear line
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SEXIT    Shifted Exit
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SFIND    Shifted Find
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SHELP    Shifted Help
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SHOME    Shifted Home
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SIC      Shifted Input
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SLEFT    Shifted Left arrow
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Shifted Message
          curses.KEY_SMESSAGE 

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SMOVE    Shifted Move
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SNEXT    Shifted Next
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Shifted Options
          curses.KEY_SOPTIONS 

 -- 資料:                     Shifted Prev
          curses.KEY_SPREVIOUS

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SPRINT   Shifted Print
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SREDO    Shifted Redo
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Shifted Replace
          curses.KEY_SREPLACE 

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SRIGHT   Shifted Right arrow
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SRSUME   Shifted Resume
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SSAVE    Shifted Save
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Shifted Suspend
          curses.KEY_SSUSPEND 

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_SUNDO    Shifted Undo
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     Suspend
          curses.KEY_SUSPEND  

 -- 資料: curses.KEY_UNDO     Undo
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_MOUSE    Mouse event has occurred
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_RESIZE   Terminal resize event
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.KEY_MAX      Maximum key value
                              

On VT100s and their software emulations, such as X terminal emulators,
there are normally at least four function keys (*note KEY_F1: 2be2,
*note KEY_F2: 2be2, *note KEY_F3: 2be2, *note KEY_F4: 2be2.) available,
and the arrow keys mapped to *note KEY_UP: 2bdc, *note KEY_DOWN: 2bdb,
*note KEY_LEFT: 2bdd. and *note KEY_RIGHT: 2bde. in the obvious way.  If
your machine has a PC keyboard, it is safe to expect arrow keys and
twelve function keys (older PC keyboards may have only ten function
keys); also, the following keypad mappings are standard:

Keycap                 Constant
                       
---------------------------------------
                       
‘Insert’               KEY_IC
                       
                       
‘Delete’               KEY_DC
                       
                       
‘Home’                 KEY_HOME
                       
                       
‘End’                  KEY_END
                       
                       
‘Page Up’              KEY_PPAGE
                       
                       
‘Page Down’            KEY_NPAGE
                       

The following table lists characters from the alternate character set.
These are inherited from the VT100 terminal, and will generally be
available on software emulations such as X terminals.  When there is no
graphic available, curses falls back on a crude printable ASCII
approximation.

     備註: These are available only after *note initscr(): 2b3d. has
     been called.

ACS code                     含義
                             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_BBSS    alternate name for upper right corner
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_BLOCK   solid square block
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_BOARD   board of squares
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_BSBS    alternate name for horizontal line
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_BSSB    alternate name for upper left corner
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_BSSS    alternate name for top tee
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_BTEE    bottom tee
                             
                             
 -- 資料:                    bullet
          curses.ACS_BULLET  

 -- 資料:                    checker board (stipple)
          curses.ACS_CKBOARD 

 -- 資料:                    arrow pointing down
          curses.ACS_DARROW  

 -- 資料:                    degree symbol
          curses.ACS_DEGREE  

 -- 資料:                    diamond
          curses.ACS_DIAMOND 

 -- 資料:                    greater-than-or-equal-to
          curses.ACS_GEQUAL  

 -- 資料: curses.ACS_HLINE   horizontal line
                             
                             
 -- 資料:                    lantern symbol
          curses.ACS_LANTERN 

 -- 資料:                    left arrow
          curses.ACS_LARROW  

 -- 資料:                    less-than-or-equal-to
          curses.ACS_LEQUAL  

 -- 資料:                    lower left-hand corner
          curses.ACS_LLCORNER

 -- 資料:                    lower right-hand corner
          curses.ACS_LRCORNER

 -- 資料: curses.ACS_LTEE    left tee
                             
                             
 -- 資料:                    not-equal sign
          curses.ACS_NEQUAL  

 -- 資料: curses.ACS_PI      letter pi
                             
                             
 -- 資料:                    plus-or-minus sign
          curses.ACS_PLMINUS 

 -- 資料: curses.ACS_PLUS    big plus sign
                             
                             
 -- 資料:                    right arrow
          curses.ACS_RARROW  

 -- 資料: curses.ACS_RTEE    right tee
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_S1      scan line 1
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_S3      scan line 3
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_S7      scan line 7
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_S9      scan line 9
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_SBBS    alternate name for lower right corner
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_SBSB    alternate name for vertical line
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_SBSS    alternate name for right tee
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_SSBB    alternate name for lower left corner
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_SSBS    alternate name for bottom tee
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_SSSB    alternate name for left tee
                             
                             
 -- 資料: curses.ACS_SSSS    alternate name for crossover or big plus
                             
                             
 -- 資料:                    pound sterling
          curses.ACS_STERLING

 -- 資料: curses.ACS_TTEE    top tee
                             
                             
 -- 資料:                    up arrow
          curses.ACS_UARROW  

 -- 資料:                    upper left corner
          curses.ACS_ULCORNER

 -- 資料:                    upper right corner
          curses.ACS_URCORNER

 -- 資料: curses.ACS_VLINE   vertical line
                             

The following table lists mouse button constants used by *note
getmouse(): 2b40.:

Mouse button constant                  含義
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
 -- 資料: curses.BUTTONn_PRESSED       Mouse button 'n' pressed
                                       
                                       
 -- 資料: curses.BUTTONn_RELEASED      Mouse button 'n' released
                                       
                                       
 -- 資料: curses.BUTTONn_CLICKED       Mouse button 'n' clicked
                                       
                                       
 -- 資料:                              Mouse button 'n' double clicked
          curses.BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED

 -- 資料:                              Mouse button 'n' triple clicked
          curses.BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED

 -- 資料: curses.BUTTON_SHIFT          Shift was down during button state change
                                       
                                       
 -- 資料: curses.BUTTON_CTRL           Control was down during button state change
                                       
                                       
 -- 資料: curses.BUTTON_ALT            Control was down during button state change
                                       

在 3.10 版的變更: The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed if they are
provided by the underlying curses library.

The following table lists the predefined colors:

Constant                      顏色
                              
---------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- 資料:                     黑
          curses.COLOR_BLACK  

 -- 資料: curses.COLOR_BLUE   藍
                              
                              
 -- 資料: curses.COLOR_CYAN   Cyan (light greenish blue)
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     綠
          curses.COLOR_GREEN  

 -- 資料:                     Magenta (purplish red)
          curses.COLOR_MAGENTA

 -- 資料: curses.COLOR_RED    紅
                              
                              
 -- 資料:                     白
          curses.COLOR_WHITE  

 -- 資料:                     Yellow
          curses.COLOR_YELLOW 


File: python.info,  Node: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs,  Next: curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式,  Prev: curses --- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.11 ‘curses.textpad’ -- Text input widget for curses programs
-----------------------------------------------------------------

The *note curses.textpad: 2c. module provides a *note Textbox: 2c65.
class that handles elementary text editing in a curses window,
supporting a set of keybindings resembling those of Emacs (thus, also of
Netscape Navigator, BBedit 6.x, FrameMaker, and many other programs).
The module also provides a rectangle-drawing function useful for framing
text boxes or for other purposes.

The module *note curses.textpad: 2c. defines the following function:

 -- 函式: curses.textpad.rectangle (win, uly, ulx, lry, lrx)

     Draw a rectangle.  The first argument must be a window object; the
     remaining arguments are coordinates relative to that window.  The
     second and third arguments are the y and x coordinates of the upper
     left hand corner of the rectangle to be drawn; the fourth and fifth
     arguments are the y and x coordinates of the lower right hand
     corner.  The rectangle will be drawn using VT100/IBM PC forms
     characters on terminals that make this possible (including xterm
     and most other software terminal emulators).  Otherwise it will be
     drawn with ASCII dashes, vertical bars, and plus signs.

* Menu:

* Textbox objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Textbox objects,  Up: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs

5.16.11.1 Textbox objects
.........................

You can instantiate a *note Textbox: 2c65. object as follows:

 -- 類別: curses.textpad.Textbox (win)

     Return a textbox widget object.  The 'win' argument should be a
     curses *note window: 2b56. object in which the textbox is to be
     contained.  The edit cursor of the textbox is initially located at
     the upper left hand corner of the containing window, with
     coordinates ‘(0, 0)’.  The instance's *note stripspaces: 2c69. flag
     is initially on.

     *note Textbox: 2c65. objects have the following methods:

      -- 方法: edit ([validator])

          This is the entry point you will normally use.  It accepts
          editing keystrokes until one of the termination keystrokes is
          entered.  If 'validator' is supplied, it must be a function.
          It will be called for each keystroke entered with the
          keystroke as a parameter; command dispatch is done on the
          result.  This method returns the window contents as a string;
          whether blanks in the window are included is affected by the
          *note stripspaces: 2c69. attribute.

      -- 方法: do_command (ch)

          Process a single command keystroke.  Here are the supported
          special keystrokes:

          Keystroke              Action
                                 
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
          ‘Control-A’            Go to left edge of window.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-B’            Cursor left, wrapping to previous line if
                                 appropriate.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-D’            Delete character under cursor.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-E’            Go to right edge (stripspaces off) or end of
                                 line (stripspaces on).
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-F’            Cursor right, wrapping to next line when
                                 appropriate.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-G’            Terminate, returning the window contents.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-H’            Delete character backward.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-J’            Terminate if the window is 1 line, otherwise
                                 insert newline.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-K’            If line is blank, delete it, otherwise clear
                                 to end of line.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-L’            Refresh screen.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-N’            Cursor down; move down one line.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-O’            Insert a blank line at cursor location.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control-P’            Cursor up; move up one line.
                                 

          Move operations do nothing if the cursor is at an edge where
          the movement is not possible.  The following synonyms are
          supported where possible:

          Constant                             Keystroke
                                               
          ------------------------------------------------------------
                                               
          *note KEY_LEFT: 2bdd.                ‘Control-B’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_RIGHT: 2bde.               ‘Control-F’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_UP: 2bdc.                  ‘Control-P’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_DOWN: 2bdb.                ‘Control-N’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_BACKSPACE: 2be0.           ‘Control-h’
                                               

          All other keystrokes are treated as a command to insert the
          given character and move right (with line wrapping).

      -- 方法: gather ()

          Return the window contents as a string; whether blanks in the
          window are included is affected by the *note stripspaces:
          2c69. member.

      -- 屬性: stripspaces

          This attribute is a flag which controls the interpretation of
          blanks in the window.  When it is on, trailing blanks on each
          line are ignored; any cursor motion that would land the cursor
          on a trailing blank goes to the end of that line instead, and
          trailing blanks are stripped when the window contents are
          gathered.


File: python.info,  Node: curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式,  Next: curses panel --- curses 的面板堆疊擴充,  Prev: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.12 ‘curses.ascii’ -- ASCII 字元的工具程式
----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/curses/ascii.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note curses.ascii: 2a. module supplies name constants for ASCII
characters and functions to test membership in various ASCII character
classes.  The constants supplied are names for control characters as
follows:

名稱                含義
                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
 -- 資料:
          curses.ascii.NUL

 -- 資料:           Start of heading, console interrupt
          curses.ascii.SOH

 -- 資料:           Start of text
          curses.ascii.STX

 -- 資料:           End of text
          curses.ascii.ETX

 -- 資料:           End of transmission
          curses.ascii.EOT

 -- 資料:           Enquiry, goes with *note ACK: 2c75. flow control
          curses.ascii.ENQ

 -- 資料:           Acknowledgement
          curses.ascii.ACK

 -- 資料:           Bell
          curses.ascii.BEL

 -- 資料:           Backspace
          curses.ascii.BS

 -- 資料:           Tab
          curses.ascii.TAB

 -- 資料:           Alias for *note TAB: 2c78.: "Horizontal tab"
          curses.ascii.HT

 -- 資料:           Line feed
          curses.ascii.LF

 -- 資料:           Alias for *note LF: 2c7a.: "New line"
          curses.ascii.NL

 -- 資料:           Vertical tab
          curses.ascii.VT

 -- 資料:           Form feed
          curses.ascii.FF

 -- 資料:           Carriage return
          curses.ascii.CR

 -- 資料:           Shift-out, begin alternate character set
          curses.ascii.SO

 -- 資料:           Shift-in, resume default character set
          curses.ascii.SI

 -- 資料:           Data-link escape
          curses.ascii.DLE

 -- 資料:           XON, for flow control
          curses.ascii.DC1

 -- 資料:           Device control 2, block-mode flow control
          curses.ascii.DC2

 -- 資料:           XOFF, for flow control
          curses.ascii.DC3

 -- 資料:           Device control 4
          curses.ascii.DC4

 -- 資料:           Negative acknowledgement
          curses.ascii.NAK

 -- 資料:           Synchronous idle
          curses.ascii.SYN

 -- 資料:           End transmission block
          curses.ascii.ETB

 -- 資料:           Cancel
          curses.ascii.CAN

 -- 資料:           End of medium
          curses.ascii.EM

 -- 資料:           Substitute
          curses.ascii.SUB

 -- 資料:           Escape
          curses.ascii.ESC

 -- 資料:           File separator
          curses.ascii.FS

 -- 資料:           Group separator
          curses.ascii.GS

 -- 資料:           Record separator, block-mode terminator
          curses.ascii.RS

 -- 資料:           Unit separator
          curses.ascii.US

 -- 資料:           Space
          curses.ascii.SP

 -- 資料:           Delete
          curses.ascii.DEL

Note that many of these have little practical significance in modern
usage.  The mnemonics derive from teleprinter conventions that predate
digital computers.

The module supplies the following functions, patterned on those in the
standard C library:

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.isalnum (c)

     Checks for an ASCII alphanumeric character; it is equivalent to
     ‘isalpha(c) or isdigit(c)’.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.isalpha (c)

     Checks for an ASCII alphabetic character; it is equivalent to
     ‘isupper(c) or islower(c)’.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.isascii (c)

     Checks for a character value that fits in the 7-bit ASCII set.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.isblank (c)

     Checks for an ASCII whitespace character; space or horizontal tab.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.iscntrl (c)

     Checks for an ASCII control character (in the range 0x00 to 0x1f or
     0x7f).

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.isdigit (c)

     Checks for an ASCII decimal digit, ‘'0'’ through ‘'9'’.  This is
     equivalent to ‘c in string.digits’.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.isgraph (c)

     Checks for ASCII any printable character except space.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.islower (c)

     Checks for an ASCII lower-case character.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.isprint (c)

     Checks for any ASCII printable character including space.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.ispunct (c)

     Checks for any printable ASCII character which is not a space or an
     alphanumeric character.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.isspace (c)

     Checks for ASCII white-space characters; space, line feed, carriage
     return, form feed, horizontal tab, vertical tab.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.isupper (c)

     Checks for an ASCII uppercase letter.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.isxdigit (c)

     Checks for an ASCII hexadecimal digit.  This is equivalent to ‘c in
     string.hexdigits’.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.isctrl (c)

     Checks for an ASCII control character (ordinal values 0 to 31).

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.ismeta (c)

     Checks for a non-ASCII character (ordinal values 0x80 and above).

These functions accept either integers or single-character strings; when
the argument is a string, it is first converted using the built-in
function *note ord(): 1c82.

Note that all these functions check ordinal bit values derived from the
character of the string you pass in; they do not actually know anything
about the host machine's character encoding.

The following two functions take either a single-character string or
integer byte value; they return a value of the same type.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.ascii (c)

     Return the ASCII value corresponding to the low 7 bits of 'c'.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.ctrl (c)

     Return the control character corresponding to the given character
     (the character bit value is bitwise-anded with 0x1f).

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.alt (c)

     Return the 8-bit character corresponding to the given ASCII
     character (the character bit value is bitwise-ored with 0x80).

The following function takes either a single-character string or integer
value; it returns a string.

 -- 函式: curses.ascii.unctrl (c)

     Return a string representation of the ASCII character 'c'.  If 'c'
     is printable, this string is the character itself.  If the
     character is a control character (0x00-0x1f) the string consists of
     a caret (‘'^'’) followed by the corresponding uppercase letter.  If
     the character is an ASCII delete (0x7f) the string is ‘'^?'’.  If
     the character has its meta bit (0x80) set, the meta bit is
     stripped, the preceding rules applied, and ‘'!'’ prepended to the
     result.

 -- 資料: curses.ascii.controlnames

     A 33-element string array that contains the ASCII mnemonics for the
     thirty-two ASCII control characters from 0 (NUL) to 0x1f (US), in
     order, plus the mnemonic ‘SP’ for the space character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/curses/ascii.py


File: python.info,  Node: curses panel --- curses 的面板堆疊擴充,  Next: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取,  Prev: curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.13 ‘curses.panel’ -- curses 的面板堆疊擴充
-----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Panels are windows with the added feature of depth, so they can be
stacked on top of each other, and only the visible portions of each
window will be displayed.  Panels can be added, moved up or down in the
stack, and removed.

* Menu:

* 函式: 函式<6>.
* Panel Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<6>,  Next: Panel Objects,  Up: curses panel --- curses 的面板堆疊擴充

5.16.13.1 函式
..............

The module *note curses.panel: 2b. defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: curses.panel.bottom_panel ()

     Returns the bottom panel in the panel stack.

 -- 函式: curses.panel.new_panel (win)

     Returns a panel object, associating it with the given window 'win'.
     Be aware that you need to keep the returned panel object referenced
     explicitly.  If you don't, the panel object is garbage collected
     and removed from the panel stack.

 -- 函式: curses.panel.top_panel ()

     Returns the top panel in the panel stack.

 -- 函式: curses.panel.update_panels ()

     Updates the virtual screen after changes in the panel stack.  This
     does not call *note curses.doupdate(): 2b35, so you'll have to do
     this yourself.


File: python.info,  Node: Panel Objects,  Prev: 函式<6>,  Up: curses panel --- curses 的面板堆疊擴充

5.16.13.2 Panel Objects
.......................

Panel objects, as returned by *note new_panel(): 2cac. above, are
windows with a stacking order.  There's always a window associated with
a panel which determines the content, while the panel methods are
responsible for the window's depth in the panel stack.

Panel objects have the following methods:

 -- 方法: Panel.above ()

     Returns the panel above the current panel.

 -- 方法: Panel.below ()

     Returns the panel below the current panel.

 -- 方法: Panel.bottom ()

     Push the panel to the bottom of the stack.

 -- 方法: Panel.hidden ()

     Returns ‘True’ if the panel is hidden (not visible), ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- 方法: Panel.hide ()

     Hide the panel.  This does not delete the object, it just makes the
     window on screen invisible.

 -- 方法: Panel.move (y, x)

     Move the panel to the screen coordinates ‘(y, x)’.

 -- 方法: Panel.replace (win)

     Change the window associated with the panel to the window 'win'.

 -- 方法: Panel.set_userptr (obj)

     Set the panel's user pointer to 'obj'.  This is used to associate
     an arbitrary piece of data with the panel, and can be any Python
     object.

 -- 方法: Panel.show ()

     Display the panel (which might have been hidden).

 -- 方法: Panel.top ()

     Push panel to the top of the stack.

 -- 方法: Panel.userptr ()

     Returns the user pointer for the panel.  This might be any Python
     object.

 -- 方法: Panel.window ()

     Returns the window object associated with the panel.


File: python.info,  Node: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取,  Next: errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號,  Prev: curses panel --- curses 的面板堆疊擴充,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.14 ‘platform’ -- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取
----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/platform.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

     備註: 特定平臺清單為按字母順序排列，Linux 包括在 Unix 小節之中。

* Menu:

* 跨平台::
* Java 平台::
* Windows 平台::
* macOS 平台::
* Unix 平台::
* Linux 平台::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/platform.py


File: python.info,  Node: 跨平台,  Next: Java 平台,  Up: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取

5.16.14.1 跨平台
................

 -- 函式: platform.architecture (executable=sys.executable, bits='',
          linkage='')

     查詢給定的可執行檔案（預設為 Python 直譯器二進位制檔案）來獲取各種
     架構資訊。

     回傳一個 tuple（元組） ‘(bits, linkage)’，其中包含可執行檔案所使用
     的位元架構和連結格式資訊。這兩個值均以字串形式回傳。

     無法確定的值將回傳參數所給定之預先設置值。如果給定的位元為 ‘''’，則
     會使用 ‘sizeof(pointer)’（或者當 Python 版本 < 1.5.2 時為
     ‘sizeof(long)’）作為所支援指標大小的指示器 (indicator)。

     此函式依賴於系統的 ‘file’ 命令來執行實際的操作。這在幾乎所有 Unix 平
     臺和某些非 Unix 平臺上，只有當可執行檔案指向 Python 直譯器時才可使
     用。當以上要求不滿足時將會使用合理的預設值。

          備註: 在 macOS（也許還有其他平臺）上，可執行檔案可能是包含多種
          架構的通用檔案。

          要獲取當前直譯器的 "64 位元性 (64-bitness)"，更可靠的做法是查
          詢 *note sys.maxsize: 1056. 屬性：

               is_64bits = sys.maxsize > 2**32

 -- 函式: platform.machine ()

     回傳機器種類，例如 ‘'AMD64'’。如果該值無法確定則會回傳一個空字串。

 -- 函式: platform.node ()

     回傳電腦的網路名稱（可能不是完整名稱！）。如果該值無法確定則會回傳
     一個空字串。

 -- 函式: platform.platform (aliased=False, terse=False)

     會儘可能附帶有用資訊地回傳一個標識底層平臺的字串。

     輸出應為'人類易讀的 (human readable)'，而非機器易剖析的 (machine
     parseable)。它在不同平臺上看起來可能不一致，這是有意為之的。

     如果 'aliased' 為真值，此函式將使用各種不同於平臺通用名稱的別名來回
     報系統名稱，例如 SunOS 將被回報為 Solaris。*note system_alias():
     2cc2. 函式被用於實作此功能。

     將 'terse' 設為真值將導致此函式只回傳標識平臺所需的最小量資訊。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 在 macOS 上，如果 *note mac_ver(): 181b. 回傳的釋
     出版字串非空字串，此函式現在會使用它以獲取 macOS 版本而非 darwin 版
     本。

 -- 函式: platform.processor ()

     回傳（真實的）處理器名稱，例如 ‘'amdk6'’。

     如果該值無法確定則將回傳空字串。請注意，許多平臺都不提供此資訊或是
     簡單地回傳與 *note machine(): 2cc0. 相同的值。NetBSD 則會提供此資訊
     。

 -- 函式: platform.python_build ()

     回傳一個 tuple ‘(buildno, builddate)’，表示字串形式的 Python 建置編
     號和日期。

 -- 函式: platform.python_compiler ()

     回傳一個標識用於編譯 Python 的編譯器的字串。

 -- 函式: platform.python_branch ()

     回傳一個標識 Python 實作 SCM 分支的字串。

 -- 函式: platform.python_implementation ()

     回傳一個標識 Python 實作的字串。可能的回傳值有：'CPython'、
     'IronPython'、'Jython'、'PyPy'。

 -- 函式: platform.python_revision ()

     回傳一個標識 Python 實作 SCM 修訂版的字串。

 -- 函式: platform.python_version ()

     將 Python 版本以字串 ‘'major.minor.patchlevel'’ 形式回傳。

     請注意此回傳值不同於 Python ‘sys.version’，它總是會包括 patchlevel（
     預設為 ‘'0'’）。

 -- 函式: platform.python_version_tuple ()

     將 Python 版本以字串 tuple ‘(major, minor, patchlevel)’ 形式回傳。

     請注意此回傳值不同於 Python ‘sys.version’，它總是會包括 patchlevel（
     預設為 ‘'0'’）。

 -- 函式: platform.release ()

     回傳系統的釋出版本，例如 ‘'2.2.0'’ 或 ‘'NT'’，如果該值無法確定則將
     回傳一個空字串。

 -- 函式: platform.system ()

     回傳系統/OS 的名稱，例如 ‘'Linux'’、‘'Darwin'’、‘'Java'’、
     ‘'Windows'’。如果該值無法確定則回傳一個空字串。

 -- 函式: platform.system_alias (system, release, version)

     回傳做為某些系統所使用的常見行銷名稱之別名的 ‘(system, release,
     version)’。它還會在可能導致混淆的情況下對資訊進行一些重新排序。

 -- 函式: platform.version ()

     回傳系統的釋出版本資訊，例如 ‘'#3 on degas'’。如果該值無法確定則將
     回傳一個空字串。

 -- 函式: platform.uname ()

     具有高可攜性 (portable) 的 uname 介面。回傳包含六個屬性的 *note
     namedtuple(): 731.：*note system: 2ccc.、*note node: 2cc1.、*note
     release: 2ccb.、*note version: 2ccd.、*note machine: 2cc0. 和 *note
     processor: 2cc3.。

     *note processor: 2cc3. 會延遲解析，有需求時才會解析

     注意：前兩個屬性名稱與 *note os.uname(): fa4. 提供的名稱不同，它們
     分別命名為 ‘sysname’ 和 ‘nodename’。

     無法確定的條目會被設為 ‘''’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 將結果從 tuple 改為 *note namedtuple(): 731.。

     在 3.9 版的變更: *note processor: 2cc3. 會延遲解析，並非立即解析。


File: python.info,  Node: Java 平台,  Next: Windows 平台,  Prev: 跨平台,  Up: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取

5.16.14.2 Java 平台
...................

 -- 函式: platform.java_ver (release='', vendor='', vminfo=('', '', ''),
          osinfo=('', '', ''))

     Jython 的版本介面。

     回傳一個 tuple ‘(release, vendor, vminfo, osinfo)’，其中 'vminfo' 為
     tuple ‘(vm_name, vm_release, vm_vendor)’ 而 'osinfo' 為 tuple
     ‘(os_name, os_version, os_arch)’。無法確定的值將被設為由參數所給定
     的預設值（預設均為 ‘''’）。


File: python.info,  Node: Windows 平台,  Next: macOS 平台,  Prev: Java 平台,  Up: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取

5.16.14.3 Windows 平台
......................

 -- 函式: platform.win32_ver (release='', version='', csd='', ptype='')

     從 Windows 登錄檔 (Window Registry) 獲取額外的版本資訊並回傳一個
     tuple ‘(release, version, csd, ptype)’，它代表 OS 發行版、版本號、
     CSD 級別 (service pack) 和 OS 類型（多個/單個處理器）。

     一點提示：'ptype' 在單個處理器的 NT 機器上為 ‘'Uniprocessor Free'’，
     而在多個處理器的機器上為 ‘'Multiprocessor Free'’。‘'Free'’ 是指該
     OS 版本沒有除錯程式。它也可能以 ‘'Checked'’ 表示，代表該 OS 版本使
     用了除錯程式，即檢查引數、範圍等的程式。

 -- 函式: platform.win32_edition ()

     回傳一個代表當前 Windows 版本的字串。可能的值包括但不限於
     ‘'Enterprise'’、‘'IoTUAP'’、‘'ServerStandard'’ 和 ‘'nanoserver'’。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: platform.win32_is_iot ()

     如果 *note win32_edition(): 2cd0. 回傳的 Windows 版本被識別為 IoT 版
     則回傳 ‘True’。

     在 3.8 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS 平台,  Next: Unix 平台,  Prev: Windows 平台,  Up: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取

5.16.14.4 macOS 平台
....................

 -- 函式: platform.mac_ver (release='', versioninfo=('', '', ''),
          machine='')

     獲取 Mac OS 版本資訊並將其回傳為 tuple ‘(release, versioninfo,
     machine)’，其中 'versioninfo' 是一個 tuple ‘(version, dev_stage,
     non_release_version)’。

     無法確定的條目會被設為 ‘''’。所有 tuple 條目均為字串。


File: python.info,  Node: Unix 平台,  Next: Linux 平台,  Prev: macOS 平台,  Up: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取

5.16.14.5 Unix 平台
...................

 -- 函式: platform.libc_ver (executable=sys.executable, lib='',
          version='', chunksize=16384)

     嘗試確認可執行檔案（預設為 Python 直譯器）所連結到的 libc 版本。回
     傳一個字串 tuple ‘(lib, version)’，當查詢失敗時其預設值將被設為給定
     的參數值。

     請注意，此函式對於不同 libc 版本如何為可執行檔案新增符號的方式有深
     層的關聯，可能僅適用於以 ‘gcc’ 編譯出來的可執行檔案。

     檔案會以 'chunksize' 位元組大小的分塊 (chunk) 來讀取和掃描。


File: python.info,  Node: Linux 平台,  Prev: Unix 平台,  Up: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取

5.16.14.6 Linux 平台
....................

 -- 函式: platform.freedesktop_os_release ()

     從 ‘os-release’ 檔案獲取作業系統標識，並將其作為一個字典回傳。
     ‘os-release’ 檔案為 freedesktop.org 標準(1)、並在大多數 Linux 發行
     版上可用。一個重要的例外是 Android 和基於 Android 的發行版。

     當 ‘/etc/os-release’ 與 ‘/usr/lib/os-release’ 均無法被讀取時將引發
     *note OSError: 644. 或其子類別。

     成功時，該函式將回傳一個字典，其中鍵和值均為字串。值當中的特殊字元
     例如 ‘"’ 和 ‘$’ 會被移除引號 (unquoted)。欄位 ‘NAME’、‘ID’ 和
     ‘PRETTY_NAME’ 總會按照標準來定義。所有其他欄位都是可選的。根據不同
     廠商可能會包括額外的欄位。

     請注意 ‘NAME’、‘VERSION’ 和 ‘VARIANT’ 等欄位是適用於向使用者展示的
     字串。程式應當使用 ‘ID’、‘ID_LIKE’、‘VERSION_ID’ 或 ‘VARIANT_ID’ 等
     欄位來標識 Linux 發行版。

     範例：

          def get_like_distro():
              info = platform.freedesktop_os_release()
              ids = [info["ID"]]
              if "ID_LIKE" in info:
                  # ids are space separated and ordered by precedence
                  ids.extend(info["ID_LIKE"].split())
              return ids

     在 3.10 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html


File: python.info,  Node: errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號,  Next: ctypes --- 用於 Python 的外部函式庫,  Prev: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.15 ‘errno’ -- 標準 errno 系統符號
--------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module makes available standard ‘errno’ system symbols.  The value
of each symbol is the corresponding integer value.  The names and
descriptions are borrowed from ‘linux/include/errno.h’, which should be
all-inclusive.

 -- 資料: errno.errorcode

     Dictionary providing a mapping from the errno value to the string
     name in the underlying system.  For instance,
     ‘errno.errorcode[errno.EPERM]’ maps to ‘'EPERM'’.

To translate a numeric error code to an error message, use *note
os.strerror(): 28a2.

Of the following list, symbols that are not used on the current platform
are not defined by the module.  The specific list of defined symbols is
available as ‘errno.errorcode.keys()’.  Symbols available can include:

 -- 資料: errno.EPERM

     Operation not permitted.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note PermissionError: bb5.

 -- 資料: errno.ENOENT

     No such file or directory.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note FileNotFoundError: d46.

 -- 資料: errno.ESRCH

     No such process.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ProcessLookupError: ef1.

 -- 資料: errno.EINTR

     Interrupted system call.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note InterruptedError: bfe.

 -- 資料: errno.EIO

     I/O error

 -- 資料: errno.ENXIO

     No such device or address

 -- 資料: errno.E2BIG

     Arg list too long

 -- 資料: errno.ENOEXEC

     Exec format error

 -- 資料: errno.EBADF

     Bad file number

 -- 資料: errno.ECHILD

     No child processes.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ChildProcessError: eee.

 -- 資料: errno.EAGAIN

     Try again.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BlockingIOError: eed.

 -- 資料: errno.ENOMEM

     Out of memory

 -- 資料: errno.EACCES

     Permission denied.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     PermissionError: bb5.

 -- 資料: errno.EFAULT

     Bad address

 -- 資料: errno.ENOTBLK

     Block device required

 -- 資料: errno.EBUSY

     Device or resource busy

 -- 資料: errno.EEXIST

     File exists.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     FileExistsError: eb4.

 -- 資料: errno.EXDEV

     Cross-device link

 -- 資料: errno.ENODEV

     No such device

 -- 資料: errno.ENOTDIR

     Not a directory.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     NotADirectoryError: ef0.

 -- 資料: errno.EISDIR

     Is a directory.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     IsADirectoryError: eef.

 -- 資料: errno.EINVAL

     Invalid argument

 -- 資料: errno.ENFILE

     File table overflow

 -- 資料: errno.EMFILE

     Too many open files

 -- 資料: errno.ENOTTY

     Not a typewriter

 -- 資料: errno.ETXTBSY

     Text file busy

 -- 資料: errno.EFBIG

     File too large

 -- 資料: errno.ENOSPC

     No space left on device

 -- 資料: errno.ESPIPE

     Illegal seek

 -- 資料: errno.EROFS

     Read-only file system

 -- 資料: errno.EMLINK

     Too many links

 -- 資料: errno.EPIPE

     Broken pipe.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BrokenPipeError: ef2.

 -- 資料: errno.EDOM

     Math argument out of domain of func

 -- 資料: errno.ERANGE

     Math result not representable

 -- 資料: errno.EDEADLK

     Resource deadlock would occur

 -- 資料: errno.ENAMETOOLONG

     File name too long

 -- 資料: errno.ENOLCK

     No record locks available

 -- 資料: errno.ENOSYS

     Function not implemented

 -- 資料: errno.ENOTEMPTY

     Directory not empty

 -- 資料: errno.ELOOP

     Too many symbolic links encountered

 -- 資料: errno.EWOULDBLOCK

     Operation would block.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BlockingIOError: eed.

 -- 資料: errno.ENOMSG

     No message of desired type

 -- 資料: errno.EIDRM

     Identifier removed

 -- 資料: errno.ECHRNG

     Channel number out of range

 -- 資料: errno.EL2NSYNC

     Level 2 not synchronized

 -- 資料: errno.EL3HLT

     Level 3 halted

 -- 資料: errno.EL3RST

     Level 3 reset

 -- 資料: errno.ELNRNG

     Link number out of range

 -- 資料: errno.EUNATCH

     Protocol driver not attached

 -- 資料: errno.ENOCSI

     No CSI structure available

 -- 資料: errno.EL2HLT

     Level 2 halted

 -- 資料: errno.EBADE

     Invalid exchange

 -- 資料: errno.EBADR

     Invalid request descriptor

 -- 資料: errno.EXFULL

     Exchange full

 -- 資料: errno.ENOANO

     No anode

 -- 資料: errno.EBADRQC

     Invalid request code

 -- 資料: errno.EBADSLT

     Invalid slot

 -- 資料: errno.EDEADLOCK

     File locking deadlock error

 -- 資料: errno.EBFONT

     Bad font file format

 -- 資料: errno.ENOSTR

     Device not a stream

 -- 資料: errno.ENODATA

     No data available

 -- 資料: errno.ETIME

     Timer expired

 -- 資料: errno.ENOSR

     Out of streams resources

 -- 資料: errno.ENONET

     Machine is not on the network

 -- 資料: errno.ENOPKG

     Package not installed

 -- 資料: errno.EREMOTE

     Object is remote

 -- 資料: errno.ENOLINK

     Link has been severed

 -- 資料: errno.EADV

     Advertise error

 -- 資料: errno.ESRMNT

     Srmount error

 -- 資料: errno.ECOMM

     Communication error on send

 -- 資料: errno.EPROTO

     Protocol error

 -- 資料: errno.EMULTIHOP

     Multihop attempted

 -- 資料: errno.EDOTDOT

     RFS specific error

 -- 資料: errno.EBADMSG

     Not a data message

 -- 資料: errno.EOVERFLOW

     Value too large for defined data type

 -- 資料: errno.ENOTUNIQ

     Name not unique on network

 -- 資料: errno.EBADFD

     File descriptor in bad state

 -- 資料: errno.EREMCHG

     Remote address changed

 -- 資料: errno.ELIBACC

     Can not access a needed shared library

 -- 資料: errno.ELIBBAD

     Accessing a corrupted shared library

 -- 資料: errno.ELIBSCN

     .lib section in a.out corrupted

 -- 資料: errno.ELIBMAX

     Attempting to link in too many shared libraries

 -- 資料: errno.ELIBEXEC

     Cannot exec a shared library directly

 -- 資料: errno.EILSEQ

     Illegal byte sequence

 -- 資料: errno.ERESTART

     Interrupted system call should be restarted

 -- 資料: errno.ESTRPIPE

     Streams pipe error

 -- 資料: errno.EUSERS

     Too many users

 -- 資料: errno.ENOTSOCK

     Socket operation on non-socket

 -- 資料: errno.EDESTADDRREQ

     Destination address required

 -- 資料: errno.EMSGSIZE

     Message too long

 -- 資料: errno.EPROTOTYPE

     Protocol wrong type for socket

 -- 資料: errno.ENOPROTOOPT

     Protocol not available

 -- 資料: errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT

     Protocol not supported

 -- 資料: errno.ESOCKTNOSUPPORT

     Socket type not supported

 -- 資料: errno.EOPNOTSUPP

     Operation not supported on transport endpoint

 -- 資料: errno.ENOTSUP

     Operation not supported

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: errno.EPFNOSUPPORT

     Protocol family not supported

 -- 資料: errno.EAFNOSUPPORT

     Address family not supported by protocol

 -- 資料: errno.EADDRINUSE

     Address already in use

 -- 資料: errno.EADDRNOTAVAIL

     Cannot assign requested address

 -- 資料: errno.ENETDOWN

     Network is down

 -- 資料: errno.ENETUNREACH

     Network is unreachable

 -- 資料: errno.ENETRESET

     Network dropped connection because of reset

 -- 資料: errno.ECONNABORTED

     Software caused connection abort.  This error is mapped to the
     exception *note ConnectionAbortedError: ef3.

 -- 資料: errno.ECONNRESET

     Connection reset by peer.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note ConnectionResetError: ef5.

 -- 資料: errno.ENOBUFS

     No buffer space available

 -- 資料: errno.EISCONN

     Transport endpoint is already connected

 -- 資料: errno.ENOTCONN

     Transport endpoint is not connected

 -- 資料: errno.ESHUTDOWN

     Cannot send after transport endpoint shutdown.  This error is
     mapped to the exception *note BrokenPipeError: ef2.

 -- 資料: errno.ETOOMANYREFS

     Too many references: cannot splice

 -- 資料: errno.ETIMEDOUT

     Connection timed out.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     TimeoutError: 65b.

 -- 資料: errno.ECONNREFUSED

     Connection refused.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ConnectionRefusedError: ef4.

 -- 資料: errno.EHOSTDOWN

     Host is down

 -- 資料: errno.EHOSTUNREACH

     No route to host

 -- 資料: errno.EALREADY

     Operation already in progress.  This error is mapped to the
     exception *note BlockingIOError: eed.

 -- 資料: errno.EINPROGRESS

     Operation now in progress.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note BlockingIOError: eed.

 -- 資料: errno.ESTALE

     Stale NFS file handle

 -- 資料: errno.EUCLEAN

     Structure needs cleaning

 -- 資料: errno.ENOTNAM

     Not a XENIX named type file

 -- 資料: errno.ENAVAIL

     No XENIX semaphores available

 -- 資料: errno.EISNAM

     Is a named type file

 -- 資料: errno.EREMOTEIO

     Remote I/O error

 -- 資料: errno.EDQUOT

     Quota exceeded

 -- 資料: errno.EQFULL

     Interface output queue is full

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 資料: errno.ENOTCAPABLE

     Capabilities insufficient.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note PermissionError: bb5.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: WASI, FreeBSD

     在 3.11.1 版被加入.

 -- 資料: errno.ECANCELED

     Operation canceled

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: errno.EOWNERDEAD

     Owner died

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: errno.ENOTRECOVERABLE

     State not recoverable

     在 3.2 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes --- 用於 Python 的外部函式庫,  Prev: errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號,  Up: 通用作業系統服務

5.16.16 ‘ctypes’ -- 用於 Python 的外部函式庫
--------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/ctypes(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ctypes: 28. is a foreign function library for Python.  It provides
C compatible data types, and allows calling functions in DLLs or shared
libraries.  It can be used to wrap these libraries in pure Python.

* Menu:

* ctypes 教學::
* ctypes reference::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ctypes


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes 教學,  Next: ctypes reference,  Up: ctypes --- 用於 Python 的外部函式庫

5.16.16.1 ctypes 教學
.....................

Note: The code samples in this tutorial use *note doctest: 36. to make
sure that they actually work.  Since some code samples behave
differently under Linux, Windows, or macOS, they contain doctest
directives in comments.

Note: Some code samples reference the ctypes *note c_int: 2d42. type.
On platforms where ‘sizeof(long) == sizeof(int)’ it is an alias to *note
c_long: 2d43.  So, you should not be confused if *note c_long: 2d43. is
printed if you would expect *note c_int: 2d42. -- they are actually the
same type.

* Menu:

* Loading dynamic link libraries::
* Accessing functions from loaded dlls::
* 呼叫函式::
* Fundamental data types::
* Calling functions, continued: Calling functions continued.
* Calling variadic functions::
* Calling functions with your own custom data types::
* Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes): Specifying the required argument types function prototypes.
* Return types::
* Passing pointers (or; passing parameters by reference): Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference.
* Structures and unions::
* Structure/union alignment and byte order::
* Bit fields in structures and unions::
* Arrays::
* Pointers::
* Type conversions::
* Incomplete Types::
* 回呼函式::
* Accessing values exported from dlls::
* Surprises::
* Variable-sized data types::


File: python.info,  Node: Loading dynamic link libraries,  Next: Accessing functions from loaded dlls,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.2 Loading dynamic link libraries
........................................

*note ctypes: 28. exports the 'cdll', and on Windows 'windll' and
'oledll' objects, for loading dynamic link libraries.

You load libraries by accessing them as attributes of these objects.
'cdll' loads libraries which export functions using the standard ‘cdecl’
calling convention, while 'windll' libraries call functions using the
‘stdcall’ calling convention.  'oledll' also uses the ‘stdcall’ calling
convention, and assumes the functions return a Windows ‘HRESULT’ error
code.  The error code is used to automatically raise an *note OSError:
644. exception when the function call fails.

在 3.3 版的變更: Windows errors used to raise *note WindowsError: eea,
which is now an alias of *note OSError: 644.

Here are some examples for Windows.  Note that ‘msvcrt’ is the MS
standard C library containing most standard C functions, and uses the
‘cdecl’ calling convention:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> print(windll.kernel32)
     <WinDLL 'kernel32', handle ... at ...>
     >>> print(cdll.msvcrt)
     <CDLL 'msvcrt', handle ... at ...>
     >>> libc = cdll.msvcrt
     >>>

Windows appends the usual ‘.dll’ file suffix automatically.

     備註: Accessing the standard C library through ‘cdll.msvcrt’ will
     use an outdated version of the library that may be incompatible
     with the one being used by Python.  Where possible, use native
     Python functionality, or else import and use the ‘msvcrt’ module.

On Linux, it is required to specify the filename 'including' the
extension to load a library, so attribute access can not be used to load
libraries.  Either the *note LoadLibrary(): 2d46. method of the dll
loaders should be used, or you should load the library by creating an
instance of CDLL by calling the constructor:

     >>> cdll.LoadLibrary("libc.so.6")
     <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
     >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")
     >>> libc
     <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing functions from loaded dlls,  Next: 呼叫函式,  Prev: Loading dynamic link libraries,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.3 Accessing functions from loaded dlls
..............................................

Functions are accessed as attributes of dll objects:

     >>> libc.printf
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> print(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA)
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> print(windll.kernel32.MyOwnFunction)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "ctypes.py", line 239, in __getattr__
         func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
     AttributeError: function 'MyOwnFunction' not found
     >>>

Note that win32 system dlls like ‘kernel32’ and ‘user32’ often export
ANSI as well as UNICODE versions of a function.  The UNICODE version is
exported with a ‘W’ appended to the name, while the ANSI version is
exported with an ‘A’ appended to the name.  The win32 ‘GetModuleHandle’
function, which returns a 'module handle' for a given module name, has
the following C prototype, and a macro is used to expose one of them as
‘GetModuleHandle’ depending on whether UNICODE is defined or not:

     /* ANSI 版本 */
     HMODULE GetModuleHandleA(LPCSTR lpModuleName);
     /* UNICODE 版本 */
     HMODULE GetModuleHandleW(LPCWSTR lpModuleName);

'windll' does not try to select one of them by magic, you must access
the version you need by specifying ‘GetModuleHandleA’ or
‘GetModuleHandleW’ explicitly, and then call it with bytes or string
objects respectively.

Sometimes, dlls export functions with names which aren't valid Python
identifiers, like ‘"??2@YAPAXI@Z"’.  In this case you have to use *note
getattr(): a32. to retrieve the function:

     >>> getattr(cdll.msvcrt, "??2@YAPAXI@Z")
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>>

On Windows, some dlls export functions not by name but by ordinal.
These functions can be accessed by indexing the dll object with the
ordinal number:

     >>> cdll.kernel32[1]
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> cdll.kernel32[0]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "ctypes.py", line 310, in __getitem__
         func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
     AttributeError: function ordinal 0 not found
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 呼叫函式,  Next: Fundamental data types,  Prev: Accessing functions from loaded dlls,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.4 呼叫函式
..................

You can call these functions like any other Python callable.  This
example uses the ‘rand()’ function, which takes no arguments and returns
a pseudo-random integer:

     >>> print(libc.rand())
     1804289383

On Windows, you can call the ‘GetModuleHandleA()’ function, which
returns a win32 module handle (passing ‘None’ as single argument to call
it with a ‘NULL’ pointer):

     >>> print(hex(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)))
     0x1d000000
     >>>

*note ValueError: 183. is raised when you call an ‘stdcall’ function
with the ‘cdecl’ calling convention, or vice versa:

     >>> cdll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: Procedure probably called with not enough arguments (4 bytes missing)
     >>>

     >>> windll.msvcrt.printf(b"spam")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: Procedure probably called with too many arguments (4 bytes in excess)
     >>>

To find out the correct calling convention you have to look into the C
header file or the documentation for the function you want to call.

On Windows, *note ctypes: 28. uses win32 structured exception handling
to prevent crashes from general protection faults when functions are
called with invalid argument values:

     >>> windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(32)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     OSError: exception: access violation reading 0x00000020
     >>>

There are, however, enough ways to crash Python with *note ctypes: 28,
so you should be careful anyway.  The *note faulthandler: 53. module can
be helpful in debugging crashes (e.g.  from segmentation faults produced
by erroneous C library calls).

‘None’, integers, bytes objects and (unicode) strings are the only
native Python objects that can directly be used as parameters in these
function calls.  ‘None’ is passed as a C ‘NULL’ pointer, bytes objects
and strings are passed as pointer to the memory block that contains
their data (char* or wchar_t*).  Python integers are passed as the
platforms default C int type, their value is masked to fit into the C
type.

Before we move on calling functions with other parameter types, we have
to learn more about *note ctypes: 28. data types.


File: python.info,  Node: Fundamental data types,  Next: Calling functions continued,  Prev: 呼叫函式,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.5 Fundamental data types
................................

*note ctypes: 28. defines a number of primitive C compatible data types:

ctypes 型別                C 型別                                         Python 型別
                                                                          
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
*note c_bool: 2d4d.        _Bool                                          bool (1)
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_char: 2d4e.        char                                           1-character bytes object
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_wchar: 2d4f.       ‘wchar_t’                                      1-character string
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_byte: 1539.        char                                           int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ubyte: 153a.       unsigned char                                  int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_short: 2d50.       short                                          int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ushort: 2d51.      unsigned short                                 int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_int: 2d42.         int                                            int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_uint: 2d52.        unsigned int                                   int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_long: 2d43.        long                                           int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ulong: 2d53.       unsigned long                                  int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_longlong: 2d54.    __int64 或 long long                           int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ulonglong: 2d55.   unsigned __int64 或 unsigned long long         int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_size_t: 2d56.      ‘size_t’                                       int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ssize_t: 10cf.     ‘ssize_t’ 或 *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.            int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_time_t: 15a7.      ‘time_t’                                       int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_float: 2d57.       float                                          float
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_double: 16d0.      double                                         float
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_longdouble: 16d1.  long double                                    float
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_char_p: 2d58.      char* (NUL terminated)                         bytes object or ‘None’
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_wchar_p: 169c.     wchar_t* (NUL terminated)                      字串或 ‘None’
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_void_p: 2d59.      void*                                          int or ‘None’
                                                                          

  1. The constructor accepts any object with a truth value.

All these types can be created by calling them with an optional
initializer of the correct type and value:

     >>> c_int()
     c_long(0)
     >>> c_wchar_p("Hello, World")
     c_wchar_p(140018365411392)
     >>> c_ushort(-3)
     c_ushort(65533)
     >>>

Since these types are mutable, their value can also be changed
afterwards:

     >>> i = c_int(42)
     >>> print(i)
     c_long(42)
     >>> print(i.value)
     42
     >>> i.value = -99
     >>> print(i.value)
     -99
     >>>

Assigning a new value to instances of the pointer types *note c_char_p:
2d58, *note c_wchar_p: 169c, and *note c_void_p: 2d59. changes the
'memory location' they point to, 'not the contents' of the memory block
(of course not, because Python bytes objects are immutable):

     >>> s = "Hello, World"
     >>> c_s = c_wchar_p(s)
     >>> print(c_s)
     c_wchar_p(139966785747344)
     >>> print(c_s.value)
     Hello World
     >>> c_s.value = "Hi, there"
     >>> print(c_s)              # the memory location has changed
     c_wchar_p(139966783348904)
     >>> print(c_s.value)
     Hi, there
     >>> print(s)                # first object is unchanged
     Hello, World
     >>>

You should be careful, however, not to pass them to functions expecting
pointers to mutable memory.  If you need mutable memory blocks, ctypes
has a *note create_string_buffer(): 2d5a. function which creates these
in various ways.  The current memory block contents can be accessed (or
changed) with the ‘raw’ property; if you want to access it as NUL
terminated string, use the ‘value’ property:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(3)            # create a 3 byte buffer, initialized to NUL bytes
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     3 b'\x00\x00\x00'
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello")     # create a buffer containing a NUL terminated string
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     6 b'Hello\x00'
     >>> print(repr(p.value))
     b'Hello'
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello", 10) # create a 10 byte buffer
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     10 b'Hello\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
     >>> p.value = b"Hi"
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     10 b'Hi\x00lo\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
     >>>

The *note create_string_buffer(): 2d5a. function replaces the old
‘c_buffer()’ function (which is still available as an alias).  To create
a mutable memory block containing unicode characters of the C type
‘wchar_t’, use the *note create_unicode_buffer(): 17af. function.


File: python.info,  Node: Calling functions continued,  Next: Calling variadic functions,  Prev: Fundamental data types,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.6 Calling functions, continued
......................................

Note that printf prints to the real standard output channel, 'not' to
*note sys.stdout: 92a, so these examples will only work at the console
prompt, not from within 'IDLE' or 'PythonWin':

     >>> printf = libc.printf
     >>> printf(b"Hello, %s\n", b"World!")
     Hello, World!
     14
     >>> printf(b"Hello, %S\n", "World!")
     Hello, World!
     14
     >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", 42)
     42 bottles of beer
     19
     >>> printf(b"%f bottles of beer\n", 42.5)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: Don't know how to convert parameter 2
     >>>

As has been mentioned before, all Python types except integers, strings,
and bytes objects have to be wrapped in their corresponding *note
ctypes: 28. type, so that they can be converted to the required C data
type:

     >>> printf(b"An int %d, a double %f\n", 1234, c_double(3.14))
     An int 1234, a double 3.140000
     31
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Calling variadic functions,  Next: Calling functions with your own custom data types,  Prev: Calling functions continued,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.7 Calling variadic functions
....................................

On a lot of platforms calling variadic functions through ctypes is
exactly the same as calling functions with a fixed number of parameters.
On some platforms, and in particular ARM64 for Apple Platforms, the
calling convention for variadic functions is different than that for
regular functions.

On those platforms it is required to specify the *note argtypes: 2d5f.
attribute for the regular, non-variadic, function arguments:

     libc.printf.argtypes = [ctypes.c_char_p]

Because specifying the attribute does not inhibit portability it is
advised to always specify *note argtypes: 2d5f. for all variadic
functions.


File: python.info,  Node: Calling functions with your own custom data types,  Next: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes,  Prev: Calling variadic functions,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.8 Calling functions with your own custom data types
...........................................................

You can also customize *note ctypes: 28. argument conversion to allow
instances of your own classes be used as function arguments.  *note
ctypes: 28. looks for an ‘_as_parameter_’ attribute and uses this as the
function argument.  The attribute must be an integer, string, bytes, a
*note ctypes: 28. instance, or an object with an ‘_as_parameter_’
attribute:

     >>> class Bottles:
     ...     def __init__(self, number):
     ...         self._as_parameter_ = number
     ...
     >>> bottles = Bottles(42)
     >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", bottles)
     42 bottles of beer
     19
     >>>

If you don't want to store the instance's data in the ‘_as_parameter_’
instance variable, you could define a *note property: 424. which makes
the attribute available on request.


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes,  Next: Return types,  Prev: Calling functions with your own custom data types,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.9 Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
......................................................................

It is possible to specify the required argument types of functions
exported from DLLs by setting the *note argtypes: 2d5f. attribute.

*note argtypes: 2d5f. must be a sequence of C data types (the ‘printf()’
function is probably not a good example here, because it takes a
variable number and different types of parameters depending on the
format string, on the other hand this is quite handy to experiment with
this feature):

     >>> printf.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char_p, c_int, c_double]
     >>> printf(b"String '%s', Int %d, Double %f\n", b"Hi", 10, 2.2)
     String 'Hi', Int 10, Double 2.200000
     37
     >>>

Specifying a format protects against incompatible argument types (just
as a prototype for a C function), and tries to convert the arguments to
valid types:

     >>> printf(b"%d %d %d", 1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: wrong type
     >>> printf(b"%s %d %f\n", b"X", 2, 3)
     X 2 3.000000
     13
     >>>

If you have defined your own classes which you pass to function calls,
you have to implement a *note from_param(): 2d64. class method for them
to be able to use them in the *note argtypes: 2d5f. sequence.  The *note
from_param(): 2d64. class method receives the Python object passed to
the function call, it should do a typecheck or whatever is needed to
make sure this object is acceptable, and then return the object itself,
its ‘_as_parameter_’ attribute, or whatever you want to pass as the C
function argument in this case.  Again, the result should be an integer,
string, bytes, a *note ctypes: 28. instance, or an object with an
‘_as_parameter_’ attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: Return types,  Next: Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference,  Prev: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.10 Return types
.......................

By default functions are assumed to return the C int type.  Other return
types can be specified by setting the *note restype: 2d67. attribute of
the function object.

The C prototype of ‘time()’ is ‘time_t time(time_t *)’.  Because
‘time_t’ might be of a different type than the default return type int,
you should specify the ‘restype’ attribute:

     >>> libc.time.restype = c_time_t

The argument types can be specified using *note argtypes: 2d5f.:

     >>> libc.time.argtypes = (POINTER(c_time_t),)

To call the function with a ‘NULL’ pointer as first argument, use
‘None’:

     >>> print(libc.time(None))
     1150640792

Here is a more advanced example, it uses the ‘strchr()’ function, which
expects a string pointer and a char, and returns a pointer to a string:

     >>> strchr = libc.strchr
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
     8059983
     >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p    # c_char_p is a pointer to a string
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
     b'def'
     >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", ord("x")))
     None
     >>>

If you want to avoid the *note ord("x"): 1c82. calls above, you can set
the *note argtypes: 2d5f. attribute, and the second argument will be
converted from a single character Python bytes object into a C char:

     >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p
     >>> strchr.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char]
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
     b'def'
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"def")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: one character bytes, bytearray or integer expected
     >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", b"x"))
     None
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
     b'def'
     >>>

You can also use a callable Python object (a function or a class for
example) as the *note restype: 2d67. attribute, if the foreign function
returns an integer.  The callable will be called with the 'integer' the
C function returns, and the result of this call will be used as the
result of your function call.  This is useful to check for error return
values and automatically raise an exception:

     >>> GetModuleHandle = windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA
     >>> def ValidHandle(value):
     ...     if value == 0:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     return value
     ...
     >>>
     >>> GetModuleHandle.restype = ValidHandle
     >>> GetModuleHandle(None)
     486539264
     >>> GetModuleHandle("something silly")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 3, in ValidHandle
     OSError: [Errno 126] The specified module could not be found.
     >>>

‘WinError’ is a function which will call Windows ‘FormatMessage()’ api
to get the string representation of an error code, and 'returns' an
exception.  ‘WinError’ takes an optional error code parameter, if no one
is used, it calls *note GetLastError(): 2d68. to retrieve it.

Please note that a much more powerful error checking mechanism is
available through the *note errcheck: 2d69. attribute; see the reference
manual for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference,  Next: Structures and unions,  Prev: Return types,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.11 Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
.................................................................

Sometimes a C api function expects a 'pointer' to a data type as
parameter, probably to write into the corresponding location, or if the
data is too large to be passed by value.  This is also known as 'passing
parameters by reference'.

*note ctypes: 28. exports the *note byref(): 2d6c. function which is
used to pass parameters by reference.  The same effect can be achieved
with the *note pointer(): 2d6d. function, although *note pointer():
2d6d. does a lot more work since it constructs a real pointer object, so
it is faster to use *note byref(): 2d6c. if you don't need the pointer
object in Python itself:

     >>> i = c_int()
     >>> f = c_float()
     >>> s = create_string_buffer(b'\000' * 32)
     >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
     0 0.0 b''
     >>> libc.sscanf(b"1 3.14 Hello", b"%d %f %s",
     ...             byref(i), byref(f), s)
     3
     >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
     1 3.1400001049 b'Hello'
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Structures and unions,  Next: Structure/union alignment and byte order,  Prev: Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.12 Structures and unions
................................

Structures and unions must derive from the *note Structure: 1453. and
*note Union: 1452. base classes which are defined in the *note ctypes:
28. module.  Each subclass must define a *note _fields_: 2d70.
attribute.  ‘_fields_’ must be a list of '2-tuples', containing a 'field
name' and a 'field type'.

The field type must be a *note ctypes: 28. type like *note c_int: 2d42,
or any other derived *note ctypes: 28. type: structure, union, array,
pointer.

Here is a simple example of a POINT structure, which contains two
integers named 'x' and 'y', and also shows how to initialize a structure
in the constructor:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_int),
     ...                 ("y", c_int)]
     ...
     >>> point = POINT(10, 20)
     >>> print(point.x, point.y)
     10 20
     >>> point = POINT(y=5)
     >>> print(point.x, point.y)
     0 5
     >>> POINT(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: too many initializers
     >>>

You can, however, build much more complicated structures.  A structure
can itself contain other structures by using a structure as a field
type.

Here is a RECT structure which contains two POINTs named 'upperleft' and
'lowerright':

     >>> class RECT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("upperleft", POINT),
     ...                 ("lowerright", POINT)]
     ...
     >>> rc = RECT(point)
     >>> print(rc.upperleft.x, rc.upperleft.y)
     0 5
     >>> print(rc.lowerright.x, rc.lowerright.y)
     0 0
     >>>

Nested structures can also be initialized in the constructor in several
ways:

     >>> r = RECT(POINT(1, 2), POINT(3, 4))
     >>> r = RECT((1, 2), (3, 4))

Field *note descriptor: 1d03.s can be retrieved from the 'class', they
are useful for debugging because they can provide useful information:

     >>> print(POINT.x)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0, size=4>
     >>> print(POINT.y)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=4, size=4>
     >>>
     警告: *note ctypes: 28. does not support passing unions or
     structures with bit-fields to functions by value.  While this may
     work on 32-bit x86, it's not guaranteed by the library to work in
     the general case.  Unions and structures with bit-fields should
     always be passed to functions by pointer.


File: python.info,  Node: Structure/union alignment and byte order,  Next: Bit fields in structures and unions,  Prev: Structures and unions,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.13 Structure/union alignment and byte order
...................................................

By default, Structure and Union fields are aligned in the same way the C
compiler does it.  It is possible to override this behavior by
specifying a *note _pack_: 2d73. class attribute in the subclass
definition.  This must be set to a positive integer and specifies the
maximum alignment for the fields.  This is what ‘#pragma pack(n)’ also
does in MSVC.

*note ctypes: 28. uses the native byte order for Structures and Unions.
To build structures with non-native byte order, you can use one of the
*note BigEndianStructure: 2d74, *note LittleEndianStructure: 2d75, *note
BigEndianUnion: 15f7, and *note LittleEndianUnion: 15f8. base classes.
These classes cannot contain pointer fields.


File: python.info,  Node: Bit fields in structures and unions,  Next: Arrays,  Prev: Structure/union alignment and byte order,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.14 Bit fields in structures and unions
..............................................

It is possible to create structures and unions containing bit fields.
Bit fields are only possible for integer fields, the bit width is
specified as the third item in the *note _fields_: 2d70. tuples:

     >>> class Int(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("first_16", c_int, 16),
     ...                 ("second_16", c_int, 16)]
     ...
     >>> print(Int.first_16)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0:0, bits=16>
     >>> print(Int.second_16)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0:16, bits=16>
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Arrays,  Next: Pointers,  Prev: Bit fields in structures and unions,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.15 Arrays
.................

Arrays are sequences, containing a fixed number of instances of the same
type.

The recommended way to create array types is by multiplying a data type
with a positive integer:

     TenPointsArrayType = POINT * 10

Here is an example of a somewhat artificial data type, a structure
containing 4 POINTs among other stuff:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
     ...
     >>> class MyStruct(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("a", c_int),
     ...                 ("b", c_float),
     ...                 ("point_array", POINT * 4)]
     >>>
     >>> print(len(MyStruct().point_array))
     4
     >>>

Instances are created in the usual way, by calling the class:

     arr = TenPointsArrayType()
     for pt in arr:
         print(pt.x, pt.y)

The above code print a series of ‘0 0’ lines, because the array contents
is initialized to zeros.

Initializers of the correct type can also be specified:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> TenIntegers = c_int * 10
     >>> ii = TenIntegers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
     >>> print(ii)
     <c_long_Array_10 object at 0x...>
     >>> for i in ii: print(i, end=" ")
     ...
     1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Pointers,  Next: Type conversions,  Prev: Arrays,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.16 Pointers
...................

Pointer instances are created by calling the *note pointer(): 2d6d.
function on a *note ctypes: 28. type:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> i = c_int(42)
     >>> pi = pointer(i)
     >>>

Pointer instances have a *note contents: 2d7c. attribute which returns
the object to which the pointer points, the ‘i’ object above:

     >>> pi.contents
     c_long(42)
     >>>

Note that *note ctypes: 28. does not have OOR (original object return),
it constructs a new, equivalent object each time you retrieve an
attribute:

     >>> pi.contents is i
     False
     >>> pi.contents is pi.contents
     False
     >>>

Assigning another *note c_int: 2d42. instance to the pointer's contents
attribute would cause the pointer to point to the memory location where
this is stored:

     >>> i = c_int(99)
     >>> pi.contents = i
     >>> pi.contents
     c_long(99)
     >>>

Pointer instances can also be indexed with integers:

     >>> pi[0]
     99
     >>>

Assigning to an integer index changes the pointed to value:

     >>> print(i)
     c_long(99)
     >>> pi[0] = 22
     >>> print(i)
     c_long(22)
     >>>

It is also possible to use indexes different from 0, but you must know
what you're doing, just as in C: You can access or change arbitrary
memory locations.  Generally you only use this feature if you receive a
pointer from a C function, and you 'know' that the pointer actually
points to an array instead of a single item.

Behind the scenes, the *note pointer(): 2d6d. function does more than
simply create pointer instances, it has to create pointer 'types' first.
This is done with the *note POINTER(): 2d7d. function, which accepts any
*note ctypes: 28. type, and returns a new type:

     >>> PI = POINTER(c_int)
     >>> PI
     <class 'ctypes.LP_c_long'>
     >>> PI(42)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: expected c_long instead of int
     >>> PI(c_int(42))
     <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x...>
     >>>

Calling the pointer type without an argument creates a ‘NULL’ pointer.
‘NULL’ pointers have a ‘False’ boolean value:

     >>> null_ptr = POINTER(c_int)()
     >>> print(bool(null_ptr))
     False
     >>>

*note ctypes: 28. checks for ‘NULL’ when dereferencing pointers (but
dereferencing invalid non-‘NULL’ pointers would crash Python):

     >>> null_ptr[0]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ....
     ValueError: NULL pointer access
     >>>

     >>> null_ptr[0] = 1234
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ....
     ValueError: NULL pointer access
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Type conversions,  Next: Incomplete Types,  Prev: Pointers,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.17 Type conversions
...........................

Usually, ctypes does strict type checking.  This means, if you have
‘POINTER(c_int)’ in the *note argtypes: 2d5f. list of a function or as
the type of a member field in a structure definition, only instances of
exactly the same type are accepted.  There are some exceptions to this
rule, where ctypes accepts other objects.  For example, you can pass
compatible array instances instead of pointer types.  So, for
‘POINTER(c_int)’, ctypes accepts an array of c_int:

     >>> class Bar(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("count", c_int), ("values", POINTER(c_int))]
     ...
     >>> bar = Bar()
     >>> bar.values = (c_int * 3)(1, 2, 3)
     >>> bar.count = 3
     >>> for i in range(bar.count):
     ...     print(bar.values[i])
     ...
     1
     2
     3
     >>>

In addition, if a function argument is explicitly declared to be a
pointer type (such as ‘POINTER(c_int)’) in *note argtypes: 2d5f, an
object of the pointed type (‘c_int’ in this case) can be passed to the
function.  ctypes will apply the required *note byref(): 2d6c.
conversion in this case automatically.

To set a POINTER type field to ‘NULL’, you can assign ‘None’:

     >>> bar.values = None
     >>>

Sometimes you have instances of incompatible types.  In C, you can cast
one type into another type.  *note ctypes: 28. provides a *note cast():
2d80. function which can be used in the same way.  The ‘Bar’ structure
defined above accepts ‘POINTER(c_int)’ pointers or *note c_int: 2d42.
arrays for its ‘values’ field, but not instances of other types:

     >>> bar.values = (c_byte * 4)()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: incompatible types, c_byte_Array_4 instance instead of LP_c_long instance
     >>>

For these cases, the *note cast(): 2d80. function is handy.

The *note cast(): 2d80. function can be used to cast a ctypes instance
into a pointer to a different ctypes data type.  *note cast(): 2d80.
takes two parameters, a ctypes object that is or can be converted to a
pointer of some kind, and a ctypes pointer type.  It returns an instance
of the second argument, which references the same memory block as the
first argument:

     >>> a = (c_byte * 4)()
     >>> cast(a, POINTER(c_int))
     <ctypes.LP_c_long object at ...>
     >>>

So, *note cast(): 2d80. can be used to assign to the ‘values’ field of
‘Bar’ the structure:

     >>> bar = Bar()
     >>> bar.values = cast((c_byte * 4)(), POINTER(c_int))
     >>> print(bar.values[0])
     0
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Incomplete Types,  Next: 回呼函式,  Prev: Type conversions,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.18 Incomplete Types
...........................

'Incomplete Types' are structures, unions or arrays whose members are
not yet specified.  In C, they are specified by forward declarations,
which are defined later:

     struct cell; /* forward declaration */

     struct cell {
         char *name;
         struct cell *next;
     };

The straightforward translation into ctypes code would be this, but it
does not work:

     >>> class cell(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                 ("next", POINTER(cell))]
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in cell
     NameError: name 'cell' is not defined
     >>>

because the new ‘class cell’ is not available in the class statement
itself.  In *note ctypes: 28, we can define the ‘cell’ class and set the
*note _fields_: 2d70. attribute later, after the class statement:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class cell(Structure):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> cell._fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                  ("next", POINTER(cell))]
     >>>

Let's try it.  We create two instances of ‘cell’, and let them point to
each other, and finally follow the pointer chain a few times:

     >>> c1 = cell()
     >>> c1.name = b"foo"
     >>> c2 = cell()
     >>> c2.name = b"bar"
     >>> c1.next = pointer(c2)
     >>> c2.next = pointer(c1)
     >>> p = c1
     >>> for i in range(8):
     ...     print(p.name, end=" ")
     ...     p = p.next[0]
     ...
     foo bar foo bar foo bar foo bar
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 回呼函式,  Next: Accessing values exported from dlls,  Prev: Incomplete Types,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.19 回呼函式
...................

*note ctypes: 28. allows creating C callable function pointers from
Python callables.  These are sometimes called 'callback functions'.

First, you must create a class for the callback function.  The class
knows the calling convention, the return type, and the number and types
of arguments this function will receive.

The *note CFUNCTYPE(): 2d85. factory function creates types for callback
functions using the ‘cdecl’ calling convention.  On Windows, the *note
WINFUNCTYPE(): 2d86. factory function creates types for callback
functions using the ‘stdcall’ calling convention.

Both of these factory functions are called with the result type as first
argument, and the callback functions expected argument types as the
remaining arguments.

I will present an example here which uses the standard C library's
‘qsort()’ function, that is used to sort items with the help of a
callback function.  ‘qsort()’ will be used to sort an array of integers:

     >>> IntArray5 = c_int * 5
     >>> ia = IntArray5(5, 1, 7, 33, 99)
     >>> qsort = libc.qsort
     >>> qsort.restype = None
     >>>

‘qsort()’ must be called with a pointer to the data to sort, the number
of items in the data array, the size of one item, and a pointer to the
comparison function, the callback.  The callback will then be called
with two pointers to items, and it must return a negative integer if the
first item is smaller than the second, a zero if they are equal, and a
positive integer otherwise.

So our callback function receives pointers to integers, and must return
an integer.  First we create the ‘type’ for the callback function:

     >>> CMPFUNC = CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
     >>>

To get started, here is a simple callback that shows the values it gets
passed:

     >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return 0
     ...
     >>> cmp_func = CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func)
     >>>

結果為：

     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), cmp_func)
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     >>>

Now we can actually compare the two items and return a useful result:

     >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return a[0] - b[0]
     ...
     >>>
     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func))
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     >>>

As we can easily check, our array is sorted now:

     >>> for i in ia: print(i, end=" ")
     ...
     1 5 7 33 99
     >>>

The function factories can be used as decorator factories, so we may as
well write:

     >>> @CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
     ... def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return a[0] - b[0]
     ...
     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), py_cmp_func)
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     >>>

     備註: Make sure you keep references to *note CFUNCTYPE(): 2d85.
     objects as long as they are used from C code.  *note ctypes: 28.
     doesn't, and if you don't, they may be garbage collected, crashing
     your program when a callback is made.

     Also, note that if the callback function is called in a thread
     created outside of Python's control (e.g.  by the foreign code that
     calls the callback), ctypes creates a new dummy Python thread on
     every invocation.  This behavior is correct for most purposes, but
     it means that values stored with *note threading.local: 1533. will
     'not' survive across different callbacks, even when those calls are
     made from the same C thread.


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing values exported from dlls,  Next: Surprises,  Prev: 回呼函式,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.20 Accessing values exported from dlls
..............................................

Some shared libraries not only export functions, they also export
variables.  An example in the Python library itself is the *note
Py_Version: 569, Python runtime version number encoded in a single
constant integer.

*note ctypes: 28. can access values like this with the *note in_dll():
2d89. class methods of the type.  'pythonapi' is a predefined symbol
giving access to the Python C api:

     >>> version = ctypes.c_int.in_dll(ctypes.pythonapi, "Py_Version")
     >>> print(hex(version.value))
     0x30c00a0

An extended example which also demonstrates the use of pointers accesses
the *note PyImport_FrozenModules: 2d8a. pointer exported by Python.

Quoting the docs for that value:

     This pointer is initialized to point to an array of *note _frozen:
     58c. records, terminated by one whose members are all ‘NULL’ or
     zero.  When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this
     table.  Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a
     dynamically created collection of frozen modules.

So manipulating this pointer could even prove useful.  To restrict the
example size, we show only how this table can be read with *note ctypes:
28.:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>>
     >>> class struct_frozen(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                 ("code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),
     ...                 ("size", c_int),
     ...                 ("get_code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),  # 函式指標
     ...                ]
     ...
     >>>

We have defined the *note _frozen: 58c. data type, so we can get the
pointer to the table:

     >>> FrozenTable = POINTER(struct_frozen)
     >>> table = FrozenTable.in_dll(pythonapi, "_PyImport_FrozenBootstrap")
     >>>

Since ‘table’ is a ‘pointer’ to the array of ‘struct_frozen’ records, we
can iterate over it, but we just have to make sure that our loop
terminates, because pointers have no size.  Sooner or later it would
probably crash with an access violation or whatever, so it's better to
break out of the loop when we hit the ‘NULL’ entry:

     >>> for item in table:
     ...     if item.name is None:
     ...         break
     ...     print(item.name.decode("ascii"), item.size)
     ...
     _frozen_importlib 31764
     _frozen_importlib_external 41499
     zipimport 12345
     >>>

The fact that standard Python has a frozen module and a frozen package
(indicated by the negative ‘size’ member) is not well known, it is only
used for testing.  Try it out with ‘import __hello__’ for example.


File: python.info,  Node: Surprises,  Next: Variable-sized data types,  Prev: Accessing values exported from dlls,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.21 Surprises
....................

There are some edges in *note ctypes: 28. where you might expect
something other than what actually happens.

Consider the following example:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
     ...
     >>> class RECT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("a", POINT), ("b", POINT)
     ...
     >>> p1 = POINT(1, 2)
     >>> p2 = POINT(3, 4)
     >>> rc = RECT(p1, p2)
     >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
     1 2 3 4
     >>> # now swap the two points
     >>> rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a
     >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
     3 4 3 4
     >>>

Hm.  We certainly expected the last statement to print ‘3 4 1 2’.  What
happened?  Here are the steps of the ‘rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a’ line
above:

     >>> temp0, temp1 = rc.b, rc.a
     >>> rc.a = temp0
     >>> rc.b = temp1
     >>>

Note that ‘temp0’ and ‘temp1’ are objects still using the internal
buffer of the ‘rc’ object above.  So executing ‘rc.a = temp0’ copies the
buffer contents of ‘temp0’ into ‘rc’ 's buffer.  This, in turn, changes
the contents of ‘temp1’.  So, the last assignment ‘rc.b = temp1’,
doesn't have the expected effect.

Keep in mind that retrieving sub-objects from Structure, Unions, and
Arrays doesn't 'copy' the sub-object, instead it retrieves a wrapper
object accessing the root-object's underlying buffer.

Another example that may behave differently from what one would expect
is this:

     >>> s = c_char_p()
     >>> s.value = b"abc def ghi"
     >>> s.value
     b'abc def ghi'
     >>> s.value is s.value
     False
     >>>

     備註: Objects instantiated from *note c_char_p: 2d58. can only have
     their value set to bytes or integers.

Why is it printing ‘False’?  ctypes instances are objects containing a
memory block plus some *note descriptor: 1d03.s accessing the contents
of the memory.  Storing a Python object in the memory block does not
store the object itself, instead the ‘contents’ of the object is stored.
Accessing the contents again constructs a new Python object each time!


File: python.info,  Node: Variable-sized data types,  Prev: Surprises,  Up: ctypes 教學

5.16.16.22 Variable-sized data types
....................................

*note ctypes: 28. provides some support for variable-sized arrays and
structures.

The *note resize(): 2d8f. function can be used to resize the memory
buffer of an existing ctypes object.  The function takes the object as
first argument, and the requested size in bytes as the second argument.
The memory block cannot be made smaller than the natural memory block
specified by the objects type, a *note ValueError: 183. is raised if
this is tried:

     >>> short_array = (c_short * 4)()
     >>> print(sizeof(short_array))
     8
     >>> resize(short_array, 4)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: minimum size is 8
     >>> resize(short_array, 32)
     >>> sizeof(short_array)
     32
     >>> sizeof(type(short_array))
     8
     >>>

This is nice and fine, but how would one access the additional elements
contained in this array?  Since the type still only knows about 4
elements, we get errors accessing other elements:

     >>> short_array[:]
     [0, 0, 0, 0]
     >>> short_array[7]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     IndexError: invalid index
     >>>

Another way to use variable-sized data types with *note ctypes: 28. is
to use the dynamic nature of Python, and (re-)define the data type after
the required size is already known, on a case by case basis.


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes reference,  Prev: ctypes 教學,  Up: ctypes --- 用於 Python 的外部函式庫

5.16.16.23 ctypes reference
...........................

* Menu:

* Finding shared libraries::
* Loading shared libraries::
* Foreign functions::
* Function prototypes::
* Utility functions::
* Data types::
* Fundamental data types: Fundamental data types<2>.
* Structured data types::
* Arrays and pointers::


File: python.info,  Node: Finding shared libraries,  Next: Loading shared libraries,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.24 Finding shared libraries
...................................

When programming in a compiled language, shared libraries are accessed
when compiling/linking a program, and when the program is run.

The purpose of the *note find_library(): bbd. function is to locate a
library in a way similar to what the compiler or runtime loader does (on
platforms with several versions of a shared library the most recent
should be loaded), while the ctypes library loaders act like when a
program is run, and call the runtime loader directly.

The ‘ctypes.util’ module provides a function which can help to determine
the library to load.

 -- 資料: ctypes.util.find_library (name)

     Try to find a library and return a pathname.  'name' is the library
     name without any prefix like 'lib', suffix like ‘.so’, ‘.dylib’ or
     version number (this is the form used for the posix linker option
     ‘-l’).  If no library can be found, returns ‘None’.

The exact functionality is system dependent.

On Linux, *note find_library(): bbd. tries to run external programs
(‘/sbin/ldconfig’, ‘gcc’, ‘objdump’ and ‘ld’) to find the library file.
It returns the filename of the library file.

在 3.6 版的變更: On Linux, the value of the environment variable
‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’ is used when searching for libraries, if a library
cannot be found by any other means.

以下是一些範例：

     >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
     >>> find_library("m")
     'libm.so.6'
     >>> find_library("c")
     'libc.so.6'
     >>> find_library("bz2")
     'libbz2.so.1.0'
     >>>

On macOS, *note find_library(): bbd. tries several predefined naming
schemes and paths to locate the library, and returns a full pathname if
successful:

     >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
     >>> find_library("c")
     '/usr/lib/libc.dylib'
     >>> find_library("m")
     '/usr/lib/libm.dylib'
     >>> find_library("bz2")
     '/usr/lib/libbz2.dylib'
     >>> find_library("AGL")
     '/System/Library/Frameworks/AGL.framework/AGL'
     >>>

On Windows, *note find_library(): bbd. searches along the system search
path, and returns the full pathname, but since there is no predefined
naming scheme a call like ‘find_library("c")’ will fail and return
‘None’.

If wrapping a shared library with *note ctypes: 28, it 'may' be better
to determine the shared library name at development time, and hardcode
that into the wrapper module instead of using *note find_library(): bbd.
to locate the library at runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: Loading shared libraries,  Next: Foreign functions,  Prev: Finding shared libraries,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.25 Loading shared libraries
...................................

There are several ways to load shared libraries into the Python process.
One way is to instantiate one of the following classes:

 -- 類別: ctypes.CDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries.
     Functions in these libraries use the standard C calling convention,
     and are assumed to return int.

     On Windows creating a *note CDLL: 82e. instance may fail even if
     the DLL name exists.  When a dependent DLL of the loaded DLL is not
     found, a *note OSError: 644. error is raised with the message
     '"[WinError 126] The specified module could not be found".'  This
     error message does not contain the name of the missing DLL because
     the Windows API does not return this information making this error
     hard to diagnose.  To resolve this error and determine which DLL is
     not found, you need to find the list of dependent DLLs and
     determine which one is not found using Windows debugging and
     tracing tools.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note path-like
     object: 975.

也參考
......

Microsoft DUMPBIN tool(1) - A tool to find DLL dependents.

 -- 類別: ctypes.OleDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Windows only: Instances of this class represent loaded shared
     libraries, functions in these libraries use the ‘stdcall’ calling
     convention, and are assumed to return the windows specific *note
     HRESULT: 2d96. code.  *note HRESULT: 2d96. values contain
     information specifying whether the function call failed or
     succeeded, together with additional error code.  If the return
     value signals a failure, an *note OSError: 644. is automatically
     raised.

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note WindowsError: eea. used to be raised, which
     is now an alias of *note OSError: 644.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note path-like
     object: 975.

 -- 類別: ctypes.WinDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Windows only: Instances of this class represent loaded shared
     libraries, functions in these libraries use the ‘stdcall’ calling
     convention, and are assumed to return int by default.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note path-like
     object: 975.

The Python *note global interpreter lock: 141. is released before
calling any function exported by these libraries, and reacquired
afterwards.

 -- 類別: ctypes.PyDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None)

     Instances of this class behave like *note CDLL: 82e. instances,
     except that the Python GIL is 'not' released during the function
     call, and after the function execution the Python error flag is
     checked.  If the error flag is set, a Python exception is raised.

     Thus, this is only useful to call Python C api functions directly.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note path-like
     object: 975.

All these classes can be instantiated by calling them with at least one
argument, the pathname of the shared library.  If you have an existing
handle to an already loaded shared library, it can be passed as the
‘handle’ named parameter, otherwise the underlying platforms ‘dlopen()’
or ‘LoadLibrary()’ function is used to load the library into the
process, and to get a handle to it.

The 'mode' parameter can be used to specify how the library is loaded.
For details, consult the ‘dlopen(3)(2)’ manpage.  On Windows, 'mode' is
ignored.  On posix systems, RTLD_NOW is always added, and is not
configurable.

The 'use_errno' parameter, when set to true, enables a ctypes mechanism
that allows accessing the system *note errno: 52. error number in a safe
way.  *note ctypes: 28. maintains a thread-local copy of the systems
*note errno: 52. variable; if you call foreign functions created with
‘use_errno=True’ then the *note errno: 52. value before the function
call is swapped with the ctypes private copy, the same happens
immediately after the function call.

The function *note ctypes.get_errno(): 2d97. returns the value of the
ctypes private copy, and the function *note ctypes.set_errno(): 2d98.
changes the ctypes private copy to a new value and returns the former
value.

The 'use_last_error' parameter, when set to true, enables the same
mechanism for the Windows error code which is managed by the *note
GetLastError(): 2d68. and ‘SetLastError()’ Windows API functions; *note
ctypes.get_last_error(): 2d99. and *note ctypes.set_last_error(): 2d9a.
are used to request and change the ctypes private copy of the windows
error code.

The 'winmode' parameter is used on Windows to specify how the library is
loaded (since 'mode' is ignored).  It takes any value that is valid for
the Win32 API ‘LoadLibraryEx’ flags parameter.  When omitted, the
default is to use the flags that result in the most secure DLL load,
which avoids issues such as DLL hijacking.  Passing the full path to the
DLL is the safest way to ensure the correct library and dependencies are
loaded.

在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'winmode' 參數。

 -- 資料: ctypes.RTLD_GLOBAL

     Flag to use as 'mode' parameter.  On platforms where this flag is
     not available, it is defined as the integer zero.

 -- 資料: ctypes.RTLD_LOCAL

     Flag to use as 'mode' parameter.  On platforms where this is not
     available, it is the same as 'RTLD_GLOBAL'.

 -- 資料: ctypes.DEFAULT_MODE

     The default mode which is used to load shared libraries.  On OSX
     10.3, this is 'RTLD_GLOBAL', otherwise it is the same as
     'RTLD_LOCAL'.

Instances of these classes have no public methods.  Functions exported
by the shared library can be accessed as attributes or by index.  Please
note that accessing the function through an attribute caches the result
and therefore accessing it repeatedly returns the same object each time.
On the other hand, accessing it through an index returns a new object
each time:

     >>> from ctypes import CDLL
     >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")  # 於 Linux
     >>> libc.time == libc.time
     True
     >>> libc['time'] == libc['time']
     False

The following public attributes are available, their name starts with an
underscore to not clash with exported function names:

 -- 屬性: PyDLL._handle

     The system handle used to access the library.

 -- 屬性: PyDLL._name

     The name of the library passed in the constructor.

Shared libraries can also be loaded by using one of the prefabricated
objects, which are instances of the *note LibraryLoader: 2d9d. class,
either by calling the *note LoadLibrary(): 2d46. method, or by
retrieving the library as attribute of the loader instance.

 -- 類別: ctypes.LibraryLoader (dlltype)

     Class which loads shared libraries.  'dlltype' should be one of the
     *note CDLL: 82e, *note PyDLL: 153d, *note WinDLL: 153c, or *note
     OleDLL: 153b. types.

     ‘__getattr__()’ has special behavior: It allows loading a shared
     library by accessing it as attribute of a library loader instance.
     The result is cached, so repeated attribute accesses return the
     same library each time.

      -- 方法: LoadLibrary (name)

          Load a shared library into the process and return it.  This
          method always returns a new instance of the library.

These prefabricated library loaders are available:

 -- 資料: ctypes.cdll

     Creates *note CDLL: 82e. instances.

 -- 資料: ctypes.windll

     Windows only: Creates *note WinDLL: 153c. instances.

 -- 資料: ctypes.oledll

     Windows only: Creates *note OleDLL: 153b. instances.

 -- 資料: ctypes.pydll

     Creates *note PyDLL: 153d. instances.

For accessing the C Python api directly, a ready-to-use Python shared
library object is available:

 -- 資料: ctypes.pythonapi

     An instance of *note PyDLL: 153d. that exposes Python C API
     functions as attributes.  Note that all these functions are assumed
     to return C int, which is of course not always the truth, so you
     have to assign the correct ‘restype’ attribute to use these
     functions.

Loading a library through any of these objects raises an *note auditing
event: 168e. ‘ctypes.dlopen’ with string argument ‘name’, the name used
to load the library.

Accessing a function on a loaded library raises an auditing event
‘ctypes.dlsym’ with arguments ‘library’ (the library object) and ‘name’
(the symbol's name as a string or integer).

In cases when only the library handle is available rather than the
object, accessing a function raises an auditing event
‘ctypes.dlsym/handle’ with arguments ‘handle’ (the raw library handle)
and ‘name’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.microsoft.com/cpp/build/reference/dependents

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Foreign functions,  Next: Function prototypes,  Prev: Loading shared libraries,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.26 Foreign functions
............................

As explained in the previous section, foreign functions can be accessed
as attributes of loaded shared libraries.  The function objects created
in this way by default accept any number of arguments, accept any ctypes
data instances as arguments, and return the default result type
specified by the library loader.

They are instances of a private local class ‘_FuncPtr’ (not exposed in
‘ctypes’) which inherits from the private *note _CFuncPtr: 2da0. class:

     >>> import ctypes
     >>> lib = ctypes.CDLL(None)
     >>> issubclass(lib._FuncPtr, ctypes._CFuncPtr)
     True
     >>> lib._FuncPtr is ctypes._CFuncPtr
     False

 -- 類別: ctypes._CFuncPtr

     Base class for C callable foreign functions.

     Instances of foreign functions are also C compatible data types;
     they represent C function pointers.

     This behavior can be customized by assigning to special attributes
     of the foreign function object.

      -- 屬性: restype

          Assign a ctypes type to specify the result type of the foreign
          function.  Use ‘None’ for void, a function not returning
          anything.

          It is possible to assign a callable Python object that is not
          a ctypes type, in this case the function is assumed to return
          a C int, and the callable will be called with this integer,
          allowing further processing or error checking.  Using this is
          deprecated, for more flexible post processing or error
          checking use a ctypes data type as ‘restype’ and assign a
          callable to the *note errcheck: 2d69. attribute.

      -- 屬性: argtypes

          Assign a tuple of ctypes types to specify the argument types
          that the function accepts.  Functions using the ‘stdcall’
          calling convention can only be called with the same number of
          arguments as the length of this tuple; functions using the C
          calling convention accept additional, unspecified arguments as
          well.

          When a foreign function is called, each actual argument is
          passed to the *note from_param(): 2d64. class method of the
          items in the *note argtypes: 2d5f. tuple, this method allows
          adapting the actual argument to an object that the foreign
          function accepts.  For example, a *note c_char_p: 2d58. item
          in the *note argtypes: 2d5f. tuple will convert a string
          passed as argument into a bytes object using ctypes conversion
          rules.

          New: It is now possible to put items in argtypes which are not
          ctypes types, but each item must have a *note from_param():
          2d64. method which returns a value usable as argument
          (integer, string, ctypes instance).  This allows defining
          adapters that can adapt custom objects as function parameters.

      -- 屬性: errcheck

          Assign a Python function or another callable to this
          attribute.  The callable will be called with three or more
          arguments:

           -- 函式: callable (result, func, arguments)

               'result' is what the foreign function returns, as
               specified by the ‘restype’ attribute.

               'func' is the foreign function object itself, this allows
               reusing the same callable object to check or post process
               the results of several functions.

               'arguments' is a tuple containing the parameters
               originally passed to the function call, this allows
               specializing the behavior on the arguments used.

          The object that this function returns will be returned from
          the foreign function call, but it can also check the result
          value and raise an exception if the foreign function call
          failed.

 -- 例外: ctypes.ArgumentError

     This exception is raised when a foreign function call cannot
     convert one of the passed arguments.

On Windows, when a foreign function call raises a system exception (for
example, due to an access violation), it will be captured and replaced
with a suitable Python exception.  Further, an auditing event
‘ctypes.set_exception’ with argument ‘code’ will be raised, allowing an
audit hook to replace the exception with its own.

Some ways to invoke foreign function calls may raise an auditing event
‘ctypes.call_function’ with arguments ‘function pointer’ and
‘arguments’.


File: python.info,  Node: Function prototypes,  Next: Utility functions,  Prev: Foreign functions,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.27 Function prototypes
..............................

Foreign functions can also be created by instantiating function
prototypes.  Function prototypes are similar to function prototypes in
C; they describe a function (return type, argument types, calling
convention) without defining an implementation.  The factory functions
must be called with the desired result type and the argument types of
the function, and can be used as decorator factories, and as such, be
applied to functions through the ‘@wrapper’ syntax.  See *note 回呼函式:
2d84. for examples.

 -- 函式: ctypes.CFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False,
          use_last_error=False)

     The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
     standard C calling convention.  The function will release the GIL
     during the call.  If 'use_errno' is set to true, the ctypes private
     copy of the system *note errno: 52. variable is exchanged with the
     real *note errno: 52. value before and after the call;
     'use_last_error' does the same for the Windows error code.

 -- 函式: ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False,
          use_last_error=False)

     Windows only: The returned function prototype creates functions
     that use the ‘stdcall’ calling convention.  The function will
     release the GIL during the call.  'use_errno' and 'use_last_error'
     have the same meaning as above.

 -- 函式: ctypes.PYFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes)

     The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
     Python calling convention.  The function will 'not' release the GIL
     during the call.

Function prototypes created by these factory functions can be
instantiated in different ways, depending on the type and number of the
parameters in the call:

 -- 函式: prototype (address)

     Returns a foreign function at the specified address which must be
     an integer.

 -- 函式: prototype (callable)

     Create a C callable function (a callback function) from a Python
     'callable'.

 -- 函式: prototype (func_spec[, paramflags])

     Returns a foreign function exported by a shared library.
     'func_spec' must be a 2-tuple ‘(name_or_ordinal, library)’.  The
     first item is the name of the exported function as string, or the
     ordinal of the exported function as small integer.  The second item
     is the shared library instance.

 -- 函式: prototype (vtbl_index, name[, paramflags[, iid]])

     Returns a foreign function that will call a COM method.
     'vtbl_index' is the index into the virtual function table, a small
     non-negative integer.  'name' is name of the COM method.  'iid' is
     an optional pointer to the interface identifier which is used in
     extended error reporting.

     COM methods use a special calling convention: They require a
     pointer to the COM interface as first argument, in addition to
     those parameters that are specified in the ‘argtypes’ tuple.

The optional 'paramflags' parameter creates foreign function wrappers
with much more functionality than the features described above.

'paramflags' must be a tuple of the same length as *note argtypes: 2d5f.

Each item in this tuple contains further information about a parameter,
it must be a tuple containing one, two, or three items.

The first item is an integer containing a combination of direction flags
for the parameter:

     1

          Specifies an input parameter to the function.

     2

          Output parameter.  The foreign function fills in a value.

     4

          Input parameter which defaults to the integer zero.

The optional second item is the parameter name as string.  If this is
specified, the foreign function can be called with named parameters.

The optional third item is the default value for this parameter.

The following example demonstrates how to wrap the Windows ‘MessageBoxW’
function so that it supports default parameters and named arguments.
The C declaration from the windows header file is this:

     WINUSERAPI int WINAPI
     MessageBoxW(
         HWND hWnd,
         LPCWSTR lpText,
         LPCWSTR lpCaption,
         UINT uType);

Here is the wrapping with *note ctypes: 28.:

     >>> from ctypes import c_int, WINFUNCTYPE, windll
     >>> from ctypes.wintypes import HWND, LPCWSTR, UINT
     >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(c_int, HWND, LPCWSTR, LPCWSTR, UINT)
     >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd", 0), (1, "text", "Hi"), (1, "caption", "Hello from ctypes"), (1, "flags", 0)
     >>> MessageBox = prototype(("MessageBoxW", windll.user32), paramflags)

The ‘MessageBox’ foreign function can now be called in these ways:

     >>> MessageBox()
     >>> MessageBox(text="Spam, spam, spam")
     >>> MessageBox(flags=2, text="foo bar")

A second example demonstrates output parameters.  The win32
‘GetWindowRect’ function retrieves the dimensions of a specified window
by copying them into ‘RECT’ structure that the caller has to supply.
Here is the C declaration:

     WINUSERAPI BOOL WINAPI
     GetWindowRect(
          HWND hWnd,
          LPRECT lpRect);

Here is the wrapping with *note ctypes: 28.:

     >>> from ctypes import POINTER, WINFUNCTYPE, windll, WinError
     >>> from ctypes.wintypes import BOOL, HWND, RECT
     >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(BOOL, HWND, POINTER(RECT))
     >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd"), (2, "lprect")
     >>> GetWindowRect = prototype(("GetWindowRect", windll.user32), paramflags)
     >>>

Functions with output parameters will automatically return the output
parameter value if there is a single one, or a tuple containing the
output parameter values when there are more than one, so the
GetWindowRect function now returns a RECT instance, when called.

Output parameters can be combined with the *note errcheck: 2d69.
protocol to do further output processing and error checking.  The win32
‘GetWindowRect’ api function returns a ‘BOOL’ to signal success or
failure, so this function could do the error checking, and raises an
exception when the api call failed:

     >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
     ...     if not result:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     return args
     ...
     >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
     >>>

If the *note errcheck: 2d69. function returns the argument tuple it
receives unchanged, *note ctypes: 28. continues the normal processing it
does on the output parameters.  If you want to return a tuple of window
coordinates instead of a ‘RECT’ instance, you can retrieve the fields in
the function and return them instead, the normal processing will no
longer take place:

     >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
     ...     if not result:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     rc = args[1]
     ...     return rc.left, rc.top, rc.bottom, rc.right
     ...
     >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Utility functions,  Next: Data types,  Prev: Function prototypes,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.28 Utility functions
............................

 -- 函式: ctypes.addressof (obj)

     Returns the address of the memory buffer as integer.  'obj' must be
     an instance of a ctypes type.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘obj’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘ctypes.addressof’。

 -- 函式: ctypes.alignment (obj_or_type)

     Returns the alignment requirements of a ctypes type.  'obj_or_type'
     must be a ctypes type or instance.

 -- 函式: ctypes.byref (obj[, offset])

     Returns a light-weight pointer to 'obj', which must be an instance
     of a ctypes type.  'offset' defaults to zero, and must be an
     integer that will be added to the internal pointer value.

     ‘byref(obj, offset)’ corresponds to this C code:

          (((char *)&obj) + offset)

     The returned object can only be used as a foreign function call
     parameter.  It behaves similar to ‘pointer(obj)’, but the
     construction is a lot faster.

 -- 函式: ctypes.cast (obj, type)

     This function is similar to the cast operator in C. It returns a
     new instance of 'type' which points to the same memory block as
     'obj'.  'type' must be a pointer type, and 'obj' must be an object
     that can be interpreted as a pointer.

 -- 函式: ctypes.create_string_buffer (init_or_size, size=None)

     This function creates a mutable character buffer.  The returned
     object is a ctypes array of *note c_char: 2d4e.

     'init_or_size' must be an integer which specifies the size of the
     array, or a bytes object which will be used to initialize the array
     items.

     If a bytes object is specified as first argument, the buffer is
     made one item larger than its length so that the last element in
     the array is a NUL termination character.  An integer can be passed
     as second argument which allows specifying the size of the array if
     the length of the bytes should not be used.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘init’ 與 ‘size’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘ctypes.create_string_buffer’。

 -- 函式: ctypes.create_unicode_buffer (init_or_size, size=None)

     This function creates a mutable unicode character buffer.  The
     returned object is a ctypes array of *note c_wchar: 2d4f.

     'init_or_size' must be an integer which specifies the size of the
     array, or a string which will be used to initialize the array
     items.

     If a string is specified as first argument, the buffer is made one
     item larger than the length of the string so that the last element
     in the array is a NUL termination character.  An integer can be
     passed as second argument which allows specifying the size of the
     array if the length of the string should not be used.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘init’ 與 ‘size’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘ctypes.create_unicode_buffer’。

 -- 函式: ctypes.DllCanUnloadNow ()

     Windows only: This function is a hook which allows implementing
     in-process COM servers with ctypes.  It is called from the
     DllCanUnloadNow function that the _ctypes extension dll exports.

 -- 函式: ctypes.DllGetClassObject ()

     Windows only: This function is a hook which allows implementing
     in-process COM servers with ctypes.  It is called from the
     DllGetClassObject function that the ‘_ctypes’ extension dll
     exports.

 -- 函式: ctypes.util.find_library (name)

     Try to find a library and return a pathname.  'name' is the library
     name without any prefix like ‘lib’, suffix like ‘.so’, ‘.dylib’ or
     version number (this is the form used for the posix linker option
     ‘-l’).  If no library can be found, returns ‘None’.

     The exact functionality is system dependent.

 -- 函式: ctypes.util.find_msvcrt ()

     Windows only: return the filename of the VC runtime library used by
     Python, and by the extension modules.  If the name of the library
     cannot be determined, ‘None’ is returned.

     If you need to free memory, for example, allocated by an extension
     module with a call to the ‘free(void *)’, it is important that you
     use the function in the same library that allocated the memory.

 -- 函式: ctypes.FormatError ([code])

     Windows only: Returns a textual description of the error code
     'code'.  If no error code is specified, the last error code is used
     by calling the Windows api function GetLastError.

 -- 函式: ctypes.GetLastError ()

     Windows only: Returns the last error code set by Windows in the
     calling thread.  This function calls the Windows ‘GetLastError()’
     function directly, it does not return the ctypes-private copy of
     the error code.

 -- 函式: ctypes.get_errno ()

     Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     *note errno: 52. variable in the calling thread.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘ctypes.get_errno’。

 -- 函式: ctypes.get_last_error ()

     Windows only: returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy
     of the system ‘LastError’ variable in the calling thread.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘ctypes.get_last_error’。

 -- 函式: ctypes.memmove (dst, src, count)

     Same as the standard C memmove library function: copies 'count'
     bytes from 'src' to 'dst'.  'dst' and 'src' must be integers or
     ctypes instances that can be converted to pointers.

 -- 函式: ctypes.memset (dst, c, count)

     Same as the standard C memset library function: fills the memory
     block at address 'dst' with 'count' bytes of value 'c'.  'dst' must
     be an integer specifying an address, or a ctypes instance.

 -- 函式: ctypes.POINTER (type, /)

     Create and return a new ctypes pointer type.  Pointer types are
     cached and reused internally, so calling this function repeatedly
     is cheap.  'type' must be a ctypes type.

 -- 函式: ctypes.pointer (obj, /)

     Create a new pointer instance, pointing to 'obj'.  The returned
     object is of the type ‘POINTER(type(obj))’.

     Note: If you just want to pass a pointer to an object to a foreign
     function call, you should use ‘byref(obj)’ which is much faster.

 -- 函式: ctypes.resize (obj, size)

     This function resizes the internal memory buffer of 'obj', which
     must be an instance of a ctypes type.  It is not possible to make
     the buffer smaller than the native size of the objects type, as
     given by ‘sizeof(type(obj))’, but it is possible to enlarge the
     buffer.

 -- 函式: ctypes.set_errno (value)

     Set the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     *note errno: 52. variable in the calling thread to 'value' and
     return the previous value.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘errno’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘ctypes.set_errno’。

 -- 函式: ctypes.set_last_error (value)

     Windows only: set the current value of the ctypes-private copy of
     the system ‘LastError’ variable in the calling thread to 'value'
     and return the previous value.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘error’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘ctypes.set_last_error’。

 -- 函式: ctypes.sizeof (obj_or_type)

     Returns the size in bytes of a ctypes type or instance memory
     buffer.  Does the same as the C ‘sizeof’ operator.

 -- 函式: ctypes.string_at (ptr, size=-1)

     Return the byte string at 'void *ptr'.  If 'size' is specified, it
     is used as size, otherwise the string is assumed to be
     zero-terminated.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘ptr’、‘size’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘ctypes.string_at’。

 -- 函式: ctypes.WinError (code=None, descr=None)

     Windows only: this function is probably the worst-named thing in
     ctypes.  It creates an instance of *note OSError: 644.  If 'code'
     is not specified, ‘GetLastError’ is called to determine the error
     code.  If 'descr' is not specified, *note FormatError(): 2dac. is
     called to get a textual description of the error.

     在 3.3 版的變更: An instance of *note WindowsError: eea. used to be
     created, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 644.

 -- 函式: ctypes.wstring_at (ptr, size=-1)

     Return the wide-character string at 'void *ptr'.  If 'size' is
     specified, it is used as the number of characters of the string,
     otherwise the string is assumed to be zero-terminated.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘ptr’、‘size’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘ctypes.wstring_at’。


File: python.info,  Node: Data types,  Next: Fundamental data types<2>,  Prev: Utility functions,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.29 Data types
.....................

 -- 類別: ctypes._CData

     This non-public class is the common base class of all ctypes data
     types.  Among other things, all ctypes type instances contain a
     memory block that hold C compatible data; the address of the memory
     block is returned by the *note addressof(): 2da7. helper function.
     Another instance variable is exposed as *note _objects: 2db6.; this
     contains other Python objects that need to be kept alive in case
     the memory block contains pointers.

     Common methods of ctypes data types, these are all class methods
     (to be exact, they are methods of the *note metaclass: 1d19.):

      -- 方法: from_buffer (source[, offset])

          This method returns a ctypes instance that shares the buffer
          of the 'source' object.  The 'source' object must support the
          writeable buffer interface.  The optional 'offset' parameter
          specifies an offset into the source buffer in bytes; the
          default is zero.  If the source buffer is not large enough a
          *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

          引發一個附帶引數 ‘pointer’、‘size’、‘offset’ 的*note 稽核事件:
          168e. ‘ctypes.cdata/buffer’。

      -- 方法: from_buffer_copy (source[, offset])

          This method creates a ctypes instance, copying the buffer from
          the 'source' object buffer which must be readable.  The
          optional 'offset' parameter specifies an offset into the
          source buffer in bytes; the default is zero.  If the source
          buffer is not large enough a *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

          引發一個附帶引數 ‘pointer’、‘size’、‘offset’ 的*note 稽核事件:
          168e. ‘ctypes.cdata/buffer’。

      -- 方法: from_address (address)

          This method returns a ctypes type instance using the memory
          specified by 'address' which must be an integer.

          This method, and others that indirectly call this method,
          raises an *note auditing event: 168e. ‘ctypes.cdata’ with
          argument ‘address’.

      -- 方法: from_param (obj)

          This method adapts 'obj' to a ctypes type.  It is called with
          the actual object used in a foreign function call when the
          type is present in the foreign function's *note argtypes:
          2d5f. tuple; it must return an object that can be used as a
          function call parameter.

          All ctypes data types have a default implementation of this
          classmethod that normally returns 'obj' if that is an instance
          of the type.  Some types accept other objects as well.

      -- 方法: in_dll (library, name)

          This method returns a ctypes type instance exported by a
          shared library.  'name' is the name of the symbol that exports
          the data, 'library' is the loaded shared library.

     Common instance variables of ctypes data types:

      -- 屬性: _b_base_

          Sometimes ctypes data instances do not own the memory block
          they contain, instead they share part of the memory block of a
          base object.  The *note _b_base_: 2dba. read-only member is
          the root ctypes object that owns the memory block.

      -- 屬性: _b_needsfree_

          This read-only variable is true when the ctypes data instance
          has allocated the memory block itself, false otherwise.

      -- 屬性: _objects

          This member is either ‘None’ or a dictionary containing Python
          objects that need to be kept alive so that the memory block
          contents is kept valid.  This object is only exposed for
          debugging; never modify the contents of this dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Fundamental data types<2>,  Next: Structured data types,  Prev: Data types,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.30 Fundamental data types
.................................

 -- 類別: ctypes._SimpleCData

     This non-public class is the base class of all fundamental ctypes
     data types.  It is mentioned here because it contains the common
     attributes of the fundamental ctypes data types.  *note
     _SimpleCData: 2dbe. is a subclass of *note _CData: 2db5, so it
     inherits their methods and attributes.  ctypes data types that are
     not and do not contain pointers can now be pickled.

     Instances have a single attribute:

      -- 屬性: value

          This attribute contains the actual value of the instance.  For
          integer and pointer types, it is an integer, for character
          types, it is a single character bytes object or string, for
          character pointer types it is a Python bytes object or string.

          When the ‘value’ attribute is retrieved from a ctypes
          instance, usually a new object is returned each time.  *note
          ctypes: 28. does 'not' implement original object return,
          always a new object is constructed.  The same is true for all
          other ctypes object instances.

Fundamental data types, when returned as foreign function call results,
or, for example, by retrieving structure field members or array items,
are transparently converted to native Python types.  In other words, if
a foreign function has a *note restype: 2d67. of *note c_char_p: 2d58,
you will always receive a Python bytes object, 'not' a *note c_char_p:
2d58. instance.

Subclasses of fundamental data types do 'not' inherit this behavior.
So, if a foreign functions ‘restype’ is a subclass of *note c_void_p:
2d59, you will receive an instance of this subclass from the function
call.  Of course, you can get the value of the pointer by accessing the
‘value’ attribute.

These are the fundamental ctypes data types:

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_byte

     Represents the C signed char datatype, and interprets the value as
     small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer
     initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_char

     Represents the C char datatype, and interprets the value as a
     single character.  The constructor accepts an optional string
     initializer, the length of the string must be exactly one
     character.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_char_p

     Represents the C char* datatype when it points to a zero-terminated
     string.  For a general character pointer that may also point to
     binary data, ‘POINTER(c_char)’ must be used.  The constructor
     accepts an integer address, or a bytes object.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_double

     Represents the C double datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_longdouble

     Represents the C long double datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.  On platforms where ‘sizeof(long
     double) == sizeof(double)’ it is an alias to *note c_double: 16d0.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_float

     Represents the C float datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_int

     Represents the C signed int datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On
     platforms where ‘sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)’ it is an alias to
     *note c_long: 2d43.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_int8

     Represents the C 8-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_byte: 1539.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_int16

     Represents the C 16-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_short: 2d50.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_int32

     Represents the C 32-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_int: 2d42.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_int64

     Represents the C 64-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_longlong: 2d54.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_long

     Represents the C signed long datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_longlong

     Represents the C signed long long datatype.  The constructor
     accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is
     done.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_short

     Represents the C signed short datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_size_t

     Represents the C ‘size_t’ datatype.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_ssize_t

     Represents the C ‘ssize_t’ datatype.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_time_t

     Represents the C ‘time_t’ datatype.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_ubyte

     Represents the C unsigned char datatype, it interprets the value as
     small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer
     initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_uint

     Represents the C unsigned int datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On
     platforms where ‘sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)’ it is an alias for
     *note c_ulong: 2d53.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_uint8

     Represents the C 8-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_ubyte: 153a.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_uint16

     Represents the C 16-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_ushort: 2d51.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_uint32

     Represents the C 32-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_uint: 2d52.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_uint64

     Represents the C 64-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_ulonglong: 2d55.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_ulong

     Represents the C unsigned long datatype.  The constructor accepts
     an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_ulonglong

     Represents the C unsigned long long datatype.  The constructor
     accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is
     done.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_ushort

     Represents the C unsigned short datatype.  The constructor accepts
     an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_void_p

     Represents the C void* type.  The value is represented as integer.
     The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_wchar

     Represents the C ‘wchar_t’ datatype, and interprets the value as a
     single character unicode string.  The constructor accepts an
     optional string initializer, the length of the string must be
     exactly one character.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_wchar_p

     Represents the C wchar_t* datatype, which must be a pointer to a
     zero-terminated wide character string.  The constructor accepts an
     integer address, or a string.

 -- 類別: ctypes.c_bool

     Represent the C bool datatype (more accurately, _Bool from C99).
     Its value can be ‘True’ or ‘False’, and the constructor accepts any
     object that has a truth value.

 -- 類別: ctypes.HRESULT

     Windows only: Represents a ‘HRESULT’ value, which contains success
     or error information for a function or method call.

 -- 類別: ctypes.py_object

     Represents the C *note PyObject: 6d1.* datatype.  Calling this
     without an argument creates a ‘NULL’ *note PyObject: 6d1.* pointer.

The ‘ctypes.wintypes’ module provides quite some other Windows specific
data types, for example ‘HWND’, ‘WPARAM’, or ‘DWORD’.  Some useful
structures like ‘MSG’ or ‘RECT’ are also defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Structured data types,  Next: Arrays and pointers,  Prev: Fundamental data types<2>,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.31 Structured data types
................................

 -- 類別: ctypes.Union (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in native byte order.

 -- 類別: ctypes.BigEndianUnion (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in 'big endian' byte order.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ctypes.LittleEndianUnion (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in 'little endian' byte order.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ctypes.BigEndianStructure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'big endian' byte order.

 -- 類別: ctypes.LittleEndianStructure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'little endian' byte order.

Structures and unions with non-native byte order cannot contain pointer
type fields, or any other data types containing pointer type fields.

 -- 類別: ctypes.Structure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'native' byte order.

     Concrete structure and union types must be created by subclassing
     one of these types, and at least define a *note _fields_: 2d70.
     class variable.  *note ctypes: 28. will create *note descriptor:
     1d03.s which allow reading and writing the fields by direct
     attribute accesses.  These are the

      -- 屬性: _fields_

          A sequence defining the structure fields.  The items must be
          2-tuples or 3-tuples.  The first item is the name of the
          field, the second item specifies the type of the field; it can
          be any ctypes data type.

          For integer type fields like *note c_int: 2d42, a third
          optional item can be given.  It must be a small positive
          integer defining the bit width of the field.

          Field names must be unique within one structure or union.
          This is not checked, only one field can be accessed when names
          are repeated.

          It is possible to define the *note _fields_: 2d70. class
          variable 'after' the class statement that defines the
          Structure subclass, this allows creating data types that
          directly or indirectly reference themselves:

               class List(Structure):
                   pass
               List._fields_ = [("pnext", POINTER(List)),
                                ...
                               ]

          The *note _fields_: 2d70. class variable must, however, be
          defined before the type is first used (an instance is created,
          *note sizeof(): 2daf. is called on it, and so on).  Later
          assignments to the *note _fields_: 2d70. class variable will
          raise an AttributeError.

          It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structure types,
          they inherit the fields of the base class plus the *note
          _fields_: 2d70. defined in the sub-subclass, if any.

      -- 屬性: _pack_

          An optional small integer that allows overriding the alignment
          of structure fields in the instance.  *note _pack_: 2d73. must
          already be defined when *note _fields_: 2d70. is assigned,
          otherwise it will have no effect.  Setting this attribute to 0
          is the same as not setting it at all.

      -- 屬性: _anonymous_

          An optional sequence that lists the names of unnamed
          (anonymous) fields.  *note _anonymous_: 2dca. must be already
          defined when *note _fields_: 2d70. is assigned, otherwise it
          will have no effect.

          The fields listed in this variable must be structure or union
          type fields.  *note ctypes: 28. will create descriptors in the
          structure type that allows accessing the nested fields
          directly, without the need to create the structure or union
          field.

          Here is an example type (Windows):

               class _U(Union):
                   _fields_ = [("lptdesc", POINTER(TYPEDESC)),
                               ("lpadesc", POINTER(ARRAYDESC)),
                               ("hreftype", HREFTYPE)]

               class TYPEDESC(Structure):
                   _anonymous_ = ("u",)
                   _fields_ = [("u", _U),
                               ("vt", VARTYPE)]

          The ‘TYPEDESC’ structure describes a COM data type, the ‘vt’
          field specifies which one of the union fields is valid.  Since
          the ‘u’ field is defined as anonymous field, it is now
          possible to access the members directly off the TYPEDESC
          instance.  ‘td.lptdesc’ and ‘td.u.lptdesc’ are equivalent, but
          the former is faster since it does not need to create a
          temporary union instance:

               td = TYPEDESC()
               td.vt = VT_PTR
               td.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)
               td.u.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)

     It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structures, they inherit
     the fields of the base class.  If the subclass definition has a
     separate *note _fields_: 2d70. variable, the fields specified in
     this are appended to the fields of the base class.

     Structure and union constructors accept both positional and keyword
     arguments.  Positional arguments are used to initialize member
     fields in the same order as they are appear in *note _fields_:
     2d70.  Keyword arguments in the constructor are interpreted as
     attribute assignments, so they will initialize *note _fields_:
     2d70. with the same name, or create new attributes for names not
     present in *note _fields_: 2d70.


File: python.info,  Node: Arrays and pointers,  Prev: Structured data types,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.32 Arrays and pointers
..............................

 -- 類別: ctypes.Array (*args)

     Abstract base class for arrays.

     The recommended way to create concrete array types is by
     multiplying any *note ctypes: 28. data type with a non-negative
     integer.  Alternatively, you can subclass this type and define
     *note _length_: 2dcd. and *note _type_: 2dce. class variables.
     Array elements can be read and written using standard subscript and
     slice accesses; for slice reads, the resulting object is 'not'
     itself an *note Array: 180f.

      -- 屬性: _length_

          A positive integer specifying the number of elements in the
          array.  Out-of-range subscripts result in an *note IndexError:
          13ac.  Will be returned by *note len(): 429.

      -- 屬性: _type_

          Specifies the type of each element in the array.

     Array subclass constructors accept positional arguments, used to
     initialize the elements in order.

 -- 類別: ctypes._Pointer

     Private, abstract base class for pointers.

     Concrete pointer types are created by calling *note POINTER():
     2d7d. with the type that will be pointed to; this is done
     automatically by *note pointer(): 2d6d.

     If a pointer points to an array, its elements can be read and
     written using standard subscript and slice accesses.  Pointer
     objects have no size, so *note len(): 429. will raise *note
     TypeError: 2ba.  Negative subscripts will read from the memory
     'before' the pointer (as in C), and out-of-range subscripts will
     probably crash with an access violation (if you're lucky).

      -- 屬性: _type_

          Specifies the type pointed to.

      -- 屬性: contents

          Returns the object to which to pointer points.  Assigning to
          this attribute changes the pointer to point to the assigned
          object.


File: python.info,  Node: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution,  Next: Networking and Interprocess Communication,  Prev: 通用作業系統服務,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.17 並行執行 (Concurrent Execution)
====================================

本章節描述的模組在程式的並行執行上提供支援。選擇要使用哪一個工具則取決於
是執行什麼樣的任務（CPU 密集或 IO 密集）與偏好的開發風格（事件驅動協作式
多工處理或搶占式多工處理）。以下為此章節總覽：

* Menu:

* threading: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性. 基於執行緒的平行性
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性. 以行程為基礎的平行性
* multiprocessing.shared_memory: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取. 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取
* concurrent 套件::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務. 啟動平行任務
* subprocess: subprocess --- 子行程管理. 子行程管理
* sched: sched --- 事件排程器. 事件排程器
* queue: queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別. 同步佇列 (synchronized queue) 類別
* contextvars: contextvars --- 情境變數. 情境變數
* _thread: _thread --- 低階執行緒 API. 低階執行緒 API


File: python.info,  Node: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性,  Next: multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性,  Up: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution

5.17.1 ‘threading’ -- 基於執行緒的平行性
----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/threading.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module constructs higher-level threading interfaces on top of the
lower level *note _thread: 2. module.

在 3.7 版的變更: This module used to be optional, it is now always
available.

也參考
......

*note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. offers a higher level
interface to push tasks to a background thread without blocking
execution of the calling thread, while still being able to retrieve
their results when needed.

*note queue: b1. provides a thread-safe interface for exchanging data
between running threads.

*note asyncio: 9. offers an alternative approach to achieving task level
concurrency without requiring the use of multiple operating system
threads.

     備註: In the Python 2.x series, this module contained ‘camelCase’
     names for some methods and functions.  These are deprecated as of
     Python 3.10, but they are still supported for compatibility with
     Python 2.5 and lower.

'CPython 實作細節：' In CPython, due to the *note Global Interpreter
Lock: 141, only one thread can execute Python code at once (even though
certain performance-oriented libraries might overcome this limitation).
If you want your application to make better use of the computational
resources of multi-core machines, you are advised to use *note
multiprocessing: 8f. or *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
727.  However, threading is still an appropriate model if you want to
run multiple I/O-bound tasks simultaneously.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

This module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: threading.active_count ()

     Return the number of *note Thread: 78d. objects currently alive.
     The returned count is equal to the length of the list returned by
     *note enumerate(): 1678.

     The function ‘activeCount’ is a deprecated alias for this function.

 -- 函式: threading.current_thread ()

     Return the current *note Thread: 78d. object, corresponding to the
     caller's thread of control.  If the caller's thread of control was
     not created through the *note threading: e7. module, a dummy thread
     object with limited functionality is returned.

     The function ‘currentThread’ is a deprecated alias for this
     function.

 -- 函式: threading.excepthook (args, /)

     Handle uncaught exception raised by *note Thread.run(): 886.

     The 'args' argument has the following attributes:

        * 'exc_type': Exception type.

        * 'exc_value': Exception value, can be ‘None’.

        * 'exc_traceback': Exception traceback, can be ‘None’.

        * 'thread': Thread which raised the exception, can be ‘None’.

     If 'exc_type' is *note SystemExit: bb2, the exception is silently
     ignored.  Otherwise, the exception is printed out on *note
     sys.stderr: 778.

     If this function raises an exception, *note sys.excepthook(): 62d.
     is called to handle it.

     *note threading.excepthook(): 672. can be overridden to control how
     uncaught exceptions raised by *note Thread.run(): 886. are handled.

     Storing 'exc_value' using a custom hook can create a reference
     cycle.  It should be cleared explicitly to break the reference
     cycle when the exception is no longer needed.

     Storing 'thread' using a custom hook can resurrect it if it is set
     to an object which is being finalized.  Avoid storing 'thread'
     after the custom hook completes to avoid resurrecting objects.

     也參考
     ......

     *note sys.excepthook(): 62d. handles uncaught exceptions.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 資料: threading.__excepthook__

     Holds the original value of *note threading.excepthook(): 672.  It
     is saved so that the original value can be restored in case they
     happen to get replaced with broken or alternative objects.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: threading.get_ident ()

     Return the 'thread identifier' of the current thread.  This is a
     nonzero integer.  Its value has no direct meaning; it is intended
     as a magic cookie to be used e.g.  to index a dictionary of
     thread-specific data.  Thread identifiers may be recycled when a
     thread exits and another thread is created.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: threading.get_native_id ()

     Return the native integral Thread ID of the current thread assigned
     by the kernel.  This is a non-negative integer.  Its value may be
     used to uniquely identify this particular thread system-wide (until
     the thread terminates, after which the value may be recycled by the
     OS).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD,
     NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: threading.enumerate ()

     Return a list of all *note Thread: 78d. objects currently active.
     The list includes daemonic threads and dummy thread objects created
     by *note current_thread(): 278.  It excludes terminated threads and
     threads that have not yet been started.  However, the main thread
     is always part of the result, even when terminated.

 -- 函式: threading.main_thread ()

     Return the main *note Thread: 78d. object.  In normal conditions,
     the main thread is the thread from which the Python interpreter was
     started.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: threading.settrace (func)

     Set a trace function for all threads started from the *note
     threading: e7. module.  The 'func' will be passed to *note
     sys.settrace(): 1377. for each thread, before its *note run(): 886.
     method is called.

 -- 函式: threading.settrace_all_threads (func)

     Set a trace function for all threads started from the *note
     threading: e7. module and all Python threads that are currently
     executing.

     The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.settrace(): 1377. for each
     thread, before its *note run(): 886. method is called.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: threading.gettrace ()

     Get the trace function as set by *note settrace(): 66f.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: threading.setprofile (func)

     Set a profile function for all threads started from the *note
     threading: e7. module.  The 'func' will be passed to *note
     sys.setprofile(): 1376. for each thread, before its *note run():
     886. method is called.

 -- 函式: threading.setprofile_all_threads (func)

     Set a profile function for all threads started from the *note
     threading: e7. module and all Python threads that are currently
     executing.

     The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.setprofile(): 1376. for each
     thread, before its *note run(): 886. method is called.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: threading.getprofile ()

     Get the profiler function as set by *note setprofile(): 670.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: threading.stack_size ([size])

     Return the thread stack size used when creating new threads.  The
     optional 'size' argument specifies the stack size to be used for
     subsequently created threads, and must be 0 (use platform or
     configured default) or a positive integer value of at least 32,768
     (32 KiB). If 'size' is not specified, 0 is used.  If changing the
     thread stack size is unsupported, a *note RuntimeError: 17a. is
     raised.  If the specified stack size is invalid, a *note
     ValueError: 183. is raised and the stack size is unmodified.  32
     KiB is currently the minimum supported stack size value to
     guarantee sufficient stack space for the interpreter itself.  Note
     that some platforms may have particular restrictions on values for
     the stack size, such as requiring a minimum stack size > 32 KiB or
     requiring allocation in multiples of the system memory page size -
     platform documentation should be referred to for more information
     (4 KiB pages are common; using multiples of 4096 for the stack size
     is the suggested approach in the absence of more specific
     information).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows, pthreads.

     Unix platforms with POSIX threads support.

This module also defines the following constant:

 -- 資料: threading.TIMEOUT_MAX

     The maximum value allowed for the 'timeout' parameter of blocking
     functions (*note Lock.acquire(): 495, *note RLock.acquire(): cfc,
     *note Condition.wait(): 1685, etc.).  Specifying a timeout greater
     than this value will raise an *note OverflowError: 6ad.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

This module defines a number of classes, which are detailed in the
sections below.

The design of this module is loosely based on Java's threading model.
However, where Java makes locks and condition variables basic behavior
of every object, they are separate objects in Python.  Python's *note
Thread: 78d. class supports a subset of the behavior of Java's Thread
class; currently, there are no priorities, no thread groups, and threads
cannot be destroyed, stopped, suspended, resumed, or interrupted.  The
static methods of Java's Thread class, when implemented, are mapped to
module-level functions.

All of the methods described below are executed atomically.

* Menu:

* Thread-Local Data::
* Thread Objects::
* Lock Objects::
* RLock 物件::
* Condition Objects::
* Semaphore Objects::
* Event Objects::
* Timer Objects::
* Barrier Objects::
* Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/threading.py


File: python.info,  Node: Thread-Local Data,  Next: Thread Objects,  Up: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性

5.17.1.1 Thread-Local Data
..........................

Thread-local data is data whose values are thread specific.  To manage
thread-local data, just create an instance of *note local: 1533. (or a
subclass) and store attributes on it:

     mydata = threading.local()
     mydata.x = 1

The instance's values will be different for separate threads.

 -- 類別: threading.local

     A class that represents thread-local data.

     For more details and extensive examples, see the documentation
     string of the ‘_threading_local’ module:
     Lib/_threading_local.py(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/_threading_local.py


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Objects,  Next: Lock Objects,  Prev: Thread-Local Data,  Up: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性

5.17.1.2 Thread Objects
.......................

The *note Thread: 78d. class represents an activity that is run in a
separate thread of control.  There are two ways to specify the activity:
by passing a callable object to the constructor, or by overriding the
*note run(): 886. method in a subclass.  No other methods (except for
the constructor) should be overridden in a subclass.  In other words,
'only' override the ‘__init__()’ and *note run(): 886. methods of this
class.

Once a thread object is created, its activity must be started by calling
the thread's *note start(): 2a9e. method.  This invokes the *note run():
886. method in a separate thread of control.

Once the thread's activity is started, the thread is considered 'alive'.
It stops being alive when its *note run(): 886. method terminates -
either normally, or by raising an unhandled exception.  The *note
is_alive(): 78e. method tests whether the thread is alive.

Other threads can call a thread's *note join(): 1075. method.  This
blocks the calling thread until the thread whose *note join(): 1075.
method is called is terminated.

A thread has a name.  The name can be passed to the constructor, and
read or changed through the *note name: 277. attribute.

If the *note run(): 886. method raises an exception, *note
threading.excepthook(): 672. is called to handle it.  By default, *note
threading.excepthook(): 672. ignores silently *note SystemExit: bb2.

A thread can be flagged as a "daemon thread".  The significance of this
flag is that the entire Python program exits when only daemon threads
are left.  The initial value is inherited from the creating thread.  The
flag can be set through the *note daemon: 275. property or the 'daemon'
constructor argument.

     備註: Daemon threads are abruptly stopped at shutdown.  Their
     resources (such as open files, database transactions, etc.)  may
     not be released properly.  If you want your threads to stop
     gracefully, make them non-daemonic and use a suitable signalling
     mechanism such as an *note Event: feb.

There is a "main thread" object; this corresponds to the initial thread
of control in the Python program.  It is not a daemon thread.

There is the possibility that "dummy thread objects" are created.  These
are thread objects corresponding to "alien threads", which are threads
of control started outside the threading module, such as directly from C
code.  Dummy thread objects have limited functionality; they are always
considered alive and daemonic, and cannot be *note joined: 2ddb.  They
are never deleted, since it is impossible to detect the termination of
alien threads.

 -- 類別: threading.Thread (group=None, target=None, name=None, args=(),
          kwargs={}, *, daemon=None)

     This constructor should always be called with keyword arguments.
     Arguments are:

     'group' should be ‘None’; reserved for future extension when a
     ‘ThreadGroup’ class is implemented.

     'target' is the callable object to be invoked by the *note run():
     886. method.  Defaults to ‘None’, meaning nothing is called.

     'name' is the thread name.  By default, a unique name is
     constructed of the form "Thread-'N'" where 'N' is a small decimal
     number, or "Thread-'N' (target)" where "target" is
     ‘target.__name__’ if the 'target' argument is specified.

     'args' is a list or tuple of arguments for the target invocation.
     Defaults to ‘()’.

     'kwargs' is a dictionary of keyword arguments for the target
     invocation.  Defaults to ‘{}’.

     If not ‘None’, 'daemon' explicitly sets whether the thread is
     daemonic.  If ‘None’ (the default), the daemonic property is
     inherited from the current thread.

     If the subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure to
     invoke the base class constructor (‘Thread.__init__()’) before
     doing anything else to the thread.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'daemon' 參數。

     在 3.10 版的變更: Use the 'target' name if 'name' argument is
     omitted.

      -- 方法: start ()

          Start the thread's activity.

          It must be called at most once per thread object.  It arranges
          for the object's *note run(): 886. method to be invoked in a
          separate thread of control.

          This method will raise a *note RuntimeError: 17a. if called
          more than once on the same thread object.

      -- 方法: run ()

          Method representing the thread's activity.

          You may override this method in a subclass.  The standard
          *note run(): 886. method invokes the callable object passed to
          the object's constructor as the 'target' argument, if any,
          with positional and keyword arguments taken from the 'args'
          and 'kwargs' arguments, respectively.

          Using list or tuple as the 'args' argument which passed to the
          *note Thread: 78d. could achieve the same effect.

          舉例來說：

               >>> from threading import Thread
               >>> t = Thread(target=print, args=[1])
               >>> t.run()
               1
               >>> t = Thread(target=print, args=(1,))
               >>> t.run()
               1

      -- 方法: join (timeout=None)

          Wait until the thread terminates.  This blocks the calling
          thread until the thread whose *note join(): 1075. method is
          called terminates - either normally or through an unhandled
          exception - or until the optional timeout occurs.

          When the 'timeout' argument is present and not ‘None’, it
          should be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the
          operation in seconds (or fractions thereof).  As *note join():
          1075. always returns ‘None’, you must call *note is_alive():
          78e. after *note join(): 1075. to decide whether a timeout
          happened - if the thread is still alive, the *note join():
          1075. call timed out.

          When the 'timeout' argument is not present or ‘None’, the
          operation will block until the thread terminates.

          A thread can be joined many times.

          *note join(): 1075. raises a *note RuntimeError: 17a. if an
          attempt is made to join the current thread as that would cause
          a deadlock.  It is also an error to *note join(): 1075. a
          thread before it has been started and attempts to do so raise
          the same exception.

      -- 屬性: name

          A string used for identification purposes only.  It has no
          semantics.  Multiple threads may be given the same name.  The
          initial name is set by the constructor.

      -- 方法: getName ()
      -- 方法: setName ()

          Deprecated getter/setter API for *note name: 277.; use it
          directly as a property instead.

          在 3.10 版之後被棄用.

      -- 屬性: ident

          The 'thread identifier' of this thread or ‘None’ if the thread
          has not been started.  This is a nonzero integer.  See the
          *note get_ident(): fed. function.  Thread identifiers may be
          recycled when a thread exits and another thread is created.
          The identifier is available even after the thread has exited.

      -- 屬性: native_id

          The Thread ID (‘TID’) of this thread, as assigned by the OS
          (kernel).  This is a non-negative integer, or ‘None’ if the
          thread has not been started.  See the *note get_native_id():
          887. function.  This value may be used to uniquely identify
          this particular thread system-wide (until the thread
          terminates, after which the value may be recycled by the OS).

               備註: Similar to Process IDs, Thread IDs are only valid
               (guaranteed unique system-wide) from the time the thread
               is created until the thread has been terminated.

          *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS,
          OpenBSD, NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: is_alive ()

          Return whether the thread is alive.

          This method returns ‘True’ just before the *note run(): 886.
          method starts until just after the *note run(): 886. method
          terminates.  The module function *note enumerate(): 1678.
          returns a list of all alive threads.

      -- 屬性: daemon

          A boolean value indicating whether this thread is a daemon
          thread (‘True’) or not (‘False’).  This must be set before
          *note start(): 2a9e. is called, otherwise *note RuntimeError:
          17a. is raised.  Its initial value is inherited from the
          creating thread; the main thread is not a daemon thread and
          therefore all threads created in the main thread default to
          *note daemon: 275. = ‘False’.

          The entire Python program exits when no alive non-daemon
          threads are left.

      -- 方法: isDaemon ()
      -- 方法: setDaemon ()

          Deprecated getter/setter API for *note daemon: 275.; use it
          directly as a property instead.

          在 3.10 版之後被棄用.


File: python.info,  Node: Lock Objects,  Next: RLock 物件,  Prev: Thread Objects,  Up: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性

5.17.1.3 Lock Objects
.....................

A primitive lock is a synchronization primitive that is not owned by a
particular thread when locked.  In Python, it is currently the lowest
level synchronization primitive available, implemented directly by the
*note _thread: 2. extension module.

A primitive lock is in one of two states, "locked" or "unlocked".  It is
created in the unlocked state.  It has two basic methods, *note
acquire(): 495. and *note release(): 1154.  When the state is unlocked,
*note acquire(): 495. changes the state to locked and returns
immediately.  When the state is locked, *note acquire(): 495. blocks
until a call to *note release(): 1154. in another thread changes it to
unlocked, then the *note acquire(): 495. call resets it to locked and
returns.  The *note release(): 1154. method should only be called in the
locked state; it changes the state to unlocked and returns immediately.
If an attempt is made to release an unlocked lock, a *note RuntimeError:
17a. will be raised.

Locks also support the *note context management protocol: 2de0.

When more than one thread is blocked in *note acquire(): 495. waiting
for the state to turn to unlocked, only one thread proceeds when a *note
release(): 1154. call resets the state to unlocked; which one of the
waiting threads proceeds is not defined, and may vary across
implementations.

All methods are executed atomically.

 -- 類別: threading.Lock

     The class implementing primitive lock objects.  Once a thread has
     acquired a lock, subsequent attempts to acquire it block, until it
     is released; any thread may release it.

     Note that ‘Lock’ is actually a factory function which returns an
     instance of the most efficient version of the concrete Lock class
     that is supported by the platform.

      -- 方法: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘True’ (the
          default), block until the lock is unlocked, then set it to
          locked and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘False’, do
          not block.  If a call with 'blocking' set to ‘True’ would
          block, return ‘False’ immediately; otherwise, set the lock to
          locked and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with the floating-point 'timeout' argument set to
          a positive value, block for at most the number of seconds
          specified by 'timeout' and as long as the lock cannot be
          acquired.  A 'timeout' argument of ‘-1’ specifies an unbounded
          wait.  It is forbidden to specify a 'timeout' when 'blocking'
          is ‘False’.

          The return value is ‘True’ if the lock is acquired
          successfully, ‘False’ if not (for example if the 'timeout'
          expired).

          在 3.2 版的變更: The 'timeout' parameter is new.

          在 3.2 版的變更: Lock acquisition can now be interrupted by
          signals on POSIX if the underlying threading implementation
          supports it.

      -- 方法: release ()

          Release a lock.  This can be called from any thread, not only
          the thread which has acquired the lock.

          When the lock is locked, reset it to unlocked, and return.  If
          any other threads are blocked waiting for the lock to become
          unlocked, allow exactly one of them to proceed.

          When invoked on an unlocked lock, a *note RuntimeError: 17a.
          is raised.

          There is no return value.

      -- 方法: locked ()

          Return ‘True’ if the lock is acquired.


File: python.info,  Node: RLock 物件,  Next: Condition Objects,  Prev: Lock Objects,  Up: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性

5.17.1.4 RLock 物件
...................

A reentrant lock is a synchronization primitive that may be acquired
multiple times by the same thread.  Internally, it uses the concepts of
"owning thread" and "recursion level" in addition to the locked/unlocked
state used by primitive locks.  In the locked state, some thread owns
the lock; in the unlocked state, no thread owns it.

Threads call a lock's *note acquire(): cfc. method to lock it, and its
*note release(): 1154. method to unlock it.

     備註: Reentrant locks support the *note context management
     protocol: 2de0, so it is recommended to use *note with: 3c5.
     instead of manually calling *note acquire(): cfc. and *note
     release(): 2de5. to handle acquiring and releasing the lock for a
     block of code.

RLock's *note acquire(): cfc./*note release(): 2de5. call pairs may be
nested, unlike Lock's *note acquire(): 495./*note release(): 1154.  Only
the final *note release(): 2de5. (the *note release(): 1154. of the
outermost pair) resets the lock to an unlocked state and allows another
thread blocked in *note acquire(): cfc. to proceed.

*note acquire(): cfc./*note release(): 2de5. must be used in pairs: each
acquire must have a release in the thread that has acquired the lock.
Failing to call release as many times the lock has been acquired can
lead to deadlock.

 -- 類別: threading.RLock

     This class implements reentrant lock objects.  A reentrant lock
     must be released by the thread that acquired it.  Once a thread has
     acquired a reentrant lock, the same thread may acquire it again
     without blocking; the thread must release it once for each time it
     has acquired it.

     Note that ‘RLock’ is actually a factory function which returns an
     instance of the most efficient version of the concrete RLock class
     that is supported by the platform.

      -- 方法: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          也參考
          ......

          *note Using RLock as a context manager: 2de0.

               Recommended over manual ‘acquire()’ and *note release():
               2de5. calls whenever practical.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘True’ (the
          default):

                  * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and
                    return immediately.

                  * If another thread owns the lock, block until we are
                    able to acquire lock, or 'timeout', if set to a
                    positive float value.

                  * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock
                    again, and return immediately.  This is the
                    difference between *note Lock: 2de1. and ‘RLock’;
                    *note Lock: 2de1. handles this case the same as the
                    previous, blocking until the lock can be acquired.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘False’:

                  * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and
                    return immediately.

                  * If another thread owns the lock, return immediately.

                  * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock
                    again and return immediately.

          In all cases, if the thread was able to acquire the lock,
          return ‘True’.  If the thread was unable to acquire the lock
          (i.e.  if not blocking or the timeout was reached) return
          ‘False’.

          If called multiple times, failing to call *note release():
          2de5. as many times may lead to deadlock.  Consider using
          ‘RLock’ as a context manager rather than calling
          acquire/release directly.

          在 3.2 版的變更: The 'timeout' parameter is new.

      -- 方法: release ()

          Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level.  If after
          the decrement it is zero, reset the lock to unlocked (not
          owned by any thread), and if any other threads are blocked
          waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one of
          them to proceed.  If after the decrement the recursion level
          is still nonzero, the lock remains locked and owned by the
          calling thread.

          Only call this method when the calling thread owns the lock.
          A *note RuntimeError: 17a. is raised if this method is called
          when the lock is not acquired.

          There is no return value.


File: python.info,  Node: Condition Objects,  Next: Semaphore Objects,  Prev: RLock 物件,  Up: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性

5.17.1.5 Condition Objects
..........................

A condition variable is always associated with some kind of lock; this
can be passed in or one will be created by default.  Passing one in is
useful when several condition variables must share the same lock.  The
lock is part of the condition object: you don't have to track it
separately.

A condition variable obeys the *note context management protocol: 2de0.:
using the ‘with’ statement acquires the associated lock for the duration
of the enclosed block.  The *note acquire(): 2de8. and *note release():
2de9. methods also call the corresponding methods of the associated
lock.

Other methods must be called with the associated lock held.  The *note
wait(): 1685. method releases the lock, and then blocks until another
thread awakens it by calling *note notify(): 15aa. or *note
notify_all(): 272.  Once awakened, *note wait(): 1685. re-acquires the
lock and returns.  It is also possible to specify a timeout.

The *note notify(): 15aa. method wakes up one of the threads waiting for
the condition variable, if any are waiting.  The *note notify_all():
272. method wakes up all threads waiting for the condition variable.

Note: the *note notify(): 15aa. and *note notify_all(): 272. methods
don't release the lock; this means that the thread or threads awakened
will not return from their *note wait(): 1685. call immediately, but
only when the thread that called *note notify(): 15aa. or *note
notify_all(): 272. finally relinquishes ownership of the lock.

The typical programming style using condition variables uses the lock to
synchronize access to some shared state; threads that are interested in
a particular change of state call *note wait(): 1685. repeatedly until
they see the desired state, while threads that modify the state call
*note notify(): 15aa. or *note notify_all(): 272. when they change the
state in such a way that it could possibly be a desired state for one of
the waiters.  For example, the following code is a generic
producer-consumer situation with unlimited buffer capacity:

     # Consume one item
     with cv:
         while not an_item_is_available():
             cv.wait()
         get_an_available_item()

     # Produce one item
     with cv:
         make_an_item_available()
         cv.notify()

The ‘while’ loop checking for the application's condition is necessary
because *note wait(): 1685. can return after an arbitrary long time, and
the condition which prompted the *note notify(): 15aa. call may no
longer hold true.  This is inherent to multi-threaded programming.  The
*note wait_for(): 2dea. method can be used to automate the condition
checking, and eases the computation of timeouts:

     # Consume an item
     with cv:
         cv.wait_for(an_item_is_available)
         get_an_available_item()

To choose between *note notify(): 15aa. and *note notify_all(): 272,
consider whether one state change can be interesting for only one or
several waiting threads.  E.g.  in a typical producer-consumer
situation, adding one item to the buffer only needs to wake up one
consumer thread.

 -- 類別: threading.Condition (lock=None)

     This class implements condition variable objects.  A condition
     variable allows one or more threads to wait until they are notified
     by another thread.

     If the 'lock' argument is given and not ‘None’, it must be a *note
     Lock: 2de1. or *note RLock: 25c. object, and it is used as the
     underlying lock.  Otherwise, a new *note RLock: 25c. object is
     created and used as the underlying lock.

     在 3.3 版的變更: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- 方法: acquire (*args)

          Acquire the underlying lock.  This method calls the
          corresponding method on the underlying lock; the return value
          is whatever that method returns.

      -- 方法: release ()

          Release the underlying lock.  This method calls the
          corresponding method on the underlying lock; there is no
          return value.

      -- 方法: wait (timeout=None)

          Wait until notified or until a timeout occurs.  If the calling
          thread has not acquired the lock when this method is called, a
          *note RuntimeError: 17a. is raised.

          This method releases the underlying lock, and then blocks
          until it is awakened by a *note notify(): 15aa. or *note
          notify_all(): 272. call for the same condition variable in
          another thread, or until the optional timeout occurs.  Once
          awakened or timed out, it re-acquires the lock and returns.

          When the 'timeout' argument is present and not ‘None’, it
          should be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the
          operation in seconds (or fractions thereof).

          When the underlying lock is an *note RLock: 25c, it is not
          released using its *note release(): 2de9. method, since this
          may not actually unlock the lock when it was acquired multiple
          times recursively.  Instead, an internal interface of the
          *note RLock: 25c. class is used, which really unlocks it even
          when it has been recursively acquired several times.  Another
          internal interface is then used to restore the recursion level
          when the lock is reacquired.

          The return value is ‘True’ unless a given 'timeout' expired,
          in which case it is ‘False’.

          在 3.2 版的變更: Previously, the method always returned
          ‘None’.

      -- 方法: wait_for (predicate, timeout=None)

          Wait until a condition evaluates to true.  'predicate' should
          be a callable which result will be interpreted as a boolean
          value.  A 'timeout' may be provided giving the maximum time to
          wait.

          This utility method may call *note wait(): 1685. repeatedly
          until the predicate is satisfied, or until a timeout occurs.
          The return value is the last return value of the predicate and
          will evaluate to ‘False’ if the method timed out.

          Ignoring the timeout feature, calling this method is roughly
          equivalent to writing:

               while not predicate():
                   cv.wait()

          Therefore, the same rules apply as with *note wait(): 1685.:
          The lock must be held when called and is re-acquired on
          return.  The predicate is evaluated with the lock held.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: notify (n=1)

          By default, wake up one thread waiting on this condition, if
          any.  If the calling thread has not acquired the lock when
          this method is called, a *note RuntimeError: 17a. is raised.

          This method wakes up at most 'n' of the threads waiting for
          the condition variable; it is a no-op if no threads are
          waiting.

          The current implementation wakes up exactly 'n' threads, if at
          least 'n' threads are waiting.  However, it's not safe to rely
          on this behavior.  A future, optimized implementation may
          occasionally wake up more than 'n' threads.

          Note: an awakened thread does not actually return from its
          *note wait(): 1685. call until it can reacquire the lock.
          Since *note notify(): 15aa. does not release the lock, its
          caller should.

      -- 方法: notify_all ()

          Wake up all threads waiting on this condition.  This method
          acts like *note notify(): 15aa, but wakes up all waiting
          threads instead of one.  If the calling thread has not
          acquired the lock when this method is called, a *note
          RuntimeError: 17a. is raised.

          The method ‘notifyAll’ is a deprecated alias for this method.


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore Objects,  Next: Event Objects,  Prev: Condition Objects,  Up: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性

5.17.1.6 Semaphore Objects
..........................

This is one of the oldest synchronization primitives in the history of
computer science, invented by the early Dutch computer scientist Edsger
W. Dijkstra (he used the names ‘P()’ and ‘V()’ instead of *note
acquire(): 10e7. and *note release(): 2ded.).

A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by each
*note acquire(): 10e7. call and incremented by each *note release():
2ded. call.  The counter can never go below zero; when *note acquire():
10e7. finds that it is zero, it blocks, waiting until some other thread
calls *note release(): 2ded.

Semaphores also support the *note context management protocol: 2de0.

 -- 類別: threading.Semaphore (value=1)

     This class implements semaphore objects.  A semaphore manages an
     atomic counter representing the number of *note release(): 2ded.
     calls minus the number of *note acquire(): 10e7. calls, plus an
     initial value.  The *note acquire(): 10e7. method blocks if
     necessary until it can return without making the counter negative.
     If not given, 'value' defaults to 1.

     The optional argument gives the initial 'value' for the internal
     counter; it defaults to ‘1’.  If the 'value' given is less than 0,
     *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

     在 3.3 版的變更: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- 方法: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=None)

          Acquire a semaphore.

          When invoked without arguments:

             * If the internal counter is larger than zero on entry,
               decrement it by one and return ‘True’ immediately.

             * If the internal counter is zero on entry, block until
               awoken by a call to *note release(): 2ded.  Once awoken
               (and the counter is greater than 0), decrement the
               counter by 1 and return ‘True’.  Exactly one thread will
               be awoken by each call to *note release(): 2ded.  The
               order in which threads are awoken should not be relied
               on.

          When invoked with 'blocking' set to ‘False’, do not block.  If
          a call without an argument would block, return ‘False’
          immediately; otherwise, do the same thing as when called
          without arguments, and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with a 'timeout' other than ‘None’, it will block
          for at most 'timeout' seconds.  If acquire does not complete
          successfully in that interval, return ‘False’.  Return ‘True’
          otherwise.

          在 3.2 版的變更: The 'timeout' parameter is new.

      -- 方法: release (n=1)

          Release a semaphore, incrementing the internal counter by 'n'.
          When it was zero on entry and other threads are waiting for it
          to become larger than zero again, wake up 'n' of those
          threads.

          在 3.9 版的變更: Added the 'n' parameter to release multiple
          waiting threads at once.

 -- 類別: threading.BoundedSemaphore (value=1)

     Class implementing bounded semaphore objects.  A bounded semaphore
     checks to make sure its current value doesn't exceed its initial
     value.  If it does, *note ValueError: 183. is raised.  In most
     situations semaphores are used to guard resources with limited
     capacity.  If the semaphore is released too many times it's a sign
     of a bug.  If not given, 'value' defaults to 1.

     在 3.3 版的變更: changed from a factory function to a class.

* Menu:

* Semaphore 範例::


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore 範例,  Up: Semaphore Objects

5.17.1.7 ‘Semaphore’ 範例
.........................

Semaphores are often used to guard resources with limited capacity, for
example, a database server.  In any situation where the size of the
resource is fixed, you should use a bounded semaphore.  Before spawning
any worker threads, your main thread would initialize the semaphore:

     maxconnections = 5
     # ...
     pool_sema = BoundedSemaphore(value=maxconnections)

Once spawned, worker threads call the semaphore's acquire and release
methods when they need to connect to the server:

     with pool_sema:
         conn = connectdb()
         try:
             # ... 使用該連線 ...
         finally:
             conn.close()

The use of a bounded semaphore reduces the chance that a programming
error which causes the semaphore to be released more than it's acquired
will go undetected.


File: python.info,  Node: Event Objects,  Next: Timer Objects,  Prev: Semaphore Objects,  Up: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性

5.17.1.8 Event Objects
......................

This is one of the simplest mechanisms for communication between
threads: one thread signals an event and other threads wait for it.

An event object manages an internal flag that can be set to true with
the *note set(): 2df2. method and reset to false with the *note clear():
2df3. method.  The *note wait(): 11ba. method blocks until the flag is
true.

 -- 類別: threading.Event

     Class implementing event objects.  An event manages a flag that can
     be set to true with the *note set(): 2df2. method and reset to
     false with the *note clear(): 2df3. method.  The *note wait():
     11ba. method blocks until the flag is true.  The flag is initially
     false.

     在 3.3 版的變更: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- 方法: is_set ()

          Return ‘True’ if and only if the internal flag is true.

          The method ‘isSet’ is a deprecated alias for this method.

      -- 方法: set ()

          Set the internal flag to true.  All threads waiting for it to
          become true are awakened.  Threads that call *note wait():
          11ba. once the flag is true will not block at all.

      -- 方法: clear ()

          Reset the internal flag to false.  Subsequently, threads
          calling *note wait(): 11ba. will block until *note set():
          2df2. is called to set the internal flag to true again.

      -- 方法: wait (timeout=None)

          Block as long as the internal flag is false and the timeout,
          if given, has not expired.  The return value represents the
          reason that this blocking method returned; ‘True’ if returning
          because the internal flag is set to true, or ‘False’ if a
          timeout is given and the internal flag did not become true
          within the given wait time.

          When the timeout argument is present and not ‘None’, it should
          be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the
          operation in seconds, or fractions thereof.

          在 3.1 版的變更: Previously, the method always returned
          ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Timer Objects,  Next: Barrier Objects,  Prev: Event Objects,  Up: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性

5.17.1.9 Timer Objects
......................

This class represents an action that should be run only after a certain
amount of time has passed -- a timer.  *note Timer: fec. is a subclass
of *note Thread: 78d. and as such also functions as an example of
creating custom threads.

Timers are started, as with threads, by calling their *note Timer.start:
2a9e. method.  The timer can be stopped (before its action has begun) by
calling the *note cancel(): 2df6. method.  The interval the timer will
wait before executing its action may not be exactly the same as the
interval specified by the user.

舉例來說：

     def hello():
         print("hello, world")

     t = Timer(30.0, hello)
     t.start()  # 30 秒後會印出 "hello, world"

 -- 類別: threading.Timer (interval, function, args=None, kwargs=None)

     Create a timer that will run 'function' with arguments 'args' and
     keyword arguments 'kwargs', after 'interval' seconds have passed.
     If 'args' is ‘None’ (the default) then an empty list will be used.
     If 'kwargs' is ‘None’ (the default) then an empty dict will be
     used.

     在 3.3 版的變更: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- 方法: cancel ()

          Stop the timer, and cancel the execution of the timer's
          action.  This will only work if the timer is still in its
          waiting stage.


File: python.info,  Node: Barrier Objects,  Next: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement,  Prev: Timer Objects,  Up: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性

5.17.1.10 Barrier Objects
.........................

在 3.2 版被加入.

This class provides a simple synchronization primitive for use by a
fixed number of threads that need to wait for each other.  Each of the
threads tries to pass the barrier by calling the *note wait(): 2df8.
method and will block until all of the threads have made their *note
wait(): 2df8. calls.  At this point, the threads are released
simultaneously.

The barrier can be reused any number of times for the same number of
threads.

As an example, here is a simple way to synchronize a client and server
thread:

     b = Barrier(2, timeout=5)

     def server():
         start_server()
         b.wait()
         while True:
             connection = accept_connection()
             process_server_connection(connection)

     def client():
         b.wait()
         while True:
             connection = make_connection()
             process_client_connection(connection)

 -- 類別: threading.Barrier (parties, action=None, timeout=None)

     Create a barrier object for 'parties' number of threads.  An
     'action', when provided, is a callable to be called by one of the
     threads when they are released.  'timeout' is the default timeout
     value if none is specified for the *note wait(): 2df8. method.

      -- 方法: wait (timeout=None)

          Pass the barrier.  When all the threads party to the barrier
          have called this function, they are all released
          simultaneously.  If a 'timeout' is provided, it is used in
          preference to any that was supplied to the class constructor.

          The return value is an integer in the range 0 to 'parties' -
          1, different for each thread.  This can be used to select a
          thread to do some special housekeeping, e.g.:

               i = barrier.wait()
               if i == 0:
                   # 只會有一個執行緒會印出這個
                   print("passed the barrier")

          If an 'action' was provided to the constructor, one of the
          threads will have called it prior to being released.  Should
          this call raise an error, the barrier is put into the broken
          state.

          If the call times out, the barrier is put into the broken
          state.

          This method may raise a *note BrokenBarrierError: 1076.
          exception if the barrier is broken or reset while a thread is
          waiting.

      -- 方法: reset ()

          Return the barrier to the default, empty state.  Any threads
          waiting on it will receive the *note BrokenBarrierError: 1076.
          exception.

          Note that using this function may require some external
          synchronization if there are other threads whose state is
          unknown.  If a barrier is broken it may be better to just
          leave it and create a new one.

      -- 方法: abort ()

          Put the barrier into a broken state.  This causes any active
          or future calls to *note wait(): 2df8. to fail with the *note
          BrokenBarrierError: 1076.  Use this for example if one of the
          threads needs to abort, to avoid deadlocking the application.

          It may be preferable to simply create the barrier with a
          sensible 'timeout' value to automatically guard against one of
          the threads going awry.

      -- 屬性: parties

          The number of threads required to pass the barrier.

      -- 屬性: n_waiting

          The number of threads currently waiting in the barrier.

      -- 屬性: broken

          A boolean that is ‘True’ if the barrier is in the broken
          state.

 -- 例外: threading.BrokenBarrierError

     This exception, a subclass of *note RuntimeError: 17a, is raised
     when the *note Barrier: 1074. object is reset or broken.


File: python.info,  Node: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement,  Prev: Barrier Objects,  Up: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性

5.17.1.11 Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the ‘with’ statement
.........................................................................

All of the objects provided by this module that have ‘acquire’ and
‘release’ methods can be used as context managers for a *note with: 3c5.
statement.  The ‘acquire’ method will be called when the block is
entered, and ‘release’ will be called when the block is exited.  Hence,
the following snippet:

     with some_lock:
         # 做某些事情...

is equivalent to:

     some_lock.acquire()
     try:
         # 做某些事情...
     finally:
         some_lock.release()

Currently, *note Lock: 2de1, *note RLock: 25c, *note Condition: fe8,
*note Semaphore: fe9, and *note BoundedSemaphore: fea. objects may be
used as *note with: 3c5. statement context managers.


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性,  Next: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取,  Prev: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性,  Up: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution

5.17.2 ‘multiprocessing’ -- 以行程為基礎的平行性
------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/multiprocessing/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<7>.
* Reference: Reference<2>.
* Programming guidelines::
* 範例: 範例<18>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/multiprocessing/


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<7>,  Next: Reference<2>,  Up: multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性

5.17.2.1 簡介
.............

*note multiprocessing: 8f. is a package that supports spawning processes
using an API similar to the *note threading: e7. module.  The *note
multiprocessing: 8f. package offers both local and remote concurrency,
effectively side-stepping the *note Global Interpreter Lock: 141. by
using subprocesses instead of threads.  Due to this, the *note
multiprocessing: 8f. module allows the programmer to fully leverage
multiple processors on a given machine.  It runs on both POSIX and
Windows.

The *note multiprocessing: 8f. module also introduces APIs which do not
have analogs in the *note threading: e7. module.  A prime example of
this is the *note Pool: df8. object which offers a convenient means of
parallelizing the execution of a function across multiple input values,
distributing the input data across processes (data parallelism).  The
following example demonstrates the common practice of defining such
functions in a module so that child processes can successfully import
that module.  This basic example of data parallelism using *note Pool:
df8,

     from multiprocessing import Pool

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with Pool(5) as p:
             print(p.map(f, [1, 2, 3]))

will print to standard output

     [1, 4, 9]

也參考
......

*note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. offers a higher level
interface to push tasks to a background process without blocking
execution of the calling process.  Compared to using the *note Pool:
df8. interface directly, the *note concurrent.futures: 1f. API more
readily allows the submission of work to the underlying process pool to
be separated from waiting for the results.

* Menu:

* Process 類別::
* Contexts and start methods::
* Exchanging objects between processes::
* Synchronization between processes::
* Sharing state between processes::
* Using a pool of workers::


File: python.info,  Node: Process 類別,  Next: Contexts and start methods,  Up: 簡介<7>

5.17.2.2 ‘Process’ 類別
.......................

In *note multiprocessing: 8f, processes are spawned by creating a *note
Process: 9b4. object and then calling its *note start(): 2e03. method.
*note Process: 9b4. follows the API of *note threading.Thread: 78d.  A
trivial example of a multiprocess program is

     from multiprocessing import Process

     def f(name):
         print('hello', name)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
         p.start()
         p.join()

To show the individual process IDs involved, here is an expanded
example:

     from multiprocessing import Process
     import os

     def info(title):
         print(title)
         print('module name:', __name__)
         print('parent process:', os.getppid())
         print('process id:', os.getpid())

     def f(name):
         info('function f')
         print('hello', name)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         info('main line')
         p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
         p.start()
         p.join()

For an explanation of why the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ part is
necessary, see *note Programming guidelines: 2e04.


File: python.info,  Node: Contexts and start methods,  Next: Exchanging objects between processes,  Prev: Process 類別,  Up: 簡介<7>

5.17.2.3 Contexts and start methods
...................................

Depending on the platform, *note multiprocessing: 8f. supports three
ways to start a process.  These 'start methods' are

     'spawn'

          The parent process starts a fresh Python interpreter process.
          The child process will only inherit those resources necessary
          to run the process object's *note run(): 2e06. method.  In
          particular, unnecessary file descriptors and handles from the
          parent process will not be inherited.  Starting a process
          using this method is rather slow compared to using 'fork' or
          'forkserver'.

          Available on POSIX and Windows platforms.  The default on
          Windows and macOS.

     'fork'

          The parent process uses *note os.fork(): 233. to fork the
          Python interpreter.  The child process, when it begins, is
          effectively identical to the parent process.  All resources of
          the parent are inherited by the child process.  Note that
          safely forking a multithreaded process is problematic.

          Available on POSIX systems.  Currently the default on POSIX
          except macOS.

               備註: The default start method will change away from
               'fork' in Python 3.14.  Code that requires 'fork' should
               explicitly specify that via *note get_context(): 22d. or
               *note set_start_method(): 22e.

          在 3.12 版的變更: If Python is able to detect that your
          process has multiple threads, the *note os.fork(): 233.
          function that this start method calls internally will raise a
          *note DeprecationWarning: 179.  Use a different start method.
          See the *note os.fork(): 233. documentation for further
          explanation.

     'forkserver'

          When the program starts and selects the 'forkserver' start
          method, a server process is spawned.  From then on, whenever a
          new process is needed, the parent process connects to the
          server and requests that it fork a new process.  The fork
          server process is single threaded unless system libraries or
          preloaded imports spawn threads as a side-effect so it is
          generally safe for it to use *note os.fork(): 233.  No
          unnecessary resources are inherited.

          Available on POSIX platforms which support passing file
          descriptors over Unix pipes such as Linux.

在 3.4 版的變更: 'spawn' added on all POSIX platforms, and 'forkserver'
added for some POSIX platforms.  Child processes no longer inherit all
of the parents inheritable handles on Windows.

在 3.8 版的變更: On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now the default.
The 'fork' start method should be considered unsafe as it can lead to
crashes of the subprocess as macOS system libraries may start threads.
See bpo-33725(1).

On POSIX using the 'spawn' or 'forkserver' start methods will also start
a 'resource tracker' process which tracks the unlinked named system
resources (such as named semaphores or *note SharedMemory: 1434.
objects) created by processes of the program.  When all processes have
exited the resource tracker unlinks any remaining tracked object.
Usually there should be none, but if a process was killed by a signal
there may be some "leaked" resources.  (Neither leaked semaphores nor
shared memory segments will be automatically unlinked until the next
reboot.  This is problematic for both objects because the system allows
only a limited number of named semaphores, and shared memory segments
occupy some space in the main memory.)

To select a start method you use the *note set_start_method(): 22e. in
the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ clause of the main module.  For example:

     import multiprocessing as mp

     def foo(q):
         q.put('hello')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         mp.set_start_method('spawn')
         q = mp.Queue()
         p = mp.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
         p.start()
         print(q.get())
         p.join()

*note set_start_method(): 22e. should not be used more than once in the
program.

Alternatively, you can use *note get_context(): 22d. to obtain a context
object.  Context objects have the same API as the multiprocessing
module, and allow one to use multiple start methods in the same program.

     import multiprocessing as mp

     def foo(q):
         q.put('hello')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         ctx = mp.get_context('spawn')
         q = ctx.Queue()
         p = ctx.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
         p.start()
         print(q.get())
         p.join()

Note that objects related to one context may not be compatible with
processes for a different context.  In particular, locks created using
the 'fork' context cannot be passed to processes started using the
'spawn' or 'forkserver' start methods.

A library which wants to use a particular start method should probably
use *note get_context(): 22d. to avoid interfering with the choice of
the library user.

     警告: The ‘'spawn'’ and ‘'forkserver'’ start methods generally
     cannot be used with "frozen" executables (i.e., binaries produced
     by packages like 'PyInstaller' and 'cx_Freeze') on POSIX systems.
     The ‘'fork'’ start method may work if code does not use threads.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: Exchanging objects between processes,  Next: Synchronization between processes,  Prev: Contexts and start methods,  Up: 簡介<7>

5.17.2.4 Exchanging objects between processes
.............................................

*note multiprocessing: 8f. supports two types of communication channel
between processes:

'Queues'

     The *note Queue: 144f. class is a near clone of *note queue.Queue:
     121d.  For example:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

          def f(q):
              q.put([42, None, 'hello'])

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              q = Queue()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(q,))
              p.start()
              print(q.get())    # 印出 "[42, None, 'hello']"
              p.join()

     Queues are thread and process safe.  Any object put into a *note
     multiprocessing: 8f. queue will be serialized.

'Pipes'

     The *note Pipe(): 2e08. function returns a pair of connection
     objects connected by a pipe which by default is duplex (two-way).
     For example:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe

          def f(conn):
              conn.send([42, None, 'hello'])
              conn.close()

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              parent_conn, child_conn = Pipe()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(child_conn,))
              p.start()
              print(parent_conn.recv())   # 印出 "[42, None, 'hello']"
              p.join()

     The two connection objects returned by *note Pipe(): 2e08.
     represent the two ends of the pipe.  Each connection object has
     ‘send()’ and ‘recv()’ methods (among others).  Note that data in a
     pipe may become corrupted if two processes (or threads) try to read
     from or write to the 'same' end of the pipe at the same time.  Of
     course there is no risk of corruption from processes using
     different ends of the pipe at the same time.

     The ‘send()’ method serializes the the object and ‘recv()’
     re-creates the object.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization between processes,  Next: Sharing state between processes,  Prev: Exchanging objects between processes,  Up: 簡介<7>

5.17.2.5 Synchronization between processes
..........................................

*note multiprocessing: 8f. contains equivalents of all the
synchronization primitives from *note threading: e7.  For instance one
can use a lock to ensure that only one process prints to standard output
at a time:

     from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

     def f(l, i):
         l.acquire()
         try:
             print('hello world', i)
         finally:
             l.release()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         lock = Lock()

         for num in range(10):
             Process(target=f, args=(lock, num)).start()

Without using the lock output from the different processes is liable to
get all mixed up.


File: python.info,  Node: Sharing state between processes,  Next: Using a pool of workers,  Prev: Synchronization between processes,  Up: 簡介<7>

5.17.2.6 Sharing state between processes
........................................

As mentioned above, when doing concurrent programming it is usually best
to avoid using shared state as far as possible.  This is particularly
true when using multiple processes.

However, if you really do need to use some shared data then *note
multiprocessing: 8f. provides a couple of ways of doing so.

'Shared memory'

     Data can be stored in a shared memory map using *note Value: 2e0b.
     or *note Array: 2e0c.  For example, the following code

          from multiprocessing import Process, Value, Array

          def f(n, a):
              n.value = 3.1415927
              for i in range(len(a)):
                  a[i] = -a[i]

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              num = Value('d', 0.0)
              arr = Array('i', range(10))

              p = Process(target=f, args=(num, arr))
              p.start()
              p.join()

              print(num.value)
              print(arr[:])

     will print

          3.1415927
          [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]

     The ‘'d'’ and ‘'i'’ arguments used when creating ‘num’ and ‘arr’
     are typecodes of the kind used by the *note array: 7. module: ‘'d'’
     indicates a double precision float and ‘'i'’ indicates a signed
     integer.  These shared objects will be process and thread-safe.

     For more flexibility in using shared memory one can use the *note
     multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 95. module which supports the
     creation of arbitrary ctypes objects allocated from shared memory.

'Server process'

     A manager object returned by *note Manager(): b27. controls a
     server process which holds Python objects and allows other
     processes to manipulate them using proxies.

     A manager returned by *note Manager(): b27. will support types
     *note list: 40a, *note dict: 239, *note Namespace: 2e0d, *note
     Lock: 2e0e, *note RLock: 2e0f, *note Semaphore: 2e10, *note
     BoundedSemaphore: 2e11, *note Condition: 2e12, *note Event: 1636,
     *note Barrier: 2e13, *note Queue: 144f, *note Value: 2e0b. and
     *note Array: 2e0c.  For example,

          from multiprocessing import Process, Manager

          def f(d, l):
              d[1] = '1'
              d['2'] = 2
              d[0.25] = None
              l.reverse()

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              with Manager() as manager:
                  d = manager.dict()
                  l = manager.list(range(10))

                  p = Process(target=f, args=(d, l))
                  p.start()
                  p.join()

                  print(d)
                  print(l)

     will print

          {0.25: None, 1: '1', '2': 2}
          [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

     Server process managers are more flexible than using shared memory
     objects because they can be made to support arbitrary object types.
     Also, a single manager can be shared by processes on different
     computers over a network.  They are, however, slower than using
     shared memory.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a pool of workers,  Prev: Sharing state between processes,  Up: 簡介<7>

5.17.2.7 Using a pool of workers
................................

The *note Pool: df8. class represents a pool of worker processes.  It
has methods which allows tasks to be offloaded to the worker processes
in a few different ways.

舉例來說：

     from multiprocessing import Pool, TimeoutError
     import time
     import os

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         # start 4 worker processes
         with Pool(processes=4) as pool:

             # print "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"
             print(pool.map(f, range(10)))

             # print same numbers in arbitrary order
             for i in pool.imap_unordered(f, range(10)):
                 print(i)

             # evaluate "f(20)" asynchronously
             res = pool.apply_async(f, (20,))      # runs in *only* one process
             print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints "400"

             # evaluate "os.getpid()" asynchronously
             res = pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) # runs in *only* one process
             print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints the PID of that process

             # launching multiple evaluations asynchronously *may* use more processes
             multiple_results = [pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) for i in range(4)]
             print([res.get(timeout=1) for res in multiple_results])

             # make a single worker sleep for 10 seconds
             res = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
             try:
                 print(res.get(timeout=1))
             except TimeoutError:
                 print("We lacked patience and got a multiprocessing.TimeoutError")

             print("For the moment, the pool remains available for more work")

         # exiting the 'with'-block has stopped the pool
         print("Now the pool is closed and no longer available")

Note that the methods of a pool should only ever be used by the process
which created it.

     備註: Functionality within this package requires that the
     ‘__main__’ module be importable by the children.  This is covered
     in *note Programming guidelines: 2e04. however it is worth pointing
     out here.  This means that some examples, such as the *note
     multiprocessing.pool.Pool: df8. examples will not work in the
     interactive interpreter.  For example:

          >>> from multiprocessing import Pool
          >>> p = Pool(5)
          >>> def f(x):
          ...     return x*x
          ...
          >>> with p:
          ...     p.map(f, [1,2,3])
          Process PoolWorker-1:
          Process PoolWorker-2:
          Process PoolWorker-3:
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>

     (If you try this it will actually output three full tracebacks
     interleaved in a semi-random fashion, and then you may have to stop
     the parent process somehow.)


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<2>,  Next: Programming guidelines,  Prev: 簡介<7>,  Up: multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性

5.17.2.8 Reference
..................

The *note multiprocessing: 8f. package mostly replicates the API of the
*note threading: e7. module.

* Menu:

* Process 與例外::
* Pipes and Queues::
* Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<2>.
* Connection Objects::
* Synchronization primitives::
* 共享的 ctypes 物件::
* Managers::
* Proxy Objects::
* Process Pools::
* Listeners and Clients::
* Authentication keys::
* Logging::
* multiprocessing.dummy 模組: multiprocessing dummy 模組.


File: python.info,  Node: Process 與例外,  Next: Pipes and Queues,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.9 ‘Process’ 與例外
.........................

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.Process (group=None, target=None, name=None,
          args=(), kwargs={}, *, daemon=None)

     Process objects represent activity that is run in a separate
     process.  The *note Process: 9b4. class has equivalents of all the
     methods of *note threading.Thread: 78d.

     The constructor should always be called with keyword arguments.
     'group' should always be ‘None’; it exists solely for compatibility
     with *note threading.Thread: 78d.  'target' is the callable object
     to be invoked by the *note run(): 2e06. method.  It defaults to
     ‘None’, meaning nothing is called.  'name' is the process name (see
     *note name: 2e17. for more details).  'args' is the argument tuple
     for the target invocation.  'kwargs' is a dictionary of keyword
     arguments for the target invocation.  If provided, the keyword-only
     'daemon' argument sets the process *note daemon: 2e18. flag to
     ‘True’ or ‘False’.  If ‘None’ (the default), this flag will be
     inherited from the creating process.

     By default, no arguments are passed to 'target'.  The 'args'
     argument, which defaults to ‘()’, can be used to specify a list or
     tuple of the arguments to pass to 'target'.

     If a subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure it
     invokes the base class constructor (‘Process.__init__()’) before
     doing anything else to the process.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'daemon' 參數。

      -- 方法: run ()

          Method representing the process's activity.

          You may override this method in a subclass.  The standard
          *note run(): 2e06. method invokes the callable object passed
          to the object's constructor as the target argument, if any,
          with sequential and keyword arguments taken from the 'args'
          and 'kwargs' arguments, respectively.

          Using a list or tuple as the 'args' argument passed to *note
          Process: 9b4. achieves the same effect.

          範例：

               >>> from multiprocessing import Process
               >>> p = Process(target=print, args=[1])
               >>> p.run()
               1
               >>> p = Process(target=print, args=(1,))
               >>> p.run()
               1

      -- 方法: start ()

          Start the process's activity.

          This must be called at most once per process object.  It
          arranges for the object's *note run(): 2e06. method to be
          invoked in a separate process.

      -- 方法: join ([timeout])

          If the optional argument 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default),
          the method blocks until the process whose *note join(): 2e19.
          method is called terminates.  If 'timeout' is a positive
          number, it blocks at most 'timeout' seconds.  Note that the
          method returns ‘None’ if its process terminates or if the
          method times out.  Check the process's *note exitcode: 2e1a.
          to determine if it terminated.

          A process can be joined many times.

          A process cannot join itself because this would cause a
          deadlock.  It is an error to attempt to join a process before
          it has been started.

      -- 屬性: name

          The process's name.  The name is a string used for
          identification purposes only.  It has no semantics.  Multiple
          processes may be given the same name.

          The initial name is set by the constructor.  If no explicit
          name is provided to the constructor, a name of the form
          'Process-N[1]:N[2]:...:N[k]' is constructed, where each N[k]
          is the N-th child of its parent.

      -- 方法: is_alive ()

          Return whether the process is alive.

          Roughly, a process object is alive from the moment the *note
          start(): 2e03. method returns until the child process
          terminates.

      -- 屬性: daemon

          The process's daemon flag, a Boolean value.  This must be set
          before *note start(): 2e03. is called.

          The initial value is inherited from the creating process.

          When a process exits, it attempts to terminate all of its
          daemonic child processes.

          Note that a daemonic process is not allowed to create child
          processes.  Otherwise a daemonic process would leave its
          children orphaned if it gets terminated when its parent
          process exits.  Additionally, these are 'not' Unix daemons or
          services, they are normal processes that will be terminated
          (and not joined) if non-daemonic processes have exited.

     In addition to the *note threading.Thread: 78d. API, *note Process:
     9b4. objects also support the following attributes and methods:

      -- 屬性: pid

          Return the process ID. Before the process is spawned, this
          will be ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: exitcode

          The child's exit code.  This will be ‘None’ if the process has
          not yet terminated.

          If the child's *note run(): 2e06. method returned normally,
          the exit code will be 0.  If it terminated via *note
          sys.exit(): 11dd. with an integer argument 'N', the exit code
          will be 'N'.

          If the child terminated due to an exception not caught within
          *note run(): 2e06, the exit code will be 1.  If it was
          terminated by signal 'N', the exit code will be the negative
          value '-N'.

      -- 屬性: authkey

          The process's authentication key (a byte string).

          When *note multiprocessing: 8f. is initialized the main
          process is assigned a random string using *note os.urandom():
          2a3.

          When a *note Process: 9b4. object is created, it will inherit
          the authentication key of its parent process, although this
          may be changed by setting *note authkey: 2e1d. to another byte
          string.

          參閱 *note Authentication keys: 2e1e.。

      -- 屬性: sentinel

          A numeric handle of a system object which will become "ready"
          when the process ends.

          You can use this value if you want to wait on several events
          at once using *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): f6e.
          Otherwise calling *note join(): 2e19. is simpler.

          On Windows, this is an OS handle usable with the
          ‘WaitForSingleObject’ and ‘WaitForMultipleObjects’ family of
          API calls.  On POSIX, this is a file descriptor usable with
          primitives from the *note select: bc. module.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: terminate ()

          Terminate the process.  On POSIX this is done using the *note
          SIGTERM: 124e. signal; on Windows ‘TerminateProcess()’ is
          used.  Note that exit handlers and finally clauses, etc., will
          not be executed.

          Note that descendant processes of the process will 'not' be
          terminated - they will simply become orphaned.

               警告: If this method is used when the associated process
               is using a pipe or queue then the pipe or queue is liable
               to become corrupted and may become unusable by other
               process.  Similarly, if the process has acquired a lock
               or semaphore etc.  then terminating it is liable to cause
               other processes to deadlock.

      -- 方法: kill ()

          Same as *note terminate(): 2e1f. but using the ‘SIGKILL’
          signal on POSIX.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Close the *note Process: 9b4. object, releasing all resources
          associated with it.  *note ValueError: 183. is raised if the
          underlying process is still running.  Once *note close(): 9b2.
          returns successfully, most other methods and attributes of the
          *note Process: 9b4. object will raise *note ValueError: 183.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

     Note that the *note start(): 2e03, *note join(): 2e19, *note
     is_alive(): 2e1b, *note terminate(): 2e1f. and *note exitcode:
     2e1a. methods should only be called by the process that created the
     process object.

     Example usage of some of the methods of *note Process: 9b4.:

          >>> import multiprocessing, time, signal
          >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
          >>> p = mp_context.Process(target=time.sleep, args=(1000,))
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... initial> False
          >>> p.start()
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... started> True
          >>> p.terminate()
          >>> time.sleep(0.1)
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... stopped exitcode=-SIGTERM> False
          >>> p.exitcode == -signal.SIGTERM
          True

 -- 例外: multiprocessing.ProcessError

     The base class of all *note multiprocessing: 8f. exceptions.

 -- 例外: multiprocessing.BufferTooShort

     Exception raised by ‘Connection.recv_bytes_into()’ when the
     supplied buffer object is too small for the message read.

     If ‘e’ is an instance of *note BufferTooShort: 2e21. then
     ‘e.args[0]’ will give the message as a byte string.

 -- 例外: multiprocessing.AuthenticationError

     Raised when there is an authentication error.

 -- 例外: multiprocessing.TimeoutError

     Raised by methods with a timeout when the timeout expires.


File: python.info,  Node: Pipes and Queues,  Next: Miscellaneous<2>,  Prev: Process 與例外,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.10 Pipes and Queues
..........................

When using multiple processes, one generally uses message passing for
communication between processes and avoids having to use any
synchronization primitives like locks.

For passing messages one can use *note Pipe(): 2e08. (for a connection
between two processes) or a queue (which allows multiple producers and
consumers).

The *note Queue: 144f, *note SimpleQueue: 750. and *note JoinableQueue:
2e25. types are multi-producer, multi-consumer FIFO queues modelled on
the *note queue.Queue: 121d. class in the standard library.  They differ
in that *note Queue: 144f. lacks the *note task_done(): 2e26. and *note
join(): 2e27. methods introduced into Python 2.5's *note queue.Queue:
121d. class.

If you use *note JoinableQueue: 2e25. then you 'must' call *note
JoinableQueue.task_done(): 2e28. for each task removed from the queue or
else the semaphore used to count the number of unfinished tasks may
eventually overflow, raising an exception.

One difference from other Python queue implementations, is that *note
multiprocessing: 8f. queues serializes all objects that are put into
them using *note pickle: a1.  The object return by the get method is a
re-created object that does not share memory with the original object.

Note that one can also create a shared queue by using a manager object -
see *note Managers: 2e29.

     備註: *note multiprocessing: 8f. uses the usual *note queue.Empty:
     2e2a. and *note queue.Full: 2e2b. exceptions to signal a timeout.
     They are not available in the *note multiprocessing: 8f. namespace
     so you need to import them from *note queue: b1.

     備註: When an object is put on a queue, the object is pickled and a
     background thread later flushes the pickled data to an underlying
     pipe.  This has some consequences which are a little surprising,
     but should not cause any practical difficulties - if they really
     bother you then you can instead use a queue created with a *note
     manager: 2e29.

       1. After putting an object on an empty queue there may be an
          infinitesimal delay before the queue's *note empty(): 140d.
          method returns *note False: 98f. and *note get_nowait(): 2e2c.
          can return without raising *note queue.Empty: 2e2a.

       2. If multiple processes are enqueuing objects, it is possible
          for the objects to be received at the other end out-of-order.
          However, objects enqueued by the same process will always be
          in the expected order with respect to each other.

     警告: If a process is killed using *note Process.terminate(): 2e1f.
     or *note os.kill(): 11f6. while it is trying to use a *note Queue:
     144f, then the data in the queue is likely to become corrupted.
     This may cause any other process to get an exception when it tries
     to use the queue later on.

     警告: As mentioned above, if a child process has put items on a
     queue (and it has not used *note JoinableQueue.cancel_join_thread:
     2e2d.), then that process will not terminate until all buffered
     items have been flushed to the pipe.

     This means that if you try joining that process you may get a
     deadlock unless you are sure that all items which have been put on
     the queue have been consumed.  Similarly, if the child process is
     non-daemonic then the parent process may hang on exit when it tries
     to join all its non-daemonic children.

     Note that a queue created using a manager does not have this issue.
     See *note Programming guidelines: 2e04.

For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
*note 範例: 2e2e.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.Pipe ([duplex])

     Returns a pair ‘(conn1, conn2)’ of *note Connection: 144b. objects
     representing the ends of a pipe.

     If 'duplex' is ‘True’ (the default) then the pipe is bidirectional.
     If 'duplex' is ‘False’ then the pipe is unidirectional: ‘conn1’ can
     only be used for receiving messages and ‘conn2’ can only be used
     for sending messages.

     The ‘send()’ method serializes the the object using *note pickle:
     a1. and the ‘recv()’ re-creates the object.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.Queue ([maxsize])

     Returns a process shared queue implemented using a pipe and a few
     locks/semaphores.  When a process first puts an item on the queue a
     feeder thread is started which transfers objects from a buffer into
     the pipe.

     The usual *note queue.Empty: 2e2a. and *note queue.Full: 2e2b.
     exceptions from the standard library's *note queue: b1. module are
     raised to signal timeouts.

     *note Queue: 144f. implements all the methods of *note queue.Queue:
     121d. except for *note task_done(): 2e26. and *note join(): 2e27.

      -- 方法: qsize ()

          Return the approximate size of the queue.  Because of
          multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this number is not
          reliable.

          Note that this may raise *note NotImplementedError: bc0. on
          platforms like macOS where ‘sem_getvalue()’ is not
          implemented.

      -- 方法: empty ()

          Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.
          Because of multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is
          not reliable.

          May raise an *note OSError: 644. on closed queues.  (not
          guaranteed)

      -- 方法: full ()

          Return ‘True’ if the queue is full, ‘False’ otherwise.
          Because of multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is
          not reliable.

      -- 方法: put (obj[, block[, timeout]])

          Put obj into the queue.  If the optional argument 'block' is
          ‘True’ (the default) and 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default),
          block if necessary until a free slot is available.  If
          'timeout' is a positive number, it blocks at most 'timeout'
          seconds and raises the *note queue.Full: 2e2b. exception if no
          free slot was available within that time.  Otherwise ('block'
          is ‘False’), put an item on the queue if a free slot is
          immediately available, else raise the *note queue.Full: 2e2b.
          exception ('timeout' is ignored in that case).

          在 3.8 版的變更: If the queue is closed, *note ValueError:
          183. is raised instead of *note AssertionError: 4a6.

      -- 方法: put_nowait (obj)

          Equivalent to ‘put(obj, False)’.

      -- 方法: get ([block[, timeout]])

          Remove and return an item from the queue.  If optional args
          'block' is ‘True’ (the default) and 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the
          default), block if necessary until an item is available.  If
          'timeout' is a positive number, it blocks at most 'timeout'
          seconds and raises the *note queue.Empty: 2e2a. exception if
          no item was available within that time.  Otherwise (block is
          ‘False’), return an item if one is immediately available, else
          raise the *note queue.Empty: 2e2a. exception ('timeout' is
          ignored in that case).

          在 3.8 版的變更: If the queue is closed, *note ValueError:
          183. is raised instead of *note OSError: 644.

      -- 方法: get_nowait ()

          Equivalent to ‘get(False)’.

     *note multiprocessing.Queue: 144f. has a few additional methods not
     found in *note queue.Queue: 121d.  These methods are usually
     unnecessary for most code:

      -- 方法: close ()

          Indicate that no more data will be put on this queue by the
          current process.  The background thread will quit once it has
          flushed all buffered data to the pipe.  This is called
          automatically when the queue is garbage collected.

      -- 方法: join_thread ()

          Join the background thread.  This can only be used after *note
          close(): 15cb. has been called.  It blocks until the
          background thread exits, ensuring that all data in the buffer
          has been flushed to the pipe.

          By default if a process is not the creator of the queue then
          on exit it will attempt to join the queue's background thread.
          The process can call *note cancel_join_thread(): 2e2d. to make
          *note join_thread(): 2e32. do nothing.

      -- 方法: cancel_join_thread ()

          Prevent *note join_thread(): 2e32. from blocking.  In
          particular, this prevents the background thread from being
          joined automatically when the process exits - see *note
          join_thread(): 2e32.

          A better name for this method might be
          ‘allow_exit_without_flush()’.  It is likely to cause enqueued
          data to be lost, and you almost certainly will not need to use
          it.  It is really only there if you need the current process
          to exit immediately without waiting to flush enqueued data to
          the underlying pipe, and you don't care about lost data.

          備註: This class's functionality requires a functioning shared
          semaphore implementation on the host operating system.
          Without one, the functionality in this class will be disabled,
          and attempts to instantiate a *note Queue: 144f. will result
          in an *note ImportError: 145.  See bpo-3770(1) for additional
          information.  The same holds true for any of the specialized
          queue types listed below.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.SimpleQueue

     It is a simplified *note Queue: 144f. type, very close to a locked
     *note Pipe: 2e08.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Close the queue: release internal resources.

          A queue must not be used anymore after it is closed.  For
          example, *note get(): 2e33, *note put(): 2e34. and *note
          empty(): 140e. methods must no longer be called.

          在 3.9 版被加入.

      -- 方法: empty ()

          Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.

          Always raises an *note OSError: 644. if the SimpleQueue is
          closed.

      -- 方法: get ()

          Remove and return an item from the queue.

      -- 方法: put (item)

          Put 'item' into the queue.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.JoinableQueue ([maxsize])

     *note JoinableQueue: 2e25, a *note Queue: 144f. subclass, is a
     queue which additionally has *note task_done(): 2e28. and *note
     join(): 2e35. methods.

      -- 方法: task_done ()

          Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.  Used by
          queue consumers.  For each *note get(): 1827. used to fetch a
          task, a subsequent call to *note task_done(): 2e28. tells the
          queue that the processing on the task is complete.

          If a *note join(): 2e27. is currently blocking, it will resume
          when all items have been processed (meaning that a *note
          task_done(): 2e28. call was received for every item that had
          been *note put(): 1826. into the queue).

          Raises a *note ValueError: 183. if called more times than
          there were items placed in the queue.

      -- 方法: join ()

          Block until all items in the queue have been gotten and
          processed.

          The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is
          added to the queue.  The count goes down whenever a consumer
          calls *note task_done(): 2e28. to indicate that the item was
          retrieved and all work on it is complete.  When the count of
          unfinished tasks drops to zero, *note join(): 2e27. unblocks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous<2>,  Next: Connection Objects,  Prev: Pipes and Queues,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.11 Miscellaneous
.......................

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.active_children ()

     Return list of all live children of the current process.

     Calling this has the side effect of "joining" any processes which
     have already finished.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.cpu_count ()

     Return the number of CPUs in the system.

     This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current
     process can use.  The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with
     ‘len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))’

     When the number of CPUs cannot be determined a *note
     NotImplementedError: bc0. is raised.

     也參考
     ......

     *note os.cpu_count(): 63b.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.current_process ()

     Return the *note Process: 9b4. object corresponding to the current
     process.

     An analogue of *note threading.current_thread(): 278.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.parent_process ()

     Return the *note Process: 9b4. object corresponding to the parent
     process of the *note current_process(): 2e38.  For the main
     process, ‘parent_process’ will be ‘None’.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.freeze_support ()

     Add support for when a program which uses *note multiprocessing:
     8f. has been frozen to produce a Windows executable.  (Has been
     tested with 'py2exe', 'PyInstaller' and 'cx_Freeze'.)

     One needs to call this function straight after the ‘if __name__ ==
     '__main__'’ line of the main module.  For example:

          from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support

          def f():
              print('hello world!')

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              freeze_support()
              Process(target=f).start()

     If the ‘freeze_support()’ line is omitted then trying to run the
     frozen executable will raise *note RuntimeError: 17a.

     Calling ‘freeze_support()’ has no effect when invoked on any
     operating system other than Windows.  In addition, if the module is
     being run normally by the Python interpreter on Windows (the
     program has not been frozen), then ‘freeze_support()’ has no
     effect.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods ()

     Returns a list of the supported start methods, the first of which
     is the default.  The possible start methods are ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’
     and ‘'forkserver'’.  Not all platforms support all methods.  See
     *note Contexts and start methods: 22f.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.get_context (method=None)

     Return a context object which has the same attributes as the *note
     multiprocessing: 8f. module.

     If 'method' is ‘None’ then the default context is returned.
     Otherwise 'method' should be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’, ‘'forkserver'’.
     *note ValueError: 183. is raised if the specified start method is
     not available.  See *note Contexts and start methods: 22f.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.get_start_method (allow_none=False)

     Return the name of start method used for starting processes.

     If the start method has not been fixed and 'allow_none' is false,
     then the start method is fixed to the default and the name is
     returned.  If the start method has not been fixed and 'allow_none'
     is true then ‘None’ is returned.

     The return value can be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’, ‘'forkserver'’ or
     ‘None’.  See *note Contexts and start methods: 22f.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now the
     default.  The 'fork' start method should be considered unsafe as it
     can lead to crashes of the subprocess.  See bpo-33725(1).

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.set_executable (executable)

     Set the path of the Python interpreter to use when starting a child
     process.  (By default *note sys.executable: 362. is used).
     Embedders will probably need to do some thing like

          set_executable(os.path.join(sys.exec_prefix, 'pythonw.exe'))

     before they can create child processes.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Now supported on POSIX when the ‘'spawn'’ start
     method is used.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 接受一個*note 類路徑物件: 975.。

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload (module_names)

     Set a list of module names for the forkserver main process to
     attempt to import so that their already imported state is inherited
     by forked processes.  Any *note ImportError: 145. when doing so is
     silently ignored.  This can be used as a performance enhancement to
     avoid repeated work in every process.

     For this to work, it must be called before the forkserver process
     has been launched (before creating a ‘Pool’ or starting a *note
     Process: 9b4.).

     Only meaningful when using the ‘'forkserver'’ start method.  See
     *note Contexts and start methods: 22f.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.set_start_method (method, force=False)

     Set the method which should be used to start child processes.  The
     'method' argument can be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’ or ‘'forkserver'’.
     Raises *note RuntimeError: 17a. if the start method has already
     been set and 'force' is not ‘True’.  If 'method' is ‘None’ and
     'force' is ‘True’ then the start method is set to ‘None’.  If
     'method' is ‘None’ and 'force' is ‘False’ then the context is set
     to the default context.

     Note that this should be called at most once, and it should be
     protected inside the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ clause of the main
     module.

     參閱 *note Contexts and start methods: 22f.。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     備註: *note multiprocessing: 8f. contains no analogues of *note
     threading.active_count(): 279, *note threading.enumerate(): 1678,
     *note threading.settrace(): 66f, *note threading.setprofile(): 670,
     *note threading.Timer: fec, or *note threading.local: 1533.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: Connection Objects,  Next: Synchronization primitives,  Prev: Miscellaneous<2>,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.12 Connection Objects
............................

Connection objects allow the sending and receiving of picklable objects
or strings.  They can be thought of as message oriented connected
sockets.

Connection objects are usually created using *note Pipe: 2e08. - see
also *note Listeners and Clients: 2e3c.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.connection.Connection

      -- 方法: send (obj)

          Send an object to the other end of the connection which should
          be read using *note recv(): 2e3e.

          The object must be picklable.  Very large pickles
          (approximately 32 MiB+, though it depends on the OS) may raise
          a *note ValueError: 183. exception.

      -- 方法: recv ()

          Return an object sent from the other end of the connection
          using *note send(): 2e3d.  Blocks until there is something to
          receive.  Raises *note EOFError: 116a. if there is nothing
          left to receive and the other end was closed.

      -- 方法: fileno ()

          Return the file descriptor or handle used by the connection.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Close the connection.

          This is called automatically when the connection is garbage
          collected.

      -- 方法: poll ([timeout])

          Return whether there is any data available to be read.

          If 'timeout' is not specified then it will return immediately.
          If 'timeout' is a number then this specifies the maximum time
          in seconds to block.  If 'timeout' is ‘None’ then an infinite
          timeout is used.

          Note that multiple connection objects may be polled at once by
          using *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): f6e.

      -- 方法: send_bytes (buffer[, offset[, size]])

          Send byte data from a *note bytes-like object: b9f. as a
          complete message.

          If 'offset' is given then data is read from that position in
          'buffer'.  If 'size' is given then that many bytes will be
          read from buffer.  Very large buffers (approximately 32 MiB+,
          though it depends on the OS) may raise a *note ValueError:
          183. exception

      -- 方法: recv_bytes ([maxlength])

          Return a complete message of byte data sent from the other end
          of the connection as a string.  Blocks until there is
          something to receive.  Raises *note EOFError: 116a. if there
          is nothing left to receive and the other end has closed.

          If 'maxlength' is specified and the message is longer than
          'maxlength' then *note OSError: 644. is raised and the
          connection will no longer be readable.

          在 3.3 版的變更: This function used to raise *note IOError:
          ee8, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 644.

      -- 方法: recv_bytes_into (buffer[, offset])

          Read into 'buffer' a complete message of byte data sent from
          the other end of the connection and return the number of bytes
          in the message.  Blocks until there is something to receive.
          Raises *note EOFError: 116a. if there is nothing left to
          receive and the other end was closed.

          'buffer' must be a writable *note bytes-like object: b9f.  If
          'offset' is given then the message will be written into the
          buffer from that position.  Offset must be a non-negative
          integer less than the length of 'buffer' (in bytes).

          If the buffer is too short then a ‘BufferTooShort’ exception
          is raised and the complete message is available as ‘e.args[0]’
          where ‘e’ is the exception instance.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Connection objects themselves can now be
     transferred between processes using *note Connection.send(): 2e3d.
     and *note Connection.recv(): 2e3e.

     Connection objects also now support the context management protocol
     - see *note 情境管理器型別: 1d52.  *note __enter__(): 1fe0. returns
     the connection object, and *note __exit__(): 1fe1. calls *note
     close(): 2e40.

舉例來說：

     >>> from multiprocessing import Pipe
     >>> a, b = Pipe()
     >>> a.send([1, 'hello', None])
     >>> b.recv()
     [1, 'hello', None]
     >>> b.send_bytes(b'thank you')
     >>> a.recv_bytes()
     b'thank you'
     >>> import array
     >>> arr1 = array.array('i', range(5))
     >>> arr2 = array.array('i', [0] * 10)
     >>> a.send_bytes(arr1)
     >>> count = b.recv_bytes_into(arr2)
     >>> assert count == len(arr1) * arr1.itemsize
     >>> arr2
     array('i', [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
     警告: The *note Connection.recv(): 2e3e. method automatically
     unpickles the data it receives, which can be a security risk unless
     you can trust the process which sent the message.

     Therefore, unless the connection object was produced using ‘Pipe()’
     you should only use the *note recv(): 2e3e. and *note send(): 2e3d.
     methods after performing some sort of authentication.  See *note
     Authentication keys: 2e1e.

     警告: If a process is killed while it is trying to read or write to
     a pipe then the data in the pipe is likely to become corrupted,
     because it may become impossible to be sure where the message
     boundaries lie.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization primitives,  Next: 共享的 ctypes 物件,  Prev: Connection Objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.13 Synchronization primitives
....................................

Generally synchronization primitives are not as necessary in a
multiprocess program as they are in a multithreaded program.  See the
documentation for *note threading: e7. module.

Note that one can also create synchronization primitives by using a
manager object - see *note Managers: 2e29.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.Barrier (parties[, action[, timeout]])

     A barrier object: a clone of *note threading.Barrier: 1074.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore ([value])

     A bounded semaphore object: a close analog of *note
     threading.BoundedSemaphore: fea.

     A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its ‘acquire’
     method's first argument is named 'block', as is consistent with
     *note Lock.acquire(): 2e47.

          備註: On macOS, this is indistinguishable from *note
          Semaphore: 2e10. because ‘sem_getvalue()’ is not implemented
          on that platform.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.Condition ([lock])

     A condition variable: an alias for *note threading.Condition: fe8.

     If 'lock' is specified then it should be a *note Lock: 2e0e. or
     *note RLock: 2e0f. object from *note multiprocessing: 8f.

     在 3.3 版的變更: The *note wait_for(): 2dea. method was added.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.Event

     A clone of *note threading.Event: feb.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.Lock

     A non-recursive lock object: a close analog of *note
     threading.Lock: 2de1.  Once a process or thread has acquired a
     lock, subsequent attempts to acquire it from any process or thread
     will block until it is released; any process or thread may release
     it.  The concepts and behaviors of *note threading.Lock: 2de1. as
     it applies to threads are replicated here in *note
     multiprocessing.Lock: 2e0e. as it applies to either processes or
     threads, except as noted.

     Note that *note Lock: 2e0e. is actually a factory function which
     returns an instance of ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.Lock’
     initialized with a default context.

     *note Lock: 2e0e. supports the *note context manager: 3c4. protocol
     and thus may be used in *note with: 3c5. statements.

      -- 方法: acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          With the 'block' argument set to ‘True’ (the default), the
          method call will block until the lock is in an unlocked state,
          then set it to locked and return ‘True’.  Note that the name
          of this first argument differs from that in *note
          threading.Lock.acquire(): 495.

          With the 'block' argument set to ‘False’, the method call does
          not block.  If the lock is currently in a locked state, return
          ‘False’; otherwise set the lock to a locked state and return
          ‘True’.

          When invoked with a positive, floating-point value for
          'timeout', block for at most the number of seconds specified
          by 'timeout' as long as the lock can not be acquired.
          Invocations with a negative value for 'timeout' are equivalent
          to a 'timeout' of zero.  Invocations with a 'timeout' value of
          ‘None’ (the default) set the timeout period to infinite.  Note
          that the treatment of negative or ‘None’ values for 'timeout'
          differs from the implemented behavior in *note
          threading.Lock.acquire(): 495.  The 'timeout' argument has no
          practical implications if the 'block' argument is set to
          ‘False’ and is thus ignored.  Returns ‘True’ if the lock has
          been acquired or ‘False’ if the timeout period has elapsed.

      -- 方法: release ()

          Release a lock.  This can be called from any process or
          thread, not only the process or thread which originally
          acquired the lock.

          Behavior is the same as in *note threading.Lock.release():
          1154. except that when invoked on an unlocked lock, a *note
          ValueError: 183. is raised.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.RLock

     A recursive lock object: a close analog of *note threading.RLock:
     25c.  A recursive lock must be released by the process or thread
     that acquired it.  Once a process or thread has acquired a
     recursive lock, the same process or thread may acquire it again
     without blocking; that process or thread must release it once for
     each time it has been acquired.

     Note that *note RLock: 2e0f. is actually a factory function which
     returns an instance of ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.RLock’
     initialized with a default context.

     *note RLock: 2e0f. supports the *note context manager: 3c4.
     protocol and thus may be used in *note with: 3c5. statements.

      -- 方法: acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          When invoked with the 'block' argument set to ‘True’, block
          until the lock is in an unlocked state (not owned by any
          process or thread) unless the lock is already owned by the
          current process or thread.  The current process or thread then
          takes ownership of the lock (if it does not already have
          ownership) and the recursion level inside the lock increments
          by one, resulting in a return value of ‘True’.  Note that
          there are several differences in this first argument's
          behavior compared to the implementation of *note
          threading.RLock.acquire(): cfc, starting with the name of the
          argument itself.

          When invoked with the 'block' argument set to ‘False’, do not
          block.  If the lock has already been acquired (and thus is
          owned) by another process or thread, the current process or
          thread does not take ownership and the recursion level within
          the lock is not changed, resulting in a return value of
          ‘False’.  If the lock is in an unlocked state, the current
          process or thread takes ownership and the recursion level is
          incremented, resulting in a return value of ‘True’.

          Use and behaviors of the 'timeout' argument are the same as in
          *note Lock.acquire(): 2e47.  Note that some of these behaviors
          of 'timeout' differ from the implemented behaviors in *note
          threading.RLock.acquire(): cfc.

      -- 方法: release ()

          Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level.  If after
          the decrement the recursion level is zero, reset the lock to
          unlocked (not owned by any process or thread) and if any other
          processes or threads are blocked waiting for the lock to
          become unlocked, allow exactly one of them to proceed.  If
          after the decrement the recursion level is still nonzero, the
          lock remains locked and owned by the calling process or
          thread.

          Only call this method when the calling process or thread owns
          the lock.  An *note AssertionError: 4a6. is raised if this
          method is called by a process or thread other than the owner
          or if the lock is in an unlocked (unowned) state.  Note that
          the type of exception raised in this situation differs from
          the implemented behavior in *note threading.RLock.release():
          2de5.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.Semaphore ([value])

     A semaphore object: a close analog of *note threading.Semaphore:
     fe9.

     A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its ‘acquire’
     method's first argument is named 'block', as is consistent with
     *note Lock.acquire(): 2e47.

     備註: On macOS, ‘sem_timedwait’ is unsupported, so calling
     ‘acquire()’ with a timeout will emulate that function's behavior
     using a sleeping loop.

     備註: Some of this package's functionality requires a functioning
     shared semaphore implementation on the host operating system.
     Without one, the ‘multiprocessing.synchronize’ module will be
     disabled, and attempts to import it will result in an *note
     ImportError: 145.  See bpo-3770(1) for additional information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770


File: python.info,  Node: 共享的 ctypes 物件,  Next: Managers,  Prev: Synchronization primitives,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.14 共享的 ‘ctypes’ 物件
..............................

It is possible to create shared objects using shared memory which can be
inherited by child processes.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.Value (typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True)

     Return a *note ctypes: 28. object allocated from shared memory.  By
     default the return value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the
     object.  The object itself can be accessed via the 'value'
     attribute of a *note Value: 2e0b.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the returned object: it
     is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind
     used by the *note array: 7. module.  '*args' is passed on to the
     constructor for the type.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new recursive lock object
     is created to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a
     *note Lock: 2e0e. or *note RLock: 2e0f. object then that will be
     used to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then
     access to the returned object will not be automatically protected
     by a lock, so it will not necessarily be "process-safe".

     Operations like ‘+=’ which involve a read and write are not atomic.
     So if, for instance, you want to atomically increment a shared
     value it is insufficient to just do

          counter.value += 1

     Assuming the associated lock is recursive (which it is by default)
     you can instead do

          with counter.get_lock():
              counter.value += 1

     Note that 'lock' is a keyword-only argument.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.Array (typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer,
          *, lock=True)

     Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory.  By default the
     return value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the array.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the elements of the
     returned array: it is either a ctypes type or a one character
     typecode of the kind used by the *note array: 7. module.  If
     'size_or_initializer' is an integer, then it determines the length
     of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed.  Otherwise,
     'size_or_initializer' is a sequence which is used to initialize the
     array and whose length determines the length of the array.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new lock object is created
     to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a *note Lock:
     2e0e. or *note RLock: 2e0f. object then that will be used to
     synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then access
     to the returned object will not be automatically protected by a
     lock, so it will not necessarily be "process-safe".

     Note that 'lock' is a keyword only argument.

     Note that an array of *note ctypes.c_char: 2d4e. has 'value' and
     'raw' attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve
     strings.

* Menu:

* multiprocessing.sharedctypes 模組: multiprocessing sharedctypes 模組.


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing sharedctypes 模組,  Up: 共享的 ctypes 物件

5.17.2.15 ‘multiprocessing.sharedctypes’ 模組
.............................................

The *note multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 95. module provides functions
for allocating *note ctypes: 28. objects from shared memory which can be
inherited by child processes.

     備註: Although it is possible to store a pointer in shared memory
     remember that this will refer to a location in the address space of
     a specific process.  However, the pointer is quite likely to be
     invalid in the context of a second process and trying to
     dereference the pointer from the second process may cause a crash.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer)

     Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the elements of the
     returned array: it is either a ctypes type or a one character
     typecode of the kind used by the *note array: 7. module.  If
     'size_or_initializer' is an integer then it determines the length
     of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed.  Otherwise
     'size_or_initializer' is a sequence which is used to initialize the
     array and whose length determines the length of the array.

     Note that setting and getting an element is potentially non-atomic
     - use *note Array(): 2e4e. instead to make sure that access is
     automatically synchronized using a lock.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue (typecode_or_type,
          *args)

     Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the returned object: it
     is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind
     used by the *note array: 7. module.  '*args' is passed on to the
     constructor for the type.

     Note that setting and getting the value is potentially non-atomic -
     use *note Value(): 2e50. instead to make sure that access is
     automatically synchronized using a lock.

     Note that an array of *note ctypes.c_char: 2d4e. has ‘value’ and
     ‘raw’ attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve
     strings - see documentation for *note ctypes: 28.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)

     The same as *note RawArray(): 2e4d. except that depending on the
     value of 'lock' a process-safe synchronization wrapper may be
     returned instead of a raw ctypes array.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new lock object is created
     to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a *note Lock:
     2e0e. or *note RLock: 2e0f. object then that will be used to
     synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then access
     to the returned object will not be automatically protected by a
     lock, so it will not necessarily be "process-safe".

     Note that 'lock' is a keyword-only argument.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value (typecode_or_type, *args,
          lock=True)

     The same as *note RawValue(): 2e4f. except that depending on the
     value of 'lock' a process-safe synchronization wrapper may be
     returned instead of a raw ctypes object.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new lock object is created
     to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a *note Lock:
     2e0e. or *note RLock: 2e0f. object then that will be used to
     synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then access
     to the returned object will not be automatically protected by a
     lock, so it will not necessarily be "process-safe".

     Note that 'lock' is a keyword-only argument.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.copy (obj)

     Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory which is a copy
     of the ctypes object 'obj'.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized (obj[, lock])

     Return a process-safe wrapper object for a ctypes object which uses
     'lock' to synchronize access.  If 'lock' is ‘None’ (the default)
     then a *note multiprocessing.RLock: 2e0f. object is created
     automatically.

     A synchronized wrapper will have two methods in addition to those
     of the object it wraps: ‘get_obj()’ returns the wrapped object and
     ‘get_lock()’ returns the lock object used for synchronization.

     Note that accessing the ctypes object through the wrapper can be a
     lot slower than accessing the raw ctypes object.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Synchronized objects support the *note context
     manager: 3c4. protocol.

The table below compares the syntax for creating shared ctypes objects
from shared memory with the normal ctypes syntax.  (In the table
‘MyStruct’ is some subclass of *note ctypes.Structure: 1453.)

ctypes                   sharedctypes using type        sharedctypes using typecode
                                                        
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
c_double(2.4)            RawValue(c_double, 2.4)        RawValue('d', 2.4)
                                                        
                                                        
MyStruct(4, 6)           RawValue(MyStruct, 4, 6)
                         
                                                        
(c_short * 7)()          RawArray(c_short, 7)           RawArray('h', 7)
                                                        
                                                        
(c_int * 3)(9, 2, 8)     RawArray(c_int, (9, 2, 8))     RawArray('i', (9, 2, 8))
                                                        

Below is an example where a number of ctypes objects are modified by a
child process:

     from multiprocessing import Process, Lock
     from multiprocessing.sharedctypes import Value, Array
     from ctypes import Structure, c_double

     class Point(Structure):
         _fields_ = [('x', c_double), ('y', c_double)]

     def modify(n, x, s, A):
         n.value **= 2
         x.value **= 2
         s.value = s.value.upper()
         for a in A:
             a.x **= 2
             a.y **= 2

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         lock = Lock()

         n = Value('i', 7)
         x = Value(c_double, 1.0/3.0, lock=False)
         s = Array('c', b'hello world', lock=lock)
         A = Array(Point, [(1.875,-6.25), (-5.75,2.0), (2.375,9.5)], lock=lock)

         p = Process(target=modify, args=(n, x, s, A))
         p.start()
         p.join()

         print(n.value)
         print(x.value)
         print(s.value)
         print([(a.x, a.y) for a in A])

The results printed are

     49
     0.1111111111111111
     HELLO WORLD
     [(3.515625, 39.0625), (33.0625, 4.0), (5.640625, 90.25)]


File: python.info,  Node: Managers,  Next: Proxy Objects,  Prev: 共享的 ctypes 物件,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.16 Managers
..................

Managers provide a way to create data which can be shared between
different processes, including sharing over a network between processes
running on different machines.  A manager object controls a server
process which manages 'shared objects'.  Other processes can access the
shared objects by using proxies.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.Manager ()

     Returns a started *note SyncManager: 2e53. object which can be used
     for sharing objects between processes.  The returned manager object
     corresponds to a spawned child process and has methods which will
     create shared objects and return corresponding proxies.

Manager processes will be shutdown as soon as they are garbage collected
or their parent process exits.  The manager classes are defined in the
*note multiprocessing.managers: 92. module:

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager (address=None,
          authkey=None, serializer='pickle', ctx=None, *,
          shutdown_timeout=1.0)

     建立一個 BaseManager 物件。

     Once created one should call *note start(): 2e55. or
     ‘get_server().serve_forever()’ to ensure that the manager object
     refers to a started manager process.

     'address' is the address on which the manager process listens for
     new connections.  If 'address' is ‘None’ then an arbitrary one is
     chosen.

     'authkey' is the authentication key which will be used to check the
     validity of incoming connections to the server process.  If
     'authkey' is ‘None’ then ‘current_process().authkey’ is used.
     Otherwise 'authkey' is used and it must be a byte string.

     'serializer' must be ‘'pickle'’ (use *note pickle: a1.
     serialization) or ‘'xmlrpclib'’ (use *note xmlrpc.client: 128.
     serialization).

     'ctx' is a context object, or ‘None’ (use the current context).
     See the ‘get_context()’ function.

     'shutdown_timeout' is a timeout in seconds used to wait until the
     process used by the manager completes in the *note shutdown():
     2e56. method.  If the shutdown times out, the process is
     terminated.  If terminating the process also times out, the process
     is killed.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'shutdown_timeout' 參數。

      -- 方法: start ([initializer[, initargs]])

          Start a subprocess to start the manager.  If 'initializer' is
          not ‘None’ then the subprocess will call
          ‘initializer(*initargs)’ when it starts.

      -- 方法: get_server ()

          Returns a ‘Server’ object which represents the actual server
          under the control of the Manager.  The ‘Server’ object
          supports the ‘serve_forever()’ method:

               >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
               >>> manager = BaseManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
               >>> server = manager.get_server()
               >>> server.serve_forever()

          ‘Server’ additionally has an *note address: 2e58. attribute.

      -- 方法: connect ()

          Connect a local manager object to a remote manager process:

               >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
               >>> m = BaseManager(address=('127.0.0.1', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
               >>> m.connect()

      -- 方法: shutdown ()

          Stop the process used by the manager.  This is only available
          if *note start(): 2e55. has been used to start the server
          process.

          This can be called multiple times.

      -- 方法: register (typeid[, callable[, proxytype[, exposed[,
               method_to_typeid[, create_method]]]]])

          A classmethod which can be used for registering a type or
          callable with the manager class.

          'typeid' is a "type identifier" which is used to identify a
          particular type of shared object.  This must be a string.

          'callable' is a callable used for creating objects for this
          type identifier.  If a manager instance will be connected to
          the server using the *note connect(): 2e59. method, or if the
          'create_method' argument is ‘False’ then this can be left as
          ‘None’.

          'proxytype' is a subclass of *note BaseProxy: 2e5b. which is
          used to create proxies for shared objects with this 'typeid'.
          If ‘None’ then a proxy class is created automatically.

          'exposed' is used to specify a sequence of method names which
          proxies for this typeid should be allowed to access using
          *note BaseProxy._callmethod(): 2e5c.  (If 'exposed' is ‘None’
          then ‘proxytype._exposed_’ is used instead if it exists.)  In
          the case where no exposed list is specified, all "public
          methods" of the shared object will be accessible.  (Here a
          "public method" means any attribute which has a *note
          __call__(): 2dd. method and whose name does not begin with
          ‘'_'’.)

          'method_to_typeid' is a mapping used to specify the return
          type of those exposed methods which should return a proxy.  It
          maps method names to typeid strings.  (If 'method_to_typeid'
          is ‘None’ then ‘proxytype._method_to_typeid_’ is used instead
          if it exists.)  If a method's name is not a key of this
          mapping or if the mapping is ‘None’ then the object returned
          by the method will be copied by value.

          'create_method' determines whether a method should be created
          with name 'typeid' which can be used to tell the server
          process to create a new shared object and return a proxy for
          it.  By default it is ‘True’.

     *note BaseManager: 2e54. instances also have one read-only
     property:

      -- 屬性: address

          The address used by the manager.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Manager objects support the context management
     protocol - see *note 情境管理器型別: 1d52.  *note __enter__():
     1fe0. starts the server process (if it has not already started) and
     then returns the manager object.  *note __exit__(): 1fe1. calls
     *note shutdown(): 2e56.

     In previous versions *note __enter__(): 1fe0. did not start the
     manager's server process if it was not already started.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager

     A subclass of *note BaseManager: 2e54. which can be used for the
     synchronization of processes.  Objects of this type are returned by
     *note multiprocessing.Manager(): b27.

     Its methods create and return *note Proxy Objects: b26. for a
     number of commonly used data types to be synchronized across
     processes.  This notably includes shared lists and dictionaries.

      -- 方法: Barrier (parties[, action[, timeout]])

          Create a shared *note threading.Barrier: 1074. object and
          return a proxy for it.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: BoundedSemaphore ([value])

          Create a shared *note threading.BoundedSemaphore: fea. object
          and return a proxy for it.

      -- 方法: Condition ([lock])

          Create a shared *note threading.Condition: fe8. object and
          return a proxy for it.

          If 'lock' is supplied then it should be a proxy for a *note
          threading.Lock: 2de1. or *note threading.RLock: 25c. object.

          在 3.3 版的變更: The *note wait_for(): 2dea. method was added.

      -- 方法: Event ()

          Create a shared *note threading.Event: feb. object and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- 方法: Lock ()

          Create a shared *note threading.Lock: 2de1. object and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- 方法: Namespace ()

          Create a shared *note Namespace: 2e0d. object and return a
          proxy for it.

      -- 方法: Queue ([maxsize])

          Create a shared *note queue.Queue: 121d. object and return a
          proxy for it.

      -- 方法: RLock ()

          Create a shared *note threading.RLock: 25c. object and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- 方法: Semaphore ([value])

          Create a shared *note threading.Semaphore: fe9. object and
          return a proxy for it.

      -- 方法: Array (typecode, sequence)

          Create an array and return a proxy for it.

      -- 方法: Value (typecode, value)

          Create an object with a writable ‘value’ attribute and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- 方法: dict ()

      -- 方法: dict (mapping)

      -- 方法: dict (sequence)

          Create a shared *note dict: 239. object and return a proxy for
          it.

      -- 方法: list ()

      -- 方法: list (sequence)

          Create a shared *note list: 40a. object and return a proxy for
          it.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Shared objects are capable of being nested.  For
     example, a shared container object such as a shared list can
     contain other shared objects which will all be managed and
     synchronized by the *note SyncManager: 2e53.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.managers.Namespace

     A type that can register with *note SyncManager: 2e53.

     A namespace object has no public methods, but does have writable
     attributes.  Its representation shows the values of its attributes.

     However, when using a proxy for a namespace object, an attribute
     beginning with ‘'_'’ will be an attribute of the proxy and not an
     attribute of the referent:

          >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
          >>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
          >>> Global = manager.Namespace()
          >>> Global.x = 10
          >>> Global.y = 'hello'
          >>> Global._z = 12.3    # this is an attribute of the proxy
          >>> print(Global)
          Namespace(x=10, y='hello')

* Menu:

* Customized managers::
* Using a remote manager::


File: python.info,  Node: Customized managers,  Next: Using a remote manager,  Up: Managers

5.17.2.17 Customized managers
.............................

To create one's own manager, one creates a subclass of *note
BaseManager: 2e54. and uses the *note register(): 2e5a. classmethod to
register new types or callables with the manager class.  For example:

     from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager

     class MathsClass:
         def add(self, x, y):
             return x + y
         def mul(self, x, y):
             return x * y

     class MyManager(BaseManager):
         pass

     MyManager.register('Maths', MathsClass)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with MyManager() as manager:
             maths = manager.Maths()
             print(maths.add(4, 3))         # 印出 7
             print(maths.mul(7, 8))         # 印出 56


File: python.info,  Node: Using a remote manager,  Prev: Customized managers,  Up: Managers

5.17.2.18 Using a remote manager
................................

It is possible to run a manager server on one machine and have clients
use it from other machines (assuming that the firewalls involved allow
it).

Running the following commands creates a server for a single shared
queue which remote clients can access:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> from queue import Queue
     >>> queue = Queue()
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda:queue)
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> s = m.get_server()
     >>> s.serve_forever()

One client can access the server as follows:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> m.connect()
     >>> queue = m.get_queue()
     >>> queue.put('hello')

Another client can also use it:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> m.connect()
     >>> queue = m.get_queue()
     >>> queue.get()
     'hello'

Local processes can also access that queue, using the code from above on
the client to access it remotely:

     >>> from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class Worker(Process):
     ...     def __init__(self, q):
     ...         self.q = q
     ...         super().__init__()
     ...     def run(self):
     ...         self.q.put('local hello')
     ...
     >>> queue = Queue()
     >>> w = Worker(queue)
     >>> w.start()
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     ...
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda: queue)
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> s = m.get_server()
     >>> s.serve_forever()


File: python.info,  Node: Proxy Objects,  Next: Process Pools,  Prev: Managers,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.19 Proxy Objects
.......................

A proxy is an object which 'refers' to a shared object which lives
(presumably) in a different process.  The shared object is said to be
the 'referent' of the proxy.  Multiple proxy objects may have the same
referent.

A proxy object has methods which invoke corresponding methods of its
referent (although not every method of the referent will necessarily be
available through the proxy).  In this way, a proxy can be used just
like its referent can:

     >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
     >>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
     >>> l = manager.list([i*i for i in range(10)])
     >>> print(l)
     [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
     >>> print(repr(l))
     <ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at 0x...>
     >>> l[4]
     16
     >>> l[2:5]
     [4, 9, 16]

Notice that applying *note str(): 157. to a proxy will return the
representation of the referent, whereas applying *note repr(): 61e. will
return the representation of the proxy.

An important feature of proxy objects is that they are picklable so they
can be passed between processes.  As such, a referent can contain *note
Proxy Objects: b26.  This permits nesting of these managed lists, dicts,
and other *note Proxy Objects: b26.:

     >>> a = manager.list()
     >>> b = manager.list()
     >>> a.append(b)         # referent of a now contains referent of b
     >>> print(a, b)
     [<ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at ...>] []
     >>> b.append('hello')
     >>> print(a[0], b)
     ['hello'] ['hello']

Similarly, dict and list proxies may be nested inside one another:

     >>> l_outer = manager.list([ manager.dict() for i in range(2) ])
     >>> d_first_inner = l_outer[0]
     >>> d_first_inner['a'] = 1
     >>> d_first_inner['b'] = 2
     >>> l_outer[1]['c'] = 3
     >>> l_outer[1]['z'] = 26
     >>> print(l_outer[0])
     {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
     >>> print(l_outer[1])
     {'c': 3, 'z': 26}

If standard (non-proxy) *note list: 40a. or *note dict: 239. objects are
contained in a referent, modifications to those mutable values will not
be propagated through the manager because the proxy has no way of
knowing when the values contained within are modified.  However, storing
a value in a container proxy (which triggers a ‘__setitem__’ on the
proxy object) does propagate through the manager and so to effectively
modify such an item, one could re-assign the modified value to the
container proxy:

     # create a list proxy and append a mutable object (a dictionary)
     lproxy = manager.list()
     lproxy.append({})
     # now mutate the dictionary
     d = lproxy[0]
     d['a'] = 1
     d['b'] = 2
     # at this point, the changes to d are not yet synced, but by
     # updating the dictionary, the proxy is notified of the change
     lproxy[0] = d

This approach is perhaps less convenient than employing nested *note
Proxy Objects: b26. for most use cases but also demonstrates a level of
control over the synchronization.

     備註: The proxy types in *note multiprocessing: 8f. do nothing to
     support comparisons by value.  So, for instance, we have:

          >>> manager.list([1,2,3]) == [1,2,3]
          False

     One should just use a copy of the referent instead when making
     comparisons.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy

     Proxy objects are instances of subclasses of *note BaseProxy: 2e5b.

      -- 方法: _callmethod (methodname[, args[, kwds]])

          Call and return the result of a method of the proxy's
          referent.

          If ‘proxy’ is a proxy whose referent is ‘obj’ then the
          expression

               proxy._callmethod(methodname, args, kwds)

          will evaluate the expression

               getattr(obj, methodname)(*args, **kwds)

          in the manager's process.

          The returned value will be a copy of the result of the call or
          a proxy to a new shared object - see documentation for the
          'method_to_typeid' argument of *note BaseManager.register():
          2e5a.

          If an exception is raised by the call, then is re-raised by
          *note _callmethod(): 2e5c.  If some other exception is raised
          in the manager's process then this is converted into a
          ‘RemoteError’ exception and is raised by *note _callmethod():
          2e5c.

          Note in particular that an exception will be raised if
          'methodname' has not been 'exposed'.

          An example of the usage of *note _callmethod(): 2e5c.:

               >>> l = manager.list(range(10))
               >>> l._callmethod('__len__')
               10
               >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (slice(2, 7),)) # 等價於 l[2:7]
               [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
               >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (20,))          # 等價於 l[20]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               IndexError: list index out of range

      -- 方法: _getvalue ()

          Return a copy of the referent.

          If the referent is unpicklable then this will raise an
          exception.

      -- 方法: __repr__ ()

          Return a representation of the proxy object.

      -- 方法: __str__ ()

          Return the representation of the referent.

* Menu:

* Cleanup::


File: python.info,  Node: Cleanup,  Up: Proxy Objects

5.17.2.20 Cleanup
.................

A proxy object uses a weakref callback so that when it gets garbage
collected it deregisters itself from the manager which owns its
referent.

A shared object gets deleted from the manager process when there are no
longer any proxies referring to it.


File: python.info,  Node: Process Pools,  Next: Listeners and Clients,  Prev: Proxy Objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.21 Process Pools
.......................

One can create a pool of processes which will carry out tasks submitted
to it with the *note Pool: df8. class.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.pool.Pool ([processes[, initializer[,
          initargs[, maxtasksperchild[, context]]]]])

     A process pool object which controls a pool of worker processes to
     which jobs can be submitted.  It supports asynchronous results with
     timeouts and callbacks and has a parallel map implementation.

     'processes' is the number of worker processes to use.  If
     'processes' is ‘None’ then the number returned by *note
     os.cpu_count(): 63b. is used.

     If 'initializer' is not ‘None’ then each worker process will call
     ‘initializer(*initargs)’ when it starts.

     'maxtasksperchild' is the number of tasks a worker process can
     complete before it will exit and be replaced with a fresh worker
     process, to enable unused resources to be freed.  The default
     'maxtasksperchild' is ‘None’, which means worker processes will
     live as long as the pool.

     'context' can be used to specify the context used for starting the
     worker processes.  Usually a pool is created using the function
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool()’ or the *note Pool(): df8. method of a
     context object.  In both cases 'context' is set appropriately.

     Note that the methods of the pool object should only be called by
     the process which created the pool.

          警告: *note multiprocessing.pool: 93. objects have internal
          resources that need to be properly managed (like any other
          resource) by using the pool as a context manager or by calling
          *note close(): 2e71. and *note terminate(): 2e72. manually.
          Failure to do this can lead to the process hanging on
          finalization.

          Note that it is 'not correct' to rely on the garbage collector
          to destroy the pool as CPython does not assure that the
          finalizer of the pool will be called (see *note
          object.__del__(): 1cf2. for more information).

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'maxtasksperchild' 參數。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'context' 參數。

          備註: Worker processes within a *note Pool: df8. typically
          live for the complete duration of the Pool's work queue.  A
          frequent pattern found in other systems (such as Apache,
          mod_wsgi, etc) to free resources held by workers is to allow a
          worker within a pool to complete only a set amount of work
          before being exiting, being cleaned up and a new process
          spawned to replace the old one.  The 'maxtasksperchild'
          argument to the *note Pool: df8. exposes this ability to the
          end user.

      -- 方法: apply (func[, args[, kwds]])

          Call 'func' with arguments 'args' and keyword arguments
          'kwds'.  It blocks until the result is ready.  Given this
          blocks, *note apply_async(): 2e74. is better suited for
          performing work in parallel.  Additionally, 'func' is only
          executed in one of the workers of the pool.

      -- 方法: apply_async (func[, args[, kwds[, callback[,
               error_callback]]]])

          A variant of the *note apply(): 2e73. method which returns a
          *note AsyncResult: 2e75. object.

          If 'callback' is specified then it should be a callable which
          accepts a single argument.  When the result becomes ready
          'callback' is applied to it, that is unless the call failed,
          in which case the 'error_callback' is applied instead.

          If 'error_callback' is specified then it should be a callable
          which accepts a single argument.  If the target function
          fails, then the 'error_callback' is called with the exception
          instance.

          Callbacks should complete immediately since otherwise the
          thread which handles the results will get blocked.

      -- 方法: map (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          A parallel equivalent of the *note map(): 68f. built-in
          function (it supports only one 'iterable' argument though, for
          multiple iterables see *note starmap(): f70.).  It blocks
          until the result is ready.

          This method chops the iterable into a number of chunks which
          it submits to the process pool as separate tasks.  The
          (approximate) size of these chunks can be specified by setting
          'chunksize' to a positive integer.

          Note that it may cause high memory usage for very long
          iterables.  Consider using *note imap(): 2e76. or *note
          imap_unordered(): 2e77. with explicit 'chunksize' option for
          better efficiency.

      -- 方法: map_async (func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[,
               error_callback]]])

          A variant of the *note map(): f73. method which returns a
          *note AsyncResult: 2e75. object.

          If 'callback' is specified then it should be a callable which
          accepts a single argument.  When the result becomes ready
          'callback' is applied to it, that is unless the call failed,
          in which case the 'error_callback' is applied instead.

          If 'error_callback' is specified then it should be a callable
          which accepts a single argument.  If the target function
          fails, then the 'error_callback' is called with the exception
          instance.

          Callbacks should complete immediately since otherwise the
          thread which handles the results will get blocked.

      -- 方法: imap (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          A lazier version of *note map(): f73.

          The 'chunksize' argument is the same as the one used by the
          *note map(): f73. method.  For very long iterables using a
          large value for 'chunksize' can make the job complete 'much'
          faster than using the default value of ‘1’.

          Also if 'chunksize' is ‘1’ then the ‘next()’ method of the
          iterator returned by the *note imap(): 2e76. method has an
          optional 'timeout' parameter: ‘next(timeout)’ will raise *note
          multiprocessing.TimeoutError: 2e23. if the result cannot be
          returned within 'timeout' seconds.

      -- 方法: imap_unordered (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          The same as *note imap(): 2e76. except that the ordering of
          the results from the returned iterator should be considered
          arbitrary.  (Only when there is only one worker process is the
          order guaranteed to be "correct".)

      -- 方法: starmap (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          Like *note map(): f73. except that the elements of the
          'iterable' are expected to be iterables that are unpacked as
          arguments.

          Hence an 'iterable' of ‘[(1,2), (3, 4)]’ results in
          ‘[func(1,2), func(3,4)]’.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: starmap_async (func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[,
               error_callback]]])

          A combination of *note starmap(): f70. and *note map_async():
          f74. that iterates over 'iterable' of iterables and calls
          'func' with the iterables unpacked.  Returns a result object.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Prevents any more tasks from being submitted to the pool.
          Once all the tasks have been completed the worker processes
          will exit.

      -- 方法: terminate ()

          Stops the worker processes immediately without completing
          outstanding work.  When the pool object is garbage collected
          *note terminate(): 2e72. will be called immediately.

      -- 方法: join ()

          Wait for the worker processes to exit.  One must call *note
          close(): 2e71. or *note terminate(): 2e72. before using *note
          join(): 2e78.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Pool objects now support the context management
     protocol - see *note 情境管理器型別: 1d52.  *note __enter__():
     1fe0. returns the pool object, and *note __exit__(): 1fe1. calls
     *note terminate(): 2e72.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult

     The class of the result returned by *note Pool.apply_async(): 2e74.
     and *note Pool.map_async(): f74.

      -- 方法: get ([timeout])

          Return the result when it arrives.  If 'timeout' is not ‘None’
          and the result does not arrive within 'timeout' seconds then
          *note multiprocessing.TimeoutError: 2e23. is raised.  If the
          remote call raised an exception then that exception will be
          reraised by *note get(): 2e79.

      -- 方法: wait ([timeout])

          Wait until the result is available or until 'timeout' seconds
          pass.

      -- 方法: ready ()

          Return whether the call has completed.

      -- 方法: successful ()

          Return whether the call completed without raising an
          exception.  Will raise *note ValueError: 183. if the result is
          not ready.

          在 3.7 版的變更: If the result is not ready, *note ValueError:
          183. is raised instead of *note AssertionError: 4a6.

The following example demonstrates the use of a pool:

     from multiprocessing import Pool
     import time

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with Pool(processes=4) as pool:         # start 4 worker processes
             result = pool.apply_async(f, (10,)) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously in a single process
             print(result.get(timeout=1))        # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow

             print(pool.map(f, range(10)))       # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"

             it = pool.imap(f, range(10))
             print(next(it))                     # prints "0"
             print(next(it))                     # prints "1"
             print(it.next(timeout=1))           # prints "4" unless your computer is *very* slow

             result = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
             print(result.get(timeout=1))        # raises multiprocessing.TimeoutError


File: python.info,  Node: Listeners and Clients,  Next: Authentication keys,  Prev: Process Pools,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.22 Listeners and Clients
...............................

Usually message passing between processes is done using queues or by
using *note Connection: 144b. objects returned by *note Pipe(): 2e08.

However, the *note multiprocessing.connection: 90. module allows some
extra flexibility.  It basically gives a high level message oriented API
for dealing with sockets or Windows named pipes.  It also has support
for 'digest authentication' using the *note hmac: 65. module, and for
polling multiple connections at the same time.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.connection.deliver_challenge (connection,
          authkey)

     Send a randomly generated message to the other end of the
     connection and wait for a reply.

     If the reply matches the digest of the message using 'authkey' as
     the key then a welcome message is sent to the other end of the
     connection.  Otherwise *note AuthenticationError: 2e22. is raised.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.connection.answer_challenge (connection,
          authkey)

     Receive a message, calculate the digest of the message using
     'authkey' as the key, and then send the digest back.

     If a welcome message is not received, then *note
     AuthenticationError: 2e22. is raised.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.connection.Client (address[, family[,
          authkey]])

     Attempt to set up a connection to the listener which is using
     address 'address', returning a *note Connection: 144b.

     The type of the connection is determined by 'family' argument, but
     this can generally be omitted since it can usually be inferred from
     the format of 'address'.  (See *note Address Formats: 2e81.)

     If 'authkey' is given and not ‘None’, it should be a byte string
     and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication
     challenge.  No authentication is done if 'authkey' is ‘None’.
     *note AuthenticationError: 2e22. is raised if authentication fails.
     See *note Authentication keys: 2e1e.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.connection.Listener ([address[, family[,
          backlog[, authkey]]]])

     A wrapper for a bound socket or Windows named pipe which is
     'listening' for connections.

     'address' is the address to be used by the bound socket or named
     pipe of the listener object.

          備註: If an address of '0.0.0.0' is used, the address will not
          be a connectable end point on Windows.  If you require a
          connectable end-point, you should use '127.0.0.1'.

     'family' is the type of socket (or named pipe) to use.  This can be
     one of the strings ‘'AF_INET'’ (for a TCP socket), ‘'AF_UNIX'’ (for
     a Unix domain socket) or ‘'AF_PIPE'’ (for a Windows named pipe).
     Of these only the first is guaranteed to be available.  If 'family'
     is ‘None’ then the family is inferred from the format of 'address'.
     If 'address' is also ‘None’ then a default is chosen.  This default
     is the family which is assumed to be the fastest available.  See
     *note Address Formats: 2e81.  Note that if 'family' is ‘'AF_UNIX'’
     and address is ‘None’ then the socket will be created in a private
     temporary directory created using *note tempfile.mkstemp(): 25c8.

     If the listener object uses a socket then 'backlog' (1 by default)
     is passed to the *note listen(): cdc. method of the socket once it
     has been bound.

     If 'authkey' is given and not ‘None’, it should be a byte string
     and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication
     challenge.  No authentication is done if 'authkey' is ‘None’.
     *note AuthenticationError: 2e22. is raised if authentication fails.
     See *note Authentication keys: 2e1e.

      -- 方法: accept ()

          Accept a connection on the bound socket or named pipe of the
          listener object and return a *note Connection: 144b. object.
          If authentication is attempted and fails, then *note
          AuthenticationError: 2e22. is raised.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Close the bound socket or named pipe of the listener object.
          This is called automatically when the listener is garbage
          collected.  However it is advisable to call it explicitly.

     Listener objects have the following read-only properties:

      -- 屬性: address

          The address which is being used by the Listener object.

      -- 屬性: last_accepted

          The address from which the last accepted connection came.  If
          this is unavailable then it is ‘None’.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Listener objects now support the context
     management protocol - see *note 情境管理器型別: 1d52.  *note
     __enter__(): 1fe0. returns the listener object, and *note
     __exit__(): 1fe1. calls *note close(): 2e82.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.connection.wait (object_list, timeout=None)

     Wait till an object in 'object_list' is ready.  Returns the list of
     those objects in 'object_list' which are ready.  If 'timeout' is a
     float then the call blocks for at most that many seconds.  If
     'timeout' is ‘None’ then it will block for an unlimited period.  A
     negative timeout is equivalent to a zero timeout.

     For both POSIX and Windows, an object can appear in 'object_list'
     if it is

        * a readable *note Connection: 144b. object;

        * a connected and readable *note socket.socket: c18. object; or

        * the *note sentinel: f6f. attribute of a *note Process: 9b4.
          object.

     A connection or socket object is ready when there is data available
     to be read from it, or the other end has been closed.

     'POSIX': ‘wait(object_list, timeout)’ almost equivalent
     ‘select.select(object_list, [], [], timeout)’.  The difference is
     that, if *note select.select(): c17. is interrupted by a signal, it
     can raise *note OSError: 644. with an error number of ‘EINTR’,
     whereas *note wait(): f6e. will not.

     'Windows': An item in 'object_list' must either be an integer
     handle which is waitable (according to the definition used by the
     documentation of the Win32 function ‘WaitForMultipleObjects()’) or
     it can be an object with a *note fileno(): 25ca. method which
     returns a socket handle or pipe handle.  (Note that pipe handles
     and socket handles are 'not' waitable handles.)

     在 3.3 版被加入.

'Examples'

The following server code creates a listener which uses ‘'secret
password'’ as an authentication key.  It then waits for a connection and
sends some data to the client:

     from multiprocessing.connection import Listener
     from array import array

     address = ('localhost', 6000)     # family is deduced to be 'AF_INET'

     with Listener(address, authkey=b'secret password') as listener:
         with listener.accept() as conn:
             print('connection accepted from', listener.last_accepted)

             conn.send([2.25, None, 'junk', float])

             conn.send_bytes(b'hello')

             conn.send_bytes(array('i', [42, 1729]))

The following code connects to the server and receives some data from
the server:

     from multiprocessing.connection import Client
     from array import array

     address = ('localhost', 6000)

     with Client(address, authkey=b'secret password') as conn:
         print(conn.recv())                  # => [2.25, None, 'junk', float]

         print(conn.recv_bytes())            # => 'hello'

         arr = array('i', [0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
         print(conn.recv_bytes_into(arr))    # => 8
         print(arr)                          # => array('i', [42, 1729, 0, 0, 0])

The following code uses *note wait(): f6e. to wait for messages from
multiple processes at once:

     import time, random
     from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe, current_process
     from multiprocessing.connection import wait

     def foo(w):
         for i in range(10):
             w.send((i, current_process().name))
         w.close()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         readers = []

         for i in range(4):
             r, w = Pipe(duplex=False)
             readers.append(r)
             p = Process(target=foo, args=(w,))
             p.start()
             # We close the writable end of the pipe now to be sure that
             # p is the only process which owns a handle for it.  This
             # ensures that when p closes its handle for the writable end,
             # wait() will promptly report the readable end as being ready.
             w.close()

         while readers:
             for r in wait(readers):
                 try:
                     msg = r.recv()
                 except EOFError:
                     readers.remove(r)
                 else:
                     print(msg)

* Menu:

* Address Formats::


File: python.info,  Node: Address Formats,  Up: Listeners and Clients

5.17.2.23 Address Formats
.........................

   * An ‘'AF_INET'’ address is a tuple of the form ‘(hostname, port)’
     where 'hostname' is a string and 'port' is an integer.

   * An ‘'AF_UNIX'’ address is a string representing a filename on the
     filesystem.

   * An ‘'AF_PIPE'’ address is a string of the form
     ‘r'\\.\pipe\PIPENAME'’.  To use *note Client(): 2e80. to connect to
     a named pipe on a remote computer called 'ServerName' one should
     use an address of the form ‘r'\\SERVERNAME\pipe\PIPENAME'’ instead.

Note that any string beginning with two backslashes is assumed by
default to be an ‘'AF_PIPE'’ address rather than an ‘'AF_UNIX'’ address.


File: python.info,  Node: Authentication keys,  Next: Logging,  Prev: Listeners and Clients,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.24 Authentication keys
.............................

When one uses *note Connection.recv: 2e3e, the data received is
automatically unpickled.  Unfortunately unpickling data from an
untrusted source is a security risk.  Therefore *note Listener: 144a.
and *note Client(): 2e80. use the *note hmac: 65. module to provide
digest authentication.

An authentication key is a byte string which can be thought of as a
password: once a connection is established both ends will demand proof
that the other knows the authentication key.  (Demonstrating that both
ends are using the same key does 'not' involve sending the key over the
connection.)

If authentication is requested but no authentication key is specified
then the return value of ‘current_process().authkey’ is used (see *note
Process: 9b4.).  This value will be automatically inherited by any *note
Process: 9b4. object that the current process creates.  This means that
(by default) all processes of a multi-process program will share a
single authentication key which can be used when setting up connections
between themselves.

Suitable authentication keys can also be generated by using *note
os.urandom(): 2a3.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging,  Next: multiprocessing dummy 模組,  Prev: Authentication keys,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.25 Logging
.................

Some support for logging is available.  Note, however, that the *note
logging: 82. package does not use process shared locks so it is possible
(depending on the handler type) for messages from different processes to
get mixed up.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.get_logger ()

     Returns the logger used by *note multiprocessing: 8f.  If
     necessary, a new one will be created.

     When first created the logger has level *note logging.NOTSET: 2a4c.
     and no default handler.  Messages sent to this logger will not by
     default propagate to the root logger.

     Note that on Windows child processes will only inherit the level of
     the parent process's logger - any other customization of the logger
     will not be inherited.

 -- 函式: multiprocessing.log_to_stderr (level=None)

     This function performs a call to *note get_logger(): 2e88. but in
     addition to returning the logger created by get_logger, it adds a
     handler which sends output to *note sys.stderr: 778. using format
     ‘'[%(levelname)s/%(processName)s] %(message)s'’.  You can modify
     ‘levelname’ of the logger by passing a ‘level’ argument.

Below is an example session with logging turned on:

     >>> import multiprocessing, logging
     >>> logger = multiprocessing.log_to_stderr()
     >>> logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     >>> logger.warning('doomed')
     [WARNING/MainProcess] doomed
     >>> m = multiprocessing.Manager()
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] child process calling self.run()
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] created temp directory /.../pymp-...
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager serving at '/.../listener-...'
     >>> del m
     [INFO/MainProcess] sending shutdown message to manager
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager exiting with exitcode 0

For a full table of logging levels, see the *note logging: 82. module.


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing dummy 模組,  Prev: Logging,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.26 ‘multiprocessing.dummy’ 模組
......................................

*note multiprocessing.dummy: 91. replicates the API of *note
multiprocessing: 8f. but is no more than a wrapper around the *note
threading: e7. module.

In particular, the ‘Pool’ function provided by *note
multiprocessing.dummy: 91. returns an instance of *note ThreadPool:
16e6, which is a subclass of *note Pool: df8. that supports all the same
method calls but uses a pool of worker threads rather than worker
processes.

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool ([processes[, initializer[,
          initargs]]])

     A thread pool object which controls a pool of worker threads to
     which jobs can be submitted.  *note ThreadPool: 16e6. instances are
     fully interface compatible with *note Pool: df8. instances, and
     their resources must also be properly managed, either by using the
     pool as a context manager or by calling *note close(): 2e71. and
     *note terminate(): 2e72. manually.

     'processes' is the number of worker threads to use.  If 'processes'
     is ‘None’ then the number returned by *note os.cpu_count(): 63b. is
     used.

     If 'initializer' is not ‘None’ then each worker process will call
     ‘initializer(*initargs)’ when it starts.

     Unlike *note Pool: df8, 'maxtasksperchild' and 'context' cannot be
     provided.

          備註: A *note ThreadPool: 16e6. shares the same interface as
          *note Pool: df8, which is designed around a pool of processes
          and predates the introduction of the *note concurrent.futures:
          1f. module.  As such, it inherits some operations that don't
          make sense for a pool backed by threads, and it has its own
          type for representing the status of asynchronous jobs, *note
          AsyncResult: 2e75, that is not understood by any other
          libraries.

          Users should generally prefer to use *note
          concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 555, which has a
          simpler interface that was designed around threads from the
          start, and which returns *note concurrent.futures.Future:
          1043. instances that are compatible with many other libraries,
          including *note asyncio: 9.


File: python.info,  Node: Programming guidelines,  Next: 範例<18>,  Prev: Reference<2>,  Up: multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性

5.17.2.27 Programming guidelines
................................

There are certain guidelines and idioms which should be adhered to when
using *note multiprocessing: 8f.

* Menu:

* All start methods::
* The spawn and forkserver start methods::


File: python.info,  Node: All start methods,  Next: The spawn and forkserver start methods,  Up: Programming guidelines

5.17.2.28 All start methods
...........................

The following applies to all start methods.

Avoid shared state

     As far as possible one should try to avoid shifting large amounts
     of data between processes.

     It is probably best to stick to using queues or pipes for
     communication between processes rather than using the lower level
     synchronization primitives.

Picklability

     Ensure that the arguments to the methods of proxies are picklable.

Thread safety of proxies

     Do not use a proxy object from more than one thread unless you
     protect it with a lock.

     (There is never a problem with different processes using the 'same'
     proxy.)

Joining zombie processes

     On POSIX when a process finishes but has not been joined it becomes
     a zombie.  There should never be very many because each time a new
     process starts (or *note active_children(): 2e37. is called) all
     completed processes which have not yet been joined will be joined.
     Also calling a finished process's *note Process.is_alive: 2e1b.
     will join the process.  Even so it is probably good practice to
     explicitly join all the processes that you start.

Better to inherit than pickle/unpickle

     When using the 'spawn' or 'forkserver' start methods many types
     from *note multiprocessing: 8f. need to be picklable so that child
     processes can use them.  However, one should generally avoid
     sending shared objects to other processes using pipes or queues.
     Instead you should arrange the program so that a process which
     needs access to a shared resource created elsewhere can inherit it
     from an ancestor process.

Avoid terminating processes

     Using the *note Process.terminate: 2e1f. method to stop a process
     is liable to cause any shared resources (such as locks, semaphores,
     pipes and queues) currently being used by the process to become
     broken or unavailable to other processes.

     Therefore it is probably best to only consider using *note
     Process.terminate: 2e1f. on processes which never use any shared
     resources.

Joining processes that use queues

     Bear in mind that a process that has put items in a queue will wait
     before terminating until all the buffered items are fed by the
     "feeder" thread to the underlying pipe.  (The child process can
     call the *note Queue.cancel_join_thread: 2e2d. method of the queue
     to avoid this behaviour.)

     This means that whenever you use a queue you need to make sure that
     all items which have been put on the queue will eventually be
     removed before the process is joined.  Otherwise you cannot be sure
     that processes which have put items on the queue will terminate.
     Remember also that non-daemonic processes will be joined
     automatically.

     An example which will deadlock is the following:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

          def f(q):
              q.put('X' * 1000000)

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              queue = Queue()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(queue,))
              p.start()
              p.join()                    # this deadlocks
              obj = queue.get()

     A fix here would be to swap the last two lines (or simply remove
     the ‘p.join()’ line).

Explicitly pass resources to child processes

     On POSIX using the 'fork' start method, a child process can make
     use of a shared resource created in a parent process using a global
     resource.  However, it is better to pass the object as an argument
     to the constructor for the child process.

     Apart from making the code (potentially) compatible with Windows
     and the other start methods this also ensures that as long as the
     child process is still alive the object will not be garbage
     collected in the parent process.  This might be important if some
     resource is freed when the object is garbage collected in the
     parent process.

     So for instance

          from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

          def f():
              ... do something using "lock" ...

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              lock = Lock()
              for i in range(10):
                  Process(target=f).start()

     should be rewritten as

          from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

          def f(l):
              ... do something using "l" ...

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              lock = Lock()
              for i in range(10):
                  Process(target=f, args=(lock,)).start()

Beware of replacing *note sys.stdin: 2bf. with a "file like object"

     *note multiprocessing: 8f. originally unconditionally called:

          os.close(sys.stdin.fileno())

     in the ‘multiprocessing.Process._bootstrap()’ method -- this
     resulted in issues with processes-in-processes.  This has been
     changed to:

          sys.stdin.close()
          sys.stdin = open(os.open(os.devnull, os.O_RDONLY), closefd=False)

     Which solves the fundamental issue of processes colliding with each
     other resulting in a bad file descriptor error, but introduces a
     potential danger to applications which replace *note sys.stdin():
     2bf. with a "file-like object" with output buffering.  This danger
     is that if multiple processes call *note close(): 1811. on this
     file-like object, it could result in the same data being flushed to
     the object multiple times, resulting in corruption.

     If you write a file-like object and implement your own caching, you
     can make it fork-safe by storing the pid whenever you append to the
     cache, and discarding the cache when the pid changes.  For example:

          @property
          def cache(self):
              pid = os.getpid()
              if pid != self._pid:
                  self._pid = pid
                  self._cache = []
              return self._cache

     For more information, see bpo-5155(1), bpo-5313(2) and bpo-5331(3)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5155

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5313

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5331


File: python.info,  Node: The spawn and forkserver start methods,  Prev: All start methods,  Up: Programming guidelines

5.17.2.29 The 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods
....................................................

There are a few extra restrictions which don't apply to the 'fork' start
method.

More picklability

     Ensure that all arguments to ‘Process.__init__()’ are picklable.
     Also, if you subclass *note Process: 9b4. then make sure that
     instances will be picklable when the *note Process.start: 2e03.
     method is called.

Global variables

     Bear in mind that if code run in a child process tries to access a
     global variable, then the value it sees (if any) may not be the
     same as the value in the parent process at the time that *note
     Process.start: 2e03. was called.

     However, global variables which are just module level constants
     cause no problems.
Safe importing of main module

     Make sure that the main module can be safely imported by a new
     Python interpreter without causing unintended side effects (such as
     starting a new process).

     For example, using the 'spawn' or 'forkserver' start method running
     the following module would fail with a *note RuntimeError: 17a.:

          from multiprocessing import Process

          def foo():
              print('hello')

          p = Process(target=foo)
          p.start()

     Instead one should protect the "entry point" of the program by
     using ‘if __name__ == '__main__':’ as follows:

          from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support, set_start_method

          def foo():
              print('hello')

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              freeze_support()
              set_start_method('spawn')
              p = Process(target=foo)
              p.start()

     (The ‘freeze_support()’ line can be omitted if the program will be
     run normally instead of frozen.)

     This allows the newly spawned Python interpreter to safely import
     the module and then run the module's ‘foo()’ function.

     Similar restrictions apply if a pool or manager is created in the
     main module.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<18>,  Prev: Programming guidelines,  Up: multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性

5.17.2.30 範例
..............

Demonstration of how to create and use customized managers and proxies:

     from multiprocessing import freeze_support
     from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager, BaseProxy
     import operator

     ##

     class Foo:
         def f(self):
             print('you called Foo.f()')
         def g(self):
             print('you called Foo.g()')
         def _h(self):
             print('you called Foo._h()')

     # A simple generator function
     def baz():
         for i in range(10):
             yield i*i

     # Proxy type for generator objects
     class GeneratorProxy(BaseProxy):
         _exposed_ = ['__next__']
         def __iter__(self):
             return self
         def __next__(self):
             return self._callmethod('__next__')

     # Function to return the operator module
     def get_operator_module():
         return operator

     ##

     class MyManager(BaseManager):
         pass

     # register the Foo class; make `f()` and `g()` accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('Foo1', Foo)

     # register the Foo class; make `g()` and `_h()` accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('Foo2', Foo, exposed=('g', '_h'))

     # register the generator function baz; use `GeneratorProxy` to make proxies
     MyManager.register('baz', baz, proxytype=GeneratorProxy)

     # register get_operator_module(); make public functions accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('operator', get_operator_module)

     ##

     def test():
         manager = MyManager()
         manager.start()

         print('-' * 20)

         f1 = manager.Foo1()
         f1.f()
         f1.g()
         assert not hasattr(f1, '_h')
         assert sorted(f1._exposed_) == sorted(['f', 'g'])

         print('-' * 20)

         f2 = manager.Foo2()
         f2.g()
         f2._h()
         assert not hasattr(f2, 'f')
         assert sorted(f2._exposed_) == sorted(['g', '_h'])

         print('-' * 20)

         it = manager.baz()
         for i in it:
             print('<%d>' % i, end=' ')
         print()

         print('-' * 20)

         op = manager.operator()
         print('op.add(23, 45) =', op.add(23, 45))
         print('op.pow(2, 94) =', op.pow(2, 94))
         print('op._exposed_ =', op._exposed_)

     ##

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         freeze_support()
         test()

使用 *note Pool: df8.：

     import multiprocessing
     import time
     import random
     import sys

     #
     # Functions used by test code
     #

     def calculate(func, args):
         result = func(*args)
         return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % (
             multiprocessing.current_process().name,
             func.__name__, args, result
             )

     def calculatestar(args):
         return calculate(*args)

     def mul(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
         return a * b

     def plus(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
         return a + b

     def f(x):
         return 1.0 / (x - 5.0)

     def pow3(x):
         return x ** 3

     def noop(x):
         pass

     #
     # Test code
     #

     def test():
         PROCESSES = 4
         print('Creating pool with %d processes\n' % PROCESSES)

         with multiprocessing.Pool(PROCESSES) as pool:
             #
             # Tests
             #

             TASKS = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(10)] + \
                     [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

             results = [pool.apply_async(calculate, t) for t in TASKS]
             imap_it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
             imap_unordered_it = pool.imap_unordered(calculatestar, TASKS)

             print('Ordered results using pool.apply_async():')
             for r in results:
                 print('\t', r.get())
             print()

             print('Ordered results using pool.imap():')
             for x in imap_it:
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             print('Unordered results using pool.imap_unordered():')
             for x in imap_unordered_it:
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             print('Ordered results using pool.map() --- will block till complete:')
             for x in pool.map(calculatestar, TASKS):
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             #
             # Test error handling
             #

             print('Testing error handling:')

             try:
                 print(pool.apply(f, (5,)))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.apply()')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             try:
                 print(pool.map(f, list(range(10))))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.map()')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             try:
                 print(list(pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from list(pool.imap())')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             it = pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))
             for i in range(10):
                 try:
                     x = next(it)
                 except ZeroDivisionError:
                     if i == 5:
                         pass
                 except StopIteration:
                     break
                 else:
                     if i == 5:
                         raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             assert i == 9
             print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from IMapIterator.next()')
             print()

             #
             # Testing timeouts
             #

             print('Testing ApplyResult.get() with timeout:', end=' ')
             res = pool.apply_async(calculate, TASKS[0])
             while 1:
                 sys.stdout.flush()
                 try:
                     sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % res.get(0.02))
                     break
                 except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                     sys.stdout.write('.')
             print()
             print()

             print('Testing IMapIterator.next() with timeout:', end=' ')
             it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
             while 1:
                 sys.stdout.flush()
                 try:
                     sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % it.next(0.02))
                 except StopIteration:
                     break
                 except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                     sys.stdout.write('.')
             print()
             print()


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         multiprocessing.freeze_support()
         test()

An example showing how to use queues to feed tasks to a collection of
worker processes and collect the results:

     import time
     import random

     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, current_process, freeze_support

     #
     # Function run by worker processes
     #

     def worker(input, output):
         for func, args in iter(input.get, 'STOP'):
             result = calculate(func, args)
             output.put(result)

     #
     # Function used to calculate result
     #

     def calculate(func, args):
         result = func(*args)
         return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % \
             (current_process().name, func.__name__, args, result)

     #
     # Functions referenced by tasks
     #

     def mul(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
         return a * b

     def plus(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
         return a + b

     #
     #
     #

     def test():
         NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES = 4
         TASKS1 = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(20)]
         TASKS2 = [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

         # Create queues
         task_queue = Queue()
         done_queue = Queue()

         # Submit tasks
         for task in TASKS1:
             task_queue.put(task)

         # Start worker processes
         for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
             Process(target=worker, args=(task_queue, done_queue)).start()

         # Get and print results
         print('Unordered results:')
         for i in range(len(TASKS1)):
             print('\t', done_queue.get())

         # Add more tasks using `put()`
         for task in TASKS2:
             task_queue.put(task)

         # Get and print some more results
         for i in range(len(TASKS2)):
             print('\t', done_queue.get())

         # Tell child processes to stop
         for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
             task_queue.put('STOP')


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         freeze_support()
         test()


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取,  Next: concurrent 套件,  Prev: multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性,  Up: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution

5.17.3 ‘multiprocessing.shared_memory’ -- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取
------------------------------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py(1)

在 3.8 版被加入.

__________________________________________________________________

該模組提供了一個 *note SharedMemory: 1434. 類別，用於分配和管理被多核心
或對稱多處理器 (symmetric multiprocessor, SMP) 機器上的一個或多個行程存
取的共享記憶體。為了協助共享記憶體的生命週期管理，特別是跨不同行程的管理
，*note multiprocessing.managers: 92. 模組中還提供了一個 *note
BaseManager: 2e54. 子類別 *note SharedMemoryManager: 2e92.。

在此模組中，共享記憶體是指「POSIX 風格」的共享記憶體區塊（儘管不一定如此
明確實作），而不是指「分散式共享記憶體 (distributed shared memory)」。這
種型別的共享記憶體允許不同的行程潛在地讀取和寫入揮發性記憶體 (volatile
memory) 的公開（或共享）區域。通常行程只能存取自己的行程記憶體空間，但共
享記憶體允許在行程之間共享資料，從而避免需要跨行程傳遞資料的情境。與透過
硬碟或 socket 或其他需要序列化/還原序列化
(serialization/deserialization) 和複製資料的通訊方式以共享資料相比，直接
透過記憶體共享資料可以提供顯著的性能優勢。

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory (name=None,
          create=False, size=0)

     建立 ‘SharedMemory’ 類別的實例，用於建立新的共享記憶體區塊或附加到
     現有的共享記憶體區塊。每個共享記憶體區塊都被分配了一個唯一的名稱。
     透過這種方式，一個行程可以建立具有特定名稱的共享記憶體區塊，而不同
     的行程可以使用該相同名稱附加到同一共享記憶體塊。

     作為跨行程共享資料的資源，共享記憶體區塊的壽命可能比建立它們的原始
     行程還要長。當一個行程不再需要存取但其他行程可能仍需要的共享記憶體
     區塊時，應該呼叫 *note close(): 2e93. 方法。當任何行程不再需要共享
     記憶體區塊時，應呼叫 *note unlink(): 2e94. 方法以確保正確清理。


     參數:

        * ‘name’ (*note str: 157.‘ | ’‘None’) - 所請求的共享記憶體的唯一
          名稱，指定為字串。建立新的共享記憶體區塊時，如果名稱提供為
          ‘None’（預設值），則會生成一個新的名稱。

        * ‘create’ (*note bool: 17d.) - 控制是否建立新的共享記憶體區塊
          (‘True’) 或附加現有的共享記憶體區塊 (‘False’)。

        * ‘size’ (*note int: 17e.) - 指定建立新共享記憶體區塊時請求的位
          元組數。由於某些平台會根據該平台的記憶體頁 (memory page) 大小
          來選擇分配記憶體區塊，因此共享記憶體區塊的確切大小可能大於或等
          於請求的大小。當附加到現有共享記憶體區塊時，‘size’ 參數將被忽
          略。

      -- 方法: close ()

          關閉從此實例對共享記憶體的存取。為了確保正確清理資源，一旦實例
          不再被需要，所有實例都應該呼叫 *note close(): 2e93.。請注意，
          呼叫 ‘close()’ 不會使得共享記憶體區塊本身被銷毀。

      -- 方法: unlink ()

          請求銷毀底層共享記憶體區塊。為了確保正確清理資源，應該在需要共
          享記憶體區塊的所有行程中呼叫一次（且僅一次）*note unlink():
          2e94.。請求銷毀後，共享記憶體區塊可能會也可能不會立即銷毀，此
          行為可能因平台而異。呼叫 ‘unlink()’ 後嘗試存取共享記憶體區塊內
          的資料可能會導致記憶體存取錯誤。注意：最後一個放棄持有某共享記
          憶體區塊的行程可以按任意順序呼叫 ‘unlink()’ 和 *note close():
          2e93.。

      -- 屬性: buf

          共享記憶體區塊內容的記憶體視圖 (memoryview)。

      -- 屬性: name

          對共享記憶體區塊之唯一名稱的唯讀存取。

      -- 屬性: size

          對共享記憶體區塊大小（以位元組為單位）的唯讀存取。

以下範例示範了 *note SharedMemory: 1434. 實例的低階使用方式：

     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> shm_a = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=10)
     >>> type(shm_a.buf)
     <class 'memoryview'>
     >>> buffer = shm_a.buf
     >>> len(buffer)
     10
     >>> buffer[:4] = bytearray([22, 33, 44, 55])  # Modify multiple at once
     >>> buffer[4] = 100                           # Modify single byte at a time
     >>> # Attach to an existing shared memory block
     >>> shm_b = shared_memory.SharedMemory(shm_a.name)
     >>> import array
     >>> array.array('b', shm_b.buf[:5])  # Copy the data into a new array.array
     array('b', [22, 33, 44, 55, 100])
     >>> shm_b.buf[:5] = b'howdy'  # Modify via shm_b using bytes
     >>> bytes(shm_a.buf[:5])      # Access via shm_a
     b'howdy'
     >>> shm_b.close()   # Close each SharedMemory instance
     >>> shm_a.close()
     >>> shm_a.unlink()  # Call unlink only once to release the shared memory

以下範例示範了 *note SharedMemory: 1434. 類別與 NumPy 陣列(2)的實際用法
：從兩個不同的 Python shell 存取相同的 ‘numpy.ndarray’：

     >>> # In the first Python interactive shell
     >>> import numpy as np
     >>> a = np.array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])  # Start with an existing NumPy array
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=a.nbytes)
     >>> # Now create a NumPy array backed by shared memory
     >>> b = np.ndarray(a.shape, dtype=a.dtype, buffer=shm.buf)
     >>> b[:] = a[:]  # Copy the original data into shared memory
     >>> b
     array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
     >>> type(b)
     <class 'numpy.ndarray'>
     >>> type(a)
     <class 'numpy.ndarray'>
     >>> shm.name  # We did not specify a name so one was chosen for us
     'psm_21467_46075'

     >>> # In either the same shell or a new Python shell on the same machine
     >>> import numpy as np
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> # Attach to the existing shared memory block
     >>> existing_shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(name='psm_21467_46075')
     >>> # Note that a.shape is (6,) and a.dtype is np.int64 in this example
     >>> c = np.ndarray((6,), dtype=np.int64, buffer=existing_shm.buf)
     >>> c
     array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
     >>> c[-1] = 888
     >>> c
     array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

     >>> # Back in the first Python interactive shell, b reflects this change
     >>> b
     array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

     >>> # Clean up from within the second Python shell
     >>> del c  # Unnecessary; merely emphasizing the array is no longer used
     >>> existing_shm.close()

     >>> # Clean up from within the first Python shell
     >>> del b  # Unnecessary; merely emphasizing the array is no longer used
     >>> shm.close()
     >>> shm.unlink()  # Free and release the shared memory block at the very end

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager ([address[,
          authkey]])

     *note multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager: 2e54. 的子類別，可用於
     跨行程管理共享記憶體區塊。

     在 ‘SharedMemoryManager’ 實例上呼叫 *note start(): 2e55. 會啟動一個
     新行程。這個新行程的唯一目的是管理那些透過它建立出的所有共享記憶體
     區塊的生命週期。要觸發釋放該行程管理的所有共享記憶體區塊，請在實例
     上呼叫 *note shutdown(): 2e56.，這會觸發對該行程管理的所有 *note
     SharedMemory: 2e98. 物件的 *note unlink(): 2e94. 呼叫，然後再停止這
     個行程。透過 ‘SharedMemoryManager’ 建立 ‘SharedMemory’ 實例，我們無
     需手動追蹤和觸發共享記憶體資源的釋放。

     此類別提供了用於建立和回傳 *note SharedMemory: 2e98. 實例以及建立由
     共享記憶體支援的類串列物件 (*note ShareableList: 2e99.) 的方法。

     請參閱 *note BaseManager: 2e54. 了解繼承的 'address' 和 'authkey' 可
     選輸入引數的描述以及如何使用它們從其他行程連接到現有的
     ‘SharedMemoryManager’ 服務。

      -- 方法: SharedMemory (size)

          建立並回傳一個新的 *note SharedMemory: 2e98. 物件，該物件具有
          指定的 'size'（以位元組為單位）。

      -- 方法: ShareableList (sequence)

          建立並回傳一個新的 *note ShareableList: 2e99. 物件，該物件由輸
          入 'sequence' 中的值初始化。

以下範例示範了 *note SharedMemoryManager: 2e92. 的基本作用機制：

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import SharedMemoryManager
     >>> smm = SharedMemoryManager()
     >>> smm.start()  # Start the process that manages the shared memory blocks
     >>> sl = smm.ShareableList(range(4))
     >>> sl
     ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3], name='psm_6572_7512')
     >>> raw_shm = smm.SharedMemory(size=128)
     >>> another_sl = smm.ShareableList('alpha')
     >>> another_sl
     ShareableList(['a', 'l', 'p', 'h', 'a'], name='psm_6572_12221')
     >>> smm.shutdown()  # Calls unlink() on sl, raw_shm, and another_sl

以下範例描述了一種可能更方便的模式，即透過 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式使用
*note SharedMemoryManager: 2e92. 物件，以確保所有共享記憶體區塊不再被需
要後都被釋放：

     >>> with SharedMemoryManager() as smm:
     ...     sl = smm.ShareableList(range(2000))
     ...     # Divide the work among two processes, storing partial results in sl
     ...     p1 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 0, 1000))
     ...     p2 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 1000, 2000))
     ...     p1.start()
     ...     p2.start()  # A multiprocessing.Pool might be more efficient
     ...     p1.join()
     ...     p2.join()   # Wait for all work to complete in both processes
     ...     total_result = sum(sl)  # Consolidate the partial results now in sl

在 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式中使用 *note SharedMemoryManager: 2e92. 時，當
‘with’ 陳述式的程式碼區塊執行完畢時，使用該管理器建立的共享記憶體區塊都
會被釋放。

 -- 類別: multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList (sequence=None, *,
          name=None)

     提供一個類似 list 的可變物件，其中儲存的所有值都儲存在共享記憶體區
     塊中。這將可儲存值限制為以下內建資料型別：

        * *note int: 17e. （有符號 64 位元）

        * *note float: 26a.

        * *note bool: 17d.

        * *note str: 157. （編碼為 UTF-8 時每個小於 10M 位元組）

        * *note bytes: 2c1. （每個小於 10M 位元組）

        * ‘None’

     它也與內建 *note list: 40a. 型別明顯不同，因為這些 list 不能更改其
     總長度（即沒有 ‘append()’、‘insert()’ 等）並且不支援通過切片動態建
     立新的 ‘ShareableList’ 實例。

     'sequence' 用於填充 (populate) 一個充滿值的新 ‘ShareableList’。設定
     為 ‘None’ 以透過其唯一的共享記憶體名稱來附加到已經存在的
     ‘ShareableList’。

     如 *note SharedMemory: 1434. 的定義中所述，'name' 是被請求之共享記
     憶體的唯一名稱。當附加到現有的 ‘ShareableList’ 時，指定其共享記憶體
     區塊的唯一名稱，同時將 'sequence' 設定為 ‘None’。

          備註: *note bytes: 2c1. 和 *note str: 157. 值存在一個已知問題
          。如果它們以 ‘\x00’ nul 位元組或字元結尾，那麼當透過索引從
          ‘ShareableList’ 中獲取它們時，這些位元組或字元可能會被'默默地
          剝離 (silently stripped)'。這種 ‘.rstrip(b'\x00')’ 行為被認為
          是一個錯誤，將來可能會消失。請參閱 gh-106939(3)。

     對於去除尾隨空值 (rstripping of trailing nulls) 會出問題的應用程式
     ，變通解法 (workaround) 是始終無條件地在儲存時於此類值的末尾追加一
     個額外非 0 位元組，並在獲取時也無條件地刪除它：

          >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
          >>> nul_bug_demo = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'])
          >>> nul_bug_demo[0]
          '?'
          >>> nul_bug_demo[1]
          b'\x03\x02\x01'
          >>> nul_bug_demo.shm.unlink()
          >>> padded = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00\x07', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00\x07'])
          >>> padded[0][:-1]
          '?\x00'
          >>> padded[1][:-1]
          b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'
          >>> padded.shm.unlink()

      -- 方法: count (value)

          回傳 'value' 出現的次數。

      -- 方法: index (value)

          回傳 'value' 的第一個索引位置。如果 'value' 不存在，則引發
          *note ValueError: 183.。

      -- 屬性: format

          唯讀屬性，包含所有目前有儲存的值所使用的 *note struct: cf. 打
          包格式。

      -- 屬性: shm

          儲存值的 *note SharedMemory: 1434. 實例。

以下範例示範了 *note ShareableList: 1749. 實例的基本用法：

     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> a = shared_memory.ShareableList(['howdy', b'HoWdY', -273.154, 100, None, True, 42])
     >>> [ type(entry) for entry in a ]
     [<class 'str'>, <class 'bytes'>, <class 'float'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'NoneType'>, <class 'bool'>, <class 'int'>]
     >>> a[2]
     -273.154
     >>> a[2] = -78.5
     >>> a[2]
     -78.5
     >>> a[2] = 'dry ice'  # Changing data types is supported as well
     >>> a[2]
     'dry ice'
     >>> a[2] = 'larger than previously allocated storage space'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: exceeds available storage for existing str
     >>> a[2]
     'dry ice'
     >>> len(a)
     7
     >>> a.index(42)
     6
     >>> a.count(b'howdy')
     0
     >>> a.count(b'HoWdY')
     1
     >>> a.shm.close()
     >>> a.shm.unlink()
     >>> del a  # Use of a ShareableList after call to unlink() is unsupported

以下範例描述了一個、兩個或多個行程如何透過提供後面的共享記憶體區塊名稱來
存取同一個 *note ShareableList: 1749.：

     >>> b = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(5))         # In a first process
     >>> c = shared_memory.ShareableList(name=b.shm.name)  # In a second process
     >>> c
     ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], name='...')
     >>> c[-1] = -999
     >>> b[-1]
     -999
     >>> b.shm.close()
     >>> c.shm.close()
     >>> c.shm.unlink()

以下範例示範了如果需要，可以對 *note ShareableList: 1749.（和底層 *note
SharedMemory: 1434.）物件進行 pickle 和 unpickle。請注意，它仍然是相同的
共享物件。發生這種情況是因為反序列化的物件具有相同的唯一名稱，並且只是附
加到具有相同名稱的現有物件（如果該物件仍然存在）：

     >>> import pickle
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> sl = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(10))
     >>> list(sl)
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> deserialized_sl = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(sl))
     >>> list(deserialized_sl)
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> sl[0] = -1
     >>> deserialized_sl[1] = -2
     >>> list(sl)
     [-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
     >>> list(deserialized_sl)
     [-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> sl.shm.close()
     >>> sl.shm.unlink()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py

   (2) https://numpy.org/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106939


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent 套件,  Next: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務,  Prev: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取,  Up: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution

5.17.4 ‘concurrent’ 套件
------------------------

目前此套件只有一個模組：

   * *note concurrent.futures: 1f. - 啟動平行任務


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務,  Next: subprocess --- 子行程管理,  Prev: concurrent 套件,  Up: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution

5.17.5 ‘concurrent.futures’ -- 啟動平行任務
-------------------------------------------

在 3.2 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py(1) 與
Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

*note concurrent.futures: 1f. 模組提供了一個高階介面來非同步地
(asynchronously) 執行可呼叫物件 (callable) 。

非同步執行可以透過 *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. 來使用執行緒 (thread)
執行，或透過 *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. 來使用單獨行程 (process) 執
行。兩者都實作了相同的介面，該介面由抽象的 *note Executor: 2ea2. 類別定
義。

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上沒有作
用或不可使用。更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

* Menu:

* Executor 物件::
* ThreadPoolExecutor::
* ProcessPoolExecutor::
* Future 物件::
* 模組函式::
* 例外類別::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py


File: python.info,  Node: Executor 物件,  Next: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務

5.17.5.1 Executor 物件
......................

 -- 類別: concurrent.futures.Executor

     提供非同步執行呼叫方法的抽象類別。不應直接使用它，而應透過其具體子
     類別來使用。

      -- 方法: submit (fn, /, *args, **kwargs)

          為可呼叫物件 'fn' 排程來以 ‘fn(*args, **kwargs)’ 的形式執行並
          回傳一個表示可呼叫的執行的 *note Future: 1043. 物件。

               with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1) as executor:
                   future = executor.submit(pow, 323, 1235)
                   print(future.result())

      -- 方法: map (fn, *iterables, timeout=None, chunksize=1)

          類似於 *note map(fn, *iterables): 68f.，除了：

             * 'iterables' 立即被收集而不是延遲 (lazily) 收集；

             * 'fn' 是非同步執行的，並且對 'fn' 的多次呼叫可以並行處理。

          如果 *note __next__(): 115d. 被呼叫，且在原先呼叫 *note
          Executor.map(): c5c. 的 'timeout' 秒後結果仍不可用，回傳的疊代
          器就會引發 *note TimeoutError: 65b.。'timeout' 可以是整數或浮
          點數。如果未指定 'timeout' 或為 ‘None’，則等待時間就不會有限制
          。

          如果 'fn' 呼叫引發例外，則當從疊代器中檢索到它的值時將引發該例
          外。

          使用 *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. 時，此方法將 'iterables'
          分成許多分塊 (chunks)，並將其作為獨立的任務來提交給池 (pool)。
          可以透過將 'chunksize' 設定為正整數來指定這些分塊的（約略）大
          小。對於非常長的可疊代物件，'chunksize' 使用較大的值（與預設大
          小 1 相比）可以顯著提高性能。對於 *note ThreadPoolExecutor:
          555.，'chunksize' 無效。

          在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'chunksize' 引數。

      -- 方法: shutdown (wait=True, *, cancel_futures=False)

          向 executor 發出訊號 (signal)，表明它應該在當前未定 (pending)
          的 future 完成執行時釋放它正在使用的任何資源。在關閉後呼叫
          *note Executor.submit(): 8ce. 和 *note Executor.map(): c5c. 將
          引發 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。

          如果 'wait' 為 ‘True’ 則此方法將不會回傳，直到所有未定的
          futures 完成執行並且與 executor 關聯的資源都被釋放。如果
          'wait' 為 ‘False’ 則此方法將立即回傳，並且當所有未定的 future
          執行完畢時，與 executor 關聯的資源將被釋放。不管 'wait' 的值如
          何，整個 Python 程式都不會退出，直到所有未定的 futures 執行完
          畢。

          如果 'cancel_futures' 為 ‘True’，此方法將取消 executor 尚未開
          始運行的所有未定 future。無論 'cancel_futures' 的值如何，任何
          已完成或正在運行的 future 都不會被取消。

          如果 'cancel_futures' 和 'wait' 都為 ‘True’，則 executor 已開
          始運行的所有 future 將在此方法回傳之前完成。剩餘的 future 被取
          消。

          如果使用 *note with: 3c5. 陳述句，你就可以不用明確地呼叫此方法
          ，這將會自己關閉 *note Executor: 2ea2.（如同呼叫 *note
          Executor.shutdown(): 726. 時 'wait' 被設定為 ‘True’ 般等待）：

               import shutil
               with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src4.txt', 'dest4.txt')

          在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'cancel_futures'。


File: python.info,  Node: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Next: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Prev: Executor 物件,  Up: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務

5.17.5.2 ThreadPoolExecutor
...........................

*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. 是一個 *note Executor: 2ea2. 子類別，它使
用執行緒池來非同步地執行呼叫。

當與 *note Future: 1043. 關聯的可呼叫物件等待另一個 *note Future: 1043.
的結果時，可能會發生死鎖 (deadlock)。例如：

     import time
     def wait_on_b():
         time.sleep(5)
         print(b.result())  # b will never complete because it is waiting on a.
         return 5

     def wait_on_a():
         time.sleep(5)
         print(a.result())  # a will never complete because it is waiting on b.
         return 6


     executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=2)
     a = executor.submit(wait_on_b)
     b = executor.submit(wait_on_a)

和：

     def wait_on_future():
         f = executor.submit(pow, 5, 2)
         # This will never complete because there is only one worker thread and
         # it is executing this function.
         print(f.result())

     executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1)
     executor.submit(wait_on_future)

 -- 類別: concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor (max_workers=None,
          thread_name_prefix='', initializer=None, initargs=())

     一個 *note Executor: 2ea2. 子類別，它使用最多有 'max_workers' 個執
     行緒的池來非同步地執行呼叫。

     所有排隊到 ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ 的執行緒都將在直譯器退出之前加入。
     請注意，執行此操作的退出處理程式會在任何使用 ‘atexit’ 新增的退出處
     理程式'之前'執行。這意味著必須捕獲並處理主執行緒中的例外，以便向執
     行緒發出訊號來正常退出 (gracefully exit)。因此，建議不要將
     ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ 用於長時間運行的任務。

     'initializer' 是一個可選的可呼叫物件，在每個工作執行緒開始時呼叫；
     'initargs' 是傳遞給 initializer 的引數元組 (tuple)。如果
     'initializer' 引發例外，所有當前未定的作業以及任何向池中提交
     (submit) 更多作業的嘗試都將引發 *note BrokenThreadPool: 2ea5.。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 如果 'max_workers' 為 ‘None’ 或未給定，它將預設為
     機器上的處理器數量乘以 ‘5’，這假定了 *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555.
     通常用於 I/O 重疊而非 CPU 密集的作業，並且 worker 的數量應該高於
     *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. 的 worker 數量。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'thread_name_prefix' 參數以允許使用者控制由池
     所建立的工作執行緒 (worker thread) 的 *note threading.Thread: 78d.
     名稱，以便於除錯。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'initializer' 與 'initargs' 引數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 'max_workers' 的預設值改為 ‘min(32, os.cpu_count()
     + 4)’。此預設值為 I/O 密集任務至少保留了 5 個 worker。它最多使用 32
     個 CPU 核心來執行CPU 密集任務，以釋放 GIL。並且它避免了在多核機器上
     隱晦地使用非常大量的資源。

     ThreadPoolExecutor 現在在啟動 'max_workers' 工作執行緒之前會重用
     (reuse) 空閒的工作執行緒。

* Menu:

* ThreadPoolExecutor 範例::


File: python.info,  Node: ThreadPoolExecutor 範例,  Up: ThreadPoolExecutor

5.17.5.3 ThreadPoolExecutor 範例
................................

     import concurrent.futures
     import urllib.request

     URLS = ['http://www.foxnews.com/',
             'http://www.cnn.com/',
             'http://europe.wsj.com/',
             'http://www.bbc.co.uk/',
             'http://nonexistant-subdomain.python.org/']

     # Retrieve a single page and report the URL and contents
     def load_url(url, timeout):
         with urllib.request.urlopen(url, timeout=timeout) as conn:
             return conn.read()

     # We can use a with statement to ensure threads are cleaned up promptly
     with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=5) as executor:
         # Start the load operations and mark each future with its URL
         future_to_url = {executor.submit(load_url, url, 60): url for url in URLS}
         for future in concurrent.futures.as_completed(future_to_url):
             url = future_to_url[future]
             try:
                 data = future.result()
             except Exception as exc:
                 print('%r generated an exception: %s' % (url, exc))
             else:
                 print('%r page is %d bytes' % (url, len(data)))


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Next: Future 物件,  Prev: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務

5.17.5.4 ProcessPoolExecutor
............................

*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. 類別是一個 *note Executor: 2ea2. 的子類
別，它使用行程池來非同步地執行呼叫。*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. 使用
了 *note multiprocessing: 8f. 模組，這允許它避開*note 全域直譯器鎖
(Global Interpreter Lock): 141.，但也意味著只能執行和回傳可被 pickle 的
(picklable) 物件。

‘__main__’ 模組必須可以被工作子行程 (worker subprocess) 引入。這意味著
*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. 將無法在交互式直譯器 (interactive
interpreter) 中工作。

從提交給 *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. 的可呼叫物件中呼叫 *note
Executor: 2ea2. 或 *note Future: 1043. 方法將導致死鎖。

 -- 類別: concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor (max_workers=None,
          mp_context=None, initializer=None, initargs=(),
          max_tasks_per_child=None)

     一個 *note Executor: 2ea2. 子類別，它使用了最多有 'max_workers' 個
     行程的池來非同步地執行呼叫。如果 'max_workers' 為 ‘None’ 或未給定，
     它將被預設為機器上的處理器數量。如果 'max_workers' 小於或等於 ‘0’，
     則會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。在 Windows 上，'max_workers' 必須
     小於或等於 ‘61’。如果不是，則會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。如果
     'max_workers' 為 ‘None’，則預設選擇最多為 ‘61’，即便有更多處理器可
     用。'mp_context' 可以是 *note multiprocessing: 8f. 情境 (context) 或
     ‘None’。它將用於啟動 worker。如果 'mp_context' 為 ‘None’ 或未給定，
     則使用預設的 *note multiprocessing: 8f. 情境。請見 *note Contexts
     and start methods: 22f.。

     'initializer' 是一個可選的可呼叫物件，在每個工作行程 (worker
     process) 開始時呼叫；'initargs' 是傳遞給 initializer 的引數元組。如
     果 'initializer' 引發例外，所有當前未定的作業以及任何向池中提交更多
     作業的嘗試都將引發 *note BrokenProcessPool: 2ea8.。

     'max_tasks_per_child' 是一個可選引數，它指定單個行程在退出並被新的
     工作行程替換之前可以執行的最大任務數。預設情況下
     'max_tasks_per_child' 是 ‘None’，這意味著工作行程的生命週期將與池一
     樣長。當指定最大值時，在沒有 'mp_context' 參數的情況下，將預設使用
     "spawn" 做為 multiprocessing 啟動方法。此功能與 "fork" 啟動方法不相
     容。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 當其中一個工作行程突然終止時，現在會引發 *note
     BrokenProcessPool: 2ea8. 錯誤。在過去，此行為是未定義的
     (undefined)，但對 executor 或其 future 的操作經常會發生凍結或死鎖。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增了 'mp_context' 引數以允許使用者控制由池所建立
     的工作行程的 start_method。

     新增 'initializer' 與 'initargs' 引數。

          備註: 預設的 *note multiprocessing: 8f. 啟動方法（請參閱 *note
          Contexts and start methods: 22f.）將不再是 Python 3.14 中的
          'fork'。需要 'fork' 用於其 *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. 的
          程式碼應透過傳遞
          ‘mp_context=multiprocessing.get_context("fork")’ 參數來明確指
          定。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增了 'max_tasks_per_child' 引數以允許使用者控制
     池中 worker 的生命週期。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 在 POSIX 系統上，如果你的應用程式有多個執行緒並且
     *note multiprocessing: 8f. 情境使用了 ‘"fork"’ 啟動方法：內部呼叫以
     產生 worker 的 *note os.fork(): 233. 函式可能會引發 *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179.。傳遞一個 'mp_context' 以配置為使用不同的
     啟動方法。更多說明請參閱 *note os.fork(): 233. 文件。

* Menu:

* ProcessPoolExecutor 範例::


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessPoolExecutor 範例,  Up: ProcessPoolExecutor

5.17.5.5 ProcessPoolExecutor 範例
.................................

     import concurrent.futures
     import math

     PRIMES = [
         112272535095293,
         112582705942171,
         112272535095293,
         115280095190773,
         115797848077099,
         1099726899285419]

     def is_prime(n):
         if n < 2:
             return False
         if n == 2:
             return True
         if n % 2 == 0:
             return False

         sqrt_n = int(math.floor(math.sqrt(n)))
         for i in range(3, sqrt_n + 1, 2):
             if n % i == 0:
                 return False
         return True

     def main():
         with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as executor:
             for number, prime in zip(PRIMES, executor.map(is_prime, PRIMES)):
                 print('%d is prime: %s' % (number, prime))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Future 物件,  Next: 模組函式,  Prev: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務

5.17.5.6 Future 物件
....................

*note Future: 1043. 類別封裝了可呼叫物件的非同步執行。*note Future:
1043. 實例由 *note Executor.submit(): 8ce. 建立。

 -- 類別: concurrent.futures.Future

     封裝可呼叫物件的非同步執行。*note Future: 1043. 實例由 *note
     Executor.submit(): 8ce. 建立，且除測試外不應直接建立。

      -- 方法: cancel ()

          嘗試取消呼叫。如果呼叫當前正在執行或已完成運行且無法取消，則該
          方法將回傳 ‘False’，否則呼叫將被取消並且該方法將回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: cancelled ()

          如果該呼叫成功被取消，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: running ()

          如果呼叫正在執行且無法取消，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: done ()

          如果呼叫成功被取消或結束運行，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: result (timeout=None)

          回傳該呼叫回傳的值。如果呼叫尚未完成，則此方法將等待至多
          'timeout' 秒。如果呼叫在 'timeout' 秒內未完成，則會引發 *note
          TimeoutError: 65b.。'timeout' 可以是整數或浮點數。如果未指定
          'timeout' 或為 ‘None’，則等待時間就不會有限制。

          如果 future 在完成之前被取消，那麼 *note CancelledError: 81f.
          將被引發。

          如果該呼叫引發了例外，此方法將引發相同的例外。

      -- 方法: exception (timeout=None)

          回傳該呼叫引發的例外。如果呼叫尚未完成，則此方法將等待至多
          'timeout' 秒。如果呼叫在 'timeout' 秒內未完成，則會引發 *note
          TimeoutError: 65b.。 'timeout' 可以是整數或浮點數。如果未指定
          'timeout' 或為 ‘None’，則等待時間就不會有限制。

          如果 future 在完成之前被取消，那麼 *note CancelledError: 81f.
          將被引發。

          如果呼叫在沒有引發的情況下完成，則回傳 ‘None’。

      -- 方法: add_done_callback (fn)

          將可呼叫的 'fn' 附加到 future 上。當 future 被取消或完成運行時
          ，'fn' 將被以 future 作為其唯一引數來呼叫。

          新增的可呼叫物件按新增順序呼叫，並且始終在屬於新增它們的行程的
          執行緒中呼叫。如果可呼叫物件引發 *note Exception: 81e. 子類別
          ，它將被記錄 (log) 並忽略。如果可呼叫物件引發 *note
          BaseException: 3ab. 子類別，該行為未定義。

          如果 future 已經完成或被取消，'fn' 將立即被呼叫。

     以下 *note Future: 1043. 方法旨在用於單元測試和 *note Executor:
     2ea2. 實作。

      -- 方法: set_running_or_notify_cancel ()

          此方法只能在與 *note Future: 1043. 關聯的工作被執行之前於
          *note Executor: 2ea2. 實作中呼叫，或者在單元測試中呼叫。

          如果該方法回傳 ‘False’ 則 *note Future: 1043. 已被取消，即
          *note Future.cancel(): 2eab. 被呼叫並回傳 ‘True’。任何等待
          *note Future: 1043. 完成的執行緒（即透過 *note as_completed():
          2eb3. 或 *note wait(): 1635.）將被喚醒。

          如果該方法回傳 ‘True’ 則代表 *note Future: 1043. 未被取消並已
          進入運行狀態，意即呼叫 *note Future.running(): 2ead. 將回傳
          ‘True’。

          此方法只能呼叫一次，且不能在呼叫 *note Future.set_result():
          2eb4. 或 *note Future.set_exception(): 2eb5. 之後呼叫。

      -- 方法: set_result (result)

          將與 *note Future: 1043. 關聯的工作結果設定為 'result'。

          此方法只能在 *note Executor: 2ea2. 實作中和單元測試中使用。

          在 3.8 版的變更: 如果 *note Future: 1043. 已經完成，此方法會引
          發 *note concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError: 1409.。

      -- 方法: set_exception (exception)

          將與 *note Future: 1043. 關聯的工作結果設定為 *note Exception:
          81e. 'exception'。

          此方法只能在 *note Executor: 2ea2. 實作中和單元測試中使用。

          在 3.8 版的變更: 如果 *note Future: 1043. 已經完成，此方法會引
          發 *note concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError: 1409.。


File: python.info,  Node: 模組函式,  Next: 例外類別,  Prev: Future 物件,  Up: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務

5.17.5.7 模組函式
.................

 -- 函式: concurrent.futures.wait (fs, timeout=None,
          return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

     等待 'fs' 給定的 *note Future: 1043. 實例（可能由不同的 *note
     Executor: 2ea2. 實例建立）完成。提供給 'fs' 的重複 future 將被刪除
     ，並且只會回傳一次。回傳一個集合的附名二元組 (named 2-tuple of
     sets)。第一組名為 ‘done’，包含在等待完成之前完成的 future（已完成或
     被取消的 future）。第二組名為 ‘not_done’，包含未完成的 future（未定
     或運行中的 future）。

     'timeout' 可用於控制回傳前等待的最大秒數。'timeout' 可以是整數或浮
     點數。如果未指定 'timeout' 或為 ‘None’，則等待時間就沒有限制。

     'return_when' 表示此函式應回傳的時間。它必須是以下常數之一：

     常數                                                   描述
                                                            
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- 資料: concurrent.futures.FIRST_COMPLETED           當任何 future 完成或被取消時，該函式就會回傳。
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 資料: concurrent.futures.FIRST_EXCEPTION           該函式會在任何 future 透過引發例外而完結時回傳。如果
                                                            future 沒有引發例外，那麼它等同於
                                                            *note ALL_COMPLETED: 2eb9.。
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 資料: concurrent.futures.ALL_COMPLETED             當所有 future 都完成或被取消時，該函式才會回傳。
                                                            

 -- 函式: concurrent.futures.as_completed (fs, timeout=None)

     回傳由 'fs' 給定的 *note Future: 1043. 實例（可能由不同的 *note
     Executor: 2ea2. 實例建立）的疊代器，它在完成時產生 future（已完成或
     被取消的 future）。'fs' 給定的任何重複的 future 將只被回傳一次。呼
     叫 *note as_completed(): 2eb3. 之前完成的任何 future 將首先產生。如
     果 *note __next__(): 115d. 被呼叫，並且在原先呼叫 *note
     as_completed(): 2eb3. 的 'timeout' 秒後結果仍不可用，則回傳的疊代器
     會引發 *note TimeoutError: 65b.。'timeout' 可以是整數或浮點數。如果
     未指定 'timeout' 或為 ‘None’，則等待時間就沒有限制。

也參考
......

PEP 3148(1) - futures - 非同步地執行運算

     描述此功能並提出被包含於 Python 標準函式庫中的提案。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/


File: python.info,  Node: 例外類別,  Prev: 模組函式,  Up: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務

5.17.5.8 例外類別
.................

 -- 例外: concurrent.futures.CancelledError

     當 future 被取消時引發。

 -- 例外: concurrent.futures.TimeoutError

     *note TimeoutError: 65b. 的棄用別名，在 future 操作超過給定超時
     (timeout) 時引發。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 這個類別是 *note TimeoutError: 65b. 的別名。

 -- 例外: concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor

     衍生自 *note RuntimeError: 17a.，當執行器因某種原因損壞時會引發此例
     外類別，並且不能用於提交或執行新任務。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 例外: concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError

     當前狀態下不允許的 future 操作被執行時而引發。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 例外: concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool

     衍生自 *note BrokenExecutor: 2ebc.，當 *note ThreadPoolExecutor:
     555. 的其中一個 worker 初始化失敗時會引發此例外類別。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 例外: concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool

     衍生自 *note BrokenExecutor: 2ebc.（以前為 *note RuntimeError:
     17a.），當 *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. 的其中一個 worker 以不乾
     淨的方式終止時將引發此例外類別（例如它是從外面被 kill 掉的）。

     在 3.3 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess --- 子行程管理,  Next: sched --- 事件排程器,  Prev: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務,  Up: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution

5.17.6 ‘subprocess’ -- 子行程管理
---------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/subprocess.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note subprocess: d0. module allows you to spawn new processes,
connect to their input/output/error pipes, and obtain their return
codes.  This module intends to replace several older modules and
functions:

     os.system
     os.spawn*

Information about how the *note subprocess: d0. module can be used to
replace these modules and functions can be found in the following
sections.

也參考
......

PEP 324(2) - 提議 subprocess 模組的 PEP

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

* Menu:

* Using the subprocess Module::
* 安全性注意事項::
* Popen Objects::
* Windows Popen Helpers::
* Older high-level API::
* Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module::
* Legacy Shell Invocation Functions::
* 註解::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/subprocess.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/


File: python.info,  Node: Using the subprocess Module,  Next: 安全性注意事項,  Up: subprocess --- 子行程管理

5.17.6.1 Using the ‘subprocess’ Module
......................................

The recommended approach to invoking subprocesses is to use the *note
run(): 9e5. function for all use cases it can handle.  For more advanced
use cases, the underlying *note Popen: 8e1. interface can be used
directly.

 -- 函式: subprocess.run (args, *, stdin=None, input=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, capture_output=False, shell=False, cwd=None,
          timeout=None, check=False, encoding=None, errors=None,
          text=None, env=None, universal_newlines=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run the command described by 'args'.  Wait for command to complete,
     then return a *note CompletedProcess: cf1. instance.

     The arguments shown above are merely the most common ones,
     described below in *note Frequently Used Arguments: 2ec0. (hence
     the use of keyword-only notation in the abbreviated signature).
     The full function signature is largely the same as that of the
     *note Popen: 8e1. constructor - most of the arguments to this
     function are passed through to that interface.  ('timeout',
     'input', 'check', and 'capture_output' are not.)

     If 'capture_output' is true, stdout and stderr will be captured.
     When used, the internal *note Popen: 8e1. object is automatically
     created with 'stdout' and 'stderr' both set to *note PIPE: 9e6.
     The 'stdout' and 'stderr' arguments may not be supplied at the same
     time as 'capture_output'.  If you wish to capture and combine both
     streams into one, set 'stdout' to *note PIPE: 9e6. and 'stderr' to
     *note STDOUT: 2ec1, instead of using 'capture_output'.

     A 'timeout' may be specified in seconds, it is internally passed on
     to *note Popen.communicate(): 2ec2.  If the timeout expires, the
     child process will be killed and waited for.  The *note
     TimeoutExpired: 2ec3. exception will be re-raised after the child
     process has terminated.  The initial process creation itself cannot
     be interrupted on many platform APIs so you are not guaranteed to
     see a timeout exception until at least after however long process
     creation takes.

     The 'input' argument is passed to *note Popen.communicate(): 2ec2.
     and thus to the subprocess's stdin.  If used it must be a byte
     sequence, or a string if 'encoding' or 'errors' is specified or
     'text' is true.  When used, the internal *note Popen: 8e1. object
     is automatically created with 'stdin' set to *note PIPE: 9e6, and
     the 'stdin' argument may not be used as well.

     If 'check' is true, and the process exits with a non-zero exit
     code, a *note CalledProcessError: 11b8. exception will be raised.
     Attributes of that exception hold the arguments, the exit code, and
     stdout and stderr if they were captured.

     If 'encoding' or 'errors' are specified, or 'text' is true, file
     objects for stdin, stdout and stderr are opened in text mode using
     the specified 'encoding' and 'errors' or the *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. default.  The 'universal_newlines' argument
     is equivalent to 'text' and is provided for backwards
     compatibility.  By default, file objects are opened in binary mode.

     If 'env' is not ‘None’, it must be a mapping that defines the
     environment variables for the new process; these are used instead
     of the default behavior of inheriting the current process'
     environment.  It is passed directly to *note Popen: 8e1.  This
     mapping can be str to str on any platform or bytes to bytes on
     POSIX platforms much like *note os.environ: 104b. or *note
     os.environb: 10a8.

     範例：

          >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # 不捕捉輸出
          CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

          >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

          >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], capture_output=True)
          CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
          stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n', stderr=b'')

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'encoding' 與 'errors' 參數。

     在 3.7 版的變更: Added the 'text' parameter, as a more
     understandable alias of 'universal_newlines'.  Added the
     'capture_output' parameter.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- 類別: subprocess.CompletedProcess

     The return value from *note run(): 9e5, representing a process that
     has finished.

      -- 屬性: args

          The arguments used to launch the process.  This may be a list
          or a string.

      -- 屬性: returncode

          Exit status of the child process.  Typically, an exit status
          of 0 indicates that it ran successfully.

          A negative value ‘-N’ indicates that the child was terminated
          by signal ‘N’ (POSIX only).

      -- 屬性: stdout

          Captured stdout from the child process.  A bytes sequence, or
          a string if *note run(): 9e5. was called with an encoding,
          errors, or text=True.  ‘None’ if stdout was not captured.

          If you ran the process with ‘stderr=subprocess.STDOUT’, stdout
          and stderr will be combined in this attribute, and *note
          stderr: 2ec7. will be ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: stderr

          Captured stderr from the child process.  A bytes sequence, or
          a string if *note run(): 9e5. was called with an encoding,
          errors, or text=True.  ‘None’ if stderr was not captured.

      -- 方法: check_returncode ()

          If *note returncode: 2ec5. is non-zero, raise a *note
          CalledProcessError: 11b8.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 資料: subprocess.DEVNULL

     Special value that can be used as the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     argument to *note Popen: 8e1. and indicates that the special file
     *note os.devnull: 181a. will be used.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: subprocess.PIPE

     Special value that can be used as the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     argument to *note Popen: 8e1. and indicates that a pipe to the
     standard stream should be opened.  Most useful with *note
     Popen.communicate(): 2ec2.

 -- 資料: subprocess.STDOUT

     Special value that can be used as the 'stderr' argument to *note
     Popen: 8e1. and indicates that standard error should go into the
     same handle as standard output.

 -- 例外: subprocess.SubprocessError

     Base class for all other exceptions from this module.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 例外: subprocess.TimeoutExpired

     Subclass of *note SubprocessError: 2ec9, raised when a timeout
     expires while waiting for a child process.

      -- 屬性: cmd

          Command that was used to spawn the child process.

      -- 屬性: timeout

          Timeout in seconds.

      -- 屬性: output

          Output of the child process if it was captured by *note run():
          9e5. or *note check_output(): e50.  Otherwise, ‘None’.  This
          is always *note bytes: 2c1. when any output was captured
          regardless of the ‘text=True’ setting.  It may remain ‘None’
          instead of ‘b''’ when no output was observed.

      -- 屬性: stdout

          Alias for output, for symmetry with *note stderr: 2ece.

      -- 屬性: stderr

          Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by *note
          run(): 9e5.  Otherwise, ‘None’.  This is always *note bytes:
          2c1. when stderr output was captured regardless of the
          ‘text=True’ setting.  It may remain ‘None’ instead of ‘b''’
          when no stderr output was observed.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 'stdout' and 'stderr' attributes added

 -- 例外: subprocess.CalledProcessError

     Subclass of *note SubprocessError: 2ec9, raised when a process run
     by *note check_call(): 2ecf, *note check_output(): e50, or *note
     run(): 9e5. (with ‘check=True’) returns a non-zero exit status.

      -- 屬性: returncode

          Exit status of the child process.  If the process exited due
          to a signal, this will be the negative signal number.

      -- 屬性: cmd

          Command that was used to spawn the child process.

      -- 屬性: output

          Output of the child process if it was captured by *note run():
          9e5. or *note check_output(): e50.  Otherwise, ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: stdout

          Alias for output, for symmetry with *note stderr: 2ed4.

      -- 屬性: stderr

          Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by *note
          run(): 9e5.  Otherwise, ‘None’.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 'stdout' and 'stderr' attributes added

* Menu:

* Frequently Used Arguments::
* Popen Constructor::
* 例外: 例外<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Frequently Used Arguments,  Next: Popen Constructor,  Up: Using the subprocess Module

5.17.6.2 Frequently Used Arguments
..................................

To support a wide variety of use cases, the *note Popen: 8e1.
constructor (and the convenience functions) accept a large number of
optional arguments.  For most typical use cases, many of these arguments
can be safely left at their default values.  The arguments that are most
commonly needed are:

     'args' is required for all calls and should be a string, or a
     sequence of program arguments.  Providing a sequence of arguments
     is generally preferred, as it allows the module to take care of any
     required escaping and quoting of arguments (e.g.  to permit spaces
     in file names).  If passing a single string, either 'shell' must be
     *note True: a70. (see below) or else the string must simply name
     the program to be executed without specifying any arguments.

     'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' specify the executed program's
     standard input, standard output and standard error file handles,
     respectively.  Valid values are ‘None’, *note PIPE: 9e6, *note
     DEVNULL: fe0, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), and
     an existing *note file object: 1054. with a valid file descriptor.
     With the default settings of ‘None’, no redirection will occur.
     *note PIPE: 9e6. indicates that a new pipe to the child should be
     created.  *note DEVNULL: fe0. indicates that the special file *note
     os.devnull: 181a. will be used.  Additionally, 'stderr' can be
     *note STDOUT: 2ec1, which indicates that the stderr data from the
     child process should be captured into the same file handle as for
     'stdout'.

     If 'encoding' or 'errors' are specified, or 'text' (also known as
     'universal_newlines') is true, the file objects 'stdin', 'stdout'
     and 'stderr' will be opened in text mode using the 'encoding' and
     'errors' specified in the call or the defaults for *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9.

     For 'stdin', line ending characters ‘'\n'’ in the input will be
     converted to the default line separator *note os.linesep: 1f0f.
     For 'stdout' and 'stderr', all line endings in the output will be
     converted to ‘'\n'’.  For more information see the documentation of
     the *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. class when the 'newline' argument
     to its constructor is ‘None’.

     If text mode is not used, 'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' will be
     opened as binary streams.  No encoding or line ending conversion is
     performed.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'encoding' 與 'errors' 參數。

     在 3.7 版的變更: Added the 'text' parameter as an alias for
     'universal_newlines'.

          備註: The newlines attribute of the file objects *note
          Popen.stdin: 2ed6, *note Popen.stdout: 2ed7. and *note
          Popen.stderr: 2ed8. are not updated by the *note
          Popen.communicate(): 2ec2. method.

     If 'shell' is ‘True’, the specified command will be executed
     through the shell.  This can be useful if you are using Python
     primarily for the enhanced control flow it offers over most system
     shells and still want convenient access to other shell features
     such as shell pipes, filename wildcards, environment variable
     expansion, and expansion of ‘~’ to a user's home directory.
     However, note that Python itself offers implementations of many
     shell-like features (in particular, *note glob: 5f, *note fnmatch:
     57, *note os.walk(): 1cb, *note os.path.expandvars(): 1248, *note
     os.path.expanduser(): 85b, and *note shutil: c0.).

     在 3.3 版的變更: When 'universal_newlines' is ‘True’, the class
     uses the encoding *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 2bc.
     instead of ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’.  See the *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. class for more information on this change.

          備註: Read the *note Security Considerations: 2ed9. section
          before using ‘shell=True’.

These options, along with all of the other options, are described in
more detail in the *note Popen: 8e1. constructor documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Popen Constructor,  Next: 例外<6>,  Prev: Frequently Used Arguments,  Up: Using the subprocess Module

5.17.6.3 Popen Constructor
..........................

The underlying process creation and management in this module is handled
by the *note Popen: 8e1. class.  It offers a lot of flexibility so that
developers are able to handle the less common cases not covered by the
convenience functions.

 -- 類別: subprocess.Popen (args, bufsize=-1, executable=None,
          stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, preexec_fn=None,
          close_fds=True, shell=False, cwd=None, env=None,
          universal_newlines=None, startupinfo=None, creationflags=0,
          restore_signals=True, start_new_session=False, pass_fds=(), *,
          group=None, extra_groups=None, user=None, umask=-1,
          encoding=None, errors=None, text=None, pipesize=-1,
          process_group=None)

     Execute a child program in a new process.  On POSIX, the class uses
     *note os.execvpe(): 293c.-like behavior to execute the child
     program.  On Windows, the class uses the Windows ‘CreateProcess()’
     function.  The arguments to *note Popen: 8e1. are as follows.

     'args' should be a sequence of program arguments or else a single
     string or *note path-like object: 975.  By default, the program to
     execute is the first item in 'args' if 'args' is a sequence.  If
     'args' is a string, the interpretation is platform-dependent and
     described below.  See the 'shell' and 'executable' arguments for
     additional differences from the default behavior.  Unless otherwise
     stated, it is recommended to pass 'args' as a sequence.

          警告: For maximum reliability, use a fully qualified path for
          the executable.  To search for an unqualified name on ‘PATH’,
          use *note shutil.which(): 1d9.  On all platforms, passing
          *note sys.executable: 362. is the recommended way to launch
          the current Python interpreter again, and use the ‘-m’
          command-line format to launch an installed module.

          Resolving the path of 'executable' (or the first item of
          'args') is platform dependent.  For POSIX, see *note
          os.execvpe(): 293c, and note that when resolving or searching
          for the executable path, 'cwd' overrides the current working
          directory and 'env' can override the ‘PATH’ environment
          variable.  For Windows, see the documentation of the
          ‘lpApplicationName’ and ‘lpCommandLine’ parameters of WinAPI
          ‘CreateProcess’, and note that when resolving or searching for
          the executable path with ‘shell=False’, 'cwd' does not
          override the current working directory and 'env' cannot
          override the ‘PATH’ environment variable.  Using a full path
          avoids all of these variations.

     An example of passing some arguments to an external program as a
     sequence is:

          Popen(["/usr/bin/git", "commit", "-m", "Fixes a bug."])

     On POSIX, if 'args' is a string, the string is interpreted as the
     name or path of the program to execute.  However, this can only be
     done if not passing arguments to the program.

          備註: It may not be obvious how to break a shell command into
          a sequence of arguments, especially in complex cases.  *note
          shlex.split(): 2be. can illustrate how to determine the
          correct tokenization for 'args':

               >>> import shlex, subprocess
               >>> command_line = input()
               /bin/vikings -input eggs.txt -output "spam spam.txt" -cmd "echo '$MONEY'"
               >>> args = shlex.split(command_line)
               >>> print(args)
               ['/bin/vikings', '-input', 'eggs.txt', '-output', 'spam spam.txt', '-cmd', "echo '$MONEY'"]
               >>> p = subprocess.Popen(args) # 成功！

          Note in particular that options (such as '-input') and
          arguments (such as 'eggs.txt') that are separated by
          whitespace in the shell go in separate list elements, while
          arguments that need quoting or backslash escaping when used in
          the shell (such as filenames containing spaces or the 'echo'
          command shown above) are single list elements.

     On Windows, if 'args' is a sequence, it will be converted to a
     string in a manner described in *note Converting an argument
     sequence to a string on Windows: 2edb.  This is because the
     underlying ‘CreateProcess()’ operates on strings.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'args' parameter accepts a *note path-like object:
     975. if 'shell' is ‘False’ and a sequence containing path-like
     objects on POSIX.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 'args' parameter accepts a *note path-like object:
     975. if 'shell' is ‘False’ and a sequence containing bytes and
     path-like objects on Windows.

     The 'shell' argument (which defaults to ‘False’) specifies whether
     to use the shell as the program to execute.  If 'shell' is ‘True’,
     it is recommended to pass 'args' as a string rather than as a
     sequence.

     On POSIX with ‘shell=True’, the shell defaults to ‘/bin/sh’.  If
     'args' is a string, the string specifies the command to execute
     through the shell.  This means that the string must be formatted
     exactly as it would be when typed at the shell prompt.  This
     includes, for example, quoting or backslash escaping filenames with
     spaces in them.  If 'args' is a sequence, the first item specifies
     the command string, and any additional items will be treated as
     additional arguments to the shell itself.  That is to say, *note
     Popen: 8e1. does the equivalent of:

          Popen(['/bin/sh', '-c', args[0], args[1], ...])

     On Windows with ‘shell=True’, the ‘COMSPEC’ environment variable
     specifies the default shell.  The only time you need to specify
     ‘shell=True’ on Windows is when the command you wish to execute is
     built into the shell (e.g.  ‘dir’ or ‘copy’).  You do not need
     ‘shell=True’ to run a batch file or console-based executable.

          備註: Read the *note Security Considerations: 2ed9. section
          before using ‘shell=True’.

     'bufsize' will be supplied as the corresponding argument to the
     *note open(): 29c. function when creating the stdin/stdout/stderr
     pipe file objects:

        - ‘0’ means unbuffered (read and write are one system call and
          can return short)

        - ‘1’ means line buffered (only usable if ‘text=True’ or
          ‘universal_newlines=True’)

        - any other positive value means use a buffer of approximately
          that size

        - negative bufsize (the default) means the system default of
          io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE will be used.

     在 3.3.1 版的變更: 'bufsize' now defaults to -1 to enable buffering
     by default to match the behavior that most code expects.  In
     versions prior to Python 3.2.4 and 3.3.1 it incorrectly defaulted
     to ‘0’ which was unbuffered and allowed short reads.  This was
     unintentional and did not match the behavior of Python 2 as most
     code expected.

     The 'executable' argument specifies a replacement program to
     execute.  It is very seldom needed.  When ‘shell=False’,
     'executable' replaces the program to execute specified by 'args'.
     However, the original 'args' is still passed to the program.  Most
     programs treat the program specified by 'args' as the command name,
     which can then be different from the program actually executed.  On
     POSIX, the 'args' name becomes the display name for the executable
     in utilities such as ‘ps’.  If ‘shell=True’, on POSIX the
     'executable' argument specifies a replacement shell for the default
     ‘/bin/sh’.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'executable' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 975. on POSIX.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 'executable' parameter accepts a bytes and *note
     path-like object: 975. on Windows.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

     'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' specify the executed program's
     standard input, standard output and standard error file handles,
     respectively.  Valid values are ‘None’, *note PIPE: 9e6, *note
     DEVNULL: fe0, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), and
     an existing *note file object: 1054. with a valid file descriptor.
     With the default settings of ‘None’, no redirection will occur.
     *note PIPE: 9e6. indicates that a new pipe to the child should be
     created.  *note DEVNULL: fe0. indicates that the special file *note
     os.devnull: 181a. will be used.  Additionally, 'stderr' can be
     *note STDOUT: 2ec1, which indicates that the stderr data from the
     applications should be captured into the same file handle as for
     'stdout'.

     If 'preexec_fn' is set to a callable object, this object will be
     called in the child process just before the child is executed.
     (POSIX only)

          警告: The 'preexec_fn' parameter is NOT SAFE to use in the
          presence of threads in your application.  The child process
          could deadlock before exec is called.

          備註: If you need to modify the environment for the child use
          the 'env' parameter rather than doing it in a 'preexec_fn'.
          The 'start_new_session' and 'process_group' parameters should
          take the place of code using 'preexec_fn' to call *note
          os.setsid(): 17b5. or *note os.setpgid(): 289d. in the child.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The 'preexec_fn' parameter is no longer supported
     in subinterpreters.  The use of the parameter in a subinterpreter
     raises *note RuntimeError: 17a.  The new restriction may affect
     applications that are deployed in mod_wsgi, uWSGI, and other
     embedded environments.

     If 'close_fds' is true, all file descriptors except ‘0’, ‘1’ and
     ‘2’ will be closed before the child process is executed.  Otherwise
     when 'close_fds' is false, file descriptors obey their inheritable
     flag as described in *note Inheritance of File Descriptors: d7d.

     On Windows, if 'close_fds' is true then no handles will be
     inherited by the child process unless explicitly passed in the
     ‘handle_list’ element of *note STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList: a71, or
     by standard handle redirection.

     在 3.2 版的變更: The default for 'close_fds' was changed from *note
     False: 98f. to what is described above.

     在 3.7 版的變更: On Windows the default for 'close_fds' was changed
     from *note False: 98f. to *note True: a70. when redirecting the
     standard handles.  It's now possible to set 'close_fds' to *note
     True: a70. when redirecting the standard handles.

     'pass_fds' is an optional sequence of file descriptors to keep open
     between the parent and child.  Providing any 'pass_fds' forces
     'close_fds' to be *note True: a70.  (POSIX only)

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'pass_fds' 參數。

     If 'cwd' is not ‘None’, the function changes the working directory
     to 'cwd' before executing the child.  'cwd' can be a string, bytes
     or *note path-like: 975. object.  On POSIX, the function looks for
     'executable' (or for the first item in 'args') relative to 'cwd' if
     the executable path is a relative path.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'cwd' parameter accepts a *note path-like object:
     975. on POSIX.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 'cwd' parameter accepts a *note path-like object:
     975. on Windows.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 'cwd' parameter accepts a bytes object on Windows.

     If 'restore_signals' is true (the default) all signals that Python
     has set to SIG_IGN are restored to SIG_DFL in the child process
     before the exec.  Currently this includes the SIGPIPE, SIGXFZ and
     SIGXFSZ signals.  (POSIX only)

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'restore_signals'。

     If 'start_new_session' is true the ‘setsid()’ system call will be
     made in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: POSIX

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'start_new_session'。

     If 'process_group' is a non-negative integer, the ‘setpgid(0,
     value)’ system call will be made in the child process prior to the
     execution of the subprocess.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: POSIX

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'process_group'。

     If 'group' is not ‘None’, the setregid() system call will be made
     in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.  If
     the provided value is a string, it will be looked up via *note
     grp.getgrnam(): 2edc. and the value in ‘gr_gid’ will be used.  If
     the value is an integer, it will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

     *note Availability: 1b45.: POSIX

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     If 'extra_groups' is not ‘None’, the setgroups() system call will
     be made in the child process prior to the execution of the
     subprocess.  Strings provided in 'extra_groups' will be looked up
     via *note grp.getgrnam(): 2edc. and the values in ‘gr_gid’ will be
     used.  Integer values will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

     *note Availability: 1b45.: POSIX

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     If 'user' is not ‘None’, the setreuid() system call will be made in
     the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.  If the
     provided value is a string, it will be looked up via *note
     pwd.getpwnam(): 2edd. and the value in ‘pw_uid’ will be used.  If
     the value is an integer, it will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

     *note Availability: 1b45.: POSIX

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     If 'umask' is not negative, the umask() system call will be made in
     the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: POSIX

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     If 'env' is not ‘None’, it must be a mapping that defines the
     environment variables for the new process; these are used instead
     of the default behavior of inheriting the current process'
     environment.  This mapping can be str to str on any platform or
     bytes to bytes on POSIX platforms much like *note os.environ: 104b.
     or *note os.environb: 10a8.

          備註: If specified, 'env' must provide any variables required
          for the program to execute.  On Windows, in order to run a
          side-by-side assembly(1) the specified 'env' 'must' include a
          valid ‘SystemRoot’.

     If 'encoding' or 'errors' are specified, or 'text' is true, the
     file objects 'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' are opened in text mode
     with the specified 'encoding' and 'errors', as described above in
     *note Frequently Used Arguments: 2ec0.  The 'universal_newlines'
     argument is equivalent to 'text' and is provided for backwards
     compatibility.  By default, file objects are opened in binary mode.

     在 3.6 版被加入: 新增 'encoding' 與 'errors'。

     在 3.7 版被加入: 'text' was added as a more readable alias for
     'universal_newlines'.

     If given, 'startupinfo' will be a *note STARTUPINFO: 2ede. object,
     which is passed to the underlying ‘CreateProcess’ function.

     If given, 'creationflags', can be one or more of the following
     flags:

        * *note CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE: 2edf.

        * *note CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP: 2ee0.

        * *note ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2ee1.

        * *note BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2ee2.

        * *note HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2ee3.

        * *note IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2ee4.

        * *note NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2ee5.

        * *note REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2ee6.

        * *note CREATE_NO_WINDOW: 2ee7.

        * *note DETACHED_PROCESS: 2ee8.

        * *note CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE: 2ee9.

        * *note CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB: 2eea.

     'pipesize' can be used to change the size of the pipe when *note
     PIPE: 9e6. is used for 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'.  The size of
     the pipe is only changed on platforms that support this (only Linux
     at this time of writing).  Other platforms will ignore this
     parameter.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 ‘pipesize’ 參數。

     Popen objects are supported as context managers via the *note with:
     3c5. statement: on exit, standard file descriptors are closed, and
     the process is waited for.

          with Popen(["ifconfig"], stdout=PIPE) as proc:
              log.write(proc.stdout.read())

     Popen and the other functions in this module that use it raise an
     *note auditing event: 168e. ‘subprocess.Popen’ with arguments
     ‘executable’, ‘args’, ‘cwd’, and ‘env’.  The value for ‘args’ may
     be a single string or a list of strings, depending on platform.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增情境管理器的支援。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Popen destructor now emits a *note
     ResourceWarning: aa3. warning if the child process is still
     running.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Popen can use *note os.posix_spawn(): 8a3. in some
     cases for better performance.  On Windows Subsystem for Linux and
     QEMU User Emulation, Popen constructor using *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 8a3. no longer raise an exception on errors like
     missing program, but the child process fails with a non-zero *note
     returncode: 1784.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-by-Side_Assembly


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<6>,  Prev: Popen Constructor,  Up: Using the subprocess Module

5.17.6.4 例外
.............

Exceptions raised in the child process, before the new program has
started to execute, will be re-raised in the parent.

The most common exception raised is *note OSError: 644.  This occurs,
for example, when trying to execute a non-existent file.  Applications
should prepare for *note OSError: 644. exceptions.  Note that, when
‘shell=True’, *note OSError: 644. will be raised by the child only if
the selected shell itself was not found.  To determine if the shell
failed to find the requested application, it is necessary to check the
return code or output from the subprocess.

A *note ValueError: 183. will be raised if *note Popen: 8e1. is called
with invalid arguments.

*note check_call(): 2ecf. and *note check_output(): e50. will raise
*note CalledProcessError: 11b8. if the called process returns a non-zero
return code.

All of the functions and methods that accept a 'timeout' parameter, such
as *note run(): 9e5. and *note Popen.communicate(): 2ec2. will raise
*note TimeoutExpired: 2ec3. if the timeout expires before the process
exits.

Exceptions defined in this module all inherit from *note
SubprocessError: 2ec9.

在 3.3 版被加入: The *note SubprocessError: 2ec9. base class was added.


File: python.info,  Node: 安全性注意事項,  Next: Popen Objects,  Prev: Using the subprocess Module,  Up: subprocess --- 子行程管理

5.17.6.5 安全性注意事項
.......................

Unlike some other popen functions, this library will not implicitly
choose to call a system shell.  This means that all characters,
including shell metacharacters, can safely be passed to child processes.
If the shell is invoked explicitly, via ‘shell=True’, it is the
application's responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and
metacharacters are quoted appropriately to avoid shell injection(1)
vulnerabilities.  On *note some platforms: 2eed, it is possible to use
*note shlex.quote(): fba. for this escaping.

On Windows, batch files (‘*.bat’ or ‘*.cmd’) may be launched by the
operating system in a system shell regardless of the arguments passed to
this library.  This could result in arguments being parsed according to
shell rules, but without any escaping added by Python.  If you are
intentionally launching a batch file with arguments from untrusted
sources, consider passing ‘shell=True’ to allow Python to escape special
characters.  See gh-114539(2) for additional discussion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114539


File: python.info,  Node: Popen Objects,  Next: Windows Popen Helpers,  Prev: 安全性注意事項,  Up: subprocess --- 子行程管理

5.17.6.6 Popen Objects
......................

Instances of the *note Popen: 8e1. class have the following methods:

 -- 方法: Popen.poll ()

     Check if child process has terminated.  Set and return *note
     returncode: 1784. attribute.  Otherwise, returns ‘None’.

 -- 方法: Popen.wait (timeout=None)

     Wait for child process to terminate.  Set and return *note
     returncode: 1784. attribute.

     If the process does not terminate after 'timeout' seconds, raise a
     *note TimeoutExpired: 2ec3. exception.  It is safe to catch this
     exception and retry the wait.

          備註: This will deadlock when using ‘stdout=PIPE’ or
          ‘stderr=PIPE’ and the child process generates enough output to
          a pipe such that it blocks waiting for the OS pipe buffer to
          accept more data.  Use *note Popen.communicate(): 2ec2. when
          using pipes to avoid that.

          備註: When the ‘timeout’ parameter is not ‘None’, then (on
          POSIX) the function is implemented using a busy loop
          (non-blocking call and short sleeps).  Use the *note asyncio:
          9. module for an asynchronous wait: see *note
          asyncio.create_subprocess_exec: 8c3.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'timeout'。

 -- 方法: Popen.communicate (input=None, timeout=None)

     Interact with process: Send data to stdin.  Read data from stdout
     and stderr, until end-of-file is reached.  Wait for process to
     terminate and set the *note returncode: 1784. attribute.  The
     optional 'input' argument should be data to be sent to the child
     process, or ‘None’, if no data should be sent to the child.  If
     streams were opened in text mode, 'input' must be a string.
     Otherwise, it must be bytes.

     *note communicate(): 2ec2. returns a tuple ‘(stdout_data,
     stderr_data)’.  The data will be strings if streams were opened in
     text mode; otherwise, bytes.

     Note that if you want to send data to the process's stdin, you need
     to create the Popen object with ‘stdin=PIPE’.  Similarly, to get
     anything other than ‘None’ in the result tuple, you need to give
     ‘stdout=PIPE’ and/or ‘stderr=PIPE’ too.

     If the process does not terminate after 'timeout' seconds, a *note
     TimeoutExpired: 2ec3. exception will be raised.  Catching this
     exception and retrying communication will not lose any output.

     The child process is not killed if the timeout expires, so in order
     to cleanup properly a well-behaved application should kill the
     child process and finish communication:

          proc = subprocess.Popen(...)
          try:
              outs, errs = proc.communicate(timeout=15)
          except TimeoutExpired:
              proc.kill()
              outs, errs = proc.communicate()

          備註: The data read is buffered in memory, so do not use this
          method if the data size is large or unlimited.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'timeout'。

 -- 方法: Popen.send_signal (signal)

     Sends the signal 'signal' to the child.

     Do nothing if the process completed.

          備註: On Windows, SIGTERM is an alias for *note terminate():
          124b.  CTRL_C_EVENT and CTRL_BREAK_EVENT can be sent to
          processes started with a 'creationflags' parameter which
          includes ‘CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP’.

 -- 方法: Popen.terminate ()

     Stop the child.  On POSIX OSs the method sends *note SIGTERM: 124e.
     to the child.  On Windows the Win32 API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’ is called to stop the child.

 -- 方法: Popen.kill ()

     Kills the child.  On POSIX OSs the function sends SIGKILL to the
     child.  On Windows *note kill(): 124c. is an alias for *note
     terminate(): 124b.

The following attributes are also set by the class for you to access.
Reassigning them to new values is unsupported:

 -- 屬性: Popen.args

     The 'args' argument as it was passed to *note Popen: 8e1. - a
     sequence of program arguments or else a single string.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: Popen.stdin

     If the 'stdin' argument was *note PIPE: 9e6, this attribute is a
     writeable stream object as returned by *note open(): 29c.  If the
     'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text' or
     'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stdin' argument was
     not *note PIPE: 9e6, this attribute is ‘None’.

 -- 屬性: Popen.stdout

     If the 'stdout' argument was *note PIPE: 9e6, this attribute is a
     readable stream object as returned by *note open(): 29c.  Reading
     from the stream provides output from the child process.  If the
     'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text' or
     'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stdout' argument
     was not *note PIPE: 9e6, this attribute is ‘None’.

 -- 屬性: Popen.stderr

     If the 'stderr' argument was *note PIPE: 9e6, this attribute is a
     readable stream object as returned by *note open(): 29c.  Reading
     from the stream provides error output from the child process.  If
     the 'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text'
     or 'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stderr' argument
     was not *note PIPE: 9e6, this attribute is ‘None’.

     警告: Use *note communicate(): 2ec2. rather than *note
     .stdin.write: 2ed6, *note .stdout.read: 2ed7. or *note
     .stderr.read: 2ed8. to avoid deadlocks due to any of the other OS
     pipe buffers filling up and blocking the child process.

 -- 屬性: Popen.pid

     The process ID of the child process.

     Note that if you set the 'shell' argument to ‘True’, this is the
     process ID of the spawned shell.

 -- 屬性: Popen.returncode

     The child return code.  Initially ‘None’, *note returncode: 1784.
     is set by a call to the *note poll(): 2eef, *note wait(): b51, or
     *note communicate(): 2ec2. methods if they detect that the process
     has terminated.

     A ‘None’ value indicates that the process hadn't yet terminated at
     the time of the last method call.

     A negative value ‘-N’ indicates that the child was terminated by
     signal ‘N’ (POSIX only).


File: python.info,  Node: Windows Popen Helpers,  Next: Older high-level API,  Prev: Popen Objects,  Up: subprocess --- 子行程管理

5.17.6.7 Windows Popen Helpers
..............................

The *note STARTUPINFO: 2ede. class and following constants are only
available on Windows.

 -- 類別: subprocess.STARTUPINFO (*, dwFlags=0, hStdInput=None,
          hStdOutput=None, hStdError=None, wShowWindow=0,
          lpAttributeList=None)

     Partial support of the Windows STARTUPINFO(1) structure is used for
     *note Popen: 8e1. creation.  The following attributes can be set by
     passing them as keyword-only arguments.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Keyword-only argument support was added.

      -- 屬性: dwFlags

          A bit field that determines whether certain *note STARTUPINFO:
          2ede. attributes are used when the process creates a window.

               si = subprocess.STARTUPINFO()
               si.dwFlags = subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES | subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

      -- 屬性: hStdInput

          If *note dwFlags: 2ef3. specifies *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          2ef5, this attribute is the standard input handle for the
          process.  If *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES: 2ef5. is not
          specified, the default for standard input is the keyboard
          buffer.

      -- 屬性: hStdOutput

          If *note dwFlags: 2ef3. specifies *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          2ef5, this attribute is the standard output handle for the
          process.  Otherwise, this attribute is ignored and the default
          for standard output is the console window's buffer.

      -- 屬性: hStdError

          If *note dwFlags: 2ef3. specifies *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          2ef5, this attribute is the standard error handle for the
          process.  Otherwise, this attribute is ignored and the default
          for standard error is the console window's buffer.

      -- 屬性: wShowWindow

          If *note dwFlags: 2ef3. specifies *note STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW:
          2ef9, this attribute can be any of the values that can be
          specified in the ‘nCmdShow’ parameter for the ShowWindow(2)
          function, except for ‘SW_SHOWDEFAULT’.  Otherwise, this
          attribute is ignored.

          *note SW_HIDE: 2efa. is provided for this attribute.  It is
          used when *note Popen: 8e1. is called with ‘shell=True’.

      -- 屬性: lpAttributeList

          A dictionary of additional attributes for process creation as
          given in ‘STARTUPINFOEX’, see UpdateProcThreadAttribute(3).

          Supported attributes:

          'handle_list'

               Sequence of handles that will be inherited.  'close_fds'
               must be true if non-empty.

               The handles must be temporarily made inheritable by *note
               os.set_handle_inheritable(): d81. when passed to the
               *note Popen: 8e1. constructor, else *note OSError: 644.
               will be raised with Windows error
               ‘ERROR_INVALID_PARAMETER’ (87).

                    警告: In a multithreaded process, use caution to
                    avoid leaking handles that are marked inheritable
                    when combining this feature with concurrent calls to
                    other process creation functions that inherit all
                    handles such as *note os.system(): 12cd.  This also
                    applies to standard handle redirection, which
                    temporarily creates inheritable handles.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

* Menu:

* Windows Constants::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms686331(v=vs.85).aspx

   (2) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms633548(v=vs.85).aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms686880(v=vs.85).aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Windows Constants,  Up: Windows Popen Helpers

5.17.6.8 Windows Constants
..........................

The *note subprocess: d0. module exposes the following constants.

 -- 資料: subprocess.STD_INPUT_HANDLE

     The standard input device.  Initially, this is the console input
     buffer, ‘CONIN$’.

 -- 資料: subprocess.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE

     The standard output device.  Initially, this is the active console
     screen buffer, ‘CONOUT$’.

 -- 資料: subprocess.STD_ERROR_HANDLE

     The standard error device.  Initially, this is the active console
     screen buffer, ‘CONOUT$’.

 -- 資料: subprocess.SW_HIDE

     Hides the window.  Another window will be activated.

 -- 資料: subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES

     Specifies that the *note STARTUPINFO.hStdInput: 2ef4, *note
     STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput: 2ef6, and *note STARTUPINFO.hStdError:
     2ef7. attributes contain additional information.

 -- 資料: subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

     Specifies that the *note STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow: 2ef8. attribute
     contains additional information.

 -- 資料: subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE

     The new process has a new console, instead of inheriting its
     parent's console (the default).

 -- 資料: subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP

     A *note Popen: 8e1. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process group will be created.  This flag is necessary for using
     *note os.kill(): 11f6. on the subprocess.

     This flag is ignored if *note CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE: 2edf. is
     specified.

 -- 資料: subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8e1. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have an above average priority.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8e1. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have a below average priority.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8e1. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have a high priority.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8e1. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have an idle (lowest) priority.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8e1. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have a normal priority.  (default)

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8e1. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have realtime priority.  You should almost never use
     REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS, because this interrupts system threads
     that manage mouse input, keyboard input, and background disk
     flushing.  This class can be appropriate for applications that
     "talk" directly to hardware or that perform brief tasks that should
     have limited interruptions.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW

     A *note Popen: 8e1. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will not create a window.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS

     A *note Popen: 8e1. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will not inherit its parent's console.  This value cannot
     be used with CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE

     A *note Popen: 8e1. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process does not inherit the error mode of the calling process.
     Instead, the new process gets the default error mode.  This feature
     is particularly useful for multithreaded shell applications that
     run with hard errors disabled.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB

     A *note Popen: 8e1. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process is not associated with the job.

     在 3.7 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Older high-level API,  Next: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module,  Prev: Windows Popen Helpers,  Up: subprocess --- 子行程管理

5.17.6.9 Older high-level API
.............................

Prior to Python 3.5, these three functions comprised the high level API
to subprocess.  You can now use *note run(): 9e5. in many cases, but
lots of existing code calls these functions.

 -- 函式: subprocess.call (args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run the command described by 'args'.  Wait for command to complete,
     then return the *note returncode: 1784. attribute.

     Code needing to capture stdout or stderr should use *note run():
     9e5. instead:

          run(...).returncode

     To suppress stdout or stderr, supply a value of *note DEVNULL: fe0.

     The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.  The full
     function signature is the same as that of the *note Popen: 8e1.
     constructor - this function passes all supplied arguments other
     than 'timeout' directly through to that interface.

          備註: Do not use ‘stdout=PIPE’ or ‘stderr=PIPE’ with this
          function.  The child process will block if it generates enough
          output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer as the pipes
          are not being read from.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'timeout'。

     在 3.12 版的變更: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- 函式: subprocess.check_call (args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run command with arguments.  Wait for command to complete.  If the
     return code was zero then return, otherwise raise *note
     CalledProcessError: 11b8.  The *note CalledProcessError: 11b8.
     object will have the return code in the *note returncode: 2ed0.
     attribute.  If *note check_call(): 2ecf. was unable to start the
     process it will propagate the exception that was raised.

     Code needing to capture stdout or stderr should use *note run():
     9e5. instead:

          run(..., check=True)

     To suppress stdout or stderr, supply a value of *note DEVNULL: fe0.

     The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.  The full
     function signature is the same as that of the *note Popen: 8e1.
     constructor - this function passes all supplied arguments other
     than 'timeout' directly through to that interface.

          備註: Do not use ‘stdout=PIPE’ or ‘stderr=PIPE’ with this
          function.  The child process will block if it generates enough
          output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer as the pipes
          are not being read from.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'timeout'。

     在 3.12 版的變更: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- 函式: subprocess.check_output (args, *, stdin=None, stderr=None,
          shell=False, cwd=None, encoding=None, errors=None,
          universal_newlines=None, timeout=None, text=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run command with arguments and return its output.

     If the return code was non-zero it raises a *note
     CalledProcessError: 11b8.  The *note CalledProcessError: 11b8.
     object will have the return code in the *note returncode: 2ed0.
     attribute and any output in the *note output: 2ed2. attribute.

     這等同於：

          run(..., check=True, stdout=PIPE).stdout

     The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.  The full
     function signature is largely the same as that of *note run(): 9e5.
     - most arguments are passed directly through to that interface.
     One API deviation from *note run(): 9e5. behavior exists: passing
     ‘input=None’ will behave the same as ‘input=b''’ (or ‘input=''’,
     depending on other arguments) rather than using the parent's
     standard input file handle.

     By default, this function will return the data as encoded bytes.
     The actual encoding of the output data may depend on the command
     being invoked, so the decoding to text will often need to be
     handled at the application level.

     This behaviour may be overridden by setting 'text', 'encoding',
     'errors', or 'universal_newlines' to ‘True’ as described in *note
     Frequently Used Arguments: 2ec0. and *note run(): 9e5.

     To also capture standard error in the result, use
     ‘stderr=subprocess.STDOUT’:

          >>> subprocess.check_output(
          ...     "ls non_existent_file; exit 0",
          ...     stderr=subprocess.STDOUT,
          ...     shell=True)
          'ls: non_existent_file: No such file or directory\n'

     在 3.1 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'timeout'。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'input' 關鍵字引數的支援。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'encoding' 與 'errors'。細節請見 *note run():
     9e5.。

     在 3.7 版被加入: 'text' was added as a more readable alias for
     'universal_newlines'.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module,  Next: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions,  Prev: Older high-level API,  Up: subprocess --- 子行程管理

5.17.6.10 Replacing Older Functions with the ‘subprocess’ Module
................................................................

In this section, "a becomes b" means that b can be used as a replacement
for a.

     備註: All "a" functions in this section fail (more or less)
     silently if the executed program cannot be found; the "b"
     replacements raise *note OSError: 644. instead.

     In addition, the replacements using *note check_output(): e50. will
     fail with a *note CalledProcessError: 11b8. if the requested
     operation produces a non-zero return code.  The output is still
     available as the *note output: 2ed2. attribute of the raised
     exception.

In the following examples, we assume that the relevant functions have
already been imported from the *note subprocess: d0. module.

* Menu:

* Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution::
* Replacing shell pipeline::
* Replacing os.system(): Replacing os system.
* Replacing the os.spawn family: Replacing the os spawn family.
* Replacing os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3(): Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen3.
* Replacing functions from the popen2 module::


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution,  Next: Replacing shell pipeline,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.11 Replacing ‘/bin/sh’ shell command substitution
........................................................

     output=$(mycmd myarg)

變成：

     output = check_output(["mycmd", "myarg"])


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing shell pipeline,  Next: Replacing os system,  Prev: Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.12 Replacing shell pipeline
..................................

     output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

變成：

     p1 = Popen(["dmesg"], stdout=PIPE)
     p2 = Popen(["grep", "hda"], stdin=p1.stdout, stdout=PIPE)
     p1.stdout.close()  # Allow p1 to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits.
     output = p2.communicate()[0]

The ‘p1.stdout.close()’ call after starting the p2 is important in order
for p1 to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits before p1.

Alternatively, for trusted input, the shell's own pipeline support may
still be used directly:

     output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

變成：

     output = check_output("dmesg | grep hda", shell=True)


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing os system,  Next: Replacing the os spawn family,  Prev: Replacing shell pipeline,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.13 Replacing ‘os.system()’
.................................

     sts = os.system("mycmd" + " myarg")
     # 變成
     retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)

註解：

   * Calling the program through the shell is usually not required.

   * The *note call(): 9e7. return value is encoded differently to that
     of *note os.system(): 12cd.

   * The *note os.system(): 12cd. function ignores SIGINT and SIGQUIT
     signals while the command is running, but the caller must do this
     separately when using the *note subprocess: d0. module.

A more realistic example would look like this:

     try:
         retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)
         if retcode < 0:
             print("Child was terminated by signal", -retcode, file=sys.stderr)
         else:
             print("Child returned", retcode, file=sys.stderr)
     except OSError as e:
         print("Execution failed:", e, file=sys.stderr)


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing the os spawn family,  Next: Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen3,  Prev: Replacing os system,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.14 Replacing the ‘os.spawn’ family
.........................................

P_NOWAIT 範例：

     pid = os.spawnlp(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
     ==>
     pid = Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"]).pid

P_WAIT 範例：

     retcode = os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
     ==>
     retcode = call(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"])

Vector example:

     os.spawnvp(os.P_NOWAIT, path, args)
     ==>
     Popen([path] + args[1:])

Environment example:

     os.spawnlpe(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg", env)
     ==>
     Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"], env={"PATH": "/usr/bin"})


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen3,  Next: Replacing functions from the popen2 module,  Prev: Replacing the os spawn family,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.15 Replacing ‘os.popen()’, ‘os.popen2()’, ‘os.popen3()’
..............................................................

     (child_stdin, child_stdout) = os.popen2(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin, child_stdout) = (p.stdin, p.stdout)

     (child_stdin,
      child_stdout,
      child_stderr) = os.popen3(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin,
      child_stdout,
      child_stderr) = (p.stdin, p.stdout, p.stderr)

     (child_stdin, child_stdout_and_stderr) = os.popen4(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, stderr=STDOUT, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin, child_stdout_and_stderr) = (p.stdin, p.stdout)

Return code handling translates as follows:

     pipe = os.popen(cmd, 'w')
     ...
     rc = pipe.close()
     if rc is not None and rc >> 8:
         print("There were some errors")
     ==>
     process = Popen(cmd, stdin=PIPE)
     ...
     process.stdin.close()
     if process.wait() != 0:
         print("There were some errors")


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing functions from the popen2 module,  Prev: Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen3,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.16 Replacing functions from the ‘popen2’ module
......................................................

     備註: If the cmd argument to popen2 functions is a string, the
     command is executed through /bin/sh.  If it is a list, the command
     is directly executed.

     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = popen2.popen2("somestring", bufsize, mode)
     ==>
     p = Popen("somestring", shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = (p.stdout, p.stdin)

     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = popen2.popen2(["mycmd", "myarg"], bufsize, mode)
     ==>
     p = Popen(["mycmd", "myarg"], bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = (p.stdout, p.stdin)

‘popen2.Popen3’ and ‘popen2.Popen4’ basically work as *note
subprocess.Popen: 8e1, except that:

   * *note Popen: 8e1. raises an exception if the execution fails.

   * The 'capturestderr' argument is replaced with the 'stderr'
     argument.

   * ‘stdin=PIPE’ and ‘stdout=PIPE’ must be specified.

   * popen2 closes all file descriptors by default, but you have to
     specify ‘close_fds=True’ with *note Popen: 8e1. to guarantee this
     behavior on all platforms or past Python versions.


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions,  Next: 註解,  Prev: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module,  Up: subprocess --- 子行程管理

5.17.6.17 Legacy Shell Invocation Functions
...........................................

This module also provides the following legacy functions from the 2.x
‘commands’ module.  These operations implicitly invoke the system shell
and none of the guarantees described above regarding security and
exception handling consistency are valid for these functions.

 -- 函式: subprocess.getstatusoutput (cmd, *, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Return ‘(exitcode, output)’ of executing 'cmd' in a shell.

     Execute the string 'cmd' in a shell with ‘Popen.check_output()’ and
     return a 2-tuple ‘(exitcode, output)’.  'encoding' and 'errors' are
     used to decode output; see the notes on *note Frequently Used
     Arguments: 2ec0. for more details.

     A trailing newline is stripped from the output.  The exit code for
     the command can be interpreted as the return code of subprocess.
     Example:

          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('ls /bin/ls')
          (0, '/bin/ls')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('cat /bin/junk')
          (1, 'cat: /bin/junk: No such file or directory')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/junk')
          (127, 'sh: /bin/junk: not found')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/kill $$')
          (-15, '')

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     在 3.3.4 版的變更: 新增對 Windows 的支援。

     The function now returns (exitcode, output) instead of (status,
     output) as it did in Python 3.3.3 and earlier.  exitcode has the
     same value as *note returncode: 1784.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'encoding' 與 'errors' 參數。

 -- 函式: subprocess.getoutput (cmd, *, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Return output (stdout and stderr) of executing 'cmd' in a shell.

     Like *note getstatusoutput(): e51, except the exit code is ignored
     and the return value is a string containing the command's output.
     Example:

          >>> subprocess.getoutput('ls /bin/ls')
          '/bin/ls'

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     在 3.3.4 版的變更: 新增對 Windows 的支援

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'encoding' 與 'errors' 參數。


File: python.info,  Node: 註解,  Prev: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions,  Up: subprocess --- 子行程管理

5.17.6.18 註解
..............

* Menu:

* Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows::
* 停用 vfork() 或 posix_spawn(): 停用 vfork 或 posix_spawn.


File: python.info,  Node: Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows,  Next: 停用 vfork 或 posix_spawn,  Up: 註解

5.17.6.19 Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows
................................................................

On Windows, an 'args' sequence is converted to a string that can be
parsed using the following rules (which correspond to the rules used by
the MS C runtime):

  1. Arguments are delimited by white space, which is either a space or
     a tab.

  2. A string surrounded by double quotation marks is interpreted as a
     single argument, regardless of white space contained within.  A
     quoted string can be embedded in an argument.

  3. A double quotation mark preceded by a backslash is interpreted as a
     literal double quotation mark.

  4. Backslashes are interpreted literally, unless they immediately
     precede a double quotation mark.

  5. If backslashes immediately precede a double quotation mark, every
     pair of backslashes is interpreted as a literal backslash.  If the
     number of backslashes is odd, the last backslash escapes the next
     double quotation mark as described in rule 3.

也參考
......

*note shlex: bf.

     Module which provides function to parse and escape command lines.


File: python.info,  Node: 停用 vfork 或 posix_spawn,  Prev: Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows,  Up: 註解

5.17.6.20 停用 ‘vfork()’ 或 ‘posix_spawn()’
...........................................

在 Linux 上，*note subprocess: d0. 在安全的情況下預設會在內部使用
‘vfork()’ 系統呼叫，而不是 ‘fork()’，這顯著地提高了性能。

如果你遇到了一個推定為極異常的情況，需要防止 Python 使用 ‘vfork()’，你可
以將 ‘subprocess._USE_VFORK’ 屬性設為 false 值。

     subprocess._USE_VFORK = False  # 見 CPython 問題 gh-NNNNNN.

設定它並不會影響 ‘posix_spawn()’ 的使用，它可以在其 libc 實作內部使用
‘vfork()’。如果你需要封鎖該屬性的使用，則有一個類似的
‘subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN’ 屬性。

     subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN = False  # 見 CPython 問題 gh-NNNNNN.

在任何 Python 版本上將這些設定為 false 都是安全的。當不受支援時，它們對
舊版本沒有影響。不要假設屬性可供讀取。儘管有它們的名稱，真實值並不表示將
使用相應的函式，而只是表示可能會使用。

每當你需要使用這些私有開關以重現你所看到的問題時，請隨時提出問題 (file
issues)。從程式碼中的註解連結到該問題。

在 3.8 版被加入: ‘_USE_POSIX_SPAWN’

在 3.11 版被加入: ‘_USE_VFORK’


File: python.info,  Node: sched --- 事件排程器,  Next: queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別,  Prev: subprocess --- 子行程管理,  Up: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution

5.17.7 ‘sched’ -- 事件排程器
----------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/sched.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note sched: ba. 模組定義了一個有實作通用事件排程器的類別：

 -- 類別: sched.scheduler (timefunc=time.monotonic,
          delayfunc=time.sleep)

     *note scheduler: fb5. 類別定義了事件排程的泛用介面。它需要兩個函式
     來和「外部世界」作用 —— 'timefunc' 應不帶引數地被呼叫，並回傳一個數
     字（為「時間」，可為任何單位）。'delayfunc' 函式應以一個引數呼叫，
     並與 'timefunc' 的輸出相容，且應延遲其指定的時間單位。每個事件運行
     後，也會以引數 ‘0’ 呼叫 'delayfunc'，來使得其他執行緒有機會在多執行
     緒應用程式中運行。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 'timefunc' 和 'delayfunc' 參數是可選的。

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note scheduler: fb5. 類別可以安全地在多執行緒環境
     中使用。

範例：

     >>> import sched, time
     >>> s = sched.scheduler(time.time, time.sleep)
     >>> def print_time(a='default'):
     ...     print("From print_time", time.time(), a)
     ...
     >>> def print_some_times():
     ...     print(time.time())
     ...     s.enter(10, 1, print_time)
     ...     s.enter(5, 2, print_time, argument=('positional',))
     ...     # despite having higher priority, 'keyword' runs after 'positional' as enter() is relative
     ...     s.enter(5, 1, print_time, kwargs={'a': 'keyword'})
     ...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 10, print_time, argument=("first enterabs",))
     ...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 5, print_time, argument=("second enterabs",))
     ...     s.run()
     ...     print(time.time())
     ...
     >>> print_some_times()
     1652342830.3640375
     From print_time 1652342830.3642538 second enterabs
     From print_time 1652342830.3643398 first enterabs
     From print_time 1652342835.3694863 positional
     From print_time 1652342835.3696074 keyword
     From print_time 1652342840.369612 default
     1652342840.3697174

* Menu:

* 排程器物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sched.py


File: python.info,  Node: 排程器物件,  Up: sched --- 事件排程器

5.17.7.1 排程器物件
...................

*note scheduler: fb5. 實例具有以下方法和屬性：

 -- 方法: scheduler.enterabs (time, priority, action, argument=(),
          kwargs={})

     為一個新事件排程。'time' 引數應該是與傳遞給建構函式的 'timefunc' 函
     式回傳值相容的數字型別。安排在相同 'time' 的事件將按照其 'priority'
     的順序執行。數字越小代表優先順序越高。

     執行事件意味著執行 ‘action(*argument, **kwargs)’。'argument' 是一個
     包含 'action' 之位置引數的序列。'kwargs' 是一個字典，帶有 'action'
     的關鍵字引數。

     回傳值是一個事件，可用於後續取消該事件（請見 *note cancel(): 1705.）
     。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 'argument' 參數是可選的。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'kwargs' 參數。

 -- 方法: scheduler.enter (delay, priority, action, argument=(),
          kwargs={})

     為一個排程事件延期 'delay' 個時間單位。除了相對時間之外，其他引數、
     效果和回傳值皆與 *note enterabs(): fb7. 的相同。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 'argument' 參數是可選的。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'kwargs' 參數。

 -- 方法: scheduler.cancel (event)

     從佇列中刪除該事件。如果 'event' 不是目前佇列中的事件，此方法將引發
     *note ValueError: 183.。

 -- 方法: scheduler.empty ()

     如果事件佇列為空，則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 方法: scheduler.run (blocking=True)

     運行所有已排程的事件。此方法將會等待（使用傳遞給建構函式的
     'delayfunc' 函式）下一個事件，然後執行它，並依此類推，直到不再有排
     程好的事件。

     如果 'blocking' 為 false，則執行最快到期的已排程事件（如存在），然
     後回傳排程器中下一個排程呼叫（如存在）的截止時間。

     'action' 或 'delayfunc' 都可能引發例外。無論哪種情況，排程器都將保
     持一致的狀態並傳遞例外。如果是由 'action' 引發例外，則後續呼叫
     *note run(): fb4. 時將不會嘗試運行該事件。

     如果一系列事件的運行時長比執行下一個事件前的可用時長 (available
     time) 更長，那麼排程器就單純會落後。不會有事件被丟棄；呼叫程式碼也
     要負責取消不再相關的事件。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'blocking' 參數。

 -- 屬性: scheduler.queue

     會按事件運行順序回傳即將發生的事件串列的唯讀屬性。每個事件都以*note
     附名元組 (named tuple): 449. 表示，並包含以下欄位：時間、優先順序、
     動作 (action)、引數、kwargs。


File: python.info,  Node: queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別,  Next: contextvars --- 情境變數,  Prev: sched --- 事件排程器,  Up: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution

5.17.8 ‘queue’ -- 同步佇列 (synchronized queue) 類別
----------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/queue.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note queue: b1. module（模組）實作多生產者、多消費者佇列。在執行緒程式
設計中，必須在多執行緒之間安全地交換資訊時，特別有用。此 module 中的
*note Queue: 121d. class 實作所有必需的鎖定語義 (locking semantics)。

此 module 實作三種型別的佇列，它們僅在取出條目的順序上有所不同。在 FIFO
佇列中，先加入的任務是第一個被取出的。在 LIFO 佇列中，最近被加入的條目是
第一個被取出的（像堆疊 (stack) 一樣操作）。使用優先佇列 (priority queue)
時，條目將保持排序狀態（使用 *note heapq: 64. module），並先取出最低值條
目。

在內部，這三種型別的佇列使用鎖 (lock) 來暫時阻塞競爭執行緒；但是，它們並
不是被設計來處理執行緒內的 reentrancy（可重入）。

此外，此 module 實作一個「簡單」的 FIFO 佇列型別 *note SimpleQueue:
9c6.，其特定的實作是以較少的功能為代價，來提供額外的保證。

*note queue: b1. module 定義了以下的 class 和例外：

 -- 類別: queue.Queue (maxsize=0)

     FIFO 佇列的建構子 (constructor)。'maxsize' 是一個整數，用於設置佇列
     中可放置的項目數的上限。一旦達到此大小，插入將會阻塞，直到佇列中的
     項目被消耗。如果 'maxsize' 小於或等於零，則佇列大小為無限。

 -- 類別: queue.LifoQueue (maxsize=0)

     LIFO 佇列的建構子。'maxsize' 是一個整數，用於設置佇列中可放置的項目
     數的上限。一旦達到此大小，插入將被鎖定，到佇列中的項目被消耗。如果
     'maxsize' 小於或等於零，則佇列大小為無限。

 -- 類別: queue.PriorityQueue (maxsize=0)

     優先佇列的建構子。'maxsize' 是一個整數，用於設置佇列中可放置的項目
     數的上限。一旦達到此大小，插入將被阻塞，直到佇列中的項目被消耗。如
     果 'maxsize' 小於或等於零，則佇列大小為無限。

     最低值的條目會最先被取出（最低值的條目是被會 ‘min(entries)’ 回傳的
     那一個）。條目的典型模式是格式為 ‘(priority_number, data)’ 的
     tuple（元組）。

     如果 'data' 元素為不可比較的，則可以將資料包裝在一個 class 中，該
     class 忽略資料項目並僅比較優先數：

          from dataclasses import dataclass, field
          from typing import Any

          @dataclass(order=True)
          class PrioritizedItem:
              priority: int
              item: Any=field(compare=False)

 -- 類別: queue.SimpleQueue

     無界的 FIFO 佇列的建構子。簡單佇列缺少任務追蹤等進階功能。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 例外: queue.Empty

     當對一個空的 *note Queue: 121d. 物件呼叫非阻塞的 (non-blocking)
     *note get(): 2ab7.（或 *note get_nowait(): 2f16.）將引發此例外。

 -- 例外: queue.Full

     當對一個已滿的 *note Queue: 121d. 物件呼叫非阻塞的 *note put():
     2f17.（或 *note put_nowait(): 2ab6.）將引發此例外。

* Menu:

* 佇列物件::
* SimpleQueue 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/queue.py


File: python.info,  Node: 佇列物件,  Next: SimpleQueue 物件,  Up: queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別

5.17.8.1 佇列物件
.................

佇列物件（*note Queue: 121d.、*note LifoQueue: 1fef.、*note
PriorityQueue: 1ff0.）提供下面描述的公用 method。

 -- 方法: Queue.qsize ()

     回傳佇列的近似大小。注意，qsize() > 0 並不能保證後續的 get() 不會阻
     塞，qsize() < maxsize 也不會保證 put() 不會阻塞。

 -- 方法: Queue.empty ()

     如果佇列為空，則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。如果 empty() 回傳
     ‘True’，則不保證後續呼叫 put() 不會阻塞。同樣，如果 empty() 回傳
     ‘False’，則不保證後續呼叫 get() 不會阻塞。

 -- 方法: Queue.full ()

     如果佇列已滿，則回傳 ‘True’ ，否則回傳 ‘False’。如果 full() 回傳
     ‘True’，則不保證後續呼叫 get() 不會阻塞。同樣，如果 full() 回傳
     ‘False’，則不保證後續呼叫 put() 不會阻塞。

 -- 方法: Queue.put (item, block=True, timeout=None)

     將 'item' 放入佇列中。如果可選的 args 'block' 為 true、'timeout' 為
     ‘None’（預設值），則在必要時阻塞，直到自由槽 (free slot) 可用。如果
     'timeout' 為正數，則最多阻塞 'timeout' 秒，如果該時間內沒有可用的自
     由槽，則會引發 *note Full: 2e2b. 例外。否則（'block' 為 false），如
     果自由槽立即可用，則將項目放在佇列中，否則引發 *note Full: 2e2b. 例
     外（在這種情況下，'timeout' 將被忽略）。

 -- 方法: Queue.put_nowait (item)

     等效於 ‘put(item, block=False)’。

 -- 方法: Queue.get (block=True, timeout=None)

     從佇列中移除並回傳一個項目。如果可選的 args 'block' 為 true，且
     'timeout' 為 ‘None’（預設值），則在必要時阻塞，直到有可用的項目。如
     果 'timeout' 是正數，則最多會阻塞 'timeout' 秒，如果該時間內沒有可
     用的項目，則會引發 *note Empty: 2e2a. 例外。否則（'block' 為 false）
     ，如果立即可用，則回傳一個項目，否則引發 *note Empty: 2e2a. 例外（
     在這種情況下，'timeout' 將被忽略）。

     在 POSIX 系統的 3.0 版之前，以及 Windows 的所有版本，如果 'block' 為
     true 且 'timeout' 為 ‘None’，則此操作將在底層鎖上進入不間斷等待。這
     意味著不會發生例外，特別是 SIGINT（中斷訊號）不會觸發 *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 815.。

 -- 方法: Queue.get_nowait ()

     等效於 ‘get(False)’。

有兩個 method 可以支援追蹤放入佇列的任務是否已由常駐消費者執行緒 (daemon
consumer threads) 完全處理。

 -- 方法: Queue.task_done ()

     表示先前放入佇列的任務已完成。由佇列消費者執行緒使用。對於用來提取
     任務的每個 *note get(): 2ab7.，隨後呼叫 *note task_done(): 2e26. 告
     訴佇列任務的處理已完成。

     如果目前 *note join(): 2e27. 阻塞，它將會在所有項目都已處理完畢後恢
     復（代表對於以 *note put(): 2f17. 放進佇列的每個項目，都要收到
     *note task_done(): 2e26. 的呼叫）。

     如果呼叫次數超過佇列中放置的項目數量，則引發 *note ValueError:
     183.。

 -- 方法: Queue.join ()

     持續阻塞直到佇列中的所有項目都已被獲取並處理完畢。

     每當項目被加到佇列中時，未完成任務的計數都會增加。每當消費者執行緒
     呼叫 *note task_done(): 2e26. 以指示該項目已被取出並且對其的所有工
     作都已完成時，計數就會下降。當未完成任務的計數降至零時，*note
     join(): 2e27. 將停止阻塞。

如何等待放入佇列的任務完成的範例：

     import threading
     import queue

     q = queue.Queue()

     def worker():
         while True:
             item = q.get()
             print(f'Working on {item}')
             print(f'Finished {item}')
             q.task_done()

     # Turn-on the worker thread.
     threading.Thread(target=worker, daemon=True).start()

     # Send thirty task requests to the worker.
     for item in range(30):
         q.put(item)

     # Block until all tasks are done.
     q.join()
     print('All work completed')


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleQueue 物件,  Prev: 佇列物件,  Up: queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別

5.17.8.2 SimpleQueue 物件
.........................

*note SimpleQueue: 9c6. 物件提供下面描述的公用 method。

 -- 方法: SimpleQueue.qsize ()

     傳回佇列的近似大小。注意，qsize() > 0 並不能保證後續的 get() 不會阻
     塞。

 -- 方法: SimpleQueue.empty ()

     如果佇列為空，則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。如果 empty() 回傳
     ‘False’，則不保證後續呼叫 get() 不會阻塞。

 -- 方法: SimpleQueue.put (item, block=True, timeout=None)

     將 'item' 放入佇列中。此 method 從不阻塞，並且都會成功（除了潛在的
     低階錯誤，像是分配記憶體失敗）。可選的 args 'block' 和 'timeout' 會
     被忽略，它們僅是為了與 *note Queue.put(): 2f17. 相容才存在。

     'CPython 實作細節：' 此 method 有一個可重入 (reentrant) 的 C 實作。
     意思就是，一個 ‘put()’ 或 ‘get()’ 呼叫，可以被同一執行緒中的另一個
     ‘put()’ 呼叫中斷，而不會造成死鎖 (deadlock) 或損壞佇列中的內部狀態
     。這使得它適合在解構子 (destructor) 中使用，像是 ‘__del__’ method 或
     *note weakref: 10f. 回呼函式 (callback)。

 -- 方法: SimpleQueue.put_nowait (item)

     等效於 ‘put(item, block=False)’，用於與 *note Queue.put_nowait():
     2ab6. 相容。

 -- 方法: SimpleQueue.get (block=True, timeout=None)

     從佇列中移除並回傳一個項目。如果可選的 args 'block' 為 true，且
     'timeout' 為 ‘None’（預設值），則在必要時阻塞，直到有可用的項目。如
     果 'timeout' 是正數，則最多會阻塞 'timeout' 秒，如果該時間內沒有可
     用的項目，則會引發 *note Empty: 2e2a. 例外。否則（'block' 為 false）
     ，如果立即可用，則回傳一個項目，否則引發 *note Empty: 2e2a. 例外（
     在這種情況下，'timeout' 將被忽略）。

 -- 方法: SimpleQueue.get_nowait ()

     等效於 ‘get(False)’。

也參考
......

Class *note multiprocessing.Queue: 144f.

     用於多行程處理 (multi-processing)（而非多執行緒）情境 (context) 的
     佇列 class。

*note collections.deque: 3cf. 是無界佇列的替代實作，有快速且具原子性
(atomic) 的 *note append(): 229d. 和 *note popleft(): 22a3. 操作，這些操
作不需要鎖定，並且還支持索引。


File: python.info,  Node: contextvars --- 情境變數,  Next: _thread --- 低階執行緒 API,  Prev: queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別,  Up: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution

5.17.9 ‘contextvars’ -- 情境變數
--------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides APIs to manage, store, and access context-local
state.  The *note ContextVar: 2f26. class is used to declare and work
with 'Context Variables'.  The *note copy_context(): 2f27. function and
the *note Context: 13ce. class should be used to manage the current
context in asynchronous frameworks.

Context managers that have state should use Context Variables instead of
*note threading.local(): 1533. to prevent their state from bleeding to
other code unexpectedly, when used in concurrent code.

額外資訊請見 PEP 567(1)。

在 3.7 版被加入.

* Menu:

* Context Variables::
* Manual Context Management::
* asyncio support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Context Variables,  Next: Manual Context Management,  Up: contextvars --- 情境變數

5.17.9.1 Context Variables
..........................

 -- 類別: contextvars.ContextVar (name[, *, default])

     This class is used to declare a new Context Variable, e.g.:

          var: ContextVar[int] = ContextVar('var', default=42)

     The required 'name' parameter is used for introspection and debug
     purposes.

     The optional keyword-only 'default' parameter is returned by *note
     ContextVar.get(): 2f29. when no value for the variable is found in
     the current context.

     'Important:' Context Variables should be created at the top module
     level and never in closures.  *note Context: 13ce. objects hold
     strong references to context variables which prevents context
     variables from being properly garbage collected.

      -- 屬性: name

          The name of the variable.  This is a read-only property.

          在 3.7.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: get ([default])

          Return a value for the context variable for the current
          context.

          If there is no value for the variable in the current context,
          the method will:

             * return the value of the 'default' argument of the method,
               if provided; or

             * return the default value for the context variable, if it
               was created with one; or

             * raise a *note LookupError: 1f64.

      -- 方法: set (value)

          Call to set a new value for the context variable in the
          current context.

          The required 'value' argument is the new value for the context
          variable.

          Returns a *note Token: 2f2c. object that can be used to
          restore the variable to its previous value via the *note
          ContextVar.reset(): 2f2d. method.

      -- 方法: reset (token)

          Reset the context variable to the value it had before the
          *note ContextVar.set(): 2f2b. that created the 'token' was
          used.

          舉例來說：

               var = ContextVar('var')

               token = var.set('new value')
               # code that uses 'var'; var.get() returns 'new value'.
               var.reset(token)

               # After the reset call the var has no value again, so
               # var.get() would raise a LookupError.

 -- 類別: contextvars.Token

     'Token' objects are returned by the *note ContextVar.set(): 2f2b.
     method.  They can be passed to the *note ContextVar.reset(): 2f2d.
     method to revert the value of the variable to what it was before
     the corresponding 'set'.

      -- 屬性: var

          A read-only property.  Points to the *note ContextVar: 2f26.
          object that created the token.

      -- 屬性: old_value

          A read-only property.  Set to the value the variable had
          before the *note ContextVar.set(): 2f2b. method call that
          created the token.  It points to *note Token.MISSING: 2f30. if
          the variable was not set before the call.

      -- 屬性: MISSING

          A marker object used by *note Token.old_value: 2f2f.


File: python.info,  Node: Manual Context Management,  Next: asyncio support,  Prev: Context Variables,  Up: contextvars --- 情境變數

5.17.9.2 Manual Context Management
..................................

 -- 函式: contextvars.copy_context ()

     Returns a copy of the current *note Context: 13ce. object.

     The following snippet gets a copy of the current context and prints
     all variables and their values that are set in it:

          ctx: Context = copy_context()
          print(list(ctx.items()))

     The function has an 'O'(1) complexity, i.e.  works equally fast for
     contexts with a few context variables and for contexts that have a
     lot of them.

 -- 類別: contextvars.Context

     A mapping of *note ContextVars: 2f26. to their values.

     ‘Context()’ creates an empty context with no values in it.  To get
     a copy of the current context use the *note copy_context(): 2f27.
     function.

     Every thread will have a different top-level *note Context: 13ce.
     object.  This means that a *note ContextVar: 2f26. object behaves
     in a similar fashion to *note threading.local(): 1533. when values
     are assigned in different threads.

     Context implements the *note collections.abc.Mapping: 702.
     interface.

      -- 方法: run (callable, *args, **kwargs)

          Execute ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’ code in the context object
          the 'run' method is called on.  Return the result of the
          execution or propagate an exception if one occurred.

          Any changes to any context variables that 'callable' makes
          will be contained in the context object:

               var = ContextVar('var')
               var.set('spam')

               def main():
                   # 'var' was set to 'spam' before
                   # calling 'copy_context()' and 'ctx.run(main)', so:
                   # var.get() == ctx[var] == 'spam'

                   var.set('ham')

                   # Now, after setting 'var' to 'ham':
                   # var.get() == ctx[var] == 'ham'

               ctx = copy_context()

               # Any changes that the 'main' function makes to 'var'
               # will be contained in 'ctx'.
               ctx.run(main)

               # The 'main()' function was run in the 'ctx' context,
               # so changes to 'var' are contained in it:
               # ctx[var] == 'ham'

               # However, outside of 'ctx', 'var' is still set to 'spam':
               # var.get() == 'spam'

          The method raises a *note RuntimeError: 17a. when called on
          the same context object from more than one OS thread, or when
          called recursively.

      -- 方法: copy ()

          Return a shallow copy of the context object.

      -- Describe: var in context

          Return ‘True’ if the 'context' has a value for 'var' set;
          return ‘False’ otherwise.

      -- Describe: context[var]

          Return the value of the 'var' *note ContextVar: 2f26.
          variable.  If the variable is not set in the context object, a
          *note KeyError: 8ed. is raised.

      -- 方法: get (var[, default])

          Return the value for 'var' if 'var' has the value in the
          context object.  Return 'default' otherwise.  If 'default' is
          not given, return ‘None’.

      -- Describe: iter(context)

          Return an iterator over the variables stored in the context
          object.

      -- Describe: len(proxy)

          Return the number of variables set in the context object.

      -- 方法: keys ()

          Return a list of all variables in the context object.

      -- 方法: values ()

          Return a list of all variables' values in the context object.

      -- 方法: items ()

          Return a list of 2-tuples containing all variables and their
          values in the context object.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio support,  Prev: Manual Context Management,  Up: contextvars --- 情境變數

5.17.9.3 asyncio support
........................

Context variables are natively supported in *note asyncio: 9. and are
ready to be used without any extra configuration.  For example, here is
a simple echo server, that uses a context variable to make the address
of a remote client available in the Task that handles that client:

     import asyncio
     import contextvars

     client_addr_var = contextvars.ContextVar('client_addr')

     def render_goodbye():
         # The address of the currently handled client can be accessed
         # without passing it explicitly to this function.

         client_addr = client_addr_var.get()
         return f'Good bye, client @ {client_addr}\r\n'.encode()

     async def handle_request(reader, writer):
         addr = writer.transport.get_extra_info('socket').getpeername()
         client_addr_var.set(addr)

         # In any code that we call is now possible to get
         # client's address by calling 'client_addr_var.get()'.

         while True:
             line = await reader.readline()
             print(line)
             if not line.strip():
                 break

         writer.write(b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n')  # status line
         writer.write(b'\r\n')  # headers
         writer.write(render_goodbye())  # body
         writer.close()

     async def main():
         srv = await asyncio.start_server(
             handle_request, '127.0.0.1', 8081)

         async with srv:
             await srv.serve_forever()

     asyncio.run(main())

     # To test it you can use telnet or curl:
     #     telnet 127.0.0.1 8081
     #     curl 127.0.0.1:8081

以下是支援部份上述服務的模組：


File: python.info,  Node: _thread --- 低階執行緒 API,  Prev: contextvars --- 情境變數,  Up: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution

5.17.10 ‘_thread’ -- 低階執行緒 API
-----------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組提供了與多個執行緒（也稱為:dfn:‘輕量級行程’ 或 :dfn: ‘任務’）一
起工作的低階原始物件 -- 多個控制執行緒分享其全域資料空間。為了處理同步問
題，也提供了簡單的鎖 (lock) 機制（也稱為:dfn:‘互斥鎖’ 或 '二進位號誌'）
。 *note threading: e7. 模組提供了一個建立在這個模組之上的更易於使用和高
階的執行緒 API。

在 3.7 版的變更: 這個模組之前是可選擇性的，但現在已經是可用的。

這個模組定義了以下的常數和函式：

 -- 例外: _thread.error

     在執行緒相關的錯誤發生時引發。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 現在是內建例外 *note RuntimeError: 17a. 的別名。

 -- 資料: _thread.LockType

     這是鎖物件的型別。

 -- 函式: _thread.start_new_thread (function, args[, kwargs])

     開始一個新的執行緒並回傳其識別字 (identifier) 。該執行緒執行帶有引
     數列表 'args*（必須是一個 tuple（元組））的函式 *function'。可選的
     'kwargs' 引數指定一個關鍵字引數的字典。

     當函式回傳時，執行緒會靜默退出。

     當函式因未處理的例外終止時，將呼叫 *note sys.unraisablehook(): 479.
     來處理該例外。鉤子引數的 'object' 屬性是 'function'。預設情況下，會
     列印堆疊跟蹤，然後執行緒退出（但其他執行緒會繼續運行）。

     當函式引發 *note SystemExit: bb2. 例外時，它會被靜默忽略。

     引發一個 *note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘_thread.start_new_thread’，帶有引數
     ‘function’、‘args’ 和 ‘kwargs’。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 現在使用 *note sys.unraisablehook(): 479. 來處理未
     處理的例外。

 -- 函式: _thread.interrupt_main (signum=signal.SIGINT, /)

     模擬一個訊號到達主執行緒的效果。執行緒可以使用此函式來中斷主執行緒
     ，但無法保證中斷會立即發生。

     如果提供了 'signum'，則模擬指定的訊號編號。如果未提供 'signum'，則
     模擬 *note signal.SIGINT: 66b. 訊號。

     如果給定的訊號在 Python 中未被處理（即設置為 *note signal.SIG_DFL:
     15f2. 或 *note signal.SIG_IGN: 15f1.），此函式不做任何操作。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增了 'signum' 引數以自定義訊號編號。

          備註: 這並不會發出對應的訊號，而是安排呼叫相應的處理器（如果存
          在的話）。如果你想真正發出訊號，請使用 *note
          signal.raise_signal(): 15d0.。

 -- 函式: _thread.exit ()

     引發 *note SystemExit: bb2. 例外。當未捕獲時，將導致執行緒靜默退出
     。

 -- 函式: _thread.allocate_lock ()

     回傳一個新的鎖物件。鎖物件的方法如下所述。初始狀況下鎖是解鎖狀態。

 -- 函式: _thread.get_ident ()

     回傳當前執行緒的「執行緒識別字」。這是一個非零的整數。它的值沒有直
     接的含義；它被用作一個 magic cookie，例如用於索引特定於執行緒的資料
     的字典。當執行緒退出並建立另一個執行緒時，執行緒識別字可能會被重複
     使用。

 -- 函式: _thread.get_native_id ()

     回傳由核心 (kernel) 分配的當前執行緒的原生整數執行緒 ID。這是一個非
     負整數。它的值可用於在整個系統中唯一標識此特定執行緒（直到執行緒終
     止後，該值可能被操作系統重新使用）。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD,
     NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: _thread.stack_size ([size])

     回傳在建立新執行緒時使用的執行緒堆疊大小。可選的 'size' 引數指定了
     隨後建立的執行緒要使用的堆疊大小，必須是 0（使用平台或配置的預設值
     ）或至少 32,768（32 KiB）的正整數值。如果未指定 'size'，則使用 0。
     如果不支持更改執行緒堆疊大小，則會引發 *note RuntimeError: 17a. 錯
     誤。如果指定的堆疊大小無效，則會引發 *note ValueError: 183. 錯誤，
     並且堆疊大小不會被修改。目前，32 KiB 是保證解譯器本身具有足夠堆疊空
     間所支持的最小堆疊大小值。請注意，某些平台對於堆疊大小的值可能有特
     定的限制，例如要求最小堆疊大小 > 32 KiB，或要求按系統記憶體頁面大小
     的倍數進行分配。應參考平台文檔以獲取更多訊息（4 KiB 頁面是比較普遍
     的；在缺乏更具體訊息的情況下，建議使用 4096 的倍數作為堆疊大小）。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows, pthreads.

     Unix 平台上支援 POSIX 執行緒。

 -- 資料: _thread.TIMEOUT_MAX

     *note Lock.acquire: 495. 的 'timeout' 參數所允許的最大值。指定超過
     此值的 timeout 將引發 *note OverflowError: 6ad. 錯誤。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

鎖物件具有以下方法：

 -- 方法: lock.acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

     沒有任何可選引數時，此方法無條件地獲取鎖，必要時會等待直到被另一個
     執行緒釋放（一次只能有一個執行緒獲取鎖 -- 這正是鎖存在的原因）。

     如果存在 'blocking' 引數，則根據其值執行操作：如果為 False，只有在
     可以立即獲取鎖而無需等待的情況下才獲取鎖，而如果為 True，則像上面一
     樣無條件地獲取鎖。

     如果存在浮點數的 'timeout' 引數且為正值，則它指定了在回傳之前的最大
     等待時間（以秒為單位）。如果 'timeout' 引數為負值，則表示等待時間會
     無限期地等待。如果 'blocking' 為 False，則你無法指定 'timeout'。

     如果成功獲取鎖，回傳值為 ‘True’，否則為 ‘False’。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增的 'timeout' 參數。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 現在獲取鎖的操作可以被 POSIX 訊號中斷。

 -- 方法: lock.release ()

     釋放鎖。鎖必須先前被獲取，但不一定是由同一個執行緒獲取的。

 -- 方法: lock.locked ()

     回傳鎖的狀態：如果鎖已被某個執行緒獲取，則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳
     ‘False’。

除了這些方法之外，鎖物件還可以透過 *note with: 3c5. 語句來使用，例如：

     import _thread

     a_lock = _thread.allocate_lock()

     with a_lock:
         print("a_lock is locked while this executes")

'注意事項：'

   * Interrupts always go to the main thread (the *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 815. exception will be received by that thread.)

   * 呼叫 *note sys.exit(): 11dd. 函數或引發 *note SystemExit: bb2. 例外
     等同於呼叫 *note _thread.exit(): 2f3c. 函式。

   * It is platform-dependent whether the *note acquire(): 495. method
     on a lock can be interrupted (so that the *note KeyboardInterrupt:
     815. exception will happen immediately, rather than only after the
     lock has been acquired or the operation has timed out).  It can be
     interrupted on POSIX, but not on Windows.

   * 當主執行緒退出時，其他執行緒是否保留是由系統決定的。在大多數系統上
     ，它們將被終止，而不會執行 *note try: 4ea. ...  *note finally: 80e.
     子句或執行物件的解構函式。


File: python.info,  Node: Networking and Interprocess Communication,  Next: 網際網路資料處理,  Prev: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.18 Networking and Interprocess Communication
==============================================

The modules described in this chapter provide mechanisms for networking
and inter-processes communication.

Some modules only work for two processes that are on the same machine,
e.g.  *note signal: c1. and *note mmap: 8b.  Other modules support
networking protocols that two or more processes can use to communicate
across machines.

The list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O. 非同步 I/O
* socket: socket --- 低階網路介面. 低階網路介面
* ssl: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器. socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器
* select: select --- 等待 I/O 完成. 等待 I/O 完成
* selectors: selectors --- 高階 I/O 多工. 高階 I/O 多工
* signal: signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式. 設定非同步事件的處理函式
* mmap: mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援. 記憶體映射檔案的支援


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O,  Next: socket --- 低階網路介面,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.1 ‘asyncio’ -- 非同步 I/O
------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Hello World!
............

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         print('Hello ...')
         await asyncio.sleep(1)
         print('... World!')

     asyncio.run(main())

asyncio 是讓使用者以 'async/await' 語法來編寫'並行 (concurrent)' 程式碼
的函式庫 (library)。

asyncio 作為多個 Python 非同步框架的基礎，在高效能網路與網頁伺服器、資料
庫連線函式庫、分散式任務佇列等服務都可以看得到它。

asyncio 往往是個建構 IO 密集型與高階層'結構化'網路程式碼的完美選擇。

asyncio 提供了一系列'高階' API：

   * 並行地*note 運行 Python 協程 (coroutine): 2f4a. 並擁有完整控制權；

   * 執行*note 網路 IO 與 IPC: 2f4b.；

   * 控制*note 子行程 (subprocess): 2f4c.；

   * 透過*note 佇列 (queue): 2f4d. 分配任務；

   * *note 同步: 2f4e.並行程式碼；

此外，還有一些給'函式庫與框架 (framework) 開發者'的'低階' API：

   * 建立與管理 *note event loops（事件迴圈）: bee.，它提供了能被用於
     *note 網路: 2f4f.、執行*note 子行程: 2f50.、處理*note 作業系統訊號:
     2f51.等任務的非同步 API；

   * 使用 *note transports（asyncio 底層傳輸相關類別）: 2f52.來實作高效
     能協定；

   * 透過 async/await 語法來*note 橋接: 2f53.基於回呼 (callback-based) 的
     函式庫與程式碼。

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上不起作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

asyncio REPL
............

你能在 REPL 中對一個 ‘asyncio’ 的並行情境 (context) 進行實驗：

     $ python -m asyncio
     asyncio REPL ...
     Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>> import asyncio
     >>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
     'hello'

Raises an *note auditing event: 168e. ‘cpython.run_stdin’ with no
arguments.

在 3.12.5 版的變更: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and 3.8.20) Emits
audit events.

參閱
....

* Menu:

* Runners (執行器): Runners 執行器.
* 協程與任務::
* 串流::
* 同步化原始物件 (Synchronization Primitives): 同步化原始物件 Synchronization Primitives.
* 子行程::
* 佇列 (Queues): 佇列 Queues.
* 例外: 例外<8>.
* 事件迴圈::
* Futures::
* 傳輸與協定::
* Policies::
* 平臺支援::
* 擴充::
* 高階 API 索引::
* 低階 API 索引::
* 使用 asyncio 開發::


File: python.info,  Node: Runners 執行器,  Next: 協程與任務,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.1 Runners (執行器)
.........................

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/runners.py(1)

這個章節概述用於執行 asyncio 程式碼的高階 asyncio 原始物件。

他們是基於一個*note 事件迴圈: bee.，目的是為了簡化常見且廣泛運用場景的非
同步程式碼。

* Menu:

* 運行一個 asyncio 程式::
* Runner context manager::
* Handling Keyboard Interruption::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/runners.py


File: python.info,  Node: 運行一個 asyncio 程式,  Next: Runner context manager,  Up: Runners 執行器

5.18.1.2 運行一個 asyncio 程式
..............................

 -- 函式: asyncio.run (coro, *, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

     執行*note 協程 (coroutine): 1ae. 'coro' 並回傳結果。

     這個函式負責運行被傳入的協程、管理 asyncio 的事件迴圈、'終結非同步
     產生器'，以及關閉執行器。

     當另一個非同步事件迴圈在同一執行緒中執行時，無法呼叫此函式。

     如果 'debug' 為 ‘True’，事件迴圈會以除錯模式執行。‘False’ 則會關閉
     除錯模式。‘None’ 則會優先使用*note 除錯模式: 1b41.的全域設定。

     如果 'loop_factory' 不為 ‘None’，它會被用於建立一個新的事件迴圈；否
     則會改用 *note asyncio.new_event_loop(): 2f58.。迴圈會在最後關閉。
     這個函式應該要作為asyncio 程式的主要進入點，且理想上僅會被呼叫一次
     。推薦使用 'loop_factory' 來設定事件迴圈時而不是使用 policies（政策
     ）。

     The executor is given a timeout duration of 5 minutes to shutdown.
     If the executor hasn't finished within that duration, a warning is
     emitted and the executor is closed.

     範例：

          async def main():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              print('hello')

          asyncio.run(main())

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Updated to use *note
     loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 720.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 'debug' is ‘None’ by default to respect the
     global debug mode settings.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'loop_factory' 參數。


File: python.info,  Node: Runner context manager,  Next: Handling Keyboard Interruption,  Prev: 運行一個 asyncio 程式,  Up: Runners 執行器

5.18.1.3 Runner context manager
...............................

 -- 類別: asyncio.Runner (*, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

     A context manager that simplifies 'multiple' async function calls
     in the same context.

     Sometimes several top-level async functions should be called in the
     same *note event loop: bee. and *note contextvars.Context: 13ce.

     如果 'debug' 為 ‘True’，事件迴圈會以除錯模式執行。‘False’ 則會關閉
     除錯模式。‘None’ 則會優先使用*note 除錯模式: 1b41.的全域設定。

     'loop_factory' could be used for overriding the loop creation.  It
     is the responsibility of the 'loop_factory' to set the created loop
     as the current one.  By default *note asyncio.new_event_loop():
     2f58. is used and set as current event loop with *note
     asyncio.set_event_loop(): 1597. if 'loop_factory' is ‘None’.

     Basically, *note asyncio.run(): 197. example can be rewritten with
     the runner usage:

          async def main():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              print('hello')

          with asyncio.Runner() as runner:
              runner.run(main())

     在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: run (coro, *, context=None)

          Run a *note coroutine: 1ae. 'coro' in the embedded loop.

          Return the coroutine's result or raise its exception.

          An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying
          a custom *note contextvars.Context: 13ce. for the 'coro' to
          run in.  The runner's default context is used if ‘None’.

          當另一個非同步事件迴圈在同一執行緒中執行時，無法呼叫此函式。

      -- 方法: close ()

          Close the runner.

          Finalize asynchronous generators, shutdown default executor,
          close the event loop and release embedded *note
          contextvars.Context: 13ce.

      -- 方法: get_loop ()

          Return the event loop associated with the runner instance.

          備註: *note Runner: 3f7. uses the lazy initialization
          strategy, its constructor doesn't initialize underlying
          low-level structures.

          Embedded 'loop' and 'context' are created at the *note with:
          3c5. body entering or the first call of *note run(): 197. or
          *note get_loop(): 2f5b.


File: python.info,  Node: Handling Keyboard Interruption,  Prev: Runner context manager,  Up: Runners 執行器

5.18.1.4 Handling Keyboard Interruption
.......................................

在 3.11 版被加入.

When *note signal.SIGINT: 66b. is raised by ‘Ctrl-C’, *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 815. exception is raised in the main thread by
default.  However this doesn't work with *note asyncio: 9. because it
can interrupt asyncio internals and can hang the program from exiting.

To mitigate this issue, *note asyncio: 9. handles *note signal.SIGINT:
66b. as follows:

  1. *note asyncio.Runner.run(): 144e. installs a custom *note
     signal.SIGINT: 66b. handler before any user code is executed and
     removes it when exiting from the function.

  2. The *note Runner: 3f7. creates the main task for the passed
     coroutine for its execution.

  3. When *note signal.SIGINT: 66b. is raised by ‘Ctrl-C’, the custom
     signal handler cancels the main task by calling *note
     asyncio.Task.cancel(): 15ea. which raises *note
     asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. inside the main task.  This causes the
     Python stack to unwind, ‘try/except’ and ‘try/finally’ blocks can
     be used for resource cleanup.  After the main task is cancelled,
     *note asyncio.Runner.run(): 144e. raises *note KeyboardInterrupt:
     815.

  4. A user could write a tight loop which cannot be interrupted by
     *note asyncio.Task.cancel(): 15ea, in which case the second
     following ‘Ctrl-C’ immediately raises the *note KeyboardInterrupt:
     815. without cancelling the main task.


File: python.info,  Node: 協程與任務,  Next: 串流,  Prev: Runners 執行器,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.5 協程與任務
...................

This section outlines high-level asyncio APIs to work with coroutines
and Tasks.

* Menu:

* 協程: 協程<3>.
* Awaitables::
* Creating Tasks::
* Task Cancellation::
* Task Groups::
* Sleeping::
* Running Tasks Concurrently::
* Eager Task Factory::
* Shielding From Cancellation::
* Timeouts::
* Waiting Primitives::
* Running in Threads::
* Scheduling From Other Threads::
* Introspection::
* Task Object::


File: python.info,  Node: 協程<3>,  Next: Awaitables,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.6 協程
.............

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Coroutines: 1ae. declared with the async/await syntax is the
preferred way of writing asyncio applications.  For example, the
following snippet of code prints "hello", waits 1 second, and then
prints "world":

     >>> import asyncio

     >>> async def main():
     ...     print('hello')
     ...     await asyncio.sleep(1)
     ...     print('world')

     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     hello
     world

Note that simply calling a coroutine will not schedule it to be
executed:

     >>> main()
     <coroutine object main at 0x1053bb7c8>

To actually run a coroutine, asyncio provides the following mechanisms:

   * The *note asyncio.run(): 197. function to run the top-level entry
     point "main()" function (see the above example.)

   * Awaiting on a coroutine.  The following snippet of code will print
     "hello" after waiting for 1 second, and then print "world" after
     waiting for 'another' 2 seconds:

          import asyncio
          import time

          async def say_after(delay, what):
              await asyncio.sleep(delay)
              print(what)

          async def main():
              print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              await say_after(1, 'hello')
              await say_after(2, 'world')

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

          asyncio.run(main())

     預期的輸出：

          started at 17:13:52
          hello
          world
          finished at 17:13:55

   * The *note asyncio.create_task(): 3f3. function to run coroutines
     concurrently as asyncio *note Tasks: 203.

     Let's modify the above example and run two ‘say_after’ coroutines
     'concurrently':

          async def main():
              task1 = asyncio.create_task(
                  say_after(1, 'hello'))

              task2 = asyncio.create_task(
                  say_after(2, 'world'))

              print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              # Wait until both tasks are completed (should take
              # around 2 seconds.)
              await task1
              await task2

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

     Note that expected output now shows that the snippet runs 1 second
     faster than before:

          started at 17:14:32
          hello
          world
          finished at 17:14:34

   * The *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 3f1. class provides a more modern
     alternative to *note create_task(): 3f3.  Using this API, the last
     example becomes:

          async def main():
              async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
                  task1 = tg.create_task(
                      say_after(1, 'hello'))

                  task2 = tg.create_task(
                      say_after(2, 'world'))

                  print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              # The await is implicit when the context manager exits.

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

     The timing and output should be the same as for the previous
     version.

     在 3.11 版被加入: *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 3f1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py


File: python.info,  Node: Awaitables,  Next: Creating Tasks,  Prev: 協程<3>,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.7 Awaitables
...................

We say that an object is an 'awaitable' object if it can be used in an
*note await: 542. expression.  Many asyncio APIs are designed to accept
awaitables.

There are three main types of 'awaitable' objects: 'coroutines',
'Tasks', and 'Futures'.

協程
....

Python coroutines are 'awaitables' and therefore can be awaited from
other coroutines:

     import asyncio

     async def nested():
         return 42

     async def main():
         # Nothing happens if we just call "nested()".
         # A coroutine object is created but not awaited,
         # so it *won't run at all*.
         nested()  # will raise a "RuntimeWarning".

         # Let's do it differently now and await it:
         print(await nested())  # will print "42".

     asyncio.run(main())

     重要: In this documentation the term "coroutine" can be used for
     two closely related concepts:

        * a 'coroutine function': an *note async def: 3c3. function;

        * a 'coroutine object': an object returned by calling a
          'coroutine function'.

Tasks
.....

'Tasks' are used to schedule coroutines 'concurrently'.

When a coroutine is wrapped into a 'Task' with functions like *note
asyncio.create_task(): 3f3. the coroutine is automatically scheduled to
run soon:

     import asyncio

     async def nested():
         return 42

     async def main():
         # Schedule nested() to run soon concurrently
         # with "main()".
         task = asyncio.create_task(nested())

         # "task" can now be used to cancel "nested()", or
         # can simply be awaited to wait until it is complete:
         await task

     asyncio.run(main())

Futures
.......

A *note Future: a2e. is a special 'low-level' awaitable object that
represents an 'eventual result' of an asynchronous operation.

When a Future object is 'awaited' it means that the coroutine will wait
until the Future is resolved in some other place.

Future objects in asyncio are needed to allow callback-based code to be
used with async/await.

Normally 'there is no need' to create Future objects at the application
level code.

Future objects, sometimes exposed by libraries and some asyncio APIs,
can be awaited:

     async def main():
         await function_that_returns_a_future_object()

         # this is also valid:
         await asyncio.gather(
             function_that_returns_a_future_object(),
             some_python_coroutine()
         )

A good example of a low-level function that returns a Future object is
*note loop.run_in_executor(): 722.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Tasks,  Next: Task Cancellation,  Prev: Awaitables,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.8 Creating Tasks
.......................

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/tasks.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- 函式: asyncio.create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None)

     Wrap the 'coro' *note coroutine: 2f4a. into a *note Task: 203. and
     schedule its execution.  Return the Task object.

     If 'name' is not ‘None’, it is set as the name of the task using
     *note Task.set_name(): 822.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 13ce. for the 'coro' to run in.
     The current context copy is created when no 'context' is provided.

     The task is executed in the loop returned by *note
     get_running_loop(): 960, *note RuntimeError: 17a. is raised if
     there is no running loop in current thread.

          備註: *note asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 2f63. is a new
          alternative leveraging structural concurrency; it allows for
          waiting for a group of related tasks with strong safety
          guarantees.

          重要: Save a reference to the result of this function, to
          avoid a task disappearing mid-execution.  The event loop only
          keeps weak references to tasks.  A task that isn't referenced
          elsewhere may get garbage collected at any time, even before
          it's done.  For reliable "fire-and-forget" background tasks,
          gather them in a collection:

               background_tasks = set()

               for i in range(10):
                   task = asyncio.create_task(some_coro(param=i))

                   # Add task to the set. This creates a strong reference.
                   background_tasks.add(task)

                   # To prevent keeping references to finished tasks forever,
                   # make each task remove its own reference from the set after
                   # completion:
                   task.add_done_callback(background_tasks.discard)

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'name' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'context' 參數。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/tasks.py


File: python.info,  Node: Task Cancellation,  Next: Task Groups,  Prev: Creating Tasks,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.9 Task Cancellation
..........................

Tasks can easily and safely be cancelled.  When a task is cancelled,
*note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. will be raised in the task at the
next opportunity.

It is recommended that coroutines use ‘try/finally’ blocks to robustly
perform clean-up logic.  In case *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. is
explicitly caught, it should generally be propagated when clean-up is
complete.  *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. directly subclasses *note
BaseException: 3ab. so most code will not need to be aware of it.

The asyncio components that enable structured concurrency, like *note
asyncio.TaskGroup: 3f1. and *note asyncio.timeout(): 3f5, are
implemented using cancellation internally and might misbehave if a
coroutine swallows *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d.  Similarly, user
code should not generally call *note uncancel: 402.  However, in cases
when suppressing *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. is truly desired, it
is necessary to also call ‘uncancel()’ to completely remove the
cancellation state.


File: python.info,  Node: Task Groups,  Next: Sleeping,  Prev: Task Cancellation,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.10 Task Groups
.....................

Task groups combine a task creation API with a convenient and reliable
way to wait for all tasks in the group to finish.

 -- 類別: asyncio.TaskGroup

     An *note asynchronous context manager: 3f2. holding a group of
     tasks.  Tasks can be added to the group using *note create_task():
     3f3.  All tasks are awaited when the context manager exits.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None)

          Create a task in this task group.  The signature matches that
          of *note asyncio.create_task(): 3f3.

範例：

     async def main():
         async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
             task1 = tg.create_task(some_coro(...))
             task2 = tg.create_task(another_coro(...))
         print(f"Both tasks have completed now: {task1.result()}, {task2.result()}")

The ‘async with’ statement will wait for all tasks in the group to
finish.  While waiting, new tasks may still be added to the group (for
example, by passing ‘tg’ into one of the coroutines and calling
‘tg.create_task()’ in that coroutine).  Once the last task has finished
and the ‘async with’ block is exited, no new tasks may be added to the
group.

The first time any of the tasks belonging to the group fails with an
exception other than *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d, the remaining
tasks in the group are cancelled.  No further tasks can then be added to
the group.  At this point, if the body of the ‘async with’ statement is
still active (i.e., *note __aexit__(): 1d64. hasn't been called yet),
the task directly containing the ‘async with’ statement is also
cancelled.  The resulting *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. will
interrupt an ‘await’, but it will not bubble out of the containing
‘async with’ statement.

Once all tasks have finished, if any tasks have failed with an exception
other than *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d, those exceptions are
combined in an *note ExceptionGroup: 17b. or *note BaseExceptionGroup:
3a6. (as appropriate; see their documentation) which is then raised.

Two base exceptions are treated specially: If any task fails with *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 815. or *note SystemExit: bb2, the task group still
cancels the remaining tasks and waits for them, but then the initial
*note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. or *note SystemExit: bb2. is re-raised
instead of *note ExceptionGroup: 17b. or *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3a6.

If the body of the ‘async with’ statement exits with an exception (so
*note __aexit__(): 1d64. is called with an exception set), this is
treated the same as if one of the tasks failed: the remaining tasks are
cancelled and then waited for, and non-cancellation exceptions are
grouped into an exception group and raised.  The exception passed into
*note __aexit__(): 1d64, unless it is *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d,
is also included in the exception group.  The same special case is made
for *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. and *note SystemExit: bb2. as in the
previous paragraph.

* Menu:

* Terminating a Task Group::


File: python.info,  Node: Terminating a Task Group,  Up: Task Groups

5.18.1.11 Terminating a Task Group
..................................

While terminating a task group is not natively supported by the standard
library, termination can be achieved by adding an exception-raising task
to the task group and ignoring the raised exception:

     import asyncio
     from asyncio import TaskGroup

     class TerminateTaskGroup(Exception):
         """Exception raised to terminate a task group."""

     async def force_terminate_task_group():
         """Used to force termination of a task group."""
         raise TerminateTaskGroup()

     async def job(task_id, sleep_time):
         print(f'Task {task_id}: start')
         await asyncio.sleep(sleep_time)
         print(f'Task {task_id}: done')

     async def main():
         try:
             async with TaskGroup() as group:
                 # spawn some tasks
                 group.create_task(job(1, 0.5))
                 group.create_task(job(2, 1.5))
                 # sleep for 1 second
                 await asyncio.sleep(1)
                 # add an exception-raising task to force the group to terminate
                 group.create_task(force_terminate_task_group())
         except* TerminateTaskGroup:
             pass

     asyncio.run(main())

Expected output:

     Task 1: start
     Task 2: start
     Task 1: done


File: python.info,  Node: Sleeping,  Next: Running Tasks Concurrently,  Prev: Task Groups,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.12 Sleeping
..................

 -- 函式: coroutine asyncio.sleep (delay, result=None)

     Block for 'delay' seconds.

     If 'result' is provided, it is returned to the caller when the
     coroutine completes.

     ‘sleep()’ always suspends the current task, allowing other tasks to
     run.

     Setting the delay to 0 provides an optimized path to allow other
     tasks to run.  This can be used by long-running functions to avoid
     blocking the event loop for the full duration of the function call.
     Example of coroutine displaying the current date every second for 5
     seconds:

          import asyncio
          import datetime

          async def display_date():
              loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
              end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
              while True:
                  print(datetime.datetime.now())
                  if (loop.time() + 1.0) >= end_time:
                      break
                  await asyncio.sleep(1)

          asyncio.run(display_date())

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 'loop' 參數。


File: python.info,  Node: Running Tasks Concurrently,  Next: Eager Task Factory,  Prev: Sleeping,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.13 Running Tasks Concurrently
....................................

 -- 函式: awaitable asyncio.gather (*aws, return_exceptions=False)

     Run *note awaitable objects: 2f60. in the 'aws' sequence
     'concurrently'.

     If any awaitable in 'aws' is a coroutine, it is automatically
     scheduled as a Task.

     If all awaitables are completed successfully, the result is an
     aggregate list of returned values.  The order of result values
     corresponds to the order of awaitables in 'aws'.

     If 'return_exceptions' is ‘False’ (default), the first raised
     exception is immediately propagated to the task that awaits on
     ‘gather()’.  Other awaitables in the 'aws' sequence 'won't be
     cancelled' and will continue to run.

     If 'return_exceptions' is ‘True’, exceptions are treated the same
     as successful results, and aggregated in the result list.

     If ‘gather()’ is 'cancelled', all submitted awaitables (that have
     not completed yet) are also 'cancelled'.

     If any Task or Future from the 'aws' sequence is 'cancelled', it is
     treated as if it raised *note CancelledError: 81d. - the ‘gather()’
     call is 'not' cancelled in this case.  This is to prevent the
     cancellation of one submitted Task/Future to cause other
     Tasks/Futures to be cancelled.

          備註: A new alternative to create and run tasks concurrently
          and wait for their completion is *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 3f1.
          'TaskGroup' provides stronger safety guarantees than 'gather'
          for scheduling a nesting of subtasks: if a task (or a subtask,
          a task scheduled by a task) raises an exception, 'TaskGroup'
          will, while 'gather' will not, cancel the remaining scheduled
          tasks).
     範例：

          import asyncio

          async def factorial(name, number):
              f = 1
              for i in range(2, number + 1):
                  print(f"Task {name}: Compute factorial({number}), currently i={i}...")
                  await asyncio.sleep(1)
                  f *= i
              print(f"Task {name}: factorial({number}) = {f}")
              return f

          async def main():
              # Schedule three calls *concurrently*:
              L = await asyncio.gather(
                  factorial("A", 2),
                  factorial("B", 3),
                  factorial("C", 4),
              )
              print(L)

          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          #     Task A: Compute factorial(2), currently i=2...
          #     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=2...
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=2...
          #     Task A: factorial(2) = 2
          #     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=3...
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=3...
          #     Task B: factorial(3) = 6
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=4...
          #     Task C: factorial(4) = 24
          #     [2, 6, 24]

          備註: If 'return_exceptions' is false, cancelling gather()
          after it has been marked done won't cancel any submitted
          awaitables.  For instance, gather can be marked done after
          propagating an exception to the caller, therefore, calling
          ‘gather.cancel()’ after catching an exception (raised by one
          of the awaitables) from gather won't cancel any other
          awaitables.

     在 3.7 版的變更: If the 'gather' itself is cancelled, the
     cancellation is propagated regardless of 'return_exceptions'.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 'loop' 參數。

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: Deprecation warning is emitted if no
     positional arguments are provided or not all positional arguments
     are Future-like objects and there is no running event loop.


File: python.info,  Node: Eager Task Factory,  Next: Shielding From Cancellation,  Prev: Running Tasks Concurrently,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.14 Eager Task Factory
............................

 -- 函式: asyncio.eager_task_factory (loop, coro, *, name=None,
          context=None)

     A task factory for eager task execution.

     When using this factory (via *note
     loop.set_task_factory(asyncio.eager_task_factory): c3d.),
     coroutines begin execution synchronously during *note Task: 203.
     construction.  Tasks are only scheduled on the event loop if they
     block.  This can be a performance improvement as the overhead of
     loop scheduling is avoided for coroutines that complete
     synchronously.

     A common example where this is beneficial is coroutines which
     employ caching or memoization to avoid actual I/O when possible.

          備註: Immediate execution of the coroutine is a semantic
          change.  If the coroutine returns or raises, the task is never
          scheduled to the event loop.  If the coroutine execution
          blocks, the task is scheduled to the event loop.  This change
          may introduce behavior changes to existing applications.  For
          example, the application's task execution order is likely to
          change.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: asyncio.create_eager_task_factory (custom_task_constructor)

     Create an eager task factory, similar to *note
     eager_task_factory(): 192, using the provided
     'custom_task_constructor' when creating a new task instead of the
     default *note Task: 203.

     'custom_task_constructor' must be a 'callable' with the signature
     matching the signature of *note Task.__init__: 203.  The callable
     must return a *note asyncio.Task: 203.-compatible object.

     This function returns a 'callable' intended to be used as a task
     factory of an event loop via *note loop.set_task_factory(factory):
     c3d.).

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Shielding From Cancellation,  Next: Timeouts,  Prev: Eager Task Factory,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.15 Shielding From Cancellation
.....................................

 -- 函式: awaitable asyncio.shield (aw)

     Protect an *note awaitable object: 2f60. from being *note
     cancelled: 15ea.

     If 'aw' is a coroutine it is automatically scheduled as a Task.

     The statement:

          task = asyncio.create_task(something())
          res = await shield(task)

     is equivalent to:

          res = await something()

     'except' that if the coroutine containing it is cancelled, the Task
     running in ‘something()’ is not cancelled.  From the point of view
     of ‘something()’, the cancellation did not happen.  Although its
     caller is still cancelled, so the "await" expression still raises a
     *note CancelledError: 81d.

     If ‘something()’ is cancelled by other means (i.e.  from within
     itself) that would also cancel ‘shield()’.

     If it is desired to completely ignore cancellation (not
     recommended) the ‘shield()’ function should be combined with a
     try/except clause, as follows:

          task = asyncio.create_task(something())
          try:
              res = await shield(task)
          except CancelledError:
              res = None

          重要: Save a reference to tasks passed to this function, to
          avoid a task disappearing mid-execution.  The event loop only
          keeps weak references to tasks.  A task that isn't referenced
          elsewhere may get garbage collected at any time, even before
          it's done.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 'loop' 參數。

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: Deprecation warning is emitted if 'aw' is not
     Future-like object and there is no running event loop.


File: python.info,  Node: Timeouts,  Next: Waiting Primitives,  Prev: Shielding From Cancellation,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.16 Timeouts
..................

 -- 函式: asyncio.timeout (delay)

     Return an *note asynchronous context manager: 3f2. that can be used
     to limit the amount of time spent waiting on something.

     'delay' can either be ‘None’, or a float/int number of seconds to
     wait.  If 'delay' is ‘None’, no time limit will be applied; this
     can be useful if the delay is unknown when the context manager is
     created.

     In either case, the context manager can be rescheduled after
     creation using *note Timeout.reschedule(): 2f70.

     範例：

          async def main():
              async with asyncio.timeout(10):
                  await long_running_task()

     If ‘long_running_task’ takes more than 10 seconds to complete, the
     context manager will cancel the current task and handle the
     resulting *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. internally,
     transforming it into a *note TimeoutError: 65b. which can be caught
     and handled.

          備註: The *note asyncio.timeout(): 3f5. context manager is
          what transforms the *note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d. into a
          *note TimeoutError: 65b, which means the *note TimeoutError:
          65b. can only be caught 'outside' of the context manager.

     Example of catching *note TimeoutError: 65b.:

          async def main():
              try:
                  async with asyncio.timeout(10):
                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

              print("This statement will run regardless.")

     The context manager produced by *note asyncio.timeout(): 3f5. can
     be rescheduled to a different deadline and inspected.

      -- 類別: asyncio.Timeout (when)

          An *note asynchronous context manager: 3f2. for cancelling
          overdue coroutines.

          ‘when’ should be an absolute time at which the context should
          time out, as measured by the event loop's clock:

             - If ‘when’ is ‘None’, the timeout will never trigger.

             - If ‘when < loop.time()’, the timeout will trigger on the
               next iteration of the event loop.

                -- 方法: when () -> float | None

                    Return the current deadline, or ‘None’ if the
                    current deadline is not set.

                -- 方法: reschedule (when: float | None)

                    Reschedule the timeout.

                -- 方法: expired () -> bool

                    Return whether the context manager has exceeded its
                    deadline (expired).

     範例：

          async def main():
              try:
                  # We do not know the timeout when starting, so we pass ``None``.
                  async with asyncio.timeout(None) as cm:
                      # We know the timeout now, so we reschedule it.
                      new_deadline = get_running_loop().time() + 10
                      cm.reschedule(new_deadline)

                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  pass

              if cm.expired():
                  print("Looks like we haven't finished on time.")

     Timeout context managers can be safely nested.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: asyncio.timeout_at (when)

     Similar to *note asyncio.timeout(): 3f5, except 'when' is the
     absolute time to stop waiting, or ‘None’.

     範例：

          async def main():
              loop = get_running_loop()
              deadline = loop.time() + 20
              try:
                  async with asyncio.timeout_at(deadline):
                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

              print("This statement will run regardless.")

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: coroutine asyncio.wait_for (aw, timeout)

     Wait for the 'aw' *note awaitable: 2f60. to complete with a
     timeout.

     If 'aw' is a coroutine it is automatically scheduled as a Task.

     'timeout' can either be ‘None’ or a float or int number of seconds
     to wait for.  If 'timeout' is ‘None’, block until the future
     completes.

     If a timeout occurs, it cancels the task and raises *note
     TimeoutError: 65b.

     To avoid the task *note cancellation: 15ea, wrap it in *note
     shield(): 8bc.

     The function will wait until the future is actually cancelled, so
     the total wait time may exceed the 'timeout'.  If an exception
     happens during cancellation, it is propagated.

     If the wait is cancelled, the future 'aw' is also cancelled.  範例
     ：

          async def eternity():
              # Sleep for one hour
              await asyncio.sleep(3600)
              print('yay!')

          async def main():
              # Wait for at most 1 second
              try:
                  await asyncio.wait_for(eternity(), timeout=1.0)
              except TimeoutError:
                  print('timeout!')

          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          #     timeout!

     在 3.7 版的變更: When 'aw' is cancelled due to a timeout,
     ‘wait_for’ waits for 'aw' to be cancelled.  Previously, it raised
     *note TimeoutError: 65b. immediately.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 'loop' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 引發 *note TimeoutError: 65b. 而不是 *note
     asyncio.TimeoutError: 1506.。


File: python.info,  Node: Waiting Primitives,  Next: Running in Threads,  Prev: Timeouts,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.17 Waiting Primitives
............................

 -- 函式: coroutine asyncio.wait (aws, *, timeout=None,
          return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

     Run *note Future: a2e. and *note Task: 203. instances in the 'aws'
     iterable concurrently and block until the condition specified by
     'return_when'.

     The 'aws' iterable must not be empty.

     Returns two sets of Tasks/Futures: ‘(done, pending)’.

     用法：

          done, pending = await asyncio.wait(aws)

     'timeout' (a float or int), if specified, can be used to control
     the maximum number of seconds to wait before returning.

     Note that this function does not raise *note TimeoutError: 65b.
     Futures or Tasks that aren't done when the timeout occurs are
     simply returned in the second set.

     'return_when' indicates when this function should return.  It must
     be one of the following constants:

     常數                                                   描述
                                                            
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- 資料: asyncio.FIRST_COMPLETED                      The function will return when any future finishes or
                                                            is cancelled.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 資料: asyncio.FIRST_EXCEPTION                      The function will return when any future finishes by
                                                            raising an exception.  If no future raises an
                                                            exception then it is equivalent to
                                                            *note ALL_COMPLETED: 2f77.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 資料: asyncio.ALL_COMPLETED                        The function will return when all futures finish or
                                                            are cancelled.
                                                            

     Unlike *note wait_for(): 3f6, ‘wait()’ does not cancel the futures
     when a timeout occurs.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 'loop' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: Passing coroutine objects to ‘wait()’ directly is
     forbidden.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Added support for generators yielding tasks.

 -- 函式: asyncio.as_completed (aws, *, timeout=None)

     Run *note awaitable objects: 2f60. in the 'aws' iterable
     concurrently.  Return an iterator of coroutines.  Each coroutine
     returned can be awaited to get the earliest next result from the
     iterable of the remaining awaitables.

     Raises *note TimeoutError: 65b. if the timeout occurs before all
     Futures are done.

     範例：

          for coro in as_completed(aws):
              earliest_result = await coro
              # ...

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 'loop' 參數。

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: Deprecation warning is emitted if not all
     awaitable objects in the 'aws' iterable are Future-like objects and
     there is no running event loop.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Added support for generators yielding tasks.


File: python.info,  Node: Running in Threads,  Next: Scheduling From Other Threads,  Prev: Waiting Primitives,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.18 Running in Threads
............................

 -- 函式: coroutine asyncio.to_thread (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Asynchronously run function 'func' in a separate thread.

     Any *args and **kwargs supplied for this function are directly
     passed to 'func'.  Also, the current *note contextvars.Context:
     13ce. is propagated, allowing context variables from the event loop
     thread to be accessed in the separate thread.

     Return a coroutine that can be awaited to get the eventual result
     of 'func'.

     This coroutine function is primarily intended to be used for
     executing IO-bound functions/methods that would otherwise block the
     event loop if they were run in the main thread.  For example:

          def blocking_io():
              print(f"start blocking_io at {time.strftime('%X')}")
              # Note that time.sleep() can be replaced with any blocking
              # IO-bound operation, such as file operations.
              time.sleep(1)
              print(f"blocking_io complete at {time.strftime('%X')}")

          async def main():
              print(f"started main at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              await asyncio.gather(
                  asyncio.to_thread(blocking_io),
                  asyncio.sleep(1))

              print(f"finished main at {time.strftime('%X')}")


          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          # started main at 19:50:53
          # start blocking_io at 19:50:53
          # blocking_io complete at 19:50:54
          # finished main at 19:50:54

     Directly calling ‘blocking_io()’ in any coroutine would block the
     event loop for its duration, resulting in an additional 1 second of
     run time.  Instead, by using ‘asyncio.to_thread()’, we can run it
     in a separate thread without blocking the event loop.

          備註: Due to the *note GIL: 6df, ‘asyncio.to_thread()’ can
          typically only be used to make IO-bound functions
          non-blocking.  However, for extension modules that release the
          GIL or alternative Python implementations that don't have one,
          ‘asyncio.to_thread()’ can also be used for CPU-bound
          functions.

     在 3.9 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Scheduling From Other Threads,  Next: Introspection,  Prev: Running in Threads,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.19 Scheduling From Other Threads
.......................................

 -- 函式: asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe (coro, loop)

     Submit a coroutine to the given event loop.  Thread-safe.

     Return a *note concurrent.futures.Future: 1043. to wait for the
     result from another OS thread.

     This function is meant to be called from a different OS thread than
     the one where the event loop is running.  Example:

          # Create a coroutine
          coro = asyncio.sleep(1, result=3)

          # Submit the coroutine to a given loop
          future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)

          # Wait for the result with an optional timeout argument
          assert future.result(timeout) == 3

     If an exception is raised in the coroutine, the returned Future
     will be notified.  It can also be used to cancel the task in the
     event loop:

          try:
              result = future.result(timeout)
          except TimeoutError:
              print('The coroutine took too long, cancelling the task...')
              future.cancel()
          except Exception as exc:
              print(f'The coroutine raised an exception: {exc!r}')
          else:
              print(f'The coroutine returned: {result!r}')

     See the *note concurrency and multithreading: 2f7a. section of the
     documentation.

     Unlike other asyncio functions this function requires the 'loop'
     argument to be passed explicitly.

     在 3.5.1 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Introspection,  Next: Task Object,  Prev: Scheduling From Other Threads,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.20 Introspection
.......................

 -- 函式: asyncio.current_task (loop=None)

     Return the currently running *note Task: 203. instance, or ‘None’
     if no task is running.

     If 'loop' is ‘None’ *note get_running_loop(): 960. is used to get
     the current loop.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: asyncio.all_tasks (loop=None)

     Return a set of not yet finished *note Task: 203. objects run by
     the loop.

     If 'loop' is ‘None’, *note get_running_loop(): 960. is used for
     getting current loop.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: asyncio.iscoroutine (obj)

     Return ‘True’ if 'obj' is a coroutine object.

     在 3.4 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Task Object,  Prev: Introspection,  Up: 協程與任務

5.18.1.21 Task Object
.....................

 -- 類別: asyncio.Task (coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None,
          eager_start=False)

     A *note Future-like: a2e. object that runs a Python *note
     coroutine: 2f4a.  Not thread-safe.

     Tasks are used to run coroutines in event loops.  If a coroutine
     awaits on a Future, the Task suspends the execution of the
     coroutine and waits for the completion of the Future.  When the
     Future is 'done', the execution of the wrapped coroutine resumes.

     Event loops use cooperative scheduling: an event loop runs one Task
     at a time.  While a Task awaits for the completion of a Future, the
     event loop runs other Tasks, callbacks, or performs IO operations.

     Use the high-level *note asyncio.create_task(): 3f3. function to
     create Tasks, or the low-level *note loop.create_task(): 821. or
     *note ensure_future(): ade. functions.  Manual instantiation of
     Tasks is discouraged.

     To cancel a running Task use the *note cancel(): 15ea. method.
     Calling it will cause the Task to throw a *note CancelledError:
     81d. exception into the wrapped coroutine.  If a coroutine is
     awaiting on a Future object during cancellation, the Future object
     will be cancelled.

     *note cancelled(): 2f7d. can be used to check if the Task was
     cancelled.  The method returns ‘True’ if the wrapped coroutine did
     not suppress the *note CancelledError: 81d. exception and was
     actually cancelled.

     *note asyncio.Task: 203. inherits from *note Future: a2e. all of
     its APIs except *note Future.set_result(): 2f7e. and *note
     Future.set_exception(): 2f7f.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 13ce. for the 'coro' to run in.
     If no 'context' is provided, the Task copies the current context
     and later runs its coroutine in the copied context.

     An optional keyword-only 'eager_start' argument allows eagerly
     starting the execution of the *note asyncio.Task: 203. at task
     creation time.  If set to ‘True’ and the event loop is running, the
     task will start executing the coroutine immediately, until the
     first time the coroutine blocks.  If the coroutine returns or
     raises without blocking, the task will be finished eagerly and will
     skip scheduling to the event loop.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Added support for the *note contextvars: 22.
     module.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'name' 參數。

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: Deprecation warning is emitted if 'loop' is
     not specified and there is no running event loop.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'context' 參數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'eager_start' 參數。

      -- 方法: done ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Task is 'done'.

          A Task is 'done' when the wrapped coroutine either returned a
          value, raised an exception, or the Task was cancelled.

      -- 方法: result ()

          Return the result of the Task.

          If the Task is 'done', the result of the wrapped coroutine is
          returned (or if the coroutine raised an exception, that
          exception is re-raised.)

          If the Task has been 'cancelled', this method raises a *note
          CancelledError: 81d. exception.

          If the Task's result isn't yet available, this method raises
          an *note InvalidStateError: 2f82. exception.

      -- 方法: exception ()

          Return the exception of the Task.

          If the wrapped coroutine raised an exception that exception is
          returned.  If the wrapped coroutine returned normally this
          method returns ‘None’.

          If the Task has been 'cancelled', this method raises a *note
          CancelledError: 81d. exception.

          If the Task isn't 'done' yet, this method raises an *note
          InvalidStateError: 2f82. exception.

      -- 方法: add_done_callback (callback, *, context=None)

          Add a callback to be run when the Task is 'done'.

          This method should only be used in low-level callback-based
          code.

          See the documentation of *note Future.add_done_callback():
          95d. for more details.

      -- 方法: remove_done_callback (callback)

          Remove 'callback' from the callbacks list.

          This method should only be used in low-level callback-based
          code.

          See the documentation of *note Future.remove_done_callback():
          13cd. for more details.

      -- 方法: get_stack (*, limit=None)

          Return the list of stack frames for this Task.

          If the wrapped coroutine is not done, this returns the stack
          where it is suspended.  If the coroutine has completed
          successfully or was cancelled, this returns an empty list.  If
          the coroutine was terminated by an exception, this returns the
          list of traceback frames.

          The frames are always ordered from oldest to newest.

          Only one stack frame is returned for a suspended coroutine.

          The optional 'limit' argument sets the maximum number of
          frames to return; by default all available frames are
          returned.  The ordering of the returned list differs depending
          on whether a stack or a traceback is returned: the newest
          frames of a stack are returned, but the oldest frames of a
          traceback are returned.  (This matches the behavior of the
          traceback module.)

      -- 方法: print_stack (*, limit=None, file=None)

          Print the stack or traceback for this Task.

          This produces output similar to that of the traceback module
          for the frames retrieved by *note get_stack(): 2f86.

          The 'limit' argument is passed to *note get_stack(): 2f86.
          directly.

          The 'file' argument is an I/O stream to which the output is
          written; by default output is written to *note sys.stdout:
          92a.

      -- 方法: get_coro ()

          Return the coroutine object wrapped by the *note Task: 203.

               備註: This will return ‘None’ for Tasks which have
               already completed eagerly.  See the *note Eager Task
               Factory: 2f6c.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

          在 3.12 版的變更: Newly added eager task execution means
          result may be ‘None’.

      -- 方法: get_context ()

          Return the *note contextvars.Context: 13ce. object associated
          with the task.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- 方法: get_name ()

          Return the name of the Task.

          If no name has been explicitly assigned to the Task, the
          default asyncio Task implementation generates a default name
          during instantiation.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: set_name (value)

          Set the name of the Task.

          The 'value' argument can be any object, which is then
          converted to a string.

          In the default Task implementation, the name will be visible
          in the *note repr(): 61e. output of a task object.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: cancel (msg=None)

          Request the Task to be cancelled.

          This arranges for a *note CancelledError: 81d. exception to be
          thrown into the wrapped coroutine on the next cycle of the
          event loop.

          The coroutine then has a chance to clean up or even deny the
          request by suppressing the exception with a *note try: 4ea.
          ...  ...  ‘except CancelledError’ ...  *note finally: 80e.
          block.  Therefore, unlike *note Future.cancel(): 15e9, *note
          Task.cancel(): 15ea. does not guarantee that the Task will be
          cancelled, although suppressing cancellation completely is not
          common and is actively discouraged.  Should the coroutine
          nevertheless decide to suppress the cancellation, it needs to
          call *note Task.uncancel(): 402. in addition to catching the
          exception.

          在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'msg' 參數。

          在 3.11 版的變更: The ‘msg’ parameter is propagated from
          cancelled task to its awaiter.

          The following example illustrates how coroutines can intercept
          the cancellation request:

               async def cancel_me():
                   print('cancel_me(): before sleep')

                   try:
                       # Wait for 1 hour
                       await asyncio.sleep(3600)
                   except asyncio.CancelledError:
                       print('cancel_me(): cancel sleep')
                       raise
                   finally:
                       print('cancel_me(): after sleep')

               async def main():
                   # Create a "cancel_me" Task
                   task = asyncio.create_task(cancel_me())

                   # Wait for 1 second
                   await asyncio.sleep(1)

                   task.cancel()
                   try:
                       await task
                   except asyncio.CancelledError:
                       print("main(): cancel_me is cancelled now")

               asyncio.run(main())

               # Expected output:
               #
               #     cancel_me(): before sleep
               #     cancel_me(): cancel sleep
               #     cancel_me(): after sleep
               #     main(): cancel_me is cancelled now

      -- 方法: cancelled ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Task is 'cancelled'.

          The Task is 'cancelled' when the cancellation was requested
          with *note cancel(): 15ea. and the wrapped coroutine
          propagated the *note CancelledError: 81d. exception thrown
          into it.

      -- 方法: uncancel ()

          Decrement the count of cancellation requests to this Task.

          Returns the remaining number of cancellation requests.

          Note that once execution of a cancelled task completed,
          further calls to *note uncancel(): 402. are ineffective.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

          This method is used by asyncio's internals and isn't expected
          to be used by end-user code.  In particular, if a Task gets
          successfully uncancelled, this allows for elements of
          structured concurrency like *note Task Groups: 2f66. and *note
          asyncio.timeout(): 3f5. to continue running, isolating
          cancellation to the respective structured block.  For example:

               async def make_request_with_timeout():
                   try:
                       async with asyncio.timeout(1):
                           # Structured block affected by the timeout:
                           await make_request()
                           await make_another_request()
                   except TimeoutError:
                       log("There was a timeout")
                   # Outer code not affected by the timeout:
                   await unrelated_code()

          While the block with ‘make_request()’ and
          ‘make_another_request()’ might get cancelled due to the
          timeout, ‘unrelated_code()’ should continue running even in
          case of the timeout.  This is implemented with *note
          uncancel(): 402.  *note TaskGroup: 3f1. context managers use
          *note uncancel(): 402. in a similar fashion.

          If end-user code is, for some reason, suppressing cancellation
          by catching *note CancelledError: 81d, it needs to call this
          method to remove the cancellation state.

      -- 方法: cancelling ()

          Return the number of pending cancellation requests to this
          Task, i.e., the number of calls to *note cancel(): 15ea. less
          the number of *note uncancel(): 402. calls.

          Note that if this number is greater than zero but the Task is
          still executing, *note cancelled(): 2f7d. will still return
          ‘False’.  This is because this number can be lowered by
          calling *note uncancel(): 402, which can lead to the task not
          being cancelled after all if the cancellation requests go down
          to zero.

          This method is used by asyncio's internals and isn't expected
          to be used by end-user code.  See *note uncancel(): 402. for
          more details.

          在 3.11 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 串流,  Next: 同步化原始物件 Synchronization Primitives,  Prev: 協程與任務,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.22 串流
..............

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/streams.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

串流是支援 async/await (async/await-ready) 的高階原始物件 (high-level
primitive)，用於處理網路連線。串流不需要使用回呼 (callback) 或低階協定和
傳輸 (transport) 就能夠傳送和接收資料。 這是一個使用 asyncio 串流編寫的
TCP echo 客戶端範例：

     import asyncio

     async def tcp_echo_client(message):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         print(f'Send: {message!r}')
         writer.write(message.encode())
         await writer.drain()

         data = await reader.read(100)
         print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

         print('Close the connection')
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

另請參閱下方 *note Examples: 2f8c. 段落。

串流函式
........

下面的高階 asyncio 函式可以用來建立和處理串流：

 -- 函式: coroutine asyncio.open_connection (host=None, port=None, *,
          limit=None, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None,
          local_addr=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None)

     建立網路連線並回傳一對 ‘(reader, writer)’ 物件。

     回傳的 'reader' 和 'writer' 物件是 *note StreamReader: 1699. 和
     *note StreamWriter: 1497. 類別的實例。

     'limit' 指定了回傳的 *note StreamReader: 1699. 實例所使用的緩衝區
     (buffer) 大小限制。'limit' 預設為 64 KiB。

     其餘的引數會直接傳遞到 *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa.。

          備註: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the socket to
          the *note StreamWriter: 1497. created.  To close the socket,
          call its *note close(): 2f8d. method.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'happy_eyeballs_delay' 和 'interleave' 參數。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 'loop' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 參數。

 -- 函式: coroutine asyncio.start_server (client_connected_cb,
          host=None, port=None, *, limit=None, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC,
          flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     啟動 socket 伺服器。

     當一個新的客戶端連線被建立時，回呼函式 'client_connected_cb' 就會被
     呼叫。該函式會接收到一對引數 ‘(reader, writer)’，分別為 *note
     StreamReader: 1699. 和 *note StreamWriter: 1497. 的實例。

     'client_connected_cb' 既可以是普通的可呼叫物件 (callable)，也可以是
     一個*note 協程函式: 2f4a.；如果它是一個協程函式，它將自動作為 *note
     Task: 203. 來被排程。

     'limit' 指定了回傳的 *note StreamReader: 1699. 實例所使用的緩衝區
     (buffer) 大小限制。'limit' 預設為 64 KiB。

     剩下的引數將會直接傳遞給 *note loop.create_server(): 968.。

          備註: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the socket to
          the server created.  To close the socket, call the server's
          *note close(): 2f8e. method.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 與 'start_serving' 參
     數。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 'loop' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 參數。

Unix Sockets
............

 -- 函式: coroutine asyncio.open_unix_connection (path=None, *,
          limit=None, ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

          建立一個 Unix socket 連線並回傳一對 ‘(reader, writer)’。

          與 *note open_connection(): 96e. 相似，但是是操作 Unix
          sockets。

          另請參閱 *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 2f90. 文件。

               備註: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the *note StreamWriter: 1497. created.  To
               close the socket, call its *note close(): 2f8d. method.

          *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

          在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 參數。'path' 參
          數現在可以是個 *note path-like object: 975.

          在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 'loop' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 參數。

 -- 函式: coroutine asyncio.start_unix_server (client_connected_cb,
          path=None, *, limit=None, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     啟動一個 Unix socket 伺服器。

     與 *note start_server(): 96f. 相似，但會是操作 Unix sockets。

     另請參閱 *note loop.create_unix_server(): 969. 文件。

          備註: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the socket to
          the server created.  To close the socket, call the server's
          *note close(): 2f8e. method.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 與 'start_serving' 參
     數。'path' 參數現在可以是個 *note path-like object: 975.。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 'loop' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 參數。

* Menu:

* StreamReader::
* StreamWriter::
* 範例: 範例<19>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/streams.py


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReader,  Next: StreamWriter,  Up: 串流

5.18.1.23 StreamReader
......................

 -- 類別: asyncio.StreamReader

     表示一個有提供 API 來從 IO 串流中讀取資料的 reader 物件。作為一個
     *note asynchronous iterable: bed.，此物件支援 *note async for: 8fe.
     陳述式。

     不建議直接實例化 'StreamReader' 物件；使用 *note open_connection():
     96e. 和 *note start_server(): 96f. 會是較好的做法。

      -- 方法: feed_eof ()

          Acknowledge the EOF.

      -- 方法: coroutine read (n=-1)

          從串流中讀取至多 'n' 個位元組的資料。

          如果沒有設定 'n' 或是被設為 ‘-1’，則會持續讀取直到 EOF，然後回
          傳所有讀取到的 *note bytes: 2c1.。讀取到 EOF 且內部緩衝區是空
          的，則回傳一個空的 ‘bytes’ 物件。

          如果 'n' 為 ‘0’，則立即回傳一個空的 ‘bytes’ 物件。

          If 'n' is positive, return at most 'n' available ‘bytes’ as
          soon as at least 1 byte is available in the internal buffer.
          If EOF is received before any byte is read, return an empty
          ‘bytes’ object.

      -- 方法: coroutine readline ()

          讀取一行，其中"行"指的是以 ‘\n’ 結尾的位元組序列。

          如果讀取到 EOF 而沒有找到 ‘\n’，該方法會回傳部分的已讀取資料。

          如果讀取到 EOF 且內部緩衝區是空的，則回傳一個空的 ‘bytes’ 物件
          。

      -- 方法: coroutine readexactly (n)

          讀取剛好 'n' 個位元組。

          如果在讀取完 'n' 個位元組之前讀取到 EOF，則會引發 *note
          IncompleteReadError: 16f5.。使用 *note
          IncompleteReadError.partial: 2f96. 屬性來獲取串流結束前已讀取
          的部分資料。

      -- 方法: coroutine readuntil (separator=b'\n')

          從串流中持續讀取資料直到出現 'separator'。

          成功後，資料和 separator（分隔符號）會從內部緩衝區中刪除（或者
          說是被消費掉 (consumed)）。回傳的資料在末尾會有一個 separator。

          如果讀取的資料量超過了設定的串流限制，將會引發 *note
          LimitOverrunError: 2f97. 例外，資料將被留在內部緩衝區中，並可
          以再次被讀取。

          如果在完整的 separator 被找到之前就讀取到 EOF，則會引發 *note
          IncompleteReadError: 16f5. 例外，且內部緩衝區會被重置。*note
          IncompleteReadError.partial: 2f96. 屬性可能包含一部分的
          separator。

          在 3.5.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: at_eof ()

          如果緩衝區是空的且 *note feed_eof(): 2f93. 曾被呼叫則回傳
          ‘True’。


File: python.info,  Node: StreamWriter,  Next: 範例<19>,  Prev: StreamReader,  Up: 串流

5.18.1.24 StreamWriter
......................

 -- 類別: asyncio.StreamWriter

     表示一個有提供 API 來將資料寫入 IO 串流的 writer 物件。

     不建議直接實例化 'StreamWriter' 物件；使用 *note open_connection():
     96e. 和 *note start_server(): 96f. 會是較好的做法。

      -- 方法: write (data)

          此方法會嘗試立即將 'data' 寫入到底層的 socket。如果失敗，資料
          會被放到內部寫入緩衝中排隊等待 (queue)，直到它可被發送。

          此方法應當與 ‘drain()’ 方法一起使用：

               stream.write(data)
               await stream.drain()

      -- 方法: writelines (data)

          此方法會立即嘗試將一個位元組 list（或任何可疊代物件
          (iterable)）寫入到底層的 socket。如果失敗，資料會被放到內部寫
          入緩衝中排隊等待，直到它可被發送。

          此方法應當與 ‘drain()’ 方法一起使用：

               stream.writelines(lines)
               await stream.drain()

      -- 方法: close ()

          此方法會關閉串流以及底層的 socket。

          此方法應與 ‘wait_closed()’ 方法一起使用，但並非強制：

               stream.close()
               await stream.wait_closed()

      -- 方法: can_write_eof ()

          如果底層的傳輸支援 *note write_eof(): 2f9d. 方法就回傳 ‘True’，
          否則回傳 ‘False’。

      -- 方法: write_eof ()

          在已緩衝的寫入資料被清理 (flush) 後關閉串流的寫入端。

      -- 屬性: transport

          回傳底層的 asyncio 傳輸。

      -- 方法: get_extra_info (name, default=None)

          存取可選的傳輸資訊；詳情請見 *note
          BaseTransport.get_extra_info(): 8ee.。

      -- 方法: coroutine drain ()

          等待直到可以繼續寫入到串流。範例：

               writer.write(data)
               await writer.drain()

          這是一個與底層 IO 寫入緩衝區互動的流程控制方法。當緩衝區大小達
          到最高標記位 (high watermark) 時，'drain()' 會阻塞直到緩衝區大
          小減少至最低標記位 (low watermark) 以便繼續寫入。當沒有要等待
          的資料時，*note drain(): 1578. 會立即回傳。

      -- 方法: coroutine start_tls (sslcontext, *, server_hostname=None,
               ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

          Upgrade an existing stream-based connection to TLS.

          參數：

             * 'sslcontext': a configured instance of *note SSLContext:
               26f.

             * 'server_hostname': sets or overrides the host name that
               the target server's certificate will be matched against.

             * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait
               for the TLS handshake to complete before aborting the
               connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

             * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for
               the SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the
               connection.  ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

          在 3.11 版被加入.

          在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 參數。

      -- 方法: is_closing ()

          如果串流已被關閉或正在被關閉則回傳 ‘True’。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 方法: coroutine wait_closed ()

          等待直到串流被關閉。

          應當在 *note close(): 2f8d. 之後才被呼叫，這會持續等待直到底層
          的連線被關閉，以確保在這之前（例如在程式退出前）所有資料都已經
          被清空

          在 3.7 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<19>,  Prev: StreamWriter,  Up: 串流

5.18.1.25 範例
..............

* Menu:

* 使用串流的 TCP echo 客戶端::
* 使用串流的 TCP echo 伺服器::
* 獲取 HTTP 標頭::
* 註冊一個使用串流來等待資料的開放 socket::


File: python.info,  Node: 使用串流的 TCP echo 客戶端,  Next: 使用串流的 TCP echo 伺服器,  Up: 範例<19>

5.18.1.26 使用串流的 TCP echo 客戶端
....................................

使用 *note asyncio.open_connection(): 96e. 函式的 TCP echo 客戶端：

     import asyncio

     async def tcp_echo_client(message):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         print(f'Send: {message!r}')
         writer.write(message.encode())
         await writer.drain()

         data = await reader.read(100)
         print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

         print('Close the connection')
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

也參考
......

使用低階 *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa. 方法的 *note TCP echo
客戶端協定: 2fa2.範例。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用串流的 TCP echo 伺服器,  Next: 獲取 HTTP 標頭,  Prev: 使用串流的 TCP echo 客戶端,  Up: 範例<19>

5.18.1.27 使用串流的 TCP echo 伺服器
....................................

TCP echo 伺服器使用 *note asyncio.start_server(): 96f. 函式：

     import asyncio

     async def handle_echo(reader, writer):
         data = await reader.read(100)
         message = data.decode()
         addr = writer.get_extra_info('peername')

         print(f"Received {message!r} from {addr!r}")

         print(f"Send: {message!r}")
         writer.write(data)
         await writer.drain()

         print("Close the connection")
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     async def main():
         server = await asyncio.start_server(
             handle_echo, '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         addrs = ', '.join(str(sock.getsockname()) for sock in server.sockets)
         print(f'Serving on {addrs}')

         async with server:
             await server.serve_forever()

     asyncio.run(main())

也參考
......

使用 *note loop.create_server(): 968. 方法的 *note TCP echo 伺服器協定:
2fa5. 範例。


File: python.info,  Node: 獲取 HTTP 標頭,  Next: 註冊一個使用串流來等待資料的開放 socket,  Prev: 使用串流的 TCP echo 伺服器,  Up: 範例<19>

5.18.1.28 獲取 HTTP 標頭
........................

查詢自命令列傳入之 URL 所帶有 HTTP 標頭的簡單範例：

     import asyncio
     import urllib.parse
     import sys

     async def print_http_headers(url):
         url = urllib.parse.urlsplit(url)
         if url.scheme == 'https':
             reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
                 url.hostname, 443, ssl=True)
         else:
             reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
                 url.hostname, 80)

         query = (
             f"HEAD {url.path or '/'} HTTP/1.0\r\n"
             f"Host: {url.hostname}\r\n"
             f"\r\n"
         )

         writer.write(query.encode('latin-1'))
         while True:
             line = await reader.readline()
             if not line:
                 break

             line = line.decode('latin1').rstrip()
             if line:
                 print(f'HTTP header> {line}')

         # Ignore the body, close the socket
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     url = sys.argv[1]
     asyncio.run(print_http_headers(url))

用法：

     python example.py http://example.com/path/page.html

或使用 HTTPS：

     python example.py https://example.com/path/page.html


File: python.info,  Node: 註冊一個使用串流來等待資料的開放 socket,  Prev: 獲取 HTTP 標頭,  Up: 範例<19>

5.18.1.29 註冊一個使用串流來等待資料的開放 socket
.................................................

等待直到 socket 透過使用 *note open_connection(): 96e. 函式接收到資料的
協程：

     import asyncio
     import socket

     async def wait_for_data():
         # Get a reference to the current event loop because
         # we want to access low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # Create a pair of connected sockets.
         rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

         # Register the open socket to wait for data.
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(sock=rsock)

         # Simulate the reception of data from the network
         loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

         # Wait for data
         data = await reader.read(100)

         # Got data, we are done: close the socket
         print("Received:", data.decode())
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

         # Close the second socket
         wsock.close()

     asyncio.run(wait_for_data())

也參考
......

在*note 註冊一個開啟的 socket 以等待有使用協定的資料: 2fa9.範例中，有使
用了低階協定以及 *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa. 方法。

在*note 監視檔案描述器以讀取事件: 2faa.範例中，有使用低階的 *note
loop.add_reader(): 2fab. 方法來監視檔案描述器。


File: python.info,  Node: 同步化原始物件 Synchronization Primitives,  Next: 子行程,  Prev: 串流,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.30 同步化原始物件 (Synchronization Primitives)
.....................................................

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/locks.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio 的同步化原始物件被設計成和那些 *note threading: e7. 模組
(module) 中的同名物件相似，但有兩個重要的限制條件：

   * asyncio 原始物件並不支援執行緒安全 (thread-safe)，因此他們不可被用
     於 OS 執行緒同步化（請改用 *note threading: e7.）；

   * 這些同步化原始物件的方法 (method) 並不接受 'timeout' 引數；要達成有
     超時 (timeout) 設定的操作請改用 *note asyncio.wait_for(): 3f6. 函式
     。

asyncio 有以下基礎同步化原始物件：

   * *note Lock: 8bd.

   * *note Event: 8be.

   * *note Condition: 8bf.

   * *note Semaphore: 8c0.

   * *note BoundedSemaphore: 8c1.

   * *note Barrier: 3f8.

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Lock::
* Event::
* Condition::
* Semaphore::
* BoundedSemaphore::
* Barrier::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/locks.py


File: python.info,  Node: Lock,  Next: Event,  Up: 同步化原始物件 Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.31 Lock
..............

 -- 類別: asyncio.Lock

     實作了一個給 asyncio 任務 (task) 用的互斥鎖 (mutex lock)。不支援執
     行緒安全。

     一個 asyncio 的鎖可以用來確保一個共享資源的存取權被獨佔。

     使用 Lock 的推薦方式是透過 *note async with: 3c8. 陳述式：

          lock = asyncio.Lock()

          # ... later
          async with lock:
              # access shared state

     這等價於：

          lock = asyncio.Lock()

          # ... later
          await lock.acquire()
          try:
              # access shared state
          finally:
              lock.release()

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 ‘loop’ 參數。

      -- 方法: coroutine acquire ()

          獲得鎖。

          此方法會持續等待直到鎖的狀態成為 'unlocked'，並將其設置為
          'locked' 和回傳 ‘True’。

          當多於一個的協程 (coroutine) 在 *note acquire(): 2faf. 中等待
          解鎖而被阻塞，最終只會有其中的一個被處理。

          鎖的獲取方式是'公平'的：被處理的協程會是最早開始等待解鎖的那一
          個。

      -- 方法: release ()

          釋放鎖。

          如果鎖的狀態為 'locked' 則將其重置為 'unlocked' 並回傳。

          如果鎖的狀態為 'unlocked' 則 *note RuntimeError: 17a. 會被引發
          。

      -- 方法: locked ()

          如果鎖的狀態為 'locked' 則回傳 ‘True’。


File: python.info,  Node: Event,  Next: Condition,  Prev: Lock,  Up: 同步化原始物件 Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.32 Event
...............

 -- 類別: asyncio.Event

     一個事件 (event) 物件。不支援執行緒安全。

     一個 asyncio 事件可以被用於通知多個有發生某些事件於其中的 asyncio 任
     務。

     一個 Event 物件會管理一個內部旗標 (flag)，它可以透過 *note set():
     2fb3. 方法來被設為 'true' 並透過 *note clear(): 2fb4. 方法來重置為
     'false'。*note wait(): 2fb5. 方法會被阻塞 (block) 直到該旗標被設為
     'true'。該旗標初始設置為 'false'。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 ‘loop’ 參數。

     範例：

          async def waiter(event):
              print('waiting for it ...')
              await event.wait()
              print('... got it!')

          async def main():
              # Create an Event object.
              event = asyncio.Event()

              # Spawn a Task to wait until 'event' is set.
              waiter_task = asyncio.create_task(waiter(event))

              # Sleep for 1 second and set the event.
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              event.set()

              # Wait until the waiter task is finished.
              await waiter_task

          asyncio.run(main())

      -- 方法: coroutine wait ()

          持續等待直到事件被設置。

          如果事件有被設置則立刻回傳 ‘True’。否則持續阻塞直到另一個任務
          呼叫 *note set(): 2fb3.。

      -- 方法: set ()

          設置事件。

          所有正在等待事件被設置的任務會立即被喚醒。

      -- 方法: clear ()

          清除（還原）事件。

          正透過 *note wait(): 2fb5. 等待的 Tasks 現在會持續阻塞直到
          *note set(): 2fb3. 方法再次被呼叫。

      -- 方法: is_set ()

          如果事件有被設置則回傳 ‘True’。


File: python.info,  Node: Condition,  Next: Semaphore,  Prev: Event,  Up: 同步化原始物件 Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.33 Condition
...................

 -- 類別: asyncio.Condition (lock=None)

     一個條件 (codition) 物件。不支援執行緒安全。

     一個 asyncio 條件原始物件可以被任務用來等待某事件發生，並獲得一個共
     享資源的獨佔存取權。

     本質上，一個 Condition 物件會結合 *note Event: 8be. 和 *note Lock:
     8bd. 的功能。多個 Condition 物件共享一個 Lock 是有可能發生的，這能
     夠協調關注同一共享資源的不同狀態以獲取其獨佔存取權的多個任務。

     可選的 'lock' 引數必須是一個 *note Lock: 8bd. 物件或者為 ‘None’。如
     為後者則一個新的 Lock 物件會被自動建立。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 ‘loop’ 參數。

     使用 Condition 的推薦方式是透過 *note async with: 3c8. 陳述式：

          cond = asyncio.Condition()

          # ... later
          async with cond:
              await cond.wait()

     這等價於：

          cond = asyncio.Condition()

          # ... later
          await cond.acquire()
          try:
              await cond.wait()
          finally:
              cond.release()

      -- 方法: coroutine acquire ()

          獲取底層的鎖。

          此方法會持續等待直到底層的鎖為 'unlocked'，並將其設為 'locked'
          並回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: notify (n=1)

          喚醒至多 'n' 個正在等待此條件的任務（預設為 1），如果沒有正在
          等待的任務則此方法為空操作 (no-op)。

          在此方法被呼叫前必須先獲得鎖，並在之後立刻將其釋放。如果呼叫於
          一個 'unlocked' 的鎖則 *note RuntimeError: 17a. 錯誤會被引發。

      -- 方法: locked ()

          如果已獲取底層的鎖則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: notify_all ()

          喚醒所有正在等待此條件的任務。

          這個方法的行為就像 *note notify(): 2fba.，但會喚醒所有正在等待
          的任務。

          在此方法被呼叫前必須先獲得鎖，並在之後立刻將其釋放。如果呼叫於
          一個 'unlocked' 的鎖則 *note RuntimeError: 17a. 錯誤會被引發。

      -- 方法: release ()

          釋放底層的鎖。

          當調用於一個未被解開的鎖之上時，會引發一個 *note RuntimeError:
          17a.。

      -- 方法: coroutine wait ()

          持續等待直到被通知 (notify)。

          當此方法被呼叫時，如果呼叫它的任務還沒有獲取鎖的話，*note
          RuntimeError: 17a. 會被引發。

          此方法會釋放底層的鎖，然後持續阻塞直到被 *note notify(): 2fba.
          或 *note notify_all(): 2fbc. 的呼叫所喚醒。一但被喚醒，
          Condition 會重新獲取該鎖且此方法會回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: coroutine wait_for (predicate)

          持續等待直到謂語 (predicate) 成為 'true'。

          謂語必須是一個結果可被直譯為一個 boolean 值的可呼叫物件
          (callable)。最終值為回傳值。


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore,  Next: BoundedSemaphore,  Prev: Condition,  Up: 同步化原始物件 Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.34 Semaphore
...................

 -- 類別: asyncio.Semaphore (value=1)

     一個旗號 (semaphore) 物件。不支援執行緒安全。

     一個旗號物件會管理一個內部計數器，會在每次呼叫 *note acquire():
     2fc1. 時減少一、每次呼叫 *note release(): 2fc2. 時增加一。此計數器
     永遠不會少於零；當 *note acquire(): 2fc1. 發現它是零時，它會持續阻
     塞並等待某任務呼叫 *note release(): 2fc2.。

     可選的 'value' 引數給定了內部計數器的初始值（預設為 ‘1’）。如給定的
     值少於 ‘0’ 則 *note ValueError: 183. 會被引發。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 ‘loop’ 參數。

     使用 Semaphore 的推薦方式是透過 *note async with: 3c8. 陳述式：

          sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

          # ... later
          async with sem:
              # work with shared resource

     這等價於：

          sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

          # ... later
          await sem.acquire()
          try:
              # work with shared resource
          finally:
              sem.release()

      -- 方法: coroutine acquire ()

          獲取一個旗號。

          如果內部計數器大於零，將其減一並立刻回傳 ‘True’。如果為零，則
          持續等待直到 *note release(): 2fc2. 被呼叫，並回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: locked ()

          如果旗號無法立即被取得則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: release ()

          釋放一個旗號，並為其內部的計數器數值增加一。可以把一個正在等待
          獲取旗號的任務叫醒。

          和 *note BoundedSemaphore: 8c1. 不同，*note Semaphore: 8c0. 允
          許 ‘release()’ 的呼叫次數多於 ‘acquire()’。


File: python.info,  Node: BoundedSemaphore,  Next: Barrier,  Prev: Semaphore,  Up: 同步化原始物件 Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.35 BoundedSemaphore
..........................

 -- 類別: asyncio.BoundedSemaphore (value=1)

     一個有界的旗號物件。不支援執行緒安全。

     Bounded Semaphore 是 *note Semaphore: 8c0. 的另一版本，如果其內部的
     計數器數值增加至大於初始 'value' 值的話，*note ValueError: 183. 會
     在 *note release(): 2fc2. 時被引發。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 ‘loop’ 參數。


File: python.info,  Node: Barrier,  Prev: BoundedSemaphore,  Up: 同步化原始物件 Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.36 Barrier
.................

 -- 類別: asyncio.Barrier (parties)

     一個屏障 (barrier) 物件。不支援執行緒安全。

     A barrier is a simple synchronization primitive that allows to
     block until 'parties' number of tasks are waiting on it.  Tasks can
     wait on the *note wait(): 2fc6. method and would be blocked until
     the specified number of tasks end up waiting on *note wait(): 2fc6.
     At that point all of the waiting tasks would unblock
     simultaneously.

     *note async with: 3c8. can be used as an alternative to awaiting on
     *note wait(): 2fc6.

     The barrier can be reused any number of times.  範例：

          async def example_barrier():
             # barrier with 3 parties
             b = asyncio.Barrier(3)

             # create 2 new waiting tasks
             asyncio.create_task(b.wait())
             asyncio.create_task(b.wait())

             await asyncio.sleep(0)
             print(b)

             # The third .wait() call passes the barrier
             await b.wait()
             print(b)
             print("barrier passed")

             await asyncio.sleep(0)
             print(b)

          asyncio.run(example_barrier())

     Result of this example is:

          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:2/3]>
          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [draining, waiters:0/3]>
          barrier passed
          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:0/3]>

     在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: coroutine wait ()

          Pass the barrier.  When all the tasks party to the barrier
          have called this function, they are all unblocked
          simultaneously.

          When a waiting or blocked task in the barrier is cancelled,
          this task exits the barrier which stays in the same state.  If
          the state of the barrier is "filling", the number of waiting
          task decreases by 1.

          The return value is an integer in the range of 0 to
          ‘parties-1’, different for each task.  This can be used to
          select a task to do some special housekeeping, e.g.:

               ...
               async with barrier as position:
                  if position == 0:
                     # Only one task prints this
                     print('End of *draining phase*')

          This method may raise a *note BrokenBarrierError: 3f9.
          exception if the barrier is broken or reset while a task is
          waiting.  It could raise a *note CancelledError: 81d. if a
          task is cancelled.

      -- 方法: coroutine reset ()

          Return the barrier to the default, empty state.  Any tasks
          waiting on it will receive the *note BrokenBarrierError: 3f9.
          exception.

          If a barrier is broken it may be better to just leave it and
          create a new one.

      -- 方法: coroutine abort ()

          Put the barrier into a broken state.  This causes any active
          or future calls to *note wait(): 19a. to fail with the *note
          BrokenBarrierError: 3f9.  Use this for example if one of the
          tasks needs to abort, to avoid infinite waiting tasks.

      -- 屬性: parties

          The number of tasks required to pass the barrier.

      -- 屬性: n_waiting

          The number of tasks currently waiting in the barrier while
          filling.

      -- 屬性: broken

          A boolean that is ‘True’ if the barrier is in the broken
          state.

 -- 例外: asyncio.BrokenBarrierError

     This exception, a subclass of *note RuntimeError: 17a, is raised
     when the *note Barrier: 3f8. object is reset or broken.

__________________________________________________________________

在 3.9 版的變更: 透過 ‘await lock’ 或 ‘yield from lock’ 和/或 *note
with: 3c5. 陳述式 (‘with await lock’, ‘with (yield from lock)’) 來獲取鎖
的方式已被移除。請改用 ‘async with lock’。


File: python.info,  Node: 子行程,  Next: 佇列 Queues,  Prev: 同步化原始物件 Synchronization Primitives,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.37 子行程
................

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py(1)、
Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

This section describes high-level async/await asyncio APIs to create and
manage subprocesses.  Here's an example of how asyncio can run a shell
command and obtain its result:

     import asyncio

     async def run(cmd):
         proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(
             cmd,
             stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE,
             stderr=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

         stdout, stderr = await proc.communicate()

         print(f'[{cmd!r} exited with {proc.returncode}]')
         if stdout:
             print(f'[stdout]\n{stdout.decode()}')
         if stderr:
             print(f'[stderr]\n{stderr.decode()}')

     asyncio.run(run('ls /zzz'))

will print:

     ['ls /zzz' exited with 1]
     [stderr]
     ls: /zzz: No such file or directory

Because all asyncio subprocess functions are asynchronous and asyncio
provides many tools to work with such functions, it is easy to execute
and monitor multiple subprocesses in parallel.  It is indeed trivial to
modify the above example to run several commands simultaneously:

     async def main():
         await asyncio.gather(
             run('ls /zzz'),
             run('sleep 1; echo "hello"'))

     asyncio.run(main())

另請參閱*note Examples: 2fd0.。

* Menu:

* 建立子行程::
* 常數: 常數<6>.
* Interacting with Subprocesses::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py


File: python.info,  Node: 建立子行程,  Next: 常數<6>,  Up: 子行程

5.18.1.38 建立子行程
....................

 -- 函式: coroutine asyncio.create_subprocess_exec (program, *args,
          stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

     Create a subprocess.

     The 'limit' argument sets the buffer limit for *note StreamReader:
     1699. wrappers for ‘Process.stdout’ and ‘Process.stderr’ (if *note
     subprocess.PIPE: 9e6. is passed to 'stdout' and 'stderr'
     arguments).

     Return a *note Process: 2fd2. instance.

     See the documentation of *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 2fd3. for
     other parameters.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

 -- 函式: coroutine asyncio.create_subprocess_shell (cmd, stdin=None,
          stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

     Run the 'cmd' shell command.

     The 'limit' argument sets the buffer limit for *note StreamReader:
     1699. wrappers for ‘Process.stdout’ and ‘Process.stderr’ (if *note
     subprocess.PIPE: 9e6. is passed to 'stdout' and 'stderr'
     arguments).

     Return a *note Process: 2fd2. instance.

     See the documentation of *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 2fd4. for
     other parameters.

          重要: It is the application's responsibility to ensure that
          all whitespace and special characters are quoted appropriately
          to avoid shell injection(1) vulnerabilities.  The *note
          shlex.quote(): fba. function can be used to properly escape
          whitespace and special shell characters in strings that are
          going to be used to construct shell commands.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     備註: Subprocesses are available for Windows if a *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 400. is used.  See *note Subprocess Support on
     Windows: 2fd5. for details.

也參考
......

asyncio also has the following 'low-level' APIs to work with
subprocesses: *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 2fd3, *note
loop.subprocess_shell(): 2fd4, *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 2fd6,
*note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 2fd7, as well as the *note Subprocess
Transports: 2fd8. and *note Subprocess Protocols: 2fd9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection


File: python.info,  Node: 常數<6>,  Next: Interacting with Subprocesses,  Prev: 建立子行程,  Up: 子行程

5.18.1.39 常數
..............

 -- 資料: asyncio.subprocess.PIPE

     Can be passed to the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr' parameters.

     If 'PIPE' is passed to 'stdin' argument, the *note Process.stdin:
     2fdc. attribute will point to a ‘StreamWriter’ instance.

     If 'PIPE' is passed to 'stdout' or 'stderr' arguments, the *note
     Process.stdout: 2fdd. and *note Process.stderr: 2fde. attributes
     will point to ‘StreamReader’ instances.

 -- 資料: asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT

     Special value that can be used as the 'stderr' argument and
     indicates that standard error should be redirected into standard
     output.

 -- 資料: asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL

     Special value that can be used as the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     argument to process creation functions.  It indicates that the
     special file *note os.devnull: 181a. will be used for the
     corresponding subprocess stream.


File: python.info,  Node: Interacting with Subprocesses,  Prev: 常數<6>,  Up: 子行程

5.18.1.40 Interacting with Subprocesses
.......................................

Both *note create_subprocess_exec(): 8c3. and *note
create_subprocess_shell(): 8c4. functions return instances of the
'Process' class.  'Process' is a high-level wrapper that allows
communicating with subprocesses and watching for their completion.

 -- 類別: asyncio.subprocess.Process

     An object that wraps OS processes created by the
     ‘create_subprocess_exec()’ and ‘create_subprocess_shell()’
     functions.

     This class is designed to have a similar API to the *note
     subprocess.Popen: 8e1. class, but there are some notable
     differences:

        * unlike Popen, Process instances do not have an equivalent to
          the *note poll(): 2eef. method;

        * the *note communicate(): 14ef. and *note wait(): 2fe2. methods
          don't have a 'timeout' parameter: use the *note wait_for():
          3f6. function;

        * the *note Process.wait(): 2fe2. method is asynchronous,
          whereas *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): b51. method is
          implemented as a blocking busy loop;

        * the 'universal_newlines' parameter is not supported.

     This class is *note not thread safe: 2f7a.

     See also the *note Subprocess and Threads: 2fe3. section.

      -- 方法: coroutine wait ()

          Wait for the child process to terminate.

          Set and return the *note returncode: 2fe4. attribute.

               備註: This method can deadlock when using ‘stdout=PIPE’
               or ‘stderr=PIPE’ and the child process generates so much
               output that it blocks waiting for the OS pipe buffer to
               accept more data.  Use the *note communicate(): 14ef.
               method when using pipes to avoid this condition.

      -- 方法: coroutine communicate (input=None)

          Interact with process:

            1. send data to 'stdin' (if 'input' is not ‘None’);

            2. closes 'stdin';

            3. read data from 'stdout' and 'stderr', until EOF is
               reached;

            4. wait for process to terminate.

          The optional 'input' argument is the data (*note bytes: 2c1.
          object) that will be sent to the child process.

          Return a tuple ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’.

          If either *note BrokenPipeError: ef2. or *note
          ConnectionResetError: ef5. exception is raised when writing
          'input' into 'stdin', the exception is ignored.  This
          condition occurs when the process exits before all data are
          written into 'stdin'.

          If it is desired to send data to the process' 'stdin', the
          process needs to be created with ‘stdin=PIPE’.  Similarly, to
          get anything other than ‘None’ in the result tuple, the
          process has to be created with ‘stdout=PIPE’ and/or
          ‘stderr=PIPE’ arguments.

          Note, that the data read is buffered in memory, so do not use
          this method if the data size is large or unlimited.

          在 3.12 版的變更: 'stdin' gets closed when ‘input=None’ too.

      -- 方法: send_signal (signal)

          Sends the signal 'signal' to the child process.

               備註: On Windows, *note SIGTERM: 124e. is an alias for
               *note terminate(): 2fe6.  ‘CTRL_C_EVENT’ and
               ‘CTRL_BREAK_EVENT’ can be sent to processes started with
               a 'creationflags' parameter which includes
               ‘CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP’.

      -- 方法: terminate ()

          Stop the child process.

          On POSIX systems this method sends *note SIGTERM: 124e. to the
          child process.

          On Windows the Win32 API function ‘TerminateProcess()’ is
          called to stop the child process.

      -- 方法: kill ()

          Kill the child process.

          On POSIX systems this method sends ‘SIGKILL’ to the child
          process.

          On Windows this method is an alias for *note terminate():
          2fe6.

      -- 屬性: stdin

          Standard input stream (‘StreamWriter’) or ‘None’ if the
          process was created with ‘stdin=None’.

      -- 屬性: stdout

          Standard output stream (‘StreamReader’) or ‘None’ if the
          process was created with ‘stdout=None’.

      -- 屬性: stderr

          Standard error stream (‘StreamReader’) or ‘None’ if the
          process was created with ‘stderr=None’.

          警告: Use the *note communicate(): 14ef. method rather than
          *note process.stdin.write(): 2fdc, *note await
          process.stdout.read(): 2fdd. or *note await
          process.stderr.read(): 2fde.  This avoids deadlocks due to
          streams pausing reading or writing and blocking the child
          process.

      -- 屬性: pid

          Process identification number (PID).

          Note that for processes created by the
          ‘create_subprocess_shell()’ function, this attribute is the
          PID of the spawned shell.

      -- 屬性: returncode

          Return code of the process when it exits.

          A ‘None’ value indicates that the process has not terminated
          yet.

          A negative value ‘-N’ indicates that the child was terminated
          by signal ‘N’ (POSIX only).

* Menu:

* 子行程與線程::
* 範例: 範例<20>.


File: python.info,  Node: 子行程與線程,  Next: 範例<20>,  Up: Interacting with Subprocesses

5.18.1.41 子行程與線程
......................

Standard asyncio event loop supports running subprocesses from different
threads by default.

On Windows subprocesses are provided by *note ProactorEventLoop: 400.
only (default), *note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. has no subprocess support.

On UNIX 'child watchers' are used for subprocess finish waiting, see
*note Process Watchers: 2fea. for more info.

在 3.8 版的變更: UNIX switched to use *note ThreadedChildWatcher: 196.
for spawning subprocesses from different threads without any limitation.

Spawning a subprocess with 'inactive' current child watcher raises *note
RuntimeError: 17a.

Note that alternative event loop implementations might have own
limitations; please refer to their documentation.

也參考
......

The *note Concurrency and multithreading in asyncio: 2f7a. section.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<20>,  Prev: 子行程與線程,  Up: Interacting with Subprocesses

5.18.1.42 範例
..............

An example using the *note Process: 2fd2. class to control a subprocess
and the *note StreamReader: 1699. class to read from its standard
output.  The subprocess is created by the *note
create_subprocess_exec(): 8c3. function:

     import asyncio
     import sys

     async def get_date():
         code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'

         # Create the subprocess; redirect the standard output
         # into a pipe.
         proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(
             sys.executable, '-c', code,
             stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

         # Read one line of output.
         data = await proc.stdout.readline()
         line = data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

         # Wait for the subprocess exit.
         await proc.wait()
         return line

     date = asyncio.run(get_date())
     print(f"Current date: {date}")

See also the *note same example: 2fec. written using low-level APIs.


File: python.info,  Node: 佇列 Queues,  Next: 例外<8>,  Prev: 子行程,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.43 佇列 (Queues)
.......................

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/queues.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio 佇列被設計成與 *note queue: b1. 模組類似。儘管 asyncio 佇列不支
援執行緒安全 (thread-safe)，但他們是被設計來專用於 async/await 程式。

注意 asyncio 的佇列沒有 'timeout' 參數；請使用 *note asyncio.wait_for():
3f6. 函式來為佇列新增具有超時 (timeout) 設定的操作。

另請參閱下方 *note Examples: 2fef.。

* Menu:

* Queue::
* Priority Queue（優先佇列）::
* LIFO Queue::
* 例外: 例外<7>.
* 範例: 範例<21>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/queues.py


File: python.info,  Node: Queue,  Next: Priority Queue（優先佇列）,  Up: 佇列 Queues

5.18.1.44 Queue
...............

 -- 類別: asyncio.Queue (maxsize=0)

     先進先出 (FIFO) 佇列。

     如果 'maxsize' 小於或等於零，則佇列尺寸是無限制的。如果是大於 ‘0’ 的
     整數，則當佇列達到 'maxsize' 時，‘await put()’ 將會阻塞 (block)，直
     到某個元素被 *note get(): 2ff1. 取出。

     不像標準函式庫中執行緒類型的 *note queue: b1.，佇列的尺寸一直是已知
     的，可以透過呼叫 *note qsize(): 2ff2. 方法回傳。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 移除 'loop' 參數。

     這個類別是*note 不支援執行緒安全的: 2f7a.。

      -- 屬性: maxsize

          佇列中可存放的元素數量。

      -- 方法: empty ()

          如果佇列為空則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

      -- 方法: full ()

          如果有 *note maxsize: 2ff3. 個條目在佇列中，則回傳 ‘True’。

          如果佇列用 ‘maxsize=0’ （預設）初始化，則 *note full(): 2ff5.
          永遠不會回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: coroutine get ()

          從佇列中刪除並回傳一個元素。如果佇列為空，則持續等待直到佇列中
          有元素。

      -- 方法: get_nowait ()

          如果佇列內有值則立即回傳佇列中的元素，否則引發 *note
          QueueEmpty: 2ff7.。

      -- 方法: coroutine join ()

          持續阻塞直到佇列中所有的元素都被接收和處理完畢。

          當條目新增到佇列的時候，未完成任務的計數就會增加。每當一個消耗
          者 (consumer) 協程呼叫 *note task_done(): c40.，表示這個條目已
          經被取回且被它包含的所有工作都已完成，未完成任務計數就會減少。
          當未完成計數降到零的時候，*note join(): c3f. 阻塞會被解除
          (unblock)。

      -- 方法: coroutine put (item)

          將一個元素放進佇列。如果佇列滿了，在新增元素之前，會持續等待直
          到有空閒插槽 (free slot) 能被使用。

      -- 方法: put_nowait (item)

          不阻塞地將一個元素放入佇列。

          如果沒有立即可用的空閒插槽，引發 *note QueueFull: 2ffa.。

      -- 方法: qsize ()

          回傳佇列中的元素數量。

      -- 方法: task_done ()

          表示前面一個排隊的任務已經完成。

          由佇列消耗者使用。對於每個用於獲取一個任務的 *note get():
          2ff1.，接續的 *note task_done(): c40. 呼叫會告訴佇列這個任務的
          處理已經完成。

          如果 *note join(): c3f. 當前正在阻塞，在所有項目都被處理後會解
          除阻塞（意味著每個以 *note put(): 2ff8. 放進佇列的條目都會收到
          一個 *note task_done(): c40.）。

          如果被呼叫的次數多於放入佇列中的項目數量，將引發 *note
          ValueError: 183.。


File: python.info,  Node: Priority Queue（優先佇列）,  Next: LIFO Queue,  Prev: Queue,  Up: 佇列 Queues

5.18.1.45 Priority Queue（優先佇列）
....................................

 -- 類別: asyncio.PriorityQueue

     *note Queue: 8c2. 的變形；按優先順序取出條目 (最小的先取出)。

     條目通常是 ‘(priority_number, data)’ 形式的 tuple（元組）。


File: python.info,  Node: LIFO Queue,  Next: 例外<7>,  Prev: Priority Queue（優先佇列）,  Up: 佇列 Queues

5.18.1.46 LIFO Queue
....................

 -- 類別: asyncio.LifoQueue

     *note Queue: 8c2. 的變形，先取出最近新增的條目（後進先出）。


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<7>,  Next: 範例<21>,  Prev: LIFO Queue,  Up: 佇列 Queues

5.18.1.47 例外
..............

 -- 例外: asyncio.QueueEmpty

     當佇列為空的時候，呼叫 *note get_nowait(): 2ff6. 方法會引發這個例外
     。

 -- 例外: asyncio.QueueFull

     當佇列中條目數量已經達到它的 'maxsize' 時，呼叫 *note put_nowait():
     2ff9. 方法會引發這個例外。


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<21>,  Prev: 例外<7>,  Up: 佇列 Queues

5.18.1.48 範例
..............

佇列能被用於多個並行任務的工作分配：

     import asyncio
     import random
     import time


     async def worker(name, queue):
         while True:
             # Get a "work item" out of the queue.
             sleep_for = await queue.get()

             # Sleep for the "sleep_for" seconds.
             await asyncio.sleep(sleep_for)

             # Notify the queue that the "work item" has been processed.
             queue.task_done()

             print(f'{name} has slept for {sleep_for:.2f} seconds')


     async def main():
         # Create a queue that we will use to store our "workload".
         queue = asyncio.Queue()

         # Generate random timings and put them into the queue.
         total_sleep_time = 0
         for _ in range(20):
             sleep_for = random.uniform(0.05, 1.0)
             total_sleep_time += sleep_for
             queue.put_nowait(sleep_for)

         # Create three worker tasks to process the queue concurrently.
         tasks = []
         for i in range(3):
             task = asyncio.create_task(worker(f'worker-{i}', queue))
             tasks.append(task)

         # Wait until the queue is fully processed.
         started_at = time.monotonic()
         await queue.join()
         total_slept_for = time.monotonic() - started_at

         # Cancel our worker tasks.
         for task in tasks:
             task.cancel()
         # Wait until all worker tasks are cancelled.
         await asyncio.gather(*tasks, return_exceptions=True)

         print('====')
         print(f'3 workers slept in parallel for {total_slept_for:.2f} seconds')
         print(f'total expected sleep time: {total_sleep_time:.2f} seconds')


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<8>,  Next: 事件迴圈,  Prev: 佇列 Queues,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.49 例外
..............

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- 例外: asyncio.TimeoutError

     *note TimeoutError: 65b. 的一個已被棄用的別名，當操作已超過規定的截
     止時間時被引發。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 此 class 是 *note TimeoutError: 65b. 的一個別名。

 -- 例外: asyncio.CancelledError

     該操作已被取消。

     當 asyncio Task 被取消時，可以捕獲此例外以執行客製化操作。在幾乎所
     有情況下，該例外必須重新被引發。

     在 3.8 版的變更: *note CancelledError: 81d. 現在是 *note
     BaseException: 3ab. 而非 *note Exception: 81e. 的子類別。

 -- 例外: asyncio.InvalidStateError

     *note Task: 203. 或 *note Future: a2e. 的無效內部狀態。

     可以在像是為已設定結果值的 'Future' 物件設定結果值的情況下引發。

 -- 例外: asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError

     "sendfile" 系統呼叫不適用於給定的 socket 或檔案型別。

     一個 *note RuntimeError: 17a. 的子類別。

 -- 例外: asyncio.IncompleteReadError

     請求的讀取操作未全部完成。

     由 *note asyncio 串流 APIs: 2f4b. 引發。

     此例外是 *note EOFError: 116a. 的子類別。

      -- 屬性: expected

          預期的位元組總數 (*note int: 17e.)。

      -- 屬性: partial

          串流結束之前讀取的 *note bytes: 2c1. 字串。

 -- 例外: asyncio.LimitOverrunError

     在查詢分隔符號 (separator) 時達到緩衝區 (buffer) 大小限制。

     由 *note asyncio 串流 APIs: 2f4b. 引發。

      -- 屬性: consumed

          要消耗的位元組總數。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py


File: python.info,  Node: 事件迴圈,  Next: Futures,  Prev: 例外<8>,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.50 事件迴圈
..................

'原始碼：' Lib/asyncio/events.py(1)、Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

前言
....

事件迴圈是每個 asyncio 應用程式的核心。事件迴圈執行非同步任務和回呼、執
行網路 IO 操作並啟動子行程。

應用程式開發人員通常應使用高階的 asyncio 函式，例如 *note asyncio.run():
197.，並且很少需要參照事件迴圈物件或呼叫其方法。本節主要針對那些需要更細
粒度控制事件迴圈行為的低階程式碼、函式庫和框架的作者。

取得事件迴圈
............

以下的低階函式可用於取得、設置或建立事件迴圈：

 -- 函式: asyncio.get_running_loop ()

     在當前作業系統執行緒中回傳正在運行的事件迴圈。

     如果沒有運行的事件迴圈，則引發 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。

     此函式只能從協程或回呼函式中呼叫。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: asyncio.get_event_loop ()

     取得目前的事件迴圈。

     當從協程或回呼函式呼叫此函式（例如，使用 call_soon 或類似的 API 於
     排程呼叫），此函式將永遠回傳正在運行的事件迴圈。

     如果沒有設定正在運行的事件迴圈，該函式將回傳
     ‘get_event_loop_policy().get_event_loop()’ 呼叫的結果。

     由於此函式具有相當複雜的行為（尤其是在使用自訂事件迴圈策略時），在
     協程和回呼函式中，建議使用 *note get_running_loop(): 960. 函式，而
     不是 *note get_event_loop(): 220.。

     如上所述，可以考慮使用高階的 *note asyncio.run(): 197. 函式，而不是
     使用這些較低階的函式手動建立和關閉事件迴圈。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用: 如果沒有當前事件迴圈，則會發出棄用警告。在未
     來的某個 Python 發行版中，這將變成錯誤。

 -- 函式: asyncio.set_event_loop (loop)

     將 'loop' 設置為當前 OS 執行緒的當前事件迴圈。

 -- 函式: asyncio.new_event_loop ()

     建立並回傳新的事件迴圈物件。

請注意 *note get_event_loop(): 220.、*note set_event_loop(): 1597. 和
*note new_event_loop(): 2f58. 函式的行為可以透過*note
設定自訂事件迴圈策略: 3009.進行調整。

目錄
....

本頁文件包含以下章節：

   * *note 事件迴圈方法: 300a.章節是事件迴圈 API 們的參照文件；

   * *note 回呼處理: 300b.章節記錄了從排程方法（如 *note
     loop.call_soon(): 959. 和 *note loop.call_later(): 95b.）回傳的
     *note Handle: 1893. 和 *note TimerHandle: 1535. 實例；

   * *note Server 物件: 300c.章節記錄了從事件迴圈方法（如 *note
     loop.create_server(): 968.）回傳的資料型別；

   * *note 事件迴圈實作: 300d.章節記錄了 *note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. 和
     *note ProactorEventLoop: 400. 類別；

   * *note 範例: 300e.章節展示了如何使用一些事件迴圈 API。

* Menu:

* 事件迴圈方法::
* 回呼處理::
* Server 物件::
* 事件迴圈實作::
* 範例: 範例<22>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/events.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py


File: python.info,  Node: 事件迴圈方法,  Next: 回呼處理,  Up: 事件迴圈

5.18.1.51 事件迴圈方法
......................

事件迴圈提供以下'低階' API：

* Menu:

* 啟動和停止迴圈::
* 排程回呼函式::
* 排程延遲的回呼函式::
* 建立 Futures 和 Tasks::
* 打開網路連線::
* 建立網路伺服器::
* 傳輸檔案::
* TLS 升級::
* 監視檔案描述器::
* 直接使用 socket 物件::
* DNS::
* 使用管道::
* Unix 訊號::
* 在執行緒池或行程池中執行程式碼::
* 錯誤處理 API::
* 啟用除錯模式::
* 運行子行程::


File: python.info,  Node: 啟動和停止迴圈,  Next: 排程回呼函式,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.52 啟動和停止迴圈
........................

 -- 方法: loop.run_until_complete (future)

     運行直到 'future' （一個 *note Future: a2e. 實例）完成。

     如果引數是*note 協程物件: 2f4a.，則它將被隱式排程為 *note
     asyncio.Task: 203. 運行。

     回傳 Future 的結果或引發其例外。

 -- 方法: loop.run_forever ()

     運行事件迴圈直到 *note stop(): ae6. 被呼叫。

     如果在呼叫 *note run_forever(): 3011. 之前呼叫 *note stop(): ae6.，
     則迴圈將使用超時為零的方式輪詢 I/O 選擇器，運行所有回應 I/O 事件（
     以及已經排程的事件）的回呼函數，然後退出。

     如果在 *note run_forever(): 3011. 運行時呼叫 *note stop(): ae6.，則
     迴圈將運行當前批次的回呼函式，然後退出。請注意，由回呼函式排程的新
     回呼在此情況下不會運行；而是在下次呼叫 *note run_forever(): 3011. 或
     *note run_until_complete(): adf. 時運行。

 -- 方法: loop.stop ()

     停止事件迴圈。

 -- 方法: loop.is_running ()

     如果事件迴圈當前正在運行，則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 方法: loop.is_closed ()

     如果事件迴圈已關閉，則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 方法: loop.close ()

     關閉事件迴圈。

     不得於迴圈運行中呼叫此函式。將丟棄任何待處理的回呼。

     此方法清除所有佇列並關閉執行器，但不等待執行器完成。

     此方法是冪等且不可逆的。在事件迴圈關閉後不應呼叫其他方法。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.shutdown_asyncgens ()

     排程所有當前打開的*note 非同步產生器: 1dcb.物件使用 *note aclose():
     711. 呼叫來關閉。呼叫此方法後，如果疊代新的非同步產生器，事件迴圈將
     發出警告。應該使用此方法可靠地完成所有已排程的非同步產生器。

     請注意，使用 *note asyncio.run(): 197. 時不需要呼叫此函式。

     範例：

          try:
              loop.run_forever()
          finally:
              loop.run_until_complete(loop.shutdown_asyncgens())
              loop.close()

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.shutdown_default_executor (timeout=None)

     排程預設執行器的關閉，並等待它加入 *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. 中
     的所有執行緒。一旦呼叫了此方法，使用預設執行器與 *note
     loop.run_in_executor(): 722. 將引發 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。

     'timeout' 參數指定執行器完成加入所需的時間（以 *note float: 26a. 秒
     為單位）。預設情況下為 ‘None’，不會限制執行器所花費的時間。

     如果達到 'timeout'，將發出 *note RuntimeWarning: 8e7. 警告，預設執
     行器將立即終止，不等待其執行緒完成加入。

          備註: 使用 *note asyncio.run(): 197. 時請勿呼叫此方法，因為後
          者會自動處理預設執行器的關閉。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 加入 'timeout' 參數。


File: python.info,  Node: 排程回呼函式,  Next: 排程延遲的回呼函式,  Prev: 啟動和停止迴圈,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.53 排程回呼函式
......................

 -- 方法: loop.call_soon (callback, *args, context=None)

     在事件迴圈的下一次疊代中排程以 'args' 引數呼叫 'callback' *note
     callback: 2690.。

     回傳 *note asyncio.Handle: 1893. 的實例，稍後可以用於取消回呼函式。

     回呼函式按照其註冊的順序呼叫。每個回呼函式將被呼叫恰好一次。

     選用的僅限關鍵字引數 'context' 指定了要給 'callback' 執行的自定義
     *note contextvars.Context: 13ce.。當未提供 'context' 時，回呼函式使
     用當前情境。

     與 *note call_soon_threadsafe(): 95a. 不同，此方法不是執行緒安全的
     。

 -- 方法: loop.call_soon_threadsafe (callback, *args, context=None)

     這是 *note call_soon(): 959. 的執行緒安全變體。當從另一個執行緒排程
     回呼函式時，'必須'使用此函式，因為 *note call_soon(): 959. 不是執行
     緒安全的。

     如果在已關閉的迴圈上呼叫，則引發 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。在主應用
     程式關閉時，這可能發生在次要執行緒上。

     請參閱文件的*note 並行和多執行緒: 2f7a.部分。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增了 'context' 僅限關鍵字參數。詳細資訊請參閱
     PEP 567(1)。

     備註: 大多數 *note asyncio: 9. 排程函式不允許傳遞關鍵字引數。要傳遞
     關鍵字引數，請使用 *note functools.partial(): d4e.：

          # will schedule "print("Hello", flush=True)"
          loop.call_soon(
              functools.partial(print, "Hello", flush=True))

     通常使用 partial 物件比使用 lambda 更方便，因為 asyncio 可以在除錯
     和錯誤訊息中更好地呈現 partial 物件。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: 排程延遲的回呼函式,  Next: 建立 Futures 和 Tasks,  Prev: 排程回呼函式,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.54 排程延遲的回呼函式
............................

事件迴圈提供為回呼函式排程在將來某個時間點才呼叫的機制。事件迴圈使用了單
調時鐘來追蹤時間。

 -- 方法: loop.call_later (delay, callback, *args, context=None)

     排程 'callback' 在給定的 'delay' 秒數後呼叫（可以是整數或浮點數）。

     回傳 *note asyncio.TimerHandle: 1535. 的實例，可用於取消回呼函式。

     'callback' 將只被呼叫恰好一次。如果有兩個回呼函式被排程在完全相同的
     時間，則其呼叫順序是不定的。

     可選的位置引數 'args' 將在呼叫回呼函式時傳遞。如果要使用關鍵字引數
     呼叫回呼函數，請使用 *note functools.partial(): d4e.。

     可選的僅限關鍵字 'context' 引數允許為 'callback' 指定自定義的 *note
     contextvars.Context: 13ce. 以提供運行。當未提供 'context' 時，將使
     用當前情境。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增了 'context' 僅限關鍵字參數。詳細資訊請參閱
     PEP 567(1)。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 在 Python 3.7 及更早版本中，使用預設事件迴圈實作時
     ，'delay' 不能超過一天。這在 Python 3.8 中已經修復。

 -- 方法: loop.call_at (when, callback, *args, context=None)

     排程 'callback' 在給定的絕對時間戳 'when' （整數或浮點數）處呼叫，
     使用與 *note loop.time(): 3018. 相同的時間參照。

     此方法的行為與 *note call_later(): 95b. 相同。

     回傳 *note asyncio.TimerHandle: 1535. 的實例，可用於取消回呼函式。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增了 'context' 僅限關鍵字參數。詳細資訊請參閱
     PEP 567(2)。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 在 Python 3.7 及更早版本中，使用預設事件迴圈實作時
     ，'when' 和當前時間之間的差值不能超過一天。這在 Python 3.8 中已經修
     復。

 -- 方法: loop.time ()

     根據事件迴圈的內部單調時鐘，回傳當前時間，以 *note float: 26a. 值表
     示。

     備註: 
     在 3.8 版的變更: 在 Python 3.7 及更早版本中，超時（相對 'delay' 或
     絕對 'when'）不應超過一天。這在 Python 3.8 中已經修復。

也參考
......

函式 *note asyncio.sleep(): 8bb.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: 建立 Futures 和 Tasks,  Next: 打開網路連線,  Prev: 排程延遲的回呼函式,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.55 建立 Futures 和 Tasks
...............................

 -- 方法: loop.create_future ()

     建立附加到事件迴圈的 *note asyncio.Future: a2e. 物件。

     這是在 asyncio 中建立 Futures 的首選方式。這允許第三方事件迴圈提供
     Future 物件的替代實作（具有更好的性能或儀器計測表現）。

     在 3.5.2 版被加入.

 -- 方法: loop.create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None)

     排程執行*note 協程: 2f4a. 'coro'。回傳 *note Task: 203. 物件。

     第三方事件迴圈可以使用其自己的 *note Task: 203. 子類別以實現互操作
     性（interoperability）。在這種情況下，結果類型是 *note Task: 203. 的
     子類別。

     如果提供了 'name' 引數且不為 ‘None’，則將其設置為任務的名稱，使用
     *note Task.set_name(): 822.。

     可選的僅限關鍵字 'context' 引數允許為 'coro' 指定自定義的 *note
     contextvars.Context: 13ce. 以提供運行。當未提供 'context' 時，將建
     立當前情境的副本。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 加入 'name' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 加入 'context' 參數。

 -- 方法: loop.set_task_factory (factory)

     設置將由 *note loop.create_task(): 821. 使用的任務工廠。

     如果 'factory' 為 ‘None’，將設置預設的任務工廠。否則，'factory' 必
     須是一個具有匹配簽名 ‘(loop, coro, context=None)’ 的 'callable'，其
     中 'loop' 是有效事件迴圈的參照，'coro' 是一個協程物件。該可呼叫物件
     必須回傳一個與 *note asyncio.Future: a2e. 相容的物件。

 -- 方法: loop.get_task_factory ()

     回傳任務工廠，如果使用預設任務工廠則回傳 ‘None’。


File: python.info,  Node: 打開網路連線,  Next: 建立網路伺服器,  Prev: 建立 Futures 和 Tasks,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.56 打開網路連線
......................

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.create_connection (protocol_factory, host=None,
          port=None, *, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None,
          local_addr=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None, all_errors=False)

     打開以 'host' 和 'port' 指定之給定地址的串流傳輸連線。

     根據 'host*（或提供的 *family' 引數）的情況，socket 家族可以是
     *note AF_INET: 15ee. 或 *note AF_INET6: 15ef.。

     Socket 類型將為 *note SOCK_STREAM: 1184.。

     'protocol_factory' 必須是一個回傳 *note asyncio protocol: 301b. 實
     作的可呼叫函式。

     此方法將嘗試在背景建立連線。成功時，它將回傳一對 ‘(transport,
     protocol)’。

     底層操作的時間軸簡介如下：

       1. 建立連線並為其建立*note 傳輸: 301c.。

       2. 'protocol_factory' 在無引數的情況下被呼叫，並且預計回傳一個
          *note 協定: 301b. 實例。

       3. 通過呼叫其 *note connection_made(): 301d. 方法，將協議實例與傳
          輸連線在一起。

       4. 成功時回傳一個 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 元組。

     建立的傳輸是一個依賴實作的雙向串流。

     其他引數：

        * 若有給定 'ssl' 且非 false，將建立 SSL/TLS 傳輸（預設建立普通
          TCP 傳輸）。如果 'ssl' 為 *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. 物件，則
          使用該情境來建立傳輸；如果 'ssl' 為 *note True: a70.，則使用
          *note ssl.create_default_context(): e36. 回傳的預設情境。

          也參考
          ......

          *note SSL/TLS 安全考量: 301e.

        * 'server_hostname' 設置或覆蓋目標伺服器憑證將匹配的主機名稱。僅
          在 'ssl' 不為 ‘None’ 時傳遞。預設情況下，將使用 'host' 引數的
          值。如果 'host' 為空，則沒有預設值，必須傳遞 'server_hostname'
          的值。若 'server_hostname' 為空字串，將停用主機名稱匹配（這是
          一個嚴重的安全風險，可能導致中間人攻擊）。

        * 'family'、'proto'、'flags' 是可選的位址家族、協議和旗標，用於
          傳遞至 getaddrinfo() 進行 'host' 解析。若有給定這些應該都是相
          應 *note socket: c6. 模組常數的整數。

        * 若有給定，'happy_eyeballs_delay' 會啟用此連線的 Happy
          Eyeballs。它應該是一個浮點數，表示等待連線嘗試完成的秒數，然後
          在並行啟動下一次嘗試。這是 RFC 8305(1) 中定義的「連線嘗試延遲
          」。RFC 建議的合理預設值為 ‘0.25’ 秒（250 毫秒）。

        * 'interleave' 控制主機名稱解析為多個 IP 位址時的地址重新排序。
          若為 ‘0’ 或未指定，將不執行重排序，並按 *note getaddrinfo():
          a77. 回傳的順序嘗試位址。如果指定正整數，則按地址家族交錯排列
          ，給定的整數直譯為 RFC 8305(2) 中定義的「首個地址家族計數」。
          如果未指定 'happy_eyeballs_delay'，則預設值為 ‘0’，如果指定則
          為 ‘1’。

        * 若有給定 'sock' 則其應為已存在且已連線的 *note socket.socket:
          c18. 物件，可供傳輸使用。如果提供了 'sock'，則不應指定 'host'、
          'port'、'family'、'proto'、'flags'、'happy_eyeballs_delay'、
          'interleave' 和 'local_addr' 中的任何一項。

               備註: 引數 'sock' 將 socket 所有權轉移給所建立的傳輸
               socket，請呼叫傳輸的 *note close(): 301f. 方法。

        * 若有給定 'local_addr' 則其為一個 ‘(local_host, local_port)’ 元
          組，用於在本地綁定 socket。將使用 ‘getaddrinfo()’ 查找
          'local_host' 和 'local_port'，方式類似於 'host' 和 'port'。

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' （對於 TLS 連線）是等待 TLS 交握的時間
          ，以秒為單位，在那之前若未完成則會中斷連線。如果為 ‘None’ （預
          設值），則會等待 ‘60.0’ 秒。

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 是等待 SSL 關閉完成以前中斷連線的時間，
          以秒為單位。如果為 ‘None’ （預設值），則會等待 ‘30.0’ 秒。

        * 'all_errors' 決定在無法建立連線時會引發哪些例外。預設情況下，
          只會引發單一 ‘Exception’：如果只有一個例外或所有錯誤訊息相同，
          則引發第一個例外，否則引發包含所有錯誤訊息的單一 ‘OSError’。當
          ‘all_errors’ 為 ‘True’ 時，將引發包含所有例外的
          ‘ExceptionGroup’ （即使只有一個例外）。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 *note ProactorEventLoop: 400. 中的 SSL/TLS 支
     援。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 所有 TCP 連線都預設有 *note socket.TCP_NODELAY:
     3020. socket 選項。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 增加 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 加入 'happy_eyeballs_delay' 和 'interleave' 參數。

     Happy Eyeballs 演算法：雙協定堆疊主機 (Dual-Stack Hosts) 的成功。當
     伺服器的 IPv4 路徑和協議運作正常，但伺服器的 IPv6 路徑和協議不運作
     時，雙棧用戶端應用程式會比僅具 IPv4 的用戶端體驗到顯著的連線延遲。
     這是不希望的，因為這會導致雙棧用戶端的使用者體驗變差。本文件具體說
     明了減少此用戶可見延遲的演算法要求並提供了一種演算法。

     更多資訊請見： ‘https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6555’

     在 3.11 版的變更: 增加 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 參數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 已新增 'all_errors'。

     也參考
     ......

     函式 *note open_connection(): 96e. 是高階的替代 API。它回傳一對
     (*note StreamReader: 1699, *note StreamWriter: 1497.) 可直接在
     async/await 程式碼中使用。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.create_datagram_endpoint (protocol_factory,
          local_addr=None, remote_addr=None, *, family=0, proto=0,
          flags=0, reuse_port=None, allow_broadcast=None, sock=None)

     建立一個資料報連線。

     Socket 家族可以是 *note AF_INET: 15ee.、*note AF_INET6: 15ef. 或
     *note AF_UNIX: 15f0.，視乎 'host'（或提供的 'family' 引數）而定。

     Socket 類型將為 *note SOCK_DGRAM: 1183.。

     'protocol_factory' 必須是可呼叫的函式，回傳 *note protocol: 301b. 實
     作。

     成功時回傳 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 元組。

     其他引數：

        * 'local_addr'，如果提供，是一個 ‘(local_host, local_port)’ 元組
          ，用於在本地綁定 socket。'local_host' 和 'local_port' 使用
          *note getaddrinfo(): a77. 來查找。

        * 'remote_addr'，如果提供，是一個 ‘(remote_host, remote_port)’ 元
          組，用於將 socket 連線到遠端位址。 'remote_host' 和
          'remote_port' 使用 *note getaddrinfo(): a77. 來查找。

        * 'family'、'proto' 和 'flags' 是用於傳遞給 *note getaddrinfo():
          a77. 以解析 'host' 的可選地址家族、協定和旗標。如果提供，這些
          應該都是來自相應的 *note socket: c6. 模組常數的整數。

        * 'reuse_port' 告訴核心允許將此端點綁定到與其他現有端點相同的埠
          ，只要它們在建立時都設定了此旗標。此選項不受 Windows 和某些
          Unix 系統支援。如果未定義 ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ 常數，則不支援此功能
          。

        * 'allow_broadcast' 告訴核心允許此端點向廣播位址發送訊息。

        * 'sock' 可以選擇性地指定，以使用預先存在且已連線的 *note
          socket.socket: c18. 物件供傳輸使用。如果指定，'local_addr' 和
          'remote_addr' 應省略（必須是 *note None: 470.）。

               備註: 引數 'sock' 將 socket 所有權轉移給所建立的傳輸
               socket，請呼叫傳輸的 *note close(): 301f. 方法。

     請參閱 *note UDP 回應用戶端協議: 3021. 和 *note UDP 回應伺服器協議:
     3022. 範例。

     在 3.4.4 版的變更: 新增 'family'、'proto'、'flags'、
     'reuse_address'、'reuse_port'、'allow_broadcast' 和 'sock' 參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增對於 Windows 的支援。

     在 3.8.1 版的變更: 不再支援 'reuse_address' 參數，因為使用
     ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ 對於 UDP 存有重大的安全疑慮。明確傳遞
     ‘reuse_address=True’ 將引發例外。

     當具有不同 UID 的多個行程使用 ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ 將 socket 分配給相同的
     UDP socket 地址時，傳入的封包可能會在 socket 之間隨機分佈。

     對於有支援的平台，'reuse_port' 可以用作類似功能的替代方案。使用
     'reuse_port'，將改為使用 ‘SO_REUSEPORT’，該選項明確禁止具有不同 UID
     的行程將 socket 分配給相同的 socket 地址。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 自 Python 3.9.0、3.8.1、3.7.6 和 3.6.10 起，已完
     全移除 'reuse_address' 參數。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.create_unix_connection (protocol_factory,
          path=None, *, ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     建立一個 Unix 連線。

     Socket 家族將為 *note AF_UNIX: 15f0.；socket 類型將為 *note
     SOCK_STREAM: 1184.。

     成功時回傳 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 元組。

     'path' 是 Unix 域 socket 的名稱，除非指定 'sock' 參數，否則為必填。
     支援抽象 Unix sockets、*note str: 157.、*note bytes: 2c1. 和 *note
     Path: 149. 路徑。

     有關此方法的引數資訊，請參閱 *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa. 方
     法的文件。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 參數。'path' 參數現在
     可以是 *note path-like object: 975.。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 增加 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 參數。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html


File: python.info,  Node: 建立網路伺服器,  Next: 傳輸檔案,  Prev: 打開網路連線,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.57 建立網路伺服器
........................

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.create_server (protocol_factory, host=None,
          port=None, *, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC,
          flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     建立一個 TCP 伺服器（socket 類型 *note SOCK_STREAM: 1184.），監聽
     'host' 位址的 'port'。

     回傳一個 *note Server: 967. 物件。

     引數：

        * 'protocol_factory' 必須是可呼叫的函式，回傳 *note protocol:
          301b. 實作。

        * 可以將 'host' 參數設為幾種類型，以確定伺服器將監聽的位置：

             - 如果 'host' 是字串，則 TCP 伺服器綁定到由 'host' 指定的單
               個網路介面。

             - 如果 'host' 是字串序列，則 TCP 伺服器綁定到序列指定的所有
               網路介面。

             - 若 'host' 是空字串或 ‘None’，則所有介面都被假定並回傳多個
               socket 的清單（可能一個用於 IPv4，另一個用於 IPv6）。

        * 可以設定 'port' 參數以指定伺服器應該監聽的埠。如果是 ‘0’ 或
          ‘None’（預設值），將隨機選擇一個未使用的埠（請注意，如果
          'host' 解析為多個網路介面，將為每個介面隨機選擇不同的隨機埠）
          。

        * 'family' 可以設定為 *note socket.AF_INET: 15ee. 或 *note
          AF_INET6: 15ef. 以強制使用 IPv4 或 IPv6。如果未設定，'family'
          將從主機名稱決定（預設為 *note AF_UNSPEC: 3024.）。

        * 'flags' 是 *note getaddrinfo(): a77. 的位元遮罩。

        * 可以可選地指定 'sock' 以使用現有的 socket 物件。如果指定了，
          'host' 和 'port' 不能指定。

               備註: 'sock' 引數將 socket 的所有權轉移給建立的伺服器。要
               關閉 socket，請呼叫伺服器的 *note close(): 2f8e. 方法。

        * 'backlog' 是傳遞給 *note listen(): cdc. 的最大佇列連線數（預設
          為 100）。

        * 'ssl' 可以設定為 *note SSLContext: 26f. 實例以在接受的連線上啟
          用 TLS。

        * 'reuse_address' 告訴內核重用 ‘TIME_WAIT’ 狀態下的本地 socket，
          而不等待其自然超時過期。如果未指定，在 Unix 上將自動設置為
          ‘True’。

        * 'reuse_port' 告訴內核允許此端點繫結到與其他現有端點繫結的相同
          埠，只要它們在建立時都設置了此旗標。此選項在旗標 Windows 上不
          受支援。

        * （對於 TLS 伺服器）'ssl_handshake_timeout' 是在中斷連線之前等
          待 TLS 握手完成的時間（以秒為單位）。如果為 ‘None’（預設），則
          為 ‘60.0’ 秒。

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 是等待 SSL 關閉完成以前中斷連線的時間，
          以秒為單位。如果為 ‘None’ （預設值），則會等待 ‘30.0’ 秒。

        * 將 'start_serving' 設置為 ‘True’（預設）將使建立的伺服器立即開
          始接受連接。當設置為 ‘False’ 時，用戶應該等待 *note
          Server.start_serving(): 96a. 或 *note Server.serve_forever():
          96b. 來使伺服器開始接受連線。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 *note ProactorEventLoop: 400. 中的 SSL/TLS 支
     援。

     在 3.5.1 版的變更: 'host' 參數可以是字串序列。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 與 'start_serving' 參
     數。所有 TCP 連線都預設有 *note socket.TCP_NODELAY: 3020. socket 選
     項。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 增加 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 參數。

     也參考
     ......

     *note start_server(): 96f. 函式是一個更高階的替代 API，它回傳一對
     *note StreamReader: 1699. 和 *note StreamWriter: 1497.，可以在
     async/await 程式碼中使用。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.create_unix_server (protocol_factory,
          path=None, *, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     類似 *note loop.create_server(): 968.，但適用於 *note AF_UNIX:
     15f0. socket 家族。

     'path' 是 Unix 域 socket 的名稱，除非提供了 'sock' 引數，否則必須給
     定。支援抽象 Unix sockets、*note str: 157.、*note bytes: 2c1. 和
     *note Path: 149. 路徑。

     有關此方法的引數資訊，請參閱 *note loop.create_server(): 968. 方法
     的文件。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 與 'start_serving' 參
     數。'path' 參數現在可為一個 *note Path: 149. 物件。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 增加 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 參數。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.connect_accepted_socket (protocol_factory,
          sock, *, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None,
          ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     將已接受的連線包裝成傳輸層/協議對。

     此方法可以由在 asyncio 外接受連線但使用 asyncio 處理連線的伺服器使
     用。

     參數：

        * 'protocol_factory' 必須是可呼叫的函式，回傳 *note protocol:
          301b. 實作。

        * 'sock' 是從 *note socket.accept: c19. 回傳的預先存在的 socket
          物件。

               備註: 引數 'sock' 將 socket 所有權轉移給所建立的傳輸
               socket，請呼叫傳輸的 *note close(): 301f. 方法。

        * 'ssl' 可以設置為 *note SSLContext: 26f. 以在已接受的連線上啟用
          SSL。

        * （對於 SSL 連線）'ssl_handshake_timeout' 是在中斷連線之前等待
          SSL 握手完成的時間（以秒為單位）。如果為 ‘None’（預設），則為
          ‘60.0’ 秒。

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 是等待 SSL 關閉完成以前中斷連線的時間，
          以秒為單位。如果為 ‘None’ （預設值），則會等待 ‘30.0’ 秒。

     回傳 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 對。

     在 3.5.3 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 增加 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 增加 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 參數。


File: python.info,  Node: 傳輸檔案,  Next: TLS 升級,  Prev: 建立網路伺服器,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.58 傳輸檔案
..................

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.sendfile (transport, file, offset=0,
          count=None, *, fallback=True)

     通過 'transport' 發送 'file'。回傳發送的總位元組數。

     如果可用，該方法使用高性能 *note os.sendfile(): 964.。

     'file' 必須是以二進位模式打開的常規檔案物件。

     'offset' 告訴從哪裡開始讀取檔案。如果指定了，'count' 是要傳輸的總位
     元組數，而不是發送檔案直到達到 EOF。即使此方法引發錯誤時，檔案位置
     也始終更新，可以使用 *note file.tell(): 2728. 取得實際發送的位元組
     數。

     將 'fallback' 設置為 ‘True’ 會使 asyncio 在平台不支援 sendfile 系統
     呼叫時（例如 Windows 或 Unix 上的 SSL socket）手動讀取和發送檔案。

     如果系統不支援 'sendfile' 系統呼叫且 'fallback' 為 ‘False’，則引發
     *note SendfileNotAvailableError: 3004.。

     在 3.7 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: TLS 升級,  Next: 監視檔案描述器,  Prev: 傳輸檔案,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.59 TLS 升級
..................

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.start_tls (transport, protocol, sslcontext, *,
          server_side=False, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     將基於傳輸的現有連線升級到 TLS。

     建立 TLS 編解碼器實例並在 'transport' 和 'protocol' 之間插入它。編
     解碼器既實作了對於 'transport' 的協議，也實作了對於 'protocol' 的傳
     輸。

     回傳建立的雙介面實例。在 'await' 後，'protocol' 必須停止使用原始的
     'transport'，僅與回傳的物件通信，因為編碼器快取了 'protocol' 端的資
     料，並且與 'transport' 間歇性地交換額外的 TLS session 封包。

     在某些情況下（例如傳入的傳輸已經關閉），此函式可能回傳 ‘None’。

     參數：

        * 'transport' 和 'protocol' 實例，由像 *note create_server():
          968. 和 *note create_connection(): 3fa. 等方法回傳。

        * 'sslcontext'：配置好的 *note SSLContext: 26f. 實例。

        * 當升級伺服器端連線時（像由 *note create_server(): 968. 建立的
          那樣）傳遞 ‘True’。

        * 'server_hostname'：設置或覆蓋將用於匹配目標伺服器憑證的主機名
          。

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' （對於 TLS 連線）是等待 TLS 交握的時間
          ，以秒為單位，在那之前若未完成則會中斷連線。如果為 ‘None’ （預
          設值），則會等待 ‘60.0’ 秒。

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 是等待 SSL 關閉完成以前中斷連線的時間，
          以秒為單位。如果為 ‘None’ （預設值），則會等待 ‘30.0’ 秒。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 增加 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 參數。


File: python.info,  Node: 監視檔案描述器,  Next: 直接使用 socket 物件,  Prev: TLS 升級,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.60 監視檔案描述器
........................

 -- 方法: loop.add_reader (fd, callback, *args)

     開始監視 'fd' 檔案描述器的讀取可用性，一但 'fd' 可讀取，使用指定引
     數呼叫 'callback'。

 -- 方法: loop.remove_reader (fd)

     停止監視 'fd' 檔案描述器的讀取可用性。如果 'fd' 之前正在監視讀取，
     則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 方法: loop.add_writer (fd, callback, *args)

     開始監視 'fd' 檔案描述器的寫入可用性，一旦 'fd' 可寫入，使用指定引
     數呼叫 'callback'。

     使用 *note functools.partial(): d4e. 向 'callback' *note
     傳送關鍵字引數: 3015.。

 -- 方法: loop.remove_writer (fd)

     停止監視 'fd' 檔案描述器的寫入可用性。如果 'fd' 之前正在監視寫入，
     則回傳 ‘True’。

另請參閱*note 平台支援: 302c.部分以了解這些方法的一些限制。


File: python.info,  Node: 直接使用 socket 物件,  Next: DNS,  Prev: 監視檔案描述器,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.61 直接使用 socket 物件
..............................

一般情況下，使用基於傳輸的 API（如 *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa.
和 *note loop.create_server(): 968.）的協議實作比直接使用 socket 的實作
更快。然而在某些情況下性能不是關鍵，直接使用 *note socket: c18. 物件更方
便。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.sock_recv (sock, nbytes)

     從 'sock' 接收最多 'nbytes'。*note socket.recv(): c1b. 的非同步版本
     。

     將接收到的資料作為 bytes 物件回傳。

     'sock' 必須是非阻塞 socket。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 儘管此方法一直記錄為協程方法，但 Python 3.7 之前的
     版本回傳 *note Future: a2e.。自 Python 3.7 起，這是 ‘async def’ 方
     法。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.sock_recv_into (sock, buf)

     從 'sock' 接收資料到 'buf' 緩衝區。仿照阻塞 *note
     socket.recv_into(): 11b1. 方法。

     回傳寫入緩衝區位元組的數目。

     'sock' 必須是非阻塞 socket。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.sock_recvfrom (sock, bufsize)

     從 'sock' 接收最多 'bufsize' 大小的資料單元。*note
     socket.recvfrom(): c1c. 的非同步版本。

     回傳一個元組 (received data, remote address)。

     'sock' 必須是非阻塞 socket。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.sock_recvfrom_into (sock, buf, nbytes=0)

     從 'sock' 接收最多 'nbytes' 大小的資料單元到 'buf'。*note
     socket.recvfrom_into(): 11b2. 的非同步版本。

     回傳一個元組 (number of bytes received, remote address)。

     'sock' 必須是非阻塞 socket。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.sock_sendall (sock, data)

     將 'data' 發送到 'sock' socket。*note socket.sendall(): c1f. 的非同
     步版本。

     此方法將繼續發送到 socket，直到 'data' 中的所有資料都已發送或發生錯
     誤。成功時回傳 ‘None’。錯誤時引發例外。此外，沒有辦法確定接收端成功
     處理了多少資料（如果有的話）。

     'sock' 必須是非阻塞 socket。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 儘管該方法一直被記錄為協程方法，但在 Python 3.7 之
     前它回傳 *note Future: a2e.。從 Python 3.7 開始，這是一個 ‘async
     def’ 方法。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.sock_sendto (sock, data, address)

     從 'sock' 向 'address' 發送一個資料單元。*note socket.sendto():
     c20. 的非同步版本。

     回傳發送的位元組數。

     'sock' 必須是非阻塞 socket。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.sock_connect (sock, address)

     將 'sock' 連線到位於 'address' 的遠端 socket。

     *note socket.connect(): c1a. 的非同步版本。

     'sock' 必須是非阻塞 socket。

     在 3.5.2 版的變更: 不再需要解析 ‘address’。‘sock_connect’ 將嘗試透
     過呼叫 *note socket.inet_pton(): 7a3. 檢查 'address' 是否已解析。如
     果沒有，將使用 *note loop.getaddrinfo(): a77. 解析 'address'。

     也參考
     ......

     *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa. 和 *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): 96e.。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.sock_accept (sock)

     接受一個連線。模擬阻塞的 *note socket.accept(): c19. 方法。

     Socket 必須繫結到一個地址並偵聽連線。回傳值是一個 ‘(conn, address)’
     對，其中 'conn' 是一個 '新' socket 物件，可在連線上發送和接收資料，
     'address' 是連接另一端對應的 socket 地址。

     'sock' 必須是非阻塞 socket。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 儘管該方法一直被記錄為協程方法，但在 Python 3.7 之
     前它回傳 *note Future: a2e.。從 Python 3.7 開始，這是一個 ‘async
     def’ 方法。

     也參考
     ......

     *note loop.create_server(): 968. 和 *note start_server(): 96f.。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.sock_sendfile (sock, file, offset=0,
          count=None, *, fallback=True)

     如果可行，使用高性能 *note os.sendfile: 964. 發送檔案。回傳發送的總
     位元組數。

     *note socket.sendfile(): cdb. 的非同步版本。

     'sock' 必須是非阻塞的 *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 1184. *note socket:
     c18.。

     'file' 必須是以二進位模式打開的常規檔案物件。

     'offset' 告訴從哪裡開始讀取檔案。如果指定了，'count' 是要傳輸的總位
     元組數，而不是發送檔案直到達到 EOF。即使此方法引發錯誤時，檔案位置
     也始終更新，可以使用 *note file.tell(): 2728. 取得實際發送的位元組
     數。

     當設置為 ‘True’ 時，'fallback' 使 asyncio 在平台不支援 sendfile 系
     統呼叫時（例如 Windows 或 Unix 上的 SSL socket）手動讀取和發送檔案
     。

     如果系統不支援 'sendfile' 系統呼叫且 'fallback' 為 ‘False’，引發
     *note SendfileNotAvailableError: 3004.。

     'sock' 必須是非阻塞 socket。

     在 3.7 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: DNS,  Next: 使用管道,  Prev: 直接使用 socket 物件,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.62 DNS
.............

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.getaddrinfo (host, port, *, family=0, type=0,
          proto=0, flags=0)

     *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 1518. 的非同步版本。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.getnameinfo (sockaddr, flags=0)

     *note socket.getnameinfo(): 14e1. 的非同步版本。

     備註: Both 'getaddrinfo' and 'getnameinfo' internally utilize their
     synchronous versions through the loop's default thread pool
     executor.  When this executor is saturated, these methods may
     experience delays, which higher-level networking libraries may
     report as increased timeouts.  To mitigate this, consider using a
     custom executor for other user tasks, or setting a default executor
     with a larger number of workers.

在 3.7 版的變更: 'getaddrinfo' 和 'getnameinfo' 方法一直被記錄為回傳協程
，但在 Python 3.7 之前它們實際上回傳 *note asyncio.Future: a2e. 物件。從
Python 3.7 開始，兩個方法都是協程。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用管道,  Next: Unix 訊號,  Prev: DNS,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.63 使用管道
..................

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.connect_read_pipe (protocol_factory, pipe)

     在事件迴圈中註冊 'pipe' 的讀取端。

     'protocol_factory' 必須是一個回傳 *note asyncio protocol: 301b. 實
     作的可呼叫函式。

     'pipe' 是 *note 類檔案物件: 1054.。

     回傳 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 對，其中 'transport' 支援 *note
     ReadTransport: 3030. 介面，'protocol' 是由 'protocol_factory' 實例
     化的物件。

     使用 *note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. 事件迴圈時，'pipe' 設置為非阻塞
     模式。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.connect_write_pipe (protocol_factory, pipe)

     在事件迴圈中註冊 'pipe' 的寫入端。

     'protocol_factory' 必須是一個回傳 *note asyncio protocol: 301b. 實
     作的可呼叫函式。

     'pipe' 是 *note file-like object: 1054.。

     回傳 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 對，其中 'transport' 支援 *note
     WriteTransport: 3031. 介面，'protocol' 是由 'protocol_factory' 實例
     化的物件。

     使用 *note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. 事件迴圈時，'pipe' 設置為非阻塞
     模式。

     備註: *note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. 在 Windows 上不支援上述方法。對
     於 Windows 請使用 *note ProactorEventLoop: 400.。

也參考
......

*note loop.subprocess_exec(): 2fd3. 和 *note loop.subprocess_shell():
2fd4. 方法。


File: python.info,  Node: Unix 訊號,  Next: 在執行緒池或行程池中執行程式碼,  Prev: 使用管道,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.64 Unix 訊號
...................

 -- 方法: loop.add_signal_handler (signum, callback, *args)

     將 'callback' 設置為 'signum' 訊號的處理程式。

     該回呼將由 'loop' 呼叫，與該事件迴圈的其他排隊回呼和可運行的協程一
     起。與使用 *note signal.signal(): fc4. 註冊的訊號處理程式不同，使用
     此函式註冊的回呼允許與事件迴圈進行互動。

     如果訊號號無效或不可捕獲，引發 *note ValueError: 183.。如果設定處理
     程序有問題，拋出 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。

     使用 *note functools.partial(): d4e. 向 'callback' *note
     傳送關鍵字引數: 3015.。

     像 *note signal.signal(): fc4. 一樣，此函式必須在主執行緒中呼叫。

 -- 方法: loop.remove_signal_handler (sig)

     移除 'sig' 訊號的處理程式。

     如果訊號處理程式被移除，回傳 ‘True’；如果給定訊號沒有設置處理程式，
     回傳 ‘False’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

也參考
......

*note signal: c1. 模組。


File: python.info,  Node: 在執行緒池或行程池中執行程式碼,  Next: 錯誤處理 API,  Prev: Unix 訊號,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.65 在執行緒池或行程池中執行程式碼
........................................

 -- 方法: awaitable loop.run_in_executor (executor, func, *args)

     安排在指定的執行器中呼叫 'func'。

     The 'executor' argument should be an *note
     concurrent.futures.Executor: 2ea2. instance.  The default executor
     is used if 'executor' is ‘None’.  The default executor can be set
     by *note loop.set_default_executor(): 556, otherwise, a *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. will be
     lazy-initialized and used by *note run_in_executor(): 722. if
     needed.

     範例：

          import asyncio
          import concurrent.futures

          def blocking_io():
              # File operations (such as logging) can block the
              # event loop: run them in a thread pool.
              with open('/dev/urandom', 'rb') as f:
                  return f.read(100)

          def cpu_bound():
              # CPU-bound operations will block the event loop:
              # in general it is preferable to run them in a
              # process pool.
              return sum(i * i for i in range(10 ** 7))

          async def main():
              loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

              ## Options:

              # 1. Run in the default loop's executor:
              result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                  None, blocking_io)
              print('default thread pool', result)

              # 2. Run in a custom thread pool:
              with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor() as pool:
                  result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                      pool, blocking_io)
                  print('custom thread pool', result)

              # 3. Run in a custom process pool:
              with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as pool:
                  result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                      pool, cpu_bound)
                  print('custom process pool', result)

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              asyncio.run(main())

     請注意，由於 *note multiprocessing: 8f.（由 *note
     ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. 使用）的特殊性，選項 3 需要進入點保護（
     ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’）。請參閱*note 主模組的安全引入: 2e8e.。

     此方法回傳 *note asyncio.Future: a2e. 物件。

     使用 *note functools.partial(): d4e. 將來*note 關鍵字引數傳遞:
     3015.給 'func'。

     在 3.5.3 版的變更: *note loop.run_in_executor(): 722. 不再配置它建
     立的執行緒池執行器的 ‘max_workers’，而是讓執行緒池執行器（*note
     ThreadPoolExecutor: 555.）設定預設值。

 -- 方法: loop.set_default_executor (executor)

     將 'executor' 設置為 *note run_in_executor(): 722. 使用的預設執行器
     。'executor' 必須是 *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. 的實例。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'executor' 必須是 *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555.
     的實例。


File: python.info,  Node: 錯誤處理 API,  Next: 啟用除錯模式,  Prev: 在執行緒池或行程池中執行程式碼,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.66 錯誤處理 API
......................

允許自定義事件迴圈中的例外處理方式。

 -- 方法: loop.set_exception_handler (handler)

     將 'handler' 設定為新的事件迴圈例外處理程式。

     如果 'handler' 是 ‘None’，則將設置預設例外處理程式。否則，'handler'
     必須是一個可呼叫物件，簽名匹配 ‘(loop, context)’，其中 ‘loop’ 是參
     照活躍事件迴圈的，‘context’ 是包含例外詳細資訊的 ‘dict’ 物件（有關
     情境的詳細資訊，請參閱 *note call_exception_handler(): 3038. 文件）
     。

     如果代表 *note Task: 203. 或 *note Handle: 1893. 呼叫處理程式，它將
     在該任務或回呼處理程式的 *note contextvars.Context: 13ce. 中運行。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 處理程式可能在引發例外的任務或處理程式的 *note
     Context: 13ce. 中被呼叫。

 -- 方法: loop.get_exception_handler ()

     回傳當前的例外處理程式，如果未設置自定義例外處理程式，則回傳
     ‘None’。

     在 3.5.2 版被加入.

 -- 方法: loop.default_exception_handler (context)

     預設例外處理程式。

     當發生例外且未設置例外處理程式時呼叫此函式。自定義例外處理程式可以
     呼叫此函式以轉由預設處理程式處理。

     'context' 參數與 *note call_exception_handler(): 3038. 中的意思相同
     。

 -- 方法: loop.call_exception_handler (context)

     呼叫當前事件迴圈例外處理程式。

     'context' 是一個包含以下鍵的 ‘dict’ 物件（未來的 Python 版本中可能
     會引入新的鍵）:

        * 'message'：錯誤訊息；

        * 'exception'（可選）：例外物件；

        * 'future'（可選）： *note asyncio.Future: a2e. 實例；

        * 'task'（可選）： *note asyncio.Task: 203. 實例；

        * 'handle'（可選）： *note asyncio.Handle: 1893. 實例；

        * 'protocol'（可選）： *note Protocol: 301b. 實例；

        * 'transport'（可選）： *note Transport: 301c. 實例；

        * 'socket'（可選）： *note socket.socket: c18. 實例；

        * 
          'asyncgen'(可選)： 非同步產生器引發

               例外。

          備註: 此方法不應在子類別事件迴圈中被覆寫。為了自定義例外處理，
          請使用 *note set_exception_handler(): 3037. 方法。


File: python.info,  Node: 啟用除錯模式,  Next: 運行子行程,  Prev: 錯誤處理 API,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.67 啟用除錯模式
......................

 -- 方法: loop.get_debug ()

     取得事件迴圈的除錯模式（*note bool: 17d.）。

     如果環境變數 *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1b40. 被設定為非空字串，則預
     設值為 ‘True’，否則為 ‘False’。

 -- 方法: loop.set_debug (enabled: bool)

     設定事件迴圈的除錯模式。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 現在也可以使用新的 *note Python 開發模式: 703. 啟
     用除錯模式。

 -- 屬性: loop.slow_callback_duration

     此屬性可用於設定被視為"慢"的最短執行時間（以秒為單位）。啟用偵錯模
     式後，"慢"回呼將被記錄。

     預設值為 100 毫秒

也參考
......

*note asyncio 的除錯模式: 1b41.。


File: python.info,  Node: 運行子行程,  Prev: 啟用除錯模式,  Up: 事件迴圈方法

5.18.1.68 運行子行程
....................

本小節描述的方法是低階的。在常規的 async/await 程式碼中，請考慮使用高階
*note asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): 8c4. 和 *note
asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): 8c3. 輔助功能而不是。

     備註: 在 Windows 上，預設事件迴圈 *note ProactorEventLoop: 400. 支
     援子行程，而 *note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. 不支援。詳細資訊請參見
     *note Windows 上對於子行程的支援: 2fd5.。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.subprocess_exec (protocol_factory, *args,
          stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
          stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

     從 'args' 指定的一個或多個字串引數建立子行程。

     'args' 必須是由以下項表示的字串串列：

        * *note str: 157.；

        * 或 *note bytes: 2c1.，編碼為 *note 檔案系統編碼: 287f.。

     第一個字串指定程序可執行檔案，其餘字串指定引數。字串引數一起組成程
     序的 ‘argv’。

     這與標準函式庫 *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. 類似，使用
     ‘shell=False’ 呼叫並將字串串列作為第一個引數傳遞；然而，*note
     Popen: 8e1. 接受單個字串串列引數，'subprocess_exec' 接受多個字串引
     數。

     'protocol_factory' 必須是回傳 *note asyncio.SubprocessProtocol:
     303d. 子類別的可呼叫物件。

     其他參數：

        * 'stdin' 可以是以下任意一個：

             * 類檔案物件

             * 現有的檔案描述器（正整數），例如用 *note os.pipe(): 15a8.
               建立的

             * *note subprocess.PIPE: 9e6. 常數（預設），它將建立一個新
               的管道並連線，

             * 值 ‘None’ 將使子行程從此行程繼承檔案描述器

             * *note subprocess.DEVNULL: fe0. 常數，表示將使用特殊的
               *note os.devnull: 181a. 檔案

        * 'stdout' 可以是以下任意一個：

             * 類檔案物件

             * *note subprocess.PIPE: 9e6. 常數（預設），它將建立一個新
               的管道並連線，

             * 值 ‘None’ 將使子行程從此行程繼承檔案描述器

             * *note subprocess.DEVNULL: fe0. 常數，表示將使用特殊的
               *note os.devnull: 181a. 檔案

        * 'stderr' 可以是以下任意一個：

             * 類檔案物件

             * *note subprocess.PIPE: 9e6. 常數（預設），它將建立一個新
               的管道並連線，

             * 值 ‘None’ 將使子行程從此行程繼承檔案描述器

             * *note subprocess.DEVNULL: fe0. 常數，表示將使用特殊的
               *note os.devnull: 181a. 檔案

             * *note subprocess.STDOUT: 2ec1. 常數，它將標準錯誤串流連線
               到行程的標準輸出串流

        * 所有其他關鍵字引數都會傳遞給 *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. 而不
          進行直譯，但 'bufsize'、'universal_newlines'、'shell'、
          'text'、'encoding' 和 'errors' 除外，這些不應該指定。

          ‘asyncio’ 子行程 API 不支援將串流解碼為文本。可以使用 *note
          bytes.decode(): 70f. 將從串流回傳的位元組轉換為文本。

     如果傳遞給 'stdin'、'stdout' 或 'stderr' 的類檔案物件表示管道，則該
     管道的另一端應該使用 *note connect_write_pipe(): 2fd7. 或 *note
     connect_read_pipe(): 2fd6. 註冊到事件迴圈中。

     有關其他引數的文件，請參閱 *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. 類別的建構
     函式。

     回傳 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 對，其中 'transport' 符合 *note
     asyncio.SubprocessTransport: 303e. 基底類別，'protocol' 是由
     'protocol_factory' 實例化的物件。

 -- 方法: coroutine loop.subprocess_shell (protocol_factory, cmd, *,
          stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
          stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

     使用平台的 “shell” 語法從 'cmd' 建立子行程，'cmd' 可以是 *note str:
     157. 或編碼為 *note 檔案系統編碼: 287f. 的 *note bytes: 2c1. 字串。

     這類似於標準函式庫中的 *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. 類別，使用
     ‘shell=True’ 呼叫。

     'protocol_factory' 必須是回傳 *note SubprocessProtocol: 303d. 子類
     別的可呼叫物件。

     有關其餘引數的更多詳細資訊，請參閱 *note subprocess_exec(): 2fd3.。

     回傳一對 ‘(transport, protocol)’，其中 'transport' 符合 *note
     SubprocessTransport: 303e. 基底類別，而 'protocol' 是由
     'protocol_factory' 實例化的物件。

     備註: 由應用程式負責確保適當引用所有空白和特殊字元，以避免 shell 注
     入(1)風險。可以使用 *note shlex.quote(): fba. 函式來正確跳脫用於構
     建 shell 命令的字串中的空白和特殊字元。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection


File: python.info,  Node: 回呼處理,  Next: Server 物件,  Prev: 事件迴圈方法,  Up: 事件迴圈

5.18.1.69 回呼處理
..................

 -- 類別: asyncio.Handle

     由 *note loop.call_soon(): 959. 和 *note
     loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): 95a. 回傳的回呼包裝器。

      -- 方法: get_context ()

          回傳與處理相關聯的 *note contextvars.Context: 13ce. 物件。

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- 方法: cancel ()

          取消回呼。如果回呼已被取消或執行，此方法將不起作用。

      -- 方法: cancelled ()

          如果回呼已被取消，回傳 ‘True’。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 類別: asyncio.TimerHandle

     由 *note loop.call_later(): 95b. 和 *note loop.call_at(): 95c. 回傳
     的回呼包裝器。

     這個類別是 *note Handle: 1893. 的子類別。

      -- 方法: when ()

          回傳預定的回呼時間，以 *note float: 26a. 秒為單位。

          時間是一個絕對的時間戳，使用與 *note loop.time(): 3018. 相同的
          時間參照。

          在 3.7 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Server 物件,  Next: 事件迴圈實作,  Prev: 回呼處理,  Up: 事件迴圈

5.18.1.70 Server 物件
.....................

Server 物件是由 *note loop.create_server(): 968.、*note
loop.create_unix_server(): 969.、*note start_server(): 96f. 和 *note
start_unix_server(): 2f91. 函式所建立。

請勿直接實例化 *note Server: 967. 類別。

 -- 類別: asyncio.Server

     'Server' 物件是非同步情境管理器。當在 ‘async with’ 陳述中使用時，可
     以保證在完成 ‘async with’ 陳述時，Server 物件將會關閉並停止接受新的
     連線：

          srv = await loop.create_server(...)

          async with srv:
              # some code

          # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 自 Python 3.7 起，Server 物件是非同步情境管理器。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 此類別在 Python 3.9.11、3.10.3 和 3.11 中以
     ‘asyncio.Server’ 的形式被公開。

      -- 方法: close ()

          停止服務：關閉監聽的 sockets 並將 *note sockets: a79. 屬性設為
          ‘None’。

          代表現有傳入用戶端連線的 sockets 仍然保持開啟。

          伺服器以非同步方式關閉；使用 ‘wait_close()’ 協程等待伺服器關閉
          （不再有活躍連線）。

      -- 方法: get_loop ()

          回傳與伺服器物件關聯的事件迴圈。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 方法: coroutine start_serving ()

          開始接受連線。

          此方法是幂等的，因此可以在伺服器已經運行時呼叫。

          'start_serving' 僅限關鍵字參數只能在 *note
          loop.create_server(): 968. 和 *note asyncio.start_server():
          96f. 中使用，允許建立一個最初不接受連線的 Server 物件。在這種
          情況下，可以使用 ‘Server.start_serving()’ 或 *note
          Server.serve_forever(): 96b. 來使 Server 開始接受連線。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 方法: coroutine serve_forever ()

          開始接受連線，直到協程被取消。取消 ‘serve_forever’ 任務會導致
          伺服器關閉。

          如果伺服器已經接受連線，則可以呼叫此方法。每個 'Server' 物件只
          能存在一個 ‘serve_forever’ 任務。

          範例：

               async def client_connected(reader, writer):
                   # Communicate with the client with
                   # reader/writer streams.  For example:
                   await reader.readline()

               async def main(host, port):
                   srv = await asyncio.start_server(
                       client_connected, host, port)
                   await srv.serve_forever()

               asyncio.run(main('127.0.0.1', 0))

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 方法: is_serving ()

          如果伺服器正在接受新連線，則回傳 ‘True’。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 方法: coroutine wait_closed ()

          等待 *note close(): 2f8e. 方法完成且所有活動連線都已結束。

      -- 屬性: sockets

          伺服器正在監聽的類似 socket 的物件串列，
          ‘asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket’。

          在 3.7 版的變更: 在 Python 3.7 之前，‘Server.sockets’ 曾經直接
          回傳內部伺服器 sockets 的串列。在 3.7 中回傳了該串列的副本。


File: python.info,  Node: 事件迴圈實作,  Next: 範例<22>,  Prev: Server 物件,  Up: 事件迴圈

5.18.1.71 事件迴圈實作
......................

asyncio 內附兩個不同的事件迴圈實作：*note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. 和
*note ProactorEventLoop: 400.。

預設情況下，asyncio 配置為在 Unix 上使用 *note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff.，
在 Windows 上使用 *note ProactorEventLoop: 400.。

 -- 類別: asyncio.SelectorEventLoop

     基於 *note selectors: bd. 模組的事件迴圈。

     使用特定平台上最有效的 'selector'。也可以手動配置要使用的確切
     selector 實作：

          import asyncio
          import selectors

          class MyPolicy(asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy):
             def new_event_loop(self):
                selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
                return asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)

          asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(MyPolicy())

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 類別: asyncio.ProactorEventLoop

     用於 Windows 的事件迴圈，使用"I/O 完成埠"(IOCP)。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     也參考
     ......

     I/O 完成埠（I/O Completion Ports）的 MSDN 文件(1)。

 -- 類別: asyncio.AbstractEventLoop

     為符合 asyncio 標準的事件迴圈的抽象基礎類別。

     *note 事件迴圈方法: 300f. 部分列出了替代 ‘AbstractEventLoop’ 實作應
     該定義的所有方法。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/zh-tw/windows/desktop/FileIO/i-o-completion-ports


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<22>,  Prev: 事件迴圈實作,  Up: 事件迴圈

5.18.1.72 範例
..............

請注意，本節中的所有範例都 '故意' 展示如何使用低階事件迴圈 API，如 *note
loop.run_forever(): 3011. 和 *note loop.call_soon(): 959.。現代 asyncio
應用程式很少需要這種方式撰寫；請考慮使用高階的函式，如 *note
asyncio.run(): 197.。

* Menu:

* 使用 call_soon() 的 Hello World 範例: 使用 call_soon 的 Hello World 範例.
* 使用 call_later() 顯示目前日期: 使用 call_later 顯示目前日期.
* 監聽檔案描述器以進行讀取事件::
* 設定 SIGINT 和 SIGTERM 的訊號處理程式::


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 call_soon 的 Hello World 範例,  Next: 使用 call_later 顯示目前日期,  Up: 範例<22>

5.18.1.73 使用 call_soon() 的 Hello World 範例
..............................................

使用 *note loop.call_soon(): 959. 方法排程回呼的範例。回呼會顯示 ‘"Hello
World"’，然後停止事件迴圈：

     import asyncio

     def hello_world(loop):
         """A callback to print 'Hello World' and stop the event loop"""
         print('Hello World')
         loop.stop()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     # Schedule a call to hello_world()
     loop.call_soon(hello_world, loop)

     # Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
     try:
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         loop.close()

也參考
......

使用協程和 *note run(): 197. 函式建立的類似 *note Hello World: 2f4a. 範
例。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 call_later 顯示目前日期,  Next: 監聽檔案描述器以進行讀取事件,  Prev: 使用 call_soon 的 Hello World 範例,  Up: 範例<22>

5.18.1.74 使用 call_later() 顯示目前日期
........................................

一個回呼的範例，每秒顯示目前日期。回呼使用 *note loop.call_later(): 95b.
方法在 5 秒後重新排程自己，然後停止事件迴圈：

     import asyncio
     import datetime

     def display_date(end_time, loop):
         print(datetime.datetime.now())
         if (loop.time() + 1.0) < end_time:
             loop.call_later(1, display_date, end_time, loop)
         else:
             loop.stop()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     # Schedule the first call to display_date()
     end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
     loop.call_soon(display_date, end_time, loop)

     # Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
     try:
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         loop.close()

也參考
......

使用協程和 *note run(): 197. 函式建立的類似 *note current date: 2f69. 範
例。


File: python.info,  Node: 監聽檔案描述器以進行讀取事件,  Next: 設定 SIGINT 和 SIGTERM 的訊號處理程式,  Prev: 使用 call_later 顯示目前日期,  Up: 範例<22>

5.18.1.75 監聽檔案描述器以進行讀取事件
......................................

使用 *note loop.add_reader(): 2fab. 方法等待檔案描述器接收到某些資料，然
後關閉事件迴圈：

     import asyncio
     from socket import socketpair

     # Create a pair of connected file descriptors
     rsock, wsock = socketpair()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     def reader():
         data = rsock.recv(100)
         print("Received:", data.decode())

         # We are done: unregister the file descriptor
         loop.remove_reader(rsock)

         # Stop the event loop
         loop.stop()

     # Register the file descriptor for read event
     loop.add_reader(rsock, reader)

     # Simulate the reception of data from the network
     loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

     try:
         # Run the event loop
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         # We are done. Close sockets and the event loop.
         rsock.close()
         wsock.close()
         loop.close()

也參考
......

   * 使用傳輸、協定和 *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa. 方法的類似
     *note 範例: 2fa9.。

   * 另一個使用高階 *note asyncio.open_connection(): 96e. 函式和串流的類
     似 *note 範例: 2fa7.。


File: python.info,  Node: 設定 SIGINT 和 SIGTERM 的訊號處理程式,  Prev: 監聽檔案描述器以進行讀取事件,  Up: 範例<22>

5.18.1.76 設定 SIGINT 和 SIGTERM 的訊號處理程式
...............................................

（此 ‘signals’ 範例僅在 Unix 上運作。）

使用 *note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3033. 方法註冊訊號 ‘SIGINT’ 和
‘SIGTERM’ 的處理程式：

     import asyncio
     import functools
     import os
     import signal

     def ask_exit(signame, loop):
         print("got signal %s: exit" % signame)
         loop.stop()

     async def main():
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         for signame in {'SIGINT', 'SIGTERM'}:
             loop.add_signal_handler(
                 getattr(signal, signame),
                 functools.partial(ask_exit, signame, loop))

         await asyncio.sleep(3600)

     print("Event loop running for 1 hour, press Ctrl+C to interrupt.")
     print(f"pid {os.getpid()}: send SIGINT or SIGTERM to exit.")

     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Futures,  Next: 傳輸與協定,  Prev: 事件迴圈,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.77 Futures
.................

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/futures.py、source:'Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

'Future' 物件被用來連結'低階回呼式程式'和高階 async/await 程式。

* Menu:

* Future 函式::
* Future 物件: Future 物件<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/futures.py、
source:'Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py


File: python.info,  Node: Future 函式,  Next: Future 物件<2>,  Up: Futures

5.18.1.78 Future 函式
.....................

 -- 函式: asyncio.isfuture (obj)

     如果 'obj' 為下面任意物件，回傳 ‘True’：

        * 一個 *note asyncio.Future: a2e. 的實例、

        * 一個 *note asyncio.Task: 203. 的實例、

        * 帶有 ‘_asyncio_future_blocking’ 屬性的類 Future 物件
          (Future-like object)。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: asyncio.ensure_future (obj, *, loop=None)

     回傳：

        * 'obj' 引數會保持原樣，'obj' 須為 *note Future: a2e.、*note
          Task: 203. 或類 Future 物件（可以用 *note isfuture(): 304d. 來
          進行檢查。）

        * 包裝 (wrap) 了 'obj' 的 *note Task: 203. 物件，如果 'obj' 是一
          個協程 (coroutine) (可以用 *note iscoroutine(): 199. 來進行檢
          查)；在此情況下該協程將透過 ‘ensure_future()’ 來排程。

        * 一個會等待 'obj' 的 *note Task: 203. 物件，'obj' 須為一個可等
          待物件（*note inspect.isawaitable(): c91. 用於測試。)

     如果 'obj' 不是上述物件的話會引發一個 *note TypeError: 2ba. 例外。

          重要: 請見 *note create_task(): 3f3. 函式，它是建立新 Task 的
          推薦方法。

          將參照 (reference) 儲存至此函式的結果，用以防止任務在執行中消
          失。

     在 3.5.1 版的變更: 這個函式接受任意 *note awaitable: ae0. 物件。

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: 如果 'obj' 不是類 Future 物件且 'loop' 並未被
     指定，同時沒有正在執行的事件迴圈 (event loop)，則會發出棄用警告。

 -- 函式: asyncio.wrap_future (future, *, loop=None)

     將一個 *note concurrent.futures.Future: 1043. 物件包裝到 *note
     asyncio.Future: a2e. 物件中。

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: 如果 'future' 不是類 Future 物件且 'loop' 未
     被指定，同時沒有正在執行的事件迴圈，則會發出棄用警告。


File: python.info,  Node: Future 物件<2>,  Prev: Future 函式,  Up: Futures

5.18.1.79 Future 物件
.....................

 -- 類別: asyncio.Future (*, loop=None)

     一個 Future 代表一個非同步運算的最終結果。並不支援執行緒安全
     (thread-safe)。

     Future 是一個 *note awaitable: ae0. 物件。協程可以等待 Future 物件
     直到它們有結果或例外被設置、或者被取消。一個 Future 可被多次等待而
     結果都會是相同的。

     Future 通常用於讓低階基於回呼的程式（例如在協定實作中使用 asyncio
     *note transports: 2f52.）能夠與高階 async/await 程式互動。

     經驗法則為永遠不要在提供給使用者的 API 中公開 Future 物件，同時建議
     使用 *note loop.create_future(): ae2. 來建立 Future 物件。如此一來
     ，不同實作的事件迴圈可以注入自己最佳化實作的 Future 物件。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 加入對 *note contextvars: 22. 模組的支援。

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: 如果未指定 'loop' 並且沒有正在執行的事件迴圈
     則會發出棄用警告。

      -- 方法: result ()

          回傳 Future 的結果。

          如果 Future 狀態為 'done'（完成），並擁有 *note set_result():
          2f7e. 方法設定的一個結果，則回傳該結果之值。

          如果 Future 狀態為 'done'，並擁有 *note set_exception(): 2f7f.
          方法設定的一個例外，那麼這個方法會引發該例外。

          如果 Future 已被 'cancelled'（取消），此方法會引發一個 *note
          CancelledError: 81d. 例外。

          如果 Future 的結果還不可用，此方法會引發一個 *note
          InvalidStateError: 2f82. 例外。

      -- 方法: set_result (result)

          將 Future 標記為 'done' 並設定其結果。

          如果 Future 已經 'done' 則引發一個 *note InvalidStateError:
          2f82. 錯誤。

      -- 方法: set_exception (exception)

          將 Future 標記為 'done' 並設定一個例外。

          如果 Future 已經 'done' 則引發一個 *note InvalidStateError:
          2f82. 錯誤。

      -- 方法: done ()

          如果 Future 已為 'done' 則回傳 ‘True’。

          如果 Future 有被 'cancelled'、*note set_result(): 2f7e. 有被呼
          叫來為其設定結果、或 *note set_exception(): 2f7f. 有被呼叫為其
          設定例外，那麼它就是 'done'。

      -- 方法: cancelled ()

          如果 Future 已經被 'cancelled' 則回傳 ‘True’。

          這個方法通常在為 Future 設定結果或例外前用來確認它還沒被
          'cancelled'：

               if not fut.cancelled():
                   fut.set_result(42)

      -- 方法: add_done_callback (callback, *, context=None)

          新增一個在 Future 為 'done' 時執行的回呼函式。

          呼叫 'callback' 並附帶做為唯一引數的 Future 物件。

          如果呼叫這個方法時 Future 已經為 'done'，回呼函式會被 *note
          loop.call_soon(): 959. 排程。

          可選僅限關鍵字引數 'context' 用來指定一個讓 'callback' 執行於
          其中的客製化 *note contextvars.Context: 13ce. 物件。如果沒有提
          供 'context'，則使用當前情境。

          可以用 *note functools.partial(): d4e. 傳遞引數給回呼函式，例
          如：

               # Call 'print("Future:", fut)' when "fut" is done.
               fut.add_done_callback(
                   functools.partial(print, "Future:"))

          在 3.7 版的變更: 加入僅限關鍵字參數 'context'。更多細節請參閱
          PEP 567(1)。

      -- 方法: remove_done_callback (callback)

          從回呼列表中移除 'callback'。

          回傳被移除的回呼函式數量，通常為 1，除非一個回呼函式被多次加入
          。

      -- 方法: cancel (msg=None)

          取消 Future 並為回呼函式排程。

          如果 Future 已經是 'done' 或 'cancelled'，回傳 ‘False’。否則將
          Future 狀態改為 'cancelled' 並在為回呼函式排程後回傳 ‘True’。

          在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'msg' 參數。

      -- 方法: exception ()

          回傳被設定於此 Future 的例外。

          只有 Future 在 'done' 時才回傳例外（如果沒有設定例外則回傳
          ‘None’）。

          如果 Future 已被 'cancelled'（取消），此方法會引發一個 *note
          CancelledError: 81d. 例外。

          如果 Future 還不為 'done'，此方法會引發一個 *note
          InvalidStateError: 2f82. 例外。

      -- 方法: get_loop ()

          回傳已被 Future 物件繫結 (bind) 的事件迴圈。

          在 3.7 版被加入.

這個例子建立一個 Future 物件，建立一個非同步 Task 並為其排程以設定
Future 結果，然後等待 Future 結果出現：

     async def set_after(fut, delay, value):
         # Sleep for *delay* seconds.
         await asyncio.sleep(delay)

         # Set *value* as a result of *fut* Future.
         fut.set_result(value)

     async def main():
         # Get the current event loop.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # Create a new Future object.
         fut = loop.create_future()

         # Run "set_after()" coroutine in a parallel Task.
         # We are using the low-level "loop.create_task()" API here because
         # we already have a reference to the event loop at hand.
         # Otherwise we could have just used "asyncio.create_task()".
         loop.create_task(
             set_after(fut, 1, '... world'))

         print('hello ...')

         # Wait until *fut* has a result (1 second) and print it.
         print(await fut)

     asyncio.run(main())

     重要: 該 Future 物件是為了模仿 *note concurrent.futures.Future:
     1043. 而設計。主要差異包含：

        - 與 asyncio 的 Future 不同，*note concurrent.futures.Future:
          1043. 實例不可被等待。

        - *note asyncio.Future.result(): 304f. 和 *note
          asyncio.Future.exception(): 3052. 不接受 'timeout' 引數。

        - Future 不為 'done' 時 *note asyncio.Future.result(): 304f. 和
          *note asyncio.Future.exception(): 3052. 會引發一個 *note
          InvalidStateError: 2f82. 例外。

        - 使用 *note asyncio.Future.add_done_callback(): 95d. 註冊的回呼
          函式不會立即呼叫，而是被 *note loop.call_soon(): 959. 排程。

        - asyncio Future 不能與 *note concurrent.futures.wait(): 1635. 和
          *note concurrent.futures.as_completed(): 2eb3. 函式相容。

        - *note asyncio.Future.cancel(): 15e9. 接受一個可選的 ‘msg’ 引數
          ，但 *note concurrent.futures.Future.cancel(): 2eab. 無此引數
          。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: 傳輸與協定,  Next: Policies,  Prev: Futures,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.80 傳輸與協定
....................

前言
....

Transports and Protocols are used by the 'low-level' event loop APIs
such as *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa.  They use callback-based
programming style and enable high-performance implementations of network
or IPC protocols (e.g.  HTTP).

Essentially, transports and protocols should only be used in libraries
and frameworks and never in high-level asyncio applications.

This documentation page covers both *note Transports: 3056. and *note
Protocols: 3057.

Introduction
............

At the highest level, the transport is concerned with 'how' bytes are
transmitted, while the protocol determines 'which' bytes to transmit
(and to some extent when).

A different way of saying the same thing: a transport is an abstraction
for a socket (or similar I/O endpoint) while a protocol is an
abstraction for an application, from the transport's point of view.

Yet another view is the transport and protocol interfaces together
define an abstract interface for using network I/O and interprocess I/O.

There is always a 1:1 relationship between transport and protocol
objects: the protocol calls transport methods to send data, while the
transport calls protocol methods to pass it data that has been received.

Most of connection oriented event loop methods (such as *note
loop.create_connection(): 3fa.) usually accept a 'protocol_factory'
argument used to create a 'Protocol' object for an accepted connection,
represented by a 'Transport' object.  Such methods usually return a
tuple of ‘(transport, protocol)’.

目錄
....

This documentation page contains the following sections:

   * The *note Transports: 3056. section documents asyncio *note
     BaseTransport: 3058, *note ReadTransport: 3030, *note
     WriteTransport: 3031, *note Transport: 3059, *note
     DatagramTransport: 1576, and *note SubprocessTransport: 303e.
     classes.

   * The *note Protocols: 3057. section documents asyncio *note
     BaseProtocol: 305a, *note Protocol: 305b, *note BufferedProtocol:
     8ef, *note DatagramProtocol: 4cd, and *note SubprocessProtocol:
     303d. classes.

   * The *note Examples: 305c. section showcases how to work with
     transports, protocols, and low-level event loop APIs.

* Menu:

* Transports::
* Protocols::
* 範例: 範例<23>.


File: python.info,  Node: Transports,  Next: Protocols,  Up: 傳輸與協定

5.18.1.81 Transports
....................

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/transports.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Transports are classes provided by *note asyncio: 9. in order to
abstract various kinds of communication channels.

Transport objects are always instantiated by an *note asyncio event
loop: bee.

asyncio implements transports for TCP, UDP, SSL, and subprocess pipes.
The methods available on a transport depend on the transport's kind.

The transport classes are *note not thread safe: 2f7a.

* Menu:

* Transports Hierarchy::
* Base Transport::
* Read-only Transports::
* Write-only Transports::
* Datagram Transports::
* Subprocess Transports::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/transports.py


File: python.info,  Node: Transports Hierarchy,  Next: Base Transport,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.82 Transports Hierarchy
..............................

 -- 類別: asyncio.BaseTransport

     Base class for all transports.  Contains methods that all asyncio
     transports share.

 -- 類別: asyncio.WriteTransport (BaseTransport)

     A base transport for write-only connections.

     Instances of the 'WriteTransport' class are returned from the *note
     loop.connect_write_pipe(): 2fd7. event loop method and are also
     used by subprocess-related methods like *note
     loop.subprocess_exec(): 2fd3.

 -- 類別: asyncio.ReadTransport (BaseTransport)

     A base transport for read-only connections.

     Instances of the 'ReadTransport' class are returned from the *note
     loop.connect_read_pipe(): 2fd6. event loop method and are also used
     by subprocess-related methods like *note loop.subprocess_exec():
     2fd3.

 -- 類別: asyncio.Transport (WriteTransport, ReadTransport)

     Interface representing a bidirectional transport, such as a TCP
     connection.

     The user does not instantiate a transport directly; they call a
     utility function, passing it a protocol factory and other
     information necessary to create the transport and protocol.

     Instances of the 'Transport' class are returned from or used by
     event loop methods like *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa, *note
     loop.create_unix_connection(): 2f90, *note loop.create_server():
     968, *note loop.sendfile(): 3026, etc.

 -- 類別: asyncio.DatagramTransport (BaseTransport)

     A transport for datagram (UDP) connections.

     Instances of the 'DatagramTransport' class are returned from the
     *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543. event loop method.

 -- 類別: asyncio.SubprocessTransport (BaseTransport)

     An abstraction to represent a connection between a parent and its
     child OS process.

     Instances of the 'SubprocessTransport' class are returned from
     event loop methods *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 2fd4. and *note
     loop.subprocess_exec(): 2fd3.


File: python.info,  Node: Base Transport,  Next: Read-only Transports,  Prev: Transports Hierarchy,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.83 Base Transport
........................

 -- 方法: BaseTransport.close ()

     Close the transport.

     If the transport has a buffer for outgoing data, buffered data will
     be flushed asynchronously.  No more data will be received.  After
     all buffered data is flushed, the protocol's *note
     protocol.connection_lost(): 305f. method will be called with *note
     None: 470. as its argument.  The transport should not be used once
     it is closed.

 -- 方法: BaseTransport.is_closing ()

     Return ‘True’ if the transport is closing or is closed.

 -- 方法: BaseTransport.get_extra_info (name, default=None)

     Return information about the transport or underlying resources it
     uses.

     'name' is a string representing the piece of transport-specific
     information to get.

     'default' is the value to return if the information is not
     available, or if the transport does not support querying it with
     the given third-party event loop implementation or on the current
     platform.

     For example, the following code attempts to get the underlying
     socket object of the transport:

          sock = transport.get_extra_info('socket')
          if sock is not None:
              print(sock.getsockopt(...))

     Categories of information that can be queried on some transports:

        * socket:

             - ‘'peername'’: the remote address to which the socket is
               connected, result of *note socket.socket.getpeername():
               3060. (‘None’ on error)

             - ‘'socket'’: *note socket.socket: c18. instance

             - ‘'sockname'’: the socket's own address, result of *note
               socket.socket.getsockname(): 3061.

        * SSL socket:

             - ‘'compression'’: the compression algorithm being used as
               a string, or ‘None’ if the connection isn't compressed;
               result of *note ssl.SSLSocket.compression(): fd7.

             - ‘'cipher'’: a three-value tuple containing the name of
               the cipher being used, the version of the SSL protocol
               that defines its use, and the number of secret bits being
               used; result of *note ssl.SSLSocket.cipher(): 3062.

             - ‘'peercert'’: peer certificate; result of *note
               ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e46.

             - ‘'sslcontext'’: *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. instance

             - ‘'ssl_object'’: *note ssl.SSLObject: 9de. or *note
               ssl.SSLSocket: 723. instance

        * pipe:

             - ‘'pipe'’: pipe object

        * subprocess:

             - ‘'subprocess'’: *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. instance

 -- 方法: BaseTransport.set_protocol (protocol)

     Set a new protocol.

     Switching protocol should only be done when both protocols are
     documented to support the switch.

 -- 方法: BaseTransport.get_protocol ()

     Return the current protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: Read-only Transports,  Next: Write-only Transports,  Prev: Base Transport,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.84 Read-only Transports
..............................

 -- 方法: ReadTransport.is_reading ()

     Return ‘True’ if the transport is receiving new data.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 方法: ReadTransport.pause_reading ()

     Pause the receiving end of the transport.  No data will be passed
     to the protocol's *note protocol.data_received(): 1557. method
     until *note resume_reading(): 973. is called.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The method is idempotent, i.e.  it can be called
     when the transport is already paused or closed.

 -- 方法: ReadTransport.resume_reading ()

     Resume the receiving end.  The protocol's *note
     protocol.data_received(): 1557. method will be called once again if
     some data is available for reading.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The method is idempotent, i.e.  it can be called
     when the transport is already reading.


File: python.info,  Node: Write-only Transports,  Next: Datagram Transports,  Prev: Read-only Transports,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.85 Write-only Transports
...............................

 -- 方法: WriteTransport.abort ()

     Close the transport immediately, without waiting for pending
     operations to complete.  Buffered data will be lost.  No more data
     will be received.  The protocol's *note protocol.connection_lost():
     305f. method will eventually be called with *note None: 470. as its
     argument.

 -- 方法: WriteTransport.can_write_eof ()

     Return *note True: a70. if the transport supports *note
     write_eof(): 3069, *note False: 98f. if not.

 -- 方法: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size ()

     Return the current size of the output buffer used by the transport.

 -- 方法: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits ()

     Get the 'high' and 'low' watermarks for write flow control.  Return
     a tuple ‘(low, high)’ where 'low' and 'high' are positive number of
     bytes.

     Use *note set_write_buffer_limits(): 306b. to set the limits.

     在 3.4.2 版被加入.

 -- 方法: WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits (high=None, low=None)

     Set the 'high' and 'low' watermarks for write flow control.

     These two values (measured in number of bytes) control when the
     protocol's *note protocol.pause_writing(): 306c. and *note
     protocol.resume_writing(): 306d. methods are called.  If specified,
     the low watermark must be less than or equal to the high watermark.
     Neither 'high' nor 'low' can be negative.

     *note pause_writing(): 306c. is called when the buffer size becomes
     greater than or equal to the 'high' value.  If writing has been
     paused, *note resume_writing(): 306d. is called when the buffer
     size becomes less than or equal to the 'low' value.

     The defaults are implementation-specific.  If only the high
     watermark is given, the low watermark defaults to an
     implementation-specific value less than or equal to the high
     watermark.  Setting 'high' to zero forces 'low' to zero as well,
     and causes *note pause_writing(): 306c. to be called whenever the
     buffer becomes non-empty.  Setting 'low' to zero causes *note
     resume_writing(): 306d. to be called only once the buffer is empty.
     Use of zero for either limit is generally sub-optimal as it reduces
     opportunities for doing I/O and computation concurrently.

     Use *note get_write_buffer_limits(): c3c. to get the limits.

 -- 方法: WriteTransport.write (data)

     Write some 'data' bytes to the transport.

     This method does not block; it buffers the data and arranges for it
     to be sent out asynchronously.

 -- 方法: WriteTransport.writelines (list_of_data)

     Write a list (or any iterable) of data bytes to the transport.
     This is functionally equivalent to calling *note write(): 306e. on
     each element yielded by the iterable, but may be implemented more
     efficiently.

 -- 方法: WriteTransport.write_eof ()

     Close the write end of the transport after flushing all buffered
     data.  Data may still be received.

     This method can raise *note NotImplementedError: bc0. if the
     transport (e.g.  SSL) doesn't support half-closed connections.


File: python.info,  Node: Datagram Transports,  Next: Subprocess Transports,  Prev: Write-only Transports,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.86 Datagram Transports
.............................

 -- 方法: DatagramTransport.sendto (data, addr=None)

     Send the 'data' bytes to the remote peer given by 'addr' (a
     transport-dependent target address).  If 'addr' is *note None: 470,
     the data is sent to the target address given on transport creation.

     This method does not block; it buffers the data and arranges for it
     to be sent out asynchronously.

 -- 方法: DatagramTransport.abort ()

     Close the transport immediately, without waiting for pending
     operations to complete.  Buffered data will be lost.  No more data
     will be received.  The protocol's *note protocol.connection_lost():
     305f. method will eventually be called with *note None: 470. as its
     argument.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocess Transports,  Prev: Datagram Transports,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.87 Subprocess Transports
...............................

 -- 方法: SubprocessTransport.get_pid ()

     Return the subprocess process id as an integer.

 -- 方法: SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport (fd)

     Return the transport for the communication pipe corresponding to
     the integer file descriptor 'fd':

        * ‘0’: readable streaming transport of the standard input
          ('stdin'), or *note None: 470. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stdin=PIPE’

        * ‘1’: writable streaming transport of the standard output
          ('stdout'), or *note None: 470. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stdout=PIPE’

        * ‘2’: writable streaming transport of the standard error
          ('stderr'), or *note None: 470. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stderr=PIPE’

        * other 'fd': *note None: 470.

 -- 方法: SubprocessTransport.get_returncode ()

     Return the subprocess return code as an integer or *note None: 470.
     if it hasn't returned, which is similar to the *note
     subprocess.Popen.returncode: 1784. attribute.

 -- 方法: SubprocessTransport.kill ()

     Kill the subprocess.

     On POSIX systems, the function sends SIGKILL to the subprocess.  On
     Windows, this method is an alias for *note terminate(): 3077.

     另請參閱 *note subprocess.Popen.kill(): 124c.。

 -- 方法: SubprocessTransport.send_signal (signal)

     Send the 'signal' number to the subprocess, as in *note
     subprocess.Popen.send_signal(): 124d.

 -- 方法: SubprocessTransport.terminate ()

     Stop the subprocess.

     On POSIX systems, this method sends *note SIGTERM: 124e. to the
     subprocess.  On Windows, the Windows API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’ is called to stop the subprocess.

     另請參閱 *note subprocess.Popen.terminate(): 124b.。

 -- 方法: SubprocessTransport.close ()

     Kill the subprocess by calling the *note kill(): 3076. method.

     If the subprocess hasn't returned yet, and close transports of
     'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' pipes.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocols,  Next: 範例<23>,  Prev: Transports,  Up: 傳輸與協定

5.18.1.88 Protocols
...................

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/protocols.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio provides a set of abstract base classes that should be used to
implement network protocols.  Those classes are meant to be used
together with *note transports: 301c.

Subclasses of abstract base protocol classes may implement some or all
methods.  All these methods are callbacks: they are called by transports
on certain events, for example when some data is received.  A base
protocol method should be called by the corresponding transport.

* Menu:

* Base Protocols::
* Base Protocol::
* Streaming Protocols::
* Buffered Streaming Protocols::
* Datagram Protocols::
* Subprocess Protocols::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/protocols.py


File: python.info,  Node: Base Protocols,  Next: Base Protocol,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.89 Base Protocols
........................

 -- 類別: asyncio.BaseProtocol

     Base protocol with methods that all protocols share.

 -- 類別: asyncio.Protocol (BaseProtocol)

     The base class for implementing streaming protocols (TCP, Unix
     sockets, etc).

 -- 類別: asyncio.BufferedProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     A base class for implementing streaming protocols with manual
     control of the receive buffer.

 -- 類別: asyncio.DatagramProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     The base class for implementing datagram (UDP) protocols.

 -- 類別: asyncio.SubprocessProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     The base class for implementing protocols communicating with child
     processes (unidirectional pipes).


File: python.info,  Node: Base Protocol,  Next: Streaming Protocols,  Prev: Base Protocols,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.90 Base Protocol
.......................

All asyncio protocols can implement Base Protocol callbacks.

Connection Callbacks
....................

Connection callbacks are called on all protocols, exactly once per a
successful connection.  All other protocol callbacks can only be called
between those two methods.

 -- 方法: BaseProtocol.connection_made (transport)

     Called when a connection is made.

     The 'transport' argument is the transport representing the
     connection.  The protocol is responsible for storing the reference
     to its transport.

 -- 方法: BaseProtocol.connection_lost (exc)

     Called when the connection is lost or closed.

     The argument is either an exception object or *note None: 470.  The
     latter means a regular EOF is received, or the connection was
     aborted or closed by this side of the connection.

Flow Control Callbacks
......................

Flow control callbacks can be called by transports to pause or resume
writing performed by the protocol.

See the documentation of the *note set_write_buffer_limits(): 306b.
method for more details.

 -- 方法: BaseProtocol.pause_writing ()

     Called when the transport's buffer goes over the high watermark.

 -- 方法: BaseProtocol.resume_writing ()

     Called when the transport's buffer drains below the low watermark.

If the buffer size equals the high watermark, *note pause_writing():
306c. is not called: the buffer size must go strictly over.

Conversely, *note resume_writing(): 306d. is called when the buffer size
is equal or lower than the low watermark.  These end conditions are
important to ensure that things go as expected when either mark is zero.


File: python.info,  Node: Streaming Protocols,  Next: Buffered Streaming Protocols,  Prev: Base Protocol,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.91 Streaming Protocols
.............................

Event methods, such as *note loop.create_server(): 968, *note
loop.create_unix_server(): 969, *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa,
*note loop.create_unix_connection(): 2f90, *note
loop.connect_accepted_socket(): 970, *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
2fd6, and *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 2fd7. accept factories that
return streaming protocols.

 -- 方法: Protocol.data_received (data)

     Called when some data is received.  'data' is a non-empty bytes
     object containing the incoming data.

     Whether the data is buffered, chunked or reassembled depends on the
     transport.  In general, you shouldn't rely on specific semantics
     and instead make your parsing generic and flexible.  However, data
     is always received in the correct order.

     The method can be called an arbitrary number of times while a
     connection is open.

     However, *note protocol.eof_received(): 307d. is called at most
     once.  Once ‘eof_received()’ is called, ‘data_received()’ is not
     called anymore.

 -- 方法: Protocol.eof_received ()

     Called when the other end signals it won't send any more data (for
     example by calling *note transport.write_eof(): 3069, if the other
     end also uses asyncio).

     This method may return a false value (including ‘None’), in which
     case the transport will close itself.  Conversely, if this method
     returns a true value, the protocol used determines whether to close
     the transport.  Since the default implementation returns ‘None’, it
     implicitly closes the connection.

     Some transports, including SSL, don't support half-closed
     connections, in which case returning true from this method will
     result in the connection being closed.

State machine:

     start -> connection_made
         [-> data_received]*
         [-> eof_received]?
     -> connection_lost -> end


File: python.info,  Node: Buffered Streaming Protocols,  Next: Datagram Protocols,  Prev: Streaming Protocols,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.92 Buffered Streaming Protocols
......................................

在 3.7 版被加入.

Buffered Protocols can be used with any event loop method that supports
*note Streaming Protocols: 307c.

‘BufferedProtocol’ implementations allow explicit manual allocation and
control of the receive buffer.  Event loops can then use the buffer
provided by the protocol to avoid unnecessary data copies.  This can
result in noticeable performance improvement for protocols that receive
big amounts of data.  Sophisticated protocol implementations can
significantly reduce the number of buffer allocations.

The following callbacks are called on *note BufferedProtocol: 8ef.
instances:

 -- 方法: BufferedProtocol.get_buffer (sizehint)

     Called to allocate a new receive buffer.

     'sizehint' is the recommended minimum size for the returned buffer.
     It is acceptable to return smaller or larger buffers than what
     'sizehint' suggests.  When set to -1, the buffer size can be
     arbitrary.  It is an error to return a buffer with a zero size.

     ‘get_buffer()’ must return an object implementing the *note buffer
     protocol: 148.

 -- 方法: BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated (nbytes)

     Called when the buffer was updated with the received data.

     'nbytes' is the total number of bytes that were written to the
     buffer.

 -- 方法: BufferedProtocol.eof_received ()

     See the documentation of the *note protocol.eof_received(): 307d.
     method.

*note get_buffer(): 307f. can be called an arbitrary number of times
during a connection.  However, *note protocol.eof_received(): 307d. is
called at most once and, if called, *note get_buffer(): 307f. and *note
buffer_updated(): 3080. won't be called after it.

State machine:

     start -> connection_made
         [-> get_buffer
             [-> buffer_updated]?
         ]*
         [-> eof_received]?
     -> connection_lost -> end


File: python.info,  Node: Datagram Protocols,  Next: Subprocess Protocols,  Prev: Buffered Streaming Protocols,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.93 Datagram Protocols
............................

Datagram Protocol instances should be constructed by protocol factories
passed to the *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543. method.

 -- 方法: DatagramProtocol.datagram_received (data, addr)

     Called when a datagram is received.  'data' is a bytes object
     containing the incoming data.  'addr' is the address of the peer
     sending the data; the exact format depends on the transport.

 -- 方法: DatagramProtocol.error_received (exc)

     Called when a previous send or receive operation raises an *note
     OSError: 644.  'exc' is the *note OSError: 644. instance.

     This method is called in rare conditions, when the transport (e.g.
     UDP) detects that a datagram could not be delivered to its
     recipient.  In many conditions though, undeliverable datagrams will
     be silently dropped.

     備註: On BSD systems (macOS, FreeBSD, etc.)  flow control is not
     supported for datagram protocols, because there is no reliable way
     to detect send failures caused by writing too many packets.

     The socket always appears 'ready' and excess packets are dropped.
     An *note OSError: 644. with ‘errno’ set to *note errno.ENOBUFS:
     15b5. may or may not be raised; if it is raised, it will be
     reported to *note DatagramProtocol.error_received(): 3084. but
     otherwise ignored.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocess Protocols,  Prev: Datagram Protocols,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.94 Subprocess Protocols
..............................

Subprocess Protocol instances should be constructed by protocol
factories passed to the *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 2fd3. and *note
loop.subprocess_shell(): 2fd4. methods.

 -- 方法: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received (fd, data)

     Called when the child process writes data into its stdout or stderr
     pipe.

     'fd' is the integer file descriptor of the pipe.

     'data' is a non-empty bytes object containing the received data.

 -- 方法: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost (fd, exc)

     Called when one of the pipes communicating with the child process
     is closed.

     'fd' is the integer file descriptor that was closed.

 -- 方法: SubprocessProtocol.process_exited ()

     Called when the child process has exited.

     It can be called before *note pipe_data_received(): 1591. and *note
     pipe_connection_lost(): 3086. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<23>,  Prev: Protocols,  Up: 傳輸與協定

5.18.1.95 範例
..............

* Menu:

* TCP Echo Server::
* TCP Echo Client::
* UDP Echo Server::
* UDP Echo Client::
* Connecting Existing Sockets::
* loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol.


File: python.info,  Node: TCP Echo Server,  Next: TCP Echo Client,  Up: 範例<23>

5.18.1.96 TCP Echo Server
.........................

Create a TCP echo server using the *note loop.create_server(): 968.
method, send back received data, and close the connection:

     import asyncio


     class EchoServerProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
         def connection_made(self, transport):
             peername = transport.get_extra_info('peername')
             print('Connection from {}'.format(peername))
             self.transport = transport

         def data_received(self, data):
             message = data.decode()
             print('Data received: {!r}'.format(message))

             print('Send: {!r}'.format(message))
             self.transport.write(data)

             print('Close the client socket')
             self.transport.close()


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         server = await loop.create_server(
             lambda: EchoServerProtocol(),
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         async with server:
             await server.serve_forever()


     asyncio.run(main())

也參考
......

The *note TCP echo server using streams: 2fa3. example uses the
high-level *note asyncio.start_server(): 96f. function.


File: python.info,  Node: TCP Echo Client,  Next: UDP Echo Server,  Prev: TCP Echo Server,  Up: 範例<23>

5.18.1.97 TCP Echo Client
.........................

A TCP echo client using the *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa. method,
sends data, and waits until the connection is closed:

     import asyncio


     class EchoClientProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
         def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
             self.message = message
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             transport.write(self.message.encode())
             print('Data sent: {!r}'.format(self.message))

         def data_received(self, data):
             print('Data received: {!r}'.format(data.decode()))

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             print('The server closed the connection')
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
         message = 'Hello World!'

         transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
             lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         # Wait until the protocol signals that the connection
         # is lost and close the transport.
         try:
             await on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())

也參考
......

The *note TCP echo client using streams: 2fa0. example uses the
high-level *note asyncio.open_connection(): 96e. function.


File: python.info,  Node: UDP Echo Server,  Next: UDP Echo Client,  Prev: TCP Echo Client,  Up: 範例<23>

5.18.1.98 UDP Echo Server
.........................

A UDP echo server, using the *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543.
method, sends back received data:

     import asyncio


     class EchoServerProtocol:
         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport

         def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
             message = data.decode()
             print('Received %r from %s' % (message, addr))
             print('Send %r to %s' % (message, addr))
             self.transport.sendto(data, addr)


     async def main():
         print("Starting UDP server")

         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # One protocol instance will be created to serve all
         # client requests.
         transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
             lambda: EchoServerProtocol(),
             local_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

         try:
             await asyncio.sleep(3600)  # Serve for 1 hour.
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: UDP Echo Client,  Next: Connecting Existing Sockets,  Prev: UDP Echo Server,  Up: 範例<23>

5.18.1.99 UDP Echo Client
.........................

A UDP echo client, using the *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543.
method, sends data and closes the transport when it receives the answer:

     import asyncio


     class EchoClientProtocol:
         def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
             self.message = message
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost
             self.transport = None

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport
             print('Send:', self.message)
             self.transport.sendto(self.message.encode())

         def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
             print("Received:", data.decode())

             print("Close the socket")
             self.transport.close()

         def error_received(self, exc):
             print('Error received:', exc)

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             print("Connection closed")
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
         message = "Hello World!"

         transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
             lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
             remote_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

         try:
             await on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Connecting Existing Sockets,  Next: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol,  Prev: UDP Echo Client,  Up: 範例<23>

5.18.1.100 Connecting Existing Sockets
......................................

Wait until a socket receives data using the *note
loop.create_connection(): 3fa. method with a protocol:

     import asyncio
     import socket


     class MyProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):

         def __init__(self, on_con_lost):
             self.transport = None
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport

         def data_received(self, data):
             print("Received:", data.decode())

             # We are done: close the transport;
             # connection_lost() will be called automatically.
             self.transport.close()

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             # The socket has been closed
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()

         # Create a pair of connected sockets
         rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

         # Register the socket to wait for data.
         transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
             lambda: MyProtocol(on_con_lost), sock=rsock)

         # Simulate the reception of data from the network.
         loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

         try:
             await protocol.on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()
             wsock.close()

     asyncio.run(main())

也參考
......

The *note watch a file descriptor for read events: 2faa. example uses
the low-level *note loop.add_reader(): 2fab. method to register an FD.

The *note register an open socket to wait for data using streams: 2fa7.
example uses high-level streams created by the *note open_connection():
96e. function in a coroutine.


File: python.info,  Node: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol,  Prev: Connecting Existing Sockets,  Up: 範例<23>

5.18.1.101 loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol
........................................................

An example of a subprocess protocol used to get the output of a
subprocess and to wait for the subprocess exit.

The subprocess is created by the *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 2fd3.
method:

     import asyncio
     import sys

     class DateProtocol(asyncio.SubprocessProtocol):
         def __init__(self, exit_future):
             self.exit_future = exit_future
             self.output = bytearray()
             self.pipe_closed = False
             self.exited = False

         def pipe_connection_lost(self, fd, exc):
             self.pipe_closed = True
             self.check_for_exit()

         def pipe_data_received(self, fd, data):
             self.output.extend(data)

         def process_exited(self):
             self.exited = True
             # process_exited() method can be called before
             # pipe_connection_lost() method: wait until both methods are
             # called.
             self.check_for_exit()

         def check_for_exit(self):
             if self.pipe_closed and self.exited:
                 self.exit_future.set_result(True)

     async def get_date():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'
         exit_future = asyncio.Future(loop=loop)

         # Create the subprocess controlled by DateProtocol;
         # redirect the standard output into a pipe.
         transport, protocol = await loop.subprocess_exec(
             lambda: DateProtocol(exit_future),
             sys.executable, '-c', code,
             stdin=None, stderr=None)

         # Wait for the subprocess exit using the process_exited()
         # method of the protocol.
         await exit_future

         # Close the stdout pipe.
         transport.close()

         # Read the output which was collected by the
         # pipe_data_received() method of the protocol.
         data = bytes(protocol.output)
         return data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

     date = asyncio.run(get_date())
     print(f"Current date: {date}")

See also the *note same example: 2feb. written using high-level APIs.


File: python.info,  Node: Policies,  Next: 平臺支援,  Prev: 傳輸與協定,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.102 Policies
...................

An event loop policy is a global object used to get and set the current
*note event loop: bee, as well as create new event loops.  The default
policy can be *note replaced: 308f. with *note built-in alternatives:
3090. to use different event loop implementations, or substituted by a
*note custom policy: 3091. that can override these behaviors.

The *note policy object: 3092. gets and sets a separate event loop per
'context'.  This is per-thread by default, though custom policies could
define 'context' differently.

Custom event loop policies can control the behavior of *note
get_event_loop(): 220, *note set_event_loop(): 1597, and *note
new_event_loop(): 2f58.

Policy objects should implement the APIs defined in the *note
AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 3093. abstract base class.

* Menu:

* Getting and Setting the Policy::
* Policy Objects::
* Process Watchers::
* Custom Policies::


File: python.info,  Node: Getting and Setting the Policy,  Next: Policy Objects,  Up: Policies

5.18.1.103 Getting and Setting the Policy
.........................................

The following functions can be used to get and set the policy for the
current process:

 -- 函式: asyncio.get_event_loop_policy ()

     Return the current process-wide policy.

 -- 函式: asyncio.set_event_loop_policy (policy)

     Set the current process-wide policy to 'policy'.

     If 'policy' is set to ‘None’, the default policy is restored.


File: python.info,  Node: Policy Objects,  Next: Process Watchers,  Prev: Getting and Setting the Policy,  Up: Policies

5.18.1.104 Policy Objects
.........................

The abstract event loop policy base class is defined as follows:

 -- 類別: asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

     An abstract base class for asyncio policies.

      -- 方法: get_event_loop ()

          Get the event loop for the current context.

          Return an event loop object implementing the *note
          AbstractEventLoop: 7a0. interface.

          This method should never return ‘None’.

          在 3.6 版的變更.

      -- 方法: set_event_loop (loop)

          Set the event loop for the current context to 'loop'.

      -- 方法: new_event_loop ()

          Create and return a new event loop object.

          This method should never return ‘None’.

      -- 方法: get_child_watcher ()

          Get a child process watcher object.

          Return a watcher object implementing the *note
          AbstractChildWatcher: 21a. interface.

          This function is Unix specific.

          在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

      -- 方法: set_child_watcher (watcher)

          Set the current child process watcher to 'watcher'.

          This function is Unix specific.

          在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

asyncio ships with the following built-in policies:

 -- 類別: asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

     The default asyncio policy.  Uses *note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. on
     Unix and *note ProactorEventLoop: 400. on Windows.

     There is no need to install the default policy manually.  asyncio
     is configured to use the default policy automatically.

     在 3.8 版的變更: On Windows, *note ProactorEventLoop: 400. is now
     used by default.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用: The *note get_event_loop(): 220. method of
     the default asyncio policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning:
     179. if there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
     one.  In some future Python release this will become an error.

 -- 類別: asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

     An alternative event loop policy that uses the *note
     SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. event loop implementation.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

 -- 類別: asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

     An alternative event loop policy that uses the *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 400. event loop implementation.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Process Watchers,  Next: Custom Policies,  Prev: Policy Objects,  Up: Policies

5.18.1.105 Process Watchers
...........................

A process watcher allows customization of how an event loop monitors
child processes on Unix.  Specifically, the event loop needs to know
when a child process has exited.

In asyncio, child processes are created with *note
create_subprocess_exec(): 8c3. and *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 2fd3.
functions.

asyncio defines the *note AbstractChildWatcher: 21a. abstract base
class, which child watchers should implement, and has four different
implementations: *note ThreadedChildWatcher: 196. (configured to be used
by default), *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 218, *note SafeChildWatcher:
21b, and *note FastChildWatcher: 219.

See also the *note Subprocess and Threads: 2fe3. section.

The following two functions can be used to customize the child process
watcher implementation used by the asyncio event loop:

 -- 函式: asyncio.get_child_watcher ()

     Return the current child watcher for the current policy.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- 函式: asyncio.set_child_watcher (watcher)

     Set the current child watcher to 'watcher' for the current policy.
     'watcher' must implement methods defined in the *note
     AbstractChildWatcher: 21a. base class.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

     備註: Third-party event loops implementations might not support
     custom child watchers.  For such event loops, using *note
     set_child_watcher(): 21c. might be prohibited or have no effect.

 -- 類別: asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher

      -- 方法: add_child_handler (pid, callback, *args)

          Register a new child handler.

          Arrange for ‘callback(pid, returncode, *args)’ to be called
          when a process with PID equal to 'pid' terminates.  Specifying
          another callback for the same process replaces the previous
          handler.

          The 'callback' callable must be thread-safe.

      -- 方法: remove_child_handler (pid)

          Removes the handler for process with PID equal to 'pid'.

          The function returns ‘True’ if the handler was successfully
          removed, ‘False’ if there was nothing to remove.

      -- 方法: attach_loop (loop)

          Attach the watcher to an event loop.

          If the watcher was previously attached to an event loop, then
          it is first detached before attaching to the new loop.

          Note: loop may be ‘None’.

      -- 方法: is_active ()

          Return ‘True’ if the watcher is ready to use.

          Spawning a subprocess with 'inactive' current child watcher
          raises *note RuntimeError: 17a.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Close the watcher.

          This method has to be called to ensure that underlying
          resources are cleaned-up.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- 類別: asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher

     This implementation starts a new waiting thread for every
     subprocess spawn.

     It works reliably even when the asyncio event loop is run in a
     non-main OS thread.

     There is no noticeable overhead when handling a big number of
     children ('O'(1) each time a child terminates), but starting a
     thread per process requires extra memory.

     This watcher is used by default.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 類別: asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher

     This implementation registers a ‘SIGCHLD’ signal handler on
     instantiation.  That can break third-party code that installs a
     custom handler for ‘SIGCHLD’ signal.

     The watcher avoids disrupting other code spawning processes by
     polling every process explicitly on a ‘SIGCHLD’ signal.

     There is no limitation for running subprocesses from different
     threads once the watcher is installed.

     The solution is safe but it has a significant overhead when
     handling a big number of processes ('O'('n') each time a ‘SIGCHLD’
     is received).

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- 類別: asyncio.SafeChildWatcher

     This implementation uses active event loop from the main thread to
     handle ‘SIGCHLD’ signal.  If the main thread has no running event
     loop another thread cannot spawn a subprocess (*note RuntimeError:
     17a. is raised).

     The watcher avoids disrupting other code spawning processes by
     polling every process explicitly on a ‘SIGCHLD’ signal.

     This solution is as safe as *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 218. and
     has the same 'O'('n') complexity but requires a running event loop
     in the main thread to work.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- 類別: asyncio.FastChildWatcher

     This implementation reaps every terminated processes by calling
     ‘os.waitpid(-1)’ directly, possibly breaking other code spawning
     processes and waiting for their termination.

     There is no noticeable overhead when handling a big number of
     children ('O'(1) each time a child terminates).

     This solution requires a running event loop in the main thread to
     work, as *note SafeChildWatcher: 21b.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- 類別: asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher

     This implementation polls process file descriptors (pidfds) to
     await child process termination.  In some respects, *note
     PidfdChildWatcher: 194. is a "Goldilocks" child watcher
     implementation.  It doesn't require signals or threads, doesn't
     interfere with any processes launched outside the event loop, and
     scales linearly with the number of subprocesses launched by the
     event loop.  The main disadvantage is that pidfds are specific to
     Linux, and only work on recent (5.3+) kernels.

     在 3.9 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Policies,  Prev: Process Watchers,  Up: Policies

5.18.1.106 Custom Policies
..........................

To implement a new event loop policy, it is recommended to subclass
*note DefaultEventLoopPolicy: 309b. and override the methods for which
custom behavior is wanted, e.g.:

     class MyEventLoopPolicy(asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy):

         def get_event_loop(self):
             """Get the event loop.

             This may be None or an instance of EventLoop.
             """
             loop = super().get_event_loop()
             # Do something with loop ...
             return loop

     asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(MyEventLoopPolicy())


File: python.info,  Node: 平臺支援,  Next: 擴充,  Prev: Policies,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.107 平臺支援
...................

*note asyncio: 9. module（模組）被設計為可攜的 (portable)，但由於平臺的
底層架構和功能不同，在一些平臺上存在細微的差異和限制。

* Menu:

* 所有平台::
* Windows: Windows<76>.
* macOS: macOS<46>.


File: python.info,  Node: 所有平台,  Next: Windows<76>,  Up: 平臺支援

5.18.1.108 所有平台
...................

   * *note loop.add_reader(): 2fab. 和 *note loop.add_writer(): 302a. 不
     能用來監視檔案 I/O。


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<76>,  Next: macOS<46>,  Prev: 所有平台,  Up: 平臺支援

5.18.1.109 Windows
..................

'原始碼：'Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py、
source:'Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py、
source:'Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

在 3.8 版的變更: 在 Windows 上，現在 *note ProactorEventLoop: 400. 是預
設的事件迴圈。

Windows 上的所有事件迴圈都不支援以下 method（方法）：

   * 不支援 *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 2f90. 和 *note
     loop.create_unix_server(): 969.。*note socket.AF_UNIX: 15f0. socket
     系列常數僅限於 Unix 上使用。

   * 不支援 *note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3033. 和 *note
     loop.remove_signal_handler(): 3034.。

*note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. 有以下限制：

   * *note SelectSelector: 30a8. 只被用於等待 socket 事件：它支援 socket
     且最多支援 512 個 socket。

   * *note loop.add_reader(): 2fab. 和 *note loop.add_writer(): 302a. 只
     接受 socket 處理函式（例如不支援 pipe 檔案描述器 (pipe file
     descriptor)）。

   * 因為不支援 pipe，所以 *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 2fd6. 和
     *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 2fd7. method 沒有被實作出來。

   * 不支援*note 子行程 (subprocess): 2f4c.，也就是說 *note
     loop.subprocess_exec(): 2fd3. 和 *note loop.subprocess_shell():
     2fd4. method 沒有被實作出來。

*note ProactorEventLoop: 400. 有以下限制：

   * 不支援 *note loop.add_reader(): 2fab. 和 *note loop.add_writer():
     302a. method。

Windows 上單調時鐘 (monotonic clock) 的解析度大約為 15.6 毫秒。最佳的解
析度是 0.5 毫秒。解析度和硬體（HPET(2) 是否可用）與 Windows 的設定有關。

* Menu:

* Windows 的子行程支援::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py、
source:'Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py、
source:'Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py

   (2) https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/高精度事件計時器


File: python.info,  Node: Windows 的子行程支援,  Up: Windows<76>

5.18.1.110 Windows 的子行程支援
...............................

在 Windows 上，預設的事件迴圈 *note ProactorEventLoop: 400. 支援子行程，
而 *note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. 則不支援。

也不支援 *note policy.set_child_watcher(): 21e. 函式，*note
ProactorEventLoop: 400. 在監視子行程上有不同的機制。


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<46>,  Prev: Windows<76>,  Up: 平臺支援

5.18.1.111 macOS
................

完整支援現在普遍流行的 macOS 版本。

macOS <= 10.8
.............

在 macOS 10.6、10.7 和 10.8 上，預設的事件迴圈是使用 *note
selectors.KqueueSelector: 30ab.，在這些版本上它並不支援字元裝置
(character device)。可以手工設置 *note SelectorEventLoop: 3ff. 來使用
*note SelectSelector: 30a8. 或 *note PollSelector: a37. 以在這些舊版
macOS 上支援字元裝置。例如：

     import asyncio
     import selectors

     selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
     loop = asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)
     asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)


File: python.info,  Node: 擴充,  Next: 高階 API 索引,  Prev: 平臺支援,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.112 擴充
...............

The main direction for *note asyncio: 9. extending is writing custom
'event loop' classes.  Asyncio has helpers that could be used to
simplify this task.

     備註: Third-parties should reuse existing asyncio code with
     caution, a new Python version is free to break backward
     compatibility in 'internal' part of API.

* Menu:

* Writing a Custom Event Loop::
* Future and Task private constructors::
* Task lifetime support::


File: python.info,  Node: Writing a Custom Event Loop,  Next: Future and Task private constructors,  Up: 擴充

5.18.1.113 Writing a Custom Event Loop
......................................

*note asyncio.AbstractEventLoop: 7a0. declares very many methods.
Implementing all them from scratch is a tedious job.

A loop can get many common methods implementation for free by inheriting
from ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop’.

In turn, the successor should implement a bunch of 'private' methods
declared but not implemented in ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop’.

For example, ‘loop.create_connection()’ checks arguments, resolves DNS
addresses, and calls ‘loop._make_socket_transport()’ that should be
implemented by inherited class.  The ‘_make_socket_transport()’ method
is not documented and is considered as an 'internal' API.


File: python.info,  Node: Future and Task private constructors,  Next: Task lifetime support,  Prev: Writing a Custom Event Loop,  Up: 擴充

5.18.1.114 Future and Task private constructors
...............................................

*note asyncio.Future: a2e. and *note asyncio.Task: 203. should be never
created directly, please use corresponding *note loop.create_future():
ae2. and *note loop.create_task(): 821, or *note asyncio.create_task():
3f3. factories instead.

However, third-party 'event loops' may 'reuse' built-in future and task
implementations for the sake of getting a complex and highly optimized
code for free.

For this purpose the following, 'private' constructors are listed:

 -- 方法: Future.__init__ (*, loop=None)

     Create a built-in future instance.

     'loop' is an optional event loop instance.

 -- 方法: Task.__init__ (coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None)

     Create a built-in task instance.

     'loop' is an optional event loop instance.  The rest of arguments
     are described in *note loop.create_task(): 821. description.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'context' argument is added.


File: python.info,  Node: Task lifetime support,  Prev: Future and Task private constructors,  Up: 擴充

5.18.1.115 Task lifetime support
................................

A third party task implementation should call the following functions to
keep a task visible by *note asyncio.all_tasks(): 797. and *note
asyncio.current_task(): 198.:

 -- 函式: asyncio._register_task (task)

     Register a new 'task' as managed by 'asyncio'.

     Call the function from a task constructor.

 -- 函式: asyncio._unregister_task (task)

     Unregister a 'task' from 'asyncio' internal structures.

     The function should be called when a task is about to finish.

 -- 函式: asyncio._enter_task (loop, task)

     Switch the current task to the 'task' argument.

     Call the function just before executing a portion of embedded
     'coroutine' (*note coroutine.send(): 1d5e. or *note
     coroutine.throw(): 242.).

 -- 函式: asyncio._leave_task (loop, task)

     Switch the current task back from 'task' to ‘None’.

     Call the function just after *note coroutine.send(): 1d5e. or *note
     coroutine.throw(): 242. execution.


File: python.info,  Node: 高階 API 索引,  Next: 低階 API 索引,  Prev: 擴充,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.116 高階 API 索引
........................

這個頁面列出了所有能使用 async/wait 的高階 asyncio API。

* Menu:

* 任務 (Tasks): 任務 Tasks.
* 佇列 (Queues): 佇列 Queues<2>.
* 子行程 (Subprocesses): 子行程 Subprocesses.
* 串流 (Streams): 串流 Streams.
* 同步化 (Synchronization): 同步化 Synchronization.
* 例外: 例外<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: 任務 Tasks,  Next: 佇列 Queues<2>,  Up: 高階 API 索引

5.18.1.117 任務 (Tasks)
.......................

用於執行非同步程式、建立 Task 物件、帶有超時 (timeout) 設定地等待多個事
件的工具程式。

*note run(): 197.                                      建立事件迴圈 (event loop)、執行一個協程 (coroutine)、
                                                       關閉事件迴圈。
                                                       
                                                       
*note Runner: 3f7.                                     A context manager that simplifies multiple async
                                                       function calls.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Task: 203.                                       Task 物件。
                                                       
                                                       
*note TaskGroup: 3f1.                                  A context manager that holds a group of tasks.
                                                       Provides a convenient and reliable way to wait for
                                                       all tasks in the group to finish.
                                                       
                                                       
*note create_task(): 3f3.                              啟動一個 asyncio 的 Task 物件，然後回傳它。
                                                       
                                                       
*note current_task(): 198.                             回傳當前 Task 物件。
                                                       
                                                       
*note all_tasks(): 797.                                回傳事件迴圈中所有未完成的 task 物件。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note sleep(): 8bb.                            休眠數秒鐘。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note gather(): 3f4.                           並行 (concurrent) 地執行事件的排程與等待。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note wait_for(): 3f6.                         有超時設置的執行。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note shield(): 8bc.                           屏蔽取消操作。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note wait(): 19a.                             監控完成情況。
                                                       
                                                       
*note timeout(): 3f5.                                  Run with a timeout.  Useful in cases when ‘wait_for’
                                                       is not suitable.
                                                       
                                                       
*note to_thread(): 721.                                在不同的 OS 執行緒 (thread) 中非同步地執行一個函式。
                                                       
                                                       
*note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 6ae.                 從其他 OS 執行緒中為一個協程排程。
                                                       
                                                       
‘for in’ *note as_completed(): 19b.                    用 ‘for’ 迴圈來監控完成情況。
                                                       

範例
....

   * *note 使用 asyncio.gather() 平行 (parallel) 執行: 2f6b.。

   * *note 使用 asyncio.wait_for() 強制設置超時: 2f73.。

   * *note 取消任務: 2f88.。

   * *note 使用 asyncio.sleep(): 2f69.。

   * 請參閱 *note Tasks 文件頁面: 2f4a.。


File: python.info,  Node: 佇列 Queues<2>,  Next: 子行程 Subprocesses,  Prev: 任務 Tasks,  Up: 高階 API 索引

5.18.1.118 佇列 (Queues)
........................

佇列應被用於為多個 asyncio Task 物件分配工作、實作 connection pools（連
線池）以及 pub/sub（發行/訂閱）模式。

*note Queue: 8c2.                                      一個先進先出 (FIFO) 佇列。
                                                       
                                                       
*note PriorityQueue: 2ffc.                             一個優先佇列 (priority queue)。
                                                       
                                                       
*note LifoQueue: 2ffe.                                 一個後進先出 (LIFO) 佇列。
                                                       

範例
....

   * *note 使用 asyncio.Queue 為多個 Task 分配工作: 3000.。

   * 請參閱*note 佇列文件頁面: 2f4d.。


File: python.info,  Node: 子行程 Subprocesses,  Next: 串流 Streams,  Prev: 佇列 Queues<2>,  Up: 高階 API 索引

5.18.1.119 子行程 (Subprocesses)
................................

用於衍生（spawn）子行程和執行 shell 指令的工具程式。

‘await’ *note create_subprocess_exec(): 8c3.           建立一個子行程。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note create_subprocess_shell(): 8c4.          執行一個 shell 命令。
                                                       

範例
....

   * *note 執行一個 shell 指令: 2fcf.。

   * 請參閱*note 子行程 APIs: 2f4c. 相關文件。


File: python.info,  Node: 串流 Streams,  Next: 同步化 Synchronization,  Prev: 子行程 Subprocesses,  Up: 高階 API 索引

5.18.1.120 串流 (Streams)
.........................

用於網路 IO 處理的高階 API。

‘await’ *note open_connection(): 96e.                  建立一個 TCP 連線。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note open_unix_connection(): 2f8f.            建立一個 Unix socket 連線。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note start_server(): 96f.                     啟動一個 TCP 伺服器。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note start_unix_server(): 2f91.               啟動一個 Unix socket 伺服器。
                                                       
                                                       
*note StreamReader: 1699.                              接收網路資料的高階 async/await 物件。
                                                       
                                                       
*note StreamWriter: 1497.                              傳送網路資料的高階 async/await 物件。
                                                       

範例
....

   * *note TCP 客戶端範例: 2f8b.。

   * 請參閱*note 串流 APIs: 2f4b. 文件。


File: python.info,  Node: 同步化 Synchronization,  Next: 例外<9>,  Prev: 串流 Streams,  Up: 高階 API 索引

5.18.1.121 同步化 (Synchronization)
...................................

類似執行緒且能被用於 Task 中的同步化原始物件 (primitive)。

*note Lock: 8bd.                                       一個互斥鎖 (mutex lock)。
                                                       
                                                       
*note Event: 8be.                                      一個事件物件。
                                                       
                                                       
*note Condition: 8bf.                                  一個條件物件。
                                                       
                                                       
*note Semaphore: 8c0.                                  一個旗號 (semaphore) 物件。
                                                       
                                                       
*note BoundedSemaphore: 8c1.                           一個有界的旗號物件。
                                                       
                                                       
*note Barrier: 3f8.                                    一個屏障物件。
                                                       

範例
....

   * *note 使用 asyncio.Event: 2fb6.。

   * *note 使用 asyncio.Barrier: 2fc7.。

   * 請參閱 asyncio 關於*note 同步化原始物件: 2f4e.的文件。


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<9>,  Prev: 同步化 Synchronization,  Up: 高階 API 索引

5.18.1.122 例外
...............

*note asyncio.CancelledError: 81d.                     當一 Task 物件被取消時被引發。請參閱
                                                       *note Task.cancel(): 15ea.。
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.BrokenBarrierError: 3f9.                 當一 Barrier 物件損壞時被引發。請參閱
                                                       *note Barrier.wait(): 2fc6.。
                                                       

範例
....

   * *note 在取消請求發生的程式中處理 CancelledError 例外: 2f88.。

   * 請參閱 *note asyncio 專用例外: 3002.完整列表。


File: python.info,  Node: 低階 API 索引,  Next: 使用 asyncio 開發,  Prev: 高階 API 索引,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.123 低階 API 索引
........................

本頁列出所有低階 asyncio APIs。

* Menu:

* 獲取事件迴圈::
* 事件迴圈方法: 事件迴圈方法<2>.
* 傳輸::
* 協定::
* 事件迴圈 Policies::


File: python.info,  Node: 獲取事件迴圈,  Next: 事件迴圈方法<2>,  Up: 低階 API 索引

5.18.1.124 獲取事件迴圈
.......................

*note asyncio.get_running_loop(): 960.                 '推薦使用'於獲取當前運行事件迴圈 (event loop) 的函式
                                                       。
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 220.                   獲得一個（正在運行的或透過當前 policy 建立的）事件迴
                                                       圈實例。
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.set_event_loop(): 1597.                  透過當前 policy 來設定當前事件迴圈。
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.new_event_loop(): 2f58.                  建立一個新的事件迴圈。
                                                       

範例
....

   * *note 使用 asyncio.get_running_loop(): 3053.。


File: python.info,  Node: 事件迴圈方法<2>,  Next: 傳輸,  Prev: 獲取事件迴圈,  Up: 低階 API 索引

5.18.1.125 事件迴圈方法
.......................

也請查閱文件中關於*note 事件迴圈方法: 300f.的主要段落。

生命週期
........

*note loop.run_until_complete(): adf.                  執行一個 Future/Task/awaitable（可等待物件）直到完成
                                                       。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.run_forever(): 3011.                        持續運行事件迴圈。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.stop(): ae6.                                停止事件迴圈。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.close(): 3013.                              關閉事件迴圈。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.is_running(): 3012.                         如果事件迴圈正在執行則回傳 ‘True’。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.is_closed(): c3b.                           如果事件迴圈已經被關閉則回傳 ‘True’。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): ae7.          關閉非同步產生器 (asynchronous generators)。
                                                       

除錯
....

*note loop.set_debug(): c39.                           開啟或禁用除錯模式。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_debug(): c3a.                           獲取當前除錯模式。
                                                       

為回呼函式排程
..............

*note loop.call_soon(): 959.                           儘快調用回呼函式 (callback)。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): 95a.                *note loop.call_soon(): 959. 方法之有支援執行緒安全
                                                       (thread-safe) 變體。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_later(): 95b.                          在給定時間'之後'調用回呼函式。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_at(): 95c.                             在給定時間'當下'調用回呼函式。
                                                       

執行緒 (Thread)/行程池 (Process Pool)
.....................................

‘await’ *note loop.run_in_executor(): 722.             在 *note concurrent.futures: 1f. 執行器 (excutor) 中
                                                       執行一個 CPU 密集型 (CPU-bound) 或其它阻塞型式的函式
                                                       。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_default_executor(): 556.                為 *note loop.run_in_executor(): 722. 設定預設執行器
                                                       。
                                                       

Tasks 與 Futures
................

*note loop.create_future(): ae2.                       建立一個 *note Future: a2e. 物件。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.create_task(): 821.                         像是 *note Task: 203. 一樣，為協程 (coroutine) 排程
                                                       。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_task_factory(): c3d.                    設定被 *note loop.create_task(): 821. 用來建立
                                                       *note Tasks: 203. 的工廠函式 (factory)。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_task_factory(): c3e.                    獲取被 *note loop.create_task(): 821. 用來建立
                                                       *note Tasks: 203. 的工廠函式。
                                                       

DNS
...

‘await’ *note loop.getaddrinfo(): a77.                 非同步版本的 *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 1518.。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.getnameinfo(): a78.                 非同步版本的 *note socket.getnameinfo(): 14e1.。
                                                       

網路和 IPC
..........

‘await’ *note loop.create_connection(): 3fa.           開啟一個 TCP 連線。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_server(): 968.               建立一個 TCP 伺服器。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 2f90.     開啟一個 Unix socket 連線。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_unix_server(): 969.          建立一個 Unix socket 伺服器。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_accepted_socket(): 970.     將 *note socket: c18. 包裝成 ‘(transport,
                                                       protocol)’。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543.    開啟一個資料單元 (datagram) (UDP) 連線。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sendfile(): 3026.                   透過傳輸通道傳送一個檔案。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.start_tls(): 95e.                   將一個已存在的連線升級到 TLS。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 2fd6.          將 pipe（管道）讀取端包裝成 ‘(transport, protocol)’。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 2fd7.         將 pipe 寫入端包裝成 ‘(transport, protocol)’。
                                                       

Sockets
.......

‘await’ *note loop.sock_recv(): a74.                   從 *note socket: c18. 接收資料。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recv_into(): 95f.              將從 *note socket: c18. 接收到的資料存放於一個緩衝區
                                                       (buffer) 中。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recvfrom(): 3fd.               從 *note socket: c18. 接收一個資料單元。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recvfrom_into(): 3fe.          將從 *note socket: c18. 接收到的資料單元存放於一個緩
                                                       衝區中。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendall(): a75.                傳送資料到 *note socket: c18.。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendto(): 3fc.                 透過 *note socket: c18. 將資料單元傳送至給定的地址。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_connect(): c41.                連接 *note socket: c18.。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_accept(): a76.                 接受一個 *note socket: c18. 連線。
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendfile(): 963.               透過 *note socket: c18. 傳送一個檔案。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.add_reader(): 2fab.                         開始監控一個檔案描述器 (file descriptor) 的可讀取性
                                                       。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_reader(): 3029.                      停止監控一個檔案描述器的可讀取性。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.add_writer(): 302a.                         開始監控一個檔案描述器的可寫入性。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_writer(): 302b.                      停止監控一個檔案描述器的可寫入性。
                                                       

Unix 信號
.........

*note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3033.                 為 *note signal: c1. 新增一個處理函式 (handler)。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_signal_handler(): 3034.              刪除 *note signal: c1. 的處理函式。
                                                       

子行程
......

*note loop.subprocess_exec(): 2fd3.                    衍生 (spawn) 一個子行程 (subprocess)。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.subprocess_shell(): 2fd4.                   從 shell 指令衍生一個子行程。
                                                       

錯誤處理
........

*note loop.call_exception_handler(): 3038.             呼叫例外處理函式。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_exception_handler(): 3037.              設定一個新的例外處理函式。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_exception_handler(): ae3.               獲取當前例外處理函式。
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.default_exception_handler(): 3039.          預設例外處理函式實作。
                                                       

範例
....

   * *note 使用 asyncio.new_event_loop() 和 loop.run_forever(): 3043.。

   * *note 使用 loop.call_later(): 3045.。

   * 使用 ‘loop.create_connection()’ 以實作*note 一個 echo 客戶端:
     2fa2.。

   * 使用 ‘loop.create_connection()’ 來*note 連接 socket: 2fa9.。

   * *note 使用 add_reader() 監控 FD 的讀取事件: 2faa.。

   * *note 使用 loop.add_signal_handler(): 3048.。

   * *note 使用 loop.add_signal_handler(): 2fec.。


File: python.info,  Node: 傳輸,  Next: 協定,  Prev: 事件迴圈方法<2>,  Up: 低階 API 索引

5.18.1.126 傳輸
...............

所有傳輸方式都有實作以下方法：

*note transport.close(): 301f.                         關閉傳輸。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.is_closing(): ae1.                     如果傳輸正在關閉或已經關閉則回傳 ‘True’。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_extra_info(): 8ee.                 請求傳輸的相關資訊。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.set_protocol(): 3063.                  設定一個新協定。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_protocol(): 3064.                  回傳當前協定。
                                                       

可以接收資料（TCP 和 Unix 連線、pipe 等）的傳輸。它由 *note
loop.create_connection(): 3fa.、*note loop.create_unix_connection():
2f90.、*note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 2fd6. 等方法回傳：

讀取傳輸
........

*note transport.is_reading(): 972.                     如果傳輸正在接收則回傳 ‘True’。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.pause_reading(): 974.                  暫停接收。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.resume_reading(): 973.                 繼續接收。
                                                       

可以傳送資料（TCP 和 Unix 連線、pipe 等）的傳輸。它由 *note
loop.create_connection(): 3fa.、*note loop.create_unix_connection():
2f90.、*note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 2fd7. 等方法回傳：

寫入傳輸
........

*note transport.write(): 306e.                         將資料寫入傳輸。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.writelines(): 14eb.                    將緩衝區資料寫入傳輸。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.can_write_eof(): 3068.                 如果傳輸支援傳送 EOF 則回傳 *note True: a70.。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.write_eof(): 3069.                     在清除 (flush) 已緩衝的資料後關閉傳輸並傳送 EOF。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.abort(): 3067.                         立即關閉傳輸。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_write_buffer_size(): 306a.         回傳當前輸出緩衝區的大小。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_write_buffer_limits(): c3c.        回傳用於寫入流量控制 (write flow control) 的高低標記
                                                       位 (high and low water marks)。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.set_write_buffer_limits(): 306b.       為寫入流量控制設定高低標記位。
                                                       

由 *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 543. 回傳的傳輸：

資料單元傳輸
............

*note transport.sendto(): 3070.                        傳送資料到連線遠端。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.abort(): 3071.                         立即關閉傳輸。
                                                       

基於子行程的低階傳輸抽象，它會由 *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 2fd3. 和
*note loop.subprocess_shell(): 2fd4. 所回傳：

子行程傳輸
..........

*note transport.get_pid(): 3073.                       回傳子行程的行程 id。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_pipe_transport(): 3074.            回傳被請求用於通訊 pipe （'stdin'、'stdout' 或
                                                       'stderr'）的傳輸。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_returncode(): 3075.                回傳子行程的回傳代號 (return code)。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.kill(): 3076.                          殺死子行程。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.send_signal(): 3078.                   傳送一個訊號到子行程。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.terminate(): 3077.                     停止子行程。
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.close(): 3079.                         殺死子行程並關閉所有 pipes。
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: 協定,  Next: 事件迴圈 Policies,  Prev: 傳輸,  Up: 低階 API 索引

5.18.1.127 協定
...............

協定類別可以實作以下'回呼方法'：

‘callback’ *note connection_made(): 301d.              在連線建立時被呼叫。
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note connection_lost(): 305f.              在失去連線或連線關閉時被呼叫。
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note pause_writing(): 306c.                在傳輸緩衝區超過高標記位時被呼叫。
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note resume_writing(): 306d.               在傳輸緩衝區低於低標記位時被呼叫。
                                                       

串流協定 (TCP, Unix socket, Pipes)
..................................

‘callback’ *note data_received(): 1557.                在接收到資料時被呼叫。
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note eof_received(): 307d.                 在接收到 EOF 時被呼叫。
                                                       

緩衝串流協定
............

‘callback’ *note get_buffer(): 307f.                   呼叫後會分配新的接收緩衝區。
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note buffer_updated(): 3080.               在以接收到的資料更新緩衝區時被呼叫。
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note eof_received(): 3081.                 在接收到 EOF 時被呼叫。
                                                       

資料單元協定
............

‘callback’ *note datagram_received(): 3083.            在接收到資料單元時被呼叫。
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note error_received(): 3084.               在前一個傳送或接收操作引發 *note OSError: 644. 時被
                                                       呼叫。
                                                       

子行程協定
..........

‘callback’ *note pipe_data_received(): 1591.           在子行程向 'stdout' 或 'stderr' pipe 寫入資料時被呼
                                                       叫。
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note pipe_connection_lost(): 3086.         在與子行程通訊的其中一個 pipes 關閉時被呼叫。
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note process_exited(): 1590.               在子行程退出時呼叫。它可以在
                                                       *note pipe_data_received(): 1591. 和
                                                       *note pipe_connection_lost(): 3086. 方法之前呼叫。
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: 事件迴圈 Policies,  Prev: 協定,  Up: 低階 API 索引

5.18.1.128 事件迴圈 Policies
............................

Policy 是改變 *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 220. 這類函式行為的一個低
階機制。更多細節請見 *note Policy 相關段落: 3009.。

存取 Policy
...........

*note asyncio.get_event_loop_policy(): 3095.           回傳當前整個行程中的 Policy。
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(): 3096.           設定整個行程中的一個新 Policy。
                                                       
                                                       
*note AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 3093.                   Policy 物件的基礎類別。
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 asyncio 開發,  Prev: 低階 API 索引,  Up: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O

5.18.1.129 使用 asyncio 開發
............................

非同步程式設計 (asynchronous programming) 與傳統的"順序"程式設計
(sequential programming) 不同。

本頁列出常見的錯誤和陷阱，並解釋如何避免它們。

* Menu:

* 除錯模式::
* 並行性和多執行緒 (Concurrency and Multithreading): 並行性和多執行緒 Concurrency and Multithreading.
* 執行阻塞的程式::
* 日誌記錄::
* 偵測從未被等待的 (never-awaited) 協程: 偵測從未被等待的 never-awaited 協程.
* 偵測從未被獲取的 (never-retrieved) 例外: 偵測從未被獲取的 never-retrieved 例外.


File: python.info,  Node: 除錯模式,  Next: 並行性和多執行緒 Concurrency and Multithreading,  Up: 使用 asyncio 開發

5.18.1.130 除錯模式
...................

在預設情況下 asyncio 以正式生產模式 (production mode) 執行。為了讓開發更
輕鬆，asyncio 還有一種'除錯模式 (debug mode)'。

有幾種方法可以啟用 asyncio 除錯模式：

   * 將 *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1b40. 環境變數設定為 ‘1’。

   * 使用 *note Python 開發模式 (Development Mode): 703.。

   * 將 ‘debug=True’ 傳遞給 *note asyncio.run(): 197.。

   * 呼叫 *note loop.set_debug(): c39.。

除了啟用除錯模式外，還要考慮：

   * 將 *note asyncio logger（日誌記錄器）: 30c9.的日誌級别設置為 *note
     logging.DEBUG: 1ae8.，例如下面的程式片段可以在應用程式啟動時運行：

          logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)

   * 配置 *note warnings: 10d. 模組以顯示 *note ResourceWarning: aa3. 警
     告。一種方法是使用 *note -W: 6ff. ‘default’ 命令列選項。

啟用除錯模式時：

   * asyncio 會檢查*note 未被等待的協程: 30ca.並記錄他們；這會減輕"被遺
     忘的等待 (forgotten await)" 問題。

   * 許多非執行緒安全 (non-threadsafe) 的 asyncio APIs（例如 *note
     loop.call_soon(): 959. 和 *note loop.call_at(): 95c. 方法），如果從
     錯誤的執行緒呼叫就會引發例外。

   * 如果執行一個 I/O 操作花費的時間太長，則將 I/O 選擇器 (selector) 的
     執行時間記錄到日誌中。

   * 執行時間超過 100 毫秒的回呼 (callback) 將會被記錄於日誌。屬性 *note
     loop.slow_callback_duration: 303b. 可用於設定以秒為單位的最小執行持
     續時間，超過這個值執行時間就會被視為"緩慢"。


File: python.info,  Node: 並行性和多執行緒 Concurrency and Multithreading,  Next: 執行阻塞的程式,  Prev: 除錯模式,  Up: 使用 asyncio 開發

5.18.1.131 並行性和多執行緒 (Concurrency and Multithreading)
............................................................

事件迴圈在執行緒中運行（通常是主執行緒），並在其執行緒中執行所有回呼和
Tasks（任務）。當一個 Task 在事件迴圈中運行時，沒有其他 Task 可以在同一
個執行緒中運行。當一個 Task 執行一個 ‘await’ 運算式時，正在執行的 Task 會
被暫停，而事件迴圈會執行下一個 Task。

要從不同的 OS 執行緒為一個 *note callback: 2690. 排程，應該使用 *note
loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): 95a. 方法。例如：

     loop.call_soon_threadsafe(callback, *args)

幾乎所有 asyncio 物件都不支援執行緒安全 (thread safe)，這通常不是問題，
除非在 Task 或回呼函式之外有程式需要和它們一起運作。如果需要這樣的程式來
呼叫低階 asyncio API，應該使用 *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): 95a. 方
法，例如：

     loop.call_soon_threadsafe(fut.cancel)

要從不同的 OS 執行緒為一個協程物件排程，應該使用 *note
run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 6ae. 函式。它會回傳一個 *note
concurrent.futures.Future: 1043. 以存取結果：

     async def coro_func():
          return await asyncio.sleep(1, 42)

     # Later in another OS thread:

     future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro_func(), loop)
     # Wait for the result:
     result = future.result()

為了能夠處理訊號，事件迴圈必須於主執行緒中運行。

*note loop.run_in_executor(): 722. 方法可以和 *note
concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. 一起使用，這能夠在作業系統上
另一個不同的執行緒中執行阻塞程式，且避免阻塞執行事件迴圈的執行緒。

目前沒有什麼辦法能直接從另一個行程（例如透過 *note multiprocessing: 8f.
啟動的程序）來為協程或回呼排程。*note 事件迴圈方法: 300f.小節列出了可以
從 pipes（管道）讀取並監視 file descriptor（檔案描述器）而不會阻塞事件迴
圈的 API。此外，asyncio 的*note 子行程: 2f4c. API 提供了一種啟動行程並從
事件迴圈與其通訊的辦法。最後，之前提到的 *note loop.run_in_executor():
722. 方法也可和 *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. 搭配
使用，以在另一個行程中執行程式。


File: python.info,  Node: 執行阻塞的程式,  Next: 日誌記錄,  Prev: 並行性和多執行緒 Concurrency and Multithreading,  Up: 使用 asyncio 開發

5.18.1.132 執行阻塞的程式
.........................

不應該直接呼叫阻塞（CPU 密集型）程式。例如一個執行 1 秒 CPU 密集型計算的
函式，那麼所有並行非同步 Tasks 和 IO 操作都會被延遲 1 秒。

一個 executor（執行器）可以被用來在不同的執行緒、或甚至不同的行程中執行
任務，以避免使用事件迴圈阻塞 OS 執行緒。詳情請見 *note
loop.run_in_executor(): 722. 方法。


File: python.info,  Node: 日誌記錄,  Next: 偵測從未被等待的 never-awaited 協程,  Prev: 執行阻塞的程式,  Up: 使用 asyncio 開發

5.18.1.133 日誌記錄
...................

asyncio 使用 *note logging: 82. 模組，所有日誌記錄都是透過 ‘"asyncio"’
logger 執行的。

日誌級別被預設為 *note logging.INFO: 1ae9.，它可以很容易地被調整：

     logging.getLogger("asyncio").setLevel(logging.WARNING)

網路日誌記錄可能會阻塞事件迴圈。建議使用獨立的執行緒來處理日誌或使用非阻
塞 IO，範例請參見 *note Dealing with handlers that block: 30cf.。


File: python.info,  Node: 偵測從未被等待的 never-awaited 協程,  Next: 偵測從未被獲取的 never-retrieved 例外,  Prev: 日誌記錄,  Up: 使用 asyncio 開發

5.18.1.134 偵測從未被等待的 (never-awaited) 協程
................................................

當協程函式被呼叫而不是被等待時（即執行 ‘coro()’ 而不是 ‘await coro()’）
或者協程沒有透過 *note asyncio.create_task(): 3f3. 被排程，asyncio 將會
發出 *note RuntimeWarning: 8e7.：

     import asyncio

     async def test():
         print("never scheduled")

     async def main():
         test()

     asyncio.run(main())

輸出：

     test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
       test()

除錯模式中的輸出：

     test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
     Coroutine created at (most recent call last)
       File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
         asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

       < .. >

       File "../t.py", line 7, in main
         test()
       test()

常用的修復方法是去等待協程或者呼叫 *note asyncio.create_task(): 3f3. 函
式：

     async def main():
         await test()


File: python.info,  Node: 偵測從未被獲取的 never-retrieved 例外,  Prev: 偵測從未被等待的 never-awaited 協程,  Up: 使用 asyncio 開發

5.18.1.135 偵測從未被獲取的 (never-retrieved) 例外
..................................................

如果呼叫 *note Future.set_exception(): 2f7f.，但 Future 物件從未被等待，
例外將無法被傳播 (propagate) 到使用者程式。在這種情況下，當 Future 物件
被垃圾回收 (garbage collected) 時，asyncio 將發出一則日誌訊息。

未處理例外的例子：

     import asyncio

     async def bug():
         raise Exception("not consumed")

     async def main():
         asyncio.create_task(bug())

     asyncio.run(main())

輸出：

     Task exception was never retrieved
     future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
       exception=Exception('not consumed')>

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "test.py", line 4, in bug
         raise Exception("not consumed")
     Exception: not consumed

*note 啟用除錯模式: 1b41.以取得任務建立處的追蹤資訊 (traceback)：

     asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

除錯模式中的輸出：

     Task exception was never retrieved
     future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
         exception=Exception('not consumed') created at asyncio/tasks.py:321>

     source_traceback: Object created at (most recent call last):
       File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
         asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

     < .. >

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "../t.py", line 4, in bug
         raise Exception("not consumed")
     Exception: not consumed

     備註: asyncio 的原始碼可以在 Lib/asyncio/(1) 中找到。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/


File: python.info,  Node: socket --- 低階網路介面,  Next: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器,  Prev: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.2 ‘socket’ -- 低階網路介面
-------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/socket.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the BSD 'socket' interface.  It is
available on all modern Unix systems, Windows, MacOS, and probably
additional platforms.

     備註: Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made
     to the operating system socket APIs.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

The Python interface is a straightforward transliteration of the Unix
system call and library interface for sockets to Python's
object-oriented style: the *note socket(): c18. function returns a
'socket object' whose methods implement the various socket system calls.
Parameter types are somewhat higher-level than in the C interface: as
with ‘read()’ and ‘write()’ operations on Python files, buffer
allocation on receive operations is automatic, and buffer length is
implicit on send operations.

也參考
......

*note socketserver: c7. 模組

     Classes that simplify writing network servers.

*note ssl: ca. 模組

     A TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.

* Menu:

* Socket 系列家族::
* 模組內容: 模組內容<4>.
* Socket 物件::
* Notes on socket timeouts::
* 範例: 範例<24>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/socket.py


File: python.info,  Node: Socket 系列家族,  Next: 模組內容<4>,  Up: socket --- 低階網路介面

5.18.2.1 Socket 系列家族
........................

Depending on the system and the build options, various socket families
are supported by this module.

The address format required by a particular socket object is
automatically selected based on the address family specified when the
socket object was created.  Socket addresses are represented as follows:

   - The address of an *note AF_UNIX: 15f0. socket bound to a file
     system node is represented as a string, using the file system
     encoding and the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler (see PEP
     383(1)).  An address in Linux's abstract namespace is returned as a
     *note bytes-like object: b9f. with an initial null byte; note that
     sockets in this namespace can communicate with normal file system
     sockets, so programs intended to run on Linux may need to deal with
     both types of address.  A string or bytes-like object can be used
     for either type of address when passing it as an argument.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Previously, *note AF_UNIX: 15f0. socket paths were
     assumed to use UTF-8 encoding.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Writable *note bytes-like object: b9f. is now
     accepted.

   - A pair ‘(host, port)’ is used for the *note AF_INET: 15ee. address
     family, where 'host' is a string representing either a hostname in
     internet domain notation like ‘'daring.cwi.nl'’ or an IPv4 address
     like ‘'100.50.200.5'’, and 'port' is an integer.

        - For IPv4 addresses, two special forms are accepted instead of
          a host address: ‘''’ represents ‘INADDR_ANY’, which is used to
          bind to all interfaces, and the string ‘'<broadcast>'’
          represents ‘INADDR_BROADCAST’.  This behavior is not
          compatible with IPv6, therefore, you may want to avoid these
          if you intend to support IPv6 with your Python programs.

   - For *note AF_INET6: 15ef. address family, a four-tuple ‘(host,
     port, flowinfo, scope_id)’ is used, where 'flowinfo' and 'scope_id'
     represent the ‘sin6_flowinfo’ and ‘sin6_scope_id’ members in
     ‘struct sockaddr_in6’ in C. For *note socket: c6. module methods,
     'flowinfo' and 'scope_id' can be omitted just for backward
     compatibility.  Note, however, omission of 'scope_id' can cause
     problems in manipulating scoped IPv6 addresses.

     在 3.7 版的變更: For multicast addresses (with 'scope_id'
     meaningful) 'address' may not contain ‘%scope_id’ (or ‘zone id’)
     part.  This information is superfluous and may be safely omitted
     (recommended).

   - ‘AF_NETLINK’ sockets are represented as pairs ‘(pid, groups)’.

   - Linux-only support for TIPC is available using the ‘AF_TIPC’
     address family.  TIPC is an open, non-IP based networked protocol
     designed for use in clustered computer environments.  Addresses are
     represented by a tuple, and the fields depend on the address type.
     The general tuple form is ‘(addr_type, v1, v2, v3 [, scope])’,
     where:

        - 'addr_type' is one of ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ’, ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAME’,
          or ‘TIPC_ADDR_ID’.

        - 'scope' is one of ‘TIPC_ZONE_SCOPE’, ‘TIPC_CLUSTER_SCOPE’, and
          ‘TIPC_NODE_SCOPE’.

        - If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAME’, then 'v1' is the server
          type, 'v2' is the port identifier, and 'v3' should be 0.

          If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ’, then 'v1' is the server
          type, 'v2' is the lower port number, and 'v3' is the upper
          port number.

          If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_ID’, then 'v1' is the node, 'v2'
          is the reference, and 'v3' should be set to 0.

   - A tuple ‘(interface, )’ is used for the *note AF_CAN: 30d6. address
     family, where 'interface' is a string representing a network
     interface name like ‘'can0'’.  The network interface name ‘''’ can
     be used to receive packets from all network interfaces of this
     family.

        - *note CAN_ISOTP: 30d7. protocol require a tuple ‘(interface,
          rx_addr, tx_addr)’ where both additional parameters are
          unsigned long integer that represent a CAN identifier
          (standard or extended).

        - *note CAN_J1939: 771. protocol require a tuple ‘(interface,
          name, pgn, addr)’ where additional parameters are 64-bit
          unsigned integer representing the ECU name, a 32-bit unsigned
          integer representing the Parameter Group Number (PGN), and an
          8-bit integer representing the address.

   - A string or a tuple ‘(id, unit)’ is used for the ‘SYSPROTO_CONTROL’
     protocol of the ‘PF_SYSTEM’ family.  The string is the name of a
     kernel control using a dynamically assigned ID. The tuple can be
     used if ID and unit number of the kernel control are known or if a
     registered ID is used.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

   - ‘AF_BLUETOOTH’ supports the following protocols and address
     formats:

        - ‘BTPROTO_L2CAP’ accepts ‘(bdaddr, psm)’ where ‘bdaddr’ is the
          Bluetooth address as a string and ‘psm’ is an integer.

        - ‘BTPROTO_RFCOMM’ accepts ‘(bdaddr, channel)’ where ‘bdaddr’ is
          the Bluetooth address as a string and ‘channel’ is an integer.

        - ‘BTPROTO_HCI’ accepts ‘(device_id,)’ where ‘device_id’ is
          either an integer or a string with the Bluetooth address of
          the interface.  (This depends on your OS; NetBSD and
          DragonFlyBSD expect a Bluetooth address while everything else
          expects an integer.)

          在 3.2 版的變更: 加入對 NetBSD 和 DragonFlyBSD 的支援。

        - ‘BTPROTO_SCO’ accepts ‘bdaddr’ where ‘bdaddr’ is a *note
          bytes: 2c1. object containing the Bluetooth address in a
          string format.  (ex.  ‘b'12:23:34:45:56:67'’) This protocol is
          not supported under FreeBSD.

   - *note AF_ALG: b44. is a Linux-only socket based interface to Kernel
     cryptography.  An algorithm socket is configured with a tuple of
     two to four elements ‘(type, name [, feat [, mask]])’, where:

        - 'type' is the algorithm type as string, e.g.  ‘aead’, ‘hash’,
          ‘skcipher’ or ‘rng’.

        - 'name' is the algorithm name and operation mode as string,
          e.g.  ‘sha256’, ‘hmac(sha256)’, ‘cbc(aes)’ or
          ‘drbg_nopr_ctr_aes256’.

        - 'feat' and 'mask' are unsigned 32bit integers.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Some algorithm types require more recent Kernels.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

   - *note AF_VSOCK: 9d2. allows communication between virtual machines
     and their hosts.  The sockets are represented as a ‘(CID, port)’
     tuple where the context ID or CID and port are integers.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 3.9

     請見 ‘vsock(7)(2)’

     在 3.7 版被加入.

   - *note AF_PACKET: 30d8. is a low-level interface directly to network
     devices.  The addresses are represented by the tuple ‘(ifname,
     proto[, pkttype[, hatype[, addr]]])’ where:

        - 'ifname' - String specifying the device name.

        - 'proto' - The Ethernet protocol number.  May be *note
          ETH_P_ALL: 1572. to capture all protocols, one of the *note
          ETHERTYPE_* constants: 1573. or any other Ethernet protocol
          number.

        - 'pkttype' - Optional integer specifying the packet type:

             - ‘PACKET_HOST’ (the default) - Packet addressed to the
               local host.

             - ‘PACKET_BROADCAST’ - Physical-layer broadcast packet.

             - ‘PACKET_MULTICAST’ - Packet sent to a physical-layer
               multicast address.

             - ‘PACKET_OTHERHOST’ - Packet to some other host that has
               been caught by a device driver in promiscuous mode.

             - ‘PACKET_OUTGOING’ - Packet originating from the local
               host that is looped back to a packet socket.

        - 'hatype' - Optional integer specifying the ARP hardware
          address type.

        - 'addr' - Optional bytes-like object specifying the hardware
          physical address, whose interpretation depends on the device.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.2.

   - *note AF_QIPCRTR: 30d9. is a Linux-only socket based interface for
     communicating with services running on co-processors in Qualcomm
     platforms.  The address family is represented as a ‘(node, port)’
     tuple where the 'node' and 'port' are non-negative integers.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 4.7.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

   - ‘IPPROTO_UDPLITE’ is a variant of UDP which allows you to specify
     what portion of a packet is covered with the checksum.  It adds two
     socket options that you can change.
     ‘self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV, length)’ will
     change what portion of outgoing packets are covered by the checksum
     and ‘self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV, length)’
     will filter out packets which cover too little of their data.  In
     both cases ‘length’ should be in ‘range(8, 2**16, 8)’.

     Such a socket should be constructed with ‘socket(AF_INET,
     SOCK_DGRAM, IPPROTO_UDPLITE)’ for IPv4 or ‘socket(AF_INET6,
     SOCK_DGRAM, IPPROTO_UDPLITE)’ for IPv6.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.20, FreeBSD >= 10.1

     在 3.9 版被加入.

   - *note AF_HYPERV: 30da. is a Windows-only socket based interface for
     communicating with Hyper-V hosts and guests.  The address family is
     represented as a ‘(vm_id, service_id)’ tuple where the ‘vm_id’ and
     ‘service_id’ are UUID strings.

     The ‘vm_id’ is the virtual machine identifier or a set of known
     VMID values if the target is not a specific virtual machine.  Known
     VMID constants defined on ‘socket’ are:

        - ‘HV_GUID_ZERO’

        - ‘HV_GUID_BROADCAST’

        - ‘HV_GUID_WILDCARD’ - Used to bind on itself and accept
          connections from all partitions.

        - ‘HV_GUID_CHILDREN’ - Used to bind on itself and accept
          connection from child partitions.

        - ‘HV_GUID_LOOPBACK’ - Used as a target to itself.

        - ‘HV_GUID_PARENT’ - When used as a bind accepts connection from
          the parent partition.  When used as an address target it will
          connect to the parent partition.

     The ‘service_id’ is the service identifier of the registered
     service.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

If you use a hostname in the 'host' portion of IPv4/v6 socket address,
the program may show a nondeterministic behavior, as Python uses the
first address returned from the DNS resolution.  The socket address will
be resolved differently into an actual IPv4/v6 address, depending on the
results from DNS resolution and/or the host configuration.  For
deterministic behavior use a numeric address in 'host' portion.

All errors raise exceptions.  The normal exceptions for invalid argument
types and out-of-memory conditions can be raised.  Errors related to
socket or address semantics raise *note OSError: 644. or one of its
subclasses.

Non-blocking mode is supported through *note setblocking(): 28bb.  A
generalization of this based on timeouts is supported through *note
settimeout(): 30db.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/vsock(7)


File: python.info,  Node: 模組內容<4>,  Next: Socket 物件,  Prev: Socket 系列家族,  Up: socket --- 低階網路介面

5.18.2.2 模組內容
.................

The module *note socket: c6. exports the following elements.

* Menu:

* 例外: 例外<10>.
* 常數: 常數<7>.
* 函式: 函式<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<10>,  Next: 常數<7>,  Up: 模組內容<4>

5.18.2.3 例外
.............

 -- 例外: socket.error

     一個已棄用的 *note OSError: 644. 的別名。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was made an
     alias of *note OSError: 644.

 -- 例外: socket.herror

     A subclass of *note OSError: 644, this exception is raised for
     address-related errors, i.e.  for functions that use 'h_errno' in
     the POSIX C API, including *note gethostbyname_ex(): 16a3. and
     *note gethostbyaddr(): 16a2.  The accompanying value is a pair
     ‘(h_errno, string)’ representing an error returned by a library
     call.  'h_errno' is a numeric value, while 'string' represents the
     description of 'h_errno', as returned by the ‘hstrerror()’ C
     function.

     在 3.3 版的變更: This class was made a subclass of *note OSError:
     644.

 -- 例外: socket.gaierror

     A subclass of *note OSError: 644, this exception is raised for
     address-related errors by *note getaddrinfo(): 1518. and *note
     getnameinfo(): 14e1.  The accompanying value is a pair ‘(error,
     string)’ representing an error returned by a library call.
     'string' represents the description of 'error', as returned by the
     ‘gai_strerror()’ C function.  The numeric 'error' value will match
     one of the ‘EAI_*’ constants defined in this module.

     在 3.3 版的變更: This class was made a subclass of *note OSError:
     644.

 -- 例外: socket.timeout

     A deprecated alias of *note TimeoutError: 65b.

     A subclass of *note OSError: 644, this exception is raised when a
     timeout occurs on a socket which has had timeouts enabled via a
     prior call to *note settimeout(): 30db. (or implicitly through
     *note setdefaulttimeout(): 30df.).  The accompanying value is a
     string whose value is currently always "timed out".

     在 3.3 版的變更: This class was made a subclass of *note OSError:
     644.

     在 3.10 版的變更: This class was made an alias of *note
     TimeoutError: 65b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: 常數<7>,  Next: 函式<7>,  Prev: 例外<10>,  Up: 模組內容<4>

5.18.2.4 常數
.............

     The AF_* and SOCK_* constants are now ‘AddressFamily’ and
     ‘SocketKind’ *note IntEnum: b4c. collections.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.AF_UNIX
 -- 資料: socket.AF_INET
 -- 資料: socket.AF_INET6

     These constants represent the address (and protocol) families, used
     for the first argument to *note socket(): c18.  If the *note
     AF_UNIX: 15f0. constant is not defined then this protocol is
     unsupported.  More constants may be available depending on the
     system.

 -- 資料: socket.AF_UNSPEC

     *note AF_UNSPEC: 3024. means that *note getaddrinfo(): 1518. should
     return socket addresses for any address family (either IPv4, IPv6,
     or any other) that can be used.

 -- 資料: socket.SOCK_STREAM
 -- 資料: socket.SOCK_DGRAM
 -- 資料: socket.SOCK_RAW
 -- 資料: socket.SOCK_RDM
 -- 資料: socket.SOCK_SEQPACKET

     These constants represent the socket types, used for the second
     argument to *note socket(): c18.  More constants may be available
     depending on the system.  (Only *note SOCK_STREAM: 1184. and *note
     SOCK_DGRAM: 1183. appear to be generally useful.)

 -- 資料: socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC
 -- 資料: socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK

     These two constants, if defined, can be combined with the socket
     types and allow you to set some flags atomically (thus avoiding
     possible race conditions and the need for separate calls).

     也參考
     ......

     Secure File Descriptor Handling(1) for a more thorough explanation.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.27.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: SO_*
 -- 資料: socket.SOMAXCONN

 -- 資料: MSG_*

 -- 資料: SOL_*

 -- 資料: SCM_*

 -- 資料: IPPROTO_*

 -- 資料: IPPORT_*

 -- 資料: INADDR_*

 -- 資料: IP_*

 -- 資料: IPV6_*

 -- 資料: EAI_*

 -- 資料: AI_*

 -- 資料: NI_*

 -- 資料: TCP_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Unix documentation
     on sockets and/or the IP protocol, are also defined in the socket
     module.  They are generally used in arguments to the *note
     setsockopt(): b43. and *note getsockopt(): b42. methods of socket
     objects.  In most cases, only those symbols that are defined in the
     Unix header files are defined; for a few symbols, default values
     are provided.

     在 3.6 版的變更: ‘SO_DOMAIN’, ‘SO_PROTOCOL’, ‘SO_PEERSEC’,
     ‘SO_PASSSEC’, ‘TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’, ‘TCP_CONGESTION’ were added.

     在 3.6.5 版的變更: On Windows, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN’, ‘TCP_KEEPCNT’ appear
     if run-time Windows supports.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 ‘TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’。

     On Windows, ‘TCP_KEEPIDLE’, ‘TCP_KEEPINTVL’ appear if run-time
     Windows supports.

     在 3.10 版的變更: ‘IP_RECVTOS’ was added.  Added ‘TCP_KEEPALIVE’.
     On MacOS this constant can be used in the same way that
     ‘TCP_KEEPIDLE’ is used on Linux.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Added ‘TCP_CONNECTION_INFO’.  On MacOS this
     constant can be used in the same way that ‘TCP_INFO’ is used on
     Linux and BSD.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Added ‘SO_RTABLE’ and ‘SO_USER_COOKIE’.  On
     OpenBSD and FreeBSD respectively those constants can be used in the
     same way that ‘SO_MARK’ is used on Linux.  Also added missing TCP
     socket options from Linux: ‘TCP_MD5SIG’,
     ‘TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS’, ‘TCP_THIN_DUPACK’, ‘TCP_REPAIR’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE’, ‘TCP_QUEUE_SEQ’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS’,
     ‘TCP_TIMESTAMP’, ‘TCP_CC_INFO’, ‘TCP_SAVE_SYN’, ‘TCP_SAVED_SYN’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT’, ‘TCP_ULP’,
     ‘TCP_MD5SIG_EXT’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE’,
     ‘TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE’, ‘TCP_INQ’, ‘TCP_TX_DELAY’.  Added
     ‘IP_PKTINFO’, ‘IP_UNBLOCK_SOURCE’, ‘IP_BLOCK_SOURCE’,
     ‘IP_ADD_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP’, ‘IP_DROP_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP’.

 -- 資料: socket.AF_CAN
 -- 資料: socket.PF_CAN

 -- 資料: SOL_CAN_*

 -- 資料: CAN_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.25, NetBSD >= 8.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: NetBSD support was added.

 -- 資料: socket.CAN_BCM

 -- 資料: CAN_BCM_*

     CAN_BCM, in the CAN protocol family, is the broadcast manager (BCM)
     protocol.  Broadcast manager constants, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

          備註: The ‘CAN_BCM_CAN_FD_FRAME’ flag is only available on
          Linux >= 4.8.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES

     Enables CAN FD support in a CAN_RAW socket.  This is disabled by
     default.  This allows your application to send both CAN and CAN FD
     frames; however, you must accept both CAN and CAN FD frames when
     reading from the socket.

     This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 3.6.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS

     Joins the applied CAN filters such that only CAN frames that match
     all given CAN filters are passed to user space.

     This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 4.1.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.CAN_ISOTP

     CAN_ISOTP, in the CAN protocol family, is the ISO-TP (ISO 15765-2)
     protocol.  ISO-TP constants, documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.CAN_J1939

     CAN_J1939, in the CAN protocol family, is the SAE J1939 protocol.
     J1939 constants, documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 5.4.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.AF_DIVERT
 -- 資料: socket.PF_DIVERT

     These two constants, documented in the FreeBSD divert(4) manual
     page, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: FreeBSD >= 14.0.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.AF_PACKET
 -- 資料: socket.PF_PACKET

 -- 資料: PACKET_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.2.

 -- 資料: socket.ETH_P_ALL

     ‘ETH_P_ALL’ can be used in the *note socket: c18. constructor as
     'proto' for the *note AF_PACKET: 30d8. family in order to capture
     every packet, regardless of protocol.

     For more information, see the ‘packet(7)(2)’ manpage.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.AF_RDS
 -- 資料: socket.PF_RDS
 -- 資料: socket.SOL_RDS

 -- 資料: RDS_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.30.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.SIO_RCVALL
 -- 資料: socket.SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS
 -- 資料: socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH

 -- 資料: RCVALL_*

     Constants for Windows' WSAIoctl().  The constants are used as
     arguments to the *note ioctl(): b40. method of socket objects.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 加入 ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’。

 -- 資料: TIPC_*

     TIPC related constants, matching the ones exported by the C socket
     API. See the TIPC documentation for more information.

 -- 資料: socket.AF_ALG
 -- 資料: socket.SOL_ALG

 -- 資料: ALG_*

     Constants for Linux Kernel cryptography.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.AF_VSOCK
 -- 資料: socket.IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID

 -- 資料: VMADDR*

 -- 資料: SO_VM*

     Constants for Linux host/guest communication.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 4.8.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.AF_LINK

     *note Availability: 1b45.: BSD, macOS.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.has_ipv6

     This constant contains a boolean value which indicates if IPv6 is
     supported on this platform.

 -- 資料: socket.BDADDR_ANY
 -- 資料: socket.BDADDR_LOCAL

     These are string constants containing Bluetooth addresses with
     special meanings.  For example, *note BDADDR_ANY: 30f0. can be used
     to indicate any address when specifying the binding socket with
     ‘BTPROTO_RFCOMM’.

 -- 資料: socket.HCI_FILTER
 -- 資料: socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP
 -- 資料: socket.HCI_DATA_DIR

     For use with ‘BTPROTO_HCI’.  *note HCI_FILTER: 30f2. is not
     available for NetBSD or DragonFlyBSD. *note HCI_TIME_STAMP: 30f3.
     and *note HCI_DATA_DIR: 30f4. are not available for FreeBSD,
     NetBSD, or DragonFlyBSD.

 -- 資料: socket.AF_QIPCRTR

     Constant for Qualcomm's IPC router protocol, used to communicate
     with service providing remote processors.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 4.7.

 -- 資料: socket.SCM_CREDS2
 -- 資料: socket.LOCAL_CREDS
 -- 資料: socket.LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT

     LOCAL_CREDS and LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT can be used with SOCK_DGRAM,
     SOCK_STREAM sockets, equivalent to Linux/DragonFlyBSD SO_PASSCRED,
     while LOCAL_CREDS sends the credentials at first read,
     LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT sends for each read, SCM_CREDS2 must be then
     used for the latter for the message type.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: FreeBSD.

 -- 資料: socket.SO_INCOMING_CPU

          Constant to optimize CPU locality, to be used in conjunction
          with ‘SO_REUSEPORT’.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 3.9

 -- 資料: socket.AF_HYPERV
 -- 資料: socket.HV_PROTOCOL_RAW
 -- 資料: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT
 -- 資料: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX
 -- 資料: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND
 -- 資料: socket.HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU
 -- 資料: socket.HV_GUID_ZERO
 -- 資料: socket.HV_GUID_WILDCARD
 -- 資料: socket.HV_GUID_BROADCAST
 -- 資料: socket.HV_GUID_CHILDREN
 -- 資料: socket.HV_GUID_LOOPBACK
 -- 資料: socket.HV_GUID_PARENT

     Constants for Windows Hyper-V sockets for host/guest
     communications.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.ETHERTYPE_ARP
 -- 資料: socket.ETHERTYPE_IP
 -- 資料: socket.ETHERTYPE_IPV6
 -- 資料: socket.ETHERTYPE_VLAN

     IEEE 802.3 protocol number(3).  constants.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux, FreeBSD, macOS.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.SHUT_RD
 -- 資料: socket.SHUT_WR
 -- 資料: socket.SHUT_RDWR

     These constants are used by the *note shutdown(): 310b. method of
     socket objects.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://udrepper.livejournal.com/20407.html

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/packet(7)

   (3) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/ieee-802-numbers/ieee-802-numbers.txt


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<7>,  Prev: 常數<7>,  Up: 模組內容<4>

5.18.2.5 函式
.............

* Menu:

* 建立 sockets::
* 其他函式: 其他函式<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 建立 sockets,  Next: 其他函式<2>,  Up: 函式<7>

5.18.2.6 建立 sockets
.....................

The following functions all create *note socket objects: 310e.

 -- 類別: socket.socket (family=AF_INET, type=SOCK_STREAM, proto=0,
          fileno=None)

     Create a new socket using the given address family, socket type and
     protocol number.  The address family should be *note AF_INET: 15ee.
     (the default), *note AF_INET6: 15ef, *note AF_UNIX: 15f0, *note
     AF_CAN: 30d6, *note AF_PACKET: 30d8, or *note AF_RDS: 30e8.  The
     socket type should be *note SOCK_STREAM: 1184. (the default), *note
     SOCK_DGRAM: 1183, *note SOCK_RAW: 30e1. or perhaps one of the other
     ‘SOCK_’ constants.  The protocol number is usually zero and may be
     omitted or in the case where the address family is *note AF_CAN:
     30d6. the protocol should be one of ‘CAN_RAW’, *note CAN_BCM: e2f,
     *note CAN_ISOTP: 30d7. or *note CAN_J1939: 771.

     If 'fileno' is specified, the values for 'family', 'type', and
     'proto' are auto-detected from the specified file descriptor.
     Auto-detection can be overruled by calling the function with
     explicit 'family', 'type', or 'proto' arguments.  This only affects
     how Python represents e.g.  the return value of *note
     socket.getpeername(): 3060. but not the actual OS resource.  Unlike
     *note socket.fromfd(): 310f, 'fileno' will return the same socket
     and not a duplicate.  This may help close a detached socket using
     *note socket.close(): 9d0.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘family’、‘type’、‘protocol’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘socket.__new__’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: The AF_CAN family was added.  The AF_RDS family
     was added.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 CAN_BCM 協定。

     在 3.4 版的變更: The returned socket is now non-inheritable.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 CAN_ISOTP 協定。

     在 3.7 版的變更: When *note SOCK_NONBLOCK: a6d. or *note
     SOCK_CLOEXEC: a6e. bit flags are applied to 'type' they are
     cleared, and *note socket.type: a6f. will not reflect them.  They
     are still passed to the underlying system ‘socket()’ call.
     Therefore,

          sock = socket.socket(
              socket.AF_INET,
              socket.SOCK_STREAM | socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK)

     will still create a non-blocking socket on OSes that support
     ‘SOCK_NONBLOCK’, but ‘sock.type’ will be set to
     ‘socket.SOCK_STREAM’.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 CAN_J1939 協定。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 IPPROTO_MPTCP 協定。

 -- 函式: socket.socketpair ([family[, type[, proto]]])

     Build a pair of connected socket objects using the given address
     family, socket type, and protocol number.  Address family, socket
     type, and protocol number are as for the *note socket(): c18.
     function above.  The default family is *note AF_UNIX: 15f0. if
     defined on the platform; otherwise, the default is *note AF_INET:
     15ee.

     The newly created sockets are *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     在 3.2 版的變更: The returned socket objects now support the whole
     socket API, rather than a subset.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The returned sockets are now non-inheritable.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增對 Windows 的支援。

 -- 函式: socket.create_connection (address, timeout=GLOBAL_DEFAULT,
          source_address=None, *, all_errors=False)

     Connect to a TCP service listening on the internet 'address' (a
     2-tuple ‘(host, port)’), and return the socket object.  This is a
     higher-level function than *note socket.connect(): c1a.: if 'host'
     is a non-numeric hostname, it will try to resolve it for both *note
     AF_INET: 15ee. and *note AF_INET6: 15ef, and then try to connect to
     all possible addresses in turn until a connection succeeds.  This
     makes it easy to write clients that are compatible to both IPv4 and
     IPv6.

     Passing the optional 'timeout' parameter will set the timeout on
     the socket instance before attempting to connect.  If no 'timeout'
     is supplied, the global default timeout setting returned by *note
     getdefaulttimeout(): 3110. is used.

     If supplied, 'source_address' must be a 2-tuple ‘(host, port)’ for
     the socket to bind to as its source address before connecting.  If
     host or port are '' or 0 respectively the OS default behavior will
     be used.

     When a connection cannot be created, an exception is raised.  By
     default, it is the exception from the last address in the list.  If
     'all_errors' is ‘True’, it is an *note ExceptionGroup: 17b.
     containing the errors of all attempts.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'source_address'。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'all_errors'。

 -- 函式: socket.create_server (address, *, family=AF_INET,
          backlog=None, reuse_port=False, dualstack_ipv6=False)

     Convenience function which creates a TCP socket bound to 'address'
     (a 2-tuple ‘(host, port)’) and returns the socket object.

     'family' should be either *note AF_INET: 15ee. or *note AF_INET6:
     15ef.  'backlog' is the queue size passed to *note socket.listen():
     cdc.; if not specified , a default reasonable value is chosen.
     'reuse_port' dictates whether to set the ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ socket
     option.

     If 'dualstack_ipv6' is true and the platform supports it the socket
     will be able to accept both IPv4 and IPv6 connections, else it will
     raise *note ValueError: 183.  Most POSIX platforms and Windows are
     supposed to support this functionality.  When this functionality is
     enabled the address returned by *note socket.getpeername(): 3060.
     when an IPv4 connection occurs will be an IPv6 address represented
     as an IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.  If 'dualstack_ipv6' is false it
     will explicitly disable this functionality on platforms that enable
     it by default (e.g.  Linux).  This parameter can be used in
     conjunction with *note has_dualstack_ipv6(): 875.:

          import socket

          addr = ("", 8080)  # all interfaces, port 8080
          if socket.has_dualstack_ipv6():
              s = socket.create_server(addr, family=socket.AF_INET6, dualstack_ipv6=True)
          else:
              s = socket.create_server(addr)

          備註: On POSIX platforms the ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ socket option is
          set in order to immediately reuse previous sockets which were
          bound on the same 'address' and remained in TIME_WAIT state.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: socket.has_dualstack_ipv6 ()

     Return ‘True’ if the platform supports creating a TCP socket which
     can handle both IPv4 and IPv6 connections.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: socket.fromfd (fd, family, type, proto=0)

     Duplicate the file descriptor 'fd' (an integer as returned by a
     file object's *note fileno(): 25ca. method) and build a socket
     object from the result.  Address family, socket type and protocol
     number are as for the *note socket(): c18. function above.  The
     file descriptor should refer to a socket, but this is not checked
     -- subsequent operations on the object may fail if the file
     descriptor is invalid.  This function is rarely needed, but can be
     used to get or set socket options on a socket passed to a program
     as standard input or output (such as a server started by the Unix
     inet daemon).  The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The returned socket is now non-inheritable.

 -- 函式: socket.fromshare (data)

     Instantiate a socket from data obtained from the *note
     socket.share(): a6b. method.  The socket is assumed to be in
     blocking mode.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: socket.SocketType

     This is a Python type object that represents the socket object
     type.  It is the same as ‘type(socket(...))’.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他函式<2>,  Prev: 建立 sockets,  Up: 函式<7>

5.18.2.7 其他函式
.................

The *note socket: c6. module also offers various network-related
services:

 -- 函式: socket.close (fd)

     Close a socket file descriptor.  This is like *note os.close():
     9d1, but for sockets.  On some platforms (most noticeable Windows)
     *note os.close(): 9d1. does not work for socket file descriptors.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: socket.getaddrinfo (host, port, family=0, type=0, proto=0,
          flags=0)

     Translate the 'host'/'port' argument into a sequence of 5-tuples
     that contain all the necessary arguments for creating a socket
     connected to that service.  'host' is a domain name, a string
     representation of an IPv4/v6 address or ‘None’.  'port' is a string
     service name such as ‘'http'’, a numeric port number or ‘None’.  By
     passing ‘None’ as the value of 'host' and 'port', you can pass
     ‘NULL’ to the underlying C API.

     The 'family', 'type' and 'proto' arguments can be optionally
     specified in order to narrow the list of addresses returned.
     Passing zero as a value for each of these arguments selects the
     full range of results.  The 'flags' argument can be one or several
     of the ‘AI_*’ constants, and will influence how results are
     computed and returned.  For example, ‘AI_NUMERICHOST’ will disable
     domain name resolution and will raise an error if 'host' is a
     domain name.

     The function returns a list of 5-tuples with the following
     structure:

     ‘(family, type, proto, canonname, sockaddr)’

     In these tuples, 'family', 'type', 'proto' are all integers and are
     meant to be passed to the *note socket(): c18. function.
     'canonname' will be a string representing the canonical name of the
     'host' if ‘AI_CANONNAME’ is part of the 'flags' argument; else
     'canonname' will be empty.  'sockaddr' is a tuple describing a
     socket address, whose format depends on the returned 'family' (a
     ‘(address, port)’ 2-tuple for *note AF_INET: 15ee, a ‘(address,
     port, flowinfo, scope_id)’ 4-tuple for *note AF_INET6: 15ef.), and
     is meant to be passed to the *note socket.connect(): c1a. method.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘host’、‘port’、‘family’、‘type’、‘protocol’ 的
     *note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘socket.getaddrinfo’。

     The following example fetches address information for a
     hypothetical TCP connection to ‘example.org’ on port 80 (results
     may differ on your system if IPv6 isn't enabled):

          >>> socket.getaddrinfo("example.org", 80, proto=socket.IPPROTO_TCP)
          [(socket.AF_INET6, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
           6, '', ('2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946', 80, 0, 0)),
           (socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
           6, '', ('93.184.216.34', 80))]

     在 3.2 版的變更: parameters can now be passed using keyword
     arguments.

     在 3.7 版的變更: for IPv6 multicast addresses, string representing
     an address will not contain ‘%scope_id’ part.

 -- 函式: socket.getfqdn ([name])

     Return a fully qualified domain name for 'name'.  If 'name' is
     omitted or empty, it is interpreted as the local host.  To find the
     fully qualified name, the hostname returned by *note
     gethostbyaddr(): 16a2. is checked, followed by aliases for the
     host, if available.  The first name which includes a period is
     selected.  In case no fully qualified domain name is available and
     'name' was provided, it is returned unchanged.  If 'name' was empty
     or equal to ‘'0.0.0.0'’, the hostname from *note gethostname():
     28a4. is returned.

 -- 函式: socket.gethostbyname (hostname)

     Translate a host name to IPv4 address format.  The IPv4 address is
     returned as a string, such as ‘'100.50.200.5'’.  If the host name
     is an IPv4 address itself it is returned unchanged.  See *note
     gethostbyname_ex(): 16a3. for a more complete interface.  *note
     gethostbyname(): 3113. does not support IPv6 name resolution, and
     *note getaddrinfo(): 1518. should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual
     stack support.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘hostname’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.gethostbyname’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 函式: socket.gethostbyname_ex (hostname)

     Translate a host name to IPv4 address format, extended interface.
     Return a 3-tuple ‘(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)’ where
     'hostname' is the host's primary host name, 'aliaslist' is a
     (possibly empty) list of alternative host names for the same
     address, and 'ipaddrlist' is a list of IPv4 addresses for the same
     interface on the same host (often but not always a single address).
     *note gethostbyname_ex(): 16a3. does not support IPv6 name
     resolution, and *note getaddrinfo(): 1518. should be used instead
     for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘hostname’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.gethostbyname’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 函式: socket.gethostname ()

     Return a string containing the hostname of the machine where the
     Python interpreter is currently executing.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘socket.gethostname’。

     Note: *note gethostname(): 28a4. doesn't always return the fully
     qualified domain name; use *note getfqdn(): 1545. for that.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 函式: socket.gethostbyaddr (ip_address)

     Return a 3-tuple ‘(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)’ where
     'hostname' is the primary host name responding to the given
     'ip_address', 'aliaslist' is a (possibly empty) list of alternative
     host names for the same address, and 'ipaddrlist' is a list of
     IPv4/v6 addresses for the same interface on the same host (most
     likely containing only a single address).  To find the fully
     qualified domain name, use the function *note getfqdn(): 1545.
     *note gethostbyaddr(): 16a2. supports both IPv4 and IPv6.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘ip_address’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.gethostbyaddr’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 函式: socket.getnameinfo (sockaddr, flags)

     Translate a socket address 'sockaddr' into a 2-tuple ‘(host,
     port)’.  Depending on the settings of 'flags', the result can
     contain a fully qualified domain name or numeric address
     representation in 'host'.  Similarly, 'port' can contain a string
     port name or a numeric port number.

     For IPv6 addresses, ‘%scope_id’ is appended to the host part if
     'sockaddr' contains meaningful 'scope_id'.  Usually this happens
     for multicast addresses.

     For more information about 'flags' you can consult
     ‘getnameinfo(3)(1)’.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘sockaddr’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.getnameinfo’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 函式: socket.getprotobyname (protocolname)

     Translate an internet protocol name (for example, ‘'icmp'’) to a
     constant suitable for passing as the (optional) third argument to
     the *note socket(): c18. function.  This is usually only needed for
     sockets opened in "raw" mode (*note SOCK_RAW: 30e1.); for the
     normal socket modes, the correct protocol is chosen automatically
     if the protocol is omitted or zero.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 函式: socket.getservbyname (servicename[, protocolname])

     Translate an internet service name and protocol name to a port
     number for that service.  The optional protocol name, if given,
     should be ‘'tcp'’ or ‘'udp'’, otherwise any protocol will match.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘sockaddr’、‘protocolname’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.getservbyname’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 函式: socket.getservbyport (port[, protocolname])

     Translate an internet port number and protocol name to a service
     name for that service.  The optional protocol name, if given,
     should be ‘'tcp'’ or ‘'udp'’, otherwise any protocol will match.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘port’、‘protocolname’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.getservbyport’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 函式: socket.ntohl (x)

     Convert 32-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap
     operation.

 -- 函式: socket.ntohs (x)

     Convert 16-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap
     operation.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Raises *note OverflowError: 6ad. if 'x' does not
     fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

 -- 函式: socket.htonl (x)

     Convert 32-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap
     operation.

 -- 函式: socket.htons (x)

     Convert 16-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap
     operation.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Raises *note OverflowError: 6ad. if 'x' does not
     fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

 -- 函式: socket.inet_aton (ip_string)

     Convert an IPv4 address from dotted-quad string format (for
     example, '123.45.67.89') to 32-bit packed binary format, as a bytes
     object four characters in length.  This is useful when conversing
     with a program that uses the standard C library and needs objects
     of type ‘in_addr’, which is the C type for the 32-bit packed binary
     this function returns.

     *note inet_aton(): 7a2. also accepts strings with less than three
     dots; see the Unix manual page ‘inet(3)(2)’ for details.

     If the IPv4 address string passed to this function is invalid,
     *note OSError: 644. will be raised.  Note that exactly what is
     valid depends on the underlying C implementation of ‘inet_aton()’.

     *note inet_aton(): 7a2. does not support IPv6, and *note
     inet_pton(): 7a3. should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack
     support.

 -- 函式: socket.inet_ntoa (packed_ip)

     Convert a 32-bit packed IPv4 address (a *note bytes-like object:
     b9f. four bytes in length) to its standard dotted-quad string
     representation (for example, '123.45.67.89').  This is useful when
     conversing with a program that uses the standard C library and
     needs objects of type ‘in_addr’, which is the C type for the 32-bit
     packed binary data this function takes as an argument.

     If the byte sequence passed to this function is not exactly 4 bytes
     in length, *note OSError: 644. will be raised.  *note inet_ntoa():
     3119. does not support IPv6, and *note inet_ntop(): e31. should be
     used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Writable *note bytes-like object: b9f. is now
     accepted.

 -- 函式: socket.inet_pton (address_family, ip_string)

     Convert an IP address from its family-specific string format to a
     packed, binary format.  *note inet_pton(): 7a3. is useful when a
     library or network protocol calls for an object of type ‘in_addr’
     (similar to *note inet_aton(): 7a2.) or ‘in6_addr’.

     Supported values for 'address_family' are currently *note AF_INET:
     15ee. and *note AF_INET6: 15ef.  If the IP address string
     'ip_string' is invalid, *note OSError: 644. will be raised.  Note
     that exactly what is valid depends on both the value of
     'address_family' and the underlying implementation of
     ‘inet_pton()’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Windows support added

 -- 函式: socket.inet_ntop (address_family, packed_ip)

     Convert a packed IP address (a *note bytes-like object: b9f. of
     some number of bytes) to its standard, family-specific string
     representation (for example, ‘'7.10.0.5'’ or ‘'5aef:2b::8'’).
     *note inet_ntop(): e31. is useful when a library or network
     protocol returns an object of type ‘in_addr’ (similar to *note
     inet_ntoa(): 3119.) or ‘in6_addr’.

     Supported values for 'address_family' are currently *note AF_INET:
     15ee. and *note AF_INET6: 15ef.  If the bytes object 'packed_ip' is
     not the correct length for the specified address family, *note
     ValueError: 183. will be raised.  *note OSError: 644. is raised for
     errors from the call to *note inet_ntop(): e31.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Windows support added

     在 3.5 版的變更: Writable *note bytes-like object: b9f. is now
     accepted.

 -- 函式: socket.CMSG_LEN (length)

     Return the total length, without trailing padding, of an ancillary
     data item with associated data of the given 'length'.  This value
     can often be used as the buffer size for *note recvmsg(): c1d. to
     receive a single item of ancillary data, but RFC 3542(3) requires
     portable applications to use *note CMSG_SPACE(): 181d. and thus
     include space for padding, even when the item will be the last in
     the buffer.  Raises *note OverflowError: 6ad. if 'length' is
     outside the permissible range of values.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Most Unix platforms.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: socket.CMSG_SPACE (length)

     Return the buffer size needed for *note recvmsg(): c1d. to receive
     an ancillary data item with associated data of the given 'length',
     along with any trailing padding.  The buffer space needed to
     receive multiple items is the sum of the *note CMSG_SPACE(): 181d.
     values for their associated data lengths.  Raises *note
     OverflowError: 6ad. if 'length' is outside the permissible range of
     values.

     Note that some systems might support ancillary data without
     providing this function.  Also note that setting the buffer size
     using the results of this function may not precisely limit the
     amount of ancillary data that can be received, since additional
     data may be able to fit into the padding area.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     most Unix platforms.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: socket.getdefaulttimeout ()

     Return the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket
     objects.  A value of ‘None’ indicates that new socket objects have
     no timeout.  When the socket module is first imported, the default
     is ‘None’.

 -- 函式: socket.setdefaulttimeout (timeout)

     Set the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket objects.
     When the socket module is first imported, the default is ‘None’.
     See *note settimeout(): 30db. for possible values and their
     respective meanings.

 -- 函式: socket.sethostname (name)

     Set the machine's hostname to 'name'.  This will raise an *note
     OSError: 644. if you don't have enough rights.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘name’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.sethostname’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: socket.if_nameindex ()

     Return a list of network interface information (index int, name
     string) tuples.  *note OSError: 644. if the system call fails.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 增加對 Windows 的支援。

          備註: On Windows network interfaces have different names in
          different contexts (all names are examples):

             * UUID: ‘{FB605B73-AAC2-49A6-9A2F-25416AEA0573}’

             * name: ‘ethernet_32770’

             * friendly name: ‘vEthernet (nat)’

             * description: ‘Hyper-V Virtual Ethernet Adapter’

          This function returns names of the second form from the list,
          ‘ethernet_32770’ in this example case.

 -- 函式: socket.if_nametoindex (if_name)

     Return a network interface index number corresponding to an
     interface name.  *note OSError: 644. if no interface with the given
     name exists.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 增加對 Windows 的支援。

     也參考
     ......

     "Interface name" is a name as documented in *note if_nameindex():
     876.

 -- 函式: socket.if_indextoname (if_index)

     Return a network interface name corresponding to an interface index
     number.  *note OSError: 644. if no interface with the given index
     exists.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 增加對 Windows 的支援。

     也參考
     ......

     "Interface name" is a name as documented in *note if_nameindex():
     876.

 -- 函式: socket.send_fds (sock, buffers, fds[, flags[, address]])

     Send the list of file descriptors 'fds' over an *note AF_UNIX:
     15f0. socket 'sock'.  The 'fds' parameter is a sequence of file
     descriptors.  Consult *note sendmsg(): 191. for the documentation
     of these parameters.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Unix platforms supporting *note sendmsg(): 191. and ‘SCM_RIGHTS’
     mechanism.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: socket.recv_fds (sock, bufsize, maxfds[, flags])

     Receive up to 'maxfds' file descriptors from an *note AF_UNIX:
     15f0. socket 'sock'.  Return ‘(msg, list(fds), flags, addr)’.
     Consult *note recvmsg(): c1d. for the documentation of these
     parameters.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Unix platforms supporting *note sendmsg(): 191. and ‘SCM_RIGHTS’
     mechanism.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

          備註: Any truncated integers at the end of the list of file
          descriptors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getnameinfo(3)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/inet(3)

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3542.html


File: python.info,  Node: Socket 物件,  Next: Notes on socket timeouts,  Prev: 模組內容<4>,  Up: socket --- 低階網路介面

5.18.2.8 Socket 物件
....................

Socket objects have the following methods.  Except for *note makefile():
1031, these correspond to Unix system calls applicable to sockets.

在 3.2 版的變更: Support for the *note context manager: 3c4. protocol
was added.  Exiting the context manager is equivalent to calling *note
close(): 9d0.

 -- 方法: socket.accept ()

     Accept a connection.  The socket must be bound to an address and
     listening for connections.  The return value is a pair ‘(conn,
     address)’ where 'conn' is a 'new' socket object usable to send and
     receive data on the connection, and 'address' is the address bound
     to the socket on the other end of the connection.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The socket is now non-inheritable.

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(1) for the rationale).

 -- 方法: socket.bind (address)

     Bind the socket to 'address'.  The socket must not already be
     bound.  (The format of 'address' depends on the address family --
     see above.)

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘address’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.bind’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 方法: socket.close ()

     Mark the socket closed.  The underlying system resource (e.g.  a
     file descriptor) is also closed when all file objects from *note
     makefile(): 1031. are closed.  Once that happens, all future
     operations on the socket object will fail.  The remote end will
     receive no more data (after queued data is flushed).

     Sockets are automatically closed when they are garbage-collected,
     but it is recommended to *note close(): 9d0. them explicitly, or to
     use a *note with: 3c5. statement around them.

     在 3.6 版的變更: *note OSError: 644. is now raised if an error
     occurs when the underlying ‘close()’ call is made.

          備註: *note close(): 9d0. releases the resource associated
          with a connection but does not necessarily close the
          connection immediately.  If you want to close the connection
          in a timely fashion, call *note shutdown(): 310b. before *note
          close(): 9d0.

 -- 方法: socket.connect (address)

     Connect to a remote socket at 'address'.  (The format of 'address'
     depends on the address family -- see above.)

     If the connection is interrupted by a signal, the method waits
     until the connection completes, or raise a *note TimeoutError: 65b.
     on timeout, if the signal handler doesn't raise an exception and
     the socket is blocking or has a timeout.  For non-blocking sockets,
     the method raises an *note InterruptedError: bfe. exception if the
     connection is interrupted by a signal (or the exception raised by
     the signal handler).

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘address’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.connect’。

     在 3.5 版的變更: The method now waits until the connection
     completes instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception if the connection is interrupted by a signal, the signal
     handler doesn't raise an exception and the socket is blocking or
     has a timeout (see the PEP 475(2) for the rationale).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 方法: socket.connect_ex (address)

     Like ‘connect(address)’, but return an error indicator instead of
     raising an exception for errors returned by the C-level ‘connect()’
     call (other problems, such as "host not found," can still raise
     exceptions).  The error indicator is ‘0’ if the operation
     succeeded, otherwise the value of the ‘errno’ variable.  This is
     useful to support, for example, asynchronous connects.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘address’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.connect’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 方法: socket.detach ()

     Put the socket object into closed state without actually closing
     the underlying file descriptor.  The file descriptor is returned,
     and can be reused for other purposes.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 方法: socket.dup ()

     Duplicate the socket.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The socket is now non-inheritable.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 方法: socket.fileno ()

     Return the socket's file descriptor (a small integer), or -1 on
     failure.  This is useful with *note select.select(): c17.

     Under Windows the small integer returned by this method cannot be
     used where a file descriptor can be used (such as *note
     os.fdopen(): 1cc4.).  Unix does not have this limitation.

 -- 方法: socket.get_inheritable ()

     Get the *note inheritable flag: d7d. of the socket's file
     descriptor or socket's handle: ‘True’ if the socket can be
     inherited in child processes, ‘False’ if it cannot.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 方法: socket.getpeername ()

     Return the remote address to which the socket is connected.  This
     is useful to find out the port number of a remote IPv4/v6 socket,
     for instance.  (The format of the address returned depends on the
     address family -- see above.)  On some systems this function is not
     supported.

 -- 方法: socket.getsockname ()

     Return the socket's own address.  This is useful to find out the
     port number of an IPv4/v6 socket, for instance.  (The format of the
     address returned depends on the address family -- see above.)

 -- 方法: socket.getsockopt (level, optname[, buflen])

     Return the value of the given socket option (see the Unix man page
     ‘getsockopt(2)(3)’).  The needed symbolic constants (*note SO_*
     etc.: 3020.) are defined in this module.  If 'buflen' is absent, an
     integer option is assumed and its integer value is returned by the
     function.  If 'buflen' is present, it specifies the maximum length
     of the buffer used to receive the option in, and this buffer is
     returned as a bytes object.  It is up to the caller to decode the
     contents of the buffer (see the optional built-in module *note
     struct: cf. for a way to decode C structures encoded as byte
     strings).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 方法: socket.getblocking ()

     Return ‘True’ if socket is in blocking mode, ‘False’ if in
     non-blocking.

     這等同於檢查 ‘socket.gettimeout() != 0’。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 方法: socket.gettimeout ()

     Return the timeout in seconds (float) associated with socket
     operations, or ‘None’ if no timeout is set.  This reflects the last
     call to *note setblocking(): 28bb. or *note settimeout(): 30db.

 -- 方法: socket.ioctl (control, option)


     平台: Windows

     The *note ioctl(): b40. method is a limited interface to the
     WSAIoctl system interface.  Please refer to the Win32
     documentation(4) for more information.

     On other platforms, the generic *note fcntl.fcntl(): 311e. and
     *note fcntl.ioctl(): 12eb. functions may be used; they accept a
     socket object as their first argument.

     Currently only the following control codes are supported:
     ‘SIO_RCVALL’, ‘SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS’, and ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 加入 ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’。

 -- 方法: socket.listen ([backlog])

     Enable a server to accept connections.  If 'backlog' is specified,
     it must be at least 0 (if it is lower, it is set to 0); it
     specifies the number of unaccepted connections that the system will
     allow before refusing new connections.  If not specified, a default
     reasonable value is chosen.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The 'backlog' parameter is now optional.

 -- 方法: socket.makefile (mode='r', buffering=None, *, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None)

     Return a *note file object: 1054. associated with the socket.  The
     exact returned type depends on the arguments given to *note
     makefile(): 1031.  These arguments are interpreted the same way as
     by the built-in *note open(): 29c. function, except the only
     supported 'mode' values are ‘'r'’ (default), ‘'w'’, ‘'b'’, or a
     combination of those.

     The socket must be in blocking mode; it can have a timeout, but the
     file object's internal buffer may end up in an inconsistent state
     if a timeout occurs.

     Closing the file object returned by *note makefile(): 1031. won't
     close the original socket unless all other file objects have been
     closed and *note socket.close(): 9d0. has been called on the socket
     object.

          備註: On Windows, the file-like object created by *note
          makefile(): 1031. cannot be used where a file object with a
          file descriptor is expected, such as the stream arguments of
          *note subprocess.Popen(): 8e1.

 -- 方法: socket.recv (bufsize[, flags])

     Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a bytes object
     representing the data received.  The maximum amount of data to be
     received at once is specified by 'bufsize'.  A returned empty bytes
     object indicates that the client has disconnected.  See the Unix
     manual page ‘recv(2)(5)’ for the meaning of the optional argument
     'flags'; it defaults to zero.

          備註: For best match with hardware and network realities, the
          value of 'bufsize' should be a relatively small power of 2,
          for example, 4096.

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(6) for the rationale).

 -- 方法: socket.recvfrom (bufsize[, flags])

     Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a pair ‘(bytes,
     address)’ where 'bytes' is a bytes object representing the data
     received and 'address' is the address of the socket sending the
     data.  See the Unix manual page ‘recv(2)(7)’ for the meaning of the
     optional argument 'flags'; it defaults to zero.  (The format of
     'address' depends on the address family -- see above.)

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(8) for the rationale).

     在 3.7 版的變更: For multicast IPv6 address, first item of
     'address' does not contain ‘%scope_id’ part anymore.  In order to
     get full IPv6 address use *note getnameinfo(): 14e1.

 -- 方法: socket.recvmsg (bufsize[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

     Receive normal data (up to 'bufsize' bytes) and ancillary data from
     the socket.  The 'ancbufsize' argument sets the size in bytes of
     the internal buffer used to receive the ancillary data; it defaults
     to 0, meaning that no ancillary data will be received.  Appropriate
     buffer sizes for ancillary data can be calculated using *note
     CMSG_SPACE(): 181d. or *note CMSG_LEN(): 181e, and items which do
     not fit into the buffer might be truncated or discarded.  The
     'flags' argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): c1b.

     The return value is a 4-tuple: ‘(data, ancdata, msg_flags,
     address)’.  The 'data' item is a *note bytes: 2c1. object holding
     the non-ancillary data received.  The 'ancdata' item is a list of
     zero or more tuples ‘(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)’
     representing the ancillary data (control messages) received:
     'cmsg_level' and 'cmsg_type' are integers specifying the protocol
     level and protocol-specific type respectively, and 'cmsg_data' is a
     *note bytes: 2c1. object holding the associated data.  The
     'msg_flags' item is the bitwise OR of various flags indicating
     conditions on the received message; see your system documentation
     for details.  If the receiving socket is unconnected, 'address' is
     the address of the sending socket, if available; otherwise, its
     value is unspecified.

     On some systems, *note sendmsg(): 191. and *note recvmsg(): c1d.
     can be used to pass file descriptors between processes over an
     *note AF_UNIX: 15f0. socket.  When this facility is used (it is
     often restricted to *note SOCK_STREAM: 1184. sockets), *note
     recvmsg(): c1d. will return, in its ancillary data, items of the
     form ‘(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, fds)’, where 'fds' is
     a *note bytes: 2c1. object representing the new file descriptors as
     a binary array of the native C int type.  If *note recvmsg(): c1d.
     raises an exception after the system call returns, it will first
     attempt to close any file descriptors received via this mechanism.

     Some systems do not indicate the truncated length of ancillary data
     items which have been only partially received.  If an item appears
     to extend beyond the end of the buffer, *note recvmsg(): c1d. will
     issue a *note RuntimeWarning: 8e7, and will return the part of it
     which is inside the buffer provided it has not been truncated
     before the start of its associated data.

     On systems which support the ‘SCM_RIGHTS’ mechanism, the following
     function will receive up to 'maxfds' file descriptors, returning
     the message data and a list containing the descriptors (while
     ignoring unexpected conditions such as unrelated control messages
     being received).  See also *note sendmsg(): 191.

          import socket, array

          def recv_fds(sock, msglen, maxfds):
              fds = array.array("i")   # Array of ints
              msg, ancdata, flags, addr = sock.recvmsg(msglen, socket.CMSG_LEN(maxfds * fds.itemsize))
              for cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data in ancdata:
                  if cmsg_level == socket.SOL_SOCKET and cmsg_type == socket.SCM_RIGHTS:
                      # Append data, ignoring any truncated integers at the end.
                      fds.frombytes(cmsg_data[:len(cmsg_data) - (len(cmsg_data) % fds.itemsize)])
              return msg, list(fds)

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     Most Unix platforms.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(9) for the rationale).

 -- 方法: socket.recvmsg_into (buffers[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

     Receive normal data and ancillary data from the socket, behaving as
     *note recvmsg(): c1d. would, but scatter the non-ancillary data
     into a series of buffers instead of returning a new bytes object.
     The 'buffers' argument must be an iterable of objects that export
     writable buffers (e.g.  *note bytearray: 2c0. objects); these will
     be filled with successive chunks of the non-ancillary data until it
     has all been written or there are no more buffers.  The operating
     system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 28e2. value ‘SC_IOV_MAX’)
     on the number of buffers that can be used.  The 'ancbufsize' and
     'flags' arguments have the same meaning as for *note recvmsg():
     c1d.

     The return value is a 4-tuple: ‘(nbytes, ancdata, msg_flags,
     address)’, where 'nbytes' is the total number of bytes of
     non-ancillary data written into the buffers, and 'ancdata',
     'msg_flags' and 'address' are the same as for *note recvmsg(): c1d.

     範例：

          >>> import socket
          >>> s1, s2 = socket.socketpair()
          >>> b1 = bytearray(b'----')
          >>> b2 = bytearray(b'0123456789')
          >>> b3 = bytearray(b'--------------')
          >>> s1.send(b'Mary had a little lamb')
          22
          >>> s2.recvmsg_into([b1, memoryview(b2)[2:9], b3])
          (22, [], 0, None)
          >>> [b1, b2, b3]
          [bytearray(b'Mary'), bytearray(b'01 had a 9'), bytearray(b'little lamb---')]

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     Most Unix platforms.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 方法: socket.recvfrom_into (buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

     Receive data from the socket, writing it into 'buffer' instead of
     creating a new bytestring.  The return value is a pair ‘(nbytes,
     address)’ where 'nbytes' is the number of bytes received and
     'address' is the address of the socket sending the data.  See the
     Unix manual page ‘recv(2)(10)’ for the meaning of the optional
     argument 'flags'; it defaults to zero.  (The format of 'address'
     depends on the address family -- see above.)

 -- 方法: socket.recv_into (buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

     Receive up to 'nbytes' bytes from the socket, storing the data into
     a buffer rather than creating a new bytestring.  If 'nbytes' is not
     specified (or 0), receive up to the size available in the given
     buffer.  Returns the number of bytes received.  See the Unix manual
     page ‘recv(2)(11)’ for the meaning of the optional argument
     'flags'; it defaults to zero.

 -- 方法: socket.send (bytes[, flags])

     Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote
     socket.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): c1b. above.  Returns the number of bytes sent.
     Applications are responsible for checking that all data has been
     sent; if only some of the data was transmitted, the application
     needs to attempt delivery of the remaining data.  For further
     information on this topic, consult the *note Socket 程式設計指南:
     311f.

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(12) for the rationale).

 -- 方法: socket.sendall (bytes[, flags])

     Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote
     socket.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): c1b. above.  Unlike *note send(): c1e, this method
     continues to send data from 'bytes' until either all data has been
     sent or an error occurs.  ‘None’ is returned on success.  On error,
     an exception is raised, and there is no way to determine how much
     data, if any, was successfully sent.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time
     data is sent successfully.  The socket timeout is now the maximum
     total duration to send all data.

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(13) for the rationale).

 -- 方法: socket.sendto (bytes, address)

 -- 方法: socket.sendto (bytes, flags, address)

     Send data to the socket.  The socket should not be connected to a
     remote socket, since the destination socket is specified by
     'address'.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as
     for *note recv(): c1b. above.  Return the number of bytes sent.
     (The format of 'address' depends on the address family -- see
     above.)

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘address’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.sendto’。

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(14) for the rationale).

 -- 方法: socket.sendmsg (buffers[, ancdata[, flags[, address]]])

     Send normal and ancillary data to the socket, gathering the
     non-ancillary data from a series of buffers and concatenating it
     into a single message.  The 'buffers' argument specifies the
     non-ancillary data as an iterable of *note bytes-like objects: b9f.
     (e.g.  *note bytes: 2c1. objects); the operating system may set a
     limit (*note sysconf(): 28e2. value ‘SC_IOV_MAX’) on the number of
     buffers that can be used.  The 'ancdata' argument specifies the
     ancillary data (control messages) as an iterable of zero or more
     tuples ‘(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)’, where 'cmsg_level' and
     'cmsg_type' are integers specifying the protocol level and
     protocol-specific type respectively, and 'cmsg_data' is a
     bytes-like object holding the associated data.  Note that some
     systems (in particular, systems without *note CMSG_SPACE(): 181d.)
     might support sending only one control message per call.  The
     'flags' argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
     *note send(): c1e.  If 'address' is supplied and not ‘None’, it
     sets a destination address for the message.  The return value is
     the number of bytes of non-ancillary data sent.

     The following function sends the list of file descriptors 'fds'
     over an *note AF_UNIX: 15f0. socket, on systems which support the
     ‘SCM_RIGHTS’ mechanism.  See also *note recvmsg(): c1d.

          import socket, array

          def send_fds(sock, msg, fds):
              return sock.sendmsg([msg], [(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, array.array("i", fds))])

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not WASI.

     Most Unix platforms.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘address’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘socket.sendmsg’。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版的變更: If the system call is interrupted and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries the
     system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: bfe.
     exception (see PEP 475(15) for the rationale).

 -- 方法: socket.sendmsg_afalg ([msg], *, op[, iv[, assoclen[, flags]]])

     Specialized version of *note sendmsg(): 191. for *note AF_ALG: b44.
     socket.  Set mode, IV, AEAD associated data length and flags for
     *note AF_ALG: b44. socket.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 方法: socket.sendfile (file, offset=0, count=None)

     Send a file until EOF is reached by using high-performance *note
     os.sendfile: 964. and return the total number of bytes which were
     sent.  'file' must be a regular file object opened in binary mode.
     If *note os.sendfile: 964. is not available (e.g.  Windows) or
     'file' is not a regular file *note send(): c1e. will be used
     instead.  'offset' tells from where to start reading the file.  If
     specified, 'count' is the total number of bytes to transmit as
     opposed to sending the file until EOF is reached.  File position is
     updated on return or also in case of error in which case *note
     file.tell(): 2728. can be used to figure out the number of bytes
     which were sent.  The socket must be of *note SOCK_STREAM: 1184.
     type.  Non-blocking sockets are not supported.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 方法: socket.set_inheritable (inheritable)

     Set the *note inheritable flag: d7d. of the socket's file
     descriptor or socket's handle.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 方法: socket.setblocking (flag)

     Set blocking or non-blocking mode of the socket: if 'flag' is
     false, the socket is set to non-blocking, else to blocking mode.

     This method is a shorthand for certain *note settimeout(): 30db.
     calls:

        * ‘sock.setblocking(True)’ 等價於 ‘sock.settimeout(None)’

        * ‘sock.setblocking(False)’ 等價於 ‘sock.settimeout(0.0)’

     在 3.7 版的變更: The method no longer applies *note SOCK_NONBLOCK:
     a6d. flag on *note socket.type: a6f.

 -- 方法: socket.settimeout (value)

     Set a timeout on blocking socket operations.  The 'value' argument
     can be a nonnegative floating-point number expressing seconds, or
     ‘None’.  If a non-zero value is given, subsequent socket operations
     will raise a *note timeout: 65a. exception if the timeout period
     'value' has elapsed before the operation has completed.  If zero is
     given, the socket is put in non-blocking mode.  If ‘None’ is given,
     the socket is put in blocking mode.

     For further information, please consult the *note notes on socket
     timeouts: 3120.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The method no longer toggles *note SOCK_NONBLOCK:
     a6d. flag on *note socket.type: a6f.

 -- 方法: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, value: int)

 -- 方法: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, value: buffer)

 -- 方法: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, None, optlen: int)

     Set the value of the given socket option (see the Unix manual page
     ‘setsockopt(2)(16)’).  The needed symbolic constants are defined in
     this module (SO_* etc.  <socket-unix-constants>).  The value can be
     an integer, ‘None’ or a *note bytes-like object: b9f. representing
     a buffer.  In the later case it is up to the caller to ensure that
     the bytestring contains the proper bits (see the optional built-in
     module *note struct: cf. for a way to encode C structures as
     bytestrings).  When 'value' is set to ‘None’, 'optlen' argument is
     required.  It's equivalent to call ‘setsockopt()’ C function with
     ‘optval=NULL’ and ‘optlen=optlen’.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Writable *note bytes-like object: b9f. is now
     accepted.

     在 3.6 版的變更: setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int) form
     added.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 方法: socket.shutdown (how)

     Shut down one or both halves of the connection.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_RD: 3108, further receives are disallowed.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_WR: 3109, further sends are disallowed.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_RDWR: 310a, further sends and receives are disallowed.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not WASI.

 -- 方法: socket.share (process_id)

     Duplicate a socket and prepare it for sharing with a target
     process.  The target process must be provided with 'process_id'.
     The resulting bytes object can then be passed to the target process
     using some form of interprocess communication and the socket can be
     recreated there using *note fromshare(): a6a.  Once this method has
     been called, it is safe to close the socket since the operating
     system has already duplicated it for the target process.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

Note that there are no methods ‘read()’ or ‘write()’; use *note recv():
c1b. and *note send(): c1e. without 'flags' argument instead.

Socket objects also have these (read-only) attributes that correspond to
the values given to the *note socket: c18. constructor.

 -- 屬性: socket.family

     The socket family.

 -- 屬性: socket.type

     The socket type.

 -- 屬性: socket.proto

     The socket protocol.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/getsockopt(2)

   (4) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (10) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/setsockopt(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Notes on socket timeouts,  Next: 範例<24>,  Prev: Socket 物件,  Up: socket --- 低階網路介面

5.18.2.9 Notes on socket timeouts
.................................

A socket object can be in one of three modes: blocking, non-blocking, or
timeout.  Sockets are by default always created in blocking mode, but
this can be changed by calling *note setdefaulttimeout(): 30df.

   * In 'blocking mode', operations block until complete or the system
     returns an error (such as connection timed out).

   * In 'non-blocking mode', operations fail (with an error that is
     unfortunately system-dependent) if they cannot be completed
     immediately: functions from the *note select: bc. module can be
     used to know when and whether a socket is available for reading or
     writing.

   * In 'timeout mode', operations fail if they cannot be completed
     within the timeout specified for the socket (they raise a *note
     timeout: 65a. exception) or if the system returns an error.

     備註: At the operating system level, sockets in 'timeout mode' are
     internally set in non-blocking mode.  Also, the blocking and
     timeout modes are shared between file descriptors and socket
     objects that refer to the same network endpoint.  This
     implementation detail can have visible consequences if e.g.  you
     decide to use the *note fileno(): 311c. of a socket.

* Menu:

* Timeouts and the connect method::
* Timeouts and the accept method::


File: python.info,  Node: Timeouts and the connect method,  Next: Timeouts and the accept method,  Up: Notes on socket timeouts

5.18.2.10 Timeouts and the ‘connect’ method
...........................................

The *note connect(): c1a. operation is also subject to the timeout
setting, and in general it is recommended to call *note settimeout():
30db. before calling *note connect(): c1a. or pass a timeout parameter
to *note create_connection(): 46d.  However, the system network stack
may also return a connection timeout error of its own regardless of any
Python socket timeout setting.


File: python.info,  Node: Timeouts and the accept method,  Prev: Timeouts and the connect method,  Up: Notes on socket timeouts

5.18.2.11 Timeouts and the ‘accept’ method
..........................................

If *note getdefaulttimeout(): 3110. is not *note None: 470, sockets
returned by the *note accept(): c19. method inherit that timeout.
Otherwise, the behaviour depends on settings of the listening socket:

   * if the listening socket is in 'blocking mode' or in 'timeout mode',
     the socket returned by *note accept(): c19. is in 'blocking mode';

   * if the listening socket is in 'non-blocking mode', whether the
     socket returned by *note accept(): c19. is in blocking or
     non-blocking mode is operating system-dependent.  If you want to
     ensure cross-platform behaviour, it is recommended you manually
     override this setting.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<24>,  Prev: Notes on socket timeouts,  Up: socket --- 低階網路介面

5.18.2.12 範例
..............

Here are four minimal example programs using the TCP/IP protocol: a
server that echoes all data that it receives back (servicing only one
client), and a client using it.  Note that a server must perform the
sequence *note socket(): c18, *note bind(): 13b1, *note listen(): cdc,
*note accept(): c19. (possibly repeating the *note accept(): c19. to
service more than one client), while a client only needs the sequence
*note socket(): c18, *note connect(): c1a.  Also note that the server
does not *note sendall(): c1f./*note recv(): c1b. on the socket it is
listening on but on the new socket returned by *note accept(): c19.

前兩個範例只支援 IPv4：

     # Echo server program
     import socket

     HOST = ''                 # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
     PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
         s.bind((HOST, PORT))
         s.listen(1)
         conn, addr = s.accept()
         with conn:
             print('Connected by', addr)
             while True:
                 data = conn.recv(1024)
                 if not data: break
                 conn.sendall(data)

     # Echo client program
     import socket

     HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
     PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
         s.connect((HOST, PORT))
         s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
         data = s.recv(1024)
     print('Received', repr(data))

The next two examples are identical to the above two, but support both
IPv4 and IPv6.  The server side will listen to the first address family
available (it should listen to both instead).  On most of IPv6-ready
systems, IPv6 will take precedence and the server may not accept IPv4
traffic.  The client side will try to connect to all the addresses
returned as a result of the name resolution, and sends traffic to the
first one connected successfully.

     # Echo server program
     import socket
     import sys

     HOST = None               # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
     PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
     s = None
     for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC,
                                   socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0, socket.AI_PASSIVE):
         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
         try:
             s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
         except OSError as msg:
             s = None
             continue
         try:
             s.bind(sa)
             s.listen(1)
         except OSError as msg:
             s.close()
             s = None
             continue
         break
     if s is None:
         print('could not open socket')
         sys.exit(1)
     conn, addr = s.accept()
     with conn:
         print('Connected by', addr)
         while True:
             data = conn.recv(1024)
             if not data: break
             conn.send(data)

     # Echo client program
     import socket
     import sys

     HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
     PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
     s = None
     for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC, socket.SOCK_STREAM):
         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
         try:
             s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
         except OSError as msg:
             s = None
             continue
         try:
             s.connect(sa)
         except OSError as msg:
             s.close()
             s = None
             continue
         break
     if s is None:
         print('could not open socket')
         sys.exit(1)
     with s:
         s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
         data = s.recv(1024)
     print('Received', repr(data))

The next example shows how to write a very simple network sniffer with
raw sockets on Windows.  The example requires administrator privileges
to modify the interface:

     import socket

     # the public network interface
     HOST = socket.gethostbyname(socket.gethostname())

     # create a raw socket and bind it to the public interface
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.IPPROTO_IP)
     s.bind((HOST, 0))

     # Include IP headers
     s.setsockopt(socket.IPPROTO_IP, socket.IP_HDRINCL, 1)

     # receive all packets
     s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_ON)

     # receive a packet
     print(s.recvfrom(65565))

     # disabled promiscuous mode
     s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_OFF)

The next example shows how to use the socket interface to communicate to
a CAN network using the raw socket protocol.  To use CAN with the
broadcast manager protocol instead, open a socket with:

     socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_DGRAM, socket.CAN_BCM)

After binding (‘CAN_RAW’) or connecting (*note CAN_BCM: e2f.) the
socket, you can use the *note socket.send(): c1e. and *note
socket.recv(): c1b. operations (and their counterparts) on the socket
object as usual.

This last example might require special privileges:

     import socket
     import struct


     # CAN frame packing/unpacking (see 'struct can_frame' in <linux/can.h>)

     can_frame_fmt = "=IB3x8s"
     can_frame_size = struct.calcsize(can_frame_fmt)

     def build_can_frame(can_id, data):
         can_dlc = len(data)
         data = data.ljust(8, b'\x00')
         return struct.pack(can_frame_fmt, can_id, can_dlc, data)

     def dissect_can_frame(frame):
         can_id, can_dlc, data = struct.unpack(can_frame_fmt, frame)
         return (can_id, can_dlc, data[:can_dlc])


     # create a raw socket and bind it to the 'vcan0' interface
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.CAN_RAW)
     s.bind(('vcan0',))

     while True:
         cf, addr = s.recvfrom(can_frame_size)

         print('Received: can_id=%x, can_dlc=%x, data=%s' % dissect_can_frame(cf))

         try:
             s.send(cf)
         except OSError:
             print('Error sending CAN frame')

         try:
             s.send(build_can_frame(0x01, b'\x01\x02\x03'))
         except OSError:
             print('Error sending CAN frame')

Running an example several times with too small delay between
executions, could lead to this error:

     OSError: [Errno 98] Address already in use

This is because the previous execution has left the socket in a
‘TIME_WAIT’ state, and can't be immediately reused.

There is a *note socket: c6. flag to set, in order to prevent this,
‘socket.SO_REUSEADDR’:

     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     s.setsockopt(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SO_REUSEADDR, 1)
     s.bind((HOST, PORT))

the ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ flag tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
‘TIME_WAIT’ state, without waiting for its natural timeout to expire.

也參考
......

For an introduction to socket programming (in C), see the following
papers:

   - 'An Introductory 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial', by
     Stuart Sechrest

   - 'An Advanced 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial', by Samuel
     J. Leffler et al,

both in the UNIX Programmer's Manual, Supplementary Documents 1
(sections PS1:7 and PS1:8).  The platform-specific reference material
for the various socket-related system calls are also a valuable source
of information on the details of socket semantics.  For Unix, refer to
the manual pages; for Windows, see the WinSock (or Winsock 2)
specification.  For IPv6-ready APIs, readers may want to refer to RFC
3493(1) titled Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3493.html


File: python.info,  Node: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器,  Next: select --- 等待 I/O 完成,  Prev: socket --- 低階網路介面,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.3 ‘ssl’ -- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器
--------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/ssl.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組向客戶端及伺服器端提供了對於網路 socket 的傳輸層安全性協定（或稱
為「安全通訊協定 (Secure Sockets Layer)」）加密及身分驗證功能。這個模組
使用 OpenSSL 套件，它可以在所有的 Unix 系統、Windows、macOS、以及其他任
何可能的平台上使用，只要事先在該平台上安裝 OpenSSL。

     備註: 由於呼叫了作業系統的 socket APIs，有些行為會根據平台而有所不
     同。OpenSSL 的安裝版本也會對模組的運作產生影響。例如，OpenSSL 版本
     1.1.1 附帶 TLSv1.3。

     警告: 在使用此模組之前，請閱讀 *note Security considerations:
     301e.。如果不這樣做，可能會產生錯誤的安全性認知，因為 ssl 模組的預
     設設定未必適合你的應用程式。

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

這個章節記錄了 ‘ssl’ 模組的物件及函式；關於 TSL、SSL、以及憑證的更多資訊
，可以去參考此章節底部的「詳情」部分。

此模組提供了一個 *note ssl.SSLSocket: 723. 類別，它是從 *note
socket.socket: c18. 衍生出來的，並且提供類似 socket 的包裝器，讓使用 SSL
進行資料傳輸時，可以進行資料的加密及解密。它也提供了一些額外的方法，如
‘getpeercert()’，用於取得連結另一端的憑證，以及 ‘cipher()’，用於搜尋用於
安全連接的加密方法 (cipher)。

對於更複雜的應用程式，*note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. 類別有助於管理設定及認
證，然後可以透過 *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2a5. 方法建立的 SSL
socket 繼承這些設定和認證。

在 3.5.3 版的變更: 更新以支援與 OpenSSL 1.1.0 進行連結

在 3.6 版的變更: OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 及 1.0.1 版本已被棄用且不再支援。
在未來 ssl 模組將需要至少 OpenSSL 1.0.2 版本或 1.1.0 版本。

在 3.10 版的變更: PEP 644(2) 已經被實作。ssl 模組需要 OpenSSL 1.1.1 以上
的版本才能使用。

使用已經被棄用的常數或函式將會導致棄用警示。

* Menu:

* 函式、常數與例外::
* SSL Sockets::
* SSL Contexts::
* Certificates::
* 範例: 範例<25>.
* Notes on non-blocking sockets::
* Memory BIO Support: Memory BIO Support<2>.
* SSL session::
* Security considerations: Security considerations<2>.
* TLS 1.3: TLS 1 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ssl.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/


File: python.info,  Node: 函式、常數與例外,  Next: SSL Sockets,  Up: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器

5.18.3.1 函式、常數與例外
.........................

* Menu:

* Socket 建立::
* 語境建立::
* 例外: 例外<11>.
* 隨機產生::
* 認證處理::
* 常數: 常數<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Socket 建立,  Next: 語境建立,  Up: 函式、常數與例外

5.18.3.2 Socket 建立
....................

*note SSLSocket: 723. 實例必須使用 *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2a5.
方法來建立。輔助函式 *note create_default_context(): e36. 會回傳有安全預
設設定的新語境 (context)。

使用預設語境及 IPv4/IPv6 雙協定堆疊的客戶端 socket 範例：

     import socket
     import ssl

     hostname = 'www.python.org'
     context = ssl.create_default_context()

     with socket.create_connection((hostname, 443)) as sock:
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
             print(ssock.version())

使用自訂語境及 IPv4 的客戶端 socket範例：

     hostname = 'www.python.org'
     # PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT requires valid cert chain and hostname
     context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     context.load_verify_locations('path/to/cabundle.pem')

     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
             print(ssock.version())

在本地 IPv4 上監聽伺服器 socket 的範例：

     context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
     context.load_cert_chain('/path/to/certchain.pem', '/path/to/private.key')

     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
         sock.bind(('127.0.0.1', 8443))
         sock.listen(5)
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_side=True) as ssock:
             conn, addr = ssock.accept()
             ...


File: python.info,  Node: 語境建立,  Next: 例外<11>,  Prev: Socket 建立,  Up: 函式、常數與例外

5.18.3.3 語境建立
.................

一個可以幫忙建立出 *note SSLContext: 26f. 物件以用於一般目的的方便函式。

 -- 函式: ssl.create_default_context (purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH,
          cafile=None, capath=None, cadata=None)

     回傳一個新的 *note SSLContext: 26f. 物件，使用給定 'purpose' 的預設
     值。這些設定是由 *note ssl: ca. 選擇，通常比直接呼叫 *note
     SSLContext: 26f. 有更高的安全性。

     'cafile', 'capath', 'cadata' 是用來選擇用於憑證認證的 CA 憑證，就像
     *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d6f. 一樣。如果三個值都是
     *note None: 470.，此函式會自動選擇系統預設的 CA 憑證。

     這些設定包含：*note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 69c. 或 *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 69d.、*note OP_NO_SSLv2: 65f.、以及 *note
     OP_NO_SSLv3: 660.，使用高等加密套件但不包含 RC4 和未經身份驗證的加
     密套件。如果將 'purpose' 設定為 *note SERVER_AUTH: e41.，則會把
     *note verify_mode: 312d. 設為 *note CERT_REQUIRED: 312e. 並使用設定
     的 CA 憑證(當 'cafile'、'capath' 或 'cadata' 其中一個值有被設定時)
     或使用預設的 CA 憑證 *note SSLContext.load_default_certs(): e40. 。

     當系統有支援 *note keylog_filename: 312f. 並且有設定環境變數
     ‘SSLKEYLOGFILE’ 時 *note create_default_context(): e36. 會啟用密鑰
     日誌記錄 (logging)。

          備註: 協定、選項、加密方式和其它設定可以在不捨棄舊值的情況下直
          接更改成新的值，這些值代表了在相容性和安全性之間取得的合理平衡
          。

          如果你的應用程式需要特殊的設定，你應該要自行建立一個 *note
          SSLContext: 26f. 並自行調整設定。

          備註: 如果你發現某些舊的客戶端或伺服器常適用此函式建立的 *note
          SSLContext: 26f. 連線時，收到 "Protocol or cipher suite
          mismatch" 錯誤，這可能是因為他們的系統僅支援 SSL3.0，然而
          SSL3.0 已被此函式用 *note OP_NO_SSLv3: 660. 排除。目前廣泛認為
          SSL3.0 已經被完全破解(1)。如果你仍然希望在允許 SSL3.0 連線的情
          況下使用此函式，可以使用下面的方法：

               ctx = ssl.create_default_context(Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
               ctx.options &= ~ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.4.4 版的變更: 把 RC4 從預設加密方法字串中捨棄。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 把 ChaCha20/Poly1305 加入預設加密方法字串。

     把 3DES 從預設加密方法字串中捨棄。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 增加了 ‘SSLKEYLOGFILE’ 對密鑰日誌記錄 (logging) 的
     支援。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 當前語境使用 *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 69c. 協定
     或 *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 69d. 協定而非通用的 *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POODLE


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<11>,  Next: 隨機產生,  Prev: 語境建立,  Up: 函式、常數與例外

5.18.3.4 例外
.............

 -- 例外: ssl.SSLError

     引發由底層 SSL 實作（目前由 OpenSSL 函式庫提供）所引發的錯誤訊息。
     這表示在覆蓋底層網路連線的高階加密和身份驗證層中存在一些問題。這項
     錯誤是 *note OSError: 644. 的一個子型別。*note SSLError: 110e. 實例
     的錯誤程式代碼和訊息是由 OpenSSL 函式庫提供。

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note SSLError: 110e. 曾經是 *note socket.error:
     eeb. 的一個子型別。

      -- 屬性: library

          一個字串符號 (string mnemonic)，用來指定發生錯誤的 OpenSSL 子
          模組，如：‘SSL’、‘PEM’ 或 ‘X509’。可能值的範圍取決於 OpenSSL 的
          版本。

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: reason

          一個字串符號，用來指定發生錯誤的原因，如：
          ‘CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED’。可能值的範圍取決於 OpenSSL 的版本
          。

          在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 例外: ssl.SSLZeroReturnError

     一個 *note SSLError: 110e. 的子類別，當嘗試去讀寫已經被完全關閉的
     SSL 連線時會被引發。請注意，這並不表示底層傳輸（例如 TCP）已經被關
     閉。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 例外: ssl.SSLWantReadError

     一個 *note SSLError: 110e. 的子類別，當嘗試去讀寫資料前，底層 TCP 傳
     輸需要先接收更多資料時會由*note 非阻塞的 SSL socket: 3133. 引發該錯
     誤。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 例外: ssl.SSLWantWriteError

     一個 *note SSLError: 110e. 的子類別，當嘗試去讀寫資料前，底層 TCP 傳
     輸需要先發送更多資料時會由*note 非阻塞的 SSL socket: 3133. 引發該錯
     誤。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 例外: ssl.SSLSyscallError

     一個 *note SSLError: 110e. 的子類別，當嘗試去操作 SSL socket 時有系
     統錯誤產生會引發此錯誤。不幸的是，目前沒有任何簡單的方法可以去檢查
     原本的的 errno 編號。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 例外: ssl.SSLEOFError

     一個 *note SSLError: 110e. 的子類別，當 SSL 連線被突然終止時會引發
     此錯誤。通常，當此錯誤發生時，你不該再去重新使用底層傳輸。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 例外: ssl.SSLCertVerificationError

     當憑證驗證失敗時會引發的一個 *note SSLError: 110e. 子類別。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: verify_code

          一個表示驗證錯誤的錯誤數值編號。

      -- 屬性: verify_message

          一個人類可讀的驗證錯誤字串。

 -- 例外: ssl.CertificateError

     *note SSLCertVerificationError: 9d9. 的別名。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 此例外現在是 *note SSLCertVerificationError: 9d9.
     的別名。


File: python.info,  Node: 隨機產生,  Next: 認證處理,  Prev: 例外<11>,  Up: 函式、常數與例外

5.18.3.5 隨機產生
.................

 -- 函式: ssl.RAND_bytes (num)

     回傳 'num' 個加密性強的偽隨機位元組。如果 PRNG 未使用足夠的資料做為
     隨機種子 (seed) 或是目前的 RAND 方法不支持該操作則會導致 *note
     SSLError: 110e. 錯誤。*note RAND_status(): 169b. 函式可以用來檢查
     PRNG 函式，而 *note RAND_add(): 3139. 則可以用來為 PRNG 設定隨機種
     子。

     在幾乎所有的應用程式中，*note os.urandom(): 2a3. 會是較好的選擇。

     請閱讀維基百科的密碼學安全偽隨機數產生器 (CSPRNG)(1)文章來了解密碼
     學安全偽隨機數產生器的需求。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: ssl.RAND_status ()

     如果 SSL 偽隨機數產生器已經使用「足夠的」隨機性進行隨機種子生成，則
     回傳 ‘True’ ，否則回傳 ‘False’。你可以使用 ‘ssl.RAND_egd()’ 函式和
     *note ssl.RAND_add(): 3139. 函式來增加偽隨機數產生器的隨機性。

 -- 函式: ssl.RAND_add (bytes, entropy)

     將給定的 'bytes' 混進 SSL 隨機偽隨機數產生器中。 'entropy' 參數（
     float 值）是指字串中包含熵值的下限（因此你可以將其設為 ‘0.0’）。請
     參閱 RFC 1750(2) 了解有關熵源的更多資訊。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 可寫入的*note 類位元組物件: b9f.現在可被接受。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1750.html


File: python.info,  Node: 認證處理,  Next: 常數<8>,  Prev: 隨機產生,  Up: 函式、常數與例外

5.18.3.6 認證處理
.................

 -- 函式: ssl.cert_time_to_seconds (cert_time)

     回傳自紀元以來的秒數，給定的 ‘cert_time’ 字串表示憑證的 "notBefore"
     或 "notAfter" 日期，字串採用 ‘"%b %d %H:%M:%S %Y %Z"’ 格式（C 語言
     區域設定）。

     以下是一個範例：

          >>> import ssl
          >>> timestamp = ssl.cert_time_to_seconds("Jan  5 09:34:43 2018 GMT")
          >>> timestamp
          1515144883
          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> print(datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp))
          2018-01-05 09:34:43

     "notBefore" 或 "notAfter" 日期必須使用 GMT ( RFC 5280(1))。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 將輸入的時間直譯為 UTC 時間，如輸入字串中指定的
     'GMT' 時區。在之前是使用本地的時區。回傳一個整數（在輸入格式中不包
     括秒的小數部分）。

 -- 函式: ssl.get_server_certificate (addr,
          ssl_version=PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT, ca_certs=None[, timeout])

     輸入使用 SSL 保護的伺服器的地址 ‘addr’，輸入形式為一個 pair
     ('hostname', 'port-number')，獲取該伺服器的憑證，並以 PEM 編碼字串
     的形式回傳。如果指定了 ‘ssl_version’，則使用指定的 SSL 協議來嘗試與
     伺服器連線。如果指定 'ca_certs'，則它應該是一個包含根憑證列表的檔案
     ，並與 *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d6f. 中的參數
     'cafile' 所使用的格式相同。此呼叫將嘗試使用該組根憑證對伺服器憑證進
     行驗證，如果驗證失敗，呼叫將失敗。可以使用 ‘timeout’ 參數指定超時時
     間。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 此函式現在是與 IPv6 相容的。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 預設的 'ssl_version' 已經從 *note PROTOCOL_SSLv3:
     313b. 改為 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130.，已確保與現今的伺服器有最大的
     相容性。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'timeout' 參數。

 -- 函式: ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert (DER_cert_bytes)

     給定一個以 DER 編碼的位元組 blob 作為憑證，回傳以 PEM 編碼字串版本
     的相同憑證。

 -- 函式: ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert (PEM_cert_string)

     給定一個以 ASCII PEM 的字串作為憑證，回傳以 DER 編碼的位元組序列的
     相同憑證。

 -- 函式: ssl.get_default_verify_paths ()

     回傳一個具有 OpenSSL 的預設 cafile 和 capath 路徑的附名元組。這些路
     徑與 *note SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths(): e38. 使用的相同。
     回傳值是一個 *note named tuple: 449. ‘DefaultVerifyPaths’：

        * ‘cafile’ - 解析後的 cafile 路徑，如果檔案不存在則為 ‘None’，

        * ‘capath’ - 解析後的 capath 路徑，如果目錄不存在則為 ‘None’，

        * ‘openssl_cafile_env’ - 指向 cafile 的 OpenSSL 環境密鑰，

        * ‘openssl_cafile’ - hard coded 的 cafile 路徑，

        * ‘openssl_capath_env’ - 指向 capath 的 OpenSSL 環境密鑰，

        * ‘openssl_capath’ - hard coded 的 capath 目錄路徑

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: ssl.enum_certificates (store_name)

     從 Windows 的系統憑證儲存庫中搜尋憑證。'store_name' 可以是 ‘CA’、
     ‘ROOT’ 或 ‘MY’ 的其中一個。Windows 也可能會提供額外的憑證儲存庫。

     此函式會回傳一個元組 (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) 串列。
     encoding_type 指定了 cert_bytes 的編碼格式。它可以是用來表示 X.509
     ASN.1 資料的 ‘x509_asn’ 或是用來表示 PKCS#7 ASN.1 資料的
     ‘pkcs_7_asn’。Trust 通過一組 OIDS 來指定憑證的用途，或是如果憑證對
     所有用途都可以使用則回傳 ‘True’。

     範例：

          >>> ssl.enum_certificates("CA")
          [(b'data...', 'x509_asn', {'1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.1', '1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.2'}),
           (b'data...', 'x509_asn', True)]

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: ssl.enum_crls (store_name)

     從 Windows 的系統憑證儲存庫中搜尋 CRLs。'store_name' 可以是 ‘CA’、
     ‘ROOT’ 或 ‘MY’ 的其中一個。Windows 也可能會提供額外的憑證儲存庫。

     此函式會回傳一個元組 (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) 串列。
     encoding_type 指定了 cert_bytes 的編碼格式。它可以是用來表示 X.509
     ASN.1 資料的 ‘x509_asn’ 或是用來表示 PKCS#7 ASN.1 資料的
     ‘pkcs_7_asn’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html


File: python.info,  Node: 常數<8>,  Prev: 認證處理,  Up: 函式、常數與例外

5.18.3.7 常數
.............

     所有的常數現在都是 *note enum.IntEnum: b4c. 或 *note enum.IntFlag:
     2093. 的集合。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.CERT_NONE

     *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 312d. 可能的值。除了 *note
     SSLContext.verify_mode: 312d. 外，這是預設的模式。對於客戶端的
     sockets，幾乎任何憑證都能被允許。驗證錯誤，像是不被信任或是過期的憑
     證，會被忽略並不會中止 TLS/SSL 握手。

     在伺服器模式下，不會從客戶端請求任何憑證，所以客戶端不用發送任何用
     於客戶端憑證身分驗證的憑證。

     參閱下方 *note Security considerations: 301e. 的討論。

 -- 資料: ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL

     *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 312d. 可能的值。在客戶端模式下，*note
     CERT_OPTIONAL: 3140. 具有與 *note CERT_REQUIRED: 312e. 相同的含意。
     對於客戶端 sockets 推薦改用 *note CERT_REQUIRED: 312e.。

     在伺服器模式下，客戶憑證請求會被發送給客戶端。客戶端可以選擇忽略請
     求或是選擇發送憑證來執行 TLS 客戶端憑證身分驗證。如果客戶端選擇發送
     憑證，則會對其進行驗證。任何驗證錯誤都會立刻終止 TLS 握手。

     使用此設定需要將一組有效的 CA 憑證傳送給 *note
     SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d6f.。

 -- 資料: ssl.CERT_REQUIRED

     *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 312d. 可能的值。在這個模式下，需要從
     socket 連線的另一端獲取憑證；如果未提供憑證或是驗證失敗，則將會導致
     *note SSLError: 110e.。此模式 '不能' 在客戶端模式下對憑證進行驗證，
     因為它無法去配對主機名稱。*note check_hostname: 3141. 也必須被開起
     來來驗證憑證的真實性。*note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 69c. 會使用 *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 312e. 並預設開啟 *note check_hostname: 3141.。

     對於 socket 伺服器，此模式會提供強制的 TLS 客戶端憑證驗證。客戶端憑
     證請求會被發送給客戶端並且客戶端必須提供有效且被信任的憑證。

     使用此設定需要將一組有效的 CA 憑證傳送給 *note
     SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d6f.。

 -- 類別: ssl.VerifyMode

     *note enum.IntEnum: b4c. 為 CERT_* 常數的一個集合。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT

     *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e3b. 可能的值。在此模式下，不會檢查
     憑證吊銷列表 (CRLs)。預設的 OpenSSL 並不會請求及驗證 CRLs。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF

     *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e3b. 可能的值。在此模式下，只會檢查
     同等的憑證而不會去檢查中間的 CA 憑證。此模式需要提供由對等憑證發行
     者 (它的直接上級 CA) 的有效的 CRL 簽名。如果沒有用 *note
     SSLContext.load_verify_locations: d6f. 載入適當的 CRL，則會驗證失敗
     。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN

     *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e3b. 可能的值。在此模式下，會檢查對
     等憑證鍊中所有憑證的 CRLs。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

     *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e3b. 可能的值，用來禁用已損壞的
     X.509 憑證的解決方法。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS

     *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e3b. 可能的值，用來啟用憑證代理驗證
     。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST

     *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e3b. 可能的值。它指示 OpenSSL 在構建
     信任鍊來驗證憑證時會優先使用被信任的憑證。此旗標預設開啟。

     在 3.4.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN

     *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e3b. 可能的值。它指示 OpenSSL 接受信
     任存儲中的中間 CAs 作為信任錨，就像自簽名的根 CA 憑證。這樣就能去信
     任中間 CA 所頒發的憑證，而不一定非要去信任其祖先的根 CA。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ssl.VerifyFlags

     *note enum.IntFlag: 2093. 為 VERIFY_* 常數的其中一個集合。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS

     選擇客戶端及伺服器均可以支援最高協定版本。儘管名稱只有 「TLS」，但
     實際上「SSL」和「TLS」均可以選擇。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: TLS 的客戶端及伺服器端需要不同的預設值來實現
     安全通訊。通用的 TLS 協定常數已被廢除，並改用 *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 69c. 和 *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 69d.。

 -- 資料: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT

     自動協商客戶端和服務器都支援的最高協議版本，並配置客戶端語境連線。
     該協定預設啟用 *note CERT_REQUIRED: 312e. 和 *note check_hostname:
     3141.。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER

     自動協商客戶端和服務器都支援的最高協議版本，並配置客戶端語境連線。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23

     *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130. 的別名。

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: 請改用 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130.。

 -- 資料: ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3

     選擇第三版的 SSL 做為通道加密協定。

     如果 OpenSSL 是用 ‘no-ssl3’ 編譯的，則此項協議無法使用。

          警告: 第三版的 SSL 是不安全的，強烈建議不要使用。

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: OpenSSL 已經終止了所有特定版本的協定。請改用預
     設的 *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 69d. 協定或帶有 *note
     SSLContext.minimum_version: 9e0. 和 *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: 9e1. 的 *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT:
     69c.。

 -- 資料: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1

     選擇 1.0 版的 TLS 做為通道加密協定。

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: OpenSSL 已經將所有版本特定的協定棄用。

 -- 資料: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1

     選擇 1.1 版的 TLS 做為通道加密協定。只有在 1.0.1 版本以上的 OpenSSL
     才可以選用。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: OpenSSL 已經將所有版本特定的協定棄用。

 -- 資料: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2

     選擇 1.2 版的 TLS 做為通道加密協定。只有在 1.0.1 版本以上的 OpenSSL
     才可以選用。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: OpenSSL 已經將所有版本特定的協定棄用。

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_ALL

     啟用對 SSL 實作時所產生的各種錯誤的緩解措施。此選項預設被設定。它不
     一定設定與 OpenSSL 的 ‘SSL_OP_ALL’ 常數相同的旗標。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2

     防止 SSLv2 連線。此選項只可以跟 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130. 一起使用
     。它會防止同級 (peer)選用 SSLv2 做為協定版本。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: SSLv2 已被棄用

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

     防止 SSLv3 連線。此選項只可以跟 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130. 一起使用
     。它會防止同級選用 SSLv3 做為協定版本。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: SSLv3 已被棄用

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1

     防止 TLSv1 連線。此選項只可以跟 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130. 一起使用
     。它會防止同級選用 TLSv1 做為協定版本。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版之後被棄用: 該選項自從 OpenSSL 1.1.0 以後已被棄用，請改用
     新的 *note SSLContext.minimum_version: 9e0. 及 *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: 9e1. 代替。

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_1

     防止 TLSv1.1 連線。此選項只可以跟 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130. 一起使
     用。它會防止同級選用 TLSv1.1 做為協定版本。只有 1.0.1 版後的
     OpenSSL 版本才能使用。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版之後被棄用: 此選項自 OpenSSL 1.1.0 版已被棄用。

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2

     防止 TLSv1.2 連線。此選項只可以跟 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130. 一起使
     用。它會防止同級選用 TLSv1.2 做為協定版本。只有 1.0.1 版後的
     OpenSSL 版本才能使用。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版之後被棄用: 此選項自 OpenSSL 1.1.0 版已被棄用。

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3

     防止 TLSv1.3 連線。此選項只可以跟 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130. 一起使
     用。它會防止同級選用 TLSv1.3 做為協定版本。TSL1.3 只適用於 1.1.1 版
     以後的 OpenSSL。當使用 Python 編譯舊版的 OpenSSL 時，該標志預設為
     '0'。

     在 3.6.3 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版之後被棄用: 此選項自 OpenSSL 1.1.0 以後已被棄用。它被添加
     到 2.7.15 和 3.6.3 中，以向後相容 OpenSSL 1.0.2。

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION

     停用所有在 TLSv1.2 及更早版本的重協商 (renegotiation)。不發送
     HelloRequest 訊息，並忽略通過 ClientHello 的重協商請求。

     此選項僅適用於 OpenSSL 1.1.0h 及更新版本。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE

     使用伺服器的加密方法名稱字串排序優先順序，而不是客戶端的。此選項並
     不會影響到客戶端及 SSLv2 伺服器的 sockets。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE

     防止對不同的 SSL 會談重複使用相同的 DH 密鑰。這會加強向前保密但需要
     更多的運算資源。此選項只適用於伺服器 sockets。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE

     防止對不同的 SSL 會談重複使用相同的 ECDH 密鑰。這會加強向前保密但需
     要更多的運算資源。此選項只適用於伺服器 sockets。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT

     在 TLS 1.3 握手中發送虛擬的變更加密方法規範 (CCS) 消息，以使 TLS
     1.3 連接看起來更像 TLS 1.2 連線。

     此選項僅適用於 OpenSSL 1.1.1 及更新版本。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION

     在 SSL 通道上禁用壓縮。如果應用程序協定支援自己的壓縮方案，這會很有
     用。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ssl.Options

     *note enum.IntFlag: 2093. 為 OP_* 常數中的一個集合。

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_NO_TICKET

     防止客戶端請求會談票據。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF

     忽略意外關閉的 TLS 連線。

     此選項僅適用於 OpenSSL 3.0.0 及更新版本。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_ENABLE_KTLS

     允許使用 TLS 核心。要想受益於該功能，OpenSSL 必須編譯為支援該功能，
     並且想使用的加密套件及擴充套件也必須被該功能支援 (該功能所支援的列
     表可能會因平台及核心而有所差異)。

     請注意當允許使用 TLS 核心時，一些加密操作將直接由核心執行而不是經由
     任何由可用的 OpenSSL 所提供的程序，而這可能並非你所想使用的，例如：
     當應用程式要求所有的加密操作由 FIPS 提供執行。

     此選項僅適用於 OpenSSL 3.0.0 及更新版本。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT

     只允許 OpenSSL 與未修補的伺服器進行遺留 (legacy) 不安全重協商。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.HAS_ALPN

     OpenSSL 函式庫是否內建支援 '應用層協定協商' TLS 擴充套件，該擴充套
     件描述在 RFC 7301(1) 中。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME

     OpenSSL 函式庫是否內建支援不檢查主題通用名稱及 *note
     SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name: 9da. 是否可寫。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.HAS_ECDH

     OpenSSL 函式庫是否內建支援基於橢圓曲線的 (Elliptic Curve-based)
     Diffie-Hellman 金鑰交換。此回傳值應該要為 true 除非發布者明確禁用此
     功能。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.HAS_SNI

     OpenSSL 函式庫是否內建支援 '伺服器名稱提示' 擴充套件 (在 RFC
     6066(2) 中定義)。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.HAS_NPN

     OpenSSL 函式庫是否內建支援 '下一代協定協商' 該功能在應用層協定協商
     (3) 中有描述。當此值為 true 時，你可以使用 *note
     SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 270. 方法來公告你想支援的協定。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.HAS_SSLv2

     此 OpenSSL 函式庫是否內建支援 SSL 2.0 協定。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.HAS_SSLv3

     此 OpenSSL 函式庫是否內建支援 SSL 3.0 協定。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.HAS_TLSv1

     此 OpenSSL 函式庫是否內建支援 TLS 1.0 協定。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1

     此 OpenSSL 函式庫是否內建支援 TLS 1.1 協定。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_2

     此 OpenSSL 函式庫是否內建支援 TLS 1.2 協定。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_3

     此 OpenSSL 函式庫是否內建支援 TLS 1.3 協定。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES

     支援的 TLS 通道綁定類型列表。列表中的字串可以作為 *note
     SSLSocket.get_channel_binding(): fd6. 的參數。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION

     直譯器所加載的 OpenSSL 函式庫的版本字串:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION
          'OpenSSL 1.0.2k  26 Jan 2017'

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO

     代表 OpenSSL 函式庫版本資訊的五個整數的元組：

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO
          (1, 0, 2, 11, 15)

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER

     OpenSSL 函式庫的初始版本，以單一整數表示:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER
          268443839
          >>> hex(ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER)
          '0x100020bf'

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE
 -- 資料: ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR

 -- 資料: ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*

     來自 RFC 5246(4) 和其他文檔的警報描述。IANA TLS Alert Registry(5) 包
     含了此列表以及其含義定義所在的 RFC 的引用。

     被用來做為 *note SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): e45. 中回呼
     函式的回傳值。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ssl.AlertDescription

     *note enum.IntEnum: b4c. 為 ALERT_DESCRIPTION_* 常數中的一個集合。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: Purpose.SERVER_AUTH

     *note create_default_context(): e36. 和 *note
     SSLContext.load_default_certs(): e40. 的選項。此值表示該語境可能會
     用於驗證網頁伺服器 (因此它將用於建立用戶端 socket）。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH

     *note create_default_context(): e36. 和 *note
     SSLContext.load_default_certs(): e40. 的選項。此值表示該語境可能會
     用於驗證網頁用戶端 (因此，它將用於建立伺服器端的 socket）。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ssl.SSLErrorNumber

     *note enum.IntEnum: b4c. 為 SSL_ERROR_* 常數中的一個集合。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ssl.TLSVersion

     用於 *note SSLContext.maximum_version: 9e1. 和 *note
     SSLContext.minimum_version: 9e0. 的 SSL 和 TLS 版本 *note
     enum.IntEnum: b4c. 集合。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED

 -- 屬性: TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED

     最低或最高支援的 SSL 或 TLS 版本。這些是特殊常數。它們的值並不反映
     可用的最低和最高 TLS/SSL 版本。

 -- 屬性: TLSVersion.SSLv3

 -- 屬性: TLSVersion.TLSv1

 -- 屬性: TLSVersion.TLSv1_1

 -- 屬性: TLSVersion.TLSv1_2

 -- 屬性: TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

     SSL 3.0 到 TLS 1.3。

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: 除了 *note TLSVersion.TLSv1_2: 3165. 和 *note
     TLSVersion.TLSv1_3: 3166. 之外，所有的 *note TLSVersion: 315f. 成員
     都已被棄用。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html

   (5) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml#tls-parameters-6


File: python.info,  Node: SSL Sockets,  Next: SSL Contexts,  Prev: 函式、常數與例外,  Up: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器

5.18.3.8 SSL Sockets
....................

 -- 類別: ssl.SSLSocket (socket.socket)

     SSL sockets 提供以下 *note Socket 物件: 310e. 方法：

        - *note accept(): c19.

        - *note bind(): 13b1.

        - *note close(): bb6.

        - *note connect(): c1a.

        - *note detach(): 10ae.

        - *note fileno(): 311c.

        - *note getpeername(): 3060.、*note getsockname(): 3061.

        - *note getsockopt(): b42.、*note setsockopt(): b43.

        - *note gettimeout(): 311d.、*note settimeout(): 30db.、*note
          setblocking(): 28bb.

        - *note listen(): cdc.

        - *note makefile(): 1031.

        - *note recv(): c1b.、*note recv_into(): 11b1. （但不允許傳遞非
          零的 ‘flags’ 引數）

        - *note send(): c1e.、*note sendall(): c1f. （同樣不允許傳遞非零
          的 ‘flags’ 引數）

        - *note sendfile(): cdb. （但 *note os.sendfile: 964. 只能用於純
          文本 sockets，其餘則會使用 *note send(): c1e.）

        - *note shutdown(): 310b.

     然而，由於 SSL（和 TLS）協定在 TCP 之上有自己的框架，因此在某些方面
     ，SSL sockets 的抽象可能會與普通操作系統級別的 sockets 規範有所不同
     。特別是請參閱*note 關於 non-blocking sockets 的說明: 3133.。

     *note SSLSocket: 723. 的實例必須使用 *note
     SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2a5. 方法建立。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 ‘sendfile()’ 方法。

     在 3.5 版的變更: ‘shutdown()’ 不會在每次接收或發送位元組時重置
     socket 超時時間。現在，socket 超時時間是關閉操作的最大總持續時間。

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: 直接建立 *note SSLSocket: 723. 實例的方式已被
     棄用，請使用 *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2a5. 來包裝 socket。

     在 3.7 版的變更: *note SSLSocket: 723. 實例必須使用 *note
     wrap_socket(): 2a5. 建立。在較早的版本中可以直接建立實例，但這從未
     被記錄或正式支援。

     在 3.10 版的變更: Python 現在內部使用了 ‘SSL_read_ex’ 和
     ‘SSL_write_ex’ 函式。這些函式支援讀取和寫入大於 2 GB 的資料。寫入零
     長度的資料不再會導致協定違規錯誤。

SSL sockets 還具有以下附加方法和屬性：

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.read (len=1024, buffer=None)

     從 SSL socket 讀取 'len' 位元組的資料，並將結果以 ‘bytes’ 實例的形
     式回傳。如果指定了 'buffer'，則將資料讀入緩衝區，並回傳讀取的位元組
     。

     如果 socket 是*note 非阻塞的: 3133.則會引發 *note SSLWantReadError:
     ce7. 或 *note SSLWantWriteError: ce8. 並且讀取操作將會被阻塞。

     由於在任何時刻都可能發生重新協商，呼叫 *note read(): cec. 也可能觸
     發寫入操作。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 當接收或發送位元組時，socket 的超時時間將不再重置
     。現在，socket 超時時間是讀取最多 'len' 位元組的總最大持續時間。

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: 請改用 ‘recv()’ 來替換掉 *note read(): cec.。

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.write (buf)

     將 'buf' 寫入 SSL socket 並回傳寫入的位元組數量。'buf' 引數必須是支
     援緩衝區介面的物件。

     如果 socket 是*note 非阻塞的: 3133.則會引發 *note SSLWantReadError:
     ce7. 或 *note SSLWantWriteError: ce8. 並且寫入操作將會被阻塞。

     由於在任何時刻都可能發生重新協商，呼叫 *note write(): ced. 也可能觸
     發讀取操作。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 當接收或發送位元組時，socket 的超時時間將不再重置
     。現在，socket 超時時間是寫入 'buf' 的總最大持續時間。

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: 請改用 ‘send()’ 來替換掉 *note write(): ced.。

     備註: *note read(): cec. 和 *note write(): ced. 方法為低階層的方法
     ，負責讀取和寫入未加密的應用層資料，並將其加密/解密為加密的寫入層資
     料。這些方法需要一個已建立的 SSL 連接，即握手已完成，且未呼叫 *note
     SSLSocket.unwrap(): 3168.。

     通常你應該使用像 *note recv(): c1b. 和 *note send(): c1e. 這樣的
     socket API 方法，而不是直接使用這些方法。

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.do_handshake ()

     執行 SSL 設定握手。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 當 socket 的 *note context: 3169. 的 *note
     check_hostname: 3141. 屬性質為 true 時，握手方法也會執行
     ‘match_hostname()’。

     在 3.5 版的變更: Socket 超時時間已經不會在每次接收或傳送位元組時重
     置。現在，超時時間是握手過程的最大總持續時間。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 在握手過程中，OpenSSL 會去配對主機名稱或 IP 地址。
     已不再使用 ‘match_hostname()’ 函式。如果 OpenSSL 拒絕某個主機名稱或
     IP 地址，握手將會提前中止，並向對方發送 TLS 警報訊息。

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.getpeercert (binary_form=False)

     如果連線端沒有證書，則回傳 ‘None’。如果 SSL 握手尚未完成，則引發
     *note ValueError: 183.。

     如果 ‘binary_form’ 參數為 *note False: 98f.，且從對等 (peer) 接收到
     證書，則該方法回傳一個 *note dict: 239. 實例。如果證書未被驗證，則
     該字典為空。若證書已被驗證，則回傳的字典將包含數個鍵值，包括
     ‘subject’ (證書所簽發的對象) 和 ‘issuer’ (簽發證書的主體)。如果證書
     中包含 'Subject Alternative Name' 擴充 (參考 RFC 3280(1))，字典中還
     會有一個 ‘subjectAltName’ 鍵。

     ‘subject’ 和 ‘issuer’ 欄位欄位是包含相對識別名稱 (relative
     distinguished names, RDNs) 序列的元組，這些 RDN 來自證書資料結構中
     的相應欄位。每個 RDN 都是一組名稱與值的對。以下是現實中的範例：

          {'issuer': ((('countryName', 'IL'),),
                      (('organizationName', 'StartCom Ltd.'),),
                      (('organizationalUnitName',
                        'Secure Digital Certificate Signing'),),
                      (('commonName',
                        'StartCom Class 2 Primary Intermediate Server CA'),)),
           'notAfter': 'Nov 22 08:15:19 2013 GMT',
           'notBefore': 'Nov 21 03:09:52 2011 GMT',
           'serialNumber': '95F0',
           'subject': ((('description', '571208-SLe257oHY9fVQ07Z'),),
                       (('countryName', 'US'),),
                       (('stateOrProvinceName', 'California'),),
                       (('localityName', 'San Francisco'),),
                       (('organizationName', 'Electronic Frontier Foundation, Inc.'),),
                       (('commonName', '*.eff.org'),),
                       (('emailAddress', 'hostmaster@eff.org'),)),
           'subjectAltName': (('DNS', '*.eff.org'), ('DNS', 'eff.org')),
           'version': 3}

     如果 ‘binary_form’ 參數設定為 *note True: a70.，且對等提供了證書，
     則該方法會以 DER 編碼形式 將整個證書以位元組序列形式回傳。如果對等
     未提供證書，則回傳：const:‘None’。對等是否提供證書取決於 SSL socket
     的腳色：

        * 對於客戶端 SSL socket，伺服器將永遠提供證書，無論是否需要進行
          驗證；

        * 對於伺服器 SSL socket，客戶端僅在伺服器要求時才會提供證書；因
          此，如果你使用的是 *note CERT_NONE: 313f. (而非 *note
          CERT_OPTIONAL: 3140. 或 *note CERT_REQUIRED: 312e.)，則 *note
          getpeercert(): e46. 會回傳 *note None: 470.。

     請見 *note SSLContext.check_hostname: 3141.。

     在 3.2 版的變更: The returned dictionary includes additional items
     such as ‘issuer’ and ‘notBefore’.

     在 3.4 版的變更: *note ValueError: 183. is raised when the
     handshake isn't done.  The returned dictionary includes additional
     X509v3 extension items such as ‘crlDistributionPoints’, ‘caIssuers’
     and ‘OCSP’ URIs.

     在 3.9 版的變更: IPv6 address strings no longer have a trailing new
     line.

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.cipher ()

     Returns a three-value tuple containing the name of the cipher being
     used, the version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the
     number of secret bits being used.  If no connection has been
     established, returns ‘None’.

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.shared_ciphers ()

     Return the list of ciphers available in both the client and server.
     Each entry of the returned list is a three-value tuple containing
     the name of the cipher, the version of the SSL protocol that
     defines its use, and the number of secret bits the cipher uses.
     *note shared_ciphers(): cea. returns ‘None’ if no connection has
     been established or the socket is a client socket.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.compression ()

     Return the compression algorithm being used as a string, or ‘None’
     if the connection isn't compressed.

     If the higher-level protocol supports its own compression
     mechanism, you can use *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: fd8. to disable
     SSL-level compression.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.get_channel_binding (cb_type='tls-unique')

     Get channel binding data for current connection, as a bytes object.
     Returns ‘None’ if not connected or the handshake has not been
     completed.

     The 'cb_type' parameter allow selection of the desired channel
     binding type.  Valid channel binding types are listed in the *note
     CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES: 315a. list.  Currently only the 'tls-unique'
     channel binding, defined by RFC 5929(2), is supported.  *note
     ValueError: 183. will be raised if an unsupported channel binding
     type is requested.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol ()

     Return the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.  If
     *note SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(): ce2. was not called, if the
     other party does not support ALPN, if this socket does not support
     any of the client's proposed protocols, or if the handshake has not
     happened yet, ‘None’ is returned.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol ()

     Return the higher-level protocol that was selected during the
     TLS/SSL handshake.  If *note SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 270.
     was not called, or if the other party does not support NPN, or if
     the handshake has not yet happened, this will return ‘None’.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.unwrap ()

     Performs the SSL shutdown handshake, which removes the TLS layer
     from the underlying socket, and returns the underlying socket
     object.  This can be used to go from encrypted operation over a
     connection to unencrypted.  The returned socket should always be
     used for further communication with the other side of the
     connection, rather than the original socket.

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake ()

     Requests post-handshake authentication (PHA) from a TLS 1.3 client.
     PHA can only be initiated for a TLS 1.3 connection from a
     server-side socket, after the initial TLS handshake and with PHA
     enabled on both sides, see *note SSLContext.post_handshake_auth:
     87a.

     The method does not perform a cert exchange immediately.  The
     server-side sends a CertificateRequest during the next write event
     and expects the client to respond with a certificate on the next
     read event.

     If any precondition isn't met (e.g.  not TLS 1.3, PHA not enabled),
     an *note SSLError: 110e. is raised.

          備註: Only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and TLS 1.3 enabled.
          Without TLS 1.3 support, the method raises *note
          NotImplementedError: bc0.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.version ()

     Return the actual SSL protocol version negotiated by the connection
     as a string, or ‘None’ if no secure connection is established.  As
     of this writing, possible return values include ‘"SSLv2"’,
     ‘"SSLv3"’, ‘"TLSv1"’, ‘"TLSv1.1"’ and ‘"TLSv1.2"’.  Recent OpenSSL
     versions may define more return values.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLSocket.pending ()

     Returns the number of already decrypted bytes available for read,
     pending on the connection.

 -- 屬性: SSLSocket.context

     The *note SSLContext: 26f. object this SSL socket is tied to.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: SSLSocket.server_side

     A boolean which is ‘True’ for server-side sockets and ‘False’ for
     client-side sockets.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: SSLSocket.server_hostname

     Hostname of the server: *note str: 157. type, or ‘None’ for
     server-side socket or if the hostname was not specified in the
     constructor.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The attribute is now always ASCII text.  When
     ‘server_hostname’ is an internationalized domain name (IDN), this
     attribute now stores the A-label form (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’),
     rather than the U-label form (‘"pythön.org"’).

 -- 屬性: SSLSocket.session

     The *note SSLSession: b4a. for this SSL connection.  The session is
     available for client and server side sockets after the TLS
     handshake has been performed.  For client sockets the session can
     be set before *note do_handshake(): ceb. has been called to reuse a
     session.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: SSLSocket.session_reused

     在 3.6 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3280.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5929.html


File: python.info,  Node: SSL Contexts,  Next: Certificates,  Prev: SSL Sockets,  Up: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器

5.18.3.9 SSL Contexts
.....................

在 3.2 版被加入.

An SSL context holds various data longer-lived than single SSL
connections, such as SSL configuration options, certificate(s) and
private key(s).  It also manages a cache of SSL sessions for server-side
sockets, in order to speed up repeated connections from the same
clients.

 -- 類別: ssl.SSLContext (protocol=None)

     Create a new SSL context.  You may pass 'protocol' which must be
     one of the ‘PROTOCOL_*’ constants defined in this module.  The
     parameter specifies which version of the SSL protocol to use.
     Typically, the server chooses a particular protocol version, and
     the client must adapt to the server's choice.  Most of the versions
     are not interoperable with the other versions.  If not specified,
     the default is *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130.; it provides the most
     compatibility with other versions.

     Here's a table showing which versions in a client (down the side)
     can connect to which versions in a server (along the top):

     'client' / 'server'          'SSLv2'          'SSLv3'          'TLS' (1)         'TLSv1'       'TLSv1.1'       'TLSv1.2'
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'SSLv2'                      yes              no               no (2)            no            no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'SSLv3'                      no               yes              no (3)            no            no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLS' ('SSLv23') (4)         no (5)           no (6)           yes               yes           yes             yes
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1'                      no               no               yes               yes           no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1.1'                    no               no               yes               no            yes             no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1.2'                    no               no               yes               no            no              yes
                                                                                                                    

     註解
     ....

     也參考
     ......

     *note create_default_context(): e36. lets the *note ssl: ca. module
     choose security settings for a given purpose.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The context is created with secure default values.
     The options *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: fd8, *note
     OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE: fdb, *note OP_SINGLE_DH_USE: 314c,
     *note OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE: 314d, *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 65f, and *note
     OP_NO_SSLv3: 660. (except for *note PROTOCOL_SSLv3: 313b.) are set
     by default.  The initial cipher suite list contains only ‘HIGH’
     ciphers, no ‘NULL’ ciphers and no ‘MD5’ ciphers.

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: *note SSLContext: 26f. without protocol
     argument is deprecated.  The context class will either require
     *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 69c. or *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 69d.
     protocol in the future.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The default cipher suites now include only secure
     AES and ChaCha20 ciphers with forward secrecy and security level 2.
     RSA and DH keys with less than 2048 bits and ECC keys with less
     than 224 bits are prohibited.  *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130, *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 69c, and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 69d. use
     TLS 1.2 as minimum TLS version.

          備註: *note SSLContext: 26f. only supports limited mutation
          once it has been used by a connection.  Adding new
          certificates to the internal trust store is allowed, but
          changing ciphers, verification settings, or mTLS certificates
          may result in surprising behavior.

          備註: *note SSLContext: 26f. is designed to be shared and used
          by multiple connections.  Thus, it is thread-safe as long as
          it is not reconfigured after being used by a connection.

*note SSLContext: 26f. objects have the following methods and
attributes:

 -- 方法: SSLContext.cert_store_stats ()

     Get statistics about quantities of loaded X.509 certificates, count
     of X.509 certificates flagged as CA certificates and certificate
     revocation lists as dictionary.

     Example for a context with one CA cert and one other cert:

          >>> context.cert_store_stats()
          {'crl': 0, 'x509_ca': 1, 'x509': 2}

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.load_cert_chain (certfile, keyfile=None,
          password=None)

     Load a private key and the corresponding certificate.  The
     'certfile' string must be the path to a single file in PEM format
     containing the certificate as well as any number of CA certificates
     needed to establish the certificate's authenticity.  The 'keyfile'
     string, if present, must point to a file containing the private
     key.  Otherwise the private key will be taken from 'certfile' as
     well.  See the discussion of *note Certificates: 316e. for more
     information on how the certificate is stored in the 'certfile'.

     The 'password' argument may be a function to call to get the
     password for decrypting the private key.  It will only be called if
     the private key is encrypted and a password is necessary.  It will
     be called with no arguments, and it should return a string, bytes,
     or bytearray.  If the return value is a string it will be encoded
     as UTF-8 before using it to decrypt the key.  Alternatively a
     string, bytes, or bytearray value may be supplied directly as the
     'password' argument.  It will be ignored if the private key is not
     encrypted and no password is needed.

     If the 'password' argument is not specified and a password is
     required, OpenSSL's built-in password prompting mechanism will be
     used to interactively prompt the user for a password.

     An *note SSLError: 110e. is raised if the private key doesn't match
     with the certificate.

     在 3.3 版的變更: New optional argument 'password'.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.load_default_certs (purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH)

     Load a set of default "certification authority" (CA) certificates
     from default locations.  On Windows it loads CA certs from the ‘CA’
     and ‘ROOT’ system stores.  On all systems it calls *note
     SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths(): e38.  In the future the
     method may load CA certificates from other locations, too.

     The 'purpose' flag specifies what kind of CA certificates are
     loaded.  The default settings *note Purpose.SERVER_AUTH: e41. loads
     certificates, that are flagged and trusted for TLS web server
     authentication (client side sockets).  *note Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH:
     e42. loads CA certificates for client certificate verification on
     the server side.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.load_verify_locations (cafile=None, capath=None,
          cadata=None)

     Load a set of "certification authority" (CA) certificates used to
     validate other peers' certificates when *note verify_mode: 312d. is
     other than *note CERT_NONE: 313f.  At least one of 'cafile' or
     'capath' must be specified.

     This method can also load certification revocation lists (CRLs) in
     PEM or DER format.  In order to make use of CRLs, *note
     SSLContext.verify_flags: e3b. must be configured properly.

     The 'cafile' string, if present, is the path to a file of
     concatenated CA certificates in PEM format.  See the discussion of
     *note Certificates: 316e. for more information about how to arrange
     the certificates in this file.

     The 'capath' string, if present, is the path to a directory
     containing several CA certificates in PEM format, following an
     OpenSSL specific layout(7).

     The 'cadata' object, if present, is either an ASCII string of one
     or more PEM-encoded certificates or a *note bytes-like object: b9f.
     of DER-encoded certificates.  Like with 'capath' extra lines around
     PEM-encoded certificates are ignored but at least one certificate
     must be present.

     在 3.4 版的變更: New optional argument 'cadata'

 -- 方法: SSLContext.get_ca_certs (binary_form=False)

     Get a list of loaded "certification authority" (CA) certificates.
     If the ‘binary_form’ parameter is *note False: 98f. each list entry
     is a dict like the output of *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e46.
     Otherwise the method returns a list of DER-encoded certificates.
     The returned list does not contain certificates from 'capath'
     unless a certificate was requested and loaded by a SSL connection.

          備註: Certificates in a capath directory aren't loaded unless
          they have been used at least once.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.get_ciphers ()

     Get a list of enabled ciphers.  The list is in order of cipher
     priority.  See *note SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 316f.

     範例：

          >>> ctx = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23)
          >>> ctx.set_ciphers('ECDHE+AESGCM:!ECDSA')
          >>> ctx.get_ciphers()
          [{'aead': True,
            'alg_bits': 256,
            'auth': 'auth-rsa',
            'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                           'Enc=AESGCM(256) Mac=AEAD',
            'digest': None,
            'id': 50380848,
            'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
            'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384',
            'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
            'strength_bits': 256,
            'symmetric': 'aes-256-gcm'},
           {'aead': True,
            'alg_bits': 128,
            'auth': 'auth-rsa',
            'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                           'Enc=AESGCM(128) Mac=AEAD',
            'digest': None,
            'id': 50380847,
            'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
            'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256',
            'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
            'strength_bits': 128,
            'symmetric': 'aes-128-gcm'}]

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths ()

     Load a set of default "certification authority" (CA) certificates
     from a filesystem path defined when building the OpenSSL library.
     Unfortunately, there's no easy way to know whether this method
     succeeds: no error is returned if no certificates are to be found.
     When the OpenSSL library is provided as part of the operating
     system, though, it is likely to be configured properly.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.set_ciphers (ciphers)

     Set the available ciphers for sockets created with this context.
     It should be a string in the OpenSSL cipher list format(8).  If no
     cipher can be selected (because compile-time options or other
     configuration forbids use of all the specified ciphers), an *note
     SSLError: 110e. will be raised.

          備註: when connected, the *note SSLSocket.cipher(): 3062.
          method of SSL sockets will give the currently selected cipher.

          TLS 1.3 cipher suites cannot be disabled with *note
          set_ciphers(): 316f.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols (protocols)

     Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the
     SSL/TLS handshake.  It should be a list of ASCII strings, like
     ‘['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']’, ordered by preference.  The selection of
     a protocol will happen during the handshake, and will play out
     according to RFC 7301(9).  After a successful handshake, the *note
     SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): ce3. method will return the
     agreed-upon protocol.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: bc0. if *note
     HAS_ALPN: ce4. is ‘False’.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.set_npn_protocols (protocols)

     Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the
     SSL/TLS handshake.  It should be a list of strings, like
     ‘['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']’, ordered by preference.  The selection of
     a protocol will happen during the handshake, and will play out
     according to the Application Layer Protocol Negotiation(10).  After
     a successful handshake, the *note
     SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol(): 69e. method will return the
     agreed-upon protocol.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: bc0. if *note
     HAS_NPN: 3154. is ‘False’.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.sni_callback

     Register a callback function that will be called after the TLS
     Client Hello handshake message has been received by the SSL/TLS
     server when the TLS client specifies a server name indication.  The
     server name indication mechanism is specified in RFC 6066(11)
     section 3 - Server Name Indication.

     Only one callback can be set per ‘SSLContext’.  If 'sni_callback'
     is set to ‘None’ then the callback is disabled.  Calling this
     function a subsequent time will disable the previously registered
     callback.

     The callback function will be called with three arguments; the
     first being the *note ssl.SSLSocket: 723, the second is a string
     that represents the server name that the client is intending to
     communicate (or *note None: 470. if the TLS Client Hello does not
     contain a server name) and the third argument is the original *note
     SSLContext: 26f.  The server name argument is text.  For
     internationalized domain name, the server name is an IDN A-label
     (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’).

     A typical use of this callback is to change the *note
     ssl.SSLSocket: 723.'s *note SSLSocket.context: 3169. attribute to a
     new object of type *note SSLContext: 26f. representing a
     certificate chain that matches the server name.

     Due to the early negotiation phase of the TLS connection, only
     limited methods and attributes are usable like *note
     SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): ce3. and *note
     SSLSocket.context: 3169.  The *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e46,
     *note SSLSocket.cipher(): 3062. and *note SSLSocket.compression():
     fd7. methods require that the TLS connection has progressed beyond
     the TLS Client Hello and therefore will not return meaningful
     values nor can they be called safely.

     The 'sni_callback' function must return ‘None’ to allow the TLS
     negotiation to continue.  If a TLS failure is required, a constant
     *note ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*: 315c. can be returned.  Other return
     values will result in a TLS fatal error with *note
     ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR: 315c.

     If an exception is raised from the 'sni_callback' function the TLS
     connection will terminate with a fatal TLS alert message *note
     ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE: 315b.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: bc0. if the
     OpenSSL library had OPENSSL_NO_TLSEXT defined when it was built.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.set_servername_callback (server_name_callback)

     This is a legacy API retained for backwards compatibility.  When
     possible, you should use *note sni_callback: 16ab. instead.  The
     given 'server_name_callback' is similar to 'sni_callback', except
     that when the server hostname is an IDN-encoded internationalized
     domain name, the 'server_name_callback' receives a decoded U-label
     (‘"pythön.org"’).

     If there is a decoding error on the server name, the TLS connection
     will terminate with an *note ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR:
     315c. fatal TLS alert message to the client.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.load_dh_params (dhfile)

     Load the key generation parameters for Diffie-Hellman (DH) key
     exchange.  Using DH key exchange improves forward secrecy at the
     expense of computational resources (both on the server and on the
     client).  The 'dhfile' parameter should be the path to a file
     containing DH parameters in PEM format.

     This setting doesn't apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
     *note OP_SINGLE_DH_USE: 314c. option to further improve security.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve (curve_name)

     Set the curve name for Elliptic Curve-based Diffie-Hellman (ECDH)
     key exchange.  ECDH is significantly faster than regular DH while
     arguably as secure.  The 'curve_name' parameter should be a string
     describing a well-known elliptic curve, for example ‘prime256v1’
     for a widely supported curve.

     This setting doesn't apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
     *note OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE: 314d. option to further improve security.

     This method is not available if *note HAS_ECDH: 3152. is ‘False’.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     也參考
     ......

     SSL/TLS & Perfect Forward Secrecy(12)

          Vincent Bernat.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.wrap_socket (sock, server_side=False,
          do_handshake_on_connect=True, suppress_ragged_eofs=True,
          server_hostname=None, session=None)

     Wrap an existing Python socket 'sock' and return an instance of
     *note SSLContext.sslsocket_class: 3170. (default *note SSLSocket:
     723.).  The returned SSL socket is tied to the context, its
     settings and certificates.  'sock' must be a *note SOCK_STREAM:
     1184. socket; other socket types are unsupported.

     The parameter ‘server_side’ is a boolean which identifies whether
     server-side or client-side behavior is desired from this socket.

     For client-side sockets, the context construction is lazy; if the
     underlying socket isn't connected yet, the context construction
     will be performed after ‘connect()’ is called on the socket.  For
     server-side sockets, if the socket has no remote peer, it is
     assumed to be a listening socket, and the server-side SSL wrapping
     is automatically performed on client connections accepted via the
     ‘accept()’ method.  The method may raise *note SSLError: 110e.

     On client connections, the optional parameter 'server_hostname'
     specifies the hostname of the service which we are connecting to.
     This allows a single server to host multiple SSL-based services
     with distinct certificates, quite similarly to HTTP virtual hosts.
     Specifying 'server_hostname' will raise a *note ValueError: 183. if
     'server_side' is true.

     The parameter ‘do_handshake_on_connect’ specifies whether to do the
     SSL handshake automatically after doing a ‘socket.connect()’, or
     whether the application program will call it explicitly, by
     invoking the *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): ceb. method.  Calling
     *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): ceb. explicitly gives the program
     control over the blocking behavior of the socket I/O involved in
     the handshake.

     The parameter ‘suppress_ragged_eofs’ specifies how the
     ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ method should signal unexpected EOF from the
     other end of the connection.  If specified as *note True: a70. (the
     default), it returns a normal EOF (an empty bytes object) in
     response to unexpected EOF errors raised from the underlying
     socket; if *note False: 98f, it will raise the exceptions back to
     the caller.

     'session', see *note session: 13e1.

     To wrap an *note SSLSocket: 723. in another *note SSLSocket: 723,
     use *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): 9df.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Always allow a server_hostname to be passed, even
     if OpenSSL does not have SNI.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'session' 引數。

     在 3.7 版的變更: The method returns an instance of *note
     SSLContext.sslsocket_class: 3170. instead of hard-coded *note
     SSLSocket: 723.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.sslsocket_class

     The return type of *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2a5, defaults to
     *note SSLSocket: 723.  The attribute can be overridden on instance
     of class in order to return a custom subclass of *note SSLSocket:
     723.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.wrap_bio (incoming, outgoing, server_side=False,
          server_hostname=None, session=None)

     Wrap the BIO objects 'incoming' and 'outgoing' and return an
     instance of *note SSLContext.sslobject_class: 3171. (default *note
     SSLObject: 9de.).  The SSL routines will read input data from the
     incoming BIO and write data to the outgoing BIO.

     The 'server_side', 'server_hostname' and 'session' parameters have
     the same meaning as in *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2a5.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'session' 引數。

     在 3.7 版的變更: The method returns an instance of *note
     SSLContext.sslobject_class: 3171. instead of hard-coded *note
     SSLObject: 9de.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.sslobject_class

     The return type of *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): 9df, defaults to
     *note SSLObject: 9de.  The attribute can be overridden on instance
     of class in order to return a custom subclass of *note SSLObject:
     9de.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SSLContext.session_stats ()

     Get statistics about the SSL sessions created or managed by this
     context.  A dictionary is returned which maps the names of each
     piece of information(13) to their numeric values.  For example,
     here is the total number of hits and misses in the session cache
     since the context was created:

          >>> stats = context.session_stats()
          >>> stats['hits'], stats['misses']
          (0, 0)

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.check_hostname

     Whether to match the peer cert's hostname in *note
     SSLSocket.do_handshake(): ceb.  The context's *note verify_mode:
     312d. must be set to *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3140. or *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 312e, and you must pass 'server_hostname' to *note
     wrap_socket(): 2a5. in order to match the hostname.  Enabling
     hostname checking automatically sets *note verify_mode: 312d. from
     *note CERT_NONE: 313f. to *note CERT_REQUIRED: 312e.  It cannot be
     set back to *note CERT_NONE: 313f. as long as hostname checking is
     enabled.  The *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 69c. protocol enables
     hostname checking by default.  With other protocols, hostname
     checking must be enabled explicitly.

     範例：

          import socket, ssl

          context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2)
          context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_REQUIRED
          context.check_hostname = True
          context.load_default_certs()

          s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
          ssl_sock = context.wrap_socket(s, server_hostname='www.verisign.com')
          ssl_sock.connect(('www.verisign.com', 443))

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: *note verify_mode: 312d. is now automatically
     changed to *note CERT_REQUIRED: 312e. when hostname checking is
     enabled and *note verify_mode: 312d. is *note CERT_NONE: 313f.
     Previously the same operation would have failed with a *note
     ValueError: 183.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.keylog_filename

     Write TLS keys to a keylog file, whenever key material is generated
     or received.  The keylog file is designed for debugging purposes
     only.  The file format is specified by NSS and used by many traffic
     analyzers such as Wireshark.  The log file is opened in append-only
     mode.  Writes are synchronized between threads, but not between
     processes.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.maximum_version

     A *note TLSVersion: 315f. enum member representing the highest
     supported TLS version.  The value defaults to *note
     TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED: 3161.  The attribute is read-only for
     protocols other than *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130, *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 69c, and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 69d.

     The attributes *note maximum_version: 9e1, *note minimum_version:
     9e0. and *note SSLContext.options: 65e. all affect the supported
     SSL and TLS versions of the context.  The implementation does not
     prevent invalid combination.  For example a context with *note
     OP_NO_TLSv1_2: 314a. in *note options: 65e. and *note
     maximum_version: 9e1. set to *note TLSVersion.TLSv1_2: 3165. will
     not be able to establish a TLS 1.2 connection.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.minimum_version

     Like *note SSLContext.maximum_version: 9e1. except it is the lowest
     supported version or *note TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED: 3160.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.num_tickets

     Control the number of TLS 1.3 session tickets of a *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 69d. context.  The setting has no impact on
     TLS 1.0 to 1.2 connections.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.options

     An integer representing the set of SSL options enabled on this
     context.  The default value is *note OP_ALL: 3147, but you can
     specify other options such as *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 65f. by ORing them
     together.

     在 3.6 版的變更: *note SSLContext.options: 65e. returns *note
     Options: 314f. flags:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().options
          <Options.OP_ALL|OP_NO_SSLv3|OP_NO_SSLv2|OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 2197947391>

     在 3.7 版之後被棄用: All ‘OP_NO_SSL*’ and ‘OP_NO_TLS*’ options have
     been deprecated since Python 3.7.  Use *note
     SSLContext.minimum_version: 9e0. and *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: 9e1. instead.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.post_handshake_auth

     Enable TLS 1.3 post-handshake client authentication.
     Post-handshake auth is disabled by default and a server can only
     request a TLS client certificate during the initial handshake.
     When enabled, a server may request a TLS client certificate at any
     time after the handshake.

     When enabled on client-side sockets, the client signals the server
     that it supports post-handshake authentication.

     When enabled on server-side sockets, *note SSLContext.verify_mode:
     312d. must be set to *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3140. or *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 312e, too.  The actual client cert exchange is
     delayed until *note SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): 87b.
     is called and some I/O is performed.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.protocol

     The protocol version chosen when constructing the context.  This
     attribute is read-only.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name

     Whether *note check_hostname: 3141. falls back to verify the cert's
     subject common name in the absence of a subject alternative name
     extension (default: true).

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The flag had no effect with OpenSSL before
     version 1.1.1l.  Python 3.8.9, 3.9.3, and 3.10 include workarounds
     for previous versions.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.security_level

     An integer representing the security level(14) for the context.
     This attribute is read-only.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.verify_flags

     The flags for certificate verification operations.  You can set
     flags like *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF: e3d. by ORing them
     together.  By default OpenSSL does neither require nor verify
     certificate revocation lists (CRLs).

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e3b. returns *note
     VerifyFlags: 3144. flags:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_flags
          <VerifyFlags.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST: 32768>

 -- 屬性: SSLContext.verify_mode

     Whether to try to verify other peers' certificates and how to
     behave if verification fails.  This attribute must be one of *note
     CERT_NONE: 313f, *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3140. or *note CERT_REQUIRED:
     312e.

     在 3.6 版的變更: *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 312d. returns *note
     VerifyMode: 3142. enum:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_mode
          <VerifyMode.CERT_REQUIRED: 2>

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130.
in OpenSSL >= 1.1.1.  There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just
TLS 1.3.

   (2) *note SSLContext: 26f. 預設會關閉 SSLv2 的 *note OP_NO_SSLv2:
65f.。

   (3) *note SSLContext: 26f. 預設會關閉 SSLv3 的 *note OP_NO_SSLv3:
660.。

   (4) TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3130.
in OpenSSL >= 1.1.1.  There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just
TLS 1.3.

   (5) *note SSLContext: 26f. 預設會關閉 SSLv2 的 *note OP_NO_SSLv2:
65f.。

   (6) *note SSLContext: 26f. 預設會關閉 SSLv3 的 *note OP_NO_SSLv3:
660.。

   (7) 
https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_load_verify_locations/

   (8) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man1/ciphers/

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html

   (10) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (12) 
https://vincent.bernat.ch/en/blog/2011-ssl-perfect-forward-secrecy

   (13) https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man3/SSL_CTX_sess_number/

   (14) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_get_security_level/


File: python.info,  Node: Certificates,  Next: 範例<25>,  Prev: SSL Contexts,  Up: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器

5.18.3.10 Certificates
......................

Certificates in general are part of a public-key / private-key system.
In this system, each 'principal', (which may be a machine, or a person,
or an organization) is assigned a unique two-part encryption key.  One
part of the key is public, and is called the 'public key'; the other
part is kept secret, and is called the 'private key'.  The two parts are
related, in that if you encrypt a message with one of the parts, you can
decrypt it with the other part, and 'only' with the other part.

A certificate contains information about two principals.  It contains
the name of a 'subject', and the subject's public key.  It also contains
a statement by a second principal, the 'issuer', that the subject is who
they claim to be, and that this is indeed the subject's public key.  The
issuer's statement is signed with the issuer's private key, which only
the issuer knows.  However, anyone can verify the issuer's statement by
finding the issuer's public key, decrypting the statement with it, and
comparing it to the other information in the certificate.  The
certificate also contains information about the time period over which
it is valid.  This is expressed as two fields, called "notBefore" and
"notAfter".

In the Python use of certificates, a client or server can use a
certificate to prove who they are.  The other side of a network
connection can also be required to produce a certificate, and that
certificate can be validated to the satisfaction of the client or server
that requires such validation.  The connection attempt can be set to
raise an exception if the validation fails.  Validation is done
automatically, by the underlying OpenSSL framework; the application need
not concern itself with its mechanics.  But the application does usually
need to provide sets of certificates to allow this process to take
place.

Python uses files to contain certificates.  They should be formatted as
"PEM" (see RFC 1422(1)), which is a base-64 encoded form wrapped with a
header line and a footer line:

     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----

* Menu:

* Certificate chains::
* CA certificates::
* Combined key and certificate::
* Self-signed certificates::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html


File: python.info,  Node: Certificate chains,  Next: CA certificates,  Up: Certificates

5.18.3.11 Certificate chains
............................

The Python files which contain certificates can contain a sequence of
certificates, sometimes called a 'certificate chain'.  This chain should
start with the specific certificate for the principal who "is" the
client or server, and then the certificate for the issuer of that
certificate, and then the certificate for the issuer of 'that'
certificate, and so on up the chain till you get to a certificate which
is 'self-signed', that is, a certificate which has the same subject and
issuer, sometimes called a 'root certificate'.  The certificates should
just be concatenated together in the certificate file.  For example,
suppose we had a three certificate chain, from our server certificate to
the certificate of the certification authority that signed our server
certificate, to the root certificate of the agency which issued the
certification authority's certificate:

     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate for your server)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (the certificate for the CA)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (the root certificate for the CA's issuer)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----


File: python.info,  Node: CA certificates,  Next: Combined key and certificate,  Prev: Certificate chains,  Up: Certificates

5.18.3.12 CA certificates
.........................

If you are going to require validation of the other side of the
connection's certificate, you need to provide a "CA certs" file, filled
with the certificate chains for each issuer you are willing to trust.
Again, this file just contains these chains concatenated together.  For
validation, Python will use the first chain it finds in the file which
matches.  The platform's certificates file can be used by calling *note
SSLContext.load_default_certs(): e40, this is done automatically with
*note create_default_context(): e36.


File: python.info,  Node: Combined key and certificate,  Next: Self-signed certificates,  Prev: CA certificates,  Up: Certificates

5.18.3.13 Combined key and certificate
......................................

Often the private key is stored in the same file as the certificate; in
this case, only the ‘certfile’ parameter to *note
SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): fd3. needs to be passed.  If the private
key is stored with the certificate, it should come before the first
certificate in the certificate chain:

     -----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
     ... (private key in base64 encoding) ...
     -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----


File: python.info,  Node: Self-signed certificates,  Prev: Combined key and certificate,  Up: Certificates

5.18.3.14 Self-signed certificates
..................................

If you are going to create a server that provides SSL-encrypted
connection services, you will need to acquire a certificate for that
service.  There are many ways of acquiring appropriate certificates,
such as buying one from a certification authority.  Another common
practice is to generate a self-signed certificate.  The simplest way to
do this is with the OpenSSL package, using something like the following:

     % openssl req -new -x509 -days 365 -nodes -out cert.pem -keyout cert.pem
     Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key
     .......++++++
     .............................++++++
     writing new private key to 'cert.pem'
     -----
     You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
     into your certificate request.
     What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
     There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
     For some fields there will be a default value,
     If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
     -----
     Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US
     State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:MyState
     Locality Name (eg, city) []:Some City
     Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:My Organization, Inc.
     Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:My Group
     Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
     Email Address []:ops@myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
     %

The disadvantage of a self-signed certificate is that it is its own root
certificate, and no one else will have it in their cache of known (and
trusted) root certificates.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<25>,  Next: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Prev: Certificates,  Up: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器

5.18.3.15 範例
..............

* Menu:

* Testing for SSL support::
* Client-side operation::
* Server-side operation::


File: python.info,  Node: Testing for SSL support,  Next: Client-side operation,  Up: 範例<25>

5.18.3.16 Testing for SSL support
.................................

To test for the presence of SSL support in a Python installation, user
code should use the following idiom:

     try:
         import ssl
     except ImportError:
         pass
     else:
         ...  # do something that requires SSL support


File: python.info,  Node: Client-side operation,  Next: Server-side operation,  Prev: Testing for SSL support,  Up: 範例<25>

5.18.3.17 Client-side operation
...............................

This example creates a SSL context with the recommended security
settings for client sockets, including automatic certificate
verification:

     >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()

If you prefer to tune security settings yourself, you might create a
context from scratch (but beware that you might not get the settings
right):

     >>> context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     >>> context.load_verify_locations("/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt")

(this snippet assumes your operating system places a bundle of all CA
certificates in ‘/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt’; if not, you'll get an
error and have to adjust the location)

The *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 69c. protocol configures the context for
cert validation and hostname verification.  *note verify_mode: 312d. is
set to *note CERT_REQUIRED: 312e. and *note check_hostname: 3141. is set
to ‘True’.  All other protocols create SSL contexts with insecure
defaults.

When you use the context to connect to a server, *note CERT_REQUIRED:
312e. and *note check_hostname: 3141. validate the server certificate:
it ensures that the server certificate was signed with one of the CA
certificates, checks the signature for correctness, and verifies other
properties like validity and identity of the hostname:

     >>> conn = context.wrap_socket(socket.socket(socket.AF_INET),
     ...                            server_hostname="www.python.org")
     >>> conn.connect(("www.python.org", 443))

You may then fetch the certificate:

     >>> cert = conn.getpeercert()

Visual inspection shows that the certificate does identify the desired
service (that is, the HTTPS host ‘www.python.org’):

     >>> pprint.pprint(cert)
     {'OCSP': ('http://ocsp.digicert.com',),
      'caIssuers': ('http://cacerts.digicert.com/DigiCertSHA2ExtendedValidationServerCA.crt',),
      'crlDistributionPoints': ('http://crl3.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl',
                                'http://crl4.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl'),
      'issuer': ((('countryName', 'US'),),
                 (('organizationName', 'DigiCert Inc'),),
                 (('organizationalUnitName', 'www.digicert.com'),),
                 (('commonName', 'DigiCert SHA2 Extended Validation Server CA'),)),
      'notAfter': 'Sep  9 12:00:00 2016 GMT',
      'notBefore': 'Sep  5 00:00:00 2014 GMT',
      'serialNumber': '01BB6F00122B177F36CAB49CEA8B6B26',
      'subject': ((('businessCategory', 'Private Organization'),),
                  (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.3', 'US'),),
                  (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.2', 'Delaware'),),
                  (('serialNumber', '3359300'),),
                  (('streetAddress', '16 Allen Rd'),),
                  (('postalCode', '03894-4801'),),
                  (('countryName', 'US'),),
                  (('stateOrProvinceName', 'NH'),),
                  (('localityName', 'Wolfeboro'),),
                  (('organizationName', 'Python Software Foundation'),),
                  (('commonName', 'www.python.org'),)),
      'subjectAltName': (('DNS', 'www.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'pypi.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'docs.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'testpypi.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'bugs.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'wiki.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'hg.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'mail.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'packaging.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'www.pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'test.pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'us.pycon.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'id.python.org')),
      'version': 3}

Now the SSL channel is established and the certificate verified, you can
proceed to talk with the server:

     >>> conn.sendall(b"HEAD / HTTP/1.0\r\nHost: linuxfr.org\r\n\r\n")
     >>> pprint.pprint(conn.recv(1024).split(b"\r\n"))
     [b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK',
      b'Date: Sat, 18 Oct 2014 18:27:20 GMT',
      b'Server: nginx',
      b'Content-Type: text/html; charset=utf-8',
      b'X-Frame-Options: SAMEORIGIN',
      b'Content-Length: 45679',
      b'Accept-Ranges: bytes',
      b'Via: 1.1 varnish',
      b'Age: 2188',
      b'X-Served-By: cache-lcy1134-LCY',
      b'X-Cache: HIT',
      b'X-Cache-Hits: 11',
      b'Vary: Cookie',
      b'Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=63072000; includeSubDomains',
      b'Connection: close',
      b'',
      b'']

參閱下方 *note Security considerations: 301e. 的討論。


File: python.info,  Node: Server-side operation,  Prev: Client-side operation,  Up: 範例<25>

5.18.3.18 Server-side operation
...............................

For server operation, typically you'll need to have a server
certificate, and private key, each in a file.  You'll first create a
context holding the key and the certificate, so that clients can check
your authenticity.  Then you'll open a socket, bind it to a port, call
‘listen()’ on it, and start waiting for clients to connect:

     import socket, ssl

     context = ssl.create_default_context(ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
     context.load_cert_chain(certfile="mycertfile", keyfile="mykeyfile")

     bindsocket = socket.socket()
     bindsocket.bind(('myaddr.example.com', 10023))
     bindsocket.listen(5)

When a client connects, you'll call ‘accept()’ on the socket to get the
new socket from the other end, and use the context's *note
SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2a5. method to create a server-side SSL socket
for the connection:

     while True:
         newsocket, fromaddr = bindsocket.accept()
         connstream = context.wrap_socket(newsocket, server_side=True)
         try:
             deal_with_client(connstream)
         finally:
             connstream.shutdown(socket.SHUT_RDWR)
             connstream.close()

Then you'll read data from the ‘connstream’ and do something with it
till you are finished with the client (or the client is finished with
you):

     def deal_with_client(connstream):
         data = connstream.recv(1024)
         # empty data means the client is finished with us
         while data:
             if not do_something(connstream, data):
                 # we'll assume do_something returns False
                 # when we're finished with client
                 break
             data = connstream.recv(1024)
         # finished with client

And go back to listening for new client connections (of course, a real
server would probably handle each client connection in a separate
thread, or put the sockets in *note non-blocking mode: 3133. and use an
event loop).


File: python.info,  Node: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Next: Memory BIO Support<2>,  Prev: 範例<25>,  Up: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器

5.18.3.19 Notes on non-blocking sockets
.......................................

SSL sockets behave slightly different than regular sockets in
non-blocking mode.  When working with non-blocking sockets, there are
thus several things you need to be aware of:

   - Most *note SSLSocket: 723. methods will raise either *note
     SSLWantWriteError: ce8. or *note SSLWantReadError: ce7. instead of
     *note BlockingIOError: eed. if an I/O operation would block.  *note
     SSLWantReadError: ce7. will be raised if a read operation on the
     underlying socket is necessary, and *note SSLWantWriteError: ce8.
     for a write operation on the underlying socket.  Note that attempts
     to 'write' to an SSL socket may require 'reading' from the
     underlying socket first, and attempts to 'read' from the SSL socket
     may require a prior 'write' to the underlying socket.

     在 3.5 版的變更: In earlier Python versions, the ‘SSLSocket.send()’
     method returned zero instead of raising *note SSLWantWriteError:
     ce8. or *note SSLWantReadError: ce7.

   - Calling *note select(): c17. tells you that the OS-level socket can
     be read from (or written to), but it does not imply that there is
     sufficient data at the upper SSL layer.  For example, only part of
     an SSL frame might have arrived.  Therefore, you must be ready to
     handle ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ and ‘SSLSocket.send()’ failures, and
     retry after another call to *note select(): c17.

   - Conversely, since the SSL layer has its own framing, a SSL socket
     may still have data available for reading without *note select():
     c17. being aware of it.  Therefore, you should first call
     ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ to drain any potentially available data, and
     then only block on a *note select(): c17. call if still necessary.

     (of course, similar provisions apply when using other primitives
     such as *note poll(): 292d, or those in the *note selectors: bd.
     module)

   - The SSL handshake itself will be non-blocking: the *note
     SSLSocket.do_handshake(): ceb. method has to be retried until it
     returns successfully.  Here is a synopsis using *note select():
     c17. to wait for the socket's readiness:

          while True:
              try:
                  sock.do_handshake()
                  break
              except ssl.SSLWantReadError:
                  select.select([sock], [], [])
              except ssl.SSLWantWriteError:
                  select.select([], [sock], [])

也參考
......

The *note asyncio: 9. module supports *note non-blocking SSL sockets:
3133. and provides a higher level API. It polls for events using the
*note selectors: bd. module and handles *note SSLWantWriteError: ce8,
*note SSLWantReadError: ce7. and *note BlockingIOError: eed. exceptions.
It runs the SSL handshake asynchronously as well.


File: python.info,  Node: Memory BIO Support<2>,  Next: SSL session,  Prev: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Up: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器

5.18.3.20 Memory BIO Support
............................

在 3.5 版被加入.

Ever since the SSL module was introduced in Python 2.6, the *note
SSLSocket: 723. class has provided two related but distinct areas of
functionality:

   - SSL protocol handling

   - Network IO

The network IO API is identical to that provided by *note socket.socket:
c18, from which *note SSLSocket: 723. also inherits.  This allows an SSL
socket to be used as a drop-in replacement for a regular socket, making
it very easy to add SSL support to an existing application.

Combining SSL protocol handling and network IO usually works well, but
there are some cases where it doesn't.  An example is async IO
frameworks that want to use a different IO multiplexing model than the
"select/poll on a file descriptor" (readiness based) model that is
assumed by *note socket.socket: c18. and by the internal OpenSSL socket
IO routines.  This is mostly relevant for platforms like Windows where
this model is not efficient.  For this purpose, a reduced scope variant
of *note SSLSocket: 723. called *note SSLObject: 9de. is provided.

 -- 類別: ssl.SSLObject

     A reduced-scope variant of *note SSLSocket: 723. representing an
     SSL protocol instance that does not contain any network IO methods.
     This class is typically used by framework authors that want to
     implement asynchronous IO for SSL through memory buffers.

     This class implements an interface on top of a low-level SSL object
     as implemented by OpenSSL. This object captures the state of an SSL
     connection but does not provide any network IO itself.  IO needs to
     be performed through separate "BIO" objects which are OpenSSL's IO
     abstraction layer.

     This class has no public constructor.  An *note SSLObject: 9de.
     instance must be created using the *note wrap_bio(): 9df. method.
     This method will create the *note SSLObject: 9de. instance and bind
     it to a pair of BIOs.  The 'incoming' BIO is used to pass data from
     Python to the SSL protocol instance, while the 'outgoing' BIO is
     used to pass data the other way around.

     The following methods are available:

        - *note context: 3169.

        - *note server_side: 316b.

        - *note server_hostname: 9dc.

        - *note session: 13e1.

        - *note session_reused: 316c.

        - *note read(): cec.

        - *note write(): ced.

        - *note getpeercert(): e46.

        - *note selected_alpn_protocol(): ce3.

        - *note selected_npn_protocol(): 69e.

        - *note cipher(): 3062.

        - *note shared_ciphers(): cea.

        - *note compression(): fd7.

        - *note pending(): 316a.

        - *note do_handshake(): ceb.

        - *note verify_client_post_handshake(): 87b.

        - *note unwrap(): 3168.

        - *note get_channel_binding(): fd6.

        - *note version(): ce6.

     When compared to *note SSLSocket: 723, this object lacks the
     following features:

        - Any form of network IO; ‘recv()’ and ‘send()’ read and write
          only to the underlying *note MemoryBIO: ce0. buffers.

        - There is no 'do_handshake_on_connect' machinery.  You must
          always manually call *note do_handshake(): ceb. to start the
          handshake.

        - There is no handling of 'suppress_ragged_eofs'.  All
          end-of-file conditions that are in violation of the protocol
          are reported via the *note SSLEOFError: 150a. exception.

        - The method *note unwrap(): 3168. call does not return
          anything, unlike for an SSL socket where it returns the
          underlying socket.

        - The 'server_name_callback' callback passed to *note
          SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): e45. will get an *note
          SSLObject: 9de. instance instead of a *note SSLSocket: 723.
          instance as its first parameter.

     Some notes related to the use of *note SSLObject: 9de.:

        - All IO on an *note SSLObject: 9de. is *note non-blocking:
          3133.  This means that for example *note read(): cec. will
          raise an *note SSLWantReadError: ce7. if it needs more data
          than the incoming BIO has available.

     在 3.7 版的變更: *note SSLObject: 9de. instances must be created
     with *note wrap_bio(): 9df.  In earlier versions, it was possible
     to create instances directly.  This was never documented or
     officially supported.

An SSLObject communicates with the outside world using memory buffers.
The class *note MemoryBIO: ce0. provides a memory buffer that can be
used for this purpose.  It wraps an OpenSSL memory BIO (Basic IO)
object:

 -- 類別: ssl.MemoryBIO

     A memory buffer that can be used to pass data between Python and an
     SSL protocol instance.

      -- 屬性: pending

          Return the number of bytes currently in the memory buffer.

      -- 屬性: eof

          A boolean indicating whether the memory BIO is current at the
          end-of-file position.

      -- 方法: read (n=-1)

          Read up to 'n' bytes from the memory buffer.  If 'n' is not
          specified or negative, all bytes are returned.

      -- 方法: write (buf)

          Write the bytes from 'buf' to the memory BIO. The 'buf'
          argument must be an object supporting the buffer protocol.

          The return value is the number of bytes written, which is
          always equal to the length of 'buf'.

      -- 方法: write_eof ()

          Write an EOF marker to the memory BIO. After this method has
          been called, it is illegal to call *note write(): 3184.  The
          attribute *note eof: 3182. will become true after all data
          currently in the buffer has been read.


File: python.info,  Node: SSL session,  Next: Security considerations<2>,  Prev: Memory BIO Support<2>,  Up: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器

5.18.3.21 SSL session
.....................

在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ssl.SSLSession

     Session object used by *note session: 13e1.

      -- 屬性: id

      -- 屬性: time

      -- 屬性: timeout

      -- 屬性: ticket_lifetime_hint

      -- 屬性: has_ticket


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations<2>,  Next: TLS 1 3,  Prev: SSL session,  Up: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器

5.18.3.22 Security considerations
.................................

* Menu:

* Best defaults::
* 手動設定::
* Multi-processing::


File: python.info,  Node: Best defaults,  Next: 手動設定,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.18.3.23 Best defaults
.......................

For 'client use', if you don't have any special requirements for your
security policy, it is highly recommended that you use the *note
create_default_context(): e36. function to create your SSL context.  It
will load the system's trusted CA certificates, enable certificate
validation and hostname checking, and try to choose reasonably secure
protocol and cipher settings.

For example, here is how you would use the *note smtplib.SMTP: 76c.
class to create a trusted, secure connection to a SMTP server:

     >>> import ssl, smtplib
     >>> smtp = smtplib.SMTP("mail.python.org", port=587)
     >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()
     >>> smtp.starttls(context=context)
     (220, b'2.0.0 Ready to start TLS')

If a client certificate is needed for the connection, it can be added
with *note SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): fd3.

By contrast, if you create the SSL context by calling the *note
SSLContext: 26f. constructor yourself, it will not have certificate
validation nor hostname checking enabled by default.  If you do so,
please read the paragraphs below to achieve a good security level.


File: python.info,  Node: 手動設定,  Next: Multi-processing,  Prev: Best defaults,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.18.3.24 手動設定
..................

* Menu:

* 驗證憑證::
* 協定版本::
* Cipher selection::


File: python.info,  Node: 驗證憑證,  Next: 協定版本,  Up: 手動設定

5.18.3.25 驗證憑證
..................

When calling the *note SSLContext: 26f. constructor directly, *note
CERT_NONE: 313f. is the default.  Since it does not authenticate the
other peer, it can be insecure, especially in client mode where most of
the time you would like to ensure the authenticity of the server you're
talking to.  Therefore, when in client mode, it is highly recommended to
use *note CERT_REQUIRED: 312e.  However, it is in itself not sufficient;
you also have to check that the server certificate, which can be
obtained by calling *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e46, matches the
desired service.  For many protocols and applications, the service can
be identified by the hostname.  This common check is automatically
performed when *note SSLContext.check_hostname: 3141. is enabled.

在 3.7 版的變更: Hostname matchings is now performed by OpenSSL. Python
no longer uses ‘match_hostname()’.

In server mode, if you want to authenticate your clients using the SSL
layer (rather than using a higher-level authentication mechanism),
you'll also have to specify *note CERT_REQUIRED: 312e. and similarly
check the client certificate.


File: python.info,  Node: 協定版本,  Next: Cipher selection,  Prev: 驗證憑證,  Up: 手動設定

5.18.3.26 協定版本
..................

SSL versions 2 and 3 are considered insecure and are therefore dangerous
to use.  If you want maximum compatibility between clients and servers,
it is recommended to use *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 69c. or *note
PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 69d. as the protocol version.  SSLv2 and SSLv3 are
disabled by default.

     >>> client_context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     >>> client_context.minimum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3
     >>> client_context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

The SSL context created above will only allow TLSv1.3 and later (if
supported by your system) connections to a server.  *note
PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 69c. implies certificate validation and hostname
checks by default.  You have to load certificates into the context.


File: python.info,  Node: Cipher selection,  Prev: 協定版本,  Up: 手動設定

5.18.3.27 Cipher selection
..........................

If you have advanced security requirements, fine-tuning of the ciphers
enabled when negotiating a SSL session is possible through the *note
SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 316f. method.  Starting from Python 3.2.3, the
ssl module disables certain weak ciphers by default, but you may want to
further restrict the cipher choice.  Be sure to read OpenSSL's
documentation about the cipher list format(1).  If you want to check
which ciphers are enabled by a given cipher list, use *note
SSLContext.get_ciphers(): b4b. or the ‘openssl ciphers’ command on your
system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-processing,  Prev: 手動設定,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.18.3.28 Multi-processing
..........................

If using this module as part of a multi-processed application (using,
for example the *note multiprocessing: 8f. or *note concurrent.futures:
1f. modules), be aware that OpenSSL's internal random number generator
does not properly handle forked processes.  Applications must change the
PRNG state of the parent process if they use any SSL feature with *note
os.fork(): 233.  Any successful call of *note RAND_add(): 3139. or *note
RAND_bytes(): 2a4. is sufficient.


File: python.info,  Node: TLS 1 3,  Prev: Security considerations<2>,  Up: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器

5.18.3.29 TLS 1.3
.................

在 3.7 版被加入.

The TLS 1.3 protocol behaves slightly differently than previous version
of TLS/SSL. Some new TLS 1.3 features are not yet available.

   - TLS 1.3 uses a disjunct set of cipher suites.  All AES-GCM and
     ChaCha20 cipher suites are enabled by default.  The method *note
     SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 316f. cannot enable or disable any TLS
     1.3 ciphers yet, but *note SSLContext.get_ciphers(): b4b. returns
     them.

   - Session tickets are no longer sent as part of the initial handshake
     and are handled differently.  *note SSLSocket.session: 13e1. and
     *note SSLSession: b4a. are not compatible with TLS 1.3.

   - Client-side certificates are also no longer verified during the
     initial handshake.  A server can request a certificate at any time.
     Clients process certificate requests while they send or receive
     application data from the server.

   - TLS 1.3 features like early data, deferred TLS client cert request,
     signature algorithm configuration, and rekeying are not supported
     yet.

也參考
......

*note socket.socket: c18. 類別

     底層 *note socket: c6. 類別的文件

SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction(1)

     Apache HTTP Server 文件的介紹

RFC 1422: Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail: Part II: Certificate-Based Key Management(2)

     Steve Kent

RFC 4086: Randomness Requirements for Security(3)

     Donald E., Jeffrey I. Schiller

RFC 5280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile(4)

     D. Cooper

RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2(5)

     T. Dierks et.  al.

RFC 6066: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions(6)

     D. Eastlake

IANA TLS: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters(7)

     IANA

RFC 7525: Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)(8)

     IETF

Mozilla's Server Side TLS recommendations(9)

     Mozilla

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/en/ssl/ssl_intro.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4086.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (7) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7525.html

   (9) https://wiki.mozilla.org/Security/Server_Side_TLS


File: python.info,  Node: select --- 等待 I/O 完成,  Next: selectors --- 高階 I/O 多工,  Prev: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.4 ‘select’ -- 等待 I/O 完成
--------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the ‘select()’ and ‘poll()’ functions
available in most operating systems, ‘devpoll()’ available on Solaris
and derivatives, ‘epoll()’ available on Linux 2.5+ and ‘kqueue()’
available on most BSD. Note that on Windows, it only works for sockets;
on other operating systems, it also works for other file types (in
particular, on Unix, it works on pipes).  It cannot be used on regular
files to determine whether a file has grown since it was last read.

     備註: The *note selectors: bd. module allows high-level and
     efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the *note select: bc. module
     primitives.  Users are encouraged to use the *note selectors: bd.
     module instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level
     primitives used.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

The module defines the following:

 -- 例外: select.error

     A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 644.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was made an
     alias of *note OSError: 644.

 -- 函式: select.devpoll ()

     (Only supported on Solaris and derivatives.)  Returns a ‘/dev/poll’
     polling object; see section *note /dev/poll Polling Objects: 3196.
     below for the methods supported by devpoll objects.

     ‘devpoll()’ objects are linked to the number of file descriptors
     allowed at the time of instantiation.  If your program reduces this
     value, ‘devpoll()’ will fail.  If your program increases this
     value, ‘devpoll()’ may return an incomplete list of active file
     descriptors.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.

 -- 函式: select.epoll (sizehint=-1, flags=0)

     (Only supported on Linux 2.5.44 and newer.)  Return an edge polling
     object, which can be used as Edge or Level Triggered interface for
     I/O events.

     'sizehint' informs epoll about the expected number of events to be
     registered.  It must be positive, or ‘-1’ to use the default.  It
     is only used on older systems where ‘epoll_create1()’ is not
     available; otherwise it has no effect (though its value is still
     checked).

     'flags' is deprecated and completely ignored.  However, when
     supplied, its value must be ‘0’ or ‘select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC’,
     otherwise ‘OSError’ is raised.

     See the *note Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: 3197.
     section below for the methods supported by epolling objects.

     ‘epoll’ objects support the context management protocol: when used
     in a *note with: 3c5. statement, the new file descriptor is
     automatically closed at the end of the block.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'flags' 參數。

     在 3.4 版的變更: Support for the *note with: 3c5. statement was
     added.  The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.

     在 3.4 版之後被棄用: The 'flags' parameter.  ‘select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC’
     is used by default now.  Use *note os.set_inheritable(): d7f. to
     make the file descriptor inheritable.

 -- 函式: select.poll ()

     (Not supported by all operating systems.)  Returns a polling
     object, which supports registering and unregistering file
     descriptors, and then polling them for I/O events; see section
     *note Polling Objects: 3198. below for the methods supported by
     polling objects.

 -- 函式: select.kqueue ()

     (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel queue object; see section
     *note Kqueue Objects: 3199. below for the methods supported by
     kqueue objects.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d7d.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.

 -- 函式: select.kevent (ident, filter=KQ_FILTER_READ, flags=KQ_EV_ADD,
          fflags=0, data=0, udata=0)

     (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel event object; see section
     *note Kevent Objects: 319b. below for the methods supported by
     kevent objects.

 -- 函式: select.select (rlist, wlist, xlist[, timeout])

     This is a straightforward interface to the Unix ‘select()’ system
     call.  The first three arguments are iterables of 'waitable
     objects': either integers representing file descriptors or objects
     with a parameterless method named *note fileno(): 25ca. returning
     such an integer:

        * 'rlist': wait until ready for reading

        * 'wlist': wait until ready for writing

        * 'xlist': wait for an "exceptional condition" (see the manual
          page for what your system considers such a condition)

     Empty iterables are allowed, but acceptance of three empty
     iterables is platform-dependent.  (It is known to work on Unix but
     not on Windows.)  The optional 'timeout' argument specifies a
     time-out as a floating-point number in seconds.  When the 'timeout'
     argument is omitted the function blocks until at least one file
     descriptor is ready.  A time-out value of zero specifies a poll and
     never blocks.

     The return value is a triple of lists of objects that are ready:
     subsets of the first three arguments.  When the time-out is reached
     without a file descriptor becoming ready, three empty lists are
     returned.

     Among the acceptable object types in the iterables are Python *note
     file objects: 1054. (e.g.  ‘sys.stdin’, or objects returned by
     *note open(): 29c. or *note os.popen(): 8d3.), socket objects
     returned by *note socket.socket(): c18.  You may also define a
     'wrapper' class yourself, as long as it has an appropriate *note
     fileno(): 25ca. method (that really returns a file descriptor, not
     just a random integer).

          備註: 
          File objects on Windows are not acceptable, but sockets are.
          On Windows, the underlying ‘select()’ function is provided by
          the WinSock library, and does not handle file descriptors that
          don't originate from WinSock.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The function is now retried with a recomputed
     timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler
     raises an exception (see PEP 475(2) for the rationale), instead of
     raising *note InterruptedError: bfe.

 -- 屬性: select.PIPE_BUF

     The minimum number of bytes which can be written without blocking
     to a pipe when the pipe has been reported as ready for writing by
     *note select(): c17, ‘poll()’ or another interface in this module.
     This doesn't apply to other kind of file-like objects such as
     sockets.

     This value is guaranteed by POSIX to be at least 512.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix

     在 3.2 版被加入.

* Menu:

* /dev/poll Polling Objects::
* Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
* Polling Objects::
* Kqueue Objects::
* Kevent Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: /dev/poll Polling Objects,  Next: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Up: select --- 等待 I/O 完成

5.18.4.1 ‘/dev/poll’ Polling Objects
....................................

Solaris and derivatives have ‘/dev/poll’.  While ‘select()’ is
'O'('highest file descriptor') and ‘poll()’ is 'O'('number of file
descriptors'), ‘/dev/poll’ is 'O'('active file descriptors').

‘/dev/poll’ behaviour is very close to the standard ‘poll()’ object.

 -- 方法: devpoll.close ()

     Close the file descriptor of the polling object.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: devpoll.closed

     ‘True’ if the polling object is closed.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 方法: devpoll.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the polling object.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 方法: devpoll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls
     to the *note poll(): 292d. method will then check whether the file
     descriptor has any pending I/O events.  'fd' can be either an
     integer, or an object with a *note fileno(): 25ca. method that
     returns an integer.  File objects implement ‘fileno()’, so they can
     also be used as the argument.

     'eventmask' is an optional bitmask describing the type of events
     you want to check for.  The constants are the same that with
     ‘poll()’ object.  The default value is a combination of the
     constants ‘POLLIN’, ‘POLLPRI’, and ‘POLLOUT’.

          警告: Registering a file descriptor that's already registered
          is not an error, but the result is undefined.  The appropriate
          action is to unregister or modify it first.  This is an
          important difference compared with ‘poll()’.

 -- 方法: devpoll.modify (fd[, eventmask])

     This method does an *note unregister(): 319f. followed by a *note
     register(): 319d.  It is (a bit) more efficient that doing the same
     explicitly.

 -- 方法: devpoll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just
     like the *note register(): 319d. method, 'fd' can be an integer or
     an object with a *note fileno(): 25ca. method that returns an
     integer.

     Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered is
     safely ignored.

 -- 方法: devpoll.poll ([timeout])

     Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a
     possibly empty list containing ‘(fd, event)’ 2-tuples for the
     descriptors that have events or errors to report.  'fd' is the file
     descriptor, and 'event' is a bitmask with bits set for the reported
     events for that descriptor -- ‘POLLIN’ for waiting input, ‘POLLOUT’
     to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth.
     An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
     descriptors had any events to report.  If 'timeout' is given, it
     specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will
     wait for events before returning.  If 'timeout' is omitted, -1, or
     *note None: 470, the call will block until there is an event for
     this poll object.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The function is now retried with a recomputed
     timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler
     raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the rationale), instead of
     raising *note InterruptedError: bfe.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Next: Polling Objects,  Prev: /dev/poll Polling Objects,  Up: select --- 等待 I/O 完成

5.18.4.2 Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects
.......................................................

     ‘https://linux.die.net/man/4/epoll’

     'eventmask'

     常數                          含義
                                   
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
     ‘EPOLLIN’                     Available for read
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLOUT’                    Available for write
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLPRI’                    Urgent data for read
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLERR’                    Error condition happened on the assoc.  fd
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLHUP’                    Hang up happened on the assoc.  fd
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLET’                     Set Edge Trigger behavior, the default is Level
                                   Trigger behavior
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLONESHOT’                Set one-shot behavior.  After one event is pulled
                                   out, the fd is internally disabled
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLEXCLUSIVE’              Wake only one epoll object when the associated fd
                                   has an event.  The default (if this flag is not
                                   set) is to wake all epoll objects polling on a
                                   fd.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDHUP’                  Stream socket peer closed connection or shut down
                                   writing half of connection.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDNORM’                 等價於 ‘EPOLLIN’
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDBAND’                 Priority data band can be read.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLWRNORM’                 等價於 ‘EPOLLOUT’
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLWRBAND’                 Priority data may be written.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLMSG’                    Ignored.
                                   

     在 3.6 版被加入: ‘EPOLLEXCLUSIVE’ was added.  It's only supported
     by Linux Kernel 4.5 or later.

 -- 方法: epoll.close ()

     Close the control file descriptor of the epoll object.

 -- 屬性: epoll.closed

     ‘True’ if the epoll object is closed.

 -- 方法: epoll.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.

 -- 方法: epoll.fromfd (fd)

     Create an epoll object from a given file descriptor.

 -- 方法: epoll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a fd descriptor with the epoll object.

 -- 方法: epoll.modify (fd, eventmask)

     Modify a registered file descriptor.

 -- 方法: epoll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a registered file descriptor from the epoll object.

     在 3.9 版的變更: The method no longer ignores the *note EBADF: 79c.
     error.

 -- 方法: epoll.poll (timeout=None, maxevents=-1)

     Wait for events.  timeout in seconds (float)

     在 3.5 版的變更: The function is now retried with a recomputed
     timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler
     raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the rationale), instead of
     raising *note InterruptedError: bfe.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Polling Objects,  Next: Kqueue Objects,  Prev: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Up: select --- 等待 I/O 完成

5.18.4.3 Polling Objects
........................

The ‘poll()’ system call, supported on most Unix systems, provides
better scalability for network servers that service many, many clients
at the same time.  ‘poll()’ scales better because the system call only
requires listing the file descriptors of interest, while ‘select()’
builds a bitmap, turns on bits for the fds of interest, and then
afterward the whole bitmap has to be linearly scanned again.  ‘select()’
is 'O'('highest file descriptor'), while ‘poll()’ is 'O'('number of file
descriptors').

 -- 方法: poll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls
     to the *note poll(): 292d. method will then check whether the file
     descriptor has any pending I/O events.  'fd' can be either an
     integer, or an object with a *note fileno(): 25ca. method that
     returns an integer.  File objects implement ‘fileno()’, so they can
     also be used as the argument.

     'eventmask' is an optional bitmask describing the type of events
     you want to check for, and can be a combination of the constants
     ‘POLLIN’, ‘POLLPRI’, and ‘POLLOUT’, described in the table below.
     If not specified, the default value used will check for all 3 types
     of events.

     常數                    含義
                             
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                             
     ‘POLLIN’                There is data to read
                             
                             
     ‘POLLPRI’               There is urgent data to read
                             
                             
     ‘POLLOUT’               Ready for output: writing will not block
                             
                             
     ‘POLLERR’               Error condition of some sort
                             
                             
     ‘POLLHUP’               Hung up
                             
                             
     ‘POLLRDHUP’             Stream socket peer closed connection, or
                             shut down writing half of connection
                             
                             
     ‘POLLNVAL’              Invalid request: descriptor not open
                             

     Registering a file descriptor that's already registered is not an
     error, and has the same effect as registering the descriptor
     exactly once.

 -- 方法: poll.modify (fd, eventmask)

     Modifies an already registered fd.  This has the same effect as
     ‘register(fd, eventmask)’.  Attempting to modify a file descriptor
     that was never registered causes an *note OSError: 644. exception
     with errno ‘ENOENT’ to be raised.

 -- 方法: poll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just
     like the *note register(): 31a7. method, 'fd' can be an integer or
     an object with a *note fileno(): 25ca. method that returns an
     integer.

     Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered
     causes a *note KeyError: 8ed. exception to be raised.

 -- 方法: poll.poll ([timeout])

     Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a
     possibly empty list containing ‘(fd, event)’ 2-tuples for the
     descriptors that have events or errors to report.  'fd' is the file
     descriptor, and 'event' is a bitmask with bits set for the reported
     events for that descriptor -- ‘POLLIN’ for waiting input, ‘POLLOUT’
     to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth.
     An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
     descriptors had any events to report.  If 'timeout' is given, it
     specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will
     wait for events before returning.  If 'timeout' is omitted,
     negative, or *note None: 470, the call will block until there is an
     event for this poll object.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The function is now retried with a recomputed
     timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler
     raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the rationale), instead of
     raising *note InterruptedError: bfe.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Kqueue Objects,  Next: Kevent Objects,  Prev: Polling Objects,  Up: select --- 等待 I/O 完成

5.18.4.4 Kqueue Objects
.......................

 -- 方法: kqueue.close ()

     Close the control file descriptor of the kqueue object.

 -- 屬性: kqueue.closed

     ‘True’ if the kqueue object is closed.

 -- 方法: kqueue.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.

 -- 方法: kqueue.fromfd (fd)

     Create a kqueue object from a given file descriptor.

 -- 方法: kqueue.control (changelist, max_events[, timeout]) ->
          eventlist

     Low level interface to kevent

        - changelist must be an iterable of kevent objects or ‘None’

        - max_events must be 0 or a positive integer

        - timeout in seconds (floats possible); the default is ‘None’,
          to wait forever

     在 3.5 版的變更: The function is now retried with a recomputed
     timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler
     raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the rationale), instead of
     raising *note InterruptedError: bfe.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Kevent Objects,  Prev: Kqueue Objects,  Up: select --- 等待 I/O 完成

5.18.4.5 Kevent Objects
.......................

‘https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2’

 -- 屬性: kevent.ident

     Value used to identify the event.  The interpretation depends on
     the filter but it's usually the file descriptor.  In the
     constructor ident can either be an int or an object with a *note
     fileno(): 25ca. method.  kevent stores the integer internally.

 -- 屬性: kevent.filter

     Name of the kernel filter.

     常數                            含義
                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_READ’                Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there
                                     is data available to read
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_WRITE’               Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there
                                     is data available to write
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_AIO’                 AIO requests
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_VNODE’               Returns when one or more of the requested
                                     events watched in 'fflag' occurs
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’                Watch for events on a process id
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_NETDEV’              Watch for events on a network device [not
                                     available on macOS]
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_SIGNAL’              Returns whenever the watched signal is
                                     delivered to the process
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_TIMER’               Establishes an arbitrary timer
                                     

 -- 屬性: kevent.flags

     Filter action.

     常數                            含義
                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ADD’                     Adds or modifies an event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_DELETE’                  Removes an event from the queue
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ENABLE’                  Permitscontrol() to returns the event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_DISABLE’                 Disablesevent
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ONESHOT’                 Removes event after first occurrence
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_CLEAR’                   Reset the state after an event is retrieved
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_SYSFLAGS’                internal event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_FLAG1’                   internal event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_EOF’                     Filter specific EOF condition
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ERROR’                   See return values
                                     

 -- 屬性: kevent.fflags

     Filter specific flags.

     ‘KQ_FILTER_READ’ and ‘KQ_FILTER_WRITE’ filter flags:

     常數                             含義
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LOWAT’                  low water mark of a socket buffer
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_VNODE’ filter flags:

     常數                             含義
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_DELETE’                 'unlink()' was called
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_WRITE’                  a write occurred
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXTEND’                 the file was extended
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_ATTRIB’                 an attribute was changed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINK’                   the link count has changed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_RENAME’                 the file was renamed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_REVOKE’                 access to the file was revoked
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’ filter flags:

     常數                             含義
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXIT’                   the process has exited
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_FORK’                   the process has called 'fork()'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXEC’                   the process has executed a new process
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_PCTRLMASK’              internal filter flag
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_PDATAMASK’              internal filter flag
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_TRACK’                  follow a process across 'fork()'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_CHILD’                  returned on the child process for 'NOTE_TRACK'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_TRACKERR’               unable to attach to a child
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_NETDEV’ filter flags (not available on macOS):

     常數                             含義
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKUP’                 link is up
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKDOWN’               link is down
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKINV’                link state is invalid
                                      

 -- 屬性: kevent.data

     Filter specific data.

 -- 屬性: kevent.udata

     User defined value.


File: python.info,  Node: selectors --- 高階 I/O 多工,  Next: signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式,  Prev: select --- 等待 I/O 完成,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.5 ‘selectors’ -- 高階 I/O 多工
-----------------------------------

在 3.4 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/selectors.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<8>.
* Classes: Classes<3>.
* 範例: 範例<26>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/selectors.py


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<8>,  Next: Classes<3>,  Up: selectors --- 高階 I/O 多工

5.18.5.1 簡介
.............

This module allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon
the *note select: bc. module primitives.  Users are encouraged to use
this module instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level
primitives used.

It defines a *note BaseSelector: 31b9. abstract base class, along with
several concrete implementations (*note KqueueSelector: 30ab, *note
EpollSelector: a36...), that can be used to wait for I/O readiness
notification on multiple file objects.  In the following, "file object"
refers to any object with a *note fileno(): 25ca. method, or a raw file
descriptor.  See *note file object: 1054.

*note DefaultSelector: 31ba. is an alias to the most efficient
implementation available on the current platform: this should be the
default choice for most users.

     備註: The type of file objects supported depends on the platform:
     on Windows, sockets are supported, but not pipes, whereas on Unix,
     both are supported (some other types may be supported as well, such
     as fifos or special file devices).

也參考
......

*note select: bc.

     Low-level I/O multiplexing module.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。


File: python.info,  Node: Classes<3>,  Next: 範例<26>,  Prev: 簡介<8>,  Up: selectors --- 高階 I/O 多工

5.18.5.2 Classes
................

Classes hierarchy:

     BaseSelector
     +-- SelectSelector
     +-- PollSelector
     +-- EpollSelector
     +-- DevpollSelector
     +-- KqueueSelector

In the following, 'events' is a bitwise mask indicating which I/O events
should be waited for on a given file object.  It can be a combination of
the modules constants below:

     Constant                    含義
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
      -- 資料:                   Available for read
               selectors.EVENT_READ

      -- 資料:                   Available for write
               selectors.EVENT_WRITE

 -- 類別: selectors.SelectorKey

     A *note SelectorKey: 31be. is a *note namedtuple: 731. used to
     associate a file object to its underlying file descriptor, selected
     event mask and attached data.  It is returned by several *note
     BaseSelector: 31b9. methods.

      -- 屬性: fileobj

          File object registered.

      -- 屬性: fd

          Underlying file descriptor.

      -- 屬性: events

          Events that must be waited for on this file object.

      -- 屬性: data

          Optional opaque data associated to this file object: for
          example, this could be used to store a per-client session ID.

 -- 類別: selectors.BaseSelector

     A *note BaseSelector: 31b9. is used to wait for I/O event readiness
     on multiple file objects.  It supports file stream registration,
     unregistration, and a method to wait for I/O events on those
     streams, with an optional timeout.  It's an abstract base class, so
     cannot be instantiated.  Use *note DefaultSelector: 31ba. instead,
     or one of *note SelectSelector: 30a8, *note KqueueSelector: 30ab.
     etc.  if you want to specifically use an implementation, and your
     platform supports it.  *note BaseSelector: 31b9. and its concrete
     implementations support the *note context manager: 3c4. protocol.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod register (fileobj, events, data=None)

          Register a file object for selection, monitoring it for I/O
          events.

          'fileobj' is the file object to monitor.  It may either be an
          integer file descriptor or an object with a ‘fileno()’ method.
          'events' is a bitwise mask of events to monitor.  'data' is an
          opaque object.

          This returns a new *note SelectorKey: 31be. instance, or
          raises a *note ValueError: 183. in case of invalid event mask
          or file descriptor, or *note KeyError: 8ed. if the file object
          is already registered.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod unregister (fileobj)

          Unregister a file object from selection, removing it from
          monitoring.  A file object shall be unregistered prior to
          being closed.

          'fileobj' must be a file object previously registered.

          This returns the associated *note SelectorKey: 31be. instance,
          or raises a *note KeyError: 8ed. if 'fileobj' is not
          registered.  It will raise *note ValueError: 183. if 'fileobj'
          is invalid (e.g.  it has no ‘fileno()’ method or its
          ‘fileno()’ method has an invalid return value).

      -- 方法: modify (fileobj, events, data=None)

          Change a registered file object's monitored events or attached
          data.

          This is equivalent to ‘BaseSelector.unregister(fileobj)’
          followed by ‘BaseSelector.register(fileobj, events, data)’,
          except that it can be implemented more efficiently.

          This returns a new *note SelectorKey: 31be. instance, or
          raises a *note ValueError: 183. in case of invalid event mask
          or file descriptor, or *note KeyError: 8ed. if the file object
          is not registered.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod select (timeout=None)

          Wait until some registered file objects become ready, or the
          timeout expires.

          If ‘timeout > 0’, this specifies the maximum wait time, in
          seconds.  If ‘timeout <= 0’, the call won't block, and will
          report the currently ready file objects.  If 'timeout' is
          ‘None’, the call will block until a monitored file object
          becomes ready.

          This returns a list of ‘(key, events)’ tuples, one for each
          ready file object.

          'key' is the *note SelectorKey: 31be. instance corresponding
          to a ready file object.  'events' is a bitmask of events ready
          on this file object.

               備註: This method can return before any file object
               becomes ready or the timeout has elapsed if the current
               process receives a signal: in this case, an empty list
               will be returned.

          在 3.5 版的變更: The selector is now retried with a recomputed
          timeout when interrupted by a signal if the signal handler did
          not raise an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the rationale),
          instead of returning an empty list of events before the
          timeout.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Close the selector.

          This must be called to make sure that any underlying resource
          is freed.  The selector shall not be used once it has been
          closed.

      -- 方法: get_key (fileobj)

          Return the key associated with a registered file object.

          This returns the *note SelectorKey: 31be. instance associated
          to this file object, or raises *note KeyError: 8ed. if the
          file object is not registered.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod get_map ()

          Return a mapping of file objects to selector keys.

          This returns a *note Mapping: 702. instance mapping registered
          file objects to their associated *note SelectorKey: 31be.
          instance.

 -- 類別: selectors.DefaultSelector

     The default selector class, using the most efficient implementation
     available on the current platform.  This should be the default
     choice for most users.

 -- 類別: selectors.SelectSelector

     *note select.select(): c17.-based selector.

 -- 類別: selectors.PollSelector

     *note select.poll(): 292d.-based selector.

 -- 類別: selectors.EpollSelector

     *note select.epoll(): e20.-based selector.

      -- 方法: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.epoll(): e20. object.

 -- 類別: selectors.DevpollSelector

     *note select.devpoll(): e22.-based selector.

      -- 方法: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.devpoll(): e22. object.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 類別: selectors.KqueueSelector

     *note select.kqueue(): 1470.-based selector.

      -- 方法: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.kqueue(): 1470. object.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<26>,  Prev: Classes<3>,  Up: selectors --- 高階 I/O 多工

5.18.5.3 範例
.............

Here is a simple echo server implementation:

     import selectors
     import socket

     sel = selectors.DefaultSelector()

     def accept(sock, mask):
         conn, addr = sock.accept()  # Should be ready
         print('accepted', conn, 'from', addr)
         conn.setblocking(False)
         sel.register(conn, selectors.EVENT_READ, read)

     def read(conn, mask):
         data = conn.recv(1000)  # Should be ready
         if data:
             print('echoing', repr(data), 'to', conn)
             conn.send(data)  # Hope it won't block
         else:
             print('closing', conn)
             sel.unregister(conn)
             conn.close()

     sock = socket.socket()
     sock.bind(('localhost', 1234))
     sock.listen(100)
     sock.setblocking(False)
     sel.register(sock, selectors.EVENT_READ, accept)

     while True:
         events = sel.select()
         for key, mask in events:
             callback = key.data
             callback(key.fileobj, mask)


File: python.info,  Node: signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式,  Next: mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援,  Prev: selectors --- 高階 I/O 多工,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.6 ‘signal’ -- 設定非同步事件的處理函式
-------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/signal.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides mechanisms to use signal handlers in Python.

* Menu:

* General rules::
* 模組內容: 模組內容<5>.
* 範例: 範例<27>.
* Note on SIGPIPE::
* Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/signal.py


File: python.info,  Node: General rules,  Next: 模組內容<5>,  Up: signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式

5.18.6.1 General rules
......................

The *note signal.signal(): fc4. function allows defining custom handlers
to be executed when a signal is received.  A small number of default
handlers are installed: *note SIGPIPE: 31d0. is ignored (so write errors
on pipes and sockets can be reported as ordinary Python exceptions) and
*note SIGINT: 66b. is translated into a *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815.
exception if the parent process has not changed it.

A handler for a particular signal, once set, remains installed until it
is explicitly reset (Python emulates the BSD style interface regardless
of the underlying implementation), with the exception of the handler for
*note SIGCHLD: 2966, which follows the underlying implementation.

On WebAssembly platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’, signals
are emulated and therefore behave differently.  Several functions and
signals are not available on these platforms.

* Menu:

* Execution of Python signal handlers::
* Signals and threads::


File: python.info,  Node: Execution of Python signal handlers,  Next: Signals and threads,  Up: General rules

5.18.6.2 Execution of Python signal handlers
............................................

A Python signal handler does not get executed inside the low-level (C)
signal handler.  Instead, the low-level signal handler sets a flag which
tells the *note virtual machine: 31d2. to execute the corresponding
Python signal handler at a later point(for example at the next *note
bytecode: 39f. instruction).  This has consequences:

   * It makes little sense to catch synchronous errors like *note
     SIGFPE: 1b3c. or *note SIGSEGV: 1b3b. that are caused by an invalid
     operation in C code.  Python will return from the signal handler to
     the C code, which is likely to raise the same signal again, causing
     Python to apparently hang.  From Python 3.3 onwards, you can use
     the *note faulthandler: 53. module to report on synchronous errors.

   * A long-running calculation implemented purely in C (such as regular
     expression matching on a large body of text) may run uninterrupted
     for an arbitrary amount of time, regardless of any signals
     received.  The Python signal handlers will be called when the
     calculation finishes.

   * If the handler raises an exception, it will be raised "out of thin
     air" in the main thread.  See the *note note below: 2022. for a
     discussion.


File: python.info,  Node: Signals and threads,  Prev: Execution of Python signal handlers,  Up: General rules

5.18.6.3 Signals and threads
............................

Python signal handlers are always executed in the main Python thread of
the main interpreter, even if the signal was received in another thread.
This means that signals can't be used as a means of inter-thread
communication.  You can use the synchronization primitives from the
*note threading: e7. module instead.

Besides, only the main thread of the main interpreter is allowed to set
a new signal handler.


File: python.info,  Node: 模組內容<5>,  Next: 範例<27>,  Prev: General rules,  Up: signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式

5.18.6.4 模組內容
.................

在 3.5 版的變更: signal (SIG*), handler (*note SIG_DFL: 15f2, *note
SIG_IGN: 15f1.) and sigmask (*note SIG_BLOCK: 31d6, *note SIG_UNBLOCK:
31d7, *note SIG_SETMASK: 31d8.) related constants listed below were
turned into *note enums: b4c. (*note Signals: 31d9, *note Handlers:
31da. and *note Sigmasks: 31db. respectively).  *note getsignal(): 144d,
*note pthread_sigmask(): fc0, *note sigpending(): fc2. and *note
sigwait(): fc3. functions return human-readable *note enums: b4c. as
*note Signals: 31d9. objects.

The signal module defines three enums:

 -- 類別: signal.Signals

     *note enum.IntEnum: b4c. collection of SIG* constants and the
     CTRL_* constants.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 類別: signal.Handlers

     *note enum.IntEnum: b4c. collection the constants *note SIG_DFL:
     15f2. and *note SIG_IGN: 15f1.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 類別: signal.Sigmasks

     *note enum.IntEnum: b4c. collection the constants *note SIG_BLOCK:
     31d6, *note SIG_UNBLOCK: 31d7. and *note SIG_SETMASK: 31d8.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     更多資訊請見 ‘sigprocmask(2)(1)’ 與 ‘pthread_sigmask(3)(2)’ 手冊頁
     。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

The variables defined in the *note signal: c1. module are:

 -- 資料: signal.SIG_DFL

     This is one of two standard signal handling options; it will simply
     perform the default function for the signal.  For example, on most
     systems the default action for ‘SIGQUIT’ is to dump core and exit,
     while the default action for *note SIGCHLD: 2966. is to simply
     ignore it.

 -- 資料: signal.SIG_IGN

     This is another standard signal handler, which will simply ignore
     the given signal.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGABRT

     Abort signal from ‘abort(3)(3)’.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGALRM

     Timer signal from ‘alarm(2)(4)’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGBREAK

     Interrupt from keyboard (CTRL + BREAK).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGBUS

     Bus error (bad memory access).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGCHLD

     Child process stopped or terminated.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGCLD

     *note SIGCHLD: 2966. 的別名。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: not macOS.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGCONT

     Continue the process if it is currently stopped

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGFPE

     Floating-point exception.  For example, division by zero.

     也參考
     ......

     *note ZeroDivisionError: 784. is raised when the second argument of
     a division or modulo operation is zero.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGHUP

     Hangup detected on controlling terminal or death of controlling
     process.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGILL

     Illegal instruction.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGINT

     Interrupt from keyboard (CTRL + C).

     Default action is to raise *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGKILL

     Kill signal.

     It cannot be caught, blocked, or ignored.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGPIPE

     Broken pipe: write to pipe with no readers.

     Default action is to ignore the signal.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGSEGV

     Segmentation fault: invalid memory reference.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGSTKFLT

          Stack fault on coprocessor.  The Linux kernel does not raise
          this signal: it can only be raised in user space.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux.

     On architectures where the signal is available.  See the man page
     ‘signal(7)(5)’ for further information.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGTERM

     Termination signal.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGUSR1

     User-defined signal 1.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGUSR2

     User-defined signal 2.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: signal.SIGWINCH

     Window resize signal.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 資料: SIG*

     All the signal numbers are defined symbolically.  For example, the
     hangup signal is defined as *note signal.SIGHUP: 31df.; the
     variable names are identical to the names used in C programs, as
     found in ‘<signal.h>’.  The Unix man page for '‘signal()’' lists
     the existing signals (on some systems this is ‘signal(2)(6)’, on
     others the list is in ‘signal(7)(7)’).  Note that not all systems
     define the same set of signal names; only those names defined by
     the system are defined by this module.

 -- 資料: signal.CTRL_C_EVENT

     The signal corresponding to the ‘Ctrl+C’ keystroke event.  This
     signal can only be used with *note os.kill(): 11f6.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT

     The signal corresponding to the ‘Ctrl+Break’ keystroke event.  This
     signal can only be used with *note os.kill(): 11f6.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: signal.NSIG

     One more than the number of the highest signal number.  Use *note
     valid_signals(): 31e4. to get valid signal numbers.

 -- 資料: signal.ITIMER_REAL

     Decrements interval timer in real time, and delivers *note SIGALRM:
     31dc. upon expiration.

 -- 資料: signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL

     Decrements interval timer only when the process is executing, and
     delivers SIGVTALRM upon expiration.

 -- 資料: signal.ITIMER_PROF

     Decrements interval timer both when the process executes and when
     the system is executing on behalf of the process.  Coupled with
     ITIMER_VIRTUAL, this timer is usually used to profile the time
     spent by the application in user and kernel space.  SIGPROF is
     delivered upon expiration.

 -- 資料: signal.SIG_BLOCK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): fc0. indicating that signals are to be blocked.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: signal.SIG_UNBLOCK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): fc0. indicating that signals are to be
     unblocked.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: signal.SIG_SETMASK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): fc0. indicating that the signal mask is to be
     replaced.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

The *note signal: c1. module defines one exception:

 -- 例外: signal.ItimerError

     Raised to signal an error from the underlying *note setitimer():
     31e9. or *note getitimer(): 31ea. implementation.  Expect this
     error if an invalid interval timer or a negative time is passed to
     *note setitimer(): 31e9.  This error is a subtype of *note OSError:
     644.

     在 3.3 版被加入: This error used to be a subtype of *note IOError:
     ee8, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 644.

The *note signal: c1. module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: signal.alarm (time)

     If 'time' is non-zero, this function requests that a *note SIGALRM:
     31dc. signal be sent to the process in 'time' seconds.  Any
     previously scheduled alarm is canceled (only one alarm can be
     scheduled at any time).  The returned value is then the number of
     seconds before any previously set alarm was to have been delivered.
     If 'time' is zero, no alarm is scheduled, and any scheduled alarm
     is canceled.  If the return value is zero, no alarm is currently
     scheduled.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     更多資訊請見 ‘alarm(2)(8)’ 手冊頁。

 -- 函式: signal.getsignal (signalnum)

     Return the current signal handler for the signal 'signalnum'.  The
     returned value may be a callable Python object, or one of the
     special values *note signal.SIG_IGN: 15f1, *note signal.SIG_DFL:
     15f2. or *note None: 470.  Here, *note signal.SIG_IGN: 15f1. means
     that the signal was previously ignored, *note signal.SIG_DFL: 15f2.
     means that the default way of handling the signal was previously in
     use, and ‘None’ means that the previous signal handler was not
     installed from Python.

 -- 函式: signal.strsignal (signalnum)

     Returns the description of signal 'signalnum', such as "Interrupt"
     for *note SIGINT: 66b.  Returns *note None: 470. if 'signalnum' has
     no description.  Raises *note ValueError: 183. if 'signalnum' is
     invalid.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: signal.valid_signals ()

     Return the set of valid signal numbers on this platform.  This can
     be less than ‘range(1, NSIG)’ if some signals are reserved by the
     system for internal use.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: signal.pause ()

     Cause the process to sleep until a signal is received; the
     appropriate handler will then be called.  Returns nothing.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     更多資訊請見 ‘signal(2)(9)’ 手冊頁。

     See also *note sigwait(): fc3, *note sigwaitinfo(): c22, *note
     sigtimedwait(): c21. and *note sigpending(): fc2.

 -- 函式: signal.raise_signal (signum)

     Sends a signal to the calling process.  Returns nothing.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: signal.pidfd_send_signal (pidfd, sig, siginfo=None, flags=0)

     Send signal 'sig' to the process referred to by file descriptor
     'pidfd'.  Python does not currently support the 'siginfo'
     parameter; it must be ‘None’.  The 'flags' argument is provided for
     future extensions; no flag values are currently defined.

     更多資訊請見 ‘pidfd_send_signal(2)(10)’ 手冊頁。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 5.1

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: signal.pthread_kill (thread_id, signalnum)

     Send the signal 'signalnum' to the thread 'thread_id', another
     thread in the same process as the caller.  The target thread can be
     executing any code (Python or not).  However, if the target thread
     is executing the Python interpreter, the Python signal handlers
     will be *note executed by the main thread of the main interpreter:
     31d4.  Therefore, the only point of sending a signal to a
     particular Python thread would be to force a running system call to
     fail with *note InterruptedError: bfe.

     Use *note threading.get_ident(): fed. or the *note ident: 29bc.
     attribute of *note threading.Thread: 78d. objects to get a suitable
     value for 'thread_id'.

     If 'signalnum' is 0, then no signal is sent, but error checking is
     still performed; this can be used to check if the target thread is
     still running.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘thread_id’、‘signalnum’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘signal.pthread_kill’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     更多資訊請見 ‘pthread_kill(3)(11)’ 手冊頁。

     另請參閱 *note os.kill(): 11f6.。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: signal.pthread_sigmask (how, mask)

     Fetch and/or change the signal mask of the calling thread.  The
     signal mask is the set of signals whose delivery is currently
     blocked for the caller.  Return the old signal mask as a set of
     signals.

     The behavior of the call is dependent on the value of 'how', as
     follows.

        * *note SIG_BLOCK: 31d6.: The set of blocked signals is the
          union of the current set and the 'mask' argument.

        * *note SIG_UNBLOCK: 31d7.: The signals in 'mask' are removed
          from the current set of blocked signals.  It is permissible to
          attempt to unblock a signal which is not blocked.

        * *note SIG_SETMASK: 31d8.: The set of blocked signals is set to
          the 'mask' argument.

     'mask' is a set of signal numbers (e.g.  {*note signal.SIGINT: 66b,
     *note signal.SIGTERM: 124e.}).  Use *note valid_signals(): 31e4.
     for a full mask including all signals.

     For example, ‘signal.pthread_sigmask(signal.SIG_BLOCK, [])’ reads
     the signal mask of the calling thread.

     *note SIGKILL: 31e0. and ‘SIGSTOP’ cannot be blocked.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     更多資訊請見 ‘sigprocmask(2)(12)’ 與 ‘pthread_sigmask(3)(13)’ 手冊
     頁。

     另請參閱 *note pause(): 31ec.、*note sigpending(): fc2. 與 *note
     sigwait(): fc3.。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: signal.setitimer (which, seconds, interval=0.0)

     Sets given interval timer (one of *note signal.ITIMER_REAL: 31e5,
     *note signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL: 31e6. or *note signal.ITIMER_PROF:
     31e7.) specified by 'which' to fire after 'seconds' (float is
     accepted, different from *note alarm(): 31eb.) and after that every
     'interval' seconds (if 'interval' is non-zero).  The interval timer
     specified by 'which' can be cleared by setting 'seconds' to zero.

     When an interval timer fires, a signal is sent to the process.  The
     signal sent is dependent on the timer being used; *note
     signal.ITIMER_REAL: 31e5. will deliver *note SIGALRM: 31dc, *note
     signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL: 31e6. sends ‘SIGVTALRM’, and *note
     signal.ITIMER_PROF: 31e7. will deliver ‘SIGPROF’.

     The old values are returned as a tuple: (delay, interval).

     Attempting to pass an invalid interval timer will cause an *note
     ItimerError: 31e8.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: signal.getitimer (which)

     Returns current value of a given interval timer specified by
     'which'.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: signal.set_wakeup_fd (fd, *, warn_on_full_buffer=True)

     Set the wakeup file descriptor to 'fd'.  When a signal is received,
     the signal number is written as a single byte into the fd.  This
     can be used by a library to wakeup a poll or select call, allowing
     the signal to be fully processed.

     The old wakeup fd is returned (or -1 if file descriptor wakeup was
     not enabled).  If 'fd' is -1, file descriptor wakeup is disabled.
     If not -1, 'fd' must be non-blocking.  It is up to the library to
     remove any bytes from 'fd' before calling poll or select again.

     When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from
     *note the main thread of the main interpreter: 31d4.; attempting to
     call it from other threads will cause a *note ValueError: 183.
     exception to be raised.

     There are two common ways to use this function.  In both
     approaches, you use the fd to wake up when a signal arrives, but
     then they differ in how they determine 'which' signal or signals
     have arrived.

     In the first approach, we read the data out of the fd's buffer, and
     the byte values give you the signal numbers.  This is simple, but
     in rare cases it can run into a problem: generally the fd will have
     a limited amount of buffer space, and if too many signals arrive
     too quickly, then the buffer may become full, and some signals may
     be lost.  If you use this approach, then you should set
     ‘warn_on_full_buffer=True’, which will at least cause a warning to
     be printed to stderr when signals are lost.

     In the second approach, we use the wakeup fd 'only' for wakeups,
     and ignore the actual byte values.  In this case, all we care about
     is whether the fd's buffer is empty or non-empty; a full buffer
     doesn't indicate a problem at all.  If you use this approach, then
     you should set ‘warn_on_full_buffer=False’, so that your users are
     not confused by spurious warning messages.

     在 3.5 版的變更: On Windows, the function now also supports socket
     handles.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 ‘warn_on_full_buffer’ 參數。

 -- 函式: signal.siginterrupt (signalnum, flag)

     Change system call restart behaviour: if 'flag' is *note False:
     98f, system calls will be restarted when interrupted by signal
     'signalnum', otherwise system calls will be interrupted.  Returns
     nothing.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     更多資訊請見 ‘siginterrupt(3)(14)’ 手冊頁。

     Note that installing a signal handler with *note signal(): c1. will
     reset the restart behaviour to interruptible by implicitly calling
     ‘siginterrupt()’ with a true 'flag' value for the given signal.

 -- 函式: signal.signal (signalnum, handler)

     Set the handler for signal 'signalnum' to the function 'handler'.
     'handler' can be a callable Python object taking two arguments (see
     below), or one of the special values *note signal.SIG_IGN: 15f1. or
     *note signal.SIG_DFL: 15f2.  The previous signal handler will be
     returned (see the description of *note getsignal(): 144d. above).
     (See the Unix man page ‘signal(2)(15)’ for further information.)

     When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from
     *note the main thread of the main interpreter: 31d4.; attempting to
     call it from other threads will cause a *note ValueError: 183.
     exception to be raised.

     The 'handler' is called with two arguments: the signal number and
     the current stack frame (‘None’ or a frame object; for a
     description of frame objects, see the *note description in the type
     hierarchy: 4de. or see the attribute descriptions in the *note
     inspect: 78. module).

     On Windows, *note signal(): c1. can only be called with *note
     SIGABRT: 1b3d, *note SIGFPE: 1b3c, *note SIGILL: 1b3f, *note
     SIGINT: 66b, *note SIGSEGV: 1b3b, *note SIGTERM: 124e, or *note
     SIGBREAK: 31dd.  A *note ValueError: 183. will be raised in any
     other case.  Note that not all systems define the same set of
     signal names; an *note AttributeError: 3ca. will be raised if a
     signal name is not defined as ‘SIG*’ module level constant.

 -- 函式: signal.sigpending ()

     Examine the set of signals that are pending for delivery to the
     calling thread (i.e., the signals which have been raised while
     blocked).  Return the set of the pending signals.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     更多資訊請見 ‘sigpending(2)(16)’ 手冊頁。

     另請參閱 *note pause(): 31ec.、*note pthread_sigmask(): fc0. 與
     *note sigwait(): fc3.。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: signal.sigwait (sigset)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one
     of the signals specified in the signal set 'sigset'.  The function
     accepts the signal (removes it from the pending list of signals),
     and returns the signal number.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     更多資訊請見 ‘sigwait(3)(17)’ 手冊頁。

     See also *note pause(): 31ec, *note pthread_sigmask(): fc0, *note
     sigpending(): fc2, *note sigwaitinfo(): c22. and *note
     sigtimedwait(): c21.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: signal.sigwaitinfo (sigset)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one
     of the signals specified in the signal set 'sigset'.  The function
     accepts the signal and removes it from the pending list of signals.
     If one of the signals in 'sigset' is already pending for the
     calling thread, the function will return immediately with
     information about that signal.  The signal handler is not called
     for the delivered signal.  The function raises an *note
     InterruptedError: bfe. if it is interrupted by a signal that is not
     in 'sigset'.

     The return value is an object representing the data contained in
     the ‘siginfo_t’ structure, namely: ‘si_signo’, ‘si_code’,
     ‘si_errno’, ‘si_pid’, ‘si_uid’, ‘si_status’, ‘si_band’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     更多資訊請見 ‘sigwaitinfo(2)(18)’ 手冊頁。

     另請參閱 *note pause(): 31ec.、*note sigwait(): fc3. 與 *note
     sigtimedwait(): c21.。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The function is now retried if interrupted by a
     signal not in 'sigset' and the signal handler does not raise an
     exception (see PEP 475(19) for the rationale).

 -- 函式: signal.sigtimedwait (sigset, timeout)

     Like *note sigwaitinfo(): c22, but takes an additional 'timeout'
     argument specifying a timeout.  If 'timeout' is specified as ‘0’, a
     poll is performed.  Returns *note None: 470. if a timeout occurs.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

     更多資訊請見 ‘sigtimedwait(2)(20)’ 手冊頁。

     另請參閱 *note pause(): 31ec.、*note sigwait(): fc3. 與 *note
     sigwaitinfo(): c22.。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The function is now retried with the recomputed
     'timeout' if interrupted by a signal not in 'sigset' and the signal
     handler does not raise an exception (see PEP 475(21) for the
     rationale).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/abort(3)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)

   (8) https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (10) https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_send_signal(2)

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_kill(3)

   (12) https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)

   (13) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)

   (14) https://manpages.debian.org/siginterrupt(3)

   (15) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/sigpending(2)

   (17) https://manpages.debian.org/sigwait(3)

   (18) https://manpages.debian.org/sigwaitinfo(2)

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (20) https://manpages.debian.org/sigtimedwait(2)

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<27>,  Next: Note on SIGPIPE,  Prev: 模組內容<5>,  Up: signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式

5.18.6.5 範例
.............

Here is a minimal example program.  It uses the *note alarm(): 31eb.
function to limit the time spent waiting to open a file; this is useful
if the file is for a serial device that may not be turned on, which
would normally cause the *note os.open(): c09. to hang indefinitely.
The solution is to set a 5-second alarm before opening the file; if the
operation takes too long, the alarm signal will be sent, and the handler
raises an exception.

     import signal, os

     def handler(signum, frame):
         signame = signal.Signals(signum).name
         print(f'Signal handler called with signal {signame} ({signum})')
         raise OSError("Couldn't open device!")

     # Set the signal handler and a 5-second alarm
     signal.signal(signal.SIGALRM, handler)
     signal.alarm(5)

     # This open() may hang indefinitely
     fd = os.open('/dev/ttyS0', os.O_RDWR)

     signal.alarm(0)          # Disable the alarm


File: python.info,  Node: Note on SIGPIPE,  Next: Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions,  Prev: 範例<27>,  Up: signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式

5.18.6.6 Note on SIGPIPE
........................

Piping output of your program to tools like ‘head(1)(1)’ will cause a
*note SIGPIPE: 31d0. signal to be sent to your process when the receiver
of its standard output closes early.  This results in an exception like
‘BrokenPipeError: [Errno 32] Broken pipe’.  To handle this case, wrap
your entry point to catch this exception as follows:

     import os
     import sys

     def main():
         try:
             # simulate large output (your code replaces this loop)
             for x in range(10000):
                 print("y")
             # flush output here to force SIGPIPE to be triggered
             # while inside this try block.
             sys.stdout.flush()
         except BrokenPipeError:
             # Python flushes standard streams on exit; redirect remaining output
             # to devnull to avoid another BrokenPipeError at shutdown
             devnull = os.open(os.devnull, os.O_WRONLY)
             os.dup2(devnull, sys.stdout.fileno())
             sys.exit(1)  # Python exits with error code 1 on EPIPE

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Do not set *note SIGPIPE: 31d0.'s disposition to *note SIG_DFL: 15f2. in
order to avoid *note BrokenPipeError: ef2.  Doing that would cause your
program to exit unexpectedly whenever any socket connection is
interrupted while your program is still writing to it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/head(1)


File: python.info,  Node: Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions,  Prev: Note on SIGPIPE,  Up: signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式

5.18.6.7 Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions
...............................................

If a signal handler raises an exception, the exception will be
propagated to the main thread and may be raised after any *note
bytecode: 39f. instruction.  Most notably, a *note KeyboardInterrupt:
815. may appear at any point during execution.  Most Python code,
including the standard library, cannot be made robust against this, and
so a *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. (or any other exception resulting
from a signal handler) may on rare occasions put the program in an
unexpected state.

To illustrate this issue, consider the following code:

     class SpamContext:
         def __init__(self):
             self.lock = threading.Lock()

         def __enter__(self):
             # If KeyboardInterrupt occurs here, everything is fine
             self.lock.acquire()
             # If KeyboardInterrupt occurs here, __exit__ will not be called
             ...
             # KeyboardInterrupt could occur just before the function returns

         def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):
             ...
             self.lock.release()

For many programs, especially those that merely want to exit on *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 815, this is not a problem, but applications that are
complex or require high reliability should avoid raising exceptions from
signal handlers.  They should also avoid catching *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 815. as a means of gracefully shutting down.
Instead, they should install their own *note SIGINT: 66b. handler.
Below is an example of an HTTP server that avoids *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 815.:

     import signal
     import socket
     from selectors import DefaultSelector, EVENT_READ
     from http.server import HTTPServer, SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

     interrupt_read, interrupt_write = socket.socketpair()

     def handler(signum, frame):
         print('Signal handler called with signal', signum)
         interrupt_write.send(b'\0')
     signal.signal(signal.SIGINT, handler)

     def serve_forever(httpd):
         sel = DefaultSelector()
         sel.register(interrupt_read, EVENT_READ)
         sel.register(httpd, EVENT_READ)

         while True:
             for key, _ in sel.select():
                 if key.fileobj == interrupt_read:
                     interrupt_read.recv(1)
                     return
                 if key.fileobj == httpd:
                     httpd.handle_request()

     print("Serving on port 8000")
     httpd = HTTPServer(('', 8000), SimpleHTTPRequestHandler)
     serve_forever(httpd)
     print("Shutdown...")


File: python.info,  Node: mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援,  Prev: signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.7 ‘mmap’ -- 記憶體映射檔案的支援
-------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

Memory-mapped file objects behave like both *note bytearray: 2c0. and
like *note file objects: 1054.  You can use mmap objects in most places
where *note bytearray: 2c0. are expected; for example, you can use the
*note re: b4. module to search through a memory-mapped file.  You can
also change a single byte by doing ‘obj[index] = 97’, or change a
subsequence by assigning to a slice: ‘obj[i1:i2] = b'...'’.  You can
also read and write data starting at the current file position, and
‘seek()’ through the file to different positions.

A memory-mapped file is created by the *note mmap: 84e. constructor,
which is different on Unix and on Windows.  In either case you must
provide a file descriptor for a file opened for update.  If you wish to
map an existing Python file object, use its *note fileno(): 25ca. method
to obtain the correct value for the 'fileno' parameter.  Otherwise, you
can open the file using the *note os.open(): c09. function, which
returns a file descriptor directly (the file still needs to be closed
when done).

     備註: If you want to create a memory-mapping for a writable,
     buffered file, you should *note flush(): 2994. the file first.
     This is necessary to ensure that local modifications to the buffers
     are actually available to the mapping.

For both the Unix and Windows versions of the constructor, 'access' may
be specified as an optional keyword parameter.  'access' accepts one of
four values: ‘ACCESS_READ’, ‘ACCESS_WRITE’, or ‘ACCESS_COPY’ to specify
read-only, write-through or copy-on-write memory respectively, or
‘ACCESS_DEFAULT’ to defer to 'prot'.  'access' can be used on both Unix
and Windows.  If 'access' is not specified, Windows mmap returns a
write-through mapping.  The initial memory values for all three access
types are taken from the specified file.  Assignment to an ‘ACCESS_READ’
memory map raises a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception.  Assignment to an
‘ACCESS_WRITE’ memory map affects both memory and the underlying file.
Assignment to an ‘ACCESS_COPY’ memory map affects memory but does not
update the underlying file.

在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 ‘ACCESS_DEFAULT’ 常數。

To map anonymous memory, -1 should be passed as the fileno along with
the length.

 -- 類別: mmap.mmap (fileno, length, tagname=None,
          access=ACCESS_DEFAULT[, offset])

     '(Windows version)' Maps 'length' bytes from the file specified by
     the file handle 'fileno', and creates a mmap object.  If 'length'
     is larger than the current size of the file, the file is extended
     to contain 'length' bytes.  If 'length' is ‘0’, the maximum length
     of the map is the current size of the file, except that if the file
     is empty Windows raises an exception (you cannot create an empty
     mapping on Windows).

     'tagname', if specified and not ‘None’, is a string giving a tag
     name for the mapping.  Windows allows you to have many different
     mappings against the same file.  If you specify the name of an
     existing tag, that tag is opened, otherwise a new tag of this name
     is created.  If this parameter is omitted or ‘None’, the mapping is
     created without a name.  Avoiding the use of the 'tagname'
     parameter will assist in keeping your code portable between Unix
     and Windows.

     'offset' may be specified as a non-negative integer offset.  mmap
     references will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the
     file.  'offset' defaults to 0.  'offset' must be a multiple of the
     ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fileno’、‘length’、‘access’、‘offset’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘mmap.__new__’。

 -- 類別: mmap.mmap (fileno, length, flags=MAP_SHARED,
          prot=PROT_WRITE|PROT_READ, access=ACCESS_DEFAULT[, offset])

     '(Unix version)' Maps 'length' bytes from the file specified by the
     file descriptor 'fileno', and returns a mmap object.  If 'length'
     is ‘0’, the maximum length of the map will be the current size of
     the file when *note mmap: 84e. is called.

     'flags' specifies the nature of the mapping.  *note MAP_PRIVATE:
     31f3. creates a private copy-on-write mapping, so changes to the
     contents of the mmap object will be private to this process, and
     *note MAP_SHARED: 31f4. creates a mapping that's shared with all
     other processes mapping the same areas of the file.  The default
     value is *note MAP_SHARED: 31f4.  Some systems have additional
     possible flags with the full list specified in *note MAP_*
     constants: 31f5.

     'prot', if specified, gives the desired memory protection; the two
     most useful values are ‘PROT_READ’ and ‘PROT_WRITE’, to specify
     that the pages may be read or written.  'prot' defaults to
     ‘PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE’.

     'access' may be specified in lieu of 'flags' and 'prot' as an
     optional keyword parameter.  It is an error to specify both
     'flags', 'prot' and 'access'.  See the description of 'access'
     above for information on how to use this parameter.

     'offset' may be specified as a non-negative integer offset.  mmap
     references will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the
     file.  'offset' defaults to 0.  'offset' must be a multiple of
     ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’ which is equal to ‘PAGESIZE’ on Unix
     systems.

     To ensure validity of the created memory mapping the file specified
     by the descriptor 'fileno' is internally automatically synchronized
     with the physical backing store on macOS.

     This example shows a simple way of using *note mmap: 84e.:

          import mmap

          # write a simple example file
          with open("hello.txt", "wb") as f:
              f.write(b"Hello Python!\n")

          with open("hello.txt", "r+b") as f:
              # memory-map the file, size 0 means whole file
              mm = mmap.mmap(f.fileno(), 0)
              # read content via standard file methods
              print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello Python!\n"
              # read content via slice notation
              print(mm[:5])  # prints b"Hello"
              # update content using slice notation;
              # note that new content must have same size
              mm[6:] = b" world!\n"
              # ... and read again using standard file methods
              mm.seek(0)
              print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello  world!\n"
              # close the map
              mm.close()

     *note mmap: 84e. can also be used as a context manager in a *note
     with: 3c5. statement:

          import mmap

          with mmap.mmap(-1, 13) as mm:
              mm.write(b"Hello world!")

     在 3.2 版被加入: Context manager support.

     The next example demonstrates how to create an anonymous map and
     exchange data between the parent and child processes:

          import mmap
          import os

          mm = mmap.mmap(-1, 13)
          mm.write(b"Hello world!")

          pid = os.fork()

          if pid == 0:  # 在子行程中
              mm.seek(0)
              print(mm.readline())

              mm.close()

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fileno’、‘length’、‘access’、‘offset’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘mmap.__new__’。

     Memory-mapped file objects support the following methods:

      -- 方法: close ()

          Closes the mmap.  Subsequent calls to other methods of the
          object will result in a ValueError exception being raised.
          This will not close the open file.

      -- 屬性: closed

          ‘True’ if the file is closed.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: find (sub[, start[, end]])

          Returns the lowest index in the object where the subsequence
          'sub' is found, such that 'sub' is contained in the range
          ['start', 'end'].  Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are
          interpreted as in slice notation.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.

          在 3.5 版的變更: Writable *note bytes-like object: b9f. is now
          accepted.

      -- 方法: flush ([offset[, size]])

          Flushes changes made to the in-memory copy of a file back to
          disk.  Without use of this call there is no guarantee that
          changes are written back before the object is destroyed.  If
          'offset' and 'size' are specified, only changes to the given
          range of bytes will be flushed to disk; otherwise, the whole
          extent of the mapping is flushed.  'offset' must be a multiple
          of the ‘PAGESIZE’ or ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’.

          ‘None’ is returned to indicate success.  An exception is
          raised when the call failed.

          在 3.8 版的變更: Previously, a nonzero value was returned on
          success; zero was returned on error under Windows.  A zero
          value was returned on success; an exception was raised on
          error under Unix.

      -- 方法: madvise (option[, start[, length]])

          Send advice 'option' to the kernel about the memory region
          beginning at 'start' and extending 'length' bytes.  'option'
          must be one of the *note MADV_* constants: 31f9. available on
          the system.  If 'start' and 'length' are omitted, the entire
          mapping is spanned.  On some systems (including Linux),
          'start' must be a multiple of the ‘PAGESIZE’.

          Availability: Systems with the ‘madvise()’ system call.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: move (dest, src, count)

          Copy the 'count' bytes starting at offset 'src' to the
          destination index 'dest'.  If the mmap was created with
          ‘ACCESS_READ’, then calls to move will raise a *note
          TypeError: 2ba. exception.

      -- 方法: read ([n])

          Return a *note bytes: 2c1. containing up to 'n' bytes starting
          from the current file position.  If the argument is omitted,
          ‘None’ or negative, return all bytes from the current file
          position to the end of the mapping.  The file position is
          updated to point after the bytes that were returned.

          在 3.3 版的變更: Argument can be omitted or ‘None’.

      -- 方法: read_byte ()

          Returns a byte at the current file position as an integer, and
          advances the file position by 1.

      -- 方法: readline ()

          Returns a single line, starting at the current file position
          and up to the next newline.  The file position is updated to
          point after the bytes that were returned.

      -- 方法: resize (newsize)

          Resizes the map and the underlying file, if any.  If the mmap
          was created with ‘ACCESS_READ’ or ‘ACCESS_COPY’, resizing the
          map will raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception.

          'On Windows': Resizing the map will raise an *note OSError:
          644. if there are other maps against the same named file.
          Resizing an anonymous map (ie against the pagefile) will
          silently create a new map with the original data copied over
          up to the length of the new size.

          在 3.11 版的變更: Correctly fails if attempting to resize when
          another map is held Allows resize against an anonymous map on
          Windows

      -- 方法: rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

          Returns the highest index in the object where the subsequence
          'sub' is found, such that 'sub' is contained in the range
          ['start', 'end'].  Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are
          interpreted as in slice notation.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.

          在 3.5 版的變更: Writable *note bytes-like object: b9f. is now
          accepted.

      -- 方法: seek (pos[, whence])

          Set the file's current position.  'whence' argument is
          optional and defaults to ‘os.SEEK_SET’ or ‘0’ (absolute file
          positioning); other values are ‘os.SEEK_CUR’ or ‘1’ (seek
          relative to the current position) and ‘os.SEEK_END’ or ‘2’
          (seek relative to the file's end).

      -- 方法: size ()

          Return the length of the file, which can be larger than the
          size of the memory-mapped area.

      -- 方法: tell ()

          Returns the current position of the file pointer.

      -- 方法: write (bytes)

          Write the bytes in 'bytes' into memory at the current position
          of the file pointer and return the number of bytes written
          (never less than ‘len(bytes)’, since if the write fails, a
          *note ValueError: 183. will be raised).  The file position is
          updated to point after the bytes that were written.  If the
          mmap was created with ‘ACCESS_READ’, then writing to it will
          raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception.

          在 3.5 版的變更: Writable *note bytes-like object: b9f. is now
          accepted.

          在 3.6 版的變更: The number of bytes written is now returned.

      -- 方法: write_byte (byte)

          Write the integer 'byte' into memory at the current position
          of the file pointer; the file position is advanced by ‘1’.  If
          the mmap was created with ‘ACCESS_READ’, then writing to it
          will raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. exception.

* Menu:

* MADV_* Constants::
* MAP_* 常數::


File: python.info,  Node: MADV_* Constants,  Next: MAP_* 常數,  Up: mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援

5.18.7.1 MADV_* Constants
.........................

 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_NORMAL
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_RANDOM
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_SEQUENTIAL
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_WILLNEED
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_DONTNEED
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_REMOVE
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_DONTFORK
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_DOFORK
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_HWPOISON
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_MERGEABLE
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_UNMERGEABLE
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_HUGEPAGE
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_NOHUGEPAGE
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_DONTDUMP
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_DODUMP
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_FREE
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_NOSYNC
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_AUTOSYNC
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_NOCORE
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_CORE
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_PROTECT
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSABLE
 -- 資料: mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSE

     These options can be passed to *note mmap.madvise(): 84f.  Not
     every option will be present on every system.

     Availability: Systems with the madvise() system call.

     在 3.8 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: MAP_* 常數,  Prev: MADV_* Constants,  Up: mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援

5.18.7.2 MAP_* 常數
...................

 -- 資料: mmap.MAP_SHARED
 -- 資料: mmap.MAP_PRIVATE
 -- 資料: mmap.MAP_DENYWRITE
 -- 資料: mmap.MAP_EXECUTABLE
 -- 資料: mmap.MAP_ANON
 -- 資料: mmap.MAP_ANONYMOUS
 -- 資料: mmap.MAP_POPULATE
 -- 資料: mmap.MAP_STACK
 -- 資料: mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER
 -- 資料: mmap.MAP_CONCEAL

     These are the various flags that can be passed to *note
     mmap.mmap(): 84e.  *note MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 151d. is only available
     at FreeBSD and *note MAP_CONCEAL: 151e. is only available at
     OpenBSD. Note that some options might not be present on some
     systems.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 *note MAP_POPULATE: 171e. 常數。

     在 3.11 版被加入: 新增 *note MAP_STACK: 3222. 常數。

     在 3.12 版被加入: 新增 *note MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 151d. 常數。新增
     *note MAP_CONCEAL: 151e. 常數。


File: python.info,  Node: 網際網路資料處理,  Next: Structured Markup Processing Tools,  Prev: Networking and Interprocess Communication,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.19 網際網路資料處理
=====================

本章描述了支援網際網路上處理常用資料格式的模組。

* Menu:

* email: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件. 郵件和 MIME 處理套件
* json: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器. JSON 編碼器與解碼器
* mailbox: mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱. 以各種格式操作郵件信箱
* mimetypes: mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型. 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型
* base64: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼. Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼
* binascii: binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換. 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換
* quopri: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料. 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料


File: python.info,  Node: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件,  Next: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器,  Up: 網際網路資料處理

5.19.1 ‘email’ -- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件
--------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/email/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note email: 37. package is a library for managing email messages.
It is specifically 'not' designed to do any sending of email messages to
SMTP ( RFC 2821(2)), NNTP, or other servers; those are functions of
modules such as *note smtplib: c4. and *note nntplib: 98.  The *note
email: 37. package attempts to be as RFC-compliant as possible,
supporting RFC 5322(3) and RFC 6532(4), as well as such MIME-related
RFCs as RFC 2045(5), RFC 2046(6), RFC 2047(7), RFC 2183(8), and RFC
2231(9).

The overall structure of the email package can be divided into three
major components, plus a fourth component that controls the behavior of
the other components.

The central component of the package is an "object model" that
represents email messages.  An application interacts with the package
primarily through the object model interface defined in the *note
message: 40. sub-module.  The application can use this API to ask
questions about an existing email, to construct a new email, or to add
or remove email subcomponents that themselves use the same object model
interface.  That is, following the nature of email messages and their
MIME subcomponents, the email object model is a tree structure of
objects that all provide the *note EmailMessage: b06. API.

The other two major components of the package are the *note parser: 4a.
and the *note generator: 3c.  The parser takes the serialized version of
an email message (a stream of bytes) and converts it into a tree of
*note EmailMessage: b06. objects.  The generator takes an *note
EmailMessage: b06. and turns it back into a serialized byte stream.
(The parser and generator also handle streams of text characters, but
this usage is discouraged as it is too easy to end up with messages that
are not valid in one way or another.)

The control component is the *note policy: 4b. module.  Every *note
EmailMessage: b06, every *note generator: 3c, and every *note parser:
4a. has an associated *note policy: 4b. object that controls its
behavior.  Usually an application only needs to specify the policy when
an *note EmailMessage: b06. is created, either by directly instantiating
an *note EmailMessage: b06. to create a new email, or by parsing an
input stream using a *note parser: 4a.  But the policy can be changed
when the message is serialized using a *note generator: 3c.  This
allows, for example, a generic email message to be parsed from disk, but
to serialize it using standard SMTP settings when sending it to an email
server.

The email package does its best to hide the details of the various
governing RFCs from the application.  Conceptually the application
should be able to treat the email message as a structured tree of
unicode text and binary attachments, without having to worry about how
these are represented when serialized.  In practice, however, it is
often necessary to be aware of at least some of the rules governing MIME
messages and their structure, specifically the names and nature of the
MIME "content types" and how they identify multipart documents.  For the
most part this knowledge should only be required for more complex
applications, and even then it should only be the high level structure
in question, and not the details of how those structures are
represented.  Since MIME content types are used widely in modern
internet software (not just email), this will be a familiar concept to
many programmers.

The following sections describe the functionality of the *note email:
37. package.  We start with the *note message: 40. object model, which
is the primary interface an application will use, and follow that with
the *note parser: 4a. and *note generator: 3c. components.  Then we
cover the *note policy: 4b. controls, which completes the treatment of
the main components of the library.

The next three sections cover the exceptions the package may raise and
the defects (non-compliance with the RFCs) that the *note parser: 4a.
may detect.  Then we cover the *note headerregistry: 3e. and the *note
contentmanager: 39. sub-components, which provide tools for doing more
detailed manipulation of headers and payloads, respectively.  Both of
these components contain features relevant to consuming and producing
non-trivial messages, but also document their extensibility APIs, which
will be of interest to advanced applications.

Following those is a set of examples of using the fundamental parts of
the APIs covered in the preceding sections.

The foregoing represent the modern (unicode friendly) API of the email
package.  The remaining sections, starting with the *note Message: b05.
class, cover the legacy *note compat32: b04. API that deals much more
directly with the details of how email messages are represented.  The
*note compat32: b04. API does 'not' hide the details of the RFCs from
the application, but for applications that need to operate at that
level, they can be useful tools.  This documentation is also relevant
for applications that are still using the *note compat32: b04. API for
backward compatibility reasons.

在 3.6 版的變更: Docs reorganized and rewritten to promote the new *note
EmailMessage: b06./*note EmailPolicy: f46. API.

Contents of the *note email: 37. package documentation:

* Menu:

* email.message：表示電子郵件訊息: email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
* email.parser：剖析電子郵件訊息: email parser：剖析電子郵件訊息.
* email.generator：產生 MIME 文件: email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
* email.policy; Policy Objects: email policy Policy Objects.
* email.errors：例外和缺陷類別: email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
* email.headerregistry：自訂標頭物件: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
* email.contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容: email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容.
* email：範例::
* email.message.Message; Representing an email message using the compat32 API: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
* email.mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件: email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
* email.header：國際化標頭: email header：國際化標頭.
* email.charset：表示字元集合: email charset：表示字元集合.
* email.encoders：編碼器: email encoders：編碼器.
* email.utils：雜項工具: email utils：雜項工具.
* email.iterators：疊代器: email iterators：疊代器.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/__init__.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2821.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html


File: python.info,  Node: email message：表示電子郵件訊息,  Next: email parser：剖析電子郵件訊息,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.1 ‘email.message’：表示電子郵件訊息
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'原始碼：'Lib/email/message.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

在 3.6 版被加入: (2)

The central class in the *note email: 37. package is the *note
EmailMessage: b06. class, imported from the *note email.message: 40.
module.  It is the base class for the *note email: 37. object model.
*note EmailMessage: b06. provides the core functionality for setting and
querying header fields, for accessing message bodies, and for creating
or modifying structured messages.

An email message consists of 'headers' and a 'payload' (which is also
referred to as the 'content').  Headers are RFC 5322(3) or RFC 6532(4)
style field names and values, where the field name and value are
separated by a colon.  The colon is not part of either the field name or
the field value.  The payload may be a simple text message, or a binary
object, or a structured sequence of sub-messages each with their own set
of headers and their own payload.  The latter type of payload is
indicated by the message having a MIME type such as ‘multipart/*’ or
‘message/rfc822’.

The conceptual model provided by an *note EmailMessage: b06. object is
that of an ordered dictionary of headers coupled with a 'payload' that
represents the RFC 5322(5) body of the message, which might be a list of
sub-‘EmailMessage’ objects.  In addition to the normal dictionary
methods for accessing the header names and values, there are methods for
accessing specialized information from the headers (for example the MIME
content type), for operating on the payload, for generating a serialized
version of the message, and for recursively walking over the object
tree.

The *note EmailMessage: b06. dictionary-like interface is indexed by the
header names, which must be ASCII values.  The values of the dictionary
are strings with some extra methods.  Headers are stored and returned in
case-preserving form, but field names are matched case-insensitively.
The keys are ordered, but unlike a real dict, there can be duplicates.
Additional methods are provided for working with headers that have
duplicate keys.

The 'payload' is either a string or bytes object, in the case of simple
message objects, or a list of *note EmailMessage: b06. objects, for MIME
container documents such as ‘multipart/*’ and ‘message/rfc822’ message
objects.

 -- 類別: email.message.EmailMessage (policy=default)

     If 'policy' is specified use the rules it specifies to update and
     serialize the representation of the message.  If 'policy' is not
     set, use the *note default: 322b. policy, which follows the rules
     of the email RFCs except for line endings (instead of the RFC
     mandated ‘\r\n’, it uses the Python standard ‘\n’ line endings).
     For more information see the *note policy: 4b. documentation.

      -- 方法: as_string (unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=None,
               policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a string.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  For
          backward compatibility with the base *note Message: b05. class
          'maxheaderlen' is accepted, but defaults to ‘None’, which
          means that by default the line length is controlled by the
          *note max_line_length: 322d. of the policy.  The 'policy'
          argument may be used to override the default policy obtained
          from the message instance.  This can be used to control some
          of the formatting produced by the method, since the specified
          'policy' will be passed to the *note Generator: 105f.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the *note
          EmailMessage: b06. if defaults need to be filled in to
          complete the transformation to a string (for example, MIME
          boundaries may be generated or modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          be the most useful way to serialize messages in your
          application, especially if you are dealing with multiple
          messages.  See *note email.generator.Generator: 105f. for a
          more flexible API for serializing messages.  Note also that
          this method is restricted to producing messages serialized as
          "7 bit clean" when *note utf8: c70. is ‘False’, which is the
          default.

          在 3.6 版的變更: the default behavior when 'maxheaderlen' is
          not specified was changed from defaulting to 0 to defaulting
          to the value of 'max_line_length' from the policy.

      -- 方法: __str__ ()

          Equivalent to
          ‘as_string(policy=self.policy.clone(utf8=True))’.  Allows
          ‘str(msg)’ to produce a string containing the serialized
          message in a readable format.

          在 3.4 版的變更: the method was changed to use ‘utf8=True’,
          thus producing an RFC 6531(6)-like message representation,
          instead of being a direct alias for *note as_string(): 322c.

      -- 方法: as_bytes (unixfrom=False, policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a bytes object.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  The
          'policy' argument may be used to override the default policy
          obtained from the message instance.  This can be used to
          control some of the formatting produced by the method, since
          the specified 'policy' will be passed to the *note
          BytesGenerator: 1060.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the *note
          EmailMessage: b06. if defaults need to be filled in to
          complete the transformation to a string (for example, MIME
          boundaries may be generated or modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          be the most useful way to serialize messages in your
          application, especially if you are dealing with multiple
          messages.  See *note email.generator.BytesGenerator: 1060. for
          a more flexible API for serializing messages.

      -- 方法: __bytes__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_bytes(): 322f.  Allows ‘bytes(msg)’ to
          produce a bytes object containing the serialized message.

      -- 方法: is_multipart ()

          Return ‘True’ if the message's payload is a list of sub-*note
          EmailMessage: b06. objects, otherwise return ‘False’.  When
          *note is_multipart(): 3231. returns ‘False’, the payload
          should be a string object (which might be a CTE encoded binary
          payload).  Note that *note is_multipart(): 3231. returning
          ‘True’ does not necessarily mean that
          "msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'" will return the
          ‘True’.  For example, ‘is_multipart’ will return ‘True’ when
          the *note EmailMessage: b06. is of type ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- 方法: set_unixfrom (unixfrom)

          Set the message's envelope header to 'unixfrom', which should
          be a string.  (See *note mboxMessage: 3233. for a brief
          description of this header.)

      -- 方法: get_unixfrom ()

          Return the message's envelope header.  Defaults to ‘None’ if
          the envelope header was never set.

     The following methods implement the mapping-like interface for
     accessing the message's headers.  Note that there are some semantic
     differences between these methods and a normal mapping (i.e.
     dictionary) interface.  For example, in a dictionary there are no
     duplicate keys, but here there may be duplicate message headers.
     Also, in dictionaries there is no guaranteed order to the keys
     returned by *note keys(): 3235, but in an *note EmailMessage: b06.
     object, headers are always returned in the order they appeared in
     the original message, or in which they were added to the message
     later.  Any header deleted and then re-added is always appended to
     the end of the header list.

     These semantic differences are intentional and are biased toward
     convenience in the most common use cases.

     Note that in all cases, any envelope header present in the message
     is not included in the mapping interface.

      -- 方法: __len__ ()

          Return the total number of headers, including duplicates.

      -- 方法: __contains__ (name)

          Return ‘True’ if the message object has a field named 'name'.
          Matching is done without regard to case and 'name' does not
          include the trailing colon.  Used for the ‘in’ operator.  For
          example:

               if 'message-id' in myMessage:
                  print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

      -- 方法: __getitem__ (name)

          Return the value of the named header field.  'name' does not
          include the colon field separator.  If the header is missing,
          ‘None’ is returned; a *note KeyError: 8ed. is never raised.

          Note that if the named field appears more than once in the
          message's headers, exactly which of those field values will be
          returned is undefined.  Use the *note get_all(): 3239. method
          to get the values of all the extant headers named 'name'.

          Using the standard (non-‘compat32’) policies, the returned
          value is an instance of a subclass of *note
          email.headerregistry.BaseHeader: 323a.

      -- 方法: __setitem__ (name, val)

          Add a header to the message with field name 'name' and value
          'val'.  The field is appended to the end of the message's
          existing headers.

          Note that this does 'not' overwrite or delete any existing
          header with the same name.  If you want to ensure that the new
          header is the only one present in the message with field name
          'name', delete the field first, e.g.:

               del msg['subject']
               msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

          If the *note policy: 4b. defines certain headers to be unique
          (as the standard policies do), this method may raise a *note
          ValueError: 183. when an attempt is made to assign a value to
          such a header when one already exists.  This behavior is
          intentional for consistency's sake, but do not depend on it as
          we may choose to make such assignments do an automatic
          deletion of the existing header in the future.

      -- 方法: __delitem__ (name)

          Delete all occurrences of the field with name 'name' from the
          message's headers.  No exception is raised if the named field
          isn't present in the headers.

      -- 方法: keys ()

          Return a list of all the message's header field names.

      -- 方法: values ()

          Return a list of all the message's field values.

      -- 方法: items ()

          Return a list of 2-tuples containing all the message's field
          headers and values.

      -- 方法: get (name, failobj=None)

          Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical
          to *note __getitem__(): 4e7. except that optional 'failobj' is
          returned if the named header is missing ('failobj' defaults to
          ‘None’).

     Here are some additional useful header related methods:

      -- 方法: get_all (name, failobj=None)

          Return a list of all the values for the field named 'name'.
          If there are no such named headers in the message, 'failobj'
          is returned (defaults to ‘None’).

      -- 方法: add_header (_name, _value, **_params)

          Extended header setting.  This method is similar to *note
          __setitem__(): 323b. except that additional header parameters
          can be provided as keyword arguments.  '_name' is the header
          field to add and '_value' is the 'primary' value for the
          header.

          For each item in the keyword argument dictionary '_params',
          the key is taken as the parameter name, with underscores
          converted to dashes (since dashes are illegal in Python
          identifiers).  Normally, the parameter will be added as
          ‘key="value"’ unless the value is ‘None’, in which case only
          the key will be added.

          If the value contains non-ASCII characters, the charset and
          language may be explicitly controlled by specifying the value
          as a three tuple in the format ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE)’,
          where ‘CHARSET’ is a string naming the charset to be used to
          encode the value, ‘LANGUAGE’ can usually be set to ‘None’ or
          the empty string (see RFC 2231(7) for other possibilities),
          and ‘VALUE’ is the string value containing non-ASCII code
          points.  If a three tuple is not passed and the value contains
          non-ASCII characters, it is automatically encoded in RFC
          2231(8) format using a ‘CHARSET’ of ‘utf-8’ and a ‘LANGUAGE’
          of ‘None’.

          以下是個範例：

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          This will add a header that looks like

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

          An example of the extended interface with non-ASCII
          characters:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
                              filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

      -- 方法: replace_header (_name, _value)

          Replace a header.  Replace the first header found in the
          message that matches '_name', retaining header order and field
          name case of the original header.  If no matching header is
          found, raise a *note KeyError: 8ed.

      -- 方法: get_content_type ()

          Return the message's content type, coerced to lower case of
          the form ‘maintype/subtype’.  If there is no ‘Content-Type’
          header in the message return the value returned by *note
          get_default_type(): 3243.  If the ‘Content-Type’ header is
          invalid, return ‘text/plain’.

          (According to RFC 2045(9), messages always have a default
          type, *note get_content_type(): 3242. will always return a
          value.  RFC 2045(10) defines a message's default type to be
          ‘text/plain’ unless it appears inside a ‘multipart/digest’
          container, in which case it would be ‘message/rfc822’.  If the
          ‘Content-Type’ header has an invalid type specification, RFC
          2045(11) mandates that the default type be ‘text/plain’.)

      -- 方法: get_content_maintype ()

          Return the message's main content type.  This is the
          ‘maintype’ part of the string returned by *note
          get_content_type(): 3242.

      -- 方法: get_content_subtype ()

          Return the message's sub-content type.  This is the ‘subtype’
          part of the string returned by *note get_content_type(): 3242.

      -- 方法: get_default_type ()

          Return the default content type.  Most messages have a default
          content type of ‘text/plain’, except for messages that are
          subparts of ‘multipart/digest’ containers.  Such subparts have
          a default content type of ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- 方法: set_default_type (ctype)

          Set the default content type.  'ctype' should either be
          ‘text/plain’ or ‘message/rfc822’, although this is not
          enforced.  The default content type is not stored in the
          ‘Content-Type’ header, so it only affects the return value of
          the ‘get_content_type’ methods when no ‘Content-Type’ header
          is present in the message.

      -- 方法: set_param (param, value, header='Content-Type',
               requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

          Set a parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header.  If the
          parameter already exists in the header, replace its value with
          'value'.  When 'header' is ‘Content-Type’ (the default) and
          the header does not yet exist in the message, add it, set its
          value to ‘text/plain’, and append the new parameter value.
          Optional 'header' specifies an alternative header to
          ‘Content-Type’.

          If the value contains non-ASCII characters, the charset and
          language may be explicitly specified using the optional
          'charset' and 'language' parameters.  Optional 'language'
          specifies the RFC 2231(12) language, defaulting to the empty
          string.  Both 'charset' and 'language' should be strings.  The
          default is to use the ‘utf8’ 'charset' and ‘None’ for the
          'language'.

          If 'replace' is ‘False’ (the default) the header is moved to
          the end of the list of headers.  If 'replace' is ‘True’, the
          header will be updated in place.

          Use of the 'requote' parameter with *note EmailMessage: b06.
          objects is deprecated.

          Note that existing parameter values of headers may be accessed
          through the *note params: 3248. attribute of the header value
          (for example, ‘msg['Content-Type'].params['charset']’).

          在 3.4 版的變更: ‘replace’ keyword was added.

      -- 方法: del_param (param, header='content-type', requote=True)

          Remove the given parameter completely from the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  The header will be re-written in place without the
          parameter or its value.  Optional 'header' specifies an
          alternative to ‘Content-Type’.

          Use of the 'requote' parameter with *note EmailMessage: b06.
          objects is deprecated.

      -- 方法: get_filename (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘filename’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Disposition’ header of the message.  If the header
          does not have a ‘filename’ parameter, this method falls back
          to looking for the ‘name’ parameter on the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  If neither is found, or the header is missing, then
          'failobj' is returned.  The returned string will always be
          unquoted as per *note email.utils.unquote(): 324b.

      -- 方法: get_boundary (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘boundary’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Type’ header of the message, or 'failobj' if either
          the header is missing, or has no ‘boundary’ parameter.  The
          returned string will always be unquoted as per *note
          email.utils.unquote(): 324b.

      -- 方法: set_boundary (boundary)

          Set the ‘boundary’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header to
          'boundary'.  *note set_boundary(): 324d. will always quote
          'boundary' if necessary.  A *note HeaderParseError: 324e. is
          raised if the message object has no ‘Content-Type’ header.

          Note that using this method is subtly different from deleting
          the old ‘Content-Type’ header and adding a new one with the
          new boundary via *note add_header(): 3240, because *note
          set_boundary(): 324d. preserves the order of the
          ‘Content-Type’ header in the list of headers.

      -- 方法: get_content_charset (failobj=None)

          Return the ‘charset’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header,
          coerced to lower case.  If there is no ‘Content-Type’ header,
          or if that header has no ‘charset’ parameter, 'failobj' is
          returned.

      -- 方法: get_charsets (failobj=None)

          Return a list containing the character set names in the
          message.  If the message is a ‘multipart’, then the list will
          contain one element for each subpart in the payload,
          otherwise, it will be a list of length 1.

          Each item in the list will be a string which is the value of
          the ‘charset’ parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header for the
          represented subpart.  If the subpart has no ‘Content-Type’
          header, no ‘charset’ parameter, or is not of the ‘text’ main
          MIME type, then that item in the returned list will be
          'failobj'.

      -- 方法: is_attachment ()

          Return ‘True’ if there is a ‘Content-Disposition’ header and
          its (case insensitive) value is ‘attachment’, ‘False’
          otherwise.

          在 3.4.2 版的變更: is_attachment is now a method instead of a
          property, for consistency with *note is_multipart(): 3252.

      -- 方法: get_content_disposition ()

          Return the lowercased value (without parameters) of the
          message's ‘Content-Disposition’ header if it has one, or
          ‘None’.  The possible values for this method are 'inline',
          'attachment' or ‘None’ if the message follows RFC 2183(13).

          在 3.5 版被加入.

     The following methods relate to interrogating and manipulating the
     content (payload) of the message.

      -- 方法: walk ()

          The *note walk(): 3254. method is an all-purpose generator
          which can be used to iterate over all the parts and subparts
          of a message object tree, in depth-first traversal order.  You
          will typically use *note walk(): 3254. as the iterator in a
          ‘for’ loop; each iteration returns the next subpart.

          Here's an example that prints the MIME type of every part of a
          multipart message structure:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_type())
               multipart/report
               text/plain
               message/delivery-status
               text/plain
               text/plain
               message/rfc822
               text/plain

          ‘walk’ iterates over the subparts of any part where *note
          is_multipart(): 3231. returns ‘True’, even though
          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’ may return
          ‘False’.  We can see this in our example by making use of the
          ‘_structure’ debug helper function:

               >>> from email.iterators import _structure
               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
               ...           part.is_multipart())
               True True
               False False
               False True
               False False
               False False
               False True
               False False
               >>> _structure(msg)
               multipart/report
                   text/plain
                   message/delivery-status
                       text/plain
                       text/plain
                   message/rfc822
                       text/plain

          Here the ‘message’ parts are not ‘multiparts’, but they do
          contain subparts.  ‘is_multipart()’ returns ‘True’ and ‘walk’
          descends into the subparts.

      -- 方法: get_body (preferencelist=('related', 'html', 'plain'))

          Return the MIME part that is the best candidate to be the
          "body" of the message.

          'preferencelist' must be a sequence of strings from the set
          ‘related’, ‘html’, and ‘plain’, and indicates the order of
          preference for the content type of the part returned.

          Start looking for candidate matches with the object on which
          the ‘get_body’ method is called.

          If ‘related’ is not included in 'preferencelist', consider the
          root part (or subpart of the root part) of any related
          encountered as a candidate if the (sub-)part matches a
          preference.

          When encountering a ‘multipart/related’, check the ‘start’
          parameter and if a part with a matching ‘Content-ID’ is found,
          consider only it when looking for candidate matches.
          Otherwise consider only the first (default root) part of the
          ‘multipart/related’.

          If a part has a ‘Content-Disposition’ header, only consider
          the part a candidate match if the value of the header is
          ‘inline’.

          If none of the candidates matches any of the preferences in
          'preferencelist', return ‘None’.

          Notes: (1) For most applications the only 'preferencelist'
          combinations that really make sense are ‘('plain',)’,
          ‘('html', 'plain')’, and the default ‘('related', 'html',
          'plain')’.  (2) Because matching starts with the object on
          which ‘get_body’ is called, calling ‘get_body’ on a
          ‘multipart/related’ will return the object itself unless
          'preferencelist' has a non-default value.  (3) Messages (or
          message parts) that do not specify a ‘Content-Type’ or whose
          ‘Content-Type’ header is invalid will be treated as if they
          are of type ‘text/plain’, which may occasionally cause
          ‘get_body’ to return unexpected results.

      -- 方法: iter_attachments ()

          Return an iterator over all of the immediate sub-parts of the
          message that are not candidate "body" parts.  That is, skip
          the first occurrence of each of ‘text/plain’, ‘text/html’,
          ‘multipart/related’, or ‘multipart/alternative’ (unless they
          are explicitly marked as attachments via ‘Content-Disposition:
          attachment’), and return all remaining parts.  When applied
          directly to a ‘multipart/related’, return an iterator over the
          all the related parts except the root part (ie: the part
          pointed to by the ‘start’ parameter, or the first part if
          there is no ‘start’ parameter or the ‘start’ parameter doesn't
          match the ‘Content-ID’ of any of the parts).  When applied
          directly to a ‘multipart/alternative’ or a non-‘multipart’,
          return an empty iterator.

      -- 方法: iter_parts ()

          Return an iterator over all of the immediate sub-parts of the
          message, which will be empty for a non-‘multipart’.  (See also
          *note walk(): 3254.)

      -- 方法: get_content (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          Call the *note get_content(): 3259. method of the
          'content_manager', passing self as the message object, and
          passing along any other arguments or keywords as additional
          arguments.  If 'content_manager' is not specified, use the
          ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note policy: 4b.

      -- 方法: set_content (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          Call the *note set_content(): 325a. method of the
          'content_manager', passing self as the message object, and
          passing along any other arguments or keywords as additional
          arguments.  If 'content_manager' is not specified, use the
          ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note policy: 4b.

      -- 方法: make_related (boundary=None)

          Convert a non-‘multipart’ message into a ‘multipart/related’
          message, moving any existing ‘Content-’ headers and payload
          into a (new) first part of the ‘multipart’.  If 'boundary' is
          specified, use it as the boundary string in the multipart,
          otherwise leave the boundary to be automatically created when
          it is needed (for example, when the message is serialized).

      -- 方法: make_alternative (boundary=None)

          Convert a non-‘multipart’ or a ‘multipart/related’ into a
          ‘multipart/alternative’, moving any existing ‘Content-’
          headers and payload into a (new) first part of the
          ‘multipart’.  If 'boundary' is specified, use it as the
          boundary string in the multipart, otherwise leave the boundary
          to be automatically created when it is needed (for example,
          when the message is serialized).

      -- 方法: make_mixed (boundary=None)

          Convert a non-‘multipart’, a ‘multipart/related’, or a
          ‘multipart-alternative’ into a ‘multipart/mixed’, moving any
          existing ‘Content-’ headers and payload into a (new) first
          part of the ‘multipart’.  If 'boundary' is specified, use it
          as the boundary string in the multipart, otherwise leave the
          boundary to be automatically created when it is needed (for
          example, when the message is serialized).

      -- 方法: add_related (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          If the message is a ‘multipart/related’, create a new message
          object, pass all of the arguments to its *note set_content():
          167b. method, and *note attach(): 325f. it to the ‘multipart’.
          If the message is a non-‘multipart’, call *note
          make_related(): 325b. and then proceed as above.  If the
          message is any other type of ‘multipart’, raise a *note
          TypeError: 2ba.  If 'content_manager' is not specified, use
          the ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note policy:
          4b.  If the added part has no ‘Content-Disposition’ header,
          add one with the value ‘inline’.

      -- 方法: add_alternative (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          If the message is a ‘multipart/alternative’, create a new
          message object, pass all of the arguments to its *note
          set_content(): 167b. method, and *note attach(): 325f. it to
          the ‘multipart’.  If the message is a non-‘multipart’ or
          ‘multipart/related’, call *note make_alternative(): 325c. and
          then proceed as above.  If the message is any other type of
          ‘multipart’, raise a *note TypeError: 2ba.  If
          'content_manager' is not specified, use the ‘content_manager’
          specified by the current *note policy: 4b.

      -- 方法: add_attachment (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          If the message is a ‘multipart/mixed’, create a new message
          object, pass all of the arguments to its *note set_content():
          167b. method, and *note attach(): 325f. it to the ‘multipart’.
          If the message is a non-‘multipart’, ‘multipart/related’, or
          ‘multipart/alternative’, call *note make_mixed(): 325d. and
          then proceed as above.  If 'content_manager' is not specified,
          use the ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note
          policy: 4b.  If the added part has no ‘Content-Disposition’
          header, add one with the value ‘attachment’.  This method can
          be used both for explicit attachments (‘Content-Disposition:
          attachment’) and ‘inline’ attachments (‘Content-Disposition:
          inline’), by passing appropriate options to the
          ‘content_manager’.

      -- 方法: clear ()

          Remove the payload and all of the headers.

      -- 方法: clear_content ()

          Remove the payload and all of the ‘!Content-’ headers, leaving
          all other headers intact and in their original order.

     *note EmailMessage: b06. objects have the following instance
     attributes:

      -- 屬性: preamble

          The format of a MIME document allows for some text between the
          blank line following the headers, and the first multipart
          boundary string.  Normally, this text is never visible in a
          MIME-aware mail reader because it falls outside the standard
          MIME armor.  However, when viewing the raw text of the
          message, or when viewing the message in a non-MIME aware
          reader, this text can become visible.

          The 'preamble' attribute contains this leading extra-armor
          text for MIME documents.  When the *note Parser: 1030.
          discovers some text after the headers but before the first
          boundary string, it assigns this text to the message's
          'preamble' attribute.  When the *note Generator: 105f. is
          writing out the plain text representation of a MIME message,
          and it finds the message has a 'preamble' attribute, it will
          write this text in the area between the headers and the first
          boundary.  See *note email.parser: 4a. and *note
          email.generator: 3c. for details.

          Note that if the message object has no preamble, the
          'preamble' attribute will be ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: epilogue

          The 'epilogue' attribute acts the same way as the 'preamble'
          attribute, except that it contains text that appears between
          the last boundary and the end of the message.  As with the
          *note preamble: 3264, if there is no epilog text this
          attribute will be ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: defects

          The 'defects' attribute contains a list of all the problems
          found when parsing this message.  See *note email.errors: 3b.
          for a detailed description of the possible parsing defects.

 -- 類別: email.message.MIMEPart (policy=default)

     This class represents a subpart of a MIME message.  It is identical
     to *note EmailMessage: b06, except that no ‘MIME-Version’ headers
     are added when *note set_content(): 167b. is called, since
     sub-parts do not need their own ‘MIME-Version’ headers.

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/message.py

   (2) Originally added in 3.4 as a *note provisional module: ed7.  Docs
for legacy message class moved to *note email.message.Message;
Representing an email message using the compat32 API: 322a.

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html


File: python.info,  Node: email parser：剖析電子郵件訊息,  Next: email generator：產生 MIME 文件,  Prev: email message：表示電子郵件訊息,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.2 ‘email.parser’：剖析電子郵件訊息
.........................................

'原始碼：'Lib/email/parser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Message object structures can be created in one of two ways: they can be
created from whole cloth by creating an *note EmailMessage: b06. object,
adding headers using the dictionary interface, and adding payload(s)
using *note set_content(): 167b. and related methods, or they can be
created by parsing a serialized representation of the email message.

The *note email: 37. package provides a standard parser that understands
most email document structures, including MIME documents.  You can pass
the parser a bytes, string or file object, and the parser will return to
you the root *note EmailMessage: b06. instance of the object structure.
For simple, non-MIME messages the payload of this root object will
likely be a string containing the text of the message.  For MIME
messages, the root object will return ‘True’ from its *note
is_multipart(): 3231. method, and the subparts can be accessed via the
payload manipulation methods, such as *note get_body(): 3255, *note
iter_parts(): 3257, and *note walk(): 3254.

There are actually two parser interfaces available for use, the *note
Parser: 1030. API and the incremental *note FeedParser: 3269. API. The
*note Parser: 1030. API is most useful if you have the entire text of
the message in memory, or if the entire message lives in a file on the
file system.  *note FeedParser: 3269. is more appropriate when you are
reading the message from a stream which might block waiting for more
input (such as reading an email message from a socket).  The *note
FeedParser: 3269. can consume and parse the message incrementally, and
only returns the root object when you close the parser.

Note that the parser can be extended in limited ways, and of course you
can implement your own parser completely from scratch.  All of the logic
that connects the *note email: 37. package's bundled parser and the
*note EmailMessage: b06. class is embodied in the *note Policy: f42.
class, so a custom parser can create message object trees any way it
finds necessary by implementing custom versions of the appropriate
‘Policy’ methods.

* Menu:

* FeedParser API::
* Parser API::
* Additional notes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/parser.py


File: python.info,  Node: FeedParser API,  Next: Parser API,  Up: email parser：剖析電子郵件訊息

5.19.1.3 FeedParser API
.......................

The *note BytesFeedParser: 105c, imported from the ‘email.feedparser’
module, provides an API that is conducive to incremental parsing of
email messages, such as would be necessary when reading the text of an
email message from a source that can block (such as a socket).  The
*note BytesFeedParser: 105c. can of course be used to parse an email
message fully contained in a *note bytes-like object: b9f, string, or
file, but the *note BytesParser: 105d. API may be more convenient for
such use cases.  The semantics and results of the two parser APIs are
identical.

The *note BytesFeedParser: 105c.'s API is simple; you create an
instance, feed it a bunch of bytes until there's no more to feed it,
then close the parser to retrieve the root message object.  The *note
BytesFeedParser: 105c. is extremely accurate when parsing
standards-compliant messages, and it does a very good job of parsing
non-compliant messages, providing information about how a message was
deemed broken.  It will populate a message object's *note defects: 3266.
attribute with a list of any problems it found in a message.  See the
*note email.errors: 3b. module for the list of defects that it can find.

Here is the API for the *note BytesFeedParser: 105c.:

 -- 類別: email.parser.BytesFeedParser (_factory=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Create a *note BytesFeedParser: 105c. instance.  Optional
     '_factory' is a no-argument callable; if not specified use the
     *note message_factory: b03. from the 'policy'.  Call '_factory'
     whenever a new message object is needed.

     If 'policy' is specified use the rules it specifies to update the
     representation of the message.  If 'policy' is not set, use the
     *note compat32: f43. policy, which maintains backward compatibility
     with the Python 3.2 version of the email package and provides *note
     Message: b05. as the default factory.  All other policies provide
     *note EmailMessage: b06. as the default '_factory'.  For more
     information on what else 'policy' controls, see the *note policy:
     4b. documentation.

     Note: 'The policy keyword should always be specified'; The default
     will change to *note email.policy.default: 322b. in a future
     version of Python.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'policy' 關鍵字。

     在 3.6 版的變更: '_factory' defaults to the policy
     ‘message_factory’.

      -- 方法: feed (data)

          Feed the parser some more data.  'data' should be a *note
          bytes-like object: b9f. containing one or more lines.  The
          lines can be partial and the parser will stitch such partial
          lines together properly.  The lines can have any of the three
          common line endings: carriage return, newline, or carriage
          return and newline (they can even be mixed).

      -- 方法: close ()

          Complete the parsing of all previously fed data and return the
          root message object.  It is undefined what happens if *note
          feed(): 326b. is called after this method has been called.

 -- 類別: email.parser.FeedParser (_factory=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Works like *note BytesFeedParser: 105c. except that the input to
     the *note feed(): 326b. method must be a string.  This is of
     limited utility, since the only way for such a message to be valid
     is for it to contain only ASCII text or, if ‘utf8’ is ‘True’, no
     binary attachments.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'policy' 關鍵字。


File: python.info,  Node: Parser API,  Next: Additional notes,  Prev: FeedParser API,  Up: email parser：剖析電子郵件訊息

5.19.1.4 Parser API
...................

The *note BytesParser: 105d. class, imported from the *note
email.parser: 4a. module, provides an API that can be used to parse a
message when the complete contents of the message are available in a
*note bytes-like object: b9f. or file.  The *note email.parser: 4a.
module also provides *note Parser: 1030. for parsing strings, and
header-only parsers, *note BytesHeaderParser: f4a. and *note
HeaderParser: f4b, which can be used if you're only interested in the
headers of the message.  *note BytesHeaderParser: f4a. and *note
HeaderParser: f4b. can be much faster in these situations, since they do
not attempt to parse the message body, instead setting the payload to
the raw body.

 -- 類別: email.parser.BytesParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Create a *note BytesParser: 105d. instance.  The '_class' and
     'policy' arguments have the same meaning and semantics as the
     '_factory' and 'policy' arguments of *note BytesFeedParser: 105c.

     Note: 'The policy keyword should always be specified'; The default
     will change to *note email.policy.default: 322b. in a future
     version of Python.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Removed the 'strict' argument that was deprecated
     in 2.4.  Added the 'policy' keyword.

     在 3.6 版的變更: '_class' defaults to the policy ‘message_factory’.

      -- 方法: parse (fp, headersonly=False)

          Read all the data from the binary file-like object 'fp', parse
          the resulting bytes, and return the message object.  'fp' must
          support both the *note readline(): 11bd. and the ‘read()’
          methods.

          The bytes contained in 'fp' must be formatted as a block of
          RFC 5322(1) (or, if ‘utf8’ is ‘True’, RFC 6532(2)) style
          headers and header continuation lines, optionally preceded by
          an envelope header.  The header block is terminated either by
          the end of the data or by a blank line.  Following the header
          block is the body of the message (which may contain
          MIME-encoded subparts, including subparts with a
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of ‘8bit’).

          Optional 'headersonly' is a flag specifying whether to stop
          parsing after reading the headers or not.  The default is
          ‘False’, meaning it parses the entire contents of the file.

      -- 方法: parsebytes (bytes, headersonly=False)

          Similar to the *note parse(): 326e. method, except it takes a
          *note bytes-like object: b9f. instead of a file-like object.
          Calling this method on a *note bytes-like object: b9f. is
          equivalent to wrapping 'bytes' in a *note BytesIO: d24.
          instance first and calling *note parse(): 326e.

          Optional 'headersonly' is as with the *note parse(): 326e.
          method.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 類別: email.parser.BytesHeaderParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Exactly like *note BytesParser: 105d, except that 'headersonly'
     defaults to ‘True’.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 類別: email.parser.Parser (_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

     This class is parallel to *note BytesParser: 105d, but handles
     string input.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the 'policy'
     keyword.

     在 3.6 版的變更: '_class' defaults to the policy ‘message_factory’.

      -- 方法: parse (fp, headersonly=False)

          Read all the data from the text-mode file-like object 'fp',
          parse the resulting text, and return the root message object.
          'fp' must support both the *note readline(): 1ab2. and the
          *note read(): 1a7a. methods on file-like objects.

          Other than the text mode requirement, this method operates
          like *note BytesParser.parse(): 326e.

      -- 方法: parsestr (text, headersonly=False)

          Similar to the *note parse(): 3270. method, except it takes a
          string object instead of a file-like object.  Calling this
          method on a string is equivalent to wrapping 'text' in a *note
          StringIO: db1. instance first and calling *note parse(): 3270.

          Optional 'headersonly' is as with the *note parse(): 3270.
          method.

 -- 類別: email.parser.HeaderParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Exactly like *note Parser: 1030, except that 'headersonly' defaults
     to ‘True’.

Since creating a message object structure from a string or a file object
is such a common task, four functions are provided as a convenience.
They are available in the top-level *note email: 37. package namespace.

 -- 函式: email.message_from_bytes (s, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure from a *note bytes-like object:
     b9f.  This is equivalent to ‘BytesParser().parsebytes(s)’.
     Optional '_class' and 'policy' are interpreted as with the *note
     BytesParser: 105d. class constructor.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the 'policy'
     keyword.

 -- 函式: email.message_from_binary_file (fp, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure tree from an open binary *note
     file object: 1054.  This is equivalent to
     ‘BytesParser().parse(fp)’.  '_class' and 'policy' are interpreted
     as with the *note BytesParser: 105d. class constructor.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the 'policy'
     keyword.

 -- 函式: email.message_from_string (s, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure from a string.  This is
     equivalent to ‘Parser().parsestr(s)’.  '_class' and 'policy' are
     interpreted as with the *note Parser: 1030. class constructor.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the 'policy'
     keyword.

 -- 函式: email.message_from_file (fp, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure tree from an open *note file
     object: 1054.  This is equivalent to ‘Parser().parse(fp)’.
     '_class' and 'policy' are interpreted as with the *note Parser:
     1030. class constructor.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the 'policy'
     keyword.

     在 3.6 版的變更: '_class' defaults to the policy ‘message_factory’.

Here's an example of how you might use *note message_from_bytes(): 105a.
at an interactive Python prompt:

     >>> import email
     >>> msg = email.message_from_bytes(myBytes)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html


File: python.info,  Node: Additional notes,  Prev: Parser API,  Up: email parser：剖析電子郵件訊息

5.19.1.5 Additional notes
.........................

Here are some notes on the parsing semantics:

   * Most non-‘multipart’ type messages are parsed as a single message
     object with a string payload.  These objects will return ‘False’
     for *note is_multipart(): 3231, and *note iter_parts(): 3257. will
     yield an empty list.

   * All ‘multipart’ type messages will be parsed as a container message
     object with a list of sub-message objects for their payload.  The
     outer container message will return ‘True’ for *note
     is_multipart(): 3231, and *note iter_parts(): 3257. will yield a
     list of subparts.

   * Most messages with a content type of ‘message/*’ (such as
     ‘message/delivery-status’ and ‘message/rfc822’) will also be parsed
     as container object containing a list payload of length 1.  Their
     *note is_multipart(): 3231. method will return ‘True’.  The single
     element yielded by *note iter_parts(): 3257. will be a sub-message
     object.

   * Some non-standards-compliant messages may not be internally
     consistent about their ‘multipart’-edness.  Such messages may have
     a ‘Content-Type’ header of type ‘multipart’, but their *note
     is_multipart(): 3231. method may return ‘False’.  If such messages
     were parsed with the *note FeedParser: 3269, they will have an
     instance of the ‘MultipartInvariantViolationDefect’ class in their
     'defects' attribute list.  See *note email.errors: 3b. for details.


File: python.info,  Node: email generator：產生 MIME 文件,  Next: email policy Policy Objects,  Prev: email parser：剖析電子郵件訊息,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.6 ‘email.generator’：產生 MIME 文件
..........................................

'原始碼：'Lib/email/generator.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

One of the most common tasks is to generate the flat (serialized)
version of the email message represented by a message object structure.
You will need to do this if you want to send your message via *note
smtplib.SMTP.sendmail(): cd5. or the *note nntplib: 98. module, or print
the message on the console.  Taking a message object structure and
producing a serialized representation is the job of the generator
classes.

As with the *note email.parser: 4a. module, you aren't limited to the
functionality of the bundled generator; you could write one from scratch
yourself.  However the bundled generator knows how to generate most
email in a standards-compliant way, should handle MIME and non-MIME
email messages just fine, and is designed so that the bytes-oriented
parsing and generation operations are inverses, assuming the same
non-transforming *note policy: 4b. is used for both.  That is, parsing
the serialized byte stream via the *note BytesParser: 105d. class and
then regenerating the serialized byte stream using *note BytesGenerator:
1060. should produce output identical to the input (2).  (On the other
hand, using the generator on an *note EmailMessage: b06. constructed by
program may result in changes to the *note EmailMessage: b06. object as
defaults are filled in.)

The *note Generator: 105f. class can be used to flatten a message into a
text (as opposed to binary) serialized representation, but since Unicode
cannot represent binary data directly, the message is of necessity
transformed into something that contains only ASCII characters, using
the standard email RFC Content Transfer Encoding techniques for encoding
email messages for transport over channels that are not "8 bit clean".

To accommodate reproducible processing of SMIME-signed messages *note
Generator: 105f. disables header folding for message parts of type
‘multipart/signed’ and all subparts.

 -- 類別: email.generator.BytesGenerator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

     Return a *note BytesGenerator: 1060. object that will write any
     message provided to the *note flatten(): 3278. method, or any
     surrogateescape encoded text provided to the *note write(): 3279.
     method, to the *note file-like object: 2319. 'outfp'.  'outfp' must
     support a ‘write’ method that accepts binary data.

     If optional 'mangle_from_' is ‘True’, put a ‘>’ character in front
     of any line in the body that starts with the exact string ‘"From
     "’, that is ‘From’ followed by a space at the beginning of a line.
     'mangle_from_' defaults to the value of the *note mangle_from_:
     c6e. setting of the 'policy' (which is ‘True’ for the *note
     compat32: b04. policy and ‘False’ for all others).  'mangle_from_'
     is intended for use when messages are stored in Unix mbox format
     (see *note mailbox: 86. and WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS
     BAD(3)).

     If 'maxheaderlen' is not ‘None’, refold any header lines that are
     longer than 'maxheaderlen', or if ‘0’, do not rewrap any headers.
     If 'manheaderlen' is ‘None’ (the default), wrap headers and other
     message lines according to the 'policy' settings.

     If 'policy' is specified, use that policy to control message
     generation.  If 'policy' is ‘None’ (the default), use the policy
     associated with the *note Message: b05. or *note EmailMessage: b06.
     object passed to ‘flatten’ to control the message generation.  See
     *note email.policy: 4b. for details on what 'policy' controls.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增關鍵字 'policy'。

     在 3.6 版的變更: The default behavior of the 'mangle_from_' and
     'maxheaderlen' parameters is to follow the policy.

      -- 方法: flatten (msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

          Print the textual representation of the message object
          structure rooted at 'msg' to the output file specified when
          the *note BytesGenerator: 1060. instance was created.

          If the *note policy: 4b. option *note cte_type: 327a. is
          ‘8bit’ (the default), copy any headers in the original parsed
          message that have not been modified to the output with any
          bytes with the high bit set reproduced as in the original, and
          preserve the non-ASCII ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of any body
          parts that have them.  If ‘cte_type’ is ‘7bit’, convert the
          bytes with the high bit set as needed using an
          ASCII-compatible ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.  That is,
          transform parts with non-ASCII ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’
          (‘Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit’) to an ASCII compatible
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’, and encode RFC-invalid non-ASCII
          bytes in headers using the MIME ‘unknown-8bit’ character set,
          thus rendering them RFC-compliant.

          If 'unixfrom' is ‘True’, print the envelope header delimiter
          used by the Unix mailbox format (see *note mailbox: 86.)
          before the first of the RFC 5322(4) headers of the root
          message object.  If the root object has no envelope header,
          craft a standard one.  The default is ‘False’.  Note that for
          subparts, no envelope header is ever printed.

          If 'linesep' is not ‘None’, use it as the separator character
          between all the lines of the flattened message.  If 'linesep'
          is ‘None’ (the default), use the value specified in the
          'policy'.

      -- 方法: clone (fp)

          Return an independent clone of this *note BytesGenerator:
          1060. instance with the exact same option settings, and 'fp'
          as the new 'outfp'.

      -- 方法: write (s)

          Encode 's' using the ‘ASCII’ codec and the ‘surrogateescape’
          error handler, and pass it to the 'write' method of the
          'outfp' passed to the *note BytesGenerator: 1060.'s
          constructor.

As a convenience, *note EmailMessage: b06. provides the methods *note
as_bytes(): 322f. and ‘bytes(aMessage)’ (a.k.a.  *note __bytes__():
3230.), which simplify the generation of a serialized binary
representation of a message object.  For more detail, see *note
email.message: 40.

Because strings cannot represent binary data, the *note Generator: 105f.
class must convert any binary data in any message it flattens to an
ASCII compatible format, by converting them to an ASCII compatible
‘Content-Transfer_Encoding’.  Using the terminology of the email RFCs,
you can think of this as *note Generator: 105f. serializing to an I/O
stream that is not "8 bit clean".  In other words, most applications
will want to be using *note BytesGenerator: 1060, and not *note
Generator: 105f.

 -- 類別: email.generator.Generator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

     Return a *note Generator: 105f. object that will write any message
     provided to the *note flatten(): 327c. method, or any text provided
     to the *note write(): 327d. method, to the *note file-like object:
     2319. 'outfp'.  'outfp' must support a ‘write’ method that accepts
     string data.

     If optional 'mangle_from_' is ‘True’, put a ‘>’ character in front
     of any line in the body that starts with the exact string ‘"From
     "’, that is ‘From’ followed by a space at the beginning of a line.
     'mangle_from_' defaults to the value of the *note mangle_from_:
     c6e. setting of the 'policy' (which is ‘True’ for the *note
     compat32: b04. policy and ‘False’ for all others).  'mangle_from_'
     is intended for use when messages are stored in Unix mbox format
     (see *note mailbox: 86. and WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS
     BAD(5)).

     If 'maxheaderlen' is not ‘None’, refold any header lines that are
     longer than 'maxheaderlen', or if ‘0’, do not rewrap any headers.
     If 'manheaderlen' is ‘None’ (the default), wrap headers and other
     message lines according to the 'policy' settings.

     If 'policy' is specified, use that policy to control message
     generation.  If 'policy' is ‘None’ (the default), use the policy
     associated with the *note Message: b05. or *note EmailMessage: b06.
     object passed to ‘flatten’ to control the message generation.  See
     *note email.policy: 4b. for details on what 'policy' controls.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增關鍵字 'policy'。

     在 3.6 版的變更: The default behavior of the 'mangle_from_' and
     'maxheaderlen' parameters is to follow the policy.

      -- 方法: flatten (msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

          Print the textual representation of the message object
          structure rooted at 'msg' to the output file specified when
          the *note Generator: 105f. instance was created.

          If the *note policy: 4b. option *note cte_type: 327a. is
          ‘8bit’, generate the message as if the option were set to
          ‘7bit’.  (This is required because strings cannot represent
          non-ASCII bytes.)  Convert any bytes with the high bit set as
          needed using an ASCII-compatible ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.
          That is, transform parts with non-ASCII
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ (‘Content-Transfer-Encoding:
          8bit’) to an ASCII compatible ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’, and
          encode RFC-invalid non-ASCII bytes in headers using the MIME
          ‘unknown-8bit’ character set, thus rendering them
          RFC-compliant.

          If 'unixfrom' is ‘True’, print the envelope header delimiter
          used by the Unix mailbox format (see *note mailbox: 86.)
          before the first of the RFC 5322(6) headers of the root
          message object.  If the root object has no envelope header,
          craft a standard one.  The default is ‘False’.  Note that for
          subparts, no envelope header is ever printed.

          If 'linesep' is not ‘None’, use it as the separator character
          between all the lines of the flattened message.  If 'linesep'
          is ‘None’ (the default), use the value specified in the
          'policy'.

          在 3.2 版的變更: Added support for re-encoding ‘8bit’ message
          bodies, and the 'linesep' argument.

      -- 方法: clone (fp)

          Return an independent clone of this *note Generator: 105f.
          instance with the exact same options, and 'fp' as the new
          'outfp'.

      -- 方法: write (s)

          Write 's' to the 'write' method of the 'outfp' passed to the
          *note Generator: 105f.'s constructor.  This provides just
          enough file-like API for *note Generator: 105f. instances to
          be used in the *note print(): e02. function.

As a convenience, *note EmailMessage: b06. provides the methods *note
as_string(): 322c. and ‘str(aMessage)’ (a.k.a.  *note __str__(): 322e.),
which simplify the generation of a formatted string representation of a
message object.  For more detail, see *note email.message: 40.

The *note email.generator: 3c. module also provides a derived class,
*note DecodedGenerator: b02, which is like the *note Generator: 105f.
base class, except that non-‘text’ parts are not serialized, but are
instead represented in the output stream by a string derived from a
template filled in with information about the part.

 -- 類別: email.generator.DecodedGenerator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, fmt=None, *, policy=None)

     Act like *note Generator: 105f, except that for any subpart of the
     message passed to *note Generator.flatten(): 327c, if the subpart
     is of main type ‘text’, print the decoded payload of the subpart,
     and if the main type is not ‘text’, instead of printing it fill in
     the string 'fmt' using information from the part and print the
     resulting filled-in string.

     To fill in 'fmt', execute ‘fmt % part_info’, where ‘part_info’ is a
     dictionary composed of the following keys and values:

        * ‘type’ - Full MIME type of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘maintype’ - Main MIME type of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘subtype’ - Sub-MIME type of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘filename’ - Filename of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘description’ - Description associated with the non-‘text’
          part

        * ‘encoding’ - Content transfer encoding of the non-‘text’ part

     If 'fmt' is ‘None’, use the following default 'fmt':

          "[Non-text (%(type)s) part of message omitted, filename
          %(filename)s]"

     Optional '_mangle_from_' and 'maxheaderlen' are as with the *note
     Generator: 105f. base class.

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/generator.py

   (2) This statement assumes that you use the appropriate setting for
‘unixfrom’, and that there are no *note email.policy: 4b. settings
calling for automatic adjustments (for example, *note refold_source:
3277. must be ‘none’, which is 'not' the default).  It is also not 100%
true, since if the message does not conform to the RFC standards
occasionally information about the exact original text is lost during
parsing error recovery.  It is a goal to fix these latter edge cases
when possible.

   (3) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (5) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email policy Policy Objects,  Next: email errors：例外和缺陷類別,  Prev: email generator：產生 MIME 文件,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.7 ‘email.policy’: Policy Objects
.......................................

在 3.3 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/email/policy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note email: 37. package's prime focus is the handling of email
messages as described by the various email and MIME RFCs.  However, the
general format of email messages (a block of header fields each
consisting of a name followed by a colon followed by a value, the whole
block followed by a blank line and an arbitrary 'body'), is a format
that has found utility outside of the realm of email.  Some of these
uses conform fairly closely to the main email RFCs, some do not.  Even
when working with email, there are times when it is desirable to break
strict compliance with the RFCs, such as generating emails that
interoperate with email servers that do not themselves follow the
standards, or that implement extensions you want to use in ways that
violate the standards.

Policy objects give the email package the flexibility to handle all
these disparate use cases.

A *note Policy: f42. object encapsulates a set of attributes and methods
that control the behavior of various components of the email package
during use.  *note Policy: f42. instances can be passed to various
classes and methods in the email package to alter the default behavior.
The settable values and their defaults are described below.

There is a default policy used by all classes in the email package.  For
all of the *note parser: 4a. classes and the related convenience
functions, and for the *note Message: b05. class, this is the *note
Compat32: f43. policy, via its corresponding pre-defined instance *note
compat32: b04.  This policy provides for complete backward compatibility
(in some cases, including bug compatibility) with the pre-Python3.3
version of the email package.

This default value for the 'policy' keyword to *note EmailMessage: b06.
is the *note EmailPolicy: f46. policy, via its pre-defined instance
*note default: 322b.

When a *note Message: b05. or *note EmailMessage: b06. object is
created, it acquires a policy.  If the message is created by a *note
parser: 4a, a policy passed to the parser will be the policy used by the
message it creates.  If the message is created by the program, then the
policy can be specified when it is created.  When a message is passed to
a *note generator: 3c, the generator uses the policy from the message by
default, but you can also pass a specific policy to the generator that
will override the one stored on the message object.

The default value for the 'policy' keyword for the *note email.parser:
4a. classes and the parser convenience functions 'will be changing' in a
future version of Python.  Therefore you should 'always specify
explicitly which policy you want to use' when calling any of the classes
and functions described in the *note parser: 4a. module.

The first part of this documentation covers the features of *note
Policy: f42, an *note abstract base class: 1047. that defines the
features that are common to all policy objects, including *note
compat32: b04.  This includes certain hook methods that are called
internally by the email package, which a custom policy could override to
obtain different behavior.  The second part describes the concrete
classes *note EmailPolicy: f46. and *note Compat32: f43, which implement
the hooks that provide the standard behavior and the backward compatible
behavior and features, respectively.

*note Policy: f42. instances are immutable, but they can be cloned,
accepting the same keyword arguments as the class constructor and
returning a new *note Policy: f42. instance that is a copy of the
original but with the specified attributes values changed.

As an example, the following code could be used to read an email message
from a file on disk and pass it to the system ‘sendmail’ program on a
Unix system:

     >>> from email import message_from_binary_file
     >>> from email.generator import BytesGenerator
     >>> from email import policy
     >>> from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
     >>> with open('mymsg.txt', 'rb') as f:
     ...     msg = message_from_binary_file(f, policy=policy.default)
     ...
     >>> p = Popen(['sendmail', msg['To'].addresses[0]], stdin=PIPE)
     >>> g = BytesGenerator(p.stdin, policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep='\r\n'))
     >>> g.flatten(msg)
     >>> p.stdin.close()
     >>> rc = p.wait()

Here we are telling *note BytesGenerator: 1060. to use the RFC correct
line separator characters when creating the binary string to feed into
‘sendmail's’ ‘stdin’, where the default policy would use ‘\n’ line
separators.

Some email package methods accept a 'policy' keyword argument, allowing
the policy to be overridden for that method.  For example, the following
code uses the *note as_bytes(): dc4. method of the 'msg' object from the
previous example and writes the message to a file using the native line
separators for the platform on which it is running:

     >>> import os
     >>> with open('converted.txt', 'wb') as f:
     ...     f.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep=os.linesep)))
     17

Policy objects can also be combined using the addition operator,
producing a policy object whose settings are a combination of the
non-default values of the summed objects:

     >>> compat_SMTP = policy.compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')
     >>> compat_strict = policy.compat32.clone(raise_on_defect=True)
     >>> compat_strict_SMTP = compat_SMTP + compat_strict

This operation is not commutative; that is, the order in which the
objects are added matters.  To illustrate:

     >>> policy100 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=100)
     >>> policy80 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=80)
     >>> apolicy = policy100 + policy80
     >>> apolicy.max_line_length
     80
     >>> apolicy = policy80 + policy100
     >>> apolicy.max_line_length
     100

 -- 類別: email.policy.Policy (**kw)

     This is the *note abstract base class: 1047. for all policy
     classes.  It provides default implementations for a couple of
     trivial methods, as well as the implementation of the immutability
     property, the *note clone(): f44. method, and the constructor
     semantics.

     The constructor of a policy class can be passed various keyword
     arguments.  The arguments that may be specified are any non-method
     properties on this class, plus any additional non-method properties
     on the concrete class.  A value specified in the constructor will
     override the default value for the corresponding attribute.

     This class defines the following properties, and thus values for
     the following may be passed in the constructor of any policy class:

      -- 屬性: max_line_length

          The maximum length of any line in the serialized output, not
          counting the end of line character(s).  Default is 78, per RFC
          5322(2).  A value of ‘0’ or *note None: 470. indicates that no
          line wrapping should be done at all.

      -- 屬性: linesep

          The string to be used to terminate lines in serialized output.
          The default is ‘\n’ because that's the internal end-of-line
          discipline used by Python, though ‘\r\n’ is required by the
          RFCs.

      -- 屬性: cte_type

          Controls the type of Content Transfer Encodings that may be or
          are required to be used.  The possible values are:

          ‘7bit’       all data must be "7 bit clean" (ASCII-only).  This means that
                       where necessary data will be encoded using either
                       quoted-printable or base64 encoding.
                       
                       
          ‘8bit’       data is not constrained to be 7 bit clean.  Data in headers is
                       still required to be ASCII-only and so will be encoded (see
                       *note fold_binary(): 3282. and *note utf8: c70. below for
                       exceptions), but body parts may use the ‘8bit’ CTE.
                       

          A ‘cte_type’ value of ‘8bit’ only works with ‘BytesGenerator’,
          not ‘Generator’, because strings cannot contain binary data.
          If a ‘Generator’ is operating under a policy that specifies
          ‘cte_type=8bit’, it will act as if ‘cte_type’ is ‘7bit’.

      -- 屬性: raise_on_defect

          If *note True: a70, any defects encountered will be raised as
          errors.  If *note False: 98f. (the default), defects will be
          passed to the *note register_defect(): 3284. method.

      -- 屬性: mangle_from_

          If *note True: a70, lines starting with '"From "' in the body
          are escaped by putting a ‘>’ in front of them.  This parameter
          is used when the message is being serialized by a generator.
          Default: *note False: 98f.

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: message_factory

          A factory function for constructing a new empty message
          object.  Used by the parser when building messages.  Defaults
          to ‘None’, in which case *note Message: b05. is used.

          在 3.6 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: verify_generated_headers

          If ‘True’ (the default), the generator will raise *note
          HeaderWriteError: 3285. instead of writing a header that is
          improperly folded or delimited, such that it would be parsed
          as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data.  Such
          headers can be generated by custom header classes or bugs in
          the ‘email’ module.

          As it's a security feature, this defaults to ‘True’ even in
          the *note Compat32: f43. policy.  For backwards compatible,
          but unsafe, behavior, it must be set to ‘False’ explicitly.

          在 3.12.5 版被加入.

     The following *note Policy: f42. method is intended to be called by
     code using the email library to create policy instances with custom
     settings:

      -- 方法: clone (**kw)

          Return a new *note Policy: f42. instance whose attributes have
          the same values as the current instance, except where those
          attributes are given new values by the keyword arguments.

     The remaining *note Policy: f42. methods are called by the email
     package code, and are not intended to be called by an application
     using the email package.  A custom policy must implement all of
     these methods.

      -- 方法: handle_defect (obj, defect)

          Handle a 'defect' found on 'obj'.  When the email package
          calls this method, 'defect' will always be a subclass of
          ‘Defect’.

          The default implementation checks the *note raise_on_defect:
          3283. flag.  If it is ‘True’, 'defect' is raised as an
          exception.  If it is ‘False’ (the default), 'obj' and 'defect'
          are passed to *note register_defect(): 3284.

      -- 方法: register_defect (obj, defect)

          Register a 'defect' on 'obj'.  In the email package, 'defect'
          will always be a subclass of ‘Defect’.

          The default implementation calls the ‘append’ method of the
          ‘defects’ attribute of 'obj'.  When the email package calls
          *note handle_defect: 3286, 'obj' will normally have a
          ‘defects’ attribute that has an ‘append’ method.  Custom
          object types used with the email package (for example, custom
          ‘Message’ objects) should also provide such an attribute,
          otherwise defects in parsed messages will raise unexpected
          errors.

      -- 方法: header_max_count (name)

          Return the maximum allowed number of headers named 'name'.

          Called when a header is added to an *note EmailMessage: b06.
          or *note Message: b05. object.  If the returned value is not
          ‘0’ or ‘None’, and there are already a number of headers with
          the name 'name' greater than or equal to the value returned, a
          *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

          Because the default behavior of ‘Message.__setitem__’ is to
          append the value to the list of headers, it is easy to create
          duplicate headers without realizing it.  This method allows
          certain headers to be limited in the number of instances of
          that header that may be added to a ‘Message’ programmatically.
          (The limit is not observed by the parser, which will
          faithfully produce as many headers as exist in the message
          being parsed.)

          The default implementation returns ‘None’ for all header
          names.

      -- 方法: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          The email package calls this method with a list of strings,
          each string ending with the line separation characters found
          in the source being parsed.  The first line includes the field
          header name and separator.  All whitespace in the source is
          preserved.  The method should return the ‘(name, value)’ tuple
          that is to be stored in the ‘Message’ to represent the parsed
          header.

          If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the
          existing email package policies, 'name' should be the case
          preserved name (all characters up to the '‘:’' separator),
          while 'value' should be the unfolded value (all line separator
          characters removed, but whitespace kept intact), stripped of
          leading whitespace.

          'sourcelines' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.

          There is no default implementation

      -- 方法: header_store_parse (name, value)

          The email package calls this method with the name and value
          provided by the application program when the application
          program is modifying a ‘Message’ programmatically (as opposed
          to a ‘Message’ created by a parser).  The method should return
          the ‘(name, value)’ tuple that is to be stored in the
          ‘Message’ to represent the header.

          If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the
          existing email package policies, the 'name' and 'value' should
          be strings or string subclasses that do not change the content
          of the passed in arguments.

          There is no default implementation

      -- 方法: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          The email package calls this method with the 'name' and
          'value' currently stored in the ‘Message’ when that header is
          requested by the application program, and whatever the method
          returns is what is passed back to the application as the value
          of the header being retrieved.  Note that there may be more
          than one header with the same name stored in the ‘Message’;
          the method is passed the specific name and value of the header
          destined to be returned to the application.

          'value' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  There
          should be no surrogateescaped binary data in the value
          returned by the method.

          There is no default implementation

      -- 方法: fold (name, value)

          The email package calls this method with the 'name' and
          'value' currently stored in the ‘Message’ for a given header.
          The method should return a string that represents that header
          "folded" correctly (according to the policy settings) by
          composing the 'name' with the 'value' and inserting *note
          linesep: 3281. characters at the appropriate places.  See RFC
          5322(3) for a discussion of the rules for folding email
          headers.

          'value' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  There
          should be no surrogateescaped binary data in the string
          returned by the method.

      -- 方法: fold_binary (name, value)

          The same as *note fold(): 328b, except that the returned value
          should be a bytes object rather than a string.

          'value' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  These could
          be converted back into binary data in the returned bytes
          object.

 -- 類別: email.policy.EmailPolicy (**kw)

     This concrete *note Policy: f42. provides behavior that is intended
     to be fully compliant with the current email RFCs.  These include
     (but are not limited to) RFC 5322(4), RFC 2047(5), and the current
     MIME RFCs.

     This policy adds new header parsing and folding algorithms.
     Instead of simple strings, headers are ‘str’ subclasses with
     attributes that depend on the type of the field.  The parsing and
     folding algorithm fully implement RFC 2047(6) and RFC 5322(7).

     The default value for the *note message_factory: b03. attribute is
     *note EmailMessage: b06.

     In addition to the settable attributes listed above that apply to
     all policies, this policy adds the following additional attributes:

     在 3.6 版被加入: (8)

      -- 屬性: utf8

          If ‘False’, follow RFC 5322(9), supporting non-ASCII
          characters in headers by encoding them as "encoded words".  If
          ‘True’, follow RFC 6532(10) and use ‘utf-8’ encoding for
          headers.  Messages formatted in this way may be passed to SMTP
          servers that support the ‘SMTPUTF8’ extension ( RFC 6531(11)).

      -- 屬性: refold_source

          If the value for a header in the ‘Message’ object originated
          from a *note parser: 4a. (as opposed to being set by a
          program), this attribute indicates whether or not a generator
          should refold that value when transforming the message back
          into serialized form.  The possible values are:

          ‘none’       all source values use original folding
                       
                       
          ‘long’       source values that have any line that is longer than
                       ‘max_line_length’ will be refolded
                       
                       
          ‘all’        all values are refolded.
                       

          預設為 ‘long’。

      -- 屬性: header_factory

          A callable that takes two arguments, ‘name’ and ‘value’, where
          ‘name’ is a header field name and ‘value’ is an unfolded
          header field value, and returns a string subclass that
          represents that header.  A default ‘header_factory’ (see *note
          headerregistry: 3e.) is provided that supports custom parsing
          for the various address and date RFC 5322(12) header field
          types, and the major MIME header field stypes.  Support for
          additional custom parsing will be added in the future.

      -- 屬性: content_manager

          An object with at least two methods: get_content and
          set_content.  When the *note get_content(): 3258. or *note
          set_content(): 167b. method of an *note EmailMessage: b06.
          object is called, it calls the corresponding method of this
          object, passing it the message object as its first argument,
          and any arguments or keywords that were passed to it as
          additional arguments.  By default ‘content_manager’ is set to
          *note raw_data_manager: 328d.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

     The class provides the following concrete implementations of the
     abstract methods of *note Policy: f42.:

      -- 方法: header_max_count (name)

          Returns the value of the *note max_count: 328f. attribute of
          the specialized class used to represent the header with the
          given name.

      -- 方法: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          The name is parsed as everything up to the '‘:’' and returned
          unmodified.  The value is determined by stripping leading
          whitespace off the remainder of the first line, joining all
          subsequent lines together, and stripping any trailing carriage
          return or linefeed characters.

      -- 方法: header_store_parse (name, value)

          The name is returned unchanged.  If the input value has a
          ‘name’ attribute and it matches 'name' ignoring case, the
          value is returned unchanged.  Otherwise the 'name' and 'value'
          are passed to ‘header_factory’, and the resulting header
          object is returned as the value.  In this case a ‘ValueError’
          is raised if the input value contains CR or LF characters.

      -- 方法: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          If the value has a ‘name’ attribute, it is returned to
          unmodified.  Otherwise the 'name', and the 'value' with any CR
          or LF characters removed, are passed to the ‘header_factory’,
          and the resulting header object is returned.  Any
          surrogateescaped bytes get turned into the unicode
          unknown-character glyph.

      -- 方法: fold (name, value)

          Header folding is controlled by the *note refold_source: 3277.
          policy setting.  A value is considered to be a 'source value'
          if and only if it does not have a ‘name’ attribute (having a
          ‘name’ attribute means it is a header object of some sort).
          If a source value needs to be refolded according to the
          policy, it is converted into a header object by passing the
          'name' and the 'value' with any CR and LF characters removed
          to the ‘header_factory’.  Folding of a header object is done
          by calling its ‘fold’ method with the current policy.

          Source values are split into lines using *note splitlines():
          10ea.  If the value is not to be refolded, the lines are
          rejoined using the ‘linesep’ from the policy and returned.
          The exception is lines containing non-ascii binary data.  In
          that case the value is refolded regardless of the
          ‘refold_source’ setting, which causes the binary data to be
          CTE encoded using the ‘unknown-8bit’ charset.

      -- 方法: fold_binary (name, value)

          The same as *note fold(): 1446. if *note cte_type: 327a. is
          ‘7bit’, except that the returned value is bytes.

          If *note cte_type: 327a. is ‘8bit’, non-ASCII binary data is
          converted back into bytes.  Headers with binary data are not
          refolded, regardless of the ‘refold_header’ setting, since
          there is no way to know whether the binary data consists of
          single byte characters or multibyte characters.

The following instances of *note EmailPolicy: f46. provide defaults
suitable for specific application domains.  Note that in the future the
behavior of these instances (in particular the ‘HTTP’ instance) may be
adjusted to conform even more closely to the RFCs relevant to their
domains.

 -- 資料: email.policy.default

     An instance of ‘EmailPolicy’ with all defaults unchanged.  This
     policy uses the standard Python ‘\n’ line endings rather than the
     RFC-correct ‘\r\n’.

 -- 資料: email.policy.SMTP

     Suitable for serializing messages in conformance with the email
     RFCs.  Like ‘default’, but with ‘linesep’ set to ‘\r\n’, which is
     RFC compliant.

 -- 資料: email.policy.SMTPUTF8

     The same as ‘SMTP’ except that *note utf8: c70. is ‘True’.  Useful
     for serializing messages to a message store without using encoded
     words in the headers.  Should only be used for SMTP transmission if
     the sender or recipient addresses have non-ASCII characters (the
     *note smtplib.SMTP.send_message(): cd6. method handles this
     automatically).

 -- 資料: email.policy.HTTP

     Suitable for serializing headers with for use in HTTP traffic.
     Like ‘SMTP’ except that ‘max_line_length’ is set to ‘None’
     (unlimited).

 -- 資料: email.policy.strict

     Convenience instance.  The same as ‘default’ except that
     ‘raise_on_defect’ is set to ‘True’.  This allows any policy to be
     made strict by writing:

          somepolicy + policy.strict

With all of these *note EmailPolicies: f46, the effective API of the
email package is changed from the Python 3.2 API in the following ways:

   * Setting a header on a *note Message: b05. results in that header
     being parsed and a header object created.

   * Fetching a header value from a *note Message: b05. results in that
     header being parsed and a header object created and returned.

   * Any header object, or any header that is refolded due to the policy
     settings, is folded using an algorithm that fully implements the
     RFC folding algorithms, including knowing where encoded words are
     required and allowed.

From the application view, this means that any header obtained through
the *note EmailMessage: b06. is a header object with extra attributes,
whose string value is the fully decoded unicode value of the header.
Likewise, a header may be assigned a new value, or a new header created,
using a unicode string, and the policy will take care of converting the
unicode string into the correct RFC encoded form.

The header objects and their attributes are described in *note
headerregistry: 3e.

 -- 類別: email.policy.Compat32 (**kw)

     This concrete *note Policy: f42. is the backward compatibility
     policy.  It replicates the behavior of the email package in Python
     3.2.  The *note policy: 4b. module also defines an instance of this
     class, *note compat32: b04, that is used as the default policy.
     Thus the default behavior of the email package is to maintain
     compatibility with Python 3.2.

     The following attributes have values that are different from the
     *note Policy: f42. default:

      -- 屬性: mangle_from_

          The default is ‘True’.

     The class provides the following concrete implementations of the
     abstract methods of *note Policy: f42.:

      -- 方法: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          The name is parsed as everything up to the '‘:’' and returned
          unmodified.  The value is determined by stripping leading
          whitespace off the remainder of the first line, joining all
          subsequent lines together, and stripping any trailing carriage
          return or linefeed characters.

      -- 方法: header_store_parse (name, value)

          The name and value are returned unmodified.

      -- 方法: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          If the value contains binary data, it is converted into a
          *note Header: 167c. object using the ‘unknown-8bit’ charset.
          Otherwise it is returned unmodified.

      -- 方法: fold (name, value)

          Headers are folded using the *note Header: 167c. folding
          algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value,
          and wraps each resulting line to the ‘max_line_length’.
          Non-ASCII binary data are CTE encoded using the ‘unknown-8bit’
          charset.

      -- 方法: fold_binary (name, value)

          Headers are folded using the *note Header: 167c. folding
          algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value,
          and wraps each resulting line to the ‘max_line_length’.  If
          ‘cte_type’ is ‘7bit’, non-ascii binary data is CTE encoded
          using the ‘unknown-8bit’ charset.  Otherwise the original
          source header is used, with its existing line breaks and any
          (RFC invalid) binary data it may contain.

 -- 資料: email.policy.compat32

     An instance of *note Compat32: f43, providing backward
     compatibility with the behavior of the email package in Python 3.2.

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/policy.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (8) Originally added in 3.3 as a *note provisional feature: ed7.

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email errors：例外和缺陷類別,  Next: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件,  Prev: email policy Policy Objects,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.8 ‘email.errors’：例外和缺陷類別
.......................................

'原始碼：'Lib/email/errors.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The following exception classes are defined in the *note email.errors:
3b. module:

 -- 例外: email.errors.MessageError

     This is the base class for all exceptions that the *note email: 37.
     package can raise.  It is derived from the standard *note
     Exception: 81e. class and defines no additional methods.

 -- 例外: email.errors.MessageParseError

     This is the base class for exceptions raised by the *note Parser:
     1030. class.  It is derived from *note MessageError: 32a0.  This
     class is also used internally by the parser used by *note
     headerregistry: 3e.

 -- 例外: email.errors.HeaderParseError

     Raised under some error conditions when parsing the RFC 5322(2)
     headers of a message, this class is derived from *note
     MessageParseError: 32a1.  The *note set_boundary(): 324d. method
     will raise this error if the content type is unknown when the
     method is called.  *note Header: 167c. may raise this error for
     certain base64 decoding errors, and when an attempt is made to
     create a header that appears to contain an embedded header (that
     is, there is what is supposed to be a continuation line that has no
     leading whitespace and looks like a header).

 -- 例外: email.errors.BoundaryError

     Deprecated and no longer used.

 -- 例外: email.errors.MultipartConversionError

     Raised when a payload is added to a *note Message: b05. object
     using ‘add_payload()’, but the payload is already a scalar and the
     message's ‘Content-Type’ main type is not either ‘multipart’ or
     missing.  *note MultipartConversionError: 32a3. multiply inherits
     from *note MessageError: 32a0. and the built-in *note TypeError:
     2ba.

     Since ‘Message.add_payload()’ is deprecated, this exception is
     rarely raised in practice.  However the exception may also be
     raised if the *note attach(): 325f. method is called on an instance
     of a class derived from *note MIMENonMultipart: 32a4. (e.g.  *note
     MIMEImage: 32a5.).

 -- 例外: email.errors.HeaderWriteError

     Raised when an error occurs when the *note generator: 3c. outputs
     headers.

 -- 例外: email.errors.MessageDefect

     This is the base class for all defects found when parsing email
     messages.  It is derived from *note ValueError: 183.

 -- 例外: email.errors.HeaderDefect

     This is the base class for all defects found when parsing email
     headers.  It is derived from *note MessageDefect: 32a6.

Here is the list of the defects that the *note FeedParser: 3269. can
find while parsing messages.  Note that the defects are added to the
message where the problem was found, so for example, if a message nested
inside a ‘multipart/alternative’ had a malformed header, that nested
message object would have a defect, but the containing messages would
not.

All defect classes are subclassed from *note email.errors.MessageDefect:
32a6.

   * ‘NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect’ - A message claimed to be a
     multipart, but had no ‘boundary’ parameter.

   * ‘StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect’ - The start boundary claimed in the
     ‘Content-Type’ header was never found.

   * ‘CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect’ - A start boundary was found, but no
     corresponding close boundary was ever found.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

   * ‘FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect’ - The message had a
     continuation line as its first header line.

   * ‘MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect’ - A "Unix From" header was found in
     the middle of a header block.

   * ‘MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect’ - A line was found while parsing
     headers that had no leading white space but contained no ':'.
     Parsing continues assuming that the line represents the first line
     of the body.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

   * ‘MalformedHeaderDefect’ - A header was found that was missing a
     colon, or was otherwise malformed.

     在 3.3 版之後被棄用: This defect has not been used for several
     Python versions.

   * ‘MultipartInvariantViolationDefect’ - A message claimed to be a
     ‘multipart’, but no subparts were found.  Note that when a message
     has this defect, its *note is_multipart(): 3252. method may return
     ‘False’ even though its content type claims to be ‘multipart’.

   * ‘InvalidBase64PaddingDefect’ - When decoding a block of base64
     encoded bytes, the padding was not correct.  Enough padding is
     added to perform the decode, but the resulting decoded bytes may be
     invalid.

   * ‘InvalidBase64CharactersDefect’ - When decoding a block of base64
     encoded bytes, characters outside the base64 alphabet were
     encountered.  The characters are ignored, but the resulting decoded
     bytes may be invalid.

   * ‘InvalidBase64LengthDefect’ - When decoding a block of base64
     encoded bytes, the number of non-padding base64 characters was
     invalid (1 more than a multiple of 4).  The encoded block was kept
     as-is.

   * ‘InvalidDateDefect’ - When decoding an invalid or unparsable date
     field.  The original value is kept as-is.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/errors.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件,  Next: email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容,  Prev: email errors：例外和缺陷類別,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.9 ‘email.headerregistry’：自訂標頭物件
.............................................

'原始碼：'Lib/email/headerregistry.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

在 3.6 版被加入: (2)

Headers are represented by customized subclasses of *note str: 157.  The
particular class used to represent a given header is determined by the
*note header_factory: 328c. of the *note policy: 4b. in effect when the
headers are created.  This section documents the particular
‘header_factory’ implemented by the email package for handling RFC
5322(3) compliant email messages, which not only provides customized
header objects for various header types, but also provides an extension
mechanism for applications to add their own custom header types.

When using any of the policy objects derived from *note EmailPolicy:
f46, all headers are produced by *note HeaderRegistry: 32aa. and have
*note BaseHeader: 323a. as their last base class.  Each header class has
an additional base class that is determined by the type of the header.
For example, many headers have the class *note UnstructuredHeader: 32ab.
as their other base class.  The specialized second class for a header is
determined by the name of the header, using a lookup table stored in the
*note HeaderRegistry: 32aa.  All of this is managed transparently for
the typical application program, but interfaces are provided for
modifying the default behavior for use by more complex applications.

The sections below first document the header base classes and their
attributes, followed by the API for modifying the behavior of *note
HeaderRegistry: 32aa, and finally the support classes used to represent
the data parsed from structured headers.

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.BaseHeader (name, value)

     'name' and 'value' are passed to ‘BaseHeader’ from the *note
     header_factory: 328c. call.  The string value of any header object
     is the 'value' fully decoded to unicode.

     This base class defines the following read-only properties:

      -- 屬性: name

          The name of the header (the portion of the field before the
          ':').  This is exactly the value passed in the *note
          header_factory: 328c. call for 'name'; that is, case is
          preserved.

      -- 屬性: defects

          A tuple of *note HeaderDefect: 32a7. instances reporting any
          RFC compliance problems found during parsing.  The email
          package tries to be complete about detecting compliance
          issues.  See the *note errors: 3b. module for a discussion of
          the types of defects that may be reported.

      -- 屬性: max_count

          The maximum number of headers of this type that can have the
          same ‘name’.  A value of ‘None’ means unlimited.  The
          ‘BaseHeader’ value for this attribute is ‘None’; it is
          expected that specialized header classes will override this
          value as needed.

     ‘BaseHeader’ also provides the following method, which is called by
     the email library code and should not in general be called by
     application programs:

      -- 方法: fold (*, policy)

          Return a string containing *note linesep: 3281. characters as
          required to correctly fold the header according to 'policy'.
          A *note cte_type: 327a. of ‘8bit’ will be treated as if it
          were ‘7bit’, since headers may not contain arbitrary binary
          data.  If *note utf8: c70. is ‘False’, non-ASCII data will be
          RFC 2047(4) encoded.

     ‘BaseHeader’ by itself cannot be used to create a header object.
     It defines a protocol that each specialized header cooperates with
     in order to produce the header object.  Specifically, ‘BaseHeader’
     requires that the specialized class provide a *note classmethod():
     24b. named ‘parse’.  This method is called as follows:

          parse(string, kwds)

     ‘kwds’ is a dictionary containing one pre-initialized key,
     ‘defects’.  ‘defects’ is an empty list.  The parse method should
     append any detected defects to this list.  On return, the ‘kwds’
     dictionary 'must' contain values for at least the keys ‘decoded’
     and ‘defects’.  ‘decoded’ should be the string value for the header
     (that is, the header value fully decoded to unicode).  The parse
     method should assume that 'string' may contain
     content-transfer-encoded parts, but should correctly handle all
     valid unicode characters as well so that it can parse un-encoded
     header values.

     ‘BaseHeader’'s ‘__new__’ then creates the header instance, and
     calls its ‘init’ method.  The specialized class only needs to
     provide an ‘init’ method if it wishes to set additional attributes
     beyond those provided by ‘BaseHeader’ itself.  Such an ‘init’
     method should look like this:

          def init(self, /, *args, **kw):
              self._myattr = kw.pop('myattr')
              super().init(*args, **kw)

     That is, anything extra that the specialized class puts in to the
     ‘kwds’ dictionary should be removed and handled, and the remaining
     contents of ‘kw’ (and ‘args’) passed to the ‘BaseHeader’ ‘init’
     method.

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader

     An "unstructured" header is the default type of header in RFC
     5322(5).  Any header that does not have a specified syntax is
     treated as unstructured.  The classic example of an unstructured
     header is the ‘Subject’ header.

     In RFC 5322(6), an unstructured header is a run of arbitrary text
     in the ASCII character set.  RFC 2047(7), however, has an RFC
     5322(8) compatible mechanism for encoding non-ASCII text as ASCII
     characters within a header value.  When a 'value' containing
     encoded words is passed to the constructor, the
     ‘UnstructuredHeader’ parser converts such encoded words into
     unicode, following the RFC 2047(9) rules for unstructured text.
     The parser uses heuristics to attempt to decode certain
     non-compliant encoded words.  Defects are registered in such cases,
     as well as defects for issues such as invalid characters within the
     encoded words or the non-encoded text.

     This header type provides no additional attributes.

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.DateHeader

     RFC 5322(10) specifies a very specific format for dates within
     email headers.  The ‘DateHeader’ parser recognizes that date
     format, as well as recognizing a number of variant forms that are
     sometimes found "in the wild".

     This header type provides the following additional attributes:

      -- 屬性: datetime

          If the header value can be recognized as a valid date of one
          form or another, this attribute will contain a *note datetime:
          224. instance representing that date.  If the timezone of the
          input date is specified as ‘-0000’ (indicating it is in UTC
          but contains no information about the source timezone), then
          *note datetime: 32b0. will be a naive *note datetime: 224.  If
          a specific timezone offset is found (including ‘+0000’), then
          *note datetime: 32b0. will contain an aware ‘datetime’ that
          uses *note datetime.timezone: f4e. to record the timezone
          offset.

     The ‘decoded’ value of the header is determined by formatting the
     ‘datetime’ according to the RFC 5322(11) rules; that is, it is set
     to:

          email.utils.format_datetime(self.datetime)

     When creating a ‘DateHeader’, 'value' may be *note datetime: 224.
     instance.  This means, for example, that the following code is
     valid and does what one would expect:

          msg['Date'] = datetime(2011, 7, 15, 21)

     Because this is a naive ‘datetime’ it will be interpreted as a UTC
     timestamp, and the resulting value will have a timezone of ‘-0000’.
     Much more useful is to use the *note localtime(): 22a. function
     from the *note utils: 4c. module:

          msg['Date'] = utils.localtime()

     This example sets the date header to the current time and date
     using the current timezone offset.

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.AddressHeader

     Address headers are one of the most complex structured header
     types.  The ‘AddressHeader’ class provides a generic interface to
     any address header.

     This header type provides the following additional attributes:

      -- 屬性: groups

          A tuple of *note Group: 32b3. objects encoding the addresses
          and groups found in the header value.  Addresses that are not
          part of a group are represented in this list as single-address
          ‘Groups’ whose *note display_name: 32b4. is ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: addresses

          A tuple of *note Address: 32b6. objects encoding all of the
          individual addresses from the header value.  If the header
          value contains any groups, the individual addresses from the
          group are included in the list at the point where the group
          occurs in the value (that is, the list of addresses is
          "flattened" into a one dimensional list).

     The ‘decoded’ value of the header will have all encoded words
     decoded to unicode.  *note idna: 4d. encoded domain names are also
     decoded to unicode.  The ‘decoded’ value is set by *note joining:
     1f5f. the *note str: 157. value of the elements of the ‘groups’
     attribute with ‘', '’.

     A list of *note Address: 32b6. and *note Group: 32b3. objects in
     any combination may be used to set the value of an address header.
     ‘Group’ objects whose ‘display_name’ is ‘None’ will be interpreted
     as single addresses, which allows an address list to be copied with
     groups intact by using the list obtained from the ‘groups’
     attribute of the source header.

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader

     A subclass of *note AddressHeader: 32b1. that adds one additional
     attribute:

      -- 屬性: address

          The single address encoded by the header value.  If the header
          value actually contains more than one address (which would be
          a violation of the RFC under the default *note policy: 4b.),
          accessing this attribute will result in a *note ValueError:
          183.

Many of the above classes also have a ‘Unique’ variant (for example,
‘UniqueUnstructuredHeader’).  The only difference is that in the
‘Unique’ variant, *note max_count: 328f. is set to 1.

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader

     There is really only one valid value for the ‘MIME-Version’ header,
     and that is ‘1.0’.  For future proofing, this header class supports
     other valid version numbers.  If a version number has a valid value
     per RFC 2045(12), then the header object will have non-‘None’
     values for the following attributes:

      -- 屬性: version

          The version number as a string, with any whitespace and/or
          comments removed.

      -- 屬性: major

          The major version number as an integer

      -- 屬性: minor

          The minor version number as an integer

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader

     MIME headers all start with the prefix 'Content-'.  Each specific
     header has a certain value, described under the class for that
     header.  Some can also take a list of supplemental parameters,
     which have a common format.  This class serves as a base for all
     the MIME headers that take parameters.

      -- 屬性: params

          A dictionary mapping parameter names to parameter values.

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader

     A *note ParameterizedMIMEHeader: 32bd. class that handles the
     ‘Content-Type’ header.

      -- 屬性: content_type

          The content type string, in the form ‘maintype/subtype’.

      -- 屬性: maintype

      -- 屬性: subtype

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader

     A *note ParameterizedMIMEHeader: 32bd. class that handles the
     ‘Content-Disposition’ header.

      -- 屬性: content_disposition

          ‘inline’ and ‘attachment’ are the only valid values in common
          use.

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding

     Handles the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.

      -- 屬性: cte

          Valid values are ‘7bit’, ‘8bit’, ‘base64’, and
          ‘quoted-printable’.  See RFC 2045(13) for more information.

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry (base_class=BaseHeader,
          default_class=UnstructuredHeader, use_default_map=True)

     This is the factory used by *note EmailPolicy: f46. by default.
     ‘HeaderRegistry’ builds the class used to create a header instance
     dynamically, using 'base_class' and a specialized class retrieved
     from a registry that it holds.  When a given header name does not
     appear in the registry, the class specified by 'default_class' is
     used as the specialized class.  When 'use_default_map' is ‘True’
     (the default), the standard mapping of header names to classes is
     copied in to the registry during initialization.  'base_class' is
     always the last class in the generated class's *note __bases__:
     131f. list.

     The default mappings are:


          subject: UniqueUnstructuredHeader


          date: UniqueDateHeader


          resent-date: DateHeader


          orig-date: UniqueDateHeader


          sender: UniqueSingleAddressHeader


          resent-sender: SingleAddressHeader


          to: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-to: AddressHeader


          cc: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-cc: AddressHeader


          bcc: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-bcc: AddressHeader


          from: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-from: AddressHeader


          reply-to: UniqueAddressHeader


          mime-version: MIMEVersionHeader


          content-type: ContentTypeHeader


          content-disposition: ContentDispositionHeader


          content-transfer-encoding: ContentTransferEncodingHeader


          message-id: MessageIDHeader

     ‘HeaderRegistry’ has the following methods:

      -- 方法: map_to_type (self, name, cls)

          'name' is the name of the header to be mapped.  It will be
          converted to lower case in the registry.  'cls' is the
          specialized class to be used, along with 'base_class', to
          create the class used to instantiate headers that match
          'name'.

      -- 方法: __getitem__ (name)

          Construct and return a class to handle creating a 'name'
          header.

      -- 方法: __call__ (name, value)

          Retrieves the specialized header associated with 'name' from
          the registry (using 'default_class' if 'name' does not appear
          in the registry) and composes it with 'base_class' to produce
          a class, calls the constructed class's constructor, passing it
          the same argument list, and finally returns the class instance
          created thereby.

The following classes are the classes used to represent data parsed from
structured headers and can, in general, be used by an application
program to construct structured values to assign to specific headers.

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.Address (display_name='', username='',
          domain='', addr_spec=None)

     The class used to represent an email address.  The general form of
     an address is:

          [display_name] <username@domain>

     或是：

          username@domain

     where each part must conform to specific syntax rules spelled out
     in RFC 5322(14).

     As a convenience 'addr_spec' can be specified instead of 'username'
     and 'domain', in which case 'username' and 'domain' will be parsed
     from the 'addr_spec'.  An 'addr_spec' must be a properly RFC quoted
     string; if it is not ‘Address’ will raise an error.  Unicode
     characters are allowed and will be property encoded when
     serialized.  However, per the RFCs, unicode is 'not' allowed in the
     username portion of the address.

      -- 屬性: display_name

          The display name portion of the address, if any, with all
          quoting removed.  If the address does not have a display name,
          this attribute will be an empty string.

      -- 屬性: username

          The ‘username’ portion of the address, with all quoting
          removed.

      -- 屬性: domain

          The ‘domain’ portion of the address.

      -- 屬性: addr_spec

          The ‘username@domain’ portion of the address, correctly quoted
          for use as a bare address (the second form shown above).  This
          attribute is not mutable.

      -- 方法: __str__ ()

          The ‘str’ value of the object is the address quoted according
          to RFC 5322(15) rules, but with no Content Transfer Encoding
          of any non-ASCII characters.

     To support SMTP ( RFC 5321(16)), ‘Address’ handles one special
     case: if ‘username’ and ‘domain’ are both the empty string (or
     ‘None’), then the string value of the ‘Address’ is ‘<>’.

 -- 類別: email.headerregistry.Group (display_name=None, addresses=None)

     The class used to represent an address group.  The general form of
     an address group is:

          display_name: [address-list];

     As a convenience for processing lists of addresses that consist of
     a mixture of groups and single addresses, a ‘Group’ may also be
     used to represent single addresses that are not part of a group by
     setting 'display_name' to ‘None’ and providing a list of the single
     address as 'addresses'.

      -- 屬性: display_name

          The ‘display_name’ of the group.  If it is ‘None’ and there is
          exactly one ‘Address’ in ‘addresses’, then the ‘Group’
          represents a single address that is not in a group.

      -- 屬性: addresses

          A possibly empty tuple of *note Address: 32b6. objects
          representing the addresses in the group.

      -- 方法: __str__ ()

          The ‘str’ value of a ‘Group’ is formatted according to RFC
          5322(17), but with no Content Transfer Encoding of any
          non-ASCII characters.  If ‘display_name’ is none and there is
          a single ‘Address’ in the ‘addresses’ list, the ‘str’ value
          will be the same as the ‘str’ of that single ‘Address’.

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/headerregistry.py

   (2) Originally added in 3.3 as a *note provisional module: ed7.

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容,  Next: email：範例,  Prev: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.10 ‘email.contentmanager’：管理 MIME 內容
................................................

'原始碼：'Lib/email/contentmanager.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

在 3.6 版被加入: (2)

 -- 類別: email.contentmanager.ContentManager

     Base class for content managers.  Provides the standard registry
     mechanisms to register converters between MIME content and other
     representations, as well as the ‘get_content’ and ‘set_content’
     dispatch methods.

      -- 方法: get_content (msg, *args, **kw)

          Look up a handler function based on the ‘mimetype’ of 'msg'
          (see next paragraph), call it, passing through all arguments,
          and return the result of the call.  The expectation is that
          the handler will extract the payload from 'msg' and return an
          object that encodes information about the extracted data.

          To find the handler, look for the following keys in the
          registry, stopping with the first one found:

             * the string representing the full MIME type
               (‘maintype/subtype’)

             * the string representing the ‘maintype’

             * the empty string

          If none of these keys produce a handler, raise a *note
          KeyError: 8ed. for the full MIME type.

      -- 方法: set_content (msg, obj, *args, **kw)

          If the ‘maintype’ is ‘multipart’, raise a *note TypeError:
          2ba.; otherwise look up a handler function based on the type
          of 'obj' (see next paragraph), call *note clear_content():
          3263. on the 'msg', and call the handler function, passing
          through all arguments.  The expectation is that the handler
          will transform and store 'obj' into 'msg', possibly making
          other changes to 'msg' as well, such as adding various MIME
          headers to encode information needed to interpret the stored
          data.

          To find the handler, obtain the type of 'obj' (‘typ =
          type(obj)’), and look for the following keys in the registry,
          stopping with the first one found:

             * the type itself (‘typ’)

             * the type's fully qualified name (‘typ.__module__ + '.' +
               typ.__qualname__’).

             * the type's *note qualname: 1cb8. (‘typ.__qualname__’)

             * the type's *note name: 131e. (‘typ.__name__’).

          If none of the above match, repeat all of the checks above for
          each of the types in the *note MRO: 32d3. (*note typ.__mro__:
          1cbb.).  Finally, if no other key yields a handler, check for
          a handler for the key ‘None’.  If there is no handler for
          ‘None’, raise a *note KeyError: 8ed. for the fully qualified
          name of the type.

          Also add a ‘MIME-Version’ header if one is not present (see
          also *note MIMEPart: dc7.).

      -- 方法: add_get_handler (key, handler)

          Record the function 'handler' as the handler for 'key'.  For
          the possible values of 'key', see *note get_content(): 32d5.

      -- 方法: add_set_handler (typekey, handler)

          Record 'handler' as the function to call when an object of a
          type matching 'typekey' is passed to *note set_content():
          32d7.  For the possible values of 'typekey', see *note
          set_content(): 32d7.

* Menu:

* Content Manager Instances::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/contentmanager.py

   (2) Originally added in 3.4 as a *note provisional module: ed7.


File: python.info,  Node: Content Manager Instances,  Up: email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容

5.19.1.11 Content Manager Instances
...................................

Currently the email package provides only one concrete content manager,
*note raw_data_manager: 328d, although more may be added in the future.
*note raw_data_manager: 328d. is the *note content_manager: dc8.
provided by *note EmailPolicy: f46. and its derivatives.

 -- 資料: email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager

     This content manager provides only a minimum interface beyond that
     provided by *note Message: b05. itself: it deals only with text,
     raw byte strings, and *note Message: b05. objects.  Nevertheless,
     it provides significant advantages compared to the base API:
     ‘get_content’ on a text part will return a unicode string without
     the application needing to manually decode it, ‘set_content’
     provides a rich set of options for controlling the headers added to
     a part and controlling the content transfer encoding, and it
     enables the use of the various ‘add_’ methods, thereby simplifying
     the creation of multipart messages.

      -- 方法: email.contentmanager.get_content (msg, errors='replace')

          Return the payload of the part as either a string (for ‘text’
          parts), an *note EmailMessage: b06. object (for
          ‘message/rfc822’ parts), or a ‘bytes’ object (for all other
          non-multipart types).  Raise a *note KeyError: 8ed. if called
          on a ‘multipart’.  If the part is a ‘text’ part and 'errors'
          is specified, use it as the error handler when decoding the
          payload to unicode.  The default error handler is ‘replace’.

      -- 方法: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg, <'str'>,
               subtype="plain", charset='utf-8', cte=None,
               disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None, params=None,
               headers=None)

      -- 方法: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg, <'bytes'>,
               maintype, subtype, cte="base64", disposition=None,
               filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

      -- 方法: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg, <'EmailMessage'>,
               cte=None, disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None,
               params=None, headers=None)

          Add headers and payload to 'msg':

          Add a ‘Content-Type’ header with a ‘maintype/subtype’ value.

             * For ‘str’, set the MIME ‘maintype’ to ‘text’, and set the
               subtype to 'subtype' if it is specified, or ‘plain’ if it
               is not.

             * For ‘bytes’, use the specified 'maintype' and 'subtype',
               or raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. if they are not
               specified.

             * For *note EmailMessage: b06. objects, set the maintype to
               ‘message’, and set the subtype to 'subtype' if it is
               specified or ‘rfc822’ if it is not.  If 'subtype' is
               ‘partial’, raise an error (‘bytes’ objects must be used
               to construct ‘message/partial’ parts).

          If 'charset' is provided (which is valid only for ‘str’),
          encode the string to bytes using the specified character set.
          The default is ‘utf-8’.  If the specified 'charset' is a known
          alias for a standard MIME charset name, use the standard
          charset instead.

          If 'cte' is set, encode the payload using the specified
          content transfer encoding, and set the
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header to that value.  Possible
          values for 'cte' are ‘quoted-printable’, ‘base64’, ‘7bit’,
          ‘8bit’, and ‘binary’.  If the input cannot be encoded in the
          specified encoding (for example, specifying a 'cte' of ‘7bit’
          for an input that contains non-ASCII values), raise a *note
          ValueError: 183.

             * For ‘str’ objects, if 'cte' is not set use heuristics to
               determine the most compact encoding.

             * For *note EmailMessage: b06, per RFC 2046(1), raise an
               error if a 'cte' of ‘quoted-printable’ or ‘base64’ is
               requested for 'subtype' ‘rfc822’, and for any 'cte' other
               than ‘7bit’ for 'subtype' ‘external-body’.  For
               ‘message/rfc822’, use ‘8bit’ if 'cte' is not specified.
               For all other values of 'subtype', use ‘7bit’.

               備註: A 'cte' of ‘binary’ does not actually work
               correctly yet.  The ‘EmailMessage’ object as modified by
               ‘set_content’ is correct, but *note BytesGenerator: 1060.
               does not serialize it correctly.

          If 'disposition' is set, use it as the value of the
          ‘Content-Disposition’ header.  If not specified, and
          'filename' is specified, add the header with the value
          ‘attachment’.  If 'disposition' is not specified and
          'filename' is also not specified, do not add the header.  The
          only valid values for 'disposition' are ‘attachment’ and
          ‘inline’.

          If 'filename' is specified, use it as the value of the
          ‘filename’ parameter of the ‘Content-Disposition’ header.

          If 'cid' is specified, add a ‘Content-ID’ header with 'cid' as
          its value.

          If 'params' is specified, iterate its ‘items’ method and use
          the resulting ‘(key, value)’ pairs to set additional
          parameters on the ‘Content-Type’ header.

          If 'headers' is specified and is a list of strings of the form
          ‘headername: headervalue’ or a list of ‘header’ objects
          (distinguished from strings by having a ‘name’ attribute), add
          the headers to 'msg'.

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html


File: python.info,  Node: email：範例,  Next: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API,  Prev: email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.12 ‘email’：範例
.......................

Here are a few examples of how to use the *note email: 37. package to
read, write, and send simple email messages, as well as more complex
MIME messages.

First, let's see how to create and send a simple text message (both the
text content and the addresses may contain unicode characters):

     # Import smtplib for the actual sending function
     import smtplib

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     from email.message import EmailMessage

     # Open the plain text file whose name is in textfile for reading.
     with open(textfile) as fp:
         # Create a text/plain message
         msg = EmailMessage()
         msg.set_content(fp.read())

     # me == the sender's email address
     # you == the recipient's email address
     msg['Subject'] = f'The contents of {textfile}'
     msg['From'] = me
     msg['To'] = you

     # Send the message via our own SMTP server.
     s = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     s.send_message(msg)
     s.quit()

Parsing RFC 822(1) headers can easily be done by the using the classes
from the *note parser: 4a. module:

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     #from email.parser import BytesParser
     from email.parser import Parser
     from email.policy import default

     # If the e-mail headers are in a file, uncomment these two lines:
     # with open(messagefile, 'rb') as fp:
     #     headers = BytesParser(policy=default).parse(fp)

     #  Or for parsing headers in a string (this is an uncommon operation), use:
     headers = Parser(policy=default).parsestr(
             'From: Foo Bar <user@example.com>\n'
             'To: <someone_else@example.com>\n'
             'Subject: Test message\n'
             '\n'
             'Body would go here\n')

     #  Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary:
     print('To: {}'.format(headers['to']))
     print('From: {}'.format(headers['from']))
     print('Subject: {}'.format(headers['subject']))

     # You can also access the parts of the addresses:
     print('Recipient username: {}'.format(headers['to'].addresses[0].username))
     print('Sender name: {}'.format(headers['from'].addresses[0].display_name))

Here's an example of how to send a MIME message containing a bunch of
family pictures that may be residing in a directory:

     # Import smtplib for the actual sending function.
     import smtplib

     # Here are the email package modules we'll need.
     from email.message import EmailMessage

     # Create the container email message.
     msg = EmailMessage()
     msg['Subject'] = 'Our family reunion'
     # me == the sender's email address
     # family = the list of all recipients' email addresses
     msg['From'] = me
     msg['To'] = ', '.join(family)
     msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

     # Open the files in binary mode.  You can also omit the subtype
     # if you want MIMEImage to guess it.
     for file in pngfiles:
         with open(file, 'rb') as fp:
             img_data = fp.read()
         msg.add_attachment(img_data, maintype='image',
                                      subtype='png')

     # Send the email via our own SMTP server.
     with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
         s.send_message(msg)

Here's an example of how to send the entire contents of a directory as
an email message: (2)

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     """Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message."""

     import os
     import smtplib
     # For guessing MIME type based on file name extension
     import mimetypes

     from argparse import ArgumentParser

     from email.message import EmailMessage
     from email.policy import SMTP


     def main():
         parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
     Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message.
     Unless the -o option is given, the email is sent by forwarding to your local
     SMTP server, which then does the normal delivery process.  Your local machine
     must be running an SMTP server.
     """)
         parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory',
                             help="""Mail the contents of the specified directory,
                             otherwise use the current directory.  Only the regular
                             files in the directory are sent, and we don't recurse to
                             subdirectories.""")
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output',
                             metavar='FILE',
                             help="""Print the composed message to FILE instead of
                             sending the message to the SMTP server.""")
         parser.add_argument('-s', '--sender', required=True,
                             help='The value of the From: header (required)')
         parser.add_argument('-r', '--recipient', required=True,
                             action='append', metavar='RECIPIENT',
                             default=[], dest='recipients',
                             help='A To: header value (at least one required)')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         directory = args.directory
         if not directory:
             directory = '.'
         # Create the message
         msg = EmailMessage()
         msg['Subject'] = f'Contents of directory {os.path.abspath(directory)}'
         msg['To'] = ', '.join(args.recipients)
         msg['From'] = args.sender
         msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

         for filename in os.listdir(directory):
             path = os.path.join(directory, filename)
             if not os.path.isfile(path):
                 continue
             # Guess the content type based on the file's extension.  Encoding
             # will be ignored, although we should check for simple things like
             # gzip'd or compressed files.
             ctype, encoding = mimetypes.guess_type(path)
             if ctype is None or encoding is not None:
                 # No guess could be made, or the file is encoded (compressed), so
                 # use a generic bag-of-bits type.
                 ctype = 'application/octet-stream'
             maintype, subtype = ctype.split('/', 1)
             with open(path, 'rb') as fp:
                 msg.add_attachment(fp.read(),
                                    maintype=maintype,
                                    subtype=subtype,
                                    filename=filename)
         # Now send or store the message
         if args.output:
             with open(args.output, 'wb') as fp:
                 fp.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=SMTP))
         else:
             with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
                 s.send_message(msg)


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Here's an example of how to unpack a MIME message like the one above,
into a directory of files:

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     """Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files."""

     import os
     import email
     import mimetypes

     from email.policy import default

     from argparse import ArgumentParser


     def main():
         parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
     Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files.
     """)
         parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory', required=True,
                             help="""Unpack the MIME message into the named
                             directory, which will be created if it doesn't already
                             exist.""")
         parser.add_argument('msgfile')
         args = parser.parse_args()

         with open(args.msgfile, 'rb') as fp:
             msg = email.message_from_binary_file(fp, policy=default)

         try:
             os.mkdir(args.directory)
         except FileExistsError:
             pass

         counter = 1
         for part in msg.walk():
             # multipart/* are just containers
             if part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart':
                 continue
             # Applications should really sanitize the given filename so that an
             # email message can't be used to overwrite important files
             filename = part.get_filename()
             if not filename:
                 ext = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
                 if not ext:
                     # Use a generic bag-of-bits extension
                     ext = '.bin'
                 filename = f'part-{counter:03d}{ext}'
             counter += 1
             with open(os.path.join(args.directory, filename), 'wb') as fp:
                 fp.write(part.get_payload(decode=True))


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Here's an example of how to create an HTML message with an alternative
plain text version.  To make things a bit more interesting, we include a
related image in the html part, and we save a copy of what we are going
to send to disk, as well as sending it.

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     import smtplib

     from email.message import EmailMessage
     from email.headerregistry import Address
     from email.utils import make_msgid

     # Create the base text message.
     msg = EmailMessage()
     msg['Subject'] = "Ayons asperges pour le déjeuner"
     msg['From'] = Address("Pepé Le Pew", "pepe", "example.com")
     msg['To'] = (Address("Penelope Pussycat", "penelope", "example.com"),
                  Address("Fabrette Pussycat", "fabrette", "example.com"))
     msg.set_content("""\
     Salut!

     Cela ressemble à un excellent recipie[1] déjeuner.

     [1] http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718

     --Pepé
     """)

     # Add the html version.  This converts the message into a multipart/alternative
     # container, with the original text message as the first part and the new html
     # message as the second part.
     asparagus_cid = make_msgid()
     msg.add_alternative("""\
     <html>
       <head></head>
       <body>
         <p>Salut!</p>
         <p>Cela ressemble à un excellent
             <a href="http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718">
                 recipie
             </a> déjeuner.
         </p>
         <img src="cid:{asparagus_cid}" />
       </body>
     </html>
     """.format(asparagus_cid=asparagus_cid[1:-1]), subtype='html')
     # note that we needed to peel the <> off the msgid for use in the html.

     # Now add the related image to the html part.
     with open("roasted-asparagus.jpg", 'rb') as img:
         msg.get_payload()[1].add_related(img.read(), 'image', 'jpeg',
                                          cid=asparagus_cid)

     # Make a local copy of what we are going to send.
     with open('outgoing.msg', 'wb') as f:
         f.write(bytes(msg))

     # Send the message via local SMTP server.
     with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
         s.send_message(msg)

If we were sent the message from the last example, here is one way we
could process it:

     import os
     import sys
     import tempfile
     import mimetypes
     import webbrowser

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     from email import policy
     from email.parser import BytesParser


     def magic_html_parser(html_text, partfiles):
         """Return safety-sanitized html linked to partfiles.

         Rewrite the href="cid:...." attributes to point to the filenames in partfiles.
         Though not trivial, this should be possible using html.parser.
         """
         raise NotImplementedError("Add the magic needed")


     # In a real program you'd get the filename from the arguments.
     with open('outgoing.msg', 'rb') as fp:
         msg = BytesParser(policy=policy.default).parse(fp)

     # Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary, and any non-ASCII will
     # be converted to unicode:
     print('To:', msg['to'])
     print('From:', msg['from'])
     print('Subject:', msg['subject'])

     # If we want to print a preview of the message content, we can extract whatever
     # the least formatted payload is and print the first three lines.  Of course,
     # if the message has no plain text part printing the first three lines of html
     # is probably useless, but this is just a conceptual example.
     simplest = msg.get_body(preferencelist=('plain', 'html'))
     print()
     print(''.join(simplest.get_content().splitlines(keepends=True)[:3]))

     ans = input("View full message?")
     if ans.lower()[0] == 'n':
         sys.exit()

     # We can extract the richest alternative in order to display it:
     richest = msg.get_body()
     partfiles = {}
     if richest['content-type'].maintype == 'text':
         if richest['content-type'].subtype == 'plain':
             for line in richest.get_content().splitlines():
                 print(line)
             sys.exit()
         elif richest['content-type'].subtype == 'html':
             body = richest
         else:
             print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
             sys.exit()
     elif richest['content-type'].content_type == 'multipart/related':
         body = richest.get_body(preferencelist=('html'))
         for part in richest.iter_attachments():
             fn = part.get_filename()
             if fn:
                 extension = os.path.splitext(part.get_filename())[1]
             else:
                 extension = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
             with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(suffix=extension, delete=False) as f:
                 f.write(part.get_content())
                 # again strip the <> to go from email form of cid to html form.
                 partfiles[part['content-id'][1:-1]] = f.name
     else:
         print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
         sys.exit()
     with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w', delete=False) as f:
         f.write(magic_html_parser(body.get_content(), partfiles))
     webbrowser.open(f.name)
     os.remove(f.name)
     for fn in partfiles.values():
         os.remove(fn)

     # Of course, there are lots of email messages that could break this simple
     # minded program, but it will handle the most common ones.

Up to the prompt, the output from the above is:

     To: Penelope Pussycat <penelope@example.com>, Fabrette Pussycat <fabrette@example.com>
     From: Pepé Le Pew <pepe@example.com>
     Subject: Ayons asperges pour le déjeuner

     Salut!

     Cela ressemble à un excellent recipie[1] déjeuner.

註解
....

Legacy API:

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (2) Thanks to Matthew Dixon Cowles for the original inspiration and
examples.


File: python.info,  Node: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API,  Next: email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件,  Prev: email：範例,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.13 ‘email.message.Message’: Representing an email message using the ‘compat32’ API
.........................................................................................

The *note Message: b05. class is very similar to the *note EmailMessage:
b06. class, without the methods added by that class, and with the
default behavior of certain other methods being slightly different.  We
also document here some methods that, while supported by the *note
EmailMessage: b06. class, are not recommended unless you are dealing
with legacy code.

The philosophy and structure of the two classes is otherwise the same.

This document describes the behavior under the default (for *note
Message: b05.) policy *note Compat32: f43.  If you are going to use
another policy, you should be using the *note EmailMessage: b06. class
instead.

An email message consists of 'headers' and a 'payload'.  Headers must be
RFC 5322(1) style names and values, where the field name and value are
separated by a colon.  The colon is not part of either the field name or
the field value.  The payload may be a simple text message, or a binary
object, or a structured sequence of sub-messages each with their own set
of headers and their own payload.  The latter type of payload is
indicated by the message having a MIME type such as ‘multipart/*’ or
‘message/rfc822’.

The conceptual model provided by a *note Message: b05. object is that of
an ordered dictionary of headers with additional methods for accessing
both specialized information from the headers, for accessing the
payload, for generating a serialized version of the message, and for
recursively walking over the object tree.  Note that duplicate headers
are supported but special methods must be used to access them.

The *note Message: b05. pseudo-dictionary is indexed by the header
names, which must be ASCII values.  The values of the dictionary are
strings that are supposed to contain only ASCII characters; there is
some special handling for non-ASCII input, but it doesn't always produce
the correct results.  Headers are stored and returned in case-preserving
form, but field names are matched case-insensitively.  There may also be
a single envelope header, also known as the 'Unix-From' header or the
‘From_’ header.  The 'payload' is either a string or bytes, in the case
of simple message objects, or a list of *note Message: b05. objects, for
MIME container documents (e.g.  ‘multipart/*’ and ‘message/rfc822’).

Here are the methods of the *note Message: b05. class:

 -- 類別: email.message.Message (policy=compat32)

     If 'policy' is specified (it must be an instance of a *note policy:
     4b. class) use the rules it specifies to update and serialize the
     representation of the message.  If 'policy' is not set, use the
     *note compat32: f43. policy, which maintains backward compatibility
     with the Python 3.2 version of the email package.  For more
     information see the *note policy: 4b. documentation.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'policy' 關鍵字引數。

      -- 方法: as_string (unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=0, policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a string.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  For
          backward compatibility reasons, 'maxheaderlen' defaults to
          ‘0’, so if you want a different value you must override it
          explicitly (the value specified for 'max_line_length' in the
          policy will be ignored by this method).  The 'policy' argument
          may be used to override the default policy obtained from the
          message instance.  This can be used to control some of the
          formatting produced by the method, since the specified
          'policy' will be passed to the ‘Generator’.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the *note
          Message: b05. if defaults need to be filled in to complete the
          transformation to a string (for example, MIME boundaries may
          be generated or modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          always format the message the way you want.  For example, by
          default it does not do the mangling of lines that begin with
          ‘From’ that is required by the Unix mbox format.  For more
          flexibility, instantiate a *note Generator: 105f. instance and
          use its *note flatten(): 327c. method directly.  For example:

               from io import StringIO
               from email.generator import Generator
               fp = StringIO()
               g = Generator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
               g.flatten(msg)
               text = fp.getvalue()

          If the message object contains binary data that is not encoded
          according to RFC standards, the non-compliant data will be
          replaced by unicode "unknown character" code points.  (See
          also *note as_bytes(): dc4. and *note BytesGenerator: 1060.)

          在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'policy' 關鍵字引數。

      -- 方法: __str__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_string(): dc3.  Allows ‘str(msg)’ to
          produce a string containing the formatted message.

      -- 方法: as_bytes (unixfrom=False, policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a bytes object.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  The
          'policy' argument may be used to override the default policy
          obtained from the message instance.  This can be used to
          control some of the formatting produced by the method, since
          the specified 'policy' will be passed to the ‘BytesGenerator’.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the *note
          Message: b05. if defaults need to be filled in to complete the
          transformation to a string (for example, MIME boundaries may
          be generated or modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          always format the message the way you want.  For example, by
          default it does not do the mangling of lines that begin with
          ‘From’ that is required by the Unix mbox format.  For more
          flexibility, instantiate a *note BytesGenerator: 1060.
          instance and use its *note flatten(): 3278. method directly.
          For example:

               from io import BytesIO
               from email.generator import BytesGenerator
               fp = BytesIO()
               g = BytesGenerator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
               g.flatten(msg)
               text = fp.getvalue()

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 方法: __bytes__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_bytes(): dc4.  Allows ‘bytes(msg)’ to
          produce a bytes object containing the formatted message.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 方法: is_multipart ()

          Return ‘True’ if the message's payload is a list of sub-*note
          Message: b05. objects, otherwise return ‘False’.  When *note
          is_multipart(): 3252. returns ‘False’, the payload should be a
          string object (which might be a CTE encoded binary payload).
          (Note that *note is_multipart(): 3252. returning ‘True’ does
          not necessarily mean that "msg.get_content_maintype() ==
          'multipart'" will return the ‘True’.  For example,
          ‘is_multipart’ will return ‘True’ when the *note Message: b05.
          is of type ‘message/rfc822’.)

      -- 方法: set_unixfrom (unixfrom)

          Set the message's envelope header to 'unixfrom', which should
          be a string.

      -- 方法: get_unixfrom ()

          Return the message's envelope header.  Defaults to ‘None’ if
          the envelope header was never set.

      -- 方法: attach (payload)

          Add the given 'payload' to the current payload, which must be
          ‘None’ or a list of *note Message: b05. objects before the
          call.  After the call, the payload will always be a list of
          *note Message: b05. objects.  If you want to set the payload
          to a scalar object (e.g.  a string), use *note set_payload():
          32e0. instead.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by *note set_content(): 167b. and
          the related ‘make’ and ‘add’ methods.

      -- 方法: get_payload (i=None, decode=False)

          Return the current payload, which will be a list of *note
          Message: b05. objects when *note is_multipart(): 3252. is
          ‘True’, or a string when *note is_multipart(): 3252. is
          ‘False’.  If the payload is a list and you mutate the list
          object, you modify the message's payload in place.

          With optional argument 'i', *note get_payload(): 105e. will
          return the 'i'-th element of the payload, counting from zero,
          if *note is_multipart(): 3252. is ‘True’.  An *note
          IndexError: 13ac. will be raised if 'i' is less than 0 or
          greater than or equal to the number of items in the payload.
          If the payload is a string (i.e.  *note is_multipart(): 3252.
          is ‘False’) and 'i' is given, a *note TypeError: 2ba. is
          raised.

          Optional 'decode' is a flag indicating whether the payload
          should be decoded or not, according to the
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.  When ‘True’ and the
          message is not a multipart, the payload will be decoded if
          this header's value is ‘quoted-printable’ or ‘base64’.  If
          some other encoding is used, or ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’
          header is missing, the payload is returned as-is (undecoded).
          In all cases the returned value is binary data.  If the
          message is a multipart and the 'decode' flag is ‘True’, then
          ‘None’ is returned.  If the payload is base64 and it was not
          perfectly formed (missing padding, characters outside the
          base64 alphabet), then an appropriate defect will be added to
          the message's defect property (‘InvalidBase64PaddingDefect’ or
          ‘InvalidBase64CharactersDefect’, respectively).

          When 'decode' is ‘False’ (the default) the body is returned as
          a string without decoding the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.
          However, for a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of 8bit, an attempt
          is made to decode the original bytes using the ‘charset’
          specified by the ‘Content-Type’ header, using the ‘replace’
          error handler.  If no ‘charset’ is specified, or if the
          ‘charset’ given is not recognized by the email package, the
          body is decoded using the default ASCII charset.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by *note get_content(): 3258. and
          *note iter_parts(): 3257.

      -- 方法: set_payload (payload, charset=None)

          Set the entire message object's payload to 'payload'.  It is
          the client's responsibility to ensure the payload invariants.
          Optional 'charset' sets the message's default character set;
          see *note set_charset(): 32e1. for details.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by *note set_content(): 167b.

      -- 方法: set_charset (charset)

          Set the character set of the payload to 'charset', which can
          either be a *note Charset: c72. instance (see *note
          email.charset: 38.), a string naming a character set, or
          ‘None’.  If it is a string, it will be converted to a *note
          Charset: c72. instance.  If 'charset' is ‘None’, the ‘charset’
          parameter will be removed from the ‘Content-Type’ header (the
          message will not be otherwise modified).  Anything else will
          generate a *note TypeError: 2ba.

          If there is no existing ‘MIME-Version’ header one will be
          added.  If there is no existing ‘Content-Type’ header, one
          will be added with a value of ‘text/plain’.  Whether the
          ‘Content-Type’ header already exists or not, its ‘charset’
          parameter will be set to 'charset.output_charset'.  If
          'charset.input_charset' and 'charset.output_charset' differ,
          the payload will be re-encoded to the 'output_charset'.  If
          there is no existing ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header, then
          the payload will be transfer-encoded, if needed, using the
          specified *note Charset: c72, and a header with the
          appropriate value will be added.  If a
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header already exists, the payload
          is assumed to already be correctly encoded using that
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ and is not modified.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by the 'charset' parameter of the
          ‘email.emailmessage.EmailMessage.set_content()’ method.

      -- 方法: get_charset ()

          Return the *note Charset: c72. instance associated with the
          message's payload.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class it
          always returns ‘None’.

     The following methods implement a mapping-like interface for
     accessing the message's RFC 2822(2) headers.  Note that there are
     some semantic differences between these methods and a normal
     mapping (i.e.  dictionary) interface.  For example, in a dictionary
     there are no duplicate keys, but here there may be duplicate
     message headers.  Also, in dictionaries there is no guaranteed
     order to the keys returned by *note keys(): 32e3, but in a *note
     Message: b05. object, headers are always returned in the order they
     appeared in the original message, or were added to the message
     later.  Any header deleted and then re-added are always appended to
     the end of the header list.

     These semantic differences are intentional and are biased toward
     maximal convenience.

     Note that in all cases, any envelope header present in the message
     is not included in the mapping interface.

     In a model generated from bytes, any header values that (in
     contravention of the RFCs) contain non-ASCII bytes will, when
     retrieved through this interface, be represented as *note Header:
     167c. objects with a charset of ‘unknown-8bit’.

      -- 方法: __len__ ()

          Return the total number of headers, including duplicates.

      -- 方法: __contains__ (name)

          Return ‘True’ if the message object has a field named 'name'.
          Matching is done case-insensitively and 'name' should not
          include the trailing colon.  Used for the ‘in’ operator, e.g.:

               if 'message-id' in myMessage:
                  print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

      -- 方法: __getitem__ (name)

          Return the value of the named header field.  'name' should not
          include the colon field separator.  If the header is missing,
          ‘None’ is returned; a *note KeyError: 8ed. is never raised.

          Note that if the named field appears more than once in the
          message's headers, exactly which of those field values will be
          returned is undefined.  Use the *note get_all(): 32e6. method
          to get the values of all the extant named headers.

      -- 方法: __setitem__ (name, val)

          Add a header to the message with field name 'name' and value
          'val'.  The field is appended to the end of the message's
          existing fields.

          Note that this does 'not' overwrite or delete any existing
          header with the same name.  If you want to ensure that the new
          header is the only one present in the message with field name
          'name', delete the field first, e.g.:

               del msg['subject']
               msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

      -- 方法: __delitem__ (name)

          Delete all occurrences of the field with name 'name' from the
          message's headers.  No exception is raised if the named field
          isn't present in the headers.

      -- 方法: keys ()

          Return a list of all the message's header field names.

      -- 方法: values ()

          Return a list of all the message's field values.

      -- 方法: items ()

          Return a list of 2-tuples containing all the message's field
          headers and values.

      -- 方法: get (name, failobj=None)

          Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical
          to *note __getitem__(): 4e7. except that optional 'failobj' is
          returned if the named header is missing (defaults to ‘None’).

     Here are some additional useful methods:

      -- 方法: get_all (name, failobj=None)

          Return a list of all the values for the field named 'name'.
          If there are no such named headers in the message, 'failobj'
          is returned (defaults to ‘None’).

      -- 方法: add_header (_name, _value, **_params)

          Extended header setting.  This method is similar to *note
          __setitem__(): 32e7. except that additional header parameters
          can be provided as keyword arguments.  '_name' is the header
          field to add and '_value' is the 'primary' value for the
          header.

          For each item in the keyword argument dictionary '_params',
          the key is taken as the parameter name, with underscores
          converted to dashes (since dashes are illegal in Python
          identifiers).  Normally, the parameter will be added as
          ‘key="value"’ unless the value is ‘None’, in which case only
          the key will be added.  If the value contains non-ASCII
          characters, it can be specified as a three tuple in the format
          ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE)’, where ‘CHARSET’ is a string
          naming the charset to be used to encode the value, ‘LANGUAGE’
          can usually be set to ‘None’ or the empty string (see RFC
          2231(3) for other possibilities), and ‘VALUE’ is the string
          value containing non-ASCII code points.  If a three tuple is
          not passed and the value contains non-ASCII characters, it is
          automatically encoded in RFC 2231(4) format using a ‘CHARSET’
          of ‘utf-8’ and a ‘LANGUAGE’ of ‘None’.

          以下是個範例：

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          This will add a header that looks like

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

          An example with non-ASCII characters:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
                              filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

          Which produces

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename*="iso-8859-1''Fu%DFballer.ppt"

      -- 方法: replace_header (_name, _value)

          Replace a header.  Replace the first header found in the
          message that matches '_name', retaining header order and field
          name case.  If no matching header was found, a *note KeyError:
          8ed. is raised.

      -- 方法: get_content_type ()

          Return the message's content type.  The returned string is
          coerced to lower case of the form ‘maintype/subtype’.  If
          there was no ‘Content-Type’ header in the message the default
          type as given by *note get_default_type(): 32ef. will be
          returned.  Since according to RFC 2045(5), messages always
          have a default type, *note get_content_type(): 32ee. will
          always return a value.

          RFC 2045(6) defines a message's default type to be
          ‘text/plain’ unless it appears inside a ‘multipart/digest’
          container, in which case it would be ‘message/rfc822’.  If the
          ‘Content-Type’ header has an invalid type specification, RFC
          2045(7) mandates that the default type be ‘text/plain’.

      -- 方法: get_content_maintype ()

          Return the message's main content type.  This is the
          ‘maintype’ part of the string returned by *note
          get_content_type(): 32ee.

      -- 方法: get_content_subtype ()

          Return the message's sub-content type.  This is the ‘subtype’
          part of the string returned by *note get_content_type(): 32ee.

      -- 方法: get_default_type ()

          Return the default content type.  Most messages have a default
          content type of ‘text/plain’, except for messages that are
          subparts of ‘multipart/digest’ containers.  Such subparts have
          a default content type of ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- 方法: set_default_type (ctype)

          Set the default content type.  'ctype' should either be
          ‘text/plain’ or ‘message/rfc822’, although this is not
          enforced.  The default content type is not stored in the
          ‘Content-Type’ header.

      -- 方法: get_params (failobj=None, header='content-type',
               unquote=True)

          Return the message's ‘Content-Type’ parameters, as a list.
          The elements of the returned list are 2-tuples of key/value
          pairs, as split on the ‘'='’ sign.  The left hand side of the
          ‘'='’ is the key, while the right hand side is the value.  If
          there is no ‘'='’ sign in the parameter the value is the empty
          string, otherwise the value is as described in *note
          get_param(): 32f4. and is unquoted if optional 'unquote' is
          ‘True’ (the default).

          Optional 'failobj' is the object to return if there is no
          ‘Content-Type’ header.  Optional 'header' is the header to
          search instead of ‘Content-Type’.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by the 'params' property of the
          individual header objects returned by the header access
          methods.

      -- 方法: get_param (param, failobj=None, header='content-type',
               unquote=True)

          Return the value of the ‘Content-Type’ header's parameter
          'param' as a string.  If the message has no ‘Content-Type’
          header or if there is no such parameter, then 'failobj' is
          returned (defaults to ‘None’).

          Optional 'header' if given, specifies the message header to
          use instead of ‘Content-Type’.

          Parameter keys are always compared case insensitively.  The
          return value can either be a string, or a 3-tuple if the
          parameter was RFC 2231(8) encoded.  When it's a 3-tuple, the
          elements of the value are of the form ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE,
          VALUE)’.  Note that both ‘CHARSET’ and ‘LANGUAGE’ can be
          ‘None’, in which case you should consider ‘VALUE’ to be
          encoded in the ‘us-ascii’ charset.  You can usually ignore
          ‘LANGUAGE’.

          If your application doesn't care whether the parameter was
          encoded as in RFC 2231(9), you can collapse the parameter
          value by calling *note email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value():
          32f5, passing in the return value from *note get_param():
          32f4.  This will return a suitably decoded Unicode string when
          the value is a tuple, or the original string unquoted if it
          isn't.  For example:

               rawparam = msg.get_param('foo')
               param = email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value(rawparam)

          In any case, the parameter value (either the returned string,
          or the ‘VALUE’ item in the 3-tuple) is always unquoted, unless
          'unquote' is set to ‘False’.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by the 'params' property of the
          individual header objects returned by the header access
          methods.

      -- 方法: set_param (param, value, header='Content-Type',
               requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

          Set a parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header.  If the
          parameter already exists in the header, its value will be
          replaced with 'value'.  If the ‘Content-Type’ header as not
          yet been defined for this message, it will be set to
          ‘text/plain’ and the new parameter value will be appended as
          per RFC 2045(10).

          Optional 'header' specifies an alternative header to
          ‘Content-Type’, and all parameters will be quoted as necessary
          unless optional 'requote' is ‘False’ (the default is ‘True’).

          If optional 'charset' is specified, the parameter will be
          encoded according to RFC 2231(11).  Optional 'language'
          specifies the RFC 2231 language, defaulting to the empty
          string.  Both 'charset' and 'language' should be strings.

          If 'replace' is ‘False’ (the default) the header is moved to
          the end of the list of headers.  If 'replace' is ‘True’, the
          header will be updated in place.

          在 3.4 版的變更: ‘replace’ keyword was added.

      -- 方法: del_param (param, header='content-type', requote=True)

          Remove the given parameter completely from the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  The header will be re-written in place without the
          parameter or its value.  All values will be quoted as
          necessary unless 'requote' is ‘False’ (the default is ‘True’).
          Optional 'header' specifies an alternative to ‘Content-Type’.

      -- 方法: set_type (type, header='Content-Type', requote=True)

          Set the main type and subtype for the ‘Content-Type’ header.
          'type' must be a string in the form ‘maintype/subtype’,
          otherwise a *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

          This method replaces the ‘Content-Type’ header, keeping all
          the parameters in place.  If 'requote' is ‘False’, this leaves
          the existing header's quoting as is, otherwise the parameters
          will be quoted (the default).

          An alternative header can be specified in the 'header'
          argument.  When the ‘Content-Type’ header is set a
          ‘MIME-Version’ header is also added.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by the ‘make_’ and ‘add_’ methods.

      -- 方法: get_filename (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘filename’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Disposition’ header of the message.  If the header
          does not have a ‘filename’ parameter, this method falls back
          to looking for the ‘name’ parameter on the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  If neither is found, or the header is missing, then
          'failobj' is returned.  The returned string will always be
          unquoted as per *note email.utils.unquote(): 324b.

      -- 方法: get_boundary (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘boundary’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Type’ header of the message, or 'failobj' if either
          the header is missing, or has no ‘boundary’ parameter.  The
          returned string will always be unquoted as per *note
          email.utils.unquote(): 324b.

      -- 方法: set_boundary (boundary)

          Set the ‘boundary’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header to
          'boundary'.  *note set_boundary(): 32fa. will always quote
          'boundary' if necessary.  A *note HeaderParseError: 324e. is
          raised if the message object has no ‘Content-Type’ header.

          Note that using this method is subtly different than deleting
          the old ‘Content-Type’ header and adding a new one with the
          new boundary via *note add_header(): 32ec, because *note
          set_boundary(): 32fa. preserves the order of the
          ‘Content-Type’ header in the list of headers.  However, it
          does 'not' preserve any continuation lines which may have been
          present in the original ‘Content-Type’ header.

      -- 方法: get_content_charset (failobj=None)

          Return the ‘charset’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header,
          coerced to lower case.  If there is no ‘Content-Type’ header,
          or if that header has no ‘charset’ parameter, 'failobj' is
          returned.

          Note that this method differs from *note get_charset(): 32e2.
          which returns the *note Charset: c72. instance for the default
          encoding of the message body.

      -- 方法: get_charsets (failobj=None)

          Return a list containing the character set names in the
          message.  If the message is a ‘multipart’, then the list will
          contain one element for each subpart in the payload,
          otherwise, it will be a list of length 1.

          Each item in the list will be a string which is the value of
          the ‘charset’ parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header for the
          represented subpart.  However, if the subpart has no
          ‘Content-Type’ header, no ‘charset’ parameter, or is not of
          the ‘text’ main MIME type, then that item in the returned list
          will be 'failobj'.

      -- 方法: get_content_disposition ()

          Return the lowercased value (without parameters) of the
          message's ‘Content-Disposition’ header if it has one, or
          ‘None’.  The possible values for this method are 'inline',
          'attachment' or ‘None’ if the message follows RFC 2183(12).

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 方法: walk ()

          The *note walk(): 32fd. method is an all-purpose generator
          which can be used to iterate over all the parts and subparts
          of a message object tree, in depth-first traversal order.  You
          will typically use *note walk(): 32fd. as the iterator in a
          ‘for’ loop; each iteration returns the next subpart.

          Here's an example that prints the MIME type of every part of a
          multipart message structure:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_type())
               multipart/report
               text/plain
               message/delivery-status
               text/plain
               text/plain
               message/rfc822
               text/plain

          ‘walk’ iterates over the subparts of any part where *note
          is_multipart(): 3252. returns ‘True’, even though
          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’ may return
          ‘False’.  We can see this in our example by making use of the
          ‘_structure’ debug helper function:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
               ...           part.is_multipart())
               True True
               False False
               False True
               False False
               False False
               False True
               False False
               >>> _structure(msg)
               multipart/report
                   text/plain
                   message/delivery-status
                       text/plain
                       text/plain
                   message/rfc822
                       text/plain

          Here the ‘message’ parts are not ‘multiparts’, but they do
          contain subparts.  ‘is_multipart()’ returns ‘True’ and ‘walk’
          descends into the subparts.

     *note Message: b05. objects can also optionally contain two
     instance attributes, which can be used when generating the plain
     text of a MIME message.

      -- 屬性: preamble

          The format of a MIME document allows for some text between the
          blank line following the headers, and the first multipart
          boundary string.  Normally, this text is never visible in a
          MIME-aware mail reader because it falls outside the standard
          MIME armor.  However, when viewing the raw text of the
          message, or when viewing the message in a non-MIME aware
          reader, this text can become visible.

          The 'preamble' attribute contains this leading extra-armor
          text for MIME documents.  When the *note Parser: 1030.
          discovers some text after the headers but before the first
          boundary string, it assigns this text to the message's
          'preamble' attribute.  When the *note Generator: 105f. is
          writing out the plain text representation of a MIME message,
          and it finds the message has a 'preamble' attribute, it will
          write this text in the area between the headers and the first
          boundary.  See *note email.parser: 4a. and *note
          email.generator: 3c. for details.

          Note that if the message object has no preamble, the
          'preamble' attribute will be ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: epilogue

          The 'epilogue' attribute acts the same way as the 'preamble'
          attribute, except that it contains text that appears between
          the last boundary and the end of the message.

          You do not need to set the epilogue to the empty string in
          order for the *note Generator: 105f. to print a newline at the
          end of the file.

      -- 屬性: defects

          The 'defects' attribute contains a list of all the problems
          found when parsing this message.  See *note email.errors: 3b.
          for a detailed description of the possible parsing defects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html


File: python.info,  Node: email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件,  Next: email header：國際化標頭,  Prev: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.14 ‘email.mime’：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件
........................................................

'原始碼：'Lib/email/mime/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module is part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API. Its
functionality is partially replaced by the *note contentmanager: 39. in
the new API, but in certain applications these classes may still be
useful, even in non-legacy code.

Ordinarily, you get a message object structure by passing a file or some
text to a parser, which parses the text and returns the root message
object.  However you can also build a complete message structure from
scratch, or even individual *note Message: b05. objects by hand.  In
fact, you can also take an existing structure and add new *note Message:
b05. objects, move them around, etc.  This makes a very convenient
interface for slicing-and-dicing MIME messages.

You can create a new object structure by creating *note Message: b05.
instances, adding attachments and all the appropriate headers manually.
For MIME messages though, the *note email: 37. package provides some
convenient subclasses to make things easier.

Here are the classes:

 -- 類別: email.mime.base.MIMEBase (_maintype, _subtype, *,
          policy=compat32, **_params)

     模組：*note email.mime.base: 44.

     This is the base class for all the MIME-specific subclasses of
     *note Message: b05.  Ordinarily you won't create instances
     specifically of *note MIMEBase: 3303, although you could.  *note
     MIMEBase: 3303. is provided primarily as a convenient base class
     for more specific MIME-aware subclasses.

     '_maintype' is the ‘Content-Type’ major type (e.g.  ‘text’ or
     ‘image’), and '_subtype' is the ‘Content-Type’ minor type (e.g.
     ‘plain’ or ‘gif’).  '_params' is a parameter key/value dictionary
     and is passed directly to *note Message.add_header: 32ec.

     If 'policy' is specified, (defaults to the *note compat32: f43.
     policy) it will be passed to *note Message: b05.

     The *note MIMEBase: 3303. class always adds a ‘Content-Type’ header
     (based on '_maintype', '_subtype', and '_params'), and a
     ‘MIME-Version’ header (always set to ‘1.0’).

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增僅限關鍵字參數 'policy'。

 -- 類別: email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart

     模組：*note email.mime.nonmultipart: 48.

     A subclass of *note MIMEBase: 3303, this is an intermediate base
     class for MIME messages that are not ‘multipart’.  The primary
     purpose of this class is to prevent the use of the *note attach():
     325f. method, which only makes sense for ‘multipart’ messages.  If
     *note attach(): 325f. is called, a *note MultipartConversionError:
     32a3. exception is raised.

 -- 類別: email.mime.multipart.MIMEMultipart (_subtype='mixed',
          boundary=None, _subparts=None, *, policy=compat32, **_params)

     模組：*note email.mime.multipart: 47.

     A subclass of *note MIMEBase: 3303, this is an intermediate base
     class for MIME messages that are ‘multipart’.  Optional '_subtype'
     defaults to ‘mixed’, but can be used to specify the subtype of the
     message.  A ‘Content-Type’ header of ‘multipart/_subtype’ will be
     added to the message object.  A ‘MIME-Version’ header will also be
     added.

     Optional 'boundary' is the multipart boundary string.  When ‘None’
     (the default), the boundary is calculated when needed (for example,
     when the message is serialized).

     '_subparts' is a sequence of initial subparts for the payload.  It
     must be possible to convert this sequence to a list.  You can
     always attach new subparts to the message by using the *note
     Message.attach: 325f. method.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f43.

     Additional parameters for the ‘Content-Type’ header are taken from
     the keyword arguments, or passed into the '_params' argument, which
     is a keyword dictionary.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增僅限關鍵字參數 'policy'。

 -- 類別: email.mime.application.MIMEApplication (_data,
          _subtype='octet-stream',
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     模組：*note email.mime.application: 42.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 32a4, the *note
     MIMEApplication: 3305. class is used to represent MIME message
     objects of major type ‘application’.  '_data' contains the bytes
     for the raw application data.  Optional '_subtype' specifies the
     MIME subtype and defaults to ‘octet-stream’.

     Optional '_encoder' is a callable (i.e.  function) which will
     perform the actual encoding of the data for transport.  This
     callable takes one argument, which is the *note MIMEApplication:
     3305. instance.  It should use *note get_payload(): 105e. and *note
     set_payload(): 32e0. to change the payload to encoded form.  It
     should also add any ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ or other headers to
     the message object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.
     See the *note email.encoders: 3a. module for a list of the built-in
     encoders.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f43.

     '_params' are passed straight through to the base class
     constructor.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增僅限關鍵字參數 'policy'。

 -- 類別: email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio (_audiodata, _subtype=None,
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     模組：*note email.mime.audio: 43.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 32a4, the *note MIMEAudio:
     3306. class is used to create MIME message objects of major type
     ‘audio’.  '_audiodata' contains the bytes for the raw audio data.
     If this data can be decoded as au, wav, aiff, or aifc, then the
     subtype will be automatically included in the ‘Content-Type’
     header.  Otherwise you can explicitly specify the audio subtype via
     the '_subtype' argument.  If the minor type could not be guessed
     and '_subtype' was not given, then *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised.

     Optional '_encoder' is a callable (i.e.  function) which will
     perform the actual encoding of the audio data for transport.  This
     callable takes one argument, which is the *note MIMEAudio: 3306.
     instance.  It should use *note get_payload(): 105e. and *note
     set_payload(): 32e0. to change the payload to encoded form.  It
     should also add any ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ or other headers to
     the message object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.
     See the *note email.encoders: 3a. module for a list of the built-in
     encoders.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f43.

     '_params' are passed straight through to the base class
     constructor.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增僅限關鍵字參數 'policy'。

 -- 類別: email.mime.image.MIMEImage (_imagedata, _subtype=None,
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     模組：*note email.mime.image: 45.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 32a4, the *note MIMEImage:
     32a5. class is used to create MIME message objects of major type
     ‘image’.  '_imagedata' contains the bytes for the raw image data.
     If this data type can be detected (jpeg, png, gif, tiff, rgb, pbm,
     pgm, ppm, rast, xbm, bmp, webp, and exr attempted), then the
     subtype will be automatically included in the ‘Content-Type’
     header.  Otherwise you can explicitly specify the image subtype via
     the '_subtype' argument.  If the minor type could not be guessed
     and '_subtype' was not given, then *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised.

     Optional '_encoder' is a callable (i.e.  function) which will
     perform the actual encoding of the image data for transport.  This
     callable takes one argument, which is the *note MIMEImage: 32a5.
     instance.  It should use *note get_payload(): 105e. and *note
     set_payload(): 32e0. to change the payload to encoded form.  It
     should also add any ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ or other headers to
     the message object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.
     See the *note email.encoders: 3a. module for a list of the built-in
     encoders.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f43.

     '_params' are passed straight through to the *note MIMEBase: 3303.
     constructor.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增僅限關鍵字參數 'policy'。

 -- 類別: email.mime.message.MIMEMessage (_msg, _subtype='rfc822', *,
          policy=compat32)

     模組：*note email.mime.message: 46.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 32a4, the *note MIMEMessage:
     3307. class is used to create MIME objects of main type ‘message’.
     '_msg' is used as the payload, and must be an instance of class
     *note Message: b05. (or a subclass thereof), otherwise a *note
     TypeError: 2ba. is raised.

     Optional '_subtype' sets the subtype of the message; it defaults to
     ‘rfc822’.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f43.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增僅限關鍵字參數 'policy'。

 -- 類別: email.mime.text.MIMEText (_text, _subtype='plain',
          _charset=None, *, policy=compat32)

     模組：*note email.mime.text: 49.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 32a4, the *note MIMEText:
     c71. class is used to create MIME objects of major type ‘text’.
     '_text' is the string for the payload.  '_subtype' is the minor
     type and defaults to ‘plain’.  '_charset' is the character set of
     the text and is passed as an argument to the *note
     MIMENonMultipart: 32a4. constructor; it defaults to ‘us-ascii’ if
     the string contains only ‘ascii’ code points, and ‘utf-8’
     otherwise.  The '_charset' parameter accepts either a string or a
     *note Charset: c72. instance.

     Unless the '_charset' argument is explicitly set to ‘None’, the
     MIMEText object created will have both a ‘Content-Type’ header with
     a ‘charset’ parameter, and a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.
     This means that a subsequent ‘set_payload’ call will not result in
     an encoded payload, even if a charset is passed in the
     ‘set_payload’ command.  You can "reset" this behavior by deleting
     the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header, after which a ‘set_payload’
     call will automatically encode the new payload (and add a new
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header).

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f43.

     在 3.5 版的變更: '_charset' also accepts *note Charset: c72.
     instances.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增僅限關鍵字參數 'policy'。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/mime/


File: python.info,  Node: email header：國際化標頭,  Next: email charset：表示字元集合,  Prev: email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.15 ‘email.header’：國際化標頭
....................................

'原始碼：'Lib/email/header.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module is part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API. In the current
API encoding and decoding of headers is handled transparently by the
dictionary-like API of the *note EmailMessage: b06. class.  In addition
to uses in legacy code, this module can be useful in applications that
need to completely control the character sets used when encoding
headers.

The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the
module.

RFC 2822(2) is the base standard that describes the format of email
messages.  It derives from the older RFC 822(3) standard which came into
widespread use at a time when most email was composed of ASCII
characters only.  RFC 2822(4) is a specification written assuming email
contains only 7-bit ASCII characters.

Of course, as email has been deployed worldwide, it has become
internationalized, such that language specific character sets can now be
used in email messages.  The base standard still requires email messages
to be transferred using only 7-bit ASCII characters, so a slew of RFCs
have been written describing how to encode email containing non-ASCII
characters into RFC 2822(5)-compliant format.  These RFCs include RFC
2045(6), RFC 2046(7), RFC 2047(8), and RFC 2231(9).  The *note email:
37. package supports these standards in its *note email.header: 3d. and
*note email.charset: 38. modules.

If you want to include non-ASCII characters in your email headers, say
in the ‘Subject’ or ‘To’ fields, you should use the *note Header: 167c.
class and assign the field in the *note Message: b05. object to an
instance of *note Header: 167c. instead of using a string for the header
value.  Import the *note Header: 167c. class from the *note
email.header: 3d. module.  For example:

     >>> from email.message import Message
     >>> from email.header import Header
     >>> msg = Message()
     >>> h = Header('p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')
     >>> msg['Subject'] = h
     >>> msg.as_string()
     'Subject: =?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=\n\n'

Notice here how we wanted the ‘Subject’ field to contain a non-ASCII
character?  We did this by creating a *note Header: 167c. instance and
passing in the character set that the byte string was encoded in.  When
the subsequent *note Message: b05. instance was flattened, the ‘Subject’
field was properly RFC 2047(10) encoded.  MIME-aware mail readers would
show this header using the embedded ISO-8859-1 character.

Here is the *note Header: 167c. class description:

 -- 類別: email.header.Header (s=None, charset=None, maxlinelen=None,
          header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ', errors='strict')

     Create a MIME-compliant header that can contain strings in
     different character sets.

     Optional 's' is the initial header value.  If ‘None’ (the default),
     the initial header value is not set.  You can later append to the
     header with *note append(): 330a. method calls.  's' may be an
     instance of *note bytes: 2c1. or *note str: 157, but see the *note
     append(): 330a. documentation for semantics.

     Optional 'charset' serves two purposes: it has the same meaning as
     the 'charset' argument to the *note append(): 330a. method.  It
     also sets the default character set for all subsequent *note
     append(): 330a. calls that omit the 'charset' argument.  If
     'charset' is not provided in the constructor (the default), the
     ‘us-ascii’ character set is used both as 's"s initial charset and
     as the default for subsequent *note append(): 330a. calls.

     The maximum line length can be specified explicitly via
     'maxlinelen'.  For splitting the first line to a shorter value (to
     account for the field header which isn't included in 's', e.g.
     ‘Subject’) pass in the name of the field in 'header_name'.  The
     default 'maxlinelen' is 78, and the default value for 'header_name'
     is ‘None’, meaning it is not taken into account for the first line
     of a long, split header.

     Optional 'continuation_ws' must be RFC 2822(11)-compliant folding
     whitespace, and is usually either a space or a hard tab character.
     This character will be prepended to continuation lines.
     'continuation_ws' defaults to a single space character.

     Optional 'errors' is passed straight through to the *note append():
     330a. method.

      -- 方法: append (s, charset=None, errors='strict')

          Append the string 's' to the MIME header.

          Optional 'charset', if given, should be a *note Charset: c72.
          instance (see *note email.charset: 38.) or the name of a
          character set, which will be converted to a *note Charset:
          c72. instance.  A value of ‘None’ (the default) means that the
          'charset' given in the constructor is used.

          's' may be an instance of *note bytes: 2c1. or *note str: 157.
          If it is an instance of *note bytes: 2c1, then 'charset' is
          the encoding of that byte string, and a *note UnicodeError:
          1137. will be raised if the string cannot be decoded with that
          character set.

          If 's' is an instance of *note str: 157, then 'charset' is a
          hint specifying the character set of the characters in the
          string.

          In either case, when producing an RFC 2822(12)-compliant
          header using RFC 2047(13) rules, the string will be encoded
          using the output codec of the charset.  If the string cannot
          be encoded using the output codec, a UnicodeError will be
          raised.

          Optional 'errors' is passed as the errors argument to the
          decode call if 's' is a byte string.

      -- 方法: encode (splitchars=';, \t', maxlinelen=None,
               linesep='\n')

          Encode a message header into an RFC-compliant format, possibly
          wrapping long lines and encapsulating non-ASCII parts in
          base64 or quoted-printable encodings.

          Optional 'splitchars' is a string containing characters which
          should be given extra weight by the splitting algorithm during
          normal header wrapping.  This is in very rough support of RFC
          2822(14)'s 'higher level syntactic breaks': split points
          preceded by a splitchar are preferred during line splitting,
          with the characters preferred in the order in which they
          appear in the string.  Space and tab may be included in the
          string to indicate whether preference should be given to one
          over the other as a split point when other split chars do not
          appear in the line being split.  Splitchars does not affect
          RFC 2047(15) encoded lines.

          'maxlinelen', if given, overrides the instance's value for the
          maximum line length.

          'linesep' specifies the characters used to separate the lines
          of the folded header.  It defaults to the most useful value
          for Python application code (‘\n’), but ‘\r\n’ can be
          specified in order to produce headers with RFC-compliant line
          separators.

          在 3.2 版的變更: 新增引數 'linesep'。

     The *note Header: 167c. class also provides a number of methods to
     support standard operators and built-in functions.

      -- 方法: __str__ ()

          Returns an approximation of the *note Header: 167c. as a
          string, using an unlimited line length.  All pieces are
          converted to unicode using the specified encoding and joined
          together appropriately.  Any pieces with a charset of
          ‘'unknown-8bit'’ are decoded as ASCII using the ‘'replace'’
          error handler.

          在 3.2 版的變更: Added handling for the ‘'unknown-8bit'’
          charset.

      -- 方法: __eq__ (other)

          This method allows you to compare two *note Header: 167c.
          instances for equality.

      -- 方法: __ne__ (other)

          This method allows you to compare two *note Header: 167c.
          instances for inequality.

The *note email.header: 3d. module also provides the following
convenient functions.

 -- 函式: email.header.decode_header (header)

     Decode a message header value without converting the character set.
     The header value is in 'header'.

     This function returns a list of ‘(decoded_string, charset)’ pairs
     containing each of the decoded parts of the header.  'charset' is
     ‘None’ for non-encoded parts of the header, otherwise a lower case
     string containing the name of the character set specified in the
     encoded string.

     以下是個範例：

          >>> from email.header import decode_header
          >>> decode_header('=?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=')
          [(b'p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')]

 -- 函式: email.header.make_header (decoded_seq, maxlinelen=None,
          header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ')

     Create a *note Header: 167c. instance from a sequence of pairs as
     returned by *note decode_header(): f47.

     *note decode_header(): f47. takes a header value string and returns
     a sequence of pairs of the format ‘(decoded_string, charset)’ where
     'charset' is the name of the character set.

     This function takes one of those sequence of pairs and returns a
     *note Header: 167c. instance.  Optional 'maxlinelen',
     'header_name', and 'continuation_ws' are as in the *note Header:
     167c. constructor.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/header.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html


File: python.info,  Node: email charset：表示字元集合,  Next: email encoders：編碼器,  Prev: email header：國際化標頭,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.16 ‘email.charset’：表示字元集合
.......................................

'原始碼：'Lib/email/charset.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組是舊版 (‘Compat32’) email API的其中一部份，在新版的 API 只有使用別
名表。

此章節的其餘文字是原始模組的說明文件

此模組提供一個 class（類別） *note Charset: c72. 來表示電子郵件中的字元
集合和字元集合轉換，以及字元集合登錄檔 (registry) 和其他許多便捷的方法以
運用此登錄檔。在 *note email: 37. 套件中有許多其他模組使用 *note
Charset: c72. 的實例。

從 *note email.charset: 38. 模組中 import 此類別

 -- 類別: email.charset.Charset (input_charset=DEFAULT_CHARSET)

     Map character sets to their email properties.

     This class provides information about the requirements imposed on
     email for a specific character set.  It also provides convenience
     routines for converting between character sets, given the
     availability of the applicable codecs.  Given a character set, it
     will do its best to provide information on how to use that
     character set in an email message in an RFC-compliant way.

     Certain character sets must be encoded with quoted-printable or
     base64 when used in email headers or bodies.  Certain character
     sets must be converted outright, and are not allowed in email.

     Optional 'input_charset' is as described below; it is always
     coerced to lower case.  After being alias normalized it is also
     used as a lookup into the registry of character sets to find out
     the header encoding, body encoding, and output conversion codec to
     be used for the character set.  For example, if 'input_charset' is
     ‘iso-8859-1’, then headers and bodies will be encoded using
     quoted-printable and no output conversion codec is necessary.  If
     'input_charset' is ‘euc-jp’, then headers will be encoded with
     base64, bodies will not be encoded, but output text will be
     converted from the ‘euc-jp’ character set to the ‘iso-2022-jp’
     character set.

     *note Charset: c72. instances have the following data attributes:

      -- 屬性: input_charset

          The initial character set specified.  Common aliases are
          converted to their 'official' email names (e.g.  ‘latin_1’ is
          converted to ‘iso-8859-1’).  Defaults to 7-bit ‘us-ascii’.

      -- 屬性: header_encoding

          If the character set must be encoded before it can be used in
          an email header, this attribute will be set to ‘charset.QP’
          (for quoted-printable), ‘charset.BASE64’ (for base64
          encoding), or ‘charset.SHORTEST’ for the shortest of QP or
          BASE64 encoding.  Otherwise, it will be ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: body_encoding

          Same as 'header_encoding', but describes the encoding for the
          mail message's body, which indeed may be different than the
          header encoding.  ‘charset.SHORTEST’ is not allowed for
          'body_encoding'.

      -- 屬性: output_charset

          Some character sets must be converted before they can be used
          in email headers or bodies.  If the 'input_charset' is one of
          them, this attribute will contain the name of the character
          set output will be converted to.  Otherwise, it will be
          ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: input_codec

          The name of the Python codec used to convert the
          'input_charset' to Unicode.  If no conversion codec is
          necessary, this attribute will be ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: output_codec

          The name of the Python codec used to convert Unicode to the
          'output_charset'.  If no conversion codec is necessary, this
          attribute will have the same value as the 'input_codec'.

     *note Charset: c72. instances also have the following methods:

      -- 方法: get_body_encoding ()

          Return the content transfer encoding used for body encoding.

          This is either the string ‘quoted-printable’ or ‘base64’
          depending on the encoding used, or it is a function, in which
          case you should call the function with a single argument, the
          Message object being encoded.  The function should then set
          the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header itself to whatever is
          appropriate.

          Returns the string ‘quoted-printable’ if 'body_encoding' is
          ‘QP’, returns the string ‘base64’ if 'body_encoding' is
          ‘BASE64’, and returns the string ‘7bit’ otherwise.

      -- 方法: get_output_charset ()

          Return the output character set.

          This is the 'output_charset' attribute if that is not ‘None’,
          otherwise it is 'input_charset'.

      -- 方法: header_encode (string)

          Header-encode the string 'string'.

          The type of encoding (base64 or quoted-printable) will be
          based on the 'header_encoding' attribute.

      -- 方法: header_encode_lines (string, maxlengths)

          Header-encode a 'string' by converting it first to bytes.

          This is similar to *note header_encode(): 3319. except that
          the string is fit into maximum line lengths as given by the
          argument 'maxlengths', which must be an iterator: each element
          returned from this iterator will provide the next maximum line
          length.

      -- 方法: body_encode (string)

          Body-encode the string 'string'.

          The type of encoding (base64 or quoted-printable) will be
          based on the 'body_encoding' attribute.

     The *note Charset: c72. class also provides a number of methods to
     support standard operations and built-in functions.

      -- 方法: __str__ ()

          Returns 'input_charset' as a string coerced to lower case.
          ‘__repr__()’ is an alias for ‘__str__()’.

      -- 方法: __eq__ (other)

          This method allows you to compare two *note Charset: c72.
          instances for equality.

      -- 方法: __ne__ (other)

          This method allows you to compare two *note Charset: c72.
          instances for inequality.

The *note email.charset: 38. module also provides the following
functions for adding new entries to the global character set, alias, and
codec registries:

 -- 函式: email.charset.add_charset (charset, header_enc=None,
          body_enc=None, output_charset=None)

     Add character properties to the global registry.

     'charset' is the input character set, and must be the canonical
     name of a character set.

     Optional 'header_enc' and 'body_enc' is either ‘charset.QP’ for
     quoted-printable, ‘charset.BASE64’ for base64 encoding,
     ‘charset.SHORTEST’ for the shortest of quoted-printable or base64
     encoding, or ‘None’ for no encoding.  ‘SHORTEST’ is only valid for
     'header_enc'.  The default is ‘None’ for no encoding.

     Optional 'output_charset' is the character set that the output
     should be in.  Conversions will proceed from input charset, to
     Unicode, to the output charset when the method ‘Charset.convert()’
     is called.  The default is to output in the same character set as
     the input.

     Both 'input_charset' and 'output_charset' must have Unicode codec
     entries in the module's character set-to-codec mapping; use *note
     add_codec(): 3320. to add codecs the module does not know about.
     See the *note codecs: 19. module's documentation for more
     information.

     The global character set registry is kept in the module global
     dictionary ‘CHARSETS’.

 -- 函式: email.charset.add_alias (alias, canonical)

     Add a character set alias.  'alias' is the alias name, e.g.
     ‘latin-1’.  'canonical' is the character set's canonical name, e.g.
     ‘iso-8859-1’.

     The global charset alias registry is kept in the module global
     dictionary ‘ALIASES’.

 -- 函式: email.charset.add_codec (charset, codecname)

     Add a codec that map characters in the given character set to and
     from Unicode.

     'charset' is the canonical name of a character set.  'codecname' is
     the name of a Python codec, as appropriate for the second argument
     to the *note str: 157.'s *note encode(): 70e. method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/charset.py


File: python.info,  Node: email encoders：編碼器,  Next: email utils：雜項工具,  Prev: email charset：表示字元集合,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.17 ‘email.encoders’：編碼器
..................................

'原始碼：'Lib/email/encoders.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組是舊版 (‘Compat32’) 電子郵件 API 的一部分。在新 API 中，此功能由
*note set_content(): 167b. 方法的 'cte' 參數提供。

此模組在 Python 3 中已棄用。不應明確呼叫此處提供的函式，因為 *note
MIMEText: c71. 類別使用在該類別的實例化過程中傳遞的 '_subtype' 和
'_charset' 值來設定內容類型 (content type) 和 CTE 標頭。

本節中的其餘文字是該模組的原始文件。

從零開始建立 *note Message: b05. 物件時，你通常需要對負載 (payload) 進行
編碼，以便透過相容的郵件伺服器進行傳輸。對於包含二進位資料的 ‘image/*’ 和
‘text/*’ 類型的訊息尤其如此。

*note email: 37. 套件在其 *note encoders: 3a. 模組中提供了一些方便的編碼
器。這些編碼器實際上由 *note MIMEAudio: 3306. 和 *note MIMEImage: 32a5.
類別建構函式使用來提供預設編碼。所有編碼器函式都只接受一個引數，也就是要
編碼的訊息物件。他們通常會提取負載、對其進行編碼，然後將負載重設為新編碼
的值。他們也應適當地設定 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 標頭。

請注意，這些函式對於多部分訊息 (multipart message) 沒有意義。它們必須應
用於各個子部分，如果傳遞類型為多部分訊息，則會引發 *note TypeError:
2ba.。

以下是提供的編碼函式：

 -- 函式: email.encoders.encode_quopri (msg)

     將負載編碼為可列印字元 (quoted-printable) 形式，並將
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 標頭設定為 ‘quoted-printable’ (2)。當大
     部分負載是正常的可列印資料，但包含一些不可列印的字元時，這是一種很
     好的編碼。

 -- 函式: email.encoders.encode_base64 (msg)

     將負載編碼為 base64 形式，並將 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 標頭設定
     為 ‘base64’。當大部分負載是不可列印資料時，這是一種很好的編碼，因為
     它是比可列印字元更緊湊的形式。Base64 編碼的缺點是它使文字無法讓人類
     可讀。

 -- 函式: email.encoders.encode_7or8bit (msg)

     這實際上並沒有修改訊息的負載，但它確實根據負載資料將
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 標頭設定為適當的 ‘7bit’ 或 ‘8bit’。

 -- 函式: email.encoders.encode_noop (msg)

     這沒有任何作用；它甚至沒有設定 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 標頭。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/encoders.py

   (2) 請注意，使用 *note encode_quopri(): 3324. 進行編碼也會對資料中的
所有定位字元 (tab) 和空格字元進行編碼。


File: python.info,  Node: email utils：雜項工具,  Next: email iterators：疊代器,  Prev: email encoders：編碼器,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.18 ‘email.utils’：雜項工具
.................................

'原始碼：'Lib/email/utils.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

There are a couple of useful utilities provided in the *note
email.utils: 4c. module:

 -- 函式: email.utils.localtime (dt=None)

     Return local time as an aware datetime object.  If called without
     arguments, return current time.  Otherwise 'dt' argument should be
     a *note datetime: 224. instance, and it is converted to the local
     time zone according to the system time zone database.  If 'dt' is
     naive (that is, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is ‘None’), it is assumed to be in
     local time.  The 'isdst' parameter is ignored.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: The
     'isdst' parameter.

 -- 函式: email.utils.make_msgid (idstring=None, domain=None)

     Returns a string suitable for an RFC 2822(2)-compliant ‘Message-ID’
     header.  Optional 'idstring' if given, is a string used to
     strengthen the uniqueness of the message id.  Optional 'domain' if
     given provides the portion of the msgid after the '@'.  The default
     is the local hostname.  It is not normally necessary to override
     this default, but may be useful certain cases, such as a
     constructing distributed system that uses a consistent domain name
     across multiple hosts.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'domain' 關鍵字。

The remaining functions are part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API.
There is no need to directly use these with the new API, since the
parsing and formatting they provide is done automatically by the header
parsing machinery of the new API.

 -- 函式: email.utils.quote (str)

     Return a new string with backslashes in 'str' replaced by two
     backslashes, and double quotes replaced by backslash-double quote.

 -- 函式: email.utils.unquote (str)

     Return a new string which is an 'unquoted' version of 'str'.  If
     'str' ends and begins with double quotes, they are stripped off.
     Likewise if 'str' ends and begins with angle brackets, they are
     stripped off.

 -- 函式: email.utils.parseaddr (address, *, strict=True)

     Parse address - which should be the value of some
     address-containing field such as ‘To’ or ‘Cc’ - into its
     constituent 'realname' and 'email address' parts.  Returns a tuple
     of that information, unless the parse fails, in which case a
     2-tuple of ‘('', '')’ is returned.

     If 'strict' is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed
     inputs.

     在 3.12.6 版的變更: Add 'strict' optional parameter and reject
     malformed inputs by default.

 -- 函式: email.utils.formataddr (pair, charset='utf-8')

     The inverse of *note parseaddr(): 388, this takes a 2-tuple of the
     form ‘(realname, email_address)’ and returns the string value
     suitable for a ‘To’ or ‘Cc’ header.  If the first element of 'pair'
     is false, then the second element is returned unmodified.

     Optional 'charset' is the character set that will be used in the
     RFC 2047(3) encoding of the ‘realname’ if the ‘realname’ contains
     non-ASCII characters.  Can be an instance of *note str: 157. or a
     *note Charset: c72.  Defaults to ‘utf-8’.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'charset' 選項。

 -- 函式: email.utils.getaddresses (fieldvalues, *, strict=True)

     This method returns a list of 2-tuples of the form returned by
     ‘parseaddr()’.  'fieldvalues' is a sequence of header field values
     as might be returned by *note Message.get_all: 32e6.

     If 'strict' is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed
     inputs.

     Here's a simple example that gets all the recipients of a message:

          from email.utils import getaddresses

          tos = msg.get_all('to', [])
          ccs = msg.get_all('cc', [])
          resent_tos = msg.get_all('resent-to', [])
          resent_ccs = msg.get_all('resent-cc', [])
          all_recipients = getaddresses(tos + ccs + resent_tos + resent_ccs)

     在 3.12.6 版的變更: Add 'strict' optional parameter and reject
     malformed inputs by default.

 -- 函式: email.utils.parsedate (date)

     Attempts to parse a date according to the rules in RFC 2822(4).
     however, some mailers don't follow that format as specified, so
     *note parsedate(): 332c. tries to guess correctly in such cases.
     'date' is a string containing an RFC 2822(5) date, such as ‘"Mon,
     20 Nov 1995 19:12:08 -0500"’.  If it succeeds in parsing the date,
     *note parsedate(): 332c. returns a 9-tuple that can be passed
     directly to *note time.mktime(): 1079.; otherwise ‘None’ will be
     returned.  Note that indexes 6, 7, and 8 of the result tuple are
     not usable.

 -- 函式: email.utils.parsedate_tz (date)

     Performs the same function as *note parsedate(): 332c, but returns
     either ‘None’ or a 10-tuple; the first 9 elements make up a tuple
     that can be passed directly to *note time.mktime(): 1079, and the
     tenth is the offset of the date's timezone from UTC (which is the
     official term for Greenwich Mean Time) (6).  If the input string
     has no timezone, the last element of the tuple returned is ‘0’,
     which represents UTC. Note that indexes 6, 7, and 8 of the result
     tuple are not usable.

 -- 函式: email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime (date)

     The inverse of *note format_datetime(): f4c.  Performs the same
     function as *note parsedate(): 332c, but on success returns a *note
     datetime: 224.; otherwise ‘ValueError’ is raised if 'date' contains
     an invalid value such as an hour greater than 23 or a timezone
     offset not between -24 and 24 hours.  If the input date has a
     timezone of ‘-0000’, the ‘datetime’ will be a naive ‘datetime’, and
     if the date is conforming to the RFCs it will represent a time in
     UTC but with no indication of the actual source timezone of the
     message the date comes from.  If the input date has any other valid
     timezone offset, the ‘datetime’ will be an aware ‘datetime’ with
     the corresponding a *note timezone: f4e. *note tzinfo: 3d1.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: email.utils.mktime_tz (tuple)

     Turn a 10-tuple as returned by *note parsedate_tz(): 1651. into a
     UTC timestamp (seconds since the Epoch).  If the timezone item in
     the tuple is ‘None’, assume local time.

 -- 函式: email.utils.formatdate (timeval=None, localtime=False,
          usegmt=False)

     Returns a date string as per RFC 2822(7), e.g.:

          Fri, 09 Nov 2001 01:08:47 -0000

     Optional 'timeval' if given is a floating-point time value as
     accepted by *note time.gmtime(): 1051. and *note time.localtime():
     1370, otherwise the current time is used.

     Optional 'localtime' is a flag that when ‘True’, interprets
     'timeval', and returns a date relative to the local timezone
     instead of UTC, properly taking daylight savings time into account.
     The default is ‘False’ meaning UTC is used.

     Optional 'usegmt' is a flag that when ‘True’, outputs a date string
     with the timezone as an ascii string ‘GMT’, rather than a numeric
     ‘-0000’.  This is needed for some protocols (such as HTTP). This
     only applies when 'localtime' is ‘False’.  The default is ‘False’.

 -- 函式: email.utils.format_datetime (dt, usegmt=False)

     Like ‘formatdate’, but the input is a *note datetime: 2e. instance.
     If it is a naive datetime, it is assumed to be "UTC with no
     information about the source timezone", and the conventional
     ‘-0000’ is used for the timezone.  If it is an aware ‘datetime’,
     then the numeric timezone offset is used.  If it is an aware
     timezone with offset zero, then 'usegmt' may be set to ‘True’, in
     which case the string ‘GMT’ is used instead of the numeric timezone
     offset.  This provides a way to generate standards conformant HTTP
     date headers.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: email.utils.decode_rfc2231 (s)

     Decode the string 's' according to RFC 2231(8).

 -- 函式: email.utils.encode_rfc2231 (s, charset=None, language=None)

     Encode the string 's' according to RFC 2231(9).  Optional 'charset'
     and 'language', if given is the character set name and language
     name to use.  If neither is given, 's' is returned as-is.  If
     'charset' is given but 'language' is not, the string is encoded
     using the empty string for 'language'.

 -- 函式: email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value (value, errors='replace',
          fallback_charset='us-ascii')

     When a header parameter is encoded in RFC 2231(10) format, *note
     Message.get_param: 32f4. may return a 3-tuple containing the
     character set, language, and value.  *note
     collapse_rfc2231_value(): 32f5. turns this into a unicode string.
     Optional 'errors' is passed to the 'errors' argument of *note str:
     157.'s *note encode(): 70e. method; it defaults to ‘'replace'’.
     Optional 'fallback_charset' specifies the character set to use if
     the one in the RFC 2231(11) header is not known by Python; it
     defaults to ‘'us-ascii'’.

     For convenience, if the 'value' passed to *note
     collapse_rfc2231_value(): 32f5. is not a tuple, it should be a
     string and it is returned unquoted.

 -- 函式: email.utils.decode_params (params)

     Decode parameters list according to RFC 2231(12).  'params' is a
     sequence of 2-tuples containing elements of the form
     ‘(content-type, string-value)’.

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/utils.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (6) Note that the sign of the timezone offset is the opposite of the
sign of the ‘time.timezone’ variable for the same timezone; the latter
variable follows the POSIX standard while this module follows RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html).

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html


File: python.info,  Node: email iterators：疊代器,  Prev: email utils：雜項工具,  Up: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件

5.19.1.19 ‘email.iterators’：疊代器
...................................

'原始碼：'Lib/email/iterators.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Iterating over a message object tree is fairly easy with the *note
Message.walk: 32fd. method.  The *note email.iterators: 3f. module
provides some useful higher level iterations over message object trees.

 -- 函式: email.iterators.body_line_iterator (msg, decode=False)

     This iterates over all the payloads in all the subparts of 'msg',
     returning the string payloads line-by-line.  It skips over all the
     subpart headers, and it skips over any subpart with a payload that
     isn't a Python string.  This is somewhat equivalent to reading the
     flat text representation of the message from a file using *note
     readline(): 1ab2, skipping over all the intervening headers.

     Optional 'decode' is passed through to *note Message.get_payload:
     105e.

 -- 函式: email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator (msg, maintype='text',
          subtype=None)

     This iterates over all the subparts of 'msg', returning only those
     subparts that match the MIME type specified by 'maintype' and
     'subtype'.

     Note that 'subtype' is optional; if omitted, then subpart MIME type
     matching is done only with the main type.  'maintype' is optional
     too; it defaults to ‘text’.

     Thus, by default *note typed_subpart_iterator(): 3334. returns each
     subpart that has a MIME type of ‘text/*’.

The following function has been added as a useful debugging tool.  It
should 'not' be considered part of the supported public interface for
the package.

 -- 函式: email.iterators._structure (msg, fp=None, level=0,
          include_default=False)

     Prints an indented representation of the content types of the
     message object structure.  For example:

          >>> msg = email.message_from_file(somefile)
          >>> _structure(msg)
          multipart/mixed
              text/plain
              text/plain
              multipart/digest
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
              text/plain

     Optional 'fp' is a file-like object to print the output to.  It
     must be suitable for Python's *note print(): e02. function.
     'level' is used internally.  'include_default', if true, prints the
     default type as well.

也參考
......

*note smtplib: c4. 模組

     SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) client

*note poplib: a7. 模組

     POP (Post Office Protocol) client

*note imaplib: 6f. 模組

     IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) client

*note nntplib: 98. 模組

     NNTP (Net News Transport Protocol) client

*note mailbox: 86. 模組

     Tools for creating, reading, and managing collections of messages
     on disk using a variety standard formats.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/iterators.py


File: python.info,  Node: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器,  Next: mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱,  Prev: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件,  Up: 網際網路資料處理

5.19.2 ‘json’ -- JSON 編碼器與解碼器
------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/json/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)(2) 是一個輕量化的資料交換格式，在 RFC
7159(3)（其廢棄了 RFC 4627(4)）及 ECMA-404(5) 裡面有詳細說明，它啟發自
JavaScript(6) 的物件字面語法 (object literal syntax)（雖然它並不是
JavaScript 的嚴格子集 (7)）。

     警告: 當剖析無法信任來源的 JSON 資料時要小心。一段惡意的 JSON 字串
     可能會導致解碼器耗費大量 CPU 與記憶體資源。建議限制剖析資料的大小。

*note json: 7c. 為習慣標準函式庫 *note marshal: 88. 與 *note pickle: a1.
模組的使用者提供熟悉的 API。

對基本 Python 物件階層進行編碼：

     >>> import json
     >>> json.dumps(['foo', {'bar': ('baz', None, 1.0, 2)}])
     '["foo", {"bar": ["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]'
     >>> print(json.dumps("\"foo\bar"))
     "\"foo\bar"
     >>> print(json.dumps('\u1234'))
     "\u1234"
     >>> print(json.dumps('\\'))
     "\\"
     >>> print(json.dumps({"c": 0, "b": 0, "a": 0}, sort_keys=True))
     {"a": 0, "b": 0, "c": 0}
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> io = StringIO()
     >>> json.dump(['streaming API'], io)
     >>> io.getvalue()
     '["streaming API"]'

改用緊湊型編碼方式：

     >>> import json
     >>> json.dumps([1, 2, 3, {'4': 5, '6': 7}], separators=(',', ':'))
     '[1,2,3,{"4":5,"6":7}]'

美化輸出：

     >>> import json
     >>> print(json.dumps({'4': 5, '6': 7}, sort_keys=True, indent=4))
     {
         "4": 5,
         "6": 7
     }

JSON 解碼：

     >>> import json
     >>> json.loads('["foo", {"bar":["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]')
     ['foo', {'bar': ['baz', None, 1.0, 2]}]
     >>> json.loads('"\\"foo\\bar"')
     '"foo\x08ar'
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> io = StringIO('["streaming API"]')
     >>> json.load(io)
     ['streaming API']

自訂特殊的 JSON 解碼方式：

     >>> import json
     >>> def as_complex(dct):
     ...     if '__complex__' in dct:
     ...         return complex(dct['real'], dct['imag'])
     ...     return dct
     ...
     >>> json.loads('{"__complex__": true, "real": 1, "imag": 2}',
     ...     object_hook=as_complex)
     (1+2j)
     >>> import decimal
     >>> json.loads('1.1', parse_float=decimal.Decimal)
     Decimal('1.1')

繼承 *note JSONEncoder: bb9. 類別並自行擴充額外的編碼方法：

     >>> import json
     >>> class ComplexEncoder(json.JSONEncoder):
     ...     def default(self, obj):
     ...         if isinstance(obj, complex):
     ...             return [obj.real, obj.imag]
     ...         # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
     ...         return super().default(obj)
     ...
     >>> json.dumps(2 + 1j, cls=ComplexEncoder)
     '[2.0, 1.0]'
     >>> ComplexEncoder().encode(2 + 1j)
     '[2.0, 1.0]'
     >>> list(ComplexEncoder().iterencode(2 + 1j))
     ['[2.0', ', 1.0', ']']

在命令列介面裡使用 *note json.tool: 7d. 來驗證 JSON 語法和美化呈現方式：

     $ echo '{"json":"obj"}' | python -m json.tool
     {
         "json": "obj"
     }
     $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json.tool
     Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

更詳盡的文件請見 *note 命令列介面: 3338.。

     備註: JSON 語法是 YAML(8) 1.2 語法的一種子集合。所以如果使用預設的
     設定的話（準確來說，使用預設的 'separators' 分隔符設定的話），這個
     模組的輸出也符合 YAML 1.0 和 1.1 的子集合規範。因此你也可以利用這個
     模組來當作 YAML 的序列化工具（serializer）。

     備註: 這個模組的編、解碼器預設會保存輸入與輸出資料的順序關係，除非
     一開始的輸入本身就是無序的。

* Menu:

* 基本用法: 基本用法<3>.
* 編碼器與解碼器::
* 例外: 例外<12>.
* 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）::
* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/json/__init__.py

   (2) https://json.org

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html

   (5) 
https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript

   (7) 如 RFC 7159 更正
(https://www.rfc-editor.org/errata_search.php?rfc=7159) 所述，JSON 允許
字串中出現 U+2028（列分隔符）和 U+2029（段落分隔符）字元，而 JavaScript（
截至 ECMAScript 5.1 版）則不允許。

   (8) https://yaml.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 基本用法<3>,  Next: 編碼器與解碼器,  Up: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器

5.19.2.1 基本用法
.................

 -- 函式: json.dump (obj, fp, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None,
          separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

     參考這個*note 轉換表: 333a.將 'obj' 序列化為符合 JSON 格式的串流，
     並寫入到 'fp' （一個支援 ‘.write()’ 方法的 *note file-like object:
     2319.）

     如果 'skipkeys' 被設為 true（預設值：‘False’），那麼非基本型別（
     *note str: 157.、*note int: 17e.、*note float: 26a.、*note bool:
     17d.、‘None’）的 dictionary（字典）鍵值將被略過而不會引發 *note
     TypeError: 2ba.。

     *note json: 7c. 模組總是產生 *note str: 157. 物件，而非 *note
     bytes: 2c1. 物件。因此，‘fp.write()’ 必須支援 *note str: 157. 輸入
     。

     如果 'ensure_ascii' 被設為 true（預設值），則輸出時將確保所有輸入的
     非 ASCII 字元都會被轉義。若 'ensure_ascii' 為 false，則這些字元將照
     原樣輸出。

     如果 'check_circular' 設為 false（預設是 ‘True’），則針對不同容器型
     別的循環參照 (circular reference) 檢查將會被跳過，若有循環參照則最
     後將引發 *note RecursionError: be1. （或其他更糟的錯誤）。

     如果 'allow_nan' 為 false（預設值：‘True’），則序列化不符合嚴格
     JSON 規範的 *note float: 26a. 值 (‘nan’, ‘inf’, ‘-inf’) 會引發
     *note ValueError: 183.。如果 'allow_nan' 為 true，則將使用它們的
     JavaScript 等效表示 (‘NaN’, ‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’)。

     如果 'indent' 是非負整數或字串，則 JSON 陣列元素和物件成員將使用該
     縮排等級進行格式美化。縮排等級 0、負數或 ‘""’ 只會插入換行符號。
     ‘None’（預設值）等於是選擇最緊湊的表示法。使用正整數縮排可以在每層
     縮排數量相同的空格。如果 'indent' 是一個字串（例如 ‘"\t"’），則該字
     串用於縮排每個層級。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 除了整數之外，'indent' 還允許使用字串作為輸入。

     如果有指定本引數內容，'separators' 應該是一個 ‘(item_separator,
     key_separator)’ 二元組。如果 'indent' 為 ‘None’ 則預設為 ‘(', ', ':
     ')’，否則預設為 ‘(',', ': ')’。想要獲得最緊湊的 JSON 表示形式，你可
     以改成指定 ‘(',', ':')’ 來消除空格。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 如果 'indent' 不是 ‘None’，則使用 ‘(',', ': ')’ 作
     為預設值

     如果有指定本參數，'default' 會是一個遭遇無法序列化的物件時會被呼叫
     的函式。它應該回傳該物件的 JSON 可編碼版本或引發 *note TypeError:
     2ba.。如果未指定，則會直接引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

     如果 'sort_keys' 為 true（預設值：‘False’），則字典的輸出將按鍵值排
     序。

     若要使用繼承自 *note JSONEncoder: bb9. 的自訂子類別（例如覆寫 *note
     default(): 333b. 方法來序列化其他型別的一個子類別物件），請使用關鍵
     字引數 'cls' 指定該類別物件；否則預設使用 *note JSONEncoder: bb9.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 所有可選參數現在都是*note 僅限關鍵字: 8d6.參數了。

          備註: 與 *note pickle: a1. 和 *note marshal: 88. 不同，JSON 不
          具有二進位分框（binary framed）的協定，因此嘗試重複呼叫 *note
          dump(): bb7. 來序列化多個物件到同一個 'fp' 裡將導致無效的 JSON
          檔案。

 -- 函式: json.dumps (obj, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None,
          separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

     使用此*note 轉換表: 333c.來將 'obj' 序列化為 JSON 格式 *note str:
     157.。這個引數的作用與 *note dump(): bb7. 中的同名引數意義相同。

          備註: JSON 鍵/值對中的鍵始終為 *note str: 157. 型別。當字典被
          轉換為 JSON 時，字典的所有鍵值資料型別都會被強制轉換為字串。因
          此，如果將字典先轉換為 JSON 格式然後再轉換回字典，則該字典可能
          不等於原始字典。也就是說，如果字典 x 含有非字串鍵值，則
          ‘loads(dumps(x)) != x’。

 -- 函式: json.load (fp, *, cls=None, object_hook=None,
          parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None,
          object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)

     使用此*note 轉換表: 333c.來將 'fp'（一個支援 ‘.read()’、包含 JSON 文
     件的*note 文字檔案: 1a7b.或*note 二進位檔案: 1a7c.）去序列化為
     Python 物件。

     'object_hook' 是一個可選引數，其接受一個函式作為輸入。原始的字串解
     碼結果（一個 *note dict: 239.）將被傳入這個函式、並使用
     'object_hook' 的回傳值來取代原先的 *note dict: 239. 輸出。此功能可
     用於實作自訂解碼器（例如 JSON-RPC(1) 類別提示）。

     'object_pairs_hook' 是一個可選引數，其接受一個函式作為輸入。原始的
     有序對串列（ordered list of pairs）解碼結果將被傳入這個函式、並使用
     'object_pairs_hook' 的回傳值來取代原先的 *note dict: 239. 輸出。此
     功能可用於實作自訂解碼器。如果也同時給定了 'object_hook'，則
     'object_pairs_hook' 優先。

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增對於 'object_pairs_hook' 的支援。

     'parse_float' 為可選函式，每個要被解碼的 JSON 浮點數字串都會改用這
     個參數給定的函式來進行解碼。預設情況這等效於 ‘float(num_str)’。這個
     參數可用於將 JSON 中的浮點數解碼或剖析為另一種資料型別（例如 *note
     decimal.Decimal: 5f0.）。

     'parse_int' 為可選函式，當解碼 JSON 整數字串時會被呼叫。預設情況等
     效於 ‘int(num_str)’。這個參數可用於將 JSON 中的整數解碼或剖析為另一
     種資料型別（例如 *note float: 26a.）。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 預設 'parse_int' 使用的 *note int(): 17e. 函式現
     在有限制整數字串的長度上限了，限制由直譯器的*note
     整數字串轉換長度限制: 3ea.機制來達成，這能防止阻斷服務攻擊 (Denial
     of Service attacks)。

     'parse_constant' 為可選函式，在解碼時若遭遇字串 ‘'-Infinity'’、
     ‘'Infinity'’ 或 ‘'NaN'’ 其中之一則會改用這個參數給定的函式來進行解
     碼。這也可用於使解碼過程中遇到無效的 JSON 數字時引發一個例外。

     在 3.1 版的變更: 遭遇 'null'、'true' 或 'false' 時不再以
     'parse_constant' 給定的函式來處理了。

     若想要使用自訂的 *note JSONDecoder: bba. 子類別物件，請以 ‘cls’ 關
     鍵字引數指定之，否則將使用預設的 *note JSONDecoder: bba.。其他未使
     用到的關鍵字引數將繼續傳入給 JSONDecoder 的建構函式使用。

     如果被去序列化（deserialized）的資料不符合 JSON 格式，將會引發
     *note JSONDecodeError: c9a. 例外。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 所有可選參數現在都是*note 僅限關鍵字: 8d6.參數了。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 現在，'fp' 可以是一個*note 二進位檔案: 1a7c.，前提
     是其編碼格式為 UTF-8、UTF-16 或 UTF-32。

 -- 函式: json.loads (s, *, cls=None, object_hook=None,
          parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None,
          object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)

     使用*note 轉換表: 333c.將 's' （一個含有 JSON 文件的 *note str:
     157.、*note bytes: 2c1. 或 *note bytearray: 2c0. 的實例（instance）
     ）去序列化（deserialize）為一個 Python 物件

     其餘引數的使用方式與意義和 *note load(): b21. 的相同。

     如果被去序列化（deserialized）的資料不符合 JSON 格式，將會引發
     *note JSONDecodeError: c9a. 例外。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 現在，'s' 可以是一個二進位檔案如 *note bytes: 2c1.
     或 *note bytearray: 2c0.，前提是其編碼格式為 UTF-8、UTF-16 或
     UTF-32。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 刪除關鍵字引數 'encoding'。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jsonrpc.org


File: python.info,  Node: 編碼器與解碼器,  Next: 例外<12>,  Prev: 基本用法<3>,  Up: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器

5.19.2.2 編碼器與解碼器
.......................

 -- 類別: json.JSONDecoder (*, object_hook=None, parse_float=None,
          parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, strict=True,
          object_pairs_hook=None)

     簡易 JSON 解碼器

     預設將執行下列資料型別轉換：

     JSON                Python
                         
     --------------------------------------------
                         
     object              dict
                         
                         
     array               list
                         
                         
     string              str
                         
                         
     number (整數)       int
                         
                         
     number (實數)       float
                         
                         
     true                True
                         
                         
     false               False
                         
                         
     null                None
                         

     雖然 ‘NaN’、‘Infinity’ 和 ‘-Infinity’ 並不符合 JSON 規範，但解碼器
     依然能正確地將其轉換到相應的 Python ‘float’ 值。

     'object_hook' 是一個可選函式，其接受一個解碼後的 JSON 物件作為輸入
     ，並使用其回傳值來取代原先的 *note dict: 239.。這個功能可用於提供自
     訂的去序列化（例如支援 JSON-RPC(1) 類別提示）。

     'object_pairs_hook' is an optional function that will be called
     with the result of every JSON object decoded with an ordered list
     of pairs.  The return value of 'object_pairs_hook' will be used
     instead of the *note dict: 239.  This feature can be used to
     implement custom decoders.  If 'object_hook' is also defined, the
     'object_pairs_hook' takes priority.

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增對於 'object_pairs_hook' 的支援。

     'parse_float' 為可選函式，每個要被解碼的 JSON 浮點數字串都會改用這
     個參數給定的函式來進行解碼。預設情況這等效於 ‘float(num_str)’。這個
     參數可用於將 JSON 中的浮點數解碼或剖析為另一種資料型別（例如 *note
     decimal.Decimal: 5f0.）。

     'parse_int' 為可選函式，當解碼 JSON 整數字串時會被呼叫。預設情況等
     效於 ‘int(num_str)’。這個參數可用於將 JSON 中的整數解碼或剖析為另一
     種資料型別（例如 *note float: 26a.）。

     'parse_constant' 為可選函式，在解碼時若遭遇字串 ‘'-Infinity'’、
     ‘'Infinity'’ 或 ‘'NaN'’ 其中之一則會改用這個參數給定的函式來進行解
     碼。這也可用於使解碼過程中遇到無效的 JSON 數字時引發一個例外。

     如果 'strict' 被設為 false（預設值為 ‘True’），那麼字串中將允許控制
     字元。此語境中的控制字元指的是 ASCII 字元編碼在 0～31 範圍內的字元
     ，包括 ‘'\t'``（tab）、’'n'‘、’'r''' 和 ‘'\0'’。

     如果被去序列化（deserialized）的資料不符合 JSON 格式，將會引發
     *note JSONDecodeError: c9a. 例外。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 所有參數現在都是*note 僅限關鍵字參數: 8d6.了。

      -- 方法: decode (s)

          回傳用 Python 型式表達的 's' （一個含有 JSON 文件的 *note str:
          157. 實例）。

          若給定的輸入不符合 JSON 格式會引發 *note JSONDecodeError: c9a.
          例外。

      -- 方法: raw_decode (s)

          將 's' （一個開頭部分含有合格 JSON 文件的 *note str: 157.） 解
          碼，並將 JSON 文件結束點的索引值（index）和解碼結果合併為一個
          二元組（2-tuple）後回傳。

          這個方法可以用來解碼尾段可能帶有 JSON 以外資料的文字。

 -- 類別: json.JSONEncoder (*, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, sort_keys=False,
          indent=None, separators=None, default=None)

     可擴充的 Python 資料結構 JSON 編碼器。

     預設可支援下列物件及型別：

     Python                                       JSON
                                                  
     -----------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
     dict                                         object
                                                  
                                                  
     list, tuple                                  array
                                                  
                                                  
     str                                          string
                                                  
                                                  
     int、float 或可作為整數或浮點數運算的衍生    number
     列舉（int- or float-derived Enums）          

     True                                         true
                                                  
                                                  
     False                                        false
                                                  
                                                  
     None                                         null
                                                  

     在 3.4 版的變更: 增加對整數（int）、浮點數（float）或可作為整數或浮
     點數運算的衍生列舉（int- or float-derived Enums）類別的支援性。

     若要擴充此功能來識別其他物件，請繼承並實作一個 *note default():
     333b. 方法。此方法應回傳一個可序列化的 ‘o’ 物件，否則此方法應呼叫父
     類別的 JSONEncoder.default 方法（以引發 *note TypeError: 2ba. 例外
     ）。

     若 'skipkeys' 為 false（預設值），則當在編碼不是 *note str: 157.、
     *note int: 17e.、*note float: 26a. 或 ‘None’ 的鍵值時，將引發 *note
     TypeError: 2ba.。如果 'skipkeys' 為 true，這些項目將直接被跳過。

     如果 'ensure_ascii' 被設為 true（預設值），則輸出時將確保所有輸入的
     非 ASCII 字元都會被轉義。若 'ensure_ascii' 為 false，則這些字元將照
     原樣輸出。

     如果 'check_circular' 為 true（預設值），則會在編碼期間檢查串列（
     list）、字典（dict）和自訂編碼物件的循環參照，以防止無限遞迴（一個
     會導致 *note RecursionError: be1. 例外的問題）。否則不會進行此類檢
     查。

     如果 'allow_nan' 為 true（預設值），則 ‘NaN’、‘Infinity’ 和
     ‘-Infinity’ 將按照原樣進行編碼。請記得此行為不符合標準 JSON 規範，
     但的確與大多數基於 JavaScript 的編碼器和解碼器一致。否則若設為
     false，嘗試對這些浮點數進行編碼將引發 *note ValueError: 183. 例外。

     如果 'sort_keys' 為 true（預設值：‘False’），則 dictionary（字典）
     的輸出將按鍵值排序。這項功能可確保 JSON 序列化的結果能被互相比較，
     能讓日常的回歸測試檢查變得方便一些。

     如果 'indent' 是非負整數或字串，則 JSON 陣列元素和物件成員將使用該
     縮排等級進行格式美化。縮排等級 0、負數或 ‘""’ 只會插入換行符號。
     ‘None’（預設值）等於是選擇最緊湊的表示法。使用正整數縮排可以在每層
     縮排數量相同的空格。如果 'indent' 是一個字串（例如 ‘"\t"’），則該字
     串用於縮排每個層級。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 除了整數之外，'indent' 還允許使用字串作為輸入。

     如果有指定本引數內容，'separators' 應該是一個 ‘(item_separator,
     key_separator)’ 二元組。如果 'indent' 為 ‘None’ 則預設為 ‘(', ', ':
     ')’，否則預設為 ‘(',', ': ')’。想要獲得最緊湊的 JSON 表示形式，你可
     以改成指定 ‘(',', ':')’ 來消除空格。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 如果 'indent' 不是 ‘None’，則使用 ‘(',', ': ')’ 作
     為預設值

     如果有指定本參數，'default' 會是一個遭遇無法序列化的物件時會被呼叫
     的函式。它應該回傳該物件的 JSON 可編碼版本或引發 *note TypeError:
     2ba.。如果未指定，則會直接引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 所有參數現在都是*note 僅限關鍵字參數: 8d6.了。

      -- 方法: default (o)

          在任意一個子類別裡實作這個方法時須讓其回傳一個可序列化的物件
          'o' ，或呼叫原始的實作以引發 *note TypeError: 2ba. 例外。

          舉例來說，想要讓編碼器支援任意疊代器（iterator），你可以實作這
          樣子的 *note default(): 333b.：

               def default(self, o):
                  try:
                      iterable = iter(o)
                  except TypeError:
                      pass
                  else:
                      return list(iterable)
                  # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
                  return super().default(o)

      -- 方法: encode (o)

          回傳一個 Python 資料結構物件 'o' 的 JSON 的字串表示。例如：

               >>> json.JSONEncoder().encode({"foo": ["bar", "baz"]})
               '{"foo": ["bar", "baz"]}'

      -- 方法: iterencode (o)

          將物件 'o' 編碼，並將結果統整為一個能依序產生（yield）各結果字
          串的物件。如下例：

               for chunk in json.JSONEncoder().iterencode(bigobject):
                   mysocket.write(chunk)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jsonrpc.org


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<12>,  Next: 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）,  Prev: 編碼器與解碼器,  Up: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器

5.19.2.3 例外
.............

 -- 例外: json.JSONDecodeError (msg, doc, pos)

     *note ValueError: 183. 的子類別具有下列額外屬性：

      -- 屬性: msg

          未受格式化的錯誤訊息。

      -- 屬性: doc

          正在被剖析的 JSON 文件。

      -- 屬性: pos

          'doc' 剖析失敗處的起始點的索引值。

      -- 屬性: lineno

          'pos' 所在的列（line）數。

      -- 屬性: colno

          'pos' 所在的行（column）數。

     在 3.5 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）,  Next: 命令列介面<3>,  Prev: 例外<12>,  Up: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器

5.19.2.4 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）
...........................................

JSON 格式是由 RFC 7159(1) 和 ECMA-404(2) 規範的。本節詳細說明了本模組對
RFC 的遵循程度。簡單起見，*note JSONEncoder: bb9. 和 *note JSONDecoder:
bba. 子類別以及未明確提及的參數將不予討論。

這個模組的部份實作並未非常嚴格地遵循 RFC 規範。準確來說，下列實際實作符
合 JavaScript 語法格式，但並不符合 JSON 格式：

   - 無限（Infinite）和非數字（NaN）值會被接受。

   - 同一個物件內可以有重複的名稱，但只有最後一個同名物件是有效的。

不過 RFC 准許遵循 RFC 的剖析器接受不合規的文字輸入，所以技術上來說若以預
設設定運作，本模組的去序列化器（deserializer）是符合 RFC 規範的。

* Menu:

* 字元編碼格式::
* 正負無限與非數值::
* 物件內重複的名稱::
* 位於頂層的非物件及非列表值::
* 實作限制::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html

   (2) 
https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/


File: python.info,  Node: 字元編碼格式,  Next: 正負無限與非數值,  Up: 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）

5.19.2.5 字元編碼格式
.....................

RFC 要求 JSON 必須以 UTF-8、UTF-16 或 UTF-32 格式編碼。並推薦以 UTF-8 編
碼以達成最佳的互通性。

RFC 准許但並不強制編碼器的 'ensure_ascii=True' 行為是預設值，但本模組依
然實作了此一選項作為預設，因此本模組預設會轉義所有非 ASCII 字元。

除了 'ensure_ascii' 選項參數之外，本模組嚴格遵循 Python 物件與 *note
Unicode strings: 157. 之間的轉換規範，因此並不另外處理字元編碼的問題。

RFC 禁止在文件的開頭加上端序記號（Byte Order Mark），因此本模組的序列化
器（serializer）也不會在輸出中加入端序記號。RFC 允許但不強制 JSON 去序列
化器（deserializer）忽略文件初始的端序記號，因此本模組的去序列化器將在遭
遇位於文件開頭的端序記號時引發 *note ValueError: 183. 例外。

RFC 並未明確禁止 JSON 文件包含無法對應有效 Unicode 字元的位元組序列（例
如未配對的 UTF-16 代理對（surrogate pairs）），但這個特性的確可能會引起
相容性問題。預設情況下，當原始輸入的 *note str: 157. 中存在此類序列時，
該模組將接受並輸出這些序列的編碼位置（code points）。


File: python.info,  Node: 正負無限與非數值,  Next: 物件內重複的名稱,  Prev: 字元編碼格式,  Up: 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）

5.19.2.6 正負無限與非數值
.........................

RFC 不允許表現無限大或非數值（NaN）。但預設情況下，這個模組仍接受並輸出
‘Infinity’、‘-Infinity’ 和 ‘NaN’，如同它們是有效的 JSON 數值字面值：

     >>> # Neither of these calls raises an exception, but the results are not valid JSON
     >>> json.dumps(float('-inf'))
     '-Infinity'
     >>> json.dumps(float('nan'))
     'NaN'
     >>> # Same when deserializing
     >>> json.loads('-Infinity')
     -inf
     >>> json.loads('NaN')
     nan

在序列化器中，'allow_nan' 參數可以改變這個行為。在去序列化器中，
'parse_constant' 參數可以改變這個行為。


File: python.info,  Node: 物件內重複的名稱,  Next: 位於頂層的非物件及非列表值,  Prev: 正負無限與非數值,  Up: 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）

5.19.2.7 物件內重複的名稱
.........................

RFC 規範僅表明 JSON 物件中的名字應該是唯一的，但沒有強制要求如何處理重複
的名字。預設情況下，本模組不會因此引發例外；相反的，它會忽略該名字的所有
重複鍵值對，並只保留最後一個：

     >>> weird_json = '{"x": 1, "x": 2, "x": 3}'
     >>> json.loads(weird_json)
     {'x': 3}

'object_parts_hook' 參數可以改變這個行為。


File: python.info,  Node: 位於頂層的非物件及非列表值,  Next: 實作限制,  Prev: 物件內重複的名稱,  Up: 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）

5.19.2.8 位於頂層的非物件及非列表值
...................................

由已廢棄的 RFC 4627(1) 所規範的舊版 JSON 要求 JSON 文字的頂層值必須是
JSON 物件或陣列（Python *note dict: 239. 或 *note list: 40a.），而且不能
是 JSON 的 null、boolean、數字或字串值。 RFC 7159(2) 移除了這個限制，而
本模組的序列化器或去串列化器中未曾實施過該限制。

如果想要最大限度地保留互通性，你可能還是會想要自行施加這個限制。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html


File: python.info,  Node: 實作限制,  Prev: 位於頂層的非物件及非列表值,  Up: 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）

5.19.2.9 實作限制
.................

某些 JSON 去序列化器的實作可能會造成下列限制：

   * JSON 文件長度上限

   * JSON 物件或陣列的最大巢狀層數（level of nesting）限制

   * 數字的精準度或範圍

   * JSON 字串長度上限

本模組除了 Python 資料型態本身或 Python 直譯器本身的限制以外，不會設定任
何此類限制。

將資料序列化為 JSON 時，要注意可能會使用該 JSON 輸出的應用程式中的相關限
制。特別要注意的是，JSON 數字常會被去序列化為 IEEE 754 雙精度浮點數（
double），並因而受到其表示範圍和精度限制的影響。這在序列化極大的 Python
*note int: 17e. 數值、或是序列化特殊數字型別的實例時（例如 *note
decimal.Decimal: 5f0.）尤其重要。


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列介面<3>,  Prev: 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）,  Up: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器

5.19.2.10 命令列介面
....................

'原始碼：'Lib/json/tool.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note json.tool: 7d. 模組提供了一個簡易的命令列界面以供校驗與美化呈現
JSON 物件。

如果沒有指定可選引數 ‘infile’ 和 ‘outfile’ ，則 *note sys.stdin: 2bf. 和
*note sys.stdout: 92a. 將各自做為輸入和輸出的預設值。

     $ echo '{"json": "obj"}' | python -m json.tool
     {
         "json": "obj"
     }
     $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json.tool
     Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

在 3.5 版的變更: 現在開始輸出和輸入的資料順序會是相同的。傳入 *note
-sort-keys: 334f. 引數以按照鍵值的字母順序對輸出進行排序。

* Menu:

* 命令列選項: 命令列選項<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/json/tool.py


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列選項<3>,  Up: 命令列介面<3>

5.19.2.11 命令列選項
....................

 -- Option: infile

     將被用於校驗或美化呈現的 JSON 文件：

          $ python -m json.tool mp_films.json
          [
              {
                  "title": "And Now for Something Completely Different",
                  "year": 1971
              },
              {
                  "title": "Monty Python and the Holy Grail",
                  "year": 1975
              }
          ]

     如果沒有指定 'infile' 則會從 *note sys.stdin: 2bf. 讀取輸入。

 -- Option: outfile

     將 'infile' 的結果寫入到給定的 'outfile'。若未提供則寫入到 *note
     sys.stdout: 92a.。

 -- Option: --sort-keys

     按照鍵值的字母順序對輸出字典進行排序。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- Option: --no-ensure-ascii

     關閉非 ASCII 字元的自動轉義功能。詳情請參照 *note json.dumps():
     bb8.。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Option: --json-lines

     將每一行輸入都單獨輸出為一個 JSON 物件。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- Option: --indent, --tab, --no-indent, --compact

     互斥的空白字元控制選項。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     顯示說明訊息。

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱,  Next: mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型,  Prev: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器,  Up: 網際網路資料處理

5.19.3 ‘mailbox’ -- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱
------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/mailbox.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines two classes, *note Mailbox: 10e0. and *note Message:
10e4, for accessing and manipulating on-disk mailboxes and the messages
they contain.  ‘Mailbox’ offers a dictionary-like mapping from keys to
messages.  ‘Message’ extends the *note email.message: 40. module's *note
Message: b05. class with format-specific state and behavior.  Supported
mailbox formats are Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl, and MMDF.

也參考
......

*note email: 37. 模組

     Represent and manipulate messages.

* Menu:

* Mailbox 物件::
* Message 物件::
* 例外: 例外<13>.
* 範例: 範例<28>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/mailbox.py


File: python.info,  Node: Mailbox 物件,  Next: Message 物件,  Up: mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱

5.19.3.1 ‘Mailbox’ 物件
.......................

 -- 類別: mailbox.Mailbox

     A mailbox, which may be inspected and modified.

     The ‘Mailbox’ class defines an interface and is not intended to be
     instantiated.  Instead, format-specific subclasses should inherit
     from ‘Mailbox’ and your code should instantiate a particular
     subclass.

     The ‘Mailbox’ interface is dictionary-like, with small keys
     corresponding to messages.  Keys are issued by the ‘Mailbox’
     instance with which they will be used and are only meaningful to
     that ‘Mailbox’ instance.  A key continues to identify a message
     even if the corresponding message is modified, such as by replacing
     it with another message.

     Messages may be added to a ‘Mailbox’ instance using the set-like
     method *note add(): 10df. and removed using a ‘del’ statement or
     the set-like methods *note remove(): 335f. and *note discard():
     3360.

     ‘Mailbox’ interface semantics differ from dictionary semantics in
     some noteworthy ways.  Each time a message is requested, a new
     representation (typically a *note Message: 10e4. instance) is
     generated based upon the current state of the mailbox.  Similarly,
     when a message is added to a ‘Mailbox’ instance, the provided
     message representation's contents are copied.  In neither case is a
     reference to the message representation kept by the ‘Mailbox’
     instance.

     The default ‘Mailbox’ *note iterator: 1718. iterates over message
     representations, not keys as the default *note dictionary: 239.
     iterator does.  Moreover, modification of a mailbox during
     iteration is safe and well-defined.  Messages added to the mailbox
     after an iterator is created will not be seen by the iterator.
     Messages removed from the mailbox before the iterator yields them
     will be silently skipped, though using a key from an iterator may
     result in a *note KeyError: 8ed. exception if the corresponding
     message is subsequently removed.

          警告: Be very cautious when modifying mailboxes that might be
          simultaneously changed by some other process.  The safest
          mailbox format to use for such tasks is *note Maildir: 11a6.;
          try to avoid using single-file formats such as *note mbox:
          1450. for concurrent writing.  If you're modifying a mailbox,
          you 'must' lock it by calling the *note lock(): 3361. and
          *note unlock(): 3362. methods 'before' reading any messages in
          the file or making any changes by adding or deleting a
          message.  Failing to lock the mailbox runs the risk of losing
          messages or corrupting the entire mailbox.

     ‘Mailbox’ instances have the following methods:

      -- 方法: add (message)

          Add 'message' to the mailbox and return the key that has been
          assigned to it.

          Parameter 'message' may be a *note Message: 10e4. instance, an
          *note email.message.Message: b05. instance, a string, a byte
          string, or a file-like object (which should be open in binary
          mode).  If 'message' is an instance of the appropriate
          format-specific *note Message: 10e4. subclass (e.g., if it's
          an *note mboxMessage: 3233. instance and this is an *note
          mbox: 1450. instance), its format-specific information is
          used.  Otherwise, reasonable defaults for format-specific
          information are used.

          在 3.2 版的變更: Support for binary input was added.

      -- 方法: remove (key)
      -- 方法: __delitem__ (key)
      -- 方法: discard (key)

          Delete the message corresponding to 'key' from the mailbox.

          If no such message exists, a *note KeyError: 8ed. exception is
          raised if the method was called as *note remove(): 335f. or
          *note __delitem__(): 3363. but no exception is raised if the
          method was called as *note discard(): 3360.  The behavior of
          *note discard(): 3360. may be preferred if the underlying
          mailbox format supports concurrent modification by other
          processes.

      -- 方法: __setitem__ (key, message)

          Replace the message corresponding to 'key' with 'message'.
          Raise a *note KeyError: 8ed. exception if no message already
          corresponds to 'key'.

          As with *note add(): 10df, parameter 'message' may be a *note
          Message: 10e4. instance, an *note email.message.Message: b05.
          instance, a string, a byte string, or a file-like object
          (which should be open in binary mode).  If 'message' is an
          instance of the appropriate format-specific *note Message:
          10e4. subclass (e.g., if it's an *note mboxMessage: 3233.
          instance and this is an *note mbox: 1450. instance), its
          format-specific information is used.  Otherwise, the
          format-specific information of the message that currently
          corresponds to 'key' is left unchanged.

      -- 方法: iterkeys ()

          Return an *note iterator: 1718. over all keys

      -- 方法: keys ()

          The same as *note iterkeys(): 3365, except that a *note list:
          40a. is returned rather than an *note iterator: 1718.

      -- 方法: itervalues ()
      -- 方法: __iter__ ()

          Return an *note iterator: 1718. over representations of all
          messages.  The messages are represented as instances of the
          appropriate format-specific *note Message: 10e4. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

               備註: The behavior of *note __iter__(): 3368. is unlike
               that of dictionaries, which iterate over keys.

      -- 方法: values ()

          The same as *note itervalues(): 3367, except that a *note
          list: 40a. is returned rather than an *note iterator: 1718.

      -- 方法: iteritems ()

          Return an *note iterator: 1718. over ('key', 'message') pairs,
          where 'key' is a key and 'message' is a message
          representation.  The messages are represented as instances of
          the appropriate format-specific *note Message: 10e4. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- 方法: items ()

          The same as *note iteritems(): 336a, except that a *note list:
          40a. of pairs is returned rather than an *note iterator: 1718.
          of pairs.

      -- 方法: get (key, default=None)
      -- 方法: __getitem__ (key)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'.
          If no such message exists, 'default' is returned if the method
          was called as *note get(): 336c. and a *note KeyError: 8ed.
          exception is raised if the method was called as
          ‘__getitem__()’.  The message is represented as an instance of
          the appropriate format-specific *note Message: 10e4. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- 方法: get_message (key)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'
          as an instance of the appropriate format-specific *note
          Message: 10e4. subclass, or raise a *note KeyError: 8ed.
          exception if no such message exists.

      -- 方法: get_bytes (key)

          Return a byte representation of the message corresponding to
          'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 8ed. exception if no such
          message exists.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: get_string (key)

          Return a string representation of the message corresponding to
          'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 8ed. exception if no such
          message exists.  The message is processed through *note
          email.message.Message: b05. to convert it to a 7bit clean
          representation.

      -- 方法: get_file (key)

          Return a *note file-like: 2319. representation of the message
          corresponding to 'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 8ed.
          exception if no such message exists.  The file-like object
          behaves as if open in binary mode.  This file should be closed
          once it is no longer needed.

          在 3.2 版的變更: The file object really is a *note binary
          file: 1a7c.; previously it was incorrectly returned in text
          mode.  Also, the *note file-like object: 2319. now supports
          the *note context manager: 3c4. protocol: you can use a *note
          with: 3c5. statement to automatically close it.

               備註: Unlike other representations of messages, *note
               file-like: 2319. representations are not necessarily
               independent of the ‘Mailbox’ instance that created them
               or of the underlying mailbox.  More specific
               documentation is provided by each subclass.

      -- 方法: __contains__ (key)

          Return ‘True’ if 'key' corresponds to a message, ‘False’
          otherwise.

      -- 方法: __len__ ()

          Return a count of messages in the mailbox.

      -- 方法: clear ()

          Delete all messages from the mailbox.

      -- 方法: pop (key, default=None)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'
          and delete the message.  If no such message exists, return
          'default'.  The message is represented as an instance of the
          appropriate format-specific *note Message: 10e4. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- 方法: popitem ()

          Return an arbitrary ('key', 'message') pair, where 'key' is a
          key and 'message' is a message representation, and delete the
          corresponding message.  If the mailbox is empty, raise a *note
          KeyError: 8ed. exception.  The message is represented as an
          instance of the appropriate format-specific *note Message:
          10e4. subclass unless a custom message factory was specified
          when the ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- 方法: update (arg)

          Parameter 'arg' should be a 'key'-to-'message' mapping or an
          iterable of ('key', 'message') pairs.  Updates the mailbox so
          that, for each given 'key' and 'message', the message
          corresponding to 'key' is set to 'message' as if by using
          *note __setitem__(): 3364.  As with *note __setitem__(): 3364,
          each 'key' must already correspond to a message in the mailbox
          or else a *note KeyError: 8ed. exception will be raised, so in
          general it is incorrect for 'arg' to be a ‘Mailbox’ instance.

               備註: Unlike with dictionaries, keyword arguments are not
               supported.

      -- 方法: flush ()

          Write any pending changes to the filesystem.  For some *note
          Mailbox: 10e0. subclasses, changes are always written
          immediately and ‘flush()’ does nothing, but you should still
          make a habit of calling this method.

      -- 方法: lock ()

          Acquire an exclusive advisory lock on the mailbox so that
          other processes know not to modify it.  An *note
          ExternalClashError: 3376. is raised if the lock is not
          available.  The particular locking mechanisms used depend upon
          the mailbox format.  You should 'always' lock the mailbox
          before making any modifications to its contents.

      -- 方法: unlock ()

          Release the lock on the mailbox, if any.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Flush the mailbox, unlock it if necessary, and close any open
          files.  For some ‘Mailbox’ subclasses, this method does
          nothing.

* Menu:

* Mailbox 物件: Mailbox 物件<2>.
* mbox 物件::
* MH 物件::
* Babyl 物件::
* MMDF 物件::


File: python.info,  Node: Mailbox 物件<2>,  Next: mbox 物件,  Up: Mailbox 物件

5.19.3.2 ‘Mailbox’ 物件
.......................

 -- 類別: mailbox.Maildir (dirname, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 10e0. for mailboxes in Maildir format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MaildirMessage: 337a. is used as the default message
     representation.  If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if
     it does not exist.

     If 'create' is ‘True’ and the 'dirname' path exists, it will be
     treated as an existing maildir without attempting to verify its
     directory layout.

     It is for historical reasons that 'dirname' is named as such rather
     than 'path'.

     Maildir is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the qmail
     mail transfer agent and now widely supported by other programs.
     Messages in a Maildir mailbox are stored in separate files within a
     common directory structure.  This design allows Maildir mailboxes
     to be accessed and modified by multiple unrelated programs without
     data corruption, so file locking is unnecessary.

     Maildir mailboxes contain three subdirectories, namely: ‘tmp’,
     ‘new’, and ‘cur’.  Messages are created momentarily in the ‘tmp’
     subdirectory and then moved to the ‘new’ subdirectory to finalize
     delivery.  A mail user agent may subsequently move the message to
     the ‘cur’ subdirectory and store information about the state of the
     message in a special "info" section appended to its file name.

     Folders of the style introduced by the Courier mail transfer agent
     are also supported.  Any subdirectory of the main mailbox is
     considered a folder if ‘'.'’ is the first character in its name.
     Folder names are represented by ‘Maildir’ without the leading
     ‘'.'’.  Each folder is itself a Maildir mailbox but should not
     contain other folders.  Instead, a logical nesting is indicated
     using ‘'.'’ to delimit levels, e.g., "Archived.2005.07".

      -- 屬性: colon

          The Maildir specification requires the use of a colon (‘':'’)
          in certain message file names.  However, some operating
          systems do not permit this character in file names, If you
          wish to use a Maildir-like format on such an operating system,
          you should specify another character to use instead.  The
          exclamation point (‘'!'’) is a popular choice.  For example:

               import mailbox
               mailbox.Maildir.colon = '!'

          The ‘colon’ attribute may also be set on a per-instance basis.

     ‘Maildir’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 10e0.
     in addition to the following:

      -- 方法: list_folders ()

          Return a list of the names of all folders.

      -- 方法: get_folder (folder)

          Return a ‘Maildir’ instance representing the folder whose name
          is 'folder'.  A *note NoSuchMailboxError: 337e. exception is
          raised if the folder does not exist.

      -- 方法: add_folder (folder)

          Create a folder whose name is 'folder' and return a ‘Maildir’
          instance representing it.

      -- 方法: remove_folder (folder)

          Delete the folder whose name is 'folder'.  If the folder
          contains any messages, a *note NotEmptyError: 3381. exception
          will be raised and the folder will not be deleted.

      -- 方法: clean ()

          Delete temporary files from the mailbox that have not been
          accessed in the last 36 hours.  The Maildir specification says
          that mail-reading programs should do this occasionally.

     Some *note Mailbox: 10e0. methods implemented by ‘Maildir’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- 方法: add (message)
      -- 方法: __setitem__ (key, message)
      -- 方法: update (arg)

               警告: These methods generate unique file names based upon
               the current process ID. When using multiple threads,
               undetected name clashes may occur and cause corruption of
               the mailbox unless threads are coordinated to avoid using
               these methods to manipulate the same mailbox
               simultaneously.

      -- 方法: flush ()

          All changes to Maildir mailboxes are immediately applied, so
          this method does nothing.

      -- 方法: lock ()
      -- 方法: unlock ()

          Maildir mailboxes do not support (or require) locking, so
          these methods do nothing.

      -- 方法: close ()

          ‘Maildir’ instances do not keep any open files and the
          underlying mailboxes do not support locking, so this method
          does nothing.

      -- 方法: get_file (key)

          Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to
          modify or remove the underlying message while the returned
          file remains open.

也參考
......

maildir man page from Courier(1)

     A specification of the format.  Describes a common extension for
     supporting folders.

Using maildir format(2)

     Notes on Maildir by its inventor.  Includes an updated
     name-creation scheme and details on "info" semantics.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.courier-mta.org/maildir.html

   (2) https://cr.yp.to/proto/maildir.html


File: python.info,  Node: mbox 物件,  Next: MH 物件,  Prev: Mailbox 物件<2>,  Up: Mailbox 物件

5.19.3.3 ‘mbox’ 物件
....................

 -- 類別: mailbox.mbox (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 10e0. for mailboxes in mbox format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     mboxMessage: 3233. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     The mbox format is the classic format for storing mail on Unix
     systems.  All messages in an mbox mailbox are stored in a single
     file with the beginning of each message indicated by a line whose
     first five characters are "From ".

     Several variations of the mbox format exist to address perceived
     shortcomings in the original.  In the interest of compatibility,
     ‘mbox’ implements the original format, which is sometimes referred
     to as 'mboxo'.  This means that the ‘Content-Length’ header, if
     present, is ignored and that any occurrences of "From " at the
     beginning of a line in a message body are transformed to ">From "
     when storing the message, although occurrences of ">From " are not
     transformed to "From " when reading the message.

     Some *note Mailbox: 10e0. methods implemented by ‘mbox’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- 方法: get_file (key)

          Using the file after calling *note flush(): 3375. or *note
          close(): 3377. on the ‘mbox’ instance may yield unpredictable
          results or raise an exception.

      -- 方法: lock ()
      -- 方法: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used--dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

也參考
......

mbox man page from tin(1)

     A specification of the format, with details on locking.

Configuring Netscape Mail on Unix: Why The Content-Length Format is Bad(2)

     An argument for using the original mbox format rather than a
     variation.

"mbox" is a family of several mutually incompatible mailbox formats(3)

     A history of mbox variations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mbox

   (2) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (3) 
https://www.loc.gov/preservation/digital/formats/fdd/fdd000383.shtml


File: python.info,  Node: MH 物件,  Next: Babyl 物件,  Prev: mbox 物件,  Up: Mailbox 物件

5.19.3.4 ‘MH’ 物件
..................

 -- 類別: mailbox.MH (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 10e0. for mailboxes in MH format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MHMessage: 3393. is used as the default message representation.  If
     'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     MH is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the MH Message
     Handling System, a mail user agent.  Each message in an MH mailbox
     resides in its own file.  An MH mailbox may contain other MH
     mailboxes (called 'folders') in addition to messages.  Folders may
     be nested indefinitely.  MH mailboxes also support 'sequences',
     which are named lists used to logically group messages without
     moving them to sub-folders.  Sequences are defined in a file called
     ‘.mh_sequences’ in each folder.

     The ‘MH’ class manipulates MH mailboxes, but it does not attempt to
     emulate all of ‘mh’'s behaviors.  In particular, it does not modify
     and is not affected by the ‘context’ or ‘.mh_profile’ files that
     are used by ‘mh’ to store its state and configuration.

     ‘MH’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 10e0. in
     addition to the following:

      -- 方法: list_folders ()

          Return a list of the names of all folders.

      -- 方法: get_folder (folder)

          Return an ‘MH’ instance representing the folder whose name is
          'folder'.  A *note NoSuchMailboxError: 337e. exception is
          raised if the folder does not exist.

      -- 方法: add_folder (folder)

          Create a folder whose name is 'folder' and return an ‘MH’
          instance representing it.

      -- 方法: remove_folder (folder)

          Delete the folder whose name is 'folder'.  If the folder
          contains any messages, a *note NotEmptyError: 3381. exception
          will be raised and the folder will not be deleted.

      -- 方法: get_sequences ()

          Return a dictionary of sequence names mapped to key lists.  If
          there are no sequences, the empty dictionary is returned.

      -- 方法: set_sequences (sequences)

          Re-define the sequences that exist in the mailbox based upon
          'sequences', a dictionary of names mapped to key lists, like
          returned by *note get_sequences(): 3398.

      -- 方法: pack ()

          Rename messages in the mailbox as necessary to eliminate gaps
          in numbering.  Entries in the sequences list are updated
          correspondingly.

               備註: Already-issued keys are invalidated by this
               operation and should not be subsequently used.

     Some *note Mailbox: 10e0. methods implemented by ‘MH’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- 方法: remove (key)
      -- 方法: __delitem__ (key)
      -- 方法: discard (key)

          These methods immediately delete the message.  The MH
          convention of marking a message for deletion by prepending a
          comma to its name is not used.

      -- 方法: lock ()
      -- 方法: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used--dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.  For MH
          mailboxes, locking the mailbox means locking the
          ‘.mh_sequences’ file and, only for the duration of any
          operations that affect them, locking individual message files.

      -- 方法: get_file (key)

          Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to
          remove the underlying message while the returned file remains
          open.

      -- 方法: flush ()

          All changes to MH mailboxes are immediately applied, so this
          method does nothing.

      -- 方法: close ()

          ‘MH’ instances do not keep any open files, so this method is
          equivalent to *note unlock(): 339f.

也參考
......

nmh - Message Handling System(1)

     Home page of ‘nmh’, an updated version of the original ‘mh’.

MH & nmh: Email for Users & Programmers(2)

     A GPL-licensed book on ‘mh’ and ‘nmh’, with some information on the
     mailbox format.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nongnu.org/nmh/

   (2) https://rand-mh.sourceforge.io/book/


File: python.info,  Node: Babyl 物件,  Next: MMDF 物件,  Prev: MH 物件,  Up: Mailbox 物件

5.19.3.5 ‘Babyl’ 物件
.....................

 -- 類別: mailbox.Babyl (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 10e0. for mailboxes in Babyl format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     BabylMessage: 33a6. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     Babyl is a single-file mailbox format used by the Rmail mail user
     agent included with Emacs.  The beginning of a message is indicated
     by a line containing the two characters Control-Underscore
     (‘'\037'’) and Control-L (‘'\014'’).  The end of a message is
     indicated by the start of the next message or, in the case of the
     last message, a line containing a Control-Underscore (‘'\037'’)
     character.

     Messages in a Babyl mailbox have two sets of headers, original
     headers and so-called visible headers.  Visible headers are
     typically a subset of the original headers that have been
     reformatted or abridged to be more attractive.  Each message in a
     Babyl mailbox also has an accompanying list of 'labels', or short
     strings that record extra information about the message, and a list
     of all user-defined labels found in the mailbox is kept in the
     Babyl options section.

     ‘Babyl’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 10e0.
     in addition to the following:

      -- 方法: get_labels ()

          Return a list of the names of all user-defined labels used in
          the mailbox.

               備註: The actual messages are inspected to determine
               which labels exist in the mailbox rather than consulting
               the list of labels in the Babyl options section, but the
               Babyl section is updated whenever the mailbox is
               modified.

     Some *note Mailbox: 10e0. methods implemented by ‘Babyl’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- 方法: get_file (key)

          In Babyl mailboxes, the headers of a message are not stored
          contiguously with the body of the message.  To generate a
          file-like representation, the headers and body are copied
          together into an *note io.BytesIO: d24. instance, which has an
          API identical to that of a file.  As a result, the file-like
          object is truly independent of the underlying mailbox but does
          not save memory compared to a string representation.

      -- 方法: lock ()
      -- 方法: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used--dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

也參考
......

Format of Version 5 Babyl Files(1)

     A specification of the Babyl format.

Reading Mail with Rmail(2)

     The Rmail manual, with some information on Babyl semantics.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://quimby.gnus.org/notes/BABYL

   (2) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/html_node/emacs/Rmail.html


File: python.info,  Node: MMDF 物件,  Prev: Babyl 物件,  Up: Mailbox 物件

5.19.3.6 ‘MMDF’ 物件
....................

 -- 類別: mailbox.MMDF (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 10e0. for mailboxes in MMDF format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MMDFMessage: 33ad. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     MMDF is a single-file mailbox format invented for the Multichannel
     Memorandum Distribution Facility, a mail transfer agent.  Each
     message is in the same form as an mbox message but is bracketed
     before and after by lines containing four Control-A (‘'\001'’)
     characters.  As with the mbox format, the beginning of each message
     is indicated by a line whose first five characters are "From ", but
     additional occurrences of "From " are not transformed to ">From "
     when storing messages because the extra message separator lines
     prevent mistaking such occurrences for the starts of subsequent
     messages.

     Some *note Mailbox: 10e0. methods implemented by ‘MMDF’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- 方法: get_file (key)

          Using the file after calling *note flush(): 3375. or *note
          close(): 3377. on the ‘MMDF’ instance may yield unpredictable
          results or raise an exception.

      -- 方法: lock ()
      -- 方法: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used--dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

也參考
......

mmdf man page from tin(1)

     A specification of MMDF format from the documentation of tin, a
     newsreader.

MMDF(2)

     A Wikipedia article describing the Multichannel Memorandum
     Distribution Facility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mmdf

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMDF


File: python.info,  Node: Message 物件,  Next: 例外<13>,  Prev: Mailbox 物件,  Up: mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱

5.19.3.7 ‘Message’ 物件
.......................

 -- 類別: mailbox.Message (message=None)

     A subclass of the *note email.message: 40. module's *note Message:
     b05.  Subclasses of ‘mailbox.Message’ add mailbox-format-specific
     state and behavior.

     If 'message' is omitted, the new instance is created in a default,
     empty state.  If 'message' is an *note email.message.Message: b05.
     instance, its contents are copied; furthermore, any format-specific
     information is converted insofar as possible if 'message' is a
     ‘Message’ instance.  If 'message' is a string, a byte string, or a
     file, it should contain an RFC 2822(1)-compliant message, which is
     read and parsed.  Files should be open in binary mode, but text
     mode files are accepted for backward compatibility.

     The format-specific state and behaviors offered by subclasses vary,
     but in general it is only the properties that are not specific to a
     particular mailbox that are supported (although presumably the
     properties are specific to a particular mailbox format).  For
     example, file offsets for single-file mailbox formats and file
     names for directory-based mailbox formats are not retained, because
     they are only applicable to the original mailbox.  But state such
     as whether a message has been read by the user or marked as
     important is retained, because it applies to the message itself.

     There is no requirement that ‘Message’ instances be used to
     represent messages retrieved using *note Mailbox: 10e0. instances.
     In some situations, the time and memory required to generate
     ‘Message’ representations might not be acceptable.  For such
     situations, ‘Mailbox’ instances also offer string and file-like
     representations, and a custom message factory may be specified when
     a ‘Mailbox’ instance is initialized.

* Menu:

* MaildirMessage 物件::
* mboxMessage 物件::
* MHMessage 物件::
* BabylMessage 物件::
* MMDFMessage 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: MaildirMessage 物件,  Next: mboxMessage 物件,  Up: Message 物件

5.19.3.8 ‘MaildirMessage’ 物件
..............................

 -- 類別: mailbox.MaildirMessage (message=None)

     A message with Maildir-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 10e4. constructor.

     Typically, a mail user agent application moves all of the messages
     in the ‘new’ subdirectory to the ‘cur’ subdirectory after the first
     time the user opens and closes the mailbox, recording that the
     messages are old whether or not they've actually been read.  Each
     message in ‘cur’ has an "info" section added to its file name to
     store information about its state.  (Some mail readers may also add
     an "info" section to messages in ‘new’.)  The "info" section may
     take one of two forms: it may contain "2," followed by a list of
     standardized flags (e.g., "2,FR") or it may contain "1," followed
     by so-called experimental information.  Standard flags for Maildir
     messages are as follows:

     Flag       含義          Explanation
                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                              
     D          Draft         Under composition
                              
                              
     F          Flagged       Marked as important
                              
                              
     P          Passed        Forwarded, resent, or bounced
                              
                              
     R          Replied       Replied to
                              
                              
     S          Seen          Read
                              
                              
     T          Trashed       Marked for subsequent deletion
                              

     ‘MaildirMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- 方法: get_subdir ()

          Return either "new" (if the message should be stored in the
          ‘new’ subdirectory) or "cur" (if the message should be stored
          in the ‘cur’ subdirectory).

               備註: A message is typically moved from ‘new’ to ‘cur’
               after its mailbox has been accessed, whether or not the
               message is has been read.  A message ‘msg’ has been read
               if ‘"S" in msg.get_flags()’ is ‘True’.

      -- 方法: set_subdir (subdir)

          Set the subdirectory the message should be stored in.
          Parameter 'subdir' must be either "new" or "cur".

      -- 方法: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the standard Maildir format, the
          result is the concatenation in alphabetical order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'P'’, ‘'R'’, ‘'S'’,
          and ‘'T'’.  The empty string is returned if no flags are set
          or if "info" contains experimental semantics.

      -- 方法: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.

      -- 方法: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.  The current "info" is
          overwritten whether or not it contains experimental
          information rather than flags.

      -- 方法: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' maybe a
          string of more than one character.  If "info" contains
          experimental information rather than flags, the current "info"
          is not modified.

      -- 方法: get_date ()

          Return the delivery date of the message as a floating-point
          number representing seconds since the epoch.

      -- 方法: set_date (date)

          Set the delivery date of the message to 'date', a
          floating-point number representing seconds since the epoch.

      -- 方法: get_info ()

          Return a string containing the "info" for a message.  This is
          useful for accessing and modifying "info" that is experimental
          (i.e., not a list of flags).

      -- 方法: set_info (info)

          Set "info" to 'info', which should be a string.

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 3233. or *note MMDFMessage: 33ad. instance, the ‘Status’
and ‘X-Status’ headers are omitted and the following conversions take
place:

Resulting state          *note mboxMessage: 3233. or
                         *note MMDFMessage: 33ad. state
                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
"cur" subdirectory       O flag
                         
                         
F flag                   F flag
                         
                         
R flag                   A flag
                         
                         
S flag                   R flag
                         
                         
T flag                   D flag
                         

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
MHMessage: 3393. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state                     *note MHMessage: 3393. state
                                    
-------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
"cur" subdirectory                  "unseen" sequence
                                    
                                    
"cur" subdirectory and S flag       no "unseen" sequence
                                    
                                    
F flag                              "flagged" sequence
                                    
                                    
R flag                              "replied" sequence
                                    

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 33a6. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state                     *note BabylMessage: 33a6. state
                                    
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
"cur" subdirectory                  "unseen" label
                                    
                                    
"cur" subdirectory and S flag       no "unseen" label
                                    
                                    
P flag                              "forwarded" or "resent" label
                                    
                                    
R flag                              "answered" label
                                    
                                    
T flag                              "deleted" label
                                    


File: python.info,  Node: mboxMessage 物件,  Next: MHMessage 物件,  Prev: MaildirMessage 物件,  Up: Message 物件

5.19.3.9 ‘mboxMessage’ 物件
...........................

 -- 類別: mailbox.mboxMessage (message=None)

     A message with mbox-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 10e4. constructor.

     Messages in an mbox mailbox are stored together in a single file.
     The sender's envelope address and the time of delivery are
     typically stored in a line beginning with "From " that is used to
     indicate the start of a message, though there is considerable
     variation in the exact format of this data among mbox
     implementations.  Flags that indicate the state of the message,
     such as whether it has been read or marked as important, are
     typically stored in ‘Status’ and ‘X-Status’ headers.

     Conventional flags for mbox messages are as follows:

     Flag       含義           Explanation
                               
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                               
     R          Read           Read
                               
                               
     O          Old            Previously detected by MUA
                               
                               
     D          Deleted        Marked for subsequent deletion
                               
                               
     F          Flagged        Marked as important
                               
                               
     A          Answered       Replied to
                               

     The "R" and "O" flags are stored in the ‘Status’ header, and the
     "D", "F", and "A" flags are stored in the ‘X-Status’ header.  The
     flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.

     ‘mboxMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- 方法: get_from ()

          Return a string representing the "From " line that marks the
          start of the message in an mbox mailbox.  The leading "From "
          and the trailing newline are excluded.

      -- 方法: set_from (from_, time_=None)

          Set the "From " line to 'from_', which should be specified
          without a leading "From " or trailing newline.  For
          convenience, 'time_' may be specified and will be formatted
          appropriately and appended to 'from_'.  If 'time_' is
          specified, it should be a *note time.struct_time: b58.
          instance, a tuple suitable for passing to *note
          time.strftime(): 107a, or ‘True’ (to use *note time.gmtime():
          1051.).

      -- 方法: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the conventional format, the
          result is the concatenation in the following order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, and
          ‘'A'’.

      -- 方法: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.
          Parameter 'flags' should be the concatenation in any order of
          zero or more occurrences of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’,
          ‘'F'’, and ‘'A'’.

      -- 方法: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.

      -- 方法: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' maybe a
          string of more than one character.

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 337a. instance, a "From " line is generated based upon
the *note MaildirMessage: 337a. instance's delivery date, and the
following conversions take place:

Resulting state       *note MaildirMessage: 337a. state
                      
----------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                S flag
                      
                      
O flag                "cur" subdirectory
                      
                      
D flag                T flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                R flag
                      

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3393. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MHMessage: 3393. state
                        
-------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no "unseen" sequence
                        
                        
O flag                  "unseen" sequence
                        
                        
F flag                  "flagged" sequence
                        
                        
A flag                  "replied" sequence
                        

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 33a6. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note BabylMessage: 33a6. state
                        
----------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no "unseen" label
                        
                        
O flag                  "unseen" label
                        
                        
D flag                  "deleted" label
                        
                        
A flag                  "answered" label
                        

When a ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
MMDFMessage: 33ad. instance, the "From " line is copied and all flags
directly correspond:

Resulting state       *note MMDFMessage: 33ad. state
                      
-------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                R flag
                      
                      
O flag                O flag
                      
                      
D flag                D flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                A flag
                      


File: python.info,  Node: MHMessage 物件,  Next: BabylMessage 物件,  Prev: mboxMessage 物件,  Up: Message 物件

5.19.3.10 ‘MHMessage’ 物件
..........................

 -- 類別: mailbox.MHMessage (message=None)

     A message with MH-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has the
     same meaning as with the *note Message: 10e4. constructor.

     MH messages do not support marks or flags in the traditional sense,
     but they do support sequences, which are logical groupings of
     arbitrary messages.  Some mail reading programs (although not the
     standard ‘mh’ and ‘nmh’) use sequences in much the same way flags
     are used with other formats, as follows:

     Sequence       Explanation
                    
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     unseen         Not read, but previously detected by MUA
                    
                    
     replied        Replied to
                    
                    
     flagged        Marked as important
                    

     ‘MHMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- 方法: get_sequences ()

          Return a list of the names of sequences that include this
          message.

      -- 方法: set_sequences (sequences)

          Set the list of sequences that include this message.

      -- 方法: add_sequence (sequence)

          Add 'sequence' to the list of sequences that include this
          message.

      -- 方法: remove_sequence (sequence)

          Remove 'sequence' from the list of sequences that include this
          message.

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 337a. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note MaildirMessage: 337a. state
                         
-------------------------------------------------------------
                         
"unseen" sequence        no S flag
                         
                         
"replied" sequence       R flag
                         
                         
"flagged" sequence       F flag
                         

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note mboxMessage:
3233. or *note MMDFMessage: 33ad. instance, the ‘Status’ and ‘X-Status’
headers are omitted and the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note mboxMessage: 3233. or
                         *note MMDFMessage: 33ad. state
                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
"unseen" sequence        no R flag
                         
                         
"replied" sequence       A flag
                         
                         
"flagged" sequence       F flag
                         

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note BabylMessage:
33a6. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note BabylMessage: 33a6. state
                         
-----------------------------------------------------------
                         
"unseen" sequence        "unseen" label
                         
                         
"replied" sequence       "answered" label
                         


File: python.info,  Node: BabylMessage 物件,  Next: MMDFMessage 物件,  Prev: MHMessage 物件,  Up: Message 物件

5.19.3.11 ‘BabylMessage’ 物件
.............................

 -- 類別: mailbox.BabylMessage (message=None)

     A message with Babyl-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 10e4. constructor.

     Certain message labels, called 'attributes', are defined by
     convention to have special meanings.  The attributes are as
     follows:

     Label           Explanation
                     
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                     
     unseen          Not read, but previously detected by MUA
                     
                     
     deleted         Marked for subsequent deletion
                     
                     
     filed           Copied to another file or mailbox
                     
                     
     answered        Replied to
                     
                     
     forwarded       Forwarded
                     
                     
     edited          Modified by the user
                     
                     
     resent          Resent
                     

     By default, Rmail displays only visible headers.  The
     ‘BabylMessage’ class, though, uses the original headers because
     they are more complete.  Visible headers may be accessed explicitly
     if desired.

     ‘BabylMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- 方法: get_labels ()

          Return a list of labels on the message.

      -- 方法: set_labels (labels)

          Set the list of labels on the message to 'labels'.

      -- 方法: add_label (label)

          Add 'label' to the list of labels on the message.

      -- 方法: remove_label (label)

          Remove 'label' from the list of labels on the message.

      -- 方法: get_visible ()

          Return a *note Message: 10e4. instance whose headers are the
          message's visible headers and whose body is empty.

      -- 方法: set_visible (visible)

          Set the message's visible headers to be the same as the
          headers in 'message'.  Parameter 'visible' should be a *note
          Message: 10e4. instance, an *note email.message.Message: b05.
          instance, a string, or a file-like object (which should be
          open in text mode).

      -- 方法: update_visible ()

          When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance's original headers are
          modified, the visible headers are not automatically modified
          to correspond.  This method updates the visible headers as
          follows: each visible header with a corresponding original
          header is set to the value of the original header, each
          visible header without a corresponding original header is
          removed, and any of ‘Date’, ‘From’, ‘Reply-To’, ‘To’, ‘CC’,
          and ‘Subject’ that are present in the original headers but not
          the visible headers are added to the visible headers.

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 337a. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MaildirMessage: 337a. state
                        
------------------------------------------------------------
                        
"unseen" label          no S flag
                        
                        
"deleted" label         T flag
                        
                        
"answered" label        R flag
                        
                        
"forwarded" label       P flag
                        

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 3233. or *note MMDFMessage: 33ad. instance, the ‘Status’
and ‘X-Status’ headers are omitted and the following conversions take
place:

Resulting state        *note mboxMessage: 3233. or
                       *note MMDFMessage: 33ad. state
                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
"unseen" label         no R flag
                       
                       
"deleted" label        D flag
                       
                       
"answered" label       A flag
                       

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3393. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state        *note MHMessage: 3393. state
                       
------------------------------------------------------
                       
"unseen" label         "unseen" sequence
                       
                       
"answered" label       "replied" sequence
                       


File: python.info,  Node: MMDFMessage 物件,  Prev: BabylMessage 物件,  Up: Message 物件

5.19.3.12 ‘MMDFMessage’ 物件
............................

 -- 類別: mailbox.MMDFMessage (message=None)

     A message with MMDF-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 10e4. constructor.

     As with message in an mbox mailbox, MMDF messages are stored with
     the sender's address and the delivery date in an initial line
     beginning with "From ".  Likewise, flags that indicate the state of
     the message are typically stored in ‘Status’ and ‘X-Status’
     headers.

     Conventional flags for MMDF messages are identical to those of mbox
     message and are as follows:

     Flag       含義           Explanation
                               
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                               
     R          Read           Read
                               
                               
     O          Old            Previously detected by MUA
                               
                               
     D          Deleted        Marked for subsequent deletion
                               
                               
     F          Flagged        Marked as important
                               
                               
     A          Answered       Replied to
                               

     The "R" and "O" flags are stored in the ‘Status’ header, and the
     "D", "F", and "A" flags are stored in the ‘X-Status’ header.  The
     flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.

     ‘MMDFMessage’ instances offer the following methods, which are
     identical to those offered by *note mboxMessage: 3233.:

      -- 方法: get_from ()

          Return a string representing the "From " line that marks the
          start of the message in an mbox mailbox.  The leading "From "
          and the trailing newline are excluded.

      -- 方法: set_from (from_, time_=None)

          Set the "From " line to 'from_', which should be specified
          without a leading "From " or trailing newline.  For
          convenience, 'time_' may be specified and will be formatted
          appropriately and appended to 'from_'.  If 'time_' is
          specified, it should be a *note time.struct_time: b58.
          instance, a tuple suitable for passing to *note
          time.strftime(): 107a, or ‘True’ (to use *note time.gmtime():
          1051.).

      -- 方法: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the conventional format, the
          result is the concatenation in the following order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, and
          ‘'A'’.

      -- 方法: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.
          Parameter 'flags' should be the concatenation in any order of
          zero or more occurrences of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’,
          ‘'F'’, and ‘'A'’.

      -- 方法: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.

      -- 方法: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' maybe a
          string of more than one character.

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 337a. instance, a "From " line is generated based upon
the *note MaildirMessage: 337a. instance's delivery date, and the
following conversions take place:

Resulting state       *note MaildirMessage: 337a. state
                      
----------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                S flag
                      
                      
O flag                "cur" subdirectory
                      
                      
D flag                T flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                R flag
                      

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3393. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MHMessage: 3393. state
                        
-------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no "unseen" sequence
                        
                        
O flag                  "unseen" sequence
                        
                        
F flag                  "flagged" sequence
                        
                        
A flag                  "replied" sequence
                        

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 33a6. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note BabylMessage: 33a6. state
                        
----------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no "unseen" label
                        
                        
O flag                  "unseen" label
                        
                        
D flag                  "deleted" label
                        
                        
A flag                  "answered" label
                        

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 3233. instance, the "From " line is copied and all flags
directly correspond:

Resulting state       *note mboxMessage: 3233. state
                      
-------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                R flag
                      
                      
O flag                O flag
                      
                      
D flag                D flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                A flag
                      


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<13>,  Next: 範例<28>,  Prev: Message 物件,  Up: mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱

5.19.3.13 例外
..............

The following exception classes are defined in the ‘mailbox’ module:

 -- 例外: mailbox.Error

     The based class for all other module-specific exceptions.

 -- 例外: mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError

     Raised when a mailbox is expected but is not found, such as when
     instantiating a *note Mailbox: 10e0. subclass with a path that does
     not exist (and with the 'create' parameter set to ‘False’), or when
     opening a folder that does not exist.

 -- 例外: mailbox.NotEmptyError

     Raised when a mailbox is not empty but is expected to be, such as
     when deleting a folder that contains messages.

 -- 例外: mailbox.ExternalClashError

     Raised when some mailbox-related condition beyond the control of
     the program causes it to be unable to proceed, such as when failing
     to acquire a lock that another program already holds a lock, or
     when a uniquely generated file name already exists.

 -- 例外: mailbox.FormatError

     Raised when the data in a file cannot be parsed, such as when an
     *note MH: 3392. instance attempts to read a corrupted
     ‘.mh_sequences’ file.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<28>,  Prev: 例外<13>,  Up: mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱

5.19.3.14 範例
..............

A simple example of printing the subjects of all messages in a mailbox
that seem interesting:

     import mailbox
     for message in mailbox.mbox('~/mbox'):
         subject = message['subject']       # 可能為 None.
         if subject and 'python' in subject.lower():
             print(subject)

To copy all mail from a Babyl mailbox to an MH mailbox, converting all
of the format-specific information that can be converted:

     import mailbox
     destination = mailbox.MH('~/Mail')
     destination.lock()
     for message in mailbox.Babyl('~/RMAIL'):
         destination.add(mailbox.MHMessage(message))
     destination.flush()
     destination.unlock()

This example sorts mail from several mailing lists into different
mailboxes, being careful to avoid mail corruption due to concurrent
modification by other programs, mail loss due to interruption of the
program, or premature termination due to malformed messages in the
mailbox:

     import mailbox
     import email.errors

     list_names = ('python-list', 'python-dev', 'python-bugs')

     boxes = {name: mailbox.mbox('~/email/%s' % name) for name in list_names}
     inbox = mailbox.Maildir('~/Maildir', factory=None)

     for key in inbox.iterkeys():
         try:
             message = inbox[key]
         except email.errors.MessageParseError:
             continue                # The message is malformed. Just leave it.

         for name in list_names:
             list_id = message['list-id']
             if list_id and name in list_id:
                 # Get mailbox to use
                 box = boxes[name]

                 # Write copy to disk before removing original.
                 # If there's a crash, you might duplicate a message, but
                 # that's better than losing a message completely.
                 box.lock()
                 box.add(message)
                 box.flush()
                 box.unlock()

                 # Remove original message
                 inbox.lock()
                 inbox.discard(key)
                 inbox.flush()
                 inbox.unlock()
                 break               # Found destination, so stop looking.

     for box in boxes.itervalues():
         box.close()


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型,  Next: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼,  Prev: mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱,  Up: 網際網路資料處理

5.19.4 ‘mimetypes’ -- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型
------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/mimetypes.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note mimetypes: 8a. module converts between a filename or URL and
the MIME type associated with the filename extension.  Conversions are
provided from filename to MIME type and from MIME type to filename
extension; encodings are not supported for the latter conversion.

The module provides one class and a number of convenience functions.
The functions are the normal interface to this module, but some
applications may be interested in the class as well.

The functions described below provide the primary interface for this
module.  If the module has not been initialized, they will call *note
init(): 33e5. if they rely on the information *note init(): 33e5. sets
up.

 -- 函式: mimetypes.guess_type (url, strict=True)

     Guess the type of a file based on its filename, path or URL, given
     by 'url'.  URL can be a string or a *note path-like object: 975.

     The return value is a tuple ‘(type, encoding)’ where 'type' is
     ‘None’ if the type can't be guessed (missing or unknown suffix) or
     a string of the form ‘'type/subtype'’, usable for a MIME
     ‘content-type’ header.

     'encoding' is ‘None’ for no encoding or the name of the program
     used to encode (e.g.  ‘compress’ or ‘gzip’).  The encoding is
     suitable for use as a ‘Content-Encoding’ header, 'not' as a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.  The mappings are table driven.
     Encoding suffixes are case sensitive; type suffixes are first tried
     case sensitively, then case insensitively.

     The optional 'strict' argument is a flag specifying whether the
     list of known MIME types is limited to only the official types
     registered with IANA(2). When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default),
     only the IANA types are supported; when 'strict' is ‘False’, some
     additional non-standard but commonly used MIME types are also
     recognized.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Added support for url being a *note path-like
     object: 975.

 -- 函式: mimetypes.guess_all_extensions (type, strict=True)

     Guess the extensions for a file based on its MIME type, given by
     'type'.  The return value is a list of strings giving all possible
     filename extensions, including the leading dot (‘'.'’).  The
     extensions are not guaranteed to have been associated with any
     particular data stream, but would be mapped to the MIME type 'type'
     by *note guess_type(): 1439.

     The optional 'strict' argument has the same meaning as with the
     *note guess_type(): 1439. function.

 -- 函式: mimetypes.guess_extension (type, strict=True)

     Guess the extension for a file based on its MIME type, given by
     'type'.  The return value is a string giving a filename extension,
     including the leading dot (‘'.'’).  The extension is not guaranteed
     to have been associated with any particular data stream, but would
     be mapped to the MIME type 'type' by *note guess_type(): 1439.  If
     no extension can be guessed for 'type', ‘None’ is returned.

     The optional 'strict' argument has the same meaning as with the
     *note guess_type(): 1439. function.

Some additional functions and data items are available for controlling
the behavior of the module.

 -- 函式: mimetypes.init (files=None)

     Initialize the internal data structures.  If given, 'files' must be
     a sequence of file names which should be used to augment the
     default type map.  If omitted, the file names to use are taken from
     *note knownfiles: 33e7.; on Windows, the current registry settings
     are loaded.  Each file named in 'files' or *note knownfiles: 33e7.
     takes precedence over those named before it.  Calling *note init():
     33e5. repeatedly is allowed.

     Specifying an empty list for 'files' will prevent the system
     defaults from being applied: only the well-known values will be
     present from a built-in list.

     If 'files' is ‘None’ the internal data structure is completely
     rebuilt to its initial default value.  This is a stable operation
     and will produce the same results when called multiple times.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Previously, Windows registry settings were
     ignored.

 -- 函式: mimetypes.read_mime_types (filename)

     Load the type map given in the file 'filename', if it exists.  The
     type map is returned as a dictionary mapping filename extensions,
     including the leading dot (‘'.'’), to strings of the form
     ‘'type/subtype'’.  If the file 'filename' does not exist or cannot
     be read, ‘None’ is returned.

 -- 函式: mimetypes.add_type (type, ext, strict=True)

     Add a mapping from the MIME type 'type' to the extension 'ext'.
     When the extension is already known, the new type will replace the
     old one.  When the type is already known the extension will be
     added to the list of known extensions.

     When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the mapping will be added to
     the official MIME types, otherwise to the non-standard ones.

 -- 資料: mimetypes.inited

     Flag indicating whether or not the global data structures have been
     initialized.  This is set to ‘True’ by *note init(): 33e5.

 -- 資料: mimetypes.knownfiles

     List of type map file names commonly installed.  These files are
     typically named ‘mime.types’ and are installed in different
     locations by different packages.

 -- 資料: mimetypes.suffix_map

     Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to allow
     recognition of encoded files for which the encoding and the type
     are indicated by the same extension.  For example, the ‘.tgz’
     extension is mapped to ‘.tar.gz’ to allow the encoding and type to
     be recognized separately.

 -- 資料: mimetypes.encodings_map

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.

 -- 資料: mimetypes.types_map

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to MIME types.

 -- 資料: mimetypes.common_types

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to non-standard, but
     commonly found MIME types.

模組的使用範例：

     >>> import mimetypes
     >>> mimetypes.init()
     >>> mimetypes.knownfiles
     ['/etc/mime.types', '/etc/httpd/mime.types', ... ]
     >>> mimetypes.suffix_map['.tgz']
     '.tar.gz'
     >>> mimetypes.encodings_map['.gz']
     'gzip'
     >>> mimetypes.types_map['.tgz']
     'application/x-tar-gz'

* Menu:

* MimeTypes 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/mimetypes.py

   (2) https://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/media-types.xhtml


File: python.info,  Node: MimeTypes 物件,  Up: mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型

5.19.4.1 MimeTypes 物件
.......................

The *note MimeTypes: 1372. class may be useful for applications which
may want more than one MIME-type database; it provides an interface
similar to the one of the *note mimetypes: 8a. module.

 -- 類別: mimetypes.MimeTypes (filenames=(), strict=True)

     This class represents a MIME-types database.  By default, it
     provides access to the same database as the rest of this module.
     The initial database is a copy of that provided by the module, and
     may be extended by loading additional ‘mime.types’-style files into
     the database using the *note read(): 33f0. or *note readfp(): 33f1.
     methods.  The mapping dictionaries may also be cleared before
     loading additional data if the default data is not desired.

     The optional 'filenames' parameter can be used to cause additional
     files to be loaded "on top" of the default database.

      -- 屬性: suffix_map

          Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to
          allow recognition of encoded files for which the encoding and
          the type are indicated by the same extension.  For example,
          the ‘.tgz’ extension is mapped to ‘.tar.gz’ to allow the
          encoding and type to be recognized separately.  This is
          initially a copy of the global *note suffix_map: 33ea. defined
          in the module.

      -- 屬性: encodings_map

          Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.
          This is initially a copy of the global *note encodings_map:
          33eb. defined in the module.

      -- 屬性: types_map

          Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping filename extensions
          to MIME types: the first dictionary is for the non-standards
          types and the second one is for the standard types.  They are
          initialized by *note common_types: 33ed. and *note types_map:
          33ec.

      -- 屬性: types_map_inv

          Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping MIME types to a
          list of filename extensions: the first dictionary is for the
          non-standards types and the second one is for the standard
          types.  They are initialized by *note common_types: 33ed. and
          *note types_map: 33ec.

      -- 方法: guess_extension (type, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_extension(): 33e6. function, using
          the tables stored as part of the object.

      -- 方法: guess_type (url, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_type(): 1439. function, using the
          tables stored as part of the object.

      -- 方法: guess_all_extensions (type, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_all_extensions(): 1668. function,
          using the tables stored as part of the object.

      -- 方法: read (filename, strict=True)

          Load MIME information from a file named 'filename'.  This uses
          *note readfp(): 33f1. to parse the file.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to list of
          standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

      -- 方法: readfp (fp, strict=True)

          Load MIME type information from an open file 'fp'.  The file
          must have the format of the standard ‘mime.types’ files.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to the list
          of standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

      -- 方法: read_windows_registry (strict=True)

          Load MIME type information from the Windows registry.

          *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to the list
          of standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: add_type (type, ext, strict=True)

          Add a mapping from the MIME type 'type' to the extension
          'ext'.  When the extension is already known, the new type will
          replace the old one.  When the type is already known the
          extension will be added to the list of known extensions.

          When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the mapping will be
          added to the official MIME types, otherwise to the
          non-standard ones.


File: python.info,  Node: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼,  Next: binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換,  Prev: mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型,  Up: 網際網路資料處理

5.19.5 ‘base64’ -- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼
----------------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：' Lib/base64.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組提供將二進位資料編碼成可顯示 ASCII 字元以及解碼回原始資料的功能
，包括了 RFC 4648(2) 中的 Base16、Base32、Base64 等編碼方式，以及標準
Ascii85、Base85 編碼等。

RFC 4648(3) 編碼適合對二進位資料進行編碼來使得電子郵件、URL 或是 HTTP
POST 內容等傳輸管道安全地傳遞資料。這些編碼演算法與 ‘uuencode’ 並不相同
。

該模組提供了兩個介面。新介面支援將*note 類位元組物件: b9f. 編碼成 ASCII
*note bytes: 2c1.，並將包含 ASCII 的*note 類位元組物件: b9f.或字串解碼為
*note bytes: 2c1.。支援 RFC 4648(4) 中定義的兩種 base-64 字母表（常見和
URL 安全 (URL-safe) 及檔案系統安全 (filesystem-safe) 字母表）。

舊版介面不支援從字串解碼，但它提供對*note 檔案物件: 1054.進行編碼和解碼
的函式。它僅支援 Base64 標準字母表，並且按照 RFC 2045(5) 每 76 個字元添
加換行字元。請注意，如果你需要 RFC 2045(6) 的支援，你可能會需要 *note
email: 37. 函式庫。

在 3.3 版的變更: 新介面的解碼功能現在接受 ASCII-only 的 Unicode 字串。

在 3.4 版的變更: 任何*note 類位元組物件: b9f.現在被該模組中的所有編碼和
解碼函式接受。新增了對 Ascii85/Base85 的支援。

新介面提供：

 -- 函式: base64.b64encode (s, altchars=None)

     使用 Base64 對*note 類位元組物件: b9f. 's' 進行編碼並回傳編碼過的
     *note bytes: 2c1.。

     可選的 'altchars' 必須是一個長度為 2 的*note 類位元組物件: b9f.，用
     來指定替代的字母表，以替換 ‘+’ 和 ‘/’ 字元。這使得應用程式可以生成
     對 URL 或檔案系統安全的 Base64 字串。預設值為 ‘None’，即使用標準的
     Base64 字母表。

     如果 'altchars' 的長度不是 2，可以斷言或引發 *note ValueError:
     183.。如果 'altchars' 不是*note 類位元組物件: b9f.，則會引發 *note
     TypeError: 2ba.。

 -- 函式: base64.b64decode (s, altchars=None, validate=False)

     將經過 Base64 編碼的*note 類位元組物件: b9f.或 ASCII 字串 's' 解碼
     ，並回傳解碼後的 *note bytes: 2c1.。

     可選的 'altchars' 必須是長度為 2 的*note 類位元組物件: b9f.或 ASCII
     字串，用於指定替代字母表，取代 ‘+’ 和 ‘/’ 字元。

     如果 's' 填充 (pad) 不正確，將引發 *note binascii.Error: eba. 例外
     。

     如果 'validate' 為 ‘False’（預設值），在 padding check（填充檢查）
     之前，不屬於標準 base-64 字母表和替代字母表的字元將被丟棄。如果
     'validate' 為 ‘True’，輸入中的這些非字母表字元將導致引發 *note
     binascii.Error: eba.。

     有關嚴格的 base64 檢查的更多資訊，請參閱 *note
     binascii.a2b_base64(): 1415.。

     如果 'altchars' 的長度不是 2，可能會斷言或引發 *note ValueError:
     183.。

 -- 函式: base64.standard_b64encode (s)

     使用標準 Base64 字母表對*note 類位元組物件: b9f. 's' 進行編碼，並回
     傳編碼後的 *note bytes: 2c1.。

 -- 函式: base64.standard_b64decode (s)

     使用標準 Base64 字母表對*note 類位元組物件: b9f.或 ASCII 字串 's' 進
     行解碼，並回傳解碼後的 *note bytes: 2c1.。

 -- 函式: base64.urlsafe_b64encode (s)

     使用 URL 安全和檔案系統安全的字母表對*note 類位元組物件: b9f. 's' 進
     行編碼，該字母表將標準 Base64 字母表中的 ‘+’ 替換為 ‘-’，‘/’ 替換為
     ‘_’，並回傳編碼後的 *note bytes: 2c1.。結果仍可能包含 ‘=’。

 -- 函式: base64.urlsafe_b64decode (s)

     使用 URL 安全和檔案系統安全字母表對*note 類位元組物件: b9f.或 ASCII
     字串 's' 進行解碼，該字母表將標準 Base64 字母表中的 ‘+’ 替換為 ‘-’，
     ‘/’ 替換為 ‘_’，並回傳解碼後的 *note bytes: 2c1.。

 -- 函式: base64.b32encode (s)

     使用 Base32 對*note 類位元組物件: b9f. 's' 進行編碼，並回傳編碼後的
     *note bytes: 2c1.。

 -- 函式: base64.b32decode (s, casefold=False, map01=None)

     解碼經過 Base32 編碼的*note 類位元組物件: b9f.或 ASCII 字串 's'，並
     回傳解碼後的 *note bytes: 2c1.。

     可選的 'casefold' 是一個是否接受小寫字母表作為輸入的旗標。出於安全
     性考量，預設值為 ‘False’。

     RFC 4648(7) 允許將數字 0 選擇性地對應對映為字母 O，並且允許將數字 1
     選擇性地對映為字母 I 或字母 L。當可選的引數 'map01' 不為 ‘None’ 時
     ，指定數字 1 應該對映為哪個字母（當 'map01' 不為 ‘None’ 時，數字 0
     總是對映為字母 O）。出於安全性考量，預設值為 ‘None’，因此不允許在輸
     入中使用數字 0 和 1。

     如果 's' 的填充不正確或輸入中存在非字母表字元，將引發 *note
     binascii.Error: eba.。

 -- 函式: base64.b32hexencode (s)

     類似於 *note b32encode(): 3401.，但使用在 RFC 4648(8) 中定義的擴展
     十六進位字母表 (Extended Hex Alphabet)。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: base64.b32hexdecode (s, casefold=False)

     類似於 *note b32encode(): 3401.，但使用在 RFC 4648(9) 中定義的擴展
     十六進位字母表。

     這個版本不允許將數字 0 對映為字母 O ，以及將數字 1 對映為字母 I 或
     字母 L，所有這些字元都包含在擴展十六進位字母表中，並且不能互換使用
     。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: base64.b16encode (s)

     使用 Base16 對*note 類位元組物件: b9f. 's' 進行編碼，並回傳編碼後的
     *note bytes: 2c1.。

 -- 函式: base64.b16decode (s, casefold=False)

     解碼經過 Base16 編碼的*note 類位元組物件: b9f.或 ASCII 字串 's'，並
     回傳解碼後的 *note bytes: 2c1.。

     可選的 'casefold' 是一個是否接受小寫字母表作為輸入的旗標。出於安全
     性考量，預設值為 ‘False’。

     如果 's' 的填充不正確或輸入中存在非字母表字元，將引發 *note
     binascii.Error: eba.。

 -- 函式: base64.a85encode (b, *, foldspaces=False, wrapcol=0,
          pad=False, adobe=False)

     使用 Ascii85 對*note 類位元組物件: b9f. 'b' 進行編碼，並回傳編碼後
     的 *note bytes: 2c1.。

     'foldspaces' 是一個可選的旗標，它使用特殊的短序列 'y' 來替代連續的
     4 個空格 (ASCII 0x20)，這是由 'btoa' 支援的功能。這個特性不被「標準
     」的 Ascii85 編碼所支援。

     'wrapcol' 控制輸出是否應該包含換行字元 (‘b'\n'’) 。如果這個值不為零
     ，每行輸出的長度將不超過這個字元長度（不包含後面的換行符號）。

     'pad' 控制是否在編碼之前將輸入填充為 4 的倍數。請注意，‘btoa’ 實作
     始終會填充。

     'adobe' 控制編碼的位元組序列前後是否加上 ‘<~’ 和 ‘~>’，這是 Adobe 實
     作中使用的。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: base64.a85decode (b, *, foldspaces=False, adobe=False,
          ignorechars=b' \t\n\r\x0b')

     解碼經過 Ascii85 編碼的*note 類位元組物件: b9f.或 ASCII 字串 'b'，
     並回傳解碼後的 *note bytes: 2c1.。

     'foldspaces' 是一個旗標，指定是否應該將短序列 'y' 視為 4 個連續的空
     格 (ASCII 0x20) 的簡寫。這個功能不受「標準」Ascii85 編碼的支援。

     'adobe' 控制輸入序列是否符合 Adobe Ascii85 格式（即前後加上 ‘<~’ 和
     ‘~>’）。

     'ignorechars' 是一個包含要從輸入中忽略的字元的*note 類位元組物件:
     b9f.或 ASCII 字串。這只包含空格字元，預設情況下包含 ASCII 中的所有
     空格字元。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: base64.b85encode (b, pad=False)

     使用 Base85（例如，git 風格的二進位差異 (binary diff)）對*note
     類位元組物件: b9f. 'b' 進行編碼，並回傳編碼後的 *note bytes: 2c1.。

     如果 'pad' 為 true，則在編碼之前，輸入將使用 ‘b'\0'’ 進行填充，以使
     其長度為 4 的倍數。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: base64.b85decode (b)

     解碼經過 base85 編碼的*note 類位元組物件: b9f.或 ASCII 字串 'b'，並
     回傳解碼後的 *note bytes: 2c1.。必要時會隱式移除填充。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

舊版介面：

 -- 函式: base64.decode (input, output)

     解碼二進位檔案 'input' 的內容，並將結果的二進位資料寫入 'output' 檔
     案。 'input' 和 'output' 必須是*note 檔案物件: 1054.。'input' 將被
     讀取，直到 ‘input.readline()’ 回傳一個空的 bytes 物件為止。

 -- 函式: base64.decodebytes (s)

     解碼必須包含一行或多行的 base64 編碼資料*note 類位元組物件: b9f.
     's'，並回傳解碼後的 *note bytes: 2c1.。

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- 函式: base64.encode (input, output)

     編碼二進位檔案 'input' 的內容，並將結果的 base64 編碼資料寫入
     'output' 檔案。'input' 和 'output' 必須是*note 檔案物件: 1054.。
     'input' 將被讀取，直到 ‘input.read()’ 回傳一個空的 bytes 物件為止。
     *note encode(): 3405. 會在輸出的每 76 個位元組之後插入一個換行字元
     (‘b'\n'’)，並確保輸出始終以換行字元結尾，符合 RFC 2045(10) (MIME) 的
     規定。

 -- 函式: base64.encodebytes (s)

     對包含任意二進位資料的*note 類位元組物件: b9f. 's' 進行編碼，並回傳
     包含 base64 編碼資料 *note bytes: 2c1.，在每 76 個輸出位元組後插入
     換行字元 (‘b'\n'’) ，並確保有尾隨換行字元，符合 RFC 2045(11) (MIME)
     的規定。

     在 3.1 版被加入.

模組的一個範例用法：

     >>> import base64
     >>> encoded = base64.b64encode(b'data to be encoded')
     >>> encoded
     b'ZGF0YSB0byBiZSBlbmNvZGVk'
     >>> data = base64.b64decode(encoded)
     >>> data
     b'data to be encoded'

* Menu:

* 安全性注意事項: 安全性注意事項<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/base64.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html


File: python.info,  Node: 安全性注意事項<2>,  Up: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼

5.19.5.1 安全性注意事項
.......................

RFC 4648(1)（第 12 節）中添加了一個新的安全性考量部分；建議對部署到正式
環境的任何程式碼進行安全性部分的審查。

也參考
......

*note binascii: e. 模組

     支援模組中包含 ASCII 到二進位 (ASCII-to-binary) 和二進位到 ASCII
     (binary-to-ASCII) 的轉換功能。

RFC 1521(2) - MIME（多用途網際網路郵件擴展）第一部分：指定和描述網際網路主體格式的機制。

     第 5.2 節，"Base64 Content-Transfer-Encoding"，提供了 base64 編碼的
     定義。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html


File: python.info,  Node: binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換,  Next: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料,  Prev: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼,  Up: 網際網路資料處理

5.19.6 ‘binascii’ -- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換
------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The *note binascii: e. module contains a number of methods to convert
between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations.
Normally, you will not use these functions directly but use wrapper
modules like *note uu: 10a. or *note base64: c. instead.  The *note
binascii: e. module contains low-level functions written in C for
greater speed that are used by the higher-level modules.

     備註: ‘a2b_*’ functions accept Unicode strings containing only
     ASCII characters.  Other functions only accept *note bytes-like
     objects: b9f. (such as *note bytes: 2c1, *note bytearray: 2c0. and
     other objects that support the buffer protocol).

     在 3.3 版的變更: ASCII-only unicode strings are now accepted by the
     ‘a2b_*’ functions.

The *note binascii: e. module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: binascii.a2b_uu (string)

     Convert a single line of uuencoded data back to binary and return
     the binary data.  Lines normally contain 45 (binary) bytes, except
     for the last line.  Line data may be followed by whitespace.

 -- 函式: binascii.b2a_uu (data, *, backtick=False)

     Convert binary data to a line of ASCII characters, the return value
     is the converted line, including a newline char.  The length of
     'data' should be at most 45.  If 'backtick' is true, zeros are
     represented by ‘'`'’ instead of spaces.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'backtick' 參數。

 -- 函式: binascii.a2b_base64 (string, /, *, strict_mode=False)

     Convert a block of base64 data back to binary and return the binary
     data.  More than one line may be passed at a time.

     If 'strict_mode' is true, only valid base64 data will be converted.
     Invalid base64 data will raise *note binascii.Error: eba.

     Valid base64:

        * Conforms to RFC 3548(1).

        * Contains only characters from the base64 alphabet.

        * Contains no excess data after padding (including excess
          padding, newlines, etc.).

        * Does not start with a padding.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'strict_mode' 參數。

 -- 函式: binascii.b2a_base64 (data, *, newline=True)

     Convert binary data to a line of ASCII characters in base64 coding.
     The return value is the converted line, including a newline char if
     'newline' is true.  The output of this function conforms to RFC
     3548(2).

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'newline' 參數。

 -- 函式: binascii.a2b_qp (data, header=False)

     Convert a block of quoted-printable data back to binary and return
     the binary data.  More than one line may be passed at a time.  If
     the optional argument 'header' is present and true, underscores
     will be decoded as spaces.

 -- 函式: binascii.b2a_qp (data, quotetabs=False, istext=True,
          header=False)

     Convert binary data to a line(s) of ASCII characters in
     quoted-printable encoding.  The return value is the converted
     line(s).  If the optional argument 'quotetabs' is present and true,
     all tabs and spaces will be encoded.  If the optional argument
     'istext' is present and true, newlines are not encoded but trailing
     whitespace will be encoded.  If the optional argument 'header' is
     present and true, spaces will be encoded as underscores per RFC
     1522(3).  If the optional argument 'header' is present and false,
     newline characters will be encoded as well; otherwise linefeed
     conversion might corrupt the binary data stream.

 -- 函式: binascii.crc_hqx (data, value)

     Compute a 16-bit CRC value of 'data', starting with 'value' as the
     initial CRC, and return the result.  This uses the CRC-CCITT
     polynomial 'x'^16 + 'x'^12 + 'x'^5 + 1, often represented as
     0x1021.  This CRC is used in the binhex4 format.

 -- 函式: binascii.crc32 (data[, value])

     Compute CRC-32, the unsigned 32-bit checksum of 'data', starting
     with an initial CRC of 'value'.  The default initial CRC is zero.
     The algorithm is consistent with the ZIP file checksum.  Since the
     algorithm is designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not
     suitable for use as a general hash algorithm.  Use as follows:

          print(binascii.crc32(b"hello world"))
          # Or, in two pieces:
          crc = binascii.crc32(b"hello")
          crc = binascii.crc32(b" world", crc)
          print('crc32 = {:#010x}'.format(crc))

     在 3.0 版的變更: The result is always unsigned.

 -- 函式: binascii.b2a_hex (data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])
 -- 函式: binascii.hexlify (data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])

     Return the hexadecimal representation of the binary 'data'.  Every
     byte of 'data' is converted into the corresponding 2-digit hex
     representation.  The returned bytes object is therefore twice as
     long as the length of 'data'.

     Similar functionality (but returning a text string) is also
     conveniently accessible using the *note bytes.hex(): bde. method.

     If 'sep' is specified, it must be a single character str or bytes
     object.  It will be inserted in the output after every
     'bytes_per_sep' input bytes.  Separator placement is counted from
     the right end of the output by default, if you wish to count from
     the left, supply a negative 'bytes_per_sep' value.

          >>> import binascii
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef')
          b'b901ef'
          >>> binascii.hexlify(b'\xb9\x01\xef', '-')
          b'b9-01-ef'
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b'_', 2)
          b'b9_01ef'
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b' ', -2)
          b'b901 ef'

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'sep' 與 'bytes_per_sep' 參數。

 -- 函式: binascii.a2b_hex (hexstr)
 -- 函式: binascii.unhexlify (hexstr)

     Return the binary data represented by the hexadecimal string
     'hexstr'.  This function is the inverse of *note b2a_hex(): 21a8.
     'hexstr' must contain an even number of hexadecimal digits (which
     can be upper or lower case), otherwise an *note Error: eba.
     exception is raised.

     Similar functionality (accepting only text string arguments, but
     more liberal towards whitespace) is also accessible using the *note
     bytes.fromhex(): 944. class method.

 -- 例外: binascii.Error

     Exception raised on errors.  These are usually programming errors.

 -- 例外: binascii.Incomplete

     Exception raised on incomplete data.  These are usually not
     programming errors, but may be handled by reading a little more
     data and trying again.

也參考
......

*note base64: c. 模組

     Support for RFC compliant base64-style encoding in base 16, 32, 64,
     and 85.

*note uu: 10a. 模組

     Support for UU encoding used on Unix.

*note quopri: b2. 模組

     Support for quoted-printable encoding used in MIME email messages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html


File: python.info,  Node: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料,  Prev: binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換,  Up: 網際網路資料處理

5.19.7 ‘quopri’ -- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料
-------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/quopri.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

該模組根據 RFC 1521(2)：「MIME（多功能網際網路郵件擴充）第一部分：指定和
描述網際網路訊息正文格式的機制」中的定義來執行可列印字元
(quoted-printable) 傳輸編碼和解碼。可列印字元編碼是為不可列印字元相對較
少的資料而設計的；如果存在許多此類字元（例如發送圖形檔案時），則透過
*note base64: c. 模組提供的 Base64 編碼方案會更加簡潔。

 -- 函式: quopri.decode (input, output, header=False)

     解碼 'input' 檔案的內容並將解碼後的二進位資料寫入 'output' 檔案。
     'input' 和 'output' 必須是*note 二進位檔案物件: 1054.。如果可選參數
     'header' 存在且為 true，則底線將被解碼為空格。這用於解碼如 RFC
     1522(3)：「MIME（多功能網際網路郵件擴充）第二部分：非 ASCII 文字的
     訊息標頭擴充」中所述的 "Q" 編碼標頭。

 -- 函式: quopri.encode (input, output, quotetabs, header=False)

     對 'input' 檔案的內容進行編碼，並將生成的可列印字元資料寫入
     'output' 檔案。 'input' 和 'output' 必須是*note 二進位檔案物件:
     1054.。 'quotetabs'，一個非可選旗標，控制是否對嵌入的空格和製表符號
     (tab) 進行編碼；當為 true 時，它將對此類嵌入的空白進行編碼，當為
     false 時，它將不對它們進行編碼。請注意，出現在列尾的空格和製表符號
     都會按照 RFC 1521(4) 進行編碼。 'header' 是一個旗標，用於控制空格是
     否按照 RFC 1522(5) 編碼為底線。

 -- 函式: quopri.decodestring (s, header=False)

     與 *note decode(): 21ab. 類似，不同之處在於它接受來源的 *note
     bytes: 2c1. 並回傳相應的已解碼 *note bytes: 2c1.。

 -- 函式: quopri.encodestring (s, quotetabs=False, header=False)

     與 *note encode(): 21aa. 類似，不同之處在於它接受來源的 *note
     bytes: 2c1. 並回傳相應的已編碼 *note bytes: 2c1.。預設情況下，它向
     *note encode(): 21aa. 函式的 'quotetabs' 參數發送一個 ‘False’ 值。

也參考
......

*note base64: c. 模組

     對 MIME Base64 資料進行編碼和解碼

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/quopri.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html


File: python.info,  Node: Structured Markup Processing Tools,  Next: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援,  Prev: 網際網路資料處理,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.20 Structured Markup Processing Tools
=======================================

Python supports a variety of modules to work with various forms of
structured data markup.  This includes modules to work with the Standard
Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and the Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML), and several interfaces for working with the Extensible Markup
Language (XML).

* Menu:

* html: html --- 超連結標記語言 HTML 支援. 超連結標記語言 (HTML) 支援
* html.parser: html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器. 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器
* html.entities: html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義. HTML 一般實體的定義
* XML 處理模組::
* xml.etree.cElementTree: xml etree cElementTree --- ElementTree XML API. ElementTree XML API
* xml.dom: xml dom --- Document 物件模型 API. Document 物件模型 API
* xml.dom.minidom: xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作. 最小的 DOM 實作
* xml.dom.pulldom: xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹. 支援建置部分 DOM 樹
* xml.sax: xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援. SAX2 剖析器支援
* xml.sax.handler: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別. SAX 處理函式的基本類別
* xml.sax.saxutils: xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式. SAX 工具程式
* xml.sax.xmlreader: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面. XML 剖析器的介面
* xml.parsers.expat: xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析. 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析


File: python.info,  Node: html --- 超連結標記語言 HTML 支援,  Next: html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.1 ‘html’ -- 超連結標記語言 (HTML) 支援
-------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/html/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組定義了操作 HTML 的工具。

 -- 函式: html.escape (s, quote=True)

     將字串 's' 中的 ‘&’、‘<’ 和 ‘>’ 字元轉換為在 HTML 中安全的序列
     (sequence)。如果你需要在 HTML 中顯示可能包含這些字元的文字，可以使
     用這個函式。如果選擇性的旗標 'quote' 為 true，則 (‘"’) 與 (‘'’) 字
     元也會被轉換；這樣能包含在 HTML 中，被引號分隔的屬性值，如 ‘<a
     href="...">’ 。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: html.unescape (s)

     將字串 's' 中所有附名 (named) 且為數值的 (numeric) 字元參照（如：
     ‘&gt;’、 ‘&#62;’、‘&#x3e;’ ）轉換為對應的 Unicode 字元。此函式針對
     有效及無效的字元參照，皆使用 HTML 5 標準所定義的規則，以及 *note
     HTML 5 附名字元參照清單: f61. 。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

__________________________________________________________________

‘html’ 套件中的子模組為：

   * *note html.parser: 68. - 帶有寬鬆剖析模式的 HTML/XHTML 剖析器

   * *note html.entities: 67. - HTML 實體的定義

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/html/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器,  Next: html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義,  Prev: html --- 超連結標記語言 HTML 支援,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.2 ‘html.parser’ -- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器
---------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/html/parser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

該模組定義了一個類別 *note HTMLParser: 6a2.，是剖析 (parse) HTML（
HyperText Mark-up Language、超文本標記語言）和 XHTML 格式文本檔案的基礎
。

 -- 類別: html.parser.HTMLParser (*, convert_charrefs=True)

     建立一個能夠剖析無效標記的剖析器實例。

     如果 'convert_charrefs' 為 ‘True’ （預設值），所有字元參照
     (reference)（ ‘script’/‘style’ 元素中的參照除外）將自動轉換為相應的
     Unicode 字元。

     *note HTMLParser: 6a2. 實例被提供 HTML 資料，並在遇到開始標籤、結束
     標籤、文本、註解和其他標記元素時呼叫處理程式 (handler) 方法。使用者
     應該繼承 *note HTMLParser: 6a2. 並覆蓋其方法以實作所需的行為。

     此剖析器不檢查結束標籤是否與開始標籤匹配，也不會為透過結束外部元素
     來隱晦地被結束的元素呼叫結束標籤處理程式。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增關鍵字引數 'convert_charrefs'。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 引數 'convert_charrefs' 的預設值現在是 ‘True’。

* Menu:

* HTML 剖析器應用程式範例::
* HTMLParser 方法::
* 範例: 範例<29>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/html/parser.py


File: python.info,  Node: HTML 剖析器應用程式範例,  Next: HTMLParser 方法,  Up: html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器

5.20.2.1 HTML 剖析器應用程式範例
................................

以下的基礎範例是一個簡單的 HTML 剖析器，它使用 *note HTMLParser: 6a2. 類
別，當遇到開始標籤、結束標籤和資料時將它們印出：

     from html.parser import HTMLParser

     class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
         def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
             print("Encountered a start tag:", tag)

         def handle_endtag(self, tag):
             print("Encountered an end tag :", tag)

         def handle_data(self, data):
             print("Encountered some data  :", data)

     parser = MyHTMLParser()
     parser.feed('<html><head><title>Test</title></head>'
                 '<body><h1>Parse me!</h1></body></html>')

輸出將是：

     Encountered a start tag: html
     Encountered a start tag: head
     Encountered a start tag: title
     Encountered some data  : Test
     Encountered an end tag : title
     Encountered an end tag : head
     Encountered a start tag: body
     Encountered a start tag: h1
     Encountered some data  : Parse me!
     Encountered an end tag : h1
     Encountered an end tag : body
     Encountered an end tag : html


File: python.info,  Node: HTMLParser 方法,  Next: 範例<29>,  Prev: HTML 剖析器應用程式範例,  Up: html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器

5.20.2.2 ‘HTMLParser’ 方法
..........................

*note HTMLParser: 6a2. 實例具有以下方法：

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.feed (data)

     向剖析器提供一些文本。只要它由完整的元素組成，它就會被處理；不完整
     的資料會被緩衝，直到輸入更多資料或呼叫 *note close(): 341d.。
     'data' 必須是 *note str: 157.。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.close ()

     強制處理所有緩衝資料，如同它後面跟有文件結束標籤一樣。此方法可能有
     被衍生類別重新定義，以在輸入末尾定義額外的處理，但重新定義的版本仍
     應要呼叫 *note HTMLParser: 6a2. 基底類別方法 *note close(): 341d.。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.reset ()

     重置實例。丟棄所有未處理的資料。這在實例化時被會隱晦地呼叫。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.getpos ()

     回傳當前列號 (line number) 和偏移量 (offset)。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.get_starttag_text ()

     回傳最近開啟 (open) 的開始標籤的文本。這對於結構化處理通常不必要，
     但在處理「已部署」的 HTML 或以最少的更改重新生成輸入（可以保留屬性
     之間的空白等）時可能很有用。

當遇到資料或標記元素時將呼叫以下方法，並且它們應在子類別中被覆蓋。基底類
別實作什麼都不做（除了 *note handle_startendtag(): 3421.）：

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.handle_starttag (tag, attrs)

     呼叫此方法來處理元素的開始標籤（例如 ‘<div id="main">’）。

     'tag' 引數是轉換為小寫的標籤名稱。 'attrs' 引數是一個 ‘(name,
     value)’ 對的列表，包含在標籤的 ‘<>’ 括號內找到的屬性。 'name' 將被
     轉成小寫，'value' 中的引號會被刪除，字元和實體參照也會被替換。

     例如，對於標籤 ‘<A HREF="https://www.cwi.nl/">’，這個方法會以
     ‘handle_starttag('a', [('href', 'https://www.cwi.nl/')])’ 的形式被
     呼叫。

     在屬性值中來自 *note html.entities: 67. 的所有實體參照都會被替換。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.handle_endtag (tag)

     呼叫此方法來處理元素的結束標籤（例如 ‘</div>’）。

     'tag' 引數是轉換為小寫的標籤名稱。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.handle_startendtag (tag, attrs)

     與 *note handle_starttag(): 3422. 類似，但在剖析器遇到 XHTML 樣式的
     空標籤 (‘<img ... />’) 時呼叫。這個方法可能被需要這個特定詞彙資訊
     (lexical information) 的子類別覆蓋；預設實作只是呼叫 *note
     handle_starttag(): 3422. 和 *note handle_endtag(): 3423.。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.handle_data (data)

     呼叫此方法來處理任意資料（例如文本節點與 ‘<script>...</script>’ 和
     ‘<style>...</style>’ 的內容）。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.handle_entityref (name)

     呼叫此方法來處理形式為 ‘&name;’ （例如 ‘&gt;’）的附名字元參照，其中
     'name' 是一般實體參照（例如 ‘'gt'’）。如果 'convert_charrefs' 為
     ‘True’，則永遠不會呼叫此方法。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.handle_charref (name)

     呼叫此方法來處理 ‘&#NNN;’ 和 ‘&#xNNN;’ 形式的十進位和十六進位數字字
     元參照。例如，‘&gt;’ 的十進位等效為 ‘&#62;’，而十六進位為 ‘&#x3E;’；
     在這種情況下，該方法將收到 ‘'62'’ 或 ‘'x3E'’。如果
     'convert_charrefs' 為 ‘True’，則永遠不會呼叫此方法。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.handle_comment (data)

     當遇到註解時呼叫此方法（例如 ‘<!--comment-->’）。

     舉例來說，註解 ‘<!-- comment -->’ 會使得此方法被以引數 ‘' comment
     '’ 來呼叫。

     Internet Explorer 條件式註解（conditional comments, condcoms）的內
     容也會被發送到這個方法，故以 ‘<!--[if IE 9]>IE9-specific
     content<![endif]-->’ 為例，這個方法將會收到 ‘'[if IE
     9]>IE9-specific content<![endif]'’。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.handle_decl (decl)

     呼叫此方法來處理 HTML 文件類型聲明 (doctype declaration)（例如
     ‘<!DOCTYPE html>’）。

     'decl' 參數將是 ‘<!...>’ 標記內聲明部分的全部內容（例如 ‘'DOCTYPE
     html'’）。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.handle_pi (data)

     遇到處理指示 (processing instruction) 時會呼叫的方法。 'data' 參數
     將包含整個處理指示。例如，對於處理指示 ‘<?proc color='red'>’，這個
     方法將以 ‘handle_pi("proc color='red'")’ 形式被呼叫。它旨在被衍生類
     別覆蓋；基底類別實作中什麼都不做。

          備註: *note HTMLParser: 6a2. 類別使用 SGML 語法規則來處理指示
          。使用有 ‘?’ 跟隨在後面的 XHTML 處理指示將導致 ‘?’ 被包含在
          'data' 中。

 -- 方法: HTMLParser.unknown_decl (data)

     當剖析器讀取無法識別的聲明時會呼叫此方法。

     'data' 參數將是 ‘<![...]>’ 標記內聲明的全部內容。有時被衍生類別被覆
     蓋會是好用的。在基底類別實作中什麼都不做。


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<29>,  Prev: HTMLParser 方法,  Up: html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器

5.20.2.3 範例
.............

以下類別實作了一個剖析器，將用於解說更多範例：

     from html.parser import HTMLParser
     from html.entities import name2codepoint

     class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
         def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
             print("Start tag:", tag)
             for attr in attrs:
                 print("     attr:", attr)

         def handle_endtag(self, tag):
             print("End tag  :", tag)

         def handle_data(self, data):
             print("Data     :", data)

         def handle_comment(self, data):
             print("Comment  :", data)

         def handle_entityref(self, name):
             c = chr(name2codepoint[name])
             print("Named ent:", c)

         def handle_charref(self, name):
             if name.startswith('x'):
                 c = chr(int(name[1:], 16))
             else:
                 c = chr(int(name))
             print("Num ent  :", c)

         def handle_decl(self, data):
             print("Decl     :", data)

     parser = MyHTMLParser()

剖析文件類型：

     >>> parser.feed('<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" '
     ...             '"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">')
     Decl     : DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"

剖析一個具有一些屬性和標題的元素：

     >>> parser.feed('<img src="python-logo.png" alt="The Python logo">')
     Start tag: img
          attr: ('src', 'python-logo.png')
          attr: ('alt', 'The Python logo')
     >>>
     >>> parser.feed('<h1>Python</h1>')
     Start tag: h1
     Data     : Python
     End tag  : h1

‘script’ 和 ‘style’ 元素的內容按原樣回傳，無需進一步剖析：

     >>> parser.feed('<style type="text/css">#python { color: green }</style>')
     Start tag: style
          attr: ('type', 'text/css')
     Data     : #python { color: green }
     End tag  : style

     >>> parser.feed('<script type="text/javascript">'
     ...             'alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");</script>')
     Start tag: script
          attr: ('type', 'text/javascript')
     Data     : alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");
     End tag  : script

剖析註解：

     >>> parser.feed('<!-- a comment -->'
     ...             '<!--[if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]-->')
     Comment  :  a comment
     Comment  : [if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]

剖析附名 (named) 且為數值的 (numeric) 字元參照，並將它們轉換為正確的字元
（注意：這 3 個參照都等同於 ‘'>'’）：

     >>> parser.feed('&gt;&#62;&#x3E;')
     Named ent: >
     Num ent  : >
     Num ent  : >

將不完整的區塊提供給 *note feed(): 341c. 是可行的，但是 *note
handle_data(): 3424. 可能會被多次呼叫（除非 'convert_charrefs' 設定為
‘True’）：

     >>> for chunk in ['<sp', 'an>buff', 'ered ', 'text</s', 'pan>']:
     ...     parser.feed(chunk)
     ...
     Start tag: span
     Data     : buff
     Data     : ered
     Data     : text
     End tag  : span

也能夠剖析無效的 HTML（例如未加引號的屬性）：

     >>> parser.feed('<p><a class=link href=#main>tag soup</p ></a>')
     Start tag: p
     Start tag: a
          attr: ('class', 'link')
          attr: ('href', '#main')
     Data     : tag soup
     End tag  : p
     End tag  : a


File: python.info,  Node: html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義,  Next: XML 處理模組,  Prev: html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.3 ‘html.entities’ -- HTML 一般實體的定義
---------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/html/entities.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

該 module（模組）定義了四個字典：*note html5: f61.、*note
name2codepoint: 342f.、*note codepoint2name: 3430. 以及 *note
entitydefs: 3431.。

 -- 資料: html.entities.html5

     將 HTML5 命名字元引用 (2) 對映到同等 Unicode 字元的字典，例如
     ‘html5['gt;'] == '>'’。請注意，後面的的分號包含在名稱中（例如
     ‘'gt;'’），但有些名稱即使沒有分號也會被此標準接受：在這種情況下，名
     稱可帶有或不帶有 ‘';'’。請見 *note html.unescape(): 798.。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: html.entities.entitydefs

     將 XHTML 1.0 實體定義對映到 ISO Latin-1 中的替換文字的字典。

 -- 資料: html.entities.name2codepoint

     將 HTML4 實體名稱對映到 Unicode 程式點的字典。

 -- 資料: html.entities.codepoint2name

     將 Unicode 程式點對映到 HTML4 實體名稱的字典。

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/html/entities.py

   (2) 請見
‘https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/named-characters.html#named-character-references’


File: python.info,  Node: XML 處理模組,  Next: xml etree cElementTree --- ElementTree XML API,  Prev: html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.4 XML 處理模組
-------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xml/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Python 處理 XML 的介面被歸類於 ‘xml’ 套件中。

     警告: XML 模組無法抵禦錯誤或惡意建構的資料。如果你需要剖析不受信任
     或未經身份驗證的資料，請參閱 *note XML 漏洞: 3435. 和 *note
     defusedxml 套件: 3436. 段落。

請務必注意 *note xml: 11b. 套件中的模組要求至少有一個可用的 SAX 相容 XML
剖析器。Expat 剖析器包含在 Python 中，所以總是可以使用 *note
xml.parsers.expat: 121. 模組。

*note xml.dom: 11c. 和 *note xml.sax: 124. 套件的文件為 DOM 和 SAX 介面
的 Python 繫結的定義。

以下是 XML 處理子模組：

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120.：ElementTree API，一個簡單且輕量
     級的 XML 處理器

   * *note xml.dom: 11c.：DOM API 定義

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 11d.：最小的 DOM 實作

   * *note xml.dom.pulldom: 11e.：支援建置部分 DOM 樹

   * *note xml.sax: 124.：SAX2 基底類別和便利函式

   * *note xml.parsers.expat: 121.：Expat 剖析器繫結

* Menu:

* XML 漏洞::
* defusedxml 套件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/


File: python.info,  Node: XML 漏洞,  Next: defusedxml 套件,  Up: XML 處理模組

5.20.4.1 XML 漏洞
.................

XML 處理模組無法抵禦惡意建構的資料。攻擊者可以濫用 XML 功能來執行阻斷服
務攻擊 (denial of service attack)、存取本地檔案、生成與其他機器的網路連
接或繞過防火牆。

下表概述了已知的攻擊以及各個模組是否易有漏洞。

種類                          sax                    etree                  minidom                pulldom                xmlrpc
                                                                                                                          
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                          
十億笑聲 (billion laughs)     '脆弱' (1)             '脆弱' (1)             '脆弱' (1)             '脆弱' (1)             '脆弱' (1)
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
二次爆炸 (quadratic blowup)   '脆弱' (1)             '脆弱' (1)             '脆弱' (1)             '脆弱' (1)             '脆弱' (1)
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
外部實體擴展 (external        安全 (5)               安全 (2)               安全 (3)               安全 (5)               安全 (4)
entity expansion)                                                                                                         

DTD(1) 檢索                   安全 (5)               安全                   安全                   安全 (5)               安全
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
解壓縮炸彈 (decompression     安全                   安全                   安全                   安全                   '脆弱'
bomb)                                                                                                                     

大型 token                    '脆弱' (6)             '脆弱' (6)             '脆弱' (6)             '脆弱' (6)             '脆弱' (6)
                                                                                                                          

  1. Expat 2.4.1 及更新的版本不易受到「十億笑聲」和「二次爆炸」漏洞的影
     響。但仍可能由於依賴系統提供的函式庫而被列為易受攻擊的項目。請檢查
     ‘pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION’。

  2. *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. 不會擴展外部實體，並在實體出現時
     引發 *note ParseError: 110c.。

  3. *note xml.dom.minidom: 11d. 不會擴展外部實體，只會逐字回傳未擴展的
     實體。

  4. *note xmlrpc.client: 128. 不會擴展外部實體且會忽略它們。

  5. 從 Python 3.7.1 開始，預設情況下不再處理外部通用實體。

  6. Expat 2.6.0 及更新版本不易受到剖析大型 token 所導致的二次 runtime 阻
     斷服務的影響。由於可能依賴系統提供的函式庫，因此仍被列為易受攻擊的
     項目。請參考 ‘pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION’。

十億笑聲 / 指數實體擴展

     十億笑聲(2)攻擊（也稱為指數實體擴展 (exponential entity expansion)）
     使用多層巢狀實體。每個實體多次引用另一個實體，最終的實體定義包含一
     個小字串。指數擴展會產生數 GB 的文本，並消耗大量記憶體和 CPU 時間。

二次爆炸實體擴展

     二次爆炸攻擊類似於十億笑聲(3)攻擊；它也濫用實體擴展。它不是巢狀實體
     ，而是一遍又一遍地重複一個具有幾千個字元的大型實體。該攻擊不如指數
     擴展那麼有效率，但它不會觸發那些用來防止深度巢狀實體的剖析器對策。

外部實體擴展 (external entity expansion)

     實體聲明不僅僅可以包含用於替換的文本，它們還可以指向外部資源或本地
     檔案。XML 剖析器會存取資源並將內容嵌入到 XML 文件中。

DTD(4) 檢索

     一些 XML 函式庫（例如 Python 的 *note xml.dom.pulldom: 11e.）從遠端
     或本地位置檢索文件類型定義。該功能與外部實體擴展問題具有類似的含義
     。

解壓縮炸彈 (decompression bomb)

     解壓縮炸彈（又名 ZIP bomb(5)）適用於所有可以剖析壓縮 XML 串流（例如
     gzip 壓縮的 HTTP 串流或 LZMA 壓縮檔案）的 XML 函式庫。對於攻擊者來
     說，它可以將傳輸的資料量減少三個或更多數量級。

大型 token

     Expat 需要重新剖析未完成的 token；如果沒有 Expat 2.6.0 中引入的保護
     ，這可能會導致二次 runtime 而導致剖析 XML 的應用程式出現阻斷服務。
     此問題記錄於 CVE 2023-52425(6)。

PyPI 上的 defusedxml(7) 文件包含有關所有已知攻擊媒介 (attack vector) 的
更多資訊以及範例和參考資料。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (7) https://pypi.org/project/defusedxml/


File: python.info,  Node: defusedxml 套件,  Prev: XML 漏洞,  Up: XML 處理模組

5.20.4.2 ‘defusedxml’ 套件
..........................

defusedxml(1) 是一個純 Python 套件，其中包含所有標準函式庫中 XML 剖析器
的修正版本子類別，可防止任何潛在的惡意操作。當伺服器程式會剖析任何不受信
任的 XML 資料時建議使用此套件。該套件還附帶了更多有關 XML 漏洞（例如
XPath 注入）的範例和延伸文件。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/defusedxml/


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree cElementTree --- ElementTree XML API,  Next: xml dom --- Document 物件模型 API,  Prev: XML 處理模組,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.5 ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ -- ElementTree XML API
------------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. module implements a simple and
efficient API for parsing and creating XML data.

在 3.3 版的變更: This module will use a fast implementation whenever
available.

在 3.3 版之後被棄用: ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ 模組已被棄用。

     警告: The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. module is not secure
     against maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse
     untrusted or unauthenticated data see *note XML 漏洞: 3435.

* Menu:

* 教學: 教學<2>.
* XPath 支援::
* Reference: Reference<3>.
* XInclude support::
* Reference: Reference<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py


File: python.info,  Node: 教學<2>,  Next: XPath 支援,  Up: xml etree cElementTree --- ElementTree XML API

5.20.5.1 教學
.............

This is a short tutorial for using *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120.
(‘ET’ in short).  The goal is to demonstrate some of the building blocks
and basic concepts of the module.

* Menu:

* XML tree and elements::
* 剖析 XML::
* Pull API for non-blocking parsing::
* Finding interesting elements::
* 改動 XML 檔案::
* Building XML documents::
* Parsing XML with Namespaces::


File: python.info,  Node: XML tree and elements,  Next: 剖析 XML,  Up: 教學<2>

5.20.5.2 XML tree and elements
..............................

XML is an inherently hierarchical data format, and the most natural way
to represent it is with a tree.  ‘ET’ has two classes for this purpose -
*note ElementTree: 78f. represents the whole XML document as a tree, and
*note Element: 240. represents a single node in this tree.  Interactions
with the whole document (reading and writing to/from files) are usually
done on the *note ElementTree: 78f. level.  Interactions with a single
XML element and its sub-elements are done on the *note Element: 240.
level.


File: python.info,  Node: 剖析 XML,  Next: Pull API for non-blocking parsing,  Prev: XML tree and elements,  Up: 教學<2>

5.20.5.3 剖析 XML
.................

We'll be using the fictive ‘country_data.xml’ XML document as the sample
data for this section:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank>1</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank>4</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Panama">
             <rank>68</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
             <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
         </country>
     </data>

We can import this data by reading from a file:

     import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET
     tree = ET.parse('country_data.xml')
     root = tree.getroot()

Or directly from a string:

     root = ET.fromstring(country_data_as_string)

*note fromstring(): 343f. parses XML from a string directly into an
*note Element: 240, which is the root element of the parsed tree.  Other
parsing functions may create an *note ElementTree: 78f.  Check the
documentation to be sure.

As an *note Element: 240, ‘root’ has a tag and a dictionary of
attributes:

     >>> root.tag
     'data'
     >>> root.attrib
     {}

It also has children nodes over which we can iterate:

     >>> for child in root:
     ...     print(child.tag, child.attrib)
     ...
     country {'name': 'Liechtenstein'}
     country {'name': 'Singapore'}
     country {'name': 'Panama'}

Children are nested, and we can access specific child nodes by index:

     >>> root[0][1].text
     '2008'

     備註: Not all elements of the XML input will end up as elements of
     the parsed tree.  Currently, this module skips over any XML
     comments, processing instructions, and document type declarations
     in the input.  Nevertheless, trees built using this module's API
     rather than parsing from XML text can have comments and processing
     instructions in them; they will be included when generating XML
     output.  A document type declaration may be accessed by passing a
     custom *note TreeBuilder: 89f. instance to the *note XMLParser:
     89e. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Pull API for non-blocking parsing,  Next: Finding interesting elements,  Prev: 剖析 XML,  Up: 教學<2>

5.20.5.4 Pull API for non-blocking parsing
..........................................

Most parsing functions provided by this module require the whole
document to be read at once before returning any result.  It is possible
to use an *note XMLParser: 89e. and feed data into it incrementally, but
it is a push API that calls methods on a callback target, which is too
low-level and inconvenient for most needs.  Sometimes what the user
really wants is to be able to parse XML incrementally, without blocking
operations, while enjoying the convenience of fully constructed *note
Element: 240. objects.

The most powerful tool for doing this is *note XMLPullParser: e85.  It
does not require a blocking read to obtain the XML data, and is instead
fed with data incrementally with *note XMLPullParser.feed(): 3441.
calls.  To get the parsed XML elements, call *note
XMLPullParser.read_events(): 3442.  Here is an example:

     >>> parser = ET.XMLPullParser(['start', 'end'])
     >>> parser.feed('<mytag>sometext')
     >>> list(parser.read_events())
     [('start', <Element 'mytag' at 0x7fa66db2be58>)]
     >>> parser.feed(' more text</mytag>')
     >>> for event, elem in parser.read_events():
     ...     print(event)
     ...     print(elem.tag, 'text=', elem.text)
     ...
     end
     mytag text= sometext more text

The obvious use case is applications that operate in a non-blocking
fashion where the XML data is being received from a socket or read
incrementally from some storage device.  In such cases, blocking reads
are unacceptable.

Because it's so flexible, *note XMLPullParser: e85. can be inconvenient
to use for simpler use-cases.  If you don't mind your application
blocking on reading XML data but would still like to have incremental
parsing capabilities, take a look at *note iterparse(): ea7.  It can be
useful when you're reading a large XML document and don't want to hold
it wholly in memory.

Where 'immediate' feedback through events is wanted, calling method
*note XMLPullParser.flush(): 142e. can help reduce delay; please make
sure to study the related security notes.


File: python.info,  Node: Finding interesting elements,  Next: 改動 XML 檔案,  Prev: Pull API for non-blocking parsing,  Up: 教學<2>

5.20.5.5 Finding interesting elements
.....................................

*note Element: 240. has some useful methods that help iterate
recursively over all the sub-tree below it (its children, their
children, and so on).  For example, *note Element.iter(): 11e3.:

     >>> for neighbor in root.iter('neighbor'):
     ...     print(neighbor.attrib)
     ...
     {'name': 'Austria', 'direction': 'E'}
     {'name': 'Switzerland', 'direction': 'W'}
     {'name': 'Malaysia', 'direction': 'N'}
     {'name': 'Costa Rica', 'direction': 'W'}
     {'name': 'Colombia', 'direction': 'E'}

*note Element.findall(): 3444. finds only elements with a tag which are
direct children of the current element.  *note Element.find(): 3445.
finds the 'first' child with a particular tag, and *note Element.text:
3446. accesses the element's text content.  *note Element.get(): 3447.
accesses the element's attributes:

     >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
     ...     rank = country.find('rank').text
     ...     name = country.get('name')
     ...     print(name, rank)
     ...
     Liechtenstein 1
     Singapore 4
     Panama 68

More sophisticated specification of which elements to look for is
possible by using *note XPath: a0e.


File: python.info,  Node: 改動 XML 檔案,  Next: Building XML documents,  Prev: Finding interesting elements,  Up: 教學<2>

5.20.5.6 改動 XML 檔案
......................

*note ElementTree: 78f. provides a simple way to build XML documents and
write them to files.  The *note ElementTree.write(): e89. method serves
this purpose.

Once created, an *note Element: 240. object may be manipulated by
directly changing its fields (such as *note Element.text: 3446.), adding
and modifying attributes (*note Element.set(): 3449. method), as well as
adding new children (for example with *note Element.append(): 344a.).

Let's say we want to add one to each country's rank, and add an
‘updated’ attribute to the rank element:

     >>> for rank in root.iter('rank'):
     ...     new_rank = int(rank.text) + 1
     ...     rank.text = str(new_rank)
     ...     rank.set('updated', 'yes')
     ...
     >>> tree.write('output.xml')

XML 現在看起來像這樣：

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Panama">
             <rank updated="yes">69</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
             <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
         </country>
     </data>

We can remove elements using *note Element.remove(): 344b.  Let's say we
want to remove all countries with a rank higher than 50:

     >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
     ...     # using root.findall() to avoid removal during traversal
     ...     rank = int(country.find('rank').text)
     ...     if rank > 50:
     ...         root.remove(country)
     ...
     >>> tree.write('output.xml')

Note that concurrent modification while iterating can lead to problems,
just like when iterating and modifying Python lists or dicts.
Therefore, the example first collects all matching elements with
‘root.findall()’, and only then iterates over the list of matches.

XML 現在看起來像這樣：

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
     </data>


File: python.info,  Node: Building XML documents,  Next: Parsing XML with Namespaces,  Prev: 改動 XML 檔案,  Up: 教學<2>

5.20.5.7 Building XML documents
...............................

The *note SubElement(): 344d. function also provides a convenient way to
create new sub-elements for a given element:

     >>> a = ET.Element('a')
     >>> b = ET.SubElement(a, 'b')
     >>> c = ET.SubElement(a, 'c')
     >>> d = ET.SubElement(c, 'd')
     >>> ET.dump(a)
     <a><b /><c><d /></c></a>


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing XML with Namespaces,  Prev: Building XML documents,  Up: 教學<2>

5.20.5.8 Parsing XML with Namespaces
....................................

If the XML input has namespaces(1), tags and attributes with prefixes in
the form ‘prefix:sometag’ get expanded to ‘{uri}sometag’ where the
'prefix' is replaced by the full 'URI'. Also, if there is a default
namespace(2), that full URI gets prepended to all of the non-prefixed
tags.

Here is an XML example that incorporates two namespaces, one with the
prefix "fictional" and the other serving as the default namespace:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <actors xmlns:fictional="http://characters.example.com"
             xmlns="http://people.example.com">
         <actor>
             <name>John Cleese</name>
             <fictional:character>Lancelot</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Archie Leach</fictional:character>
         </actor>
         <actor>
             <name>Eric Idle</name>
             <fictional:character>Sir Robin</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Gunther</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Commander Clement</fictional:character>
         </actor>
     </actors>

One way to search and explore this XML example is to manually add the
URI to every tag or attribute in the xpath of a *note find(): 3445. or
*note findall(): 3444.:

     root = fromstring(xml_text)
     for actor in root.findall('{http://people.example.com}actor'):
         name = actor.find('{http://people.example.com}name')
         print(name.text)
         for char in actor.findall('{http://characters.example.com}character'):
             print(' |-->', char.text)

A better way to search the namespaced XML example is to create a
dictionary with your own prefixes and use those in the search functions:

     ns = {'real_person': 'http://people.example.com',
           'role': 'http://characters.example.com'}

     for actor in root.findall('real_person:actor', ns):
         name = actor.find('real_person:name', ns)
         print(name.text)
         for char in actor.findall('role:character', ns):
             print(' |-->', char.text)

These two approaches both output:

     John Cleese
      |--> Lancelot
      |--> Archie Leach
     Eric Idle
      |--> Sir Robin
      |--> Gunther
      |--> Commander Clement

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_namespace

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-names/#defaulting


File: python.info,  Node: XPath 支援,  Next: Reference<3>,  Prev: 教學<2>,  Up: xml etree cElementTree --- ElementTree XML API

5.20.5.9 XPath 支援
...................

This module provides limited support for XPath expressions(1) for
locating elements in a tree.  The goal is to support a small subset of
the abbreviated syntax; a full XPath engine is outside the scope of the
module.

* Menu:

* 範例: 範例<30>.
* Supported XPath syntax::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xpath


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<30>,  Next: Supported XPath syntax,  Up: XPath 支援

5.20.5.10 範例
..............

Here's an example that demonstrates some of the XPath capabilities of
the module.  We'll be using the ‘countrydata’ XML document from the
*note Parsing XML: 343d. section:

     import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET

     root = ET.fromstring(countrydata)

     # Top-level elements
     root.findall(".")

     # All 'neighbor' grand-children of 'country' children of the top-level
     # elements
     root.findall("./country/neighbor")

     # Nodes with name='Singapore' that have a 'year' child
     root.findall(".//year/..[@name='Singapore']")

     # 'year' nodes that are children of nodes with name='Singapore'
     root.findall(".//*[@name='Singapore']/year")

     # All 'neighbor' nodes that are the second child of their parent
     root.findall(".//neighbor[2]")

For XML with namespaces, use the usual qualified ‘{namespace}tag’
notation:

     # All dublin-core "title" tags in the document
     root.findall(".//{http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/}title")


File: python.info,  Node: Supported XPath syntax,  Prev: 範例<30>,  Up: XPath 支援

5.20.5.11 Supported XPath syntax
................................

語法                        意義
                            
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
‘tag’                       Selects all child elements with the given tag.  For
                            example, ‘spam’ selects all child elements named ‘spam’,
                            and ‘spam/egg’ selects all grandchildren named ‘egg’ in
                            all children named ‘spam’.  ‘{namespace}*’ selects all
                            tags in the given namespace, ‘{*}spam’ selects tags
                            named ‘spam’ in any (or no) namespace, and ‘{}*’ only
                            selects tags that are not in a namespace.
                            
                            在 3.8 版的變更: 新增對星號萬用字元的支援。
                            
                            
‘*’                         Selects all child elements, including comments and
                            processing instructions.  For example, ‘*/egg’ selects
                            all grandchildren named ‘egg’.
                            
                            
‘.’                         Selects the current node.  This is mostly useful at the
                            beginning of the path, to indicate that it's a relative
                            path.
                            
                            
‘//’                        Selects all subelements, on all levels beneath the
                            current element.  For example, ‘.//egg’ selects all
                            ‘egg’ elements in the entire tree.
                            
                            
‘..’                        Selects the parent element.  Returns ‘None’ if the path
                            attempts to reach the ancestors of the start element
                            (the element ‘find’ was called on).
                            
                            
‘[@attrib]’                 選擇所有具有給定屬性的元素。
                            
                            
‘[@attrib='value']’         Selects all elements for which the given attribute has
                            the given value.  The value cannot contain quotes.
                            
                            
‘[@attrib!='value']’        Selects all elements for which the given attribute does
                            not have the given value.  The value cannot contain
                            quotes.
                            
                            在 3.10 版被加入.
                            
                            
‘[tag]’                     Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’.
                            Only immediate children are supported.
                            
                            
‘[.='text']’                Selects all elements whose complete text content,
                            including descendants, equals the given ‘text’.
                            
                            在 3.7 版被加入.
                            
                            
‘[.!='text']’               Selects all elements whose complete text content,
                            including descendants, does not equal the given ‘text’.
                            
                            在 3.10 版被加入.
                            
                            
‘[tag='text']’              Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’ whose
                            complete text content, including descendants, equals the
                            given ‘text’.
                            
                            
‘[tag!='text']’             Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’ whose
                            complete text content, including descendants, does not
                            equal the given ‘text’.
                            
                            在 3.10 版被加入.
                            
                            
‘[position]’                Selects all elements that are located at the given
                            position.  The position can be either an integer (1 is
                            the first position), the expression ‘last()’ (for the
                            last position), or a position relative to the last
                            position (e.g.  ‘last()-1’).
                            

Predicates (expressions within square brackets) must be preceded by a
tag name, an asterisk, or another predicate.  ‘position’ predicates must
be preceded by a tag name.


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<3>,  Next: XInclude support,  Prev: XPath 支援,  Up: xml etree cElementTree --- ElementTree XML API

5.20.5.12 Reference
...................

* Menu:

* 函式: 函式<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<8>,  Up: Reference<3>

5.20.5.13 函式
..............

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize (xml_data=None, *,
          out=None, from_file=None, **options)

     C14N 2.0(1) transformation function.

     Canonicalization is a way to normalise XML output in a way that
     allows byte-by-byte comparisons and digital signatures.  It reduces
     the freedom that XML serializers have and instead generates a more
     constrained XML representation.  The main restrictions regard the
     placement of namespace declarations, the ordering of attributes,
     and ignorable whitespace.

     This function takes an XML data string ('xml_data') or a file path
     or file-like object ('from_file') as input, converts it to the
     canonical form, and writes it out using the 'out' file(-like)
     object, if provided, or returns it as a text string if not.  The
     output file receives text, not bytes.  It should therefore be
     opened in text mode with ‘utf-8’ encoding.

     Typical uses:

          xml_data = "<root>...</root>"
          print(canonicalize(xml_data))

          with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
              canonicalize(xml_data, out=out_file)

          with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
              canonicalize(from_file="inputfile.xml", out=out_file)

     The configuration 'options' are as follows:

        - 'with_comments': set to true to include comments (default:
          false)

        - 
          'strip_text': set to true to strip whitespace before and after text content

               (default: false)

        - 
          'rewrite_prefixes': set to true to replace namespace prefixes by "n{number}"

               (default: false)

        - 
          'qname_aware_tags': a set of qname aware tag names in which prefixes

               should be replaced in text content (default: empty)

        - 
          'qname_aware_attrs': a set of qname aware attribute names in which prefixes

               should be replaced in text content (default: empty)

        - 'exclude_attrs': a set of attribute names that should not be
          serialised

        - 'exclude_tags': a set of tag names that should not be
          serialised

     In the option list above, "a set" refers to any collection or
     iterable of strings, no ordering is expected.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.Comment (text=None)

     Comment element factory.  This factory function creates a special
     element that will be serialized as an XML comment by the standard
     serializer.  The comment string can be either a bytestring or a
     Unicode string.  'text' is a string containing the comment string.
     Returns an element instance representing a comment.

     Note that *note XMLParser: 89e. skips over comments in the input
     instead of creating comment objects for them.  An *note
     ElementTree: 78f. will only contain comment nodes if they have been
     inserted into to the tree using one of the *note Element: 240.
     methods.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.dump (elem)

     Writes an element tree or element structure to sys.stdout.  This
     function should be used for debugging only.

     The exact output format is implementation dependent.  In this
     version, it's written as an ordinary XML file.

     'elem' is an element tree or an individual element.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The *note dump(): 3457. function now preserves the
     attribute order specified by the user.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring (text, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section from a string constant.  Same as *note XML():
     3458.  'text' is a string containing XML data.  'parser' is an
     optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard *note
     XMLParser: 89e. parser is used.  Returns an *note Element: 240.
     instance.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist (sequence, parser=None)

     Parses an XML document from a sequence of string fragments.
     'sequence' is a list or other sequence containing XML data
     fragments.  'parser' is an optional parser instance.  If not given,
     the standard *note XMLParser: 89e. parser is used.  Returns an
     *note Element: 240. instance.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.indent (tree, space=' ', level=0)

     Appends whitespace to the subtree to indent the tree visually.
     This can be used to generate pretty-printed XML output.  'tree' can
     be an Element or ElementTree.  'space' is the whitespace string
     that will be inserted for each indentation level, two space
     characters by default.  For indenting partial subtrees inside of an
     already indented tree, pass the initial indentation level as
     'level'.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.iselement (element)

     Check if an object appears to be a valid element object.  'element'
     is an element instance.  Return ‘True’ if this is an element
     object.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse (source, events=None,
          parser=None)

     Parses an XML section into an element tree incrementally, and
     reports what's going on to the user.  'source' is a filename or
     *note file object: 1054. containing XML data.  'events' is a
     sequence of events to report back.  The supported events are the
     strings ‘"start"’, ‘"end"’, ‘"comment"’, ‘"pi"’, ‘"start-ns"’ and
     ‘"end-ns"’ (the "ns" events are used to get detailed namespace
     information).  If 'events' is omitted, only ‘"end"’ events are
     reported.  'parser' is an optional parser instance.  If not given,
     the standard *note XMLParser: 89e. parser is used.  'parser' must
     be a subclass of *note XMLParser: 89e. and can only use the default
     *note TreeBuilder: 89f. as a target.  Returns an *note iterator:
     1718. providing ‘(event, elem)’ pairs; it has a ‘root’ attribute
     that references the root element of the resulting XML tree once
     'source' is fully read.

     Note that while *note iterparse(): ea7. builds the tree
     incrementally, it issues blocking reads on 'source' (or the file it
     names).  As such, it's unsuitable for applications where blocking
     reads can't be made.  For fully non-blocking parsing, see *note
     XMLPullParser: e85.

          備註: *note iterparse(): ea7. only guarantees that it has seen
          the ">" character of a starting tag when it emits a "start"
          event, so the attributes are defined, but the contents of the
          text and tail attributes are undefined at that point.  The
          same applies to the element children; they may or may not be
          present.

          If you need a fully populated element, look for "end" events
          instead.

     在 3.4 版之後被棄用: 'parser' 引數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'context' 與 'check_hostname' 事件。

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.parse (source, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section into an element tree.  'source' is a filename
     or file object containing XML data.  'parser' is an optional parser
     instance.  If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: 89e. parser
     is used.  Returns an *note ElementTree: 78f. instance.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.ProcessingInstruction (target,
          text=None)

     PI element factory.  This factory function creates a special
     element that will be serialized as an XML processing instruction.
     'target' is a string containing the PI target.  'text' is a string
     containing the PI contents, if given.  Returns an element instance,
     representing a processing instruction.

     Note that *note XMLParser: 89e. skips over processing instructions
     in the input instead of creating PI objects for them.  An *note
     ElementTree: 78f. will only contain processing instruction nodes if
     they have been inserted into to the tree using one of the *note
     Element: 240. methods.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace (prefix, uri)

     Registers a namespace prefix.  The registry is global, and any
     existing mapping for either the given prefix or the namespace URI
     will be removed.  'prefix' is a namespace prefix.  'uri' is a
     namespace uri.  Tags and attributes in this namespace will be
     serialized with the given prefix, if at all possible.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement (parent, tag, attrib={},
          **extra)

     Subelement factory.  This function creates an element instance, and
     appends it to an existing element.

     The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be
     either bytestrings or Unicode strings.  'parent' is the parent
     element.  'tag' is the subelement name.  'attrib' is an optional
     dictionary, containing element attributes.  'extra' contains
     additional attributes, given as keyword arguments.  Returns an
     element instance.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring (element, encoding='us-ascii',
          method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None, default_namespace=None,
          short_empty_elements=True)

     Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all
     subelements.  'element' is an *note Element: 240. instance.
     'encoding' (2) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII). Use
     ‘encoding="unicode"’ to generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a
     bytestring is generated).  'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ or
     ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’).  'xml_declaration',
     'default_namespace' and 'short_empty_elements' has the same meaning
     as in *note ElementTree.write(): e89.  Returns an (optionally)
     encoded string containing the XML data.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'short_empty_elements' 參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'xml_declaration' 與 'default_namespace' 參數
     。

     在 3.8 版的變更: The *note tostring(): e87. function now preserves
     the attribute order specified by the user.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist (element,
          encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None,
          default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True)

     Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all
     subelements.  'element' is an *note Element: 240. instance.
     'encoding' (3) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII). Use
     ‘encoding="unicode"’ to generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a
     bytestring is generated).  'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ or
     ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’).  'xml_declaration',
     'default_namespace' and 'short_empty_elements' has the same meaning
     as in *note ElementTree.write(): e89.  Returns a list of
     (optionally) encoded strings containing the XML data.  It does not
     guarantee any specific sequence, except that
     ‘b"".join(tostringlist(element)) == tostring(element)’.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'short_empty_elements' 參數。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'xml_declaration' 與 'default_namespace' 參數
     。

     在 3.8 版的變更: The *note tostringlist(): e88. function now
     preserves the attribute order specified by the user.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.XML (text, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section from a string constant.  This function can be
     used to embed "XML literals" in Python code.  'text' is a string
     containing XML data.  'parser' is an optional parser instance.  If
     not given, the standard *note XMLParser: 89e. parser is used.
     Returns an *note Element: 240. instance.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLID (text, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section from a string constant, and also returns a
     dictionary which maps from element id:s to elements.  'text' is a
     string containing XML data.  'parser' is an optional parser
     instance.  If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: 89e. parser
     is used.  Returns a tuple containing an *note Element: 240.
     instance and a dictionary.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/

   (2) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, "UTF-8" is valid, but "UTF8" is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.

   (3) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, "UTF-8" is valid, but "UTF8" is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: XInclude support,  Next: Reference<4>,  Prev: Reference<3>,  Up: xml etree cElementTree --- ElementTree XML API

5.20.5.14 XInclude support
..........................

This module provides limited support for XInclude directives(1), via the
*note xml.etree.ElementInclude: 11f. helper module.  This module can be
used to insert subtrees and text strings into element trees, based on
information in the tree.

* Menu:

* 範例: 範例<31>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xinclude/


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<31>,  Up: XInclude support

5.20.5.15 範例
..............

Here's an example that demonstrates use of the XInclude module.  To
include an XML document in the current document, use the
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element and set the 'parse'
attribute to ‘"xml"’, and use the 'href' attribute to specify the
document to include.

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       <xi:include href="source.xml" parse="xml" />
     </document>

By default, the 'href' attribute is treated as a file name.  You can use
custom loaders to override this behaviour.  Also note that the standard
helper does not support XPointer syntax.

To process this file, load it as usual, and pass the root element to the
*note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. module:

     from xml.etree import ElementTree, ElementInclude

     tree = ElementTree.parse("document.xml")
     root = tree.getroot()

     ElementInclude.include(root)

The ElementInclude module replaces the
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element with the root element
from the 'source.xml' document.  The result might look something like
this:

     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       <para>This is a paragraph.</para>
     </document>

If the 'parse' attribute is omitted, it defaults to "xml".  The href
attribute is required.

To include a text document, use the
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element, and set the 'parse'
attribute to "text":

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       Copyright (c) <xi:include href="year.txt" parse="text" />.
     </document>

The result might look something like:

     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       Copyright (c) 2003.
     </document>


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<4>,  Prev: XInclude support,  Up: xml etree cElementTree --- ElementTree XML API

5.20.5.16 Reference
...................

* Menu:

* 函式: 函式<9>.
* Element 物件::
* ElementTree 物件::
* QName 物件::
* TreeBuilder 物件::
* XMLParser 物件::
* XMLPullParser 物件::
* 例外: 例外<14>.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<9>,  Next: Element 物件,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.17 函式
..............

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementInclude.default_loader (href, parse,
          encoding=None)

     Default loader.  This default loader reads an included resource
     from disk.  'href' is a URL. 'parse' is for parse mode either "xml"
     or "text".  'encoding' is an optional text encoding.  If not given,
     encoding is ‘utf-8’.  Returns the expanded resource.  If the parse
     mode is ‘"xml"’, this is an *note Element: 240. instance.  If the
     parse mode is ‘"text"’, this is a string.  If the loader fails, it
     can return ‘None’ or raise an exception.

 -- 函式: xml.etree.ElementInclude.include (elem, loader=None,
          base_url=None, max_depth=6)

     This function expands XInclude directives in-place in tree pointed
     by 'elem'.  'elem' is either the root *note Element: 240. or an
     *note ElementTree: 78f. instance to find such element.  'loader' is
     an optional resource loader.  If omitted, it defaults to *note
     default_loader(): 3464.  If given, it should be a callable that
     implements the same interface as *note default_loader(): 3464.
     'base_url' is base URL of the original file, to resolve relative
     include file references.  'max_depth' is the maximum number of
     recursive inclusions.  Limited to reduce the risk of malicious
     content explosion.  Pass ‘None’ to disable the limitation.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'base_url' 與 'max_depth' 參數。


File: python.info,  Node: Element 物件,  Next: ElementTree 物件,  Prev: 函式<9>,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.18 Element 物件
......................

 -- 類別: xml.etree.ElementTree.Element (tag, attrib={}, **extra)

     Element class.  This class defines the Element interface, and
     provides a reference implementation of this interface.

     The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be
     either bytestrings or Unicode strings.  'tag' is the element name.
     'attrib' is an optional dictionary, containing element attributes.
     'extra' contains additional attributes, given as keyword arguments.

      -- 屬性: tag

          A string identifying what kind of data this element represents
          (the element type, in other words).

      -- 屬性: text
      -- 屬性: tail

          These attributes can be used to hold additional data
          associated with the element.  Their values are usually strings
          but may be any application-specific object.  If the element is
          created from an XML file, the 'text' attribute holds either
          the text between the element's start tag and its first child
          or end tag, or ‘None’, and the 'tail' attribute holds either
          the text between the element's end tag and the next tag, or
          ‘None’.  For the XML data

               <a><b>1<c>2<d/>3</c></b>4</a>

          the 'a' element has ‘None’ for both 'text' and 'tail'
          attributes, the 'b' element has 'text' ‘"1"’ and 'tail' ‘"4"’,
          the 'c' element has 'text' ‘"2"’ and 'tail' ‘None’, and the
          'd' element has 'text' ‘None’ and 'tail' ‘"3"’.

          To collect the inner text of an element, see *note itertext():
          1066, for example ‘"".join(element.itertext())’.

          Applications may store arbitrary objects in these attributes.

      -- 屬性: attrib

          A dictionary containing the element's attributes.  Note that
          while the 'attrib' value is always a real mutable Python
          dictionary, an ElementTree implementation may choose to use
          another internal representation, and create the dictionary
          only if someone asks for it.  To take advantage of such
          implementations, use the dictionary methods below whenever
          possible.

     The following dictionary-like methods work on the element
     attributes.

      -- 方法: clear ()

          Resets an element.  This function removes all subelements,
          clears all attributes, and sets the text and tail attributes
          to ‘None’.

      -- 方法: get (key, default=None)

          Gets the element attribute named 'key'.

          Returns the attribute value, or 'default' if the attribute was
          not found.

      -- 方法: items ()

          Returns the element attributes as a sequence of (name, value)
          pairs.  The attributes are returned in an arbitrary order.

      -- 方法: keys ()

          Returns the elements attribute names as a list.  The names are
          returned in an arbitrary order.

      -- 方法: set (key, value)

          Set the attribute 'key' on the element to 'value'.

     The following methods work on the element's children (subelements).

      -- 方法: append (subelement)

          Adds the element 'subelement' to the end of this element's
          internal list of subelements.  Raises *note TypeError: 2ba. if
          'subelement' is not an *note Element: 240.

      -- 方法: extend (subelements)

          Appends 'subelements' from an iterable of elements.  Raises
          *note TypeError: 2ba. if a subelement is not an *note Element:
          240.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: find (match, namespaces=None)

          Finds the first subelement matching 'match'.  'match' may be a
          tag name or a *note path: a0e.  Returns an element instance or
          ‘None’.  'namespaces' is an optional mapping from namespace
          prefix to full name.  Pass ‘''’ as prefix to move all
          unprefixed tag names in the expression into the given
          namespace.

      -- 方法: findall (match, namespaces=None)

          Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or *note path:
          a0e.  Returns a list containing all matching elements in
          document order.  'namespaces' is an optional mapping from
          namespace prefix to full name.  Pass ‘''’ as prefix to move
          all unprefixed tag names in the expression into the given
          namespace.

      -- 方法: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None)

          Finds text for the first subelement matching 'match'.  'match'
          may be a tag name or a *note path: a0e.  Returns the text
          content of the first matching element, or 'default' if no
          element was found.  Note that if the matching element has no
          text content an empty string is returned.  'namespaces' is an
          optional mapping from namespace prefix to full name.  Pass
          ‘''’ as prefix to move all unprefixed tag names in the
          expression into the given namespace.

      -- 方法: insert (index, subelement)

          Inserts 'subelement' at the given position in this element.
          Raises *note TypeError: 2ba. if 'subelement' is not an *note
          Element: 240.

      -- 方法: iter (tag=None)

          Creates a tree *note iterator: 1718. with the current element
          as the root.  The iterator iterates over this element and all
          elements below it, in document (depth first) order.  If 'tag'
          is not ‘None’ or ‘'*'’, only elements whose tag equals 'tag'
          are returned from the iterator.  If the tree structure is
          modified during iteration, the result is undefined.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: iterfind (match, namespaces=None)

          Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or *note path:
          a0e.  Returns an iterable yielding all matching elements in
          document order.  'namespaces' is an optional mapping from
          namespace prefix to full name.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: itertext ()

          Creates a text iterator.  The iterator loops over this element
          and all subelements, in document order, and returns all inner
          text.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: makeelement (tag, attrib)

          Creates a new element object of the same type as this element.
          Do not call this method, use the *note SubElement(): 344d.
          factory function instead.

      -- 方法: remove (subelement)

          Removes 'subelement' from the element.  Unlike the find*
          methods this method compares elements based on the instance
          identity, not on tag value or contents.

     *note Element: 240. objects also support the following sequence
     type methods for working with subelements: *note __delitem__():
     133d, *note __getitem__(): 4e7, *note __setitem__(): 133c, *note
     __len__(): 1cf4.

     Caution: Elements with no subelements will test as ‘False’.  In a
     future release of Python, all elements will test as ‘True’
     regardless of whether subelements exist.  Instead, prefer explicit
     ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not None’ tests.:

          element = root.find('foo')

          if not element:  # careful!
              print("element not found, or element has no subelements")

          if element is None:
              print("element not found")

     在 3.12 版的變更: Testing the truth value of an Element emits *note
     DeprecationWarning: 179.

     Prior to Python 3.8, the serialisation order of the XML attributes
     of elements was artificially made predictable by sorting the
     attributes by their name.  Based on the now guaranteed ordering of
     dicts, this arbitrary reordering was removed in Python 3.8 to
     preserve the order in which attributes were originally parsed or
     created by user code.

     In general, user code should try not to depend on a specific
     ordering of attributes, given that the XML Information Set(1)
     explicitly excludes the attribute order from conveying information.
     Code should be prepared to deal with any ordering on input.  In
     cases where deterministic XML output is required, e.g.  for
     cryptographic signing or test data sets, canonical serialisation is
     available with the *note canonicalize(): 3455. function.

     In cases where canonical output is not applicable but a specific
     attribute order is still desirable on output, code should aim for
     creating the attributes directly in the desired order, to avoid
     perceptual mismatches for readers of the code.  In cases where this
     is difficult to achieve, a recipe like the following can be applied
     prior to serialisation to enforce an order independently from the
     Element creation:

          def reorder_attributes(root):
              for el in root.iter():
                  attrib = el.attrib
                  if len(attrib) > 1:
                      # adjust attribute order, e.g. by sorting
                      attribs = sorted(attrib.items())
                      attrib.clear()
                      attrib.update(attribs)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-infoset/


File: python.info,  Node: ElementTree 物件,  Next: QName 物件,  Prev: Element 物件,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.19 ElementTree 物件
..........................

 -- 類別: xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree (element=None, file=None)

     ElementTree wrapper class.  This class represents an entire element
     hierarchy, and adds some extra support for serialization to and
     from standard XML.

     'element' is the root element.  The tree is initialized with the
     contents of the XML 'file' if given.

      -- 方法: _setroot (element)

          Replaces the root element for this tree.  This discards the
          current contents of the tree, and replaces it with the given
          element.  Use with care.  'element' is an element instance.

      -- 方法: find (match, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.find(): 3445, starting at the root of
          the tree.

      -- 方法: findall (match, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.findall(): 3444, starting at the root of
          the tree.

      -- 方法: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.findtext(): 346d, starting at the root
          of the tree.

      -- 方法: getroot ()

          Returns the root element for this tree.

      -- 方法: iter (tag=None)

          Creates and returns a tree iterator for the root element.  The
          iterator loops over all elements in this tree, in section
          order.  'tag' is the tag to look for (default is to return all
          elements).

      -- 方法: iterfind (match, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.iterfind(): 1065, starting at the root
          of the tree.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: parse (source, parser=None)

          Loads an external XML section into this element tree.
          'source' is a file name or *note file object: 1054.  'parser'
          is an optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard
          *note XMLParser: 89e. parser is used.  Returns the section
          root element.

      -- 方法: write (file, encoding='us-ascii', xml_declaration=None,
               default_namespace=None, method='xml', *,
               short_empty_elements=True)

          Writes the element tree to a file, as XML. 'file' is a file
          name, or a *note file object: 1054. opened for writing.
          'encoding' (1) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII).
          'xml_declaration' controls if an XML declaration should be
          added to the file.  Use ‘False’ for never, ‘True’ for always,
          ‘None’ for only if not US-ASCII or UTF-8 or Unicode (default
          is ‘None’).  'default_namespace' sets the default XML
          namespace (for "xmlns").  'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’
          or ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’).  The keyword-only
          'short_empty_elements' parameter controls the formatting of
          elements that contain no content.  If ‘True’ (the default),
          they are emitted as a single self-closed tag, otherwise they
          are emitted as a pair of start/end tags.

          The output is either a string (*note str: 157.) or binary
          (*note bytes: 2c1.).  This is controlled by the 'encoding'
          argument.  If 'encoding' is ‘"unicode"’, the output is a
          string; otherwise, it's binary.  Note that this may conflict
          with the type of 'file' if it's an open *note file object:
          1054.; make sure you do not try to write a string to a binary
          stream and vice versa.

          在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'short_empty_elements' 參數。

          在 3.8 版的變更: The *note write(): e89. method now preserves
          the attribute order specified by the user.

This is the XML file that is going to be manipulated:

     <html>
         <head>
             <title>Example page</title>
         </head>
         <body>
             <p>Moved to <a href="http://example.org/">example.org</a>
             or <a href="http://example.com/">example.com</a>.</p>
         </body>
     </html>

Example of changing the attribute "target" of every link in first
paragraph:

     >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import ElementTree
     >>> tree = ElementTree()
     >>> tree.parse("index.xhtml")
     <Element 'html' at 0xb77e6fac>
     >>> p = tree.find("body/p")     # Finds first occurrence of tag p in body
     >>> p
     <Element 'p' at 0xb77ec26c>
     >>> links = list(p.iter("a"))   # Returns list of all links
     >>> links
     [<Element 'a' at 0xb77ec2ac>, <Element 'a' at 0xb77ec1cc>]
     >>> for i in links:             # Iterates through all found links
     ...     i.attrib["target"] = "blank"
     ...
     >>> tree.write("output.xhtml")

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, "UTF-8" is valid, but "UTF8" is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: QName 物件,  Next: TreeBuilder 物件,  Prev: ElementTree 物件,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.20 QName 物件
....................

 -- 類別: xml.etree.ElementTree.QName (text_or_uri, tag=None)

     QName wrapper.  This can be used to wrap a QName attribute value,
     in order to get proper namespace handling on output.  'text_or_uri'
     is a string containing the QName value, in the form {uri}local, or,
     if the tag argument is given, the URI part of a QName.  If 'tag' is
     given, the first argument is interpreted as a URI, and this
     argument is interpreted as a local name.  *note QName: 347c.
     instances are opaque.


File: python.info,  Node: TreeBuilder 物件,  Next: XMLParser 物件,  Prev: QName 物件,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.21 TreeBuilder 物件
..........................

 -- 類別: xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder (element_factory=None, *,
          comment_factory=None, pi_factory=None, insert_comments=False,
          insert_pis=False)

     Generic element structure builder.  This builder converts a
     sequence of start, data, end, comment and pi method calls to a
     well-formed element structure.  You can use this class to build an
     element structure using a custom XML parser, or a parser for some
     other XML-like format.

     'element_factory', when given, must be a callable accepting two
     positional arguments: a tag and a dict of attributes.  It is
     expected to return a new element instance.

     The 'comment_factory' and 'pi_factory' functions, when given,
     should behave like the *note Comment(): 3456. and *note
     ProcessingInstruction(): 345c. functions to create comments and
     processing instructions.  When not given, the default factories
     will be used.  When 'insert_comments' and/or 'insert_pis' is true,
     comments/pis will be inserted into the tree if they appear within
     the root element (but not outside of it).

      -- 方法: close ()

          Flushes the builder buffers, and returns the toplevel document
          element.  Returns an *note Element: 240. instance.

      -- 方法: data (data)

          Adds text to the current element.  'data' is a string.  This
          should be either a bytestring, or a Unicode string.

      -- 方法: end (tag)

          Closes the current element.  'tag' is the element name.
          Returns the closed element.

      -- 方法: start (tag, attrs)

          Opens a new element.  'tag' is the element name.  'attrs' is a
          dictionary containing element attributes.  Returns the opened
          element.

      -- 方法: comment (text)

          Creates a comment with the given 'text'.  If ‘insert_comments’
          is true, this will also add it to the tree.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: pi (target, text)

          Creates a process instruction with the given 'target' name and
          'text'.  If ‘insert_pis’ is true, this will also add it to the
          tree.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

     In addition, a custom *note TreeBuilder: 89f. object can provide
     the following methods:

      -- 方法: doctype (name, pubid, system)

          Handles a doctype declaration.  'name' is the doctype name.
          'pubid' is the public identifier.  'system' is the system
          identifier.  This method does not exist on the default *note
          TreeBuilder: 89f. class.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: start_ns (prefix, uri)

          Is called whenever the parser encounters a new namespace
          declaration, before the ‘start()’ callback for the opening
          element that defines it.  'prefix' is ‘''’ for the default
          namespace and the declared namespace prefix name otherwise.
          'uri' is the namespace URI.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: end_ns (prefix)

          Is called after the ‘end()’ callback of an element that
          declared a namespace prefix mapping, with the name of the
          'prefix' that went out of scope.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 類別: xml.etree.ElementTree.C14NWriterTarget (write, *,
          with_comments=False, strip_text=False, rewrite_prefixes=False,
          qname_aware_tags=None, qname_aware_attrs=None,
          exclude_attrs=None, exclude_tags=None)

     A C14N 2.0(1) writer.  Arguments are the same as for the *note
     canonicalize(): 3455. function.  This class does not build a tree
     but translates the callback events directly into a serialised form
     using the 'write' function.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/


File: python.info,  Node: XMLParser 物件,  Next: XMLPullParser 物件,  Prev: TreeBuilder 物件,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.22 XMLParser 物件
........................

 -- 類別: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser (*, target=None,
          encoding=None)

     This class is the low-level building block of the module.  It uses
     *note xml.parsers.expat: 121. for efficient, event-based parsing of
     XML. It can be fed XML data incrementally with the *note feed():
     3488. method, and parsing events are translated to a push API - by
     invoking callbacks on the 'target' object.  If 'target' is omitted,
     the standard *note TreeBuilder: 89f. is used.  If 'encoding' (1) is
     given, the value overrides the encoding specified in the XML file.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Parameters are now *note keyword-only: 8d6.  The
     'html' argument is no longer supported.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Finishes feeding data to the parser.  Returns the result of
          calling the ‘close()’ method of the 'target' passed during
          construction; by default, this is the toplevel document
          element.

      -- 方法: feed (data)

          Feeds data to the parser.  'data' is encoded data.

      -- 方法: flush ()

          Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which
          can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular
          with Expat >=2.6.0.  The implementation of *note flush():
          142d. temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if
          currently enabled) and triggers a reparse.  Disabling reparse
          deferral has security consequences; please see *note
          xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 1430.
          for details.

          Note that *note flush(): 142d. has been backported to some
          prior releases of CPython as a security fix.  Check for
          availability of *note flush(): 142d. using *note hasattr():
          1f9. if used in code running across a variety of Python
          versions.

          在 3.12.3 版被加入.

     *note XMLParser.feed(): 3488. calls 'target"s ‘start(tag,
     attrs_dict)’ method for each opening tag, its ‘end(tag)’ method for
     each closing tag, and data is processed by method ‘data(data)’.
     For further supported callback methods, see the *note TreeBuilder:
     89f. class.  *note XMLParser.close(): 3489. calls 'target"s method
     ‘close()’.  *note XMLParser: 89e. can be used not only for building
     a tree structure.  This is an example of counting the maximum depth
     of an XML file:

          >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import XMLParser
          >>> class MaxDepth:                     # The target object of the parser
          ...     maxDepth = 0
          ...     depth = 0
          ...     def start(self, tag, attrib):   # Called for each opening tag.
          ...         self.depth += 1
          ...         if self.depth > self.maxDepth:
          ...             self.maxDepth = self.depth
          ...     def end(self, tag):             # Called for each closing tag.
          ...         self.depth -= 1
          ...     def data(self, data):
          ...         pass            # We do not need to do anything with data.
          ...     def close(self):    # Called when all data has been parsed.
          ...         return self.maxDepth
          ...
          >>> target = MaxDepth()
          >>> parser = XMLParser(target=target)
          >>> exampleXml = """
          ... <a>
          ...   <b>
          ...   </b>
          ...   <b>
          ...     <c>
          ...       <d>
          ...       </d>
          ...     </c>
          ...   </b>
          ... </a>"""
          >>> parser.feed(exampleXml)
          >>> parser.close()
          4

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, "UTF-8" is valid, but "UTF8" is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: XMLPullParser 物件,  Next: 例外<14>,  Prev: XMLParser 物件,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.23 XMLPullParser 物件
............................

 -- 類別: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser (events=None)

     A pull parser suitable for non-blocking applications.  Its
     input-side API is similar to that of *note XMLParser: 89e, but
     instead of pushing calls to a callback target, *note XMLPullParser:
     e85. collects an internal list of parsing events and lets the user
     read from it.  'events' is a sequence of events to report back.
     The supported events are the strings ‘"start"’, ‘"end"’,
     ‘"comment"’, ‘"pi"’, ‘"start-ns"’ and ‘"end-ns"’ (the "ns" events
     are used to get detailed namespace information).  If 'events' is
     omitted, only ‘"end"’ events are reported.

      -- 方法: feed (data)

          Feed the given bytes data to the parser.

      -- 方法: flush ()

          Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which
          can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular
          with Expat >=2.6.0.  The implementation of *note flush():
          142e. temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if
          currently enabled) and triggers a reparse.  Disabling reparse
          deferral has security consequences; please see *note
          xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 1430.
          for details.

          Note that *note flush(): 142e. has been backported to some
          prior releases of CPython as a security fix.  Check for
          availability of *note flush(): 142e. using *note hasattr():
          1f9. if used in code running across a variety of Python
          versions.

          在 3.12.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Signal the parser that the data stream is terminated.  Unlike
          *note XMLParser.close(): 3489, this method always returns
          *note None: 470.  Any events not yet retrieved when the parser
          is closed can still be read with *note read_events(): 3442.

      -- 方法: read_events ()

          Return an iterator over the events which have been encountered
          in the data fed to the parser.  The iterator yields ‘(event,
          elem)’ pairs, where 'event' is a string representing the type
          of event (e.g.  ‘"end"’) and 'elem' is the encountered *note
          Element: 240. object, or other context value as follows.

             * ‘start’、‘end’：目前的 Element。

             * ‘comment’, ‘pi’: the current comment / processing
               instruction

             * ‘start-ns’: a tuple ‘(prefix, uri)’ naming the declared
               namespace mapping.

             * ‘end-ns’: *note None: 470. (this may change in a future
               version)

          Events provided in a previous call to *note read_events():
          3442. will not be yielded again.  Events are consumed from the
          internal queue only when they are retrieved from the iterator,
          so multiple readers iterating in parallel over iterators
          obtained from *note read_events(): 3442. will have
          unpredictable results.

          備註: *note XMLPullParser: e85. only guarantees that it has
          seen the ">" character of a starting tag when it emits a
          "start" event, so the attributes are defined, but the contents
          of the text and tail attributes are undefined at that point.
          The same applies to the element children; they may or may not
          be present.

          If you need a fully populated element, look for "end" events
          instead.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'context' 與 'check_hostname' 事件。


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<14>,  Prev: XMLPullParser 物件,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.24 例外
..............

 -- 類別: xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError

     XML parse error, raised by the various parsing methods in this
     module when parsing fails.  The string representation of an
     instance of this exception will contain a user-friendly error
     message.  In addition, it will have the following attributes
     available:

      -- 屬性: code

          A numeric error code from the expat parser.  See the
          documentation of *note xml.parsers.expat: 121. for the list of
          error codes and their meanings.

      -- 屬性: position

          A tuple of 'line', 'column' numbers, specifying where the
          error occurred.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom --- Document 物件模型 API,  Next: xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作,  Prev: xml etree cElementTree --- ElementTree XML API,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.6 ‘xml.dom’ -- Document 物件模型 API
-----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The Document Object Model, or "DOM," is a cross-language API from the
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) for accessing and modifying XML
documents.  A DOM implementation presents an XML document as a tree
structure, or allows client code to build such a structure from scratch.
It then gives access to the structure through a set of objects which
provided well-known interfaces.

The DOM is extremely useful for random-access applications.  SAX only
allows you a view of one bit of the document at a time.  If you are
looking at one SAX element, you have no access to another.  If you are
looking at a text node, you have no access to a containing element.
When you write a SAX application, you need to keep track of your
program's position in the document somewhere in your own code.  SAX does
not do it for you.  Also, if you need to look ahead in the XML document,
you are just out of luck.

Some applications are simply impossible in an event driven model with no
access to a tree.  Of course you could build some sort of tree yourself
in SAX events, but the DOM allows you to avoid writing that code.  The
DOM is a standard tree representation for XML data.

The Document Object Model is being defined by the W3C in stages, or
"levels" in their terminology.  The Python mapping of the API is
substantially based on the DOM Level 2 recommendation.

DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM. How
this is accomplished is not covered at all by DOM Level 1, and Level 2
provides only limited improvements: There is a ‘DOMImplementation’
object class which provides access to ‘Document’ creation methods, but
no way to access an XML reader/parser/Document builder in an
implementation-independent way.  There is also no well-defined way to
access these methods without an existing ‘Document’ object.  In Python,
each DOM implementation will provide a function *note
getDOMImplementation(): 3492.  DOM Level 3 adds a Load/Store
specification, which defines an interface to the reader, but this is not
yet available in the Python standard library.

Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your
XML document through its properties and methods.  These properties are
defined in the DOM specification; this portion of the reference manual
describes the interpretation of the specification in Python.

The specification provided by the W3C defines the DOM API for Java,
ECMAScript, and OMG IDL. The Python mapping defined here is based in
large part on the IDL version of the specification, but strict
compliance is not required (though implementations are free to support
the strict mapping from IDL). See section *note Conformance: 3493. for a
detailed discussion of mapping requirements.

也參考
......

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Specification(2)

     The W3C recommendation upon which the Python DOM API is based.

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification(3)

     The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 11d.

Python Language Mapping Specification(4)

     This specifies the mapping from OMG IDL to Python.

* Menu:

* 模組內容: 模組內容<6>.
* Objects in the DOM::
* Conformance::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/2000/REC-DOM-Level-2-Core-20001113/

   (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/

   (4) https://www.omg.org/spec/PYTH/1.2/PDF


File: python.info,  Node: 模組內容<6>,  Next: Objects in the DOM,  Up: xml dom --- Document 物件模型 API

5.20.6.1 模組內容
.................

The *note xml.dom: 11c. contains the following functions:

 -- 函式: xml.dom.registerDOMImplementation (name, factory)

     Register the 'factory' function with the name 'name'.  The factory
     function should return an object which implements the
     ‘DOMImplementation’ interface.  The factory function can return the
     same object every time, or a new one for each call, as appropriate
     for the specific implementation (e.g.  if that implementation
     supports some customization).

 -- 函式: xml.dom.getDOMImplementation (name=None, features=())

     Return a suitable DOM implementation.  The 'name' is either
     well-known, the module name of a DOM implementation, or ‘None’.  If
     it is not ‘None’, imports the corresponding module and returns a
     ‘DOMImplementation’ object if the import succeeds.  If no name is
     given, and if the environment variable ‘PYTHON_DOM’ is set, this
     variable is used to find the implementation.

     If name is not given, this examines the available implementations
     to find one with the required feature set.  If no implementation
     can be found, raise an *note ImportError: 145.  The features list
     must be a sequence of ‘(feature, version)’ pairs which are passed
     to the ‘hasFeature()’ method on available ‘DOMImplementation’
     objects.

Some convenience constants are also provided:

 -- 資料: xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE

     The value used to indicate that no namespace is associated with a
     node in the DOM. This is typically found as the ‘namespaceURI’ of a
     node, or used as the 'namespaceURI' parameter to a
     namespaces-specific method.

 -- 資料: xml.dom.XML_NAMESPACE

     The namespace URI associated with the reserved prefix ‘xml’, as
     defined by Namespaces in XML(1) (section 4).

 -- 資料: xml.dom.XMLNS_NAMESPACE

     The namespace URI for namespace declarations, as defined by
     Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Core Specification(2) (section
     1.1.8).

 -- 資料: xml.dom.XHTML_NAMESPACE

     The URI of the XHTML namespace as defined by XHTML 1.0: The
     Extensible HyperText Markup Language(3) (section 3.1.1).

In addition, *note xml.dom: 11c. contains a base ‘Node’ class and the
DOM exception classes.  The ‘Node’ class provided by this module does
not implement any of the methods or attributes defined by the DOM
specification; concrete DOM implementations must provide those.  The
‘Node’ class provided as part of this module does provide the constants
used for the ‘nodeType’ attribute on concrete ‘Node’ objects; they are
located within the class rather than at the module level to conform with
the DOM specifications.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/core.html

   (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/


File: python.info,  Node: Objects in the DOM,  Next: Conformance,  Prev: 模組內容<6>,  Up: xml dom --- Document 物件模型 API

5.20.6.2 Objects in the DOM
...........................

The definitive documentation for the DOM is the DOM specification from
the W3C.

Note that DOM attributes may also be manipulated as nodes instead of as
simple strings.  It is fairly rare that you must do this, however, so
this usage is not yet documented.

Interface                            Section                                 Purpose
                                                                             
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             
‘DOMImplementation’                  *note DOMImplementation 物件: 349c.     Interface to the underlying
                                                                             implementation.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Node’                               *note Node Objects: 349d.               Base interface for most objects in
                                                                             a document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘NodeList’                           *note NodeList 物件: 349e.              Interface for a sequence of nodes.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘DocumentType’                       *note DocumentType 物件: 349f.          Information about the declarations
                                                                             needed to process a document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Document’                           *note Document Objects: 34a0.           Object which represents an entire
                                                                             document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Element’                            *note Element Objects: 34a1.            Element nodes in the document
                                                                             hierarchy.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Attr’                               *note Attr Objects: 34a2.               Attribute value nodes on element
                                                                             nodes.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Comment’                            *note Comment Objects: 34a3.            Representation of comments in the
                                                                             source document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Text’                               *note Text and CDATASection Objects: 34a4.Nodes containing textual content
                                                                             from the document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘ProcessingInstruction’              *note ProcessingInstruction 物件: 34a5. Processing instruction
                                                                             representation.
                                                                             

An additional section describes the exceptions defined for working with
the DOM in Python.

* Menu:

* DOMImplementation 物件::
* Node Objects::
* NodeList 物件::
* DocumentType 物件::
* Document Objects::
* Element Objects::
* Attr Objects::
* NamedNodeMap 物件::
* Comment Objects::
* Text and CDATASection Objects::
* ProcessingInstruction 物件::
* 例外: 例外<15>.


File: python.info,  Node: DOMImplementation 物件,  Next: Node Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.3 DOMImplementation 物件
...............................

The ‘DOMImplementation’ interface provides a way for applications to
determine the availability of particular features in the DOM they are
using.  DOM Level 2 added the ability to create new ‘Document’ and
‘DocumentType’ objects using the ‘DOMImplementation’ as well.

 -- 方法: DOMImplementation.hasFeature (feature, version)

     Return ‘True’ if the feature identified by the pair of strings
     'feature' and 'version' is implemented.

 -- 方法: DOMImplementation.createDocument (namespaceUri, qualifiedName,
          doctype)

     Return a new ‘Document’ object (the root of the DOM), with a child
     ‘Element’ object having the given 'namespaceUri' and
     'qualifiedName'.  The 'doctype' must be a ‘DocumentType’ object
     created by *note createDocumentType(): 34a9, or ‘None’.  In the
     Python DOM API, the first two arguments can also be ‘None’ in order
     to indicate that no ‘Element’ child is to be created.

 -- 方法: DOMImplementation.createDocumentType (qualifiedName, publicId,
          systemId)

     Return a new ‘DocumentType’ object that encapsulates the given
     'qualifiedName', 'publicId', and 'systemId' strings, representing
     the information contained in an XML document type declaration.


File: python.info,  Node: Node Objects,  Next: NodeList 物件,  Prev: DOMImplementation 物件,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.4 Node Objects
.....................

All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of ‘Node’.

 -- 屬性: Node.nodeType

     An integer representing the node type.  Symbolic constants for the
     types are on the ‘Node’ object: ‘ELEMENT_NODE’, ‘ATTRIBUTE_NODE’,
     ‘TEXT_NODE’, ‘CDATA_SECTION_NODE’, ‘ENTITY_NODE’,
     ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’, ‘COMMENT_NODE’, ‘DOCUMENT_NODE’,
     ‘DOCUMENT_TYPE_NODE’, ‘NOTATION_NODE’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- 屬性: Node.parentNode

     The parent of the current node, or ‘None’ for the document node.
     The value is always a ‘Node’ object or ‘None’.  For ‘Element’
     nodes, this will be the parent element, except for the root
     element, in which case it will be the ‘Document’ object.  For
     ‘Attr’ nodes, this is always ‘None’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- 屬性: Node.attributes

     A ‘NamedNodeMap’ of attribute objects.  Only elements have actual
     values for this; others provide ‘None’ for this attribute.  This is
     a read-only attribute.

 -- 屬性: Node.previousSibling

     The node that immediately precedes this one with the same parent.
     For instance the element with an end-tag that comes just before the
     'self' element's start-tag.  Of course, XML documents are made up
     of more than just elements so the previous sibling could be text, a
     comment, or something else.  If this node is the first child of the
     parent, this attribute will be ‘None’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- 屬性: Node.nextSibling

     The node that immediately follows this one with the same parent.
     See also *note previousSibling: 34ae.  If this is the last child of
     the parent, this attribute will be ‘None’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- 屬性: Node.childNodes

     A list of nodes contained within this node.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- 屬性: Node.firstChild

     The first child of the node, if there are any, or ‘None’.  This is
     a read-only attribute.

 -- 屬性: Node.lastChild

     The last child of the node, if there are any, or ‘None’.  This is a
     read-only attribute.

 -- 屬性: Node.localName

     The part of the ‘tagName’ following the colon if there is one, else
     the entire ‘tagName’.  The value is a string.

 -- 屬性: Node.prefix

     The part of the ‘tagName’ preceding the colon if there is one, else
     the empty string.  The value is a string, or ‘None’.

 -- 屬性: Node.namespaceURI

     The namespace associated with the element name.  This will be a
     string or ‘None’.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- 屬性: Node.nodeName

     This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM
     specification for details.  You can always get the information you
     would get here from another property such as the ‘tagName’ property
     for elements or the ‘name’ property for attributes.  For all node
     types, the value of this attribute will be either a string or
     ‘None’.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- 屬性: Node.nodeValue

     This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM
     specification for details.  The situation is similar to that with
     *note nodeName: 34b6.  The value is a string or ‘None’.

 -- 方法: Node.hasAttributes ()

     Return ‘True’ if the node has any attributes.

 -- 方法: Node.hasChildNodes ()

     Return ‘True’ if the node has any child nodes.

 -- 方法: Node.isSameNode (other)

     Return ‘True’ if 'other' refers to the same node as this node.
     This is especially useful for DOM implementations which use any
     sort of proxy architecture (because more than one object can refer
     to the same node).

          備註: This is based on a proposed DOM Level 3 API which is
          still in the "working draft" stage, but this particular
          interface appears uncontroversial.  Changes from the W3C will
          not necessarily affect this method in the Python DOM interface
          (though any new W3C API for this would also be supported).

 -- 方法: Node.appendChild (newChild)

     Add a new child node to this node at the end of the list of
     children, returning 'newChild'.  If the node was already in the
     tree, it is removed first.

 -- 方法: Node.insertBefore (newChild, refChild)

     Insert a new child node before an existing child.  It must be the
     case that 'refChild' is a child of this node; if not, *note
     ValueError: 183. is raised.  'newChild' is returned.  If 'refChild'
     is ‘None’, it inserts 'newChild' at the end of the children's list.

 -- 方法: Node.removeChild (oldChild)

     Remove a child node.  'oldChild' must be a child of this node; if
     not, *note ValueError: 183. is raised.  'oldChild' is returned on
     success.  If 'oldChild' will not be used further, its ‘unlink()’
     method should be called.

 -- 方法: Node.replaceChild (newChild, oldChild)

     Replace an existing node with a new node.  It must be the case that
     'oldChild' is a child of this node; if not, *note ValueError: 183.
     is raised.

 -- 方法: Node.normalize ()

     Join adjacent text nodes so that all stretches of text are stored
     as single ‘Text’ instances.  This simplifies processing text from a
     DOM tree for many applications.

 -- 方法: Node.cloneNode (deep)

     Clone this node.  Setting 'deep' means to clone all child nodes as
     well.  This returns the clone.


File: python.info,  Node: NodeList 物件,  Next: DocumentType 物件,  Prev: Node Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.5 NodeList 物件
......................

A ‘NodeList’ represents a sequence of nodes.  These objects are used in
two ways in the DOM Core recommendation: an ‘Element’ object provides
one as its list of child nodes, and the ‘getElementsByTagName()’ and
‘getElementsByTagNameNS()’ methods of ‘Node’ return objects with this
interface to represent query results.

The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines one method and one attribute for
these objects:

 -- 方法: NodeList.item (i)

     Return the 'i"th item from the sequence, if there is one, or
     ‘None’.  The index 'i' is not allowed to be less than zero or
     greater than or equal to the length of the sequence.

 -- 屬性: NodeList.length

     The number of nodes in the sequence.

In addition, the Python DOM interface requires that some additional
support is provided to allow ‘NodeList’ objects to be used as Python
sequences.  All ‘NodeList’ implementations must include support for
*note __len__(): 1cf4. and *note __getitem__(): 4e7.; this allows
iteration over the ‘NodeList’ in *note for: 265. statements and proper
support for the *note len(): 429. built-in function.

If a DOM implementation supports modification of the document, the
‘NodeList’ implementation must also support the *note __setitem__():
133c. and *note __delitem__(): 133d. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: DocumentType 物件,  Next: Document Objects,  Prev: NodeList 物件,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.6 DocumentType 物件
..........................

Information about the notations and entities declared by a document
(including the external subset if the parser uses it and can provide the
information) is available from a ‘DocumentType’ object.  The
‘DocumentType’ for a document is available from the ‘Document’ object's
‘doctype’ attribute; if there is no ‘DOCTYPE’ declaration for the
document, the document's ‘doctype’ attribute will be set to ‘None’
instead of an instance of this interface.

‘DocumentType’ is a specialization of ‘Node’, and adds the following
attributes:

 -- 屬性: DocumentType.publicId

     The public identifier for the external subset of the document type
     definition.  This will be a string or ‘None’.

 -- 屬性: DocumentType.systemId

     The system identifier for the external subset of the document type
     definition.  This will be a URI as a string, or ‘None’.

 -- 屬性: DocumentType.internalSubset

     A string giving the complete internal subset from the document.
     This does not include the brackets which enclose the subset.  If
     the document has no internal subset, this should be ‘None’.

 -- 屬性: DocumentType.name

     The name of the root element as given in the ‘DOCTYPE’ declaration,
     if present.

 -- 屬性: DocumentType.entities

     This is a ‘NamedNodeMap’ giving the definitions of external
     entities.  For entity names defined more than once, only the first
     definition is provided (others are ignored as required by the XML
     recommendation).  This may be ‘None’ if the information is not
     provided by the parser, or if no entities are defined.

 -- 屬性: DocumentType.notations

     This is a ‘NamedNodeMap’ giving the definitions of notations.  For
     notation names defined more than once, only the first definition is
     provided (others are ignored as required by the XML
     recommendation).  This may be ‘None’ if the information is not
     provided by the parser, or if no notations are defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Document Objects,  Next: Element Objects,  Prev: DocumentType 物件,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.7 Document Objects
.........................

A ‘Document’ represents an entire XML document, including its
constituent elements, attributes, processing instructions, comments etc.
Remember that it inherits properties from ‘Node’.

 -- 屬性: Document.documentElement

     The one and only root element of the document.

 -- 方法: Document.createElement (tagName)

     Create and return a new element node.  The element is not inserted
     into the document when it is created.  You need to explicitly
     insert it with one of the other methods such as ‘insertBefore()’ or
     ‘appendChild()’.

 -- 方法: Document.createElementNS (namespaceURI, tagName)

     Create and return a new element with a namespace.  The 'tagName'
     may have a prefix.  The element is not inserted into the document
     when it is created.  You need to explicitly insert it with one of
     the other methods such as ‘insertBefore()’ or ‘appendChild()’.

 -- 方法: Document.createTextNode (data)

     Create and return a text node containing the data passed as a
     parameter.  As with the other creation methods, this one does not
     insert the node into the tree.

 -- 方法: Document.createComment (data)

     Create and return a comment node containing the data passed as a
     parameter.  As with the other creation methods, this one does not
     insert the node into the tree.

 -- 方法: Document.createProcessingInstruction (target, data)

     Create and return a processing instruction node containing the
     'target' and 'data' passed as parameters.  As with the other
     creation methods, this one does not insert the node into the tree.

 -- 方法: Document.createAttribute (name)

     Create and return an attribute node.  This method does not
     associate the attribute node with any particular element.  You must
     use ‘setAttributeNode()’ on the appropriate ‘Element’ object to use
     the newly created attribute instance.

 -- 方法: Document.createAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qualifiedName)

     Create and return an attribute node with a namespace.  The
     'tagName' may have a prefix.  This method does not associate the
     attribute node with any particular element.  You must use
     ‘setAttributeNode()’ on the appropriate ‘Element’ object to use the
     newly created attribute instance.

 -- 方法: Document.getElementsByTagName (tagName)

     Search for all descendants (direct children, children's children,
     etc.)  with a particular element type name.

 -- 方法: Document.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Search for all descendants (direct children, children's children,
     etc.)  with a particular namespace URI and localname.  The
     localname is the part of the namespace after the prefix.


File: python.info,  Node: Element Objects,  Next: Attr Objects,  Prev: Document Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.8 Element Objects
........................

‘Element’ is a subclass of ‘Node’, so inherits all the attributes of
that class.

 -- 屬性: Element.tagName

     The element type name.  In a namespace-using document it may have
     colons in it.  The value is a string.

 -- 方法: Element.getElementsByTagName (tagName)

     Same as equivalent method in the ‘Document’ class.

 -- 方法: Element.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Same as equivalent method in the ‘Document’ class.

 -- 方法: Element.hasAttribute (name)

     Return ‘True’ if the element has an attribute named by 'name'.

 -- 方法: Element.hasAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Return ‘True’ if the element has an attribute named by
     'namespaceURI' and 'localName'.

 -- 方法: Element.getAttribute (name)

     Return the value of the attribute named by 'name' as a string.  If
     no such attribute exists, an empty string is returned, as if the
     attribute had no value.

 -- 方法: Element.getAttributeNode (attrname)

     Return the ‘Attr’ node for the attribute named by 'attrname'.

 -- 方法: Element.getAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Return the value of the attribute named by 'namespaceURI' and
     'localName' as a string.  If no such attribute exists, an empty
     string is returned, as if the attribute had no value.

 -- 方法: Element.getAttributeNodeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Return an attribute value as a node, given a 'namespaceURI' and
     'localName'.

 -- 方法: Element.removeAttribute (name)

     Remove an attribute by name.  If there is no matching attribute, a
     *note NotFoundErr: 34e1. is raised.

 -- 方法: Element.removeAttributeNode (oldAttr)

     Remove and return 'oldAttr' from the attribute list, if present.
     If 'oldAttr' is not present, *note NotFoundErr: 34e1. is raised.

 -- 方法: Element.removeAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Remove an attribute by name.  Note that it uses a localName, not a
     qname.  No exception is raised if there is no matching attribute.

 -- 方法: Element.setAttribute (name, value)

     Set an attribute value from a string.

 -- 方法: Element.setAttributeNode (newAttr)

     Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing
     attribute if necessary if the ‘name’ attribute matches.  If a
     replacement occurs, the old attribute node will be returned.  If
     'newAttr' is already in use, *note InuseAttributeErr: 34e6. will be
     raised.

 -- 方法: Element.setAttributeNodeNS (newAttr)

     Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing
     attribute if necessary if the ‘namespaceURI’ and ‘localName’
     attributes match.  If a replacement occurs, the old attribute node
     will be returned.  If 'newAttr' is already in use, *note
     InuseAttributeErr: 34e6. will be raised.

 -- 方法: Element.setAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qname, value)

     Set an attribute value from a string, given a 'namespaceURI' and a
     'qname'.  Note that a qname is the whole attribute name.  This is
     different than above.


File: python.info,  Node: Attr Objects,  Next: NamedNodeMap 物件,  Prev: Element Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.9 Attr Objects
.....................

‘Attr’ inherits from ‘Node’, so inherits all its attributes.

 -- 屬性: Attr.name

     The attribute name.  In a namespace-using document it may include a
     colon.

 -- 屬性: Attr.localName

     The part of the name following the colon if there is one, else the
     entire name.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- 屬性: Attr.prefix

     The part of the name preceding the colon if there is one, else the
     empty string.

 -- 屬性: Attr.value

     The text value of the attribute.  This is a synonym for the
     ‘nodeValue’ attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: NamedNodeMap 物件,  Next: Comment Objects,  Prev: Attr Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.10 NamedNodeMap 物件
...........................

‘NamedNodeMap’ does 'not' inherit from ‘Node’.

 -- 屬性: NamedNodeMap.length

     The length of the attribute list.

 -- 方法: NamedNodeMap.item (index)

     Return an attribute with a particular index.  The order you get the
     attributes in is arbitrary but will be consistent for the life of a
     DOM. Each item is an attribute node.  Get its value with the
     ‘value’ attribute.

There are also experimental methods that give this class more mapping
behavior.  You can use them or you can use the standardized
‘getAttribute*()’ family of methods on the ‘Element’ objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment Objects,  Next: Text and CDATASection Objects,  Prev: NamedNodeMap 物件,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.11 Comment Objects
.........................

‘Comment’ represents a comment in the XML document.  It is a subclass of
‘Node’, but cannot have child nodes.

 -- 屬性: Comment.data

     The content of the comment as a string.  The attribute contains all
     characters between the leading ‘<!-’‘-’ and trailing ‘-’‘->’, but
     does not include them.


File: python.info,  Node: Text and CDATASection Objects,  Next: ProcessingInstruction 物件,  Prev: Comment Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.12 Text and CDATASection Objects
.......................................

The ‘Text’ interface represents text in the XML document.  If the parser
and DOM implementation support the DOM's XML extension, portions of the
text enclosed in CDATA marked sections are stored in ‘CDATASection’
objects.  These two interfaces are identical, but provide different
values for the ‘nodeType’ attribute.

These interfaces extend the ‘Node’ interface.  They cannot have child
nodes.

 -- 屬性: Text.data

     The content of the text node as a string.

     備註: The use of a ‘CDATASection’ node does not indicate that the
     node represents a complete CDATA marked section, only that the
     content of the node was part of a CDATA section.  A single CDATA
     section may be represented by more than one node in the document
     tree.  There is no way to determine whether two adjacent
     ‘CDATASection’ nodes represent different CDATA marked sections.


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessingInstruction 物件,  Next: 例外<15>,  Prev: Text and CDATASection Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.13 ProcessingInstruction 物件
....................................

Represents a processing instruction in the XML document; this inherits
from the ‘Node’ interface and cannot have child nodes.

 -- 屬性: ProcessingInstruction.target

     The content of the processing instruction up to the first
     whitespace character.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- 屬性: ProcessingInstruction.data

     The content of the processing instruction following the first
     whitespace character.


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<15>,  Prev: ProcessingInstruction 物件,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.14 例外
..............

The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines a single exception, *note
DOMException: 34fb, and a number of constants that allow applications to
determine what sort of error occurred.  *note DOMException: 34fb.
instances carry a *note code: 18. attribute that provides the
appropriate value for the specific exception.

The Python DOM interface provides the constants, but also expands the
set of exceptions so that a specific exception exists for each of the
exception codes defined by the DOM. The implementations must raise the
appropriate specific exception, each of which carries the appropriate
value for the *note code: 18. attribute.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.DOMException

     Base exception class used for all specific DOM exceptions.  This
     exception class cannot be directly instantiated.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr

     Raised when a specified range of text does not fit into a string.
     This is not known to be used in the Python DOM implementations, but
     may be received from DOM implementations not written in Python.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to insert a node where the node type
     is not allowed.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.IndexSizeErr

     Raised when an index or size parameter to a method is negative or
     exceeds the allowed values.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to insert an ‘Attr’ node that is
     already present elsewhere in the document.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr

     Raised if a parameter or an operation is not supported on the
     underlying object.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr

     This exception is raised when a string parameter contains a
     character that is not permitted in the context it's being used in
     by the XML 1.0 recommendation.  For example, attempting to create
     an ‘Element’ node with a space in the element type name will cause
     this error to be raised.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to modify the type of a node.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.InvalidStateErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to use an object that is not defined
     or is no longer usable.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.NamespaceErr

     If an attempt is made to change any object in a way that is not
     permitted with regard to the Namespaces in XML(1) recommendation,
     this exception is raised.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.NotFoundErr

     Exception when a node does not exist in the referenced context.
     For example, ‘NamedNodeMap.removeNamedItem()’ will raise this if
     the node passed in does not exist in the map.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.NotSupportedErr

     Raised when the implementation does not support the requested type
     of object or operation.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr

     This is raised if data is specified for a node which does not
     support data.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr

     Raised on attempts to modify an object where modifications are not
     allowed (such as for read-only nodes).

 -- 例外: xml.dom.SyntaxErr

     Raised when an invalid or illegal string is specified.

 -- 例外: xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr

     Raised when a node is inserted in a different document than it
     currently belongs to, and the implementation does not support
     migrating the node from one document to the other.

The exception codes defined in the DOM recommendation map to the
exceptions described above according to this table:

常數                                       例外
                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                           
‘DOMSTRING_SIZE_ERR’                       *note DomstringSizeErr: 34fc.
                                           
                                           
‘HIERARCHY_REQUEST_ERR’                    *note HierarchyRequestErr: 34fd.
                                           
                                           
‘INDEX_SIZE_ERR’                           *note IndexSizeErr: 34fe.
                                           
                                           
‘INUSE_ATTRIBUTE_ERR’                      *note InuseAttributeErr: 34e6.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_ACCESS_ERR’                       *note InvalidAccessErr: 34ff.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_CHARACTER_ERR’                    *note InvalidCharacterErr: 3500.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_MODIFICATION_ERR’                 *note InvalidModificationErr: 3501.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_STATE_ERR’                        *note InvalidStateErr: 3502.
                                           
                                           
‘NAMESPACE_ERR’                            *note NamespaceErr: 3503.
                                           
                                           
‘NOT_FOUND_ERR’                            *note NotFoundErr: 34e1.
                                           
                                           
‘NOT_SUPPORTED_ERR’                        *note NotSupportedErr: 3504.
                                           
                                           
‘NO_DATA_ALLOWED_ERR’                      *note NoDataAllowedErr: 3505.
                                           
                                           
‘NO_MODIFICATION_ALLOWED_ERR’              *note NoModificationAllowedErr: 3506.
                                           
                                           
‘SYNTAX_ERR’                               *note SyntaxErr: 3507.
                                           
                                           
‘WRONG_DOCUMENT_ERR’                       *note WrongDocumentErr: 3508.
                                           

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/


File: python.info,  Node: Conformance,  Prev: Objects in the DOM,  Up: xml dom --- Document 物件模型 API

5.20.6.15 Conformance
.....................

This section describes the conformance requirements and relationships
between the Python DOM API, the W3C DOM recommendations, and the OMG IDL
mapping for Python.

* Menu:

* Type Mapping::
* Accessor Methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Type Mapping,  Next: Accessor Methods,  Up: Conformance

5.20.6.16 Type Mapping
......................

The IDL types used in the DOM specification are mapped to Python types
according to the following table.

IDL Type               Python Type
                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘boolean’              ‘bool’ 或 ‘int’
                       
                       
‘int’                  ‘int’
                       
                       
‘long int’             ‘int’
                       
                       
‘unsigned int’         ‘int’
                       
                       
‘DOMString’            ‘str’ 或 ‘bytes’
                       
                       
‘null’                 ‘None’
                       


File: python.info,  Node: Accessor Methods,  Prev: Type Mapping,  Up: Conformance

5.20.6.17 Accessor Methods
..........................

The mapping from OMG IDL to Python defines accessor functions for IDL
‘attribute’ declarations in much the way the Java mapping does.  Mapping
the IDL declarations

     readonly attribute string someValue;
              attribute string anotherValue;

yields three accessor functions: a "get" method for ‘someValue’
(‘_get_someValue()’), and "get" and "set" methods for ‘anotherValue’
(‘_get_anotherValue()’ and ‘_set_anotherValue()’).  The mapping, in
particular, does not require that the IDL attributes are accessible as
normal Python attributes: ‘object.someValue’ is 'not' required to work,
and may raise an *note AttributeError: 3ca.

The Python DOM API, however, 'does' require that normal attribute access
work.  This means that the typical surrogates generated by Python IDL
compilers are not likely to work, and wrapper objects may be needed on
the client if the DOM objects are accessed via CORBA. While this does
require some additional consideration for CORBA DOM clients, the
implementers with experience using DOM over CORBA from Python do not
consider this a problem.  Attributes that are declared ‘readonly’ may
not restrict write access in all DOM implementations.

In the Python DOM API, accessor functions are not required.  If
provided, they should take the form defined by the Python IDL mapping,
but these methods are considered unnecessary since the attributes are
accessible directly from Python.  "Set" accessors should never be
provided for ‘readonly’ attributes.

The IDL definitions do not fully embody the requirements of the W3C DOM
API, such as the notion of certain objects, such as the return value of
‘getElementsByTagName()’, being "live".  The Python DOM API does not
require implementations to enforce such requirements.


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作,  Next: xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹,  Prev: xml dom --- Document 物件模型 API,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.7 ‘xml.dom.minidom’ -- 最小的 DOM 實作
-------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note xml.dom.minidom: 11d. is a minimal implementation of the Document
Object Model interface, with an API similar to that in other languages.
It is intended to be simpler than the full DOM and also significantly
smaller.  Users who are not already proficient with the DOM should
consider using the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. module for their
XML processing instead.

     警告: The *note xml.dom.minidom: 11d. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML 漏洞: 3435.

DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM. With
*note xml.dom.minidom: 11d, this is done through the parse functions:

     from xml.dom.minidom import parse, parseString

     dom1 = parse('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')  # parse an XML file by name

     datasource = open('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')
     dom2 = parse(datasource)  # parse an open file

     dom3 = parseString('<myxml>Some data<empty/> some more data</myxml>')

The *note parse(): 3510. function can take either a filename or an open
file object.

 -- 函式: xml.dom.minidom.parse (filename_or_file, parser=None,
          bufsize=None)

     Return a ‘Document’ from the given input.  'filename_or_file' may
     be either a file name, or a file-like object.  'parser', if given,
     must be a SAX2 parser object.  This function will change the
     document handler of the parser and activate namespace support;
     other parser configuration (like setting an entity resolver) must
     have been done in advance.

If you have XML in a string, you can use the *note parseString(): 3511.
function instead:

 -- 函式: xml.dom.minidom.parseString (string, parser=None)

     Return a ‘Document’ that represents the 'string'.  This method
     creates an *note io.StringIO: db1. object for the string and passes
     that on to *note parse(): 3510.

Both functions return a ‘Document’ object representing the content of
the document.

What the *note parse(): 3510. and *note parseString(): 3511. functions
do is connect an XML parser with a "DOM builder" that can accept parse
events from any SAX parser and convert them into a DOM tree.  The name
of the functions are perhaps misleading, but are easy to grasp when
learning the interfaces.  The parsing of the document will be completed
before these functions return; it's simply that these functions do not
provide a parser implementation themselves.

You can also create a ‘Document’ by calling a method on a "DOM
Implementation" object.  You can get this object either by calling the
‘getDOMImplementation()’ function in the *note xml.dom: 11c. package or
the *note xml.dom.minidom: 11d. module.  Once you have a ‘Document’, you
can add child nodes to it to populate the DOM:

     from xml.dom.minidom import getDOMImplementation

     impl = getDOMImplementation()

     newdoc = impl.createDocument(None, "some_tag", None)
     top_element = newdoc.documentElement
     text = newdoc.createTextNode('Some textual content.')
     top_element.appendChild(text)

Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your
XML document through its properties and methods.  These properties are
defined in the DOM specification.  The main property of the document
object is the ‘documentElement’ property.  It gives you the main element
in the XML document: the one that holds all others.  Here is an example
program:

     dom3 = parseString("<myxml>Some data</myxml>")
     assert dom3.documentElement.tagName == "myxml"

When you are finished with a DOM tree, you may optionally call the
‘unlink()’ method to encourage early cleanup of the now-unneeded
objects.  ‘unlink()’ is an *note xml.dom.minidom: 11d.-specific
extension to the DOM API that renders the node and its descendants
essentially useless.  Otherwise, Python's garbage collector will
eventually take care of the objects in the tree.

也參考
......

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification(2)

     The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 11d.

* Menu:

* DOM 物件::
* DOM 範例::
* minidom and the DOM standard::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/


File: python.info,  Node: DOM 物件,  Next: DOM 範例,  Up: xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作

5.20.7.1 DOM 物件
.................

The definition of the DOM API for Python is given as part of the *note
xml.dom: 11c. module documentation.  This section lists the differences
between the API and *note xml.dom.minidom: 11d.

 -- 方法: Node.unlink ()

     Break internal references within the DOM so that it will be garbage
     collected on versions of Python without cyclic GC. Even when cyclic
     GC is available, using this can make large amounts of memory
     available sooner, so calling this on DOM objects as soon as they
     are no longer needed is good practice.  This only needs to be
     called on the ‘Document’ object, but may be called on child nodes
     to discard children of that node.

     You can avoid calling this method explicitly by using the *note
     with: 3c5. statement.  The following code will automatically unlink
     'dom' when the ‘with’ block is exited:

          with xml.dom.minidom.parse(datasource) as dom:
              ... # Work with dom.

 -- 方法: Node.writexml (writer, indent='', addindent='', newl='',
          encoding=None, standalone=None)

     Write XML to the writer object.  The writer receives texts but not
     bytes as input, it should have a ‘write()’ method which matches
     that of the file object interface.  The 'indent' parameter is the
     indentation of the current node.  The 'addindent' parameter is the
     incremental indentation to use for subnodes of the current one.
     The 'newl' parameter specifies the string to use to terminate
     newlines.

     For the ‘Document’ node, an additional keyword argument 'encoding'
     can be used to specify the encoding field of the XML header.

     Similarly, explicitly stating the 'standalone' argument causes the
     standalone document declarations to be added to the prologue of the
     XML document.  If the value is set to ‘True’, ‘standalone="yes"’ is
     added, otherwise it is set to ‘"no"’.  Not stating the argument
     will omit the declaration from the document.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The *note writexml(): 3515. method now preserves
     the attribute order specified by the user.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'standalone' 參數。

 -- 方法: Node.toxml (encoding=None, standalone=None)

     Return a string or byte string containing the XML represented by
     the DOM node.

     With an explicit 'encoding' (1) argument, the result is a byte
     string in the specified encoding.  With no 'encoding' argument, the
     result is a Unicode string, and the XML declaration in the
     resulting string does not specify an encoding.  Encoding this
     string in an encoding other than UTF-8 is likely incorrect, since
     UTF-8 is the default encoding of XML.

     The 'standalone' argument behaves exactly as in *note writexml():
     3515.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The *note toxml(): 133e. method now preserves the
     attribute order specified by the user.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'standalone' 參數。

 -- 方法: Node.toprettyxml (indent='\t', newl='\n', encoding=None,
          standalone=None)

     Return a pretty-printed version of the document.  'indent'
     specifies the indentation string and defaults to a tabulator;
     'newl' specifies the string emitted at the end of each line and
     defaults to ‘\n’.

     The 'encoding' argument behaves like the corresponding argument of
     *note toxml(): 133e.

     The 'standalone' argument behaves exactly as in *note writexml():
     3515.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The *note toprettyxml(): 133f. method now
     preserves the attribute order specified by the user.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'standalone' 參數。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding name included in the XML output should conform to
the appropriate standards.  For example, "UTF-8" is valid, but "UTF8" is
not valid in an XML document's declaration, even though Python accepts
it as an encoding name.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: DOM 範例,  Next: minidom and the DOM standard,  Prev: DOM 物件,  Up: xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作

5.20.7.2 DOM 範例
.................

This example program is a fairly realistic example of a simple program.
In this particular case, we do not take much advantage of the
flexibility of the DOM.

     import xml.dom.minidom

     document = """\
     <slideshow>
     <title>Demo slideshow</title>
     <slide><title>Slide title</title>
     <point>This is a demo</point>
     <point>Of a program for processing slides</point>
     </slide>

     <slide><title>Another demo slide</title>
     <point>It is important</point>
     <point>To have more than</point>
     <point>one slide</point>
     </slide>
     </slideshow>
     """

     dom = xml.dom.minidom.parseString(document)

     def getText(nodelist):
         rc = []
         for node in nodelist:
             if node.nodeType == node.TEXT_NODE:
                 rc.append(node.data)
         return ''.join(rc)

     def handleSlideshow(slideshow):
         print("<html>")
         handleSlideshowTitle(slideshow.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
         slides = slideshow.getElementsByTagName("slide")
         handleToc(slides)
         handleSlides(slides)
         print("</html>")

     def handleSlides(slides):
         for slide in slides:
             handleSlide(slide)

     def handleSlide(slide):
         handleSlideTitle(slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
         handlePoints(slide.getElementsByTagName("point"))

     def handleSlideshowTitle(title):
         print(f"<title>{getText(title.childNodes)}</title>")

     def handleSlideTitle(title):
         print(f"<h2>{getText(title.childNodes)}</h2>")

     def handlePoints(points):
         print("<ul>")
         for point in points:
             handlePoint(point)
         print("</ul>")

     def handlePoint(point):
         print(f"<li>{getText(point.childNodes)}</li>")

     def handleToc(slides):
         for slide in slides:
             title = slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0]
             print(f"<p>{getText(title.childNodes)}</p>")

     handleSlideshow(dom)


File: python.info,  Node: minidom and the DOM standard,  Prev: DOM 範例,  Up: xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作

5.20.7.3 minidom and the DOM standard
.....................................

The *note xml.dom.minidom: 11d. module is essentially a DOM
1.0-compatible DOM with some DOM 2 features (primarily namespace
features).

Usage of the DOM interface in Python is straight-forward.  The following
mapping rules apply:

   * Interfaces are accessed through instance objects.  Applications
     should not instantiate the classes themselves; they should use the
     creator functions available on the ‘Document’ object.  Derived
     interfaces support all operations (and attributes) from the base
     interfaces, plus any new operations.

   * Operations are used as methods.  Since the DOM uses only *note in:
     267. parameters, the arguments are passed in normal order (from
     left to right).  There are no optional arguments.  ‘void’
     operations return ‘None’.

   * IDL attributes map to instance attributes.  For compatibility with
     the OMG IDL language mapping for Python, an attribute ‘foo’ can
     also be accessed through accessor methods ‘_get_foo()’ and
     ‘_set_foo()’.  ‘readonly’ attributes must not be changed; this is
     not enforced at runtime.

   * The types ‘short int’, ‘unsigned int’, ‘unsigned long long’, and
     ‘boolean’ all map to Python integer objects.

   * The type ‘DOMString’ maps to Python strings.  *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 11d. supports either bytes or strings, but will
     normally produce strings.  Values of type ‘DOMString’ may also be
     ‘None’ where allowed to have the IDL ‘null’ value by the DOM
     specification from the W3C.

   * ‘const’ declarations map to variables in their respective scope
     (e.g.  ‘xml.dom.minidom.Node.PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’); they
     must not be changed.

   * ‘DOMException’ is currently not supported in *note xml.dom.minidom:
     11d.  Instead, *note xml.dom.minidom: 11d. uses standard Python
     exceptions such as *note TypeError: 2ba. and *note AttributeError:
     3ca.

   * ‘NodeList’ objects are implemented using Python's built-in list
     type.  These objects provide the interface defined in the DOM
     specification, but with earlier versions of Python they do not
     support the official API. They are, however, much more "Pythonic"
     than the interface defined in the W3C recommendations.

The following interfaces have no implementation in *note
xml.dom.minidom: 11d.:

   * ‘DOMTimeStamp’

   * ‘EntityReference’

Most of these reflect information in the XML document that is not of
general utility to most DOM users.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹,  Next: xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援,  Prev: xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.8 ‘xml.dom.pulldom’ -- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹
-----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note xml.dom.pulldom: 11e. module provides a "pull parser" which
can also be asked to produce DOM-accessible fragments of the document
where necessary.  The basic concept involves pulling "events" from a
stream of incoming XML and processing them.  In contrast to SAX which
also employs an event-driven processing model together with callbacks,
the user of a pull parser is responsible for explicitly pulling events
from the stream, looping over those events until either processing is
finished or an error condition occurs.

     警告: The *note xml.dom.pulldom: 11e. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML 漏洞: 3435.

在 3.7.1 版的變更: The SAX parser no longer processes general external
entities by default to increase security by default.  To enable
processing of external entities, pass a custom parser instance in:

     from xml.dom.pulldom import parse
     from xml.sax import make_parser
     from xml.sax.handler import feature_external_ges

     parser = make_parser()
     parser.setFeature(feature_external_ges, True)
     parse(filename, parser=parser)

範例：

     from xml.dom import pulldom

     doc = pulldom.parse('sales_items.xml')
     for event, node in doc:
         if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'item':
             if int(node.getAttribute('price')) > 50:
                 doc.expandNode(node)
                 print(node.toxml())

‘event’ is a constant and can be one of:

   * ‘START_ELEMENT’

   * ‘END_ELEMENT’

   * ‘COMMENT’

   * ‘START_DOCUMENT’

   * ‘END_DOCUMENT’

   * ‘CHARACTERS’

   * ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION’

   * ‘IGNORABLE_WHITESPACE’

‘node’ is an object of type ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’,
‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’ or ‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’.

Since the document is treated as a "flat" stream of events, the document
"tree" is implicitly traversed and the desired elements are found
regardless of their depth in the tree.  In other words, one does not
need to consider hierarchical issues such as recursive searching of the
document nodes, although if the context of elements were important, one
would either need to maintain some context-related state (i.e.
remembering where one is in the document at any given point) or to make
use of the *note DOMEventStream.expandNode(): 351c. method and switch to
DOM-related processing.

 -- 類別: xml.dom.pulldom.PullDom (documentFactory=None)

     Subclass of *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 351e.

 -- 類別: xml.dom.pulldom.SAX2DOM (documentFactory=None)

     Subclass of *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 351e.

 -- 函式: xml.dom.pulldom.parse (stream_or_string, parser=None,
          bufsize=None)

     Return a *note DOMEventStream: 545. from the given input.
     'stream_or_string' may be either a file name, or a file-like
     object.  'parser', if given, must be an *note XMLReader: 3521.
     object.  This function will change the document handler of the
     parser and activate namespace support; other parser configuration
     (like setting an entity resolver) must have been done in advance.

If you have XML in a string, you can use the *note parseString(): 3522.
function instead:

 -- 函式: xml.dom.pulldom.parseString (string, parser=None)

     Return a *note DOMEventStream: 545. that represents the (Unicode)
     'string'.

 -- 資料: xml.dom.pulldom.default_bufsize

     Default value for the 'bufsize' parameter to *note parse(): 3520.

     The value of this variable can be changed before calling *note
     parse(): 3520. and the new value will take effect.

* Menu:

* DOMEventStream 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py


File: python.info,  Node: DOMEventStream 物件,  Up: xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹

5.20.8.1 DOMEventStream 物件
............................

 -- 類別: xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream (stream, parser, bufsize)

     在 3.11 版的變更: Support for *note __getitem__(): 4e7. method has
     been removed.

      -- 方法: getEvent ()

          Return a tuple containing 'event' and the current 'node' as
          ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’ if event equals ‘START_DOCUMENT’,
          ‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’ if event equals ‘START_ELEMENT’ or
          ‘END_ELEMENT’ or ‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’ if event equals
          ‘CHARACTERS’.  The current node does not contain information
          about its children, unless *note expandNode(): 351c. is
          called.

      -- 方法: expandNode (node)

          Expands all children of 'node' into 'node'.  Example:

               from xml.dom import pulldom

               xml = '<html><title>Foo</title> <p>Some text <div>and more</div></p> </html>'
               doc = pulldom.parseString(xml)
               for event, node in doc:
                   if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'p':
                       # Following statement only prints '<p/>'
                       print(node.toxml())
                       doc.expandNode(node)
                       # Following statement prints node with all its children '<p>Some text <div>and more</div></p>'
                       print(node.toxml())

      -- 方法: reset ()


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援,  Next: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別,  Prev: xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.9 ‘xml.sax’ -- SAX2 剖析器支援
-----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note xml.sax: 124. package provides a number of modules which
implement the Simple API for XML (SAX) interface for Python.  The
package itself provides the SAX exceptions and the convenience functions
which will be most used by users of the SAX API.

     警告: The *note xml.sax: 124. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML 漏洞: 3435.

在 3.7.1 版的變更: The SAX parser no longer processes general external
entities by default to increase security.  Before, the parser created
network connections to fetch remote files or loaded local files from the
file system for DTD and entities.  The feature can be enabled again with
method *note setFeature(): 352a. on the parser object and argument *note
feature_external_ges: 352b.

The convenience functions are:

 -- 函式: xml.sax.make_parser (parser_list=[])

     Create and return a SAX *note XMLReader: 3521. object.  The first
     parser found will be used.  If 'parser_list' is provided, it must
     be an iterable of strings which name modules that have a function
     named ‘create_parser()’.  Modules listed in 'parser_list' will be
     used before modules in the default list of parsers.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The 'parser_list' argument can be any iterable,
     not just a list.

 -- 函式: xml.sax.parse (filename_or_stream, handler,
          error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

     Create a SAX parser and use it to parse a document.  The document,
     passed in as 'filename_or_stream', can be a filename or a file
     object.  The 'handler' parameter needs to be a SAX *note
     ContentHandler: 351e. instance.  If 'error_handler' is given, it
     must be a SAX *note ErrorHandler: 352c. instance; if omitted, *note
     SAXParseException: 352d. will be raised on all errors.  There is no
     return value; all work must be done by the 'handler' passed in.

 -- 函式: xml.sax.parseString (string, handler,
          error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

     Similar to *note parse(): 17e9, but parses from a buffer 'string'
     received as a parameter.  'string' must be a *note str: 157.
     instance or a *note bytes-like object: b9f.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 *note str: 157. 實例的支援。

A typical SAX application uses three kinds of objects: readers, handlers
and input sources.  "Reader" in this context is another term for parser,
i.e.  some piece of code that reads the bytes or characters from the
input source, and produces a sequence of events.  The events then get
distributed to the handler objects, i.e.  the reader invokes a method on
the handler.  A SAX application must therefore obtain a reader object,
create or open the input sources, create the handlers, and connect these
objects all together.  As the final step of preparation, the reader is
called to parse the input.  During parsing, methods on the handler
objects are called based on structural and syntactic events from the
input data.

For these objects, only the interfaces are relevant; they are normally
not instantiated by the application itself.  Since Python does not have
an explicit notion of interface, they are formally introduced as
classes, but applications may use implementations which do not inherit
from the provided classes.  The *note InputSource: d1b, *note Locator:
352e, ‘Attributes’, ‘AttributesNS’, and *note XMLReader: 3521.
interfaces are defined in the module *note xml.sax.xmlreader: 127.  The
handler interfaces are defined in *note xml.sax.handler: 125.  For
convenience, *note InputSource: d1b. (which is often instantiated
directly) and the handler classes are also available from *note xml.sax:
124.  These interfaces are described below.

In addition to these classes, *note xml.sax: 124. provides the following
exception classes.

 -- 例外: xml.sax.SAXException (msg, exception=None)

     Encapsulate an XML error or warning.  This class can contain basic
     error or warning information from either the XML parser or the
     application: it can be subclassed to provide additional
     functionality or to add localization.  Note that although the
     handlers defined in the *note ErrorHandler: 352c. interface receive
     instances of this exception, it is not required to actually raise
     the exception -- it is also useful as a container for information.

     When instantiated, 'msg' should be a human-readable description of
     the error.  The optional 'exception' parameter, if given, should be
     ‘None’ or an exception that was caught by the parsing code and is
     being passed along as information.

     This is the base class for the other SAX exception classes.

 -- 例外: xml.sax.SAXParseException (msg, exception, locator)

     Subclass of *note SAXException: 352f. raised on parse errors.
     Instances of this class are passed to the methods of the SAX *note
     ErrorHandler: 352c. interface to provide information about the
     parse error.  This class supports the SAX *note Locator: 352e.
     interface as well as the *note SAXException: 352f. interface.

 -- 例外: xml.sax.SAXNotRecognizedException (msg, exception=None)

     Subclass of *note SAXException: 352f. raised when a SAX *note
     XMLReader: 3521. is confronted with an unrecognized feature or
     property.  SAX applications and extensions may use this class for
     similar purposes.

 -- 例外: xml.sax.SAXNotSupportedException (msg, exception=None)

     Subclass of *note SAXException: 352f. raised when a SAX *note
     XMLReader: 3521. is asked to enable a feature that is not
     supported, or to set a property to a value that the implementation
     does not support.  SAX applications and extensions may use this
     class for similar purposes.

也參考
......

SAX: The Simple API for XML(2)

     This site is the focal point for the definition of the SAX API. It
     provides a Java implementation and online documentation.  Links to
     implementations and historical information are also available.

*note xml.sax.handler: 125. 模組

     Definitions of the interfaces for application-provided objects.

*note xml.sax.saxutils: 126. 模組

     Convenience functions for use in SAX applications.

*note xml.sax.xmlreader: 127. 模組

     Definitions of the interfaces for parser-provided objects.

* Menu:

* SAXException 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py

   (2) http://www.saxproject.org/


File: python.info,  Node: SAXException 物件,  Up: xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援

5.20.9.1 SAXException 物件
..........................

The *note SAXException: 352f. exception class supports the following
methods:

 -- 方法: SAXException.getMessage ()

     Return a human-readable message describing the error condition.

 -- 方法: SAXException.getException ()

     Return an encapsulated exception object, or ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別,  Next: xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式,  Prev: xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.10 ‘xml.sax.handler’ -- SAX 處理函式的基本類別
---------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xml/sax/handler.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The SAX API defines five kinds of handlers: content handlers, DTD
handlers, error handlers, entity resolvers and lexical handlers.
Applications normally only need to implement those interfaces whose
events they are interested in; they can implement the interfaces in a
single object or in multiple objects.  Handler implementations should
inherit from the base classes provided in the module *note
xml.sax.handler: 125, so that all methods get default implementations.

 -- 類別: xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler

     This is the main callback interface in SAX, and the one most
     important to applications.  The order of events in this interface
     mirrors the order of the information in the document.

 -- 類別: xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler

     Handle DTD events.

     This interface specifies only those DTD events required for basic
     parsing (unparsed entities and attributes).

 -- 類別: xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver

     Basic interface for resolving entities.  If you create an object
     implementing this interface, then register the object with your
     Parser, the parser will call the method in your object to resolve
     all external entities.

 -- 類別: xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler

     Interface used by the parser to present error and warning messages
     to the application.  The methods of this object control whether
     errors are immediately converted to exceptions or are handled in
     some other way.

 -- 類別: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler

     Interface used by the parser to represent low frequency events
     which may not be of interest to many applications.

In addition to these classes, *note xml.sax.handler: 125. provides
symbolic constants for the feature and property names.

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespaces"’
          true: Perform Namespace processing.
          false: Optionally do not perform Namespace processing (implies namespace-prefixes; default).
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespace_prefixes

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespace-prefixes"’
          true: Report the original prefixed names and attributes used for Namespace declarations.
          false: Do not report attributes used for Namespace declarations, and optionally do not report original prefixed names (default).
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.feature_string_interning

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/string-interning"’
          true: All element names, prefixes, attribute names, Namespace URIs, and local names are interned using the built-in intern function.
          false: Names are not necessarily interned, although they may be (default).
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.feature_validation

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/validation"’
          true: Report all validation errors (implies external-general-entities and external-parameter-entities).
          false: Do not report validation errors.
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-general-entities"’
          true: Include all external general (text) entities.
          false: Do not include external general entities.
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_pes

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-parameter-entities"’
          true: Include all external parameter entities, including the external DTD subset.
          false: Do not include any external parameter entities, even the external DTD subset.
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.all_features

     List of all features.

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.property_lexical_handler

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler"’
          data type: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler (not supported in Python 2)
          description: An optional extension handler for lexical events like comments.
          access: read/write

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.property_declaration_handler

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/declaration-handler"’
          data type: xml.sax.sax2lib.DeclHandler (not supported in Python 2)
          description: An optional extension handler for DTD-related events other than notations and unparsed entities.
          access: read/write

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.property_dom_node

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/dom-node"’
          data type: org.w3c.dom.Node (not supported in Python 2)
          description: When parsing, the current DOM node being visited if this is a DOM iterator; when not parsing, the root DOM node for iteration.
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.property_xml_string

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/xml-string"’
          data type: Bytes
          description: The literal string of characters that was the source for the current event.
          access: read-only

 -- 資料: xml.sax.handler.all_properties

     List of all known property names.

* Menu:

* ContentHandler 物件::
* DTDHandler 物件::
* EntityResolver 物件::
* ErrorHandler 物件::
* LexicalHandler 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/sax/handler.py


File: python.info,  Node: ContentHandler 物件,  Next: DTDHandler 物件,  Up: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別

5.20.10.1 ContentHandler 物件
.............................

Users are expected to subclass *note ContentHandler: 351e. to support
their application.  The following methods are called by the parser on
the appropriate events in the input document:

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator (locator)

     Called by the parser to give the application a locator for locating
     the origin of document events.

     SAX parsers are strongly encouraged (though not absolutely
     required) to supply a locator: if it does so, it must supply the
     locator to the application by invoking this method before invoking
     any of the other methods in the DocumentHandler interface.

     The locator allows the application to determine the end position of
     any document-related event, even if the parser is not reporting an
     error.  Typically, the application will use this information for
     reporting its own errors (such as character content that does not
     match an application's business rules).  The information returned
     by the locator is probably not sufficient for use with a search
     engine.

     Note that the locator will return correct information only during
     the invocation of the events in this interface.  The application
     should not attempt to use it at any other time.

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.startDocument ()

     Receive notification of the beginning of a document.

     The SAX parser will invoke this method only once, before any other
     methods in this interface or in DTDHandler (except for *note
     setDocumentLocator(): 3547.).

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.endDocument ()

     Receive notification of the end of a document.

     The SAX parser will invoke this method only once, and it will be
     the last method invoked during the parse.  The parser shall not
     invoke this method until it has either abandoned parsing (because
     of an unrecoverable error) or reached the end of input.

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping (prefix, uri)

     Begin the scope of a prefix-URI Namespace mapping.

     The information from this event is not necessary for normal
     Namespace processing: the SAX XML reader will automatically replace
     prefixes for element and attribute names when the
     ‘feature_namespaces’ feature is enabled (the default).

     There are cases, however, when applications need to use prefixes in
     character data or in attribute values, where they cannot safely be
     expanded automatically; the *note startPrefixMapping(): 354a. and
     *note endPrefixMapping(): 354b. events supply the information to
     the application to expand prefixes in those contexts itself, if
     necessary.

     Note that *note startPrefixMapping(): 354a. and *note
     endPrefixMapping(): 354b. events are not guaranteed to be properly
     nested relative to each-other: all *note startPrefixMapping():
     354a. events will occur before the corresponding *note
     startElement(): 13ba. event, and all *note endPrefixMapping():
     354b. events will occur after the corresponding *note endElement():
     13bb. event, but their order is not guaranteed.

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping (prefix)

     End the scope of a prefix-URI mapping.

     See *note startPrefixMapping(): 354a. for details.  This event will
     always occur after the corresponding *note endElement(): 13bb.
     event, but the order of *note endPrefixMapping(): 354b. events is
     not otherwise guaranteed.

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.startElement (name, attrs)

     Signals the start of an element in non-namespace mode.

     The 'name' parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name of the element
     type as a string and the 'attrs' parameter holds an object of the
     ‘Attributes’ interface (see *note The Attributes Interface: 354c.)
     containing the attributes of the element.  The object passed as
     'attrs' may be re-used by the parser; holding on to a reference to
     it is not a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes.  To keep
     a copy of the attributes, use the *note copy(): 23. method of the
     'attrs' object.

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.endElement (name)

     Signals the end of an element in non-namespace mode.

     The 'name' parameter contains the name of the element type, just as
     with the *note startElement(): 13ba. event.

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.startElementNS (name, qname, attrs)

     Signals the start of an element in namespace mode.

     The 'name' parameter contains the name of the element type as a
     ‘(uri, localname)’ tuple, the 'qname' parameter contains the raw
     XML 1.0 name used in the source document, and the 'attrs' parameter
     holds an instance of the ‘AttributesNS’ interface (see *note The
     AttributesNS Interface: 354e.) containing the attributes of the
     element.  If no namespace is associated with the element, the 'uri'
     component of 'name' will be ‘None’.  The object passed as 'attrs'
     may be re-used by the parser; holding on to a reference to it is
     not a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes.  To keep a
     copy of the attributes, use the *note copy(): 23. method of the
     'attrs' object.

     Parsers may set the 'qname' parameter to ‘None’, unless the
     ‘feature_namespace_prefixes’ feature is activated.

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.endElementNS (name, qname)

     Signals the end of an element in namespace mode.

     The 'name' parameter contains the name of the element type, just as
     with the *note startElementNS(): 354d. method, likewise the 'qname'
     parameter.

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.characters (content)

     Receive notification of character data.

     The Parser will call this method to report each chunk of character
     data.  SAX parsers may return all contiguous character data in a
     single chunk, or they may split it into several chunks; however,
     all of the characters in any single event must come from the same
     external entity so that the Locator provides useful information.

     'content' may be a string or bytes instance; the ‘expat’ reader
     module always produces strings.

          備註: The earlier SAX 1 interface provided by the Python XML
          Special Interest Group used a more Java-like interface for
          this method.  Since most parsers used from Python did not take
          advantage of the older interface, the simpler signature was
          chosen to replace it.  To convert old code to the new
          interface, use 'content' instead of slicing content with the
          old 'offset' and 'length' parameters.

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace (whitespace)

     Receive notification of ignorable whitespace in element content.

     Validating Parsers must use this method to report each chunk of
     ignorable whitespace (see the W3C XML 1.0 recommendation, section
     2.10): non-validating parsers may also use this method if they are
     capable of parsing and using content models.

     SAX parsers may return all contiguous whitespace in a single chunk,
     or they may split it into several chunks; however, all of the
     characters in any single event must come from the same external
     entity, so that the Locator provides useful information.

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.processingInstruction (target, data)

     Receive notification of a processing instruction.

     The Parser will invoke this method once for each processing
     instruction found: note that processing instructions may occur
     before or after the main document element.

     A SAX parser should never report an XML declaration (XML 1.0,
     section 2.8) or a text declaration (XML 1.0, section 4.3.1) using
     this method.

 -- 方法: ContentHandler.skippedEntity (name)

     Receive notification of a skipped entity.

     The Parser will invoke this method once for each entity skipped.
     Non-validating processors may skip entities if they have not seen
     the declarations (because, for example, the entity was declared in
     an external DTD subset).  All processors may skip external
     entities, depending on the values of the ‘feature_external_ges’ and
     the ‘feature_external_pes’ properties.


File: python.info,  Node: DTDHandler 物件,  Next: EntityResolver 物件,  Prev: ContentHandler 物件,  Up: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別

5.20.10.2 DTDHandler 物件
.........................

*note DTDHandler: 3538. instances provide the following methods:

 -- 方法: DTDHandler.notationDecl (name, publicId, systemId)

     Handle a notation declaration event.

 -- 方法: DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl (name, publicId, systemId,
          ndata)

     Handle an unparsed entity declaration event.


File: python.info,  Node: EntityResolver 物件,  Next: ErrorHandler 物件,  Prev: DTDHandler 物件,  Up: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別

5.20.10.3 EntityResolver 物件
.............................

 -- 方法: EntityResolver.resolveEntity (publicId, systemId)

     Resolve the system identifier of an entity and return either the
     system identifier to read from as a string, or an InputSource to
     read from.  The default implementation returns 'systemId'.


File: python.info,  Node: ErrorHandler 物件,  Next: LexicalHandler 物件,  Prev: EntityResolver 物件,  Up: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別

5.20.10.4 ErrorHandler 物件
...........................

Objects with this interface are used to receive error and warning
information from the *note XMLReader: 3521.  If you create an object
that implements this interface, then register the object with your *note
XMLReader: 3521, the parser will call the methods in your object to
report all warnings and errors.  There are three levels of errors
available: warnings, (possibly) recoverable errors, and unrecoverable
errors.  All methods take a *note SAXParseException: 352d. as the only
parameter.  Errors and warnings may be converted to an exception by
raising the passed-in exception object.

 -- 方法: ErrorHandler.error (exception)

     Called when the parser encounters a recoverable error.  If this
     method does not raise an exception, parsing may continue, but
     further document information should not be expected by the
     application.  Allowing the parser to continue may allow additional
     errors to be discovered in the input document.

 -- 方法: ErrorHandler.fatalError (exception)

     Called when the parser encounters an error it cannot recover from;
     parsing is expected to terminate when this method returns.

 -- 方法: ErrorHandler.warning (exception)

     Called when the parser presents minor warning information to the
     application.  Parsing is expected to continue when this method
     returns, and document information will continue to be passed to the
     application.  Raising an exception in this method will cause
     parsing to end.


File: python.info,  Node: LexicalHandler 物件,  Prev: ErrorHandler 物件,  Up: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別

5.20.10.5 LexicalHandler 物件
.............................

Optional SAX2 handler for lexical events.

This handler is used to obtain lexical information about an XML
document.  Lexical information includes information describing the
document encoding used and XML comments embedded in the document, as
well as section boundaries for the DTD and for any CDATA sections.  The
lexical handlers are used in the same manner as content handlers.

Set the LexicalHandler of an XMLReader by using the setProperty method
with the property identifier
‘'http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler'’.

 -- 方法: LexicalHandler.comment (content)

     Reports a comment anywhere in the document (including the DTD and
     outside the document element).

 -- 方法: LexicalHandler.startDTD (name, public_id, system_id)

     Reports the start of the DTD declarations if the document has an
     associated DTD.

 -- 方法: LexicalHandler.endDTD ()

     Reports the end of DTD declaration.

 -- 方法: LexicalHandler.startCDATA ()

     Reports the start of a CDATA marked section.

     The contents of the CDATA marked section will be reported through
     the characters handler.

 -- 方法: LexicalHandler.endCDATA ()

     Reports the end of a CDATA marked section.


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式,  Next: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面,  Prev: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.11 ‘xml.sax.saxutils’ -- SAX 工具程式
------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The module *note xml.sax.saxutils: 126. contains a number of classes and
functions that are commonly useful when creating SAX applications,
either in direct use, or as base classes.

 -- 函式: xml.sax.saxutils.escape (data, entities={})

     Escape ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’, and ‘'>'’ in a string of data.

     You can escape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as the
     optional 'entities' parameter.  The keys and values must all be
     strings; each key will be replaced with its corresponding value.
     The characters ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’ and ‘'>'’ are always escaped, even if
     'entities' is provided.

          備註: This function should only be used to escape characters
          that can't be used directly in XML. Do not use this function
          as a general string translation function.

 -- 函式: xml.sax.saxutils.unescape (data, entities={})

     Unescape ‘'&amp;'’, ‘'&lt;'’, and ‘'&gt;'’ in a string of data.

     You can unescape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as
     the optional 'entities' parameter.  The keys and values must all be
     strings; each key will be replaced with its corresponding value.
     ‘'&amp'’, ‘'&lt;'’, and ‘'&gt;'’ are always unescaped, even if
     'entities' is provided.

 -- 函式: xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr (data, entities={})

     Similar to *note escape(): 3568, but also prepares 'data' to be
     used as an attribute value.  The return value is a quoted version
     of 'data' with any additional required replacements.  *note
     quoteattr(): 356a. will select a quote character based on the
     content of 'data', attempting to avoid encoding any quote
     characters in the string.  If both single- and double-quote
     characters are already in 'data', the double-quote characters will
     be encoded and 'data' will be wrapped in double-quotes.  The
     resulting string can be used directly as an attribute value:

          >>> print("<element attr=%s>" % quoteattr("ab ' cd \" ef"))
          <element attr="ab ' cd &quot; ef">

     This function is useful when generating attribute values for HTML
     or any SGML using the reference concrete syntax.

 -- 類別: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator (out=None,
          encoding='iso-8859-1', short_empty_elements=False)

     This class implements the *note ContentHandler: 351e. interface by
     writing SAX events back into an XML document.  In other words,
     using an *note XMLGenerator: 356b. as the content handler will
     reproduce the original document being parsed.  'out' should be a
     file-like object which will default to 'sys.stdout'.  'encoding' is
     the encoding of the output stream which defaults to ‘'iso-8859-1'’.
     'short_empty_elements' controls the formatting of elements that
     contain no content: if ‘False’ (the default) they are emitted as a
     pair of start/end tags, if set to ‘True’ they are emitted as a
     single self-closed tag.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'short_empty_elements' 參數。

 -- 類別: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLFilterBase (base)

     This class is designed to sit between an *note XMLReader: 3521. and
     the client application's event handlers.  By default, it does
     nothing but pass requests up to the reader and events on to the
     handlers unmodified, but subclasses can override specific methods
     to modify the event stream or the configuration requests as they
     pass through.

 -- 函式: xml.sax.saxutils.prepare_input_source (source, base='')

     This function takes an input source and an optional base URL and
     returns a fully resolved *note InputSource: d1b. object ready for
     reading.  The input source can be given as a string, a file-like
     object, or an *note InputSource: d1b. object; parsers will use this
     function to implement the polymorphic 'source' argument to their
     *note parse(): 356e. method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面,  Next: xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析,  Prev: xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.12 ‘xml.sax.xmlreader’ -- XML 剖析器的介面
-----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

SAX parsers implement the *note XMLReader: 3521. interface.  They are
implemented in a Python module, which must provide a function
‘create_parser()’.  This function is invoked by *note
xml.sax.make_parser(): 1824. with no arguments to create a new parser
object.

 -- 類別: xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader

     Base class which can be inherited by SAX parsers.

 -- 類別: xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser

     In some cases, it is desirable not to parse an input source at
     once, but to feed chunks of the document as they get available.
     Note that the reader will normally not read the entire file, but
     read it in chunks as well; still ‘parse()’ won't return until the
     entire document is processed.  So these interfaces should be used
     if the blocking behaviour of ‘parse()’ is not desirable.

     When the parser is instantiated it is ready to begin accepting data
     from the feed method immediately.  After parsing has been finished
     with a call to close the reset method must be called to make the
     parser ready to accept new data, either from feed or using the
     parse method.

     Note that these methods must 'not' be called during parsing, that
     is, after parse has been called and before it returns.

     By default, the class also implements the parse method of the
     XMLReader interface using the feed, close and reset methods of the
     IncrementalParser interface as a convenience to SAX 2.0 driver
     writers.

 -- 類別: xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator

     Interface for associating a SAX event with a document location.  A
     locator object will return valid results only during calls to
     DocumentHandler methods; at any other time, the results are
     unpredictable.  If information is not available, methods may return
     ‘None’.

 -- 類別: xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource (system_id=None)

     Encapsulation of the information needed by the *note XMLReader:
     3521. to read entities.

     This class may include information about the public identifier,
     system identifier, byte stream (possibly with character encoding
     information) and/or the character stream of an entity.

     Applications will create objects of this class for use in the *note
     XMLReader.parse(): 356e. method and for returning from
     EntityResolver.resolveEntity.

     An *note InputSource: d1b. belongs to the application, the *note
     XMLReader: 3521. is not allowed to modify *note InputSource: d1b.
     objects passed to it from the application, although it may make
     copies and modify those.

 -- 類別: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl (attrs)

     This is an implementation of the ‘Attributes’ interface (see
     section *note The Attributes Interface: 354c.).  This is a
     dictionary-like object which represents the element attributes in a
     ‘startElement()’ call.  In addition to the most useful dictionary
     operations, it supports a number of other methods as described by
     the interface.  Objects of this class should be instantiated by
     readers; 'attrs' must be a dictionary-like object containing a
     mapping from attribute names to attribute values.

 -- 類別: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNSImpl (attrs, qnames)

     Namespace-aware variant of *note AttributesImpl: 3572, which will
     be passed to ‘startElementNS()’.  It is derived from *note
     AttributesImpl: 3572, but understands attribute names as two-tuples
     of 'namespaceURI' and 'localname'.  In addition, it provides a
     number of methods expecting qualified names as they appear in the
     original document.  This class implements the ‘AttributesNS’
     interface (see section *note The AttributesNS Interface: 354e.).

* Menu:

* XMLReader 物件::
* IncrementalParser 物件::
* Locator Objects::
* InputSource 物件::
* The Attributes Interface::
* The AttributesNS Interface::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py


File: python.info,  Node: XMLReader 物件,  Next: IncrementalParser 物件,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面

5.20.12.1 XMLReader 物件
........................

The *note XMLReader: 3521. interface supports the following methods:

 -- 方法: XMLReader.parse (source)

     Process an input source, producing SAX events.  The 'source' object
     can be a system identifier (a string identifying the input source -
     typically a file name or a URL), a *note pathlib.Path: 149. or
     *note path-like: 975. object, or an *note InputSource: d1b. object.
     When *note parse(): 356e. returns, the input is completely
     processed, and the parser object can be discarded or reset.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增對字元串流的支援。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增對類路徑物件的支援。

 -- 方法: XMLReader.getContentHandler ()

     Return the current *note ContentHandler: 351e.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.setContentHandler (handler)

     Set the current *note ContentHandler: 351e.  If no *note
     ContentHandler: 351e. is set, content events will be discarded.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.getDTDHandler ()

     Return the current *note DTDHandler: 3538.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.setDTDHandler (handler)

     Set the current *note DTDHandler: 3538.  If no *note DTDHandler:
     3538. is set, DTD events will be discarded.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.getEntityResolver ()

     Return the current *note EntityResolver: 3539.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.setEntityResolver (handler)

     Set the current *note EntityResolver: 3539.  If no *note
     EntityResolver: 3539. is set, attempts to resolve an external
     entity will result in opening the system identifier for the entity,
     and fail if it is not available.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.getErrorHandler ()

     Return the current *note ErrorHandler: 352c.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.setErrorHandler (handler)

     Set the current error handler.  If no *note ErrorHandler: 352c. is
     set, errors will be raised as exceptions, and warnings will be
     printed.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.setLocale (locale)

     Allow an application to set the locale for errors and warnings.

     SAX parsers are not required to provide localization for errors and
     warnings; if they cannot support the requested locale, however,
     they must raise a SAX exception.  Applications may request a locale
     change in the middle of a parse.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.getFeature (featurename)

     Return the current setting for feature 'featurename'.  If the
     feature is not recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.
     The well-known featurenames are listed in the module *note
     xml.sax.handler: 125.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.setFeature (featurename, value)

     Set the 'featurename' to 'value'.  If the feature is not
     recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.  If the feature
     or its setting is not supported by the parser,
     'SAXNotSupportedException' is raised.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.getProperty (propertyname)

     Return the current setting for property 'propertyname'.  If the
     property is not recognized, a ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is
     raised.  The well-known propertynames are listed in the module
     *note xml.sax.handler: 125.

 -- 方法: XMLReader.setProperty (propertyname, value)

     Set the 'propertyname' to 'value'.  If the property is not
     recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.  If the property
     or its setting is not supported by the parser,
     'SAXNotSupportedException' is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalParser 物件,  Next: Locator Objects,  Prev: XMLReader 物件,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面

5.20.12.2 IncrementalParser 物件
................................

Instances of *note IncrementalParser: 3571. offer the following
additional methods:

 -- 方法: IncrementalParser.feed (data)

     Process a chunk of 'data'.

 -- 方法: IncrementalParser.close ()

     Assume the end of the document.  That will check well-formedness
     conditions that can be checked only at the end, invoke handlers,
     and may clean up resources allocated during parsing.

 -- 方法: IncrementalParser.reset ()

     This method is called after close has been called to reset the
     parser so that it is ready to parse new documents.  The results of
     calling parse or feed after close without calling reset are
     undefined.


File: python.info,  Node: Locator Objects,  Next: InputSource 物件,  Prev: IncrementalParser 物件,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面

5.20.12.3 Locator Objects
.........................

Instances of *note Locator: 352e. provide these methods:

 -- 方法: Locator.getColumnNumber ()

     Return the column number where the current event begins.

 -- 方法: Locator.getLineNumber ()

     Return the line number where the current event begins.

 -- 方法: Locator.getPublicId ()

     Return the public identifier for the current event.

 -- 方法: Locator.getSystemId ()

     Return the system identifier for the current event.


File: python.info,  Node: InputSource 物件,  Next: The Attributes Interface,  Prev: Locator Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面

5.20.12.4 InputSource 物件
..........................

 -- 方法: InputSource.setPublicId (id)

     Sets the public identifier of this *note InputSource: d1b.

 -- 方法: InputSource.getPublicId ()

     Returns the public identifier of this *note InputSource: d1b.

 -- 方法: InputSource.setSystemId (id)

     Sets the system identifier of this *note InputSource: d1b.

 -- 方法: InputSource.getSystemId ()

     Returns the system identifier of this *note InputSource: d1b.

 -- 方法: InputSource.setEncoding (encoding)

     Sets the character encoding of this *note InputSource: d1b.

     The encoding must be a string acceptable for an XML encoding
     declaration (see section 4.3.3 of the XML recommendation).

     The encoding attribute of the *note InputSource: d1b. is ignored if
     the *note InputSource: d1b. also contains a character stream.

 -- 方法: InputSource.getEncoding ()

     Get the character encoding of this InputSource.

 -- 方法: InputSource.setByteStream (bytefile)

     Set the byte stream (a *note binary file: 1a7c.) for this input
     source.

     The SAX parser will ignore this if there is also a character stream
     specified, but it will use a byte stream in preference to opening a
     URI connection itself.

     If the application knows the character encoding of the byte stream,
     it should set it with the setEncoding method.

 -- 方法: InputSource.getByteStream ()

     Get the byte stream for this input source.

     The getEncoding method will return the character encoding for this
     byte stream, or ‘None’ if unknown.

 -- 方法: InputSource.setCharacterStream (charfile)

     Set the character stream (a *note text file: 1a7b.) for this input
     source.

     If there is a character stream specified, the SAX parser will
     ignore any byte stream and will not attempt to open a URI
     connection to the system identifier.

 -- 方法: InputSource.getCharacterStream ()

     Get the character stream for this input source.


File: python.info,  Node: The Attributes Interface,  Next: The AttributesNS Interface,  Prev: InputSource 物件,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面

5.20.12.5 The ‘Attributes’ Interface
....................................

‘Attributes’ objects implement a portion of the *note mapping protocol:
104d, including the methods ‘copy()’, ‘get()’, *note __contains__():
1cef, ‘items()’, ‘keys()’, and ‘values()’.  The following methods are
also provided:

 -- 方法: Attributes.getLength ()

     Return the number of attributes.

 -- 方法: Attributes.getNames ()

     Return the names of the attributes.

 -- 方法: Attributes.getType (name)

     Returns the type of the attribute 'name', which is normally
     ‘'CDATA'’.

 -- 方法: Attributes.getValue (name)

     Return the value of attribute 'name'.


File: python.info,  Node: The AttributesNS Interface,  Prev: The Attributes Interface,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面

5.20.12.6 The ‘AttributesNS’ Interface
......................................

This interface is a subtype of the ‘Attributes’ interface (see section
*note The Attributes Interface: 354c.).  All methods supported by that
interface are also available on ‘AttributesNS’ objects.

The following methods are also available:

 -- 方法: AttributesNS.getValueByQName (name)

     Return the value for a qualified name.

 -- 方法: AttributesNS.getNameByQName (name)

     Return the ‘(namespace, localname)’ pair for a qualified 'name'.

 -- 方法: AttributesNS.getQNameByName (name)

     Return the qualified name for a ‘(namespace, localname)’ pair.

 -- 方法: AttributesNS.getQNames ()

     Return the qualified names of all attributes.


File: python.info,  Node: xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析,  Prev: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.13 ‘xml.parsers.expat’ -- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析
-----------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

     警告: The ‘pyexpat’ module is not secure against maliciously
     constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML 漏洞: 3435.

The *note xml.parsers.expat: 121. module is a Python interface to the
Expat non-validating XML parser.  The module provides a single extension
type, ‘xmlparser’, that represents the current state of an XML parser.
After an ‘xmlparser’ object has been created, various attributes of the
object can be set to handler functions.  When an XML document is then
fed to the parser, the handler functions are called for the character
data and markup in the XML document.

This module uses the ‘pyexpat’ module to provide access to the Expat
parser.  Direct use of the ‘pyexpat’ module is deprecated.

This module provides one exception and one type object:

 -- 例外: xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError

     The exception raised when Expat reports an error.  See section
     *note ExpatError 例外: 35a5. for more information on interpreting
     Expat errors.

 -- 例外: xml.parsers.expat.error

     *note ExpatError: 110d. 的別名。

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.XMLParserType

     The type of the return values from the *note ParserCreate(): 35a8.
     function.

The *note xml.parsers.expat: 121. module contains two functions:

 -- 函式: xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString (errno)

     Returns an explanatory string for a given error number 'errno'.

 -- 函式: xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate (encoding=None,
          namespace_separator=None)

     Creates and returns a new ‘xmlparser’ object.  'encoding', if
     specified, must be a string naming the encoding used by the XML
     data.  Expat doesn't support as many encodings as Python does, and
     its repertoire of encodings can't be extended; it supports UTF-8,
     UTF-16, ISO-8859-1 (Latin1), and ASCII. If 'encoding' (1) is given
     it will override the implicit or explicit encoding of the document.

     Expat can optionally do XML namespace processing for you, enabled
     by providing a value for 'namespace_separator'.  The value must be
     a one-character string; a *note ValueError: 183. will be raised if
     the string has an illegal length (‘None’ is considered the same as
     omission).  When namespace processing is enabled, element type
     names and attribute names that belong to a namespace will be
     expanded.  The element name passed to the element handlers
     ‘StartElementHandler’ and ‘EndElementHandler’ will be the
     concatenation of the namespace URI, the namespace separator
     character, and the local part of the name.  If the namespace
     separator is a zero byte (‘chr(0)’) then the namespace URI and the
     local part will be concatenated without any separator.

     For example, if 'namespace_separator' is set to a space character
     (‘' '’) and the following document is parsed:

          <?xml version="1.0"?>
          <root xmlns    = "http://default-namespace.org/"
                xmlns:py = "http://www.python.org/ns/">
            <py:elem1 />
            <elem2 xmlns="" />
          </root>

     ‘StartElementHandler’ will receive the following strings for each
     element:

          http://default-namespace.org/ root
          http://www.python.org/ns/ elem1
          elem2

     Due to limitations in the ‘Expat’ library used by ‘pyexpat’, the
     ‘xmlparser’ instance returned can only be used to parse a single
     XML document.  Call ‘ParserCreate’ for each document to provide
     unique parser instances.

也參考
......

The Expat XML Parser(2)

     Home page of the Expat project.

* Menu:

* XMLParser 物件: XMLParser 物件<2>.
* ExpatError 例外::
* 範例: 範例<32>.
* Content Model Descriptions::
* Expat error constants::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, "UTF-8" is valid, but "UTF8" is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.

   (2) http://www.libexpat.org/


File: python.info,  Node: XMLParser 物件<2>,  Next: ExpatError 例外,  Up: xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析

5.20.13.1 XMLParser 物件
........................

‘xmlparser’ objects have the following methods:

 -- 方法: xmlparser.Parse (data[, isfinal])

     Parses the contents of the string 'data', calling the appropriate
     handler functions to process the parsed data.  'isfinal' must be
     true on the final call to this method; it allows the parsing of a
     single file in fragments, not the submission of multiple files.
     'data' can be the empty string at any time.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.ParseFile (file)

     Parse XML data reading from the object 'file'.  'file' only needs
     to provide the ‘read(nbytes)’ method, returning the empty string
     when there's no more data.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.SetBase (base)

     Sets the base to be used for resolving relative URIs in system
     identifiers in declarations.  Resolving relative identifiers is
     left to the application: this value will be passed through as the
     'base' argument to the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler(): 35af,
     *note NotationDeclHandler(): 35b0, and *note
     UnparsedEntityDeclHandler(): 35b1. functions.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.GetBase ()

     Returns a string containing the base set by a previous call to
     *note SetBase(): 35ae, or ‘None’ if *note SetBase(): 35ae. hasn't
     been called.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.GetInputContext ()

     Returns the input data that generated the current event as a
     string.  The data is in the encoding of the entity which contains
     the text.  When called while an event handler is not active, the
     return value is ‘None’.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate (context[, encoding])

     Create a "child" parser which can be used to parse an external
     parsed entity referred to by content parsed by the parent parser.
     The 'context' parameter should be the string passed to the *note
     ExternalEntityRefHandler(): 35af. handler function, described
     below.  The child parser is created with the *note
     ordered_attributes: 35b5. and *note specified_attributes: 35b6. set
     to the values of this parser.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing (flag)

     Control parsing of parameter entities (including the external DTD
     subset).  Possible 'flag' values are
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_NEVER’,
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_UNLESS_STANDALONE’ and
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_ALWAYS’.  Return true if setting the flag
     was successful.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.UseForeignDTD ([flag])

     Calling this with a true value for 'flag' (the default) will cause
     Expat to call the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler: 35af. with *note
     None: 470. for all arguments to allow an alternate DTD to be
     loaded.  If the document does not contain a document type
     declaration, the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler: 35af. will still
     be called, but the *note StartDoctypeDeclHandler: 35b9. and *note
     EndDoctypeDeclHandler: 35ba. will not be called.

     Passing a false value for 'flag' will cancel a previous call that
     passed a true value, but otherwise has no effect.

     This method can only be called before the *note Parse(): 35ac. or
     *note ParseFile(): 35ad. methods are called; calling it after
     either of those have been called causes *note ExpatError: 110d. to
     be raised with the *note code: 18. attribute set to
     ‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING]’.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled (enabled)

          警告: Calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’ has security
          implications, as detailed below; please make sure to
          understand these consequences prior to using the
          ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled’ method.

     Expat 2.6.0 introduced a security mechanism called "reparse
     deferral" where instead of causing denial of service through
     quadratic runtime from reparsing large tokens, reparsing of
     unfinished tokens is now delayed by default until a sufficient
     amount of input is reached.  Due to this delay, registered handlers
     may — depending of the sizing of input chunks pushed to Expat — no
     longer be called right after pushing new input to the parser.
     Where immediate feedback and taking over responsibility of
     protecting against denial of service from large tokens are both
     wanted, calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’ disables reparse
     deferral for the current Expat parser instance, temporarily or
     altogether.  Calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(True)’ allows
     re-enabling reparse deferral.

     Note that *note SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 1430. has been
     backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix.
     Check for availability of *note SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 1430.
     using *note hasattr(): 1f9. if used in code running across a
     variety of Python versions.

     在 3.12.3 版被加入.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled ()

     Returns whether reparse deferral is currently enabled for the given
     Expat parser instance.

     在 3.12.3 版被加入.

‘xmlparser’ 物件擁有以下屬性：

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.buffer_size

     The size of the buffer used when *note buffer_text: 1335. is true.
     A new buffer size can be set by assigning a new integer value to
     this attribute.  When the size is changed, the buffer will be
     flushed.

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.buffer_text

     Setting this to true causes the ‘xmlparser’ object to buffer
     textual content returned by Expat to avoid multiple calls to the
     *note CharacterDataHandler(): 35bc. callback whenever possible.
     This can improve performance substantially since Expat normally
     breaks character data into chunks at every line ending.  This
     attribute is false by default, and may be changed at any time.
     Note that when it is false, data that does not contain newlines may
     be chunked too.

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.buffer_used

     If *note buffer_text: 1335. is enabled, the number of bytes stored
     in the buffer.  These bytes represent UTF-8 encoded text.  This
     attribute has no meaningful interpretation when *note buffer_text:
     1335. is false.

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.ordered_attributes

     Setting this attribute to a non-zero integer causes the attributes
     to be reported as a list rather than a dictionary.  The attributes
     are presented in the order found in the document text.  For each
     attribute, two list entries are presented: the attribute name and
     the attribute value.  (Older versions of this module also used this
     format.)  By default, this attribute is false; it may be changed at
     any time.

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.specified_attributes

     If set to a non-zero integer, the parser will report only those
     attributes which were specified in the document instance and not
     those which were derived from attribute declarations.  Applications
     which set this need to be especially careful to use what additional
     information is available from the declarations as needed to comply
     with the standards for the behavior of XML processors.  By default,
     this attribute is false; it may be changed at any time.

The following attributes contain values relating to the most recent
error encountered by an ‘xmlparser’ object, and will only have correct
values once a call to ‘Parse()’ or ‘ParseFile()’ has raised an *note
xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 110d. exception.

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex

     Byte index at which an error occurred.

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.ErrorCode

     Numeric code specifying the problem.  This value can be passed to
     the *note ErrorString(): 35a9. function, or compared to one of the
     constants defined in the ‘errors’ object.

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber

     Column number at which an error occurred.

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber

     Line number at which an error occurred.

The following attributes contain values relating to the current parse
location in an ‘xmlparser’ object.  During a callback reporting a parse
event they indicate the location of the first of the sequence of
characters that generated the event.  When called outside of a callback,
the position indicated will be just past the last parse event
(regardless of whether there was an associated callback).

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex

     Current byte index in the parser input.

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber

     Current column number in the parser input.

 -- 屬性: xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber

     Current line number in the parser input.

Here is the list of handlers that can be set.  To set a handler on an
‘xmlparser’ object 'o', use ‘o.handlername = func’.  'handlername' must
be taken from the following list, and 'func' must be a callable object
accepting the correct number of arguments.  The arguments are all
strings, unless otherwise stated.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler (version, encoding, standalone)

     Called when the XML declaration is parsed.  The XML declaration is
     the (optional) declaration of the applicable version of the XML
     recommendation, the encoding of the document text, and an optional
     "standalone" declaration.  'version' and 'encoding' will be
     strings, and 'standalone' will be ‘1’ if the document is declared
     standalone, ‘0’ if it is declared not to be standalone, or ‘-1’ if
     the standalone clause was omitted.  This is only available with
     Expat version 1.95.0 or newer.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler (doctypeName, systemId,
          publicId, has_internal_subset)

     Called when Expat begins parsing the document type declaration
     (‘<!DOCTYPE ...’).  The 'doctypeName' is provided exactly as
     presented.  The 'systemId' and 'publicId' parameters give the
     system and public identifiers if specified, or ‘None’ if omitted.
     'has_internal_subset' will be true if the document contains and
     internal document declaration subset.  This requires Expat version
     1.2 or newer.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler ()

     Called when Expat is done parsing the document type declaration.
     This requires Expat version 1.2 or newer.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler (name, model)

     Called once for each element type declaration.  'name' is the name
     of the element type, and 'model' is a representation of the content
     model.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler (elname, attname, type, default,
          required)

     Called for each declared attribute for an element type.  If an
     attribute list declaration declares three attributes, this handler
     is called three times, once for each attribute.  'elname' is the
     name of the element to which the declaration applies and 'attname'
     is the name of the attribute declared.  The attribute type is a
     string passed as 'type'; the possible values are ‘'CDATA'’, ‘'ID'’,
     ‘'IDREF'’, ...  'default' gives the default value for the attribute
     used when the attribute is not specified by the document instance,
     or ‘None’ if there is no default value (‘#IMPLIED’ values).  If the
     attribute is required to be given in the document instance,
     'required' will be true.  This requires Expat version 1.95.0 or
     newer.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.StartElementHandler (name, attributes)

     Called for the start of every element.  'name' is a string
     containing the element name, and 'attributes' is the element
     attributes.  If *note ordered_attributes: 35b5. is true, this is a
     list (see *note ordered_attributes: 35b5. for a full description).
     Otherwise it's a dictionary mapping names to values.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.EndElementHandler (name)

     Called for the end of every element.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler (target, data)

     Called for every processing instruction.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler (data)

     Called for character data.  This will be called for normal
     character data, CDATA marked content, and ignorable whitespace.
     Applications which must distinguish these cases can use the *note
     StartCdataSectionHandler: 35cb, *note EndCdataSectionHandler: 35cc,
     and *note ElementDeclHandler: 35c6. callbacks to collect the
     required information.  Note that the character data may be chunked
     even if it is short and so you may receive more than one call to
     *note CharacterDataHandler(): 35bc.  Set the *note buffer_text:
     1335. instance attribute to ‘True’ to avoid that.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler (entityName, base,
          systemId, publicId, notationName)

     Called for unparsed (NDATA) entity declarations.  This is only
     present for version 1.2 of the Expat library; for more recent
     versions, use *note EntityDeclHandler: 35cd. instead.  (The
     underlying function in the Expat library has been declared
     obsolete.)

 -- 方法: xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler (entityName, is_parameter_entity,
          value, base, systemId, publicId, notationName)

     Called for all entity declarations.  For parameter and internal
     entities, 'value' will be a string giving the declared contents of
     the entity; this will be ‘None’ for external entities.  The
     'notationName' parameter will be ‘None’ for parsed entities, and
     the name of the notation for unparsed entities.
     'is_parameter_entity' will be true if the entity is a parameter
     entity or false for general entities (most applications only need
     to be concerned with general entities).  This is only available
     starting with version 1.95.0 of the Expat library.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler (notationName, base, systemId,
          publicId)

     Called for notation declarations.  'notationName', 'base', and
     'systemId', and 'publicId' are strings if given.  If the public
     identifier is omitted, 'publicId' will be ‘None’.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler (prefix, uri)

     Called when an element contains a namespace declaration.  Namespace
     declarations are processed before the *note StartElementHandler:
     35c8. is called for the element on which declarations are placed.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler (prefix)

     Called when the closing tag is reached for an element that
     contained a namespace declaration.  This is called once for each
     namespace declaration on the element in the reverse of the order
     for which the *note StartNamespaceDeclHandler: 35ce. was called to
     indicate the start of each namespace declaration's scope.  Calls to
     this handler are made after the corresponding *note
     EndElementHandler: 35c9. for the end of the element.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.CommentHandler (data)

     Called for comments.  'data' is the text of the comment, excluding
     the leading ‘'<!-’‘-'’ and trailing ‘'-’‘->'’.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler ()

     Called at the start of a CDATA section.  This and *note
     EndCdataSectionHandler: 35cc. are needed to be able to identify the
     syntactical start and end for CDATA sections.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler ()

     Called at the end of a CDATA section.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.DefaultHandler (data)

     Called for any characters in the XML document for which no
     applicable handler has been specified.  This means characters that
     are part of a construct which could be reported, but for which no
     handler has been supplied.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand (data)

     This is the same as the *note DefaultHandler(): 35d1, but doesn't
     inhibit expansion of internal entities.  The entity reference will
     not be passed to the default handler.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler ()

     Called if the XML document hasn't been declared as being a
     standalone document.  This happens when there is an external subset
     or a reference to a parameter entity, but the XML declaration does
     not set standalone to ‘yes’ in an XML declaration.  If this handler
     returns ‘0’, then the parser will raise an
     ‘XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE’ error.  If this handler is not set, no
     exception is raised by the parser for this condition.

 -- 方法: xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler (context, base, systemId,
          publicId)

     Called for references to external entities.  'base' is the current
     base, as set by a previous call to *note SetBase(): 35ae.  The
     public and system identifiers, 'systemId' and 'publicId', are
     strings if given; if the public identifier is not given, 'publicId'
     will be ‘None’.  The 'context' value is opaque and should only be
     used as described below.

     For external entities to be parsed, this handler must be
     implemented.  It is responsible for creating the sub-parser using
     ‘ExternalEntityParserCreate(context)’, initializing it with the
     appropriate callbacks, and parsing the entity.  This handler should
     return an integer; if it returns ‘0’, the parser will raise an
     ‘XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING’ error, otherwise parsing will
     continue.

     If this handler is not provided, external entities are reported by
     the *note DefaultHandler: 35d1. callback, if provided.


File: python.info,  Node: ExpatError 例外,  Next: 範例<32>,  Prev: XMLParser 物件<2>,  Up: xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析

5.20.13.2 ExpatError 例外
.........................

*note ExpatError: 110d. exceptions have a number of interesting
attributes:

 -- 屬性: ExpatError.code

     Expat's internal error number for the specific error.  The *note
     errors.messages: 35d6. dictionary maps these error numbers to
     Expat's error messages.  For example:

          from xml.parsers.expat import ParserCreate, ExpatError, errors

          p = ParserCreate()
          try:
              p.Parse(some_xml_document)
          except ExpatError as err:
              print("Error:", errors.messages[err.code])

     The *note errors: 122. module also provides error message constants
     and a dictionary *note codes: 35d7. mapping these messages back to
     the error codes, see below.

 -- 屬性: ExpatError.lineno

     Line number on which the error was detected.  The first line is
     numbered ‘1’.

 -- 屬性: ExpatError.offset

     Character offset into the line where the error occurred.  The first
     column is numbered ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<32>,  Next: Content Model Descriptions,  Prev: ExpatError 例外,  Up: xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析

5.20.13.3 範例
..............

The following program defines three handlers that just print out their
arguments.

     import xml.parsers.expat

     # 3 handler functions
     def start_element(name, attrs):
         print('Start element:', name, attrs)
     def end_element(name):
         print('End element:', name)
     def char_data(data):
         print('Character data:', repr(data))

     p = xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate()

     p.StartElementHandler = start_element
     p.EndElementHandler = end_element
     p.CharacterDataHandler = char_data

     p.Parse("""<?xml version="1.0"?>
     <parent id="top"><child1 name="paul">Text goes here</child1>
     <child2 name="fred">More text</child2>
     </parent>""", 1)

The output from this program is:

     Start element: parent {'id': 'top'}
     Start element: child1 {'name': 'paul'}
     Character data: 'Text goes here'
     End element: child1
     Character data: '\n'
     Start element: child2 {'name': 'fred'}
     Character data: 'More text'
     End element: child2
     Character data: '\n'
     End element: parent


File: python.info,  Node: Content Model Descriptions,  Next: Expat error constants,  Prev: 範例<32>,  Up: xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析

5.20.13.4 Content Model Descriptions
....................................

Content models are described using nested tuples.  Each tuple contains
four values: the type, the quantifier, the name, and a tuple of
children.  Children are simply additional content model descriptions.

The values of the first two fields are constants defined in the *note
xml.parsers.expat.model: 123. module.  These constants can be collected
in two groups: the model type group and the quantifier group.

The constants in the model type group are:

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_ANY

     The element named by the model name was declared to have a content
     model of ‘ANY’.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_CHOICE

     The named element allows a choice from a number of options; this is
     used for content models such as ‘(A | B | C)’.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_EMPTY

     Elements which are declared to be ‘EMPTY’ have this model type.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_MIXED

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_NAME

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_SEQ

     Models which represent a series of models which follow one after
     the other are indicated with this model type.  This is used for
     models such as ‘(A, B, C)’.

The constants in the quantifier group are:

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_NONE

     No modifier is given, so it can appear exactly once, as for ‘A’.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_OPT

     The model is optional: it can appear once or not at all, as for
     ‘A?’.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_PLUS

     The model must occur one or more times (like ‘A+’).

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_REP

     The model must occur zero or more times, as for ‘A*’.


File: python.info,  Node: Expat error constants,  Prev: Content Model Descriptions,  Up: xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析

5.20.13.5 Expat error constants
...............................

The following constants are provided in the *note
xml.parsers.expat.errors: 122. module.  These constants are useful in
interpreting some of the attributes of the ‘ExpatError’ exception
objects raised when an error has occurred.  Since for backwards
compatibility reasons, the constants' value is the error 'message' and
not the numeric error 'code', you do this by comparing its *note code:
18. attribute with ‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CONSTANT_NAME]’.

The ‘errors’ module has the following attributes:

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes

     A dictionary mapping string descriptions to their error codes.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages

     A dictionary mapping numeric error codes to their string
     descriptions.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY

 -- 資料:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF

     An entity reference in an attribute value referred to an external
     entity instead of an internal entity.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF

     A character reference referred to a character which is illegal in
     XML (for example, character ‘0’, or '‘&#0;’').

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF

     An entity reference referred to an entity which was declared with a
     notation, so cannot be parsed.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE

     An attribute was used more than once in a start tag.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN

     Raised when an input byte could not properly be assigned to a
     character; for example, a NUL byte (value ‘0’) in a UTF-8 input
     stream.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT

     Something other than whitespace occurred after the document
     element.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI

     An XML declaration was found somewhere other than the start of the
     input data.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS

     The document contains no elements (XML requires all documents to
     contain exactly one top-level element)..

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY

     Expat was not able to allocate memory internally.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF

     A parameter entity reference was found where it was not allowed.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR

     An incomplete character was found in the input.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF

     An entity reference contained another reference to the same entity;
     possibly via a different name, and possibly indirectly.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SYNTAX

     Some unspecified syntax error was encountered.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH

     An end tag did not match the innermost open start tag.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN

     Some token (such as a start tag) was not closed before the end of
     the stream or the next token was encountered.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY

     A reference was made to an entity which was not defined.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING

     The document encoding is not supported by Expat.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION

     A CDATA marked section was not closed.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE

     The parser determined that the document was not "standalone" though
     it declared itself to be in the XML declaration, and the
     ‘NotStandaloneHandler’ was set and returned ‘0’.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD

     An operation was requested that requires DTD support to be compiled
     in, but Expat was configured without DTD support.  This should
     never be reported by a standard build of the *note
     xml.parsers.expat: 121. module.

 -- 資料:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING

     A behavioral change was requested after parsing started that can
     only be changed before parsing has started.  This is (currently)
     only raised by ‘UseForeignDTD()’.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX

     An undeclared prefix was found when namespace processing was
     enabled.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX

     The document attempted to remove the namespace declaration
     associated with a prefix.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE

     A parameter entity contained incomplete markup.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_XML_DECL

     The document contained no document element at all.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL

     There was an error parsing a text declaration in an external
     entity.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PUBLICID

     Characters were found in the public id that are not allowed.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED

     The requested operation was made on a suspended parser, but isn't
     allowed.  This includes attempts to provide additional input or to
     stop the parser.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED

     An attempt to resume the parser was made when the parser had not
     been suspended.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ABORTED

     This should not be reported to Python applications.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FINISHED

     The requested operation was made on a parser which was finished
     parsing input, but isn't allowed.  This includes attempts to
     provide additional input or to stop the parser.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML

     An attempt was made to undeclare reserved namespace prefix ‘xml’ or
     to bind it to another namespace URI.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS

     An attempt was made to declare or undeclare reserved namespace
     prefix ‘xmlns’.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI

     An attempt was made to bind the URI of one the reserved namespace
     prefixes ‘xml’ and ‘xmlns’ to another namespace prefix.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT

     This should not be reported to Python applications.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER

     This should not be reported to Python applications.

 -- 資料: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH

     The limit on input amplification factor (from DTD and entities) has
     been breached.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援,  Next: 多媒體服務,  Prev: Structured Markup Processing Tools,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.21 網路協定 (Internet protocols) 及支援
=========================================

這個章節講述的模組實作了網路協定及相關技術的支援；他們全都是用 Python 實
作的。這裡的大多數模組都需要相依於系統的模組 *note socket: c6.，目前普遍
的平台都支援該模組。 以下為概述：

* Menu:

* webbrowser: webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器. 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器
* wsgiref: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作. WSGI 工具與參考實作
* urllib: urllib --- URL 處理模組. URL 處理模組
* urllib.request: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫. 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫
* urllib.response: urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib. Response classes used by urllib
* urllib.parse: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件. 將 URL 剖析成元件
* urllib.error: urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別. urllib.request 引發的例外類別
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器. robots.txt 的剖析器
* http: http --- HTTP 模組. HTTP 模組
* http.client: http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端. HTTP 協定用戶端
* ftplib: ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端. FTP 協定用戶端
* poplib: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端. POP3 協定用戶端
* imaplib: imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端. IMAP4 協定客戶端
* smtplib: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端. SMTP 協定用戶端
* uuid: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件. RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件
* socketserver: socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架. 用於網路伺服器的框架
* http.server — HTTP 伺服器: http server — HTTP 伺服器.
* http.cookies: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理. HTTP 狀態管理
* http.cookiejar: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理. HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc --- XMLRPC 伺服器與用戶模組. XMLRPC 伺服器與用戶模組
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取. XML-RPC 客戶端存取
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器. 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器
* ipaddress: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫. IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器,  Next: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.1 ‘webbrowser’ -- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器
---------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/webbrowser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note webbrowser: 110. module provides a high-level interface to
allow displaying web-based documents to users.  Under most
circumstances, simply calling the *note open(): 3610. function from this
module will do the right thing.

Under Unix, graphical browsers are preferred under X11, but text-mode
browsers will be used if graphical browsers are not available or an X11
display isn't available.  If text-mode browsers are used, the calling
process will block until the user exits the browser.

If the environment variable ‘BROWSER’ exists, it is interpreted as the
*note os.pathsep: 1b36.-separated list of browsers to try ahead of the
platform defaults.  When the value of a list part contains the string
‘%s’, then it is interpreted as a literal browser command line to be
used with the argument URL substituted for ‘%s’; if the part does not
contain ‘%s’, it is simply interpreted as the name of the browser to
launch.  (2)

For non-Unix platforms, or when a remote browser is available on Unix,
the controlling process will not wait for the user to finish with the
browser, but allow the remote browser to maintain its own windows on the
display.  If remote browsers are not available on Unix, the controlling
process will launch a new browser and wait.

The script ‘webbrowser’ can be used as a command-line interface for the
module.  It accepts a URL as the argument.  It accepts the following
optional parameters: ‘-n’ opens the URL in a new browser window, if
possible; ‘-t’ opens the URL in a new browser page ("tab").  The options
are, naturally, mutually exclusive.  Usage example:

     python -m webbrowser -t "https://www.python.org"

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

The following exception is defined:

 -- 例外: webbrowser.Error

     Exception raised when a browser control error occurs.

The following functions are defined:

 -- 函式: webbrowser.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True)

     Display 'url' using the default browser.  If 'new' is 0, the 'url'
     is opened in the same browser window if possible.  If 'new' is 1, a
     new browser window is opened if possible.  If 'new' is 2, a new
     browser page ("tab") is opened if possible.  If 'autoraise' is
     ‘True’, the window is raised if possible (note that under many
     window managers this will occur regardless of the setting of this
     variable).

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

     Note that on some platforms, trying to open a filename using this
     function, may work and start the operating system's associated
     program.  However, this is neither supported nor portable.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘url’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘webbrowser.open’。

 -- 函式: webbrowser.open_new (url)

     Open 'url' in a new window of the default browser, if possible,
     otherwise, open 'url' in the only browser window.

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- 函式: webbrowser.open_new_tab (url)

     Open 'url' in a new page ("tab") of the default browser, if
     possible, otherwise equivalent to *note open_new(): 3612.

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- 函式: webbrowser.get (using=None)

     Return a controller object for the browser type 'using'.  If
     'using' is ‘None’, return a controller for a default browser
     appropriate to the caller's environment.

 -- 函式: webbrowser.register (name, constructor, instance=None, *,
          preferred=False)

     Register the browser type 'name'.  Once a browser type is
     registered, the *note get(): 3614. function can return a controller
     for that browser type.  If 'instance' is not provided, or is
     ‘None’, 'constructor' will be called without parameters to create
     an instance when needed.  If 'instance' is provided, 'constructor'
     will never be called, and may be ‘None’.

     Setting 'preferred' to ‘True’ makes this browser a preferred result
     for a *note get(): 3614. call with no argument.  Otherwise, this
     entry point is only useful if you plan to either set the ‘BROWSER’
     variable or call *note get(): 3614. with a nonempty argument
     matching the name of a handler you declare.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 'preferred' keyword-only parameter was added.

A number of browser types are predefined.  This table gives the type
names that may be passed to the *note get(): 3614. function and the
corresponding instantiations for the controller classes, all defined in
this module.

Type Name                    Class Name                                    註解
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'mozilla'’                  ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'firefox'’                  ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'epiphany'’                 ‘Epiphany('epiphany')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'kfmclient'’                ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'konqueror'’                ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'kfm'’                      ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'opera'’                    ‘Opera()’
                             
                                                                           
‘'links'’                    ‘GenericBrowser('links')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'elinks'’                   ‘Elinks('elinks')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'lynx'’                     ‘GenericBrowser('lynx')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'w3m'’                      ‘GenericBrowser('w3m')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'windows-default'’          ‘WindowsDefault’                              (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'macosx'’                   ‘MacOSXOSAScript('default')’                  (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'safari'’                   ‘MacOSXOSAScript('safari')’                   (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'google-chrome'’            ‘Chrome('google-chrome')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chrome'’                   ‘Chrome('chrome')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chromium'’                 ‘Chromium('chromium')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chromium-browser'’         ‘Chromium('chromium-browser')’
                             

註解：

  1. "Konqueror" is the file manager for the KDE desktop environment for
     Unix, and only makes sense to use if KDE is running.  Some way of
     reliably detecting KDE would be nice; the ‘KDEDIR’ variable is not
     sufficient.  Note also that the name "kfm" is used even when using
     the ‘konqueror’ command with KDE 2 -- the implementation selects
     the best strategy for running Konqueror.

  2. Only on Windows platforms.

  3. Only on macOS platform.

在 3.3 版被加入: Support for Chrome/Chromium has been added.

在 3.12 版的變更: Support for several obsolete browsers has been
removed.  Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon,
Skipstone, Iceape, and Firefox versions 35 and below.

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: ‘MacOSX’
is deprecated, use ‘MacOSXOSAScript’ instead.

以下是一些簡單範例：

     url = 'https://docs.python.org/'

     # Open URL in a new tab, if a browser window is already open.
     webbrowser.open_new_tab(url)

     # Open URL in new window, raising the window if possible.
     webbrowser.open_new(url)

* Menu:

* Browser Controller Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/webbrowser.py

   (2) Executables named here without a full path will be searched in
the directories given in the ‘PATH’ environment variable.


File: python.info,  Node: Browser Controller Objects,  Up: webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器

5.21.1.1 Browser Controller Objects
...................................

Browser controllers provide these methods which parallel three of the
module-level convenience functions:

 -- 屬性: webbrowser.name

     System-dependent name for the browser.

 -- 方法: controller.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True)

     Display 'url' using the browser handled by this controller.  If
     'new' is 1, a new browser window is opened if possible.  If 'new'
     is 2, a new browser page ("tab") is opened if possible.

 -- 方法: controller.open_new (url)

     Open 'url' in a new window of the browser handled by this
     controller, if possible, otherwise, open 'url' in the only browser
     window.  Alias *note open_new(): 3612.

 -- 方法: controller.open_new_tab (url)

     Open 'url' in a new page ("tab") of the browser handled by this
     controller, if possible, otherwise equivalent to *note open_new():
     3612.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作,  Next: urllib --- URL 處理模組,  Prev: webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.2 ‘wsgiref’ -- WSGI 工具與參考實作
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/wsgiref(1)

__________________________________________________________________

網頁伺服器閘道介面 (WSGI) 是一個標準介面，用於連接網頁伺服器軟體與使用
Python 撰寫的網頁應用程式，擁有一個標準介面使得支援 WSGI 的應用程式可以
與多個不同的網頁伺服器運行。

只有網頁伺服器與程式框架的作者需要瞭解 WSGI 設計的每個細節與邊角案例，你
並不需要為了安裝 WSGI 應用程式或是使用現有框架撰寫網頁應用程式而必須理解
每個細節。

*note wsgiref: 113. 是 WSGI 規格的參考實作，可用於新增 WSGI 來支援網頁伺
服器或框架，它提供操作 WSGI 環境變數以及回應標頭的工具，用於實作 WSGI 伺
服器的基本類別，提供用於示範 HTTP 伺服器的 WSGI 應用程式、靜態型別檢查、
以及驗證 WSGI 伺服器與應用程式是否符合 WSGI 規格的驗證工具 ( PEP
3333(2))。

參閱 wsgi.readthedocs.io(3) 更多 WSGI 相關資訊，以及教學連結與其他資源。

* Menu:

* wsgiref.util: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具. WSGI 環境工具
* wsgiref.headers: wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具. WSGI 回應標頭工具
* wsgiref.simple_server: wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器. 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器
* wsgiref.validate: wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查. WSGI 符合性檢查
* wsgiref.handlers: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別. 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別
* wsgiref.types: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別. 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別
* 範例: 範例<33>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/wsgiref

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://wsgi.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具,  Next: wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作

5.21.2.1 ‘wsgiref.util’ - WSGI 環境工具
.......................................

這個模組提供許多用於處理 WSGI 環境運作的功能。WSGI 環境是一個包含 HTTP 請
求變數的字典，如 PEP 3333(1) 所述。所有接受 'environ' 的參數的函式都需要
提供符合 WSGI 標準的字典；請參閱 PEP 3333(2) 獲取詳細規格，以及 *note
WSGIEnvironment: 361f. 獲取可用於使用型別註釋的型別別名。

 -- 函式: wsgiref.util.guess_scheme (environ)

     透過檢查 'environ' 字典中的 ‘HTTPS’ 環境變數，回傳
     ‘wsgi.url_scheme’ 應該是 "http" 或 "https" 的猜測。回傳值為一個字串
     。

     當建立一個包裝 CGI 或類似 FastCGI 的 CGI-like 協議閘道時，此函式非
     常有用。例如 FastCGI，通常提供這類協議的伺服器在通過 SSL 接收到請求
     時會包含 "1"，"yes"，或 "on" 的 ‘HTTPS’ 變數，因此，如果找到這樣的
     值，此函式回傳 "https"，否則回傳 "http"。

 -- 函式: wsgiref.util.request_uri (environ, include_query=True)

     根據 PEP 3333(3) 中 "URL Reconstruction" 章節所找到的演算法，回傳完
     整的請求 URI，可選擇性的包含查詢字串，如果 'include_query' 設為
     false，查詢字串不會被包含在結果的 URI 中。

 -- 函式: wsgiref.util.application_uri (environ)

     類似於 *note request_uri(): 3621.，但忽略 ‘PATH_INFO’ 和
     ‘QUERY_STRING’ 變數。結果是請求地址的應用程式物件的的基本 URI。

 -- 函式: wsgiref.util.shift_path_info (environ)

     將單一名稱從 ‘PATH_INFO’ 移到 ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ 並回傳該名稱。'environ'
     字典會在適當時機被 'modified'；如果你需要保留原始完好無損的
     ‘PATH_INFO’ 或 ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ 請使用副本。

     如果在 ‘PATH_INFO’ 中沒有剩餘的路徑片段，則回傳 ‘None’。

     通常，此程式用於處理請求 URI 的每一部分路徑，例如將路徑視為一系列的
     字典鍵此程式會修改傳入的環境，使其適用於呼叫位於目標 URI 的 WSGI 應
     用程式。例如，如果在 ‘/foo’ 上有一個 WSGI 應用程式且請求 URI 路徑為
     ‘/foo/bar/baz’，並且位於 ‘/foo’ 的 WSGI 應用程式呼叫 *note
     shift_path_info(): 3623.，它將接收字串 "bar"，而環境將被更新為適用
     於傳遞給位於 ‘/foo/bar’ 的 WSGI 應用程式。換句話說，‘SCRIPT_NAME’ 將
     從 ‘/foo’ 變更為 ‘/foo/bar’，而 ‘PATH_INFO’ 將從 ‘/bar/baz’ 變更為
     ‘/baz’。

     當 ‘PATH_INFO’ 只是一個 "/" 時， 此程式會回傳一個空字串，並在
     ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ 後添加尾部斜號，即使空路徑片段通常是被忽略的，而且
     ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ 通常不會以斜號結尾。這是刻意行為，以確保應用程式在使
     用這個程式進行物件遍歷時可以區分結尾為 ‘/x’ 和結尾為 ‘/x/’ 的 URIs。

 -- 函式: wsgiref.util.setup_testing_defaults (environ)

     為測試目的，以簡單的預設值更新 'environ' 。

     這個程式新增 WSGI 所需的各種參數，包括 ‘HTTP_HOST’、‘SERVER_NAME’、
     ‘SERVER_PORT’、‘REQUEST_METHOD’、‘SCRIPT_NAME’、‘PATH_INFO’，以及所
     有 PEP 3333(4) 定義的 ‘wsgi.*’ 變數，它只提供預設值，並且不會取代現
     有的這些變數設定。

     這個程式目的為了讓 WSGI 伺服器和應用程式的單元測試更容易建置虛擬環
     境。實際的 WSGI 伺服器或應用程式不應該使用它，因為所產生的數據是假
     的！

     用法範例：

          from wsgiref.util import setup_testing_defaults
          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

          # A relatively simple WSGI application. It's going to print out the
          # environment dictionary after being updated by setup_testing_defaults
          def simple_app(environ, start_response):
              setup_testing_defaults(environ)

              status = '200 OK'
              headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain; charset=utf-8')]

              start_response(status, headers)

              ret = [("%s: %s\n" % (key, value)).encode("utf-8")
                     for key, value in environ.items()]
              return ret

          with make_server('', 8000, simple_app) as httpd:
              print("Serving on port 8000...")
              httpd.serve_forever()

除了上述的環境功能外，*note wsgiref.util: 118. 模組還提供以下各類工具：

 -- 函式: wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop (header_name)

     如果 'header_name' 是根據 RFC 2616(5) 所定義的 HTTP/1.1
     "Hop-by-Hop" 標頭，則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 類別: wsgiref.util.FileWrapper (filelike, blksize=8192)

     *note wsgiref.types.FileWrapper: 3626. 協議的具體實作，用於將類檔案
     物件轉換為 *note iterator: 1718.。產生的物件是 *note iterable:
     10ba.。當物件進行疊代時，將可選的 'blksize' 引數重複傳遞給
     'filelike' 物件的 ‘read()’ 方法來獲得將產生（yield）的位元組字串。
     當 ‘read()’ 回傳一個空位元組字串，代表疊代已結束且無法回復。

     如果 'filelike' 有 ‘close()’ 方法，則回傳的物件也會具有 ‘close()’ 方
     法，並在呼叫時呼叫 'filelike' 物件的 ‘close()’ 方法。

     用法範例：

          from io import StringIO
          from wsgiref.util import FileWrapper

          # We're using a StringIO-buffer for as the file-like object
          filelike = StringIO("This is an example file-like object"*10)
          wrapper = FileWrapper(filelike, blksize=5)

          for chunk in wrapper:
              print(chunk)

     在 3.11 版的變更: 已移除對 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 方法的支援。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具,  Next: wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器,  Prev: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作

5.21.2.2 ‘wsgiref.headers’ - WSGI 回應標頭工具
..............................................

這個模組提供單一類別 *note Headers: d18.，用於使用類似對映的介面方便地操
作 WSGI 回應標頭。

 -- 類別: wsgiref.headers.Headers ([headers])

     建立一個類似對映物件並包裝 'headers'，並且必須是符合 PEP 3333(1) 描
     述的 name/value 元組的標頭串列。'headers' 的預設值是一個空串列。

     *note Headers: d18. 物件支援典型對映操作包括 ‘__getitem__()’、*note
     get(): 1fda.、*note __setitem__(): 133c.、*note setdefault(): f0f.、
     *note __delitem__(): 133d. 以及 *note __contains__(): 1cef.。對於這
     些方法中的每一個，鍵是標頭名稱（以不區分大小寫方式處理），而值則是
     與該標頭名稱關聯的第一個值。設定標頭會刪除該標頭的所有現有值，然後
     將新值添加到包裝的標頭串列末尾。標頭的現有順序通常保持不變，新標頭
     會添加到包裝串列的末尾。

     不同於字典，當你嘗試取得或刪除包裝的標頭串列不存在的鍵，*note
     Headers: d18. 物件不會引發例外錯誤。取得不存在的標頭只會回傳
     ‘None’，而刪除不存在的標頭則不會有任何效果。

     *note Headers: d18. 物件還支援 ‘keys()’、‘value()’、和 ‘items()’ 方
     法。由 ‘keys()’ 和 ‘items()’ 回傳的串列在存在多值標頭時可能會包含相
     同的鍵。*note Headers: d18. 物件的 ‘len()’ 與 ‘items()’ 的長度相同
     ，也與包裝標頭串列的長度相同。實際上，‘items()’ 方法只是回傳包裝的
     標頭串列的副本。

     對 ‘Header’ 物件呼叫 ‘bytes()’ 會回傳適合作為 HTTP 傳輸回應標頭的格
     式化的位元組字串。每個標頭都與其值一起置於一行上，由冒號與空格分隔
     。每行以回車（carriage return）和換行（line feed）結束，而該位元組
     字串則以空行結束。

     除了對映介面和格式化功能外，*note Headers: d18. 物件還具有以下查詢
     及附加多值標頭的以及附加 MIME 參數標頭的方法：

      -- 方法: get_all (name)

          回傳指定標頭的所有值的串列。

          回傳的串列按照它們在在原始的標頭串列出現的順序或是被添加到此實
          例的順序進行排序，並且可能包含重複的內容。任何被刪除並重新插入
          的欄位都會被添加到標頭串列的末尾。如果不存在指定名稱的欄位，則
          回傳空串列。

      -- 方法: add_header (name, value, **_params)

          添加一個（可能是多值的）標頭，可通過關鍵字引數來指定選擇性的
          MIME 參數。

          'name' 是要添加的標頭欄位。關鍵字引數可使於設定標頭欄位的 MIME
          參數。每一個參數必須是字串或是 ‘None’。由於破折號在 Python 識
          別符中是非法的，但是許多 MIME 參數名稱包含破折號，因此參數名稱
          的底線會轉換成破折號。如果參數值是字串，則以 ‘name="value"’ 的
          形式添加到標頭值參數中。如果它是 ‘None’，則僅添加參數名稱。（
          這使用於沒有值的 MIME 參數）使用範例：

               h.add_header('content-disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          上述操作將添加看起來像這樣的標頭：

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

     在 3.5 版的變更: 'headers' 參數是可選的。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器,  Next: wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查,  Prev: wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作

5.21.2.3 ‘wsgiref.simple_server’ - 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器
..............................................................

這個模組實作一個簡單的的 HTTP 伺服器（基於 *note http.server: 6d.）用於
提供 WSGI 應用程式。每個伺服器執行個體在特定的主機與埠提供單一的 WSGI 應
用程式。如果你想要在單一主機與埠上提供多個應用程式，你應該建立一個 WSGI
應用程式以剖析 ‘PATH_INFO’ 去選擇為每個請求呼叫哪個應用程式。（例如，使
用來自 *note wsgiref.util: 118. 的 ‘shift_path_info()’ 函式。）

 -- 函式: wsgiref.simple_server.make_server (host, port, app,
          server_class=WSGIServer, handler_class=WSGIRequestHandler)

     建立一個新的 WSGI 伺服器監聽 'host' 和 'port'，接受 'app' 的連線。
     回傳值是提供 'server_class' 的實例，並將使用指定的 'handler_class'
     處理請求。'app' 必須是一個 WSGI 應用程式物件，如 PEP 3333(1) 所定義
     。

     用法範例：

          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server, demo_app

          with make_server('', 8000, demo_app) as httpd:
              print("Serving HTTP on port 8000...")

              # Respond to requests until process is killed
              httpd.serve_forever()

              # Alternative: serve one request, then exit
              httpd.handle_request()

 -- 函式: wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app (environ, start_response)

     這個函式是一個簡單但完整的 WSGI 應用程式，它回傳一個包含訊息 "Hello
     world!"  和在 'environ' 參數中提供的鍵值對串列的文字頁面。這對於驗
     證 WSGI 伺服器（例如 *note wsgiref.simple_server: 116.）是否能正確
     執行簡單的 WSGI 應用程式非常有用。

 -- 類別: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     建立一個 *note WSGIServer: 362d. 實例。'server_address' 應該是一個
     ‘(host, port)’ 元組，而 'RequestHandlerClass' 應該是 *note
     http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f5a. 的子類別，將用於處理請求。

     通常你不需要呼叫這個建構函式（constructor），因為 *note
     make_server(): 362b. 函式可以為你處理所有細節。

     *note WSGIServer: 362d. 是 *note http.server.HTTPServer: 362e. 的子
     類別，因此它的所有方法（例如 ‘serve_forever()’ 和
     ‘handle_request()’）都可用。*note WSGIServer: 362d. 也提供這些特定
     於 WSGI 的方法：

      -- 方法: set_app (application)

          將可呼叫的 'application' 設定為接收請求的 WSGI 應用程式。

      -- 方法: get_app ()

          回傳目前設定應用程式的可呼叫物件。

     然而，通常情況下你不需要去使用這些額外方法，因為 *note set_app():
     362f. 通常會被 *note make_server(): 362b. 呼叫而 *note get_app():
     3630. 主要存在於請求處理程式（handler）實例的好處上。

 -- 類別: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler (request,
          client_address, server)

     為給定的 'request*（即一個 socket）、*client_address*（一個
     ''(host,port)'' 位元組）、*server' (*note WSGIServer: 362d. 實例) 建
     立一個 HTTP 處理程式（handler）。

     你不需要直接建立這個類別的實例；它們會在需要時由 *note WSGIServer:
     362d. 物件自動建立。不過，你可以建立這個類別的子類別並將其作為
     'handler_class' 提供給 *note make_server(): 362b. 函式。一些可能相
     關的方法可以在子類別中進行覆寫：

      -- 方法: get_environ ()

          唯一個請求回傳一個 *note WSGIEnvironment: 361f. 字典。預設的實
          作會複製 *note WSGIServer: 362d. 物件的 ‘base_environ’ 字典屬
          性的內容以及添加從 HTTP 請求中衍生的各種標頭。每次呼叫這個方法
          都應該回傳一個包含所有如 PEP 3333(2) 所指定的相關 CGI 環境變數
          的新字典。

      -- 方法: get_stderr ()

          回傳的物件應該被用作 ‘wsgi.errors’ 串流。預設實作只會回傳
          ‘sys.stderr’。

      -- 方法: handle ()

          處理 HTTP 請求。預設實作會使用 ‘wsgiref.handler’ 類別來建立處
          置程式（handler）實例來實作實際 WSGI 應用程式介面。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查,  Next: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別,  Prev: wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作

5.21.2.4 ‘wsgiref.validate’ -- WSGI 符合性檢查
..............................................

當建立新的 WSGI 應用程式物件、框架、伺服器、或是中介軟體（middleware）時
，使用 *note wsgiref.validate: 119. 來驗證新程式碼的符合性可能會很有用。
這個模組提供一個函式用於建立 WSGI 應用程式物件，並用於驗證 WSGI 伺服器或
是閘道與 WSGI 應用程式物件之間的通訊，以檢查雙方協議的符合性。

請注意這個工具並不保證完全符合 PEP 3333(1)；這個模組中的錯誤不一定代表不
存在錯誤。但是，如果如果這個模組產生錯誤，那麼幾乎可以確定伺服器或應用程
式不是 100% 符合標準。

這個模組基於 Ian Bicking 的 "Python Paste" 函式庫的 ‘paste.lint’ 模組。

 -- 函式: wsgiref.validate.validator (application)

     包裝 'application' 並回傳一個新的 WSGI 應用程式物件。回傳的應用程式
     將轉發所有請求給原始的 'application'，並檢查 'application' 和呼叫它
     的伺服器是否符合 WSGI 規範和 RFC 2616(2)。

     任何在 *note AssertionError: 4a6. 中偵測不符合結果都會發起例外；但
     請注意，如何處理這些錯誤取決於伺服器。例如，基於 *note
     wsgiref.handlers: 114. 的 *note wsgiref.simple_server: 116. 以及其
     他伺服器（未覆蓋錯誤處理方法以執行其他操作的伺服器）將僅輸出一條錯
     誤訊息，指示發生錯誤，並將回溯訊息輸出到 ‘sys.stderr’ 或是其他錯誤
     串流。

     這個包裝器也可以使用 *note warnings: 10d. 模組生成輸出去指示一些可
     能有疑慮但實際上可能不會被 PEP 3333(3) 禁止的行為。除非使用 Python
     命令列選項或 *note warnings: 10d. API，抑制了這些警告，否則這類警告
     將被寫入到 ‘sys.stderr’（'not' ‘wsgi.errors’，除非它們碰巧是相同的
     物件）。

     用法範例：

          from wsgiref.validate import validator
          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

          # Our callable object which is intentionally not compliant to the
          # standard, so the validator is going to break
          def simple_app(environ, start_response):
              status = '200 OK'  # HTTP Status
              headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain')]  # HTTP Headers
              start_response(status, headers)

              # This is going to break because we need to return a list, and
              # the validator is going to inform us
              return b"Hello World"

          # This is the application wrapped in a validator
          validator_app = validator(simple_app)

          with make_server('', 8000, validator_app) as httpd:
              print("Listening on port 8000....")
              httpd.serve_forever()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別,  Next: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別,  Prev: wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作

5.21.2.5 ‘wsgiref.handlers’ - 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別
...................................................

這個模組提供實作 WSGI 伺服器和閘道的基礎處理程式（handler）類別。這些基
底類別處理程式大部分與 WSGI 應用程式通訊的工作，只要它們被提供 CGI-like
環境，以及輸入、輸出和錯誤串流。

 -- 類別: wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler

     這是基於 CGI 的呼叫方式並透過 ‘sys.stdin’、‘sys.stdout’、
     ‘sys.stderr’ 和 ‘os.environ’。當你擁有一個 WSGI 應用程式並希望將其
     作為 CGI 腳本運行時是很有用的。只需呼叫 ‘CGIHandler().run(app)’，其
     中 ‘app’ 是你希望呼叫的 WSGI 應用程式物件。

     這個類別是 *note BaseCGIHandler: 3639. 的子類別將 ‘wsgi.run_once’ 設
     置為 true，‘wsgi.multithread’ 設置為 false，並將
     ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ 設置為 true，並且始終使用 *note sys: d3. 和
     *note os: 9c. 來獲取所需的 CGI 串流以及環境。

 -- 類別: wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler

     這是用於在 Microsoft 的 IIS 網頁伺服器上部署時使用的 *note
     CGIHandler: 3638. 的一個專門替代選擇，無需設置 config 的
     allowPathInfo 選項（IIS>=7），或 metabase 的
     allowPathInfoForScriptMappings 選項（IIS<7）。

     預設情況下，IIS 提供的 ‘PATH_INFO’ 會在前面複製 ‘SCRIPT_NAME’，對於
     希望實作路由的 WSGI 應用程式造成問題。這個處理程式（handler）會移除
     任何這樣的重複路徑。

     IIS 可以配置去傳遞正確的 ‘PATH_INFO’，但這會導致 ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’
     是錯誤的問題。幸運的是這個變數很少被使用並且不受 WSGI 保證。然而，
     在 IIS<7 上，這個設置只能在虛擬主機層級進行，影響所有其他腳本的對映
     ，其中許多在暴露 ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’ 問題時會中斷。由於這個原因幾乎從
     不會使用修復的 IIS<7（即使是 IIS7 也很少使用它，因為它仍然沒有相應
     的 UI）。

     CGI 程式碼無法知道是否已設置該選項，因此提供了一個獨立的處理程式（
     handler）類別。它的使用方式與 *note CGIHandler: 3638. 相同，即透過
     呼叫 ‘IISCGIHandler().run(app)’ 來使用，其中 ‘app’ 是你希望呼叫的
     WSGI 應用程式物件。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 類別: wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr,
          environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

     類似於 *note CGIHandler: 3638.，但不是使用 *note sys: d3. 和 *note
     os: 9c. 模組，而是明確指定 CGI 環境與 I/O 串流。'multithread' 和
     'multiprocess' 值用於設置由處理程式（handler）實例運行的任何應用程
     式的旗標。

     這個類別是專門為除了 HTTP "origin servers" 以外的軟體一起使用的
     *note SimpleHandler: 363b. 的子類別。如果你正在撰寫一個使用
     ‘Status:’ 標頭來發送 HTTP 狀態的閘道協議實作（例如 CGI、FastCGI、
     SCGI 等），你可能會想要子類化這個類別來替代 *note SimpleHandler:
     363b.。

 -- 類別: wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr,
          environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

     類似於 *note BaseCGIHandler: 3639.，但是被設計使用在 HTTP origin 伺
     服器。如果你正在撰寫 HTTP 伺服器的實作，你可能會想要子類別化這個類
     別來替代 *note BaseCGIHandler: 3639.。

     這個類別是 *note BaseHandler: 17d4. 的子類別。它透過建構器去覆寫
     ‘__init__()’、*note get_stdin(): 363c.、*note get_stderr(): 363d.、
     *note add_cgi_vars(): 363e.、*note _write(): 363f.、和 *note
     _flush(): 3640. 方法來明確提供設置環境與串流。提供的環境與串流被儲
     存在 ‘stdin’、‘stdout’、‘stderr’、和 ‘environ’ 環境中。

     'stdout' 的 *note write(): b48. 方法應該完整地寫入每個塊（chunk），
     像是 *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491.。

 -- 類別: wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler

     這是一個運行 WSGI 應用程式的抽象基底類別。每個實例將處理單個 HTTP 請
     求，儘管原則上你可以建立一個可重用於多個請求的子類別。

     *note BaseHandler: 17d4. 實例只有一個供外部使用的方法：

      -- 方法: run (app)

          運行指定 WSGI 應用程式，'app'。

     此方法在運行應用程式的過程中呼叫了所有其他 *note BaseHandler: 17d4.
     的方法，因此這些方法主要存在是為了允許自定義整個過程。

     以下方法必須在子類別中覆寫：

      -- 方法: _write (data)

          緩衝要傳送給用戶端的位元組 'data'。如果這個方法實際上傳送了數
          據也是可以的；當底層系統實際具有這種區分時，*note BaseHandler:
          17d4. 為了更好的效能進而分離寫入和刷新操作。

      -- 方法: _flush ()

          強制將緩衝數據傳送到用戶端。如果這是一個無操作（no-op）的方法
          （即，如果 *note _write(): 363f. 實際上發送了數據），那麼是可
          以的。

      -- 方法: get_stdin ()

          回傳一個與 *note InputStream: 3642. 相容的物件並適用於用作當前
          正在處理請求的 ‘wsgi.input’。

      -- 方法: get_stderr ()

          回傳一個與 *note ErrorStream: 3643. 相容的物件並適用於用作當前
          正在處理請求的 ‘wsgi.errors’。

      -- 方法: add_cgi_vars ()

          將當前請求的 CGI 變數插入到 ‘environ’ 屬性中。

     以下是你可能希望覆寫的其他方法和屬性。這個列表只是一個摘要，然而，
     不包括可以被覆寫的每個方法。在嘗試建立自定義的 *note BaseHandler:
     17d4. 子類別之前，你應該參考文件說明和原始碼以獲得更多資訊。

     用於自定義 WSGI 環境的屬性和方法：

      -- 屬性: wsgi_multithread

          用於 ‘wsgi.multithread’ 環境變數的值。在 *note BaseHandler:
          17d4. 中預設為 true，但在其他子類別中可能有不同的預設值（或由
          建構函式設置）。

      -- 屬性: wsgi_multiprocess

          用於 ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ 環境變數的值。在 *note BaseHandler:
          17d4. 中預設為 true，但在其他子類別中可能有不同的預設值（或由
          建構函式設置）。

      -- 屬性: wsgi_run_once

          用於 ‘wsgi.run_once’ 環境變數的值。在 *note BaseHandler: 17d4.
          中預設為 false，但 *note CGIHandler: 3638. 預設將其設置為
          true。

      -- 屬性: os_environ

          預設環境變數包含在每一個請求的 WSGI 環境中。預設情況下，這是在
          載入 *note wsgiref.handlers: 114. 時的 ‘os.environ’ 副本，但子
          類別可以在類別或實例層級建立自己的副本。注意字典應該被視為唯讀
          ，因為預設值在多個類別與實例中共享。

      -- 屬性: server_software

          如果設置 *note origin_server: 3649. 屬性，則此屬性的值將用於設
          置預設的 ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’ WSGI 環境變數，並且還將用於設置
          HTTP 回應中的預設 ‘Server:’ 標頭。對於不是 HTTP origin 伺服器
          的處置程式（例如 *note BaseCGIHandler: 3639. 和 *note
          CGIHandler: 3638.），此屬性將被忽略。

          在 3.3 版的變更: 將術語 "Python" 替換為特定實作的術語，如
          "CPython"、"Jython" 等。

      -- 方法: get_scheme ()

          回傳用於當前請求的 URL scheme。預設的實作使用 *note
          wsgiref.util: 118. 中的 ‘guess_scheme()’ 函式去猜測 scheme 是
          "http" 或是 "https"，基於目前請求的 ‘environ’ 變數。

      -- 方法: setup_environ ()

          將 ‘environ’ 屬性設置為完全填充的 WSGI 環境。預設的實作使用上
          述所有方法和屬性，以及 *note get_stdin(): 363c.、*note
          get_stderr(): 363d. 和 *note add_cgi_vars(): 363e. 方法以及
          *note wsgi_file_wrapper: 364c. 屬性。如果不呈現它也會插入一個
          ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’ 關鍵字，只要 *note origin_server: 3649. 屬性
          是一個 true 值並且 *note server_software: 3648. 屬性被設置。

     用於自定義例外處理的屬性和方法：

      -- 方法: log_exception (exc_info)

          將 'exc_info' 元組記錄到伺服器日誌中。'exc_info' 是一個
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’ 元組。預設實作只是將追蹤資訊寫入到
          請求的 ‘wsgi.errors’ 串流中並刷新它。子類別可以覆蓋此方法以更
          改格式或重新定向輸出，將追蹤資訊發送給管理員，或執行其他被認為
          合適的操作。

      -- 屬性: traceback_limit

          預設的 *note log_exception(): 364d. 方法追蹤輸出中包含的最大幀
          數 。如果為 ‘None’，則包含所有幀。

      -- 方法: error_output (environ, start_response)

          這個方法是一個為使用者去產生錯誤頁面的 WSGI 應用程式。只有在標
          頭傳送給用戶端前如果發生錯誤才會被呼叫。

          此方法使用 ‘sys.exception()’ 存取當前的錯誤，當呼叫它（如 PEP
          3333(1) 的 "Error Handling" 部分所描述）時應該傳遞資訊給
          'start_response'。

          預設的實作只是使用 *note error_status: 3650.、*note
          error_headers: 3651. 和 *note error_body: 3652. 屬性產生輸出頁
          面。子類別可以覆蓋此方法以生成更動態的錯誤輸出。

          然而，從安全的角度並不建議向任何普通使用者顯示診斷資訊；理想情
          況下，你應該需要採取特殊措施才能啟用診斷輸出，這就是預設實作不
          包括任何診斷資訊的原因。

      -- 屬性: error_status

          用於錯誤回應的 HTTP 狀態。這應該是一個按照 PEP 3333(2) 定義的
          狀態字串；預設為 500 狀態碼和訊息。

      -- 屬性: error_headers

          用於錯誤回應的 HTTP 標頭。這應該是一個 WSGI 回應標頭的串列（
          ‘(name, value)’ 元組），如 PEP 3333(3) 中所描述。預設串列只設
          置內容種類為 ‘text/plain’。

      -- 屬性: error_body

          錯誤回應的主體。這應該是一個 HTTP 回應內容的位元組字串。預設為
          純文字 "A server error occurred.  Please contact the
          administrator."

     用於 PEP 3333(4) 中的 "Optional Platform-Specific File Handling" 功
     能的方法和屬性：

      -- 屬性: wsgi_file_wrapper

          一個 ‘wsgi.file_wrapper’ 工廠函式（factory），與 *note
          wsgiref.types.FileWrapper: 3626. 相容，或者為 ‘None’。這個屬性
          的預設值是 *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 546. 類別。

      -- 方法: sendfile ()

          覆蓋以實作特定平台的檔案傳輸。只有當應用程式的回傳值是由 *note
          wsgi_file_wrapper: 364c. 屬性指定的類別實例時才會呼叫此方法。
          如果它能夠成功傳輸檔案應該回傳一個 true 值，以便不執行預設的傳
          輸程式碼。該方法的預設實作只回傳一個 false 值。

     其他方法和屬性：

      -- 屬性: origin_server

          這個屬性應該被設置為 true 值，如果處理程式（handler）的 *note
          _write(): 363f. 和 *note _flush(): 3640. 被用於直接與用戶端通
          訊，而不是透過 CGI-like 的閘道協議希望 HTTP 狀態在特殊的
          ‘Status:’ 標頭中。

          這個屬性在 *note BaseCGIHandler: 3639. 預設值為 true，但是在
          *note BaseCGIHandler: 3639. 和 *note CGIHandler: 3638. 為
          false。

      -- 屬性: http_version

          如果 *note origin_server: 3649. 為 true，則此字串屬性用於設定
          傳送給用戶端的回應的 HTTP 版本。預設為 ‘"1.0"’。

 -- 函式: wsgiref.handlers.read_environ ()

     從 ‘os.environ’ 轉碼 CGI 變數到 PEP 3333(5) 中的 "bytes in unicode"
     字串，並回傳一個新字典。這個函式被 *note CGIHandler: 3638. 和 *note
     IISCGIHandler: 363a. 使用來直接替代 ‘os.environ’，在所有平台和使用
     Python 3 的網頁伺服器上不一定符合 WSGI 標準，具體來說，在 OS 的實際
     環境是 Unicode（例如 Windows）的情況下，或者在環境是位元組的情況下
     ，但 Python 用於解碼它的系統編碼不是 ISO-8859-1 （例如使用 UTF-8 的
     Unix 系統）。

     如果你自己正在實作 CGI-based 處理程式（handler），你可能想要使用這
     個函式來替換單純直接從 ‘os.environ’ 中複製值。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別,  Next: 範例<33>,  Prev: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作

5.21.2.6 ‘wsgiref.types’ - 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別
.......................................................

這個模組提供在 PEP 3333(1) 中所描述的各種用於靜態型別檢查的型別。

在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 類別: wsgiref.types.StartResponse

     一個描述 start_response()(2) 可呼叫物件的 *note typing.Protocol:
     4ad. ( PEP 3333(3))。

 -- 資料: wsgiref.types.WSGIEnvironment

     一個描述 WSGI 環境字典的型別別名。

 -- 資料: wsgiref.types.WSGIApplication

     一個描述 WSGI 應用程式可呼叫物件的型別別名。

 -- 類別: wsgiref.types.InputStream

     一個描述 WSGI 輸入串流(4)的 *note typing.Protocol: 4ad.。

 -- 類別: wsgiref.types.ErrorStream

     一個描述 WSGI 錯誤串流(5)的 *note typing.Protocol: 4ad.。

 -- 類別: wsgiref.types.FileWrapper

     一個描述 檔案包裝器(6)的 *note typing.Protocol: 4ad.。請參閱 *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 546. 來瞭解此協議的具體實作。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#the-start-response-callable

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams

   (6) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#optional-platform-specific-file-handling


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<33>,  Prev: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作

5.21.2.7 範例
.............

這個一個運作中的 "Hello World" WSGI 應用程式：

     """
     Every WSGI application must have an application object - a callable
     object that accepts two arguments. For that purpose, we're going to
     use a function (note that you're not limited to a function, you can
     use a class for example). The first argument passed to the function
     is a dictionary containing CGI-style environment variables and the
     second variable is the callable object.
     """
     from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server


     def hello_world_app(environ, start_response):
         status = "200 OK"  # HTTP Status
         headers = [("Content-type", "text/plain; charset=utf-8")]  # HTTP Headers
         start_response(status, headers)

         # The returned object is going to be printed
         return [b"Hello World"]

     with make_server("", 8000, hello_world_app) as httpd:
         print("Serving on port 8000...")

         # Serve until process is killed
         httpd.serve_forever()

提供當前目錄的 WSGI 應用程式範例，並接受命令列上的可選目錄和埠號（預設：
8000）：

     """
     Small wsgiref based web server. Takes a path to serve from and an
     optional port number (defaults to 8000), then tries to serve files.
     MIME types are guessed from the file names, 404 errors are raised
     if the file is not found.
     """
     import mimetypes
     import os
     import sys
     from wsgiref import simple_server, util


     def app(environ, respond):
         # Get the file name and MIME type
         fn = os.path.join(path, environ["PATH_INFO"][1:])
         if "." not in fn.split(os.path.sep)[-1]:
             fn = os.path.join(fn, "index.html")
         mime_type = mimetypes.guess_type(fn)[0]

         # Return 200 OK if file exists, otherwise 404 Not Found
         if os.path.exists(fn):
             respond("200 OK", [("Content-Type", mime_type)])
             return util.FileWrapper(open(fn, "rb"))
         else:
             respond("404 Not Found", [("Content-Type", "text/plain")])
             return [b"not found"]


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         # Get the path and port from command-line arguments
         path = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) > 1 else os.getcwd()
         port = int(sys.argv[2]) if len(sys.argv) > 2 else 8000

         # Make and start the server until control-c
         httpd = simple_server.make_server("", port, app)
         print(f"Serving {path} on port {port}, control-C to stop")
         try:
             httpd.serve_forever()
         except KeyboardInterrupt:
             print("Shutting down.")
             httpd.server_close()


File: python.info,  Node: urllib --- URL 處理模組,  Next: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫,  Prev: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.3 ‘urllib’ -- URL 處理模組
-------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/urllib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘urllib’ 是一個蒐集了許多處理 URLs 的 module（模組）的 package（套件）：

   * *note urllib.request: 106. 用來開啟和讀取 URLs

   * *note urllib.error: 104. 包含了 *note urllib.request: 106. 所引發的
     例外

   * *note urllib.parse: 105. 用來剖析 URLs

   * *note urllib.robotparser: 108. 用來剖析 ‘robots.txt’ 檔案

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/urllib/


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫,  Next: urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib,  Prev: urllib --- URL 處理模組,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.4 ‘urllib.request’ -- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫
-------------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/urllib/request.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note urllib.request: 106. module（模組）定義了一些函式與 class（類別）
用以開啟 URLs（大部分是 HTTP），並處理各式複雜情況如：basic 驗證與
digest 驗證、重新導向、cookies。

也參考
......

有關於更高階的 HTTP 用戶端介面，推薦使用 Requests 套件(2)。

     警告: On macOS it is unsafe to use this module in programs using
     *note os.fork(): 233. because the *note getproxies(): 365d.
     implementation for macOS uses a higher-level system API. Set the
     environment variable ‘no_proxy’ to ‘*’ to avoid this problem (e.g.
     ‘os.environ["no_proxy"] = "*"’).

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

*note urllib.request: 106. module 定義下列函式：

 -- 函式: urllib.request.urlopen (url, data=None[, timeout], *,
          cafile=None, capath=None, cadefault=False, context=None)

     打開 'url'，其值可以是一個包含有效且適當編碼 URL 的字串或是一個
     *note Request: e6a. 物件。

     'data' 必須是一個包含傳送給伺服器額外資料的物件，若不需要傳送額外資
     料則指定為 ‘None’。更多細節請見 *note Request: e6a.。

     urllib.request module 使用 HTTP/1.1 並包含 ‘Connection:close’
     header（標頭）在其 HTTP 請求中。

     透過選擇性參數 'timeout' 來指定 blocking operations（阻塞性操作，如
     ：嘗試連接）的 timeout（超時時間），以秒為單位。若沒有指定值，則會
     使用全域預設超時時間設定。實際上，此參數僅作用於 HTTP、HTTPS 以及
     FTP 的連接。

     若 'context' 有被指定時，它必須是一個 *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. 的
     實例並描述著各種 SSL 選項。更多細節請見 *note HTTPSConnection:
     999.。

     選擇性參數 'cafile' 與 'capath' 用來指定一組 HTTPS 請求中所需之受信
     任 CA 憑證。'cafile' 的值應該指向內容包含一堆 CA 憑證的單一檔案，而
     'capath' 則指向存放一堆雜湊後的憑證檔案的目錄。欲瞭解更多的資訊請參
     見 *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d6f.。

     參數 'cadefault' 已被忽略。

     這個函式總是回傳一個可作為 *note context manager: 3c4. 使用的物件，
     並有著特性 (property) 'url'、'headers' 與 'status'。欲知更多這些特
     性細節請參見 *note urllib.response.addinfourl: 365e.。

     對於 HTTP 與 HTTPS 的 URLs，這個函式回傳一個稍有不同的 *note
     http.client.HTTPResponse: f5d. 物件。除了上述提到的三個方法外，另有
     msg 屬性並有著與 *note reason: 365f. 相同的資訊 -- 由伺服器回傳的原
     因敘述 (reason phrase)，而不是在 *note HTTPResponse: f5d. 文件中提
     到的回應 headers。

     對於 FTP、檔案、資料的 URLs、以及那些由傳統 classes *note
     URLopener: 27d. 與 *note FancyURLopener: 27e. 所處理的請求，這個函
     式會回傳一個 *note urllib.response.addinfourl: 365e. 物件。

     當遇到協定上的錯誤時會引發 *note URLError: 3660.。

     請注意若沒有 handler 處理請求時，‘None’ 值將會被回傳。（即使有預設
     的全域類別 *note OpenerDirector: 3661. 使用 *note UnknownHandler:
     3662. 來確保這種情況不會發生）

     另外，若有偵測到代理服務的設定（例如當 ‘*_proxy’ 環境變數像是：
     :envvar:!http_proxy' 有被設置時），*note ProxyHandler: 17b0. 會被預
     設使用以確保請求有透過代理服務來處理。

     Python 2.6 或更早版本的遺留函式 ‘urllib.urlopen’ 已經不再被維護；新
     函式 *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 27f. 對應到舊函式
     ‘urllib2.urlopen’。有關代理服務的處理，以往是透過傳遞 dictionary（
     字典）參數給 ‘urllib.urlopen’ 來取得的，現在則可以透過 *note
     ProxyHandler: 17b0. 物件來取得。

     預設的 opener 會觸發一個 *note auditing event: 168e.
     ‘urllib.Request’ 與其從請求物件中所獲得的引數 ‘fullurl’、‘data’、
     ‘headers’、‘method’。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'cafile' 與 'capath'。

     HTTPS 虛擬主機 (virtual hosts) 現已支援，只要 *note ssl.HAS_SNI:
     3153. 的值為 true。

     'data' 可以是一個可疊代物件。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 'cadefault' 被新增。

     在 3.4.3 版的變更: 'context' 被新增。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 當 'context' 沒有被指定時，HTTPS 連線現在會傳送一
     個帶有協定指示器 ‘http/1.1’ 的 ALPN 擴充 (extension)。自訂的
     'context' 應該利用 *note set_alpn_protocols(): ce2. 來自行設定 ALPN
     協定。

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: 'cafile'、'capath'、'cadefault' 已經被棄用並應
     改為使用 'context'。請改用 *note ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain():
     fd3.，或是讓 *note ssl.create_default_context(): e36. 選取系統中受
     信任的 CA 憑證。

 -- 函式: urllib.request.install_opener (opener)

     安裝一個 *note OpenerDirector: 3661. 實例作為預設的全域 opener。僅
     在當你想要讓 urlopen 使用該 opener 時安裝一個 opener，否則的話應直
     接呼叫 *note OpenerDirector.open(): e6e. 而非 *note urlopen():
     27f.。程式碼不會檢查 class 是否真的為 *note OpenerDirector: 3661.，
     而是任何具有正確介面的 class 都能適用。

 -- 函式: urllib.request.build_opener ([handler, ...])

     回傳一個 *note OpenerDirector: 3661. 實例，以給定的順序把 handlers
     串接起來。'handler's 可以是 *note BaseHandler: 3665. 的實例，亦或是
     *note BaseHandler: 3665. 的 subclasses（這個情況下必須有不帶參數的
     建構函式能夠被呼叫）。以下 classes 的實例順位會在 'handler's 之前，
     除非 'handler's 已經包含它們，是它們的實例，或是它們的 subclasses：
     *note ProxyHandler: 17b0.（如果代理服務設定被偵測到）、*note
     UnknownHandler: 3662.、*note HTTPHandler: 3666.、*note
     HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 3667.、*note HTTPRedirectHandler: 3668.、
     *note FTPHandler: 3669.、*note FileHandler: 366a.、*note
     HTTPErrorProcessor: 366b.。

     如果 Python 安裝時已帶有 SSL 支援（如果 *note ssl: ca. module 能夠
     被 import），則 *note HTTPSHandler: 10b6. 也在上述 class 之中。

     一個 *note BaseHandler: 3665. 的 subclass 可能透過改變其
     ‘handler_order’ 屬性來調整它在 handlers list 中的位置。

 -- 函式: urllib.request.pathname2url (path)

     將路徑名 'path' 從路徑的本地語法 (local syntax) 轉換為 URL 中的
     path component（路徑元件）格式。本函式並不會產生完整的 URL。回傳值
     將使用 *note quote(): a03. 函式先進行編碼過。

 -- 函式: urllib.request.url2pathname (path)

     將一個用 "%" 編碼過的 URL path component 'path' 轉換為路徑的本地語
     法 (local syntax)。本函式並不接受完整的 URL。本函式使用 *note
     unquote(): 1550. 來將 'path' 解碼。

 -- 函式: urllib.request.getproxies ()

     這個輔助函式 (helper function) 回傳一個代理伺服器 URL mappings（對
     映）的 dictionary。在所有的作業系統中，它首先掃描環境中有著
     ‘<scheme>_proxy’ 名稱的變數（忽略大小寫的），如果找不到的話就會在
     macOS 中的系統設定 (System Configuration) 或是 Windows 系統中的
     Windows Systems Registry 尋找代理服務設定。如果大小寫的環境變數同時
     存在且值有不同，小寫的環境變數會被選用。

          備註: 如果環境變數 ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ 有被設置（通常這代表著你的
          script 是運行在一個共用閘道介面 (CGI) 環境中），那麼環境變數
          ‘HTTP_PROXY’ （大寫的 ‘_PROXY’）將被忽略。這是因為變數可以透過
          使用 "Proxy:" HTTP header 被注入。如果需要在共用閘道介面環境中
          使用 HTTP 代理服務，可以明確使用 ‘ProxyHandler’，亦或是確認變
          數名稱是小寫的（或至少 ‘_proxy’ 後綴是小寫的）。

提供了以下的 classes：

 -- 類別: urllib.request.Request (url, data=None, headers={},
          origin_req_host=None, unverifiable=False, method=None)

     這個 class 是一個 URL 請求的抽象 class。

     'url' 是一個包含有效且適當編碼的 URL 字串。

     'data' 必須是一個包含要送到伺服器的附加資料的物件，若不需帶附加資料
     則其值應為 ‘None’。目前 HTTP 請求是唯一有使用 'data' 參數的，其支援
     的物件型別包含位元組、類檔案物件 (file-like objects)、以及可疊代的
     類位元組串物件 (bytes-like objects)。如果沒有提供 ‘Content-Length’
     及 ‘Transfer-Encoding’ headers 欄位，*note HTTPHandler: 3666. 將會
     根據 'data' 的型別設置這些 header。‘Content-Length’ 會被用來傳送位
     元組串物件，而 RFC 7230(3) 章節 3.3.1 所定義的 ‘Transfer-Encoding:
     chunked’ 則會被用來傳送檔案或是其它可疊代物件 (iterables)。

     對於一個 HTTP POST 請求方法，'data' 應為一個標準
     ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ 格式的 buffer。*note
     urllib.parse.urlencode(): d15. 方法接受一個 mapping 或是 sequence（
     序列）的 2-tuples，並回傳一個對應格式的 ASCII 字串。在被作為 'data'
     參數前它應該被編碼成位元組串。

     'headers' 必須是一個 dictionary，並會被視為如同每對 key 和 value 作
     為引數來呼叫 *note add_header(): 366d.。經常用於「偽裝」
     ‘User-Agent’ header 的值，這個 header 是用來讓一個瀏覽器向伺服器表
     明自己的身分 -- 有些 HTTP 伺服器僅允許來自普通瀏覽器的請求，而不接
     受來自程式腳本的請求。例如，Mozilla Firefox 會將 header 的值設為
     ‘"Mozilla/5.0 (X11; U; Linux i686) Gecko/20071127
     Firefox/2.0.0.11"’，而 *note urllib: 103. 的值則是
     ‘"Python-urllib/2.6"’（在 Python 2.6 上）。所有 header 的鍵都會以
     camel case（駝峰式大小寫）來傳送。

     當有給定 'data' 引數時，一個適當的 ‘Content-Type’ header 應該被設置
     。如果這個 header 沒有被提供且 'data' 也不為 ‘None’ 時，預設值
     ‘Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ 會被新增至請求中
     。

     接下來的兩個引數的介紹提供給那些有興趣正確處理第三方 HTTP cookies 的
     使用者：

     'origin_req_host' 應為原始傳輸互動的請求主機 (request-host)，如同在
     RFC 2965(4) 中的定義。預設值為 ‘http.cookiejar.request_host(self)’。
     這是使用者發起的原始請求的主機名稱或是 IP 位址。例如當請求是要求一
     個 HTML 文件中的一個影像，則這個屬性應為請求包含影像頁面的請求主機
     。

     'unverifiable' 應該標示一個請求是否是無法驗證的，如同在 RFC 2965(5)
     中的定義。其預設值為 ‘False’。一個無法驗證的請求是指使用者沒有機會
     去批准請求的 URL，例如一個對於 HTML 文件中的影像所做的請求，而使用
     者沒有機會去批准是否能自動擷取影像，則這個值應該為 true。

     'method' 應為一個標示 HTTP 請求方法的字串（例如：‘'HEAD'’）。如果有
     提供值，則會被存在 *note method: e6b. 屬性中且被 *note
     get_method(): ffc. 所使用。當 'data' 是 ‘None’ 時，其預設值為
     ‘'GET'’，否則預設值為 ‘'POST'’。Subclasses 可以透過設置其 *note
     method: e6b. 屬性來設定不一樣的預設請求方法。

          備註: 如果資料物件無法重複提供其內容（例如一個檔案或是只能產生
          一次內容的可疊代物件）且請求因為 HTTP 重導向 (redirects) 或是
          HTTP 驗證 (authentication) 而被重新嘗試傳送，則該請求不會正常
          運作。'data' 會接在 headers 之後被送至 HTTP 伺服器。此函式庫沒
          有支援 100-continue expectation。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 *note Request.method: e6b. 引數到 Request
     class。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 能夠在 class 中設置預設的 *note Request.method:
     e6b.。

     在 3.6 版的變更: 如果 ‘Content-Length’ 尚未被提供且 'data' 既不是
     ‘None’ 也不是一個位元組串物件，則不會觸發錯誤，並 fall back（後備）
     使用分塊傳輸編碼 (chunked transfer encoding)。

 -- 類別: urllib.request.OpenerDirector

     The *note OpenerDirector: 3661. class opens URLs via *note
     BaseHandler: 3665.s chained together.  It manages the chaining of
     handlers, and recovery from errors.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.BaseHandler

     This is the base class for all registered handlers -- and handles
     only the simple mechanics of registration.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler

     A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses;
     all responses are turned into *note HTTPError: e70. exceptions.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler

     A class to handle redirections.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor (cookiejar=None)

     A class to handle HTTP Cookies.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.ProxyHandler (proxies=None)

     Cause requests to go through a proxy.  If 'proxies' is given, it
     must be a dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies.
     The default is to read the list of proxies from the environment
     variables ‘<protocol>_proxy’.  If no proxy environment variables
     are set, then in a Windows environment proxy settings are obtained
     from the registry's Internet Settings section, and in a macOS
     environment proxy information is retrieved from the System
     Configuration Framework.

     To disable autodetected proxy pass an empty dictionary.

     The ‘no_proxy’ environment variable can be used to specify hosts
     which shouldn't be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a
     comma-separated list of hostname suffixes, optionally with ‘:port’
     appended, for example ‘cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080’.

          備註: ‘HTTP_PROXY’ will be ignored if a variable
          ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is set; see the documentation on *note
          getproxies(): 365d.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr

     Keep a database of ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ mappings.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm

     Keep a database of ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ mappings.  A
     realm of ‘None’ is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched
     if no other realm fits.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth

     A variant of *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 3670. that also
     has a database of ‘uri -> is_authenticated’ mappings.  Can be used
     by a BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication
     credentials immediately instead of waiting for a ‘401’ response
     first.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to
     the remote host and to a proxy.  'password_mgr', if given, should
     be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 366f.;
     refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr 物件: 3671. for information
     on the interface that must be supported.  If 'passwd_mgr' also
     provides ‘is_authenticated’ and ‘update_authenticated’ methods (see
     *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件: 3672.), then the handler
     will use the ‘is_authenticated’ result for a given URI to determine
     whether or not to send authentication credentials with the request.
     If ‘is_authenticated’ returns ‘True’ for the URI, credentials are
     sent.  If ‘is_authenticated’ is ‘False’, credentials are not sent,
     and then if a ‘401’ response is received the request is re-sent
     with the authentication credentials.  If authentication succeeds,
     ‘update_authenticated’ is called to set ‘is_authenticated’ ‘True’
     for the URI, so that subsequent requests to the URI or any of its
     super-URIs will automatically include the authentication
     credentials.

     在 3.5 版被加入: 新增 ‘is_authenticated’ 的支援。

 -- 類別: urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the remote host.  'password_mgr', if
     given, should be something that is compatible with *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 366f.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr
     物件: 3671. for information on the interface that must be
     supported.  HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a *note ValueError:
     183. when presented with a wrong Authentication scheme.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the proxy.  'password_mgr', if given,
     should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr:
     366f.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr 物件: 3671. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to
     the remote host and to a proxy.  'password_mgr', if given, should
     be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 366f.;
     refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr 物件: 3671. for information
     on the interface that must be supported.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the remote host.  'password_mgr', if
     given, should be something that is compatible with *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 366f.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr
     物件: 3671. for information on the interface that must be
     supported.  When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic
     Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is
     always tried first.  If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x
     response again, it is sent to Basic Authentication handler to
     Handle.  This Handler method will raise a *note ValueError: 183.
     when presented with an authentication scheme other than Digest or
     Basic.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Raise *note ValueError: 183. on unsupported
     Authentication Scheme.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the proxy.  'password_mgr', if given,
     should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr:
     366f.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr 物件: 3671. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.HTTPHandler

     A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.HTTPSHandler (debuglevel=0, context=None,
          check_hostname=None)

     A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs.  'context' and
     'check_hostname' have the same meaning as in *note
     http.client.HTTPSConnection: 999.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'context' 與 'check_hostname'。

 -- 類別: urllib.request.FileHandler

     Open local files.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.DataHandler

     Open data URLs.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.FTPHandler

     Open FTP URLs.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler

     Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize
     delays.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.UnknownHandler

     A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor

     Process HTTP error responses.

* Menu:

* Request Objects::
* OpenerDirector 物件::
* BaseHandler 物件::
* HTTPRedirectHandler 物件::
* HTTPCookieProcessor 物件::
* ProxyHandler 物件::
* HTTPPasswordMgr 物件::
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件::
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler 物件::
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler 物件::
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler 物件::
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler 物件::
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler 物件::
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler 物件::
* HTTPHandler 物件::
* HTTPSHandler 物件::
* FileHandler 物件::
* DataHandler 物件::
* FTPHandler 物件::
* CacheFTPHandler 物件::
* UnknownHandler 物件::
* HTTPErrorProcessor 物件::
* 範例: 範例<34>.
* Legacy interface::
* urllib.request Restrictions: urllib request Restrictions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/urllib/request.py

   (2) https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/master/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: Request Objects,  Next: OpenerDirector 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.1 Request Objects
........................

The following methods describe *note Request: e6a.'s public interface,
and so all may be overridden in subclasses.  It also defines several
public attributes that can be used by clients to inspect the parsed
request.

 -- 屬性: Request.full_url

     The original URL passed to the constructor.

     在 3.4 版的變更.

     Request.full_url is a property with setter, getter and a deleter.
     Getting *note full_url: e6c. returns the original request URL with
     the fragment, if it was present.

 -- 屬性: Request.type

     The URI scheme.

 -- 屬性: Request.host

     The URI authority, typically a host, but may also contain a port
     separated by a colon.

 -- 屬性: Request.origin_req_host

     The original host for the request, without port.

 -- 屬性: Request.selector

     The URI path.  If the *note Request: e6a. uses a proxy, then
     selector will be the full URL that is passed to the proxy.

 -- 屬性: Request.data

     The entity body for the request, or ‘None’ if not specified.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Changing value of *note Request.data: e6d. now
     deletes "Content-Length" header if it was previously set or
     calculated.

 -- 屬性: Request.unverifiable

     boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined
     by RFC 2965(1).

 -- 屬性: Request.method

     The HTTP request method to use.  By default its value is *note
     None: 470, which means that *note get_method(): ffc. will do its
     normal computation of the method to be used.  Its value can be set
     (thus overriding the default computation in *note get_method():
     ffc.) either by providing a default value by setting it at the
     class level in a *note Request: e6a. subclass, or by passing a
     value in to the *note Request: e6a. constructor via the 'method'
     argument.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: A default value can now be set in subclasses;
     previously it could only be set via the constructor argument.

 -- 方法: Request.get_method ()

     Return a string indicating the HTTP request method.  If *note
     Request.method: e6b. is not ‘None’, return its value, otherwise
     return ‘'GET'’ if *note Request.data: e6d. is ‘None’, or ‘'POST'’
     if it's not.  This is only meaningful for HTTP requests.

     在 3.3 版的變更: get_method now looks at the value of *note
     Request.method: e6b.

 -- 方法: Request.add_header (key, val)

     Add another header to the request.  Headers are currently ignored
     by all handlers except HTTP handlers, where they are added to the
     list of headers sent to the server.  Note that there cannot be more
     than one header with the same name, and later calls will overwrite
     previous calls in case the 'key' collides.  Currently, this is no
     loss of HTTP functionality, since all headers which have meaning
     when used more than once have a (header-specific) way of gaining
     the same functionality using only one header.  Note that headers
     added using this method are also added to redirected requests.

 -- 方法: Request.add_unredirected_header (key, header)

     Add a header that will not be added to a redirected request.

 -- 方法: Request.has_header (header)

     Return whether the instance has the named header (checks both
     regular and unredirected).

 -- 方法: Request.remove_header (header)

     Remove named header from the request instance (both from regular
     and unredirected headers).

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 方法: Request.get_full_url ()

     Return the URL given in the constructor.

     在 3.4 版的變更.

     Returns *note Request.full_url: e6c.

 -- 方法: Request.set_proxy (host, type)

     Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server.  The 'host'
     and 'type' will replace those of the instance, and the instance's
     selector will be the original URL given in the constructor.

 -- 方法: Request.get_header (header_name, default=None)

     Return the value of the given header.  If the header is not
     present, return the default value.

 -- 方法: Request.header_items ()

     Return a list of tuples (header_name, header_value) of the Request
     headers.

在 3.4 版的變更: The request methods add_data, has_data, get_data,
get_type, get_host, get_selector, get_origin_req_host and
is_unverifiable that were deprecated since 3.3 have been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: OpenerDirector 物件,  Next: BaseHandler 物件,  Prev: Request Objects,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.2 OpenerDirector 物件
............................

*note OpenerDirector: 3661. instances have the following methods:

 -- 方法: OpenerDirector.add_handler (handler)

     'handler' should be an instance of *note BaseHandler: 3665.  The
     following methods are searched, and added to the possible chains
     (note that HTTP errors are a special case).  Note that, in the
     following, 'protocol' should be replaced with the actual protocol
     to handle, for example ‘http_response()’ would be the HTTP protocol
     response handler.  Also 'type' should be replaced with the actual
     HTTP code, for example ‘http_error_404()’ would handle HTTP 404
     errors.

        * ‘<protocol>_open()’ -- signal that the handler knows how to
          open 'protocol' URLs.

          更多資訊請見 *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(): 3687.。

        * ‘http_error_<type>()’ -- signal that the handler knows how to
          handle HTTP errors with HTTP error code 'type'.

          更多資訊請見 *note BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(): 3688.。

        * ‘<protocol>_error()’ -- signal that the handler knows how to
          handle errors from (non-‘http’) 'protocol'.

        * ‘<protocol>_request()’ -- signal that the handler knows how to
          pre-process 'protocol' requests.

          更多資訊請見 *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(): 3689.。

        * ‘<protocol>_response()’ -- signal that the handler knows how
          to post-process 'protocol' responses.

          更多資訊請見 *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(): 368a.。

 -- 方法: OpenerDirector.open (url, data=None[, timeout])

     Open the given 'url' (which can be a request object or a string),
     optionally passing the given 'data'.  Arguments, return values and
     exceptions raised are the same as those of *note urlopen(): 27f.
     (which simply calls the *note open(): 29c. method on the currently
     installed global *note OpenerDirector: 3661.).  The optional
     'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking
     operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the
     global default timeout setting will be used).  The timeout feature
     actually works only for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.

 -- 方法: OpenerDirector.error (proto, *args)

     Handle an error of the given protocol.  This will call the
     registered error handlers for the given protocol with the given
     arguments (which are protocol specific).  The HTTP protocol is a
     special case which uses the HTTP response code to determine the
     specific error handler; refer to the ‘http_error_<type>()’ methods
     of the handler classes.

     Return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of *note
     urlopen(): 27f.

OpenerDirector objects open URLs in three stages:

The order in which these methods are called within each stage is
determined by sorting the handler instances.

  1. Every handler with a method named like ‘<protocol>_request()’ has
     that method called to pre-process the request.

  2. Handlers with a method named like ‘<protocol>_open()’ are called to
     handle the request.  This stage ends when a handler either returns
     a non-*note None: 470. value (ie.  a response), or raises an
     exception (usually *note URLError: 3660.).  Exceptions are allowed
     to propagate.

     In fact, the above algorithm is first tried for methods named *note
     default_open(): 368c.  If all such methods return *note None: 470,
     the algorithm is repeated for methods named like
     ‘<protocol>_open()’.  If all such methods return *note None: 470,
     the algorithm is repeated for methods named *note unknown_open():
     368d.

     Note that the implementation of these methods may involve calls of
     the parent *note OpenerDirector: 3661. instance's *note open():
     e6e. and *note error(): 368b. methods.

  3. Every handler with a method named like ‘<protocol>_response()’ has
     that method called to post-process the response.


File: python.info,  Node: BaseHandler 物件,  Next: HTTPRedirectHandler 物件,  Prev: OpenerDirector 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.3 BaseHandler 物件
.........................

*note BaseHandler: 3665. objects provide a couple of methods that are
directly useful, and others that are meant to be used by derived
classes.  These are intended for direct use:

 -- 方法: BaseHandler.add_parent (director)

     Add a director as parent.

 -- 方法: BaseHandler.close ()

     Remove any parents.

The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes
derived from *note BaseHandler: 3665.

     備註: The convention has been adopted that subclasses defining
     ‘<protocol>_request()’ or ‘<protocol>_response()’ methods are named
     ‘*Processor’; all others are named ‘*Handler’.

 -- 屬性: BaseHandler.parent

     A valid *note OpenerDirector: 3661, which can be used to open using
     a different protocol, or handle errors.

 -- 方法: BaseHandler.default_open (req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3665, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs.

     This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 3661.  It should return a file-like object as
     described in the return value of the *note open(): e6e. method of
     *note OpenerDirector: 3661, or ‘None’.  It should raise *note
     URLError: 3660, unless a truly exceptional thing happens (for
     example, *note MemoryError: 1460. should not be mapped to *note
     URLError: 3660.).

     This method will be called before any protocol-specific open
     method.

 -- 方法: BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3665, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to handle URLs with the
     given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 3661.  Return values should be the same as for
     *note default_open(): 368c.

 -- 方法: BaseHandler.unknown_open (req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3665, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs with no
     specific registered handler to open it.

     This method, if implemented, will be called by the *note parent:
     3692. *note OpenerDirector: 3661.  Return values should be the same
     as for *note default_open(): 368c.

 -- 方法: BaseHandler.http_error_default (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3665, but
     subclasses should override it if they intend to provide a catch-all
     for otherwise unhandled HTTP errors.  It will be called
     automatically by the *note OpenerDirector: 3661. getting the error,
     and should not normally be called in other circumstances.

     'req' will be a *note Request: e6a. object, 'fp' will be a
     file-like object with the HTTP error body, 'code' will be the
     three-digit code of the error, 'msg' will be the user-visible
     explanation of the code and 'hdrs' will be a mapping object with
     the headers of the error.

     Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of
     *note urlopen(): 27f.

 -- 方法: BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     'nnn' should be a three-digit HTTP error code.  This method is also
     not defined in *note BaseHandler: 3665, but will be called, if it
     exists, on an instance of a subclass, when an HTTP error with code
     'nnn' occurs.

     Subclasses should override this method to handle specific HTTP
     errors.

     Arguments, return values and exceptions raised should be the same
     as for *note http_error_default(): 3693.

 -- 方法: BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3665, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to pre-process requests of
     the given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 3661.  'req' will be a *note Request: e6a. object.
     The return value should be a *note Request: e6a. object.

 -- 方法: BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(req, response)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3665, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to post-process responses
     of the given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 3661.  'req' will be a *note Request: e6a. object.
     'response' will be an object implementing the same interface as the
     return value of *note urlopen(): 27f.  The return value should
     implement the same interface as the return value of *note
     urlopen(): 27f.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPRedirectHandler 物件,  Next: HTTPCookieProcessor 物件,  Prev: BaseHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.4 HTTPRedirectHandler 物件
.................................

     備註: Some HTTP redirections require action from this module's
     client code.  If this is the case, *note HTTPError: e70. is raised.
     See RFC 2616(1) for details of the precise meanings of the various
     redirection codes.

     An *note HTTPError: e70. exception raised as a security
     consideration if the HTTPRedirectHandler is presented with a
     redirected URL which is not an HTTP, HTTPS or FTP URL.

 -- 方法: HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs, newurl)

     Return a *note Request: e6a. or ‘None’ in response to a redirect.
     This is called by the default implementations of the
     ‘http_error_30*()’ methods when a redirection is received from the
     server.  If a redirection should take place, return a new *note
     Request: e6a. to allow ‘http_error_30*()’ to perform the redirect
     to 'newurl'.  Otherwise, raise *note HTTPError: e70. if no other
     handler should try to handle this URL, or return ‘None’ if you
     can't but another handler might.

          備註: The default implementation of this method does not
          strictly follow RFC 2616(2), which says that 301 and 302
          responses to ‘POST’ requests must not be automatically
          redirected without confirmation by the user.  In reality,
          browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses,
          changing the POST to a ‘GET’, and the default implementation
          reproduces this behavior.

 -- 方法: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     Redirect to the ‘Location:’ or ‘URI:’ URL. This method is called by
     the parent *note OpenerDirector: 3661. when getting an HTTP 'moved
     permanently' response.

 -- 方法: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3697, but called for the
     'found' response.

 -- 方法: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3697, but called for the 'see
     other' response.

 -- 方法: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3697, but called for the
     'temporary redirect' response.  It does not allow changing the
     request method from ‘POST’ to ‘GET’.

 -- 方法: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_308 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3697, but called for the
     'permanent redirect' response.  It does not allow changing the
     request method from ‘POST’ to ‘GET’.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPCookieProcessor 物件,  Next: ProxyHandler 物件,  Prev: HTTPRedirectHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.5 HTTPCookieProcessor 物件
.................................

*note HTTPCookieProcessor: 366e. instances have one attribute:

 -- 屬性: HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar

     The *note http.cookiejar.CookieJar: 369f. in which cookies are
     stored.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyHandler 物件,  Next: HTTPPasswordMgr 物件,  Prev: HTTPCookieProcessor 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.6 ProxyHandler 物件
..........................

 -- 方法: ProxyHandler.<protocol>_open(request)

     The *note ProxyHandler: 17b0. will have a method
     ‘<protocol>_open()’ for every 'protocol' which has a proxy in the
     'proxies' dictionary given in the constructor.  The method will
     modify requests to go through the proxy, by calling
     ‘request.set_proxy()’, and call the next handler in the chain to
     actually execute the protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPPasswordMgr 物件,  Next: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件,  Prev: ProxyHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.7 HTTPPasswordMgr 物件
.............................

These methods are available on *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 366f. and *note
HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 3670. objects.

 -- 方法: HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password (realm, uri, user, passwd)

     'uri' can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs.  'realm',
     'user' and 'passwd' must be strings.  This causes ‘(user, passwd)’
     to be used as authentication tokens when authentication for 'realm'
     and a super-URI of any of the given URIs is given.

 -- 方法: HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password (realm, authuri)

     Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any.  This method
     will return ‘(None, None)’ if there is no matching user/password.

     For *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 3670. objects, the realm
     ‘None’ will be searched if the given 'realm' has no matching
     user/password.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件,  Next: AbstractBasicAuthHandler 物件,  Prev: HTTPPasswordMgr 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.8 HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件
..........................................

This password manager extends *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm:
3670. to support tracking URIs for which authentication credentials
should always be sent.

 -- 方法: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password (realm, uri, user,
          passwd, is_authenticated=False)

     'realm', 'uri', 'user', 'passwd' are as for *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(): 36a3.  'is_authenticated' sets the
     initial value of the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the given URI or
     list of URIs.  If 'is_authenticated' is specified as ‘True’,
     'realm' is ignored.

 -- 方法: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.find_user_password (realm,
          authuri)

     Same as for *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 3670. objects

 -- 方法: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated (self, uri,
          is_authenticated=False)

     Update the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the given 'uri' or list of
     URIs.

 -- 方法: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated (self, authuri)

     Returns the current state of the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the
     given URI.


File: python.info,  Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler 物件,  Next: HTTPBasicAuthHandler 物件,  Prev: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.9 AbstractBasicAuthHandler 物件
......................................

 -- 方法: AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq, host,
          req, headers)

     Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair,
     and re-trying the request.  'authreq' should be the name of the
     header where the information about the realm is included in the
     request, 'host' specifies the URL and path to authenticate for,
     'req' should be the (failed) *note Request: e6a. object, and
     'headers' should be the error headers.

     'host' is either an authority (e.g.  ‘"python.org"’) or a URL
     containing an authority component (e.g.  ‘"http://python.org/"’).
     In either case, the authority must not contain a userinfo component
     (so, ‘"python.org"’ and ‘"python.org:80"’ are fine,
     ‘"joe:password@python.org"’ is not).


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPBasicAuthHandler 物件,  Next: ProxyBasicAuthHandler 物件,  Prev: AbstractBasicAuthHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.10 HTTPBasicAuthHandler 物件
...................................

 -- 方法: HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler 物件,  Next: AbstractDigestAuthHandler 物件,  Prev: HTTPBasicAuthHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.11 ProxyBasicAuthHandler 物件
....................................

 -- 方法: ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler 物件,  Next: HTTPDigestAuthHandler 物件,  Prev: ProxyBasicAuthHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.12 AbstractDigestAuthHandler 物件
........................................

 -- 方法: AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq,
          host, req, headers)

     'authreq' should be the name of the header where the information
     about the realm is included in the request, 'host' should be the
     host to authenticate to, 'req' should be the (failed) *note
     Request: e6a. object, and 'headers' should be the error headers.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler 物件,  Next: ProxyDigestAuthHandler 物件,  Prev: AbstractDigestAuthHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.13 HTTPDigestAuthHandler 物件
....................................

 -- 方法: HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyDigestAuthHandler 物件,  Next: HTTPHandler 物件,  Prev: HTTPDigestAuthHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.14 ProxyDigestAuthHandler 物件
.....................................

 -- 方法: ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPHandler 物件,  Next: HTTPSHandler 物件,  Prev: ProxyDigestAuthHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.15 HTTPHandler 物件
..........................

 -- 方法: HTTPHandler.http_open (req)

     Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on
     ‘req.has_data()’.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPSHandler 物件,  Next: FileHandler 物件,  Prev: HTTPHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.16 HTTPSHandler 物件
...........................

 -- 方法: HTTPSHandler.https_open (req)

     Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending
     on ‘req.has_data()’.


File: python.info,  Node: FileHandler 物件,  Next: DataHandler 物件,  Prev: HTTPSHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.17 FileHandler 物件
..........................

 -- 方法: FileHandler.file_open (req)

     Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name
     is ‘'localhost'’.

     在 3.2 版的變更: This method is applicable only for local
     hostnames.  When a remote hostname is given, a *note URLError:
     3660. is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: DataHandler 物件,  Next: FTPHandler 物件,  Prev: FileHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.18 DataHandler 物件
..........................

 -- 方法: DataHandler.data_open (req)

     Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in
     the URL itself.  The data URL syntax is specified in RFC 2397(1).
     This implementation ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data
     URLs so the URL may be wrapped in whatever source file it comes
     from.  But even though some browsers don't mind about a missing
     padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this
     implementation will raise a *note ValueError: 183. in that case.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2397.html


File: python.info,  Node: FTPHandler 物件,  Next: CacheFTPHandler 物件,  Prev: DataHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.19 FTPHandler 物件
.........................

 -- 方法: FTPHandler.ftp_open (req)

     Open the FTP file indicated by 'req'.  The login is always done
     with empty username and password.


File: python.info,  Node: CacheFTPHandler 物件,  Next: UnknownHandler 物件,  Prev: FTPHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.20 CacheFTPHandler 物件
..............................

*note CacheFTPHandler: 14e6. objects are *note FTPHandler: 3669. objects
with the following additional methods:

 -- 方法: CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout (t)

     Set timeout of connections to 't' seconds.

 -- 方法: CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns (m)

     Set maximum number of cached connections to 'm'.


File: python.info,  Node: UnknownHandler 物件,  Next: HTTPErrorProcessor 物件,  Prev: CacheFTPHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.21 UnknownHandler 物件
.............................

 -- 方法: UnknownHandler.unknown_open ()

     Raise a *note URLError: 3660. exception.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPErrorProcessor 物件,  Next: 範例<34>,  Prev: UnknownHandler 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.22 HTTPErrorProcessor 物件
.................................

 -- 方法: HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response (request, response)

     Process HTTP error responses.

     For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately.

     For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the
     ‘http_error_<type>()’ handler methods, via *note
     OpenerDirector.error(): 368b.  Eventually, *note
     HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 3667. will raise an *note HTTPError: e70.
     if no other handler handles the error.

 -- 方法: HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response (request, response)

     Process HTTPS error responses.

     The behavior is same as *note http_response(): 36d2.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<34>,  Next: Legacy interface,  Prev: HTTPErrorProcessor 物件,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.23 範例
..............

In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in *note
如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源: 36d6.

This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300
bytes of it.

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
     ...     print(f.read(300))
     ...
     b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
     "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">\n\n\n<html
     xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">\n\n<head>\n
     <meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />\n
     <title>Python Programming '

Note that urlopen returns a bytes object.  This is because there is no
way for urlopen to automatically determine the encoding of the byte
stream it receives from the HTTP server.  In general, a program will
decode the returned bytes object to string once it determines or guesses
the appropriate encoding.

The following W3C document,
‘https://www.w3.org/International/O-charset’, lists the various ways in
which an (X)HTML or an XML document could have specified its encoding
information.

As the python.org website uses 'utf-8' encoding as specified in its meta
tag, we will use the same for decoding the bytes object.

     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
     ...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
     ...
     <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
     "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtm

It is also possible to achieve the same result without using the *note
context manager: 3c4. approach.

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/')
     >>> print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
     <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
     "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtm

In the following example, we are sending a data-stream to the stdin of a
CGI and reading the data it returns to us.  Note that this example will
only work when the Python installation supports SSL.

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> req = urllib.request.Request(url='https://localhost/cgi-bin/test.cgi',
     ...                       data=b'This data is passed to stdin of the CGI')
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...
     Got Data: "This data is passed to stdin of the CGI"

The code for the sample CGI used in the above example is:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     import sys
     data = sys.stdin.read()
     print('Content-type: text/plain\n\nGot Data: "%s"' % data)

Here is an example of doing a ‘PUT’ request using *note Request: e6a.:

     import urllib.request
     DATA = b'some data'
     req = urllib.request.Request(url='http://localhost:8080', data=DATA, method='PUT')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
         pass
     print(f.status)
     print(f.reason)

Use of Basic HTTP Authentication:

     import urllib.request
     # Create an OpenerDirector with support for Basic HTTP Authentication...
     auth_handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler()
     auth_handler.add_password(realm='PDQ Application',
                               uri='https://mahler:8092/site-updates.py',
                               user='klem',
                               passwd='kadidd!ehopper')
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(auth_handler)
     # ...and install it globally so it can be used with urlopen.
     urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
     urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html')

*note build_opener(): 3664. provides many handlers by default, including
a *note ProxyHandler: 17b0.  By default, *note ProxyHandler: 17b0. uses
the environment variables named ‘<scheme>_proxy’, where ‘<scheme>’ is
the URL scheme involved.  For example, the ‘http_proxy’ environment
variable is read to obtain the HTTP proxy's URL.

This example replaces the default *note ProxyHandler: 17b0. with one
that uses programmatically supplied proxy URLs, and adds proxy
authorization support with *note ProxyBasicAuthHandler: 3674.

     proxy_handler = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({'http': 'http://www.example.com:3128/'})
     proxy_auth_handler = urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler()
     proxy_auth_handler.add_password('realm', 'host', 'username', 'password')

     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_handler, proxy_auth_handler)
     # 這次我們直接使用它而不安裝 OpenerDirector:
     opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html')

Adding HTTP headers:

Use the 'headers' argument to the *note Request: e6a. constructor, or:

     import urllib.request
     req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.example.com/')
     req.add_header('Referer', 'http://www.python.org/')
     # Customize the default User-Agent header value:
     req.add_header('User-Agent', 'urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)')
     r = urllib.request.urlopen(req)

*note OpenerDirector: 3661. automatically adds a ‘User-Agent’ header to
every *note Request: e6a.  To change this:

     import urllib.request
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener()
     opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', 'Mozilla/5.0')]
     opener.open('http://www.example.com/')

Also, remember that a few standard headers (‘Content-Length’,
‘Content-Type’ and ‘Host’) are added when the *note Request: e6a. is
passed to *note urlopen(): 27f. (or *note OpenerDirector.open(): e6e.).
Here is an example session that uses the ‘GET’ method to retrieve a URL
containing parameters:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
     >>> url = "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(url) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...

The following example uses the ‘POST’ method instead.  Note that params
output from urlencode is encoded to bytes before it is sent to urlopen
as data:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> data = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
     >>> data = data.encode('ascii')
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen("http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr", data) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...

The following example uses an explicitly specified HTTP proxy,
overriding environment settings:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
     >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener(proxies)
     >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org") as f:
     ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
     ...

The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment
settings:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener({})
     >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org/") as f:
     ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy interface,  Next: urllib request Restrictions,  Prev: 範例<34>,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.24 Legacy interface
..........................

The following functions and classes are ported from the Python 2 module
‘urllib’ (as opposed to ‘urllib2’).  They might become deprecated at
some point in the future.

 -- 函式: urllib.request.urlretrieve (url, filename=None,
          reporthook=None, data=None)

     Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file.  If the URL
     points to a local file, the object will not be copied unless
     filename is supplied.  Return a tuple ‘(filename, headers)’ where
     'filename' is the local file name under which the object can be
     found, and 'headers' is whatever the ‘info()’ method of the object
     returned by *note urlopen(): 27f. returned (for a remote object).
     Exceptions are the same as for *note urlopen(): 27f.

     The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to
     copy to (if absent, the location will be a tempfile with a
     generated name).  The third argument, if present, is a callable
     that will be called once on establishment of the network connection
     and once after each block read thereafter.  The callable will be
     passed three arguments; a count of blocks transferred so far, a
     block size in bytes, and the total size of the file.  The third
     argument may be ‘-1’ on older FTP servers which do not return a
     file size in response to a retrieval request.

     The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario:

          >>> import urllib.request
          >>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/')
          >>> html = open(local_filename)
          >>> html.close()

     If the 'url' uses the ‘http:’ scheme identifier, the optional
     'data' argument may be given to specify a ‘POST’ request (normally
     the request type is ‘GET’).  The 'data' argument must be a bytes
     object in standard ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ format; see
     the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d15. function.

     *note urlretrieve(): 36d9. will raise *note ContentTooShortError:
     36da. when it detects that the amount of data available was less
     than the expected amount (which is the size reported by a
     'Content-Length' header).  This can occur, for example, when the
     download is interrupted.

     The 'Content-Length' is treated as a lower bound: if there's more
     data to read, urlretrieve reads more data, but if less data is
     available, it raises the exception.

     You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is
     stored in the ‘content’ attribute of the exception instance.

     If no 'Content-Length' header was supplied, urlretrieve can not
     check the size of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it.
     In this case you just have to assume that the download was
     successful.

 -- 函式: urllib.request.urlcleanup ()

     Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by
     previous calls to *note urlretrieve(): 36d9.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.URLopener (proxies=None, **x509)

     在 3.3 版之後被棄用.

     Base class for opening and reading URLs.  Unless you need to
     support opening objects using schemes other than ‘http:’, ‘ftp:’,
     or ‘file:’, you probably want to use *note FancyURLopener: 27e.

     By default, the *note URLopener: 27d. class sends a ‘User-Agent’
     header of ‘urllib/VVV’, where 'VVV' is the *note urllib: 103.
     version number.  Applications can define their own ‘User-Agent’
     header by subclassing *note URLopener: 27d. or *note
     FancyURLopener: 27e. and setting the class attribute *note version:
     36db. to an appropriate string value in the subclass definition.

     The optional 'proxies' parameter should be a dictionary mapping
     scheme names to proxy URLs, where an empty dictionary turns proxies
     off completely.  Its default value is ‘None’, in which case
     environmental proxy settings will be used if present, as discussed
     in the definition of *note urlopen(): 27f, above.

     Additional keyword parameters, collected in 'x509', may be used for
     authentication of the client when using the ‘https:’ scheme.  The
     keywords 'key_file' and 'cert_file' are supported to provide an SSL
     key and certificate; both are needed to support client
     authentication.

     *note URLopener: 27d. objects will raise an *note OSError: 644.
     exception if the server returns an error code.

      -- 方法: open (fullurl, data=None)

          Open 'fullurl' using the appropriate protocol.  This method
          sets up cache and proxy information, then calls the
          appropriate open method with its input arguments.  If the
          scheme is not recognized, *note open_unknown(): 36dd. is
          called.  The 'data' argument has the same meaning as the
          'data' argument of *note urlopen(): 27f.

          This method always quotes 'fullurl' using *note quote(): a03.

      -- 方法: open_unknown (fullurl, data=None)

          Overridable interface to open unknown URL types.

      -- 方法: retrieve (url, filename=None, reporthook=None, data=None)

          Retrieves the contents of 'url' and places it in 'filename'.
          The return value is a tuple consisting of a local filename and
          either an *note email.message.Message: b05. object containing
          the response headers (for remote URLs) or ‘None’ (for local
          URLs).  The caller must then open and read the contents of
          'filename'.  If 'filename' is not given and the URL refers to
          a local file, the input filename is returned.  If the URL is
          non-local and 'filename' is not given, the filename is the
          output of *note tempfile.mktemp(): 1661. with a suffix that
          matches the suffix of the last path component of the input
          URL.  If 'reporthook' is given, it must be a function
          accepting three numeric parameters: A chunk number, the
          maximum size chunks are read in and the total size of the
          download (-1 if unknown).  It will be called once at the start
          and after each chunk of data is read from the network.
          'reporthook' is ignored for local URLs.

          If the 'url' uses the ‘http:’ scheme identifier, the optional
          'data' argument may be given to specify a ‘POST’ request
          (normally the request type is ‘GET’).  The 'data' argument
          must in standard ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ format;
          see the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d15. function.

      -- 屬性: version

          Variable that specifies the user agent of the opener object.
          To get *note urllib: 103. to tell servers that it is a
          particular user agent, set this in a subclass as a class
          variable or in the constructor before calling the base
          constructor.

 -- 類別: urllib.request.FancyURLopener (...)

     在 3.3 版之後被棄用.

     *note FancyURLopener: 27e. subclasses *note URLopener: 27d.
     providing default handling for the following HTTP response codes:
     301, 302, 303, 307 and 401.  For the 30x response codes listed
     above, the ‘Location’ header is used to fetch the actual URL. For
     401 response codes (authentication required), basic HTTP
     authentication is performed.  For the 30x response codes, recursion
     is bounded by the value of the 'maxtries' attribute, which defaults
     to 10.

     For all other response codes, the method *note
     http_error_default(): 3693. is called which you can override in
     subclasses to handle the error appropriately.

          備註: According to the letter of RFC 2616(1), 301 and 302
          responses to POST requests must not be automatically
          redirected without confirmation by the user.  In reality,
          browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses,
          changing the POST to a GET, and *note urllib: 103. reproduces
          this behaviour.

     The parameters to the constructor are the same as those for *note
     URLopener: 27d.

          備註: When performing basic authentication, a *note
          FancyURLopener: 27e. instance calls its *note
          prompt_user_passwd(): 36de. method.  The default
          implementation asks the users for the required information on
          the controlling terminal.  A subclass may override this method
          to support more appropriate behavior if needed.

     The *note FancyURLopener: 27e. class offers one additional method
     that should be overloaded to provide the appropriate behavior:

      -- 方法: prompt_user_passwd (host, realm)

          Return information needed to authenticate the user at the
          given host in the specified security realm.  The return value
          should be a tuple, ‘(user, password)’, which can be used for
          basic authentication.

          The implementation prompts for this information on the
          terminal; an application should override this method to use an
          appropriate interaction model in the local environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request Restrictions,  Prev: Legacy interface,  Up: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫

5.21.4.25 ‘urllib.request’ Restrictions
.......................................

   * Currently, only the following protocols are supported: HTTP
     (versions 0.9 and 1.0), FTP, local files, and data URLs.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Added support for data URLs.

   * The caching feature of *note urlretrieve(): 36d9. has been disabled
     until someone finds the time to hack proper processing of
     Expiration time headers.

   * There should be a function to query whether a particular URL is in
     the cache.

   * For backward compatibility, if a URL appears to point to a local
     file but the file can't be opened, the URL is re-interpreted using
     the FTP protocol.  This can sometimes cause confusing error
     messages.

   * The *note urlopen(): 27f. and *note urlretrieve(): 36d9. functions
     can cause arbitrarily long delays while waiting for a network
     connection to be set up.  This means that it is difficult to build
     an interactive web client using these functions without using
     threads.

   * The data returned by *note urlopen(): 27f. or *note urlretrieve():
     36d9. is the raw data returned by the server.  This may be binary
     data (such as an image), plain text or (for example) HTML. The HTTP
     protocol provides type information in the reply header, which can
     be inspected by looking at the ‘Content-Type’ header.  If the
     returned data is HTML, you can use the module *note html.parser:
     68. to parse it.

   * The code handling the FTP protocol cannot differentiate between a
     file and a directory.  This can lead to unexpected behavior when
     attempting to read a URL that points to a file that is not
     accessible.  If the URL ends in a ‘/’, it is assumed to refer to a
     directory and will be handled accordingly.  But if an attempt to
     read a file leads to a 550 error (meaning the URL cannot be found
     or is not accessible, often for permission reasons), then the path
     is treated as a directory in order to handle the case when a
     directory is specified by a URL but the trailing ‘/’ has been left
     off.  This can cause misleading results when you try to fetch a
     file whose read permissions make it inaccessible; the FTP code will
     try to read it, fail with a 550 error, and then perform a directory
     listing for the unreadable file.  If fine-grained control is
     needed, consider using the *note ftplib: 59. module, subclassing
     *note FancyURLopener: 27e, or changing '_urlopener' to meet your
     needs.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib,  Next: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件,  Prev: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.5 ‘urllib.response’ -- Response classes used by urllib
-----------------------------------------------------------

The *note urllib.response: 107. module defines functions and classes
which define a minimal file-like interface, including ‘read()’ and
‘readline()’.  Functions defined by this module are used internally by
the *note urllib.request: 106. module.  The typical response object is a
*note urllib.response.addinfourl: 365e. instance:

 -- 類別: urllib.response.addinfourl

      -- 屬性: url

          URL of the resource retrieved, commonly used to determine if a
          redirect was followed.

      -- 屬性: headers

          Returns the headers of the response in the form of an *note
          EmailMessage: b06. instance.

      -- 屬性: status

          在 3.9 版被加入.

          Status code returned by server.

      -- 方法: geturl ()

          在 3.9 版之後被棄用: Deprecated in favor of *note url: 36e1.

      -- 方法: info ()

          在 3.9 版之後被棄用: Deprecated in favor of *note headers:
          36e2.

      -- 屬性: code

          在 3.9 版之後被棄用: Deprecated in favor of *note status:
          36e3.

      -- 方法: getcode ()

          在 3.9 版之後被棄用: Deprecated in favor of *note status:
          36e3.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件,  Next: urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別,  Prev: urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.6 ‘urllib.parse’ -- 將 URL 剖析成元件
------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/urllib/parse.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines a standard interface to break Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) strings up in components (addressing scheme, network
location, path etc.), to combine the components back into a URL string,
and to convert a "relative URL" to an absolute URL given a "base URL."

The module has been designed to match the internet RFC on Relative
Uniform Resource Locators.  It supports the following URL schemes:
‘file’, ‘ftp’, ‘gopher’, ‘hdl’, ‘http’, ‘https’, ‘imap’, ‘mailto’,
‘mms’, ‘news’, ‘nntp’, ‘prospero’, ‘rsync’, ‘rtsp’, ‘rtsps’, ‘rtspu’,
‘sftp’, ‘shttp’, ‘sip’, ‘sips’, ‘snews’, ‘svn’, ‘svn+ssh’, ‘telnet’,
‘wais’, ‘ws’, ‘wss’.

The *note urllib.parse: 105. module defines functions that fall into two
broad categories: URL parsing and URL quoting.  These are covered in
detail in the following sections.

This module's functions use the deprecated term ‘netloc’ (or ‘net_loc’),
which was introduced in RFC 1808(2).  However, this term has been
obsoleted by RFC 3986(3), which introduced the term ‘authority’ as its
replacement.  The use of ‘netloc’ is continued for backward
compatibility.

* Menu:

* URL Parsing::
* URL parsing security::
* Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes::
* Structured Parse Results::
* URL Quoting::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/urllib/parse.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: URL Parsing,  Next: URL parsing security,  Up: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件

5.21.6.1 URL Parsing
....................

The URL parsing functions focus on splitting a URL string into its
components, or on combining URL components into a URL string.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.urlparse (urlstring, scheme='',
          allow_fragments=True)

     Parse a URL into six components, returning a 6-item *note named
     tuple: 449.  This corresponds to the general structure of a URL:
     ‘scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment’.  Each tuple item
     is a string, possibly empty.  The components are not broken up into
     smaller parts (for example, the network location is a single
     string), and % escapes are not expanded.  The delimiters as shown
     above are not part of the result, except for a leading slash in the
     'path' component, which is retained if present.  For example:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> urlparse("scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment")
          ParseResult(scheme='scheme', netloc='netloc', path='/path;parameters', params='',
                      query='query', fragment='fragment')
          >>> o = urlparse("http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?"
          ...              "highlight=params#url-parsing")
          >>> o
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org:80',
                      path='/3/library/urllib.parse.html', params='',
                      query='highlight=params', fragment='url-parsing')
          >>> o.scheme
          'http'
          >>> o.netloc
          'docs.python.org:80'
          >>> o.hostname
          'docs.python.org'
          >>> o.port
          80
          >>> o._replace(fragment="").geturl()
          'http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?highlight=params'

     Following the syntax specifications in RFC 1808(1), urlparse
     recognizes a netloc only if it is properly introduced by '//'.
     Otherwise the input is presumed to be a relative URL and thus to
     start with a path component.

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlparse('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlparse('help/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html', params='',
                      query='', fragment='')

     The 'scheme' argument gives the default addressing scheme, to be
     used only if the URL does not specify one.  It should be the same
     type (text or bytes) as 'urlstring', except that the default value
     ‘''’ is always allowed, and is automatically converted to ‘b''’ if
     appropriate.

     If the 'allow_fragments' argument is false, fragment identifiers
     are not recognized.  Instead, they are parsed as part of the path,
     parameters or query component, and ‘fragment’ is set to the empty
     string in the return value.

     The return value is a *note named tuple: 449, which means that its
     items can be accessed by index or as named attributes, which are:

     屬性                   Index       Value                         Value if not present
                                                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘scheme’               0           URL scheme specifier          'scheme' parameter
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘netloc’               1           Network location part         empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘path’                 2           Hierarchical path             empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘params’               3           Parameters for last path      empty string
                                        element                       
                                        
                                                                      
     ‘query’                4           Query component               empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             5           Fragment identifier           empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘username’                         User name                     *note None: 470.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘password’                         Password                      *note None: 470.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘hostname’                         Host name (lower case)        *note None: 470.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘port’                             Port number as integer, if    *note None: 470.
                                        present                       
                                        

     Reading the ‘port’ attribute will raise a *note ValueError: 183. if
     an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section *note
     Structured Parse Results: 36eb. for more information on the result
     object.

     Unmatched square brackets in the ‘netloc’ attribute will raise a
     *note ValueError: 183.

     Characters in the ‘netloc’ attribute that decompose under NFKC
     normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of ‘/’, ‘?’,
     ‘#’, ‘@’, or ‘:’ will raise a *note ValueError: 183.  If the URL is
     decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.

     As is the case with all named tuples, the subclass has a few
     additional methods and attributes that are particularly useful.
     One such method is ‘_replace()’.  The ‘_replace()’ method will
     return a new ParseResult object replacing specified fields with new
     values.

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> u = urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          >>> u
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> u._replace(scheme='http')
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')

          警告: *note urlparse(): 27c. does not perform validation.  See
          *note URL parsing security: 36ec. for details.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增剖析 IPv6 URL 的能力。

     在 3.3 版的變更: The fragment is now parsed for all URL schemes
     (unless 'allow_fragments' is false), in accordance with RFC
     3986(2).  Previously, an allowlist of schemes that support
     fragments existed.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Out-of-range port numbers now raise *note
     ValueError: 183, instead of returning *note None: 470.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC
     normalization will now raise *note ValueError: 183.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.parse_qs (qs, keep_blank_values=False,
          strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace',
          max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

     Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
     ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  Data are returned as a
     dictionary.  The dictionary keys are the unique query variable
     names and the values are lists of values for each name.

     The optional argument 'keep_blank_values' is a flag indicating
     whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated
     as blank strings.  A true value indicates that blanks should be
     retained as blank strings.  The default false value indicates that
     blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not
     included.

     The optional argument 'strict_parsing' is a flag indicating what to
     do with parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are
     silently ignored.  If true, errors raise a *note ValueError: 183.
     exception.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to
     decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as
     accepted by the *note bytes.decode(): 70f. method.

     The optional argument 'max_num_fields' is the maximum number of
     fields to read.  If set, then throws a *note ValueError: 183. if
     there are more than 'max_num_fields' fields read.

     The optional argument 'separator' is the symbol to use for
     separating the query arguments.  It defaults to ‘&’.

     Use the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d15. function (with the
     ‘doseq’ parameter set to ‘True’) to convert such dictionaries into
     query strings.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Add 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'max_num_fields' 參數。

     在 3.10 版的變更: Added 'separator' parameter with the default
     value of ‘&’.  Python versions earlier than Python 3.10 allowed
     using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separator.  This has been
     changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as the
     default separator.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.parse_qsl (qs, keep_blank_values=False,
          strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace',
          max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

     Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
     ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  Data are returned as a list
     of name, value pairs.

     The optional argument 'keep_blank_values' is a flag indicating
     whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated
     as blank strings.  A true value indicates that blanks should be
     retained as blank strings.  The default false value indicates that
     blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not
     included.

     The optional argument 'strict_parsing' is a flag indicating what to
     do with parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are
     silently ignored.  If true, errors raise a *note ValueError: 183.
     exception.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to
     decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as
     accepted by the *note bytes.decode(): 70f. method.

     The optional argument 'max_num_fields' is the maximum number of
     fields to read.  If set, then throws a *note ValueError: 183. if
     there are more than 'max_num_fields' fields read.

     The optional argument 'separator' is the symbol to use for
     separating the query arguments.  It defaults to ‘&’.

     Use the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d15. function to convert
     such lists of pairs into query strings.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Add 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'max_num_fields' 參數。

     在 3.10 版的變更: Added 'separator' parameter with the default
     value of ‘&’.  Python versions earlier than Python 3.10 allowed
     using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separator.  This has been
     changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as the
     default separator.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.urlunparse (parts)

     Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by ‘urlparse()’.  The
     'parts' argument can be any six-item iterable.  This may result in
     a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was
     parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ‘?’
     with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent).

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.urlsplit (urlstring, scheme='',
          allow_fragments=True)

     This is similar to *note urlparse(): 27c, but does not split the
     params from the URL. This should generally be used instead of *note
     urlparse(): 27c. if the more recent URL syntax allowing parameters
     to be applied to each segment of the 'path' portion of the URL (see
     RFC 2396(3)) is wanted.  A separate function is needed to separate
     the path segments and parameters.  This function returns a 5-item
     *note named tuple: 449.:

          (addressing scheme, network location, path, query, fragment identifier).

     The return value is a *note named tuple: 449, its items can be
     accessed by index or as named attributes:

     屬性                   Index       Value                         Value if not present
                                                                      
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘scheme’               0           URL scheme specifier          'scheme' parameter
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘netloc’               1           Network location part         empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘path’                 2           Hierarchical path             empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘query’                3           Query component               empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             4           Fragment identifier           empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘username’                         User name                     *note None: 470.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘password’                         Password                      *note None: 470.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘hostname’                         Host name (lower case)        *note None: 470.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘port’                             Port number as integer, if    *note None: 470.
                                        present                       
                                        

     Reading the ‘port’ attribute will raise a *note ValueError: 183. if
     an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section *note
     Structured Parse Results: 36eb. for more information on the result
     object.

     Unmatched square brackets in the ‘netloc’ attribute will raise a
     *note ValueError: 183.

     Characters in the ‘netloc’ attribute that decompose under NFKC
     normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of ‘/’, ‘?’,
     ‘#’, ‘@’, or ‘:’ will raise a *note ValueError: 183.  If the URL is
     decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.

     Following some of the WHATWG spec(4) that updates RFC 3986, leading
     C0 control and space characters are stripped from the URL. ‘\n’,
     ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are removed from the URL at any
     position.

          警告: *note urlsplit(): bb1. does not perform validation.  See
          *note URL parsing security: 36ec. for details.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Out-of-range port numbers now raise *note
     ValueError: 183, instead of returning *note None: 470.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC
     normalization will now raise *note ValueError: 183.

     在 3.10 版的變更: ASCII newline and tab characters are stripped
     from the URL.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Leading WHATWG C0 control and space characters
     are stripped from the URL.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.urlunsplit (parts)

     Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by *note urlsplit():
     bb1. into a complete URL as a string.  The 'parts' argument can be
     any five-item iterable.  This may result in a slightly different,
     but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had
     unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ?  with an empty query; the
     RFC states that these are equivalent).

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.urljoin (base, url, allow_fragments=True)

     Construct a full ("absolute") URL by combining a "base URL"
     ('base') with another URL ('url').  Informally, this uses
     components of the base URL, in particular the addressing scheme,
     the network location and (part of) the path, to provide missing
     components in the relative URL. For example:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urljoin
          >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html', 'FAQ.html')
          'http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html'

     The 'allow_fragments' argument has the same meaning and default as
     for *note urlparse(): 27c.

          備註: If 'url' is an absolute URL (that is, it starts with
          ‘//’ or ‘scheme://’), the 'url"s hostname and/or scheme will
          be present in the result.  For example:

               >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
               ...         '//www.python.org/%7Eguido')
               'http://www.python.org/%7Eguido'

          If you do not want that behavior, preprocess the 'url' with
          *note urlsplit(): bb1. and *note urlunsplit(): 13f2, removing
          possible 'scheme' and 'netloc' parts.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Behavior updated to match the semantics defined in
     RFC 3986(5).

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.urldefrag (url)

     If 'url' contains a fragment identifier, return a modified version
     of 'url' with no fragment identifier, and the fragment identifier
     as a separate string.  If there is no fragment identifier in 'url',
     return 'url' unmodified and an empty string.

     The return value is a *note named tuple: 449, its items can be
     accessed by index or as named attributes:

     屬性                   Index       Value                         Value if not present
                                                                      
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘url’                  0           URL with no fragment          empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             1           Fragment identifier           empty string
                                                                      

     See section *note Structured Parse Results: 36eb. for more
     information on the result object.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Result is a structured object rather than a simple
     2-tuple.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.unwrap (url)

     Extract the url from a wrapped URL (that is, a string formatted as
     ‘<URL:scheme://host/path>’, ‘<scheme://host/path>’,
     ‘URL:scheme://host/path’ or ‘scheme://host/path’).  If 'url' is not
     a wrapped URL, it is returned without changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (4) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: URL parsing security,  Next: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Prev: URL Parsing,  Up: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件

5.21.6.2 URL parsing security
.............................

The *note urlsplit(): bb1. and *note urlparse(): 27c. APIs do not
perform 'validation' of inputs.  They may not raise errors on inputs
that other applications consider invalid.  They may also succeed on some
inputs that might not be considered URLs elsewhere.  Their purpose is
for practical functionality rather than purity.

Instead of raising an exception on unusual input, they may instead
return some component parts as empty strings.  Or components may contain
more than perhaps they should.

We recommend that users of these APIs where the values may be used
anywhere with security implications code defensively.  Do some
verification within your code before trusting a returned component part.
Does that ‘scheme’ make sense?  Is that a sensible ‘path’?  Is there
anything strange about that ‘hostname’?  etc.

What constitutes a URL is not universally well defined.  Different
applications have different needs and desired constraints.  For instance
the living WHATWG spec(1) describes what user facing web clients such as
a web browser require.  While RFC 3986(2) is more general.  These
functions incorporate some aspects of both, but cannot be claimed
compliant with either.  The APIs and existing user code with
expectations on specific behaviors predate both standards leading us to
be very cautious about making API behavior changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Next: Structured Parse Results,  Prev: URL parsing security,  Up: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件

5.21.6.3 Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes
....................................

The URL parsing functions were originally designed to operate on
character strings only.  In practice, it is useful to be able to
manipulate properly quoted and encoded URLs as sequences of ASCII bytes.
Accordingly, the URL parsing functions in this module all operate on
*note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0. objects in addition to *note
str: 157. objects.

If *note str: 157. data is passed in, the result will also contain only
*note str: 157. data.  If *note bytes: 2c1. or *note bytearray: 2c0.
data is passed in, the result will contain only *note bytes: 2c1. data.

Attempting to mix *note str: 157. data with *note bytes: 2c1. or *note
bytearray: 2c0. in a single function call will result in a *note
TypeError: 2ba. being raised, while attempting to pass in non-ASCII byte
values will trigger *note UnicodeDecodeError: 85a.

To support easier conversion of result objects between *note str: 157.
and *note bytes: 2c1, all return values from URL parsing functions
provide either an ‘encode()’ method (when the result contains *note str:
157. data) or a ‘decode()’ method (when the result contains *note bytes:
2c1. data).  The signatures of these methods match those of the
corresponding *note str: 157. and *note bytes: 2c1. methods (except that
the default encoding is ‘'ascii'’ rather than ‘'utf-8'’).  Each produces
a value of a corresponding type that contains either *note bytes: 2c1.
data (for ‘encode()’ methods) or *note str: 157. data (for ‘decode()’
methods).

Applications that need to operate on potentially improperly quoted URLs
that may contain non-ASCII data will need to do their own decoding from
bytes to characters before invoking the URL parsing methods.

The behaviour described in this section applies only to the URL parsing
functions.  The URL quoting functions use their own rules when producing
or consuming byte sequences as detailed in the documentation of the
individual URL quoting functions.

在 3.2 版的變更: URL parsing functions now accept ASCII encoded byte
sequences


File: python.info,  Node: Structured Parse Results,  Next: URL Quoting,  Prev: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Up: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件

5.21.6.4 Structured Parse Results
.................................

The result objects from the *note urlparse(): 27c, *note urlsplit():
bb1. and *note urldefrag(): 10db. functions are subclasses of the *note
tuple: 4e6. type.  These subclasses add the attributes listed in the
documentation for those functions, the encoding and decoding support
described in the previous section, as well as an additional method:

 -- 方法: urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl ()

     Return the re-combined version of the original URL as a string.
     This may differ from the original URL in that the scheme may be
     normalized to lower case and empty components may be dropped.
     Specifically, empty parameters, queries, and fragment identifiers
     will be removed.

     For *note urldefrag(): 10db. results, only empty fragment
     identifiers will be removed.  For *note urlsplit(): bb1. and *note
     urlparse(): 27c. results, all noted changes will be made to the URL
     returned by this method.

     The result of this method remains unchanged if passed back through
     the original parsing function:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
          >>> url = 'HTTP://www.Python.org/doc/#'
          >>> r1 = urlsplit(url)
          >>> r1.geturl()
          'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
          >>> r2 = urlsplit(r1.geturl())
          >>> r2.geturl()
          'http://www.Python.org/doc/'

The following classes provide the implementations of the structured
parse results when operating on *note str: 157. objects:

 -- 類別: urllib.parse.DefragResult (url, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urldefrag(): 10db. results containing
     *note str: 157. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     DefragResultBytes: 36f3. instance.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 類別: urllib.parse.ParseResult (scheme, netloc, path, params, query,
          fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlparse(): 27c. results containing *note
     str: 157. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     ParseResultBytes: 36f5. instance.

 -- 類別: urllib.parse.SplitResult (scheme, netloc, path, query,
          fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlsplit(): bb1. results containing *note
     str: 157. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     SplitResultBytes: 36f7. instance.

The following classes provide the implementations of the parse results
when operating on *note bytes: 2c1. or *note bytearray: 2c0. objects:

 -- 類別: urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes (url, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urldefrag(): 10db. results containing
     *note bytes: 2c1. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     DefragResult: 36f2. instance.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 類別: urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes (scheme, netloc, path, params,
          query, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlparse(): 27c. results containing *note
     bytes: 2c1. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     ParseResult: 36f4. instance.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 類別: urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes (scheme, netloc, path, query,
          fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlsplit(): bb1. results containing *note
     bytes: 2c1. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     SplitResult: 36f6. instance.

     在 3.2 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: URL Quoting,  Prev: Structured Parse Results,  Up: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件

5.21.6.5 URL Quoting
....................

The URL quoting functions focus on taking program data and making it
safe for use as URL components by quoting special characters and
appropriately encoding non-ASCII text.  They also support reversing
these operations to recreate the original data from the contents of a
URL component if that task isn't already covered by the URL parsing
functions above.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.quote (string, safe='/', encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Replace special characters in 'string' using the ‘%XX’ escape.
     Letters, digits, and the characters ‘'_.-~'’ are never quoted.  By
     default, this function is intended for quoting the path section of
     a URL. The optional 'safe' parameter specifies additional ASCII
     characters that should not be quoted -- its default value is ‘'/'’.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 157. or a *note bytes: 2c1.
     object.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Moved from RFC 2396(1) to RFC 3986(2) for quoting
     URL strings.  "~" is now included in the set of unreserved
     characters.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to deal
     with non-ASCII characters, as accepted by the *note str.encode():
     70e. method.  'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’.  'errors' defaults
     to ‘'strict'’, meaning unsupported characters raise a *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 473.  'encoding' and 'errors' must not be
     supplied if 'string' is a *note bytes: 2c1, or a *note TypeError:
     2ba. is raised.

     Note that ‘quote(string, safe, encoding, errors)’ is equivalent to
     ‘quote_from_bytes(string.encode(encoding, errors), safe)’.

     Example: ‘quote('/El Niño/')’ yields ‘'/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/'’.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.quote_plus (string, safe='', encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Like *note quote(): a03, but also replace spaces with plus signs,
     as required for quoting HTML form values when building up a query
     string to go into a URL. Plus signs in the original string are
     escaped unless they are included in 'safe'.  It also does not have
     'safe' default to ‘'/'’.

     Example: ‘quote_plus('/El Niño/')’ yields ‘'%2FEl+Ni%C3%B1o%2F'’.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes (bytes, safe='/')

     Like *note quote(): a03, but accepts a *note bytes: 2c1. object
     rather than a *note str: 157, and does not perform string-to-bytes
     encoding.

     Example: ‘quote_from_bytes(b'a&\xef')’ yields ‘'a%26%EF'’.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.unquote (string, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace')

     Replace ‘%XX’ escapes with their single-character equivalent.  The
     optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to decode
     percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by
     the *note bytes.decode(): 70f. method.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 157. or a *note bytes: 2c1.
     object.

     'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’.  'errors' defaults to
     ‘'replace'’, meaning invalid sequences are replaced by a
     placeholder character.

     Example: ‘unquote('/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/')’ yields ‘'/El Niño/'’.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 'string' parameter supports bytes and str objects
     (previously only str).

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.unquote_plus (string, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace')

     Like *note unquote(): 1550, but also replace plus signs with
     spaces, as required for unquoting HTML form values.

     'string' must be a *note str: 157.

     Example: ‘unquote_plus('/El+Ni%C3%B1o/')’ yields ‘'/El Niño/'’.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes (string)

     Replace ‘%XX’ escapes with their single-octet equivalent, and
     return a *note bytes: 2c1. object.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 157. or a *note bytes: 2c1.
     object.

     If it is a *note str: 157, unescaped non-ASCII characters in
     'string' are encoded into UTF-8 bytes.

     Example: ‘unquote_to_bytes('a%26%EF')’ yields ‘b'a&\xef'’.

 -- 函式: urllib.parse.urlencode (query, doseq=False, safe='',
          encoding=None, errors=None, quote_via=quote_plus)

     Convert a mapping object or a sequence of two-element tuples, which
     may contain *note str: 157. or *note bytes: 2c1. objects, to a
     percent-encoded ASCII text string.  If the resultant string is to
     be used as a 'data' for POST operation with the *note urlopen():
     27f. function, then it should be encoded to bytes, otherwise it
     would result in a *note TypeError: 2ba.

     The resulting string is a series of ‘key=value’ pairs separated by
     ‘'&'’ characters, where both 'key' and 'value' are quoted using the
     'quote_via' function.  By default, *note quote_plus(): 10dc. is
     used to quote the values, which means spaces are quoted as a ‘'+'’
     character and '/' characters are encoded as ‘%2F’, which follows
     the standard for GET requests
     (‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  An alternate function that
     can be passed as 'quote_via' is *note quote(): a03, which will
     encode spaces as ‘%20’ and not encode '/' characters.  For maximum
     control of what is quoted, use ‘quote’ and specify a value for
     'safe'.

     When a sequence of two-element tuples is used as the 'query'
     argument, the first element of each tuple is a key and the second
     is a value.  The value element in itself can be a sequence and in
     that case, if the optional parameter 'doseq' evaluates to ‘True’,
     individual ‘key=value’ pairs separated by ‘'&'’ are generated for
     each element of the value sequence for the key.  The order of
     parameters in the encoded string will match the order of parameter
     tuples in the sequence.

     The 'safe', 'encoding', and 'errors' parameters are passed down to
     'quote_via' (the 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters are only passed
     when a query element is a *note str: 157.).

     To reverse this encoding process, *note parse_qs(): 682. and *note
     parse_qsl(): 683. are provided in this module to parse query
     strings into Python data structures.

     Refer to *note urllib examples: 36d7. to find out how the *note
     urllib.parse.urlencode(): d15. method can be used for generating
     the query string of a URL or data for a POST request.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 'query' supports bytes and string objects.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'quote_via' 參數。

也參考
......

WHATWG(3) - URL Living standard

     Working Group for the URL Standard that defines URLs, domains, IP
     addresses, the application/x-www-form-urlencoded format, and their
     API.

RFC 3986(4) - Uniform Resource Identifiers

     This is the current standard (STD66).  Any changes to urllib.parse
     module should conform to this.  Certain deviations could be
     observed, which are mostly for backward compatibility purposes and
     for certain de-facto parsing requirements as commonly observed in
     major browsers.

RFC 2732(5) - Format for Literal IPv6 Addresses in URL's.

     This specifies the parsing requirements of IPv6 URLs.

RFC 2396(6) - Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax

     Document describing the generic syntactic requirements for both
     Uniform Resource Names (URNs) and Uniform Resource Locators (URLs).

RFC 2368(7) - The mailto URL scheme.

     Parsing requirements for mailto URL schemes.

RFC 1808(8) - 相對的統一資源定位器 (Relative Uniform Resource Locators)

     This Request For Comments includes the rules for joining an
     absolute and a relative URL, including a fair number of "Abnormal
     Examples" which govern the treatment of border cases.

RFC 1738(9) - 統一資源定位器 (URL, Uniform Resource Locators)

     This specifies the formal syntax and semantics of absolute URLs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2368.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1738.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別,  Next: urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器,  Prev: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.7 ‘urllib.error’ -- urllib.request 引發的例外類別
------------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/urllib/error.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note urllib.error: 104. module（模組）為 *note urllib.request: 106. 所
引發的例外定義了例外 (exception) 類別。基礎例外類別是 *note URLError:
3660.。

下列例外會被 *note urllib.error: 104. 適時引發：

 -- 例外: urllib.error.URLError

     處理程式 (handler) 在遇到問題時會引發此例外（或其衍生例外）。它是
     *note OSError: 644. 的一個子類別。

      -- 屬性: reason

          此錯誤的原因。它可以是一個訊息字串或另一個例外實例。

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note URLError: 3660. 過去是 *note OSError: 644. 的
     子類別，但現在為 *note OSError: 644. 的別名。

 -- 例外: urllib.error.HTTPError (url, code, msg, hdrs, fp)

     雖然是一個例外（*note URLError: 3660. 的一個子類別），*note
     HTTPError: e70. 也可以作為一個非例外的類檔案回傳值（與 *note
     urlopen(): 27f. 所回傳的物件相同）。這適用於處理特殊 HTTP 錯誤，例
     如為請求認證。

      -- 屬性: url

          包含請求 URL。'filename' 屬性的別名。

      -- 屬性: code

          一個 HTTP 狀態碼，具體定義見 RFC 2616(2)。這個數值會對應到存放
          在 *note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses: 36ff. 程
          式碼 dictionary 中的某個值。

      -- 屬性: reason

          這通常是一個解釋本次錯誤原因的字串。為 'msg' 屬性的別名。

      -- 屬性: headers

          導致 *note HTTPError: e70. 的特定 HTTP 請求的 HTTP 回應
          header。為 'hdrs' 屬性的別名。

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: fp

          一個類檔案物件，可以從中讀取 HTTP 錯誤主體 (body)。

 -- 例外: urllib.error.ContentTooShortError (msg, content)

     此例外會在 *note urlretrieve(): 36d9. 函式檢查到已下載的資料量小於
     期待的資料量（由 'Content-Length' header 給定）時被引發。

      -- 屬性: content

          已下載（可能已被截斷）的資料。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/urllib/error.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器,  Next: http --- HTTP 模組,  Prev: urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.8 ‘urllib.robotparser’ -- robots.txt 的剖析器
--------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/urllib/robotparser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組 (module) 提供了一個單獨的類別 (class) *note RobotFileParser:
b6b.，它可以知道某個特定 user agent（使用者代理）是否能在有發布
‘robots.txt’ 文件的網站 fetch（擷取）特定 URL。有關 ‘robots.txt’ 文件結
構的更多細節，請參閱 ‘http://www.robotstxt.org/orig.html’。

 -- 類別: urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser (url='')

     此類別提供了一些方法可以讀取、剖析和回答關於 'url' 上的
     ‘robots.txt’ 文件的問題。

      -- 方法: set_url (url)

          設置指向 ‘robots.txt’ 文件的 URL。

      -- 方法: read ()

          讀取 ‘robots.txt’ URL 並將其輸入到剖析器。

      -- 方法: parse (lines)

          剖析 lines 引數。

      -- 方法: can_fetch (useragent, url)

          根據從 ‘robots.txt’ 文件中剖析出的規則，如果 'useragent' 被允
          許 fetch 'url' 的話，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: mtime ()

          回傳最近一次 fetch ‘robots.txt’ 文件的時間。這適用於需要定期檢
          查 ‘robots.txt’ 文件更新情況的長時間運行網頁爬蟲。

      -- 方法: modified ()

          將最近一次 fetch ‘robots.txt’ 文件的時間設置為當前時間。

      -- 方法: crawl_delay (useragent)

          針對指定的 'useragent' 從 ‘robots.txt’ 回傳 ‘Crawl-delay’ 參數
          的值。如果此參數不存在、不適用於指定的 'useragent' ，或是此參
          數在 ‘robots.txt’ 中所指的條目含有無效語法，則回傳 ‘None’。

          在 3.6 版被加入.

      -- 方法: request_rate (useragent)

          以 *note named tuple: 449. ‘RequestRate(requests, seconds)’ 的
          形式從 ‘robots.txt’ 回傳 ‘Request-rate’ 參數的內容。如果此參數
          不存在、不適用於指定的 'useragent' ，或是此參數在 ‘robots.txt’
          中所指的條目含有無效語法，則回傳 ‘None’。

          在 3.6 版被加入.

      -- 方法: site_maps ()

          以 *note list(): 40a. 的形式從 ‘robots.txt’ 回傳 ‘Sitemap’ 參
          數的內容。如果此參數不存在或此參數在 ‘robots.txt’ 中所指的條目
          含有無效語法，則回傳 ‘None’。

          在 3.8 版被加入.

下面的範例展示了 *note RobotFileParser: b6b. 類別的基本用法：

     >>> import urllib.robotparser
     >>> rp = urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser()
     >>> rp.set_url("http://www.musi-cal.com/robots.txt")
     >>> rp.read()
     >>> rrate = rp.request_rate("*")
     >>> rrate.requests
     3
     >>> rrate.seconds
     20
     >>> rp.crawl_delay("*")
     6
     >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/search?city=San+Francisco")
     False
     >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/")
     True

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/urllib/robotparser.py


File: python.info,  Node: http --- HTTP 模組,  Next: http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端,  Prev: urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.9 ‘http’ -- HTTP 模組
--------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/http/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note http: 69. 是一個收集了多個用於處理超文本傳輸協定 (HyperText
Transfer Protocol) 之模組 (module) 的套件：

   * *note http.client: 6a. 是一個低階的 HTTP 協定客戶端；對於高階的 URL
     訪問請使用 *note urllib.request: 106.

   * *note http.server: 6d. 包含基於 *note socketserver: c7. 的基本 HTTP
     伺服器類別

   * *note http.cookies: 6c. 包含通過 cookies 實作狀態管理的工具程式
     (utilities)

   * *note http.cookiejar: 6b. 提供了 cookies 的持續留存 (persistence)

The *note http: 69. module also defines the following enums that help
you work with http related code:

 -- 類別: http.HTTPStatus

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     *note enum.IntEnum: b4c. 的子類別，它定義了一組 HTTP 狀態碼、原理短
     語 (reason phrase) 以及英文長描述。

     用法：

          >>> from http import HTTPStatus
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK
          HTTPStatus.OK
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK == 200
          True
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.value
          200
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.phrase
          'OK'
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.description
          'Request fulfilled, document follows'
          >>> list(HTTPStatus)
          [HTTPStatus.CONTINUE, HTTPStatus.SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS, ...]

* Menu:

* HTTP 狀態碼::
* HTTP 狀態分類::
* HTTP 方法::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP 狀態碼,  Next: HTTP 狀態分類,  Up: http --- HTTP 模組

5.21.9.1 HTTP 狀態碼
....................

*note http.HTTPStatus: 73b. 當中，已支援並且有於 IANA 註冊的狀態碼(1)有
：

狀態碼      列舉名稱                                詳情
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘100’       ‘CONTINUE’                              HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(2)，6.2.1 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘101’       ‘SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS’                   HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(3)，6.2.2 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘102’       ‘PROCESSING’                            WebDAV RFC 2518(4)，10.1 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘103’       ‘EARLY_HINTS’                           用於指定提示 (Indicating Hints) RFC 8297(5) 的 HTTP 狀態碼
                                                    
                                                    
‘200’       ‘OK’                                    HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(6)，6.3.1 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘201’       ‘CREATED’                               HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(7)，6.3.2 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘202’       ‘ACCEPTED’                              HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(8)，6.3.3 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘203’       ‘NON_AUTHORITATIVE_INFORMATION’         HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(9)，6.3.4 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘204’       ‘NO_CONTENT’                            HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(10)，6.3.5 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘205’       ‘RESET_CONTENT’                         HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(11)，6.3.6 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘206’       ‘PARTIAL_CONTENT’                       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7233(12)，4.1 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘207’       ‘MULTI_STATUS’                          WebDAV RFC 4918(13)，11.1 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘208’       ‘ALREADY_REPORTED’                      WebDAV 繫結擴充 (Binding Extensions) RFC 5842(14)，7.1 節（實驗性）
                                                    
                                                    
‘226’       ‘IM_USED’                               HTTP 中的差分編碼 RFC 3229(15)，10.4.1 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘300’       ‘MULTIPLE_CHOICES’                      HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(16)，6.4.1 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘301’       ‘MOVED_PERMANENTLY’                     HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(17)，6.4.2 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘302’       ‘FOUND’                                 HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(18)，6.4.3 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘303’       ‘SEE_OTHER’                             HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(19)，6.4.4 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘304’       ‘NOT_MODIFIED’                          HTTP/1.1 RFC 7232(20)，4.1 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘305’       ‘USE_PROXY’                             HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(21)，6.4.5 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘307’       ‘TEMPORARY_REDIRECT’                    HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(22)，6.4.7 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘308’       ‘PERMANENT_REDIRECT’                    永久重定向 RFC 7238(23)，3 節（實驗性）
                                                    
                                                    
‘400’       ‘BAD_REQUEST’                           HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(24)，6.5.1 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘401’       ‘UNAUTHORIZED’                          HTTP/1.1 身分驗證 (Authentication) RFC 7235(25)，3.1 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘402’       ‘PAYMENT_REQUIRED’                      HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(26)，6.5.2 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘403’       ‘FORBIDDEN’                             HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(27)，6.5.3 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘404’       ‘NOT_FOUND’                             HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(28)，6.5.4 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘405’       ‘METHOD_NOT_ALLOWED’                    HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(29)，6.5.5 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘406’       ‘NOT_ACCEPTABLE’                        HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(30)，6.5.6 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘407’       ‘PROXY_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED’         HTTP/1.1 身分驗證 RFC 7235(31)，3.2 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘408’       ‘REQUEST_TIMEOUT’                       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(32)，6.5.7 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘409’       ‘CONFLICT’                              HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(33)，6.5.8 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘410’       ‘GONE’                                  HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(34)，6.5.9 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘411’       ‘LENGTH_REQUIRED’                       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(35)，6.5.10 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘412’       ‘PRECONDITION_FAILED’                   HTTP/1.1 RFC 7232(36)，4.2 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘413’       ‘REQUEST_ENTITY_TOO_LARGE’              HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(37)，6.5.11 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘414’       ‘REQUEST_URI_TOO_LONG’                  HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(38)，6.5.12 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘415’       ‘UNSUPPORTED_MEDIA_TYPE’                HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(39)，6.5.13 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘416’       ‘REQUESTED_RANGE_NOT_SATISFIABLE’       HTTP/1.1 範圍請求 (Range Requests) RFC 7233(40)，4.4 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘417’       ‘EXPECTATION_FAILED’                    HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(41)，6.5.14 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘418’       ‘IM_A_TEAPOT’                           HTCPCP/1.0 RFC 2324(42)，Section 2.3.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘421’       ‘MISDIRECTED_REQUEST’                   HTTP/2 RFC 7540(43)，9.1.2 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘422’       ‘UNPROCESSABLE_ENTITY’                  WebDAV RFC 4918(44)，11.2 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘423’       ‘LOCKED’                                WebDAV RFC 4918(45)，11.3 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘424’       ‘FAILED_DEPENDENCY’                     WebDAV RFC 4918(46)，11.4 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘425’       ‘TOO_EARLY’                             使用 HTTP 中的早期資料 RFC 8470(47)
                                                    
                                                    
‘426’       ‘UPGRADE_REQUIRED’                      HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(48)，6.5.15 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘428’       ‘PRECONDITION_REQUIRED’                 額外的 HTTP 狀態碼 RFC 6585(49)
                                                    
                                                    
‘429’       ‘TOO_MANY_REQUESTS’                     額外的 HTTP 狀態碼 RFC 6585(50)
                                                    
                                                    
‘431’       ‘REQUEST_HEADER_FIELDS_TOO_LARGE’       額外的 HTTP 狀態碼 RFC 6585(51)
                                                    
                                                    
‘451’       ‘UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS’         一個用來回報合法性障礙 (Legal Obstacles) 的 HTTP 狀態碼 RFC 7725(52)
                                                    
                                                    
‘500’       ‘INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR’                 HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(53)，6.6.1 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘501’       ‘NOT_IMPLEMENTED’                       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(54)，6.6.2 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘502’       ‘BAD_GATEWAY’                           HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(55)，6.6.3 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘503’       ‘SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE’                   HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(56)，6.6.4 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘504’       ‘GATEWAY_TIMEOUT’                       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(57)，6.6.5 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘505’       ‘HTTP_VERSION_NOT_SUPPORTED’            HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(58)，6.6.6 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘506’       ‘VARIANT_ALSO_NEGOTIATES’               HTTP 中的透明內容協商 (Transparent Content Negotiation) RFC 2295(59)，8.1 節（實
                                                    驗性）
                                                    
                                                    
‘507’       ‘INSUFFICIENT_STORAGE’                  WebDAV RFC 4918(60)，11.5 節
                                                    
                                                    
‘508’       ‘LOOP_DETECTED’                         WebDAV 繫結擴充 RFC 5842(61)，7.2 節（實驗性）
                                                    
                                                    
‘510’       ‘NOT_EXTENDED’                          一個 HTTP 擴充框架 RFC 2774(62)，7 節（實驗性）
                                                    
                                                    
‘511’       ‘NETWORK_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED’       額外的 HTTP 狀態碼 RFC 6585(63)，6 節
                                                    

為了向後相容性，列舉值也以常數形式出現在 *note http.client: 6a. 模組中。
列舉名稱等於常數名稱（例如 ‘http.HTTPStatus.OK’ 也可以是
‘http.client.OK’）。

在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 ‘421 MISDIRECTED_REQUEST’ 狀態碼。

在 3.8 版被加入: 新增 ‘451 UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS’ 狀態碼。

在 3.9 版被加入: 新增 ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’、‘418 IM_A_TEAPOT’ 與 ‘425
TOO_EARLY’ 狀態碼。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-status-codes/http-status-codes.xhtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2518.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8297.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7233.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3229.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (20) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7232.html

   (21) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (22) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (23) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7238.html

   (24) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (25) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7235.html

   (26) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (27) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (28) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (29) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (30) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (31) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7235.html

   (32) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (33) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (34) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (35) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7232.html

   (37) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (39) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (40) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7233.html

   (41) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (42) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2324.html

   (43) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7540.html

   (44) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (45) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (46) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (47) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8470.html

   (48) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (49) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (50) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (51) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (52) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7725.html

   (53) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (54) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (55) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (56) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (57) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (58) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (59) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2295.html

   (60) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (61) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html

   (62) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2774.html

   (63) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP 狀態分類,  Next: HTTP 方法,  Prev: HTTP 狀態碼,  Up: http --- HTTP 模組

5.21.9.2 HTTP 狀態分類
......................

在 3.12 版被加入.

The enum values have several properties to indicate the HTTP status
category:

Property                 Indicates that               詳情
                                                      
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
‘is_informational’       ‘100 <= status <= 199’       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(1)，6 節
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_success’             ‘200 <= status <= 299’       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(2)，6 節
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_redirection’         ‘300 <= status <= 399’       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(3)，6 節
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_client_error’        ‘400 <= status <= 499’       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(4)，6 節
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_server_error’        ‘500 <= status <= 599’       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(5)，6 節
                                                      

     用法：

          >>> from http import HTTPStatus
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_success
          True
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_client_error
          False

 -- 類別: http.HTTPMethod

     在 3.11 版被加入.

     *note enum.StrEnum: 414. 的子類別，它定義了一組 HTTP 方法以及英文描
     述。

     用法：

          >>> from http import HTTPMethod
          >>>
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET
          <HTTPMethod.GET>
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET == 'GET'
          True
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET.value
          'GET'
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET.description
          'Retrieve the target.'
          >>> list(HTTPMethod)
          [<HTTPMethod.CONNECT>,
           <HTTPMethod.DELETE>,
           <HTTPMethod.GET>,
           <HTTPMethod.HEAD>,
           <HTTPMethod.OPTIONS>,
           <HTTPMethod.PATCH>,
           <HTTPMethod.POST>,
           <HTTPMethod.PUT>,
           <HTTPMethod.TRACE>]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP 方法,  Prev: HTTP 狀態分類,  Up: http --- HTTP 模組

5.21.9.3 HTTP 方法
..................

*note http.HTTPStatus: 73b. 當中，已支援並且有於 IANA 註冊的狀態碼(1)有
：

方法            列舉名稱                                詳情
                                                        
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
‘GET’           ‘GET’                                   HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(2)，4.3.1 節
                                                        
                                                        
‘HEAD’          ‘HEAD’                                  HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(3)，4.3.2 節
                                                        
                                                        
‘POST’          ‘POST’                                  HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(4)，4.3.3 節
                                                        
                                                        
‘PUT’           ‘PUT’                                   HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(5)，4.3.4 節
                                                        
                                                        
‘DELETE’        ‘DELETE’                                HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(6)，6.3.5 節
                                                        
                                                        
‘CONNECT’       ‘CONNECT’                               HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(7)，4.3.6 節
                                                        
                                                        
‘OPTIONS’       ‘OPTIONS’                               HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(8)，4.3.7 節
                                                        
                                                        
‘TRACE’         ‘TRACE’                                 HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(9)，4.3.8 節
                                                        
                                                        
‘PATCH’         ‘PATCH’                                 HTTP/1.1 RFC 5789(10)
                                                        

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-status-codes/http-status-codes.xhtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5789.html


File: python.info,  Node: http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端,  Next: ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端,  Prev: http --- HTTP 模組,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.10 ‘http.client’ -- HTTP 協定用戶端
----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/http/client.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines classes that implement the client side of the HTTP
and HTTPS protocols.  It is normally not used directly -- the module
*note urllib.request: 106. uses it to handle URLs that use HTTP and
HTTPS.

也參考
......

The Requests package(2) is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client
interface.

     備註: HTTPS support is only available if Python was compiled with
     SSL support (through the *note ssl: ca. module).

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

The module provides the following classes:

 -- 類別: http.client.HTTPConnection (host, port=None[, timeout],
          source_address=None, blocksize=8192)

     An *note HTTPConnection: 998. instance represents one transaction
     with an HTTP server.  It should be instantiated by passing it a
     host and optional port number.  If no port number is passed, the
     port is extracted from the host string if it has the form
     ‘host:port’, else the default HTTP port (80) is used.  If the
     optional 'timeout' parameter is given, blocking operations (like
     connection attempts) will timeout after that many seconds (if it is
     not given, the global default timeout setting is used).  The
     optional 'source_address' parameter may be a tuple of a (host,
     port) to use as the source address the HTTP connection is made
     from.  The optional 'blocksize' parameter sets the buffer size in
     bytes for sending a file-like message body.

     For example, the following calls all create instances that connect
     to the server at the same host and port:

          >>> h1 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
          >>> h2 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org:80')
          >>> h3 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80)
          >>> h4 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80, timeout=10)

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'source_address'。

     在 3.4 版的變更: The 'strict' parameter was removed.  HTTP
     0.9-style "Simple Responses" are no longer supported.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'blocksize' 參數。

 -- 類別: http.client.HTTPSConnection (host, port=None, *[, timeout],
          source_address=None, context=None, blocksize=8192)

     A subclass of *note HTTPConnection: 998. that uses SSL for
     communication with secure servers.  Default port is ‘443’.  If
     'context' is specified, it must be a *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f.
     instance describing the various SSL options.

     Please read *note Security considerations: 301e. for more
     information on best practices.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'source_address'、'context' 與
     'check_hostname'。

     在 3.2 版的變更: This class now supports HTTPS virtual hosts if
     possible (that is, if *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3153. is true).

     在 3.4 版的變更: The 'strict' parameter was removed.  HTTP
     0.9-style "Simple Responses" are no longer supported.

     在 3.4.3 版的變更: This class now performs all the necessary
     certificate and hostname checks by default.  To revert to the
     previous, unverified, behavior ‘ssl._create_unverified_context()’
     can be passed to the 'context' parameter.

     在 3.8 版的變更: This class now enables TLS 1.3 *note
     ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: 87a. for the default 'context'
     or when 'cert_file' is passed with a custom 'context'.

     在 3.10 版的變更: This class now sends an ALPN extension with
     protocol indicator ‘http/1.1’ when no 'context' is given.  Custom
     'context' should set ALPN protocols with *note
     set_alpn_protocols(): ce2.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The deprecated 'key_file', 'cert_file' and
     'check_hostname' parameters have been removed.

 -- 類別: http.client.HTTPResponse (sock, debuglevel=0, method=None,
          url=None)

     Class whose instances are returned upon successful connection.  Not
     instantiated directly by user.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The 'strict' parameter was removed.  HTTP 0.9
     style "Simple Responses" are no longer supported.

This module provides the following function:

 -- 函式: http.client.parse_headers (fp)

     Parse the headers from a file pointer 'fp' representing a HTTP
     request/response.  The file has to be a *note BufferedIOBase: 491.
     reader (i.e.  not text) and must provide a valid RFC 2822(3) style
     header.

     This function returns an instance of *note http.client.HTTPMessage:
     3716. that holds the header fields, but no payload (the same as
     *note HTTPResponse.msg: 3717. and *note
     http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.headers: 3718.).  After
     returning, the file pointer 'fp' is ready to read the HTTP body.

          備註: *note parse_headers(): 1835. does not parse the
          start-line of a HTTP message; it only parses the ‘Name: value’
          lines.  The file has to be ready to read these field lines, so
          the first line should already be consumed before calling the
          function.

The following exceptions are raised as appropriate:

 -- 例外: http.client.HTTPException

     The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  It is a
     subclass of *note Exception: 81e.

 -- 例外: http.client.NotConnected

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3719.

 -- 例外: http.client.InvalidURL

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3719, raised if a port is given
     and is either non-numeric or empty.

 -- 例外: http.client.UnknownProtocol

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3719.

 -- 例外: http.client.UnknownTransferEncoding

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3719.

 -- 例外: http.client.UnimplementedFileMode

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3719.

 -- 例外: http.client.IncompleteRead

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3719.

 -- 例外: http.client.ImproperConnectionState

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3719.

 -- 例外: http.client.CannotSendRequest

     A subclass of *note ImproperConnectionState: 3720.

 -- 例外: http.client.CannotSendHeader

     A subclass of *note ImproperConnectionState: 3720.

 -- 例外: http.client.ResponseNotReady

     A subclass of *note ImproperConnectionState: 3720.

 -- 例外: http.client.BadStatusLine

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3719.  Raised if a server
     responds with a HTTP status code that we don't understand.

 -- 例外: http.client.LineTooLong

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3719.  Raised if an excessively
     long line is received in the HTTP protocol from the server.

 -- 例外: http.client.RemoteDisconnected

     A subclass of *note ConnectionResetError: ef5. and *note
     BadStatusLine: 3724.  Raised by *note HTTPConnection.getresponse():
     c80. when the attempt to read the response results in no data read
     from the connection, indicating that the remote end has closed the
     connection.

     在 3.5 版被加入: Previously, *note BadStatusLine: 3724.‘('')’ was
     raised.

The constants defined in this module are:

 -- 資料: http.client.HTTP_PORT

     The default port for the HTTP protocol (always ‘80’).

 -- 資料: http.client.HTTPS_PORT

     The default port for the HTTPS protocol (always ‘443’).

 -- 資料: http.client.responses

     This dictionary maps the HTTP 1.1 status codes to the W3C names.

     Example: ‘http.client.responses[http.client.NOT_FOUND]’ is ‘'Not
     Found'’.

See *note HTTP 狀態碼: 370e. for a list of HTTP status codes that are
available in this module as constants.

* Menu:

* HTTPConnection 物件::
* HTTPResponse 物件::
* 範例: 範例<35>.
* HTTPMessage 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/client.py

   (2) https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/latest/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPConnection 物件,  Next: HTTPResponse 物件,  Up: http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端

5.21.10.1 HTTPConnection 物件
.............................

*note HTTPConnection: 998. instances have the following methods:

 -- 方法: HTTPConnection.request (method, url, body=None, headers={}, *,
          encode_chunked=False)

     This will send a request to the server using the HTTP request
     method 'method' and the request URI 'url'.  The provided 'url' must
     be an absolute path to conform with RFC 2616 §5.1.2(1) (unless
     connecting to an HTTP proxy server or using the ‘OPTIONS’ or
     ‘CONNECT’ methods).

     If 'body' is specified, the specified data is sent after the
     headers are finished.  It may be a *note str: 157, a *note
     bytes-like object: b9f, an open *note file object: 1054, or an
     iterable of *note bytes: 2c1.  If 'body' is a string, it is encoded
     as ISO-8859-1, the default for HTTP. If it is a bytes-like object,
     the bytes are sent as is.  If it is a *note file object: 1054, the
     contents of the file is sent; this file object should support at
     least the ‘read()’ method.  If the file object is an instance of
     *note io.TextIOBase: 492, the data returned by the ‘read()’ method
     will be encoded as ISO-8859-1, otherwise the data returned by
     ‘read()’ is sent as is.  If 'body' is an iterable, the elements of
     the iterable are sent as is until the iterable is exhausted.

     The 'headers' argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to
     send with the request.  A Host header(2) must be provided to
     conform with RFC 2616 §5.1.2(3) (unless connecting to an HTTP proxy
     server or using the ‘OPTIONS’ or ‘CONNECT’ methods).

     If 'headers' contains neither Content-Length nor Transfer-Encoding,
     but there is a request body, one of those header fields will be
     added automatically.  If 'body' is ‘None’, the Content-Length
     header is set to ‘0’ for methods that expect a body (‘PUT’, ‘POST’,
     and ‘PATCH’).  If 'body' is a string or a bytes-like object that is
     not also a *note file: 1054, the Content-Length header is set to
     its length.  Any other type of 'body' (files and iterables in
     general) will be chunk-encoded, and the Transfer-Encoding header
     will automatically be set instead of Content-Length.

     The 'encode_chunked' argument is only relevant if Transfer-Encoding
     is specified in 'headers'.  If 'encode_chunked' is ‘False’, the
     HTTPConnection object assumes that all encoding is handled by the
     calling code.  If it is ‘True’, the body will be chunk-encoded.

     For example, to perform a ‘GET’ request to
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’:

          >>> import http.client
          >>> host = "docs.python.org"
          >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection(host)
          >>> conn.request("GET", "/3/", headers={"Host": host})
          >>> response = conn.getresponse()
          >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
          200 OK

          備註: Chunked transfer encoding has been added to the HTTP
          protocol version 1.1.  Unless the HTTP server is known to
          handle HTTP 1.1, the caller must either specify the
          Content-Length, or must pass a *note str: 157. or bytes-like
          object that is not also a file as the body representation.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 'body' can now be an iterable.

     在 3.6 版的變更: If neither Content-Length nor Transfer-Encoding
     are set in 'headers', file and iterable 'body' objects are now
     chunk-encoded.  The 'encode_chunked' argument was added.  No
     attempt is made to determine the Content-Length for file objects.

 -- 方法: HTTPConnection.getresponse ()

     Should be called after a request is sent to get the response from
     the server.  Returns an *note HTTPResponse: f5d. instance.

          備註: Note that you must have read the whole response before
          you can send a new request to the server.

     在 3.5 版的變更: If a *note ConnectionError: c82. or subclass is
     raised, the *note HTTPConnection: 998. object will be ready to
     reconnect when a new request is sent.

 -- 方法: HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the debugging level.  The default debug level is ‘0’, meaning
     no debugging output is printed.  Any value greater than ‘0’ will
     cause all currently defined debug output to be printed to stdout.
     The ‘debuglevel’ is passed to any new *note HTTPResponse: f5d.
     objects that are created.

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- 方法: HTTPConnection.set_tunnel (host, port=None, headers=None)

     Set the host and the port for HTTP Connect Tunnelling.  This allows
     running the connection through a proxy server.

     The 'host' and 'port' arguments specify the endpoint of the
     tunneled connection (i.e.  the address included in the CONNECT
     request, 'not' the address of the proxy server).

     The 'headers' argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to
     send with the CONNECT request.

     As HTTP/1.1 is used for HTTP CONNECT tunnelling request, as per the
     RFC(4), a HTTP ‘Host:’ header must be provided, matching the
     authority-form of the request target provided as the destination
     for the CONNECT request.  If a HTTP ‘Host:’ header is not provided
     via the headers argument, one is generated and transmitted
     automatically.

     For example, to tunnel through a HTTPS proxy server running locally
     on port 8080, we would pass the address of the proxy to the *note
     HTTPSConnection: 999. constructor, and the address of the host that
     we eventually want to reach to the *note set_tunnel(): 10bb.
     method:

          >>> import http.client
          >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("localhost", 8080)
          >>> conn.set_tunnel("www.python.org")
          >>> conn.request("HEAD","/index.html")

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: HTTP CONNECT tunnelling requests use protocol
     HTTP/1.1, upgraded from protocol HTTP/1.0.  ‘Host:’ HTTP headers
     are mandatory for HTTP/1.1, so one will be automatically generated
     and transmitted if not provided in the headers argument.

 -- 方法: HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers ()

     Returns a dictionary with the headers of the response received from
     the proxy server to the CONNECT request.

     If the CONNECT request was not sent, the method returns ‘None’.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 方法: HTTPConnection.connect ()

     Connect to the server specified when the object was created.  By
     default, this is called automatically when making a request if the
     client does not already have a connection.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘host’、‘port’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘http.client.connect’。

 -- 方法: HTTPConnection.close ()

     Close the connection to the server.

 -- 屬性: HTTPConnection.blocksize

     Buffer size in bytes for sending a file-like message body.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

As an alternative to using the *note request(): b16. method described
above, you can also send your request step by step, by using the four
functions below.

 -- 方法: HTTPConnection.putrequest (method, url, skip_host=False,
          skip_accept_encoding=False)

     This should be the first call after the connection to the server
     has been made.  It sends a line to the server consisting of the
     'method' string, the 'url' string, and the HTTP version
     (‘HTTP/1.1’).  To disable automatic sending of ‘Host:’ or
     ‘Accept-Encoding:’ headers (for example to accept additional
     content encodings), specify 'skip_host' or 'skip_accept_encoding'
     with non-False values.

 -- 方法: HTTPConnection.putheader (header, argument[, ...])

     Send an RFC 822(5)-style header to the server.  It sends a line to
     the server consisting of the header, a colon and a space, and the
     first argument.  If more arguments are given, continuation lines
     are sent, each consisting of a tab and an argument.

 -- 方法: HTTPConnection.endheaders (message_body=None, *,
          encode_chunked=False)

     Send a blank line to the server, signalling the end of the headers.
     The optional 'message_body' argument can be used to pass a message
     body associated with the request.

     If 'encode_chunked' is ‘True’, the result of each iteration of
     'message_body' will be chunk-encoded as specified in RFC 7230(6),
     Section 3.3.1.  How the data is encoded is dependent on the type of
     'message_body'.  If 'message_body' implements the *note buffer
     interface: 148. the encoding will result in a single chunk.  If
     'message_body' is a *note collections.abc.Iterable: 1fe6, each
     iteration of 'message_body' will result in a chunk.  If
     'message_body' is a *note file object: 1054, each call to ‘.read()’
     will result in a chunk.  The method automatically signals the end
     of the chunk-encoded data immediately after 'message_body'.

          備註: Due to the chunked encoding specification, empty chunks
          yielded by an iterator body will be ignored by the
          chunk-encoder.  This is to avoid premature termination of the
          read of the request by the target server due to malformed
          encoding.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Added chunked encoding support and the
     'encode_chunked' parameter.

 -- 方法: HTTPConnection.send (data)

     Send data to the server.  This should be used directly only after
     the *note endheaders(): b17. method has been called and before
     *note getresponse(): c80. is called.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘data’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘http.client.send’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-14.23

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231#section-4.3.6

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPResponse 物件,  Next: 範例<35>,  Prev: HTTPConnection 物件,  Up: http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端

5.21.10.2 HTTPResponse 物件
...........................

An *note HTTPResponse: f5d. instance wraps the HTTP response from the
server.  It provides access to the request headers and the entity body.
The response is an iterable object and can be used in a with statement.

在 3.5 版的變更: The *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491. interface is now
implemented and all of its reader operations are supported.

 -- 方法: HTTPResponse.read ([amt])

     Reads and returns the response body, or up to the next 'amt' bytes.

 -- 方法: HTTPResponse.readinto (b)

     Reads up to the next len(b) bytes of the response body into the
     buffer 'b'.  Returns the number of bytes read.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 方法: HTTPResponse.getheader (name, default=None)

     Return the value of the header 'name', or 'default' if there is no
     header matching 'name'.  If there is more than one header with the
     name 'name', return all of the values joined by ', '.  If 'default'
     is any iterable other than a single string, its elements are
     similarly returned joined by commas.

 -- 方法: HTTPResponse.getheaders ()

     Return a list of (header, value) tuples.

 -- 方法: HTTPResponse.fileno ()

     Return the ‘fileno’ of the underlying socket.

 -- 屬性: HTTPResponse.msg

     A *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3716. instance containing the
     response headers.  *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3716. is a
     subclass of *note email.message.Message: b05.

 -- 屬性: HTTPResponse.version

     HTTP protocol version used by server.  10 for HTTP/1.0, 11 for
     HTTP/1.1.

 -- 屬性: HTTPResponse.url

     URL of the resource retrieved, commonly used to determine if a
     redirect was followed.

 -- 屬性: HTTPResponse.headers

     Headers of the response in the form of an *note
     email.message.EmailMessage: b06. instance.

 -- 屬性: HTTPResponse.status

     Status code returned by server.

 -- 屬性: HTTPResponse.reason

     Reason phrase returned by server.

 -- 屬性: HTTPResponse.debuglevel

     A debugging hook.  If *note debuglevel: 373b. is greater than zero,
     messages will be printed to stdout as the response is read and
     parsed.

 -- 屬性: HTTPResponse.closed

     Is ‘True’ if the stream is closed.

 -- 方法: HTTPResponse.geturl ()

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: Deprecated in favor of *note url: 3738.

 -- 方法: HTTPResponse.info ()

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: Deprecated in favor of *note headers: 3739.

 -- 方法: HTTPResponse.getcode ()

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: Deprecated in favor of *note status: 373a.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<35>,  Next: HTTPMessage 物件,  Prev: HTTPResponse 物件,  Up: http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端

5.21.10.3 範例
..............

Here is an example session that uses the ‘GET’ method:

     >>> import http.client
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
     >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(r1.status, r1.reason)
     200 OK
     >>> data1 = r1.read()  # This will return entire content.
     >>> # The following example demonstrates reading data in chunks.
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
     >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> while chunk := r1.read(200):
     ...     print(repr(chunk))
     b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if"...
     ...
     >>> # Example of an invalid request
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("docs.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/parrot.spam")
     >>> r2 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(r2.status, r2.reason)
     404 Not Found
     >>> data2 = r2.read()
     >>> conn.close()

Here is an example session that uses the ‘HEAD’ method.  Note that the
‘HEAD’ method never returns any data.

     >>> import http.client
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("HEAD", "/")
     >>> res = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(res.status, res.reason)
     200 OK
     >>> data = res.read()
     >>> print(len(data))
     0
     >>> data == b''
     True

Here is an example session that uses the ‘POST’ method:

     >>> import http.client, urllib.parse
     >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'@number': 12524, '@type': 'issue', '@action': 'show'})
     >>> headers = {"Content-type": "application/x-www-form-urlencoded",
     ...            "Accept": "text/plain"}
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("bugs.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("POST", "", params, headers)
     >>> response = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
     302 Found
     >>> data = response.read()
     >>> data
     b'Redirecting to <a href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12524">https://bugs.python.org/issue12524</a>'
     >>> conn.close()

Client side HTTP ‘PUT’ requests are very similar to ‘POST’ requests.
The difference lies only on the server side where HTTP servers will
allow resources to be created via ‘PUT’ requests.  It should be noted
that custom HTTP methods are also handled in *note
urllib.request.Request: e6a. by setting the appropriate method
attribute.  Here is an example session that uses the ‘PUT’ method:

     >>> # This creates an HTTP request
     >>> # with the content of BODY as the enclosed representation
     >>> # for the resource http://localhost:8080/file
     ...
     >>> import http.client
     >>> BODY = "***filecontents***"
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("localhost", 8080)
     >>> conn.request("PUT", "/file", BODY)
     >>> response = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
     200, OK


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPMessage 物件,  Prev: 範例<35>,  Up: http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端

5.21.10.4 HTTPMessage 物件
..........................

 -- 類別: http.client.HTTPMessage (email.message.Message)

An *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3716. instance holds the headers from
an HTTP response.  It is implemented using the *note
email.message.Message: b05. class.


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端,  Next: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端,  Prev: http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.11 ‘ftplib’ -- FTP 協定用戶端
----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/ftplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組定義了 *note FTP: 735. 類別和一些相關的項目。*note FTP: 735. 類
別實作了 FTP 協定的用戶端。你可以使用它來編寫能夠執行各種 FTP 自動作業的
Python 程式，例如鏡像 (mirror) 其他 FTP 伺服器。*note urllib.request:
106. 模組也使用它來處理使用 FTP 的 URL。有關 FTP（檔案傳輸協定）的更多資
訊，請參閱 RFC 959(2)。

預設編碼是 UTF-8，遵循 RFC 2640(3)。

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上不起作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

這是一個使用 *note ftplib: 59. 模組的會話範例：

     >>> from ftplib import FTP
     >>> ftp = FTP('ftp.us.debian.org')  # connect to host, default port
     >>> ftp.login()                     # user anonymous, passwd anonymous@
     '230 Login successful.'
     >>> ftp.cwd('debian')               # change into "debian" directory
     '250 Directory successfully changed.'
     >>> ftp.retrlines('LIST')           # list directory contents
     -rw-rw-r--    1 1176     1176         1063 Jun 15 10:18 README
     ...
     drwxr-sr-x    5 1176     1176         4096 Dec 19  2000 pool
     drwxr-sr-x    4 1176     1176         4096 Nov 17  2008 project
     drwxr-xr-x    3 1176     1176         4096 Oct 10  2012 tools
     '226 Directory send OK.'
     >>> with open('README', 'wb') as fp:
     >>>     ftp.retrbinary('RETR README', fp.write)
     '226 Transfer complete.'
     >>> ftp.quit()
     '221 Goodbye.'

* Menu:

* 參考::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ftplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html


File: python.info,  Node: 參考,  Up: ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端

5.21.11.1 參考
..............

* Menu:

* FTP 物件::
* FTP_TLS 物件::
* 模組變數::


File: python.info,  Node: FTP 物件,  Next: FTP_TLS 物件,  Up: 參考

5.21.11.2 FTP 物件
..................

 -- 類別: ftplib.FTP (host='', user='', passwd='', acct='',
          timeout=None, source_address=None, *, encoding='utf-8')

     回傳一個新的 *note FTP: 735. 類別實例。


     參數:

        * ‘host’ (*note str: 157.) - 要連接的主機名稱。如果有給定，
          ‘connect(host)’ 會由建構函式來隱式地呼叫。

        * ‘user’ (*note str: 157.) - The username to log in with
          (default: ‘'anonymous'’).  如果有給定，‘login(host, passwd,
          acct)’ 會由建構函式來隱式地呼叫。

        * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 157.) - The password to use when logging
          in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty string or
          ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically generated.

        * ‘acct’ (*note str: 157.) - Account information to be used for
          the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.  See
          RFC-959(1) for more details.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 26a.‘ | ’‘None’) - 如 *note connect():
          3749. 的阻塞操作的超時設定，以秒為單位（預設：使用全域預設超時
          設定）。

        * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 4e6.‘ | ’‘None’) - A 2-tuple
          ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its source address
          before connecting.

        * ‘encoding’ (*note str: 157.) - The encoding for directories
          and filenames (default: ‘'utf-8'’).

     *note FTP: 735. 類別支援 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式，例如：

          >>> from ftplib import FTP
          >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
          ...     ftp.login()
          ...     ftp.dir()
          ...
          '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
          dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
          dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
          dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
          dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora
          >>>

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增了對 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式的支援。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'source_address' 參數。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 如果 'timeout' 參數設定為零，它將引發 *note
     ValueError: 183. 以防止建立非阻塞 socket。新增了 'encoding' 參數，
     預設值從 Latin-1 更改為 UTF-8 以遵循 RFC 2640(2)。

     ‘FTP’ 的多個可用方法大致有分為兩個方向：一種用於處理文本檔案 (text
     files)，另一種用於二進位檔案 (binary files)。這些以在文本檔案的
     ‘lines’ 或二進位檔案的 ‘binary’ 前使用的命令命名。

     *note FTP: 735. 實例具有以下方法：

      -- 方法: set_debuglevel (level)

          將實例的偵錯級別設定為一個 *note int: 17e.，這控制印出的偵錯訊
          息輸出量。

             * ‘0’（預設值）：不產生偵錯輸出。

             * ‘1’：會產生適量的偵錯輸出，通常是每個請求輸出一行。

             * ‘2’ 或更高的值：會產生最大量的偵錯輸出，以日誌紀錄下控制
               連線發送和接收的每個步驟。

      -- 方法: connect (host='', port=0, timeout=None,
               source_address=None)

          連線到給定的主機 (host) 和連接埠 (port)。每個實例只應呼叫此函
          式一次；如果在建立 *note FTP: 735. 實例時有給定 'host' 引數，
          則不應呼叫它。所有其他的 ‘FTP’ 方法只能在成功建立連線後使用。


          參數:

             * ‘host’ (*note str: 157.) - 要連接的主機。

             * ‘port’ (*note int: 17e.) - 要連接的 TCP 連接埠（預設值：
               ‘21’，由 FTP 協定規範指定）。很少需要指定不同的連接埠號碼
               。

             * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 26a.‘ | ’‘None’) - 連線嘗試的超時
               設定，以秒為單位（預設：全域預設超時設定）。

             * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 4e6.‘ | ’‘None’) - A
               2-tuple ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its
               source address before connecting.

          引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘host’、‘port’ 的*note 稽核事件:
          168e. ‘ftplib.connect’。

          在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'source_address' 參數。

      -- 方法: getwelcome ()

          回傳伺服器為回應初始連線而發送的歡迎訊息。（此訊息有時會包含與
          使用者相關的免責聲明或幫助資訊。）

      -- 方法: login (user='anonymous', passwd='', acct='')

          在以連線的伺服器上登入。在建立連線後，每個實例只應呼叫此函式一
          次；如果在建立 *note FTP: 735. 實例時有給定 'host' 和 'user' 引
          數，則不應呼叫它。大多數 FTP 命令僅在用戶端登錄後才允許使用


          參數:

             * ‘user’ (*note str: 157.) - The username to log in with
               (default: ‘'anonymous'’).

             * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 157.) - The password to use when
               logging in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty
               string or ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically
               generated.

             * ‘acct’ (*note str: 157.) - Account information to be used
               for the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.
               See RFC-959(3) for more details.

      -- 方法: abort ()

          中止正在進行的檔案傳輸。使用它並不是都會成功，但值得一試。

      -- 方法: sendcmd (cmd)

          向伺服器發送一個簡單的命令字串並回傳回應字串。

          引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘cmd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
          ‘ftplib.sendcmd’。

      -- 方法: voidcmd (cmd)

          向伺服器發送一個簡單的命令字串並處理回應。如果收到代表成功的回
          應狀態碼（範圍為 200-299 的狀態碼），則回傳回應字串，否則引發
          *note error_reply: 3750.。

          引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘cmd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
          ‘ftplib.sendcmd’。

      -- 方法: retrbinary (cmd, callback, blocksize=8192, rest=None)

          以二進位傳輸模式 (binary transfer mode) 取得檔案。


          參數:

             * ‘cmd’ (*note str: 157.) - 一個正確的 ‘RETR’ 指令：‘"RETR
               FILENAME"’。

             * ‘callback’ (*note callable: 266d.) - 為接收到的每個資料區
               塊呼叫的單一參數可呼叫物件，其單一引數是以 *note bytes:
               2c1. 為形式的資料。

             * ‘blocksize’ (*note int: 17e.) - 在執行實際傳輸時所建立的
               低階 *note socket: c18. 物件上讀取的最大分塊 (chunk) 大小
               。這也對應於將傳遞給 'callback' 的最大資料大小。預設為
               ‘8192’。

             * ‘rest’ (*note int: 17e.) - 一個要發送到伺服器的 ‘REST’ 命
               令。參見 *note transfercmd(): 3752. 方法之 'rest' 參數的
               文件。

      -- 方法: retrlines (cmd, callback=None)

          在初始化時以 'encoding' 參數指定的編碼來取得檔案或目錄列表。
          'cmd' 要是一個正確的 ‘RETR’ 命令（見 *note retrbinary():
          3751.）或者一個像 ‘LIST’ 或 ‘NLST’ 的命令（通常只是字串
          ‘'LIST'’ )。 ‘LIST’ 會取得檔案列表和這些檔案的相關資訊。
          ‘NLST’ 取得檔案名稱列表。會為每一行以一個字串引數呼叫
          'callback' 函式，其引數包含已經刪除尾隨 CRLF 的一行。預設的
          'callback' 會將各行印出到 *note sys.stdout: 92a.。

      -- 方法: set_pasv (val)

          如果 'val' 為真，則啟用「被動」模式，否則禁用被動模式。被動模
          式預設開啟。

      -- 方法: storbinary (cmd, fp, blocksize=8192, callback=None,
               rest=None)

          以二進位傳輸模式儲存檔案。


          參數:

             * ‘cmd’ (*note str: 157.) - 一個正確的 ‘STOR’ 指令：‘"STOR
               FILENAME"’。

             * ‘fp’ (*note file object: 1054.) - 一個檔案物件（以二進位
               模式開啟），在大小為 'blocksize' 的區塊中使用其 *note
               read(): c96. 方法讀取直到 EOF 來提供要儲存的資料。

             * ‘blocksize’ (*note int: 17e.) - 讀取區塊大小。預設為
               ‘8192’。

             * ‘callback’ (*note callable: 266d.) - 為發送的每個資料區塊
               來呼叫的單一參數可呼叫物件，其單一引數是以 *note bytes:
               2c1. 為形式的資料。

             * ‘rest’ (*note int: 17e.) - 一個要發送到伺服器的 ‘REST’ 命
               令。參見 *note transfercmd(): 3752. 方法之 'rest' 參數的
               文件。

          在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'rest' 參數。

      -- 方法: storlines (cmd, fp, callback=None)

          以行模式 (line mode) 儲存檔案。 'cmd' 應是一個正確的 ‘STOR’ 命
          令（參見 *note storbinary(): 119b.）。使用其 *note readline():
          11bd. 方法從*note 檔案物件: 1054. 'fp' （以二進位模式打開）讀
          取各行、直到 EOF，以提供要儲存的資料。 'callback' 是可選的單參
          數可呼叫物件，於發送後以各行進行呼叫。

      -- 方法: transfercmd (cmd, rest=None)

          通過資料連線啟動傳輸。如果傳輸為主動 (active) 模式，則發送
          ‘EPRT’ 或 ‘PORT’ 命令和 'cmd' 指定的傳輸命令，並接受連線。如果
          伺服器是被動 (passive) 模式，則發送 ‘EPSV’ 或 ‘PASV’ 命令、連
          線、並啟動傳輸命令。無論哪種方式，都是回傳連線的 socket。

          如果有給定可選的 'rest'，一個 ‘REST’ 命令會被發送到伺服器，並
          以 'rest' 作為引數。'rest' 通常是請求檔案的一個位元組偏移量
          (byte offset)，告訴伺服器以請求的偏移量重新開始發送檔案的位元
          組，並跳過初始位元組。但是請注意，*note transfercmd(): 3752. 方
          法將 'rest' 轉換為帶有初始化時指定的 'encoding' 參數的字串，但
          不會對字串的內容執行檢查。如果伺服器無法識別 ‘REST’ 命令，則會
          引發 *note error_reply: 3750. 例外。如果發生這種情況，只需在沒
          有 'rest' 引數的情況下呼叫 *note transfercmd(): 3752.。

      -- 方法: ntransfercmd (cmd, rest=None)

          類似於 *note transfercmd(): 3752.，但回傳一個帶有資料連線和資
          料預期大小的元組。如果無法計算預期大小，則回傳 ‘None’。 'cmd'
          和 'rest' 與 *note transfercmd(): 3752. 中的含義相同。

      -- 方法: mlsd (path='', facts=[])

          使用 ‘MLSD’ 命令 ( RFC 3659(4)) 列出標準格式的目錄。如果省略
          'path' 則假定為作用於當前目錄。'facts' 是表示所需資訊類型的字
          串列表（例如 ‘["type", "size", "perm"]’ ）。會回傳一個產生器物
          件，為每個在路徑中找到的檔案生成一個包含兩個元素的元組，第一個
          元素是檔案名稱，第二個元素是包含有關檔案名稱 facts的字典。該字
          典的內容可能受 'facts' 引數限制，但不保證伺服器會回傳所有請求
          的 facts。

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: nlst (argument[, ...])

          回傳由 ‘NLST’ 命令回傳的檔案名稱列表。可選的 'argument' 是要列
          出的目錄（預設為當前伺服器目錄）。多個引數可用於將非標準選項傳
          遞給 ‘NLST’ 命令。

               備註: 如果你的伺服器支援該命令，*note mlsd(): f51. 會提供
               更好的 API。

      -- 方法: dir (argument[, ...])

          生成由 ‘LIST’ 命令回傳的目錄列表，並將其印出到標準輸出
          (standard output)。可選的 'argument' 是要列出的目錄（預設為當
          前伺服器目錄）。有多個引數可用於將非標準選項傳遞給 ‘LIST’ 命令
          。如果最後一個引數是一個函式，它被用作 *note retrlines():
          3753. 的 'callback' 函式；預設印出到 *note sys.stdout: 92a.。
          此方法回傳 ‘None’。

               備註: 如果你的伺服器支援該命令，*note mlsd(): f51. 會提供
               更好的 API。

      -- 方法: rename (fromname, toname)

          將伺服器上的檔案 'fromname' 重新命名為 'toname'。

      -- 方法: delete (filename)

          從伺服器中刪除名為 'filename' 的檔案。如果成功，回傳回應的文字
          ，否則引發 *note error_perm: 3759. 權限錯誤或在其他錯誤發生時
          引發 *note error_reply: 3750.。

      -- 方法: cwd (pathname)

          設定伺服器上的當前目錄。

      -- 方法: mkd (pathname)

          在伺服器上建立一個新目錄。

      -- 方法: pwd ()

          回傳伺服器上當前目錄的路徑名。

      -- 方法: rmd (dirname)

          刪除伺服器上名為 'dirname' 的目錄。

      -- 方法: size (filename)

          請求伺服器上名為 'filename' 的檔案的大小。成功時，檔案的大小作
          為整數回傳，否則回傳 ‘None’。請注意，‘SIZE’ 命令不是標準化的，
          但被許多常見的伺服器實作支援。

      -- 方法: quit ()

          向伺服器發送 ‘QUIT’ 命令並關閉連線。這是關閉連線的「禮貌」方式
          ，但如果伺服器對 ‘QUIT’ 命令作出錯誤回應，它可能會引發例外。這
          意味著呼叫 *note close(): 3760. 方法使 *note FTP: 735. 實例無
          法用於後續呼叫（見下文）。

      -- 方法: close ()

          單方面關閉連線。這不應該使用於已經關閉的連線，例如在成功呼叫
          *note quit(): 375f. 之後。呼叫後就不應該再次使用 *note FTP:
          735. 實例（在呼叫 *note close(): 3760. 或 *note quit(): 375f.
          後，你不能通過發出另一個 *note login(): 374c. 方法重新打開連線
          ）。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3659.html


File: python.info,  Node: FTP_TLS 物件,  Next: 模組變數,  Prev: FTP 物件,  Up: 參考

5.21.11.3 FTP_TLS 物件
......................

 -- 類別: ftplib.FTP_TLS (host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', *,
          context=None, timeout=None, source_address=None,
          encoding='utf-8')

     An *note FTP: 735. subclass which adds TLS support to FTP as
     described in RFC 4217(1).  Connect to port 21 implicitly securing
     the FTP control connection before authenticating.

          備註: The user must explicitly secure the data connection by
          calling the *note prot_p(): 3762. method.


     參數:

        * ‘host’ (*note str: 157.) - 要連接的主機名稱。如果有給定，
          ‘connect(host)’ 會由建構函式來隱式地呼叫。

        * ‘user’ (*note str: 157.) - The username to log in with
          (default: ‘'anonymous'’).  如果有給定，‘login(host, passwd,
          acct)’ 會由建構函式來隱式地呼叫。

        * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 157.) - The password to use when logging
          in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty string or
          ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically generated.

        * ‘acct’ (*note str: 157.) - Account information to be used for
          the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.  See
          RFC-959(2) for more details.

        * ‘context’ (*note ssl.SSLContext: 26f.) - An SSL context object
          which allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates
          and private keys into a single, potentially long-lived,
          structure.  Please read *note Security considerations: 301e.
          for best practices.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 26a.‘ | ’‘None’) - 如 *note connect():
          3749. 的阻塞操作的超時設定，以秒為單位（預設：使用全域預設超時
          設定）。

        * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 4e6.‘ | ’‘None’) - A 2-tuple
          ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its source address
          before connecting.

        * ‘encoding’ (*note str: 157.) - The encoding for directories
          and filenames (default: ‘'utf-8'’).

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'source_address' 參數。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 該類別現在支援使用 *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3141. 和 'Server Name Indication' 進
     行主機名 (hostname) 檢查（參見 *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3153.）。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 如果 'timeout' 參數設定為零，它將引發 *note
     ValueError: 183. 以防止建立非阻塞 socket。新增了 'encoding' 參數，
     預設值從 Latin-1 更改為 UTF-8 以遵循 RFC 2640(3)。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 已棄用的 'keyfile' 和 'certfile' 參數已被移除。

     這是一個使用 *note FTP_TLS: 736. 類別的範例會話：

          >>> ftps = FTP_TLS('ftp.pureftpd.org')
          >>> ftps.login()
          '230 Anonymous user logged in'
          >>> ftps.prot_p()
          '200 Data protection level set to "private"'
          >>> ftps.nlst()
          ['6jack', 'OpenBSD', 'antilink', 'blogbench', 'bsdcam', 'clockspeed', 'djbdns-jedi', 'docs', 'eaccelerator-jedi', 'favicon.ico', 'francotone', 'fugu', 'ignore', 'libpuzzle', 'metalog', 'minidentd', 'misc', 'mysql-udf-global-user-variables', 'php-jenkins-hash', 'php-skein-hash', 'php-webdav', 'phpaudit', 'phpbench', 'pincaster', 'ping', 'posto', 'pub', 'public', 'public_keys', 'pure-ftpd', 'qscan', 'qtc', 'sharedance', 'skycache', 'sound', 'tmp', 'ucarp']

     ‘FTP_TLS’ 類別繼承自 *note FTP: 735.，並另外定義了這些的方法與屬性
     ：

      -- 屬性: ssl_version

          要使用的 SSL 版本（預設為 *note ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23: 3145.）。

      -- 方法: auth ()

          根據 *note ssl_version: 3763. 屬性中指定的內容，使用 TLS 或
          SSL 設定安全控制連線。

          在 3.4 版的變更: 該方法現在支援使用 *note
          ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3141. 和 'Server Name
          Indication' 進行主機名檢查（參見 *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3153.）。

      -- 方法: ccc ()

          將控制通道恢復為純文本。這對於利用知道如何在不打開固定連接埠的
          情況下使用非安全 (non-secure) FTP 以處理 NAT 的防火牆很有用。

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: prot_p ()

          設定安全資料連線。

      -- 方法: prot_c ()

          設定明文資料 (clear text data) 連線。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4217.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html


File: python.info,  Node: 模組變數,  Prev: FTP_TLS 物件,  Up: 參考

5.21.11.4 模組變數
..................

 -- 例外: ftplib.error_reply

     伺服器收到意外回覆時所引發的例外。

 -- 例外: ftplib.error_temp

     當收到表示暫時錯誤的錯誤碼（400-499 範圍內的回應狀態碼）時引發的例
     外。

 -- 例外: ftplib.error_perm

     當收到表示永久錯誤的錯誤碼（500-599 範圍內的回應狀態碼）時引發的例
     外。

 -- 例外: ftplib.error_proto

     當從伺服器收到不符合檔案傳輸協定回應規範的回覆時引發例外，即 1-5 範
     圍內的數字開頭。

 -- 資料: ftplib.all_errors

     *note FTP: 735. 實例方法由於 FTP 連線問題（相對於呼叫者的程式錯誤）
     而可能引發的所有例外集合（元組形式）。該集合包括上面列出的四個例外
     以及 *note OSError: 644. 和 *note EOFError: 116a.。

也參考
......

*note netrc: 96. 模組

     ‘.netrc’ 檔案格式的剖析器。‘.netrc’ 檔案通常被 FTP 用戶端用來在提示
     使用者之前載入使用者身份驗證資訊。


File: python.info,  Node: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端,  Next: imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端,  Prev: ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.12 ‘poplib’ -- POP3 協定用戶端
-----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/poplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines a class, *note POP3: 762, which encapsulates a
connection to a POP3 server and implements the protocol as defined in
RFC 1939(2).  The *note POP3: 762. class supports both the minimal and
optional command sets from RFC 1939(3).  The *note POP3: 762. class also
supports the ‘STLS’ command introduced in RFC 2595(4) to enable
encrypted communication on an already established connection.

Additionally, this module provides a class *note POP3_SSL: 763, which
provides support for connecting to POP3 servers that use SSL as an
underlying protocol layer.

Note that POP3, though widely supported, is obsolescent.  The
implementation quality of POP3 servers varies widely, and too many are
quite poor.  If your mailserver supports IMAP, you would be better off
using the *note imaplib.IMAP4: 73e. class, as IMAP servers tend to be
better implemented.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

The *note poplib: a7. module provides two classes:

 -- 類別: poplib.POP3 (host, port=POP3_PORT[, timeout])

     This class implements the actual POP3 protocol.  The connection is
     created when the instance is initialized.  If 'port' is omitted,
     the standard POP3 port (110) is used.  The optional 'timeout'
     parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt
     (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be
     used).

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘host’、‘port’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘poplib.connect’。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘line’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘poplib.putline’。其中 ‘line’ 為即將傳送給遠端的位元組。

     在 3.9 版的變更: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be zero, it
     will raise a *note ValueError: 183. to prevent the creation of a
     non-blocking socket.

 -- 類別: poplib.POP3_SSL (host, port=POP3_SSL_PORT, *, timeout=None,
          context=None)

     This is a subclass of *note POP3: 762. that connects to the server
     over an SSL encrypted socket.  If 'port' is not specified, 995, the
     standard POP3-over-SSL port is used.  'timeout' works as in the
     *note POP3: 762. constructor.  'context' is an optional *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 26f. object which allows bundling SSL configuration
     options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially
     long-lived) structure.  Please read *note Security considerations:
     301e. for best practices.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘host’、‘port’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘poplib.connect’。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘line’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘poplib.putline’。其中 ‘line’ 為即將傳送給遠端的位元組。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 'context' parameter added.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The class now supports hostname check with *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3141. and 'Server Name Indication'
     (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3153.).

     在 3.9 版的變更: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be zero, it
     will raise a *note ValueError: 183. to prevent the creation of a
     non-blocking socket.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

One exception is defined as an attribute of the *note poplib: a7.
module:

 -- 例外: poplib.error_proto

     Exception raised on any errors from this module (errors from *note
     socket: c6. module are not caught).  The reason for the exception
     is passed to the constructor as a string.

也參考
......

*note imaplib: 6f. 模組

     The standard Python IMAP module.

關於 Fetchmail 的常見問題(5)

     The FAQ for the ‘fetchmail’ POP/IMAP client collects information on
     POP3 server variations and RFC noncompliance that may be useful if
     you need to write an application based on the POP protocol.

* Menu:

* POP3 物件::
* POP3 範例::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/poplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html

   (5) http://www.catb.org/~esr/fetchmail/fetchmail-FAQ.html


File: python.info,  Node: POP3 物件,  Next: POP3 範例,  Up: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端

5.21.12.1 POP3 物件
...................

All POP3 commands are represented by methods of the same name, in
lowercase; most return the response text sent by the server.

A *note POP3: 762. instance has the following methods:

 -- 方法: POP3.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the instance's debugging level.  This controls the amount of
     debugging output printed.  The default, ‘0’, produces no debugging
     output.  A value of ‘1’ produces a moderate amount of debugging
     output, generally a single line per request.  A value of ‘2’ or
     higher produces the maximum amount of debugging output, logging
     each line sent and received on the control connection.

 -- 方法: POP3.getwelcome ()

     Returns the greeting string sent by the POP3 server.

 -- 方法: POP3.capa ()

     Query the server's capabilities as specified in RFC 2449(1).
     Returns a dictionary in the form ‘{'name': ['param'...]}’.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 方法: POP3.user (username)

     Send user command, response should indicate that a password is
     required.

 -- 方法: POP3.pass_ (password)

     Send password, response includes message count and mailbox size.
     Note: the mailbox on the server is locked until *note quit(): 102e.
     is called.

 -- 方法: POP3.apop (user, secret)

     Use the more secure APOP authentication to log into the POP3
     server.

 -- 方法: POP3.rpop (user)

     Use RPOP authentication (similar to UNIX r-commands) to log into
     POP3 server.

 -- 方法: POP3.stat ()

     Get mailbox status.  The result is a tuple of 2 integers: ‘(message
     count, mailbox size)’.

 -- 方法: POP3.list ([which])

     Request message list, result is in the form ‘(response, ['mesg_num
     octets', ...], octets)’.  If 'which' is set, it is the message to
     list.

 -- 方法: POP3.retr (which)

     Retrieve whole message number 'which', and set its seen flag.
     Result is in form ‘(response, ['line', ...], octets)’.

 -- 方法: POP3.dele (which)

     Flag message number 'which' for deletion.  On most servers
     deletions are not actually performed until QUIT (the major
     exception is Eudora QPOP, which deliberately violates the RFCs by
     doing pending deletes on any disconnect).

 -- 方法: POP3.rset ()

     Remove any deletion marks for the mailbox.

 -- 方法: POP3.noop ()

     Do nothing.  Might be used as a keep-alive.

 -- 方法: POP3.quit ()

     Signoff: commit changes, unlock mailbox, drop connection.

 -- 方法: POP3.top (which, howmuch)

     Retrieves the message header plus 'howmuch' lines of the message
     after the header of message number 'which'.  Result is in form
     ‘(response, ['line', ...], octets)’.

     The POP3 TOP command this method uses, unlike the RETR command,
     doesn't set the message's seen flag; unfortunately, TOP is poorly
     specified in the RFCs and is frequently broken in off-brand
     servers.  Test this method by hand against the POP3 servers you
     will use before trusting it.

 -- 方法: POP3.uidl (which=None)

     Return message digest (unique id) list.  If 'which' is specified,
     result contains the unique id for that message in the form
     ‘'response mesgnum uid’, otherwise result is list ‘(response,
     ['mesgnum uid', ...], octets)’.

 -- 方法: POP3.utf8 ()

     Try to switch to UTF-8 mode.  Returns the server response if
     successful, raises *note error_proto: 102f. if not.  Specified in
     RFC 6856(2).

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 方法: POP3.stls (context=None)

     Start a TLS session on the active connection as specified in RFC
     2595(3).  This is only allowed before user authentication

     'context' parameter is a *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. object which
     allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private
     keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read
     *note Security considerations: 301e. for best practices.

     This method supports hostname checking via *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3141. and 'Server Name Indication'
     (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3153.).

     在 3.4 版被加入.

Instances of *note POP3_SSL: 763. have no additional methods.  The
interface of this subclass is identical to its parent.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2449.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html


File: python.info,  Node: POP3 範例,  Prev: POP3 物件,  Up: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端

5.21.12.2 POP3 範例
...................

Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox
and retrieves and prints all messages:

     import getpass, poplib

     M = poplib.POP3('localhost')
     M.user(getpass.getuser())
     M.pass_(getpass.getpass())
     numMessages = len(M.list()[1])
     for i in range(numMessages):
         for j in M.retr(i+1)[1]:
             print(j)

At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more
extensive example of usage.


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端,  Next: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端,  Prev: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.13 ‘imaplib’ -- IMAP4 協定客戶端
-------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/imaplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines three classes, *note IMAP4: 73e, *note IMAP4_SSL:
73f. and *note IMAP4_stream: 741, which encapsulate a connection to an
IMAP4 server and implement a large subset of the IMAP4rev1 client
protocol as defined in RFC 2060(2).  It is backward compatible with
IMAP4 ( RFC 1730(3)) servers, but note that the ‘STATUS’ command is not
supported in IMAP4.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

Three classes are provided by the *note imaplib: 6f. module, *note
IMAP4: 73e. is the base class:

 -- 類別: imaplib.IMAP4 (host='', port=IMAP4_PORT, timeout=None)

     This class implements the actual IMAP4 protocol.  The connection is
     created and protocol version (IMAP4 or IMAP4rev1) is determined
     when the instance is initialized.  If 'host' is not specified, ‘''’
     (the local host) is used.  If 'port' is omitted, the standard IMAP4
     port (143) is used.  The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a
     timeout in seconds for the connection attempt.  If timeout is not
     given or is ‘None’, the global default socket timeout is used.

     The *note IMAP4: 73e. class supports the *note with: 3c5.
     statement.  When used like this, the IMAP4 ‘LOGOUT’ command is
     issued automatically when the ‘with’ statement exits.  E.g.:

          >>> from imaplib import IMAP4
          >>> with IMAP4("domain.org") as M:
          ...     M.noop()
          ...
          ('OK', [b'Nothing Accomplished. d25if65hy903weo.87'])

     在 3.5 版的變更: Support for the *note with: 3c5. statement was
     added.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'timeout' 選用參數。

Three exceptions are defined as attributes of the *note IMAP4: 73e.
class:

 -- 例外: IMAP4.error

     Exception raised on any errors.  The reason for the exception is
     passed to the constructor as a string.

 -- 例外: IMAP4.abort

     IMAP4 server errors cause this exception to be raised.  This is a
     sub-class of *note IMAP4.error: 3780.  Note that closing the
     instance and instantiating a new one will usually allow recovery
     from this exception.

 -- 例外: IMAP4.readonly

     This exception is raised when a writable mailbox has its status
     changed by the server.  This is a sub-class of *note IMAP4.error:
     3780.  Some other client now has write permission, and the mailbox
     will need to be re-opened to re-obtain write permission.

There's also a subclass for secure connections:

 -- 類別: imaplib.IMAP4_SSL (host='', port=IMAP4_SSL_PORT, *,
          ssl_context=None, timeout=None)

     This is a subclass derived from *note IMAP4: 73e. that connects
     over an SSL encrypted socket (to use this class you need a socket
     module that was compiled with SSL support).  If 'host' is not
     specified, ‘''’ (the local host) is used.  If 'port' is omitted,
     the standard IMAP4-over-SSL port (993) is used.  'ssl_context' is a
     *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. object which allows bundling SSL
     configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single
     (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read *note Security
     considerations: 301e. for best practices.

     The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for
     the connection attempt.  If timeout is not given or is ‘None’, the
     global default socket timeout is used.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'ssl_context' 參數。

     在 3.4 版的變更: The class now supports hostname check with *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3141. and 'Server Name Indication'
     (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3153.).

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'timeout' 選用參數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

The second subclass allows for connections created by a child process:

 -- 類別: imaplib.IMAP4_stream (command)

     This is a subclass derived from *note IMAP4: 73e. that connects to
     the ‘stdin/stdout’ file descriptors created by passing 'command' to
     ‘subprocess.Popen()’.

The following utility functions are defined:

 -- 函式: imaplib.Internaldate2tuple (datestr)

     Parse an IMAP4 ‘INTERNALDATE’ string and return corresponding local
     time.  The return value is a *note time.struct_time: b58. tuple or
     ‘None’ if the string has wrong format.

 -- 函式: imaplib.Int2AP (num)

     Converts an integer into a bytes representation using characters
     from the set [‘A’ ..  ‘P’].

 -- 函式: imaplib.ParseFlags (flagstr)

     Converts an IMAP4 ‘FLAGS’ response to a tuple of individual flags.

 -- 函式: imaplib.Time2Internaldate (date_time)

     Convert 'date_time' to an IMAP4 ‘INTERNALDATE’ representation.  The
     return value is a string in the form: ‘"DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS
     +HHMM"’ (including double-quotes).  The 'date_time' argument can be
     a number (int or float) representing seconds since epoch (as
     returned by *note time.time(): 936.), a 9-tuple representing local
     time an instance of *note time.struct_time: b58. (as returned by
     *note time.localtime(): 1370.), an aware instance of *note
     datetime.datetime: 224, or a double-quoted string.  In the last
     case, it is assumed to already be in the correct format.

Note that IMAP4 message numbers change as the mailbox changes; in
particular, after an ‘EXPUNGE’ command performs deletions the remaining
messages are renumbered.  So it is highly advisable to use UIDs instead,
with the UID command.

At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more
extensive example of usage.

也參考
......

Documents describing the protocol, sources for servers implementing it,
by the University of Washington's IMAP Information Center can all be
found at ('Source Code') ‘https://github.com/uw-imap/imap’ ('Not
Maintained').

* Menu:

* IMAP4 物件::
* IMAP4 範例::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/imaplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1730.html


File: python.info,  Node: IMAP4 物件,  Next: IMAP4 範例,  Up: imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端

5.21.13.1 IMAP4 物件
....................

All IMAP4rev1 commands are represented by methods of the same name,
either uppercase or lowercase.

All arguments to commands are converted to strings, except for
‘AUTHENTICATE’, and the last argument to ‘APPEND’ which is passed as an
IMAP4 literal.  If necessary (the string contains IMAP4
protocol-sensitive characters and isn't enclosed with either parentheses
or double quotes) each string is quoted.  However, the 'password'
argument to the ‘LOGIN’ command is always quoted.  If you want to avoid
having an argument string quoted (eg: the 'flags' argument to ‘STORE’)
then enclose the string in parentheses (eg: ‘r'(\Deleted)'’).

Each command returns a tuple: ‘(type, [data, ...])’ where 'type' is
usually ‘'OK'’ or ‘'NO'’, and 'data' is either the text from the command
response, or mandated results from the command.  Each 'data' is either a
‘bytes’, or a tuple.  If a tuple, then the first part is the header of
the response, and the second part contains the data (ie: 'literal'
value).

The 'message_set' options to commands below is a string specifying one
or more messages to be acted upon.  It may be a simple message number
(‘'1'’), a range of message numbers (‘'2:4'’), or a group of
non-contiguous ranges separated by commas (‘'1:3,6:9'’).  A range can
contain an asterisk to indicate an infinite upper bound (‘'3:*'’).

An *note IMAP4: 73e. instance has the following methods:

 -- 方法: IMAP4.append (mailbox, flags, date_time, message)

     Append 'message' to named mailbox.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.authenticate (mechanism, authobject)

     Authenticate command -- requires response processing.

     'mechanism' specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used
     - it should appear in the instance variable ‘capabilities’ in the
     form ‘AUTH=mechanism’.

     'authobject' must be a callable object:

          data = authobject(response)

     It will be called to process server continuation responses; the
     'response' argument it is passed will be ‘bytes’.  It should return
     ‘bytes’ 'data' that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server.
     It should return ‘None’ if the client abort response ‘*’ should be
     sent instead.

     在 3.5 版的變更: string usernames and passwords are now encoded to
     ‘utf-8’ instead of being limited to ASCII.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.check ()

     Checkpoint mailbox on server.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.close ()

     Close currently selected mailbox.  Deleted messages are removed
     from writable mailbox.  This is the recommended command before
     ‘LOGOUT’.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.copy (message_set, new_mailbox)

     Copy 'message_set' messages onto end of 'new_mailbox'.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.create (mailbox)

     Create new mailbox named 'mailbox'.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.delete (mailbox)

     Delete old mailbox named 'mailbox'.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.deleteacl (mailbox, who)

     Delete the ACLs (remove any rights) set for who on mailbox.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.enable (capability)

     Enable 'capability' (see RFC 5161(1)).  Most capabilities do not
     need to be enabled.  Currently only the ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability is
     supported (see RFC 6855(2)).

     在 3.5 版被加入: The *note enable(): c85. method itself, and RFC
     6855(3) support.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.expunge ()

     Permanently remove deleted items from selected mailbox.  Generates
     an ‘EXPUNGE’ response for each deleted message.  Returned data
     contains a list of ‘EXPUNGE’ message numbers in order received.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.fetch (message_set, message_parts)

     Fetch (parts of) messages.  'message_parts' should be a string of
     message part names enclosed within parentheses, eg: ‘"(UID
     BODY[TEXT])"’.  Returned data are tuples of message part envelope
     and data.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.getacl (mailbox)

     Get the ‘ACL’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but is
     supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.getannotation (mailbox, entry, attribute)

     Retrieve the specified ‘ANNOTATION’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is
     non-standard, but is supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.getquota (root)

     Get the ‘quota’ 'root"s resource usage and limits.  This method is
     part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.getquotaroot (mailbox)

     Get the list of ‘quota’ ‘roots’ for the named 'mailbox'.  This
     method is part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.list ([directory[, pattern]])

     List mailbox names in 'directory' matching 'pattern'.  'directory'
     defaults to the top-level mail folder, and 'pattern' defaults to
     match anything.  Returned data contains a list of ‘LIST’ responses.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.login (user, password)

     Identify the client using a plaintext password.  The 'password'
     will be quoted.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.login_cram_md5 (user, password)

     Force use of ‘CRAM-MD5’ authentication when identifying the client
     to protect the password.  Will only work if the server ‘CAPABILITY’
     response includes the phrase ‘AUTH=CRAM-MD5’.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.logout ()

     Shutdown connection to server.  Returns server ‘BYE’ response.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The method no longer ignores silently arbitrary
     exceptions.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.lsub (directory='""', pattern='*')

     List subscribed mailbox names in directory matching pattern.
     'directory' defaults to the top level directory and 'pattern'
     defaults to match any mailbox.  Returned data are tuples of message
     part envelope and data.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.myrights (mailbox)

     Show my ACLs for a mailbox (i.e.  the rights that I have on
     mailbox).

 -- 方法: IMAP4.namespace ()

     Returns IMAP namespaces as defined in RFC 2342(4).

 -- 方法: IMAP4.noop ()

     Send ‘NOOP’ to server.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.open (host, port, timeout=None)

     Opens socket to 'port' at 'host'.  The optional 'timeout' parameter
     specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt.  If
     timeout is not given or is ‘None’, the global default socket
     timeout is used.  Also note that if the 'timeout' parameter is set
     to be zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 183. to reject
     creating a non-blocking socket.  This method is implicitly called
     by the *note IMAP4: 73e. constructor.  The connection objects
     established by this method will be used in the *note IMAP4.read():
     379e, *note IMAP4.readline(): 379f, *note IMAP4.send(): 37a0, and
     *note IMAP4.shutdown(): 37a1. methods.  You may override this
     method.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘host’、‘port’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘imaplib.open’。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'timeout' 參數。

 -- 方法: IMAP4.partial (message_num, message_part, start, length)

     Fetch truncated part of a message.  Returned data is a tuple of
     message part envelope and data.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.proxyauth (user)

     Assume authentication as 'user'.  Allows an authorised
     administrator to proxy into any user's mailbox.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.read (size)

     Reads 'size' bytes from the remote server.  You may override this
     method.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.readline ()

     Reads one line from the remote server.  You may override this
     method.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.recent ()

     Prompt server for an update.  Returned data is ‘None’ if no new
     messages, else value of ‘RECENT’ response.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.rename (oldmailbox, newmailbox)

     Rename mailbox named 'oldmailbox' to 'newmailbox'.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.response (code)

     Return data for response 'code' if received, or ‘None’.  Returns
     the given code, instead of the usual type.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.search (charset, criterion[, ...])

     Search mailbox for matching messages.  'charset' may be ‘None’, in
     which case no ‘CHARSET’ will be specified in the request to the
     server.  The IMAP protocol requires that at least one criterion be
     specified; an exception will be raised when the server returns an
     error.  'charset' must be ‘None’ if the ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability
     was enabled using the *note enable(): c85. command.

     範例：

          # M is a connected IMAP4 instance...
          typ, msgnums = M.search(None, 'FROM', '"LDJ"')

          # or:
          typ, msgnums = M.search(None, '(FROM "LDJ")')

 -- 方法: IMAP4.select (mailbox='INBOX', readonly=False)

     Select a mailbox.  Returned data is the count of messages in
     'mailbox' (‘EXISTS’ response).  The default 'mailbox' is ‘'INBOX'’.
     If the 'readonly' flag is set, modifications to the mailbox are not
     allowed.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.send (data)

     Sends ‘data’ to the remote server.  You may override this method.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘data’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘imaplib.send’。

 -- 方法: IMAP4.setacl (mailbox, who, what)

     Set an ‘ACL’ for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but is
     supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.setannotation (mailbox, entry, attribute[, ...])

     Set ‘ANNOTATION’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but
     is supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.setquota (root, limits)

     Set the ‘quota’ 'root"s resource 'limits'.  This method is part of
     the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.shutdown ()

     Close connection established in ‘open’.  This method is implicitly
     called by *note IMAP4.logout(): 3799.  You may override this
     method.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.socket ()

     Returns socket instance used to connect to server.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.sort (sort_criteria, charset, search_criterion[, ...])

     The ‘sort’ command is a variant of ‘search’ with sorting semantics
     for the results.  Returned data contains a space separated list of
     matching message numbers.

     Sort has two arguments before the 'search_criterion' argument(s); a
     parenthesized list of 'sort_criteria', and the searching 'charset'.
     Note that unlike ‘search’, the searching 'charset' argument is
     mandatory.  There is also a ‘uid sort’ command which corresponds to
     ‘sort’ the way that ‘uid search’ corresponds to ‘search’.  The
     ‘sort’ command first searches the mailbox for messages that match
     the given searching criteria using the charset argument for the
     interpretation of strings in the searching criteria.  It then
     returns the numbers of matching messages.

     This is an ‘IMAP4rev1’ extension command.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.starttls (ssl_context=None)

     Send a ‘STARTTLS’ command.  The 'ssl_context' argument is optional
     and should be a *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. object.  This will
     enable encryption on the IMAP connection.  Please read *note
     Security considerations: 301e. for best practices.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The method now supports hostname check with *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3141. and 'Server Name Indication'
     (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3153.).

 -- 方法: IMAP4.status (mailbox, names)

     Request named status conditions for 'mailbox'.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.store (message_set, command, flag_list)

     Alters flag dispositions for messages in mailbox.  'command' is
     specified by section 6.4.6 of RFC 2060(5) as being one of "FLAGS",
     "+FLAGS", or "-FLAGS", optionally with a suffix of ".SILENT".

     For example, to set the delete flag on all messages:

          typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
          for num in data[0].split():
             M.store(num, '+FLAGS', '\\Deleted')
          M.expunge()

          備註: Creating flags containing ']' (for example: "[test]")
          violates RFC 3501(6) (the IMAP protocol).  However, imaplib
          has historically allowed creation of such tags, and popular
          IMAP servers, such as Gmail, accept and produce such flags.
          There are non-Python programs which also create such tags.
          Although it is an RFC violation and IMAP clients and servers
          are supposed to be strict, imaplib nonetheless continues to
          allow such tags to be created for backward compatibility
          reasons, and as of Python 3.6, handles them if they are sent
          from the server, since this improves real-world compatibility.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.subscribe (mailbox)

     Subscribe to new mailbox.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.thread (threading_algorithm, charset, search_criterion[,
          ...])

     The ‘thread’ command is a variant of ‘search’ with threading
     semantics for the results.  Returned data contains a space
     separated list of thread members.

     Thread members consist of zero or more messages numbers, delimited
     by spaces, indicating successive parent and child.

     Thread has two arguments before the 'search_criterion' argument(s);
     a 'threading_algorithm', and the searching 'charset'.  Note that
     unlike ‘search’, the searching 'charset' argument is mandatory.
     There is also a ‘uid thread’ command which corresponds to ‘thread’
     the way that ‘uid search’ corresponds to ‘search’.  The ‘thread’
     command first searches the mailbox for messages that match the
     given searching criteria using the 'charset' argument for the
     interpretation of strings in the searching criteria.  It then
     returns the matching messages threaded according to the specified
     threading algorithm.

     This is an ‘IMAP4rev1’ extension command.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.uid (command, arg[, ...])

     Execute command args with messages identified by UID, rather than
     message number.  Returns response appropriate to command.  At least
     one argument must be supplied; if none are provided, the server
     will return an error and an exception will be raised.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.unsubscribe (mailbox)

     Unsubscribe from old mailbox.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.unselect ()

     *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 742. frees server's resources
     associated with the selected mailbox and returns the server to the
     authenticated state.  This command performs the same actions as
     *note imaplib.IMAP4.close(): 743, except that no messages are
     permanently removed from the currently selected mailbox.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 方法: IMAP4.xatom (name[, ...])

     Allow simple extension commands notified by server in ‘CAPABILITY’
     response.

The following attributes are defined on instances of *note IMAP4: 73e.:

 -- 屬性: IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION

     The most recent supported protocol in the ‘CAPABILITY’ response
     from the server.

 -- 屬性: IMAP4.debug

     Integer value to control debugging output.  The initialize value is
     taken from the module variable ‘Debug’.  Values greater than three
     trace each command.

 -- 屬性: IMAP4.utf8_enabled

     Boolean value that is normally ‘False’, but is set to ‘True’ if an
     *note enable(): c85. command is successfully issued for the
     ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3501.html


File: python.info,  Node: IMAP4 範例,  Prev: IMAP4 物件,  Up: imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端

5.21.13.2 IMAP4 範例
....................

Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox
and retrieves and prints all messages:

     import getpass, imaplib

     M = imaplib.IMAP4(host='example.org')
     M.login(getpass.getuser(), getpass.getpass())
     M.select()
     typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
     for num in data[0].split():
         typ, data = M.fetch(num, '(RFC822)')
         print('Message %s\n%s\n' % (num, data[0][1]))
     M.close()
     M.logout()


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端,  Next: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件,  Prev: imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.14 ‘smtplib’ -- SMTP 協定用戶端
------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/smtplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note smtplib: c4. module defines an SMTP client session object that
can be used to send mail to any internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP
listener daemon.  For details of SMTP and ESMTP operation, consult RFC
821(2) (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) and RFC 1869(3) (SMTP Service
Extensions).

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

 -- 類別: smtplib.SMTP (host='', port=0, local_hostname=None[, timeout],
          source_address=None)

     An *note SMTP: 76c. instance encapsulates an SMTP connection.  It
     has methods that support a full repertoire of SMTP and ESMTP
     operations.  If the optional 'host' and 'port' parameters are
     given, the SMTP *note connect(): 17a7. method is called with those
     parameters during initialization.  If specified, 'local_hostname'
     is used as the FQDN of the local host in the HELO/EHLO command.
     Otherwise, the local hostname is found using *note
     socket.getfqdn(): 1545.  If the *note connect(): 17a7. call returns
     anything other than a success code, an *note SMTPConnectError:
     37bb. is raised.  The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a
     timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection
     attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will
     be used).  If the timeout expires, *note TimeoutError: 65b. is
     raised.  The optional 'source_address' parameter allows binding to
     some specific source address in a machine with multiple network
     interfaces, and/or to some specific source TCP port.  It takes a
     2-tuple ‘(host, port)’, for the socket to bind to as its source
     address before connecting.  If omitted (or if 'host' or 'port' are
     ‘''’ and/or ‘0’ respectively) the OS default behavior will be used.

     For normal use, you should only require the initialization/connect,
     *note sendmail(): cd5, and *note SMTP.quit(): 37bc. methods.  An
     example is included below.

     The *note SMTP: 76c. class supports the *note with: 3c5. statement.
     When used like this, the SMTP ‘QUIT’ command is issued
     automatically when the ‘with’ statement exits.  E.g.:

          >>> from smtplib import SMTP
          >>> with SMTP("domain.org") as smtp:
          ...     smtp.noop()
          ...
          (250, b'Ok')
          >>>

     所有指令都會引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘data’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘smtplib.SMTP.send’，其中 ‘data’ 為即將傳送至遠端的位元組。

     在 3.3 版的變更: Support for the *note with: 3c5. statement was
     added.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 source_address 引數。

     在 3.5 版被加入: The SMTPUTF8 extension ( RFC 6531(4)) is now
     supported.

     在 3.9 版的變更: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be zero, it
     will raise a *note ValueError: 183. to prevent the creation of a
     non-blocking socket.

 -- 類別: smtplib.SMTP_SSL (host='', port=0, local_hostname=None, *[,
          timeout], context=None, source_address=None)

     An *note SMTP_SSL: 76d. instance behaves exactly the same as
     instances of *note SMTP: 76c.  *note SMTP_SSL: 76d. should be used
     for situations where SSL is required from the beginning of the
     connection and using ‘starttls()’ is not appropriate.  If 'host' is
     not specified, the local host is used.  If 'port' is zero, the
     standard SMTP-over-SSL port (465) is used.  The optional arguments
     'local_hostname', 'timeout' and 'source_address' have the same
     meaning as they do in the *note SMTP: 76c. class.  'context', also
     optional, can contain a *note SSLContext: 26f. and allows
     configuring various aspects of the secure connection.  Please read
     *note Security considerations: 301e. for best practices.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'context'。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'source_address' 引數。

     在 3.4 版的變更: The class now supports hostname check with *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3141. and 'Server Name Indication'
     (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3153.).

     在 3.9 版的變更: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be zero, it
     will raise a *note ValueError: 183. to prevent the creation of a
     non-blocking socket

     在 3.12 版的變更: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

 -- 類別: smtplib.LMTP (host='', port=LMTP_PORT, local_hostname=None,
          source_address=None[, timeout])

     The LMTP protocol, which is very similar to ESMTP, is heavily based
     on the standard SMTP client.  It's common to use Unix sockets for
     LMTP, so our ‘connect()’ method must support that as well as a
     regular host:port server.  The optional arguments 'local_hostname'
     and 'source_address' have the same meaning as they do in the *note
     SMTP: 76c. class.  To specify a Unix socket, you must use an
     absolute path for 'host', starting with a '/'.

     Authentication is supported, using the regular SMTP mechanism.
     When using a Unix socket, LMTP generally don't support or require
     any authentication, but your mileage might vary.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'timeout' 選用參數。

A nice selection of exceptions is defined as well:

 -- 例外: smtplib.SMTPException

     Subclass of *note OSError: 644. that is the base exception class
     for all the other exceptions provided by this module.

     在 3.4 版的變更: SMTPException became subclass of *note OSError:
     644.

 -- 例外: smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected

     This exception is raised when the server unexpectedly disconnects,
     or when an attempt is made to use the *note SMTP: 76c. instance
     before connecting it to a server.

 -- 例外: smtplib.SMTPResponseException

     Base class for all exceptions that include an SMTP error code.
     These exceptions are generated in some instances when the SMTP
     server returns an error code.  The error code is stored in the
     ‘smtp_code’ attribute of the error, and the ‘smtp_error’ attribute
     is set to the error message.

 -- 例外: smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused

     Sender address refused.  In addition to the attributes set by on
     all *note SMTPResponseException: 37be. exceptions, this sets
     'sender' to the string that the SMTP server refused.

 -- 例外: smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused

     All recipient addresses refused.  The errors for each recipient are
     accessible through the attribute ‘recipients’, which is a
     dictionary of exactly the same sort as *note SMTP.sendmail(): cd5.
     returns.

 -- 例外: smtplib.SMTPDataError

     The SMTP server refused to accept the message data.

 -- 例外: smtplib.SMTPConnectError

     Error occurred during establishment of a connection with the
     server.

 -- 例外: smtplib.SMTPHeloError

     The server refused our ‘HELO’ message.

 -- 例外: smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError

     The command or option attempted is not supported by the server.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 例外: smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError

     SMTP authentication went wrong.  Most probably the server didn't
     accept the username/password combination provided.

也參考
......

RFC 821(5) - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

     Protocol definition for SMTP. This document covers the model,
     operating procedure, and protocol details for SMTP.

RFC 1869(6) - SMTP Service Extensions

     Definition of the ESMTP extensions for SMTP. This describes a
     framework for extending SMTP with new commands, supporting dynamic
     discovery of the commands provided by the server, and defines a few
     additional commands.

* Menu:

* SMTP 物件::
* SMTP 範例::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/smtplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html


File: python.info,  Node: SMTP 物件,  Next: SMTP 範例,  Up: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端

5.21.14.1 SMTP 物件
...................

An *note SMTP: 76c. instance has the following methods:

 -- 方法: SMTP.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the debug output level.  A value of 1 or ‘True’ for 'level'
     results in debug messages for connection and for all messages sent
     to and received from the server.  A value of 2 for 'level' results
     in these messages being timestamped.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Added debuglevel 2.

 -- 方法: SMTP.docmd (cmd, args='')

     Send a command 'cmd' to the server.  The optional argument 'args'
     is simply concatenated to the command, separated by a space.

     This returns a 2-tuple composed of a numeric response code and the
     actual response line (multiline responses are joined into one long
     line.)

     In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method
     explicitly.  It is used to implement other methods and may be
     useful for testing private extensions.

     If the connection to the server is lost while waiting for the
     reply, *note SMTPServerDisconnected: 37bd. will be raised.

 -- 方法: SMTP.connect (host='localhost', port=0)

     Connect to a host on a given port.  The defaults are to connect to
     the local host at the standard SMTP port (25).  If the hostname
     ends with a colon (‘':'’) followed by a number, that suffix will be
     stripped off and the number interpreted as the port number to use.
     This method is automatically invoked by the constructor if a host
     is specified during instantiation.  Returns a 2-tuple of the
     response code and message sent by the server in its connection
     response.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘host’、‘port’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘smtplib.connect’。

 -- 方法: SMTP.helo (name='')

     Identify yourself to the SMTP server using ‘HELO’.  The hostname
     argument defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local
     host.  The message returned by the server is stored as the
     ‘helo_resp’ attribute of the object.

     In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method
     explicitly.  It will be implicitly called by the *note sendmail():
     cd5. when necessary.

 -- 方法: SMTP.ehlo (name='')

     Identify yourself to an ESMTP server using ‘EHLO’.  The hostname
     argument defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local
     host.  Examine the response for ESMTP option and store them for use
     by *note has_extn(): 37c9.  Also sets several informational
     attributes: the message returned by the server is stored as the
     ‘ehlo_resp’ attribute, ‘does_esmtp’ is set to ‘True’ or ‘False’
     depending on whether the server supports ESMTP, and
     ‘esmtp_features’ will be a dictionary containing the names of the
     SMTP service extensions this server supports, and their parameters
     (if any).

     Unless you wish to use *note has_extn(): 37c9. before sending mail,
     it should not be necessary to call this method explicitly.  It will
     be implicitly called by *note sendmail(): cd5. when necessary.

 -- 方法: SMTP.ehlo_or_helo_if_needed ()

     This method calls *note ehlo(): 37c8. and/or *note helo(): 37c7. if
     there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this session.
     It tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.

     *note SMTPHeloError: 37c2.

          The server didn't reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

 -- 方法: SMTP.has_extn (name)

     Return *note True: a70. if 'name' is in the set of SMTP service
     extensions returned by the server, *note False: 98f. otherwise.
     Case is ignored.

 -- 方法: SMTP.verify (address)

     Check the validity of an address on this server using SMTP ‘VRFY’.
     Returns a tuple consisting of code 250 and a full RFC 822(1)
     address (including human name) if the user address is valid.
     Otherwise returns an SMTP error code of 400 or greater and an error
     string.

          備註: Many sites disable SMTP ‘VRFY’ in order to foil
          spammers.

 -- 方法: SMTP.login (user, password, *, initial_response_ok=True)

     Log in on an SMTP server that requires authentication.  The
     arguments are the username and the password to authenticate with.
     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.  This method will
     return normally if the authentication was successful, or may raise
     the following exceptions:

     *note SMTPHeloError: 37c2.

          The server didn't reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPAuthenticationError: 37c3.

          The server didn't accept the username/password combination.

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 17a6.

          The ‘AUTH’ command is not supported by the server.

     *note SMTPException: e2d.

          No suitable authentication method was found.

     Each of the authentication methods supported by *note smtplib: c4.
     are tried in turn if they are advertised as supported by the
     server.  See *note auth(): cd3. for a list of supported
     authentication methods.  'initial_response_ok' is passed through to
     *note auth(): cd3.

     Optional keyword argument 'initial_response_ok' specifies whether,
     for authentication methods that support it, an "initial response"
     as specified in RFC 4954(2) can be sent along with the ‘AUTH’
     command, rather than requiring a challenge/response.

     在 3.5 版的變更: *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 17a6. may be raised,
     and the 'initial_response_ok' parameter was added.

 -- 方法: SMTP.auth (mechanism, authobject, *, initial_response_ok=True)

     Issue an ‘SMTP’ ‘AUTH’ command for the specified authentication
     'mechanism', and handle the challenge response via 'authobject'.

     'mechanism' specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used
     as argument to the ‘AUTH’ command; the valid values are those
     listed in the ‘auth’ element of ‘esmtp_features’.

     'authobject' must be a callable object taking an optional single
     argument:

          data = authobject(challenge=None)

     If optional keyword argument 'initial_response_ok' is true,
     ‘authobject()’ will be called first with no argument.  It can
     return the RFC 4954(3) "initial response" ASCII ‘str’ which will be
     encoded and sent with the ‘AUTH’ command as below.  If the
     ‘authobject()’ does not support an initial response (e.g.  because
     it requires a challenge), it should return ‘None’ when called with
     ‘challenge=None’.  If 'initial_response_ok' is false, then
     ‘authobject()’ will not be called first with ‘None’.

     If the initial response check returns ‘None’, or if
     'initial_response_ok' is false, ‘authobject()’ will be called to
     process the server's challenge response; the 'challenge' argument
     it is passed will be a ‘bytes’.  It should return ASCII ‘str’
     'data' that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server.

     The ‘SMTP’ class provides ‘authobjects’ for the ‘CRAM-MD5’,
     ‘PLAIN’, and ‘LOGIN’ mechanisms; they are named
     ‘SMTP.auth_cram_md5’, ‘SMTP.auth_plain’, and ‘SMTP.auth_login’
     respectively.  They all require that the ‘user’ and ‘password’
     properties of the ‘SMTP’ instance are set to appropriate values.

     User code does not normally need to call ‘auth’ directly, but can
     instead call the *note login(): 37cc. method, which will try each
     of the above mechanisms in turn, in the order listed.  ‘auth’ is
     exposed to facilitate the implementation of authentication methods
     not (or not yet) supported directly by *note smtplib: c4.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 方法: SMTP.starttls (*, context=None)

     Put the SMTP connection in TLS (Transport Layer Security) mode.
     All SMTP commands that follow will be encrypted.  You should then
     call *note ehlo(): 37c8. again.

     If 'keyfile' and 'certfile' are provided, they are used to create
     an *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f.

     Optional 'context' parameter is an *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f.
     object; This is an alternative to using a keyfile and a certfile
     and if specified both 'keyfile' and 'certfile' should be ‘None’.

     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

     *note SMTPHeloError: 37c2.

          The server didn't reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 17a6.

          The server does not support the STARTTLS extension.

     *note RuntimeError: 17a.

          SSL/TLS support is not available to your Python interpreter.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'context'。

     在 3.4 版的變更: The method now supports hostname check with
     ‘SSLContext.check_hostname’ and 'Server Name Indicator' (see *note
     HAS_SNI: 3153.).

     在 3.5 版的變更: The error raised for lack of STARTTLS support is
     now the *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 17a6. subclass instead of the
     base *note SMTPException: e2d.

 -- 方法: SMTP.sendmail (from_addr, to_addrs, msg, mail_options=(),
          rcpt_options=())

     Send mail.  The required arguments are an RFC 822(4) from-address
     string, a list of RFC 822(5) to-address strings (a bare string will
     be treated as a list with 1 address), and a message string.  The
     caller may pass a list of ESMTP options (such as ‘8bitmime’) to be
     used in ‘MAIL FROM’ commands as 'mail_options'.  ESMTP options
     (such as ‘DSN’ commands) that should be used with all ‘RCPT’
     commands can be passed as 'rcpt_options'.  (If you need to use
     different ESMTP options to different recipients you have to use the
     low-level methods such as ‘mail()’, ‘rcpt()’ and ‘data()’ to send
     the message.)

          備註: The 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' parameters are used to
          construct the message envelope used by the transport agents.
          ‘sendmail’ does not modify the message headers in any way.

     'msg' may be a string containing characters in the ASCII range, or
     a byte string.  A string is encoded to bytes using the ascii codec,
     and lone ‘\r’ and ‘\n’ characters are converted to ‘\r\n’
     characters.  A byte string is not modified.

     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.  If the server does
     ESMTP, message size and each of the specified options will be
     passed to it (if the option is in the feature set the server
     advertises).  If ‘EHLO’ fails, ‘HELO’ will be tried and ESMTP
     options suppressed.

     This method will return normally if the mail is accepted for at
     least one recipient.  Otherwise it will raise an exception.  That
     is, if this method does not raise an exception, then someone should
     get your mail.  If this method does not raise an exception, it
     returns a dictionary, with one entry for each recipient that was
     refused.  Each entry contains a tuple of the SMTP error code and
     the accompanying error message sent by the server.

     If ‘SMTPUTF8’ is included in 'mail_options', and the server
     supports it, 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' may contain non-ASCII
     characters.

     This method may raise the following exceptions:

     *note SMTPRecipientsRefused: 37c0.

          All recipients were refused.  Nobody got the mail.  The
          ‘recipients’ attribute of the exception object is a dictionary
          with information about the refused recipients (like the one
          returned when at least one recipient was accepted).

     *note SMTPHeloError: 37c2.

          The server didn't reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPSenderRefused: 37bf.

          The server didn't accept the 'from_addr'.

     *note SMTPDataError: 37c1.

          The server replied with an unexpected error code (other than a
          refusal of a recipient).

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 17a6.

          ‘SMTPUTF8’ was given in the 'mail_options' but is not
          supported by the server.

     Unless otherwise noted, the connection will be open even after an
     exception is raised.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 'msg' may be a byte string.

     在 3.5 版的變更: ‘SMTPUTF8’ support added, and *note
     SMTPNotSupportedError: 17a6. may be raised if ‘SMTPUTF8’ is
     specified but the server does not support it.

 -- 方法: SMTP.send_message (msg, from_addr=None, to_addrs=None,
          mail_options=(), rcpt_options=())

     This is a convenience method for calling *note sendmail(): cd5.
     with the message represented by an *note email.message.Message:
     b05. object.  The arguments have the same meaning as for *note
     sendmail(): cd5, except that 'msg' is a ‘Message’ object.

     If 'from_addr' is ‘None’ or 'to_addrs' is ‘None’, ‘send_message’
     fills those arguments with addresses extracted from the headers of
     'msg' as specified in RFC 5322(6): 'from_addr' is set to the
     ‘Sender’ field if it is present, and otherwise to the ‘From’ field.
     'to_addrs' combines the values (if any) of the ‘To’, ‘Cc’, and
     ‘Bcc’ fields from 'msg'.  If exactly one set of ‘Resent-*’ headers
     appear in the message, the regular headers are ignored and the
     ‘Resent-*’ headers are used instead.  If the message contains more
     than one set of ‘Resent-*’ headers, a *note ValueError: 183. is
     raised, since there is no way to unambiguously detect the most
     recent set of ‘Resent-’ headers.

     ‘send_message’ serializes 'msg' using *note BytesGenerator: 1060.
     with ‘\r\n’ as the 'linesep', and calls *note sendmail(): cd5. to
     transmit the resulting message.  Regardless of the values of
     'from_addr' and 'to_addrs', ‘send_message’ does not transmit any
     ‘Bcc’ or ‘Resent-Bcc’ headers that may appear in 'msg'.  If any of
     the addresses in 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' contain non-ASCII
     characters and the server does not advertise ‘SMTPUTF8’ support, an
     ‘SMTPNotSupported’ error is raised.  Otherwise the ‘Message’ is
     serialized with a clone of its *note policy: 4b. with the *note
     utf8: c70. attribute set to ‘True’, and ‘SMTPUTF8’ and
     ‘BODY=8BITMIME’ are added to 'mail_options'.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版被加入: Support for internationalized addresses
     (‘SMTPUTF8’).

 -- 方法: SMTP.quit ()

     Terminate the SMTP session and close the connection.  Return the
     result of the SMTP ‘QUIT’ command.

Low-level methods corresponding to the standard SMTP/ESMTP commands
‘HELP’, ‘RSET’, ‘NOOP’, ‘MAIL’, ‘RCPT’, and ‘DATA’ are also supported.
Normally these do not need to be called directly, so they are not
documented here.  For details, consult the module code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: SMTP 範例,  Prev: SMTP 物件,  Up: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端

5.21.14.2 SMTP 範例
...................

This example prompts the user for addresses needed in the message
envelope ('To' and 'From' addresses), and the message to be delivered.
Note that the headers to be included with the message must be included
in the message as entered; this example doesn't do any processing of the
RFC 822(1) headers.  In particular, the 'To' and 'From' addresses must
be included in the message headers explicitly:

     import smtplib

     def prompt(title):
         return input(title).strip()

     from_addr = prompt("From: ")
     to_addrs  = prompt("To: ").split()
     print("Enter message, end with ^D (Unix) or ^Z (Windows):")

     # Add the From: and To: headers at the start!
     lines = [f"From: {from_addr}", f"To: {', '.join(to_addrs)}", ""]
     while True:
         try:
             line = input()
         except EOFError:
             break
         else:
             lines.append(line)

     msg = "\r\n".join(lines)
     print("Message length is", len(msg))

     server = smtplib.SMTP("localhost")
     server.set_debuglevel(1)
     server.sendmail(from_addr, to_addrs, msg)
     server.quit()

     備註: In general, you will want to use the *note email: 37.
     package's features to construct an email message, which you can
     then send via *note send_message(): cd6.; see *note email：範例:
     dc9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件,  Next: socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架,  Prev: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.15 ‘uuid’ --
-----------------

'RFC 4122' 定義的 UUID 物件

'原始碼：'Lib/uuid.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

這個模組提供了不可變的 *note UUID: 8ac. 物件（*note UUID: 8ac. 類別）和
*note uuid1(): a09.、*note uuid3(): 150b.、*note uuid4(): 37d1.、*note
uuid5(): 150c. 等函式，用於生成 RFC 4122(2) 定義的第 1、3、4、5 版本的
UUID。

如果你只需要一個唯一的 ID，你應該呼叫 *note uuid1(): a09. 或 *note
uuid4(): 37d1.。需要注意的是，*note uuid1(): a09. 可能會危害隱私，因為它
會建立一個包含了電腦網路位址的 UUID。而 *note uuid4(): 37d1. 則會建立一
個隨機的 UUID。

根據底層平台的支援情況，*note uuid1(): a09. 可能會也可能不會回傳一個「安
全的」UUID。安全的 UUID 是使用同步方法生成的，以確保不會有兩個行程獲取到
相同的 UUID。所有 *note UUID: 8ac. 的實例都有一個 *note is_safe: a07. 屬
性，該屬性使用下面這個列舉來傳遞有關 UUID 安全性的任何資訊：

 -- 類別: uuid.SafeUUID

     在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: safe

          該 UUID 是由平台以多行程安全的 (multiprocessing-safe) 方式生成
          的。

      -- 屬性: unsafe

          該 UUID 不是以多行程安全的方式生成的。

      -- 屬性: unknown

          該平台不提供 UUID 是否為安全生成的資訊。

 -- 類別: uuid.UUID (hex=None, bytes=None, bytes_le=None, fields=None,
          int=None, version=None, *, is_safe=SafeUUID.unknown)

     從以下其中一種引數來建立 UUID：由 32 個十六進位的數字組成的字串、以
     大端順序 (big-endian) 排列的 16 個位元組組成的字串作為 'bytes' 引數
     、以小端順序 (little-endian) 排列的 16 個位元組組成的字串作為
     'bytes_le' 引數、由 6 個整數（32 位元的 'time_low'、16 位元的
     'time_mid'、16 位元的 'time_hi_version'、8 位元的
     'clock_seq_hi_variant'、8 位元的 'clock_seq_low'、48 位元的 'node'）
     組成的元組 (tuple) 作為 'fields' 引數，或者是單一的 128 位元整數作
     為 'int' 引數。當給定由十六進位的數字組成的字串時，大括號、連字符號
     和 URN 前綴都是可以選用的。例如，以下這些運算式都會產生相同的 UUID：

          UUID('{12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678}')
          UUID('12345678123456781234567812345678')
          UUID('urn:uuid:12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678')
          UUID(bytes=b'\x12\x34\x56\x78'*4)
          UUID(bytes_le=b'\x78\x56\x34\x12\x34\x12\x78\x56' +
                        b'\x12\x34\x56\x78\x12\x34\x56\x78')
          UUID(fields=(0x12345678, 0x1234, 0x5678, 0x12, 0x34, 0x567812345678))
          UUID(int=0x12345678123456781234567812345678)

     必須正好給定其中一個引數 'hex'、'bytes'、'bytes_le'、'fields' 或
     'int'。'version' 引數是選用的；如果給定了該引數，生成的 UUID 將根據
     RFC 4122(3) 設置其變體 (variant) 和版本號，覆蓋掉給定的 'hex'、
     'bytes'、'bytes_le'、'fields' 或 'int' 中的位元。

     UUID 物件之間的比較是透過比較它們的 *note UUID.int: 37d6. 屬性。與
     非 UUID 的物件進行比較會引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

     ‘str(uuid)’ 會回傳一個像是 ‘12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678’ 形
     式的字串，其中 32 個十六進位的數字代表 UUID。

*note UUID: 8ac. 實例有以下唯讀的屬性：

 -- 屬性: UUID.bytes

     UUID 以 16 位元組的字串表示（包含 6 個整數欄位，按照大端位元組順序
     排列）。

 -- 屬性: UUID.bytes_le

     UUID 以 16 位元組的字串表示（其中 'time_low'、'time_mid' 和
     'time_hi_version' 按照小端位元組順序排列）。

 -- 屬性: UUID.fields

     UUID 以 6 個整數欄位所組成的元組表示，也可以看作有 6 個個別屬性和 2
     個衍生屬性：

欄位                                                   意義
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: UUID.time_low                                UUID 的前 32 位元。
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: UUID.time_mid                                UUID 接下來的 16 位元。
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: UUID.time_hi_version                         UUID 接下來的 16 位元。
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: UUID.clock_seq_hi_variant                    UUID 接下來的 8 位元。
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: UUID.clock_seq_low                           UUID 接下來的 8 位元。
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: UUID.node                                    UUID 最後的 48 位元。
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: UUID.time                                    60 位元的時間戳。
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 屬性: UUID.clock_seq                               14 位元的序列號。
                                                       

 -- 屬性: UUID.hex

     UUID 以 32 個小寫十六進位字元組成的字串表示。

 -- 屬性: UUID.int

     UUID 以 128 位元的整數表示。

 -- 屬性: UUID.urn

     UUID 以 RFC 4122(4) 中指定的 URN 形式表示。

 -- 屬性: UUID.variant

     UUID 的變體，決定 UUID 內部的佈局 (layout)，是 *note RESERVED_NCS:
     37e5.、*note RFC_4122: 37e6.、*note RESERVED_MICROSOFT: 37e7. 或
     *note RESERVED_FUTURE: 37e8. 其中一個常數。

 -- 屬性: UUID.version

     UUID 的版本號（1 到 5，只有當變體是 *note RFC_4122: 37e6. 時才有意
     義）。

 -- 屬性: UUID.is_safe

     *note SafeUUID: 37d2. 的列舉，表示平台是否以多行程安全的方式產生
     UUID。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

*note uuid: 10b. 模組定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: uuid.getnode ()

     取得 48 位元正整數形式的硬體位址。第一次執行時，有可能會啟動一個獨
     立的程式，這也許會相當耗時。如果所有獲取硬體位址的嘗試都失敗，我們
     會根據 RFC 4122(5) 中的建議，使用一個 48 位元的隨機數，其中群播位元
     (multicast bit)（第一個八位元組的最低有效位）設置為 1。「硬體位址」
     指的是網路介面 (network interface) 的 MAC 位址。在具有多個網路介面
     的機器上，將優先選擇通用管理 (universally administered) 的 MAC 位址
     （即第一個八位元組的第二個最低有效位是 '未設置的'），而不是本地管理
     (locally administered) 的 MAC 位址，除此之外不保證任何選擇的順序。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 通用管理的 MAC 位址優於本地管理的 MAC 位址，因為前
     者保證是全球唯一的，而後者不是。

 -- 函式: uuid.uuid1 (node=None, clock_seq=None)

     從主機 ID、序列號和當前時間生成 UUID。如果未給定 'node'，將使用
     *note getnode(): a08. 獲取硬體位址。如果給定 'clock_seq'，會將其用
     作序列號；否則將使用一個隨機 14 位元的序列號。

 -- 函式: uuid.uuid3 (namespace, name)

     基於命名空間識別碼 (namespace identifier)（一個 UUID）和名稱（一個
     *note bytes: 2c1. 物件或使用 UTF-8 編碼的字串）的 MD5 hash 來生成
     UUID。

 -- 函式: uuid.uuid4 ()

     生成一個隨機的 UUID。

 -- 函式: uuid.uuid5 (namespace, name)

     基於命名空間識別碼（一個 UUID）和名稱（一個 *note bytes: 2c1. 物件
     或使用 UTF-8 編碼的字串）的 SHA-1 hash 來生成 UUID。

*note uuid: 10b. 模組為 *note uuid3(): 150b. 或 *note uuid5(): 150c. 定
義了以下的命名空間識別碼。

 -- 資料: uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS

     當指定這個命名空間時，'name' 字串是一個完整網域名稱 (fully
     qualified domain name)。

 -- 資料: uuid.NAMESPACE_URL

     當指定這個命名空間時，'name' 字串是一個 URL。

 -- 資料: uuid.NAMESPACE_OID

     當指定這個命名空間時，'name' 字串是一個 ISO OID。

 -- 資料: uuid.NAMESPACE_X500

     當指定這個命名空間時，'name' 字串是以 DER 或文字輸出格式表示的
     X.500 DN。

*note uuid: 10b. 模組為 *note variant: 37e4. 屬性的可能值定義了以下常數
：

 -- 資料: uuid.RESERVED_NCS

     保留供 NCS 相容性使用。

 -- 資料: uuid.RFC_4122

     使用在 RFC 4122(6) 中給定的 UUID 佈局。

 -- 資料: uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT

     保留供 Microsoft 相容性使用。

 -- 資料: uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE

     保留供未來定義使用。

也參考
......

RFC 4122(7) - 通用唯一辨識碼 (UUID, Universally Unique IDentifier) 的 URN 命名空間

     這個規範定義了 UUID 的統一資源名稱 (Uniform Resource Name) 命名空間
     、UUID 的內部格式和生成 UUID 的方法。

* Menu:

* 命令列的用法::
* 範例: 範例<36>.
* 命令列的範例::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/uuid.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列的用法,  Next: 範例<36>,  Up: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件

5.21.15.1 命令列的用法
......................

在 3.12 版被加入.

*note uuid: 10b. 模組可以在命令列下作為腳本來執行。

     python -m uuid [-h] [-u {uuid1,uuid3,uuid4,uuid5}] [-n NAMESPACE] [-N NAME]

可以接受以下選項：

 -- Option: -h, --help

     顯示幫助訊息並退出。

 -- Option: -u <uuid>
 -- Option: --uuid <uuid>

     指定要用來生成 UUID 的函式名稱。預設使用 *note uuid4(): 37d1.。

 -- Option: -n <namespace>
 -- Option: --namespace <namespace>

     該命名空間是一個 ‘UUID’ 或 ‘@ns’，其中 ‘ns’ 是指知名預定義 UUID 的
     命名空間名稱，例如 ‘@dns’、‘@url’、‘@oid’ 和 ‘@x500’。 只有 *note
     uuid3(): 150b. / *note uuid5(): 150c. 函式會需要。

 -- Option: -N <name>
 -- Option: --name <name>

     用於生成 uuid 的名稱。只有 *note uuid3(): 150b. / *note uuid5():
     150c. 函式會需要。


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<36>,  Next: 命令列的範例,  Prev: 命令列的用法,  Up: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件

5.21.15.2 範例
..............

以下是一些 *note uuid: 10b. 模組的典型使用範例：

     >>> import uuid

     >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
     >>> uuid.uuid1()
     UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

     >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
     >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
     UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

     >>> # make a random UUID
     >>> uuid.uuid4()
     UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

     >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
     >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
     UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

     >>> # make a UUID from a string of hex digits (braces and hyphens ignored)
     >>> x = uuid.UUID('{00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f}')

     >>> # convert a UUID to a string of hex digits in standard form
     >>> str(x)
     '00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f'

     >>> # get the raw 16 bytes of the UUID
     >>> x.bytes
     b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\t\n\x0b\x0c\r\x0e\x0f'

     >>> # make a UUID from a 16-byte string
     >>> uuid.UUID(bytes=x.bytes)
     UUID('00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f')


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列的範例,  Prev: 範例<36>,  Up: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件

5.21.15.3 命令列的範例
......................

以下是一些 *note uuid: 10b. 命令列介面的典型使用範例：

     # generate a random uuid - by default uuid4() is used
     $ python -m uuid

     # generate a uuid using uuid1()
     $ python -m uuid -u uuid1

     # generate a uuid using uuid5
     $ python -m uuid -u uuid5 -n @url -N example.com


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架,  Next: http server — HTTP 伺服器,  Prev: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.16 ‘socketserver’ -- 用於網路伺服器的框架
----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/socketserver.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note socketserver: c7. module simplifies the task of writing
network servers.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

There are four basic concrete server classes:

 -- 類別: socketserver.TCPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass,
          bind_and_activate=True)

     This uses the internet TCP protocol, which provides for continuous
     streams of data between the client and server.  If
     'bind_and_activate' is true, the constructor automatically attempts
     to invoke *note server_bind(): 37fd. and *note server_activate():
     37fe.  The other parameters are passed to the *note BaseServer:
     fcd. base class.

 -- 類別: socketserver.UDPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass,
          bind_and_activate=True)

     This uses datagrams, which are discrete packets of information that
     may arrive out of order or be lost while in transit.  The
     parameters are the same as for *note TCPServer: 11b3.

 -- 類別: socketserver.UnixStreamServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)
 -- 類別: socketserver.UnixDatagramServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)

     These more infrequently used classes are similar to the TCP and UDP
     classes, but use Unix domain sockets; they're not available on
     non-Unix platforms.  The parameters are the same as for *note
     TCPServer: 11b3.

These four classes process requests 'synchronously'; each request must
be completed before the next request can be started.  This isn't
suitable if each request takes a long time to complete, because it
requires a lot of computation, or because it returns a lot of data which
the client is slow to process.  The solution is to create a separate
process or thread to handle each request; the *note ForkingMixIn: 9d4.
and *note ThreadingMixIn: 9d5. mix-in classes can be used to support
asynchronous behaviour.

Creating a server requires several steps.  First, you must create a
request handler class by subclassing the *note BaseRequestHandler: 3802.
class and overriding its *note handle(): 3803. method; this method will
process incoming requests.  Second, you must instantiate one of the
server classes, passing it the server's address and the request handler
class.  It is recommended to use the server in a *note with: 3c5.
statement.  Then call the *note handle_request(): 11b6. or *note
serve_forever(): fcf. method of the server object to process one or many
requests.  Finally, call *note server_close(): 3804. to close the socket
(unless you used a ‘with’ statement).

When inheriting from *note ThreadingMixIn: 9d5. for threaded connection
behavior, you should explicitly declare how you want your threads to
behave on an abrupt shutdown.  The *note ThreadingMixIn: 9d5. class
defines an attribute 'daemon_threads', which indicates whether or not
the server should wait for thread termination.  You should set the flag
explicitly if you would like threads to behave autonomously; the default
is *note False: 98f, meaning that Python will not exit until all threads
created by *note ThreadingMixIn: 9d5. have exited.

Server classes have the same external methods and attributes, no matter
what network protocol they use.

* Menu:

* Server Creation Notes::
* Server Objects::
* Request Handler Objects::
* 範例: 範例<37>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/socketserver.py


File: python.info,  Node: Server Creation Notes,  Next: Server Objects,  Up: socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架

5.21.16.1 Server Creation Notes
...............................

There are five classes in an inheritance diagram, four of which
represent synchronous servers of four types:

     +------------+
     | BaseServer |
     +------------+
           |
           v
     +-----------+        +------------------+
     | TCPServer |------->| UnixStreamServer |
     +-----------+        +------------------+
           |
           v
     +-----------+        +--------------------+
     | UDPServer |------->| UnixDatagramServer |
     +-----------+        +--------------------+

Note that *note UnixDatagramServer: 3801. derives from *note UDPServer:
37ff, not from *note UnixStreamServer: 3800. -- the only difference
between an IP and a Unix server is the address family.

 -- 類別: socketserver.ForkingMixIn
 -- 類別: socketserver.ThreadingMixIn

     Forking and threading versions of each type of server can be
     created using these mix-in classes.  For instance, *note
     ThreadingUDPServer: 3806. is created as follows:

          class ThreadingUDPServer(ThreadingMixIn, UDPServer):
              pass

     The mix-in class comes first, since it overrides a method defined
     in *note UDPServer: 37ff.  Setting the various attributes also
     changes the behavior of the underlying server mechanism.

     *note ForkingMixIn: 9d4. and the Forking classes mentioned below
     are only available on POSIX platforms that support *note fork():
     233.

      -- 屬性: block_on_close

          *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: 3804. waits until all child
          processes complete, except if *note block_on_close: a60.
          attribute is ‘False’.

          *note ThreadingMixIn.server_close: 3804. waits until all
          non-daemon threads complete, except if *note block_on_close:
          a60. attribute is ‘False’.

      -- 屬性: daemon_threads

          For *note ThreadingMixIn: 9d5. use daemonic threads by setting
          *note ThreadingMixIn.daemon_threads: 3807. to ‘True’ to not
          wait until threads complete.

     在 3.7 版的變更: *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: 3804. and *note
     ThreadingMixIn.server_close: 3804. now waits until all child
     processes and non-daemonic threads complete.  Add a new *note
     ForkingMixIn.block_on_close: a60. class attribute to opt-in for the
     pre-3.7 behaviour.

 -- 類別: socketserver.ForkingTCPServer
 -- 類別: socketserver.ForkingUDPServer
 -- 類別: socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer
 -- 類別: socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer
 -- 類別: socketserver.ForkingUnixStreamServer
 -- 類別: socketserver.ForkingUnixDatagramServer
 -- 類別: socketserver.ThreadingUnixStreamServer
 -- 類別: socketserver.ThreadingUnixDatagramServer

     These classes are pre-defined using the mix-in classes.

在 3.12 版被加入: The ‘ForkingUnixStreamServer’ and
‘ForkingUnixDatagramServer’ classes were added.

To implement a service, you must derive a class from *note
BaseRequestHandler: 3802. and redefine its *note handle(): 3803. method.
You can then run various versions of the service by combining one of the
server classes with your request handler class.  The request handler
class must be different for datagram or stream services.  This can be
hidden by using the handler subclasses *note StreamRequestHandler: b47.
or *note DatagramRequestHandler: 380f.

Of course, you still have to use your head!  For instance, it makes no
sense to use a forking server if the service contains state in memory
that can be modified by different requests, since the modifications in
the child process would never reach the initial state kept in the parent
process and passed to each child.  In this case, you can use a threading
server, but you will probably have to use locks to protect the integrity
of the shared data.

On the other hand, if you are building an HTTP server where all data is
stored externally (for instance, in the file system), a synchronous
class will essentially render the service "deaf" while one request is
being handled - which may be for a very long time if a client is slow to
receive all the data it has requested.  Here a threading or forking
server is appropriate.

In some cases, it may be appropriate to process part of a request
synchronously, but to finish processing in a forked child depending on
the request data.  This can be implemented by using a synchronous server
and doing an explicit fork in the request handler class *note handle():
3803. method.

Another approach to handling multiple simultaneous requests in an
environment that supports neither threads nor *note fork(): 233. (or
where these are too expensive or inappropriate for the service) is to
maintain an explicit table of partially finished requests and to use
*note selectors: bd. to decide which request to work on next (or whether
to handle a new incoming request).  This is particularly important for
stream services where each client can potentially be connected for a
long time (if threads or subprocesses cannot be used).


File: python.info,  Node: Server Objects,  Next: Request Handler Objects,  Prev: Server Creation Notes,  Up: socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架

5.21.16.2 Server Objects
........................

 -- 類別: socketserver.BaseServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass)

     This is the superclass of all Server objects in the module.  It
     defines the interface, given below, but does not implement most of
     the methods, which is done in subclasses.  The two parameters are
     stored in the respective *note server_address: 3811. and *note
     RequestHandlerClass: 3812. attributes.

      -- 方法: fileno ()

          Return an integer file descriptor for the socket on which the
          server is listening.  This function is most commonly passed to
          *note selectors: bd, to allow monitoring multiple servers in
          the same process.

      -- 方法: handle_request ()

          Process a single request.  This function calls the following
          methods in order: *note get_request(): 3814, *note
          verify_request(): 3815, and *note process_request(): 3816.  If
          the user-provided *note handle(): 3803. method of the handler
          class raises an exception, the server's *note handle_error():
          bb3. method will be called.  If no request is received within
          *note timeout: 11b4. seconds, *note handle_timeout(): 11b5.
          will be called and *note handle_request(): 11b6. will return.

      -- 方法: serve_forever (poll_interval=0.5)

          Handle requests until an explicit *note shutdown(): 181c.
          request.  Poll for shutdown every 'poll_interval' seconds.
          Ignores the *note timeout: 11b4. attribute.  It also calls
          *note service_actions(): fce, which may be used by a subclass
          or mixin to provide actions specific to a given service.  For
          example, the *note ForkingMixIn: 9d4. class uses *note
          service_actions(): fce. to clean up zombie child processes.

          在 3.3 版的變更: Added ‘service_actions’ call to the
          ‘serve_forever’ method.

      -- 方法: service_actions ()

          This is called in the *note serve_forever(): fcf. loop.  This
          method can be overridden by subclasses or mixin classes to
          perform actions specific to a given service, such as cleanup
          actions.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: shutdown ()

          Tell the *note serve_forever(): fcf. loop to stop and wait
          until it does.  *note shutdown(): 181c. must be called while
          *note serve_forever(): fcf. is running in a different thread
          otherwise it will deadlock.

      -- 方法: server_close ()

          Clean up the server.  May be overridden.

      -- 屬性: address_family

          The family of protocols to which the server's socket belongs.
          Common examples are *note socket.AF_INET: 15ee. and *note
          socket.AF_UNIX: 15f0.

      -- 屬性: RequestHandlerClass

          The user-provided request handler class; an instance of this
          class is created for each request.

      -- 屬性: server_address

          The address on which the server is listening.  The format of
          addresses varies depending on the protocol family; see the
          documentation for the *note socket: c6. module for details.
          For internet protocols, this is a tuple containing a string
          giving the address, and an integer port number: ‘('127.0.0.1',
          80)’, for example.

      -- 屬性: socket

          The socket object on which the server will listen for incoming
          requests.

     The server classes support the following class variables:

      -- 屬性: allow_reuse_address

          Whether the server will allow the reuse of an address.  This
          defaults to *note False: 98f, and can be set in subclasses to
          change the policy.

      -- 屬性: request_queue_size

          The size of the request queue.  If it takes a long time to
          process a single request, any requests that arrive while the
          server is busy are placed into a queue, up to *note
          request_queue_size: 381a. requests.  Once the queue is full,
          further requests from clients will get a "Connection denied"
          error.  The default value is usually 5, but this can be
          overridden by subclasses.

      -- 屬性: socket_type

          The type of socket used by the server; *note
          socket.SOCK_STREAM: 1184. and *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 1183.
          are two common values.

      -- 屬性: timeout

          Timeout duration, measured in seconds, or *note None: 470. if
          no timeout is desired.  If *note handle_request(): 11b6.
          receives no incoming requests within the timeout period, the
          *note handle_timeout(): 11b5. method is called.

     There are various server methods that can be overridden by
     subclasses of base server classes like *note TCPServer: 11b3.;
     these methods aren't useful to external users of the server object.

      -- 方法: finish_request (request, client_address)

          Actually processes the request by instantiating *note
          RequestHandlerClass: 3812. and calling its *note handle():
          3803. method.

      -- 方法: get_request ()

          Must accept a request from the socket, and return a 2-tuple
          containing the 'new' socket object to be used to communicate
          with the client, and the client's address.

      -- 方法: handle_error (request, client_address)

          This function is called if the *note handle(): 3803. method of
          a *note RequestHandlerClass: 3812. instance raises an
          exception.  The default action is to print the traceback to
          standard error and continue handling further requests.

          在 3.6 版的變更: Now only called for exceptions derived from
          the *note Exception: 81e. class.

      -- 方法: handle_timeout ()

          This function is called when the *note timeout: 11b4.
          attribute has been set to a value other than *note None: 470.
          and the timeout period has passed with no requests being
          received.  The default action for forking servers is to
          collect the status of any child processes that have exited,
          while in threading servers this method does nothing.

      -- 方法: process_request (request, client_address)

          Calls *note finish_request(): 381c. to create an instance of
          the *note RequestHandlerClass: 3812.  If desired, this
          function can create a new process or thread to handle the
          request; the *note ForkingMixIn: 9d4. and *note
          ThreadingMixIn: 9d5. classes do this.

      -- 方法: server_activate ()

          Called by the server's constructor to activate the server.
          The default behavior for a TCP server just invokes *note
          listen(): cdc. on the server's socket.  May be overridden.

      -- 方法: server_bind ()

          Called by the server's constructor to bind the socket to the
          desired address.  May be overridden.

      -- 方法: verify_request (request, client_address)

          Must return a Boolean value; if the value is *note True: a70,
          the request will be processed, and if it's *note False: 98f,
          the request will be denied.  This function can be overridden
          to implement access controls for a server.  The default
          implementation always returns *note True: a70.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Support for the *note context manager: 3c4.
     protocol was added.  Exiting the context manager is equivalent to
     calling *note server_close(): 3804.


File: python.info,  Node: Request Handler Objects,  Next: 範例<37>,  Prev: Server Objects,  Up: socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架

5.21.16.3 Request Handler Objects
.................................

 -- 類別: socketserver.BaseRequestHandler

     This is the superclass of all request handler objects.  It defines
     the interface, given below.  A concrete request handler subclass
     must define a new *note handle(): 3803. method, and can override
     any of the other methods.  A new instance of the subclass is
     created for each request.

      -- 方法: setup ()

          Called before the *note handle(): 3803. method to perform any
          initialization actions required.  The default implementation
          does nothing.

      -- 方法: handle ()

          This function must do all the work required to service a
          request.  The default implementation does nothing.  Several
          instance attributes are available to it; the request is
          available as *note request: 381f.; the client address as *note
          client_address: 3820.; and the server instance as *note
          server: 3821, in case it needs access to per-server
          information.

          The type of *note request: 381f. is different for datagram or
          stream services.  For stream services, *note request: 381f. is
          a socket object; for datagram services, *note request: 381f.
          is a pair of string and socket.

      -- 方法: finish ()

          Called after the *note handle(): 3803. method to perform any
          clean-up actions required.  The default implementation does
          nothing.  If *note setup(): 381e. raises an exception, this
          function will not be called.

      -- 屬性: request

          The 'new' *note socket.socket: c18. object to be used to
          communicate with the client.

      -- 屬性: client_address

          Client address returned by *note BaseServer.get_request():
          3814.

      -- 屬性: server

          *note BaseServer: fcd. object used for handling the request.

 -- 類別: socketserver.StreamRequestHandler
 -- 類別: socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler

     These *note BaseRequestHandler: 3802. subclasses override the *note
     setup(): 381e. and *note finish(): 3822. methods, and provide *note
     rfile: 3823. and *note wfile: 3824. attributes.

      -- 屬性: rfile

          A file object from which receives the request is read.
          Support the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491. readable interface.

      -- 屬性: wfile

          A file object to which the reply is written.  Support the
          *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491. writable interface

     在 3.6 版的變更: *note wfile: 3824. also supports the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 491. writable interface.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<37>,  Prev: Request Handler Objects,  Up: socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架

5.21.16.4 範例
..............

* Menu:

* socketserver.TCPServer 範例: socketserver TCPServer 範例.
* socketserver.UDPServer 範例: socketserver UDPServer 範例.
* Asynchronous Mixins::


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver TCPServer 範例,  Next: socketserver UDPServer 範例,  Up: 範例<37>

5.21.16.5 ‘socketserver.TCPServer’ 範例
.......................................

This is the server side:

     import socketserver

     class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
         """
         The request handler class for our server.

         It is instantiated once per connection to the server, and must
         override the handle() method to implement communication to the
         client.
         """

         def handle(self):
             # self.request is the TCP socket connected to the client
             self.data = self.request.recv(1024).strip()
             print("Received from {}:".format(self.client_address[0]))
             print(self.data)
             # just send back the same data, but upper-cased
             self.request.sendall(self.data.upper())

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999

         # Create the server, binding to localhost on port 9999
         with socketserver.TCPServer((HOST, PORT), MyTCPHandler) as server:
             # Activate the server; this will keep running until you
             # interrupt the program with Ctrl-C
             server.serve_forever()

An alternative request handler class that makes use of streams
(file-like objects that simplify communication by providing the standard
file interface):

     class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):

         def handle(self):
             # self.rfile is a file-like object created by the handler;
             # we can now use e.g. readline() instead of raw recv() calls
             self.data = self.rfile.readline().strip()
             print("{} wrote:".format(self.client_address[0]))
             print(self.data)
             # Likewise, self.wfile is a file-like object used to write back
             # to the client
             self.wfile.write(self.data.upper())

The difference is that the ‘readline()’ call in the second handler will
call ‘recv()’ multiple times until it encounters a newline character,
while the single ‘recv()’ call in the first handler will just return
what has been received so far from the client's ‘sendall()’ call
(typically all of it, but this is not guaranteed by the TCP protocol).

This is the client side:

     import socket
     import sys

     HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
     data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

     # Create a socket (SOCK_STREAM means a TCP socket)
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
         # Connect to server and send data
         sock.connect((HOST, PORT))
         sock.sendall(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"))

         # Receive data from the server and shut down
         received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

     print("Sent:     {}".format(data))
     print("Received: {}".format(received))

The output of the example should look something like this:

Server:

     $ python TCPServer.py
     127.0.0.1 wrote:
     b'hello world with TCP'
     127.0.0.1 wrote:
     b'python is nice'

Client:

     $ python TCPClient.py hello world with TCP
     Sent:     hello world with TCP
     Received: HELLO WORLD WITH TCP
     $ python TCPClient.py python is nice
     Sent:     python is nice
     Received: PYTHON IS NICE


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver UDPServer 範例,  Next: Asynchronous Mixins,  Prev: socketserver TCPServer 範例,  Up: 範例<37>

5.21.16.6 ‘socketserver.UDPServer’ 範例
.......................................

This is the server side:

     import socketserver

     class MyUDPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
         """
         This class works similar to the TCP handler class, except that
         self.request consists of a pair of data and client socket, and since
         there is no connection the client address must be given explicitly
         when sending data back via sendto().
         """

         def handle(self):
             data = self.request[0].strip()
             socket = self.request[1]
             print("{} wrote:".format(self.client_address[0]))
             print(data)
             socket.sendto(data.upper(), self.client_address)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
         with socketserver.UDPServer((HOST, PORT), MyUDPHandler) as server:
             server.serve_forever()

This is the client side:

     import socket
     import sys

     HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
     data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

     # SOCK_DGRAM is the socket type to use for UDP sockets
     sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_DGRAM)

     # As you can see, there is no connect() call; UDP has no connections.
     # Instead, data is directly sent to the recipient via sendto().
     sock.sendto(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"), (HOST, PORT))
     received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

     print("Sent:     {}".format(data))
     print("Received: {}".format(received))

The output of the example should look exactly like for the TCP server
example.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous Mixins,  Prev: socketserver UDPServer 範例,  Up: 範例<37>

5.21.16.7 Asynchronous Mixins
.............................

To build asynchronous handlers, use the *note ThreadingMixIn: 9d5. and
*note ForkingMixIn: 9d4. classes.

An example for the *note ThreadingMixIn: 9d5. class:

     import socket
     import threading
     import socketserver

     class ThreadedTCPRequestHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):

         def handle(self):
             data = str(self.request.recv(1024), 'ascii')
             cur_thread = threading.current_thread()
             response = bytes("{}: {}".format(cur_thread.name, data), 'ascii')
             self.request.sendall(response)

     class ThreadedTCPServer(socketserver.ThreadingMixIn, socketserver.TCPServer):
         pass

     def client(ip, port, message):
         with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
             sock.connect((ip, port))
             sock.sendall(bytes(message, 'ascii'))
             response = str(sock.recv(1024), 'ascii')
             print("Received: {}".format(response))

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         # Port 0 means to select an arbitrary unused port
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 0

         server = ThreadedTCPServer((HOST, PORT), ThreadedTCPRequestHandler)
         with server:
             ip, port = server.server_address

             # Start a thread with the server -- that thread will then start one
             # more thread for each request
             server_thread = threading.Thread(target=server.serve_forever)
             # Exit the server thread when the main thread terminates
             server_thread.daemon = True
             server_thread.start()
             print("Server loop running in thread:", server_thread.name)

             client(ip, port, "Hello World 1")
             client(ip, port, "Hello World 2")
             client(ip, port, "Hello World 3")

             server.shutdown()

The output of the example should look something like this:

     $ python ThreadedTCPServer.py
     Server loop running in thread: Thread-1
     Received: Thread-2: Hello World 1
     Received: Thread-3: Hello World 2
     Received: Thread-4: Hello World 3

The *note ForkingMixIn: 9d4. class is used in the same way, except that
the server will spawn a new process for each request.  Available only on
POSIX platforms that support *note fork(): 233.


File: python.info,  Node: http server — HTTP 伺服器,  Next: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理,  Prev: socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.17 ‘http.server’ — HTTP 伺服器
-----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/http/server.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組定義了用於實作 HTTP 伺服器的類別。

     警告: *note http.server: 6d. is not recommended for production.  It
     only implements *note basic security checks: 382b.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

One class, *note HTTPServer: 362e, is a *note socketserver.TCPServer:
11b3. subclass.  It creates and listens at the HTTP socket, dispatching
the requests to a handler.  Code to create and run the server looks like
this:

     def run(server_class=HTTPServer, handler_class=BaseHTTPRequestHandler):
         server_address = ('', 8000)
         httpd = server_class(server_address, handler_class)
         httpd.serve_forever()

 -- 類別: http.server.HTTPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass)

     This class builds on the *note TCPServer: 11b3. class by storing
     the server address as instance variables named ‘server_name’ and
     ‘server_port’.  The server is accessible by the handler, typically
     through the handler's ‘server’ instance variable.

 -- 類別: http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     This class is identical to HTTPServer but uses threads to handle
     requests by using the *note ThreadingMixIn: 9d5.  This is useful to
     handle web browsers pre-opening sockets, on which *note HTTPServer:
     362e. would wait indefinitely.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

The *note HTTPServer: 362e. and *note ThreadingHTTPServer: 99c. must be
given a 'RequestHandlerClass' on instantiation, of which this module
provides three different variants:

 -- 類別: http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address,
          server)

     This class is used to handle the HTTP requests that arrive at the
     server.  By itself, it cannot respond to any actual HTTP requests;
     it must be subclassed to handle each request method (e.g.  GET or
     POST). *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f5a. provides a number of
     class and instance variables, and methods for use by subclasses.

     The handler will parse the request and the headers, then call a
     method specific to the request type.  The method name is
     constructed from the request.  For example, for the request method
     ‘SPAM’, the ‘do_SPAM()’ method will be called with no arguments.
     All of the relevant information is stored in instance variables of
     the handler.  Subclasses should not need to override or extend the
     ‘__init__()’ method.

     *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f5a. has the following instance
     variables:

      -- 屬性: client_address

          Contains a tuple of the form ‘(host, port)’ referring to the
          client's address.

      -- 屬性: server

          Contains the server instance.

      -- 屬性: close_connection

          Boolean that should be set before *note handle_one_request():
          382f. returns, indicating if another request may be expected,
          or if the connection should be shut down.

      -- 屬性: requestline

          Contains the string representation of the HTTP request line.
          The terminating CRLF is stripped.  This attribute should be
          set by *note handle_one_request(): 382f.  If no valid request
          line was processed, it should be set to the empty string.

      -- 屬性: command

          Contains the command (request type).  For example, ‘'GET'’.

      -- 屬性: path

          Contains the request path.  If query component of the URL is
          present, then ‘path’ includes the query.  Using the
          terminology of RFC 3986(2), ‘path’ here includes ‘hier-part’
          and the ‘query’.

      -- 屬性: request_version

          Contains the version string from the request.  For example,
          ‘'HTTP/1.0'’.

      -- 屬性: headers

          Holds an instance of the class specified by the *note
          MessageClass: 3834. class variable.  This instance parses and
          manages the headers in the HTTP request.  The *note
          parse_headers(): 1835. function from *note http.client: 6a. is
          used to parse the headers and it requires that the HTTP
          request provide a valid RFC 2822(3) style header.

      -- 屬性: rfile

          An *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491. input stream, ready to read
          from the start of the optional input data.

      -- 屬性: wfile

          Contains the output stream for writing a response back to the
          client.  Proper adherence to the HTTP protocol must be used
          when writing to this stream in order to achieve successful
          interoperation with HTTP clients.

          在 3.6 版的變更: This is an *note io.BufferedIOBase: 491.
          stream.

     *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f5a. 擁有以下屬性：

      -- 屬性: server_version

          Specifies the server software version.  You may want to
          override this.  The format is multiple whitespace-separated
          strings, where each string is of the form name[/version].  For
          example, ‘'BaseHTTP/0.2'’.

      -- 屬性: sys_version

          Contains the Python system version, in a form usable by the
          *note version_string: 3839. method and the *note
          server_version: 3837. class variable.  For example,
          ‘'Python/1.4'’.

      -- 屬性: error_message_format

          Specifies a format string that should be used by *note
          send_error(): ddd. method for building an error response to
          the client.  The string is filled by default with variables
          from *note responses: 36ff. based on the status code that
          passed to *note send_error(): ddd.

      -- 屬性: error_content_type

          Specifies the Content-Type HTTP header of error responses sent
          to the client.  The default value is ‘'text/html'’.

      -- 屬性: protocol_version

          Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant.
          It is sent in responses to let the client know the server's
          communication capabilities for future requests.  If set to
          ‘'HTTP/1.1'’, the server will permit HTTP persistent
          connections; however, your server 'must' then include an
          accurate ‘Content-Length’ header (using *note send_header():
          383d.) in all of its responses to clients.  For backwards
          compatibility, the setting defaults to ‘'HTTP/1.0'’.

      -- 屬性: MessageClass

          Specifies an *note email.message.Message: b05.-like class to
          parse HTTP headers.  Typically, this is not overridden, and it
          defaults to *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3716.

      -- 屬性: responses

          This attribute contains a mapping of error code integers to
          two-element tuples containing a short and long message.  For
          example, ‘{code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}’.  The
          'shortmessage' is usually used as the 'message' key in an
          error response, and 'longmessage' as the 'explain' key.  It is
          used by *note send_response_only(): 383e. and *note
          send_error(): ddd. methods.

     A *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f5a. instance has the following
     methods:

      -- 方法: handle ()

          Calls *note handle_one_request(): 382f. once (or, if
          persistent connections are enabled, multiple times) to handle
          incoming HTTP requests.  You should never need to override it;
          instead, implement appropriate ‘do_*()’ methods.

      -- 方法: handle_one_request ()

          This method will parse and dispatch the request to the
          appropriate ‘do_*()’ method.  You should never need to
          override it.

      -- 方法: handle_expect_100 ()

          When an HTTP/1.1 conformant server receives an ‘Expect:
          100-continue’ request header it responds back with a ‘100
          Continue’ followed by ‘200 OK’ headers.  This method can be
          overridden to raise an error if the server does not want the
          client to continue.  For e.g.  server can choose to send ‘417
          Expectation Failed’ as a response header and ‘return False’.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: send_error (code, message=None, explain=None)

          Sends and logs a complete error reply to the client.  The
          numeric 'code' specifies the HTTP error code, with 'message'
          as an optional, short, human readable description of the
          error.  The 'explain' argument can be used to provide more
          detailed information about the error; it will be formatted
          using the *note error_message_format: 383a. attribute and
          emitted, after a complete set of headers, as the response
          body.  The *note responses: 36ff. attribute holds the default
          values for 'message' and 'explain' that will be used if no
          value is provided; for unknown codes the default value for
          both is the string ‘???’.  The body will be empty if the
          method is HEAD or the response code is one of the following:
          ‘1XX’, ‘204 No Content’, ‘205 Reset Content’, ‘304 Not
          Modified’.

          在 3.4 版的變更: The error response includes a Content-Length
          header.  Added the 'explain' argument.

      -- 方法: send_response (code, message=None)

          Adds a response header to the headers buffer and logs the
          accepted request.  The HTTP response line is written to the
          internal buffer, followed by 'Server' and 'Date' headers.  The
          values for these two headers are picked up from the *note
          version_string(): 3839. and *note date_time_string(): 3842.
          methods, respectively.  If the server does not intend to send
          any other headers using the *note send_header(): 383d. method,
          then *note send_response(): 3841. should be followed by an
          *note end_headers(): f5b. call.

          在 3.3 版的變更: Headers are stored to an internal buffer and
          *note end_headers(): f5b. needs to be called explicitly.

      -- 方法: send_header (keyword, value)

          Adds the HTTP header to an internal buffer which will be
          written to the output stream when either *note end_headers():
          f5b. or *note flush_headers(): f5c. is invoked.  'keyword'
          should specify the header keyword, with 'value' specifying its
          value.  Note that, after the send_header calls are done, *note
          end_headers(): f5b. MUST BE called in order to complete the
          operation.

          在 3.2 版的變更: Headers are stored in an internal buffer.

      -- 方法: send_response_only (code, message=None)

          Sends the response header only, used for the purposes when
          ‘100 Continue’ response is sent by the server to the client.
          The headers not buffered and sent directly the output
          stream.If the 'message' is not specified, the HTTP message
          corresponding the response 'code' is sent.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: end_headers ()

          Adds a blank line (indicating the end of the HTTP headers in
          the response) to the headers buffer and calls *note
          flush_headers(): f5c.

          在 3.2 版的變更: The buffered headers are written to the
          output stream.

      -- 方法: flush_headers ()

          Finally send the headers to the output stream and flush the
          internal headers buffer.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: log_request (code='-', size='-')

          Logs an accepted (successful) request.  'code' should specify
          the numeric HTTP code associated with the response.  If a size
          of the response is available, then it should be passed as the
          'size' parameter.

      -- 方法: log_error (...)

          Logs an error when a request cannot be fulfilled.  By default,
          it passes the message to *note log_message(): 3845, so it
          takes the same arguments ('format' and additional values).

      -- 方法: log_message (format, ...)

          Logs an arbitrary message to ‘sys.stderr’.  This is typically
          overridden to create custom error logging mechanisms.  The
          'format' argument is a standard printf-style format string,
          where the additional arguments to *note log_message(): 3845.
          are applied as inputs to the formatting.  The client ip
          address and current date and time are prefixed to every
          message logged.

      -- 方法: version_string ()

          Returns the server software's version string.  This is a
          combination of the *note server_version: 3837. and *note
          sys_version: 3838. attributes.

      -- 方法: date_time_string (timestamp=None)

          Returns the date and time given by 'timestamp' (which must be
          ‘None’ or in the format returned by *note time.time(): 936.),
          formatted for a message header.  If 'timestamp' is omitted, it
          uses the current date and time.

          The result looks like ‘'Sun, 06 Nov 1994 08:49:37 GMT'’.

      -- 方法: log_date_time_string ()

          Returns the current date and time, formatted for logging.

      -- 方法: address_string ()

          Returns the client address.

          在 3.3 版的變更: Previously, a name lookup was performed.  To
          avoid name resolution delays, it now always returns the IP
          address.

 -- 類別: http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address,
          server, directory=None)

     This class serves files from the directory 'directory' and below,
     or the current directory if 'directory' is not provided, directly
     mapping the directory structure to HTTP requests.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'directory' 參數。

     在 3.9 版的變更: The 'directory' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 975.

     A lot of the work, such as parsing the request, is done by the base
     class *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f5a.  This class implements the
     *note do_GET(): 3848. and *note do_HEAD(): 3849. functions.

     The following are defined as class-level attributes of *note
     SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 99b.:

      -- 屬性: server_version

          This will be ‘"SimpleHTTP/" + __version__’, where
          ‘__version__’ is defined at the module level.

      -- 屬性: extensions_map

          A dictionary mapping suffixes into MIME types, contains custom
          overrides for the default system mappings.  The mapping is
          used case-insensitively, and so should contain only
          lower-cased keys.

          在 3.9 版的變更: This dictionary is no longer filled with the
          default system mappings, but only contains overrides.

     The *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 99b. class defines the
     following methods:

      -- 方法: do_HEAD ()

          This method serves the ‘'HEAD'’ request type: it sends the
          headers it would send for the equivalent ‘GET’ request.  See
          the *note do_GET(): 3848. method for a more complete
          explanation of the possible headers.

      -- 方法: do_GET ()

          The request is mapped to a local file by interpreting the
          request as a path relative to the current working directory.

          If the request was mapped to a directory, the directory is
          checked for a file named ‘index.html’ or ‘index.htm’ (in that
          order).  If found, the file's contents are returned; otherwise
          a directory listing is generated by calling the
          ‘list_directory()’ method.  This method uses *note
          os.listdir(): f88. to scan the directory, and returns a ‘404’
          error response if the *note listdir(): f88. fails.

          If the request was mapped to a file, it is opened.  Any *note
          OSError: 644. exception in opening the requested file is
          mapped to a ‘404’, ‘'File not found'’ error.  If there was an
          ‘'If-Modified-Since'’ header in the request, and the file was
          not modified after this time, a ‘304’, ‘'Not Modified'’
          response is sent.  Otherwise, the content type is guessed by
          calling the ‘guess_type()’ method, which in turn uses the
          'extensions_map' variable, and the file contents are returned.

          A ‘'Content-type:'’ header with the guessed content type is
          output, followed by a ‘'Content-Length:'’ header with the
          file's size and a ‘'Last-Modified:'’ header with the file's
          modification time.

          Then follows a blank line signifying the end of the headers,
          and then the contents of the file are output.  If the file's
          MIME type starts with ‘text/’ the file is opened in text mode;
          otherwise binary mode is used.

          For example usage, see the implementation of the ‘test’
          function in Lib/http/server.py(4).

          在 3.7 版的變更: Support of the ‘'If-Modified-Since'’ header.

The *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 99b. class can be used in the
following manner in order to create a very basic webserver serving files
relative to the current directory:

     import http.server
     import socketserver

     PORT = 8000

     Handler = http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

     with socketserver.TCPServer(("", PORT), Handler) as httpd:
         print("serving at port", PORT)
         httpd.serve_forever()

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 99b. can also be subclassed to enhance
behavior, such as using different index file names by overriding the
class attribute ‘index_pages’.  *note http.server: 6d. can also be
invoked directly using the *note -m: 3d4. switch of the interpreter.
Similar to the previous example, this serves files relative to the
current directory:

     python -m http.server

The server listens to port 8000 by default.  The default can be
overridden by passing the desired port number as an argument:

     python -m http.server 9000

By default, the server binds itself to all interfaces.  The option
‘-b/--bind’ specifies a specific address to which it should bind.  Both
IPv4 and IPv6 addresses are supported.  For example, the following
command causes the server to bind to localhost only:

     python -m http.server --bind 127.0.0.1

在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 ‘--bind’ 選項。

在 3.8 版的變更: 於 ‘--bind’ 選項中支援 IPv6。

By default, the server uses the current directory.  The option
‘-d/--directory’ specifies a directory to which it should serve the
files.  For example, the following command uses a specific directory:

     python -m http.server --directory /tmp/

在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 ‘--directory’ 選項。

By default, the server is conformant to HTTP/1.0.  The option
‘-p/--protocol’ specifies the HTTP version to which the server is
conformant.  For example, the following command runs an HTTP/1.1
conformant server:

     python -m http.server --protocol HTTP/1.1

在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 ‘--protocol’ 選項。

 -- 類別: http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address,
          server)

     This class is used to serve either files or output of CGI scripts
     from the current directory and below.  Note that mapping HTTP
     hierarchic structure to local directory structure is exactly as in
     *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 99b.

          備註: CGI scripts run by the *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 255.
          class cannot execute redirects (HTTP code 302), because code
          200 (script output follows) is sent prior to execution of the
          CGI script.  This pre-empts the status code.

     The class will however, run the CGI script, instead of serving it
     as a file, if it guesses it to be a CGI script.  Only
     directory-based CGI are used -- the other common server
     configuration is to treat special extensions as denoting CGI
     scripts.

     The ‘do_GET()’ and ‘do_HEAD()’ functions are modified to run CGI
     scripts and serve the output, instead of serving files, if the
     request leads to somewhere below the ‘cgi_directories’ path.

     The *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 255. defines the following data
     member:

      -- 屬性: cgi_directories

          This defaults to ‘['/cgi-bin', '/htbin']’ and describes
          directories to treat as containing CGI scripts.

     The *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 255. defines the following method:

      -- 方法: do_POST ()

          This method serves the ‘'POST'’ request type, only allowed for
          CGI scripts.  Error 501, "Can only POST to CGI scripts", is
          output when trying to POST to a non-CGI url.

     Note that CGI scripts will be run with UID of user nobody, for
     security reasons.  Problems with the CGI script will be translated
     to error 403.

*note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 255. can be enabled in the command line by
passing the ‘--cgi’ option:

     python -m http.server --cgi

     警告: *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 255. and the ‘--cgi’ command
     line option are not intended for use by untrusted clients and may
     be vulnerable to exploitation.  Always use within a secure
     environment.

* Menu:

* 安全性注意事項: 安全性注意事項<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/server.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/server.py


File: python.info,  Node: 安全性注意事項<3>,  Up: http server — HTTP 伺服器

5.21.17.1 安全性注意事項
........................

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 99b. will follow symbolic links when
handling requests, this makes it possible for files outside of the
specified directory to be served.

Earlier versions of Python did not scrub control characters from the log
messages emitted to stderr from ‘python -m http.server’ or the default
*note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f5a. ‘.log_message’ implementation.  This
could allow remote clients connecting to your server to send nefarious
control codes to your terminal.

在 3.12 版的變更: Control characters are scrubbed in stderr logs.


File: python.info,  Node: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理,  Next: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理,  Prev: http server — HTTP 伺服器,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.18 ‘http.cookies’ -- HTTP 狀態管理
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/http/cookies.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note http.cookies: 6c. module defines classes for abstracting the
concept of cookies, an HTTP state management mechanism.  It supports
both simple string-only cookies, and provides an abstraction for having
any serializable data-type as cookie value.

The module formerly strictly applied the parsing rules described in the
RFC 2109(2) and RFC 2068(3) specifications.  It has since been
discovered that MSIE 3.0x didn't follow the character rules outlined in
those specs; many current-day browsers and servers have also relaxed
parsing rules when it comes to cookie handling.  As a result, this
module now uses parsing rules that are a bit less strict than they once
were.

The character set, *note string.ascii_letters: 1155, *note
string.digits: 205c. and ‘!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:’ denote the set of valid
characters allowed by this module in a cookie name (as *note key: a64.).

在 3.3 版的變更: Allowed ':' as a valid cookie name character.

     備註: On encountering an invalid cookie, *note CookieError: 3851.
     is raised, so if your cookie data comes from a browser you should
     always prepare for invalid data and catch *note CookieError: 3851.
     on parsing.

 -- 例外: http.cookies.CookieError

     Exception failing because of RFC 2109(4) invalidity: incorrect
     attributes, incorrect ‘Set-Cookie’ header, etc.

 -- 類別: http.cookies.BaseCookie ([input])

     This class is a dictionary-like object whose keys are strings and
     whose values are *note Morsel: a67. instances.  Note that upon
     setting a key to a value, the value is first converted to a *note
     Morsel: a67. containing the key and the value.

     If 'input' is given, it is passed to the *note load(): 3853.
     method.

 -- 類別: http.cookies.SimpleCookie ([input])

     This class derives from *note BaseCookie: 3852. and overrides *note
     value_decode(): 3854. and *note value_encode(): 3855.
     ‘SimpleCookie’ supports strings as cookie values.  When setting the
     value, ‘SimpleCookie’ calls the builtin *note str(): 157. to
     convert the value to a string.  Values received from HTTP are kept
     as strings.

也參考
......

*note http.cookiejar: 6b. 模組

     HTTP cookie handling for web 'clients'.  The *note http.cookiejar:
     6b. and *note http.cookies: 6c. modules do not depend on each
     other.

RFC 2109(5) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     This is the state management specification implemented by this
     module.

* Menu:

* Cookie 物件::
* Morsel 物件::
* 範例: 範例<38>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/cookies.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2068.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: Cookie 物件,  Next: Morsel 物件,  Up: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理

5.21.18.1 Cookie 物件
.....................

 -- 方法: BaseCookie.value_decode (val)

     Return a tuple ‘(real_value, coded_value)’ from a string
     representation.  ‘real_value’ can be any type.  This method does no
     decoding in *note BaseCookie: 3852. -- it exists so it can be
     overridden.

 -- 方法: BaseCookie.value_encode (val)

     Return a tuple ‘(real_value, coded_value)’.  'val' can be any type,
     but ‘coded_value’ will always be converted to a string.  This
     method does no encoding in *note BaseCookie: 3852. -- it exists so
     it can be overridden.

     In general, it should be the case that *note value_encode(): 3855.
     and *note value_decode(): 3854. are inverses on the range of
     'value_decode'.

 -- 方法: BaseCookie.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:',
          sep='\r\n')

     Return a string representation suitable to be sent as HTTP headers.
     'attrs' and 'header' are sent to each *note Morsel: a67.'s *note
     output(): 3858. method.  'sep' is used to join the headers
     together, and is by default the combination ‘'\r\n'’ (CRLF).

 -- 方法: BaseCookie.js_output (attrs=None)

     Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser
     which supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP headers
     was sent.

     The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 3858.

 -- 方法: BaseCookie.load (rawdata)

     If 'rawdata' is a string, parse it as an ‘HTTP_COOKIE’ and add the
     values found there as *note Morsel: a67.s.  If it is a dictionary,
     it is equivalent to:

          for k, v in rawdata.items():
              cookie[k] = v


File: python.info,  Node: Morsel 物件,  Next: 範例<38>,  Prev: Cookie 物件,  Up: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理

5.21.18.2 Morsel 物件
.....................

 -- 類別: http.cookies.Morsel

     Abstract a key/value pair, which has some RFC 2109(1) attributes.

     Morsels are dictionary-like objects, whose set of keys is constant
     -- the valid RFC 2109(2) attributes, which are:

           -- 屬性: expires
           -- 屬性: path
           -- 屬性: comment
           -- 屬性: domain

           -- 屬性: max-age
           -- 屬性: secure
           -- 屬性: version
           -- 屬性: httponly
           -- 屬性: samesite

     The attribute *note httponly: 123f. specifies that the cookie is
     only transferred in HTTP requests, and is not accessible through
     JavaScript.  This is intended to mitigate some forms of cross-site
     scripting.

     The attribute *note samesite: 3862. specifies that the browser is
     not allowed to send the cookie along with cross-site requests.
     This helps to mitigate CSRF attacks.  Valid values for this
     attribute are "Strict" and "Lax".

     The keys are case-insensitive and their default value is ‘''’.

     在 3.5 版的變更: ‘__eq__()’ now takes *note key: a64. and *note
     value: a65. into account.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Attributes *note key: a64, *note value: a65. and
     *note coded_value: a66. are read-only.  Use *note set(): a68. for
     setting them.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 *note samesite: 3862. 屬性的支援

 -- 屬性: Morsel.value

     The value of the cookie.

 -- 屬性: Morsel.coded_value

     The encoded value of the cookie -- this is what should be sent.

 -- 屬性: Morsel.key

     The name of the cookie.

 -- 方法: Morsel.set (key, value, coded_value)

     Set the 'key', 'value' and 'coded_value' attributes.

 -- 方法: Morsel.isReservedKey (K)

     Whether 'K' is a member of the set of keys of a *note Morsel: a67.

 -- 方法: Morsel.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:')

     Return a string representation of the Morsel, suitable to be sent
     as an HTTP header.  By default, all the attributes are included,
     unless 'attrs' is given, in which case it should be a list of
     attributes to use.  'header' is by default ‘"Set-Cookie:"’.

 -- 方法: Morsel.js_output (attrs=None)

     Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser
     which supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP header
     was sent.

     The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 3864.

 -- 方法: Morsel.OutputString (attrs=None)

     Return a string representing the Morsel, without any surrounding
     HTTP or JavaScript.

     The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 3864.

 -- 方法: Morsel.update (values)

     Update the values in the Morsel dictionary with the values in the
     dictionary 'values'.  Raise an error if any of the keys in the
     'values' dict is not a valid RFC 2109(3) attribute.

     在 3.5 版的變更: an error is raised for invalid keys.

 -- 方法: Morsel.copy (value)

     Return a shallow copy of the Morsel object.

     在 3.5 版的變更: return a Morsel object instead of a dict.

 -- 方法: Morsel.setdefault (key, value=None)

     Raise an error if key is not a valid RFC 2109(4) attribute,
     otherwise behave the same as *note dict.setdefault(): f0f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<38>,  Prev: Morsel 物件,  Up: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理

5.21.18.3 範例
..............

The following example demonstrates how to use the *note http.cookies:
6c. module.

     >>> from http import cookies
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["fig"] = "newton"
     >>> C["sugar"] = "wafer"
     >>> print(C) # generate HTTP headers
     Set-Cookie: fig=newton
     Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
     >>> print(C.output()) # same thing
     Set-Cookie: fig=newton
     Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["rocky"] = "road"
     >>> C["rocky"]["path"] = "/cookie"
     >>> print(C.output(header="Cookie:"))
     Cookie: rocky=road; Path=/cookie
     >>> print(C.output(attrs=[], header="Cookie:"))
     Cookie: rocky=road
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C.load("chips=ahoy; vienna=finger") # load from a string (HTTP header)
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: chips=ahoy
     Set-Cookie: vienna=finger
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C.load('keebler="E=everybody; L=\\"Loves\\"; fudge=\\012;";')
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: keebler="E=everybody; L=\"Loves\"; fudge=\012;"
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["oreo"] = "doublestuff"
     >>> C["oreo"]["path"] = "/"
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: oreo=doublestuff; Path=/
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["twix"] = "none for you"
     >>> C["twix"].value
     'none for you'
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["number"] = 7 # equivalent to C["number"] = str(7)
     >>> C["string"] = "seven"
     >>> C["number"].value
     '7'
     >>> C["string"].value
     'seven'
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: number=7
     Set-Cookie: string=seven


File: python.info,  Node: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理,  Next: xmlrpc --- XMLRPC 伺服器與用戶模組,  Prev: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.19 ‘http.cookiejar’ -- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理
-----------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/http/cookiejar.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note http.cookiejar: 6b. module defines classes for automatic
handling of HTTP cookies.  It is useful for accessing web sites that
require small pieces of data - 'cookies' - to be set on the client
machine by an HTTP response from a web server, and then returned to the
server in later HTTP requests.

Both the regular Netscape cookie protocol and the protocol defined by
RFC 2965(2) are handled.  RFC 2965 handling is switched off by default.
RFC 2109(3) cookies are parsed as Netscape cookies and subsequently
treated either as Netscape or RFC 2965 cookies according to the 'policy'
in effect.  Note that the great majority of cookies on the internet are
Netscape cookies.  *note http.cookiejar: 6b. attempts to follow the
de-facto Netscape cookie protocol (which differs substantially from that
set out in the original Netscape specification), including taking note
of the ‘max-age’ and ‘port’ cookie-attributes introduced with RFC 2965.

     備註: The various named parameters found in ‘Set-Cookie’ and
     ‘Set-Cookie2’ headers (eg.  ‘domain’ and ‘expires’) are
     conventionally referred to as 'attributes'.  To distinguish them
     from Python attributes, the documentation for this module uses the
     term 'cookie-attribute' instead.

The module defines the following exception:

 -- 例外: http.cookiejar.LoadError

     Instances of *note FileCookieJar: 386d. raise this exception on
     failure to load cookies from a file.  *note LoadError: 386c. is a
     subclass of *note OSError: 644.

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note LoadError: 386c. used to be a subtype of
     *note IOError: ee8, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 644.

提供了以下類別：

 -- 類別: http.cookiejar.CookieJar (policy=None)

     'policy' is an object implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 386e.
     interface.

     The *note CookieJar: 369f. class stores HTTP cookies.  It extracts
     cookies from HTTP requests, and returns them in HTTP responses.
     *note CookieJar: 369f. instances automatically expire contained
     cookies when necessary.  Subclasses are also responsible for
     storing and retrieving cookies from a file or database.

 -- 類別: http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None,
          policy=None)

     'policy' is an object implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 386e.
     interface.  For the other arguments, see the documentation for the
     corresponding attributes.

     A *note CookieJar: 369f. which can load cookies from, and perhaps
     save cookies to, a file on disk.  Cookies are 'NOT' loaded from the
     named file until either the *note load(): 386f. or *note revert():
     3870. method is called.  Subclasses of this class are documented in
     section *note FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web
     browsers: 3871.

     This should not be initialized directly – use its subclasses below
     instead.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The filename parameter supports a *note path-like
     object: 975.

 -- 類別: http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy

     This class is responsible for deciding whether each cookie should
     be accepted from / returned to the server.

 -- 類別: http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy (blocked_domains=None,
          allowed_domains=None, netscape=True, rfc2965=False,
          rfc2109_as_netscape=None, hide_cookie2=False,
          strict_domain=False, strict_rfc2965_unverifiable=True,
          strict_ns_unverifiable=False,
          strict_ns_domain=DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal,
          strict_ns_set_initial_dollar=False, strict_ns_set_path=False,
          secure_protocols=('https', 'wss'))

     Constructor arguments should be passed as keyword arguments only.
     'blocked_domains' is a sequence of domain names that we never
     accept cookies from, nor return cookies to.  'allowed_domains' if
     not *note None: 470, this is a sequence of the only domains for
     which we accept and return cookies.  'secure_protocols' is a
     sequence of protocols for which secure cookies can be added to.  By
     default 'https' and 'wss' (secure websocket) are considered secure
     protocols.  For all other arguments, see the documentation for
     *note CookiePolicy: 386e. and *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 17f6.
     objects.

     *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 17f6. implements the standard accept /
     reject rules for Netscape and RFC 2965(4) cookies.  By default, RFC
     2109(5) cookies (ie.  cookies received in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header
     with a version cookie-attribute of 1) are treated according to the
     RFC 2965 rules.  However, if RFC 2965 handling is turned off or
     *note rfc2109_as_netscape: 3872. is ‘True’, RFC 2109 cookies are
     'downgraded' by the *note CookieJar: 369f. instance to Netscape
     cookies, by setting the ‘version’ attribute of the *note Cookie:
     3873. instance to 0.  *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 17f6. also
     provides some parameters to allow some fine-tuning of policy.

 -- 類別: http.cookiejar.Cookie

     This class represents Netscape, RFC 2109(6) and RFC 2965(7)
     cookies.  It is not expected that users of *note http.cookiejar:
     6b. construct their own *note Cookie: 3873. instances.  Instead, if
     necessary, call ‘make_cookies()’ on a *note CookieJar: 369f.
     instance.

也參考
......

*note urllib.request: 106. 模組

     URL opening with automatic cookie handling.

*note http.cookies: 6c. 模組

     HTTP cookie classes, principally useful for server-side code.  The
     *note http.cookiejar: 6b. and *note http.cookies: 6c. modules do
     not depend on each other.

‘https://curl.se/rfc/cookie_spec.html’

     The specification of the original Netscape cookie protocol.  Though
     this is still the dominant protocol, the 'Netscape cookie protocol'
     implemented by all the major browsers (and *note http.cookiejar:
     6b.) only bears a passing resemblance to the one sketched out in
     ‘cookie_spec.html’.

RFC 2109(8) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     Obsoleted by RFC 2965(9).  Uses ‘Set-Cookie’ with version=1.

RFC 2965(10) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     The Netscape protocol with the bugs fixed.  Uses ‘Set-Cookie2’ in
     place of ‘Set-Cookie’.  Not widely used.

‘https://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html’

     Unfinished errata to RFC 2965(11).

RFC 2964(12) - Use of HTTP State Management

* Menu:

* CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件::
* FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers::
* CookiePolicy 物件::
* DefaultCookiePolicy 物件::
* Cookie 物件: Cookie 物件<2>.
* 範例: 範例<39>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/cookiejar.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2964.html


File: python.info,  Node: CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件,  Next: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Up: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理

5.21.19.1 CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件
.........................................

*note CookieJar: 369f. objects support the *note iterator: 1718.
protocol for iterating over contained *note Cookie: 3873. objects.

*note CookieJar: 369f. has the following methods:

 -- 方法: CookieJar.add_cookie_header (request)

     Add correct ‘Cookie’ header to 'request'.

     If policy allows (ie.  the ‘rfc2965’ and ‘hide_cookie2’ attributes
     of the *note CookieJar: 369f.'s *note CookiePolicy: 386e. instance
     are true and false respectively), the ‘Cookie2’ header is also
     added when appropriate.

     The 'request' object (usually a *note urllib.request.Request: e6a.
     instance) must support the methods ‘get_full_url()’,
     ‘has_header()’, ‘get_header()’, ‘header_items()’,
     ‘add_unredirected_header()’ and the attributes ‘host’, ‘type’,
     ‘unverifiable’ and ‘origin_req_host’ as documented by *note
     urllib.request: 106.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 'request' object needs ‘origin_req_host’
     attribute.  Dependency on a deprecated method
     ‘get_origin_req_host()’ has been removed.

 -- 方法: CookieJar.extract_cookies (response, request)

     Extract cookies from HTTP 'response' and store them in the *note
     CookieJar: 369f, where allowed by policy.

     The *note CookieJar: 369f. will look for allowable ‘Set-Cookie’ and
     ‘Set-Cookie2’ headers in the 'response' argument, and store cookies
     as appropriate (subject to the *note CookiePolicy.set_ok(): 3878.
     method's approval).

     The 'response' object (usually the result of a call to *note
     urllib.request.urlopen(): 27f, or similar) should support an
     ‘info()’ method, which returns an *note email.message.Message: b05.
     instance.

     The 'request' object (usually a *note urllib.request.Request: e6a.
     instance) must support the method ‘get_full_url()’ and the
     attributes ‘host’, ‘unverifiable’ and ‘origin_req_host’, as
     documented by *note urllib.request: 106.  The request is used to
     set default values for cookie-attributes as well as for checking
     that the cookie is allowed to be set.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 'request' object needs ‘origin_req_host’
     attribute.  Dependency on a deprecated method
     ‘get_origin_req_host()’ has been removed.

 -- 方法: CookieJar.set_policy (policy)

     Set the *note CookiePolicy: 386e. instance to be used.

 -- 方法: CookieJar.make_cookies (response, request)

     Return sequence of *note Cookie: 3873. objects extracted from
     'response' object.

     See the documentation for *note extract_cookies(): 3877. for the
     interfaces required of the 'response' and 'request' arguments.

 -- 方法: CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok (cookie, request)

     Set a *note Cookie: 3873. if policy says it's OK to do so.

 -- 方法: CookieJar.set_cookie (cookie)

     Set a *note Cookie: 3873, without checking with policy to see
     whether or not it should be set.

 -- 方法: CookieJar.clear ([domain[, path[, name]]])

     Clear some cookies.

     If invoked without arguments, clear all cookies.  If given a single
     argument, only cookies belonging to that 'domain' will be removed.
     If given two arguments, cookies belonging to the specified 'domain'
     and URL 'path' are removed.  If given three arguments, then the
     cookie with the specified 'domain', 'path' and 'name' is removed.

     Raises *note KeyError: 8ed. if no matching cookie exists.

 -- 方法: CookieJar.clear_session_cookies ()

     Discard all session cookies.

     Discards all contained cookies that have a true ‘discard’ attribute
     (usually because they had either no ‘max-age’ or ‘expires’
     cookie-attribute, or an explicit ‘discard’ cookie-attribute).  For
     interactive browsers, the end of a session usually corresponds to
     closing the browser window.

     Note that the ‘save()’ method won't save session cookies anyway,
     unless you ask otherwise by passing a true 'ignore_discard'
     argument.

*note FileCookieJar: 386d. implements the following additional methods:

 -- 方法: FileCookieJar.save (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Save cookies to a file.

     This base class raises *note NotImplementedError: bc0.  Subclasses
     may leave this method unimplemented.

     'filename' is the name of file in which to save cookies.  If
     'filename' is not specified, ‘self.filename’ is used (whose default
     is the value passed to the constructor, if any); if ‘self.filename’
     is *note None: 470, *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

     'ignore_discard': save even cookies set to be discarded.
     'ignore_expires': save even cookies that have expired

     The file is overwritten if it already exists, thus wiping all the
     cookies it contains.  Saved cookies can be restored later using the
     *note load(): 386f. or *note revert(): 3870. methods.

 -- 方法: FileCookieJar.load (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Load cookies from a file.

     Old cookies are kept unless overwritten by newly loaded ones.

     Arguments are as for *note save(): 387f.

     The named file must be in the format understood by the class, or
     *note LoadError: 386c. will be raised.  Also, *note OSError: 644.
     may be raised, for example if the file does not exist.

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note IOError: ee8. used to be raised, it is now
     an alias of *note OSError: 644.

 -- 方法: FileCookieJar.revert (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Clear all cookies and reload cookies from a saved file.

     *note revert(): 3870. can raise the same exceptions as *note
     load(): 386f.  If there is a failure, the object's state will not
     be altered.

*note FileCookieJar: 386d. instances have the following public
attributes:

 -- 屬性: FileCookieJar.filename

     Filename of default file in which to keep cookies.  This attribute
     may be assigned to.

 -- 屬性: FileCookieJar.delayload

     If true, load cookies lazily from disk.  This attribute should not
     be assigned to.  This is only a hint, since this only affects
     performance, not behaviour (unless the cookies on disk are
     changing).  A *note CookieJar: 369f. object may ignore it.  None of
     the *note FileCookieJar: 386d. classes included in the standard
     library lazily loads cookies.


File: python.info,  Node: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Next: CookiePolicy 物件,  Prev: CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件,  Up: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理

5.21.19.2 FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers
.....................................................................

The following *note CookieJar: 369f. subclasses are provided for reading
and writing.

 -- 類別: http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar (filename=None,
          delayload=None, policy=None)

     A *note FileCookieJar: 386d. that can load from and save cookies to
     disk in the Mozilla ‘cookies.txt’ file format (which is also used
     by curl and the Lynx and Netscape browsers).

          備註: This loses information about RFC 2965(1) cookies, and
          also about newer or non-standard cookie-attributes such as
          ‘port’.

          警告: Back up your cookies before saving if you have cookies
          whose loss / corruption would be inconvenient (there are some
          subtleties which may lead to slight changes in the file over a
          load / save round-trip).

     Also note that cookies saved while Mozilla is running will get
     clobbered by Mozilla.

 -- 類別: http.cookiejar.LWPCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None,
          policy=None)

     A *note FileCookieJar: 386d. that can load from and save cookies to
     disk in format compatible with the libwww-perl library's
     ‘Set-Cookie3’ file format.  This is convenient if you want to store
     cookies in a human-readable file.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The filename parameter supports a *note path-like
     object: 975.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: CookiePolicy 物件,  Next: DefaultCookiePolicy 物件,  Prev: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Up: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理

5.21.19.3 CookiePolicy 物件
...........................

Objects implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 386e. interface have the
following methods:

 -- 方法: CookiePolicy.set_ok (cookie, request)

     Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be accepted
     from server.

     'cookie' is a *note Cookie: 3873. instance.  'request' is an object
     implementing the interface defined by the documentation for *note
     CookieJar.extract_cookies(): 3877.

 -- 方法: CookiePolicy.return_ok (cookie, request)

     Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be returned
     to server.

     'cookie' is a *note Cookie: 3873. instance.  'request' is an object
     implementing the interface defined by the documentation for *note
     CookieJar.add_cookie_header(): 3876.

 -- 方法: CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok (domain, request)

     Return ‘False’ if cookies should not be returned, given cookie
     domain.

     This method is an optimization.  It removes the need for checking
     every cookie with a particular domain (which might involve reading
     many files).  Returning true from *note domain_return_ok(): 3888.
     and *note path_return_ok(): 3889. leaves all the work to *note
     return_ok(): 3887.

     If *note domain_return_ok(): 3888. returns true for the cookie
     domain, *note path_return_ok(): 3889. is called for the cookie
     path.  Otherwise, *note path_return_ok(): 3889. and *note
     return_ok(): 3887. are never called for that cookie domain.  If
     *note path_return_ok(): 3889. returns true, *note return_ok():
     3887. is called with the *note Cookie: 3873. object itself for a
     full check.  Otherwise, *note return_ok(): 3887. is never called
     for that cookie path.

     Note that *note domain_return_ok(): 3888. is called for every
     'cookie' domain, not just for the 'request' domain.  For example,
     the function might be called with both ‘".example.com"’ and
     ‘"www.example.com"’ if the request domain is ‘"www.example.com"’.
     The same goes for *note path_return_ok(): 3889.

     The 'request' argument is as documented for *note return_ok():
     3887.

 -- 方法: CookiePolicy.path_return_ok (path, request)

     Return ‘False’ if cookies should not be returned, given cookie
     path.

     關於 *note domain_return_ok(): 3888. 請見文件。

In addition to implementing the methods above, implementations of the
*note CookiePolicy: 386e. interface must also supply the following
attributes, indicating which protocols should be used, and how.  All of
these attributes may be assigned to.

 -- 屬性: CookiePolicy.netscape

     Implement Netscape protocol.

 -- 屬性: CookiePolicy.rfc2965

     Implement RFC 2965(1) protocol.

 -- 屬性: CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2

     Don't add ‘Cookie2’ header to requests (the presence of this header
     indicates to the server that we understand RFC 2965(2) cookies).

The most useful way to define a *note CookiePolicy: 386e. class is by
subclassing from *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 17f6. and overriding some or
all of the methods above.  *note CookiePolicy: 386e. itself may be used
as a 'null policy' to allow setting and receiving any and all cookies
(this is unlikely to be useful).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: DefaultCookiePolicy 物件,  Next: Cookie 物件<2>,  Prev: CookiePolicy 物件,  Up: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理

5.21.19.4 DefaultCookiePolicy 物件
..................................

Implements the standard rules for accepting and returning cookies.

Both RFC 2965(1) and Netscape cookies are covered.  RFC 2965 handling is
switched off by default.

The easiest way to provide your own policy is to override this class and
call its methods in your overridden implementations before adding your
own additional checks:

     import http.cookiejar
     class MyCookiePolicy(http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy):
         def set_ok(self, cookie, request):
             if not http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_ok(self, cookie, request):
                 return False
             if i_dont_want_to_store_this_cookie(cookie):
                 return False
             return True

In addition to the features required to implement the *note
CookiePolicy: 386e. interface, this class allows you to block and allow
domains from setting and receiving cookies.  There are also some
strictness switches that allow you to tighten up the rather loose
Netscape protocol rules a little bit (at the cost of blocking some
benign cookies).

A domain blocklist and allowlist is provided (both off by default).
Only domains not in the blocklist and present in the allowlist (if the
allowlist is active) participate in cookie setting and returning.  Use
the 'blocked_domains' constructor argument, and ‘blocked_domains()’ and
‘set_blocked_domains()’ methods (and the corresponding argument and
methods for 'allowed_domains').  If you set an allowlist, you can turn
it off again by setting it to *note None: 470.

Domains in block or allow lists that do not start with a dot must equal
the cookie domain to be matched.  For example, ‘"example.com"’ matches a
blocklist entry of ‘"example.com"’, but ‘"www.example.com"’ does not.
Domains that do start with a dot are matched by more specific domains
too.  For example, both ‘"www.example.com"’ and
‘"www.coyote.example.com"’ match ‘".example.com"’ (but ‘"example.com"’
itself does not).  IP addresses are an exception, and must match
exactly.  For example, if blocked_domains contains ‘"192.168.1.2"’ and
‘".168.1.2"’, 192.168.1.2 is blocked, but 193.168.1.2 is not.

*note DefaultCookiePolicy: 17f6. implements the following additional
methods:

 -- 方法: DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains ()

     Return the sequence of blocked domains (as a tuple).

 -- 方法: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains (blocked_domains)

     Set the sequence of blocked domains.

 -- 方法: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked (domain)

     Return ‘True’ if 'domain' is on the blocklist for setting or
     receiving cookies.

 -- 方法: DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains ()

     Return *note None: 470, or the sequence of allowed domains (as a
     tuple).

 -- 方法: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains (allowed_domains)

     Set the sequence of allowed domains, or *note None: 470.

 -- 方法: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed (domain)

     Return ‘True’ if 'domain' is not on the allowlist for setting or
     receiving cookies.

*note DefaultCookiePolicy: 17f6. instances have the following
attributes, which are all initialised from the constructor arguments of
the same name, and which may all be assigned to.

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape

     If true, request that the *note CookieJar: 369f. instance downgrade
     RFC 2109(2) cookies (ie.  cookies received in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header
     with a version cookie-attribute of 1) to Netscape cookies by
     setting the version attribute of the *note Cookie: 3873. instance
     to 0.  The default value is *note None: 470, in which case RFC 2109
     cookies are downgraded if and only if RFC 2965(3) handling is
     turned off.  Therefore, RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded by default.

General strictness switches:

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain

     Don't allow sites to set two-component domains with country-code
     top-level domains like ‘.co.uk’, ‘.gov.uk’, ‘.co.nz’.etc.  This is
     far from perfect and isn't guaranteed to work!

RFC 2965(4) protocol strictness switches:

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable

     Follow RFC 2965(5) rules on unverifiable transactions (usually, an
     unverifiable transaction is one resulting from a redirect or a
     request for an image hosted on another site).  If this is false,
     cookies are 'never' blocked on the basis of verifiability

Netscape protocol strictness switches:

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable

     Apply RFC 2965(6) rules on unverifiable transactions even to
     Netscape cookies.

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain

     Flags indicating how strict to be with domain-matching rules for
     Netscape cookies.  See below for acceptable values.

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar

     Ignore cookies in Set-Cookie: headers that have names starting with
     ‘'$'’.

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path

     Don't allow setting cookies whose path doesn't path-match request
     URI.

‘strict_ns_domain’ is a collection of flags.  Its value is constructed
by or-ing together (for example,
‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’ means both flags are set).

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots

     When setting cookies, the 'host prefix' must not contain a dot (eg.
     ‘www.foo.bar.com’ can't set a cookie for ‘.bar.com’, because
     ‘www.foo’ contains a dot).

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain

     Cookies that did not explicitly specify a ‘domain’ cookie-attribute
     can only be returned to a domain equal to the domain that set the
     cookie (eg.  ‘spam.example.com’ won't be returned cookies from
     ‘example.com’ that had no ‘domain’ cookie-attribute).

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match

     When setting cookies, require a full RFC 2965(7) domain-match.

The following attributes are provided for convenience, and are the most
useful combinations of the above flags:

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal

     Equivalent to 0 (ie.  all of the above Netscape domain strictness
     flags switched off).

 -- 屬性: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict

     等價於 ‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: Cookie 物件<2>,  Next: 範例<39>,  Prev: DefaultCookiePolicy 物件,  Up: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理

5.21.19.5 Cookie 物件
.....................

*note Cookie: 3873. instances have Python attributes roughly
corresponding to the standard cookie-attributes specified in the various
cookie standards.  The correspondence is not one-to-one, because there
are complicated rules for assigning default values, because the
‘max-age’ and ‘expires’ cookie-attributes contain equivalent
information, and because RFC 2109(1) cookies may be 'downgraded' by
*note http.cookiejar: 6b. from version 1 to version 0 (Netscape)
cookies.

Assignment to these attributes should not be necessary other than in
rare circumstances in a *note CookiePolicy: 386e. method.  The class
does not enforce internal consistency, so you should know what you're
doing if you do that.

 -- 屬性: Cookie.version

     Integer or *note None: 470.  Netscape cookies have *note version:
     38a1. 0.  RFC 2965(2) and RFC 2109(3) cookies have a ‘version’
     cookie-attribute of 1.  However, note that *note http.cookiejar:
     6b. may 'downgrade' RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in which
     case *note version: 38a1. is 0.

 -- 屬性: Cookie.name

     Cookie name (a string).

 -- 屬性: Cookie.value

     Cookie value (a string), or *note None: 470.

 -- 屬性: Cookie.port

     String representing a port or a set of ports (eg.  '80', or
     '80,8080'), or *note None: 470.

 -- 屬性: Cookie.domain

     Cookie domain (a string).

 -- 屬性: Cookie.path

     Cookie path (a string, eg.  ‘'/acme/rocket_launchers'’).

 -- 屬性: Cookie.secure

     ‘True’ if cookie should only be returned over a secure connection.

 -- 屬性: Cookie.expires

     Integer expiry date in seconds since epoch, or *note None: 470.
     See also the *note is_expired(): 38a9. method.

 -- 屬性: Cookie.discard

     ‘True’ if this is a session cookie.

 -- 屬性: Cookie.comment

     String comment from the server explaining the function of this
     cookie, or *note None: 470.

 -- 屬性: Cookie.comment_url

     URL linking to a comment from the server explaining the function of
     this cookie, or *note None: 470.

 -- 屬性: Cookie.rfc2109

     ‘True’ if this cookie was received as an RFC 2109(4) cookie (ie.
     the cookie arrived in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header, and the value of the
     Version cookie-attribute in that header was 1).  This attribute is
     provided because *note http.cookiejar: 6b. may 'downgrade' RFC 2109
     cookies to Netscape cookies, in which case *note version: 38a1. is
     0.

 -- 屬性: Cookie.port_specified

     ‘True’ if a port or set of ports was explicitly specified by the
     server (in the ‘Set-Cookie’ / ‘Set-Cookie2’ header).

 -- 屬性: Cookie.domain_specified

     ‘True’ if a domain was explicitly specified by the server.

 -- 屬性: Cookie.domain_initial_dot

     ‘True’ if the domain explicitly specified by the server began with
     a dot (‘'.'’).

Cookies may have additional non-standard cookie-attributes.  These may
be accessed using the following methods:

 -- 方法: Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr (name)

     Return ‘True’ if cookie has the named cookie-attribute.

 -- 方法: Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr (name, default=None)

     If cookie has the named cookie-attribute, return its value.
     Otherwise, return 'default'.

 -- 方法: Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr (name, value)

     Set the value of the named cookie-attribute.

The *note Cookie: 3873. class also defines the following method:

 -- 方法: Cookie.is_expired (now=None)

     ‘True’ if cookie has passed the time at which the server requested
     it should expire.  If 'now' is given (in seconds since the epoch),
     return whether the cookie has expired at the specified time.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<39>,  Prev: Cookie 物件<2>,  Up: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理

5.21.19.6 範例
..............

The first example shows the most common usage of *note http.cookiejar:
6b.:

     import http.cookiejar, urllib.request
     cj = http.cookiejar.CookieJar()
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

This example illustrates how to open a URL using your Netscape, Mozilla,
or Lynx cookies (assumes Unix/Netscape convention for location of the
cookies file):

     import os, http.cookiejar, urllib.request
     cj = http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar()
     cj.load(os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".netscape", "cookies.txt"))
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

The next example illustrates the use of *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 17f6.
Turn on RFC 2965(1) cookies, be more strict about domains when setting
and returning Netscape cookies, and block some domains from setting
cookies or having them returned:

     import urllib.request
     from http.cookiejar import CookieJar, DefaultCookiePolicy
     policy = DefaultCookiePolicy(
         rfc2965=True, strict_ns_domain=Policy.DomainStrict,
         blocked_domains=["ads.net", ".ads.net"])
     cj = CookieJar(policy)
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc --- XMLRPC 伺服器與用戶模組,  Next: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取,  Prev: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.20 ‘xmlrpc’ -- XMLRPC 伺服器與用戶模組
-------------------------------------------

XML-RPC 是一種遠端程序呼叫 (Remote Procedure Call) 方法，它使用通過 HTTP
傳輸（transport）的 XML 來做傳遞。有了它，用戶端可以在遠端伺服器上呼叫帶
有參數的方法（伺服器以 URI 命名）並獲取結構化的資料。

‘xmlrpc’ 是一個集合了 XML-RPC 伺服器與用戶端模組實作的套件。這些模組是：

   * *note xmlrpc.client: 128.

   * *note xmlrpc.server: 129.


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取,  Next: xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器,  Prev: xmlrpc --- XMLRPC 伺服器與用戶模組,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.21 ‘xmlrpc.client’ -- XML-RPC 客戶端存取
---------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xmlrpc/client.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via
HTTP(S) as a transport.  With it, a client can call methods with
parameters on a remote server (the server is named by a URI) and get
back structured data.  This module supports writing XML-RPC client code;
it handles all the details of translating between conformable Python
objects and XML on the wire.

     警告: The *note xmlrpc.client: 128. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML 漏洞: 3435.

在 3.5 版的變更: For HTTPS URIs, *note xmlrpc.client: 128. now performs
all the necessary certificate and hostname checks by default.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy (uri, transport=None, encoding=None,
          verbose=False, allow_none=False, use_datetime=False,
          use_builtin_types=False, *, headers=(), context=None)

     A *note ServerProxy: 8a1. instance is an object that manages
     communication with a remote XML-RPC server.  The required first
     argument is a URI (Uniform Resource Indicator), and will normally
     be the URL of the server.  The optional second argument is a
     transport factory instance; by default it is an internal
     ‘SafeTransport’ instance for https: URLs and an internal HTTP
     ‘Transport’ instance otherwise.  The optional third argument is an
     encoding, by default UTF-8.  The optional fourth argument is a
     debugging flag.

     The following parameters govern the use of the returned proxy
     instance.  If 'allow_none' is true, the Python constant ‘None’ will
     be translated into XML; the default behaviour is for ‘None’ to
     raise a *note TypeError: 2ba.  This is a commonly used extension to
     the XML-RPC specification, but isn't supported by all clients and
     servers; see http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php(2) for a
     description.  The 'use_builtin_types' flag can be used to cause
     date/time values to be presented as *note datetime.datetime: 224.
     objects and binary data to be presented as *note bytes: 2c1.
     objects; this flag is false by default.  *note datetime.datetime:
     224, *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0. objects may be
     passed to calls.  The 'headers' parameter is an optional sequence
     of HTTP headers to send with each request, expressed as a sequence
     of 2-tuples representing the header name and value.  (e.g.
     ‘[('Header-Name', 'value')]’).  The obsolete 'use_datetime' flag is
     similar to 'use_builtin_types' but it applies only to date/time
     values.

在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'use_builtin_types' 旗標。

在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'headers' 參數。

Both the HTTP and HTTPS transports support the URL syntax extension for
HTTP Basic Authentication: ‘http://user:pass@host:port/path’.  The
‘user:pass’ portion will be base64-encoded as an HTTP 'Authorization'
header, and sent to the remote server as part of the connection process
when invoking an XML-RPC method.  You only need to use this if the
remote server requires a Basic Authentication user and password.  If an
HTTPS URL is provided, 'context' may be *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. and
configures the SSL settings of the underlying HTTPS connection.

The returned instance is a proxy object with methods that can be used to
invoke corresponding RPC calls on the remote server.  If the remote
server supports the introspection API, the proxy can also be used to
query the remote server for the methods it supports (service discovery)
and fetch other server-associated metadata.

Types that are conformable (e.g.  that can be marshalled through XML),
include the following (and except where noted, they are unmarshalled as
the same Python type):

XML-RPC type               Python type
                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                           
‘boolean’                  *note bool: 17d.
                           
                           
‘int’、‘i1’、‘i2’、        *note int: 17e. in range from -2147483648 to 2147483647.
‘i4’、‘i8’ 或              Values get the ‘<int>’ tag.
‘biginteger’               

‘double’ 或 ‘float’        *note float: 26a.  Values get the ‘<double>’ tag.
                           
                           
‘string’                   *note str: 157.
                           
                           
‘array’                    *note list: 40a. or *note tuple: 4e6. containing
                           conformable elements.  Arrays are returned as
                           *note lists: 40a.
                           
                           
‘struct’                   *note dict: 239.  Keys must be strings, values may be any
                           conformable type.  Objects of user-defined classes can be
                           passed in; only their *note __dict__: 2e2. attribute is
                           transmitted.
                           
                           
‘dateTime.iso8601’         *note DateTime: 1252. or *note datetime.datetime: 224.
                           Returned type depends on values of 'use_builtin_types'
                           and 'use_datetime' flags.
                           
                           
‘base64’                   *note Binary: 38b9, *note bytes: 2c1. or
                           *note bytearray: 2c0.  Returned type depends on the value
                           of the 'use_builtin_types' flag.
                           
                           
‘nil’                      The ‘None’ constant.  Passing is allowed only if
                           'allow_none' is true.
                           
                           
‘bigdecimal’               *note decimal.Decimal: 5f0.  Returned type only.
                           

This is the full set of data types supported by XML-RPC. Method calls
may also raise a special *note Fault: 38ba. instance, used to signal
XML-RPC server errors, or *note ProtocolError: 38bb. used to signal an
error in the HTTP/HTTPS transport layer.  Both *note Fault: 38ba. and
*note ProtocolError: 38bb. derive from a base class called ‘Error’.
Note that the xmlrpc client module currently does not marshal instances
of subclasses of built-in types.

When passing strings, characters special to XML such as ‘<’, ‘>’, and
‘&’ will be automatically escaped.  However, it's the caller's
responsibility to ensure that the string is free of characters that
aren't allowed in XML, such as the control characters with ASCII values
between 0 and 31 (except, of course, tab, newline and carriage return);
failing to do this will result in an XML-RPC request that isn't
well-formed XML. If you have to pass arbitrary bytes via XML-RPC, use
*note bytes: 2c1. or *note bytearray: 2c0. classes or the *note Binary:
38b9. wrapper class described below.

‘Server’ is retained as an alias for *note ServerProxy: 8a1. for
backwards compatibility.  New code should use *note ServerProxy: 8a1.

在 3.5 版的變更: 加入 'context' 引數。

在 3.6 版的變更: Added support of type tags with prefixes (e.g.
‘ex:nil’).  Added support of unmarshalling additional types used by
Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics: ‘i1’, ‘i2’, ‘i8’,
‘biginteger’, ‘float’ and ‘bigdecimal’.  See
‘https://ws.apache.org/xmlrpc/types.html’ for a description.

也參考
......

XML-RPC HOWTO(3)

     A good description of XML-RPC operation and client software in
     several languages.  Contains pretty much everything an XML-RPC
     client developer needs to know.

XML-RPC Introspection(4)

     Describes the XML-RPC protocol extension for introspection.

XML-RPC Specification(5)

     The official specification.

* Menu:

* ServerProxy 物件::
* 日期時間物件::
* Binary Objects::
* Fault Objects::
* ProtocolError 物件::
* MultiCall 物件::
* 便捷的函式::
* Example of Client Usage::
* Example of Client and Server Usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xmlrpc/client.py

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20130120074804/http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php

   (3) https://tldp.org/HOWTO/XML-RPC-HOWTO/index.html

   (4) https://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.io/introspection.html

   (5) http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/spec.html


File: python.info,  Node: ServerProxy 物件,  Next: 日期時間物件,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取

5.21.21.1 ServerProxy 物件
..........................

A *note ServerProxy: 8a1. instance has a method corresponding to each
remote procedure call accepted by the XML-RPC server.  Calling the
method performs an RPC, dispatched by both name and argument signature
(e.g.  the same method name can be overloaded with multiple argument
signatures).  The RPC finishes by returning a value, which may be either
returned data in a conformant type or a *note Fault: 38ba. or *note
ProtocolError: 38bb. object indicating an error.

Servers that support the XML introspection API support some common
methods grouped under the reserved ‘system’ attribute:

 -- 方法: ServerProxy.system.listMethods ()

     This method returns a list of strings, one for each (non-system)
     method supported by the XML-RPC server.

 -- 方法: ServerProxy.system.methodSignature (name)

     This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented
     by the XML-RPC server.  It returns an array of possible signatures
     for this method.  A signature is an array of types.  The first of
     these types is the return type of the method, the rest are
     parameters.

     Because multiple signatures (ie.  overloading) is permitted, this
     method returns a list of signatures rather than a singleton.

     Signatures themselves are restricted to the top level parameters
     expected by a method.  For instance if a method expects one array
     of structs as a parameter, and it returns a string, its signature
     is simply "string, array".  If it expects three integers and
     returns a string, its signature is "string, int, int, int".

     If no signature is defined for the method, a non-array value is
     returned.  In Python this means that the type of the returned value
     will be something other than list.

 -- 方法: ServerProxy.system.methodHelp (name)

     This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented
     by the XML-RPC server.  It returns a documentation string
     describing the use of that method.  If no such string is available,
     an empty string is returned.  The documentation string may contain
     HTML markup.

在 3.5 版的變更: Instances of *note ServerProxy: 8a1. support the *note
context manager: 3c4. protocol for closing the underlying transport.

A working example follows.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     def is_even(n):
         return n % 2 == 0

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(is_even, "is_even")
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     with xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") as proxy:
         print("3 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(3)))
         print("100 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(100)))


File: python.info,  Node: 日期時間物件,  Next: Binary Objects,  Prev: ServerProxy 物件,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取

5.21.21.2 日期時間物件
......................

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.client.DateTime

     This class may be initialized with seconds since the epoch, a time
     tuple, an ISO 8601 time/date string, or a *note datetime.datetime:
     224. instance.  It has the following methods, supported mainly for
     internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:

      -- 方法: decode (string)

          Accept a string as the instance's new time value.

      -- 方法: encode (out)

          Write the XML-RPC encoding of this *note DateTime: 1252. item
          to the 'out' stream object.

     It also supports certain of Python's built-in operators through
     *note rich comparison: 119c. and *note __repr__(): 416. methods.

A working example follows.  The server code:

     import datetime
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     import xmlrpc.client

     def today():
         today = datetime.datetime.today()
         return xmlrpc.client.DateTime(today)

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(today, "today")
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client
     import datetime

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")

     today = proxy.today()
     # 將 ISO8601 字串轉換成 datetime 物件
     converted = datetime.datetime.strptime(today.value, "%Y%m%dT%H:%M:%S")
     print("Today: %s" % converted.strftime("%d.%m.%Y, %H:%M"))


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Objects,  Next: Fault Objects,  Prev: 日期時間物件,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取

5.21.21.3 Binary Objects
........................

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.client.Binary

     This class may be initialized from bytes data (which may include
     NULs).  The primary access to the content of a *note Binary: 38b9.
     object is provided by an attribute:

      -- 屬性: data

          The binary data encapsulated by the *note Binary: 38b9.
          instance.  The data is provided as a *note bytes: 2c1. object.

     *note Binary: 38b9. objects have the following methods, supported
     mainly for internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:

      -- 方法: decode (bytes)

          Accept a base64 *note bytes: 2c1. object and decode it as the
          instance's new data.

      -- 方法: encode (out)

          Write the XML-RPC base 64 encoding of this binary item to the
          'out' stream object.

          The encoded data will have newlines every 76 characters as per
          RFC 2045 section 6.8(1), which was the de facto standard
          base64 specification when the XML-RPC spec was written.

     It also supports certain of Python's built-in operators through
     *note __eq__(): 94f. and *note __ne__(): 138f. methods.

Example usage of the binary objects.  We're going to transfer an image
over XMLRPC:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     import xmlrpc.client

     def python_logo():
         with open("python_logo.jpg", "rb") as handle:
             return xmlrpc.client.Binary(handle.read())

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(python_logo, 'python_logo')

     server.serve_forever()

The client gets the image and saves it to a file:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     with open("fetched_python_logo.jpg", "wb") as handle:
         handle.write(proxy.python_logo().data)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html#section-6.8


File: python.info,  Node: Fault Objects,  Next: ProtocolError 物件,  Prev: Binary Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取

5.21.21.4 Fault Objects
.......................

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.client.Fault

     A *note Fault: 38ba. object encapsulates the content of an XML-RPC
     fault tag.  Fault objects have the following attributes:

      -- 屬性: faultCode

          An int indicating the fault type.

      -- 屬性: faultString

          A string containing a diagnostic message associated with the
          fault.

In the following example we're going to intentionally cause a *note
Fault: 38ba. by returning a complex type object.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     # A marshalling error is going to occur because we're returning a
     # complex number
     def add(x, y):
         return x+y+0j

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(add, 'add')

     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     try:
         proxy.add(2, 5)
     except xmlrpc.client.Fault as err:
         print("A fault occurred")
         print("Fault code: %d" % err.faultCode)
         print("Fault string: %s" % err.faultString)


File: python.info,  Node: ProtocolError 物件,  Next: MultiCall 物件,  Prev: Fault Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取

5.21.21.5 ProtocolError 物件
............................

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError

     A *note ProtocolError: 38bb. object describes a protocol error in
     the underlying transport layer (such as a 404 'not found' error if
     the server named by the URI does not exist).  It has the following
     attributes:

      -- 屬性: url

          The URI or URL that triggered the error.

      -- 屬性: errcode

          The error code.

      -- 屬性: errmsg

          The error message or diagnostic string.

      -- 屬性: headers

          A dict containing the headers of the HTTP/HTTPS request that
          triggered the error.

In the following example we're going to intentionally cause a *note
ProtocolError: 38bb. by providing an invalid URI:

     import xmlrpc.client

     # create a ServerProxy with a URI that doesn't respond to XMLRPC requests
     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://google.com/")

     try:
         proxy.some_method()
     except xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError as err:
         print("A protocol error occurred")
         print("URL: %s" % err.url)
         print("HTTP/HTTPS headers: %s" % err.headers)
         print("Error code: %d" % err.errcode)
         print("Error message: %s" % err.errmsg)


File: python.info,  Node: MultiCall 物件,  Next: 便捷的函式,  Prev: ProtocolError 物件,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取

5.21.21.6 MultiCall 物件
........................

The *note MultiCall: 38d5. object provides a way to encapsulate multiple
calls to a remote server into a single request (1).

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.client.MultiCall (server)

     Create an object used to boxcar method calls.  'server' is the
     eventual target of the call.  Calls can be made to the result
     object, but they will immediately return ‘None’, and only store the
     call name and parameters in the *note MultiCall: 38d5. object.
     Calling the object itself causes all stored calls to be transmitted
     as a single ‘system.multicall’ request.  The result of this call is
     a *note generator: ef7.; iterating over this generator yields the
     individual results.

A usage example of this class follows.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     def add(x, y):
         return x + y

     def subtract(x, y):
         return x - y

     def multiply(x, y):
         return x * y

     def divide(x, y):
         return x // y

     # A simple server with simple arithmetic functions
     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_multicall_functions()
     server.register_function(add, 'add')
     server.register_function(subtract, 'subtract')
     server.register_function(multiply, 'multiply')
     server.register_function(divide, 'divide')
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     multicall = xmlrpc.client.MultiCall(proxy)
     multicall.add(7, 3)
     multicall.subtract(7, 3)
     multicall.multiply(7, 3)
     multicall.divide(7, 3)
     result = multicall()

     print("7+3=%d, 7-3=%d, 7*3=%d, 7//3=%d" % tuple(result))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This approach has been first presented in a discussion on
xmlrpc.com
(https://web.archive.org/web/20060624230303/http://www.xmlrpc.com/discuss/msgReader$1208?mode=topic).


File: python.info,  Node: 便捷的函式,  Next: Example of Client Usage,  Prev: MultiCall 物件,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取

5.21.21.7 便捷的函式
....................

 -- 函式: xmlrpc.client.dumps (params, methodname=None,
          methodresponse=None, encoding=None, allow_none=False)

     Convert 'params' into an XML-RPC request.  or into a response if
     'methodresponse' is true.  'params' can be either a tuple of
     arguments or an instance of the *note Fault: 38ba. exception class.
     If 'methodresponse' is true, only a single value can be returned,
     meaning that 'params' must be of length 1.  'encoding', if
     supplied, is the encoding to use in the generated XML; the default
     is UTF-8.  Python's *note None: 470. value cannot be used in
     standard XML-RPC; to allow using it via an extension, provide a
     true value for 'allow_none'.

 -- 函式: xmlrpc.client.loads (data, use_datetime=False,
          use_builtin_types=False)

     Convert an XML-RPC request or response into Python objects, a
     ‘(params, methodname)’.  'params' is a tuple of argument;
     'methodname' is a string, or ‘None’ if no method name is present in
     the packet.  If the XML-RPC packet represents a fault condition,
     this function will raise a *note Fault: 38ba. exception.  The
     'use_builtin_types' flag can be used to cause date/time values to
     be presented as *note datetime.datetime: 224. objects and binary
     data to be presented as *note bytes: 2c1. objects; this flag is
     false by default.

     The obsolete 'use_datetime' flag is similar to 'use_builtin_types'
     but it applies only to date/time values.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 'use_builtin_types' 旗標。


File: python.info,  Node: Example of Client Usage,  Next: Example of Client and Server Usage,  Prev: 便捷的函式,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取

5.21.21.8 Example of Client Usage
.................................

     # simple test program (from the XML-RPC specification)
     from xmlrpc.client import ServerProxy, Error

     # server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000") # local server
     with ServerProxy("http://betty.userland.com") as proxy:

         print(proxy)

         try:
             print(proxy.examples.getStateName(41))
         except Error as v:
             print("ERROR", v)

To access an XML-RPC server through a HTTP proxy, you need to define a
custom transport.  The following example shows how:

     import http.client
     import xmlrpc.client

     class ProxiedTransport(xmlrpc.client.Transport):

         def set_proxy(self, host, port=None, headers=None):
             self.proxy = host, port
             self.proxy_headers = headers

         def make_connection(self, host):
             connection = http.client.HTTPConnection(*self.proxy)
             connection.set_tunnel(host, headers=self.proxy_headers)
             self._connection = host, connection
             return connection

     transport = ProxiedTransport()
     transport.set_proxy('proxy-server', 8080)
     server = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://betty.userland.com', transport=transport)
     print(server.examples.getStateName(41))


File: python.info,  Node: Example of Client and Server Usage,  Prev: Example of Client Usage,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取

5.21.21.9 Example of Client and Server Usage
............................................

See *note SimpleXMLRPCServer 範例: 38db.


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器,  Next: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫,  Prev: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.22 ‘xmlrpc.server’ -- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器
----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xmlrpc/server.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note xmlrpc.server: 129. module provides a basic server framework
for XML-RPC servers written in Python.  Servers can either be free
standing, using *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 38de, or embedded in a CGI
environment, using *note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 38df.

     警告: The *note xmlrpc.server: 129. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML 漏洞: 3435.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer (addr,
          requestHandler=SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True,
          allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True,
          use_builtin_types=False)

     Create a new server instance.  This class provides methods for
     registration of functions that can be called by the XML-RPC
     protocol.  The 'requestHandler' parameter should be a factory for
     request handler instances; it defaults to *note
     SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 11bb.  The 'addr' and 'requestHandler'
     parameters are passed to the *note socketserver.TCPServer: 11b3.
     constructor.  If 'logRequests' is true (the default), requests will
     be logged; setting this parameter to false will turn off logging.
     The 'allow_none' and 'encoding' parameters are passed on to *note
     xmlrpc.client: 128. and control the XML-RPC responses that will be
     returned from the server.  The 'bind_and_activate' parameter
     controls whether ‘server_bind()’ and ‘server_activate()’ are called
     immediately by the constructor; it defaults to true.  Setting it to
     false allows code to manipulate the 'allow_reuse_address' class
     variable before the address is bound.  The 'use_builtin_types'
     parameter is passed to the *note loads(): 12a7. function and
     controls which types are processed when date/times values or binary
     data are received; it defaults to false.

     在 3.3 版的變更: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (allow_none=False,
          encoding=None, use_builtin_types=False)

     Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI
     environment.  The 'allow_none' and 'encoding' parameters are passed
     on to *note xmlrpc.client: 128. and control the XML-RPC responses
     that will be returned from the server.  The 'use_builtin_types'
     parameter is passed to the *note loads(): 12a7. function and
     controls which types are processed when date/times values or binary
     data are received; it defaults to false.

     在 3.3 版的變更: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new request handler instance.  This request handler
     supports ‘POST’ requests and modifies logging so that the
     'logRequests' parameter to the *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 38de.
     constructor parameter is honored.

* Menu:

* SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件::
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::
* Documenting XMLRPC server::
* DocXMLRPCServer 物件::
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xmlrpc/server.py


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件,  Next: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Up: xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器

5.21.22.1 SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件
.................................

The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 38de. class is based on *note
socketserver.TCPServer: 11b3. and provides a means of creating simple,
stand alone XML-RPC servers.

 -- 方法: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function (function=None,
          name=None)

     Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If
     'name' is given, it will be the method name associated with
     'function', otherwise *note function.__name__: 1165. will be used.
     'name' is a string, and may contain characters not legal in Python
     identifiers, including the period character.

     This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a
     decorator, 'name' can only be given as a keyword argument to
     register 'function' under 'name'.  If no 'name' is given, *note
     function.__name__: 1165. will be used.

     在 3.7 版的變更: *note register_function(): 38e2. 也可被當作裝飾器
     使用。

 -- 方法: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance (instance,
          allow_dotted_names=False)

     Register an object which is used to expose method names which have
     not been registered using *note register_function(): 38e2.  If
     'instance' contains a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is called with the
     requested method name and the parameters from the request.  Its API
     is ‘def _dispatch(self, method, params)’ (note that 'params' does
     not represent a variable argument list).  If it calls an underlying
     function to perform its task, that function is called as
     ‘func(*params)’, expanding the parameter list.  The return value
     from ‘_dispatch()’ is returned to the client as the result.  If
     'instance' does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is searched for
     an attribute matching the name of the requested method.

     If the optional 'allow_dotted_names' argument is true and the
     instance does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, then if the
     requested method name contains periods, each component of the
     method name is searched for individually, with the effect that a
     simple hierarchical search is performed.  The value found from this
     search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the
     return value is passed back to the client.

          警告: Enabling the 'allow_dotted_names' option allows
          intruders to access your module's global variables and may
          allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on your machine.
          Only use this option on a secure, closed network.

 -- 方法: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions ()

     Registers the XML-RPC introspection functions ‘system.listMethods’,
     ‘system.methodHelp’ and ‘system.methodSignature’.

 -- 方法: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions ()

     Registers the XML-RPC multicall function system.multicall.

 -- 屬性: SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths

     An attribute value that must be a tuple listing valid path portions
     of the URL for receiving XML-RPC requests.  Requests posted to
     other paths will result in a 404 "no such page" HTTP error.  If
     this tuple is empty, all paths will be considered valid.  The
     default value is ‘('/', '/RPC2')’.

* Menu:

* SimpleXMLRPCServer 範例::


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer 範例,  Up: SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件

5.21.22.2 SimpleXMLRPCServer 範例
.................................

Server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     # Restrict to a particular path.
     class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
         rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

     # Create server
     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                             requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
         server.register_introspection_functions()

         # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
         # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
         server.register_function(pow)

         # Register a function under a different name
         def adder_function(x, y):
             return x + y
         server.register_function(adder_function, 'add')

         # Register an instance; all the methods of the instance are
         # published as XML-RPC methods (in this case, just 'mul').
         class MyFuncs:
             def mul(self, x, y):
                 return x * y

         server.register_instance(MyFuncs())

         # Run the server's main loop
         server.serve_forever()

The following client code will call the methods made available by the
preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     s = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://localhost:8000')
     print(s.pow(2,3))  # Returns 2**3 = 8
     print(s.add(2,3))  # Returns 5
     print(s.mul(5,2))  # Returns 5*2 = 10

     # Print list of available methods
     print(s.system.listMethods())

‘register_function()’ can also be used as a decorator.  The previous
server example can register functions in a decorator way:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
         rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                             requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
         server.register_introspection_functions()

         # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
         # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
         server.register_function(pow)

         # Register a function under a different name, using
         # register_function as a decorator. *name* can only be given
         # as a keyword argument.
         @server.register_function(name='add')
         def adder_function(x, y):
             return x + y

         # Register a function under function.__name__.
         @server.register_function
         def mul(x, y):
             return x * y

         server.serve_forever()

The following example included in the ‘Lib/xmlrpc/server.py’ module
shows a server allowing dotted names and registering a multicall
function.

     警告: Enabling the 'allow_dotted_names' option allows intruders to
     access your module's global variables and may allow intruders to
     execute arbitrary code on your machine.  Only use this example only
     within a secure, closed network.

     import datetime

     class ExampleService:
         def getData(self):
             return '42'

         class currentTime:
             @staticmethod
             def getCurrentTime():
                 return datetime.datetime.now()

     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) as server:
         server.register_function(pow)
         server.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
         server.register_instance(ExampleService(), allow_dotted_names=True)
         server.register_multicall_functions()
         print('Serving XML-RPC on localhost port 8000')
         try:
             server.serve_forever()
         except KeyboardInterrupt:
             print("\nKeyboard interrupt received, exiting.")
             sys.exit(0)

This ExampleService demo can be invoked from the command line:

     python -m xmlrpc.server

The client that interacts with the above server is included in
‘Lib/xmlrpc/client.py’:

     server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000")

     try:
         print(server.currentTime.getCurrentTime())
     except Error as v:
         print("ERROR", v)

     multi = MultiCall(server)
     multi.getData()
     multi.pow(2,9)
     multi.add(1,2)
     try:
         for response in multi():
             print(response)
     except Error as v:
         print("ERROR", v)

This client which interacts with the demo XMLRPC server can be invoked
as:

     python -m xmlrpc.client


File: python.info,  Node: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Next: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Prev: SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件,  Up: xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器

5.21.22.3 CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
.................................

The *note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 38df. class can be used to handle
XML-RPC requests sent to Python CGI scripts.

 -- 方法: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function (function=None,
          name=None)

     Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If
     'name' is given, it will be the method name associated with
     'function', otherwise *note function.__name__: 1165. will be used.
     'name' is a string, and may contain characters not legal in Python
     identifiers, including the period character.

     This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a
     decorator, 'name' can only be given as a keyword argument to
     register 'function' under 'name'.  If no 'name' is given, *note
     function.__name__: 1165. will be used.

     在 3.7 版的變更: *note register_function(): 38e9. 也可被當作裝飾器
     使用。

 -- 方法: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance (instance)

     Register an object which is used to expose method names which have
     not been registered using *note register_function(): 38e9.  If
     instance contains a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is called with the
     requested method name and the parameters from the request; the
     return value is returned to the client as the result.  If instance
     does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is searched for an
     attribute matching the name of the requested method; if the
     requested method name contains periods, each component of the
     method name is searched for individually, with the effect that a
     simple hierarchical search is performed.  The value found from this
     search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the
     return value is passed back to the client.

 -- 方法: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions ()

     Register the XML-RPC introspection functions ‘system.listMethods’,
     ‘system.methodHelp’ and ‘system.methodSignature’.

 -- 方法: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions ()

     Register the XML-RPC multicall function ‘system.multicall’.

 -- 方法: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request (request_text=None)

     Handle an XML-RPC request.  If 'request_text' is given, it should
     be the POST data provided by the HTTP server, otherwise the
     contents of stdin will be used.

範例：

     class MyFuncs:
         def mul(self, x, y):
             return x * y


     handler = CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler()
     handler.register_function(pow)
     handler.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
     handler.register_introspection_functions()
     handler.register_instance(MyFuncs())
     handler.handle_request()


File: python.info,  Node: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Next: DocXMLRPCServer 物件,  Prev: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Up: xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器

5.21.22.4 Documenting XMLRPC server
...................................

These classes extend the above classes to serve HTML documentation in
response to HTTP GET requests.  Servers can either be free standing,
using *note DocXMLRPCServer: 179b, or embedded in a CGI environment,
using *note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 38ef.

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer (addr,
          requestHandler=DocXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True,
          allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True,
          use_builtin_types=True)

     Create a new server instance.  All parameters have the same meaning
     as for *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 38de.; 'requestHandler' defaults
     to *note DocXMLRPCRequestHandler: 38f0.

     在 3.3 版的變更: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI
     environment.

 -- 類別: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new request handler instance.  This request handler
     supports XML-RPC POST requests, documentation GET requests, and
     modifies logging so that the 'logRequests' parameter to the *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 179b. constructor parameter is honored.


File: python.info,  Node: DocXMLRPCServer 物件,  Next: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Prev: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Up: xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器

5.21.22.5 DocXMLRPCServer 物件
..............................

The *note DocXMLRPCServer: 179b. class is derived from *note
SimpleXMLRPCServer: 38de. and provides a means of creating
self-documenting, stand alone XML-RPC servers.  HTTP POST requests are
handled as XML-RPC method calls.  HTTP GET requests are handled by
generating pydoc-style HTML documentation.  This allows a server to
provide its own web-based documentation.

 -- 方法: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title (server_title)

     Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation.  This title
     will be used inside the HTML "title" element.

 -- 方法: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name (server_name)

     Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation.  This name
     will appear at the top of the generated documentation inside a "h1"
     element.

 -- 方法: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation
          (server_documentation)

     Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation.  This
     description will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in
     the documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Prev: DocXMLRPCServer 物件,  Up: xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器

5.21.22.6 DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
....................................

The *note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 38ef. class is derived from *note
CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 38df. and provides a means of creating
self-documenting, XML-RPC CGI scripts.  HTTP POST requests are handled
as XML-RPC method calls.  HTTP GET requests are handled by generating
pydoc-style HTML documentation.  This allows a server to provide its own
web-based documentation.

 -- 方法: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title (server_title)

     Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation.  This title
     will be used inside the HTML "title" element.

 -- 方法: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name (server_name)

     Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation.  This name
     will appear at the top of the generated documentation inside a "h1"
     element.

 -- 方法: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation
          (server_documentation)

     Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation.  This
     description will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in
     the documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫,  Prev: xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器,  Up: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援

5.21.23 ‘ipaddress’ -- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫
-------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/ipaddress.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ipaddress: 7a. provides the capabilities to create, manipulate and
operate on IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and networks.

The functions and classes in this module make it straightforward to
handle various tasks related to IP addresses, including checking whether
or not two hosts are on the same subnet, iterating over all hosts in a
particular subnet, checking whether or not a string represents a valid
IP address or network definition, and so on.

This is the full module API reference—for an overview and introduction,
see *note ipaddress 模組介紹: 38fc.

在 3.3 版被加入.

* Menu:

* Convenience factory functions::
* IP Addresses::
* IP Network definitions::
* Interface objects::
* Other Module Level Functions::
* Custom Exceptions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ipaddress.py


File: python.info,  Node: Convenience factory functions,  Next: IP Addresses,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫

5.21.23.1 Convenience factory functions
.......................................

The *note ipaddress: 7a. module provides factory functions to
conveniently create IP addresses, networks and interfaces:

 -- 函式: ipaddress.ip_address (address)

     Return an *note IPv4Address: 38ff. or *note IPv6Address: 749.
     object depending on the IP address passed as argument.  Either IPv4
     or IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will
     be considered to be IPv4 by default.  A *note ValueError: 183. is
     raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6
     address.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.168.0.1')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::')
          IPv6Address('2001:db8::')

 -- 函式: ipaddress.ip_network (address, strict=True)

     Return an *note IPv4Network: 9a4. or *note IPv6Network: 9a3. object
     depending on the IP address passed as argument.  'address' is a
     string or integer representing the IP network.  Either IPv4 or IPv6
     networks may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be
     considered to be IPv4 by default.  'strict' is passed to *note
     IPv4Network: 9a4. or *note IPv6Network: 9a3. constructor.  A *note
     ValueError: 183. is raised if 'address' does not represent a valid
     IPv4 or IPv6 address, or if the network has host bits set.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.168.0.0/28')
          IPv4Network('192.168.0.0/28')

 -- 函式: ipaddress.ip_interface (address)

     Return an *note IPv4Interface: 15dc. or *note IPv6Interface: 15dd.
     object depending on the IP address passed as argument.  'address'
     is a string or integer representing the IP address.  Either IPv4 or
     IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be
     considered to be IPv4 by default.  A *note ValueError: 183. is
     raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6
     address.

One downside of these convenience functions is that the need to handle
both IPv4 and IPv6 formats means that error messages provide minimal
information on the precise error, as the functions don't know whether
the IPv4 or IPv6 format was intended.  More detailed error reporting can
be obtained by calling the appropriate version specific class
constructors directly.


File: python.info,  Node: IP Addresses,  Next: IP Network definitions,  Prev: Convenience factory functions,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫

5.21.23.2 IP Addresses
......................

* Menu:

* Address objects::
* Conversion to Strings and Integers::
* Operators: Operators<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Address objects,  Next: Conversion to Strings and Integers,  Up: IP Addresses

5.21.23.3 Address objects
.........................

The *note IPv4Address: 38ff. and *note IPv6Address: 749. objects share a
lot of common attributes.  Some attributes that are only meaningful for
IPv6 addresses are also implemented by *note IPv4Address: 38ff. objects,
in order to make it easier to write code that handles both IP versions
correctly.  Address objects are *note hashable: 409, so they can be used
as keys in dictionaries.

 -- 類別: ipaddress.IPv4Address (address)

     Construct an IPv4 address.  An *note AddressValueError: 3904. is
     raised if 'address' is not a valid IPv4 address.

     The following constitutes a valid IPv4 address:

       1. A string in decimal-dot notation, consisting of four decimal
          integers in the inclusive range 0-255, separated by dots (e.g.
          ‘192.168.0.1’).  Each integer represents an octet (byte) in
          the address.  Leading zeroes are not tolerated to prevent
          confusion with octal notation.

       2. An integer that fits into 32 bits.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 2c1. object of length 4
          (most significant octet first).

          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(3232235521)
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(b'\xC0\xA8\x00\x01')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')

     在 3.8 版的變更: Leading zeros are tolerated, even in ambiguous
     cases that look like octal notation.

     在 3.9.5 版的變更: Leading zeros are no longer tolerated and are
     treated as an error.  IPv4 address strings are now parsed as strict
     as glibc *note inet_pton(): 7a3.

      -- 屬性: version

          The appropriate version number: ‘4’ for IPv4, ‘6’ for IPv6.

      -- 屬性: max_prefixlen

          The total number of bits in the address representation for
          this version: ‘32’ for IPv4, ‘128’ for IPv6.

          The prefix defines the number of leading bits in an address
          that are compared to determine whether or not an address is
          part of a network.

      -- 屬性: compressed

      -- 屬性: exploded

          The string representation in dotted decimal notation.  Leading
          zeroes are never included in the representation.

          As IPv4 does not define a shorthand notation for addresses
          with octets set to zero, these two attributes are always the
          same as ‘str(addr)’ for IPv4 addresses.  Exposing these
          attributes makes it easier to write display code that can
          handle both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses.

      -- 屬性: packed

          The binary representation of this address - a *note bytes:
          2c1. object of the appropriate length (most significant octet
          first).  This is 4 bytes for IPv4 and 16 bytes for IPv6.

      -- 屬性: reverse_pointer

          The name of the reverse DNS PTR record for the IP address,
          e.g.:

               >>> ipaddress.ip_address("127.0.0.1").reverse_pointer
               '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
               >>> ipaddress.ip_address("2001:db8::1").reverse_pointer
               '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.8.b.d.0.1.0.0.2.ip6.arpa'

          This is the name that could be used for performing a PTR
          lookup, not the resolved hostname itself.

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: is_multicast

          ‘True’ if the address is reserved for multicast use.  See RFC
          3171(1) (for IPv4) or RFC 2373(2) (for IPv6).

      -- 屬性: is_private

          ‘True’ if the address is defined as not globally reachable by
          iana-ipv4-special-registry(3) (for IPv4) or
          iana-ipv6-special-registry(4) (for IPv6) with the following
          exceptions:

             * ‘is_private’ is ‘False’ for the shared address space
               (‘100.64.0.0/10’)

             * For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is
               determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4
               addresses and the following condition holds (see *note
               IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 390c.):

                    address.is_private == address.ipv4_mapped.is_private

          ‘is_private’ has value opposite to *note is_global: dec,
          except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range)
          where they are both ‘False’.

          在 3.12.4 版的變更: Fixed some false positives and false
          negatives.

             * ‘192.0.0.0/24’ is considered private with the exception
               of ‘192.0.0.9/32’ and ‘192.0.0.10/32’ (previously: only
               the ‘192.0.0.0/29’ sub-range was considered private).

             * ‘64:ff9b:1::/48’ is considered private.

             * ‘2002::/16’ is considered private.

             * There are exceptions within ‘2001::/23’ (otherwise
               considered private): ‘2001:1::1/128’, ‘2001:1::2/128’,
               ‘2001:3::/32’, ‘2001:4:112::/48’, ‘2001:20::/28’,
               ‘2001:30::/28’.  The exceptions are not considered
               private.

      -- 屬性: is_global

          ‘True’ if the address is defined as globally reachable by
          iana-ipv4-special-registry(5) (for IPv4) or
          iana-ipv6-special-registry(6) (for IPv6) with the following
          exception:

          For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is
          determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4 addresses
          and the following condition holds (see *note
          IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 390c.):

               address.is_global == address.ipv4_mapped.is_global

          ‘is_global’ has value opposite to *note is_private: 141c,
          except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range)
          where they are both ‘False’.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

          在 3.12.4 版的變更: Fixed some false positives and false
          negatives, see *note is_private: 141c. for details.

      -- 屬性: is_unspecified

          ‘True’ if the address is unspecified.  See RFC 5735(7) (for
          IPv4) or RFC 2373(8) (for IPv6).

      -- 屬性: is_reserved

          ‘True’ if the address is otherwise IETF reserved.

      -- 屬性: is_loopback

          ‘True’ if this is a loopback address.  See RFC 3330(9) (for
          IPv4) or RFC 2373(10) (for IPv6).

      -- 屬性: is_link_local

          ‘True’ if the address is reserved for link-local usage.  See
          RFC 3927(11).

 -- 方法: IPv4Address.__format__ (fmt)

     Returns a string representation of the IP address, controlled by an
     explicit format string.  'fmt' can be one of the following: ‘'s'’,
     the default option, equivalent to *note str(): 157, ‘'b'’ for a
     zero-padded binary string, ‘'X'’ or ‘'x'’ for an uppercase or
     lowercase hexadecimal representation, or ‘'n'’, which is equivalent
     to ‘'b'’ for IPv4 addresses and ‘'x'’ for IPv6.  For binary and
     hexadecimal representations, the form specifier ‘'#'’ and the
     grouping option ‘'_'’ are available.  ‘__format__’ is used by
     ‘format’, ‘str.format’ and f-strings.

          >>> format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
          '192.168.0.1'
          >>> '{:#b}'.format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
          '0b11000000101010000000000000000001'
          >>> f'{ipaddress.IPv6Address("2001:db8::1000"):s}'
          '2001:db8::1000'
          >>> format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'), '_X')
          '2001_0DB8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'
          >>> '{:#_n}'.format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'))
          '0x2001_0db8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ipaddress.IPv6Address (address)

     Construct an IPv6 address.  An *note AddressValueError: 3904. is
     raised if 'address' is not a valid IPv6 address.

     The following constitutes a valid IPv6 address:

       1. A string consisting of eight groups of four hexadecimal
          digits, each group representing 16 bits.  The groups are
          separated by colons.  This describes an 'exploded' (longhand)
          notation.  The string can also be 'compressed' (shorthand
          notation) by various means.  See RFC 4291(12) for details.
          For example, ‘"0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0abc:0007:0def"’ can
          be compressed to ‘"::abc:7:def"’.

          Optionally, the string may also have a scope zone ID,
          expressed with a suffix ‘%scope_id’.  If present, the scope ID
          must be non-empty, and may not contain ‘%’.  See RFC 4007(13)
          for details.  For example, ‘fe80::1234%1’ might identify
          address ‘fe80::1234’ on the first link of the node.

       2. An integer that fits into 128 bits.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 2c1. object of length
          16, big-endian.

          >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
          IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')
          IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')

      -- 屬性: compressed

     The short form of the address representation, with leading zeroes
     in groups omitted and the longest sequence of groups consisting
     entirely of zeroes collapsed to a single empty group.

     This is also the value returned by ‘str(addr)’ for IPv6 addresses.

      -- 屬性: exploded

     The long form of the address representation, with all leading
     zeroes and groups consisting entirely of zeroes included.

     For the following attributes and methods, see the corresponding
     documentation of the *note IPv4Address: 38ff. class:

      -- 屬性: packed

      -- 屬性: reverse_pointer

      -- 屬性: version

      -- 屬性: max_prefixlen

      -- 屬性: is_multicast

      -- 屬性: is_private

      -- 屬性: is_global

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: is_unspecified

      -- 屬性: is_reserved

      -- 屬性: is_loopback

      -- 屬性: is_link_local

      -- 屬性: is_site_local

          ‘True’ if the address is reserved for site-local usage.  Note
          that the site-local address space has been deprecated by RFC
          3879(14).  Use *note is_private: 141c. to test if this address
          is in the space of unique local addresses as defined by RFC
          4193(15).

      -- 屬性: ipv4_mapped

          For addresses that appear to be IPv4 mapped addresses
          (starting with ‘::FFFF/96’), this property will report the
          embedded IPv4 address.  For any other address, this property
          will be ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: scope_id

          For scoped addresses as defined by RFC 4007(16), this property
          identifies the particular zone of the address's scope that the
          address belongs to, as a string.  When no scope zone is
          specified, this property will be ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: sixtofour

          For addresses that appear to be 6to4 addresses (starting with
          ‘2002::/16’) as defined by RFC 3056(17), this property will
          report the embedded IPv4 address.  For any other address, this
          property will be ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: teredo

          For addresses that appear to be Teredo addresses (starting
          with ‘2001::/32’) as defined by RFC 4380(18), this property
          will report the embedded ‘(server, client)’ IP address pair.
          For any other address, this property will be ‘None’.

 -- 方法: IPv6Address.__format__ (fmt)

     Refer to the corresponding method documentation in *note
     IPv4Address: 38ff.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3171.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (3) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (4) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml

   (5) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (6) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5735.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3330.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3927.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3879.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4193.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3056.html

   (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4380.html


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion to Strings and Integers,  Next: Operators<2>,  Prev: Address objects,  Up: IP Addresses

5.21.23.4 Conversion to Strings and Integers
............................................

To interoperate with networking interfaces such as the socket module,
addresses must be converted to strings or integers.  This is handled
using the *note str(): 157. and *note int(): 17e. builtin functions:

     >>> str(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
     '192.168.0.1'
     >>> int(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
     3232235521
     >>> str(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
     '::1'
     >>> int(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
     1

Note that IPv6 scoped addresses are converted to integers without scope
zone ID.


File: python.info,  Node: Operators<2>,  Prev: Conversion to Strings and Integers,  Up: IP Addresses

5.21.23.5 Operators
...................

Address objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Comparison operators::
* Arithmetic operators::


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison operators,  Next: Arithmetic operators,  Up: Operators<2>

5.21.23.6 Comparison operators
..............................

Address objects can be compared with the usual set of comparison
operators.  Same IPv6 addresses with different scope zone IDs are not
equal.  Some examples:

     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') > IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     True
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') == IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     False
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') != IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     True
     >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234') == IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1')
     False
     >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1') != IPv6Address('fe80::1234%2')
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Arithmetic operators,  Prev: Comparison operators,  Up: Operators<2>

5.21.23.7 Arithmetic operators
..............................

Integers can be added to or subtracted from address objects.  Some
examples:

     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') + 3
     IPv4Address('127.0.0.5')
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') - 3
     IPv4Address('126.255.255.255')
     >>> IPv4Address('255.255.255.255') + 1
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ipaddress.AddressValueError: 4294967296 (>= 2**32) is not permitted as an IPv4 address


File: python.info,  Node: IP Network definitions,  Next: Interface objects,  Prev: IP Addresses,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫

5.21.23.8 IP Network definitions
................................

The *note IPv4Network: 9a4. and *note IPv6Network: 9a3. objects provide
a mechanism for defining and inspecting IP network definitions.  A
network definition consists of a 'mask' and a 'network address', and as
such defines a range of IP addresses that equal the network address when
masked (binary AND) with the mask.  For example, a network definition
with the mask ‘255.255.255.0’ and the network address ‘192.168.1.0’
consists of IP addresses in the inclusive range ‘192.168.1.0’ to
‘192.168.1.255’.

* Menu:

* Prefix, net mask and host mask: Prefix net mask and host mask.
* Network objects::
* Operators: Operators<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Prefix net mask and host mask,  Next: Network objects,  Up: IP Network definitions

5.21.23.9 Prefix, net mask and host mask
........................................

There are several equivalent ways to specify IP network masks.  A
'prefix' ‘/<nbits>’ is a notation that denotes how many high-order bits
are set in the network mask.  A 'net mask' is an IP address with some
number of high-order bits set.  Thus the prefix ‘/24’ is equivalent to
the net mask ‘255.255.255.0’ in IPv4, or ‘ffff:ff00::’ in IPv6.  In
addition, a 'host mask' is the logical inverse of a 'net mask', and is
sometimes used (for example in Cisco access control lists) to denote a
network mask.  The host mask equivalent to ‘/24’ in IPv4 is ‘0.0.0.255’.


File: python.info,  Node: Network objects,  Next: Operators<3>,  Prev: Prefix net mask and host mask,  Up: IP Network definitions

5.21.23.10 Network objects
..........................

All attributes implemented by address objects are implemented by network
objects as well.  In addition, network objects implement additional
attributes.  All of these are common between *note IPv4Network: 9a4. and
*note IPv6Network: 9a3, so to avoid duplication they are only documented
for *note IPv4Network: 9a4.  Network objects are *note hashable: 409, so
they can be used as keys in dictionaries.

 -- 類別: ipaddress.IPv4Network (address, strict=True)

     Construct an IPv4 network definition.  'address' can be one of the
     following:

       1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional mask,
          separated by a slash (‘/’).  The IP address is the network
          address, and the mask can be either a single number, which
          means it's a 'prefix', or a string representation of an IPv4
          address.  If it's the latter, the mask is interpreted as a
          'net mask' if it starts with a non-zero field, or as a 'host
          mask' if it starts with a zero field, with the single
          exception of an all-zero mask which is treated as a 'net
          mask'.  If no mask is provided, it's considered to be ‘/32’.

          For example, the following 'address' specifications are
          equivalent: ‘192.168.1.0/24’, ‘192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0’ and
          ‘192.168.1.0/0.0.0.255’.

       2. An integer that fits into 32 bits.  This is equivalent to a
          single-address network, with the network address being
          'address' and the mask being ‘/32’.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 2c1. object of length 4,
          big-endian.  The interpretation is similar to an integer
          'address'.

       4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the
          address description is either a string, a 32-bits integer, a
          4-bytes packed integer, or an existing IPv4Address object; and
          the netmask is either an integer representing the prefix
          length (e.g.  ‘24’) or a string representing the prefix mask
          (e.g.  ‘255.255.255.0’).

     An *note AddressValueError: 3904. is raised if 'address' is not a
     valid IPv4 address.  A *note NetmaskValueError: 3927. is raised if
     the mask is not valid for an IPv4 address.

     If 'strict' is ‘True’ and host bits are set in the supplied
     address, then *note ValueError: 183. is raised.  Otherwise, the
     host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network
     address.

     Unless stated otherwise, all network methods accepting other
     network/address objects will raise *note TypeError: 2ba. if the
     argument's IP version is incompatible to ‘self’.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Added the two-tuple form for the 'address'
     constructor parameter.

      -- 屬性: version

      -- 屬性: max_prefixlen

          Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note
          IPv4Address: 38ff.

      -- 屬性: is_multicast

      -- 屬性: is_private

      -- 屬性: is_unspecified

      -- 屬性: is_reserved

      -- 屬性: is_loopback

      -- 屬性: is_link_local

          These attributes are true for the network as a whole if they
          are true for both the network address and the broadcast
          address.

      -- 屬性: network_address

          The network address for the network.  The network address and
          the prefix length together uniquely define a network.

      -- 屬性: broadcast_address

          The broadcast address for the network.  Packets sent to the
          broadcast address should be received by every host on the
          network.

      -- 屬性: hostmask

          The host mask, as an *note IPv4Address: 38ff. object.

      -- 屬性: netmask

          The net mask, as an *note IPv4Address: 38ff. object.

      -- 屬性: with_prefixlen

      -- 屬性: compressed

      -- 屬性: exploded

          A string representation of the network, with the mask in
          prefix notation.

          ‘with_prefixlen’ and ‘compressed’ are always the same as
          ‘str(network)’.  ‘exploded’ uses the exploded form the network
          address.

      -- 屬性: with_netmask

          A string representation of the network, with the mask in net
          mask notation.

      -- 屬性: with_hostmask

          A string representation of the network, with the mask in host
          mask notation.

      -- 屬性: num_addresses

          The total number of addresses in the network.

      -- 屬性: prefixlen

          Length of the network prefix, in bits.

      -- 方法: hosts ()

          Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The
          usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the
          network, except the network address itself and the network
          broadcast address.  For networks with a mask length of 31, the
          network address and network broadcast address are also
          included in the result.  Networks with a mask of 32 will
          return a list containing the single host address.

               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/29').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.2'),
                IPv4Address('192.0.2.3'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.4'),
                IPv4Address('192.0.2.5'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/31').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]

      -- 方法: overlaps (other)

          ‘True’ if this network is partly or wholly contained in
          'other' or 'other' is wholly contained in this network.

      -- 方法: address_exclude (network)

          Computes the network definitions resulting from removing the
          given 'network' from this one.  Returns an iterator of network
          objects.  Raises *note ValueError: 183. if 'network' is not
          completely contained in this network.

               >>> n1 = ip_network('192.0.2.0/28')
               >>> n2 = ip_network('192.0.2.1/32')
               >>> list(n1.address_exclude(n2))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.8/29'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.4/30'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.2/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')]

      -- 方法: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

          The subnets that join to make the current network definition,
          depending on the argument values.  'prefixlen_diff' is the
          amount our prefix length should be increased by.  'new_prefix'
          is the desired new prefix of the subnets; it must be larger
          than our prefix.  One and only one of 'prefixlen_diff' and
          'new_prefix' must be set.  Returns an iterator of network
          objects.

               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets())
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(prefixlen_diff=2))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=26))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=23))
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
                   raise ValueError('new prefix must be longer')
               ValueError: new prefix must be longer
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=25))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]

      -- 方法: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

          The supernet containing this network definition, depending on
          the argument values.  'prefixlen_diff' is the amount our
          prefix length should be decreased by.  'new_prefix' is the
          desired new prefix of the supernet; it must be smaller than
          our prefix.  One and only one of 'prefixlen_diff' and
          'new_prefix' must be set.  Returns a single network object.

               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet()
               IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/23')
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(prefixlen_diff=2)
               IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/22')
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(new_prefix=20)
               IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/20')

      -- 方法: subnet_of (other)

          Return ‘True’ if this network is a subnet of 'other'.

               >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
               >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
               >>> b.subnet_of(a)
               True

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 方法: supernet_of (other)

          Return ‘True’ if this network is a supernet of 'other'.

               >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
               >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
               >>> a.supernet_of(b)
               True

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 方法: compare_networks (other)

          Compare this network to 'other'.  In this comparison only the
          network addresses are considered; host bits aren't.  Returns
          either ‘-1’, ‘0’ or ‘1’.

               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.2/32'))
               -1
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.0/32'))
               1
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32'))
               0

          在 3.7 版之後被棄用: It uses the same ordering and comparison
          algorithm as "<", "==", and ">"

 -- 類別: ipaddress.IPv6Network (address, strict=True)

     Construct an IPv6 network definition.  'address' can be one of the
     following:

       1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional prefix
          length, separated by a slash (‘/’).  The IP address is the
          network address, and the prefix length must be a single
          number, the 'prefix'.  If no prefix length is provided, it's
          considered to be ‘/128’.

          Note that currently expanded netmasks are not supported.  That
          means ‘2001:db00::0/24’ is a valid argument while
          ‘2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00::’ is not.

       2. An integer that fits into 128 bits.  This is equivalent to a
          single-address network, with the network address being
          'address' and the mask being ‘/128’.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 2c1. object of length
          16, big-endian.  The interpretation is similar to an integer
          'address'.

       4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the
          address description is either a string, a 128-bits integer, a
          16-bytes packed integer, or an existing IPv6Address object;
          and the netmask is an integer representing the prefix length.

     An *note AddressValueError: 3904. is raised if 'address' is not a
     valid IPv6 address.  A *note NetmaskValueError: 3927. is raised if
     the mask is not valid for an IPv6 address.

     If 'strict' is ‘True’ and host bits are set in the supplied
     address, then *note ValueError: 183. is raised.  Otherwise, the
     host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network
     address.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Added the two-tuple form for the 'address'
     constructor parameter.

      -- 屬性: version

      -- 屬性: max_prefixlen

      -- 屬性: is_multicast

      -- 屬性: is_private

      -- 屬性: is_unspecified

      -- 屬性: is_reserved

      -- 屬性: is_loopback

      -- 屬性: is_link_local

      -- 屬性: network_address

      -- 屬性: broadcast_address

      -- 屬性: hostmask

      -- 屬性: netmask

      -- 屬性: with_prefixlen

      -- 屬性: compressed

      -- 屬性: exploded

      -- 屬性: with_netmask

      -- 屬性: with_hostmask

      -- 屬性: num_addresses

      -- 屬性: prefixlen

      -- 方法: hosts ()

          Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The
          usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the
          network, except the Subnet-Router anycast address.  For
          networks with a mask length of 127, the Subnet-Router anycast
          address is also included in the result.  Networks with a mask
          of 128 will return a list containing the single host address.

      -- 方法: overlaps (other)

      -- 方法: address_exclude (network)

      -- 方法: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

      -- 方法: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

      -- 方法: subnet_of (other)

      -- 方法: supernet_of (other)

      -- 方法: compare_networks (other)

          Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note
          IPv4Network: 9a4.

      -- 屬性: is_site_local

          These attribute is true for the network as a whole if it is
          true for both the network address and the broadcast address.


File: python.info,  Node: Operators<3>,  Prev: Network objects,  Up: IP Network definitions

5.21.23.11 Operators
....................

Network objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Logical operators::
* Iteration::
* Networks as containers of addresses::


File: python.info,  Node: Logical operators,  Next: Iteration,  Up: Operators<3>

5.21.23.12 Logical operators
............................

Network objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators.
Network objects are ordered first by network address, then by net mask.


File: python.info,  Node: Iteration,  Next: Networks as containers of addresses,  Prev: Logical operators,  Up: Operators<3>

5.21.23.13 Iteration
....................

Network objects can be iterated to list all the addresses belonging to
the network.  For iteration, 'all' hosts are returned, including
unusable hosts (for usable hosts, use the *note hosts(): 393b. method).
An example:

     >>> for addr in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28'):
     ...     addr
     ...
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.2')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.3')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.4')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.7')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.8')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.9')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.10')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.11')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.12')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.13')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.14')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')


File: python.info,  Node: Networks as containers of addresses,  Prev: Iteration,  Up: Operators<3>

5.21.23.14 Networks as containers of addresses
..............................................

Network objects can act as containers of addresses.  Some examples:

     >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[0]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
     >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[15]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')
     >>> IPv4Address('192.0.2.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
     True
     >>> IPv4Address('192.0.3.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Interface objects,  Next: Other Module Level Functions,  Prev: IP Network definitions,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫

5.21.23.15 Interface objects
............................

Interface objects are *note hashable: 409, so they can be used as keys
in dictionaries.

 -- 類別: ipaddress.IPv4Interface (address)

     Construct an IPv4 interface.  The meaning of 'address' is as in the
     constructor of *note IPv4Network: 9a4, except that arbitrary host
     addresses are always accepted.

     *note IPv4Interface: 15dc. is a subclass of *note IPv4Address:
     38ff, so it inherits all the attributes from that class.  In
     addition, the following attributes are available:

      -- 屬性: ip

          The address (*note IPv4Address: 38ff.) without network
          information.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.ip
               IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')

      -- 屬性: network

          The network (*note IPv4Network: 9a4.) this interface belongs
          to.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.network
               IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

      -- 屬性: with_prefixlen

          A string representation of the interface with the mask in
          prefix notation.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_prefixlen
               '192.0.2.5/24'

      -- 屬性: with_netmask

          A string representation of the interface with the network as a
          net mask.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_netmask
               '192.0.2.5/255.255.255.0'

      -- 屬性: with_hostmask

          A string representation of the interface with the network as a
          host mask.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_hostmask
               '192.0.2.5/0.0.0.255'

 -- 類別: ipaddress.IPv6Interface (address)

     Construct an IPv6 interface.  The meaning of 'address' is as in the
     constructor of *note IPv6Network: 9a3, except that arbitrary host
     addresses are always accepted.

     *note IPv6Interface: 15dd. is a subclass of *note IPv6Address: 749,
     so it inherits all the attributes from that class.  In addition,
     the following attributes are available:

      -- 屬性: ip

      -- 屬性: network

      -- 屬性: with_prefixlen

      -- 屬性: with_netmask

      -- 屬性: with_hostmask

          Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note
          IPv4Interface: 15dc.

* Menu:

* Operators: Operators<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Operators<4>,  Up: Interface objects

5.21.23.16 Operators
....................

Interface objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Logical operators: Logical operators<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Logical operators<2>,  Up: Operators<4>

5.21.23.17 Logical operators
............................

Interface objects can be compared with the usual set of logical
operators.

For equality comparison (‘==’ and ‘!=’), both the IP address and network
must be the same for the objects to be equal.  An interface will not
compare equal to any address or network object.

For ordering (‘<’, ‘>’, etc) the rules are different.  Interface and
address objects with the same IP version can be compared, and the
address objects will always sort before the interface objects.  Two
interface objects are first compared by their networks and, if those are
the same, then by their IP addresses.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Module Level Functions,  Next: Custom Exceptions,  Prev: Interface objects,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫

5.21.23.18 Other Module Level Functions
.......................................

The module also provides the following module level functions:

 -- 函式: ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed (address)

     Represent an address as 4 packed bytes in network (big-endian)
     order.  'address' is an integer representation of an IPv4 IP
     address.  A *note ValueError: 183. is raised if the integer is
     negative or too large to be an IPv4 IP address.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
          IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
          >>> ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed(3221225985)
          b'\xc0\x00\x02\x01'

 -- 函式: ipaddress.v6_int_to_packed (address)

     Represent an address as 16 packed bytes in network (big-endian)
     order.  'address' is an integer representation of an IPv6 IP
     address.  A *note ValueError: 183. is raised if the integer is
     negative or too large to be an IPv6 IP address.

 -- 函式: ipaddress.summarize_address_range (first, last)

     Return an iterator of the summarized network range given the first
     and last IP addresses.  'first' is the first *note IPv4Address:
     38ff. or *note IPv6Address: 749. in the range and 'last' is the
     last *note IPv4Address: 38ff. or *note IPv6Address: 749. in the
     range.  A *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised if 'first' or 'last' are
     not IP addresses or are not of the same version.  A *note
     ValueError: 183. is raised if 'last' is not greater than 'first' or
     if 'first' address version is not 4 or 6.

          >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in ipaddress.summarize_address_range(
          ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'),
          ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.130'))]
          [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.130/32')]

 -- 函式: ipaddress.collapse_addresses (addresses)

     Return an iterator of the collapsed *note IPv4Network: 9a4. or
     *note IPv6Network: 9a3. objects.  'addresses' is an *note iterable:
     10ba. of *note IPv4Network: 9a4. or *note IPv6Network: 9a3.
     objects.  A *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised if 'addresses' contains
     mixed version objects.

          >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in
          ... ipaddress.collapse_addresses([ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'),
          ... ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')])]
          [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')]

 -- 函式: ipaddress.get_mixed_type_key (obj)

     Return a key suitable for sorting between networks and addresses.
     Address and Network objects are not sortable by default; they're
     fundamentally different, so the expression:

          IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') <= IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

     doesn't make sense.  There are some times however, where you may
     wish to have *note ipaddress: 7a. sort these anyway.  If you need
     to do this, you can use this function as the 'key' argument to
     *note sorted(): a2f.

     'obj' is either a network or address object.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Exceptions,  Prev: Other Module Level Functions,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫

5.21.23.19 Custom Exceptions
............................

To support more specific error reporting from class constructors, the
module defines the following exceptions:

 -- 例外: ipaddress.AddressValueError (ValueError)

     Any value error related to the address.

 -- 例外: ipaddress.NetmaskValueError (ValueError)

     Any value error related to the net mask.


File: python.info,  Node: 多媒體服務,  Next: 國際化,  Prev: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.22 多媒體服務
===============

此章節所描述的模組 (module) 實作了多種在多媒體服務中相當有用的演算法和介
面，並可在安裝時決定是否要使用它們。以下為綜述：

* Menu:

* wave: wave --- 讀寫 WAV 檔案. 讀寫 WAV 檔案
* colorsys: colorsys --- 顏色系統間的轉換. 顏色系統間的轉換


File: python.info,  Node: wave --- 讀寫 WAV 檔案,  Next: colorsys --- 顏色系統間的轉換,  Up: 多媒體服務

5.22.1 ‘wave’ -- 讀寫 WAV 檔案
------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/wave.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note wave: 10e. 模組為波形音訊檔案格式「WAVE」（或稱「WAV」）提供了便捷
的介面。僅支援未壓縮的 PCM 編碼波形檔。

在 3.12 版的變更: 增加了標頭 ‘WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE’ 的支援，要求的擴展
格式為 ‘KSDATAFORMAT_SUBTYPE_PCM’。

*note wave: 10e. 模組定義了以下的函式和例外:

 -- 函式: wave.open (file, mode=None)

     如果 'file' 是一個字串，會打開對應名稱的檔案，否則會以類檔案物件處
     理。'mode' 可以是：

     ‘'rb'’

          唯讀模式。

     ‘'wb'’

          唯寫模式。

     請注意，不支援同時讀寫 WAV 檔案。

     'mode' 設定為 ‘'rb'’ 時，會回傳一個 *note Wave_read: 25e. 物件，
     'mode' 設定為 ‘'wb'’ 時，則回傳一個 *note Wave_write: 25f. 物件。如
     果省略 'mode'，並且將類檔案 (file-like) 物件作為 'file' 參數傳遞，
     則 ‘file.mode’ 會是 'mode' 的預設值。

     如果你傳遞一個類檔案物件，當呼叫其 ‘close()’ 方法時，wave 物件不會
     自動關閉該物件；關閉檔案物件的責任會在呼叫者上。

     *note open(): 78c. 函式可以在 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式中使用。當
     ‘with’ 區塊完成時，會呼叫 *note Wave_read.close(): 3978. 或是 *note
     Wave_write.close(): 3979. 方法。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 增加對不可搜尋 (unseekable) 檔案的支援。

 -- 例外: wave.Error

     當不符合 WAV 格式或無法操作時會引發錯誤。

* Menu:

* Wave_read 物件::
* Wave_write 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/wave.py


File: python.info,  Node: Wave_read 物件,  Next: Wave_write 物件,  Up: wave --- 讀寫 WAV 檔案

5.22.1.1 Wave_read 物件
.......................

 -- 類別: wave.Wave_read

     讀取一個 WAV 檔案。

     由 *note open(): 78c. 回傳的 Wave_read 物件具有以下方法：

      -- 方法: close ()

          關閉 *note wave: 10e. 開啟的串流並使該實例無法使用。當物件回收
          時自動呼叫。

      -- 方法: getnchannels ()

          回傳音訊聲道的數量（單聲道為 ‘1’，立體聲為 ‘2’）。

      -- 方法: getsampwidth ()

          回傳以位元組表示的取樣寬度 (sample width)。

      -- 方法: getframerate ()

          回傳取樣率。

      -- 方法: getnframes ()

          回傳音訊幀數。

      -- 方法: getcomptype ()

          回傳壓縮類型（僅支援 ‘'NONE'’ 類型）。

      -- 方法: getcompname ()

          *note getcomptype(): 3981. 的人類可讀的版本。通常使用 ‘'not
          compressed'’ 代替 ‘'NONE'’。

      -- 方法: getparams ()

          回傳一個 *note namedtuple(): 731. ‘(nchannels, sampwidth,
          framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)’，等同於 ‘get*()’ 方法
          的輸出。

      -- 方法: readframes (n)

          讀取並回傳以 *note bytes: 2c1. 物件表示的最多 'n' 個音訊幀。

      -- 方法: rewind ()

          重置檔案指標至音訊流的開頭。

     以下兩個方法是為了與 *note aifc: 5. 模組的保持相容性，並不執行任何
     操作。

      -- 方法: getmarkers ()

          回傳 ‘None’。

      -- 方法: getmark (id)

          引發錯誤。

     以下兩個方法所定義的「位置」，在它們之間是相容的，但其他情況下則取
     決於具體實作方式。

      -- 方法: setpos (pos)

          將檔案指標設定為指定的位置。

      -- 方法: tell ()

          回傳目前的檔案指標位置。


File: python.info,  Node: Wave_write 物件,  Prev: Wave_read 物件,  Up: wave --- 讀寫 WAV 檔案

5.22.1.2 Wave_write 物件
........................

 -- 類別: wave.Wave_write

     寫入一個 WAV 檔案。

     Wave_write 物件，由 *note open(): 78c. 回傳。

     對於可搜尋 (seekable) 的輸出串流，‘wave’ 標頭將自動更新，以反映實際
     寫入的幀數。對於不可搜尋的串流，當寫入第一個幀資料時，'nframes' 的
     值必須是準確的。要取得準確的 'nframes' 值，可以通過呼叫 *note
     setnframes(): 398b. 或 *note setparams(): 398c. 方法，並在呼叫
     *note close(): 3979. 之前設定將寫入的幀數量，然後使用 *note
     writeframesraw(): e7e. 方法寫入幀資料；或者通過呼叫 *note
     writeframes(): e7f. 方法一次性寫入所有的幀資料。在後一種情況下，
     *note writeframes(): e7f. 方法將計算資料中的幀數量，並在寫入幀資料
     之前相應地設定 'nframes' 的值。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 增加對不可搜尋 (unseekable) 檔案的支援。

     Wave_write 物件具有以下方法：

      -- 方法: close ()

          確保 'nframes' 正確，如果該檔案是由 *note wave: 10e. 開啟的，
          則關閉該檔案。此方法在物件回收時被呼叫。如果輸出串流不可搜尋且
          'nframes' 不符合實際寫入的幀數，則會引發例外。

      -- 方法: setnchannels (n)

          設定音訊的通道數量。

      -- 方法: setsampwidth (n)

          設定取樣寬度為 'n' 個位元組。

      -- 方法: setframerate (n)

          設定取樣頻率為 'n'。

          在 3.2 版的變更: 此方法的非整數輸入會被將四捨五入到最接近的整
          數。

      -- 方法: setnframes (n)

          設定幀數為 'n'。如果實際寫入的幀數不同，則稍後將進行更改（如果
          輸出串流不可搜尋，則此嘗試將引發錯誤）。

      -- 方法: setcomptype (type, name)

          設定壓縮類型和描述。目前只支援壓縮類型為 ‘NONE’，表示無壓縮。

      -- 方法: setparams (tuple)

          這個 'tuple' 應該是 ‘(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate,
          nframes, comptype, compname)’，值需要是符合 ‘set*()’ 方法的參
          數。設定所有參數。

      -- 方法: tell ()

          回傳檔案中的指標位置，其指標位置含意與 *note Wave_read.tell():
          3989. 和 *note Wave_read.setpos(): 3988. 是一致的。

      -- 方法: writeframesraw (data)

          寫入音訊幀，不修正 'nframes'。

          在 3.4 版的變更: 現在可接受任何 *note bytes-like object: b9f.。

      -- 方法: writeframes (data)

          寫入音訊幀並確保 'nframes' 正確。如果輸出串流不可搜尋，並且在
          寫入 'data' 後已寫入的總幀數與先前設定的 'nframes' 值不符，則
          會引發錯誤。

          在 3.4 版的變更: 現在可接受任何 *note bytes-like object: b9f.。

          注意在呼叫 *note writeframes(): e7f. 或 *note
          writeframesraw(): e7e. 之後設置任何參數都是無效的，任何嘗試這
          樣做的操作都會引發 *note wave.Error: 397a.。


File: python.info,  Node: colorsys --- 顏色系統間的轉換,  Prev: wave --- 讀寫 WAV 檔案,  Up: 多媒體服務

5.22.2 ‘colorsys’ -- 顏色系統間的轉換
-------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/colorsys.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note colorsys: 1d. 模組 (module) 定義了電腦顯示器所用的 RGB （紅綠藍）
色彩空間與三種其他色彩座標系統：YIQ、HLS (色相、亮度、飽和度) 和 HSV (色
相、 飽和度、 明度) 所表示的顏色值之間的雙向轉換。所有這些色彩空間的座標
都使用浮點數值 (floating-point) 來表示。在 YIQ 空間中，Y 座標值為 0 和 1
之間，而 I 和 Q 座標均可以為正數或負數。在所有其他空間中，座標值均為 0 和
1 之間。

也參考
......

有關色彩空間的更多資訊請見 ‘https://poynton.ca/ColorFAQ.html’ 和
‘https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-spaces.htm’。

*note colorsys: 1d. 模組定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: colorsys.rgb_to_yiq (r, g, b)

     將顏色自 RGB 座標轉換至 YIQ 座標。

 -- 函式: colorsys.yiq_to_rgb (y, i, q)

     將顏色自 YIQ 座標轉換至 RGB 座標。

 -- 函式: colorsys.rgb_to_hls (r, g, b)

     將顏色自 RGB 座標轉換至 HLS 座標。

 -- 函式: colorsys.hls_to_rgb (h, l, s)

     將顏色自 HLS 座標轉換至 RGB 座標。

 -- 函式: colorsys.rgb_to_hsv (r, g, b)

     將顏色自 RGB 座標轉換至 HSV 座標。

 -- 函式: colorsys.hsv_to_rgb (h, s, v)

     將顏色自 HSV 座標轉換至 RGB 座標。

範例：

     >>> import colorsys
     >>> colorsys.rgb_to_hsv(0.2, 0.4, 0.4)
     (0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
     >>> colorsys.hsv_to_rgb(0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
     (0.2, 0.4, 0.4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/colorsys.py


File: python.info,  Node: 國際化,  Next: 程式框架,  Prev: 多媒體服務,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.23 國際化
===========

The modules described in this chapter help you write software that is
independent of language and locale by providing mechanisms for selecting
a language to be used in program messages or by tailoring output to
match local conventions.

本章節所描述的模組列表為：

* Menu:

* gettext: gettext --- 多語言國際化服務. 多語言國際化服務
* locale: locale --- 國際化服務. 國際化服務


File: python.info,  Node: gettext --- 多語言國際化服務,  Next: locale --- 國際化服務,  Up: 國際化

5.23.1 ‘gettext’ -- 多語言國際化服務
------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/gettext.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note gettext: 5e. module provides internationalization (I18N) and
localization (L10N) services for your Python modules and applications.
It supports both the GNU ‘gettext’ message catalog API and a higher
level, class-based API that may be more appropriate for Python files.
The interface described below allows you to write your module and
application messages in one natural language, and provide a catalog of
translated messages for running under different natural languages.

Some hints on localizing your Python modules and applications are also
given.

* Menu:

* GNU gettext API::
* Class-based API::
* Internationalizing your programs and modules::
* 致謝: 致謝<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/gettext.py


File: python.info,  Node: GNU gettext API,  Next: Class-based API,  Up: gettext --- 多語言國際化服務

5.23.1.1 GNU ‘gettext’ API
..........................

The *note gettext: 5e. module defines the following API, which is very
similar to the GNU ‘gettext’ API. If you use this API you will affect
the translation of your entire application globally.  Often this is what
you want if your application is monolingual, with the choice of language
dependent on the locale of your user.  If you are localizing a Python
module, or if your application needs to switch languages on the fly, you
probably want to use the class-based API instead.

 -- 函式: gettext.bindtextdomain (domain, localedir=None)

     Bind the 'domain' to the locale directory 'localedir'.  More
     concretely, *note gettext: 5e. will look for binary ‘.mo’ files for
     the given domain using the path (on Unix):
     ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’, where 'language'
     is searched for in the environment variables ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’,
     ‘LC_MESSAGES’, and ‘LANG’ respectively.

     If 'localedir' is omitted or ‘None’, then the current binding for
     'domain' is returned.  (1)

 -- 函式: gettext.textdomain (domain=None)

     Change or query the current global domain.  If 'domain' is ‘None’,
     then the current global domain is returned, otherwise the global
     domain is set to 'domain', which is returned.

 -- 函式: gettext.gettext (message)

     Return the localized translation of 'message', based on the current
     global domain, language, and locale directory.  This function is
     usually aliased as ‘_()’ in the local namespace (see examples
     below).

 -- 函式: gettext.dgettext (domain, message)

     Like *note gettext(): 12d9, but look the message up in the
     specified 'domain'.

 -- 函式: gettext.ngettext (singular, plural, n)

     Like *note gettext(): 12d9, but consider plural forms.  If a
     translation is found, apply the plural formula to 'n', and return
     the resulting message (some languages have more than two plural
     forms).  If no translation is found, return 'singular' if 'n' is 1;
     return 'plural' otherwise.

     The Plural formula is taken from the catalog header.  It is a C or
     Python expression that has a free variable 'n'; the expression
     evaluates to the index of the plural in the catalog.  See the GNU
     gettext documentation(2) for the precise syntax to be used in ‘.po’
     files and the formulas for a variety of languages.

 -- 函式: gettext.dngettext (domain, singular, plural, n)

     Like *note ngettext(): 39a3, but look the message up in the
     specified 'domain'.

 -- 函式: gettext.pgettext (context, message)

 -- 函式: gettext.dpgettext (domain, context, message)

 -- 函式: gettext.npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

 -- 函式: gettext.dnpgettext (domain, context, singular, plural, n)

     Similar to the corresponding functions without the ‘p’ in the
     prefix (that is, *note gettext(): 5e, *note dgettext(): 39a2, *note
     ngettext(): 39a3, *note dngettext(): 39a4.), but the translation is
     restricted to the given message 'context'.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

Note that GNU ‘gettext’ also defines a ‘dcgettext()’ method, but this
was deemed not useful and so it is currently unimplemented.

Here's an example of typical usage for this API:

     import gettext
     gettext.bindtextdomain('myapplication', '/path/to/my/language/directory')
     gettext.textdomain('myapplication')
     _ = gettext.gettext
     # ...
     print(_('This is a translatable string.'))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The default locale directory is system dependent; for example, on
Red Hat Linux it is ‘/usr/share/locale’, but on Solaris it is
‘/usr/lib/locale’.  The ‘gettext’ module does not try to support these
system dependent defaults; instead its default is
‘`sys.base_prefix'/share/locale’ (see *note sys.base_prefix: 39a0.).
For this reason, it is always best to call *note bindtextdomain(): 399f.
with an explicit absolute path at the start of your application.

   (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/gettext.html


File: python.info,  Node: Class-based API,  Next: Internationalizing your programs and modules,  Prev: GNU gettext API,  Up: gettext --- 多語言國際化服務

5.23.1.2 Class-based API
........................

The class-based API of the *note gettext: 5e. module gives you more
flexibility and greater convenience than the GNU ‘gettext’ API. It is
the recommended way of localizing your Python applications and modules.
‘gettext’ defines a *note GNUTranslations: 39a9. class which implements
the parsing of GNU ‘.mo’ format files, and has methods for returning
strings.  Instances of this class can also install themselves in the
built-in namespace as the function ‘_()’.

 -- 函式: gettext.find (domain, localedir=None, languages=None,
          all=False)

     This function implements the standard ‘.mo’ file search algorithm.
     It takes a 'domain', identical to what *note textdomain(): 39a1.
     takes.  Optional 'localedir' is as in *note bindtextdomain(): 399f.
     Optional 'languages' is a list of strings, where each string is a
     language code.

     If 'localedir' is not given, then the default system locale
     directory is used.  (1)  If 'languages' is not given, then the
     following environment variables are searched: ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’,
     ‘LC_MESSAGES’, and ‘LANG’.  The first one returning a non-empty
     value is used for the 'languages' variable.  The environment
     variables should contain a colon separated list of languages, which
     will be split on the colon to produce the expected list of language
     code strings.

     *note find(): 39aa. then expands and normalizes the languages, and
     then iterates through them, searching for an existing file built of
     these components:

     ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’

     The first such file name that exists is returned by *note find():
     39aa.  If no such file is found, then ‘None’ is returned.  If 'all'
     is given, it returns a list of all file names, in the order in
     which they appear in the languages list or the environment
     variables.

 -- 函式: gettext.translation (domain, localedir=None, languages=None,
          class_=None, fallback=False)

     Return a ‘*Translations’ instance based on the 'domain',
     'localedir', and 'languages', which are first passed to *note
     find(): 39aa. to get a list of the associated ‘.mo’ file paths.
     Instances with identical ‘.mo’ file names are cached.  The actual
     class instantiated is 'class_' if provided, otherwise *note
     GNUTranslations: 39a9.  The class's constructor must take a single
     *note file object: 1054. argument.

     If multiple files are found, later files are used as fallbacks for
     earlier ones.  To allow setting the fallback, *note copy.copy():
     2b5. is used to clone each translation object from the cache; the
     actual instance data is still shared with the cache.

     If no ‘.mo’ file is found, this function raises *note OSError: 644.
     if 'fallback' is false (which is the default), and returns a *note
     NullTranslations: 39ab. instance if 'fallback' is true.

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note IOError: ee8. used to be raised, it is now
     an alias of *note OSError: 644.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'codeset' 參數被移除。

 -- 函式: gettext.install (domain, localedir=None, *, names=None)

     This installs the function ‘_()’ in Python's builtins namespace,
     based on 'domain' and 'localedir' which are passed to the function
     *note translation(): 8c5.

     For the 'names' parameter, please see the description of the
     translation object's *note install(): 39ac. method.

     As seen below, you usually mark the strings in your application
     that are candidates for translation, by wrapping them in a call to
     the ‘_()’ function, like this:

          print(_('This string will be translated.'))

     For convenience, you want the ‘_()’ function to be installed in
     Python's builtins namespace, so it is easily accessible in all
     modules of your application.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 'names' is now a keyword-only parameter.

* Menu:

* The NullTranslations class::
* The GNUTranslations class::
* Solaris message catalog support::
* The Catalog constructor::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 請見上方 *note bindtextdomain(): 399f. 之註解。


File: python.info,  Node: The NullTranslations class,  Next: The GNUTranslations class,  Up: Class-based API

5.23.1.3 The ‘NullTranslations’ class
.....................................

Translation classes are what actually implement the translation of
original source file message strings to translated message strings.  The
base class used by all translation classes is *note NullTranslations:
39ab.; this provides the basic interface you can use to write your own
specialized translation classes.  Here are the methods of
‘NullTranslations’:

 -- 類別: gettext.NullTranslations (fp=None)

     Takes an optional *note file object: 1054. 'fp', which is ignored
     by the base class.  Initializes "protected" instance variables
     '_info' and '_charset' which are set by derived classes, as well as
     '_fallback', which is set through *note add_fallback(): 39ae.  It
     then calls ‘self._parse(fp)’ if 'fp' is not ‘None’.

      -- 方法: _parse (fp)

          No-op in the base class, this method takes file object 'fp',
          and reads the data from the file, initializing its message
          catalog.  If you have an unsupported message catalog file
          format, you should override this method to parse your format.

      -- 方法: add_fallback (fallback)

          Add 'fallback' as the fallback object for the current
          translation object.  A translation object should consult the
          fallback if it cannot provide a translation for a given
          message.

      -- 方法: gettext (message)

          If a fallback has been set, forward ‘gettext()’ to the
          fallback.  Otherwise, return 'message'.  Overridden in derived
          classes.

      -- 方法: ngettext (singular, plural, n)

          If a fallback has been set, forward ‘ngettext()’ to the
          fallback.  Otherwise, return 'singular' if 'n' is 1; return
          'plural' otherwise.  Overridden in derived classes.

      -- 方法: pgettext (context, message)

          If a fallback has been set, forward *note pgettext(): 83a. to
          the fallback.  Otherwise, return the translated message.
          Overridden in derived classes.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

          If a fallback has been set, forward *note npgettext(): 39a6.
          to the fallback.  Otherwise, return the translated message.
          Overridden in derived classes.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: info ()

          Return a dictionary containing the metadata found in the
          message catalog file.

      -- 方法: charset ()

          Return the encoding of the message catalog file.

      -- 方法: install (names=None)

          This method installs *note gettext(): 39b0. into the built-in
          namespace, binding it to ‘_’.

          If the 'names' parameter is given, it must be a sequence
          containing the names of functions you want to install in the
          builtins namespace in addition to ‘_()’.  Supported names are
          ‘'gettext'’, ‘'ngettext'’, ‘'pgettext'’, and ‘'npgettext'’.

          Note that this is only one way, albeit the most convenient
          way, to make the ‘_()’ function available to your application.
          Because it affects the entire application globally, and
          specifically the built-in namespace, localized modules should
          never install ‘_()’.  Instead, they should use this code to
          make ‘_()’ available to their module:

               import gettext
               t = gettext.translation('mymodule', ...)
               _ = t.gettext

          This puts ‘_()’ only in the module's global namespace and so
          only affects calls within this module.

          在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 ‘'pgettext'’ 與 ‘'npgettext'’。


File: python.info,  Node: The GNUTranslations class,  Next: Solaris message catalog support,  Prev: The NullTranslations class,  Up: Class-based API

5.23.1.4 The ‘GNUTranslations’ class
....................................

The ‘gettext’ module provides one additional class derived from *note
NullTranslations: 39ab.: *note GNUTranslations: 39a9.  This class
overrides ‘_parse()’ to enable reading GNU ‘gettext’ format ‘.mo’ files
in both big-endian and little-endian format.

*note GNUTranslations: 39a9. parses optional metadata out of the
translation catalog.  It is convention with GNU ‘gettext’ to include
metadata as the translation for the empty string.  This metadata is in
RFC 822(1)-style ‘key: value’ pairs, and should contain the
‘Project-Id-Version’ key.  If the key ‘Content-Type’ is found, then the
‘charset’ property is used to initialize the "protected" ‘_charset’
instance variable, defaulting to ‘None’ if not found.  If the charset
encoding is specified, then all message ids and message strings read
from the catalog are converted to Unicode using this encoding, else
ASCII is assumed.

Since message ids are read as Unicode strings too, all ‘*gettext()’
methods will assume message ids as Unicode strings, not byte strings.

The entire set of key/value pairs are placed into a dictionary and set
as the "protected" ‘_info’ instance variable.

If the ‘.mo’ file's magic number is invalid, the major version number is
unexpected, or if other problems occur while reading the file,
instantiating a *note GNUTranslations: 39a9. class can raise *note
OSError: 644.

 -- 類別: gettext.GNUTranslations

     The following methods are overridden from the base class
     implementation:

      -- 方法: gettext (message)

          Look up the 'message' id in the catalog and return the
          corresponding message string, as a Unicode string.  If there
          is no entry in the catalog for the 'message' id, and a
          fallback has been set, the look up is forwarded to the
          fallback's *note gettext(): 39b0. method.  Otherwise, the
          'message' id is returned.

      -- 方法: ngettext (singular, plural, n)

          Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id.  'singular' is used
          as the message id for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while
          'n' is used to determine which plural form to use.  The
          returned message string is a Unicode string.

          If the message id is not found in the catalog, and a fallback
          is specified, the request is forwarded to the fallback's *note
          ngettext(): 39b1. method.  Otherwise, when 'n' is 1 'singular'
          is returned, and 'plural' is returned in all other cases.

          以下是個範例：

               n = len(os.listdir('.'))
               cat = GNUTranslations(somefile)
               message = cat.ngettext(
                   'There is %(num)d file in this directory',
                   'There are %(num)d files in this directory',
                   n) % {'num': n}

      -- 方法: pgettext (context, message)

          Look up the 'context' and 'message' id in the catalog and
          return the corresponding message string, as a Unicode string.
          If there is no entry in the catalog for the 'message' id and
          'context', and a fallback has been set, the look up is
          forwarded to the fallback's *note pgettext(): 83a. method.
          Otherwise, the 'message' id is returned.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

          Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id.  'singular' is used
          as the message id for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while
          'n' is used to determine which plural form to use.

          If the message id for 'context' is not found in the catalog,
          and a fallback is specified, the request is forwarded to the
          fallback's *note npgettext(): 39a6. method.  Otherwise, when
          'n' is 1 'singular' is returned, and 'plural' is returned in
          all other cases.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Solaris message catalog support,  Next: The Catalog constructor,  Prev: The GNUTranslations class,  Up: Class-based API

5.23.1.5 Solaris message catalog support
........................................

The Solaris operating system defines its own binary ‘.mo’ file format,
but since no documentation can be found on this format, it is not
supported at this time.


File: python.info,  Node: The Catalog constructor,  Prev: Solaris message catalog support,  Up: Class-based API

5.23.1.6 The Catalog constructor
................................

GNOME uses a version of the *note gettext: 5e. module by James
Henstridge, but this version has a slightly different API. Its
documented usage was:

     import gettext
     cat = gettext.Catalog(domain, localedir)
     _ = cat.gettext
     print(_('hello world'))

For compatibility with this older module, the function ‘Catalog()’ is an
alias for the *note translation(): 8c5. function described above.

One difference between this module and Henstridge's: his catalog objects
supported access through a mapping API, but this appears to be unused
and so is not currently supported.


File: python.info,  Node: Internationalizing your programs and modules,  Next: 致謝<9>,  Prev: Class-based API,  Up: gettext --- 多語言國際化服務

5.23.1.7 Internationalizing your programs and modules
.....................................................

Internationalization (I18N) refers to the operation by which a program
is made aware of multiple languages.  Localization (L10N) refers to the
adaptation of your program, once internationalized, to the local
language and cultural habits.  In order to provide multilingual messages
for your Python programs, you need to take the following steps:

  1. prepare your program or module by specially marking translatable
     strings

  2. run a suite of tools over your marked files to generate raw
     messages catalogs

  3. create language-specific translations of the message catalogs

  4. use the *note gettext: 5e. module so that message strings are
     properly translated

In order to prepare your code for I18N, you need to look at all the
strings in your files.  Any string that needs to be translated should be
marked by wrapping it in ‘_('...')’ -- that is, a call to the function
*note _: 5e.  For example:

     filename = 'mylog.txt'
     message = _('writing a log message')
     with open(filename, 'w') as fp:
         fp.write(message)

In this example, the string ‘'writing a log message'’ is marked as a
candidate for translation, while the strings ‘'mylog.txt'’ and ‘'w'’ are
not.

There are a few tools to extract the strings meant for translation.  The
original GNU ‘gettext’ only supported C or C++ source code but its
extended version ‘xgettext’ scans code written in a number of languages,
including Python, to find strings marked as translatable.  Babel(1) is a
Python internationalization library that includes a ‘pybabel’ script to
extract and compile message catalogs.  François Pinard's program called
‘xpot’ does a similar job and is available as part of his po-utils
package(2).

(Python also includes pure-Python versions of these programs, called
‘pygettext.py’ and ‘msgfmt.py’; some Python distributions will install
them for you.  ‘pygettext.py’ is similar to ‘xgettext’, but only
understands Python source code and cannot handle other programming
languages such as C or C++.  ‘pygettext.py’ supports a command-line
interface similar to ‘xgettext’; for details on its use, run
‘pygettext.py --help’.  ‘msgfmt.py’ is binary compatible with GNU
‘msgfmt’.  With these two programs, you may not need the GNU ‘gettext’
package to internationalize your Python applications.)

‘xgettext’, ‘pygettext’, and similar tools generate ‘.po’ files that are
message catalogs.  They are structured human-readable files that contain
every marked string in the source code, along with a placeholder for the
translated versions of these strings.

Copies of these ‘.po’ files are then handed over to the individual human
translators who write translations for every supported natural language.
They send back the completed language-specific versions as a
‘<language-name>.po’ file that's compiled into a machine-readable ‘.mo’
binary catalog file using the ‘msgfmt’ program.  The ‘.mo’ files are
used by the *note gettext: 5e. module for the actual translation
processing at run-time.

How you use the *note gettext: 5e. module in your code depends on
whether you are internationalizing a single module or your entire
application.  The next two sections will discuss each case.

* Menu:

* Localizing your module::
* Localizing your application::
* Changing languages on the fly::
* Deferred translations::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://babel.pocoo.org/

   (2) https://github.com/pinard/po-utils


File: python.info,  Node: Localizing your module,  Next: Localizing your application,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.23.1.8 Localizing your module
...............................

If you are localizing your module, you must take care not to make global
changes, e.g.  to the built-in namespace.  You should not use the GNU
‘gettext’ API but instead the class-based API.

Let's say your module is called "spam" and the module's various natural
language translation ‘.mo’ files reside in ‘/usr/share/locale’ in GNU
‘gettext’ format.  Here's what you would put at the top of your module:

     import gettext
     t = gettext.translation('spam', '/usr/share/locale')
     _ = t.gettext


File: python.info,  Node: Localizing your application,  Next: Changing languages on the fly,  Prev: Localizing your module,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.23.1.9 Localizing your application
....................................

If you are localizing your application, you can install the ‘_()’
function globally into the built-in namespace, usually in the main
driver file of your application.  This will let all your
application-specific files just use ‘_('...')’ without having to
explicitly install it in each file.

In the simple case then, you need only add the following bit of code to
the main driver file of your application:

     import gettext
     gettext.install('myapplication')

If you need to set the locale directory, you can pass it into the *note
install(): 8c6. function:

     import gettext
     gettext.install('myapplication', '/usr/share/locale')


File: python.info,  Node: Changing languages on the fly,  Next: Deferred translations,  Prev: Localizing your application,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.23.1.10 Changing languages on the fly
.......................................

If your program needs to support many languages at the same time, you
may want to create multiple translation instances and then switch
between them explicitly, like so:

     import gettext

     lang1 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['en'])
     lang2 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['fr'])
     lang3 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['de'])

     # start by using language1
     lang1.install()

     # ... time goes by, user selects language 2
     lang2.install()

     # ... more time goes by, user selects language 3
     lang3.install()


File: python.info,  Node: Deferred translations,  Prev: Changing languages on the fly,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.23.1.11 Deferred translations
...............................

In most coding situations, strings are translated where they are coded.
Occasionally however, you need to mark strings for translation, but
defer actual translation until later.  A classic example is:

     animals = ['mollusk',
                'albatross',
                'rat',
                'penguin',
                'python', ]
     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(a)

Here, you want to mark the strings in the ‘animals’ list as being
translatable, but you don't actually want to translate them until they
are printed.

Here is one way you can handle this situation:

     def _(message): return message

     animals = [_('mollusk'),
                _('albatross'),
                _('rat'),
                _('penguin'),
                _('python'), ]

     del _

     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(_(a))

This works because the dummy definition of ‘_()’ simply returns the
string unchanged.  And this dummy definition will temporarily override
any definition of ‘_()’ in the built-in namespace (until the *note del:
1570. command).  Take care, though if you have a previous definition of
‘_()’ in the local namespace.

Note that the second use of ‘_()’ will not identify "a" as being
translatable to the ‘gettext’ program, because the parameter is not a
string literal.

Another way to handle this is with the following example:

     def N_(message): return message

     animals = [N_('mollusk'),
                N_('albatross'),
                N_('rat'),
                N_('penguin'),
                N_('python'), ]

     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(_(a))

In this case, you are marking translatable strings with the function
‘N_()’, which won't conflict with any definition of ‘_()’.  However, you
will need to teach your message extraction program to look for
translatable strings marked with ‘N_()’.  ‘xgettext’, ‘pygettext’,
‘pybabel extract’, and ‘xpot’ all support this through the use of the
‘-k’ command-line switch.  The choice of ‘N_()’ here is totally
arbitrary; it could have just as easily been
‘MarkThisStringForTranslation()’.


File: python.info,  Node: 致謝<9>,  Prev: Internationalizing your programs and modules,  Up: gettext --- 多語言國際化服務

5.23.1.12 致謝
..............

The following people contributed code, feedback, design suggestions,
previous implementations, and valuable experience to the creation of
this module:

   * Peter Funk

   * James Henstridge

   * Juan David Ibáñez Palomar

   * Marc-André Lemburg

   * Martin von Löwis

   * François Pinard

   * Barry Warsaw

   * Gustavo Niemeyer

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: locale --- 國際化服務,  Prev: gettext --- 多語言國際化服務,  Up: 國際化

5.23.2 ‘locale’ -- 國際化服務
-----------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/locale.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note locale: 81. module opens access to the POSIX locale database
and functionality.  The POSIX locale mechanism allows programmers to
deal with certain cultural issues in an application, without requiring
the programmer to know all the specifics of each country where the
software is executed.

The *note locale: 81. module is implemented on top of the ‘_locale’
module, which in turn uses an ANSI C locale implementation if available.

The *note locale: 81. module defines the following exception and
functions:

 -- 例外: locale.Error

     Exception raised when the locale passed to *note setlocale(): 257.
     is not recognized.

 -- 函式: locale.setlocale (category, locale=None)

     If 'locale' is given and not ‘None’, *note setlocale(): 257.
     modifies the locale setting for the 'category'.  The available
     categories are listed in the data description below.  'locale' may
     be a string, or an iterable of two strings (language code and
     encoding).  If it's an iterable, it's converted to a locale name
     using the locale aliasing engine.  An empty string specifies the
     user's default settings.  If the modification of the locale fails,
     the exception *note Error: 39c5. is raised.  If successful, the new
     locale setting is returned.

     If 'locale' is omitted or ‘None’, the current setting for
     'category' is returned.

     *note setlocale(): 257. is not thread-safe on most systems.
     Applications typically start with a call of

          import locale
          locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')

     This sets the locale for all categories to the user's default
     setting (typically specified in the ‘LANG’ environment variable).
     If the locale is not changed thereafter, using multithreading
     should not cause problems.

 -- 函式: locale.localeconv ()

     Returns the database of the local conventions as a dictionary.
     This dictionary has the following strings as keys:

     分類                       Key                                       含義
                                                                          
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
     *note LC_NUMERIC: 39c6.    ‘'decimal_point'’                         Decimal point character.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'grouping'’                              Sequence of numbers specifying
                                                                          which relative positions the
                                                                          ‘'thousands_sep'’ is expected.  If
                                                                          the sequence is terminated with
                                                                          *note CHAR_MAX: 39c7, no further
                                                                          grouping is performed.  If the
                                                                          sequence terminates with a ‘0’,
                                                                          the last group size is repeatedly
                                                                          used.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'thousands_sep'’                         Character used between groups.
                                                                          
                                                                          
     *note LC_MONETARY: 39c8.   ‘'int_curr_symbol'’                       International currency symbol.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'currency_symbol'’                       Local currency symbol.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_cs_precedes/n_cs_precedes'’           Whether the currency symbol
                                                                          precedes the value (for positive
                                                                          resp.  negative values).
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_sep_by_space/n_sep_by_space'’         Whether the currency symbol is
                                                                          separated from the value by a
                                                                          space (for positive resp.
                                                                          negative values).
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_decimal_point'’                     Decimal point used for monetary
                                                                          values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'frac_digits'’                           Number of fractional digits used
                                                                          in local formatting of monetary
                                                                          values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'int_frac_digits'’                       Number of fractional digits used
                                                                          in international formatting of
                                                                          monetary values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_thousands_sep'’                     Group separator used for monetary
                                                                          values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_grouping'’                          Equivalent to ‘'grouping'’, used
                                                                          for monetary values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'positive_sign'’                         Symbol used to annotate a positive
                                                                          monetary value.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'negative_sign'’                         Symbol used to annotate a negative
                                                                          monetary value.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_sign_posn/n_sign_posn'’               The position of the sign (for
                                                                          positive resp.  negative values),
                                                                          see below.
                                                                          

     All numeric values can be set to *note CHAR_MAX: 39c7. to indicate
     that there is no value specified in this locale.

     The possible values for ‘'p_sign_posn'’ and ‘'n_sign_posn'’ are
     given below.

     Value              Explanation
                        
     -----------------------------------------------------------------
                        
     ‘0’                Currency and value are surrounded by
                        parentheses.
                        
                        
     ‘1’                The sign should precede the value and
                        currency symbol.
                        
                        
     ‘2’                The sign should follow the value and
                        currency symbol.
                        
                        
     ‘3’                The sign should immediately precede the
                        value.
                        
                        
     ‘4’                The sign should immediately follow the
                        value.
                        
                        
     ‘CHAR_MAX’         Nothing is specified in this locale.
                        

     The function temporarily sets the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the
     ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale or the ‘LC_MONETARY’ locale if locales are
     different and numeric or monetary strings are non-ASCII. This
     temporary change affects other threads.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The function now temporarily sets the ‘LC_CTYPE’
     locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale in some cases.

 -- 函式: locale.nl_langinfo (option)

     Return some locale-specific information as a string.  This function
     is not available on all systems, and the set of possible options
     might also vary across platforms.  The possible argument values are
     numbers, for which symbolic constants are available in the locale
     module.

     The *note nl_langinfo(): 39c9. function accepts one of the
     following keys.  Most descriptions are taken from the corresponding
     description in the GNU C library.

      -- 資料: locale.CODESET

          Get a string with the name of the character encoding used in
          the selected locale.

      -- 資料: locale.D_T_FMT

          Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note
          time.strftime(): 107a. to represent date and time in a
          locale-specific way.

      -- 資料: locale.D_FMT

          Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note
          time.strftime(): 107a. to represent a date in a
          locale-specific way.

      -- 資料: locale.T_FMT

          Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note
          time.strftime(): 107a. to represent a time in a
          locale-specific way.

      -- 資料: locale.T_FMT_AMPM

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 107a. to
          represent time in the am/pm format.

      -- 資料: locale.DAY_1
      -- 資料: locale.DAY_2
      -- 資料: locale.DAY_3
      -- 資料: locale.DAY_4
      -- 資料: locale.DAY_5
      -- 資料: locale.DAY_6
      -- 資料: locale.DAY_7

          Get the name of the n-th day of the week.

               備註: This follows the US convention of *note DAY_1:
               39cf. being Sunday, not the international convention (ISO
               8601) that Monday is the first day of the week.

      -- 資料: locale.ABDAY_1
      -- 資料: locale.ABDAY_2
      -- 資料: locale.ABDAY_3
      -- 資料: locale.ABDAY_4
      -- 資料: locale.ABDAY_5
      -- 資料: locale.ABDAY_6
      -- 資料: locale.ABDAY_7

          Get the abbreviated name of the n-th day of the week.

      -- 資料: locale.MON_1
      -- 資料: locale.MON_2
      -- 資料: locale.MON_3
      -- 資料: locale.MON_4
      -- 資料: locale.MON_5
      -- 資料: locale.MON_6
      -- 資料: locale.MON_7
      -- 資料: locale.MON_8
      -- 資料: locale.MON_9
      -- 資料: locale.MON_10
      -- 資料: locale.MON_11
      -- 資料: locale.MON_12

          Get the name of the n-th month.

      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_1
      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_2
      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_3
      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_4
      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_5
      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_6
      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_7
      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_8
      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_9
      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_10
      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_11
      -- 資料: locale.ABMON_12

          Get the abbreviated name of the n-th month.

      -- 資料: locale.RADIXCHAR

          Get the radix character (decimal dot, decimal comma, etc.).

      -- 資料: locale.THOUSEP

          Get the separator character for thousands (groups of three
          digits).

      -- 資料: locale.YESEXPR

          Get a regular expression that can be used with the regex
          function to recognize a positive response to a yes/no
          question.

      -- 資料: locale.NOEXPR

          Get a regular expression that can be used with the ‘regex(3)’
          function to recognize a negative response to a yes/no
          question.

               備註: The regular expressions for *note YESEXPR: 39f7.
               and *note NOEXPR: 39f8. use syntax suitable for the
               ‘regex’ function from the C library, which might differ
               from the syntax used in *note re: b4.

      -- 資料: locale.CRNCYSTR

          Get the currency symbol, preceded by "-" if the symbol should
          appear before the value, "+" if the symbol should appear after
          the value, or "."  if the symbol should replace the radix
          character.

      -- 資料: locale.ERA

          Get a string that represents the era used in the current
          locale.

          Most locales do not define this value.  An example of a locale
          which does define this value is the Japanese one.  In Japan,
          the traditional representation of dates includes the name of
          the era corresponding to the then-emperor's reign.

          Normally it should not be necessary to use this value
          directly.  Specifying the ‘E’ modifier in their format strings
          causes the *note time.strftime(): 107a. function to use this
          information.  The format of the returned string is not
          specified, and therefore you should not assume knowledge of it
          on different systems.

      -- 資料: locale.ERA_D_T_FMT

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 107a. to
          represent date and time in a locale-specific era-based way.

      -- 資料: locale.ERA_D_FMT

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 107a. to
          represent a date in a locale-specific era-based way.

      -- 資料: locale.ERA_T_FMT

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 107a. to
          represent a time in a locale-specific era-based way.

      -- 資料: locale.ALT_DIGITS

          Get a string consisting of up to 100 semicolon-separated
          symbols used to represent the values 0 to 99 in a
          locale-specific way.  In most locales this is an empty string.

 -- 函式: locale.getdefaultlocale ([envvars])

     Tries to determine the default locale settings and returns them as
     a tuple of the form ‘(language code, encoding)’.

     According to POSIX, a program which has not called
     ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’ runs using the portable ‘'C'’ locale.
     Calling ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’ lets it use the default locale as
     defined by the ‘LANG’ variable.  Since we do not want to interfere
     with the current locale setting we thus emulate the behavior in the
     way described above.

     To maintain compatibility with other platforms, not only the ‘LANG’
     variable is tested, but a list of variables given as envvars
     parameter.  The first found to be defined will be used.  'envvars'
     defaults to the search path used in GNU gettext; it must always
     contain the variable name ‘'LANG'’.  The GNU gettext search path
     contains ‘'LC_ALL'’, ‘'LC_CTYPE'’, ‘'LANG'’ and ‘'LANGUAGE'’, in
     that order.

     Except for the code ‘'C'’, the language code corresponds to RFC
     1766(2).  'language code' and 'encoding' may be ‘None’ if their
     values cannot be determined.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.15.

 -- 函式: locale.getlocale (category=LC_CTYPE)

     Returns the current setting for the given locale category as
     sequence containing 'language code', 'encoding'.  'category' may be
     one of the ‘LC_*’ values except *note LC_ALL: 39ff.  It defaults to
     *note LC_CTYPE: 3a00.

     Except for the code ‘'C'’, the language code corresponds to RFC
     1766(3).  'language code' and 'encoding' may be ‘None’ if their
     values cannot be determined.

 -- 函式: locale.getpreferredencoding (do_setlocale=True)

     Return the *note locale encoding: 1419. used for text data,
     according to user preferences.  User preferences are expressed
     differently on different systems, and might not be available
     programmatically on some systems, so this function only returns a
     guess.

     On some systems, it is necessary to invoke *note setlocale(): 257.
     to obtain the user preferences, so this function is not
     thread-safe.  If invoking setlocale is not necessary or desired,
     'do_setlocale' should be set to ‘False’.

     On Android or if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451. is enabled,
     always return ‘'utf-8'’, the *note locale encoding: 1419. and the
     'do_setlocale' argument are ignored.

     The *note Python preinitialization: 3a01. configures the LC_CTYPE
     locale.  See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     2bd.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The function now always returns ‘"utf-8"’ on
     Android or if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451. is enabled.

 -- 函式: locale.getencoding ()

     Get the current *note locale encoding: 1419.:

        * On Android and VxWorks, return ‘"utf-8"’.

        * On Unix, return the encoding of the current *note LC_CTYPE:
          3a00. locale.  Return ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’
          returns an empty string: for example, if the current LC_CTYPE
          locale is not supported.

        * On Windows, return the ANSI code page.

     The *note Python preinitialization: 3a01. configures the LC_CTYPE
     locale.  See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     2bd.

     This function is similar to *note getpreferredencoding(False): 2bc.
     except this function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: locale.normalize (localename)

     Returns a normalized locale code for the given locale name.  The
     returned locale code is formatted for use with *note setlocale():
     257.  If normalization fails, the original name is returned
     unchanged.

     If the given encoding is not known, the function defaults to the
     default encoding for the locale code just like *note setlocale():
     257.

 -- 函式: locale.resetlocale (category=LC_ALL)

     Sets the locale for 'category' to the default setting.

     The default setting is determined by calling *note
     getdefaultlocale(): 256.  'category' defaults to *note LC_ALL:
     39ff.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13.

 -- 函式: locale.strcoll (string1, string2)

     Compares two strings according to the current *note LC_COLLATE:
     3a04. setting.  As any other compare function, returns a negative,
     or a positive value, or ‘0’, depending on whether 'string1'
     collates before or after 'string2' or is equal to it.

 -- 函式: locale.strxfrm (string)

     Transforms a string to one that can be used in locale-aware
     comparisons.  For example, ‘strxfrm(s1) < strxfrm(s2)’ is
     equivalent to ‘strcoll(s1, s2) < 0’.  This function can be used
     when the same string is compared repeatedly, e.g.  when collating a
     sequence of strings.

 -- 函式: locale.format_string (format, val, grouping=False,
          monetary=False)

     Formats a number 'val' according to the current *note LC_NUMERIC:
     39c6. setting.  The format follows the conventions of the ‘%’
     operator.  For floating-point values, the decimal point is modified
     if appropriate.  If 'grouping' is ‘True’, also takes the grouping
     into account.

     If 'monetary' is true, the conversion uses monetary thousands
     separator and grouping strings.

     Processes formatting specifiers as in ‘format % val’, but takes the
     current locale settings into account.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The 'monetary' keyword parameter was added.

 -- 函式: locale.currency (val, symbol=True, grouping=False,
          international=False)

     Formats a number 'val' according to the current *note LC_MONETARY:
     39c8. settings.

     The returned string includes the currency symbol if 'symbol' is
     true, which is the default.  If 'grouping' is ‘True’ (which is not
     the default), grouping is done with the value.  If 'international'
     is ‘True’ (which is not the default), the international currency
     symbol is used.

          備註: This function will not work with the 'C' locale, so you
          have to set a locale via *note setlocale(): 257. first.

 -- 函式: locale.str (float)

     Formats a floating-point number using the same format as the
     built-in function ‘str(float)’, but takes the decimal point into
     account.

 -- 函式: locale.delocalize (string)

     Converts a string into a normalized number string, following the
     *note LC_NUMERIC: 39c6. settings.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: locale.localize (string, grouping=False, monetary=False)

     Converts a normalized number string into a formatted string
     following the *note LC_NUMERIC: 39c6. settings.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: locale.atof (string, func=float)

     Converts a string to a number, following the *note LC_NUMERIC:
     39c6. settings, by calling 'func' on the result of calling *note
     delocalize(): c9f. on 'string'.

 -- 函式: locale.atoi (string)

     Converts a string to an integer, following the *note LC_NUMERIC:
     39c6. conventions.

 -- 資料: locale.LC_CTYPE

     Locale category for the character type functions.  Most
     importantly, this category defines the text encoding, i.e.  how
     bytes are interpreted as Unicode codepoints.  See PEP 538(4) and
     PEP 540(5) for how this variable might be automatically coerced to
     ‘C.UTF-8’ to avoid issues created by invalid settings in containers
     or incompatible settings passed over remote SSH connections.

     Python doesn't internally use locale-dependent character
     transformation functions from ‘ctype.h’.  Instead, an internal
     ‘pyctype.h’ provides locale-independent equivalents like
     ‘Py_TOLOWER’.

 -- 資料: locale.LC_COLLATE

     Locale category for sorting strings.  The functions *note
     strcoll(): 3a03. and *note strxfrm(): 3a05. of the *note locale:
     81. module are affected.

 -- 資料: locale.LC_TIME

     Locale category for the formatting of time.  The function *note
     time.strftime(): 107a. follows these conventions.

 -- 資料: locale.LC_MONETARY

     Locale category for formatting of monetary values.  The available
     options are available from the *note localeconv(): a61. function.

 -- 資料: locale.LC_MESSAGES

     Locale category for message display.  Python currently does not
     support application specific locale-aware messages.  Messages
     displayed by the operating system, like those returned by *note
     os.strerror(): 28a2. might be affected by this category.

     This value may not be available on operating systems not conforming
     to the POSIX standard, most notably Windows.

 -- 資料: locale.LC_NUMERIC

     Locale category for formatting numbers.  The functions *note
     format_string(): 29f, *note atoi(): 3a0a, *note atof(): 3a09. and
     *note str(): 3a07. of the *note locale: 81. module are affected by
     that category.  All other numeric formatting operations are not
     affected.

 -- 資料: locale.LC_ALL

     Combination of all locale settings.  If this flag is used when the
     locale is changed, setting the locale for all categories is
     attempted.  If that fails for any category, no category is changed
     at all.  When the locale is retrieved using this flag, a string
     indicating the setting for all categories is returned.  This string
     can be later used to restore the settings.

 -- 資料: locale.CHAR_MAX

     This is a symbolic constant used for different values returned by
     *note localeconv(): a61.

範例：

     >>> import locale
     >>> loc = locale.getlocale()  # get current locale
     # use German locale; name might vary with platform
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'de_DE')
     >>> locale.strcoll('f\xe4n', 'foo')  # compare a string containing an umlaut
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')   # use user's preferred locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'C')  # use default (C) locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, loc)  # restore saved locale

* Menu:

* Background, details, hints, tips and caveats: Background details hints tips and caveats.
* For extension writers and programs that embed Python::
* Access to message catalogs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/locale.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1766.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1766.html

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: Background details hints tips and caveats,  Next: For extension writers and programs that embed Python,  Up: locale --- 國際化服務

5.23.2.1 Background, details, hints, tips and caveats
.....................................................

The C standard defines the locale as a program-wide property that may be
relatively expensive to change.  On top of that, some implementations
are broken in such a way that frequent locale changes may cause core
dumps.  This makes the locale somewhat painful to use correctly.

Initially, when a program is started, the locale is the ‘C’ locale, no
matter what the user's preferred locale is.  There is one exception: the
*note LC_CTYPE: 3a00. category is changed at startup to set the current
locale encoding to the user's preferred locale encoding.  The program
must explicitly say that it wants the user's preferred locale settings
for other categories by calling ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’.

It is generally a bad idea to call *note setlocale(): 257. in some
library routine, since as a side effect it affects the entire program.
Saving and restoring it is almost as bad: it is expensive and affects
other threads that happen to run before the settings have been restored.

If, when coding a module for general use, you need a locale independent
version of an operation that is affected by the locale (such as certain
formats used with *note time.strftime(): 107a.), you will have to find a
way to do it without using the standard library routine.  Even better is
convincing yourself that using locale settings is okay.  Only as a last
resort should you document that your module is not compatible with
non-‘C’ locale settings.

The only way to perform numeric operations according to the locale is to
use the special functions defined by this module: *note atof(): 3a09,
*note atoi(): 3a0a, *note format_string(): 29f, *note str(): 3a07.

There is no way to perform case conversions and character
classifications according to the locale.  For (Unicode) text strings
these are done according to the character value only, while for byte
strings, the conversions and classifications are done according to the
ASCII value of the byte, and bytes whose high bit is set (i.e.,
non-ASCII bytes) are never converted or considered part of a character
class such as letter or whitespace.


File: python.info,  Node: For extension writers and programs that embed Python,  Next: Access to message catalogs,  Prev: Background details hints tips and caveats,  Up: locale --- 國際化服務

5.23.2.2 For extension writers and programs that embed Python
.............................................................

Extension modules should never call *note setlocale(): 257, except to
find out what the current locale is.  But since the return value can
only be used portably to restore it, that is not very useful (except
perhaps to find out whether or not the locale is ‘C’).

When Python code uses the *note locale: 81. module to change the locale,
this also affects the embedding application.  If the embedding
application doesn't want this to happen, it should remove the ‘_locale’
extension module (which does all the work) from the table of built-in
modules in the ‘config.c’ file, and make sure that the ‘_locale’ module
is not accessible as a shared library.


File: python.info,  Node: Access to message catalogs,  Prev: For extension writers and programs that embed Python,  Up: locale --- 國際化服務

5.23.2.3 Access to message catalogs
...................................

 -- 函式: locale.gettext (msg)

 -- 函式: locale.dgettext (domain, msg)

 -- 函式: locale.dcgettext (domain, msg, category)

 -- 函式: locale.textdomain (domain)

 -- 函式: locale.bindtextdomain (domain, dir)

 -- 函式: locale.bind_textdomain_codeset (domain, codeset)

The locale module exposes the C library's gettext interface on systems
that provide this interface.  It consists of the functions *note
gettext(): 5e, *note dgettext(): 3a13, *note dcgettext(): 3a14, *note
textdomain(): 3a15, *note bindtextdomain(): 3a16, and *note
bind_textdomain_codeset(): 3a17.  These are similar to the same
functions in the *note gettext: 5e. module, but use the C library's
binary format for message catalogs, and the C library's search
algorithms for locating message catalogs.

Python applications should normally find no need to invoke these
functions, and should use *note gettext: 5e. instead.  A known exception
to this rule are applications that link with additional C libraries
which internally invoke C functions ‘gettext’ or ‘dcgettext’.  For these
applications, it may be necessary to bind the text domain, so that the
libraries can properly locate their message catalogs.


File: python.info,  Node: 程式框架,  Next: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces,  Prev: 國際化,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.24 程式框架
=============

The modules described in this chapter are frameworks that will largely
dictate the structure of your program.  Currently the modules described
here are all oriented toward writing command-line interfaces.

完整的模組列表為：

* Menu:

* turtle: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics. 龜圖學 (Turtle graphics)
* cmd: cmd --- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援. 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援
* shlex: shlex --- 簡單的語法分析. 簡單的語法分析


File: python.info,  Node: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics,  Next: cmd --- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援,  Up: 程式框架

5.24.1 ‘turtle’ -- 龜圖學 (Turtle graphics)
-------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/turtle.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 介紹::
* 教學: 教學<3>.
* How to...: How to.
* Turtle graphics reference::
* Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions::
* Public classes::
* 解釋: 解釋<2>.
* Help and configuration::
* turtledemo: turtledemo --- Demo scripts. Demo scripts
* Changes since Python 2.6: Changes since Python 2 6.
* Changes since Python 3.0: Changes since Python 3 0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/turtle.py


File: python.info,  Node: 介紹,  Next: 教學<3>,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.1 介紹
.............

龜圖學是由 Wally Feurzeig，Seymour Papert 與 Cynthia Solomon 於 1967 年
開發的，一個 以 Logo 程式語言撰寫的廣受歡迎的幾何繪圖工具(1)。

Turtle star
...........

龜可以使用重複簡單動作之程式來畫出複雜的形狀。

[image src="python-figures/turtle-star.png"]


In Python, turtle graphics provides a representation of a physical
"turtle" (a little robot with a pen) that draws on a sheet of paper on
the floor.

It's an effective and well-proven way for learners to encounter
programming concepts and interaction with software, as it provides
instant, visible feedback.  It also provides convenient access to
graphical output in general.

Turtle drawing was originally created as an educational tool, to be used
by teachers in the classroom.  For the programmer who needs to produce
some graphical output it can be a way to do that without the overhead of
introducing more complex or external libraries into their work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_(robot)


File: python.info,  Node: 教學<3>,  Next: How to,  Prev: 介紹,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.2 教學
.............

New users should start here.  In this tutorial we'll explore some of the
basics of turtle drawing.

* Menu:

* 啟動一個烏龜環境::
* 基本繪圖::
* Making algorithmic patterns::


File: python.info,  Node: 啟動一個烏龜環境,  Next: 基本繪圖,  Up: 教學<3>

5.24.1.3 啟動一個烏龜環境
.........................

在 Python shell 中，引入 ‘turtle’ 模組中所有物件：

     from turtle import *

If you run into a ‘No module named '_tkinter'’ error, you'll have to
install the *note Tk interface package: ea. on your system.


File: python.info,  Node: 基本繪圖,  Next: Making algorithmic patterns,  Prev: 啟動一個烏龜環境,  Up: 教學<3>

5.24.1.4 基本繪圖
.................

Send the turtle forward 100 steps:

     forward(100)

You should see (most likely, in a new window on your display) a line
drawn by the turtle, heading East.  Change the direction of the turtle,
so that it turns 120 degrees left (anti-clockwise):

     left(120)

Let's continue by drawing a triangle:

     forward(100)
     left(120)
     forward(100)

Notice how the turtle, represented by an arrow, points in different
directions as you steer it.

Experiment with those commands, and also with ‘backward()’ and
‘right()’.

* Menu:

* Pen control::
* The turtle's position::


File: python.info,  Node: Pen control,  Next: The turtle's position,  Up: 基本繪圖

5.24.1.5 Pen control
....................

Try changing the color - for example, ‘color('blue')’ - and width of the
line - for example, ‘width(3)’ - and then drawing again.

You can also move the turtle around without drawing, by lifting up the
pen: ‘up()’ before moving.  To start drawing again, use ‘down()’.


File: python.info,  Node: The turtle's position,  Prev: Pen control,  Up: 基本繪圖

5.24.1.6 The turtle's position
..............................

Send your turtle back to its starting-point (useful if it has
disappeared off-screen):

     home()

The home position is at the center of the turtle's screen.  If you ever
need to know them, get the turtle's x-y coordinates with:

     pos()

Home is at ‘(0, 0)’.

And after a while, it will probably help to clear the window so we can
start anew:

     clearscreen()


File: python.info,  Node: Making algorithmic patterns,  Prev: 基本繪圖,  Up: 教學<3>

5.24.1.7 Making algorithmic patterns
....................................

Using loops, it's possible to build up geometric patterns:

     for steps in range(100):
         for c in ('blue', 'red', 'green'):
             color(c)
             forward(steps)
             right(30)

- which of course, are limited only by the imagination!

Let's draw the star shape at the top of this page.  We want red lines,
filled in with yellow:

     color('red')
     fillcolor('yellow')

Just as ‘up()’ and ‘down()’ determine whether lines will be drawn,
filling can be turned on and off:

     begin_fill()

Next we'll create a loop:

     while True:
         forward(200)
         left(170)
         if abs(pos()) < 1:
             break

‘abs(pos()) < 1’ is a good way to know when the turtle is back at its
home position.

Finally, complete the filling:

     end_fill()

(Note that filling only actually takes place when you give the
‘end_fill()’ command.)


File: python.info,  Node: How to,  Next: Turtle graphics reference,  Prev: 教學<3>,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.8 How to...
..................

This section covers some typical turtle use-cases and approaches.

* Menu:

* Get started as quickly as possible::
* Use the turtle module namespace::
* Use turtle graphics in a script::
* Use object-oriented turtle graphics::


File: python.info,  Node: Get started as quickly as possible,  Next: Use the turtle module namespace,  Up: How to

5.24.1.9 Get started as quickly as possible
...........................................

One of the joys of turtle graphics is the immediate, visual feedback
that's available from simple commands - it's an excellent way to
introduce children to programming ideas, with a minimum of overhead (not
just children, of course).

The turtle module makes this possible by exposing all its basic
functionality as functions, available with ‘from turtle import *’.  The
*note turtle graphics tutorial: 3a1e. covers this approach.

It's worth noting that many of the turtle commands also have even more
terse equivalents, such as ‘fd()’ for *note forward(): 3a28.  These are
especially useful when working with learners for whom typing is not a
skill.

     You'll need to have the *note Tk interface package: ea. installed
     on your system for turtle graphics to work.  Be warned that this is
     not always straightforward, so check this in advance if you're
     planning to use turtle graphics with a learner.


File: python.info,  Node: Use the turtle module namespace,  Next: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Prev: Get started as quickly as possible,  Up: How to

5.24.1.10 Use the ‘turtle’ module namespace
...........................................

Using ‘from turtle import *’ is convenient - but be warned that it
imports a rather large collection of objects, and if you're doing
anything but turtle graphics you run the risk of a name conflict (this
becomes even more an issue if you're using turtle graphics in a script
where other modules might be imported).

The solution is to use ‘import turtle’ - ‘fd()’ becomes ‘turtle.fd()’,
‘width()’ becomes ‘turtle.width()’ and so on.  (If typing "turtle" over
and over again becomes tedious, use for example ‘import turtle as t’
instead.)


File: python.info,  Node: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Next: Use object-oriented turtle graphics,  Prev: Use the turtle module namespace,  Up: How to

5.24.1.11 Use turtle graphics in a script
.........................................

It's recommended to use the ‘turtle’ module namespace as described
immediately above, for example:

     import turtle as t
     from random import random

     for i in range(100):
         steps = int(random() * 100)
         angle = int(random() * 360)
         t.right(angle)
         t.fd(steps)

Another step is also required though - as soon as the script ends,
Python will also close the turtle's window.  Add:

     t.mainloop()

to the end of the script.  The script will now wait to be dismissed and
will not exit until it is terminated, for example by closing the turtle
graphics window.


File: python.info,  Node: Use object-oriented turtle graphics,  Prev: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Up: How to

5.24.1.12 Use object-oriented turtle graphics
.............................................

也參考
......

*note Explanation of the object-oriented interface: 3a2d.

Other than for very basic introductory purposes, or for trying things
out as quickly as possible, it's more usual and much more powerful to
use the object-oriented approach to turtle graphics.  For example, this
allows multiple turtles on screen at once.

In this approach, the various turtle commands are methods of objects
(mostly of ‘Turtle’ objects).  You 'can' use the object-oriented
approach in the shell, but it would be more typical in a Python script.

The example above then becomes:

     from turtle import Turtle
     from random import random

     t = Turtle()
     for i in range(100):
         steps = int(random() * 100)
         angle = int(random() * 360)
         t.right(angle)
         t.fd(steps)

     t.screen.mainloop()

Note the last line.  ‘t.screen’ is an instance of the *note Screen:
3a2e. that a Turtle instance exists on; it's created automatically along
with the turtle.

The turtle's screen can be customised, for example:

     t.screen.title('Object-oriented turtle demo')
     t.screen.bgcolor("orange")


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle graphics reference,  Next: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions,  Prev: How to,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.13 Turtle graphics reference
...................................

     備註: In the following documentation the argument list for
     functions is given.  Methods, of course, have the additional first
     argument 'self' which is omitted here.

* Menu:

* Turtle methods::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen::


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle methods,  Next: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen,  Up: Turtle graphics reference

5.24.1.14 Turtle methods
........................

Turtle motion

     Move and draw

               *note forward(): 3a28. | *note fd(): 3a31.
               *note backward(): 3a32. | *note bk(): 3a33. | *note back(): 3a34.
               *note right(): 3a35. | *note rt(): 3a36.
               *note left(): 3a37. | *note lt(): 3a38.
               *note goto(): 3a39. | *note setpos(): 3a3a. | *note setposition(): 3a3b.
               *note teleport(): 14e3.
               *note setx(): 3a3c.
               *note sety(): 3a3d.
               *note setheading(): 3a3e. | *note seth(): 3a3f.
               *note home(): 3a40.
               *note circle(): 3a41.
               *note dot(): 3a42.
               *note stamp(): 3a43.
               *note clearstamp(): 3a44.
               *note clearstamps(): 3a45.
               *note undo(): 3a46.
               *note speed(): 3a47.

     Tell Turtle's state

               *note position(): 3a48. | *note pos(): 3a49.
               *note towards(): 3a4a.
               *note xcor(): 3a4b.
               *note ycor(): 3a4c.
               *note heading(): 3a4d.
               *note distance(): 3a4e.

     Setting and measurement

               *note degrees(): 3a4f.
               *note radians(): 3a50.

Pen control

     Drawing state

               *note pendown(): 3a51. | *note pd(): 3a52. | *note down(): 3a53.
               *note penup(): 3a54. | *note pu(): 3a55. | *note up(): 3a56.
               *note pensize(): 3a57. | *note width(): 3a58.
               *note pen(): 3a59.
               *note isdown(): 3a5a.

     Color control

               *note color(): 3a5b.
               *note pencolor(): 3a5c.
               *note fillcolor(): 3a5d.

     Filling

               *note filling(): 3a5e.
               *note begin_fill(): 3a5f.
               *note end_fill(): 3a60.

     More drawing control

               *note reset(): 3a61.
               *note clear(): 3a62.
               *note write(): 3a63.

Turtle state

     Visibility

               *note showturtle(): 3a64. | *note st(): 3a65.
               *note hideturtle(): 3a66. | *note ht(): 3a67.
               *note isvisible(): 3a68.

     Appearance

               *note shape(): 3a69.
               *note resizemode(): 3a6a.
               *note shapesize(): 3a6b. | *note turtlesize(): 3a6c.
               *note shearfactor(): 3a6d.
               *note settiltangle(): 530.
               *note tiltangle(): 531.
               *note tilt(): 3a6e.
               *note shapetransform(): 3a6f.
               *note get_shapepoly(): 3a70.

Using events

          *note onclick(): 3a71.
          *note onrelease(): 3a72.
          *note ondrag(): 3a73.

Special Turtle methods

          *note begin_poly(): 3a74.
          *note end_poly(): 3a75.
          *note get_poly(): 3a76.
          *note clone(): 3a77.
          *note getturtle(): 3a78. | *note getpen(): 3a79.
          *note getscreen(): 3a7a.
          *note setundobuffer(): 3a7b.
          *note undobufferentries(): 3a7c.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen,  Prev: Turtle methods,  Up: Turtle graphics reference

5.24.1.15 Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen
........................................

Window control

          *note bgcolor(): 3a7e.
          *note bgpic(): 3a7f.
          *note clearscreen(): 3a80.
          *note resetscreen(): 3a81.
          *note screensize(): 3a82.
          *note setworldcoordinates(): 3a83.

Animation control

          *note delay(): 3a84.
          *note tracer(): 3a85.
          *note update(): 3a86.

Using screen events

          *note listen(): 3a87.
          *note onkey(): 3a88. | *note onkeyrelease(): 3a89.
          *note onkeypress(): 3a8a.
          *note onclick(): 3a71. | *note onscreenclick(): 3a8b.
          *note ontimer(): 3a8c.
          *note mainloop(): 3a8d. | *note done(): 3a8e.

Settings and special methods

          *note mode(): 3a8f.
          *note colormode(): 3a90.
          *note getcanvas(): 3a91.
          *note getshapes(): 3a92.
          *note register_shape(): 3a93. | *note addshape(): 3a94.
          *note turtles(): 3a95.
          *note window_height(): 3a96.
          *note window_width(): 3a97.

Input methods

          *note textinput(): 1696.
          *note numinput(): 1697.

Methods specific to Screen

          *note bye(): 3a98.
          *note exitonclick(): 3a99.
          *note setup(): 3a9a.
          *note title(): 3a9b.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions,  Next: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions,  Prev: Turtle graphics reference,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.16 Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions
.................................................................

Most of the examples in this section refer to a Turtle instance called
‘turtle’.

* Menu:

* Turtle motion::
* Tell Turtle's state::
* Settings for measurement::
* Pen control: Pen control<2>.
* Turtle state::
* Using events::
* Special Turtle methods::
* Compound shapes::


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle motion,  Next: Tell Turtle's state,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.17 Turtle motion
.......................

 -- 函式: turtle.forward (distance)
 -- 函式: turtle.fd (distance)


     參數: ‘distance’ - a number (integer or float)

     Move the turtle forward by the specified 'distance', in the
     direction the turtle is headed.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.forward(25)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (25.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.forward(-75)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-50.00,0.00)

 -- 函式: turtle.back (distance)
 -- 函式: turtle.bk (distance)
 -- 函式: turtle.backward (distance)


     參數: ‘distance’ - a number

     Move the turtle backward by 'distance', opposite to the direction
     the turtle is headed.  Do not change the turtle's heading.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.backward(30)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-30.00,0.00)

 -- 函式: turtle.right (angle)
 -- 函式: turtle.rt (angle)


     參數: ‘angle’ - a number (integer or float)

     Turn turtle right by 'angle' units.  (Units are by default degrees,
     but can be set via the *note degrees(): 3a4f. and *note radians():
     3a50. functions.)  Angle orientation depends on the turtle mode,
     see *note mode(): 3a8f.

          >>> turtle.heading()
          22.0
          >>> turtle.right(45)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          337.0

 -- 函式: turtle.left (angle)
 -- 函式: turtle.lt (angle)


     參數: ‘angle’ - a number (integer or float)

     Turn turtle left by 'angle' units.  (Units are by default degrees,
     but can be set via the *note degrees(): 3a4f. and *note radians():
     3a50. functions.)  Angle orientation depends on the turtle mode,
     see *note mode(): 3a8f.

          >>> turtle.heading()
          22.0
          >>> turtle.left(45)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          67.0

 -- 函式: turtle.goto (x, y=None)
 -- 函式: turtle.setpos (x, y=None)
 -- 函式: turtle.setposition (x, y=None)


     參數:

        * ‘x’ - a number or a pair/vector of numbers

        * ‘y’ - a number or ‘None’

     If 'y' is ‘None’, 'x' must be a pair of coordinates or a *note
     Vec2D: 3a9e. (e.g.  as returned by *note pos(): 3a49.).

     Move turtle to an absolute position.  If the pen is down, draw
     line.  Do not change the turtle's orientation.

          >>> tp = turtle.pos()
          >>> tp
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos(60,30)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,30.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos((20,80))
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (20.00,80.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos(tp)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (0.00,0.00)

 -- 函式: turtle.teleport (x, y=None, *, fill_gap=False)


     參數:

        * ‘x’ - a number or ‘None’

        * ‘y’ - a number or ‘None’

        * ‘fill_gap’ - a boolean

     Move turtle to an absolute position.  Unlike goto(x, y), a line
     will not be drawn.  The turtle's orientation does not change.  If
     currently filling, the polygon(s) teleported from will be filled
     after leaving, and filling will begin again after teleporting.
     This can be disabled with fill_gap=True, which makes the imaginary
     line traveled during teleporting act as a fill barrier like in
     goto(x, y).

          >>> tp = turtle.pos()
          >>> tp
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(60)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(y=10)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,10.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(20, 30)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (20.00,30.00)

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: turtle.setx (x)


     參數: ‘x’ - a number (integer or float)

     Set the turtle's first coordinate to 'x', leave second coordinate
     unchanged.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,240.00)
          >>> turtle.setx(10)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (10.00,240.00)

 -- 函式: turtle.sety (y)


     參數: ‘y’ - a number (integer or float)

     Set the turtle's second coordinate to 'y', leave first coordinate
     unchanged.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,40.00)
          >>> turtle.sety(-10)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-10.00)

 -- 函式: turtle.setheading (to_angle)
 -- 函式: turtle.seth (to_angle)


     參數: ‘to_angle’ - a number (integer or float)

     Set the orientation of the turtle to 'to_angle'.  Here are some
     common directions in degrees:

     standard mode           logo mode
                             
     -------------------------------------------------
                             
     0 - east                0 - north
                             
                             
     90 - north              90 - east
                             
                             
     180 - west              180 - south
                             
                             
     270 - south             270 - west
                             

          >>> turtle.setheading(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

 -- 函式: turtle.home ()

     Move turtle to the origin - coordinates (0,0) - and set its heading
     to its start-orientation (which depends on the mode, see *note
     mode(): 3a8f.).

          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-10.00)
          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- 函式: turtle.circle (radius, extent=None, steps=None)


     參數:

        * ‘radius’ - a number

        * ‘extent’ - a number (or ‘None’)

        * ‘steps’ - an integer (or ‘None’)

     Draw a circle with given 'radius'.  The center is 'radius' units
     left of the turtle; 'extent' - an angle - determines which part of
     the circle is drawn.  If 'extent' is not given, draw the entire
     circle.  If 'extent' is not a full circle, one endpoint of the arc
     is the current pen position.  Draw the arc in counterclockwise
     direction if 'radius' is positive, otherwise in clockwise
     direction.  Finally the direction of the turtle is changed by the
     amount of 'extent'.

     As the circle is approximated by an inscribed regular polygon,
     'steps' determines the number of steps to use.  If not given, it
     will be calculated automatically.  May be used to draw regular
     polygons.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0
          >>> turtle.circle(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0
          >>> turtle.circle(120, 180)  # draw a semicircle
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,240.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          180.0

 -- 函式: turtle.dot (size=None, *color)


     參數:

        * ‘size’ - an integer >= 1 (if given)

        * ‘color’ - a colorstring or a numeric color tuple

     Draw a circular dot with diameter 'size', using 'color'.  If 'size'
     is not given, the maximum of pensize+4 and 2*pensize is used.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.dot()
          >>> turtle.fd(50); turtle.dot(20, "blue"); turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (100.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- 函式: turtle.stamp ()

     Stamp a copy of the turtle shape onto the canvas at the current
     turtle position.  Return a stamp_id for that stamp, which can be
     used to delete it by calling ‘clearstamp(stamp_id)’.

          >>> turtle.color("blue")
          >>> stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

 -- 函式: turtle.clearstamp (stampid)


     參數: ‘stampid’ - an integer, must be return value of previous
     *note stamp(): 3a43. call

     Delete stamp with given 'stampid'.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (150.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.color("blue")
          >>> astamp = turtle.stamp()
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (200.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.clearstamp(astamp)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (200.00,-0.00)

 -- 函式: turtle.clearstamps (n=None)


     參數: ‘n’ - an integer (or ‘None’)

     Delete all or first/last 'n' of turtle's stamps.  If 'n' is ‘None’,
     delete all stamps, if 'n' > 0 delete first 'n' stamps, else if 'n'
     < 0 delete last 'n' stamps.

          >>> for i in range(8):
          ...     unused_stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
          ...     turtle.fd(30)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps(2)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps(-2)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps()

 -- 函式: turtle.undo ()

     Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s).  Number of available
     undo actions is determined by the size of the undobuffer.

          >>> for i in range(4):
          ...     turtle.fd(50); turtle.lt(80)
          ...
          >>> for i in range(8):
          ...     turtle.undo()

 -- 函式: turtle.speed (speed=None)


     參數: ‘speed’ - an integer in the range 0..10 or a speedstring (see
     below)

     Set the turtle's speed to an integer value in the range 0..10.  If
     no argument is given, return current speed.

     If input is a number greater than 10 or smaller than 0.5, speed is
     set to 0.  Speedstrings are mapped to speedvalues as follows:

        * "fastest": 0

        * "fast": 10

        * "normal": 6

        * "slow": 3

        * "slowest": 1

     Speeds from 1 to 10 enforce increasingly faster animation of line
     drawing and turtle turning.

     Attention: 'speed' = 0 means that 'no' animation takes place.
     forward/back makes turtle jump and likewise left/right make the
     turtle turn instantly.

          >>> turtle.speed()
          3
          >>> turtle.speed('normal')
          >>> turtle.speed()
          6
          >>> turtle.speed(9)
          >>> turtle.speed()
          9


File: python.info,  Node: Tell Turtle's state,  Next: Settings for measurement,  Prev: Turtle motion,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.18 Tell Turtle's state
.............................

 -- 函式: turtle.position ()
 -- 函式: turtle.pos ()

     Return the turtle's current location (x,y) (as a *note Vec2D: 3a9e.
     vector).

          >>> turtle.pos()
          (440.00,-0.00)

 -- 函式: turtle.towards (x, y=None)


     參數:

        * ‘x’ - a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle
          instance

        * ‘y’ - a number if 'x' is a number, else ‘None’

     Return the angle between the line from turtle position to position
     specified by (x,y), the vector or the other turtle.  This depends
     on the turtle's start orientation which depends on the mode -
     "standard"/"world" or "logo".

          >>> turtle.goto(10, 10)
          >>> turtle.towards(0,0)
          225.0

 -- 函式: turtle.xcor ()

     Return the turtle's x coordinate.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(50)
          >>> turtle.forward(100)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (64.28,76.60)
          >>> print(round(turtle.xcor(), 5))
          64.27876

 -- 函式: turtle.ycor ()

     Return the turtle's y coordinate.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(60)
          >>> turtle.forward(100)
          >>> print(turtle.pos())
          (50.00,86.60)
          >>> print(round(turtle.ycor(), 5))
          86.60254

 -- 函式: turtle.heading ()

     Return the turtle's current heading (value depends on the turtle
     mode, see *note mode(): 3a8f.).

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(67)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          67.0

 -- 函式: turtle.distance (x, y=None)


     參數:

        * ‘x’ - a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle
          instance

        * ‘y’ - a number if 'x' is a number, else ‘None’

     Return the distance from the turtle to (x,y), the given vector, or
     the given other turtle, in turtle step units.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.distance(30,40)
          50.0
          >>> turtle.distance((30,40))
          50.0
          >>> joe = Turtle()
          >>> joe.forward(77)
          >>> turtle.distance(joe)
          77.0


File: python.info,  Node: Settings for measurement,  Next: Pen control<2>,  Prev: Tell Turtle's state,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.19 Settings for measurement
..................................

 -- 函式: turtle.degrees (fullcircle=360.0)


     參數: ‘fullcircle’ - a number

     Set angle measurement units, i.e.  set number of "degrees" for a
     full circle.  Default value is 360 degrees.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

          Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon,
          grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.)
          >>> turtle.degrees(400.0)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          100.0
          >>> turtle.degrees(360)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

 -- 函式: turtle.radians ()

     Set the angle measurement units to radians.  Equivalent to
     ‘degrees(2*math.pi)’.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0
          >>> turtle.radians()
          >>> turtle.heading()
          1.5707963267948966


File: python.info,  Node: Pen control<2>,  Next: Turtle state,  Prev: Settings for measurement,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.20 Pen control
.....................

* Menu:

* Drawing state::
* Color control::
* Filling::
* More drawing control::


File: python.info,  Node: Drawing state,  Next: Color control,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.24.1.21 Drawing state
.......................

 -- 函式: turtle.pendown ()
 -- 函式: turtle.pd ()
 -- 函式: turtle.down ()

     Pull the pen down - drawing when moving.

 -- 函式: turtle.penup ()
 -- 函式: turtle.pu ()
 -- 函式: turtle.up ()

     Pull the pen up - no drawing when moving.

 -- 函式: turtle.pensize (width=None)
 -- 函式: turtle.width (width=None)


     參數: ‘width’ - a positive number

     Set the line thickness to 'width' or return it.  If resizemode is
     set to "auto" and turtleshape is a polygon, that polygon is drawn
     with the same line thickness.  If no argument is given, the current
     pensize is returned.

          >>> turtle.pensize()
          1
          >>> turtle.pensize(10)   # from here on lines of width 10 are drawn

 -- 函式: turtle.pen (pen=None, **pendict)


     參數:

        * ‘pen’ - a dictionary with some or all of the below listed keys

        * ‘pendict’ - one or more keyword-arguments with the below
          listed keys as keywords

     Return or set the pen's attributes in a "pen-dictionary" with the
     following key/value pairs:

        * "shown": True/False

        * "pendown": True/False

        * "pencolor": color-string or color-tuple

        * "fillcolor": color-string or color-tuple

        * "pensize": positive number

        * "speed": number in range 0..10

        * "resizemode": "auto" or "user" or "noresize"

        * "stretchfactor": (positive number, positive number)

        * "outline": positive number

        * "tilt": number

     This dictionary can be used as argument for a subsequent call to
     *note pen(): 3a59. to restore the former pen-state.  Moreover one
     or more of these attributes can be provided as keyword-arguments.
     This can be used to set several pen attributes in one statement.

          >>> turtle.pen(fillcolor="black", pencolor="red", pensize=10)
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())
          [('fillcolor', 'black'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red'),
           ('pendown', True), ('pensize', 10), ('resizemode', 'noresize'),
           ('shearfactor', 0.0), ('shown', True), ('speed', 9),
           ('stretchfactor', (1.0, 1.0)), ('tilt', 0.0)]
          >>> penstate=turtle.pen()
          >>> turtle.color("yellow", "")
          >>> turtle.penup()
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
          [('fillcolor', ''), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'yellow')]
          >>> turtle.pen(penstate, fillcolor="green")
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
          [('fillcolor', 'green'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red')]

 -- 函式: turtle.isdown ()

     Return ‘True’ if pen is down, ‘False’ if it's up.

          >>> turtle.penup()
          >>> turtle.isdown()
          False
          >>> turtle.pendown()
          >>> turtle.isdown()
          True


File: python.info,  Node: Color control,  Next: Filling,  Prev: Drawing state,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.24.1.22 Color control
.......................

 -- 函式: turtle.pencolor (*args)

     Return or set the pencolor.

     Four input formats are allowed:

     ‘pencolor()’

          Return the current pencolor as color specification string or
          as a tuple (see example).  May be used as input to another
          color/pencolor/fillcolor call.

     ‘pencolor(colorstring)’

          Set pencolor to 'colorstring', which is a Tk color
          specification string, such as ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’, or
          ‘"#33cc8c"’.

     ‘pencolor((r, g, b))’

          Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of 'r',
          'g', and 'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range
          0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see *note
          colormode(): 3a90.).

     ‘pencolor(r, g, b)’

          Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by 'r', 'g', and
          'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range
          0..colormode.

     If turtleshape is a polygon, the outline of that polygon is drawn
     with the newly set pencolor.

          >>> colormode()
          1.0
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          'red'
          >>> turtle.pencolor("brown")
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          'brown'
          >>> tup = (0.2, 0.8, 0.55)
          >>> turtle.pencolor(tup)
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (0.2, 0.8, 0.5490196078431373)
          >>> colormode(255)
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (51.0, 204.0, 140.0)
          >>> turtle.pencolor('#32c18f')
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)

 -- 函式: turtle.fillcolor (*args)

     Return or set the fillcolor.

     Four input formats are allowed:

     ‘fillcolor()’

          Return the current fillcolor as color specification string,
          possibly in tuple format (see example).  May be used as input
          to another color/pencolor/fillcolor call.

     ‘fillcolor(colorstring)’

          Set fillcolor to 'colorstring', which is a Tk color
          specification string, such as ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’, or
          ‘"#33cc8c"’.

     ‘fillcolor((r, g, b))’

          Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of
          'r', 'g', and 'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the
          range 0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see
          *note colormode(): 3a90.).

     ‘fillcolor(r, g, b)’

          Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by 'r', 'g', and
          'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range
          0..colormode.

     If turtleshape is a polygon, the interior of that polygon is drawn
     with the newly set fillcolor.

          >>> turtle.fillcolor("violet")
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          'violet'
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
          >>> turtle.fillcolor((50, 193, 143))  # 為整數而非浮點數
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
          >>> turtle.fillcolor('#ffffff')
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          (255.0, 255.0, 255.0)

 -- 函式: turtle.color (*args)

     Return or set pencolor and fillcolor.

     Several input formats are allowed.  They use 0 to 3 arguments as
     follows:

     ‘color()’

          Return the current pencolor and the current fillcolor as a
          pair of color specification strings or tuples as returned by
          *note pencolor(): 3a5c. and *note fillcolor(): 3a5d.

     ‘color(colorstring)’, ‘color((r,g,b))’, ‘color(r,g,b)’

          Inputs as in *note pencolor(): 3a5c, set both, fillcolor and
          pencolor, to the given value.

     ‘color(colorstring1, colorstring2)’, ‘color((r1,g1,b1), (r2,g2,b2))’

          Equivalent to ‘pencolor(colorstring1)’ and
          ‘fillcolor(colorstring2)’ and analogously if the other input
          format is used.

     If turtleshape is a polygon, outline and interior of that polygon
     is drawn with the newly set colors.

          >>> turtle.color("red", "green")
          >>> turtle.color()
          ('red', 'green')
          >>> color("#285078", "#a0c8f0")
          >>> color()
          ((40.0, 80.0, 120.0), (160.0, 200.0, 240.0))

See also: Screen method *note colormode(): 3a90.


File: python.info,  Node: Filling,  Next: More drawing control,  Prev: Color control,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.24.1.23 Filling
.................

 -- 函式: turtle.filling ()

     Return fillstate (‘True’ if filling, ‘False’ else).

          >>> turtle.begin_fill()
          >>> if turtle.filling():
          ...    turtle.pensize(5)
          ... else:
          ...    turtle.pensize(3)

 -- 函式: turtle.begin_fill ()

     To be called just before drawing a shape to be filled.

 -- 函式: turtle.end_fill ()

     Fill the shape drawn after the last call to *note begin_fill():
     3a5f.

     Whether or not overlap regions for self-intersecting polygons or
     multiple shapes are filled depends on the operating system
     graphics, type of overlap, and number of overlaps.  For example,
     the Turtle star above may be either all yellow or have some white
     regions.

          >>> turtle.color("black", "red")
          >>> turtle.begin_fill()
          >>> turtle.circle(80)
          >>> turtle.end_fill()


File: python.info,  Node: More drawing control,  Prev: Filling,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.24.1.24 More drawing control
..............................

 -- 函式: turtle.reset ()

     Delete the turtle's drawings from the screen, re-center the turtle
     and set variables to the default values.

          >>> turtle.goto(0,-22)
          >>> turtle.left(100)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-22.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          100.0
          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- 函式: turtle.clear ()

     Delete the turtle's drawings from the screen.  Do not move turtle.
     State and position of the turtle as well as drawings of other
     turtles are not affected.

 -- 函式: turtle.write (arg, move=False, align='left', font=('Arial', 8,
          'normal'))


     參數:

        * ‘arg’ - object to be written to the TurtleScreen

        * ‘move’ - True/False

        * ‘align’ - one of the strings "left", "center" or right"

        * ‘font’ - a triple (fontname, fontsize, fonttype)

     Write text - the string representation of 'arg' - at the current
     turtle position according to 'align' ("left", "center" or "right")
     and with the given font.  If 'move' is true, the pen is moved to
     the bottom-right corner of the text.  By default, 'move' is
     ‘False’.

          >>> turtle.write("Home = ", True, align="center")
          >>> turtle.write((0,0), True)


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle state,  Next: Using events,  Prev: Pen control<2>,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.25 Turtle state
......................

* Menu:

* Visibility::
* Appearance::


File: python.info,  Node: Visibility,  Next: Appearance,  Up: Turtle state

5.24.1.26 Visibility
....................

 -- 函式: turtle.hideturtle ()
 -- 函式: turtle.ht ()

     Make the turtle invisible.  It's a good idea to do this while
     you're in the middle of doing some complex drawing, because hiding
     the turtle speeds up the drawing observably.

          >>> turtle.hideturtle()

 -- 函式: turtle.showturtle ()
 -- 函式: turtle.st ()

     Make the turtle visible.

          >>> turtle.showturtle()

 -- 函式: turtle.isvisible ()

     Return ‘True’ if the Turtle is shown, ‘False’ if it's hidden.

          >>> turtle.hideturtle()
          >>> turtle.isvisible()
          False
          >>> turtle.showturtle()
          >>> turtle.isvisible()
          True


File: python.info,  Node: Appearance,  Prev: Visibility,  Up: Turtle state

5.24.1.27 Appearance
....................

 -- 函式: turtle.shape (name=None)


     參數: ‘name’ - a string which is a valid shapename

     Set turtle shape to shape with given 'name' or, if name is not
     given, return name of current shape.  Shape with 'name' must exist
     in the TurtleScreen's shape dictionary.  Initially there are the
     following polygon shapes: "arrow", "turtle", "circle", "square",
     "triangle", "classic".  To learn about how to deal with shapes see
     Screen method *note register_shape(): 3a93.

          >>> turtle.shape()
          'classic'
          >>> turtle.shape("turtle")
          >>> turtle.shape()
          'turtle'

 -- 函式: turtle.resizemode (rmode=None)


     參數: ‘rmode’ - one of the strings "auto", "user", "noresize"

     Set resizemode to one of the values: "auto", "user", "noresize".
     If 'rmode' is not given, return current resizemode.  Different
     resizemodes have the following effects:

        - "auto": adapts the appearance of the turtle corresponding to
          the value of pensize.

        - "user": adapts the appearance of the turtle according to the
          values of stretchfactor and outlinewidth (outline), which are
          set by *note shapesize(): 3a6b.

        - "noresize": no adaption of the turtle's appearance takes
          place.

     ‘resizemode("user")’ is called by *note shapesize(): 3a6b. when
     used with arguments.

          >>> turtle.resizemode()
          'noresize'
          >>> turtle.resizemode("auto")
          >>> turtle.resizemode()
          'auto'

 -- 函式: turtle.shapesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None,
          outline=None)
 -- 函式: turtle.turtlesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None,
          outline=None)


     參數:

        * ‘stretch_wid’ - positive number

        * ‘stretch_len’ - positive number

        * ‘outline’ - positive number

     Return or set the pen's attributes x/y-stretchfactors and/or
     outline.  Set resizemode to "user".  If and only if resizemode is
     set to "user", the turtle will be displayed stretched according to
     its stretchfactors: 'stretch_wid' is stretchfactor perpendicular to
     its orientation, 'stretch_len' is stretchfactor in direction of its
     orientation, 'outline' determines the width of the shape's outline.

          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (1.0, 1.0, 1)
          >>> turtle.resizemode("user")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5, 5, 12)
          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (5, 5, 12)
          >>> turtle.shapesize(outline=8)
          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (5, 5, 8)

 -- 函式: turtle.shearfactor (shear=None)


     參數: ‘shear’ - number (optional)

     Set or return the current shearfactor.  Shear the turtleshape
     according to the given shearfactor shear, which is the tangent of
     the shear angle.  Do 'not' change the turtle's heading (direction
     of movement).  If shear is not given: return the current
     shearfactor, i.  e.  the tangent of the shear angle, by which lines
     parallel to the heading of the turtle are sheared.

          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor(0.5)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor()
          0.5

 -- 函式: turtle.tilt (angle)


     參數: ‘angle’ - a number

     Rotate the turtleshape by 'angle' from its current tilt-angle, but
     do 'not' change the turtle's heading (direction of movement).

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.tilt(30)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.tilt(30)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

 -- 函式: turtle.settiltangle (angle)


     參數: ‘angle’ - a number

     Rotate the turtleshape to point in the direction specified by
     'angle', regardless of its current tilt-angle.  'Do not' change the
     turtle's heading (direction of movement).

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.settiltangle(45)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.settiltangle(-45)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

     在 3.1 版之後被棄用.

 -- 函式: turtle.tiltangle (angle=None)


     參數: ‘angle’ - a number (optional)

     Set or return the current tilt-angle.  If angle is given, rotate
     the turtleshape to point in the direction specified by angle,
     regardless of its current tilt-angle.  Do 'not' change the turtle's
     heading (direction of movement).  If angle is not given: return the
     current tilt-angle, i.  e.  the angle between the orientation of
     the turtleshape and the heading of the turtle (its direction of
     movement).

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.tilt(45)
          >>> turtle.tiltangle()
          45.0

 -- 函式: turtle.shapetransform (t11=None, t12=None, t21=None, t22=None)


     參數:

        * ‘t11’ - a number (optional)

        * ‘t12’ - a number (optional)

        * ‘t21’ - a number (optional)

        * ‘t12’ - a number (optional)

     Set or return the current transformation matrix of the turtle
     shape.

     If none of the matrix elements are given, return the transformation
     matrix as a tuple of 4 elements.  Otherwise set the given elements
     and transform the turtleshape according to the matrix consisting of
     first row t11, t12 and second row t21, t22.  The determinant t11 *
     t22 - t12 * t21 must not be zero, otherwise an error is raised.
     Modify stretchfactor, shearfactor and tiltangle according to the
     given matrix.

          >>> turtle = Turtle()
          >>> turtle.shape("square")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(4,2)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor(-0.5)
          >>> turtle.shapetransform()
          (4.0, -1.0, -0.0, 2.0)

 -- 函式: turtle.get_shapepoly ()

     Return the current shape polygon as tuple of coordinate pairs.
     This can be used to define a new shape or components of a compound
     shape.

          >>> turtle.shape("square")
          >>> turtle.shapetransform(4, -1, 0, 2)
          >>> turtle.get_shapepoly()
          ((50, -20), (30, 20), (-50, 20), (-30, -20))


File: python.info,  Node: Using events,  Next: Special Turtle methods,  Prev: Turtle state,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.28 Using events
......................

 -- 函式: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     參數:

        * ‘fun’ - a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ - number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ - ‘True’ or ‘False’ - if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-click events on this turtle.  If 'fun' is
     ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.  Example for the anonymous
     turtle, i.e.  the procedural way:

          >>> def turn(x, y):
          ...     left(180)
          ...
          >>> onclick(turn)  # Now clicking into the turtle will turn it.
          >>> onclick(None)  # event-binding will be removed

 -- 函式: turtle.onrelease (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     參數:

        * ‘fun’ - a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ - number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ - ‘True’ or ‘False’ - if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-button-release events on this turtle.  If 'fun'
     is ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.

          >>> class MyTurtle(Turtle):
          ...     def glow(self,x,y):
          ...         self.fillcolor("red")
          ...     def unglow(self,x,y):
          ...         self.fillcolor("")
          ...
          >>> turtle = MyTurtle()
          >>> turtle.onclick(turtle.glow)     # clicking on turtle turns fillcolor red,
          >>> turtle.onrelease(turtle.unglow) # releasing turns it to transparent.

 -- 函式: turtle.ondrag (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     參數:

        * ‘fun’ - a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ - number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ - ‘True’ or ‘False’ - if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-move events on this turtle.  If 'fun' is
     ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.

     Remark: Every sequence of mouse-move-events on a turtle is preceded
     by a mouse-click event on that turtle.

          >>> turtle.ondrag(turtle.goto)

     Subsequently, clicking and dragging the Turtle will move it across
     the screen thereby producing handdrawings (if pen is down).


File: python.info,  Node: Special Turtle methods,  Next: Compound shapes,  Prev: Using events,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.29 Special Turtle methods
................................

 -- 函式: turtle.begin_poly ()

     Start recording the vertices of a polygon.  Current turtle position
     is first vertex of polygon.

 -- 函式: turtle.end_poly ()

     Stop recording the vertices of a polygon.  Current turtle position
     is last vertex of polygon.  This will be connected with the first
     vertex.

 -- 函式: turtle.get_poly ()

     Return the last recorded polygon.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.begin_poly()
          >>> turtle.fd(100)
          >>> turtle.left(20)
          >>> turtle.fd(30)
          >>> turtle.left(60)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.end_poly()
          >>> p = turtle.get_poly()
          >>> register_shape("myFavouriteShape", p)

 -- 函式: turtle.clone ()

     Create and return a clone of the turtle with same position, heading
     and turtle properties.

          >>> mick = Turtle()
          >>> joe = mick.clone()

 -- 函式: turtle.getturtle ()
 -- 函式: turtle.getpen ()

     Return the Turtle object itself.  Only reasonable use: as a
     function to return the "anonymous turtle":

          >>> pet = getturtle()
          >>> pet.fd(50)
          >>> pet
          <turtle.Turtle object at 0x...>

 -- 函式: turtle.getscreen ()

     Return the *note TurtleScreen: 3aab. object the turtle is drawing
     on.  TurtleScreen methods can then be called for that object.

          >>> ts = turtle.getscreen()
          >>> ts
          <turtle._Screen object at 0x...>
          >>> ts.bgcolor("pink")

 -- 函式: turtle.setundobuffer (size)


     參數: ‘size’ - 一個整數或 ‘None’

     Set or disable undobuffer.  If 'size' is an integer, an empty
     undobuffer of given size is installed.  'size' gives the maximum
     number of turtle actions that can be undone by the *note undo():
     3a46. method/function.  If 'size' is ‘None’, the undobuffer is
     disabled.

          >>> turtle.setundobuffer(42)

 -- 函式: turtle.undobufferentries ()

     Return number of entries in the undobuffer.

          >>> while undobufferentries():
          ...     undo()


File: python.info,  Node: Compound shapes,  Prev: Special Turtle methods,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.30 Compound shapes
.........................

To use compound turtle shapes, which consist of several polygons of
different color, you must use the helper class *note Shape: 3aae.
explicitly as described below:

  1. Create an empty Shape object of type "compound".

  2. Add as many components to this object as desired, using the *note
     addcomponent(): 3aaf. method.

     舉例來說：

          >>> s = Shape("compound")
          >>> poly1 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
          >>> s.addcomponent(poly1, "red", "blue")
          >>> poly2 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(-10,-5))
          >>> s.addcomponent(poly2, "blue", "red")

  3. Now add the Shape to the Screen's shapelist and use it:

          >>> register_shape("myshape", s)
          >>> shape("myshape")

     備註: The *note Shape: 3aae. class is used internally by the *note
     register_shape(): 3a93. method in different ways.  The application
     programmer has to deal with the Shape class 'only' when using
     compound shapes like shown above!


File: python.info,  Node: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions,  Next: Public classes,  Prev: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.31 Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions
....................................................................

Most of the examples in this section refer to a TurtleScreen instance
called ‘screen’.

* Menu:

* Window control::
* Animation control::
* Using screen events::
* Input methods::
* Settings and special methods::
* Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.


File: python.info,  Node: Window control,  Next: Animation control,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.32 Window control
........................

 -- 函式: turtle.bgcolor (*args)


     參數: ‘args’ - a color string or three numbers in the range
     0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers

     Set or return background color of the TurtleScreen.

          >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
          >>> screen.bgcolor()
          'orange'
          >>> screen.bgcolor("#800080")
          >>> screen.bgcolor()
          (128.0, 0.0, 128.0)

 -- 函式: turtle.bgpic (picname=None)


     參數: ‘picname’ - a string, name of a gif-file or ‘"nopic"’, or
     ‘None’

     Set background image or return name of current backgroundimage.  If
     'picname' is a filename, set the corresponding image as background.
     If 'picname' is ‘"nopic"’, delete background image, if present.  If
     'picname' is ‘None’, return the filename of the current
     backgroundimage.

          >>> screen.bgpic()
          'nopic'
          >>> screen.bgpic("landscape.gif")
          >>> screen.bgpic()
          "landscape.gif"

 -- 函式: turtle.clear ()

          備註: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global
          function only under the name ‘clearscreen’.  The global
          function ‘clear’ is a different one derived from the Turtle
          method ‘clear’.

 -- 函式: turtle.clearscreen ()

     Delete all drawings and all turtles from the TurtleScreen.  Reset
     the now empty TurtleScreen to its initial state: white background,
     no background image, no event bindings and tracing on.

 -- 函式: turtle.reset ()

          備註: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global
          function only under the name ‘resetscreen’.  The global
          function ‘reset’ is another one derived from the Turtle method
          ‘reset’.

 -- 函式: turtle.resetscreen ()

     Reset all Turtles on the Screen to their initial state.

 -- 函式: turtle.screensize (canvwidth=None, canvheight=None, bg=None)


     參數:

        * ‘canvwidth’ - positive integer, new width of canvas in pixels

        * ‘canvheight’ - positive integer, new height of canvas in
          pixels

        * ‘bg’ - colorstring or color-tuple, new background color

     If no arguments are given, return current (canvaswidth,
     canvasheight).  Else resize the canvas the turtles are drawing on.
     Do not alter the drawing window.  To observe hidden parts of the
     canvas, use the scrollbars.  With this method, one can make visible
     those parts of a drawing which were outside the canvas before.

          >>> screen.screensize()
          (400, 300)
          >>> screen.screensize(2000,1500)
          >>> screen.screensize()
          (2000, 1500)

     e.g.  to search for an erroneously escaped turtle ;-)

 -- 函式: turtle.setworldcoordinates (llx, lly, urx, ury)


     參數:

        * ‘llx’ - a number, x-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas

        * ‘lly’ - a number, y-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas

        * ‘urx’ - a number, x-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas

        * ‘ury’ - a number, y-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas

     Set up user-defined coordinate system and switch to mode "world" if
     necessary.  This performs a ‘screen.reset()’.  If mode "world" is
     already active, all drawings are redrawn according to the new
     coordinates.

     'ATTENTION': in user-defined coordinate systems angles may appear
     distorted.

          >>> screen.reset()
          >>> screen.setworldcoordinates(-50,-7.5,50,7.5)
          >>> for _ in range(72):
          ...     left(10)
          ...
          >>> for _ in range(8):
          ...     left(45); fd(2)   # a regular octagon


File: python.info,  Node: Animation control,  Next: Using screen events,  Prev: Window control,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.33 Animation control
...........................

 -- 函式: turtle.delay (delay=None)


     參數: ‘delay’ - positive integer

     Set or return the drawing 'delay' in milliseconds.  (This is
     approximately the time interval between two consecutive canvas
     updates.)  The longer the drawing delay, the slower the animation.

     Optional argument:

          >>> screen.delay()
          10
          >>> screen.delay(5)
          >>> screen.delay()
          5

 -- 函式: turtle.tracer (n=None, delay=None)


     參數:

        * ‘n’ - nonnegative integer

        * ‘delay’ - nonnegative integer

     Turn turtle animation on/off and set delay for update drawings.  If
     'n' is given, only each n-th regular screen update is really
     performed.  (Can be used to accelerate the drawing of complex
     graphics.)  When called without arguments, returns the currently
     stored value of n.  Second argument sets delay value (see *note
     delay(): 3a84.).

          >>> screen.tracer(8, 25)
          >>> dist = 2
          >>> for i in range(200):
          ...     fd(dist)
          ...     rt(90)
          ...     dist += 2

 -- 函式: turtle.update ()

     Perform a TurtleScreen update.  To be used when tracer is turned
     off.

See also the RawTurtle/Turtle method *note speed(): 3a47.


File: python.info,  Node: Using screen events,  Next: Input methods,  Prev: Animation control,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.34 Using screen events
.............................

 -- 函式: turtle.listen (xdummy=None, ydummy=None)

     Set focus on TurtleScreen (in order to collect key-events).  Dummy
     arguments are provided in order to be able to pass *note listen():
     3a87. to the onclick method.

 -- 函式: turtle.onkey (fun, key)
 -- 函式: turtle.onkeyrelease (fun, key)


     參數:

        * ‘fun’ - a function with no arguments or ‘None’

        * ‘key’ - a string: key (e.g.  "a") or key-symbol (e.g.
          "space")

     Bind 'fun' to key-release event of key.  If 'fun' is ‘None’, event
     bindings are removed.  Remark: in order to be able to register
     key-events, TurtleScreen must have the focus.  (See method *note
     listen(): 3a87.)

          >>> def f():
          ...     fd(50)
          ...     lt(60)
          ...
          >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
          >>> screen.listen()

 -- 函式: turtle.onkeypress (fun, key=None)


     參數:

        * ‘fun’ - a function with no arguments or ‘None’

        * ‘key’ - a string: key (e.g.  "a") or key-symbol (e.g.
          "space")

     Bind 'fun' to key-press event of key if key is given, or to any
     key-press-event if no key is given.  Remark: in order to be able to
     register key-events, TurtleScreen must have focus.  (See method
     *note listen(): 3a87.)

          >>> def f():
          ...     fd(50)
          ...
          >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
          >>> screen.listen()

 -- 函式: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)
 -- 函式: turtle.onscreenclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     參數:

        * ‘fun’ - a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ - number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ - ‘True’ or ‘False’ - if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-click events on this screen.  If 'fun' is
     ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.

     Example for a TurtleScreen instance named ‘screen’ and a Turtle
     instance named ‘turtle’:

          >>> screen.onclick(turtle.goto) # Subsequently clicking into the TurtleScreen will
          >>>                             # make the turtle move to the clicked point.
          >>> screen.onclick(None)        # remove event binding again

          備註: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global
          function only under the name ‘onscreenclick’.  The global
          function ‘onclick’ is another one derived from the Turtle
          method ‘onclick’.

 -- 函式: turtle.ontimer (fun, t=0)


     參數:

        * ‘fun’ - a function with no arguments

        * ‘t’ - a number >= 0

     Install a timer that calls 'fun' after 't' milliseconds.

          >>> running = True
          >>> def f():
          ...     if running:
          ...         fd(50)
          ...         lt(60)
          ...         screen.ontimer(f, 250)
          >>> f()   ### makes the turtle march around
          >>> running = False

 -- 函式: turtle.mainloop ()
 -- 函式: turtle.done ()

     Starts event loop - calling Tkinter's mainloop function.  Must be
     the last statement in a turtle graphics program.  Must 'not' be
     used if a script is run from within IDLE in -n mode (No subprocess)
     - for interactive use of turtle graphics.

          >>> screen.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: Input methods,  Next: Settings and special methods,  Prev: Using screen events,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.35 Input methods
.......................

 -- 函式: turtle.textinput (title, prompt)


     參數:

        * ‘title’ - string（字串）

        * ‘prompt’ - string（字串）

     Pop up a dialog window for input of a string.  Parameter title is
     the title of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing
     what information to input.  Return the string input.  If the dialog
     is canceled, return ‘None’.

          >>> screen.textinput("NIM", "Name of first player:")

 -- 函式: turtle.numinput (title, prompt, default=None, minval=None,
          maxval=None)


     參數:

        * ‘title’ - string（字串）

        * ‘prompt’ - string（字串）

        * ‘default’ - number (optional)

        * ‘minval’ - number (optional)

        * ‘maxval’ - number (optional)

     Pop up a dialog window for input of a number.  title is the title
     of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing what
     numerical information to input.  default: default value, minval:
     minimum value for input, maxval: maximum value for input.  The
     number input must be in the range minval ..  maxval if these are
     given.  If not, a hint is issued and the dialog remains open for
     correction.  Return the number input.  If the dialog is canceled,
     return ‘None’.

          >>> screen.numinput("Poker", "Your stakes:", 1000, minval=10, maxval=10000)


File: python.info,  Node: Settings and special methods,  Next: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen,  Prev: Input methods,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.36 Settings and special methods
......................................

 -- 函式: turtle.mode (mode=None)


     參數: ‘mode’ - one of the strings "standard", "logo" or "world"

     Set turtle mode ("standard", "logo" or "world") and perform reset.
     If mode is not given, current mode is returned.

     Mode "standard" is compatible with old *note turtle: fc.  Mode
     "logo" is compatible with most Logo turtle graphics.  Mode "world"
     uses user-defined "world coordinates".  'Attention': in this mode
     angles appear distorted if ‘x/y’ unit-ratio doesn't equal 1.

     Mode             Initial turtle heading        positive angles
                                                    
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
     "standard"       to the right (east)           counterclockwise
                                                    
                                                    
     "logo"           upward (north)                clockwise
                                                    

          >>> mode("logo")   # resets turtle heading to north
          >>> mode()
          'logo'

 -- 函式: turtle.colormode (cmode=None)


     參數: ‘cmode’ - one of the values 1.0 or 255

     Return the colormode or set it to 1.0 or 255.  Subsequently 'r',
     'g', 'b' values of color triples have to be in the range
     0..*cmode*.

          >>> screen.colormode(1)
          >>> turtle.pencolor(240, 160, 80)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
          TurtleGraphicsError: bad color sequence: (240, 160, 80)
          >>> screen.colormode()
          1.0
          >>> screen.colormode(255)
          >>> screen.colormode()
          255
          >>> turtle.pencolor(240,160,80)

 -- 函式: turtle.getcanvas ()

     Return the Canvas of this TurtleScreen.  Useful for insiders who
     know what to do with a Tkinter Canvas.

          >>> cv = screen.getcanvas()
          >>> cv
          <turtle.ScrolledCanvas object ...>

 -- 函式: turtle.getshapes ()

     Return a list of names of all currently available turtle shapes.

          >>> screen.getshapes()
          ['arrow', 'blank', 'circle', ..., 'turtle']

 -- 函式: turtle.register_shape (name, shape=None)
 -- 函式: turtle.addshape (name, shape=None)

     There are three different ways to call this function:

       1. 'name' is the name of a gif-file and 'shape' is ‘None’:
          Install the corresponding image shape.

               >>> screen.register_shape("turtle.gif")

               備註: Image shapes 'do not' rotate when turning the
               turtle, so they do not display the heading of the turtle!

       2. 'name' is an arbitrary string and 'shape' is a tuple of pairs
          of coordinates: Install the corresponding polygon shape.

               >>> screen.register_shape("triangle", ((5,-3), (0,5), (-5,-3)))

       3. 'name' is an arbitrary string and 'shape' is a (compound)
          *note Shape: 3aae. object: Install the corresponding compound
          shape.

     Add a turtle shape to TurtleScreen's shapelist.  Only thusly
     registered shapes can be used by issuing the command
     ‘shape(shapename)’.

 -- 函式: turtle.turtles ()

     Return the list of turtles on the screen.

          >>> for turtle in screen.turtles():
          ...     turtle.color("red")

 -- 函式: turtle.window_height ()

     Return the height of the turtle window.

          >>> screen.window_height()
          480

 -- 函式: turtle.window_width ()

     Return the width of the turtle window.

          >>> screen.window_width()
          640


File: python.info,  Node: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen,  Prev: Settings and special methods,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.37 Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen
.....................................................................

 -- 函式: turtle.bye ()

     Shut the turtlegraphics window.

 -- 函式: turtle.exitonclick ()

     Bind ‘bye()’ method to mouse clicks on the Screen.

     If the value "using_IDLE" in the configuration dictionary is
     ‘False’ (default value), also enter mainloop.  Remark: If IDLE with
     the ‘-n’ switch (no subprocess) is used, this value should be set
     to ‘True’ in ‘turtle.cfg’.  In this case IDLE's own mainloop is
     active also for the client script.

 -- 函式: turtle.setup (width=_CFG['width'], height=_CFG['height'],
          startx=_CFG['leftright'], starty=_CFG['topbottom'])

     Set the size and position of the main window.  Default values of
     arguments are stored in the configuration dictionary and can be
     changed via a ‘turtle.cfg’ file.


     參數:

        * ‘width’ - if an integer, a size in pixels, if a float, a
          fraction of the screen; default is 50% of screen

        * ‘height’ - if an integer, the height in pixels, if a float, a
          fraction of the screen; default is 75% of screen

        * ‘startx’ - if positive, starting position in pixels from the
          left edge of the screen, if negative from the right edge, if
          ‘None’, center window horizontally

        * ‘starty’ - if positive, starting position in pixels from the
          top edge of the screen, if negative from the bottom edge, if
          ‘None’, center window vertically

          >>> screen.setup (width=200, height=200, startx=0, starty=0)
          >>>              # sets window to 200x200 pixels, in upper left of screen
          >>> screen.setup(width=.75, height=0.5, startx=None, starty=None)
          >>>              # sets window to 75% of screen by 50% of screen and centers

 -- 函式: turtle.title (titlestring)


     參數: ‘titlestring’ - a string that is shown in the titlebar of the
     turtle graphics window

     Set title of turtle window to 'titlestring'.

          >>> screen.title("Welcome to the turtle zoo!")


File: python.info,  Node: Public classes,  Next: 解釋<2>,  Prev: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.38 Public classes
........................

 -- 類別: turtle.RawTurtle (canvas)
 -- 類別: turtle.RawPen (canvas)


     參數: ‘canvas’ - a ‘tkinter.Canvas’, a *note ScrolledCanvas: 3abb.
     or a *note TurtleScreen: 3aab.

     Create a turtle.  The turtle has all methods described above as
     "methods of Turtle/RawTurtle".

 -- 類別: turtle.Turtle

     Subclass of RawTurtle, has the same interface but draws on a
     default *note Screen: 3a2e. object created automatically when
     needed for the first time.

 -- 類別: turtle.TurtleScreen (cv)


     參數: ‘cv’ - a ‘tkinter.Canvas’

     Provides screen oriented methods like *note bgcolor(): 3a7e. etc.
     that are described above.

 -- 類別: turtle.Screen

     Subclass of TurtleScreen, with *note four methods added: 3ab7.

 -- 類別: turtle.ScrolledCanvas (master)


     參數: ‘master’ - some Tkinter widget to contain the ScrolledCanvas,
     i.e.  a Tkinter-canvas with scrollbars added

     Used by class Screen, which thus automatically provides a
     ScrolledCanvas as playground for the turtles.

 -- 類別: turtle.Shape (type_, data)


     參數: ‘type_’ - one of the strings "polygon", "image", "compound"

     Data structure modeling shapes.  The pair ‘(type_, data)’ must
     follow this specification:

     'type_'         'data'
                     
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
     "polygon"       a polygon-tuple, i.e.  a tuple of pairs of coordinates
                     
                     
     "image"         an image (in this form only used internally!)
                     
                     
     "compound"      ‘None’ (a compound shape has to be constructed using the
                     *note addcomponent(): 3aaf. method)
                     

      -- 方法: addcomponent (poly, fill, outline=None)


          參數:

             * ‘poly’ - a polygon, i.e.  a tuple of pairs of numbers

             * ‘fill’ - a color the 'poly' will be filled with

             * ‘outline’ - a color for the poly's outline (if given)

          例如：

               >>> poly = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
               >>> s = Shape("compound")
               >>> s.addcomponent(poly, "red", "blue")
               >>> # ... add more components and then use register_shape()

          請見*note Compound shapes: 3aad.。

 -- 類別: turtle.Vec2D (x, y)

     A two-dimensional vector class, used as a helper class for
     implementing turtle graphics.  May be useful for turtle graphics
     programs too.  Derived from tuple, so a vector is a tuple!

     Provides (for 'a', 'b' vectors, 'k' number):

        * ‘a + b’ 向量加法

        * ‘a - b’ 向量減法

        * ‘a * b’ 內積

        * ‘k * a’ and ‘a * k’ multiplication with scalar

        * ‘abs(a)’ a 的絕對值

        * ‘a.rotate(angle)’ 旋轉


File: python.info,  Node: 解釋<2>,  Next: Help and configuration,  Prev: Public classes,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.39 解釋
..............

A turtle object draws on a screen object, and there a number of key
classes in the turtle object-oriented interface that can be used to
create them and relate them to each other.

A *note Turtle: 3abc. instance will automatically create a *note Screen:
3a2e. instance if one is not already present.

‘Turtle’ is a subclass of *note RawTurtle: 3ab9, which 'doesn't'
automatically create a drawing surface - a 'canvas' will need to be
provided or created for it.  The 'canvas' can be a ‘tkinter.Canvas’,
*note ScrolledCanvas: 3abb. or *note TurtleScreen: 3aab.

*note TurtleScreen: 3aab. is the basic drawing surface for a turtle.
*note Screen: 3a2e. is a subclass of ‘TurtleScreen’, and includes *note
some additional methods: 3ab7. for managing its appearance (including
size and title) and behaviour.  ‘TurtleScreen’'s constructor needs a
‘tkinter.Canvas’ or a *note ScrolledCanvas: 3abb. as an argument.

The functional interface for turtle graphics uses the various methods of
‘Turtle’ and ‘TurtleScreen’/‘Screen’.  Behind the scenes, a screen
object is automatically created whenever a function derived from a
‘Screen’ method is called.  Similarly, a turtle object is automatically
created whenever any of the functions derived from a Turtle method is
called.

To use multiple turtles on a screen, the object-oriented interface must
be used.


File: python.info,  Node: Help and configuration,  Next: turtledemo --- Demo scripts,  Prev: 解釋<2>,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.40 Help and configuration
................................

* Menu:

* How to use help::
* Translation of docstrings into different languages::
* How to configure Screen and Turtles::


File: python.info,  Node: How to use help,  Next: Translation of docstrings into different languages,  Up: Help and configuration

5.24.1.41 How to use help
.........................

The public methods of the Screen and Turtle classes are documented
extensively via docstrings.  So these can be used as online-help via the
Python help facilities:

   - When using IDLE, tooltips show the signatures and first lines of
     the docstrings of typed in function-/method calls.

   - Calling *note help(): 710. on methods or functions displays the
     docstrings:

          >>> help(Screen.bgcolor)
          Help on method bgcolor in module turtle:

          bgcolor(self, *args) unbound turtle.Screen method
              Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

              Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
              in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.


              >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
              >>> screen.bgcolor()
              "orange"
              >>> screen.bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
              >>> screen.bgcolor()
              "#800080"

          >>> help(Turtle.penup)
          Help on method penup in module turtle:

          penup(self) unbound turtle.Turtle method
              Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

              Aliases: penup | pu | up

              No argument

              >>> turtle.penup()

   - The docstrings of the functions which are derived from methods have
     a modified form:

          >>> help(bgcolor)
          Help on function bgcolor in module turtle:

          bgcolor(*args)
              Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

              Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
              in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.

              Example::

                >>> bgcolor("orange")
                >>> bgcolor()
                "orange"
                >>> bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
                >>> bgcolor()
                "#800080"

          >>> help(penup)
          Help on function penup in module turtle:

          penup()
              Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

              Aliases: penup | pu | up

              No argument

              Example:
              >>> penup()

These modified docstrings are created automatically together with the
function definitions that are derived from the methods at import time.


File: python.info,  Node: Translation of docstrings into different languages,  Next: How to configure Screen and Turtles,  Prev: How to use help,  Up: Help and configuration

5.24.1.42 Translation of docstrings into different languages
............................................................

There is a utility to create a dictionary the keys of which are the
method names and the values of which are the docstrings of the public
methods of the classes Screen and Turtle.

 -- 函式: turtle.write_docstringdict (filename='turtle_docstringdict')


     參數: ‘filename’ - a string, used as filename

     Create and write docstring-dictionary to a Python script with the
     given filename.  This function has to be called explicitly (it is
     not used by the turtle graphics classes).  The docstring dictionary
     will be written to the Python script ‘`filename'.py’.  It is
     intended to serve as a template for translation of the docstrings
     into different languages.

If you (or your students) want to use *note turtle: fc. with online help
in your native language, you have to translate the docstrings and save
the resulting file as e.g.  ‘turtle_docstringdict_german.py’.

If you have an appropriate entry in your ‘turtle.cfg’ file this
dictionary will be read in at import time and will replace the original
English docstrings.

At the time of this writing there are docstring dictionaries in German
and in Italian.  (Requests please to <glingl@aon.at>.)


File: python.info,  Node: How to configure Screen and Turtles,  Prev: Translation of docstrings into different languages,  Up: Help and configuration

5.24.1.43 How to configure Screen and Turtles
.............................................

The built-in default configuration mimics the appearance and behaviour
of the old turtle module in order to retain best possible compatibility
with it.

If you want to use a different configuration which better reflects the
features of this module or which better fits to your needs, e.g.  for
use in a classroom, you can prepare a configuration file ‘turtle.cfg’
which will be read at import time and modify the configuration according
to its settings.

The built in configuration would correspond to the following
‘turtle.cfg’:

     width = 0.5
     height = 0.75
     leftright = None
     topbottom = None
     canvwidth = 400
     canvheight = 300
     mode = standard
     colormode = 1.0
     delay = 10
     undobuffersize = 1000
     shape = classic
     pencolor = black
     fillcolor = black
     resizemode = noresize
     visible = True
     language = english
     exampleturtle = turtle
     examplescreen = screen
     title = Python Turtle Graphics
     using_IDLE = False

Short explanation of selected entries:

   - The first four lines correspond to the arguments of the *note
     Screen.setup: 3a9a. method.

   - Line 5 and 6 correspond to the arguments of the method *note
     Screen.screensize: 3a82.

   - 'shape' can be any of the built-in shapes, e.g: arrow, turtle, etc.
     For more info try ‘help(shape)’.

   - If you want to use no fill color (i.e.  make the turtle
     transparent), you have to write ‘fillcolor = ""’ (but all nonempty
     strings must not have quotes in the cfg file).

   - If you want to reflect the turtle its state, you have to use
     ‘resizemode = auto’.

   - If you set e.g.  ‘language = italian’ the docstringdict
     ‘turtle_docstringdict_italian.py’ will be loaded at import time (if
     present on the import path, e.g.  in the same directory as *note
     turtle: fc.).

   - The entries 'exampleturtle' and 'examplescreen' define the names of
     these objects as they occur in the docstrings.  The transformation
     of method-docstrings to function-docstrings will delete these names
     from the docstrings.

   - 'using_IDLE': Set this to ‘True’ if you regularly work with IDLE
     and its ‘-n’ switch ("no subprocess").  This will prevent *note
     exitonclick(): 3a99. to enter the mainloop.

There can be a ‘turtle.cfg’ file in the directory where *note turtle:
fc. is stored and an additional one in the current working directory.
The latter will override the settings of the first one.

The ‘Lib/turtledemo’ directory contains a ‘turtle.cfg’ file.  You can
study it as an example and see its effects when running the demos
(preferably not from within the demo-viewer).


File: python.info,  Node: turtledemo --- Demo scripts,  Next: Changes since Python 2 6,  Prev: Help and configuration,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.44 ‘turtledemo’ -- Demo scripts
......................................

The *note turtledemo: fd. package includes a set of demo scripts.  These
scripts can be run and viewed using the supplied demo viewer as follows:

     python -m turtledemo

Alternatively, you can run the demo scripts individually.  For example,

     python -m turtledemo.bytedesign

The *note turtledemo: fd. package directory contains:

   - A demo viewer ‘__main__.py’ which can be used to view the
     sourcecode of the scripts and run them at the same time.

   - Multiple scripts demonstrating different features of the *note
     turtle: fc. module.  Examples can be accessed via the Examples
     menu.  They can also be run standalone.

   - A ‘turtle.cfg’ file which serves as an example of how to write and
     use such files.

The demo scripts are:

Name                 描述                               Features
                                                        
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
bytedesign           complex classical turtle           *note tracer(): 3a85,
                     graphics pattern                   delay,
                                                        *note update(): 3a86.
                                                        
                                                        
chaos                graphs Verhulst dynamics, shows    world coordinates
                     that computer's computations can   
                     generate results sometimes
                     against the common sense
                     expectations
                     
                                                        
clock                analog clock showing time of       turtles as clock's hands,
                     your computer                      ontimer
                                                        
                                                        
colormixer           experiment with r, g, b            *note ondrag(): 3a73.
                                                        
                                                        
forest               3 breadth-first trees              randomization
                                                        
                                                        
fractalcurves        Hilbert & Koch curves              recursion
                                                        
                                                        
lindenmayer          ethnomathematics (indian kolams)   L-System
                                                        
                                                        
minimal_hanoi        Towers of Hanoi                    Rectangular Turtles as
                                                        Hanoi discs (shape,
                                                        shapesize)
                                                        
                                                        
nim                  play the classical nim game with   turtles as nimsticks,
                     three heaps of sticks against      event driven (mouse,
                     the computer.                      keyboard)
                                                        
                                                        
paint                super minimalistic drawing         *note onclick(): 3a71.
                     program                            
                     
                                                        
peace                elementary                         turtle: appearance and
                                                        animation
                                                        
                                                        
penrose              aperiodic tiling with kites and    *note stamp(): 3a43.
                     darts                              
                     
                                                        
planet_and_moon      simulation of gravitational        compound shapes,
                     system                             *note Vec2D: 3a9e.
                                                        
                                                        
rosette              a pattern from the wikipedia       *note clone(): 3a77,
                     article on turtle graphics         *note undo(): 3a46.
                                                        
                                                        
round_dance          dancing turtles rotating           compound shapes, clone
                     pairwise in opposite direction     shapesize, tilt,
                                                        get_shapepoly, update
                                                        
                                                        
sorting_animate      visual demonstration of            simple alignment,
                     different sorting methods          randomization
                                                        
                                                        
tree                 a (graphical) breadth first tree   *note clone(): 3a77.
                     (using generators)                 
                     
                                                        
two_canvases         simple design                      turtles on two canvases
                                                        
                                                        
yinyang              another elementary example         *note circle(): 3a41.
                                                        

Have fun!


File: python.info,  Node: Changes since Python 2 6,  Next: Changes since Python 3 0,  Prev: turtledemo --- Demo scripts,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.45 Changes since Python 2.6
..................................

   - The methods *note Turtle.tracer: 3a85, *note Turtle.window_width:
     3a97. and *note Turtle.window_height: 3a96. have been eliminated.
     Methods with these names and functionality are now available only
     as methods of *note Screen: 3a2e.  The functions derived from these
     remain available.  (In fact already in Python 2.6 these methods
     were merely duplications of the corresponding *note TurtleScreen:
     3aab./*note Screen: 3a2e. methods.)

   - The method ‘Turtle.fill()’ has been eliminated.  The behaviour of
     *note begin_fill(): 3a5f. and *note end_fill(): 3a60. have changed
     slightly: now every filling process must be completed with an
     ‘end_fill()’ call.

   - A method *note Turtle.filling: 3a5e. has been added.  It returns a
     boolean value: ‘True’ if a filling process is under way, ‘False’
     otherwise.  This behaviour corresponds to a ‘fill()’ call without
     arguments in Python 2.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes since Python 3 0,  Prev: Changes since Python 2 6,  Up: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics

5.24.1.46 Changes since Python 3.0
..................................

   - The *note Turtle: 3abc. methods *note shearfactor(): 3a6d, *note
     shapetransform(): 3a6f. and *note get_shapepoly(): 3a70. have been
     added.  Thus the full range of regular linear transforms is now
     available for transforming turtle shapes.  *note tiltangle(): 531.
     has been enhanced in functionality: it now can be used to get or
     set the tilt angle.  *note settiltangle(): 530. has been
     deprecated.

   - The *note Screen: 3a2e. method *note onkeypress(): 3a8a. has been
     added as a complement to *note onkey(): 3a88.  As the latter binds
     actions to the key release event, an alias: *note onkeyrelease():
     3a89. was also added for it.

   - The method *note Screen.mainloop: 3a8d. has been added, so there is
     no longer a need to use the standalone *note mainloop(): 3a8d.
     function when working with *note Screen: 3a2e. and *note Turtle:
     3abc. objects.

   - Two input methods have been added: *note Screen.textinput: 1696.
     and *note Screen.numinput: 1697.  These pop up input dialogs and
     return strings and numbers respectively.

   - Two example scripts ‘tdemo_nim.py’ and ‘tdemo_round_dance.py’ have
     been added to the ‘Lib/turtledemo’ directory.


File: python.info,  Node: cmd --- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援,  Next: shlex --- 簡單的語法分析,  Prev: turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics,  Up: 程式框架

5.24.2 ‘cmd’ -- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援
------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/cmd.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note Cmd: 3ac8. class provides a simple framework for writing
line-oriented command interpreters.  These are often useful for test
harnesses, administrative tools, and prototypes that will later be
wrapped in a more sophisticated interface.

 -- 類別: cmd.Cmd (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None)

     A *note Cmd: 3ac8. instance or subclass instance is a line-oriented
     interpreter framework.  There is no good reason to instantiate
     *note Cmd: 3ac8. itself; rather, it's useful as a superclass of an
     interpreter class you define yourself in order to inherit *note
     Cmd: 3ac8.'s methods and encapsulate action methods.

     The optional argument 'completekey' is the *note readline: b5. name
     of a completion key; it defaults to ‘Tab’.  If 'completekey' is not
     *note None: 470. and *note readline: b5. is available, command
     completion is done automatically.

     The optional arguments 'stdin' and 'stdout' specify the input and
     output file objects that the Cmd instance or subclass instance will
     use for input and output.  If not specified, they will default to
     *note sys.stdin: 2bf. and *note sys.stdout: 92a.

     If you want a given 'stdin' to be used, make sure to set the
     instance's *note use_rawinput: 3ac9. attribute to ‘False’,
     otherwise 'stdin' will be ignored.

* Menu:

* Cmd 物件::
* Cmd Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/cmd.py


File: python.info,  Node: Cmd 物件,  Next: Cmd Example,  Up: cmd --- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援

5.24.2.1 Cmd 物件
.................

A *note Cmd: 3ac8. instance has the following methods:

 -- 方法: Cmd.cmdloop (intro=None)

     Repeatedly issue a prompt, accept input, parse an initial prefix
     off the received input, and dispatch to action methods, passing
     them the remainder of the line as argument.

     The optional argument is a banner or intro string to be issued
     before the first prompt (this overrides the *note intro: 3acd.
     class attribute).

     If the *note readline: b5. module is loaded, input will
     automatically inherit ‘bash’-like history-list editing (e.g.
     ‘Control-P’ scrolls back to the last command, ‘Control-N’ forward
     to the next one, ‘Control-F’ moves the cursor to the right
     non-destructively, ‘Control-B’ moves the cursor to the left
     non-destructively, etc.).

     An end-of-file on input is passed back as the string ‘'EOF'’.

     An interpreter instance will recognize a command name ‘foo’ if and
     only if it has a method ‘do_foo()’.  As a special case, a line
     beginning with the character ‘'?'’ is dispatched to the method
     *note do_help(): 3ace.  As another special case, a line beginning
     with the character ‘'!'’ is dispatched to the method ‘do_shell()’
     (if such a method is defined).

     This method will return when the *note postcmd(): 3acf. method
     returns a true value.  The 'stop' argument to *note postcmd():
     3acf. is the return value from the command's corresponding ‘do_*()’
     method.

     If completion is enabled, completing commands will be done
     automatically, and completing of commands args is done by calling
     ‘complete_foo()’ with arguments 'text', 'line', 'begidx', and
     'endidx'.  'text' is the string prefix we are attempting to match:
     all returned matches must begin with it.  'line' is the current
     input line with leading whitespace removed, 'begidx' and 'endidx'
     are the beginning and ending indexes of the prefix text, which
     could be used to provide different completion depending upon which
     position the argument is in.

 -- 方法: Cmd.do_help (arg)

     All subclasses of *note Cmd: 3ac8. inherit a predefined
     ‘do_help()’.  This method, called with an argument ‘'bar'’, invokes
     the corresponding method ‘help_bar()’, and if that is not present,
     prints the docstring of ‘do_bar()’, if available.  With no
     argument, ‘do_help()’ lists all available help topics (that is, all
     commands with corresponding ‘help_*()’ methods or commands that
     have docstrings), and also lists any undocumented commands.

 -- 方法: Cmd.onecmd (str)

     Interpret the argument as though it had been typed in response to
     the prompt.  This may be overridden, but should not normally need
     to be; see the *note precmd(): 3ad1. and *note postcmd(): 3acf.
     methods for useful execution hooks.  The return value is a flag
     indicating whether interpretation of commands by the interpreter
     should stop.  If there is a ‘do_*()’ method for the command 'str',
     the return value of that method is returned, otherwise the return
     value from the *note default(): 3ad2. method is returned.

 -- 方法: Cmd.emptyline ()

     Method called when an empty line is entered in response to the
     prompt.  If this method is not overridden, it repeats the last
     nonempty command entered.

 -- 方法: Cmd.default (line)

     Method called on an input line when the command prefix is not
     recognized.  If this method is not overridden, it prints an error
     message and returns.

 -- 方法: Cmd.completedefault (text, line, begidx, endidx)

     Method called to complete an input line when no command-specific
     ‘complete_*()’ method is available.  By default, it returns an
     empty list.

 -- 方法: Cmd.columnize (list, displaywidth=80)

     Method called to display a list of strings as a compact set of
     columns.  Each column is only as wide as necessary.  Columns are
     separated by two spaces for readability.

 -- 方法: Cmd.precmd (line)

     Hook method executed just before the command line 'line' is
     interpreted, but after the input prompt is generated and issued.
     This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 3ac8.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.  The return value is used as the command
     which will be executed by the *note onecmd(): 3ad0. method; the
     *note precmd(): 3ad1. implementation may re-write the command or
     simply return 'line' unchanged.

 -- 方法: Cmd.postcmd (stop, line)

     Hook method executed just after a command dispatch is finished.
     This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 3ac8.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.  'line' is the command line which was
     executed, and 'stop' is a flag which indicates whether execution
     will be terminated after the call to *note postcmd(): 3acf.; this
     will be the return value of the *note onecmd(): 3ad0. method.  The
     return value of this method will be used as the new value for the
     internal flag which corresponds to 'stop'; returning false will
     cause interpretation to continue.

 -- 方法: Cmd.preloop ()

     Hook method executed once when *note cmdloop(): 3acc. is called.
     This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 3ac8.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.

 -- 方法: Cmd.postloop ()

     Hook method executed once when *note cmdloop(): 3acc. is about to
     return.  This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 3ac8.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.

Instances of *note Cmd: 3ac8. subclasses have some public instance
variables:

 -- 屬性: Cmd.prompt

     The prompt issued to solicit input.

 -- 屬性: Cmd.identchars

     The string of characters accepted for the command prefix.

 -- 屬性: Cmd.lastcmd

     The last nonempty command prefix seen.

 -- 屬性: Cmd.cmdqueue

     A list of queued input lines.  The cmdqueue list is checked in
     *note cmdloop(): 3acc. when new input is needed; if it is nonempty,
     its elements will be processed in order, as if entered at the
     prompt.

 -- 屬性: Cmd.intro

     A string to issue as an intro or banner.  May be overridden by
     giving the *note cmdloop(): 3acc. method an argument.

 -- 屬性: Cmd.doc_header

     The header to issue if the help output has a section for documented
     commands.

 -- 屬性: Cmd.misc_header

     The header to issue if the help output has a section for
     miscellaneous help topics (that is, there are ‘help_*()’ methods
     without corresponding ‘do_*()’ methods).

 -- 屬性: Cmd.undoc_header

     The header to issue if the help output has a section for
     undocumented commands (that is, there are ‘do_*()’ methods without
     corresponding ‘help_*()’ methods).

 -- 屬性: Cmd.ruler

     The character used to draw separator lines under the help-message
     headers.  If empty, no ruler line is drawn.  It defaults to ‘'='’.

 -- 屬性: Cmd.use_rawinput

     A flag, defaulting to true.  If true, *note cmdloop(): 3acc. uses
     *note input(): 1169. to display a prompt and read the next command;
     if false, *note sys.stdout.write(): 92a. and *note
     sys.stdin.readline(): 2bf. are used.  (This means that by importing
     *note readline: b5, on systems that support it, the interpreter
     will automatically support ‘Emacs’-like line editing and
     command-history keystrokes.)


File: python.info,  Node: Cmd Example,  Prev: Cmd 物件,  Up: cmd --- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援

5.24.2.2 Cmd Example
....................

The *note cmd: 17. module is mainly useful for building custom shells
that let a user work with a program interactively.

This section presents a simple example of how to build a shell around a
few of the commands in the *note turtle: fc. module.

Basic turtle commands such as *note forward(): 3a28. are added to a
*note Cmd: 3ac8. subclass with method named ‘do_forward()’.  The
argument is converted to a number and dispatched to the turtle module.
The docstring is used in the help utility provided by the shell.

The example also includes a basic record and playback facility
implemented with the *note precmd(): 3ad1. method which is responsible
for converting the input to lowercase and writing the commands to a
file.  The ‘do_playback()’ method reads the file and adds the recorded
commands to the *note cmdqueue: 3ada. for immediate playback:

     import cmd, sys
     from turtle import *

     class TurtleShell(cmd.Cmd):
         intro = 'Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.\n'
         prompt = '(turtle) '
         file = None

         # ----- basic turtle commands -----
         def do_forward(self, arg):
             'Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10'
             forward(*parse(arg))
         def do_right(self, arg):
             'Turn turtle right by given number of degrees:  RIGHT 20'
             right(*parse(arg))
         def do_left(self, arg):
             'Turn turtle left by given number of degrees:  LEFT 90'
             left(*parse(arg))
         def do_goto(self, arg):
             'Move turtle to an absolute position with changing orientation.  GOTO 100 200'
             goto(*parse(arg))
         def do_home(self, arg):
             'Return turtle to the home position:  HOME'
             home()
         def do_circle(self, arg):
             'Draw circle with given radius an options extent and steps:  CIRCLE 50'
             circle(*parse(arg))
         def do_position(self, arg):
             'Print the current turtle position:  POSITION'
             print('Current position is %d %d\n' % position())
         def do_heading(self, arg):
             'Print the current turtle heading in degrees:  HEADING'
             print('Current heading is %d\n' % (heading(),))
         def do_color(self, arg):
             'Set the color:  COLOR BLUE'
             color(arg.lower())
         def do_undo(self, arg):
             'Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s):  UNDO'
         def do_reset(self, arg):
             'Clear the screen and return turtle to center:  RESET'
             reset()
         def do_bye(self, arg):
             'Stop recording, close the turtle window, and exit:  BYE'
             print('Thank you for using Turtle')
             self.close()
             bye()
             return True

         # ----- record and playback -----
         def do_record(self, arg):
             'Save future commands to filename:  RECORD rose.cmd'
             self.file = open(arg, 'w')
         def do_playback(self, arg):
             'Playback commands from a file:  PLAYBACK rose.cmd'
             self.close()
             with open(arg) as f:
                 self.cmdqueue.extend(f.read().splitlines())
         def precmd(self, line):
             line = line.lower()
             if self.file and 'playback' not in line:
                 print(line, file=self.file)
             return line
         def close(self):
             if self.file:
                 self.file.close()
                 self.file = None

     def parse(arg):
         'Convert a series of zero or more numbers to an argument tuple'
         return tuple(map(int, arg.split()))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         TurtleShell().cmdloop()

Here is a sample session with the turtle shell showing the help
functions, using blank lines to repeat commands, and the simple record
and playback facility:

     Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.

     (turtle) ?

     Documented commands (type help <topic>):
     ========================================
     bye     color    goto     home  playback  record  right
     circle  forward  heading  left  position  reset   undo

     (turtle) help forward
     Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10
     (turtle) record spiral.cmd
     (turtle) position
     Current position is 0 0

     (turtle) heading
     Current heading is 0

     (turtle) reset
     (turtle) circle 20
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 40
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 60
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 80
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 100
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 120
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 120
     (turtle) heading
     Current heading is 180

     (turtle) forward 100
     (turtle)
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 100
     (turtle)
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 400
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 500
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 400
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 300
     (turtle) playback spiral.cmd
     Current position is 0 0

     Current heading is 0

     Current heading is 180

     (turtle) bye
     Thank you for using Turtle


File: python.info,  Node: shlex --- 簡單的語法分析,  Prev: cmd --- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援,  Up: 程式框架

5.24.3 ‘shlex’ -- 簡單的語法分析
--------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/shlex.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note shlex: b3a. class makes it easy to write lexical analyzers for
simple syntaxes resembling that of the Unix shell.  This will often be
useful for writing minilanguages, (for example, in run control files for
Python applications) or for parsing quoted strings.

The *note shlex: bf. module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: shlex.split (s, comments=False, posix=True)

     Split the string 's' using shell-like syntax.  If 'comments' is
     *note False: 98f. (the default), the parsing of comments in the
     given string will be disabled (setting the *note commenters: 3ae3.
     attribute of the *note shlex: b3a. instance to the empty string).
     This function operates in POSIX mode by default, but uses non-POSIX
     mode if the 'posix' argument is false.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Passing ‘None’ for 's' argument now raises an
     exception, rather than reading *note sys.stdin: 2bf.

 -- 函式: shlex.join (split_command)

     Concatenate the tokens of the list 'split_command' and return a
     string.  This function is the inverse of *note split(): 2be.

          >>> from shlex import join
          >>> print(join(['echo', '-n', 'Multiple words']))
          echo -n 'Multiple words'

     The returned value is shell-escaped to protect against injection
     vulnerabilities (see *note quote(): fba.).

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: shlex.quote (s)

     Return a shell-escaped version of the string 's'.  The returned
     value is a string that can safely be used as one token in a shell
     command line, for cases where you cannot use a list.
          警告: The ‘shlex’ module is 'only designed for Unix shells'.

          The *note quote(): fba. function is not guaranteed to be
          correct on non-POSIX compliant shells or shells from other
          operating systems such as Windows.  Executing commands quoted
          by this module on such shells can open up the possibility of a
          command injection vulnerability.

          Consider using functions that pass command arguments with
          lists such as *note subprocess.run(): 9e5. with ‘shell=False’.

     This idiom would be unsafe:

          >>> filename = 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
          >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(filename)
          >>> print(command)  # executed by a shell: boom!
          ls -l somefile; rm -rf ~

     *note quote(): fba. lets you plug the security hole:

          >>> from shlex import quote
          >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(quote(filename))
          >>> print(command)
          ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
          >>> remote_command = 'ssh home {}'.format(quote(command))
          >>> print(remote_command)
          ssh home 'ls -l '"'"'somefile; rm -rf ~'"'"''

     The quoting is compatible with UNIX shells and with *note split():
     2be.:

          >>> from shlex import split
          >>> remote_command = split(remote_command)
          >>> remote_command
          ['ssh', 'home', "ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'"]
          >>> command = split(remote_command[-1])
          >>> command
          ['ls', '-l', 'somefile; rm -rf ~']

     在 3.3 版被加入.

The *note shlex: bf. module defines the following class:

 -- 類別: shlex.shlex (instream=None, infile=None, posix=False,
          punctuation_chars=False)

     A *note shlex: b3a. instance or subclass instance is a lexical
     analyzer object.  The initialization argument, if present,
     specifies where to read characters from.  It must be a
     file-/stream-like object with *note read(): 1a7a. and *note
     readline(): 1ab2. methods, or a string.  If no argument is given,
     input will be taken from ‘sys.stdin’.  The second optional argument
     is a filename string, which sets the initial value of the *note
     infile: 3ae4. attribute.  If the 'instream' argument is omitted or
     equal to ‘sys.stdin’, this second argument defaults to "stdin".
     The 'posix' argument defines the operational mode: when 'posix' is
     not true (default), the *note shlex: b3a. instance will operate in
     compatibility mode.  When operating in POSIX mode, *note shlex:
     b3a. will try to be as close as possible to the POSIX shell parsing
     rules.  The 'punctuation_chars' argument provides a way to make the
     behaviour even closer to how real shells parse.  This can take a
     number of values: the default value, ‘False’, preserves the
     behaviour seen under Python 3.5 and earlier.  If set to ‘True’,
     then parsing of the characters ‘();<>|&’ is changed: any run of
     these characters (considered punctuation characters) is returned as
     a single token.  If set to a non-empty string of characters, those
     characters will be used as the punctuation characters.  Any
     characters in the *note wordchars: 3ae5. attribute that appear in
     'punctuation_chars' will be removed from *note wordchars: 3ae5.
     See *note Improved Compatibility with Shells: b3b. for more
     information.  'punctuation_chars' can be set only upon *note shlex:
     b3a. instance creation and can't be modified later.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'punctuation_chars' 參數。

也參考
......

*note configparser: 20. 模組

     Parser for configuration files similar to the Windows ‘.ini’ files.

* Menu:

* shlex 物件::
* Parsing Rules::
* Improved Compatibility with Shells::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/shlex.py


File: python.info,  Node: shlex 物件,  Next: Parsing Rules,  Up: shlex --- 簡單的語法分析

5.24.3.1 shlex 物件
...................

A *note shlex: b3a. instance has the following methods:

 -- 方法: shlex.get_token ()

     Return a token.  If tokens have been stacked using *note
     push_token(): 3ae9, pop a token off the stack.  Otherwise, read one
     from the input stream.  If reading encounters an immediate
     end-of-file, *note eof: 3aea. is returned (the empty string (‘''’)
     in non-POSIX mode, and ‘None’ in POSIX mode).

 -- 方法: shlex.push_token (str)

     Push the argument onto the token stack.

 -- 方法: shlex.read_token ()

     Read a raw token.  Ignore the pushback stack, and do not interpret
     source requests.  (This is not ordinarily a useful entry point, and
     is documented here only for the sake of completeness.)

 -- 方法: shlex.sourcehook (filename)

     When *note shlex: b3a. detects a source request (see *note source:
     3aed. below) this method is given the following token as argument,
     and expected to return a tuple consisting of a filename and an open
     file-like object.

     Normally, this method first strips any quotes off the argument.  If
     the result is an absolute pathname, or there was no previous source
     request in effect, or the previous source was a stream (such as
     ‘sys.stdin’), the result is left alone.  Otherwise, if the result
     is a relative pathname, the directory part of the name of the file
     immediately before it on the source inclusion stack is prepended
     (this behavior is like the way the C preprocessor handles ‘#include
     "file.h"’).

     The result of the manipulations is treated as a filename, and
     returned as the first component of the tuple, with *note open():
     29c. called on it to yield the second component.  (Note: this is
     the reverse of the order of arguments in instance initialization!)

     This hook is exposed so that you can use it to implement directory
     search paths, addition of file extensions, and other namespace
     hacks.  There is no corresponding 'close' hook, but a shlex
     instance will call the *note close(): 1811. method of the sourced
     input stream when it returns EOF.

     For more explicit control of source stacking, use the *note
     push_source(): 3aee. and *note pop_source(): 3aef. methods.

 -- 方法: shlex.push_source (newstream, newfile=None)

     Push an input source stream onto the input stack.  If the filename
     argument is specified it will later be available for use in error
     messages.  This is the same method used internally by the *note
     sourcehook(): 3aec. method.

 -- 方法: shlex.pop_source ()

     Pop the last-pushed input source from the input stack.  This is the
     same method used internally when the lexer reaches EOF on a stacked
     input stream.

 -- 方法: shlex.error_leader (infile=None, lineno=None)

     This method generates an error message leader in the format of a
     Unix C compiler error label; the format is ‘'"%s", line %d: '’,
     where the ‘%s’ is replaced with the name of the current source file
     and the ‘%d’ with the current input line number (the optional
     arguments can be used to override these).

     This convenience is provided to encourage *note shlex: bf. users to
     generate error messages in the standard, parseable format
     understood by Emacs and other Unix tools.

Instances of *note shlex: b3a. subclasses have some public instance
variables which either control lexical analysis or can be used for
debugging:

 -- 屬性: shlex.commenters

     The string of characters that are recognized as comment beginners.
     All characters from the comment beginner to end of line are
     ignored.  Includes just ‘'#'’ by default.

 -- 屬性: shlex.wordchars

     The string of characters that will accumulate into multi-character
     tokens.  By default, includes all ASCII alphanumerics and
     underscore.  In POSIX mode, the accented characters in the Latin-1
     set are also included.  If *note punctuation_chars: 17b1. is not
     empty, the characters ‘~-./*?=’, which can appear in filename
     specifications and command line parameters, will also be included
     in this attribute, and any characters which appear in
     ‘punctuation_chars’ will be removed from ‘wordchars’ if they are
     present there.  If *note whitespace_split: 3af1. is set to ‘True’,
     this will have no effect.

 -- 屬性: shlex.whitespace

     Characters that will be considered whitespace and skipped.
     Whitespace bounds tokens.  By default, includes space, tab,
     linefeed and carriage-return.

 -- 屬性: shlex.escape

     Characters that will be considered as escape.  This will be only
     used in POSIX mode, and includes just ‘'\'’ by default.

 -- 屬性: shlex.quotes

     Characters that will be considered string quotes.  The token
     accumulates until the same quote is encountered again (thus,
     different quote types protect each other as in the shell.)  By
     default, includes ASCII single and double quotes.

 -- 屬性: shlex.escapedquotes

     Characters in *note quotes: 3af4. that will interpret escape
     characters defined in *note escape: 3af3.  This is only used in
     POSIX mode, and includes just ‘'"'’ by default.

 -- 屬性: shlex.whitespace_split

     If ‘True’, tokens will only be split in whitespaces.  This is
     useful, for example, for parsing command lines with *note shlex:
     b3a, getting tokens in a similar way to shell arguments.  When used
     in combination with *note punctuation_chars: 17b1, tokens will be
     split on whitespace in addition to those characters.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The *note punctuation_chars: 17b1. attribute was
     made compatible with the *note whitespace_split: 3af1. attribute.

 -- 屬性: shlex.infile

     The name of the current input file, as initially set at class
     instantiation time or stacked by later source requests.  It may be
     useful to examine this when constructing error messages.

 -- 屬性: shlex.instream

     The input stream from which this *note shlex: b3a. instance is
     reading characters.

 -- 屬性: shlex.source

     This attribute is ‘None’ by default.  If you assign a string to it,
     that string will be recognized as a lexical-level inclusion request
     similar to the ‘source’ keyword in various shells.  That is, the
     immediately following token will be opened as a filename and input
     will be taken from that stream until EOF, at which point the *note
     close(): 1811. method of that stream will be called and the input
     source will again become the original input stream.  Source
     requests may be stacked any number of levels deep.

 -- 屬性: shlex.debug

     If this attribute is numeric and ‘1’ or more, a *note shlex: b3a.
     instance will print verbose progress output on its behavior.  If
     you need to use this, you can read the module source code to learn
     the details.

 -- 屬性: shlex.lineno

     Source line number (count of newlines seen so far plus one).

 -- 屬性: shlex.token

     The token buffer.  It may be useful to examine this when catching
     exceptions.

 -- 屬性: shlex.eof

     Token used to determine end of file.  This will be set to the empty
     string (‘''’), in non-POSIX mode, and to ‘None’ in POSIX mode.

 -- 屬性: shlex.punctuation_chars

     A read-only property.  Characters that will be considered
     punctuation.  Runs of punctuation characters will be returned as a
     single token.  However, note that no semantic validity checking
     will be performed: for example, '>>>' could be returned as a token,
     even though it may not be recognised as such by shells.

     在 3.6 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing Rules,  Next: Improved Compatibility with Shells,  Prev: shlex 物件,  Up: shlex --- 簡單的語法分析

5.24.3.2 Parsing Rules
......................

When operating in non-POSIX mode, *note shlex: b3a. will try to obey to
the following rules.

   * Quote characters are not recognized within words (‘Do"Not"Separate’
     is parsed as the single word ‘Do"Not"Separate’);

   * Escape characters are not recognized;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes preserve the literal value of all
     characters within the quotes;

   * Closing quotes separate words (‘"Do"Separate’ is parsed as ‘"Do"’
     and ‘Separate’);

   * If *note whitespace_split: 3af1. is ‘False’, any character not
     declared to be a word character, whitespace, or a quote will be
     returned as a single-character token.  If it is ‘True’, *note
     shlex: b3a. will only split words in whitespaces;

   * EOF is signaled with an empty string (‘''’);

   * It's not possible to parse empty strings, even if quoted.

When operating in POSIX mode, *note shlex: b3a. will try to obey to the
following parsing rules.

   * Quotes are stripped out, and do not separate words
     (‘"Do"Not"Separate"’ is parsed as the single word ‘DoNotSeparate’);

   * Non-quoted escape characters (e.g.  ‘'\'’) preserve the literal
     value of the next character that follows;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes which are not part of *note
     escapedquotes: 3af5. (e.g.  ‘"'"’)  preserve the literal value of
     all characters within the quotes;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes which are part of *note
     escapedquotes: 3af5. (e.g.  ‘'"'’)  preserves the literal value of
     all characters within the quotes, with the exception of the
     characters mentioned in *note escape: 3af3.  The escape characters
     retain its special meaning only when followed by the quote in use,
     or the escape character itself.  Otherwise the escape character
     will be considered a normal character.

   * EOF is signaled with a *note None: 470. value;

   * Quoted empty strings (‘''’) are allowed.


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Compatibility with Shells,  Prev: Parsing Rules,  Up: shlex --- 簡單的語法分析

5.24.3.3 Improved Compatibility with Shells
...........................................

在 3.6 版被加入.

The *note shlex: bf. class provides compatibility with the parsing
performed by common Unix shells like ‘bash’, ‘dash’, and ‘sh’.  To take
advantage of this compatibility, specify the ‘punctuation_chars’
argument in the constructor.  This defaults to ‘False’, which preserves
pre-3.6 behaviour.  However, if it is set to ‘True’, then parsing of the
characters ‘();<>|&’ is changed: any run of these characters is returned
as a single token.  While this is short of a full parser for shells
(which would be out of scope for the standard library, given the
multiplicity of shells out there), it does allow you to perform
processing of command lines more easily than you could otherwise.  To
illustrate, you can see the difference in the following snippet:

     >>> import shlex
     >>> text = "a && b; c && d || e; f >'abc'; (def \"ghi\")"
     >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True)
     >>> s.whitespace_split = True
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&&', 'b;', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e;', 'f', '>abc;', '(def', 'ghi)']
     >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True, punctuation_chars=True)
     >>> s.whitespace_split = True
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&&', 'b', ';', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e', ';', 'f', '>', 'abc', ';',
     '(', 'def', 'ghi', ')']

Of course, tokens will be returned which are not valid for shells, and
you'll need to implement your own error checks on the returned tokens.

Instead of passing ‘True’ as the value for the punctuation_chars
parameter, you can pass a string with specific characters, which will be
used to determine which characters constitute punctuation.  For example:

     >>> import shlex
     >>> s = shlex.shlex("a && b || c", punctuation_chars="|")
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&', '&', 'b', '||', 'c']

     備註: When ‘punctuation_chars’ is specified, the *note wordchars:
     3ae5. attribute is augmented with the characters ‘~-./*?=’.  That
     is because these characters can appear in file names (including
     wildcards) and command-line arguments (e.g.  ‘--color=auto’).
     Hence:

          >>> import shlex
          >>> s = shlex.shlex('~/a && b-c --color=auto || d *.py?',
          ...                 punctuation_chars=True)
          >>> list(s)
          ['~/a', '&&', 'b-c', '--color=auto', '||', 'd', '*.py?']

     However, to match the shell as closely as possible, it is
     recommended to always use ‘posix’ and *note whitespace_split: 3af1.
     when using *note punctuation_chars: 17b1, which will negate *note
     wordchars: 3ae5. entirely.

For best effect, ‘punctuation_chars’ should be set in conjunction with
‘posix=True’.  (Note that ‘posix=False’ is the default for *note shlex:
b3a.)


File: python.info,  Node: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces,  Next: 開發工具,  Prev: 程式框架,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.25 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 (Graphical User Interfaces)
=========================================================

Tk/Tcl 長期以來一直是 Python 不可或缺的一部分。它提供了一個強大且獨立於
平台的視窗工具包，可供使用 *note tkinter: ea. 套件及其擴充套件 *note
tkinter.tix: f3. 和 *note tkinter.ttk: f4. 模組的 Python 開發者使用。

*note tkinter: ea. 套件是 Tcl/Tk 之上的一個輕薄物件導向層。要使用 *note
tkinter: ea.，你不需要編寫 Tcl 程式，但會需要查閱 Tk 文件和部份 Tcl 文件
。*note tkinter: ea. 是一組將 Tk 小工具 (widget) 實作為 Python 類別的包
裝器。

*note tkinter: ea. 的主要優點是速度快，而且通常與 Python 捆綁 (bundle) 在
一起。儘管其標準文件不是很完整，但還是有些不錯的材料，包括：參考資料、教
學、書籍等。*note tkinter: ea. 曾因其過時的外觀而眾所皆知，但這在 Tk 8.5
中得到了極大的改進。此外，還有許多其他你可能會感興趣的 GUI 函式庫。
Python wiki 列出了幾個替代的 GUI 框架和工具(1)。

* Menu:

* tkinter: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面. Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面
* tkinter.colorchooser: tkinter colorchooser --- 顏色選擇對話框. 顏色選擇對話框
* tkinter.font: tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器. Tkinter 字型包裝器
* Tkinter 對話框::
* tkinter.messagebox: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示. Tkinter 訊息提示
* tkinter.scrolledtext: tkinter scrolledtext --- 捲動文字小工具. 捲動文字小工具
* tkinter.dnd: tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援. 拖放支援
* tkinter.ttk: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具. Tk 主題化小工具
* tkinter.tix: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具. Tk 擴充小工具
* IDLE: IDLE<62>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面,  Next: tkinter colorchooser --- 顏色選擇對話框,  Up: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces

5.25.1 ‘tkinter’ -- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面
-----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tkinter/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter: ea. package ("Tk interface") is the standard Python
interface to the Tcl/Tk GUI toolkit.  Both Tk and *note tkinter: ea. are
available on most Unix platforms, including macOS, as well as on Windows
systems.

Running ‘python -m tkinter’ from the command line should open a window
demonstrating a simple Tk interface, letting you know that *note
tkinter: ea. is properly installed on your system, and also showing what
version of Tcl/Tk is installed, so you can read the Tcl/Tk documentation
specific to that version.

Tkinter supports a range of Tcl/Tk versions, built either with or
without thread support.  The official Python binary release bundles
Tcl/Tk 8.6 threaded.  See the source code for the *note _tkinter: 3.
module for more information about supported versions.

Tkinter is not a thin wrapper, but adds a fair amount of its own logic
to make the experience more pythonic.  This documentation will
concentrate on these additions and changes, and refer to the official
Tcl/Tk documentation for details that are unchanged.

     備註: Tcl/Tk 8.5 (2007) introduced a modern set of themed user
     interface components along with a new API to use them.  Both old
     and new APIs are still available.  Most documentation you will find
     online still uses the old API and can be woefully outdated.

也參考
......

   * 
     TkDocs(2)

          Extensive tutorial on creating user interfaces with Tkinter.
          Explains key concepts, and illustrates recommended approaches
          using the modern API.

   * 
     Tkinter 8.5 reference: a GUI for Python(3)

          Reference documentation for Tkinter 8.5 detailing available
          classes, methods, and options.

Tcl/Tk 相關資源：

   * 
     Tk 指令(4)

          Comprehensive reference to each of the underlying Tcl/Tk
          commands used by Tkinter.

   * 
     Tcl/Tk 首頁(5)

          Additional documentation, and links to Tcl/Tk core
          development.

書籍：

   * 
     Modern Tkinter for Busy Python Developers(6)

          由 Mark Roseman 所著。(ISBN 978-1999149567)

   * 
     Python GUI programming with Tkinter(7)

          由 Alan D. Moore 所著。(ISBN 978-1788835886)

   * 
     Programming Python(8)

          由 Mark Lutz 所著；大部分 Tkinter 主題都有涵蓋。(ISBN
          978-0596158101)

   * 
     Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)(9)

          由 Tcl/Tk 發明者 John Ousterhout 與 Ken Jones 所著；不包含
          Tkinter。(ISBN 978-0321336330)

* Menu:

* Architecture::
* Tkinter Modules::
* Tkinter Life Preserver::
* Threading model::
* Handy Reference::
* File Handlers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/__init__.py

   (2) https://tkdocs.com/

   (3) https://www.tkdocs.com/shipman/

   (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm

   (5) https://www.tcl.tk

   (6) https://tkdocs.com/book.html

   (7) 
https://www.packtpub.com/en-us/product/python-gui-programming-with-tkinter/9781788835886

   (8) https://learning-python.com/about-pp4e.html

   (9) https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/032133633X


File: python.info,  Node: Architecture,  Next: Tkinter Modules,  Up: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面

5.25.1.1 Architecture
.....................

Tcl/Tk is not a single library but rather consists of a few distinct
modules, each with separate functionality and its own official
documentation.  Python's binary releases also ship an add-on module
together with it.

Tcl

     Tcl is a dynamic interpreted programming language, just like
     Python.  Though it can be used on its own as a general-purpose
     programming language, it is most commonly embedded into C
     applications as a scripting engine or an interface to the Tk
     toolkit.  The Tcl library has a C interface to create and manage
     one or more instances of a Tcl interpreter, run Tcl commands and
     scripts in those instances, and add custom commands implemented in
     either Tcl or C. Each interpreter has an event queue, and there are
     facilities to send events to it and process them.  Unlike Python,
     Tcl's execution model is designed around cooperative multitasking,
     and Tkinter bridges this difference (see *note Threading model:
     3b03. for details).

Tk

     Tk is a Tcl package(1) implemented in C that adds custom commands
     to create and manipulate GUI widgets.  Each *note Tk: 147c. object
     embeds its own Tcl interpreter instance with Tk loaded into it.
     Tk's widgets are very customizable, though at the cost of a dated
     appearance.  Tk uses Tcl's event queue to generate and process GUI
     events.

Ttk

     Themed Tk (Ttk) is a newer family of Tk widgets that provide a much
     better appearance on different platforms than many of the classic
     Tk widgets.  Ttk is distributed as part of Tk, starting with Tk
     version 8.5.  Python bindings are provided in a separate module,
     *note tkinter.ttk: f4.

Internally, Tk and Ttk use facilities of the underlying operating
system, i.e., Xlib on Unix/X11, Cocoa on macOS, GDI on Windows.

When your Python application uses a class in Tkinter, e.g., to create a
widget, the *note tkinter: ea. module first assembles a Tcl/Tk command
string.  It passes that Tcl command string to an internal *note
_tkinter: 3. binary module, which then calls the Tcl interpreter to
evaluate it.  The Tcl interpreter will then call into the Tk and/or Ttk
packages, which will in turn make calls to Xlib, Cocoa, or GDI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.tcl-lang.org/37432


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter Modules,  Next: Tkinter Life Preserver,  Prev: Architecture,  Up: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面

5.25.1.2 Tkinter Modules
........................

Support for Tkinter is spread across several modules.  Most applications
will need the main *note tkinter: ea. module, as well as the *note
tkinter.ttk: f4. module, which provides the modern themed widget set and
API:

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter import ttk

 -- 類別: tkinter.Tk (screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk',
          useTk=True, sync=False, use=None)

     Construct a toplevel Tk widget, which is usually the main window of
     an application, and initialize a Tcl interpreter for this widget.
     Each instance has its own associated Tcl interpreter.

     The *note Tk: 147c. class is typically instantiated using all
     default values.  However, the following keyword arguments are
     currently recognized:

     'screenName'

          When given (as a string), sets the ‘DISPLAY’ environment
          variable.  (X11 only)

     'baseName'

          Name of the profile file.  By default, 'baseName' is derived
          from the program name (‘sys.argv[0]’).

     'className'

          Name of the widget class.  Used as a profile file and also as
          the name with which Tcl is invoked ('argv0' in 'interp').

     'useTk'

          If ‘True’, initialize the Tk subsystem.  The *note
          tkinter.Tcl(): 3b05. function sets this to ‘False’.

     'sync'

          If ‘True’, execute all X server commands synchronously, so
          that errors are reported immediately.  Can be used for
          debugging.  (X11 only)

     'use'

          Specifies the 'id' of the window in which to embed the
          application, instead of it being created as an independent
          toplevel window.  'id' must be specified in the same way as
          the value for the -use option for toplevel widgets (that is,
          it has a form like that returned by ‘winfo_id()’).

          Note that on some platforms this will only work correctly if
          'id' refers to a Tk frame or toplevel that has its -container
          option enabled.

     *note Tk: 147c. reads and interprets profile files, named
     ‘.`className'.tcl’ and ‘.`baseName'.tcl’, into the Tcl interpreter
     and calls *note exec(): 6b1. on the contents of ‘.`className'.py’
     and ‘.`baseName'.py’.  The path for the profile files is the ‘HOME’
     environment variable or, if that isn't defined, then *note
     os.curdir: 2558.

      -- 屬性: tk

          The Tk application object created by instantiating *note Tk:
          147c.  This provides access to the Tcl interpreter.  Each
          widget that is attached the same instance of *note Tk: 147c.
          has the same value for its *note tk: 3b06. attribute.

      -- 屬性: master

          The widget object that contains this widget.  For *note Tk:
          147c, the 'master' is *note None: 470. because it is the main
          window.  The terms 'master' and 'parent' are similar and
          sometimes used interchangeably as argument names; however,
          calling ‘winfo_parent()’ returns a string of the widget name
          whereas *note master: 3b07. returns the object.
          'parent'/'child' reflects the tree-like relationship while
          'master'/'slave' reflects the container structure.

      -- 屬性: children

          The immediate descendants of this widget as a *note dict: 239.
          with the child widget names as the keys and the child instance
          objects as the values.

 -- 函式: tkinter.Tcl (screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk',
          useTk=False)

     The *note Tcl(): 3b05. function is a factory function which creates
     an object much like that created by the *note Tk: 147c. class,
     except that it does not initialize the Tk subsystem.  This is most
     often useful when driving the Tcl interpreter in an environment
     where one doesn't want to create extraneous toplevel windows, or
     where one cannot (such as Unix/Linux systems without an X server).
     An object created by the *note Tcl(): 3b05. object can have a
     Toplevel window created (and the Tk subsystem initialized) by
     calling its ‘loadtk()’ method.

The modules that provide Tk support include:

*note tkinter: ea.

     主要的 Tkinter 模組。

*note tkinter.colorchooser: eb.

     Dialog to let the user choose a color.

*note tkinter.commondialog: ec.

     Base class for the dialogs defined in the other modules listed
     here.

*note tkinter.filedialog: ee.

     Common dialogs to allow the user to specify a file to open or save.

*note tkinter.font: ef.

     Utilities to help work with fonts.

*note tkinter.messagebox: f0.

     Access to standard Tk dialog boxes.

*note tkinter.scrolledtext: f1.

     Text widget with a vertical scroll bar built in.

*note tkinter.simpledialog: f2.

     Basic dialogs and convenience functions.

*note tkinter.ttk: f4.

     Themed widget set introduced in Tk 8.5, providing modern
     alternatives for many of the classic widgets in the main *note
     tkinter: ea. module.

Additional modules:

*note _tkinter: 3.

     A binary module that contains the low-level interface to Tcl/Tk.
     It is automatically imported by the main *note tkinter: ea. module,
     and should never be used directly by application programmers.  It
     is usually a shared library (or DLL), but might in some cases be
     statically linked with the Python interpreter.

*note idlelib: 6e.

     Python's Integrated Development and Learning Environment (IDLE).
     Based on *note tkinter: ea.

‘tkinter.constants’

     Symbolic constants that can be used in place of strings when
     passing various parameters to Tkinter calls.  Automatically
     imported by the main *note tkinter: ea. module.

*note tkinter.dnd: ed.

     (experimental) Drag-and-drop support for *note tkinter: ea.  This
     will become deprecated when it is replaced with the Tk DND.

*note tkinter.tix: f3.

     (deprecated) An older third-party Tcl/Tk package that adds several
     new widgets.  Better alternatives for most can be found in *note
     tkinter.ttk: f4.

*note turtle: fc.

     Turtle graphics in a Tk window.


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter Life Preserver,  Next: Threading model,  Prev: Tkinter Modules,  Up: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面

5.25.1.3 Tkinter Life Preserver
...............................

This section is not designed to be an exhaustive tutorial on either Tk
or Tkinter.  For that, refer to one of the external resources noted
earlier.  Instead, this section provides a very quick orientation to
what a Tkinter application looks like, identifies foundational Tk
concepts, and explains how the Tkinter wrapper is structured.

The remainder of this section will help you to identify the classes,
methods, and options you'll need in your Tkinter application, and where
to find more detailed documentation on them, including in the official
Tcl/Tk reference manual.

* Menu:

* A Hello World Program::
* Important Tk Concepts::
* Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk::
* How do I...? What option does...?: How do I ? What option does ?.
* Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual::


File: python.info,  Node: A Hello World Program,  Next: Important Tk Concepts,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.25.1.4 A Hello World Program
..............................

We'll start by walking through a "Hello World" application in Tkinter.
This isn't the smallest one we could write, but has enough to illustrate
some key concepts you'll need to know.

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter import ttk
     root = Tk()
     frm = ttk.Frame(root, padding=10)
     frm.grid()
     ttk.Label(frm, text="Hello World!").grid(column=0, row=0)
     ttk.Button(frm, text="Quit", command=root.destroy).grid(column=1, row=0)
     root.mainloop()

After the imports, the next line creates an instance of the ‘Tk’ class,
which initializes Tk and creates its associated Tcl interpreter.  It
also creates a toplevel window, known as the root window, which serves
as the main window of the application.

The following line creates a frame widget, which in this case will
contain a label and a button we'll create next.  The frame is fit inside
the root window.

The next line creates a label widget holding a static text string.  The
‘grid()’ method is used to specify the relative layout (position) of the
label within its containing frame widget, similar to how tables in HTML
work.

A button widget is then created, and placed to the right of the label.
When pressed, it will call the ‘destroy()’ method of the root window.

Finally, the ‘mainloop()’ method puts everything on the display, and
responds to user input until the program terminates.


File: python.info,  Node: Important Tk Concepts,  Next: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Prev: A Hello World Program,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.25.1.5 Important Tk Concepts
..............................

Even this simple program illustrates the following key Tk concepts:

widgets

     A Tkinter user interface is made up of individual 'widgets'.  Each
     widget is represented as a Python object, instantiated from classes
     like ‘ttk.Frame’, ‘ttk.Label’, and ‘ttk.Button’.

widget hierarchy

     Widgets are arranged in a 'hierarchy'.  The label and button were
     contained within a frame, which in turn was contained within the
     root window.  When creating each 'child' widget, its 'parent'
     widget is passed as the first argument to the widget constructor.

configuration options

     Widgets have 'configuration options', which modify their appearance
     and behavior, such as the text to display in a label or button.
     Different classes of widgets will have different sets of options.

geometry management

     Widgets aren't automatically added to the user interface when they
     are created.  A 'geometry manager' like ‘grid’ controls where in
     the user interface they are placed.

event loop

     Tkinter reacts to user input, changes from your program, and even
     refreshes the display only when actively running an 'event loop'.
     If your program isn't running the event loop, your user interface
     won't update.


File: python.info,  Node: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Next: How do I ? What option does ?,  Prev: Important Tk Concepts,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.25.1.6 Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk
...............................................

When your application uses Tkinter's classes and methods, internally
Tkinter is assembling strings representing Tcl/Tk commands, and
executing those commands in the Tcl interpreter attached to your
application's ‘Tk’ instance.

Whether it's trying to navigate reference documentation, trying to find
the right method or option, adapting some existing code, or debugging
your Tkinter application, there are times that it will be useful to
understand what those underlying Tcl/Tk commands look like.

To illustrate, here is the Tcl/Tk equivalent of the main part of the
Tkinter script above.

     ttk::frame .frm -padding 10
     grid .frm
     grid [ttk::label .frm.lbl -text "Hello World!"] -column 0 -row 0
     grid [ttk::button .frm.btn -text "Quit" -command "destroy ."] -column 1 -row 0

Tcl's syntax is similar to many shell languages, where the first word is
the command to be executed, with arguments to that command following it,
separated by spaces.  Without getting into too many details, notice the
following:

   * The commands used to create widgets (like ‘ttk::frame’) correspond
     to widget classes in Tkinter.

   * Tcl widget options (like ‘-text’) correspond to keyword arguments
     in Tkinter.

   * Widgets are referred to by a 'pathname' in Tcl (like ‘.frm.btn’),
     whereas Tkinter doesn't use names but object references.

   * A widget's place in the widget hierarchy is encoded in its
     (hierarchical) pathname, which uses a ‘.’ (dot) as a path
     separator.  The pathname for the root window is just ‘.’ (dot).  In
     Tkinter, the hierarchy is defined not by pathname but by specifying
     the parent widget when creating each child widget.

   * Operations which are implemented as separate 'commands' in Tcl
     (like ‘grid’ or ‘destroy’) are represented as 'methods' on Tkinter
     widget objects.  As you'll see shortly, at other times Tcl uses
     what appear to be method calls on widget objects, which more
     closely mirror what would is used in Tkinter.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I ? What option does ?,  Next: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual,  Prev: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.25.1.7 How do I...? What option does...?
..........................................

If you're not sure how to do something in Tkinter, and you can't
immediately find it in the tutorial or reference documentation you're
using, there are a few strategies that can be helpful.

First, remember that the details of how individual widgets work may vary
across different versions of both Tkinter and Tcl/Tk.  If you're
searching documentation, make sure it corresponds to the Python and
Tcl/Tk versions installed on your system.

When searching for how to use an API, it helps to know the exact name of
the class, option, or method that you're using.  Introspection, either
in an interactive Python shell or with *note print(): e02, can help you
identify what you need.

To find out what configuration options are available on any widget, call
its ‘configure()’ method, which returns a dictionary containing a
variety of information about each object, including its default and
current values.  Use ‘keys()’ to get just the names of each option.

     btn = ttk.Button(frm, ...)
     print(btn.configure().keys())

As most widgets have many configuration options in common, it can be
useful to find out which are specific to a particular widget class.
Comparing the list of options to that of a simpler widget, like a frame,
is one way to do that.

     print(set(btn.configure().keys()) - set(frm.configure().keys()))

Similarly, you can find the available methods for a widget object using
the standard *note dir(): 42d. function.  If you try it, you'll see
there are over 200 common widget methods, so again identifying those
specific to a widget class is helpful.

     print(dir(btn))
     print(set(dir(btn)) - set(dir(frm)))


File: python.info,  Node: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual,  Prev: How do I ? What option does ?,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.25.1.8 Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual
...............................................

As noted, the official Tk commands(1) reference manual (man pages) is
often the most accurate description of what specific operations on
widgets do.  Even when you know the name of the option or method that
you need, you may still have a few places to look.

While all operations in Tkinter are implemented as method calls on
widget objects, you've seen that many Tcl/Tk operations appear as
commands that take a widget pathname as its first parameter, followed by
optional parameters, e.g.

     destroy .
     grid .frm.btn -column 0 -row 0

Others, however, look more like methods called on a widget object (in
fact, when you create a widget in Tcl/Tk, it creates a Tcl command with
the name of the widget pathname, with the first parameter to that
command being the name of a method to call).

     .frm.btn invoke
     .frm.lbl configure -text "Goodbye"

In the official Tcl/Tk reference documentation, you'll find most
operations that look like method calls on the man page for a specific
widget (e.g., you'll find the ‘invoke()’ method on the ttk::button(2)
man page), while functions that take a widget as a parameter often have
their own man page (e.g., grid(3)).

You'll find many common options and methods in the options(4) or
ttk::widget(5) man pages, while others are found in the man page for a
specific widget class.

You'll also find that many Tkinter methods have compound names, e.g.,
‘winfo_x()’, ‘winfo_height()’, ‘winfo_viewable()’.  You'd find
documentation for all of these in the winfo(6) man page.

     備註: Somewhat confusingly, there are also methods on all Tkinter
     widgets that don't actually operate on the widget, but operate at a
     global scope, independent of any widget.  Examples are methods for
     accessing the clipboard or the system bell.  (They happen to be
     implemented as methods in the base ‘Widget’ class that all Tkinter
     widgets inherit from).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm

   (2) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_button.htm

   (3) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/grid.htm

   (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/options.htm

   (5) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_widget.htm

   (6) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/winfo.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Threading model,  Next: Handy Reference,  Prev: Tkinter Life Preserver,  Up: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面

5.25.1.9 Threading model
........................

Python and Tcl/Tk have very different threading models, which *note
tkinter: ea. tries to bridge.  If you use threads, you may need to be
aware of this.

A Python interpreter may have many threads associated with it.  In Tcl,
multiple threads can be created, but each thread has a separate Tcl
interpreter instance associated with it.  Threads can also create more
than one interpreter instance, though each interpreter instance can be
used only by the one thread that created it.

Each ‘Tk’ object created by *note tkinter: ea. contains a Tcl
interpreter.  It also keeps track of which thread created that
interpreter.  Calls to *note tkinter: ea. can be made from any Python
thread.  Internally, if a call comes from a thread other than the one
that created the ‘Tk’ object, an event is posted to the interpreter's
event queue, and when executed, the result is returned to the calling
Python thread.

Tcl/Tk applications are normally event-driven, meaning that after
initialization, the interpreter runs an event loop (i.e.
‘Tk.mainloop()’) and responds to events.  Because it is single-threaded,
event handlers must respond quickly, otherwise they will block other
events from being processed.  To avoid this, any long-running
computations should not run in an event handler, but are either broken
into smaller pieces using timers, or run in another thread.  This is
different from many GUI toolkits where the GUI runs in a completely
separate thread from all application code including event handlers.

If the Tcl interpreter is not running the event loop and processing
events, any *note tkinter: ea. calls made from threads other than the
one running the Tcl interpreter will fail.

A number of special cases exist:

   * Tcl/Tk libraries can be built so they are not thread-aware.  In
     this case, *note tkinter: ea. calls the library from the
     originating Python thread, even if this is different than the
     thread that created the Tcl interpreter.  A global lock ensures
     only one call occurs at a time.

   * While *note tkinter: ea. allows you to create more than one
     instance of a ‘Tk’ object (with its own interpreter), all
     interpreters that are part of the same thread share a common event
     queue, which gets ugly fast.  In practice, don't create more than
     one instance of ‘Tk’ at a time.  Otherwise, it's best to create
     them in separate threads and ensure you're running a thread-aware
     Tcl/Tk build.

   * Blocking event handlers are not the only way to prevent the Tcl
     interpreter from reentering the event loop.  It is even possible to
     run multiple nested event loops or abandon the event loop entirely.
     If you're doing anything tricky when it comes to events or threads,
     be aware of these possibilities.

   * There are a few select *note tkinter: ea. functions that presently
     work only when called from the thread that created the Tcl
     interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: Handy Reference,  Next: File Handlers,  Prev: Threading model,  Up: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面

5.25.1.10 Handy Reference
.........................

* Menu:

* Setting Options::
* The Packer::
* Packer Options::
* Coupling Widget Variables::
* The Window Manager::
* Tk Option Data Types::
* Bindings and Events::
* The index Parameter::
* Images::


File: python.info,  Node: Setting Options,  Next: The Packer,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.11 Setting Options
.........................

Options control things like the color and border width of a widget.
Options can be set in three ways:

At object creation time, using keyword arguments

          fred = Button(self, fg="red", bg="blue")

After object creation, treating the option name like a dictionary index

          fred["fg"] = "red"
          fred["bg"] = "blue"

Use the config() method to update multiple attrs subsequent to object creation

          fred.config(fg="red", bg="blue")

For a complete explanation of a given option and its behavior, see the
Tk man pages for the widget in question.

Note that the man pages list "STANDARD OPTIONS" and "WIDGET SPECIFIC
OPTIONS" for each widget.  The former is a list of options that are
common to many widgets, the latter are the options that are
idiosyncratic to that particular widget.  The Standard Options are
documented on the ‘options(3)(1)’ man page.

No distinction between standard and widget-specific options is made in
this document.  Some options don't apply to some kinds of widgets.
Whether a given widget responds to a particular option depends on the
class of the widget; buttons have a ‘command’ option, labels do not.

The options supported by a given widget are listed in that widget's man
page, or can be queried at runtime by calling the ‘config()’ method
without arguments, or by calling the ‘keys()’ method on that widget.
The return value of these calls is a dictionary whose key is the name of
the option as a string (for example, ‘'relief'’) and whose values are
5-tuples.

Some options, like ‘bg’ are synonyms for common options with long names
(‘bg’ is shorthand for "background").  Passing the ‘config()’ method the
name of a shorthand option will return a 2-tuple, not 5-tuple.  The
2-tuple passed back will contain the name of the synonym and the "real"
option (such as ‘('bg', 'background')’).

Index       含義                                  範例
                                                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
0           option name                           ‘'relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
1           option name for database lookup       ‘'relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
2           option class for database lookup      ‘'Relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
3           default value                         ‘'raised'’
                                                  
                                                  
4           current value                         ‘'groove'’
                                                  

範例：

     >>> print(fred.config())
     {'relief': ('relief', 'relief', 'Relief', 'raised', 'groove')}

Of course, the dictionary printed will include all the options available
and their values.  This is meant only as an example.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/options(3)


File: python.info,  Node: The Packer,  Next: Packer Options,  Prev: Setting Options,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.12 The Packer
....................

The packer is one of Tk's geometry-management mechanisms.  Geometry
managers are used to specify the relative positioning of widgets within
their container - their mutual 'master'.  In contrast to the more
cumbersome 'placer' (which is used less commonly, and we do not cover
here), the packer takes qualitative relationship specification -
'above', 'to the left of', 'filling', etc - and works everything out to
determine the exact placement coordinates for you.

The size of any 'master' widget is determined by the size of the "slave
widgets" inside.  The packer is used to control where slave widgets
appear inside the master into which they are packed.  You can pack
widgets into frames, and frames into other frames, in order to achieve
the kind of layout you desire.  Additionally, the arrangement is
dynamically adjusted to accommodate incremental changes to the
configuration, once it is packed.

Note that widgets do not appear until they have had their geometry
specified with a geometry manager.  It's a common early mistake to leave
out the geometry specification, and then be surprised when the widget is
created but nothing appears.  A widget will appear only after it has
had, for example, the packer's ‘pack()’ method applied to it.

The pack() method can be called with keyword-option/value pairs that
control where the widget is to appear within its container, and how it
is to behave when the main application window is resized.  Here are some
examples:

     fred.pack()                     # defaults to side = "top"
     fred.pack(side="left")
     fred.pack(expand=1)


File: python.info,  Node: Packer Options,  Next: Coupling Widget Variables,  Prev: The Packer,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.13 Packer Options
........................

For more extensive information on the packer and the options that it can
take, see the man pages and page 183 of John Ousterhout's book.

anchor

     Anchor type.  Denotes where the packer is to place each slave in
     its parcel.

expand

     Boolean, ‘0’ or ‘1’.

fill

     Legal values: ‘'x'’, ‘'y'’, ‘'both'’, ‘'none'’.

ipadx and ipady

     A distance - designating internal padding on each side of the slave
     widget.

padx and pady

     A distance - designating external padding on each side of the slave
     widget.

side

     Legal values are: ‘'left'’, ‘'right'’, ‘'top'’, ‘'bottom'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Coupling Widget Variables,  Next: The Window Manager,  Prev: Packer Options,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.14 Coupling Widget Variables
...................................

The current-value setting of some widgets (like text entry widgets) can
be connected directly to application variables by using special options.
These options are ‘variable’, ‘textvariable’, ‘onvalue’, ‘offvalue’, and
‘value’.  This connection works both ways: if the variable changes for
any reason, the widget it's connected to will be updated to reflect the
new value.

Unfortunately, in the current implementation of *note tkinter: ea. it is
not possible to hand over an arbitrary Python variable to a widget
through a ‘variable’ or ‘textvariable’ option.  The only kinds of
variables for which this works are variables that are subclassed from a
class called Variable, defined in *note tkinter: ea.

There are many useful subclasses of Variable already defined:
‘StringVar’, ‘IntVar’, ‘DoubleVar’, and ‘BooleanVar’.  To read the
current value of such a variable, call the ‘get()’ method on it, and to
change its value you call the ‘set()’ method.  If you follow this
protocol, the widget will always track the value of the variable, with
no further intervention on your part.

舉例來說：

     import tkinter as tk

     class App(tk.Frame):
         def __init__(self, master):
             super().__init__(master)
             self.pack()

             self.entrythingy = tk.Entry()
             self.entrythingy.pack()

             # Create the application variable.
             self.contents = tk.StringVar()
             # Set it to some value.
             self.contents.set("this is a variable")
             # Tell the entry widget to watch this variable.
             self.entrythingy["textvariable"] = self.contents

             # Define a callback for when the user hits return.
             # It prints the current value of the variable.
             self.entrythingy.bind('<Key-Return>',
                                  self.print_contents)

         def print_contents(self, event):
             print("Hi. The current entry content is:",
                   self.contents.get())

     root = tk.Tk()
     myapp = App(root)
     myapp.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: The Window Manager,  Next: Tk Option Data Types,  Prev: Coupling Widget Variables,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.15 The Window Manager
............................

In Tk, there is a utility command, ‘wm’, for interacting with the window
manager.  Options to the ‘wm’ command allow you to control things like
titles, placement, icon bitmaps, and the like.  In *note tkinter: ea,
these commands have been implemented as methods on the ‘Wm’ class.
Toplevel widgets are subclassed from the ‘Wm’ class, and so can call the
‘Wm’ methods directly.

To get at the toplevel window that contains a given widget, you can
often just refer to the widget's master.  Of course if the widget has
been packed inside of a frame, the master won't represent a toplevel
window.  To get at the toplevel window that contains an arbitrary
widget, you can call the ‘_root()’ method.  This method begins with an
underscore to denote the fact that this function is part of the
implementation, and not an interface to Tk functionality.

以下是一些常見用法範例：

     import tkinter as tk

     class App(tk.Frame):
         def __init__(self, master=None):
             super().__init__(master)
             self.pack()

     # create the application
     myapp = App()

     #
     # here are method calls to the window manager class
     #
     myapp.master.title("My Do-Nothing Application")
     myapp.master.maxsize(1000, 400)

     # start the program
     myapp.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: Tk Option Data Types,  Next: Bindings and Events,  Prev: The Window Manager,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.16 Tk Option Data Types
..............................

anchor

     Legal values are points of the compass: ‘"n"’, ‘"ne"’, ‘"e"’,
     ‘"se"’, ‘"s"’, ‘"sw"’, ‘"w"’, ‘"nw"’, and also ‘"center"’.

bitmap

     There are eight built-in, named bitmaps: ‘'error'’, ‘'gray25'’,
     ‘'gray50'’, ‘'hourglass'’, ‘'info'’, ‘'questhead'’, ‘'question'’,
     ‘'warning'’.  To specify an X bitmap filename, give the full path
     to the file, preceded with an ‘@’, as in
     ‘"@/usr/contrib/bitmap/gumby.bit"’.

boolean

     You can pass integers 0 or 1 or the strings ‘"yes"’ or ‘"no"’.

callback

     This is any Python function that takes no arguments.  For example:

          def print_it():
              print("hi there")
          fred["command"] = print_it

color

     Colors can be given as the names of X colors in the rgb.txt file,
     or as strings representing RGB values in 4 bit: ‘"#RGB"’, 8 bit:
     ‘"#RRGGBB"’, 12 bit: ‘"#RRRGGGBBB"’, or 16 bit: ‘"#RRRRGGGGBBBB"’
     ranges, where R,G,B here represent any legal hex digit.  See page
     160 of Ousterhout's book for details.

cursor

     The standard X cursor names from ‘cursorfont.h’ can be used,
     without the ‘XC_’ prefix.  For example to get a hand cursor
     (‘XC_hand2’), use the string ‘"hand2"’.  You can also specify a
     bitmap and mask file of your own.  See page 179 of Ousterhout's
     book.

distance

     Screen distances can be specified in either pixels or absolute
     distances.  Pixels are given as numbers and absolute distances as
     strings, with the trailing character denoting units: ‘c’ for
     centimetres, ‘i’ for inches, ‘m’ for millimetres, ‘p’ for printer's
     points.  For example, 3.5 inches is expressed as ‘"3.5i"’.

font

     Tk uses a list font name format, such as ‘{courier 10 bold}’.  Font
     sizes with positive numbers are measured in points; sizes with
     negative numbers are measured in pixels.

geometry

     This is a string of the form ‘widthxheight’, where width and height
     are measured in pixels for most widgets (in characters for widgets
     displaying text).  For example: ‘fred["geometry"] = "200x100"’.

justify

     Legal values are the strings: ‘"left"’, ‘"center"’, ‘"right"’, and
     ‘"fill"’.

region

     This is a string with four space-delimited elements, each of which
     is a legal distance (see above).  For example: ‘"2 3 4 5"’ and ‘"3i
     2i 4.5i 2i"’ and ‘"3c 2c 4c 10.43c"’ are all legal regions.

relief

     Determines what the border style of a widget will be.  Legal values
     are: ‘"raised"’, ‘"sunken"’, ‘"flat"’, ‘"groove"’, and ‘"ridge"’.

scrollcommand

     This is almost always the ‘set()’ method of some scrollbar widget,
     but can be any widget method that takes a single argument.

wrap

     Must be one of: ‘"none"’, ‘"char"’, or ‘"word"’.


File: python.info,  Node: Bindings and Events,  Next: The index Parameter,  Prev: Tk Option Data Types,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.17 Bindings and Events
.............................

The bind method from the widget command allows you to watch for certain
events and to have a callback function trigger when that event type
occurs.  The form of the bind method is:

     def bind(self, sequence, func, add=''):

where:

sequence（序列）

     is a string that denotes the target kind of event.  (See the
     ‘bind(3tk)(1)’ man page, and page 201 of John Ousterhout's book,
     ‘Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)’, for details).

func

     is a Python function, taking one argument, to be invoked when the
     event occurs.  An Event instance will be passed as the argument.
     (Functions deployed this way are commonly known as 'callbacks'.)

add

     is optional, either ‘''’ or ‘'+'’.  Passing an empty string denotes
     that this binding is to replace any other bindings that this event
     is associated with.  Passing a ‘'+'’ means that this function is to
     be added to the list of functions bound to this event type.

舉例來說：

     def turn_red(self, event):
         event.widget["activeforeground"] = "red"

     self.button.bind("<Enter>", self.turn_red)

Notice how the widget field of the event is being accessed in the
‘turn_red()’ callback.  This field contains the widget that caught the X
event.  The following table lists the other event fields you can access,
and how they are denoted in Tk, which can be useful when referring to
the Tk man pages.

Tk       Tkinter Event Field       Tk       Tkinter Event Field
                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
%f       focus                     %A       char
                                            
                                            
%h       height                    %E       send_event
                                            
                                            
%k       keycode                   %K       keysym
                                            
                                            
%s       state                     %N       keysym_num
                                            
                                            
%t       time                      %T       type
                                            
                                            
%w       width                     %W       widget
                                            
                                            
%x       x                         %X       x_root
                                            
                                            
%y       y                         %Y       y_root
                                            

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/bind(3tk)


File: python.info,  Node: The index Parameter,  Next: Images,  Prev: Bindings and Events,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.18 The index Parameter
.............................

A number of widgets require "index" parameters to be passed.  These are
used to point at a specific place in a Text widget, or to particular
characters in an Entry widget, or to particular menu items in a Menu
widget.

Entry widget indexes (index, view index, etc.)

     Entry widgets have options that refer to character positions in the
     text being displayed.  You can use these *note tkinter: ea.
     functions to access these special points in text widgets:

Text widget indexes

     The index notation for Text widgets is very rich and is best
     described in the Tk man pages.

Menu indexes (menu.invoke(), menu.entryconfig(), etc.)

     Some options and methods for menus manipulate specific menu
     entries.  Anytime a menu index is needed for an option or a
     parameter, you may pass in:

        * an integer which refers to the numeric position of the entry
          in the widget, counted from the top, starting with 0;

        * the string ‘"active"’, which refers to the menu position that
          is currently under the cursor;

        * the string ‘"last"’ which refers to the last menu item;

        * An integer preceded by ‘@’, as in ‘@6’, where the integer is
          interpreted as a y pixel coordinate in the menu's coordinate
          system;

        * the string ‘"none"’, which indicates no menu entry at all,
          most often used with menu.activate() to deactivate all
          entries, and finally,

        * a text string that is pattern matched against the label of the
          menu entry, as scanned from the top of the menu to the bottom.
          Note that this index type is considered after all the others,
          which means that matches for menu items labelled ‘last’,
          ‘active’, or ‘none’ may be interpreted as the above literals,
          instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Images,  Prev: The index Parameter,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.19 Images
................

Images of different formats can be created through the corresponding
subclass of ‘tkinter.Image’:

   * ‘BitmapImage’ for images in XBM format.

   * ‘PhotoImage’ for images in PGM, PPM, GIF and PNG formats.  The
     latter is supported starting with Tk 8.6.

Either type of image is created through either the ‘file’ or the ‘data’
option (other options are available as well).

The image object can then be used wherever an ‘image’ option is
supported by some widget (e.g.  labels, buttons, menus).  In these
cases, Tk will not keep a reference to the image.  When the last Python
reference to the image object is deleted, the image data is deleted as
well, and Tk will display an empty box wherever the image was used.

也參考
......

The Pillow(1) package adds support for formats such as BMP, JPEG, TIFF,
and WebP, among others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://python-pillow.org/


File: python.info,  Node: File Handlers,  Prev: Handy Reference,  Up: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面

5.25.1.20 File Handlers
.......................

Tk allows you to register and unregister a callback function which will
be called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is possible on a file
descriptor.  Only one handler may be registered per file descriptor.
Example code:

     import tkinter
     widget = tkinter.Tk()
     mask = tkinter.READABLE | tkinter.WRITABLE
     widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, callback)
     ...
     widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)

This feature is not available on Windows.

Since you don't know how many bytes are available for reading, you may
not want to use the *note BufferedIOBase: 491. or *note TextIOBase: 492.
*note read(): 11bc. or *note readline(): 11bd. methods, since these will
insist on reading a predefined number of bytes.  For sockets, the *note
recv(): c1b. or *note recvfrom(): c1c. methods will work fine; for other
files, use raw reads or ‘os.read(file.fileno(), maxbytecount)’.

 -- 方法: Widget.tk.createfilehandler (file, mask, func)

     Registers the file handler callback function 'func'.  The 'file'
     argument may either be an object with a *note fileno(): 25ca.
     method (such as a file or socket object), or an integer file
     descriptor.  The 'mask' argument is an ORed combination of any of
     the three constants below.  The callback is called as follows:

          callback(file, mask)

 -- 方法: Widget.tk.deletefilehandler (file)

     Unregisters a file handler.

 -- 資料: _tkinter.READABLE
 -- 資料: _tkinter.WRITABLE
 -- 資料: _tkinter.EXCEPTION

     Constants used in the 'mask' arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter colorchooser --- 顏色選擇對話框,  Next: tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器,  Prev: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面,  Up: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces

5.25.2 ‘tkinter.colorchooser’ -- 顏色選擇對話框
-----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter.colorchooser: eb. 模組提供類別 *note Chooser: 3b24. 當作與
原生顏色選擇器對話框的介面。‘Chooser’ 實作了一個顏色選擇的互動視窗。類別
‘Chooser’ 繼承了類別 *note Dialog: 3b25.。

 -- 類別: tkinter.colorchooser.Chooser (master=None, **options)

 -- 函式: tkinter.colorchooser.askcolor (color=None, **options)

     建立一個顏色選擇對話框。一旦呼叫這個方法便會顯示視窗，等待使用者做
     出選擇後，回傳選擇的顏色（或者是 ‘None’）給呼叫者。

也參考
......

*note tkinter.commondialog: ec. 模組

     Tkinter 標準對話框模組

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器,  Next: Tkinter 對話框,  Prev: tkinter colorchooser --- 顏色選擇對話框,  Up: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces

5.25.3 ‘tkinter.font’ -- Tkinter 字型包裝器
-------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tkinter/font.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter.font: ef. 模組提供類別 *note Font: 16e0.，可以建立及使用已
命名的字型。

不同的字重 (font weights) 以及傾斜 (slant) 是：

 -- 資料: tkinter.font.NORMAL
 -- 資料: tkinter.font.BOLD
 -- 資料: tkinter.font.ITALIC
 -- 資料: tkinter.font.ROMAN

 -- 類別: tkinter.font.Font (root=None, font=None, name=None,
          exists=False, **options)

     類別 *note Font: 16e0. 代表一個已命名字型。'Font' 實例會被賦予一個
     的名字，也可以特指他們的字型家族 (font family)、字級 (size)、以及外
     觀設定。已命名字型是 Tk 建立及辨識字型為單一物件的方式，而不是每次
     出現時特指字型的屬性。

          引數：

                    'font' - 字型指定符號元組 (family, size, options)
                    'name' - 獨特字型名稱
                    'exists' - 如果存在的話，指向現有的已命名字型

          額外的關鍵字選項（若已指定 'font' 則會忽略）：

                    'family' - 字型家族，例如：Courier、Times
                    'size' - 字級
                         如果 'size' 是正數則會直譯成以點 (point) 為單位的字級。
                         如果 'size' 是負數則會變成絕對值
                         以像素 (pixel) 為單位的字級。
                    'weight' - 強調字型，例如：NORMAL（標準體）、BOLD（粗體）
                    'slant' - 例如：ROMAN（正體）、ITALIC（斜體）
                    'underline' - 字型加上底線（0 - 無底線、 1 - 加上底線）
                    'overstrike' - 字型加上刪除線（0 - 無刪除線、 1 - 加上刪除線）

      -- 方法: actual (option=None, displayof=None)

          回傳字型的屬性。

      -- 方法: cget (option)

          取得字型的其中一個屬性。

      -- 方法: config (**options)

          修改字體的多個屬性。

      -- 方法: copy ()

          回傳目前字體的新實例。

      -- 方法: measure (text, displayof=None)

          回傳目前字型被格式化時，在特定顯示區域中文字所用的空間。若顯示
          區域沒有被指定，則會假定主程式視窗為顯示區域。

      -- 方法: metrics (*options, **kw)

          回傳字型特定的資料。其選項包含：

          'ascent' - 基準線以及最高點的距離

               在字型中的一個字母可以佔用的空間

          'descent' - 基準線以及最低點的距離

               在字型中的一個字母可以佔用的空間

          'linespace' - 最小所需的垂直間距

               在字型中的任兩個字母之間，確保跨行時不會有垂直重疊。

          'fixed' - 若字型為等寬 (fixed-width) 的則為 1，否則為 0

 -- 函式: tkinter.font.families (root=None, displayof=None)

     回傳不同的字型家族。

 -- 函式: tkinter.font.names (root=None)

     回傳已定義字型的名字。

 -- 函式: tkinter.font.nametofont (name, root=None)

     回傳一個 *note Font: 16e0.，代表一個 tk 已命名字型。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'root' 參數。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/font.py


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter 對話框,  Next: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示,  Prev: tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器,  Up: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces

5.25.4 Tkinter 對話框
---------------------

* Menu:

* tkinter.simpledialog: tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框. 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框
* tkinter.filedialog: tkinter filedialog --- File selection dialogs. File selection dialogs
* tkinter.commondialog: tkinter commondialog --- Dialog window templates. Dialog window templates


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框,  Next: tkinter filedialog --- File selection dialogs,  Up: Tkinter 對話框

5.25.4.1 ‘tkinter.simpledialog’ -- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框
..........................................................

'原始碼：'Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.simpledialog: f2. module contains convenience classes
and functions for creating simple modal dialogs to get a value from the
user.

 -- 函式: tkinter.simpledialog.askfloat (title, prompt, **kw)
 -- 函式: tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger (title, prompt, **kw)
 -- 函式: tkinter.simpledialog.askstring (title, prompt, **kw)

     The above three functions provide dialogs that prompt the user to
     enter a value of the desired type.

 -- 類別: tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog (parent, title=None)

     The base class for custom dialogs.

      -- 方法: body (master)

          Override to construct the dialog's interface and return the
          widget that should have initial focus.

      -- 方法: buttonbox ()

          Default behaviour adds OK and Cancel buttons.  Override for
          custom button layouts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter filedialog --- File selection dialogs,  Next: tkinter commondialog --- Dialog window templates,  Prev: tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框,  Up: Tkinter 對話框

5.25.4.2 ‘tkinter.filedialog’ -- File selection dialogs
.......................................................

'原始碼：'Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.filedialog: ee. module provides classes and factory
functions for creating file/directory selection windows.

* Menu:

* Native Load/Save Dialogs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: Native Load/Save Dialogs,  Up: tkinter filedialog --- File selection dialogs

5.25.4.3 Native Load/Save Dialogs
.................................

The following classes and functions provide file dialog windows that
combine a native look-and-feel with configuration options to customize
behaviour.  The following keyword arguments are applicable to the
classes and functions listed below:

          'parent' - the window to place the dialog on top of

          'title' - the title of the window

          'initialdir' - the directory that the dialog starts in

          'initialfile' - the file selected upon opening of the dialog

          'filetypes' - a sequence of (label, pattern) tuples, '*' wildcard is allowed

          'defaultextension' - default extension to append to file (save dialogs)

          'multiple' - when true, selection of multiple items is allowed

'Static factory functions'

The below functions when called create a modal, native look-and-feel
dialog, wait for the user's selection, then return the selected value(s)
or ‘None’ to the caller.

 -- 函式: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfile (mode='r', **options)
 -- 函式: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfiles (mode='r', **options)

     The above two functions create an *note Open: 3b41. dialog and
     return the opened file object(s) in read-only mode.

 -- 函式: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfile (mode='w', **options)

     Create a *note SaveAs: 3b43. dialog and return a file object opened
     in write-only mode.

 -- 函式: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilename (**options)
 -- 函式: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilenames (**options)

     The above two functions create an *note Open: 3b41. dialog and
     return the selected filename(s) that correspond to existing
     file(s).

 -- 函式: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfilename (**options)

     Create a *note SaveAs: 3b43. dialog and return the selected
     filename.

 -- 函式: tkinter.filedialog.askdirectory (**options)

          Prompt user to select a directory.
          Additional keyword option:
               'mustexist' - determines if selection must be an existing directory.

 -- 類別: tkinter.filedialog.Open (master=None, **options)
 -- 類別: tkinter.filedialog.SaveAs (master=None, **options)

     The above two classes provide native dialog windows for saving and
     loading files.

'Convenience classes'

The below classes are used for creating file/directory windows from
scratch.  These do not emulate the native look-and-feel of the platform.

 -- 類別: tkinter.filedialog.Directory (master=None, **options)

     Create a dialog prompting the user to select a directory.

     備註: The 'FileDialog' class should be subclassed for custom event
     handling and behaviour.

 -- 類別: tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog (master, title=None)

     Create a basic file selection dialog.

      -- 方法: cancel_command (event=None)

          Trigger the termination of the dialog window.

      -- 方法: dirs_double_event (event)

          Event handler for double-click event on directory.

      -- 方法: dirs_select_event (event)

          Event handler for click event on directory.

      -- 方法: files_double_event (event)

          Event handler for double-click event on file.

      -- 方法: files_select_event (event)

          Event handler for single-click event on file.

      -- 方法: filter_command (event=None)

          Filter the files by directory.

      -- 方法: get_filter ()

          Retrieve the file filter currently in use.

      -- 方法: get_selection ()

          Retrieve the currently selected item.

      -- 方法: go (dir_or_file=os.curdir, pattern='*', default='',
               key=None)

          Render dialog and start event loop.

      -- 方法: ok_event (event)

          Exit dialog returning current selection.

      -- 方法: quit (how=None)

          Exit dialog returning filename, if any.

      -- 方法: set_filter (dir, pat)

          Set the file filter.

      -- 方法: set_selection (file)

          Update the current file selection to 'file'.

 -- 類別: tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog (master, title=None)

     A subclass of FileDialog that creates a dialog window for selecting
     an existing file.

      -- 方法: ok_command ()

          Test that a file is provided and that the selection indicates
          an already existing file.

 -- 類別: tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog (master, title=None)

     A subclass of FileDialog that creates a dialog window for selecting
     a destination file.

      -- 方法: ok_command ()

          Test whether or not the selection points to a valid file that
          is not a directory.  Confirmation is required if an already
          existing file is selected.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter commondialog --- Dialog window templates,  Prev: tkinter filedialog --- File selection dialogs,  Up: Tkinter 對話框

5.25.4.4 ‘tkinter.commondialog’ -- Dialog window templates
..........................................................

'原始碼：'Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.commondialog: ec. module provides the *note Dialog:
3b25. class that is the base class for dialogs defined in other
supporting modules.

 -- 類別: tkinter.commondialog.Dialog (master=None, **options)

      -- 方法: show (color=None, **options)

          Render the Dialog window.

也參考
......

*note tkinter.messagebox: f0. 模組、*note 讀寫檔案: 1a74.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示,  Next: tkinter scrolledtext --- 捲動文字小工具,  Prev: Tkinter 對話框,  Up: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces

5.25.5 ‘tkinter.messagebox’ -- Tkinter 訊息提示
-----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter.messagebox: f0. 模組提供了模板基底類別以及各種常用配置的便
捷方法。訊息框 (message box) 是互動視窗 (modal)，會基於使用者的選擇回傳
（‘True’、‘False’、‘None’、*note OK: 3b5f.、*note CANCEL: 3b60.、*note
YES: 3b61.、*note NO: 3b62.）的子集。常見的訊息框樣式 (style) 和版面配置
(layout) 包括但不限於：

[image src="python-figures/tk_msg.png"]


Figure
 -- 類別: tkinter.messagebox.Message (master=None, **options)

     建立一個訊息視窗，其中包含應用程式指定的訊息、一個圖示和一組按鈕。
     訊息視窗中的每個按鈕都有唯一的符號名稱作為識別（請參考 'type' 選項
     ）。

     支援以下選項：

          'command'

               指定當使用者關閉對話框 (dialog) 時要呼叫的函式。使用者按
               一下以關閉對話框的按鈕的名稱作為引數傳遞。此選項僅適用於
               macOS。

          'default'

               給出此訊息視窗的預設按鈕的*note 符號名稱: 3b64.（*note
               OK: 3b5f.、*note CANCEL: 3b60. 等）。如果未指定此選項，則
               對話框中的第一個按鈕將成為預設按鈕。

          'detail'

               透過 'message' 選項指定將輔助訊息給主訊息。訊息詳細資訊將
               顯示在主要訊息下方，並且在作業系統支援的情況下，將以比主
               要訊息更不強調的字體顯示。

          'icon'

               指定要顯示的*note 圖示: 3b65.。如果未指定此選項，則會顯示
               *note INFO: 3b66. 圖示。

          'message'

               指定要在此訊息框中顯示的訊息。預設值為空字串。

          'parent'

               使指定視窗成為訊息框的邏輯父視窗 (logical parent window)。
               訊息框顯示在其父視窗的頂部。

          'title'

               指定顯示為訊息框標題的字串。此選項在 macOS 上被忽略，其平
               台指南禁止在此類對話方塊上使用標題。

          'type'

               安排一組需顯示的*note 預先定義的按鈕組合: 3b67.。

      -- 方法: show (**options)

          顯示訊息視窗並等待使用者選擇其中一個按鈕。然後回傳所選按鈕的符
          號名稱。關鍵字引數可以覆寫建構函式中指定的選項。

'資訊訊息框'

 -- 函式: tkinter.messagebox.showinfo (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     建立並顯示具有指定標題和訊息的資訊訊息框。

'警告訊息框'

 -- 函式: tkinter.messagebox.showwarning (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     建立並顯示具有指定標題和訊息的警告訊息框。

 -- 函式: tkinter.messagebox.showerror (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     建立並顯示具有指定標題和訊息的錯誤訊息框。

'問題留言框'

 -- 函式: tkinter.messagebox.askquestion (title=None, message=None, *,
          type=YESNO, **options)

     問一個問題。預設顯示按鈕 *note YES: 3b61. 和 *note NO: 3b62.。回傳
     所選按鈕的符號名稱。

 -- 函式: tkinter.messagebox.askokcancel (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     詢問操作是否應該繼續。顯示按鈕 *note OK: 3b5f. 和 *note CANCEL:
     3b60.。如果答案正確則傳回 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

 -- 函式: tkinter.messagebox.askretrycancel (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     詢問是否應重試操作。顯示按鈕 *note RETRY: 3b6f. 和 *note CANCEL:
     3b60.。如果答案為是，則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

 -- 函式: tkinter.messagebox.askyesno (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     問一個問題。顯示按鈕 *note YES: 3b61. 和 *note NO: 3b62.。如果答案
     為是，則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

 -- 函式: tkinter.messagebox.askyesnocancel (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     問一個問題。顯示按鈕 *note YES: 3b61.、*note NO: 3b62. 和 *note
     CANCEL: 3b60.。如果答案為是，則回傳 ‘True’；如果取消則回傳 ‘None’，
     否則回傳 ‘False’。
按鈕的符號名稱：

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.ABORT = 'abort'

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.RETRY = 'retry'

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.IGNORE = 'ignore'

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.CANCEL = 'cancel'

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.YES = 'yes'

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.NO = 'no'
預先定義的按鈕組合：

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.ABORTRETRYIGNORE = 'abortretryignore'

     顯示三個按鈕，其符號名稱為 *note ABORT: 3b72.、*note RETRY: 3b6f. 和
     *note IGNORE: 3b73.。

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

     顯示一個按鈕，其符號名稱為 *note OK: 3b5f.。

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.OKCANCEL = 'okcancel'

     顯示兩個按鈕，其符號名稱為 *note OK: 3b5f. 和 *note CANCEL: 3b60.。

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.RETRYCANCEL = 'retrycancel'

     顯示兩個按鈕，其符號名稱為 *note RETRY: 3b6f. 和 *note CANCEL:
     3b60.。

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.YESNO = 'yesno'

     顯示兩個按鈕，其符號名稱為 *note YES: 3b61. 和 *note NO: 3b62.。

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.YESNOCANCEL = 'yesnocancel'

     顯示三個按鈕，其符號名稱為 *note YES: 3b61.、*note NO: 3b62. 和
     *note CANCEL: 3b60.。
圖示圖像：

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.ERROR = 'error'

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.INFO = 'info'

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.QUESTION = 'question'

 -- 資料: tkinter.messagebox.WARNING = 'warning'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter scrolledtext --- 捲動文字小工具,  Next: tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援,  Prev: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示,  Up: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces

5.25.6 ‘tkinter.scrolledtext’ -- 捲動文字小工具
-----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.scrolledtext: f1. module provides a class of the same
name which implements a basic text widget which has a vertical scroll
bar configured to do the "right thing."  Using the *note ScrolledText:
3b7e. class is a lot easier than setting up a text widget and scroll bar
directly.

The text widget and scrollbar are packed together in a ‘Frame’, and the
methods of the ‘Grid’ and ‘Pack’ geometry managers are acquired from the
‘Frame’ object.  This allows the *note ScrolledText: 3b7e. widget to be
used directly to achieve most normal geometry management behavior.

Should more specific control be necessary, the following attributes are
available:

 -- 類別: tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText (master=None, **kw)

      -- 屬性: frame

          The frame which surrounds the text and scroll bar widgets.

      -- 屬性: vbar

          The scroll bar widget.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援,  Next: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具,  Prev: tkinter scrolledtext --- 捲動文字小工具,  Up: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces

5.25.7 ‘tkinter.dnd’ -- 拖放支援
--------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tkinter/dnd.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

     備註: This is experimental and due to be deprecated when it is
     replaced with the Tk DND.

The *note tkinter.dnd: ed. module provides drag-and-drop support for
objects within a single application, within the same window or between
windows.  To enable an object to be dragged, you must create an event
binding for it that starts the drag-and-drop process.  Typically, you
bind a ButtonPress event to a callback function that you write (see
*note Bindings and Events: 3b17.).  The function should call *note
dnd_start(): 3b83, where 'source' is the object to be dragged, and
'event' is the event that invoked the call (the argument to your
callback function).

Selection of a target object occurs as follows:

  1. Top-down search of area under mouse for target widget

        * Target widget should have a callable 'dnd_accept' attribute

        * If 'dnd_accept' is not present or returns ‘None’, search moves
          to parent widget

        * If no target widget is found, then the target object is ‘None’

  2. Call to '<old_target>.dnd_leave(source, event)'

  3. Call to '<new_target>.dnd_enter(source, event)'

  4. Call to '<target>.dnd_commit(source, event)' to notify of drop

  5. Call to '<source>.dnd_end(target, event)' to signal end of
     drag-and-drop

 -- 類別: tkinter.dnd.DndHandler (source, event)

     The 'DndHandler' class handles drag-and-drop events tracking Motion
     and ButtonRelease events on the root of the event widget.

      -- 方法: cancel (event=None)

          Cancel the drag-and-drop process.

      -- 方法: finish (event, commit=0)

          Execute end of drag-and-drop functions.

      -- 方法: on_motion (event)

          Inspect area below mouse for target objects while drag is
          performed.

      -- 方法: on_release (event)

          Signal end of drag when the release pattern is triggered.

 -- 函式: tkinter.dnd.dnd_start (source, event)

     Factory function for drag-and-drop process.

也參考
......

*note Bindings and Events: 3b17.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/dnd.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具,  Next: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具,  Prev: tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援,  Up: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces

5.25.8 ‘tkinter.ttk’ -- Tk 主題化小工具
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tkinter/ttk.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.ttk: f4. module provides access to the Tk themed
widget set, introduced in Tk 8.5.  It provides additional benefits
including anti-aliased font rendering under X11 and window transparency
(requiring a composition window manager on X11).

The basic idea for *note tkinter.ttk: f4. is to separate, to the extent
possible, the code implementing a widget's behavior from the code
implementing its appearance.

也參考
......

Tk Widget Styling Support(2)

     A document introducing theming support for Tk

* Menu:

* 使用 Ttk::
* Ttk Widgets::
* Widget::
* Combobox::
* Spinbox::
* Notebook::
* Progressbar::
* Separator::
* Sizegrip::
* Treeview::
* Ttk Styling::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/ttk.py

   (2) https://core.tcl.tk/tips/doc/trunk/tip/48.md


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 Ttk,  Next: Ttk Widgets,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具

5.25.8.1 使用 Ttk
.................

To start using Ttk, import its module:

     from tkinter import ttk

To override the basic Tk widgets, the import should follow the Tk
import:

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter.ttk import *

That code causes several *note tkinter.ttk: f4. widgets (‘Button’,
‘Checkbutton’, ‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’, ‘LabelFrame’, ‘Menubutton’,
‘PanedWindow’, ‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’ and ‘Scrollbar’) to automatically
replace the Tk widgets.

This has the direct benefit of using the new widgets which gives a
better look and feel across platforms; however, the replacement widgets
are not completely compatible.  The main difference is that widget
options such as "fg", "bg" and others related to widget styling are no
longer present in Ttk widgets.  Instead, use the ‘ttk.Style’ class for
improved styling effects.

也參考
......

Converting existing applications to use Tile widgets(1)

     A monograph (using Tcl terminology) about differences typically
     encountered when moving applications to use the new widgets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/doc/converting.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Ttk Widgets,  Next: Widget,  Prev: 使用 Ttk,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具

5.25.8.2 Ttk Widgets
....................

Ttk comes with 18 widgets, twelve of which already existed in tkinter:
‘Button’, ‘Checkbutton’, ‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’, ‘LabelFrame’,
‘Menubutton’, ‘PanedWindow’, ‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’, ‘Scrollbar’, and
*note Spinbox: 9f4.  The other six are new: *note Combobox: 3b8d, *note
Notebook: 3b8e, *note Progressbar: 3b8f, ‘Separator’, ‘Sizegrip’ and
*note Treeview: 8e4.  And all them are subclasses of *note Widget: 3b90.

Using the Ttk widgets gives the application an improved look and feel.
As discussed above, there are differences in how the styling is coded.

Tk code:

     l1 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")
     l2 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")

Ttk code:

     style = ttk.Style()
     style.configure("BW.TLabel", foreground="black", background="white")

     l1 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")
     l2 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")

For more information about *note TtkStyling: 3b91, see the *note Style:
3b92. class documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Widget,  Next: Combobox,  Prev: Ttk Widgets,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具

5.25.8.3 Widget
...............

‘ttk.Widget’ defines standard options and methods supported by Tk themed
widgets and is not supposed to be directly instantiated.

* Menu:

* 標準選項::
* Scrollable Widget Options::
* Label Options::
* 相容性選項::
* Widget States::
* ttk.Widget: ttk Widget.


File: python.info,  Node: 標準選項,  Next: Scrollable Widget Options,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.4 標準選項
.................

All the ‘ttk’ Widgets accept the following options:

選項            描述
                
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                
class           Specifies the window class.  The class is used when querying the
                option database for the window's other options, to determine the
                default bindtags for the window, and to select the widget's
                default layout and style.  This option is read-only, and may
                only be specified when the window is created.
                
                
cursor          Specifies the mouse cursor to be used for the widget.  If set to
                the empty string (the default), the cursor is inherited for the
                parent widget.
                
                
takefocus       Determines whether the window accepts the focus during keyboard
                traversal.  0, 1 or an empty string is returned.  If 0 is
                returned, it means that the window should be skipped entirely
                during keyboard traversal.  If 1, it means that the window
                should receive the input focus as long as it is viewable.  And
                an empty string means that the traversal scripts make the
                decision about whether or not to focus on the window.
                
                
style           May be used to specify a custom widget style.
                


File: python.info,  Node: Scrollable Widget Options,  Next: Label Options,  Prev: 標準選項,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.5 Scrollable Widget Options
..................................

The following options are supported by widgets that are controlled by a
scrollbar.

選項                 描述
                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
xscrollcommand       Used to communicate with horizontal scrollbars.
                     
                     When the view in the widget's window change, the widget
                     will generate a Tcl command based on the scrollcommand.
                     
                     Usually this option consists of the method
                     ‘Scrollbar.set()’ of some scrollbar.  This will cause the
                     scrollbar to be updated whenever the view in the window
                     changes.
                     
                     
yscrollcommand       Used to communicate with vertical scrollbars.  For some
                     more information, see above.
                     


File: python.info,  Node: Label Options,  Next: 相容性選項,  Prev: Scrollable Widget Options,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.6 Label Options
......................

The following options are supported by labels, buttons and other
button-like widgets.

選項               描述
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
text               Specifies a text string to be displayed inside the widget.
                   
                   
textvariable       Specifies a name whose value will be used in place of the
                   text option resource.
                   
                   
underline          If set, specifies the index (0-based) of a character to
                   underline in the text string.  The underline character is
                   used for mnemonic activation.
                   
                   
image              Specifies an image to display.  This is a list of 1 or more
                   elements.  The first element is the default image name.  The
                   rest of the list if a sequence of statespec/value pairs as
                   defined by *note Style.map(): 16f3, specifying different
                   images to use when the widget is in a particular state or a
                   combination of states.  All images in the list should have
                   the same size.
                   
                   
compound           Specifies how to display the image relative to the text, in
                   the case both text and images options are present.  Valid
                   values are:
                   
                      * text: display text only
                   
                      * image: display image only
                   
                      * top, bottom, left, right: display image above, below,
                        left of, or right of the text, respectively.
                   
                      * none: the default.  display the image if present,
                        otherwise the text.
                   
                   
width              If greater than zero, specifies how much space, in character
                   widths, to allocate for the text label, if less than zero,
                   specifies a minimum width.  If zero or unspecified, the
                   natural width of the text label is used.
                   


File: python.info,  Node: 相容性選項,  Next: Widget States,  Prev: Label Options,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.7 相容性選項
...................

選項         描述
             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
state        May be set to "normal" or "disabled" to control the "disabled"
             state bit.  This is a write-only option: setting it changes the
             widget state, but the *note Widget.state(): 3b98. method does not
             affect this option.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Widget States,  Next: ttk Widget,  Prev: 相容性選項,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.8 Widget States
......................

The widget state is a bitmap of independent state flags.

旗標             描述
                 
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
active           The mouse cursor is over the widget and pressing a mouse button
                 will cause some action to occur
                 
                 
disabled         Widget is disabled under program control
                 
                 
focus            Widget has keyboard focus
                 
                 
pressed          Widget is being pressed
                 
                 
selected         "On", "true", or "current" for things like Checkbuttons and
                 radiobuttons
                 
                 
background       Windows and Mac have a notion of an "active" or foreground
                 window.  The 'background' state is set for widgets in a
                 background window, and cleared for those in the foreground
                 window
                 
                 
readonly         Widget should not allow user modification
                 
                 
alternate        A widget-specific alternate display format
                 
                 
invalid          The widget's value is invalid
                 

A state specification is a sequence of state names, optionally prefixed
with an exclamation point indicating that the bit is off.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Widget,  Prev: Widget States,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.9 ttk.Widget
...................

Besides the methods described below, the ‘ttk.Widget’ supports the
methods ‘tkinter.Widget.cget()’ and ‘tkinter.Widget.configure()’.

 -- 類別: tkinter.ttk.Widget

      -- 方法: identify (x, y)

          Returns the name of the element at position 'x' 'y', or the
          empty string if the point does not lie within any element.

          'x' and 'y' are pixel coordinates relative to the widget.

      -- 方法: instate (statespec, callback=None, *args, **kw)

          Test the widget's state.  If a callback is not specified,
          returns ‘True’ if the widget state matches 'statespec' and
          ‘False’ otherwise.  If callback is specified then it is called
          with args if widget state matches 'statespec'.

      -- 方法: state (statespec=None)

          Modify or inquire widget state.  If 'statespec' is specified,
          sets the widget state according to it and return a new
          'statespec' indicating which flags were changed.  If
          'statespec' is not specified, returns the currently enabled
          state flags.

     'statespec' will usually be a list or a tuple.


File: python.info,  Node: Combobox,  Next: Spinbox,  Prev: Widget,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具

5.25.8.10 Combobox
..................

The ‘ttk.Combobox’ widget combines a text field with a pop-down list of
values.  This widget is a subclass of ‘Entry’.

Besides the methods inherited from *note Widget: 3b90.: ‘Widget.cget()’,
‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 3b9b, *note
Widget.instate(): 3b9c. and *note Widget.state(): 3b98, and the
following inherited from ‘Entry’: ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’,
‘Entry.icursor()’, ‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’,
‘Entry.selection()’, ‘Entry.xview()’, it has some other methods,
described at ‘ttk.Combobox’.

* Menu:

* 選項::
* Virtual events::
* ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox.


File: python.info,  Node: 選項,  Next: Virtual events,  Up: Combobox

5.25.8.11 選項
..............

This widget accepts the following specific options:

選項                  描述
                      
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      
exportselection       Boolean value.  If set, the widget selection is linked to
                      the Window Manager selection (which can be returned by
                      invoking Misc.selection_get, for example).
                      
                      
justify               Specifies how the text is aligned within the widget.  One
                      of "left", "center", or "right".
                      
                      
height                Specifies the height of the pop-down listbox, in rows.
                      
                      
postcommand           A script (possibly registered with Misc.register) that is
                      called immediately before displaying the values.  It may
                      specify which values to display.
                      
                      
state                 One of "normal", "readonly", or "disabled".  In the
                      "readonly" state, the value may not be edited directly,
                      and the user can only selection of the values from the
                      dropdown list.  In the "normal" state, the text field is
                      directly editable.  In the "disabled" state, no
                      interaction is possible.
                      
                      
textvariable          Specifies a name whose value is linked to the widget
                      value.  Whenever the value associated with that name
                      changes, the widget value is updated, and vice versa.  See
                      ‘tkinter.StringVar’.
                      
                      
values                Specifies the list of values to display in the drop-down
                      listbox.
                      
                      
width                 Specifies an integer value indicating the desired width of
                      the entry window, in average-size characters of the
                      widget's font.
                      


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual events,  Next: ttk Combobox,  Prev: 選項,  Up: Combobox

5.25.8.12 Virtual events
........................

The combobox widgets generates a '<<ComboboxSelected>>' virtual event
when the user selects an element from the list of values.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Combobox,  Prev: Virtual events,  Up: Combobox

5.25.8.13 ttk.Combobox
......................

 -- 類別: tkinter.ttk.Combobox

      -- 方法: current (newindex=None)

          If 'newindex' is specified, sets the combobox value to the
          element position 'newindex'.  Otherwise, returns the index of
          the current value or -1 if the current value is not in the
          values list.

      -- 方法: get ()

          Returns the current value of the combobox.

      -- 方法: set (value)

          Sets the value of the combobox to 'value'.


File: python.info,  Node: Spinbox,  Next: Notebook,  Prev: Combobox,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具

5.25.8.14 Spinbox
.................

The ‘ttk.Spinbox’ widget is a ‘ttk.Entry’ enhanced with increment and
decrement arrows.  It can be used for numbers or lists of string values.
This widget is a subclass of ‘Entry’.

Besides the methods inherited from *note Widget: 3b90.: ‘Widget.cget()’,
‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 3b9b, *note
Widget.instate(): 3b9c. and *note Widget.state(): 3b98, and the
following inherited from ‘Entry’: ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’,
‘Entry.icursor()’, ‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’, ‘Entry.xview()’,
it has some other methods, described at ‘ttk.Spinbox’.

* Menu:

* 選項: 選項<2>.
* Virtual events: Virtual events<2>.
* ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox.


File: python.info,  Node: 選項<2>,  Next: Virtual events<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.25.8.15 選項
..............

This widget accepts the following specific options:

選項                       描述
                           
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                           
from                       Float value.  If set, this is the minimum value to which
                           the decrement button will decrement.  Must be spelled as
                           ‘from_’ when used as an argument, since ‘from’ is a
                           Python keyword.
                           
                           
to                         Float value.  If set, this is the maximum value to which
                           the increment button will increment.
                           
                           
increment                  Float value.  Specifies the amount which the
                           increment/decrement buttons change the value.  Defaults
                           to 1.0.
                           
                           
values                     Sequence of string or float values.  If specified, the
                           increment/decrement buttons will cycle through the items
                           in this sequence rather than incrementing or
                           decrementing numbers.
                           
                           
wrap                       Boolean value.  If ‘True’, increment and decrement
                           buttons will cycle from the ‘to’ value to the ‘from’
                           value or the ‘from’ value to the ‘to’ value,
                           respectively.
                           
                           
format                     String value.  This specifies the format of numbers set
                           by the increment/decrement buttons.  It must be in the
                           form "%W.Pf", where W is the padded width of the value,
                           P is the precision, and '%' and 'f' are literal.
                           
                           
command                    Python callable.  Will be called with no arguments
                           whenever either of the increment or decrement buttons
                           are pressed.
                           


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual events<2>,  Next: ttk Spinbox,  Prev: 選項<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.25.8.16 Virtual events
........................

The spinbox widget generates an '<<Increment>>' virtual event when the
user presses <Up>, and a '<<Decrement>>' virtual event when the user
presses <Down>.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Spinbox,  Prev: Virtual events<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.25.8.17 ttk.Spinbox
.....................

 -- 類別: tkinter.ttk.Spinbox

      -- 方法: get ()

          Returns the current value of the spinbox.

      -- 方法: set (value)

          Sets the value of the spinbox to 'value'.


File: python.info,  Node: Notebook,  Next: Progressbar,  Prev: Spinbox,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具

5.25.8.18 Notebook
..................

Ttk Notebook widget manages a collection of windows and displays a
single one at a time.  Each child window is associated with a tab, which
the user may select to change the currently displayed window.

* Menu:

* 選項: 選項<3>.
* Tab Options::
* Tab Identifiers::
* 虛擬事件::
* ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook.


File: python.info,  Node: 選項<3>,  Next: Tab Options,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.19 選項
..............

This widget accepts the following specific options:

選項          描述
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
height        If present and greater than zero, specifies the desired height of
              the pane area (not including internal padding or tabs).
              Otherwise, the maximum height of all panes is used.
              
              
padding       Specifies the amount of extra space to add around the outside of
              the notebook.  The padding is a list up to four length
              specifications left top right bottom.  If fewer than four elements
              are specified, bottom defaults to top, right defaults to left, and
              top defaults to left.
              
              
width         If present and greater than zero, specified the desired width of
              the pane area (not including internal padding).  Otherwise, the
              maximum width of all panes is used.
              


File: python.info,  Node: Tab Options,  Next: Tab Identifiers,  Prev: 選項<3>,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.20 Tab Options
.....................

There are also specific options for tabs:

選項            描述
                
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                
state           Either "normal", "disabled" or "hidden".  If "disabled", then
                the tab is not selectable.  If "hidden", then the tab is not
                shown.
                
                
sticky          Specifies how the child window is positioned within the pane
                area.  Value is a string containing zero or more of the
                characters "n", "s", "e" or "w".  Each letter refers to a side
                (north, south, east or west) that the child window will stick
                to, as per the ‘grid()’ geometry manager.
                
                
padding         Specifies the amount of extra space to add between the notebook
                and this pane.  Syntax is the same as for the option padding
                used by this widget.
                
                
text            Specifies a text to be displayed in the tab.
                
                
image           Specifies an image to display in the tab.  See the option image
                described in *note Widget: 3b90.
                
                
compound        Specifies how to display the image relative to the text, in the
                case both options text and image are present.  See
                *note Label Options: 3b96. for legal values.
                
                
underline       Specifies the index (0-based) of a character to underline in the
                text string.  The underlined character is used for mnemonic
                activation if *note Notebook.enable_traversal(): 3bad. is
                called.
                


File: python.info,  Node: Tab Identifiers,  Next: 虛擬事件,  Prev: Tab Options,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.21 Tab Identifiers
.........................

The tab_id present in several methods of ‘ttk.Notebook’ may take any of
the following forms:

   * An integer between zero and the number of tabs

   * The name of a child window

   * A positional specification of the form "@x,y", which identifies the
     tab

   * The literal string "current", which identifies the currently
     selected tab

   * The literal string "end", which returns the number of tabs (only
     valid for *note Notebook.index(): 3baf.)


File: python.info,  Node: 虛擬事件,  Next: ttk Notebook,  Prev: Tab Identifiers,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.22 虛擬事件
..................

This widget generates a '<<NotebookTabChanged>>' virtual event after a
new tab is selected.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Notebook,  Prev: 虛擬事件,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.23 ttk.Notebook
......................

 -- 類別: tkinter.ttk.Notebook

      -- 方法: add (child, **kw)

          Adds a new tab to the notebook.

          If window is currently managed by the notebook but hidden, it
          is restored to its previous position.

          可用的選項清單請見 *note Tab Options: 3bac.。

      -- 方法: forget (tab_id)

          Removes the tab specified by 'tab_id', unmaps and unmanages
          the associated window.

      -- 方法: hide (tab_id)

          Hides the tab specified by 'tab_id'.

          The tab will not be displayed, but the associated window
          remains managed by the notebook and its configuration
          remembered.  Hidden tabs may be restored with the *note add():
          3bb2. command.

      -- 方法: identify (x, y)

          Returns the name of the tab element at position 'x', 'y', or
          the empty string if none.

      -- 方法: index (tab_id)

          Returns the numeric index of the tab specified by 'tab_id', or
          the total number of tabs if 'tab_id' is the string "end".

      -- 方法: insert (pos, child, **kw)

          Inserts a pane at the specified position.

          'pos' is either the string "end", an integer index, or the
          name of a managed child.  If 'child' is already managed by the
          notebook, moves it to the specified position.

          可用的選項清單請見 *note Tab Options: 3bac.。

      -- 方法: select (tab_id=None)

          Selects the specified 'tab_id'.

          The associated child window will be displayed, and the
          previously selected window (if different) is unmapped.  If
          'tab_id' is omitted, returns the widget name of the currently
          selected pane.

      -- 方法: tab (tab_id, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options of the specific 'tab_id'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dictionary of the tab option
          values.  If 'option' is specified, returns the value of that
          'option'.  Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding
          values.

      -- 方法: tabs ()

          Returns a list of windows managed by the notebook.

      -- 方法: enable_traversal ()

          Enable keyboard traversal for a toplevel window containing
          this notebook.

          This will extend the bindings for the toplevel window
          containing the notebook as follows:

             * ‘Control-Tab’: selects the tab following the currently
               selected one.

             * ‘Shift-Control-Tab’: selects the tab preceding the
               currently selected one.

             * ‘Alt-K’: where 'K' is the mnemonic (underlined) character
               of any tab, will select that tab.

          Multiple notebooks in a single toplevel may be enabled for
          traversal, including nested notebooks.  However, notebook
          traversal only works properly if all panes have the notebook
          they are in as master.


File: python.info,  Node: Progressbar,  Next: Separator,  Prev: Notebook,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具

5.25.8.24 Progressbar
.....................

The ‘ttk.Progressbar’ widget shows the status of a long-running
operation.  It can operate in two modes: 1) the determinate mode which
shows the amount completed relative to the total amount of work to be
done and 2) the indeterminate mode which provides an animated display to
let the user know that work is progressing.

* Menu:

* 選項: 選項<4>.
* ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar.


File: python.info,  Node: 選項<4>,  Next: ttk Progressbar,  Up: Progressbar

5.25.8.25 選項
..............

This widget accepts the following specific options:

選項           描述
               
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
               
orient         One of "horizontal" or "vertical".  Specifies the orientation of
               the progress bar.
               
               
length         Specifies the length of the long axis of the progress bar (width
               if horizontal, height if vertical).
               
               
mode           "determinate" 與 "indeterminate" 其中之一
               
               
maximum        A number specifying the maximum value.  Defaults to 100.
               
               
value          The current value of the progress bar.  In "determinate" mode,
               this represents the amount of work completed.  In "indeterminate"
               mode, it is interpreted as modulo 'maximum'; that is, the
               progress bar completes one "cycle" when its value increases by
               'maximum'.
               
               
variable       A name which is linked to the option value.  If specified, the
               value of the progress bar is automatically set to the value of
               this name whenever the latter is modified.
               
               
phase          Read-only option.  The widget periodically increments the value
               of this option whenever its value is greater than 0 and, in
               determinate mode, less than maximum.  This option may be used by
               the current theme to provide additional animation effects.
               


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Progressbar,  Prev: 選項<4>,  Up: Progressbar

5.25.8.26 ttk.Progressbar
.........................

 -- 類別: tkinter.ttk.Progressbar

      -- 方法: start (interval=None)

          Begin autoincrement mode: schedules a recurring timer event
          that calls *note Progressbar.step(): 3bbe. every 'interval'
          milliseconds.  If omitted, 'interval' defaults to 50
          milliseconds.

      -- 方法: step (amount=None)

          Increments the progress bar's value by 'amount'.

          'amount' defaults to 1.0 if omitted.

      -- 方法: stop ()

          Stop autoincrement mode: cancels any recurring timer event
          initiated by *note Progressbar.start(): 3bbd. for this
          progress bar.


File: python.info,  Node: Separator,  Next: Sizegrip,  Prev: Progressbar,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具

5.25.8.27 Separator
...................

The ‘ttk.Separator’ widget displays a horizontal or vertical separator
bar.

It has no other methods besides the ones inherited from ‘ttk.Widget’.

* Menu:

* 選項: 選項<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: 選項<5>,  Up: Separator

5.25.8.28 選項
..............

This widget accepts the following specific option:

選項         描述
             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
orient       One of "horizontal" or "vertical".  Specifies the orientation of
             the separator.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Sizegrip,  Next: Treeview,  Prev: Separator,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具

5.25.8.29 Sizegrip
..................

The ‘ttk.Sizegrip’ widget (also known as a grow box) allows the user to
resize the containing toplevel window by pressing and dragging the grip.

This widget has neither specific options nor specific methods, besides
the ones inherited from ‘ttk.Widget’.

* Menu:

* Platform-specific notes::
* Bugs::


File: python.info,  Node: Platform-specific notes,  Next: Bugs,  Up: Sizegrip

5.25.8.30 Platform-specific notes
.................................

   * On macOS, toplevel windows automatically include a built-in size
     grip by default.  Adding a ‘Sizegrip’ is harmless, since the
     built-in grip will just mask the widget.


File: python.info,  Node: Bugs,  Prev: Platform-specific notes,  Up: Sizegrip

5.25.8.31 Bugs
..............

   * If the containing toplevel's position was specified relative to the
     right or bottom of the screen (e.g.  ....), the ‘Sizegrip’ widget
     will not resize the window.

   * This widget supports only "southeast" resizing.


File: python.info,  Node: Treeview,  Next: Ttk Styling,  Prev: Sizegrip,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具

5.25.8.32 Treeview
..................

The ‘ttk.Treeview’ widget displays a hierarchical collection of items.
Each item has a textual label, an optional image, and an optional list
of data values.  The data values are displayed in successive columns
after the tree label.

The order in which data values are displayed may be controlled by
setting the widget option ‘displaycolumns’.  The tree widget can also
display column headings.  Columns may be accessed by number or symbolic
names listed in the widget option columns.  See *note Column
Identifiers: 3bc6.

Each item is identified by a unique name.  The widget will generate item
IDs if they are not supplied by the caller.  There is a distinguished
root item, named ‘{}’.  The root item itself is not displayed; its
children appear at the top level of the hierarchy.

Each item also has a list of tags, which can be used to associate event
bindings with individual items and control the appearance of the item.

The Treeview widget supports horizontal and vertical scrolling,
according to the options described in *note Scrollable Widget Options:
3b95. and the methods *note Treeview.xview(): 3bc7. and *note
Treeview.yview(): 3bc8.

* Menu:

* 選項: 選項<6>.
* Item Options::
* Tag Options::
* Column Identifiers::
* 虛擬事件: 虛擬事件<2>.
* ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview.


File: python.info,  Node: 選項<6>,  Next: Item Options,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.33 選項
..............

This widget accepts the following specific options:

選項                 描述
                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
columns              A list of column identifiers, specifying the number of
                     columns and their names.
                     
                     
displaycolumns       A list of column identifiers (either symbolic or integer
                     indices) specifying which data columns are displayed and
                     the order in which they appear, or the string "#all".
                     
                     
height               Specifies the number of rows which should be visible.
                     Note: the requested width is determined from the sum of
                     the column widths.
                     
                     
padding              Specifies the internal padding for the widget.  The
                     padding is a list of up to four length specifications.
                     
                     
selectmode           Controls how the built-in class bindings manage the
                     selection.  One of "extended", "browse" or "none".  If set
                     to "extended" (the default), multiple items may be
                     selected.  If "browse", only a single item will be
                     selected at a time.  If "none", the selection will not be
                     changed.
                     
                     Note that the application code and tag bindings can set
                     the selection however they wish, regardless of the value
                     of this option.
                     
                     
show                 A list containing zero or more of the following values,
                     specifying which elements of the tree to display.
                     
                        * tree: display tree labels in column #0.
                     
                        * headings: display the heading row.
                     
                     The default is "tree headings", i.e., show all elements.
                     
                     'Note': Column #0 always refers to the tree column, even
                     if show="tree" is not specified.
                     


File: python.info,  Node: Item Options,  Next: Tag Options,  Prev: 選項<6>,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.34 Item Options
......................

The following item options may be specified for items in the insert and
item widget commands.

選項         描述
             
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
text         The textual label to display for the item.
             
             
image        A Tk Image, displayed to the left of the label.
             
             
values       The list of values associated with the item.
             
             Each item should have the same number of values as the widget
             option columns.  If there are fewer values than columns, the
             remaining values are assumed empty.  If there are more values
             than columns, the extra values are ignored.
             
             
open         ‘True’/‘False’ value indicating whether the item's children
             should be displayed or hidden.
             
             
tags         A list of tags associated with this item.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Tag Options,  Next: Column Identifiers,  Prev: Item Options,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.35 Tag Options
.....................

The following options may be specified on tags:

選項             描述
                 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
foreground       Specifies the text foreground color.
                 
                 
background       Specifies the cell or item background color.
                 
                 
font             Specifies the font to use when drawing text.
                 
                 
image            Specifies the item image, in case the item's image option is
                 empty.
                 


File: python.info,  Node: Column Identifiers,  Next: 虛擬事件<2>,  Prev: Tag Options,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.36 Column Identifiers
............................

Column identifiers take any of the following forms:

   * A symbolic name from the list of columns option.

   * An integer n, specifying the nth data column.

   * A string of the form #n, where n is an integer, specifying the nth
     display column.

註解：

   * Item's option values may be displayed in a different order than the
     order in which they are stored.

   * Column #0 always refers to the tree column, even if show="tree" is
     not specified.

A data column number is an index into an item's option values list; a
display column number is the column number in the tree where the values
are displayed.  Tree labels are displayed in column #0.  If option
displaycolumns is not set, then data column n is displayed in column
#n+1.  Again, 'column #0 always refers to the tree column'.


File: python.info,  Node: 虛擬事件<2>,  Next: ttk Treeview,  Prev: Column Identifiers,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.37 虛擬事件
..................

The Treeview widget generates the following virtual events.

事件                     描述
                         
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
<<TreeviewSelect>>       Generated whenever the selection changes.
                         
                         
<<TreeviewOpen>>         Generated just before settings the focus item to
                         open=True.
                         
                         
<<TreeviewClose>>        Generated just after setting the focus item to
                         open=False.
                         

The *note Treeview.focus(): 3bcd. and *note Treeview.selection(): 8e3.
methods can be used to determine the affected item or items.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Treeview,  Prev: 虛擬事件<2>,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.38 ttk.Treeview
......................

 -- 類別: tkinter.ttk.Treeview

      -- 方法: bbox (item, column=None)

          Returns the bounding box (relative to the treeview widget's
          window) of the specified 'item' in the form (x, y, width,
          height).

          If 'column' is specified, returns the bounding box of that
          cell.  If the 'item' is not visible (i.e., if it is a
          descendant of a closed item or is scrolled offscreen), returns
          an empty string.

      -- 方法: get_children (item=None)

          Returns the list of children belonging to 'item'.

          If 'item' is not specified, returns root children.

      -- 方法: set_children (item, *newchildren)

          Replaces 'item"s child with 'newchildren'.

          Children present in 'item' that are not present in
          'newchildren' are detached from the tree.  No items in
          'newchildren' may be an ancestor of 'item'.  Note that not
          specifying 'newchildren' results in detaching 'item"s
          children.

      -- 方法: column (column, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options for the specified 'column'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the column option
          values.  If 'option' is specified then the value for that
          'option' is returned.  Otherwise, sets the options to the
          corresponding values.

          有效的選項/值為：

          'id'

               回傳欄位名稱。這是唯讀選項。

          'anchor': One of the standard Tk anchor values.

               Specifies how the text in this column should be aligned
               with respect to the cell.

          'minwidth': width

               The minimum width of the column in pixels.  The treeview
               widget will not make the column any smaller than
               specified by this option when the widget is resized or
               the user drags a column.

          'stretch': ‘True’/‘False’

               Specifies whether the column's width should be adjusted
               when the widget is resized.

          'width': width

               The width of the column in pixels.

          To configure the tree column, call this with column = "#0"

      -- 方法: delete (*items)

          Delete all specified 'items' and all their descendants.

          The root item may not be deleted.

      -- 方法: detach (*items)

          Unlinks all of the specified 'items' from the tree.

          The items and all of their descendants are still present, and
          may be reinserted at another point in the tree, but will not
          be displayed.

          The root item may not be detached.

      -- 方法: exists (item)

          Returns ‘True’ if the specified 'item' is present in the tree.

      -- 方法: focus (item=None)

          If 'item' is specified, sets the focus item to 'item'.
          Otherwise, returns the current focus item, or '' if there is
          none.

      -- 方法: heading (column, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the heading options for the specified
          'column'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the heading option
          values.  If 'option' is specified then the value for that
          'option' is returned.  Otherwise, sets the options to the
          corresponding values.

          有效的選項/值為：

          'text': text

               The text to display in the column heading.

          'image': imageName

               Specifies an image to display to the right of the column
               heading.

          'anchor': anchor

               Specifies how the heading text should be aligned.  One of
               the standard Tk anchor values.

          'command': callback

               A callback to be invoked when the heading label is
               pressed.

          To configure the tree column heading, call this with column =
          "#0".

      -- 方法: identify (component, x, y)

          Returns a description of the specified 'component' under the
          point given by 'x' and 'y', or the empty string if no such
          'component' is present at that position.

      -- 方法: identify_row (y)

          Returns the item ID of the item at position 'y'.

      -- 方法: identify_column (x)

          Returns the data column identifier of the cell at position
          'x'.

          The tree column has ID #0.

      -- 方法: identify_region (x, y)

          Returns one of:

          region          meaning
                          
          -----------------------------------------------------------
                          
          heading         Tree heading area.
                          
                          
          separator       Space between two columns headings.
                          
                          
          tree            The tree area.
                          
                          
          cell            A data cell.
                          

          Availability: Tk 8.6.

      -- 方法: identify_element (x, y)

          Returns the element at position 'x', 'y'.

          Availability: Tk 8.6.

      -- 方法: index (item)

          Returns the integer index of 'item' within its parent's list
          of children.

      -- 方法: insert (parent, index, iid=None, **kw)

          Creates a new item and returns the item identifier of the
          newly created item.

          'parent' is the item ID of the parent item, or the empty
          string to create a new top-level item.  'index' is an integer,
          or the value "end", specifying where in the list of parent's
          children to insert the new item.  If 'index' is less than or
          equal to zero, the new node is inserted at the beginning; if
          'index' is greater than or equal to the current number of
          children, it is inserted at the end.  If 'iid' is specified,
          it is used as the item identifier; 'iid' must not already
          exist in the tree.  Otherwise, a new unique identifier is
          generated.

          可用的選項清單請見 *note Item Options: 3bca.。

      -- 方法: item (item, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options for the specified 'item'.

          If no options are given, a dict with options/values for the
          item is returned.  If 'option' is specified then the value for
          that option is returned.  Otherwise, sets the options to the
          corresponding values as given by 'kw'.

      -- 方法: move (item, parent, index)

          Moves 'item' to position 'index' in 'parent"s list of
          children.

          It is illegal to move an item under one of its descendants.
          If 'index' is less than or equal to zero, 'item' is moved to
          the beginning; if greater than or equal to the number of
          children, it is moved to the end.  If 'item' was detached it
          is reattached.

      -- 方法: next (item)

          Returns the identifier of 'item"s next sibling, or '' if
          'item' is the last child of its parent.

      -- 方法: parent (item)

          Returns the ID of the parent of 'item', or '' if 'item' is at
          the top level of the hierarchy.

      -- 方法: prev (item)

          Returns the identifier of 'item"s previous sibling, or '' if
          'item' is the first child of its parent.

      -- 方法: reattach (item, parent, index)

          一個 *note Treeview.move(): 3bdf. 的別名。

      -- 方法: see (item)

          確保 'item' 是可見的。

          Sets all of 'item"s ancestors open option to ‘True’, and
          scrolls the widget if necessary so that 'item' is within the
          visible portion of the tree.

      -- 方法: selection ()

          Returns a tuple of selected items.

          在 3.8 版的變更: ‘selection()’ no longer takes arguments.  For
          changing the selection state use the following selection
          methods.

      -- 方法: selection_set (*items)

          'items' becomes the new selection.

          在 3.6 版的變更: 'items' can be passed as separate arguments,
          not just as a single tuple.

      -- 方法: selection_add (*items)

          將 'items' 加入選擇。

          在 3.6 版的變更: 'items' can be passed as separate arguments,
          not just as a single tuple.

      -- 方法: selection_remove (*items)

          從選擇中移除 'items'。

          在 3.6 版的變更: 'items' can be passed as separate arguments,
          not just as a single tuple.

      -- 方法: selection_toggle (*items)

          Toggle the selection state of each item in 'items'.

          在 3.6 版的變更: 'items' can be passed as separate arguments,
          not just as a single tuple.

      -- 方法: set (item, column=None, value=None)

          With one argument, returns a dictionary of column/value pairs
          for the specified 'item'.  With two arguments, returns the
          current value of the specified 'column'.  With three
          arguments, sets the value of given 'column' in given 'item' to
          the specified 'value'.

      -- 方法: tag_bind (tagname, sequence=None, callback=None)

          Bind a callback for the given event 'sequence' to the tag
          'tagname'.  When an event is delivered to an item, the
          callbacks for each of the item's tags option are called.

      -- 方法: tag_configure (tagname, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options for the specified 'tagname'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the option settings
          for 'tagname'.  If 'option' is specified, returns the value
          for that 'option' for the specified 'tagname'.  Otherwise,
          sets the options to the corresponding values for the given
          'tagname'.

      -- 方法: tag_has (tagname, item=None)

          If 'item' is specified, returns 1 or 0 depending on whether
          the specified 'item' has the given 'tagname'.  Otherwise,
          returns a list of all items that have the specified tag.

          Availability: Tk 8.6

      -- 方法: xview (*args)

          Query or modify horizontal position of the treeview.

      -- 方法: yview (*args)

          Query or modify vertical position of the treeview.


File: python.info,  Node: Ttk Styling,  Prev: Treeview,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具

5.25.8.39 Ttk Styling
.....................

Each widget in ‘ttk’ is assigned a style, which specifies the set of
elements making up the widget and how they are arranged, along with
dynamic and default settings for element options.  By default the style
name is the same as the widget's class name, but it may be overridden by
the widget's style option.  If you don't know the class name of a
widget, use the method ‘Misc.winfo_class()’ (somewidget.winfo_class()).

也參考
......

Tcl'2004 conference presentation(1)

     This document explains how the theme engine works

 -- 類別: tkinter.ttk.Style

     This class is used to manipulate the style database.

      -- 方法: configure (style, query_opt=None, **kw)

          Query or set the default value of the specified option(s) in
          'style'.

          Each key in 'kw' is an option and each value is a string
          identifying the value for that option.

          For example, to change every default button to be a flat
          button with some padding and a different background color:

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               ttk.Style().configure("TButton", padding=6, relief="flat",
                  background="#ccc")

               btn = ttk.Button(text="Sample")
               btn.pack()

               root.mainloop()

      -- 方法: map (style, query_opt=None, **kw)

          Query or sets dynamic values of the specified option(s) in
          'style'.

          Each key in 'kw' is an option and each value should be a list
          or a tuple (usually) containing statespecs grouped in tuples,
          lists, or some other preference.  A statespec is a compound of
          one or more states and then a value.

          An example may make it more understandable:

               import tkinter
               from tkinter import ttk

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.map("C.TButton",
                   foreground=[('pressed', 'red'), ('active', 'blue')],
                   background=[('pressed', '!disabled', 'black'), ('active', 'white')]
                   )

               colored_btn = ttk.Button(text="Test", style="C.TButton").pack()

               root.mainloop()

          Note that the order of the (states, value) sequences for an
          option does matter, if the order is changed to ‘[('active',
          'blue'), ('pressed', 'red')]’ in the foreground option, for
          example, the result would be a blue foreground when the widget
          were in active or pressed states.

      -- 方法: lookup (style, option, state=None, default=None)

          Returns the value specified for 'option' in 'style'.

          If 'state' is specified, it is expected to be a sequence of
          one or more states.  If the 'default' argument is set, it is
          used as a fallback value in case no specification for option
          is found.

          To check what font a Button uses by default:

               from tkinter import ttk

               print(ttk.Style().lookup("TButton", "font"))

      -- 方法: layout (style, layoutspec=None)

          Define the widget layout for given 'style'.  If 'layoutspec'
          is omitted, return the layout specification for given style.

          'layoutspec', if specified, is expected to be a list or some
          other sequence type (excluding strings), where each item
          should be a tuple and the first item is the layout name and
          the second item should have the format described in *note
          Layouts: 3bf0.

          To understand the format, see the following example (it is not
          intended to do anything useful):

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.layout("TMenubutton", [
                  ("Menubutton.background", None),
                  ("Menubutton.button", {"children":
                      [("Menubutton.focus", {"children":
                          [("Menubutton.padding", {"children":
                              [("Menubutton.label", {"side": "left", "expand": 1})]
                          })]
                      })]
                  }),
               ])

               mbtn = ttk.Menubutton(text='Text')
               mbtn.pack()
               root.mainloop()

      -- 方法: element_create (elementname, etype, *args, **kw)

          Create a new element in the current theme, of the given
          'etype' which is expected to be either "image" or "from".

          If "image" is used, 'args' should contain the default image
          name followed by statespec/value pairs (this is the
          imagespec), and 'kw' may have the following options:

          border=padding

               padding is a list of up to four integers, specifying the
               left, top, right, and bottom borders, respectively.

          height=height

               Specifies a minimum height for the element.  If less than
               zero, the base image's height is used as a default.

          padding=padding

               Specifies the element's interior padding.  Defaults to
               border's value if not specified.

          sticky=spec

               Specifies how the image is placed within the final
               parcel.  spec contains zero or more characters "n", "s",
               "w", or "e".

          width=width

               Specifies a minimum width for the element.  If less than
               zero, the base image's width is used as a default.

          範例：

               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button.png')
               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-pressed.png')
               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-active.png')
               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('Button.button', 'image',
                                    img1, ('pressed', img2), ('active', img3),
                                    border=(2, 4), sticky='we')

          If "from" is used as the value of 'etype', *note
          element_create(): 146a. will clone an existing element.
          'args' is expected to contain a themename, from which the
          element will be cloned, and optionally an element to clone
          from.  If this element to clone from is not specified, an
          empty element will be used.  'kw' is discarded.

          範例：

               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('plain.background', 'from', 'default')

      -- 方法: element_names ()

          Returns the list of elements defined in the current theme.

      -- 方法: element_options (elementname)

          Returns the list of 'elementname"s options.

      -- 方法: theme_create (themename, parent=None, settings=None)

          Create a new theme.

          It is an error if 'themename' already exists.  If 'parent' is
          specified, the new theme will inherit styles, elements and
          layouts from the parent theme.  If 'settings' are present they
          are expected to have the same syntax used for *note
          theme_settings(): 3bf4.

      -- 方法: theme_settings (themename, settings)

          Temporarily sets the current theme to 'themename', apply
          specified 'settings' and then restore the previous theme.

          Each key in 'settings' is a style and each value may contain
          the keys 'configure', 'map', 'layout' and 'element create' and
          they are expected to have the same format as specified by the
          methods *note Style.configure(): 3bed, *note Style.map():
          16f3, *note Style.layout(): 3bef. and *note
          Style.element_create(): 146a. respectively.

          As an example, let's change the Combobox for the default theme
          a bit:

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.theme_settings("default", {
                  "TCombobox": {
                      "configure": {"padding": 5},
                      "map": {
                          "background": [("active", "green2"),
                                         ("!disabled", "green4")],
                          "fieldbackground": [("!disabled", "green3")],
                          "foreground": [("focus", "OliveDrab1"),
                                         ("!disabled", "OliveDrab2")]
                      }
                  }
               })

               combo = ttk.Combobox().pack()

               root.mainloop()

      -- 方法: theme_names ()

          回傳所有已知的主題。

      -- 方法: theme_use (themename=None)

          If 'themename' is not given, returns the theme in use.
          Otherwise, sets the current theme to 'themename', refreshes
          all widgets and emits a <<ThemeChanged>> event.

* Menu:

* Layouts::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/tile-tcl2004.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Layouts,  Up: Ttk Styling

5.25.8.40 Layouts
.................

A layout can be just ‘None’, if it takes no options, or a dict of
options specifying how to arrange the element.  The layout mechanism
uses a simplified version of the pack geometry manager: given an initial
cavity, each element is allocated a parcel.

有效的選項/值為：

'side': whichside

     Specifies which side of the cavity to place the element; one of
     top, right, bottom or left.  If omitted, the element occupies the
     entire cavity.

'sticky': nswe

     Specifies where the element is placed inside its allocated parcel.

'unit'：0 或 1

     If set to 1, causes the element and all of its descendants to be
     treated as a single element for the purposes of *note
     Widget.identify(): 3b9b. et al.  It's used for things like
     scrollbar thumbs with grips.

'children': [sublayout... ]

     Specifies a list of elements to place inside the element.  Each
     element is a tuple (or other sequence type) where the first item is
     the layout name, and the other is a *note Layout: 3bf0.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具,  Next: IDLE<62>,  Prev: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具,  Up: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces

5.25.9 ‘tkinter.tix’ -- Tk 擴充小工具
-------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tkinter/tix.py(1)

在 3.6 版之後被棄用: This Tk extension is unmaintained and should not be
used in new code.  Use *note tkinter.ttk: f4. instead.

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.tix: f3. (Tk Interface Extension) module provides an
additional rich set of widgets.  Although the standard Tk library has
many useful widgets, they are far from complete.  The *note tkinter.tix:
f3. library provides most of the commonly needed widgets that are
missing from standard Tk: *note HList: 3bfa, *note ComboBox: 3bfb, *note
Control: 3bfc. (a.k.a.  SpinBox) and an assortment of scrollable
widgets.  *note tkinter.tix: f3. also includes many more widgets that
are generally useful in a wide range of applications: *note NoteBook:
3bfd, *note FileEntry: 3bfe, *note PanedWindow: 3bff, etc; there are
more than 40 of them.

With all these new widgets, you can introduce new interaction techniques
into applications, creating more useful and more intuitive user
interfaces.  You can design your application by choosing the most
appropriate widgets to match the special needs of your application and
users.

也參考
......

Tix 首頁(2)

     The home page for ‘Tix’.  This includes links to additional
     documentation and downloads.

Tix 首頁(3)

     On-line version of the man pages and reference material.

Tix 程式指南(4)

     On-line version of the programmer's reference material.

Tix 開發應用程式(5)

     Tix applications for development of Tix and Tkinter programs.  Tide
     applications work under Tk or Tkinter, and include ‘TixInspect’, an
     inspector to remotely modify and debug Tix/Tk/Tkinter applications.

* Menu:

* Using Tix::
* Tix Widgets::
* Tix 指令::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/tix.py

   (2) https://tix.sourceforge.net/

   (3) https://tix.sourceforge.net/

   (4) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/docs/tix-book/tix.book.html

   (5) https://tix.sourceforge.net/Tixapps/src/Tide.html


File: python.info,  Node: Using Tix,  Next: Tix Widgets,  Up: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具

5.25.9.1 Using Tix
..................

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.Tk (screenName=None, baseName=None,
          className='Tix')

     Toplevel widget of Tix which represents mostly the main window of
     an application.  It has an associated Tcl interpreter.

     Classes in the *note tkinter.tix: f3. module subclasses the classes
     in the *note tkinter: ea.  The former imports the latter, so to use
     *note tkinter.tix: f3. with Tkinter, all you need to do is to
     import one module.  In general, you can just import *note
     tkinter.tix: f3, and replace the toplevel call to *note tkinter.Tk:
     147c. with ‘tix.Tk’:

          from tkinter import tix
          from tkinter.constants import *
          root = tix.Tk()

To use *note tkinter.tix: f3, you must have the Tix widgets installed,
usually alongside your installation of the Tk widgets.  To test your
installation, try the following:

     from tkinter import tix
     root = tix.Tk()
     root.tk.eval('package require Tix')


File: python.info,  Node: Tix Widgets,  Next: Tix 指令,  Prev: Using Tix,  Up: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具

5.25.9.2 Tix Widgets
....................

Tix(1) introduces over 40 widget classes to the *note tkinter: ea.
repertoire.

* Menu:

* Basic Widgets::
* File Selectors::
* Hierarchical ListBox::
* Tabular ListBox::
* Manager Widgets::
* Image Types::
* Miscellaneous Widgets::
* Form Geometry Manager::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/TixIntro.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Widgets,  Next: File Selectors,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.3 Basic Widgets
......................

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.Balloon

     A Balloon(1) that pops up over a widget to provide help.  When the
     user moves the cursor inside a widget to which a Balloon widget has
     been bound, a small pop-up window with a descriptive message will
     be shown on the screen.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.ButtonBox

     The ButtonBox(2) widget creates a box of buttons, such as is
     commonly used for ‘Ok Cancel’.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.ComboBox

     The ComboBox(3) widget is similar to the combo box control in MS
     Windows.  The user can select a choice by either typing in the
     entry subwidget or selecting from the listbox subwidget.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.Control

     The Control(4) widget is also known as the ‘SpinBox’ widget.  The
     user can adjust the value by pressing the two arrow buttons or by
     entering the value directly into the entry.  The new value will be
     checked against the user-defined upper and lower limits.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.LabelEntry

     The LabelEntry(5) widget packages an entry widget and a label into
     one mega widget.  It can be used to simplify the creation of
     "entry-form" type of interface.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.LabelFrame

     The LabelFrame(6) widget packages a frame widget and a label into
     one mega widget.  To create widgets inside a LabelFrame widget, one
     creates the new widgets relative to the ‘frame’ subwidget and
     manage them inside the ‘frame’ subwidget.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.Meter

     The Meter(7) widget can be used to show the progress of a
     background job which may take a long time to execute.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.OptionMenu

     The OptionMenu(8) creates a menu button of options.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.PopupMenu

     The PopupMenu(9) widget can be used as a replacement of the
     ‘tk_popup’ command.  The advantage of the ‘Tix’ *note PopupMenu:
     3c0a. widget is it requires less application code to manipulate.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.Select

     The Select(10) widget is a container of button subwidgets.  It can
     be used to provide radio-box or check-box style of selection
     options for the user.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.StdButtonBox

     The StdButtonBox(11) widget is a group of standard buttons for
     Motif-like dialog boxes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixBalloon.htm

   (2) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixButtonBox.htm

   (3) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixComboBox.htm

   (4) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixControl.htm

   (5) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixLabelEntry.htm

   (6) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixLabelFrame.htm

   (7) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixMeter.htm

   (8) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixOptionMenu.htm

   (9) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixPopupMenu.htm

   (10) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixSelect.htm

   (11) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixStdButtonBox.htm


File: python.info,  Node: File Selectors,  Next: Hierarchical ListBox,  Prev: Basic Widgets,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.4 File Selectors
.......................

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.DirList

     The DirList(1) widget displays a list view of a directory, its
     previous directories and its sub-directories.  The user can choose
     one of the directories displayed in the list or change to another
     directory.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.DirTree

     The DirTree(2) widget displays a tree view of a directory, its
     previous directories and its sub-directories.  The user can choose
     one of the directories displayed in the list or change to another
     directory.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.DirSelectDialog

     The DirSelectDialog(3) widget presents the directories in the file
     system in a dialog window.  The user can use this dialog window to
     navigate through the file system to select the desired directory.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.DirSelectBox

     The *note DirSelectBox: 3c11. is similar to the standard Motif(TM)
     directory-selection box.  It is generally used for the user to
     choose a directory.  DirSelectBox stores the directories mostly
     recently selected into a ComboBox widget so that they can be
     quickly selected again.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.ExFileSelectBox

     The ExFileSelectBox(4) widget is usually embedded in a
     tixExFileSelectDialog widget.  It provides a convenient method for
     the user to select files.  The style of the *note ExFileSelectBox:
     3c12. widget is very similar to the standard file dialog on MS
     Windows 3.1.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.FileSelectBox

     The FileSelectBox(5) is similar to the standard Motif(TM)
     file-selection box.  It is generally used for the user to choose a
     file.  FileSelectBox stores the files mostly recently selected into
     a *note ComboBox: 3bfb. widget so that they can be quickly selected
     again.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.FileEntry

     The FileEntry(6) widget can be used to input a filename.  The user
     can type in the filename manually.  Alternatively, the user can
     press the button widget that sits next to the entry, which will
     bring up a file selection dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirList.htm

   (2) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirTree.htm

   (3) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirSelectDialog.htm

   (4) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixExFileSelectBox.htm

   (5) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixFileSelectBox.htm

   (6) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixFileEntry.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Hierarchical ListBox,  Next: Tabular ListBox,  Prev: File Selectors,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.5 Hierarchical ListBox
.............................

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.HList

     The HList(1) widget can be used to display any data that have a
     hierarchical structure, for example, file system directory trees.
     The list entries are indented and connected by branch lines
     according to their places in the hierarchy.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.CheckList

     The CheckList(2) widget displays a list of items to be selected by
     the user.  CheckList acts similarly to the Tk checkbutton or
     radiobutton widgets, except it is capable of handling many more
     items than checkbuttons or radiobuttons.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.Tree

     The Tree(3) widget can be used to display hierarchical data in a
     tree form.  The user can adjust the view of the tree by opening or
     closing parts of the tree.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixHList.htm

   (2) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixCheckList.htm

   (3) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixTree.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Tabular ListBox,  Next: Manager Widgets,  Prev: Hierarchical ListBox,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.6 Tabular ListBox
........................

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.TList

     The TList(1) widget can be used to display data in a tabular
     format.  The list entries of a *note TList: 3c18. widget are
     similar to the entries in the Tk listbox widget.  The main
     differences are (1) the *note TList: 3c18. widget can display the
     list entries in a two dimensional format and (2) you can use
     graphical images as well as multiple colors and fonts for the list
     entries.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixTList.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Manager Widgets,  Next: Image Types,  Prev: Tabular ListBox,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.7 Manager Widgets
........................

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.PanedWindow

     The PanedWindow(1) widget allows the user to interactively
     manipulate the sizes of several panes.  The panes can be arranged
     either vertically or horizontally.  The user changes the sizes of
     the panes by dragging the resize handle between two panes.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.ListNoteBook

     The ListNoteBook(2) widget is very similar to the ‘TixNoteBook’
     widget: it can be used to display many windows in a limited space
     using a notebook metaphor.  The notebook is divided into a stack of
     pages (windows).  At one time only one of these pages can be shown.
     The user can navigate through these pages by choosing the name of
     the desired page in the ‘hlist’ subwidget.

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.NoteBook

     The NoteBook(3) widget can be used to display many windows in a
     limited space using a notebook metaphor.  The notebook is divided
     into a stack of pages.  At one time only one of these pages can be
     shown.  The user can navigate through these pages by choosing the
     visual "tabs" at the top of the NoteBook widget.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixPanedWindow.htm

   (2) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixListNoteBook.htm

   (3) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixNoteBook.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Image Types,  Next: Miscellaneous Widgets,  Prev: Manager Widgets,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.8 Image Types
....................

The *note tkinter.tix: f3. module adds:

   * pixmap(1) capabilities to all *note tkinter.tix: f3. and *note
     tkinter: ea. widgets to create color images from XPM files.

   * Compound(2) image types can be used to create images that consists
     of multiple horizontal lines; each line is composed of a series of
     items (texts, bitmaps, images or spaces) arranged from left to
     right.  For example, a compound image can be used to display a
     bitmap and a text string simultaneously in a Tk ‘Button’ widget.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/pixmap.htm

   (2) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/compound.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous Widgets,  Next: Form Geometry Manager,  Prev: Image Types,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.9 Miscellaneous Widgets
..............................

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.InputOnly

     The InputOnly(1) widgets are to accept inputs from the user, which
     can be done with the ‘bind’ command (Unix only).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixInputOnly.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Form Geometry Manager,  Prev: Miscellaneous Widgets,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.10 Form Geometry Manager
...............................

In addition, *note tkinter.tix: f3. augments *note tkinter: ea. by
providing:

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.Form

     The Form(1) geometry manager based on attachment rules for all Tk
     widgets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixForm.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Tix 指令,  Prev: Tix Widgets,  Up: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具

5.25.9.11 Tix 指令
..................

 -- 類別: tkinter.tix.tixCommand

     The tix commands(1) provide access to miscellaneous elements of
     ‘Tix’'s internal state and the ‘Tix’ application context.  Most of
     the information manipulated by these methods pertains to the
     application as a whole, or to a screen or display, rather than to a
     particular window.

     To view the current settings, the common usage is:

          from tkinter import tix
          root = tix.Tk()
          print(root.tix_configure())

 -- 方法: tixCommand.tix_configure (cnf=None, **kw)

     Query or modify the configuration options of the Tix application
     context.  If no option is specified, returns a dictionary all of
     the available options.  If option is specified with no value, then
     the method returns a list describing the one named option (this
     list will be identical to the corresponding sublist of the value
     returned if no option is specified).  If one or more option-value
     pairs are specified, then the method modifies the given option(s)
     to have the given value(s); in this case the method returns an
     empty string.  Option may be any of the configuration options.

 -- 方法: tixCommand.tix_cget (option)

     Returns the current value of the configuration option given by
     'option'.  Option may be any of the configuration options.

 -- 方法: tixCommand.tix_getbitmap (name)

     Locates a bitmap file of the name ‘name.xpm’ or ‘name’ in one of
     the bitmap directories (see the *note tix_addbitmapdir(): 3c25.
     method).  By using *note tix_getbitmap(): 3c24, you can avoid hard
     coding the pathnames of the bitmap files in your application.  When
     successful, it returns the complete pathname of the bitmap file,
     prefixed with the character ‘@’.  The returned value can be used to
     configure the ‘bitmap’ option of the Tk and Tix widgets.

 -- 方法: tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir (directory)

     Tix maintains a list of directories under which the *note
     tix_getimage(): 3c26. and *note tix_getbitmap(): 3c24. methods will
     search for image files.  The standard bitmap directory is
     ‘$TIX_LIBRARY/bitmaps’.  The *note tix_addbitmapdir(): 3c25. method
     adds 'directory' into this list.  By using this method, the image
     files of an applications can also be located using the *note
     tix_getimage(): 3c26. or *note tix_getbitmap(): 3c24. method.

 -- 方法: tixCommand.tix_filedialog ([dlgclass])

     Returns the file selection dialog that may be shared among
     different calls from this application.  This method will create a
     file selection dialog widget when it is called the first time.
     This dialog will be returned by all subsequent calls to *note
     tix_filedialog(): 3c27.  An optional dlgclass parameter can be
     passed as a string to specified what type of file selection dialog
     widget is desired.  Possible options are ‘tix’, ‘FileSelectDialog’
     or ‘tixExFileSelectDialog’.

 -- 方法: tixCommand.tix_getimage (self, name)

     Locates an image file of the name ‘name.xpm’, ‘name.xbm’ or
     ‘name.ppm’ in one of the bitmap directories (see the *note
     tix_addbitmapdir(): 3c25. method above).  If more than one file
     with the same name (but different extensions) exist, then the image
     type is chosen according to the depth of the X display: xbm images
     are chosen on monochrome displays and color images are chosen on
     color displays.  By using *note tix_getimage(): 3c26, you can avoid
     hard coding the pathnames of the image files in your application.
     When successful, this method returns the name of the newly created
     image, which can be used to configure the ‘image’ option of the Tk
     and Tix widgets.

 -- 方法: tixCommand.tix_option_get (name)

     Gets the options maintained by the Tix scheme mechanism.

 -- 方法: tixCommand.tix_resetoptions (newScheme, newFontSet[,
          newScmPrio])

     Resets the scheme and fontset of the Tix application to 'newScheme'
     and 'newFontSet', respectively.  This affects only those widgets
     created after this call.  Therefore, it is best to call the
     resetoptions method before the creation of any widgets in a Tix
     application.

     The optional parameter 'newScmPrio' can be given to reset the
     priority level of the Tk options set by the Tix schemes.

     Because of the way Tk handles the X option database, after Tix has
     been has imported and inited, it is not possible to reset the color
     schemes and font sets using the ‘tix_config()’ method.  Instead,
     the *note tix_resetoptions(): 3c29. method must be used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tix.htm


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<62>,  Prev: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具,  Up: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces

5.25.10 IDLE
------------

'原始碼：'Lib/idlelib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

IDLE is Python's Integrated Development and Learning Environment.

IDLE has the following features:

   * cross-platform: works mostly the same on Windows, Unix, and macOS

   * Python shell window (interactive interpreter) with colorizing of
     code input, output, and error messages

   * multi-window text editor with multiple undo, Python colorizing,
     smart indent, call tips, auto completion, and other features

   * search within any window, replace within editor windows, and search
     through multiple files (grep)

   * debugger with persistent breakpoints, stepping, and viewing of
     global and local namespaces

   * configuration, browsers, and other dialogs

* Menu:

* 目錄::
* Editing and Navigation::
* Startup and Code Execution::
* Help and Preferences::
* idlelib::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/idlelib/


File: python.info,  Node: 目錄,  Next: Editing and Navigation,  Up: IDLE<62>

5.25.10.1 目錄
..............

IDLE has two main window types, the Shell window and the Editor window.
It is possible to have multiple editor windows simultaneously.  On
Windows and Linux, each has its own top menu.  Each menu documented
below indicates which window type it is associated with.

Output windows, such as used for Edit => Find in Files, are a subtype of
editor window.  They currently have the same top menu but a different
default title and context menu.

On macOS, there is one application menu.  It dynamically changes
according to the window currently selected.  It has an IDLE menu, and
some entries described below are moved around to conform to Apple
guidelines.

* Menu:

* File menu (Shell and Editor): File menu Shell and Editor.
* Edit menu (Shell and Editor): Edit menu Shell and Editor.
* Format menu (Editor window only): Format menu Editor window only.
* Run menu (Editor window only): Run menu Editor window only.
* Shell menu (Shell window only): Shell menu Shell window only.
* Debug menu (Shell window only): Debug menu Shell window only.
* Options menu (Shell and Editor): Options menu Shell and Editor.
* Window menu (Shell and Editor): Window menu Shell and Editor.
* Help menu (Shell and Editor): Help menu Shell and Editor.
* Context menus::


File: python.info,  Node: File menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Edit menu Shell and Editor,  Up: 目錄

5.25.10.2 File menu (Shell and Editor)
......................................

新增檔案

     Create a new file editing window.

Open...

     Open an existing file with an Open dialog.

Open Module...

     Open an existing module (searches sys.path).

Recent Files

     Open a list of recent files.  Click one to open it.

Module Browser

     Show functions, classes, and methods in the current Editor file in
     a tree structure.  In the shell, open a module first.

Path Browser

     Show sys.path directories, modules, functions, classes and methods
     in a tree structure.

Save

     Save the current window to the associated file, if there is one.
     Windows that have been changed since being opened or last saved
     have a * before and after the window title.  If there is no
     associated file, do Save As instead.

Save As...

     Save the current window with a Save As dialog.  The file saved
     becomes the new associated file for the window.  (If your file
     namager is set to hide extensions, the current extension will be
     omitted in the file name box.  If the new filename has no '.',
     '.py' and '.txt' will be added for Python and text files, except
     that on macOS Aqua,'.py' is added for all files.)

Save Copy As...

     Save the current window to different file without changing the
     associated file.  (See Save As note above about filename
     extensions.)

Print Window

     Print the current window to the default printer.

Close Window

     Close the current window (if an unsaved editor, ask to save; if an
     unsaved Shell, ask to quit execution).  Calling ‘exit()’ or
     ‘close()’ in the Shell window also closes Shell.  If this is the
     only window, also exit IDLE.

離開 IDLE

     Close all windows and quit IDLE (ask to save unsaved edit windows).


File: python.info,  Node: Edit menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Format menu Editor window only,  Prev: File menu Shell and Editor,  Up: 目錄

5.25.10.3 Edit menu (Shell and Editor)
......................................

Undo

     Undo the last change to the current window.  A maximum of 1000
     changes may be undone.

Redo

     Redo the last undone change to the current window.

Select All（選擇全部）

     Select the entire contents of the current window.

Cut（剪下）

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the
     selection.

Copy（複製）

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.

Paste（貼上）

     Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current
     window.

The clipboard functions are also available in context menus.

Find...

     Open a search dialog with many options

Find Again

     Repeat the last search, if there is one.

Find Selection

     Search for the currently selected string, if there is one.

Find in Files...

     Open a file search dialog.  Put results in a new output window.

Replace...

     Open a search-and-replace dialog.

Go to Line

     Move the cursor to the beginning of the line requested and make
     that line visible.  A request past the end of the file goes to the
     end.  Clear any selection and update the line and column status.

Show Completions

     Open a scrollable list allowing selection of existing names.  See
     *note Completions: 3c2f. in the Editing and navigation section
     below.

Expand Word

     Expand a prefix you have typed to match a full word in the same
     window; repeat to get a different expansion.

Show Call Tip

     After an unclosed parenthesis for a function, open a small window
     with function parameter hints.  See *note Calltips: 3c30. in the
     Editing and navigation section below.

Show Surrounding Parens

     Highlight the surrounding parenthesis.


File: python.info,  Node: Format menu Editor window only,  Next: Run menu Editor window only,  Prev: Edit menu Shell and Editor,  Up: 目錄

5.25.10.4 Format menu (Editor window only)
..........................................

Format Paragraph

     Reformat the current blank-line-delimited paragraph in comment
     block or multiline string or selected line in a string.  All lines
     in the paragraph will be formatted to less than N columns, where N
     defaults to 72.

Indent Region

     Shift selected lines right by the indent width (default 4 spaces).

Dedent Region

     Shift selected lines left by the indent width (default 4 spaces).

Comment Out Region

     Insert ## in front of selected lines.

Uncomment Region

     Remove leading # or ## from selected lines.

Tabify Region

     Turn 'leading' stretches of spaces into tabs.  (Note: We recommend
     using 4 space blocks to indent Python code.)

Untabify Region

     Turn 'all' tabs into the correct number of spaces.

Toggle Tabs

     Open a dialog to switch between indenting with spaces and tabs.

New Indent Width

     Open a dialog to change indent width.  The accepted default by the
     Python community is 4 spaces.

Strip Trailing Chitespace

     Remove trailing space and other whitespace characters after the
     last non-whitespace character of a line by applying str.rstrip to
     each line, including lines within multiline strings.  Except for
     Shell windows, remove extra newlines at the end of the file.


File: python.info,  Node: Run menu Editor window only,  Next: Shell menu Shell window only,  Prev: Format menu Editor window only,  Up: 目錄

5.25.10.5 Run menu (Editor window only)
.......................................

Run Module

     Do *note Check Module: 3c35.  If no error, restart the shell to
     clean the environment, then execute the module.  Output is
     displayed in the Shell window.  Note that output requires use of
     ‘print’ or ‘write’.  When execution is complete, the Shell retains
     focus and displays a prompt.  At this point, one may interactively
     explore the result of execution.  This is similar to executing a
     file with ‘python -i file’ at a command line.

Run... Customized

     Same as *note Run Module: 3c34, but run the module with customized
     settings.  'Command Line Arguments' extend *note sys.argv: 10f9. as
     if passed on a command line.  The module can be run in the Shell
     without restarting.

Check Module

     Check the syntax of the module currently open in the Editor window.
     If the module has not been saved IDLE will either prompt the user
     to save or autosave, as selected in the General tab of the Idle
     Settings dialog.  If there is a syntax error, the approximate
     location is indicated in the Editor window.

Python Shell

     Open or wake up the Python Shell window.


File: python.info,  Node: Shell menu Shell window only,  Next: Debug menu Shell window only,  Prev: Run menu Editor window only,  Up: 目錄

5.25.10.6 Shell menu (Shell window only)
........................................

View Last Restart

     Scroll the shell window to the last Shell restart.

Restart Shell

     Restart the shell to clean the environment and reset display and
     exception handling.

Previous History

     Cycle through earlier commands in history which match the current
     entry.

Next History

     Cycle through later commands in history which match the current
     entry.

Interrupt Execution

     Stop a running program.


File: python.info,  Node: Debug menu Shell window only,  Next: Options menu Shell and Editor,  Prev: Shell menu Shell window only,  Up: 目錄

5.25.10.7 Debug menu (Shell window only)
........................................

Go to File/Line

     Look on the current line.  with the cursor, and the line above for
     a filename and line number.  If found, open the file if not already
     open, and show the line.  Use this to view source lines referenced
     in an exception traceback and lines found by Find in Files.  Also
     available in the context menu of the Shell window and Output
     windows.

Debugger (toggle)

     When activated, code entered in the Shell or run from an Editor
     will run under the debugger.  In the Editor, breakpoints can be set
     with the context menu.  This feature is still incomplete and
     somewhat experimental.

Stack Viewer

     Show the stack traceback of the last exception in a tree widget,
     with access to locals and globals.

Auto-open Stack Viewer

     Toggle automatically opening the stack viewer on an unhandled
     exception.


File: python.info,  Node: Options menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Window menu Shell and Editor,  Prev: Debug menu Shell window only,  Up: 目錄

5.25.10.8 Options menu (Shell and Editor)
.........................................

Configure IDLE

     Open a configuration dialog and change preferences for the
     following: fonts, indentation, keybindings, text color themes,
     startup windows and size, additional help sources, and extensions.
     On macOS, open the configuration dialog by selecting Preferences in
     the application menu.  For more details, see *note Setting
     preferences: 3c3b. under Help and preferences.

Most configuration options apply to all windows or all future windows.
The option items below only apply to the active window.

Show/Hide Code Context (Editor Window only)

     Open a pane at the top of the edit window which shows the block
     context of the code which has scrolled above the top of the window.
     See *note Code Context: 3c3c. in the Editing and Navigation section
     below.

Show/Hide Line Numbers (Editor Window only)

     Open a column to the left of the edit window which shows the number
     of each line of text.  The default is off, which may be changed in
     the preferences (see *note Setting preferences: 3c3b.).

Zoom/Restore Height

     Toggles the window between normal size and maximum height.  The
     initial size defaults to 40 lines by 80 chars unless changed on the
     General tab of the Configure IDLE dialog.  The maximum height for a
     screen is determined by momentarily maximizing a window the first
     time one is zoomed on the screen.  Changing screen settings may
     invalidate the saved height.  This toggle has no effect when a
     window is maximized.


File: python.info,  Node: Window menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Help menu Shell and Editor,  Prev: Options menu Shell and Editor,  Up: 目錄

5.25.10.9 Window menu (Shell and Editor)
........................................

Lists the names of all open windows; select one to bring it to the
foreground (deiconifying it if necessary).


File: python.info,  Node: Help menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Context menus,  Prev: Window menu Shell and Editor,  Up: 目錄

5.25.10.10 Help menu (Shell and Editor)
.......................................

About IDLE

     Display version, copyright, license, credits, and more.

IDLE Help

     Display this IDLE document, detailing the menu options, basic
     editing and navigation, and other tips.

Python Docs

     Access local Python documentation, if installed, or start a web
     browser and open docs.python.org showing the latest Python
     documentation.

Turtle Demo

     Run the turtledemo module with example Python code and turtle
     drawings.

Additional help sources may be added here with the Configure IDLE dialog
under the General tab.  See the *note Help sources: 3c3f. subsection
below for more on Help menu choices.


File: python.info,  Node: Context menus,  Prev: Help menu Shell and Editor,  Up: 目錄

5.25.10.11 Context menus
........................

Open a context menu by right-clicking in a window (Control-click on
macOS). Context menus have the standard clipboard functions also on the
Edit menu.

Cut（剪下）

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the
     selection.

Copy（複製）

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.

Paste（貼上）

     Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current
     window.

Editor windows also have breakpoint functions.  Lines with a breakpoint
set are specially marked.  Breakpoints only have an effect when running
under the debugger.  Breakpoints for a file are saved in the user's
‘.idlerc’ directory.

Set Breakpoint

     Set a breakpoint on the current line.

Clear Breakpoint

     Clear the breakpoint on that line.

Shell and Output windows also have the following.

Go to file/line

     Same as in Debug menu.

The Shell window also has an output squeezing facility explained in the
'Python Shell window' subsection below.

Squeeze

     If the cursor is over an output line, squeeze all the output
     between the code above and the prompt below down to a 'Squeezed
     text' label.


File: python.info,  Node: Editing and Navigation,  Next: Startup and Code Execution,  Prev: 目錄,  Up: IDLE<62>

5.25.10.12 Editing and Navigation
.................................

* Menu:

* Editor windows::
* Key bindings::
* Automatic indentation::
* Search and Replace::
* Completions::
* Calltips::
* Code Context::
* Shell window::
* Text colors::


File: python.info,  Node: Editor windows,  Next: Key bindings,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.13 Editor windows
.........................

IDLE may open editor windows when it starts, depending on settings and
how you start IDLE. Thereafter, use the File menu.  There can be only
one open editor window for a given file.

The title bar contains the name of the file, the full path, and the
version of Python and IDLE running the window.  The status bar contains
the line number ('Ln') and column number ('Col').  Line numbers start
with 1; column numbers with 0.

IDLE assumes that files with a known .py* extension contain Python code
and that other files do not.  Run Python code with the Run menu.


File: python.info,  Node: Key bindings,  Next: Automatic indentation,  Prev: Editor windows,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.14 Key bindings
.......................

The IDLE insertion cursor is a thin vertical bar between character
positions.  When characters are entered, the insertion cursor and
everything to its right moves right one character and the new character
is entered in the new space.

Several non-character keys move the cursor and possibly delete
characters.  Deletion does not puts text on the clipboard, but IDLE has
an undo list.  Wherever this doc discusses keys, 'C' refers to the
‘Control’ key on Windows and Unix and the ‘Command’ key on macOS. (And
all such discussions assume that the keys have not been re-bound to
something else.)

   * Arrow keys move the cursor one character or line.

   * ‘C-LeftArrow’ and ‘C-RightArrow’ moves left or right one word.

   * ‘Home’ and ‘End’ go to the beginning or end of the line.

   * ‘Page Up’ and ‘Page Down’ go up or down one screen.

   * ‘C-Home’ and ‘C-End’ go to beginning or end of the file.

   * ‘Backspace’ and ‘Del’ (or ‘C-d’) delete the previous or next
     character.

   * ‘C-Backspace’ and ‘C-Del’ delete one word left or right.

   * ‘C-k’ deletes ('kills') everything to the right.

Standard keybindings (like ‘C-c’ to copy and ‘C-v’ to paste) may work.
Keybindings are selected in the Configure IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: Automatic indentation,  Next: Search and Replace,  Prev: Key bindings,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.15 Automatic indentation
................................

After a block-opening statement, the next line is indented by 4 spaces
(in the Python Shell window by one tab).  After certain keywords (break,
return etc.)  the next line is dedented.  In leading indentation,
‘Backspace’ deletes up to 4 spaces if they are there.  ‘Tab’ inserts
spaces (in the Python Shell window one tab), number depends on Indent
width.  Currently, tabs are restricted to four spaces due to Tcl/Tk
limitations.

See also the indent/dedent region commands on the *note Format menu:
3c31.


File: python.info,  Node: Search and Replace,  Next: Completions,  Prev: Automatic indentation,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.16 Search and Replace
.............................

Any selection becomes a search target.  However, only selections within
a line work because searches are only performed within lines with the
terminal newline removed.  If ‘[x] Regular expression’ is checked, the
target is interpreted according to the Python re module.


File: python.info,  Node: Completions,  Next: Calltips,  Prev: Search and Replace,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.17 Completions
......................

Completions are supplied, when requested and available, for module
names, attributes of classes or functions, or filenames.  Each request
method displays a completion box with existing names.  (See tab
completions below for an exception.)  For any box, change the name being
completed and the item highlighted in the box by typing and deleting
characters; by hitting ‘Up’, ‘Down’, ‘PageUp’, ‘PageDown’, ‘Home’, and
‘End’ keys; and by a single click within the box.  Close the box with
‘Escape’, ‘Enter’, and double ‘Tab’ keys or clicks outside the box.  A
double click within the box selects and closes.

One way to open a box is to type a key character and wait for a
predefined interval.  This defaults to 2 seconds; customize it in the
settings dialog.  (To prevent auto popups, set the delay to a large
number of milliseconds, such as 100000000.)  For imported module names
or class or function attributes, type '.'.  For filenames in the root
directory, type *note os.sep: 465. or *note os.altsep: 466. immediately
after an opening quote.  (On Windows, one can specify a drive first.)
Move into subdirectories by typing a directory name and a separator.

Instead of waiting, or after a box is closed, open a completion box
immediately with Show Completions on the Edit menu.  The default hot key
is ‘C-space’.  If one types a prefix for the desired name before opening
the box, the first match or near miss is made visible.  The result is
the same as if one enters a prefix after the box is displayed.  Show
Completions after a quote completes filenames in the current directory
instead of a root directory.

Hitting ‘Tab’ after a prefix usually has the same effect as Show
Completions.  (With no prefix, it indents.)  However, if there is only
one match to the prefix, that match is immediately added to the editor
text without opening a box.

Invoking 'Show Completions', or hitting ‘Tab’ after a prefix, outside of
a string and without a preceding '.'  opens a box with keywords, builtin
names, and available module-level names.

When editing code in an editor (as oppose to Shell), increase the
available module-level names by running your code and not restarting the
Shell thereafter.  This is especially useful after adding imports at the
top of a file.  This also increases possible attribute completions.

Completion boxes initially exclude names beginning with '_' or, for
modules, not included in '__all__'.  The hidden names can be accessed by
typing '_' after '.', either before or after the box is opened.


File: python.info,  Node: Calltips,  Next: Code Context,  Prev: Completions,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.18 Calltips
...................

A calltip is shown automatically when one types ‘(’ after the name of an
'accessible' function.  A function name expression may include dots and
subscripts.  A calltip remains until it is clicked, the cursor is moved
out of the argument area, or ‘)’ is typed.  Whenever the cursor is in
the argument part of a definition, select Edit and "Show Call Tip" on
the menu or enter its shortcut to display a calltip.

The calltip consists of the function's signature and docstring up to the
latter's first blank line or the fifth non-blank line.  (Some builtin
functions lack an accessible signature.)  A '/' or '*' in the signature
indicates that the preceding or following arguments are passed by
position or name (keyword) only.  Details are subject to change.

In Shell, the accessible functions depends on what modules have been
imported into the user process, including those imported by Idle itself,
and which definitions have been run, all since the last restart.

For example, restart the Shell and enter ‘itertools.count(’.  A calltip
appears because Idle imports itertools into the user process for its own
use.  (This could change.)  Enter ‘turtle.write(’ and nothing appears.
Idle does not itself import turtle.  The menu entry and shortcut also do
nothing.  Enter ‘import turtle’.  Thereafter, ‘turtle.write(’ will
display a calltip.

In an editor, import statements have no effect until one runs the file.
One might want to run a file after writing import statements, after
adding function definitions, or after opening an existing file.


File: python.info,  Node: Code Context,  Next: Shell window,  Prev: Calltips,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.19 Code Context
.......................

Within an editor window containing Python code, code context can be
toggled in order to show or hide a pane at the top of the window.  When
shown, this pane freezes the opening lines for block code, such as those
beginning with ‘class’, ‘def’, or ‘if’ keywords, that would have
otherwise scrolled out of view.  The size of the pane will be expanded
and contracted as needed to show the all current levels of context, up
to the maximum number of lines defined in the Configure IDLE dialog
(which defaults to 15).  If there are no current context lines and the
feature is toggled on, a single blank line will display.  Clicking on a
line in the context pane will move that line to the top of the editor.

The text and background colors for the context pane can be configured
under the Highlights tab in the Configure IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: Shell window,  Next: Text colors,  Prev: Code Context,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.20 Shell window
.......................

In IDLE's Shell, enter, edit, and recall complete statements.  (Most
consoles and terminals only work with a single physical line at a time).

Submit a single-line statement for execution by hitting ‘Return’ with
the cursor anywhere on the line.  If a line is extended with Backslash
(‘\’), the cursor must be on the last physical line.  Submit a
multi-line compound statement by entering a blank line after the
statement.

When one pastes code into Shell, it is not compiled and possibly
executed until one hits ‘Return’, as specified above.  One may edit
pasted code first.  If one pastes more than one statement into Shell,
the result will be a *note SyntaxError: 146. when multiple statements
are compiled as if they were one.

Lines containing ‘RESTART’ mean that the user execution process has been
re-started.  This occurs when the user execution process has crashed,
when one requests a restart on the Shell menu, or when one runs code in
an editor window.

The editing features described in previous subsections work when
entering code interactively.  IDLE's Shell window also responds to the
following:

   * ‘C-c’ attempts to interrupt statement execution (but may fail).

   * ‘C-d’ closes Shell if typed at a ‘>>>’ prompt.

   * ‘Alt-p’ and ‘Alt-n’ (‘C-p’ and ‘C-n’ on macOS) retrieve to the
     current prompt the previous or next previously entered statement
     that matches anything already typed.

   * ‘Return’ while the cursor is on any previous statement appends the
     latter to anything already typed at the prompt.


File: python.info,  Node: Text colors,  Prev: Shell window,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.21 Text colors
......................

Idle defaults to black on white text, but colors text with special
meanings.  For the shell, these are shell output, shell error, user
output, and user error.  For Python code, at the shell prompt or in an
editor, these are keywords, builtin class and function names, names
following ‘class’ and ‘def’, strings, and comments.  For any text
window, these are the cursor (when present), found text (when possible),
and selected text.

IDLE also highlights the *note soft keywords: 62e. *note match: 62f,
*note case: 62f, and *note _: 630. in pattern-matching statements.
However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some
rare cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’ patterns.

Text coloring is done in the background, so uncolorized text is
occasionally visible.  To change the color scheme, use the Configure
IDLE dialog Highlighting tab.  The marking of debugger breakpoint lines
in the editor and text in popups and dialogs is not user-configurable.


File: python.info,  Node: Startup and Code Execution,  Next: Help and Preferences,  Prev: Editing and Navigation,  Up: IDLE<62>

5.25.10.22 Startup and Code Execution
.....................................

Upon startup with the ‘-s’ option, IDLE will execute the file referenced
by the environment variables ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e5a.
IDLE first checks for ‘IDLESTARTUP’; if ‘IDLESTARTUP’ is present the
file referenced is run.  If ‘IDLESTARTUP’ is not present, IDLE checks
for ‘PYTHONSTARTUP’.  Files referenced by these environment variables
are convenient places to store functions that are used frequently from
the IDLE shell, or for executing import statements to import common
modules.

In addition, ‘Tk’ also loads a startup file if it is present.  Note that
the Tk file is loaded unconditionally.  This additional file is
‘.Idle.py’ and is looked for in the user's home directory.  Statements
in this file will be executed in the Tk namespace, so this file is not
useful for importing functions to be used from IDLE's Python shell.

* Menu:

* 命令列用法: 命令列用法<2>.
* Startup failure::
* Running user code::
* User output in Shell::
* Developing tkinter applications::
* Running without a subprocess::


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列用法<2>,  Next: Startup failure,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.23 命令列用法
.....................

     idle.py [-c command] [-d] [-e] [-h] [-i] [-r file] [-s] [-t title] [-] [arg] ...

     -c command  run command in the shell window
     -d          enable debugger and open shell window
     -e          open editor window
     -h          print help message with legal combinations and exit
     -i          open shell window
     -r file     run file in shell window
     -s          run $IDLESTARTUP or $PYTHONSTARTUP first, in shell window
     -t title    set title of shell window
     -           run stdin in shell (- must be last option before args)

If there are arguments:

   * If ‘-’, ‘-c’, or ‘r’ is used, all arguments are placed in
     ‘sys.argv[1:...]’ and ‘sys.argv[0]’ is set to ‘''’, ‘'-c'’, or
     ‘'-r'’.  No editor window is opened, even if that is the default
     set in the Options dialog.

   * Otherwise, arguments are files opened for editing and ‘sys.argv’
     reflects the arguments passed to IDLE itself.


File: python.info,  Node: Startup failure,  Next: Running user code,  Prev: 命令列用法<2>,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.24 Startup failure
..........................

IDLE uses a socket to communicate between the IDLE GUI process and the
user code execution process.  A connection must be established whenever
the Shell starts or restarts.  (The latter is indicated by a divider
line that says 'RESTART'). If the user process fails to connect to the
GUI process, it usually displays a ‘Tk’ error box with a 'cannot
connect' message that directs the user here.  It then exits.

One specific connection failure on Unix systems results from
misconfigured masquerading rules somewhere in a system's network setup.
When IDLE is started from a terminal, one will see a message starting
with ‘** Invalid host:’.  The valid value is ‘127.0.0.1
(idlelib.rpc.LOCALHOST)’.  One can diagnose with ‘tcpconnect -irv
127.0.0.1 6543’ in one terminal window and ‘tcplisten <same args>’ in
another.

A common cause of failure is a user-written file with the same name as a
standard library module, such as 'random.py' and 'tkinter.py'.  When
such a file is located in the same directory as a file that is about to
be run, IDLE cannot import the stdlib file.  The current fix is to
rename the user file.

Though less common than in the past, an antivirus or firewall program
may stop the connection.  If the program cannot be taught to allow the
connection, then it must be turned off for IDLE to work.  It is safe to
allow this internal connection because no data is visible on external
ports.  A similar problem is a network mis-configuration that blocks
connections.

Python installation issues occasionally stop IDLE: multiple versions can
clash, or a single installation might need admin access.  If one undo
the clash, or cannot or does not want to run as admin, it might be
easiest to completely remove Python and start over.

A zombie pythonw.exe process could be a problem.  On Windows, use Task
Manager to check for one and stop it if there is.  Sometimes a restart
initiated by a program crash or Keyboard Interrupt (control-C) may fail
to connect.  Dismissing the error box or using Restart Shell on the
Shell menu may fix a temporary problem.

When IDLE first starts, it attempts to read user configuration files in
‘~/.idlerc/’ (~ is one's home directory).  If there is a problem, an
error message should be displayed.  Leaving aside random disk glitches,
this can be prevented by never editing the files by hand.  Instead, use
the configuration dialog, under Options.  Once there is an error in a
user configuration file, the best solution may be to delete it and start
over with the settings dialog.

If IDLE quits with no message, and it was not started from a console,
try starting it from a console or terminal (‘python -m idlelib’) and see
if this results in an error message.

On Unix-based systems with tcl/tk older than ‘8.6.11’ (see ‘About IDLE’)
certain characters of certain fonts can cause a tk failure with a
message to the terminal.  This can happen either if one starts IDLE to
edit a file with such a character or later when entering such a
character.  If one cannot upgrade tcl/tk, then re-configure IDLE to use
a font that works better.


File: python.info,  Node: Running user code,  Next: User output in Shell,  Prev: Startup failure,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.25 Running user code
............................

With rare exceptions, the result of executing Python code with IDLE is
intended to be the same as executing the same code by the default
method, directly with Python in a text-mode system console or terminal
window.  However, the different interface and operation occasionally
affect visible results.  For instance, ‘sys.modules’ starts with more
entries, and ‘threading.active_count()’ returns 2 instead of 1.

By default, IDLE runs user code in a separate OS process rather than in
the user interface process that runs the shell and editor.  In the
execution process, it replaces ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’, and
‘sys.stderr’ with objects that get input from and send output to the
Shell window.  The original values stored in ‘sys.__stdin__’,
‘sys.__stdout__’, and ‘sys.__stderr__’ are not touched, but may be
‘None’.

Sending print output from one process to a text widget in another is
slower than printing to a system terminal in the same process.  This has
the most effect when printing multiple arguments, as the string for each
argument, each separator, the newline are sent separately.  For
development, this is usually not a problem, but if one wants to print
faster in IDLE, format and join together everything one wants displayed
together and then print a single string.  Both format strings and *note
str.join(): 1f41. can help combine fields and lines.

IDLE's standard stream replacements are not inherited by subprocesses
created in the execution process, whether directly by user code or by
modules such as multiprocessing.  If such subprocess use ‘input’ from
sys.stdin or ‘print’ or ‘write’ to sys.stdout or sys.stderr, IDLE should
be started in a command line window.  (On Windows, use ‘python’ or ‘py’
rather than ‘pythonw’ or ‘pyw’.)  The secondary subprocess will then be
attached to that window for input and output.

If ‘sys’ is reset by user code, such as with ‘importlib.reload(sys)’,
IDLE's changes are lost and input from the keyboard and output to the
screen will not work correctly.

When Shell has the focus, it controls the keyboard and screen.  This is
normally transparent, but functions that directly access the keyboard
and screen will not work.  These include system-specific functions that
determine whether a key has been pressed and if so, which.

The IDLE code running in the execution process adds frames to the call
stack that would not be there otherwise.  IDLE wraps
‘sys.getrecursionlimit’ and ‘sys.setrecursionlimit’ to reduce the effect
of the additional stack frames.

When user code raises SystemExit either directly or by calling sys.exit,
IDLE returns to a Shell prompt instead of exiting.


File: python.info,  Node: User output in Shell,  Next: Developing tkinter applications,  Prev: Running user code,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.26 User output in Shell
...............................

When a program outputs text, the result is determined by the
corresponding output device.  When IDLE executes user code, ‘sys.stdout’
and ‘sys.stderr’ are connected to the display area of IDLE's Shell.
Some of its features are inherited from the underlying Tk Text widget.
Others are programmed additions.  Where it matters, Shell is designed
for development rather than production runs.

For instance, Shell never throws away output.  A program that sends
unlimited output to Shell will eventually fill memory, resulting in a
memory error.  In contrast, some system text windows only keep the last
n lines of output.  A Windows console, for instance, keeps a
user-settable 1 to 9999 lines, with 300 the default.

A Tk Text widget, and hence IDLE's Shell, displays characters
(codepoints) in the BMP (Basic Multilingual Plane) subset of Unicode.
Which characters are displayed with a proper glyph and which with a
replacement box depends on the operating system and installed fonts.
Tab characters cause the following text to begin after the next tab
stop.  (They occur every 8 'characters').  Newline characters cause
following text to appear on a new line.  Other control characters are
ignored or displayed as a space, box, or something else, depending on
the operating system and font.  (Moving the text cursor through such
output with arrow keys may exhibit some surprising spacing behavior.)

     >>> s = 'a\tb\a<\x02><\r>\bc\nd'  # Enter 22 chars.
     >>> len(s)
     14
     >>> s  # Display repr(s)
     'a\tb\x07<\x02><\r>\x08c\nd'
     >>> print(s, end='')  # Display s as is.
     # Result varies by OS and font.  Try it.

The ‘repr’ function is used for interactive echo of expression values.
It returns an altered version of the input string in which control
codes, some BMP codepoints, and all non-BMP codepoints are replaced with
escape codes.  As demonstrated above, it allows one to identify the
characters in a string, regardless of how they are displayed.

Normal and error output are generally kept separate (on separate lines)
from code input and each other.  They each get different highlight
colors.

For SyntaxError tracebacks, the normal '^' marking where the error was
detected is replaced by coloring the text with an error highlight.  When
code run from a file causes other exceptions, one may right click on a
traceback line to jump to the corresponding line in an IDLE editor.  The
file will be opened if necessary.

Shell has a special facility for squeezing output lines down to a
'Squeezed text' label.  This is done automatically for output over N
lines (N = 50 by default).  N can be changed in the PyShell section of
the General page of the Settings dialog.  Output with fewer lines can be
squeezed by right clicking on the output.  This can be useful lines long
enough to slow down scrolling.

Squeezed output is expanded in place by double-clicking the label.  It
can also be sent to the clipboard or a separate view window by
right-clicking the label.


File: python.info,  Node: Developing tkinter applications,  Next: Running without a subprocess,  Prev: User output in Shell,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.27 Developing tkinter applications
..........................................

IDLE is intentionally different from standard Python in order to
facilitate development of tkinter programs.  Enter ‘import tkinter as
tk; root = tk.Tk()’ in standard Python and nothing appears.  Enter the
same in IDLE and a tk window appears.  In standard Python, one must also
enter ‘root.update()’ to see the window.  IDLE does the equivalent in
the background, about 20 times a second, which is about every 50
milliseconds.  Next enter ‘b = tk.Button(root, text='button');
b.pack()’.  Again, nothing visibly changes in standard Python until one
enters ‘root.update()’.

Most tkinter programs run ‘root.mainloop()’, which usually does not
return until the tk app is destroyed.  If the program is run with
‘python -i’ or from an IDLE editor, a ‘>>>’ shell prompt does not appear
until ‘mainloop()’ returns, at which time there is nothing left to
interact with.

When running a tkinter program from an IDLE editor, one can comment out
the mainloop call.  One then gets a shell prompt immediately and can
interact with the live application.  One just has to remember to
re-enable the mainloop call when running in standard Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Running without a subprocess,  Prev: Developing tkinter applications,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.28 Running without a subprocess
.......................................

By default, IDLE executes user code in a separate subprocess via a
socket, which uses the internal loopback interface.  This connection is
not externally visible and no data is sent to or received from the
internet.  If firewall software complains anyway, you can ignore it.

If the attempt to make the socket connection fails, Idle will notify
you.  Such failures are sometimes transient, but if persistent, the
problem may be either a firewall blocking the connection or
misconfiguration of a particular system.  Until the problem is fixed,
one can run Idle with the -n command line switch.

If IDLE is started with the -n command line switch it will run in a
single process and will not create the subprocess which runs the RPC
Python execution server.  This can be useful if Python cannot create the
subprocess or the RPC socket interface on your platform.  However, in
this mode user code is not isolated from IDLE itself.  Also, the
environment is not restarted when Run/Run Module (F5) is selected.  If
your code has been modified, you must reload() the affected modules and
re-import any specific items (e.g.  from foo import baz) if the changes
are to take effect.  For these reasons, it is preferable to run IDLE
with the default subprocess if at all possible.

在 3.4 版之後被棄用.


File: python.info,  Node: Help and Preferences,  Next: idlelib,  Prev: Startup and Code Execution,  Up: IDLE<62>

5.25.10.29 Help and Preferences
...............................

* Menu:

* Help sources::
* Setting preferences::
* IDLE on macOS::
* Extensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Help sources,  Next: Setting preferences,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.25.10.30 Help sources
.......................

Help menu entry "IDLE Help" displays a formatted html version of the
IDLE chapter of the Library Reference.  The result, in a read-only
tkinter text window, is close to what one sees in a web browser.
Navigate through the text with a mousewheel, the scrollbar, or up and
down arrow keys held down.  Or click the TOC (Table of Contents) button
and select a section header in the opened box.

Help menu entry "Python Docs" opens the extensive sources of help,
including tutorials, available at ‘docs.python.org/x.y’, where 'x.y' is
the currently running Python version.  If your system has an off-line
copy of the docs (this may be an installation option), that will be
opened instead.

Selected URLs can be added or removed from the help menu at any time
using the General tab of the Configure IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: Setting preferences,  Next: IDLE on macOS,  Prev: Help sources,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.25.10.31 Setting preferences
..............................

The font preferences, highlighting, keys, and general preferences can be
changed via Configure IDLE on the Option menu.  Non-default user
settings are saved in a ‘.idlerc’ directory in the user's home
directory.  Problems caused by bad user configuration files are solved
by editing or deleting one or more of the files in ‘.idlerc’.

On the Font tab, see the text sample for the effect of font face and
size on multiple characters in multiple languages.  Edit the sample to
add other characters of personal interest.  Use the sample to select
monospaced fonts.  If particular characters have problems in Shell or an
editor, add them to the top of the sample and try changing first size
and then font.

On the Highlights and Keys tab, select a built-in or custom color theme
and key set.  To use a newer built-in color theme or key set with older
IDLEs, save it as a new custom theme or key set and it well be
accessible to older IDLEs.


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE on macOS,  Next: Extensions,  Prev: Setting preferences,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.25.10.32 IDLE on macOS
........................

Under System Preferences: Dock, one can set "Prefer tabs when opening
documents" to "Always".  This setting is not compatible with the
tk/tkinter GUI framework used by IDLE, and it breaks a few IDLE
features.


File: python.info,  Node: Extensions,  Prev: IDLE on macOS,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.25.10.33 Extensions
.....................

IDLE contains an extension facility.  Preferences for extensions can be
changed with the Extensions tab of the preferences dialog.  See the
beginning of config-extensions.def in the idlelib directory for further
information.  The only current default extension is zzdummy, an example
also used for testing.


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib,  Prev: Help and Preferences,  Up: IDLE<62>

5.25.10.34 idlelib
..................

'原始碼：'Lib/idlelib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The Lib/idlelib package implements the IDLE application.  See the rest
of this page for how to use IDLE.

The files in idlelib are described in idlelib/README.txt.  Access it
either in idlelib or click Help => About IDLE on the IDLE menu.  This
file also maps IDLE menu items to the code that implements the item.
Except for files listed under 'Startup', the idlelib code is 'private'
in sense that feature changes can be backported (see PEP 434(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/idlelib/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/


File: python.info,  Node: 開發工具,  Next: 除錯與效能分析,  Prev: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.26 開發工具
=============

The modules described in this chapter help you write software.  For
example, the *note pydoc: b0. module takes a module and generates
documentation based on the module's contents.  The *note doctest: 36.
and *note unittest: 101. modules contains frameworks for writing unit
tests that automatically exercise code and verify that the expected
output is produced.  ‘2to3’ can translate Python 2.x source code into
valid Python 3.x code.

The list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* typing: typing --- 支援型別提示. 支援型別提示
* pydoc: pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統. 文件產生器與線上幫助系統
* Python 開發模式::
* doctest: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例. 測試互動式 Python 範例
* unittest: unittest --- 單元測試框架. 單元測試框架
* unittest.mock — mock 物件函式庫: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock --- 入門指南. 入門指南
* 2to3: 2to3 --- 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3. 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3
* test: test --- Python 的回歸測試 regression tests 套件. Python 的回歸測試 (regression tests) 套件
* test.support: test support --- Python 測試套件的工具. Python 測試套件的工具
* test.support.socket_helper: test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具. 用於 socket 測試的工具
* test.support.script_helper: test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具. 用於 Python 執行測試的工具
* test.support.bytecode_helper: test support bytecode_helper --- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具. 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具
* test.support.threading_helper: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests. Utilities for threading tests
* test.support.os_helper: test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具. 用於 os 測試的工具
* test.support.import_helper: test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具. 用於 import 測試的工具
* test.support.warnings_helper: test support warnings_helper --- 用於 warnings 測試的工具. 用於 warnings 測試的工具


File: python.info,  Node: typing --- 支援型別提示,  Next: pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.1 ‘typing’ -- 支援型別提示
-------------------------------

在 3.5 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/typing.py(1)

     備註: Python runtime 不強制要求函式與變數的型別註釋。他們可以被第三
     方工具使用，如：*note 型別檢查器: 21b9.、IDE、linter 等。

__________________________________________________________________

此模組提供 runtime 型別提示支援。

動腦筋思考下面的函式：

     def surface_area_of_cube(edge_length: float) -> str:
         return f"The surface area of the cube is {6 * edge_length ** 2}."

函式 ‘surface_area_of_cube’ 需要一個引數且預期是一個 *note float: 26a. 的
實例，如 ‘edge_length: float’ 所指出的*note 型別提示: 1d14.。這個函式預
期會回傳一個 *note str: 157. 的實例，如 ‘-> str’ 所指出的提示。

儘管型別提示可以是簡單類別，像是 *note float: 26a. 或 *note str: 157.，
他們也可以變得更為複雜。模組 *note typing: ff. 提供一組更高階的型別提示
詞彙。

新功能會頻繁的新增至 ‘typing’ 模組中。typing_extensions(2) 套件為這些新
功能提供了 backport（向後移植的）版本，提供給舊版本的 Python 使用。

也參考
......

"型別小抄 (Typing cheat sheet)"(3)

     型別提示的快速預覽（發布於 mypy 的文件中）

mypy 文件(4)的 "型別系統參考資料 (Type System Reference)" 章節

     Python 的加註型別系統是基於 PEPs 進行標準化，所以這個參照
     (reference) 應該在多數 Python 型別檢查器中廣為使用。（某些部分依然
     是特定給 mypy 使用。）

"Python 的靜態型別 (Static Typing)"(5)

     由社群編寫的跨平台型別檢查器文件 (type-checker-agnostic) 詳細描述加
     註型別系統的功能、實用的加註型別衍伸工具、以及加註型別的最佳實踐
     (best practice)。

* Menu:

* Python 型別系統的技術規範::
* 型別別名::
* NewType::
* 註釋 callable 物件::
* 泛型::
* 註釋元組 (tuple): 註釋元組 tuple.
* 類別物件的型別::
* Annotating generators and coroutines::
* 使用者定義泛型型別::
* Any 型別::
* 標稱 (nominal) 子型別 vs 結構子型別: 標稱 nominal 子型別 vs 結構子型別.
* 模組內容: 模組內容<7>.
* Deprecation Timeline of Major Features::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/typing.py

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/typing_extensions/

   (3) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/cheat_sheet_py3.html

   (4) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html

   (5) https://typing.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 型別系統的技術規範,  Next: 型別別名,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.1 Python 型別系統的技術規範
..................................

關於 Python 型別系統標準的 (canonical)、最新的技術規範可以在「Python 型
別系統的技術規範」(1)找到。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://typing.readthedocs.io/en/latest/spec/index.html


File: python.info,  Node: 型別別名,  Next: NewType,  Prev: Python 型別系統的技術規範,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.2 型別別名
.................

一個型別別名被定義來使用 *note type: 13a. 陳述式，其建立了 *note
TypeAliasType: 160. 的實例。在這個範例中，‘Vector’ 及 ‘list[float]’ 會被
當作和靜態型別檢查器一樣同等對待：

     type Vector = list[float]

     def scale(scalar: float, vector: Vector) -> Vector:
         return [scalar * num for num in vector]

     # passes type checking; a list of floats qualifies as a Vector.
     new_vector = scale(2.0, [1.0, -4.2, 5.4])

型別別名對於簡化複雜的型別簽名 (complex type signature) 非常好用。舉例來
說：

     from collections.abc import Sequence

     type ConnectionOptions = dict[str, str]
     type Address = tuple[str, int]
     type Server = tuple[Address, ConnectionOptions]

     def broadcast_message(message: str, servers: Sequence[Server]) -> None:
         ...

     # The static type checker will treat the previous type signature as
     # being exactly equivalent to this one.
     def broadcast_message(
         message: str,
         servers: Sequence[tuple[tuple[str, int], dict[str, str]]]
     ) -> None:
         ...

*note type: 13a. 陳述式是 Python 3.12 的新功能。為了向後相容性，型別別名
可以透過簡單的賦值來建立：

     Vector = list[float]

或是用 *note TypeAlias: 5e7. 標記，讓它明確的表示這是一個型別別名，而非
一般的變數賦值：

     from typing import TypeAlias

     Vector: TypeAlias = list[float]


File: python.info,  Node: NewType,  Next: 註釋 callable 物件,  Prev: 型別別名,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.3 NewType
................

使用 *note NewType: b63. 輔助工具 (helper) 建立獨特型別：

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
     some_id = UserId(524313)

若它是原本型別的子類別，靜態型別檢查器會將其視為一個新的型別。這對於幫助
擷取邏輯性錯誤非常有用：

     def get_user_name(user_id: UserId) -> str:
         ...

     # passes type checking
     user_a = get_user_name(UserId(42351))

     # fails type checking; an int is not a UserId
     user_b = get_user_name(-1)

你依然可以在對於型別 ‘UserId’ 的變數中執行所有 ‘int’ 的操作。這讓你可以
在預期接受 ‘int’ 的地方傳遞一個 ‘UserId’，還能預防你意外使用無效的方法建
立一個 ‘UserId’：

     # 'output' is of type 'int', not 'UserId'
     output = UserId(23413) + UserId(54341)

注意這只會透過靜態型別檢查器強制檢查。在 runtime 中，陳述式 (statement)
‘Derived = NewType('Derived', Base)’ 會使 ‘Derived’ 成為一個 callable（
可呼叫物件），會立即回傳任何你傳遞的引數。這意味著 expression （運算式）
‘Derived(some_value)’ 不會建立一個新的類別或過度引入原有的函式呼叫。

更精確地說，expression ‘some_value is Derived(some_value)’ 在 runtime 永
遠為 true。

這會無法建立一個 ‘Derived’ 的子型別：

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

     # Fails at runtime and does not pass type checking
     class AdminUserId(UserId): pass

無論如何，這有辦法基於 '衍生的' ‘NewType’ 建立一個 *note NewType: b63.：

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

     ProUserId = NewType('ProUserId', UserId)

以及針對 ‘ProUserId’ 的型別檢查會如期運作。

更多細節請見 PEP 484(1)。

     備註: 請記得使用型別別名是宣告兩種型別是互相'相等'的。使用 ‘type
     Alias = Original’ 則會讓靜態型別檢查器在任何情況之下將 ‘Alias’ 視為
     與 ‘Original’ '完全相等'。這當你想把複雜的型別簽名進行簡化時，非常
     好用。

     相反的，‘NewType’ 宣告一個型別會是另外一種型別的子類別。使用
     ‘Derived = NewType('Derived', Original)’ 會使靜態型別檢查器將
     ‘Derived’ 視為 ‘Original’ 的子類別，也意味著一個型別為 ‘Original’ 的
     值，不能被使用在任何預期接收到型別 ‘Derived’ 的值的區域。這當你想用
     最小的 runtime 成本預防邏輯性錯誤而言，非常有用。

在 3.5.2 版被加入.

在 3.10 版的變更: 現在的 ‘NewType’ 比起一個函式更像一個類別。因此，比起
一般的函式，呼叫 ‘NewType’ 需要額外的 runtime 成本。

在 3.11 版的變更: 呼叫 ‘NewType’ 的效能已經恢復與 Python 3.9 相同的水準
。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: 註釋 callable 物件,  Next: 泛型,  Prev: NewType,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.4 註釋 callable 物件
...........................

函式，或者是其他 *note callable: 266d. 物件，可以使用 *note
collections.abc.Callable: 60b. 或以棄用的 *note typing.Callable: 5e3. 進
行註釋。 ‘Callable[[int], str]’ 象徵為一個函式，可以接受一個型別為 *note
int: 17e. 的引數，並回傳一個 *note str: 157.。

舉例來說：

     from collections.abc import Callable, Awaitable

     def feeder(get_next_item: Callable[[], str]) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     def async_query(on_success: Callable[[int], None],
                     on_error: Callable[[int, Exception], None]) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     async def on_update(value: str) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     callback: Callable[[str], Awaitable[None]] = on_update

使用下標語法 (subscription syntax) 時，必須使用到兩個值，分別為引述串列
以及回傳類別。引數串列必須為一個型別串列：*note ParamSpec: 163.、*note
Concatenate: 5e2. 或是一個刪節號 (ellipsis)。回傳類別必為一個單一類別。

若刪節號文字 ‘...’ 被當作引數串列給定，其指出一個具任何、任意參數列表的
callable 會被接受：

     def concat(x: str, y: str) -> str:
         return x + y

     x: Callable[..., str]
     x = str     # OK
     x = concat  # Also OK

‘Callable’ 不如有可變數量引數的函式、*note overloaded functions: 3c64.、
或是僅限關鍵字參數的函式，可以表示複雜簽名。然而，這些簽名可以透過定義一
個具有 *note __call__(): 2dd. 方法的 *note Protocol: 4ad. 類別進行表示：

     from collections.abc import Iterable
     from typing import Protocol

     class Combiner(Protocol):
         def __call__(self, *vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]: ...

     def batch_proc(data: Iterable[bytes], cb_results: Combiner) -> bytes:
         for item in data:
             ...

     def good_cb(*vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]:
         ...
     def bad_cb(*vals: bytes, maxitems: int | None) -> list[bytes]:
         ...

     batch_proc([], good_cb)  # OK
     batch_proc([], bad_cb)   # Error! Argument 2 has incompatible type because of
                              # different name and kind in the callback

Callable 物件可以取用其他 callable 當作引數使用，可以透過 *note
ParamSpec: 163. 指出他們的參數型別是個別獨立的。另外，如果這個 callable
從其他 callable 新增或刪除引數時，將會使用到 *note Concatenate: 5e2. 運
算子。他們可以分別採用 ‘Callable[ParamSpecVariable, ReturnType]’ 以及
‘Callable[Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable],
ReturnType]’ 的形式。

在 3.10 版的變更: ‘Callable’ 現已支援 *note ParamSpec: 163. 以及 *note
Concatenate: 5e2.。請參閱 PEP 612(1) 閱讀詳細內容。

也參考
......

*note ParamSpec: 163. 以及 *note Concatenate: 5e2. 的文件中，提供範例如
何在 ‘Callable’ 中使用。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: 泛型,  Next: 註釋元組 tuple,  Prev: 註釋 callable 物件,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.5 泛型
.............

因為關於物件的型別資訊留存在容器之內，且無法使用通用的方式進行靜態推論
(statically inferred)，許多標準函式庫的容器類別支援以下標來表示容器內預
期的元素。

     from collections.abc import Mapping, Sequence

     class Employee: ...

     # Sequence[Employee] indicates that all elements in the sequence
     # must be instances of "Employee".
     # Mapping[str, str] indicates that all keys and all values in the mapping
     # must be strings.
     def notify_by_email(employees: Sequence[Employee],
                         overrides: Mapping[str, str]) -> None: ...

泛型函式及類別可以使用*note 型別參數語法 (type parameter syntax): 166. 進
行參數化 (parameterize) ：

     from collections.abc import Sequence

     def first[T](l: Sequence[T]) -> T:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "T"
         return l[0]

或是直接使用 *note TypeVar: 164. 工廠 (factory)：

     from collections.abc import Sequence
     from typing import TypeVar

     U = TypeVar('U')                  # Declare type variable "U"

     def second(l: Sequence[U]) -> U:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "U"
         return l[1]

在 3.12 版的變更: 在 Python 3.12 中，泛型的語法支援是全新功能。


File: python.info,  Node: 註釋元組 tuple,  Next: 類別物件的型別,  Prev: 泛型,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.6 註釋元組 (tuple)
.........................

在 Python 大多數的容器當中，加註型別系統認為容器內的所有元素會是相同型別
。舉例來說：

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     # Type checker will infer that all elements in ``x`` are meant to be ints
     x: list[int] = []

     # Type checker error: ``list`` only accepts a single type argument:
     y: list[int, str] = [1, 'foo']

     # Type checker will infer that all keys in ``z`` are meant to be strings,
     # and that all values in ``z`` are meant to be either strings or ints
     z: Mapping[str, str | int] = {}

*note list: 40a. 只接受一個型別引數，所以型別檢查器可能在上述 ‘y’ 賦值
(assignment) 觸發錯誤。類似的範例，*note Mapping: 702. 只接受兩個型別引
數：第一個引數指出 keys（鍵）的型別；第二個引數指出 values（值）的型別。

然而，與其他多數的 Python 容器不同，在慣用的 (idiomatic) Python 程式碼中
，元組可以擁有不完全相同型別的元素是相當常見的。為此，元組在 Python 的加
註型別系統中是個特例 (special-cased)。*note tuple: 4e6. 接受'任何數量'的
型別引數：

     # OK: ``x`` is assigned to a tuple of length 1 where the sole element is an int
     x: tuple[int] = (5,)

     # OK: ``y`` is assigned to a tuple of length 2;
     # element 1 is an int, element 2 is a str
     y: tuple[int, str] = (5, "foo")

     # Error: the type annotation indicates a tuple of length 1,
     # but ``z`` has been assigned to a tuple of length 3
     z: tuple[int] = (1, 2, 3)

為了標示一個元組可以為'任意'長度，且所有元素皆是相同型別 ‘T’，請使用
‘tuple[T, ...]’ 進行標示。為了標示一個空元組，請使用 ‘tuple[()]’。單純使
用 ‘tuple’ 作為註釋，會與使用 ‘tuple[Any, ...]’ 是相等的：

     x: tuple[int, ...] = (1, 2)
     # These reassignments are OK: ``tuple[int, ...]`` indicates x can be of any length
     x = (1, 2, 3)
     x = ()
     # This reassignment is an error: all elements in ``x`` must be ints
     x = ("foo", "bar")

     # ``y`` can only ever be assigned to an empty tuple
     y: tuple[()] = ()

     z: tuple = ("foo", "bar")
     # These reassignments are OK: plain ``tuple`` is equivalent to ``tuple[Any, ...]``
     z = (1, 2, 3)
     z = ()


File: python.info,  Node: 類別物件的型別,  Next: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Prev: 註釋元組 tuple,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.7 類別物件的型別
.......................

一個變數被註釋為 ‘C’ 可以接受一個型別為 ‘C’ 的值。相對的，一個變數備註解
為 ‘type[C]’ （或已棄用的 *note typing.Type[C]: 3c6a.）可以接受本身為該
類別的值 - 具體來說，他可能會接受 ‘C’ 的'類別物件'。舉例來說：

     a = 3         # Has type ``int``
     b = int       # Has type ``type[int]``
     c = type(a)   # Also has type ``type[int]``

請記得 ‘type[C]’ 是共變 (covariant) 的：

     class User: ...
     class ProUser(User): ...
     class TeamUser(User): ...

     def make_new_user(user_class: type[User]) -> User:
         # ...
         return user_class()

     make_new_user(User)      # OK
     make_new_user(ProUser)   # Also OK: ``type[ProUser]`` is a subtype of ``type[User]``
     make_new_user(TeamUser)  # Still fine
     make_new_user(User())    # Error: expected ``type[User]`` but got ``User``
     make_new_user(int)       # Error: ``type[int]`` is not a subtype of ``type[User]``

*note type: bbb. 僅有的合法參數是類別、*note Any: 4a9.、*note 型別變數:
1d12.以及這些型別任意組合成的聯集。舉例來說：

     def new_non_team_user(user_class: type[BasicUser | ProUser]): ...

     new_non_team_user(BasicUser)  # OK
     new_non_team_user(ProUser)    # OK
     new_non_team_user(TeamUser)   # Error: ``type[TeamUser]`` is not a subtype
                                   # of ``type[BasicUser | ProUser]``
     new_non_team_user(User)       # Also an error

‘type[Any]’ 等價於 *note type: bbb. ，其為 Python *note metaclass
階層結構 (hierachy): 1d06.。


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Next: 使用者定義泛型型別,  Prev: 類別物件的型別,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.8 Annotating generators and coroutines
.............................................

A generator can be annotated using the generic type *note
Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]: c53.  For example:

     def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]:
         sent = yield 0
         while sent >= 0:
             sent = yield round(sent)
         return 'Done'

Note that unlike many other generic classes in the standard library, the
‘SendType’ of *note Generator: c53. behaves contravariantly, not
covariantly or invariantly.

If your generator will only yield values, set the ‘SendType’ and
‘ReturnType’ to ‘None’:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

Alternatively, annotate your generator as having a return type of either
‘Iterable[YieldType]’ or ‘Iterator[YieldType]’:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Iterator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

Async generators are handled in a similar fashion, but don't expect a
‘ReturnType’ type argument (*note AsyncGenerator[YieldType, SendType]:
af4.):

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

As in the synchronous case, *note AsyncIterable[YieldType]: c57. and
*note AsyncIterator[YieldType]: c56. are available as well:

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

Coroutines can be annotated using *note Coroutine[YieldType, SendType,
ReturnType]: c55.  Generic arguments correspond to those of *note
Generator: c53, for example:

     from collections.abc import Coroutine
     c: Coroutine[list[str], str, int]  # Some coroutine defined elsewhere
     x = c.send('hi')                   # Inferred type of 'x' is list[str]
     async def bar() -> None:
         y = await c                    # Inferred type of 'y' is int


File: python.info,  Node: 使用者定義泛型型別,  Next: Any 型別,  Prev: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.9 使用者定義泛型型別
...........................

一個使用者定義的類別可以被定義成一個泛型類別。

     from logging import Logger

     class LoggedVar[T]:
         def __init__(self, value: T, name: str, logger: Logger) -> None:
             self.name = name
             self.logger = logger
             self.value = value

         def set(self, new: T) -> None:
             self.log('Set ' + repr(self.value))
             self.value = new

         def get(self) -> T:
             self.log('Get ' + repr(self.value))
             return self.value

         def log(self, message: str) -> None:
             self.logger.info('%s: %s', self.name, message)

這個語法指出類別 ‘LoggedVar’ 透過一個單一的 *note 型別變數: 3c6d. ‘T’ 進
行參數化 (parameterised)。這使得 ‘T’ 在類別中有效的成為型別。

泛型類別隱性繼承了 *note Generic: 1418.。為了相容 Python 3.11 及更早版本
，也可以明確的繼承 *note Generic: 1418. 並指出是一個泛型類別：

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic

     T = TypeVar('T')

     class LoggedVar(Generic[T]):
         ...

泛型類別有 *note __class_getitem__(): 54c. 方法，其意味著可以在 runtime
進行參數化（如下述的 ‘LoggedVar[int]’）：

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     def zero_all_vars(vars: Iterable[LoggedVar[int]]) -> None:
         for var in vars:
             var.set(0)

一個泛型型別可以有任意數量的型別變數。所有種類的 *note TypeVar: 164. 都
可以作為泛型型別的參數：

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic, Sequence

     class WeirdTrio[T, B: Sequence[bytes], S: (int, str)]:
         ...

     OldT = TypeVar('OldT', contravariant=True)
     OldB = TypeVar('OldB', bound=Sequence[bytes], covariant=True)
     OldS = TypeVar('OldS', int, str)

     class OldWeirdTrio(Generic[OldT, OldB, OldS]):
         ...

*note Generic: 1418. 的每個型別變數引數必不相同。因此以下是無效的：

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic
     ...

     class Pair[M, M]:  # SyntaxError
         ...

     T = TypeVar('T')

     class Pair(Generic[T, T]):   # INVALID
         ...

泛型類別亦可以繼承其他類別：

     from collections.abc import Sized

     class LinkedList[T](Sized):
         ...

當繼承泛型類別時，部份的型別參數可固定：

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     class MyDict[T](Mapping[str, T]):
         ...

在這種情況下 ‘MyDict’ 有一個單一的參數 ‘T’。

若使用泛型類別卻沒有特指型別參數，則會將每個位置視為 *note Any: 4a9.。在
下列的範例中 ‘MyIterable’ 不是泛型，但隱性繼承了 ‘Iterable[Any]’：

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     class MyIterable(Iterable): # Same as Iterable[Any]
         ...

使用者定義的泛型型別別名也有支援。例如：

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     type Response[S] = Iterable[S] | int

     # Return type here is same as Iterable[str] | int
     def response(query: str) -> Response[str]:
         ...

     type Vec[T] = Iterable[tuple[T, T]]

     def inproduct[T: (int, float, complex)](v: Vec[T]) -> T: # Same as Iterable[tuple[T, T]]
         return sum(x*y for x, y in v)

為了向後相容性，泛型型別別名可以透過簡單的賦值來建立：

     from collections.abc import Iterable
     from typing import TypeVar

     S = TypeVar("S")
     Response = Iterable[S] | int

在 3.7 版的變更: *note Generic: 1418. 不再是一個自訂的 metaclass。

在 3.12 版的變更: 在版本 3.12 新增了泛型及型別別名的語法支援。在之前的版
本中，泛型類別必須顯性繼承 *note Generic: 1418. 或是包含一個型別變數在基
底類別 (base) 當中。

使用者定義的參數運算式 (parameter expression) 泛型一樣有支援，透過
‘[**P]’ 格式的參數規格變數來進行表示。對於上述作為參數規格變數的型別變數
，將持續被型別模組視為一個特定的型別變數。對此，其中一個例外是一個型別列
表可以替代 *note ParamSpec: 163.：

     >>> class Z[T, **P]: ...  # T is a TypeVar; P is a ParamSpec
     ...
     >>> Z[int, [dict, float]]
     __main__.Z[int, [dict, float]]

具有 *note ParamSpec: 163. 的泛型類別可以透過顯性繼承 *note Generic:
1418. 進行建立。在這種情況下，不需要使用 ‘**’：

     from typing import ParamSpec, Generic

     P = ParamSpec('P')

     class Z(Generic[P]):
         ...

另外一個 *note TypeVar: 164. 以及 *note ParamSpec: 163. 之間的差異是，基
於美觀因素，只有一個參數規格變數的泛型可以接受如 ‘X[[Type1, Type2,
...]]’ 以及 ‘X[Type1, Type2, ...]’ 的參數列表。在內部中，後者會被轉換為
前者，所以在下方的範例中為相等的：

     >>> class X[**P]: ...
     ...
     >>> X[int, str]
     __main__.X[[int, str]]
     >>> X[[int, str]]
     __main__.X[[int, str]]

請記得，具有 *note ParamSpec: 163. 的泛型在某些情況下替換之後可能不會有
正確的 ‘__parameters__’，因為參數規格主要還是用於靜態型別檢查。

在 3.10 版的變更: *note Generic: 1418. 現在可以透過參數運算式來進行參數
化。詳細內容請見 *note ParamSpec: 163. 以及 PEP 612(1)。

一個使用者定義的泛型類別可以將 ABC 作為他們的基底類別，且不會有
metaclass 衝突。泛型的 metaclass 則不支援。參數化泛型的輸出將被存為快取
，而在型別模組中多數的型別皆為 *note hashable: 409. 且可以比較相等性。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: Any 型別,  Next: 標稱 nominal 子型別 vs 結構子型別,  Prev: 使用者定義泛型型別,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.10 ‘Any’ 型別
....................

*note Any: 4a9. 是一種特別的型別。一個靜態型別檢查器會將每個型別視為可相
容於 *note Any: 4a9. 且 *note Any: 4a9. 也可以相容於每個型別。

這意味著如果在一個為 *note Any: 4a9. 的值上執行任何操作或呼叫方法是可行
的，且可以賦值給任意變數：

     from typing import Any

     a: Any = None
     a = []          # OK
     a = 2           # OK

     s: str = ''
     s = a           # OK

     def foo(item: Any) -> int:
         # Passes type checking; 'item' could be any type,
         # and that type might have a 'bar' method
         item.bar()
         ...

請注意，當賦予型別為 *note Any: 4a9. 的值更精確的型別時，將不會執行任何
型別檢查。舉例來說，靜態型別檢查器不會在 runtime 中，將 ‘a’ 賦值給 ‘s’ 的
情況下回報錯誤，儘管 ‘s’ 是被宣告為型別 *note str: 157. 卻接收到 *note
int: 17e. 的值！

另外，所有缺少回傳型別或參數型別的函式將會隱性預設為 *note Any: 4a9.：

     def legacy_parser(text):
         ...
         return data

     # A static type checker will treat the above
     # as having the same signature as:
     def legacy_parser(text: Any) -> Any:
         ...
         return data

當你需要混和動態及靜態的型別程式碼，這個行為允許 *note Any: 4a9. 被當作
一個'緊急出口 (escape hatch)'使用。

*note Any: 4a9. 的行為對比 *note object: 8d9. 的行為。與 *note Any: 4a9.
相似，所有的型別會作為 *note object: 8d9. 的子型別。然而，不像 *note
Any: 4a9.，反之不亦然：*note object: 8d9. 並'不是'一個其他型別的子型別。

這意味著當一個值的型別為 *note object: 8d9. 時，型別檢查器會拒絕幾乎所有
的操作，並將賦予這個值到一個特定型別變數（或是當作回傳值使用）視為一個型
別錯誤。舉例來說：

     def hash_a(item: object) -> int:
         # Fails type checking; an object does not have a 'magic' method.
         item.magic()
         ...

     def hash_b(item: Any) -> int:
         # Passes type checking
         item.magic()
         ...

     # Passes type checking, since ints and strs are subclasses of object
     hash_a(42)
     hash_a("foo")

     # Passes type checking, since Any is compatible with all types
     hash_b(42)
     hash_b("foo")

使用 *note object: 8d9. ，將指出在型別安全 (typesafe) 的習慣之下一個值可
以為任意型別。使用 *note Any: 4a9.，將指出這個值是個動態型別。


File: python.info,  Node: 標稱 nominal 子型別 vs 結構子型別,  Next: 模組內容<7>,  Prev: Any 型別,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.11 標稱 (nominal) 子型別 vs 結構子型別
.............................................

最初 PEP 484(1) 定義 Python 靜態型別系統使用'標稱子型別'。這意味著只有
‘A’ 為 ‘B’ 的子類別時，‘A’ 才被允許使用在預期是類別 ‘B’ 出現的地方。

這個需求之前也被運用在抽象基底類別，例如 *note Iterable: 1fe6.。這種方式
的問題在於，一個類別需要顯式的標記來支援他們，這並不符合 Python 風格，也
不像一個常見的慣用動態型別 Python 程式碼。舉例來說，下列程式碼符合 PEP
484(2)：

     from collections.abc import Sized, Iterable, Iterator

     class Bucket(Sized, Iterable[int]):
         ...
         def __len__(self) -> int: ...
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

PEP 544(3) 可以透過使用上方的程式碼，且在類別定義時不用顯式基底類別解決
這個問題，讓 ‘Bucket’ 被靜態型別檢查器隱性認為是 ‘Sized’ 以及
‘Iterable[int]’ 兩者的子型別。這就是眾所周知的'結構子型別'（或是靜態鴨子
型別）：

     from collections.abc import Iterator, Iterable

     class Bucket:  # Note: no base classes
         ...
         def __len__(self) -> int: ...
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

     def collect(items: Iterable[int]) -> int: ...
     result = collect(Bucket())  # Passes type check

而且，基於一個特別的型別 *note Protocol: 4ad. 建立子型別時，使用者可以定
義新的協定並充份發揮結構子型別的優勢（請見下方範例）。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/


File: python.info,  Node: 模組內容<7>,  Next: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features,  Prev: 標稱 nominal 子型別 vs 結構子型別,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.12 模組內容
..................

模組 ‘typing’ 定義了下列的類別、函式以及裝飾器。

* Menu:

* 特別型別原語 (primitive): 特別型別原語 primitive.
* 協定: 協定<2>.
* ABCs for working with IO::
* 函式與裝飾器::
* Introspection helpers::
* 常數: 常數<9>.
* 棄用的別名::


File: python.info,  Node: 特別型別原語 primitive,  Next: 協定<2>,  Up: 模組內容<7>

5.26.1.13 特別型別原語 (primitive)
..................................

* Menu:

* 特別型別::
* 特別型式::
* Building generic types and type aliases::
* Other special directives::


File: python.info,  Node: 特別型別,  Next: 特別型式,  Up: 特別型別原語 primitive

5.26.1.14 特別型別
..................

這些可以在註釋中做為型別。他們並不支援 ‘[]’ 的下標使用。

 -- 資料: typing.Any

     特別型別，指出一個不受約束 (unconstrained) 的型別。

        * 所有型別皆與 *note Any: 4a9. 相容。

        * *note Any: 4a9. 相容於所有型別。

     在 3.11 版的變更: *note Any: 4a9. 可以作為一個基礎類別。這對於在任
     何地方使用鴨子型別或是高度動態的型別，避免型別檢查器的錯誤是非常有
     用的。

 -- 資料: typing.AnyStr

     一個*note 不受約束的型別變數: 3c74.。

     定義：

          AnyStr = TypeVar('AnyStr', str, bytes)

     ‘AnyStr’ 是對於函式有用的，他可以接受 *note str: 157. 或 *note
     bytes: 2c1. 引數但不可以將此兩種混合。

     舉例來說：

          def concat(a: AnyStr, b: AnyStr) -> AnyStr:
              return a + b

          concat("foo", "bar")    # OK, output has type 'str'
          concat(b"foo", b"bar")  # OK, output has type 'bytes'
          concat("foo", b"bar")   # Error, cannot mix str and bytes

     請注意，儘管他的名稱相近，‘AnyStr’ 與 *note Any: 4a9. 型別無關，更
     不代表是「任何字串」的意思。尤其，‘AnyStr’ 與 ‘str | bytes’ 兩者不
     同且具有不同的使用情境：

          # Invalid use of AnyStr:
          # The type variable is used only once in the function signature,
          # so cannot be "solved" by the type checker
          def greet_bad(cond: bool) -> AnyStr:
              return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

          # The better way of annotating this function:
          def greet_proper(cond: bool) -> str | bytes:
              return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

 -- 資料: typing.LiteralString

     特別型別，只包含文本字串。

     任何文本字串都相容於 ‘LiteralString’，對於另一個 ‘LiteralString’ 亦
     是如此。然而，若是一個型別僅為 ‘str’ 的物件則不相容。一個字串若是透
     過組合多個 ‘LiteralString’ 型別的物件建立，則此字串也可以視為
     ‘LiteralString’。

     舉例來說：

          def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> None:
              ...

          def caller(arbitrary_string: str, literal_string: LiteralString) -> None:
              run_query("SELECT * FROM students")  # OK
              run_query(literal_string)  # OK
              run_query("SELECT * FROM " + literal_string)  # OK
              run_query(arbitrary_string)  # type checker error
              run_query(  # type checker error
                  f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
              )

     ‘LiteralString’ 對於敏感的 API 來說是有用的，其中任意的使用者產生的
     字串可能會產生問題。舉例來說，上面兩個案例中產生的型別檢查器錯誤是
     脆弱的且容易受到 SQL 注入攻擊。

     更多細節請見 PEP 675(1)。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 資料: typing.Never
 -- 資料: typing.NoReturn

     ‘Never’ 和 ‘NoReturn’ 表示底部型別 (bottom type)(2)，為一個沒有任何
     成員的型別。

     它們可以被用來代表一個不會回傳的函式，像是 *note sys.exit(): 11dd.：

          from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

          def stop() -> Never:
              raise RuntimeError('no way')

     或被用來定義一個不應被呼叫的函式，因為不會有有效的引數，、像是
     *note assert_never(): 4a4.：

          from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

          def never_call_me(arg: Never) -> None:
              pass

          def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
              never_call_me(arg)  # type checker error
              match arg:
                  case int():
                      print("It's an int")
                  case str():
                      print("It's a str")
                  case _:
                      never_call_me(arg)  # OK, arg is of type Never (or NoReturn)

     ‘Never’ 以及 ‘NoReturn’ 在型別系統中具有相同的意義且靜態型別檢查器
     會將兩者視為相等。

     在 3.6.2 版被加入: 新增 *note NoReturn: 3c75.。

     在 3.11 版被加入: 新增 *note Never: 4a5.。

 -- 資料: typing.Self

     特別型別，用來表示當前類別之內 (enclosed class)。

     舉例來說：

          from typing import Self, reveal_type

          class Foo:
              def return_self(self) -> Self:
                  ...
                  return self

          class SubclassOfFoo(Foo): pass

          reveal_type(Foo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "Foo"
          reveal_type(SubclassOfFoo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "SubclassOfFoo"

     這個註釋在語意上相等於下列內容，且形式更為簡潔：

          from typing import TypeVar

          Self = TypeVar("Self", bound="Foo")

          class Foo:
              def return_self(self: Self) -> Self:
                  ...
                  return self

     一般來說，如果某個東西回傳 ‘self’ 如上方的範例所示，你則應該使用
     ‘Self’ 做為回傳值的註釋。若 ‘Foo.return_self’ 被註釋為回傳 ‘"Foo"’，
     則型別檢查器應該推論這個從 ‘SubclassOfFoo.return_self’ 回傳的物件為
     ‘Foo’ 型別，而並非回傳 ‘SubclassOfFoo’ 型別。

     其他常見的使用案例包含：

        - *note classmethod: 24b. 被用來作為替代的建構函式 (constructor)
          並回傳 ‘cls’ 參數的實例。

        - 註釋一個回傳自己的 *note __enter__(): 3b8. 方法。

     當類別被子類別化時，若方法不保證回傳一個子類別的實例，你不應該使用
     ‘Self’ 作為回傳註釋：

          class Eggs:
              # Self would be an incorrect return annotation here,
              # as the object returned is always an instance of Eggs,
              # even in subclasses
              def returns_eggs(self) -> "Eggs":
                  return Eggs()

     更多細節請見 PEP 673(3)。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 資料: typing.TypeAlias

     做為明確宣告一個*note 型別別名: 15f. 的特別註釋。

     舉例來說：

          from typing import TypeAlias

          Factors: TypeAlias = list[int]

     ‘TypeAlias’ 在舊的 Python 版本中特別有用，其註釋別名可以用來進行傳
     遞參照 (forward reference)，因為對於型別檢查器來說，分辨這些別名與
     一般的變數賦值相當困難：

          from typing import Generic, TypeAlias, TypeVar

          T = TypeVar("T")

          # "Box" does not exist yet,
          # so we have to use quotes for the forward reference on Python <3.12.
          # Using ``TypeAlias`` tells the type checker that this is a type alias declaration,
          # not a variable assignment to a string.
          BoxOfStrings: TypeAlias = "Box[str]"

          class Box(Generic[T]):
              @classmethod
              def make_box_of_strings(cls) -> BoxOfStrings: ...

     更多細節請見 PEP 613(4)。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用: *note TypeAlias: 5e7. 被棄用，請改用 *note
     type: 13a. 陳述式來建立 *note TypeAliasType: 160. 的實例，其自然可
     以支援傳遞參照的使用。請注意，雖然 *note TypeAlias: 5e7. 以及 *note
     TypeAliasType: 160. 提供相似的用途且具有相似的名稱，他們是不同的，
     且後者不是前者的型別。現在還沒有移除 *note TypeAlias: 5e7. 的計畫，
     但鼓勵使用者們遷移 (migrate) 至 *note type: 13a. 陳述式。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_type

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/


File: python.info,  Node: 特別型式,  Next: Building generic types and type aliases,  Prev: 特別型別,  Up: 特別型別原語 primitive

5.26.1.15 特別型式
..................

這些在註釋中可以當作型別使用。他們全都支援 ‘[]’ 的下標使用，但每個都具有
獨特的語法。

 -- 資料: typing.Union

     聯集型別；‘Union[X, Y]’ 與 ‘X | Y’ 是相等的，且都意味著 X 或 Y 兩者
     其一。

     為了定義聯集，例如可以使用 ‘Union[int, str]’ 或是使用簡寫
     (shorthand) ‘int | str’。使用這種簡寫是非常推薦的。詳細請看：

        * 引數必須為型別且必須有至少一個。

        * 聯集中的聯集會是扁平化的 (flattened)，舉例來說：

               Union[Union[int, str], float] == Union[int, str, float]

        * 單一引數的聯集會消失不見，舉例來說：

               Union[int] == int  # The constructor actually returns int

        * 多餘的引數會被略過，舉例來說：

               Union[int, str, int] == Union[int, str] == int | str

        * 當比較聯集時，引數的順序會被忽略，舉例來說：

               Union[int, str] == Union[str, int]

        * 你不能建立 ‘Union’ 的子類別或是實例。

        * 你不能寫成 ‘Union[X][Y]’。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 請勿在 runtime 中將顯性子類別從聯集中移除。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 現在可以將聯集寫成 ‘X | Y’。請見*note
     聯集型別運算式: 5e0.。

 -- 資料: typing.Optional

     ‘Optional[X]’ 與 ‘X | None’ 是相等的（或是 ‘Union[X, None]’）。

     請注意，這與具有預設值的選擇性引數 (optional argument) 不是相同的概
     念。一個具有預設值的選擇性引數的型別註釋中不具有 ‘Optional’ 限定符
     (qualifier)，單純的因為它就是選擇性的。舉例來說：

          def foo(arg: int = 0) -> None:
              ...

     另一方面，如果一個顯性的值 ‘None’ 是被允許的，不論引數是不是選擇性
     的，‘Optional’ 都適用。舉例來說：

          def foo(arg: Optional[int] = None) -> None:
              ...

     在 3.10 版的變更: 現在可以將 Optional 寫成 ‘X | None’。請見*note
     聯集型別運算式: 5e0.。

 -- 資料: typing.Concatenate

     用於註釋高階函式的特別型式。

     ‘Concatenate’ 可以被用在*note 可呼叫物件: 22bc.與 *note ParamSpec:
     163. 的接合 (conjunction) 並註釋一個高階的 Callable 物件可以新增、
     移除、轉換另一個 Callable 物件的參數。使用方法是依照這個格式
     ‘Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable]’。
     ‘Concatenate’ 目前只在 *note Callable 物件: 22bc.中第一個引數使用時
     有效。‘Concatenate’ 的最後一個參數必須為一個 *note ParamSpec: 163.
     或是刪節號 (‘...’)。

     舉例來說，註釋一個為裝飾過後的函式提供 *note threading.Lock: 2de1.
     的裝飾器 ‘with_lock’，‘Concatenate’ 可以用於指出 ‘with_lock’ 預期一
     個 Callable 物件，該物件可以接受 ‘Lock’ 作為第一引數，並回傳一個具
     有不同型別簽名 Callable 物件。在這種情況下，*note ParamSpec: 163. 指
     出回傳的 Callable 物件的參數型別會依賴傳遞的 Callable 物件的參數型
     別：

          from collections.abc import Callable
          from threading import Lock
          from typing import Concatenate

          # Use this lock to ensure that only one thread is executing a function
          # at any time.
          my_lock = Lock()

          def with_lock[**P, R](f: Callable[Concatenate[Lock, P], R]) -> Callable[P, R]:
              '''A type-safe decorator which provides a lock.'''
              def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> R:
                  # Provide the lock as the first argument.
                  return f(my_lock, *args, **kwargs)
              return inner

          @with_lock
          def sum_threadsafe(lock: Lock, numbers: list[float]) -> float:
              '''Add a list of numbers together in a thread-safe manner.'''
              with lock:
                  return sum(numbers)

          # We don't need to pass in the lock ourselves thanks to the decorator.
          sum_threadsafe([1.1, 2.2, 3.3])

     在 3.10 版被加入.

     也參考
     ......

        * PEP 612(1) - 參數技術規範變數

        * *note ParamSpec: 163.

        * *note 註釋 callable 物件: 22bc.

 -- 資料: typing.Literal

     特殊型別格式，用於定義「文本型別 (literal type)」。

     ‘Literal’ 可以用於型別檢查器並指出註釋物件具有一個與提供的文本相同
     的值。

     舉例來說：

          def validate_simple(data: Any) -> Literal[True]:  # always returns True
              ...

          type Mode = Literal['r', 'rb', 'w', 'wb']
          def open_helper(file: str, mode: Mode) -> str:
              ...

          open_helper('/some/path', 'r')      # Passes type check
          open_helper('/other/path', 'typo')  # Error in type checker

     ‘Literal[...]’ 不可以進行子類別化。在 runtime 之中，任意的值是允許
     作為 ‘Literal[...]’ 的型別引數，但型別檢查器可能會加強限制。更多有
     關文本型別的詳細資訊請看 PEP 586(2)。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     在 3.9.1 版的變更: ‘Literal’ 現在可以刪除重複 (de-deplicate) 的參數
     。‘Literal’ 物件的相等性比較不再依照相依性排序。‘Literal’ 物件現在
     會在相等性比較期間，若任一個其中的參數無法 *note hashable: 409. 時
     ，則會引發一個 *note TypeError: 2ba. 例外。

 -- 資料: typing.ClassVar

     特殊型別建構，用來標記類別變數。

     如同在 PEP 526(3) 中的介紹，一個變數註解被包裝在 ClassVar 中時，會
     指出一個給定的屬性 (attribute) 意圖被當作類別變數使用，且不該被設定
     成該類別的實例。使用方法如下：

          class Starship:
              stats: ClassVar[dict[str, int]] = {} # class variable
              damage: int = 10                     # instance variable

     *note ClassVar: 4b2. 只接受型別請不得使用下標。

     *note ClassVar: 4b2. 並不代表該類別本身，而且不應該和 *note
     isinstance(): 14b. 或是 *note issubclass(): 5df. 一起使用。*note
     ClassVar: 4b2. 不會改變 Python runtime 的行為，但它可以被第三方的型
     別檢查器使用。舉例來說，一個型別檢查器可能會標記下方的程式碼為一個
     錯誤：

          enterprise_d = Starship(3000)
          enterprise_d.stats = {} # Error, setting class variable on instance
          Starship.stats = {}     # This is OK

     在 3.5.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: typing.Final

     特殊型別建構，用來指出最終名稱給型別檢查器。

     最終名稱不可以在任何作用域 (scope) 中重新賦值。在類別作用域中宣告的
     最終名稱，不得在子類別中進行覆寫 (override)。

     舉例來說：

          MAX_SIZE: Final = 9000
          MAX_SIZE += 1  # Error reported by type checker

          class Connection:
              TIMEOUT: Final[int] = 10

          class FastConnector(Connection):
              TIMEOUT = 1  # Error reported by type checker

     這些屬性 (property) 不會在 runtime 時進行檢查。更多詳細資訊請看 PEP
     591(4)。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 資料: typing.Required

     特殊型別建構，用來標記一個 *note TypedDict: 153. 鍵值是必須的。

     主要用於 ‘total=False’ 的 TypedDict。更多細節請見 *note TypedDict:
     153. 與 PEP 655(5)。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 資料: typing.NotRequired

     特殊型別建構，用來標記一個 *note TypedDict: 153. 鍵值是可能消失的。

     更多細節請見 *note TypedDict: 153. 與 PEP 655(6)。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 資料: typing.Annotated

     Special typing form to add context-specific metadata to an
     annotation.

     Add metadata ‘x’ to a given type ‘T’ by using the annotation
     ‘Annotated[T, x]’.  Metadata added using ‘Annotated’ can be used by
     static analysis tools or at runtime.  At runtime, the metadata is
     stored in a ‘__metadata__’ attribute.

     If a library or tool encounters an annotation ‘Annotated[T, x]’ and
     has no special logic for the metadata, it should ignore the
     metadata and simply treat the annotation as ‘T’.  As such,
     ‘Annotated’ can be useful for code that wants to use annotations
     for purposes outside Python's static typing system.

     Using ‘Annotated[T, x]’ as an annotation still allows for static
     typechecking of ‘T’, as type checkers will simply ignore the
     metadata ‘x’.  In this way, ‘Annotated’ differs from the *note
     @no_type_check: 4b3. decorator, which can also be used for adding
     annotations outside the scope of the typing system, but completely
     disables typechecking for a function or class.

     The responsibility of how to interpret the metadata lies with the
     tool or library encountering an ‘Annotated’ annotation.  A tool or
     library encountering an ‘Annotated’ type can scan through the
     metadata elements to determine if they are of interest (e.g., using
     *note isinstance(): 14b.).

      -- Describe: Annotated[<type>, <metadata>]

     Here is an example of how you might use ‘Annotated’ to add metadata
     to type annotations if you were doing range analysis:

          @dataclass
          class ValueRange:
              lo: int
              hi: int

          T1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(-10, 5)]
          T2 = Annotated[T1, ValueRange(-20, 3)]

     Details of the syntax:

        * The first argument to ‘Annotated’ must be a valid type

        * Multiple metadata elements can be supplied (‘Annotated’
          supports variadic arguments):

               @dataclass
               class ctype:
                   kind: str

               Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")]

          It is up to the tool consuming the annotations to decide
          whether the client is allowed to add multiple metadata
          elements to one annotation and how to merge those annotations.

        * ‘Annotated’ must be subscripted with at least two arguments (
          ‘Annotated[int]’ is not valid)

        * The order of the metadata elements is preserved and matters
          for equality checks:

               assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")] != Annotated[
                   int, ctype("char"), ValueRange(3, 10)
               ]

        * Nested ‘Annotated’ types are flattened.  The order of the
          metadata elements starts with the innermost annotation:

               assert Annotated[Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)], ctype("char")] == Annotated[
                   int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
               ]

        * Duplicated metadata elements are not removed:

               assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)] != Annotated[
                   int, ValueRange(3, 10), ValueRange(3, 10)
               ]

        * ‘Annotated’ can be used with nested and generic aliases:

               @dataclass
               class MaxLen:
                   value: int

               type Vec[T] = Annotated[list[tuple[T, T]], MaxLen(10)]

               # When used in a type annotation, a type checker will treat "V" the same as
               # ``Annotated[list[tuple[int, int]], MaxLen(10)]``:
               type V = Vec[int]

        * ‘Annotated’ cannot be used with an unpacked *note
          TypeVarTuple: 162.:

               type Variadic[*Ts] = Annotated[*Ts, Ann1]  # NOT valid

          這會等價於：

               Annotated[T1, T2, T3, ..., Ann1]

          where ‘T1’, ‘T2’, etc.  are *note TypeVars: 164.  This would
          be invalid: only one type should be passed to Annotated.

        * By default, *note get_type_hints(): 4b0. strips the metadata
          from annotations.  Pass ‘include_extras=True’ to have the
          metadata preserved:

               >>> from typing import Annotated, get_type_hints
               >>> def func(x: Annotated[int, "metadata"]) -> None: pass
               ...
               >>> get_type_hints(func)
               {'x': <class 'int'>, 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}
               >>> get_type_hints(func, include_extras=True)
               {'x': typing.Annotated[int, 'metadata'], 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}

        * At runtime, the metadata associated with an ‘Annotated’ type
          can be retrieved via the ‘__metadata__’ attribute:

               >>> from typing import Annotated
               >>> X = Annotated[int, "very", "important", "metadata"]
               >>> X
               typing.Annotated[int, 'very', 'important', 'metadata']
               >>> X.__metadata__
               ('very', 'important', 'metadata')

        * At runtime, if you want to retrieve the original type wrapped
          by ‘Annotated’, use the ‘__origin__’ attribute:

               >>> from typing import Annotated, get_origin
               >>> Password = Annotated[str, "secret"]
               >>> Password.__origin__
               <class 'str'>

          Note that using *note get_origin(): 891. will return
          ‘Annotated’ itself:

               >>> get_origin(Password)
               <class 'typing.Annotated'>

     也參考
     ......

     PEP 593(7) - Flexible function and variable annotations

          The PEP introducing ‘Annotated’ to the standard library.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 資料: typing.TypeGuard

     Special typing construct for marking user-defined type guard
     functions.

     ‘TypeGuard’ can be used to annotate the return type of a
     user-defined type guard function.  ‘TypeGuard’ only accepts a
     single type argument.  At runtime, functions marked this way should
     return a boolean.

     ‘TypeGuard’ aims to benefit 'type narrowing' - a technique used by
     static type checkers to determine a more precise type of an
     expression within a program's code flow.  Usually type narrowing is
     done by analyzing conditional code flow and applying the narrowing
     to a block of code.  The conditional expression here is sometimes
     referred to as a "type guard":

          def is_str(val: str | float):
              # "isinstance" type guard
              if isinstance(val, str):
                  # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``str``
                  ...
              else:
                  # Else, type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``float``.
                  ...

     Sometimes it would be convenient to use a user-defined boolean
     function as a type guard.  Such a function should use
     ‘TypeGuard[...]’ as its return type to alert static type checkers
     to this intention.

     Using ‘-> TypeGuard’ tells the static type checker that for a given
     function:

       1. The return value is a boolean.

       2. If the return value is ‘True’, the type of its argument is the
          type inside ‘TypeGuard’.

     舉例來說：

          def is_str_list(val: list[object]) -> TypeGuard[list[str]]:
              '''Determines whether all objects in the list are strings'''
              return all(isinstance(x, str) for x in val)

          def func1(val: list[object]):
              if is_str_list(val):
                  # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``list[str]``.
                  print(" ".join(val))
              else:
                  # Type of ``val`` remains as ``list[object]``.
                  print("Not a list of strings!")

     If ‘is_str_list’ is a class or instance method, then the type in
     ‘TypeGuard’ maps to the type of the second parameter (after ‘cls’
     or ‘self’).

     In short, the form ‘def foo(arg: TypeA) -> TypeGuard[TypeB]: ...’,
     means that if ‘foo(arg)’ returns ‘True’, then ‘arg’ narrows from
     ‘TypeA’ to ‘TypeB’.

          備註: ‘TypeB’ need not be a narrower form of ‘TypeA’ - it can
          even be a wider form.  The main reason is to allow for things
          like narrowing ‘list[object]’ to ‘list[str]’ even though the
          latter is not a subtype of the former, since ‘list’ is
          invariant.  The responsibility of writing type-safe type
          guards is left to the user.

     ‘TypeGuard’ also works with type variables.  See PEP 647(8) for
     more details.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: typing.Unpack

     Typing operator to conceptually mark an object as having been
     unpacked.

     For example, using the unpack operator ‘*’ on a *note type variable
     tuple: 3c77. is equivalent to using ‘Unpack’ to mark the type
     variable tuple as having been unpacked:

          Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
          tup: tuple[*Ts]
          # Effectively does:
          tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]

     In fact, ‘Unpack’ can be used interchangeably with ‘*’ in the
     context of *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 162. and *note
     builtins.tuple: 4e6. types.  You might see ‘Unpack’ being used
     explicitly in older versions of Python, where ‘*’ couldn't be used
     in certain places:

          # In older versions of Python, TypeVarTuple and Unpack
          # are located in the `typing_extensions` backports package.
          from typing_extensions import TypeVarTuple, Unpack

          Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
          tup: tuple[*Ts]         # Syntax error on Python <= 3.10!
          tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]  # Semantically equivalent, and backwards-compatible

     ‘Unpack’ can also be used along with *note typing.TypedDict: 153.
     for typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature:

          from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

          class Movie(TypedDict):
              name: str
              year: int

          # This function expects two keyword arguments - `name` of type `str`
          # and `year` of type `int`.
          def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

     See PEP 692(9) for more details on using ‘Unpack’ for ‘**kwargs’
     typing.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/


File: python.info,  Node: Building generic types and type aliases,  Next: Other special directives,  Prev: 特別型式,  Up: 特別型別原語 primitive

5.26.1.16 Building generic types and type aliases
.................................................

The following classes should not be used directly as annotations.  Their
intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating generic types and
type aliases.

These objects can be created through special syntax (*note type
parameter lists: 166. and the *note type: 13a. statement).  For
compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, they can also be created
without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.

 -- 類別: typing.Generic

     Abstract base class for generic types.

     A generic type is typically declared by adding a list of type
     parameters after the class name:

          class Mapping[KT, VT]:
              def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
                  ...
                  # Etc.

     Such a class implicitly inherits from ‘Generic’.  The runtime
     semantics of this syntax are discussed in the *note Language
     Reference: 15d.

     This class can then be used as follows:

          def lookup_name[X, Y](mapping: Mapping[X, Y], key: X, default: Y) -> Y:
              try:
                  return mapping[key]
              except KeyError:
                  return default

     Here the brackets after the function name indicate a *note generic
     function: 15e.

     For backwards compatibility, generic classes can also be declared
     by explicitly inheriting from ‘Generic’.  In this case, the type
     parameters must be declared separately:

          KT = TypeVar('KT')
          VT = TypeVar('VT')

          class Mapping(Generic[KT, VT]):
              def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
                  ...
                  # Etc.

 -- 類別: typing.TypeVar (name, *constraints, bound=None,
          covariant=False, contravariant=False, infer_variance=False)

     Type variable.

     The preferred way to construct a type variable is via the dedicated
     syntax for *note generic functions: 15e, *note generic classes:
     15d, and *note generic type aliases: 161.:

          class Sequence[T]:  # T 是一個 TypeVar
              ...

     This syntax can also be used to create bound and constrained type
     variables:

          class StrSequence[S: str]:  # S is a TypeVar bound to str
              ...


          class StrOrBytesSequence[A: (str, bytes)]:  # A is a TypeVar constrained to str or bytes
              ...

     However, if desired, reusable type variables can also be
     constructed manually, like so:

          T = TypeVar('T')  # Can be anything
          S = TypeVar('S', bound=str)  # Can be any subtype of str
          A = TypeVar('A', str, bytes)  # Must be exactly str or bytes

     Type variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type
     checkers.  They serve as the parameters for generic types as well
     as for generic function and type alias definitions.  See *note
     Generic: 1418. for more information on generic types.  Generic
     functions work as follows:

          def repeat[T](x: T, n: int) -> Sequence[T]:
              """Return a list containing n references to x."""
              return [x]*n


          def print_capitalized[S: str](x: S) -> S:
              """Print x capitalized, and return x."""
              print(x.capitalize())
              return x


          def concatenate[A: (str, bytes)](x: A, y: A) -> A:
              """Add two strings or bytes objects together."""
              return x + y

     Note that type variables can be 'bound', 'constrained', or neither,
     but cannot be both bound 'and' constrained.

     The variance of type variables is inferred by type checkers when
     they are created through the *note type parameter syntax: 166. or
     when ‘infer_variance=True’ is passed.  Manually created type
     variables may be explicitly marked covariant or contravariant by
     passing ‘covariant=True’ or ‘contravariant=True’.  By default,
     manually created type variables are invariant.  See PEP 484(1) and
     PEP 695(2) for more details.

     Bound type variables and constrained type variables have different
     semantics in several important ways.  Using a 'bound' type variable
     means that the ‘TypeVar’ will be solved using the most specific
     type possible:

          x = print_capitalized('a string')
          reveal_type(x)  # revealed type is str

          class StringSubclass(str):
              pass

          y = print_capitalized(StringSubclass('another string'))
          reveal_type(y)  # revealed type is StringSubclass

          z = print_capitalized(45)  # error: int is not a subtype of str

     Type variables can be bound to concrete types, abstract types (ABCs
     or protocols), and even unions of types:

          # Can be anything with an __abs__ method
          def print_abs[T: SupportsAbs](arg: T) -> None:
              print("Absolute value:", abs(arg))

          U = TypeVar('U', bound=str|bytes)  # Can be any subtype of the union str|bytes
          V = TypeVar('V', bound=SupportsAbs)  # Can be anything with an __abs__ method
     Using a 'constrained' type variable, however, means that the
     ‘TypeVar’ can only ever be solved as being exactly one of the
     constraints given:

          a = concatenate('one', 'two')
          reveal_type(a)  # revealed type is str

          b = concatenate(StringSubclass('one'), StringSubclass('two'))
          reveal_type(b)  # revealed type is str, despite StringSubclass being passed in

          c = concatenate('one', b'two')  # error: type variable 'A' can be either str or bytes in a function call, but not both

     At runtime, ‘isinstance(x, T)’ will raise *note TypeError: 2ba.

      -- 屬性: __name__

          The name of the type variable.

      -- 屬性: __covariant__

          Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as covariant.

      -- 屬性: __contravariant__

          Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as
          contravariant.

      -- 屬性: __infer_variance__

          Whether the type variable's variance should be inferred by
          type checkers.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: __bound__

          The bound of the type variable, if any.

          在 3.12 版的變更: For type variables created through *note
          type parameter syntax: 166, the bound is evaluated only when
          the attribute is accessed, not when the type variable is
          created (see *note Lazy evaluation: 165.).

      -- 屬性: __constraints__

          A tuple containing the constraints of the type variable, if
          any.

          在 3.12 版的變更: For type variables created through *note
          type parameter syntax: 166, the constraints are evaluated only
          when the attribute is accessed, not when the type variable is
          created (see *note Lazy evaluation: 165.).

     在 3.12 版的變更: Type variables can now be declared using the
     *note type parameter: 166. syntax introduced by PEP 695(3).  The
     ‘infer_variance’ parameter was added.

 -- 類別: typing.TypeVarTuple (name)

     Type variable tuple.  A specialized form of *note type variable:
     3c6d. that enables 'variadic' generics.

     Type variable tuples can be declared in *note type parameter lists:
     166. using a single asterisk (‘*’) before the name:

          def move_first_element_to_last[T, *Ts](tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
              return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

     Or by explicitly invoking the ‘TypeVarTuple’ constructor:

          T = TypeVar("T")
          Ts = TypeVarTuple("Ts")

          def move_first_element_to_last(tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
              return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

     A normal type variable enables parameterization with a single type.
     A type variable tuple, in contrast, allows parameterization with an
     'arbitrary' number of types by acting like an 'arbitrary' number of
     type variables wrapped in a tuple.  For example:

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to ()
          # Return value is (1,), which has type tuple[int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1,))

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str,)
          # Return value is ('spam', 1), which has type tuple[str, int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam'))

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str, float)
          # Return value is ('spam', 3.0, 1), which has type tuple[str, float, int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam', 3.0))

          # This fails to type check (and fails at runtime)
          # because tuple[()] is not compatible with tuple[T, *Ts]
          # (at least one element is required)
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=())

     Note the use of the unpacking operator ‘*’ in ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’.
     Conceptually, you can think of ‘Ts’ as a tuple of type variables
     ‘(T1, T2, ...)’.  ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’ would then become ‘tuple[T, *(T1,
     T2, ...)]’, which is equivalent to ‘tuple[T, T1, T2, ...]’.  (Note
     that in older versions of Python, you might see this written using
     *note Unpack: 1417. instead, as ‘Unpack[Ts]’.)

     Type variable tuples must 'always' be unpacked.  This helps
     distinguish type variable tuples from normal type variables:

          x: Ts          # Not valid
          x: tuple[Ts]   # Not valid
          x: tuple[*Ts]  # The correct way to do it

     Type variable tuples can be used in the same contexts as normal
     type variables.  For example, in class definitions, arguments, and
     return types:

          class Array[*Shape]:
              def __getitem__(self, key: tuple[*Shape]) -> float: ...
              def __abs__(self) -> "Array[*Shape]": ...
              def get_shape(self) -> tuple[*Shape]: ...

     Type variable tuples can be happily combined with normal type
     variables:

          class Array[DType, *Shape]:  # This is fine
              pass

          class Array2[*Shape, DType]:  # This would also be fine
              pass

          class Height: ...
          class Width: ...

          float_array_1d: Array[float, Height] = Array()     # Totally fine
          int_array_2d: Array[int, Height, Width] = Array()  # Yup, fine too

     However, note that at most one type variable tuple may appear in a
     single list of type arguments or type parameters:

          x: tuple[*Ts, *Ts]            # Not valid
          class Array[*Shape, *Shape]:  # Not valid
              pass

     Finally, an unpacked type variable tuple can be used as the type
     annotation of ‘*args’:

          def call_soon[*Ts](
              callback: Callable[[*Ts], None],
              *args: *Ts
          ) -> None:
              ...
              callback(*args)

     In contrast to non-unpacked annotations of ‘*args’ - e.g.  ‘*args:
     int’, which would specify that 'all' arguments are ‘int’ - ‘*args:
     *Ts’ enables reference to the types of the 'individual' arguments
     in ‘*args’.  Here, this allows us to ensure the types of the
     ‘*args’ passed to ‘call_soon’ match the types of the (positional)
     arguments of ‘callback’.

     See PEP 646(4) for more details on type variable tuples.

      -- 屬性: __name__

          The name of the type variable tuple.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Type variable tuples can now be declared using
     the *note type parameter: 166. syntax introduced by PEP 695(5).

 -- 類別: typing.ParamSpec (name, *, bound=None, covariant=False,
          contravariant=False)

     Parameter specification variable.  A specialized version of *note
     type variables: 3c6d.

     In *note type parameter lists: 166, parameter specifications can be
     declared with two asterisks (‘**’):

          type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]

     For compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, ‘ParamSpec’ objects
     can also be created as follows:

          P = ParamSpec('P')

     Parameter specification variables exist primarily for the benefit
     of static type checkers.  They are used to forward the parameter
     types of one callable to another callable - a pattern commonly
     found in higher order functions and decorators.  They are only
     valid when used in ‘Concatenate’, or as the first argument to
     ‘Callable’, or as parameters for user-defined Generics.  See *note
     Generic: 1418. for more information on generic types.

     For example, to add basic logging to a function, one can create a
     decorator ‘add_logging’ to log function calls.  The parameter
     specification variable tells the type checker that the callable
     passed into the decorator and the new callable returned by it have
     inter-dependent type parameters:

          from collections.abc import Callable
          import logging

          def add_logging[T, **P](f: Callable[P, T]) -> Callable[P, T]:
              '''A type-safe decorator to add logging to a function.'''
              def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> T:
                  logging.info(f'{f.__name__} was called')
                  return f(*args, **kwargs)
              return inner

          @add_logging
          def add_two(x: float, y: float) -> float:
              '''Add two numbers together.'''
              return x + y

     Without ‘ParamSpec’, the simplest way to annotate this previously
     was to use a *note TypeVar: 164. with bound ‘Callable[..., Any]’.
     However this causes two problems:

       1. The type checker can't type check the ‘inner’ function because
          ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ have to be typed *note Any: 4a9.

       2. *note cast(): 3c80. may be required in the body of the
          ‘add_logging’ decorator when returning the ‘inner’ function,
          or the static type checker must be told to ignore the ‘return
          inner’.

      -- 屬性: args

      -- 屬性: kwargs

          Since ‘ParamSpec’ captures both positional and keyword
          parameters, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ can be used to split a
          ‘ParamSpec’ into its components.  ‘P.args’ represents the
          tuple of positional parameters in a given call and should only
          be used to annotate ‘*args’.  ‘P.kwargs’ represents the
          mapping of keyword parameters to their values in a given call,
          and should be only be used to annotate ‘**kwargs’.  Both
          attributes require the annotated parameter to be in scope.  At
          runtime, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ are instances respectively of
          *note ParamSpecArgs: 5e4. and *note ParamSpecKwargs: 5e5.

      -- 屬性: __name__

          The name of the parameter specification.

     Parameter specification variables created with ‘covariant=True’ or
     ‘contravariant=True’ can be used to declare covariant or
     contravariant generic types.  The ‘bound’ argument is also
     accepted, similar to *note TypeVar: 164.  However the actual
     semantics of these keywords are yet to be decided.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Parameter specifications can now be declared
     using the *note type parameter: 166. syntax introduced by PEP
     695(6).

          備註: Only parameter specification variables defined in global
          scope can be pickled.

     也參考
     ......

        * PEP 612(7) - 參數技術規範變數

        * *note Concatenate: 5e2.

        * *note 註釋 callable 物件: 22bc.

 -- 資料: typing.ParamSpecArgs
 -- 資料: typing.ParamSpecKwargs

     Arguments and keyword arguments attributes of a *note ParamSpec:
     163.  The ‘P.args’ attribute of a ‘ParamSpec’ is an instance of
     ‘ParamSpecArgs’, and ‘P.kwargs’ is an instance of
     ‘ParamSpecKwargs’.  They are intended for runtime introspection and
     have no special meaning to static type checkers.

     Calling *note get_origin(): 891. on either of these objects will
     return the original ‘ParamSpec’:

          >>> from typing import ParamSpec, get_origin
          >>> P = ParamSpec("P")
          >>> get_origin(P.args) is P
          True
          >>> get_origin(P.kwargs) is P
          True

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: typing.TypeAliasType (name, value, *, type_params=())

     The type of type aliases created through the *note type: 13a.
     statement.

     舉例來說：

          >>> type Alias = int
          >>> type(Alias)
          <class 'typing.TypeAliasType'>

     在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: __name__

          The name of the type alias:

               >>> type Alias = int
               >>> Alias.__name__
               'Alias'

      -- 屬性: __module__

          The module in which the type alias was defined:

               >>> type Alias = int
               >>> Alias.__module__
               '__main__'

      -- 屬性: __type_params__

          The type parameters of the type alias, or an empty tuple if
          the alias is not generic:

               >>> type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]
               >>> ListOrSet.__type_params__
               (T,)
               >>> type NotGeneric = int
               >>> NotGeneric.__type_params__
               ()

      -- 屬性: __value__

          The type alias's value.  This is *note lazily evaluated: 165,
          so names used in the definition of the alias are not resolved
          until the ‘__value__’ attribute is accessed:

               >>> type Mutually = Recursive
               >>> type Recursive = Mutually
               >>> Mutually
               Mutually
               >>> Recursive
               Recursive
               >>> Mutually.__value__
               Recursive
               >>> Recursive.__value__
               Mutually

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: Other special directives,  Prev: Building generic types and type aliases,  Up: 特別型別原語 primitive

5.26.1.17 Other special directives
..................................

These functions and classes should not be used directly as annotations.
Their intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating and
declaring types.

 -- 類別: typing.NamedTuple

     Typed version of *note collections.namedtuple(): 731.

     Usage:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              name: str
              id: int

     這等價於：

          Employee = collections.namedtuple('Employee', ['name', 'id'])

     To give a field a default value, you can assign to it in the class
     body:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              name: str
              id: int = 3

          employee = Employee('Guido')
          assert employee.id == 3

     Fields with a default value must come after any fields without a
     default.

     The resulting class has an extra attribute ‘__annotations__’ giving
     a dict that maps the field names to the field types.  (The field
     names are in the ‘_fields’ attribute and the default values are in
     the ‘_field_defaults’ attribute, both of which are part of the
     *note namedtuple(): 731. API.)

     ‘NamedTuple’ subclasses can also have docstrings and methods:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              """Represents an employee."""
              name: str
              id: int = 3

              def __repr__(self) -> str:
                  return f'<Employee {self.name}, id={self.id}>'

     ‘NamedTuple’ subclasses can be generic:

          class Group[T](NamedTuple):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     Backward-compatible usage:

          # For creating a generic NamedTuple on Python 3.11
          T = TypeVar("T")

          class Group(NamedTuple, Generic[T]):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

          # A functional syntax is also supported
          Employee = NamedTuple('Employee', [('name', str), ('id', int)])

     在 3.6 版的變更: Added support for PEP 526(1) variable annotation
     syntax.

     在 3.6.1 版的變更: Added support for default values, methods, and
     docstrings.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The ‘_field_types’ and ‘__annotations__’
     attributes are now regular dictionaries instead of instances of
     ‘OrderedDict’.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Removed the ‘_field_types’ attribute in favor of
     the more standard ‘__annotations__’ attribute which has the same
     information.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Added support for generic namedtuples.

 -- 類別: typing.NewType (name, tp)

     Helper class to create low-overhead *note distinct types: 3c61.

     A ‘NewType’ is considered a distinct type by a typechecker.  At
     runtime, however, calling a ‘NewType’ returns its argument
     unchanged.

     Usage:

          UserId = NewType('UserId', int)  # Declare the NewType "UserId"
          first_user = UserId(1)  # "UserId" returns the argument unchanged at runtime

      -- 屬性: __module__

          The module in which the new type is defined.

      -- 屬性: __name__

          The name of the new type.

      -- 屬性: __supertype__

          The type that the new type is based on.

     在 3.5.2 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: ‘NewType’ is now a class rather than a function.

 -- 類別: typing.Protocol (Generic)

     Base class for protocol classes.

     Protocol classes are defined like this:

          class Proto(Protocol):
              def meth(self) -> int:
                  ...

     Such classes are primarily used with static type checkers that
     recognize structural subtyping (static duck-typing), for example:

          class C:
              def meth(self) -> int:
                  return 0

          def func(x: Proto) -> int:
              return x.meth()

          func(C())  # Passes static type check

     See PEP 544(2) for more details.  Protocol classes decorated with
     *note runtime_checkable(): 14c. (described later) act as
     simple-minded runtime protocols that check only the presence of
     given attributes, ignoring their type signatures.

     Protocol classes can be generic, for example:

          class GenProto[T](Protocol):
              def meth(self) -> T:
                  ...

     In code that needs to be compatible with Python 3.11 or older,
     generic Protocols can be written as follows:

          T = TypeVar("T")

          class GenProto(Protocol[T]):
              def meth(self) -> T:
                  ...

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @typing.runtime_checkable

     Mark a protocol class as a runtime protocol.

     Such a protocol can be used with *note isinstance(): 14b. and *note
     issubclass(): 5df.  This raises *note TypeError: 2ba. when applied
     to a non-protocol class.  This allows a simple-minded structural
     check, very similar to "one trick ponies" in *note collections.abc:
     1c. such as *note Iterable: 1fe6.  For example:

          @runtime_checkable
          class Closable(Protocol):
              def close(self): ...

          assert isinstance(open('/some/file'), Closable)

          @runtime_checkable
          class Named(Protocol):
              name: str

          import threading
          assert isinstance(threading.Thread(name='Bob'), Named)

          備註: ‘runtime_checkable()’ will check only the presence of
          the required methods or attributes, not their type signatures
          or types.  For example, *note ssl.SSLObject: 9de. is a class,
          therefore it passes an *note issubclass(): 5df. check against
          *note Callable: 22bc.  However, the ‘ssl.SSLObject.__init__’
          method exists only to raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. with a
          more informative message, therefore making it impossible to
          call (instantiate) *note ssl.SSLObject: 9de.

          備註: An *note isinstance(): 14b. check against a
          runtime-checkable protocol can be surprisingly slow compared
          to an ‘isinstance()’ check against a non-protocol class.
          Consider using alternative idioms such as *note hasattr():
          1f9. calls for structural checks in performance-sensitive
          code.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The internal implementation of *note
     isinstance(): 14b. checks against runtime-checkable protocols now
     uses *note inspect.getattr_static(): 1b2. to look up attributes
     (previously, *note hasattr(): 1f9. was used).  As a result, some
     objects which used to be considered instances of a
     runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of
     that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa.  Most users are
     unlikely to be affected by this change.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are
     now considered "frozen" at runtime as soon as the class has been
     created.  Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable
     protocol will still work, but will have no impact on *note
     isinstance(): 14b. checks comparing objects to the protocol.  See
     *note "What's new in Python 3.12": 1f8. for more details.

 -- 類別: typing.TypedDict (dict)

     Special construct to add type hints to a dictionary.  At runtime it
     is a plain *note dict: 239.

     ‘TypedDict’ declares a dictionary type that expects all of its
     instances to have a certain set of keys, where each key is
     associated with a value of a consistent type.  This expectation is
     not checked at runtime but is only enforced by type checkers.
     Usage:

          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              label: str

          a: Point2D = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'label': 'good'}  # OK
          b: Point2D = {'z': 3, 'label': 'bad'}           # Fails type check

          assert Point2D(x=1, y=2, label='first') == dict(x=1, y=2, label='first')

     To allow using this feature with older versions of Python that do
     not support PEP 526(3), ‘TypedDict’ supports two additional
     equivalent syntactic forms:

        * Using a literal *note dict: 239. as the second argument:

               Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': str})

        * Using keyword arguments:

               Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', x=int, y=int, label=str)

          Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version
          3.13: The keyword-argument syntax is deprecated in 3.11 and
          will be removed in 3.13.  It may also be unsupported by static
          type checkers.

     The functional syntax should also be used when any of the keys are
     not valid *note identifiers: 1c27, for example because they are
     keywords or contain hyphens.  Example:

          # raises SyntaxError
          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              in: int  # 'in' is a keyword
              x-y: int  # name with hyphens

          # OK, functional syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'in': int, 'x-y': int})

     By default, all keys must be present in a ‘TypedDict’.  It is
     possible to mark individual keys as non-required using *note
     NotRequired: 3b5.:

          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              label: NotRequired[str]

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': NotRequired[str]})

     This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have the ‘label’ key
     omitted.

     It is also possible to mark all keys as non-required by default by
     specifying a totality of ‘False’:

          class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
              x: int
              y: int

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int}, total=False)

     This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have any of the keys
     omitted.  A type checker is only expected to support a literal
     ‘False’ or ‘True’ as the value of the ‘total’ argument.  ‘True’ is
     the default, and makes all items defined in the class body
     required.

     Individual keys of a ‘total=False’ ‘TypedDict’ can be marked as
     required using *note Required: 3b4.:

          class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
              x: Required[int]
              y: Required[int]
              label: str

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {
              'x': Required[int],
              'y': Required[int],
              'label': str
          }, total=False)

     It is possible for a ‘TypedDict’ type to inherit from one or more
     other ‘TypedDict’ types using the class-based syntax.  Usage:

          class Point3D(Point2D):
              z: int

     ‘Point3D’ has three items: ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’.  It is equivalent to
     this definition:

          class Point3D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              z: int

     A ‘TypedDict’ cannot inherit from a non-‘TypedDict’ class, except
     for *note Generic: 1418.  For example:

          class X(TypedDict):
              x: int

          class Y(TypedDict):
              y: int

          class Z(object): pass  # A non-TypedDict class

          class XY(X, Y): pass  # OK

          class XZ(X, Z): pass  # raises TypeError

     A ‘TypedDict’ can be generic:

          class Group[T](TypedDict):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     To create a generic ‘TypedDict’ that is compatible with Python 3.11
     or lower, inherit from *note Generic: 1418. explicitly:

          T = TypeVar("T")

          class Group(TypedDict, Generic[T]):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     A ‘TypedDict’ can be introspected via annotations dicts (see *note
     註釋 (annotation) 最佳實踐: 5fa. for more information on
     annotations best practices), *note __total__: 3c8c, *note
     __required_keys__: 3c8d, and *note __optional_keys__: 3c8e.

      -- 屬性: __total__

          ‘Point2D.__total__’ gives the value of the ‘total’ argument.
          Example:

               >>> from typing import TypedDict
               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict): pass
               >>> Point2D.__total__
               True
               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False): pass
               >>> Point2D.__total__
               False
               >>> class Point3D(Point2D): pass
               >>> Point3D.__total__
               True

          This attribute reflects 'only' the value of the ‘total’
          argument to the current ‘TypedDict’ class, not whether the
          class is semantically total.  For example, a ‘TypedDict’ with
          ‘__total__’ set to ‘True’ may have keys marked with *note
          NotRequired: 3b5, or it may inherit from another ‘TypedDict’
          with ‘total=False’.  Therefore, it is generally better to use
          *note __required_keys__: 3c8d. and *note __optional_keys__:
          3c8e. for introspection.

      -- 屬性: __required_keys__

          在 3.9 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: __optional_keys__

          ‘Point2D.__required_keys__’ and ‘Point2D.__optional_keys__’
          return *note frozenset: 3cd. objects containing required and
          non-required keys, respectively.

          Keys marked with *note Required: 3b4. will always appear in
          ‘__required_keys__’ and keys marked with *note NotRequired:
          3b5. will always appear in ‘__optional_keys__’.

          For backwards compatibility with Python 3.10 and below, it is
          also possible to use inheritance to declare both required and
          non-required keys in the same ‘TypedDict’ .  This is done by
          declaring a ‘TypedDict’ with one value for the ‘total’
          argument and then inheriting from it in another ‘TypedDict’
          with a different value for ‘total’:

               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
               ...     x: int
               ...     y: int
               ...
               >>> class Point3D(Point2D):
               ...     z: int
               ...
               >>> Point3D.__required_keys__ == frozenset({'z'})
               True
               >>> Point3D.__optional_keys__ == frozenset({'x', 'y'})
               True

          在 3.9 版被加入.

               備註: If ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is used or
               if annotations are given as strings, annotations are not
               evaluated when the ‘TypedDict’ is defined.  Therefore,
               the runtime introspection that ‘__required_keys__’ and
               ‘__optional_keys__’ rely on may not work properly, and
               the values of the attributes may be incorrect.

     See PEP 589(4) for more examples and detailed rules of using
     ‘TypedDict’.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Added support for marking individual keys as
     *note Required: 3b4. or *note NotRequired: 3b5.  See PEP 655(5).

     在 3.11 版的變更: Added support for generic ‘TypedDict’s.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/


File: python.info,  Node: 協定<2>,  Next: ABCs for working with IO,  Prev: 特別型別原語 primitive,  Up: 模組內容<7>

5.26.1.18 協定
..............

The following protocols are provided by the typing module.  All are
decorated with *note @runtime_checkable: 14c.

 -- 類別: typing.SupportsAbs

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__abs__’ that is covariant in its
     return type.

 -- 類別: typing.SupportsBytes

     一個有抽象方法 ‘__bytes__’ 的 ABC。

 -- 類別: typing.SupportsComplex

     一個有抽象方法 ‘__complex__’ 的 ABC。

 -- 類別: typing.SupportsFloat

     一個有抽象方法 ‘__float__’ 的 ABC。

 -- 類別: typing.SupportsIndex

     一個有抽象方法 ‘__index__’ 的 ABC。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 類別: typing.SupportsInt

     一個有抽象方法 ‘__int__’ 的 ABC。

 -- 類別: typing.SupportsRound

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__round__’ that is covariant in
     its return type.


File: python.info,  Node: ABCs for working with IO,  Next: 函式與裝飾器,  Prev: 協定<2>,  Up: 模組內容<7>

5.26.1.19 ABCs for working with IO
..................................

 -- 類別: typing.IO
 -- 類別: typing.TextIO
 -- 類別: typing.BinaryIO

     Generic type ‘IO[AnyStr]’ and its subclasses ‘TextIO(IO[str])’ and
     ‘BinaryIO(IO[bytes])’ represent the types of I/O streams such as
     returned by *note open(): 29c.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式與裝飾器,  Next: Introspection helpers,  Prev: ABCs for working with IO,  Up: 模組內容<7>

5.26.1.20 函式與裝飾器
......................

 -- 函式: typing.cast (typ, val)

     Cast a value to a type.

     This returns the value unchanged.  To the type checker this signals
     that the return value has the designated type, but at runtime we
     intentionally don't check anything (we want this to be as fast as
     possible).

 -- 函式: typing.assert_type (val, typ, /)

     Ask a static type checker to confirm that 'val' has an inferred
     type of 'typ'.

     At runtime this does nothing: it returns the first argument
     unchanged with no checks or side effects, no matter the actual type
     of the argument.

     When a static type checker encounters a call to ‘assert_type()’, it
     emits an error if the value is not of the specified type:

          def greet(name: str) -> None:
              assert_type(name, str)  # OK, inferred type of `name` is `str`
              assert_type(name, int)  # type checker error

     This function is useful for ensuring the type checker's
     understanding of a script is in line with the developer's
     intentions:

          def complex_function(arg: object):
              # Do some complex type-narrowing logic,
              # after which we hope the inferred type will be `int`
              ...
              # Test whether the type checker correctly understands our function
              assert_type(arg, int)

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: typing.assert_never (arg, /)

     Ask a static type checker to confirm that a line of code is
     unreachable.

     舉例來說：

          def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
              match arg:
                  case int():
                      print("It's an int")
                  case str():
                      print("It's a str")
                  case _ as unreachable:
                      assert_never(unreachable)

     Here, the annotations allow the type checker to infer that the last
     case can never execute, because ‘arg’ is either an *note int: 17e.
     or a *note str: 157, and both options are covered by earlier cases.

     If a type checker finds that a call to ‘assert_never()’ is
     reachable, it will emit an error.  For example, if the type
     annotation for ‘arg’ was instead ‘int | str | float’, the type
     checker would emit an error pointing out that ‘unreachable’ is of
     type *note float: 26a.  For a call to ‘assert_never’ to pass type
     checking, the inferred type of the argument passed in must be the
     bottom type, *note Never: 4a5, and nothing else.

     At runtime, this throws an exception when called.

     也參考
     ......

     Unreachable Code and Exhaustiveness Checking(1) has more
     information about exhaustiveness checking with static typing.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: typing.reveal_type (obj, /)

     Ask a static type checker to reveal the inferred type of an
     expression.

     When a static type checker encounters a call to this function, it
     emits a diagnostic with the inferred type of the argument.  For
     example:

          x: int = 1
          reveal_type(x)  # Revealed type is "builtins.int"

     This can be useful when you want to debug how your type checker
     handles a particular piece of code.

     At runtime, this function prints the runtime type of its argument
     to *note sys.stderr: 778. and returns the argument unchanged
     (allowing the call to be used within an expression):

          x = reveal_type(1)  # 印出 "Runtime type is int"
          print(x)  # 印出 "1"

     Note that the runtime type may be different from (more or less
     specific than) the type statically inferred by a type checker.

     Most type checkers support ‘reveal_type()’ anywhere, even if the
     name is not imported from ‘typing’.  Importing the name from
     ‘typing’, however, allows your code to run without runtime errors
     and communicates intent more clearly.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @typing.dataclass_transform (*, eq_default=True,
          order_default=False, kw_only_default=False,
          frozen_default=False, field_specifiers=(), **kwargs)

     Decorator to mark an object as providing *note dataclass: 3bc.-like
     behavior.

     ‘dataclass_transform’ may be used to decorate a class, metaclass,
     or a function that is itself a decorator.  The presence of
     ‘@dataclass_transform()’ tells a static type checker that the
     decorated object performs runtime "magic" that transforms a class
     in a similar way to *note @dataclasses.dataclass: 3bc.

     Example usage with a decorator function:

          @dataclass_transform()
          def create_model[T](cls: type[T]) -> type[T]:
              ...
              return cls

          @create_model
          class CustomerModel:
              id: int
              name: str

     On a base class:

          @dataclass_transform()
          class ModelBase: ...

          class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
              id: int
              name: str

     On a metaclass:

          @dataclass_transform()
          class ModelMeta(type): ...

          class ModelBase(metaclass=ModelMeta): ...

          class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
              id: int
              name: str

     The ‘CustomerModel’ classes defined above will be treated by type
     checkers similarly to classes created with *note
     @dataclasses.dataclass: 3bc.  For example, type checkers will
     assume these classes have ‘__init__’ methods that accept ‘id’ and
     ‘name’.

     The decorated class, metaclass, or function may accept the
     following bool arguments which type checkers will assume have the
     same effect as they would have on the *note @dataclasses.dataclass:
     3bc. decorator: ‘init’, ‘eq’, ‘order’, ‘unsafe_hash’, ‘frozen’,
     ‘match_args’, ‘kw_only’, and ‘slots’.  It must be possible for the
     value of these arguments (‘True’ or ‘False’) to be statically
     evaluated.

     The arguments to the ‘dataclass_transform’ decorator can be used to
     customize the default behaviors of the decorated class, metaclass,
     or function:


     參數:

        * ‘eq_default’ (*note bool: 17d.) - Indicates whether the ‘eq’
          parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is omitted
          by the caller.  Defaults to ‘True’.

        * ‘order_default’ (*note bool: 17d.) - Indicates whether the
          ‘order’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is
          omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

        * ‘kw_only_default’ (*note bool: 17d.) - Indicates whether the
          ‘kw_only’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it
          is omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

        * ‘frozen_default’ (*note bool: 17d.) - Indicates whether the
          ‘frozen’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is
          omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

        * ‘field_specifiers’ (*note tuple: 4e6.‘[’*note Callable:
          60b.‘[’‘...’‘, ’‘Any’‘]’‘, ’‘...’‘]’) - Specifies a static
          list of supported classes or functions that describe fields,
          similar to *note dataclasses.field(): 1805.  Defaults to ‘()’.

        * ‘**kwargs’ (‘Any’) - Arbitrary other keyword arguments are
          accepted in order to allow for possible future extensions.

     Type checkers recognize the following optional parameters on field
     specifiers: 'Recognised parameters for field specifiers'

     Parameter name           Description
                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
     ‘init’                   Indicates whether the field should be included in the synthesized ‘__init__’
                              method.  If unspecified, ‘init’ defaults to ‘True’.
                              
                              
     ‘default’                Provides the default value for the field.
                              
                              
     ‘default_factory’        Provides a runtime callback that returns the default value for the field.  If
                              neither ‘default’ nor ‘default_factory’ are specified, the field is assumed to
                              have no default value and must be provided a value when the class is instantiated.
                              
                              
     ‘factory’                An alias for the ‘default_factory’ parameter on field specifiers.
                              
                              
     ‘kw_only’                Indicates whether the field should be marked as keyword-only.  If ‘True’, the
                              field will be keyword-only.  If ‘False’, it will not be keyword-only.  If
                              unspecified, the value of the ‘kw_only’ parameter on the object decorated with
                              ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used, or if that is unspecified, the value of
                              ‘kw_only_default’ on ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used.
                              
                              
     ‘alias’                  Provides an alternative name for the field.  This alternative name is used in the
                              synthesized ‘__init__’ method.
                              

     At runtime, this decorator records its arguments in the
     ‘__dataclass_transform__’ attribute on the decorated object.  It
     has no other runtime effect.

     更多細節請見 PEP 681(2)。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @typing.overload

     Decorator for creating overloaded functions and methods.

     The ‘@overload’ decorator allows describing functions and methods
     that support multiple different combinations of argument types.  A
     series of ‘@overload’-decorated definitions must be followed by
     exactly one non-‘@overload’-decorated definition (for the same
     function/method).

     ‘@overload’-decorated definitions are for the benefit of the type
     checker only, since they will be overwritten by the
     non-‘@overload’-decorated definition.  The
     non-‘@overload’-decorated definition, meanwhile, will be used at
     runtime but should be ignored by a type checker.  At runtime,
     calling an ‘@overload’-decorated function directly will raise *note
     NotImplementedError: bc0.

     An example of overload that gives a more precise type than can be
     expressed using a union or a type variable:

          @overload
          def process(response: None) -> None:
              ...
          @overload
          def process(response: int) -> tuple[int, str]:
              ...
          @overload
          def process(response: bytes) -> str:
              ...
          def process(response):
              ...  # actual implementation goes here

     See PEP 484(3) for more details and comparison with other typing
     semantics.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Overloaded functions can now be introspected at
     runtime using *note get_overloads(): 4ab.

 -- 函式: typing.get_overloads (func)

     Return a sequence of *note @overload: 3c64.-decorated definitions
     for 'func'.

     'func' is the function object for the implementation of the
     overloaded function.  For example, given the definition of
     ‘process’ in the documentation for *note @overload: 3c64,
     ‘get_overloads(process)’ will return a sequence of three function
     objects for the three defined overloads.  If called on a function
     with no overloads, ‘get_overloads()’ returns an empty sequence.

     ‘get_overloads()’ can be used for introspecting an overloaded
     function at runtime.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: typing.clear_overloads ()

     Clear all registered overloads in the internal registry.

     This can be used to reclaim the memory used by the registry.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @typing.final

     Decorator to indicate final methods and final classes.

     Decorating a method with ‘@final’ indicates to a type checker that
     the method cannot be overridden in a subclass.  Decorating a class
     with ‘@final’ indicates that it cannot be subclassed.

     舉例來說：

          class Base:
              @final
              def done(self) -> None:
                  ...
          class Sub(Base):
              def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
                  ...

          @final
          class Leaf:
              ...
          class Other(Leaf):  # Error reported by type checker
              ...

     這些屬性 (property) 不會在 runtime 時進行檢查。更多詳細資訊請看 PEP
     591(4)。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The decorator will now attempt to set a
     ‘__final__’ attribute to ‘True’ on the decorated object.  Thus, a
     check like ‘if getattr(obj, "__final__", False)’ can be used at
     runtime to determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as
     final.  If the decorated object does not support setting
     attributes, the decorator returns the object unchanged without
     raising an exception.

 -- 函式: @typing.no_type_check

     Decorator to indicate that annotations are not type hints.

     This works as a class or function *note decorator: 540.  With a
     class, it applies recursively to all methods and classes defined in
     that class (but not to methods defined in its superclasses or
     subclasses).  Type checkers will ignore all annotations in a
     function or class with this decorator.

     ‘@no_type_check’ mutates the decorated object in place.

 -- 函式: @typing.no_type_check_decorator

     Decorator to give another decorator the *note no_type_check(): 4b3.
     effect.

     This wraps the decorator with something that wraps the decorated
     function in *note no_type_check(): 4b3.

 -- 函式: @typing.override

     Decorator to indicate that a method in a subclass is intended to
     override a method or attribute in a superclass.

     Type checkers should emit an error if a method decorated with
     ‘@override’ does not, in fact, override anything.  This helps
     prevent bugs that may occur when a base class is changed without an
     equivalent change to a child class.

     舉例來說：

          class Base:
              def log_status(self) -> None:
                  ...

          class Sub(Base):
              @override
              def log_status(self) -> None:  # Okay: overrides Base.log_status
                  ...

              @override
              def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
                  ...

     There is no runtime checking of this property.

     The decorator will attempt to set an ‘__override__’ attribute to
     ‘True’ on the decorated object.  Thus, a check like ‘if
     getattr(obj, "__override__", False)’ can be used at runtime to
     determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as an override.
     If the decorated object does not support setting attributes, the
     decorator returns the object unchanged without raising an
     exception.

     更多細節請見 PEP 698(5)。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @typing.type_check_only

     Decorator to mark a class or function as unavailable at runtime.

     This decorator is itself not available at runtime.  It is mainly
     intended to mark classes that are defined in type stub files if an
     implementation returns an instance of a private class:

          @type_check_only
          class Response:  # private or not available at runtime
              code: int
              def get_header(self, name: str) -> str: ...

          def fetch_response() -> Response: ...

     Note that returning instances of private classes is not
     recommended.  It is usually preferable to make such classes public.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://typing.readthedocs.io/en/latest/guides/unreachable.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/


File: python.info,  Node: Introspection helpers,  Next: 常數<9>,  Prev: 函式與裝飾器,  Up: 模組內容<7>

5.26.1.21 Introspection helpers
...............................

 -- 函式: typing.get_type_hints (obj, globalns=None, localns=None,
          include_extras=False)

     Return a dictionary containing type hints for a function, method,
     module or class object.

     This is often the same as ‘obj.__annotations__’, but this function
     makes the following changes to the annotations dictionary:

        * Forward references encoded as string literals or *note
          ForwardRef: 1615. objects are handled by evaluating them in
          'globalns', 'localns', and (where applicable) 'obj"s *note
          type parameter: 166. namespace.  If 'globalns' or 'localns' is
          not given, appropriate namespace dictionaries are inferred
          from 'obj'.

        * ‘None’ is replaced with *note types.NoneType: 679.

        * If *note @no_type_check: 4b3. has been applied to 'obj', an
          empty dictionary is returned.

        * If 'obj' is a class ‘C’, the function returns a dictionary
          that merges annotations from ‘C’'s base classes with those on
          ‘C’ directly.  This is done by traversing *note C.__mro__:
          1cbb. and iteratively combining ‘__annotations__’
          dictionaries.  Annotations on classes appearing earlier in the
          *note method resolution order: 1f16. always take precedence
          over annotations on classes appearing later in the method
          resolution order.

        * The function recursively replaces all occurrences of
          ‘Annotated[T, ...]’ with ‘T’, unless 'include_extras' is set
          to ‘True’ (see *note Annotated: 77c. for more information).

     See also *note inspect.get_annotations(): 636, a lower-level
     function that returns annotations more directly.

          備註: If any forward references in the annotations of 'obj'
          are not resolvable or are not valid Python code, this function
          will raise an exception such as *note NameError: 144.  For
          example, this can happen with imported *note type aliases:
          15f. that include forward references, or with names imported
          under *note if TYPE_CHECKING: b62.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 ‘include_extras’ 參數（如 PEP 593(1) 中所述）
     。更多資訊請見 *note Annotated: 77c. 的文件。

     在 3.11 版的變更: Previously, ‘Optional[t]’ was added for function
     and method annotations if a default value equal to ‘None’ was set.
     Now the annotation is returned unchanged.

 -- 函式: typing.get_origin (tp)

     Get the unsubscripted version of a type: for a typing object of the
     form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘X’.

     If ‘X’ is a typing-module alias for a builtin or *note collections:
     1b. class, it will be normalized to the original class.  If ‘X’ is
     an instance of *note ParamSpecArgs: 5e4. or *note ParamSpecKwargs:
     5e5, return the underlying *note ParamSpec: 163.  Return ‘None’ for
     unsupported objects.

     舉例：

          assert get_origin(str) is None
          assert get_origin(Dict[str, int]) is dict
          assert get_origin(Union[int, str]) is Union
          assert get_origin(Annotated[str, "metadata"]) is Annotated
          P = ParamSpec('P')
          assert get_origin(P.args) is P
          assert get_origin(P.kwargs) is P

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: typing.get_args (tp)

     Get type arguments with all substitutions performed: for a typing
     object of the form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘(Y, Z, ...)’.

     If ‘X’ is a union or *note Literal: 67c. contained in another
     generic type, the order of ‘(Y, Z, ...)’ may be different from the
     order of the original arguments ‘[Y, Z, ...]’ due to type caching.
     Return ‘()’ for unsupported objects.

     舉例：

          assert get_args(int) == ()
          assert get_args(Dict[int, str]) == (int, str)
          assert get_args(Union[int, str]) == (int, str)

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: typing.is_typeddict (tp)

     Check if a type is a *note TypedDict: 153.

     舉例來說：

          class Film(TypedDict):
              title: str
              year: int

          assert is_typeddict(Film)
          assert not is_typeddict(list | str)

          # TypedDict is a factory for creating typed dicts,
          # not a typed dict itself
          assert not is_typeddict(TypedDict)

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: typing.ForwardRef

     Class used for internal typing representation of string forward
     references.

     For example, ‘List["SomeClass"]’ is implicitly transformed into
     ‘List[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’.  ‘ForwardRef’ should not be
     instantiated by a user, but may be used by introspection tools.

          備註: PEP 585(2) generic types such as ‘list["SomeClass"]’
          will not be implicitly transformed into
          ‘list[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’ and thus will not
          automatically resolve to ‘list[SomeClass]’.

     在 3.7.4 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: 常數<9>,  Next: 棄用的別名,  Prev: Introspection helpers,  Up: 模組內容<7>

5.26.1.22 常數
..............

 -- 資料: typing.TYPE_CHECKING

     A special constant that is assumed to be ‘True’ by 3rd party static
     type checkers.  It is ‘False’ at runtime.

     Usage:

          if TYPE_CHECKING:
              import expensive_mod

          def fun(arg: 'expensive_mod.SomeType') -> None:
              local_var: expensive_mod.AnotherType = other_fun()

     The first type annotation must be enclosed in quotes, making it a
     "forward reference", to hide the ‘expensive_mod’ reference from the
     interpreter runtime.  Type annotations for local variables are not
     evaluated, so the second annotation does not need to be enclosed in
     quotes.

          備註: If ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is used,
          annotations are not evaluated at function definition time.
          Instead, they are stored as strings in ‘__annotations__’.
          This makes it unnecessary to use quotes around the annotation
          (see PEP 563(1)).

     在 3.5.2 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: 棄用的別名,  Prev: 常數<9>,  Up: 模組內容<7>

5.26.1.23 棄用的別名
....................

This module defines several deprecated aliases to pre-existing standard
library classes.  These were originally included in the typing module in
order to support parameterizing these generic classes using ‘[]’.
However, the aliases became redundant in Python 3.9 when the
corresponding pre-existing classes were enhanced to support ‘[]’ (see
PEP 585(1)).

The redundant types are deprecated as of Python 3.9.  However, while the
aliases may be removed at some point, removal of these aliases is not
currently planned.  As such, no deprecation warnings are currently
issued by the interpreter for these aliases.

If at some point it is decided to remove these deprecated aliases, a
deprecation warning will be issued by the interpreter for at least two
releases prior to removal.  The aliases are guaranteed to remain in the
typing module without deprecation warnings until at least Python 3.14.

Type checkers are encouraged to flag uses of the deprecated types if the
program they are checking targets a minimum Python version of 3.9 or
newer.

* Menu:

* 內建型別的別名::
* collections 中型別的別名::
* Aliases to other concrete types::
* collections.abc 中容器 ABC 的別名: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
* Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
* contextlib ABC 的別名::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: 內建型別的別名,  Next: collections 中型別的別名,  Up: 棄用的別名

5.26.1.24 內建型別的別名
........................

 -- 類別: typing.Dict (dict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     棄用 *note dict: 239. 的別名。

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note Mapping: 702. rather than to use
     *note dict: 239. or ‘typing.Dict’.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note builtins.dict: 239. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.List (list, MutableSequence[T])

     棄用 *note list: 40a. 的別名。

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note Sequence: 1055. or *note Iterable:
     1fe6. rather than to use *note list: 40a. or ‘typing.List’.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note builtins.list: 40a. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Set (set, MutableSet[T])

     棄用 *note builtins.set: 3cc. 的別名。

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note collections.abc.Set: 1fde. rather
     than to use *note set: 3cc. or *note typing.Set: 3ca3.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note builtins.set: 3cc. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.FrozenSet (frozenset, AbstractSet[T_co])

     棄用 *note builtins.frozenset: 3cd. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note builtins.frozenset: 3cd. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 資料: typing.Tuple

     棄用 *note tuple: 4e6. 的別名。

     *note tuple: 4e6. and ‘Tuple’ are special-cased in the type system;
     see *note 註釋元組 (tuple): 3c66. for more details.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note builtins.tuple: 4e6. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Type (Generic[CT_co])

     棄用 *note type: bbb. 的別名。

     See *note 類別物件的型別: 3c69. for details on using *note type:
     bbb. or ‘typing.Type’ in type annotations.

     在 3.5.2 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note builtins.type: bbb. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: collections 中型別的別名,  Next: Aliases to other concrete types,  Prev: 內建型別的別名,  Up: 棄用的別名

5.26.1.25 ‘collections’ 中型別的別名
....................................

 -- 類別: typing.DefaultDict (collections.defaultdict,
          MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     棄用 *note collections.defaultdict: 104e. 的別名。

     在 3.5.2 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.defaultdict: 104e. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.OrderedDict (collections.OrderedDict,
          MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     棄用 *note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce. 的別名。

     在 3.7.2 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.ChainMap (collections.ChainMap, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     棄用 *note collections.ChainMap: a7f. 的別名。

     在 3.6.1 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.ChainMap: a7f. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Counter (collections.Counter, Dict[T, int])

     棄用 *note collections.Counter: f28. 的別名。

     在 3.6.1 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.Counter: f28. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Deque (deque, MutableSequence[T])

     棄用 *note collections.deque: 3cf. 的別名。

     在 3.6.1 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.deque: 3cf. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to other concrete types,  Next: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名,  Prev: collections 中型別的別名,  Up: 棄用的別名

5.26.1.26 Aliases to other concrete types
.........................................

     Deprecated since version 3.8, will be removed in version 3.13: The
     ‘typing.io’ namespace is deprecated and will be removed.  These
     types should be directly imported from ‘typing’ instead.

 -- 類別: typing.Pattern
 -- 類別: typing.Match

     Deprecated aliases corresponding to the return types from *note
     re.compile(): a34. and *note re.match(): 10c0.

     These types (and the corresponding functions) are generic over
     *note AnyStr: 3c73.  ‘Pattern’ can be specialised as ‘Pattern[str]’
     or ‘Pattern[bytes]’; ‘Match’ can be specialised as ‘Match[str]’ or
     ‘Match[bytes]’.

     Deprecated since version 3.8, will be removed in version 3.13: The
     ‘typing.re’ namespace is deprecated and will be removed.  These
     types should be directly imported from ‘typing’ instead.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: Classes ‘Pattern’ and ‘Match’ from *note re:
     b4. now support ‘[]’.  See PEP 585(1) and *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Text

     棄用 *note str: 157. 的別名。

     ‘Text’ is provided to supply a forward compatible path for Python 2
     code: in Python 2, ‘Text’ is an alias for ‘unicode’.

     Use ‘Text’ to indicate that a value must contain a unicode string
     in a manner that is compatible with both Python 2 and Python 3:

          def add_unicode_checkmark(text: Text) -> Text:
              return text + u' \u2713'

     在 3.5.2 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用: Python 2 is no longer supported, and most
     type checkers also no longer support type checking Python 2 code.
     Removal of the alias is not currently planned, but users are
     encouraged to use *note str: 157. instead of ‘Text’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名,  Next: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to other concrete types,  Up: 棄用的別名

5.26.1.27 ‘collections.abc’ 中容器 ABC 的別名
.............................................

 -- 類別: typing.AbstractSet (Collection[T_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Set: 1fde. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Set: 1fde. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note 泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.ByteString (Sequence[int])

     This type represents the types *note bytes: 2c1, *note bytearray:
     2c0, and *note memoryview: 17f. of byte sequences.

     Deprecated since version 3.9, will be removed in version 3.14:
     Prefer *note collections.abc.Buffer: 170, or a union like ‘bytes |
     bytearray | memoryview’.

 -- 類別: typing.Collection (Sized, Iterable[T_co], Container[T_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Collection: af2. 的別名。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Collection: af2. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Container (Generic[T_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Container: 1fe8. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Container: 1fe8. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.ItemsView (MappingView, AbstractSet[tuple[KT_co,
          VT_co]])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 1fec. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 1fec. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.KeysView (MappingView, AbstractSet[KT_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.KeysView: 1feb. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.KeysView: 1feb. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Mapping (Collection[KT], Generic[KT, VT_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Mapping: 702. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Mapping: 702. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.MappingView (Sized)

     棄用 *note collections.abc.MappingView: 1fea. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.MappingView: 1fea. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(7) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.MutableMapping (Mapping[KT, VT])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: f3d. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: f3d. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(8) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.MutableSequence (Sequence[T])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: c4c. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: c4c.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(9) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.MutableSet (AbstractSet[T])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 1fe9. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 1fe9. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(10) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Sequence (Reversible[T_co], Collection[T_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1055. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1055. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(11) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.ValuesView (MappingView, Collection[_VT_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 1fed. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 1fed. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(12) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名,  Up: 棄用的別名

5.26.1.28 Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
...........................................................

 -- 類別: typing.Coroutine (Awaitable[ReturnType], Generic[YieldType,
          SendType, ReturnType])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Coroutine: c55. 的別名。

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 22bd. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.Coroutine: c55. and
     ‘typing.Coroutine’ in type annotations.

     在 3.5.3 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Coroutine: c55. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.AsyncGenerator (AsyncIterator[YieldType],
          Generic[YieldType, SendType])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: af4. 的別名。

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 22bd. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: af4. and
     ‘typing.AsyncGenerator’ in type annotations.

     在 3.6.1 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: af4. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.AsyncIterable (Generic[T_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: c57. 的別名。

     在 3.5.2 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: c57. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.AsyncIterator (AsyncIterable[T_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: c56. 的別名。

     在 3.5.2 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: c56. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Awaitable (Generic[T_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Awaitable: c54. 的別名。

     在 3.5.2 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Awaitable: c54. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Next: contextlib ABC 的別名,  Prev: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Up: 棄用的別名

5.26.1.29 Aliases to other ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
....................................................

 -- 類別: typing.Iterable (Generic[T_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Iterable: 1fe6. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Iterable: 1fe6. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Iterator (Iterable[T_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Iterator: 1fe7. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Iterator: 1fe7. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 資料: typing.Callable

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Callable: 60b. 的別名。

     See *note 註釋 callable 物件: 22bc. for details on how to use *note
     collections.abc.Callable: 60b. and ‘typing.Callable’ in type
     annotations.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Callable: 60b. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

     在 3.10 版的變更: ‘Callable’ 現已支援 *note ParamSpec: 163. 以及
     *note Concatenate: 5e2.。請參閱 PEP 612(4) 閱讀詳細內容。

 -- 類別: typing.Generator (Iterator[YieldType], Generic[YieldType,
          SendType, ReturnType])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Generator: c53. 的別名。

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 22bd. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.Generator: c53. and
     ‘typing.Generator’ in type annotations.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Generator: c53. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Hashable

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Hashable: 23d. 的別名。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用: 改為直接使用 *note collections.abc.Hashable:
     23d.。

 -- 類別: typing.Reversible (Iterable[T_co])

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Reversible: af3. 的別名。

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note collections.abc.Reversible: af3. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.Sized

     棄用 *note collections.abc.Sized: 23e. 的別名。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用: 改為直接使用 *note collections.abc.Sized:
     23e.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib ABC 的別名,  Prev: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Up: 棄用的別名

5.26.1.30 ‘contextlib’ ABC 的別名
.................................

 -- 類別: typing.ContextManager (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: af8.

     在 3.5.4 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: af8.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

 -- 類別: typing.AsyncContextManager (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager:
     982.

     在 3.6.2 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用: *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager:
     982. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note
     泛型別名型別: 4af.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features,  Prev: 模組內容<7>,  Up: typing --- 支援型別提示

5.26.1.31 Deprecation Timeline of Major Features
................................................

Certain features in ‘typing’ are deprecated and may be removed in a
future version of Python.  The following table summarizes major
deprecations for your convenience.  This is subject to change, and not
all deprecations are listed.

Feature                       棄用於                        Projected removal             PEP/issue
                                                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
‘typing.io’ 和 ‘typing.re’    3.8                           3.13                          bpo-38291(1)
子模組                                                                                    

‘typing’ versions of          3.9                           Undecided (see                PEP 585(2)
standard collections                                        *note 棄用的別名: 3c9d. for   
                                                            more information)
                                                            
                                                                                          
*note typing.ByteString: 23f. 3.9                           3.14                          gh-91896(3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.Text: 27a.       3.11                          Undecided                     gh-92332(4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.Hashable: 23b.   3.12                          Undecided                     gh-94309(5)
和 *note typing.Sized: 23c.                                                               

*note typing.TypeAlias: 5e7.  3.12                          Undecided                     PEP 695(6)
                                                                                          

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統,  Next: Python 開發模式,  Prev: typing --- 支援型別提示,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.2 ‘pydoc’ -- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統
------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/pydoc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘pydoc’ module automatically generates documentation from Python
modules.  The documentation can be presented as pages of text on the
console, served to a web browser, or saved to HTML files.

For modules, classes, functions and methods, the displayed documentation
is derived from the docstring (i.e.  the *note __doc__: 767. attribute)
of the object, and recursively of its documentable members.  If there is
no docstring, ‘pydoc’ tries to obtain a description from the block of
comment lines just above the definition of the class, function or method
in the source file, or at the top of the module (see *note
inspect.getcomments(): 3cd0.).

The built-in function *note help(): 710. invokes the online help system
in the interactive interpreter, which uses ‘pydoc’ to generate its
documentation as text on the console.  The same text documentation can
also be viewed from outside the Python interpreter by running ‘pydoc’ as
a script at the operating system's command prompt.  For example, running

     python -m pydoc sys

at a shell prompt will display documentation on the *note sys: d3.
module, in a style similar to the manual pages shown by the Unix ‘man’
command.  The argument to ‘pydoc’ can be the name of a function, module,
or package, or a dotted reference to a class, method, or function within
a module or module in a package.  If the argument to ‘pydoc’ looks like
a path (that is, it contains the path separator for your operating
system, such as a slash in Unix), and refers to an existing Python
source file, then documentation is produced for that file.

     備註: In order to find objects and their documentation, ‘pydoc’
     imports the module(s) to be documented.  Therefore, any code on
     module level will be executed on that occasion.  Use an ‘if
     __name__ == '__main__':’ guard to only execute code when a file is
     invoked as a script and not just imported.

When printing output to the console, ‘pydoc’ attempts to paginate the
output for easier reading.  If either the ‘MANPAGER’ or the ‘PAGER’
environment variable is set, ‘pydoc’ will use its value as a pagination
program.  When both are set, ‘MANPAGER’ is used.

Specifying a ‘-w’ flag before the argument will cause HTML documentation
to be written out to a file in the current directory, instead of
displaying text on the console.

Specifying a ‘-k’ flag before the argument will search the synopsis
lines of all available modules for the keyword given as the argument,
again in a manner similar to the Unix ‘man’ command.  The synopsis line
of a module is the first line of its documentation string.

You can also use ‘pydoc’ to start an HTTP server on the local machine
that will serve documentation to visiting web browsers.  ‘python -m
pydoc -p 1234’ will start a HTTP server on port 1234, allowing you to
browse the documentation at ‘http://localhost:1234/’ in your preferred
web browser.  Specifying ‘0’ as the port number will select an arbitrary
unused port.

‘python -m pydoc -n <hostname>’ will start the server listening at the
given hostname.  By default the hostname is 'localhost' but if you want
the server to be reached from other machines, you may want to change the
host name that the server responds to.  During development this is
especially useful if you want to run pydoc from within a container.

‘python -m pydoc -b’ will start the server and additionally open a web
browser to a module index page.  Each served page has a navigation bar
at the top where you can 'Get' help on an individual item, 'Search' all
modules with a keyword in their synopsis line, and go to the 'Module
index', 'Topics' and 'Keywords' pages.

When ‘pydoc’ generates documentation, it uses the current environment
and path to locate modules.  Thus, invoking ‘pydoc spam’ documents
precisely the version of the module you would get if you started the
Python interpreter and typed ‘import spam’.

Module docs for core modules are assumed to reside in
‘https://docs.python.org/X.Y/library/’ where ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are the major
and minor version numbers of the Python interpreter.  This can be
overridden by setting the ‘PYTHONDOCS’ environment variable to a
different URL or to a local directory containing the Library Reference
Manual pages.

在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 ‘-b’ 選項。

在 3.3 版的變更: The ‘-g’ command line option was removed.

在 3.4 版的變更: ‘pydoc’ now uses *note inspect.signature(): 548. rather
than *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 549. to extract signature
information from callables.

在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 ‘-n’ 選項。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pydoc.py


File: python.info,  Node: Python 開發模式,  Next: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例,  Prev: pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.3 Python 開發模式
----------------------

在 3.7 版被加入.

Python 開發模式引入了額外的 runtime 檢查，預設啟用這些檢查的成本太高。如
果程式碼正確，它不應比預設值更詳細；僅當偵測到問題時才會發出新警告。

可以使用 *note -X dev: 188. 命令列選項或將 *note PYTHONDEVMODE: 942. 環
境變數設為 1 來啟用它。

另請參閱 *note Python 除錯建置: 69f.。

* Menu:

* Python 開發模式的影響::
* ResourceWarning 範例::
* 檔案描述器的錯誤範例::


File: python.info,  Node: Python 開發模式的影響,  Next: ResourceWarning 範例,  Up: Python 開發模式

5.26.3.1 Python 開發模式的影響
..............................

啟用 Python 開發模式類似以下指令，但具有如下所述的附加效果：

     PYTHONMALLOC=debug PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG=1 python -W default -X faulthandler

Python 開發模式的效果：

   * 新增 ‘default’ *note 警告過濾器: 1b2e.。以下警告會被顯示：

        * *note DeprecationWarning: 179.

        * *note ImportWarning: 247.

        * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.

        * *note ResourceWarning: aa3.

     一般來說，上述警告會被預設的*note 警告過濾器: 1b2e.給過濾掉。

     它的行為就像使用 *note -W default: 6ff. 命令列選項一樣。

     使用 *note -W error: 6ff. 命令列選項或將 *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a0b.
     環境變數設為 ‘error’ 會將警告視為錯誤。

   * 在記憶體分配器上安裝除錯 hook（掛鉤）以檢查：

        * 緩衝區下溢 (underflow)

        * 緩衝區溢位 (overflow)

        * 記憶體分配器 API 違規

        * GIL 的不安全使用

     請參閱 *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ad2. C 函式。

     它的行為就好像是將 *note PYTHONMALLOC: acc. 環境變數設定為 ‘debug’
     一樣。

     若要啟用 Python 開發模式而不在記憶體分配器上安裝偵錯 hook，請將
     *note PYTHONMALLOC: acc. 環境變數設為 ‘default’。

   * 在 Python 啟動時呼叫 *note faulthandler.enable(): b0b. 來為 *note
     SIGSEGV: 1b3b.、*note SIGFPE: 1b3c.、*note SIGABRT: 1b3d.、*note
     SIGBUS: 1b3e. 和 *note SIGILL: 1b3f. 訊號安裝處理函式以在當機時傾印
     (dump) Python 回溯 (traceback)。

     它的行為就像使用 *note -X faulthandler: 188. 命令列選項或將 *note
     PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: f16. 環境變數設定為 ‘1’。

   * 啟用 *note asyncio 除錯模式: 1b41.。例如 *note asyncio: 9. 會檢查未
     被等待的 (not awaited) 協程並記錄 (log) 它們。

     它的行為就像將 *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1b40. 環境變數設定為 1 一
     樣。

   * 檢查字串編碼和解碼操作的 'encoding' 和 'errors' 引數。例如：*note
     open(): 29c.、*note str.encode(): 70e. 和 *note bytes.decode():
     70f.。

     預設情況下，為了獲得最佳效能，僅在第一個編碼/解碼錯誤時檢查
     'errors' 引數，並且有時會因為是空字串而忽略 'encoding' 引數。

   * *note io.IOBase: 841. 解構函式會記錄 ‘close()’ 例外。

   * 將 *note sys.flags: 489. 的 *note dev_mode: 1891. 屬性設為 ‘True’。

Python 開發模式預設不會啟用 *note tracemalloc: fa. 模組，因為（效能和記
憶體的）開銷太大。啟用 *note tracemalloc: fa. 模組可提供有關某些錯誤來源
的附加資訊。例如 *note ResourceWarning: aa3. 記錄了分配資源之處的回溯、
緩衝區溢位錯誤記錄了分配記憶體區塊的回溯。

Python 開發模式不會防止 *note -O: c2c. 命令列選項刪除 *note assert: 7aa.
陳述式，也不會防止將 *note __debug__: 5fb. 設定為 ‘False’。

Python 開發模式只能在 Python 啟動時啟用。它的值可以從 *note
sys.flags.dev_mode: 489. 讀取。

在 3.8 版的變更: *note io.IOBase: 841. 解構函式現在會記錄 ‘close()’ 例外
。

在 3.9 版的變更: 現在會為字串編碼和解碼操作檢查 'encoding' 和 'errors' 引
數。


File: python.info,  Node: ResourceWarning 範例,  Next: 檔案描述器的錯誤範例,  Prev: Python 開發模式的影響,  Up: Python 開發模式

5.26.3.2 ResourceWarning 範例
.............................

計算命令列中指定的文字檔案列數的腳本範例：

     import sys

     def main():
         fp = open(sys.argv[1])
         nlines = len(fp.readlines())
         print(nlines)
         # The file is closed implicitly

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

該腳本不會明確關閉檔案。預設情況下，Python 不會發出任何警告。使用
README.txt 的範例，該檔案有 269 列：

     $ python script.py README.txt
     269

啟用 Python 開發模式會顯示 *note ResourceWarning: aa3. 警告：

     $ python -X dev script.py README.txt
     269
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback

此外，啟用 *note tracemalloc: fa. 會顯示檔案被開啟的那一列：

     $ python -X dev -X tracemalloc=5 script.py README.rst
     269
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     Object allocated at (most recent call last):
       File "script.py", lineno 10
         main()
       File "script.py", lineno 4
         fp = open(sys.argv[1])

修復方法是明確關閉該檔案。以下是使用情境管理器的範例：

     def main():
         # Close the file explicitly when exiting the with block
         with open(sys.argv[1]) as fp:
             nlines = len(fp.readlines())
         print(nlines)

不明確關閉資源可能會使資源開啟的時間比預期的長得多；它可能會在退出
Python 時導致嚴重問題。在 CPython 中很糟糕，但在 PyPy 中更糟。明確關閉資
源使應用程式更具確定性和可靠性。


File: python.info,  Node: 檔案描述器的錯誤範例,  Prev: ResourceWarning 範例,  Up: Python 開發模式

5.26.3.3 檔案描述器的錯誤範例
.............................

顯示自身第一列的腳本：

     import os

     def main():
         fp = open(__file__)
         firstline = fp.readline()
         print(firstline.rstrip())
         os.close(fp.fileno())
         # The file is closed implicitly

     main()

預設情況下，Python 不會發出任何警告：

     $ python script.py
     import os

Python 開發模式在最終化 (finalize) 檔案物件時顯示 *note ResourceWarning:
aa3. 並記錄 "Bad file descriptor" 錯誤：

     $ python -X dev script.py
     import os
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback
     Exception ignored in: <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "script.py", line 10, in <module>
         main()
     OSError: [Errno 9] Bad file descriptor

‘os.close(fp.fileno())’ 會關閉檔案描述器。當檔案物件最終化函式
(finalizer) 嘗試再次關閉檔案描述器時，它會失敗並出現 ‘Bad file
descriptor’ 錯誤。檔案描述器只能關閉一次。在最壞的情況下，將它關閉兩次可
能會導致崩潰 (crash)（相關範例請參閱 bpo-18748(1)）。

修復方法是刪除 ‘os.close(fp.fileno())’ 那列，或使用 ‘closefd=False’ 開啟
檔案。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748


File: python.info,  Node: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例,  Next: unittest --- 單元測試框架,  Prev: Python 開發模式,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.4 ‘doctest’ -- 測試互動式 Python 範例
------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/doctest.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note doctest: 36. module searches for pieces of text that look like
interactive Python sessions, and then executes those sessions to verify
that they work exactly as shown.  There are several common ways to use
doctest:

   * To check that a module's docstrings are up-to-date by verifying
     that all interactive examples still work as documented.

   * To perform regression testing by verifying that interactive
     examples from a test file or a test object work as expected.

   * To write tutorial documentation for a package, liberally
     illustrated with input-output examples.  Depending on whether the
     examples or the expository text are emphasized, this has the flavor
     of "literate testing" or "executable documentation".

Here's a complete but small example module:

     """
     This is the "example" module.

     The example module supplies one function, factorial().  For example,

     >>> factorial(5)
     120
     """

     def factorial(n):
         """Return the factorial of n, an exact integer >= 0.

         >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
         [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
         >>> factorial(30)
         265252859812191058636308480000000
         >>> factorial(-1)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         ValueError: n must be >= 0

         Factorials of floats are OK, but the float must be an exact integer:
         >>> factorial(30.1)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         ValueError: n must be exact integer
         >>> factorial(30.0)
         265252859812191058636308480000000

         It must also not be ridiculously large:
         >>> factorial(1e100)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         OverflowError: n too large
         """

         import math
         if not n >= 0:
             raise ValueError("n must be >= 0")
         if math.floor(n) != n:
             raise ValueError("n must be exact integer")
         if n+1 == n:  # catch a value like 1e300
             raise OverflowError("n too large")
         result = 1
         factor = 2
         while factor <= n:
             result *= factor
             factor += 1
         return result


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import doctest
         doctest.testmod()

If you run ‘example.py’ directly from the command line, *note doctest:
36. works its magic:

     $ python example.py
     $

There's no output!  That's normal, and it means all the examples worked.
Pass ‘-v’ to the script, and *note doctest: 36. prints a detailed log of
what it's trying, and prints a summary at the end:

     $ python example.py -v
     Trying:
         factorial(5)
     Expecting:
         120
     ok
     Trying:
         [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
     Expecting:
         [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
     ok

And so on, eventually ending with:

     Trying:
         factorial(1e100)
     Expecting:
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         OverflowError: n too large
     ok
     2 items passed all tests:
        1 tests in __main__
        8 tests in __main__.factorial
     9 tests in 2 items.
     9 passed and 0 failed.
     Test passed.
     $

That's all you need to know to start making productive use of *note
doctest: 36.!  Jump in.  The following sections provide full details.
Note that there are many examples of doctests in the standard Python
test suite and libraries.  Especially useful examples can be found in
the standard test file ‘Lib/test/test_doctest/test_doctest.py’.

* Menu:

* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings.
* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File.
* How It Works::
* 基礎 API::
* Unittest API::
* Advanced API::
* Debugging::
* Soapbox::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/doctest.py


File: python.info,  Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings,  Next: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File,  Up: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例

5.26.4.1 Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings
......................................................

The simplest way to start using doctest (but not necessarily the way
you'll continue to do it) is to end each module ‘M’ with:

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import doctest
         doctest.testmod()

‘doctest’ then examines docstrings in module ‘M’.

Running the module as a script causes the examples in the docstrings to
get executed and verified:

     python M.py

This won't display anything unless an example fails, in which case the
failing example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to
stdout, and the final line of output is ‘***Test Failed*** N failures.’,
where 'N' is the number of examples that failed.

Run it with the ‘-v’ switch instead:

     python M.py -v

and a detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard
output, along with assorted summaries at the end.

You can force verbose mode by passing ‘verbose=True’ to *note testmod():
12dd, or prohibit it by passing ‘verbose=False’.  In either of those
cases, ‘sys.argv’ is not examined by *note testmod(): 12dd. (so passing
‘-v’ or not has no effect).

There is also a command line shortcut for running *note testmod(): 12dd.
You can instruct the Python interpreter to run the doctest module
directly from the standard library and pass the module name(s) on the
command line:

     python -m doctest -v example.py

This will import ‘example.py’ as a standalone module and run *note
testmod(): 12dd. on it.  Note that this may not work correctly if the
file is part of a package and imports other submodules from that
package.

For more information on *note testmod(): 12dd, see section *note 基礎
API: 3cda.


File: python.info,  Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File,  Next: How It Works,  Prev: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings,  Up: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例

5.26.4.2 Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File
.......................................................

Another simple application of doctest is testing interactive examples in
a text file.  This can be done with the *note testfile(): 3cdd.
function:

     import doctest
     doctest.testfile("example.txt")

That short script executes and verifies any interactive Python examples
contained in the file ‘example.txt’.  The file content is treated as if
it were a single giant docstring; the file doesn't need to contain a
Python program!  For example, perhaps ‘example.txt’ contains this:

     The ``example`` module
     ======================

     Using ``factorial``
     -------------------

     This is an example text file in reStructuredText format.  First import
     ``factorial`` from the ``example`` module:

         >>> from example import factorial

     Now use it:

         >>> factorial(6)
         120

Running ‘doctest.testfile("example.txt")’ then finds the error in this
documentation:

     File "./example.txt", line 14, in example.txt
     Failed example:
         factorial(6)
     Expected:
         120
     Got:
         720

As with *note testmod(): 12dd, *note testfile(): 3cdd. won't display
anything unless an example fails.  If an example does fail, then the
failing example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to
stdout, using the same format as *note testmod(): 12dd.

By default, *note testfile(): 3cdd. looks for files in the calling
module's directory.  See section *note 基礎 API: 3cda. for a description
of the optional arguments that can be used to tell it to look for files
in other locations.

Like *note testmod(): 12dd, *note testfile(): 3cdd.'s verbosity can be
set with the ‘-v’ command-line switch or with the optional keyword
argument 'verbose'.

There is also a command line shortcut for running *note testfile():
3cdd.  You can instruct the Python interpreter to run the doctest module
directly from the standard library and pass the file name(s) on the
command line:

     python -m doctest -v example.txt

Because the file name does not end with ‘.py’, *note doctest: 36. infers
that it must be run with *note testfile(): 3cdd, not *note testmod():
12dd.

For more information on *note testfile(): 3cdd, see section *note 基礎
API: 3cda.


File: python.info,  Node: How It Works,  Next: 基礎 API,  Prev: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File,  Up: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例

5.26.4.3 How It Works
.....................

This section examines in detail how doctest works: which docstrings it
looks at, how it finds interactive examples, what execution context it
uses, how it handles exceptions, and how option flags can be used to
control its behavior.  This is the information that you need to know to
write doctest examples; for information about actually running doctest
on these examples, see the following sections.

* Menu:

* Which Docstrings Are Examined?::
* How are Docstring Examples Recognized?::
* What's the Execution Context?::
* What About Exceptions?::
* 可選旗標::
* Directives::
* 警告: 警告<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Which Docstrings Are Examined?,  Next: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.4 Which Docstrings Are Examined?
.......................................

The module docstring, and all function, class and method docstrings are
searched.  Objects imported into the module are not searched.

In addition, there are cases when you want tests to be part of a module
but not part of the help text, which requires that the tests not be
included in the docstring.  Doctest looks for a module-level variable
called ‘__test__’ and uses it to locate other tests.  If ‘M.__test__’
exists, it must be a dict, and each entry maps a (string) name to a
function object, class object, or string.  Function and class object
docstrings found from ‘M.__test__’ are searched, and strings are treated
as if they were docstrings.  In output, a key ‘K’ in ‘M.__test__’
appears with name ‘M.__test__.K’.

For example, place this block of code at the top of ‘example.py’:

     __test__ = {
         'numbers': """
     >>> factorial(6)
     720

     >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
     [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
     """
     }

The value of ‘example.__test__["numbers"]’ will be treated as a
docstring and all the tests inside it will be run.  It is important to
note that the value can be mapped to a function, class object, or
module; if so, ‘doctest’ searches them recursively for docstrings, which
are then scanned for tests.

Any classes found are recursively searched similarly, to test docstrings
in their contained methods and nested classes.


File: python.info,  Node: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?,  Next: What's the Execution Context?,  Prev: Which Docstrings Are Examined?,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.5 How are Docstring Examples Recognized?
...............................................

In most cases a copy-and-paste of an interactive console session works
fine, but doctest isn't trying to do an exact emulation of any specific
Python shell.

     >>> # 註解會被忽略
     >>> x = 12
     >>> x
     12
     >>> if x == 13:
     ...     print("yes")
     ... else:
     ...     print("no")
     ...     print("NO")
     ...     print("NO!!!")
     ...
     no
     NO
     NO!!!
     >>>

Any expected output must immediately follow the final ‘'>>> '’ or ‘'...
'’ line containing the code, and the expected output (if any) extends to
the next ‘'>>> '’ or all-whitespace line.

The fine print:

   * Expected output cannot contain an all-whitespace line, since such a
     line is taken to signal the end of expected output.  If expected
     output does contain a blank line, put ‘<BLANKLINE>’ in your doctest
     example each place a blank line is expected.

   * All hard tab characters are expanded to spaces, using 8-column tab
     stops.  Tabs in output generated by the tested code are not
     modified.  Because any hard tabs in the sample output 'are'
     expanded, this means that if the code output includes hard tabs,
     the only way the doctest can pass is if the *note
     NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 3ce4. option or *note directive: 3ce5. is in
     effect.  Alternatively, the test can be rewritten to capture the
     output and compare it to an expected value as part of the test.
     This handling of tabs in the source was arrived at through trial
     and error, and has proven to be the least error prone way of
     handling them.  It is possible to use a different algorithm for
     handling tabs by writing a custom *note DocTestParser: 3ce6. class.

   * Output to stdout is captured, but not output to stderr (exception
     tracebacks are captured via a different means).

   * If you continue a line via backslashing in an interactive session,
     or for any other reason use a backslash, you should use a raw
     docstring, which will preserve your backslashes exactly as you type
     them:

          >>> def f(x):
          ...     r'''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n'''
          ...
          >>> print(f.__doc__)
          Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

     Otherwise, the backslash will be interpreted as part of the string.
     For example, the ‘\n’ above would be interpreted as a newline
     character.  Alternatively, you can double each backslash in the
     doctest version (and not use a raw string):

          >>> def f(x):
          ...     '''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\\n'''
          ...
          >>> print(f.__doc__)
          Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

   * The starting column doesn't matter:

          >>> assert "Easy!"
                >>> import math
                    >>> math.floor(1.9)
                    1

     and as many leading whitespace characters are stripped from the
     expected output as appeared in the initial ‘'>>> '’ line that
     started the example.


File: python.info,  Node: What's the Execution Context?,  Next: What About Exceptions?,  Prev: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.6 What's the Execution Context?
......................................

By default, each time *note doctest: 36. finds a docstring to test, it
uses a 'shallow copy' of ‘M’'s globals, so that running tests doesn't
change the module's real globals, and so that one test in ‘M’ can't
leave behind crumbs that accidentally allow another test to work.  This
means examples can freely use any names defined at top-level in ‘M’, and
names defined earlier in the docstring being run.  Examples cannot see
names defined in other docstrings.

You can force use of your own dict as the execution context by passing
‘globs=your_dict’ to *note testmod(): 12dd. or *note testfile(): 3cdd.
instead.


File: python.info,  Node: What About Exceptions?,  Next: 可選旗標,  Prev: What's the Execution Context?,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.7 What About Exceptions?
...............................

No problem, provided that the traceback is the only output produced by
the example: just paste in the traceback.  (1)  Since tracebacks contain
details that are likely to change rapidly (for example, exact file paths
and line numbers), this is one case where doctest works hard to be
flexible in what it accepts.

簡單範例：

     >>> [1, 2, 3].remove(42)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list

That doctest succeeds if *note ValueError: 183. is raised, with the
‘list.remove(x): x not in list’ detail as shown.

The expected output for an exception must start with a traceback header,
which may be either of the following two lines, indented the same as the
first line of the example:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
     Traceback (innermost last):

The traceback header is followed by an optional traceback stack, whose
contents are ignored by doctest.  The traceback stack is typically
omitted, or copied verbatim from an interactive session.

The traceback stack is followed by the most interesting part: the
line(s) containing the exception type and detail.  This is usually the
last line of a traceback, but can extend across multiple lines if the
exception has a multi-line detail:

     >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: multi
         line
     detail

The last three lines (starting with *note ValueError: 183.) are compared
against the exception's type and detail, and the rest are ignored.

Best practice is to omit the traceback stack, unless it adds significant
documentation value to the example.  So the last example is probably
better as:

     >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: multi
         line
     detail

Note that tracebacks are treated very specially.  In particular, in the
rewritten example, the use of ‘...’ is independent of doctest's *note
ELLIPSIS: 12de. option.  The ellipsis in that example could be left out,
or could just as well be three (or three hundred) commas or digits, or
an indented transcript of a Monty Python skit.

Some details you should read once, but won't need to remember:

   * Doctest can't guess whether your expected output came from an
     exception traceback or from ordinary printing.  So, e.g., an
     example that expects ‘ValueError: 42 is prime’ will pass whether
     *note ValueError: 183. is actually raised or if the example merely
     prints that traceback text.  In practice, ordinary output rarely
     begins with a traceback header line, so this doesn't create real
     problems.

   * Each line of the traceback stack (if present) must be indented
     further than the first line of the example, 'or' start with a
     non-alphanumeric character.  The first line following the traceback
     header indented the same and starting with an alphanumeric is taken
     to be the start of the exception detail.  Of course this does the
     right thing for genuine tracebacks.

   * When the *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 119a. doctest option is
     specified, everything following the leftmost colon and any module
     information in the exception name is ignored.

   * The interactive shell omits the traceback header line for some
     *note SyntaxError: 146.s.  But doctest uses the traceback header
     line to distinguish exceptions from non-exceptions.  So in the rare
     case where you need to test a *note SyntaxError: 146. that omits
     the traceback header, you will need to manually add the traceback
     header line to your test example.

   * For some exceptions, Python displays the position of the error
     using ‘^’ markers and tildes:

          >>> 1 + None
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              1 + None
              ~~^~~~~~
          TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

     Since the lines showing the position of the error come before the
     exception type and detail, they are not checked by doctest.  For
     example, the following test would pass, even though it puts the ‘^’
     marker in the wrong location:

          >>> 1 + None
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              1 + None
              ^~~~~~~~
          TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Examples containing both expected output and an exception are not
supported.  Trying to guess where one ends and the other begins is too
error-prone, and that also makes for a confusing test.


File: python.info,  Node: 可選旗標,  Next: Directives,  Prev: What About Exceptions?,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.8 可選旗標
.................

A number of option flags control various aspects of doctest's behavior.
Symbolic names for the flags are supplied as module constants, which can
be *note bitwise ORed: 1dff. together and passed to various functions.
The names can also be used in *note doctest directives: 3ce5, and may be
passed to the doctest command line interface via the ‘-o’ option.

在 3.4 版被加入: The ‘-o’ command line option.

The first group of options define test semantics, controlling aspects of
how doctest decides whether actual output matches an example's expected
output:

 -- 資料: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1

     By default, if an expected output block contains just ‘1’, an
     actual output block containing just ‘1’ or just ‘True’ is
     considered to be a match, and similarly for ‘0’ versus ‘False’.
     When *note DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1: 3ced. is specified, neither
     substitution is allowed.  The default behavior caters to that
     Python changed the return type of many functions from integer to
     boolean; doctests expecting "little integer" output still work in
     these cases.  This option will probably go away, but not for
     several years.

 -- 資料: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE

     By default, if an expected output block contains a line containing
     only the string ‘<BLANKLINE>’, then that line will match a blank
     line in the actual output.  Because a genuinely blank line delimits
     the expected output, this is the only way to communicate that a
     blank line is expected.  When *note DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE: 3cee. is
     specified, this substitution is not allowed.

 -- 資料: doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE

     When specified, all sequences of whitespace (blanks and newlines)
     are treated as equal.  Any sequence of whitespace within the
     expected output will match any sequence of whitespace within the
     actual output.  By default, whitespace must match exactly.  *note
     NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 3ce4. is especially useful when a line of
     expected output is very long, and you want to wrap it across
     multiple lines in your source.

 -- 資料: doctest.ELLIPSIS

     When specified, an ellipsis marker (‘...’) in the expected output
     can match any substring in the actual output.  This includes
     substrings that span line boundaries, and empty substrings, so it's
     best to keep usage of this simple.  Complicated uses can lead to
     the same kinds of "oops, it matched too much!"  surprises that ‘.*’
     is prone to in regular expressions.

 -- 資料: doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL

     When specified, doctests expecting exceptions pass so long as an
     exception of the expected type is raised, even if the details
     (message and fully qualified exception name) don't match.

     For example, an example expecting ‘ValueError: 42’ will pass if the
     actual exception raised is ‘ValueError: 3*14’, but will fail if,
     say, a *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised instead.  It will also
     ignore any fully qualified name included before the exception
     class, which can vary between implementations and versions of
     Python and the code/libraries in use.  Hence, all three of these
     variations will work with the flag specified:

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Exception: message

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          builtins.Exception: message

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          __main__.Exception: message

     Note that *note ELLIPSIS: 12de. can also be used to ignore the
     details of the exception message, but such a test may still fail
     based on whether the module name is present or matches exactly.

     在 3.2 版的變更: *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 119a. now also
     ignores any information relating to the module containing the
     exception under test.

 -- 資料: doctest.SKIP

     When specified, do not run the example at all.  This can be useful
     in contexts where doctest examples serve as both documentation and
     test cases, and an example should be included for documentation
     purposes, but should not be checked.  E.g., the example's output
     might be random; or the example might depend on resources which
     would be unavailable to the test driver.

     The SKIP flag can also be used for temporarily "commenting out"
     examples.

 -- 資料: doctest.COMPARISON_FLAGS

     A bitmask or'ing together all the comparison flags above.

The second group of options controls how test failures are reported:

 -- 資料: doctest.REPORT_UDIFF

     When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and
     actual outputs are displayed using a unified diff.

 -- 資料: doctest.REPORT_CDIFF

     When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and
     actual outputs will be displayed using a context diff.

 -- 資料: doctest.REPORT_NDIFF

     When specified, differences are computed by ‘difflib.Differ’, using
     the same algorithm as the popular ‘ndiff.py’ utility.  This is the
     only method that marks differences within lines as well as across
     lines.  For example, if a line of expected output contains digit
     ‘1’ where actual output contains letter ‘l’, a line is inserted
     with a caret marking the mismatching column positions.

 -- 資料: doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE

     When specified, display the first failing example in each doctest,
     but suppress output for all remaining examples.  This will prevent
     doctest from reporting correct examples that break because of
     earlier failures; but it might also hide incorrect examples that
     fail independently of the first failure.  When *note
     REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE: 3cf1. is specified, the remaining
     examples are still run, and still count towards the total number of
     failures reported; only the output is suppressed.

 -- 資料: doctest.FAIL_FAST

     When specified, exit after the first failing example and don't
     attempt to run the remaining examples.  Thus, the number of
     failures reported will be at most 1.  This flag may be useful
     during debugging, since examples after the first failure won't even
     produce debugging output.

     The doctest command line accepts the option ‘-f’ as a shorthand for
     ‘-o FAIL_FAST’.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: doctest.REPORTING_FLAGS

     A bitmask or'ing together all the reporting flags above.

There is also a way to register new option flag names, though this isn't
useful unless you intend to extend *note doctest: 36. internals via
subclassing:

 -- 函式: doctest.register_optionflag (name)

     Create a new option flag with a given name, and return the new
     flag's integer value.  *note register_optionflag(): 3cf3. can be
     used when subclassing *note OutputChecker: 3cf4. or *note
     DocTestRunner: 3cf5. to create new options that are supported by
     your subclasses.  *note register_optionflag(): 3cf3. should always
     be called using the following idiom:

          MY_FLAG = register_optionflag('MY_FLAG')


File: python.info,  Node: Directives,  Next: 警告<2>,  Prev: 可選旗標,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.9 Directives
...................

Doctest directives may be used to modify the *note option flags: dc0.
for an individual example.  Doctest directives are special Python
comments following an example's source code:

     directive             ::= "#" "doctest:" directive_options
     directive_options     ::= directive_option ("," directive_option)*
     directive_option      ::= on_or_off directive_option_name
     on_or_off             ::= "+" | "-"
     directive_option_name ::= "DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE" | "NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE" | ...

Whitespace is not allowed between the ‘+’ or ‘-’ and the directive
option name.  The directive option name can be any of the option flag
names explained above.

An example's doctest directives modify doctest's behavior for that
single example.  Use ‘+’ to enable the named behavior, or ‘-’ to disable
it.

For example, this test passes:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,   1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,
     10,  11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]

Without the directive it would fail, both because the actual output
doesn't have two blanks before the single-digit list elements, and
because the actual output is on a single line.  This test also passes,
and also requires a directive to do so:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     [0, 1, ..., 18, 19]

Multiple directives can be used on a single physical line, separated by
commas:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS, +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

If multiple directive comments are used for a single example, then they
are combined:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     ...                         # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

As the previous example shows, you can add ‘...’ lines to your example
containing only directives.  This can be useful when an example is too
long for a directive to comfortably fit on the same line:

     >>> print(list(range(5)) + list(range(10, 20)) + list(range(30, 40)))
     ... # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     [0, ..., 4, 10, ..., 19, 30, ..., 39]

Note that since all options are disabled by default, and directives
apply only to the example they appear in, enabling options (via ‘+’ in a
directive) is usually the only meaningful choice.  However, option flags
can also be passed to functions that run doctests, establishing
different defaults.  In such cases, disabling an option via ‘-’ in a
directive can be useful.


File: python.info,  Node: 警告<2>,  Prev: Directives,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.10 警告
..............

*note doctest: 36. is serious about requiring exact matches in expected
output.  If even a single character doesn't match, the test fails.  This
will probably surprise you a few times, as you learn exactly what Python
does and doesn't guarantee about output.  For example, when printing a
set, Python doesn't guarantee that the element is printed in any
particular order, so a test like

     >>> foo()
     {"spam", "eggs"}

is vulnerable!  One workaround is to do

     >>> foo() == {"spam", "eggs"}
     True

instead.  Another is to do

     >>> d = sorted(foo())
     >>> d
     ['eggs', 'spam']

There are others, but you get the idea.

Another bad idea is to print things that embed an object address, like

     >>> id(1.0)  # certain to fail some of the time
     7948648
     >>> class C: pass
     >>> C()  # the default repr() for instances embeds an address
     <C object at 0x00AC18F0>

The *note ELLIPSIS: 12de. directive gives a nice approach for the last
example:

     >>> C()  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     <C object at 0x...>

Floating-point numbers are also subject to small output variations
across platforms, because Python defers to the platform C library for
float formatting, and C libraries vary widely in quality here.

     >>> 1./7  # risky
     0.14285714285714285
     >>> print(1./7) # safer
     0.142857142857
     >>> print(round(1./7, 6)) # much safer
     0.142857

Numbers of the form ‘I/2.**J’ are safe across all platforms, and I often
contrive doctest examples to produce numbers of that form:

     >>> 3./4  # utterly safe
     0.75

Simple fractions are also easier for people to understand, and that
makes for better documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: 基礎 API,  Next: Unittest API,  Prev: How It Works,  Up: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例

5.26.4.11 基礎 API
..................

The functions *note testmod(): 12dd. and *note testfile(): 3cdd. provide
a simple interface to doctest that should be sufficient for most basic
uses.  For a less formal introduction to these two functions, see
sections *note Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: 3cd8. and
*note Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: 3cdb.

 -- 函式: doctest.testfile (filename, module_relative=True, name=None,
          package=None, globs=None, verbose=None, report=True,
          optionflags=0, extraglobs=None, raise_on_error=False,
          parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

     All arguments except 'filename' are optional, and should be
     specified in keyword form.

     Test examples in the file named 'filename'.  Return
     ‘(failure_count, test_count)’.

     Optional argument 'module_relative' specifies how the filename
     should be interpreted:

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘True’ (the default), then 'filename'
          specifies an OS-independent module-relative path.  By default,
          this path is relative to the calling module's directory; but
          if the 'package' argument is specified, then it is relative to
          that package.  To ensure OS-independence, 'filename' should
          use ‘/’ characters to separate path segments, and may not be
          an absolute path (i.e., it may not begin with ‘/’).

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘False’, then 'filename' specifies an
          OS-specific path.  The path may be absolute or relative;
          relative paths are resolved with respect to the current
          working directory.

     Optional argument 'name' gives the name of the test; by default, or
     if ‘None’, ‘os.path.basename(filename)’ is used.

     Optional argument 'package' is a Python package or the name of a
     Python package whose directory should be used as the base directory
     for a module-relative filename.  If no package is specified, then
     the calling module's directory is used as the base directory for
     module-relative filenames.  It is an error to specify 'package' if
     'module_relative' is ‘False’.

     Optional argument 'globs' gives a dict to be used as the globals
     when executing examples.  A new shallow copy of this dict is
     created for the doctest, so its examples start with a clean slate.
     By default, or if ‘None’, a new empty dict is used.

     Optional argument 'extraglobs' gives a dict merged into the globals
     used to execute examples.  This works like *note dict.update():
     12d5.: if 'globs' and 'extraglobs' have a common key, the
     associated value in 'extraglobs' appears in the combined dict.  By
     default, or if ‘None’, no extra globals are used.  This is an
     advanced feature that allows parameterization of doctests.  For
     example, a doctest can be written for a base class, using a generic
     name for the class, then reused to test any number of subclasses by
     passing an 'extraglobs' dict mapping the generic name to the
     subclass to be tested.

     Optional argument 'verbose' prints lots of stuff if true, and
     prints only failures if false; by default, or if ‘None’, it's true
     if and only if ‘'-v'’ is in ‘sys.argv’.

     Optional argument 'report' prints a summary at the end when true,
     else prints nothing at the end.  In verbose mode, the summary is
     detailed, else the summary is very brief (in fact, empty if all
     tests passed).

     Optional argument 'optionflags' (default value 0) takes the *note
     bitwise OR: 1dff. of option flags.  See section *note 可選旗標:
     dc0.

     Optional argument 'raise_on_error' defaults to false.  If true, an
     exception is raised upon the first failure or unexpected exception
     in an example.  This allows failures to be post-mortem debugged.
     Default behavior is to continue running examples.

     Optional argument 'parser' specifies a *note DocTestParser: 3ce6.
     (or subclass) that should be used to extract tests from the files.
     It defaults to a normal parser (i.e., ‘DocTestParser()’).

     Optional argument 'encoding' specifies an encoding that should be
     used to convert the file to unicode.

 -- 函式: doctest.testmod (m=None, name=None, globs=None, verbose=None,
          report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None,
          raise_on_error=False, exclude_empty=False)

     All arguments are optional, and all except for 'm' should be
     specified in keyword form.

     Test examples in docstrings in functions and classes reachable from
     module 'm' (or module *note __main__: 1. if 'm' is not supplied or
     is ‘None’), starting with ‘m.__doc__’.

     Also test examples reachable from dict ‘m.__test__’, if it exists.
     ‘m.__test__’ maps names (strings) to functions, classes and
     strings; function and class docstrings are searched for examples;
     strings are searched directly, as if they were docstrings.

     Only docstrings attached to objects belonging to module 'm' are
     searched.

     Return ‘(failure_count, test_count)’.

     Optional argument 'name' gives the name of the module; by default,
     or if ‘None’, ‘m.__name__’ is used.

     Optional argument 'exclude_empty' defaults to false.  If true,
     objects for which no doctests are found are excluded from
     consideration.  The default is a backward compatibility hack, so
     that code still using *note doctest.master.summarize: 3cff. in
     conjunction with *note testmod(): 12dd. continues to get output for
     objects with no tests.  The 'exclude_empty' argument to the newer
     *note DocTestFinder: 141a. constructor defaults to true.

     Optional arguments 'extraglobs', 'verbose', 'report',
     'optionflags', 'raise_on_error', and 'globs' are the same as for
     function *note testfile(): 3cdd. above, except that 'globs'
     defaults to ‘m.__dict__’.

 -- 函式: doctest.run_docstring_examples (f, globs, verbose=False,
          name='NoName', compileflags=None, optionflags=0)

     Test examples associated with object 'f'; for example, 'f' may be a
     string, a module, a function, or a class object.

     A shallow copy of dictionary argument 'globs' is used for the
     execution context.

     Optional argument 'name' is used in failure messages, and defaults
     to ‘"NoName"’.

     If optional argument 'verbose' is true, output is generated even if
     there are no failures.  By default, output is generated only in
     case of an example failure.

     Optional argument 'compileflags' gives the set of flags that should
     be used by the Python compiler when running the examples.  By
     default, or if ‘None’, flags are deduced corresponding to the set
     of future features found in 'globs'.

     Optional argument 'optionflags' works as for function *note
     testfile(): 3cdd. above.


File: python.info,  Node: Unittest API,  Next: Advanced API,  Prev: 基礎 API,  Up: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例

5.26.4.12 Unittest API
......................

As your collection of doctest'ed modules grows, you'll want a way to run
all their doctests systematically.  *note doctest: 36. provides two
functions that can be used to create *note unittest: 101. test suites
from modules and text files containing doctests.  To integrate with
*note unittest: 101. test discovery, include a *note load_tests: 3d03.
function in your test module:

     import unittest
     import doctest
     import my_module_with_doctests

     def load_tests(loader, tests, ignore):
         tests.addTests(doctest.DocTestSuite(my_module_with_doctests))
         return tests

There are two main functions for creating *note unittest.TestSuite: c6c.
instances from text files and modules with doctests:

 -- 函式: doctest.DocFileSuite (*paths, module_relative=True,
          package=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None, globs=None,
          optionflags=0, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

     Convert doctest tests from one or more text files to a *note
     unittest.TestSuite: c6c.

     The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: c6c. is to be run by the
     unittest framework and runs the interactive examples in each file.
     If an example in any file fails, then the synthesized unit test
     fails, and a *note failureException: 3d05. exception is raised
     showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes
     approximate) line number.

     Pass one or more paths (as strings) to text files to be examined.

     Options may be provided as keyword arguments:

     Optional argument 'module_relative' specifies how the filenames in
     'paths' should be interpreted:

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘True’ (the default), then each
          filename in 'paths' specifies an OS-independent
          module-relative path.  By default, this path is relative to
          the calling module's directory; but if the 'package' argument
          is specified, then it is relative to that package.  To ensure
          OS-independence, each filename should use ‘/’ characters to
          separate path segments, and may not be an absolute path (i.e.,
          it may not begin with ‘/’).

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘False’, then each filename in 'paths'
          specifies an OS-specific path.  The path may be absolute or
          relative; relative paths are resolved with respect to the
          current working directory.

     Optional argument 'package' is a Python package or the name of a
     Python package whose directory should be used as the base directory
     for module-relative filenames in 'paths'.  If no package is
     specified, then the calling module's directory is used as the base
     directory for module-relative filenames.  It is an error to specify
     'package' if 'module_relative' is ‘False’.

     Optional argument 'setUp' specifies a set-up function for the test
     suite.  This is called before running the tests in each file.  The
     'setUp' function will be passed a *note DocTest: 1465. object.  The
     setUp function can access the test globals as the 'globs' attribute
     of the test passed.

     Optional argument 'tearDown' specifies a tear-down function for the
     test suite.  This is called after running the tests in each file.
     The 'tearDown' function will be passed a *note DocTest: 1465.
     object.  The setUp function can access the test globals as the
     'globs' attribute of the test passed.

     Optional argument 'globs' is a dictionary containing the initial
     global variables for the tests.  A new copy of this dictionary is
     created for each test.  By default, 'globs' is a new empty
     dictionary.

     Optional argument 'optionflags' specifies the default doctest
     options for the tests, created by or-ing together individual option
     flags.  See section *note 可選旗標: dc0.  See function *note
     set_unittest_reportflags(): 3d06. below for a better way to set
     reporting options.

     Optional argument 'parser' specifies a *note DocTestParser: 3ce6.
     (or subclass) that should be used to extract tests from the files.
     It defaults to a normal parser (i.e., ‘DocTestParser()’).

     Optional argument 'encoding' specifies an encoding that should be
     used to convert the file to unicode.

     The global ‘__file__’ is added to the globals provided to doctests
     loaded from a text file using *note DocFileSuite(): 3d04.

 -- 函式: doctest.DocTestSuite (module=None, globs=None,
          extraglobs=None, test_finder=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None,
          optionflags=0, checker=None)

     Convert doctest tests for a module to a *note unittest.TestSuite:
     c6c.

     The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: c6c. is to be run by the
     unittest framework and runs each doctest in the module.  If any of
     the doctests fail, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a
     *note failureException: 3d05. exception is raised showing the name
     of the file containing the test and a (sometimes approximate) line
     number.

     Optional argument 'module' provides the module to be tested.  It
     can be a module object or a (possibly dotted) module name.  If not
     specified, the module calling this function is used.

     Optional argument 'globs' is a dictionary containing the initial
     global variables for the tests.  A new copy of this dictionary is
     created for each test.  By default, 'globs' is a new empty
     dictionary.

     Optional argument 'extraglobs' specifies an extra set of global
     variables, which is merged into 'globs'.  By default, no extra
     globals are used.

     Optional argument 'test_finder' is the *note DocTestFinder: 141a.
     object (or a drop-in replacement) that is used to extract doctests
     from the module.

     Optional arguments 'setUp', 'tearDown', and 'optionflags' are the
     same as for function *note DocFileSuite(): 3d04. above.

     This function uses the same search technique as *note testmod():
     12dd.

     在 3.5 版的變更: *note DocTestSuite(): c6b. returns an empty *note
     unittest.TestSuite: c6c. if 'module' contains no docstrings instead
     of raising *note ValueError: 183.

 -- 例外: doctest.failureException

     When doctests which have been converted to unit tests by *note
     DocFileSuite(): 3d04. or *note DocTestSuite(): c6b. fail, this
     exception is raised showing the name of the file containing the
     test and a (sometimes approximate) line number.

Under the covers, *note DocTestSuite(): c6b. creates a *note
unittest.TestSuite: c6c. out of ‘doctest.DocTestCase’ instances, and
‘DocTestCase’ is a subclass of *note unittest.TestCase: 159.
‘DocTestCase’ isn't documented here (it's an internal detail), but
studying its code can answer questions about the exact details of *note
unittest: 101. integration.

Similarly, *note DocFileSuite(): 3d04. creates a *note
unittest.TestSuite: c6c. out of ‘doctest.DocFileCase’ instances, and
‘DocFileCase’ is a subclass of ‘DocTestCase’.

So both ways of creating a *note unittest.TestSuite: c6c. run instances
of ‘DocTestCase’.  This is important for a subtle reason: when you run
*note doctest: 36. functions yourself, you can control the *note
doctest: 36. options in use directly, by passing option flags to *note
doctest: 36. functions.  However, if you're writing a *note unittest:
101. framework, *note unittest: 101. ultimately controls when and how
tests get run.  The framework author typically wants to control *note
doctest: 36. reporting options (perhaps, e.g., specified by command line
options), but there's no way to pass options through *note unittest:
101. to *note doctest: 36. test runners.

For this reason, *note doctest: 36. also supports a notion of *note
doctest: 36. reporting flags specific to *note unittest: 101. support,
via this function:

 -- 函式: doctest.set_unittest_reportflags (flags)

     Set the *note doctest: 36. reporting flags to use.

     Argument 'flags' takes the *note bitwise OR: 1dff. of option flags.
     See section *note 可選旗標: dc0.  Only "reporting flags" can be
     used.

     This is a module-global setting, and affects all future doctests
     run by module *note unittest: 101.: the ‘runTest()’ method of
     ‘DocTestCase’ looks at the option flags specified for the test case
     when the ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed.  If no reporting
     flags were specified (which is the typical and expected case),
     ‘doctest’'s *note unittest: 101. reporting flags are *note bitwise
     ORed: 1dff. into the option flags, and the option flags so
     augmented are passed to the *note DocTestRunner: 3cf5. instance
     created to run the doctest.  If any reporting flags were specified
     when the ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed, ‘doctest’'s *note
     unittest: 101. reporting flags are ignored.

     The value of the *note unittest: 101. reporting flags in effect
     before the function was called is returned by the function.


File: python.info,  Node: Advanced API,  Next: Debugging,  Prev: Unittest API,  Up: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例

5.26.4.13 Advanced API
......................

The basic API is a simple wrapper that's intended to make doctest easy
to use.  It is fairly flexible, and should meet most users' needs;
however, if you require more fine-grained control over testing, or wish
to extend doctest's capabilities, then you should use the advanced API.

The advanced API revolves around two container classes, which are used
to store the interactive examples extracted from doctest cases:

   * *note Example: 3d09.: A single Python *note statement: 2501, paired
     with its expected output.

   * *note DocTest: 1465.: A collection of *note Example: 3d09.s,
     typically extracted from a single docstring or text file.

Additional processing classes are defined to find, parse, and run, and
check doctest examples:

   * *note DocTestFinder: 141a.: Finds all docstrings in a given module,
     and uses a *note DocTestParser: 3ce6. to create a *note DocTest:
     1465. from every docstring that contains interactive examples.

   * *note DocTestParser: 3ce6.: Creates a *note DocTest: 1465. object
     from a string (such as an object's docstring).

   * *note DocTestRunner: 3cf5.: Executes the examples in a *note
     DocTest: 1465, and uses an *note OutputChecker: 3cf4. to verify
     their output.

   * *note OutputChecker: 3cf4.: Compares the actual output from a
     doctest example with the expected output, and decides whether they
     match.

The relationships among these processing classes are summarized in the
following diagram:

                                 list of:
     +------+                   +---------+
     |module| --DocTestFinder-> | DocTest | --DocTestRunner-> results
     +------+    |        ^     +---------+     |       ^    (printed)
                 |        |     | Example |     |       |
                 v        |     |   ...   |     v       |
                DocTestParser   | Example |   OutputChecker
                                +---------+

* Menu:

* DocTest 物件::
* Example 物件::
* DocTestFinder 物件::
* DocTestParser 物件::
* DocTestRunner 物件::
* OutputChecker 物件::


File: python.info,  Node: DocTest 物件,  Next: Example 物件,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.14 DocTest 物件
......................

 -- 類別: doctest.DocTest (examples, globs, name, filename, lineno,
          docstring)

     A collection of doctest examples that should be run in a single
     namespace.  The constructor arguments are used to initialize the
     attributes of the same names.

     *note DocTest: 1465. defines the following attributes.  They are
     initialized by the constructor, and should not be modified
     directly.

      -- 屬性: examples

          A list of *note Example: 3d09. objects encoding the individual
          interactive Python examples that should be run by this test.

      -- 屬性: globs

          The namespace (aka globals) that the examples should be run
          in.  This is a dictionary mapping names to values.  Any
          changes to the namespace made by the examples (such as binding
          new variables) will be reflected in *note globs: 3d0d. after
          the test is run.

      -- 屬性: name

          A string name identifying the *note DocTest: 1465.  Typically,
          this is the name of the object or file that the test was
          extracted from.

      -- 屬性: filename

          The name of the file that this *note DocTest: 1465. was
          extracted from; or ‘None’ if the filename is unknown, or if
          the *note DocTest: 1465. was not extracted from a file.

      -- 屬性: lineno

          The line number within *note filename: 3d0f. where this *note
          DocTest: 1465. begins, or ‘None’ if the line number is
          unavailable.  This line number is zero-based with respect to
          the beginning of the file.

      -- 屬性: docstring

          The string that the test was extracted from, or ‘None’ if the
          string is unavailable, or if the test was not extracted from a
          string.


File: python.info,  Node: Example 物件,  Next: DocTestFinder 物件,  Prev: DocTest 物件,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.15 Example 物件
......................

 -- 類別: doctest.Example (source, want, exc_msg=None, lineno=0,
          indent=0, options=None)

     A single interactive example, consisting of a Python statement and
     its expected output.  The constructor arguments are used to
     initialize the attributes of the same names.

     *note Example: 3d09. defines the following attributes.  They are
     initialized by the constructor, and should not be modified
     directly.

      -- 屬性: source

          A string containing the example's source code.  This source
          code consists of a single Python statement, and always ends
          with a newline; the constructor adds a newline when necessary.

      -- 屬性: want

          The expected output from running the example's source code
          (either from stdout, or a traceback in case of exception).
          *note want: 3d14. ends with a newline unless no output is
          expected, in which case it's an empty string.  The constructor
          adds a newline when necessary.

      -- 屬性: exc_msg

          The exception message generated by the example, if the example
          is expected to generate an exception; or ‘None’ if it is not
          expected to generate an exception.  This exception message is
          compared against the return value of *note
          traceback.format_exception_only(): 675.  *note exc_msg: 3d15.
          ends with a newline unless it's ‘None’.  The constructor adds
          a newline if needed.

      -- 屬性: lineno

          The line number within the string containing this example
          where the example begins.  This line number is zero-based with
          respect to the beginning of the containing string.

      -- 屬性: indent

          The example's indentation in the containing string, i.e., the
          number of space characters that precede the example's first
          prompt.

      -- 屬性: options

          A dictionary mapping from option flags to ‘True’ or ‘False’,
          which is used to override default options for this example.
          Any option flags not contained in this dictionary are left at
          their default value (as specified by the *note DocTestRunner:
          3cf5.'s *note optionflags: dc0.).  By default, no options are
          set.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestFinder 物件,  Next: DocTestParser 物件,  Prev: Example 物件,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.16 DocTestFinder 物件
............................

 -- 類別: doctest.DocTestFinder (verbose=False, parser=DocTestParser(),
          recurse=True, exclude_empty=True)

     A processing class used to extract the *note DocTest: 1465.s that
     are relevant to a given object, from its docstring and the
     docstrings of its contained objects.  *note DocTest: 1465.s can be
     extracted from modules, classes, functions, methods, staticmethods,
     classmethods, and properties.

     The optional argument 'verbose' can be used to display the objects
     searched by the finder.  It defaults to ‘False’ (no output).

     The optional argument 'parser' specifies the *note DocTestParser:
     3ce6. object (or a drop-in replacement) that is used to extract
     doctests from docstrings.

     If the optional argument 'recurse' is false, then *note
     DocTestFinder.find(): 1496. will only examine the given object, and
     not any contained objects.

     If the optional argument 'exclude_empty' is false, then *note
     DocTestFinder.find(): 1496. will include tests for objects with
     empty docstrings.

     *note DocTestFinder: 141a. defines the following method:

      -- 方法: find (obj[, name][, module][, globs][, extraglobs])

          Return a list of the *note DocTest: 1465.s that are defined by
          'obj"s docstring, or by any of its contained objects'
          docstrings.

          The optional argument 'name' specifies the object's name; this
          name will be used to construct names for the returned *note
          DocTest: 1465.s.  If 'name' is not specified, then
          ‘obj.__name__’ is used.

          The optional parameter 'module' is the module that contains
          the given object.  If the module is not specified or is
          ‘None’, then the test finder will attempt to automatically
          determine the correct module.  The object's module is used:

             * As a default namespace, if 'globs' is not specified.

             * To prevent the DocTestFinder from extracting DocTests
               from objects that are imported from other modules.
               (Contained objects with modules other than 'module' are
               ignored.)

             * To find the name of the file containing the object.

             * To help find the line number of the object within its
               file.

          If 'module' is ‘False’, no attempt to find the module will be
          made.  This is obscure, of use mostly in testing doctest
          itself: if 'module' is ‘False’, or is ‘None’ but cannot be
          found automatically, then all objects are considered to belong
          to the (non-existent) module, so all contained objects will
          (recursively) be searched for doctests.

          The globals for each *note DocTest: 1465. is formed by
          combining 'globs' and 'extraglobs' (bindings in 'extraglobs'
          override bindings in 'globs').  A new shallow copy of the
          globals dictionary is created for each *note DocTest: 1465.
          If 'globs' is not specified, then it defaults to the module's
          '__dict__', if specified, or ‘{}’ otherwise.  If 'extraglobs'
          is not specified, then it defaults to ‘{}’.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestParser 物件,  Next: DocTestRunner 物件,  Prev: DocTestFinder 物件,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.17 DocTestParser 物件
............................

 -- 類別: doctest.DocTestParser

     A processing class used to extract interactive examples from a
     string, and use them to create a *note DocTest: 1465. object.

     *note DocTestParser: 3ce6. defines the following methods:

      -- 方法: get_doctest (string, globs, name, filename, lineno)

          Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and
          collect them into a *note DocTest: 1465. object.

          'globs', 'name', 'filename', and 'lineno' are attributes for
          the new *note DocTest: 1465. object.  See the documentation
          for *note DocTest: 1465. for more information.

      -- 方法: get_examples (string, name='<string>')

          Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and return
          them as a list of *note Example: 3d09. objects.  Line numbers
          are 0-based.  The optional argument 'name' is a name
          identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.

      -- 方法: parse (string, name='<string>')

          Divide the given string into examples and intervening text,
          and return them as a list of alternating *note Example: 3d09.s
          and strings.  Line numbers for the *note Example: 3d09.s are
          0-based.  The optional argument 'name' is a name identifying
          this string, and is only used for error messages.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestRunner 物件,  Next: OutputChecker 物件,  Prev: DocTestParser 物件,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.18 DocTestRunner 物件
............................

 -- 類別: doctest.DocTestRunner (checker=None, verbose=None,
          optionflags=0)

     A processing class used to execute and verify the interactive
     examples in a *note DocTest: 1465.

     The comparison between expected outputs and actual outputs is done
     by an *note OutputChecker: 3cf4.  This comparison may be customized
     with a number of option flags; see section *note 可選旗標: dc0. for
     more information.  If the option flags are insufficient, then the
     comparison may also be customized by passing a subclass of *note
     OutputChecker: 3cf4. to the constructor.

     The test runner's display output can be controlled in two ways.
     First, an output function can be passed to *note run(): 3d22.; this
     function will be called with strings that should be displayed.  It
     defaults to ‘sys.stdout.write’.  If capturing the output is not
     sufficient, then the display output can be also customized by
     subclassing DocTestRunner, and overriding the methods *note
     report_start(): 3d23, *note report_success(): 3d24, *note
     report_unexpected_exception(): 3d25, and *note report_failure():
     3d26.

     The optional keyword argument 'checker' specifies the *note
     OutputChecker: 3cf4. object (or drop-in replacement) that should be
     used to compare the expected outputs to the actual outputs of
     doctest examples.

     The optional keyword argument 'verbose' controls the *note
     DocTestRunner: 3cf5.'s verbosity.  If 'verbose' is ‘True’, then
     information is printed about each example, as it is run.  If
     'verbose' is ‘False’, then only failures are printed.  If 'verbose'
     is unspecified, or ‘None’, then verbose output is used iff the
     command-line switch ‘-v’ is used.

     The optional keyword argument 'optionflags' can be used to control
     how the test runner compares expected output to actual output, and
     how it displays failures.  For more information, see section *note
     可選旗標: dc0.

     *note DocTestRunner: 3cf5. defines the following methods:

      -- 方法: report_start (out, test, example)

          Report that the test runner is about to process the given
          example.  This method is provided to allow subclasses of *note
          DocTestRunner: 3cf5. to customize their output; it should not
          be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'test' is the
          test 'containing example'.  'out' is the output function that
          was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 3d22.

      -- 方法: report_success (out, test, example, got)

          Report that the given example ran successfully.  This method
          is provided to allow subclasses of *note DocTestRunner: 3cf5.
          to customize their output; it should not be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'got' is the
          actual output from the example.  'test' is the test containing
          'example'.  'out' is the output function that was passed to
          *note DocTestRunner.run(): 3d22.

      -- 方法: report_failure (out, test, example, got)

          Report that the given example failed.  This method is provided
          to allow subclasses of *note DocTestRunner: 3cf5. to customize
          their output; it should not be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'got' is the
          actual output from the example.  'test' is the test containing
          'example'.  'out' is the output function that was passed to
          *note DocTestRunner.run(): 3d22.

      -- 方法: report_unexpected_exception (out, test, example,
               exc_info)

          Report that the given example raised an unexpected exception.
          This method is provided to allow subclasses of *note
          DocTestRunner: 3cf5. to customize their output; it should not
          be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'exc_info' is
          a tuple containing information about the unexpected exception
          (as returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 487.).  'test' is the
          test containing 'example'.  'out' is the output function that
          was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 3d22.

      -- 方法: run (test, compileflags=None, out=None, clear_globs=True)

          Run the examples in 'test' (a *note DocTest: 1465. object),
          and display the results using the writer function 'out'.

          The examples are run in the namespace ‘test.globs’.  If
          'clear_globs' is true (the default), then this namespace will
          be cleared after the test runs, to help with garbage
          collection.  If you would like to examine the namespace after
          the test completes, then use 'clear_globs=False'.

          'compileflags' gives the set of flags that should be used by
          the Python compiler when running the examples.  If not
          specified, then it will default to the set of future-import
          flags that apply to 'globs'.

          The output of each example is checked using the *note
          DocTestRunner: 3cf5.'s output checker, and the results are
          formatted by the ‘DocTestRunner.report_*()’ methods.

      -- 方法: summarize (verbose=None)

          Print a summary of all the test cases that have been run by
          this DocTestRunner, and return a *note named tuple: 449.
          ‘TestResults(failed, attempted)’.

          The optional 'verbose' argument controls how detailed the
          summary is.  If the verbosity is not specified, then the *note
          DocTestRunner: 3cf5.'s verbosity is used.


File: python.info,  Node: OutputChecker 物件,  Prev: DocTestRunner 物件,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.19 OutputChecker 物件
............................

 -- 類別: doctest.OutputChecker

     A class used to check the whether the actual output from a doctest
     example matches the expected output.  *note OutputChecker: 3cf4.
     defines two methods: *note check_output(): 3d29, which compares a
     given pair of outputs, and returns ‘True’ if they match; and *note
     output_difference(): 3d2a, which returns a string describing the
     differences between two outputs.

     *note OutputChecker: 3cf4. defines the following methods:

      -- 方法: check_output (want, got, optionflags)

          Return ‘True’ iff the actual output from an example ('got')
          matches the expected output ('want').  These strings are
          always considered to match if they are identical; but
          depending on what option flags the test runner is using,
          several non-exact match types are also possible.  See section
          *note 可選旗標: dc0. for more information about option flags.

      -- 方法: output_difference (example, got, optionflags)

          Return a string describing the differences between the
          expected output for a given example ('example') and the actual
          output ('got').  'optionflags' is the set of option flags used
          to compare 'want' and 'got'.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging,  Next: Soapbox,  Prev: Advanced API,  Up: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例

5.26.4.20 Debugging
...................

Doctest provides several mechanisms for debugging doctest examples:

   * Several functions convert doctests to executable Python programs,
     which can be run under the Python debugger, *note pdb: a0.

   * The *note DebugRunner: 3d2d. class is a subclass of *note
     DocTestRunner: 3cf5. that raises an exception for the first failing
     example, containing information about that example.  This
     information can be used to perform post-mortem debugging on the
     example.

   * The *note unittest: 101. cases generated by *note DocTestSuite():
     c6b. support the *note debug(): 3d2e. method defined by *note
     unittest.TestCase: 159.

   * You can add a call to *note pdb.set_trace(): 9c2. in a doctest
     example, and you'll drop into the Python debugger when that line is
     executed.  Then you can inspect current values of variables, and so
     on.  For example, suppose ‘a.py’ contains just this module
     docstring:

          """
          >>> def f(x):
          ...     g(x*2)
          >>> def g(x):
          ...     print(x+3)
          ...     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          >>> f(3)
          9
          """

     Then an interactive Python session may look like this:

          >>> import a, doctest
          >>> doctest.testmod(a)
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[1]>(3)g()->None
          -> import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          (Pdb) list
            1     def g(x):
            2         print(x+3)
            3  ->     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          [EOF]
          (Pdb) p x
          6
          (Pdb) step
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[0]>(2)f()->None
          -> g(x*2)
          (Pdb) list
            1     def f(x):
            2  ->     g(x*2)
          [EOF]
          (Pdb) p x
          3
          (Pdb) step
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[2]>(1)?()->None
          -> f(3)
          (Pdb) cont
          (0, 3)
          >>>

Functions that convert doctests to Python code, and possibly run the
synthesized code under the debugger:

 -- 函式: doctest.script_from_examples (s)

     Convert text with examples to a script.

     Argument 's' is a string containing doctest examples.  The string
     is converted to a Python script, where doctest examples in 's' are
     converted to regular code, and everything else is converted to
     Python comments.  The generated script is returned as a string.
     For example,

          import doctest
          print(doctest.script_from_examples(r"""
              Set x and y to 1 and 2.
              >>> x, y = 1, 2

              Print their sum:
              >>> print(x+y)
              3
          """))

     displays:

          # Set x and y to 1 and 2.
          x, y = 1, 2
          #
          # Print their sum:
          print(x+y)
          # Expected:
          ## 3

     This function is used internally by other functions (see below),
     but can also be useful when you want to transform an interactive
     Python session into a Python script.

 -- 函式: doctest.testsource (module, name)

     Convert the doctest for an object to a script.

     Argument 'module' is a module object, or dotted name of a module,
     containing the object whose doctests are of interest.  Argument
     'name' is the name (within the module) of the object with the
     doctests of interest.  The result is a string, containing the
     object's docstring converted to a Python script, as described for
     *note script_from_examples(): 3d2f. above.  For example, if module
     ‘a.py’ contains a top-level function ‘f()’, then

          import a, doctest
          print(doctest.testsource(a, "a.f"))

     prints a script version of function ‘f()’'s docstring, with
     doctests converted to code, and the rest placed in comments.

 -- 函式: doctest.debug (module, name, pm=False)

     Debug the doctests for an object.

     The 'module' and 'name' arguments are the same as for function
     *note testsource(): 3d30. above.  The synthesized Python script for
     the named object's docstring is written to a temporary file, and
     then that file is run under the control of the Python debugger,
     *note pdb: a0.

     A shallow copy of ‘module.__dict__’ is used for both local and
     global execution context.

     Optional argument 'pm' controls whether post-mortem debugging is
     used.  If 'pm' has a true value, the script file is run directly,
     and the debugger gets involved only if the script terminates via
     raising an unhandled exception.  If it does, then post-mortem
     debugging is invoked, via *note pdb.post_mortem(): 1249, passing
     the traceback object from the unhandled exception.  If 'pm' is not
     specified, or is false, the script is run under the debugger from
     the start, via passing an appropriate *note exec(): 6b1. call to
     *note pdb.run(): 3d31.

 -- 函式: doctest.debug_src (src, pm=False, globs=None)

     Debug the doctests in a string.

     This is like function *note debug(): 3d2e. above, except that a
     string containing doctest examples is specified directly, via the
     'src' argument.

     Optional argument 'pm' has the same meaning as in function *note
     debug(): 3d2e. above.

     Optional argument 'globs' gives a dictionary to use as both local
     and global execution context.  If not specified, or ‘None’, an
     empty dictionary is used.  If specified, a shallow copy of the
     dictionary is used.

The *note DebugRunner: 3d2d. class, and the special exceptions it may
raise, are of most interest to testing framework authors, and will only
be sketched here.  See the source code, and especially *note
DebugRunner: 3d2d.'s docstring (which is a doctest!)  for more details:

 -- 類別: doctest.DebugRunner (checker=None, verbose=None,
          optionflags=0)

     A subclass of *note DocTestRunner: 3cf5. that raises an exception
     as soon as a failure is encountered.  If an unexpected exception
     occurs, an *note UnexpectedException: 3d33. exception is raised,
     containing the test, the example, and the original exception.  If
     the output doesn't match, then a *note DocTestFailure: 3d34.
     exception is raised, containing the test, the example, and the
     actual output.

     For information about the constructor parameters and methods, see
     the documentation for *note DocTestRunner: 3cf5. in section *note
     Advanced API: 3d08.

There are two exceptions that may be raised by *note DebugRunner: 3d2d.
instances:

 -- 例外: doctest.DocTestFailure (test, example, got)

     An exception raised by *note DocTestRunner: 3cf5. to signal that a
     doctest example's actual output did not match its expected output.
     The constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of
     the same names.

*note DocTestFailure: 3d34. 定義了以下屬性：

 -- 屬性: DocTestFailure.test

     The *note DocTest: 1465. object that was being run when the example
     failed.

 -- 屬性: DocTestFailure.example

     The *note Example: 3d09. that failed.

 -- 屬性: DocTestFailure.got

     The example's actual output.

 -- 例外: doctest.UnexpectedException (test, example, exc_info)

     An exception raised by *note DocTestRunner: 3cf5. to signal that a
     doctest example raised an unexpected exception.  The constructor
     arguments are used to initialize the attributes of the same names.

*note UnexpectedException: 3d33. defines the following attributes:

 -- 屬性: UnexpectedException.test

     The *note DocTest: 1465. object that was being run when the example
     failed.

 -- 屬性: UnexpectedException.example

     The *note Example: 3d09. that failed.

 -- 屬性: UnexpectedException.exc_info

     A tuple containing information about the unexpected exception, as
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 487.


File: python.info,  Node: Soapbox,  Prev: Debugging,  Up: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例

5.26.4.21 Soapbox
.................

As mentioned in the introduction, *note doctest: 36. has grown to have
three primary uses:

  1. Checking examples in docstrings.

  2. Regression testing.

  3. Executable documentation / literate testing.

These uses have different requirements, and it is important to
distinguish them.  In particular, filling your docstrings with obscure
test cases makes for bad documentation.

When writing a docstring, choose docstring examples with care.  There's
an art to this that needs to be learned--it may not be natural at first.
Examples should add genuine value to the documentation.  A good example
can often be worth many words.  If done with care, the examples will be
invaluable for your users, and will pay back the time it takes to
collect them many times over as the years go by and things change.  I'm
still amazed at how often one of my *note doctest: 36. examples stops
working after a "harmless" change.

Doctest also makes an excellent tool for regression testing, especially
if you don't skimp on explanatory text.  By interleaving prose and
examples, it becomes much easier to keep track of what's actually being
tested, and why.  When a test fails, good prose can make it much easier
to figure out what the problem is, and how it should be fixed.  It's
true that you could write extensive comments in code-based testing, but
few programmers do.  Many have found that using doctest approaches
instead leads to much clearer tests.  Perhaps this is simply because
doctest makes writing prose a little easier than writing code, while
writing comments in code is a little harder.  I think it goes deeper
than just that: the natural attitude when writing a doctest-based test
is that you want to explain the fine points of your software, and
illustrate them with examples.  This in turn naturally leads to test
files that start with the simplest features, and logically progress to
complications and edge cases.  A coherent narrative is the result,
instead of a collection of isolated functions that test isolated bits of
functionality seemingly at random.  It's a different attitude, and
produces different results, blurring the distinction between testing and
explaining.

Regression testing is best confined to dedicated objects or files.
There are several options for organizing tests:

   * Write text files containing test cases as interactive examples, and
     test the files using *note testfile(): 3cdd. or *note
     DocFileSuite(): 3d04.  This is recommended, although is easiest to
     do for new projects, designed from the start to use doctest.

   * Define functions named ‘_regrtest_topic’ that consist of single
     docstrings, containing test cases for the named topics.  These
     functions can be included in the same file as the module, or
     separated out into a separate test file.

   * Define a ‘__test__’ dictionary mapping from regression test topics
     to docstrings containing test cases.

When you have placed your tests in a module, the module can itself be
the test runner.  When a test fails, you can arrange for your test
runner to re-run only the failing doctest while you debug the problem.
Here is a minimal example of such a test runner:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import doctest
         flags = doctest.REPORT_NDIFF|doctest.FAIL_FAST
         if len(sys.argv) > 1:
             name = sys.argv[1]
             if name in globals():
                 obj = globals()[name]
             else:
                 obj = __test__[name]
             doctest.run_docstring_examples(obj, globals(), name=name,
                                            optionflags=flags)
         else:
             fail, total = doctest.testmod(optionflags=flags)
             print("{} failures out of {} tests".format(fail, total))

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: unittest --- 單元測試框架,  Next: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫,  Prev: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.5 ‘unittest’ -- 單元測試框架
---------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/unittest/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

（假如你已經熟悉相關基礎的測試概念，你可能會希望跳過以下段落，直接參考
*note assert 方法清單: 3d3f.。）

*note unittest: 101. 原生的單元測試框架最初由 JUnit 開發，和其他程式語言
相似有主要的單元測試框架。支援自動化測試，對測試分享安裝與關閉程式碼，集
合所有匯總的測試，並且獨立各個測試報告框架。

*note unittest: 101. 用來作為實現支援一些重要的物件導向方法的概念：

test fixture

     一個 'test fixture' 代表執行一個或多個測試所需要的準備，以及其他相
     關清理操作，例如可以是建立臨時性的或是代理用 (proxy) 資料庫、目錄、
     或是啟動一個伺服器程序。

test case（測試用例）

     一個 'test case' 是一個獨立的單元測試。這是用來確認一個特定設定的輸
     入的特殊回饋。 *note unittest: 101. 提供一個基礎類別，類別 *note
     TestCase: 159.，可以用來建立一個新的測試條例。

test suite（測試套件）

     'test suite' 是一個搜集測試條例，測試套件，或是兩者皆有。它需要一起
     被執行並用來匯總測試。

test runner（測試執行器）

     'test runner' 是一個編排測試執行與提供結果給使用者的一個元件。執行
     器可以使用圖形化介面，文字介面或是回傳一個特別值用來標示出執行測試
     的結果。

也參考
......

*note doctest: 36. 模組

     另一個執行測試的模組，但使用不一樣的測試方法與規範。

Simple Smalltalk Testing: With Patterns(2)

     Kent Beck 的原始論文討論使用 *note unittest: 101. 這樣模式的測試框
     架。

pytest(3)

     第三方的單元測試框架，但在撰寫測試時使用更輕量的語法。例如：
     ‘assert func(10) == 42’。

The Python Testing Tools Taxonomy(4)

     一份詳細的 Python 測試工具列表，包含 functional testing 框架和mock
     object 函式庫。

Testing in Python Mailing List(5)

     一個專門興趣的群組用來討論 Python 中的測試方式與測試工具。

The script ‘Tools/unittestgui/unittestgui.py’ in the Python source
distribution is a GUI tool for test discovery and execution.  This is
intended largely for ease of use for those new to unit testing.  For
production environments it is recommended that tests be driven by a
continuous integration system such as Buildbot(6), Jenkins(7), GitHub
Actions(8), or AppVeyor(9).

* Menu:

* 簡單範例::
* 命令執行列介面 (Command-Line Interface): 命令執行列介面 Command-Line Interface.
* Test Discovery（測試探索）::
* Organizing test code::
* Re-using old test code::
* Skipping tests and expected failures::
* Distinguishing test iterations using subtests::
* Classes and functions::
* Class and Module Fixtures::
* Signal Handling::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/unittest/__init__.py

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20150315073817/http://www.xprogramming.com/testfram.htm

   (3) https://docs.pytest.org/

   (4) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonTestingToolsTaxonomy

   (5) http://lists.idyll.org/listinfo/testing-in-python

   (6) https://buildbot.net/

   (7) https://www.jenkins.io/

   (8) https://github.com/features/actions

   (9) https://www.appveyor.com/


File: python.info,  Node: 簡單範例,  Next: 命令執行列介面 Command-Line Interface,  Up: unittest --- 單元測試框架

5.26.5.1 簡單範例
.................

*note unittest: 101. 模組提供一系列豐富的工具用來建構與執行測試。本節將
展示這一系列工具中一部份，它們已能滿足大部份使用者需求。

這是一段簡短的腳本用來測試 3 個字串方法：

     import unittest

     class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_upper(self):
             self.assertEqual('foo'.upper(), 'FOO')

         def test_isupper(self):
             self.assertTrue('FOO'.isupper())
             self.assertFalse('Foo'.isupper())

         def test_split(self):
             s = 'hello world'
             self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', 'world'])
             # check that s.split fails when the separator is not a string
             with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
                 s.split(2)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         unittest.main()

測試用例 (testcase) 可以透過繼承 *note unittest.TestCase: 159. 類別來建
立。這裡定義了三個獨立的物件方法，名稱皆以 ‘test’ 開頭。這樣的命名方式能
告知 test runner 哪些物件方法為定義的測試。

每個測試的關鍵為呼叫 *note assertEqual(): 2a9. 來確認是否為期望的結果；
*note assertTrue(): 2a7. 或是 *note assertFalse(): 2a8. 用來驗證一個條件
式； *note assertRaises(): 2ad. 用來驗證是否觸發一個特定的 exception。使
用這些物件方法來取代 *note assert: 7aa. 陳述句，將能使 test runner 收集
所有的測試結果並產生一個報表。

The *note setUp(): 11cd. and *note tearDown(): 11ce. methods allow you
to define instructions that will be executed before and after each test
method.  They are covered in more detail in the section *note Organizing
test code: 3d42.

最後將顯示一個簡單的方法去執行測試 *note unittest.main(): e75. 提供一個
命令執行列介面測試腳本。當透過命令執行列執行，輸出結果將會像是：

     ...
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 3 tests in 0.000s

     OK

在測試時加入 ‘-v’ 選項將指示 *note unittest.main(): e75. 提高 verbosity
層級，產生以下的輸出：

     test_isupper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_isupper) ... ok
     test_split (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_split) ... ok
     test_upper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_upper) ... ok

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 3 tests in 0.001s

     OK

以上的例子顯示大多數使用 *note unittest: 101. 特徵足以滿足大多數日常測試
的需求。接下來第一部分文件的剩餘部分將繼續探索完整特徵設定。

在 3.11 版的變更: The behavior of returning a value from a test method
(other than the default ‘None’ value), is now deprecated.


File: python.info,  Node: 命令執行列介面 Command-Line Interface,  Next: Test Discovery（測試探索）,  Prev: 簡單範例,  Up: unittest --- 單元測試框架

5.26.5.2 命令執行列介面 (Command-Line Interface)
................................................

單元測試模組可以透過命令執行列執行測試模組，物件甚至個別的測試方法：

     python -m unittest test_module1 test_module2
     python -m unittest test_module.TestClass
     python -m unittest test_module.TestClass.test_method

你可以通過一個串列與任何模組名稱的組合，完全符合類別與方法的名稱。

測試模組可以根據檔案路徑指定：

     python -m unittest tests/test_something.py

這允許你使用 shell 檔案名稱補完功能 (filename completion) 來指定測試模組
。給定的檔案路徑必須亦能被當作模組 import。此路徑轉換為模組名稱的方式為
移除 '.py' 並將路徑分隔符 (path separator) 轉換成 '.'。 假如你的測試檔案
無法被 import 成模組，你應該直接執行該測試檔案。

通過增加 -v 的旗標數，可以在你執行測試時得到更多細節（更高的 verbosity）
：

     python -m unittest -v test_module

若執行時不代任何引數，將執行 *note Test Discovery（測試探索）: 3d45.：

     python -m unittest

列出所有命令列選項：

     python -m unittest -h

在 3.2 版的變更: 在早期的版本可以個別執行測試方法和不需要模組或是類別。

* Menu:

* 命令列模式選項::


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列模式選項,  Up: 命令執行列介面 Command-Line Interface

5.26.5.3 命令列模式選項
.......................

‘unittest’ 支援以下命令列選項：

 -- Option: -b, --buffer

     Standard output 與 standard error stream 將在測試執行被緩衝
     (buffer)。這些輸出在測試通過時被丟棄。若是測試錯誤或失則，這些輸出
     將會正常地被印出，並且被加入至錯誤訊息中。

 -- Option: -c, --catch

     ‘Control-C’ 測試執行過程中等待正確的測試結果並回報目前為止所有的測
     試結果。第二個 ‘Control-C’ 拋出一般例外 *note KeyboardInterrupt:
     815.。

     參照 *note Signal Handling: 3d49. 針對函式提供的功能。

 -- Option: -f, --failfast

     在第一次錯誤或是失敗停止執行測試。

 -- Option: -k

     Only run test methods and classes that match the pattern or
     substring.  This option may be used multiple times, in which case
     all test cases that match any of the given patterns are included.

     Patterns that contain a wildcard character (‘*’) are matched
     against the test name using *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 1673.;
     otherwise simple case-sensitive substring matching is used.

     Patterns are matched against the fully qualified test method name
     as imported by the test loader.

     For example, ‘-k foo’ matches ‘foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something’,
     ‘bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo’, but not
     ‘bar_tests.FooTest.test_something’.

 -- Option: --locals

     透過 traceback 顯示本地變數。

 -- Option: --durations N

     Show the N slowest test cases (N=0 for all).

在 3.2 版被加入: 增加命令列模式選項 ‘-b’ 、 ‘-c’ 與 ‘-f’。

在 3.5 版被加入: 命令列選項 ‘--locals’。

在 3.7 版被加入: 命令列選項 ‘-k’。

在 3.12 版被加入: 命令列選項 ‘--durations’。

對執行所有的專案或是一個子集合測試，命令列模式可以可以被用來做測試探索。


File: python.info,  Node: Test Discovery（測試探索）,  Next: Organizing test code,  Prev: 命令執行列介面 Command-Line Interface,  Up: unittest --- 單元測試框架

5.26.5.4 Test Discovery（測試探索）
...................................

在 3.2 版被加入.

單元測試支援簡單的 test discovery（測試探索）。為了相容於測試探索，所有
的測試檔案都要是*note 模組: 1a4b.或是*note 套件: 1a5c.，並能從專案的最上
層目錄中 import（代表它們的檔案名稱必須是有效的 *note identifiers:
1c27.）。

Test discovery（測試探索）實作在 *note TestLoader.discover(): e77.，但也
可以被用於命令列模式。基本的命令列模式用法如下：

     cd project_directory
     python -m unittest discover

     備註: ‘python -m unittest’ 作為捷徑，其功能相當於 ‘python -m
     unittest discover’。假如你想傳遞引數至探索測試的話，一定要明確地加
     入 ‘discover’ 子指令。

‘discover’ 子指令有以下幾個選項：

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     詳細（verbose）輸出

 -- Option: -s, --start-directory directory

     開始尋找的資料夾（預設為 ‘.’）

 -- Option: -p, --pattern pattern

     匹配測試檔案的模式（預設為 ‘test*.py’）

 -- Option: -t, --top-level-directory directory

     專案的最高階層目錄 (defaults to start directory)

*note -s: 3d51, *note -p: 3d53, 和 *note -t: 3d55. 選項依照傳遞位置作為
引數排序順序。以下兩個命令列被視為等價：

     python -m unittest discover -s project_directory -p "*_test.py"
     python -m unittest discover project_directory "*_test.py"

As well as being a path it is possible to pass a package name, for
example ‘myproject.subpackage.test’, as the start directory.  The
package name you supply will then be imported and its location on the
filesystem will be used as the start directory.

     警示: Test discovery loads tests by importing them.  Once test
     discovery has found all the test files from the start directory you
     specify it turns the paths into package names to import.  For
     example ‘foo/bar/baz.py’ will be imported as ‘foo.bar.baz’.

     If you have a package installed globally and attempt test discovery
     on a different copy of the package then the import 'could' happen
     from the wrong place.  If this happens test discovery will warn you
     and exit.

     If you supply the start directory as a package name rather than a
     path to a directory then discover assumes that whichever location
     it imports from is the location you intended, so you will not get
     the warning.

Test modules and packages can customize test loading and discovery by
through the *note load_tests protocol: 3d57.

在 3.4 版的變更: Test discovery supports *note namespace packages: 1a5d.
for the start directory.  Note that you need to specify the top level
directory too (e.g.  ‘python -m unittest discover -s root/namespace -t
root’).

在 3.11 版的變更: *note unittest: 101. dropped the *note namespace
packages: 1a5d. support in Python 3.11.  It has been broken since Python
3.7.  Start directory and subdirectories containing tests must be
regular package that have ‘__init__.py’ file.

Directories containing start directory still can be a namespace package.
In this case, you need to specify start directory as dotted package
name, and target directory explicitly.  For example:

     # proj/  <-- current directory
     #   namespace/
     #     mypkg/
     #       __init__.py
     #       test_mypkg.py

     python -m unittest discover -s namespace.mypkg -t .


File: python.info,  Node: Organizing test code,  Next: Re-using old test code,  Prev: Test Discovery（測試探索）,  Up: unittest --- 單元測試框架

5.26.5.5 Organizing test code
.............................

The basic building blocks of unit testing are 'test cases' -- single
scenarios that must be set up and checked for correctness.  In *note
unittest: 101, test cases are represented by *note unittest.TestCase:
159. instances.  To make your own test cases you must write subclasses
of *note TestCase: 159. or use *note FunctionTestCase: 1474.

The testing code of a *note TestCase: 159. instance should be entirely
self contained, such that it can be run either in isolation or in
arbitrary combination with any number of other test cases.

The simplest *note TestCase: 159. subclass will simply implement a test
method (i.e.  a method whose name starts with ‘test’) in order to
perform specific testing code:

     import unittest

     class DefaultWidgetSizeTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_default_widget_size(self):
             widget = Widget('The widget')
             self.assertEqual(widget.size(), (50, 50))

Note that in order to test something, we use one of the *note assert*
methods: 3d3f. provided by the *note TestCase: 159. base class.  If the
test fails, an exception will be raised with an explanatory message, and
*note unittest: 101. will identify the test case as a 'failure'.  Any
other exceptions will be treated as 'errors'.

Tests can be numerous, and their set-up can be repetitive.  Luckily, we
can factor out set-up code by implementing a method called *note
setUp(): 11cd, which the testing framework will automatically call for
every single test we run:

     import unittest

     class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def setUp(self):
             self.widget = Widget('The widget')

         def test_default_widget_size(self):
             self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (50,50),
                              'incorrect default size')

         def test_widget_resize(self):
             self.widget.resize(100,150)
             self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (100,150),
                              'wrong size after resize')

     備註: The order in which the various tests will be run is
     determined by sorting the test method names with respect to the
     built-in ordering for strings.

If the *note setUp(): 11cd. method raises an exception while the test is
running, the framework will consider the test to have suffered an error,
and the test method will not be executed.

Similarly, we can provide a *note tearDown(): 11ce. method that tidies
up after the test method has been run:

     import unittest

     class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def setUp(self):
             self.widget = Widget('The widget')

         def tearDown(self):
             self.widget.dispose()

If *note setUp(): 11cd. succeeded, *note tearDown(): 11ce. will be run
whether the test method succeeded or not.

Such a working environment for the testing code is called a 'test
fixture'.  A new TestCase instance is created as a unique test fixture
used to execute each individual test method.  Thus *note setUp(): 11cd,
*note tearDown(): 11ce, and ‘__init__()’ will be called once per test.

It is recommended that you use TestCase implementations to group tests
together according to the features they test.  *note unittest: 101.
provides a mechanism for this: the 'test suite', represented by *note
unittest: 101.'s *note TestSuite: c6c. class.  In most cases, calling
*note unittest.main(): e75. will do the right thing and collect all the
module's test cases for you and execute them.

However, should you want to customize the building of your test suite,
you can do it yourself:

     def suite():
         suite = unittest.TestSuite()
         suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_default_widget_size'))
         suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_widget_resize'))
         return suite

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         runner = unittest.TextTestRunner()
         runner.run(suite())

You can place the definitions of test cases and test suites in the same
modules as the code they are to test (such as ‘widget.py’), but there
are several advantages to placing the test code in a separate module,
such as ‘test_widget.py’:

   * The test module can be run standalone from the command line.

   * The test code can more easily be separated from shipped code.

   * There is less temptation to change test code to fit the code it
     tests without a good reason.

   * Test code should be modified much less frequently than the code it
     tests.

   * Tested code can be refactored more easily.

   * Tests for modules written in C must be in separate modules anyway,
     so why not be consistent?

   * If the testing strategy changes, there is no need to change the
     source code.


File: python.info,  Node: Re-using old test code,  Next: Skipping tests and expected failures,  Prev: Organizing test code,  Up: unittest --- 單元測試框架

5.26.5.6 Re-using old test code
...............................

Some users will find that they have existing test code that they would
like to run from *note unittest: 101, without converting every old test
function to a *note TestCase: 159. subclass.

For this reason, *note unittest: 101. provides a *note FunctionTestCase:
1474. class.  This subclass of *note TestCase: 159. can be used to wrap
an existing test function.  Set-up and tear-down functions can also be
provided.

Given the following test function:

     def testSomething():
         something = makeSomething()
         assert something.name is not None
         # ...

one can create an equivalent test case instance as follows, with
optional set-up and tear-down methods:

     testcase = unittest.FunctionTestCase(testSomething,
                                          setUp=makeSomethingDB,
                                          tearDown=deleteSomethingDB)

     備註: Even though *note FunctionTestCase: 1474. can be used to
     quickly convert an existing test base over to a *note unittest:
     101.-based system, this approach is not recommended.  Taking the
     time to set up proper *note TestCase: 159. subclasses will make
     future test refactorings infinitely easier.

In some cases, the existing tests may have been written using the *note
doctest: 36. module.  If so, *note doctest: 36. provides a
‘DocTestSuite’ class that can automatically build *note
unittest.TestSuite: c6c. instances from the existing *note doctest:
36.-based tests.


File: python.info,  Node: Skipping tests and expected failures,  Next: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests,  Prev: Re-using old test code,  Up: unittest --- 單元測試框架

5.26.5.7 Skipping tests and expected failures
.............................................

在 3.1 版被加入.

Unittest supports skipping individual test methods and even whole
classes of tests.  In addition, it supports marking a test as an
"expected failure," a test that is broken and will fail, but shouldn't
be counted as a failure on a *note TestResult: ffa.

Skipping a test is simply a matter of using the *note skip(): 17b9.
*note decorator: 540. or one of its conditional variants, calling *note
TestCase.skipTest(): 3d5d. within a *note setUp(): 11cd. or test method,
or raising *note SkipTest: e76. directly.

Basic skipping looks like this:

     class MyTestCase(unittest.TestCase):

         @unittest.skip("demonstrating skipping")
         def test_nothing(self):
             self.fail("shouldn't happen")

         @unittest.skipIf(mylib.__version__ < (1, 3),
                          "not supported in this library version")
         def test_format(self):
             # Tests that work for only a certain version of the library.
             pass

         @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
         def test_windows_support(self):
             # windows specific testing code
             pass

         def test_maybe_skipped(self):
             if not external_resource_available():
                 self.skipTest("external resource not available")
             # test code that depends on the external resource
             pass

This is the output of running the example above in verbose mode:

     test_format (__main__.MyTestCase.test_format) ... skipped 'not supported in this library version'
     test_nothing (__main__.MyTestCase.test_nothing) ... skipped 'demonstrating skipping'
     test_maybe_skipped (__main__.MyTestCase.test_maybe_skipped) ... skipped 'external resource not available'
     test_windows_support (__main__.MyTestCase.test_windows_support) ... skipped 'requires Windows'

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 4 tests in 0.005s

     OK (skipped=4)

Classes can be skipped just like methods:

     @unittest.skip("showing class skipping")
     class MySkippedTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_not_run(self):
             pass

*note TestCase.setUp(): 11cd. can also skip the test.  This is useful
when a resource that needs to be set up is not available.

Expected failures use the *note expectedFailure(): 3d5e. decorator.

     class ExpectedFailureTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         @unittest.expectedFailure
         def test_fail(self):
             self.assertEqual(1, 0, "broken")

It's easy to roll your own skipping decorators by making a decorator
that calls *note skip(): 17b9. on the test when it wants it to be
skipped.  This decorator skips the test unless the passed object has a
certain attribute:

     def skipUnlessHasattr(obj, attr):
         if hasattr(obj, attr):
             return lambda func: func
         return unittest.skip("{!r} doesn't have {!r}".format(obj, attr))

The following decorators and exception implement test skipping and
expected failures:

 -- 函式: @unittest.skip (reason)

     Unconditionally skip the decorated test.  'reason' should describe
     why the test is being skipped.

 -- 函式: @unittest.skipIf (condition, reason)

     Skip the decorated test if 'condition' is true.

 -- 函式: @unittest.skipUnless (condition, reason)

     Skip the decorated test unless 'condition' is true.

 -- 函式: @unittest.expectedFailure

     Mark the test as an expected failure or error.  If the test fails
     or errors in the test function itself (rather than in one of the
     'test fixture' methods) then it will be considered a success.  If
     the test passes, it will be considered a failure.

 -- 例外: unittest.SkipTest (reason)

     This exception is raised to skip a test.

     Usually you can use *note TestCase.skipTest(): 3d5d. or one of the
     skipping decorators instead of raising this directly.

Skipped tests will not have *note setUp(): 11cd. or *note tearDown():
11ce. run around them.  Skipped classes will not have *note
setUpClass(): 899. or *note tearDownClass(): 11cb. run.  Skipped modules
will not have ‘setUpModule()’ or ‘tearDownModule()’ run.


File: python.info,  Node: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests,  Next: Classes and functions,  Prev: Skipping tests and expected failures,  Up: unittest --- 單元測試框架

5.26.5.8 Distinguishing test iterations using subtests
......................................................

在 3.4 版被加入.

When there are very small differences among your tests, for instance
some parameters, unittest allows you to distinguish them inside the body
of a test method using the *note subTest(): e73. context manager.

舉例來說，以下測試：

     class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_even(self):
             """
             Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
             """
             for i in range(0, 6):
                 with self.subTest(i=i):
                     self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

會有以下輸出：

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=1)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=3)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=5)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

Without using a subtest, execution would stop after the first failure,
and the error would be less easy to diagnose because the value of ‘i’
wouldn't be displayed:

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even)
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 32, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
     AssertionError: 1 != 0


File: python.info,  Node: Classes and functions,  Next: Class and Module Fixtures,  Prev: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests,  Up: unittest --- 單元測試框架

5.26.5.9 Classes and functions
..............................

This section describes in depth the API of *note unittest: 101.

* Menu:

* Test cases::
* Grouping tests::
* Loading and running tests::


File: python.info,  Node: Test cases,  Next: Grouping tests,  Up: Classes and functions

5.26.5.10 Test cases
....................

 -- 類別: unittest.TestCase (methodName='runTest')

     Instances of the *note TestCase: 159. class represent the logical
     test units in the *note unittest: 101. universe.  This class is
     intended to be used as a base class, with specific tests being
     implemented by concrete subclasses.  This class implements the
     interface needed by the test runner to allow it to drive the tests,
     and methods that the test code can use to check for and report
     various kinds of failure.

     Each instance of *note TestCase: 159. will run a single base
     method: the method named 'methodName'.  In most uses of *note
     TestCase: 159, you will neither change the 'methodName' nor
     reimplement the default ‘runTest()’ method.

     在 3.2 版的變更: *note TestCase: 159. can be instantiated
     successfully without providing a 'methodName'.  This makes it
     easier to experiment with *note TestCase: 159. from the interactive
     interpreter.

     *note TestCase: 159. instances provide three groups of methods: one
     group used to run the test, another used by the test implementation
     to check conditions and report failures, and some inquiry methods
     allowing information about the test itself to be gathered.

     Methods in the first group (running the test) are:

      -- 方法: setUp ()

          Method called to prepare the test fixture.  This is called
          immediately before calling the test method; other than *note
          AssertionError: 4a6. or *note SkipTest: e76, any exception
          raised by this method will be considered an error rather than
          a test failure.  The default implementation does nothing.

      -- 方法: tearDown ()

          Method called immediately after the test method has been
          called and the result recorded.  This is called even if the
          test method raised an exception, so the implementation in
          subclasses may need to be particularly careful about checking
          internal state.  Any exception, other than *note
          AssertionError: 4a6. or *note SkipTest: e76, raised by this
          method will be considered an additional error rather than a
          test failure (thus increasing the total number of reported
          errors).  This method will only be called if the *note
          setUp(): 11cd. succeeds, regardless of the outcome of the test
          method.  The default implementation does nothing.

      -- 方法: setUpClass ()

          A class method called before tests in an individual class are
          run.  ‘setUpClass’ is called with the class as the only
          argument and must be decorated as a *note classmethod(): 24b.:

               @classmethod
               def setUpClass(cls):
                   ...

          更多細節請見 *note Class and Module Fixtures: 3d66.。

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: tearDownClass ()

          A class method called after tests in an individual class have
          run.  ‘tearDownClass’ is called with the class as the only
          argument and must be decorated as a *note classmethod(): 24b.:

               @classmethod
               def tearDownClass(cls):
                   ...

          更多細節請見 *note Class and Module Fixtures: 3d66.。

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: run (result=None)

          Run the test, collecting the result into the *note TestResult:
          ffa. object passed as 'result'.  If 'result' is omitted or
          ‘None’, a temporary result object is created (by calling the
          *note defaultTestResult(): 3d67. method) and used.  The result
          object is returned to *note run(): ff9.'s caller.

          The same effect may be had by simply calling the *note
          TestCase: 159. instance.

          在 3.3 版的變更: Previous versions of ‘run’ did not return the
          result.  Neither did calling an instance.

      -- 方法: skipTest (reason)

          Calling this during a test method or *note setUp(): 11cd.
          skips the current test.  See *note Skipping tests and expected
          failures: 3d5c. for more information.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: subTest (msg=None, **params)

          Return a context manager which executes the enclosed code
          block as a subtest.  'msg' and 'params' are optional,
          arbitrary values which are displayed whenever a subtest fails,
          allowing you to identify them clearly.

          A test case can contain any number of subtest declarations,
          and they can be arbitrarily nested.

          更多資訊請見 *note Distinguishing test iterations using
          subtests: e74.。

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 方法: debug ()

          Run the test without collecting the result.  This allows
          exceptions raised by the test to be propagated to the caller,
          and can be used to support running tests under a debugger.
     The *note TestCase: 159. class provides several assert methods to
     check for and report failures.  The following table lists the most
     commonly used methods (see the tables below for more assert
     methods):

     Method                                        Checks that                       New in
                                                                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
     *note assertEqual(a, b): 2a9.                 ‘a == b’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotEqual(a, b): 2aa.              ‘a != b’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertTrue(x): 2a7.                     ‘bool(x) is True’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertFalse(x): 2a8.                    ‘bool(x) is False’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertIs(a, b): 11cf.                   ‘a is b’                          3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNot(a, b): 11d0.                ‘a is not b’                      3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNone(x): 111f.                  ‘x is None’                       3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNotNone(x): 1120.               ‘x is not None’                   3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIn(a, b): 11d8.                   ‘a in b’                          3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotIn(a, b): 11d9.                ‘a not in b’                      3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsInstance(a, b): 11d1.           ‘isinstance(a, b)’                3.2
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotIsInstance(a, b): 11d2.        ‘not isinstance(a, b)’            3.2
                                                                                     

     All the assert methods accept a 'msg' argument that, if specified,
     is used as the error message on failure (see also *note
     longMessage: 11ca.).  Note that the 'msg' keyword argument can be
     passed to *note assertRaises(): 2ad, *note assertRaisesRegex():
     2af, *note assertWarns(): ff7, *note assertWarnsRegex(): ff8. only
     when they are used as a context manager.

      -- 方法: assertEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are equal.  If the values do
          not compare equal, the test will fail.

          In addition, if 'first' and 'second' are the exact same type
          and one of list, tuple, dict, set, frozenset or str or any
          type that a subclass registers with *note
          addTypeEqualityFunc(): 11dc. the type-specific equality
          function will be called in order to generate a more useful
          default error message (see also the *note list of
          type-specific methods: 3d68.).

          在 3.1 版的變更: Added the automatic calling of type-specific
          equality function.

          在 3.2 版的變更: *note assertMultiLineEqual(): 11d7. added as
          the default type equality function for comparing strings.

      -- 方法: assertNotEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are not equal.  If the values
          do compare equal, the test will fail.

      -- 方法: assertTrue (expr, msg=None)
      -- 方法: assertFalse (expr, msg=None)

          Test that 'expr' is true (or false).

          Note that this is equivalent to ‘bool(expr) is True’ and not
          to ‘expr is True’ (use ‘assertIs(expr, True)’ for the latter).
          This method should also be avoided when more specific methods
          are available (e.g.  ‘assertEqual(a, b)’ instead of
          ‘assertTrue(a == b)’), because they provide a better error
          message in case of failure.

      -- 方法: assertIs (first, second, msg=None)
      -- 方法: assertIsNot (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are (or are not) the same
          object.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assertIsNone (expr, msg=None)
      -- 方法: assertIsNotNone (expr, msg=None)

          Test that 'expr' is (or is not) ‘None’.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assertIn (member, container, msg=None)
      -- 方法: assertNotIn (member, container, msg=None)

          Test that 'member' is (or is not) in 'container'.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assertIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None)
      -- 方法: assertNotIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None)

          Test that 'obj' is (or is not) an instance of 'cls' (which can
          be a class or a tuple of classes, as supported by *note
          isinstance(): 14b.).  To check for the exact type, use *note
          assertIs(type(obj), cls): 11cf.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

     It is also possible to check the production of exceptions,
     warnings, and log messages using the following methods:

     Method                                                        Checks that                                New in
                                                                                                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                              
     *note assertRaises(exc, fun, *args, **kwds): 2ad.             ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'exc'
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertRaisesRegex(exc, r, fun, *args, **kwds): 2af.     ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'exc' and      3.1
                                                                   the message matches regex 'r'              
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertWarns(warn, fun, *args, **kwds): ff7.             ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'warn'         3.2
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
     *note assertWarnsRegex(warn, r, fun, *args, **kwds): ff8.     ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'warn' and     3.2
                                                                   the message matches regex 'r'              
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertLogs(logger, level): 680.                         The ‘with’ block logs on 'logger' with     3.4
                                                                   minimum 'level'                            
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertNoLogs(logger, level): 67f.                       The ‘with’ block does not log on           3.10
                                                                                                              
                                                                        'logger' with minimum 'level'
                                                                   

      -- 方法: assertRaises (exception, callable, *args, **kwds)

      -- 方法: assertRaises (exception, *, msg=None)

          Test that an exception is raised when 'callable' is called
          with any positional or keyword arguments that are also passed
          to *note assertRaises(): 2ad.  The test passes if 'exception'
          is raised, is an error if another exception is raised, or
          fails if no exception is raised.  To catch any of a group of
          exceptions, a tuple containing the exception classes may be
          passed as 'exception'.

          If only the 'exception' and possibly the 'msg' arguments are
          given, return a context manager so that the code under test
          can be written inline rather than as a function:

               with self.assertRaises(SomeException):
                   do_something()

          When used as a context manager, *note assertRaises(): 2ad.
          accepts the additional keyword argument 'msg'.

          The context manager will store the caught exception object in
          its ‘exception’ attribute.  This can be useful if the
          intention is to perform additional checks on the exception
          raised:

               with self.assertRaises(SomeException) as cm:
                   do_something()

               the_exception = cm.exception
               self.assertEqual(the_exception.error_code, 3)

          在 3.1 版的變更: 新增 *note assertRaises(): 2ad. 可作為情境管
          理器使用的能力。

          在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 ‘exception’ 屬性。

          在 3.3 版的變更: 新增作為情境管理器使用時的 'msg' 引數。

      -- 方法: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, callable, *args,
               **kwds)

      -- 方法: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, *, msg=None)

          Like *note assertRaises(): 2ad. but also tests that 'regex'
          matches on the string representation of the raised exception.
          'regex' may be a regular expression object or a string
          containing a regular expression suitable for use by *note
          re.search(): 10bf.  Examples:

               self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, "invalid literal for.*XYZ'$",
                                      int, 'XYZ')

          或是：

               with self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, 'literal'):
                  int('XYZ')

          在 3.1 版被加入: 以 ‘assertRaisesRegexp’ 為名新增。

          在 3.2 版的變更: 重新命名為 *note assertRaisesRegex(): 2af.。

          在 3.3 版的變更: 新增作為情境管理器使用時的 'msg' 引數。

      -- 方法: assertWarns (warning, callable, *args, **kwds)

      -- 方法: assertWarns (warning, *, msg=None)

          Test that a warning is triggered when 'callable' is called
          with any positional or keyword arguments that are also passed
          to *note assertWarns(): ff7.  The test passes if 'warning' is
          triggered and fails if it isn't.  Any exception is an error.
          To catch any of a group of warnings, a tuple containing the
          warning classes may be passed as 'warnings'.

          If only the 'warning' and possibly the 'msg' arguments are
          given, return a context manager so that the code under test
          can be written inline rather than as a function:

               with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning):
                   do_something()

          When used as a context manager, *note assertWarns(): ff7.
          accepts the additional keyword argument 'msg'.

          The context manager will store the caught warning object in
          its ‘warning’ attribute, and the source line which triggered
          the warnings in the ‘filename’ and ‘lineno’ attributes.  This
          can be useful if the intention is to perform additional checks
          on the warning caught:

               with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning) as cm:
                   do_something()

               self.assertIn('myfile.py', cm.filename)
               self.assertEqual(320, cm.lineno)

          This method works regardless of the warning filters in place
          when it is called.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

          在 3.3 版的變更: 新增作為情境管理器使用時的 'msg' 引數。

      -- 方法: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, callable, *args,
               **kwds)

      -- 方法: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, *, msg=None)

          Like *note assertWarns(): ff7. but also tests that 'regex'
          matches on the message of the triggered warning.  'regex' may
          be a regular expression object or a string containing a
          regular expression suitable for use by *note re.search():
          10bf.  Example:

               self.assertWarnsRegex(DeprecationWarning,
                                     r'legacy_function\(\) is deprecated',
                                     legacy_function, 'XYZ')

          或是：

               with self.assertWarnsRegex(RuntimeWarning, 'unsafe frobnicating'):
                   frobnicate('/etc/passwd')

          在 3.2 版被加入.

          在 3.3 版的變更: 新增作為情境管理器使用時的 'msg' 引數。

      -- 方法: assertLogs (logger=None, level=None)

          A context manager to test that at least one message is logged
          on the 'logger' or one of its children, with at least the
          given 'level'.

          If given, 'logger' should be a *note logging.Logger: 9a9.
          object or a *note str: 157. giving the name of a logger.  The
          default is the root logger, which will catch all messages that
          were not blocked by a non-propagating descendent logger.

          If given, 'level' should be either a numeric logging level or
          its string equivalent (for example either ‘"ERROR"’ or *note
          logging.ERROR: 1aeb.).  The default is *note logging.INFO:
          1ae9.

          The test passes if at least one message emitted inside the
          ‘with’ block matches the 'logger' and 'level' conditions,
          otherwise it fails.

          The object returned by the context manager is a recording
          helper which keeps tracks of the matching log messages.  It
          has two attributes:

           -- 屬性: records

               A list of *note logging.LogRecord: e78. objects of the
               matching log messages.

           -- 屬性: output

               A list of *note str: 157. objects with the formatted
               output of matching messages.

          範例：

               with self.assertLogs('foo', level='INFO') as cm:
                   logging.getLogger('foo').info('first message')
                   logging.getLogger('foo.bar').error('second message')
               self.assertEqual(cm.output, ['INFO:foo:first message',
                                            'ERROR:foo.bar:second message'])

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assertNoLogs (logger=None, level=None)

          A context manager to test that no messages are logged on the
          'logger' or one of its children, with at least the given
          'level'.

          If given, 'logger' should be a *note logging.Logger: 9a9.
          object or a *note str: 157. giving the name of a logger.  The
          default is the root logger, which will catch all messages.

          If given, 'level' should be either a numeric logging level or
          its string equivalent (for example either ‘"ERROR"’ or *note
          logging.ERROR: 1aeb.).  The default is *note logging.INFO:
          1ae9.

          Unlike *note assertLogs(): 680, nothing will be returned by
          the context manager.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

     There are also other methods used to perform more specific checks,
     such as:

     Method                                      Checks that                          New in
                                                                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                      
     *note assertAlmostEqual(a, b): 2ab.         ‘round(a-b, 7) == 0’
                                                 
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b): 2ac.      ‘round(a-b, 7) != 0’
                                                 
                                                                                      
     *note assertGreater(a, b): 11d3.            ‘a > b’                              3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertGreaterEqual(a, b): 11d4.       ‘a >= b’                             3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertLess(a, b): 11d5.               ‘a < b’                              3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertLessEqual(a, b): 11d6.          ‘a <= b’                             3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertRegex(s, r): 2ae.               ‘r.search(s)’                        3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotRegex(s, r): 2b0.            ‘not r.search(s)’                    3.2
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertCountEqual(a, b): 10bd.         'a' and 'b' have the same elements   3.2
                                                 in the same number, regardless of    
                                                 their order.
                                                 

      -- 方法: assertAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7, msg=None,
               delta=None)
      -- 方法: assertNotAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7, msg=None,
               delta=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are approximately (or not
          approximately) equal by computing the difference, rounding to
          the given number of decimal 'places' (default 7), and
          comparing to zero.  Note that these methods round the values
          to the given number of 'decimal places' (i.e.  like the *note
          round(): 116b. function) and not 'significant digits'.

          If 'delta' is supplied instead of 'places' then the difference
          between 'first' and 'second' must be less or equal to (or
          greater than) 'delta'.

          Supplying both 'delta' and 'places' raises a *note TypeError:
          2ba.

          在 3.2 版的變更: *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2ab. automatically
          considers almost equal objects that compare equal.  *note
          assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2ac. automatically fails if the
          objects compare equal.  Added the 'delta' keyword argument.

      -- 方法: assertGreater (first, second, msg=None)
      -- 方法: assertGreaterEqual (first, second, msg=None)
      -- 方法: assertLess (first, second, msg=None)
      -- 方法: assertLessEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' is respectively >, >=, < or <= than 'second'
          depending on the method name.  If not, the test will fail:

               >>> self.assertGreaterEqual(3, 4)
               AssertionError: "3" unexpectedly not greater than or equal to "4"

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assertRegex (text, regex, msg=None)
      -- 方法: assertNotRegex (text, regex, msg=None)

          Test that a 'regex' search matches (or does not match) 'text'.
          In case of failure, the error message will include the pattern
          and the 'text' (or the pattern and the part of 'text' that
          unexpectedly matched).  'regex' may be a regular expression
          object or a string containing a regular expression suitable
          for use by *note re.search(): 10bf.

          在 3.1 版被加入: 以 ‘assertRegexpMatches’ 為名新增。

          在 3.2 版的變更: The method ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ has been
          renamed to *note assertRegex(): 2ae.

          在 3.2 版被加入: *note assertNotRegex(): 2b0.。

      -- 方法: assertCountEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that sequence 'first' contains the same elements as
          'second', regardless of their order.  When they don't, an
          error message listing the differences between the sequences
          will be generated.

          Duplicate elements are 'not' ignored when comparing 'first'
          and 'second'.  It verifies whether each element has the same
          count in both sequences.  Equivalent to:
          ‘assertEqual(Counter(list(first)), Counter(list(second)))’ but
          works with sequences of unhashable objects as well.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

     The *note assertEqual(): 2a9. method dispatches the equality check
     for objects of the same type to different type-specific methods.
     These methods are already implemented for most of the built-in
     types, but it's also possible to register new methods using *note
     addTypeEqualityFunc(): 11dc.:

      -- 方法: addTypeEqualityFunc (typeobj, function)

          Registers a type-specific method called by *note
          assertEqual(): 2a9. to check if two objects of exactly the
          same 'typeobj' (not subclasses) compare equal.  'function'
          must take two positional arguments and a third msg=None
          keyword argument just as *note assertEqual(): 2a9. does.  It
          must raise *note self.failureException(msg): 3d6b. when
          inequality between the first two parameters is detected -
          possibly providing useful information and explaining the
          inequalities in details in the error message.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

     The list of type-specific methods automatically used by *note
     assertEqual(): 2a9. are summarized in the following table.  Note
     that it's usually not necessary to invoke these methods directly.

     Method                                        Used to compare                   New in
                                                                                     
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
     *note assertMultiLineEqual(a, b): 11d7.       strings                           3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertSequenceEqual(a, b): 111e.        sequences                         3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertListEqual(a, b): 111c.            lists                             3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertTupleEqual(a, b): 111d.           tuples                            3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertSetEqual(a, b): 111a.             sets or frozensets                3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertDictEqual(a, b): 111b.            dicts                             3.1
                                                                                     

      -- 方法: assertMultiLineEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that the multiline string 'first' is equal to the string
          'second'.  When not equal a diff of the two strings
          highlighting the differences will be included in the error
          message.  This method is used by default when comparing
          strings with *note assertEqual(): 2a9.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assertSequenceEqual (first, second, msg=None,
               seq_type=None)

          Tests that two sequences are equal.  If a 'seq_type' is
          supplied, both 'first' and 'second' must be instances of
          'seq_type' or a failure will be raised.  If the sequences are
          different an error message is constructed that shows the
          difference between the two.

          This method is not called directly by *note assertEqual():
          2a9, but it's used to implement *note assertListEqual(): 111c.
          and *note assertTupleEqual(): 111d.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assertListEqual (first, second, msg=None)
      -- 方法: assertTupleEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Tests that two lists or tuples are equal.  If not, an error
          message is constructed that shows only the differences between
          the two.  An error is also raised if either of the parameters
          are of the wrong type.  These methods are used by default when
          comparing lists or tuples with *note assertEqual(): 2a9.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assertSetEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Tests that two sets are equal.  If not, an error message is
          constructed that lists the differences between the sets.  This
          method is used by default when comparing sets or frozensets
          with *note assertEqual(): 2a9.

          Fails if either of 'first' or 'second' does not have a
          ‘set.difference()’ method.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assertDictEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that two dictionaries are equal.  If not, an error
          message is constructed that shows the differences in the
          dictionaries.  This method will be used by default to compare
          dictionaries in calls to *note assertEqual(): 2a9.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

     Finally the *note TestCase: 159. provides the following methods and
     attributes:

      -- 方法: fail (msg=None)

          Signals a test failure unconditionally, with 'msg' or ‘None’
          for the error message.

      -- 屬性: failureException

          This class attribute gives the exception raised by the test
          method.  If a test framework needs to use a specialized
          exception, possibly to carry additional information, it must
          subclass this exception in order to "play fair" with the
          framework.  The initial value of this attribute is *note
          AssertionError: 4a6.

      -- 屬性: longMessage

          This class attribute determines what happens when a custom
          failure message is passed as the msg argument to an assertXYY
          call that fails.  ‘True’ is the default value.  In this case,
          the custom message is appended to the end of the standard
          failure message.  When set to ‘False’, the custom message
          replaces the standard message.

          The class setting can be overridden in individual test methods
          by assigning an instance attribute, self.longMessage, to
          ‘True’ or ‘False’ before calling the assert methods.

          The class setting gets reset before each test call.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: maxDiff

          This attribute controls the maximum length of diffs output by
          assert methods that report diffs on failure.  It defaults to
          80*8 characters.  Assert methods affected by this attribute
          are *note assertSequenceEqual(): 111e. (including all the
          sequence comparison methods that delegate to it), *note
          assertDictEqual(): 111b. and *note assertMultiLineEqual():
          11d7.

          Setting ‘maxDiff’ to ‘None’ means that there is no maximum
          length of diffs.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

     Testing frameworks can use the following methods to collect
     information on the test:

      -- 方法: countTestCases ()

          Return the number of tests represented by this test object.
          For *note TestCase: 159. instances, this will always be ‘1’.

      -- 方法: defaultTestResult ()

          Return an instance of the test result class that should be
          used for this test case class (if no other result instance is
          provided to the *note run(): ff9. method).

          For *note TestCase: 159. instances, this will always be an
          instance of *note TestResult: ffa.; subclasses of *note
          TestCase: 159. should override this as necessary.

      -- 方法: id ()

          Return a string identifying the specific test case.  This is
          usually the full name of the test method, including the module
          and class name.

      -- 方法: shortDescription ()

          Returns a description of the test, or ‘None’ if no description
          has been provided.  The default implementation of this method
          returns the first line of the test method's docstring, if
          available, or ‘None’.

          在 3.1 版的變更: In 3.1 this was changed to add the test name
          to the short description even in the presence of a docstring.
          This caused compatibility issues with unittest extensions and
          adding the test name was moved to the *note TextTestResult:
          2b2. in Python 3.2.

      -- 方法: addCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Add a function to be called after *note tearDown(): 11ce. to
          cleanup resources used during the test.  Functions will be
          called in reverse order to the order they are added (LIFO).
          They are called with any arguments and keyword arguments
          passed into *note addCleanup(): 8cd. when they are added.

          If *note setUp(): 11cd. fails, meaning that *note tearDown():
          11ce. is not called, then any cleanup functions added will
          still be called.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: enterContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note context manager: 3c4.  If successful,
          also add its *note __exit__(): 1191. method as a cleanup
          function by *note addCleanup(): 8cd. and return the result of
          the *note __enter__(): 3b8. method.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: doCleanups ()

          This method is called unconditionally after *note tearDown():
          11ce, or after *note setUp(): 11cd. if *note setUp(): 11cd.
          raises an exception.

          It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added
          by *note addCleanup(): 8cd.  If you need cleanup functions to
          be called 'prior' to *note tearDown(): 11ce. then you can call
          *note doCleanups(): 11cc. yourself.

          *note doCleanups(): 11cc. pops methods off the stack of
          cleanup functions one at a time, so it can be called at any
          time.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: classmethod addClassCleanup (function, /, *args,
               **kwargs)

          Add a function to be called after *note tearDownClass(): 11cb.
          to cleanup resources used during the test class.  Functions
          will be called in reverse order to the order they are added
          (LIFO).  They are called with any arguments and keyword
          arguments passed into *note addClassCleanup(): 898. when they
          are added.

          If *note setUpClass(): 899. fails, meaning that *note
          tearDownClass(): 11cb. is not called, then any cleanup
          functions added will still be called.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: classmethod enterClassContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note context manager: 3c4.  If successful,
          also add its *note __exit__(): 1191. method as a cleanup
          function by *note addClassCleanup(): 898. and return the
          result of the *note __enter__(): 3b8. method.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: classmethod doClassCleanups ()

          This method is called unconditionally after *note
          tearDownClass(): 11cb, or after *note setUpClass(): 899. if
          *note setUpClass(): 899. raises an exception.

          It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added
          by *note addClassCleanup(): 898.  If you need cleanup
          functions to be called 'prior' to *note tearDownClass(): 11cb.
          then you can call *note doClassCleanups(): 3d71. yourself.

          *note doClassCleanups(): 3d71. pops methods off the stack of
          cleanup functions one at a time, so it can be called at any
          time.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 類別: unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (methodName='runTest')

     This class provides an API similar to *note TestCase: 159. and also
     accepts coroutines as test functions.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: coroutine asyncSetUp ()

          Method called to prepare the test fixture.  This is called
          after ‘setUp()’.  This is called immediately before calling
          the test method; other than *note AssertionError: 4a6. or
          *note SkipTest: e76, any exception raised by this method will
          be considered an error rather than a test failure.  The
          default implementation does nothing.

      -- 方法: coroutine asyncTearDown ()

          Method called immediately after the test method has been
          called and the result recorded.  This is called before
          ‘tearDown()’.  This is called even if the test method raised
          an exception, so the implementation in subclasses may need to
          be particularly careful about checking internal state.  Any
          exception, other than *note AssertionError: 4a6. or *note
          SkipTest: e76, raised by this method will be considered an
          additional error rather than a test failure (thus increasing
          the total number of reported errors).  This method will only
          be called if the *note asyncSetUp(): 3d72. succeeds,
          regardless of the outcome of the test method.  The default
          implementation does nothing.

      -- 方法: addAsyncCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

          This method accepts a coroutine that can be used as a cleanup
          function.

      -- 方法: coroutine enterAsyncContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note asynchronous context manager: 3c7.
          If successful, also add its *note __aexit__(): 1d64. method as
          a cleanup function by *note addAsyncCleanup(): 3d74. and
          return the result of the *note __aenter__(): 1d63. method.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: run (result=None)

          Sets up a new event loop to run the test, collecting the
          result into the *note TestResult: ffa. object passed as
          'result'.  If 'result' is omitted or ‘None’, a temporary
          result object is created (by calling the ‘defaultTestResult()’
          method) and used.  The result object is returned to *note
          run(): 3d75.'s caller.  At the end of the test all the tasks
          in the event loop are cancelled.

     An example illustrating the order:

          from unittest import IsolatedAsyncioTestCase

          events = []


          class Test(IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):


              def setUp(self):
                  events.append("setUp")

              async def asyncSetUp(self):
                  self._async_connection = await AsyncConnection()
                  events.append("asyncSetUp")

              async def test_response(self):
                  events.append("test_response")
                  response = await self._async_connection.get("https://example.com")
                  self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
                  self.addAsyncCleanup(self.on_cleanup)

              def tearDown(self):
                  events.append("tearDown")

              async def asyncTearDown(self):
                  await self._async_connection.close()
                  events.append("asyncTearDown")

              async def on_cleanup(self):
                  events.append("cleanup")

          if __name__ == "__main__":
              unittest.main()

     After running the test, ‘events’ would contain ‘["setUp",
     "asyncSetUp", "test_response", "asyncTearDown", "tearDown",
     "cleanup"]’.

 -- 類別: unittest.FunctionTestCase (testFunc, setUp=None,
          tearDown=None, description=None)

     This class implements the portion of the *note TestCase: 159.
     interface which allows the test runner to drive the test, but does
     not provide the methods which test code can use to check and report
     errors.  This is used to create test cases using legacy test code,
     allowing it to be integrated into a *note unittest: 101.-based test
     framework.


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping tests,  Next: Loading and running tests,  Prev: Test cases,  Up: Classes and functions

5.26.5.11 Grouping tests
........................

 -- 類別: unittest.TestSuite (tests=())

     This class represents an aggregation of individual test cases and
     test suites.  The class presents the interface needed by the test
     runner to allow it to be run as any other test case.  Running a
     *note TestSuite: c6c. instance is the same as iterating over the
     suite, running each test individually.

     If 'tests' is given, it must be an iterable of individual test
     cases or other test suites that will be used to build the suite
     initially.  Additional methods are provided to add test cases and
     suites to the collection later on.

     *note TestSuite: c6c. objects behave much like *note TestCase: 159.
     objects, except they do not actually implement a test.  Instead,
     they are used to aggregate tests into groups of tests that should
     be run together.  Some additional methods are available to add
     tests to *note TestSuite: c6c. instances:

      -- 方法: addTest (test)

          Add a *note TestCase: 159. or *note TestSuite: c6c. to the
          suite.

      -- 方法: addTests (tests)

          Add all the tests from an iterable of *note TestCase: 159. and
          *note TestSuite: c6c. instances to this test suite.

          This is equivalent to iterating over 'tests', calling *note
          addTest(): 3d78. for each element.

     *note TestSuite: c6c. shares the following methods with *note
     TestCase: 159.:

      -- 方法: run (result)

          Run the tests associated with this suite, collecting the
          result into the test result object passed as 'result'.  Note
          that unlike *note TestCase.run(): ff9, *note TestSuite.run():
          3d7a. requires the result object to be passed in.

      -- 方法: debug ()

          Run the tests associated with this suite without collecting
          the result.  This allows exceptions raised by the test to be
          propagated to the caller and can be used to support running
          tests under a debugger.

      -- 方法: countTestCases ()

          Return the number of tests represented by this test object,
          including all individual tests and sub-suites.

      -- 方法: __iter__ ()

          Tests grouped by a *note TestSuite: c6c. are always accessed
          by iteration.  Subclasses can lazily provide tests by
          overriding ‘__iter__()’.  Note that this method may be called
          several times on a single suite (for example when counting
          tests or comparing for equality) so the tests returned by
          repeated iterations before *note TestSuite.run(): 3d7a. must
          be the same for each call iteration.  After *note
          TestSuite.run(): 3d7a, callers should not rely on the tests
          returned by this method unless the caller uses a subclass that
          overrides ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’ to preserve test
          references.

          在 3.2 版的變更: In earlier versions the *note TestSuite: c6c.
          accessed tests directly rather than through iteration, so
          overriding ‘__iter__()’ wasn't sufficient for providing tests.

          在 3.4 版的變更: In earlier versions the *note TestSuite: c6c.
          held references to each *note TestCase: 159. after *note
          TestSuite.run(): 3d7a.  Subclasses can restore that behavior
          by overriding ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’.

     In the typical usage of a *note TestSuite: c6c. object, the *note
     run(): 3d7a. method is invoked by a ‘TestRunner’ rather than by the
     end-user test harness.


File: python.info,  Node: Loading and running tests,  Prev: Grouping tests,  Up: Classes and functions

5.26.5.12 Loading and running tests
...................................

 -- 類別: unittest.TestLoader

     The *note TestLoader: 532. class is used to create test suites from
     classes and modules.  Normally, there is no need to create an
     instance of this class; the *note unittest: 101. module provides an
     instance that can be shared as *note unittest.defaultTestLoader:
     3d7e.  Using a subclass or instance, however, allows customization
     of some configurable properties.

     *note TestLoader: 532. objects have the following attributes:

      -- 屬性: errors

          A list of the non-fatal errors encountered while loading
          tests.  Not reset by the loader at any point.  Fatal errors
          are signalled by the relevant method raising an exception to
          the caller.  Non-fatal errors are also indicated by a
          synthetic test that will raise the original error when run.

          在 3.5 版被加入.

     *note TestLoader: 532. objects have the following methods:

      -- 方法: loadTestsFromTestCase (testCaseClass)

          Return a suite of all test cases contained in the *note
          TestCase: 159.-derived ‘testCaseClass’.

          A test case instance is created for each method named by *note
          getTestCaseNames(): 534.  By default these are the method
          names beginning with ‘test’.  If *note getTestCaseNames():
          534. returns no methods, but the ‘runTest()’ method is
          implemented, a single test case is created for that method
          instead.

      -- 方法: loadTestsFromModule (module, *, pattern=None)

          Return a suite of all test cases contained in the given
          module.  This method searches 'module' for classes derived
          from *note TestCase: 159. and creates an instance of the class
          for each test method defined for the class.

               備註: While using a hierarchy of *note TestCase:
               159.-derived classes can be convenient in sharing
               fixtures and helper functions, defining test methods on
               base classes that are not intended to be instantiated
               directly does not play well with this method.  Doing so,
               however, can be useful when the fixtures are different
               and defined in subclasses.

          If a module provides a ‘load_tests’ function it will be called
          to load the tests.  This allows modules to customize test
          loading.  This is the *note load_tests protocol: 3d57.  The
          'pattern' argument is passed as the third argument to
          ‘load_tests’.

          在 3.2 版的變更: Support for ‘load_tests’ added.

          在 3.5 版的變更: Support for a keyword-only argument 'pattern'
          has been added.

          在 3.12 版的變更: The undocumented and unofficial
          'use_load_tests' parameter has been removed.

      -- 方法: loadTestsFromName (name, module=None)

          Return a suite of all test cases given a string specifier.

          The specifier 'name' is a "dotted name" that may resolve
          either to a module, a test case class, a test method within a
          test case class, a *note TestSuite: c6c. instance, or a
          callable object which returns a *note TestCase: 159. or *note
          TestSuite: c6c. instance.  These checks are applied in the
          order listed here; that is, a method on a possible test case
          class will be picked up as "a test method within a test case
          class", rather than "a callable object".

          For example, if you have a module ‘SampleTests’ containing a
          *note TestCase: 159.-derived class ‘SampleTestCase’ with three
          test methods (‘test_one()’, ‘test_two()’, and ‘test_three()’),
          the specifier ‘'SampleTests.SampleTestCase'’ would cause this
          method to return a suite which will run all three test
          methods.  Using the specifier
          ‘'SampleTests.SampleTestCase.test_two'’ would cause it to
          return a test suite which will run only the ‘test_two()’ test
          method.  The specifier can refer to modules and packages which
          have not been imported; they will be imported as a
          side-effect.

          The method optionally resolves 'name' relative to the given
          'module'.

          在 3.5 版的變更: If an *note ImportError: 145. or *note
          AttributeError: 3ca. occurs while traversing 'name' then a
          synthetic test that raises that error when run will be
          returned.  These errors are included in the errors accumulated
          by self.errors.

      -- 方法: loadTestsFromNames (names, module=None)

          Similar to *note loadTestsFromName(): 11da, but takes a
          sequence of names rather than a single name.  The return value
          is a test suite which supports all the tests defined for each
          name.

      -- 方法: getTestCaseNames (testCaseClass)

          Return a sorted sequence of method names found within
          'testCaseClass'; this should be a subclass of *note TestCase:
          159.

      -- 方法: discover (start_dir, pattern='test*.py',
               top_level_dir=None)

          Find all the test modules by recursing into subdirectories
          from the specified start directory, and return a TestSuite
          object containing them.  Only test files that match 'pattern'
          will be loaded.  (Using shell style pattern matching.)  Only
          module names that are importable (i.e.  are valid Python
          identifiers) will be loaded.

          All test modules must be importable from the top level of the
          project.  If the start directory is not the top level
          directory then 'top_level_dir' must be specified separately.

          If importing a module fails, for example due to a syntax
          error, then this will be recorded as a single error and
          discovery will continue.  If the import failure is due to
          *note SkipTest: e76. being raised, it will be recorded as a
          skip instead of an error.

          If a package (a directory containing a file named
          ‘__init__.py’) is found, the package will be checked for a
          ‘load_tests’ function.  If this exists then it will be called
          ‘package.load_tests(loader, tests, pattern)’.  Test discovery
          takes care to ensure that a package is only checked for tests
          once during an invocation, even if the load_tests function
          itself calls ‘loader.discover’.

          If ‘load_tests’ exists then discovery does 'not' recurse into
          the package, ‘load_tests’ is responsible for loading all tests
          in the package.

          The pattern is deliberately not stored as a loader attribute
          so that packages can continue discovery themselves.

          'top_level_dir' is stored internally, and used as a default to
          any nested calls to ‘discover()’.  That is, if a package's
          ‘load_tests’ calls ‘loader.discover()’, it does not need to
          pass this argument.

          'start_dir' can be a dotted module name as well as a
          directory.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

          在 3.4 版的變更: Modules that raise *note SkipTest: e76. on
          import are recorded as skips, not errors.

          在 3.4 版的變更: 'start_dir' can be a *note namespace
          packages: 1a5d.

          在 3.4 版的變更: Paths are sorted before being imported so
          that execution order is the same even if the underlying file
          system's ordering is not dependent on file name.

          在 3.5 版的變更: Found packages are now checked for
          ‘load_tests’ regardless of whether their path matches
          'pattern', because it is impossible for a package name to
          match the default pattern.

          在 3.11 版的變更: 'start_dir' can not be a *note namespace
          packages: 1a5d.  It has been broken since Python 3.7 and
          Python 3.11 officially remove it.

          在 3.12.4 版的變更: 'top_level_dir' is only stored for the
          duration of 'discover' call.

     The following attributes of a *note TestLoader: 532. can be
     configured either by subclassing or assignment on an instance:

      -- 屬性: testMethodPrefix

          String giving the prefix of method names which will be
          interpreted as test methods.  The default value is ‘'test'’.

          This affects *note getTestCaseNames(): 534. and all the
          ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

      -- 屬性: sortTestMethodsUsing

          Function to be used to compare method names when sorting them
          in *note getTestCaseNames(): 534. and all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’
          methods.

      -- 屬性: suiteClass

          Callable object that constructs a test suite from a list of
          tests.  No methods on the resulting object are needed.  The
          default value is the *note TestSuite: c6c. class.

          This affects all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

      -- 屬性: testNamePatterns

          List of Unix shell-style wildcard test name patterns that test
          methods have to match to be included in test suites (see ‘-k’
          option).

          If this attribute is not ‘None’ (the default), all test
          methods to be included in test suites must match one of the
          patterns in this list.  Note that matches are always performed
          using *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 1673, so unlike patterns
          passed to the ‘-k’ option, simple substring patterns will have
          to be converted using ‘*’ wildcards.

          This affects all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 類別: unittest.TestResult

     This class is used to compile information about which tests have
     succeeded and which have failed.

     A *note TestResult: ffa. object stores the results of a set of
     tests.  The *note TestCase: 159. and *note TestSuite: c6c. classes
     ensure that results are properly recorded; test authors do not need
     to worry about recording the outcome of tests.

     Testing frameworks built on top of *note unittest: 101. may want
     access to the *note TestResult: ffa. object generated by running a
     set of tests for reporting purposes; a *note TestResult: ffa.
     instance is returned by the ‘TestRunner.run()’ method for this
     purpose.

     *note TestResult: ffa. instances have the following attributes that
     will be of interest when inspecting the results of running a set of
     tests:

      -- 屬性: errors

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 159. instances
          and strings holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple
          represents a test which raised an unexpected exception.

      -- 屬性: failures

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 159. instances
          and strings holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple
          represents a test where a failure was explicitly signalled
          using the *note assert* methods: 3d3f.

      -- 屬性: skipped

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 159. instances
          and strings holding the reason for skipping the test.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: expectedFailures

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 159. instances
          and strings holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple
          represents an expected failure or error of the test case.

      -- 屬性: unexpectedSuccesses

          A list containing *note TestCase: 159. instances that were
          marked as expected failures, but succeeded.

      -- 屬性: collectedDurations

          A list containing 2-tuples of test case names and floats
          representing the elapsed time of each test which was run.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: shouldStop

          Set to ‘True’ when the execution of tests should stop by *note
          stop(): 3d89.

      -- 屬性: testsRun

          The total number of tests run so far.

      -- 屬性: buffer

          If set to true, ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ will be buffered
          in between *note startTest(): 3d8c. and *note stopTest():
          3d8d. being called.  Collected output will only be echoed onto
          the real ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ if the test fails or
          errors.  Any output is also attached to the failure / error
          message.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: failfast

          If set to true *note stop(): 3d89. will be called on the first
          failure or error, halting the test run.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: tb_locals

          If set to true then local variables will be shown in
          tracebacks.

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 方法: wasSuccessful ()

          Return ‘True’ if all tests run so far have passed, otherwise
          returns ‘False’.

          在 3.4 版的變更: Returns ‘False’ if there were any *note
          unexpectedSuccesses: 3d87. from tests marked with the *note
          expectedFailure(): 3d5e. decorator.

      -- 方法: stop ()

          This method can be called to signal that the set of tests
          being run should be aborted by setting the *note shouldStop:
          3d88. attribute to ‘True’.  ‘TestRunner’ objects should
          respect this flag and return without running any additional
          tests.

          For example, this feature is used by the *note TextTestRunner:
          1508. class to stop the test framework when the user signals
          an interrupt from the keyboard.  Interactive tools which
          provide ‘TestRunner’ implementations can use this in a similar
          manner.

     The following methods of the *note TestResult: ffa. class are used
     to maintain the internal data structures, and may be extended in
     subclasses to support additional reporting requirements.  This is
     particularly useful in building tools which support interactive
     reporting while tests are being run.

      -- 方法: startTest (test)

          Called when the test case 'test' is about to be run.

      -- 方法: stopTest (test)

          Called after the test case 'test' has been executed,
          regardless of the outcome.

      -- 方法: startTestRun ()

          Called once before any tests are executed.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: stopTestRun ()

          Called once after all tests are executed.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: addError (test, err)

          Called when the test case 'test' raises an unexpected
          exception.  'err' is a tuple of the form returned by *note
          sys.exc_info(): 487.: ‘(type, value, traceback)’.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ to the instance's *note errors: 3d83.
          attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted traceback
          derived from 'err'.

      -- 方法: addFailure (test, err)

          Called when the test case 'test' signals a failure.  'err' is
          a tuple of the form returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 487.:
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ to the instance's *note failures: 3d84.
          attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted traceback
          derived from 'err'.

      -- 方法: addSuccess (test)

          Called when the test case 'test' succeeds.

          The default implementation does nothing.

      -- 方法: addSkip (test, reason)

          Called when the test case 'test' is skipped.  'reason' is the
          reason the test gave for skipping.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test, reason)’ to
          the instance's *note skipped: 3d85. attribute.

      -- 方法: addExpectedFailure (test, err)

          Called when the test case 'test' fails or errors, but was
          marked with the *note expectedFailure(): 3d5e. decorator.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ to the instance's *note expectedFailures:
          3d86. attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted
          traceback derived from 'err'.

      -- 方法: addUnexpectedSuccess (test)

          Called when the test case 'test' was marked with the *note
          expectedFailure(): 3d5e. decorator, but succeeded.

          The default implementation appends the test to the instance's
          *note unexpectedSuccesses: 3d87. attribute.

      -- 方法: addSubTest (test, subtest, outcome)

          Called when a subtest finishes.  'test' is the test case
          corresponding to the test method.  'subtest' is a custom *note
          TestCase: 159. instance describing the subtest.

          If 'outcome' is *note None: 470, the subtest succeeded.
          Otherwise, it failed with an exception where 'outcome' is a
          tuple of the form returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 487.:
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’.

          The default implementation does nothing when the outcome is a
          success, and records subtest failures as normal failures.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 方法: addDuration (test, elapsed)

          Called when the test case finishes.  'elapsed' is the time
          represented in seconds, and it includes the execution of
          cleanup functions.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 類別: unittest.TextTestResult (stream, descriptions, verbosity, *,
          durations=None)

     A concrete implementation of *note TestResult: ffa. used by the
     *note TextTestRunner: 1508.  Subclasses should accept ‘**kwargs’ to
     ensure compatibility as the interface changes.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'durations' 關鍵字參數。

 -- 資料: unittest.defaultTestLoader

     Instance of the *note TestLoader: 532. class intended to be shared.
     If no customization of the *note TestLoader: 532. is needed, this
     instance can be used instead of repeatedly creating new instances.

 -- 類別: unittest.TextTestRunner (stream=None, descriptions=True,
          verbosity=1, failfast=False, buffer=False, resultclass=None,
          warnings=None, *, tb_locals=False, durations=None)

     A basic test runner implementation that outputs results to a
     stream.  If 'stream' is ‘None’, the default, *note sys.stderr: 778.
     is used as the output stream.  This class has a few configurable
     parameters, but is essentially very simple.  Graphical applications
     which run test suites should provide alternate implementations.
     Such implementations should accept ‘**kwargs’ as the interface to
     construct runners changes when features are added to unittest.

     By default this runner shows *note DeprecationWarning: 179, *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 700, *note ResourceWarning: aa3. and
     *note ImportWarning: 247. even if they are *note ignored by
     default: 3d94.  This behavior can be overridden using Python's
     ‘-Wd’ or ‘-Wa’ options (see *note Warning control: 1b2d.) and
     leaving 'warnings' to ‘None’.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'warnings' 參數。

     在 3.2 版的變更: The default stream is set to *note sys.stderr:
     778. at instantiation time rather than import time.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'tb_locals' 參數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'durations' 參數。

      -- 方法: _makeResult ()

          This method returns the instance of ‘TestResult’ used by *note
          run(): 3d96.  It is not intended to be called directly, but
          can be overridden in subclasses to provide a custom
          ‘TestResult’.

          ‘_makeResult()’ instantiates the class or callable passed in
          the ‘TextTestRunner’ constructor as the ‘resultclass’
          argument.  It defaults to *note TextTestResult: 2b2. if no
          ‘resultclass’ is provided.  The result class is instantiated
          with the following arguments:

               stream, descriptions, verbosity

      -- 方法: run (test)

          This method is the main public interface to the
          ‘TextTestRunner’.  This method takes a *note TestSuite: c6c.
          or *note TestCase: 159. instance.  A *note TestResult: ffa. is
          created by calling *note _makeResult(): 3d95. and the test(s)
          are run and the results printed to stdout.

 -- 函式: unittest.main (module='__main__', defaultTest=None, argv=None,
          testRunner=None, testLoader=unittest.defaultTestLoader,
          exit=True, verbosity=1, failfast=None, catchbreak=None,
          buffer=None, warnings=None)

     A command-line program that loads a set of tests from 'module' and
     runs them; this is primarily for making test modules conveniently
     executable.  The simplest use for this function is to include the
     following line at the end of a test script:

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              unittest.main()

     You can run tests with more detailed information by passing in the
     verbosity argument:

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              unittest.main(verbosity=2)

     The 'defaultTest' argument is either the name of a single test or
     an iterable of test names to run if no test names are specified via
     'argv'.  If not specified or ‘None’ and no test names are provided
     via 'argv', all tests found in 'module' are run.

     The 'argv' argument can be a list of options passed to the program,
     with the first element being the program name.  If not specified or
     ‘None’, the values of *note sys.argv: 10f9. are used.

     The 'testRunner' argument can either be a test runner class or an
     already created instance of it.  By default ‘main’ calls *note
     sys.exit(): 11dd. with an exit code indicating success (0) or
     failure (1) of the tests run.  An exit code of 5 indicates that no
     tests were run or skipped.

     The 'testLoader' argument has to be a *note TestLoader: 532.
     instance, and defaults to *note defaultTestLoader: 3d7e.

     ‘main’ supports being used from the interactive interpreter by
     passing in the argument ‘exit=False’.  This displays the result on
     standard output without calling *note sys.exit(): 11dd.:

          >>> from unittest import main
          >>> main(module='test_module', exit=False)

     The 'failfast', 'catchbreak' and 'buffer' parameters have the same
     effect as the same-name *note command-line options: 3d46.

     The 'warnings' argument specifies the *note warning filter: 701.
     that should be used while running the tests.  If it's not
     specified, it will remain ‘None’ if a ‘-W’ option is passed to
     ‘python’ (see *note Warning control: 1b2d.), otherwise it will be
     set to ‘'default'’.

     Calling ‘main’ returns an object with the ‘result’ attribute that
     contains the result of the tests run as a *note
     unittest.TestResult: ffa.

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增 'exit' 參數。

     在 3.2 版的變更: The 'verbosity', 'failfast', 'catchbreak',
     'buffer' and 'warnings' parameters were added.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The 'defaultTest' parameter was changed to also
     accept an iterable of test names.

* Menu:

* load_tests Protocol::


File: python.info,  Node: load_tests Protocol,  Up: Loading and running tests

5.26.5.13 load_tests Protocol
.............................

在 3.2 版被加入.

Modules or packages can customize how tests are loaded from them during
normal test runs or test discovery by implementing a function called
‘load_tests’.

If a test module defines ‘load_tests’ it will be called by *note
TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 2b1. with the following arguments:

     load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

where 'pattern' is passed straight through from ‘loadTestsFromModule’.
It defaults to ‘None’.

It should return a *note TestSuite: c6c.

'loader' is the instance of *note TestLoader: 532. doing the loading.
'standard_tests' are the tests that would be loaded by default from the
module.  It is common for test modules to only want to add or remove
tests from the standard set of tests.  The third argument is used when
loading packages as part of test discovery.

A typical ‘load_tests’ function that loads tests from a specific set of
*note TestCase: 159. classes may look like:

     test_cases = (TestCase1, TestCase2, TestCase3)

     def load_tests(loader, tests, pattern):
         suite = TestSuite()
         for test_class in test_cases:
             tests = loader.loadTestsFromTestCase(test_class)
             suite.addTests(tests)
         return suite

If discovery is started in a directory containing a package, either from
the command line or by calling *note TestLoader.discover(): e77, then
the package ‘__init__.py’ will be checked for ‘load_tests’.  If that
function does not exist, discovery will recurse into the package as
though it were just another directory.  Otherwise, discovery of the
package's tests will be left up to ‘load_tests’ which is called with the
following arguments:

     load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

This should return a *note TestSuite: c6c. representing all the tests
from the package.  (‘standard_tests’ will only contain tests collected
from ‘__init__.py’.)

Because the pattern is passed into ‘load_tests’ the package is free to
continue (and potentially modify) test discovery.  A 'do nothing'
‘load_tests’ function for a test package would look like:

     def load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern):
         # top level directory cached on loader instance
         this_dir = os.path.dirname(__file__)
         package_tests = loader.discover(start_dir=this_dir, pattern=pattern)
         standard_tests.addTests(package_tests)
         return standard_tests

在 3.5 版的變更: Discovery no longer checks package names for matching
'pattern' due to the impossibility of package names matching the default
pattern.


File: python.info,  Node: Class and Module Fixtures,  Next: Signal Handling,  Prev: Classes and functions,  Up: unittest --- 單元測試框架

5.26.5.14 Class and Module Fixtures
...................................

Class and module level fixtures are implemented in *note TestSuite: c6c.
When the test suite encounters a test from a new class then
‘tearDownClass()’ from the previous class (if there is one) is called,
followed by ‘setUpClass()’ from the new class.

Similarly if a test is from a different module from the previous test
then ‘tearDownModule’ from the previous module is run, followed by
‘setUpModule’ from the new module.

After all the tests have run the final ‘tearDownClass’ and
‘tearDownModule’ are run.

Note that shared fixtures do not play well with [potential] features
like test parallelization and they break test isolation.  They should be
used with care.

The default ordering of tests created by the unittest test loaders is to
group all tests from the same modules and classes together.  This will
lead to ‘setUpClass’ / ‘setUpModule’ (etc) being called exactly once per
class and module.  If you randomize the order, so that tests from
different modules and classes are adjacent to each other, then these
shared fixture functions may be called multiple times in a single test
run.

Shared fixtures are not intended to work with suites with non-standard
ordering.  A ‘BaseTestSuite’ still exists for frameworks that don't want
to support shared fixtures.

If there are any exceptions raised during one of the shared fixture
functions the test is reported as an error.  Because there is no
corresponding test instance an ‘_ErrorHolder’ object (that has the same
interface as a *note TestCase: 159.) is created to represent the error.
If you are just using the standard unittest test runner then this detail
doesn't matter, but if you are a framework author it may be relevant.

* Menu:

* setUpClass and tearDownClass::
* setUpModule and tearDownModule::


File: python.info,  Node: setUpClass and tearDownClass,  Next: setUpModule and tearDownModule,  Up: Class and Module Fixtures

5.26.5.15 setUpClass and tearDownClass
......................................

These must be implemented as class methods:

     import unittest

     class Test(unittest.TestCase):
         @classmethod
         def setUpClass(cls):
             cls._connection = createExpensiveConnectionObject()

         @classmethod
         def tearDownClass(cls):
             cls._connection.destroy()

If you want the ‘setUpClass’ and ‘tearDownClass’ on base classes called
then you must call up to them yourself.  The implementations in *note
TestCase: 159. are empty.

If an exception is raised during a ‘setUpClass’ then the tests in the
class are not run and the ‘tearDownClass’ is not run.  Skipped classes
will not have ‘setUpClass’ or ‘tearDownClass’ run.  If the exception is
a *note SkipTest: e76. exception then the class will be reported as
having been skipped instead of as an error.


File: python.info,  Node: setUpModule and tearDownModule,  Prev: setUpClass and tearDownClass,  Up: Class and Module Fixtures

5.26.5.16 setUpModule and tearDownModule
........................................

These should be implemented as functions:

     def setUpModule():
         createConnection()

     def tearDownModule():
         closeConnection()

If an exception is raised in a ‘setUpModule’ then none of the tests in
the module will be run and the ‘tearDownModule’ will not be run.  If the
exception is a *note SkipTest: e76. exception then the module will be
reported as having been skipped instead of as an error.

To add cleanup code that must be run even in the case of an exception,
use ‘addModuleCleanup’:

 -- 函式: unittest.addModuleCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Add a function to be called after ‘tearDownModule()’ to cleanup
     resources used during the test class.  Functions will be called in
     reverse order to the order they are added (LIFO).  They are called
     with any arguments and keyword arguments passed into *note
     addModuleCleanup(): 897. when they are added.

     If ‘setUpModule()’ fails, meaning that ‘tearDownModule()’ is not
     called, then any cleanup functions added will still be called.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 方法: classmethod unittest.enterModuleContext (cm)

     Enter the supplied *note context manager: 3c4.  If successful, also
     add its *note __exit__(): 1191. method as a cleanup function by
     *note addModuleCleanup(): 897. and return the result of the *note
     __enter__(): 3b8. method.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: unittest.doModuleCleanups ()

     This function is called unconditionally after ‘tearDownModule()’,
     or after ‘setUpModule()’ if ‘setUpModule()’ raises an exception.

     It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added by
     *note addModuleCleanup(): 897.  If you need cleanup functions to be
     called 'prior' to ‘tearDownModule()’ then you can call *note
     doModuleCleanups(): 160e. yourself.

     *note doModuleCleanups(): 160e. pops methods off the stack of
     cleanup functions one at a time, so it can be called at any time.

     在 3.8 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Signal Handling,  Prev: Class and Module Fixtures,  Up: unittest --- 單元測試框架

5.26.5.17 Signal Handling
.........................

在 3.2 版被加入.

The *note -c/-catch: 11c7. command-line option to unittest, along with
the ‘catchbreak’ parameter to *note unittest.main(): e75, provide more
friendly handling of control-C during a test run.  With catch break
behavior enabled control-C will allow the currently running test to
complete, and the test run will then end and report all the results so
far.  A second control-c will raise a *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. in
the usual way.

The control-c handling signal handler attempts to remain compatible with
code or tests that install their own *note signal.SIGINT: 66b. handler.
If the ‘unittest’ handler is called but 'isn't' the installed *note
signal.SIGINT: 66b. handler, i.e.  it has been replaced by the system
under test and delegated to, then it calls the default handler.  This
will normally be the expected behavior by code that replaces an
installed handler and delegates to it.  For individual tests that need
‘unittest’ control-c handling disabled the *note removeHandler(): 11c8.
decorator can be used.

There are a few utility functions for framework authors to enable
control-c handling functionality within test frameworks.

 -- 函式: unittest.installHandler ()

     Install the control-c handler.  When a *note signal.SIGINT: 66b. is
     received (usually in response to the user pressing control-c) all
     registered results have *note stop(): 3d89. called.

 -- 函式: unittest.registerResult (result)

     Register a *note TestResult: ffa. object for control-c handling.
     Registering a result stores a weak reference to it, so it doesn't
     prevent the result from being garbage collected.

     Registering a *note TestResult: ffa. object has no side-effects if
     control-c handling is not enabled, so test frameworks can
     unconditionally register all results they create independently of
     whether or not handling is enabled.

 -- 函式: unittest.removeResult (result)

     Remove a registered result.  Once a result has been removed then
     *note stop(): 3d89. will no longer be called on that result object
     in response to a control-c.

 -- 函式: unittest.removeHandler (function=None)

     When called without arguments this function removes the control-c
     handler if it has been installed.  This function can also be used
     as a test decorator to temporarily remove the handler while the
     test is being executed:

          @unittest.removeHandler
          def test_signal_handling(self):
              ...


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫,  Next: unittest mock --- 入門指南,  Prev: unittest --- 單元測試框架,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.6 ‘unittest.mock’ — mock 物件函式庫
----------------------------------------

在 3.3 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/unittest/mock.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note unittest.mock: 102. 在 Python 中是一個用於進行測試的函式庫。 它允
許你用 mock 物件在測試中替換部分系統，並判定它們是如何被使用的。

*note unittest.mock: 102. 提供了一個以 *note Mock: 896. 為核心的類別，去
除在測試中建立大量 stubs 的需求。 在執行動作之後，你可以判定哪些 method
（方法）／屬性被使用，以及有哪些引數被呼叫。 你還可以用常規的方式指定回
傳值與設定所需的屬性。

此外，mock 還提供了一個 *note patch(): d12. 裝飾器，用於 patching 測試範
圍內對 module（模組）以及 class（類別）級別的屬性，以及用於建立唯一物件
的 *note sentinel: a00.。有關如何使用 *note Mock: 896.、*note MagicMock:
d11. 和 *note patch(): d12. 的一些範例，請參閱*note 快速導引: 3d9e.。

Mock 被設計用於與 *note unittest: 101. 一起使用，並且基於 「action（操作
） -> assertion（判定）」 模式，而不是許多 mocking 框架使用的 「record（
記錄） -> replay（重播）」 模式。

對於早期版本的 Python，有一個 backport（向後移植的）*note unittest.mock:
102. 可以使用，可從 PyPI 下載 mock(2)。

* Menu:

* 快速導引::
* Mock 類別::
* Patchers::
* MagicMock 以及魔術方法支援::
* 輔助函式: 輔助函式<2>.
* Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/unittest/mock.py

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/mock/


File: python.info,  Node: 快速導引,  Next: Mock 類別,  Up: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫

5.26.6.1 快速導引
.................

*note Mock: 896. 和 *note MagicMock: d11. 物件在你存取它們時建立所有屬性
和 method（方法），並儲存它們如何被使用的詳細訊息。你可以配置它們，以指
定回傳值或限制可用的屬性，然後對它們的使用方式做出判定：

     >>> from unittest.mock import MagicMock
     >>> thing = ProductionClass()
     >>> thing.method = MagicMock(return_value=3)
     >>> thing.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
     3
     >>> thing.method.assert_called_with(3, 4, 5, key='value')

*note side_effect: 3d9f. allows you to perform side effects, including
raising an exception when a mock is called:

     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock
     >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=KeyError('foo'))
     >>> mock()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     KeyError: 'foo'

     >>> values = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
     >>> def side_effect(arg):
     ...     return values[arg]
     ...
     >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> mock('a'), mock('b'), mock('c')
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock.side_effect = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
     >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
     (5, 4, 3)

Mock 有許多其他方法可以讓你配置與控制它的行為。例如，'spec' 引數可以配置
mock ，讓其從另一個物件獲取規格。嘗試讀取 mock 中不存在於規格中的屬性或
方法將會失敗，並出現 *note AttributeError: 3ca.。

*note patch(): d12. 裝飾器／情境管理器可以在測試中簡單的 mock 模組中的類
別或物件。被指定的物件在測試期間會被替換為 mock（或其他物件），並在測試
結束時恢復：

     >>> from unittest.mock import patch
     >>> @patch('module.ClassName2')
     ... @patch('module.ClassName1')
     ... def test(MockClass1, MockClass2):
     ...     module.ClassName1()
     ...     module.ClassName2()
     ...     assert MockClass1 is module.ClassName1
     ...     assert MockClass2 is module.ClassName2
     ...     assert MockClass1.called
     ...     assert MockClass2.called
     ...
     >>> test()

     備註: 當你巢狀使用 patch 裝飾器時，mock 傳遞到被裝飾函式的順序會跟
     其被應用的順序相同（一般 'Python' 應用裝飾器的順序）。這意味著由下
     而上，因此在上面的範例中，‘module.ClassName1’ 的 mock 會先被傳入。

     使用 *note patch(): d12. 時，需注意的是你得在被查找物件的命名空間中
     （in the namespace where they are looked up）patch 物件。這通常很直
     接，但若需要快速導引，請參閱*note 該 patch 何處: 3da0.。

裝飾器 *note patch(): d12. 也可以在 with 陳述式中被用來作為情境管理器：

     >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method', return_value=None) as mock_method:
     ...     thing = ProductionClass()
     ...     thing.method(1, 2, 3)
     ...
     >>> mock_method.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)

也有 *note patch.dict(): 17d7.，用於在測試範圍中設定 dictionary（字典）
內的值，並在測試結束時將其恢復為原始狀態：

     >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
     >>> original = foo.copy()
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> assert foo == original

Mock 支援對 Python 的*note 魔術方法: 3da1.的 mocking。最簡單使用魔術方法
的方式是使用 *note MagicMock: d11. 類別。它允許你執行以下操作：

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'foobarbaz'
     >>> str(mock)
     'foobarbaz'
     >>> mock.__str__.assert_called_with()

Mock 允許你將函式（或其他 Mock 實例）分配給魔術方法，並且它們將被適當地
呼叫。*note MagicMock: d11. 類別是一個 Mock 的變體，它為你預先建好了所有
魔術方法（好吧，所有有用的方法）。

以下是在一般 Mock 類別中使用魔術方法的範例：

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = Mock(return_value='wheeeeee')
     >>> str(mock)
     'wheeeeee'

為了確保測試中的 mock 物件與它們要替換的物件具有相同的 api，你可以使用
*note 自動規格: 3da2.。自動規格（auto-speccing）可以通過 patch 的
'autospec' 引數或 *note create_autospec(): 1406. 函式來完成。自動規格建
立的 mock 物件與它們要替換的物件具有相同的屬性和方法，並且任何函式和方法
（包括建構函式）都具有與真實物件相同的呼叫簽名（call signature）。

這可以確保如果使用方法錯誤，你的 mock 會跟實際程式碼以相同的方式失敗：

     >>> from unittest.mock import create_autospec
     >>> def function(a, b, c):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> mock_function = create_autospec(function, return_value='fishy')
     >>> mock_function(1, 2, 3)
     'fishy'
     >>> mock_function.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock_function('wrong arguments')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     TypeError: <lambda>() takes exactly 3 arguments (1 given)

*note create_autospec(): 1406. 也可以用在類別上，它複製了 ‘__init__’ 方
法的簽名，它也可以用在可呼叫物件上，其複製了 ‘__call__’ 方法的簽名。


File: python.info,  Node: Mock 類別,  Next: Patchers,  Prev: 快速導引,  Up: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫

5.26.6.2 Mock 類別
..................

*note Mock: 896. 是一個彈性的的 mock 物件，旨在代替程式碼中 stubs 和
test doubles （測試替身）的使用。Mock 是可呼叫的，並在你存取它們時將屬性
建立為新的 mock (1)。存取相同的屬性將永遠回傳相同的 mock。Mock 記錄了你
如何使用它們，允許你判定你的程式碼對 mock 的行為。

*note MagicMock: d11. 是 *note Mock: 896. 的子類別，其中所有魔術方法均已
預先建立並可供使用。也有不可呼叫的變體，在你 mock 無法呼叫的物件時很有用
：*note NonCallableMock: 3da4. 和 *note NonCallableMagicMock: 3da5.

*note patch(): d12. 裝飾器可以輕鬆地用 *note Mock: 896. 物件臨時替換特定
模組中的類別。預設情況下，*note patch(): d12. 會為你建立一個 *note
MagicMock: d11.。你可以使用 *note patch(): d12. 的 'new_callable' 引數指
定 *note Mock: 896. 的替代類別。

 -- 類別: unittest.mock.Mock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, **kwargs)

     建立一個新的 *note Mock: 896. 物件。*note Mock: 896. 接受數個可選的
     引數來指定 Mock 物件的行為：

        * 'spec'：這可以是字串的 list（串列），也可以是充當 mock 物件規
          格的現有物件（類別或實例）。如果傳入一個物件，則通過對該物件呼
          叫 dir 來形成字串的串列（不包括不支援的魔術屬性和方法）。存取
          不在此串列中的任何屬性都會引發 *note AttributeError: 3ca.。

          If 'spec' is an object (rather than a list of strings) then
          *note __class__: 1320. returns the class of the spec object.
          This allows mocks to pass *note isinstance(): 14b. tests.

        * 'spec_set'：'spec' 的一個更嚴格的變體。如果使用 'spec_set'，在
          mock 上嘗試 'set' 或取得不在傳遞給 'spec_set' 的物件上的屬性將
          會引發 *note AttributeError: 3ca.。

        * 'side_effect'：每當呼叫 Mock 時要呼叫的函式，參見 *note
          side_effect: 3d9f. 屬性，用於引發例外或動態變更回傳值。該函式
          使用與 mock 相同的引數呼叫，且除非它回傳 *note DEFAULT: 3da6.，
          否則此函式的回傳值將用作回傳值。

          'side_effect' 也可以是一個例外的類別或實例。在這種情況下，當呼
          叫 mock 時，該例外將被引發。

          如果 'side_effect' 是一個可疊代物件，那麼對 mock 的每次呼叫將
          回傳可疊代物件中的下一個值。

          'side_effect' 可以通過將其設置為 ‘None’ 來清除。

        * 'return_value'：當呼叫 mock 時回傳的值。預設情況下，這是一個新
          的 Mock（在首次存取時建立）。參見 *note return_value: 3da7. 屬
          性。

        * 'unsafe'：預設情況下，存取任何以 'assert'、'assret'、'asert'、
          'aseert' 或 'assrt' 開頭的屬性將引發 *note AttributeError:
          3ca.。如果傳遞 ‘unsafe=True’，將會允許存取這些屬性。

          在 3.5 版被加入.

        * 'wraps'：被 mock 物件包裝的項目。如果 'wraps' 不是 ‘None’，那
          麼呼叫 Mock 將通過被包裝的物件（回傳真實結果）。存取 mock 的屬
          性將會回傳一個 Mock 物件，該物件包裝了被包裝物件的對應屬性（因
          此嘗試存取不存在的屬性將引發 *note AttributeError: 3ca.）。

          如果 mock 已經明確設定了 'return_value'，那麼呼叫並不會被傳遞
          到被包裝的物件，而是回傳已設定好的 'return_value'。

        * 'name'：如果 mock 有一個名稱，那麼它會被用於 mock 的 repr。這
          對於除錯很有用。此名稱將被傳播到子 mocks。

     Mocks 還可以使用任意的關鍵字引數進行呼叫。這些關鍵字引數將在建立
     mock 之後用於設定 mock 的屬性。欲知更多，請參見 *note
     configure_mock(): 3da8. 方法。

      -- 方法: assert_called ()

          確認 mock 至少被呼叫一次。

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called()

          在 3.6 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assert_called_once ()

          確認 mock 只被呼叫一次。

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'method' to have been called once. Called 2 times.

          在 3.6 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assert_called_with (*args, **kwargs)

          這個方法是一個便利的方式，用來斷言最後一次呼叫是以特定方式進行
          的：

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method(1, 2, 3, test='wow')
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3, test='wow')

      -- 方法: assert_called_once_with (*args, **kwargs)

          確認 mock 只被呼叫一次，且該次呼叫使用了指定的引數。

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock('foo', bar='baz')
               >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar='baz')
               >>> mock('other', bar='values')
               >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('other', bar='values')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'mock' to be called once. Called 2 times.

      -- 方法: assert_any_call (*args, **kwargs)

          斷言 mock 已經被使用指定的引數呼叫。

          這個斷言在 mock 曾經被呼叫過時通過，不同於 *note
          assert_called_with(): 1806. 和 *note
          assert_called_once_with(): 3da9.，他們針對的是最近的一次的呼叫
          ，而且對於 *note assert_called_once_with(): 3da9.，最近一次的
          呼叫還必須也是唯一一次的呼叫。

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock(1, 2, arg='thing')
               >>> mock('some', 'thing', 'else')
               >>> mock.assert_any_call(1, 2, arg='thing')

      -- 方法: assert_has_calls (calls, any_order=False)

          斷言 mock 已經使用指定的呼叫方式來呼叫。此斷言會檢查 *note
          mock_calls: 3dac. 串列中的呼叫。

          如果 'any_order' 為 false，那麼這些呼叫必須按照順序。在指定的
          呼叫之前或之後可以有額外的呼叫。

          如果 'any_order' 為 true，那麼這些呼叫可以以任何順序出現，但它
          們必須全部出現在 *note mock_calls: 3dac. 中。

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock(1)
               >>> mock(2)
               >>> mock(3)
               >>> mock(4)
               >>> calls = [call(2), call(3)]
               >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls)
               >>> calls = [call(4), call(2), call(3)]
               >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)

      -- 方法: assert_not_called ()

          斷言 mock 從未被呼叫。

               >>> m = Mock()
               >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
               >>> obj = m.hello()
               >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'hello' to not have been called. Called 1 times.

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 方法: reset_mock (*, return_value=False, side_effect=False)

          reset_mock 方法重置 mock 物件上的所有呼叫屬性：

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock('hello')
               >>> mock.called
               True
               >>> mock.reset_mock()
               >>> mock.called
               False

          This can be useful where you want to make a series of
          assertions that reuse the same object.

          'return_value' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note
          return_value: 3da7.:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=5)
               >>> mock('hello')
               5
               >>> mock.reset_mock(return_value=True)
               >>> mock('hello')
               <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

          'side_effect' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note
          side_effect: 3d9f.:

               >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=ValueError)
               >>> mock('hello')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               ValueError
               >>> mock.reset_mock(side_effect=True)
               >>> mock('hello')
               <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

          Note that *note reset_mock(): b68. 'doesn't' clear the *note
          return_value: 3da7, *note side_effect: 3d9f. or any child
          attributes you have set using normal assignment by default.

          Child mocks are reset as well.

          在 3.6 版的變更: reset_mock 函式新增了兩個僅限關鍵字引數
          (keyword-only arguments)。

      -- 方法: mock_add_spec (spec, spec_set=False)

          向 mock 增加一個規格 (spec)。'spec' 可以是一個物件或一個字串串
          列 (list of strings)。只有在 'spec' 上的屬性才能作為 mock 的屬
          性被取得。

          如果 'spec_set' 為 true，那麼只能設定在規格中的屬性。

      -- 方法: attach_mock (mock, attribute)

          將一個 mock 作為這個 Mock 的屬性附加，取代它的名稱和上代
          (parent)。對附加的 mock 的呼叫將被記錄在這個 Mock 的 *note
          method_calls: 3dae. 和 *note mock_calls: 3dac. 屬性中。

      -- 方法: configure_mock (**kwargs)

          透過關鍵字引數在 mock 上設定屬性。

          可以在使用 method（方法）呼叫時，使用標準點記法 (dot notation)
          並將字典拆開，為 child mock 設定屬性、回傳值和 side effects：

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
               >>> mock.configure_mock(**attrs)
               >>> mock.method()
               3
               >>> mock.other()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               KeyError

          同樣的事情可以在 mock 的建構函式呼叫中實現：

               >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
               >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
               >>> mock.some_attribute
               'eggs'
               >>> mock.method()
               3
               >>> mock.other()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               KeyError

          *note configure_mock(): 3da8. 的存在是為了在 mock 被建立後更容
          易進行組態設定。

      -- 方法: __dir__ ()

          *note Mock: 896. 物件限制了 ‘dir(some_mock)’ 僅顯示有用的結果
          。對於具有 'spec' 的 mock，這包含所有被允許的 mock 屬性。

          請參閱 *note FILTER_DIR: 3db0. 以了解這種過濾行為的作用，以及
          如何關閉它。

      -- 方法: _get_child_mock (**kw)

          建立為了得到屬性和回傳值的 child mock。預設情況下，child mock
          將與其上代是相同的型別。Mock 的子類別可能會想要置換此行為，以
          自定義 child mock 的建立方式。

          對於不可呼叫的 mock，將使用可呼叫的變體，而不是任何的自定義子
          類別。

      -- 屬性: called

          一個 boolean（布林），表述 mock 物件是否已經被呼叫：

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock.called
               False
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.called
               True

      -- 屬性: call_count

          一個整數，告訴你 mock 物件被呼叫的次數：

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock.call_count
               0
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.call_count
               2

      -- 屬性: return_value

          設定此值以配置呼叫 mock 時回傳的值：

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.return_value = 'fish'
               >>> mock()
               'fish'

          預設的回傳值是一個 mock 物件，你也可以按照正常的方式配置它：

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.return_value.attribute = sentinel.Attribute
               >>> mock.return_value()
               <Mock name='mock()()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.return_value.assert_called_with()

          *note return_value: 3da7. 也可以在建構函式中設定：

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
               >>> mock.return_value
               3
               >>> mock()
               3

      -- 屬性: side_effect

          這可以是一個在呼叫 mock 時要呼叫的函式、一個可疊代物件，或者要
          引發的例外（類別或實例）。

          如果你傳遞一個函式，它將被呼叫，其引數與 mock 相同，且除非該函
          式回傳 *note DEFAULT: 3da6. 單例 (singleton)，否則對 mock 的呼
          叫將回傳函式回傳的任何值。如果函式回傳 *note DEFAULT: 3da6.，
          那麼 mock 將回傳其正常的回傳值（從 *note return_value: 3da7. 得
          到）。

          如果你傳遞一個可疊代物件，它將被用於檢索一個疊代器，該疊代器必
          須在每次呼叫時產出 (yield) 一個值。這個值可以是要引發的例外實
          例，或者是對 mock 呼叫時要回傳的值（處理 *note DEFAULT: 3da6.
          的方式與函式的狀況相同）。

          以下是一個引發例外的 mock 的範例（用於測試 API 的例外處理）：

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.side_effect = Exception('Boom!')
               >>> mock()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               Exception: Boom!

          使用 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 回傳一連串值的範例：

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.side_effect = [3, 2, 1]
               >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
               (3, 2, 1)

          使用可被呼叫物件的範例：

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
               >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     return DEFAULT
               ...
               >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
               >>> mock()
               3

          *note side_effect: 3d9f. 可以在建構函式中設定。以下是一個範例
          ，它將 mock 被呼叫時給的值加一並回傳：

               >>> side_effect = lambda value: value + 1
               >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
               >>> mock(3)
               4
               >>> mock(-8)
               -7

          將 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 設定為 ‘None’ 可以清除它：

               >>> m = Mock(side_effect=KeyError, return_value=3)
               >>> m()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                ...
               KeyError
               >>> m.side_effect = None
               >>> m()
               3

      -- 屬性: call_args

          這會是 ‘None’（如果 mock 尚未被呼叫），或是 mock 上次被呼叫時
          使用的引數。這將以元組的形式呈現：第一個成員 (member)，其可以
          通過 ‘args’ 屬性訪問，是 mock 被呼叫時傳遞的所有有序引數（或一
          個空元組）。第二個成員，其可以通過 ‘kwargs’ 屬性訪問，是所有關
          鍵字引數（或一個空字典）。

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> print(mock.call_args)
               None
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.call_args
               call()
               >>> mock.call_args == ()
               True
               >>> mock(3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args
               call(3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args == ((3, 4),)
               True
               >>> mock.call_args.args
               (3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args.kwargs
               {}
               >>> mock(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args
               call(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args.args
               (3, 4, 5)
               >>> mock.call_args.kwargs
               {'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'}

          *note call_args: 175c.，以及串列 *note call_args_list: 3db4.、
          *note method_calls: 3dae. 和 *note mock_calls: 3dac. 的成員都
          是 *note call: 17ab. 物件。這些都是元組，因此可以解包以獲取各
          個引數並進行更複雜的斷言。參見 *note calls as tuples: 3db5.。

          在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 ‘args’ 與 ‘kwargs’ 特性。

      -- 屬性: call_args_list

          這是按順序列出所有呼叫 mock 物件的串列（因此串列的長度表示它被
          呼叫的次數）。在任何呼叫發生之前，它會是一個空的串列。 *note
          call: 17ab. 物件可用於方便地建構呼叫的串列，以便與 *note
          call_args_list: 3db4. 進行比較。

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock(3, 4)
               >>> mock(key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args_list
               [call(), call(3, 4), call(key='fish', next='w00t!')]
               >>> expected = [(), ((3, 4),), ({'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'},)]
               >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
               True

          *note call_args_list: 3db4. 的成員都是 *note call: 17ab. 物件
          。這些物件可以被拆包為元組，以取得各個引數。參見 *note calls
          as tuples: 3db5.。

      -- 屬性: method_calls

          除了追蹤對自身的呼叫之外，mock 還會追蹤對方法和屬性的呼叫，以
          及'它們（這些方法和屬性）'的方法和屬性：

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.property.method.attribute()
               <Mock name='mock.property.method.attribute()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method_calls
               [call.method(), call.property.method.attribute()]

          *note method_calls: 3dae. 的成員都是 *note call: 17ab. 物件。
          這些物件可以拆包為元組，以取得各個引數。參見 *note calls as
          tuples: 3db5.。

      -- 屬性: mock_calls

          *note mock_calls: 3dac. 記錄了 '所有' 對 mock 物件的呼叫，包含
          其方法、魔術方法以及回傳值 mock。

               >>> mock = MagicMock()
               >>> result = mock(1, 2, 3)
               >>> mock.first(a=3)
               <MagicMock name='mock.first()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.second()
               <MagicMock name='mock.second()' id='...'>
               >>> int(mock)
               1
               >>> result(1)
               <MagicMock name='mock()()' id='...'>
               >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call.first(a=3), call.second(),
               ... call.__int__(), call()(1)]
               >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
               True

          ‘method_calls’ 的成員都是 *note call: 17ab. 物件。這些物件可以
          拆包為元組，以取得各個引數。參見 *note calls as tuples: 3db5.。

               備註: *note mock_calls: 3dac. 記錄的方式意味著在進行巢狀
               呼叫時，上代 (ancestor) 呼叫的參數不會被記錄，因此在比較
               時它們將始終相等：

                    >>> mock = MagicMock()
                    >>> mock.top(a=3).bottom()
                    <MagicMock name='mock.top().bottom()' id='...'>
                    >>> mock.mock_calls
                    [call.top(a=3), call.top().bottom()]
                    >>> mock.mock_calls[-1] == call.top(a=-1).bottom()
                    True

      -- 屬性: __class__

          Normally the ‘__class__’ attribute of an object will return
          its type.  For a mock object with a ‘spec’, ‘__class__’
          returns the spec class instead.  This allows mock objects to
          pass *note isinstance(): 14b. tests for the object they are
          replacing / masquerading as:

               >>> mock = Mock(spec=3)
               >>> isinstance(mock, int)
               True

          ‘__class__’ is assignable to, this allows a mock to pass an
          *note isinstance(): 14b. check without forcing you to use a
          spec:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.__class__ = dict
               >>> isinstance(mock, dict)
               True

 -- 類別: unittest.mock.NonCallableMock (spec=None, wraps=None,
          name=None, spec_set=None, **kwargs)

     *note Mock: 896. 的一個不可呼叫版本。建構函式參數的意義與 *note
     Mock: 896. 相同，其例外為 'return_value' 和 'side_effect' 在不可呼
     叫的 mock 上無意義。

Mock objects that use a class or an instance as a ‘spec’ or ‘spec_set’
are able to pass *note isinstance(): 14b. tests:

     >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
     >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
     True
     >>> mock = Mock(spec_set=SomeClass())
     >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
     True

*note Mock: 896. 類別支援 mock 魔術方法。細節請參考*note 魔術方法:
3da1.。

Mock類別和 *note patch(): d12. 裝飾器於組態時接受任意的關鍵字引數。對於
*note patch(): d12. 裝飾器，這些關鍵字會傳遞給正在建立 mock 的建構函式。
這些關鍵字引數用於配置 mock 的屬性：

     >>> m = MagicMock(attribute=3, other='fish')
     >>> m.attribute
     3
     >>> m.other
     'fish'

Child mock 的回傳值和 side effect 可以使用使用點記法進行設置。由於你無法
直接在呼叫中使用帶有點 (.)  的名稱，因此你必須建立一個字典並使用 ‘**’ 解
包：

     >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
     >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
     >>> mock.some_attribute
     'eggs'
     >>> mock.method()
     3
     >>> mock.other()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError

在匹配對 mock 的呼叫時，使用 'spec'（或 'spec_set'）建立的可呼叫 mock 將
會內省 (introspect) 規格物件的簽名 (signature)。因此，它可以匹配實際呼叫
的引數，無論它們是按位置傳遞還是按名稱傳遞：

     >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
     >>> mock(1, 2, c=3)
     <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

這適用於 *note assert_called_with(): 1806.、*note
assert_called_once_with(): 3da9.、*note assert_has_calls(): 3dab. 和
*note assert_any_call(): 3daa.。在使用 *note Autospeccing（自動規格）:
3da2. 時，它還適用於 mock 物件的方法呼叫。

在 3.4 版的變更: 對於已經設置了規格（spec）和自動規格（autospec）的 mock
物件，新增簽名內省功能。

 -- 類別: unittest.mock.PropertyMock (*args, **kwargs)

     一個理應在類別上當成 *note property: 424. 或其他 *note descriptor:
     1d03. 的 mock。*note PropertyMock: 3db7. 提供了 *note __get__():
     135e. 和 *note __set__(): 1cfb. 方法，因此你可以在它被提取時指定回
     傳值。

     從物件中提取 *note PropertyMock: 3db7. 實例會不帶任何引數呼叫 mock。
     設定它則會用設定的值來呼叫 mock：

          >>> class Foo:
          ...     @property
          ...     def foo(self):
          ...         return 'something'
          ...     @foo.setter
          ...     def foo(self, value):
          ...         pass
          ...
          >>> with patch('__main__.Foo.foo', new_callable=PropertyMock) as mock_foo:
          ...     mock_foo.return_value = 'mockity-mock'
          ...     this_foo = Foo()
          ...     print(this_foo.foo)
          ...     this_foo.foo = 6
          ...
          mockity-mock
          >>> mock_foo.mock_calls
          [call(), call(6)]

由於 mock 屬性的儲存方式，你無法直接將 *note PropertyMock: 3db7. 附加到
mock 物件。但是你可以將其附加到 mock 型別的物件：

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> p = PropertyMock(return_value=3)
     >>> type(m).foo = p
     >>> m.foo
     3
     >>> p.assert_called_once_with()

     警示: If an *note AttributeError: 3ca. is raised by *note
     PropertyMock: 3db7, it will be interpreted as a missing descriptor
     and *note __getattr__(): 1fa. will be called on the parent mock:

          >>> m = MagicMock()
          >>> no_attribute = PropertyMock(side_effect=AttributeError)
          >>> type(m).my_property = no_attribute
          >>> m.my_property
          <MagicMock name='mock.my_property' id='140165240345424'>

     詳情請見 *note __getattr__(): 1fa.。

 -- 類別: unittest.mock.AsyncMock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, **kwargs)

     *note MagicMock: d11. 的非同步版本。*note AsyncMock: 895. 物件的表
     現將被視為非同步函式，並且呼叫的結果是一個可等待物件。

          >>> mock = AsyncMock()
          >>> asyncio.iscoroutinefunction(mock)
          True
          >>> inspect.isawaitable(mock())
          True

     ‘mock()’ 的結果是一個非同步函式，在它被等待後將具有 ‘side_effect’ 或
     ‘return_value’ 的結果：

        - 如果 ‘side_effect’ 是一個函式，非同步函式將回傳該函式的結果，

        - 如果 ‘side_effect’ 是一個例外，則非同步函式將引發該例外，

        - 如果 ‘side_effect’ 是一個可疊代物件，非同步函式將回傳可疊代物
          件的下一個值，但如果結果序列耗盡，將立即引發
          ‘StopAsyncIteration’，

        - 如果 ‘side_effect’ 沒有被定義，非同步函式將回傳由
          ‘return_value’ 定義的值，因此在預設情況下，非同步函式回傳一個
          新的 *note AsyncMock: 895. 物件。

     將 *note Mock: 896. 或 *note MagicMock: d11. 的 'spec' 設定為非同步
     函式將導致在呼叫後回傳一個協程物件。

          >>> async def async_func(): pass
          ...
          >>> mock = MagicMock(async_func)
          >>> mock
          <MagicMock spec='function' id='...'>
          >>> mock()
          <coroutine object AsyncMockMixin._mock_call at ...>

     將 *note Mock: 896.、*note MagicMock: d11. 或 *note AsyncMock: 895.
     的 'spec' 設定為具有同步和非同步函式的類別，會自動檢測同步函式並將
     其設定為 *note MagicMock: d11.（如果上代 mock 為 *note AsyncMock:
     895. 或 *note MagicMock: d11.）或 *note Mock: 896.（如果上代 mock 為
     *note Mock: 896.）。所有非同步函式將被設定為 *note AsyncMock: 895.。

          >>> class ExampleClass:
          ...     def sync_foo():
          ...         pass
          ...     async def async_foo():
          ...         pass
          ...
          >>> a_mock = AsyncMock(ExampleClass)
          >>> a_mock.sync_foo
          <MagicMock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
          >>> a_mock.async_foo
          <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>
          >>> mock = Mock(ExampleClass)
          >>> mock.sync_foo
          <Mock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
          >>> mock.async_foo
          <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>

     在 3.8 版被加入.

      -- 方法: assert_awaited ()

          斷言 mock 至少被等待過一次。請注意這與物件是否被呼叫是分開的，
          ‘await’ 關鍵字必須被使用：

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(coroutine_mock):
               ...     await coroutine_mock
               ...
               >>> coroutine_mock = mock()
               >>> mock.called
               True
               >>> mock.assert_awaited()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited.
               >>> asyncio.run(main(coroutine_mock))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited()

      -- 方法: assert_awaited_once ()

          斷言 mock 正好被等待了一次。

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main():
               ...     await mock()
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once()
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.method.assert_awaited_once()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

      -- 方法: assert_awaited_with (*args, **kwargs)

          斷言最後一次等待使用了指定的引數。

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('other')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: expected call not found.
               Expected: mock('other')
               Actual: mock('foo', bar='bar')

      -- 方法: assert_awaited_once_with (*args, **kwargs)

          斷言 mock 只被等待了一次並使用了指定的引數。

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

      -- 方法: assert_any_await (*args, **kwargs)

          斷言 mock 曾經被使用指定的引數等待過。

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> asyncio.run(main('hello'))
               >>> mock.assert_any_await('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> mock.assert_any_await('other')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: mock('other') await not found

      -- 方法: assert_has_awaits (calls, any_order=False)

          斷言 mock 已被使用指定的呼叫進行等待。*note await_args_list:
          175b. 串列將被檢查以確認等待的內容。

          如果 'any_order' 為 false，則等待必須按照順序。指定的等待之前
          或之後可以有額外的呼叫。

          如果 'any_order' 為 true，則等待可以以任何順序出現，但它們必須
          全部出現在 *note await_args_list: 175b. 中。

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> calls = [call("foo"), call("bar")]
               >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Awaits not found.
               Expected: [call('foo'), call('bar')]
               Actual: []
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)

      -- 方法: assert_not_awaited ()

          斷言 mock 從未被等待。

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> mock.assert_not_awaited()

      -- 方法: reset_mock (*args, **kwargs)

          參見 *note Mock.reset_mock(): b68.。同時將 *note await_count:
          3dc0. 設定為 0，*note await_args: 3dc1. 設定為 None，並清除
          *note await_args_list: 175b.。

      -- 屬性: await_count

          一個整數，用來記錄 mock 物件已被等待的次數。

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main():
               ...     await mock()
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.await_count
               1
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.await_count
               2

      -- 屬性: await_args

          這可能是 ‘None’（如果 mock 尚未被等待），或者是上次等待 mock 時
          使用的引數。與 *note Mock.call_args: 175c. 的功能相同。

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args):
               ...     await mock(*args)
               ...
               >>> mock.await_args
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> mock.await_args
               call('foo')
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.await_args
               call('bar')

      -- 屬性: await_args_list

          這是一個按照順序記錄 mock 物件所有等待的串列（因此串列的長度表
          示該物件已被等待的次數）。在進行任何等待之前，此串列為空。

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args):
               ...     await mock(*args)
               ...
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               []
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               [call('foo')]
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               [call('foo'), call('bar')]

* Menu:

* 呼叫::
* 刪除屬性::
* Mock 名稱與名稱屬性::
* 如同屬性一般附加 mock::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 唯一的例外是魔術方法和屬性（具有前後雙底線）。Mock 不會建立這些，
而是會引發 *note AttributeError: 3ca.。這是因為直譯器通常會隱式地要求這
些方法，在期望得到一個魔術方法卻獲得一個新的 Mock 物件時，會讓直譯器'非
常'困惑。如果你需要魔術方法的支援，請參閱*note 魔術方法: 3da1.。


File: python.info,  Node: 呼叫,  Next: 刪除屬性,  Up: Mock 類別

5.26.6.3 呼叫
.............

Mock 物件可被呼叫。呼叫將回傳設定為 *note return_value: 3da7. 屬性的值。
預設的回傳值是一個新的 Mock 物件；它會在第一次存取回傳值時（無論是顯式存
取還是透過呼叫 Mock）被建立，但是這個回傳值會被儲存，之後每次都回傳同一
個值。

對物件的呼叫會被記錄在如 *note call_args: 175c. 和 *note call_args_list:
3db4. 等屬性中。

If *note side_effect: 3d9f. is set then it will be called after the call
has been recorded, so if ‘side_effect’ raises an exception the call is
still recorded.

呼叫 mock 時引發例外的最簡單方式是將 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 設定為例外
類別或實例：

     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=IndexError)
     >>> m(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     IndexError
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1, 2, 3)]
     >>> m.side_effect = KeyError('Bang!')
     >>> m('two', 'three', 'four')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError: 'Bang!'
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1, 2, 3), call('two', 'three', 'four')]

If *note side_effect: 3d9f. is a function then whatever that function
returns is what calls to the mock return.  The ‘side_effect’ function is
called with the same arguments as the mock.  This allows you to vary the
return value of the call dynamically, based on the input:

     >>> def side_effect(value):
     ...     return value + 1
     ...
     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
     >>> m(1)
     2
     >>> m(2)
     3
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1), call(2)]

If you want the mock to still return the default return value (a new
mock), or any set return value, then there are two ways of doing this.
Either return *note return_value: 3da7. from inside *note side_effect:
3d9f, or return *note DEFAULT: 3da6.:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return m.return_value
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m.return_value = 3
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return DEFAULT
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m()
     3

To remove a *note side_effect: 3d9f, and return to the default
behaviour, set the ‘side_effect’ to ‘None’:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=6)
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return 3
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> m.side_effect = None
     >>> m()
     6

The *note side_effect: 3d9f. can also be any iterable object.  Repeated
calls to the mock will return values from the iterable (until the
iterable is exhausted and a *note StopIteration: a5d. is raised):

     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=[1, 2, 3])
     >>> m()
     1
     >>> m()
     2
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> m()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     StopIteration

如果可疊代物件中的任何成員是例外，則它們將被引發而不是被回傳：

     >>> iterable = (33, ValueError, 66)
     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=iterable)
     >>> m()
     33
     >>> m()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     ValueError
     >>> m()
     66


File: python.info,  Node: 刪除屬性,  Next: Mock 名稱與名稱屬性,  Prev: 呼叫,  Up: Mock 類別

5.26.6.4 刪除屬性
.................

Mock 物件會在需要時建立屬性。這使得它們可以假裝成任何種類的物件。

You may want a mock object to return ‘False’ to a *note hasattr(): 1f9.
call, or raise an *note AttributeError: 3ca. when an attribute is
fetched.  You can do this by providing an object as a ‘spec’ for a mock,
but that isn't always convenient.

你可以通過刪除屬性來「阻擋」它們。一旦刪除，再次存取該屬性將會引發 *note
AttributeError: 3ca.。

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
     True
     >>> del mock.m
     >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
     False
     >>> del mock.f
     >>> mock.f
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: f


File: python.info,  Node: Mock 名稱與名稱屬性,  Next: 如同屬性一般附加 mock,  Prev: 刪除屬性,  Up: Mock 類別

5.26.6.5 Mock 名稱與名稱屬性
............................

由於 "name" 是傳遞給 *note Mock: 896. 建構函式的引數，如果你想讓你的
mock 物件擁有 "name" 屬性，你不能在建立時直接傳遞它。有兩種替代方法。其
中一個選擇是使用 *note configure_mock(): 3da8.：

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.configure_mock(name='my_name')
     >>> mock.name
     'my_name'

更簡單的方法是在 mock 建立後直接設定 "name" 屬性：

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.name = "foo"


File: python.info,  Node: 如同屬性一般附加 mock,  Prev: Mock 名稱與名稱屬性,  Up: Mock 類別

5.26.6.6 如同屬性一般附加 mock
..............................

當你將一個 mock 附加為另一個 mock 的屬性（或作為回傳值），它將成為該
mock 的「子代 (child)」。對子代的呼叫將被記錄在上代的 *note
method_calls: 3dae. 和 *note mock_calls: 3dac. 屬性中。這對於配置子代並
將它們附加到上代，或將 mock 附加到記錄所有對子代的呼叫的上代並允許你對
mock 間的呼叫順序進行斷言非常有用：

     >>> parent = MagicMock()
     >>> child1 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> child2 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> parent.child1 = child1
     >>> parent.child2 = child2
     >>> child1(1)
     >>> child2(2)
     >>> parent.mock_calls
     [call.child1(1), call.child2(2)]

如果 mock 有 name 引數，則上述規則會有例外。這使你可以防止「親屬關係
(parenting)」的建立，假設因為某些原因你不希望這種狀況發生。

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> not_a_child = MagicMock(name='not-a-child')
     >>> mock.attribute = not_a_child
     >>> mock.attribute()
     <MagicMock name='not-a-child()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     []

由 *note patch(): d12. 為你建立的 mock 會自動被賦予名稱。若要將具有名稱
的 mock 附加到上代，你可以使用 *note attach_mock(): 140a. 方法：

     >>> thing1 = object()
     >>> thing2 = object()
     >>> parent = MagicMock()
     >>> with patch('__main__.thing1', return_value=None) as child1:
     ...     with patch('__main__.thing2', return_value=None) as child2:
     ...         parent.attach_mock(child1, 'child1')
     ...         parent.attach_mock(child2, 'child2')
     ...         child1('one')
     ...         child2('two')
     ...
     >>> parent.mock_calls
     [call.child1('one'), call.child2('two')]


File: python.info,  Node: Patchers,  Next: MagicMock 以及魔術方法支援,  Prev: Mock 類別,  Up: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫

5.26.6.7 Patchers
.................

patch 裝飾器僅用於在裝飾的函式範圍內對物件進行 patch。它們會自動為你處理
patch 的中止，即使有異常被引發也是如此。所有這些函式也可以在 with 陳述式
中使用，或者作為類別裝飾器使用。

* Menu:

* patch::
* patch.object: patch object.
* patch.dict: patch dict.
* patch.multiple: patch multiple.
* patch 方法：啟動與停止::
* patch 內建函式::
* TEST_PREFIX::
* 巢狀使用 Patch 裝飾器::
* 該 patch 何處::
* Patch 描述器與代理物件 (Proxy Objects): Patch 描述器與代理物件 Proxy Objects.


File: python.info,  Node: patch,  Next: patch object,  Up: Patchers

5.26.6.8 patch
..............

     備註: 關鍵是要在正確的命名空間進行 patch。請參閱 *note where to
     patch: 3dc9. 一節。

 -- 函式: unittest.mock.patch (target, new=DEFAULT, spec=None,
          create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None,
          **kwargs)

     *note patch(): d12. 充當函式裝飾器、類別裝飾器或情境管理器。在函式
     或 with 陳述式的內部，'目標'會被 patch 成一個'新的'物件。當函式或
     with 陳述式結束時，patch 就會被解除。

     如果 'new' 被省略，則如果被 patch 的物件是非同步函式，目標會被替換
     為 *note AsyncMock: 895.，反之則替換為 *note MagicMock: d11.。如果
     *note patch(): d12. 做為裝飾器使用且省略了 'new'，則所建立的 mock 會
     作為額外的引數傳遞給被裝飾的函式。如果 *note patch(): d12. 作為情境
     管理器使用，則所建立的 mock 將由情境管理器回傳。

     'target' 應該是以 ‘'package.module.ClassName'’ 形式出現的字串。
     'target' 會被引入並用 'new' 物件替換指定的物件，因此 'target' 必須
     可從你呼叫 *note patch(): d12. 的環境中引入。target 在執行被裝飾的
     函式時被引入，而不是在裝飾器作用時 (decoration time)。

     'spec' 和 'spec_set' 關鍵字引數會傳遞給 *note MagicMock: d11.，如果
     patch 正在為你建立一個。

     此外，你還可以傳遞 ‘spec=True’ 或 ‘spec_set=True’，這將導致 patch 將
     被 mock 的物件作為 spec/spec_set 物件傳遞。

     'new_callable' 允許你指定一個不同的類別或可呼叫的物件，用於被呼叫並
     建立 'new' 物件。預設情況下，對於非同步函式使用 *note AsyncMock:
     895.，而對於其他情況則使用 *note MagicMock: d11.。

     'spec' 的一種更強大的形式是 'autospec'。如果你設定 ‘autospec=True’，
     則該 mock 將使用被替換物件的規格來建立。該 mock 的所有屬性也將具有
     被替換物件的對應屬性的規格。被 mock 的方法和函式將檢查其引數，如果
     呼叫時引數與規格不符（被使用錯誤的簽名 (signature) 呼叫），將引發
     *note TypeError: 2ba.。對於替換類別的 mock，它們的回傳值（即
     'instance'）將具有與類別相同的規格。請參閱 *note create_autospec():
     1406. 函式和 *note Autospeccing（自動規格）: 3da2.。

     你可以用 ‘autospec=some_object’ 替代 ‘autospec=True’，以使用任意物
     件作為規格，而不是被替換的物件。

     預設情況下，*note patch(): d12. 將無法取代不存在的屬性。如果你傳入
     ‘create=True’，且屬性不存在，則當被 patch 的函式被呼叫時，patch 將
     為你建立該屬性，並在被 patch 的函式結束後再次刪除它。這對於撰寫針對
     你的生產程式碼在執行環境建立的屬性的測試時非常有用。此功能預設為關
     閉，因為這可能會相當危險。開啟這個功能後，你可以對於實際上不存在的
     API 撰寫會通過的測試！

          備註: 
          在 3.5 版的變更: 如果你正在 patch 模組中的內建函式，那麼你不需
          要傳遞 ‘create=True’，它預設會被加入。

     Patch can be used as a *note TestCase: 159. class decorator.  It
     works by decorating each test method in the class.  This reduces
     the boilerplate code when your test methods share a common
     patchings set.  *note patch(): d12. finds tests by looking for
     method names that start with ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’.  By default this
     is ‘'test'’, which matches the way *note unittest: 101. finds
     tests.  You can specify an alternative prefix by setting
     ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’.

     透過 with 陳述式，Patch 可以做為情境管理器使用。patch 適用於 with 陳
     述式之後的縮排區塊。如果你使用 "as"，則被 patch 的物件將被綁定到
     "as" 後面的名稱；如果 *note patch(): d12. 正在為你建立一個 mock 物
     件，這會非常有用。

     *note patch(): d12. 接受任意的關鍵字引數。如果被 patch 的物件是非同
     步的，這些將會被傳遞給 *note AsyncMock: 895.，如果是同步的則會傳遞
     給 *note MagicMock: d11.，或如果指定了 'new_callable'，則傳遞給它。

     ‘patch.dict(...)’、‘patch.multiple(...)’ 和 ‘patch.object(...)’ 可
     用於其餘的使用情境。

*note patch(): d12. 作為函式裝飾器，為你建立 mock 並將其傳遞給被裝飾的函
式：

     >>> @patch('__main__.SomeClass')
     ... def function(normal_argument, mock_class):
     ...     print(mock_class is SomeClass)
     ...
     >>> function(None)
     True

Patch 一個類別會以 *note MagicMock: d11. '實例'取代該類別。如果該類別在
被測試的程式碼中實例化，那麼它將是會被使用的 mock 的 *note return_value:
3da7.。

如果該類別被實例化多次，你可以使用 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 來每次回傳一
個新的 mock。 或者你可以將 'return_value' 設定成你想要的任何值。

To configure return values on methods of 'instances' on the patched
class you must do this on the *note return_value: 3da7.  For example:

     >>> class Class:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> with patch('__main__.Class') as MockClass:
     ...     instance = MockClass.return_value
     ...     instance.method.return_value = 'foo'
     ...     assert Class() is instance
     ...     assert Class().method() == 'foo'
     ...

如果你使用 'spec' 或 'spec_set' 且 *note patch(): d12. 正在取代一個'類別
'，那麼被建立的 mock 的回傳值將具有相同的規格。：

     >>> Original = Class
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.Class', spec=True)
     >>> MockClass = patcher.start()
     >>> instance = MockClass()
     >>> assert isinstance(instance, Original)
     >>> patcher.stop()

當你想要為被建立的 mock 使用一個替代的類別取代預設的 *note MagicMock:
d11. 時，'new_callable' 引數非常有用。例如，如果你想要一個 *note
NonCallableMock: 3da4. 被使用：

     >>> thing = object()
     >>> with patch('__main__.thing', new_callable=NonCallableMock) as mock_thing:
     ...     assert thing is mock_thing
     ...     thing()
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'NonCallableMock' object is not callable

另一個用法是用一個 *note io.StringIO: db1. 實例替換一個物件：

     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> def foo():
     ...     print('Something')
     ...
     >>> @patch('sys.stdout', new_callable=StringIO)
     ... def test(mock_stdout):
     ...     foo()
     ...     assert mock_stdout.getvalue() == 'Something\n'
     ...
     >>> test()

當 *note patch(): d12. 為你建立 mock 時，通常你需要做的第一件事就是配置
mock。其中一些配置可以在對 patch 的呼叫中完成。你傳遞到呼叫中的任何關鍵
字都將用於在被建立的 mock 上設定屬性：

     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', first='one', second='two')
     >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
     >>> mock_thing.first
     'one'
     >>> mock_thing.second
     'two'

除了被建立的 mock 上的屬性外，還可以配置 child mock 的 *note
return_value: 3da7. 和 *note side_effect: 3d9f.。它們在語法上不能直接作
為關鍵字引數傳入，但是以它們作為鍵的字典仍然可以使用 ‘**’ 擴充為一個
*note patch(): d12. 呼叫：

     >>> config = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', **config)
     >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
     >>> mock_thing.method()
     3
     >>> mock_thing.other()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError

預設情況下，嘗試 patch 模組中不存在的函式（或類別中的方法或屬性）將會失
敗，並引發 *note AttributeError: 3ca.：

     >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42)
     ... def test():
     ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
     ...
     >>> test()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     AttributeError: <module 'sys' (built-in)> does not have the attribute 'non_existing_attribute'

但是在對 *note patch(): d12. 的呼叫中增加 ‘create=True’ 將使前面的範例按
照預期運作：

     >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42, create=True)
     ... def test(mock_stdout):
     ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
     ...
     >>> test()

在 3.8 版的變更: 如果目標是一個非同步函式，*note patch(): d12. 現在會回
傳一個 *note AsyncMock: 895.。


File: python.info,  Node: patch object,  Next: patch dict,  Prev: patch,  Up: Patchers

5.26.6.9 patch.object
.....................

 -- 函式: patch.object (target, attribute, new=DEFAULT, spec=None,
          create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None,
          **kwargs)

     使用一個 mock 物件 patch 一個物件（'目標'）上的命名成員（'屬性'）。

     *note patch.object(): 1793. 可以做為裝飾器、類別裝飾器或情境管理器
     使用。引數 'new'、'spec'、'create'、'spec_set'、'autospec' 和
     'new_callable' 與在 *note patch(): d12. 中的引數具有相同的意義。與
     *note patch(): d12. 一樣，*note patch.object(): 1793. 接受任意關鍵
     字引數來配置它所建立的 mock 物件。

     當作為類別裝飾器使用時，*note patch.object(): 1793. 會遵循
     ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ 來選擇要包裝的方法。

你可以使用三個引數或兩個引數來呼叫 *note patch.object(): 1793.。三個引數
的形式接受要被 patch 的物件、屬性名稱和要替換掉屬性的物件。

當使用兩個引數的形式呼叫時，你會省略要替換的物件，一個 mock 會為你建立並
將其作為額外的引數傳遞給被裝飾的函式：

     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
     ... def test(mock_method):
     ...     SomeClass.class_method(3)
     ...     mock_method.assert_called_with(3)
     ...
     >>> test()

'spec'、'create' 和 *note patch.object(): 1793. 的其他引數與在 *note
patch(): d12. 中的引數具有相同的意義。


File: python.info,  Node: patch dict,  Next: patch multiple,  Prev: patch object,  Up: Patchers

5.26.6.10 patch.dict
....................

 -- 函式: patch.dict (in_dict, values=(), clear=False, **kwargs)

     Patch 字典或類字典的物件，並在測試後將字典回復到其原本的狀態。

     'in_dict' 可以是一個字典或一個類對映的容器。如果它是一個對映，那麼
     它至少必須支援獲取、設定、刪除項目以及對鍵的疊代。

     'in_dict' 也可以是指定字典名稱的字串，然後透過 import 來取得該字典
     。

     'values' 可以是要設定的值的字典。'values' 也可以是 ‘(key, value)’ 對
     (pairs) 的可疊代物件。

     如果 'clear' 為 true，則在設定新值之前字典將被清除。

     也可以使用任意關鍵字引數呼叫 *note patch.dict(): 17d7. 以在字典中設
     定值。

     在 3.8 版的變更: *note patch.dict(): 17d7. 現在在做為情境管理器使用
     時回傳被 patch 的字典。

*note patch.dict(): 17d7. 可以做為情境管理器、裝飾器或類別裝飾器使用：

     >>> foo = {}
     >>> @patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
     ... def test():
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> test()
     >>> assert foo == {}

當作為類別裝飾器使用時，*note patch.dict(): 17d7. 會遵循
‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’（預設為 ‘'test'’）來選擇要包裝的方法：

     >>> import os
     >>> import unittest
     >>> from unittest.mock import patch
     >>> @patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
     ... class TestSample(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def test_sample(self):
     ...         self.assertEqual(os.environ['newkey'], 'newvalue')

如果你想在測試中使用不同的前綴，你可以透過設定 ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ 來告
知 patcher 使用不同的前綴。請參閱 *note TEST_PREFIX: 3dcc. 以得知如何修
改前綴的更多內容。

*note patch.dict(): 17d7. 可用於在字典中新增成員，或單純地讓測試更改字典
，並確保在測試結束時將字典回復原狀。

     >>> foo = {}
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}) as patched_foo:
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...     assert patched_foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...     # You can add, update or delete keys of foo (or patched_foo, it's the same dict)
     ...     patched_foo['spam'] = 'eggs'
     ...
     >>> assert foo == {}
     >>> assert patched_foo == {}

     >>> import os
     >>> with patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'}):
     ...     print(os.environ['newkey'])
     ...
     newvalue
     >>> assert 'newkey' not in os.environ

可以在 *note patch.dict(): 17d7. 呼叫中使用關鍵字來設定字典中的值：

     >>> mymodule = MagicMock()
     >>> mymodule.function.return_value = 'fish'
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', mymodule=mymodule):
     ...     import mymodule
     ...     mymodule.function('some', 'args')
     ...
     'fish'

*note patch.dict(): 17d7. 可以與實際上不是字典的類字典物件一起使用。最低
限度它們必須支援項目的獲取、設定、刪除以及疊代或隸屬資格檢測。這對應到魔
術方法中的 *note __getitem__(): 4e7.、*note __setitem__(): 133c.、*note
__delitem__(): 133d. 以及 *note __iter__(): 1ab7. 或 *note
__contains__(): 1cef.。

     >>> class Container:
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.values = {}
     ...     def __getitem__(self, name):
     ...         return self.values[name]
     ...     def __setitem__(self, name, value):
     ...         self.values[name] = value
     ...     def __delitem__(self, name):
     ...         del self.values[name]
     ...     def __iter__(self):
     ...         return iter(self.values)
     ...
     >>> thing = Container()
     >>> thing['one'] = 1
     >>> with patch.dict(thing, one=2, two=3):
     ...     assert thing['one'] == 2
     ...     assert thing['two'] == 3
     ...
     >>> assert thing['one'] == 1
     >>> assert list(thing) == ['one']


File: python.info,  Node: patch multiple,  Next: patch 方法：啟動與停止,  Prev: patch dict,  Up: Patchers

5.26.6.11 patch.multiple
........................

 -- 函式: patch.multiple (target, spec=None, create=False,
          spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs)

     在一次呼叫中執行多個 patch。它接受被 patch 的物件（作為物件或透過
     import 取得物件的字串）和 patch 的關鍵字引數：

          with patch.multiple(settings, FIRST_PATCH='one', SECOND_PATCH='two'):
              ...

     如果你想要 *note patch.multiple(): 3dce. 為你建立 mock，請使用
     *note DEFAULT: 3da6. 作為值。在這種情況下，被建立的 mock 會透過關鍵
     字傳遞到被裝飾的函式中，並且當 *note patch.multiple(): 3dce. 作為情
     境管理器時會回傳字典。

     *note patch.multiple(): 3dce. 可以做為裝飾器、類別裝飾器或情境管理
     器使用。引數 'spec'、'spec_set'、'create'、'autospec' 和
     'new_callable' 與在 *note patch(): d12. 中的引數具有相同的意義。這
     些引數將應用於由 *note patch.multiple(): 3dce. 完成的'所有' patch。

     當作為類別裝飾器使用時，*note patch.multiple(): 3dce. 遵循
     ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ 來選擇要包裝的方法。

如果你想要 *note patch.multiple(): 3dce. 為你建立 mock，那麼你可以使用
*note DEFAULT: 3da6. 作為值。如果你使用 *note patch.multiple(): 3dce. 作
為裝飾器，那麼被建立的 mock 將透過關鍵字傳遞到被裝飾的函式中。：

     >>> thing = object()
     >>> other = object()

     >>> @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
     ... def test_function(thing, other):
     ...     assert isinstance(thing, MagicMock)
     ...     assert isinstance(other, MagicMock)
     ...
     >>> test_function()

*note patch.multiple(): 3dce. 可以與其他 ‘patch’ 裝飾器巢狀使用，但需要
將透過關鍵字傳遞的引數放在 *note patch(): d12. 建立的任何標準引數'之後
'：

     >>> @patch('sys.exit')
     ... @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
     ... def test_function(mock_exit, other, thing):
     ...     assert 'other' in repr(other)
     ...     assert 'thing' in repr(thing)
     ...     assert 'exit' in repr(mock_exit)
     ...
     >>> test_function()

如果 *note patch.multiple(): 3dce. 作為情境管理器使用，則情境管理器回傳
的值是一個字典，其中被建立的 mock 會按名稱作為其鍵值：

     >>> with patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) as values:
     ...     assert 'other' in repr(values['other'])
     ...     assert 'thing' in repr(values['thing'])
     ...     assert values['thing'] is thing
     ...     assert values['other'] is other
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: patch 方法：啟動與停止,  Next: patch 內建函式,  Prev: patch multiple,  Up: Patchers

5.26.6.12 patch 方法：啟動與停止
................................

All the patchers have ‘start()’ and ‘stop()’ methods.  These make it
simpler to do patching in ‘setUp’ methods or where you want to do
multiple patches without nesting decorators or with statements.

To use them call *note patch(): d12, *note patch.object(): 1793. or
*note patch.dict(): 17d7. as normal and keep a reference to the returned
‘patcher’ object.  You can then call ‘start()’ to put the patch in place
and ‘stop()’ to undo it.

如果你使用 *note patch(): d12. 為你建立 mock，那麼它將透過呼叫
‘patcher.start’ 回傳。：

     >>> patcher = patch('package.module.ClassName')
     >>> from package import module
     >>> original = module.ClassName
     >>> new_mock = patcher.start()
     >>> assert module.ClassName is not original
     >>> assert module.ClassName is new_mock
     >>> patcher.stop()
     >>> assert module.ClassName is original
     >>> assert module.ClassName is not new_mock

A typical use case for this might be for doing multiple patches in the
‘setUp’ method of a *note TestCase: 159.:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         self.patcher1 = patch('package.module.Class1')
     ...         self.patcher2 = patch('package.module.Class2')
     ...         self.MockClass1 = self.patcher1.start()
     ...         self.MockClass2 = self.patcher2.start()
     ...
     ...     def tearDown(self):
     ...         self.patcher1.stop()
     ...         self.patcher2.stop()
     ...
     ...     def test_something(self):
     ...         assert package.module.Class1 is self.MockClass1
     ...         assert package.module.Class2 is self.MockClass2
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').run()

     警示: 如果你使用這個技巧，你必須確保透過呼叫 ‘stop’ 來 "取消"
     patch。這可能會比你想像的還要複雜一點，因為如果有例外在 ‘setUp’ 中
     被引發，則 ‘tearDown’ 就不會被呼叫。*note
     unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): 8cd. 會讓這稍微簡單一點：

          >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
          ...     def setUp(self):
          ...         patcher = patch('package.module.Class')
          ...         self.MockClass = patcher.start()
          ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
          ...
          ...     def test_something(self):
          ...         assert package.module.Class is self.MockClass
          ...

     作為額外的好處，你不再需要保留對 ‘patcher’ 物件的參照。

也可以使用 *note patch.stopall(): 3dd1. 來停止所有已啟動的 patch。

 -- 函式: patch.stopall ()

     停止所有運作的 patch。只停止以 ‘start’ 啟動的 patch。


File: python.info,  Node: patch 內建函式,  Next: TEST_PREFIX,  Prev: patch 方法：啟動與停止,  Up: Patchers

5.26.6.13 patch 內建函式
........................

你可以 patch 模組內的任何內建函式。以下範例 patch 內建函式 *note ord():
1c82.：

     >>> @patch('__main__.ord')
     ... def test(mock_ord):
     ...     mock_ord.return_value = 101
     ...     print(ord('c'))
     ...
     >>> test()
     101


File: python.info,  Node: TEST_PREFIX,  Next: 巢狀使用 Patch 裝飾器,  Prev: patch 內建函式,  Up: Patchers

5.26.6.14 TEST_PREFIX
.....................

所有 patcher 都可以作為類別裝飾器使用。以這種方式使用時，它們包裝了類別
上的每個測試方法。Patcher 將 ‘'test'’ 開頭的方法認定為測試方法。這與
*note unittest.TestLoader: 532. 預設尋找測試方法的方式相同。

你可能會想為你的測試使用不同的前綴。你可以透過設定 ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ 來
告知 patcher 使用不同的前綴：

     >>> patch.TEST_PREFIX = 'foo'
     >>> value = 3
     >>>
     >>> @patch('__main__.value', 'not three')
     ... class Thing:
     ...     def foo_one(self):
     ...         print(value)
     ...     def foo_two(self):
     ...         print(value)
     ...
     >>>
     >>> Thing().foo_one()
     not three
     >>> Thing().foo_two()
     not three
     >>> value
     3


File: python.info,  Node: 巢狀使用 Patch 裝飾器,  Next: 該 patch 何處,  Prev: TEST_PREFIX,  Up: Patchers

5.26.6.15 巢狀使用 Patch 裝飾器
...............................

如果你想執行多個 patch，那麼你可以簡單地堆疊裝飾器。

你可以使用這個模式來堆疊多個 patch 裝飾器：

     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
     ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
     ... def test(mock1, mock2):
     ...     assert SomeClass.static_method is mock1
     ...     assert SomeClass.class_method is mock2
     ...     SomeClass.static_method('foo')
     ...     SomeClass.class_method('bar')
     ...     return mock1, mock2
     ...
     >>> mock1, mock2 = test()
     >>> mock1.assert_called_once_with('foo')
     >>> mock2.assert_called_once_with('bar')

請注意，裝飾器是從底部向上應用的。這是 Python 應用裝飾器的標準方式。被建
立的 mock 傳遞到測試函式中的順序與此順序相同。


File: python.info,  Node: 該 patch 何處,  Next: Patch 描述器與代理物件 Proxy Objects,  Prev: 巢狀使用 Patch 裝飾器,  Up: Patchers

5.26.6.16 該 patch 何處
.......................

*note patch(): d12. 的工作原理是（暫時）將 'name' 指向的物件變更為另一個
物件。可以有許多 name 指向任何單一物件，因此為了使 patch 起作用，你必須
確保你 patch 了被測試系統使用的 name。

基本原則是在物件'被查找'的位置進行 patch，該位置不一定與其被定義的位置相
同。幾個範例將有助於闡明這一點。

想像一下，我們想要測試一個專案，其結構如下：

     a.py
         -> Defines SomeClass

     b.py
         -> from a import SomeClass
         -> some_function instantiates SomeClass

現在我們想要測試 ‘some_function’，但我們想使用 *note patch(): d12. mock
‘SomeClass’。問題是，當我們 import 模組 b 時（我們必須這樣做），它會從模
組 a import ‘SomeClass’。如果我們使用 *note patch(): d12. 來 mock
‘a.SomeClass’，那麼它對我們的測試就不會有任何影響；模組 b 已經有了一個
'真實的' ‘SomeClass’ 的參照 ，看起來我們的 patch 並沒有任何效果。

關鍵是在使用（或查找它）的地方 patch ‘SomeClass’。在這個情況下，
‘some_function’ 實際上會在我們 import 它的模組 b 中查找 ‘SomeClass’。這
裡的 patch 應該長得像這樣：

     @patch('b.SomeClass')

然而，考慮另一種情況，其中模組 b 並不是使用 ‘from a import SomeClass’，
而是 ‘import a’，然後 ‘some_function’ 使用 ‘a.SomeClass’。這兩種 import
形式都很常見。在這種情況下，我們想要 patch 的類別正在其模組中被查找，因
此我們必須 patch ‘a.SomeClass’：

     @patch('a.SomeClass')


File: python.info,  Node: Patch 描述器與代理物件 Proxy Objects,  Prev: 該 patch 何處,  Up: Patchers

5.26.6.17 Patch 描述器與代理物件 (Proxy Objects)
................................................

*note patch: 3dc8. 和 *note patch.object: 3dca. 都正確地 patch 和還原描
述器：類別方法、靜態方法以及屬性。你應該在 '類別' 而不是實例上 patch 它
們。它們還可以使用代理屬性存取的'一些'物件，例如 django 設定物件(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200603181648/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/weblog/arch_d7_2010_12_04.shtml#e1198


File: python.info,  Node: MagicMock 以及魔術方法支援,  Next: 輔助函式<2>,  Prev: Patchers,  Up: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫

5.26.6.18 MagicMock 以及魔術方法支援
....................................

* Menu:

* Mock 魔術方法::
* Magic Mock::


File: python.info,  Node: Mock 魔術方法,  Next: Magic Mock,  Up: MagicMock 以及魔術方法支援

5.26.6.19 Mock 魔術方法
.......................

*note Mock: 896. 支援 mock Python 協定方法，其也被稱作 *note "魔術方法":
3dd9.。這允許 mock 物件替換容器或實作 Python 協定的其他物件。

由於魔術方法被查找的方式與一般的方法 (1) 不同，因此專門實作了此支援方式
。這代表著僅有特定的魔術方法被此方式支援。現在已支援清單中已經'幾乎'包含
了所有魔術方法。如果你需要 mock 任何魔術方法而其尚未被支援，請讓我們知道
。

你可以透過將你感興趣的方法設定為函式或 mock 實例來 mock 魔術方法。如果你
使用函式，那麼它'必須'將 ‘self’ 作為第一個引數 (2)。

     >>> def __str__(self):
     ...     return 'fooble'
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = __str__
     >>> str(mock)
     'fooble'

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'fooble'
     >>> str(mock)
     'fooble'

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__iter__ = Mock(return_value=iter([]))
     >>> list(mock)
     []

一個用法是在 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式中 mock 作為情境管理器使用的物件：

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__enter__ = Mock(return_value='foo')
     >>> mock.__exit__ = Mock(return_value=False)
     >>> with mock as m:
     ...     assert m == 'foo'
     ...
     >>> mock.__enter__.assert_called_with()
     >>> mock.__exit__.assert_called_with(None, None, None)

對魔術方法的呼叫並不會出現在 *note method_calls: 3dae. 中，它們會被記錄
在 *note mock_calls: 3dac. 內。

     備註: 如果你使用'spec'關鍵字引數來建立一個 mock，則嘗試設定規格中未
     包含的魔術方法將引發一個 *note AttributeError: 3ca.。

已支援的魔術方法的完整列表是：

   * ‘__hash__’、‘__sizeof__’、 ‘__repr__’ 和 ‘__str__’

   * ‘__dir__’、 ‘__format__’ 和 ‘__subclasses__’

   * ‘__round__’、‘__floor__’、‘__trunc__’ 和 ‘__ceil__’

   * 比較方法：‘__lt__’、‘__gt__’、‘__le__’、‘__ge__’、‘__eq__’ 和
     ‘__ne__’

   * 容器方法：‘__getitem__’、‘__setitem__’、‘__delitem__’、
     ‘__contains__’、‘__len__’、‘__iter__’、‘__reversed__’ 和
     ‘__missing__’

   * 情境管理器：‘__enter__’、‘__exit__’、‘__aenter__’ 和 ‘__aexit__’

   * 一元數值方法：‘__neg__’、‘__pos__’ 和 ‘__invert__’

   * 數值方法（包括右側 (right hand) 和原地 (in-place) 變體）：
     ‘__add__’、‘__sub__’、‘__mul__’、‘__matmul__’、‘__truediv__’、
     ‘__floordiv__’、‘__mod__’、‘__divmod__’、‘__lshift__’、
     ‘__rshift__’、‘__and__’、‘__xor__’、‘__or__’ 和 ‘__pow__’

   * 數值轉換方法：‘__complex__’、‘__int__’、‘__float__’ 和 ‘__index__’

   * 描述器方法：‘__get__’、‘__set__’ 和 ‘__delete__’

   * Pickling：‘__reduce__’、‘__reduce_ex__’、‘__getinitargs__’、
     ‘__getnewargs__’、‘__getstate__’ 和 ‘__setstate__’

   * 檔案系統路徑表示法：‘__fspath__’

   * 非同步疊代方法：‘__aiter__’ 和 ‘__anext__’

在 3.8 版的變更: 新增對於 *note os.PathLike.__fspath__(): ab8. 的支援。

在 3.8 版的變更: 新增對於 ‘__aenter__’、‘__aexit__’、‘__aiter__’ 和
‘__anext__’ 的支援。

以下方法存在，但「不」被支援，因為它們在被 mock 使用時，會無法動態設定，
或可能導致問題：

   * ‘__getattr__’、‘__setattr__’、‘__init__’ 和 ‘__new__’

   * ‘__prepare__’、‘__instancecheck__’、‘__subclasscheck__’、‘__del__’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 魔術方法'應該'在類別而不是實例上被查找。不同版本的 Python 對於這
條規則的適用並不一致。支援的協定方法應適用於所有支援的 Python 版本。

   (2) 該函式基本上與類別掛鉤，但每個 ‘Mock’ 實例都與其他實例保持隔離。


File: python.info,  Node: Magic Mock,  Prev: Mock 魔術方法,  Up: MagicMock 以及魔術方法支援

5.26.6.20 Magic Mock
....................

‘MagicMock’ 有兩個變體：*note MagicMock: d11. 和 *note
NonCallableMagicMock: 3da5.。

 -- 類別: unittest.mock.MagicMock (*args, **kw)

     ‘MagicMock’ 是 *note Mock: 896. 的子類別，其預設具有大多數*note
     魔術方法: 3dd9.的實作。你可以使用 ‘MagicMock’，而無需自行配置魔術方
     法。

     建構函式參數的意義與 *note Mock: 896. 中的參數相同。

     如果你使用 'spec' 或 'spec_set' 引數，那麼'只有'規格中存在的魔術方
     法會被建立。

 -- 類別: unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock (*args, **kw)

     *note MagicMock: d11. 的不可呼叫版本。

     建構函式參數的意義與 *note MagicMock: d11. 中的參數相同，但
     'return_value' 和 'side_effect' 除外，它們對不可呼叫的 mock 來說沒
     有任何意義。

魔術方法是使用 *note MagicMock: d11. 物件設定的，因此你可以配置它們並以
一般的方法來使用它們：

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock[3] = 'fish'
     >>> mock.__setitem__.assert_called_with(3, 'fish')
     >>> mock.__getitem__.return_value = 'result'
     >>> mock[2]
     'result'

預設情況下，許多協定方法都需要回傳特定種類的物件。這些方法預先配置了預設
回傳值，因此如果你對回傳值不感興趣，則無需執行任何操作即可使用它們。如果
你想更改預設值，你仍然可以手動'設定'回傳值。

方法及其預設值：

   * ‘__lt__’：*note NotImplemented: 5f2.

   * ‘__gt__’：‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__le__’：‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__ge__’：‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__int__’：‘1’

   * ‘__contains__’：‘False’

   * ‘__len__’：‘0’

   * ‘__iter__’：‘iter([])’

   * ‘__exit__’：‘False’

   * ‘__aexit__’：‘False’

   * ‘__complex__’：‘1j’

   * ‘__float__’：‘1.0’

   * ‘__bool__’：‘True’

   * ‘__index__’：‘1’

   * ‘__hash__’：mock 的預設雜湊

   * ‘__str__’：mock 的預設字串

   * ‘__sizeof__’：mock 的預設 sizeof

舉例來說：

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> int(mock)
     1
     >>> len(mock)
     0
     >>> list(mock)
     []
     >>> object() in mock
     False

‘__eq__()’ 和 ‘__ne__()’ 這兩個相等的方法是特別的。它們使用 *note
side_effect: 3d9f. 屬性對識別性 (identity) 進行預設的相等比較，除非你變
更它們的回傳值以回傳其他內容：

     >>> MagicMock() == 3
     False
     >>> MagicMock() != 3
     True
     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__eq__.return_value = True
     >>> mock == 3
     True

‘MagicMock.__iter__()’ 的回傳值可以是任何可疊代物件，且不需是一個疊代器
：

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']

如果回傳值'是'一個疊代器，那麼對其進行一次疊代將消耗它，並且後續疊代將產
生一個空串列：

     >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = iter(['a', 'b', 'c'])
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     []

‘MagicMock’ 配置了所有支援的魔術方法，除了一些少見和過時的方法。如果你想
要，你仍然可以設定這些魔術方法。

‘MagicMock’ 中支援但預設未設置的魔術方法包含：

   * ‘__subclasses__’

   * ‘__dir__’

   * ‘__format__’

   * ‘__get__’、‘__set__’ 和 ‘__delete__’

   * ‘__reversed__’ 和 ‘__missing__’

   * ‘__reduce__’、‘__reduce_ex__’、‘__getinitargs__’、
     ‘__getnewargs__’、‘__getstate__’ 和 ‘__setstate__’

   * ‘__getformat__’


File: python.info,  Node: 輔助函式<2>,  Next: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps,  Prev: MagicMock 以及魔術方法支援,  Up: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫

5.26.6.21 輔助函式
..................

* Menu:

* sentinel（哨兵）::
* DEFAULT::
* call::
* create_autospec::
* ANY::
* FILTER_DIR::
* mock_open::
* Autospeccing（自動規格）::
* 密封 mock::


File: python.info,  Node: sentinel（哨兵）,  Next: DEFAULT,  Up: 輔助函式<2>

5.26.6.22 sentinel（哨兵）
..........................

 -- 資料: unittest.mock.sentinel

     ‘哨兵’物件提供了一種為你的測試提供獨特物件的便利方式。

     當你使用名稱存取屬性時，屬性會根據需要被建立。存取相同的屬性將始終
     回傳相同的物件。回傳的物件會具有合適的 repr，讓測試失敗的訊息是可閱
     讀的。

     在 3.7 版的變更: ‘哨兵’屬性現在當被*note 複製: 23.或*note 序列化:
     a1.時會保留其識別性。

在測試時，有時你需要測試特定物件是否作為引數被傳遞給另一個方法或回傳。建
立命名的哨兵物件來測試這一點是常見的。*note sentinel: a00. 提供了一種此
類建立和測試物件識別性的便利方式。

在這個例子中，我們 monkey patch ‘method’ 以回傳 ‘sentinel.some_object’：

     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> real.method = Mock(name="method")
     >>> real.method.return_value = sentinel.some_object
     >>> result = real.method()
     >>> assert result is sentinel.some_object
     >>> result
     sentinel.some_object


File: python.info,  Node: DEFAULT,  Next: call,  Prev: sentinel（哨兵）,  Up: 輔助函式<2>

5.26.6.23 DEFAULT
.................

 -- 資料: unittest.mock.DEFAULT

     *note DEFAULT: 3da6. 物件是一個預先建立的哨兵（實際上是
     ‘sentinel.DEFAULT’）。它可以被 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 函式使用來
     表示正常的回傳值應該被使用。


File: python.info,  Node: call,  Next: create_autospec,  Prev: DEFAULT,  Up: 輔助函式<2>

5.26.6.24 call
..............

 -- 函式: unittest.mock.call (*args, **kwargs)

     與 *note call_args: 175c.、*note call_args_list: 3db4.、*note
     mock_calls: 3dac. 和 *note method_calls: 3dae. 相比，*note call():
     17ab. 是一個用於進行更簡單的斷言的輔助物件。*note call(): 17ab. 也
     可以與 *note assert_has_calls(): 3dab. 一起使用。

          >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
          >>> m(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar')
          >>> m()
          >>> m.call_args_list == [call(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar'), call()]
          True

 -- 方法: call.call_list ()

     對於表示多個呼叫的 call 物件，*note call_list(): 3ddf. 回傳所有中間
     呼叫以及最終呼叫的串列。

‘call_list’ 在對「鍊接呼叫 (chained calls)」進行斷言時特別有用。鍊接呼叫
是在單行程式碼進行的多次呼叫。這會導致 mock 上的 *note mock_calls: 3dac.
中出現多個項目。手動建構呼叫序列會相當單調乏味。

*note call_list(): 3ddf. 可以從同一個鍊接呼叫建構呼叫序列：

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
     <MagicMock name='mock().method().other()()' id='...'>
     >>> kall = call(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
     >>> kall.call_list()
     [call(1),
      call().method(arg='foo'),
      call().method().other('bar'),
      call().method().other()(2.0)]
     >>> m.mock_calls == kall.call_list()
     True
取決於它的建構方式，一個 ‘call’ 物件會是（位置引數, 關鍵字引數）的元組，
或是 (名稱, 位置引數, 關鍵字引數) 的元組。當你自己建構它們時，這並不是那
麼有趣，但是 *note Mock.call_args: 175c.、*note Mock.call_args_list:
3db4. 和 *note Mock.mock_calls: 3dac. 屬性中的 ‘call’ 物件可以被內省以取
得它們包含的各個引數。

*note Mock.call_args: 175c. 和 *note Mock.call_args_list: 3db4. 中的
‘call’ 物件是（位置引數, 關鍵字引數）的二元組，而 *note Mock.mock_calls:
3dac. 中的 ‘call’ 物件以及你自己建立的 ‘call’ 物件是（名稱, 位置引數, 關
鍵字引數）的三元組。

你可以利用它們作為元組的特性來提取單個引數，以進行更複雜的內省和斷言。位
置引數是一個元組（如果沒有位置引數則為空元組），關鍵字引數是一個字典：

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> m(1, 2, 3, arg='one', arg2='two')
     >>> kall = m.call_args
     >>> kall.args
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> kall.kwargs
     {'arg': 'one', 'arg2': 'two'}
     >>> kall.args is kall[0]
     True
     >>> kall.kwargs is kall[1]
     True

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m.foo(4, 5, 6, arg='two', arg2='three')
     <MagicMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
     >>> kall = m.mock_calls[0]
     >>> name, args, kwargs = kall
     >>> name
     'foo'
     >>> args
     (4, 5, 6)
     >>> kwargs
     {'arg': 'two', 'arg2': 'three'}
     >>> name is m.mock_calls[0][0]
     True


File: python.info,  Node: create_autospec,  Next: ANY,  Prev: call,  Up: 輔助函式<2>

5.26.6.25 create_autospec
.........................

 -- 函式: unittest.mock.create_autospec (spec, spec_set=False,
          instance=False, **kwargs)

     使用另一個物件作為規格建立一個 mock 物件。Mock 上的屬性將使用
     'spec' 物件上的對應屬性作為其規格。

     被 mock 的函式或方法將檢查其引數，以確保他們被使用正確的簽名來呼叫
     。

     如果 'spec_set' 為 ‘True’，則嘗試設定規格物件上不存在的屬性將引發
     *note AttributeError: 3ca.。

     如果一個類別作為規格使用，則 mock（該類別的實例）的回傳值將具有相同
     的規格。你可以透過傳遞 ‘instance=True’ 來使用一個類別作為一個實例物
     件的規格。只有當 mock 的實例是可呼叫物件時，回傳的 mock 才會是可呼
     叫物件。

     *note create_autospec(): 1406. 也接受任意的關鍵字引數，這些引數會傳
     遞給已建立的 mock 的建構函式。

請參閱 *note Autospeccing（自動規格）: 3da2. 以得知如何以 *note
create_autospec(): 1406. 使用自動規格以及如何在 *note patch(): d12. 中使
用 'autospec' 引數的範例。

在 3.8 版的變更: 如果目標是一個非同步函式，*note create_autospec():
1406. 現在會回傳一個 *note AsyncMock: 895.。


File: python.info,  Node: ANY,  Next: FILTER_DIR,  Prev: create_autospec,  Up: 輔助函式<2>

5.26.6.26 ANY
.............

 -- 資料: unittest.mock.ANY

有時你可能需要對 mock 的呼叫中的'某些'引數進行斷言，但你不在意其他的某些
引數，或想將它們單獨從 *note call_args: 175c. 中取出並進行更加複雜的斷言
。

要忽略某些引數，你可以傳入對'所有物件'來說都相等的物件。那麼無論傳入什麼
內容，對 ‘assert_used_with()’ 和 ‘assert_used_once_with()’ 的呼叫都會成
功。

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock('foo', bar=object())
     >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar=ANY)

*note ANY: 17a9. 也可以用來與呼叫串列進行比較，例如 *note mock_calls:
3dac.：

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> m(1)
     >>> m(1, 2)
     >>> m(object())
     >>> m.mock_calls == [call(1), call(1, 2), ANY]
     True

*note ANY: 17a9. 不只能與呼叫物件比較，其也可以在測試斷言中使用：

     class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_split(self):
             s = 'hello world'
             self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', ANY])


File: python.info,  Node: FILTER_DIR,  Next: mock_open,  Prev: ANY,  Up: 輔助函式<2>

5.26.6.27 FILTER_DIR
....................

 -- 資料: unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR

*note FILTER_DIR: 3db0. 是一個模組級別的變數，用於控制 mock 物件回應
*note dir(): 42d. 的方式。其預設值為 ‘True’，它使用以下描述的過濾方式來
只顯示有用的成員。如果你不喜歡這個過濾方式，或由於診斷意圖而需要將其關閉
，請設定 ‘mock.FILTER_DIR = False’。

當過濾方式開啟時，‘dir(some_mock)’ 僅會顯示有用的屬性，並將包括通常不會
顯示的任何動態建立的屬性。如果 mock 是使用 'spec'（或 'autospec'）來建立
的，那麼源頭的所有屬性都會顯示，即使它們尚未被存取：

     >>> dir(Mock())
     ['assert_any_call',
      'assert_called',
      'assert_called_once',
      'assert_called_once_with',
      'assert_called_with',
      'assert_has_calls',
      'assert_not_called',
      'attach_mock',
      ...
     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> dir(Mock(spec=request))
     ['AbstractBasicAuthHandler',
      'AbstractDigestAuthHandler',
      'AbstractHTTPHandler',
      'BaseHandler',
      ...

許多不是很有用的（對 *note Mock: 896. 來說是私有的，而不是被 mock 的東西
）底線和雙底線前綴屬性已從在 *note Mock: 896. 上呼叫 *note dir(): 42d. 的
結果中濾除。如果你不喜歡這種特性，可以透過設定模組級別開關 *note
FILTER_DIR: 3db0. 來將其關閉：

     >>> from unittest import mock
     >>> mock.FILTER_DIR = False
     >>> dir(mock.Mock())
     ['_NonCallableMock__get_return_value',
      '_NonCallableMock__get_side_effect',
      '_NonCallableMock__return_value_doc',
      '_NonCallableMock__set_return_value',
      '_NonCallableMock__set_side_effect',
      '__call__',
      '__class__',
      ...

Alternatively you can just use ‘vars(my_mock)’ (instance members) and
‘dir(type(my_mock))’ (type members) to bypass the filtering irrespective
of *note FILTER_DIR: 3db0.


File: python.info,  Node: mock_open,  Next: Autospeccing（自動規格）,  Prev: FILTER_DIR,  Up: 輔助函式<2>

5.26.6.28 mock_open
...................

 -- 函式: unittest.mock.mock_open (mock=None, read_data=None)

     用於建立取代 *note open(): 29c. 用途的 mock 的輔助函式。它適用於直
     接呼叫或用作情境管理器的 *note open(): 29c.。

     'mock' 引數是要配置的 mock 物件。如果其為 ‘None’（預設值），那麼就
     會為你建立一個 *note MagicMock: d11.，其 API 限制在標準檔案處理上可
     用的方法或屬性。

     'read_data' is a string for the *note read(): c96, *note
     readline(): 11bd, and *note readlines(): 20c8. methods of the file
     handle to return.  Calls to those methods will take data from
     'read_data' until it is depleted.  The mock of these methods is
     pretty simplistic: every time the 'mock' is called, the 'read_data'
     is rewound to the start.  If you need more control over the data
     that you are feeding to the tested code you will need to customize
     this mock for yourself.  When that is insufficient, one of the
     in-memory filesystem packages on PyPI(1) can offer a realistic
     filesystem for testing.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Added *note readline(): 11bd. and *note
     readlines(): 20c8. support.  The mock of *note read(): c96. changed
     to consume 'read_data' rather than returning it on each call.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 現在，每次呼叫 'mock' 時都會重置 'read_data'。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 *note __iter__(): 1ab7. 到實作中，以便使疊代
     （例如在 for 迴圈中）正確地消耗 'read_data'。

使用 *note open(): 29c. 作為情境管理器是確保檔案處理正確關閉的好方式，且
這種方式正在變得普遍：

     with open('/some/path', 'w') as f:
         f.write('something')

問題是，即使你 mock 了對 *note open(): 29c. 的呼叫，它也是作為情境管理器
使用的'回傳物件'（且其 *note __enter__(): 3b8. 和 ‘__exit__()’ 已被呼叫
）。

使用 *note MagicMock: d11. mock 情境管理器相當常見並且精細，因此輔助函式
就非常有用：

     >>> m = mock_open()
     >>> with patch('__main__.open', m):
     ...     with open('foo', 'w') as h:
     ...         h.write('some stuff')
     ...
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call('foo', 'w'),
      call().__enter__(),
      call().write('some stuff'),
      call().__exit__(None, None, None)]
     >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo', 'w')
     >>> handle = m()
     >>> handle.write.assert_called_once_with('some stuff')

以及讀取檔案：

     >>> with patch('__main__.open', mock_open(read_data='bibble')) as m:
     ...     with open('foo') as h:
     ...         result = h.read()
     ...
     >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo')
     >>> assert result == 'bibble'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: Autospeccing（自動規格）,  Next: 密封 mock,  Prev: mock_open,  Up: 輔助函式<2>

5.26.6.29 Autospeccing（自動規格）
..................................

Autospeccing is based on the existing ‘spec’ feature of mock.  It limits
the api of mocks to the api of an original object (the spec), but it is
recursive (implemented lazily) so that attributes of mocks only have the
same api as the attributes of the spec.  In addition mocked functions /
methods have the same call signature as the original so they raise a
*note TypeError: 2ba. if they are called incorrectly.

在解釋自動規格如何運作之前，我們先解釋為什麼需要它。

*note Mock: 896. 是一個非常強大且靈活的物件，但它有一個常見的 mock 缺陷
。如果你重構某些程式碼或重新命名成員等，則任何仍然使用'舊 api' 但使用
mock 而非真實物件的程式碼測試仍然會通過。這意味著即使你的程式碼壞了，但
測試仍可以全部通過。

在 3.5 版的變更: 在 3.5 之前，當測試應該引發錯誤時，斷言單字中存在拼字錯
誤的測驗會默默地通過。你仍可以透過將 ‘unsafe=True’ 傳遞給 Mock 來實作此
行為。

謹記這是你需要有整合測試和單元測試的另一個原因。單獨測試所有內容都很好，
但如果你不測試你的單元是如何「連接在一起」的，那麼測試還是有機會發現很多
錯誤。

*note unittest.mock: 102. already provides a feature to help with this,
called speccing.  If you use a class or instance as the ‘spec’ for a
mock then you can only access attributes on the mock that exist on the
real class:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=request.Request)
     >>> mock.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'

該規格僅適用於 mock 本身，因此在 mock 上的任何方法仍然有相同的問題：

     >>> mock.has_data()
     <mock.Mock object at 0x...>
     >>> mock.has_data.assret_called_with()  # 故意的錯字！

自動規格解決了這個問題。你可以將 ‘autospec=True’ 傳遞給 *note patch():
d12. / *note patch.object(): 1793. 或使用 *note create_autospec(): 1406.
函式建立帶有規格的 mock。如果你對 *note patch(): d12. 使用
‘autospec=True’ 引數，則被取代的物件將作為規格物件使用。因為規格是「惰性
」完成的（規格是在 mock 被存取時作為屬性被建立的），所以你可以將它與非常
複雜或深度巢狀使用的物件（例如連續引用的模組）一起使用，而不會過於影響性
能。

這是一個正在使用的例子：

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.request', autospec=True)
     >>> mock_request = patcher.start()
     >>> request is mock_request
     True
     >>> mock_request.Request
     <MagicMock name='request.Request' spec='Request' id='...'>

You can see that ‘request.Request’ has a spec.  ‘request.Request’ takes
two arguments in the constructor (one of which is 'self').  Here's what
happens if we try to call it incorrectly:

     >>> req = request.Request()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     TypeError: <lambda>() takes at least 2 arguments (1 given)

此規格也適用於實例化的類別（即有規格的 mock 的回傳值）：

     >>> req = request.Request('foo')
     >>> req
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='request.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

‘Request’ objects are not callable, so the return value of instantiating
our mocked out ‘request.Request’ is a non-callable mock.  With the spec
in place any typos in our asserts will raise the correct error:

     >>> req.add_header('spam', 'eggs')
     <MagicMock name='request.Request().add_header()' id='...'>
     >>> req.add_header.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'
     >>> req.add_header.assert_called_with('spam', 'eggs')

在許多情況下，你只需要將 ‘autospec=True’ 新增至現有的 *note patch():
d12. 呼叫中，然後就可以防止因拼字錯誤和 api 變更而導致的錯誤。

除了透過 *note patch(): d12. 使用 'autospec' 之外，還有一個 *note
create_autospec(): 1406. 用於直接建立有自動規格的 mock：

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> mock_request = create_autospec(request)
     >>> mock_request.Request('foo', 'bar')
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='mock.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

然而，這並非完全沒有限制，這就是為什麼它不是預設的行為。為了理解規格物件
上有哪些可用屬性，autospec 必須內省（存取屬性）規格。當你遍歷 mock 上的
屬性時，原始物件的對應遍歷正在默默發生。如果你的規格物件具有可以觸發程式
碼執行的屬性或描述器，那麼你可能無法使用 autospec。換句話說，設計你的物
件讓內省是安全的 (1) 會比較好。

一個更嚴重的問題是，在 *note __init__(): 4ae. 方法中建立實例屬性是常見的
，而其根本不存在於類別中。'autospec' 無法知道任何動態建立的屬性，並將
api 限制為可見的屬性。：

     >>> class Something:
     ...   def __init__(self):
     ...     self.a = 33
     ...
     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

有幾種不同的方法可以解決這個問題。最簡單但可能有點煩人的方法是在建立後簡
單地在 mock 上設定所需的屬性。因為雖然 'autospec' 不允許你取得規格中不存
在的屬性，但是它不會阻止你設定它們：

     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a = 33
     ...

'spec' 和 'autospec' 有一個更激進的版本，它會'確實地'阻止你設定不存在的
屬性。如果你想確保你的程式碼僅能'設定'有效的屬性，那麼這會很有用，但顯然
它也順便阻止了這個特殊情況：

     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True, spec_set=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a = 33
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

解決問題的最佳方法可能是新增類別屬性作為在 *note __init__(): 4ae. 中初始
化的實例成員的預設值。請注意，如果你僅在 ‘__init__()’ 中設定預設屬性，那
麼透過類別屬性（當然在實例之間共用）提供它們也會更快。例如：

     class Something:
         a = 33

這就帶來了另一個問題。為稍後將成為不同型別的物件的成員提供預設值 ‘None’
是相對常見的。‘None’ 作為規格是無用的，因為它不允許你存取其上的'任何'屬
性或方法。由於 ‘None’ 作為規格'永遠不會'有用，並且可能表示通常屬於其他型
別的成員，因此自動規格不會對設定為 ‘None’ 的成員使用規格。這些會只是普通
的 mock（通常是 MagicMocks）：

     >>> class Something:
     ...     member = None
     ...
     >>> mock = create_autospec(Something)
     >>> mock.member.foo.bar.baz()
     <MagicMock name='mock.member.foo.bar.baz()' id='...'>

如果修改正式生產 (production) 類別以新增預設值不符合你的喜好，那麼還有更
多選擇。其中之一就是簡單地使用實例作為規格而不是使用類別。另一種是建立一
個正式生產類別的子類別，並將預設值新增至子類別中，而不影響正式生產類別。
這兩個都需要你使用替代物件作為規格。值得慶幸的是 *note patch(): d12. 支
援這一點 - 你可以簡單地將替代物件作為 'autospec' 引數傳遞：

     >>> class Something:
     ...   def __init__(self):
     ...     self.a = 33
     ...
     >>> class SomethingForTest(Something):
     ...   a = 33
     ...
     >>> p = patch('__main__.Something', autospec=SomethingForTest)
     >>> mock = p.start()
     >>> mock.a
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='Something.a' spec='int' id='...'>

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 這只適用於類別或已經實例化的物件。呼叫一個被 mock 的類別來建立一
個 mock 實例'不會'建立真的實例。它僅查找屬性及對 *note dir(): 42d. 的呼
叫。


File: python.info,  Node: 密封 mock,  Prev: Autospeccing（自動規格）,  Up: 輔助函式<2>

5.26.6.30 密封 mock
...................

 -- 函式: unittest.mock.seal (mock)

     當存取被密封的 mock 的屬性或其任何已經遞迴 mock 的屬性時，seal 將停
     用 mock 的自動建立。

     如果將具有名稱或規格的 mock 實例指派給屬性，則不會出現在密封鏈中。
     這表示可藉由固定 mock 物件的一部分來防止密封。：

          >>> mock = Mock()
          >>> mock.submock.attribute1 = 2
          >>> mock.not_submock = mock.Mock(name="sample_name")
          >>> seal(mock)
          >>> mock.new_attribute  # This will raise AttributeError.
          >>> mock.submock.attribute2  # This will raise AttributeError.
          >>> mock.not_submock.attribute2  # This won't raise.

     在 3.7 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps,  Prev: 輔助函式<2>,  Up: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫

5.26.6.31 Order of precedence of ‘side_effect’, ‘return_value’ and 'wraps'
..........................................................................

它們的優先順序是：

  1. *note side_effect: 3d9f.

  2. *note return_value: 3da7.

  3. 'wraps'

如果這三個都有設定，mock 將會回傳來自 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 的值，並
忽略 *note return_value: 3da7. 和被包裝物件。如果設定了任兩項，則優先順
序較高的一項將回傳該值。無論先設定哪個順序，優先順序都保持不變。

     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock
     >>> class Order:
     ...     @staticmethod
     ...     def get_value():
     ...         return "third"
     ...
     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first"]
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first'

由於 ‘None’ 是 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 的預設值，如果將其值重新賦值回為
‘None’，則會檢查 *note return_value: 3da7. 和被包裝物件之間的優先順序，
忽略 *note side_effect: 3d9f.。

     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

如果 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 回傳的值是 *note DEFAULT: 3da6.，它將被忽
略，並且優先順序被移動到後面一個以獲得要回傳的值。

     >>> from unittest.mock import DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = [DEFAULT]
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

當 *note Mock: 896. 包裝一個物件時，*note return_value: 3da7. 的預設值將
為 *note DEFAULT: 3da6.。

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.return_value
     sentinel.DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value
     sentinel.DEFAULT

優先順序將忽略該值，並將移動到最後一個，即被包裝物件。

當對被包裝物件進行真正的呼叫時，建立此 mock 的實例將回傳該類別的真實實例
。必須傳遞被包裝物件所需的位置引數（如果存在）。

     >>> order_mock_instance = order_mock()
     >>> isinstance(order_mock_instance, Order)
     True
     >>> order_mock_instance.get_value()
     'third'

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'third'

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

但如果你為其賦予 ‘None’ 則不會被忽略，因為它是明確賦值。因此，優先順序不
會移至被包裝物件。

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value() is None
     True

即使你在初始化 mock 時同時設定所有三個，優先順序也保持不變：

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order,
     ...                   **{"get_value.side_effect": ["first"],
     ...                      "get_value.return_value": "second"}
     ...                   )
     ...
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first'
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'third'

如果 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 已耗盡，則優先順序將不會使值由後面取得。相
反地這會引發 ‘StopIteration’ 例外。

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first side effect value",
     ...                                     "another side effect value"]
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"

     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first side effect value'
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'another side effect value'

     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     StopIteration


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock --- 入門指南,  Next: 2to3 --- 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3,  Prev: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.7 ‘unittest.mock’ -- 入門指南
----------------------------------

在 3.3 版被加入.

* Menu:

* 使用 Mock 的方式::
* Patch 裝飾器::
* 更多範例::


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 Mock 的方式,  Next: Patch 裝飾器,  Up: unittest mock --- 入門指南

5.26.7.1 使用 Mock 的方式
.........................

* Menu:

* 使用 Mock 來 patching 方法::
* 對物件的方法呼叫使用 mock::
* Mock 類別: Mock 類別<2>.
* 命名你的 mock::
* 追蹤所有呼叫::
* 設定回傳值和屬性::
* 透過 mock 引發例外::
* Side effect 函式以及可疊代物件::
* Mock 非同步可疊代物件::
* Mock 非同步情境管理器::
* 從現有物件建立 mock::
* 使用 side_effect 回傳各別檔案內容::


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 Mock 來 patching 方法,  Next: 對物件的方法呼叫使用 mock,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.2 使用 Mock 來 patching 方法
...................................

*note Mock: 896. 物件的常見用法包含：

   * Patching 方法

   * 記錄在物件上的方法呼叫

你可能會想要取代一個物件上的方法，以便檢查系統的另一部分是否使用正確的引
數呼叫它：

     >>> real = SomeClass()
     >>> real.method = MagicMock(name='method')
     >>> real.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
     <MagicMock name='method()' id='...'>

一旦我們的 mock 已經被使用（例如在這個範例中的 ‘real.method’），它就有了
方法和屬性，允許你對其使用方式進行斷言 (assertions)。

     備註: 在大多數的範例中，*note Mock: 896. 和 *note MagicMock: d11. 類
     別是可以互換的。不過由於 ‘MagicMock’ 是功能更強大的類別，因此通常它
     是一個更好的選擇。

一旦 mock 被呼叫，它的 *note called: 3db2. 屬性將被設定為 ‘True’。更重要
的是，我們可以使用 *note assert_called_with(): 1806. 或 *note
assert_called_once_with(): 3da9. 方法來檢查它是否被使用正確的引數來呼叫
。

這個範例測試呼叫 ‘ProductionClass().method’ 是否導致對 ‘something’ 方法
的呼叫：

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         self.something(1, 2, 3)
     ...     def something(self, a, b, c):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> real.something = MagicMock()
     >>> real.method()
     >>> real.something.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)


File: python.info,  Node: 對物件的方法呼叫使用 mock,  Next: Mock 類別<2>,  Prev: 使用 Mock 來 patching 方法,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.3 對物件的方法呼叫使用 mock
..................................

在上一個範例中，我們直接對物件上的方法進行 patch，以檢查它是否被正確呼叫
。另一個常見的用法是將一個物件傳遞給一個方法（或受測系統的某一部分），然
後檢查它是否以正確的方式被使用。

下面是一個單純的 ‘ProductionClass’，含有一個 ‘closer’ 方法。如果它被傳入
一個物件，它就會呼叫此物件中的 ‘close’。

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def closer(self, something):
     ...         something.close()
     ...

因此，為了對此進行測試，我們需要傳遞一個具有 ‘close’ 方法的物件，並檢查
它是否被正確的呼叫。

     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> real.closer(mock)
     >>> mock.close.assert_called_with()

我們不必做任何額外的事情來為 mock 提供 'close' 方法，存取 close 會建立它
。因此，如果 'close' 並未被呼叫過，在測試中存取 'close' 就會建立它，但
*note assert_called_with(): 1806. 就會引發一個失敗的例外。


File: python.info,  Node: Mock 類別<2>,  Next: 命名你的 mock,  Prev: 對物件的方法呼叫使用 mock,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.4 Mock 類別
..................

一個常見的使用案例是在測試的時候 mock 被程式碼實例化的類別。當你 patch 一
個類別時，該類別就會被替換為 mock。實例是透過'呼叫類別'建立的。這代表你
可以透過查看被 mock 的類別的回傳值來存取「mock 實例」。

在下面的範例中，我們有一個函式 ‘some_function’，它實例化 ‘Foo’ 並呼叫它
的方法。對 *note patch(): d12. 的呼叫將類別 ‘Foo’ 替換為一個 mock。‘Foo’
實例是呼叫 mock 的結果，因此它是透過修改 mock *note return_value: 3da7.
來配置的。：

     >>> def some_function():
     ...     instance = module.Foo()
     ...     return instance.method()
     ...
     >>> with patch('module.Foo') as mock:
     ...     instance = mock.return_value
     ...     instance.method.return_value = 'the result'
     ...     result = some_function()
     ...     assert result == 'the result'


File: python.info,  Node: 命名你的 mock,  Next: 追蹤所有呼叫,  Prev: Mock 類別<2>,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.5 命名你的 mock
......................

為你的 mock 命名可能會很有用。這個名稱會顯示在 mock 的 repr 中，且當
mock 出現在測試的失敗訊息中時，名稱會很有幫助。該名稱也會傳播到 mock 的
屬性或方法：

     >>> mock = MagicMock(name='foo')
     >>> mock
     <MagicMock name='foo' id='...'>
     >>> mock.method
     <MagicMock name='foo.method' id='...'>


File: python.info,  Node: 追蹤所有呼叫,  Next: 設定回傳值和屬性,  Prev: 命名你的 mock,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.6 追蹤所有呼叫
.....................

通常你會想要追蹤對一個方法的多個呼叫。*note mock_calls: 3dac. 屬性記錄對
mock 的子屬性以及其子屬性的所有呼叫。

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.method()
     <MagicMock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.attribute.method(10, x=53)
     <MagicMock name='mock.attribute.method()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]

如果你對 ‘mock_calls’ 做出斷言並且有任何不預期的方法被呼叫，則斷言將失敗
。這很有用，因為除了斷言你期望的呼叫已經進行之外，你還可以檢查它們是否按
正確的順序進行，並且沒有多餘的呼叫：

你可以使用 *note call: 17ab. 物件來建構串列以與 ‘mock_calls’ 進行比較：

     >>> expected = [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]
     >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
     True

然而，回傳 mock 的呼叫的參數不會被記錄，這代表在巢狀呼叫中，無法追蹤用於
建立上代的參數 important 的值：

     >>> m = Mock()
     >>> m.factory(important=True).deliver()
     <Mock name='mock.factory().deliver()' id='...'>
     >>> m.mock_calls[-1] == call.factory(important=False).deliver()
     True


File: python.info,  Node: 設定回傳值和屬性,  Next: 透過 mock 引發例外,  Prev: 追蹤所有呼叫,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.7 設定回傳值和屬性
.........................

在 mock 物件上設定回傳值非常簡單：

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.return_value = 3
     >>> mock()
     3

當然，你可以對 mock 上的方法執行相同的操作：

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.method.return_value = 3
     >>> mock.method()
     3

回傳值也可以在建構函式中設定：

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
     >>> mock()
     3

如果你需要在 mock 上進行屬性設置，只需執行以下操作：

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.x = 3
     >>> mock.x
     3

有時你想要 mock 更複雜的情況，例如
‘mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")’。如果我們希望此呼叫回傳一
個串列，那麼我們就必須配置巢狀呼叫的結果。

如下所示，我們可以使用 *note call: 17ab. 在「鍊接呼叫 (chained call)」中
建構呼叫的集合，以便在之後輕鬆的進行斷言：

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> cursor = mock.connection.cursor.return_value
     >>> cursor.execute.return_value = ['foo']
     >>> mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")
     ['foo']
     >>> expected = call.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1").call_list()
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     [call.connection.cursor(), call.connection.cursor().execute('SELECT 1')]
     >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
     True

正是對 ‘.call_list()’ 的呼叫將我們的呼叫物件轉換為代表鍊接呼叫的呼叫串列
。


File: python.info,  Node: 透過 mock 引發例外,  Next: Side effect 函式以及可疊代物件,  Prev: 設定回傳值和屬性,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.8 透過 mock 引發例外
...........................

一個有用的屬性是 *note side_effect: 3d9f.。如果將其設定為例外類別或實例
，則當 mock 被呼叫時將引發例外。

     >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=Exception('Boom!'))
     >>> mock()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     Exception: Boom!


File: python.info,  Node: Side effect 函式以及可疊代物件,  Next: Mock 非同步可疊代物件,  Prev: 透過 mock 引發例外,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.9 Side effect 函式以及可疊代物件
.......................................

‘side_effect’ 也可以設定為函式或可疊代物件。‘side_effect’ 作為可疊代物件
的使用案例是：當你的 mock 將會被多次呼叫，且你希望每次呼叫回傳不同的值。
當你將 ‘side_effect’ 設定為可疊代物件時，對 mock 的每次呼叫都會傳回可疊
代物件中的下一個值：

     >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=[4, 5, 6])
     >>> mock()
     4
     >>> mock()
     5
     >>> mock()
     6

對於更進階的使用案例，例如根據 mock 被呼叫的內容動態變更回傳值，可以將
‘side_effect’ 設成一個函式。該函式會使用與 mock 相同的引數被呼叫。函式回
傳的內容就會是呼叫回傳的內容：

     >>> vals = {(1, 2): 1, (2, 3): 2}
     >>> def side_effect(*args):
     ...     return vals[args]
     ...
     >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
     >>> mock(1, 2)
     1
     >>> mock(2, 3)
     2


File: python.info,  Node: Mock 非同步可疊代物件,  Next: Mock 非同步情境管理器,  Prev: Side effect 函式以及可疊代物件,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.10 Mock 非同步可疊代物件
...............................

從 Python 3.8 開始，‘AsyncMock’ 和 ‘MagicMock’ 支援透過 ‘__aiter__’ 來
mock *note Asynchronous Iterators: bf0.。‘__aiter__’ 的 *note
return_value: 3da7. 屬性可用來設定用於疊代的回傳值。

     >>> mock = MagicMock()  # AsyncMock also works here
     >>> mock.__aiter__.return_value = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> async def main():
     ...     return [i async for i in mock]
     ...
     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     [1, 2, 3]


File: python.info,  Node: Mock 非同步情境管理器,  Next: 從現有物件建立 mock,  Prev: Mock 非同步可疊代物件,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.11 Mock 非同步情境管理器
...............................

從 Python 3.8 開始，‘AsyncMock’ 和 ‘MagicMock’ 支援透過 ‘__aenter__’ 和
‘__aexit__’ 來 mock *note Asynchronous Context Managers: 3f2.。預設情況
下，‘__aenter__’ 和 ‘__aexit__’ 是回傳非同步函式的 ‘AsyncMock’ 實例。

     >>> class AsyncContextManager:
     ...     async def __aenter__(self):
     ...         return self
     ...     async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> mock_instance = MagicMock(AsyncContextManager())  # AsyncMock also works here
     >>> async def main():
     ...     async with mock_instance as result:
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     >>> mock_instance.__aenter__.assert_awaited_once()
     >>> mock_instance.__aexit__.assert_awaited_once()


File: python.info,  Node: 從現有物件建立 mock,  Next: 使用 side_effect 回傳各別檔案內容,  Prev: Mock 非同步情境管理器,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.12 從現有物件建立 mock
.............................

過度使用 mock 的一個問題是，它將你的測試與 mock 的實作結合在一起，而不是
與真實的程式碼結合。假設你有一個實作 ‘some_method’ 的類別，在另一個類別
的測試中，你提供了一個 mock 的物件，其'也'提供了 ‘some_method’。如果之後
你重構第一個類別，使其不再具有 ‘some_method’ - 那麼即使你的程式碼已經損
壞，你的測試也將繼續通過！

*note Mock: 896. 允許你使用 'spec' 關鍵字引數提供一個物件作為 mock 的規
格。對 mock 存取規格物件上不存在的方法或屬性將立即引發一個屬性錯誤。如果
你更改規格的實作，那麼使用該類別的測試將立即失敗，而無需在這些測試中實例
化該類別。

     >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
     >>> mock.old_method()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     AttributeError: object has no attribute 'old_method'

使用規格還可以更聰明地匹配對 mock 的呼叫，無論引數是作為位置引數還是命名
引數傳遞：

     >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
     >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
     <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

如果你希望這種更聰明的匹配也可以應用於 mock 上的方法呼叫，你可以使用
*note 自動規格: 3da2.。

如果你想要一種更強大的規格形式來防止設定任意屬性以及取得它們，那麼你可以
使用 'spec_set' 而不是 'spec'。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 side_effect 回傳各別檔案內容,  Prev: 從現有物件建立 mock,  Up: 使用 Mock 的方式

5.26.7.13 使用 side_effect 回傳各別檔案內容
...........................................

*note mock_open(): 17d1. 是用於 patch *note open(): 29c. 方法。*note
side_effect: 3d9f. 可以用來在每次呼叫回傳一個新的 mock 物件。這可以用於
回傳儲存在字典中的各別檔案的不同內容：

     DEFAULT = "default"
     data_dict = {"file1": "data1",
                  "file2": "data2"}

     def open_side_effect(name):
         return mock_open(read_data=data_dict.get(name, DEFAULT))()

     with patch("builtins.open", side_effect=open_side_effect):
         with open("file1") as file1:
             assert file1.read() == "data1"

         with open("file2") as file2:
             assert file2.read() == "data2"

         with open("file3") as file2:
             assert file2.read() == "default"


File: python.info,  Node: Patch 裝飾器,  Next: 更多範例,  Prev: 使用 Mock 的方式,  Up: unittest mock --- 入門指南

5.26.7.14 Patch 裝飾器
......................

     備註: 使用 *note patch(): d12. 時，需注意的是你得在被查找物件的命名
     空間中（in the namespace where they are looked up）patch 物件。這通
     常很直接，但若需要快速導引，請參閱*note 該 patch 何處: 3da0.。

測試中的常見需求是 patch 類別屬性或模組屬性，例如 patch 一個內建函式（
built-in）或 patch 模組中的類別以測試它是否已實例化。模組和類別實際上是
全域的，因此在測試後必須撤銷它們的 patch，否則 patch 將延續到其他測試中
並導致難以診斷問題。

mock 為此提供了三個方便的裝飾器：*note patch(): d12.、*note
patch.object(): 1793. 和 *note patch.dict(): 17d7.。‘patch’ 接受單一字串
，格式為 ‘package.module.Class.attribute’，用來指定要 patch 的屬性。同時
它也可以接受你想要替換的屬性（或類別或其他）的值。‘patch.object’ 接受一
個物件和你想要 patch 的屬性的名稱，同時也可以接受要 patch 的值。

‘patch.object’：

     >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     assert SomeClass.attribute == sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()
     >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

     >>> @patch('package.module.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     from package.module import attribute
     ...     assert attribute is sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()

如果你要 patch 一個模組（包括 *note builtins: 10.），請使用 *note
patch(): d12. 而非 *note patch.object(): 1793.：

     >>> mock = MagicMock(return_value=sentinel.file_handle)
     >>> with patch('builtins.open', mock):
     ...     handle = open('filename', 'r')
     ...
     >>> mock.assert_called_with('filename', 'r')
     >>> assert handle == sentinel.file_handle, "incorrect file handle returned"

如有需要，模組名稱可以含有 ‘.’，形式為 ‘package.module’：

     >>> @patch('package.module.ClassName.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     from package.module import ClassName
     ...     assert ClassName.attribute == sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()

一個好的模式是實際裝飾測試方法本身：

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ...     def test_something(self):
     ...         self.assertEqual(SomeClass.attribute, sentinel.attribute)
     ...
     >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()
     >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

如果你想使用一個 mock 進行 patch，你可以使用僅帶有一個引數的 *note
patch(): d12.（或帶有兩個引數的 *note patch.object(): 1793.）。Mock 將被
建立並被傳遞到測試函式 / 方法中：

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
     ...     def test_something(self, mock_method):
     ...         SomeClass.static_method()
     ...         mock_method.assert_called_with()
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

你可以使用這個模式堆疊多個 patch 裝飾器：

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName1')
     ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName2')
     ...     def test_something(self, MockClass2, MockClass1):
     ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName1, MockClass1)
     ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName2, MockClass2)
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

當你巢狀使用 patch 裝飾器時，mock 傳遞到被裝飾函式的順序會跟其被應用的順
序相同（一般 'Python' 應用裝飾器的順序）。這意味著由下而上，因此在上面的
範例中，‘module.ClassName2’ 的 mock 會先被傳入。

也有 *note patch.dict(): 17d7.，用於在測試範圍中設定字典內的值，並在測試
結束時將其恢復為原始狀態：

     >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
     >>> original = foo.copy()
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> assert foo == original

‘patch’、‘patch.object’ 和 ‘patch.dict’ 都可以用來作為情境管理器。

當你使用 *note patch(): d12. 為你建立一個 mock 時，你可以使用 with 陳述
式的 "as" 形式來取得 mock 的參照：

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method') as mock_method:
     ...     mock_method.return_value = None
     ...     real = ProductionClass()
     ...     real.method(1, 2, 3)
     ...
     >>> mock_method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)

另外，“patch”、“patch.object” 和 “patch.dict” 也可以用來作為類別裝飾器。
以這種方式使用時，與將裝飾器單獨應用於每個名稱以 “test” 開頭的方法相同。


File: python.info,  Node: 更多範例,  Prev: Patch 裝飾器,  Up: unittest mock --- 入門指南

5.26.7.15 更多範例
..................

以下是一些更進階一點的情境的範例。

* Menu:

* Mock 鍊接呼叫::
* 部分 mocking::
* Mock 產生器方法::
* 對每個測試方法應用相同的 patch::
* Mock Unbound Methods （未繫結方法）::
* 使用 mock 檢查多個呼叫::
* 應對可變引數::
* 巢狀使用 Patch::
* 使用 MagicMock 來 mock 字典::
* Mock 子類別及其屬性::
* 使用 patch.dict 來 mock import: 使用 patch dict 來 mock import.
* 追蹤呼叫順序與更簡潔的呼叫斷言::
* 更複雜的引數匹配::


File: python.info,  Node: Mock 鍊接呼叫,  Next: 部分 mocking,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.16 Mock 鍊接呼叫
.......................

一旦你了解了 *note return_value: 3da7. 屬性，mock 鍊接呼叫其實就很簡單了
。當一個 mock 第一次被呼叫，或者你在它被呼叫之前取得其 ‘return_value’ 時
，一個新的 *note Mock: 896. 就會被建立。

這代表你可以透過查問 ‘return_value’ mock 來了解一個對被 mock 的物件的呼
叫回傳的物件是如何被使用的：

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock().foo(a=2, b=3)
     <Mock name='mock().foo()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.return_value.foo.assert_called_with(a=2, b=3)

這裡只需一個簡單的步驟即可進行配置並對鍊接呼叫進行斷言。當然，另一種選擇
是先以更容易被測試的方式撰寫程式碼...

所以，假設我們有一些程式碼，看起來大概像這樣：

     >>> class Something:
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.backend = BackendProvider()
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         response = self.backend.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
     ...         # more code

假設 ‘BackendProvider’ 已經經過充分測試，那麼我們該如何測試 ‘method()’？
具體來說，我們要測試程式碼部分 ‘# more code’ 是否以正確的方式使用
‘response’ 物件。

由於此呼叫鍊是從實例屬性進行的，因此我們可以在 ‘Something’ 實例上 monkey
patch ‘backend’ 屬性。在這種特定的情況下，我們只對最終呼叫 ‘start_call’
的回傳值感興趣，因此我們不需要做太多配置。我們假設它傳回的物件是類檔案物
件 (file-like)，因此我們會確保我們的 response 物件使用內建的 *note
open(): 29c. 作為其 ‘spec’。

為此，我們建立一個 mock 實例作為我們的 mock backend，並為其建立一個 mock
response 物件。要將 response 設定為最後的 ‘start_call’ 的回傳值，我們可
以這樣做：

     mock_backend.get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value = mock_response

我們可以使用 *note configure_mock(): 3da8. 方法來以稍微好一點的方式為我
們直接設定回傳值：

     >>> something = Something()
     >>> mock_response = Mock(spec=open)
     >>> mock_backend = Mock()
     >>> config = {'get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value': mock_response}
     >>> mock_backend.configure_mock(**config)

有了這些，我們就可以原地 (in place) monkey patch "mock backend"，並且可
以進行真正的呼叫：

     >>> something.backend = mock_backend
     >>> something.method()

藉由使用 *note mock_calls: 3dac.，我們可以使用單一一個斷言來檢查鍊接呼叫
。一個鍊接呼叫是一行程式碼中的多個呼叫，因此 ‘mock_calls’ 中會有多個項目
。我們可以使用 *note call.call_list(): 3ddf. 來為我們建立這個呼叫串列：

     >>> chained = call.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
     >>> call_list = chained.call_list()
     >>> assert mock_backend.mock_calls == call_list


File: python.info,  Node: 部分 mocking,  Next: Mock 產生器方法,  Prev: Mock 鍊接呼叫,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.17 部分 mocking
......................

在某些測試中，我們會想 mock 對 *note datetime.date.today(): 1341. 的呼叫
以回傳一個已知日期，但我不想阻止測試中的程式碼建立新的日期物件。不幸的是
*note datetime.date: 72f. 是用 C 語言寫的，所以們我不能 monkey patch 靜
態的 *note datetime.date.today(): 1341. 方法。

我們找到了一種簡單的方法來做到這一點，其用 mock 有效地包裝日期類別，但將
對建構函式的呼叫傳遞給真實的類別（並返回真實的實例）。

這裡使用 *note patch 裝飾器: d12. 來 mock 被測模組中的 ‘date’ 類別。然後
，mock 日期類別上的 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 屬性會被設定為回傳真實日期
的 lambda 函式。當 mock 日期類別被呼叫時，將透過 ‘side_effect’ 建構並回
傳真實日期。：

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> with patch('mymodule.date') as mock_date:
     ...     mock_date.today.return_value = date(2010, 10, 8)
     ...     mock_date.side_effect = lambda *args, **kw: date(*args, **kw)
     ...
     ...     assert mymodule.date.today() == date(2010, 10, 8)
     ...     assert mymodule.date(2009, 6, 8) == date(2009, 6, 8)

注意，我們沒有全域 patch *note datetime.date: 72f.，而是在'使用'它的模組
中 patch ‘date’。請參閱 *note 該 patch 何處: 3da0.。

當 ‘date.today()’ 被呼叫時，一個已知日期會被回傳，但對 ‘date(...)’ 建構
函式的呼叫仍然會回傳正常日期。如果不這樣使用，你可能會發現自己必須使用與
被測程式碼完全相同的演算法來計算預期結果，這是一個典型的測試的反面模式
(anti-pattern)。

對日期建構函式的呼叫被記錄在 ‘mock_date’ 屬性（‘call_count’ 及其相關屬性
）中，這對你的測試也可能有用處。

處理 mock 日期或其他內建類別的另一種方法在 這個 blog(1) 中討論。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://williambert.online/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/


File: python.info,  Node: Mock 產生器方法,  Next: 對每個測試方法應用相同的 patch,  Prev: 部分 mocking,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.18 Mock 產生器方法
.........................

Python 產生器是一個函式或方法，它使用 *note yield: 811. 陳述式在疊代 (1)
時回傳一系列的值。

產生器方法 / 函式會被呼叫以回傳產生器物件。之後此產生器會進行疊代。疊代
的協定方法是 *note __iter__(): 1ab7.，所以我們可以使用 *note MagicMock:
d11. 來 mock 它。

下面是一個範例類別，其包含實作產生器的一個 "iter" 方法：

     >>> class Foo:
     ...     def iter(self):
     ...         for i in [1, 2, 3]:
     ...             yield i
     ...
     >>> foo = Foo()
     >>> list(foo.iter())
     [1, 2, 3]

我們該如何 mock 這個類別，特別是它的 "iter" 方法呢？

要配置從疊代回傳的值（隱含在對 *note list: 40a. 的呼叫中），我們需要配置
呼叫 ‘foo.iter()’ 所回傳的物件。

     >>> mock_foo = MagicMock()
     >>> mock_foo.iter.return_value = iter([1, 2, 3])
     >>> list(mock_foo.iter())
     [1, 2, 3]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 還有關於產生器運算式及產生器的更多 進階用法
(http://www.dabeaz.com/coroutines/index.html) ，但我們在這裡不考慮它們。
一個關於產生器及其強大功能的優良說明是：Generator Tricks for Systems
Programmers (http://www.dabeaz.com/generators/)。


File: python.info,  Node: 對每個測試方法應用相同的 patch,  Next: Mock Unbound Methods （未繫結方法）,  Prev: Mock 產生器方法,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.19 對每個測試方法應用相同的 patch
........................................

如果你希望 patch 能用在多個測試方法上，顯而易見的方式是將 patch 裝飾器應
用於每個方法。這感覺是不必要的重複行為，因此你可以使用 *note patch():
d12.（及其他 patch 的變體）作為類別裝飾器。這會將 patch 應用在該類別的所
有測試方法上。測試方法由名稱以 ‘test’ 開頭來識別：

     >>> @patch('mymodule.SomeClass')
     ... class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def test_one(self, MockSomeClass):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
     ...
     ...     def test_two(self, MockSomeClass):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
     ...
     ...     def not_a_test(self):
     ...         return 'something'
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_one').test_one()
     >>> MyTest('test_two').test_two()
     >>> MyTest('test_two').not_a_test()
     'something'

管理 patch 的另一種方式是使用 *note patch 方法：啟動與停止: 3dd0.。這允
許你將 patch 移到你的 ‘setUp’ 與 ‘tearDown’ 方法中。：

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         self.patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
     ...         self.mock_foo = self.patcher.start()
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
     ...
     ...     def tearDown(self):
     ...         self.patcher.stop()
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()

如果你使用這個技巧，你必須確保透過呼叫 ‘stop’ 來 "取消" patch。這可能會
比你想像的還要複雜一點，因為如果有例外在 ‘setUp’ 中被引發，則 ‘tearDown’
就不會被呼叫。*note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): 8cd. 會讓這稍微簡單
一點：

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
     ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
     ...         self.mock_foo = patcher.start()
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()


File: python.info,  Node: Mock Unbound Methods （未繫結方法）,  Next: 使用 mock 檢查多個呼叫,  Prev: 對每個測試方法應用相同的 patch,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.20 Mock Unbound Methods （未繫結方法）
.............................................

在撰寫測試時，當我們需要 patch 一個'未繫結方法'（patch 類別上的方法而不
是實例上的方法）。我們需要將 self 作為第一個引數傳入，因為我們想斷言哪些
物件正在呼叫這個特定方法。問題是你無法為此使用 mock 進行 patch，因為就算
你用一個 mock 替換未繫結方法，從實例取得它時它也不會成為一個繫結方法，因
此 self 並不會被傳遞。解決方法是使用真實的函式來 patch 未繫結方法。*note
patch(): d12. 裝飾器使得用 mock 來 patch out 方法是如此的簡單，以至於建
立一個真正的函式相對變得很麻煩。

如果你將 ‘autospec=True’ 傳遞給 patch，那麼它會使用'真的'函式物件來進行
patch。此函式物件與它所替換的函式物件具有相同的簽名，但實際上委託給
mock。你仍然會以與之前完全相同的方式自動建立 mock。但這意味著，如果你使
用它來 patch 類別上的未繫結方法，則從實例取得的 mock 函式將轉換為繫結方
法。‘self’ 會作為其第一個引數傳入，而這正是我們想要的：

     >>> class Foo:
     ...   def foo(self):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> with patch.object(Foo, 'foo', autospec=True) as mock_foo:
     ...   mock_foo.return_value = 'foo'
     ...   foo = Foo()
     ...   foo.foo()
     ...
     'foo'
     >>> mock_foo.assert_called_once_with(foo)

如果我們不使用 ‘autospec=True’，那麼未繫結方法將使用一個 Mock 實例 patch
out，並且不被使用 ‘self’ 進行呼叫。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 mock 檢查多個呼叫,  Next: 應對可變引數,  Prev: Mock Unbound Methods （未繫結方法）,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.21 使用 mock 檢查多個呼叫
................................

mock 有很好的 API，用於對 mock 物件的使用方式做出斷言。

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.foo_bar.return_value = None
     >>> mock.foo_bar('baz', spam='eggs')
     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_with('baz', spam='eggs')

如果你的 mock 只被呼叫一次，你可以使用 *note assert_called_once_with():
3da9. 方法，其也斷言 *note call_count: 3db3. 是1。

     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
     >>> mock.foo_bar()
     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected to be called once. Called 2 times.

‘assert_called_with’ 和 ‘assert_called_once_with’ 都對'最近一次'的呼叫做
出斷言。如果你的 mock 將被多次呼叫，並且你想要對'所有'這些呼叫進行斷言，
你可以使用 *note call_args_list: 3db4.：

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock(4, 5, 6)
     >>> mock()
     >>> mock.call_args_list
     [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]

*note call: 17ab. 輔助函式可以輕鬆地對這些呼叫做出斷言。你可以建立預期呼
叫的清單並將其與 ‘call_args_list’ 進行比較。這看起來與 ‘call_args_list’
的 repr 非常相似：

     >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]
     >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
     True


File: python.info,  Node: 應對可變引數,  Next: 巢狀使用 Patch,  Prev: 使用 mock 檢查多個呼叫,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.22 應對可變引數
......................

另一種情況很少見，但可能會困擾你，那就是當你的 mock 被使用可變引數呼叫。
‘call_args’ 和 ‘call_args_list’ 儲存對引數的'參照'。如果引數被測試中的程
式碼改變，那麼你將無法再對 mock 被呼叫時的值進行斷言。

這是一些秀出問題的程式碼範例。 想像 'mymodule' 中定義以下函式：

     def frob(val):
         pass

     def grob(val):
         "First frob and then clear val"
         frob(val)
         val.clear()

當我們嘗試測試 ‘grob’ 使用正確的引數呼叫 ‘frob’ 時，看看會發生什麼：

     >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
     ...     val = {6}
     ...     mymodule.grob(val)
     ...
     >>> val
     set()
     >>> mock_frob.assert_called_with({6})
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: (({6},), {})
     Called with: ((set(),), {})

一種可能是讓 mock 複製你傳入的引數。如果你進行的斷言依賴於物件識別性來確
定相等性，這就可能導致問題。

以下是一種使用 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 功能的解法。如果你為 mock 提供一
個 ‘side_effect’ 函式，則 ‘side_effect’ 將被使用與 mock 相同的引數呼叫。
這使我們有機會複製引數並將其儲存以供之後的斷言。在這個範例中，我們使用
'另一個' mock 來儲存引數，以便我們可以使用 mock 方法來執行斷言。同樣的，
有一個輔助函式為我們設定了這些。：

     >>> from copy import deepcopy
     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock, patch, DEFAULT
     >>> def copy_call_args(mock):
     ...     new_mock = Mock()
     ...     def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...         args = deepcopy(args)
     ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
     ...         new_mock(*args, **kwargs)
     ...         return DEFAULT
     ...     mock.side_effect = side_effect
     ...     return new_mock
     ...
     >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
     ...     new_mock = copy_call_args(mock_frob)
     ...     val = {6}
     ...     mymodule.grob(val)
     ...
     >>> new_mock.assert_called_with({6})
     >>> new_mock.call_args
     call({6})

‘copy_call_args’ 與將要被呼叫的 mock 一起被呼叫。它回傳一個我們會對其進
行斷言的新的 mock。‘side_effect’ 函式建立引數們的副本，並用該副本呼叫我
們的 ‘new_mock’。

     備註: 如果你的 mock 只會被使用一次，則有一種更簡單的方法可以在呼叫
     引數時檢查它們。你可以簡單地在 ‘side_effect’ 函式內進行檢查。

          >>> def side_effect(arg):
          ...     assert arg == {6}
          ...
          >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
          >>> mock({6})
          >>> mock(set())
          Traceback (most recent call last):
              ...
          AssertionError

另一種方法是建立 *note Mock: 896. 或 *note MagicMock: d11. 的子類別來複
製（使用 *note copy.deepcopy(): 9cb.）引數。這是一個實作的例子：

     >>> from copy import deepcopy
     >>> class CopyingMock(MagicMock):
     ...     def __call__(self, /, *args, **kwargs):
     ...         args = deepcopy(args)
     ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
     ...         return super().__call__(*args, **kwargs)
     ...
     >>> c = CopyingMock(return_value=None)
     >>> arg = set()
     >>> c(arg)
     >>> arg.add(1)
     >>> c.assert_called_with(set())
     >>> c.assert_called_with(arg)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected call: mock({1})
     Actual call: mock(set())
     >>> c.foo
     <CopyingMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>

當你將 ‘Mock’ 或 ‘MagicMock’ 子類別化時，所有屬性會被動態建立，且
‘return_value’ 會自動使用你的子類別。這代表著 ‘CopyingMock’ 的所有子代
(child) 也會具有 ‘CopyingMock’ 型別。


File: python.info,  Node: 巢狀使用 Patch,  Next: 使用 MagicMock 來 mock 字典,  Prev: 應對可變引數,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.23 巢狀使用 Patch
........................

將 patch 作為情境管理器使用很好，但是如果你使用複數個 patch，你最終可能
會得到巢狀的 with 陳述式，並且越來越向右縮排：

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         with patch('mymodule.Foo') as mock_foo:
     ...             with patch('mymodule.Bar') as mock_bar:
     ...                 with patch('mymodule.Spam') as mock_spam:
     ...                     assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
     ...                     assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
     ...                     assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
     ...
     >>> original = mymodule.Foo
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').test_foo()
     >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original

我們可以使用 unittest 的 ‘cleanup’ 函式以及 *note patch
方法：啟動與停止: 3dd0. 來達到相同的效果，而不會出現因巢狀導致的縮排。一
個簡單的輔助方法 ‘create_patch’ 會將 patch 放置到位並為我們回傳被建立的
mock：

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def create_patch(self, name):
     ...         patcher = patch(name)
     ...         thing = patcher.start()
     ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
     ...         return thing
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         mock_foo = self.create_patch('mymodule.Foo')
     ...         mock_bar = self.create_patch('mymodule.Bar')
     ...         mock_spam = self.create_patch('mymodule.Spam')
     ...
     ...         assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
     ...         assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
     ...         assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
     ...
     >>> original = mymodule.Foo
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()
     >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 MagicMock 來 mock 字典,  Next: Mock 子類別及其屬性,  Prev: 巢狀使用 Patch,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.24 使用 MagicMock 來 mock 字典
.....................................

你可能會想要 mock 字典或其他容器物件，記錄對它的所有存取，同時讓它仍然像
字典一樣運作。

我們可以使用 *note MagicMock: d11. 來做到這一點，它的行為會與字典一致，
並使用 *note side_effect: 3d9f. 將字典存取委託給我們控制下的真實底層字典
。

當 ‘MagicMock’ 的 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 和 *note __setitem__():
133c. 方法被呼叫時（一般的字典存取）， ‘side_effect’ 會被使用鍵 (key) 來
呼叫 （在 ‘__setitem__’ 的情況也會使用值 (value)）。我們也可以控制回傳的
內容。

使用 ‘MagicMock’ 後，我們可以使用諸如 *note call_args_list: 3db4. 之類的
屬性來斷言字典被使用的方式：

     >>> my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
     >>> def getitem(name):
     ...      return my_dict[name]
     ...
     >>> def setitem(name, val):
     ...     my_dict[name] = val
     ...
     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
     >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

     備註: 不使用 ‘MagicMock’ 的替代方案是使用 ‘Mock’ 並且'只'提供你特別
     想要的魔術方法：

          >>> mock = Mock()
          >>> mock.__getitem__ = Mock(side_effect=getitem)
          >>> mock.__setitem__ = Mock(side_effect=setitem)

     '第三個'選擇是使用 ‘MagicMock’，但傳入 ‘dict’ 作為 'spec' （或
     'spec_set'）引數，以使被建立的 ‘MagicMock’ 僅具有字典可用的魔術方法
     ：

          >>> mock = MagicMock(spec_set=dict)
          >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
          >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

有了這些 side effect 函式，‘mock’ 會像一般的字典一樣運作，但會記錄存取。
如果你嘗試存取不存在的鍵，它甚至會引發一個 *note KeyError: 8ed.。

     >>> mock['a']
     1
     >>> mock['c']
     3
     >>> mock['d']
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     KeyError: 'd'
     >>> mock['b'] = 'fish'
     >>> mock['d'] = 'eggs'
     >>> mock['b']
     'fish'
     >>> mock['d']
     'eggs'

在上述方式被使用後，你就可以使用普通的 mock 方法和屬性對存取進行斷言：

     >>> mock.__getitem__.call_args_list
     [call('a'), call('c'), call('d'), call('b'), call('d')]
     >>> mock.__setitem__.call_args_list
     [call('b', 'fish'), call('d', 'eggs')]
     >>> my_dict
     {'a': 1, 'b': 'fish', 'c': 3, 'd': 'eggs'}


File: python.info,  Node: Mock 子類別及其屬性,  Next: 使用 patch dict 來 mock import,  Prev: 使用 MagicMock 來 mock 字典,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.25 Mock 子類別及其屬性
.............................

你會想子類別化 *note Mock: 896. 的原因可能有很多種。其中之一是增加輔助方
法。以下是一個有點笨的例子：

     >>> class MyMock(MagicMock):
     ...     def has_been_called(self):
     ...         return self.called
     ...
     >>> mymock = MyMock(return_value=None)
     >>> mymock
     <MyMock id='...'>
     >>> mymock.has_been_called()
     False
     >>> mymock()
     >>> mymock.has_been_called()
     True

‘Mock’ 實例的標準行為是屬性 mock 和回傳值 mock 會與存取它們的 mock 具有
相同的型別。這確保了 ‘Mock’ 屬性是 ‘Mocks’，‘MagicMock’ 屬性是
‘MagicMocks’ (1)。因此，如果你要子類別化以新增輔助方法，那麼它們也可用於
子類別實例的屬性 mock 和回傳值 mock。

     >>> mymock.foo
     <MyMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
     >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
     False
     >>> mymock.foo()
     <MyMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
     >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
     True

有時候這很不方便。例如，有一個使用者(2)正在子類別化 mock 以建立 Twisted
adaptor(3)。將其應用於屬性實際上會導致錯誤。

‘Mock’ （及其各種形式）使用名為 ‘_get_child_mock’ 的方法來為屬性和回傳值
建立這些 "子 mock"。你可以透過置換此方法來防止你的子類別被用為屬性。其簽
名是取用任意的關鍵字引數（‘**kwargs’），然後將其傳遞給 mock 建構函式：

     >>> class Subclass(MagicMock):
     ...     def _get_child_mock(self, /, **kwargs):
     ...         return MagicMock(**kwargs)
     ...
     >>> mymock = Subclass()
     >>> mymock.foo
     <MagicMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
     >>> assert isinstance(mymock, Subclass)
     >>> assert not isinstance(mymock.foo, Subclass)
     >>> assert not isinstance(mymock(), Subclass)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 此規則的例外是非可呼叫物件的 mock。屬性使用可呼叫物件的變體，否則
非可呼叫物件的 mock 無法具有可呼叫的方法。

   (2) https://code.google.com/archive/p/mock/issues/105

   (3) 
https://twisted.org/documents/11.0.0/api/twisted.python.components.html


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 patch dict 來 mock import,  Next: 追蹤呼叫順序與更簡潔的呼叫斷言,  Prev: Mock 子類別及其屬性,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.26 使用 patch.dict 來 mock import
........................................

可能會讓 mock 很困難的一種情況是在函式內部進行區域 import。這些狀況會更
難進行 mock，因為它們沒有使用我們可以 patch out 的模組命名空間中的物件。

一般來說，我們應該避免區域 import 的發生。有時這樣做是為了防止循環相依
(circular dependencies)，為此'通常'有更好的方式來解決問題（例如重構程式
碼）或透過延遲 import 來防止「前期成本 (up front costs)」。這也可以透過
比無條件的區域 import 更好的方式來解決（例如將模組儲存為類別或模組屬性，
並且僅在第一次使用時進行 import）。

除此之外，還有一種方法可以使用 ‘mock’ 來影響 import 的結果。Import 會從
*note sys.modules: 1745. 字典中取得一個'物件'。請注意，它會取得一個'物件
'，而該物件不需要是一個模組。初次 import 模組會導致模組物件被放入
‘sys.modules’ 中，因此通常當你 import 某些東西時，你會得到一個模組。但並
非一定要如此。

這代表你可以使用 *note patch.dict(): 17d7. 來'暫時'在 *note sys.modules:
1745. 中原地放置 mock。在這個 patch 作用時的任何 import 都會取得這個
mock。當 patch 完成時（被裝飾的函式結束、with 陳述式主體完成或
‘patcher.stop()’ 被呼叫），那麼之前在 ‘sys.modules’ 中的任何內容都會被安
全地復原。

下面是一個 mock out 'fooble' 模組的例子。

     >>> import sys
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
     ...    import fooble
     ...    fooble.blob()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.blob()' id='...'>
     >>> assert 'fooble' not in sys.modules
     >>> mock.blob.assert_called_once_with()

如你所見，‘import fooble’ 成功了，但在離開之後，*note sys.modules: 1745.
中就沒有 'fooble' 了。

這也適用於 ‘from module import name’ 形式：

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
     ...    from fooble import blob
     ...    blob.blip()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.blob.blip()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.blob.blip.assert_called_once_with()

透過稍微多一點的處理，你也可以 mock 套件的引入：

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> modules = {'package': mock, 'package.module': mock.module}
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', modules):
     ...    from package.module import fooble
     ...    fooble()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.module.fooble()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.module.fooble.assert_called_once_with()


File: python.info,  Node: 追蹤呼叫順序與更簡潔的呼叫斷言,  Next: 更複雜的引數匹配,  Prev: 使用 patch dict 來 mock import,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.27 追蹤呼叫順序與更簡潔的呼叫斷言
........................................

*note Mock: 896. 類別可以讓你透過 *note method_calls: 3dae. 屬性追蹤
mock 物件上方法呼叫的'順序'。這不會讓你可以追蹤不同的 mock 物件之間的呼
叫順序，然而我們可以使用 *note mock_calls: 3dac. 來達到相同的效果。

因為 mock 會在 ‘mock_calls’ 中追蹤對子 mock 的呼叫，且存取 mock 的任意屬
性會建立一個子 mock，所以我們可以從父 mock 建立不同的 mock。之後對這些子
mock 的呼叫將依序全部記錄在父 mock 的 ‘mock_calls’ 中：

     >>> manager = Mock()
     >>> mock_foo = manager.foo
     >>> mock_bar = manager.bar

     >>> mock_foo.something()
     <Mock name='mock.foo.something()' id='...'>
     >>> mock_bar.other.thing()
     <Mock name='mock.bar.other.thing()' id='...'>

     >>> manager.mock_calls
     [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]

之後我們可以透過與管理器 (manager) mock 上的 ‘mock_calls’ 屬性進行比較來
斷言呼叫及其順序：

     >>> expected_calls = [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]
     >>> manager.mock_calls == expected_calls
     True

如果 ‘patch’ 正在被建立並放置為你的 mock，那麼你可以使用 *note
attach_mock(): 140a. 方法將它們附加到管理器 mock。附加之後，呼叫將被記錄
在管理器的 ‘mock_calls’ 中。：

     >>> manager = MagicMock()
     >>> with patch('mymodule.Class1') as MockClass1:
     ...     with patch('mymodule.Class2') as MockClass2:
     ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass1, 'MockClass1')
     ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass2, 'MockClass2')
     ...         MockClass1().foo()
     ...         MockClass2().bar()
     <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass1().foo()' id='...'>
     <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass2().bar()' id='...'>
     >>> manager.mock_calls
     [call.MockClass1(),
     call.MockClass1().foo(),
     call.MockClass2(),
     call.MockClass2().bar()]

如果進行了多次呼叫，但你只對其中特定呼叫的序列感興趣，則可以使用 *note
assert_has_calls(): 3dab. 方法。這需要一個呼叫串列（使用 *note call:
17ab. 物件建構）。如果該呼叫序列位於 *note mock_calls: 3dac. 中，則斷言
成功。

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m().foo().bar().baz()
     <MagicMock name='mock().foo().bar().baz()' id='...'>
     >>> m.one().two().three()
     <MagicMock name='mock.one().two().three()' id='...'>
     >>> calls = call.one().two().three().call_list()
     >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls)

儘管鍊接呼叫 ‘m.one().two().three()’ 並不是對 mock 進行的唯一呼叫，斷言
仍會成功。

有時可能會對一個 mock 進行多次呼叫，而你只對斷言其中'某些'呼叫感興趣。你
甚至可能不關心順序。在這種情況下，你可以將 ‘any_order=True’ 傳遞給
‘assert_has_calls’：

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m(1), m.two(2, 3), m.seven(7), m.fifty('50')
     (...)
     >>> calls = [call.fifty('50'), call(1), call.seven(7)]
     >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)


File: python.info,  Node: 更複雜的引數匹配,  Prev: 追蹤呼叫順序與更簡潔的呼叫斷言,  Up: 更多範例

5.26.7.28 更複雜的引數匹配
..........................

使用與 *note ANY: 17a9. 相同的基本概念，我們可以實作匹配器 (matcher)，對
用來作為 mock 引數的物件進行更複雜的斷言。

假設我們預期某個物件會被傳進 mock，預設情況下，該 mock 會根據物件識別性
進行相等比較（對使用者定義類別的 Python 預設行為）。要使用 *note
assert_called_with(): 1806.，我們需要傳入完全相同的物件。如果我們只對該
物件的某些屬性感興趣，那麼我們可以建立一個匹配器來為我們檢查這些屬性。

你可以在這個範例中看到對 ‘assert_called_with’ 的一個「標準」呼叫是不夠的
：

     >>> class Foo:
     ...     def __init__(self, a, b):
     ...         self.a, self.b = a, b
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock(Foo(1, 2))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(Foo(1, 2))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: call(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)
     Actual call: call(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)

對我們的 ‘Foo’ 類別的比較函式看起來可能會像這樣：

     >>> def compare(self, other):
     ...     if not type(self) == type(other):
     ...         return False
     ...     if self.a != other.a:
     ...         return False
     ...     if self.b != other.b:
     ...         return False
     ...     return True
     ...

而可以使用像這樣的比較函式進行其相等性運算的匹配器物件會長得像這樣：

     >>> class Matcher:
     ...     def __init__(self, compare, some_obj):
     ...         self.compare = compare
     ...         self.some_obj = some_obj
     ...     def __eq__(self, other):
     ...         return self.compare(self.some_obj, other)
     ...

把這些都放在一起：

     >>> match_foo = Matcher(compare, Foo(1, 2))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_foo)

‘Matcher’ 是用我們想要比較的 ‘Foo’ 物件和比較函式實例化的。在
‘assert_called_with’ 中，‘Matcher’ 相等方法將被呼叫，它將呼叫 mock 時傳
入的物件與我們建立匹配器時傳入的物件進行比較。如果它們匹配，則
‘assert_called_with’ 會通過，如果它們不匹配，則會引發 *note
AssertionError: 4a6.：

     >>> match_wrong = Matcher(compare, Foo(3, 4))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_wrong)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: ((<Matcher object at 0x...>,), {})
     Called with: ((<Foo object at 0x...>,), {})

透過一些調整，你可以讓比較函式直接引發 *note AssertionError: 4a6. 並提供
更有用的失敗訊息。

從版本 1.5 開始，Python 測試函式庫 PyHamcrest(1) 以其相等匹配器的形式，
提供了類似的功能，在這裡可能是有用的
(hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality(2))。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/

   (2) 
https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/en/release-1.8/integration/#module-hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality


File: python.info,  Node: 2to3 --- 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3,  Next: test --- Python 的回歸測試 regression tests 套件,  Prev: unittest mock --- 入門指南,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.8 2to3 -- 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3
---------------------------------------------------

2to3 is a Python program that reads Python 2.x source code and applies a
series of 'fixers' to transform it into valid Python 3.x code.  The
standard library contains a rich set of fixers that will handle almost
all code.  2to3 supporting library *note lib2to3: 7f. is, however, a
flexible and generic library, so it is possible to write your own fixers
for 2to3.

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
‘lib2to3’ module was marked pending for deprecation in Python 3.9
(raising *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700. on import) and fully
deprecated in Python 3.11 (raising *note DeprecationWarning: 179.).  The
‘2to3’ tool is part of that.  It will be removed in Python 3.13.

* Menu:

* 使用 2to3::
* Fixers::
* lib2to3: lib2to3 --- 2to3's library. 2to3's library


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 2to3,  Next: Fixers,  Up: 2to3 --- 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3

5.26.8.1 使用 2to3
..................

2to3 will usually be installed with the Python interpreter as a script.
It is also located in the ‘Tools/scripts’ directory of the Python root.

2to3's basic arguments are a list of files or directories to transform.
The directories are recursively traversed for Python sources.

這邊有簡單的 Python 2的原始檔案 ‘example.py’:

     def greet(name):
         print "Hello, {0}!".format(name)
     print "What's your name?"
     name = raw_input()
     greet(name)

It can be converted to Python 3.x code via 2to3 on the command line:

     $ 2to3 example.py

A diff against the original source file is printed.  2to3 can also write
the needed modifications right back to the source file.  (A backup of
the original file is made unless ‘-n’ is also given.)  Writing the
changes back is enabled with the ‘-w’ flag:

     $ 2to3 -w example.py

After transformation, ‘example.py’ looks like this:

     def greet(name):
         print("Hello, {0}!".format(name))
     print("What's your name?")
     name = input()
     greet(name)

Comments and exact indentation are preserved throughout the translation
process.

By default, 2to3 runs a set of *note predefined fixers: 3e0b.  The ‘-l’
flag lists all available fixers.  An explicit set of fixers to run can
be given with ‘-f’.  Likewise the ‘-x’ explicitly disables a fixer.  The
following example runs only the ‘imports’ and ‘has_key’ fixers:

     $ 2to3 -f imports -f has_key example.py

This command runs every fixer except the ‘apply’ fixer:

     $ 2to3 -x apply example.py

Some fixers are 'explicit', meaning they aren't run by default and must
be listed on the command line to be run.  Here, in addition to the
default fixers, the ‘idioms’ fixer is run:

     $ 2to3 -f all -f idioms example.py

Notice how passing ‘all’ enables all default fixers.

Sometimes 2to3 will find a place in your source code that needs to be
changed, but 2to3 cannot fix automatically.  In this case, 2to3 will
print a warning beneath the diff for a file.  You should address the
warning in order to have compliant 3.x code.

2to3 can also refactor doctests.  To enable this mode, use the ‘-d’
flag.  Note that 'only' doctests will be refactored.  This also doesn't
require the module to be valid Python.  For example, doctest like
examples in a reST document could also be refactored with this option.

The ‘-v’ option enables output of more information on the translation
process.

Since some print statements can be parsed as function calls or
statements, 2to3 cannot always read files containing the print function.
When 2to3 detects the presence of the ‘from __future__ import
print_function’ compiler directive, it modifies its internal grammar to
interpret *note print(): e02. as a function.  This change can also be
enabled manually with the ‘-p’ flag.  Use ‘-p’ to run fixers on code
that already has had its print statements converted.  Also ‘-e’ can be
used to make *note exec(): 6b1. a function.

The ‘-o’ or ‘--output-dir’ option allows specification of an alternate
directory for processed output files to be written to.  The ‘-n’ flag is
required when using this as backup files do not make sense when not
overwriting the input files.

在 3.2.3 版被加入: 新增 ‘-o’ 選項。

The ‘-W’ or ‘--write-unchanged-files’ flag tells 2to3 to always write
output files even if no changes were required to the file.  This is most
useful with ‘-o’ so that an entire Python source tree is copied with
translation from one directory to another.  This option implies the ‘-w’
flag as it would not make sense otherwise.

在 3.2.3 版被加入: The ‘-W’ flag was added.

The ‘--add-suffix’ option specifies a string to append to all output
filenames.  The ‘-n’ flag is required when specifying this as backups
are not necessary when writing to different filenames.  Example:

     $ 2to3 -n -W --add-suffix=3 example.py

Will cause a converted file named ‘example.py3’ to be written.

在 3.2.3 版被加入: The ‘--add-suffix’ option was added.

To translate an entire project from one directory tree to another use:

     $ 2to3 --output-dir=python3-version/mycode -W -n python2-version/mycode


File: python.info,  Node: Fixers,  Next: lib2to3 --- 2to3's library,  Prev: 使用 2to3,  Up: 2to3 --- 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3

5.26.8.2 Fixers
...............

Each step of transforming code is encapsulated in a fixer.  The command
‘2to3 -l’ lists them.  As *note documented above: 3e09, each can be
turned on and off individually.  They are described here in more detail.

 -- 2to3fixer: apply

     Removes usage of ‘apply()’.  For example ‘apply(function, *args,
     **kwargs)’ is converted to ‘function(*args, **kwargs)’.

 -- 2to3fixer: asserts

     Replaces deprecated *note unittest: 101. method names with the
     correct ones.

     從                                   到
                                          
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
     ‘failUnlessEqual(a, b)’              *note assertEqual(a, b): 2a9.
                                          
                                          
     ‘assertEquals(a, b)’                 *note assertEqual(a, b): 2a9.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failIfEqual(a, b)’                  *note assertNotEqual(a, b): 2aa.
                                          
                                          
     ‘assertNotEquals(a, b)’              *note assertNotEqual(a, b): 2aa.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failUnless(a)’                      *note assertTrue(a): 2a7.
                                          
                                          
     ‘assert_(a)’                         *note assertTrue(a): 2a7.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failIf(a)’                          *note assertFalse(a): 2a8.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failUnlessRaises(exc, cal)’         *note assertRaises(exc, cal): 2ad.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual(a, b)’        *note assertAlmostEqual(a, b): 2ab.
                                          
                                          
     ‘assertAlmostEquals(a, b)’           *note assertAlmostEqual(a, b): 2ab.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failIfAlmostEqual(a, b)’            *note assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b): 2ac.
                                          
                                          
     ‘assertNotAlmostEquals(a, b)’        *note assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b): 2ac.
                                          

 -- 2to3fixer: basestring

     Converts ‘basestring’ to *note str: 157.

 -- 2to3fixer: buffer

     Converts ‘buffer’ to *note memoryview: 17f.  This fixer is optional
     because the *note memoryview: 17f. API is similar but not exactly
     the same as that of ‘buffer’.

 -- 2to3fixer: dict

     Fixes dictionary iteration methods.  ‘dict.iteritems()’ is
     converted to *note dict.items(): 5ee, ‘dict.iterkeys()’ to *note
     dict.keys(): 5ec, and ‘dict.itervalues()’ to *note dict.values():
     5ed.  Similarly, ‘dict.viewitems()’, ‘dict.viewkeys()’ and
     ‘dict.viewvalues()’ are converted respectively to *note
     dict.items(): 5ee, *note dict.keys(): 5ec. and *note dict.values():
     5ed.  It also wraps existing usages of *note dict.items(): 5ee,
     *note dict.keys(): 5ec, and *note dict.values(): 5ed. in a call to
     *note list: 40a.

 -- 2to3fixer: except

     Converts ‘except X, T’ to ‘except X as T’.

 -- 2to3fixer: exec

     Converts the ‘exec’ statement to the *note exec(): 6b1. function.

 -- 2to3fixer: execfile

     Removes usage of ‘execfile()’.  The argument to ‘execfile()’ is
     wrapped in calls to *note open(): 29c, *note compile(): 554, and
     *note exec(): 6b1.

 -- 2to3fixer: exitfunc

     Changes assignment of ‘sys.exitfunc’ to use of the *note atexit: a.
     module.

 -- 2to3fixer: filter

     Wraps *note filter(): 690. usage in a *note list: 40a. call.

 -- 2to3fixer: funcattrs

     Fixes function attributes that have been renamed.  For example,
     ‘my_function.func_closure’ is converted to
     ‘my_function.__closure__’.

 -- 2to3fixer: future

     Removes ‘from __future__ import new_feature’ statements.

 -- 2to3fixer: getcwdu

     Renames ‘os.getcwdu()’ to *note os.getcwd(): 17e6.

 -- 2to3fixer: has_key

     Changes ‘dict.has_key(key)’ to ‘key in dict’.

 -- 2to3fixer: idioms

     This optional fixer performs several transformations that make
     Python code more idiomatic.  Type comparisons like ‘type(x) is
     SomeClass’ and ‘type(x) == SomeClass’ are converted to
     ‘isinstance(x, SomeClass)’.  ‘while 1’ becomes ‘while True’.  This
     fixer also tries to make use of *note sorted(): a2f. in appropriate
     places.  For example, this block

          L = list(some_iterable)
          L.sort()

     is changed to

          L = sorted(some_iterable)

 -- 2to3fixer: import

     Detects sibling imports and converts them to relative imports.

 -- 2to3fixer: imports

     Handles module renames in the standard library.

 -- 2to3fixer: imports2

     Handles other modules renames in the standard library.  It is
     separate from the *note imports: 3e1c. fixer only because of
     technical limitations.

 -- 2to3fixer: input

     Converts ‘input(prompt)’ to ‘eval(input(prompt))’.

 -- 2to3fixer: intern

     Converts ‘intern()’ to *note sys.intern(): 116c.

 -- 2to3fixer: isinstance

     Fixes duplicate types in the second argument of *note isinstance():
     14b.  For example, ‘isinstance(x, (int, int))’ is converted to
     ‘isinstance(x, int)’ and ‘isinstance(x, (int, float, int))’ is
     converted to ‘isinstance(x, (int, float))’.

 -- 2to3fixer: itertools_imports

     Removes imports of ‘itertools.ifilter()’, ‘itertools.izip()’, and
     ‘itertools.imap()’.  Imports of ‘itertools.ifilterfalse()’ are also
     changed to *note itertools.filterfalse(): 1efc.

 -- 2to3fixer: itertools

     Changes usage of ‘itertools.ifilter()’, ‘itertools.izip()’, and
     ‘itertools.imap()’ to their built-in equivalents.
     ‘itertools.ifilterfalse()’ is changed to *note
     itertools.filterfalse(): 1efc.

 -- 2to3fixer: long

     Renames ‘long’ to *note int: 17e.

 -- 2to3fixer: map

     Wraps *note map(): 68f. in a *note list: 40a. call.  It also
     changes ‘map(None, x)’ to ‘list(x)’.  Using ‘from future_builtins
     import map’ disables this fixer.

 -- 2to3fixer: metaclass

     Converts the old metaclass syntax (‘__metaclass__ = Meta’ in the
     class body) to the new (‘class X(metaclass=Meta)’).

 -- 2to3fixer: methodattrs

     Fixes old method attribute names.  For example, ‘meth.im_func’ is
     converted to ‘meth.__func__’.

 -- 2to3fixer: ne

     Converts the old not-equal syntax, ‘<>’, to ‘!=’.

 -- 2to3fixer: next

     Converts the use of iterator's ‘next()’ methods to the *note
     next(): 5f8. function.  It also renames *note next(): 5f8. methods
     to *note __next__(): 115d.

 -- 2to3fixer: nonzero

     Renames definitions of methods called ‘__nonzero__()’ to *note
     __bool__(): 1166.

 -- 2to3fixer: numliterals

     Converts octal literals into the new syntax.

 -- 2to3fixer: operator

     Converts calls to various functions in the *note operator: 9a.
     module to other, but equivalent, function calls.  When needed, the
     appropriate ‘import’ statements are added, e.g.  ‘import
     collections.abc’.  The following mapping are made:

     從                                     到
                                            
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
     ‘operator.isCallable(obj)’             ‘callable(obj)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.sequenceIncludes(obj)’       ‘operator.contains(obj)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.isSequenceType(obj)’         ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Sequence)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.isMappingType(obj)’          ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Mapping)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.isNumberType(obj)’           ‘isinstance(obj, numbers.Number)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.repeat(obj, n)’              ‘operator.mul(obj, n)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.irepeat(obj, n)’             ‘operator.imul(obj, n)’
                                            

 -- 2to3fixer: paren

     Add extra parenthesis where they are required in list
     comprehensions.  For example, ‘[x for x in 1, 2]’ becomes ‘[x for x
     in (1, 2)]’.

 -- 2to3fixer: print

     Converts the ‘print’ statement to the *note print(): e02. function.

 -- 2to3fixer: raise

     Converts ‘raise E, V’ to ‘raise E(V)’, and ‘raise E, V, T’ to
     ‘raise E(V).with_traceback(T)’.  If ‘E’ is a tuple, the translation
     will be incorrect because substituting tuples for exceptions has
     been removed in 3.0.

 -- 2to3fixer: raw_input

     Converts ‘raw_input()’ to *note input(): 1169.

 -- 2to3fixer: reduce

     Handles the move of ‘reduce()’ to *note functools.reduce(): 116d.

 -- 2to3fixer: reload

     Converts ‘reload()’ to *note importlib.reload(): 299.

 -- 2to3fixer: renames

     Changes ‘sys.maxint’ to *note sys.maxsize: 1056.

 -- 2to3fixer: repr

     Replaces backtick repr with the *note repr(): 61e. function.

 -- 2to3fixer: set_literal

     Replaces use of the *note set: 3cc. constructor with set literals.
     This fixer is optional.

 -- 2to3fixer: standarderror

     Renames ‘StandardError’ to *note Exception: 81e.

 -- 2to3fixer: sys_exc

     Changes the deprecated ‘sys.exc_value’, ‘sys.exc_type’,
     ‘sys.exc_traceback’ to use *note sys.exc_info(): 487.

 -- 2to3fixer: throw

     Fixes the API change in generator's ‘throw()’ method.

 -- 2to3fixer: tuple_params

     Removes implicit tuple parameter unpacking.  This fixer inserts
     temporary variables.

 -- 2to3fixer: types

     Fixes code broken from the removal of some members in the *note
     types: fe. module.

 -- 2to3fixer: unicode

     Renames ‘unicode’ to *note str: 157.

 -- 2to3fixer: urllib

     Handles the rename of *note urllib: 103. and ‘urllib2’ to the *note
     urllib: 103. package.

 -- 2to3fixer: ws_comma

     Removes excess whitespace from comma separated items.  This fixer
     is optional.

 -- 2to3fixer: xrange

     Renames ‘xrange()’ to *note range(): 782. and wraps existing *note
     range(): 782. calls with *note list: 40a.

 -- 2to3fixer: xreadlines

     Changes ‘for x in file.xreadlines()’ to ‘for x in file’.

 -- 2to3fixer: zip

     Wraps *note zip(): 5ef. usage in a *note list: 40a. call.  This is
     disabled when ‘from future_builtins import zip’ appears.


File: python.info,  Node: lib2to3 --- 2to3's library,  Prev: Fixers,  Up: 2to3 --- 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3

5.26.8.3 ‘lib2to3’ -- 2to3's library
....................................

'原始碼：'Lib/lib2to3/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: Python
3.9 switched to a PEG parser (see PEP 617(2)) while lib2to3 is using a
less flexible LL(1) parser.  Python 3.10 includes new language syntax
that is not parsable by lib2to3's LL(1) parser (see PEP 634(3)).  The
‘lib2to3’ module was marked pending for deprecation in Python 3.9
(raising *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700. on import) and fully
deprecated in Python 3.11 (raising *note DeprecationWarning: 179.).  It
will be removed from the standard library in Python 3.13.  Consider
third-party alternatives such as LibCST(4) or parso(5).

     備註: The *note lib2to3: 7f. API should be considered unstable and
     may change drastically in the future.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/lib2to3/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (4) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (5) https://parso.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: test --- Python 的回歸測試 regression tests 套件,  Next: test support --- Python 測試套件的工具,  Prev: 2to3 --- 自動將 Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.9 ‘test’ -- Python 的回歸測試 (regression tests) 套件
----------------------------------------------------------

     備註: The *note test: dc. package is meant for internal use by
     Python only.  It is documented for the benefit of the core
     developers of Python.  Any use of this package outside of Python's
     standard library is discouraged as code mentioned here can change
     or be removed without notice between releases of Python.

__________________________________________________________________

The *note test: dc. package contains all regression tests for Python as
well as the modules *note test.support: de. and *note test.regrtest: dd.
*note test.support: de. is used to enhance your tests while *note
test.regrtest: dd. drives the testing suite.

Each module in the *note test: dc. package whose name starts with
‘test_’ is a testing suite for a specific module or feature.  All new
tests should be written using the *note unittest: 101. or *note doctest:
36. module.  Some older tests are written using a "traditional" testing
style that compares output printed to ‘sys.stdout’; this style of test
is considered deprecated.

也參考
......

*note unittest: 101. 模組

     撰寫 PyUnit 回歸測試。

*note doctest: 36. 模組

     鑲嵌在文件字串中的測試。

* Menu:

* 撰寫 test 套件的單元測試::
* 使用命令列介面執行測試::


File: python.info,  Node: 撰寫 test 套件的單元測試,  Next: 使用命令列介面執行測試,  Up: test --- Python 的回歸測試 regression tests 套件

5.26.9.1 撰寫 ‘test’ 套件的單元測試
...................................

It is preferred that tests that use the *note unittest: 101. module
follow a few guidelines.  One is to name the test module by starting it
with ‘test_’ and end it with the name of the module being tested.  The
test methods in the test module should start with ‘test_’ and end with a
description of what the method is testing.  This is needed so that the
methods are recognized by the test driver as test methods.  Also, no
documentation string for the method should be included.  A comment (such
as ‘# Tests function returns only True or False’) should be used to
provide documentation for test methods.  This is done because
documentation strings get printed out if they exist and thus what test
is being run is not stated.

A basic boilerplate is often used:

     import unittest
     from test import support

     class MyTestCase1(unittest.TestCase):

         # Only use setUp() and tearDown() if necessary

         def setUp(self):
             ... code to execute in preparation for tests ...

         def tearDown(self):
             ... code to execute to clean up after tests ...

         def test_feature_one(self):
             # Test feature one.
             ... testing code ...

         def test_feature_two(self):
             # Test feature two.
             ... testing code ...

         ... more test methods ...

     class MyTestCase2(unittest.TestCase):
         ... same structure as MyTestCase1 ...

     ... more test classes ...

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         unittest.main()

This code pattern allows the testing suite to be run by *note
test.regrtest: dd, on its own as a script that supports the *note
unittest: 101. CLI, or via the ‘python -m unittest’ CLI.

The goal for regression testing is to try to break code.  This leads to
a few guidelines to be followed:

   * The testing suite should exercise all classes, functions, and
     constants.  This includes not just the external API that is to be
     presented to the outside world but also "private" code.

   * Whitebox testing (examining the code being tested when the tests
     are being written) is preferred.  Blackbox testing (testing only
     the published user interface) is not complete enough to make sure
     all boundary and edge cases are tested.

   * Make sure all possible values are tested including invalid ones.
     This makes sure that not only all valid values are acceptable but
     also that improper values are handled correctly.

   * Exhaust as many code paths as possible.  Test where branching
     occurs and thus tailor input to make sure as many different paths
     through the code are taken.

   * Add an explicit test for any bugs discovered for the tested code.
     This will make sure that the error does not crop up again if the
     code is changed in the future.

   * Make sure to clean up after your tests (such as close and remove
     all temporary files).

   * If a test is dependent on a specific condition of the operating
     system then verify the condition already exists before attempting
     the test.

   * Import as few modules as possible and do it as soon as possible.
     This minimizes external dependencies of tests and also minimizes
     possible anomalous behavior from side-effects of importing a
     module.

   * Try to maximize code reuse.  On occasion, tests will vary by
     something as small as what type of input is used.  Minimize code
     duplication by subclassing a basic test class with a class that
     specifies the input:

          class TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin:

              func = mySuperWhammyFunction

              def test_func(self):
                  self.func(self.arg)

          class AcceptLists(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = [1, 2, 3]

          class AcceptStrings(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = 'abc'

          class AcceptTuples(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = (1, 2, 3)

     When using this pattern, remember that all classes that inherit
     from *note unittest.TestCase: 159. are run as tests.  The
     ‘TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin’ class in the example above does not
     have any data and so can't be run by itself, thus it does not
     inherit from *note unittest.TestCase: 159.

也參考
......

測試驅動開發

     由 Kent Beck 所著，關於先寫測試再寫程式的書籍。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用命令列介面執行測試,  Prev: 撰寫 test 套件的單元測試,  Up: test --- Python 的回歸測試 regression tests 套件

5.26.9.2 使用命令列介面執行測試
...............................

The *note test: dc. package can be run as a script to drive Python's
regression test suite, thanks to the *note -m: 3d4. option: ‘python -m
test’.  Under the hood, it uses *note test.regrtest: dd.; the call
‘python -m test.regrtest’ used in previous Python versions still works.
Running the script by itself automatically starts running all regression
tests in the *note test: dc. package.  It does this by finding all
modules in the package whose name starts with ‘test_’, importing them,
and executing the function ‘test_main()’ if present or loading the tests
via unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule if ‘test_main’ does not
exist.  The names of tests to execute may also be passed to the script.
Specifying a single regression test (‘python -m test test_spam’) will
minimize output and only print whether the test passed or failed.

Running *note test: dc. directly allows what resources are available for
tests to use to be set.  You do this by using the ‘-u’ command-line
option.  Specifying ‘all’ as the value for the ‘-u’ option enables all
possible resources: ‘python -m test -uall’.  If all but one resource is
desired (a more common case), a comma-separated list of resources that
are not desired may be listed after ‘all’.  The command ‘python -m test
-uall,-audio,-largefile’ will run *note test: dc. with all resources
except the ‘audio’ and ‘largefile’ resources.  For a list of all
resources and more command-line options, run ‘python -m test -h’.

Some other ways to execute the regression tests depend on what platform
the tests are being executed on.  On Unix, you can run ‘make test’ at
the top-level directory where Python was built.  On Windows, executing
‘rt.bat’ from your ‘PCbuild’ directory will run all regression tests.


File: python.info,  Node: test support --- Python 測試套件的工具,  Next: test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具,  Prev: test --- Python 的回歸測試 regression tests 套件,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.10 ‘test.support’ -- Python 測試套件的工具
-----------------------------------------------

*note test.support: de. 模組提供 Python 回歸測試套件的支援。

     備註: *note test.support: de. is not a public module.  It is
     documented here to help Python developers write tests.  The API of
     this module is subject to change without backwards compatibility
     concerns between releases.

此模組定義了以下例外：

 -- 例外: test.support.TestFailed

     Exception to be raised when a test fails.  This is deprecated in
     favor of *note unittest: 101.-based tests and *note
     unittest.TestCase: 159.'s assertion methods.

 -- 例外: test.support.ResourceDenied

     Subclass of *note unittest.SkipTest: e76.  Raised when a resource
     (such as a network connection) is not available.  Raised by the
     *note requires(): 3e48. function.

*note test.support: de. 模組定義了以下常數：

 -- 資料: test.support.verbose

     ‘True’ when verbose output is enabled.  Should be checked when more
     detailed information is desired about a running test.  'verbose' is
     set by *note test.regrtest: dd.

 -- 資料: test.support.is_jython

     如果執行的直譯器是 Jython，則為 ‘True’。

 -- 資料: test.support.is_android

     如果系統是 Android，則為 ‘True’。

 -- 資料: test.support.unix_shell

     Path for shell if not on Windows; otherwise ‘None’.

 -- 資料: test.support.LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds for tests using a network server listening on
     the network local loopback interface like ‘127.0.0.1’.

     The timeout is long enough to prevent test failure: it takes into
     account that the client and the server can run in different threads
     or even different processes.

     The timeout should be long enough for *note connect(): c1a, *note
     recv(): c1b. and *note send(): c1e. methods of *note socket.socket:
     c18.

     預設值為 5 秒。

     另請參閱 *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1791.。

 -- 資料: test.support.INTERNET_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds for network requests going to the internet.

     The timeout is short enough to prevent a test to wait for too long
     if the internet request is blocked for whatever reason.

     Usually, a timeout using *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1791. should not
     mark a test as failed, but skip the test instead: see *note
     transient_internet(): 3e4d.

     預設值為 1 分鐘。

     另請參閱 *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1790.。

 -- 資料: test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds to mark a test as failed if the test takes "too
     long".

     The timeout value depends on the regrtest ‘--timeout’ command line
     option.

     If a test using *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 1682. starts to fail randomly
     on slow buildbots, use *note LONG_TIMEOUT: 1792. instead.

     預設值為 30 秒。

 -- 資料: test.support.LONG_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds to detect when a test hangs.

     It is long enough to reduce the risk of test failure on the slowest
     Python buildbots.  It should not be used to mark a test as failed
     if the test takes "too long".  The timeout value depends on the
     regrtest ‘--timeout’ command line option.

     預設值為 5 分鐘。

     請參閱 *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1790.、*note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1791.
     和 *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 1682.。

 -- 資料: test.support.PGO

     Set when tests can be skipped when they are not useful for PGO.

 -- 資料: test.support.PIPE_MAX_SIZE

     A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS pipe buffer
     size, to make writes blocking.

 -- 資料: test.support.Py_DEBUG

     ‘True’ if Python was built with the *note Py_DEBUG: 3e51. macro
     defined, that is, if Python was *note built in debug mode: 69f.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 資料: test.support.SOCK_MAX_SIZE

     A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS socket
     buffer size, to make writes blocking.

 -- 資料: test.support.TEST_SUPPORT_DIR

     設定為包含 *note test.support: de. 的頂層目錄。

 -- 資料: test.support.TEST_HOME_DIR

     設定為測試套件的頂層目錄。

 -- 資料: test.support.TEST_DATA_DIR

     設定為測試套件中的 ‘data’ 目錄。

 -- 資料: test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t

     設定為 *note sys.maxsize: 1056. 以進行大記憶體測試。

 -- 資料: test.support.max_memuse

     Set by *note set_memlimit(): 3e58. as the memory limit for big
     memory tests.  Limited by *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 3e56.

 -- 資料: test.support.real_max_memuse

     Set by *note set_memlimit(): 3e58. as the memory limit for big
     memory tests.  Not limited by *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 3e56.

 -- 資料: test.support.MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS

     Set to ‘True’ if Python is built without docstrings (the
     ‘WITH_DOC_STRINGS’ macro is not defined).  See the *note configure
     -without-doc-strings: 1b73. option.

     See also the *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 3e5b. variable.

 -- 資料: test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS

     Set to ‘True’ if function docstrings are available.  See the *note
     python -OO: c2c. option, which strips docstrings of functions
     implemented in Python.

     請參閱 *note MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS: 3e5a. 變數。

 -- 資料: test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL

     Define the URL of a dedicated HTTP server for the network tests.

 -- 資料: test.support.ALWAYS_EQ

     Object that is equal to anything.  Used to test mixed type
     comparison.

 -- 資料: test.support.NEVER_EQ

     Object that is not equal to anything (even to *note ALWAYS_EQ:
     3e5d.).  Used to test mixed type comparison.

 -- 資料: test.support.LARGEST

     Object that is greater than anything (except itself).  Used to test
     mixed type comparison.

 -- 資料: test.support.SMALLEST

     Object that is less than anything (except itself).  Used to test
     mixed type comparison.

*note test.support: de. 模組定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: test.support.busy_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *,
          error=True)

     執行迴圈主體直到 ‘break’ 停止迴圈。

     After 'timeout' seconds, raise an *note AssertionError: 4a6. if
     'error' is true, or just stop the loop if 'error' is false.

     範例：

          for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
              if check():
                  break

     error=False 用法範例：

          for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
              if check():
                  break
          else:
              raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

 -- 函式: test.support.sleeping_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *,
          init_delay=0.010, max_delay=1.0, error=True)

     Wait strategy that applies exponential backoff.

     Run the loop body until ‘break’ stops the loop.  Sleep at each loop
     iteration, but not at the first iteration.  The sleep delay is
     doubled at each iteration (up to 'max_delay' seconds).

     請見 *note busy_retry(): 3e61. 文件以瞭解參數用法。

     在 SHORT_TIMEOUT 秒後引發例外的範例：

          for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
              if check():
                  break

     error=False 用法範例：

          for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
              if check():
                  break
          else:
              raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

 -- 函式: test.support.is_resource_enabled (resource)

     Return ‘True’ if 'resource' is enabled and available.  The list of
     available resources is only set when *note test.regrtest: dd. is
     executing the tests.

 -- 函式: test.support.python_is_optimized ()

     如果 Python 不是使用 ‘-O0’ 或 ‘-Og’ 建置則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 函式: test.support.with_pymalloc ()

     回傳 ‘_testcapi.WITH_PYMALLOC’。

 -- 函式: test.support.requires (resource, msg=None)

     Raise *note ResourceDenied: 3e47. if 'resource' is not available.
     'msg' is the argument to *note ResourceDenied: 3e47. if it is
     raised.  Always returns ‘True’ if called by a function whose
     ‘__name__’ is ‘'__main__'’.  Used when tests are executed by *note
     test.regrtest: dd.

 -- 函式: test.support.sortdict (dict)

     Return a repr of 'dict' with keys sorted.

 -- 函式: test.support.findfile (filename, subdir=None)

     Return the path to the file named 'filename'.  If no match is found
     'filename' is returned.  This does not equal a failure since it
     could be the path to the file.

     Setting 'subdir' indicates a relative path to use to find the file
     rather than looking directly in the path directories.

 -- 函式: test.support.get_pagesize ()

     Get size of a page in bytes.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.setswitchinterval (interval)

     Set the *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 78b. to the given
     'interval'.  Defines a minimum interval for Android systems to
     prevent the system from hanging.

 -- 函式: test.support.check_impl_detail (**guards)

     Use this check to guard CPython's implementation-specific tests or
     to run them only on the implementations guarded by the arguments.
     This function returns ‘True’ or ‘False’ depending on the host
     platform.  Example usage:

          check_impl_detail()               # Only on CPython (default).
          check_impl_detail(jython=True)    # Only on Jython.
          check_impl_detail(cpython=False)  # Everywhere except CPython.

 -- 函式: test.support.set_memlimit (limit)

     Set the values for *note max_memuse: 3e57. and *note
     real_max_memuse: 3e59. for big memory tests.

 -- 函式: test.support.record_original_stdout (stdout)

     Store the value from 'stdout'.  It is meant to hold the stdout at
     the time the regrtest began.

 -- 函式: test.support.get_original_stdout ()

     Return the original stdout set by *note record_original_stdout():
     3e6b. or ‘sys.stdout’ if it's not set.

 -- 函式: test.support.args_from_interpreter_flags ()

     Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current
     settings in ‘sys.flags’ and ‘sys.warnoptions’.

 -- 函式: test.support.optim_args_from_interpreter_flags ()

     Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current
     optimization settings in ‘sys.flags’.

 -- 函式: test.support.captured_stdin ()
 -- 函式: test.support.captured_stdout ()
 -- 函式: test.support.captured_stderr ()

     A context managers that temporarily replaces the named stream with
     *note io.StringIO: db1. object.

     使用輸出串流的範例：

          with captured_stdout() as stdout, captured_stderr() as stderr:
              print("hello")
              print("error", file=sys.stderr)
          assert stdout.getvalue() == "hello\n"
          assert stderr.getvalue() == "error\n"

     使用輸入串流的範例：

          with captured_stdin() as stdin:
              stdin.write('hello\n')
              stdin.seek(0)
              # call test code that consumes from sys.stdin
              captured = input()
          self.assertEqual(captured, "hello")

 -- 函式: test.support.disable_faulthandler ()

     A context manager that temporary disables *note faulthandler: 53.

 -- 函式: test.support.gc_collect ()

     Force as many objects as possible to be collected.  This is needed
     because timely deallocation is not guaranteed by the garbage
     collector.  This means that ‘__del__’ methods may be called later
     than expected and weakrefs may remain alive for longer than
     expected.

 -- 函式: test.support.disable_gc ()

     A context manager that disables the garbage collector on entry.  On
     exit, the garbage collector is restored to its prior state.

 -- 函式: test.support.swap_attr (obj, attr, new_val)

     Context manager to swap out an attribute with a new object.

     用法：

          with swap_attr(obj, "attr", 5):
              ...

     This will set ‘obj.attr’ to 5 for the duration of the ‘with’ block,
     restoring the old value at the end of the block.  If ‘attr’ doesn't
     exist on ‘obj’, it will be created and then deleted at the end of
     the block.

     The old value (or ‘None’ if it doesn't exist) will be assigned to
     the target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

 -- 函式: test.support.swap_item (obj, attr, new_val)

     Context manager to swap out an item with a new object.

     用法：

          with swap_item(obj, "item", 5):
              ...

     This will set ‘obj["item"]’ to 5 for the duration of the ‘with’
     block, restoring the old value at the end of the block.  If ‘item’
     doesn't exist on ‘obj’, it will be created and then deleted at the
     end of the block.

     The old value (or ‘None’ if it doesn't exist) will be assigned to
     the target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

 -- 函式: test.support.flush_std_streams ()

     Call the ‘flush()’ method on *note sys.stdout: 92a. and then on
     *note sys.stderr: 778.  It can be used to make sure that the logs
     order is consistent before writing into stderr.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.print_warning (msg)

     Print a warning into *note sys.__stderr__: 3e78.  Format the
     message as: ‘f"Warning -- {msg}"’.  If 'msg' is made of multiple
     lines, add ‘"Warning -- "’ prefix to each line.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.wait_process (pid, *, exitcode, timeout=None)

     Wait until process 'pid' completes and check that the process exit
     code is 'exitcode'.

     如果行程退出代號不等於 'exitcode' 則引發 *note AssertionError:
     4a6.。

     If the process runs longer than 'timeout' seconds (*note
     SHORT_TIMEOUT: 1682. by default), kill the process and raise an
     *note AssertionError: 4a6.  The timeout feature is not available on
     Windows.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.calcobjsize (fmt)

     Return the size of the *note PyObject: 6d1. whose structure members
     are defined by 'fmt'.  The returned value includes the size of the
     Python object header and alignment.

 -- 函式: test.support.calcvobjsize (fmt)

     Return the size of the *note PyVarObject: 3e7b. whose structure
     members are defined by 'fmt'.  The returned value includes the size
     of the Python object header and alignment.

 -- 函式: test.support.checksizeof (test, o, size)

     For testcase 'test', assert that the ‘sys.getsizeof’ for 'o' plus
     the GC header size equals 'size'.

 -- 函式: @test.support.anticipate_failure (condition)

     A decorator to conditionally mark tests with *note
     unittest.expectedFailure(): 3d5e.  Any use of this decorator should
     have an associated comment identifying the relevant tracker issue.

 -- 函式: test.support.system_must_validate_cert (f)

     A decorator that skips the decorated test on TLS certification
     validation failures.

 -- 函式: @test.support.run_with_locale (catstr, *locales)

     A decorator for running a function in a different locale, correctly
     resetting it after it has finished.  'catstr' is the locale
     category as a string (for example ‘"LC_ALL"’).  The 'locales'
     passed will be tried sequentially, and the first valid locale will
     be used.

 -- 函式: @test.support.run_with_tz (tz)

     A decorator for running a function in a specific timezone,
     correctly resetting it after it has finished.

 -- 函式: @test.support.requires_freebsd_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on FreeBSD. If
     the FreeBSD version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- 函式: @test.support.requires_linux_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on Linux.  If
     the Linux version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- 函式: @test.support.requires_mac_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on macOS. If
     the macOS version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- 函式: @test.support.requires_IEEE_754

     Decorator for skipping tests on non-IEEE 754 platforms.

 -- 函式: @test.support.requires_zlib

     如果 *note zlib: 12d. 不存在則跳過測試的裝飾器。

 -- 函式: @test.support.requires_gzip

     如果 *note gzip: 62. 不存在則跳過測試的裝飾器。

 -- 函式: @test.support.requires_bz2

     如果 *note bz2: 11. 不存在則跳過測試的裝飾器。

 -- 函式: @test.support.requires_lzma

     如果 *note lzma: 85. 不存在則跳過測試的裝飾器。

 -- 函式: @test.support.requires_resource (resource)

     如果 'resource' 不可用則跳過測試的裝飾器。

 -- 函式: @test.support.requires_docstrings

     Decorator for only running the test if *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 3e5b.

 -- 函式: @test.support.requires_limited_api

     Decorator for only running the test if *note Limited C API: 2d4. is
     available.

 -- 函式: @test.support.cpython_only

     Decorator for tests only applicable to CPython.

 -- 函式: @test.support.impl_detail (msg=None, **guards)

     Decorator for invoking *note check_impl_detail(): 3e6a. on
     'guards'.  If that returns ‘False’, then uses 'msg' as the reason
     for skipping the test.

 -- 函式: @test.support.no_tracing

     Decorator to temporarily turn off tracing for the duration of the
     test.

 -- 函式: @test.support.refcount_test

     Decorator for tests which involve reference counting.  The
     decorator does not run the test if it is not run by CPython.  Any
     trace function is unset for the duration of the test to prevent
     unexpected refcounts caused by the trace function.

 -- 函式: @test.support.bigmemtest (size, memuse, dry_run=True)

     大記憶體測試的裝飾器。

     'size' is a requested size for the test (in arbitrary,
     test-interpreted units.)  'memuse' is the number of bytes per unit
     for the test, or a good estimate of it.  For example, a test that
     needs two byte buffers, of 4 GiB each, could be decorated with
     ‘@bigmemtest(size=_4G, memuse=2)’.

     The 'size' argument is normally passed to the decorated test method
     as an extra argument.  If 'dry_run' is ‘True’, the value passed to
     the test method may be less than the requested value.  If 'dry_run'
     is ‘False’, it means the test doesn't support dummy runs when ‘-M’
     is not specified.

 -- 函式: @test.support.bigaddrspacetest

     Decorator for tests that fill the address space.

 -- 函式: test.support.check_syntax_error (testcase, statement,
          errtext='', *, lineno=None, offset=None)

     Test for syntax errors in 'statement' by attempting to compile
     'statement'.  'testcase' is the *note unittest: 101. instance for
     the test.  'errtext' is the regular expression which should match
     the string representation of the raised *note SyntaxError: 146.  If
     'lineno' is not ‘None’, compares to the line of the exception.  If
     'offset' is not ‘None’, compares to the offset of the exception.

 -- 函式: test.support.open_urlresource (url, *args, **kw)

     Open 'url'.  If open fails, raises *note TestFailed: 3e46.

 -- 函式: test.support.reap_children ()

     Use this at the end of ‘test_main’ whenever sub-processes are
     started.  This will help ensure that no extra children (zombies)
     stick around to hog resources and create problems when looking for
     refleaks.

 -- 函式: test.support.get_attribute (obj, name)

     Get an attribute, raising *note unittest.SkipTest: e76. if *note
     AttributeError: 3ca. is raised.

 -- 函式: test.support.catch_unraisable_exception ()

     Context manager catching unraisable exception using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 479.

     Storing the exception value (‘cm.unraisable.exc_value’) creates a
     reference cycle.  The reference cycle is broken explicitly when the
     context manager exits.

     Storing the object (‘cm.unraisable.object’) can resurrect it if it
     is set to an object which is being finalized.  Exiting the context
     manager clears the stored object.

     用法：

          with support.catch_unraisable_exception() as cm:
              # code creating an "unraisable exception"
              ...

              # check the unraisable exception: use cm.unraisable
              ...

          # cm.unraisable attribute no longer exists at this point
          # (to break a reference cycle)

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.load_package_tests (pkg_dir, loader,
          standard_tests, pattern)

     Generic implementation of the *note unittest: 101. ‘load_tests’
     protocol for use in test packages.  'pkg_dir' is the root directory
     of the package; 'loader', 'standard_tests', and 'pattern' are the
     arguments expected by ‘load_tests’.  In simple cases, the test
     package's ‘__init__.py’ can be the following:

          import os
          from test.support import load_package_tests

          def load_tests(*args):
              return load_package_tests(os.path.dirname(__file__), *args)

 -- 函式: test.support.detect_api_mismatch (ref_api, other_api, *,
          ignore=())

     Returns the set of attributes, functions or methods of 'ref_api'
     not found on 'other_api', except for a defined list of items to be
     ignored in this check specified in 'ignore'.

     這預設會跳過以 '_' 開頭的私有屬性，但會包含所有魔術方法，即以 '__'
     開頭和結尾的方法。

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.patch (test_instance, object_to_patch, attr_name,
          new_value)

     Override 'object_to_patch.attr_name' with 'new_value'.  Also add
     cleanup procedure to 'test_instance' to restore 'object_to_patch'
     for 'attr_name'.  The 'attr_name' should be a valid attribute for
     'object_to_patch'.

 -- 函式: test.support.run_in_subinterp (code)

     Run 'code' in subinterpreter.  Raise *note unittest.SkipTest: e76.
     if *note tracemalloc: fa. is enabled.

 -- 函式: test.support.check_free_after_iterating (test, iter, cls,
          args=())

     Assert instances of 'cls' are deallocated after iterating.

 -- 函式: test.support.missing_compiler_executable (cmd_names=[])

     Check for the existence of the compiler executables whose names are
     listed in 'cmd_names' or all the compiler executables when
     'cmd_names' is empty and return the first missing executable or
     ‘None’ when none is found missing.

 -- 函式: test.support.check__all__ (test_case, module,
          name_of_module=None, extra=(), not_exported=())

     Assert that the ‘__all__’ variable of 'module' contains all public
     names.

     The module's public names (its API) are detected automatically
     based on whether they match the public name convention and were
     defined in 'module'.

     The 'name_of_module' argument can specify (as a string or tuple
     thereof) what module(s) an API could be defined in order to be
     detected as a public API. One case for this is when 'module'
     imports part of its public API from other modules, possibly a C
     backend (like ‘csv’ and its ‘_csv’).

     The 'extra' argument can be a set of names that wouldn't otherwise
     be automatically detected as "public", like objects without a
     proper *note __module__: 200f. attribute.  If provided, it will be
     added to the automatically detected ones.

     The 'not_exported' argument can be a set of names that must not be
     treated as part of the public API even though their names indicate
     otherwise.

     用法範例：

          import bar
          import foo
          import unittest
          from test import support

          class MiscTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
              def test__all__(self):
                  support.check__all__(self, foo)

          class OtherTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
              def test__all__(self):
                  extra = {'BAR_CONST', 'FOO_CONST'}
                  not_exported = {'baz'}  # Undocumented name.
                  # bar imports part of its API from _bar.
                  support.check__all__(self, bar, ('bar', '_bar'),
                                       extra=extra, not_exported=not_exported)

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize ()

     Skip tests if the ‘multiprocessing.synchronize’ module is missing,
     if there is no available semaphore implementation, or if creating a
     lock raises an *note OSError: 644.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.check_disallow_instantiation (test_case, tp,
          *args, **kwds)

     Assert that type 'tp' cannot be instantiated using 'args' and
     'kwds'.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.adjust_int_max_str_digits (max_digits)

     This function returns a context manager that will change the global
     *note sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 158a. setting for the duration
     of the context to allow execution of test code that needs a
     different limit on the number of digits when converting between an
     integer and string.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

*note test.support: de. 模組定義了以下類別：

 -- 類別: test.support.SuppressCrashReport

     A context manager used to try to prevent crash dialog popups on
     tests that are expected to crash a subprocess.

     On Windows, it disables Windows Error Reporting dialogs using
     SetErrorMode(1).

     On UNIX, *note resource.setrlimit(): 3e9f. is used to set *note
     resource.RLIMIT_CORE: 3ea0.'s soft limit to 0 to prevent coredump
     file creation.

     在兩個平台上，舊值會被 *note __exit__(): 1191. 還原。

 -- 類別: test.support.SaveSignals

     Class to save and restore signal handlers registered by the Python
     signal handler.

      -- 方法: save (self)

          Save the signal handlers to a dictionary mapping signal
          numbers to the current signal handler.

      -- 方法: restore (self)

          Set the signal numbers from the *note save(): 3ea2. dictionary
          to the saved handler.

 -- 類別: test.support.Matcher

      -- 方法: matches (self, d, **kwargs)

          Try to match a single dict with the supplied arguments.

      -- 方法: match_value (self, k, dv, v)

          Try to match a single stored value ('dv') with a supplied
          value ('v').

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms680621.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具,  Next: test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具,  Prev: test support --- Python 測試套件的工具,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.11 ‘test.support.socket_helper’ -- 用於 socket 測試的工具
--------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.socket_helper: e3. module provides support for
socket tests.

在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 資料: test.support.socket_helper.IPV6_ENABLED

     Set to ‘True’ if IPv6 is enabled on this host, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- 函式: test.support.socket_helper.find_unused_port
          (family=socket.AF_INET, socktype=socket.SOCK_STREAM)

     Returns an unused port that should be suitable for binding.  This
     is achieved by creating a temporary socket with the same family and
     type as the ‘sock’ parameter (default is *note AF_INET: 15ee, *note
     SOCK_STREAM: 1184.), and binding it to the specified host address
     (defaults to ‘0.0.0.0’) with the port set to 0, eliciting an unused
     ephemeral port from the OS. The temporary socket is then closed and
     deleted, and the ephemeral port is returned.

     Either this method or *note bind_port(): 3eaa. should be used for
     any tests where a server socket needs to be bound to a particular
     port for the duration of the test.  Which one to use depends on
     whether the calling code is creating a Python socket, or if an
     unused port needs to be provided in a constructor or passed to an
     external program (i.e.  the ‘-accept’ argument to openssl's
     s_server mode).  Always prefer *note bind_port(): 3eaa. over *note
     find_unused_port(): 3ea9. where possible.  Using a hard coded port
     is discouraged since it can make multiple instances of the test
     impossible to run simultaneously, which is a problem for buildbots.

 -- 函式: test.support.socket_helper.bind_port (sock, host=HOST)

     Bind the socket to a free port and return the port number.  Relies
     on ephemeral ports in order to ensure we are using an unbound port.
     This is important as many tests may be running simultaneously,
     especially in a buildbot environment.  This method raises an
     exception if the ‘sock.family’ is *note AF_INET: 15ee. and
     ‘sock.type’ is *note SOCK_STREAM: 1184, and the socket has
     ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ or ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ set on it.  Tests should never set
     these socket options for TCP/IP sockets.  The only case for setting
     these options is testing multicasting via multiple UDP sockets.

     Additionally, if the ‘SO_EXCLUSIVEADDRUSE’ socket option is
     available (i.e.  on Windows), it will be set on the socket.  This
     will prevent anyone else from binding to our host/port for the
     duration of the test.

 -- 函式: test.support.socket_helper.bind_unix_socket (sock, addr)

     Bind a Unix socket, raising *note unittest.SkipTest: e76. if *note
     PermissionError: bb5. is raised.

 -- 函式: @test.support.socket_helper.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket

     A decorator for running tests that require a functional ‘bind()’
     for Unix sockets.

 -- 函式: test.support.socket_helper.transient_internet (resource_name,
          *, timeout=30.0, errnos=())

     A context manager that raises *note ResourceDenied: 3e47. when
     various issues with the internet connection manifest themselves as
     exceptions.


File: python.info,  Node: test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具,  Next: test support bytecode_helper --- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具,  Prev: test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.12 ‘test.support.script_helper’ -- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具
------------------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.script_helper: e2. 模組提供 Python 的腳本執行測試的支
援。

 -- 函式: test.support.script_helper.interpreter_requires_environment ()

     Return ‘True’ if ‘sys.executable interpreter’ requires environment
     variables in order to be able to run at all.

     This is designed to be used with ‘@unittest.skipIf()’ to annotate
     tests that need to use an ‘assert_python*()’ function to launch an
     isolated mode (‘-I’) or no environment mode (‘-E’) sub-interpreter
     process.

     A normal build & test does not run into this situation but it can
     happen when trying to run the standard library test suite from an
     interpreter that doesn't have an obvious home with Python's current
     home finding logic.

     Setting *note PYTHONHOME: 365. is one way to get most of the
     testsuite to run in that situation.  *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. or
     ‘PYTHONUSERSITE’ are other common environment variables that might
     impact whether or not the interpreter can start.

 -- 函式: test.support.script_helper.run_python_until_end (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Set up the environment based on 'env_vars' for running the
     interpreter in a subprocess.  The values can include ‘__isolated’,
     ‘__cleanenv’, ‘__cwd’, and ‘TERM’.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 此函式不再從 'stderr' 中移除空白。

 -- 函式: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Assert that running the interpreter with 'args' and optional
     environment variables 'env_vars' succeeds (‘rc == 0’) and return a
     ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ tuple.

     If the '__cleanenv' keyword-only parameter is set, 'env_vars' is
     used as a fresh environment.

     Python is started in isolated mode (command line option ‘-I’),
     except if the '__isolated' keyword-only parameter is set to
     ‘False’.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 此函式不再從 'stderr' 中移除空白。

 -- 函式: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_failure (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Assert that running the interpreter with 'args' and optional
     environment variables 'env_vars' fails (‘rc != 0’) and return a
     ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ tuple.

     更多選項請見 *note assert_python_ok(): 3eb0.。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 此函式不再從 'stderr' 中移除空白。

 -- 函式: test.support.script_helper.spawn_python (*args,
          stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT, **kw)

     Run a Python subprocess with the given arguments.

     'kw' is extra keyword args to pass to *note subprocess.Popen():
     8e1.  Returns a *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. object.

 -- 函式: test.support.script_helper.kill_python (p)

     Run the given *note subprocess.Popen: 8e1. process until completion
     and return stdout.

 -- 函式: test.support.script_helper.make_script (script_dir,
          script_basename, source, omit_suffix=False)

     Create script containing 'source' in path 'script_dir' and
     'script_basename'.  If 'omit_suffix' is ‘False’, append ‘.py’ to
     the name.  Return the full script path.

 -- 函式: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_script (zip_dir,
          zip_basename, script_name, name_in_zip=None)

     Create zip file at 'zip_dir' and 'zip_basename' with extension
     ‘zip’ which contains the files in 'script_name'.  'name_in_zip' is
     the archive name.  Return a tuple containing ‘(full path, full path
     of archive name)’.

 -- 函式: test.support.script_helper.make_pkg (pkg_dir, init_source='')

     Create a directory named 'pkg_dir' containing an ‘__init__’ file
     with 'init_source' as its contents.

 -- 函式: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_pkg (zip_dir,
          zip_basename, pkg_name, script_basename, source, depth=1,
          compiled=False)

     Create a zip package directory with a path of 'zip_dir' and
     'zip_basename' containing an empty ‘__init__’ file and a file
     'script_basename' containing the 'source'.  If 'compiled' is
     ‘True’, both source files will be compiled and added to the zip
     package.  Return a tuple of the full zip path and the archive name
     for the zip file.


File: python.info,  Node: test support bytecode_helper --- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具,  Next: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests,  Prev: test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.13 ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’ -- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.bytecode_helper: df. 模組提供測試和檢查位元組碼產生的
支援。

在 3.9 版被加入.

此模組定義了以下類別：

 -- 類別: test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase
          (unittest.TestCase)

     This class has custom assertion methods for inspecting bytecode.

 -- 方法: BytecodeTestCase.get_disassembly_as_string (co)

     Return the disassembly of 'co' as string.

 -- 方法: BytecodeTestCase.assertInBytecode (x, opname,
          argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

     Return instr if 'opname' is found, otherwise throws *note
     AssertionError: 4a6.

 -- 方法: BytecodeTestCase.assertNotInBytecode (x, opname,
          argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

     Throws *note AssertionError: 4a6. if 'opname' is found.


File: python.info,  Node: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests,  Next: test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具,  Prev: test support bytecode_helper --- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.14 ‘test.support.threading_helper’ -- Utilities for threading tests
------------------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.threading_helper: e4. module provides support for
threading tests.

在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.threading_helper.join_thread (thread,
          timeout=None)

     Join a 'thread' within 'timeout'.  Raise an *note AssertionError:
     4a6. if thread is still alive after 'timeout' seconds.

 -- 函式: @test.support.threading_helper.reap_threads

     Decorator to ensure the threads are cleaned up even if the test
     fails.

 -- 函式: test.support.threading_helper.start_threads (threads,
          unlock=None)

     Context manager to start 'threads', which is a sequence of threads.
     'unlock' is a function called after the threads are started, even
     if an exception was raised; an example would be *note
     threading.Event.set(): 2df2.  ‘start_threads’ will attempt to join
     the started threads upon exit.

 -- 函式: test.support.threading_helper.threading_cleanup
          (*original_values)

     Cleanup up threads not specified in 'original_values'.  Designed to
     emit a warning if a test leaves running threads in the background.

 -- 函式: test.support.threading_helper.threading_setup ()

     Return current thread count and copy of dangling threads.

 -- 函式: test.support.threading_helper.wait_threads_exit (timeout=None)

     Context manager to wait until all threads created in the ‘with’
     statement exit.

 -- 函式: test.support.threading_helper.catch_threading_exception ()

     Context manager catching *note threading.Thread: 78d. exception
     using *note threading.excepthook(): 672.

     當捕捉到例外時會設定的屬性：

        * ‘exc_type’

        * ‘exc_value’

        * ‘exc_traceback’

        * ‘thread’

     參閱 *note threading.excepthook(): 672. 文件。

     這些屬性會在離開情境管理器時被刪除。

     用法：

          with threading_helper.catch_threading_exception() as cm:
              # code spawning a thread which raises an exception
              ...

              # check the thread exception, use cm attributes:
              # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread
              ...

          # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread attributes of cm no longer
          # exists at this point
          # (to avoid reference cycles)

     在 3.8 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具,  Next: test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具,  Prev: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.15 ‘test.support.os_helper’ -- 用於 os 測試的工具
------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.os_helper: e1. 模組提供 os 測試的支援。

在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: test.support.os_helper.FS_NONASCII

     A non-ASCII character encodable by *note os.fsencode(): abb.

 -- 資料: test.support.os_helper.SAVEDCWD

     設定為 *note os.getcwd(): 17e6.。

 -- 資料: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN

     Set to a name that is safe to use as the name of a temporary file.
     Any temporary file that is created should be closed and unlinked
     (removed).

 -- 資料: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_NONASCII

     Set to a filename containing the *note FS_NONASCII: 3ec6.
     character, if it exists.  This guarantees that if the filename
     exists, it can be encoded and decoded with the default filesystem
     encoding.  This allows tests that require a non-ASCII filename to
     be easily skipped on platforms where they can't work.

 -- 資料: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNENCODABLE

     Set to a filename (str type) that should not be able to be encoded
     by file system encoding in strict mode.  It may be ‘None’ if it's
     not possible to generate such a filename.

 -- 資料: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNDECODABLE

     Set to a filename (bytes type) that should not be able to be
     decoded by file system encoding in strict mode.  It may be ‘None’
     if it's not possible to generate such a filename.

 -- 資料: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNICODE

     Set to a non-ASCII name for a temporary file.

 -- 類別: test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard

     Class used to temporarily set or unset environment variables.
     Instances can be used as a context manager and have a complete
     dictionary interface for querying/modifying the underlying
     ‘os.environ’.  After exit from the context manager all changes to
     environment variables done through this instance will be rolled
     back.

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增字典介面。

 -- 類別: test.support.os_helper.FakePath (path)

     Simple *note path-like object: 975.  It implements the *note
     __fspath__(): ab8. method which just returns the 'path' argument.
     If 'path' is an exception, it will be raised in ‘__fspath__()’.

 -- 方法: EnvironmentVarGuard.set (envvar, value)

     Temporarily set the environment variable ‘envvar’ to the value of
     ‘value’.

 -- 方法: EnvironmentVarGuard.unset (envvar)

     暫時取消環境變數 ‘envvar’。

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.can_symlink ()

     如果作業系統支援符號連結則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.can_xattr ()

     如果作業系統支援 xattr 則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.change_cwd (path, quiet=False)

     A context manager that temporarily changes the current working
     directory to 'path' and yields the directory.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’, the context manager raises an exception on
     error.  Otherwise, it issues only a warning and keeps the current
     working directory the same.

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.create_empty_file (filename)

     Create an empty file with 'filename'.  If it already exists,
     truncate it.

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.fd_count ()

     Count the number of open file descriptors.

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.fs_is_case_insensitive (directory)

     Return ‘True’ if the file system for 'directory' is
     case-insensitive.

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.make_bad_fd ()

     Create an invalid file descriptor by opening and closing a
     temporary file, and returning its descriptor.

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.rmdir (filename)

     Call *note os.rmdir(): f82. on 'filename'.  On Windows platforms,
     this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of
     the file, which is needed due to antivirus programs that can hold
     files open and prevent deletion.

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.rmtree (path)

     Call *note shutil.rmtree(): 1d8. on 'path' or call *note
     os.lstat(): 1c0. and *note os.rmdir(): f82. to remove a path and
     its contents.  As with *note rmdir(): 3ed7, on Windows platforms
     this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of
     the files.

 -- 函式: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_symlink

     A decorator for running tests that require support for symbolic
     links.

 -- 函式: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_xattr

     A decorator for running tests that require support for xattr.

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.temp_cwd (name='tempcwd', quiet=False)

     A context manager that temporarily creates a new directory and
     changes the current working directory (CWD).

     The context manager creates a temporary directory in the current
     directory with name 'name' before temporarily changing the current
     working directory.  If 'name' is ‘None’, the temporary directory is
     created using *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c3.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’ and it is not possible to create or change
     the CWD, an error is raised.  Otherwise, only a warning is raised
     and the original CWD is used.

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.temp_dir (path=None, quiet=False)

     A context manager that creates a temporary directory at 'path' and
     yields the directory.

     If 'path' is ‘None’, the temporary directory is created using *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c3.  If 'quiet' is ‘False’, the context
     manager raises an exception on error.  Otherwise, if 'path' is
     specified and cannot be created, only a warning is issued.

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.temp_umask (umask)

     A context manager that temporarily sets the process umask.

 -- 函式: test.support.os_helper.unlink (filename)

     Call *note os.unlink(): f84. on 'filename'.  As with *note rmdir():
     3ed7, on Windows platforms, this is wrapped with a wait loop that
     checks for the existence of the file.


File: python.info,  Node: test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具,  Next: test support warnings_helper --- 用於 warnings 測試的工具,  Prev: test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.16 ‘test.support.import_helper’ -- 用於 import 測試的工具
--------------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.import_helper: e0. 模組提供 import 測試的支援。

在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.import_helper.forget (module_name)

     Remove the module named 'module_name' from ‘sys.modules’ and delete
     any byte-compiled files of the module.

 -- 函式: test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module (name,
          fresh=(), blocked=(), deprecated=False)

     This function imports and returns a fresh copy of the named Python
     module by removing the named module from ‘sys.modules’ before doing
     the import.  Note that unlike ‘reload()’, the original module is
     not affected by this operation.

     'fresh' is an iterable of additional module names that are also
     removed from the ‘sys.modules’ cache before doing the import.

     'blocked' is an iterable of module names that are replaced with
     ‘None’ in the module cache during the import to ensure that
     attempts to import them raise *note ImportError: 145.

     The named module and any modules named in the 'fresh' and 'blocked'
     parameters are saved before starting the import and then reinserted
     into ‘sys.modules’ when the fresh import is complete.

     Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this
     import if 'deprecated' is ‘True’.

     如果無法引入指定的模組則此函式會引發 *note ImportError: 145.。

     用法範例：

          # Get copies of the warnings module for testing without affecting the
          # version being used by the rest of the test suite. One copy uses the
          # C implementation, the other is forced to use the pure Python fallback
          # implementation
          py_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', blocked=['_warnings'])
          c_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', fresh=['_warnings'])

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.import_helper.import_module (name,
          deprecated=False, *, required_on=())

     This function imports and returns the named module.  Unlike a
     normal import, this function raises *note unittest.SkipTest: e76.
     if the module cannot be imported.

     Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this
     import if 'deprecated' is ‘True’.  If a module is required on a
     platform but optional for others, set 'required_on' to an iterable
     of platform prefixes which will be compared against *note
     sys.platform: 8da.

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.import_helper.modules_setup ()

     回傳 *note sys.modules: 1745. 的複本。

 -- 函式: test.support.import_helper.modules_cleanup (oldmodules)

     Remove modules except for 'oldmodules' and ‘encodings’ in order to
     preserve internal cache.

 -- 函式: test.support.import_helper.unload (name)

     從 ‘sys.modules’ 中刪除 'name'。

 -- 函式: test.support.import_helper.make_legacy_pyc (source)

     Move a PEP 3147(1)/ PEP 488(2) pyc file to its legacy pyc location
     and return the file system path to the legacy pyc file.  The
     'source' value is the file system path to the source file.  It does
     not need to exist, however the PEP 3147/488 pyc file must exist.

 -- 類別: test.support.import_helper.CleanImport (*module_names)

     A context manager to force import to return a new module reference.
     This is useful for testing module-level behaviors, such as the
     emission of a *note DeprecationWarning: 179. on import.  Example
     usage:

          with CleanImport('foo'):
              importlib.import_module('foo')  # New reference.

 -- 類別: test.support.import_helper.DirsOnSysPath (*paths)

     A context manager to temporarily add directories to *note sys.path:
     35e.

     This makes a copy of *note sys.path: 35e, appends any directories
     given as positional arguments, then reverts *note sys.path: 35e. to
     the copied settings when the context ends.

     Note that 'all' *note sys.path: 35e. modifications in the body of
     the context manager, including replacement of the object, will be
     reverted at the end of the block.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/


File: python.info,  Node: test support warnings_helper --- 用於 warnings 測試的工具,  Prev: test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具,  Up: 開發工具

5.26.17 ‘test.support.warnings_helper’ -- 用於 warnings 測試的工具
------------------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.warnings_helper: e5. 模組提供 warnings 測試的支援。

在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.warnings_helper.ignore_warnings (*, category)

     Suppress warnings that are instances of 'category', which must be
     *note Warning: 204a. or a subclass.  Roughly equivalent to *note
     warnings.catch_warnings(): 313. with *note
     warnings.simplefilter('ignore', category=category): 4c0.  For
     example:

          @warning_helper.ignore_warnings(category=DeprecationWarning)
          def test_suppress_warning():
              # do something

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.warnings_helper.check_no_resource_warning
          (testcase)

     Context manager to check that no *note ResourceWarning: aa3. was
     raised.  You must remove the object which may emit *note
     ResourceWarning: aa3. before the end of the context manager.

 -- 函式: test.support.warnings_helper.check_syntax_warning (testcase,
          statement, errtext='', *, lineno=1, offset=None)

     Test for syntax warning in 'statement' by attempting to compile
     'statement'.  Test also that the *note SyntaxWarning: 178. is
     emitted only once, and that it will be converted to a *note
     SyntaxError: 146. when turned into error.  'testcase' is the *note
     unittest: 101. instance for the test.  'errtext' is the regular
     expression which should match the string representation of the
     emitted *note SyntaxWarning: 178. and raised *note SyntaxError:
     146.  If 'lineno' is not ‘None’, compares to the line of the
     warning and exception.  If 'offset' is not ‘None’, compares to the
     offset of the exception.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: test.support.warnings_helper.check_warnings (*filters,
          quiet=True)

     A convenience wrapper for *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 313.
     that makes it easier to test that a warning was correctly raised.
     It is approximately equivalent to calling
     ‘warnings.catch_warnings(record=True)’ with *note
     warnings.simplefilter(): 4c0. set to ‘always’ and with the option
     to automatically validate the results that are recorded.

     ‘check_warnings’ accepts 2-tuples of the form ‘("message regexp",
     WarningCategory)’ as positional arguments.  If one or more
     'filters' are provided, or if the optional keyword argument 'quiet'
     is ‘False’, it checks to make sure the warnings are as expected:
     each specified filter must match at least one of the warnings
     raised by the enclosed code or the test fails, and if any warnings
     are raised that do not match any of the specified filters the test
     fails.  To disable the first of these checks, set 'quiet' to
     ‘True’.

     如果沒有指定引數，預設為：

          check_warnings(("", Warning), quiet=True)

     In this case all warnings are caught and no errors are raised.

     On entry to the context manager, a ‘WarningRecorder’ instance is
     returned.  The underlying warnings list from *note
     catch_warnings(): 313. is available via the recorder object's *note
     warnings: 10d. attribute.  As a convenience, the attributes of the
     object representing the most recent warning can also be accessed
     directly through the recorder object (see example below).  If no
     warning has been raised, then any of the attributes that would
     otherwise be expected on an object representing a warning will
     return ‘None’.

     The recorder object also has a ‘reset()’ method, which clears the
     warnings list.

     The context manager is designed to be used like this:

          with check_warnings(("assertion is always true", SyntaxWarning),
                              ("", UserWarning)):
              exec('assert(False, "Hey!")')
              warnings.warn(UserWarning("Hide me!"))

     In this case if either warning was not raised, or some other
     warning was raised, *note check_warnings(): 3eec. would raise an
     error.

     When a test needs to look more deeply into the warnings, rather
     than just checking whether or not they occurred, code like this can
     be used:

          with check_warnings(quiet=True) as w:
              warnings.warn("foo")
              assert str(w.args[0]) == "foo"
              warnings.warn("bar")
              assert str(w.args[0]) == "bar"
              assert str(w.warnings[0].args[0]) == "foo"
              assert str(w.warnings[1].args[0]) == "bar"
              w.reset()
              assert len(w.warnings) == 0

     Here all warnings will be caught, and the test code tests the
     captured warnings directly.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新的可選引數 'filters' 和 'quiet'。

 -- 類別: test.support.warnings_helper.WarningsRecorder

     Class used to record warnings for unit tests.  See documentation of
     *note check_warnings(): 3eec. above for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: 除錯與效能分析,  Next: 軟體封裝與發布,  Prev: 開發工具,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.27 除錯與效能分析
===================

這些函式庫幫助你進行 Python 程式開發：除錯器允許你在程式碼中單步 (step)
執行、分析堆疊框 (stack frames) 以及設置中斷點 (breakpoints) 等，效能分
析工具執行程式碼並提供關於執行時間的詳細分析，讓你找到程式中的瓶頸
(bottlenecks)。事件稽核 (auditing events) 提供執行時期行為的可見性，否則
的話可能需要更侵入性的除錯或修補。

* Menu:

* 稽核事件表::
* bdb: bdb --- 偵錯器框架. 偵錯器框架
* faulthandler: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯. 傾印 Python 回溯
* pdb: pdb --- The Python Debugger. The Python Debugger
* Python 的分析器::
* timeit: timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間. 測量小量程式片段的執行時間
* trace: trace --- 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行. 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置. 追蹤記憶體配置


File: python.info,  Node: 稽核事件表,  Next: bdb --- 偵錯器框架,  Up: 除錯與效能分析

5.27.1 稽核事件表
-----------------

這張表包含了所有在 CPython 運行環境 (runtime) 與標準函式庫對於 *note
sys.audit(): 174a. 或 *note PySys_Audit(): 175a. 的呼叫所觸發的事件。這
些呼叫是在 3.8 或更新的版本中被新增（請見 PEP 578(1)）。

請參考 *note sys.addaudithook(): 3ef2. 及 *note PySys_AddAuditHook():
3ef3. 來了解如何處理這些事件。

'CPython 實作細節：' 這張表是從 CPython 文件產生的，可能不包含其它實作所
觸發的事件。請參考你的運行環境 (runtime) 特定文件來了解實際會觸發的事件
。

Audit event                        Arguments                                                   References
                                                                                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                               
_thread.start_new_thread           ‘function’, ‘args’, ‘kwargs’                                *note [1]: 3ef4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
array.__new__                      ‘typecode’, ‘initializer’                                   *note [1]: 18f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.breakpoint                ‘breakpointhook’                                            *note [1]: 917.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.id                        ‘id’                                                        *note [1]: 1293.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.input                     ‘prompt’                                                    *note [1]: 1169.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.input/result              ‘result’                                                    *note [1]: 1169.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
code.__new__                       ‘code’, ‘filename’, ‘name’, ‘argcount’,                     *note [1]: 25d.
                                   ‘posonlyargcount’, ‘kwonlyargcount’, ‘nlocals’,             
                                   ‘stacksize’, ‘flags’
                                   
                                                                                               
compile                            ‘source’, ‘filename’                                        *note [1]: 554.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear                                                               *note [1]: 3ef5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.PyInterpreterState_New                                                                 *note [1]: 3ef6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks                                                                 *note [1]: b84.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_command                ‘command’                                                   *note [1]: 3d3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_file                   ‘filename’                                                  *note [1]: 3ef7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_interactivehook        ‘hook’                                                      *note [1]: e59.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_module                 ‘module-name’                                               *note [1]: 3d4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_startup                ‘filename’                                                  *note [1]: e5a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_stdin                                                                              *note [1]: 3ef8.*note [2]: 3ef9.*note [3]: 3efa.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.addressof                   ‘obj’                                                       *note [1]: 2da7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.call_function               ‘func_pointer’, ‘arguments’                                 *note [1]: 2d9f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.cdata                       ‘address’                                                   *note [1]: 2db9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.cdata/buffer                ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’                                 *note [1]: 2db7.*note [2]: 2db8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.create_string_buffer        ‘init’, ‘size’                                              *note [1]: 2d5a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.create_unicode_buffer       ‘init’, ‘size’                                              *note [1]: 17af.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlopen                      ‘name’                                                      *note [1]: 2d9d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlsym                       ‘library’, ‘name’                                           *note [1]: 2d9d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlsym/handle                ‘handle’, ‘name’                                            *note [1]: 2d9d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.get_errno                                                                               *note [1]: 2d97.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.get_last_error                                                                          *note [1]: 2d99.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_errno                   ‘errno’                                                     *note [1]: 2d98.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_exception               ‘code’                                                      *note [1]: 2d9f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_last_error              ‘error’                                                     *note [1]: 2d9a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.string_at                   ‘ptr’, ‘size’                                               *note [1]: 2db0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.wstring_at                  ‘ptr’, ‘size’                                               *note [1]: 2db2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ensurepip.bootstrap                ‘root’                                                      *note [1]: 3efb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
exec                               ‘code_object’                                               *note [1]: 6b0.*note [2]: 6b1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.fcntl                        ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘arg’                                          *note [1]: 311e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.flock                        ‘fd’, ‘operation’                                           *note [1]: 3efc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.ioctl                        ‘fd’, ‘request’, ‘arg’                                      *note [1]: 12eb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.lockf                        ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’, ‘start’, ‘whence’                       *note [1]: 125b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ftplib.connect                     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 3749.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ftplib.sendcmd                     ‘self’, ‘cmd’                                               *note [1]: 374e.*note [2]: 374f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
function.__new__                   ‘code’                                                      *note [1]: 6af.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_objects                     ‘generation’                                                *note [1]: 624.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_referents                   ‘objs’                                                      *note [1]: 626.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_referrers                   ‘objs’                                                      *note [1]: 625.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
glob.glob                          ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’                                     *note [1]: 628.*note [2]: 629.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
glob.glob/2                        ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’               *note [1]: 628.*note [2]: 629.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
http.client.connect                ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 372c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
http.client.send                   ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 3731.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
imaplib.open                       ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 740.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
imaplib.send                       ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 37a0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
import                             ‘module’, ‘filename’, ‘sys.path’, ‘sys.meta_path’,          *note [1]: 3d5.
                                   ‘sys.path_hooks’                                            
                                   
                                                                                               
marshal.dumps                      ‘value’, ‘version’                                          *note [1]: 2639.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
marshal.load                                                                                   *note [1]: 17f8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
marshal.loads                      ‘bytes’                                                     *note [1]: 17f8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
mmap.__new__                       ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’                      *note [1]: 84e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.get_osfhandle               ‘fd’                                                        *note [1]: 3efd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.locking                     ‘fd’, ‘mode’, ‘nbytes’                                      *note [1]: 3efe.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.open_osfhandle              ‘handle’, ‘flags’                                           *note [1]: 3eff.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
nntplib.connect                    ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 753.*note [2]: 754.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
nntplib.putline                    ‘self’, ‘line’                                              *note [1]: 753.*note [2]: 754.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__delattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’                                               *note [1]: 1cc0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__getattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’                                               *note [1]: a33.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__setattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’, ‘value’                                      *note [1]: 1cbf.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
open                               ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘flags’                                     *note [1]: 29c.*note [2]: 29d.*note [3]: c09.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.add_dll_directory               ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 82f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chdir                           ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 406.*note [2]: bff.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chflags                         ‘path’, ‘flags’                                             *note [1]: f7b.*note [2]: 28fa.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chmod                           ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’                                    *note [1]: f7c.*note [2]: c00.*note [3]: 1825.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chown                           ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’                              *note [1]: f7d.*note [2]: c01.*note [3]: 28fb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.exec                            ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’                                       *note [1]: 2936.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.fork                                                                                        *note [1]: 233.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.forkpty                                                                                     *note [1]: 154c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.fwalk                           ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘follow_symlinks’, ‘dir_fd’    *note [1]: 9b6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.getxattr                        ‘path’, ‘attribute’                                         *note [1]: f92.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.kill                            ‘pid’, ‘sig’                                                *note [1]: 11f6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.killpg                          ‘pgid’, ‘sig’                                               *note [1]: 17b6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.link                            ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’                    *note [1]: f7e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listdir                         ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: f88.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listdrives                                                                                  *note [1]: 1bc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listmounts                      ‘volume’                                                    *note [1]: 1be.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listvolumes                                                                                 *note [1]: 1bd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listxattr                       ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: f93.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.lockf                           ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’                                          *note [1]: fa1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.mkdir                           ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’                                    *note [1]: 1c2.*note [2]: 1c1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.posix_spawn                     ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’                                       *note [1]: 8a3.*note [2]: 1815.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.putenv                          ‘key’, ‘value’                                              *note [1]: 75a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.remove                          ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: f7f.*note [2]: 28ff.*note [3]: f84.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.removexattr                     ‘path’, ‘attribute’                                         *note [1]: f94.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.rename                          ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’                    *note [1]: f80.*note [2]: 2900.*note [3]: f81.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.rmdir                           ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: f82.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.scandir                         ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 8aa.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.setxattr                        ‘path’, ‘attribute’, ‘value’, ‘flags’                       *note [1]: f95.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.spawn                           ‘mode’, ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’                               *note [1]: 14f2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.startfile                       ‘path’, ‘operation’                                         *note [1]: 16a1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.startfile/2                     ‘path’, ‘operation’, ‘arguments’, ‘cwd’, ‘show_cmd’         *note [1]: 16a1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.symlink                         ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘dir_fd’                                      *note [1]: f83.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.system                          ‘command’                                                   *note [1]: 12cd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.truncate                        ‘fd’, ‘length’                                              *note [1]: c06.*note [2]: cb6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.unsetenv                        ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 759.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.utime                           ‘path’, ‘times’, ‘ns’, ‘dir_fd’                             *note [1]: f85.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.walk                            ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘followlinks’                  *note [1]: 1cb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pathlib.Path.glob                  ‘self’, ‘pattern’                                           *note [1]: 1cf.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pathlib.Path.rglob                 ‘self’, ‘pattern’                                           *note [1]: 1d0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pdb.Pdb                                                                                        *note [1]: 760.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pickle.find_class                  ‘module’, ‘name’                                            *note [1]: 2615.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
poplib.connect                     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 762.*note [2]: 763.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
poplib.putline                     ‘self’, ‘line’                                              *note [1]: 762.*note [2]: 763.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pty.spawn                          ‘argv’                                                      *note [1]: e0f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
resource.prlimit                   ‘pid’, ‘resource’, ‘limits’                                 *note [1]: e16.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
resource.setrlimit                 ‘resource’, ‘limits’                                        *note [1]: 3e9f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
setopencodehook                                                                                *note [1]: 14e7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.chown                       ‘path’, ‘user’, ‘group’                                     *note [1]: fbd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copyfile                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: 8a5.*note [2]: 8a6.*note [3]: 8a4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copymode                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: 8a5.*note [2]: 144c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copystat                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: 8a6.*note [2]: fbe.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copytree                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: 872.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.make_archive                ‘base_name’, ‘format’, ‘root_dir’, ‘base_dir’               *note [1]: 1d7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.move                        ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: 8a7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.rmtree                      ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: 1d8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.unpack_archive              ‘filename’, ‘extract_dir’, ‘format’                         *note [1]: 184.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
signal.pthread_kill                ‘thread_id’, ‘signalnum’                                    *note [1]: fc1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
smtplib.connect                    ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 17a7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
smtplib.send                       ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 76c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.__new__                     ‘self’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’                        *note [1]: c18.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.bind                        ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 13b1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.connect                     ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: c1a.*note [2]: 13b0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getaddrinfo                 ‘host’, ‘port’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’                *note [1]: 1518.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostbyaddr               ‘ip_address’                                                *note [1]: 16a2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostbyname               ‘hostname’                                                  *note [1]: 3113.*note [2]: 16a3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostname                                                                             *note [1]: 28a4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getnameinfo                 ‘sockaddr’                                                  *note [1]: 14e1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getservbyname               ‘servicename’, ‘protocolname’                               *note [1]: 3115.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getservbyport               ‘port’, ‘protocolname’                                      *note [1]: 3116.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sendmsg                     ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 191.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sendto                      ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: c20.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sethostname                 ‘name’                                                      *note [1]: fcb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.connect                    ‘database’                                                  *note [1]: 1dd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.connect/handle             ‘connection_handle’                                         *note [1]: 1dd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.enable_load_extension      ‘connection’, ‘enabled’                                     *note [1]: 665.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.load_extension             ‘connection’, ‘path’                                        *note [1]: 1df.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
subprocess.Popen                   ‘executable’, ‘args’, ‘cwd’, ‘env’                          *note [1]: 8e1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._current_exceptions                                                                        *note [1]: 1e9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._current_frames                                                                            *note [1]: 12a5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._getframe                      ‘frame’                                                     *note [1]: 4df.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._getframemodulename            ‘depth’                                                     *note [1]: 1538.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.addaudithook                                                                               *note [1]: 3ef3.*note [2]: 3ef2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.excepthook                     ‘hook’, ‘type’, ‘value’, ‘traceback’                        *note [1]: 62d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer                                                               *note [1]: 1605.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter                                                               *note [1]: 1605.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.setprofile                                                                                 *note [1]: 1376.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.settrace                                                                                   *note [1]: 1377.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.unraisablehook                 ‘hook’, ‘unraisable’                                        *note [1]: 479.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.closelog                                                                                *note [1]: 2c3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.openlog                     ‘ident’, ‘logoption’, ‘facility’                            *note [1]: 2c2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.setlogmask                  ‘maskpri’                                                   *note [1]: 3f00.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.syslog                      ‘priority’, ‘message’                                       *note [1]: 2c4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
telnetlib.Telnet.open              ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 3f01.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
telnetlib.Telnet.write             ‘self’, ‘buffer’                                            *note [1]: 3f02.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
tempfile.mkdtemp                   ‘fullpath’                                                  *note [1]: 10c7.*note [2]: 1c3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
tempfile.mkstemp                   ‘fullpath’                                                  *note [1]: 1ed.*note [2]: 25c7.*note [3]: 25c8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
urllib.Request                     ‘fullurl’, ‘data’, ‘headers’, ‘method’                      *note [1]: 27f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
webbrowser.open                    ‘url’                                                       *note [1]: 3610.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.ConnectRegistry             ‘computer_name’, ‘key’                                      *note [1]: 3f03.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.CreateKey                   ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 3f04.*note [2]: 11f1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DeleteKey                   ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 3f05.*note [2]: 11f2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DeleteValue                 ‘key’, ‘value’                                              *note [1]: 3f06.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DisableReflectionKey        ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 11f3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnableReflectionKey         ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 11f4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnumKey                     ‘key’, ‘index’                                              *note [1]: 3f07.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnumValue                   ‘key’, ‘index’                                              *note [1]: 3f08.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings    ‘str’                                                       *note [1]: 1267.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.LoadKey                     ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘file_name’                               *note [1]: 3f09.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.OpenKey                     ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 3f0a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.OpenKey/result              ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 3f04.*note [2]: 11f1.*note [3]: 3f0a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.PyHKEY.Detach               ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 3f0b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryInfoKey                ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 3f0c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryReflectionKey          ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 11f5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryValue                  ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’                              *note [1]: 3f0d.*note [2]: 3f0e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.SaveKey                     ‘key’, ‘file_name’                                          *note [1]: 3f0f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.SetValue                    ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’                           *note [1]: 3f10.*note [2]: 1558.
                                                                                               

下列事件是內部觸發的，與任何 CPython 的公開 API 並無關係：

稽核事件                       引數
                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                               
_winapi.CreateFile             ‘file_name’, ‘desired_access’, ‘share_mode’,
                               ‘creation_disposition’,
                               ‘flags_and_attributes’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreateJunction         ‘src_path’, ‘dst_path’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreateNamedPipe        ‘name’, ‘open_mode’, ‘pipe_mode’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreatePipe

_winapi.CreateProcess          ‘application_name’, ‘command_line’,
                               ‘current_directory’
                               
                               
_winapi.OpenProcess            ‘process_id’, ‘desired_access’
                               
                               
_winapi.TerminateProcess       ‘handle’, ‘exit_code’
                               
                               
ctypes.PyObj_FromPtr           ‘obj’
                               

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: bdb --- 偵錯器框架,  Next: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯,  Prev: 稽核事件表,  Up: 除錯與效能分析

5.27.2 ‘bdb’ -- 偵錯器框架
--------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/bdb.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note bdb: d. module handles basic debugger functions, like setting
breakpoints or managing execution via the debugger.

有定義以下例外：

 -- 例外: bdb.BdbQuit

     由 *note Bdb: 1193. 類別所引發的例外，用來退出偵錯器。

*note bdb: d. 模組也定義了兩個類別：

 -- 類別: bdb.Breakpoint (self, file, line, temporary=False, cond=None,
          funcname=None)

     This class implements temporary breakpoints, ignore counts,
     disabling and (re-)enabling, and conditionals.

     Breakpoints are indexed by number through a list called *note
     bpbynumber: 3f15. and by ‘(file, line)’ pairs through *note bplist:
     3f16.  The former points to a single instance of class *note
     Breakpoint: 3f14.  The latter points to a list of such instances
     since there may be more than one breakpoint per line.

     When creating a breakpoint, its associated *note file name: 3f17.
     should be in canonical form.  If a *note funcname: 3f18. is
     defined, a breakpoint *note hit: 3f19. will be counted when the
     first line of that function is executed.  A *note conditional:
     3f1a. breakpoint always counts a *note hit: 3f19.

     *note Breakpoint: 3f14. 實例有以下方法：

      -- 方法: deleteMe ()

          Delete the breakpoint from the list associated to a file/line.
          If it is the last breakpoint in that position, it also deletes
          the entry for the file/line.

      -- 方法: enable ()

          Mark the breakpoint as enabled.

      -- 方法: disable ()

          Mark the breakpoint as disabled.

      -- 方法: bpformat ()

          Return a string with all the information about the breakpoint,
          nicely formatted:

             * Breakpoint number.

             * Temporary status (del or keep).

             * File/line position.

             * Break condition.

             * Number of times to ignore.

             * Number of times hit.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: bpprint (out=None)

          Print the output of *note bpformat(): 3f1e. to the file 'out',
          or if it is ‘None’, to standard output.

     *note Breakpoint: 3f14. instances have the following attributes:

      -- 屬性: file

          File name of the *note Breakpoint: 3f14.

      -- 屬性: line

          Line number of the *note Breakpoint: 3f14. within *note file:
          3f17.

      -- 屬性: temporary

          ‘True’ if a *note Breakpoint: 3f14. at (file, line) is
          temporary.

      -- 屬性: cond

          Condition for evaluating a *note Breakpoint: 3f14. at (file,
          line).

      -- 屬性: funcname

          Function name that defines whether a *note Breakpoint: 3f14.
          is hit upon entering the function.

      -- 屬性: enabled

          如 *note Breakpoint: 3f14. 有被啟用則為 ‘True’。

      -- 屬性: bpbynumber

          Numeric index for a single instance of a *note Breakpoint:
          3f14.

      -- 屬性: bplist

          Dictionary of *note Breakpoint: 3f14. instances indexed by
          (*note file: 3f17, *note line: 3f20.) tuples.

      -- 屬性: ignore

          Number of times to ignore a *note Breakpoint: 3f14.

      -- 屬性: hits

          Count of the number of times a *note Breakpoint: 3f14. has
          been hit.

 -- 類別: bdb.Bdb (skip=None)

     The *note Bdb: 1193. class acts as a generic Python debugger base
     class.

     This class takes care of the details of the trace facility; a
     derived class should implement user interaction.  The standard
     debugger class (*note pdb.Pdb: 760.) is an example.

     The 'skip' argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style
     module name patterns.  The debugger will not step into frames that
     originate in a module that matches one of these patterns.  Whether
     a frame is considered to originate in a certain module is
     determined by the ‘__name__’ in the frame globals.

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增 'skip' 引數。

     The following methods of *note Bdb: 1193. normally don't need to be
     overridden.

      -- 方法: canonic (filename)

          Return canonical form of 'filename'.

          For real file names, the canonical form is an
          operating-system-dependent, *note case-normalized: 2557. *note
          absolute path: 11ae.  A 'filename' with angle brackets, such
          as ‘"<stdin>"’ generated in interactive mode, is returned
          unchanged.

      -- 方法: reset ()

          Set the ‘botframe’, ‘stopframe’, ‘returnframe’ and *note
          quitting: 3f26. attributes with values ready to start
          debugging.

      -- 方法: trace_dispatch (frame, event, arg)

          This function is installed as the trace function of debugged
          frames.  Its return value is the new trace function (in most
          cases, that is, itself).

          The default implementation decides how to dispatch a frame,
          depending on the type of event (passed as a string) that is
          about to be executed.  'event' can be one of the following:

             * ‘"line"’: A new line of code is going to be executed.

             * ‘"call"’: A function is about to be called, or another
               code block entered.

             * ‘"return"’: A function or other code block is about to
               return.

             * ‘"exception"’: An exception has occurred.

             * ‘"c_call"’: A C function is about to be called.

             * ‘"c_return"’: A C function has returned.

             * ‘"c_exception"’: A C function has raised an exception.

          For the Python events, specialized functions (see below) are
          called.  For the C events, no action is taken.

          The 'arg' parameter depends on the previous event.

          See the documentation for *note sys.settrace(): 1377. for more
          information on the trace function.  For more information on
          code and frame objects, refer to *note 標準型別階層: 1c77.

      -- 方法: dispatch_line (frame)

          If the debugger should stop on the current line, invoke the
          *note user_line(): 3f29. method (which should be overridden in
          subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 3f13. exception if the
          *note quitting: 3f26. flag is set (which can be set from *note
          user_line(): 3f29.).  Return a reference to the *note
          trace_dispatch(): 3f27. method for further tracing in that
          scope.

      -- 方法: dispatch_call (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop on this function call, invoke the
          *note user_call(): 3f2b. method (which should be overridden in
          subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 3f13. exception if the
          *note quitting: 3f26. flag is set (which can be set from *note
          user_call(): 3f2b.).  Return a reference to the *note
          trace_dispatch(): 3f27. method for further tracing in that
          scope.

      -- 方法: dispatch_return (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop on this function return, invoke
          the *note user_return(): 3f2d. method (which should be
          overridden in subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 3f13.
          exception if the *note quitting: 3f26. flag is set (which can
          be set from *note user_return(): 3f2d.).  Return a reference
          to the *note trace_dispatch(): 3f27. method for further
          tracing in that scope.

      -- 方法: dispatch_exception (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop at this exception, invokes the
          *note user_exception(): 3f2f. method (which should be
          overridden in subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 3f13.
          exception if the *note quitting: 3f26. flag is set (which can
          be set from *note user_exception(): 3f2f.).  Return a
          reference to the *note trace_dispatch(): 3f27. method for
          further tracing in that scope.

     Normally derived classes don't override the following methods, but
     they may if they want to redefine the definition of stopping and
     breakpoints.

      -- 方法: is_skipped_line (module_name)

          Return ‘True’ if 'module_name' matches any skip pattern.

      -- 方法: stop_here (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if 'frame' is below the starting frame in the
          stack.

      -- 方法: break_here (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if there is an effective breakpoint for this
          line.

          Check whether a line or function breakpoint exists and is in
          effect.  Delete temporary breakpoints based on information
          from *note effective(): 3f33.

      -- 方法: break_anywhere (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if any breakpoint exists for 'frame"s filename.

     Derived classes should override these methods to gain control over
     debugger operation.

      -- 方法: user_call (frame, argument_list)

          Called from *note dispatch_call(): 3f2a. if a break might stop
          inside the called function.

          'argument_list' is not used anymore and will always be ‘None’.
          The argument is kept for backwards compatibility.

      -- 方法: user_line (frame)

          Called from *note dispatch_line(): 3f28. when either *note
          stop_here(): 3f31. or *note break_here(): 3f32. returns
          ‘True’.

      -- 方法: user_return (frame, return_value)

          Called from *note dispatch_return(): 3f2c. when *note
          stop_here(): 3f31. returns ‘True’.

      -- 方法: user_exception (frame, exc_info)

          Called from *note dispatch_exception(): 3f2e. when *note
          stop_here(): 3f31. returns ‘True’.

      -- 方法: do_clear (arg)

          Handle how a breakpoint must be removed when it is a temporary
          one.

          This method must be implemented by derived classes.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to
     affect the stepping state.

      -- 方法: set_step ()

          Stop after one line of code.

      -- 方法: set_next (frame)

          Stop on the next line in or below the given frame.

      -- 方法: set_return (frame)

          Stop when returning from the given frame.

      -- 方法: set_until (frame, lineno=None)

          Stop when the line with the 'lineno' greater than the current
          one is reached or when returning from current frame.

      -- 方法: set_trace ([frame])

          Start debugging from 'frame'.  If 'frame' is not specified,
          debugging starts from caller's frame.

      -- 方法: set_continue ()

          Stop only at breakpoints or when finished.  If there are no
          breakpoints, set the system trace function to ‘None’.

      -- 方法: set_quit ()

          Set the ‘quitting’ attribute to ‘True’.  This raises *note
          BdbQuit: 3f13. in the next call to one of the ‘dispatch_*()’
          methods.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to
     manipulate breakpoints.  These methods return a string containing
     an error message if something went wrong, or ‘None’ if all is well.

      -- 方法: set_break (filename, lineno, temporary=False, cond=None,
               funcname=None)

          Set a new breakpoint.  If the 'lineno' line doesn't exist for
          the 'filename' passed as argument, return an error message.
          The 'filename' should be in canonical form, as described in
          the *note canonic(): 3f24. method.

      -- 方法: clear_break (filename, lineno)

          Delete the breakpoints in 'filename' and 'lineno'.  If none
          were set, return an error message.

      -- 方法: clear_bpbynumber (arg)

          Delete the breakpoint which has the index 'arg' in the *note
          Breakpoint.bpbynumber: 3f15.  If 'arg' is not numeric or out
          of range, return an error message.

      -- 方法: clear_all_file_breaks (filename)

          Delete all breakpoints in 'filename'.  If none were set,
          return an error message.

      -- 方法: clear_all_breaks ()

          Delete all existing breakpoints.  If none were set, return an
          error message.

      -- 方法: get_bpbynumber (arg)

          Return a breakpoint specified by the given number.  If 'arg'
          is a string, it will be converted to a number.  If 'arg' is a
          non-numeric string, if the given breakpoint never existed or
          has been deleted, a *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

          在 3.2 版被加入.

      -- 方法: get_break (filename, lineno)

          Return ‘True’ if there is a breakpoint for 'lineno' in
          'filename'.

      -- 方法: get_breaks (filename, lineno)

          Return all breakpoints for 'lineno' in 'filename', or an empty
          list if none are set.

      -- 方法: get_file_breaks (filename)

          Return all breakpoints in 'filename', or an empty list if none
          are set.

      -- 方法: get_all_breaks ()

          Return all breakpoints that are set.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to get a
     data structure representing a stack trace.

      -- 方法: get_stack (f, t)

          Return a list of (frame, lineno) tuples in a stack trace, and
          a size.

          The most recently called frame is last in the list.  The size
          is the number of frames below the frame where the debugger was
          invoked.

      -- 方法: format_stack_entry (frame_lineno, lprefix=': ')

          Return a string with information about a stack entry, which is
          a ‘(frame, lineno)’ tuple.  The return string contains:

             * The canonical filename which contains the frame.

             * 函式名稱或 ‘"<lambda>"’。

             * 輸入引數。

             * 回傳值。

             * The line of code (if it exists).

     The following two methods can be called by clients to use a
     debugger to debug a *note statement: 2501, given as a string.

      -- 方法: run (cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

          Debug a statement executed via the *note exec(): 6b1.
          function.  'globals' defaults to ‘__main__.__dict__’, 'locals'
          defaults to 'globals'.

      -- 方法: runeval (expr, globals=None, locals=None)

          Debug an expression executed via the *note eval(): 6b0.
          function.  'globals' and 'locals' have the same meaning as in
          *note run(): 3f48.

      -- 方法: runctx (cmd, globals, locals)

          For backwards compatibility.  Calls the *note run(): 3f48.
          method.

      -- 方法: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwds)

          Debug a single function call, and return its result.

Finally, the module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: bdb.checkfuncname (b, frame)

     Return ‘True’ if we should break here, depending on the way the
     *note Breakpoint: 3f14. 'b' was set.

     If it was set via line number, it checks if *note b.line: 3f20. is
     the same as the one in 'frame'.  If the breakpoint was set via
     *note function name: 3f18, we have to check we are in the right
     'frame' (the right function) and if we are on its first executable
     line.

 -- 函式: bdb.effective (file, line, frame)

     Return ‘(active breakpoint, delete temporary flag)’ or ‘(None,
     None)’ as the breakpoint to act upon.

     The 'active breakpoint' is the first entry in *note bplist: 3f16.
     for the (*note file: 3f17, *note line: 3f20.) (which must exist)
     that is *note enabled: 3f22, for which *note checkfuncname(): 3f4b.
     is true, and that has neither a false *note condition: 3f1a. nor
     positive *note ignore: 3f23. count.  The 'flag', meaning that a
     temporary breakpoint should be deleted, is ‘False’ only when the
     *note cond: 3f1a. cannot be evaluated (in which case, *note ignore:
     3f23. count is ignored).

     If no such entry exists, then ‘(None, None)’ is returned.

 -- 函式: bdb.set_trace ()

     Start debugging with a *note Bdb: 1193. instance from caller's
     frame.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/bdb.py


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯,  Next: pdb --- The Python Debugger,  Prev: bdb --- 偵錯器框架,  Up: 除錯與效能分析

5.27.3 ‘faulthandler’ -- 傾印 Python 回溯
-----------------------------------------

在 3.3 版被加入.

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on
a fault, after a timeout, or on a user signal.  Call *note
faulthandler.enable(): b0b. to install fault handlers for the *note
SIGSEGV: 1b3b, *note SIGFPE: 1b3c, *note SIGABRT: 1b3d, *note SIGBUS:
1b3e, and *note SIGILL: 1b3f. signals.  You can also enable them at
startup by setting the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: f16. environment
variable or by using the *note -X: 188. ‘faulthandler’ command line
option.

The fault handler is compatible with system fault handlers like Apport
or the Windows fault handler.  The module uses an alternative stack for
signal handlers if the ‘sigaltstack()’ function is available.  This
allows it to dump the traceback even on a stack overflow.

The fault handler is called on catastrophic cases and therefore can only
use signal-safe functions (e.g.  it cannot allocate memory on the heap).
Because of this limitation traceback dumping is minimal compared to
normal Python tracebacks:

   * Only ASCII is supported.  The ‘backslashreplace’ error handler is
     used on encoding.

   * Each string is limited to 500 characters.

   * Only the filename, the function name and the line number are
     displayed.  (no source code)

   * It is limited to 100 frames and 100 threads.

   * The order is reversed: the most recent call is shown first.

By default, the Python traceback is written to *note sys.stderr: 778.
To see tracebacks, applications must be run in the terminal.  A log file
can alternatively be passed to *note faulthandler.enable(): b0b.

The module is implemented in C, so tracebacks can be dumped on a crash
or when Python is deadlocked.

The *note Python Development Mode: 703. calls *note
faulthandler.enable(): b0b. at Python startup.

也參考
......

*note pdb: a0. 模組

     Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

*note traceback: f9. 模組

     Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of
     Python programs.

* Menu:

* Dumping the traceback::
* Fault handler state::
* Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout::
* Dumping the traceback on a user signal::
* Issue with file descriptors::
* 範例: 範例<40>.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the traceback,  Next: Fault handler state,  Up: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯

5.27.3.1 Dumping the traceback
..............................

 -- 函式: faulthandler.dump_traceback (file=sys.stderr,
          all_threads=True)

     Dump the tracebacks of all threads into 'file'.  If 'all_threads'
     is ‘False’, dump only the current thread.

     也參考
     ......

     *note traceback.print_tb(): d07, which can be used to print a
     traceback object.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Added support for passing file descriptor to this
     function.


File: python.info,  Node: Fault handler state,  Next: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Prev: Dumping the traceback,  Up: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯

5.27.3.2 Fault handler state
............................

 -- 函式: faulthandler.enable (file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True)

     Enable the fault handler: install handlers for the *note SIGSEGV:
     1b3b, *note SIGFPE: 1b3c, *note SIGABRT: 1b3d, *note SIGBUS: 1b3e.
     and *note SIGILL: 1b3f. signals to dump the Python traceback.  If
     'all_threads' is ‘True’, produce tracebacks for every running
     thread.  Otherwise, dump only the current thread.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the fault handler is disabled:
     see *note issue with file descriptors: 3f51.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Added support for passing file descriptor to this
     function.

     在 3.6 版的變更: On Windows, a handler for Windows exception is
     also installed.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The dump now mentions if a garbage collector
     collection is running if 'all_threads' is true.

 -- 函式: faulthandler.disable ()

     Disable the fault handler: uninstall the signal handlers installed
     by *note enable(): b0b.

 -- 函式: faulthandler.is_enabled ()

     Check if the fault handler is enabled.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Next: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Prev: Fault handler state,  Up: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯

5.27.3.3 Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout
...............................................

 -- 函式: faulthandler.dump_traceback_later (timeout, repeat=False,
          file=sys.stderr, exit=False)

     Dump the tracebacks of all threads, after a timeout of 'timeout'
     seconds, or every 'timeout' seconds if 'repeat' is ‘True’.  If
     'exit' is ‘True’, call ‘_exit()’ with status=1 after dumping the
     tracebacks.  (Note ‘_exit()’ exits the process immediately, which
     means it doesn't do any cleanup like flushing file buffers.)  If
     the function is called twice, the new call replaces previous
     parameters and resets the timeout.  The timer has a sub-second
     resolution.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the traceback is dumped or *note
     cancel_dump_traceback_later(): 3f55. is called: see *note issue
     with file descriptors: 3f51.

     This function is implemented using a watchdog thread.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Added support for passing file descriptor to this
     function.

     在 3.7 版的變更: This function is now always available.

 -- 函式: faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later ()

     Cancel the last call to *note dump_traceback_later(): c77.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Next: Issue with file descriptors,  Prev: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Up: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯

5.27.3.4 Dumping the traceback on a user signal
...............................................

 -- 函式: faulthandler.register (signum, file=sys.stderr,
          all_threads=True, chain=False)

     Register a user signal: install a handler for the 'signum' signal
     to dump the traceback of all threads, or of the current thread if
     'all_threads' is ‘False’, into 'file'.  Call the previous handler
     if chain is ‘True’.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the signal is unregistered by
     *note unregister(): 3f57.: see *note issue with file descriptors:
     3f51.

     Not available on Windows.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Added support for passing file descriptor to this
     function.

 -- 函式: faulthandler.unregister (signum)

     Unregister a user signal: uninstall the handler of the 'signum'
     signal installed by *note register(): c75.  Return ‘True’ if the
     signal was registered, ‘False’ otherwise.

     Not available on Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Issue with file descriptors,  Next: 範例<40>,  Prev: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Up: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯

5.27.3.5 Issue with file descriptors
....................................

*note enable(): b0b, *note dump_traceback_later(): c77. and *note
register(): c75. keep the file descriptor of their 'file' argument.  If
the file is closed and its file descriptor is reused by a new file, or
if *note os.dup2(): 9be. is used to replace the file descriptor, the
traceback will be written into a different file.  Call these functions
again each time that the file is replaced.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<40>,  Prev: Issue with file descriptors,  Up: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯

5.27.3.6 範例
.............

Example of a segmentation fault on Linux with and without enabling the
fault handler:

     $ python -c "import ctypes; ctypes.string_at(0)"
     Segmentation fault

     $ python -q -X faulthandler
     >>> import ctypes
     >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
     Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

     Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700 (most recent call first):
       File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
       File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
     Segmentation fault


File: python.info,  Node: pdb --- The Python Debugger,  Next: Python 的分析器,  Prev: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯,  Up: 除錯與效能分析

5.27.4 ‘pdb’ -- The Python Debugger
-----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/pdb.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The module *note pdb: a0. defines an interactive source code debugger
for Python programs.  It supports setting (conditional) breakpoints and
single stepping at the source line level, inspection of stack frames,
source code listing, and evaluation of arbitrary Python code in the
context of any stack frame.  It also supports post-mortem debugging and
can be called under program control.

The debugger is extensible - it is actually defined as the class *note
Pdb: 760.  This is currently undocumented but easily understood by
reading the source.  The extension interface uses the modules *note bdb:
d. and *note cmd: 17.

也參考
......

*note faulthandler: 53. 模組

     Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a
     timeout, or on a user signal.

*note traceback: f9. 模組

     Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of
     Python programs.

The typical usage to break into the debugger is to insert:

     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()

或：

     breakpoint()

at the location you want to break into the debugger, and then run the
program.  You can then step through the code following this statement,
and continue running without the debugger using the *note continue:
3f5d. command.

在 3.7 版的變更: The built-in *note breakpoint(): 917, when called with
defaults, can be used instead of ‘import pdb; pdb.set_trace()’.

     def double(x):
        breakpoint()
        return x * 2
     val = 3
     print(f"{val} * 2 is {double(val)}")

The debugger's prompt is ‘(Pdb)’, which is the indicator that you are in
debug mode:

     > ...(3)double()
     -> return x * 2
     (Pdb) p x
     3
     (Pdb) continue
     3 * 2 is 6

在 3.3 版的變更: Tab-completion via the *note readline: b5. module is
available for commands and command arguments, e.g.  the current global
and local names are offered as arguments of the ‘p’ command.

You can also invoke *note pdb: a0. from the command line to debug other
scripts.  For example:

     python -m pdb myscript.py

When invoked as a module, pdb will automatically enter post-mortem
debugging if the program being debugged exits abnormally.  After
post-mortem debugging (or after normal exit of the program), pdb will
restart the program.  Automatic restarting preserves pdb's state (such
as breakpoints) and in most cases is more useful than quitting the
debugger upon program's exit.

在 3.2 版的變更: Added the ‘-c’ option to execute commands as if given
in a ‘.pdbrc’ file; see *note Debugger Commands: 3f5e.

在 3.7 版的變更: Added the ‘-m’ option to execute modules similar to the
way ‘python -m’ does.  As with a script, the debugger will pause
execution just before the first line of the module.

Typical usage to execute a statement under control of the debugger is:

     >>> import pdb
     >>> def f(x):
     ...     print(1 / x)
     >>> pdb.run("f(2)")
     > <string>(1)<module>()
     (Pdb) continue
     0.5
     >>>

The typical usage to inspect a crashed program is:

     >>> import pdb
     >>> def f(x):
     ...     print(1 / x)
     ...
     >>> f(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> pdb.pm()
     > <stdin>(2)f()
     (Pdb) p x
     0
     (Pdb)

The module defines the following functions; each enters the debugger in
a slightly different way:

 -- 函式: pdb.run (statement, globals=None, locals=None)

     Execute the 'statement' (given as a string or a code object) under
     debugger control.  The debugger prompt appears before any code is
     executed; you can set breakpoints and type *note continue: 3f5d, or
     you can step through the statement using *note step: 3f5f. or *note
     next: 3f60. (all these commands are explained below).  The optional
     'globals' and 'locals' arguments specify the environment in which
     the code is executed; by default the dictionary of the module *note
     __main__: 1. is used.  (See the explanation of the built-in *note
     exec(): 6b1. or *note eval(): 6b0. functions.)

 -- 函式: pdb.runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)

     Evaluate the 'expression' (given as a string or a code object)
     under debugger control.  When *note runeval(): 3f61. returns, it
     returns the value of the 'expression'.  Otherwise this function is
     similar to *note run(): 3d31.

 -- 函式: pdb.runcall (function, *args, **kwds)

     Call the 'function' (a function or method object, not a string)
     with the given arguments.  When *note runcall(): 3f62. returns, it
     returns whatever the function call returned.  The debugger prompt
     appears as soon as the function is entered.

 -- 函式: pdb.set_trace (*, header=None)

     Enter the debugger at the calling stack frame.  This is useful to
     hard-code a breakpoint at a given point in a program, even if the
     code is not otherwise being debugged (e.g.  when an assertion
     fails).  If given, 'header' is printed to the console just before
     debugging begins.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The keyword-only argument 'header'.

 -- 函式: pdb.post_mortem (traceback=None)

     Enter post-mortem debugging of the given 'traceback' object.  If no
     'traceback' is given, it uses the one of the exception that is
     currently being handled (an exception must be being handled if the
     default is to be used).

 -- 函式: pdb.pm ()

     Enter post-mortem debugging of the traceback found in *note
     sys.last_traceback: 1e8.

The ‘run*’ functions and *note set_trace(): 9c2. are aliases for
instantiating the *note Pdb: 760. class and calling the method of the
same name.  If you want to access further features, you have to do this
yourself:

 -- 類別: pdb.Pdb (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None,
          skip=None, nosigint=False, readrc=True)

     *note Pdb: 760. is the debugger class.

     The 'completekey', 'stdin' and 'stdout' arguments are passed to the
     underlying *note cmd.Cmd: 3ac8. class; see the description there.

     The 'skip' argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style
     module name patterns.  The debugger will not step into frames that
     originate in a module that matches one of these patterns.  (2)

     By default, Pdb sets a handler for the SIGINT signal (which is sent
     when the user presses ‘Ctrl-C’ on the console) when you give a
     *note continue: 3f5d. command.  This allows you to break into the
     debugger again by pressing ‘Ctrl-C’.  If you want Pdb not to touch
     the SIGINT handler, set 'nosigint' to true.

     The 'readrc' argument defaults to true and controls whether Pdb
     will load .pdbrc files from the filesystem.

     Example call to enable tracing with 'skip':

          import pdb; pdb.Pdb(skip=['django.*']).set_trace()

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘pdb.Pdb’。

     在 3.1 版的變更: Added the 'skip' parameter.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Added the 'nosigint' parameter.  Previously, a
     SIGINT handler was never set by Pdb.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 'readrc' 引數。

      -- 方法: run (statement, globals=None, locals=None)
      -- 方法: runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)
      -- 方法: runcall (function, *args, **kwds)
      -- 方法: set_trace ()

          See the documentation for the functions explained above.

* Menu:

* Debugger Commands::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pdb.py

   (2) Whether a frame is considered to originate in a certain module is
determined by the ‘__name__’ in the frame globals.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugger Commands,  Up: pdb --- The Python Debugger

5.27.4.1 Debugger Commands
..........................

The commands recognized by the debugger are listed below.  Most commands
can be abbreviated to one or two letters as indicated; e.g.  ‘h(elp)’
means that either ‘h’ or ‘help’ can be used to enter the help command
(but not ‘he’ or ‘hel’, nor ‘H’ or ‘Help’ or ‘HELP’).  Arguments to
commands must be separated by whitespace (spaces or tabs).  Optional
arguments are enclosed in square brackets (‘[]’) in the command syntax;
the square brackets must not be typed.  Alternatives in the command
syntax are separated by a vertical bar (‘|’).

Entering a blank line repeats the last command entered.  Exception: if
the last command was a *note list: 3f69. command, the next 11 lines are
listed.

Commands that the debugger doesn't recognize are assumed to be Python
statements and are executed in the context of the program being
debugged.  Python statements can also be prefixed with an exclamation
point (‘!’).  This is a powerful way to inspect the program being
debugged; it is even possible to change a variable or call a function.
When an exception occurs in such a statement, the exception name is
printed but the debugger's state is not changed.

The debugger supports *note aliases: 3f6a.  Aliases can have parameters
which allows one a certain level of adaptability to the context under
examination.

Multiple commands may be entered on a single line, separated by ‘;;’.
(A single ‘;’ is not used as it is the separator for multiple commands
in a line that is passed to the Python parser.)  No intelligence is
applied to separating the commands; the input is split at the first ‘;;’
pair, even if it is in the middle of a quoted string.  A workaround for
strings with double semicolons is to use implicit string concatenation
‘';'';'’ or ‘";"";"’.

To set a temporary global variable, use a 'convenience variable'.  A
'convenience variable' is a variable whose name starts with ‘$’.  For
example, ‘$foo = 1’ sets a global variable ‘$foo’ which you can use in
the debugger session.  The 'convenience variables' are cleared when the
program resumes execution so it's less likely to interfere with your
program compared to using normal variables like ‘foo = 1’.

There are three preset 'convenience variables':

   * ‘$_frame’: the current frame you are debugging

   * ‘$_retval’: the return value if the frame is returning

   * ‘$_exception’: the exception if the frame is raising an exception

在 3.12 版被加入: Added the 'convenience variable' feature.

If a file ‘.pdbrc’ exists in the user's home directory or in the current
directory, it is read with ‘'utf-8'’ encoding and executed as if it had
been typed at the debugger prompt, with the exception that empty lines
and lines starting with ‘#’ are ignored.  This is particularly useful
for aliases.  If both files exist, the one in the home directory is read
first and aliases defined there can be overridden by the local file.

在 3.2 版的變更: ‘.pdbrc’ can now contain commands that continue
debugging, such as *note continue: 3f5d. or *note next: 3f60.
Previously, these commands had no effect.

在 3.11 版的變更: ‘.pdbrc’ is now read with ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.
Previously, it was read with the system locale encoding.

 -- Pdbcommand: h(elp) [command]

     Without argument, print the list of available commands.  With a
     'command' as argument, print help about that command.  ‘help pdb’
     displays the full documentation (the docstring of the *note pdb:
     a0. module).  Since the 'command' argument must be an identifier,
     ‘help exec’ must be entered to get help on the ‘!’ command.

 -- Pdbcommand: w(here)

     Print a stack trace, with the most recent frame at the bottom.  An
     arrow (‘>’) indicates the current frame, which determines the
     context of most commands.

 -- Pdbcommand: d(own) [count]

     Move the current frame 'count' (default one) levels down in the
     stack trace (to a newer frame).

 -- Pdbcommand: u(p) [count]

     Move the current frame 'count' (default one) levels up in the stack
     trace (to an older frame).

 -- Pdbcommand: b(reak) [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

     With a 'lineno' argument, set a break there in the current file.
     With a 'function' argument, set a break at the first executable
     statement within that function.  The line number may be prefixed
     with a filename and a colon, to specify a breakpoint in another
     file (probably one that hasn't been loaded yet).  The file is
     searched on *note sys.path: 35e.  Note that each breakpoint is
     assigned a number to which all the other breakpoint commands refer.

     If a second argument is present, it is an expression which must
     evaluate to true before the breakpoint is honored.

     Without argument, list all breaks, including for each breakpoint,
     the number of times that breakpoint has been hit, the current
     ignore count, and the associated condition if any.

 -- Pdbcommand: tbreak [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

     Temporary breakpoint, which is removed automatically when it is
     first hit.  The arguments are the same as for *note break: 3f6f.

 -- Pdbcommand: cl(ear) [filename:lineno | bpnumber ...]

     With a 'filename:lineno' argument, clear all the breakpoints at
     this line.  With a space separated list of breakpoint numbers,
     clear those breakpoints.  Without argument, clear all breaks (but
     first ask confirmation).

 -- Pdbcommand: disable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

     Disable the breakpoints given as a space separated list of
     breakpoint numbers.  Disabling a breakpoint means it cannot cause
     the program to stop execution, but unlike clearing a breakpoint, it
     remains in the list of breakpoints and can be (re-)enabled.

 -- Pdbcommand: enable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

     Enable the breakpoints specified.

 -- Pdbcommand: ignore bpnumber [count]

     Set the ignore count for the given breakpoint number.  If 'count'
     is omitted, the ignore count is set to 0.  A breakpoint becomes
     active when the ignore count is zero.  When non-zero, the 'count'
     is decremented each time the breakpoint is reached and the
     breakpoint is not disabled and any associated condition evaluates
     to true.

 -- Pdbcommand: condition bpnumber [condition]

     Set a new 'condition' for the breakpoint, an expression which must
     evaluate to true before the breakpoint is honored.  If 'condition'
     is absent, any existing condition is removed; i.e., the breakpoint
     is made unconditional.

 -- Pdbcommand: commands [bpnumber]

     Specify a list of commands for breakpoint number 'bpnumber'.  The
     commands themselves appear on the following lines.  Type a line
     containing just ‘end’ to terminate the commands.  An example:

          (Pdb) commands 1
          (com) p some_variable
          (com) end
          (Pdb)

     To remove all commands from a breakpoint, type ‘commands’ and
     follow it immediately with ‘end’; that is, give no commands.

     With no 'bpnumber' argument, ‘commands’ refers to the last
     breakpoint set.

     You can use breakpoint commands to start your program up again.
     Simply use the *note continue: 3f5d. command, or *note step: 3f5f,
     or any other command that resumes execution.

     Specifying any command resuming execution (currently *note
     continue: 3f5d, *note step: 3f5f, *note next: 3f60, *note return:
     3f77, *note jump: 3f78, *note quit: 3f79. and their abbreviations)
     terminates the command list (as if that command was immediately
     followed by end).  This is because any time you resume execution
     (even with a simple next or step), you may encounter another
     breakpoint—which could have its own command list, leading to
     ambiguities about which list to execute.

     If you use the ‘silent’ command in the command list, the usual
     message about stopping at a breakpoint is not printed.  This may be
     desirable for breakpoints that are to print a specific message and
     then continue.  If none of the other commands print anything, you
     see no sign that the breakpoint was reached.

 -- Pdbcommand: s(tep)

     Execute the current line, stop at the first possible occasion
     (either in a function that is called or on the next line in the
     current function).

 -- Pdbcommand: n(ext)

     Continue execution until the next line in the current function is
     reached or it returns.  (The difference between *note next: 3f60.
     and *note step: 3f5f. is that *note step: 3f5f. stops inside a
     called function, while *note next: 3f60. executes called functions
     at (nearly) full speed, only stopping at the next line in the
     current function.)

 -- Pdbcommand: unt(il) [lineno]

     Without argument, continue execution until the line with a number
     greater than the current one is reached.

     With 'lineno', continue execution until a line with a number
     greater or equal to 'lineno' is reached.  In both cases, also stop
     when the current frame returns.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Allow giving an explicit line number.

 -- Pdbcommand: r(eturn)

     Continue execution until the current function returns.

 -- Pdbcommand: c(ont(inue))

     Continue execution, only stop when a breakpoint is encountered.

 -- Pdbcommand: j(ump) lineno

     Set the next line that will be executed.  Only available in the
     bottom-most frame.  This lets you jump back and execute code again,
     or jump forward to skip code that you don't want to run.

     It should be noted that not all jumps are allowed - for instance it
     is not possible to jump into the middle of a *note for: 265. loop
     or out of a *note finally: 80e. clause.

 -- Pdbcommand: l(ist) [first[, last]]

     List source code for the current file.  Without arguments, list 11
     lines around the current line or continue the previous listing.
     With ‘.’ as argument, list 11 lines around the current line.  With
     one argument, list 11 lines around at that line.  With two
     arguments, list the given range; if the second argument is less
     than the first, it is interpreted as a count.

     The current line in the current frame is indicated by ‘->’.  If an
     exception is being debugged, the line where the exception was
     originally raised or propagated is indicated by ‘>>’, if it differs
     from the current line.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Added the ‘>>’ marker.

 -- Pdbcommand: ll | longlist

     List all source code for the current function or frame.
     Interesting lines are marked as for *note list: 3f69.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- Pdbcommand: a(rgs)

     Print the arguments of the current function and their current
     values.

 -- Pdbcommand: p expression

     Evaluate 'expression' in the current context and print its value.

          備註: ‘print()’ can also be used, but is not a debugger
          command -- this executes the Python *note print(): e02.
          function.

 -- Pdbcommand: pp expression

     Like the *note p: e03. command, except the value of 'expression' is
     pretty-printed using the *note pprint: a9. module.

 -- Pdbcommand: whatis expression

     Print the type of 'expression'.

 -- Pdbcommand: source expression

     Try to get source code of 'expression' and display it.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- Pdbcommand: display [expression]

     Display the value of 'expression' if it changed, each time
     execution stops in the current frame.

     Without 'expression', list all display expressions for the current
     frame.

          備註: Display evaluates 'expression' and compares to the
          result of the previous evaluation of 'expression', so when the
          result is mutable, display may not be able to pick up the
          changes.

     範例：

          lst = []
          breakpoint()
          pass
          lst.append(1)
          print(lst)

     Display won't realize ‘lst’ has been changed because the result of
     evaluation is modified in place by ‘lst.append(1)’ before being
     compared:

          > example.py(3)<module>()
          -> pass
          (Pdb) display lst
          display lst: []
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(4)<module>()
          -> lst.append(1)
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(5)<module>()
          -> print(lst)
          (Pdb)

     You can do some tricks with copy mechanism to make it work:

          > example.py(3)<module>()
          -> pass
          (Pdb) display lst[:]
          display lst[:]: []
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(4)<module>()
          -> lst.append(1)
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(5)<module>()
          -> print(lst)
          display lst[:]: [1]  [old: []]
          (Pdb)

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- Pdbcommand: undisplay [expression]

     Do not display 'expression' anymore in the current frame.  Without
     'expression', clear all display expressions for the current frame.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- Pdbcommand: interact

     Start an interactive interpreter (using the *note code: 18. module)
     whose global namespace contains all the (global and local) names
     found in the current scope.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- Pdbcommand: alias [name [command]]

     Create an alias called 'name' that executes 'command'.  The
     'command' must 'not' be enclosed in quotes.  Replaceable parameters
     can be indicated by ‘%1’, ‘%2’, and so on, while ‘%*’ is replaced
     by all the parameters.  If 'command' is omitted, the current alias
     for 'name' is shown.  If no arguments are given, all aliases are
     listed.

     Aliases may be nested and can contain anything that can be legally
     typed at the pdb prompt.  Note that internal pdb commands 'can' be
     overridden by aliases.  Such a command is then hidden until the
     alias is removed.  Aliasing is recursively applied to the first
     word of the command line; all other words in the line are left
     alone.

     As an example, here are two useful aliases (especially when placed
     in the ‘.pdbrc’ file):

          # Print instance variables (usage "pi classInst")
          alias pi for k in %1.__dict__.keys(): print(f"%1.{k} = {%1.__dict__[k]}")
          # Print instance variables in self
          alias ps pi self

 -- Pdbcommand: unalias name

     Delete the specified alias 'name'.

 -- Pdbcommand: ! statement

     Execute the (one-line) 'statement' in the context of the current
     stack frame.  The exclamation point can be omitted unless the first
     word of the statement resembles a debugger command, e.g.:

          (Pdb) ! n=42
          (Pdb)

     To set a global variable, you can prefix the assignment command
     with a *note global: 1a13. statement on the same line, e.g.:

          (Pdb) global list_options; list_options = ['-l']
          (Pdb)

 -- Pdbcommand: run [args ...]
 -- Pdbcommand: restart [args ...]

     Restart the debugged Python program.  If 'args' is supplied, it is
     split with *note shlex: bf. and the result is used as the new *note
     sys.argv: 10f9.  History, breakpoints, actions and debugger options
     are preserved.  *note restart: 3f87. is an alias for *note run:
     3f86.

 -- Pdbcommand: q(uit)

     Quit from the debugger.  The program being executed is aborted.

 -- Pdbcommand: debug code

     Enter a recursive debugger that steps through 'code' (which is an
     arbitrary expression or statement to be executed in the current
     environment).

 -- Pdbcommand: retval

     Print the return value for the last return of the current function.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: Python 的分析器,  Next: timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間,  Prev: pdb --- The Python Debugger,  Up: 除錯與效能分析

5.27.5 Python 的分析器
----------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/profile.py(1) 與 Lib/pstats.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction to the profilers::
* Instant User's Manual::
* profile and cProfile Module Reference::
* The Stats Class::
* What Is Deterministic Profiling?::
* 限制::
* 校正::
* Using a custom timer::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/profile.py

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pstats.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction to the profilers,  Next: Instant User's Manual,  Up: Python 的分析器

5.27.5.1 Introduction to the profilers
......................................

*note cProfile: 25. and *note profile: aa. provide 'deterministic
profiling' of Python programs.  A 'profile' is a set of statistics that
describes how often and for how long various parts of the program
executed.  These statistics can be formatted into reports via the *note
pstats: ab. module.

The Python standard library provides two different implementations of
the same profiling interface:

  1. *note cProfile: 25. is recommended for most users; it's a C
     extension with reasonable overhead that makes it suitable for
     profiling long-running programs.  Based on ‘lsprof’, contributed by
     Brett Rosen and Ted Czotter.

  2. *note profile: aa, a pure Python module whose interface is imitated
     by *note cProfile: 25, but which adds significant overhead to
     profiled programs.  If you're trying to extend the profiler in some
     way, the task might be easier with this module.  Originally
     designed and written by Jim Roskind.

     備註: The profiler modules are designed to provide an execution
     profile for a given program, not for benchmarking purposes (for
     that, there is *note timeit: e9. for reasonably accurate results).
     This particularly applies to benchmarking Python code against C
     code: the profilers introduce overhead for Python code, but not for
     C-level functions, and so the C code would seem faster than any
     Python one.


File: python.info,  Node: Instant User's Manual,  Next: profile and cProfile Module Reference,  Prev: Introduction to the profilers,  Up: Python 的分析器

5.27.5.2 Instant User's Manual
..............................

This section is provided for users that "don't want to read the manual."
It provides a very brief overview, and allows a user to rapidly perform
profiling on an existing application.

To profile a function that takes a single argument, you can do:

     import cProfile
     import re
     cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")')

(Use *note profile: aa. instead of *note cProfile: 25. if the latter is
not available on your system.)

The above action would run *note re.compile(): a34. and print profile
results like the following:

           214 function calls (207 primitive calls) in 0.002 seconds

     Ordered by: cumulative time

     ncalls  tottime  percall  cumtime  percall filename:lineno(function)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.002    0.002 {built-in method builtins.exec}
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 <string>:1(<module>)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 __init__.py:250(compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 __init__.py:289(_compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _compiler.py:759(compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _parser.py:937(parse)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _compiler.py:598(_code)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _parser.py:435(_parse_sub)

The first line indicates that 214 calls were monitored.  Of those calls,
207 were 'primitive', meaning that the call was not induced via
recursion.  The next line: ‘Ordered by: cumulative time’ indicates the
output is sorted by the ‘cumtime’ values.  The column headings include:

ncalls

     for the number of calls.

tottime

     for the total time spent in the given function (and excluding time
     made in calls to sub-functions)

percall

     is the quotient of ‘tottime’ divided by ‘ncalls’

cumtime

     is the cumulative time spent in this and all subfunctions (from
     invocation till exit).  This figure is accurate 'even' for
     recursive functions.

percall

     is the quotient of ‘cumtime’ divided by primitive calls

filename:lineno(function)

     provides the respective data of each function

When there are two numbers in the first column (for example ‘3/1’), it
means that the function recursed.  The second value is the number of
primitive calls and the former is the total number of calls.  Note that
when the function does not recurse, these two values are the same, and
only the single figure is printed.

Instead of printing the output at the end of the profile run, you can
save the results to a file by specifying a filename to the ‘run()’
function:

     import cProfile
     import re
     cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")', 'restats')

The *note pstats.Stats: 3f91. class reads profile results from a file
and formats them in various ways.  The files *note cProfile: 25. and
*note profile: aa. can also be invoked as a script to profile another
script.  For example:

     python -m cProfile [-o output_file] [-s sort_order] (-m module | myscript.py)

‘-o’ writes the profile results to a file instead of to stdout

‘-s’ specifies one of the *note sort_stats(): 3f93. sort values to sort
the output by.  This only applies when ‘-o’ is not supplied.

‘-m’ specifies that a module is being profiled instead of a script.

在 3.7 版被加入: 新增 ‘-m’ 選項到 *note cProfile: 25.。

在 3.8 版被加入: 新增 ‘-m’ 選項到 *note profile: aa.。

The *note pstats: ab. module's *note Stats: 3f91. class has a variety of
methods for manipulating and printing the data saved into a profile
results file:

     import pstats
     from pstats import SortKey
     p = pstats.Stats('restats')
     p.strip_dirs().sort_stats(-1).print_stats()

The *note strip_dirs(): 3f94. method removed the extraneous path from
all the module names.  The *note sort_stats(): 3f93. method sorted all
the entries according to the standard module/line/name string that is
printed.  The *note print_stats(): 3f95. method printed out all the
statistics.  You might try the following sort calls:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.NAME)
     p.print_stats()

The first call will actually sort the list by function name, and the
second call will print out the statistics.  The following are some
interesting calls to experiment with:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(10)

This sorts the profile by cumulative time in a function, and then only
prints the ten most significant lines.  If you want to understand what
algorithms are taking time, the above line is what you would use.

If you were looking to see what functions were looping a lot, and taking
a lot of time, you would do:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME).print_stats(10)

to sort according to time spent within each function, and then print the
statistics for the top ten functions.

You might also try:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.FILENAME).print_stats('__init__')

This will sort all the statistics by file name, and then print out
statistics for only the class init methods (since they are spelled with
‘__init__’ in them).  As one final example, you could try:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME, SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(.5, 'init')

This line sorts statistics with a primary key of time, and a secondary
key of cumulative time, and then prints out some of the statistics.  To
be specific, the list is first culled down to 50% (re: ‘.5’) of its
original size, then only lines containing ‘init’ are maintained, and
that sub-sub-list is printed.

If you wondered what functions called the above functions, you could now
(‘p’ is still sorted according to the last criteria) do:

     p.print_callers(.5, 'init')

and you would get a list of callers for each of the listed functions.

If you want more functionality, you're going to have to read the manual,
or guess what the following functions do:

     p.print_callees()
     p.add('restats')

Invoked as a script, the *note pstats: ab. module is a statistics
browser for reading and examining profile dumps.  It has a simple
line-oriented interface (implemented using *note cmd: 17.) and
interactive help.


File: python.info,  Node: profile and cProfile Module Reference,  Next: The Stats Class,  Prev: Instant User's Manual,  Up: Python 的分析器

5.27.5.3 ‘profile’ and ‘cProfile’ Module Reference
..................................................

Both the *note profile: aa. and *note cProfile: 25. modules provide the
following functions:

 -- 函式: profile.run (command, filename=None, sort=-1)

     This function takes a single argument that can be passed to the
     *note exec(): 6b1. function, and an optional file name.  In all
     cases this routine executes:

          exec(command, __main__.__dict__, __main__.__dict__)

     and gathers profiling statistics from the execution.  If no file
     name is present, then this function automatically creates a *note
     Stats: 3f91. instance and prints a simple profiling report.  If the
     sort value is specified, it is passed to this *note Stats: 3f91.
     instance to control how the results are sorted.

 -- 函式: profile.runctx (command, globals, locals, filename=None,
          sort=-1)

     This function is similar to *note run(): 3f97, with added arguments
     to supply the globals and locals dictionaries for the 'command'
     string.  This routine executes:

          exec(command, globals, locals)

     and gathers profiling statistics as in the *note run(): 3f97.
     function above.

 -- 類別: profile.Profile (timer=None, timeunit=0.0, subcalls=True,
          builtins=True)

     This class is normally only used if more precise control over
     profiling is needed than what the ‘cProfile.run()’ function
     provides.

     A custom timer can be supplied for measuring how long code takes to
     run via the 'timer' argument.  This must be a function that returns
     a single number representing the current time.  If the number is an
     integer, the 'timeunit' specifies a multiplier that specifies the
     duration of each unit of time.  For example, if the timer returns
     times measured in thousands of seconds, the time unit would be
     ‘.001’.

     Directly using the *note Profile: 828. class allows formatting
     profile results without writing the profile data to a file:

          import cProfile, pstats, io
          from pstats import SortKey
          pr = cProfile.Profile()
          pr.enable()
          # ... do something ...
          pr.disable()
          s = io.StringIO()
          sortby = SortKey.CUMULATIVE
          ps = pstats.Stats(pr, stream=s).sort_stats(sortby)
          ps.print_stats()
          print(s.getvalue())

     The *note Profile: 828. class can also be used as a context manager
     (supported only in *note cProfile: 25. module.  see *note
     情境管理器型別: 1d52.):

          import cProfile

          with cProfile.Profile() as pr:
              # ... do something ...

              pr.print_stats()

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增情境管理器的支援。

      -- 方法: enable ()

          Start collecting profiling data.  Only in *note cProfile: 25.

      -- 方法: disable ()

          Stop collecting profiling data.  Only in *note cProfile: 25.

      -- 方法: create_stats ()

          Stop collecting profiling data and record the results
          internally as the current profile.

      -- 方法: print_stats (sort=-1)

          Create a *note Stats: 3f91. object based on the current
          profile and print the results to stdout.

      -- 方法: dump_stats (filename)

          Write the results of the current profile to 'filename'.

      -- 方法: run (cmd)

          Profile the cmd via *note exec(): 6b1.

      -- 方法: runctx (cmd, globals, locals)

          Profile the cmd via *note exec(): 6b1. with the specified
          global and local environment.

      -- 方法: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Profile ‘func(*args, **kwargs)’

Note that profiling will only work if the called command/function
actually returns.  If the interpreter is terminated (e.g.  via a *note
sys.exit(): 11dd. call during the called command/function execution) no
profiling results will be printed.


File: python.info,  Node: The Stats Class,  Next: What Is Deterministic Profiling?,  Prev: profile and cProfile Module Reference,  Up: Python 的分析器

5.27.5.4 The ‘Stats’ Class
..........................

Analysis of the profiler data is done using the *note Stats: 3f91.
class.

 -- 類別: pstats.Stats (*filenames or profile, stream=sys.stdout)

     This class constructor creates an instance of a "statistics object"
     from a 'filename' (or list of filenames) or from a ‘Profile’
     instance.  Output will be printed to the stream specified by
     'stream'.

     The file selected by the above constructor must have been created
     by the corresponding version of *note profile: aa. or *note
     cProfile: 25.  To be specific, there is 'no' file compatibility
     guaranteed with future versions of this profiler, and there is no
     compatibility with files produced by other profilers, or the same
     profiler run on a different operating system.  If several files are
     provided, all the statistics for identical functions will be
     coalesced, so that an overall view of several processes can be
     considered in a single report.  If additional files need to be
     combined with data in an existing *note Stats: 3f91. object, the
     *note add(): 3fa2. method can be used.

     Instead of reading the profile data from a file, a
     ‘cProfile.Profile’ or *note profile.Profile: 828. object can be
     used as the profile data source.

     *note Stats: 3f91. objects have the following methods:

      -- 方法: strip_dirs ()

          This method for the *note Stats: 3f91. class removes all
          leading path information from file names.  It is very useful
          in reducing the size of the printout to fit within (close to)
          80 columns.  This method modifies the object, and the stripped
          information is lost.  After performing a strip operation, the
          object is considered to have its entries in a "random" order,
          as it was just after object initialization and loading.  If
          *note strip_dirs(): 3f94. causes two function names to be
          indistinguishable (they are on the same line of the same
          filename, and have the same function name), then the
          statistics for these two entries are accumulated into a single
          entry.

      -- 方法: add (*filenames)

          This method of the *note Stats: 3f91. class accumulates
          additional profiling information into the current profiling
          object.  Its arguments should refer to filenames created by
          the corresponding version of *note profile.run(): 3f97. or
          ‘cProfile.run()’.  Statistics for identically named (re: file,
          line, name) functions are automatically accumulated into
          single function statistics.

      -- 方法: dump_stats (filename)

          Save the data loaded into the *note Stats: 3f91. object to a
          file named 'filename'.  The file is created if it does not
          exist, and is overwritten if it already exists.  This is
          equivalent to the method of the same name on the *note
          profile.Profile: 828. and ‘cProfile.Profile’ classes.

      -- 方法: sort_stats (*keys)

          This method modifies the *note Stats: 3f91. object by sorting
          it according to the supplied criteria.  The argument can be
          either a string or a SortKey enum identifying the basis of a
          sort (example: ‘'time'’, ‘'name'’, ‘SortKey.TIME’ or
          ‘SortKey.NAME’).  The SortKey enums argument have advantage
          over the string argument in that it is more robust and less
          error prone.

          When more than one key is provided, then additional keys are
          used as secondary criteria when there is equality in all keys
          selected before them.  For example, ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NAME,
          SortKey.FILE)’ will sort all the entries according to their
          function name, and resolve all ties (identical function names)
          by sorting by file name.

          For the string argument, abbreviations can be used for any key
          names, as long as the abbreviation is unambiguous.

          The following are the valid string and SortKey:

          Valid String Arg       Valid enum Arg            含義
                                                           
          ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
          ‘'calls'’              SortKey.CALLS             call count
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'cumulative'’         SortKey.CUMULATIVE        cumulative time
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'cumtime'’            N/A                       cumulative time
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'file'’               N/A                       file name（檔案名稱）
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'filename'’           SortKey.FILENAME          file name（檔案名稱）
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'module'’             N/A                       file name（檔案名稱）
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'ncalls'’             N/A                       call count
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'pcalls'’             SortKey.PCALLS            primitive call count
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'line'’               SortKey.LINE              列號
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'name'’               SortKey.NAME              function name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'nfl'’                SortKey.NFL               name/file/line
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'stdname'’            SortKey.STDNAME           standard name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'time'’               SortKey.TIME              internal time
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'tottime'’            N/A                       internal time
                                                           

          Note that all sorts on statistics are in descending order
          (placing most time consuming items first), where as name,
          file, and line number searches are in ascending order
          (alphabetical).  The subtle distinction between ‘SortKey.NFL’
          and ‘SortKey.STDNAME’ is that the standard name is a sort of
          the name as printed, which means that the embedded line
          numbers get compared in an odd way.  For example, lines 3, 20,
          and 40 would (if the file names were the same) appear in the
          string order 20, 3 and 40.  In contrast, ‘SortKey.NFL’ does a
          numeric compare of the line numbers.  In fact,
          ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NFL)’ is the same as
          ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILENAME, SortKey.LINE)’.

          For backward-compatibility reasons, the numeric arguments
          ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’, and ‘2’ are permitted.  They are interpreted
          as ‘'stdname'’, ‘'calls'’, ‘'time'’, and ‘'cumulative'’
          respectively.  If this old style format (numeric) is used,
          only one sort key (the numeric key) will be used, and
          additional arguments will be silently ignored.

          在 3.7 版被加入: Added the SortKey enum.

      -- 方法: reverse_order ()

          This method for the *note Stats: 3f91. class reverses the
          ordering of the basic list within the object.  Note that by
          default ascending vs descending order is properly selected
          based on the sort key of choice.

      -- 方法: print_stats (*restrictions)

          This method for the *note Stats: 3f91. class prints out a
          report as described in the *note profile.run(): 3f97.
          definition.

          The order of the printing is based on the last *note
          sort_stats(): 3f93. operation done on the object (subject to
          caveats in *note add(): 3fa2. and *note strip_dirs(): 3f94.).

          The arguments provided (if any) can be used to limit the list
          down to the significant entries.  Initially, the list is taken
          to be the complete set of profiled functions.  Each
          restriction is either an integer (to select a count of lines),
          or a decimal fraction between 0.0 and 1.0 inclusive (to select
          a percentage of lines), or a string that will interpreted as a
          regular expression (to pattern match the standard name that is
          printed).  If several restrictions are provided, then they are
          applied sequentially.  For example:

               print_stats(.1, 'foo:')

          would first limit the printing to first 10% of list, and then
          only print functions that were part of filename ‘.*foo:’.  In
          contrast, the command:

               print_stats('foo:', .1)

          would limit the list to all functions having file names
          ‘.*foo:’, and then proceed to only print the first 10% of
          them.

      -- 方法: print_callers (*restrictions)

          This method for the *note Stats: 3f91. class prints a list of
          all functions that called each function in the profiled
          database.  The ordering is identical to that provided by *note
          print_stats(): 3f95, and the definition of the restricting
          argument is also identical.  Each caller is reported on its
          own line.  The format differs slightly depending on the
          profiler that produced the stats:

             * With *note profile: aa, a number is shown in parentheses
               after each caller to show how many times this specific
               call was made.  For convenience, a second
               non-parenthesized number repeats the cumulative time
               spent in the function at the right.

             * With *note cProfile: 25, each caller is preceded by three
               numbers: the number of times this specific call was made,
               and the total and cumulative times spent in the current
               function while it was invoked by this specific caller.

      -- 方法: print_callees (*restrictions)

          This method for the *note Stats: 3f91. class prints a list of
          all function that were called by the indicated function.
          Aside from this reversal of direction of calls (re: called vs
          was called by), the arguments and ordering are identical to
          the *note print_callers(): 3fa5. method.

      -- 方法: get_stats_profile ()

          This method returns an instance of StatsProfile, which
          contains a mapping of function names to instances of
          FunctionProfile.  Each FunctionProfile instance holds
          information related to the function's profile such as how long
          the function took to run, how many times it was called, etc...

          在 3.9 版被加入: Added the following dataclasses:
          StatsProfile, FunctionProfile.  Added the following function:
          get_stats_profile.


File: python.info,  Node: What Is Deterministic Profiling?,  Next: 限制,  Prev: The Stats Class,  Up: Python 的分析器

5.27.5.5 What Is Deterministic Profiling?
.........................................

'Deterministic profiling' is meant to reflect the fact that all
'function call', 'function return', and 'exception' events are
monitored, and precise timings are made for the intervals between these
events (during which time the user's code is executing).  In contrast,
'statistical profiling' (which is not done by this module) randomly
samples the effective instruction pointer, and deduces where time is
being spent.  The latter technique traditionally involves less overhead
(as the code does not need to be instrumented), but provides only
relative indications of where time is being spent.

In Python, since there is an interpreter active during execution, the
presence of instrumented code is not required in order to do
deterministic profiling.  Python automatically provides a 'hook'
(optional callback) for each event.  In addition, the interpreted nature
of Python tends to add so much overhead to execution, that deterministic
profiling tends to only add small processing overhead in typical
applications.  The result is that deterministic profiling is not that
expensive, yet provides extensive run time statistics about the
execution of a Python program.

Call count statistics can be used to identify bugs in code (surprising
counts), and to identify possible inline-expansion points (high call
counts).  Internal time statistics can be used to identify "hot loops"
that should be carefully optimized.  Cumulative time statistics should
be used to identify high level errors in the selection of algorithms.
Note that the unusual handling of cumulative times in this profiler
allows statistics for recursive implementations of algorithms to be
directly compared to iterative implementations.


File: python.info,  Node: 限制,  Next: 校正,  Prev: What Is Deterministic Profiling?,  Up: Python 的分析器

5.27.5.6 限制
.............

One limitation has to do with accuracy of timing information.  There is
a fundamental problem with deterministic profilers involving accuracy.
The most obvious restriction is that the underlying "clock" is only
ticking at a rate (typically) of about .001 seconds.  Hence no
measurements will be more accurate than the underlying clock.  If enough
measurements are taken, then the "error" will tend to average out.
Unfortunately, removing this first error induces a second source of
error.

The second problem is that it "takes a while" from when an event is
dispatched until the profiler's call to get the time actually 'gets' the
state of the clock.  Similarly, there is a certain lag when exiting the
profiler event handler from the time that the clock's value was obtained
(and then squirreled away), until the user's code is once again
executing.  As a result, functions that are called many times, or call
many functions, will typically accumulate this error.  The error that
accumulates in this fashion is typically less than the accuracy of the
clock (less than one clock tick), but it 'can' accumulate and become
very significant.

The problem is more important with *note profile: aa. than with the
lower-overhead *note cProfile: 25.  For this reason, *note profile: aa.
provides a means of calibrating itself for a given platform so that this
error can be probabilistically (on the average) removed.  After the
profiler is calibrated, it will be more accurate (in a least square
sense), but it will sometimes produce negative numbers (when call counts
are exceptionally low, and the gods of probability work against you :-).
)  Do 'not' be alarmed by negative numbers in the profile.  They should
'only' appear if you have calibrated your profiler, and the results are
actually better than without calibration.


File: python.info,  Node: 校正,  Next: Using a custom timer,  Prev: 限制,  Up: Python 的分析器

5.27.5.7 校正
.............

The profiler of the *note profile: aa. module subtracts a constant from
each event handling time to compensate for the overhead of calling the
time function, and socking away the results.  By default, the constant
is 0.  The following procedure can be used to obtain a better constant
for a given platform (see *note 限制: 3fab.).

     import profile
     pr = profile.Profile()
     for i in range(5):
         print(pr.calibrate(10000))

The method executes the number of Python calls given by the argument,
directly and again under the profiler, measuring the time for both.  It
then computes the hidden overhead per profiler event, and returns that
as a float.  For example, on a 1.8Ghz Intel Core i5 running macOS, and
using Python's time.process_time() as the timer, the magical number is
about 4.04e-6.

The object of this exercise is to get a fairly consistent result.  If
your computer is 'very' fast, or your timer function has poor
resolution, you might have to pass 100000, or even 1000000, to get
consistent results.

When you have a consistent answer, there are three ways you can use it:

     import profile

     # 1. Apply computed bias to all Profile instances created hereafter.
     profile.Profile.bias = your_computed_bias

     # 2. Apply computed bias to a specific Profile instance.
     pr = profile.Profile()
     pr.bias = your_computed_bias

     # 3. Specify computed bias in instance constructor.
     pr = profile.Profile(bias=your_computed_bias)

If you have a choice, you are better off choosing a smaller constant,
and then your results will "less often" show up as negative in profile
statistics.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a custom timer,  Prev: 校正,  Up: Python 的分析器

5.27.5.8 Using a custom timer
.............................

If you want to change how current time is determined (for example, to
force use of wall-clock time or elapsed process time), pass the timing
function you want to the ‘Profile’ class constructor:

     pr = profile.Profile(your_time_func)

The resulting profiler will then call ‘your_time_func’.  Depending on
whether you are using *note profile.Profile: 828. or ‘cProfile.Profile’,
‘your_time_func’'s return value will be interpreted differently:

*note profile.Profile: 828.

     ‘your_time_func’ should return a single number, or a list of
     numbers whose sum is the current time (like what *note os.times():
     fa3. returns).  If the function returns a single time number, or
     the list of returned numbers has length 2, then you will get an
     especially fast version of the dispatch routine.

     Be warned that you should calibrate the profiler class for the
     timer function that you choose (see *note 校正: 3fad.).  For most
     machines, a timer that returns a lone integer value will provide
     the best results in terms of low overhead during profiling.  (*note
     os.times(): fa3. is 'pretty' bad, as it returns a tuple of
     floating-point values).  If you want to substitute a better timer
     in the cleanest fashion, derive a class and hardwire a replacement
     dispatch method that best handles your timer call, along with the
     appropriate calibration constant.

‘cProfile.Profile’

     ‘your_time_func’ should return a single number.  If it returns
     integers, you can also invoke the class constructor with a second
     argument specifying the real duration of one unit of time.  For
     example, if ‘your_integer_time_func’ returns times measured in
     thousands of seconds, you would construct the ‘Profile’ instance as
     follows:

          pr = cProfile.Profile(your_integer_time_func, 0.001)

     As the ‘cProfile.Profile’ class cannot be calibrated, custom timer
     functions should be used with care and should be as fast as
     possible.  For the best results with a custom timer, it might be
     necessary to hard-code it in the C source of the internal ‘_lsprof’
     module.

Python 3.3 adds several new functions in *note time: e8. that can be
used to make precise measurements of process or wall-clock time.  For
example, see *note time.perf_counter(): 8d4.


File: python.info,  Node: timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間,  Next: trace --- 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行,  Prev: Python 的分析器,  Up: 除錯與效能分析

5.27.6 ‘timeit’ -- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間
---------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/timeit.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

該模組提供了一種對少量 Python 程式碼進行計時的簡單方法。它有一個*note
命令列介面: 3fb2.和一個*note 可呼叫介面: 3fb3.，它避免了許多測量執行時間
的常見陷阱。另請參閱由 O'Reilly 出版的 'Python 錦囊妙計 (Python
Cookbook)' 第二版中 Tim Peters 所寫的「演算法」章節的介紹。

* Menu:

* 基礎範例: 基礎範例<2>.
* Python 介面::
* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<4>.
* 範例: 範例<41>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/timeit.py


File: python.info,  Node: 基礎範例<2>,  Next: Python 介面,  Up: timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間

5.27.6.1 基礎範例
.................

以下範例展示了如何使用*note 命令列介面: 3fb2.來比較三個不同的運算式：

     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(str(n) for n in range(100))"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 30.2 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join([str(n) for n in range(100)])"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 27.5 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(map(str, range(100)))"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 23.2 usec per loop

這可以透過 *note Python 介面: 3fb3.來實現：

     >>> import timeit
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(str(n) for n in range(100))', number=10000)
     0.3018611848820001
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join([str(n) for n in range(100)])', number=10000)
     0.2727368790656328
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(map(str, range(100)))', number=10000)
     0.23702679807320237

也可以在 *note Python 介面: 3fb3.傳遞可呼叫物件：

     >>> timeit.timeit(lambda: "-".join(map(str, range(100))), number=10000)
     0.19665591977536678

但請注意，僅當使用命令列界面時 *note timeit(): d00. 才會自動確定重複次數
。在*note 範例: 3fb5.章節中有更進階的範例。


File: python.info,  Node: Python 介面,  Next: 命令列介面<4>,  Prev: 基礎範例<2>,  Up: timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間

5.27.6.2 Python 介面
....................

該模組定義了三個便利函式和一個公開類別：

 -- 函式: timeit.timeit (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default
          timer>, number=1000000, globals=None)

     使用給定的陳述式、'setup' 程式碼和 'timer' 函式建立一個 *note
     Timer: 133b. 實例，並執行其 *note timeit(): b5b. 方法 'number' 次。
     可選的 'globals' 引數指定會在其中執行程式碼的命名空間。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'globals' 選用參數。

 -- 函式: timeit.repeat (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default
          timer>, repeat=5, number=1000000, globals=None)

     使用給定的陳述式、'setup' 程式碼和 'timer' 函式建立一個 *note
     Timer: 133b. 實例，並使用給定的 'repeat' 計數和 'number' 來運行其
     *note repeat(): 3fb8. 方法。可選的 'globals' 引數指定會在其中執行程
     式碼的命名空間。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'globals' 選用參數。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 'repeat' 的預設值從 3 更改為 5。

 -- 函式: timeit.default_timer ()

     預設計時器始終為 time.perf_counter()，會回傳浮點秒數。另一種方法是
     time.perf_counter_ns，會回傳整數奈秒。

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note time.perf_counter(): 8d4. 現在是預設計時器。

 -- 類別: timeit.Timer (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<timer
          function>, globals=None)

     用於計時小程式碼片段執行速度的類別。

     建構函式接受一個要計時的陳述式、一個用於設定的附加陳述式和一個計時
     器函式。兩個陳述式都預設為 ‘'pass'’；計時器函式會與平台相依（請參閱
     模組文件字串 (doc string)）。'stmt' 和 'setup' 還可以包含由 ‘;’ 或
     換行符號分隔的多個陳述式，只要它們不包含多行字串文字即可。預設情況
     下，該陳述式將在 timeit 的命名空間內執行；可以透過將命名空間傳遞給
     'globals' 來控制此行為。

     要測量第一個陳述式的執行時間，請使用 *note timeit(): b5b. 方法。
     *note repeat(): 3fb8. 和 *note autorange(): b5a. 方法是多次呼叫
     *note timeit(): b5b. 的便捷方法。

     'setup' 的執行時間不包含在總體運行計時中。

     'stmt' 和 'setup' 參數還可以接受無需引數即可呼叫的物件。這會把對它
     們的呼叫嵌入到計時器函式中，然後由 *note timeit(): b5b. 去執行。請
     注意，在這種情況下，因有額外的函式呼叫，時間開銷 (timing overhead)
     會稍大一些。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'globals' 選用參數。

      -- 方法: timeit (number=1000000)

          主陳述式執行 'number' 次的時間。這將執行一次設定陳述式，然後回
          傳多次執行主陳述式所需的時間。預設計時器以浮點形式回傳秒數，引
          數是迴圈的次數，預設為一百萬次。要使用的主陳述式、設定陳述式和
          計時器函式會被傳遞給建構函式。

               備註: 預設情況下 *note timeit(): b5b. 在計時期間會暫時關
               閉*note 垃圾回收: 16ef.。這種方法的優點是它使獨立時序更具
               可比較性，缺點是 GC 可能是被測函式性能的重要組成部分。如
               果是這樣，可以將 GC 作為 'setup' 字串中的第一個陳述式以重
               新啟用。例如：

                    timeit.Timer('for i in range(10): oct(i)', 'gc.enable()').timeit()

      -- 方法: autorange (callback=None)

          自動決定呼叫 *note timeit(): b5b. 次數。

          這是一個便捷函式，它重複呼叫 *note timeit(): b5b. 以使得總時間
          >= 0.2 秒，再回傳最終結果（迴圈數、該迴圈數所花費的時間）。它
          以 1、2、5、10、20、50...  的順序遞增數字來呼叫 *note
          timeit(): b5b. 直到所用時間至少為 0.2 秒。

          如果有給定 'callback' 且不是 ‘None’，則每次試驗後都會使用兩個
          引數來呼叫它：‘callback(number, time_taken)’。

          在 3.6 版被加入.

      -- 方法: repeat (repeat=5, number=1000000)

          呼叫 *note timeit(): b5b. 數次。

          這是一個方便的函式，它會重複呼叫 *note timeit(): b5b. 並回傳結
          果列表。第一個引數指定呼叫 *note timeit(): b5b. 的次數，第二個
          引數指定 *note timeit(): b5b. 的 'number' 引數。

               備註: 人們很容易根據結果向量來計算出平均值和標準差並將其
               作為依歸，然而這並不是很有用。在典型情況下，最低值給出了
               機器運行給定程式碼片段的速度的下限；結果向量中較高的值通
               常不是由 Python 速度的變化所引起，而是由干擾計時精度的其
               他行程造成的。因此，結果中的 *note min(): d8c. 可能是你應
               該感興趣的唯一數字。在解讀該數據後，你應該查看整個向量並
               以常識判讀而非單純仰賴統計資訊。

          在 3.7 版的變更: 'repeat' 的預設值從 3 更改為 5。

      -- 方法: print_exc (file=None)

          從計時程式碼印出回溯 (traceback) 的輔助函式。

          典型用法：

               t = Timer(...)       # outside the try/except
               try:
                   t.timeit(...)    # or t.repeat(...)
               except Exception:
                   t.print_exc()

          相對於標準回溯的優點是，已編譯模板中的原始程式碼會被顯示出來。
          可選的 'file' 引數指定回溯的發送位置；它預設為 *note
          sys.stderr: 778.。


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列介面<4>,  Next: 範例<41>,  Prev: Python 介面,  Up: timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間

5.27.6.3 命令列介面
...................

當從命令列作為程式呼叫時，請使用以下形式：

     python -m timeit [-n N] [-r N] [-u U] [-s S] [-p] [-v] [-h] [statement ...]

其中之以下選項：

 -- Option: -n N, --number=N

     執行 'statement' 多少次

 -- Option: -r N, --repeat=N

     計時器重複多少次（預設 5）

 -- Option: -s S, --setup=S

     會在一開始執行一次的陳述式（預設為 ‘pass’）

 -- Option: -p, --process

     若要測量行程時間 (process time) 而非掛鐘時間 (wallclock time)，請使
     用 *note time.process_time(): 8d5. 而不是預設的 *note
     time.perf_counter(): 8d4.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- Option: -u, --unit=U

     指定定時器輸出的時間單位；可以選擇 ‘nsec’、‘usec’、‘msec’ 或 ‘sec’

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     印出原始計時結果；重複執行以獲得更高的數字精度

 -- Option: -h, --help

     印出一條簡短的使用訊息並退出

可以透過將每一列陳述式指定為單獨引數來給定多列陳述式；可透過將引數括在引
號中並使用前導空格以實現縮進列 (indented lines)。多個 *note -s: 3fc0. 選
項的作用類似。

如果沒有給定 *note -n: 3fbc.，則透過嘗試從序列 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, ...
中增加數字來計算合適的迴圈次數，直到總時間至少為 0.2 秒。

*note default_timer(): 3fb9. 測量可能會受到同一台機器上運行的其他程式的
影響，因此，當需要精確計時時，最好的做法是重複計時幾次並使用最佳時間。
*note -r: 3fbe. 選項對此很有用；在大多數情況下，預設的重複 5 次可能就足
夠了。你可以使用 *note time.process_time(): 8d5. 來測量 CPU 時間。

     備註: 執行 pass 陳述式會產生一定的基本開銷。這裡的程式碼並不試圖隱
     藏它，但你應該意識到它的存在。可以透過不帶引數呼叫程式來測量這個基
     本開銷，且不同 Python 版本之間的基本開銷可能有所不同。


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<41>,  Prev: 命令列介面<4>,  Up: timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間

5.27.6.4 範例
.............

可以提供一個僅會在開始時執行一次的設定陳述式：

     $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "char in text"
     5000000 loops, best of 5: 0.0877 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "text.find(char)"
     1000000 loops, best of 5: 0.342 usec per loop

輸出中包含三個欄位。迴圈計數，它告訴你每次計時迴圈內重複運行陳述式主體的
次數。重複計數（「最好的 5 次」）告訴你計時迴圈重複了多少次。以及最後陳
述式主體在計時迴圈的最佳的幾次重複執行內平均花費的時間。也就是說，最快的
幾次重複執行所花費的總時間除以迴圈計數。

     >>> import timeit
     >>> timeit.timeit('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     0.41440500499993504
     >>> timeit.timeit('text.find(char)', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     1.7246671520006203

同樣可以使用 *note Timer: 133b. 類別及其方法來完成：

     >>> import timeit
     >>> t = timeit.Timer('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     >>> t.timeit()
     0.3955516149999312
     >>> t.repeat()
     [0.40183617287970225, 0.37027556854118704, 0.38344867356679524, 0.3712595970846668, 0.37866875250654886]

以下範例展示如何對包含多行的運算式進行計時。這裡我們使用 *note
hasattr(): 1f9. 與 *note try: 4ea./*note except: 3a8. 來測試缺失和存在之
物件屬性並比較其花費 (cost)：

     $ python -m timeit "try:" "  str.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
     20000 loops, best of 5: 15.7 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
     50000 loops, best of 5: 4.26 usec per loop

     $ python -m timeit "try:" "  int.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
     200000 loops, best of 5: 1.43 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
     100000 loops, best of 5: 2.23 usec per loop

     >>> import timeit
     >>> # attribute is missing
     >>> s = """\
     ... try:
     ...     str.__bool__
     ... except AttributeError:
     ...     pass
     ... """
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.9138244460009446
     >>> s = "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.5829014980008651
     >>>
     >>> # attribute is present
     >>> s = """\
     ... try:
     ...     int.__bool__
     ... except AttributeError:
     ...     pass
     ... """
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.04215312199994514
     >>> s = "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.08588060699912603

要讓 *note timeit: e9. 模組存取你定義的函式，你可以傳遞一個包含 import 陳
述式的 'setup' 參數：

     def test():
         """Stupid test function"""
         L = [i for i in range(100)]

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import timeit
         print(timeit.timeit("test()", setup="from __main__ import test"))

另一種選擇是將 *note globals(): 163a. 傳遞給 'globals' 參數，這將導致程
式碼在當前的全域命名空間中執行，這比單獨指定 import 更方便：

     def f(x):
         return x**2
     def g(x):
         return x**4
     def h(x):
         return x**8

     import timeit
     print(timeit.timeit('[func(42) for func in (f,g,h)]', globals=globals()))


File: python.info,  Node: trace --- 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行,  Next: tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置,  Prev: timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間,  Up: 除錯與效能分析

5.27.7 ‘trace’ -- 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行
----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/trace.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note trace: f8. module allows you to trace program execution,
generate annotated statement coverage listings, print caller/callee
relationships and list functions executed during a program run.  It can
be used in another program or from the command line.

也參考
......

Coverage.py(2)

     A popular third-party coverage tool that provides HTML output along
     with advanced features such as branch coverage.

* Menu:

* Command-Line Usage::
* Programmatic Interface::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/trace.py

   (2) https://coverage.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Usage,  Next: Programmatic Interface,  Up: trace --- 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行

5.27.7.1 Command-Line Usage
...........................

The *note trace: f8. module can be invoked from the command line.  It
can be as simple as

     python -m trace --count -C . somefile.py ...

The above will execute ‘somefile.py’ and generate annotated listings of
all Python modules imported during the execution into the current
directory.

 -- Option: --help

     Display usage and exit.

 -- Option: --version

     Display the version of the module and exit.

在 3.8 版被加入: Added ‘--module’ option that allows to run an
executable module.

* Menu:

* Main options::
* Modifiers::
* Filters::


File: python.info,  Node: Main options,  Next: Modifiers,  Up: Command-Line Usage

5.27.7.2 Main options
.....................

At least one of the following options must be specified when invoking
*note trace: f8.  The *note -listfuncs: 3fd2. option is mutually
exclusive with the *note -trace: 3fd3. and *note -count: 3fd4. options.
When *note -listfuncs: 3fd2. is provided, neither *note -count: 3fd4.
nor *note -trace: 3fd3. are accepted, and vice versa.

 -- Option: -c, --count

     Produce a set of annotated listing files upon program completion
     that shows how many times each statement was executed.  See also
     *note -coverdir: 3fd6, *note -file: 3fd7. and *note -no-report:
     3fd8. below.

 -- Option: -t, --trace

     Display lines as they are executed.

 -- Option: -l, --listfuncs

     Display the functions executed by running the program.

 -- Option: -r, --report

     Produce an annotated list from an earlier program run that used the
     *note -count: 3fd4. and *note -file: 3fd7. option.  This does not
     execute any code.

 -- Option: -T, --trackcalls

     Display the calling relationships exposed by running the program.


File: python.info,  Node: Modifiers,  Next: Filters,  Prev: Main options,  Up: Command-Line Usage

5.27.7.3 Modifiers
..................

 -- Option: -f, --file=<file>

     Name of a file to accumulate counts over several tracing runs.
     Should be used with the *note -count: 3fd4. option.

 -- Option: -C, --coverdir=<dir>

     Directory where the report files go.  The coverage report for
     ‘package.module’ is written to file
     ‘`dir'/`package'/`module'.cover’.

 -- Option: -m, --missing

     When generating annotated listings, mark lines which were not
     executed with ‘>>>>>>’.

 -- Option: -s, --summary

     When using *note -count: 3fd4. or *note -report: 3fdb, write a
     brief summary to stdout for each file processed.

 -- Option: -R, --no-report

     Do not generate annotated listings.  This is useful if you intend
     to make several runs with *note -count: 3fd4, and then produce a
     single set of annotated listings at the end.

 -- Option: -g, --timing

     Prefix each line with the time since the program started.  Only
     used while tracing.


File: python.info,  Node: Filters,  Prev: Modifiers,  Up: Command-Line Usage

5.27.7.4 Filters
................

These options may be repeated multiple times.

 -- Option: --ignore-module=<mod>

     Ignore each of the given module names and its submodules (if it is
     a package).  The argument can be a list of names separated by a
     comma.

 -- Option: --ignore-dir=<dir>

     Ignore all modules and packages in the named directory and
     subdirectories.  The argument can be a list of directories
     separated by *note os.pathsep: 1b36.


File: python.info,  Node: Programmatic Interface,  Prev: Command-Line Usage,  Up: trace --- 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行

5.27.7.5 Programmatic Interface
...............................

 -- 類別: trace.Trace (count=1, trace=1, countfuncs=0, countcallers=0,
          ignoremods=(), ignoredirs=(), infile=None, outfile=None,
          timing=False)

     Create an object to trace execution of a single statement or
     expression.  All parameters are optional.  'count' enables counting
     of line numbers.  'trace' enables line execution tracing.
     'countfuncs' enables listing of the functions called during the
     run.  'countcallers' enables call relationship tracking.
     'ignoremods' is a list of modules or packages to ignore.
     'ignoredirs' is a list of directories whose modules or packages
     should be ignored.  'infile' is the name of the file from which to
     read stored count information.  'outfile' is the name of the file
     in which to write updated count information.  'timing' enables a
     timestamp relative to when tracing was started to be displayed.

      -- 方法: run (cmd)

          Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution
          with the current tracing parameters.  'cmd' must be a string
          or code object, suitable for passing into *note exec(): 6b1.

      -- 方法: runctx (cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

          Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution
          with the current tracing parameters, in the defined global and
          local environments.  If not defined, 'globals' and 'locals'
          default to empty dictionaries.

      -- 方法: runfunc (func, /, *args, **kwds)

          Call 'func' with the given arguments under control of the
          *note Trace: 3fee. object with the current tracing parameters.

      -- 方法: results ()

          Return a *note CoverageResults: 3ff2. object that contains the
          cumulative results of all previous calls to ‘run’, ‘runctx’
          and ‘runfunc’ for the given *note Trace: 3fee. instance.  Does
          not reset the accumulated trace results.

 -- 類別: trace.CoverageResults

     A container for coverage results, created by *note Trace.results():
     3ff1.  Should not be created directly by the user.

      -- 方法: update (other)

          Merge in data from another *note CoverageResults: 3ff2.
          object.

      -- 方法: write_results (show_missing=True, summary=False,
               coverdir=None)

          Write coverage results.  Set 'show_missing' to show lines that
          had no hits.  Set 'summary' to include in the output the
          coverage summary per module.  'coverdir' specifies the
          directory into which the coverage result files will be output.
          If ‘None’, the results for each source file are placed in its
          directory.

A simple example demonstrating the use of the programmatic interface:

     import sys
     import trace

     # create a Trace object, telling it what to ignore, and whether to
     # do tracing or line-counting or both.
     tracer = trace.Trace(
         ignoredirs=[sys.prefix, sys.exec_prefix],
         trace=0,
         count=1)

     # run the new command using the given tracer
     tracer.run('main()')

     # make a report, placing output in the current directory
     r = tracer.results()
     r.write_results(show_missing=True, coverdir=".")


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置,  Prev: trace --- 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行,  Up: 除錯與效能分析

5.27.8 ‘tracemalloc’ -- 追蹤記憶體配置
--------------------------------------

在 3.4 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/tracemalloc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The tracemalloc module is a debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated
by Python.  It provides the following information:

   * Traceback where an object was allocated

   * Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line
     number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory
     blocks

   * Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory
     leaks

To trace most memory blocks allocated by Python, the module should be
started as early as possible by setting the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:
1b31. environment variable to ‘1’, or by using *note -X: 188.
‘tracemalloc’ command line option.  The *note tracemalloc.start(): 1b30.
function can be called at runtime to start tracing Python memory
allocations.

By default, a trace of an allocated memory block only stores the most
recent frame (1 frame).  To store 25 frames at startup: set the *note
PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1b31. environment variable to ‘25’, or use the *note
-X: 188. ‘tracemalloc=25’ command line option.

* Menu:

* 範例: 範例<42>.
* API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tracemalloc.py


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<42>,  Next: API,  Up: tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置

5.27.8.1 範例
.............

* Menu:

* Display the top 10::
* Compute differences::
* Get the traceback of a memory block::
* Pretty top::


File: python.info,  Node: Display the top 10,  Next: Compute differences,  Up: 範例<42>

5.27.8.2 Display the top 10
...........................

Display the 10 files allocating the most memory:

     import tracemalloc

     tracemalloc.start()

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     top_stats = snapshot.statistics('lineno')

     print("[ Top 10 ]")
     for stat in top_stats[:10]:
         print(stat)

Example of output of the Python test suite:

     [ Top 10 ]
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=4855 KiB, count=39328, average=126 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=521 KiB, count=3199, average=167 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/collections/__init__.py:368: size=244 KiB, count=2315, average=108 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:381: size=185 KiB, count=779, average=243 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:402: size=154 KiB, count=378, average=416 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/abc.py:133: size=88.7 KiB, count=347, average=262 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1446: size=70.4 KiB, count=911, average=79 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1454: size=52.0 KiB, count=25, average=2131 B
     <string>:5: size=49.7 KiB, count=148, average=344 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/sysconfig.py:411: size=48.0 KiB, count=1, average=48.0 KiB

We can see that Python loaded ‘4855 KiB’ data (bytecode and constants)
from modules and that the *note collections: 1b. module allocated ‘244
KiB’ to build *note namedtuple: 731. types.

更多選項請見 *note Snapshot.statistics(): 3ff9.。


File: python.info,  Node: Compute differences,  Next: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Prev: Display the top 10,  Up: 範例<42>

5.27.8.3 Compute differences
............................

Take two snapshots and display the differences:

     import tracemalloc
     tracemalloc.start()
     # ... start your application ...

     snapshot1 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     # ... call the function leaking memory ...
     snapshot2 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()

     top_stats = snapshot2.compare_to(snapshot1, 'lineno')

     print("[ Top 10 differences ]")
     for stat in top_stats[:10]:
         print(stat)

Example of output before/after running some tests of the Python test
suite:

     [ Top 10 differences ]
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=8173 KiB (+4428 KiB), count=71332 (+39369), average=117 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/linecache.py:127: size=940 KiB (+940 KiB), count=8106 (+8106), average=119 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:571: size=298 KiB (+298 KiB), count=589 (+589), average=519 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=1005 KiB (+166 KiB), count=7423 (+1526), average=139 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/mimetypes.py:217: size=112 KiB (+112 KiB), count=1334 (+1334), average=86 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/http/server.py:848: size=96.0 KiB (+96.0 KiB), count=1 (+1), average=96.0 KiB
     /usr/lib/python3.4/inspect.py:1465: size=83.5 KiB (+83.5 KiB), count=109 (+109), average=784 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/mock.py:491: size=77.7 KiB (+77.7 KiB), count=143 (+143), average=557 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/urllib/parse.py:476: size=71.8 KiB (+71.8 KiB), count=969 (+969), average=76 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/contextlib.py:38: size=67.2 KiB (+67.2 KiB), count=126 (+126), average=546 B

We can see that Python has loaded ‘8173 KiB’ of module data (bytecode
and constants), and that this is ‘4428 KiB’ more than had been loaded
before the tests, when the previous snapshot was taken.  Similarly, the
*note linecache: 80. module has cached ‘940 KiB’ of Python source code
to format tracebacks, all of it since the previous snapshot.

If the system has little free memory, snapshots can be written on disk
using the *note Snapshot.dump(): 3ffb. method to analyze the snapshot
offline.  Then use the *note Snapshot.load(): 3ffc. method reload the
snapshot.


File: python.info,  Node: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Next: Pretty top,  Prev: Compute differences,  Up: 範例<42>

5.27.8.4 Get the traceback of a memory block
............................................

Code to display the traceback of the biggest memory block:

     import tracemalloc

     # Store 25 frames
     tracemalloc.start(25)

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     top_stats = snapshot.statistics('traceback')

     # pick the biggest memory block
     stat = top_stats[0]
     print("%s memory blocks: %.1f KiB" % (stat.count, stat.size / 1024))
     for line in stat.traceback.format():
         print(line)

Example of output of the Python test suite (traceback limited to 25
frames):

     903 memory blocks: 870.1 KiB
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 716
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1036
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 934
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/doctest.py", line 101
         import pdb
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 284
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 938
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/support/__init__.py", line 1728
         import doctest
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/test_pickletools.py", line 21
         support.run_doctest(pickletools)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1276
         test_runner()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 976
         display_failure=not verbose)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 761
         match_tests=ns.match_tests)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1563
         main()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/__main__.py", line 3
         regrtest.main_in_temp_cwd()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 73
         exec(code, run_globals)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 160
         "__main__", fname, loader, pkg_name)

We can see that the most memory was allocated in the *note importlib:
71. module to load data (bytecode and constants) from modules: ‘870.1
KiB’.  The traceback is where the *note importlib: 71. loaded data most
recently: on the ‘import pdb’ line of the *note doctest: 36. module.
The traceback may change if a new module is loaded.


File: python.info,  Node: Pretty top,  Prev: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Up: 範例<42>

5.27.8.5 Pretty top
...................

Code to display the 10 lines allocating the most memory with a pretty
output, ignoring ‘<frozen importlib._bootstrap>’ and ‘<unknown>’ files:

     import linecache
     import os
     import tracemalloc

     def display_top(snapshot, key_type='lineno', limit=10):
         snapshot = snapshot.filter_traces((
             tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>"),
             tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<unknown>"),
         ))
         top_stats = snapshot.statistics(key_type)

         print("Top %s lines" % limit)
         for index, stat in enumerate(top_stats[:limit], 1):
             frame = stat.traceback[0]
             print("#%s: %s:%s: %.1f KiB"
                   % (index, frame.filename, frame.lineno, stat.size / 1024))
             line = linecache.getline(frame.filename, frame.lineno).strip()
             if line:
                 print('    %s' % line)

         other = top_stats[limit:]
         if other:
             size = sum(stat.size for stat in other)
             print("%s other: %.1f KiB" % (len(other), size / 1024))
         total = sum(stat.size for stat in top_stats)
         print("Total allocated size: %.1f KiB" % (total / 1024))

     tracemalloc.start()

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     display_top(snapshot)

Example of output of the Python test suite:

     Top 10 lines
     #1: Lib/base64.py:414: 419.8 KiB
         _b85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _b85chars for b in _b85chars]
     #2: Lib/base64.py:306: 419.8 KiB
         _a85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _a85chars for b in _a85chars]
     #3: collections/__init__.py:368: 293.6 KiB
         exec(class_definition, namespace)
     #4: Lib/abc.py:133: 115.2 KiB
         cls = super().__new__(mcls, name, bases, namespace)
     #5: unittest/case.py:574: 103.1 KiB
         testMethod()
     #6: Lib/linecache.py:127: 95.4 KiB
         lines = fp.readlines()
     #7: urllib/parse.py:476: 71.8 KiB
         for a in _hexdig for b in _hexdig}
     #8: <string>:5: 62.0 KiB
     #9: Lib/_weakrefset.py:37: 60.0 KiB
         self.data = set()
     #10: Lib/base64.py:142: 59.8 KiB
         _b32tab2 = [a + b for a in _b32tab for b in _b32tab]
     6220 other: 3602.8 KiB
     Total allocated size: 5303.1 KiB

更多選項請見 *note Snapshot.statistics(): 3ff9.。

* Menu:

* Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks::


File: python.info,  Node: Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks,  Up: Pretty top

5.27.8.6 Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks
.....................................................................

The following code computes two sums like ‘0 + 1 + 2 + ...’
inefficiently, by creating a list of those numbers.  This list consumes
a lot of memory temporarily.  We can use *note get_traced_memory():
4000. and *note reset_peak(): 77a. to observe the small memory usage
after the sum is computed as well as the peak memory usage during the
computations:

     import tracemalloc

     tracemalloc.start()

     # Example code: compute a sum with a large temporary list
     large_sum = sum(list(range(100000)))

     first_size, first_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

     tracemalloc.reset_peak()

     # Example code: compute a sum with a small temporary list
     small_sum = sum(list(range(1000)))

     second_size, second_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

     print(f"{first_size=}, {first_peak=}")
     print(f"{second_size=}, {second_peak=}")

輸出：

     first_size=664, first_peak=3592984
     second_size=804, second_peak=29704

Using *note reset_peak(): 77a. ensured we could accurately record the
peak during the computation of ‘small_sum’, even though it is much
smaller than the overall peak size of memory blocks since the *note
start(): 1b30. call.  Without the call to *note reset_peak(): 77a,
‘second_peak’ would still be the peak from the computation ‘large_sum’
(that is, equal to ‘first_peak’).  In this case, both peaks are much
higher than the final memory usage, and which suggests we could optimise
(by removing the unnecessary call to *note list: 40a, and writing
‘sum(range(...))’).


File: python.info,  Node: API,  Prev: 範例<42>,  Up: tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置

5.27.8.7 API
............

* Menu:

* 函式: 函式<10>.
* DomainFilter::
* Filter::
* Frame::
* Snapshot::
* Statistic::
* StatisticDiff::
* Trace::
* Traceback::


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<10>,  Next: DomainFilter,  Up: API

5.27.8.8 函式
.............

 -- 函式: tracemalloc.clear_traces ()

     Clear traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.

     另請參閱 *note stop(): 4004.。

 -- 函式: tracemalloc.get_object_traceback (obj)

     Get the traceback where the Python object 'obj' was allocated.
     Return a *note Traceback: 9f6. instance, or ‘None’ if the *note
     tracemalloc: fa. module is not tracing memory allocations or did
     not trace the allocation of the object.

     另請參閱 *note gc.get_referrers(): 625. 與 *note sys.getsizeof():
     1531. 函式。

 -- 函式: tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit ()

     Get the maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of a
     trace.

     The *note tracemalloc: fa. module must be tracing memory
     allocations to get the limit, otherwise an exception is raised.

     The limit is set by the *note start(): 1b30. function.

 -- 函式: tracemalloc.get_traced_memory ()

     Get the current size and peak size of memory blocks traced by the
     *note tracemalloc: fa. module as a tuple: ‘(current: int, peak:
     int)’.

 -- 函式: tracemalloc.reset_peak ()

     Set the peak size of memory blocks traced by the *note tracemalloc:
     fa. module to the current size.

     Do nothing if the *note tracemalloc: fa. module is not tracing
     memory allocations.

     This function only modifies the recorded peak size, and does not
     modify or clear any traces, unlike *note clear_traces(): 4003.
     Snapshots taken with *note take_snapshot(): 4006. before a call to
     *note reset_peak(): 77a. can be meaningfully compared to snapshots
     taken after the call.

     另請參閱 *note get_traced_memory(): 4000.。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory ()

     Get the memory usage in bytes of the *note tracemalloc: fa. module
     used to store traces of memory blocks.  Return an *note int: 17e.

 -- 函式: tracemalloc.is_tracing ()

     ‘True’ if the *note tracemalloc: fa. module is tracing Python
     memory allocations, ‘False’ otherwise.

     另請參閱 *note start(): 1b30. 與 *note stop(): 4004. 函式。

 -- 函式: tracemalloc.start (nframe: int = 1)

     Start tracing Python memory allocations: install hooks on Python
     memory allocators.  Collected tracebacks of traces will be limited
     to 'nframe' frames.  By default, a trace of a memory block only
     stores the most recent frame: the limit is ‘1’.  'nframe' must be
     greater or equal to ‘1’.

     You can still read the original number of total frames that
     composed the traceback by looking at the *note
     Traceback.total_nframe: 4009. attribute.

     Storing more than ‘1’ frame is only useful to compute statistics
     grouped by ‘'traceback'’ or to compute cumulative statistics: see
     the *note Snapshot.compare_to(): 400a. and *note
     Snapshot.statistics(): 3ff9. methods.

     Storing more frames increases the memory and CPU overhead of the
     *note tracemalloc: fa. module.  Use the *note
     get_tracemalloc_memory(): 4007. function to measure how much memory
     is used by the *note tracemalloc: fa. module.

     The *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1b31. environment variable
     (‘PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=NFRAME’) and the *note -X: 188.
     ‘tracemalloc=NFRAME’ command line option can be used to start
     tracing at startup.

     See also *note stop(): 4004, *note is_tracing(): 4008. and *note
     get_traceback_limit(): 4005. functions.

 -- 函式: tracemalloc.stop ()

     Stop tracing Python memory allocations: uninstall hooks on Python
     memory allocators.  Also clears all previously collected traces of
     memory blocks allocated by Python.

     Call *note take_snapshot(): 4006. function to take a snapshot of
     traces before clearing them.

     See also *note start(): 1b30, *note is_tracing(): 4008. and *note
     clear_traces(): 4003. functions.

 -- 函式: tracemalloc.take_snapshot ()

     Take a snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.
     Return a new *note Snapshot: 400b. instance.

     The snapshot does not include memory blocks allocated before the
     *note tracemalloc: fa. module started to trace memory allocations.

     Tracebacks of traces are limited to *note get_traceback_limit():
     4005. frames.  Use the 'nframe' parameter of the *note start():
     1b30. function to store more frames.

     The *note tracemalloc: fa. module must be tracing memory
     allocations to take a snapshot, see the *note start(): 1b30.
     function.

     另請參閱 *note get_object_traceback(): 1948. 函式。


File: python.info,  Node: DomainFilter,  Next: Filter,  Prev: 函式<10>,  Up: API

5.27.8.9 DomainFilter
.....................

 -- 類別: tracemalloc.DomainFilter (inclusive: bool, domain: int)

     Filter traces of memory blocks by their address space (domain).

     在 3.6 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: inclusive

          If 'inclusive' is ‘True’ (include), match memory blocks
          allocated in the address space *note domain: 400e.

          If 'inclusive' is ‘False’ (exclude), match memory blocks not
          allocated in the address space *note domain: 400e.

      -- 屬性: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’).  Read-only property.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter,  Next: Frame,  Prev: DomainFilter,  Up: API

5.27.8.10 Filter
................

 -- 類別: tracemalloc.Filter (inclusive: bool, filename_pattern: str,
          lineno: int = None, all_frames: bool = False, domain: int =
          None)

     Filter on traces of memory blocks.

     See the *note fnmatch.fnmatch(): 1672. function for the syntax of
     'filename_pattern'.  The ‘'.pyc'’ file extension is replaced with
     ‘'.py'’.

     範例：

        * ‘Filter(True, subprocess.__file__)’ only includes traces of
          the *note subprocess: d0. module

        * ‘Filter(False, tracemalloc.__file__)’ excludes traces of the
          *note tracemalloc: fa. module

        * ‘Filter(False, "<unknown>")’ excludes empty tracebacks

     在 3.5 版的變更: The ‘'.pyo'’ file extension is no longer replaced
     with ‘'.py'’.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 *note domain: 4011. 屬性。

      -- 屬性: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’ or ‘None’).

          tracemalloc uses the domain ‘0’ to trace memory allocations
          made by Python.  C extensions can use other domains to trace
          other resources.

      -- 屬性: inclusive

          If 'inclusive' is ‘True’ (include), only match memory blocks
          allocated in a file with a name matching *note
          filename_pattern: 4013. at line number *note lineno: 4014.

          If 'inclusive' is ‘False’ (exclude), ignore memory blocks
          allocated in a file with a name matching *note
          filename_pattern: 4013. at line number *note lineno: 4014.

      -- 屬性: lineno

          Line number (‘int’) of the filter.  If 'lineno' is ‘None’, the
          filter matches any line number.

      -- 屬性: filename_pattern

          Filename pattern of the filter (‘str’).  Read-only property.

      -- 屬性: all_frames

          If 'all_frames' is ‘True’, all frames of the traceback are
          checked.  If 'all_frames' is ‘False’, only the most recent
          frame is checked.

          This attribute has no effect if the traceback limit is ‘1’.
          See the *note get_traceback_limit(): 4005. function and *note
          Snapshot.traceback_limit: 4016. attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: Frame,  Next: Snapshot,  Prev: Filter,  Up: API

5.27.8.11 Frame
...............

 -- 類別: tracemalloc.Frame

     Frame of a traceback.

     The *note Traceback: 9f6. class is a sequence of *note Frame: 4018.
     instances.

      -- 屬性: filename

          Filename (‘str’).

      -- 屬性: lineno

          Line number (‘int’).


File: python.info,  Node: Snapshot,  Next: Statistic,  Prev: Frame,  Up: API

5.27.8.12 Snapshot
..................

 -- 類別: tracemalloc.Snapshot

     Snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.

     The *note take_snapshot(): 4006. function creates a snapshot
     instance.

      -- 方法: compare_to (old_snapshot: Snapshot, key_type: str,
               cumulative: bool = False)

          Compute the differences with an old snapshot.  Get statistics
          as a sorted list of *note StatisticDiff: 401c. instances
          grouped by 'key_type'.

          See the *note Snapshot.statistics(): 3ff9. method for
          'key_type' and 'cumulative' parameters.

          The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by:
          absolute value of *note StatisticDiff.size_diff: 401d, *note
          StatisticDiff.size: 401e, absolute value of *note
          StatisticDiff.count_diff: 401f, *note Statistic.count: 4020.
          and then by *note StatisticDiff.traceback: 4021.

      -- 方法: dump (filename)

          Write the snapshot into a file.

          Use *note load(): 3ffc. to reload the snapshot.

      -- 方法: filter_traces (filters)

          Create a new *note Snapshot: 400b. instance with a filtered
          *note traces: 4023. sequence, 'filters' is a list of *note
          DomainFilter: b5f. and *note Filter: 4010. instances.  If
          'filters' is an empty list, return a new *note Snapshot: 400b.
          instance with a copy of the traces.

          All inclusive filters are applied at once, a trace is ignored
          if no inclusive filters match it.  A trace is ignored if at
          least one exclusive filter matches it.

          在 3.6 版的變更: *note DomainFilter: b5f. instances are now
          also accepted in 'filters'.

      -- 方法: classmethod load (filename)

          Load a snapshot from a file.

          另請參閱 *note dump(): 3ffb.。

      -- 方法: statistics (key_type: str, cumulative: bool = False)

          Get statistics as a sorted list of *note Statistic: 4024.
          instances grouped by 'key_type':

          key_type                  描述
                                    
          -------------------------------------------------------
                                    
          ‘'filename'’              filename
                                    
                                    
          ‘'lineno'’                filename and line number
                                    
                                    
          ‘'traceback'’             traceback
                                    

          If 'cumulative' is ‘True’, cumulate size and count of memory
          blocks of all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the
          most recent frame.  The cumulative mode can only be used with
          'key_type' equals to ‘'filename'’ and ‘'lineno'’.

          The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by:
          *note Statistic.size: 4025, *note Statistic.count: 4020. and
          then by *note Statistic.traceback: 4026.

      -- 屬性: traceback_limit

          Maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of *note
          traces: 4023.: result of the *note get_traceback_limit():
          4005. when the snapshot was taken.

      -- 屬性: traces

          Traces of all memory blocks allocated by Python: sequence of
          *note Trace: 4027. instances.

          The sequence has an undefined order.  Use the *note
          Snapshot.statistics(): 3ff9. method to get a sorted list of
          statistics.


File: python.info,  Node: Statistic,  Next: StatisticDiff,  Prev: Snapshot,  Up: API

5.27.8.13 Statistic
...................

 -- 類別: tracemalloc.Statistic

     Statistic on memory allocations.

     *note Snapshot.statistics(): 3ff9. returns a list of *note
     Statistic: 4024. instances.

     See also the *note StatisticDiff: 401c. class.

      -- 屬性: count

          Number of memory blocks (‘int’).

      -- 屬性: size

          Total size of memory blocks in bytes (‘int’).

      -- 屬性: traceback

          Traceback where the memory block was allocated, *note
          Traceback: 9f6. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: StatisticDiff,  Next: Trace,  Prev: Statistic,  Up: API

5.27.8.14 StatisticDiff
.......................

 -- 類別: tracemalloc.StatisticDiff

     Statistic difference on memory allocations between an old and a new
     *note Snapshot: 400b. instance.

     *note Snapshot.compare_to(): 400a. returns a list of *note
     StatisticDiff: 401c. instances.  See also the *note Statistic:
     4024. class.

      -- 屬性: count

          Number of memory blocks in the new snapshot (‘int’): ‘0’ if
          the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.

      -- 屬性: count_diff

          Difference of number of memory blocks between the old and the
          new snapshots (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been
          allocated in the new snapshot.

      -- 屬性: size

          Total size of memory blocks in bytes in the new snapshot
          (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been released in the
          new snapshot.

      -- 屬性: size_diff

          Difference of total size of memory blocks in bytes between the
          old and the new snapshots (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks
          have been allocated in the new snapshot.

      -- 屬性: traceback

          Traceback where the memory blocks were allocated, *note
          Traceback: 9f6. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Trace,  Next: Traceback,  Prev: StatisticDiff,  Up: API

5.27.8.15 Trace
...............

 -- 類別: tracemalloc.Trace

     Trace of a memory block.

     The *note Snapshot.traces: 4023. attribute is a sequence of *note
     Trace: 4027. instances.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 *note domain: 402c. 屬性。

      -- 屬性: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’).  Read-only property.

          tracemalloc uses the domain ‘0’ to trace memory allocations
          made by Python.  C extensions can use other domains to trace
          other resources.

      -- 屬性: size

          Size of the memory block in bytes (‘int’).

      -- 屬性: traceback

          Traceback where the memory block was allocated, *note
          Traceback: 9f6. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Traceback,  Prev: Trace,  Up: API

5.27.8.16 Traceback
...................

 -- 類別: tracemalloc.Traceback

     Sequence of *note Frame: 4018. instances sorted from the oldest
     frame to the most recent frame.

     A traceback contains at least ‘1’ frame.  If the ‘tracemalloc’
     module failed to get a frame, the filename ‘"<unknown>"’ at line
     number ‘0’ is used.

     When a snapshot is taken, tracebacks of traces are limited to *note
     get_traceback_limit(): 4005. frames.  See the *note
     take_snapshot(): 4006. function.  The original number of frames of
     the traceback is stored in the *note Traceback.total_nframe: 4009.
     attribute.  That allows to know if a traceback has been truncated
     by the traceback limit.

     The *note Trace.traceback: 402e. attribute is an instance of *note
     Traceback: 9f6. instance.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Frames are now sorted from the oldest to the most
     recent, instead of most recent to oldest.

      -- 屬性: total_nframe

          Total number of frames that composed the traceback before
          truncation.  This attribute can be set to ‘None’ if the
          information is not available.

     在 3.9 版的變更: The *note Traceback.total_nframe: 4009. attribute
     was added.

      -- 方法: format (limit=None, most_recent_first=False)

          Format the traceback as a list of lines.  Use the *note
          linecache: 80. module to retrieve lines from the source code.
          If 'limit' is set, format the 'limit' most recent frames if
          'limit' is positive.  Otherwise, format the ‘abs(limit)’
          oldest frames.  If 'most_recent_first' is ‘True’, the order of
          the formatted frames is reversed, returning the most recent
          frame first instead of last.

          Similar to the *note traceback.format_tb(): 4030. function,
          except that *note format(): 9f7. does not include newlines.

          範例：

               print("Traceback (most recent call first):")
               for line in traceback:
                   print(line)

          輸出：

               Traceback (most recent call first):
                 File "test.py", line 9
                   obj = Object()
                 File "test.py", line 12
                   tb = tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(f())


File: python.info,  Node: 軟體封裝與發布,  Next: Python Runtime 服務,  Prev: 除錯與效能分析,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.28 軟體封裝與發布
===================

These libraries help you with publishing and installing Python software.
While these modules are designed to work in conjunction with the Python
Package Index(1), they can also be used with a local index server, or
without any index server at all.

* Menu:

* ensurepip: ensurepip --- pip 安裝器的初始建置 bootstrapping. pip 安裝器的初始建置 (bootstrapping)
* venv: venv --- 建立虛擬環境. 建立虛擬環境
* zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip --- pip 安裝器的初始建置 bootstrapping,  Next: venv --- 建立虛擬環境,  Up: 軟體封裝與發布

5.28.1 ‘ensurepip’ -- ‘pip’ 安裝器的初始建置 (bootstrapping)
------------------------------------------------------------

在 3.4 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/ensurepip(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ensurepip: 50. 套件 (package) 為既有的 Python 安裝或虛擬環境提供
‘pip’ 安裝器初始建置 (bootstrapping) 的支援。這個初始建置的方式應證了事
實 —— ‘pip’ 是有其獨立發布週期的專案，且其最新可用穩定的版本，會與
CPython 直譯器 (interpreter) 之維護和功能發布綁定。

大多數情況下，Python 的終端使用者不需要直接調用此模組（因為 ‘pip’ 預設應
為初始建置），但若安裝 Python 時 ‘pip’ 被省略（或建立一虛擬環境時），又
或是 ‘pip’ 被明確解除安裝時，則此模組的初始建置仍有可能用上。

     備註: 此模組'不會'通過網路存取。所有需要用來初始建置 ‘pip’ 的元件都
     已包含在套件之內。

也參考
......

*note 安裝 Python 模組: d79.

     對於終端使用者安裝 Python 套件的指引

PEP 453(2): 在 Python 安裝中的 pip 明確初始建置

     此模組的最初設計理念與規範。

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

* Menu:

* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<5>.
* 模組 API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ensurepip

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列介面<5>,  Next: 模組 API,  Up: ensurepip --- pip 安裝器的初始建置 bootstrapping

5.28.1.1 命令列介面
...................

使用直譯器 (interpreter) 的 ‘-m’ 來調用命令列介面

最簡單可行的調用：

     python -m ensurepip

若 ‘pip’ 未安裝，此調用會將其安裝；否則甚麼也不做。可透過傳入
‘--upgrade’ 參數來確保 ‘pip’ 的安裝版本至少為當前 ‘ensurepip’ 中最新可用
的版本：

     python -m ensurepip --upgrade

預設上，‘pip’ 會被安裝至當前虛擬環境（若已啟動虛擬環境）或系統端的套件（
若沒有啟動的虛擬環境）。安裝位置可透過兩個額外的命令列選項來控制：

   * ‘--root <dir>’：安裝 ‘pip’ 到給定的根目錄 (root directory) 的相對路
     徑，而不是當前虛擬環境（若存在）的根目錄，或當前 Python 安裝版所預
     設的根目錄。

   * ‘--user’ ：安裝 ‘pip’ 到使用者端的套件目錄，而不是全域安裝到當前的
     Python 安裝版（此選項不允許在一啟動的虛擬環境中使用）。

預設會安裝 ‘pipX’ 和 ‘pipX.Y’ 腳本（X.Y 代表用來調用 ‘ensurepip’ 的
Python 之版本）。安裝的腳本可透過兩個額外的命令列選項來控制：

   * ‘--altinstall’：若要求一個替代安裝版，則'不會'安裝 ‘pipX’ 腳本。

   * ‘--default-pip’： 若要求安裝「預設 pip」，則會安裝 ‘pip’ 腳本，及 2
     個常規腳本。

提供兩種指令選項將會導致例外 (exception) 。


File: python.info,  Node: 模組 API,  Prev: 命令列介面<5>,  Up: ensurepip --- pip 安裝器的初始建置 bootstrapping

5.28.1.2 模組 API
.................

*note ensurepip: 50. 開放了兩個用於編寫程式的函式：

 -- 函式: ensurepip.version ()

     回傳一個字串，用以標明初始建置時，安裝的 pip 的可行版本號。

 -- 函式: ensurepip.bootstrap (root=None, upgrade=False, user=False,
          altinstall=False, default_pip=False, verbosity=0)

     在當前或指定的環境之中建立 ‘pip’。

     'root' 指定一個替代的根目錄，作為安裝的相對路徑。若 'root' 為
     ‘None’，則安裝使用當前環境的預設安裝位置。

     'upgrade' 指出是否要將一個既有的較早版本的 ‘pip’ 升級至可用的新版。

     'user' 指出是否要使用使用者的安裝方案而不是全域安裝。

     預設會安裝 ‘pipX’ 和 ‘pipX.Y’ 腳本（X.Y 代表 Python 的當前版本）。

     如果啟用了 'altinstall'，則不會安裝 ‘pipX’。

     如果啟用了 'default_pip'，則會安裝 ‘pip’，以及 2 個常規腳本。

     同時啟用 'altinstall' 跟 'default_pip'，將會觸發 *note ValueError:
     183.。

     'verbosity' 用來控制初始建置操作內，對於 *note sys.stdout: 92a. 的
     輸出等級。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘root’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘ensurepip.bootstrap’。

          備註: 初始建置的過程對於 ‘sys.path’ 及 ‘os.environ’ 均有副作用
          。改為在一子行程 (subprocess) 調用命令列介面可避免這些副作用。

          備註: 初始建置的過程也許會安裝 ‘pip’ 所需要的額外的模組，但其
          他軟體不應該假設這些相依 (dependency) 總是預設存在（因為這些相
          依很可能會在未來版本的 ‘pip’ 中被移除）。


File: python.info,  Node: venv --- 建立虛擬環境,  Next: zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案,  Prev: ensurepip --- pip 安裝器的初始建置 bootstrapping,  Up: 軟體封裝與發布

5.28.2 ‘venv’ -- 建立虛擬環境
-----------------------------

在 3.3 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/venv/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘venv’ module supports creating lightweight "virtual environments",
each with their own independent set of Python packages installed in
their *note site: c2. directories.  A virtual environment is created on
top of an existing Python installation, known as the virtual
environment's "base" Python, and may optionally be isolated from the
packages in the base environment, so only those explicitly installed in
the virtual environment are available.

When used from within a virtual environment, common installation tools
such as pip(2) will install Python packages into a virtual environment
without needing to be told to do so explicitly.

A virtual environment is (amongst other things):

   * Used to contain a specific Python interpreter and software
     libraries and binaries which are needed to support a project
     (library or application).  These are by default isolated from
     software in other virtual environments and Python interpreters and
     libraries installed in the operating system.

   * Contained in a directory, conventionally named ‘.venv’ or ‘venv’ in
     the project directory, or under a container directory for lots of
     virtual environments, such as ‘~/.virtualenvs’.

   * Not checked into source control systems such as Git.

   * Considered as disposable - it should be simple to delete and
     recreate it from scratch.  You don't place any project code in the
     environment.

   * Not considered as movable or copyable - you just recreate the same
     environment in the target location.

更多關於 Python 虛擬環境的背景資訊請見 PEP 405(3)。

也參考
......

Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments(4)

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

* Menu:

* 建立虛擬環境: 建立虛擬環境<2>.
* 虛擬環境如何運作::
* API: API<2>.
* An example of extending EnvBuilder::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/venv/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/guides/installing-using-pip-and-virtual-environments/#create-and-use-virtual-environments


File: python.info,  Node: 建立虛擬環境<2>,  Next: 虛擬環境如何運作,  Up: venv --- 建立虛擬環境

5.28.2.1 建立虛擬環境
.....................

*note Virtual environments: 403a. are created by executing the ‘venv’
module:

     python -m venv /path/to/new/virtual/environment

This creates the target directory (including parent directories as
needed) and places a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file in it with a ‘home’ key pointing
to the Python installation from which the command was run.  It also
creates a ‘bin’ (or ‘Scripts’ on Windows) subdirectory containing a copy
or symlink of the Python executable (as appropriate for the platform or
arguments used at environment creation time).  It also creates a
‘lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages’ subdirectory (on Windows, this is
‘Libsite-packages’).  If an existing directory is specified, it will be
re-used.

在 3.5 版的變更: 目前建議使用 ‘venv’ 來建立虛擬環境。

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.8: ‘pyvenv’ was the
recommended tool for creating virtual environments for Python 3.3 and
3.4, and replaced in 3.5 by executing ‘venv’ directly.

On Windows, invoke the ‘venv’ command as follows:

     PS> python -m venv C:\path\to\new\virtual\environment

如果使用 ‘-h’ 選項執行該命令，將會顯示可用的選項：

     usage: venv [-h] [--system-site-packages] [--symlinks | --copies] [--clear]
                 [--upgrade] [--without-pip] [--prompt PROMPT] [--upgrade-deps]
                 ENV_DIR [ENV_DIR ...]

     Creates virtual Python environments in one or more target directories.

     positional arguments:
       ENV_DIR               A directory to create the environment in.

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       --system-site-packages
                             Give the virtual environment access to the system
                             site-packages dir.
       --symlinks            Try to use symlinks rather than copies, when
                             symlinks are not the default for the platform.
       --copies              Try to use copies rather than symlinks, even when
                             symlinks are the default for the platform.
       --clear               Delete the contents of the environment directory
                             if it already exists, before environment creation.
       --upgrade             Upgrade the environment directory to use this
                             version of Python, assuming Python has been
                             upgraded in-place.
       --without-pip         Skips installing or upgrading pip in the virtual
                             environment (pip is bootstrapped by default)
       --prompt PROMPT       Provides an alternative prompt prefix for this
                             environment.
       --upgrade-deps        Upgrade core dependencies (pip) to the latest
                             version in PyPI

     Once an environment has been created, you may wish to activate it, e.g. by
     sourcing an activate script in its bin directory.

在 3.4 版的變更: Installs pip by default, added the ‘--without-pip’ and
‘--copies’ options.

在 3.4 版的變更: 在較早的版本中，如果目標目錄已存在，除非提供了
‘--clear’ 或 ‘--upgrade’ 選項，否則會引發錯誤。

在 3.9 版的變更: Add ‘--upgrade-deps’ option to upgrade pip + setuptools
to the latest on PyPI.

在 3.12 版的變更: ‘setuptools’ is no longer a core venv dependency.

     備註: 雖然在 Windows 上支援符號連結，但並不建議使用。特別需要注意的
     是，在檔案總管中按兩下 ‘python.exe’ 會急切地解析符號連結並忽略虛擬
     環境。

     備註: 在 Microsoft Windows 上，可能需要通過設置使用者的執行策略來啟
     用 ‘Activate.ps1’ 腳本。你可以發出以下 PowerShell 命令來執行此操作
     ：

          PS C:\> Set-ExecutionPolicy -ExecutionPolicy RemoteSigned -Scope CurrentUser

     有關更多資訊，請參閱關於執行策略(1)。

The created ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file also includes the
‘include-system-site-packages’ key, set to ‘true’ if ‘venv’ is run with
the ‘--system-site-packages’ option, ‘false’ otherwise.

除非 ‘--without-pip’ 選項被提供，否則將調用 *note ensurepip: 50. 來啟動
‘pip’ 到虛擬環境中。

可以向 ‘venv’ 提供多個路徑，這樣每個提供的路徑都將根據給定的選項建立一個
相同的虛擬環境。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=135170


File: python.info,  Node: 虛擬環境如何運作,  Next: API<2>,  Prev: 建立虛擬環境<2>,  Up: venv --- 建立虛擬環境

5.28.2.2 虛擬環境如何運作
.........................

當 Python 直譯器跑在虛擬環境時，*note sys.prefix: 360. 和 *note
sys.exec_prefix: 35c. 會指向虛擬環境的目錄，而 *note sys.base_prefix:
39a0. 和 *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 403e. 會指向建立虛擬環境的基礎
Python 的目錄。檢查 ‘sys.prefix != sys.base_prefix’ 就可以確定目前的直譯
器是否跑在虛擬環境中。

虛擬環境可以透過位於二進位檔案目錄中的腳本「啟用」（在 POSIX 上為 ‘bin’；
在 Windows 上為 ‘Scripts’）這會將該目錄加入到你的 ‘PATH’，當你運行
‘python’ 時就會調用該環境的直譯器並且執行已安裝的腳本，而不需要使用完整
的路徑。啟動腳本的方式因平台而異（‘<VENV>’ 需要替換成包含虛擬環境的目錄
路徑）

平台              Shell            啟動虛擬環境的指令
                                   
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
POSIX             bash/zsh         ‘$ source <VENV>/bin/activate’
                                   
                  
fish              ‘$ source
                  <VENV>/bin/activate.fish’
                  
                  
csh/tcsh          ‘$ source
                  <VENV>/bin/activate.csh’
                  
                  
pwsh              ‘$
                  <VENV>/bin/Activate.ps1’
                  
                                   
Windows           cmd.exe          ‘C:\> <VENV>\Scripts\activate.bat’
                                   
                  
PowerShell        ‘PS C:\>
                  <VENV>\Scripts\Activate.ps1’
                  

在 3.4 版被加入: ‘fish’ 和 ‘csh’ 啟動腳本。

在 3.8 版被加入: PowerShell 的啟動腳本安裝在 POSIX 上支援 PowerShell
Core。

你不用特別開啟虛擬環境，你可以在調用 Python 時指定該環境下 Python 直譯器
的完整路徑。此外，所有安裝在環境裡的腳本都應該都可以在未啟用虛擬環境的情
況下運行。

In order to achieve this, scripts installed into virtual environments
have a "shebang" line which points to the environment's Python
interpreter, ‘#!/<PATH-TO-VENV>/bin/python’.  This means that the script
will run with that interpreter regardless of the value of ‘PATH’.  On
Windows, "shebang" line processing is supported if you have the *note
Python Launcher for Windows: 3ae. installed.  Thus, double-clicking an
installed script in a Windows Explorer window should run it with the
correct interpreter without the environment needing to be activated or
on the ‘PATH’.

當虛擬環境被啟用時，‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ 環境變數會被設置為該環境的路徑。由於不
需要明確啟用虛擬環境才能使用它。因此，無法依賴 ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ 來判斷是否
正在使用虛擬環境。

     警告: 因為安裝在環境中的腳本不應該預期該環境已經被啟動，所以它們的
     shebang 列會包含環境直譯器的絕對路徑。因此，在一般情況下，環境本質
     上是不可攜帶的。你應該使用一個簡單的方法來重新建立一個環境（例如：
     如果你有一個名為 ‘requirements.txt’ 的需求檔案，你可以使用環境的
     ‘pip install -r requirements.txt’ 來安裝環境所需的所有套件）。如果
     出於某種原因，你需要將環境移至新位置，你應該在所需位置重新建立它，
     並刪除舊位置的環境。如果你移動環境是因為移動了其父目錄，你應該在新
     位置重新建立環境。否則，安裝在該環境中的軟體可能無法正常運作。

你可以在 shell 輸入 ‘deactivate’ 來關閉虛擬環境。具體的使用方式因平台而
異，是內部實作的細節（通常會使用腳本或是 shell 函式）


File: python.info,  Node: API<2>,  Next: An example of extending EnvBuilder,  Prev: 虛擬環境如何運作,  Up: venv --- 建立虛擬環境

5.28.2.3 API
............

上述提到的高階 method（方法）透過簡單的 API 使用， 為第三方虛擬環境建立
者提供可以依據他們需求來建立環境的客製化機制： *note EnvBuilder: e7a.
class。

 -- 類別: venv.EnvBuilder (system_site_packages=False, clear=False,
          symlinks=False, upgrade=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None,
          upgrade_deps=False)

     進行實例化時，class *note EnvBuilder: e7a. 接受下列的關鍵字引數：

        * 'system_site_packages' - a boolean value indicating that the
          system Python site-packages should be available to the
          environment (defaults to ‘False’).

        * 'clear' - a boolean value which, if true, will delete the
          contents of any existing target directory, before creating the
          environment.

        * 'symlinks' - a boolean value indicating whether to attempt to
          symlink the Python binary rather than copying.

        * 'upgrade' - a boolean value which, if true, will upgrade an
          existing environment with the running Python - for use when
          that Python has been upgraded in-place (defaults to ‘False’).

        * 'with_pip' - a boolean value which, if true, ensures pip is
          installed in the virtual environment.  This uses *note
          ensurepip: 50. with the ‘--default-pip’ option.

        * 'prompt' - a string to be used after virtual environment is
          activated (defaults to ‘None’ which means directory name of
          the environment would be used).  If the special string ‘"."’
          is provided, the basename of the current directory is used as
          the prompt.

        * 'upgrade_deps' - Update the base venv modules to the latest on
          PyPI

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 ‘with_pip’ 參數

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 ‘prompt’ 參數

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 ‘upgrade_deps’ 參數

     *note EnvBuilder: e7a. may be used as a base class.

      -- 方法: create (env_dir)

          透過指定將會容納虛擬環境的目標目錄來建立一個虛擬環境（絕對路徑
          或相對路徑到該目錄），也就是在該目錄中容納虛擬環境。‘create’
          method 將會在指定的目錄下建立環境，或是觸發適當的例外。

          *note EnvBuilder: e7a. class 的 ‘create’ method 會闡述可用的
          Hooks 以客製化 subclass （子類別）:

               def create(self, env_dir):
                   """
                   Create a virtualized Python environment in a directory.
                   env_dir is the target directory to create an environment in.
                   """
                   env_dir = os.path.abspath(env_dir)
                   context = self.ensure_directories(env_dir)
                   self.create_configuration(context)
                   self.setup_python(context)
                   self.setup_scripts(context)
                   self.post_setup(context)

          每個 methods *note ensure_directories(): 4041.、*note
          create_configuration(): 4042.、*note setup_python(): 4043.、
          *note setup_scripts(): 4044. 及 *note post_setup(): 4045. 都可
          以被覆寫。

      -- 方法: ensure_directories (env_dir)

          建立還不存在的環境目錄及必要的子目錄，並回傳一個情境物件（
          context object）。這個情境物件只是一個屬性 (例如：路徑) 的所有
          者，可被其他 method 使用。如果 *note EnvBuilder: e7a. 已被建立
          且帶有 ‘clear=True’ 的引數，該環境目錄下的內容將被清空，以及所
          有必要的子目錄將被重新建立。

          回傳的情境物件（context object）其型別會是 *note
          types.SimpleNamespace: 765.，並包含以下屬性：

             * ‘env_dir’ - The location of the virtual environment.
               Used for ‘__VENV_DIR__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 4046.).

             * ‘env_name’ - The name of the virtual environment.  Used
               for ‘__VENV_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 4046.).

             * ‘prompt’ - The prompt to be used by the activation
               scripts.  Used for ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ in activation
               scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 4046.).

             * ‘executable’ - The underlying Python executable used by
               the virtual environment.  This takes into account the
               case where a virtual environment is created from another
               virtual environment.

             * ‘inc_path’ - The include path for the virtual
               environment.

             * ‘lib_path’ - The purelib path for the virtual
               environment.

             * ‘bin_path’ - The script path for the virtual environment.

             * ‘bin_name’ - The name of the script path relative to the
               virtual environment location.  Used for
               ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 4046.).

             * ‘env_exe’ - The name of the Python interpreter in the
               virtual environment.  Used for ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’ in
               activation scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 4046.).

             * ‘env_exec_cmd’ - The name of the Python interpreter,
               taking into account filesystem redirections.  This can be
               used to run Python in the virtual environment.

          在 3.11 版的變更: The 'venv' *note sysconfig installation
          scheme: 48c. is used to construct the paths of the created
          directories.

          在 3.12 版的變更: The attribute ‘lib_path’ was added to the
          context, and the context object was documented.

      -- 方法: create_configuration (context)

          Creates the ‘pyvenv.cfg’ configuration file in the
          environment.

      -- 方法: setup_python (context)

          Creates a copy or symlink to the Python executable in the
          environment.  On POSIX systems, if a specific executable
          ‘python3.x’ was used, symlinks to ‘python’ and ‘python3’ will
          be created pointing to that executable, unless files with
          those names already exist.

      -- 方法: setup_scripts (context)

          Installs activation scripts appropriate to the platform into
          the virtual environment.

      -- 方法: upgrade_dependencies (context)

          Upgrades the core venv dependency packages (currently pip(1))
          in the environment.  This is done by shelling out to the ‘pip’
          executable in the environment.

          在 3.9 版被加入.

          在 3.12 版的變更: setuptools(2) is no longer a core venv
          dependency.

      -- 方法: post_setup (context)

          A placeholder method which can be overridden in third party
          implementations to pre-install packages in the virtual
          environment or perform other post-creation steps.

      -- 方法: install_scripts (context, path)

          This method can be called from *note setup_scripts(): 4044. or
          *note post_setup(): 4045. in subclasses to assist in
          installing custom scripts into the virtual environment.

          'path' is the path to a directory that should contain
          subdirectories ‘common’, ‘posix’, ‘nt’; each containing
          scripts destined for the ‘bin’ directory in the environment.
          The contents of ‘common’ and the directory corresponding to
          *note os.name: 287d. are copied after some text replacement of
          placeholders:

             * ‘__VENV_DIR__’ is replaced with the absolute path of the
               environment directory.

             * ‘__VENV_NAME__’ is replaced with the environment name
               (final path segment of environment directory).

             * ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ is replaced with the prompt (the
               environment name surrounded by parentheses and with a
               following space)

             * ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’ is replaced with the name of the bin
               directory (either ‘bin’ or ‘Scripts’).

             * ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’ is replaced with the absolute path of
               the environment's executable.

          The directories are allowed to exist (for when an existing
          environment is being upgraded).

     在 3.7.2 版的變更: Windows now uses redirector scripts for
     ‘python[w].exe’ instead of copying the actual binaries.  In 3.7.2
     only *note setup_python(): 4043. does nothing unless running from a
     build in the source tree.

     在 3.7.3 版的變更: Windows copies the redirector scripts as part of
     *note setup_python(): 4043. instead of *note setup_scripts(): 4044.
     This was not the case in 3.7.2.  When using symlinks, the original
     executables will be linked.

There is also a module-level convenience function:

 -- 函式: venv.create (env_dir, system_site_packages=False, clear=False,
          symlinks=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None,
          upgrade_deps=False)

     Create an *note EnvBuilder: e7a. with the given keyword arguments,
     and call its *note create(): 4040. method with the 'env_dir'
     argument.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Added the 'with_pip' parameter

     在 3.6 版的變更: Added the 'prompt' parameter

     在 3.9 版的變更: Added the 'upgrade_deps' parameter

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/setuptools/


File: python.info,  Node: An example of extending EnvBuilder,  Prev: API<2>,  Up: venv --- 建立虛擬環境

5.28.2.4 An example of extending ‘EnvBuilder’
.............................................

The following script shows how to extend *note EnvBuilder: e7a. by
implementing a subclass which installs setuptools and pip into a created
virtual environment:

     import os
     import os.path
     from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
     import sys
     from threading import Thread
     from urllib.parse import urlparse
     from urllib.request import urlretrieve
     import venv

     class ExtendedEnvBuilder(venv.EnvBuilder):
         """
         This builder installs setuptools and pip so that you can pip or
         easy_install other packages into the created virtual environment.

         :param nodist: If true, setuptools and pip are not installed into the
                        created virtual environment.
         :param nopip: If true, pip is not installed into the created
                       virtual environment.
         :param progress: If setuptools or pip are installed, the progress of the
                          installation can be monitored by passing a progress
                          callable. If specified, it is called with two
                          arguments: a string indicating some progress, and a
                          context indicating where the string is coming from.
                          The context argument can have one of three values:
                          'main', indicating that it is called from virtualize()
                          itself, and 'stdout' and 'stderr', which are obtained
                          by reading lines from the output streams of a subprocess
                          which is used to install the app.

                          If a callable is not specified, default progress
                          information is output to sys.stderr.
         """

         def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             self.nodist = kwargs.pop('nodist', False)
             self.nopip = kwargs.pop('nopip', False)
             self.progress = kwargs.pop('progress', None)
             self.verbose = kwargs.pop('verbose', False)
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

         def post_setup(self, context):
             """
             Set up any packages which need to be pre-installed into the
             virtual environment being created.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             os.environ['VIRTUAL_ENV'] = context.env_dir
             if not self.nodist:
                 self.install_setuptools(context)
             # Can't install pip without setuptools
             if not self.nopip and not self.nodist:
                 self.install_pip(context)

         def reader(self, stream, context):
             """
             Read lines from a subprocess' output stream and either pass to a progress
             callable (if specified) or write progress information to sys.stderr.
             """
             progress = self.progress
             while True:
                 s = stream.readline()
                 if not s:
                     break
                 if progress is not None:
                     progress(s, context)
                 else:
                     if not self.verbose:
                         sys.stderr.write('.')
                     else:
                         sys.stderr.write(s.decode('utf-8'))
                     sys.stderr.flush()
             stream.close()

         def install_script(self, context, name, url):
             _, _, path, _, _, _ = urlparse(url)
             fn = os.path.split(path)[-1]
             binpath = context.bin_path
             distpath = os.path.join(binpath, fn)
             # Download script into the virtual environment's binaries folder
             urlretrieve(url, distpath)
             progress = self.progress
             if self.verbose:
                 term = '\n'
             else:
                 term = ''
             if progress is not None:
                 progress('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term), 'main')
             else:
                 sys.stderr.write('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term))
                 sys.stderr.flush()
             # Install in the virtual environment
             args = [context.env_exe, fn]
             p = Popen(args, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, cwd=binpath)
             t1 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stdout, 'stdout'))
             t1.start()
             t2 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stderr, 'stderr'))
             t2.start()
             p.wait()
             t1.join()
             t2.join()
             if progress is not None:
                 progress('done.', 'main')
             else:
                 sys.stderr.write('done.\n')
             # Clean up - no longer needed
             os.unlink(distpath)

         def install_setuptools(self, context):
             """
             Install setuptools in the virtual environment.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             url = "https://bootstrap.pypa.io/ez_setup.py"
             self.install_script(context, 'setuptools', url)
             # clear up the setuptools archive which gets downloaded
             pred = lambda o: o.startswith('setuptools-') and o.endswith('.tar.gz')
             files = filter(pred, os.listdir(context.bin_path))
             for f in files:
                 f = os.path.join(context.bin_path, f)
                 os.unlink(f)

         def install_pip(self, context):
             """
             Install pip in the virtual environment.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             url = 'https://bootstrap.pypa.io/get-pip.py'
             self.install_script(context, 'pip', url)


     def main(args=None):
         import argparse

         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog=__name__,
                                          description='Creates virtual Python '
                                                      'environments in one or '
                                                      'more target '
                                                      'directories.')
         parser.add_argument('dirs', metavar='ENV_DIR', nargs='+',
                             help='A directory in which to create the '
                                  'virtual environment.')
         parser.add_argument('--no-setuptools', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='nodist',
                             help="Don't install setuptools or pip in the "
                                  "virtual environment.")
         parser.add_argument('--no-pip', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='nopip',
                             help="Don't install pip in the virtual "
                                  "environment.")
         parser.add_argument('--system-site-packages', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='system_site',
                             help='Give the virtual environment access to the '
                                  'system site-packages dir.')
         if os.name == 'nt':
             use_symlinks = False
         else:
             use_symlinks = True
         parser.add_argument('--symlinks', default=use_symlinks,
                             action='store_true', dest='symlinks',
                             help='Try to use symlinks rather than copies, '
                                  'when symlinks are not the default for '
                                  'the platform.')
         parser.add_argument('--clear', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='clear', help='Delete the contents of the '
                                                'virtual environment '
                                                'directory if it already '
                                                'exists, before virtual '
                                                'environment creation.')
         parser.add_argument('--upgrade', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='upgrade', help='Upgrade the virtual '
                                                  'environment directory to '
                                                  'use this version of '
                                                  'Python, assuming Python '
                                                  'has been upgraded '
                                                  'in-place.')
         parser.add_argument('--verbose', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='verbose', help='Display the output '
                                                  'from the scripts which '
                                                  'install setuptools and pip.')
         options = parser.parse_args(args)
         if options.upgrade and options.clear:
             raise ValueError('you cannot supply --upgrade and --clear together.')
         builder = ExtendedEnvBuilder(system_site_packages=options.system_site,
                                        clear=options.clear,
                                        symlinks=options.symlinks,
                                        upgrade=options.upgrade,
                                        nodist=options.nodist,
                                        nopip=options.nopip,
                                        verbose=options.verbose)
         for d in options.dirs:
             builder.create(d)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         rc = 1
         try:
             main()
             rc = 0
         except Exception as e:
             print('Error: %s' % e, file=sys.stderr)
         sys.exit(rc)

This script is also available for download online(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4673395


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案,  Prev: venv --- 建立虛擬環境,  Up: 軟體封裝與發布

5.28.3 ‘zipapp’ —- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案
---------------------------------------------------

在 3.5 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/zipapp.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides tools to manage the creation of zip files
containing Python code, which can be *note executed directly by the
Python interpreter: 1b1e.  The module provides both a *note
命令執行列介面: 404b. and a *note Python API: 404c.

* Menu:

* 基本範例::
* 命令執行列介面::
* Python API::
* 範例: 範例<43>.
* Specifying the Interpreter::
* Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp::
* The Python Zip Application Archive Format::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/zipapp.py


File: python.info,  Node: 基本範例,  Next: 命令執行列介面,  Up: zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案

5.28.3.1 基本範例
.................

The following example shows how the *note 命令執行列介面: 404b. can be
used to create an executable archive from a directory containing Python
code.  When run, the archive will execute the ‘main’ function from the
module ‘myapp’ in the archive.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp -m "myapp:main"
     $ python myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>


File: python.info,  Node: 命令執行列介面,  Next: Python API,  Prev: 基本範例,  Up: zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案

5.28.3.2 命令執行列介面
.......................

When called as a program from the command line, the following form is
used:

     $ python -m zipapp source [options]

If 'source' is a directory, this will create an archive from the
contents of 'source'.  If 'source' is a file, it should be an archive,
and it will be copied to the target archive (or the contents of its
shebang line will be displayed if the -info option is specified).

The following options are understood:

 -- Option: -o <output>, --output=<output>

     Write the output to a file named 'output'.  If this option is not
     specified, the output filename will be the same as the input
     'source', with the extension ‘.pyz’ added.  If an explicit filename
     is given, it is used as is (so a ‘.pyz’ extension should be
     included if required).

     An output filename must be specified if the 'source' is an archive
     (and in that case, 'output' must not be the same as 'source').

 -- Option: -p <interpreter>, --python=<interpreter>

     Add a ‘#!’ line to the archive specifying 'interpreter' as the
     command to run.  Also, on POSIX, make the archive executable.  The
     default is to write no ‘#!’ line, and not make the file executable.

 -- Option: -m <mainfn>, --main=<mainfn>

     Write a ‘__main__.py’ file to the archive that executes 'mainfn'.
     The 'mainfn' argument should have the form "pkg.mod:fn", where
     "pkg.mod" is a package/module in the archive, and "fn" is a
     callable in the given module.  The ‘__main__.py’ file will execute
     that callable.

     *note -main: 4053. cannot be specified when copying an archive.

 -- Option: -c, --compress

     Compress files with the deflate method, reducing the size of the
     output file.  By default, files are stored uncompressed in the
     archive.

     *note -compress: 4055. has no effect when copying an archive.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- Option: --info

     Display the interpreter embedded in the archive, for diagnostic
     purposes.  In this case, any other options are ignored and SOURCE
     must be an archive, not a directory.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Print a short usage message and exit.


File: python.info,  Node: Python API,  Next: 範例<43>,  Prev: 命令執行列介面,  Up: zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案

5.28.3.3 Python API
...................

The module defines two convenience functions:

 -- 函式: zipapp.create_archive (source, target=None, interpreter=None,
          main=None, filter=None, compressed=False)

     Create an application archive from 'source'.  The source can be any
     of the following:

        * The name of a directory, or a *note path-like object: 975.
          referring to a directory, in which case a new application
          archive will be created from the content of that directory.

        * The name of an existing application archive file, or a *note
          path-like object: 975. referring to such a file, in which case
          the file is copied to the target (modifying it to reflect the
          value given for the 'interpreter' argument).  The file name
          should include the ‘.pyz’ extension, if required.

        * A file object open for reading in bytes mode.  The content of
          the file should be an application archive, and the file object
          is assumed to be positioned at the start of the archive.

     The 'target' argument determines where the resulting archive will
     be written:

        * If it is the name of a file, or a *note path-like object: 975,
          the archive will be written to that file.

        * If it is an open file object, the archive will be written to
          that file object, which must be open for writing in bytes
          mode.

        * If the target is omitted (or ‘None’), the source must be a
          directory and the target will be a file with the same name as
          the source, with a ‘.pyz’ extension added.

     The 'interpreter' argument specifies the name of the Python
     interpreter with which the archive will be executed.  It is written
     as a "shebang" line at the start of the archive.  On POSIX, this
     will be interpreted by the OS, and on Windows it will be handled by
     the Python launcher.  Omitting the 'interpreter' results in no
     shebang line being written.  If an interpreter is specified, and
     the target is a filename, the executable bit of the target file
     will be set.

     The 'main' argument specifies the name of a callable which will be
     used as the main program for the archive.  It can only be specified
     if the source is a directory, and the source does not already
     contain a ‘__main__.py’ file.  The 'main' argument should take the
     form "pkg.module:callable" and the archive will be run by importing
     "pkg.module" and executing the given callable with no arguments.
     It is an error to omit 'main' if the source is a directory and does
     not contain a ‘__main__.py’ file, as otherwise the resulting
     archive would not be executable.

     The optional 'filter' argument specifies a callback function that
     is passed a Path object representing the path to the file being
     added (relative to the source directory).  It should return ‘True’
     if the file is to be added.

     The optional 'compressed' argument determines whether files are
     compressed.  If set to ‘True’, files in the archive are compressed
     with the deflate method; otherwise, files are stored uncompressed.
     This argument has no effect when copying an existing archive.

     If a file object is specified for 'source' or 'target', it is the
     caller's responsibility to close it after calling create_archive.

     When copying an existing archive, file objects supplied only need
     ‘read’ and ‘readline’, or ‘write’ methods.  When creating an
     archive from a directory, if the target is a file object it will be
     passed to the ‘zipfile.ZipFile’ class, and must supply the methods
     needed by that class.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'filter' 與 'compressed' 參數。

 -- 函式: zipapp.get_interpreter (archive)

     Return the interpreter specified in the ‘#!’ line at the start of
     the archive.  If there is no ‘#!’ line, return *note None: 470.
     The 'archive' argument can be a filename or a file-like object open
     for reading in bytes mode.  It is assumed to be at the start of the
     archive.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<43>,  Next: Specifying the Interpreter,  Prev: Python API,  Up: zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案

5.28.3.4 範例
.............

Pack up a directory into an archive, and run it.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp
     $ python myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>

The same can be done using the *note create_archive(): a11. function:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp', 'myapp.pyz')

To make the application directly executable on POSIX, specify an
interpreter to use.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp -p "/usr/bin/env python"
     $ ./myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>

To replace the shebang line on an existing archive, create a modified
archive using the *note create_archive(): a11. function:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('old_archive.pyz', 'new_archive.pyz', '/usr/bin/python3')

To update the file in place, do the replacement in memory using a *note
BytesIO: d24. object, and then overwrite the source afterwards.  Note
that there is a risk when overwriting a file in place that an error will
result in the loss of the original file.  This code does not protect
against such errors, but production code should do so.  Also, this
method will only work if the archive fits in memory:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> import io
     >>> temp = io.BytesIO()
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp.pyz', temp, '/usr/bin/python2')
     >>> with open('myapp.pyz', 'wb') as f:
     >>>     f.write(temp.getvalue())


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying the Interpreter,  Next: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp,  Prev: 範例<43>,  Up: zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案

5.28.3.5 Specifying the Interpreter
...................................

Note that if you specify an interpreter and then distribute your
application archive, you need to ensure that the interpreter used is
portable.  The Python launcher for Windows supports most common forms of
POSIX ‘#!’ line, but there are other issues to consider:

   * If you use "/usr/bin/env python" (or other forms of the "python"
     command, such as "/usr/bin/python"), you need to consider that your
     users may have either Python 2 or Python 3 as their default, and
     write your code to work under both versions.

   * If you use an explicit version, for example "/usr/bin/env python3"
     your application will not work for users who do not have that
     version.  (This may be what you want if you have not made your code
     Python 2 compatible).

   * There is no way to say "python X.Y or later", so be careful of
     using an exact version like "/usr/bin/env python3.4" as you will
     need to change your shebang line for users of Python 3.5, for
     example.

Typically, you should use an "/usr/bin/env python2" or "/usr/bin/env
python3", depending on whether your code is written for Python 2 or 3.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp,  Next: The Python Zip Application Archive Format,  Prev: Specifying the Interpreter,  Up: zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案

5.28.3.6 Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp
.....................................................

Using the *note zipapp: 12a. module, it is possible to create
self-contained Python programs, which can be distributed to end users
who only need to have a suitable version of Python installed on their
system.  The key to doing this is to bundle all of the application's
dependencies into the archive, along with the application code.

The steps to create a standalone archive are as follows:

  1. Create your application in a directory as normal, so you have a
     ‘myapp’ directory containing a ‘__main__.py’ file, and any
     supporting application code.

  2. Install all of your application's dependencies into the ‘myapp’
     directory, using pip:

          $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt --target myapp

     (this assumes you have your project requirements in a
     ‘requirements.txt’ file - if not, you can just list the
     dependencies manually on the pip command line).

  3. Package the application using:

          $ python -m zipapp -p "interpreter" myapp

This will produce a standalone executable, which can be run on any
machine with the appropriate interpreter available.  See *note
Specifying the Interpreter: 405f. for details.  It can be shipped to
users as a single file.

On Unix, the ‘myapp.pyz’ file is executable as it stands.  You can
rename the file to remove the ‘.pyz’ extension if you prefer a "plain"
command name.  On Windows, the ‘myapp.pyz[w]’ file is executable by
virtue of the fact that the Python interpreter registers the ‘.pyz’ and
‘.pyzw’ file extensions when installed.

* Menu:

* Caveats::


File: python.info,  Node: Caveats,  Up: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp

5.28.3.7 Caveats
................

If your application depends on a package that includes a C extension,
that package cannot be run from a zip file (this is an OS limitation, as
executable code must be present in the filesystem for the OS loader to
load it).  In this case, you can exclude that dependency from the
zipfile, and either require your users to have it installed, or ship it
alongside your zipfile and add code to your ‘__main__.py’ to include the
directory containing the unzipped module in ‘sys.path’.  In this case,
you will need to make sure to ship appropriate binaries for your target
architecture(s) (and potentially pick the correct version to add to
‘sys.path’ at runtime, based on the user's machine).


File: python.info,  Node: The Python Zip Application Archive Format,  Prev: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp,  Up: zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案

5.28.3.8 The Python Zip Application Archive Format
..................................................

Python has been able to execute zip files which contain a ‘__main__.py’
file since version 2.6.  In order to be executed by Python, an
application archive simply has to be a standard zip file containing a
‘__main__.py’ file which will be run as the entry point for the
application.  As usual for any Python script, the parent of the script
(in this case the zip file) will be placed on *note sys.path: 35e. and
thus further modules can be imported from the zip file.

The zip file format allows arbitrary data to be prepended to a zip file.
The zip application format uses this ability to prepend a standard POSIX
"shebang" line to the file (‘#!/path/to/interpreter’).

Formally, the Python zip application format is therefore:

  1. An optional shebang line, containing the characters ‘b'#!'’
     followed by an interpreter name, and then a newline (‘b'\n'’)
     character.  The interpreter name can be anything acceptable to the
     OS "shebang" processing, or the Python launcher on Windows.  The
     interpreter should be encoded in UTF-8 on Windows, and in *note
     sys.getfilesystemencoding(): abf. on POSIX.

  2. Standard zipfile data, as generated by the *note zipfile: 12b.
     module.  The zipfile content 'must' include a file called
     ‘__main__.py’ (which must be in the "root" of the zipfile - i.e.,
     it cannot be in a subdirectory).  The zipfile data can be
     compressed or uncompressed.

If an application archive has a shebang line, it may have the executable
bit set on POSIX systems, to allow it to be executed directly.

There is no requirement that the tools in this module are used to create
application archives - the module is a convenience, but archives in the
above format created by any means are acceptable to Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Runtime 服務,  Next: 自訂 Python 直譯器,  Prev: 軟體封裝與發布,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.29 Python Runtime 服務
========================

The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of services
related to the Python interpreter and its interaction with its
environment.  Here's an overview:

* Menu:

* sys: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式. 系統特定的參數與函式
* sys.monitoring: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring. Execution event monitoring
* sysconfig: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取. 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取
* builtins: builtins --- 內建物件. 內建物件
* __main__: __main__ --- 頂層程式碼環境. 頂層程式碼環境
* warnings: warnings --- 警告控制. 警告控制
* dataclasses: dataclasses --- Data Classes. Data Classes
* contextlib: contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts. Utilities for with-statement contexts
* abc: abc --- 抽象基底類別. 抽象基底類別
* atexit: atexit --- 退出處理函式. 退出處理函式
* traceback: traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback. 列印或取得堆疊回溯 (stack traceback)
* __future__: __future__ --- Future 陳述式定義. Future 陳述式定義
* gc: gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface. 垃圾回收器介面 (Garbage Collector interface)
* inspect: inspect --- 檢視活動物件. 檢視活動物件
* site: site --- Site-specific configuration hook. Site-specific configuration hook


File: python.info,  Node: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式,  Next: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.1 ‘sys’ -- 系統特定的參數與函式
------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the
interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the
interpreter.  It is always available.

 -- 資料: sys.abiflags

     On POSIX systems where Python was built with the standard
     ‘configure’ script, this contains the ABI flags as specified by PEP
     3149(1).

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Default flags became an empty string (‘m’ flag for
     pymalloc has been removed).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: sys.addaudithook (hook)

     Append the callable 'hook' to the list of active auditing hooks for
     the current (sub)interpreter.

     When an auditing event is raised through the *note sys.audit():
     174a. function, each hook will be called in the order it was added
     with the event name and the tuple of arguments.  Native hooks added
     by *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 3ef3. are called first, followed by
     hooks added in the current (sub)interpreter.  Hooks can then log
     the event, raise an exception to abort the operation, or terminate
     the process entirely.

     Note that audit hooks are primarily for collecting information
     about internal or otherwise unobservable actions, whether by Python
     or libraries written in Python.  They are not suitable for
     implementing a "sandbox".  In particular, malicious code can
     trivially disable or bypass hooks added using this function.  At a
     minimum, any security-sensitive hooks must be added using the C API
     *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 3ef3. before initialising the runtime,
     and any modules allowing arbitrary memory modification (such as
     *note ctypes: 28.) should be completely removed or closely
     monitored.

     呼叫 *note sys.addaudithook(): 3ef2. 本身會引發一個不帶任何引數、名
     為 ‘sys.addaudithook’ 的稽核事件。如果任何現有的 hook 引發從 *note
     RuntimeError: 17a. 衍生的例外，則不會添加新的 hook 並抑制異常。因此
     ，除非呼叫者控制所有已存在的 hook，他們不能假設他們的 hook 已被添加
     。

     所有會被 CPython 所引發的事件請參考*note 稽核事件總表: 1643.、設計
     相關討論請見 PEP 578(2)。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     在 3.8.1 版的變更: Exceptions derived from *note Exception: 81e.
     but not *note RuntimeError: 17a. are no longer suppressed.

     'CPython 實作細節：' When tracing is enabled (see *note settrace():
     1377.), Python hooks are only traced if the callable has a
     ‘__cantrace__’ member that is set to a true value.  Otherwise,
     trace functions will skip the hook.

 -- 資料: sys.argv

     The list of command line arguments passed to a Python script.
     ‘argv[0]’ is the script name (it is operating system dependent
     whether this is a full pathname or not).  If the command was
     executed using the *note -c: 3d3. command line option to the
     interpreter, ‘argv[0]’ is set to the string ‘'-c'’.  If no script
     name was passed to the Python interpreter, ‘argv[0]’ is the empty
     string.

     To loop over the standard input, or the list of files given on the
     command line, see the *note fileinput: 56. module.

     另請參閱 *note sys.orig_argv: 667.。

          備註: On Unix, command line arguments are passed by bytes from
          OS. Python decodes them with filesystem encoding and
          "surrogateescape" error handler.  When you need original
          bytes, you can get it by ‘[os.fsencode(arg) for arg in
          sys.argv]’.

 -- 函式: sys.audit (event, *args)

     Raise an auditing event and trigger any active auditing hooks.
     'event' is a string identifying the event, and 'args' may contain
     optional arguments with more information about the event.  The
     number and types of arguments for a given event are considered a
     public and stable API and should not be modified between releases.

     舉例來說，一個名為 ‘os.chdir’ 的稽核事件擁有一個引數 'path'，其內容
     為所要求的新工作目錄。

     *note sys.audit(): 174a. will call the existing auditing hooks,
     passing the event name and arguments, and will re-raise the first
     exception from any hook.  In general, if an exception is raised, it
     should not be handled and the process should be terminated as
     quickly as possible.  This allows hook implementations to decide
     how to respond to particular events: they can merely log the event
     or abort the operation by raising an exception.

     Hooks are added using the *note sys.addaudithook(): 3ef2. or *note
     PySys_AddAuditHook(): 3ef3. functions.

     The native equivalent of this function is *note PySys_Audit():
     175a.  Using the native function is preferred when possible.

     所有會被 CPython 所引發的事件請參考*note 稽核事件總表: 1643.。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 資料: sys.base_exec_prefix

     Set during Python startup, before ‘site.py’ is run, to the same
     value as *note exec_prefix: 35c.  If not running in a *note virtual
     environment: 403a, the values will stay the same; if ‘site.py’
     finds that a virtual environment is in use, the values of *note
     prefix: 360. and *note exec_prefix: 35c. will be changed to point
     to the virtual environment, whereas *note base_prefix: 39a0. and
     *note base_exec_prefix: 403e. will remain pointing to the base
     Python installation (the one which the virtual environment was
     created from).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: sys.base_prefix

     Set during Python startup, before ‘site.py’ is run, to the same
     value as *note prefix: 360.  If not running in a *note virtual
     environment: 403a, the values will stay the same; if ‘site.py’
     finds that a virtual environment is in use, the values of *note
     prefix: 360. and *note exec_prefix: 35c. will be changed to point
     to the virtual environment, whereas *note base_prefix: 39a0. and
     *note base_exec_prefix: 403e. will remain pointing to the base
     Python installation (the one which the virtual environment was
     created from).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: sys.byteorder

     An indicator of the native byte order.  This will have the value
     ‘'big'’ on big-endian (most-significant byte first) platforms, and
     ‘'little'’ on little-endian (least-significant byte first)
     platforms.

 -- 資料: sys.builtin_module_names

     A tuple of strings containing the names of all modules that are
     compiled into this Python interpreter.  (This information is not
     available in any other way -- ‘modules.keys()’ only lists the
     imported modules.)

     另請參閱 *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 668. 清單。

 -- 函式: sys.call_tracing (func, args)

     Call ‘func(*args)’, while tracing is enabled.  The tracing state is
     saved, and restored afterwards.  This is intended to be called from
     a debugger from a checkpoint, to recursively debug or profile some
     other code.

     Tracing is suspended while calling a tracing function set by *note
     settrace(): 1377. or *note setprofile(): 1376. to avoid infinite
     recursion.  ‘call_tracing()’ enables explicit recursion of the
     tracing function.

 -- 資料: sys.copyright

     A string containing the copyright pertaining to the Python
     interpreter.

 -- 函式: sys._clear_type_cache ()

     Clear the internal type cache.  The type cache is used to speed up
     attribute and method lookups.  Use the function 'only' to drop
     unnecessary references during reference leak debugging.

     This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes
     only.

 -- 函式: sys._current_frames ()

     Return a dictionary mapping each thread's identifier to the topmost
     stack frame currently active in that thread at the time the
     function is called.  Note that functions in the *note traceback:
     f9. module can build the call stack given such a frame.

     This is most useful for debugging deadlock: this function does not
     require the deadlocked threads' cooperation, and such threads' call
     stacks are frozen for as long as they remain deadlocked.  The frame
     returned for a non-deadlocked thread may bear no relationship to
     that thread's current activity by the time calling code examines
     the frame.

     This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes
     only.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘sys._current_frames’。

 -- 函式: sys._current_exceptions ()

     Return a dictionary mapping each thread's identifier to the topmost
     exception currently active in that thread at the time the function
     is called.  If a thread is not currently handling an exception, it
     is not included in the result dictionary.

     This is most useful for statistical profiling.

     This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes
     only.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘sys._current_exceptions’。

     在 3.12 版的變更: Each value in the dictionary is now a single
     exception instance, rather than a 3-tuple as returned from
     ‘sys.exc_info()’.

 -- 函式: sys.breakpointhook ()

     This hook function is called by built-in *note breakpoint(): 917.
     By default, it drops you into the *note pdb: a0. debugger, but it
     can be set to any other function so that you can choose which
     debugger gets used.

     The signature of this function is dependent on what it calls.  For
     example, the default binding (e.g.  ‘pdb.set_trace()’) expects no
     arguments, but you might bind it to a function that expects
     additional arguments (positional and/or keyword).  The built-in
     ‘breakpoint()’ function passes its ‘*args’ and ‘**kws’ straight
     through.  Whatever ‘breakpointhooks()’ returns is returned from
     ‘breakpoint()’.

     The default implementation first consults the environment variable
     *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: 92f.  If that is set to ‘"0"’ then this
     function returns immediately; i.e.  it is a no-op.  If the
     environment variable is not set, or is set to the empty string,
     ‘pdb.set_trace()’ is called.  Otherwise this variable should name a
     function to run, using Python's dotted-import nomenclature, e.g.
     ‘package.subpackage.module.function’.  In this case,
     ‘package.subpackage.module’ would be imported and the resulting
     module must have a callable named ‘function()’.  This is run,
     passing in ‘*args’ and ‘**kws’, and whatever ‘function()’ returns,
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ returns to the built-in *note breakpoint():
     917. function.

     Note that if anything goes wrong while importing the callable named
     by *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: 92f, a *note RuntimeWarning: 8e7. is
     reported and the breakpoint is ignored.

     Also note that if ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ is overridden
     programmatically, *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: 92f. is 'not' consulted.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys._debugmallocstats ()

     Print low-level information to stderr about the state of CPython's
     memory allocator.

     If Python is *note built in debug mode: 69f. (*note configure
     -with-pydebug option: 1b76.), it also performs some expensive
     internal consistency checks.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     'CPython 實作細節：' This function is specific to CPython.  The
     exact output format is not defined here, and may change.

 -- 資料: sys.dllhandle

     Integer specifying the handle of the Python DLL.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

 -- 函式: sys.displayhook (value)

     If 'value' is not ‘None’, this function prints ‘repr(value)’ to
     ‘sys.stdout’, and saves 'value' in ‘builtins._’.  If ‘repr(value)’
     is not encodable to ‘sys.stdout.encoding’ with ‘sys.stdout.errors’
     error handler (which is probably ‘'strict'’), encode it to
     ‘sys.stdout.encoding’ with ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler.

     ‘sys.displayhook’ is called on the result of evaluating an *note
     expression: 1d18. entered in an interactive Python session.  The
     display of these values can be customized by assigning another
     one-argument function to ‘sys.displayhook’.

     Pseudo-code:

          def displayhook(value):
              if value is None:
                  return
              # Set '_' to None to avoid recursion
              builtins._ = None
              text = repr(value)
              try:
                  sys.stdout.write(text)
              except UnicodeEncodeError:
                  bytes = text.encode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'backslashreplace')
                  if hasattr(sys.stdout, 'buffer'):
                      sys.stdout.buffer.write(bytes)
                  else:
                      text = bytes.decode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'strict')
                      sys.stdout.write(text)
              sys.stdout.write("\n")
              builtins._ = value

     在 3.2 版的變更: Use ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler on *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 473.

 -- 資料: sys.dont_write_bytecode

     If this is true, Python won't try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
     import of source modules.  This value is initially set to ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ depending on the *note -B: 123c. command line option and
     the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 123d. environment variable, but
     you can set it yourself to control bytecode file generation.

 -- 資料: sys._emscripten_info

     A *note named tuple: 449. holding information about the environment
     on the 'wasm32-emscripten' platform.  The named tuple is
     provisional and may change in the future.

      -- 屬性: _emscripten_info.emscripten_version

          Emscripten version as tuple of ints (major, minor, micro),
          e.g.  ‘(3, 1, 8)’.

      -- 屬性: _emscripten_info.runtime

          運行環境字串，例如瀏覽器使用者代理 (browser user agent)
          ‘'Node.js v14.18.2'’ 或 ‘'UNKNOWN'’。

      -- 屬性: _emscripten_info.pthreads

          ‘True’ if Python is compiled with Emscripten pthreads support.

      -- 屬性: _emscripten_info.shared_memory

          ‘True’ if Python is compiled with shared memory support.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Emscripten.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 資料: sys.pycache_prefix

     If this is set (not ‘None’), Python will write bytecode-cache
     ‘.pyc’ files to (and read them from) a parallel directory tree
     rooted at this directory, rather than from ‘__pycache__’
     directories in the source code tree.  Any ‘__pycache__’ directories
     in the source code tree will be ignored and new ‘.pyc’ files
     written within the pycache prefix.  Thus if you use *note
     compileall: 1e. as a pre-build step, you must ensure you run it
     with the same pycache prefix (if any) that you will use at runtime.

     A relative path is interpreted relative to the current working
     directory.

     This value is initially set based on the value of the *note -X:
     188. ‘pycache_prefix=PATH’ command-line option or the *note
     PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 7e7. environment variable (command-line takes
     precedence).  If neither are set, it is ‘None’.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.excepthook (type, value, traceback)

     This function prints out a given traceback and exception to
     ‘sys.stderr’.

     When an exception other than *note SystemExit: bb2. is raised and
     uncaught, the interpreter calls ‘sys.excepthook’ with three
     arguments, the exception class, exception instance, and a traceback
     object.  In an interactive session this happens just before control
     is returned to the prompt; in a Python program this happens just
     before the program exits.  The handling of such top-level
     exceptions can be customized by assigning another three-argument
     function to ‘sys.excepthook’.

     Raise an auditing event ‘sys.excepthook’ with arguments ‘hook’,
     ‘type’, ‘value’, ‘traceback’ when an uncaught exception occurs.  If
     no hook has been set, ‘hook’ may be ‘None’.  If any hook raises an
     exception derived from *note RuntimeError: 17a. the call to the
     hook will be suppressed.  Otherwise, the audit hook exception will
     be reported as unraisable and ‘sys.excepthook’ will be called.

     也參考
     ......

     The *note sys.unraisablehook(): 479. function handles unraisable
     exceptions and the *note threading.excepthook(): 672. function
     handles exception raised by *note threading.Thread.run(): 886.

 -- 資料: sys.__breakpointhook__
 -- 資料: sys.__displayhook__
 -- 資料: sys.__excepthook__
 -- 資料: sys.__unraisablehook__

     These objects contain the original values of ‘breakpointhook’,
     ‘displayhook’, ‘excepthook’, and ‘unraisablehook’ at the start of
     the program.  They are saved so that ‘breakpointhook’,
     ‘displayhook’ and ‘excepthook’, ‘unraisablehook’ can be restored in
     case they happen to get replaced with broken or alternative
     objects.

     在 3.7 版被加入: __breakpointhook__

     在 3.8 版被加入: __unraisablehook__

 -- 函式: sys.exception ()

     This function, when called while an exception handler is executing
     (such as an ‘except’ or ‘except*’ clause), returns the exception
     instance that was caught by this handler.  When exception handlers
     are nested within one another, only the exception handled by the
     innermost handler is accessible.

     If no exception handler is executing, this function returns ‘None’.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.exc_info ()

     This function returns the old-style representation of the handled
     exception.  If an exception ‘e’ is currently handled (so *note
     exception(): 488. would return ‘e’), *note exc_info(): 487. returns
     the tuple ‘(type(e), e, e.__traceback__)’.  That is, a tuple
     containing the type of the exception (a subclass of *note
     BaseException: 3ab.), the exception itself, and a *note traceback
     object: 949. which typically encapsulates the call stack at the
     point where the exception last occurred.

     If no exception is being handled anywhere on the stack, this
     function return a tuple containing three ‘None’ values.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ fields are now derived
     from the ‘value’ (the exception instance), so when an exception is
     modified while it is being handled, the changes are reflected in
     the results of subsequent calls to *note exc_info(): 487.

 -- 資料: sys.exec_prefix

     A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the
     platform-dependent Python files are installed; by default, this is
     also ‘'/usr/local'’.  This can be set at build time with the
     ‘--exec-prefix’ argument to the ‘configure’ script.  Specifically,
     all configuration files (e.g.  the ‘pyconfig.h’ header file) are
     installed in the directory ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/config’,
     and shared library modules are installed in
     ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/lib-dynload’, where 'X.Y' is the
     version number of Python, for example ‘3.2’.

          備註: If a *note virtual environment: 403a. is in effect, this
          value will be changed in ‘site.py’ to point to the virtual
          environment.  The value for the Python installation will still
          be available, via *note base_exec_prefix: 403e.

 -- 資料: sys.executable

     A string giving the absolute path of the executable binary for the
     Python interpreter, on systems where this makes sense.  If Python
     is unable to retrieve the real path to its executable, *note
     sys.executable: 362. will be an empty string or ‘None’.

 -- 函式: sys.exit ([arg])

     Raise a *note SystemExit: bb2. exception, signaling an intention to
     exit the interpreter.

     The optional argument 'arg' can be an integer giving the exit
     status (defaulting to zero), or another type of object.  If it is
     an integer, zero is considered "successful termination" and any
     nonzero value is considered "abnormal termination" by shells and
     the like.  Most systems require it to be in the range 0-127, and
     produce undefined results otherwise.  Some systems have a
     convention for assigning specific meanings to specific exit codes,
     but these are generally underdeveloped; Unix programs generally use
     2 for command line syntax errors and 1 for all other kind of
     errors.  If another type of object is passed, ‘None’ is equivalent
     to passing zero, and any other object is printed to *note stderr:
     778. and results in an exit code of 1.  In particular,
     ‘sys.exit("some error message")’ is a quick way to exit a program
     when an error occurs.

     Since *note exit(): 1f1f. ultimately "only" raises an exception, it
     will only exit the process when called from the main thread, and
     the exception is not intercepted.  Cleanup actions specified by
     finally clauses of *note try: 4ea. statements are honored, and it
     is possible to intercept the exit attempt at an outer level.

     在 3.6 版的變更: If an error occurs in the cleanup after the Python
     interpreter has caught *note SystemExit: bb2. (such as an error
     flushing buffered data in the standard streams), the exit status is
     changed to 120.

 -- 資料: sys.flags

     The *note named tuple: 449. 'flags' exposes the status of command
     line flags.  The attributes are read only.

      -- 屬性: flags.debug                                  *note -d: 1b26.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.inspect                                *note -i: 1352.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.interactive                            *note -i: 1352.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.isolated                               *note -I: 79f.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.optimize                               *note -O: c2c. 或 *note -OO: c2d.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.dont_write_bytecode                    *note -B: 123c.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.no_user_site                           *note -s: 121a.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.no_site                                *note -S: 103a.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.ignore_environment                     *note -E: 79e.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.verbose                                *note -v: 1295.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.bytes_warning                          *note -b: 3d7.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.quiet                                  *note -q: 1b29.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.hash_randomization                     *note -R: 1885.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.dev_mode                               *note -X dev: 188. （*note Python 開發模式: 703.）
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.utf8_mode                              *note -X utf8: 188.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.safe_path                              *note -P: 391.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.int_max_str_digits                     *note -X int_max_str_digits: 188.
                                                            (*note integer string conversion length limitation: 3ea.)
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 屬性: flags.warn_default_encoding                  *note -X warn_default_encoding: 188.
                                                            

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 ‘quiet’ 屬性，用於新的 *note -q: 1b29. 旗標。

     在 3.2.3 版被加入: ‘hash_randomization’ 屬性。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 移除過時的 ‘division_warning’ 屬性。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 ‘isolated’ 屬性，用於 *note -I: 79f.
     ‘isolated’ 旗標。

     在 3.7 版的變更: Added the ‘dev_mode’ attribute for the new *note
     Python Development Mode: 703. and the ‘utf8_mode’ attribute for the
     new *note -X: 188. ‘utf8’ flag.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 ‘warn_default_encoding’ 屬性，用於 *note -X:
     188. ‘warn_default_encoding’ 旗標。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 ‘safe_path’ 屬性，用於 *note -P: 391. 選項。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 ‘int_max_str_digits’ 屬性。

 -- 資料: sys.float_info

     A *note named tuple: 449. holding information about the float type.
     It contains low level information about the precision and internal
     representation.  The values correspond to the various
     floating-point constants defined in the standard header file
     ‘float.h’ for the 'C' programming language; see section 5.2.4.2.2
     of the 1999 ISO/IEC C standard *note [C99]: 4085, 'Characteristics
     of floating types', for details.  Attributes of the ‘float_info’
     named tuple

     屬性                                  float.h macro                         解釋
                                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                 
      -- 屬性: float_info.epsilon          ‘DBL_EPSILON’                         difference between 1.0 and the
                                                                                 least value greater than 1.0 that
                                                                                 is representable as a float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 另請參閱 *note math.ulp(): 74e.。
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 屬性: float_info.dig              ‘DBL_DIG’                             The maximum number of decimal
                                                                                 digits that can be faithfully
                                                                                 represented in a float; see below.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 屬性: float_info.mant_dig         ‘DBL_MANT_DIG’                        Float precision: the number of
                                                                                 base-‘radix’ digits in the
                                                                                 significand of a float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 屬性: float_info.max              ‘DBL_MAX’                             The maximum representable positive
                                                                                 finite float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 屬性: float_info.max_exp          ‘DBL_MAX_EXP’                         The maximum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a representable
                                                                                 finite float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 屬性: float_info.max_10_exp       ‘DBL_MAX_10_EXP’                      The maximum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘10**e’ is in the range of
                                                                                 representable finite floats.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 屬性: float_info.min              ‘DBL_MIN’                             The minimum representable positive
                                                                                 'normalized' float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 Use *note math.ulp(0.0): 74e. to
                                                                                 get the smallest positive
                                                                                 'denormalized' representable float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 屬性: float_info.min_exp          ‘DBL_MIN_EXP’                         The minimum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a normalized
                                                                                 float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 屬性: float_info.min_10_exp       ‘DBL_MIN_10_EXP’                      The minimum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘10**e’ is a normalized float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 屬性: float_info.radix            ‘FLT_RADIX’                           The radix of exponent
                                                                                 representation.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 屬性: float_info.rounds           ‘FLT_ROUNDS’                          An integer representing the
                                                                                 rounding mode for floating-point
                                                                                 arithmetic.  This reflects the
                                                                                 value of the system ‘FLT_ROUNDS’
                                                                                 macro at interpreter startup time:
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘-1’: indeterminable
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘0’: toward zero
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘1’: to nearest
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘2’: toward positive infinity
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘3’: toward negative infinity
                                                                                 
                                                                                 All other values for ‘FLT_ROUNDS’
                                                                                 characterize implementation-defined
                                                                                 rounding behavior.
                                                                                 

     The attribute *note sys.float_info.dig: 4087. needs further
     explanation.  If ‘s’ is any string representing a decimal number
     with at most ‘sys.float_info.dig’ significant digits, then
     converting ‘s’ to a float and back again will recover a string
     representing the same decimal value:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.float_info.dig
          15
          >>> s = '3.14159265358979'    # decimal string with 15 significant digits
          >>> format(float(s), '.15g')  # convert to float and back -> same value
          '3.14159265358979'

     But for strings with more than *note sys.float_info.dig: 4087.
     significant digits, this isn't always true:

          >>> s = '9876543211234567'    # 16 significant digits is too many!
          >>> format(float(s), '.16g')  # conversion changes value
          '9876543211234568'

 -- 資料: sys.float_repr_style

     A string indicating how the *note repr(): 61e. function behaves for
     floats.  If the string has value ‘'short'’ then for a finite float
     ‘x’, ‘repr(x)’ aims to produce a short string with the property
     that ‘float(repr(x)) == x’.  This is the usual behaviour in Python
     3.1 and later.  Otherwise, ‘float_repr_style’ has value ‘'legacy'’
     and ‘repr(x)’ behaves in the same way as it did in versions of
     Python prior to 3.1.

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.getallocatedblocks ()

     Return the number of memory blocks currently allocated by the
     interpreter, regardless of their size.  This function is mainly
     useful for tracking and debugging memory leaks.  Because of the
     interpreter's internal caches, the result can vary from call to
     call; you may have to call *note _clear_type_cache(): 4069. and
     *note gc.collect(): 883. to get more predictable results.

     If a Python build or implementation cannot reasonably compute this
     information, *note getallocatedblocks(): e57. is allowed to return
     0 instead.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.getunicodeinternedsize ()

     Return the number of unicode objects that have been interned.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.getandroidapilevel ()

     Return the build time API version of Android as an integer.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Android.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.getdefaultencoding ()

     Return the name of the current default string encoding used by the
     Unicode implementation.

 -- 函式: sys.getdlopenflags ()

     Return the current value of the flags that are used for ‘dlopen()’
     calls.  Symbolic names for the flag values can be found in the
     *note os: 9c. module (‘RTLD_XXX’ constants, e.g.  *note
     os.RTLD_LAZY: fa6.).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: sys.getfilesystemencoding ()

     Get the *note filesystem encoding: 2bd.: the encoding used with the
     *note filesystem error handler: 2bd. to convert between Unicode
     filenames and bytes filenames.  The filesystem error handler is
     returned from *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): b53.

     For best compatibility, str should be used for filenames in all
     cases, although representing filenames as bytes is also supported.
     Functions accepting or returning filenames should support either
     str or bytes and internally convert to the system's preferred
     representation.

     *note os.fsencode(): abb. and *note os.fsdecode(): aba. should be
     used to ensure that the correct encoding and errors mode are used.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd. are
     configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa.
     function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 340. and *note
     filesystem_errors: 341. members of *note PyConfig: 345.

     在 3.2 版的變更: *note getfilesystemencoding(): abf. 的結果不再為
     ‘None’。

     在 3.6 版的變更: Windows is no longer guaranteed to return
     ‘'mbcs'’.  See PEP 529(3) and *note
     _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): ac1. for more information.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Return ‘'utf-8'’ if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode:
     451. is enabled.

 -- 函式: sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors ()

     Get the *note filesystem error handler: 2bd.: the error handler
     used with the *note filesystem encoding: 2bd. to convert between
     Unicode filenames and bytes filenames.  The filesystem encoding is
     returned from *note getfilesystemencoding(): abf.

     *note os.fsencode(): abb. and *note os.fsdecode(): aba. should be
     used to ensure that the correct encoding and errors mode are used.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd. are
     configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa.
     function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 340. and *note
     filesystem_errors: 341. members of *note PyConfig: 345.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.get_int_max_str_digits ()

     Returns the current value for the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 3ea.  See also *note set_int_max_str_digits():
     158a.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.getrefcount (object)

     Return the reference count of the 'object'.  The count returned is
     generally one higher than you might expect, because it includes the
     (temporary) reference as an argument to *note getrefcount(): 4093.

     Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many
     references to the object are actually held.  For example, some
     objects are "immortal" and have a very high refcount that does not
     reflect the actual number of references.  Consequently, do not rely
     on the returned value to be accurate, other than a value of 0 or 1.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Immortal objects have very large refcounts that
     do not match the actual number of references to the object.

 -- 函式: sys.getrecursionlimit ()

     Return the current value of the recursion limit, the maximum depth
     of the Python interpreter stack.  This limit prevents infinite
     recursion from causing an overflow of the C stack and crashing
     Python.  It can be set by *note setrecursionlimit(): 1ea.

 -- 函式: sys.getsizeof (object[, default])

     Return the size of an object in bytes.  The object can be any type
     of object.  All built-in objects will return correct results, but
     this does not have to hold true for third-party extensions as it is
     implementation specific.

     Only the memory consumption directly attributed to the object is
     accounted for, not the memory consumption of objects it refers to.

     If given, 'default' will be returned if the object does not provide
     means to retrieve the size.  Otherwise a *note TypeError: 2ba. will
     be raised.

     *note getsizeof(): 1531. calls the object's ‘__sizeof__’ method and
     adds an additional garbage collector overhead if the object is
     managed by the garbage collector.

     See recursive sizeof recipe(4) for an example of using *note
     getsizeof(): 1531. recursively to find the size of containers and
     all their contents.

 -- 函式: sys.getswitchinterval ()

     Return the interpreter's "thread switch interval"; see *note
     setswitchinterval(): 78b.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys._getframe ([depth])

     Return a frame object from the call stack.  If optional integer
     'depth' is given, return the frame object that many calls below the
     top of the stack.  If that is deeper than the call stack, *note
     ValueError: 183. is raised.  The default for 'depth' is zero,
     returning the frame at the top of the call stack.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘frame’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘sys._getframe’。

     'CPython 實作細節：' This function should be used for internal and
     specialized purposes only.  It is not guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.

 -- 函式: sys._getframemodulename ([depth])

     Return the name of a module from the call stack.  If optional
     integer 'depth' is given, return the module that many calls below
     the top of the stack.  If that is deeper than the call stack, or if
     the module is unidentifiable, ‘None’ is returned.  The default for
     'depth' is zero, returning the module at the top of the call stack.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘depth’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘sys._getframemodulename’。

     'CPython 實作細節：' This function should be used for internal and
     specialized purposes only.  It is not guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.

 -- 函式: sys.getprofile ()

     Get the profiler function as set by *note setprofile(): 1376.

 -- 函式: sys.gettrace ()

     Get the trace function as set by *note settrace(): 1377.

     'CPython 實作細節：' The *note gettrace(): 1250. function is
     intended only for implementing debuggers, profilers, coverage tools
     and the like.  Its behavior is part of the implementation platform,
     rather than part of the language definition, and thus may not be
     available in all Python implementations.

 -- 函式: sys.getwindowsversion ()

     Return a named tuple describing the Windows version currently
     running.  The named elements are 'major', 'minor', 'build',
     'platform', 'service_pack', 'service_pack_minor',
     'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask', 'product_type' and
     'platform_version'.  'service_pack' contains a string,
     'platform_version' a 3-tuple and all other values are integers.
     The components can also be accessed by name, so
     ‘sys.getwindowsversion()[0]’ is equivalent to
     ‘sys.getwindowsversion().major’.  For compatibility with prior
     versions, only the first 5 elements are retrievable by indexing.

     'platform' will be ‘2’ (VER_PLATFORM_WIN32_NT).

     'product_type' may be one of the following values:

     Constant                                    含義
                                                 
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     ‘1’ (VER_NT_WORKSTATION)                    The system is a workstation.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘2’ (VER_NT_DOMAIN_CONTROLLER)              The system is a domain controller.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘3’ (VER_NT_SERVER)                         The system is a server, but not a
                                                 domain controller.
                                                 

     This function wraps the Win32 ‘GetVersionEx()’ function; see the
     Microsoft documentation on ‘OSVERSIONINFOEX()’ for more information
     about these fields.

     'platform_version' returns the major version, minor version and
     build number of the current operating system, rather than the
     version that is being emulated for the process.  It is intended for
     use in logging rather than for feature detection.

          備註: 'platform_version' derives the version from kernel32.dll
          which can be of a different version than the OS version.
          Please use *note platform: a5. module for achieving accurate
          OS version.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Changed to a named tuple and added
     'service_pack_minor', 'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask', and
     'product_type'.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'platform_version'

 -- 函式: sys.get_asyncgen_hooks ()

     Returns an 'asyncgen_hooks' object, which is similar to a *note
     namedtuple: 731. of the form ‘(firstiter, finalizer)’, where
     'firstiter' and 'finalizer' are expected to be either ‘None’ or
     functions which take an *note asynchronous generator iterator:
     4094. as an argument, and are used to schedule finalization of an
     asynchronous generator by an event loop.

     在 3.6 版被加入: 更多細節請見 PEP 525(5)。

          備註: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see
          PEP 411(6) for details.)

 -- 函式: sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth ()

     Get the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by *note
     set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): 9eb.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

          備註: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see
          PEP 411(7) for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.

 -- 資料: sys.hash_info

     A *note named tuple: 449. giving parameters of the numeric hash
     implementation.  For more details about hashing of numeric types,
     see *note 數值型別的雜湊: 1f36.

      -- 屬性: hash_info.width

          The width in bits used for hash values

      -- 屬性: hash_info.modulus

          The prime modulus P used for numeric hash scheme

      -- 屬性: hash_info.inf

          The hash value returned for a positive infinity

      -- 屬性: hash_info.nan

          (This attribute is no longer used)

      -- 屬性: hash_info.imag

          The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number

      -- 屬性: hash_info.algorithm

          The name of the algorithm for hashing of str, bytes, and
          memoryview

      -- 屬性: hash_info.hash_bits

          The internal output size of the hash algorithm

      -- 屬性: hash_info.seed_bits

          The size of the seed key of the hash algorithm

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'algorithm'、'hash_bits' 與 'seed_bits'

 -- 資料: sys.hexversion

     The version number encoded as a single integer.  This is guaranteed
     to increase with each version, including proper support for
     non-production releases.  For example, to test that the Python
     interpreter is at least version 1.5.2, use:

          if sys.hexversion >= 0x010502F0:
              # use some advanced feature
              ...
          else:
              # use an alternative implementation or warn the user
              ...

     This is called ‘hexversion’ since it only really looks meaningful
     when viewed as the result of passing it to the built-in *note
     hex(): 115f. function.  The *note named tuple: 449. *note
     sys.version_info: 49c. may be used for a more human-friendly
     encoding of the same information.

     More details of ‘hexversion’ can be found at *note API 和 ABI
     版本管理: 409d.

 -- 資料: sys.implementation

     An object containing information about the implementation of the
     currently running Python interpreter.  The following attributes are
     required to exist in all Python implementations.

     'name' is the implementation's identifier, e.g.  ‘'cpython'’.  The
     actual string is defined by the Python implementation, but it is
     guaranteed to be lower case.

     'version' is a named tuple, in the same format as *note
     sys.version_info: 49c.  It represents the version of the Python
     'implementation'.  This has a distinct meaning from the specific
     version of the Python 'language' to which the currently running
     interpreter conforms, which ‘sys.version_info’ represents.  For
     example, for PyPy 1.8 ‘sys.implementation.version’ might be
     ‘sys.version_info(1, 8, 0, 'final', 0)’, whereas ‘sys.version_info’
     would be ‘sys.version_info(2, 7, 2, 'final', 0)’.  For CPython they
     are the same value, since it is the reference implementation.

     'hexversion' is the implementation version in hexadecimal format,
     like *note sys.hexversion: 409c.

     'cache_tag' is the tag used by the import machinery in the
     filenames of cached modules.  By convention, it would be a
     composite of the implementation's name and version, like
     ‘'cpython-33'’.  However, a Python implementation may use some
     other value if appropriate.  If ‘cache_tag’ is set to ‘None’, it
     indicates that module caching should be disabled.

     *note sys.implementation: 297. may contain additional attributes
     specific to the Python implementation.  These non-standard
     attributes must start with an underscore, and are not described
     here.  Regardless of its contents, *note sys.implementation: 297.
     will not change during a run of the interpreter, nor between
     implementation versions.  (It may change between Python language
     versions, however.)  See PEP 421(8) for more information.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

          備註: The addition of new required attributes must go through
          the normal PEP process.  See PEP 421(9) for more information.

 -- 資料: sys.int_info

     A *note named tuple: 449. that holds information about Python's
     internal representation of integers.  The attributes are read only.

      -- 屬性: int_info.bits_per_digit

          The number of bits held in each digit.  Python integers are
          stored internally in base ‘2**int_info.bits_per_digit’.

      -- 屬性: int_info.sizeof_digit

          The size in bytes of the C type used to represent a digit.

      -- 屬性: int_info.default_max_str_digits

          The default value for *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits():
          2015. when it is not otherwise explicitly configured.

      -- 屬性: int_info.str_digits_check_threshold

          The minimum non-zero value for *note
          sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 158a, *note
          PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1589, or *note -X int_max_str_digits:
          188.

     在 3.1 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 *note default_max_str_digits: 2014. 和 *note
     str_digits_check_threshold: 40a0.。

 -- 資料: sys.__interactivehook__

     When this attribute exists, its value is automatically called (with
     no arguments) when the interpreter is launched in *note interactive
     mode: e58.  This is done after the *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e5a. file
     is read, so that you can set this hook there.  The *note site: c2.
     module *note sets this: e5b.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 168e. ‘cpython.run_interactivehook’
     with the hook object as the argument when the hook is called on
     startup.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.intern (string)

     Enter 'string' in the table of "interned" strings and return the
     interned string - which is 'string' itself or a copy.  Interning
     strings is useful to gain a little performance on dictionary lookup
     - if the keys in a dictionary are interned, and the lookup key is
     interned, the key comparisons (after hashing) can be done by a
     pointer compare instead of a string compare.  Normally, the names
     used in Python programs are automatically interned, and the
     dictionaries used to hold module, class or instance attributes have
     interned keys.

     Interned strings are not immortal; you must keep a reference to the
     return value of *note intern(): 116c. around to benefit from it.

 -- 函式: sys.is_finalizing ()

     Return *note True: a70. if the Python interpreter is *note shutting
     down: cf3, *note False: 98f. otherwise.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 資料: sys.last_exc

     This variable is not always defined; it is set to the exception
     instance when an exception is not handled and the interpreter
     prints an error message and a stack traceback.  Its intended use is
     to allow an interactive user to import a debugger module and engage
     in post-mortem debugging without having to re-execute the command
     that caused the error.  (Typical use is ‘import pdb; pdb.pm()’ to
     enter the post-mortem debugger; see *note pdb: a0. module for more
     information.)

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 資料: sys.last_type
 -- 資料: sys.last_value
 -- 資料: sys.last_traceback

     These three variables are deprecated; use *note sys.last_exc: 1e5.
     instead.  They hold the legacy representation of ‘sys.last_exc’, as
     returned from *note exc_info(): 487. above.

 -- 資料: sys.maxsize

     An integer giving the maximum value a variable of type *note
     Py_ssize_t: 8ab. can take.  It's usually ‘2**31 - 1’ on a 32-bit
     platform and ‘2**63 - 1’ on a 64-bit platform.

 -- 資料: sys.maxunicode

     An integer giving the value of the largest Unicode code point, i.e.
     ‘1114111’ (‘0x10FFFF’ in hexadecimal).

     在 3.3 版的變更: Before PEP 393(10), ‘sys.maxunicode’ used to be
     either ‘0xFFFF’ or ‘0x10FFFF’, depending on the configuration
     option that specified whether Unicode characters were stored as
     UCS-2 or UCS-4.

 -- 資料: sys.meta_path

     A list of *note meta path finder: f06. objects that have their
     *note find_spec(): 694. methods called to see if one of the objects
     can find the module to be imported.  By default, it holds entries
     that implement Python's default import semantics.  The *note
     find_spec(): 694. method is called with at least the absolute name
     of the module being imported.  If the module to be imported is
     contained in a package, then the parent package's *note __path__:
     1a63. attribute is passed in as a second argument.  The method
     returns a *note module spec: 1ca6, or ‘None’ if the module cannot
     be found.

     也參考
     ......

     *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 69a.

          The abstract base class defining the interface of finder
          objects on *note meta_path: b9d.

     *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1ca9.

          The concrete class which *note find_spec(): 694. should return
          instances of.

     在 3.4 版的變更: *note Module specs: 1ca6. were introduced in
     Python 3.4, by PEP 451(11).

     在 3.12 版的變更: Removed the fallback that looked for a
     ‘find_module()’ method if a *note meta_path: b9d. entry didn't have
     a *note find_spec(): 694. method.

 -- 資料: sys.modules

     This is a dictionary that maps module names to modules which have
     already been loaded.  This can be manipulated to force reloading of
     modules and other tricks.  However, replacing the dictionary will
     not necessarily work as expected and deleting essential items from
     the dictionary may cause Python to fail.  If you want to iterate
     over this global dictionary always use ‘sys.modules.copy()’ or
     ‘tuple(sys.modules)’ to avoid exceptions as its size may change
     during iteration as a side effect of code or activity in other
     threads.

 -- 資料: sys.orig_argv

     The list of the original command line arguments passed to the
     Python executable.

     The elements of *note sys.orig_argv: 667. are the arguments to the
     Python interpreter, while the elements of *note sys.argv: 10f9. are
     the arguments to the user's program.  Arguments consumed by the
     interpreter itself will be present in *note sys.orig_argv: 667. and
     missing from *note sys.argv: 10f9.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: sys.path

     A list of strings that specifies the search path for modules.
     Initialized from the environment variable *note PYTHONPATH: eb1,
     plus an installation-dependent default.

     By default, as initialized upon program startup, a potentially
     unsafe path is prepended to *note sys.path: 35e. ('before' the
     entries inserted as a result of *note PYTHONPATH: eb1.):

        * ‘python -m module’ command line: prepend the current working
          directory.

        * ‘python script.py’ command line: prepend the script's
          directory.  If it's a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links.

        * ‘python -c code’ and ‘python’ (REPL) command lines: prepend an
          empty string, which means the current working directory.

     To not prepend this potentially unsafe path, use the *note -P: 391.
     command line option or the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 392. environment
     variable.

     A program is free to modify this list for its own purposes.  Only
     strings should be added to *note sys.path: 35e.; all other data
     types are ignored during import.

     也參考
     ......

        * Module *note site: c2. This describes how to use .pth files to
          extend *note sys.path: 35e.

 -- 資料: sys.path_hooks

     A list of callables that take a path argument to try to create a
     *note finder: 1caf. for the path.  If a finder can be created, it
     is to be returned by the callable, else raise *note ImportError:
     145.

     Originally specified in PEP 302(12).

 -- 資料: sys.path_importer_cache

     A dictionary acting as a cache for *note finder: 1caf. objects.
     The keys are paths that have been passed to *note sys.path_hooks:
     eb8. and the values are the finders that are found.  If a path is a
     valid file system path but no finder is found on *note
     sys.path_hooks: eb8. then ‘None’ is stored.

     Originally specified in PEP 302(13).

 -- 資料: sys.platform

     This string contains a platform identifier that can be used to
     append platform-specific components to *note sys.path: 35e, for
     instance.

     For Unix systems, except on Linux and AIX, this is the lowercased
     OS name as returned by ‘uname -s’ with the first part of the
     version as returned by ‘uname -r’ appended, e.g.  ‘'sunos5'’ or
     ‘'freebsd8'’, 'at the time when Python was built'.  Unless you want
     to test for a specific system version, it is therefore recommended
     to use the following idiom:

          if sys.platform.startswith('freebsd'):
              # FreeBSD-specific code here...
          elif sys.platform.startswith('linux'):
              # Linux-specific code here...
          elif sys.platform.startswith('aix'):
              # AIX-specific code here...

     For other systems, the values are:

     System               ‘platform’ value
                          
     -----------------------------------------------------
                          
     AIX                  ‘'aix'’
                          
                          
     Emscripten           ‘'emscripten'’
                          
                          
     Linux                ‘'linux'’
                          
                          
     WASI                 ‘'wasi'’
                          
                          
     Windows              ‘'win32'’
                          
                          
     Windows/Cygwin       ‘'cygwin'’
                          
                          
     macOS                ‘'darwin'’
                          

     在 3.3 版的變更: On Linux, *note sys.platform: 8da. doesn't contain
     the major version anymore.  It is always ‘'linux'’, instead of
     ‘'linux2'’ or ‘'linux3'’.  Since older Python versions include the
     version number, it is recommended to always use the ‘startswith’
     idiom presented above.

     在 3.8 版的變更: On AIX, *note sys.platform: 8da. doesn't contain
     the major version anymore.  It is always ‘'aix'’, instead of
     ‘'aix5'’ or ‘'aix7'’.  Since older Python versions include the
     version number, it is recommended to always use the ‘startswith’
     idiom presented above.

     也參考
     ......

     *note os.name: 287d. has a coarser granularity.  *note os.uname():
     fa4. gives system-dependent version information.

     The *note platform: a5. module provides detailed checks for the
     system's identity.

 -- 資料: sys.platlibdir

     Name of the platform-specific library directory.  It is used to
     build the path of standard library and the paths of installed
     extension modules.

     It is equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On Fedora and SuSE, it
     is equal to ‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms which gives the following
     ‘sys.path’ paths (where ‘X.Y’ is the Python ‘major.minor’ version):

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/’: Standard library (like ‘os.py’ of the
          *note os: 9c. module)

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/lib-dynload/’: C extension modules of
          the standard library (like the *note errno: 52. module, the
          exact filename is platform specific)

        * ‘/usr/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’ (always use ‘lib’, not
          *note sys.platlibdir: 777.): Third-party modules

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’: C extension modules of
          third-party packages

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 資料: sys.prefix

     A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the
     platform independent Python files are installed; on Unix, the
     default is ‘/usr/local’.  This can be set at build time with the
     *note -prefix: 1b52. argument to the ‘configure’ script.  See *note
     Installation paths: 48c. for derived paths.

          備註: If a *note virtual environment: 403a. is in effect, this
          value will be changed in ‘site.py’ to point to the virtual
          environment.  The value for the Python installation will still
          be available, via *note base_prefix: 39a0.

 -- 資料: sys.ps1
 -- 資料: sys.ps2

     Strings specifying the primary and secondary prompt of the
     interpreter.  These are only defined if the interpreter is in
     interactive mode.  Their initial values in this case are ‘'>>> '’
     and ‘'... '’.  If a non-string object is assigned to either
     variable, its *note str(): 157. is re-evaluated each time the
     interpreter prepares to read a new interactive command; this can be
     used to implement a dynamic prompt.

 -- 函式: sys.setdlopenflags (n)

     Set the flags used by the interpreter for ‘dlopen()’ calls, such as
     when the interpreter loads extension modules.  Among other things,
     this will enable a lazy resolving of symbols when importing a
     module, if called as ‘sys.setdlopenflags(0)’.  To share symbols
     across extension modules, call as
     ‘sys.setdlopenflags(os.RTLD_GLOBAL)’.  Symbolic names for the flag
     values can be found in the *note os: 9c. module (‘RTLD_XXX’
     constants, e.g.  *note os.RTLD_LAZY: fa6.).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

 -- 函式: sys.set_int_max_str_digits (maxdigits)

     Set the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 3ea.
     used by this interpreter.  See also *note get_int_max_str_digits():
     2015.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.setprofile (profilefunc)

     Set the system's profile function, which allows you to implement a
     Python source code profiler in Python.  See chapter *note Python
     的分析器: 3f8b. for more information on the Python profiler.  The
     system's profile function is called similarly to the system's trace
     function (see *note settrace(): 1377.), but it is called with
     different events, for example it isn't called for each executed
     line of code (only on call and return, but the return event is
     reported even when an exception has been set).  The function is
     thread-specific, but there is no way for the profiler to know about
     context switches between threads, so it does not make sense to use
     this in the presence of multiple threads.  Also, its return value
     is not used, so it can simply return ‘None’.  Error in the profile
     function will cause itself unset.

          備註: The same tracing mechanism is used for ‘setprofile()’ as
          *note settrace(): 1377.  To trace calls with ‘setprofile()’
          inside a tracing function (e.g.  in a debugger breakpoint),
          see *note call_tracing(): 1603.

     Profile functions should have three arguments: 'frame', 'event',
     and 'arg'.  'frame' is the current stack frame.  'event' is a
     string: ‘'call'’, ‘'return'’, ‘'c_call'’, ‘'c_return'’, or
     ‘'c_exception'’.  'arg' depends on the event type.

     The events have the following meaning:

     ‘'call'’

          A function is called (or some other code block entered).  The
          profile function is called; 'arg' is ‘None’.

     ‘'return'’

          A function (or other code block) is about to return.  The
          profile function is called; 'arg' is the value that will be
          returned, or ‘None’ if the event is caused by an exception
          being raised.

     ‘'c_call'’

          A C function is about to be called.  This may be an extension
          function or a built-in.  'arg' is the C function object.

     ‘'c_return'’

          A C function has returned.  'arg' is the C function object.

     ‘'c_exception'’

          A C function has raised an exception.  'arg' is the C function
          object.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘sys.setprofile’。

 -- 函式: sys.setrecursionlimit (limit)

     Set the maximum depth of the Python interpreter stack to 'limit'.
     This limit prevents infinite recursion from causing an overflow of
     the C stack and crashing Python.

     The highest possible limit is platform-dependent.  A user may need
     to set the limit higher when they have a program that requires deep
     recursion and a platform that supports a higher limit.  This should
     be done with care, because a too-high limit can lead to a crash.

     If the new limit is too low at the current recursion depth, a *note
     RecursionError: be1. exception is raised.

     在 3.5.1 版的變更: A *note RecursionError: be1. exception is now
     raised if the new limit is too low at the current recursion depth.

 -- 函式: sys.setswitchinterval (interval)

     Set the interpreter's thread switch interval (in seconds).  This
     floating-point value determines the ideal duration of the
     "timeslices" allocated to concurrently running Python threads.
     Please note that the actual value can be higher, especially if
     long-running internal functions or methods are used.  Also, which
     thread becomes scheduled at the end of the interval is the
     operating system's decision.  The interpreter doesn't have its own
     scheduler.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.settrace (tracefunc)

     Set the system's trace function, which allows you to implement a
     Python source code debugger in Python.  The function is
     thread-specific; for a debugger to support multiple threads, it
     must register a trace function using *note settrace(): 1377. for
     each thread being debugged or use *note threading.settrace(): 66f.

     Trace functions should have three arguments: 'frame', 'event', and
     'arg'.  'frame' is the current stack frame.  'event' is a string:
     ‘'call'’, ‘'line'’, ‘'return'’, ‘'exception'’ or ‘'opcode'’.  'arg'
     depends on the event type.

     The trace function is invoked (with 'event' set to ‘'call'’)
     whenever a new local scope is entered; it should return a reference
     to a local trace function to be used for the new scope, or ‘None’
     if the scope shouldn't be traced.

     The local trace function should return a reference to itself, or to
     another function which would then be used as the local trace
     function for the scope.

     If there is any error occurred in the trace function, it will be
     unset, just like ‘settrace(None)’ is called.

          備註: Tracing is disabled while calling the trace function
          (e.g.  a function set by ‘settrace()’).  For recursive tracing
          see *note call_tracing(): 1603.

     The events have the following meaning:

     ‘'call'’

          A function is called (or some other code block entered).  The
          global trace function is called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return
          value specifies the local trace function.

     ‘'line'’

          The interpreter is about to execute a new line of code or
          re-execute the condition of a loop.  The local trace function
          is called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new
          local trace function.  See ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’ for a
          detailed explanation of how this works.  Per-line events may
          be disabled for a frame by setting *note f_trace_lines: a3c.
          to *note False: 98f. on that *note frame: 4de.

     ‘'return'’

          A function (or other code block) is about to return.  The
          local trace function is called; 'arg' is the value that will
          be returned, or ‘None’ if the event is caused by an exception
          being raised.  The trace function's return value is ignored.

     ‘'exception'’

          An exception has occurred.  The local trace function is
          called; 'arg' is a tuple ‘(exception, value, traceback)’; the
          return value specifies the new local trace function.

     ‘'opcode'’

          The interpreter is about to execute a new opcode (see *note
          dis: 35. for opcode details).  The local trace function is
          called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new
          local trace function.  Per-opcode events are not emitted by
          default: they must be explicitly requested by setting *note
          f_trace_opcodes: a3d. to *note True: a70. on the *note frame:
          4de.

     Note that as an exception is propagated down the chain of callers,
     an ‘'exception'’ event is generated at each level.

     For more fine-grained usage, it's possible to set a trace function
     by assigning ‘frame.f_trace = tracefunc’ explicitly, rather than
     relying on it being set indirectly via the return value from an
     already installed trace function.  This is also required for
     activating the trace function on the current frame, which *note
     settrace(): 1377. doesn't do.  Note that in order for this to work,
     a global tracing function must have been installed with *note
     settrace(): 1377. in order to enable the runtime tracing machinery,
     but it doesn't need to be the same tracing function (e.g.  it could
     be a low overhead tracing function that simply returns ‘None’ to
     disable itself immediately on each frame).

     For more information on code and frame objects, refer to *note
     標準型別階層: 1c77.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘sys.settrace’。

     'CPython 實作細節：' The *note settrace(): 1377. function is
     intended only for implementing debuggers, profilers, coverage tools
     and the like.  Its behavior is part of the implementation platform,
     rather than part of the language definition, and thus may not be
     available in all Python implementations.

     在 3.7 版的變更: ‘'opcode'’ event type added; *note f_trace_lines:
     a3c. and *note f_trace_opcodes: a3d. attributes added to frames

     在 3.12 版的變更: ‘'opcode'’ event will only be emitted if *note
     f_trace_opcodes: a3d. of at least one frame has been set to *note
     True: a70. before *note settrace(): 1377. is called.  This behavior
     will be changed back in 3.13 to be consistent with previous
     versions.

 -- 函式: sys.set_asyncgen_hooks ([firstiter] [, finalizer])

     Accepts two optional keyword arguments which are callables that
     accept an *note asynchronous generator iterator: 4094. as an
     argument.  The 'firstiter' callable will be called when an
     asynchronous generator is iterated for the first time.  The
     'finalizer' will be called when an asynchronous generator is about
     to be garbage collected.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter’。

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer’。

     Two auditing events are raised because the underlying API consists
     of two calls, each of which must raise its own event.

     在 3.6 版被加入: See PEP 525(14) for more details, and for a
     reference example of a 'finalizer' method see the implementation of
     ‘asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens’ in Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(15)

          備註: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see
          PEP 411(16) for details.)

 -- 函式: sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth (depth)

     Allows enabling or disabling coroutine origin tracking.  When
     enabled, the ‘cr_origin’ attribute on coroutine objects will
     contain a tuple of (filename, line number, function name) tuples
     describing the traceback where the coroutine object was created,
     with the most recent call first.  When disabled, ‘cr_origin’ will
     be ‘None’.

     To enable, pass a 'depth' value greater than zero; this sets the
     number of frames whose information will be captured.  To disable,
     pass set 'depth' to zero.

     This setting is thread-specific.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

          備註: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see
          PEP 411(17) for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.

 -- 函式: sys.activate_stack_trampoline (backend, /)

     Activate the stack profiler trampoline 'backend'.  The only
     supported backend is ‘"perf"’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

     也參考
     ......

        * *note Python 對 Linux perf 分析器的支援: 151.

        * ‘https://perf.wiki.kernel.org’

 -- 函式: sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline ()

     Deactivate the current stack profiler trampoline backend.

     If no stack profiler is activated, this function has no effect.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys.is_stack_trampoline_active ()

     Return ‘True’ if a stack profiler trampoline is active.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding ()

     Changes the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd. to
     'mbcs' and 'replace' respectively, for consistency with versions of
     Python prior to 3.6.

     This is equivalent to defining the *note
     PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: ac0. environment variable before
     launching Python.

     See also *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): abf. and *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): b53.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.6 版被加入: 更多細節請見 PEP 529(18)。

 -- 資料: sys.stdin
 -- 資料: sys.stdout
 -- 資料: sys.stderr

     *note File objects: 1054. used by the interpreter for standard
     input, output and errors:

        * ‘stdin’ is used for all interactive input (including calls to
          *note input(): 1169.);

        * ‘stdout’ is used for the output of *note print(): e02. and
          *note expression: 1d18. statements and for the prompts of
          *note input(): 1169.;

        * The interpreter's own prompts and its error messages go to
          ‘stderr’.

     These streams are regular *note text files: 1a7b. like those
     returned by the *note open(): 29c. function.  Their parameters are
     chosen as follows:

        * The encoding and error handling are is initialized from *note
          PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 40a1. and *note
          PyConfig.stdio_errors: 40a2.

          On Windows, UTF-8 is used for the console device.
          Non-character devices such as disk files and pipes use the
          system locale encoding (i.e.  the ANSI codepage).  Non-console
          character devices such as NUL (i.e.  where ‘isatty()’ returns
          ‘True’) use the value of the console input and output
          codepages at startup, respectively for stdin and
          stdout/stderr.  This defaults to the system *note locale
          encoding: 1419. if the process is not initially attached to a
          console.

          The special behaviour of the console can be overridden by
          setting the environment variable PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO
          before starting Python.  In that case, the console codepages
          are used as for any other character device.

          Under all platforms, you can override the character encoding
          by setting the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: e9d. environment
          variable before starting Python or by using the new *note -X:
          188. ‘utf8’ command line option and *note PYTHONUTF8: 92c.
          environment variable.  However, for the Windows console, this
          only applies when *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: ac3. is also
          set.

        * When interactive, the ‘stdout’ stream is line-buffered.
          Otherwise, it is block-buffered like regular text files.  The
          ‘stderr’ stream is line-buffered in both cases.  You can make
          both streams unbuffered by passing the *note -u: 1780.
          command-line option or setting the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED:
          1781. environment variable.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Non-interactive ‘stderr’ is now line-buffered
     instead of fully buffered.

          備註: To write or read binary data from/to the standard
          streams, use the underlying binary *note buffer: 1136. object.
          For example, to write bytes to *note stdout: 92a, use
          ‘sys.stdout.buffer.write(b'abc')’.

          However, if you are writing a library (and do not control in
          which context its code will be executed), be aware that the
          standard streams may be replaced with file-like objects like
          *note io.StringIO: db1. which do not support the ‘buffer’
          attribute.

 -- 資料: sys.__stdin__
 -- 資料: sys.__stdout__
 -- 資料: sys.__stderr__

     These objects contain the original values of ‘stdin’, ‘stderr’ and
     ‘stdout’ at the start of the program.  They are used during
     finalization, and could be useful to print to the actual standard
     stream no matter if the ‘sys.std*’ object has been redirected.

     It can also be used to restore the actual files to known working
     file objects in case they have been overwritten with a broken
     object.  However, the preferred way to do this is to explicitly
     save the previous stream before replacing it, and restore the saved
     object.

          備註: Under some conditions ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ as
          well as the original values ‘__stdin__’, ‘__stdout__’ and
          ‘__stderr__’ can be ‘None’.  It is usually the case for
          Windows GUI apps that aren't connected to a console and Python
          apps started with ‘pythonw’.

 -- 資料: sys.stdlib_module_names

     A frozenset of strings containing the names of standard library
     modules.

     It is the same on all platforms.  Modules which are not available
     on some platforms and modules disabled at Python build are also
     listed.  All module kinds are listed: pure Python, built-in, frozen
     and extension modules.  Test modules are excluded.

     For packages, only the main package is listed: sub-packages and
     sub-modules are not listed.  For example, the ‘email’ package is
     listed, but the ‘email.mime’ sub-package and the ‘email.message’
     sub-module are not listed.

     另請參閱 *note sys.builtin_module_names: 1a54. 清單。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 資料: sys.thread_info

     A *note named tuple: 449. holding information about the thread
     implementation.

      -- 屬性: thread_info.name

          The name of the thread implementation:

             * ‘"nt"’: Windows 執行緒

             * ‘"pthread"’: POSIX 執行緒

             * ‘"pthread-stubs"’: stub POSIX threads (on WebAssembly
               platforms without threading support)

             * ‘"solaris"’: Solaris threads

      -- 屬性: thread_info.lock

          The name of the lock implementation:

             * ‘"semaphore"’: a lock uses a semaphore

             * ‘"mutex+cond"’: a lock uses a mutex and a condition
               variable

             * 為 ‘None’ 表示此資訊未知

      -- 屬性: thread_info.version

          The name and version of the thread library.  It is a string,
          or ‘None’ if this information is unknown.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 資料: sys.tracebacklimit

     When this variable is set to an integer value, it determines the
     maximum number of levels of traceback information printed when an
     unhandled exception occurs.  The default is ‘1000’.  When set to
     ‘0’ or less, all traceback information is suppressed and only the
     exception type and value are printed.

 -- 函式: sys.unraisablehook (unraisable, /)

     處理一個不可被引發的例外。

     Called when an exception has occurred but there is no way for
     Python to handle it.  For example, when a destructor raises an
     exception or during garbage collection (*note gc.collect(): 883.).

     The 'unraisable' argument has the following attributes:

        * ‘exc_type’: 例外型別。

        * ‘exc_value’: 例外值，可以為 ‘None’。

        * ‘exc_traceback’: 例外追蹤，可以為 ‘None’。

        * ‘err_msg’: 錯誤訊息，可以為 ‘None’。

        * ‘object’: 導致例外的物件，可以為 ‘None’。

     The default hook formats ‘err_msg’ and ‘object’ as: ‘f'{err_msg}:
     {object!r}'’; use "Exception ignored in" error message if ‘err_msg’
     is ‘None’.

     *note sys.unraisablehook(): 479. can be overridden to control how
     unraisable exceptions are handled.

     也參考
     ......

     處理未被捕捉到例外的 *note excepthook(): 62d.。

          警告: Storing ‘exc_value’ using a custom hook can create a
          reference cycle.  It should be cleared explicitly to break the
          reference cycle when the exception is no longer needed.

          Storing ‘object’ using a custom hook can resurrect it if it is
          set to an object which is being finalized.  Avoid storing
          ‘object’ after the custom hook completes to avoid resurrecting
          objects.

     Raise an auditing event ‘sys.unraisablehook’ with arguments 'hook',
     'unraisable' when an exception that cannot be handled occurs.  The
     'unraisable' object is the same as what will be passed to the hook.
     If no hook has been set, 'hook' may be ‘None’.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 資料: sys.version

     A string containing the version number of the Python interpreter
     plus additional information on the build number and compiler used.
     This string is displayed when the interactive interpreter is
     started.  Do not extract version information out of it, rather, use
     *note version_info: 49c. and the functions provided by the *note
     platform: a5. module.

 -- 資料: sys.api_version

     The C API version for this interpreter.  Programmers may find this
     useful when debugging version conflicts between Python and
     extension modules.

 -- 資料: sys.version_info

     A tuple containing the five components of the version number:
     'major', 'minor', 'micro', 'releaselevel', and 'serial'.  All
     values except 'releaselevel' are integers; the release level is
     ‘'alpha'’, ‘'beta'’, ‘'candidate'’, or ‘'final'’.  The
     ‘version_info’ value corresponding to the Python version 2.0 is
     ‘(2, 0, 0, 'final', 0)’.  The components can also be accessed by
     name, so ‘sys.version_info[0]’ is equivalent to
     ‘sys.version_info.major’ and so on.

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增了附名的元件屬性。

 -- 資料: sys.warnoptions

     This is an implementation detail of the warnings framework; do not
     modify this value.  Refer to the *note warnings: 10d. module for
     more information on the warnings framework.

 -- 資料: sys.winver

     The version number used to form registry keys on Windows platforms.
     This is stored as string resource 1000 in the Python DLL. The value
     is normally the major and minor versions of the running Python
     interpreter.  It is provided in the *note sys: d3. module for
     informational purposes; modifying this value has no effect on the
     registry keys used by Python.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

 -- 資料: sys.monitoring

     Namespace containing functions and constants for register callbacks
     and controlling monitoring events.  See *note sys.monitoring: d4.
     for details.

 -- 資料: sys._xoptions

     A dictionary of the various implementation-specific flags passed
     through the *note -X: 188. command-line option.  Option names are
     either mapped to their values, if given explicitly, or to *note
     True: a70.  Example:

          $ ./python -Xa=b -Xc
          Python 3.2a3+ (py3k, Oct 16 2010, 20:14:50)
          [GCC 4.4.3] on linux2
          Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
          >>> import sys
          >>> sys._xoptions
          {'a': 'b', 'c': True}

     'CPython 實作細節：' This is a CPython-specific way of accessing
     options passed through *note -X: 188.  Other implementations may
     export them through other means, or not at all.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

引用
....

(C99) ISO/IEC 9899:1999.  "Programming languages - C." 公開草案可在以下
網址取得 ‘https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1256.pdf’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (4) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577504-compute-memory-footprint-of-an-object-and-its-cont/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (15) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring,  Next: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取,  Prev: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.2 ‘sys.monitoring’ -- Execution event monitoring
-----------------------------------------------------

在 3.12 版被加入.

__________________________________________________________________

     備註: *note sys.monitoring: d4. is a namespace within the *note
     sys: d3. module, not an independent module, so there is no need to
     ‘import sys.monitoring’, simply ‘import sys’ and then use
     ‘sys.monitoring’.

This namespace provides access to the functions and constants necessary
to activate and control event monitoring.

As programs execute, events occur that might be of interest to tools
that monitor execution.  The *note sys.monitoring: d4. namespace
provides means to receive callbacks when events of interest occur.

The monitoring API consists of three components:

   * *note Tool identifiers: 40ac.

   * *note Events: 40ad.

   * *note 回呼 (callbacks): 40ae.

* Menu:

* Tool identifiers::
* 事件::
* Turning events on and off::
* 註冊回呼函式::


File: python.info,  Node: Tool identifiers,  Next: 事件,  Up: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.1 Tool identifiers
.........................

A tool identifier is an integer and the associated name.  Tool
identifiers are used to discourage tools from interfering with each
other and to allow multiple tools to operate at the same time.
Currently tools are completely independent and cannot be used to monitor
each other.  This restriction may be lifted in the future.

Before registering or activating events, a tool should choose an
identifier.  Identifiers are integers in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

* Menu:

* Registering and using tools::


File: python.info,  Node: Registering and using tools,  Up: Tool identifiers

5.29.2.2 Registering and using tools
....................................

 -- 函式: sys.monitoring.use_tool_id (tool_id: int, name: str, /) ->
          None

     Must be called before 'tool_id' can be used.  'tool_id' must be in
     the range 0 to 5 inclusive.  Raises a *note ValueError: 183. if
     'tool_id' is in use.

 -- 函式: sys.monitoring.free_tool_id (tool_id: int, /) -> None

     Should be called once a tool no longer requires 'tool_id'.

     備註: *note free_tool_id(): 40b1. will not disable global or local
     events associated with 'tool_id', nor will it unregister any
     callback functions.  This function is only intended to be used to
     notify the VM that the particular 'tool_id' is no longer in use.

 -- 函式: sys.monitoring.get_tool (tool_id: int, /) -> str | None

     Returns the name of the tool if 'tool_id' is in use, otherwise it
     returns ‘None’.  'tool_id' must be in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

All IDs are treated the same by the VM with regard to events, but the
following IDs are pre-defined to make co-operation of tools easier:

     sys.monitoring.DEBUGGER_ID = 0
     sys.monitoring.COVERAGE_ID = 1
     sys.monitoring.PROFILER_ID = 2
     sys.monitoring.OPTIMIZER_ID = 5

There is no obligation to set an ID, nor is there anything preventing a
tool from using an ID even it is already in use.  However, tools are
encouraged to use a unique ID and respect other tools.


File: python.info,  Node: 事件,  Next: Turning events on and off,  Prev: Tool identifiers,  Up: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.3 事件
.............

The following events are supported:

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.BRANCH

     A conditional branch is taken (or not).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.CALL

     A call in Python code (event occurs before the call).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RAISE

     An exception raised from any callable, except for Python functions
     (event occurs after the exit).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RETURN

     Return from any callable, except for Python functions (event occurs
     after the return).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.EXCEPTION_HANDLED

     An exception is handled.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.INSTRUCTION

     A VM instruction is about to be executed.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.JUMP

     An unconditional jump in the control flow graph is made.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.LINE

     An instruction is about to be executed that has a different line
     number from the preceding instruction.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RESUME

     Resumption of a Python function (for generator and coroutine
     functions), except for ‘throw()’ calls.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RETURN

     Return from a Python function (occurs immediately before the
     return, the callee's frame will be on the stack).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_START

     Start of a Python function (occurs immediately after the call, the
     callee's frame will be on the stack)

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_THROW

     A Python function is resumed by a ‘throw()’ call.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_UNWIND

     Exit from a Python function during exception unwinding.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_YIELD

     Yield from a Python function (occurs immediately before the yield,
     the callee's frame will be on the stack).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RAISE

     An exception is raised, except those that cause a *note
     STOP_ITERATION: 40c1. event.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RERAISE

     An exception is re-raised, for example at the end of a *note
     finally: 80e. block.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.STOP_ITERATION

     An artificial *note StopIteration: a5d. is raised; see *note the
     STOP_ITERATION event: 40c3.

More events may be added in the future.

These events are attributes of the ‘sys.monitoring.events’ namespace.
Each event is represented as a power-of-2 integer constant.  To define a
set of events, simply bitwise or the individual events together.  For
example, to specify both *note PY_RETURN: 40bb. and *note PY_START:
40bc. events, use the expression ‘PY_RETURN | PY_START’.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.NO_EVENTS

     An alias for ‘0’ so users can do explicit comparisons like:

          if get_events(DEBUGGER_ID) == NO_EVENTS:
              ...

Events are divided into three groups:

* Menu:

* Local events::
* 輔助事件::
* 其他事件::
* The STOP_ITERATION event::


File: python.info,  Node: Local events,  Next: 輔助事件,  Up: 事件

5.29.2.4 Local events
.....................

Local events are associated with normal execution of the program and
happen at clearly defined locations.  All local events can be disabled.
The local events are:

   * *note PY_START: 40bc.

   * *note PY_RESUME: 40ba.

   * *note PY_RETURN: 40bb.

   * *note PY_YIELD: 40bf.

   * *note CALL: 1432.

   * *note LINE: 40b9.

   * *note INSTRUCTION: 40b7.

   * *note JUMP: 40b8.

   * *note BRANCH: 40b3.

   * *note STOP_ITERATION: 40c1.


File: python.info,  Node: 輔助事件,  Next: 其他事件,  Prev: Local events,  Up: 事件

5.29.2.5 輔助事件
.................

Ancillary events can be monitored like other events, but are controlled
by another event:

   * *note C_RAISE: 40b4.

   * *note C_RETURN: 40b5.

The *note C_RETURN: 40b5. and *note C_RAISE: 40b4. events are controlled
by the *note CALL: 1432. event.  *note C_RETURN: 40b5. and *note
C_RAISE: 40b4. events will only be seen if the corresponding *note CALL:
1432. event is being monitored.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他事件,  Next: The STOP_ITERATION event,  Prev: 輔助事件,  Up: 事件

5.29.2.6 其他事件
.................

Other events are not necessarily tied to a specific location in the
program and cannot be individually disabled.

The other events that can be monitored are:

   * *note PY_THROW: 40bd.

   * *note PY_UNWIND: 40be.

   * *note RAISE: 40c0.

   * *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 40b6.


File: python.info,  Node: The STOP_ITERATION event,  Prev: 其他事件,  Up: 事件

5.29.2.7 The STOP_ITERATION event
.................................

PEP 380(1) specifies that a *note StopIteration: a5d. exception is
raised when returning a value from a generator or coroutine.  However,
this is a very inefficient way to return a value, so some Python
implementations, notably CPython 3.12+, do not raise an exception unless
it would be visible to other code.

To allow tools to monitor for real exceptions without slowing down
generators and coroutines, the *note STOP_ITERATION: 40c1. event is
provided.  *note STOP_ITERATION: 40c1. can be locally disabled, unlike
*note RAISE: 40c0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values


File: python.info,  Node: Turning events on and off,  Next: 註冊回呼函式,  Prev: 事件,  Up: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.8 Turning events on and off
..................................

In order to monitor an event, it must be turned on and a corresponding
callback must be registered.  Events can be turned on or off by setting
the events either globally or for a particular code object.

* Menu:

* Setting events globally::
* Per code object events::
* 停用事件::


File: python.info,  Node: Setting events globally,  Next: Per code object events,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.29.2.9 Setting events globally
................................

Events can be controlled globally by modifying the set of events being
monitored.

 -- 函式: sys.monitoring.get_events (tool_id: int, /) -> int

     Returns the ‘int’ representing all the active events.

 -- 函式: sys.monitoring.set_events (tool_id: int, event_set: int, /) ->
          None

     Activates all events which are set in 'event_set'.  Raises a *note
     ValueError: 183. if 'tool_id' is not in use.

No events are active by default.


File: python.info,  Node: Per code object events,  Next: 停用事件,  Prev: Setting events globally,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.29.2.10 Per code object events
................................

Events can also be controlled on a per code object basis.

 -- 函式: sys.monitoring.get_local_events (tool_id: int, code: CodeType,
          /) -> int

     Returns all the local events for 'code'

 -- 函式: sys.monitoring.set_local_events (tool_id: int, code: CodeType,
          event_set: int, /) -> None

     Activates all the local events for 'code' which are set in
     'event_set'.  Raises a *note ValueError: 183. if 'tool_id' is not
     in use.

Local events add to global events, but do not mask them.  In other
words, all global events will trigger for a code object, regardless of
the local events.


File: python.info,  Node: 停用事件,  Prev: Per code object events,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.29.2.11 停用事件
..................

 -- 資料: sys.monitoring.DISABLE

     A special value that can be returned from a callback function to
     disable events for the current code location.

Local events can be disabled for a specific code location by returning
*note sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 40d0. from a callback function.  This does
not change which events are set, or any other code locations for the
same event.

Disabling events for specific locations is very important for high
performance monitoring.  For example, a program can be run under a
debugger with no overhead if the debugger disables all monitoring except
for a few breakpoints.

 -- 函式: sys.monitoring.restart_events () -> None

     Enable all the events that were disabled by *note
     sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 40d0. for all tools.


File: python.info,  Node: 註冊回呼函式,  Prev: Turning events on and off,  Up: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.12 註冊回呼函式
......................

To register a callable for events call

 -- 函式: sys.monitoring.register_callback (tool_id: int, event: int,
          func: Callable | None, /) -> Callable | None

     Registers the callable 'func' for the 'event' with the given
     'tool_id'

     If another callback was registered for the given 'tool_id' and
     'event', it is unregistered and returned.  Otherwise *note
     register_callback(): 40d3. returns ‘None’.

Functions can be unregistered by calling
‘sys.monitoring.register_callback(tool_id, event, None)’.

Callback functions can be registered and unregistered at any time.

Registering or unregistering a callback function will generate a *note
sys.audit(): 174a. event.

* Menu:

* 回呼函式引數::


File: python.info,  Node: 回呼函式引數,  Up: 註冊回呼函式

5.29.2.13 回呼函式引數
......................

 -- 資料: sys.monitoring.MISSING

     A special value that is passed to a callback function to indicate
     that there are no arguments to the call.

When an active event occurs, the registered callback function is called.
Different events will provide the callback function with different
arguments, as follows:

   * *note PY_START: 40bc. 和 *note PY_RESUME: 40ba.：

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note PY_RETURN: 40bb. 和 *note PY_YIELD: 40bf.：

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, retval: object) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note CALL: 1432.、*note C_RAISE: 40b4. 和 *note C_RETURN: 40b5.：

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, callable: object, arg0: object | MISSING) -> DISABLE | Any

     If there are no arguments, 'arg0' is set to *note
     sys.monitoring.MISSING: 40d5.

   * *note RAISE: 40c0.、*note RERAISE: 40c2.、*note EXCEPTION_HANDLED:
     40b6.、*note PY_UNWIND: 40be.、*note PY_THROW: 40bd. 和 *note
     STOP_ITERATION: 40c1.：

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, exception: BaseException) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note LINE: 40b9.：

          func(code: CodeType, line_number: int) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note BRANCH: 40b3. 和 *note JUMP: 40b8.：

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, destination_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any

     Note that the 'destination_offset' is where the code will next
     execute.  For an untaken branch this will be the offset of the
     instruction following the branch.

   * *note INSTRUCTION: 40b7.：

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取,  Next: builtins --- 內建物件,  Prev: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.3 ‘sysconfig’ -- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取
------------------------------------------------

在 3.2 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/sysconfig.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note sysconfig: d5. module provides access to Python's
configuration information like the list of installation paths and the
configuration variables relevant for the current platform.

* Menu:

* Configuration variables::
* Installation paths::
* User scheme::
* Home scheme::
* Prefix scheme::
* 安裝路徑函式::
* 其他函式: 其他函式<3>.
* 將 sysconfig 作為腳本使用::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sysconfig.py


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration variables,  Next: Installation paths,  Up: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取

5.29.3.1 Configuration variables
................................

A Python distribution contains a ‘Makefile’ and a ‘pyconfig.h’ header
file that are necessary to build both the Python binary itself and
third-party C extensions compiled using ‘setuptools’.

*note sysconfig: d5. puts all variables found in these files in a
dictionary that can be accessed using *note get_config_vars(): ec0. or
*note get_config_var(): ebf.

Notice that on Windows, it's a much smaller set.

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_config_vars (*args)

     With no arguments, return a dictionary of all configuration
     variables relevant for the current platform.

     With arguments, return a list of values that result from looking up
     each argument in the configuration variable dictionary.

     For each argument, if the value is not found, return ‘None’.

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_config_var (name)

     Return the value of a single variable 'name'.  Equivalent to
     ‘get_config_vars().get(name)’.

     If 'name' is not found, return ‘None’.

用法範例：

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('Py_ENABLE_SHARED')
     0
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBDIR')
     '/usr/local/lib'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_vars('AR', 'CXX')
     ['ar', 'g++']


File: python.info,  Node: Installation paths,  Next: User scheme,  Prev: Configuration variables,  Up: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取

5.29.3.2 Installation paths
...........................

Python uses an installation scheme that differs depending on the
platform and on the installation options.  These schemes are stored in
*note sysconfig: d5. under unique identifiers based on the value
returned by *note os.name: 287d.  The schemes are used by package
installers to determine where to copy files to.

Python currently supports nine schemes:

   - 'posix_prefix': scheme for POSIX platforms like Linux or macOS.
     This is the default scheme used when Python or a component is
     installed.

   - 'posix_home': scheme for POSIX platforms, when the 'home' option is
     used.  This scheme defines paths located under a specific home
     prefix.

   - 'posix_user': scheme for POSIX platforms, when the 'user' option is
     used.  This scheme defines paths located under the user's home
     directory (*note site.USER_BASE: 11b0.).

   - 'posix_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 10c. on
     POSIX platforms; by default it is the same as 'posix_prefix'.

   - 'nt': scheme for Windows.  This is the default scheme used when
     Python or a component is installed.

   - 'nt_user': scheme for Windows, when the 'user' option is used.

   - 'nt_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 10c. on
     Windows; by default it is the same as 'nt'.

   - 'venv': a scheme with values from either 'posix_venv' or 'nt_venv'
     depending on the platform Python runs on.

   - 'osx_framework_user': scheme for macOS, when the 'user' option is
     used.

Each scheme is itself composed of a series of paths and each path has a
unique identifier.  Python currently uses eight paths:

   - 'stdlib': directory containing the standard Python library files
     that are not platform-specific.

   - 'platstdlib': directory containing the standard Python library
     files that are platform-specific.

   - 'platlib': directory for site-specific, platform-specific files.

   - 'purelib': directory for site-specific, non-platform-specific files
     ('pure' Python).

   - 'include': directory for non-platform-specific header files for the
     Python C-API.

   - 'platinclude': directory for platform-specific header files for the
     Python C-API.

   - 'scripts': directory for script files.

   - 'data': directory for data files.


File: python.info,  Node: User scheme,  Next: Home scheme,  Prev: Installation paths,  Up: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取

5.29.3.3 User scheme
....................

This scheme is designed to be the most convenient solution for users
that don't have write permission to the global site-packages directory
or don't want to install into it.

Files will be installed into subdirectories of *note site.USER_BASE:
11b0. (written as ‘`userbase'’ hereafter).  This scheme installs pure
Python modules and extension modules in the same location (also known as
*note site.USER_SITE: 1b2a.).

* Menu:

* posix_user::
* nt_user::
* osx_framework_user::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_user,  Next: nt_user,  Up: User scheme

5.29.3.4 ‘posix_user’
.....................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: nt_user,  Next: osx_framework_user,  Prev: posix_user,  Up: User scheme

5.29.3.5 ‘nt_user’
..................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Include’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Scripts’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: osx_framework_user,  Prev: nt_user,  Up: User scheme

5.29.3.6 ‘osx_framework_user’
.............................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Home scheme,  Next: Prefix scheme,  Prev: User scheme,  Up: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取

5.29.3.7 Home scheme
....................

The idea behind the "home scheme" is that you build and maintain a
personal stash of Python modules.  This scheme's name is derived from
the idea of a "home" directory on Unix, since it's not unusual for a
Unix user to make their home directory have a layout similar to ‘/usr/’
or ‘/usr/local/’.  This scheme can be used by anyone, regardless of the
operating system they are installing for.

* Menu:

* posix_home::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_home,  Up: Home scheme

5.29.3.8 ‘posix_home’
.....................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`home'/include/python’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`home'/include/python’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`home'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`home'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Prefix scheme,  Next: 安裝路徑函式,  Prev: Home scheme,  Up: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取

5.29.3.9 Prefix scheme
......................

The "prefix scheme" is useful when you wish to use one Python
installation to perform the build/install (i.e., to run the setup
script), but install modules into the third-party module directory of a
different Python installation (or something that looks like a different
Python installation).  If this sounds a trifle unusual, it is--that's
why the user and home schemes come before.  However, there are at least
two known cases where the prefix scheme will be useful.

First, consider that many Linux distributions put Python in ‘/usr’,
rather than the more traditional ‘/usr/local’.  This is entirely
appropriate, since in those cases Python is part of "the system" rather
than a local add-on.  However, if you are installing Python modules from
source, you probably want them to go in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’
rather than ‘/usr/lib/python2.`X'’.

Another possibility is a network filesystem where the name used to write
to a remote directory is different from the name used to read it: for
example, the Python interpreter accessed as ‘/usr/local/bin/python’
might search for modules in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’, but those
modules would have to be installed to, say,
‘/mnt/`@server'/export/lib/python2.`X'’.

* Menu:

* posix_prefix::
* nt::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_prefix,  Next: nt,  Up: Prefix scheme

5.29.3.10 ‘posix_prefix’
........................

Path               Installation directory
                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`prefix'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`prefix'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: nt,  Prev: posix_prefix,  Up: Prefix scheme

5.29.3.11 ‘nt’
..............

Path               Installation directory
                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`prefix'\Lib’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`prefix'\Lib’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`prefix'\Include’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`prefix'\Include’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`prefix'\Scripts’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`prefix'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: 安裝路徑函式,  Next: 其他函式<3>,  Prev: Prefix scheme,  Up: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取

5.29.3.12 安裝路徑函式
......................

*note sysconfig: d5. provides some functions to determine these
installation paths.

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_scheme_names ()

     Return a tuple containing all schemes currently supported in *note
     sysconfig: d5.

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_default_scheme ()

     Return the default scheme name for the current platform.

     在 3.10 版被加入: This function was previously named
     ‘_get_default_scheme()’ and considered an implementation detail.

     在 3.11 版的變更: When Python runs from a virtual environment, the
     'venv' scheme is returned.

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme (key)

     Return a preferred scheme name for an installation layout specified
     by 'key'.

     'key' must be either ‘"prefix"’, ‘"home"’, or ‘"user"’.

     The return value is a scheme name listed in *note
     get_scheme_names(): 40e6.  It can be passed to *note sysconfig: d5.
     functions that take a 'scheme' argument, such as *note get_paths():
     10d7.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: When Python runs from a virtual environment and
     ‘key="prefix"’, the 'venv' scheme is returned.

 -- 函式: sysconfig._get_preferred_schemes ()

     Return a dict containing preferred scheme names on the current
     platform.  Python implementers and redistributors may add their
     preferred schemes to the ‘_INSTALL_SCHEMES’ module-level global
     value, and modify this function to return those scheme names, to
     e.g.  provide different schemes for system and language package
     managers to use, so packages installed by either do not mix with
     those by the other.

     End users should not use this function, but *note
     get_default_scheme(): 15f4. and *note get_preferred_scheme(): 48d.
     instead.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_path_names ()

     Return a tuple containing all path names currently supported in
     *note sysconfig: d5.

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_path (name[, scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

     Return an installation path corresponding to the path 'name', from
     the install scheme named 'scheme'.

     'name' has to be a value from the list returned by *note
     get_path_names(): 40e8.

     *note sysconfig: d5. stores installation paths corresponding to
     each path name, for each platform, with variables to be expanded.
     For instance the 'stdlib' path for the 'nt' scheme is:
     ‘{base}/Lib’.

     *note get_path(): 11c2. will use the variables returned by *note
     get_config_vars(): ec0. to expand the path.  All variables have
     default values for each platform so one may call this function and
     get the default value.

     If 'scheme' is provided, it must be a value from the list returned
     by *note get_scheme_names(): 40e6.  Otherwise, the default scheme
     for the current platform is used.

     If 'vars' is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that
     will update the dictionary returned by *note get_config_vars():
     ec0.

     If 'expand' is set to ‘False’, the path will not be expanded using
     the variables.

     如果找不到 'name'，則引發 *note KeyError: 8ed.。

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_paths ([scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

     Return a dictionary containing all installation paths corresponding
     to an installation scheme.  See *note get_path(): 11c2. for more
     information.

     If 'scheme' is not provided, will use the default scheme for the
     current platform.

     If 'vars' is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that
     will update the dictionary used to expand the paths.

     If 'expand' is set to false, the paths will not be expanded.

     If 'scheme' is not an existing scheme, *note get_paths(): 10d7.
     will raise a *note KeyError: 8ed.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他函式<3>,  Next: 將 sysconfig 作為腳本使用,  Prev: 安裝路徑函式,  Up: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取

5.29.3.13 其他函式
..................

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_python_version ()

     回傳 ‘MAJOR.MINOR’ Python 版本號碼字串。類似於 ‘'%d.%d' %
     sys.version_info[:2]’。

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_platform ()

     Return a string that identifies the current platform.

     This is used mainly to distinguish platform-specific build
     directories and platform-specific built distributions.  Typically
     includes the OS name and version and the architecture (as supplied
     by *note os.uname(): fa4.), although the exact information included
     depends on the OS; e.g., on Linux, the kernel version isn't
     particularly important.

     Examples of returned values:

        - linux-i586

        - linux-alpha (?)

        - solaris-2.6-sun4u

     Windows will return one of:

        - win-amd64 (64bit Windows on AMD64, aka x86_64, Intel64, and
          EM64T)

        - win32 (all others - specifically, sys.platform is returned)

     macOS can return:

        - macosx-10.6-ppc

        - macosx-10.4-ppc64

        - macosx-10.3-i386

        - macosx-10.4-fat

     For other non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns *note
     sys.platform: 8da.

 -- 函式: sysconfig.is_python_build ()

     Return ‘True’ if the running Python interpreter was built from
     source and is being run from its built location, and not from a
     location resulting from e.g.  running ‘make install’ or installing
     via a binary installer.

 -- 函式: sysconfig.parse_config_h (fp[, vars])

     Parse a ‘config.h’-style file.

     'fp' is a file-like object pointing to the ‘config.h’-like file.

     A dictionary containing name/value pairs is returned.  If an
     optional dictionary is passed in as the second argument, it is used
     instead of a new dictionary, and updated with the values read in
     the file.

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_config_h_filename ()

     回傳 ‘pyconfig.h’ 的路徑。

 -- 函式: sysconfig.get_makefile_filename ()

     回傳 ‘Makefile’ 的路徑。


File: python.info,  Node: 將 sysconfig 作為腳本使用,  Prev: 其他函式<3>,  Up: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取

5.29.3.14 將 ‘sysconfig’ 作為腳本使用
.....................................

You can use *note sysconfig: d5. as a script with Python's '-m' option:

     $ python -m sysconfig
     Platform: "macosx-10.4-i386"
     Python version: "3.2"
     Current installation scheme: "posix_prefix"

     Paths:
             data = "/usr/local"
             include = "/Users/tarek/Dev/svn.python.org/py3k/Include"
             platinclude = "."
             platlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
             platstdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"
             purelib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
             scripts = "/usr/local/bin"
             stdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"

     Variables:
             AC_APPLE_UNIVERSAL_BUILD = "0"
             AIX_GENUINE_CPLUSPLUS = "0"
             AR = "ar"
             ARFLAGS = "rc"
             ...

This call will print in the standard output the information returned by
*note get_platform(): 10d5, *note get_python_version(): 10d6, *note
get_path(): 11c2. and *note get_config_vars(): ec0.


File: python.info,  Node: builtins --- 內建物件,  Next: __main__ --- 頂層程式碼環境,  Prev: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.4 ‘builtins’ -- 內建物件
-----------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides direct access to all 'built-in' identifiers of
Python; for example, ‘builtins.open’ is the full name for the built-in
function *note open(): 29c.

大多數應用程式通常不會顯式地存取此模組，但在提供與內建值同名之物件的模組
中可能很有用，不過其中還會需要內建該名稱。例如，在一個將內建 *note
open(): 29c. 包裝起來以實現另一版本 *note open(): 29c. 函式的模組中，這
個模組可以直接被使用：

     import builtins

     def open(path):
         f = builtins.open(path, 'r')
         return UpperCaser(f)

     class UpperCaser:
         '''Wrapper around a file that converts output to uppercase.'''

         def __init__(self, f):
             self._f = f

         def read(self, count=-1):
             return self._f.read(count).upper()

         # ...

有個實作細節是，大多數模組都將名稱 ‘__builtins__’ 作為其全域性變數的一部
分以提使用。‘__builtins__’ 的值通常是這個模組或者這個模組的 *note
__dict__: 2e2. 屬性值。由於這是一個實作細節，因此 Python 的其他實作可能
不會使用它。

也參考
......

   * *note 內建常數: 1f1a.

   * *note 內建的例外: 1657.

   * *note 內建函式: 10f1.

   * *note 內建型別: 1f24.


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ --- 頂層程式碼環境,  Next: warnings --- 警告控制,  Prev: builtins --- 內建物件,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.5 ‘__main__’ -- 頂層程式碼環境
-----------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

在 Python 中，特殊名稱 ‘__main__’ 用於兩個重要的建構：

  1. 程式頂層環境的名稱，可以使用 ‘__name__ == '__main__'’ 運算式進行檢
     查；和

  2. 在 Python 套件中的 ‘__main__.py’ 檔案。

這兩種機制都與 Python 模組有關；使用者如何與它們互動以及它們如何彼此互動
。下面會詳細解釋它們。如果你不熟悉 Python 模組，請參閱教學章節 *note 模組
(Module): 1a4b. 的介紹。

* Menu:

* __name__ == '__main__'::
* Python 套件中的 __main__.py: Python 套件中的 __main__ py.
* import __main__::


File: python.info,  Node: __name__ == '__main__',  Next: Python 套件中的 __main__ py,  Up: __main__ --- 頂層程式碼環境

5.29.5.1 ‘__name__ == '__main__'’
.................................

當引入 Python 模組或套件時，‘__name__’ 設定為模組的名稱。通常來說，這是
Python 檔案本身的名稱，且不含 .py 副檔名：

     >>> import configparser
     >>> configparser.__name__
     'configparser'

如果檔案是套件的一部分，則 ‘__name__’ 也會包含父套件 (parent package) 的
路徑：

     >>> from concurrent.futures import process
     >>> process.__name__
     'concurrent.futures.process'

但是，如果模組在頂層程式碼環境中執行，則其 ‘__name__’ 將被設定為字串
‘'__main__'’。

* Menu:

* 什麼是「頂層程式碼環境」？::
* 慣用 (Idiomatic) 用法: 慣用 Idiomatic 用法.
* 打包時須考慮的事情::


File: python.info,  Node: 什麼是「頂層程式碼環境」？,  Next: 慣用 Idiomatic 用法,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.29.5.2 什麼是「頂層程式碼環境」？
...................................

‘__main__’ 是執行頂層程式碼的環境名稱。「頂層程式碼」是使用者指定且第一
個開始運作的 Python 模組。它是「頂層」的原因是因為它引入程式所需的所有其
他模組。有時「頂層程式碼」被稱為應用程式的'入口點'。

頂層程式碼環境可以是：

   * 互動式提示字元的作用域：

          >>> __name__
          '__main__'

   * 將 Python 模組作為檔案引數傳遞給 Python 直譯器：

          $ python helloworld.py
          Hello, world!

   * 使用 *note -m: 3d4. 引數傳遞給 Python 直譯器的 Python 模組或套件：

          $ python -m tarfile
          usage: tarfile.py [-h] [-v] (...)

   * Python 直譯器從標準輸入讀取 Python 程式碼：

          $ echo "import this" | python
          The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

          Beautiful is better than ugly.
          Explicit is better than implicit.
          ...

   * 使用 *note -c: 3d3. 引數傳遞給 Python 直譯器的 Python 程式碼：

          $ python -c "import this"
          The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

          Beautiful is better than ugly.
          Explicit is better than implicit.
          ...

在這些情況下，頂層模組的 ‘__name__’ 都會設定為 ‘'__main__'’。

因此，模組可以透過檢查自己的 ‘__name__’ 來發現它是否在頂層環境中執行，這
允許當模組未從 import 陳述式初始化時，使用常見的慣用語法 (idiom) 來有條
件地執行程式碼：

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         # Execute when the module is not initialized from an import statement.
         ...

也參考
......

若要更詳細地了解如何在所有情況下設定 ‘__name__’，請參閱教學章節 *note
模組 (Module): 1a4b.。


File: python.info,  Node: 慣用 Idiomatic 用法,  Next: 打包時須考慮的事情,  Prev: 什麼是「頂層程式碼環境」？,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.29.5.3 慣用 (Idiomatic) 用法
..............................

某些模組包含僅供腳本使用的程式碼，例如剖析命令列引數或從標準輸入取得資料
。如果從不同的模組匯入這樣的模組（例如對其進行單元測試 (unit test)），則
腳本程式碼也會無意間執行。

這就是使用 ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ 程式碼區塊派上用場的地方。除非該
模組在頂層環境中執行，否則此區塊中的程式碼不會執行。

在 ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ 下面的區塊中放置盡可能少的陳述式可以提高
程式碼的清晰度和正確性。大多數情況下，名為 ‘main’ 的函式封裝
(encapsulate) 了程式的主要行為：

     # echo.py

     import shlex
     import sys

     def echo(phrase: str) -> None:
        """A dummy wrapper around print."""
        # for demonstration purposes, you can imagine that there is some
        # valuable and reusable logic inside this function
        print(phrase)

     def main() -> int:
         """Echo the input arguments to standard output"""
         phrase = shlex.join(sys.argv)
         echo(phrase)
         return 0

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         sys.exit(main())  # next section explains the use of sys.exit

請注意，如果模組沒有將程式碼封裝在 ‘main’ 函式中，而是直接將其放在 ‘if
__name__ == '__main__'’ 區塊中，則 ‘phrase’ 變數對於整個模組來說將是全域
的。這很容易出錯，因為模組中的其他函式可能會無意中使用此全域變數而不是區
域變數。‘main’ 函式解決了這個問題。

使用 ‘main’ 函式還有一個額外的好處，‘echo’ 函式本身是隔離的 (isolated) 並
且可以在其他地方引入。當引入 ‘echo.py’ 時，‘echo’ 和 ‘main’ 函式將被定義
，但它們都不會被呼叫，因為 ‘__name__ != '__main__'’。


File: python.info,  Node: 打包時須考慮的事情,  Prev: 慣用 Idiomatic 用法,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.29.5.4 打包時須考慮的事情
...........................

‘main’ 函式通常用於透過將它們指定為控制台腳本的入口點來建立命令列工具。
完成後，pip(1) 將函式呼叫插入到模板腳本中，其中 ‘main’ 的回傳值被傳遞到
*note sys.exit(): 11dd. 中。例如：

     sys.exit(main())

由於對 ‘main’ 的呼叫包含在 *note sys.exit(): 11dd. 中，因此期望你的函式
將傳回一些可接受作為 *note sys.exit(): 11dd. 輸入的值；通常來說，會是一
個整數或 ‘None’（如果你的函式沒有 return 陳述式，則相當於回傳此值）。

透過我們自己主動遵循這個慣例，我們的模組在直接執行時（即 ‘python
echo.py’）的行為，將和我們稍後將其打包為 pip 可安裝套件中的控制台腳本入
口點相同。

特別是，要謹慎處理從 ‘main’ 函式回傳字串。*note sys.exit(): 11dd. 會將字
串引數直譯為失敗訊息，因此你的程式將有一個表示失敗的結束代碼 ‘1’，並且該
字串將被寫入 *note sys.stderr: 778.。前面的 ‘echo.py’ 範例使用慣例的
‘sys.exit(main())’ 進行示範。

也參考
......

Python 打包使用者指南(2)包含一系列如何使用現代工具發行和安裝 Python 套件
的教學和參考資料。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pip.pypa.io/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 套件中的 __main__ py,  Next: import __main__,  Prev: __name__ == '__main__',  Up: __main__ --- 頂層程式碼環境

5.29.5.5 Python 套件中的 ‘__main__.py’
......................................

如果你不熟悉 Python 套件，請參閱 *note 套件 (Package): 1a5c. 的教學章節
。最常見的是，‘__main__.py’ 檔案用於為套件提供命令列介面。假設下面有虛構
的套件 "bandclass"：

     bandclass
       ├── __init__.py
       ├── __main__.py
       └── student.py

當使用 *note -m: 3d4. 旗標 (flag) 直接從命令列呼叫套件本身時，將執行
‘__main__.py’。例如：

     $ python -m bandclass

該命令將導致 ‘__main__.py’ 執行。如何利用此機制將取決於你正在編寫的套件
的性質，但在這種虛構的情況下，允許教師搜尋學生可能是有意義的：

     # bandclass/__main__.py

     import sys
     from .student import search_students

     student_name = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) >= 2 else ''
     print(f'Found student: {search_students(student_name)}')

請注意，‘from .student import search_students’ 是相對引入的範例。在引用
套件內的模組時，可以使用此引入樣式。有關更多詳細資訊，請參閱 *note 模組
(Module): 1a4b. 教學章節中的 *note 套件內引用: 1a61.。

* Menu:

* 慣用 (Idiomatic) 用法: 慣用 Idiomatic 用法<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 慣用 Idiomatic 用法<2>,  Up: Python 套件中的 __main__ py

5.29.5.6 慣用 (Idiomatic) 用法
..............................

‘__main__.py’ 的內容通常不會被 ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ 區塊包圍。相
反的，這些檔案保持簡短並引入其他模組的函式來執行。那些其他模組就可以輕鬆
地進行單元測試並且可以正確地重複使用。

如果在套件裡面的 ‘__main__.py’ 檔案使用 ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ 區塊
，它依然會如預期般地運作。因為當引入套件，其 ‘__name__’ 屬性將會包含套件
的路徑：

     >>> import asyncio.__main__
     >>> asyncio.__main__.__name__
     'asyncio.__main__'

但這對於 ‘.zip’ 檔案根目錄中的 ‘__main__.py’ 檔案不起作用。因此，為了保
持一致性，最小的、沒有 ‘__name__’ 檢查的 ‘__main__.py’ 會是首選。

也參考
......

請參閱 *note venv: 10c. 作為標準函式庫中具有最小 ‘__main__.py’ 的套件為
範例。它不包含 ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ 區塊。你可以使用 ‘python -m
venv [directory]’ 來呼叫它。

請參閱 *note runpy: b9. 取得有關直譯器可執行檔的 *note -m: 3d4. 旗標的更
多詳細資訊。

請參閱 *note zipapp: 12a. 了解如何執行打包成 '.zip' 檔案的應用程式。在這
種情況下，Python 會在封存檔案的根目錄中尋找 ‘__main__.py’ 檔案。


File: python.info,  Node: import __main__,  Prev: Python 套件中的 __main__ py,  Up: __main__ --- 頂層程式碼環境

5.29.5.7 ‘import __main__’
..........................

無論 Python 程式是從哪個模組啟動的，在同一程式中執行的其他模組都可以透過
匯入 ‘__main__’ 模組來引入頂層環境的作用域 (*note namespace: 1a4c.)。這
不會引入 ‘__main__.py’ 檔案，而是引入接收特殊名稱 ‘'__main__'’ 的模組。

這是一個使用 ‘__main__’ 命名空間的範例模組：

     # namely.py

     import __main__

     def did_user_define_their_name():
         return 'my_name' in dir(__main__)

     def print_user_name():
         if not did_user_define_their_name():
             raise ValueError('Define the variable `my_name`!')

         if '__file__' in dir(__main__):
             print(__main__.my_name, "found in file", __main__.__file__)
         else:
             print(__main__.my_name)

該模組的範例用法如下：

     # start.py

     import sys

     from namely import print_user_name

     # my_name = "Dinsdale"

     def main():
         try:
             print_user_name()
         except ValueError as ve:
             return str(ve)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         sys.exit(main())

現在，如果我們啟動程式，結果將如下所示：

     $ python start.py
     Define the variable `my_name`!

程式的結束代碼將為 1，表示出現錯誤。取消註解 ‘my_name = "Dinsdale"’ 而修
復程式後，現在它以狀態碼 0 結束，表示成功：

     $ python start.py
     Dinsdale found in file /path/to/start.py

請注意，引入 ‘__main__’ 並不會因為不經意地執行放在 ‘start’ 模組中 ‘if
__name__ == "__main__"’ 區塊的頂層程式碼（本來是給腳本使用的）而造成任何
問題。為什麼這樣做會如預期運作？

當 Python 直譯器啟動時，會在 *note sys.modules: 1745. 中插入一個空的
‘__main__’ 模組，並透過執行頂層程式碼來填充它。在我們的範例中，這是
‘start’ 模組，它將逐行執行並引入 ‘namely’。接著，‘namely’ 引入
‘__main__’（其實是 ‘start’）。這就是一個引入循環！幸運的是，由於部分填充
的 ‘__main__’ 模組存在於 *note sys.modules: 1745. 中，Python 將其傳遞給
‘namely’。請參閱引入系統參考文件中的*note 關於 __main__ 的特別考量:
1d9d.了解其工作原理的詳細資訊。

Python REPL 是「頂層環境」的另一個範例，因此 REPL 中定義的任何內容都成為
作域的一部分：

     >>> import namely
     >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
     False
     >>> namely.print_user_name()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Define the variable `my_name`!
     >>> my_name = 'Jabberwocky'
     >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
     True
     >>> namely.print_user_name()
     Jabberwocky

請注意，在這種情況下， ‘__main__’ 作用域不包含 ‘__file__’ 屬性，因為它是
互動式的。

‘__main__’ 作用域用於 *note pdb: a0. 和 *note rlcompleter: b8. 的實作。


File: python.info,  Node: warnings --- 警告控制,  Next: dataclasses --- Data Classes,  Prev: __main__ --- 頂層程式碼環境,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.6 ‘warnings’ -- 警告控制
-----------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/warnings.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Warning messages are typically issued in situations where it is useful
to alert the user of some condition in a program, where that condition
(normally) doesn't warrant raising an exception and terminating the
program.  For example, one might want to issue a warning when a program
uses an obsolete module.

Python programmers issue warnings by calling the *note warn(): 1391.
function defined in this module.  (C programmers use *note
PyErr_WarnEx(): 12bd.; see *note 例外處理: 40fd. for details).

Warning messages are normally written to *note sys.stderr: 778, but
their disposition can be changed flexibly, from ignoring all warnings to
turning them into exceptions.  The disposition of warnings can vary
based on the *note warning category: 2049, the text of the warning
message, and the source location where it is issued.  Repetitions of a
particular warning for the same source location are typically
suppressed.

There are two stages in warning control: first, each time a warning is
issued, a determination is made whether a message should be issued or
not; next, if a message is to be issued, it is formatted and printed
using a user-settable hook.

The determination whether to issue a warning message is controlled by
the *note warning filter: 701, which is a sequence of matching rules and
actions.  Rules can be added to the filter by calling *note
filterwarnings(): 131c. and reset to its default state by calling *note
resetwarnings(): 40fe.

The printing of warning messages is done by calling *note showwarning():
40ff, which may be overridden; the default implementation of this
function formats the message by calling *note formatwarning(): 17fa,
which is also available for use by custom implementations.

也參考
......

*note logging.captureWarnings(): 2a98. allows you to handle all warnings
with the standard logging infrastructure.

* Menu:

* Warning Categories::
* The Warnings Filter::
* Temporarily Suppressing Warnings::
* Testing Warnings::
* Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies::
* Available Functions::
* Available Context Managers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/warnings.py


File: python.info,  Node: Warning Categories,  Next: The Warnings Filter,  Up: warnings --- 警告控制

5.29.6.1 Warning Categories
...........................

There are a number of built-in exceptions that represent warning
categories.  This categorization is useful to be able to filter out
groups of warnings.

While these are technically *note built-in exceptions: 2047, they are
documented here, because conceptually they belong to the warnings
mechanism.

User code can define additional warning categories by subclassing one of
the standard warning categories.  A warning category must always be a
subclass of the *note Warning: 204a. class.

The following warnings category classes are currently defined:

Class                                  描述
                                       
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
*note Warning: 204a.                   This is the base class of all warning category
                                       classes.  It is a subclass of
                                       *note Exception: 81e.
                                       
                                       
*note UserWarning: 204b.               The default category for *note warn(): 1391.
                                       
                                       
*note DeprecationWarning: 179.         Base category for warnings about deprecated
                                       features when those warnings are intended for
                                       other Python developers (ignored by default,
                                       unless triggered by code in ‘__main__’).
                                       
                                       
*note SyntaxWarning: 178.              Base category for warnings about dubious
                                       syntactic features.
                                       
                                       
*note RuntimeWarning: 8e7.             Base category for warnings about dubious runtime
                                       features.
                                       
                                       
*note FutureWarning: 241.              Base category for warnings about deprecated
                                       features when those warnings are intended for end
                                       users of applications that are written in Python.
                                       
                                       
*note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.  Base category for warnings about features that
                                       will be deprecated in the future (ignored by
                                       default).
                                       
                                       
*note ImportWarning: 247.              Base category for warnings triggered during the
                                       process of importing a module (ignored by
                                       default).
                                       
                                       
*note UnicodeWarning: 1294.            Base category for warnings related to Unicode.
                                       
                                       
*note BytesWarning: a88.               Base category for warnings related to
                                       *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0.
                                       
                                       
*note ResourceWarning: aa3.            Base category for warnings related to resource
                                       usage (ignored by default).
                                       

在 3.7 版的變更: Previously *note DeprecationWarning: 179. and *note
FutureWarning: 241. were distinguished based on whether a feature was
being removed entirely or changing its behaviour.  They are now
distinguished based on their intended audience and the way they're
handled by the default warnings filters.


File: python.info,  Node: The Warnings Filter,  Next: Temporarily Suppressing Warnings,  Prev: Warning Categories,  Up: warnings --- 警告控制

5.29.6.2 The Warnings Filter
............................

The warnings filter controls whether warnings are ignored, displayed, or
turned into errors (raising an exception).

Conceptually, the warnings filter maintains an ordered list of filter
specifications; any specific warning is matched against each filter
specification in the list in turn until a match is found; the filter
determines the disposition of the match.  Each entry is a tuple of the
form ('action', 'message', 'category', 'module', 'lineno'), where:

   * 'action' is one of the following strings:

     Value               Disposition
                         
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
     ‘"default"’         print the first occurrence of matching warnings
                         for each location (module + line number) where
                         the warning is issued
                         
                         
     ‘"error"’           turn matching warnings into exceptions
                         
                         
     ‘"ignore"’          never print matching warnings
                         
                         
     ‘"always"’          always print matching warnings
                         
                         
     ‘"module"’          print the first occurrence of matching warnings
                         for each module where the warning is issued
                         (regardless of line number)
                         
                         
     ‘"once"’            print only the first occurrence of matching
                         warnings, regardless of location
                         

   * 'message' is a string containing a regular expression that the
     start of the warning message must match, case-insensitively.  In
     *note -W: 6ff. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a0b, 'message' is a
     literal string that the start of the warning message must contain
     (case-insensitively), ignoring any whitespace at the start or end
     of 'message'.

   * 'category' is a class (a subclass of *note Warning: 204a.) of which
     the warning category must be a subclass in order to match.

   * 'module' is a string containing a regular expression that the start
     of the fully qualified module name must match, case-sensitively.
     In *note -W: 6ff. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a0b, 'module' is a
     literal string that the fully qualified module name must be equal
     to (case-sensitively), ignoring any whitespace at the start or end
     of 'module'.

   * 'lineno' is an integer that the line number where the warning
     occurred must match, or ‘0’ to match all line numbers.

Since the *note Warning: 204a. class is derived from the built-in *note
Exception: 81e. class, to turn a warning into an error we simply raise
‘category(message)’.

If a warning is reported and doesn't match any registered filter then
the "default" action is applied (hence its name).

* Menu:

* Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria::
* Describing Warning Filters::
* Default Warning Filter::
* Overriding the default filter::


File: python.info,  Node: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria,  Next: Describing Warning Filters,  Up: The Warnings Filter

5.29.6.3 Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria
..............................................

The filters that suppress repeated warnings apply the following criteria
to determine if a warning is considered a repeat:

   - ‘"default"’: A warning is considered a repeat only if the
     ('message', 'category', 'module', 'lineno') are all the same.

   - ‘"module"’: A warning is considered a repeat if the ('message',
     'category', 'module') are the same, ignoring the line number.

   - ‘"once"’: A warning is considered a repeat if the ('message',
     'category') are the same, ignoring the module and line number.


File: python.info,  Node: Describing Warning Filters,  Next: Default Warning Filter,  Prev: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria,  Up: The Warnings Filter

5.29.6.4 Describing Warning Filters
...................................

The warnings filter is initialized by *note -W: 6ff. options passed to
the Python interpreter command line and the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a0b.
environment variable.  The interpreter saves the arguments for all
supplied entries without interpretation in *note sys.warnoptions: 35a.;
the *note warnings: 10d. module parses these when it is first imported
(invalid options are ignored, after printing a message to *note
sys.stderr: 778.).

Individual warnings filters are specified as a sequence of fields
separated by colons:

     action:message:category:module:line

The meaning of each of these fields is as described in *note The
Warnings Filter: 701.  When listing multiple filters on a single line
(as for *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a0b.), the individual filters are
separated by commas and the filters listed later take precedence over
those listed before them (as they're applied left-to-right, and the most
recently applied filters take precedence over earlier ones).

Commonly used warning filters apply to either all warnings, warnings in
a particular category, or warnings raised by particular modules or
packages.  Some examples:

     default                      # Show all warnings (even those ignored by default)
     ignore                       # Ignore all warnings
     error                        # Convert all warnings to errors
     error::ResourceWarning       # Treat ResourceWarning messages as errors
     default::DeprecationWarning  # Show DeprecationWarning messages
     ignore,default:::mymodule    # Only report warnings triggered by "mymodule"
     error:::mymodule             # Convert warnings to errors in "mymodule"


File: python.info,  Node: Default Warning Filter,  Next: Overriding the default filter,  Prev: Describing Warning Filters,  Up: The Warnings Filter

5.29.6.5 Default Warning Filter
...............................

By default, Python installs several warning filters, which can be
overridden by the *note -W: 6ff. command-line option, the *note
PYTHONWARNINGS: a0b. environment variable and calls to *note
filterwarnings(): 131c.

In regular release builds, the default warning filter has the following
entries (in order of precedence):

     default::DeprecationWarning:__main__
     ignore::DeprecationWarning
     ignore::PendingDeprecationWarning
     ignore::ImportWarning
     ignore::ResourceWarning

In a *note debug build: 69f, the list of default warning filters is
empty.

在 3.2 版的變更: *note DeprecationWarning: 179. is now ignored by
default in addition to *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.

在 3.7 版的變更: *note DeprecationWarning: 179. is once again shown by
default when triggered directly by code in ‘__main__’.

在 3.7 版的變更: *note BytesWarning: a88. no longer appears in the
default filter list and is instead configured via *note sys.warnoptions:
35a. when *note -b: 3d7. is specified twice.


File: python.info,  Node: Overriding the default filter,  Prev: Default Warning Filter,  Up: The Warnings Filter

5.29.6.6 Overriding the default filter
......................................

Developers of applications written in Python may wish to hide 'all'
Python level warnings from their users by default, and only display them
when running tests or otherwise working on the application.  The *note
sys.warnoptions: 35a. attribute used to pass filter configurations to
the interpreter can be used as a marker to indicate whether or not
warnings should be disabled:

     import sys

     if not sys.warnoptions:
         import warnings
         warnings.simplefilter("ignore")

Developers of test runners for Python code are advised to instead ensure
that 'all' warnings are displayed by default for the code under test,
using code like:

     import sys

     if not sys.warnoptions:
         import os, warnings
         warnings.simplefilter("default") # Change the filter in this process
         os.environ["PYTHONWARNINGS"] = "default" # Also affect subprocesses

Finally, developers of interactive shells that run user code in a
namespace other than ‘__main__’ are advised to ensure that *note
DeprecationWarning: 179. messages are made visible by default, using
code like the following (where ‘user_ns’ is the module used to execute
code entered interactively):

     import warnings
     warnings.filterwarnings("default", category=DeprecationWarning,
                                        module=user_ns.get("__name__"))


File: python.info,  Node: Temporarily Suppressing Warnings,  Next: Testing Warnings,  Prev: The Warnings Filter,  Up: warnings --- 警告控制

5.29.6.7 Temporarily Suppressing Warnings
.........................................

If you are using code that you know will raise a warning, such as a
deprecated function, but do not want to see the warning (even when
warnings have been explicitly configured via the command line), then it
is possible to suppress the warning using the *note catch_warnings: 313.
context manager:

     import warnings

     def fxn():
         warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

     with warnings.catch_warnings():
         warnings.simplefilter("ignore")
         fxn()

While within the context manager all warnings will simply be ignored.
This allows you to use known-deprecated code without having to see the
warning while not suppressing the warning for other code that might not
be aware of its use of deprecated code.  Note: this can only be
guaranteed in a single-threaded application.  If two or more threads use
the *note catch_warnings: 313. context manager at the same time, the
behavior is undefined.


File: python.info,  Node: Testing Warnings,  Next: Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies,  Prev: Temporarily Suppressing Warnings,  Up: warnings --- 警告控制

5.29.6.8 Testing Warnings
.........................

To test warnings raised by code, use the *note catch_warnings: 313.
context manager.  With it you can temporarily mutate the warnings filter
to facilitate your testing.  For instance, do the following to capture
all raised warnings to check:

     import warnings

     def fxn():
         warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

     with warnings.catch_warnings(record=True) as w:
         # Cause all warnings to always be triggered.
         warnings.simplefilter("always")
         # Trigger a warning.
         fxn()
         # Verify some things
         assert len(w) == 1
         assert issubclass(w[-1].category, DeprecationWarning)
         assert "deprecated" in str(w[-1].message)

One can also cause all warnings to be exceptions by using ‘error’
instead of ‘always’.  One thing to be aware of is that if a warning has
already been raised because of a ‘once’/‘default’ rule, then no matter
what filters are set the warning will not be seen again unless the
warnings registry related to the warning has been cleared.

Once the context manager exits, the warnings filter is restored to its
state when the context was entered.  This prevents tests from changing
the warnings filter in unexpected ways between tests and leading to
indeterminate test results.  The *note showwarning(): 40ff. function in
the module is also restored to its original value.  Note: this can only
be guaranteed in a single-threaded application.  If two or more threads
use the *note catch_warnings: 313. context manager at the same time, the
behavior is undefined.

When testing multiple operations that raise the same kind of warning, it
is important to test them in a manner that confirms each operation is
raising a new warning (e.g.  set warnings to be raised as exceptions and
check the operations raise exceptions, check that the length of the
warning list continues to increase after each operation, or else delete
the previous entries from the warnings list before each new operation).


File: python.info,  Node: Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies,  Next: Available Functions,  Prev: Testing Warnings,  Up: warnings --- 警告控制

5.29.6.9 Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies
.......................................................

Warning categories that are primarily of interest to Python developers
(rather than end users of applications written in Python) are ignored by
default.

Notably, this "ignored by default" list includes *note
DeprecationWarning: 179. (for every module except ‘__main__’), which
means developers should make sure to test their code with typically
ignored warnings made visible in order to receive timely notifications
of future breaking API changes (whether in the standard library or third
party packages).

In the ideal case, the code will have a suitable test suite, and the
test runner will take care of implicitly enabling all warnings when
running tests (the test runner provided by the *note unittest: 101.
module does this).

In less ideal cases, applications can be checked for use of deprecated
interfaces by passing *note -Wd: 6ff. to the Python interpreter (this is
shorthand for ‘-W default’) or setting ‘PYTHONWARNINGS=default’ in the
environment.  This enables default handling for all warnings, including
those that are ignored by default.  To change what action is taken for
encountered warnings you can change what argument is passed to *note -W:
6ff. (e.g.  ‘-W error’).  See the *note -W: 6ff. flag for more details
on what is possible.


File: python.info,  Node: Available Functions,  Next: Available Context Managers,  Prev: Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies,  Up: warnings --- 警告控制

5.29.6.10 Available Functions
.............................

 -- 函式: warnings.warn (message, category=None, stacklevel=1,
          source=None, *, skip_file_prefixes=())

     Issue a warning, or maybe ignore it or raise an exception.  The
     'category' argument, if given, must be a *note warning category
     class: 2049.; it defaults to *note UserWarning: 204b.
     Alternatively, 'message' can be a *note Warning: 204a. instance, in
     which case 'category' will be ignored and ‘message.__class__’ will
     be used.  In this case, the message text will be ‘str(message)’.
     This function raises an exception if the particular warning issued
     is changed into an error by the *note warnings filter: 701.  The
     'stacklevel' argument can be used by wrapper functions written in
     Python, like this:

          def deprecated_api(message):
              warnings.warn(message, DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)

     This makes the warning refer to ‘deprecated_api’'s caller, rather
     than to the source of ‘deprecated_api’ itself (since the latter
     would defeat the purpose of the warning message).

     The 'skip_file_prefixes' keyword argument can be used to indicate
     which stack frames are ignored when counting stack levels.  This
     can be useful when you want the warning to always appear at call
     sites outside of a package when a constant 'stacklevel' does not
     fit all call paths or is otherwise challenging to maintain.  If
     supplied, it must be a tuple of strings.  When prefixes are
     supplied, stacklevel is implicitly overridden to be ‘max(2,
     stacklevel)’.  To cause a warning to be attributed to the caller
     from outside of the current package you might write:

          # example/lower.py
          _warn_skips = (os.path.dirname(__file__),)

          def one_way(r_luxury_yacht=None, t_wobbler_mangrove=None):
              if r_luxury_yacht:
                  warnings.warn("Please migrate to t_wobbler_mangrove=.",
                                skip_file_prefixes=_warn_skips)

          # example/higher.py
          from . import lower

          def another_way(**kw):
              lower.one_way(**kw)

     This makes the warning refer to both the ‘example.lower.one_way()’
     and ‘package.higher.another_way()’ call sites only from calling
     code living outside of ‘example’ package.

     'source', if supplied, is the destroyed object which emitted a
     *note ResourceWarning: aa3.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'source' 參數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增 'skip_file_prefixes'。

 -- 函式: warnings.warn_explicit (message, category, filename, lineno,
          module=None, registry=None, module_globals=None, source=None)

     This is a low-level interface to the functionality of *note warn():
     1391, passing in explicitly the message, category, filename and
     line number, and optionally the module name and the registry (which
     should be the ‘__warningregistry__’ dictionary of the module).  The
     module name defaults to the filename with ‘.py’ stripped; if no
     registry is passed, the warning is never suppressed.  'message'
     must be a string and 'category' a subclass of *note Warning: 204a.
     or 'message' may be a *note Warning: 204a. instance, in which case
     'category' will be ignored.

     'module_globals', if supplied, should be the global namespace in
     use by the code for which the warning is issued.  (This argument is
     used to support displaying source for modules found in zipfiles or
     other non-filesystem import sources).

     'source', if supplied, is the destroyed object which emitted a
     *note ResourceWarning: aa3.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Add the 'source' parameter.

 -- 函式: warnings.showwarning (message, category, filename, lineno,
          file=None, line=None)

     Write a warning to a file.  The default implementation calls
     ‘formatwarning(message, category, filename, lineno, line)’ and
     writes the resulting string to 'file', which defaults to *note
     sys.stderr: 778.  You may replace this function with any callable
     by assigning to ‘warnings.showwarning’.  'line' is a line of source
     code to be included in the warning message; if 'line' is not
     supplied, *note showwarning(): 40ff. will try to read the line
     specified by 'filename' and 'lineno'.

 -- 函式: warnings.formatwarning (message, category, filename, lineno,
          line=None)

     Format a warning the standard way.  This returns a string which may
     contain embedded newlines and ends in a newline.  'line' is a line
     of source code to be included in the warning message; if 'line' is
     not supplied, *note formatwarning(): 17fa. will try to read the
     line specified by 'filename' and 'lineno'.

 -- 函式: warnings.filterwarnings (action, message='', category=Warning,
          module='', lineno=0, append=False)

     Insert an entry into the list of *note warnings filter
     specifications: 701.  The entry is inserted at the front by
     default; if 'append' is true, it is inserted at the end.  This
     checks the types of the arguments, compiles the 'message' and
     'module' regular expressions, and inserts them as a tuple in the
     list of warnings filters.  Entries closer to the front of the list
     override entries later in the list, if both match a particular
     warning.  Omitted arguments default to a value that matches
     everything.

 -- 函式: warnings.simplefilter (action, category=Warning, lineno=0,
          append=False)

     Insert a simple entry into the list of *note warnings filter
     specifications: 701.  The meaning of the function parameters is as
     for *note filterwarnings(): 131c, but regular expressions are not
     needed as the filter inserted always matches any message in any
     module as long as the category and line number match.

 -- 函式: warnings.resetwarnings ()

     Reset the warnings filter.  This discards the effect of all
     previous calls to *note filterwarnings(): 131c, including that of
     the *note -W: 6ff. command line options and calls to *note
     simplefilter(): 4c0.


File: python.info,  Node: Available Context Managers,  Prev: Available Functions,  Up: warnings --- 警告控制

5.29.6.11 Available Context Managers
....................................

 -- 類別: warnings.catch_warnings (*, record=False, module=None,
          action=None, category=Warning, lineno=0, append=False)

     A context manager that copies and, upon exit, restores the warnings
     filter and the *note showwarning(): 40ff. function.  If the
     'record' argument is *note False: 98f. (the default) the context
     manager returns *note None: 470. on entry.  If 'record' is *note
     True: a70, a list is returned that is progressively populated with
     objects as seen by a custom *note showwarning(): 40ff. function
     (which also suppresses output to ‘sys.stdout’).  Each object in the
     list has attributes with the same names as the arguments to *note
     showwarning(): 40ff.

     The 'module' argument takes a module that will be used instead of
     the module returned when you import *note warnings: 10d. whose
     filter will be protected.  This argument exists primarily for
     testing the *note warnings: 10d. module itself.

     If the 'action' argument is not ‘None’, the remaining arguments are
     passed to *note simplefilter(): 4c0. as if it were called
     immediately on entering the context.

     See *note The Warnings Filter: 701. for the meaning of the
     'category' and 'lineno' parameters.

          備註: The *note catch_warnings: 313. manager works by
          replacing and then later restoring the module's *note
          showwarning(): 40ff. function and internal list of filter
          specifications.  This means the context manager is modifying
          global state and therefore is not thread-safe.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'action'、'category'、'lineno' 和 'append' 參
     數。


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses --- Data Classes,  Next: contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts,  Prev: warnings --- 警告控制,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.7 ‘dataclasses’ -- Data Classes
------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/dataclasses.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a decorator and functions for automatically adding
generated *note special methods: 167e. such as *note __init__(): 4ae.
and *note __repr__(): 416. to user-defined classes.  It was originally
described in PEP 557(2).

The member variables to use in these generated methods are defined using
PEP 526(3) type annotations.  For example, this code:

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass
     class InventoryItem:
         """Class for keeping track of an item in inventory."""
         name: str
         unit_price: float
         quantity_on_hand: int = 0

         def total_cost(self) -> float:
             return self.unit_price * self.quantity_on_hand

will add, among other things, a ‘__init__()’ that looks like:

     def __init__(self, name: str, unit_price: float, quantity_on_hand: int = 0):
         self.name = name
         self.unit_price = unit_price
         self.quantity_on_hand = quantity_on_hand

Note that this method is automatically added to the class: it is not
directly specified in the ‘InventoryItem’ definition shown above.

在 3.7 版被加入.

* Menu:

* 模組內容: 模組內容<8>.
* Post-init processing::
* 類別變數::
* Init-only variables::
* 凍結實例::
* 繼承::
* Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__.
* 預設工廠函式::
* 可變預設值::
* Descriptor-typed fields::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dataclasses.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: 模組內容<8>,  Next: Post-init processing,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.29.7.1 模組內容
.................

 -- 函式: @dataclasses.dataclass (*, init=True, repr=True, eq=True,
          order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True,
          kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)

     This function is a *note decorator: 540. that is used to add
     generated *note special methods: 167e. to classes, as described
     below.

     The ‘@dataclass’ decorator examines the class to find ‘field’s.  A
     ‘field’ is defined as a class variable that has a *note type
     annotation: bcb.  With two exceptions described below, nothing in
     ‘@dataclass’ examines the type specified in the variable
     annotation.

     The order of the fields in all of the generated methods is the
     order in which they appear in the class definition.

     The ‘@dataclass’ decorator will add various "dunder" methods to the
     class, described below.  If any of the added methods already exist
     in the class, the behavior depends on the parameter, as documented
     below.  The decorator returns the same class that it is called on;
     no new class is created.

     If ‘@dataclass’ is used just as a simple decorator with no
     parameters, it acts as if it has the default values documented in
     this signature.  That is, these three uses of ‘@dataclass’ are
     equivalent:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              ...

          @dataclass()
          class C:
              ...

          @dataclass(init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False,
                     match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)
          class C:
              ...

     ‘@dataclass’ 的參數是：

        - 'init': If true (the default), a *note __init__(): 4ae. method
          will be generated.

          If the class already defines ‘__init__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'repr': If true (the default), a *note __repr__(): 416. method
          will be generated.  The generated repr string will have the
          class name and the name and repr of each field, in the order
          they are defined in the class.  Fields that are marked as
          being excluded from the repr are not included.  For example:
          ‘InventoryItem(name='widget', unit_price=3.0,
          quantity_on_hand=10)’.

          If the class already defines ‘__repr__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'eq': If true (the default), an *note __eq__(): 94f. method
          will be generated.  This method compares the class as if it
          were a tuple of its fields, in order.  Both instances in the
          comparison must be of the identical type.

          If the class already defines ‘__eq__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'order': If true (the default is ‘False’), *note __lt__():
          119c, *note __le__(): 119d, *note __gt__(): 119e, and *note
          __ge__(): 119f. methods will be generated.  These compare the
          class as if it were a tuple of its fields, in order.  Both
          instances in the comparison must be of the identical type.  If
          'order' is true and 'eq' is false, a *note ValueError: 183. is
          raised.

          If the class already defines any of ‘__lt__()’, ‘__le__()’,
          ‘__gt__()’, or ‘__ge__()’, then *note TypeError: 2ba. is
          raised.

        - 'unsafe_hash': If ‘False’ (the default), a *note __hash__():
          950. method is generated according to how 'eq' and 'frozen'
          are set.

          ‘__hash__()’ is used by built-in *note hash(): 3df, and when
          objects are added to hashed collections such as dictionaries
          and sets.  Having a ‘__hash__()’ implies that instances of the
          class are immutable.  Mutability is a complicated property
          that depends on the programmer's intent, the existence and
          behavior of ‘__eq__()’, and the values of the 'eq' and
          'frozen' flags in the ‘@dataclass’ decorator.

          By default, ‘@dataclass’ will not implicitly add a *note
          __hash__(): 950. method unless it is safe to do so.  Neither
          will it add or change an existing explicitly defined
          ‘__hash__()’ method.  Setting the class attribute ‘__hash__ =
          None’ has a specific meaning to Python, as described in the
          ‘__hash__()’ documentation.

          If ‘__hash__()’ is not explicitly defined, or if it is set to
          ‘None’, then ‘@dataclass’ 'may' add an implicit ‘__hash__()’
          method.  Although not recommended, you can force ‘@dataclass’
          to create a ‘__hash__()’ method with ‘unsafe_hash=True’.  This
          might be the case if your class is logically immutable but can
          still be mutated.  This is a specialized use case and should
          be considered carefully.

          Here are the rules governing implicit creation of a
          ‘__hash__()’ method.  Note that you cannot both have an
          explicit ‘__hash__()’ method in your dataclass and set
          ‘unsafe_hash=True’; this will result in a *note TypeError:
          2ba.

          If 'eq' and 'frozen' are both true, by default ‘@dataclass’
          will generate a ‘__hash__()’ method for you.  If 'eq' is true
          and 'frozen' is false, ‘__hash__()’ will be set to ‘None’,
          marking it unhashable (which it is, since it is mutable).  If
          'eq' is false, ‘__hash__()’ will be left untouched meaning the
          ‘__hash__()’ method of the superclass will be used (if the
          superclass is *note object: 8d9, this means it will fall back
          to id-based hashing).

        - 'frozen': If true (the default is ‘False’), assigning to
          fields will generate an exception.  This emulates read-only
          frozen instances.  If *note __setattr__(): 1cbf. or *note
          __delattr__(): 1cc0. is defined in the class, then *note
          TypeError: 2ba. is raised.  See the discussion below.

        - 'match_args': If true (the default is ‘True’), the *note
          __match_args__: 1693. tuple will be created from the list of
          parameters to the generated *note __init__(): 4ae. method
          (even if ‘__init__()’ is not generated, see above).  If false,
          or if ‘__match_args__’ is already defined in the class, then
          ‘__match_args__’ will not be generated.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

        - 'kw_only': If true (the default value is ‘False’), then all
          fields will be marked as keyword-only.  If a field is marked
          as keyword-only, then the only effect is that the *note
          __init__(): 4ae. parameter generated from a keyword-only field
          must be specified with a keyword when ‘__init__()’ is called.
          There is no effect on any other aspect of dataclasses.  See
          the *note parameter: 1c8f. glossary entry for details.  Also
          see the *note KW_ONLY: 4114. section.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

        - 'slots': If true (the default is ‘False’), *note __slots__:
          1361. attribute will be generated and new class will be
          returned instead of the original one.  If ‘__slots__’ is
          already defined in the class, then *note TypeError: 2ba. is
          raised.

               警告: Calling no-arg *note super(): 206. in dataclasses
               using ‘slots=True’ will result in the following exception
               being raised: ‘TypeError: super(type, obj): obj must be
               an instance or subtype of type’.  The two-arg *note
               super(): 206. is a valid workaround.  See gh-90562(1) for
               full details.

               警告: Passing parameters to a base class *note
               __init_subclass__(): 42c. when using ‘slots=True’ will
               result in a *note TypeError: 2ba.  Either use
               ‘__init_subclass__’ with no parameters or use default
               values as a workaround.  See gh-91126(2) for full
               details.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

          在 3.11 版的變更: If a field name is already included in the
          ‘__slots__’ of a base class, it will not be included in the
          generated ‘__slots__’ to prevent *note overriding them: 1d01.
          Therefore, do not use ‘__slots__’ to retrieve the field names
          of a dataclass.  Use *note fields(): 1505. instead.  To be
          able to determine inherited slots, base class ‘__slots__’ may
          be any iterable, but 'not' an iterator.

        - 'weakref_slot': If true (the default is ‘False’), add a slot
          named "__weakref__", which is required to make an instance
          *note weakref-able: e82.  It is an error to specify
          ‘weakref_slot=True’ without also specifying ‘slots=True’.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

     ‘field’s may optionally specify a default value, using normal
     Python syntax:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              a: int       # 'a' has no default value
              b: int = 0   # assign a default value for 'b'

     In this example, both ‘a’ and ‘b’ will be included in the added
     *note __init__(): 4ae. method, which will be defined as:

          def __init__(self, a: int, b: int = 0):

     *note TypeError: 2ba. will be raised if a field without a default
     value follows a field with a default value.  This is true whether
     this occurs in a single class, or as a result of class inheritance.

 -- 函式: dataclasses.field (*, default=MISSING,
          default_factory=MISSING, init=True, repr=True, hash=None,
          compare=True, metadata=None, kw_only=MISSING)

     For common and simple use cases, no other functionality is
     required.  There are, however, some dataclass features that require
     additional per-field information.  To satisfy this need for
     additional information, you can replace the default field value
     with a call to the provided ‘field()’ function.  For example:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              mylist: list[int] = field(default_factory=list)

          c = C()
          c.mylist += [1, 2, 3]

     As shown above, the *note MISSING: 4115. value is a sentinel object
     used to detect if some parameters are provided by the user.  This
     sentinel is used because ‘None’ is a valid value for some
     parameters with a distinct meaning.  No code should directly use
     the *note MISSING: 4115. value.

     ‘field()’ 的參數是：

        - 'default': If provided, this will be the default value for
          this field.  This is needed because the ‘field()’ call itself
          replaces the normal position of the default value.

        - 'default_factory': If provided, it must be a zero-argument
          callable that will be called when a default value is needed
          for this field.  Among other purposes, this can be used to
          specify fields with mutable default values, as discussed
          below.  It is an error to specify both 'default' and
          'default_factory'.

        - 'init': If true (the default), this field is included as a
          parameter to the generated *note __init__(): 4ae. method.

        - 'repr': If true (the default), this field is included in the
          string returned by the generated *note __repr__(): 416.
          method.

        - 'hash': This can be a bool or ‘None’.  If true, this field is
          included in the generated *note __hash__(): 950. method.  If
          ‘None’ (the default), use the value of 'compare': this would
          normally be the expected behavior.  A field should be
          considered in the hash if it's used for comparisons.  Setting
          this value to anything other than ‘None’ is discouraged.

          One possible reason to set ‘hash=False’ but ‘compare=True’
          would be if a field is expensive to compute a hash value for,
          that field is needed for equality testing, and there are other
          fields that contribute to the type's hash value.  Even if a
          field is excluded from the hash, it will still be used for
          comparisons.

        - 'compare': If true (the default), this field is included in
          the generated equality and comparison methods (*note __eq__():
          94f, *note __gt__(): 119e, et al.).

        - 'metadata': This can be a mapping or ‘None’.  ‘None’ is
          treated as an empty dict.  This value is wrapped in *note
          MappingProxyType(): 186. to make it read-only, and exposed on
          the *note Field: 1fee. object.  It is not used at all by Data
          Classes, and is provided as a third-party extension mechanism.
          Multiple third-parties can each have their own key, to use as
          a namespace in the metadata.

        - 'kw_only': If true, this field will be marked as keyword-only.
          This is used when the generated *note __init__(): 4ae.
          method's parameters are computed.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

     If the default value of a field is specified by a call to
     ‘field()’, then the class attribute for this field will be replaced
     by the specified 'default' value.  If 'default' is not provided,
     then the class attribute will be deleted.  The intent is that after
     the *note @dataclass: 3bc. decorator runs, the class attributes
     will all contain the default values for the fields, just as if the
     default value itself were specified.  For example, after:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              x: int
              y: int = field(repr=False)
              z: int = field(repr=False, default=10)
              t: int = 20

     The class attribute ‘C.z’ will be ‘10’, the class attribute ‘C.t’
     will be ‘20’, and the class attributes ‘C.x’ and ‘C.y’ will not be
     set.

 -- 類別: dataclasses.Field

     ‘Field’ objects describe each defined field.  These objects are
     created internally, and are returned by the *note fields(): 1505.
     module-level method (see below).  Users should never instantiate a
     ‘Field’ object directly.  Its documented attributes are:

        - ‘name’：欄位的名稱。

        - ‘type’：欄位的型別。

        - ‘default’, ‘default_factory’, ‘init’, ‘repr’, ‘hash’,
          ‘compare’, ‘metadata’, and ‘kw_only’ have the identical
          meaning and values as they do in the *note field(): 1805.
          function.

     Other attributes may exist, but they are private and must not be
     inspected or relied on.

 -- 函式: dataclasses.fields (class_or_instance)

     Returns a tuple of *note Field: 1fee. objects that define the
     fields for this dataclass.  Accepts either a dataclass, or an
     instance of a dataclass.  Raises *note TypeError: 2ba. if not
     passed a dataclass or instance of one.  Does not return
     pseudo-fields which are ‘ClassVar’ or ‘InitVar’.

 -- 函式: dataclasses.asdict (obj, *, dict_factory=dict)

     Converts the dataclass 'obj' to a dict (by using the factory
     function 'dict_factory').  Each dataclass is converted to a dict of
     its fields, as ‘name: value’ pairs.  dataclasses, dicts, lists, and
     tuples are recursed into.  Other objects are copied with *note
     copy.deepcopy(): 9cb.

     Example of using ‘asdict()’ on nested dataclasses:

          @dataclass
          class Point:
               x: int
               y: int

          @dataclass
          class C:
               mylist: list[Point]

          p = Point(10, 20)
          assert asdict(p) == {'x': 10, 'y': 20}

          c = C([Point(0, 0), Point(10, 4)])
          assert asdict(c) == {'mylist': [{'x': 0, 'y': 0}, {'x': 10, 'y': 4}]}

     To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used:

          {field.name: getattr(obj, field.name) for field in fields(obj)}

     ‘asdict()’ raises *note TypeError: 2ba. if 'obj' is not a dataclass
     instance.

 -- 函式: dataclasses.astuple (obj, *, tuple_factory=tuple)

     Converts the dataclass 'obj' to a tuple (by using the factory
     function 'tuple_factory').  Each dataclass is converted to a tuple
     of its field values.  dataclasses, dicts, lists, and tuples are
     recursed into.  Other objects are copied with *note
     copy.deepcopy(): 9cb.

     從前面的例子繼續：

          assert astuple(p) == (10, 20)
          assert astuple(c) == ([(0, 0), (10, 4)],)

     To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used:

          tuple(getattr(obj, field.name) for field in dataclasses.fields(obj))

     ‘astuple()’ raises *note TypeError: 2ba. if 'obj' is not a
     dataclass instance.

 -- 函式: dataclasses.make_dataclass (cls_name, fields, *, bases=(),
          namespace=None, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False,
          unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True,
          kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False, module=None)

     Creates a new dataclass with name 'cls_name', fields as defined in
     'fields', base classes as given in 'bases', and initialized with a
     namespace as given in 'namespace'.  'fields' is an iterable whose
     elements are each either ‘name’, ‘(name, type)’, or ‘(name, type,
     Field)’.  If just ‘name’ is supplied, *note typing.Any: 4a9. is
     used for ‘type’.  The values of 'init', 'repr', 'eq', 'order',
     'unsafe_hash', 'frozen', 'match_args', 'kw_only', 'slots', and
     'weakref_slot' have the same meaning as they do in *note
     @dataclass: 3bc.

     If 'module' is defined, the ‘__module__’ attribute of the dataclass
     is set to that value.  By default, it is set to the module name of
     the caller.

     This function is not strictly required, because any Python
     mechanism for creating a new class with ‘__annotations__’ can then
     apply the *note @dataclass: 3bc. function to convert that class to
     a dataclass.  This function is provided as a convenience.  For
     example:

          C = make_dataclass('C',
                             [('x', int),
                               'y',
                              ('z', int, field(default=5))],
                             namespace={'add_one': lambda self: self.x + 1})

     相當於：

          @dataclass
          class C:
              x: int
              y: 'typing.Any'
              z: int = 5

              def add_one(self):
                  return self.x + 1

 -- 函式: dataclasses.replace (obj, /, **changes)

     Creates a new object of the same type as 'obj', replacing fields
     with values from 'changes'.  If 'obj' is not a Data Class, raises
     *note TypeError: 2ba.  If keys in 'changes' are not field names of
     the given dataclass, raises *note TypeError: 2ba.

     The newly returned object is created by calling the *note
     __init__(): 4ae. method of the dataclass.  This ensures that *note
     __post_init__(): 4116, if present, is also called.

     Init-only variables without default values, if any exist, must be
     specified on the call to ‘replace()’ so that they can be passed to
     ‘__init__()’ and *note __post_init__(): 4116.

     It is an error for 'changes' to contain any fields that are defined
     as having ‘init=False’.  A *note ValueError: 183. will be raised in
     this case.

     Be forewarned about how ‘init=False’ fields work during a call to
     ‘replace()’.  They are not copied from the source object, but
     rather are initialized in *note __post_init__(): 4116, if they're
     initialized at all.  It is expected that ‘init=False’ fields will
     be rarely and judiciously used.  If they are used, it might be wise
     to have alternate class constructors, or perhaps a custom
     ‘replace()’ (or similarly named) method which handles instance
     copying.

 -- 函式: dataclasses.is_dataclass (obj)

     Return ‘True’ if its parameter is a dataclass (including subclasses
     of a dataclass) or an instance of one, otherwise return ‘False’.

     If you need to know if a class is an instance of a dataclass (and
     not a dataclass itself), then add a further check for ‘not
     isinstance(obj, type)’:

          def is_dataclass_instance(obj):
              return is_dataclass(obj) and not isinstance(obj, type)

 -- 資料: dataclasses.MISSING

     A sentinel value signifying a missing default or default_factory.

 -- 資料: dataclasses.KW_ONLY

     A sentinel value used as a type annotation.  Any fields after a
     pseudo-field with the type of ‘KW_ONLY’ are marked as keyword-only
     fields.  Note that a pseudo-field of type ‘KW_ONLY’ is otherwise
     completely ignored.  This includes the name of such a field.  By
     convention, a name of ‘_’ is used for a ‘KW_ONLY’ field.
     Keyword-only fields signify *note __init__(): 4ae. parameters that
     must be specified as keywords when the class is instantiated.

     In this example, the fields ‘y’ and ‘z’ will be marked as
     keyword-only fields:

          @dataclass
          class Point:
              x: float
              _: KW_ONLY
              y: float
              z: float

          p = Point(0, y=1.5, z=2.0)

     In a single dataclass, it is an error to specify more than one
     field whose type is ‘KW_ONLY’.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 例外: dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError

     Raised when an implicitly defined *note __setattr__(): 1cbf. or
     *note __delattr__(): 1cc0. is called on a dataclass which was
     defined with ‘frozen=True’.  It is a subclass of *note
     AttributeError: 3ca.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90562

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91126


File: python.info,  Node: Post-init processing,  Next: 類別變數,  Prev: 模組內容<8>,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.29.7.2 Post-init processing
.............................

 -- 函式: dataclasses.__post_init__ ()

     When defined on the class, it will be called by the generated *note
     __init__(): 4ae, normally as ‘self.__post_init__()’.  However, if
     any ‘InitVar’ fields are defined, they will also be passed to
     ‘__post_init__()’ in the order they were defined in the class.  If
     no ‘__init__()’ method is generated, then ‘__post_init__()’ will
     not automatically be called.

     Among other uses, this allows for initializing field values that
     depend on one or more other fields.  For example:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              a: float
              b: float
              c: float = field(init=False)

              def __post_init__(self):
                  self.c = self.a + self.b

The *note __init__(): 4ae. method generated by *note @dataclass: 3bc.
does not call base class ‘__init__()’ methods.  If the base class has an
‘__init__()’ method that has to be called, it is common to call this
method in a *note __post_init__(): 4116. method:

     class Rectangle:
         def __init__(self, height, width):
           self.height = height
           self.width = width

     @dataclass
     class Square(Rectangle):
         side: float

         def __post_init__(self):
             super().__init__(self.side, self.side)

Note, however, that in general the dataclass-generated ‘__init__()’
methods don't need to be called, since the derived dataclass will take
care of initializing all fields of any base class that is a dataclass
itself.

See the section below on init-only variables for ways to pass parameters
to ‘__post_init__()’.  Also see the warning about how *note replace():
169a. handles ‘init=False’ fields.


File: python.info,  Node: 類別變數,  Next: Init-only variables,  Prev: Post-init processing,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.29.7.3 類別變數
.................

One of the few places where *note @dataclass: 3bc. actually inspects the
type of a field is to determine if a field is a class variable as
defined in PEP 526(1).  It does this by checking if the type of the
field is *note typing.ClassVar: 4b2.  If a field is a ‘ClassVar’, it is
excluded from consideration as a field and is ignored by the dataclass
mechanisms.  Such ‘ClassVar’ pseudo-fields are not returned by the
module-level *note fields(): 1505. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Init-only variables,  Next: 凍結實例,  Prev: 類別變數,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.29.7.4 Init-only variables
............................

Another place where *note @dataclass: 3bc. inspects a type annotation is
to determine if a field is an init-only variable.  It does this by
seeing if the type of a field is of type ‘dataclasses.InitVar’.  If a
field is an ‘InitVar’, it is considered a pseudo-field called an
init-only field.  As it is not a true field, it is not returned by the
module-level *note fields(): 1505. function.  Init-only fields are added
as parameters to the generated *note __init__(): 4ae. method, and are
passed to the optional *note __post_init__(): 4116. method.  They are
not otherwise used by dataclasses.

For example, suppose a field will be initialized from a database, if a
value is not provided when creating the class:

     @dataclass
     class C:
         i: int
         j: int | None = None
         database: InitVar[DatabaseType | None] = None

         def __post_init__(self, database):
             if self.j is None and database is not None:
                 self.j = database.lookup('j')

     c = C(10, database=my_database)

In this case, *note fields(): 1505. will return *note Field: 1fee.
objects for ‘i’ and ‘j’, but not for ‘database’.


File: python.info,  Node: 凍結實例,  Next: 繼承,  Prev: Init-only variables,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.29.7.5 凍結實例
.................

It is not possible to create truly immutable Python objects.  However,
by passing ‘frozen=True’ to the *note @dataclass: 3bc. decorator you can
emulate immutability.  In that case, dataclasses will add *note
__setattr__(): 1cbf. and *note __delattr__(): 1cc0. methods to the
class.  These methods will raise a *note FrozenInstanceError: 4117. when
invoked.

There is a tiny performance penalty when using ‘frozen=True’: *note
__init__(): 4ae. cannot use simple assignment to initialize fields, and
must use ‘object.__setattr__()’.


File: python.info,  Node: 繼承,  Next: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Prev: 凍結實例,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.29.7.6 繼承
.............

When the dataclass is being created by the *note @dataclass: 3bc.
decorator, it looks through all of the class's base classes in reverse
MRO (that is, starting at *note object: 8d9.) and, for each dataclass
that it finds, adds the fields from that base class to an ordered
mapping of fields.  After all of the base class fields are added, it
adds its own fields to the ordered mapping.  All of the generated
methods will use this combined, calculated ordered mapping of fields.
Because the fields are in insertion order, derived classes override base
classes.  An example:

     @dataclass
     class Base:
         x: Any = 15.0
         y: int = 0

     @dataclass
     class C(Base):
         z: int = 10
         x: int = 15

The final list of fields is, in order, ‘x’, ‘y’, ‘z’.  The final type of
‘x’ is *note int: 17e, as specified in class ‘C’.

The generated *note __init__(): 4ae. method for ‘C’ will look like:

     def __init__(self, x: int = 15, y: int = 0, z: int = 10):


File: python.info,  Node: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Next: 預設工廠函式,  Prev: 繼承,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.29.7.7 Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in ‘__init__()’
...............................................................

After the parameters needed for *note __init__(): 4ae. are computed, any
keyword-only parameters are moved to come after all regular
(non-keyword-only) parameters.  This is a requirement of how
keyword-only parameters are implemented in Python: they must come after
non-keyword-only parameters.

In this example, ‘Base.y’, ‘Base.w’, and ‘D.t’ are keyword-only fields,
and ‘Base.x’ and ‘D.z’ are regular fields:

     @dataclass
     class Base:
         x: Any = 15.0
         _: KW_ONLY
         y: int = 0
         w: int = 1

     @dataclass
     class D(Base):
         z: int = 10
         t: int = field(kw_only=True, default=0)

The generated ‘__init__()’ method for ‘D’ will look like:

     def __init__(self, x: Any = 15.0, z: int = 10, *, y: int = 0, w: int = 1, t: int = 0):

Note that the parameters have been re-ordered from how they appear in
the list of fields: parameters derived from regular fields are followed
by parameters derived from keyword-only fields.

The relative ordering of keyword-only parameters is maintained in the
re-ordered ‘__init__()’ parameter list.


File: python.info,  Node: 預設工廠函式,  Next: 可變預設值,  Prev: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.29.7.8 預設工廠函式
.....................

If a *note field(): 1805. specifies a 'default_factory', it is called
with zero arguments when a default value for the field is needed.  For
example, to create a new instance of a list, use:

     mylist: list = field(default_factory=list)

If a field is excluded from *note __init__(): 4ae. (using ‘init=False’)
and the field also specifies 'default_factory', then the default factory
function will always be called from the generated ‘__init__()’ function.
This happens because there is no other way to give the field an initial
value.


File: python.info,  Node: 可變預設值,  Next: Descriptor-typed fields,  Prev: 預設工廠函式,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.29.7.9 可變預設值
...................

Python stores default member variable values in class attributes.
Consider this example, not using dataclasses:

     class C:
         x = []
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

     o1 = C()
     o2 = C()
     o1.add(1)
     o2.add(2)
     assert o1.x == [1, 2]
     assert o1.x is o2.x

Note that the two instances of class ‘C’ share the same class variable
‘x’, as expected.

Using dataclasses, 'if' this code was valid:

     @dataclass
     class D:
         x: list = []      # This code raises ValueError
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

它會生成類似的程式碼：

     class D:
         x = []
         def __init__(self, x=x):
             self.x = x
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

     assert D().x is D().x

This has the same issue as the original example using class ‘C’.  That
is, two instances of class ‘D’ that do not specify a value for ‘x’ when
creating a class instance will share the same copy of ‘x’.  Because
dataclasses just use normal Python class creation they also share this
behavior.  There is no general way for Data Classes to detect this
condition.  Instead, the *note @dataclass: 3bc. decorator will raise a
*note ValueError: 183. if it detects an unhashable default parameter.
The assumption is that if a value is unhashable, it is mutable.  This is
a partial solution, but it does protect against many common errors.

Using default factory functions is a way to create new instances of
mutable types as default values for fields:

     @dataclass
     class D:
         x: list = field(default_factory=list)

     assert D().x is not D().x

在 3.11 版的變更: Instead of looking for and disallowing objects of type
*note list: 40a, *note dict: 239, or *note set: 3cc, unhashable objects
are now not allowed as default values.  Unhashability is used to
approximate mutability.


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor-typed fields,  Prev: 可變預設值,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.29.7.10 Descriptor-typed fields
.................................

Fields that are assigned *note descriptor objects: ab5. as their default
value have the following special behaviors:

   * The value for the field passed to the dataclass's *note __init__():
     4ae. method is passed to the descriptor's *note __set__(): 1cfb.
     method rather than overwriting the descriptor object.

   * Similarly, when getting or setting the field, the descriptor's
     *note __get__(): 135e. or ‘__set__()’ method is called rather than
     returning or overwriting the descriptor object.

   * To determine whether a field contains a default value, *note
     @dataclass: 3bc. will call the descriptor's ‘__get__()’ method
     using its class access form: ‘descriptor.__get__(obj=None,
     type=cls)’.  If the descriptor returns a value in this case, it
     will be used as the field's default.  On the other hand, if the
     descriptor raises *note AttributeError: 3ca. in this situation, no
     default value will be provided for the field.

     class IntConversionDescriptor:
         def __init__(self, *, default):
             self._default = default

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self._name = "_" + name

         def __get__(self, obj, type):
             if obj is None:
                 return self._default

             return getattr(obj, self._name, self._default)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             setattr(obj, self._name, int(value))

     @dataclass
     class InventoryItem:
         quantity_on_hand: IntConversionDescriptor = IntConversionDescriptor(default=100)

     i = InventoryItem()
     print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 100
     i.quantity_on_hand = 2.5    # calls __set__ with 2.5
     print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 2

Note that if a field is annotated with a descriptor type, but is not
assigned a descriptor object as its default value, the field will act
like a normal field.


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts,  Next: abc --- 抽象基底類別,  Prev: dataclasses --- Data Classes,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.8 ‘contextlib’ -- Utilities for ‘with’-statement contexts
--------------------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/contextlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides utilities for common tasks involving the *note
with: 3c5. statement.  For more information see also *note
情境管理器型別: 1d52. and *note With Statement Context Managers: 1d50.

* Menu:

* Utilities::
* Examples and Recipes: Examples and Recipes<2>.
* Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/contextlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Utilities,  Next: Examples and Recipes<2>,  Up: contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts

5.29.8.1 Utilities
..................

Functions and classes provided:

 -- 類別: contextlib.AbstractContextManager

     An *note abstract base class: 1047. for classes that implement
     *note object.__enter__(): 3b8. and *note object.__exit__(): 1191.
     A default implementation for *note object.__enter__(): 3b8. is
     provided which returns ‘self’ while *note object.__exit__(): 1191.
     is an abstract method which by default returns ‘None’.  See also
     the definition of *note 情境管理器型別: 1d52.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 類別: contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager

     An *note abstract base class: 1047. for classes that implement
     *note object.__aenter__(): 1d63. and *note object.__aexit__():
     1d64.  A default implementation for *note object.__aenter__():
     1d63. is provided which returns ‘self’ while *note
     object.__aexit__(): 1d64. is an abstract method which by default
     returns ‘None’.  See also the definition of *note Asynchronous
     Context Managers: 3f2.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: @contextlib.contextmanager

     This function is a *note decorator: 540. that can be used to define
     a factory function for *note with: 3c5. statement context managers,
     without needing to create a class or separate *note __enter__():
     3b8. and *note __exit__(): 1191. methods.

     While many objects natively support use in with statements,
     sometimes a resource needs to be managed that isn't a context
     manager in its own right, and doesn't implement a ‘close()’ method
     for use with ‘contextlib.closing’

     An abstract example would be the following to ensure correct
     resource management:

          from contextlib import contextmanager

          @contextmanager
          def managed_resource(*args, **kwds):
              # Code to acquire resource, e.g.:
              resource = acquire_resource(*args, **kwds)
              try:
                  yield resource
              finally:
                  # Code to release resource, e.g.:
                  release_resource(resource)

     The function can then be used like this:

          >>> with managed_resource(timeout=3600) as resource:
          ...     # Resource is released at the end of this block,
          ...     # even if code in the block raises an exception

     The function being decorated must return a *note generator:
     ef7.-iterator when called.  This iterator must yield exactly one
     value, which will be bound to the targets in the *note with: 3c5.
     statement's ‘as’ clause, if any.

     At the point where the generator yields, the block nested in the
     *note with: 3c5. statement is executed.  The generator is then
     resumed after the block is exited.  If an unhandled exception
     occurs in the block, it is reraised inside the generator at the
     point where the yield occurred.  Thus, you can use a *note try:
     4ea...*note except: 3a8...*note finally: 80e. statement to trap the
     error (if any), or ensure that some cleanup takes place.  If an
     exception is trapped merely in order to log it or to perform some
     action (rather than to suppress it entirely), the generator must
     reraise that exception.  Otherwise the generator context manager
     will indicate to the ‘with’ statement that the exception has been
     handled, and execution will resume with the statement immediately
     following the ‘with’ statement.

     *note contextmanager(): 1093. uses *note ContextDecorator: 1092. so
     the context managers it creates can be used as decorators as well
     as in *note with: 3c5. statements.  When used as a decorator, a new
     generator instance is implicitly created on each function call
     (this allows the otherwise "one-shot" context managers created by
     *note contextmanager(): 1093. to meet the requirement that context
     managers support multiple invocations in order to be used as
     decorators).

     在 3.2 版的變更: Use of *note ContextDecorator: 1092.

 -- 函式: @contextlib.asynccontextmanager

          Similar to *note contextmanager(): 1093, but creates an *note
          asynchronous context manager: 3f2.

          This function is a *note decorator: 540. that can be used to
          define a factory function for *note async with: 3c8. statement
          asynchronous context managers, without needing to create a
          class or separate *note __aenter__(): 1d63. and *note
          __aexit__(): 1d64. methods.  It must be applied to an *note
          asynchronous generator: 1dcb. function.

          一個簡單範例：

               from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

               @asynccontextmanager
               async def get_connection():
                   conn = await acquire_db_connection()
                   try:
                       yield conn
                   finally:
                       await release_db_connection(conn)

               async def get_all_users():
                   async with get_connection() as conn:
                       return conn.query('SELECT ...')

          在 3.7 版被加入.

          Context managers defined with *note asynccontextmanager():
          981. can be used either as decorators or with *note async
          with: 3c8. statements:

               import time
               from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

               @asynccontextmanager
               async def timeit():
                   now = time.monotonic()
                   try:
                       yield
                   finally:
                       print(f'it took {time.monotonic() - now}s to run')

               @timeit()
               async def main():
                   # ... async code ...

          When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is
          implicitly created on each function call.  This allows the
          otherwise "one-shot" context managers created by *note
          asynccontextmanager(): 981. to meet the requirement that
          context managers support multiple invocations in order to be
          used as decorators.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Async context managers created with *note
     asynccontextmanager(): 981. can be used as decorators.

 -- 函式: contextlib.closing (thing)

     Return a context manager that closes 'thing' upon completion of the
     block.  This is basically equivalent to:

          from contextlib import contextmanager

          @contextmanager
          def closing(thing):
              try:
                  yield thing
              finally:
                  thing.close()

     And lets you write code like this:

          from contextlib import closing
          from urllib.request import urlopen

          with closing(urlopen('https://www.python.org')) as page:
              for line in page:
                  print(line)

     without needing to explicitly close ‘page’.  Even if an error
     occurs, ‘page.close()’ will be called when the *note with: 3c5.
     block is exited.

          備註: Most types managing resources support the *note context
          manager: 3c4. protocol, which closes 'thing' on leaving the
          *note with: 3c5. statement.  As such, ‘closing()’ is most
          useful for third party types that don't support context
          managers.  This example is purely for illustration purposes,
          as *note urlopen(): 27f. would normally be used in a context
          manager.

 -- 函式: contextlib.aclosing (thing)

     Return an async context manager that calls the ‘aclose()’ method of
     'thing' upon completion of the block.  This is basically equivalent
     to:

          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def aclosing(thing):
              try:
                  yield thing
              finally:
                  await thing.aclose()

     Significantly, ‘aclosing()’ supports deterministic cleanup of async
     generators when they happen to exit early by *note break: 8fc. or
     an exception.  For example:

          from contextlib import aclosing

          async with aclosing(my_generator()) as values:
              async for value in values:
                  if value == 42:
                      break

     This pattern ensures that the generator's async exit code is
     executed in the same context as its iterations (so that exceptions
     and context variables work as expected, and the exit code isn't run
     after the lifetime of some task it depends on).

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 函式: contextlib.nullcontext (enter_result=None)

     Return a context manager that returns 'enter_result' from
     ‘__enter__’, but otherwise does nothing.  It is intended to be used
     as a stand-in for an optional context manager, for example:

          def myfunction(arg, ignore_exceptions=False):
              if ignore_exceptions:
                  # Use suppress to ignore all exceptions.
                  cm = contextlib.suppress(Exception)
              else:
                  # Do not ignore any exceptions, cm has no effect.
                  cm = contextlib.nullcontext()
              with cm:
                  # Do something

     一個使用 'enter_result' 的範例：

          def process_file(file_or_path):
              if isinstance(file_or_path, str):
                  # If string, open file
                  cm = open(file_or_path)
              else:
                  # Caller is responsible for closing file
                  cm = nullcontext(file_or_path)

              with cm as file:
                  # Perform processing on the file

     It can also be used as a stand-in for *note asynchronous context
     managers: 3f2.:

          async def send_http(session=None):
              if not session:
                  # If no http session, create it with aiohttp
                  cm = aiohttp.ClientSession()
              else:
                  # Caller is responsible for closing the session
                  cm = nullcontext(session)

              async with cm as session:
                  # Send http requests with session

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: *note asynchronous context manager: 3c7. support
     was added.

 -- 函式: contextlib.suppress (*exceptions)

     Return a context manager that suppresses any of the specified
     exceptions if they occur in the body of a ‘with’ statement and then
     resumes execution with the first statement following the end of the
     ‘with’ statement.

     As with any other mechanism that completely suppresses exceptions,
     this context manager should be used only to cover very specific
     errors where silently continuing with program execution is known to
     be the right thing to do.

     舉例來說：

          from contextlib import suppress

          with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
              os.remove('somefile.tmp')

          with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
              os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')

     This code is equivalent to:

          try:
              os.remove('somefile.tmp')
          except FileNotFoundError:
              pass

          try:
              os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')
          except FileNotFoundError:
              pass

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 412a.

     If the code within the ‘with’ block raises a *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 3a6, suppressed exceptions are removed from the
     group.  Any exceptions of the group which are not suppressed are
     re-raised in a new group which is created using the original
     group's *note derive(): 2052. method.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: ‘suppress’ now supports suppressing exceptions
     raised as part of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3a6.

 -- 函式: contextlib.redirect_stdout (new_target)

     Context manager for temporarily redirecting *note sys.stdout: 92a.
     to another file or file-like object.

     This tool adds flexibility to existing functions or classes whose
     output is hardwired to stdout.

     For example, the output of *note help(): 710. normally is sent to
     'sys.stdout'.  You can capture that output in a string by
     redirecting the output to an *note io.StringIO: db1. object.  The
     replacement stream is returned from the ‘__enter__’ method and so
     is available as the target of the *note with: 3c5. statement:

          with redirect_stdout(io.StringIO()) as f:
              help(pow)
          s = f.getvalue()

     To send the output of *note help(): 710. to a file on disk,
     redirect the output to a regular file:

          with open('help.txt', 'w') as f:
              with redirect_stdout(f):
                  help(pow)

     To send the output of *note help(): 710. to 'sys.stderr':

          with redirect_stdout(sys.stderr):
              help(pow)

     Note that the global side effect on *note sys.stdout: 92a. means
     that this context manager is not suitable for use in library code
     and most threaded applications.  It also has no effect on the
     output of subprocesses.  However, it is still a useful approach for
     many utility scripts.

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 412a.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: contextlib.redirect_stderr (new_target)

     Similar to *note redirect_stdout(): c60. but redirecting *note
     sys.stderr: 778. to another file or file-like object.

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 412a.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: contextlib.chdir (path)

     Non parallel-safe context manager to change the current working
     directory.  As this changes a global state, the working directory,
     it is not suitable for use in most threaded or async contexts.  It
     is also not suitable for most non-linear code execution, like
     generators, where the program execution is temporarily relinquished
     - unless explicitly desired, you should not yield when this context
     manager is active.

     This is a simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 406, it changes the
     current working directory upon entering and restores the old one on
     exit.

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 412a.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 類別: contextlib.ContextDecorator

     A base class that enables a context manager to also be used as a
     decorator.

     Context managers inheriting from ‘ContextDecorator’ have to
     implement ‘__enter__’ and ‘__exit__’ as normal.  ‘__exit__’ retains
     its optional exception handling even when used as a decorator.

     ‘ContextDecorator’ is used by *note contextmanager(): 1093, so you
     get this functionality automatically.

     ‘ContextDecorator’ 範例：

          from contextlib import ContextDecorator

          class mycontext(ContextDecorator):
              def __enter__(self):
                  print('Starting')
                  return self

              def __exit__(self, *exc):
                  print('Finishing')
                  return False

     The class can then be used like this:

          >>> @mycontext()
          ... def function():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> function()
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

          >>> with mycontext():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

     This change is just syntactic sugar for any construct of the
     following form:

          def f():
              with cm():
                  # Do stuff

     ‘ContextDecorator’ lets you instead write:

          @cm()
          def f():
              # Do stuff

     It makes it clear that the ‘cm’ applies to the whole function,
     rather than just a piece of it (and saving an indentation level is
     nice, too).

     Existing context managers that already have a base class can be
     extended by using ‘ContextDecorator’ as a mixin class:

          from contextlib import ContextDecorator

          class mycontext(ContextBaseClass, ContextDecorator):
              def __enter__(self):
                  return self

              def __exit__(self, *exc):
                  return False

          備註: As the decorated function must be able to be called
          multiple times, the underlying context manager must support
          use in multiple *note with: 3c5. statements.  If this is not
          the case, then the original construct with the explicit ‘with’
          statement inside the function should be used.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 類別: contextlib.AsyncContextDecorator

     Similar to *note ContextDecorator: 1092. but only for asynchronous
     functions.

     ‘AsyncContextDecorator’ 範例：

          from asyncio import run
          from contextlib import AsyncContextDecorator

          class mycontext(AsyncContextDecorator):
              async def __aenter__(self):
                  print('Starting')
                  return self

              async def __aexit__(self, *exc):
                  print('Finishing')
                  return False

     The class can then be used like this:

          >>> @mycontext()
          ... async def function():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> run(function())
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

          >>> async def function():
          ...    async with mycontext():
          ...         print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> run(function())
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: contextlib.ExitStack

     A context manager that is designed to make it easy to
     programmatically combine other context managers and cleanup
     functions, especially those that are optional or otherwise driven
     by input data.

     For example, a set of files may easily be handled in a single with
     statement as follows:

          with ExitStack() as stack:
              files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
              # All opened files will automatically be closed at the end of
              # the with statement, even if attempts to open files later
              # in the list raise an exception

     The *note __enter__(): 3b8. method returns the *note ExitStack:
     980. instance, and performs no additional operations.

     Each instance maintains a stack of registered callbacks that are
     called in reverse order when the instance is closed (either
     explicitly or implicitly at the end of a *note with: 3c5.
     statement).  Note that callbacks are 'not' invoked implicitly when
     the context stack instance is garbage collected.

     This stack model is used so that context managers that acquire
     their resources in their ‘__init__’ method (such as file objects)
     can be handled correctly.

     Since registered callbacks are invoked in the reverse order of
     registration, this ends up behaving as if multiple nested *note
     with: 3c5. statements had been used with the registered set of
     callbacks.  This even extends to exception handling - if an inner
     callback suppresses or replaces an exception, then outer callbacks
     will be passed arguments based on that updated state.

     This is a relatively low level API that takes care of the details
     of correctly unwinding the stack of exit callbacks.  It provides a
     suitable foundation for higher level context managers that
     manipulate the exit stack in application specific ways.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 方法: enter_context (cm)

          Enters a new context manager and adds its *note __exit__():
          1191. method to the callback stack.  The return value is the
          result of the context manager's own *note __enter__(): 3b8.
          method.

          These context managers may suppress exceptions just as they
          normally would if used directly as part of a *note with: 3c5.
          statement.

          在 3.11 版的變更: Raises *note TypeError: 2ba. instead of
          *note AttributeError: 3ca. if 'cm' is not a context manager.

      -- 方法: push (exit)

          Adds a context manager's *note __exit__(): 1191. method to the
          callback stack.

          As ‘__enter__’ is 'not' invoked, this method can be used to
          cover part of an *note __enter__(): 3b8. implementation with a
          context manager's own *note __exit__(): 1191. method.

          If passed an object that is not a context manager, this method
          assumes it is a callback with the same signature as a context
          manager's *note __exit__(): 1191. method and adds it directly
          to the callback stack.

          By returning true values, these callbacks can suppress
          exceptions the same way context manager *note __exit__():
          1191. methods can.

          The passed in object is returned from the function, allowing
          this method to be used as a function decorator.

      -- 方法: callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds)

          Accepts an arbitrary callback function and arguments and adds
          it to the callback stack.

          Unlike the other methods, callbacks added this way cannot
          suppress exceptions (as they are never passed the exception
          details).

          The passed in callback is returned from the function, allowing
          this method to be used as a function decorator.

      -- 方法: pop_all ()

          Transfers the callback stack to a fresh *note ExitStack: 980.
          instance and returns it.  No callbacks are invoked by this
          operation - instead, they will now be invoked when the new
          stack is closed (either explicitly or implicitly at the end of
          a *note with: 3c5. statement).

          For example, a group of files can be opened as an "all or
          nothing" operation as follows:

               with ExitStack() as stack:
                   files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
                   # Hold onto the close method, but don't call it yet.
                   close_files = stack.pop_all().close
                   # If opening any file fails, all previously opened files will be
                   # closed automatically. If all files are opened successfully,
                   # they will remain open even after the with statement ends.
                   # close_files() can then be invoked explicitly to close them all.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Immediately unwinds the callback stack, invoking callbacks in
          the reverse order of registration.  For any context managers
          and exit callbacks registered, the arguments passed in will
          indicate that no exception occurred.

 -- 類別: contextlib.AsyncExitStack

     An *note asynchronous context manager: 3f2, similar to *note
     ExitStack: 980, that supports combining both synchronous and
     asynchronous context managers, as well as having coroutines for
     cleanup logic.

     The *note close(): 412d. method is not implemented; *note aclose():
     412e. must be used instead.

      -- 方法: coroutine enter_async_context (cm)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.enter_context(): 3c6. but expects
          an asynchronous context manager.

          在 3.11 版的變更: Raises *note TypeError: 2ba. instead of
          *note AttributeError: 3ca. if 'cm' is not an asynchronous
          context manager.

      -- 方法: push_async_exit (exit)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.push(): 412b. but expects either an
          asynchronous context manager or a coroutine function.

      -- 方法: push_async_callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.callback(): 8cf. but expects a
          coroutine function.

      -- 方法: coroutine aclose ()

          Similar to *note ExitStack.close(): 412d. but properly handles
          awaitables.

     Continuing the example for *note asynccontextmanager(): 981.:

          async with AsyncExitStack() as stack:
              connections = [await stack.enter_async_context(get_connection())
                  for i in range(5)]
              # All opened connections will automatically be released at the end of
              # the async with statement, even if attempts to open a connection
              # later in the list raise an exception.

     在 3.7 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples and Recipes<2>,  Next: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers,  Prev: Utilities,  Up: contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts

5.29.8.2 Examples and Recipes
.............................

This section describes some examples and recipes for making effective
use of the tools provided by *note contextlib: 21.

* Menu:

* Supporting a variable number of context managers::
* Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods::
* Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation::
* Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables::
* Using a context manager as a function decorator::


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting a variable number of context managers,  Next: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.29.8.3 Supporting a variable number of context managers
.........................................................

The primary use case for *note ExitStack: 980. is the one given in the
class documentation: supporting a variable number of context managers
and other cleanup operations in a single *note with: 3c5. statement.
The variability may come from the number of context managers needed
being driven by user input (such as opening a user specified collection
of files), or from some of the context managers being optional:

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         for resource in resources:
             stack.enter_context(resource)
         if need_special_resource():
             special = acquire_special_resource()
             stack.callback(release_special_resource, special)
         # Perform operations that use the acquired resources

As shown, *note ExitStack: 980. also makes it quite easy to use *note
with: 3c5. statements to manage arbitrary resources that don't natively
support the context management protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods,  Next: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation,  Prev: Supporting a variable number of context managers,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.29.8.4 Catching exceptions from ‘__enter__’ methods
.....................................................

It is occasionally desirable to catch exceptions from an ‘__enter__’
method implementation, 'without' inadvertently catching exceptions from
the *note with: 3c5. statement body or the context manager's ‘__exit__’
method.  By using *note ExitStack: 980. the steps in the context
management protocol can be separated slightly in order to allow this:

     stack = ExitStack()
     try:
         x = stack.enter_context(cm)
     except Exception:
         # handle __enter__ exception
     else:
         with stack:
             # Handle normal case

Actually needing to do this is likely to indicate that the underlying
API should be providing a direct resource management interface for use
with *note try: 4ea./*note except: 3a8./*note finally: 80e. statements,
but not all APIs are well designed in that regard.  When a context
manager is the only resource management API provided, then *note
ExitStack: 980. can make it easier to handle various situations that
can't be handled directly in a *note with: 3c5. statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation,  Next: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables,  Prev: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.29.8.5 Cleaning up in an ‘__enter__’ implementation
.....................................................

As noted in the documentation of *note ExitStack.push(): 412b, this
method can be useful in cleaning up an already allocated resource if
later steps in the *note __enter__(): 3b8. implementation fail.

Here's an example of doing this for a context manager that accepts
resource acquisition and release functions, along with an optional
validation function, and maps them to the context management protocol:

     from contextlib import contextmanager, AbstractContextManager, ExitStack

     class ResourceManager(AbstractContextManager):

         def __init__(self, acquire_resource, release_resource, check_resource_ok=None):
             self.acquire_resource = acquire_resource
             self.release_resource = release_resource
             if check_resource_ok is None:
                 def check_resource_ok(resource):
                     return True
             self.check_resource_ok = check_resource_ok

         @contextmanager
         def _cleanup_on_error(self):
             with ExitStack() as stack:
                 stack.push(self)
                 yield
                 # The validation check passed and didn't raise an exception
                 # Accordingly, we want to keep the resource, and pass it
                 # back to our caller
                 stack.pop_all()

         def __enter__(self):
             resource = self.acquire_resource()
             with self._cleanup_on_error():
                 if not self.check_resource_ok(resource):
                     msg = "Failed validation for {!r}"
                     raise RuntimeError(msg.format(resource))
             return resource

         def __exit__(self, *exc_details):
             # We don't need to duplicate any of our resource release logic
             self.release_resource()


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables,  Next: Using a context manager as a function decorator,  Prev: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.29.8.6 Replacing any use of ‘try-finally’ and flag variables
..............................................................

A pattern you will sometimes see is a ‘try-finally’ statement with a
flag variable to indicate whether or not the body of the ‘finally’
clause should be executed.  In its simplest form (that can't already be
handled just by using an ‘except’ clause instead), it looks something
like this:

     cleanup_needed = True
     try:
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             cleanup_needed = False
     finally:
         if cleanup_needed:
             cleanup_resources()

As with any ‘try’ statement based code, this can cause problems for
development and review, because the setup code and the cleanup code can
end up being separated by arbitrarily long sections of code.

*note ExitStack: 980. makes it possible to instead register a callback
for execution at the end of a ‘with’ statement, and then later decide to
skip executing that callback:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         stack.callback(cleanup_resources)
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             stack.pop_all()

This allows the intended cleanup behaviour to be made explicit up front,
rather than requiring a separate flag variable.

If a particular application uses this pattern a lot, it can be
simplified even further by means of a small helper class:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     class Callback(ExitStack):
         def __init__(self, callback, /, *args, **kwds):
             super().__init__()
             self.callback(callback, *args, **kwds)

         def cancel(self):
             self.pop_all()

     with Callback(cleanup_resources) as cb:
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             cb.cancel()

If the resource cleanup isn't already neatly bundled into a standalone
function, then it is still possible to use the decorator form of *note
ExitStack.callback(): 8cf. to declare the resource cleanup in advance:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         @stack.callback
         def cleanup_resources():
             ...
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             stack.pop_all()

Due to the way the decorator protocol works, a callback function
declared this way cannot take any parameters.  Instead, any resources to
be released must be accessed as closure variables.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a context manager as a function decorator,  Prev: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.29.8.7 Using a context manager as a function decorator
........................................................

*note ContextDecorator: 1092. makes it possible to use a context manager
in both an ordinary ‘with’ statement and also as a function decorator.

For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of
statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of
exit.  Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context
manager for the task, inheriting from *note ContextDecorator: 1092.
provides both capabilities in a single definition:

     from contextlib import ContextDecorator
     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class track_entry_and_exit(ContextDecorator):
         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name

         def __enter__(self):
             logging.info('Entering: %s', self.name)

         def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc, exc_tb):
             logging.info('Exiting: %s', self.name)

Instances of this class can be used as both a context manager:

     with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

And also as a function decorator:

     @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
     def activity():
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Note that there is one additional limitation when using context managers
as function decorators: there's no way to access the return value of
*note __enter__(): 3b8.  If that value is needed, then it is still
necessary to use an explicit ‘with’ statement.

也參考
......

PEP 343(1) - "with" 陳述式

     The specification, background, and examples for the Python *note
     with: 3c5. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers,  Prev: Examples and Recipes<2>,  Up: contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts

5.29.8.8 Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers
............................................................

Most context managers are written in a way that means they can only be
used effectively in a *note with: 3c5. statement once.  These single use
context managers must be created afresh each time they're used -
attempting to use them a second time will trigger an exception or
otherwise not work correctly.

This common limitation means that it is generally advisable to create
context managers directly in the header of the *note with: 3c5.
statement where they are used (as shown in all of the usage examples
above).

Files are an example of effectively single use context managers, since
the first *note with: 3c5. statement will close the file, preventing any
further IO operations using that file object.

Context managers created using *note contextmanager(): 1093. are also
single use context managers, and will complain about the underlying
generator failing to yield if an attempt is made to use them a second
time:

     >>> from contextlib import contextmanager
     >>> @contextmanager
     ... def singleuse():
     ...     print("Before")
     ...     yield
     ...     print("After")
     ...
     >>> cm = singleuse()
     >>> with cm:
     ...     pass
     ...
     Before
     After
     >>> with cm:
     ...     pass
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     RuntimeError: generator didn't yield

* Menu:

* Reentrant context managers::
* Reusable context managers::


File: python.info,  Node: Reentrant context managers,  Next: Reusable context managers,  Up: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers

5.29.8.9 Reentrant context managers
...................................

More sophisticated context managers may be "reentrant".  These context
managers can not only be used in multiple *note with: 3c5. statements,
but may also be used 'inside' a ‘with’ statement that is already using
the same context manager.

*note threading.RLock: 25c. is an example of a reentrant context
manager, as are *note suppress(): db0, *note redirect_stdout(): c60, and
*note chdir(): 405.  Here's a very simple example of reentrant use:

     >>> from contextlib import redirect_stdout
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> stream = StringIO()
     >>> write_to_stream = redirect_stdout(stream)
     >>> with write_to_stream:
     ...     print("This is written to the stream rather than stdout")
     ...     with write_to_stream:
     ...         print("This is also written to the stream")
     ...
     >>> print("This is written directly to stdout")
     This is written directly to stdout
     >>> print(stream.getvalue())
     This is written to the stream rather than stdout
     This is also written to the stream

Real world examples of reentrancy are more likely to involve multiple
functions calling each other and hence be far more complicated than this
example.

Note also that being reentrant is 'not' the same thing as being thread
safe.  *note redirect_stdout(): c60, for example, is definitely not
thread safe, as it makes a global modification to the system state by
binding *note sys.stdout: 92a. to a different stream.


File: python.info,  Node: Reusable context managers,  Prev: Reentrant context managers,  Up: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers

5.29.8.10 Reusable context managers
...................................

Distinct from both single use and reentrant context managers are
"reusable" context managers (or, to be completely explicit, "reusable,
but not reentrant" context managers, since reentrant context managers
are also reusable).  These context managers support being used multiple
times, but will fail (or otherwise not work correctly) if the specific
context manager instance has already been used in a containing with
statement.

*note threading.Lock: 2de1. is an example of a reusable, but not
reentrant, context manager (for a reentrant lock, it is necessary to use
*note threading.RLock: 25c. instead).

Another example of a reusable, but not reentrant, context manager is
*note ExitStack: 980, as it invokes 'all' currently registered callbacks
when leaving any with statement, regardless of where those callbacks
were added:

     >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
     >>> stack = ExitStack()
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from first context")
     ...     print("Leaving first context")
     ...
     Leaving first context
     Callback: from first context
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from second context")
     ...     print("Leaving second context")
     ...
     Leaving second context
     Callback: from second context
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
     ...     with stack:
     ...         stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
     ...         print("Leaving inner context")
     ...     print("Leaving outer context")
     ...
     Leaving inner context
     Callback: from inner context
     Callback: from outer context
     Leaving outer context

As the output from the example shows, reusing a single stack object
across multiple with statements works correctly, but attempting to nest
them will cause the stack to be cleared at the end of the innermost with
statement, which is unlikely to be desirable behaviour.

Using separate *note ExitStack: 980. instances instead of reusing a
single instance avoids that problem:

     >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
     >>> with ExitStack() as outer_stack:
     ...     outer_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
     ...     with ExitStack() as inner_stack:
     ...         inner_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
     ...         print("Leaving inner context")
     ...     print("Leaving outer context")
     ...
     Leaving inner context
     Callback: from inner context
     Leaving outer context
     Callback: from outer context


File: python.info,  Node: abc --- 抽象基底類別,  Next: atexit --- 退出處理函式,  Prev: contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.9 ‘abc’ -- 抽象基底類別
----------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

如同在 PEP 3119(2) 中所述，該模組提供了在 Python 中定義*note
抽象基底類別: 1047. (ABC) 的基礎元件；若想瞭解為什麼需要在 Python 中增加
這個模組，請見 PEP 文件。（也請見 PEP 3141(3) 以及 *note numbers: 99. 模
組以瞭解基於 ABC 的數字型別階層關係。）

*note collections: 1b. 模組中有一些衍生自 ABC 的具體類別；當然這些類別還
可以進一步衍生出其他類別。此外，*note collections.abc: 1c. 子模組中有一
些 ABC 可被用於測試一個類別或實例是否提供特定介面，例如它是否*note 可雜湊
(hashable): 409. 或它是否為*note 對映: 104d.。

該模組提供了一個用來定義 ABC 的元類別 (metaclass) *note ABCMeta: d9d. 和
另一個以繼承的方式定義 ABC 的工具類別 *note ABC: d9c.：

 -- 類別: abc.ABC

     一個使用 *note ABCMeta: d9d. 作為元類別的工具類別。抽象基底類別可以
     透過自 ‘ABC’ 衍生而建立，這就避免了在某些情況下會令人混淆的元類別用
     法，用法如以下範例：

          from abc import ABC

          class MyABC(ABC):
              pass

     注意 ‘ABC’ 的型別仍然是 *note ABCMeta: d9d.，因此繼承 ‘ABC’ 仍然需
     要關注使用元類別的注意事項，如多重繼承可能會導致元類別衝突。當然你
     也可以傳入元類別關鍵字並直接使用 ‘ABCMeta’ 來定義一個抽象基底類別，
     例如：

          from abc import ABCMeta

          class MyABC(metaclass=ABCMeta):
              pass

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 類別: abc.ABCMeta

     用於定義抽象基底類別（ABC）的元類別。

     使用該元類別以建立一個 ABC。一個 ABC 可以像 mix-in 類別一樣直接被子
     類別繼承。你也可以將不相關的具體類別（甚至是內建類別）和 ABC 註冊為
     「虛擬子類別 (virtual subclass)」 —— 這些類別以及它們的子類別會被內
     建函式 *note issubclass(): 5df. 識別為已註冊 ABC 的子類別，但是該
     ABC 不會出現在其 MRO（Method Resolution Order，方法解析順序）中，由
     該 ABC 所定義的方法實作也不可呼叫（即使透過 *note super(): 206. 呼
     叫也不行）。(4)

     使用 ‘ABCMeta’ 作為元類別建立的類別含有以下的方法：

      -- 方法: register (subclass)

          將'子類別'註冊為該 ABC 的「抽象子類別」，例如：

               from abc import ABC

               class MyABC(ABC):
                   pass

               MyABC.register(tuple)

               assert issubclass(tuple, MyABC)
               assert isinstance((), MyABC)

          在 3.3 版的變更: 回傳已註冊的子類別，使其能夠作為類別裝飾器。

          在 3.4 版的變更: 你可以使用 *note get_cache_token(): d9b. 函式
          來檢測對 ‘register()’ 的呼叫。

     你也可以覆寫 (override) 虛擬基底類別中的這個方法：

      -- 方法: __subclasshook__ (subclass)

          （必須定義為類別方法。）

          Check whether 'subclass' is considered a subclass of this ABC.
          This means that you can customize the behavior of *note
          issubclass(): 5df. further without the need to call *note
          register(): f1f. on every class you want to consider a
          subclass of the ABC. (This class method is called from the
          *note __subclasscheck__(): 1d10. method of the ABC.)

          此方法必須回傳 ‘True’、‘False’ 或是 *note NotImplemented:
          5f2.。如果回傳 ‘True’，'subclass' 就會被認為是這個 ABC 的子類
          別。如果回傳 ‘False’，'subclass' 就會被判定並非該 ABC 的子類別
          ，即便正常情況應如此。如果回傳 ‘NotImplemented’，子類別檢查會
          按照正常機制繼續執行。

     為了對這些概念做一演示，請見以下定義 ABC 的範例：

          class Foo:
              def __getitem__(self, index):
                  ...
              def __len__(self):
                  ...
              def get_iterator(self):
                  return iter(self)

          class MyIterable(ABC):

              @abstractmethod
              def __iter__(self):
                  while False:
                      yield None

              def get_iterator(self):
                  return self.__iter__()

              @classmethod
              def __subclasshook__(cls, C):
                  if cls is MyIterable:
                      if any("__iter__" in B.__dict__ for B in C.__mro__):
                          return True
                  return NotImplemented

          MyIterable.register(Foo)

     ABC ‘MyIterable’ 定義了作為抽象方法的一個標準疊代方法 *note
     __iter__(): 1aba.。這裡給定的實作仍可在子類別中被呼叫。
     ‘get_iterator()’ 方法也是 ‘MyIterable’ 抽象基底類別的一部分，但它不
     必被非抽象衍生類別覆寫。

     The *note __subclasshook__(): 22ba. class method defined here says
     that any class that has an *note __iter__(): 1aba. method in its
     *note __dict__: 2e2. (or in that of one of its base classes,
     accessed via the *note __mro__: 1cbb. list) is considered a
     ‘MyIterable’ too.

     最後，即使 ‘Foo’ 沒有定義 *note __iter__(): 1aba. 方法（它使用了以
     *note __len__(): 1cf4. 和 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 所定義的舊式可
     疊代物件協定），最末一行使其成為 ‘MyIterable’ 的一個虛擬子類別。請
     注意這不會使 ‘get_iterator’ 成為 ‘Foo’ 的一個可用方法，所以它是需要
     被另外提供的。

‘abc’ 模組也提供了這些裝飾器：

 -- 函式: @abc.abstractmethod

     用於表示抽象方法的裝飾器。

     類別的元類別是 *note ABCMeta: d9d. 或是從該類別衍生才能使用此裝飾器
     。一個具有衍生自 ‘ABCMeta’ 之元類別的類別不可以被實例化，除非它全部
     的抽象方法和特性均已被覆寫。抽象方法可透過任何一般的 'super' 呼叫機
     制來呼叫。‘abstractmethod()’ 可被用於為特性和描述器宣告的抽象方法。

     僅在使用 *note update_abstractmethods(): 413c. 函式時，才能夠動態地
     為一個類別新增抽象方法，或者嘗試在方法或類別被建立後修改其抽象狀態
     。‘abstractmethod()’ 只會影響使用常規繼承所衍生出的子類別；透過 ABC
     的 *note register(): f1f. 方法註冊的「虛擬子類別」不會受到影響。

     當 ‘abstractmethod()’ 與其他方法描述器 (method descriptor) 配合應用
     時，它應被當最內層的裝飾器，如以下用法範例所示：

          class C(ABC):
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_method(self, arg1):
                  ...
              @classmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg2):
                  ...
              @staticmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg3):
                  ...

              @property
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self):
                  ...
              @my_abstract_property.setter
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self, val):
                  ...

              @abstractmethod
              def _get_x(self):
                  ...
              @abstractmethod
              def _set_x(self, val):
                  ...
              x = property(_get_x, _set_x)

     為了能正確地與 ABC 機制實作相互操作，描述器必須使用
     ‘__isabstractmethod__’ 將自身標識為抽象的。一般來說，如果被用於組成
     描述器的任一方法是抽象的，則此屬性應當為 ‘True’。 例如，Python 的內
     建 *note property: 424. 所做的就等價於：

          class Descriptor:
              ...
              @property
              def __isabstractmethod__(self):
                  return any(getattr(f, '__isabstractmethod__', False) for
                             f in (self._fget, self._fset, self._fdel))

          備註: 不同於 Java 抽象方法，這些抽象方法可能具有一個實作。這個
          實作可在覆寫它的類別上透過 *note super(): 206. 機制來呼叫。這
          在使用協作多重繼承 (cooperative multiple-inheritance) 的框架中
          ，可以被用作 super 呼叫的一個端點 (end-point)。

‘abc’ 模組還支援下列舊式裝飾器：

 -- 函式: @abc.abstractclassmethod

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版之後被棄用: 現在可以讓 *note classmethod: 24b. 配合 *note
     abstractmethod(): f1c. 使用，使得此裝飾器變得冗餘。

     內建 *note classmethod(): 24b. 的子類別，表示為一個抽象類別方法。在
     其他方面它都類似於 *note abstractmethod(): f1c.。

     這個特例已被棄用，因為現在當 *note classmethod(): 24b. 裝飾器應用於
     抽象方法時已會被正確地標識為是抽象的：

          class C(ABC):
              @classmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg):
                  ...

 -- 函式: @abc.abstractstaticmethod

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版之後被棄用: 現在可以讓 *note staticmethod: 5f9. 配合 *note
     abstractmethod(): f1c. 使用，使得此裝飾器變得冗餘。

     內建 *note staticmethod(): 5f9. 的子類別，表示為一個抽象靜態方法。
     在其他方面它都類似於 *note abstractmethod(): f1c.。

     這個特例已被棄用，因為現在當 *note staticmethod(): 5f9. 裝飾器應用
     於抽象方法時已會被正確地標識為是抽象的：

          class C(ABC):
              @staticmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg):
                  ...

 -- 函式: @abc.abstractproperty

     在 3.3 版之後被棄用: 現在可以讓 *note property: 424.、*note
     property.getter(): 1435.、*note property.setter(): 1436. 和 *note
     property.deleter(): 1437. 配合 *note abstractmethod(): f1c. 使用，
     使得此裝飾器變得冗餘。

     內建 *note property(): 424. 的子類別，表示為一個抽象特性。

     這個特例已被棄用，因為現在當 *note property(): 424. 裝飾器應用於抽
     象方法時已會被正確地標識為是抽象的：

          class C(ABC):
              @property
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self):
                  ...

     上面的例子定義了一個唯讀特性；你也可以透過適當地將一個或多個底層方
     法標記為抽象的來定義可讀寫的抽象特性：

          class C(ABC):
              @property
              def x(self):
                  ...

              @x.setter
              @abstractmethod
              def x(self, val):
                  ...

     如果只有某些元件是抽象的，則只需更新那些元件即可在子類別中建立具體
     的特性：

          class D(C):
              @C.x.setter
              def x(self, val):
                  ...

‘abc’ 模組也提供了這些函式：

 -- 函式: abc.get_cache_token ()

     回傳當前 ABC 快取令牌 (cache token)。

     此令牌是一個（支援相等性測試的）不透明物件 (opaque object)，用於為
     虛擬子類別標識抽象基底類別快取的當前版本。此令牌會在任何 ABC 上每次
     呼叫 *note ABCMeta.register(): f1f. 時發生更改。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: abc.update_abstractmethods (cls)

     重新計算一個抽象類別之抽象狀態的函式。如果一個類別的抽象方法在建立
     後被實作或被修改，則應當呼叫此函式。通常此函式應在一個類別裝飾器內
     部被呼叫。

     回傳 'cls'，使其能夠用作為類別的裝飾器。

     如果 'cls' 不是 *note ABCMeta: d9d. 的實例則不做任何操作。

          備註: 此函式會假定 'cls' 的超類別 (superclass) 已經被更新。它
          不會更新任何子類別。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/

   (4) C++ 程式設計師需要注意到 Python 中虛擬基底類別的概念和 C++ 中的並
不相同。


File: python.info,  Node: atexit --- 退出處理函式,  Next: traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback,  Prev: abc --- 抽象基底類別,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.10 ‘atexit’ -- 退出處理函式
--------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

*note atexit: a. 模組定義了註冊和註銷清理函式 (cleanup function) 的函式
，這樣的註冊函式會在直譯器正常終止時自動執行。*note atexit: a. 按照這些
函式註冊之'反序'來運行這些函式；如果你有註冊 ‘A’、‘B’ 和 ‘C’，則在直譯器
終止時它們將按 ‘C’、‘B’、‘A’ 的順序運行。

'注意：'當程式被一個不是來自 Python 的訊號終止、偵測到有 Python 嚴重內部
錯誤時或者 *note os._exit(): 202f. 被呼叫時，透過此模組註冊的函式就不會
被呼叫。

'注意：'在清理函式中註冊或註銷函式的作用並未定義。

在 3.7 版的變更: 當與 C-API 子直譯器 (subinterpreter) 一起使用時，已註冊
函式對於它們所註冊的直譯器來說是區域的 (local)。

 -- 函式: atexit.register (func, *args, **kwargs)

     將 'func' 註冊為要在終止時執行的函式。任何要傳遞給 'func' 的可選引
     數都必須作為引數傳遞給 *note register(): 6a9.。可以多次註冊相同的函
     式和引數。

     在程式正常終止時（例如呼叫 *note sys.exit(): 11dd. 或主要模組執行完
     成），所有已註冊函式都會依照後進先出的順序呼叫。這邊做的假設是較低
     階的模組通常會在較高階模組之前被引入，因此較低階模組必須在比較後面
     才被清理。

     如果在執行退出處理函式期間引發例外，則會列印回溯 (traceback)（除非
     引發 *note SystemExit: bb2.）並儲存例外資訊。在所有退出處理函式都有
     嘗試運作過後，將重新引發最後一個引發的例外。

     該函式回傳 'func'，這使得可以將其作為裝飾器使用。

          警告: 啟動新執行緒或從已註冊函式呼叫 *note os.fork(): 233. 可
          能會導致 Python 主要 runtime 執行緒釋放執行緒狀態，而內部
          *note threading: e7. 例程或新行程嘗試使用該狀態所形成的競態條
          件 (race condition)。這可能會導致崩潰 (crash) 而不是完整關閉中
          止。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 嘗試在已註冊函式中啟動新執行緒或 *note os.fork():
     233. 新行程現在會導致 *note RuntimeError: 17a.。

 -- 函式: atexit.unregister (func)

     從在直譯器中止時會執行之函式串列中刪除 'func'。如果 'func' 先前未被
     註冊，則 *note unregister(): 413f. 不會執行任何操作。如果 'func' 已
     被註冊多次，則該函式在 *note atexit: a. 呼叫堆疊 (call stack) 中的
     所有存在都會被刪除。會在註銷期間於內部使用相等性比較 (‘==’)，因此函
     式參照不需要具有匹配的識別性。

也參考
......

*note readline: b5. 模組

     *note atexit: a. 用於讀取和寫入 *note readline: b5. 歷史檔案的一個
     不錯的範例。

* Menu:

* atexit 範例::


File: python.info,  Node: atexit 範例,  Up: atexit --- 退出處理函式

5.29.10.1 ‘atexit’ 範例
.......................

以下的簡單範例示範了模組如何在被引入時以檔案來初始化計數器，並在程式終止
時自動儲存計數器的更新值，而不需要仰賴應用程式在終止時明確呼叫該模組。

     try:
         with open('counterfile') as infile:
             _count = int(infile.read())
     except FileNotFoundError:
         _count = 0

     def incrcounter(n):
         global _count
         _count = _count + n

     def savecounter():
         with open('counterfile', 'w') as outfile:
             outfile.write('%d' % _count)

     import atexit

     atexit.register(savecounter)

位置引數和關鍵字引數也可以被傳遞給 *note register(): 6a9.，以便在呼叫時
也傳遞給已註冊函式：

     def goodbye(name, adjective):
         print('Goodbye %s, it was %s to meet you.' % (name, adjective))

     import atexit

     atexit.register(goodbye, 'Donny', 'nice')
     # or:
     atexit.register(goodbye, adjective='nice', name='Donny')

作為*note 裝飾器: 540.使用：

     import atexit

     @atexit.register
     def goodbye():
         print('You are now leaving the Python sector.')

這只適用於可以不帶引數呼叫的函式。


File: python.info,  Node: traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback,  Next: __future__ --- Future 陳述式定義,  Prev: atexit --- 退出處理函式,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.11 ‘traceback’ -- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 (stack traceback)
-----------------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/traceback.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a standard interface to extract, format and print
stack traces of Python programs.  It is more flexible than the
interpreter's default traceback display, and therefore makes it possible
to configure certain aspects of the output.  Finally, it contains a
utility for capturing enough information about an exception to print it
later, without the need to save a reference to the actual exception.
Since exceptions can be the roots of large objects graph, this utility
can significantly improve memory management.

The module uses *note traceback objects: 949. -- these are objects of
type *note types.TracebackType: 947, which are assigned to the *note
__traceback__: 1158. field of *note BaseException: 3ab. instances.

也參考
......

*note faulthandler: 53. 模組

     Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a
     timeout, or on a user signal.

*note pdb: a0. 模組

     Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

The module's API can be divided into two parts:

   * Module-level functions offering basic functionality, which are
     useful for interactive inspection of exceptions and tracebacks.

   * *note TracebackException: 4a1. class and its helper classes *note
     StackSummary: d05. and *note FrameSummary: d06.  These offer both
     more flexibility in the output generated and the ability to store
     the information necessary for later formatting without holding
     references to actual exception and traceback objects.

* Menu:

* Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<2>.
* TracebackException 物件::
* StackSummary 物件::
* FrameSummary 物件::
* Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions::
* Examples of Using TracebackException::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/traceback.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Functions<2>,  Next: TracebackException 物件,  Up: traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback

5.29.11.1 Module-Level Functions
................................

 -- 函式: traceback.print_tb (tb, limit=None, file=None)

     Print up to 'limit' stack trace entries from *note traceback
     object: 949. 'tb' (starting from the caller's frame) if 'limit' is
     positive.  Otherwise, print the last ‘abs(limit)’ entries.  If
     'limit' is omitted or ‘None’, all entries are printed.  If 'file'
     is omitted or ‘None’, the output goes to *note sys.stderr: 778.;
     otherwise it should be an open *note file: 1054. or *note file-like
     object: 2319. to receive the output.

          備註: The meaning of the 'limit' parameter is different than
          the meaning of *note sys.tracebacklimit: 40a7.  A negative
          'limit' value corresponds to a positive value of
          ‘sys.tracebacklimit’, whereas the behaviour of a positive
          'limit' value cannot be achieved with ‘sys.tracebacklimit’.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增負數 'limit' 的支援。

 -- 函式: traceback.print_exception (exc, /[, value, tb], limit=None,
          file=None, chain=True)

     Print exception information and stack trace entries from *note
     traceback object: 949. 'tb' to 'file'.  This differs from *note
     print_tb(): d07. in the following ways:

        * if 'tb' is not ‘None’, it prints a header ‘Traceback (most
          recent call last):’

        * it prints the exception type and 'value' after the stack trace

        * if 'type(value)' is *note SyntaxError: 146. and 'value' has
          the appropriate format, it prints the line where the syntax
          error occurred with a caret indicating the approximate
          position of the error.

     Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value' and 'tb', an
     exception object can be passed as the first argument.  If 'value'
     and 'tb' are provided, the first argument is ignored in order to
     provide backwards compatibility.

     The optional 'limit' argument has the same meaning as for *note
     print_tb(): d07.  If 'chain' is true (the default), then chained
     exceptions (the *note __cause__: 115a. or *note __context__: 1159.
     attributes of the exception) will be printed as well, like the
     interpreter itself does when printing an unhandled exception.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The 'etype' argument is ignored and inferred from
     the type of 'value'.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The 'etype' parameter has been renamed to 'exc'
     and is now positional-only.

 -- 函式: traceback.print_exc (limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     This is a shorthand for ‘print_exception(sys.exception(), limit,
     file, chain)’.

 -- 函式: traceback.print_last (limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     This is a shorthand for ‘print_exception(sys.last_exc, limit, file,
     chain)’.  In general it will work only after an exception has
     reached an interactive prompt (see *note sys.last_exc: 1e5.).

 -- 函式: traceback.print_stack (f=None, limit=None, file=None)

     Print up to 'limit' stack trace entries (starting from the
     invocation point) if 'limit' is positive.  Otherwise, print the
     last ‘abs(limit)’ entries.  If 'limit' is omitted or ‘None’, all
     entries are printed.  The optional 'f' argument can be used to
     specify an alternate *note stack frame: 4de. to start.  The
     optional 'file' argument has the same meaning as for *note
     print_tb(): d07.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增負數 'limit' 的支援。

 -- 函式: traceback.extract_tb (tb, limit=None)

     Return a *note StackSummary: d05. object representing a list of
     "pre-processed" stack trace entries extracted from the *note
     traceback object: 949. 'tb'.  It is useful for alternate formatting
     of stack traces.  The optional 'limit' argument has the same
     meaning as for *note print_tb(): d07.  A "pre-processed" stack
     trace entry is a *note FrameSummary: d06. object containing
     attributes *note filename: 4147, *note lineno: 4148, *note name:
     4149, and *note line: 414a. representing the information that is
     usually printed for a stack trace.

 -- 函式: traceback.extract_stack (f=None, limit=None)

     Extract the raw traceback from the current *note stack frame: 4de.
     The return value has the same format as for *note extract_tb():
     4146.  The optional 'f' and 'limit' arguments have the same meaning
     as for *note print_stack(): d08.

 -- 函式: traceback.format_list (extracted_list)

     Given a list of tuples or *note FrameSummary: d06. objects as
     returned by *note extract_tb(): 4146. or *note extract_stack():
     414b, return a list of strings ready for printing.  Each string in
     the resulting list corresponds to the item with the same index in
     the argument list.  Each string ends in a newline; the strings may
     contain internal newlines as well, for those items whose source
     text line is not ‘None’.

 -- 函式: traceback.format_exception_only (exc, /[, value])

     Format the exception part of a traceback using an exception value
     such as given by *note sys.last_value: 1e7.  The return value is a
     list of strings, each ending in a newline.  The list contains the
     exception's message, which is normally a single string; however,
     for *note SyntaxError: 146. exceptions, it contains several lines
     that (when printed) display detailed information about where the
     syntax error occurred.  Following the message, the list contains
     the exception's *note notes: 201c.

     Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value', an exception object
     can be passed as the first argument.  If 'value' is provided, the
     first argument is ignored in order to provide backwards
     compatibility.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The 'etype' parameter has been renamed to 'exc'
     and is now positional-only.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The returned list now includes any *note notes:
     201c. attached to the exception.

 -- 函式: traceback.format_exception (exc, /[, value, tb], limit=None,
          chain=True)

     Format a stack trace and the exception information.  The arguments
     have the same meaning as the corresponding arguments to *note
     print_exception(): 676.  The return value is a list of strings,
     each ending in a newline and some containing internal newlines.
     When these lines are concatenated and printed, exactly the same
     text is printed as does *note print_exception(): 676.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The 'etype' argument is ignored and inferred from
     the type of 'value'.

     在 3.10 版的變更: This function's behavior and signature were
     modified to match *note print_exception(): 676.

 -- 函式: traceback.format_exc (limit=None, chain=True)

     This is like ‘print_exc(limit)’ but returns a string instead of
     printing to a file.

 -- 函式: traceback.format_tb (tb, limit=None)

     ‘format_list(extract_tb(tb, limit))’ 的簡寫。

 -- 函式: traceback.format_stack (f=None, limit=None)

     ‘format_list(extract_stack(f, limit))’ 的簡寫。

 -- 函式: traceback.clear_frames (tb)

     Clears the local variables of all the stack frames in a *note
     traceback: 949. 'tb' by calling the *note clear(): d8f. method of
     each *note frame object: 4de.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: traceback.walk_stack (f)

     Walk a stack following *note f.f_back: 5a4. from the given frame,
     yielding the frame and line number for each frame.  If 'f' is
     ‘None’, the current stack is used.  This helper is used with *note
     StackSummary.extract(): 414f.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: traceback.walk_tb (tb)

     Walk a traceback following *note tb_next: 948. yielding the frame
     and line number for each frame.  This helper is used with *note
     StackSummary.extract(): 414f.

     在 3.5 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: TracebackException 物件,  Next: StackSummary 物件,  Prev: Module-Level Functions<2>,  Up: traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback

5.29.11.2 ‘TracebackException’ 物件
...................................

在 3.5 版被加入.

‘TracebackException’ objects are created from actual exceptions to
capture data for later printing.  They offer a more lightweight method
of storing this information by avoiding holding references to *note
traceback: 949. and *note frame: 4de. objects In addition, they expose
more options to configure the output compared to the module-level
functions described above.

 -- 類別: traceback.TracebackException (exc_type, exc_value,
          exc_traceback, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True,
          capture_locals=False, compact=False, max_group_width=15,
          max_group_depth=10)

     Capture an exception for later rendering.  The meaning of 'limit',
     'lookup_lines' and 'capture_locals' are as for the *note
     StackSummary: d05. class.

     If 'compact' is true, only data that is required by
     ‘TracebackException’'s *note format(): 417. method is saved in the
     class attributes.  In particular, the *note __context__: 4151.
     field is calculated only if *note __cause__: 4152. is ‘None’ and
     *note __suppress_context__: 4153. is false.

     Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the
     traceback.

     'max_group_width' and 'max_group_depth' control the formatting of
     exception groups (see *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3a6.).  The depth
     refers to the nesting level of the group, and the width refers to
     the size of a single exception group's exceptions array.  The
     formatted output is truncated when either limit is exceeded.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'compact' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'max_group_width' 和 'max_group_depth' 參數
     。

      -- 屬性: __cause__

          A ‘TracebackException’ of the original *note __cause__: 115a.

      -- 屬性: __context__

          A ‘TracebackException’ of the original *note __context__:
          1159.

      -- 屬性: exceptions

          If ‘self’ represents an *note ExceptionGroup: 17b, this field
          holds a list of ‘TracebackException’ instances representing
          the nested exceptions.  Otherwise it is ‘None’.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: __suppress_context__

          The *note __suppress_context__: 1e44. value from the original
          exception.

      -- 屬性: __notes__

          The *note __notes__: 201c. value from the original exception,
          or ‘None’ if the exception does not have any notes.  If it is
          not ‘None’ is it formatted in the traceback after the
          exception string.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: stack

          A *note StackSummary: d05. representing the traceback.

      -- 屬性: exc_type

          The class of the original traceback.

      -- 屬性: filename

          For syntax errors - the file name where the error occurred.

      -- 屬性: lineno

          For syntax errors - the line number where the error occurred.

      -- 屬性: end_lineno

          For syntax errors - the end line number where the error
          occurred.  Can be ‘None’ if not present.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: text

          For syntax errors - the text where the error occurred.

      -- 屬性: offset

          For syntax errors - the offset into the text where the error
          occurred.

      -- 屬性: end_offset

          For syntax errors - the end offset into the text where the
          error occurred.  Can be ‘None’ if not present.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: msg

          For syntax errors - the compiler error message.

      -- 方法: classmethod from_exception (exc, *, limit=None,
               lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

          Capture an exception for later rendering.  'limit',
          'lookup_lines' and 'capture_locals' are as for the *note
          StackSummary: d05. class.

          Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the
          traceback.

      -- 方法: print (*, file=None, chain=True)

          Print to 'file' (default ‘sys.stderr’) the exception
          information returned by *note format(): 417.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- 方法: format (*, chain=True)

          Format the exception.

          If 'chain' is not ‘True’, *note __cause__: 4152. and *note
          __context__: 4151. will not be formatted.

          The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a
          newline and some containing internal newlines.  *note
          print_exception(): 676. is a wrapper around this method which
          just prints the lines to a file.

      -- 方法: format_exception_only ()

          Format the exception part of the traceback.

          The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a
          newline.

          The generator emits the exception's message followed by its
          notes (if it has any).  The exception message is normally a
          single string; however, for *note SyntaxError: 146.
          exceptions, it consists of several lines that (when printed)
          display detailed information about where the syntax error
          occurred.

          在 3.11 版的變更: The exception's *note notes: 201c. are now
          included in the output.


File: python.info,  Node: StackSummary 物件,  Next: FrameSummary 物件,  Prev: TracebackException 物件,  Up: traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback

5.29.11.3 ‘StackSummary’ 物件
.............................

在 3.5 版被加入.

‘StackSummary’ objects represent a call stack ready for formatting.

 -- 類別: traceback.StackSummary

      -- 方法: classmethod extract (frame_gen, *, limit=None,
               lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

          Construct a ‘StackSummary’ object from a frame generator (such
          as is returned by *note walk_stack(): d03. or *note walk_tb():
          d04.).

          If 'limit' is supplied, only this many frames are taken from
          'frame_gen'.  If 'lookup_lines' is ‘False’, the returned *note
          FrameSummary: d06. objects will not have read their lines in
          yet, making the cost of creating the ‘StackSummary’ cheaper
          (which may be valuable if it may not actually get formatted).
          If 'capture_locals' is ‘True’ the local variables in each
          ‘FrameSummary’ are captured as object representations.

          在 3.12 版的變更: Exceptions raised from *note repr(): 61e. on
          a local variable (when 'capture_locals' is ‘True’) are no
          longer propagated to the caller.

      -- 方法: classmethod from_list (a_list)

          Construct a ‘StackSummary’ object from a supplied list of
          *note FrameSummary: d06. objects or old-style list of tuples.
          Each tuple should be a 4-tuple with 'filename', 'lineno',
          'name', 'line' as the elements.

      -- 方法: format ()

          Returns a list of strings ready for printing.  Each string in
          the resulting list corresponds to a single *note frame: 4de.
          from the stack.  Each string ends in a newline; the strings
          may contain internal newlines as well, for those items with
          source text lines.

          For long sequences of the same frame and line, the first few
          repetitions are shown, followed by a summary line stating the
          exact number of further repetitions.

          在 3.6 版的變更: Long sequences of repeated frames are now
          abbreviated.

      -- 方法: format_frame_summary (frame_summary)

          Returns a string for printing one of the *note frames: 4de.
          involved in the stack.  This method is called for each *note
          FrameSummary: d06. object to be printed by *note
          StackSummary.format(): 4164.  If it returns ‘None’, the frame
          is omitted from the output.

          在 3.11 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: FrameSummary 物件,  Next: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Prev: StackSummary 物件,  Up: traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback

5.29.11.4 ‘FrameSummary’ 物件
.............................

在 3.5 版被加入.

A ‘FrameSummary’ object represents a single *note frame: 4de. in a *note
traceback: 949.

 -- 類別: traceback.FrameSummary (filename, lineno, name,
          lookup_line=True, locals=None, line=None)

     Represents a single *note frame: 4de. in the *note traceback: 949.
     or stack that is being formatted or printed.  It may optionally
     have a stringified version of the frame's locals included in it.
     If 'lookup_line' is ‘False’, the source code is not looked up until
     the ‘FrameSummary’ has the *note line: 414a. attribute accessed
     (which also happens when casting it to a *note tuple: 4e6.).  *note
     line: 414a. may be directly provided, and will prevent line lookups
     happening at all.  'locals' is an optional local variable
     dictionary, and if supplied the variable representations are stored
     in the summary for later display.

     ‘FrameSummary’ instances have the following attributes:

      -- 屬性: filename

          The filename of the source code for this frame.  Equivalent to
          accessing *note f.f_code.co_filename: 11fc. on a *note frame
          object: 4de. 'f'.

      -- 屬性: lineno

          The line number of the source code for this frame.

      -- 屬性: name

          Equivalent to accessing *note f.f_code.co_name: 1cc8. on a
          *note frame object: 4de. 'f'.

      -- 屬性: line

          A string representing the source code for this frame, with
          leading and trailing whitespace stripped.  If the source is
          not available, it is ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Next: Examples of Using TracebackException,  Prev: FrameSummary 物件,  Up: traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback

5.29.11.5 Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions
......................................................

This simple example implements a basic read-eval-print loop, similar to
(but less useful than) the standard Python interactive interpreter loop.
For a more complete implementation of the interpreter loop, refer to the
*note code: 18. module.

     import sys, traceback

     def run_user_code(envdir):
         source = input(">>> ")
         try:
             exec(source, envdir)
         except Exception:
             print("Exception in user code:")
             print("-"*60)
             traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stdout)
             print("-"*60)

     envdir = {}
     while True:
         run_user_code(envdir)

The following example demonstrates the different ways to print and
format the exception and traceback:

     import sys, traceback

     def lumberjack():
         bright_side_of_life()

     def bright_side_of_life():
         return tuple()[0]

     try:
         lumberjack()
     except IndexError as exc:
         print("*** print_tb:")
         traceback.print_tb(exc.__traceback__, limit=1, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** print_exception:")
         traceback.print_exception(exc, limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** print_exc:")
         traceback.print_exc(limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** format_exc, first and last line:")
         formatted_lines = traceback.format_exc().splitlines()
         print(formatted_lines[0])
         print(formatted_lines[-1])
         print("*** format_exception:")
         print(repr(traceback.format_exception(exc)))
         print("*** extract_tb:")
         print(repr(traceback.extract_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
         print("*** format_tb:")
         print(repr(traceback.format_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
         print("*** tb_lineno:", exc.__traceback__.tb_lineno)

The output for the example would look similar to this:

     *** print_tb:
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
     *** print_exception:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
       File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** print_exc:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
       File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** format_exc, first and last line:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** format_exception:
     ['Traceback (most recent call last):\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n',
      'IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']
     *** extract_tb:
     [<FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 10 in <module>>,
      <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 4 in lumberjack>,
      <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 7 in bright_side_of_life>]
     *** format_tb:
     ['  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n']
     *** tb_lineno: 10

The following example shows the different ways to print and format the
stack:

     >>> import traceback
     >>> def another_function():
     ...     lumberstack()
     ...
     >>> def lumberstack():
     ...     traceback.print_stack()
     ...     print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))
     ...     print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))
     ...
     >>> another_function()
       File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>
         another_function()
       File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function
         lumberstack()
       File "<doctest>", line 6, in lumberstack
         traceback.print_stack()
     [('<doctest>', 10, '<module>', 'another_function()'),
      ('<doctest>', 3, 'another_function', 'lumberstack()'),
      ('<doctest>', 7, 'lumberstack', 'print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))')]
     ['  File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>\n    another_function()\n',
      '  File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function\n    lumberstack()\n',
      '  File "<doctest>", line 8, in lumberstack\n    print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))\n']

This last example demonstrates the final few formatting functions:

     >>> import traceback
     >>> traceback.format_list([('spam.py', 3, '<module>', 'spam.eggs()'),
     ...                        ('eggs.py', 42, 'eggs', 'return "bacon"')])
     ['  File "spam.py", line 3, in <module>\n    spam.eggs()\n',
      '  File "eggs.py", line 42, in eggs\n    return "bacon"\n']
     >>> an_error = IndexError('tuple index out of range')
     >>> traceback.format_exception_only(an_error)
     ['IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Using TracebackException,  Prev: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Up: traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback

5.29.11.6 Examples of Using ‘TracebackException’
................................................

With the helper class, we have more options:

     >>> import sys
     >>> from traceback import TracebackException
     >>>
     >>> def lumberjack():
     ...     bright_side_of_life()
     ...
     >>> def bright_side_of_life():
     ...     t = "bright", "side", "of", "life"
     ...     return t[5]
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     lumberjack()
     ... except IndexError as e:
     ...     exc = e
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     try:
     ...         lumberjack()
     ...     except:
     ...         1/0
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     chained_exc = e
     ...
     >>> # limit works as with the module-level functions
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     >>> # capture_locals adds local variables in frames
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2, capture_locals=True).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
         t = ("bright", "side", "of", "life")
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     >>> # The *chain* kwarg to print() controls whether chained
     >>> # exceptions are displayed
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 4, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-8>", line 7, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-8>", line 11, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
         1/0
         ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print(chain=False)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
         1/0
         ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: __future__ --- Future 陳述式定義,  Next: gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface,  Prev: traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.12 ‘__future__’ -- Future 陳述式定義
-----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/__future__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘from __future__ import feature’ 形式的引入被稱為 *note future 陳述式:
3bf.。這些是 Python 編譯器的特殊情況，允許在該功能成為標準版本之前在包含
future 陳述式的模組中使用新的 Python 功能。

雖然這些 future 陳述式被 Python 編譯器賦予了額外的特殊意義，但它們仍然像
任何其他 import 陳述式一樣執行，且 *note __future__: 0. 由引入系統以和任
何其他 Python 模組相同的方式處理。這個設計有三個目的：

   * 為了避免混淆分析引入陳述式並預期要找到它們正在引入之模組的現有工具
     。

   * 記錄何時出現不相容的變更，以及何時開始強制執行這些變更。這是一種可
     執行文件的形式，可以透過引入 *note __future__: 0. 並檢查其內容以程
     式化的方式進行檢查。

   * 確保 *note future 陳述式: 3bf.在 Python 2.1 之前的版本中運行至少會
     產生 runtime 例外（*note __future__: 0. 的引入將會失敗，因為 2.1 之
     前沒有該名稱的模組）。

* Menu:

* 模組內容: 模組內容<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/__future__.py


File: python.info,  Node: 模組內容<9>,  Up: __future__ --- Future 陳述式定義

5.29.12.1 模組內容
..................

不會從 *note __future__: 0. 中刪除任何功能描述。自從在 Python 2.1 中引入
以來，以下功能已透過這種機制引入到該語言中：

功能                   可選的版本        強制性的版本       影響
                                                            
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
nested_scopes          2.1.0b1           2.2                PEP 227(1): '靜態巢狀作用域 (Statically Nested
                                                            Scopes)'
                                                            
                                                            
generators             2.2.0a1           2.3                PEP 255(2): '簡單產生器 (Simple Generators)'
                                                            
                                                            
division               2.2.0a2           3.0                PEP 238(3): '更改除法運算子 (Changing the
                                                            Division Operator)'
                                                            
                                                            
absolute_import        2.5.0a1           3.0                PEP 328(4): '引入：多列與絕對/相對 (Imports:
                                                            Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative)'
                                                            
                                                            
with_statement         2.5.0a1           2.6                PEP 343(5): '"with" 陳述式 (The "with"
                                                            Statement)'
                                                            
                                                            
print_function         2.6.0a2           3.0                PEP 3105(6): '使 print 成為一個函式 (Make print
                                                            a function)'
                                                            
                                                            
unicode_literals       2.6.0a2           3.0                PEP 3112(7): 'Python 3000 中的位元組字面值
                                                            (Bytes literals in Python 3000)'
                                                            
                                                            
generator_stop         3.5.0b1           3.7                PEP 479(8): '產生器內部的 StopIteration 處理
                                                            (StopIteration handling inside generators)'
                                                            
                                                            
annotations            3.7.0b1           TBD (9)            PEP 563(10): '推遲對註釋的求值 (Postponed
                                                            evaluation of annotations)'
                                                            

 -- 類別: __future__._Feature

     ‘__future__.py’ 中的每個陳述式的形式如下：

          FeatureName = _Feature(OptionalRelease, MandatoryRelease,
                                 CompilerFlag)

     通常，'OptionalRelease' 會小於 'MandatoryRelease'，且兩者都是與
     *note sys.version_info: 49c. 形式相同的 5 元組 (5-tuple)：

          (PY_MAJOR_VERSION, # the 2 in 2.1.0a3; an int
           PY_MINOR_VERSION, # the 1; an int
           PY_MICRO_VERSION, # the 0; an int
           PY_RELEASE_LEVEL, # "alpha", "beta", "candidate" or "final"; string
           PY_RELEASE_SERIAL # the 3; an int
          )

 -- 方法: _Feature.getOptionalRelease ()

     'OptionalRelease' 記錄該功能首次發布時的 Python 版本。

 -- 方法: _Feature.getMandatoryRelease ()

     如果 'MandatoryRelease' 尚未發布，'MandatoryRelease' 會預測該功能將
     成為該語言一部分的版本。

     否則 'MandatoryRelease' 會記錄該功能是何時成為語言的一部分；在該版
     本或之後的版本中，模組不再需要 future 聲明來使用相關功能，但可以繼
     續使用此種引入方式。

     'MandatoryRelease' 也可能是 ‘None’，這意味著計劃中的功能被丟棄或者
     仍未決定。

 -- 屬性: _Feature.compiler_flag

     'CompilerFlag' 是（位元欄位 (bitfield)）旗標，應在第四個引數中傳遞
     給內建函式 *note compile(): 554. 以在動態編譯的程式碼中啟用該功能。
     此旗標存儲在 *note _Feature: 1ef7. 實例上的 *note
     _Feature.compiler_flag: 1ef8. 屬性中。

也參考
......

*note Future statements: 3bf.

     編譯器如何處理 future 引入。

PEP 236(11) - 回到 __future__

     __future__ 機制的原始提案。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (9) 之前原本計劃在 Python 3.10 中強制使用 ‘from __future__ import
annotations’，但 Python 指導委員會 (Python Steering Council) 兩次決議推
遲這一變動（Python 3.10 的公告
(https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/CLVXXPQ2T2LQ5MP2Y53VVQFCXYWQJHKZ/)；
Python 3.11 的公告
(https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/)）
。目前還尚未做出決定。另請參閱 PEP 563
(https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/) 和 PEP 649
(https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/)。

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface,  Next: inspect --- 檢視活動物件,  Prev: __future__ --- Future 陳述式定義,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.13 ‘gc’ -- 垃圾回收器介面 (Garbage Collector interface)
------------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

此 module（模組）提供可選的垃圾回收器介面，提供的功能包括：關閉回收器、
調整回收頻率、設定除錯選項。它同時提供對回收器有找到但是無法釋放的不可達
物件 (unreachable object) 的存取。由於 Python 使用了帶有參照計數的回收器
，如果你確定你的程式不會產生參照迴圈 (reference cycle)，你可以關閉回收器
。可以透過呼叫 ‘gc.disable()’ 關閉自動垃圾回收。若要為一個存在記憶體流失
的程式 (leaking program) 除錯，請呼叫 ‘gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_LEAK)’；需
要注意的是，它包含 ‘gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL’，使得被回收的物件會被存放在
gc.garbage 中以待檢查。

*note gc: 5b. module 提供下列函式：

 -- 函式: gc.enable ()

     啟用自動垃圾回收。

 -- 函式: gc.disable ()

     停用自動垃圾回收。

 -- 函式: gc.isenabled ()

     如果啟用了自動回收則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 函式: gc.collect (generation=2)

     若被呼叫時沒有引數，則啟動完整垃圾回收。可選的引數 'generation' 可
     以是一個指明需要回收哪一代垃圾的整數（從 0 到 2）。當引數
     'generation' 無效時，會引發 *note ValueError: 183. 例外。發現的不可
     達物件數目會被回傳。

     每當執行完整回收或最高代 (2) 回收時，為多個內建型別所維護的空閒列表
     會被清空。為了特定型別的實現，特別是 *note float: 26a.，在某些空閒
     列表中並非所有項目都會被釋放。

     The effect of calling ‘gc.collect()’ while the interpreter is
     already performing a collection is undefined.

 -- 函式: gc.set_debug (flags)

     設定垃圾回收器的除錯旗標。除錯資訊會被寫入 ‘sys.stderr’。請見下方的
     除錯旗標列表，可以使用位元操作 (bit operation) 進行設定以控制除錯程
     式。

 -- 函式: gc.get_debug ()

     回傳當前設置的除錯旗標。

 -- 函式: gc.get_objects (generation=None)

     Returns a list of all objects tracked by the collector, excluding
     the list returned.  If 'generation' is not ‘None’, return only the
     objects tracked by the collector that are in that generation.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'generation' 參數。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘generation’ 的*note 稽核事件 (auditing event):
     168e. ‘gc.get_objects’。

 -- 函式: gc.get_stats ()

     回傳一個包含三個字典物件的 list，每個字典分別包含對應代中自從直譯器
     開始執行後的垃圾回收統計資料。字典的鍵的數目在將來可能會改變，但目
     前每個字典包含以下項目：

        * ‘collections’ 是該代被回收的次數；

        * ‘collected’ 是該代中被回收的物件總數；

        * ‘uncollectable’ 是在這一代中被發現無法回收的物件總數（因此被移
          到 *note garbage: 1052. list 中）。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: gc.set_threshold (threshold0[, threshold1[, threshold2]])

     設定垃圾回收閾值（回收頻率）。 將 'threshold0' 設為零會停止回收。

     垃圾回收器會根據物件在多少次垃圾回收後仍倖存來把所有物件分類為三代
     。新建物件會被放在最年輕代（第 ‘0’ 代）。 如果一個物件在一次垃圾回
     收後倖存，它會被移入下一個較老代。由於第 ‘2’ 代是最老代，這一代的物
     件在一次垃圾回收後仍會保留原樣。為了確定何時要執行，垃圾回收器會追
     蹤自上一次回收後物件分配和釋放的數量。當分配數量減去釋放數量的結果
     大於 'threshold0' 時，垃圾回收就會開始。初始時只有第 ‘0’ 代會被檢查
     。如果自第 ‘1’ 代被檢查後第 ‘0’ 代已被檢查超過 'threshold1' 次，則
     第 ‘1’ 代也會被檢查。對於第三代來說，情況還會更復雜一些，請參閱
     Collecting the oldest generation(1) 來了解詳情。

 -- 函式: gc.get_count ()

     將當前回收計數以 ‘(count0, count1, count2)’ 形式的 tuple 回傳。

 -- 函式: gc.get_threshold ()

     將當前回收閾值以 ‘(threshold0, threshold1, threshold2)’ 形式的
     tuple 回傳。

 -- 函式: gc.get_referrers (*objs)

     回傳包含直接參照 objs 中任一個物件的物件 list。這個函式只定位支援垃
     圾回收的容器；參照了其它物件但不支援垃圾回收的擴充套件型別無法被找
     到。

     需要注意的是，已經解除參照的物件，但仍存在於參照迴圈中未被回收時，
     該物件仍然會被作為參照者出現在回傳的 list 中。若只要獲取當前正在參
     照的物件，需要在呼叫 *note get_referrers(): 625. 之前呼叫 *note
     collect(): 883.。

          警告: 在使用 *note get_referrers(): 625. 回傳的物件時必須要小
          心，因為其中的一些物件可能仍在建構中而處於暫時無效的狀態。不要
          把 *note get_referrers(): 625. 用於除錯以外的其它目的。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘objs’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘gc.get_referrers’。

 -- 函式: gc.get_referents (*objs)

     回傳包含被任意一個引數直接參照之物件的 list。回傳的被參照物件是有被
     引數的 C 語言級別 *note tp_traverse: 594. 方法（若存在）訪問到的物
     件，可能不是所有的實際直接可達物件。只有支援垃圾回收的物件支援
     *note tp_traverse: 594. 方法，並且此方法只會訪問涉及參照迴圈的物件
     。因此，可以有以下例子：一個整數對於一個引數是直接可達的，這個整數
     物件有可能出現或不出現在結果的 list 當中。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘objs’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘gc.get_referents’。

 -- 函式: gc.is_tracked (obj)

     當物件正在被垃圾回收器追蹤時回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。一般來說
     ，原子型別 (atomic type) 的實例不會被追蹤，而非原子型別（如容器、使
     用者自己定義的物件）會被追蹤。然而，有一些特定型別最佳化會被用來減
     少垃圾回收器在簡單實例（如只含有原子性的鍵和值的字典）上的足跡：

          >>> gc.is_tracked(0)
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked("a")
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked([])
          True
          >>> gc.is_tracked({})
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": 1})
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": []})
          True

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- 函式: gc.is_finalized (obj)

     如果給定物件已被垃圾回收器終結則回傳 ‘True’，否則回傳 ‘False’。：

          >>> x = None
          >>> class Lazarus:
          ...     def __del__(self):
          ...         global x
          ...         x = self
          ...
          >>> lazarus = Lazarus()
          >>> gc.is_finalized(lazarus)
          False
          >>> del lazarus
          >>> gc.is_finalized(x)
          True

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: gc.freeze ()

     凍結 (freeze) 垃圾回收器所追蹤的所有物件；將它們移至永久代並忽略所
     有未來的收集動作。

     如果一個行程將在沒有 ‘exec()’ 的情況下進行 ‘fork()’，避免子行程中不
     必要的寫入時複製將最大化記憶體共享並減少整體記憶體使用。這需要避免
     在父行程的記憶體頁面中建立已釋放的「漏洞」，並確保子行程中的 GC 收
     集不會觸及源自父行程的長壽命物件的 ‘gc_refs’ 計數器。要實現這兩個目
     標，請在父行程的早期呼叫 ‘gc.disable()’，在 ‘fork()’ 之前呼叫
     ‘gc.freeze()’，並儘早在子行程中呼叫 ‘gc.enable()’。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: gc.unfreeze ()

     解凍 (unfreeze) 永久代中的物件，並將它們放回到最年老代中。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: gc.get_freeze_count ()

     回傳永久代中的物件數量。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

以下變數僅供唯讀存取（你可以修改其值但不應該重新繫結 (rebind) 它們）：

 -- 資料: gc.garbage

     一個回收器發現不可達而又無法被釋放的物件（不可回收物件）list。從
     Python 3.4 開始，該 list 在大多數時候都應該是空的，除非使用了有非
     ‘NULL’ ‘tp_del’ 槽位的 C 擴充套件型別的實例。

     如果設定了 *note DEBUG_SAVEALL: 4179.，則所有不可達物件將被加進該
     list 而不會被釋放。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 當 *note interpreter shutdown: cf3. 即直譯器關閉時
     ，若此 list 非空，會產生 *note ResourceWarning: aa3.，在預設情況下
     此警告不會被提醒。如果設定了 *note DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE: 1053.，所有
     無法被回收的物件會被印出。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 根據 PEP 442(2)，帶有 *note __del__(): 1cf2.
     method 的物件最終不會在 *note gc.garbage: 1052. 內。

 -- 資料: gc.callbacks

     會被垃圾回收器在回收開始前和完成後呼叫的一系列回呼函式 (callback) 。
     這些回呼函式在被呼叫時附帶兩個引數：'phase' 和 'info'。

     'phase' 可為以下兩者之一：

          "start"：垃圾回收即將開始。

          "stop"：垃圾回收已結束。

     'info' 是一個字典，提供回呼函式更多資訊。已有定義的鍵有：

          "generation"（代）：正在被回收的最年老的一代。

          "collected"（已回收的）：當 'phase' 為 "stop" 時，被成功回收的
          物件的數目。

          "uncollectable"（不可回收的）：當 'phase' 為 "stop" 時，不能被
          回收並被放入 *note garbage: 1052. 的物件的數目。

     應用程式可以把他們自己的回呼函式加入此 list。主要的使用場景有：

          收集垃圾回收的統計資料，如：不同代的回收頻率、回收任務所花費的
          時間。

          讓應用程式可以識別和清理他們自己在 *note garbage: 1052. 中的不
          可回收型別物件。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

以下常數是為了和 *note set_debug(): 4174. 一起使用所提供：

 -- 資料: gc.DEBUG_STATS

     在回收完成後印出統計資訊。當調校回收頻率設定時，這些資訊會很有用。

 -- 資料: gc.DEBUG_COLLECTABLE

     當發現可回收物件時印出資訊。

 -- 資料: gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE

     印出找到的不可回收物件的資訊（指不能被回收器回收的不可達物件）。這
     些物件會被新增到 ‘garbage’ list 中。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 當 *note interpreter shutdown: cf3.（直譯器關閉）
     時，若 *note garbage: 1052. list 不是空的，那這些內容也會被印出。

 -- 資料: gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL

     設定後，所有回收器找到的不可達物件會被加進 'garbage' 而不是直接被釋
     放。這在為一個記憶體流失的程式除錯時會很有用。

 -- 資料: gc.DEBUG_LEAK

     要印出記憶體流失程式之相關資訊時，回收器所需的除錯旗標。（等同於
     ‘DEBUG_COLLECTABLE | DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE | DEBUG_SAVEALL’）。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://devguide.python.org/garbage_collector/#collecting-the-oldest-generation

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: inspect --- 檢視活動物件,  Next: site --- Site-specific configuration hook,  Prev: gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.14 ‘inspect’ -- 檢視活動物件
---------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/inspect.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note inspect: 78. module provides several useful functions to help
get information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods,
functions, tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects.  For example, it
can help you examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code
of a method, extract and format the argument list for a function, or get
all the information you need to display a detailed traceback.

There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type
checking, getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and
examining the interpreter stack.

* Menu:

* Types and members::
* 取得原始碼::
* Introspecting callables with the Signature object::
* 類別與函式::
* 直譯器堆疊::
* Fetching attributes statically::
* Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
* Code Objects Bit Flags::
* Buffer flags::
* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/inspect.py


File: python.info,  Node: Types and members,  Next: 取得原始碼,  Up: inspect --- 檢視活動物件

5.29.14.1 Types and members
...........................

The *note getmembers(): 1627. function retrieves the members of an
object such as a class or module.  The functions whose names begin with
"is" are mainly provided as convenient choices for the second argument
to *note getmembers(): 1627.  They also help you determine when you can
expect to find the following special attributes (see *note
Import-related attributes on module objects: 1ca4. for module
attributes):

Type                  屬性                    描述
                                              
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              
class                 __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                name with which this class
                                              was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              name of module in which this
                                              class was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __type_params__         A tuple containing the
                                              *note type parameters: 166.
                                              of a generic class
                                              
                                              
method                __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                name with which this method
                                              was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __func__                function object containing
                                              implementation of method
                                              
                                              
                      __self__                instance to which this method
                                              is bound, or ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              name of module in which this
                                              method was defined
                                              
                                              
函式                  __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                name with which this function
                                              was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __code__                code object containing
                                              compiled function
                                              *note bytecode: 39f.
                                              
                                              
                      __defaults__            tuple of any default values
                                              for positional or keyword
                                              parameters
                                              
                                              
                      __kwdefaults__          mapping of any default values
                                              for keyword-only parameters
                                              
                                              
                      __globals__             global namespace in which
                                              this function was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __builtins__            builtins namespace
                                              
                                              
                      __annotations__         mapping of parameters names
                                              to annotations; ‘"return"’
                                              key is reserved for return
                                              annotations.
                                              
                                              
                      __type_params__         A tuple containing the
                                              *note type parameters: 166.
                                              of a generic function
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              name of module in which this
                                              function was defined
                                              
                                              
traceback             tb_frame                frame object at this level
                                              
                                              
                      tb_lasti                index of last attempted
                                              instruction in bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      tb_lineno               current line number in Python
                                              source code
                                              
                                              
                      tb_next                 next inner traceback object
                                              (called by this level)
                                              
                                              
frame                 f_back                  next outer frame object (this
                                              frame's caller)
                                              
                                              
                      f_builtins              builtins namespace seen by
                                              this frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_code                  code object being executed in
                                              this frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_globals               global namespace seen by this
                                              frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_lasti                 index of last attempted
                                              instruction in bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      f_lineno                current line number in Python
                                              source code
                                              
                                              
                      f_locals                local namespace seen by this
                                              frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_trace                 tracing function for this
                                              frame, or ‘None’
                                              
                                              
code（程式碼）        co_argcount             number of arguments (not
                                              including keyword only
                                              arguments, * or ** args)
                                              
                                              
                      co_code                 string of raw compiled
                                              bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      co_cellvars             tuple of names of cell
                                              variables (referenced by
                                              containing scopes)
                                              
                                              
                      co_consts               tuple of constants used in
                                              the bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      co_filename             name of file in which this
                                              code object was created
                                              
                                              
                      co_firstlineno          number of first line in
                                              Python source code
                                              
                                              
                      co_flags                bitmap of ‘CO_*’ flags, read
                                              more *note here: 1cd7.
                                              
                                              
                      co_lnotab               encoded mapping of line
                                              numbers to bytecode indices
                                              
                                              
                      co_freevars             tuple of names of free
                                              variables (referenced via a
                                              function's closure)
                                              
                                              
                      co_posonlyargcount      number of positional only
                                              arguments
                                              
                                              
                      co_kwonlyargcount       number of keyword only
                                              arguments (not including **
                                              arg)
                                              
                                              
                      co_name                 name with which this code
                                              object was defined
                                              
                                              
                      co_qualname             fully qualified name with
                                              which this code object was
                                              defined
                                              
                                              
                      co_names                tuple of names other than
                                              arguments and function locals
                                              
                                              
                      co_nlocals              number of local variables
                                              
                                              
                      co_stacksize            virtual machine stack space
                                              required
                                              
                                              
                      co_varnames             tuple of names of arguments
                                              and local variables
                                              
                                              
generator             __name__                name
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      gi_frame                frame
                                              
                                              
                      gi_running              is the generator running?
                                              
                                              
                      gi_code                 code（程式碼）
                                              
                                              
                      gi_yieldfrom            object being iterated by
                                              ‘yield from’, or ‘None’
                                              
                                              
async generator       __name__                name
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      ag_await                object being awaited on, or
                                              ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      ag_frame                frame
                                              
                                              
                      ag_running              is the generator running?
                                              
                                              
                      ag_code                 code（程式碼）
                                              
                                              
coroutine             __name__                name
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      cr_await                object being awaited on, or
                                              ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      cr_frame                frame
                                              
                                              
                      cr_running              is the coroutine running?
                                              
                                              
                      cr_code                 code（程式碼）
                                              
                                              
                      cr_origin               where coroutine was created,
                                              or ‘None’.  See
                                              *note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): 9eb.
                                              
                                              
builtin               __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                original name of this
                                              function or method
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __self__                instance to which a method is
                                              bound, or ‘None’
                                              

在 3.5 版的變更: 將 ‘__qualname__’ 和 ‘gi_yieldfrom’ 屬性加到產生器。

The ‘__name__’ attribute of generators is now set from the function
name, instead of the code name, and it can now be modified.

在 3.7 版的變更: 新增協程的 ‘cr_origin’ 屬性。

在 3.10 版的變更: 新增函式的 ‘__builtins__’ 屬性。

 -- 函式: inspect.getmembers (object[, predicate])

     Return all the members of an object in a list of ‘(name, value)’
     pairs sorted by name.  If the optional 'predicate' argument—which
     will be called with the ‘value’ object of each member—is supplied,
     only members for which the predicate returns a true value are
     included.

          備註: *note getmembers(): 1627. will only return class
          attributes defined in the metaclass when the argument is a
          class and those attributes have been listed in the metaclass'
          custom *note __dir__(): 1cf8.

 -- 函式: inspect.getmembers_static (object[, predicate])

     Return all the members of an object in a list of ‘(name, value)’
     pairs sorted by name without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol, __getattr__ or __getattribute__.  Optionally,
     only return members that satisfy a given predicate.

          備註: *note getmembers_static(): 444. may not be able to
          retrieve all members that getmembers can fetch (like
          dynamically created attributes) and may find members that
          getmembers can't (like descriptors that raise AttributeError).
          It can also return descriptor objects instead of instance
          members in some cases.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.getmodulename (path)

     Return the name of the module named by the file 'path', without
     including the names of enclosing packages.  The file extension is
     checked against all of the entries in *note
     importlib.machinery.all_suffixes(): 4180.  If it matches, the final
     path component is returned with the extension removed.  Otherwise,
     ‘None’ is returned.

     Note that this function 'only' returns a meaningful name for actual
     Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages
     will still return ‘None’.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 此函式直接基於 *note importlib: 71.。

 -- 函式: inspect.ismodule (object)

     如果物件是模組，則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 函式: inspect.isclass (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a class, whether built-in or created
     in Python code.

 -- 函式: inspect.ismethod (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a bound method written in Python.

 -- 函式: inspect.isfunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a Python function, which includes
     functions created by a *note lambda: 24b9. expression.

 -- 函式: inspect.isgeneratorfunction (object)

     如果物件是 Python 產生器函式，則回傳 ‘True’。

     在 3.8 版的變更: Functions wrapped in *note functools.partial():
     d4e. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function is a Python
     generator function.

 -- 函式: inspect.isgenerator (object)

     如果物件是產生器，則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 函式: inspect.iscoroutinefunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a *note coroutine function: bec. (a
     function defined with an *note async def: 3c3. syntax), a *note
     functools.partial(): d4e. wrapping a *note coroutine function: bec,
     or a sync function marked with *note markcoroutinefunction(): 1ad.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Functions wrapped in *note functools.partial():
     d4e. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function is a *note coroutine
     function: bec.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Sync functions marked with *note
     markcoroutinefunction(): 1ad. now return ‘True’.

 -- 函式: inspect.markcoroutinefunction (func)

     Decorator to mark a callable as a *note coroutine function: bec. if
     it would not otherwise be detected by *note iscoroutinefunction():
     1af.

     This may be of use for sync functions that return a *note
     coroutine: 1ae, if the function is passed to an API that requires
     *note iscoroutinefunction(): 1af.

     When possible, using an *note async def: 3c3. function is
     preferred.  Also acceptable is calling the function and testing the
     return with *note iscoroutine(): c90.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.iscoroutine (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a *note coroutine: 1ae. created by
     an *note async def: 3c3. function.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.isawaitable (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object can be used in *note await: 542.
     expression.

     Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from
     regular generators:

          import types

          def gen():
              yield
          @types.coroutine
          def gen_coro():
              yield

          assert not isawaitable(gen())
          assert isawaitable(gen_coro())

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.isasyncgenfunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is an *note asynchronous generator:
     1dcb. function, for example:

          >>> async def agen():
          ...     yield 1
          ...
          >>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
          True

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Functions wrapped in *note functools.partial():
     d4e. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function is an *note
     asynchronous generator: 1dcb. function.

 -- 函式: inspect.isasyncgen (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is an *note asynchronous generator
     iterator: 4094. created by an *note asynchronous generator: 1dcb.
     function.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.istraceback (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a traceback.

 -- 函式: inspect.isframe (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a frame.

 -- 函式: inspect.iscode (object)

     如果物件是程式碼，則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 函式: inspect.isbuiltin (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a built-in function or a bound
     built-in method.

 -- 函式: inspect.ismethodwrapper (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the type of object is a *note MethodWrapperType:
     446.

     These are instances of *note MethodWrapperType: 446, such as *note
     __str__(): 418, *note __eq__(): 94f. and *note __repr__(): 416.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.isroutine (object)

     如果物件是使用者定義或內建的函式或方法，則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 函式: inspect.isabstract (object)

     如果物件是抽象基底類別，則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 函式: inspect.ismethoddescriptor (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a method descriptor, but not if
     *note ismethod(): 4183, *note isclass(): 4182, *note isfunction():
     4184. or *note isbuiltin(): 418a. are true.

     This, for example, is true of ‘int.__add__’.  An object passing
     this test has a *note __get__(): 135e. method but not a *note
     __set__(): 1cfb. method, but beyond that the set of attributes
     varies.  A *note __name__: efc. attribute is usually sensible, and
     *note __doc__: 767. often is.

     Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other
     tests return ‘False’ from the *note ismethoddescriptor(): 418c.
     test, simply because the other tests promise more - you can, e.g.,
     count on having the *note __func__: 118d. attribute (etc) when an
     object passes *note ismethod(): 4183.

 -- 函式: inspect.isdatadescriptor (object)

     如果物件是資料描述器，則回傳 ‘True’。

     Data descriptors have a *note __set__: 1cfb. or a *note __delete__:
     1cfc. method.  Examples are properties (defined in Python),
     getsets, and members.  The latter two are defined in C and there
     are more specific tests available for those types, which is robust
     across Python implementations.  Typically, data descriptors will
     also have *note __name__: efc. and ‘__doc__’ attributes
     (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes),
     but this is not guaranteed.

 -- 函式: inspect.isgetsetdescriptor (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a getset descriptor.

     'CPython 實作細節：' getsets are attributes defined in extension
     modules via *note PyGetSetDef: a19. structures.  For Python
     implementations without such types, this method will always return
     ‘False’.

 -- 函式: inspect.ismemberdescriptor (object)

     如果物件是成員描述器，則回傳 ‘True’。

     'CPython 實作細節：' Member descriptors are attributes defined in
     extension modules via *note PyMemberDef: 2d3. structures.  For
     Python implementations without such types, this method will always
     return ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: 取得原始碼,  Next: Introspecting callables with the Signature object,  Prev: Types and members,  Up: inspect --- 檢視活動物件

5.29.14.2 取得原始碼
....................

 -- 函式: inspect.getdoc (object)

     Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with *note
     cleandoc(): 4192.  If the documentation string for an object is not
     provided and the object is a class, a method, a property or a
     descriptor, retrieve the documentation string from the inheritance
     hierarchy.  Return ‘None’ if the documentation string is invalid or
     missing.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Documentation strings are now inherited if not
     overridden.

 -- 函式: inspect.getcomments (object)

     Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately
     preceding the object's source code (for a class, function, or
     method), or at the top of the Python source file (if the object is
     a module).  If the object's source code is unavailable, return
     ‘None’.  This could happen if the object has been defined in C or
     the interactive shell.

 -- 函式: inspect.getfile (object)

     Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was
     defined.  This will fail with a *note TypeError: 2ba. if the object
     is a built-in module, class, or function.

 -- 函式: inspect.getmodule (object)

     Try to guess which module an object was defined in.  Return ‘None’
     if the module cannot be determined.

 -- 函式: inspect.getsourcefile (object)

     Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was
     defined or ‘None’ if no way can be identified to get the source.
     This will fail with a *note TypeError: 2ba. if the object is a
     built-in module, class, or function.

 -- 函式: inspect.getsourcelines (object)

     Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an
     object.  The argument may be a module, class, method, function,
     traceback, frame, or code object.  The source code is returned as a
     list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number
     indicates where in the original source file the first line of code
     was found.  An *note OSError: 644. is raised if the source code
     cannot be retrieved.  A *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised if the
     object is a built-in module, class, or function.

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note OSError: 644. is raised instead of *note
     IOError: ee8, now an alias of the former.

 -- 函式: inspect.getsource (object)

     Return the text of the source code for an object.  The argument may
     be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code
     object.  The source code is returned as a single string.  An *note
     OSError: 644. is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.  A
     *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised if the object is a built-in module,
     class, or function.

     在 3.3 版的變更: *note OSError: 644. is raised instead of *note
     IOError: ee8, now an alias of the former.

 -- 函式: inspect.cleandoc (doc)

     Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up
     with blocks of code.

     All leading whitespace is removed from the first line.  Any leading
     whitespace that can be uniformly removed from the second line
     onwards is removed.  Empty lines at the beginning and end are
     subsequently removed.  Also, all tabs are expanded to spaces.


File: python.info,  Node: Introspecting callables with the Signature object,  Next: 類別與函式,  Prev: 取得原始碼,  Up: inspect --- 檢視活動物件

5.29.14.3 Introspecting callables with the Signature object
...........................................................

在 3.3 版被加入.

The *note Signature: 54a. object represents the call signature of a
callable object and its return annotation.  To retrieve a ‘Signature’
object, use the ‘signature()’ function.

 -- 函式: inspect.signature (callable, *, follow_wrapped=True,
          globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)

     Return a *note Signature: 54a. object for the given 'callable':

          >>> from inspect import signature
          >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
          ...     pass

          >>> sig = signature(foo)

          >>> str(sig)
          '(a, *, b: int, **kwargs)'

          >>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
          'b: int'

          >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
          <class 'int'>

     Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and
     classes to *note functools.partial(): d4e. objects.

     For objects defined in modules using stringized annotations (‘from
     __future__ import annotations’), *note signature(): 548. will
     attempt to automatically un-stringize the annotations using *note
     get_annotations(): 636.  The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str'
     parameters are passed into *note get_annotations(): 636. when
     resolving the annotations; see the documentation for *note
     get_annotations(): 636. for instructions on how to use these
     parameters.

     Raises *note ValueError: 183. if no signature can be provided, and
     *note TypeError: 2ba. if that type of object is not supported.
     Also, if the annotations are stringized, and 'eval_str' is not
     false, the ‘eval()’ call(s) to un-stringize the annotations in
     *note get_annotations(): 636. could potentially raise any kind of
     exception.

     A slash(/) in the signature of a function denotes that the
     parameters prior to it are positional-only.  For more info, see
     *note the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters: 1f08.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The 'follow_wrapped' parameter was added.  Pass
     ‘False’ to get a signature of 'callable' specifically
     (‘callable.__wrapped__’ will not be used to unwrap decorated
     callables.)

     在 3.10 版的變更: The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str'
     parameters were added.

          備註: Some callables may not be introspectable in certain
          implementations of Python.  For example, in CPython, some
          built-in functions defined in C provide no metadata about
          their arguments.

     'CPython 實作細節：' If the passed object has a ‘__signature__’
     attribute, we may use it to create the signature.  The exact
     semantics are an implementation detail and are subject to
     unannounced changes.  Consult the source code for current
     semantics.

 -- 類別: inspect.Signature (parameters=None, *,
          return_annotation=Signature.empty)

     A ‘Signature’ object represents the call signature of a function
     and its return annotation.  For each parameter accepted by the
     function it stores a *note Parameter: c8e. object in its *note
     parameters: 4196. collection.

     The optional 'parameters' argument is a sequence of *note
     Parameter: c8e. objects, which is validated to check that there are
     no parameters with duplicate names, and that the parameters are in
     the right order, i.e.  positional-only first, then
     positional-or-keyword, and that parameters with defaults follow
     parameters without defaults.

     The optional 'return_annotation' argument can be an arbitrary
     Python object.  It represents the "return" annotation of the
     callable.

     ‘Signature’ objects are 'immutable'.  Use *note
     Signature.replace(): 4197. to make a modified copy.

     在 3.5 版的變更: ‘Signature’ objects are now picklable and *note
     hashable: 409.

      -- 屬性: empty

          A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return
          annotation.

      -- 屬性: parameters

          An ordered mapping of parameters' names to the corresponding
          *note Parameter: c8e. objects.  Parameters appear in strict
          definition order, including keyword-only parameters.

          在 3.7 版的變更: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it
          preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as
          of version 3.7, although in practice this order had always
          been preserved in Python 3.

      -- 屬性: return_annotation

          The "return" annotation for the callable.  If the callable has
          no "return" annotation, this attribute is set to *note
          Signature.empty: 4198.

      -- 方法: bind (*args, **kwargs)

          Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to
          parameters.  Returns *note BoundArguments: eff. if ‘*args’ and
          ‘**kwargs’ match the signature, or raises a *note TypeError:
          2ba.

      -- 方法: bind_partial (*args, **kwargs)

          Works the same way as *note Signature.bind(): 141f, but allows
          the omission of some required arguments (mimics *note
          functools.partial(): d4e. behavior.)  Returns *note
          BoundArguments: eff, or raises a *note TypeError: 2ba. if the
          passed arguments do not match the signature.

      -- 方法: replace (*[, parameters][, return_annotation])

          Create a new *note Signature: 54a. instance based on the
          instance *note replace(): 4197. was invoked on.  It is
          possible to pass different 'parameters' and/or
          'return_annotation' to override the corresponding properties
          of the base signature.  To remove ‘return_annotation’ from the
          copied ‘Signature’, pass in *note Signature.empty: 4198.

               >>> def test(a, b):
               ...     pass
               ...
               >>> sig = signature(test)
               >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno")
               >>> str(new_sig)
               "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'"

      -- 方法: classmethod from_callable (obj, *, follow_wrapped=True,
               globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)

          Return a *note Signature: 54a. (or its subclass) object for a
          given callable 'obj'.

          This method simplifies subclassing of *note Signature: 54a.:

               class MySignature(Signature):
                   pass
               sig = MySignature.from_callable(sum)
               assert isinstance(sig, MySignature)

          Its behavior is otherwise identical to that of *note
          signature(): 548.

          在 3.5 版被加入.

          在 3.10 版的變更: The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str'
          parameters were added.

 -- 類別: inspect.Parameter (name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty,
          annotation=Parameter.empty)

     ‘Parameter’ objects are 'immutable'.  Instead of modifying a
     ‘Parameter’ object, you can use *note Parameter.replace(): 419b. to
     create a modified copy.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Parameter objects are now picklable and *note
     hashable: 409.

      -- 屬性: empty

          A special class-level marker to specify absence of default
          values and annotations.

      -- 屬性: name

          The name of the parameter as a string.  The name must be a
          valid Python identifier.

          'CPython 實作細節：' CPython generates implicit parameter
          names of the form ‘.0’ on the code objects used to implement
          comprehensions and generator expressions.

          在 3.6 版的變更: These parameter names are now exposed by this
          module as names like ‘implicit0’.

      -- 屬性: default

          The default value for the parameter.  If the parameter has no
          default value, this attribute is set to *note Parameter.empty:
          419c.

      -- 屬性: annotation

          The annotation for the parameter.  If the parameter has no
          annotation, this attribute is set to *note Parameter.empty:
          419c.

      -- 屬性: kind

          Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter.  The
          possible values are accessible via *note Parameter: c8e. (like
          ‘Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY’), and support comparison and
          ordering, in the following order:

          名稱                         意義
                                       
          --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
          'POSITIONAL_ONLY'            Value must be supplied as a positional argument.
                                       Positional only parameters are those which
                                       appear before a ‘/’ entry (if present) in a
                                       Python function definition.
                                       
                                       
          'POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD'      Value may be supplied as either a keyword or
                                       positional argument (this is the standard
                                       binding behaviour for functions implemented in
                                       Python.)
                                       
                                       
          'VAR_POSITIONAL'             A tuple of positional arguments that aren't
                                       bound to any other parameter.  This corresponds
                                       to a ‘*args’ parameter in a Python function
                                       definition.
                                       
                                       
          'KEYWORD_ONLY'               Value must be supplied as a keyword argument.
                                       Keyword only parameters are those which appear
                                       after a ‘*’ or ‘*args’ entry in a Python
                                       function definition.
                                       
                                       
          'VAR_KEYWORD'                A dict of keyword arguments that aren't bound to
                                       any other parameter.  This corresponds to a
                                       ‘**kwargs’ parameter in a Python function
                                       definition.
                                       

          Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default
          values:

               >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
               ...     pass

               >>> sig = signature(foo)
               >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
               ...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
               ...                        param.default is param.empty):
               ...         print('Parameter:', param)
               Parameter: c

      -- 屬性: kind.description

          Describes an enum value of *note Parameter.kind: 41a0.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

          範例：列印所有引數的描述：

               >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
               ...     pass

               >>> sig = signature(foo)
               >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
               ...     print(param.kind.description)
               positional or keyword
               positional or keyword
               keyword-only
               keyword-only

      -- 方法: replace (*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])

          Create a new *note Parameter: c8e. instance based on the
          instance replaced was invoked on.  To override a ‘Parameter’
          attribute, pass the corresponding argument.  To remove a
          default value or/and an annotation from a ‘Parameter’, pass
          *note Parameter.empty: 419c.

               >>> from inspect import Parameter
               >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
               >>> str(param)
               'foo=42'

               >>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param'
               'foo=42'

               >>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
               "foo: 'spam'"

     在 3.4 版的變更: In Python 3.3 *note Parameter: c8e. objects were
     allowed to have ‘name’ set to ‘None’ if their ‘kind’ was set to
     ‘POSITIONAL_ONLY’.  This is no longer permitted.

 -- 類別: inspect.BoundArguments

     Result of a *note Signature.bind(): 141f. or *note
     Signature.bind_partial(): 419a. call.  Holds the mapping of
     arguments to the function's parameters.

      -- 屬性: arguments

          A mutable mapping of parameters' names to arguments' values.
          Contains only explicitly bound arguments.  Changes in *note
          arguments: 747. will reflect in *note args: 41a2. and *note
          kwargs: 41a3.

          Should be used in conjunction with *note Signature.parameters:
          4196. for any argument processing purposes.

               備註: Arguments for which *note Signature.bind(): 141f.
               or *note Signature.bind_partial(): 419a. relied on a
               default value are skipped.  However, if needed, use *note
               BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): c8f. to add them.

          在 3.9 版的變更: *note arguments: 747. is now of type *note
          dict: 239.  Formerly, it was of type *note
          collections.OrderedDict: 3ce.

      -- 屬性: args

          A tuple of positional arguments values.  Dynamically computed
          from the *note arguments: 747. attribute.

      -- 屬性: kwargs

          A dict of keyword arguments values.  Dynamically computed from
          the *note arguments: 747. attribute.  Arguments that can be
          passed positionally are included in *note args: 41a2. instead.

      -- 屬性: signature

          A reference to the parent *note Signature: 54a. object.

      -- 方法: apply_defaults ()

          為遺漏的引數設定預設值。

          For variable-positional arguments (‘*args’) the default is an
          empty tuple.

          For variable-keyword arguments (‘**kwargs’) the default is an
          empty dict.

               >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
               >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
               >>> ba.apply_defaults()
               >>> ba.arguments
               {'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()}

          在 3.5 版被加入.

     The *note args: 41a2. and *note kwargs: 41a3. properties can be
     used to invoke functions:

          def test(a, *, b):
              ...

          sig = signature(test)
          ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
          test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)

也參考
......

PEP 362(1) - Function Signature Object.

     The detailed specification, implementation details and examples.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/


File: python.info,  Node: 類別與函式,  Next: 直譯器堆疊,  Prev: Introspecting callables with the Signature object,  Up: inspect --- 檢視活動物件

5.29.14.4 類別與函式
....................

 -- 函式: inspect.getclasstree (classes, unique=False)

     Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists.
     Where a nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the
     class whose entry immediately precedes the list.  Each entry is a
     2-tuple containing a class and a tuple of its base classes.  If the
     'unique' argument is true, exactly one entry appears in the
     returned structure for each class in the given list.  Otherwise,
     classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will
     appear multiple times.

 -- 函式: inspect.getfullargspec (func)

     Get the names and default values of a Python function's parameters.
     A *note named tuple: 449. is returned:

     ‘FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs,
     kwonlydefaults, annotations)’

     'args' is a list of the positional parameter names.  'varargs' is
     the name of the ‘*’ parameter or ‘None’ if arbitrary positional
     arguments are not accepted.  'varkw' is the name of the ‘**’
     parameter or ‘None’ if arbitrary keyword arguments are not
     accepted.  'defaults' is an 'n'-tuple of default argument values
     corresponding to the last 'n' positional parameters, or ‘None’ if
     there are no such defaults defined.  'kwonlyargs' is a list of
     keyword-only parameter names in declaration order.
     'kwonlydefaults' is a dictionary mapping parameter names from
     'kwonlyargs' to the default values used if no argument is supplied.
     'annotations' is a dictionary mapping parameter names to
     annotations.  The special key ‘"return"’ is used to report the
     function return value annotation (if any).

     Note that *note signature(): 548. and *note Signature Object: 4194.
     provide the recommended API for callable introspection, and support
     additional behaviours (like positional-only arguments) that are
     sometimes encountered in extension module APIs.  This function is
     retained primarily for use in code that needs to maintain
     compatibility with the Python 2 ‘inspect’ module API.

     在 3.4 版的變更: This function is now based on *note signature():
     548, but still ignores ‘__wrapped__’ attributes and includes the
     already bound first parameter in the signature output for bound
     methods.

     在 3.6 版的變更: This method was previously documented as
     deprecated in favour of *note signature(): 548. in Python 3.5, but
     that decision has been reversed in order to restore a clearly
     supported standard interface for single-source Python 2/3 code
     migrating away from the legacy ‘getargspec()’ API.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it
     preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as of
     version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been
     preserved in Python 3.

 -- 函式: inspect.getargvalues (frame)

     Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame.  A
     *note named tuple: 449. ‘ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)’
     is returned.  'args' is a list of the argument names.  'varargs'
     and 'keywords' are the names of the ‘*’ and ‘**’ arguments or
     ‘None’.  'locals' is the locals dictionary of the given frame.

          備註: This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in
          Python 3.5.

 -- 函式: inspect.formatargvalues (args[, varargs, varkw, locals,
          formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])

     Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by
     *note getargvalues(): d3f.  The format* arguments are the
     corresponding optional formatting functions that are called to turn
     names and values into strings.

          備註: This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in
          Python 3.5.

 -- 函式: inspect.getmro (cls)

     Return a tuple of class cls's base classes, including cls, in
     method resolution order.  No class appears more than once in this
     tuple.  Note that the method resolution order depends on cls's
     type.  Unless a very peculiar user-defined metatype is in use, cls
     will be the first element of the tuple.

 -- 函式: inspect.getcallargs (func, /, *args, **kwds)

     Bind the 'args' and 'kwds' to the argument names of the Python
     function or method 'func', as if it was called with them.  For
     bound methods, bind also the first argument (typically named
     ‘self’) to the associated instance.  A dict is returned, mapping
     the argument names (including the names of the ‘*’ and ‘**’
     arguments, if any) to their values from 'args' and 'kwds'.  In case
     of invoking 'func' incorrectly, i.e.  whenever ‘func(*args,
     **kwds)’ would raise an exception because of incompatible
     signature, an exception of the same type and the same or similar
     message is raised.  For example:

          >>> from inspect import getcallargs
          >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
          True
          >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
          True
          >>> getcallargs(f)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版之後被棄用: 請改用 *note Signature.bind(): 141f. 與 *note
     Signature.bind_partial(): 419a.。

 -- 函式: inspect.getclosurevars (func)

     Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or
     method 'func' to their current values.  A *note named tuple: 449.
     ‘ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)’ is returned.
     'nonlocals' maps referenced names to lexical closure variables,
     'globals' to the function's module globals and 'builtins' to the
     builtins visible from the function body.  'unbound' is the set of
     names referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all
     given the current module globals and builtins.

     如果 'func' 不是 Python 函式或方法，則引發 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.unwrap (func, *, stop=None)

     Get the object wrapped by 'func'.  It follows the chain of
     ‘__wrapped__’ attributes returning the last object in the chain.

     'stop' is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper
     chain as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be
     terminated early if the callback returns a true value.  If the
     callback never returns a true value, the last object in the chain
     is returned as usual.  For example, *note signature(): 548. uses
     this to stop unwrapping if any object in the chain has a
     ‘__signature__’ attribute defined.

     如果遇到循環，則引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.get_annotations (obj, *, globals=None, locals=None,
          eval_str=False)

     Compute the annotations dict for an object.

     ‘obj’ may be a callable, class, or module.  Passing in an object of
     any other type raises *note TypeError: 2ba.

     Returns a dict.  ‘get_annotations()’ returns a new dict every time
     it's called; calling it twice on the same object will return two
     different but equivalent dicts.

     This function handles several details for you:

        * If ‘eval_str’ is true, values of type ‘str’ will be
          un-stringized using *note eval(): 6b0.  This is intended for
          use with stringized annotations (‘from __future__ import
          annotations’).

        * If ‘obj’ doesn't have an annotations dict, returns an empty
          dict.  (Functions and methods always have an annotations dict;
          classes, modules, and other types of callables may not.)

        * Ignores inherited annotations on classes.  If a class doesn't
          have its own annotations dict, returns an empty dict.

        * All accesses to object members and dict values are done using
          ‘getattr()’ and ‘dict.get()’ for safety.

        * Always, always, always returns a freshly created dict.

     ‘eval_str’ controls whether or not values of type ‘str’ are
     replaced with the result of calling *note eval(): 6b0. on those
     values:

        * If eval_str is true, *note eval(): 6b0. is called on values of
          type ‘str’.  (Note that ‘get_annotations’ doesn't catch
          exceptions; if *note eval(): 6b0. raises an exception, it will
          unwind the stack past the ‘get_annotations’ call.)

        * If eval_str is false (the default), values of type ‘str’ are
          unchanged.

     ‘globals’ and ‘locals’ are passed in to *note eval(): 6b0.; see the
     documentation for *note eval(): 6b0. for more information.  If
     ‘globals’ or ‘locals’ is ‘None’, this function may replace that
     value with a context-specific default, contingent on ‘type(obj)’:

        * If ‘obj’ is a module, ‘globals’ defaults to ‘obj.__dict__’.

        * If ‘obj’ is a class, ‘globals’ defaults to
          ‘sys.modules[obj.__module__].__dict__’ and ‘locals’ defaults
          to the ‘obj’ class namespace.

        * If ‘obj’ is a callable, ‘globals’ defaults to *note
          obj.__globals__: 1164, although if ‘obj’ is a wrapped function
          (using *note functools.update_wrapper(): eb6.) it is first
          unwrapped.

     Calling ‘get_annotations’ is best practice for accessing the
     annotations dict of any object.  See *note 註釋 (annotation)
     最佳實踐: 5fa. for more information on annotations best practices.

     在 3.10 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 直譯器堆疊,  Next: Fetching attributes statically,  Prev: 類別與函式,  Up: inspect --- 檢視活動物件

5.29.14.5 直譯器堆疊
....................

Some of the following functions return *note FrameInfo: 447. objects.
For backwards compatibility these objects allow tuple-like operations on
all attributes except ‘positions’.  This behavior is considered
deprecated and may be removed in the future.

 -- 類別: inspect.FrameInfo

      -- 屬性: frame

          The *note frame object: 4de. that the record corresponds to.

      -- 屬性: filename

          The file name associated with the code being executed by the
          frame this record corresponds to.

      -- 屬性: lineno

          The line number of the current line associated with the code
          being executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

      -- 屬性: function

          The function name that is being executed by the frame this
          record corresponds to.

      -- 屬性: code_context

          A list of lines of context from the source code that's being
          executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

      -- 屬性: index

          The index of the current line being executed in the *note
          code_context: 41af. list.

      -- 屬性: positions

          A *note dis.Positions: 41b2. object containing the start line
          number, end line number, start column offset, and end column
          offset associated with the instruction being executed by the
          frame this record corresponds to.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Return a *note named tuple: 449. instead of a
     *note tuple: 4e6.

     在 3.11 版的變更: ‘FrameInfo’ is now a class instance (that is
     backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple: 449.).

 -- 類別: inspect.Traceback

      -- 屬性: filename

          The file name associated with the code being executed by the
          frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- 屬性: lineno

          The line number of the current line associated with the code
          being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- 屬性: function

          The function name that is being executed by the frame this
          traceback corresponds to.

      -- 屬性: code_context

          A list of lines of context from the source code that's being
          executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- 屬性: index

          The index of the current line being executed in the *note
          code_context: 41b6. list.

      -- 屬性: positions

          A *note dis.Positions: 41b2. object containing the start line
          number, end line number, start column offset, and end column
          offset associated with the instruction being executed by the
          frame this traceback corresponds to.

     在 3.11 版的變更: ‘Traceback’ is now a class instance (that is
     backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple: 449.).

     備註: Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first
     element of the frame records these functions return, can cause your
     program to create reference cycles.  Once a reference cycle has
     been created, the lifespan of all objects which can be accessed
     from the objects which form the cycle can become much longer even
     if Python's optional cycle detector is enabled.  If such cycles
     must be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly
     broken to avoid the delayed destruction of objects and increased
     memory consumption which occurs.

     Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the
     frames (and local variables) can be made deterministic by removing
     the cycle in a *note finally: 80e. clause.  This is also important
     if the cycle detector was disabled when Python was compiled or
     using *note gc.disable(): 4172.  For example:

          def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
              frame = inspect.currentframe()
              try:
                  # do something with the frame
              finally:
                  del frame

     If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a
     traceback later), you can also break reference cycles by using the
     *note frame.clear(): d8f. method.

The optional 'context' argument supported by most of these functions
specifies the number of lines of context to return, which are centered
around the current line.

 -- 函式: inspect.getframeinfo (frame, context=1)

     Get information about a frame or traceback object.  A *note
     Traceback: 448. object is returned.

     在 3.11 版的變更: A *note Traceback: 448. object is returned
     instead of a named tuple.

 -- 函式: inspect.getouterframes (frame, context=1)

     Get a list of *note FrameInfo: 447. objects for a frame and all
     outer frames.  These frames represent the calls that lead to the
     creation of 'frame'.  The first entry in the returned list
     represents 'frame'; the last entry represents the outermost call on
     'frame"s stack.

     在 3.5 版的變更: A list of *note named tuples: 449.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 回傳一個 *note FrameInfo: 447. 物件串列。

 -- 函式: inspect.getinnerframes (traceback, context=1)

     Get a list of *note FrameInfo: 447. objects for a traceback's frame
     and all inner frames.  These frames represent calls made as a
     consequence of 'frame'.  The first entry in the list represents
     'traceback'; the last entry represents where the exception was
     raised.

     在 3.5 版的變更: A list of *note named tuples: 449.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 回傳一個 *note FrameInfo: 447. 物件串列。

 -- 函式: inspect.currentframe ()

     Return the frame object for the caller's stack frame.

     'CPython 實作細節：' This function relies on Python stack frame
     support in the interpreter, which isn't guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.  If running in an implementation without
     Python stack frame support this function returns ‘None’.

 -- 函式: inspect.stack (context=1)

     Return a list of *note FrameInfo: 447. objects for the caller's
     stack.  The first entry in the returned list represents the caller;
     the last entry represents the outermost call on the stack.

     在 3.5 版的變更: A list of *note named tuples: 449.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 回傳一個 *note FrameInfo: 447. 物件串列。

 -- 函式: inspect.trace (context=1)

     Return a list of *note FrameInfo: 447. objects for the stack
     between the current frame and the frame in which an exception
     currently being handled was raised in.  The first entry in the list
     represents the caller; the last entry represents where the
     exception was raised.

     在 3.5 版的變更: A list of *note named tuples: 449.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 回傳一個 *note FrameInfo: 447. 物件串列。


File: python.info,  Node: Fetching attributes statically,  Next: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Prev: 直譯器堆疊,  Up: inspect --- 檢視活動物件

5.29.14.6 Fetching attributes statically
........................................

Both *note getattr(): a32. and *note hasattr(): 1f9. can trigger code
execution when fetching or checking for the existence of attributes.
Descriptors, like properties, will be invoked and *note __getattr__():
1fa. and *note __getattribute__(): a33. may be called.

For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation
tools, this can be inconvenient.  *note getattr_static(): 1b2. has the
same signature as *note getattr(): a32. but avoids executing code when
it fetches attributes.

 -- 函式: inspect.getattr_static (obj, attr, default=None)

     Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol, *note __getattr__(): 1fa. or *note
     __getattribute__(): a33.

     Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes that
     getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes) and may
     find attributes that getattr can't (like descriptors that raise
     AttributeError).  It can also return descriptors objects instead of
     instance members.

     If the instance *note __dict__: 2e2. is shadowed by another member
     (for example a property) then this function will be unable to find
     instance members.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

*note getattr_static(): 1b2. does not resolve descriptors, for example
slot descriptors or getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The
descriptor object is returned instead of the underlying attribute.

You can handle these with code like the following.  Note that for
arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger code execution:

     # example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
     class _foo:
         __slots__ = ['foo']

     slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
     getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
     wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
     descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

     result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
     if type(result) in descriptor_types:
         try:
             result = result.__get__()
         except AttributeError:
             # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
             # indicate there is no underlying value
             # in which case the descriptor itself will
             # have to do
             pass


File: python.info,  Node: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Next: Code Objects Bit Flags,  Prev: Fetching attributes statically,  Up: inspect --- 檢視活動物件

5.29.14.7 Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators
..............................................................................

When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of
generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently
executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already
terminated.  *note getgeneratorstate(): 10c9. allows the current state
of a generator to be determined easily.

 -- 函式: inspect.getgeneratorstate (generator)

     Get current state of a generator-iterator.

     Possible states are:

        * GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

        * GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

        * GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.

        * GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.getcoroutinestate (coroutine)

     Get current state of a coroutine object.  The function is intended
     to be used with coroutine objects created by *note async def: 3c3.
     functions, but will accept any coroutine-like object that has
     ‘cr_running’ and ‘cr_frame’ attributes.

     Possible states are:

        * CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

        * CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

        * CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression.

        * CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.getasyncgenstate (agen)

     Get current state of an asynchronous generator object.  The
     function is intended to be used with asynchronous iterator objects
     created by *note async def: 3c3. functions which use the *note
     yield: 811. statement, but will accept any asynchronous
     generator-like object that has ‘ag_running’ and ‘ag_frame’
     attributes.

     Possible states are:

        * AGEN_CREATED: 等待開始執行。

        * AGEN_RUNNING: 目前正在被直譯器執行。

        * AGEN_SUSPENDED: 目前於 yield 運算式暫停。

        * AGEN_CLOSED: 執行已完成。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

The current internal state of the generator can also be queried.  This
is mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is
being updated as expected:

 -- 函式: inspect.getgeneratorlocals (generator)

     Get the mapping of live local variables in 'generator' to their
     current values.  A dictionary is returned that maps from variable
     names to values.  This is the equivalent of calling *note locals():
     173. in the body of the generator, and all the same caveats apply.

     If 'generator' is a *note generator: ef7. with no currently
     associated frame, then an empty dictionary is returned.  *note
     TypeError: 2ba. is raised if 'generator' is not a Python generator
     object.

     'CPython 實作細節：' This function relies on the generator exposing
     a Python stack frame for introspection, which isn't guaranteed to
     be the case in all implementations of Python.  In such cases, this
     function will always return an empty dictionary.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.getcoroutinelocals (coroutine)

     This function is analogous to *note getgeneratorlocals(): f65, but
     works for coroutine objects created by *note async def: 3c3.
     functions.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: inspect.getasyncgenlocals (agen)

     This function is analogous to *note getgeneratorlocals(): f65, but
     works for asynchronous generator objects created by *note async
     def: 3c3. functions which use the *note yield: 811. statement.

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Code Objects Bit Flags,  Next: Buffer flags,  Prev: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Up: inspect --- 檢視活動物件

5.29.14.8 Code Objects Bit Flags
................................

Python code objects have a *note co_flags: 1cd6. attribute, which is a
bitmap of the following flags:

 -- 資料: inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED

     The code object is optimized, using fast locals.

 -- 資料: inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS

     If set, a new dict will be created for the frame's *note f_locals:
     5a5. when the code object is executed.

 -- 資料: inspect.CO_VARARGS

     The code object has a variable positional parameter (‘*args’-like).

 -- 資料: inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS

     The code object has a variable keyword parameter (‘**kwargs’-like).

 -- 資料: inspect.CO_NESTED

     The flag is set when the code object is a nested function.

 -- 資料: inspect.CO_GENERATOR

     The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e.
     a generator object is returned when the code object is executed.

 -- 資料: inspect.CO_COROUTINE

     The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function.  When
     the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object.  See PEP
     492(1) for more details.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 資料: inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE

     The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based
     coroutines.  Generator objects with this flag can be used in
     ‘await’ expression, and can ‘yield from’ coroutine objects.  See
     PEP 492(2) for more details.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 資料: inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR

     The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator
     function.  When the code object is executed it returns an
     asynchronous generator object.  See PEP 525(3) for more details.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     備註: The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in
     other Python implementations.  Furthermore, the flags are an
     implementation detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future
     Python releases.  It's recommended to use public APIs from the
     *note inspect: 78. module for any introspection needs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer flags,  Next: 命令列介面<6>,  Prev: Code Objects Bit Flags,  Up: inspect --- 檢視活動物件

5.29.14.9 Buffer flags
......................

 -- 類別: inspect.BufferFlags

     This is an *note enum.IntFlag: 2093. that represents the flags that
     can be passed to the *note __buffer__(): 16f. method of objects
     implementing the *note buffer protocol: 148.

     The meaning of the flags is explained at *note Buffer request
     types: 41c6.

      -- 屬性: SIMPLE

      -- 屬性: WRITABLE

      -- 屬性: FORMAT

      -- 屬性: ND

      -- 屬性: STRIDES

      -- 屬性: C_CONTIGUOUS

      -- 屬性: F_CONTIGUOUS

      -- 屬性: ANY_CONTIGUOUS

      -- 屬性: INDIRECT

      -- 屬性: CONTIG

      -- 屬性: CONTIG_RO

      -- 屬性: STRIDED

      -- 屬性: STRIDED_RO

      -- 屬性: RECORDS

      -- 屬性: RECORDS_RO

      -- 屬性: FULL

      -- 屬性: FULL_RO

      -- 屬性: READ

      -- 屬性: WRITE

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列介面<6>,  Prev: Buffer flags,  Up: inspect --- 檢視活動物件

5.29.14.10 命令列介面
.....................

The *note inspect: 78. module also provides a basic introspection
capability from the command line.

By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that
module.  A class or function within the module can be printed instead by
appended a colon and the qualified name of the target object.

 -- Option: --details

     Print information about the specified object rather than the source
     code


File: python.info,  Node: site --- Site-specific configuration hook,  Prev: inspect --- 檢視活動物件,  Up: Python Runtime 服務

5.29.15 ‘site’ -- Site-specific configuration hook
--------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/site.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

'This module is automatically imported during initialization.'  The
automatic import can be suppressed using the interpreter's *note -S:
103a. option.

Importing this module normally appends site-specific paths to the module
search path and adds *note callables: 1f1d, including *note help(): 710.
to the built-in namespace.  However, Python startup option *note -S:
103a. blocks this and this module can be safely imported with no
automatic modifications to the module search path or additions to the
builtins.  To explicitly trigger the usual site-specific additions, call
the *note main(): 1b2b. function.

在 3.3 版的變更: Importing the module used to trigger paths manipulation
even when using *note -S: 103a.

It starts by constructing up to four directories from a head and a tail
part.  For the head part, it uses ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’;
empty heads are skipped.  For the tail part, it uses the empty string
and then ‘lib/site-packages’ (on Windows) or
‘lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ (on Unix and macOS). For each of the
distinct head-tail combinations, it sees if it refers to an existing
directory, and if so, adds it to ‘sys.path’ and also inspects the newly
added path for configuration files.

在 3.5 版的變更: Support for the "site-python" directory has been
removed.

If a file named "pyvenv.cfg" exists one directory above sys.executable,
sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix are set to that directory and it is also
checked for site-packages (sys.base_prefix and sys.base_exec_prefix will
always be the "real" prefixes of the Python installation).  If
"pyvenv.cfg" (a bootstrap configuration file) contains the key
"include-system-site-packages" set to anything other than "true"
(case-insensitive), the system-level prefixes will not be searched for
site-packages; otherwise they will.

A path configuration file is a file whose name has the form ‘`name'.pth’
and exists in one of the four directories mentioned above; its contents
are additional items (one per line) to be added to ‘sys.path’.
Non-existing items are never added to ‘sys.path’, and no check is made
that the item refers to a directory rather than a file.  No item is
added to ‘sys.path’ more than once.  Blank lines and lines beginning
with ‘#’ are skipped.  Lines starting with ‘import’ (followed by space
or tab) are executed.

     備註: An executable line in a ‘.pth’ file is run at every Python
     startup, regardless of whether a particular module is actually
     going to be used.  Its impact should thus be kept to a minimum.
     The primary intended purpose of executable lines is to make the
     corresponding module(s) importable (load 3rd-party import hooks,
     adjust ‘PATH’ etc).  Any other initialization is supposed to be
     done upon a module's actual import, if and when it happens.
     Limiting a code chunk to a single line is a deliberate measure to
     discourage putting anything more complex here.

For example, suppose ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’ are set to
‘/usr/local’.  The Python X.Y library is then installed in
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’.  Suppose this has a subdirectory
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ with three subsubdirectories,
‘foo’, ‘bar’ and ‘spam’, and two path configuration files, ‘foo.pth’ and
‘bar.pth’.  Assume ‘foo.pth’ contains the following:

     # foo package configuration

     foo
     bar
     bletch

and ‘bar.pth’ contains:

     # bar package configuration

     bar

Then the following version-specific directories are added to ‘sys.path’,
in this order:

     /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/bar
     /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/foo

Note that ‘bletch’ is omitted because it doesn't exist; the ‘bar’
directory precedes the ‘foo’ directory because ‘bar.pth’ comes
alphabetically before ‘foo.pth’; and ‘spam’ is omitted because it is not
mentioned in either path configuration file.

* Menu:

* sitecustomize::
* usercustomize::
* Readline configuration::
* 模組內容: 模組內容<10>.
* 命令列介面: 命令列介面<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/site.py


File: python.info,  Node: sitecustomize,  Next: usercustomize,  Up: site --- Site-specific configuration hook

5.29.15.1 ‘sitecustomize’
.........................

After these path manipulations, an attempt is made to import a module
named *note sitecustomize: c3, which can perform arbitrary site-specific
customizations.  It is typically created by a system administrator in
the site-packages directory.  If this import fails with an *note
ImportError: 145. or its subclass exception, and the exception's *note
name: 2020. attribute equals to ‘'sitecustomize'’, it is silently
ignored.  If Python is started without output streams available, as with
‘pythonw.exe’ on Windows (which is used by default to start IDLE),
attempted output from *note sitecustomize: c3. is ignored.  Any other
exception causes a silent and perhaps mysterious failure of the process.


File: python.info,  Node: usercustomize,  Next: Readline configuration,  Prev: sitecustomize,  Up: site --- Site-specific configuration hook

5.29.15.2 ‘usercustomize’
.........................

After this, an attempt is made to import a module named *note
usercustomize: 109, which can perform arbitrary user-specific
customizations, if *note ENABLE_USER_SITE: 41e0. is true.  This file is
intended to be created in the user site-packages directory (see below),
which is part of ‘sys.path’ unless disabled by *note -s: 121a.  If this
import fails with an *note ImportError: 145. or its subclass exception,
and the exception's *note name: 2020. attribute equals to
‘'usercustomize'’, it is silently ignored.

Note that for some non-Unix systems, ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’
are empty, and the path manipulations are skipped; however the import of
*note sitecustomize: c3. and *note usercustomize: 109. is still
attempted.


File: python.info,  Node: Readline configuration,  Next: 模組內容<10>,  Prev: usercustomize,  Up: site --- Site-specific configuration hook

5.29.15.3 Readline configuration
................................

On systems that support *note readline: b5, this module will also import
and configure the *note rlcompleter: b8. module, if Python is started in
*note interactive mode: e58. and without the *note -S: 103a. option.
The default behavior is enable tab-completion and to use
‘~/.python_history’ as the history save file.  To disable it, delete (or
override) the *note sys.__interactivehook__: e59. attribute in your
*note sitecustomize: c3. or *note usercustomize: 109. module or your
*note PYTHONSTARTUP: e5a. file.

在 3.4 版的變更: Activation of rlcompleter and history was made
automatic.


File: python.info,  Node: 模組內容<10>,  Next: 命令列介面<7>,  Prev: Readline configuration,  Up: site --- Site-specific configuration hook

5.29.15.4 模組內容
..................

 -- 資料: site.PREFIXES

     A list of prefixes for site-packages directories.

 -- 資料: site.ENABLE_USER_SITE

     Flag showing the status of the user site-packages directory.
     ‘True’ means that it is enabled and was added to ‘sys.path’.
     ‘False’ means that it was disabled by user request (with *note -s:
     121a. or *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 121b.).  ‘None’ means it was
     disabled for security reasons (mismatch between user or group id
     and effective id) or by an administrator.

 -- 資料: site.USER_SITE

     Path to the user site-packages for the running Python.  Can be
     ‘None’ if *note getusersitepackages(): 10d3. hasn't been called
     yet.  Default value is ‘~/.local/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ for
     UNIX and non-framework macOS builds,
     ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'/lib/python/site-packages’ for macOS
     framework builds, and ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python\Python`XY'\site-packages’
     on Windows.  This directory is a site directory, which means that
     ‘.pth’ files in it will be processed.

 -- 資料: site.USER_BASE

     Path to the base directory for the user site-packages.  Can be
     ‘None’ if *note getuserbase(): 10d2. hasn't been called yet.
     Default value is ‘~/.local’ for UNIX and macOS non-framework
     builds, ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'’ for macOS framework builds, and
     ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python’ for Windows.  This value is used to compute
     the installation directories for scripts, data files, Python
     modules, etc.  for the *note user installation scheme: 1b39.  See
     also *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1219.

 -- 函式: site.main ()

     Adds all the standard site-specific directories to the module
     search path.  This function is called automatically when this
     module is imported, unless the Python interpreter was started with
     the *note -S: 103a. flag.

     在 3.3 版的變更: This function used to be called unconditionally.

 -- 函式: site.addsitedir (sitedir, known_paths=None)

     Add a directory to sys.path and process its ‘.pth’ files.
     Typically used in *note sitecustomize: c3. or *note usercustomize:
     109. (see above).

 -- 函式: site.getsitepackages ()

     Return a list containing all global site-packages directories.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: site.getuserbase ()

     Return the path of the user base directory, *note USER_BASE: 11b0.
     If it is not initialized yet, this function will also set it,
     respecting *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1219.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 函式: site.getusersitepackages ()

     Return the path of the user-specific site-packages directory, *note
     USER_SITE: 1b2a.  If it is not initialized yet, this function will
     also set it, respecting *note USER_BASE: 11b0.  To determine if the
     user-specific site-packages was added to ‘sys.path’ *note
     ENABLE_USER_SITE: 41e0. should be used.

     在 3.2 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列介面<7>,  Prev: 模組內容<10>,  Up: site --- Site-specific configuration hook

5.29.15.5 命令列介面
....................

The *note site: c2. module also provides a way to get the user
directories from the command line:

     $ python -m site --user-site
     /home/user/.local/lib/python3.11/site-packages

If it is called without arguments, it will print the contents of *note
sys.path: 35e. on the standard output, followed by the value of *note
USER_BASE: 11b0. and whether the directory exists, then the same thing
for *note USER_SITE: 1b2a, and finally the value of *note
ENABLE_USER_SITE: 41e0.

 -- Option: --user-base

     Print the path to the user base directory.

 -- Option: --user-site

     Print the path to the user site-packages directory.

If both options are given, user base and user site will be printed
(always in this order), separated by *note os.pathsep: 1b36.

If any option is given, the script will exit with one of these values:
‘0’ if the user site-packages directory is enabled, ‘1’ if it was
disabled by the user, ‘2’ if it is disabled for security reasons or by
an administrator, and a value greater than 2 if there is an error.

也參考
......

   * PEP 370(1) - Per user site-packages directory

   * *note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1a55.
     - The initialization of *note sys.path: 35e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: 自訂 Python 直譯器,  Next: 引入模組,  Prev: Python Runtime 服務,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.30 自訂 Python 直譯器
=======================

The modules described in this chapter allow writing interfaces similar
to Python's interactive interpreter.  If you want a Python interpreter
that supports some special feature in addition to the Python language,
you should look at the *note code: 18. module.  (The *note codeop: 1a.
module is lower-level, used to support compiling a possibly incomplete
chunk of Python code.)

本章節所描述的模組清單為：

* Menu:

* code: code --- 直譯器基底類別. 直譯器基底類別
* codeop: codeop --- 編譯 Python 程式碼. 編譯 Python 程式碼


File: python.info,  Node: code --- 直譯器基底類別,  Next: codeop --- 編譯 Python 程式碼,  Up: 自訂 Python 直譯器

5.30.1 ‘code’ -- 直譯器基底類別
-------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/code.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘code’ module provides facilities to implement read-eval-print loops
in Python.  Two classes and convenience functions are included which can
be used to build applications which provide an interactive interpreter
prompt.

 -- 類別: code.InteractiveInterpreter (locals=None)

     This class deals with parsing and interpreter state (the user's
     namespace); it does not deal with input buffering or prompting or
     input file naming (the filename is always passed in explicitly).
     The optional 'locals' argument specifies the dictionary in which
     code will be executed; it defaults to a newly created dictionary
     with key ‘'__name__'’ set to ‘'__console__'’ and key ‘'__doc__'’
     set to ‘None’.

 -- 類別: code.InteractiveConsole (locals=None, filename='<console>')

     Closely emulate the behavior of the interactive Python interpreter.
     This class builds on *note InteractiveInterpreter: 13f5. and adds
     prompting using the familiar ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’, and input
     buffering.

 -- 函式: code.interact (banner=None, readfunc=None, local=None,
          exitmsg=None)

     Convenience function to run a read-eval-print loop.  This creates a
     new instance of *note InteractiveConsole: 2131. and sets 'readfunc'
     to be used as the *note InteractiveConsole.raw_input(): 41ef.
     method, if provided.  If 'local' is provided, it is passed to the
     *note InteractiveConsole: 2131. constructor for use as the default
     namespace for the interpreter loop.  The *note interact(): 41f0.
     method of the instance is then run with 'banner' and 'exitmsg'
     passed as the banner and exit message to use, if provided.  The
     console object is discarded after use.

     在 3.6 版的變更: 新增 'exitmsg' 參數。

 -- 函式: code.compile_command (source, filename='<input>',
          symbol='single')

     This function is useful for programs that want to emulate Python's
     interpreter main loop (a.k.a.  the read-eval-print loop).  The
     tricky part is to determine when the user has entered an incomplete
     command that can be completed by entering more text (as opposed to
     a complete command or a syntax error).  This function 'almost'
     always makes the same decision as the real interpreter main loop.

     'source' is the source string; 'filename' is the optional filename
     from which source was read, defaulting to ‘'<input>'’; and 'symbol'
     is the optional grammar start symbol, which should be ‘'single'’
     (the default), ‘'eval'’ or ‘'exec'’.

     Returns a code object (the same as ‘compile(source, filename,
     symbol)’) if the command is complete and valid; ‘None’ if the
     command is incomplete; raises *note SyntaxError: 146. if the
     command is complete and contains a syntax error, or raises *note
     OverflowError: 6ad. or *note ValueError: 183. if the command
     contains an invalid literal.

* Menu:

* Interactive Interpreter Objects::
* Interactive Console Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/code.py


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Interpreter Objects,  Next: Interactive Console Objects,  Up: code --- 直譯器基底類別

5.30.1.1 Interactive Interpreter Objects
........................................

 -- 方法: InteractiveInterpreter.runsource (source, filename='<input>',
          symbol='single')

     Compile and run some source in the interpreter.  Arguments are the
     same as for *note compile_command(): 41f1.; the default for
     'filename' is ‘'<input>'’, and for 'symbol' is ‘'single'’.  One of
     several things can happen:

        * The input is incorrect; *note compile_command(): 41f1. raised
          an exception (*note SyntaxError: 146. or *note OverflowError:
          6ad.).  A syntax traceback will be printed by calling the
          *note showsyntaxerror(): 41f5. method.  *note runsource():
          41f4. returns ‘False’.

        * The input is incomplete, and more input is required; *note
          compile_command(): 41f1. returned ‘None’.  *note runsource():
          41f4. returns ‘True’.

        * The input is complete; *note compile_command(): 41f1. returned
          a code object.  The code is executed by calling the *note
          runcode(): 41f6. (which also handles run-time exceptions,
          except for *note SystemExit: bb2.).  *note runsource(): 41f4.
          returns ‘False’.

     The return value can be used to decide whether to use ‘sys.ps1’ or
     ‘sys.ps2’ to prompt the next line.

 -- 方法: InteractiveInterpreter.runcode (code)

     Execute a code object.  When an exception occurs, *note
     showtraceback(): c47. is called to display a traceback.  All
     exceptions are caught except *note SystemExit: bb2, which is
     allowed to propagate.

     A note about *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815.: this exception may
     occur elsewhere in this code, and may not always be caught.  The
     caller should be prepared to deal with it.

 -- 方法: InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror (filename=None)

     Display the syntax error that just occurred.  This does not display
     a stack trace because there isn't one for syntax errors.  If
     'filename' is given, it is stuffed into the exception instead of
     the default filename provided by Python's parser, because it always
     uses ‘'<string>'’ when reading from a string.  The output is
     written by the *note write(): 41f7. method.

 -- 方法: InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback ()

     Display the exception that just occurred.  We remove the first
     stack item because it is within the interpreter object
     implementation.  The output is written by the *note write(): 41f7.
     method.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The full chained traceback is displayed instead of
     just the primary traceback.

 -- 方法: InteractiveInterpreter.write (data)

     Write a string to the standard error stream (‘sys.stderr’).
     Derived classes should override this to provide the appropriate
     output handling as needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Console Objects,  Prev: Interactive Interpreter Objects,  Up: code --- 直譯器基底類別

5.30.1.2 Interactive Console Objects
....................................

The *note InteractiveConsole: 2131. class is a subclass of *note
InteractiveInterpreter: 13f5, and so offers all the methods of the
interpreter objects as well as the following additions.

 -- 方法: InteractiveConsole.interact (banner=None, exitmsg=None)

     Closely emulate the interactive Python console.  The optional
     'banner' argument specify the banner to print before the first
     interaction; by default it prints a banner similar to the one
     printed by the standard Python interpreter, followed by the class
     name of the console object in parentheses (so as not to confuse
     this with the real interpreter - since it's so close!).

     The optional 'exitmsg' argument specifies an exit message printed
     when exiting.  Pass the empty string to suppress the exit message.
     If 'exitmsg' is not given or ‘None’, a default message is printed.

     在 3.4 版的變更: To suppress printing any banner, pass an empty
     string.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Print an exit message when exiting.

 -- 方法: InteractiveConsole.push (line)

     Push a line of source text to the interpreter.  The line should not
     have a trailing newline; it may have internal newlines.  The line
     is appended to a buffer and the interpreter's *note runsource():
     41f4. method is called with the concatenated contents of the buffer
     as source.  If this indicates that the command was executed or
     invalid, the buffer is reset; otherwise, the command is incomplete,
     and the buffer is left as it was after the line was appended.  The
     return value is ‘True’ if more input is required, ‘False’ if the
     line was dealt with in some way (this is the same as
     ‘runsource()’).

 -- 方法: InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer ()

     Remove any unhandled source text from the input buffer.

 -- 方法: InteractiveConsole.raw_input (prompt='')

     Write a prompt and read a line.  The returned line does not include
     the trailing newline.  When the user enters the EOF key sequence,
     *note EOFError: 116a. is raised.  The base implementation reads
     from ‘sys.stdin’; a subclass may replace this with a different
     implementation.


File: python.info,  Node: codeop --- 編譯 Python 程式碼,  Prev: code --- 直譯器基底類別,  Up: 自訂 Python 直譯器

5.30.2 ‘codeop’ -- 編譯 Python 程式碼
-------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/codeop.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note codeop: 1a. module provides utilities upon which the Python
read-eval-print loop can be emulated, as is done in the *note code: 18.
module.  As a result, you probably don't want to use the module
directly; if you want to include such a loop in your program you
probably want to use the *note code: 18. module instead.

There are two parts to this job:

  1. Being able to tell if a line of input completes a Python statement:
     in short, telling whether to print '‘>>>’' or '‘...’' next.

  2. Remembering which future statements the user has entered, so
     subsequent input can be compiled with these in effect.

The *note codeop: 1a. module provides a way of doing each of these
things, and a way of doing them both.

To do just the former:

 -- 函式: codeop.compile_command (source, filename='<input>',
          symbol='single')

     Tries to compile 'source', which should be a string of Python code
     and return a code object if 'source' is valid Python code.  In that
     case, the filename attribute of the code object will be 'filename',
     which defaults to ‘'<input>'’.  Returns ‘None’ if 'source' is 'not'
     valid Python code, but is a prefix of valid Python code.

     If there is a problem with 'source', an exception will be raised.
     *note SyntaxError: 146. is raised if there is invalid Python
     syntax, and *note OverflowError: 6ad. or *note ValueError: 183. if
     there is an invalid literal.

     The 'symbol' argument determines whether 'source' is compiled as a
     statement (‘'single'’, the default), as a sequence of *note
     statement: 2501. (‘'exec'’) or as an *note expression: 1d18.
     (‘'eval'’).  Any other value will cause *note ValueError: 183. to
     be raised.

          備註: It is possible (but not likely) that the parser stops
          parsing with a successful outcome before reaching the end of
          the source; in this case, trailing symbols may be ignored
          instead of causing an error.  For example, a backslash
          followed by two newlines may be followed by arbitrary garbage.
          This will be fixed once the API for the parser is better.

 -- 類別: codeop.Compile

     Instances of this class have *note __call__(): 2dd. methods
     identical in signature to the built-in function *note compile():
     554, but with the difference that if the instance compiles program
     text containing a *note __future__: 0. statement, the instance
     'remembers' and compiles all subsequent program texts with the
     statement in force.

 -- 類別: codeop.CommandCompiler

     Instances of this class have *note __call__(): 2dd. methods
     identical in signature to *note compile_command(): 1595.; the
     difference is that if the instance compiles program text containing
     a *note __future__: 0. statement, the instance 'remembers' and
     compiles all subsequent program texts with the statement in force.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/codeop.py


File: python.info,  Node: 引入模組,  Next: Python 語言服務,  Prev: 自訂 Python 直譯器,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.31 引入模組
=============

The modules described in this chapter provide new ways to import other
Python modules and hooks for customizing the import process.

The full list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* zipimport: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組. 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組
* pkgutil: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式. 套件擴充工具程式
* modulefinder: modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組. 搜尋腳本所使用的模組
* runpy: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組. 定位並執行 Python 模組
* importlib: importlib --- import 的實作. import 的實作
* importlib.resources: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access. Package resource reading, opening and access
* importlib.resources.abc: importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別. 資源的抽象基底類別
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料. 存取套件的元資料
* The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path.


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組,  Next: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式,  Up: 引入模組

5.31.1 ‘zipimport’ -- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組
---------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/zipimport.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module adds the ability to import Python modules (‘*.py’, ‘*.pyc’)
and packages from ZIP-format archives.  It is usually not needed to use
the *note zipimport: 12c. module explicitly; it is automatically used by
the built-in *note import: 3d5. mechanism for *note sys.path: 35e. items
that are paths to ZIP archives.

Typically, *note sys.path: 35e. is a list of directory names as strings.
This module also allows an item of *note sys.path: 35e. to be a string
naming a ZIP file archive.  The ZIP archive can contain a subdirectory
structure to support package imports, and a path within the archive can
be specified to only import from a subdirectory.  For example, the path
‘example.zip/lib/’ would only import from the ‘lib/’ subdirectory within
the archive.

Any files may be present in the ZIP archive, but importers are only
invoked for ‘.py’ and ‘.pyc’ files.  ZIP import of dynamic modules
(‘.pyd’, ‘.so’) is disallowed.  Note that if an archive only contains
‘.py’ files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
corresponding ‘.pyc’ file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn't contain
‘.pyc’ files, importing may be rather slow.

在 3.8 版的變更: Previously, ZIP archives with an archive comment were
not supported.

也參考
......

PKZIP Application Note(2)

     Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of
     the format and algorithms used.

PEP 273(3) - Import Modules from Zip Archives

     Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation.
     Python 2.3 follows the specification in PEP 273(4), but uses an
     implementation written by Just van Rossum that uses the import
     hooks described in PEP 302(5).

*note importlib: 71. - The implementation of the import machinery

     Package providing the relevant protocols for all importers to
     implement.

This module defines an exception:

 -- 例外: zipimport.ZipImportError

     Exception raised by zipimporter objects.  It's a subclass of *note
     ImportError: 145, so it can be caught as *note ImportError: 145,
     too.

* Menu:

* zipimporter 物件::
* 範例: 範例<44>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/zipimport.py

   (2) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: zipimporter 物件,  Next: 範例<44>,  Up: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組

5.31.1.1 zipimporter 物件
.........................

*note zipimporter: 4208. is the class for importing ZIP files.

 -- 類別: zipimport.zipimporter (archivepath)

     Create a new zipimporter instance.  'archivepath' must be a path to
     a ZIP file, or to a specific path within a ZIP file.  For example,
     an 'archivepath' of ‘foo/bar.zip/lib’ will look for modules in the
     ‘lib’ directory inside the ZIP file ‘foo/bar.zip’ (provided that it
     exists).

     *note ZipImportError: 4205. is raised if 'archivepath' doesn't
     point to a valid ZIP archive.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Methods ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’,
     deprecated in 3.10 are now removed.  Use *note find_spec(): 689.
     instead.

      -- 方法: create_module (spec)

          Implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.create_module():
          b1b. that returns *note None: 470. to explicitly request the
          default semantics.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- 方法: exec_module (module)

          Implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module():
          696.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- 方法: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          An implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 698.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- 方法: get_code (fullname)

          Return the code object for the specified module.  Raise *note
          ZipImportError: 4205. if the module couldn't be imported.

      -- 方法: get_data (pathname)

          Return the data associated with 'pathname'.  Raise *note
          OSError: 644. if the file wasn't found.

          在 3.3 版的變更: *note IOError: ee8. used to be raised, it is
          now an alias of *note OSError: 644.

      -- 方法: get_filename (fullname)

          Return the value ‘__file__’ would be set to if the specified
          module was imported.  Raise *note ZipImportError: 4205. if the
          module couldn't be imported.

          在 3.1 版被加入.

      -- 方法: get_source (fullname)

          Return the source code for the specified module.  Raise *note
          ZipImportError: 4205. if the module couldn't be found, return
          *note None: 470. if the archive does contain the module, but
          has no source for it.

      -- 方法: is_package (fullname)

          Return ‘True’ if the module specified by 'fullname' is a
          package.  Raise *note ZipImportError: 4205. if the module
          couldn't be found.

      -- 方法: load_module (fullname)

          Load the module specified by 'fullname'.  'fullname' must be
          the fully qualified (dotted) module name.  Returns the
          imported module on success, raises *note ZipImportError: 4205.
          on failure.

          在 3.10 版之後被棄用: Use *note exec_module(): 281. instead.

      -- 方法: invalidate_caches ()

          Clear out the internal cache of information about files found
          within the ZIP archive.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: archive

          The file name of the importer's associated ZIP file, without a
          possible subpath.

      -- 屬性: prefix

          The subpath within the ZIP file where modules are searched.
          This is the empty string for zipimporter objects which point
          to the root of the ZIP file.

     The *note archive: 420e. and *note prefix: 420f. attributes, when
     combined with a slash, equal the original 'archivepath' argument
     given to the *note zipimporter: 4208. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<44>,  Prev: zipimporter 物件,  Up: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組

5.31.1.2 範例
.............

Here is an example that imports a module from a ZIP archive - note that
the *note zipimport: 12c. module is not explicitly used.

     $ unzip -l example.zip
     Archive:  example.zip
       Length     Date   Time    Name
      --------    ----   ----    ----
          8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py
      --------                   -------
          8467                   1 file
     $ ./python
     Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.insert(0, 'example.zip')  # 將 .zip 檔案新增到系統路徑的最前面
     >>> import jwzthreading
     >>> jwzthreading.__file__
     'example.zip/jwzthreading.py'


File: python.info,  Node: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式,  Next: modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組,  Prev: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組,  Up: 引入模組

5.31.2 ‘pkgutil’ -- 套件擴充工具程式
------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/pkgutil.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組提供了引入系統 (import system) 的工具程式，特別是套件相關支援。

 -- 類別: pkgutil.ModuleInfo (module_finder, name, ispkg)

     一個包含模組資訊之簡短摘要的附名元組 (namedtuple)。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 函式: pkgutil.extend_path (path, name)

     擴充組成一個套件之模組的搜尋路徑。預期用法是將以下程式碼放入套件的
     ‘__init__.py’：

          from pkgutil import extend_path
          __path__ = extend_path(__path__, __name__)

     For each directory on *note sys.path: 35e. that has a subdirectory
     that matches the package name, add the subdirectory to the
     package's *note __path__: 1a63.  This is useful if one wants to
     distribute different parts of a single logical package as multiple
     directories.

     它還會尋找 ‘*.pkg’ 檔案，其中開頭的 ‘*’ 與 'name' 引數相符。此功能
     類似於 ‘*.pth’ 檔案（更多資訊請參閱 *note site: c2. 模組），但他不
     特別處理以 ‘import’ 為開頭的行。‘*.pkg’ 檔案從表面上看是受信任的：
     除了跳過空行和備註之外，在 ‘*.pkg’ 檔案中找到的所有條目都將新增到路
     徑中，無論它們是否存在於檔案系統。（這是一個功能。）

     如果輸入路徑不是串列（像是凍結套件 (frozen package) 的情況），它將
     原封不動地被回傳。輸入路徑不會被修改；而是回傳擴充後的副本。僅將項
     目附加到副本的尾端。

     *note sys.path: 35e. 被假設是一個序列，*note sys.path: 35e. 中的項
     目裡，若不是代表現存目錄的字串則將被忽略。*note sys.path: 35e. 上用
     作檔案名稱時導致錯誤的 Unicode 項目可能會導致此函式引發例外（與
     *note os.path.isdir(): 857. 行為一致）。

 -- 函式: pkgutil.find_loader (fullname)

     取得給定之 'fullname' 的模組 *note loader: 1463.。

     這是一個 *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 232. 的向後相容包裝器，
     它將大多數的失敗轉換為 *note ImportError: 145. 並且僅回傳載入器而不
     是完整的 *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1ca9.。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 更新為直接基於 *note importlib: 71.，而不是依賴套
     件內部 PEP 302(2) 的引入模擬 (import emulation)。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 基於 PEP 451(3) 來更新

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: 改
     用 *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 232.。

 -- 函式: pkgutil.get_importer (path_item)

     取得給定之 'path_item' 的 *note finder: 1caf.。

     如果回傳的尋檢器 (finder) 是由路徑勾點 (path hook) 所新建立的，則它
     會被快取在 *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. 中。

     如果需要重新掃描 *note sys.path_hooks: eb8.，可以手動清除快取（或部
     分快取）。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 更新為直接基於 *note importlib: 71.，而不是依賴套
     件內部 PEP 302(4) 的引入模擬 (import emulation)。

 -- 函式: pkgutil.get_loader (module_or_name)

     取得 'module_or_name' 的 *note loader: 1463. 物件。

     如果可以透過正常引入機制存取模組或套件，則回傳該機制相關部分的包裝
     器。如果找不到或無法引入模組，則回傳 ‘None’。如果指定的模組尚未被引
     入，則引入其包含的套件（如有存在）以建立套件 ‘__path__’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 更新為直接基於 *note importlib: 71.，而不是依賴套
     件內部 PEP 302(5) 的引入模擬 (import emulation)。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 基於 PEP 451(6) 來更新

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: 改
     用 *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 232.。

 -- 函式: pkgutil.iter_importers (fullname='')

     yield 給定模組名稱的 *note finder: 1caf. 物件。

     如果 fullname 包含 ‘'.'’，則尋檢器將針對包含 fullname 的套件，否則
     它們全部會是在頂層被註冊的尋檢器（即 *note sys.meta_path: b9d. 和
     *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. 上的尋檢器）。

     如果指定的模組位於套件中，則作為呼叫此函式的副作用 (side effect) ，
     該套件會被引入。

     如果未指定模組名稱，則會產生所有頂層尋檢器。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 更新為直接基於 *note importlib: 71.，而不是依賴套
     件內部 PEP 302(7) 的引入模擬 (import emulation)。

 -- 函式: pkgutil.iter_modules (path=None, prefix='')

     yield 'path' 上所有子模組的 *note ModuleInfo: bbf.，或者如果 'path'
     為 ‘None’，則產生 *note sys.path: 35e. 上的所有頂層模組。

     'path' 應該是 ‘None’ 或用來尋找模組的路徑串列。

     'prefix' 是在輸出的每個模組名稱前面的輸出字串。

          備註: 僅適用於有定義 ‘iter_modules()’ 方法的 *note finder:
          1caf.。此介面並非是標準的，因此該模組還提供了 *note
          importlib.machinery.FileFinder: f08. 和 *note
          zipimport.zipimporter: 4208. 的實作。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 更新為直接基於 *note importlib: 71.，而不是依賴套
     件內部 PEP 302(8) 的引入模擬 (import emulation)。

 -- 函式: pkgutil.walk_packages (path=None, prefix='', onerror=None)

     為 'path' 上的所有模組遞迴 yield 出 *note ModuleInfo: bbf.，或如果
     'path' 為 ‘None’ 則 yield 所有可存取的模組。

     'path' 應該是 ‘None’ 或用來尋找模組的路徑串列。

     'prefix' 是在輸出的每個模組名稱前面的輸出字串。

     請注意，此函式必須引入給定之 'path' 上的所有'套件'（'不是'所有模組
     ！），以便存取 ‘__path__’ 屬性來尋找子模組。

     'onerror' 是一個函式，如果在嘗試引入套件時發生任何例外，則使用一個
     引數（正在引入之套件的名稱）來呼叫函式。如果未提供 'onerror' 函式，
     則會捕獲並忽略 *note ImportError: 145.，同時傳播所有其他例外並終止
     搜尋。

     範例：

          # list all modules python can access
          walk_packages()

          # list all submodules of ctypes
          walk_packages(ctypes.__path__, ctypes.__name__ + '.')

          備註: 僅適用於有定義 ‘iter_modules()’ 方法的 *note finder:
          1caf.。此介面並非是標準的，因此該模組還提供了 *note
          importlib.machinery.FileFinder: f08. 和 *note
          zipimport.zipimporter: 4208. 的實作。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 更新為直接基於 *note importlib: 71.，而不是依賴套
     件內部 PEP 302(9) 的引入模擬 (import emulation)。

 -- 函式: pkgutil.get_data (package, resource)

     從套件中取得資源。

     這是 *note loader: 1463. *note get_data: 4216. API 的包裝器。
     'package' 引數應該是採用標準模組格式 (‘foo.bar’) 的套件名稱。
     'resource' 引數應為相對檔案名稱的形式，並使用 ‘/’ 作為路徑分隔符號
     。不允許使用父目錄名稱 ‘..’，也不允許使用根目錄名稱（以 ‘/’ 開頭）
     。

     該函式回傳一個二進位字串，它是指定資源的內容。

     對於位於檔案系統中且已被引入過的套件，這大致相當於：

          d = os.path.dirname(sys.modules[package].__file__)
          data = open(os.path.join(d, resource), 'rb').read()

     如果無法定位或載入套件，或者它使用不支援 *note get_data: 4216. 的
     *note loader: 1463. 則回傳 ‘None’。特別是*note 命名空間套件: 1a5d.的
     *note loader: 1463. 不支援 *note get_data: 4216.。

 -- 函式: pkgutil.resolve_name (name)

     將名稱解析為物件。

     標準函式庫中的許多地方都使用了此功能（請參閱 bpo-12915(10)），且相
     同功能也被用於擁有廣大使用者的第三方套件，如 setuptools、Django 和
     Pyramid。

     'name' 預期要是以下格式之一的字串，其中 W 是有效 Python 識別字的簡
     寫，而點 (dot) 代表這些偽正規表示式 (pseudo-regex) 中的字面句點
     (literal period)：

        * ‘W(.W)*’

        * ‘W(.W)*:(W(.W)*)?’

     第一種形式僅是為了要向後相容。它假設點名稱 (dotted name) 的某些部分
     是一個套件，其餘部分是該套件內某處的物件，其可能巢狀地存在於
     (nested) 其他物件內。由於無法透過檢查 (inspection) 來推斷出套件停止
     的位置和物件層次結構的開始位置，因此必須使用此形式來重複嘗試引入。

     在第二種形式中，呼叫者透過使用一個冒號來明確標明分隔點：冒號左側的
     點名稱是要引入的套件，右側的點名稱是該套件內的物件層次結構。這種形
     式只需要一次引入。如果它以冒號結尾，則回傳一個模組物件。

     此函式會回傳一個物件（可能是一個模組），或引發以下其中一個例外：

     *note ValueError: 183. - 如果 'name' 不是可辨識的格式。

     *note ImportError: 145. - 如果在不應該失敗的情況下引入失敗。

     *note AttributeError: 3ca. - 如果在遍歷引入套件中的物件層次結構以取
     得所需物件時發生失敗。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pkgutil.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915


File: python.info,  Node: modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組,  Next: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組,  Prev: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式,  Up: 引入模組

5.31.3 ‘modulefinder’ -- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組
---------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/modulefinder.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組提供了一個 *note ModuleFinder: 17e8. 類別，可用於確定腳本引入的模
組集合。‘modulefinder.py’ 也可以作為腳本運行，其將 Python 腳本的檔案名稱
作為它的引數，並在之後會列印出引入模組的報告。

 -- 函式: modulefinder.AddPackagePath (pkg_name, path)

     記錄在指定的 'path' 中可以找到名為 'pkg_name' 的套件。

 -- 函式: modulefinder.ReplacePackage (oldname, newname)

     允許指定名為 'oldname' 的模組實際上是名為 'newname' 的套件。

 -- 類別: modulefinder.ModuleFinder (path=None, debug=0, excludes=[],
          replace_paths=[])

     此類別提供 *note run_script(): 421c. 和 *note report(): 421d. 方法
     來決定腳本引入的模組集合。'path' 可以是搜尋模組的目錄串列；如果未指
     定，則使用 ‘sys.path’。'debug' 設定偵錯等級；較高的值可使類別列印有
     關其即將執行之操作的偵錯訊息。'excludes' 是要從分析中排除的模組名稱
     串列。'replace_paths' 是將在模組路徑中替換的 ‘(oldpath, newpath)’ 元
     組串列。

      -- 方法: report ()

          將報告列印到標準輸出，其中列出了腳本引入的模組及其路徑，以及丟
          失或似乎丟失的模組。

      -- 方法: run_script (pathname)

          分析 'pathname' 檔案的內容，該檔案必須包含 Python 程式碼。

      -- 屬性: modules

          將模組名稱對應到模組的字典。請參閱 *note ModuleFinder
          的用法範例: 421f.。

* Menu:

* ModuleFinder 的用法範例::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/modulefinder.py


File: python.info,  Node: ModuleFinder 的用法範例,  Up: modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組

5.31.3.1 ‘ModuleFinder’ 的用法範例
..................................

將被分析的腳本 (bacon.py)：

     import re, itertools

     try:
         import baconhameggs
     except ImportError:
         pass

     try:
         import guido.python.ham
     except ImportError:
         pass

將輸出 bacon.py 報告的腳本：

     from modulefinder import ModuleFinder

     finder = ModuleFinder()
     finder.run_script('bacon.py')

     print('Loaded modules:')
     for name, mod in finder.modules.items():
         print('%s: ' % name, end='')
         print(','.join(list(mod.globalnames.keys())[:3]))

     print('-'*50)
     print('Modules not imported:')
     print('\n'.join(finder.badmodules.keys()))

範例輸出（可能因架構而異）：

     Loaded modules:
     _types:
     copyreg:  _inverted_registry,_slotnames,__all__
     re._compiler:  isstring,_sre,_optimize_unicode
     _sre:
     re._constants:  REPEAT_ONE,makedict,AT_END_LINE
     sys:
     re:  __module__,finditer,_expand
     itertools:
     __main__:  re,itertools,baconhameggs
     re._parser:  _PATTERNENDERS,SRE_FLAG_UNICODE
     array:
     types:  __module__,IntType,TypeType
     ---------------------------------------------------
     Modules not imported:
     guido.python.ham
     baconhameggs


File: python.info,  Node: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組,  Next: importlib --- import 的實作,  Prev: modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組,  Up: 引入模組

5.31.4 ‘runpy’ -- 定位並執行 Python 模組
----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/runpy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note runpy: b9. module is used to locate and run Python modules
without importing them first.  Its main use is to implement the *note
-m: 3d4. command line switch that allows scripts to be located using the
Python module namespace rather than the filesystem.

Note that this is 'not' a sandbox module - all code is executed in the
current process, and any side effects (such as cached imports of other
modules) will remain in place after the functions have returned.

Furthermore, any functions and classes defined by the executed code are
not guaranteed to work correctly after a *note runpy: b9. function has
returned.  If that limitation is not acceptable for a given use case,
*note importlib: 71. is likely to be a more suitable choice than this
module.

The *note runpy: b9. module provides two functions:

 -- 函式: runpy.run_module (mod_name, init_globals=None, run_name=None,
          alter_sys=False)

     Execute the code of the specified module and return the resulting
     module globals dictionary.  The module's code is first located
     using the standard import mechanism (refer to PEP 302(2) for
     details) and then executed in a fresh module namespace.

     The 'mod_name' argument should be an absolute module name.  If the
     module name refers to a package rather than a normal module, then
     that package is imported and the *note __main__: 1. submodule
     within that package is then executed and the resulting module
     globals dictionary returned.

     The optional dictionary argument 'init_globals' may be used to
     pre-populate the module's globals dictionary before the code is
     executed.  The supplied dictionary will not be modified.  If any of
     the special global variables below are defined in the supplied
     dictionary, those definitions are overridden by *note run_module():
     15da.

     The special global variables ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’,
     ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are set in the globals
     dictionary before the module code is executed (Note that this is a
     minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as
     an interpreter implementation detail).

     ‘__name__’ is set to 'run_name' if this optional argument is not
     *note None: 470, to ‘mod_name + '.__main__'’ if the named module is
     a package and to the 'mod_name' argument otherwise.

     ‘__spec__’ will be set appropriately for the 'actually' imported
     module (that is, ‘__spec__.name’ will always be 'mod_name' or
     ‘mod_name + '.__main__’, never 'run_name').

     ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are *note
     set as normal: 1ca4. based on the module spec.

     If the argument 'alter_sys' is supplied and evaluates to *note
     True: a70, then ‘sys.argv[0]’ is updated with the value of
     ‘__file__’ and ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ is updated with a temporary
     module object for the module being executed.  Both ‘sys.argv[0]’
     and ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ are restored to their original values
     before the function returns.

     Note that this manipulation of *note sys: d3. is not thread-safe.
     Other threads may see the partially initialised module, as well as
     the altered list of arguments.  It is recommended that the ‘sys’
     module be left alone when invoking this function from threaded
     code.

     也參考
     ......

     The *note -m: 3d4. option offering equivalent functionality from
     the command line.

     在 3.1 版的變更: Added ability to execute packages by looking for a
     *note __main__: 1. submodule.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Added ‘__cached__’ global variable (see PEP
     3147(3)).

     在 3.4 版的變更: Updated to take advantage of the module spec
     feature added by PEP 451(4).  This allows ‘__cached__’ to be set
     correctly for modules run this way, as well as ensuring the real
     module name is always accessible as ‘__spec__.name’.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The setting of ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’, and
     ‘__package__’ are deprecated.  See *note ModuleSpec: 1ca9. for
     alternatives.

 -- 函式: runpy.run_path (path_name, init_globals=None, run_name=None)

     Execute the code at the named filesystem location and return the
     resulting module globals dictionary.  As with a script name
     supplied to the CPython command line, the supplied path may refer
     to a Python source file, a compiled bytecode file or a valid *note
     sys.path: 35e. entry containing a *note __main__: 1. module (e.g.
     a zipfile containing a top-level ‘__main__.py’ file).

     For a simple script, the specified code is simply executed in a
     fresh module namespace.  For a valid *note sys.path: 35e. entry
     (typically a zipfile or directory), the entry is first added to the
     beginning of ‘sys.path’.  The function then looks for and executes
     a *note __main__: 1. module using the updated path.  Note that
     there is no special protection against invoking an existing
     ‘__main__’ entry located elsewhere on ‘sys.path’ if there is no
     such module at the specified location.

     The optional dictionary argument 'init_globals' may be used to
     pre-populate the module's globals dictionary before the code is
     executed.  The supplied dictionary will not be modified.  If any of
     the special global variables below are defined in the supplied
     dictionary, those definitions are overridden by *note run_path():
     11af.

     The special global variables ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’,
     ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are set in the globals
     dictionary before the module code is executed (Note that this is a
     minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as
     an interpreter implementation detail).

     ‘__name__’ is set to 'run_name' if this optional argument is not
     *note None: 470. and to ‘'<run_path>'’ otherwise.

     If the supplied path directly references a script file (whether as
     source or as precompiled byte code), then ‘__file__’ will be set to
     the supplied path, and ‘__spec__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and
     ‘__package__’ will all be set to *note None: 470.

     If the supplied path is a reference to a valid *note sys.path: 35e.
     entry, then ‘__spec__’ will be set appropriately for the imported
     *note __main__: 1. module (that is, ‘__spec__.name’ will always be
     ‘__main__’).  ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and
     ‘__package__’ will be *note set as normal: 1ca4. based on the
     module spec.

     A number of alterations are also made to the *note sys: d3. module.
     Firstly, *note sys.path: 35e. may be altered as described above.
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ is updated with the value of ‘path_name’ and
     ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ is updated with a temporary module object
     for the module being executed.  All modifications to items in *note
     sys: d3. are reverted before the function returns.

     Note that, unlike *note run_module(): 15da, the alterations made to
     *note sys: d3. are not optional in this function as these
     adjustments are essential to allowing the execution of *note
     sys.path: 35e. entries.  As the thread-safety limitations still
     apply, use of this function in threaded code should be either
     serialised with the import lock or delegated to a separate process.

     也參考
     ......

     *note 介面選項: 1b1e. for equivalent functionality on the command
     line (‘python path/to/script’).

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Updated to take advantage of the module spec
     feature added by PEP 451(5).  This allows ‘__cached__’ to be set
     correctly in the case where ‘__main__’ is imported from a valid
     *note sys.path: 35e. entry rather than being executed directly.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The setting of ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’, and
     ‘__package__’ are deprecated.

也參考
......

PEP 338(6) - Executing modules as scripts

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 366(7) - Main module explicit relative imports

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 451(8) - A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow

*note 命令列與環境: 179c. - CPython command line details

The *note importlib.import_module(): 298. function

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/runpy.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib --- import 的實作,  Next: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access,  Prev: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組,  Up: 引入模組

5.31.5 ‘importlib’ -- ‘import’ 的實作
-------------------------------------

在 3.1 版被加入.

'原始碼：'Lib/importlib/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<9>.
* 函式: 函式<11>.
* importlib.abc: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import. Abstract base classes related to import
* importlib.machinery: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks. Importers and path hooks
* importlib.util: importlib util -- Utility code for importers. Utility code for importers
* 範例: 範例<45>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<9>,  Next: 函式<11>,  Up: importlib --- import 的實作

5.31.5.1 簡介
.............

The purpose of the *note importlib: 71. package is three-fold.

One is to provide the implementation of the *note import: 3d5. statement
(and thus, by extension, the *note __import__(): 70d. function) in
Python source code.  This provides an implementation of ‘import’ which
is portable to any Python interpreter.  This also provides an
implementation which is easier to comprehend than one implemented in a
programming language other than Python.

Two, the components to implement *note import: 3d5. are exposed in this
package, making it easier for users to create their own custom objects
(known generically as an *note importer: 1d87.) to participate in the
import process.

Three, the package contains modules exposing additional functionality
for managing aspects of Python packages:

   * *note importlib.metadata: 74. presents access to metadata from
     third-party distributions.

   * *note importlib.resources: 75. provides routines for accessing
     non-code "resources" from Python packages.

也參考
......

*note import 陳述式: 3d5.

     The language reference for the *note import: 3d5. statement.

Packages specification(1)

     Original specification of packages.  Some semantics have changed
     since the writing of this document (e.g.  redirecting based on
     ‘None’ in *note sys.modules: 1745.).

*note __import__(): f03. 函式

     The *note import: 3d5. statement is syntactic sugar for this
     function.

*note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1a55.

     The initialization of *note sys.path: 35e.

PEP 235(2)

     Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms

PEP 263(3)

     Defining Python Source Code Encodings

PEP 302(4)

     New Import Hooks

PEP 328(5)

     Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

PEP 366(6)

     Main module explicit relative imports

PEP 420(7)

     Implicit namespace packages

PEP 451(8)

     A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

PEP 488(9)

     Elimination of PYO files

PEP 489(10)

     Multi-phase extension module initialization

PEP 552(11)

     Deterministic pycs

PEP 3120(12)

     Using UTF-8 as the Default Source Encoding

PEP 3147(13)

     PYC Repository Directories

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0235/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<11>,  Next: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import,  Prev: 簡介<9>,  Up: importlib --- import 的實作

5.31.5.2 函式
.............

 -- 函式: importlib.__import__ (name, globals=None, locals=None,
          fromlist=(), level=0)

     An implementation of the built-in *note __import__(): 70d.
     function.

          備註: Programmatic importing of modules should use *note
          import_module(): 298. instead of this function.

 -- 函式: importlib.import_module (name, package=None)

     Import a module.  The 'name' argument specifies what module to
     import in absolute or relative terms (e.g.  either ‘pkg.mod’ or
     ‘..mod’).  If the name is specified in relative terms, then the
     'package' argument must be set to the name of the package which is
     to act as the anchor for resolving the package name (e.g.
     ‘import_module('..mod', 'pkg.subpkg')’ will import ‘pkg.mod’).

     The *note import_module(): 298. function acts as a simplifying
     wrapper around *note importlib.__import__(): f03.  This means all
     semantics of the function are derived from *note
     importlib.__import__(): f03.  The most important difference between
     these two functions is that *note import_module(): 298. returns the
     specified package or module (e.g.  ‘pkg.mod’), while *note
     __import__(): 70d. returns the top-level package or module (e.g.
     ‘pkg’).

     If you are dynamically importing a module that was created since
     the interpreter began execution (e.g., created a Python source
     file), you may need to call *note invalidate_caches(): a73. in
     order for the new module to be noticed by the import system.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Parent packages are automatically imported.

 -- 函式: importlib.invalidate_caches ()

     Invalidate the internal caches of finders stored at *note
     sys.meta_path: b9d.  If a finder implements ‘invalidate_caches()’
     then it will be called to perform the invalidation.  This function
     should be called if any modules are created/installed while your
     program is running to guarantee all finders will notice the new
     module's existence.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Namespace packages created/installed in a
     different *note sys.path: 35e. location after the same namespace
     was already imported are noticed.

 -- 函式: importlib.reload (module)

     Reload a previously imported 'module'.  The argument must be a
     module object, so it must have been successfully imported before.
     This is useful if you have edited the module source file using an
     external editor and want to try out the new version without leaving
     the Python interpreter.  The return value is the module object
     (which can be different if re-importing causes a different object
     to be placed in *note sys.modules: 1745.).

     When *note reload(): 299. is executed:

        * Python module's code is recompiled and the module-level code
          re-executed, defining a new set of objects which are bound to
          names in the module's dictionary by reusing the *note loader:
          1463. which originally loaded the module.  The ‘init’ function
          of extension modules is not called a second time.

        * As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only
          reclaimed after their reference counts drop to zero.

        * The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any
          new or changed objects.

        * Other references to the old objects (such as names external to
          the module) are not rebound to refer to the new objects and
          must be updated in each namespace where they occur if that is
          desired.

     There are a number of other caveats:

     When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module's
     global variables) is retained.  Redefinitions of names will
     override the old definitions, so this is generally not a problem.
     If the new version of a module does not define a name that was
     defined by the old version, the old definition remains.  This
     feature can be used to the module's advantage if it maintains a
     global table or cache of objects -- with a *note try: 4ea.
     statement it can test for the table's presence and skip its
     initialization if desired:

          try:
              cache
          except NameError:
              cache = {}

     It is generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically
     loaded modules.  Reloading *note sys: d3, *note __main__: 1, *note
     builtins: 10. and other key modules is not recommended.  In many
     cases extension modules are not designed to be initialized more
     than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways when reloaded.

     If a module imports objects from another module using *note from:
     113f. ...  *note import: 3d5. ..., calling *note reload(): 299. for
     the other module does not redefine the objects imported from it --
     one way around this is to re-execute the ‘from’ statement, another
     is to use ‘import’ and qualified names ('module.name') instead.

     If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module
     that defines the class does not affect the method definitions of
     the instances -- they continue to use the old class definition.
     The same is true for derived classes.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f. is raised when the
     module being reloaded lacks a *note ModuleSpec: 1ca9.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import,  Next: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks,  Prev: 函式<11>,  Up: importlib --- import 的實作

5.31.5.3 ‘importlib.abc’ - Abstract base classes related to import
..................................................................

'原始碼：'Lib/importlib/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note importlib.abc: 72. module contains all of the core abstract
base classes used by *note import: 3d5.  Some subclasses of the core
abstract base classes are also provided to help in implementing the core
ABCs.

ABC hierarchy:

     object
      +-- MetaPathFinder
      +-- PathEntryFinder
      +-- Loader
           +-- ResourceLoader --------+
           +-- InspectLoader          |
                +-- ExecutionLoader --+
                                      +-- FileLoader
                                      +-- SourceLoader

 -- 類別: importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder

     An abstract base class representing a *note meta path finder: f06.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’.

      -- 方法: find_spec (fullname, path, target=None)

          An abstract method for finding a *note spec: 1ca6. for the
          specified module.  If this is a top-level import, 'path' will
          be ‘None’.  Otherwise, this is a search for a subpackage or
          module and 'path' will be the value of *note __path__: 1a63.
          from the parent package.  If a spec cannot be found, ‘None’ is
          returned.  When passed in, ‘target’ is a module object that
          the finder may use to make a more educated guess about what
          spec to return.  *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 699.
          may be useful for implementing concrete ‘MetaPathFinders’.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 方法: invalidate_caches ()

          An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any
          internal cache used by the finder.  Used by *note
          importlib.invalidate_caches(): a73. when invalidating the
          caches of all finders on *note sys.meta_path: b9d.

          在 3.4 版的變更: Returns ‘None’ when called instead of *note
          NotImplemented: 5f2.

 -- 類別: importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder

     An abstract base class representing a *note path entry finder: f07.
     Though it bears some similarities to *note MetaPathFinder: 69a,
     ‘PathEntryFinder’ is meant for use only within the path-based
     import subsystem provided by *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder:
     eb7.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’.

      -- 方法: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          An abstract method for finding a *note spec: 1ca6. for the
          specified module.  The finder will search for the module only
          within the *note path entry: 1d96. to which it is assigned.
          If a spec cannot be found, ‘None’ is returned.  When passed
          in, ‘target’ is a module object that the finder may use to
          make a more educated guess about what spec to return.  *note
          importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 699. may be useful for
          implementing concrete ‘PathEntryFinders’.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 方法: invalidate_caches ()

          An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any
          internal cache used by the finder.  Used by *note
          importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): a72. when
          invalidating the caches of all cached finders.

 -- 類別: importlib.abc.Loader

     An abstract base class for a *note loader: 1463.  See PEP 302(2)
     for the exact definition for a loader.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading should implement a
     ‘get_resource_reader()’ method as specified by *note
     importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 422a.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Introduced the optional ‘get_resource_reader()’
     method.

      -- 方法: create_module (spec)

          A method that returns the module object to use when importing
          a module.  This method may return ‘None’, indicating that
          default module creation semantics should take place.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

          在 3.6 版的變更: This method is no longer optional when *note
          exec_module(): 696. is defined.

      -- 方法: exec_module (module)

          An abstract method that executes the module in its own
          namespace when a module is imported or reloaded.  The module
          should already be initialized when *note exec_module(): 696.
          is called.  When this method exists, *note create_module():
          b1b. must be defined.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

          在 3.6 版的變更: *note create_module(): b1b. 也必須被定義。

      -- 方法: load_module (fullname)

          A legacy method for loading a module.  If the module cannot be
          loaded, *note ImportError: 145. is raised, otherwise the
          loaded module is returned.

          If the requested module already exists in *note sys.modules:
          1745, that module should be used and reloaded.  Otherwise the
          loader should create a new module and insert it into *note
          sys.modules: 1745. before any loading begins, to prevent
          recursion from the import.  If the loader inserted a module
          and the load fails, it must be removed by the loader from
          *note sys.modules: 1745.; modules already in *note
          sys.modules: 1745. before the loader began execution should be
          left alone.

          The loader should set several attributes on the module (note
          that some of these attributes can change when a module is
          reloaded):

             - *note module.__name__: 1217.

             - *note module.__file__: 1cae.

             - *note module.__cached__: 248.

             - *note module.__path__: 1a63.

             - *note module.__package__: 245.

             - *note module.__loader__: 24d. '(deprecated)'

          When *note exec_module(): 696. is available then
          backwards-compatible functionality is provided.

          在 3.4 版的變更: Raise *note ImportError: 145. when called
          instead of *note NotImplementedError: bc0.  Functionality
          provided when *note exec_module(): 696. is available.

          在 3.4 版之後被棄用: The recommended API for loading a module
          is *note exec_module(): 696. (and *note create_module():
          b1b.).  Loaders should implement it instead of *note
          load_module(): 695.  The import machinery takes care of all
          the other responsibilities of *note load_module(): 695. when
          *note exec_module(): 696. is implemented.

 -- 類別: importlib.abc.ResourceLoader

     An abstract base class for a *note loader: 1463. which implements
     the optional PEP 302(3) protocol for loading arbitrary resources
     from the storage back-end.

     在 3.7 版之後被棄用: This ABC is deprecated in favour of supporting
     resource loading through *note
     importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 422a.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod get_data (path)

          An abstract method to return the bytes for the data located at
          'path'.  Loaders that have a file-like storage back-end that
          allows storing arbitrary data can implement this abstract
          method to give direct access to the data stored.  *note
          OSError: 644. is to be raised if the 'path' cannot be found.
          The 'path' is expected to be constructed using a module's
          *note __file__: 1cae. attribute or an item from a package's
          *note __path__: 1a63.

          在 3.4 版的變更: Raises *note OSError: 644. instead of *note
          NotImplementedError: bc0.

 -- 類別: importlib.abc.InspectLoader

     An abstract base class for a *note loader: 1463. which implements
     the optional PEP 302(4) protocol for loaders that inspect modules.

      -- 方法: get_code (fullname)

          Return the code object for a module, or ‘None’ if the module
          does not have a code object (as would be the case, for
          example, for a built-in module).  Raise an *note ImportError:
          145. if loader cannot find the requested module.

               備註: While the method has a default implementation, it
               is suggested that it be overridden if possible for
               performance.

          在 3.4 版的變更: No longer abstract and a concrete
          implementation is provided.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod get_source (fullname)

          An abstract method to return the source of a module.  It is
          returned as a text string using *note universal newlines: bac,
          translating all recognized line separators into ‘'\n'’
          characters.  Returns ‘None’ if no source is available (e.g.  a
          built-in module).  Raises *note ImportError: 145. if the
          loader cannot find the module specified.

          在 3.4 版的變更: Raises *note ImportError: 145. instead of
          *note NotImplementedError: bc0.

      -- 方法: is_package (fullname)

          An optional method to return a true value if the module is a
          package, a false value otherwise.  *note ImportError: 145. is
          raised if the *note loader: 1463. cannot find the module.

          在 3.4 版的變更: Raises *note ImportError: 145. instead of
          *note NotImplementedError: bc0.

      -- 方法: static source_to_code (data, path='<string>')

          Create a code object from Python source.

          The 'data' argument can be whatever the *note compile(): 554.
          function supports (i.e.  string or bytes).  The 'path'
          argument should be the "path" to where the source code
          originated from, which can be an abstract concept (e.g.
          location in a zip file).

          With the subsequent code object one can execute it in a module
          by running ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

          在 3.5 版的變更: Made the method static.

      -- 方法: exec_module (module)

          *note Loader.exec_module(): 696. 的實作。

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 方法: load_module (fullname)

          *note Loader.load_module(): 695. 的實作。

          在 3.4 版之後被棄用: 請改用 *note exec_module(): ea5.。

 -- 類別: importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader

     An abstract base class which inherits from *note InspectLoader:
     de1. that, when implemented, helps a module to be executed as a
     script.  The ABC represents an optional PEP 302(5) protocol.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname)

          An abstract method that is to return the value of *note
          __file__: 1cae. for the specified module.  If no path is
          available, *note ImportError: 145. is raised.

          If source code is available, then the method should return the
          path to the source file, regardless of whether a bytecode was
          used to load the module.

          在 3.4 版的變更: Raises *note ImportError: 145. instead of
          *note NotImplementedError: bc0.

 -- 類別: importlib.abc.FileLoader (fullname, path)

     An abstract base class which inherits from *note ResourceLoader:
     a49. and *note ExecutionLoader: 422d, providing concrete
     implementations of *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 4216. and *note
     ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 422e.

     The 'fullname' argument is a fully resolved name of the module the
     loader is to handle.  The 'path' argument is the path to the file
     for the module.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: name

          The name of the module the loader can handle.

      -- 屬性: path

          Path to the file of the module.

      -- 方法: load_module (fullname)

          Calls super's ‘load_module()’.

          在 3.4 版之後被棄用: Use *note Loader.exec_module(): 696.
          instead.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname)

          Returns *note path: 4230.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod get_data (path)

          Reads 'path' as a binary file and returns the bytes from it.

 -- 類別: importlib.abc.SourceLoader

     An abstract base class for implementing source (and optionally
     bytecode) file loading.  The class inherits from both *note
     ResourceLoader: a49. and *note ExecutionLoader: 422d, requiring the
     implementation of:

        * *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 4216.

        * 
          *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 422e.

               Should only return the path to the source file;
               sourceless loading is not supported.

     The abstract methods defined by this class are to add optional
     bytecode file support.  Not implementing these optional methods (or
     causing them to raise *note NotImplementedError: bc0.) causes the
     loader to only work with source code.  Implementing the methods
     allows the loader to work with source 'and' bytecode files; it does
     not allow for 'sourceless' loading where only bytecode is provided.
     Bytecode files are an optimization to speed up loading by removing
     the parsing step of Python's compiler, and so no bytecode-specific
     API is exposed.

      -- 方法: path_stats (path)

          Optional abstract method which returns a *note dict: 239.
          containing metadata about the specified path.  Supported
          dictionary keys are:

             - ‘'mtime'’ (mandatory): an integer or floating-point
               number representing the modification time of the source
               code;

             - ‘'size'’ (optional): the size in bytes of the source
               code.

          Any other keys in the dictionary are ignored, to allow for
          future extensions.  If the path cannot be handled, *note
          OSError: 644. is raised.

          在 3.3 版被加入.

          在 3.4 版的變更: Raise *note OSError: 644. instead of *note
          NotImplementedError: bc0.

      -- 方法: path_mtime (path)

          Optional abstract method which returns the modification time
          for the specified path.

          在 3.3 版之後被棄用: This method is deprecated in favour of
          *note path_stats(): 101e.  You don't have to implement it, but
          it is still available for compatibility purposes.  Raise *note
          OSError: 644. if the path cannot be handled.

          在 3.4 版的變更: Raise *note OSError: 644. instead of *note
          NotImplementedError: bc0.

      -- 方法: set_data (path, data)

          Optional abstract method which writes the specified bytes to a
          file path.  Any intermediate directories which do not exist
          are to be created automatically.

          When writing to the path fails because the path is read-only
          (*note errno.EACCES: 2044./*note PermissionError: bb5.), do
          not propagate the exception.

          在 3.4 版的變更: No longer raises *note NotImplementedError:
          bc0. when called.

      -- 方法: get_code (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.get_code():
          de2.

      -- 方法: exec_module (module)

          Concrete implementation of *note Loader.exec_module(): 696.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 方法: load_module (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note Loader.load_module(): 695.

          在 3.4 版之後被棄用: Use *note exec_module(): ea6. instead.

      -- 方法: get_source (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.get_source():
          de5.

      -- 方法: is_package (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.is_package():
          422b.  A module is determined to be a package if its file path
          (as provided by *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 422e.)
          is a file named ‘__init__’ when the file extension is removed
          'and' the module name itself does not end in ‘__init__’.

 -- 類別: importlib.abc.ResourceReader

     'Superseded by TraversableResources'

     An *note abstract base class: 1047. to provide the ability to read
     'resources'.

     From the perspective of this ABC, a 'resource' is a binary artifact
     that is shipped within a package.  Typically this is something like
     a data file that lives next to the ‘__init__.py’ file of the
     package.  The purpose of this class is to help abstract out the
     accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if the
     package and its data file(s) are stored e.g.  in a zip file versus
     on the file system.

     For any of methods of this class, a 'resource' argument is expected
     to be a *note path-like object: 975. which represents conceptually
     just a file name.  This means that no subdirectory paths should be
     included in the 'resource' argument.  This is because the location
     of the package the reader is for, acts as the "directory".  Hence
     the metaphor for directories and file names is packages and
     resources, respectively.  This is also why instances of this class
     are expected to directly correlate to a specific package (instead
     of potentially representing multiple packages or a module).

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     provide a method called ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ which
     returns an object implementing this ABC's interface.  If the module
     specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return
     *note None: 470.  An object compatible with this ABC should only be
     returned when the specified module is a package.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 22c. instead.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod open_resource (resource)

          Returns an opened, *note file-like object: 2319. for binary
          reading of the 'resource'.

          If the resource cannot be found, *note FileNotFoundError: d46.
          is raised.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod resource_path (resource)

          Returns the file system path to the 'resource'.

          If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system,
          raise *note FileNotFoundError: d46.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod is_resource (name)

          Returns ‘True’ if the named 'name' is considered a resource.
          *note FileNotFoundError: d46. is raised if 'name' does not
          exist.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod contents ()

          Returns an *note iterable: 10ba. of strings over the contents
          of the package.  Do note that it is not required that all
          names returned by the iterator be actual resources, e.g.  it
          is acceptable to return names for which *note is_resource():
          423b. would be false.

          Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow for
          situations where how a package and its resources are stored
          are known a priori and the non-resource names would be useful.
          For instance, returning subdirectory names is allowed so that
          when it is known that the package and resources are stored on
          the file system then those subdirectory names can be used
          directly.

          The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.

 -- 類別: importlib.abc.Traversable

     An object with a subset of *note pathlib.Path: 149. methods
     suitable for traversing directories and opening files.

     For a representation of the object on the file-system, use *note
     importlib.resources.as_file(): 1aa.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 22b. instead.

      -- 屬性: name

          Abstract.  The base name of this object without any parent
          references.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod iterdir ()

          Yield ‘Traversable’ objects in ‘self’.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod is_dir ()

          Return ‘True’ if ‘self’ is a directory.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod is_file ()

          Return ‘True’ if ‘self’ is a file.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod joinpath (child)

          Return Traversable child in ‘self’.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod __truediv__ (child)

          Return ‘Traversable’ child in ‘self’.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod open (mode='r', *args, **kwargs)

          'mode' may be 'r' or 'rb' to open as text or binary.  Return a
          handle suitable for reading (same as *note pathlib.Path.open:
          253f.).

          When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as
          those accepted by *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9.

      -- 方法: read_bytes ()

          Read contents of ‘self’ as bytes.

      -- 方法: read_text (encoding=None)

          Read contents of ‘self’ as text.

 -- 類別: importlib.abc.TraversableResources

     An abstract base class for resource readers capable of serving the
     *note importlib.resources.files(): 1ab. interface.  Subclasses
     *note importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 422a. and provides
     concrete implementations of the *note
     importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 422a.'s abstract methods.
     Therefore, any loader supplying *note
     importlib.abc.TraversableResources: 1656. also supplies
     ResourceReader.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     implement this interface.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 22c. instead.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod files ()

          Returns a *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 22b.
          object for the loaded package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks,  Next: importlib util -- Utility code for importers,  Prev: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import,  Up: importlib --- import 的實作

5.31.5.4 ‘importlib.machinery’ - Importers and path hooks
.........................................................

'原始碼：'Lib/importlib/machinery.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains the various objects that help *note import: 3d5.
find and load modules.

 -- 屬性: importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     source modules.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the file suffixes for non-optimized
     bytecode modules.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版之後被棄用: Use *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 296. instead.

 -- 屬性: importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the file suffixes for optimized
     bytecode modules.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版之後被棄用: Use *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 296. instead.

 -- 屬性: importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     bytecode modules (including the leading dot).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The value is no longer dependent on ‘__debug__’.

 -- 屬性: importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     extension modules.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 函式: importlib.machinery.all_suffixes ()

     Returns a combined list of strings representing all file suffixes
     for modules recognized by the standard import machinery.  This is a
     helper for code which simply needs to know if a filesystem path
     potentially refers to a module without needing any details on the
     kind of module (for example, *note inspect.getmodulename(): bab.).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 類別: importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter

     An *note importer: 1d87. for built-in modules.  All known built-in
     modules are listed in *note sys.builtin_module_names: 1a54.  This
     class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 69a. and
     *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: de1. ABCs.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     在 3.5 版的變更: As part of PEP 489(2), the builtin importer now
     implements ‘Loader.create_module()’ and ‘Loader.exec_module()’

 -- 類別: importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter

     An *note importer: 1d87. for frozen modules.  This class implements
     the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 69a. and *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader: de1. ABCs.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Gained ‘create_module()’ and ‘exec_module()’
     methods.

 -- 類別: importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder

     *note Finder: 1caf. for modules declared in the Windows registry.
     This class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 69a.
     ABC.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: Use *note site: c2. configuration instead.
     Future versions of Python may not enable this finder by default.

 -- 類別: importlib.machinery.PathFinder

     A *note Finder: 1caf. for *note sys.path: 35e. and package
     ‘__path__’ attributes.  This class implements the *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 69a. ABC.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

      -- 方法: classmethod find_spec (fullname, path=None, target=None)

          Class method that attempts to find a *note spec: 1ca6. for the
          module specified by 'fullname' on *note sys.path: 35e. or, if
          defined, on 'path'.  For each path entry that is searched,
          *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. is checked.  If a
          non-false object is found then it is used as the *note path
          entry finder: f07. to look for the module being searched for.
          If no entry is found in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8,
          then *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. is searched for a finder for
          the path entry and, if found, is stored in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. along with being queried about
          the module.  If no finder is ever found then ‘None’ is both
          stored in the cache and returned.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

          在 3.5 版的變更: If the current working directory -
          represented by an empty string - is no longer valid then
          ‘None’ is returned but no value is cached in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8.

      -- 方法: classmethod invalidate_caches ()

          Calls *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches():
          4229. on all finders stored in *note sys.path_importer_cache:
          3d8. that define the method.  Otherwise entries in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. set to ‘None’ are deleted.

          在 3.7 版的變更: Entries of ‘None’ in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. are deleted.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Calls objects in *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. with
     the current working directory for ‘''’ (i.e.  the empty string).

 -- 類別: importlib.machinery.FileFinder (path, *loader_details)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder:
     69b. which caches results from the file system.

     The 'path' argument is the directory for which the finder is in
     charge of searching.

     The 'loader_details' argument is a variable number of 2-item tuples
     each containing a loader and a sequence of file suffixes the loader
     recognizes.  The loaders are expected to be callables which accept
     two arguments of the module's name and the path to the file found.

     The finder will cache the directory contents as necessary, making
     stat calls for each module search to verify the cache is not
     outdated.  Because cache staleness relies upon the granularity of
     the operating system's state information of the file system, there
     is a potential race condition of searching for a module, creating a
     new file, and then searching for the module the new file
     represents.  If the operations happen fast enough to fit within the
     granularity of stat calls, then the module search will fail.  To
     prevent this from happening, when you create a module dynamically,
     make sure to call *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): a73.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: path

          The path the finder will search in.

      -- 方法: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          Attempt to find the spec to handle 'fullname' within *note
          path: 4249.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 方法: invalidate_caches ()

          Clear out the internal cache.

      -- 方法: classmethod path_hook (*loader_details)

          A class method which returns a closure for use on *note
          sys.path_hooks: eb8.  An instance of *note FileFinder: f08. is
          returned by the closure using the path argument given to the
          closure directly and 'loader_details' indirectly.

          If the argument to the closure is not an existing directory,
          *note ImportError: 145. is raised.

 -- 類別: importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader:
     4234. by subclassing *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: f09. and
     providing some concrete implementations of other methods.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: name

          The name of the module that this loader will handle.

      -- 屬性: path

          The path to the source file.

      -- 方法: is_package (fullname)

          Return ‘True’ if *note path: 424d. appears to be for a
          package.

      -- 方法: path_stats (path)

          Concrete implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 101e.

      -- 方法: set_data (path, data)

          Concrete implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data(): 4235.

      -- 方法: load_module (name=None)

          Concrete implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 695. where specifying the
          name of the module to load is optional.

          在 3.6 版之後被棄用: Use *note
          importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 696. instead.

 -- 類別: importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: f09.
     which can import bytecode files (i.e.  no source code files exist).

     Please note that direct use of bytecode files (and thus not source
     code files) inhibits your modules from being usable by all Python
     implementations or new versions of Python which change the bytecode
     format.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: name

          The name of the module the loader will handle.

      -- 屬性: path

          The path to the bytecode file.

      -- 方法: is_package (fullname)

          Determines if the module is a package based on *note path:
          4252.

      -- 方法: get_code (fullname)

          Returns the code object for *note name: 4251. created from
          *note path: 4252.

      -- 方法: get_source (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as bytecode files have no source when this
          loader is used.

      -- 方法: load_module (name=None)

     Concrete implementation of *note
     importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 695. where specifying the name
     of the module to load is optional.

     在 3.6 版之後被棄用: Use *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module():
     696. instead.

 -- 類別: importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader:
     422d. for extension modules.

     The 'fullname' argument specifies the name of the module the loader
     is to support.  The 'path' argument is the path to the extension
     module's file.

     Note that, by default, importing an extension module will fail in
     subinterpreters if it doesn't implement multi-phase init (see PEP
     489(3)), even if it would otherwise import successfully.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Multi-phase init is now required for use in
     subinterpreters.

      -- 屬性: name

          Name of the module the loader supports.

      -- 屬性: path

          Path to the extension module.

      -- 方法: create_module (spec)

          Creates the module object from the given specification in
          accordance with PEP 489(4).

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 方法: exec_module (module)

          Initializes the given module object in accordance with PEP
          489(5).

          在 3.5 版被加入.

      -- 方法: is_package (fullname)

          Returns ‘True’ if the file path points to a package's
          ‘__init__’ module based on *note EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 295.

      -- 方法: get_code (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as extension modules lack a code object.

      -- 方法: get_source (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as extension modules do not have source code.

      -- 方法: get_filename (fullname)

          Returns *note path: 4257.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 類別: importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader (name, path, path_finder)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader:
     de1. for namespace packages.  This is an alias for a private class
     and is only made public for introspecting the ‘__loader__’
     attribute on namespace packages:

          >>> from importlib.machinery import NamespaceLoader
          >>> import my_namespace
          >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, NamespaceLoader)
          True
          >>> import importlib.abc
          >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, importlib.abc.Loader)
          True

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 類別: importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec (name, loader, *, origin=None,
          loader_state=None, is_package=None)

     A specification for a module's import-system-related state.  This
     is typically exposed as the module's *note __spec__: 1ca7.
     attribute.  Many of these attributes are also available directly on
     a module: for example, ‘module.__spec__.origin == module.__file__’.
     Note, however, that while the 'values' are usually equivalent, they
     can differ since there is no synchronization between the two
     objects.  For example, it is possible to update the module's *note
     __file__: 1cae. at runtime and this will not be automatically
     reflected in the module's *note __spec__.origin: 425d, and vice
     versa.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: name

          The module's fully qualified name (see *note module.__name__:
          1217.).  The *note finder: 1caf. should always set this
          attribute to a non-empty string.

      -- 屬性: loader

          The *note loader: 1463. used to load the module (see *note
          module.__loader__: 24d.).  The *note finder: 1caf. should
          always set this attribute.

      -- 屬性: origin

          The location the *note loader: 1463. should use to load the
          module (see *note module.__file__: 1cae.).  For example, for
          modules loaded from a ‘.py’ file this is the filename.  The
          *note finder: 1caf. should always set this attribute to a
          meaningful value for the *note loader: 1463. to use.  In the
          uncommon case that there is not one (like for namespace
          packages), it should be set to ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: submodule_search_locations

          A (possibly empty) *note sequence: 238. of strings enumerating
          the locations in which a package's submodules will be found
          (see *note module.__path__: 1a63.).  Most of the time there
          will only be a single directory in this list.

          The *note finder: 1caf. should set this attribute to a
          sequence, even an empty one, to indicate to the import system
          that the module is a package.  It should be set to ‘None’ for
          non-package modules.  It is set automatically later to a
          special object for namespace packages.

      -- 屬性: loader_state

          The *note finder: 1caf. may set this attribute to an object
          containing additional, module-specific data to use when
          loading the module.  Otherwise it should be set to ‘None’.

      -- 屬性: cached

          The filename of a compiled version of the module's code (see
          *note module.__cached__: 248.).  The *note finder: 1caf.
          should always set this attribute but it may be ‘None’ for
          modules that do not need compiled code stored.

      -- 屬性: parent

          (Read-only) The fully qualified name of the package the module
          is in (or the empty string for a top-level module).  See *note
          module.__package__: 245.  If the module is a package then this
          is the same as *note name: 1ca8.

      -- 屬性: has_location

          ‘True’ if the spec's *note origin: 425d. refers to a loadable
          location, ‘False’ otherwise.  This value impacts how ‘origin’
          is interpreted and how the module's *note __file__: 1cae. is
          populated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/machinery.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib util -- Utility code for importers,  Next: 範例<45>,  Prev: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks,  Up: importlib --- import 的實作

5.31.5.5 ‘importlib.util’ - Utility code for importers
......................................................

'原始碼：'Lib/importlib/util.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains the various objects that help in the construction
of an *note importer: 1d87.

 -- 屬性: importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER

     The bytes which represent the bytecode version number.  If you need
     help with loading/writing bytecode then consider *note
     importlib.abc.SourceLoader: 4234.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: importlib.util.cache_from_source (path, debug_override=None,
          *, optimization=None)

     Return the PEP 3147(2)/ PEP 488(3) path to the byte-compiled file
     associated with the source 'path'.  For example, if 'path' is
     ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ the return value would be
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ for Python 3.2.  The
     ‘cpython-32’ string comes from the current magic tag (see
     ‘get_tag()’; if ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is not defined then
     *note NotImplementedError: bc0. will be raised).

     The 'optimization' parameter is used to specify the optimization
     level of the bytecode file.  An empty string represents no
     optimization, so ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ with an 'optimization' of ‘''’
     will result in a bytecode path of
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’.  ‘None’ causes the
     interpreter's optimization level to be used.  Any other value's
     string representation is used, so ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ with an
     'optimization' of ‘2’ will lead to the bytecode path of
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.opt-2.pyc’.  The string
     representation of 'optimization' can only be alphanumeric, else
     *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

     The 'debug_override' parameter is deprecated and can be used to
     override the system's value for ‘__debug__’.  A ‘True’ value is the
     equivalent of setting 'optimization' to the empty string.  A
     ‘False’ value is the same as setting 'optimization' to ‘1’.  If
     both 'debug_override' an 'optimization' are not ‘None’ then *note
     TypeError: 2ba. is raised.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The 'optimization' parameter was added and the
     'debug_override' parameter was deprecated.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: importlib.util.source_from_cache (path)

     Given the 'path' to a PEP 3147(4) file name, return the associated
     source code file path.  For example, if 'path' is
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ the returned path would
     be ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’.  'path' need not exist, however if it does
     not conform to PEP 3147(5) or PEP 488(6) format, a *note
     ValueError: 183. is raised.  If ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is
     not defined, *note NotImplementedError: bc0. is raised.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: importlib.util.decode_source (source_bytes)

     Decode the given bytes representing source code and return it as a
     string with universal newlines (as required by *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source(): de5.).

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: importlib.util.resolve_name (name, package)

     Resolve a relative module name to an absolute one.

     If 'name' has no leading dots, then 'name' is simply returned.
     This allows for usage such as ‘importlib.util.resolve_name('sys',
     __spec__.parent)’ without doing a check to see if the 'package'
     argument is needed.

     *note ImportError: 145. is raised if 'name' is a relative module
     name but 'package' is a false value (e.g.  ‘None’ or the empty
     string).  *note ImportError: 145. is also raised if a relative name
     would escape its containing package (e.g.  requesting ‘..bacon’
     from within the ‘spam’ package).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版的變更: To improve consistency with import statements,
     raise *note ImportError: 145. instead of *note ValueError: 183. for
     invalid relative import attempts.

 -- 函式: importlib.util.find_spec (name, package=None)

     Find the *note spec: 1ca6. for a module, optionally relative to the
     specified 'package' name.  If the module is in *note sys.modules:
     1745, then ‘sys.modules[name].__spec__’ is returned (unless the
     spec would be ‘None’ or is not set, in which case *note ValueError:
     183. is raised).  Otherwise a search using *note sys.meta_path:
     b9d. is done.  ‘None’ is returned if no spec is found.

     If 'name' is for a submodule (contains a dot), the parent module is
     automatically imported.

     'name' and 'package' work the same as for ‘import_module()’.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Raises *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f. instead of
     *note AttributeError: 3ca. if 'package' is in fact not a package
     (i.e.  lacks a *note __path__: 1a63. attribute).

 -- 函式: importlib.util.module_from_spec (spec)

     Create a new module based on 'spec' and *note
     spec.loader.create_module: b1b.

     If *note spec.loader.create_module: b1b. does not return ‘None’,
     then any pre-existing attributes will not be reset.  Also, no *note
     AttributeError: 3ca. will be raised if triggered while accessing
     'spec' or setting an attribute on the module.

     This function is preferred over using *note types.ModuleType: c8c.
     to create a new module as 'spec' is used to set as many
     import-controlled attributes on the module as possible.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- 函式: importlib.util.spec_from_loader (name, loader, *, origin=None,
          is_package=None)

     A factory function for creating a *note ModuleSpec: 1ca9. instance
     based on a loader.  The parameters have the same meaning as they do
     for ModuleSpec.  The function uses available *note loader: 1463.
     APIs, such as ‘InspectLoader.is_package()’, to fill in any missing
     information on the spec.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: importlib.util.spec_from_file_location (name, location, *,
          loader=None, submodule_search_locations=None)

     A factory function for creating a *note ModuleSpec: 1ca9. instance
     based on the path to a file.  Missing information will be filled in
     on the spec by making use of loader APIs and by the implication
     that the module will be file-based.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- 函式: importlib.util.source_hash (source_bytes)

     Return the hash of 'source_bytes' as bytes.  A hash-based ‘.pyc’
     file embeds the *note source_hash(): 4261. of the corresponding
     source file's contents in its header.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 函式: importlib.util._incompatible_extension_module_restrictions (*,
          disable_check)

     A context manager that can temporarily skip the compatibility check
     for extension modules.  By default the check is enabled and will
     fail when a single-phase init module is imported in a
     subinterpreter.  It will also fail for a multi-phase init module
     that doesn't explicitly support a per-interpreter GIL, when
     imported in an interpreter with its own GIL.

     Note that this function is meant to accommodate an unusual case;
     one which is likely to eventually go away.  There's is a pretty
     good chance this is not what you were looking for.

     You can get the same effect as this function by implementing the
     basic interface of multi-phase init ( PEP 489(7)) and lying about
     support for multiple interpreters (or per-interpreter GIL).

          警告: Using this function to disable the check can lead to
          unexpected behavior and even crashes.  It should only be used
          during extension module development.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 類別: importlib.util.LazyLoader (loader)

     A class which postpones the execution of the loader of a module
     until the module has an attribute accessed.

     This class 'only' works with loaders that define *note
     exec_module(): 696. as control over what module type is used for
     the module is required.  For those same reasons, the loader's *note
     create_module(): b1b. method must return ‘None’ or a type for which
     its ‘__class__’ attribute can be mutated along with not using *note
     slots: 3d2.  Finally, modules which substitute the object placed
     into *note sys.modules: 1745. will not work as there is no way to
     properly replace the module references throughout the interpreter
     safely; *note ValueError: 183. is raised if such a substitution is
     detected.

          備註: For projects where startup time is critical, this class
          allows for potentially minimizing the cost of loading a module
          if it is never used.  For projects where startup time is not
          essential then use of this class is 'heavily' discouraged due
          to error messages created during loading being postponed and
          thus occurring out of context.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Began calling *note create_module(): b1b, removing
     the compatibility warning for *note
     importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: b1c. and *note
     importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: b1d.

      -- 方法: classmethod factory (loader)

          A class method which returns a callable that creates a lazy
          loader.  This is meant to be used in situations where the
          loader is passed by class instead of by instance.

               suffixes = importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES
               loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader
               lazy_loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory(loader)
               finder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, (lazy_loader, suffixes))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/util.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<45>,  Prev: importlib util -- Utility code for importers,  Up: importlib --- import 的實作

5.31.5.6 範例
.............

* Menu:

* Importing programmatically::
* Checking if a module can be imported::
* Importing a source file directly::
* Implementing lazy imports::
* Setting up an importer::
* Approximating importlib.import_module(): Approximating importlib import_module.


File: python.info,  Node: Importing programmatically,  Next: Checking if a module can be imported,  Up: 範例<45>

5.31.5.7 Importing programmatically
...................................

To programmatically import a module, use *note
importlib.import_module(): 298.

     import importlib

     itertools = importlib.import_module('itertools')


File: python.info,  Node: Checking if a module can be imported,  Next: Importing a source file directly,  Prev: Importing programmatically,  Up: 範例<45>

5.31.5.8 Checking if a module can be imported
.............................................

If you need to find out if a module can be imported without actually
doing the import, then you should use *note importlib.util.find_spec():
232.

Note that if ‘name’ is a submodule (contains a dot), *note
importlib.util.find_spec(): 232. will import the parent module.

     import importlib.util
     import sys

     # For illustrative purposes.
     name = 'itertools'

     if name in sys.modules:
         print(f"{name!r} already in sys.modules")
     elif (spec := importlib.util.find_spec(name)) is not None:
         # If you chose to perform the actual import ...
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         print(f"{name!r} has been imported")
     else:
         print(f"can't find the {name!r} module")


File: python.info,  Node: Importing a source file directly,  Next: Implementing lazy imports,  Prev: Checking if a module can be imported,  Up: 範例<45>

5.31.5.9 Importing a source file directly
.........................................

This recipe should be used with caution: it is an approximation of an
import statement where the file path is specified directly, rather than
*note sys.path: 35e. being searched.  Alternatives should first be
considered first, such as modifying *note sys.path: 35e. when a proper
module is required, or using *note runpy.run_path(): 11af. when the
global namespace resulting from running a Python file is appropriate.

To import a Python source file directly from a path, use the following
recipe:

     import importlib.util
     import sys


     def import_from_path(module_name, file_path):
         spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(module_name, file_path)
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[module_name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         return module


     # For illustrative purposes only (use of `json` is arbitrary).
     import json
     file_path = json.__file__
     module_name = json.__name__

     # Similar outcome as `import json`.
     json = import_from_path(module_name, file_path)


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing lazy imports,  Next: Setting up an importer,  Prev: Importing a source file directly,  Up: 範例<45>

5.31.5.10 Implementing lazy imports
...................................

The example below shows how to implement lazy imports:

     >>> import importlib.util
     >>> import sys
     >>> def lazy_import(name):
     ...     spec = importlib.util.find_spec(name)
     ...     loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader(spec.loader)
     ...     spec.loader = loader
     ...     module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
     ...     sys.modules[name] = module
     ...     loader.exec_module(module)
     ...     return module
     ...
     >>> lazy_typing = lazy_import("typing")
     >>> #lazy_typing is a real module object,
     >>> #but it is not loaded in memory yet.
     >>> lazy_typing.TYPE_CHECKING
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Setting up an importer,  Next: Approximating importlib import_module,  Prev: Implementing lazy imports,  Up: 範例<45>

5.31.5.11 Setting up an importer
................................

For deep customizations of import, you typically want to implement an
*note importer: 1d87.  This means managing both the *note finder: 1caf.
and *note loader: 1463. side of things.  For finders there are two
flavours to choose from depending on your needs: a *note meta path
finder: f06. or a *note path entry finder: f07.  The former is what you
would put on *note sys.meta_path: b9d. while the latter is what you
create using a *note path entry hook: 1d98. on *note sys.path_hooks:
eb8. which works with *note sys.path: 35e. entries to potentially create
a finder.  This example will show you how to register your own importers
so that import will use them (for creating an importer for yourself,
read the documentation for the appropriate classes defined within this
package):

     import importlib.machinery
     import sys

     # For illustrative purposes only.
     SpamMetaPathFinder = importlib.machinery.PathFinder
     SpamPathEntryFinder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder
     loader_details = (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader,
                       importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES)

     # Setting up a meta path finder.
     # Make sure to put the finder in the proper location in the list in terms of
     # priority.
     sys.meta_path.append(SpamMetaPathFinder)

     # Setting up a path entry finder.
     # Make sure to put the path hook in the proper location in the list in terms
     # of priority.
     sys.path_hooks.append(SpamPathEntryFinder.path_hook(loader_details))


File: python.info,  Node: Approximating importlib import_module,  Prev: Setting up an importer,  Up: 範例<45>

5.31.5.12 Approximating ‘importlib.import_module()’
...................................................

Import itself is implemented in Python code, making it possible to
expose most of the import machinery through importlib.  The following
helps illustrate the various APIs that importlib exposes by providing an
approximate implementation of *note importlib.import_module(): 298.:

     import importlib.util
     import sys

     def import_module(name, package=None):
         """An approximate implementation of import."""
         absolute_name = importlib.util.resolve_name(name, package)
         try:
             return sys.modules[absolute_name]
         except KeyError:
             pass

         path = None
         if '.' in absolute_name:
             parent_name, _, child_name = absolute_name.rpartition('.')
             parent_module = import_module(parent_name)
             path = parent_module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations
         for finder in sys.meta_path:
             spec = finder.find_spec(absolute_name, path)
             if spec is not None:
                 break
         else:
             msg = f'No module named {absolute_name!r}'
             raise ModuleNotFoundError(msg, name=absolute_name)
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[absolute_name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         if path is not None:
             setattr(parent_module, child_name, module)
         return module


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access,  Next: importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別,  Prev: importlib --- import 的實作,  Up: 引入模組

5.31.6 ‘importlib.resources’ - Package resource reading, opening and access
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

在 3.7 版被加入.

This module leverages Python's import system to provide access to
'resources' within 'packages'.

"Resources" are file-like resources associated with a module or package
in Python.  The resources may be contained directly in a package, within
a subdirectory contained in that package, or adjacent to modules outside
a package.  Resources may be text or binary.  As a result, Python module
sources (.py) of a package and compilation artifacts (pycache) are
technically de-facto resources of that package.  In practice, however,
resources are primarily those non-Python artifacts exposed specifically
by the package author.

Resources can be opened or read in either binary or text mode.

Resources are roughly akin to files inside directories, though it's
important to keep in mind that this is just a metaphor.  Resources and
packages 'do not' have to exist as physical files and directories on the
file system: for example, a package and its resources can be imported
from a zip file using *note zipimport: 12c.

     備註: This module provides functionality similar to
     pkg_resources(2) Basic Resource Access(3) without the performance
     overhead of that package.  This makes reading resources included in
     packages easier, with more stable and consistent semantics.

     The standalone backport of this module provides more information on
     using importlib.resources(4) and migrating from pkg_resources to
     importlib.resources(5).

*note Loaders: d48. that wish to support resource reading should
implement a ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ method as specified by *note
importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 422a.

 -- 類別: importlib.resources.Anchor

     Represents an anchor for resources, either a *note module object:
     c8c. or a module name as a string.  Defined as ‘Union[str,
     ModuleType]’.

 -- 函式: importlib.resources.files (anchor: Anchor | None = None)

     Returns a *note Traversable: 22b. object representing the resource
     container (think directory) and its resources (think files).  A
     Traversable may contain other containers (think subdirectories).

     'anchor' is an optional *note Anchor: 426e.  If the anchor is a
     package, resources are resolved from that package.  If a module,
     resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same package
     or the package root).  If the anchor is omitted, the caller's
     module is used.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 'package' parameter was renamed to 'anchor'.
     'anchor' can now be a non-package module and if omitted will
     default to the caller's module.  'package' is still accepted for
     compatibility but will raise a *note DeprecationWarning: 179.
     Consider passing the anchor positionally or using
     ‘importlib_resources >= 5.10’ for a compatible interface on older
     Pythons.

 -- 函式: importlib.resources.as_file (traversable)

     Given a *note Traversable: 22b. object representing a file or
     directory, typically from *note importlib.resources.files(): 1ab,
     return a context manager for use in a *note with: 3c5. statement.
     The context manager provides a *note pathlib.Path: 149. object.

     Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file or
     directory created when the resource was extracted from e.g.  a zip
     file.

     Use ‘as_file’ when the Traversable methods (‘read_text’, etc) are
     insufficient and an actual file or directory on the file system is
     required.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Added support for 'traversable' representing a
     directory.

* Menu:

* 已棄用函式::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py

   (2) https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html

   (3) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#basic-resource-access

   (4) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html

   (5) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用函式,  Up: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access

5.31.6.1 已棄用函式
...................

An older, deprecated set of functions is still available, but is
scheduled for removal in a future version of Python.  The main drawback
of these functions is that they do not support directories: they assume
all resources are located directly within a 'package'.

 -- 資料: importlib.resources.Package

          Whenever a function accepts a ‘Package’ argument, you can pass
          in either a *note module object: c8c. or a module name as a
          string.  You can only pass module objects whose
          ‘__spec__.submodule_search_locations’ is not ‘None’.

          The ‘Package’ type is defined as ‘Union[str, ModuleType]’.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- 資料: importlib.resources.Resource

     For 'resource' arguments of the functions below, you can pass in
     the name of a resource as a string or a *note path-like object:
     ab7.

     The ‘Resource’ type is defined as ‘Union[str, os.PathLike]’.

 -- 函式: importlib.resources.open_binary (package, resource)

     Open for binary reading the 'resource' within 'package'.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.  'resource' is the name of the resource to
     open within 'package'; it may not contain path separators and it
     may not have sub-resources (i.e.  it cannot be a directory).  This
     function returns a ‘typing.BinaryIO’ instance, a binary I/O stream
     open for reading.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用: Calls to this function can be replaced by:

          files(package).joinpath(resource).open('rb')

 -- 函式: importlib.resources.open_text (package, resource,
          encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Open for text reading the 'resource' within 'package'.  By default,
     the resource is opened for reading as UTF-8.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.  'resource' is the name of the resource to
     open within 'package'; it may not contain path separators and it
     may not have sub-resources (i.e.  it cannot be a directory).
     'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as with built-in
     *note open(): 29c.

     This function returns a ‘typing.TextIO’ instance, a text I/O stream
     open for reading.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用: Calls to this function can be replaced by:

          files(package).joinpath(resource).open('r', encoding=encoding)

 -- 函式: importlib.resources.read_binary (package, resource)

     Read and return the contents of the 'resource' within 'package' as
     ‘bytes’.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.  'resource' is the name of the resource to
     open within 'package'; it may not contain path separators and it
     may not have sub-resources (i.e.  it cannot be a directory).  This
     function returns the contents of the resource as *note bytes: 2c1.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用: Calls to this function can be replaced by:

          files(package).joinpath(resource).read_bytes()

 -- 函式: importlib.resources.read_text (package, resource,
          encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Read and return the contents of 'resource' within 'package' as a
     ‘str’.  By default, the contents are read as strict UTF-8.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.  'resource' is the name of the resource to
     open within 'package'; it may not contain path separators and it
     may not have sub-resources (i.e.  it cannot be a directory).
     'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as with built-in
     *note open(): 29c.  This function returns the contents of the
     resource as *note str: 157.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用: Calls to this function can be replaced by:

          files(package).joinpath(resource).read_text(encoding=encoding)

 -- 函式: importlib.resources.path (package, resource)

     Return the path to the 'resource' as an actual file system path.
     This function returns a context manager for use in a *note with:
     3c5. statement.  The context manager provides a *note pathlib.Path:
     149. object.

     Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file created
     when the resource needs to be extracted from e.g.  a zip file.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.  'resource' is the name of the resource to
     open within 'package'; it may not contain path separators and it
     may not have sub-resources (i.e.  it cannot be a directory).

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用: Calls to this function can be replaced using
     *note as_file(): 1aa.:

          as_file(files(package).joinpath(resource))

 -- 函式: importlib.resources.is_resource (package, name)

     Return ‘True’ if there is a resource named 'name' in the package,
     otherwise ‘False’.  This function does not consider directories to
     be resources.  'package' is either a name or a module object which
     conforms to the ‘Package’ requirements.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用: Calls to this function can be replaced by:

          files(package).joinpath(resource).is_file()

 -- 函式: importlib.resources.contents (package)

     Return an iterable over the named items within the package.  The
     iterable returns *note str: 157. resources (e.g.  files) and
     non-resources (e.g.  directories).  The iterable does not recurse
     into subdirectories.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用: Calls to this function can be replaced by:

          (resource.name for resource in files(package).iterdir() if resource.is_file())


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別,  Next: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料,  Prev: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access,  Up: 引入模組

5.31.7 ‘importlib.resources.abc’ - 資源的抽象基底類別
-----------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 類別: importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader

     'Superseded by TraversableResources'

     An *note abstract base class: 1047. to provide the ability to read
     'resources'.

     From the perspective of this ABC, a 'resource' is a binary artifact
     that is shipped within a package.  Typically this is something like
     a data file that lives next to the ‘__init__.py’ file of the
     package.  The purpose of this class is to help abstract out the
     accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if the
     package and its data file(s) are stored e.g.  in a zip file versus
     on the file system.

     For any of methods of this class, a 'resource' argument is expected
     to be a *note path-like object: 975. which represents conceptually
     just a file name.  This means that no subdirectory paths should be
     included in the 'resource' argument.  This is because the location
     of the package the reader is for, acts as the "directory".  Hence
     the metaphor for directories and file names is packages and
     resources, respectively.  This is also why instances of this class
     are expected to directly correlate to a specific package (instead
     of potentially representing multiple packages or a module).

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     provide a method called ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ which
     returns an object implementing this ABC's interface.  If the module
     specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return
     *note None: 470.  An object compatible with this ABC should only be
     returned when the specified module is a package.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 22c. instead.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod open_resource (resource)

          Returns an opened, *note file-like object: 2319. for binary
          reading of the 'resource'.

          If the resource cannot be found, *note FileNotFoundError: d46.
          is raised.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod resource_path (resource)

          Returns the file system path to the 'resource'.

          If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system,
          raise *note FileNotFoundError: d46.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod is_resource (name)

          Returns ‘True’ if the named 'name' is considered a resource.
          *note FileNotFoundError: d46. is raised if 'name' does not
          exist.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod contents ()

          Returns an *note iterable: 10ba. of strings over the contents
          of the package.  Do note that it is not required that all
          names returned by the iterator be actual resources, e.g.  it
          is acceptable to return names for which *note is_resource():
          4276. would be false.

          Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow for
          situations where how a package and its resources are stored
          are known a priori and the non-resource names would be useful.
          For instance, returning subdirectory names is allowed so that
          when it is known that the package and resources are stored on
          the file system then those subdirectory names can be used
          directly.

          The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.

 -- 類別: importlib.resources.abc.Traversable

     An object with a subset of *note pathlib.Path: 149. methods
     suitable for traversing directories and opening files.

     For a representation of the object on the file-system, use *note
     importlib.resources.as_file(): 1aa.

      -- 屬性: name

          Abstract.  The base name of this object without any parent
          references.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod iterdir ()

          Yield Traversable objects in self.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod is_dir ()

          Return ‘True’ if self is a directory.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod is_file ()

          Return ‘True’ if self is a file.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod joinpath (*pathsegments)

          Traverse directories according to 'pathsegments' and return
          the result as ‘Traversable’.

          Each 'pathsegments' argument may contain multiple names
          separated by forward slashes (‘/’, ‘posixpath.sep’ ).  For
          example, the following are equivalent:

               files.joinpath('subdir', 'subsuddir', 'file.txt')
               files.joinpath('subdir/subsuddir/file.txt')

          Note that some ‘Traversable’ implementations might not be
          updated to the latest version of the protocol.  For
          compatibility with such implementations, provide a single
          argument without path separators to each call to ‘joinpath’.
          For example:

               files.joinpath('subdir').joinpath('subsubdir').joinpath('file.txt')

          在 3.11 版的變更: ‘joinpath’ accepts multiple 'pathsegments',
          and these segments may contain forward slashes as path
          separators.  Previously, only a single 'child' argument was
          accepted.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod __truediv__ (child)

          Return Traversable child in self.  Equivalent to
          ‘joinpath(child)’.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod open (mode='r', *args, **kwargs)

          'mode' may be 'r' or 'rb' to open as text or binary.  Return a
          handle suitable for reading (same as *note pathlib.Path.open:
          253f.).

          When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as
          those accepted by *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9.

      -- 方法: read_bytes ()

          Read contents of self as bytes.

      -- 方法: read_text (encoding=None)

          Read contents of self as text.

 -- 類別: importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources

     An abstract base class for resource readers capable of serving the
     *note importlib.resources.files(): 1ab. interface.  Subclasses
     *note ResourceReader: 422a. and provides concrete implementations
     of the ‘ResourceReader’'s abstract methods.  Therefore, any loader
     supplying ‘TraversableResources’ also supplies ‘ResourceReader’.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     implement this interface.

      -- 方法: abstractmethod files ()

          Returns a *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 22b.
          object for the loaded package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料,  Next: The initialization of the sys path module search path,  Prev: importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別,  Up: 引入模組

5.31.8 ‘importlib.metadata’ - 存取套件的元資料
----------------------------------------------

在 3.8 版被加入.

在 3.10 版的變更: ‘importlib.metadata’ is no longer provisional.

'原始碼：'Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py(1)

‘importlib.metadata’ is a library that provides access to the metadata
of an installed Distribution Package(2), such as its entry points or its
top-level names (Import Package(3)s, modules, if any).  Built in part on
Python's import system, this library intends to replace similar
functionality in the entry point API(4) and metadata API(5) of
‘pkg_resources’.  Along with *note importlib.resources: 75, this package
can eliminate the need to use the older and less efficient
‘pkg_resources’ package.

‘importlib.metadata’ operates on third-party 'distribution packages'
installed into Python's ‘site-packages’ directory via tools such as
pip(6).  Specifically, it works with distributions with discoverable
‘dist-info’ or ‘egg-info’ directories, and metadata defined by the Core
metadata specifications(7).

     重要: These are 'not' necessarily equivalent to or correspond 1:1
     with the top-level 'import package' names that can be imported
     inside Python code.  One 'distribution package' can contain
     multiple 'import packages' (and single modules), and one top-level
     'import package' may map to multiple 'distribution packages' if it
     is a namespace package.  You can use *note package_distributions():
     633. to get a mapping between them.

By default, distribution metadata can live on the file system or in zip
archives on *note sys.path: 35e.  Through an extension mechanism, the
metadata can live almost anywhere.

也參考
......

‘https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/’

     The documentation for ‘importlib_metadata’, which supplies a
     backport of ‘importlib.metadata’.  This includes an API
     reference(8) for this module's classes and functions, as well as a
     migration guide(9) for existing users of ‘pkg_resources’.

* Menu:

* Overview: Overview<2>.
* Functional API::
* Distributions::
* Distribution Discovery::
* Extending the search algorithm::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (3) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package

   (4) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#entry-points

   (5) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#metadata-api

   (6) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (7) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata

   (8) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html

   (9) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html


File: python.info,  Node: Overview<2>,  Next: Functional API,  Up: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料

5.31.8.1 Overview
.................

Let's say you wanted to get the version string for a Distribution
Package(1) you've installed using ‘pip’.  We start by creating a virtual
environment and installing something into it:

     $ python -m venv example
     $ source example/bin/activate
     (example) $ python -m pip install wheel

You can get the version string for ‘wheel’ by running the following:

     (example) $ python
     >>> from importlib.metadata import version
     >>> version('wheel')
     '0.32.3'

You can also get a collection of entry points selectable by properties
of the EntryPoint (typically 'group' or 'name'), such as
‘console_scripts’, ‘distutils.commands’ and others.  Each group contains
a collection of *note EntryPoint: 632. objects.

You can get the *note metadata for a distribution: 4286.:

     >>> list(metadata('wheel'))
     ['Metadata-Version', 'Name', 'Version', 'Summary', 'Home-page', 'Author', 'Author-email', 'Maintainer', 'Maintainer-email', 'License', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Keywords', 'Platform', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Requires-Python', 'Provides-Extra', 'Requires-Dist', 'Requires-Dist']

You can also get a *note distribution's version number: 4287, list its
*note constituent files: 4288, and get a list of the distribution's
*note Distribution requirements: 4289.

 -- 例外: importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError

     Subclass of *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f. raised by several
     functions in this module when queried for a distribution package
     which is not installed in the current Python environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Functional API,  Next: Distributions,  Prev: Overview<2>,  Up: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料

5.31.8.2 Functional API
.......................

This package provides the following functionality via its public API.

* Menu:

* Entry points::
* Distribution metadata::
* Distribution versions::
* Distribution files::
* Distribution requirements::
* Mapping import to distribution packages::


File: python.info,  Node: Entry points,  Next: Distribution metadata,  Up: Functional API

5.31.8.3 Entry points
.....................

 -- 函式: importlib.metadata.entry_points (**select_params)

     Returns a *note EntryPoints: 428e. instance describing entry points
     for the current environment.  Any given keyword parameters are
     passed to the ‘select()’ method for comparison to the attributes of
     the individual entry point definitions.

     Note: it is not currently possible to query for entry points based
     on their ‘EntryPoint.dist’ attribute (as different ‘Distribution’
     instances do not currently compare equal, even if they have the
     same attributes)

 -- 類別: importlib.metadata.EntryPoints

     Details of a collection of installed entry points.

     Also provides a ‘.groups’ attribute that reports all identifed
     entry point groups, and a ‘.names’ attribute that reports all
     identified entry point names.

 -- 類別: importlib.metadata.EntryPoint

     Details of an installed entry point.

     Each ‘EntryPoint’ instance has ‘.name’, ‘.group’, and ‘.value’
     attributes and a ‘.load()’ method to resolve the value.  There are
     also ‘.module’, ‘.attr’, and ‘.extras’ attributes for getting the
     components of the ‘.value’ attribute, and ‘.dist’ for obtaining
     information regarding the distribution package that provides the
     entry point.

Query all entry points:

     >>> eps = entry_points()

The ‘entry_points()’ function returns a ‘EntryPoints’ object, a
collection of all ‘EntryPoint’ objects with ‘names’ and ‘groups’
attributes for convenience:

     >>> sorted(eps.groups)
     ['console_scripts', 'distutils.commands', 'distutils.setup_keywords', 'egg_info.writers', 'setuptools.installation']

‘EntryPoints’ has a ‘select()’ method to select entry points matching
specific properties.  Select entry points in the ‘console_scripts’
group:

     >>> scripts = eps.select(group='console_scripts')

Equivalently, since ‘entry_points()’ passes keyword arguments through to
select:

     >>> scripts = entry_points(group='console_scripts')

Pick out a specific script named "wheel" (found in the wheel project):

     >>> 'wheel' in scripts.names
     True
     >>> wheel = scripts['wheel']

Equivalently, query for that entry point during selection:

     >>> (wheel,) = entry_points(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')
     >>> (wheel,) = entry_points().select(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')

Inspect the resolved entry point:

     >>> wheel
     EntryPoint(name='wheel', value='wheel.cli:main', group='console_scripts')
     >>> wheel.module
     'wheel.cli'
     >>> wheel.attr
     'main'
     >>> wheel.extras
     []
     >>> main = wheel.load()
     >>> main
     <function main at 0x103528488>

The ‘group’ and ‘name’ are arbitrary values defined by the package
author and usually a client will wish to resolve all entry points for a
particular group.  Read the setuptools docs(1) for more information on
entry points, their definition, and usage.

'Compatibility Note'

The "selectable" entry points were introduced in ‘importlib_metadata’
3.6 and Python 3.10.  Prior to those changes, ‘entry_points’ accepted no
parameters and always returned a dictionary of entry points, keyed by
group.  With ‘importlib_metadata’ 5.0 and Python 3.12, ‘entry_points’
always returns an ‘EntryPoints’ object.  See
backports.entry_points_selectable(2) for compatibility options.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/userguide/entry_point.html

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/backports.entry_points_selectable/


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution metadata,  Next: Distribution versions,  Prev: Entry points,  Up: Functional API

5.31.8.4 Distribution metadata
..............................

 -- 函式: importlib.metadata.metadata (distribution_name)

     Return the distribution metadata corresponding to the named
     distribution package as a *note PackageMetadata: 4292. instance.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 428a. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

 -- 類別: importlib.metadata.PackageMetadata

     A concrete implementation of the PackageMetadata protocol(1).

     In addition to providing the defined protocol methods and
     attributes, subscripting the instance is equivalent to calling the
     ‘get()’ method.

Every Distribution Package(2) includes some metadata, which you can
extract using the ‘metadata()’ function:

     >>> wheel_metadata = metadata('wheel')

The keys of the returned data structure name the metadata keywords, and
the values are returned unparsed from the distribution metadata:

     >>> wheel_metadata['Requires-Python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

*note PackageMetadata: 4292. also presents a ‘json’ attribute that
returns all the metadata in a JSON-compatible form per PEP 566(3):

     >>> wheel_metadata.json['requires_python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

The full set of available metadata is not described here.  See the PyPA
Core metadata specification(4) for additional details.

在 3.10 版的變更: The ‘Description’ is now included in the metadata when
presented through the payload.  Line continuation characters have been
removed.

新增 ‘json’ 屬性。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html#importlib_metadata.PackageMetadata

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0566/

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution versions,  Next: Distribution files,  Prev: Distribution metadata,  Up: Functional API

5.31.8.5 Distribution versions
..............................

 -- 函式: importlib.metadata.version (distribution_name)

     Return the installed distribution package version for the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 428a. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

The ‘version()’ function is the quickest way to get a Distribution
Package(1)'s version number, as a string:

     >>> version('wheel')
     '0.32.3'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution files,  Next: Distribution requirements,  Prev: Distribution versions,  Up: Functional API

5.31.8.6 Distribution files
...........................

 -- 函式: importlib.metadata.files (distribution_name)

     Return the full set of files contained within the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 428a. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

     Returns *note None: 470. if the distribution is found but the
     installation database records reporting the files associated with
     the distribuion package are missing.

 -- 類別: importlib.metadata.PackagePath

     A *note pathlib.PurePath: 1c8. derived object with additional
     ‘dist’, ‘size’, and ‘hash’ properties corresponding to the
     distribution package's installation metadata for that file.

The ‘files()’ function takes a Distribution Package(1) name and returns
all of the files installed by this distribution.  Each file is reported
as a *note PackagePath: 4296. instance.  For example:

     >>> util = [p for p in files('wheel') if 'util.py' in str(p)][0]
     >>> util
     PackagePath('wheel/util.py')
     >>> util.size
     859
     >>> util.dist
     <importlib.metadata._hooks.PathDistribution object at 0x101e0cef0>
     >>> util.hash
     <FileHash mode: sha256 value: bYkw5oMccfazVCoYQwKkkemoVyMAFoR34mmKBx8R1NI>

Once you have the file, you can also read its contents:

     >>> print(util.read_text())
     import base64
     import sys
     ...
     def as_bytes(s):
         if isinstance(s, text_type):
             return s.encode('utf-8')
         return s

You can also use the ‘locate()’ method to get the absolute path to the
file:

     >>> util.locate()
     PosixPath('/home/gustav/example/lib/site-packages/wheel/util.py')

In the case where the metadata file listing files (‘RECORD’ or
‘SOURCES.txt’) is missing, ‘files()’ will return *note None: 470.  The
caller may wish to wrap calls to ‘files()’ in always_iterable(2) or
otherwise guard against this condition if the target distribution is not
known to have the metadata present.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.always_iterable


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution requirements,  Next: Mapping import to distribution packages,  Prev: Distribution files,  Up: Functional API

5.31.8.7 Distribution requirements
..................................

 -- 函式: importlib.metadata.requires (distribution_name)

     Return the declared dependency specifiers for the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 428a. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

To get the full set of requirements for a Distribution Package(1), use
the ‘requires()’ function:

     >>> requires('wheel')
     ["pytest (>=3.0.0) ; extra == 'test'", "pytest-cov ; extra == 'test'"]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping import to distribution packages,  Prev: Distribution requirements,  Up: Functional API

5.31.8.8 Mapping import to distribution packages
................................................

 -- 函式: importlib.metadata.packages_distributions ()

     Return a mapping from the top level module and import package names
     found via *note sys.meta_path: b9d. to the names of the
     distribution packages (if any) that provide the corresponding
     files.

     To allow for namespace packages (which may have members provided by
     multiple distribution packages), each top level import name maps to
     a list of distribution names rather than mapping directly to a
     single name.

A convenience method to resolve the Distribution Package(1) name (or
names, in the case of a namespace package) that provide each importable
top-level Python module or Import Package(2):

     >>> packages_distributions()
     {'importlib_metadata': ['importlib-metadata'], 'yaml': ['PyYAML'], 'jaraco': ['jaraco.classes', 'jaraco.functools'], ...}

Some editable installs, do not supply top-level names(3), and thus this
function is not reliable with such installs.

在 3.10 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package

   (3) https://github.com/pypa/packaging-problems/issues/609


File: python.info,  Node: Distributions,  Next: Distribution Discovery,  Prev: Functional API,  Up: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料

5.31.8.9 Distributions
......................

 -- 函式: importlib.metadata.distribution (distribution_name)

     Return a *note Distribution: 429e. instance describing the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 428a. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

 -- 類別: importlib.metadata.Distribution

     Details of an installed distribution package.

     Note: different ‘Distribution’ instances do not currently compare
     equal, even if they relate to the same installed distribution and
     accordingly have the same attributes.

While the module level API described above is the most common and
convenient usage, you can get all of that information from the
‘Distribution’ class.  ‘Distribution’ is an abstract object that
represents the metadata for a Python Distribution Package(1).  You can
get the concreate ‘Distribution’ subclass instance for an installed
distribution package by calling the *note distribution(): 429d.
function:

     >>> from importlib.metadata import distribution
     >>> dist = distribution('wheel')
     >>> type(dist)
     <class 'importlib.metadata.PathDistribution'>

Thus, an alternative way to get the version number is through the
‘Distribution’ instance:

     >>> dist.version
     '0.32.3'

There are all kinds of additional metadata available on ‘Distribution’
instances:

     >>> dist.metadata['Requires-Python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'
     >>> dist.metadata['License']
     'MIT'

The full set of available metadata is not described here.  See the PyPA
Core metadata specification(2) for additional details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution Discovery,  Next: Extending the search algorithm,  Prev: Distributions,  Up: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料

5.31.8.10 Distribution Discovery
................................

By default, this package provides built-in support for discovery of
metadata for file system and zip file Distribution Package(1)s.  This
metadata finder search defaults to ‘sys.path’, but varies slightly in
how it interprets those values from how other import machinery does.  In
particular:

   - ‘importlib.metadata’ does not honor *note bytes: 2c1. objects on
     ‘sys.path’.

   - ‘importlib.metadata’ will incidentally honor *note pathlib.Path:
     149. objects on ‘sys.path’ even though such values will be ignored
     for imports.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Extending the search algorithm,  Prev: Distribution Discovery,  Up: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料

5.31.8.11 Extending the search algorithm
........................................

Because Distribution Package(1) metadata is not available through *note
sys.path: 35e. searches, or package loaders directly, the metadata for a
distribution is found through import system *note finders: 1d85.  To
find a distribution package's metadata, ‘importlib.metadata’ queries the
list of *note meta path finders: f06. on *note sys.meta_path: b9d.

By default ‘importlib.metadata’ installs a finder for distribution
packages found on the file system.  This finder doesn't actually find
any 'distributions', but it can find their metadata.

The abstract class *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 69a. defines the
interface expected of finders by Python's import system.
‘importlib.metadata’ extends this protocol by looking for an optional
‘find_distributions’ callable on the finders from *note sys.meta_path:
b9d. and presents this extended interface as the ‘DistributionFinder’
abstract base class, which defines this abstract method:

     @abc.abstractmethod
     def find_distributions(context=DistributionFinder.Context()):
         """Return an iterable of all Distribution instances capable of
         loading the metadata for packages for the indicated ``context``.
         """

The ‘DistributionFinder.Context’ object provides ‘.path’ and ‘.name’
properties indicating the path to search and name to match and may
supply other relevant context.

What this means in practice is that to support finding distribution
package metadata in locations other than the file system, subclass
‘Distribution’ and implement the abstract methods.  Then from a custom
finder, return instances of this derived ‘Distribution’ in the
‘find_distributions()’ method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: The initialization of the sys path module search path,  Prev: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料,  Up: 引入模組

5.31.9 The initialization of the ‘sys.path’ module search path
--------------------------------------------------------------

A module search path is initialized when Python starts.  This module
search path may be accessed at *note sys.path: 35e.

The first entry in the module search path is the directory that contains
the input script, if there is one.  Otherwise, the first entry is the
current directory, which is the case when executing the interactive
shell, a *note -c: 3d3. command, or *note -m: 3d4. module.

The *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. environment variable is often used to add
directories to the search path.  If this environment variable is found
then the contents are added to the module search path.

     備註: *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. will affect all installed Python
     versions/environments.  Be wary of setting this in your shell
     profile or global environment variables.  The *note site: c2.
     module offers more nuanced techniques as mentioned below.

The next items added are the directories containing standard Python
modules as well as any *note extension module: 42a3.s that these modules
depend on.  Extension modules are ‘.pyd’ files on Windows and ‘.so’
files on other platforms.  The directory with the platform-independent
Python modules is called ‘prefix’.  The directory with the extension
modules is called ‘exec_prefix’.

The *note PYTHONHOME: 365. environment variable may be used to set the
‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ locations.  Otherwise these directories are
found by using the Python executable as a starting point and then
looking for various 'landmark' files and directories.  Note that any
symbolic links are followed so the real Python executable location is
used as the search starting point.  The Python executable location is
called ‘home’.

Once ‘home’ is determined, the ‘prefix’ directory is found by first
looking for ‘python`majorversion'`minorversion'.zip’ (‘python311.zip’).
On Windows the zip archive is searched for in ‘home’ and on Unix the
archive is expected to be in ‘lib’.  Note that the expected zip archive
location is added to the module search path even if the archive does not
exist.  If no archive was found, Python on Windows will continue the
search for ‘prefix’ by looking for ‘Lib\os.py’.  Python on Unix will
look for ‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/os.py’
(‘lib/python3.11/os.py’).  On Windows ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are the
same, however on other platforms
‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/lib-dynload’
(‘lib/python3.11/lib-dynload’) is searched for and used as an anchor for
‘exec_prefix’.  On some platforms ‘lib’ may be ‘lib64’ or another value,
see *note sys.platlibdir: 777. and *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 1715.

Once found, ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are available at *note
sys.prefix: 360. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 35c. respectively.

Finally, the *note site: c2. module is processed and ‘site-packages’
directories are added to the module search path.  A common way to
customize the search path is to create *note sitecustomize: c3. or *note
usercustomize: 109. modules as described in the *note site: c2. module
documentation.

     備註: Certain command line options may further affect path
     calculations.  See *note -E: 79e, *note -I: 79f, *note -s: 121a.
     and *note -S: 103a. for further details.

* Menu:

* Virtual environments::
* _pth files::
* Embedded Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual environments,  Next: _pth files,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.31.9.1 Virtual environments
.............................

If Python is run in a virtual environment (as described at *note
虛擬環境與套件: 1af4.) then ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are specific to
the virtual environment.

If a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file is found alongside the main executable, or in the
directory one level above the executable, the following variations
apply:

   * If ‘home’ is an absolute path and *note PYTHONHOME: 365. is not
     set, this path is used instead of the path to the main executable
     when deducing ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’.


File: python.info,  Node: _pth files,  Next: Embedded Python,  Prev: Virtual environments,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.31.9.2 _pth files
...................

To completely override *note sys.path: 35e. create a ‘._pth’ file with
the same name as the shared library or executable (‘python._pth’ or
‘python311._pth’).  The shared library path is always known on Windows,
however it may not be available on other platforms.  In the ‘._pth’ file
specify one line for each path to add to *note sys.path: 35e.  The file
based on the shared library name overrides the one based on the
executable, which allows paths to be restricted for any program loading
the runtime if desired.

When the file exists, all registry and environment variables are
ignored, isolated mode is enabled, and *note site: c2. is not imported
unless one line in the file specifies ‘import site’.  Blank paths and
lines starting with ‘#’ are ignored.  Each path may be absolute or
relative to the location of the file.  Import statements other than to
‘site’ are not permitted, and arbitrary code cannot be specified.

Note that ‘.pth’ files (without leading underscore) will be processed
normally by the *note site: c2. module when ‘import site’ has been
specified.


File: python.info,  Node: Embedded Python,  Prev: _pth files,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.31.9.3 Embedded Python
........................

If Python is embedded within another application *note
Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. and the *note PyConfig: 345. structure
can be used to initialize Python.  The path specific details are
described at *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3.  Alternatively the
older *note Py_SetPath(): 1be6. can be used to bypass the initialization
of the module search path.

也參考
......

   * *note 找尋模組: a84. for detailed Windows notes.

   * *note 在 Unix 平臺上使用 Python: 1b4a. for Unix details.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 語言服務,  Next: MS Windows 特有服務,  Prev: 引入模組,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.32 Python 語言服務
====================

Python provides a number of modules to assist in working with the Python
language.  These modules support tokenizing, parsing, syntax analysis,
bytecode disassembly, and various other facilities.

這些模組包括：

* Menu:

* ast: ast --- 抽象語法樹 Abstract Syntax Trees. 抽象語法樹 (Abstract Syntax Trees)
* symtable: symtable --- 存取編譯器的符號表. 存取編譯器的符號表
* token: token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數. 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數
* keyword: keyword --- 檢驗 Python 關鍵字. 檢驗 Python 關鍵字
* tokenize: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source. Tokenizer for Python source
* tabnanny: tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排. 偵測不良縮排
* pyclbr: pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援. Python 模組瀏覽器支援
* py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案::
* compileall: compileall --- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫. 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫
* dis: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器. Python bytecode 的反組譯器
* pickletools: pickletools --- pickle 開發者的工具. pickle 開發者的工具


File: python.info,  Node: ast --- 抽象語法樹 Abstract Syntax Trees,  Next: symtable --- 存取編譯器的符號表,  Up: Python 語言服務

5.32.1 ‘ast’ -- 抽象語法樹 (Abstract Syntax Trees)
--------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/ast.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ast: 8. 模組可以幫助 Python 應用程式處理 Python 抽象語法文法
(abstract syntax grammar) 樹狀資料結構。抽象語法本身可能會隨著每個
Python 版本發布而改變；此模組有助於以程式化的方式來得知當前文法的面貌。

要生成抽象語法樹，可以透過將 *note ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST: 42ac. 作為旗標傳遞
給內建函式 *note compile(): 554. 或使用此模組所提供的 *note parse():
182. 輔助函式。結果將會是一個物件的樹，其類別都繼承自 *note ast.AST:
553.。可以使用內建的 *note compile(): 554. 函式將抽象語法樹編譯成 Python
程式碼物件。

* Menu:

* 抽象文法 (Abstract Grammar): 抽象文法 Abstract Grammar.
* 節點 (Node) 類別: 節點 Node 類別.
* ast 輔助程式::
* 編譯器旗標: 編譯器旗標<2>.
* 命令列用法: 命令列用法<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ast.py


File: python.info,  Node: 抽象文法 Abstract Grammar,  Next: 節點 Node 類別,  Up: ast --- 抽象語法樹 Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.1 抽象文法 (Abstract Grammar)
....................................

抽象文法目前定義如下：

     -- ASDL's 4 builtin types are:
     -- identifier, int, string, constant

     module Python
     {
         mod = Module(stmt* body, type_ignore* type_ignores)
             | Interactive(stmt* body)
             | Expression(expr body)
             | FunctionType(expr* argtypes, expr returns)

         stmt = FunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                            stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                            string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)
               | AsyncFunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                                  stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                                  string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)

               | ClassDef(identifier name,
                  expr* bases,
                  keyword* keywords,
                  stmt* body,
                  expr* decorator_list,
                  type_param* type_params)
               | Return(expr? value)

               | Delete(expr* targets)
               | Assign(expr* targets, expr value, string? type_comment)
               | TypeAlias(expr name, type_param* type_params, expr value)
               | AugAssign(expr target, operator op, expr value)
               -- 'simple' indicates that we annotate simple name without parens
               | AnnAssign(expr target, expr annotation, expr? value, int simple)

               -- use 'orelse' because else is a keyword in target languages
               | For(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
               | AsyncFor(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
               | While(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
               | If(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
               | With(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)
               | AsyncWith(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)

               | Match(expr subject, match_case* cases)

               | Raise(expr? exc, expr? cause)
               | Try(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
               | TryStar(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
               | Assert(expr test, expr? msg)

               | Import(alias* names)
               | ImportFrom(identifier? module, alias* names, int? level)

               | Global(identifier* names)
               | Nonlocal(identifier* names)
               | Expr(expr value)
               | Pass | Break | Continue

               -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

               -- BoolOp() can use left & right?
         expr = BoolOp(boolop op, expr* values)
              | NamedExpr(expr target, expr value)
              | BinOp(expr left, operator op, expr right)
              | UnaryOp(unaryop op, expr operand)
              | Lambda(arguments args, expr body)
              | IfExp(expr test, expr body, expr orelse)
              | Dict(expr* keys, expr* values)
              | Set(expr* elts)
              | ListComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              | SetComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              | DictComp(expr key, expr value, comprehension* generators)
              | GeneratorExp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              -- the grammar constrains where yield expressions can occur
              | Await(expr value)
              | Yield(expr? value)
              | YieldFrom(expr value)
              -- need sequences for compare to distinguish between
              -- x < 4 < 3 and (x < 4) < 3
              | Compare(expr left, cmpop* ops, expr* comparators)
              | Call(expr func, expr* args, keyword* keywords)
              | FormattedValue(expr value, int conversion, expr? format_spec)
              | JoinedStr(expr* values)
              | Constant(constant value, string? kind)

              -- the following expression can appear in assignment context
              | Attribute(expr value, identifier attr, expr_context ctx)
              | Subscript(expr value, expr slice, expr_context ctx)
              | Starred(expr value, expr_context ctx)
              | Name(identifier id, expr_context ctx)
              | List(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)
              | Tuple(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)

              -- can appear only in Subscript
              | Slice(expr? lower, expr? upper, expr? step)

               -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         expr_context = Load | Store | Del

         boolop = And | Or

         operator = Add | Sub | Mult | MatMult | Div | Mod | Pow | LShift
                      | RShift | BitOr | BitXor | BitAnd | FloorDiv

         unaryop = Invert | Not | UAdd | USub

         cmpop = Eq | NotEq | Lt | LtE | Gt | GtE | Is | IsNot | In | NotIn

         comprehension = (expr target, expr iter, expr* ifs, int is_async)

         excepthandler = ExceptHandler(expr? type, identifier? name, stmt* body)
                         attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         arguments = (arg* posonlyargs, arg* args, arg? vararg, arg* kwonlyargs,
                      expr* kw_defaults, arg? kwarg, expr* defaults)

         arg = (identifier arg, expr? annotation, string? type_comment)
                attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         -- keyword arguments supplied to call (NULL identifier for **kwargs)
         keyword = (identifier? arg, expr value)
                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         -- import name with optional 'as' alias.
         alias = (identifier name, identifier? asname)
                  attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         withitem = (expr context_expr, expr? optional_vars)

         match_case = (pattern pattern, expr? guard, stmt* body)

         pattern = MatchValue(expr value)
                 | MatchSingleton(constant value)
                 | MatchSequence(pattern* patterns)
                 | MatchMapping(expr* keys, pattern* patterns, identifier? rest)
                 | MatchClass(expr cls, pattern* patterns, identifier* kwd_attrs, pattern* kwd_patterns)

                 | MatchStar(identifier? name)
                 -- The optional "rest" MatchMapping parameter handles capturing extra mapping keys

                 | MatchAs(pattern? pattern, identifier? name)
                 | MatchOr(pattern* patterns)

                  attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)

         type_ignore = TypeIgnore(int lineno, string tag)

         type_param = TypeVar(identifier name, expr? bound)
                    | ParamSpec(identifier name)
                    | TypeVarTuple(identifier name)
                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 節點 Node 類別,  Next: ast 輔助程式,  Prev: 抽象文法 Abstract Grammar,  Up: ast --- 抽象語法樹 Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.2 節點 (Node) 類別
.........................

 -- 類別: ast.AST

     這是所有 AST 節點類別的基礎。實際的節點類別是衍生自
     ‘Parser/Python.asdl’ 檔案，該檔案在*note 上方: 42ad. 重現。它們被定
     義於 ‘_ast’ 的 C 模組中，並於 *note ast: 8. 中重新匯出。

     抽象文法中為每個左側符號定義了一個類別（例如 ‘ast.stmt’ 或
     ‘ast.expr’）。此外，也為每個右側的建構函式 (constructor) 定義了一個
     類別；這些類別繼承自左側樹的類別。例如，*note ast.BinOp: 17aa. 繼承
     自 ‘ast.expr’。對於具有替代方案（即為「和 (sums)」）的生產規則，左
     側類別是抽象的：僅有特定建構函式節點的實例會被建立。

      -- 屬性: _fields

          每個具體類別都有一個屬性 *note _fields: 13cc.，它會給出所有子
          節點的名稱。

          具體類別的每個實例對於每個子節點都有一個屬性，其型別如文法中所
          定義。例如，*note ast.BinOp: 17aa. 實例具有型別為 ‘ast.expr’ 的
          屬性 ‘left’。

          如果這些屬性在文法中被標記為可選（使用問號），則該值可能為
          ‘None’。如果屬性可以有零個或多個值（用星號標記），則這些值將表
          示為 Python 串列。使用 *note compile(): 554. 編譯 AST 時，所有
          可能的屬性都必須存在並且具有有效值。

      -- 屬性: lineno
      -- 屬性: col_offset
      -- 屬性: end_lineno
      -- 屬性: end_col_offset

          ‘ast.expr’ 和 ‘ast.stmt’ 子類別的實例具有 *note lineno: 42b0.、
          *note col_offset: 42b1.、*note end_lineno: 42b2. 和 *note
          end_col_offset: 42b3. 屬性。*note lineno: 42b0. 和 *note
          end_lineno: 42b2. 是原始文本跨度 (source text span) 的第一個和
          最後一個列號（1-indexed，因此第一列號是 1）以及 *note
          col_offset: 42b1. 和 *note end_col_offset: 42b3. 是生成節點的
          第一個和最後一個標記對應的 UTF-8 位元組偏移量。會記錄 UTF-8 偏
          移量是因為剖析器 (parser) 內部使用 UTF-8。

          請注意，編譯器並不需要結束位置，因此其為可選的。結束偏移量在最
          後一個符號'之後'，例如可以使用 ‘source_line[node.col_offset :
          node.end_col_offset]’ 來獲取單列運算式節點 (expression node) 的
          原始片段。

     ‘ast.T’ 類別的建構函式按以下方式剖析其引數：

        * 如果有位置引數，則必須與 ‘T._fields’ 中的項目一樣多；它們將被
          賦値為這些名稱的屬性。

        * 如果有關鍵字引數，它們會將相同名稱的屬性設定為給定值。

     例如，要建立並填充 (populate) *note ast.UnaryOp: 42b4. 節點，你可以
     使用：

          node = ast.UnaryOp()
          node.op = ast.USub()
          node.operand = ast.Constant()
          node.operand.value = 5
          node.operand.lineno = 0
          node.operand.col_offset = 0
          node.lineno = 0
          node.col_offset = 0

     或更簡潔的：

          node = ast.UnaryOp(ast.USub(), ast.Constant(5, lineno=0, col_offset=0),
                             lineno=0, col_offset=0)

在 3.8 版的變更: *note ast.Constant: 217. 類別現在用於所有常數。

在 3.9 版的變更: 以它們的值表示簡單索引，擴充切片 (slice) 則以元組
(tuple) 表示。

在 3.8 版之後被棄用: 舊的類別 ‘ast.Num’、‘ast.Str’、‘ast.Bytes’、
‘ast.NameConstant’ 和 ‘ast.Ellipsis’ 仍然可用，但它們將在未來的 Python 釋
出版本中移除。與此同時，實例化它們將回傳不同類別的實例。

在 3.9 版之後被棄用: 舊的類別 ‘ast.Index’ 和 ‘ast.ExtSlice’ 仍然可用，但
它們將在未來的 Python 版本中刪除。同時，實例化它們會回傳不同類別的實例。

     備註: 這裡顯示的特定節點類別的描述最初是從出色的 Green Tree
     Snakes(1) 專案和所有貢獻者那裡改編而來的。

* Menu:

* 根節點::
* 文本 (Literals): 文本 Literals.
* 變數::
* 運算式: 運算式<2>.
* 陳述式::
* 流程控制::
* 模式匹配 (pattern matching): 模式匹配 pattern matching.
* 型別參數 (type parameters): 型別參數 type parameters.
* 函式和類別定義::
* async 和 await::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: 根節點,  Next: 文本 Literals,  Up: 節點 Node 類別

5.32.1.3 根節點
...............

 -- 類別: ast.Module (body, type_ignores)

     一個 Python 模組，與*note 檔案輸入: 1ed1. 一樣。由 *note
     ast.parse(): 182. 在預設的 ‘"exec"’ 'mode' 下生成的節點型別。

     ‘body’ is a *note list: 40a. of the module's *note 陳述式: 42b8.

     ‘type_ignores’ is a *note list: 40a. of the module's type ignore
     comments; see *note ast.parse(): 182. for more details.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.Expression (body)

     單個 Python *note 運算式輸入: 1ed7.。當 'mode' 是 ‘"eval"’ 時節點型
     別由 *note ast.parse(): 182. 生成。

     ‘body’ is a single node, one of the *note expression types: 42ba.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Constant(value=123))

 -- 類別: ast.Interactive (body)

     單個*note 互動式輸入: 1ed4.，和*note 互動模式: 19dc.中所述的相似。
     當 'mode' 是 ‘"single"’ 時節點型別由 *note ast.parse(): 182. 生成。

     ‘body’ is a *note list: 40a. of *note statement nodes: 42b8.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1; y = 2', mode='single'), indent=4))
          Interactive(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1)),
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='y', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=2))])

 -- 類別: ast.FunctionType (argtypes, returns)

     函式的舊式型別註解的表示法，因為 3.5 之前的 Python 版本不支援 PEP
     484(1) 註釋。當 'mode' 是 ‘"func_type"’ 時節點型別由 *note
     ast.parse(): 182. 生成。

     這種型別的註解看起來像這樣：

          def sum_two_number(a, b):
              # type: (int, int) -> int
              return a + b

     ‘argtypes’ is a *note list: 40a. of *note expression nodes: 42ba.

     ‘returns’ is a single *note expression node: 42ba.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(int, str) -> List[int]', mode='func_type'), indent=4))
          FunctionType(
              argtypes=[
                  Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                  Name(id='str', ctx=Load())],
              returns=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='List', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                  ctx=Load()))

     在 3.8 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: 文本 Literals,  Next: 變數,  Prev: 根節點,  Up: 節點 Node 類別

5.32.1.4 文本 (Literals)
........................

 -- 類別: ast.Constant (value)

     一個常數值。‘Constant’ 文本的 ‘value’ 屬性包含它所代表的 Python 物
     件。表示的值可以是簡單型別，例如數字、字串或 ‘None’，但如果它們的所
     有元素都是常數，也可以是不可變的 (immutable) 容器型別（元組和凍結集
     合 (frozensets)）。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Constant(value=123))

 -- 類別: ast.FormattedValue (value, conversion, format_spec)

     表示 f 字串 (f-string) 中的單個格式化欄位的節點。如果字串包含單個格
     式欄位並且沒有其他內容，則可以隔離 (isolate) 該節點，否則它將出現在
     *note JoinedStr: 14b7. 中。

        * ‘value’ 為任何運算式節點（例如文字、變數或函式呼叫）。

        * ‘conversion’ 是一個整數：

             * -1: 無格式化

             * 115: ‘!s’ 字串格式化

             * 114:‘!r’ 重複格式化化

             * 97: ‘！a’ ascii 格式化

        * ‘format_spec’ 是一個 *note JoinedStr: 14b7. 節點，表示值的格式
          ，若未指定格式則為 ‘None’。‘conversion’ 和 ‘format_spec’ 可以
          同時設定。

 -- 類別: ast.JoinedStr (values)

     一個 f 字串，包含一系列 *note FormattedValue: 42be. 和 *note
     Constant: 217. 節點。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('f"sin({a}) is {sin(a):.3}"', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=JoinedStr(
                  values=[
                      Constant(value='sin('),
                      FormattedValue(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          conversion=-1),
                      Constant(value=') is '),
                      FormattedValue(
                          value=Call(
                              func=Name(id='sin', ctx=Load()),
                              args=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Load())],
                              keywords=[]),
                          conversion=-1,
                          format_spec=JoinedStr(
                              values=[
                                  Constant(value='.3')]))]))

 -- 類別: ast.List (elts, ctx)
 -- 類別: ast.Tuple (elts, ctx)

     串列或元組。‘elts’ 保存表示元素的節點串列。如果容器是賦值目標（即
     ‘(x,y)=something’ ），則 ‘ctx’ 是 *note Store: 42c1.，否則是 *note
     Load: 42c2.。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[1, 2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=List(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)],
                  ctx=Load()))
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(1, 2, 3)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Tuple(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)],
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- 類別: ast.Set (elts)

     一個集合。‘elts’ 保存表示集合之元素的節點串列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{1, 2, 3}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Set(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)]))

 -- 類別: ast.Dict (keys, values)

     一個字典 (dictionary)。‘keys’ 和 ‘values’ 分別按匹配順序保存表示鍵
     和值的節點串列（為呼叫 ‘dictionary.keys()’ 和 ‘dictionary.values()’
     時將回傳的內容）。

     當使用字典文本進行字典解包 (unpack) 時，要擴充的運算式位於 ‘values’
     串列中，在 ‘keys’ 中的相應位置有一個 ‘None’。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{"a":1, **d}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Dict(
                  keys=[
                      Constant(value='a'),
                      None],
                  values=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Name(id='d', ctx=Load())]))


File: python.info,  Node: 變數,  Next: 運算式<2>,  Prev: 文本 Literals,  Up: 節點 Node 類別

5.32.1.5 變數
.............

 -- 類別: ast.Name (id, ctx)

     一個變數名稱。‘id’ 將名稱以字串形式保存，且 ‘ctx’ 是以下型別之一。

 -- 類別: ast.Load
 -- 類別: ast.Store
 -- 類別: ast.Del

     變數參照可用於載入變數的值、為其分配新值或刪除它。變數參照被賦予情
     境 (context) 來區分這些情況。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = 1'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Delete(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Del())])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.Starred (value, ctx)

     一個 ‘*var’ 變數參照。‘value’ 保存變數，通常是一個 *note Name:
     1714. 節點。在使用 ‘*args’ 建置 *note Call: 42c7. 節點時必須使用此
     型別。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a, *b = it'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                                  Starred(
                                      value=Name(id='b', ctx=Store()),
                                      ctx=Store())],
                              ctx=Store())],
                      value=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])


File: python.info,  Node: 運算式<2>,  Next: 陳述式,  Prev: 變數,  Up: 節點 Node 類別

5.32.1.6 運算式
...............

 -- 類別: ast.Expr (value)

     當運算式（例如函式呼叫）本身作為陳述式出現且未使用或儲存其回傳值時
     ，它將被包裝在此容器中。‘value’ 保存此區段 (section) 中的一個其他節
     點：*note Constant: 217.、*note Name: 1714.、*note Lambda: 42ca.、
     *note Yield: 42cb. 或 *note YieldFrom: 42cc.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('-a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=UnaryOp(
                          op=USub(),
                          operand=Name(id='a', ctx=Load())))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.UnaryOp (op, operand)

     一元運算 (unary operation)。‘op’ 是運算子，‘operand’ 是任何運算式節
     點。

 -- 類別: ast.UAdd
 -- 類別: ast.USub
 -- 類別: ast.Not
 -- 類別: ast.Invert

     一元運算子標記。 *note Not: 42cf. 是 ‘not’ 關鍵字、*note Invert:
     42d0. 是 ‘~’ 運算子。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('not x', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=UnaryOp(
                  op=Not(),
                  operand=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))

 -- 類別: ast.BinOp (left, op, right)

     二元運算 (binary operation)（如加法或除法）。 ‘op’ 是運算子、‘left’
     和 ‘right’ 是任意運算式節點。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x + y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=BinOp(
                  left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  op=Add(),
                  right=Name(id='y', ctx=Load())))

 -- 類別: ast.Add
 -- 類別: ast.Sub
 -- 類別: ast.Mult
 -- 類別: ast.Div
 -- 類別: ast.FloorDiv
 -- 類別: ast.Mod
 -- 類別: ast.Pow
 -- 類別: ast.LShift
 -- 類別: ast.RShift
 -- 類別: ast.BitOr
 -- 類別: ast.BitXor
 -- 類別: ast.BitAnd
 -- 類別: ast.MatMult

     二元運算子 token。

 -- 類別: ast.BoolOp (op, values)

     布林運算 'or' 或 'and'。‘op’ 是 *note Or: 42df. 或 *note And:
     42e0.。‘values’ 是有所涉及的值。使用同一運算子的連續操作（例如 ‘a
     or b or c’）會被折疊為具有多個值的一個節點。

     這不包括 ‘not’，它是一個 *note UnaryOp: 42b4.。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x or y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=BoolOp(
                  op=Or(),
                  values=[
                      Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      Name(id='y', ctx=Load())]))

 -- 類別: ast.And
 -- 類別: ast.Or

     布林運算子 token。

 -- 類別: ast.Compare (left, ops, comparators)

     兩個或多個值的比較。‘left’ 是比較中的第一個值、‘ops’ 是運算子串列、
     ‘comparators’ 是要比較的第一個元素之後值的串列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('1 <= a < 10', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Compare(
                  left=Constant(value=1),
                  ops=[
                      LtE(),
                      Lt()],
                  comparators=[
                      Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                      Constant(value=10)]))

 -- 類別: ast.Eq
 -- 類別: ast.NotEq
 -- 類別: ast.Lt
 -- 類別: ast.LtE
 -- 類別: ast.Gt
 -- 類別: ast.GtE
 -- 類別: ast.Is
 -- 類別: ast.IsNot
 -- 類別: ast.In
 -- 類別: ast.NotIn

     比較運算子 token。

 -- 類別: ast.Call (func, args, keywords)

     一個函式呼叫。‘func’ 是該函式，通常是一個 *note Name: 1714. 或
     *note Attribute: 42ec. 物件。而在引數中：

        * ‘args’ 保存按位置傳遞的引數串列。

        * ‘keywords’ 保存一個 *note keyword: 42ed. 物件串列，表示透過關
          鍵字傳遞的引數。

     建立 ‘Call’ 節點時會需要 ‘args’ 和 ‘keywords’，但它們可以是空串列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('func(a, b=c, *d, **e)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Call(
                  func=Name(id='func', ctx=Load()),
                  args=[
                      Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                      Starred(
                          value=Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load())],
                  keywords=[
                      keyword(
                          arg='b',
                          value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load())),
                      keyword(
                          value=Name(id='e', ctx=Load()))]))

 -- 類別: ast.keyword (arg, value)

     函式呼叫或類別定義的關鍵字引數。‘arg’ 是參數名稱的原始字串，‘value’
     是要傳入的節點。

 -- 類別: ast.IfExp (test, body, orelse)

     像是 ‘a if b else c’ 之類的運算式。每個欄位都保存一個節點，因此在以
     下範例中，所有三個都是 *note Name: 1714. 節點。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a if b else c', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=IfExp(
                  test=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                  body=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                  orelse=Name(id='c', ctx=Load())))

 -- 類別: ast.Attribute (value, attr, ctx)

     屬性的存取，例如 ‘d.keys’。‘value’ 是一個節點，通常是一個 *note
     Name: 1714.。‘attr’ 是一個屬性名稱的字串，‘ctx’ 根據屬性的作用方式
     可能是 *note Load: 42c2.、*note Store: 42c1. 或 *note Del: 42c5.。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('snake.colour', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Attribute(
                  value=Name(id='snake', ctx=Load()),
                  attr='colour',
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- 類別: ast.NamedExpr (target, value)

     一個附名運算式 (named expression)。該 AST 節點由賦值運算式運算子（
     也稱為海象運算子）產生。相對於 *note Assign: 42f0. 節點之第一個引數
     可為多個節點，在這種情況下 ‘target’ 和 ‘value’ 都必須是單個節點。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(x := 4)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=NamedExpr(
                  target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                  value=Constant(value=4)))

     在 3.8 版被加入.

* Menu:

* 下標 (Subscripting): 下標 Subscripting.
* 綜合運算式 (comprehensions): 綜合運算式 comprehensions.


File: python.info,  Node: 下標 Subscripting,  Next: 綜合運算式 comprehensions,  Up: 運算式<2>

5.32.1.7 下標 (Subscripting)
............................

 -- 類別: ast.Subscript (value, slice, ctx)

     一個下標，例如 ‘l[1]’。‘value’ 是下標物件（通常是序列或對映）。
     ‘slice’ 是索引、切片或鍵。它可以是一個 *note Tuple: 42c0. 並包含一
     個 *note Slice: 42f3.。根據下標執行的操作不同，‘ctx’ 可以是 *note
     Load: 42c2.、*note Store: 42c1. 或 *note Del: 42c5.。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Tuple(
                      elts=[
                          Slice(
                              lower=Constant(value=1),
                              upper=Constant(value=2)),
                          Constant(value=3)],
                      ctx=Load()),
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- 類別: ast.Slice (lower, upper, step)

     常規切片（形式為 ‘lower:upper’ 或 ‘lower:upper:step’）。只能直接或
     者或者作為 *note Tuple: 42c0. 的元素出現在 *note Subscript: 42f2. 的
     'slice' 欄位內。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Slice(
                      lower=Constant(value=1),
                      upper=Constant(value=2)),
                  ctx=Load()))


File: python.info,  Node: 綜合運算式 comprehensions,  Prev: 下標 Subscripting,  Up: 運算式<2>

5.32.1.8 綜合運算式 (comprehensions)
....................................

 -- 類別: ast.ListComp (elt, generators)
 -- 類別: ast.SetComp (elt, generators)
 -- 類別: ast.GeneratorExp (elt, generators)
 -- 類別: ast.DictComp (key, value, generators)

     串列和集合綜合運算、生成器運算式和字典綜合運算。‘elt’（或 ‘key’ 和
     ‘value’）是單個節點，表示各個項目會被求值 (evaluate) 的部分。

     ‘generators’ 是一個 *note comprehension: 42f9. 節點的串列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[x for x in numbers]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=0)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{x: x**2 for x in numbers}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=DictComp(
                  key=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  value=BinOp(
                      left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      op=Pow(),
                      right=Constant(value=2)),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=0)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{x for x in numbers}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=SetComp(
                  elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=0)]))

 -- 類別: ast.comprehension (target, iter, ifs, is_async)

     綜合運算中的一個 ‘for’ 子句。‘target’ 是用於每個元素的參照 - 通常是
     *note Name: 1714. 或 *note Tuple: 42c0. 節點。‘iter’ 是要疊代的物件
     。‘ifs’ 是測試運算式的串列：每個 ‘for’ 子句可以有多個 ‘ifs’。

     ‘is_async’ 表示綜合運算式是非同步的（使用 ‘async for’ 而不是 ‘for’
     ）。該值為整數（0 或 1）。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[ord(c) for line in file for c in line]', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # Multiple comprehensions in one.
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Call(
                      func=Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()),
                      args=[
                          Name(id='c', ctx=Load())],
                      keywords=[]),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='line', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='file', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=0),
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='line', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=0)]))

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(n**2 for n in it if n>5 if n<10)', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # generator comprehension
          Expression(
              body=GeneratorExp(
                  elt=BinOp(
                      left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                      op=Pow(),
                      right=Constant(value=2)),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='n', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[
                              Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=5)]),
                              Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Lt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=10)])],
                          is_async=0)]))

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[i async for i in soc]', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # Async comprehension
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='soc', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=1)]))


File: python.info,  Node: 陳述式,  Next: 流程控制,  Prev: 運算式<2>,  Up: 節點 Node 類別

5.32.1.9 陳述式
...............

 -- 類別: ast.Assign (targets, value, type_comment)

     一個賦值。‘targets’ 是節點串列，‘value’ 是單個節點。

     ‘targets’ 中的多個節點表示為每個節點分配相同的值。解包是透過在
     ‘targets’ 中放置一個 *note Tuple: 42c0. 或 *note List: 42bf. 來表示
     的。

      -- 屬性: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ 是一個可選字串，其中的註解為型別註釋。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = b = 1'), indent=4)) # Multiple assignment
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                          Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a,b = c'), indent=4)) # Unpacking
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                                  Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
                              ctx=Store())],
                      value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.AnnAssign (target, annotation, value, simple)

     帶有型別註釋的賦值。‘target’ 是單個節點，可以是 *note Name: 1714.、
     *note Attribute: 42ec. 或 *note Subscript: 42f2.。‘annotation’ 是註
     釋，例如 *note Constant: 217. 或 *note Name: 1714. 節點。‘value’ 是
     單個可選節點。

     ‘simple’ is always either 0 (indicating a "complex" target) or 1
     (indicating a "simple" target).  A "simple" target consists solely
     of a *note Name: 1714. node that does not appear between
     parentheses; all other targets are considered complex.  Only simple
     targets appear in the ‘__annotations__’ dictionary of modules and
     classes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('c: int'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=1)],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(a): int = 1'), indent=4)) # Annotation with parenthesis
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      value=Constant(value=1),
                      simple=0)],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a.b: int'), indent=4)) # Attribute annotation
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Attribute(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          attr='b',
                          ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=0)],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a[1]: int'), indent=4)) # Subscript annotation
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Constant(value=1),
                          ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=0)],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.AugAssign (target, op, value)

     增加賦值 (augmented assignment)，例如 ‘a += 1’。在下面的範例中，
     ‘target’ 是 ‘x’ 的 *note Name: 1714. 節點（帶有 *note Store: 42c1.
     情境），‘op’ 是 *note Add: 42d1.，‘value’ 是一個值為 1 的 *note
     Constant: 217.。

     與 *note Assign: 42f0. 的目標不同，‘target’ 屬性不能屬於 *note
     Tuple: 42c0. 或 *note List: 42bf. 類別。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x += 2'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AugAssign(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      op=Add(),
                      value=Constant(value=2))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.Raise (exc, cause)

     一個 ‘raise’ 陳述式。‘exc’ 是要引發的例外物件，通常是 *note Call:
     42c7. 或 *note Name: 1714.，若是獨立的 ‘raise’ 則為 ‘None’。‘cause’
     是 ‘raise x from y’ 中的可選部分 ‘y’。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('raise x from y'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Raise(
                      exc=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cause=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.Assert (test, msg)

     一個斷言 (assertion)。‘test’ 保存條件，例如 *note Compare: 42e1. 節
     點。‘msg’ 保存失敗訊息。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('assert x,y'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assert(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      msg=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.Delete (targets)

     代表一個 ‘del’ 陳述式。‘targets’ 是節點串列，例如 *note Name:
     1714.、*note Attribute: 42ec. 或 *note Subscript: 42f2. 節點。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Delete(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Del()),
                          Name(id='y', ctx=Del()),
                          Name(id='z', ctx=Del())])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.Pass

     一個 ‘pass’ 陳述式。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('pass'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Pass()],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.TypeAlias (name, type_params, value)

     透過 *note type: 13a. 陳述式建立的*note 型別別名 (type alias):
     15f.。‘name’ 是別名的名稱、‘type_params’ 是*note 型別參數 (type
     parameter): 4302. 的串列、‘value’ 是型別別名的值。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('type Alias = int'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[],
                      value=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.12 版被加入.

其他僅適用於函式或迴圈內部的陳述式將在其他部分中描述。

* Menu:

* 引入 (imports): 引入 imports.


File: python.info,  Node: 引入 imports,  Up: 陳述式

5.32.1.10 引入 (imports)
........................

 -- 類別: ast.Import (names)

     一個 import 陳述式。‘names’ 是 *note alias: 1692. 節點的串列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('import x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Import(
                      names=[
                          alias(name='x'),
                          alias(name='y'),
                          alias(name='z')])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.ImportFrom (module, names, level)

     代表 ‘from x import y’。‘module’ 是 'from' 名稱的原始字串，前面沒有
     任何的點 (dot)，或者對於諸如 ‘from . import foo’ 之類的陳述式則為
     ‘None’。‘level’ 是一個整數，保存相對引入的級別（0 表示絕對引入）。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from y import x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ImportFrom(
                      module='y',
                      names=[
                          alias(name='x'),
                          alias(name='y'),
                          alias(name='z')],
                      level=0)],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.alias (name, asname)

     這兩個參數都是名稱的原始字串。如果要使用常規名稱，‘asname’ 可以為
     ‘None’。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from ..foo.bar import a as b, c'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ImportFrom(
                      module='foo.bar',
                      names=[
                          alias(name='a', asname='b'),
                          alias(name='c')],
                      level=2)],
              type_ignores=[])


File: python.info,  Node: 流程控制,  Next: 模式匹配 pattern matching,  Prev: 陳述式,  Up: 節點 Node 類別

5.32.1.11 流程控制
..................

     備註: 諸如 ‘else’ 之類的可選子句如果不存在，則將被儲存為空串列。

 -- 類別: ast.If (test, body, orelse)

     一個 ‘if’ 陳述式。‘test’ 保存單個節點，例如 *note Compare: 42e1. 節
     點。‘body’ 和 ‘orelse’ 各自保存一個節點串列。

     ‘elif’ 子句在 AST 中沒有特殊表示，而是在前一個子句的 ‘orelse’ 部分
     中作為額外的 *note If: 4307. 節點出現。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... if x:
          ...    ...
          ... elif y:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  If(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          If(
                              test=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                              orelse=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.For (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)

     一個 ‘for’ 迴圈。 ‘target’ 保存迴圈賦予的變數，為單個 *note Name:
     1714.、*note Tuple: 42c0.、*note List: 42bf.、*note Attribute:
     42ec. 或 *note Subscript: 42f2. 節點。‘iter’ 保存要迴圈跑過的項目，
     也為單個節點。‘body’ 和 ‘orelse’ 包含要執行的節點串列。如果迴圈正常
     完成，則執行 ‘orelse’ 中的內容，而不是透過 ‘break’ 陳述式執行。

      -- 屬性: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ 是一個可選字串，其中的註解為型別註釋。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... for x in y:
          ...     ...
          ... else:
          ...     ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  For(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      iter=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.While (test, body, orelse)

     一個 ‘while’ 迴圈。‘test’ 保存條件，例如 *note Compare: 42e1. 節點
     。

          >> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... while x:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  While(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.Break
 -- 類別: ast.Continue

     ‘break’ 和 ‘continue’ 陳述式。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... for a in b:
          ...     if a > 5:
          ...         break
          ...     else:
          ...         continue
          ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  For(
                      target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                      iter=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          If(
                              test=Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=5)]),
                              body=[
                                  Break()],
                              orelse=[
                                  Continue()])],
                      orelse=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.Try (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

     ‘try’ 區塊。除 ‘handlers’ 是 *note ExceptHandler: 430e. 節點的串列
     外，其他所有屬性都是要執行之節點的串列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... try:
          ...    ...
          ... except Exception:
          ...    ...
          ... except OtherException as e:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... finally:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Try(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='OtherException', ctx=Load()),
                              name='e',
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      finalbody=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.TryStar (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

     ‘try’ 區塊，後面跟著 ‘except*’ 子句。這些屬性與 *note Try: 430d. 相
     同，但是 ‘handlers’ 中的 *note ExceptHandler: 430e. 節點被直譯
     (interpret) 為 ‘except*’ 區塊而不是 ‘except’。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... try:
          ...    ...
          ... except* Exception:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TryStar(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
                      orelse=[],
                      finalbody=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.ExceptHandler (type, name, body)

     單個 ‘except’ 子句。‘type’ 是會被匹配的例外型別，通常是一個 *note
     Name: 1714. 節點（或者 ‘None’ 表示會捕捉到所有例外的 ‘except:’ 子句
     ）。‘name’ 是用於保存例外的名稱之原始字串，如果子句沒有 ‘as foo’ ，
     則為 ‘None’。‘body’ 是節點串列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... try:
          ...     a + 1
          ... except TypeError:
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Try(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=BinOp(
                                  left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                                  op=Add(),
                                  right=Constant(value=1)))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='TypeError', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Pass()])],
                      orelse=[],
                      finalbody=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.With (items, body, type_comment)

     一個 ‘with’ 區塊。‘items’ 是表示情境管理器的 *note withitem: 4311.
     節點串列，‘body’ 是情境內的縮進區塊。

      -- 屬性: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ 是一個可選字串，其中的註解為型別註釋。

 -- 類別: ast.withitem (context_expr, optional_vars)

     ‘with’ 區塊中的單個情境管理器。‘context_expr’ 是情境管理器，通常是
     一個 *note Call: 42c7. 節點。‘Optional_vars’ 是 ‘as foo’ 部分的
     *note Name: 1714.、*note Tuple: 42c0. 或 *note List: 42bf.，或者如
     果不使用則為 ‘None’ 。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... with a as b, c as d:
          ...    something(b, d)
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  With(
                      items=[
                          withitem(
                              context_expr=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                              optional_vars=Name(id='b', ctx=Store())),
                          withitem(
                              context_expr=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()),
                              optional_vars=Name(id='d', ctx=Store()))],
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Call(
                                  func=Name(id='something', ctx=Load()),
                                  args=[
                                      Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                                      Name(id='d', ctx=Load())],
                                  keywords=[]))])],
              type_ignores=[])


File: python.info,  Node: 模式匹配 pattern matching,  Next: 型別參數 type parameters,  Prev: 流程控制,  Up: 節點 Node 類別

5.32.1.12 模式匹配 (pattern matching)
.....................................

 -- 類別: ast.Match (subject, cases)

     一個 ‘match’ 陳述式。‘subject’ 保存匹配的主題（與案例匹配的物件），
     ‘cases’ 包含具有不同案例的 *note match_case: 4315. 節點的可疊代物件
     。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.match_case (pattern, guard, body)

     ‘match’ 陳述式中的單個案例模式。‘pattern’ 包含主題將與之匹配的匹配
     模式。請注意，為模式生成的 *note AST: 553. 節點與為運算式生成的節點
     不同，即使它們共享相同的語法。

     ‘guard’ 屬性包含一個運算式，如果模式與主題匹配，則將對該運算式求值
     。

     ‘body’ 包含一個節點串列，如果模式匹配並且為防護運算式 (guard
     expression) 的求值 (evaluate) 結果為真，則會執行該節點串列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] if x>0:
          ...         ...
          ...     case tuple():
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchAs(name='x')]),
                              guard=Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=0)]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load()),
                                  patterns=[],
                                  kwd_attrs=[],
                                  kwd_patterns=[]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.MatchValue (value)

     以相等性進行比較的匹配文本或值的模式。‘value’ 是一個運算式節點。允
     許值節點受到匹配陳述式文件中所述的限制。如果匹配主題等於求出值，則
     此模式成功。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case "Relevant":
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchValue(
                                  value=Constant(value='Relevant')),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.MatchSingleton (value)

     按識別性 (identity) 進行比較的匹配文本模式。‘value’ 是要與 ‘None’、
     ‘True’ 或 ‘False’ 進行比較的單例 (singleton)。如果匹配主題是給定的
     常數，則此模式成功。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case None:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSingleton(value=None),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.MatchSequence (patterns)

     匹配序列模式。如果主題是一個序列，‘patterns’ 包含與主題元素匹配的模
     式。如果子模式之一是 ‘MatchStar’ 節點，則匹配可變長度序列，否則匹配
     固定長度序列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [1, 2]:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=1)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=2))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.MatchStar (name)

     以可變長度匹配序列模式匹配序列的其餘部分。如果 ‘name’ 不是 ‘None’，
     則如果整體序列模式成功，則包含其餘序列元素的串列將綁定到該名稱。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [1, 2, *rest]:
          ...         ...
          ...     case [*_]:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=1)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=2)),
                                      MatchStar(name='rest')]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchStar()]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.MatchMapping (keys, patterns, rest)

     匹配對映模式。‘keys’ 是運算式節點的序列。‘patterns’ 是相應的模式節
     點序列。‘rest’ 是一個可選名稱，可以指定它來捕獲剩餘的對映元素。允許
     的鍵運算式受到匹配陳述式文件中所述的限制。

     如果主題是對映，所有求值出的鍵運算式都存在於對映中，並且與每個鍵對
     應的值與相應的子模式匹配，則此模式成功。如果 ‘rest’ 不是 ‘None’，則
     如果整體對映模式成功，則包含其餘對映元素的字典將綁定到該名稱。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case {1: _, 2: _}:
          ...         ...
          ...     case {**rest}:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchMapping(
                                  keys=[
                                      Constant(value=1),
                                      Constant(value=2)],
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchAs(),
                                      MatchAs()]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchMapping(keys=[], patterns=[], rest='rest'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.MatchClass (cls, patterns, kwd_attrs, kwd_patterns)

     匹配類別模式。‘cls’ 是一個給定要匹配的名義類別 (nominal class) 的運
     算式。‘patterns’ 是要與類別定義的模式匹配屬性序列進行匹配的模式節點
     序列。‘kwd_attrs’ 是要匹配的附加屬性序列（在類別模式中指定為關鍵字
     引數），‘kwd_patterns’ 是相應的模式（在類別模式中指定為關鍵字的值）
     。

     如果主題是指定類別的實例，所有位置模式都與相應的類別定義屬性匹配，
     並且任何指定的關鍵字屬性與其相應模式匹配，則此模式成功。

     注意：類別可以定義一個回傳 self 的特性 (property)，以便將模式節點與
     正在匹配的實例進行匹配。一些內建型別也以這種方式匹配，如同匹配陳述
     式文件中所述。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case Point2D(0, 0):
          ...         ...
          ...     case Point3D(x=0, y=0, z=0):
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='Point2D', ctx=Load()),
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0))],
                                  kwd_attrs=[],
                                  kwd_patterns=[]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='Point3D', ctx=Load()),
                                  patterns=[],
                                  kwd_attrs=[
                                      'x',
                                      'y',
                                      'z'],
                                  kwd_patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.MatchAs (pattern, name)

     匹配的 「as 模式 (as-pattern)」，為捕獲模式 (capture pattern) 或通
     配模式 (wildcard pattern)。‘pattern’ 包含主題將與之匹配的匹配模式。
     如果模式為 ‘None’，則該節點代表捕獲模式（即裸名 (bare name)）並且始
     終會成功。

     ‘name’ 屬性包含模式成功時將綁定的名稱。如果 ‘name’ 為 ‘None’，則
     ‘pattern’ 也必須為 ‘None’，並且節點代表通配模式。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] as y:
          ...         ...
          ...     case _:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchAs(
                                  pattern=MatchSequence(
                                      patterns=[
                                          MatchAs(name='x')]),
                                  name='y'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchAs(),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.MatchOr (patterns)

     匹配的 「or 模式 (or-pattern)」。 or 模式依次將其每個子模式與主題進
     行匹配，直到成功為止，然後 or 模式就會被認為是成功的。如果沒有一個
     子模式成功，則 or 模式將失敗。 ‘patterns’ 屬性包含將與主題進行匹配
     的匹配模式節點串列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] | (y):
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchOr(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchSequence(
                                          patterns=[
                                              MatchAs(name='x')]),
                                      MatchAs(name='y')]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.10 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 型別參數 type parameters,  Next: 函式和類別定義,  Prev: 模式匹配 pattern matching,  Up: 節點 Node 類別

5.32.1.13 型別參數 (type parameters)
....................................

*note 型別參數: 166.可以存在於類別、函式和型別別名上。

 -- 類別: ast.TypeVar (name, bound)

     一個 *note typing.TypeVar: 164.。‘name’ 是型別變數的名稱。‘bound’ 是
     （如果有存在的）界限 (bound) 或約束 (constraint)。如果 ‘bound’ 是一
     個 *note Tuple: 42c0.，它代表約束；否則它代表界限。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[T: int] = list[T]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          TypeVar(
                              name='T',
                              bound=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()))],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='list', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Name(id='T', ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.ParamSpec (name)

     A *note typing.ParamSpec: 163.。‘name’ 是參數規範的名稱。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[**P] = Callable[P, int]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          ParamSpec(name='P')],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='Callable', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='P', ctx=Load()),
                                  Name(id='int', ctx=Load())],
                              ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 類別: ast.TypeVarTuple (name)

     一個 *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 162.。‘name’ 是型別變數元組的名稱。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[*Ts] = tuple[*Ts]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          TypeVarTuple(name='Ts')],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Starred(
                                      value=Name(id='Ts', ctx=Load()),
                                      ctx=Load())],
                              ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式和類別定義,  Next: async 和 await,  Prev: 型別參數 type parameters,  Up: 節點 Node 類別

5.32.1.14 函式和類別定義
........................

 -- 類別: ast.FunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list, returns,
          type_comment, type_params)

     一個函式定義。

        * ‘name’ 是函式名稱的原始字串。

        * ‘args’ 是一個 *note arguments: 4323. 節點。

        * ‘body’ 是函式內節點的串列。

        * ‘decorator_list’ 是要應用的裝飾器串列，在最外層者會被儲存在首
          位（即串列中首位將會是最後一個被應用的那個）。

        * ‘returns’ 是回傳註釋。

        * ‘type_params’ 是*note 型別參數: 4302.的串列。

      -- 屬性: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ 是一個可選字串，其中的註解為型別註釋。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增了 ‘type_params’。

 -- 類別: ast.Lambda (args, body)

     ‘lambda’ 是可以在運算式內使用的最小函式定義。與 *note FunctionDef:
     14d1. 不同，‘body’ 保存單個節點。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('lambda x,y: ...'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Lambda(
                          args=arguments(
                              posonlyargs=[],
                              args=[
                                  arg(arg='x'),
                                  arg(arg='y')],
                              kwonlyargs=[],
                              kw_defaults=[],
                              defaults=[]),
                          body=Constant(value=Ellipsis)))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.arguments (posonlyargs, args, vararg, kwonlyargs,
          kw_defaults, kwarg, defaults)

     函式的引數。

        * ‘posonlyargs’、‘args’ 和 ‘kwonlyargs’ 是 *note arg: 4325. 節點
          的串列。

        * ‘vararg’ 和 ‘kwarg’ 是單個 *note arg: 4325. 節點，指的是
          ‘*args, **kwargs’ 參數。

        * ‘kw_defaults’ 是僅限關鍵字引數的預設值串列。如果其中某個為
          ‘None’，則相應參數就會是必要的。

        * ‘defaults’ 是可以按位置傳遞的引數的預設值串列。如果預設值較少
          ，則它們對應於最後 n 個引數。

 -- 類別: ast.arg (arg, annotation, type_comment)

     串列中的單個引數。‘arg’ 是引數名稱的原始字串，‘annotation’ 是它的註
     釋，例如 *note Name: 1714. 節點。

      -- 屬性: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ 是一個可選字串，其註解為型別註釋

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... @decorator1
          ... @decorator2
          ... def f(a: 'annotation', b=1, c=2, *d, e, f=3, **g) -> 'return annotation':
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  FunctionDef(
                      name='f',
                      args=arguments(
                          posonlyargs=[],
                          args=[
                              arg(
                                  arg='a',
                                  annotation=Constant(value='annotation')),
                              arg(arg='b'),
                              arg(arg='c')],
                          vararg=arg(arg='d'),
                          kwonlyargs=[
                              arg(arg='e'),
                              arg(arg='f')],
                          kw_defaults=[
                              None,
                              Constant(value=3)],
                          kwarg=arg(arg='g'),
                          defaults=[
                              Constant(value=1),
                              Constant(value=2)]),
                      body=[
                          Pass()],
                      decorator_list=[
                          Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())],
                      returns=Constant(value='return annotation'),
                      type_params=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.Return (value)

     一個 ‘return’ 陳述式。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('return 4'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Return(
                      value=Constant(value=4))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.Yield (value)
 -- 類別: ast.YieldFrom (value)

     一個 ‘yield’ 或 ‘yield from’ 運算式。因為這些是運算式，所以如果不使
     用發送回來的值，則必須將它們包裝在 *note Expr: 42c9. 節點中。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield x'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Yield(
                          value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield from x'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=YieldFrom(
                          value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.Global (names)
 -- 類別: ast.Nonlocal (names)

     ‘global’ 和 ‘nonlocal’ 陳述式。‘names’ 是原始字串的串列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('global x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Global(
                      names=[
                          'x',
                          'y',
                          'z'])],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('nonlocal x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Nonlocal(
                      names=[
                          'x',
                          'y',
                          'z'])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.ClassDef (name, bases, keywords, body, decorator_list,
          type_params)

     一個類別定義。

        * ‘name’ 是類別名的原始字串

        * ‘bases’ 是被顯式指定的基底類別節點串列。

        * ‘keywords’ 是一個 *note keyword: 42ed. 節點的串列，主要用於
          'metaclass'（元類別）。如 PEP 3115(1) 所述，其他關鍵字將被傳遞
          到 metaclass。

        * ‘body’ 是表示類別定義中程式碼的節點串列。

        * ‘decorator_list’ 是一個節點串列，如 *note FunctionDef: 14d1. 中
          所示。

        * ‘type_params’ 是*note 型別參數: 4302.的串列。

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... @decorator1
          ... @decorator2
          ... class Foo(base1, base2, metaclass=meta):
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ClassDef(
                      name='Foo',
                      bases=[
                          Name(id='base1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='base2', ctx=Load())],
                      keywords=[
                          keyword(
                              arg='metaclass',
                              value=Name(id='meta', ctx=Load()))],
                      body=[
                          Pass()],
                      decorator_list=[
                          Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())],
                      type_params=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增了 ‘type_params’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: async 和 await,  Prev: 函式和類別定義,  Up: 節點 Node 類別

5.32.1.15 async 和 await
........................

 -- 類別: ast.AsyncFunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list,
          returns, type_comment, type_params)

     一個 ‘async def’ 函式定義。與 *note FunctionDef: 14d1. 具有相同的欄
     位。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 新增了 ‘type_params’。

 -- 類別: ast.Await (value)

     一個 ‘await’ 運算式。‘value’ 是它等待的東西。僅在 *note
     AsyncFunctionDef: 14d0. 主體 (body) 中有效。

     >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
     ... async def f():
     ...     await other_func()
     ... """), indent=4))
     Module(
         body=[
             AsyncFunctionDef(
                 name='f',
                 args=arguments(
                     posonlyargs=[],
                     args=[],
                     kwonlyargs=[],
                     kw_defaults=[],
                     defaults=[]),
                 body=[
                     Expr(
                         value=Await(
                             value=Call(
                                 func=Name(id='other_func', ctx=Load()),
                                 args=[],
                                 keywords=[])))],
                 decorator_list=[],
                 type_params=[])],
         type_ignores=[])

 -- 類別: ast.AsyncFor (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)
 -- 類別: ast.AsyncWith (items, body, type_comment)

     ‘async for’ 迴圈和 ‘async with’ 情境管理器。它們分別具有與 *note
     For: 4308. 和 *note With: 4310. 相同的欄位。僅在 *note
     AsyncFunctionDef: 14d0. 主體中有效。

     備註: 當字串被 *note ast.parse(): 182. 剖析時，回傳樹的運算子節點（
     ‘ast.operator’、‘ast.unaryop’、‘ast.cmpop’、:class: ‘ast.boolop’ 和
     ‘ast.expr_context’）將是單例。對其中之一的更改將反映在所有其他出現
     的相同值中（例如 *note ast.Add: 42d1.）。


File: python.info,  Node: ast 輔助程式,  Next: 編譯器旗標<2>,  Prev: 節點 Node 類別,  Up: ast --- 抽象語法樹 Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.16 ‘ast’ 輔助程式
........................

除了節點類別之外，*note ast: 8. 模組還定義了這些用於遍歷 (traverse) 抽象
語法樹的實用函式和類別：

 -- 函式: ast.parse (source, filename='<unknown>', mode='exec', *,
          type_comments=False, feature_version=None)

     將原始碼剖析為 AST 節點。相當於 ‘compile(source, filename, mode,
     ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST)’。

     如果給定 ‘type_comments=True’，剖析器將被修改為檢查並回傳 PEP
     484(1) 和 PEP 526(2) 指定的型別註釋。這相當於將 *note
     ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 432f. 新增到傳遞給 *note compile(): 554. 的
     旗標中。這將報告錯誤型別註釋的語法錯誤。如果沒有此旗標，型別註釋將
     被忽略，並且所選 AST 節點上的 ‘type_comment’ 欄位將始終為 ‘None’。
     此外，‘# type: ignore’ 註釋的位置將作為 *note Module: 42b7. 的
     ‘type_ignores’ 屬性回傳（否則它始終是一個空串列）。

     此外，如果 ‘mode’ 是 ‘'func_type'’，則輸入語法將會依據 PEP 484(3)「
     簽名型別註解 (signature type comments)」而被修改，例如 ‘(str, int)
     -> List[str]’。

     將 ‘feature_version’ 設定為元組 ‘(major, minor)’ 將「盡可能」嘗試使
     用該 Python 版本的文法進行剖析。當前 ‘major’ 必須等於 ‘3’。例如，設
     定 ‘feature_version=(3, 4)’ 將嘗試禁止剖析 *note match: 62f. 陳述式
     。目前 ‘major’ 必須為 ‘3’、支援的最低版本為 ‘(3, 4)’（這在未來的
     Python 版本中可能會增加）；最高的是 ‘sys.version_info[0:2]’。「盡可
     能」嘗試意味著不能保證剖析（或剖析的成功）與在與 ‘feature_version’
     對應的 Python 版本上運行時相同。

     如果來源包含 null 字元 (‘\0’)，則會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。

          警告: 請注意，成功將原始碼剖析為 AST 物件並不能保證提供的原始
          碼是可以執行的有效 Python 程式碼，因為編譯步驟可能會引發進一步
          的 *note SyntaxError: 146. 例外。例如，原始的 ‘return 42’ 為
          return 陳述式生成一個有效的 AST 節點，但它不能單獨編譯（它需要
          位於函式節點內）。

          特別是 *note ast.parse(): 182. 不會執行任何範圍檢查，而編譯步
          驟才會執行此操作。

          警告: 由於 Python AST 編譯器中的堆疊 (stack) 深度限制，太大或
          太複雜的字串可能會導致 Python 直譯器崩潰。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 ‘type_comments’、‘mode='func_type'’ 與
     ‘feature_version’。

 -- 函式: ast.unparse (ast_obj)

     反剖析 *note ast.AST: 553. 物件並生成一個帶有程式碼的字串，如果使用
     *note ast.parse(): 182. 剖析回來，該程式碼將生成等效的 *note
     ast.AST: 553. 物件。

          警告: 生成的程式碼字串不一定等於生成 *note ast.AST: 553. 物件
          的原始程式碼（沒有任何編譯器最佳化，例如常數元組/凍結集合）。

          警告: 嘗試剖析高度複雜的運算式會導致 *note RecursionError:
          be1.。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 函式: ast.literal_eval (node_or_string)

     為僅包含 Python 文本或容器之顯示的運算式節點或字串來求值。提供的字
     串或節點只能包含以下 Python 文本結構：字串、位元組、數字、元組、串
     列、字典、集合、布林值、‘None’ 和 ‘Ellipsis’。

     這可用於為包含 Python 值的字串求值，而無需自己剖析這些值。它無法計
     算任意複雜的運算式，例如涉及運算子或索引。

     該函式過去被記錄為「安全」，但沒有定義其含義，這有點誤導讀者，它是
     特別設計為不去執行 Python 程式碼，與更通用的 *note eval(): 6b0. 不
     同。沒有命名空間、沒有名稱查找、也沒有呼叫的能力。但它也不能免受攻
     擊：相對較小的輸入可能會導致記憶體耗盡或 C 堆疊耗盡，從而導致行程崩
     潰。某些輸入也可能會出現 CPU 消耗過多而導致拒絕服務的情況。因此不建
     議在不受信任的資料上呼叫它。

          警告: 由於 Python AST 編譯器的堆疊深度限制，Python 直譯器可能
          會崩潰。

          它可能會引發 *note ValueError: 183.、*note TypeError: 2ba.、
          *note SyntaxError: 146.、*note MemoryError: 1460. 和 *note
          RecursionError: be1.，具體取決於格式錯誤的輸入。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 現在允許位元組和集合文本 (set literal)。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 現在支援使用 ‘'set()'’ 建立空集合。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 對於字串輸入，前導空格和定位字元 (tab) 現在已被去
     除。

 -- 函式: ast.get_docstring (node, clean=True)

     回傳給定 'node' 的文件字串 (docstring)（必須是 *note FunctionDef:
     14d1.、*note AsyncFunctionDef: 14d0.、*note ClassDef: 14cf. 或
     *note Module: 42b7. 節點）或如果它沒有文件字串則為 ‘None’。如果
     'clean' 為 true，則使用 *note inspect.cleandoc(): 4192. 清理文件字
     串的縮排。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 目前已支援 *note AsyncFunctionDef: 14d0.。

 -- 函式: ast.get_source_segment (source, node, *, padded=False)

     獲取生成 'node' 的 'source' 的原始碼片段。如果某些位置資訊（*note
     lineno: 42b0.、*note end_lineno: 42b2.、*note col_offset: 42b1. 或
     *note end_col_offset: 42b3.）遺漏，則回傳 ‘None’。

     如果 'padded' 為 ‘True’，則多列陳述式的第一列將用空格填充 (padded)
     以匹配其原始位置。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 函式: ast.fix_missing_locations (node)

     當你使用 *note compile(): 554. 編譯節點樹時，對於每個有支援 *note
     lineno: 42b0. 和 *note col_offset: 42b1. 屬性之節點，編譯器預期他們
     的這些屬性都要存在。填入生成的節點相當繁瑣，因此該輔助工具透過將這
     些屬性設定為父節點的值，在尚未設定的地方遞迴地新增這些屬性。它從
     'node' 開始遞迴地作用。

 -- 函式: ast.increment_lineno (node, n=1)

     將樹中從 'node' 開始的每個節點的列號和結束列號增加 'n'。這對於「移
     動程式碼」到檔案中的不同位置很有用。

 -- 函式: ast.copy_location (new_node, old_node)

     如果可行，將原始位置（*note lineno: 42b0.、*note col_offset: 42b1.、
     *note end_lineno: 42b2. 和 *note end_col_offset: 42b3. ）從
     'old_node' 複製到 'new_node'，並回傳 'new_node' 。

 -- 函式: ast.iter_fields (node)

     為 'node' 上存在的 ‘node._fields’ 中的每個欄位生成一個 ‘(fieldname,
     value)’ 元組。

 -- 函式: ast.iter_child_nodes (node)

     生成 'node' 的所有直接子節點，即作為節點的所有欄位以及作為節點串列
     欄位的所有項目。

 -- 函式: ast.walk (node)

     遞迴地生成樹中從 'node' 開始的所有後代節點（包括 'node' 本身），不
     按指定順序。如果你只想就地修改節點而不關心情境，這非常有用。

 -- 類別: ast.NodeVisitor

     節點訪問者基底類別，它遍歷抽象語法樹並為找到的每個節點呼叫訪問者函
     式。該函式可能會回傳一個由 *note visit(): 4335. 方法轉發的值。

     這個類別應該被子類別化，子類別新增訪問者方法。

      -- 方法: visit (node)

          訪問一個節點。預設實作呼叫名為 ‘self.visit_CLASSNAME’ 的方法，
          其中 'classname' 是節點類別的名稱，或者在該方法不存在時呼叫
          *note generic_visit(): 4336.。

      -- 方法: generic_visit (node)

          該訪問者對該節點的所有子節點呼叫 *note visit(): 4335.。

          請注意，除非訪問者呼叫 *note generic_visit(): 4336. 或訪問它們
          本身，否則不會訪問具有自定義訪問者方法的節點之子節點。

      -- 方法: visit_Constant (node)

          處理所有常數節點。

     如果你想在遍歷期間將變更應用 (apply) 於節點，請不要使用 *note
     NodeVisitor: 8b9.。為此，有個允許修改的特殊遍歷訪問者工具 *note
     NodeTransformer: 4337.。

     在 3.8 版之後被棄用: ‘visit_Num()’、‘visit_Str()’、
     ‘visit_Bytes()’、‘visit_NameConstant()’ 和 ‘visit_Ellipsis()’ 方法
     現已棄用，並且不會在未來的Python 版本中被呼叫。新增 *note
     visit_Constant(): 8ba. 方法來處理所有常數節點。

 -- 類別: ast.NodeTransformer

     一個 *note NodeVisitor: 8b9. 子類別，它會遍歷抽象語法樹並允許修改節
     點。

     *note NodeTransformer: 4337. 將遍歷 AST 並使用訪問者方法的回傳值來
     替換或刪除舊節點。如果訪問者方法的回傳值為 ‘None’，則該節點將從其位
     置中刪除，否則將被替換為回傳值。回傳值可能是原始節點，在這種情況下
     不會發生替換。

     下面是一個示範用的 transformer，它將查找所有出現名稱 (‘foo’) 並改寫
     為 ‘data['foo']’：

          class RewriteName(NodeTransformer):

              def visit_Name(self, node):
                  return Subscript(
                      value=Name(id='data', ctx=Load()),
                      slice=Constant(value=node.id),
                      ctx=node.ctx
                  )

     請記住，如果你正在操作的節點有子節點，你必須自己轉換子節點或先呼叫
     該節點的 *note generic_visit(): 4336. 方法。

     對於屬於陳述式總集 (collection) 一部分的節點（適用於所有陳述式節點
     ），訪問者還可以回傳節點串列，而不僅僅是單個節點。

     如果 *note NodeTransformer: 4337. 引進了新節點（不屬於原始樹的一部
     分），但沒有給它們提供位置資訊（例如 *note lineno: 42b0.），則應使
     用新的子樹呼叫 *note fix_missing_locations(): 4330. 以重新計算位置
     資訊：

          tree = ast.parse('foo', mode='eval')
          new_tree = fix_missing_locations(RewriteName().visit(tree))

     你通常會像這樣使用 transformer：

          node = YourTransformer().visit(node)

 -- 函式: ast.dump (node, annotate_fields=True,
          include_attributes=False, *, indent=None)

     回傳 'node' 中樹的格式化傾印 (formatted dump)，這主要用於除錯。如果
     'annotate_fields' 為 true（為預設值），則回傳的字串將顯示欄位的名稱
     和值。如果 'annotate_fields' 為 false，則透過省略明確的欄位名稱，結
     果字串將更加縮減簡潔。預設情況下，不會傾印列號和行偏移量等屬性。如
     果需要，可以設定 'include_attributes' 為 true。

     如果 'indent' 是非負整數或字串，那麼樹將使用該縮排級別來做漂亮印出
     (pretty-print)。縮排級別 0、負數或 ‘""’ 只會插入換列符號
     (newlines)。‘None’（預設值）代表選擇單列表示。使用正整數縮排可以在
     每個級別縮排相同數量的空格。如果 'indent' 是一個字串（例如 ‘"\t"’）
     ，則該字串用於縮排每個級別。

     在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 'indent' 選項。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: 編譯器旗標<2>,  Next: 命令列用法<3>,  Prev: ast 輔助程式,  Up: ast --- 抽象語法樹 Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.17 編譯器旗標
....................

可以將以下旗標傳遞給 *note compile(): 554. 以變更對程式的編譯效果：

 -- 資料: ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT

     啟用對最高階 ‘await’、‘async for’、‘async with’ 和非同步綜合運算的
     支援。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- 資料: ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST

     生成並回傳抽象語法樹，而不是回傳已編譯的程式碼物件。

 -- 資料: ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS

     啟用對 PEP 484(1) 和 PEP 526(2) 樣式型別註釋的支援 (‘# type:
     <type>’, ‘# type: ignore <stuff>’)。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列用法<3>,  Prev: 編譯器旗標<2>,  Up: ast --- 抽象語法樹 Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.18 命令列用法
....................

在 3.9 版被加入.

*note ast: 8. 模組可以作為腳本從命令列執行，可以像這樣簡單地做到：

     python -m ast [-m <mode>] [-a] [infile]

以下選項可被接受：

 -- Option: -h, --help

     顯示幫助訊息並退出。

 -- Option: -m <mode>
 -- Option: --mode <mode>

     指定必須編譯哪種類型的程式碼，像是 *note parse(): 182. 中的 'mode'
     引數。

 -- Option: --no-type-comments

     不要剖析型別註解。

 -- Option: -a, --include-attributes

     包括列號和行偏移量等屬性。

 -- Option: -i <indent>
 -- Option: --indent <indent>

     AST 中節點的縮進（空格數）。

如果指定了 ‘infile’，則其內容將被剖析為 AST 並傾印 (dump) 到 stdout。否
則會從 stdin 讀取內容。

也參考
......

Green Tree Snakes(1) 是一個外部文件資源，提供了有關使用 Python AST 的詳
細資訊。

ASTTokens(2) 使用生成它們的原始碼中的標記和文本的位置來註釋 Python AST。
這對於進行原始碼轉換的工具很有幫助。

leoAst.py(3) 透過在 token 和 ast 節點之間插入雙向鏈結，統一了 python 程
式的基於 token 和基於剖析樹的視圖。

LibCST(4) 將程式碼剖析為具體語法樹 (Concrete Syntax Tree)，看起來像 ast
樹並保留所有格式詳細資訊。它對於建置自動重構 (codemod) 應用程式和 linter
非常有用。

Parso(5) 是一個 Python 剖析器，支援不同 Python 版本的錯誤復原和往返剖析
。Parso 還能夠列出 Python 檔案中的多個語法錯誤。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/

   (2) https://asttokens.readthedocs.io/en/latest/user-guide.html

   (3) https://leo-editor.github.io/leo-editor/appendices.html#leoast-py

   (4) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (5) https://parso.readthedocs.io


File: python.info,  Node: symtable --- 存取編譯器的符號表,  Next: token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數,  Prev: ast --- 抽象語法樹 Abstract Syntax Trees,  Up: Python 語言服務

5.32.2 ‘symtable’ -- 存取編譯器的符號表
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/symtable.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

符號表 (symbol table) 是在生成位元組碼 (bytecode) 之前由編譯器從 AST 生
成的。符號表負責計算程式碼中每個識別器 (identifier) 的範圍。*note
symtable: d2. 提供了一個介面來檢查這些表。

* Menu:

* 產生符號表::
* 檢查符號表::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/symtable.py


File: python.info,  Node: 產生符號表,  Next: 檢查符號表,  Up: symtable --- 存取編譯器的符號表

5.32.2.1 產生符號表
...................

 -- 函式: symtable.symtable (code, filename, compile_type)

     回傳 Python 原始 'code' 的頂層 *note SymbolTable: 4348.。'filename'
     是包含程式碼之檔案之名稱。'compile_type' 類似於 *note compile():
     554. 的 'mode' 引數。


File: python.info,  Node: 檢查符號表,  Prev: 產生符號表,  Up: symtable --- 存取編譯器的符號表

5.32.2.2 檢查符號表
...................

 -- 類別: symtable.SymbolTable

     一個區塊 (block) 的命名空間表 (namespace table) 。建構函式
     (constructor) 並不公開。

      -- 方法: get_type ()

          回傳符號表的種類。可能的值為 ‘'class'’、‘'module'’、
          ‘'function'’、‘'annotation'’、‘'TypeVar bound'’、‘'type
          alias'’ 和 ‘'type parameter'’。後四個是指不同的*note 註釋範圍
          (annotation scopes): 167.。

          在 3.12 版的變更: 新增了 ‘'annotation'’、‘'TypeVar bound'’、
          ‘'type alias'’ 和 ‘'type parameter'’ 作為可能的回傳值。

      -- 方法: get_id ()

          回傳表的識別器。

      -- 方法: get_name ()

          回傳表的名稱。如果表用於類別，則這是類別的名稱；如果表用於函式
          ，則這是函式的名稱；如果表是全域的，則為 ‘'top'’ （*note
          get_type(): 434a. 會回傳 ‘'module'’）。對於型別參數作用域（用
          於泛型類別、函式和型別別名），它是底層類別、函式或型別別名的名
          稱。對於型別別名作用域，它是型別別名的名稱。對於 *note
          TypeVar: 164. 綁定範圍，它會是 ‘TypeVar’ 的名稱。

      -- 方法: get_lineno ()

          回傳此表所代表的區塊中第一行的編號。

      -- 方法: is_optimized ()

          如果可以最佳化該表中的區域變數，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: is_nested ()

          如果區塊是巢狀類別或函式，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: has_children ()

          如果區塊內有巢狀命名空間，則回傳 ‘True’。這些可以通過 *note
          get_children(): 4351. 獲得。

      -- 方法: get_identifiers ()

          回傳包含表中符號之名稱的視圖物件 (view object)。請參閱*note
          視圖物件的文件: 1fdb.。

      -- 方法: lookup (name)

          在表中查找 'name' 並回傳一個 *note Symbol: 4354. 實例。

      -- 方法: get_symbols ()

          回傳表中名稱的 *note Symbol: 4354. 實例串列。

      -- 方法: get_children ()

          回傳巢狀符號表的串列。

 -- 類別: symtable.Function

     一個函式或方法的命名空間。該類別繼承自 *note SymbolTable: 4348.。

      -- 方法: get_parameters ()

          回傳一個包含此函式參數名稱的元組 (tuple)。

      -- 方法: get_locals ()

          回傳一個包含此函式中區域變數 (locals) 名稱的元組。

      -- 方法: get_globals ()

          回傳一個包含此函式中全域變數 (globals) 名稱的元組。

      -- 方法: get_nonlocals ()

          回傳一個包含此函式中非區域變數 (nonlocals) 名稱的元組。

      -- 方法: get_frees ()

          回傳一個包含此函式中自由變數 (free variables) 名稱的元組。

 -- 類別: symtable.Class

     一個類別的命名空間。該類別繼承自 *note SymbolTable: 4348.。

      -- 方法: get_methods ()

          回傳一個包含類別中聲明的類似方法之函式名稱的元組。

          Here, the term 'method' designates 'any' function defined in
          the class body via *note def: 12ca. or *note async def: 3c3.

          Functions defined in a deeper scope (e.g., in an inner class)
          are not picked up by *note get_methods(): 261.

          舉例來說：

               >>> import symtable
               >>> st = symtable.symtable('''
               ... def outer(): pass
               ...
               ... class A:
               ...    def f():
               ...        def w(): pass
               ...
               ...    def g(self): pass
               ...
               ...    @classmethod
               ...    async def h(cls): pass
               ...
               ...    global outer
               ...    def outer(self): pass
               ... ''', 'test', 'exec')
               >>> class_A = st.get_children()[1]
               >>> class_A.get_methods()
               ('f', 'g', 'h')

          Although ‘A().f()’ raises *note TypeError: 2ba. at runtime,
          ‘A.f’ is still considered as a method-like function.

 -- 類別: symtable.Symbol

     *note SymbolTable: 4348. 中的條目對應於來源中的識別器。建構函式不是
     公開的。

      -- 方法: get_name ()

          回傳符號的名稱。

      -- 方法: is_referenced ()

          如果該符號在其區塊中使用，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: is_imported ()

          如果符號是從 import 陳述式建立的，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: is_parameter ()

          如果符號是一個參數，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: is_global ()

          如果符號是全域的，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: is_nonlocal ()

          如果符號是非區域的，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: is_declared_global ()

          如果使用全域陳述式將符號聲明為全域的，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: is_local ()

          如果符號是其區塊的區域符號，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: is_annotated ()

          如果符號有被註釋，則回傳 ‘True’。

          在 3.6 版被加入.

      -- 方法: is_free ()

          如果該符號在其區塊中被參照 (referenced) 但未被賦值 (assigned)，
          則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: is_assigned ()

          如果該符號被賦值到其區塊中，則回傳 ‘True’。

      -- 方法: is_namespace ()

          如果名稱綁定引入 (introduce) 新的命名空間，則回傳 ‘True’。

          如果名稱用作函式或類別陳述式的目標，則這將會是 true。

          舉例來說：

               >>> table = symtable.symtable("def some_func(): pass", "string", "exec")
               >>> table.lookup("some_func").is_namespace()
               True

          請注意，單個名稱可以綁定到多個物件。如果結果為 ‘True’，則該名
          稱也可能被綁定到其他物件，例如 int 或 list，而不會引入新的命名
          空間。

      -- 方法: get_namespaces ()

          回傳綁定到該名稱的命名空間的串列。

      -- 方法: get_namespace ()

          回傳綁定到該名稱的命名空間。如果該名稱綁定了多個命名空間或沒有
          命名空間，則會引發 *note ValueError: 183.。


File: python.info,  Node: token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數,  Next: keyword --- 檢驗 Python 關鍵字,  Prev: symtable --- 存取編譯器的符號表,  Up: Python 語言服務

5.32.3 ‘token’ -- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數
------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/token.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides constants which represent the numeric values of
leaf nodes of the parse tree (terminal tokens).  Refer to the file
‘Grammar/Tokens’ in the Python distribution for the definitions of the
names in the context of the language grammar.  The specific numeric
values which the names map to may change between Python versions.

The module also provides a mapping from numeric codes to names and some
functions.  The functions mirror definitions in the Python C header
files.

 -- 資料: token.tok_name

     Dictionary mapping the numeric values of the constants defined in
     this module back to name strings, allowing more human-readable
     representation of parse trees to be generated.

 -- 函式: token.ISTERMINAL (x)

     Return ‘True’ for terminal token values.

 -- 函式: token.ISNONTERMINAL (x)

     Return ‘True’ for non-terminal token values.

 -- 函式: token.ISEOF (x)

     Return ‘True’ if 'x' is the marker indicating the end of input.

The token constants are:

 -- 資料: token.ENDMARKER

 -- 資料: token.NAME

 -- 資料: token.NUMBER

 -- 資料: token.STRING

 -- 資料: token.NEWLINE

 -- 資料: token.INDENT

 -- 資料: token.DEDENT

 -- 資料: token.LPAR

     Token value for ‘"("’.

 -- 資料: token.RPAR

     Token value for ‘")"’.

 -- 資料: token.LSQB

     Token value for ‘"["’.

 -- 資料: token.RSQB

     Token value for ‘"]"’.

 -- 資料: token.COLON

     Token value for ‘":"’.

 -- 資料: token.COMMA

     Token value for ‘","’.

 -- 資料: token.SEMI

     Token value for ‘";"’.

 -- 資料: token.PLUS

     Token value for ‘"+"’.

 -- 資料: token.MINUS

     Token value for ‘"-"’.

 -- 資料: token.STAR

     Token value for ‘"*"’.

 -- 資料: token.SLASH

     Token value for ‘"/"’.

 -- 資料: token.VBAR

     Token value for ‘"|"’.

 -- 資料: token.AMPER

     Token value for ‘"&"’.

 -- 資料: token.LESS

     Token value for ‘"<"’.

 -- 資料: token.GREATER

     Token value for ‘">"’.

 -- 資料: token.EQUAL

     Token value for ‘"="’.

 -- 資料: token.DOT

     Token value for ‘"."’.

 -- 資料: token.PERCENT

     Token value for ‘"%"’.

 -- 資料: token.LBRACE

     Token value for ‘"{"’.

 -- 資料: token.RBRACE

     Token value for ‘"}"’.

 -- 資料: token.EQEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"=="’.

 -- 資料: token.NOTEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"!="’.

 -- 資料: token.LESSEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"<="’.

 -- 資料: token.GREATEREQUAL

     Token value for ‘">="’.

 -- 資料: token.TILDE

     Token value for ‘"~"’.

 -- 資料: token.CIRCUMFLEX

     Token value for ‘"^"’.

 -- 資料: token.LEFTSHIFT

     Token value for ‘"<<"’.

 -- 資料: token.RIGHTSHIFT

     Token value for ‘">>"’.

 -- 資料: token.DOUBLESTAR

     Token value for ‘"**"’.

 -- 資料: token.PLUSEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"+="’.

 -- 資料: token.MINEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"-="’.

 -- 資料: token.STAREQUAL

     Token value for ‘"*="’.

 -- 資料: token.SLASHEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"/="’.

 -- 資料: token.PERCENTEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"%="’.

 -- 資料: token.AMPEREQUAL

     Token value for ‘"&="’.

 -- 資料: token.VBAREQUAL

     Token value for ‘"|="’.

 -- 資料: token.CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"^="’.

 -- 資料: token.LEFTSHIFTEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"<<="’.

 -- 資料: token.RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL

     Token value for ‘">>="’.

 -- 資料: token.DOUBLESTAREQUAL

     Token value for ‘"**="’.

 -- 資料: token.DOUBLESLASH

     Token value for ‘"//"’.

 -- 資料: token.DOUBLESLASHEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"//="’.

 -- 資料: token.AT

     Token value for ‘"@"’.

 -- 資料: token.ATEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"@="’.

 -- 資料: token.RARROW

     Token value for ‘"->"’.

 -- 資料: token.ELLIPSIS

     Token value for ‘"..."’.

 -- 資料: token.COLONEQUAL

     Token value for ‘":="’.

 -- 資料: token.EXCLAMATION

     Token value for ‘"!"’.

 -- 資料: token.OP

 -- 資料: token.AWAIT

 -- 資料: token.ASYNC

 -- 資料: token.TYPE_IGNORE

 -- 資料: token.TYPE_COMMENT

 -- 資料: token.SOFT_KEYWORD

 -- 資料: token.FSTRING_START

 -- 資料: token.FSTRING_MIDDLE

 -- 資料: token.FSTRING_END

 -- 資料: token.COMMENT

 -- 資料: token.NL

 -- 資料: token.ERRORTOKEN

 -- 資料: token.N_TOKENS

 -- 資料: token.NT_OFFSET

The following token type values aren't used by the C tokenizer but are
needed for the *note tokenize: f6. module.

 -- 資料: token.COMMENT

     Token value used to indicate a comment.

 -- 資料: token.NL

     Token value used to indicate a non-terminating newline.  The *note
     NEWLINE: 4373. token indicates the end of a logical line of Python
     code; ‘NL’ tokens are generated when a logical line of code is
     continued over multiple physical lines.

 -- 資料: token.ENCODING

     Token value that indicates the encoding used to decode the source
     bytes into text.  The first token returned by *note
     tokenize.tokenize(): 204. will always be an ‘ENCODING’ token.

 -- 資料: token.TYPE_COMMENT

     Token value indicating that a type comment was recognized.  Such
     tokens are only produced when *note ast.parse(): 182. is invoked
     with ‘type_comments=True’.

在 3.5 版的變更: Added *note AWAIT: 43a7. and *note ASYNC: 43a8. tokens.

在 3.7 版的變更: Added *note COMMENT: 43af, *note NL: 43b0. and *note
ENCODING: 43b4. tokens.

在 3.7 版的變更: Removed *note AWAIT: 43a7. and *note ASYNC: 43a8.
tokens.  "async" and "await" are now tokenized as *note NAME: 4370.
tokens.

在 3.8 版的變更: Added *note TYPE_COMMENT: 43aa, *note TYPE_IGNORE:
43a9, *note COLONEQUAL: 43a4.  Added *note AWAIT: 43a7. and *note ASYNC:
43a8. tokens back (they're needed to support parsing older Python
versions for *note ast.parse(): 182. with ‘feature_version’ set to 6 or
lower).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/token.py


File: python.info,  Node: keyword --- 檢驗 Python 關鍵字,  Next: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source,  Prev: token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數,  Up: Python 語言服務

5.32.4 ‘keyword’ -- 檢驗 Python 關鍵字
--------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/keyword.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

此模組允許 Python 程式確定某個字串是否為*note 關鍵字: 1c2f. 或*note
軟關鍵字 (soft keyword): 62e.。

 -- 函式: keyword.iskeyword (s)

     如果 's' 是一個 Python *note 關鍵字: 1c2f.則回傳 ‘True’。

 -- 資料: keyword.kwlist

     包含直譯器定義的所有 *note 關鍵字: 1c2f. 的序列。如果所定義的任何關
     鍵字僅在特定 *note __future__: 0. 陳述式生效時被啟用，它們也將被包
     含在內。

 -- 函式: keyword.issoftkeyword (s)

     如果 's' 是一個 Python *note 軟關鍵字: 62e. 則回傳 ‘True’。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- 資料: keyword.softkwlist

     包含直譯器定義的所有 *note 軟關鍵字: 62e. 的序列。如果所定義的任何
     軟關鍵字僅在特定 *note __future__: 0. 陳述式生效時被啟用，它們也將
     被包含在內。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/keyword.py


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source,  Next: tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排,  Prev: keyword --- 檢驗 Python 關鍵字,  Up: Python 語言服務

5.32.5 ‘tokenize’ -- Tokenizer for Python source
------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tokenize.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tokenize: f6. module provides a lexical scanner for Python
source code, implemented in Python.  The scanner in this module returns
comments as tokens as well, making it useful for implementing
"pretty-printers", including colorizers for on-screen displays.

To simplify token stream handling, all *note operator: 1c6f. and *note
delimiter: 1c70. tokens and *note Ellipsis: 1f1b. are returned using the
generic *note OP: 43a6. token type.  The exact type can be determined by
checking the ‘exact_type’ property on the *note named tuple: 449.
returned from *note tokenize.tokenize(): 204.

     警告: Note that the functions in this module are only designed to
     parse syntactically valid Python code (code that does not raise
     when parsed using *note ast.parse(): 182.).  The behavior of the
     functions in this module is 'undefined' when providing invalid
     Python code and it can change at any point.

* Menu:

* Tokenizing Input::
* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<2>.
* 範例: 範例<46>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tokenize.py


File: python.info,  Node: Tokenizing Input,  Next: Command-Line Usage<2>,  Up: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source

5.32.5.1 Tokenizing Input
.........................

The primary entry point is a *note generator: ef7.:

 -- 函式: tokenize.tokenize (readline)

     The *note tokenize(): 204. generator requires one argument,
     'readline', which must be a callable object which provides the same
     interface as the *note io.IOBase.readline(): 11bd. method of file
     objects.  Each call to the function should return one line of input
     as bytes.

     The generator produces 5-tuples with these members: the token type;
     the token string; a 2-tuple ‘(srow, scol)’ of ints specifying the
     row and column where the token begins in the source; a 2-tuple
     ‘(erow, ecol)’ of ints specifying the row and column where the
     token ends in the source; and the line on which the token was
     found.  The line passed (the last tuple item) is the 'physical'
     line.  The 5 tuple is returned as a *note named tuple: 449. with
     the field names: ‘type string start end line’.

     The returned *note named tuple: 449. has an additional property
     named ‘exact_type’ that contains the exact operator type for *note
     OP: 43a6. tokens.  For all other token types ‘exact_type’ equals
     the named tuple ‘type’ field.

     在 3.1 版的變更: 新增附名元組 (named tuple) 的支援。

     在 3.3 版的變更: 新增 ‘exact_type’ 的支援。

     *note tokenize(): 204. determines the source encoding of the file
     by looking for a UTF-8 BOM or encoding cookie, according to PEP
     263(1).

 -- 函式: tokenize.generate_tokens (readline)

     Tokenize a source reading unicode strings instead of bytes.

     Like *note tokenize(): 204, the 'readline' argument is a callable
     returning a single line of input.  However, *note
     generate_tokens(): 205. expects 'readline' to return a str object
     rather than bytes.

     The result is an iterator yielding named tuples, exactly like *note
     tokenize(): 204.  It does not yield an *note ENCODING: 43b4. token.

All constants from the *note token: f5. module are also exported from
*note tokenize: f6.

Another function is provided to reverse the tokenization process.  This
is useful for creating tools that tokenize a script, modify the token
stream, and write back the modified script.

 -- 函式: tokenize.untokenize (iterable)

     Converts tokens back into Python source code.  The 'iterable' must
     return sequences with at least two elements, the token type and the
     token string.  Any additional sequence elements are ignored.

     The reconstructed script is returned as a single string.  The
     result is guaranteed to tokenize back to match the input so that
     the conversion is lossless and round-trips are assured.  The
     guarantee applies only to the token type and token string as the
     spacing between tokens (column positions) may change.

     It returns bytes, encoded using the *note ENCODING: 43b4. token,
     which is the first token sequence output by *note tokenize(): 204.
     If there is no encoding token in the input, it returns a str
     instead.

*note tokenize(): 204. needs to detect the encoding of source files it
tokenizes.  The function it uses to do this is available:

 -- 函式: tokenize.detect_encoding (readline)

     The *note detect_encoding(): 25db. function is used to detect the
     encoding that should be used to decode a Python source file.  It
     requires one argument, readline, in the same way as the *note
     tokenize(): 204. generator.

     It will call readline a maximum of twice, and return the encoding
     used (as a string) and a list of any lines (not decoded from bytes)
     it has read in.

     It detects the encoding from the presence of a UTF-8 BOM or an
     encoding cookie as specified in PEP 263(2).  If both a BOM and a
     cookie are present, but disagree, a *note SyntaxError: 146. will be
     raised.  Note that if the BOM is found, ‘'utf-8-sig'’ will be
     returned as an encoding.

     If no encoding is specified, then the default of ‘'utf-8'’ will be
     returned.

     Use *note open(): 25da. to open Python source files: it uses *note
     detect_encoding(): 25db. to detect the file encoding.

 -- 函式: tokenize.open (filename)

     Open a file in read only mode using the encoding detected by *note
     detect_encoding(): 25db.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 例外: tokenize.TokenError

     Raised when either a docstring or expression that may be split over
     several lines is not completed anywhere in the file, for example:

          """Beginning of
          docstring

     或是：

          [1,
           2,
           3

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Usage<2>,  Next: 範例<46>,  Prev: Tokenizing Input,  Up: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source

5.32.5.2 Command-Line Usage
...........................

在 3.3 版被加入.

The *note tokenize: f6. module can be executed as a script from the
command line.  It is as simple as:

     python -m tokenize [-e] [filename.py]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     show this help message and exit

 -- Option: -e, --exact

     display token names using the exact type

If ‘filename.py’ is specified its contents are tokenized to stdout.
Otherwise, tokenization is performed on stdin.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<46>,  Prev: Command-Line Usage<2>,  Up: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source

5.32.5.3 範例
.............

Example of a script rewriter that transforms float literals into Decimal
objects:

     from tokenize import tokenize, untokenize, NUMBER, STRING, NAME, OP
     from io import BytesIO

     def decistmt(s):
         """Substitute Decimals for floats in a string of statements.

         >>> from decimal import Decimal
         >>> s = 'print(+21.3e-5*-.1234/81.7)'
         >>> decistmt(s)
         "print (+Decimal ('21.3e-5')*-Decimal ('.1234')/Decimal ('81.7'))"

         The format of the exponent is inherited from the platform C library.
         Known cases are "e-007" (Windows) and "e-07" (not Windows).  Since
         we're only showing 12 digits, and the 13th isn't close to 5, the
         rest of the output should be platform-independent.

         >>> exec(s)  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
         -3.21716034272e-0...7

         Output from calculations with Decimal should be identical across all
         platforms.

         >>> exec(decistmt(s))
         -3.217160342717258261933904529E-7
         """
         result = []
         g = tokenize(BytesIO(s.encode('utf-8')).readline)  # tokenize the string
         for toknum, tokval, _, _, _ in g:
             if toknum == NUMBER and '.' in tokval:  # replace NUMBER tokens
                 result.extend([
                     (NAME, 'Decimal'),
                     (OP, '('),
                     (STRING, repr(tokval)),
                     (OP, ')')
                 ])
             else:
                 result.append((toknum, tokval))
         return untokenize(result).decode('utf-8')

Example of tokenizing from the command line.  The script:

     def say_hello():
         print("Hello, World!")

     say_hello()

will be tokenized to the following output where the first column is the
range of the line/column coordinates where the token is found, the
second column is the name of the token, and the final column is the
value of the token (if any)

     $ python -m tokenize hello.py
     0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
     1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
     1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
     1,13-1,14:          OP             '('
     1,14-1,15:          OP             ')'
     1,15-1,16:          OP             ':'
     1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
     2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
     2,9-2,10:           OP             '('
     2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
     2,25-2,26:          OP             ')'
     2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
     4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
     4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
     4,9-4,10:           OP             '('
     4,10-4,11:          OP             ')'
     4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

The exact token type names can be displayed using the *note -e: 43c1.
option:

     $ python -m tokenize -e hello.py
     0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
     1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
     1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
     1,13-1,14:          LPAR           '('
     1,14-1,15:          RPAR           ')'
     1,15-1,16:          COLON          ':'
     1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
     2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
     2,9-2,10:           LPAR           '('
     2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
     2,25-2,26:          RPAR           ')'
     2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
     4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
     4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
     4,9-4,10:           LPAR           '('
     4,10-4,11:          RPAR           ')'
     4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

Example of tokenizing a file programmatically, reading unicode strings
instead of bytes with *note generate_tokens(): 205.:

     import tokenize

     with tokenize.open('hello.py') as f:
         tokens = tokenize.generate_tokens(f.readline)
         for token in tokens:
             print(token)

Or reading bytes directly with *note tokenize(): 204.:

     import tokenize

     with open('hello.py', 'rb') as f:
         tokens = tokenize.tokenize(f.readline)
         for token in tokens:
             print(token)


File: python.info,  Node: tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排,  Next: pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援,  Prev: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source,  Up: Python 語言服務

5.32.6 ‘tabnanny’ -- 偵測不良縮排
---------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tabnanny.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

目前現況是此模組打算以腳本方式被呼叫使用，但也可以將其引入於 IDE 中並使
用下方敘述的 *note check(): 43c6. 函式。

     備註: 此模組所提供的 API 很有可能會在未來的發佈版本中有所變更，且有
     可能不具有向後相容性。

 -- 函式: tabnanny.check (file_or_dir)

     如果 'file_or_dir' 是個目錄且並非符號鏈接 (symbolic link)，則會遞迴
     地在名為 'file_or_dir' 的目錄樹 (directory tree) 中不斷下行檢查所有
     ‘.py’ 檔案。如果 'file_or_dir' 是個一般 Python 原始檔案，則為其檢查
     空格相關問題。診斷訊息會以 *note print(): e02. 函式輸出至標準輸出
     (standard output) 當中。

 -- 資料: tabnanny.verbose

     標示是否要印出詳細訊息 (verbose message) 的旗標，若是以腳本方式呼叫
     的話則可以用 ‘-v’ 選項來增加。

 -- 資料: tabnanny.filename_only

     標示是否要只印出那些有空白相關問題檔案之檔名的旗標，若是以腳本方式
     呼叫的話則可以用 ‘-q’ 選項來設為真值。

 -- 例外: tabnanny.NannyNag

     當偵測到不良縮排時，此例外會被 *note process_tokens(): 43ca. 引發，
     會在 *note check(): 43c6. 中捕獲與處理。

 -- 函式: tabnanny.process_tokens (tokens)

     此函式被 *note check(): 43c6. 用來處理由 *note tokenize: f6. 產生的
     標記 (token)。

也參考
......

*note tokenize: f6. 模組

     Python 原始程式碼的詞彙掃描器 (lexical scanner)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tabnanny.py


File: python.info,  Node: pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援,  Next: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案,  Prev: tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排,  Up: Python 語言服務

5.32.7 ‘pyclbr’ -- Python 模組瀏覽器支援
----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/pyclbr.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note pyclbr: af. module provides limited information about the
functions, classes, and methods defined in a Python-coded module.  The
information is sufficient to implement a module browser.  The
information is extracted from the Python source code rather than by
importing the module, so this module is safe to use with untrusted code.
This restriction makes it impossible to use this module with modules not
implemented in Python, including all standard and optional extension
modules.

 -- 函式: pyclbr.readmodule (module, path=None)

     Return a dictionary mapping module-level class names to class
     descriptors.  If possible, descriptors for imported base classes
     are included.  Parameter 'module' is a string with the name of the
     module to read; it may be the name of a module within a package.
     If given, 'path' is a sequence of directory paths prepended to
     ‘sys.path’, which is used to locate the module source code.

     This function is the original interface and is only kept for back
     compatibility.  It returns a filtered version of the following.

 -- 函式: pyclbr.readmodule_ex (module, path=None)

     Return a dictionary-based tree containing a function or class
     descriptors for each function and class defined in the module with
     a ‘def’ or ‘class’ statement.  The returned dictionary maps
     module-level function and class names to their descriptors.  Nested
     objects are entered into the children dictionary of their parent.
     As with readmodule, 'module' names the module to be read and 'path'
     is prepended to sys.path.  If the module being read is a package,
     the returned dictionary has a key ‘'__path__'’ whose value is a
     list containing the package search path.

在 3.7 版被加入: Descriptors for nested definitions.  They are accessed
through the new children attribute.  Each has a new parent attribute.

The descriptors returned by these functions are instances of Function
and Class classes.  Users are not expected to create instances of these
classes.

* Menu:

* 函式物件::
* Class Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pyclbr.py


File: python.info,  Node: 函式物件,  Next: Class Objects,  Up: pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援

5.32.7.1 函式物件
.................

 -- 類別: pyclbr.Function

     Class ‘Function’ instances describe functions defined by def
     statements.  They have the following attributes:

      -- 屬性: file

          Name of the file in which the function is defined.

      -- 屬性: module

          The name of the module defining the function described.

      -- 屬性: name

          The name of the function.

      -- 屬性: lineno

          The line number in the file where the definition starts.

      -- 屬性: parent

          For top-level functions, ‘None’.  For nested functions, the
          parent.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: children

          A *note dictionary: 239. mapping names to descriptors for
          nested functions and classes.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: is_async

          ‘True’ for functions that are defined with the *note async:
          3c3. prefix, ‘False’ otherwise.

          在 3.10 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Class Objects,  Prev: 函式物件,  Up: pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援

5.32.7.2 Class Objects
......................

 -- 類別: pyclbr.Class

     Class ‘Class’ instances describe classes defined by class
     statements.  They have the same attributes as *note Functions:
     43cf. and two more.

      -- 屬性: file

          Name of the file in which the class is defined.

      -- 屬性: module

          The name of the module defining the class described.

      -- 屬性: name

          The name of the class.

      -- 屬性: lineno

          The line number in the file where the definition starts.

      -- 屬性: parent

          For top-level classes, ‘None’.  For nested classes, the
          parent.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: children

          A dictionary mapping names to descriptors for nested functions
          and classes.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: super

          A list of ‘Class’ objects which describe the immediate base
          classes of the class being described.  Classes which are named
          as superclasses but which are not discoverable by *note
          readmodule_ex(): 652. are listed as a string with the class
          name instead of as ‘Class’ objects.

      -- 屬性: methods

          A *note dictionary: 239. mapping method names to line numbers.
          This can be derived from the newer *note children: 43df.
          dictionary, but remains for back-compatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案,  Next: compileall --- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫,  Prev: pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援,  Up: Python 語言服務

5.32.8 ‘py_compile’ — 編譯 Python 來源檔案
------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/py_compile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note py_compile: ae. module provides a function to generate a
byte-code file from a source file, and another function used when the
module source file is invoked as a script.

Though not often needed, this function can be useful when installing
modules for shared use, especially if some of the users may not have
permission to write the byte-code cache files in the directory
containing the source code.

 -- 例外: py_compile.PyCompileError

     Exception raised when an error occurs while attempting to compile
     the file.

 -- 函式: py_compile.compile (file, cfile=None, dfile=None,
          doraise=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP, quiet=0)

     Compile a source file to byte-code and write out the byte-code
     cache file.  The source code is loaded from the file named 'file'.
     The byte-code is written to 'cfile', which defaults to the PEP
     3147(2)/ PEP 488(3) path, ending in ‘.pyc’.  For example, if 'file'
     is ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ 'cfile' will default to
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ for Python 3.2.  If
     'dfile' is specified, it is used instead of 'file' as the name of
     the source file from which source lines are obtained for display in
     exception tracebacks.  If 'doraise' is true, a *note
     PyCompileError: 43e4. is raised when an error is encountered while
     compiling 'file'.  If 'doraise' is false (the default), an error
     string is written to ‘sys.stderr’, but no exception is raised.
     This function returns the path to byte-compiled file, i.e.
     whatever 'cfile' value was used.

     The 'doraise' and 'quiet' arguments determine how errors are
     handled while compiling file.  If 'quiet' is 0 or 1, and 'doraise'
     is false, the default behaviour is enabled: an error string is
     written to ‘sys.stderr’, and the function returns ‘None’ instead of
     a path.  If 'doraise' is true, a *note PyCompileError: 43e4. is
     raised instead.  However if 'quiet' is 2, no message is written,
     and 'doraise' has no effect.

     If the path that 'cfile' becomes (either explicitly specified or
     computed) is a symlink or non-regular file, *note FileExistsError:
     eb4. will be raised.  This is to act as a warning that import will
     turn those paths into regular files if it is allowed to write
     byte-compiled files to those paths.  This is a side-effect of
     import using file renaming to place the final byte-compiled file
     into place to prevent concurrent file writing issues.

     'optimize' controls the optimization level and is passed to the
     built-in *note compile(): 554. function.  The default of ‘-1’
     selects the optimization level of the current interpreter.

     'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note
     PycInvalidationMode: 43e5. enum and controls how the generated
     bytecode cache is invalidated at runtime.  The default is *note
     PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH: 43e6. if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’
     environment variable is set, otherwise the default is *note
     PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP: 43e7.

     在 3.2 版的變更: Changed default value of 'cfile' to be PEP
     3147(4)-compliant.  Previous default was 'file' + ‘'c'’ (‘'o'’ if
     optimization was enabled).  Also added the 'optimize' parameter.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Changed code to use *note importlib: 71. for the
     byte-code cache file writing.  This means file creation/writing
     semantics now match what *note importlib: 71. does, e.g.
     permissions, write-and-move semantics, etc.  Also added the caveat
     that *note FileExistsError: eb4. is raised if 'cfile' is a symlink
     or non-regular file.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was added as
     specified in PEP 552(5).  If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable is set, 'invalidation_mode' will be forced to *note
     PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH: 43e6.

     在 3.7.2 版的變更: The ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable no
     longer overrides the value of the 'invalidation_mode' argument, and
     determines its default value instead.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'quiet' 參數。

 -- 類別: py_compile.PycInvalidationMode

     An enumeration of possible methods the interpreter can use to
     determine whether a bytecode file is up to date with a source file.
     The ‘.pyc’ file indicates the desired invalidation mode in its
     header.  See *note Cached bytecode invalidation: 3e0. for more
     information on how Python invalidates ‘.pyc’ files at runtime.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

      -- 屬性: TIMESTAMP

          The ‘.pyc’ file includes the timestamp and size of the source
          file, which Python will compare against the metadata of the
          source file at runtime to determine if the ‘.pyc’ file needs
          to be regenerated.

      -- 屬性: CHECKED_HASH

          The ‘.pyc’ file includes a hash of the source file content,
          which Python will compare against the source at runtime to
          determine if the ‘.pyc’ file needs to be regenerated.

      -- 屬性: UNCHECKED_HASH

          Like *note CHECKED_HASH: 43e6, the ‘.pyc’ file includes a hash
          of the source file content.  However, Python will at runtime
          assume the ‘.pyc’ file is up to date and not validate the
          ‘.pyc’ against the source file at all.

          This option is useful when the ‘.pycs’ are kept up to date by
          some system external to Python like a build system.

* Menu:

* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/py_compile.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface<3>,  Up: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案

5.32.8.1 Command-Line Interface
...............................

This module can be invoked as a script to compile several source files.
The files named in 'filenames' are compiled and the resulting bytecode
is cached in the normal manner.  This program does not search a
directory structure to locate source files; it only compiles files named
explicitly.  The exit status is nonzero if one of the files could not be
compiled.

 -- Option: <file> ... <fileN>
 -- Option: -

     Positional arguments are files to compile.  If ‘-’ is the only
     parameter, the list of files is taken from standard input.

 -- Option: -q, --quiet

     Suppress errors output.

在 3.2 版的變更: 新增對 ‘-’ 的支援。

在 3.10 版的變更: 新增對 *note -q: 43ed. 的支援。

也參考
......

*note compileall: 1e. 模組

     Utilities to compile all Python source files in a directory tree.


File: python.info,  Node: compileall --- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫,  Next: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器,  Prev: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案,  Up: Python 語言服務

5.32.9 ‘compileall’ -- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫
-----------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/compileall.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides some utility functions to support installing Python
libraries.  These functions compile Python source files in a directory
tree.  This module can be used to create the cached byte-code files at
library installation time, which makes them available for use even by
users who don't have write permission to the library directories.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

* Menu:

* Command-line use::
* Public functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/compileall.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line use,  Next: Public functions,  Up: compileall --- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫

5.32.9.1 Command-line use
.........................

This module can work as a script (using ‘python -m compileall’) to
compile Python sources.

 -- Option: directory ...
 -- Option: file ...

     Positional arguments are files to compile or directories that
     contain source files, traversed recursively.  If no argument is
     given, behave as if the command line was ‘-l <DIRECTORIES FROM
     SYS.PATH>’.

 -- Option: -l

     Do not recurse into subdirectories, only compile source code files
     directly contained in the named or implied directories.

 -- Option: -f

     Force rebuild even if timestamps are up-to-date.

 -- Option: -q

     Do not print the list of files compiled.  If passed once, error
     messages will still be printed.  If passed twice (‘-qq’), all
     output is suppressed.

 -- Option: -d destdir

     Directory prepended to the path to each file being compiled.  This
     will appear in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in
     to the byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and
     other messages in cases where the source file does not exist at the
     time the byte-code file is executed.

 -- Option: -s strip_prefix

 -- Option: -p prepend_prefix

     Remove (‘-s’) or append (‘-p’) the given prefix of paths recorded
     in the ‘.pyc’ files.  Cannot be combined with ‘-d’.

 -- Option: -x regex

     regex is used to search the full path to each file considered for
     compilation, and if the regex produces a match, the file is
     skipped.

 -- Option: -i list

     Read the file ‘list’ and add each line that it contains to the list
     of files and directories to compile.  If ‘list’ is ‘-’, read lines
     from ‘stdin’.

 -- Option: -b

     Write the byte-code files to their legacy locations and names,
     which may overwrite byte-code files created by another version of
     Python.  The default is to write files to their PEP 3147(1)
     locations and names, which allows byte-code files from multiple
     versions of Python to coexist.

 -- Option: -r

     Control the maximum recursion level for subdirectories.  If this is
     given, then ‘-l’ option will not be taken into account.  ‘python -m
     compileall <directory> -r 0’ is equivalent to ‘python -m compileall
     <directory> -l’.

 -- Option: -j N

     Use 'N' workers to compile the files within the given directory.
     If ‘0’ is used, then the result of *note os.cpu_count(): 63b. will
     be used.

 -- Option: --invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]

     Control how the generated byte-code files are invalidated at
     runtime.  The ‘timestamp’ value, means that ‘.pyc’ files with the
     source timestamp and size embedded will be generated.  The
     ‘checked-hash’ and ‘unchecked-hash’ values cause hash-based pycs to
     be generated.  Hash-based pycs embed a hash of the source file
     contents rather than a timestamp.  See *note Cached bytecode
     invalidation: 3e0. for more information on how Python validates
     bytecode cache files at runtime.  The default is ‘timestamp’ if the
     ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is not set, and
     ‘checked-hash’ if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is
     set.

 -- Option: -o level

     Compile with the given optimization level.  May be used multiple
     times to compile for multiple levels at a time (for example,
     ‘compileall -o 1 -o 2’).

 -- Option: -e dir

     Ignore symlinks pointing outside the given directory.

 -- Option: --hardlink-dupes

     If two ‘.pyc’ files with different optimization level have the same
     content, use hard links to consolidate duplicate files.

在 3.2 版的變更: 新增選項 ‘-i’、‘-b’ 與 ‘-h’。

在 3.5 版的變更: Added the ‘-j’, ‘-r’, and ‘-qq’ options.  ‘-q’ option
was changed to a multilevel value.  ‘-b’ will always produce a byte-code
file ending in ‘.pyc’, never ‘.pyo’.

在 3.7 版的變更: 新增選項 ‘--invalidation-mode’。

在 3.9 版的變更: Added the ‘-s’, ‘-p’, ‘-e’ and ‘--hardlink-dupes’
options.  Raised the default recursion limit from 10 to *note
sys.getrecursionlimit(): 1eb.  Added the possibility to specify the ‘-o’
option multiple times.

There is no command-line option to control the optimization level used
by the *note compile(): 554. function, because the Python interpreter
itself already provides the option: ‘python -O -m compileall’.

Similarly, the *note compile(): 554. function respects the *note
sys.pycache_prefix: 7e8. setting.  The generated bytecode cache will
only be useful if *note compile(): 554. is run with the same *note
sys.pycache_prefix: 7e8. (if any) that will be used at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Public functions,  Prev: Command-line use,  Up: compileall --- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫

5.32.9.2 Public functions
.........................

 -- 函式: compileall.compile_dir (dir,
          maxlevels=sys.getrecursionlimit(), ddir=None, force=False,
          rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, workers=1,
          invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None,
          limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

     Recursively descend the directory tree named by 'dir', compiling
     all ‘.py’ files along the way.  Return a true value if all the
     files compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise.

     The 'maxlevels' parameter is used to limit the depth of the
     recursion; it defaults to ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’.

     If 'ddir' is given, it is prepended to the path to each file being
     compiled for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also
     compiled in to the byte-code file, where it will be used in
     tracebacks and other messages in cases where the source file does
     not exist at the time the byte-code file is executed.

     If 'force' is true, modules are re-compiled even if the timestamps
     are up to date.

     If 'rx' is given, its ‘search’ method is called on the complete
     path to each file considered for compilation, and if it returns a
     true value, the file is skipped.  This can be used to exclude files
     matching a regular expression, given as a *note re.Pattern: e13.
     object.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’ or ‘0’ (the default), the filenames and other
     information are printed to standard out.  Set to ‘1’, only errors
     are printed.  Set to ‘2’, all output is suppressed.

     If 'legacy' is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy
     locations and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by
     another version of Python.  The default is to write files to their
     PEP 3147(1) locations and names, which allows byte-code files from
     multiple versions of Python to coexist.

     'optimize' specifies the optimization level for the compiler.  It
     is passed to the built-in *note compile(): 554. function.  Accepts
     also a sequence of optimization levels which lead to multiple
     compilations of one ‘.py’ file in one call.

     The argument 'workers' specifies how many workers are used to
     compile files in parallel.  The default is to not use multiple
     workers.  If the platform can't use multiple workers and 'workers'
     argument is given, then sequential compilation will be used as a
     fallback.  If 'workers' is 0, the number of cores in the system is
     used.  If 'workers' is lower than ‘0’, a *note ValueError: 183.
     will be raised.

     'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note
     py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 43e5. enum and controls how the
     generated pycs are invalidated at runtime.

     The 'stripdir', 'prependdir' and 'limit_sl_dest' arguments
     correspond to the ‘-s’, ‘-p’ and ‘-e’ options described above.
     They may be specified as ‘str’ or *note os.PathLike: ab7.

     If 'hardlink_dupes' is true and two ‘.pyc’ files with different
     optimization level have the same content, use hard links to
     consolidate duplicate files.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'legacy' 與 'optimize' 參數。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 新增 'workers' 參數。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a multilevel
     value.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out ‘.pyc’
     files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of 'optimize' is.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'invalidation_mode' 參數。

     在 3.7.2 版的變更: 新增 'invalidation_mode' 參數的預設值被更新為
     ‘None’。

     在 3.8 版的變更: Setting 'workers' to 0 now chooses the optimal
     number of cores.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Added 'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest'
     and 'hardlink_dupes' arguments.  Default value of 'maxlevels' was
     changed from ‘10’ to ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’

 -- 函式: compileall.compile_file (fullname, ddir=None, force=False,
          rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None,
          limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

     Compile the file with path 'fullname'.  Return a true value if the
     file compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise.

     If 'ddir' is given, it is prepended to the path to the file being
     compiled for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also
     compiled in to the byte-code file, where it will be used in
     tracebacks and other messages in cases where the source file does
     not exist at the time the byte-code file is executed.

     If 'rx' is given, its ‘search’ method is passed the full path name
     to the file being compiled, and if it returns a true value, the
     file is not compiled and ‘True’ is returned.  This can be used to
     exclude files matching a regular expression, given as a *note
     re.Pattern: e13. object.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’ or ‘0’ (the default), the filenames and other
     information are printed to standard out.  Set to ‘1’, only errors
     are printed.  Set to ‘2’, all output is suppressed.

     If 'legacy' is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy
     locations and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by
     another version of Python.  The default is to write files to their
     PEP 3147(2) locations and names, which allows byte-code files from
     multiple versions of Python to coexist.

     'optimize' specifies the optimization level for the compiler.  It
     is passed to the built-in *note compile(): 554. function.  Accepts
     also a sequence of optimization levels which lead to multiple
     compilations of one ‘.py’ file in one call.

     'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note
     py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 43e5. enum and controls how the
     generated pycs are invalidated at runtime.

     The 'stripdir', 'prependdir' and 'limit_sl_dest' arguments
     correspond to the ‘-s’, ‘-p’ and ‘-e’ options described above.
     They may be specified as ‘str’ or *note os.PathLike: ab7.

     If 'hardlink_dupes' is true and two ‘.pyc’ files with different
     optimization level have the same content, use hard links to
     consolidate duplicate files.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.5 版的變更: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a multilevel
     value.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out ‘.pyc’
     files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of 'optimize' is.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'invalidation_mode' 參數。

     在 3.7.2 版的變更: 新增 'invalidation_mode' 參數的預設值被更新為
     ‘None’。

     在 3.9 版的變更: Added 'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest'
     and 'hardlink_dupes' arguments.

 -- 函式: compileall.compile_path (skip_curdir=True, maxlevels=0,
          force=False, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=None)

     Byte-compile all the ‘.py’ files found along ‘sys.path’.  Return a
     true value if all the files compiled successfully, and a false
     value otherwise.

     If 'skip_curdir' is true (the default), the current directory is
     not included in the search.  All other parameters are passed to the
     *note compile_dir(): 97d. function.  Note that unlike the other
     compile functions, ‘maxlevels’ defaults to ‘0’.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'legacy' 與 'optimize' 參數。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a multilevel
     value.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out ‘.pyc’
     files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of 'optimize' is.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'invalidation_mode' 參數。

     在 3.7.2 版的變更: 新增 'invalidation_mode' 參數的預設值被更新為
     ‘None’。

To force a recompile of all the ‘.py’ files in the ‘Lib/’ subdirectory
and all its subdirectories:

     import compileall

     compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', force=True)

     # Perform same compilation, excluding files in .svn directories.
     import re
     compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', rx=re.compile(r'[/\\][.]svn'), force=True)

     # pathlib.Path objects can also be used.
     import pathlib
     compileall.compile_dir(pathlib.Path('Lib/'), force=True)

也參考
......

*note py_compile: ae. 模組

     Byte-compile a single source file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器,  Next: pickletools --- pickle 開發者的工具,  Prev: compileall --- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫,  Up: Python 語言服務

5.32.10 ‘dis’ -- Python bytecode 的反組譯器
-------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/dis.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note dis: 35. 模組支援反組譯分析 CPython *note bytecode: 39f.。CPython
bytecode 作為輸入的模組被定義於 ‘Include/opcode.h’ 並且被編譯器和直譯器
所使用。

'CPython 實作細節：' Bytecode is an implementation detail of the CPython
interpreter.  No guarantees are made that bytecode will not be added,
removed, or changed between versions of Python.  Use of this module
should not be considered to work across Python VMs or Python releases.

在 3.6 版的變更: Use 2 bytes for each instruction.  Previously the
number of bytes varied by instruction.

在 3.10 版的變更: The argument of jump, exception handling and loop
instructions is now the instruction offset rather than the byte offset.

在 3.11 版的變更: Some instructions are accompanied by one or more
inline cache entries, which take the form of *note CACHE: 4fa.
instructions.  These instructions are hidden by default, but can be
shown by passing ‘show_caches=True’ to any *note dis: 35. utility.
Furthermore, the interpreter now adapts the bytecode to specialize it
for different runtime conditions.  The adaptive bytecode can be shown by
passing ‘adaptive=True’.

在 3.12 版的變更: The argument of a jump is the offset of the target
instruction relative to the instruction that appears immediately after
the jump instruction's *note CACHE: 4fa. entries.

As a consequence, the presence of the *note CACHE: 4fa. instructions is
transparent for forward jumps but needs to be taken into account when
reasoning about backward jumps.

Example: Given the function ‘myfunc()’:

     def myfunc(alist):
         return len(alist)

the following command can be used to display the disassembly of
‘myfunc()’:

     >>> dis.dis(myfunc)
       2           0 RESUME                   0

       3           2 LOAD_GLOBAL              1 (NULL + len)
                  12 LOAD_FAST                0 (alist)
                  14 CALL                     1
                  22 RETURN_VALUE

(The "2" is a line number).

* Menu:

* Command-line interface::
* Bytecode analysis::
* Analysis functions::
* Python Bytecode Instructions::
* Opcode collections::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dis.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface,  Next: Bytecode analysis,  Up: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器

5.32.10.1 Command-line interface
................................

The *note dis: 35. module can be invoked as a script from the command
line:

     python -m dis [-h] [infile]

The following options are accepted:

 -- 程式選項: -h, --help

     Display usage and exit.

If ‘infile’ is specified, its disassembled code will be written to
stdout.  Otherwise, disassembly is performed on compiled source code
recieved from stdin.


File: python.info,  Node: Bytecode analysis,  Next: Analysis functions,  Prev: Command-line interface,  Up: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器

5.32.10.2 Bytecode analysis
...........................

在 3.4 版被加入.

The bytecode analysis API allows pieces of Python code to be wrapped in
a *note Bytecode: dbb. object that provides easy access to details of
the compiled code.

 -- 類別: dis.Bytecode (x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

     Analyse the bytecode corresponding to a function, generator,
     asynchronous generator, coroutine, method, string of source code,
     or a code object (as returned by *note compile(): 554.).

     This is a convenience wrapper around many of the functions listed
     below, most notably *note get_instructions(): dba, as iterating
     over a *note Bytecode: dbb. instance yields the bytecode operations
     as *note Instruction: db9. instances.

     If 'first_line' is not ‘None’, it indicates the line number that
     should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled
     code.  Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken
     directly from the disassembled code object.

     If 'current_offset' is not ‘None’, it refers to an instruction
     offset in the disassembled code.  Setting this means *note dis():
     dbc. will display a "current instruction" marker against the
     specified opcode.

     If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, *note dis(): dbc. will display inline
     cache entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

     If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, *note dis(): dbc. will display specialized
     bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

      -- 方法: classmethod from_traceback (tb, *, show_caches=False)

          Construct a *note Bytecode: dbb. instance from the given
          traceback, setting 'current_offset' to the instruction
          responsible for the exception.

      -- 資料: codeobj

          The compiled code object.

      -- 資料: first_line

          The first source line of the code object (if available)

      -- 方法: dis ()

          Return a formatted view of the bytecode operations (the same
          as printed by *note dis.dis(): 98c, but returned as a
          multi-line string).

      -- 方法: info ()

          Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed information
          about the code object, like *note code_info(): 10cc.

     在 3.7 版的變更: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous
     generator objects.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'show_caches' 與 'adaptive' 參數。

範例：

     >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
     >>> for instr in bytecode:
     ...     print(instr.opname)
     ...
     RESUME
     LOAD_GLOBAL
     LOAD_FAST
     CALL
     RETURN_VALUE


File: python.info,  Node: Analysis functions,  Next: Python Bytecode Instructions,  Prev: Bytecode analysis,  Up: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器

5.32.10.3 Analysis functions
............................

The *note dis: 35. module also defines the following analysis functions
that convert the input directly to the desired output.  They can be
useful if only a single operation is being performed, so the
intermediate analysis object isn't useful:

 -- 函式: dis.code_info (x)

     Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed code object
     information for the supplied function, generator, asynchronous
     generator, coroutine, method, source code string or code object.

     Note that the exact contents of code info strings are highly
     implementation dependent and they may change arbitrarily across
     Python VMs or Python releases.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous
     generator objects.

 -- 函式: dis.show_code (x, *, file=None)

     Print detailed code object information for the supplied function,
     method, source code string or code object to 'file' (or
     ‘sys.stdout’ if 'file' is not specified).

     This is a convenient shorthand for ‘print(code_info(x),
     file=file)’, intended for interactive exploration at the
     interpreter prompt.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'file' 參數。

 -- 函式: dis.dis (x=None, *, file=None, depth=None, show_caches=False,
          adaptive=False)

     Disassemble the 'x' object.  'x' can denote either a module, a
     class, a method, a function, a generator, an asynchronous
     generator, a coroutine, a code object, a string of source code or a
     byte sequence of raw bytecode.  For a module, it disassembles all
     functions.  For a class, it disassembles all methods (including
     class and static methods).  For a code object or sequence of raw
     bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction.  It also
     recursively disassembles nested code objects.  These can include
     generator expressions, nested functions, the bodies of nested
     classes, and the code objects used for *note annotation scopes:
     167.  Strings are first compiled to code objects with the *note
     compile(): 554. built-in function before being disassembled.  If no
     object is provided, this function disassembles the last traceback.

     The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument
     if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise.

     The maximal depth of recursion is limited by 'depth' unless it is
     ‘None’.  ‘depth=0’ means no recursion.

     If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, this function will display inline cache
     entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

     If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, this function will display specialized
     bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'file' 參數。

     在 3.7 版的變更: Implemented recursive disassembling and added
     'depth' parameter.

     在 3.7 版的變更: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous
     generator objects.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'show_caches' 與 'adaptive' 參數。

 -- 函式: dis.distb (tb=None, *, file=None, show_caches=False,
          adaptive=False)

     Disassemble the top-of-stack function of a traceback, using the
     last traceback if none was passed.  The instruction causing the
     exception is indicated.

     The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument
     if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'file' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'show_caches' 與 'adaptive' 參數。

 -- 函式: dis.disassemble (code, lasti=-1, *, file=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)
 -- 函式: dis.disco (code, lasti=-1, *, file=None, show_caches=False,
          adaptive=False)

     Disassemble a code object, indicating the last instruction if
     'lasti' was provided.  The output is divided in the following
     columns:

       1. the line number, for the first instruction of each line

       2. the current instruction, indicated as ‘-->’,

       3. a labelled instruction, indicated with ‘>>’,

       4. the address of the instruction,

       5. the operation code name,

       6. operation parameters, and

       7. interpretation of the parameters in parentheses.

     The parameter interpretation recognizes local and global variable
     names, constant values, branch targets, and compare operators.

     The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument
     if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise.

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增 'file' 參數。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'show_caches' 與 'adaptive' 參數。

 -- 函式: dis.get_instructions (x, *, first_line=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

     Return an iterator over the instructions in the supplied function,
     method, source code string or code object.

     The iterator generates a series of *note Instruction: db9. named
     tuples giving the details of each operation in the supplied code.

     If 'first_line' is not ‘None’, it indicates the line number that
     should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled
     code.  Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken
     directly from the disassembled code object.

     The 'show_caches' and 'adaptive' parameters work as they do in
     *note dis(): 35.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 'show_caches' 與 'adaptive' 參數。

 -- 函式: dis.findlinestarts (code)

     This generator function uses the *note co_lines(): 26c. method of
     the *note code object: 5ca. 'code' to find the offsets which are
     starts of lines in the source code.  They are generated as
     ‘(offset, lineno)’ pairs.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Line numbers can be decreasing.  Before, they were
     always increasing.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The PEP 626(1) *note co_lines(): 26c. method is
     used instead of the *note co_firstlineno: 1cd4. and *note
     co_lnotab: 249. attributes of the *note code object: 5ca.

 -- 函式: dis.findlabels (code)

     Detect all offsets in the raw compiled bytecode string 'code' which
     are jump targets, and return a list of these offsets.

 -- 函式: dis.stack_effect (opcode, oparg=None, *, jump=None)

     Compute the stack effect of 'opcode' with argument 'oparg'.

     If the code has a jump target and 'jump' is ‘True’, *note
     stack_effect(): dbe. will return the stack effect of jumping.  If
     'jump' is ‘False’, it will return the stack effect of not jumping.
     And if 'jump' is ‘None’ (default), it will return the maximal stack
     effect of both cases.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'jump' 參數。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Bytecode Instructions,  Next: Opcode collections,  Prev: Analysis functions,  Up: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器

5.32.10.4 Python Bytecode Instructions
......................................

The *note get_instructions(): dba. function and *note Bytecode: dbb.
class provide details of bytecode instructions as *note Instruction:
db9. instances:

 -- 類別: dis.Instruction

     Details for a bytecode operation

      -- 資料: opcode

          numeric code for operation, corresponding to the opcode values
          listed below and the bytecode values in the *note Opcode
          collections: 4415.

      -- 資料: opname

          human readable name for operation

      -- 資料: arg

          numeric argument to operation (if any), otherwise ‘None’

      -- 資料: argval

          resolved arg value (if any), otherwise ‘None’

      -- 資料: argrepr

          human readable description of operation argument (if any),
          otherwise an empty string.

      -- 資料: offset

          start index of operation within bytecode sequence

      -- 資料: starts_line

          line started by this opcode (if any), otherwise ‘None’

      -- 資料: is_jump_target

          ‘True’ if other code jumps to here, otherwise ‘False’

      -- 資料: positions

          *note dis.Positions: 41b2. object holding the start and end
          locations that are covered by this instruction.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Field ‘positions’ is added.

 -- 類別: dis.Positions

     In case the information is not available, some fields might be
     ‘None’.

      -- 資料: lineno

      -- 資料: end_lineno

      -- 資料: col_offset

      -- 資料: end_col_offset

     在 3.11 版被加入.

The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode
instructions.

'General instructions'

In the following, We will refer to the interpreter stack as ‘STACK’ and
describe operations on it as if it was a Python list.  The top of the
stack corresponds to ‘STACK[-1]’ in this language.

 -- Opcode: NOP

     Do nothing code.  Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer,
     and to generate line tracing events.

 -- Opcode: POP_TOP

     Removes the top-of-stack item:

          STACK.pop()

 -- Opcode: END_FOR

     Removes the top two values from the stack.  Equivalent to
     ‘POP_TOP’; ‘POP_TOP’.  Used to clean up at the end of loops, hence
     the name.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: END_SEND

     Implements ‘del STACK[-2]’.  Used to clean up when a generator
     exits.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: COPY (i)

     Push the i-th item to the top of the stack without removing it from
     its original location:

          assert i > 0
          STACK.append(STACK[-i])

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: SWAP (i)

     Swap the top of the stack with the i-th element:

          STACK[-i], STACK[-1] = STACK[-1], STACK[-i]

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: CACHE

     Rather than being an actual instruction, this opcode is used to
     mark extra space for the interpreter to cache useful data directly
     in the bytecode itself.  It is automatically hidden by all ‘dis’
     utilities, but can be viewed with ‘show_caches=True’.

     Logically, this space is part of the preceding instruction.  Many
     opcodes expect to be followed by an exact number of caches, and
     will instruct the interpreter to skip over them at runtime.

     Populated caches can look like arbitrary instructions, so great
     care should be taken when reading or modifying raw, adaptive
     bytecode containing quickened data.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

'Unary operations'

Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and
push the result back on the stack.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_NEGATIVE

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = -STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_NOT

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = not STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_INVERT

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = ~STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: GET_ITER

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’.

 -- Opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is a *note generator iterator: a3f. or *note
     coroutine: 1ae. object it is left as is.  Otherwise, implements
     ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

'Binary and in-place operations'

Binary operations remove the top two items from the stack (‘STACK[-1]’
and ‘STACK[-2]’).  They perform the operation, then put the result back
on the stack.

In-place operations are like binary operations, but the operation is
done in-place when ‘STACK[-2]’ supports it, and the resulting
‘STACK[-1]’ may be (but does not have to be) the original ‘STACK[-2]’.

 -- Opcode: BINARY_OP (op)

     Implements the binary and in-place operators (depending on the
     value of 'op'):

          rhs = STACK.pop()
          lhs = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(lhs op rhs)

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: BINARY_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(container[key])

 -- Opcode: STORE_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          container[key] = value

 -- Opcode: DELETE_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          del container[key]

 -- Opcode: BINARY_SLICE

     Implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(container[start:end])

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: STORE_SLICE

     Implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          values = STACK.pop()
          container[start:end] = value

     在 3.12 版被加入.

'Coroutine opcodes'

 -- Opcode: GET_AWAITABLE (where)

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = get_awaitable(STACK[-1])’, where
     ‘get_awaitable(o)’ returns ‘o’ if ‘o’ is a coroutine object or a
     generator object with the *note CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE: 41c3. flag,
     or resolves ‘o.__await__’.

          If the ‘where’ operand is nonzero, it indicates where the
          instruction occurs:

             * ‘1’: After a call to ‘__aenter__’

             * ‘2’: After a call to ‘__aexit__’

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Previously, this instruction did not have an
     oparg.

 -- Opcode: GET_AITER

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-1].__aiter__()’.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Returning awaitable objects from ‘__aiter__’ is no
     longer supported.

 -- Opcode: GET_ANEXT

     Implement ‘STACK.append(get_awaitable(STACK[-1].__anext__()))’ to
     the stack.  See ‘GET_AWAITABLE’ for details about ‘get_awaitable’.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: END_ASYNC_FOR

     Terminates an *note async for: 8fe. loop.  Handles an exception
     raised when awaiting a next item.  The stack contains the async
     iterable in ‘STACK[-2]’ and the raised exception in ‘STACK[-1]’.
     Both are popped.  If the exception is not *note StopAsyncIteration:
     1813, it is re-raised.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Exception representation on the stack now consist
     of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: CLEANUP_THROW

     Handles an exception raised during a *note throw(): 243. or *note
     close(): 158c. call through the current frame.  If ‘STACK[-1]’ is
     an instance of *note StopIteration: a5d, pop three values from the
     stack and push its ‘value’ member.  Otherwise, re-raise
     ‘STACK[-1]’.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH

     Resolves ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’ from ‘STACK[-1]’.  Pushes
     ‘__aexit__’ and result of ‘__aenter__()’ to the stack:

          STACK.extend((__aexit__, __aenter__())

     在 3.5 版被加入.

'Miscellaneous opcodes'

 -- Opcode: SET_ADD (i)

     Implements:

          item = STACK.pop()
          set.add(STACK[-i], item)

     Used to implement set comprehensions.

 -- Opcode: LIST_APPEND (i)

     Implements:

          item = STACK.pop()
          list.append(STACK[-i], item)

     Used to implement list comprehensions.

 -- Opcode: MAP_ADD (i)

     Implements:

          value = STACK.pop()
          key = STACK.pop()
          dict.__setitem__(STACK[-i], key, value)

     Used to implement dict comprehensions.

     在 3.1 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Map value is ‘STACK[-1]’ and map key is
     ‘STACK[-2]’.  Before, those were reversed.

For all of the *note SET_ADD: 442f, *note LIST_APPEND: 4430. and *note
MAP_ADD: 8ff. instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is
popped off, the container object remains on the stack so that it is
available for further iterations of the loop.

 -- Opcode: RETURN_VALUE

     Returns with ‘STACK[-1]’ to the caller of the function.

 -- Opcode: RETURN_CONST (consti)

     Returns with ‘co_consts[consti]’ to the caller of the function.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: YIELD_VALUE

     Yields ‘STACK.pop()’ from a *note generator: ef7.

     在 3.11 版的變更: oparg set to be the stack depth.

     在 3.12 版的變更: oparg set to be the exception block depth, for
     efficient closing of generators.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_ANNOTATIONS

     Checks whether ‘__annotations__’ is defined in ‘locals()’, if not
     it is set up to an empty ‘dict’.  This opcode is only emitted if a
     class or module body contains *note variable annotations: bcb.
     statically.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: POP_EXCEPT

     Pops a value from the stack, which is used to restore the exception
     state.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Exception representation on the stack now consist
     of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: RERAISE

     Re-raises the exception currently on top of the stack.  If oparg is
     non-zero, pops an additional value from the stack which is used to
     set *note f_lasti: 6b6. of the current frame.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Exception representation on the stack now consist
     of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: PUSH_EXC_INFO

     Pops a value from the stack.  Pushes the current exception to the
     top of the stack.  Pushes the value originally popped back to the
     stack.  Used in exception handlers.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: CHECK_EXC_MATCH

     Performs exception matching for ‘except’.  Tests whether the
     ‘STACK[-2]’ is an exception matching ‘STACK[-1]’.  Pops ‘STACK[-1]’
     and pushes the boolean result of the test.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: CHECK_EG_MATCH

     Performs exception matching for ‘except*’.  Applies
     ‘split(STACK[-1])’ on the exception group representing ‘STACK[-2]’.

     In case of a match, pops two items from the stack and pushes the
     non-matching subgroup (‘None’ in case of full match) followed by
     the matching subgroup.  When there is no match, pops one item (the
     match type) and pushes ‘None’.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: WITH_EXCEPT_START

     Calls the function in position 4 on the stack with arguments (type,
     val, tb) representing the exception at the top of the stack.  Used
     to implement the call ‘context_manager.__exit__(*exc_info())’ when
     an exception has occurred in a *note with: 3c5. statement.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The ‘__exit__’ function is in position 4 of the
     stack rather than 7.  Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR

     Pushes *note AssertionError: 4a6. onto the stack.  Used by the
     *note assert: 7aa. statement.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_BUILD_CLASS

     Pushes ‘builtins.__build_class__()’ onto the stack.  It is later
     called to construct a class.

 -- Opcode: BEFORE_WITH

     This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts.
     First, it loads *note __exit__(): 1191. from the context manager
     and pushes it onto the stack for later use by *note
     WITH_EXCEPT_START: 4433.  Then, *note __enter__(): 3b8. is called.
     Finally, the result of calling the ‘__enter__()’ method is pushed
     onto the stack.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: GET_LEN

     Perform ‘STACK.append(len(STACK[-1]))’.  Used in *note match: 62f.
     statements where comparison with structure of pattern is needed.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_MAPPING

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Mapping:
     702. (or, more technically: if it has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING:
     1676. flag set in its *note tp_flags: 1691.), push ‘True’ onto the
     stack.  Otherwise, push ‘False’.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_SEQUENCE

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     1055. and is 'not' an instance of *note str: 157./*note bytes:
     2c1./*note bytearray: 2c0. (or, more technically: if it has the
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1677. flag set in its *note tp_flags:
     1691.), push ‘True’ onto the stack.  Otherwise, push ‘False’.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_KEYS

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of mapping keys, and ‘STACK[-2]’ is the
     match subject.  If ‘STACK[-2]’ contains all of the keys in
     ‘STACK[-1]’, push a *note tuple: 4e6. containing the corresponding
     values.  Otherwise, push ‘None’.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Previously, this instruction also pushed a
     boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure (‘False’).

 -- Opcode: STORE_NAME (namei)

     Implements ‘name = STACK.pop()’.  'namei' is the index of 'name' in
     the attribute *note co_names: 1cd3. of the *note code object: 5ca.
     The compiler tries to use *note STORE_FAST: 4439. or *note
     STORE_GLOBAL: 443a. if possible.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_NAME (namei)

     Implements ‘del name’, where 'namei' is the index into *note
     co_names: 1cd3. attribute of the *note code object: 5ca.

 -- Opcode: UNPACK_SEQUENCE (count)

     Unpacks ‘STACK[-1]’ into 'count' individual values, which are put
     onto the stack right-to-left.  Require there to be exactly 'count'
     values.:

          assert(len(STACK[-1]) == count)
          STACK.extend(STACK.pop()[:-count-1:-1])

 -- Opcode: UNPACK_EX (counts)

     Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in
     ‘STACK[-1]’ into individual values, where the total number of
     values can be smaller than the number of items in the iterable: one
     of the new values will be a list of all leftover items.

     The number of values before and after the list value is limited to
     255.

     The number of values before the list value is encoded in the
     argument of the opcode.  The number of values after the list if any
     is encoded using an ‘EXTENDED_ARG’.  As a consequence, the argument
     can be seen as a two bytes values where the low byte of 'counts' is
     the number of values before the list value, the high byte of
     'counts' the number of values after it.

     The extracted values are put onto the stack right-to-left, i.e.
     ‘a, *b, c = d’ will be stored after execution as ‘STACK.extend((a,
     b, c))’.

 -- Opcode: STORE_ATTR (namei)

     Implements:

          obj = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          obj.name = value

     where 'namei' is the index of name in *note co_names: 1cd3. of the
     *note code object: 5ca.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_ATTR (namei)

     Implements:

          obj = STACK.pop()
          del obj.name

     where 'namei' is the index of name into *note co_names: 1cd3. of
     the *note code object: 5ca.

 -- Opcode: STORE_GLOBAL (namei)

     Works as *note STORE_NAME: 4438, but stores the name as a global.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_GLOBAL (namei)

     Works as *note DELETE_NAME: 443b, but deletes a global name.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_CONST (consti)

     Pushes ‘co_consts[consti]’ onto the stack.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_NAME (namei)

     Pushes the value associated with ‘co_names[namei]’ onto the stack.
     The name is looked up within the locals, then the globals, then the
     builtins.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_LOCALS

     Pushes a reference to the locals dictionary onto the stack.  This
     is used to prepare namespace dictionaries for *note
     LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 211. and *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS:
     212.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (i)

     Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the value for
     ‘co_names[namei]’.  If the name is not found there, looks it up in
     the globals and then the builtins, similar to *note LOAD_GLOBAL:
     1503.  This is used for loading global variables in *note
     annotation scopes: 167. within class bodies.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_TUPLE (count)

     Creates a tuple consuming 'count' items from the stack, and pushes
     the resulting tuple onto the stack:

          if count == 0:
              value = ()
          else:
              value = tuple(STACK[-count:])
              STACK = STACK[:-count]

          STACK.append(value)

 -- Opcode: BUILD_LIST (count)

     Works as *note BUILD_TUPLE: 4441, but creates a list.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_SET (count)

     Works as *note BUILD_TUPLE: 4441, but creates a set.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_MAP (count)

     Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack.  Pops ‘2 * count’
     items so that the dictionary holds 'count' entries: ‘{...,
     STACK[-4]: STACK[-3], STACK[-2]: STACK[-1]}’.

     在 3.5 版的變更: The dictionary is created from stack items instead
     of creating an empty dictionary pre-sized to hold 'count' items.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (count)

     The version of *note BUILD_MAP: 1461. specialized for constant
     keys.  Pops the top element on the stack which contains a tuple of
     keys, then starting from ‘STACK[-2]’, pops 'count' values to form
     values in the built dictionary.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_STRING (count)

     Concatenates 'count' strings from the stack and pushes the
     resulting string onto the stack.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: LIST_EXTEND (i)

     Implements:

          seq = STACK.pop()
          list.extend(STACK[-i], seq)

     Used to build lists.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: SET_UPDATE (i)

     Implements:

          seq = STACK.pop()
          set.update(STACK[-i], seq)

     Used to build sets.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: DICT_UPDATE (i)

     Implements:

          map = STACK.pop()
          dict.update(STACK[-i], map)

     Used to build dicts.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: DICT_MERGE (i)

     Like *note DICT_UPDATE: 4446. but raises an exception for duplicate
     keys.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_ATTR (namei)

     If the low bit of ‘namei’ is not set, this replaces ‘STACK[-1]’
     with ‘getattr(STACK[-1], co_names[namei>>1])’.

     If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, this will attempt to load a
     method named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ from the ‘STACK[-1]’ object.
     ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.  This bytecode distinguishes two cases: if
     ‘STACK[-1]’ has a method with the correct name, the bytecode pushes
     the unbound method and ‘STACK[-1]’.  ‘STACK[-1]’ will be used as
     the first argument (‘self’) by *note CALL: 509. when calling the
     unbound method.  Otherwise, ‘NULL’ and the object returned by the
     attribute lookup are pushed.

     在 3.12 版的變更: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, then a ‘NULL’
     or ‘self’ is pushed to the stack before the attribute or unbound
     method respectively.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (namei)

     This opcode implements *note super(): 206, both in its
     zero-argument and two-argument forms (e.g.  ‘super().method()’,
     ‘super().attr’ and ‘super(cls, self).method()’, ‘super(cls,
     self).attr’).

     It pops three values from the stack (from top of stack down): -
     ‘self’: the first argument to the current method - ‘cls’: the class
     within which the current method was defined - the global ‘super’

     With respect to its argument, it works similarly to *note
     LOAD_ATTR: 209, except that ‘namei’ is shifted left by 2 bits
     instead of 1.

     The low bit of ‘namei’ signals to attempt a method load, as with
     *note LOAD_ATTR: 209, which results in pushing ‘NULL’ and the
     loaded method.  When it is unset a single value is pushed to the
     stack.

     The second-low bit of ‘namei’, if set, means that this was a
     two-argument call to *note super(): 206. (unset means
     zero-argument).

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: COMPARE_OP (opname)

     Performs a Boolean operation.  The operation name can be found in
     ‘cmp_op[opname >> 4]’.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The cmp_op index is now stored in the
     four-highest bits of oparg instead of the four-lowest bits of
     oparg.

 -- Opcode: IS_OP (invert)

     Performs ‘is’ comparison, or ‘is not’ if ‘invert’ is 1.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: CONTAINS_OP (invert)

     Performs ‘in’ comparison, or ‘not in’ if ‘invert’ is 1.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: IMPORT_NAME (namei)

     Imports the module ‘co_names[namei]’.  ‘STACK[-1]’ and ‘STACK[-2]’
     are popped and provide the 'fromlist' and 'level' arguments of
     *note __import__(): 70d.  The module object is pushed onto the
     stack.  The current namespace is not affected: for a proper import
     statement, a subsequent *note STORE_FAST: 4439. instruction
     modifies the namespace.

 -- Opcode: IMPORT_FROM (namei)

     Loads the attribute ‘co_names[namei]’ from the module found in
     ‘STACK[-1]’.  The resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be
     subsequently stored by a *note STORE_FAST: 4439. instruction.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_FORWARD (delta)

     Increments bytecode counter by 'delta'.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD (delta)

     Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'.  Checks for interrupts.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (delta)

     Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'.  Does not check for
     interrupts.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is true, increments the bytecode counter by 'delta'.
     ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The oparg is now a relative delta rather than an
     absolute target.  This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in
     final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward).

     在 3.12 版的變更: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is false, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The oparg is now a relative delta rather than an
     absolute target.  This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in
     final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward).

     在 3.12 版的變更: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is not ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by
     the directed versions (forward/backward).

     在 3.11 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by
     the directed versions (forward/backward).

     在 3.11 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: FOR_ITER (delta)

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is an *note iterator: 1718.  Call its *note __next__():
     115d. method.  If this yields a new value, push it on the stack
     (leaving the iterator below it).  If the iterator indicates it is
     exhausted then the byte code counter is incremented by 'delta'.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Up until 3.11 the iterator was popped when it was
     exhausted.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_GLOBAL (namei)

     Loads the global named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ onto the stack.

     在 3.11 版的變更: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, then a ‘NULL’
     is pushed to the stack before the global variable.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack.

     在 3.12 版的變更: This opcode is now only used in situations where
     the local variable is guaranteed to be initialized.  It cannot
     raise *note UnboundLocalError: 13ad.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_CHECK (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack, raising an *note UnboundLocalError: 13ad. if the local
     variable has not been initialized.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack (or pushes ‘NULL’ onto the stack if the local variable has
     not been initialized) and sets ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ to ‘NULL’.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: STORE_FAST (var_num)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_FAST (var_num)

     Deletes local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’.

 -- Opcode: MAKE_CELL (i)

     Creates a new cell in slot ‘i’.  If that slot is nonempty then that
     value is stored into the new cell.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_CLOSURE (i)

     Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the "fast
     locals" storage.  The name of the variable is
     ‘co_fastlocalnames[i]’.

     Note that ‘LOAD_CLOSURE’ is effectively an alias for ‘LOAD_FAST’.
     It exists to keep bytecode a little more readable.

     在 3.11 版的變更: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of
     ‘co_varnames’.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_DEREF (i)

     Loads the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the "fast locals" storage.
     Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.

     在 3.11 版的變更: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of *note
     co_varnames: 1cce.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (i)

     Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the name associated with
     slot ‘i’ of the "fast locals" storage in this mapping.  If the name
     is not found there, loads it from the cell contained in slot ‘i’,
     similar to *note LOAD_DEREF: 444f.  This is used for loading free
     variables in class bodies (which previously used ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’)
     and in *note annotation scopes: 167. within class bodies.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: STORE_DEREF (i)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the
     "fast locals" storage.

     在 3.11 版的變更: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of *note
     co_varnames: 1cce.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_DEREF (i)

     Empties the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the "fast locals"
     storage.  Used by the *note del: 1570. statement.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of *note
     co_varnames: 1cce.

 -- Opcode: COPY_FREE_VARS (n)

     Copies the ‘n’ free variables from the closure into the frame.
     Removes the need for special code on the caller's side when calling
     closures.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: RAISE_VARARGS (argc)

     Raises an exception using one of the 3 forms of the ‘raise’
     statement, depending on the value of 'argc':

        * 0: ‘raise’ (re-raise previous exception)

        * 1: ‘raise STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance or type at
          ‘STACK[-1]’)

        * 2: ‘raise STACK[-2] from STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance
          or type at ‘STACK[-2]’ with ‘__cause__’ set to ‘STACK[-1]’)

 -- Opcode: CALL (argc)

     Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by
     ‘argc’, including the named arguments specified by the preceding
     *note KW_NAMES: 14e5, if any.  On the stack are (in ascending
     order), either:

        * NULL

        * The callable

        * The positional arguments

        * The named arguments

     或：

        * The callable

        * ‘self’

        * The remaining positional arguments

        * The named arguments

     ‘argc’ is the total of the positional and named arguments,
     excluding ‘self’ when a ‘NULL’ is not present.

     ‘CALL’ pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack,
     calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the
     return value returned by the callable object.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: CALL_FUNCTION_EX (flags)

     Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword
     arguments.  If the lowest bit of 'flags' is set, the top of the
     stack contains a mapping object containing additional keyword
     arguments.  Before the callable is called, the mapping object and
     iterable object are each "unpacked" and their contents passed in as
     keyword and positional arguments respectively.  ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’
     pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the
     callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value
     returned by the callable object.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: PUSH_NULL

     Pushes a ‘NULL’ to the stack.  Used in the call sequence to match
     the ‘NULL’ pushed by *note LOAD_METHOD: a82. for non-method calls.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: KW_NAMES (consti)

     Prefixes *note CALL: 509.  Stores a reference to
     ‘co_consts[consti]’ into an internal variable for use by *note
     CALL: 509.  ‘co_consts[consti]’ must be a tuple of strings.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: MAKE_FUNCTION (flags)

     Pushes a new function object on the stack.  From bottom to top, the
     consumed stack must consist of values if the argument carries a
     specified flag value

        * ‘0x01’ a tuple of default values for positional-only and
          positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order

        * ‘0x02’ a dictionary of keyword-only parameters' default values

        * ‘0x04’ a tuple of strings containing parameters' annotations

        * ‘0x08’ a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a
          closure

        * the code associated with the function (at ‘STACK[-1]’)

     在 3.10 版的變更: Flag value ‘0x04’ is a tuple of strings instead
     of dictionary

     在 3.11 版的變更: Qualified name at ‘STACK[-1]’ was removed.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_SLICE (argc)

     Pushes a slice object on the stack.  'argc' must be 2 or 3.  If it
     is 2, implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(slice(start, end))

     if it is 3, implements:

          step = STACK.pop()
          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(slice(start, end, step))

     See the *note slice(): 180. built-in function for more information.

 -- Opcode: EXTENDED_ARG (ext)

     Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the
     default one byte.  'ext' holds an additional byte which act as
     higher bits in the argument.  For each opcode, at most three
     prefixal ‘EXTENDED_ARG’ are allowed, forming an argument from
     two-byte to four-byte.

 -- Opcode: FORMAT_VALUE (flags)

     Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings).  Pops
     an optional 'fmt_spec' from the stack, then a required 'value'.
     'flags' is interpreted as follows:

        * ‘(flags & 0x03) == 0x00’: 'value' is formatted as-is.

        * ‘(flags & 0x03) == 0x01’: call *note str(): 157. on 'value'
          before formatting it.

        * ‘(flags & 0x03) == 0x02’: call *note repr(): 61e. on 'value'
          before formatting it.

        * ‘(flags & 0x03) == 0x03’: call *note ascii(): 1255. on 'value'
          before formatting it.

        * ‘(flags & 0x04) == 0x04’: pop 'fmt_spec' from the stack and
          use it, else use an empty 'fmt_spec'.

     Formatting is performed using *note PyObject_Format(): 4454.  The
     result is pushed on the stack.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_CLASS (count)

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of keyword attribute names, ‘STACK[-2]’ is
     the class being matched against, and ‘STACK[-3]’ is the match
     subject.  'count' is the number of positional sub-patterns.

     Pop ‘STACK[-1]’, ‘STACK[-2]’, and ‘STACK[-3]’.  If ‘STACK[-3]’ is
     an instance of ‘STACK[-2]’ and has the positional and keyword
     attributes required by 'count' and ‘STACK[-1]’, push a tuple of
     extracted attributes.  Otherwise, push ‘None’.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Previously, this instruction also pushed a
     boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure (‘False’).

 -- Opcode: RESUME (where)

     A no-op.  Performs internal tracing, debugging and optimization
     checks.

     The ‘where’ operand marks where the ‘RESUME’ occurs:

        * ‘0’ The start of a function, which is neither a generator,
          coroutine nor an async generator

        * ‘1’ After a ‘yield’ expression

        * ‘2’ After a ‘yield from’ expression

        * ‘3’ After an ‘await’ expression

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: RETURN_GENERATOR

     Create a generator, coroutine, or async generator from the current
     frame.  Used as first opcode of in code object for the above
     mentioned callables.  Clear the current frame and return the newly
     created generator.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: SEND (delta)

     Equivalent to ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-2].send(STACK[-1])’.  Used in
     ‘yield from’ and ‘await’ statements.

     If the call raises *note StopIteration: a5d, pop the top value from
     the stack, push the exception's ‘value’ attribute, and increment
     the bytecode counter by 'delta'.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: HAVE_ARGUMENT

     This is not really an opcode.  It identifies the dividing line
     between opcodes in the range [0,255] which don't use their argument
     and those that do (‘< HAVE_ARGUMENT’ and ‘>= HAVE_ARGUMENT’,
     respectively).

     If your application uses pseudo instructions, use the *note hasarg:
     1a5. collection instead.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Now every instruction has an argument, but opcodes
     ‘< HAVE_ARGUMENT’ ignore it.  Before, only opcodes ‘>=
     HAVE_ARGUMENT’ had an argument.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Pseudo instructions were added to the *note dis:
     35. module, and for them it is not true that comparison with
     ‘HAVE_ARGUMENT’ indicates whether they use their arg.

 -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_1

     Calls an intrinsic function with one argument.  Passes ‘STACK[-1]’
     as the argument and sets ‘STACK[-1]’ to the result.  Used to
     implement functionality that is not performance critical.

     The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

     Operand                                 Description
                                             
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_1_INVALID’                   Not valid
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_PRINT’                       Prints the argument to standard out.
                                             Used in the REPL.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_IMPORT_STAR’                 Performs ‘import *’ for the named
                                             module.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_STOPITERATION_ERROR’         Extracts the return value from a
                                             ‘StopIteration’ exception.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’              Wraps an async generator value
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_UNARY_POSITIVE’              Performs the unary ‘+’ operation
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_LIST_TO_TUPLE’               Converts a list to a tuple
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR’                     Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 164.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_PARAMSPEC’                   Creates a
                                             *note typing.ParamSpec: 163.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVARTUPLE’                Creates a
                                             *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 162.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_SUBSCRIPT_GENERIC’           Returns *note typing.Generic: 1418.
                                             subscripted with the argument
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEALIAS’                   Creates a
                                             *note typing.TypeAliasType: 160.;
                                             used in the *note type: 13a.
                                             statement.  The argument is a tuple
                                             of the type alias's name, type
                                             parameters, and value.
                                             

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_2

     Calls an intrinsic function with two arguments.  Used to implement
     functionality that is not performance critical:

          arg2 = STACK.pop()
          arg1 = STACK.pop()
          result = intrinsic2(arg1, arg2)
          STACK.push(result)

     The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

     Operand                                      Description
                                                  
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_2_INVALID’                        Not valid
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_PREP_RERAISE_STAR’                Calculates the
                                                  *note ExceptionGroup: 17b. to raise
                                                  from a ‘try-except*’.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_BOUND’               Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 164.
                                                  with a bound.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_CONSTRAINTS’         Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 164.
                                                  with constraints.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_SET_FUNCTION_TYPE_PARAMS’         Sets the ‘__type_params__’ attribute
                                                  of a function.
                                                  

     在 3.12 版被加入.

'Pseudo-instructions'

These opcodes do not appear in Python bytecode.  They are used by the
compiler but are replaced by real opcodes or removed before bytecode is
generated.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_FINALLY (target)

     Set up an exception handler for the following code block.  If an
     exception occurs, the value stack level is restored to its current
     state and control is transferred to the exception handler at
     ‘target’.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_CLEANUP (target)

     Like ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, but in case of an exception also pushes the
     last instruction (‘lasti’) to the stack so that ‘RERAISE’ can
     restore it.  If an exception occurs, the value stack level and the
     last instruction on the frame are restored to their current state,
     and control is transferred to the exception handler at ‘target’.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_WITH (target)

     Like ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’, but in case of an exception one more item is
     popped from the stack before control is transferred to the
     exception handler at ‘target’.

     This variant is used in *note with: 3c5. and *note async with: 3c8.
     constructs, which push the return value of the context manager's
     *note __enter__(): 3b8. or *note __aenter__(): 1d63. to the stack.

 -- Opcode: POP_BLOCK

     Marks the end of the code block associated with the last
     ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’ or ‘SETUP_WITH’.

 -- Opcode: JUMP

 -- Opcode: JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT

     Undirected relative jump instructions which are replaced by their
     directed (forward/backward) counterparts by the assembler.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_METHOD

     Optimized unbound method lookup.  Emitted as a ‘LOAD_ATTR’ opcode
     with a flag set in the arg.


File: python.info,  Node: Opcode collections,  Prev: Python Bytecode Instructions,  Up: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器

5.32.10.5 Opcode collections
............................

These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode
instructions:

在 3.12 版的變更: The collections now contain pseudo instructions and
instrumented instructions as well.  These are opcodes with values ‘>=
MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’ and ‘>= MIN_INSTRUMENTED_OPCODE’.

 -- 資料: dis.opname

     Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.

 -- 資料: dis.opmap

     Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.

 -- 資料: dis.cmp_op

     Sequence of all compare operation names.

 -- 資料: dis.hasarg

     Sequence of bytecodes that use their argument.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 資料: dis.hasconst

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant.

 -- 資料: dis.hasfree

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a free variable.  'free' in this
     context refers to names in the current scope that are referenced by
     inner scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced from this
     scope.  It does 'not' include references to global or builtin
     scopes.

 -- 資料: dis.hasname

     Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.

 -- 資料: dis.hasjrel

     Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.

 -- 資料: dis.hasjabs

     Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.

 -- 資料: dis.haslocal

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.

 -- 資料: dis.hascompare

     Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.

 -- 資料: dis.hasexc

     Sequence of bytecodes that set an exception handler.

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: pickletools --- pickle 開發者的工具,  Prev: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器,  Up: Python 語言服務

5.32.11 ‘pickletools’ -- pickle 開發者的工具
--------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/pickletools.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

該模組包含與 *note pickle: a1. 模組的詳細資訊相關的各種常數、一些有關實
作的冗長註釋以及一些用於分析已 pickle 資料的有用函式。該模組的內容對於有
*note pickle: a1. 相關工作的 Python 核心開發人員很有用；*note pickle:
a1. 模組的一般使用者可能不會發現 *note pickletools: a2. 模組。

* Menu:

* 命令列用法: 命令列用法<4>.
* 程式化介面::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pickletools.py


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列用法<4>,  Next: 程式化介面,  Up: pickletools --- pickle 開發者的工具

5.32.11.1 命令列用法
....................

在 3.2 版被加入.

當從命令列呼叫時，‘python -m pickletools’ 將拆解 (disassemble) 一個或多
個 pickle 檔案的內容。請注意，如果你想查看儲存在 pickle 中的 Python 物件
而不是 pickle 格式的詳細資訊，你可能需要使用 ‘-m pickle’。但是，當你要檢
查的 pickle 檔案來自不受信任的來源時，‘-m pickletools’ 是一個更安全的選
項，因為它不執行 pickle 位元組碼。

例如，pickle 於檔案 ‘x.pickle’ 中的元組 ‘(1, 2)’：

     $ python -m pickle x.pickle
     (1, 2)

     $ python -m pickletools x.pickle
         0: \x80 PROTO      3
         2: K    BININT1    1
         4: K    BININT1    2
         6: \x86 TUPLE2
         7: q    BINPUT     0
         9: .    STOP
     highest protocol among opcodes = 2

* Menu:

* 命令列選項: 命令列選項<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: 命令列選項<4>,  Up: 命令列用法<4>

5.32.11.2 命令列選項
....................

 -- Option: -a, --annotate

     用簡短的操作碼 (opcode) 描述註釋每一行。

 -- Option: -o, --output=<file>

     應將輸出結果寫入之檔案的名稱。

 -- Option: -l, --indentlevel=<num>

     新 MARK 級別縮進的空格數。

 -- Option: -m, --memo

     當拆解多個物件時，會在拆解間保留備忘錄。

 -- Option: -p, --preamble=<preamble>

     當指定多個 pickle 檔案時，會在每次拆解之前印出給定的一段序言
     (preamble)。


File: python.info,  Node: 程式化介面,  Prev: 命令列用法<4>,  Up: pickletools --- pickle 開發者的工具

5.32.11.3 程式化介面
....................

 -- 函式: pickletools.dis (pickle, out=None, memo=None, indentlevel=4,
          annotate=0)

     將 pickle 的符號拆解 (symbolic disassembly) 輸出到類檔案物件 'out'，
     預設為 ‘sys.stdout’。'pickle' 可以是字串或類檔案物件。'memo' 可以是
     一個 Python 字典，將用作 pickle 的備忘錄；它可用於對同一 pickler 建
     立的多個 pickle 執行拆解。串流中由 ‘MARK’ 操作碼指示的連續級別由
     'indentlevel' 空格縮進。如果為 'annotate' 指定非零值，則輸出中的每
     個操作碼都會用簡短的描述進行註釋。'annotate' 的值用作為註釋之起始行
     提示。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'annotate' 參數。

 -- 函式: pickletools.genops (pickle)

     提供 pickle 中所有操作碼的一個 *note iterator: 1718.，回傳形式為
     ‘(opcode, arg, pos)’ 三元組序列。'opcode' 是 ‘OpcodeInfo’ 類別的實
     例；'arg' 是操作碼引數的解碼值（作為 Python 物件）；'pos' 是該操作
     碼所在的位置。'pickle' 可以是字串或類檔案物件。

 -- 函式: pickletools.optimize (picklestring)

     消除未使用的 ‘PUT’ 操作碼後回傳一個新的等效 pickle 字串。最佳化後的
     pickle 更短、傳輸時間更少、需要更小的儲存空間，且 unpickle 效率也更
     高。


File: python.info,  Node: MS Windows 特有服務,  Next: Unix 特有服務,  Prev: Python 語言服務,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.33 MS Windows 特有服務
========================

此章節描述僅在 MS Windows 系統上可用的模組 (module)。

* Menu:

* msvcrt: msvcrt --- MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程. MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程
* winreg: winreg --- Windows 註冊表存取. Windows 註冊表存取
* winsound: winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面. Windows 的聲音播放介面


File: python.info,  Node: msvcrt --- MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程,  Next: winreg --- Windows 註冊表存取,  Up: MS Windows 特有服務

5.33.1 ‘msvcrt’ -- MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程
-------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

These functions provide access to some useful capabilities on Windows
platforms.  Some higher-level modules use these functions to build the
Windows implementations of their services.  For example, the *note
getpass: 5d. module uses this in the implementation of the *note
getpass(): 5d. function.

Further documentation on these functions can be found in the Platform
API documentation.

The module implements both the normal and wide char variants of the
console I/O api.  The normal API deals only with ASCII characters and is
of limited use for internationalized applications.  The wide char API
should be used where ever possible.

在 3.3 版的變更: Operations in this module now raise *note OSError: 644.
where *note IOError: ee8. was raised.

* Menu:

* File Operations::
* Console I/O::
* Other Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: File Operations,  Next: Console I/O,  Up: msvcrt --- MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程

5.33.1.1 File Operations
........................

 -- 函式: msvcrt.locking (fd, mode, nbytes)

     Lock part of a file based on file descriptor 'fd' from the C
     runtime.  Raises *note OSError: 644. on failure.  The locked region
     of the file extends from the current file position for 'nbytes'
     bytes, and may continue beyond the end of the file.  'mode' must be
     one of the ‘LK_*’ constants listed below.  Multiple regions in a
     file may be locked at the same time, but may not overlap.  Adjacent
     regions are not merged; they must be unlocked individually.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fd’、‘mode’、‘nbytes’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘msvcrt.locking’。

 -- 資料: msvcrt.LK_LOCK
 -- 資料: msvcrt.LK_RLCK

     Locks the specified bytes.  If the bytes cannot be locked, the
     program immediately tries again after 1 second.  If, after 10
     attempts, the bytes cannot be locked, *note OSError: 644. is
     raised.

 -- 資料: msvcrt.LK_NBLCK
 -- 資料: msvcrt.LK_NBRLCK

     Locks the specified bytes.  If the bytes cannot be locked, *note
     OSError: 644. is raised.

 -- 資料: msvcrt.LK_UNLCK

     Unlocks the specified bytes, which must have been previously
     locked.

 -- 函式: msvcrt.setmode (fd, flags)

     Set the line-end translation mode for the file descriptor 'fd'.  To
     set it to text mode, 'flags' should be *note os.O_TEXT: 28d3.; for
     binary, it should be *note os.O_BINARY: 28c4.

 -- 函式: msvcrt.open_osfhandle (handle, flags)

     Create a C runtime file descriptor from the file handle 'handle'.
     The 'flags' parameter should be a bitwise OR of *note os.O_APPEND:
     28c6, *note os.O_RDONLY: 28c2, and *note os.O_TEXT: 28d3.  The
     returned file descriptor may be used as a parameter to *note
     os.fdopen(): 1cc4. to create a file object.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘handle’、‘flags’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘msvcrt.open_osfhandle’。

 -- 函式: msvcrt.get_osfhandle (fd)

     Return the file handle for the file descriptor 'fd'.  Raises *note
     OSError: 644. if 'fd' is not recognized.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fd’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘msvcrt.get_osfhandle’。


File: python.info,  Node: Console I/O,  Next: Other Functions,  Prev: File Operations,  Up: msvcrt --- MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程

5.33.1.2 Console I/O
....................

 -- 函式: msvcrt.kbhit ()

     Return ‘True’ if a keypress is waiting to be read.

 -- 函式: msvcrt.getch ()

     Read a keypress and return the resulting character as a byte
     string.  Nothing is echoed to the console.  This call will block if
     a keypress is not already available, but will not wait for ‘Enter’
     to be pressed.  If the pressed key was a special function key, this
     will return ‘'\000'’ or ‘'\xe0'’; the next call will return the
     keycode.  The ‘Control-C’ keypress cannot be read with this
     function.

 -- 函式: msvcrt.getwch ()

     Wide char variant of *note getch(): 4485, returning a Unicode
     value.

 -- 函式: msvcrt.getche ()

     Similar to *note getch(): 4485, but the keypress will be echoed if
     it represents a printable character.

 -- 函式: msvcrt.getwche ()

     Wide char variant of *note getche(): 4486, returning a Unicode
     value.

 -- 函式: msvcrt.putch (char)

     Print the byte string 'char' to the console without buffering.

 -- 函式: msvcrt.putwch (unicode_char)

     Wide char variant of *note putch(): 4487, accepting a Unicode
     value.

 -- 函式: msvcrt.ungetch (char)

     Cause the byte string 'char' to be "pushed back" into the console
     buffer; it will be the next character read by *note getch(): 4485.
     or *note getche(): 4486.

 -- 函式: msvcrt.ungetwch (unicode_char)

     Wide char variant of *note ungetch(): 4488, accepting a Unicode
     value.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Functions,  Prev: Console I/O,  Up: msvcrt --- MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程

5.33.1.3 Other Functions
........................

 -- 函式: msvcrt.heapmin ()

     Force the ‘malloc()’ heap to clean itself up and return unused
     blocks to the operating system.  On failure, this raises *note
     OSError: 644.

 -- 資料: msvcrt.CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION

     The CRT Assembly version, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header file.

 -- 資料: msvcrt.VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN

     The VC Assembly public key token, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header
     file.

 -- 資料: msvcrt.LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX

     The Libraries Assembly name prefix, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header
     file.


File: python.info,  Node: winreg --- Windows 註冊表存取,  Next: winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面,  Prev: msvcrt --- MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程,  Up: MS Windows 特有服務

5.33.2 ‘winreg’ -- Windows 註冊表存取
-------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

These functions expose the Windows registry API to Python.  Instead of
using an integer as the registry handle, a *note handle object: 448f. is
used to ensure that the handles are closed correctly, even if the
programmer neglects to explicitly close them.

在 3.3 版的變更: Several functions in this module used to raise a *note
WindowsError: eea, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 644.

* Menu:

* 函式: 函式<12>.
* 常數: 常數<10>.
* Registry Handle Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<12>,  Next: 常數<10>,  Up: winreg --- Windows 註冊表存取

5.33.2.1 函式
.............

This module offers the following functions:

 -- 函式: winreg.CloseKey (hkey)

     Closes a previously opened registry key.  The 'hkey' argument
     specifies a previously opened key.

          備註: If 'hkey' is not closed using this method (or via *note
          hkey.Close(): 4494.), it is closed when the 'hkey' object is
          destroyed by Python.

 -- 函式: winreg.ConnectRegistry (computer_name, key)

     Establishes a connection to a predefined registry handle on another
     computer, and returns a *note handle object: 448f.

     'computer_name' is the name of the remote computer, of the form
     ‘r"\\computername"’.  If ‘None’, the local computer is used.

     'key' is the predefined handle to connect to.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 644. exception is raised.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘computer_name’、‘key’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.ConnectRegistry’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: See *note above: 4490.

 -- 函式: winreg.CreateKey (key, sub_key)

     Creates or opens the specified key, returning a *note handle
     object: 448f.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the key this method opens or
     creates.

     If 'key' is one of the predefined keys, 'sub_key' may be ‘None’.
     In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in
     to the function.

     If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 644. exception is raised.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘sub_key’、‘access’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.CreateKey’。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: See *note above: 4490.

 -- 函式: winreg.CreateKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0,
          access=KEY_WRITE)

     Creates or opens the specified key, returning a *note handle
     object: 448f.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the key this method opens or
     creates.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_WRITE: 4496.  See *note Access Rights: 4497. for other allowed
     values.

     If 'key' is one of the predefined keys, 'sub_key' may be ‘None’.
     In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in
     to the function.

     If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 644. exception is raised.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘sub_key’、‘access’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.CreateKey’。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版的變更: See *note above: 4490.

 -- 函式: winreg.DeleteKey (key, sub_key)

     Deletes the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'sub_key' is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified
     by the 'key' parameter.  This value must not be ‘None’, and the key
     may not have subkeys.

     'This method can not delete keys with subkeys.'

     If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its
     values, is removed.  If the method fails, an *note OSError: 644.
     exception is raised.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘sub_key’、‘access’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.DeleteKey’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: See *note above: 4490.

 -- 函式: winreg.DeleteKeyEx (key, sub_key, access=KEY_WOW64_64KEY,
          reserved=0)

     Deletes the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'sub_key' is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified
     by the 'key' parameter.  This value must not be ‘None’, and the key
     may not have subkeys.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_WOW64_64KEY: 4498.  On 32-bit Windows, the WOW64 constants are
     ignored.  See *note Access Rights: 4497. for other allowed values.

     'This method can not delete keys with subkeys.'

     If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its
     values, is removed.  If the method fails, an *note OSError: 644.
     exception is raised.

     On unsupported Windows versions, *note NotImplementedError: bc0. is
     raised.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘sub_key’、‘access’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.DeleteKey’。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版的變更: See *note above: 4490.

 -- 函式: winreg.DeleteValue (key, value)

     Removes a named value from a registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'value' is a string that identifies the value to remove.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘value’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.DeleteValue’。

 -- 函式: winreg.EnumKey (key, index)

     Enumerates subkeys of an open registry key, returning a string.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'index' is an integer that identifies the index of the key to
     retrieve.

     The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is
     called.  It is typically called repeatedly until an *note OSError:
     644. exception is raised, indicating, no more values are available.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘index’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.EnumKey’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: See *note above: 4490.

 -- 函式: winreg.EnumValue (key, index)

     Enumerates values of an open registry key, returning a tuple.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'index' is an integer that identifies the index of the value to
     retrieve.

     The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is
     called.  It is typically called repeatedly, until an *note OSError:
     644. exception is raised, indicating no more values.

     The result is a tuple of 3 items:

     Index       含義
                 
     -------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         A string that identifies the value name
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An object that holds the value data, and whose
                 type depends on the underlying registry type
                 
                 
     ‘2’         An integer that identifies the type of the
                 value data (see table in docs for
                 *note SetValueEx(): 1558.)
                 

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘index’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.EnumValue’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: See *note above: 4490.

 -- 函式: winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings (str)

     Expands environment variable placeholders ‘%NAME%’ in strings like
     *note REG_EXPAND_SZ: 4499.:

          >>> ExpandEnvironmentStrings('%windir%')
          'C:\\Windows'

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘str’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings’。

 -- 函式: winreg.FlushKey (key)

     Writes all the attributes of a key to the registry.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     It is not necessary to call *note FlushKey(): 449a. to change a
     key.  Registry changes are flushed to disk by the registry using
     its lazy flusher.  Registry changes are also flushed to disk at
     system shutdown.  Unlike *note CloseKey(): 4493, the *note
     FlushKey(): 449a. method returns only when all the data has been
     written to the registry.  An application should only call *note
     FlushKey(): 449a. if it requires absolute certainty that registry
     changes are on disk.

          備註: If you don't know whether a *note FlushKey(): 449a. call
          is required, it probably isn't.

 -- 函式: winreg.LoadKey (key, sub_key, file_name)

     Creates a subkey under the specified key and stores registration
     information from a specified file into that subkey.

     'key' is a handle returned by *note ConnectRegistry(): 3f03. or one
     of the constants *note HKEY_USERS: 449b. or *note
     HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE: 449c.

     'sub_key' is a string that identifies the subkey to load.

     'file_name' is the name of the file to load registry data from.
     This file must have been created with the *note SaveKey(): 3f0f.
     function.  Under the file allocation table (FAT) file system, the
     filename may not have an extension.

     A call to *note LoadKey(): 3f09. fails if the calling process does
     not have the ‘SE_RESTORE_PRIVILEGE’ privilege.  Note that
     privileges are different from permissions - see the RegLoadKey
     documentation(1) for more details.

     If 'key' is a handle returned by *note ConnectRegistry(): 3f03,
     then the path specified in 'file_name' is relative to the remote
     computer.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘sub_key’、‘file_name’ 的*note 稽核事件:
     168e. ‘winreg.LoadKey’。

 -- 函式: winreg.OpenKey (key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ)
 -- 函式: winreg.OpenKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ)

     Opens the specified key, returning a *note handle object: 448f.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'sub_key' is a string that identifies the sub_key to open.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_READ: 449e.  See *note Access Rights: 4497. for other allowed
     values.

     The result is a new handle to the specified key.

     If the function fails, *note OSError: 644. is raised.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘sub_key’、‘access’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.OpenKey’。

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’。

     在 3.2 版的變更: Allow the use of named arguments.

     在 3.3 版的變更: See *note above: 4490.

 -- 函式: winreg.QueryInfoKey (key)

     Returns information about a key, as a tuple.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     The result is a tuple of 3 items:

     Index       含義
                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         An integer giving the number of sub keys this
                 key has.
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An integer giving the number of values this key
                 has.
                 
                 
     ‘2’         An integer giving when the key was last
                 modified (if available) as 100's of nanoseconds
                 since Jan 1, 1601.
                 

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.QueryInfoKey’。

 -- 函式: winreg.QueryValue (key, sub_key)

     Retrieves the unnamed value for a key, as a string.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'sub_key' is a string that holds the name of the subkey with which
     the value is associated.  If this parameter is ‘None’ or empty, the
     function retrieves the value set by the *note SetValue(): 3f10.
     method for the key identified by 'key'.

     Values in the registry have name, type, and data components.  This
     method retrieves the data for a key's first value that has a ‘NULL’
     name.  But the underlying API call doesn't return the type, so
     always use *note QueryValueEx(): 3f0e. if possible.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘sub_key’、‘value_name’ 的*note 稽核事件:
     168e. ‘winreg.QueryKey’。

 -- 函式: winreg.QueryValueEx (key, value_name)

     Retrieves the type and data for a specified value name associated
     with an open registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'value_name' is a string indicating the value to query.

     The result is a tuple of 2 items:

     Index       含義
                 
     ----------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         The value of the registry item.
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An integer giving the registry type for
                 this value (see table in docs for
                 *note SetValueEx(): 1558.)
                 

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘sub_key’、‘value_name’ 的*note 稽核事件:
     168e. ‘winreg.QueryKey’。

 -- 函式: winreg.SaveKey (key, file_name)

     Saves the specified key, and all its subkeys to the specified file.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'file_name' is the name of the file to save registry data to.  This
     file cannot already exist.  If this filename includes an extension,
     it cannot be used on file allocation table (FAT) file systems by
     the *note LoadKey(): 3f09. method.

     If 'key' represents a key on a remote computer, the path described
     by 'file_name' is relative to the remote computer.  The caller of
     this method must possess the 'SeBackupPrivilege' security
     privilege.  Note that privileges are different than permissions -
     see the Conflicts Between User Rights and Permissions
     documentation(2) for more details.

     This function passes ‘NULL’ for 'security_attributes' to the API.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘file_name’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.SaveKey’。

 -- 函式: winreg.SetValue (key, sub_key, type, value)

     Associates a value with a specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the subkey with which the value is
     associated.

     'type' is an integer that specifies the type of the data.
     Currently this must be *note REG_SZ: 449f, meaning only strings are
     supported.  Use the *note SetValueEx(): 1558. function for support
     for other data types.

     'value' is a string that specifies the new value.

     If the key specified by the 'sub_key' parameter does not exist, the
     SetValue function creates it.

     Value lengths are limited by available memory.  Long values (more
     than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames
     stored in the configuration registry.  This helps the registry
     perform efficiently.

     The key identified by the 'key' parameter must have been opened
     with *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 44a0. access.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘sub_key’、‘type’、‘value’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘winreg.SetValue’。

 -- 函式: winreg.SetValueEx (key, value_name, reserved, type, value)

     Stores data in the value field of an open registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     'value_name' is a string that names the subkey with which the value
     is associated.

     'reserved' can be anything - zero is always passed to the API.

     'type' is an integer that specifies the type of the data.  See
     *note Value Types: 44a1. for the available types.

     'value' is a string that specifies the new value.

     This method can also set additional value and type information for
     the specified key.  The key identified by the key parameter must
     have been opened with *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 44a0. access.

     To open the key, use the *note CreateKey(): 3f04. or *note
     OpenKey(): 3f0a. methods.

     Value lengths are limited by available memory.  Long values (more
     than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames
     stored in the configuration registry.  This helps the registry
     perform efficiently.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’、‘sub_key’、‘type’、‘value’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘winreg.SetValue’。

 -- 函式: winreg.DisableReflectionKey (key)

     Disables registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on a
     64-bit operating system.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: bc0. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     If the key is not on the reflection list, the function succeeds but
     has no effect.  Disabling reflection for a key does not affect
     reflection of any subkeys.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.DsiableReflectionKey’。

 -- 函式: winreg.EnableReflectionKey (key)

     Restores registry reflection for the specified disabled key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: bc0. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     Restoring reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any
     subkeys.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.EnableReflectionKey’。

 -- 函式: winreg.QueryReflectionKey (key)

     Determines the reflection state for the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4495.

     Returns ‘True’ if reflection is disabled.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: bc0. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.QueryReflectionKey’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724889%28v=VS.85%29.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: 常數<10>,  Next: Registry Handle Objects,  Prev: 函式<12>,  Up: winreg --- Windows 註冊表存取

5.33.2.2 常數
.............

The following constants are defined for use in many *note winreg: 111.
functions.

* Menu:

* HKEY_* Constants::
* Access Rights::
* Value Types::


File: python.info,  Node: HKEY_* Constants,  Next: Access Rights,  Up: 常數<10>

5.33.2.3 HKEY_* Constants
.........................

 -- 資料: winreg.HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define types (or classes)
     of documents and the properties associated with those types.  Shell
     and COM applications use the information stored under this key.

 -- 資料: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the preferences of
     the current user.  These preferences include the settings of
     environment variables, data about program groups, colors, printers,
     network connections, and application preferences.

 -- 資料: winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the physical state
     of the computer, including data about the bus type, system memory,
     and installed hardware and software.

 -- 資料: winreg.HKEY_USERS

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the default user
     configuration for new users on the local computer and the user
     configuration for the current user.

 -- 資料: winreg.HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA

     Registry entries subordinate to this key allow you to access
     performance data.  The data is not actually stored in the registry;
     the registry functions cause the system to collect the data from
     its source.

 -- 資料: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG

     Contains information about the current hardware profile of the
     local computer system.

 -- 資料: winreg.HKEY_DYN_DATA

     This key is not used in versions of Windows after 98.


File: python.info,  Node: Access Rights,  Next: Value Types,  Prev: HKEY_* Constants,  Up: 常數<10>

5.33.2.4 Access Rights
......................

For more information, see Registry Key Security and Access(1).

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_ALL_ACCESS

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_REQUIRED, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 44ac,
     *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 44a0, *note KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 44ad, *note
     KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 44ae, *note KEY_NOTIFY: 44af, and *note
     KEY_CREATE_LINK: 44b0. access rights.

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_WRITE

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_WRITE, *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 44a0, and
     *note KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 44ad. access rights.

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_READ

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_READ, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 44ac,
     *note KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 44ae, and *note KEY_NOTIFY: 44af.
     values.

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_EXECUTE

     Equivalent to *note KEY_READ: 449e.

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE

     Required to query the values of a registry key.

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE

     Required to create, delete, or set a registry value.

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY

     Required to create a subkey of a registry key.

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS

     Required to enumerate the subkeys of a registry key.

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_NOTIFY

     Required to request change notifications for a registry key or for
     subkeys of a registry key.

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK

     Reserved for system use.

* Menu:

* 64-bit Specific::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: 64-bit Specific,  Up: Access Rights

5.33.2.5 64-bit Specific
........................

For more information, see Accessing an Alternate Registry View(1).

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY

     Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
     the 64-bit registry view.  On 32-bit Windows, this constant is
     ignored.

 -- 資料: winreg.KEY_WOW64_32KEY

     Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
     the 32-bit registry view.  On 32-bit Windows, this constant is
     ignored.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa384129(v=VS.85).aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Value Types,  Prev: Access Rights,  Up: 常數<10>

5.33.2.6 Value Types
....................

For more information, see Registry Value Types(1).

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_BINARY

     Binary data in any form.

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_DWORD

     32-bit number.

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

     A 32-bit number in little-endian format.  Equivalent to *note
     REG_DWORD: 44b7.

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN

     A 32-bit number in big-endian format.

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ

     Null-terminated string containing references to environment
     variables (‘%PATH%’).

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_LINK

     A Unicode symbolic link.

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ

     A sequence of null-terminated strings, terminated by two null
     characters.  (Python handles this termination automatically.)

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_NONE

     No defined value type.

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_QWORD

     A 64-bit number.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

     A 64-bit number in little-endian format.  Equivalent to *note
     REG_QWORD: b70.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_LIST

     A device-driver resource list.

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR

     A hardware setting.

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST

     A hardware resource list.

 -- 資料: winreg.REG_SZ

     A null-terminated string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724884%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Registry Handle Objects,  Prev: 常數<10>,  Up: winreg --- Windows 註冊表存取

5.33.2.7 Registry Handle Objects
................................

This object wraps a Windows HKEY object, automatically closing it when
the object is destroyed.  To guarantee cleanup, you can call either the
*note Close(): 4494. method on the object, or the *note CloseKey():
4493. function.

All registry functions in this module return one of these objects.

All registry functions in this module which accept a handle object also
accept an integer, however, use of the handle object is encouraged.

Handle objects provide semantics for *note __bool__(): 1166. - thus

     if handle:
         print("Yes")

will print ‘Yes’ if the handle is currently valid (has not been closed
or detached).

The object also support comparison semantics, so handle objects will
compare true if they both reference the same underlying Windows handle
value.

Handle objects can be converted to an integer (e.g., using the built-in
*note int(): 17e. function), in which case the underlying Windows handle
value is returned.  You can also use the *note Detach(): 3f0b. method to
return the integer handle, and also disconnect the Windows handle from
the handle object.

 -- 方法: PyHKEY.Close ()

     Closes the underlying Windows handle.

     If the handle is already closed, no error is raised.

 -- 方法: PyHKEY.Detach ()

     Detaches the Windows handle from the handle object.

     The result is an integer that holds the value of the handle before
     it is detached.  If the handle is already detached or closed, this
     will return zero.

     After calling this function, the handle is effectively invalidated,
     but the handle is not closed.  You would call this function when
     you need the underlying Win32 handle to exist beyond the lifetime
     of the handle object.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘key’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘winreg.PyHKEY.Detach’。

 -- 方法: PyHKEY.__enter__ ()
 -- 方法: PyHKEY.__exit__ (*exc_info)

     The HKEY object implements *note __enter__(): 3b8. and *note
     __exit__(): 1191. and thus supports the context protocol for the
     *note with: 3c5. statement:

          with OpenKey(HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE, "foo") as key:
              ...  # work with key

     will automatically close 'key' when control leaves the *note with:
     3c5. block.


File: python.info,  Node: winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面,  Prev: winreg --- Windows 註冊表存取,  Up: MS Windows 特有服務

5.33.3 ‘winsound’ -- Windows 的聲音播放介面
-------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The *note winsound: 112. module provides access to the basic
sound-playing machinery provided by Windows platforms.  It includes
functions and several constants.

 -- 函式: winsound.Beep (frequency, duration)

     Beep the PC's speaker.  The 'frequency' parameter specifies
     frequency, in hertz, of the sound, and must be in the range 37
     through 32,767.  The 'duration' parameter specifies the number of
     milliseconds the sound should last.  If the system is not able to
     beep the speaker, *note RuntimeError: 17a. is raised.

 -- 函式: winsound.PlaySound (sound, flags)

     Call the underlying ‘PlaySound()’ function from the Platform API.
     The 'sound' parameter may be a filename, a system sound alias,
     audio data as a *note bytes-like object: b9f, or ‘None’.  Its
     interpretation depends on the value of 'flags', which can be a
     bitwise ORed combination of the constants described below.  If the
     'sound' parameter is ‘None’, any currently playing waveform sound
     is stopped.  If the system indicates an error, *note RuntimeError:
     17a. is raised.

 -- 函式: winsound.MessageBeep (type=MB_OK)

     Call the underlying ‘MessageBeep()’ function from the Platform API.
     This plays a sound as specified in the registry.  The 'type'
     argument specifies which sound to play; possible values are ‘-1’,
     ‘MB_ICONASTERISK’, ‘MB_ICONEXCLAMATION’, ‘MB_ICONHAND’,
     ‘MB_ICONQUESTION’, and ‘MB_OK’, all described below.  The value
     ‘-1’ produces a "simple beep"; this is the final fallback if a
     sound cannot be played otherwise.  If the system indicates an
     error, *note RuntimeError: 17a. is raised.

 -- 資料: winsound.SND_FILENAME

     The 'sound' parameter is the name of a WAV file.  Do not use with
     *note SND_ALIAS: 44c6.

 -- 資料: winsound.SND_ALIAS

     The 'sound' parameter is a sound association name from the
     registry.  If the registry contains no such name, play the system
     default sound unless *note SND_NODEFAULT: 44c7. is also specified.
     If no default sound is registered, raise *note RuntimeError: 17a.
     Do not use with *note SND_FILENAME: 44c5.

     All Win32 systems support at least the following; most systems
     support many more:

     *note PlaySound(): b74.        Corresponding Control Panel Sound name
     'name'                         

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
     ‘'SystemAsterisk'’             Asterisk
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemExclamation'’          Exclamation
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemExit'’                 Exit Windows
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemHand'’                 Critical Stop
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemQuestion'’             Question
                                    

     例如說：

          import winsound
          # Play Windows exit sound.
          winsound.PlaySound("SystemExit", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

          # Probably play Windows default sound, if any is registered (because
          # "*" probably isn't the registered name of any sound).
          winsound.PlaySound("*", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

 -- 資料: winsound.SND_LOOP

     Play the sound repeatedly.  The *note SND_ASYNC: 44c9. flag must
     also be used to avoid blocking.  Cannot be used with *note
     SND_MEMORY: 44ca.

 -- 資料: winsound.SND_MEMORY

     The 'sound' parameter to *note PlaySound(): b74. is a memory image
     of a WAV file, as a *note bytes-like object: b9f.

          備註: This module does not support playing from a memory image
          asynchronously, so a combination of this flag and *note
          SND_ASYNC: 44c9. will raise *note RuntimeError: 17a.

 -- 資料: winsound.SND_PURGE

     Stop playing all instances of the specified sound.

          備註: This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.

 -- 資料: winsound.SND_ASYNC

     Return immediately, allowing sounds to play asynchronously.

 -- 資料: winsound.SND_NODEFAULT

     If the specified sound cannot be found, do not play the system
     default sound.

 -- 資料: winsound.SND_NOSTOP

     Do not interrupt sounds currently playing.

 -- 資料: winsound.SND_NOWAIT

     Return immediately if the sound driver is busy.

          備註: This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.

 -- 資料: winsound.MB_ICONASTERISK

     播放 ‘SystemDefault’ 聲音。

 -- 資料: winsound.MB_ICONEXCLAMATION

     播放 ‘SystemExclamation’ 聲音。

 -- 資料: winsound.MB_ICONHAND

     播放 ‘SystemHand’ 聲音。

 -- 資料: winsound.MB_ICONQUESTION

     播放 ‘SystemQuestion’ 聲音。

 -- 資料: winsound.MB_OK

     播放 ‘SystemDefault’ 聲音。


File: python.info,  Node: Unix 特有服務,  Next: 模組命令列介面,  Prev: MS Windows 特有服務,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.34 Unix 特有服務
==================

此章節所描述的模組 (module) 提供了針對 Unix 作業系統獨有特性的介面，或在
某些情況下可用於其他 Unix 變形版本。以下為概述：

* Menu:

* posix: posix --- 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫. 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫
* pwd: pwd --- 密碼資料庫. 密碼資料庫
* grp: grp --- 群組資料庫. 群組資料庫
* termios: termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制. POSIX 風格 tty 控制
* tty: tty --- 終端機控制函式. 終端機控制函式
* pty: pty --- 偽終端工具. 偽終端工具
* fcntl: fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫. fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫
* resource: resource --- 資源使用資訊. 資源使用資訊
* syslog: syslog --- Unix syslog 函式庫例程. Unix syslog 函式庫例程


File: python.info,  Node: posix --- 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫,  Next: pwd --- 密碼資料庫,  Up: Unix 特有服務

5.34.1 ‘posix’ -- 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫
-----------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

該模組提供對由 C 標準和 POSIX 標準（一種偽裝的 Unix 介面）所標準化的作業
系統功能的存取。

*note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

'不要直接引入此模組。'請改為引入 *note os: 9c. 模組，它提供了此介面的'可
移植 (portable)' 版本。在 Unix 上，*note os: 9c. 模組提供了 *note posix:
a8. 介面的超集 (superset)。在非 Unix 作業系統上，*note posix: a8. 模組不
可用，但始終可以通過 *note os: 9c. 介面使用一個子集。一旦 *note os: 9c.
有被引入，使用它代替 *note posix: a8. '不會有'性能損失。此外，*note os:
9c. 提供了一些額外的功能，例如當 ‘os.environ’ 中的條目更改時自動呼叫
*note putenv(): 75a.。

錯誤會以例外的形式被回報；常見的例外是因為型別錯誤而給出的，而系統呼叫回
報的錯誤會引發 *note OSError: 644.。

* Menu:

* 對大檔案 (Large File) 的支援: 對大檔案 Large File 的支援.
* 值得注意的模組內容::


File: python.info,  Node: 對大檔案 Large File 的支援,  Next: 值得注意的模組內容,  Up: posix --- 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫

5.34.1.1 對大檔案 (Large File) 的支援
.....................................

一些作業系統（包括 AIX 和 Solaris）支援來自 C 程式模型且大於 2 GiB 的檔
案，其中 int 和 long 是 32-bit（32 位元）的值。這通常透過將相關大小和偏
移量 (offset) 種類定義為 64-bit 值來實作。此類檔案有時被稱為「大檔案
('large files')」。

當 ‘off_t’ 的大小大於 long 且 long long 的大小至少與 ‘off_t’ 相同時，對
大檔案的支援會被啟用。可能需要使用某些編譯器旗標來配置和編譯 Python 以啟
用此模式。例如，對於 Solaris 2.6 和 2.7，你需要執行如下操作：

     CFLAGS="`getconf LFS_CFLAGS`" OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
             ./configure

在支援大檔案的 Linux 系統上，這可能有效：

     CFLAGS='-D_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE -D_FILE_OFFSET_BITS=64' OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
             ./configure


File: python.info,  Node: 值得注意的模組內容,  Prev: 對大檔案 Large File 的支援,  Up: posix --- 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫

5.34.1.2 值得注意的模組內容
...........................

除了 *note os: 9c. 模組說明文件中描述的許多函式外，*note posix: a8. 還定
義了以下資料項目：

 -- 資料: posix.environ

     表示直譯器啟動時的字串環境的字典。鍵和值在 Unix 上是位元組，在
     Windows 上是 str。例如，‘environ[b'HOME']’（Windows 上為
     ‘environ['HOME']’）是你的主目錄的路徑名，等同於 C 語言中的
     ‘getenv("HOME")’。

     修改這個字典不會影響由 *note execv(): 2897.、*note popen(): 8d3. 或
     *note system(): 12cd. 傳遞的字串環境；如果你需要更改環境，請將
     ‘environ’ 傳遞給 *note execve(): f87. 或將變數賦值和匯出陳述句新增
     到 *note system(): 12cd. 或 *note popen(): 8d3. 的指令字串中。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 在 Unix 上，鍵和值是位元組。

          備註: *note os: 9c. 模組提供了 ‘environ’ 的替代實作，會在修改
          時更新環境。另請注意，更新 *note os.environ: 104b. 將使該字典
          變成過時的。建議使用 *note os: 9c. 模組版本，而不是直接存取
          *note posix: a8. 模組。


File: python.info,  Node: pwd --- 密碼資料庫,  Next: grp --- 群組資料庫,  Prev: posix --- 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫,  Up: Unix 特有服務

5.34.2 ‘pwd’ -- 密碼資料庫
--------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

此模組提供對 Unix 使用者帳戶和密碼資料庫的存取介面。它適用於所有 Unix 版
本。

*note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

密碼資料庫條目被報告為類似元組的物件 (tuple-like object)，其屬性會對應於
‘passwd’ 結構的成員（屬性欄位請見下面的 ‘<pwd.h>’）：

索引        屬性                意義
                                
------------------------------------------------------------------
                                
0           ‘pw_name’           登錄名
                                
                                
1           ‘pw_passwd’         可選的加密密碼
                                
                                
2           ‘pw_uid’            數值的使用者 ID
                                
                                
3           ‘pw_gid’            數值的群組 ID
                                
                                
4           ‘pw_gecos’          使用者名稱或註解欄位
                                
                                
5           ‘pw_dir’            使用者主目錄 (home directory)
                                
                                
6           ‘pw_shell’          使用者命令直譯器
                                

uid 和 gid 項目為整數，其他項目都是字串。如果找不到請求的條目，則會引發
*note KeyError: 8ed.。

     備註: 
     在傳統的 Unix 中，‘pw_passwd’ 欄位通常包含一個使用 DES 衍生演算法加
     密的密碼（參見模組 *note crypt: 26.）。然而，大多數現代 Unix 是使用
     所謂的 'shadow password' 系統。在那些 Unix 上，'pw_passwd' 欄位僅包
     含一個星號 (‘'*'’) 或字母 ‘'x'’，其中加密密碼存儲在非全域可讀的
     (not world readable) ‘/etc/shadow’ 文件中。 'pw_passwd' 欄位是否包
     含任何有用的內容取決於系統。如果可用，應該要在需要存取加密密碼的地
     方使用 *note spwd: c8. 模組。

它定義了以下項目：

 -- 函式: pwd.getpwuid (uid)

     回傳給定數值使用者 ID 的密碼資料庫條目。

 -- 函式: pwd.getpwnam (name)

     回傳給定使用者名稱的密碼資料庫條目。

 -- 函式: pwd.getpwall ()

     以任意順序回傳所有可用密碼資料庫條目的 list。

也參考
......

*note grp: 61. 模組

     群組資料庫的介面，與此模組類似。

*note spwd: c8. 模組

     Shadow 密碼資料庫的介面，與此模組類似。


File: python.info,  Node: grp --- 群組資料庫,  Next: termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制,  Prev: pwd --- 密碼資料庫,  Up: Unix 特有服務

5.34.3 ‘grp’ -- 群組資料庫
--------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unix group database.  It is available
on all Unix versions.

*note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

Group database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose
attributes correspond to the members of the ‘group’ structure (Attribute
field below, see ‘<grp.h>’):

Index       屬性            含義
                            
------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
0           gr_name         the name of the group
                            
                            
1           gr_passwd       the (encrypted) group password;
                            often empty
                            
                            
2           gr_gid          the numerical group ID
                            
                            
3           gr_mem          all the group member's user names
                            

The gid is an integer, name and password are strings, and the member
list is a list of strings.  (Note that most users are not explicitly
listed as members of the group they are in according to the password
database.  Check both databases to get complete membership information.
Also note that a ‘gr_name’ that starts with a ‘+’ or ‘-’ is likely to be
a YP/NIS reference and may not be accessible via *note getgrnam(): 2edc.
or *note getgrgid(): b98.)

It defines the following items:

 -- 函式: grp.getgrgid (id)

     Return the group database entry for the given numeric group ID.
     *note KeyError: 8ed. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be
     found.

     在 3.10 版的變更: *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised for non-integer
     arguments like floats or strings.

 -- 函式: grp.getgrnam (name)

     Return the group database entry for the given group name.  *note
     KeyError: 8ed. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.

 -- 函式: grp.getgrall ()

     Return a list of all available group entries, in arbitrary order.

也參考
......

*note pwd: ad. 模組

     An interface to the user database, similar to this.

*note spwd: c8. 模組

     An interface to the shadow password database, similar to this.


File: python.info,  Node: termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制,  Next: tty --- 終端機控制函式,  Prev: grp --- 群組資料庫,  Up: Unix 特有服務

5.34.4 ‘termios’ -- POSIX 風格 tty 控制
---------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface to the POSIX calls for tty I/O
control.  For a complete description of these calls, see ‘termios(3)(1)’
Unix manual page.  It is only available for those Unix versions that
support POSIX 'termios' style tty I/O control configured during
installation.

*note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

All functions in this module take a file descriptor 'fd' as their first
argument.  This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by
‘sys.stdin.fileno()’, or a *note file object: 1054, such as ‘sys.stdin’
itself.

This module also defines all the constants needed to work with the
functions provided here; these have the same name as their counterparts
in C. Please refer to your system documentation for more information on
using these terminal control interfaces.

The module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: termios.tcgetattr (fd)

     Return a list containing the tty attributes for file descriptor
     'fd', as follows: ‘[iflag, oflag, cflag, lflag, ispeed, ospeed,
     cc]’ where 'cc' is a list of the tty special characters (each a
     string of length 1, except the items with indices ‘VMIN’ and
     ‘VTIME’, which are integers when these fields are defined).  The
     interpretation of the flags and the speeds as well as the indexing
     in the 'cc' array must be done using the symbolic constants defined
     in the *note termios: db. module.

 -- 函式: termios.tcsetattr (fd, when, attributes)

     Set the tty attributes for file descriptor 'fd' from the
     'attributes', which is a list like the one returned by *note
     tcgetattr(): 1447.  The 'when' argument determines when the
     attributes are changed:

      -- 資料: termios.TCSANOW

          Change attributes immediately.

      -- 資料: termios.TCSADRAIN

          Change attributes after transmitting all queued output.

      -- 資料: termios.TCSAFLUSH

          Change attributes after transmitting all queued output and
          discarding all queued input.

 -- 函式: termios.tcsendbreak (fd, duration)

     Send a break on file descriptor 'fd'.  A zero 'duration' sends a
     break for 0.25-0.5 seconds; a nonzero 'duration' has a system
     dependent meaning.

 -- 函式: termios.tcdrain (fd)

     Wait until all output written to file descriptor 'fd' has been
     transmitted.

 -- 函式: termios.tcflush (fd, queue)

     Discard queued data on file descriptor 'fd'.  The 'queue' selector
     specifies which queue: ‘TCIFLUSH’ for the input queue, ‘TCOFLUSH’
     for the output queue, or ‘TCIOFLUSH’ for both queues.

 -- 函式: termios.tcflow (fd, action)

     Suspend or resume input or output on file descriptor 'fd'.  The
     'action' argument can be ‘TCOOFF’ to suspend output, ‘TCOON’ to
     restart output, ‘TCIOFF’ to suspend input, or ‘TCION’ to restart
     input.

 -- 函式: termios.tcgetwinsize (fd)

     Return a tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ containing the tty window size
     for file descriptor 'fd'.  Requires ‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’ or
     ‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- 函式: termios.tcsetwinsize (fd, winsize)

     Set the tty window size for file descriptor 'fd' from 'winsize',
     which is a two-item tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ like the one returned
     by *note tcgetwinsize(): 44ec.  Requires at least one of the pairs
     (‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’, ‘termios.TIOCSWINSZ’); (‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’,
     ‘termios.TIOCSSIZE’) to be defined.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

也參考
......

*note tty: fb. 模組

     Convenience functions for common terminal control operations.

* Menu:

* 範例: 範例<47>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/termios(3)


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<47>,  Up: termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制

5.34.4.1 範例
.............

Here's a function that prompts for a password with echoing turned off.
Note the technique using a separate *note tcgetattr(): 1447. call and a
*note try: 4ea. ...  *note finally: 80e. statement to ensure that the
old tty attributes are restored exactly no matter what happens:

     def getpass(prompt="Password: "):
         import termios, sys
         fd = sys.stdin.fileno()
         old = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
         new = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
         new[3] = new[3] & ~termios.ECHO          # lflags
         try:
             termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, new)
             passwd = input(prompt)
         finally:
             termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, old)
         return passwd


File: python.info,  Node: tty --- 終端機控制函式,  Next: pty --- 偽終端工具,  Prev: termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制,  Up: Unix 特有服務

5.34.5 ‘tty’ -- 終端機控制函式
------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/tty.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tty: fb. 模組定義了將 tty 放入 cbreak 和 raw 模式的函式。

*note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

因為它需要 *note termios: db. 模組，所以只能在 Unix 上執行。

*note tty: fb. 模組定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: tty.cfmakeraw (mode)

     Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one
     returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1447, to that of a tty in
     raw mode.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- 函式: tty.cfmakecbreak (mode)

     Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one
     returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1447, to that of a tty in
     cbreak mode.

     This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags in 'mode' as
     well as setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

     在 3.12.2 版的變更: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer cleared.  This
     matches Linux and macOS ‘stty cbreak’ behavior and what *note
     setcbreak(): 1448. historically did.

 -- 函式: tty.setraw (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

     將檔案描述器 'fd' 的模式更改為 raw。如果 'when' 被省略，則預設為
     *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 44e7.，並傳遞給 *note termios.tcsetattr():
     1471.。*note termios.tcgetattr(): 1447. 的回傳值會在設定 'fd' 模式
     為 raw 之前先儲存起來。此函數回傳這個值。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 現在的回傳值為原本的 tty 屬性，而不是 ‘None’。

 -- 函式: tty.setcbreak (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

     將檔案描述器 'fd' 的模式更改為 cbreak。如果 'when' 被省略，則預設為
     *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 44e7.，並傳遞給 *note termios.tcsetattr():
     1471.。*note termios.tcgetattr(): 1447. 的回傳值會在設定 'fd' 模式
     為 raw 之前先儲存起來。此函數回傳這個值。

     This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags as well as
     setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 現在的回傳值為原本的 tty 屬性，而不是 ‘None’。

     在 3.12.2 版的變更: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer cleared.  This
     restores the behavior of Python 3.11 and earlier as well as
     matching what Linux, macOS, & BSDs describe in their ‘stty(1)’ man
     pages regarding cbreak mode.

也參考
......

*note termios: db. 模組

     低階終端機控制介面。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tty.py


File: python.info,  Node: pty --- 偽終端工具,  Next: fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫,  Prev: tty --- 終端機控制函式,  Up: Unix 特有服務

5.34.6 ‘pty’ -- 偽終端工具
--------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/pty.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note pty: ac. module defines operations for handling the
pseudo-terminal concept: starting another process and being able to
write to and read from its controlling terminal programmatically.

*note Availability: 1b45.: Unix.

Pseudo-terminal handling is highly platform dependent.  This code is
mainly tested on Linux, FreeBSD, and macOS (it is supposed to work on
other POSIX platforms but it's not been thoroughly tested).

The *note pty: ac. module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: pty.fork ()

     Fork.  Connect the child's controlling terminal to a
     pseudo-terminal.  Return value is ‘(pid, fd)’.  Note that the child
     gets 'pid' 0, and the 'fd' is 'invalid'.  The parent's return value
     is the 'pid' of the child, and 'fd' is a file descriptor connected
     to the child's controlling terminal (and also to the child's
     standard input and output).

          警告: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed
          with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using
          *note urllib.request: 106.

 -- 函式: pty.openpty ()

     Open a new pseudo-terminal pair, using *note os.openpty(): 28d9. if
     possible, or emulation code for generic Unix systems.  Return a
     pair of file descriptors ‘(master, slave)’, for the master and the
     slave end, respectively.

 -- 函式: pty.spawn (argv[, master_read[, stdin_read]])

     Spawn a process, and connect its controlling terminal with the
     current process's standard io.  This is often used to baffle
     programs which insist on reading from the controlling terminal.  It
     is expected that the process spawned behind the pty will eventually
     terminate, and when it does 'spawn' will return.

     A loop copies STDIN of the current process to the child and data
     received from the child to STDOUT of the current process.  It is
     not signaled to the child if STDIN of the current process closes
     down.

     The functions 'master_read' and 'stdin_read' are passed a file
     descriptor which they should read from, and they should always
     return a byte string.  In order to force spawn to return before the
     child process exits an empty byte array should be returned to
     signal end of file.

     The default implementation for both functions will read and return
     up to 1024 bytes each time the function is called.  The
     'master_read' callback is passed the pseudoterminal’s master file
     descriptor to read output from the child process, and 'stdin_read'
     is passed file descriptor 0, to read from the parent process's
     standard input.

     Returning an empty byte string from either callback is interpreted
     as an end-of-file (EOF) condition, and that callback will not be
     called after that.  If 'stdin_read' signals EOF the controlling
     terminal can no longer communicate with the parent process OR the
     child process.  Unless the child process will quit without any
     input, 'spawn' will then loop forever.  If 'master_read' signals
     EOF the same behavior results (on linux at least).

     Return the exit status value from *note os.waitpid(): c11. on the
     child process.

     *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 75b. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exit code.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘argv’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘pty.spawn’。

     在 3.4 版的變更: *note spawn(): e0f. now returns the status value
     from *note os.waitpid(): c11. on the child process.

* Menu:

* 範例: 範例<48>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pty.py


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<48>,  Up: pty --- 偽終端工具

5.34.6.1 範例
.............

The following program acts like the Unix command ‘script(1)(1)’, using a
pseudo-terminal to record all input and output of a terminal session in
a "typescript".

     import argparse
     import os
     import pty
     import sys
     import time

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('-a', dest='append', action='store_true')
     parser.add_argument('-p', dest='use_python', action='store_true')
     parser.add_argument('filename', nargs='?', default='typescript')
     options = parser.parse_args()

     shell = sys.executable if options.use_python else os.environ.get('SHELL', 'sh')
     filename = options.filename
     mode = 'ab' if options.append else 'wb'

     with open(filename, mode) as script:
         def read(fd):
             data = os.read(fd, 1024)
             script.write(data)
             return data

         print('Script started, file is', filename)
         script.write(('Script started on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())

         pty.spawn(shell, read)

         script.write(('Script done on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())
         print('Script done, file is', filename)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/script(1)


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫,  Next: resource --- 資源使用資訊,  Prev: pty --- 偽終端工具,  Up: Unix 特有服務

5.34.7 ‘fcntl’ -- ‘fcntl’ 和 ‘ioctl’ 系統呼叫
---------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module performs file and I/O control on file descriptors.  It is an
interface to the ‘fcntl()’ and ‘ioctl()’ Unix routines.  See the
‘fcntl(2)(1)’ and ‘ioctl(2)(2)’ Unix manual pages for full details.

*note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

All functions in this module take a file descriptor 'fd' as their first
argument.  This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by
‘sys.stdin.fileno()’, or an *note io.IOBase: 841. object, such as
‘sys.stdin’ itself, which provides a *note fileno(): 25ca. that returns
a genuine file descriptor.

在 3.3 版的變更: Operations in this module used to raise an *note
IOError: ee8. where they now raise an *note OSError: 644.

在 3.8 版的變更: The fcntl module now contains ‘F_ADD_SEALS’,
‘F_GET_SEALS’, and ‘F_SEAL_*’ constants for sealing of *note
os.memfd_create(): 852. file descriptors.

在 3.9 版的變更: On macOS, the fcntl module exposes the ‘F_GETPATH’
constant, which obtains the path of a file from a file descriptor.  On
Linux(>=3.15), the fcntl module exposes the ‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’
and ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’ constants, which are used when working with open file
description locks.

在 3.10 版的變更: On Linux >= 2.6.11, the fcntl module exposes the
‘F_GETPIPE_SZ’ and ‘F_SETPIPE_SZ’ constants, which allow to check and
modify a pipe's size respectively.

在 3.11 版的變更: On FreeBSD, the fcntl module exposes the ‘F_DUP2FD’
and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ constants, which allow to duplicate a file
descriptor, the latter setting ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ flag in addition.

在 3.12 版的變更: On Linux >= 4.5, the *note fcntl: 54. module exposes
the ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’ constants, which allow to share some
data of one file with another file by reflinking on some filesystems
(e.g., btrfs, OCFS2, and XFS). This behavior is commonly referred to as
"copy-on-write".

The module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: fcntl.fcntl (fd, cmd, arg=0)

     Perform the operation 'cmd' on file descriptor 'fd' (file objects
     providing a *note fileno(): 25ca. method are accepted as well).
     The values used for 'cmd' are operating system dependent, and are
     available as constants in the *note fcntl: 54. module, using the
     same names as used in the relevant C header files.  The argument
     'arg' can either be an integer value, or a *note bytes: 2c1.
     object.  With an integer value, the return value of this function
     is the integer return value of the C ‘fcntl()’ call.  When the
     argument is bytes it represents a binary structure, e.g.  created
     by *note struct.pack(): 110b.  The binary data is copied to a
     buffer whose address is passed to the C ‘fcntl()’ call.  The return
     value after a successful call is the contents of the buffer,
     converted to a *note bytes: 2c1. object.  The length of the
     returned object will be the same as the length of the 'arg'
     argument.  This is limited to 1024 bytes.  If the information
     returned in the buffer by the operating system is larger than 1024
     bytes, this is most likely to result in a segmentation violation or
     a more subtle data corruption.

     If the ‘fcntl()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 644. is raised.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fd’、‘cmd’、‘arg’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘fcntl.fcntl’。

 -- 函式: fcntl.ioctl (fd, request, arg=0, mutate_flag=True)

     This function is identical to the *note fcntl(): 311e. function,
     except that the argument handling is even more complicated.

     The 'request' parameter is limited to values that can fit in
     32-bits.  Additional constants of interest for use as the 'request'
     argument can be found in the *note termios: db. module, under the
     same names as used in the relevant C header files.

     The parameter 'arg' can be one of an integer, an object supporting
     the read-only buffer interface (like *note bytes: 2c1.) or an
     object supporting the read-write buffer interface (like *note
     bytearray: 2c0.).

     In all but the last case, behaviour is as for the *note fcntl():
     311e. function.

     If a mutable buffer is passed, then the behaviour is determined by
     the value of the 'mutate_flag' parameter.

     If it is false, the buffer's mutability is ignored and behaviour is
     as for a read-only buffer, except that the 1024 byte limit
     mentioned above is avoided - so long as the buffer you pass is at
     least as long as what the operating system wants to put there,
     things should work.

     If 'mutate_flag' is true (the default), then the buffer is (in
     effect) passed to the underlying *note ioctl(): 12eb. system call,
     the latter's return code is passed back to the calling Python, and
     the buffer's new contents reflect the action of the *note ioctl():
     12eb.  This is a slight simplification, because if the supplied
     buffer is less than 1024 bytes long it is first copied into a
     static buffer 1024 bytes long which is then passed to *note
     ioctl(): 12eb. and copied back into the supplied buffer.

     If the ‘ioctl()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 644. exception is
     raised.

     範例：

          >>> import array, fcntl, struct, termios, os
          >>> os.getpgrp()
          13341
          >>> struct.unpack('h', fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, "  "))[0]
          13341
          >>> buf = array.array('h', [0])
          >>> fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, buf, 1)
          0
          >>> buf
          array('h', [13341])

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fd’、‘request’、‘arg’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘fcntl.ioctl’。

 -- 函式: fcntl.flock (fd, operation)

     Perform the lock operation 'operation' on file descriptor 'fd'
     (file objects providing a *note fileno(): 25ca. method are accepted
     as well).  See the Unix manual ‘flock(2)(3)’ for details.  (On some
     systems, this function is emulated using ‘fcntl()’.)

     If the ‘flock()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 644. exception is
     raised.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fd’、‘operation’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘fcntl.flock’。

 -- 函式: fcntl.lockf (fd, cmd, len=0, start=0, whence=0)

     This is essentially a wrapper around the *note fcntl(): 311e.
     locking calls.  'fd' is the file descriptor (file objects providing
     a *note fileno(): 25ca. method are accepted as well) of the file to
     lock or unlock, and 'cmd' is one of the following values:

      -- 資料: fcntl.LOCK_UN

          Release an existing lock.

      -- 資料: fcntl.LOCK_SH

          Acquire a shared lock.

      -- 資料: fcntl.LOCK_EX

          Acquire an exclusive lock.

      -- 資料: fcntl.LOCK_NB

          Bitwise OR with any of the other three ‘LOCK_*’ constants to
          make the request non-blocking.

     If ‘LOCK_NB’ is used and the lock cannot be acquired, an *note
     OSError: 644. will be raised and the exception will have an 'errno'
     attribute set to *note EACCES: 2044. or *note EAGAIN: 2035.
     (depending on the operating system; for portability, check for both
     values).  On at least some systems, ‘LOCK_EX’ can only be used if
     the file descriptor refers to a file opened for writing.

     'len' is the number of bytes to lock, 'start' is the byte offset at
     which the lock starts, relative to 'whence', and 'whence' is as
     with *note io.IOBase.seek(): 1121, specifically:

        * ‘0’ - relative to the start of the file (*note os.SEEK_SET:
          1122.)

        * ‘1’ - relative to the current buffer position (*note
          os.SEEK_CUR: 1123.)

        * ‘2’ - relative to the end of the file (*note os.SEEK_END:
          1124.)

     The default for 'start' is 0, which means to start at the beginning
     of the file.  The default for 'len' is 0 which means to lock to the
     end of the file.  The default for 'whence' is also 0.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘fd’、‘cmd’、‘len’、‘start’、‘whence’ 的*note
     稽核事件: 168e. ‘fcntl.lockf’。

Examples (all on a SVR4 compliant system):

     import struct, fcntl, os

     f = open(...)
     rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETFL, os.O_NDELAY)

     lockdata = struct.pack('hhllhh', fcntl.F_WRLCK, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
     rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETLKW, lockdata)

Note that in the first example the return value variable 'rv' will hold
an integer value; in the second example it will hold a *note bytes: 2c1.
object.  The structure lay-out for the 'lockdata' variable is system
dependent -- therefore using the *note flock(): 3efc. call may be
better.

也參考
......

*note os: 9c. 模組

     If the locking flags *note O_SHLOCK: 12a1. and *note O_EXLOCK:
     12a2. are present in the *note os: 9c. module (on BSD only), the
     *note os.open(): c09. function provides an alternative to the *note
     lockf(): 125b. and *note flock(): 3efc. functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/fcntl(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/ioctl(2)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/flock(2)


File: python.info,  Node: resource --- 資源使用資訊,  Next: syslog --- Unix syslog 函式庫例程,  Prev: fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫,  Up: Unix 特有服務

5.34.8 ‘resource’ -- 資源使用資訊
---------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides basic mechanisms for measuring and controlling
system resources utilized by a program.

*note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

Symbolic constants are used to specify particular system resources and
to request usage information about either the current process or its
children.

An *note OSError: 644. is raised on syscall failure.

 -- 例外: resource.error

     A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 644.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was made an
     alias of *note OSError: 644.

* Menu:

* Resource Limits::
* Resource Usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: Resource Limits,  Next: Resource Usage,  Up: resource --- 資源使用資訊

5.34.8.1 Resource Limits
........................

Resources usage can be limited using the *note setrlimit(): 3e9f.
function described below.  Each resource is controlled by a pair of
limits: a soft limit and a hard limit.  The soft limit is the current
limit, and may be lowered or raised by a process over time.  The soft
limit can never exceed the hard limit.  The hard limit can be lowered to
any value greater than the soft limit, but not raised.  (Only processes
with the effective UID of the super-user can raise a hard limit.)

The specific resources that can be limited are system dependent.  They
are described in the ‘getrlimit(2)(1)’ man page.  The resources listed
below are supported when the underlying operating system supports them;
resources which cannot be checked or controlled by the operating system
are not defined in this module for those platforms.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIM_INFINITY

     Constant used to represent the limit for an unlimited resource.

 -- 函式: resource.getrlimit (resource)

     Returns a tuple ‘(soft, hard)’ with the current soft and hard
     limits of 'resource'.  Raises *note ValueError: 183. if an invalid
     resource is specified, or *note error: 44fd. if the underlying
     system call fails unexpectedly.

 -- 函式: resource.setrlimit (resource, limits)

     Sets new limits of consumption of 'resource'.  The 'limits'
     argument must be a tuple ‘(soft, hard)’ of two integers describing
     the new limits.  A value of *note RLIM_INFINITY: 44ff. can be used
     to request a limit that is unlimited.

     Raises *note ValueError: 183. if an invalid resource is specified,
     if the new soft limit exceeds the hard limit, or if a process tries
     to raise its hard limit.  Specifying a limit of *note
     RLIM_INFINITY: 44ff. when the hard or system limit for that
     resource is not unlimited will result in a *note ValueError: 183.
     A process with the effective UID of super-user can request any
     valid limit value, including unlimited, but *note ValueError: 183.
     will still be raised if the requested limit exceeds the system
     imposed limit.

     ‘setrlimit’ may also raise *note error: 44fd. if the underlying
     system call fails.

     VxWorks only supports setting *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 4501.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘resource’、‘limits’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘resource.setrlimit’。

 -- 函式: resource.prlimit (pid, resource[, limits])

     Combines *note setrlimit(): 3e9f. and *note getrlimit(): 4500. in
     one function and supports to get and set the resources limits of an
     arbitrary process.  If 'pid' is 0, then the call applies to the
     current process.  'resource' and 'limits' have the same meaning as
     in *note setrlimit(): 3e9f, except that 'limits' is optional.

     When 'limits' is not given the function returns the 'resource'
     limit of the process 'pid'.  When 'limits' is given the 'resource'
     limit of the process is set and the former resource limit is
     returned.

     Raises *note ProcessLookupError: ef1. when 'pid' can't be found and
     *note PermissionError: bb5. when the user doesn't have
     ‘CAP_SYS_RESOURCE’ for the process.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘pid’、‘resource’、‘limits’ 的*note 稽核事件:
     168e. ‘resource.prlimit’。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.36 with glibc >= 2.13.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

These symbols define resources whose consumption can be controlled using
the *note setrlimit(): 3e9f. and *note getrlimit(): 4500. functions
described below.  The values of these symbols are exactly the constants
used by C programs.

The Unix man page for ‘getrlimit(2)(2)’ lists the available resources.
Note that not all systems use the same symbol or same value to denote
the same resource.  This module does not attempt to mask platform
differences -- symbols not defined for a platform will not be available
from this module on that platform.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_CORE

     The maximum size (in bytes) of a core file that the current process
     can create.  This may result in the creation of a partial core file
     if a larger core would be required to contain the entire process
     image.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_CPU

     The maximum amount of processor time (in seconds) that a process
     can use.  If this limit is exceeded, a ‘SIGXCPU’ signal is sent to
     the process.  (See the *note signal: c1. module documentation for
     information about how to catch this signal and do something useful,
     e.g.  flush open files to disk.)

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE

     The maximum size of a file which the process may create.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_DATA

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the process's heap.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_STACK

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the call stack for the current
     process.  This only affects the stack of the main thread in a
     multi-threaded process.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_RSS

     The maximum resident set size that should be made available to the
     process.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_NPROC

     The maximum number of processes the current process may create.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE

     The maximum number of open file descriptors for the current
     process.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_OFILE

     The BSD name for *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 4501.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK

     The maximum address space which may be locked in memory.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_VMEM

     The largest area of mapped memory which the process may occupy.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: FreeBSD >= 11.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_AS

     The maximum area (in bytes) of address space which may be taken by
     the process.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE

     The number of bytes that can be allocated for POSIX message queues.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.8.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_NICE

     The ceiling for the process's nice level (calculated as 20 -
     rlim_cur).

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.12.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO

     The ceiling of the real-time priority.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.12.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME

     The time limit (in microseconds) on CPU time that a process can
     spend under real-time scheduling without making a blocking syscall.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING

     The number of signals which the process may queue.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Linux >= 2.6.8.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE

     The maximum size (in bytes) of socket buffer usage for this user.
     This limits the amount of network memory, and hence the amount of
     mbufs, that this user may hold at any time.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: FreeBSD.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_SWAP

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the swap space that may be reserved
     or used by all of this user id's processes.  This limit is enforced
     only if bit 1 of the vm.overcommit sysctl is set.  Please see
     tuning(7)(3) for a complete description of this sysctl.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: FreeBSD.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_NPTS

     The maximum number of pseudo-terminals created by this user id.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: FreeBSD.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 資料: resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES

     The maximum number of kqueues this user id is allowed to create.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: FreeBSD >= 11.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)

   (3) https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=tuning&sektion=7


File: python.info,  Node: Resource Usage,  Prev: Resource Limits,  Up: resource --- 資源使用資訊

5.34.8.2 Resource Usage
.......................

These functions are used to retrieve resource usage information:

 -- 函式: resource.getrusage (who)

     This function returns an object that describes the resources
     consumed by either the current process or its children, as
     specified by the 'who' parameter.  The 'who' parameter should be
     specified using one of the ‘RUSAGE_*’ constants described below.

     一個簡單範例：

          from resource import *
          import time

          # a non CPU-bound task
          time.sleep(3)
          print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

          # a CPU-bound task
          for i in range(10 ** 8):
             _ = 1 + 1
          print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

     The fields of the return value each describe how a particular
     system resource has been used, e.g.  amount of time spent running
     is user mode or number of times the process was swapped out of main
     memory.  Some values are dependent on the clock tick internal, e.g.
     the amount of memory the process is using.

     For backward compatibility, the return value is also accessible as
     a tuple of 16 elements.

     The fields ‘ru_utime’ and ‘ru_stime’ of the return value are
     floating-point values representing the amount of time spent
     executing in user mode and the amount of time spent executing in
     system mode, respectively.  The remaining values are integers.
     Consult the ‘getrusage(2)(1)’ man page for detailed information
     about these values.  A brief summary is presented here:

     Index        Field                     Resource
                                            
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
     ‘0’          ‘ru_utime’                time in user mode (float seconds)
                                            
                                            
     ‘1’          ‘ru_stime’                time in system mode (float seconds)
                                            
                                            
     ‘2’          ‘ru_maxrss’               maximum resident set size
                                            
                                            
     ‘3’          ‘ru_ixrss’                shared memory size
                                            
                                            
     ‘4’          ‘ru_idrss’                unshared memory size
                                            
                                            
     ‘5’          ‘ru_isrss’                unshared stack size
                                            
                                            
     ‘6’          ‘ru_minflt’               page faults not requiring I/O
                                            
                                            
     ‘7’          ‘ru_majflt’               page faults requiring I/O
                                            
                                            
     ‘8’          ‘ru_nswap’                number of swap outs
                                            
                                            
     ‘9’          ‘ru_inblock’              block input operations
                                            
                                            
     ‘10’         ‘ru_oublock’              block output operations
                                            
                                            
     ‘11’         ‘ru_msgsnd’               messages sent
                                            
                                            
     ‘12’         ‘ru_msgrcv’               messages received
                                            
                                            
     ‘13’         ‘ru_nsignals’             signals received
                                            
                                            
     ‘14’         ‘ru_nvcsw’                voluntary context switches
                                            
                                            
     ‘15’         ‘ru_nivcsw’               involuntary context switches
                                            

     This function will raise a *note ValueError: 183. if an invalid
     'who' parameter is specified.  It may also raise *note error: 44fd.
     exception in unusual circumstances.

 -- 函式: resource.getpagesize ()

     Returns the number of bytes in a system page.  (This need not be
     the same as the hardware page size.)

The following ‘RUSAGE_*’ symbols are passed to the *note getrusage():
12a3. function to specify which processes information should be provided
for.

 -- 資料: resource.RUSAGE_SELF

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 12a3. to request resources consumed by
     the calling process, which is the sum of resources used by all
     threads in the process.

 -- 資料: resource.RUSAGE_CHILDREN

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 12a3. to request resources consumed by
     child processes of the calling process which have been terminated
     and waited for.

 -- 資料: resource.RUSAGE_BOTH

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 12a3. to request resources consumed by
     both the current process and child processes.  May not be available
     on all systems.

 -- 資料: resource.RUSAGE_THREAD

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 12a3. to request resources consumed by
     the current thread.  May not be available on all systems.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrusage(2)


File: python.info,  Node: syslog --- Unix syslog 函式庫例程,  Prev: resource --- 資源使用資訊,  Up: Unix 特有服務

5.34.9 ‘syslog’ -- Unix syslog 函式庫例程
-----------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface to the Unix ‘syslog’ library routines.
Refer to the Unix manual pages for a detailed description of the
‘syslog’ facility.

*note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module wraps the system ‘syslog’ family of routines.  A pure Python
library that can speak to a syslog server is available in the *note
logging.handlers: 84. module as ‘SysLogHandler’.

該模組定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: syslog.syslog (message)

 -- 函式: syslog.syslog (priority, message)

     Send the string 'message' to the system logger.  A trailing newline
     is added if necessary.  Each message is tagged with a priority
     composed of a 'facility' and a 'level'.  The optional 'priority'
     argument, which defaults to ‘LOG_INFO’, determines the message
     priority.  If the facility is not encoded in 'priority' using
     logical-or (‘LOG_INFO | LOG_USER’), the value given in the *note
     openlog(): 2c2. call is used.

     If *note openlog(): 2c2. has not been called prior to the call to
     *note syslog(): d6, *note openlog(): 2c2. will be called with no
     arguments.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘priority’、‘message’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘syslog.syslog’。

     在 3.2 版的變更: In previous versions, *note openlog(): 2c2. would
     not be called automatically if it wasn't called prior to the call
     to *note syslog(): d6, deferring to the syslog implementation to
     call ‘openlog()’.

     在 3.12 版的變更: This function is restricted in subinterpreters.
     (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the
     restriction is not relevant for most users.)  *note openlog(): 2c2.
     must be called in the main interpreter before *note syslog(): d6.
     may be used in a subinterpreter.  Otherwise it will raise *note
     RuntimeError: 17a.

 -- 函式: syslog.openlog ([ident[, logoption[, facility]]])

     Logging options of subsequent *note syslog(): d6. calls can be set
     by calling *note openlog(): 2c2.  *note syslog(): d6. will call
     *note openlog(): 2c2. with no arguments if the log is not currently
     open.

     The optional 'ident' keyword argument is a string which is
     prepended to every message, and defaults to ‘sys.argv[0]’ with
     leading path components stripped.  The optional 'logoption' keyword
     argument (default is 0) is a bit field - see below for possible
     values to combine.  The optional 'facility' keyword argument
     (default is ‘LOG_USER’) sets the default facility for messages
     which do not have a facility explicitly encoded.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘ident’、‘logoption’、‘facility’ 的*note 稽核事件:
     168e. ‘syslog.openlog’。

     在 3.2 版的變更: In previous versions, keyword arguments were not
     allowed, and 'ident' was required.

     在 3.12 版的變更: This function is restricted in subinterpreters.
     (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the
     restriction is not relevant for most users.)  This may only be
     called in the main interpreter.  It will raise *note RuntimeError:
     17a. if called in a subinterpreter.

 -- 函式: syslog.closelog ()

     Reset the syslog module values and call the system library
     ‘closelog()’.

     This causes the module to behave as it does when initially
     imported.  For example, *note openlog(): 2c2. will be called on the
     first *note syslog(): d6. call (if *note openlog(): 2c2. hasn't
     already been called), and 'ident' and other *note openlog(): 2c2.
     parameters are reset to defaults.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e. ‘syslog.closelog’。

     在 3.12 版的變更: This function is restricted in subinterpreters.
     (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the
     restriction is not relevant for most users.)  This may only be
     called in the main interpreter.  It will raise *note RuntimeError:
     17a. if called in a subinterpreter.

 -- 函式: syslog.setlogmask (maskpri)

     Set the priority mask to 'maskpri' and return the previous mask
     value.  Calls to *note syslog(): d6. with a priority level not set
     in 'maskpri' are ignored.  The default is to log all priorities.
     The function ‘LOG_MASK(pri)’ calculates the mask for the individual
     priority 'pri'.  The function ‘LOG_UPTO(pri)’ calculates the mask
     for all priorities up to and including 'pri'.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘maskpri’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘syslog.setlogmask’。

The module defines the following constants:

Priority levels (high to low):

     ‘LOG_EMERG’, ‘LOG_ALERT’, ‘LOG_CRIT’, ‘LOG_ERR’, ‘LOG_WARNING’,
     ‘LOG_NOTICE’, ‘LOG_INFO’, ‘LOG_DEBUG’.

Facilities:

     ‘LOG_KERN’, ‘LOG_USER’, ‘LOG_MAIL’, ‘LOG_DAEMON’, ‘LOG_AUTH’,
     ‘LOG_LPR’, ‘LOG_NEWS’, ‘LOG_UUCP’, ‘LOG_CRON’, ‘LOG_SYSLOG’,
     ‘LOG_LOCAL0’ to ‘LOG_LOCAL7’, and, if defined in ‘<syslog.h>’,
     ‘LOG_AUTHPRIV’.

Log options:

     ‘LOG_PID’, ‘LOG_CONS’, ‘LOG_NDELAY’, and, if defined in
     ‘<syslog.h>’, ‘LOG_ODELAY’, ‘LOG_NOWAIT’, and ‘LOG_PERROR’.

* Menu:

* 範例: 範例<49>.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<49>,  Up: syslog --- Unix syslog 函式庫例程

5.34.9.1 範例
.............

* Menu:

* 簡單範例: 簡單範例<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 簡單範例<2>,  Up: 範例<49>

5.34.9.2 簡單範例
.................

一組簡單範例：

     import syslog

     syslog.syslog('Processing started')
     if error:
         syslog.syslog(syslog.LOG_ERR, 'Processing started')

An example of setting some log options, these would include the process
ID in logged messages, and write the messages to the destination
facility used for mail logging:

     syslog.openlog(logoption=syslog.LOG_PID, facility=syslog.LOG_MAIL)
     syslog.syslog('E-mail processing initiated...')


File: python.info,  Node: 模組命令列介面,  Next: 已被取代的模組,  Prev: Unix 特有服務,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.35 模組命令列介面
===================

以下模組具有命令列介面。

   * *note ast: 433a.

   * *note asyncio: 2f54.

   * *note base64: c.

   * *note calendar: 227c.

   * *note code: 18.

   * *note compileall: 43f2.

   * *note cProfile: 25.: 請見 *note profile: 3f92.

   * *note difflib: 20ca.

   * *note dis: 4408.

   * *note doctest: 36.

   * ‘encodings.rot_13’

   * *note ensurepip: 50.

   * *note filecmp: 55.

   * *note fileinput: 56.

   * *note ftplib: 59.

   * *note gzip: 26e8.

   * *note http.server: dde.

   * ‘idlelib’

   * *note inspect: de8.

   * *note json.tool: 3338.

   * *note mimetypes: 8a.

   * *note pdb: a0.

   * *note pickle: a1.

   * *note pickletools: 4468.

   * *note platform: a5.

   * *note poplib: a7.

   * *note profile: 3f92.

   * *note pstats: ab.

   * *note py_compile: 43ea.

   * *note pyclbr: af.

   * *note pydoc: b0.

   * *note quopri: b2.

   * *note runpy: b9.

   * *note site: 41e6.

   * *note sqlite3: 14a.

   * *note sysconfig: 40ed.

   * *note tabnanny: d7.

   * *note tarfile: e5d.

   * ‘this’

   * *note timeit: 3fb2.

   * *note tokenize: 43be.

   * *note trace: 3fce.

   * *note turtledemo: fd.

   * *note unittest: 3d44.

   * *note uuid: 14d.

   * *note venv: 10c.

   * *note webbrowser: 110.

   * *note zipapp: 404b.

   * *note zipfile: 2750.

另請見 *note Python 命令列介面: 179c.。


File: python.info,  Node: 已被取代的模組,  Next: 安全性注意事項<4>,  Prev: 模組命令列介面,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.36 已被取代的模組
===================

此章節所描述的模組 (modules) 均已被棄用，僅為了向後相容性而被保留下來。
它們已經被其他模組所取代。

* Menu:

* aifc: aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案. 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案
* audioop: audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案. 操作原始聲音檔案
* cgi: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援. 通用閘道器介面支援
* cgitb: cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式. CGI 腳本的回溯 (traceback) 管理程式
* chunk: chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料. 讀取 IFF 分塊資料
* crypt: crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式. 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式
* imghdr: imghdr --- 推測圖片種類. 推測圖片種類
* mailcap: mailcap --- Mailcap 檔案處理. Mailcap 檔案處理
* msilib: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案. 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案
* nis: nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面. Sun NIS (Yellow Pages) 介面
* nntplib: nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端. NNTP 協定客戶端
* optparse: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器. 命令列選項剖析器
* ossaudiodev: ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取. 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取
* pipes: pipes --- shell pipelines 介面. shell pipelines 介面
* sndhdr: sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別. 判定聲音檔案的型別
* spwd: spwd --- shadow 密碼資料庫. shadow 密碼資料庫
* sunau: sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案. 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案
* telnetlib: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端. Telnet 客戶端
* xdrlib: xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼. uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼
* xdrlib: xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼. XDR 資料的編碼與解碼


File: python.info,  Node: aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案,  Next: audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.1 ‘aifc’ -- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/aifc.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
aifc: 5. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP 594(2)）。

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides support for reading and writing AIFF and AIFF-C
files.  AIFF is Audio Interchange File Format, a format for storing
digital audio samples in a file.  AIFF-C is a newer version of the
format that includes the ability to compress the audio data.

Audio files have a number of parameters that describe the audio data.
The sampling rate or frame rate is the number of times per second the
sound is sampled.  The number of channels indicate if the audio is mono,
stereo, or quadro.  Each frame consists of one sample per channel.  The
sample size is the size in bytes of each sample.  Thus a frame consists
of ‘nchannels * samplesize’ bytes, and a second's worth of audio
consists of ‘nchannels * samplesize * framerate’ bytes.

For example, CD quality audio has a sample size of two bytes (16 bits),
uses two channels (stereo) and has a frame rate of 44,100 frames/second.
This gives a frame size of 4 bytes (2*2), and a second's worth occupies
2*2*44100 bytes (176,400 bytes).

*note aifc: 5. 模組定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: aifc.open (file, mode=None)

     Open an AIFF or AIFF-C file and return an object instance with
     methods that are described below.  The argument 'file' is either a
     string naming a file or a *note file object: 1054.  'mode' must be
     ‘'r'’ or ‘'rb'’ when the file must be opened for reading, or ‘'w'’
     or ‘'wb'’ when the file must be opened for writing.  If omitted,
     ‘file.mode’ is used if it exists, otherwise ‘'rb'’ is used.  When
     used for writing, the file object should be seekable, unless you
     know ahead of time how many samples you are going to write in total
     and use ‘writeframesraw()’ and ‘setnframes()’.  The *note open():
     a42. function may be used in a *note with: 3c5. statement.  When
     the ‘with’ block completes, the *note close(): da0. method is
     called.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Support for the *note with: 3c5. statement was
     added.

Objects returned by *note open(): a42. when a file is opened for reading
have the following methods:

 -- 方法: aifc.getnchannels ()

     Return the number of audio channels (1 for mono, 2 for stereo).

 -- 方法: aifc.getsampwidth ()

     Return the size in bytes of individual samples.

 -- 方法: aifc.getframerate ()

     Return the sampling rate (number of audio frames per second).

 -- 方法: aifc.getnframes ()

     Return the number of audio frames in the file.

 -- 方法: aifc.getcomptype ()

     Return a bytes array of length 4 describing the type of compression
     used in the audio file.  For AIFF files, the returned value is
     ‘b'NONE'’.

 -- 方法: aifc.getcompname ()

     Return a bytes array convertible to a human-readable description of
     the type of compression used in the audio file.  For AIFF files,
     the returned value is ‘b'not compressed'’.

 -- 方法: aifc.getparams ()

     Returns a *note namedtuple(): 731. ‘(nchannels, sampwidth,
     framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)’, equivalent to output of
     the ‘get*()’ methods.

 -- 方法: aifc.getmarkers ()

     Return a list of markers in the audio file.  A marker consists of a
     tuple of three elements.  The first is the mark ID (an integer),
     the second is the mark position in frames from the beginning of the
     data (an integer), the third is the name of the mark (a string).

 -- 方法: aifc.getmark (id)

     Return the tuple as described in *note getmarkers(): 4523. for the
     mark with the given 'id'.

 -- 方法: aifc.readframes (nframes)

     Read and return the next 'nframes' frames from the audio file.  The
     returned data is a string containing for each frame the
     uncompressed samples of all channels.

 -- 方法: aifc.rewind ()

     Rewind the read pointer.  The next *note readframes(): 4525. will
     start from the beginning.

 -- 方法: aifc.setpos (pos)

     Seek to the specified frame number.

 -- 方法: aifc.tell ()

     Return the current frame number.

 -- 方法: aifc.close ()

     Close the AIFF file.  After calling this method, the object can no
     longer be used.

Objects returned by *note open(): a42. when a file is opened for writing
have all the above methods, except for ‘readframes()’ and ‘setpos()’.
In addition the following methods exist.  The ‘get*()’ methods can only
be called after the corresponding ‘set*()’ methods have been called.
Before the first ‘writeframes()’ or ‘writeframesraw()’, all parameters
except for the number of frames must be filled in.

 -- 方法: aifc.aiff ()

     Create an AIFF file.  The default is that an AIFF-C file is
     created, unless the name of the file ends in ‘'.aiff'’ in which
     case the default is an AIFF file.

 -- 方法: aifc.aifc ()

     Create an AIFF-C file.  The default is that an AIFF-C file is
     created, unless the name of the file ends in ‘'.aiff'’ in which
     case the default is an AIFF file.

 -- 方法: aifc.setnchannels (nchannels)

     Specify the number of channels in the audio file.

 -- 方法: aifc.setsampwidth (width)

     Specify the size in bytes of audio samples.

 -- 方法: aifc.setframerate (rate)

     Specify the sampling frequency in frames per second.

 -- 方法: aifc.setnframes (nframes)

     Specify the number of frames that are to be written to the audio
     file.  If this parameter is not set, or not set correctly, the file
     needs to support seeking.

 -- 方法: aifc.setcomptype (type, name)

     Specify the compression type.  If not specified, the audio data
     will not be compressed.  In AIFF files, compression is not
     possible.  The name parameter should be a human-readable
     description of the compression type as a bytes array, the type
     parameter should be a bytes array of length 4.  Currently the
     following compression types are supported: ‘b'NONE'’, ‘b'ULAW'’,
     ‘b'ALAW'’, ‘b'G722'’.

 -- 方法: aifc.setparams (nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, comptype,
          compname)

     Set all the above parameters at once.  The argument is a tuple
     consisting of the various parameters.  This means that it is
     possible to use the result of a *note getparams(): d9f. call as
     argument to *note setparams(): 4530.

 -- 方法: aifc.setmark (id, pos, name)

     Add a mark with the given id (larger than 0), and the given name at
     the given position.  This method can be called at any time before
     *note close(): da0.

 -- 方法: aifc.tell ()

     Return the current write position in the output file.  Useful in
     combination with *note setmark(): 4531.

 -- 方法: aifc.writeframes (data)

     Write data to the output file.  This method can only be called
     after the audio file parameters have been set.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Any *note bytes-like object: b9f. is now accepted.

 -- 方法: aifc.writeframesraw (data)

     Like *note writeframes(): da2, except that the header of the audio
     file is not updated.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Any *note bytes-like object: b9f. is now accepted.

 -- 方法: aifc.close ()

     Close the AIFF file.  The header of the file is updated to reflect
     the actual size of the audio data.  After calling this method, the
     object can no longer be used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/aifc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#aifc


File: python.info,  Node: audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案,  Next: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援,  Prev: aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.2 ‘audioop’ -- 操作原始聲音檔案
------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
audioop: b. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP 594(1)）。

__________________________________________________________________

The *note audioop: b. module contains some useful operations on sound
fragments.  It operates on sound fragments consisting of signed integer
samples 8, 16, 24 or 32 bits wide, stored in *note bytes-like objects:
b9f.  All scalar items are integers, unless specified otherwise.

在 3.4 版的變更: Support for 24-bit samples was added.  All functions
now accept any *note bytes-like object: b9f.  String input now results
in an immediate error.

This module provides support for a-LAW, u-LAW and Intel/DVI ADPCM
encodings.

A few of the more complicated operations only take 16-bit samples,
otherwise the sample size (in bytes) is always a parameter of the
operation.

The module defines the following variables and functions:

 -- 例外: audioop.error

     This exception is raised on all errors, such as unknown number of
     bytes per sample, etc.

 -- 函式: audioop.add (fragment1, fragment2, width)

     Return a fragment which is the addition of the two samples passed
     as parameters.  'width' is the sample width in bytes, either ‘1’,
     ‘2’, ‘3’ or ‘4’.  Both fragments should have the same length.
     Samples are truncated in case of overflow.

 -- 函式: audioop.adpcm2lin (adpcmfragment, width, state)

     Decode an Intel/DVI ADPCM coded fragment to a linear fragment.  See
     the description of *note lin2adpcm(): 4537. for details on ADPCM
     coding.  Return a tuple ‘(sample, newstate)’ where the sample has
     the width specified in 'width'.

 -- 函式: audioop.alaw2lin (fragment, width)

     Convert sound fragments in a-LAW encoding to linearly encoded sound
     fragments.  a-LAW encoding always uses 8 bits samples, so 'width'
     refers only to the sample width of the output fragment here.

 -- 函式: audioop.avg (fragment, width)

     Return the average over all samples in the fragment.

 -- 函式: audioop.avgpp (fragment, width)

     Return the average peak-peak value over all samples in the
     fragment.  No filtering is done, so the usefulness of this routine
     is questionable.

 -- 函式: audioop.bias (fragment, width, bias)

     Return a fragment that is the original fragment with a bias added
     to each sample.  Samples wrap around in case of overflow.

 -- 函式: audioop.byteswap (fragment, width)

     "Byteswap" all samples in a fragment and returns the modified
     fragment.  Converts big-endian samples to little-endian and vice
     versa.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- 函式: audioop.cross (fragment, width)

     Return the number of zero crossings in the fragment passed as an
     argument.

 -- 函式: audioop.findfactor (fragment, reference)

     Return a factor 'F' such that ‘rms(add(fragment, mul(reference,
     -F)))’ is minimal, i.e., return the factor with which you should
     multiply 'reference' to make it match as well as possible to
     'fragment'.  The fragments should both contain 2-byte samples.

     The time taken by this routine is proportional to ‘len(fragment)’.

 -- 函式: audioop.findfit (fragment, reference)

     Try to match 'reference' as well as possible to a portion of
     'fragment' (which should be the longer fragment).  This is
     (conceptually) done by taking slices out of 'fragment', using *note
     findfactor(): 453d. to compute the best match, and minimizing the
     result.  The fragments should both contain 2-byte samples.  Return
     a tuple ‘(offset, factor)’ where 'offset' is the (integer) offset
     into 'fragment' where the optimal match started and 'factor' is the
     (floating-point) factor as per *note findfactor(): 453d.

 -- 函式: audioop.findmax (fragment, length)

     Search 'fragment' for a slice of length 'length' samples (not
     bytes!)  with maximum energy, i.e., return 'i' for which
     ‘rms(fragment[i*2:(i+length)*2])’ is maximal.  The fragments should
     both contain 2-byte samples.

     The routine takes time proportional to ‘len(fragment)’.

 -- 函式: audioop.getsample (fragment, width, index)

     Return the value of sample 'index' from the fragment.

 -- 函式: audioop.lin2adpcm (fragment, width, state)

     Convert samples to 4 bit Intel/DVI ADPCM encoding.  ADPCM coding is
     an adaptive coding scheme, whereby each 4 bit number is the
     difference between one sample and the next, divided by a (varying)
     step.  The Intel/DVI ADPCM algorithm has been selected for use by
     the IMA, so it may well become a standard.

     'state' is a tuple containing the state of the coder.  The coder
     returns a tuple ‘(adpcmfrag, newstate)’, and the 'newstate' should
     be passed to the next call of *note lin2adpcm(): 4537.  In the
     initial call, ‘None’ can be passed as the state.  'adpcmfrag' is
     the ADPCM coded fragment packed 2 4-bit values per byte.

 -- 函式: audioop.lin2alaw (fragment, width)

     Convert samples in the audio fragment to a-LAW encoding and return
     this as a bytes object.  a-LAW is an audio encoding format whereby
     you get a dynamic range of about 13 bits using only 8 bit samples.
     It is used by the Sun audio hardware, among others.

 -- 函式: audioop.lin2lin (fragment, width, newwidth)

     Convert samples between 1-, 2-, 3- and 4-byte formats.

          備註: In some audio formats, such as .WAV files, 16, 24 and 32
          bit samples are signed, but 8 bit samples are unsigned.  So
          when converting to 8 bit wide samples for these formats, you
          need to also add 128 to the result:

               new_frames = audioop.lin2lin(frames, old_width, 1)
               new_frames = audioop.bias(new_frames, 1, 128)

          The same, in reverse, has to be applied when converting from 8
          to 16, 24 or 32 bit width samples.

 -- 函式: audioop.lin2ulaw (fragment, width)

     Convert samples in the audio fragment to u-LAW encoding and return
     this as a bytes object.  u-LAW is an audio encoding format whereby
     you get a dynamic range of about 14 bits using only 8 bit samples.
     It is used by the Sun audio hardware, among others.

 -- 函式: audioop.max (fragment, width)

     Return the maximum of the 'absolute value' of all samples in a
     fragment.

 -- 函式: audioop.maxpp (fragment, width)

     Return the maximum peak-peak value in the sound fragment.

 -- 函式: audioop.minmax (fragment, width)

     Return a tuple consisting of the minimum and maximum values of all
     samples in the sound fragment.

 -- 函式: audioop.mul (fragment, width, factor)

     Return a fragment that has all samples in the original fragment
     multiplied by the floating-point value 'factor'.  Samples are
     truncated in case of overflow.

 -- 函式: audioop.ratecv (fragment, width, nchannels, inrate, outrate,
          state[, weightA[, weightB]])

     Convert the frame rate of the input fragment.

     'state' is a tuple containing the state of the converter.  The
     converter returns a tuple ‘(newfragment, newstate)’, and 'newstate'
     should be passed to the next call of *note ratecv(): 4548.  The
     initial call should pass ‘None’ as the state.

     The 'weightA' and 'weightB' arguments are parameters for a simple
     digital filter and default to ‘1’ and ‘0’ respectively.

 -- 函式: audioop.reverse (fragment, width)

     Reverse the samples in a fragment and returns the modified
     fragment.

 -- 函式: audioop.rms (fragment, width)

     Return the root-mean-square of the fragment, i.e.
     ‘sqrt(sum(S_i^2)/n)’.

     This is a measure of the power in an audio signal.

 -- 函式: audioop.tomono (fragment, width, lfactor, rfactor)

     Convert a stereo fragment to a mono fragment.  The left channel is
     multiplied by 'lfactor' and the right channel by 'rfactor' before
     adding the two channels to give a mono signal.

 -- 函式: audioop.tostereo (fragment, width, lfactor, rfactor)

     Generate a stereo fragment from a mono fragment.  Each pair of
     samples in the stereo fragment are computed from the mono sample,
     whereby left channel samples are multiplied by 'lfactor' and right
     channel samples by 'rfactor'.

 -- 函式: audioop.ulaw2lin (fragment, width)

     Convert sound fragments in u-LAW encoding to linearly encoded sound
     fragments.  u-LAW encoding always uses 8 bits samples, so 'width'
     refers only to the sample width of the output fragment here.

Note that operations such as *note mul(): 4547. or *note max(): 4544.
make no distinction between mono and stereo fragments, i.e.  all samples
are treated equal.  If this is a problem the stereo fragment should be
split into two mono fragments first and recombined later.  Here is an
example of how to do that:

     def mul_stereo(sample, width, lfactor, rfactor):
         lsample = audioop.tomono(sample, width, 1, 0)
         rsample = audioop.tomono(sample, width, 0, 1)
         lsample = audioop.mul(lsample, width, lfactor)
         rsample = audioop.mul(rsample, width, rfactor)
         lsample = audioop.tostereo(lsample, width, 1, 0)
         rsample = audioop.tostereo(rsample, width, 0, 1)
         return audioop.add(lsample, rsample, width)

If you use the ADPCM coder to build network packets and you want your
protocol to be stateless (i.e.  to be able to tolerate packet loss) you
should not only transmit the data but also the state.  Note that you
should send the 'initial' state (the one you passed to *note
lin2adpcm(): 4537.) along to the decoder, not the final state (as
returned by the coder).  If you want to use *note struct.Struct: 1464.
to store the state in binary you can code the first element (the
predicted value) in 16 bits and the second (the delta index) in 8.

The ADPCM coders have never been tried against other ADPCM coders, only
against themselves.  It could well be that I misinterpreted the
standards in which case they will not be interoperable with the
respective standards.

The ‘find*()’ routines might look a bit funny at first sight.  They are
primarily meant to do echo cancellation.  A reasonably fast way to do
this is to pick the most energetic piece of the output sample, locate
that in the input sample and subtract the whole output sample from the
input sample:

     def echocancel(outputdata, inputdata):
         pos = audioop.findmax(outputdata, 800)    # one tenth second
         out_test = outputdata[pos*2:]
         in_test = inputdata[pos*2:]
         ipos, factor = audioop.findfit(in_test, out_test)
         # Optional (for better cancellation):
         # factor = audioop.findfactor(in_test[ipos*2:ipos*2+len(out_test)],
         #              out_test)
         prefill = '\0'*(pos+ipos)*2
         postfill = '\0'*(len(inputdata)-len(prefill)-len(outputdata))
         outputdata = prefill + audioop.mul(outputdata, 2, -factor) + postfill
         return audioop.add(inputdata, outputdata, 2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#audioop


File: python.info,  Node: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援,  Next: cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式,  Prev: audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.3 ‘cgi’ -- 通用閘道器介面支援
----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/cgi.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
cgi: 13. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳情與替代方案請見 PEP 594(2)）。

The ‘FieldStorage’ class can typically be replaced with *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 683. for ‘GET’ and ‘HEAD’ requests, and the
*note email.message: 40. module or multipart(3) for ‘POST’ and ‘PUT’.
Most *note utility functions: 4550. have replacements.

__________________________________________________________________

Support module for Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts.

This module defines a number of utilities for use by CGI scripts written
in Python.

The global variable ‘maxlen’ can be set to an integer indicating the
maximum size of a POST request.  POST requests larger than this size
will result in a *note ValueError: 183. being raised during parsing.
The default value of this variable is ‘0’, meaning the request size is
unlimited.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<10>.
* 使用 cgi 模組::
* Higher Level Interface::
* 函式: 函式<13>.
* Caring about security::
* Installing your CGI script on a Unix system::
* Testing your CGI script::
* Debugging CGI scripts::
* Common problems and solutions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/cgi.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#cgi

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<10>,  Next: 使用 cgi 模組,  Up: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援

5.36.3.1 簡介
.............

A CGI script is invoked by an HTTP server, usually to process user input
submitted through an HTML ‘<FORM>’ or ‘<ISINDEX>’ element.

Most often, CGI scripts live in the server's special ‘cgi-bin’
directory.  The HTTP server places all sorts of information about the
request (such as the client's hostname, the requested URL, the query
string, and lots of other goodies) in the script's shell environment,
executes the script, and sends the script's output back to the client.

The script's input is connected to the client too, and sometimes the
form data is read this way; at other times the form data is passed via
the "query string" part of the URL. This module is intended to take care
of the different cases and provide a simpler interface to the Python
script.  It also provides a number of utilities that help in debugging
scripts, and the latest addition is support for file uploads from a form
(if your browser supports it).

The output of a CGI script should consist of two sections, separated by
a blank line.  The first section contains a number of headers, telling
the client what kind of data is following.  Python code to generate a
minimal header section looks like this:

     print("Content-Type: text/html")    # HTML is following
     print()                             # blank line, end of headers

The second section is usually HTML, which allows the client software to
display nicely formatted text with header, in-line images, etc.  Here's
Python code that prints a simple piece of HTML:

     print("<TITLE>CGI script output</TITLE>")
     print("<H1>This is my first CGI script</H1>")
     print("Hello, world!")


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 cgi 模組,  Next: Higher Level Interface,  Prev: 簡介<10>,  Up: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援

5.36.3.2 使用 cgi 模組
......................

Begin by writing ‘import cgi’.

When you write a new script, consider adding these lines:

     import cgitb
     cgitb.enable()

This activates a special exception handler that will display detailed
reports in the web browser if any errors occur.  If you'd rather not
show the guts of your program to users of your script, you can have the
reports saved to files instead, with code like this:

     import cgitb
     cgitb.enable(display=0, logdir="/path/to/logdir")

It's very helpful to use this feature during script development.  The
reports produced by *note cgitb: 14. provide information that can save
you a lot of time in tracking down bugs.  You can always remove the
‘cgitb’ line later when you have tested your script and are confident
that it works correctly.

To get at submitted form data, use the ‘FieldStorage’ class.  If the
form contains non-ASCII characters, use the 'encoding' keyword parameter
set to the value of the encoding defined for the document.  It is
usually contained in the META tag in the HEAD section of the HTML
document or by the ‘Content-Type’ header.  This reads the form contents
from the standard input or the environment (depending on the value of
various environment variables set according to the CGI standard).  Since
it may consume standard input, it should be instantiated only once.

The ‘FieldStorage’ instance can be indexed like a Python dictionary.  It
allows membership testing with the *note in: 267. operator, and also
supports the standard dictionary method *note keys(): 5ec. and the
built-in function *note len(): 429.  Form fields containing empty
strings are ignored and do not appear in the dictionary; to keep such
values, provide a true value for the optional 'keep_blank_values'
keyword parameter when creating the ‘FieldStorage’ instance.

For instance, the following code (which assumes that the ‘Content-Type’
header and blank line have already been printed) checks that the fields
‘name’ and ‘addr’ are both set to a non-empty string:

     form = cgi.FieldStorage()
     if "name" not in form or "addr" not in form:
         print("<H1>Error</H1>")
         print("Please fill in the name and addr fields.")
         return
     print("<p>name:", form["name"].value)
     print("<p>addr:", form["addr"].value)
     ...further form processing here...

Here the fields, accessed through ‘form[key]’, are themselves instances
of ‘FieldStorage’ (or ‘MiniFieldStorage’, depending on the form
encoding).  The ‘value’ attribute of the instance yields the string
value of the field.  The ‘getvalue()’ method returns this string value
directly; it also accepts an optional second argument as a default to
return if the requested key is not present.

If the submitted form data contains more than one field with the same
name, the object retrieved by ‘form[key]’ is not a ‘FieldStorage’ or
‘MiniFieldStorage’ instance but a list of such instances.  Similarly, in
this situation, ‘form.getvalue(key)’ would return a list of strings.  If
you expect this possibility (when your HTML form contains multiple
fields with the same name), use the *note getlist(): 4555. method, which
always returns a list of values (so that you do not need to special-case
the single item case).  For example, this code concatenates any number
of username fields, separated by commas:

     value = form.getlist("username")
     usernames = ",".join(value)

If a field represents an uploaded file, accessing the value via the
‘value’ attribute or the ‘getvalue()’ method reads the entire file in
memory as bytes.  This may not be what you want.  You can test for an
uploaded file by testing either the ‘filename’ attribute or the ‘file’
attribute.  You can then read the data from the ‘file’ attribute before
it is automatically closed as part of the garbage collection of the
‘FieldStorage’ instance (the *note read(): c96. and *note readline():
11bd. methods will return bytes):

     fileitem = form["userfile"]
     if fileitem.file:
         # It's an uploaded file; count lines
         linecount = 0
         while True:
             line = fileitem.file.readline()
             if not line: break
             linecount = linecount + 1

‘FieldStorage’ objects also support being used in a *note with: 3c5.
statement, which will automatically close them when done.

If an error is encountered when obtaining the contents of an uploaded
file (for example, when the user interrupts the form submission by
clicking on a Back or Cancel button) the ‘done’ attribute of the object
for the field will be set to the value -1.

The file upload draft standard entertains the possibility of uploading
multiple files from one field (using a recursive ‘multipart/*’
encoding).  When this occurs, the item will be a dictionary-like
‘FieldStorage’ item.  This can be determined by testing its ‘type’
attribute, which should be ‘multipart/form-data’ (or perhaps another
MIME type matching ‘multipart/*’).  In this case, it can be iterated
over recursively just like the top-level form object.

When a form is submitted in the "old" format (as the query string or as
a single data part of type ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’), the
items will actually be instances of the class ‘MiniFieldStorage’.  In
this case, the ‘list’, ‘file’, and ‘filename’ attributes are always
‘None’.

A form submitted via POST that also has a query string will contain both
‘FieldStorage’ and ‘MiniFieldStorage’ items.

在 3.4 版的變更: The ‘file’ attribute is automatically closed upon the
garbage collection of the creating ‘FieldStorage’ instance.

在 3.5 版的變更: Added support for the context management protocol to
the ‘FieldStorage’ class.


File: python.info,  Node: Higher Level Interface,  Next: 函式<13>,  Prev: 使用 cgi 模組,  Up: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援

5.36.3.3 Higher Level Interface
...............................

The previous section explains how to read CGI form data using the
‘FieldStorage’ class.  This section describes a higher level interface
which was added to this class to allow one to do it in a more readable
and intuitive way.  The interface doesn't make the techniques described
in previous sections obsolete -- they are still useful to process file
uploads efficiently, for example.

The interface consists of two simple methods.  Using the methods you can
process form data in a generic way, without the need to worry whether
only one or more values were posted under one name.

In the previous section, you learned to write following code anytime you
expected a user to post more than one value under one name:

     item = form.getvalue("item")
     if isinstance(item, list):
         # The user is requesting more than one item.
     else:
         # The user is requesting only one item.

This situation is common for example when a form contains a group of
multiple checkboxes with the same name:

     <input type="checkbox" name="item" value="1" />
     <input type="checkbox" name="item" value="2" />

In most situations, however, there's only one form control with a
particular name in a form and then you expect and need only one value
associated with this name.  So you write a script containing for example
this code:

     user = form.getvalue("user").upper()

The problem with the code is that you should never expect that a client
will provide valid input to your scripts.  For example, if a curious
user appends another ‘user=foo’ pair to the query string, then the
script would crash, because in this situation the ‘getvalue("user")’
method call returns a list instead of a string.  Calling the *note
upper(): 1f65. method on a list is not valid (since lists do not have a
method of this name) and results in an *note AttributeError: 3ca.
exception.

Therefore, the appropriate way to read form data values was to always
use the code which checks whether the obtained value is a single value
or a list of values.  That's annoying and leads to less readable
scripts.

A more convenient approach is to use the methods *note getfirst(): 4557.
and *note getlist(): 4555. provided by this higher level interface.

 -- 方法: FieldStorage.getfirst (name, default=None)

     This method always returns only one value associated with form
     field 'name'.  The method returns only the first value in case that
     more values were posted under such name.  Please note that the
     order in which the values are received may vary from browser to
     browser and should not be counted on.  (1)  If no such form field
     or value exists then the method returns the value specified by the
     optional parameter 'default'.  This parameter defaults to ‘None’ if
     not specified.

 -- 方法: FieldStorage.getlist (name)

     This method always returns a list of values associated with form
     field 'name'.  The method returns an empty list if no such form
     field or value exists for 'name'.  It returns a list consisting of
     one item if only one such value exists.

Using these methods you can write nice compact code:

     import cgi
     form = cgi.FieldStorage()
     user = form.getfirst("user", "").upper()    # 這是安全的方式。
     for item in form.getlist("item"):
         do_something(item)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Note that some recent versions of the HTML specification do state
what order the field values should be supplied in, but knowing whether a
request was received from a conforming browser, or even from a browser
at all, is tedious and error-prone.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式<13>,  Next: Caring about security,  Prev: Higher Level Interface,  Up: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援

5.36.3.4 函式
.............

These are useful if you want more control, or if you want to employ some
of the algorithms implemented in this module in other circumstances.

 -- 函式: cgi.parse (fp=None, environ=os.environ,
          keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, separator='&')

     Parse a query in the environment or from a file (the file defaults
     to ‘sys.stdin’).  The 'keep_blank_values', 'strict_parsing' and
     'separator' parameters are passed to *note urllib.parse.parse_qs():
     682. unchanged.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13:
     This function, like the rest of the *note cgi: 13. module, is
     deprecated.  It can be replaced by calling *note
     urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 682. directly on the desired query string
     (except for ‘multipart/form-data’ input, which can be handled as
     described for *note parse_multipart(): 685.).

 -- 函式: cgi.parse_multipart (fp, pdict, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace', separator='&')

     Parse input of type ‘multipart/form-data’ (for file uploads).
     Arguments are 'fp' for the input file, 'pdict' for a dictionary
     containing other parameters in the ‘Content-Type’ header, and
     'encoding', the request encoding.

     Returns a dictionary just like *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 682.:
     keys are the field names, each value is a list of values for that
     field.  For non-file fields, the value is a list of strings.

     This is easy to use but not much good if you are expecting
     megabytes to be uploaded -- in that case, use the ‘FieldStorage’
     class instead which is much more flexible.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.  For
     non-file fields, the value is now a list of strings, not bytes.

     在 3.10 版的變更: 新增 'separator' 參數。

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13:
     This function, like the rest of the *note cgi: 13. module, is
     deprecated.  It can be replaced with the functionality in the *note
     email: 37. package (e.g.  *note email.message.EmailMessage:
     b06./*note email.message.Message: b05.) which implements the same
     MIME RFCs, or with the multipart(1) PyPI project.

 -- 函式: cgi.parse_header (string)

     Parse a MIME header (such as ‘Content-Type’) into a main value and
     a dictionary of parameters.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13:
     This function, like the rest of the *note cgi: 13. module, is
     deprecated.  It can be replaced with the functionality in the *note
     email: 37. package, which implements the same MIME RFCs.

     For example, with *note email.message.EmailMessage: b06.:

          from email.message import EmailMessage
          msg = EmailMessage()
          msg['content-type'] = 'application/json; charset="utf8"'
          main, params = msg.get_content_type(), msg['content-type'].params

 -- 函式: cgi.test ()

     Robust test CGI script, usable as main program.  Writes minimal
     HTTP headers and formats all information provided to the script in
     HTML format.

 -- 函式: cgi.print_environ ()

     Format the shell environment in HTML.

 -- 函式: cgi.print_form (form)

     Format a form in HTML.

 -- 函式: cgi.print_directory ()

     Format the current directory in HTML.

 -- 函式: cgi.print_environ_usage ()

     Print a list of useful (used by CGI) environment variables in HTML.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/


File: python.info,  Node: Caring about security,  Next: Installing your CGI script on a Unix system,  Prev: 函式<13>,  Up: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援

5.36.3.5 Caring about security
..............................

There's one important rule: if you invoke an external program (via *note
os.system(): 12cd, *note os.popen(): 8d3. or other functions with
similar functionality), make very sure you don't pass arbitrary strings
received from the client to the shell.  This is a well-known security
hole whereby clever hackers anywhere on the web can exploit a gullible
CGI script to invoke arbitrary shell commands.  Even parts of the URL or
field names cannot be trusted, since the request doesn't have to come
from your form!

To be on the safe side, if you must pass a string gotten from a form to
a shell command, you should make sure the string contains only
alphanumeric characters, dashes, underscores, and periods.


File: python.info,  Node: Installing your CGI script on a Unix system,  Next: Testing your CGI script,  Prev: Caring about security,  Up: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援

5.36.3.6 Installing your CGI script on a Unix system
....................................................

Read the documentation for your HTTP server and check with your local
system administrator to find the directory where CGI scripts should be
installed; usually this is in a directory ‘cgi-bin’ in the server tree.

Make sure that your script is readable and executable by "others"; the
Unix file mode should be ‘0o755’ octal (use ‘chmod 0755 filename’).
Make sure that the first line of the script contains ‘#!’ starting in
column 1 followed by the pathname of the Python interpreter, for
instance:

     #!/usr/local/bin/python

Make sure the Python interpreter exists and is executable by "others".

Make sure that any files your script needs to read or write are readable
or writable, respectively, by "others" -- their mode should be ‘0o644’
for readable and ‘0o666’ for writable.  This is because, for security
reasons, the HTTP server executes your script as user "nobody", without
any special privileges.  It can only read (write, execute) files that
everybody can read (write, execute).  The current directory at execution
time is also different (it is usually the server's cgi-bin directory)
and the set of environment variables is also different from what you get
when you log in.  In particular, don't count on the shell's search path
for executables ( ‘PATH’) or the Python module search path ( *note
PYTHONPATH: eb1.) to be set to anything interesting.

If you need to load modules from a directory which is not on Python's
default module search path, you can change the path in your script,
before importing other modules.  For example:

     import sys
     sys.path.insert(0, "/usr/home/joe/lib/python")
     sys.path.insert(0, "/usr/local/lib/python")

(This way, the directory inserted last will be searched first!)

Instructions for non-Unix systems will vary; check your HTTP server's
documentation (it will usually have a section on CGI scripts).


File: python.info,  Node: Testing your CGI script,  Next: Debugging CGI scripts,  Prev: Installing your CGI script on a Unix system,  Up: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援

5.36.3.7 Testing your CGI script
................................

Unfortunately, a CGI script will generally not run when you try it from
the command line, and a script that works perfectly from the command
line may fail mysteriously when run from the server.  There's one reason
why you should still test your script from the command line: if it
contains a syntax error, the Python interpreter won't execute it at all,
and the HTTP server will most likely send a cryptic error to the client.

Assuming your script has no syntax errors, yet it does not work, you
have no choice but to read the next section.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging CGI scripts,  Next: Common problems and solutions,  Prev: Testing your CGI script,  Up: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援

5.36.3.8 Debugging CGI scripts
..............................

First of all, check for trivial installation errors -- reading the
section above on installing your CGI script carefully can save you a lot
of time.  If you wonder whether you have understood the installation
procedure correctly, try installing a copy of this module file
(‘cgi.py’) as a CGI script.  When invoked as a script, the file will
dump its environment and the contents of the form in HTML format.  Give
it the right mode etc., and send it a request.  If it's installed in the
standard ‘cgi-bin’ directory, it should be possible to send it a request
by entering a URL into your browser of the form:

     http://yourhostname/cgi-bin/cgi.py?name=Joe+Blow&addr=At+Home

If this gives an error of type 404, the server cannot find the script -
perhaps you need to install it in a different directory.  If it gives
another error, there's an installation problem that you should fix
before trying to go any further.  If you get a nicely formatted listing
of the environment and form content (in this example, the fields should
be listed as "addr" with value "At Home" and "name" with value "Joe
Blow"), the ‘cgi.py’ script has been installed correctly.  If you follow
the same procedure for your own script, you should now be able to debug
it.

The next step could be to call the *note cgi: 13. module's *note test():
dc. function from your script: replace its main code with the single
statement

     cgi.test()

This should produce the same results as those gotten from installing the
‘cgi.py’ file itself.

When an ordinary Python script raises an unhandled exception (for
whatever reason: of a typo in a module name, a file that can't be
opened, etc.), the Python interpreter prints a nice traceback and exits.
While the Python interpreter will still do this when your CGI script
raises an exception, most likely the traceback will end up in one of the
HTTP server's log files, or be discarded altogether.

Fortunately, once you have managed to get your script to execute 'some'
code, you can easily send tracebacks to the web browser using the *note
cgitb: 14. module.  If you haven't done so already, just add the lines:

     import cgitb
     cgitb.enable()

to the top of your script.  Then try running it again; when a problem
occurs, you should see a detailed report that will likely make apparent
the cause of the crash.

If you suspect that there may be a problem in importing the *note cgitb:
14. module, you can use an even more robust approach (which only uses
built-in modules):

     import sys
     sys.stderr = sys.stdout
     print("Content-Type: text/plain")
     print()
     ...your code here...

This relies on the Python interpreter to print the traceback.  The
content type of the output is set to plain text, which disables all HTML
processing.  If your script works, the raw HTML will be displayed by
your client.  If it raises an exception, most likely after the first two
lines have been printed, a traceback will be displayed.  Because no HTML
interpretation is going on, the traceback will be readable.


File: python.info,  Node: Common problems and solutions,  Prev: Debugging CGI scripts,  Up: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援

5.36.3.9 Common problems and solutions
......................................

   * Most HTTP servers buffer the output from CGI scripts until the
     script is completed.  This means that it is not possible to display
     a progress report on the client's display while the script is
     running.

   * Check the installation instructions above.

   * Check the HTTP server's log files.  (‘tail -f logfile’ in a
     separate window may be useful!)

   * Always check a script for syntax errors first, by doing something
     like ‘python script.py’.

   * If your script does not have any syntax errors, try adding ‘import
     cgitb; cgitb.enable()’ to the top of the script.

   * When invoking external programs, make sure they can be found.
     Usually, this means using absolute path names -- ‘PATH’ is usually
     not set to a very useful value in a CGI script.

   * When reading or writing external files, make sure they can be read
     or written by the userid under which your CGI script will be
     running: this is typically the userid under which the web server is
     running, or some explicitly specified userid for a web server's
     ‘suexec’ feature.

   * Don't try to give a CGI script a set-uid mode.  This doesn't work
     on most systems, and is a security liability as well.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式,  Next: chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料,  Prev: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.4 ‘cgitb’ -- CGI 腳本的回溯 (traceback) 管理程式
-----------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/cgitb.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
cgitb: 14. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP 594(2)）。

__________________________________________________________________

The *note cgitb: 14. module provides a special exception handler for
Python scripts.  (Its name is a bit misleading.  It was originally
designed to display extensive traceback information in HTML for CGI
scripts.  It was later generalized to also display this information in
plain text.)  After this module is activated, if an uncaught exception
occurs, a detailed, formatted report will be displayed.  The report
includes a traceback showing excerpts of the source code for each level,
as well as the values of the arguments and local variables to currently
running functions, to help you debug the problem.  Optionally, you can
save this information to a file instead of sending it to the browser.

To enable this feature, simply add this to the top of your CGI script:

     import cgitb
     cgitb.enable()

The options to the *note enable(): 4567. function control whether the
report is displayed in the browser and whether the report is logged to a
file for later analysis.

 -- 函式: cgitb.enable (display=1, logdir=None, context=5,
          format='html')

     This function causes the *note cgitb: 14. module to take over the
     interpreter's default handling for exceptions by setting the value
     of *note sys.excepthook: 62d.

     The optional argument 'display' defaults to ‘1’ and can be set to
     ‘0’ to suppress sending the traceback to the browser.  If the
     argument 'logdir' is present, the traceback reports are written to
     files.  The value of 'logdir' should be a directory where these
     files will be placed.  The optional argument 'context' is the
     number of lines of context to display around the current line of
     source code in the traceback; this defaults to ‘5’.  If the
     optional argument 'format' is ‘"html"’, the output is formatted as
     HTML. Any other value forces plain text output.  The default value
     is ‘"html"’.

 -- 函式: cgitb.text (info, context=5)

     This function handles the exception described by 'info' (a 3-tuple
     containing the result of *note sys.exc_info(): 487.), formatting
     its traceback as text and returning the result as a string.  The
     optional argument 'context' is the number of lines of context to
     display around the current line of source code in the traceback;
     this defaults to ‘5’.

 -- 函式: cgitb.html (info, context=5)

     This function handles the exception described by 'info' (a 3-tuple
     containing the result of *note sys.exc_info(): 487.), formatting
     its traceback as HTML and returning the result as a string.  The
     optional argument 'context' is the number of lines of context to
     display around the current line of source code in the traceback;
     this defaults to ‘5’.

 -- 函式: cgitb.handler (info=None)

     This function handles an exception using the default settings (that
     is, show a report in the browser, but don't log to a file).  This
     can be used when you've caught an exception and want to report it
     using *note cgitb: 14.  The optional 'info' argument should be a
     3-tuple containing an exception type, exception value, and
     traceback object, exactly like the tuple returned by *note
     sys.exc_info(): 487.  If the 'info' argument is not supplied, the
     current exception is obtained from *note sys.exc_info(): 487.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/cgitb.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#cgitb


File: python.info,  Node: chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料,  Next: crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式,  Prev: cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.5 ‘chunk’ -- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料
-----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/chunk.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
chunk: 15. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP 594(2)）。

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface for reading files that use EA IFF 85
chunks.  (3)  This format is used in at least the Audio Interchange File
Format (AIFF/AIFF-C) and the Real Media File Format (RMFF). The WAVE
audio file format is closely related and can also be read using this
module.

A chunk has the following structure:

Offset        長度         內容
                           
---------------------------------------------------------------
                           
0             4            Chunk ID
                           
                           
4             4            Size of chunk in big-endian byte
                           order, not including the header
                           
                           
8             'n'          Data bytes, where 'n' is the size
                           given in the preceding field
                           
                           
8 + 'n'       0 或 1       Pad byte needed if 'n' is odd and
                           chunk alignment is used
                           

The ID is a 4-byte string which identifies the type of chunk.

The size field (a 32-bit value, encoded using big-endian byte order)
gives the size of the chunk data, not including the 8-byte header.

Usually an IFF-type file consists of one or more chunks.  The proposed
usage of the *note Chunk: 456d. class defined here is to instantiate an
instance at the start of each chunk and read from the instance until it
reaches the end, after which a new instance can be instantiated.  At the
end of the file, creating a new instance will fail with an *note
EOFError: 116a. exception.

 -- 類別: chunk.Chunk (file, align=True, bigendian=True,
          inclheader=False)

     Class which represents a chunk.  The 'file' argument is expected to
     be a file-like object.  An instance of this class is specifically
     allowed.  The only method that is needed is ‘read()’.  If the
     methods *note seek(): 1121. and *note tell(): 2728. are present and
     don't raise an exception, they are also used.  If these methods are
     present and raise an exception, they are expected to not have
     altered the object.  If the optional argument 'align' is true,
     chunks are assumed to be aligned on 2-byte boundaries.  If 'align'
     is false, no alignment is assumed.  The default value is true.  If
     the optional argument 'bigendian' is false, the chunk size is
     assumed to be in little-endian order.  This is needed for WAVE
     audio files.  The default value is true.  If the optional argument
     'inclheader' is true, the size given in the chunk header includes
     the size of the header.  The default value is false.

     A *note Chunk: 456d. object supports the following methods:

      -- 方法: getname ()

          Returns the name (ID) of the chunk.  This is the first 4 bytes
          of the chunk.

      -- 方法: getsize ()

          Returns the size of the chunk.

      -- 方法: close ()

          Close and skip to the end of the chunk.  This does not close
          the underlying file.

     The remaining methods will raise *note OSError: 644. if called
     after the *note close(): 4570. method has been called.  Before
     Python 3.3, they used to raise *note IOError: ee8, now an alias of
     *note OSError: 644.

      -- 方法: isatty ()

          Returns ‘False’.

      -- 方法: seek (pos, whence=0)

          Set the chunk's current position.  The 'whence' argument is
          optional and defaults to ‘0’ (absolute file positioning);
          other values are ‘1’ (seek relative to the current position)
          and ‘2’ (seek relative to the file's end).  There is no return
          value.  If the underlying file does not allow seek, only
          forward seeks are allowed.

      -- 方法: tell ()

          Return the current position into the chunk.

      -- 方法: read (size=-1)

          Read at most 'size' bytes from the chunk (less if the read
          hits the end of the chunk before obtaining 'size' bytes).  If
          the 'size' argument is negative or omitted, read all data
          until the end of the chunk.  An empty bytes object is returned
          when the end of the chunk is encountered immediately.

      -- 方法: skip ()

          Skip to the end of the chunk.  All further calls to *note
          read(): 4574. for the chunk will return ‘b''’.  If you are not
          interested in the contents of the chunk, this method should be
          called so that the file points to the start of the next chunk.

註解
....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/chunk.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#chunk

   (3) "EA IFF 85" Standard for Interchange Format Files, Jerry
Morrison, Electronic Arts, January 1985.


File: python.info,  Node: crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式,  Next: imghdr --- 推測圖片種類,  Prev: chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.6 ‘crypt’ -- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式
------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/crypt.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note crypt: 26. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details and
alternatives).  The *note hashlib: 63. module is a potential replacement
for certain use cases.  The passlib(3) package can replace all use cases
of this module.

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements an interface to the ‘crypt(3)(4)’ routine, which
is a one-way hash function based upon a modified DES algorithm; see the
Unix man page for further details.  Possible uses include storing hashed
passwords so you can check passwords without storing the actual
password, or attempting to crack Unix passwords with a dictionary.

Notice that the behavior of this module depends on the actual
implementation of the ‘crypt(3)(5)’ routine in the running system.
Therefore, any extensions available on the current implementation will
also be available on this module.

*note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not VxWorks.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

* Menu:

* 雜湊方法::
* 模組屬性::
* 模組函式: 模組函式<2>.
* 範例: 範例<50>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/crypt.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#crypt

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/passlib/

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/crypt(3)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/crypt(3)


File: python.info,  Node: 雜湊方法,  Next: 模組屬性,  Up: crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式

5.36.6.1 雜湊方法
.................

在 3.3 版被加入.

The *note crypt: 26. module defines the list of hashing methods (not all
methods are available on all platforms):

 -- 資料: crypt.METHOD_SHA512

     A Modular Crypt Format method with 16 character salt and 86
     character hash based on the SHA-512 hash function.  This is the
     strongest method.

 -- 資料: crypt.METHOD_SHA256

     Another Modular Crypt Format method with 16 character salt and 43
     character hash based on the SHA-256 hash function.

 -- 資料: crypt.METHOD_BLOWFISH

     Another Modular Crypt Format method with 22 character salt and 31
     character hash based on the Blowfish cipher.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- 資料: crypt.METHOD_MD5

     Another Modular Crypt Format method with 8 character salt and 22
     character hash based on the MD5 hash function.

 -- 資料: crypt.METHOD_CRYPT

     The traditional method with a 2 character salt and 13 characters of
     hash.  This is the weakest method.


File: python.info,  Node: 模組屬性,  Next: 模組函式<2>,  Prev: 雜湊方法,  Up: crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式

5.36.6.2 模組屬性
.................

在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: crypt.methods

     A list of available password hashing algorithms, as
     ‘crypt.METHOD_*’ objects.  This list is sorted from strongest to
     weakest.


File: python.info,  Node: 模組函式<2>,  Next: 範例<50>,  Prev: 模組屬性,  Up: crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式

5.36.6.3 模組函式
.................

*note crypt: 26. 模組定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: crypt.crypt (word, salt=None)

     'word' will usually be a user's password as typed at a prompt or in
     a graphical interface.  The optional 'salt' is either a string as
     returned from *note mksalt(): 986, one of the ‘crypt.METHOD_*’
     values (though not all may be available on all platforms), or a
     full encrypted password including salt, as returned by this
     function.  If 'salt' is not provided, the strongest method
     available in *note methods: 457e. will be used.

     Checking a password is usually done by passing the plain-text
     password as 'word' and the full results of a previous *note
     crypt(): 26. call, which should be the same as the results of this
     call.

     'salt' (either a random 2 or 16 character string, possibly prefixed
     with ‘$digit$’ to indicate the method) which will be used to
     perturb the encryption algorithm.  The characters in 'salt' must be
     in the set ‘[./a-zA-Z0-9]’, with the exception of Modular Crypt
     Format which prefixes a ‘$digit$’.

     Returns the hashed password as a string, which will be composed of
     characters from the same alphabet as the salt.

     Since a few ‘crypt(3)(1)’ extensions allow different values, with
     different sizes in the 'salt', it is recommended to use the full
     crypted password as salt when checking for a password.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Accept ‘crypt.METHOD_*’ values in addition to
     strings for 'salt'.

 -- 函式: crypt.mksalt (method=None, *, rounds=None)

     Return a randomly generated salt of the specified method.  If no
     'method' is given, the strongest method available in *note methods:
     457e. is used.

     The return value is a string suitable for passing as the 'salt'
     argument to *note crypt(): 26.

     'rounds' specifies the number of rounds for ‘METHOD_SHA256’,
     ‘METHOD_SHA512’ and ‘METHOD_BLOWFISH’.  For ‘METHOD_SHA256’ and
     ‘METHOD_SHA512’ it must be an integer between ‘1000’ and
     ‘999_999_999’, the default is ‘5000’.  For ‘METHOD_BLOWFISH’ it
     must be a power of two between ‘16’ (2^4) and ‘2_147_483_648’
     (2^31), the default is ‘4096’ (2^12).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'rounds' 參數。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/crypt(3)


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<50>,  Prev: 模組函式<2>,  Up: crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式

5.36.6.4 範例
.............

A simple example illustrating typical use (a constant-time comparison
operation is needed to limit exposure to timing attacks.  *note
hmac.compare_digest(): f58. is suitable for this purpose):

     import pwd
     import crypt
     import getpass
     from hmac import compare_digest as compare_hash

     def login():
         username = input('Python login: ')
         cryptedpasswd = pwd.getpwnam(username)[1]
         if cryptedpasswd:
             if cryptedpasswd == 'x' or cryptedpasswd == '*':
                 raise ValueError('no support for shadow passwords')
             cleartext = getpass.getpass()
             return compare_hash(crypt.crypt(cleartext, cryptedpasswd), cryptedpasswd)
         else:
             return True

To generate a hash of a password using the strongest available method
and check it against the original:

     import crypt
     from hmac import compare_digest as compare_hash

     hashed = crypt.crypt(plaintext)
     if not compare_hash(hashed, crypt.crypt(plaintext, hashed)):
         raise ValueError("hashed version doesn't validate against original")


File: python.info,  Node: imghdr --- 推測圖片種類,  Next: mailcap --- Mailcap 檔案處理,  Prev: crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.7 ‘imghdr’ -- 推測圖片種類
-------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/imghdr.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
imghdr: 70. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳情與替代方案見 PEP 594(2)）。

__________________________________________________________________

The *note imghdr: 70. module determines the type of image contained in a
file or byte stream.

The *note imghdr: 70. module defines the following function:

 -- 函式: imghdr.what (file, h=None)

     Test the image data contained in the file named 'file' and return a
     string describing the image type.  If 'h' is provided, the 'file'
     argument is ignored and 'h' is assumed to contain the byte stream
     to test.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

The following image types are recognized, as listed below with the
return value from *note what(): c88.:

Value            Image format
                 
---------------------------------------------------------
                 
‘'rgb'’          SGI ImgLib Files
                 
                 
‘'gif'’          GIF 87a and 89a Files
                 
                 
‘'pbm'’          Portable Bitmap Files
                 
                 
‘'pgm'’          Portable Graymap Files
                 
                 
‘'ppm'’          Portable Pixmap Files
                 
                 
‘'tiff'’         TIFF 檔案
                 
                 
‘'rast'’         Sun Raster Files
                 
                 
‘'xbm'’          X Bitmap Files
                 
                 
‘'jpeg'’         JPEG data in JFIF or Exif formats
                 
                 
‘'bmp'’          BMP 檔案
                 
                 
‘'png'’          Portable Network Graphics
                 
                 
‘'webp'’         WebP 檔案
                 
                 
‘'exr'’          OpenEXR 檔案
                 

在 3.5 版被加入: 新增 'exr' 與 'webp' 格式。

You can extend the list of file types *note imghdr: 70. can recognize by
appending to this variable:

 -- 資料: imghdr.tests

     A list of functions performing the individual tests.  Each function
     takes two arguments: the byte-stream and an open file-like object.
     When *note what(): c88. is called with a byte-stream, the file-like
     object will be ‘None’.

     The test function should return a string describing the image type
     if the test succeeded, or ‘None’ if it failed.

範例：

     >>> import imghdr
     >>> imghdr.what('bass.gif')
     'gif'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/imghdr.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#imghdr


File: python.info,  Node: mailcap --- Mailcap 檔案處理,  Next: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案,  Prev: imghdr --- 推測圖片種類,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.8 ‘mailcap’ -- Mailcap 檔案處理
------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/mailcap.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note mailcap: 87. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details).
The *note mimetypes: 8a. module provides an alternative.

__________________________________________________________________

Mailcap files are used to configure how MIME-aware applications such as
mail readers and web browsers react to files with different MIME types.
(The name "mailcap" is derived from the phrase "mail capability".)  For
example, a mailcap file might contain a line like ‘video/mpeg; xmpeg
%s’.  Then, if the user encounters an email message or web document with
the MIME type ‘video/mpeg’, ‘%s’ will be replaced by a filename (usually
one belonging to a temporary file) and the ‘xmpeg’ program can be
automatically started to view the file.

The mailcap format is documented in RFC 1524(3), "A User Agent
Configuration Mechanism For Multimedia Mail Format Information", but is
not an internet standard.  However, mailcap files are supported on most
Unix systems.

 -- 函式: mailcap.findmatch (caps, MIMEtype, key='view',
          filename='/dev/null', plist=[])

     Return a 2-tuple; the first element is a string containing the
     command line to be executed (which can be passed to *note
     os.system(): 12cd.), and the second element is the mailcap entry
     for a given MIME type.  If no matching MIME type can be found,
     ‘(None, None)’ is returned.

     'key' is the name of the field desired, which represents the type
     of activity to be performed; the default value is 'view', since in
     the most common case you simply want to view the body of the
     MIME-typed data.  Other possible values might be 'compose' and
     'edit', if you wanted to create a new body of the given MIME type
     or alter the existing body data.  See RFC 1524(4) for a complete
     list of these fields.

     'filename' is the filename to be substituted for ‘%s’ in the
     command line; the default value is ‘'/dev/null'’ which is almost
     certainly not what you want, so usually you'll override it by
     specifying a filename.

     'plist' can be a list containing named parameters; the default
     value is simply an empty list.  Each entry in the list must be a
     string containing the parameter name, an equals sign (‘'='’), and
     the parameter's value.  Mailcap entries can contain named
     parameters like ‘%{foo}’, which will be replaced by the value of
     the parameter named 'foo'.  For example, if the command line
     ‘showpartial %{id} %{number} %{total}’ was in a mailcap file, and
     'plist' was set to ‘['id=1', 'number=2', 'total=3']’, the resulting
     command line would be ‘'showpartial 1 2 3'’.

     In a mailcap file, the "test" field can optionally be specified to
     test some external condition (such as the machine architecture, or
     the window system in use) to determine whether or not the mailcap
     line applies.  *note findmatch(): 4587. will automatically check
     such conditions and skip the entry if the check fails.

     在 3.11 版的變更: To prevent security issues with shell
     metacharacters (symbols that have special effects in a shell
     command line), ‘findmatch’ will refuse to inject ASCII characters
     other than alphanumerics and ‘@+=:,./-_’ into the returned command
     line.

     If a disallowed character appears in 'filename', ‘findmatch’ will
     always return ‘(None, None)’ as if no entry was found.  If such a
     character appears elsewhere (a value in 'plist' or in 'MIMEtype'),
     ‘findmatch’ will ignore all mailcap entries which use that value.
     A *note warning: 10d. will be raised in either case.

 -- 函式: mailcap.getcaps ()

     Returns a dictionary mapping MIME types to a list of mailcap file
     entries.  This dictionary must be passed to the *note findmatch():
     4587. function.  An entry is stored as a list of dictionaries, but
     it shouldn't be necessary to know the details of this
     representation.

     The information is derived from all of the mailcap files found on
     the system.  Settings in the user's mailcap file ‘$HOME/.mailcap’
     will override settings in the system mailcap files ‘/etc/mailcap’,
     ‘/usr/etc/mailcap’, and ‘/usr/local/etc/mailcap’.

An example usage:

     >>> import mailcap
     >>> d = mailcap.getcaps()
     >>> mailcap.findmatch(d, 'video/mpeg', filename='tmp1223')
     ('xmpeg tmp1223', {'view': 'xmpeg %s'})

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/mailcap.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#mailcap

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1524.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1524.html


File: python.info,  Node: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案,  Next: nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面,  Prev: mailcap --- Mailcap 檔案處理,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.9 ‘msilib’ -- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案
------------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/msilib/__init__.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
msilib: 8d. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP 594(2)）。

__________________________________________________________________

The *note msilib: 8d. supports the creation of Microsoft Installer
(‘.msi’) files.  Because these files often contain an embedded "cabinet"
file (‘.cab’), it also exposes an API to create CAB files.  Support for
reading ‘.cab’ files is currently not implemented; read support for the
‘.msi’ database is possible.

This package aims to provide complete access to all tables in an ‘.msi’
file, therefore, it is a fairly low-level API. One primary application
of this package is the creation of Python installer package itself
(although that currently uses a different version of ‘msilib’).

The package contents can be roughly split into four parts: low-level CAB
routines, low-level MSI routines, higher-level MSI routines, and
standard table structures.

 -- 函式: msilib.FCICreate (cabname, files)

     Create a new CAB file named 'cabname'.  'files' must be a list of
     tuples, each containing the name of the file on disk, and the name
     of the file inside the CAB file.

     The files are added to the CAB file in the order they appear in the
     list.  All files are added into a single CAB file, using the MSZIP
     compression algorithm.

     Callbacks to Python for the various steps of MSI creation are
     currently not exposed.

 -- 函式: msilib.UuidCreate ()

     Return the string representation of a new unique identifier.  This
     wraps the Windows API functions ‘UuidCreate()’ and
     ‘UuidToString()’.

 -- 函式: msilib.OpenDatabase (path, persist)

     Return a new database object by calling MsiOpenDatabase.  'path' is
     the file name of the MSI file; 'persist' can be one of the
     constants ‘MSIDBOPEN_CREATEDIRECT’, ‘MSIDBOPEN_CREATE’,
     ‘MSIDBOPEN_DIRECT’, ‘MSIDBOPEN_READONLY’, or ‘MSIDBOPEN_TRANSACT’,
     and may include the flag ‘MSIDBOPEN_PATCHFILE’.  See the Microsoft
     documentation for the meaning of these flags; depending on the
     flags, an existing database is opened, or a new one created.

 -- 函式: msilib.CreateRecord (count)

     Return a new record object by calling ‘MSICreateRecord()’.  'count'
     is the number of fields of the record.

 -- 函式: msilib.init_database (name, schema, ProductName, ProductCode,
          ProductVersion, Manufacturer)

     Create and return a new database 'name', initialize it with
     'schema', and set the properties 'ProductName', 'ProductCode',
     'ProductVersion', and 'Manufacturer'.

     'schema' must be a module object containing ‘tables’ and
     ‘_Validation_records’ attributes; typically, *note msilib.schema:
     458e. should be used.

     The database will contain just the schema and the validation
     records when this function returns.

 -- 函式: msilib.add_data (database, table, records)

     Add all 'records' to the table named 'table' in 'database'.

     The 'table' argument must be one of the predefined tables in the
     MSI schema, e.g.  ‘'Feature'’, ‘'File'’, ‘'Component'’, ‘'Dialog'’,
     ‘'Control'’, etc.

     'records' should be a list of tuples, each one containing all
     fields of a record according to the schema of the table.  For
     optional fields, ‘None’ can be passed.

     Field values can be ints, strings, or instances of the Binary
     class.

 -- 類別: msilib.Binary (filename)

     Represents entries in the Binary table; inserting such an object
     using *note add_data(): 458f. reads the file named 'filename' into
     the table.

 -- 函式: msilib.add_tables (database, module)

     Add all table content from 'module' to 'database'.  'module' must
     contain an attribute 'tables' listing all tables for which content
     should be added, and one attribute per table that has the actual
     content.

     This is typically used to install the sequence tables.

 -- 函式: msilib.add_stream (database, name, path)

     Add the file 'path' into the ‘_Stream’ table of 'database', with
     the stream name 'name'.

 -- 函式: msilib.gen_uuid ()

     Return a new UUID, in the format that MSI typically requires (i.e.
     in curly braces, and with all hexdigits in uppercase).

也參考
......

FCICreate(3) UuidCreate(4) UuidToString(5)

* Menu:

* Database Objects::
* View Objects::
* Summary Information Objects::
* Record Objects::
* Errors::
* CAB 物件::
* Directory Objects::
* Features::
* GUI classes::
* Precomputed tables::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/msilib/__init__.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#msilib

   (3) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb432265.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa379205.aspx

   (5) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa379352.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Database Objects,  Next: View Objects,  Up: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案

5.36.9.1 Database Objects
.........................

 -- 方法: Database.OpenView (sql)

     Return a view object, by calling ‘MSIDatabaseOpenView()’.  'sql' is
     the SQL statement to execute.

 -- 方法: Database.Commit ()

     Commit the changes pending in the current transaction, by calling
     ‘MSIDatabaseCommit()’.

 -- 方法: Database.GetSummaryInformation (count)

     Return a new summary information object, by calling
     ‘MsiGetSummaryInformation()’.  'count' is the maximum number of
     updated values.

 -- 方法: Database.Close ()

     Close the database object, through ‘MsiCloseHandle()’.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

也參考
......

MSIDatabaseOpenView(1) MSIDatabaseCommit(2) MSIGetSummaryInformation(3)
MsiCloseHandle(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370082.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370075.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370301.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370067.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: View Objects,  Next: Summary Information Objects,  Prev: Database Objects,  Up: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案

5.36.9.2 View Objects
.....................

 -- 方法: View.Execute (params)

     Execute the SQL query of the view, through ‘MSIViewExecute()’.  If
     'params' is not ‘None’, it is a record describing actual values of
     the parameter tokens in the query.

 -- 方法: View.GetColumnInfo (kind)

     Return a record describing the columns of the view, through calling
     ‘MsiViewGetColumnInfo()’.  'kind' can be either ‘MSICOLINFO_NAMES’
     or ‘MSICOLINFO_TYPES’.

 -- 方法: View.Fetch ()

     Return a result record of the query, through calling
     ‘MsiViewFetch()’.

 -- 方法: View.Modify (kind, data)

     Modify the view, by calling ‘MsiViewModify()’.  'kind' can be one
     of ‘MSIMODIFY_SEEK’, ‘MSIMODIFY_REFRESH’, ‘MSIMODIFY_INSERT’,
     ‘MSIMODIFY_UPDATE’, ‘MSIMODIFY_ASSIGN’, ‘MSIMODIFY_REPLACE’,
     ‘MSIMODIFY_MERGE’, ‘MSIMODIFY_DELETE’,
     ‘MSIMODIFY_INSERT_TEMPORARY’, ‘MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE’,
     ‘MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_NEW’, ‘MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_FIELD’, or
     ‘MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_DELETE’.

     'data' must be a record describing the new data.

 -- 方法: View.Close ()

     Close the view, through ‘MsiViewClose()’.

也參考
......

MsiViewExecute(1) MSIViewGetColumnInfo(2) MsiViewFetch(3)
MsiViewModify(4) MsiViewClose(5)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370513.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370516.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370514.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370519.aspx

   (5) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370510.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Summary Information Objects,  Next: Record Objects,  Prev: View Objects,  Up: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案

5.36.9.3 Summary Information Objects
....................................

 -- 方法: SummaryInformation.GetProperty (field)

     Return a property of the summary, through
     ‘MsiSummaryInfoGetProperty()’.  'field' is the name of the
     property, and can be one of the constants ‘PID_CODEPAGE’,
     ‘PID_TITLE’, ‘PID_SUBJECT’, ‘PID_AUTHOR’, ‘PID_KEYWORDS’,
     ‘PID_COMMENTS’, ‘PID_TEMPLATE’, ‘PID_LASTAUTHOR’, ‘PID_REVNUMBER’,
     ‘PID_LASTPRINTED’, ‘PID_CREATE_DTM’, ‘PID_LASTSAVE_DTM’,
     ‘PID_PAGECOUNT’, ‘PID_WORDCOUNT’, ‘PID_CHARCOUNT’, ‘PID_APPNAME’,
     or ‘PID_SECURITY’.

 -- 方法: SummaryInformation.GetPropertyCount ()

     Return the number of summary properties, through
     ‘MsiSummaryInfoGetPropertyCount()’.

 -- 方法: SummaryInformation.SetProperty (field, value)

     Set a property through ‘MsiSummaryInfoSetProperty()’.  'field' can
     have the same values as in *note GetProperty(): 17ce, 'value' is
     the new value of the property.  Possible value types are integer
     and string.

 -- 方法: SummaryInformation.Persist ()

     Write the modified properties to the summary information stream,
     using ‘MsiSummaryInfoPersist()’.

也參考
......

MsiSummaryInfoGetProperty(1) MsiSummaryInfoGetPropertyCount(2)
MsiSummaryInfoSetProperty(3) MsiSummaryInfoPersist(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370409.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370488.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370491.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370490.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Record Objects,  Next: Errors,  Prev: Summary Information Objects,  Up: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案

5.36.9.4 Record Objects
.......................

 -- 方法: Record.GetFieldCount ()

     Return the number of fields of the record, through
     ‘MsiRecordGetFieldCount()’.

 -- 方法: Record.GetInteger (field)

     Return the value of 'field' as an integer where possible.  'field'
     must be an integer.

 -- 方法: Record.GetString (field)

     Return the value of 'field' as a string where possible.  'field'
     must be an integer.

 -- 方法: Record.SetString (field, value)

     Set 'field' to 'value' through ‘MsiRecordSetString()’.  'field'
     must be an integer; 'value' a string.

 -- 方法: Record.SetStream (field, value)

     Set 'field' to the contents of the file named 'value', through
     ‘MsiRecordSetStream()’.  'field' must be an integer; 'value' a
     string.

 -- 方法: Record.SetInteger (field, value)

     Set 'field' to 'value' through ‘MsiRecordSetInteger()’.  Both
     'field' and 'value' must be an integer.

 -- 方法: Record.ClearData ()

     Set all fields of the record to 0, through ‘MsiRecordClearData()’.

也參考
......

MsiRecordGetFieldCount(1) MsiRecordSetString(2) MsiRecordSetStream(3)
MsiRecordSetInteger(4) MsiRecordClearData(5)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370366.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370373.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370372.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370371.aspx

   (5) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370364.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Errors,  Next: CAB 物件,  Prev: Record Objects,  Up: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案

5.36.9.5 Errors
...............

All wrappers around MSI functions raise ‘MSIError’; the string inside
the exception will contain more detail.


File: python.info,  Node: CAB 物件,  Next: Directory Objects,  Prev: Errors,  Up: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案

5.36.9.6 CAB 物件
.................

 -- 類別: msilib.CAB (name)

     The class *note CAB: 45af. represents a CAB file.  During MSI
     construction, files will be added simultaneously to the ‘Files’
     table, and to a CAB file.  Then, when all files have been added,
     the CAB file can be written, then added to the MSI file.

     'name' is the name of the CAB file in the MSI file.

      -- 方法: append (full, file, logical)

          Add the file with the pathname 'full' to the CAB file, under
          the name 'logical'.  If there is already a file named
          'logical', a new file name is created.

          Return the index of the file in the CAB file, and the new name
          of the file inside the CAB file.

      -- 方法: commit (database)

          Generate a CAB file, add it as a stream to the MSI file, put
          it into the ‘Media’ table, and remove the generated file from
          the disk.


File: python.info,  Node: Directory Objects,  Next: Features,  Prev: CAB 物件,  Up: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案

5.36.9.7 Directory Objects
..........................

 -- 類別: msilib.Directory (database, cab, basedir, physical, logical,
          default[, componentflags])

     Create a new directory in the Directory table.  There is a current
     component at each point in time for the directory, which is either
     explicitly created through *note start_component(): 17cf, or
     implicitly when files are added for the first time.  Files are
     added into the current component, and into the cab file.  To create
     a directory, a base directory object needs to be specified (can be
     ‘None’), the path to the physical directory, and a logical
     directory name.  'default' specifies the DefaultDir slot in the
     directory table.  'componentflags' specifies the default flags that
     new components get.

      -- 方法: start_component (component=None, feature=None,
               flags=None, keyfile=None, uuid=None)

          Add an entry to the Component table, and make this component
          the current component for this directory.  If no component
          name is given, the directory name is used.  If no 'feature' is
          given, the current feature is used.  If no 'flags' are given,
          the directory's default flags are used.  If no 'keyfile' is
          given, the KeyPath is left null in the Component table.

      -- 方法: add_file (file, src=None, version=None, language=None)

          Add a file to the current component of the directory, starting
          a new one if there is no current component.  By default, the
          file name in the source and the file table will be identical.
          If the 'src' file is specified, it is interpreted relative to
          the current directory.  Optionally, a 'version' and a
          'language' can be specified for the entry in the File table.

      -- 方法: glob (pattern, exclude=None)

          Add a list of files to the current component as specified in
          the glob pattern.  Individual files can be excluded in the
          'exclude' list.

      -- 方法: remove_pyc ()

          Remove ‘.pyc’ files on uninstall.

也參考
......

Directory Table(1) File Table(2) Component Table(3) FeatureComponents
Table(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368295.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368596.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368007.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368579.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Features,  Next: GUI classes,  Prev: Directory Objects,  Up: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案

5.36.9.8 Features
.................

 -- 類別: msilib.Feature (db, id, title, desc, display, level=1,
          parent=None, directory=None, attributes=0)

     Add a new record to the ‘Feature’ table, using the values 'id',
     'parent.id', 'title', 'desc', 'display', 'level', 'directory', and
     'attributes'.  The resulting feature object can be passed to the
     ‘start_component()’ method of *note Directory: 45b4.

      -- 方法: set_current ()

          Make this feature the current feature of *note msilib: 8d.
          New components are automatically added to the default feature,
          unless a feature is explicitly specified.

也參考
......

Feature Table(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368585.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: GUI classes,  Next: Precomputed tables,  Prev: Features,  Up: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案

5.36.9.9 GUI classes
....................

*note msilib: 8d. provides several classes that wrap the GUI tables in
an MSI database.  However, no standard user interface is provided.

 -- 類別: msilib.Control (dlg, name)

     Base class of the dialog controls.  'dlg' is the dialog object the
     control belongs to, and 'name' is the control's name.

      -- 方法: event (event, argument, condition=1, ordering=None)

          Make an entry into the ‘ControlEvent’ table for this control.

      -- 方法: mapping (event, attribute)

          Make an entry into the ‘EventMapping’ table for this control.

      -- 方法: condition (action, condition)

          Make an entry into the ‘ControlCondition’ table for this
          control.

 -- 類別: msilib.RadioButtonGroup (dlg, name, property)

     Create a radio button control named 'name'.  'property' is the
     installer property that gets set when a radio button is selected.

      -- 方法: add (name, x, y, width, height, text, value=None)

          Add a radio button named 'name' to the group, at the
          coordinates 'x', 'y', 'width', 'height', and with the label
          'text'.  If 'value' is ‘None’, it defaults to 'name'.

 -- 類別: msilib.Dialog (db, name, x, y, w, h, attr, title, first,
          default, cancel)

     Return a new *note Dialog: 45c4. object.  An entry in the ‘Dialog’
     table is made, with the specified coordinates, dialog attributes,
     title, name of the first, default, and cancel controls.

      -- 方法: control (name, type, x, y, width, height, attributes,
               property, text, control_next, help)

          Return a new *note Control: 45be. object.  An entry in the
          ‘Control’ table is made with the specified parameters.

          This is a generic method; for specific types, specialized
          methods are provided.

      -- 方法: text (name, x, y, width, height, attributes, text)

          Add and return a ‘Text’ control.

      -- 方法: bitmap (name, x, y, width, height, text)

          Add and return a ‘Bitmap’ control.

      -- 方法: line (name, x, y, width, height)

          Add and return a ‘Line’ control.

      -- 方法: pushbutton (name, x, y, width, height, attributes, text,
               next_control)

          Add and return a ‘PushButton’ control.

      -- 方法: radiogroup (name, x, y, width, height, attributes,
               property, text, next_control)

          Add and return a ‘RadioButtonGroup’ control.

      -- 方法: checkbox (name, x, y, width, height, attributes,
               property, text, next_control)

          Add and return a ‘CheckBox’ control.

也參考
......

Dialog Table(1) Control Table(2) Control Types(3) ControlCondition
Table(4) ControlEvent Table(5) EventMapping Table(6) RadioButton
Table(7)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368286.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368044.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368039.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368035.aspx

   (5) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368037.aspx

   (6) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368559.aspx

   (7) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370962.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Precomputed tables,  Prev: GUI classes,  Up: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案

5.36.9.10 Precomputed tables
............................

*note msilib: 8d. provides a few subpackages that contain only schema
and table definitions.  Currently, these definitions are based on MSI
version 2.0.

 -- 資料: msilib.schema

     This is the standard MSI schema for MSI 2.0, with the 'tables'
     variable providing a list of table definitions, and
     '_Validation_records' providing the data for MSI validation.

 -- 資料: msilib.sequence

     This module contains table contents for the standard sequence
     tables: 'AdminExecuteSequence', 'AdminUISequence',
     'AdvtExecuteSequence', 'InstallExecuteSequence', and
     'InstallUISequence'.

 -- 資料: msilib.text

     This module contains definitions for the UIText and ActionText
     tables, for the standard installer actions.


File: python.info,  Node: nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面,  Next: nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端,  Prev: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.10 ‘nis’ -- Sun NIS (Yellow Pages) 介面
--------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
nis: 97. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP 594(1)）。

__________________________________________________________________

The *note nis: 97. module gives a thin wrapper around the NIS library,
useful for central administration of several hosts.

Because NIS exists only on Unix systems, this module is only available
for Unix.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

The *note nis: 97. module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: nis.match (key, mapname, domain=default_domain)

     Return the match for 'key' in map 'mapname', or raise an error
     (*note nis.error: 45d2.) if there is none.  Both should be strings,
     'key' is 8-bit clean.  Return value is an arbitrary array of bytes
     (may contain ‘NULL’ and other joys).

     Note that 'mapname' is first checked if it is an alias to another
     name.

     The 'domain' argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the
     lookup.  If unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.

 -- 函式: nis.cat (mapname, domain=default_domain)

     Return a dictionary mapping 'key' to 'value' such that ‘match(key,
     mapname)==value’.  Note that both keys and values of the dictionary
     are arbitrary arrays of bytes.

     Note that 'mapname' is first checked if it is an alias to another
     name.

     The 'domain' argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the
     lookup.  If unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.

 -- 函式: nis.maps (domain=default_domain)

     Return a list of all valid maps.

     The 'domain' argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the
     lookup.  If unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.

 -- 函式: nis.get_default_domain ()

     Return the system default NIS domain.

The *note nis: 97. module defines the following exception:

 -- 例外: nis.error

     An error raised when a NIS function returns an error code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#nis


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端,  Next: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器,  Prev: nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.11 ‘nntplib’ -- NNTP 協定客戶端
------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/nntplib.py(1)

在 3.11 版之後被棄用: ‘nntlib’ 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP
594(2)）。

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines the class *note NNTP: 753. which implements the
client side of the Network News Transfer Protocol.  It can be used to
implement a news reader or poster, or automated news processors.  It is
compatible with RFC 3977(3) as well as the older RFC 977(4) and RFC
2980(5).

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

Here are two small examples of how it can be used.  To list some
statistics about a newsgroup and print the subjects of the last 10
articles:

     >>> s = nntplib.NNTP('news.gmane.io')
     >>> resp, count, first, last, name = s.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
     >>> print('Group', name, 'has', count, 'articles, range', first, 'to', last)
     Group gmane.comp.python.committers has 1096 articles, range 1 to 1096
     >>> resp, overviews = s.over((last - 9, last))
     >>> for id, over in overviews:
     ...     print(id, nntplib.decode_header(over['subject']))
     ...
     1087 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
     1088 Re: 3.2 alpha 2 freeze
     1089 Re: 3.2 alpha 2 freeze
     1090 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
     1091 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
     1092 Updated ssh key
     1093 Re: Updated ssh key
     1094 Re: Updated ssh key
     1095 Hello fellow committers!
     1096 Re: Hello fellow committers!
     >>> s.quit()
     '205 Bye!'

To post an article from a binary file (this assumes that the article has
valid headers, and that you have right to post on the particular
newsgroup):

     >>> s = nntplib.NNTP('news.gmane.io')
     >>> f = open('article.txt', 'rb')
     >>> s.post(f)
     '240 Article posted successfully.'
     >>> s.quit()
     '205 Bye!'

The module itself defines the following classes:

 -- 類別: nntplib.NNTP (host, port=119, user=None, password=None,
          readermode=None, usenetrc=False[, timeout])

     Return a new *note NNTP: 753. object, representing a connection to
     the NNTP server running on host 'host', listening at port 'port'.
     An optional 'timeout' can be specified for the socket connection.
     If the optional 'user' and 'password' are provided, or if suitable
     credentials are present in ‘/.netrc’ and the optional flag
     'usenetrc' is true, the ‘AUTHINFO USER’ and ‘AUTHINFO PASS’
     commands are used to identify and authenticate the user to the
     server.  If the optional flag 'readermode' is true, then a ‘mode
     reader’ command is sent before authentication is performed.  Reader
     mode is sometimes necessary if you are connecting to an NNTP server
     on the local machine and intend to call reader-specific commands,
     such as ‘group’.  If you get unexpected *note NNTPPermanentError:
     45d7.s, you might need to set 'readermode'.  The *note NNTP: 753.
     class supports the *note with: 3c5. statement to unconditionally
     consume *note OSError: 644. exceptions and to close the NNTP
     connection when done, e.g.:

          >>> from nntplib import NNTP
          >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.io') as n:
          ...     n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
          ...
          ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
          >>>

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘host’、‘port’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘nntplib.connect’。

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 168e.
     ‘nntplib.putline’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘line’, where ‘line’ is
     the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 'usenetrc' is now ‘False’ by default.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Support for the *note with: 3c5. statement was
     added.

     在 3.9 版的變更: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be zero, it
     will raise a *note ValueError: 183. to prevent the creation of a
     non-blocking socket.

 -- 類別: nntplib.NNTP_SSL (host, port=563, user=None, password=None,
          ssl_context=None, readermode=None, usenetrc=False[, timeout])

     Return a new *note NNTP_SSL: 754. object, representing an encrypted
     connection to the NNTP server running on host 'host', listening at
     port 'port'.  *note NNTP_SSL: 754. objects have the same methods as
     *note NNTP: 753. objects.  If 'port' is omitted, port 563 (NNTPS)
     is used.  'ssl_context' is also optional, and is a *note
     SSLContext: 26f. object.  Please read *note Security
     considerations: 301e. for best practices.  All other parameters
     behave the same as for *note NNTP: 753.

     Note that SSL-on-563 is discouraged per RFC 4642(6), in favor of
     STARTTLS as described below.  However, some servers only support
     the former.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘host’、‘port’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘nntplib.connect’。

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 168e.
     ‘nntplib.putline’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘line’, where ‘line’ is
     the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The class now supports hostname check with *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3141. and 'Server Name Indication'
     (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3153.).

     在 3.9 版的變更: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be zero, it
     will raise a *note ValueError: 183. to prevent the creation of a
     non-blocking socket.

 -- 例外: nntplib.NNTPError

     Derived from the standard exception *note Exception: 81e, this is
     the base class for all exceptions raised by the *note nntplib: 98.
     module.  Instances of this class have the following attribute:

      -- 屬性: response

          The response of the server if available, as a *note str: 157.
          object.

 -- 例外: nntplib.NNTPReplyError

     Exception raised when an unexpected reply is received from the
     server.

 -- 例外: nntplib.NNTPTemporaryError

     Exception raised when a response code in the range 400-499 is
     received.

 -- 例外: nntplib.NNTPPermanentError

     Exception raised when a response code in the range 500-599 is
     received.

 -- 例外: nntplib.NNTPProtocolError

     Exception raised when a reply is received from the server that does
     not begin with a digit in the range 1-5.

 -- 例外: nntplib.NNTPDataError

     Exception raised when there is some error in the response data.

* Menu:

* NNTP 物件::
* Utility functions: Utility functions<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/nntplib.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3977.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc977.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2980.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4642.html


File: python.info,  Node: NNTP 物件,  Next: Utility functions<2>,  Up: nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端

5.36.11.1 NNTP 物件
...................

When connected, *note NNTP: 753. and *note NNTP_SSL: 754. objects
support the following methods and attributes.

* Menu:

* 屬性: 屬性<2>.
* 方法::


File: python.info,  Node: 屬性<2>,  Next: 方法,  Up: NNTP 物件

5.36.11.2 屬性
..............

 -- 屬性: NNTP.nntp_version

     An integer representing the version of the NNTP protocol supported
     by the server.  In practice, this should be ‘2’ for servers
     advertising RFC 3977(1) compliance and ‘1’ for others.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 屬性: NNTP.nntp_implementation

     A string describing the software name and version of the NNTP
     server, or *note None: 470. if not advertised by the server.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3977.html


File: python.info,  Node: 方法,  Prev: 屬性<2>,  Up: NNTP 物件

5.36.11.3 方法
..............

The 'response' that is returned as the first item in the return tuple of
almost all methods is the server's response: a string beginning with a
three-digit code.  If the server's response indicates an error, the
method raises one of the above exceptions.

Many of the following methods take an optional keyword-only argument
'file'.  When the 'file' argument is supplied, it must be either a *note
file object: 1054. opened for binary writing, or the name of an on-disk
file to be written to.  The method will then write any data returned by
the server (except for the response line and the terminating dot) to the
file; any list of lines, tuples or objects that the method normally
returns will be empty.

在 3.2 版的變更: Many of the following methods have been reworked and
fixed, which makes them incompatible with their 3.1 counterparts.

 -- 方法: NNTP.quit ()

     Send a ‘QUIT’ command and close the connection.  Once this method
     has been called, no other methods of the NNTP object should be
     called.

 -- 方法: NNTP.getwelcome ()

     Return the welcome message sent by the server in reply to the
     initial connection.  (This message sometimes contains disclaimers
     or help information that may be relevant to the user.)

 -- 方法: NNTP.getcapabilities ()

     Return the RFC 3977(1) capabilities advertised by the server, as a
     *note dict: 239. instance mapping capability names to (possibly
     empty) lists of values.  On legacy servers which don't understand
     the ‘CAPABILITIES’ command, an empty dictionary is returned
     instead.

          >>> s = NNTP('news.gmane.io')
          >>> 'POST' in s.getcapabilities()
          True

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 方法: NNTP.login (user=None, password=None, usenetrc=True)

     Send ‘AUTHINFO’ commands with the user name and password.  If
     'user' and 'password' are ‘None’ and 'usenetrc' is true,
     credentials from ‘~/.netrc’ will be used if possible.

     Unless intentionally delayed, login is normally performed during
     the *note NNTP: 753. object initialization and separately calling
     this function is unnecessary.  To force authentication to be
     delayed, you must not set 'user' or 'password' when creating the
     object, and must set 'usenetrc' to False.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 方法: NNTP.starttls (context=None)

     Send a ‘STARTTLS’ command.  This will enable encryption on the NNTP
     connection.  The 'context' argument is optional and should be a
     *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. object.  Please read *note Security
     considerations: 301e. for best practices.

     Note that this may not be done after authentication information has
     been transmitted, and authentication occurs by default if possible
     during a *note NNTP: 753. object initialization.  See *note
     NNTP.login(): 45e7. for information on suppressing this behavior.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The method now supports hostname check with *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3141. and 'Server Name Indication'
     (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3153.).

 -- 方法: NNTP.newgroups (date, *, file=None)

     Send a ‘NEWGROUPS’ command.  The 'date' argument should be a *note
     datetime.date: 72f. or *note datetime.datetime: 224. object.
     Return a pair ‘(response, groups)’ where 'groups' is a list
     representing the groups that are new since the given 'date'.  If
     'file' is supplied, though, then 'groups' will be empty.

          >>> from datetime import date, timedelta
          >>> resp, groups = s.newgroups(date.today() - timedelta(days=3))
          >>> len(groups)
          85
          >>> groups[0]
          GroupInfo(group='gmane.network.tor.devel', last='4', first='1', flag='m')

 -- 方法: NNTP.newnews (group, date, *, file=None)

     Send a ‘NEWNEWS’ command.  Here, 'group' is a group name or ‘'*'’,
     and 'date' has the same meaning as for *note newgroups(): 45e8.
     Return a pair ‘(response, articles)’ where 'articles' is a list of
     message ids.

     This command is frequently disabled by NNTP server administrators.

 -- 方法: NNTP.list (group_pattern=None, *, file=None)

     Send a ‘LIST’ or ‘LIST ACTIVE’ command.  Return a pair ‘(response,
     list)’ where 'list' is a list of tuples representing all the groups
     available from this NNTP server, optionally matching the pattern
     string 'group_pattern'.  Each tuple has the form ‘(group, last,
     first, flag)’, where 'group' is a group name, 'last' and 'first'
     are the last and first article numbers, and 'flag' usually takes
     one of these values:

        * ‘y’: Local postings and articles from peers are allowed.

        * ‘m’: The group is moderated and all postings must be approved.

        * ‘n’: No local postings are allowed, only articles from peers.

        * ‘j’: Articles from peers are filed in the junk group instead.

        * ‘x’: No local postings, and articles from peers are ignored.

        * ‘=foo.bar’: Articles are filed in the ‘foo.bar’ group instead.

     If 'flag' has another value, then the status of the newsgroup
     should be considered unknown.

     This command can return very large results, especially if
     'group_pattern' is not specified.  It is best to cache the results
     offline unless you really need to refresh them.

     在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 'group_pattern'。

 -- 方法: NNTP.descriptions (grouppattern)

     Send a ‘LIST NEWSGROUPS’ command, where 'grouppattern' is a wildmat
     string as specified in RFC 3977(2) (it's essentially the same as
     DOS or UNIX shell wildcard strings).  Return a pair ‘(response,
     descriptions)’, where 'descriptions' is a dictionary mapping group
     names to textual descriptions.

          >>> resp, descs = s.descriptions('gmane.comp.python.*')
          >>> len(descs)
          295
          >>> descs.popitem()
          ('gmane.comp.python.bio.general', 'BioPython discussion list (Moderated)')

 -- 方法: NNTP.description (group)

     Get a description for a single group 'group'.  If more than one
     group matches (if 'group' is a real wildmat string), return the
     first match.  If no group matches, return an empty string.

     This elides the response code from the server.  If the response
     code is needed, use *note descriptions(): 788.

 -- 方法: NNTP.group (name)

     Send a ‘GROUP’ command, where 'name' is the group name.  The group
     is selected as the current group, if it exists.  Return a tuple
     ‘(response, count, first, last, name)’ where 'count' is the
     (estimated) number of articles in the group, 'first' is the first
     article number in the group, 'last' is the last article number in
     the group, and 'name' is the group name.

 -- 方法: NNTP.over (message_spec, *, file=None)

     Send an ‘OVER’ command, or an ‘XOVER’ command on legacy servers.
     'message_spec' can be either a string representing a message id, or
     a ‘(first, last)’ tuple of numbers indicating a range of articles
     in the current group, or a ‘(first, None)’ tuple indicating a range
     of articles starting from 'first' to the last article in the
     current group, or *note None: 470. to select the current article in
     the current group.

     Return a pair ‘(response, overviews)’.  'overviews' is a list of
     ‘(article_number, overview)’ tuples, one for each article selected
     by 'message_spec'.  Each 'overview' is a dictionary with the same
     number of items, but this number depends on the server.  These
     items are either message headers (the key is then the lower-cased
     header name) or metadata items (the key is then the metadata name
     prepended with ‘":"’).  The following items are guaranteed to be
     present by the NNTP specification:

        * the ‘subject’, ‘from’, ‘date’, ‘message-id’ and ‘references’
          headers

        * the ‘:bytes’ metadata: the number of bytes in the entire raw
          article (including headers and body)

        * the ‘:lines’ metadata: the number of lines in the article body

     The value of each item is either a string, or *note None: 470. if
     not present.

     It is advisable to use the *note decode_header(): 45ed. function on
     header values when they may contain non-ASCII characters:

          >>> _, _, first, last, _ = s.group('gmane.comp.python.devel')
          >>> resp, overviews = s.over((last, last))
          >>> art_num, over = overviews[0]
          >>> art_num
          117216
          >>> list(over.keys())
          ['xref', 'from', ':lines', ':bytes', 'references', 'date', 'message-id', 'subject']
          >>> over['from']
          '=?UTF-8?B?Ik1hcnRpbiB2LiBMw7Z3aXMi?= <martin@v.loewis.de>'
          >>> nntplib.decode_header(over['from'])
          '"Martin v. Löwis" <martin@v.loewis.de>'

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- 方法: NNTP.help (*, file=None)

     Send a ‘HELP’ command.  Return a pair ‘(response, list)’ where
     'list' is a list of help strings.

 -- 方法: NNTP.stat (message_spec=None)

     Send a ‘STAT’ command, where 'message_spec' is either a message id
     (enclosed in ‘'<'’ and ‘'>'’) or an article number in the current
     group.  If 'message_spec' is omitted or *note None: 470, the
     current article in the current group is considered.  Return a
     triple ‘(response, number, id)’ where 'number' is the article
     number and 'id' is the message id.

          >>> _, _, first, last, _ = s.group('gmane.comp.python.devel')
          >>> resp, number, message_id = s.stat(first)
          >>> number, message_id
          (9099, '<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>')

 -- 方法: NNTP.next ()

     Send a ‘NEXT’ command.  Return as for *note stat(): 45ef.

 -- 方法: NNTP.last ()

     Send a ‘LAST’ command.  Return as for *note stat(): 45ef.

 -- 方法: NNTP.article (message_spec=None, *, file=None)

     Send an ‘ARTICLE’ command, where 'message_spec' has the same
     meaning as for *note stat(): 45ef.  Return a tuple ‘(response,
     info)’ where 'info' is a *note namedtuple: 731. with three
     attributes 'number', 'message_id' and 'lines' (in that order).
     'number' is the article number in the group (or 0 if the
     information is not available), 'message_id' the message id as a
     string, and 'lines' a list of lines (without terminating newlines)
     comprising the raw message including headers and body.

          >>> resp, info = s.article('<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>')
          >>> info.number
          0
          >>> info.message_id
          '<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>'
          >>> len(info.lines)
          65
          >>> info.lines[0]
          b'Path: main.gmane.org!not-for-mail'
          >>> info.lines[1]
          b'From: Neal Norwitz <neal@metaslash.com>'
          >>> info.lines[-3:]
          [b'There is a patch for 2.3 as well as 2.2.', b'', b'Neal']

 -- 方法: NNTP.head (message_spec=None, *, file=None)

     Same as *note article(): 45f2, but sends a ‘HEAD’ command.  The
     'lines' returned (or written to 'file') will only contain the
     message headers, not the body.

 -- 方法: NNTP.body (message_spec=None, *, file=None)

     Same as *note article(): 45f2, but sends a ‘BODY’ command.  The
     'lines' returned (or written to 'file') will only contain the
     message body, not the headers.

 -- 方法: NNTP.post (data)

     Post an article using the ‘POST’ command.  The 'data' argument is
     either a *note file object: 1054. opened for binary reading, or any
     iterable of bytes objects (representing raw lines of the article to
     be posted).  It should represent a well-formed news article,
     including the required headers.  The *note post(): 45f5. method
     automatically escapes lines beginning with ‘.’ and appends the
     termination line.

     If the method succeeds, the server's response is returned.  If the
     server refuses posting, a *note NNTPReplyError: 45da. is raised.

 -- 方法: NNTP.ihave (message_id, data)

     Send an ‘IHAVE’ command.  'message_id' is the id of the message to
     send to the server (enclosed in ‘'<'’ and ‘'>'’).  The 'data'
     parameter and the return value are the same as for *note post():
     45f5.

 -- 方法: NNTP.date ()

     Return a pair ‘(response, date)’.  'date' is a *note datetime: 224.
     object containing the current date and time of the server.

 -- 方法: NNTP.slave ()

     Send a ‘SLAVE’ command.  Return the server's 'response'.

 -- 方法: NNTP.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the instance's debugging level.  This controls the amount of
     debugging output printed.  The default, ‘0’, produces no debugging
     output.  A value of ‘1’ produces a moderate amount of debugging
     output, generally a single line per request or response.  A value
     of ‘2’ or higher produces the maximum amount of debugging output,
     logging each line sent and received on the connection (including
     message text).

The following are optional NNTP extensions defined in RFC 2980(3).  Some
of them have been superseded by newer commands in RFC 3977(4).

 -- 方法: NNTP.xhdr (hdr, str, *, file=None)

     Send an ‘XHDR’ command.  The 'hdr' argument is a header keyword,
     e.g.  ‘'subject'’.  The 'str' argument should have the form
     ‘'first-last'’ where 'first' and 'last' are the first and last
     article numbers to search.  Return a pair ‘(response, list)’, where
     'list' is a list of pairs ‘(id, text)’, where 'id' is an article
     number (as a string) and 'text' is the text of the requested header
     for that article.  If the 'file' parameter is supplied, then the
     output of the ‘XHDR’ command is stored in a file.  If 'file' is a
     string, then the method will open a file with that name, write to
     it then close it.  If 'file' is a *note file object: 1054, then it
     will start calling ‘write()’ on it to store the lines of the
     command output.  If 'file' is supplied, then the returned 'list' is
     an empty list.

 -- 方法: NNTP.xover (start, end, *, file=None)

     Send an ‘XOVER’ command.  'start' and 'end' are article numbers
     delimiting the range of articles to select.  The return value is
     the same of for *note over(): 45ec.  It is recommended to use *note
     over(): 45ec. instead, since it will automatically use the newer
     ‘OVER’ command if available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3977.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3977.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2980.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3977.html


File: python.info,  Node: Utility functions<2>,  Prev: NNTP 物件,  Up: nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端

5.36.11.4 Utility functions
...........................

The module also defines the following utility function:

 -- 函式: nntplib.decode_header (header_str)

     Decode a header value, un-escaping any escaped non-ASCII
     characters.  'header_str' must be a *note str: 157. object.  The
     unescaped value is returned.  Using this function is recommended to
     display some headers in a human readable form:

          >>> decode_header("Some subject")
          'Some subject'
          >>> decode_header("=?ISO-8859-15?Q?D=E9buter_en_Python?=")
          'Débuter en Python'
          >>> decode_header("Re: =?UTF-8?B?cHJvYmzDqG1lIGRlIG1hdHJpY2U=?=")
          'Re: problème de matrice'


File: python.info,  Node: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器,  Next: ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取,  Prev: nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.12 ‘optparse’ -- 命令列選項剖析器
--------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/optparse.py(1)

在 3.2 版之後被棄用: The *note optparse: 9b. module is deprecated and
will not be developed further; development will continue with the *note
argparse: 6. module.

__________________________________________________________________

*note optparse: 9b. is a more convenient, flexible, and powerful library
for parsing command-line options than the old *note getopt: 5c. module.
*note optparse: 9b. uses a more declarative style of command-line
parsing: you create an instance of *note OptionParser: 1344, populate it
with options, and parse the command line.  *note optparse: 9b. allows
users to specify options in the conventional GNU/POSIX syntax, and
additionally generates usage and help messages for you.

Here's an example of using *note optparse: 9b. in a simple script:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     parser = OptionParser()
     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                       help="write report to FILE", metavar="FILE")
     parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                       action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True,
                       help="don't print status messages to stdout")

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

With these few lines of code, users of your script can now do the "usual
thing" on the command-line, for example:

     <yourscript> --file=outfile -q

As it parses the command line, *note optparse: 9b. sets attributes of
the ‘options’ object returned by *note parse_args(): 1345. based on
user-supplied command-line values.  When *note parse_args(): 1345.
returns from parsing this command line, ‘options.filename’ will be
‘"outfile"’ and ‘options.verbose’ will be ‘False’.  *note optparse: 9b.
supports both long and short options, allows short options to be merged
together, and allows options to be associated with their arguments in a
variety of ways.  Thus, the following command lines are all equivalent
to the above example:

     <yourscript> -f outfile --quiet
     <yourscript> --quiet --file outfile
     <yourscript> -q -foutfile
     <yourscript> -qfoutfile

Additionally, users can run one of the following

     <yourscript> -h
     <yourscript> --help

and *note optparse: 9b. will print out a brief summary of your script's
options:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options]

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -f FILE, --file=FILE  write report to FILE
       -q, --quiet           don't print status messages to stdout

where the value of 'yourscript' is determined at runtime (normally from
‘sys.argv[0]’).

* Menu:

* 背景::
* 教學: 教學<4>.
* Reference Guide::
* Option Callbacks::
* Extending optparse::
* 例外: 例外<16>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/optparse.py


File: python.info,  Node: 背景,  Next: 教學<4>,  Up: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器

5.36.12.1 背景
..............

*note optparse: 9b. was explicitly designed to encourage the creation of
programs with straightforward, conventional command-line interfaces.  To
that end, it supports only the most common command-line syntax and
semantics conventionally used under Unix.  If you are unfamiliar with
these conventions, read this section to acquaint yourself with them.

* Menu:

* 術語::
* What are options for?::
* What are positional arguments for?::


File: python.info,  Node: 術語,  Next: What are options for?,  Up: 背景

5.36.12.2 術語
..............

argument

     a string entered on the command-line, and passed by the shell to
     ‘execl()’ or ‘execv()’.  In Python, arguments are elements of
     ‘sys.argv[1:]’ (‘sys.argv[0]’ is the name of the program being
     executed).  Unix shells also use the term "word".

     It is occasionally desirable to substitute an argument list other
     than ‘sys.argv[1:]’, so you should read "argument" as "an element
     of ‘sys.argv[1:]’, or of some other list provided as a substitute
     for ‘sys.argv[1:]’".

option

     an argument used to supply extra information to guide or customize
     the execution of a program.  There are many different syntaxes for
     options; the traditional Unix syntax is a hyphen ("-") followed by
     a single letter, e.g.  ‘-x’ or ‘-F’.  Also, traditional Unix syntax
     allows multiple options to be merged into a single argument, e.g.
     ‘-x -F’ is equivalent to ‘-xF’.  The GNU project introduced ‘--’
     followed by a series of hyphen-separated words, e.g.  ‘--file’ or
     ‘--dry-run’.  These are the only two option syntaxes provided by
     *note optparse: 9b.

     Some other option syntaxes that the world has seen include:

        * a hyphen followed by a few letters, e.g.  ‘-pf’ (this is 'not'
          the same as multiple options merged into a single argument)

        * a hyphen followed by a whole word, e.g.  ‘-file’ (this is
          technically equivalent to the previous syntax, but they aren't
          usually seen in the same program)

        * a plus sign followed by a single letter, or a few letters, or
          a word, e.g.  ‘+f’, ‘+rgb’

        * a slash followed by a letter, or a few letters, or a word,
          e.g.  ‘/f’, ‘/file’

     These option syntaxes are not supported by *note optparse: 9b, and
     they never will be.  This is deliberate: the first three are
     non-standard on any environment, and the last only makes sense if
     you're exclusively targeting Windows or certain legacy platforms
     (e.g.  VMS, MS-DOS).

option argument

     an argument that follows an option, is closely associated with that
     option, and is consumed from the argument list when that option is.
     With *note optparse: 9b, option arguments may either be in a
     separate argument from their option:

          -f foo
          --file foo

     or included in the same argument:

          -ffoo
          --file=foo

     Typically, a given option either takes an argument or it doesn't.
     Lots of people want an "optional option arguments" feature, meaning
     that some options will take an argument if they see it, and won't
     if they don't.  This is somewhat controversial, because it makes
     parsing ambiguous: if ‘-a’ takes an optional argument and ‘-b’ is
     another option entirely, how do we interpret ‘-ab’?  Because of
     this ambiguity, *note optparse: 9b. does not support this feature.

positional argument

     something leftover in the argument list after options have been
     parsed, i.e.  after options and their arguments have been parsed
     and removed from the argument list.

required option

     an option that must be supplied on the command-line; note that the
     phrase "required option" is self-contradictory in English.  *note
     optparse: 9b. doesn't prevent you from implementing required
     options, but doesn't give you much help at it either.

For example, consider this hypothetical command-line:

     prog -v --report report.txt foo bar

‘-v’ and ‘--report’ are both options.  Assuming that ‘--report’ takes
one argument, ‘report.txt’ is an option argument.  ‘foo’ and ‘bar’ are
positional arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: What are options for?,  Next: What are positional arguments for?,  Prev: 術語,  Up: 背景

5.36.12.3 What are options for?
...............................

Options are used to provide extra information to tune or customize the
execution of a program.  In case it wasn't clear, options are usually
'optional'.  A program should be able to run just fine with no options
whatsoever.  (Pick a random program from the Unix or GNU toolsets.  Can
it run without any options at all and still make sense?  The main
exceptions are ‘find’, ‘tar’, and ‘dd’--all of which are mutant oddballs
that have been rightly criticized for their non-standard syntax and
confusing interfaces.)

Lots of people want their programs to have "required options".  Think
about it.  If it's required, then it's 'not optional'!  If there is a
piece of information that your program absolutely requires in order to
run successfully, that's what positional arguments are for.

As an example of good command-line interface design, consider the humble
‘cp’ utility, for copying files.  It doesn't make much sense to try to
copy files without supplying a destination and at least one source.
Hence, ‘cp’ fails if you run it with no arguments.  However, it has a
flexible, useful syntax that does not require any options at all:

     cp SOURCE DEST
     cp SOURCE ... DEST-DIR

You can get pretty far with just that.  Most ‘cp’ implementations
provide a bunch of options to tweak exactly how the files are copied:
you can preserve mode and modification time, avoid following symlinks,
ask before clobbering existing files, etc.  But none of this distracts
from the core mission of ‘cp’, which is to copy either one file to
another, or several files to another directory.


File: python.info,  Node: What are positional arguments for?,  Prev: What are options for?,  Up: 背景

5.36.12.4 What are positional arguments for?
............................................

Positional arguments are for those pieces of information that your
program absolutely, positively requires to run.

A good user interface should have as few absolute requirements as
possible.  If your program requires 17 distinct pieces of information in
order to run successfully, it doesn't much matter 'how' you get that
information from the user--most people will give up and walk away before
they successfully run the program.  This applies whether the user
interface is a command-line, a configuration file, or a GUI: if you make
that many demands on your users, most of them will simply give up.

In short, try to minimize the amount of information that users are
absolutely required to supply--use sensible defaults whenever possible.
Of course, you also want to make your programs reasonably flexible.
That's what options are for.  Again, it doesn't matter if they are
entries in a config file, widgets in the "Preferences" dialog of a GUI,
or command-line options--the more options you implement, the more
flexible your program is, and the more complicated its implementation
becomes.  Too much flexibility has drawbacks as well, of course; too
many options can overwhelm users and make your code much harder to
maintain.


File: python.info,  Node: 教學<4>,  Next: Reference Guide,  Prev: 背景,  Up: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器

5.36.12.5 教學
..............

While *note optparse: 9b. is quite flexible and powerful, it's also
straightforward to use in most cases.  This section covers the code
patterns that are common to any *note optparse: 9b.-based program.

First, you need to import the OptionParser class; then, early in the
main program, create an OptionParser instance:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     parser = OptionParser()

Then you can start defining options.  The basic syntax is:

     parser.add_option(opt_str, ...,
                       attr=value, ...)

Each option has one or more option strings, such as ‘-f’ or ‘--file’,
and several option attributes that tell *note optparse: 9b. what to
expect and what to do when it encounters that option on the command
line.

Typically, each option will have one short option string and one long
option string, e.g.:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", ...)

You're free to define as many short option strings and as many long
option strings as you like (including zero), as long as there is at
least one option string overall.

The option strings passed to *note OptionParser.add_option(): 2a38. are
effectively labels for the option defined by that call.  For brevity, we
will frequently refer to 'encountering an option' on the command line;
in reality, *note optparse: 9b. encounters 'option strings' and looks up
options from them.

Once all of your options are defined, instruct *note optparse: 9b. to
parse your program's command line:

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

(If you like, you can pass a custom argument list to *note parse_args():
1345, but that's rarely necessary: by default it uses ‘sys.argv[1:]’.)

*note parse_args(): 1345. 回傳兩個值：

   * ‘options’, an object containing values for all of your
     options--e.g.  if ‘--file’ takes a single string argument, then
     ‘options.file’ will be the filename supplied by the user, or ‘None’
     if the user did not supply that option

   * ‘args’, the list of positional arguments leftover after parsing
     options

This tutorial section only covers the four most important option
attributes: *note action: 4609, *note type: 460a, *note dest: 460b.
(destination), and *note help: 460c.  Of these, *note action: 4609. is
the most fundamental.

* Menu:

* Understanding option actions::
* The store action::
* Handling boolean (flag) options: Handling boolean flag options.
* Other actions::
* Default values::
* Generating help::
* Printing a version string::
* How optparse handles errors::
* Putting it all together::


File: python.info,  Node: Understanding option actions,  Next: The store action,  Up: 教學<4>

5.36.12.6 Understanding option actions
......................................

Actions tell *note optparse: 9b. what to do when it encounters an option
on the command line.  There is a fixed set of actions hard-coded into
*note optparse: 9b.; adding new actions is an advanced topic covered in
section *note Extending optparse: 460f.  Most actions tell *note
optparse: 9b. to store a value in some variable--for example, take a
string from the command line and store it in an attribute of ‘options’.

If you don't specify an option action, *note optparse: 9b. defaults to
‘store’.


File: python.info,  Node: The store action,  Next: Handling boolean flag options,  Prev: Understanding option actions,  Up: 教學<4>

5.36.12.7 The store action
..........................

The most common option action is ‘store’, which tells *note optparse:
9b. to take the next argument (or the remainder of the current
argument), ensure that it is of the correct type, and store it to your
chosen destination.

舉例來說：

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file",
                       action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

Now let's make up a fake command line and ask *note optparse: 9b. to
parse it:

     args = ["-f", "foo.txt"]
     (options, args) = parser.parse_args(args)

When *note optparse: 9b. sees the option string ‘-f’, it consumes the
next argument, ‘foo.txt’, and stores it in ‘options.filename’.  So,
after this call to *note parse_args(): 1345, ‘options.filename’ is
‘"foo.txt"’.

Some other option types supported by *note optparse: 9b. are ‘int’ and
‘float’.  Here's an option that expects an integer argument:

     parser.add_option("-n", type="int", dest="num")

Note that this option has no long option string, which is perfectly
acceptable.  Also, there's no explicit action, since the default is
‘store’.

Let's parse another fake command-line.  This time, we'll jam the option
argument right up against the option: since ‘-n42’ (one argument) is
equivalent to ‘-n 42’ (two arguments), the code

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args(["-n42"])
     print(options.num)

will print ‘42’.

If you don't specify a type, *note optparse: 9b. assumes ‘string’.
Combined with the fact that the default action is ‘store’, that means
our first example can be a lot shorter:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename")

If you don't supply a destination, *note optparse: 9b. figures out a
sensible default from the option strings: if the first long option
string is ‘--foo-bar’, then the default destination is ‘foo_bar’.  If
there are no long option strings, *note optparse: 9b. looks at the first
short option string: the default destination for ‘-f’ is ‘f’.

*note optparse: 9b. also includes the built-in ‘complex’ type.  Adding
types is covered in section *note Extending optparse: 460f.


File: python.info,  Node: Handling boolean flag options,  Next: Other actions,  Prev: The store action,  Up: 教學<4>

5.36.12.8 Handling boolean (flag) options
.........................................

Flag options--set a variable to true or false when a particular option
is seen--are quite common.  *note optparse: 9b. supports them with two
separate actions, ‘store_true’ and ‘store_false’.  For example, you
might have a ‘verbose’ flag that is turned on with ‘-v’ and off with
‘-q’:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

Here we have two different options with the same destination, which is
perfectly OK. (It just means you have to be a bit careful when setting
default values--see below.)

When *note optparse: 9b. encounters ‘-v’ on the command line, it sets
‘options.verbose’ to ‘True’; when it encounters ‘-q’, ‘options.verbose’
is set to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Other actions,  Next: Default values,  Prev: Handling boolean flag options,  Up: 教學<4>

5.36.12.9 Other actions
.......................

Some other actions supported by *note optparse: 9b. are:

‘"store_const"’

     store a constant value, pre-set via *note Option.const: 4616.

‘"append"’

     append this option's argument to a list

‘"count"’

     increment a counter by one

‘"callback"’

     call a specified function

These are covered in section *note Reference Guide: 4617, and section
*note Option Callbacks: 4618.


File: python.info,  Node: Default values,  Next: Generating help,  Prev: Other actions,  Up: 教學<4>

5.36.12.10 Default values
.........................

All of the above examples involve setting some variable (the
"destination") when certain command-line options are seen.  What happens
if those options are never seen?  Since we didn't supply any defaults,
they are all set to ‘None’.  This is usually fine, but sometimes you
want more control.  *note optparse: 9b. lets you supply a default value
for each destination, which is assigned before the command line is
parsed.

First, consider the verbose/quiet example.  If we want *note optparse:
9b. to set ‘verbose’ to ‘True’ unless ‘-q’ is seen, then we can do this:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True)
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

Since default values apply to the 'destination' rather than to any
particular option, and these two options happen to have the same
destination, this is exactly equivalent:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

Consider this:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=False)
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

Again, the default value for ‘verbose’ will be ‘True’: the last default
value supplied for any particular destination is the one that counts.

A clearer way to specify default values is the ‘set_defaults()’ method
of OptionParser, which you can call at any time before calling *note
parse_args(): 1345.:

     parser.set_defaults(verbose=True)
     parser.add_option(...)
     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

As before, the last value specified for a given option destination is
the one that counts.  For clarity, try to use one method or the other of
setting default values, not both.


File: python.info,  Node: Generating help,  Next: Printing a version string,  Prev: Default values,  Up: 教學<4>

5.36.12.11 Generating help
..........................

*note optparse: 9b.'s ability to generate help and usage text
automatically is useful for creating user-friendly command-line
interfaces.  All you have to do is supply a *note help: 460c. value for
each option, and optionally a short usage message for your whole
program.  Here's an OptionParser populated with user-friendly
(documented) options:

     usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"
     parser = OptionParser(usage=usage)
     parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                       action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True,
                       help="make lots of noise [default]")
     parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                       action="store_false", dest="verbose",
                       help="be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)")
     parser.add_option("-f", "--filename",
                       metavar="FILE", help="write output to FILE")
     parser.add_option("-m", "--mode",
                       default="intermediate",
                       help="interaction mode: novice, intermediate, "
                            "or expert [default: %default]")

If *note optparse: 9b. encounters either ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ on the
command-line, or if you just call ‘parser.print_help()’, it prints the
following to standard output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                             expert [default: intermediate]

(If the help output is triggered by a help option, *note optparse: 9b.
exits after printing the help text.)

There's a lot going on here to help *note optparse: 9b. generate the
best possible help message:

   * the script defines its own usage message:

          usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"

     *note optparse: 9b. expands ‘%prog’ in the usage string to the name
     of the current program, i.e.  ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’.  The
     expanded string is then printed before the detailed option help.

     If you don't supply a usage string, *note optparse: 9b. uses a
     bland but sensible default: ‘"Usage: %prog [options]"’, which is
     fine if your script doesn't take any positional arguments.

   * every option defines a help string, and doesn't worry about
     line-wrapping--*note optparse: 9b. takes care of wrapping lines and
     making the help output look good.

   * options that take a value indicate this fact in their automatically
     generated help message, e.g.  for the "mode" option:

          -m MODE, --mode=MODE

     Here, "MODE" is called the meta-variable: it stands for the
     argument that the user is expected to supply to ‘-m’/‘--mode’.  By
     default, *note optparse: 9b. converts the destination variable name
     to uppercase and uses that for the meta-variable.  Sometimes,
     that's not what you want--for example, the ‘--filename’ option
     explicitly sets ‘metavar="FILE"’, resulting in this automatically
     generated option description:

          -f FILE, --filename=FILE

     This is important for more than just saving space, though: the
     manually written help text uses the meta-variable ‘FILE’ to clue
     the user in that there's a connection between the semi-formal
     syntax ‘-f FILE’ and the informal semantic description "write
     output to FILE". This is a simple but effective way to make your
     help text a lot clearer and more useful for end users.

   * options that have a default value can include ‘%default’ in the
     help string--*note optparse: 9b. will replace it with *note str():
     157. of the option's default value.  If an option has no default
     value (or the default value is ‘None’), ‘%default’ expands to
     ‘none’.

* Menu:

* Grouping Options::


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping Options,  Up: Generating help

5.36.12.12 Grouping Options
...........................

When dealing with many options, it is convenient to group these options
for better help output.  An *note OptionParser: 1344. can contain
several option groups, each of which can contain several options.

An option group is obtained using the class *note OptionGroup: 461e.:

 -- 類別: optparse.OptionGroup (parser, title, description=None)

     where

        * parser is the *note OptionParser: 1344. instance the group
          will be inserted in to

        * title is the group title

        * description, optional, is a long description of the group

*note OptionGroup: 461e. inherits from ‘OptionContainer’ (like *note
OptionParser: 1344.) and so the ‘add_option()’ method can be used to add
an option to the group.

Once all the options are declared, using the *note OptionParser: 1344.
method ‘add_option_group()’ the group is added to the previously defined
parser.

Continuing with the parser defined in the previous section, adding an
*note OptionGroup: 461e. to a parser is easy:

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                         "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                         "It is believed that some of them bite.")
     group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

This would result in the following help output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                             expert [default: intermediate]

       Dangerous Options:
         Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
         of them bite.

         -g                  Group option.

A bit more complete example might involve using more than one group:
still extending the previous example:

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                         "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                         "It is believed that some of them bite.")
     group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Debug Options")
     group.add_option("-d", "--debug", action="store_true",
                      help="Print debug information")
     group.add_option("-s", "--sql", action="store_true",
                      help="Print all SQL statements executed")
     group.add_option("-e", action="store_true", help="Print every action done")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

that results in the following output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or expert
                             [default: intermediate]

       Dangerous Options:
         Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
         of them bite.

         -g                  Group option.

       Debug Options:
         -d, --debug         Print debug information
         -s, --sql           Print all SQL statements executed
         -e                  Print every action done

Another interesting method, in particular when working programmatically
with option groups is:

 -- 方法: OptionParser.get_option_group (opt_str)

     Return the *note OptionGroup: 461e. to which the short or long
     option string 'opt_str' (e.g.  ‘'-o'’ or ‘'--option'’) belongs.  If
     there's no such *note OptionGroup: 461e, return ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Printing a version string,  Next: How optparse handles errors,  Prev: Generating help,  Up: 教學<4>

5.36.12.13 Printing a version string
....................................

Similar to the brief usage string, *note optparse: 9b. can also print a
version string for your program.  You have to supply the string as the
‘version’ argument to OptionParser:

     parser = OptionParser(usage="%prog [-f] [-q]", version="%prog 1.0")

‘%prog’ is expanded just like it is in ‘usage’.  Apart from that,
‘version’ can contain anything you like.  When you supply it, *note
optparse: 9b. automatically adds a ‘--version’ option to your parser.
If it encounters this option on the command line, it expands your
‘version’ string (by replacing ‘%prog’), prints it to stdout, and exits.

For example, if your script is called ‘/usr/bin/foo’:

     $ /usr/bin/foo --version
     foo 1.0

The following two methods can be used to print and get the ‘version’
string:

 -- 方法: OptionParser.print_version (file=None)

     Print the version message for the current program (‘self.version’)
     to 'file' (default stdout).  As with *note print_usage(): 4623, any
     occurrence of ‘%prog’ in ‘self.version’ is replaced with the name
     of the current program.  Does nothing if ‘self.version’ is empty or
     undefined.

 -- 方法: OptionParser.get_version ()

     Same as *note print_version(): 4622. but returns the version string
     instead of printing it.


File: python.info,  Node: How optparse handles errors,  Next: Putting it all together,  Prev: Printing a version string,  Up: 教學<4>

5.36.12.14 How ‘optparse’ handles errors
........................................

There are two broad classes of errors that *note optparse: 9b. has to
worry about: programmer errors and user errors.  Programmer errors are
usually erroneous calls to *note OptionParser.add_option(): 2a38, e.g.
invalid option strings, unknown option attributes, missing option
attributes, etc.  These are dealt with in the usual way: raise an
exception (either *note optparse.OptionError: 2a3b. or *note TypeError:
2ba.) and let the program crash.

Handling user errors is much more important, since they are guaranteed
to happen no matter how stable your code is.  *note optparse: 9b. can
automatically detect some user errors, such as bad option arguments
(passing ‘-n 4x’ where ‘-n’ takes an integer argument), missing
arguments (‘-n’ at the end of the command line, where ‘-n’ takes an
argument of any type).  Also, you can call ‘OptionParser.error()’ to
signal an application-defined error condition:

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
     ...
     if options.a and options.b:
         parser.error("options -a and -b are mutually exclusive")

In either case, *note optparse: 9b. handles the error the same way: it
prints the program's usage message and an error message to standard
error and exits with error status 2.

Consider the first example above, where the user passes ‘4x’ to an
option that takes an integer:

     $ /usr/bin/foo -n 4x
     Usage: foo [options]

     foo: error: option -n: invalid integer value: '4x'

Or, where the user fails to pass a value at all:

     $ /usr/bin/foo -n
     Usage: foo [options]

     foo: error: -n option requires an argument

*note optparse: 9b.-generated error messages take care always to mention
the option involved in the error; be sure to do the same when calling
‘OptionParser.error()’ from your application code.

If *note optparse: 9b.'s default error-handling behaviour does not suit
your needs, you'll need to subclass OptionParser and override its
‘exit()’ and/or ‘error()’ methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Putting it all together,  Prev: How optparse handles errors,  Up: 教學<4>

5.36.12.15 Putting it all together
..................................

Here's what *note optparse: 9b.-based scripts usually look like:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     def main():
         usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg"
         parser = OptionParser(usage)
         parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                           help="read data from FILENAME")
         parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                           action="store_true", dest="verbose")
         parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                           action="store_false", dest="verbose")
         ...
         (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
         if len(args) != 1:
             parser.error("incorrect number of arguments")
         if options.verbose:
             print("reading %s..." % options.filename)
         ...

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Guide,  Next: Option Callbacks,  Prev: 教學<4>,  Up: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器

5.36.12.16 Reference Guide
..........................

* Menu:

* Creating the parser::
* Populating the parser::
* Defining options::
* Option attributes::
* Standard option actions::
* Standard option types::
* 剖析引數::
* Querying and manipulating your option parser::
* Conflicts between options::
* Cleanup: Cleanup<2>.
* 其他方法::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating the parser,  Next: Populating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.17 Creating the parser
..............................

The first step in using *note optparse: 9b. is to create an OptionParser
instance.

 -- 類別: optparse.OptionParser (...)

     The OptionParser constructor has no required arguments, but a
     number of optional keyword arguments.  You should always pass them
     as keyword arguments, i.e.  do not rely on the order in which the
     arguments are declared.

     ‘usage’ (default: ‘"%prog [options]"’)

          The usage summary to print when your program is run
          incorrectly or with a help option.  When *note optparse: 9b.
          prints the usage string, it expands ‘%prog’ to
          ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’ (or to ‘prog’ if you passed
          that keyword argument).  To suppress a usage message, pass the
          special value ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE’.

     ‘option_list’ (default: ‘[]’)

          A list of Option objects to populate the parser with.  The
          options in ‘option_list’ are added after any options in
          ‘standard_option_list’ (a class attribute that may be set by
          OptionParser subclasses), but before any version or help
          options.  Deprecated; use *note add_option(): 2a38. after
          creating the parser instead.

     ‘option_class’ (default: optparse.Option)

          Class to use when adding options to the parser in *note
          add_option(): 2a38.

     ‘version’ (default: ‘None’)

          A version string to print when the user supplies a version
          option.  If you supply a true value for ‘version’, *note
          optparse: 9b. automatically adds a version option with the
          single option string ‘--version’.  The substring ‘%prog’ is
          expanded the same as for ‘usage’.

     ‘conflict_handler’ (default: ‘"error"’)

          Specifies what to do when options with conflicting option
          strings are added to the parser; see section *note Conflicts
          between options: 462c.

     ‘description’ (default: ‘None’)

          A paragraph of text giving a brief overview of your program.
          *note optparse: 9b. reformats this paragraph to fit the
          current terminal width and prints it when the user requests
          help (after ‘usage’, but before the list of options).

     ‘formatter’ (default: a new ‘IndentedHelpFormatter’)

          An instance of optparse.HelpFormatter that will be used for
          printing help text.  *note optparse: 9b. provides two concrete
          classes for this purpose: IndentedHelpFormatter and
          TitledHelpFormatter.

     ‘add_help_option’ (default: ‘True’)

          If true, *note optparse: 9b. will add a help option (with
          option strings ‘-h’ and ‘--help’) to the parser.

     ‘prog’

          The string to use when expanding ‘%prog’ in ‘usage’ and
          ‘version’ instead of ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’.

     ‘epilog’ (default: ‘None’)

          A paragraph of help text to print after the option help.


File: python.info,  Node: Populating the parser,  Next: Defining options,  Prev: Creating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.18 Populating the parser
................................

There are several ways to populate the parser with options.  The
preferred way is by using *note OptionParser.add_option(): 2a38, as
shown in section *note 教學: 4607.  ‘add_option()’ can be called in one
of two ways:

   * pass it an Option instance (as returned by ‘make_option()’)

   * pass it any combination of positional and keyword arguments that
     are acceptable to ‘make_option()’ (i.e., to the Option
     constructor), and it will create the Option instance for you

The other alternative is to pass a list of pre-constructed Option
instances to the OptionParser constructor, as in:

     option_list = [
         make_option("-f", "--filename",
                     action="store", type="string", dest="filename"),
         make_option("-q", "--quiet",
                     action="store_false", dest="verbose"),
         ]
     parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)

(‘make_option()’ is a factory function for creating Option instances;
currently it is an alias for the Option constructor.  A future version
of *note optparse: 9b. may split Option into several classes, and
‘make_option()’ will pick the right class to instantiate.  Do not
instantiate Option directly.)


File: python.info,  Node: Defining options,  Next: Option attributes,  Prev: Populating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.19 Defining options
...........................

Each Option instance represents a set of synonymous command-line option
strings, e.g.  ‘-f’ and ‘--file’.  You can specify any number of short
or long option strings, but you must specify at least one overall option
string.

The canonical way to create an *note Option: 4631. instance is with the
‘add_option()’ method of *note OptionParser: 1344.

 -- 方法: OptionParser.add_option (option)

 -- 方法: OptionParser.add_option (*opt_str, attr=value, ...)

     To define an option with only a short option string:

          parser.add_option("-f", attr=value, ...)

     And to define an option with only a long option string:

          parser.add_option("--foo", attr=value, ...)

     The keyword arguments define attributes of the new Option object.
     The most important option attribute is *note action: 4609, and it
     largely determines which other attributes are relevant or required.
     If you pass irrelevant option attributes, or fail to pass required
     ones, *note optparse: 9b. raises an *note OptionError: 2a3b.
     exception explaining your mistake.

     An option's 'action' determines what *note optparse: 9b. does when
     it encounters this option on the command-line.  The standard option
     actions hard-coded into *note optparse: 9b. are:

     ‘"store"’

          store this option's argument (default)

     ‘"store_const"’

          store a constant value, pre-set via *note Option.const: 4616.

     ‘"store_true"’

          store ‘True’

     ‘"store_false"’

          store ‘False’

     ‘"append"’

          append this option's argument to a list

     ‘"append_const"’

          append a constant value to a list, pre-set via *note
          Option.const: 4616.

     ‘"count"’

          increment a counter by one

     ‘"callback"’

          call a specified function

     ‘"help"’

          print a usage message including all options and the
          documentation for them

     (If you don't supply an action, the default is ‘"store"’.  For this
     action, you may also supply *note type: 460a. and *note dest: 460b.
     option attributes; see *note Standard option actions: 4632.)

As you can see, most actions involve storing or updating a value
somewhere.  *note optparse: 9b. always creates a special object for
this, conventionally called ‘options’, which is an instance of *note
optparse.Values: 2a3a.

 -- 類別: optparse.Values

     An object holding parsed argument names and values as attributes.
     Normally created by calling when calling *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 1345, and can be overridden by a custom
     subclass passed to the 'values' argument of *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 1345. (as described in *note 剖析引數:
     4633.).

Option arguments (and various other values) are stored as attributes of
this object, according to the *note dest: 460b. (destination) option
attribute.

例如說，當你呼叫：

     parser.parse_args()

one of the first things *note optparse: 9b. does is create the ‘options’
object:

     options = Values()

If one of the options in this parser is defined with

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

and the command-line being parsed includes any of the following:

     -ffoo
     -f foo
     --file=foo
     --file foo

then *note optparse: 9b, on seeing this option, will do the equivalent
of

     options.filename = "foo"

The *note type: 460a. and *note dest: 460b. option attributes are almost
as important as *note action: 4609, but *note action: 4609. is the only
one that makes sense for 'all' options.


File: python.info,  Node: Option attributes,  Next: Standard option actions,  Prev: Defining options,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.20 Option attributes
............................

 -- 類別: optparse.Option

     A single command line argument, with various attributes passed by
     keyword to the constructor.  Normally created with *note
     OptionParser.add_option(): 2a38. rather than directly, and can be
     overridden by a custom class via the 'option_class' argument to
     *note OptionParser: 1344.

The following option attributes may be passed as keyword arguments to
*note OptionParser.add_option(): 2a38.  If you pass an option attribute
that is not relevant to a particular option, or fail to pass a required
option attribute, *note optparse: 9b. raises *note OptionError: 2a3b.

 -- 屬性: Option.action

     （預設值： ‘"store"’ ）

     Determines *note optparse: 9b.'s behaviour when this option is seen
     on the command line; the available options are documented *note
     here: 4632.

 -- 屬性: Option.type

     （預設值： ‘"string"’ ）

     The argument type expected by this option (e.g., ‘"string"’ or
     ‘"int"’); the available option types are documented *note here:
     4636.

 -- 屬性: Option.dest

     (default: derived from option strings)

     If the option's action implies writing or modifying a value
     somewhere, this tells *note optparse: 9b. where to write it: *note
     dest: 460b. names an attribute of the ‘options’ object that *note
     optparse: 9b. builds as it parses the command line.

 -- 屬性: Option.default

     The value to use for this option's destination if the option is not
     seen on the command line.  See also *note
     OptionParser.set_defaults(): 4638.

 -- 屬性: Option.nargs

     （預設值：1）

     How many arguments of type *note type: 460a. should be consumed
     when this option is seen.  If > 1, *note optparse: 9b. will store a
     tuple of values to *note dest: 460b.

 -- 屬性: Option.const

     For actions that store a constant value, the constant value to
     store.

 -- 屬性: Option.choices

     For options of type ‘"choice"’, the list of strings the user may
     choose from.

 -- 屬性: Option.callback

     For options with action ‘"callback"’, the callable to call when
     this option is seen.  See section *note Option Callbacks: 4618. for
     detail on the arguments passed to the callable.

 -- 屬性: Option.callback_args
 -- 屬性: Option.callback_kwargs

     Additional positional and keyword arguments to pass to ‘callback’
     after the four standard callback arguments.

 -- 屬性: Option.help

     Help text to print for this option when listing all available
     options after the user supplies a *note help: 460c. option (such as
     ‘--help’).  If no help text is supplied, the option will be listed
     without help text.  To hide this option, use the special value
     ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP’.

 -- 屬性: Option.metavar

     (default: derived from option strings)

     Stand-in for the option argument(s) to use when printing help text.
     See section *note 教學: 4607. for an example.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard option actions,  Next: Standard option types,  Prev: Option attributes,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.21 Standard option actions
..................................

The various option actions all have slightly different requirements and
effects.  Most actions have several relevant option attributes which you
may specify to guide *note optparse: 9b.'s behaviour; a few have
required attributes, which you must specify for any option using that
action.

   * ‘"store"’ [relevant: *note type: 460a, *note dest: 460b, *note
     nargs: 4639, *note choices: 463a.]

     The option must be followed by an argument, which is converted to a
     value according to *note type: 460a. and stored in *note dest:
     460b.  If *note nargs: 4639. > 1, multiple arguments will be
     consumed from the command line; all will be converted according to
     *note type: 460a. and stored to *note dest: 460b. as a tuple.  See
     the *note Standard option types: 4636. section.

     If *note choices: 463a. is supplied (a list or tuple of strings),
     the type defaults to ‘"choice"’.

     If *note type: 460a. is not supplied, it defaults to ‘"string"’.

     If *note dest: 460b. is not supplied, *note optparse: 9b. derives a
     destination from the first long option string (e.g., ‘--foo-bar’
     implies ‘foo_bar’).  If there are no long option strings, *note
     optparse: 9b. derives a destination from the first short option
     string (e.g., ‘-f’ implies ‘f’).

     範例：

          parser.add_option("-f")
          parser.add_option("-p", type="float", nargs=3, dest="point")

     As it parses the command line

          -f foo.txt -p 1 -3.5 4 -fbar.txt

     *note optparse: 9b. will set

          options.f = "foo.txt"
          options.point = (1.0, -3.5, 4.0)
          options.f = "bar.txt"

   * ‘"store_const"’ [required: *note const: 4616.; relevant: *note
     dest: 460b.]

     The value *note const: 4616. is stored in *note dest: 460b.

     範例：

          parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                            action="store_const", const=0, dest="verbose")
          parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                            action="store_const", const=1, dest="verbose")
          parser.add_option("--noisy",
                            action="store_const", const=2, dest="verbose")

     If ‘--noisy’ is seen, *note optparse: 9b. will set

          options.verbose = 2

   * ‘"store_true"’ [relevant: *note dest: 460b.]

     A special case of ‘"store_const"’ that stores ‘True’ to *note dest:
     460b.

   * ‘"store_false"’ [relevant: *note dest: 460b.]

     Like ‘"store_true"’, but stores ‘False’.

     範例：

          parser.add_option("--clobber", action="store_true", dest="clobber")
          parser.add_option("--no-clobber", action="store_false", dest="clobber")

   * ‘"append"’ [relevant: *note type: 460a, *note dest: 460b, *note
     nargs: 4639, *note choices: 463a.]

     The option must be followed by an argument, which is appended to
     the list in *note dest: 460b.  If no default value for *note dest:
     460b. is supplied, an empty list is automatically created when
     *note optparse: 9b. first encounters this option on the
     command-line.  If *note nargs: 4639. > 1, multiple arguments are
     consumed, and a tuple of length *note nargs: 4639. is appended to
     *note dest: 460b.

     The defaults for *note type: 460a. and *note dest: 460b. are the
     same as for the ‘"store"’ action.

     範例：

          parser.add_option("-t", "--tracks", action="append", type="int")

     If ‘-t3’ is seen on the command-line, *note optparse: 9b. does the
     equivalent of:

          options.tracks = []
          options.tracks.append(int("3"))

     If, a little later on, ‘--tracks=4’ is seen, it does:

          options.tracks.append(int("4"))

     The ‘append’ action calls the ‘append’ method on the current value
     of the option.  This means that any default value specified must
     have an ‘append’ method.  It also means that if the default value
     is non-empty, the default elements will be present in the parsed
     value for the option, with any values from the command line
     appended after those default values:

          >>> parser.add_option("--files", action="append", default=['~/.mypkg/defaults'])
          >>> opts, args = parser.parse_args(['--files', 'overrides.mypkg'])
          >>> opts.files
          ['~/.mypkg/defaults', 'overrides.mypkg']

   * ‘"append_const"’ [required: *note const: 4616.; relevant: *note
     dest: 460b.]

     Like ‘"store_const"’, but the value *note const: 4616. is appended
     to *note dest: 460b.; as with ‘"append"’, *note dest: 460b.
     defaults to ‘None’, and an empty list is automatically created the
     first time the option is encountered.

   * ‘"count"’ [relevant: *note dest: 460b.]

     Increment the integer stored at *note dest: 460b.  If no default
     value is supplied, *note dest: 460b. is set to zero before being
     incremented the first time.

     範例：

          parser.add_option("-v", action="count", dest="verbosity")

     The first time ‘-v’ is seen on the command line, *note optparse:
     9b. does the equivalent of:

          options.verbosity = 0
          options.verbosity += 1

     Every subsequent occurrence of ‘-v’ results in

          options.verbosity += 1

   * ‘"callback"’ [required: *note callback: 463b.; relevant: *note
     type: 460a, *note nargs: 4639, *note callback_args: 463c, *note
     callback_kwargs: 463d.]

     Call the function specified by *note callback: 463b, which is
     called as

          func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

     更多細節請見 *note Option Callbacks: 4618.。

   * ‘"help"’

     Prints a complete help message for all the options in the current
     option parser.  The help message is constructed from the ‘usage’
     string passed to OptionParser's constructor and the *note help:
     460c. string passed to every option.

     If no *note help: 460c. string is supplied for an option, it will
     still be listed in the help message.  To omit an option entirely,
     use the special value ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP’.

     *note optparse: 9b. automatically adds a *note help: 460c. option
     to all OptionParsers, so you do not normally need to create one.

     範例：

          from optparse import OptionParser, SUPPRESS_HELP

          # usually, a help option is added automatically, but that can
          # be suppressed using the add_help_option argument
          parser = OptionParser(add_help_option=False)

          parser.add_option("-h", "--help", action="help")
          parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose",
                            help="Be moderately verbose")
          parser.add_option("--file", dest="filename",
                            help="Input file to read data from")
          parser.add_option("--secret", help=SUPPRESS_HELP)

     If *note optparse: 9b. sees either ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ on the command
     line, it will print something like the following help message to
     stdout (assuming ‘sys.argv[0]’ is ‘"foo.py"’):

          Usage: foo.py [options]

          Options:
            -h, --help        Show this help message and exit
            -v                Be moderately verbose
            --file=FILENAME   Input file to read data from

     After printing the help message, *note optparse: 9b. terminates
     your process with ‘sys.exit(0)’.

   * ‘"version"’

     Prints the version number supplied to the OptionParser to stdout
     and exits.  The version number is actually formatted and printed by
     the ‘print_version()’ method of OptionParser.  Generally only
     relevant if the ‘version’ argument is supplied to the OptionParser
     constructor.  As with *note help: 460c. options, you will rarely
     create ‘version’ options, since *note optparse: 9b. automatically
     adds them when needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard option types,  Next: 剖析引數,  Prev: Standard option actions,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.22 Standard option types
................................

*note optparse: 9b. has five built-in option types: ‘"string"’, ‘"int"’,
‘"choice"’, ‘"float"’ and ‘"complex"’.  If you need to add new option
types, see section *note Extending optparse: 460f.

Arguments to string options are not checked or converted in any way: the
text on the command line is stored in the destination (or passed to the
callback) as-is.

Integer arguments (type ‘"int"’) are parsed as follows:

   * if the number starts with ‘0x’, it is parsed as a hexadecimal
     number

   * if the number starts with ‘0’, it is parsed as an octal number

   * if the number starts with ‘0b’, it is parsed as a binary number

   * otherwise, the number is parsed as a decimal number

The conversion is done by calling *note int(): 17e. with the appropriate
base (2, 8, 10, or 16).  If this fails, so will *note optparse: 9b,
although with a more useful error message.

‘"float"’ and ‘"complex"’ option arguments are converted directly with
*note float(): 26a. and *note complex(): 26b, with similar
error-handling.

‘"choice"’ options are a subtype of ‘"string"’ options.  The *note
choices: 463a. option attribute (a sequence of strings) defines the set
of allowed option arguments.  ‘optparse.check_choice()’ compares
user-supplied option arguments against this master list and raises *note
OptionValueError: 2a3c. if an invalid string is given.


File: python.info,  Node: 剖析引數,  Next: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Prev: Standard option types,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.23 剖析引數
...................

The whole point of creating and populating an OptionParser is to call
its *note parse_args(): 1345. method.

 -- 方法: OptionParser.parse_args (args=None, values=None)

     Parse the command-line options found in 'args'.

     The input parameters are

     ‘args’

          the list of arguments to process (default: ‘sys.argv[1:]’)

     ‘values’

          a *note Values: 2a3a. object to store option arguments in
          (default: a new instance of *note Values: 2a3a.) - if you give
          an existing object, the option defaults will not be
          initialized on it

     and the return value is a pair ‘(options, args)’ where

     ‘options’

          the same object that was passed in as 'values', or the
          ‘optparse.Values’ instance created by *note optparse: 9b.

     ‘args’

          the leftover positional arguments after all options have been
          processed

The most common usage is to supply neither keyword argument.  If you
supply ‘values’, it will be modified with repeated *note setattr():
1eec. calls (roughly one for every option argument stored to an option
destination) and returned by *note parse_args(): 1345.

If *note parse_args(): 1345. encounters any errors in the argument list,
it calls the OptionParser's ‘error()’ method with an appropriate
end-user error message.  This ultimately terminates your process with an
exit status of 2 (the traditional Unix exit status for command-line
errors).


File: python.info,  Node: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Next: Conflicts between options,  Prev: 剖析引數,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.24 Querying and manipulating your option parser
.......................................................

The default behavior of the option parser can be customized slightly,
and you can also poke around your option parser and see what's there.
OptionParser provides several methods to help you out:

 -- 方法: OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args ()

     Set parsing to stop on the first non-option.  For example, if ‘-a’
     and ‘-b’ are both simple options that take no arguments, *note
     optparse: 9b. normally accepts this syntax:

          prog -a arg1 -b arg2

     and treats it as equivalent to

          prog -a -b arg1 arg2

     To disable this feature, call *note disable_interspersed_args():
     2a39.  This restores traditional Unix syntax, where option parsing
     stops with the first non-option argument.

     Use this if you have a command processor which runs another command
     which has options of its own and you want to make sure these
     options don't get confused.  For example, each command might have a
     different set of options.

 -- 方法: OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args ()

     Set parsing to not stop on the first non-option, allowing
     interspersing switches with command arguments.  This is the default
     behavior.

 -- 方法: OptionParser.get_option (opt_str)

     Returns the Option instance with the option string 'opt_str', or
     ‘None’ if no options have that option string.

 -- 方法: OptionParser.has_option (opt_str)

     Return ‘True’ if the OptionParser has an option with option string
     'opt_str' (e.g., ‘-q’ or ‘--verbose’).

 -- 方法: OptionParser.remove_option (opt_str)

     If the *note OptionParser: 1344. has an option corresponding to
     'opt_str', that option is removed.  If that option provided any
     other option strings, all of those option strings become invalid.
     If 'opt_str' does not occur in any option belonging to this *note
     OptionParser: 1344, raises *note ValueError: 183.


File: python.info,  Node: Conflicts between options,  Next: Cleanup<2>,  Prev: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.25 Conflicts between options
....................................

If you're not careful, it's easy to define options with conflicting
option strings:

     parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ...)
     ...
     parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ...)

(This is particularly true if you've defined your own OptionParser
subclass with some standard options.)

Every time you add an option, *note optparse: 9b. checks for conflicts
with existing options.  If it finds any, it invokes the current
conflict-handling mechanism.  You can set the conflict-handling
mechanism either in the constructor:

     parser = OptionParser(..., conflict_handler=handler)

or with a separate call:

     parser.set_conflict_handler(handler)

The available conflict handlers are:

     ‘"error"’ (default)

          assume option conflicts are a programming error and raise
          *note OptionConflictError: 4649.

     ‘"resolve"’

          resolve option conflicts intelligently (see below)

As an example, let's define an *note OptionParser: 1344. that resolves
conflicts intelligently and add conflicting options to it:

     parser = OptionParser(conflict_handler="resolve")
     parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ..., help="do no harm")
     parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ..., help="be noisy")

At this point, *note optparse: 9b. detects that a previously added
option is already using the ‘-n’ option string.  Since
‘conflict_handler’ is ‘"resolve"’, it resolves the situation by removing
‘-n’ from the earlier option's list of option strings.  Now ‘--dry-run’
is the only way for the user to activate that option.  If the user asks
for help, the help message will reflect that:

     Options:
       --dry-run     do no harm
       ...
       -n, --noisy   be noisy

It's possible to whittle away the option strings for a previously added
option until there are none left, and the user has no way of invoking
that option from the command-line.  In that case, *note optparse: 9b.
removes that option completely, so it doesn't show up in help text or
anywhere else.  Carrying on with our existing OptionParser:

     parser.add_option("--dry-run", ..., help="new dry-run option")

At this point, the original ‘-n’/‘--dry-run’ option is no longer
accessible, so *note optparse: 9b. removes it, leaving this help text:

     Options:
       ...
       -n, --noisy   be noisy
       --dry-run     new dry-run option


File: python.info,  Node: Cleanup<2>,  Next: 其他方法,  Prev: Conflicts between options,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.26 Cleanup
..................

OptionParser instances have several cyclic references.  This should not
be a problem for Python's garbage collector, but you may wish to break
the cyclic references explicitly by calling ‘destroy()’ on your
OptionParser once you are done with it.  This is particularly useful in
long-running applications where large object graphs are reachable from
your OptionParser.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他方法,  Prev: Cleanup<2>,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.27 其他方法
...................

OptionParser supports several other public methods:

 -- 方法: OptionParser.set_usage (usage)

     Set the usage string according to the rules described above for the
     ‘usage’ constructor keyword argument.  Passing ‘None’ sets the
     default usage string; use ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE’ to suppress a
     usage message.

 -- 方法: OptionParser.print_usage (file=None)

     Print the usage message for the current program (‘self.usage’) to
     'file' (default stdout).  Any occurrence of the string ‘%prog’ in
     ‘self.usage’ is replaced with the name of the current program.
     Does nothing if ‘self.usage’ is empty or not defined.

 -- 方法: OptionParser.get_usage ()

     Same as *note print_usage(): 4623. but returns the usage string
     instead of printing it.

 -- 方法: OptionParser.set_defaults (dest=value, ...)

     Set default values for several option destinations at once.  Using
     *note set_defaults(): 4638. is the preferred way to set default
     values for options, since multiple options can share the same
     destination.  For example, if several "mode" options all set the
     same destination, any one of them can set the default, and the last
     one wins:

          parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="advanced",
                            default="novice")    # overridden below
          parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="novice",
                            default="advanced")  # overrides above setting

     To avoid this confusion, use *note set_defaults(): 4638.:

          parser.set_defaults(mode="advanced")
          parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="advanced")
          parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="novice")


File: python.info,  Node: Option Callbacks,  Next: Extending optparse,  Prev: Reference Guide,  Up: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器

5.36.12.28 Option Callbacks
...........................

When *note optparse: 9b.'s built-in actions and types aren't quite
enough for your needs, you have two choices: extend *note optparse: 9b.
or define a callback option.  Extending *note optparse: 9b. is more
general, but overkill for a lot of simple cases.  Quite often a simple
callback is all you need.

There are two steps to defining a callback option:

   * define the option itself using the ‘"callback"’ action

   * write the callback; this is a function (or method) that takes at
     least four arguments, as described below

* Menu:

* Defining a callback option::
* How callbacks are called::
* Raising errors in a callback::
* Callback example 1; trivial callback: Callback example 1 trivial callback.
* Callback example 2; check option order: Callback example 2 check option order.
* Callback example 3; check option order (generalized): Callback example 3 check option order generalized.
* Callback example 4; check arbitrary condition: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition.
* Callback example 5; fixed arguments: Callback example 5 fixed arguments.
* Callback example 6; variable arguments: Callback example 6 variable arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining a callback option,  Next: How callbacks are called,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.29 Defining a callback option
.....................................

As always, the easiest way to define a callback option is by using the
*note OptionParser.add_option(): 2a38. method.  Apart from *note action:
4609, the only option attribute you must specify is ‘callback’, the
function to call:

     parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=my_callback)

‘callback’ is a function (or other callable object), so you must have
already defined ‘my_callback()’ when you create this callback option.
In this simple case, *note optparse: 9b. doesn't even know if ‘-c’ takes
any arguments, which usually means that the option takes no
arguments--the mere presence of ‘-c’ on the command-line is all it needs
to know.  In some circumstances, though, you might want your callback to
consume an arbitrary number of command-line arguments.  This is where
writing callbacks gets tricky; it's covered later in this section.

*note optparse: 9b. always passes four particular arguments to your
callback, and it will only pass additional arguments if you specify them
via *note callback_args: 463c. and *note callback_kwargs: 463d.  Thus,
the minimal callback function signature is:

     def my_callback(option, opt, value, parser):

The four arguments to a callback are described below.

There are several other option attributes that you can supply when you
define a callback option:

*note type: 460a.

     has its usual meaning: as with the ‘"store"’ or ‘"append"’ actions,
     it instructs *note optparse: 9b. to consume one argument and
     convert it to *note type: 460a.  Rather than storing the converted
     value(s) anywhere, though, *note optparse: 9b. passes it to your
     callback function.

*note nargs: 4639.

     also has its usual meaning: if it is supplied and > 1, *note
     optparse: 9b. will consume *note nargs: 4639. arguments, each of
     which must be convertible to *note type: 460a.  It then passes a
     tuple of converted values to your callback.

*note callback_args: 463c.

     a tuple of extra positional arguments to pass to the callback

*note callback_kwargs: 463d.

     a dictionary of extra keyword arguments to pass to the callback


File: python.info,  Node: How callbacks are called,  Next: Raising errors in a callback,  Prev: Defining a callback option,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.30 How callbacks are called
...................................

All callbacks are called as follows:

     func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

where

‘option’

     is the Option instance that's calling the callback

‘opt_str’

     is the option string seen on the command-line that's triggering the
     callback.  (If an abbreviated long option was used, ‘opt_str’ will
     be the full, canonical option string--e.g.  if the user puts
     ‘--foo’ on the command-line as an abbreviation for ‘--foobar’, then
     ‘opt_str’ will be ‘"--foobar"’.)

‘value’

     is the argument to this option seen on the command-line.  *note
     optparse: 9b. will only expect an argument if *note type: 460a. is
     set; the type of ‘value’ will be the type implied by the option's
     type.  If *note type: 460a. for this option is ‘None’ (no argument
     expected), then ‘value’ will be ‘None’.  If *note nargs: 4639. > 1,
     ‘value’ will be a tuple of values of the appropriate type.

‘parser’

     is the OptionParser instance driving the whole thing, mainly useful
     because you can access some other interesting data through its
     instance attributes:

     ‘parser.largs’

          the current list of leftover arguments, ie.  arguments that
          have been consumed but are neither options nor option
          arguments.  Feel free to modify ‘parser.largs’, e.g.  by
          adding more arguments to it.  (This list will become ‘args’,
          the second return value of *note parse_args(): 1345.)

     ‘parser.rargs’

          the current list of remaining arguments, ie.  with ‘opt_str’
          and ‘value’ (if applicable) removed, and only the arguments
          following them still there.  Feel free to modify
          ‘parser.rargs’, e.g.  by consuming more arguments.

     ‘parser.values’

          the object where option values are by default stored (an
          instance of optparse.OptionValues).  This lets callbacks use
          the same mechanism as the rest of *note optparse: 9b. for
          storing option values; you don't need to mess around with
          globals or closures.  You can also access or modify the
          value(s) of any options already encountered on the
          command-line.

‘args’

     is a tuple of arbitrary positional arguments supplied via the *note
     callback_args: 463c. option attribute.

‘kwargs’

     is a dictionary of arbitrary keyword arguments supplied via *note
     callback_kwargs: 463d.


File: python.info,  Node: Raising errors in a callback,  Next: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Prev: How callbacks are called,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.31 Raising errors in a callback
.......................................

The callback function should raise *note OptionValueError: 2a3c. if
there are any problems with the option or its argument(s).  *note
optparse: 9b. catches this and terminates the program, printing the
error message you supply to stderr.  Your message should be clear,
concise, accurate, and mention the option at fault.  Otherwise, the user
will have a hard time figuring out what they did wrong.


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Next: Callback example 2 check option order,  Prev: Raising errors in a callback,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.32 Callback example 1: trivial callback
...............................................

Here's an example of a callback option that takes no arguments, and
simply records that the option was seen:

     def record_foo_seen(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         parser.values.saw_foo = True

     parser.add_option("--foo", action="callback", callback=record_foo_seen)

Of course, you could do that with the ‘"store_true"’ action.


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 2 check option order,  Next: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Prev: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.33 Callback example 2: check option order
.................................................

Here's a slightly more interesting example: record the fact that ‘-a’ is
seen, but blow up if it comes after ‘-b’ in the command-line.

     def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if parser.values.b:
             raise OptionValueError("can't use -a after -b")
         parser.values.a = 1
     ...
     parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order)
     parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Next: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Prev: Callback example 2 check option order,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.34 Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
...............................................................

If you want to reuse this callback for several similar options (set a
flag, but blow up if ‘-b’ has already been seen), it needs a bit of
work: the error message and the flag that it sets must be generalized.

     def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if parser.values.b:
             raise OptionValueError("can't use %s after -b" % opt_str)
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
     ...
     parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='a')
     parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")
     parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='c')


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Next: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Prev: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.35 Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
........................................................

Of course, you could put any condition in there--you're not limited to
checking the values of already-defined options.  For example, if you
have options that should not be called when the moon is full, all you
have to do is this:

     def check_moon(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if is_moon_full():
             raise OptionValueError("%s option invalid when moon is full"
                                    % opt_str)
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
     ...
     parser.add_option("--foo",
                       action="callback", callback=check_moon, dest="foo")

(The definition of ‘is_moon_full()’ is left as an exercise for the
reader.)


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Next: Callback example 6 variable arguments,  Prev: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.36 Callback example 5: fixed arguments
..............................................

Things get slightly more interesting when you define callback options
that take a fixed number of arguments.  Specifying that a callback
option takes arguments is similar to defining a ‘"store"’ or ‘"append"’
option: if you define *note type: 460a, then the option takes one
argument that must be convertible to that type; if you further define
*note nargs: 4639, then the option takes *note nargs: 4639. arguments.

Here's an example that just emulates the standard ‘"store"’ action:

     def store_value(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)
     ...
     parser.add_option("--foo",
                       action="callback", callback=store_value,
                       type="int", nargs=3, dest="foo")

Note that *note optparse: 9b. takes care of consuming 3 arguments and
converting them to integers for you; all you have to do is store them.
(Or whatever; obviously you don't need a callback for this example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 6 variable arguments,  Prev: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.37 Callback example 6: variable arguments
.................................................

Things get hairy when you want an option to take a variable number of
arguments.  For this case, you must write a callback, as *note optparse:
9b. doesn't provide any built-in capabilities for it.  And you have to
deal with certain intricacies of conventional Unix command-line parsing
that *note optparse: 9b. normally handles for you.  In particular,
callbacks should implement the conventional rules for bare ‘--’ and ‘-’
arguments:

   * either ‘--’ or ‘-’ can be option arguments

   * bare ‘--’ (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
     processing and discard the ‘--’

   * bare ‘-’ (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
     processing but keep the ‘-’ (append it to ‘parser.largs’)

If you want an option that takes a variable number of arguments, there
are several subtle, tricky issues to worry about.  The exact
implementation you choose will be based on which trade-offs you're
willing to make for your application (which is why *note optparse: 9b.
doesn't support this sort of thing directly).

Nevertheless, here's a stab at a callback for an option with variable
arguments:

     def vararg_callback(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         assert value is None
         value = []

         def floatable(str):
             try:
                 float(str)
                 return True
             except ValueError:
                 return False

         for arg in parser.rargs:
             # stop on --foo like options
             if arg[:2] == "--" and len(arg) > 2:
                 break
             # stop on -a, but not on -3 or -3.0
             if arg[:1] == "-" and len(arg) > 1 and not floatable(arg):
                 break
             value.append(arg)

         del parser.rargs[:len(value)]
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)

     ...
     parser.add_option("-c", "--callback", dest="vararg_attr",
                       action="callback", callback=vararg_callback)


File: python.info,  Node: Extending optparse,  Next: 例外<16>,  Prev: Option Callbacks,  Up: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器

5.36.12.38 Extending ‘optparse’
...............................

Since the two major controlling factors in how *note optparse: 9b.
interprets command-line options are the action and type of each option,
the most likely direction of extension is to add new actions and new
types.

* Menu:

* Adding new types::
* Adding new actions::


File: python.info,  Node: Adding new types,  Next: Adding new actions,  Up: Extending optparse

5.36.12.39 Adding new types
...........................

To add new types, you need to define your own subclass of *note
optparse: 9b.'s *note Option: 4631. class.  This class has a couple of
attributes that define *note optparse: 9b.'s types: *note TYPES: 4666.
and *note TYPE_CHECKER: 4667.

 -- 屬性: Option.TYPES

     A tuple of type names; in your subclass, simply define a new tuple
     *note TYPES: 4666. that builds on the standard one.

 -- 屬性: Option.TYPE_CHECKER

     A dictionary mapping type names to type-checking functions.  A
     type-checking function has the following signature:

          def check_mytype(option, opt, value)

     where ‘option’ is an *note Option: 4631. instance, ‘opt’ is an
     option string (e.g., ‘-f’), and ‘value’ is the string from the
     command line that must be checked and converted to your desired
     type.  ‘check_mytype()’ should return an object of the hypothetical
     type ‘mytype’.  The value returned by a type-checking function will
     wind up in the OptionValues instance returned by *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 1345, or be passed to a callback as the
     ‘value’ parameter.

     Your type-checking function should raise *note OptionValueError:
     2a3c. if it encounters any problems.  *note OptionValueError: 2a3c.
     takes a single string argument, which is passed as-is to *note
     OptionParser: 1344.'s ‘error()’ method, which in turn prepends the
     program name and the string ‘"error:"’ and prints everything to
     stderr before terminating the process.

Here's a silly example that demonstrates adding a ‘"complex"’ option
type to parse Python-style complex numbers on the command line.  (This
is even sillier than it used to be, because *note optparse: 9b. 1.3
added built-in support for complex numbers, but never mind.)

First, the necessary imports:

     from copy import copy
     from optparse import Option, OptionValueError

You need to define your type-checker first, since it's referred to later
(in the *note TYPE_CHECKER: 4667. class attribute of your Option
subclass):

     def check_complex(option, opt, value):
         try:
             return complex(value)
         except ValueError:
             raise OptionValueError(
                 "option %s: invalid complex value: %r" % (opt, value))

Finally, the Option subclass:

     class MyOption (Option):
         TYPES = Option.TYPES + ("complex",)
         TYPE_CHECKER = copy(Option.TYPE_CHECKER)
         TYPE_CHECKER["complex"] = check_complex

(If we didn't make a *note copy(): 23. of *note Option.TYPE_CHECKER:
4667, we would end up modifying the *note TYPE_CHECKER: 4667. attribute
of *note optparse: 9b.'s Option class.  This being Python, nothing stops
you from doing that except good manners and common sense.)

That's it!  Now you can write a script that uses the new option type
just like any other *note optparse: 9b.-based script, except you have to
instruct your OptionParser to use MyOption instead of Option:

     parser = OptionParser(option_class=MyOption)
     parser.add_option("-c", type="complex")

Alternately, you can build your own option list and pass it to
OptionParser; if you don't use ‘add_option()’ in the above way, you
don't need to tell OptionParser which option class to use:

     option_list = [MyOption("-c", action="store", type="complex", dest="c")]
     parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)


File: python.info,  Node: Adding new actions,  Prev: Adding new types,  Up: Extending optparse

5.36.12.40 Adding new actions
.............................

Adding new actions is a bit trickier, because you have to understand
that *note optparse: 9b. has a couple of classifications for actions:

"store" actions

     actions that result in *note optparse: 9b. storing a value to an
     attribute of the current OptionValues instance; these options
     require a *note dest: 460b. attribute to be supplied to the Option
     constructor.

"typed" actions

     actions that take a value from the command line and expect it to be
     of a certain type; or rather, a string that can be converted to a
     certain type.  These options require a *note type: 460a. attribute
     to the Option constructor.

These are overlapping sets: some default "store" actions are ‘"store"’,
‘"store_const"’, ‘"append"’, and ‘"count"’, while the default "typed"
actions are ‘"store"’, ‘"append"’, and ‘"callback"’.

When you add an action, you need to categorize it by listing it in at
least one of the following class attributes of Option (all are lists of
strings):

 -- 屬性: Option.ACTIONS

     All actions must be listed in ACTIONS.

 -- 屬性: Option.STORE_ACTIONS

     "store" actions are additionally listed here.

 -- 屬性: Option.TYPED_ACTIONS

     "typed" actions are additionally listed here.

 -- 屬性: Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS

     Actions that always take a type (i.e.  whose options always take a
     value) are additionally listed here.  The only effect of this is
     that *note optparse: 9b. assigns the default type, ‘"string"’, to
     options with no explicit type whose action is listed in *note
     ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS: 466d.

In order to actually implement your new action, you must override
Option's ‘take_action()’ method and add a case that recognizes your
action.

For example, let's add an ‘"extend"’ action.  This is similar to the
standard ‘"append"’ action, but instead of taking a single value from
the command-line and appending it to an existing list, ‘"extend"’ will
take multiple values in a single comma-delimited string, and extend an
existing list with them.  That is, if ‘--names’ is an ‘"extend"’ option
of type ‘"string"’, the command line

     --names=foo,bar --names blah --names ding,dong

would result in a list

     ["foo", "bar", "blah", "ding", "dong"]

Again we define a subclass of Option:

     class MyOption(Option):

         ACTIONS = Option.ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         STORE_ACTIONS = Option.STORE_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)

         def take_action(self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser):
             if action == "extend":
                 lvalue = value.split(",")
                 values.ensure_value(dest, []).extend(lvalue)
             else:
                 Option.take_action(
                     self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser)

Features of note:

   * ‘"extend"’ both expects a value on the command-line and stores that
     value somewhere, so it goes in both *note STORE_ACTIONS: 466b. and
     *note TYPED_ACTIONS: 466c.

   * to ensure that *note optparse: 9b. assigns the default type of
     ‘"string"’ to ‘"extend"’ actions, we put the ‘"extend"’ action in
     *note ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS: 466d. as well.

   * ‘MyOption.take_action()’ implements just this one new action, and
     passes control back to ‘Option.take_action()’ for the standard
     *note optparse: 9b. actions.

   * ‘values’ is an instance of the optparse_parser.Values class, which
     provides the very useful ‘ensure_value()’ method.  ‘ensure_value()’
     is essentially *note getattr(): a32. with a safety valve; it is
     called as

          values.ensure_value(attr, value)

     If the ‘attr’ attribute of ‘values’ doesn't exist or is ‘None’,
     then ensure_value() first sets it to ‘value’, and then returns
     ‘value’.  This is very handy for actions like ‘"extend"’,
     ‘"append"’, and ‘"count"’, all of which accumulate data in a
     variable and expect that variable to be of a certain type (a list
     for the first two, an integer for the latter).  Using
     ‘ensure_value()’ means that scripts using your action don't have to
     worry about setting a default value for the option destinations in
     question; they can just leave the default as ‘None’ and
     ‘ensure_value()’ will take care of getting it right when it's
     needed.


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<16>,  Prev: Extending optparse,  Up: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器

5.36.12.41 例外
...............

 -- 例外: optparse.OptionError

     Raised if an *note Option: 4631. instance is created with invalid
     or inconsistent arguments.

 -- 例外: optparse.OptionConflictError

     Raised if conflicting options are added to an *note OptionParser:
     1344.

 -- 例外: optparse.OptionValueError

     Raised if an invalid option value is encountered on the command
     line.

 -- 例外: optparse.BadOptionError

     Raised if an invalid option is passed on the command line.

 -- 例外: optparse.AmbiguousOptionError

     Raised if an ambiguous option is passed on the command line.


File: python.info,  Node: ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取,  Next: pipes --- shell pipelines 介面,  Prev: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.13 ‘ossaudiodev’ -- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取
--------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
ossaudiodev: 9e. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP 594(1)）。

__________________________________________________________________

This module allows you to access the OSS (Open Sound System) audio
interface.  OSS is available for a wide range of open-source and
commercial Unices, and is the standard audio interface for Linux and
recent versions of FreeBSD.

在 3.3 版的變更: Operations in this module now raise *note OSError: 644.
where *note IOError: ee8. was raised.

也參考
......

Open Sound System Programmer's Guide(2)

     the official documentation for the OSS C API

The module defines a large number of constants supplied by the OSS
device driver; see ‘<sys/soundcard.h>’ on either Linux or FreeBSD for a
listing.

*note ossaudiodev: 9e. defines the following variables and functions:

 -- 例外: ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError

     This exception is raised on certain errors.  The argument is a
     string describing what went wrong.

     (If *note ossaudiodev: 9e. receives an error from a system call
     such as ‘open()’, ‘write()’, or ‘ioctl()’, it raises *note OSError:
     644.  Errors detected directly by *note ossaudiodev: 9e. result in
     *note OSSAudioError: 4673.)

     (For backwards compatibility, the exception class is also available
     as ‘ossaudiodev.error’.)

 -- 函式: ossaudiodev.open (mode)

 -- 函式: ossaudiodev.open (device, mode)

     Open an audio device and return an OSS audio device object.  This
     object supports many file-like methods, such as ‘read()’,
     ‘write()’, and ‘fileno()’ (although there are subtle differences
     between conventional Unix read/write semantics and those of OSS
     audio devices).  It also supports a number of audio-specific
     methods; see below for the complete list of methods.

     'device' is the audio device filename to use.  If it is not
     specified, this module first looks in the environment variable
     ‘AUDIODEV’ for a device to use.  If not found, it falls back to
     ‘/dev/dsp’.

     'mode' is one of ‘'r'’ for read-only (record) access, ‘'w'’ for
     write-only (playback) access and ‘'rw'’ for both.  Since many sound
     cards only allow one process to have the recorder or player open at
     a time, it is a good idea to open the device only for the activity
     needed.  Further, some sound cards are half-duplex: they can be
     opened for reading or writing, but not both at once.

     Note the unusual calling syntax: the 'first' argument is optional,
     and the second is required.  This is a historical artifact for
     compatibility with the older ‘linuxaudiodev’ module which *note
     ossaudiodev: 9e. supersedes.

 -- 函式: ossaudiodev.openmixer ([device])

     Open a mixer device and return an OSS mixer device object.
     'device' is the mixer device filename to use.  If it is not
     specified, this module first looks in the environment variable
     ‘MIXERDEV’ for a device to use.  If not found, it falls back to
     ‘/dev/mixer’.

* Menu:

* Audio Device Objects::
* Mixer Device Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#ossaudiodev

   (2) http://www.opensound.com/pguide/oss.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Audio Device Objects,  Next: Mixer Device Objects,  Up: ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取

5.36.13.1 Audio Device Objects
..............................

Before you can write to or read from an audio device, you must call
three methods in the correct order:

  1. ‘setfmt()’ to set the output format

  2. ‘channels()’ to set the number of channels

  3. ‘speed()’ to set the sample rate

Alternately, you can use the ‘setparameters()’ method to set all three
audio parameters at once.  This is more convenient, but may not be as
flexible in all cases.

The audio device objects returned by *note open(): 4674. define the
following methods and (read-only) attributes:

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.close ()

     Explicitly close the audio device.  When you are done writing to or
     reading from an audio device, you should explicitly close it.  A
     closed device cannot be used again.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor associated with the device.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.read (size)

     Read 'size' bytes from the audio input and return them as a Python
     string.  Unlike most Unix device drivers, OSS audio devices in
     blocking mode (the default) will block *note read(): 467a. until
     the entire requested amount of data is available.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.write (data)

     Write a *note bytes-like object: b9f. 'data' to the audio device
     and return the number of bytes written.  If the audio device is in
     blocking mode (the default), the entire data is always written
     (again, this is different from usual Unix device semantics).  If
     the device is in non-blocking mode, some data may not be
     written--see *note writeall(): 467c.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Writable *note bytes-like object: b9f. is now
     accepted.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.writeall (data)

     Write a *note bytes-like object: b9f. 'data' to the audio device:
     waits until the audio device is able to accept data, writes as much
     data as it will accept, and repeats until 'data' has been
     completely written.  If the device is in blocking mode (the
     default), this has the same effect as *note write(): 467b.; *note
     writeall(): 467c. is only useful in non-blocking mode.  Has no
     return value, since the amount of data written is always equal to
     the amount of data supplied.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Writable *note bytes-like object: b9f. is now
     accepted.

在 3.2 版的變更: Audio device objects also support the context
management protocol, i.e.  they can be used in a *note with: 3c5.
statement.

The following methods each map to exactly one ‘ioctl()’ system call.
The correspondence is obvious: for example, ‘setfmt()’ corresponds to
the ‘SNDCTL_DSP_SETFMT’ ioctl, and ‘sync()’ to ‘SNDCTL_DSP_SYNC’ (this
can be useful when consulting the OSS documentation).  If the underlying
‘ioctl()’ fails, they all raise *note OSError: 644.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.nonblock ()

     Put the device into non-blocking mode.  Once in non-blocking mode,
     there is no way to return it to blocking mode.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.getfmts ()

     Return a bitmask of the audio output formats supported by the
     soundcard.  Some of the formats supported by OSS are:

     格式                          描述
                                   
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
     ‘AFMT_MU_LAW’                 a logarithmic encoding (used by Sun ‘.au’ files
                                   and ‘/dev/audio’)
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_A_LAW’                  a logarithmic encoding
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_IMA_ADPCM’              a 4:1 compressed format defined by the
                                   Interactive Multimedia Association
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_U8’                     Unsigned, 8-bit audio
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_S16_LE’                 Signed, 16-bit audio, little-endian byte order
                                   (as used by Intel processors)
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_S16_BE’                 Signed, 16-bit audio, big-endian byte order (as
                                   used by 68k, PowerPC, Sparc)
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_S8’                     Signed, 8 bit audio
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_U16_LE’                 Unsigned, 16-bit little-endian audio
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_U16_BE’                 Unsigned, 16-bit big-endian audio
                                   

     Consult the OSS documentation for a full list of audio formats, and
     note that most devices support only a subset of these formats.
     Some older devices only support ‘AFMT_U8’; the most common format
     used today is ‘AFMT_S16_LE’.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.setfmt (format)

     Try to set the current audio format to 'format'--see *note
     getfmts(): 467e. for a list.  Returns the audio format that the
     device was set to, which may not be the requested format.  May also
     be used to return the current audio format--do this by passing an
     "audio format" of ‘AFMT_QUERY’.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.channels (nchannels)

     Set the number of output channels to 'nchannels'.  A value of 1
     indicates monophonic sound, 2 stereophonic.  Some devices may have
     more than 2 channels, and some high-end devices may not support
     mono.  Returns the number of channels the device was set to.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.speed (samplerate)

     Try to set the audio sampling rate to 'samplerate' samples per
     second.  Returns the rate actually set.  Most sound devices don't
     support arbitrary sampling rates.  Common rates are:

     Rate        描述
                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     8000        default rate for ‘/dev/audio’
                 
                 
     11025       speech recording
                 
                 
     22050

     44100       CD quality audio (at 16 bits/sample and 2
                 channels)
                 
                 
     96000       DVD quality audio (at 24 bits/sample)
                 

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.sync ()

     Wait until the sound device has played every byte in its buffer.
     (This happens implicitly when the device is closed.)  The OSS
     documentation recommends closing and re-opening the device rather
     than using *note sync(): 4682.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.reset ()

     Immediately stop playing or recording and return the device to a
     state where it can accept commands.  The OSS documentation
     recommends closing and re-opening the device after calling *note
     reset(): 4683.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.post ()

     Tell the driver that there is likely to be a pause in the output,
     making it possible for the device to handle the pause more
     intelligently.  You might use this after playing a spot sound
     effect, before waiting for user input, or before doing disk I/O.

The following convenience methods combine several ioctls, or one ioctl
and some simple calculations.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.setparameters (format, nchannels,
          samplerate[, strict=False])

     Set the key audio sampling parameters--sample format, number of
     channels, and sampling rate--in one method call.  'format',
     'nchannels', and 'samplerate' should be as specified in the *note
     setfmt(): 467f, *note channels(): 4680, and *note speed(): 4681.
     methods.  If 'strict' is true, *note setparameters(): 4685. checks
     to see if each parameter was actually set to the requested value,
     and raises *note OSSAudioError: 4673. if not.  Returns a tuple
     ('format', 'nchannels', 'samplerate') indicating the parameter
     values that were actually set by the device driver (i.e., the same
     as the return values of *note setfmt(): 467f, *note channels():
     4680, and *note speed(): 4681.).

     舉例來說：

          (fmt, channels, rate) = dsp.setparameters(fmt, channels, rate)

     等價於：

          fmt = dsp.setfmt(fmt)
          channels = dsp.channels(channels)
          rate = dsp.rate(rate)

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.bufsize ()

     Returns the size of the hardware buffer, in samples.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.obufcount ()

     Returns the number of samples that are in the hardware buffer yet
     to be played.

 -- 方法: oss_audio_device.obuffree ()

     Returns the number of samples that could be queued into the
     hardware buffer to be played without blocking.

Audio device objects also support several read-only attributes:

 -- 屬性: oss_audio_device.closed

     Boolean indicating whether the device has been closed.

 -- 屬性: oss_audio_device.name

     String containing the name of the device file.

 -- 屬性: oss_audio_device.mode

     The I/O mode for the file, either ‘"r"’, ‘"rw"’, or ‘"w"’.


File: python.info,  Node: Mixer Device Objects,  Prev: Audio Device Objects,  Up: ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取

5.36.13.2 Mixer Device Objects
..............................

The mixer object provides two file-like methods:

 -- 方法: oss_mixer_device.close ()

     This method closes the open mixer device file.  Any further
     attempts to use the mixer after this file is closed will raise an
     *note OSError: 644.

 -- 方法: oss_mixer_device.fileno ()

     Returns the file handle number of the open mixer device file.

在 3.2 版的變更: Mixer objects also support the context management
protocol.

The remaining methods are specific to audio mixing:

 -- 方法: oss_mixer_device.controls ()

     This method returns a bitmask specifying the available mixer
     controls ("Control" being a specific mixable "channel", such as
     ‘SOUND_MIXER_PCM’ or ‘SOUND_MIXER_SYNTH’).  This bitmask indicates
     a subset of all available mixer controls--the ‘SOUND_MIXER_*’
     constants defined at module level.  To determine if, for example,
     the current mixer object supports a PCM mixer, use the following
     Python code:

          mixer=ossaudiodev.openmixer()
          if mixer.controls() & (1 << ossaudiodev.SOUND_MIXER_PCM):
              # PCM is supported
              ... code ...

     For most purposes, the ‘SOUND_MIXER_VOLUME’ (master volume) and
     ‘SOUND_MIXER_PCM’ controls should suffice--but code that uses the
     mixer should be flexible when it comes to choosing mixer controls.
     On the Gravis Ultrasound, for example, ‘SOUND_MIXER_VOLUME’ does
     not exist.

 -- 方法: oss_mixer_device.stereocontrols ()

     Returns a bitmask indicating stereo mixer controls.  If a bit is
     set, the corresponding control is stereo; if it is unset, the
     control is either monophonic or not supported by the mixer (use in
     combination with *note controls(): 4690. to determine which).

     See the code example for the *note controls(): 4690. function for
     an example of getting data from a bitmask.

 -- 方法: oss_mixer_device.reccontrols ()

     Returns a bitmask specifying the mixer controls that may be used to
     record.  See the code example for *note controls(): 4690. for an
     example of reading from a bitmask.

 -- 方法: oss_mixer_device.get (control)

     Returns the volume of a given mixer control.  The returned volume
     is a 2-tuple ‘(left_volume,right_volume)’.  Volumes are specified
     as numbers from 0 (silent) to 100 (full volume).  If the control is
     monophonic, a 2-tuple is still returned, but both volumes are the
     same.

     Raises *note OSSAudioError: 4673. if an invalid control is
     specified, or *note OSError: 644. if an unsupported control is
     specified.

 -- 方法: oss_mixer_device.set (control, (left, right))

     Sets the volume for a given mixer control to ‘(left,right)’.
     ‘left’ and ‘right’ must be ints and between 0 (silent) and 100
     (full volume).  On success, the new volume is returned as a
     2-tuple.  Note that this may not be exactly the same as the volume
     specified, because of the limited resolution of some soundcard's
     mixers.

     Raises *note OSSAudioError: 4673. if an invalid mixer control was
     specified, or if the specified volumes were out-of-range.

 -- 方法: oss_mixer_device.get_recsrc ()

     This method returns a bitmask indicating which control(s) are
     currently being used as a recording source.

 -- 方法: oss_mixer_device.set_recsrc (bitmask)

     Call this function to specify a recording source.  Returns a
     bitmask indicating the new recording source (or sources) if
     successful; raises *note OSError: 644. if an invalid source was
     specified.  To set the current recording source to the microphone
     input:

          mixer.setrecsrc (1 << ossaudiodev.SOUND_MIXER_MIC)


File: python.info,  Node: pipes --- shell pipelines 介面,  Next: sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別,  Prev: ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.14 ‘pipes’ -- shell pipelines 介面
---------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/pipes.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
pipes: a3. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP 594(2)）。請改用 *note
subprocess: d0.。

__________________________________________________________________

The *note pipes: a3. module defines a class to abstract the concept of a
'pipeline' -- a sequence of converters from one file to another.

Because the module uses ‘/bin/sh’ command lines, a POSIX or compatible
shell for *note os.system(): 12cd. and *note os.popen(): 8d3. is
required.

*note Availability: 1b45.: Unix, not VxWorks.

The *note pipes: a3. module defines the following class:

 -- 類別: pipes.Template

     An abstraction of a pipeline.

範例：

     >>> import pipes
     >>> t = pipes.Template()
     >>> t.append('tr a-z A-Z', '--')
     >>> f = t.open('pipefile', 'w')
     >>> f.write('hello world')
     >>> f.close()
     >>> open('pipefile').read()
     'HELLO WORLD'

* Menu:

* Template Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pipes.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#pipes


File: python.info,  Node: Template Objects,  Up: pipes --- shell pipelines 介面

5.36.14.1 Template Objects
..........................

Template objects following methods:

 -- 方法: Template.reset ()

     Restore a pipeline template to its initial state.

 -- 方法: Template.clone ()

     Return a new, equivalent, pipeline template.

 -- 方法: Template.debug (flag)

     If 'flag' is true, turn debugging on.  Otherwise, turn debugging
     off.  When debugging is on, commands to be executed are printed,
     and the shell is given ‘set -x’ command to be more verbose.

 -- 方法: Template.append (cmd, kind)

     Append a new action at the end.  The 'cmd' variable must be a valid
     bourne shell command.  The 'kind' variable consists of two letters.

     The first letter can be either of ‘'-'’ (which means the command
     reads its standard input), ‘'f'’ (which means the commands reads a
     given file on the command line) or ‘'.'’ (which means the commands
     reads no input, and hence must be first.)

     Similarly, the second letter can be either of ‘'-'’ (which means
     the command writes to standard output), ‘'f'’ (which means the
     command writes a file on the command line) or ‘'.'’ (which means
     the command does not write anything, and hence must be last.)

 -- 方法: Template.prepend (cmd, kind)

     Add a new action at the beginning.  See *note append(): 469f. for
     explanations of the arguments.

 -- 方法: Template.open (file, mode)

     Return a file-like object, open to 'file', but read from or written
     to by the pipeline.  Note that only one of ‘'r'’, ‘'w'’ may be
     given.

 -- 方法: Template.copy (infile, outfile)

     Copy 'infile' to 'outfile' through the pipe.


File: python.info,  Node: sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別,  Next: spwd --- shadow 密碼資料庫,  Prev: pipes --- shell pipelines 介面,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.15 ‘sndhdr’ -- 判定聲音檔案的型別
--------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/sndhdr.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
sndhdr: c5. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳情與替代方案請見 PEP 594(2)）。

__________________________________________________________________

*note sndhdr: c5. 提供了企圖猜測檔案中聲音資料型別的工具函式。當這些函式
可以推測出儲存在檔案中聲音資料的型別，它們分別回傳一個 *note
collections.namedtuple(): 731.，包含了五種屬性：（‘filetype’、
‘framerate’、‘nchannels’、‘nframes’、‘sampwidth’）。這些 'type' 的值表示
資料的型別，會是以下字串之一：‘'aifc'’、‘'aiff'’、‘'au'’、‘'hcom'’、
‘'sndr'’、‘'sndt'’、‘'voc'’、‘'wav'’、‘'8svx'’、‘'sb'’、‘'ub'’ 或
‘'ul'’。'sampling_rate'（取樣頻率）可能是實際值、或者當未知或者難以解碼
時為 ‘0’。同樣的，'channels'（影像通道數）也會回傳實際值或者在無法推測或
難以解碼時回傳 ‘0’。'frames'（幀數）則是實際值或 ‘-1’。tuple 的最後一項
，'bits_per_sample' 為位元表示的取樣大小，或者在 A-LAW 時為 ‘'A'’，u-LAW
時為 ‘'U'’。

 -- 函式: sndhdr.what (filename)

     使用 *note whathdr(): cd9. 推測儲存在 'filename' 檔案中聲音資料的型
     別。如果成功，回傳上述的 namedtuple（附名元組），否則回傳 ‘None’。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 結果從 tuple 改為 namedtuple。

 -- 函式: sndhdr.whathdr (filename)

     根據檔案標頭 (header) 推測儲存在檔案中的聲音資料型別。檔名由
     'filename' 給定。這個函式在成功時回傳上述 namedtuple，或在失敗時回
     傳 ‘None’。

     在 3.5 版的變更: 結果從 tuple 改為 namedtuple。

The following sound header types are recognized, as listed below with
the return value from *note whathdr(): cd9.: and *note what(): cd8.:

Value            Sound header format
                 
----------------------------------------------------------
                 
‘'aifc'’         Compressed Audio Interchange Files
                 
                 
‘'aiff'’         Audio Interchange Files
                 
                 
‘'au'’           Au 檔案
                 
                 
‘'hcom'’         HCOM 檔案
                 
                 
‘'sndt'’         Sndtool Sound Files
                 
                 
‘'voc'’          Creative Labs Audio Files
                 
                 
‘'wav'’          Waveform Audio File Format Files
                 
                 
‘'8svx'’         8-Bit Sampled Voice Files
                 
                 
‘'sb'’           Signed Byte Audio Data Files
                 
                 
‘'ub'’           UB 檔案
                 
                 
‘'ul'’           uLAW 音檔
                 

 -- 資料: sndhdr.tests

     A list of functions performing the individual tests.  Each function
     takes two arguments: the byte-stream and an open file-like object.
     When *note what(): cd8. is called with a byte-stream, the file-like
     object will be ‘None’.

     The test function should return a string describing the image type
     if the test succeeded, or ‘None’ if it failed.

範例：

     >>> import sndhdr
     >>> imghdr.what('bass.wav')
     'wav'
     >>> imghdr.whathdr('bass.wav')
     'wav'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sndhdr.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#sndhdr


File: python.info,  Node: spwd --- shadow 密碼資料庫,  Next: sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案,  Prev: sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.16 ‘spwd’ -- shadow 密碼資料庫
-----------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
spwd: c8. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳情與替代方案請見 PEP 594(1)）。

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unix shadow password database.  It is
available on various Unix versions.

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

You must have enough privileges to access the shadow password database
(this usually means you have to be root).

Shadow password database entries are reported as a tuple-like object,
whose attributes correspond to the members of the ‘spwd’ structure
(Attribute field below, see ‘<shadow.h>’):

Index       屬性                含義
                                
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                
0           ‘sp_namp’           Login name
                                
                                
1           ‘sp_pwdp’           Encrypted password
                                
                                
2           ‘sp_lstchg’         Date of last change
                                
                                
3           ‘sp_min’            Minimal number of days between
                                changes
                                
                                
4           ‘sp_max’            Maximum number of days between
                                changes
                                
                                
5           ‘sp_warn’           Number of days before password
                                expires to warn user about it
                                
                                
6           ‘sp_inact’          Number of days after password
                                expires until account is disabled
                                
                                
7           ‘sp_expire’         Number of days since 1970-01-01
                                when account expires
                                
                                
8           ‘sp_flag’           Reserved
                                

The sp_namp and sp_pwdp items are strings, all others are integers.
*note KeyError: 8ed. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.

The following functions are defined:

 -- 函式: spwd.getspnam (name)

     Return the shadow password database entry for the given user name.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Raises a *note PermissionError: bb5. instead of
     *note KeyError: 8ed. if the user doesn't have privileges.

 -- 函式: spwd.getspall ()

     Return a list of all available shadow password database entries, in
     arbitrary order.

也參考
......

*note grp: 61. 模組

     An interface to the group database, similar to this.

*note pwd: ad. 模組

     An interface to the normal password database, similar to this.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#spwd


File: python.info,  Node: sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案,  Next: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端,  Prev: spwd --- shadow 密碼資料庫,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.17 ‘sunau’ -- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案
-----------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/sunau.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
sunau: d1. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP 594(2)）。

__________________________________________________________________

*note sunau: d1. 模組 (module) 提供了一個處理 Sun AU 聲音格式的便利介面
。請注意此模組與 *note aifc: 5. 和 *note wave: 10e. 的介面是相容的。

音訊檔案由標頭 (header) 和資料組成。標頭包含以下欄位：

欄位                內容
                    
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
magic word          四個位元組 ‘.snd’。
                    
                    
header size         標頭的大小，包括資訊，以位元組為單位。
                    
                    
data size           資料的物理大小，以位元組為單位。
                    
                    
encoding            表示音訊取樣的編碼方式。
                    
                    
sample rate         取樣頻率。
                    
                    
# of channels       取樣中的聲道數。
                    
                    
info                音訊檔案描述的 ASCII 字串（會以空位元組填補
                    (pad)）。
                    

除了 info 欄位以外，所有其他標頭中欄位的大小都是 4 位元組，他們都是以
big-endian 位元組順序所編碼的 32-bit（位元）unsigned integers（無符號整
數）

*note sunau: d1. 模組定義了以下函式：

 -- 函式: sunau.open (file, mode)

     如 'file' 是一個字串，則以此名開啟檔案，否則把它當作一個可以被搜尋
     的 file-like object（類檔案物件）。'mode' 可以是以下任一

     ‘'r'’

          唯讀模式。

     ‘'w'’

          唯寫模式。

     請注意這並不允許讀/寫檔案。

     'mode' 若設為 ‘'r'’ 則會回傳一個 ‘AU_read’ 物件，若設為 ‘'w'’ 或
     ‘'wb'’ 則回傳 ‘AU_write’ 物件。

*note sunau: d1. 模組定義了以下例外：

 -- 例外: sunau.Error

     在不符合 Sun AU 規格或實作上有所不足而無法達成某些目的時會引發的錯
     誤。

*note sunau: d1. 模組定義了以下資料條目：

 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC

     每個 Sun AU 檔案都會作為開頭的一個整數，以 big-endian 形式儲存。這
     也是 ‘.snd’ 所直接轉譯成一個整數的字串。

 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8
 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8
 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16
 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24
 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32
 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8

     此模組有支援的 AU 標頭中 encoding 欄位值。

 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT
 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE
 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721
 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722
 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3
 -- 資料: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5

     額外已知的 AU 標頭中 encoding 欄位值，但不被此模組支援。

* Menu:

* AU_read 物件::
* AU_write 物件::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sunau.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#sunau


File: python.info,  Node: AU_read 物件,  Next: AU_write 物件,  Up: sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案

5.36.17.1 AU_read 物件
......................

如上述 *note open(): a50. 所回傳的 AU_read 物件擁有以下 method（方法）：

 -- 方法: AU_read.close ()

     關閉串流 (stream)，並使該實例無法被使用。（這會自動在刪除時呼叫。）

 -- 方法: AU_read.getnchannels ()

     回傳音訊聲道數量（單聲道為 1，雙聲道為 2）。

 -- 方法: AU_read.getsampwidth ()

     回傳取樣位元組長度。

 -- 方法: AU_read.getframerate ()

     回傳取樣頻率。

 -- 方法: AU_read.getnframes ()

     回傳音訊總幀數。

 -- 方法: AU_read.getcomptype ()

     回傳壓縮種類。支援的壓縮種類有 ‘'ULAW'’、‘'ALAW'’ 和 ‘'NONE'’。

 -- 方法: AU_read.getcompname ()

     可被人類讀懂 (human-readable) 的 *note getcomptype(): 46c0.。有被支
     援的種類分別有這些名稱 ‘'CCITT G.711 u-law'’、‘'CCITT G.711 A-law'’
     和 ‘'not compressed'’。

 -- 方法: AU_read.getparams ()

     回傳一個 *note namedtuple(): 731. ‘(nchannels, sampwidth,
     framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)’，與 ‘get*()’ methods 的輸
     出相同。

 -- 方法: AU_read.readframes (n)

     讀取並以 *note bytes: 2c1. 物件形式回傳音檔中至多 'n' 幀，資料會以
     線性格式 (linear format) 回傳，如果原始資料是 u-LAW 格式，則它會被
     轉換。

 -- 方法: AU_read.rewind ()

     重置檔案指標 (file pointer) 至音訊開頭。

以下兩個 methods 都定義了在它們之間相容的 "position"，否則會與實作相依。

 -- 方法: AU_read.setpos (pos)

     設定檔案指標至指定的位置，只有 *note tell(): 46c6. 的回傳值應被做為
     'pos' 使用。

 -- 方法: AU_read.tell ()

     回傳當前檔案指標位置，要注意回傳值和真實檔案中的位置無關。

以下兩個函式單純是為了和 *note aifc: 5. 相容而定義，並沒有做什麼特別的。

 -- 方法: AU_read.getmarkers ()

     回傳 ‘None’。

 -- 方法: AU_read.getmark (id)

     引發錯誤。


File: python.info,  Node: AU_write 物件,  Prev: AU_read 物件,  Up: sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案

5.36.17.2 AU_write 物件
.......................

如上述 *note open(): a50. 所回傳的 AU_write 物件擁有以下 methods：

 -- 方法: AU_write.setnchannels (n)

     設定聲道數。

 -- 方法: AU_write.setsampwidth (n)

     設定取樣寬度（以位元組為單位）。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 新增對於 24-bit 取樣的支援。

 -- 方法: AU_write.setframerate (n)

     設定影格率 (frame rate)。

 -- 方法: AU_write.setnframes (n)

     設定幀數，該值可以在寫入更多幀後修改。

 -- 方法: AU_write.setcomptype (type, name)

     設定壓縮種類和敘述，輸出只支援 ‘'NONE'’ 和 ‘'ULAW'’。

 -- 方法: AU_write.setparams (tuple)

     'tuple' 應為 ‘(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes, comptype,
     compname)’ 形式，各個值應該要是 ‘set*()’ methods 能有效接受的值。該
     函數會一次設定所有參數。

 -- 方法: AU_write.tell ()

     回傳當前檔案中的位置，帶有和 *note AU_read.tell(): 46c6. 與 *note
     AU_read.setpos(): 46c5. 方法相同的免責聲明 (disclaimer)。

 -- 方法: AU_write.writeframesraw (data)

     寫入音訊資料但不更新 'nframes'。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 現在可接受任意 *note bytes-like object: b9f.。

 -- 方法: AU_write.writeframes (data)

     寫入音訊資料並更新 'nframes' 以確保其正確性。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 現在可接受任意 *note bytes-like object: b9f.。

 -- 方法: AU_write.close ()

     確保 'nframes' 是正確的，並關閉檔案。

     此 method 會在刪除時呼叫。

請注意，在呼叫 ‘writeframes()’ 或 ‘writeframesraw()’ 後設定任何參數都是
無效的。


File: python.info,  Node: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端,  Next: xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼,  Prev: sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.18 ‘telnetlib’ -- Telnet 客戶端
------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/telnetlib.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
telnetlib: d9. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳情與替代方案請見 PEP 594(2)）
。

__________________________________________________________________

The *note telnetlib: d9. module provides a *note Telnet: b56. class that
implements the Telnet protocol.  See RFC 854(3) for details about the
protocol.  In addition, it provides symbolic constants for the protocol
characters (see below), and for the telnet options.  The symbolic names
of the telnet options follow the definitions in ‘arpa/telnet.h’, with
the leading ‘TELOPT_’ removed.  For symbolic names of options which are
traditionally not included in ‘arpa/telnet.h’, see the module source
itself.

The symbolic constants for the telnet commands are: IAC, DONT, DO, WONT,
WILL, SE (Subnegotiation End), NOP (No Operation), DM (Data Mark), BRK
(Break), IP (Interrupt process), AO (Abort output), AYT (Are You There),
EC (Erase Character), EL (Erase Line), GA (Go Ahead), SB (Subnegotiation
Begin).

*note Availability: 1b45.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

此模組在 WebAssembly 平台 ‘wasm32-emscripten’ 和 ‘wasm32-wasi’ 上無法作
用或無法使用。有關更多資訊，請參閱 *note WebAssembly 平台: 15ae.。

 -- 類別: telnetlib.Telnet (host=None, port=0[, timeout])

     *note Telnet: b56. represents a connection to a Telnet server.  The
     instance is initially not connected by default; the *note open():
     3f01. method must be used to establish a connection.
     Alternatively, the host name and optional port number can be passed
     to the constructor too, in which case the connection to the server
     will be established before the constructor returns.  The optional
     'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking
     operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the
     global default timeout setting will be used).

     Do not reopen an already connected instance.

     This class has many ‘read_*()’ methods.  Note that some of them
     raise *note EOFError: 116a. when the end of the connection is read,
     because they can return an empty string for other reasons.  See the
     individual descriptions below.

     A *note Telnet: b56. object is a context manager and can be used in
     a *note with: 3c5. statement.  When the ‘with’ block ends, the
     *note close(): 46d4. method is called:

          >>> from telnetlib import Telnet
          >>> with Telnet('localhost', 23) as tn:
          ...     tn.interact()
          ...

     在 3.6 版的變更: Context manager support added

也參考
......

RFC 854(4) - Telnet Protocol Specification

     Definition of the Telnet protocol.

* Menu:

* Telnet Objects::
* Telnet 範例::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/telnetlib.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#telnetlib

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc854.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc854.html


File: python.info,  Node: Telnet Objects,  Next: Telnet 範例,  Up: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端

5.36.18.1 Telnet Objects
........................

*note Telnet: b56. instances have the following methods:

 -- 方法: Telnet.read_until (expected, timeout=None)

     Read until a given byte string, 'expected', is encountered or until
     'timeout' seconds have passed.

     When no match is found, return whatever is available instead,
     possibly empty bytes.  Raise *note EOFError: 116a. if the
     connection is closed and no cooked data is available.

 -- 方法: Telnet.read_all ()

     Read all data until EOF as bytes; block until connection closed.

 -- 方法: Telnet.read_some ()

     Read at least one byte of cooked data unless EOF is hit.  Return
     ‘b''’ if EOF is hit.  Block if no data is immediately available.

 -- 方法: Telnet.read_very_eager ()

     Read everything that can be without blocking in I/O (eager).

     Raise *note EOFError: 116a. if connection closed and no cooked data
     available.  Return ‘b''’ if no cooked data available otherwise.  Do
     not block unless in the midst of an IAC sequence.

 -- 方法: Telnet.read_eager ()

     Read readily available data.

     Raise *note EOFError: 116a. if connection closed and no cooked data
     available.  Return ‘b''’ if no cooked data available otherwise.  Do
     not block unless in the midst of an IAC sequence.

 -- 方法: Telnet.read_lazy ()

     Process and return data already in the queues (lazy).

     Raise *note EOFError: 116a. if connection closed and no data
     available.  Return ‘b''’ if no cooked data available otherwise.  Do
     not block unless in the midst of an IAC sequence.

 -- 方法: Telnet.read_very_lazy ()

     Return any data available in the cooked queue (very lazy).

     Raise *note EOFError: 116a. if connection closed and no data
     available.  Return ‘b''’ if no cooked data available otherwise.
     This method never blocks.

 -- 方法: Telnet.read_sb_data ()

     Return the data collected between a SB/SE pair (suboption
     begin/end).  The callback should access these data when it was
     invoked with a ‘SE’ command.  This method never blocks.

 -- 方法: Telnet.open (host, port=0[, timeout])

     Connect to a host.  The optional second argument is the port
     number, which defaults to the standard Telnet port (23).  The
     optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for
     blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified,
     the global default timeout setting will be used).

     Do not try to reopen an already connected instance.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘host’、‘port’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘telnetlib.Telnet.open’。

 -- 方法: Telnet.msg (msg, *args)

     Print a debug message when the debug level is ‘>’ 0.  If extra
     arguments are present, they are substituted in the message using
     the standard string formatting operator.

 -- 方法: Telnet.set_debuglevel (debuglevel)

     Set the debug level.  The higher the value of 'debuglevel', the
     more debug output you get (on ‘sys.stdout’).

 -- 方法: Telnet.close ()

     Close the connection.

 -- 方法: Telnet.get_socket ()

     Return the socket object used internally.

 -- 方法: Telnet.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor of the socket object used internally.

 -- 方法: Telnet.write (buffer)

     Write a byte string to the socket, doubling any IAC characters.
     This can block if the connection is blocked.  May raise *note
     OSError: 644. if the connection is closed.

     引發一個附帶引數 ‘self’、‘buffer’ 的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘telnetlib.Telnet.write’。

     在 3.3 版的變更: This method used to raise *note socket.error: eeb,
     which is now an alias of *note OSError: 644.

 -- 方法: Telnet.interact ()

     Interaction function, emulates a very dumb Telnet client.

 -- 方法: Telnet.mt_interact ()

     Multithreaded version of *note interact(): 46e3.

 -- 方法: Telnet.expect (list, timeout=None)

     Read until one from a list of a regular expressions matches.

     The first argument is a list of regular expressions, either
     compiled (*note regex objects: e13.) or uncompiled (byte strings).
     The optional second argument is a timeout, in seconds; the default
     is to block indefinitely.

     Return a tuple of three items: the index in the list of the first
     regular expression that matches; the match object returned; and the
     bytes read up till and including the match.

     If end of file is found and no bytes were read, raise *note
     EOFError: 116a.  Otherwise, when nothing matches, return ‘(-1,
     None, data)’ where 'data' is the bytes received so far (may be
     empty bytes if a timeout happened).

     If a regular expression ends with a greedy match (such as ‘.*’) or
     if more than one expression can match the same input, the results
     are non-deterministic, and may depend on the I/O timing.

 -- 方法: Telnet.set_option_negotiation_callback (callback)

     Each time a telnet option is read on the input flow, this
     'callback' (if set) is called with the following parameters:
     callback(telnet socket, command (DO/DONT/WILL/WONT), option).  No
     other action is done afterwards by telnetlib.


File: python.info,  Node: Telnet 範例,  Prev: Telnet Objects,  Up: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端

5.36.18.2 Telnet 範例
.....................

A simple example illustrating typical use:

     import getpass
     import telnetlib

     HOST = "localhost"
     user = input("Enter your remote account: ")
     password = getpass.getpass()

     tn = telnetlib.Telnet(HOST)

     tn.read_until(b"login: ")
     tn.write(user.encode('ascii') + b"\n")
     if password:
         tn.read_until(b"Password: ")
         tn.write(password.encode('ascii') + b"\n")

     tn.write(b"ls\n")
     tn.write(b"exit\n")

     print(tn.read_all().decode('ascii'))


File: python.info,  Node: xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼,  Next: xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼,  Prev: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.19 ‘xdrlib’ -- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼
---------------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/uu.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
uu: 10a. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP 594(2)）。*note base64: c. 是
個現時常用的替代方案。

__________________________________________________________________

This module encodes and decodes files in uuencode format, allowing
arbitrary binary data to be transferred over ASCII-only connections.
Wherever a file argument is expected, the methods accept a file-like
object.  For backwards compatibility, a string containing a pathname is
also accepted, and the corresponding file will be opened for reading and
writing; the pathname ‘'-'’ is understood to mean the standard input or
output.  However, this interface is deprecated; it's better for the
caller to open the file itself, and be sure that, when required, the
mode is ‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’ on Windows.

This code was contributed by Lance Ellinghouse, and modified by Jack
Jansen.

The *note uu: 10a. module defines the following functions:

 -- 函式: uu.encode (in_file, out_file, name=None, mode=None, *,
          backtick=False)

     Uuencode file 'in_file' into file 'out_file'.  The uuencoded file
     will have the header specifying 'name' and 'mode' as the defaults
     for the results of decoding the file.  The default defaults are
     taken from 'in_file', or ‘'-'’ and ‘0o666’ respectively.  If
     'backtick' is true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’ instead of
     spaces.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 新增 'backtick' 參數。

 -- 函式: uu.decode (in_file, out_file=None, mode=None, quiet=False)

     This call decodes uuencoded file 'in_file' placing the result on
     file 'out_file'.  If 'out_file' is a pathname, 'mode' is used to
     set the permission bits if the file must be created.  Defaults for
     'out_file' and 'mode' are taken from the uuencode header.  However,
     if the file specified in the header already exists, a *note
     uu.Error: 46eb. is raised.

     *note decode(): 14db. may print a warning to standard error if the
     input was produced by an incorrect uuencoder and Python could
     recover from that error.  Setting 'quiet' to a true value silences
     this warning.

 -- 例外: uu.Error

     Subclass of *note Exception: 81e, this can be raised by *note
     uu.decode(): 14db. under various situations, such as described
     above, but also including a badly formatted header, or truncated
     input file.

也參考
......

*note binascii: e. 模組

     Support module containing ASCII-to-binary and binary-to-ASCII
     conversions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/uu.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#uu-and-the-uu-encoding


File: python.info,  Node: xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼,  Prev: xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼,  Up: 已被取代的模組

5.36.20 ‘xdrlib’ -- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼
----------------------------------------

'原始碼：'Lib/xdrlib.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: *note
xdrlib: 11a. 模組 (module) 即將被棄用（詳見 PEP 594(2)）。

__________________________________________________________________

The *note xdrlib: 11a. module supports the External Data Representation
Standard as described in RFC 1014(3), written by Sun Microsystems, Inc.
June 1987.  It supports most of the data types described in the RFC.

The *note xdrlib: 11a. module defines two classes, one for packing
variables into XDR representation, and another for unpacking from XDR
representation.  There are also two exception classes.

 -- 類別: xdrlib.Packer

     *note Packer: 46ee. is the class for packing data into XDR
     representation.  The *note Packer: 46ee. class is instantiated with
     no arguments.

 -- 類別: xdrlib.Unpacker (data)

     ‘Unpacker’ is the complementary class which unpacks XDR data values
     from a string buffer.  The input buffer is given as 'data'.

也參考
......

RFC 1014(4) - XDR: External Data Representation Standard

     This RFC defined the encoding of data which was XDR at the time
     this module was originally written.  It has apparently been
     obsoleted by RFC 1832(5).

RFC 1832(6) - XDR: External Data Representation Standard

     Newer RFC that provides a revised definition of XDR.

* Menu:

* Packer Objects::
* Unpacker Objects::
* 例外: 例外<17>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xdrlib.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#xdrlib

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1014.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1014.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1832.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1832.html


File: python.info,  Node: Packer Objects,  Next: Unpacker Objects,  Up: xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼

5.36.20.1 Packer Objects
........................

*note Packer: 46ee. instances have the following methods:

 -- 方法: Packer.get_buffer ()

     Returns the current pack buffer as a string.

 -- 方法: Packer.reset ()

     Resets the pack buffer to the empty string.

In general, you can pack any of the most common XDR data types by
calling the appropriate ‘pack_type()’ method.  Each method takes a
single argument, the value to pack.  The following simple data type
packing methods are supported: ‘pack_uint()’, ‘pack_int()’,
‘pack_enum()’, ‘pack_bool()’, ‘pack_uhyper()’, and ‘pack_hyper()’.

 -- 方法: Packer.pack_float (value)

     Packs the single-precision floating point number 'value'.

 -- 方法: Packer.pack_double (value)

     Packs the double-precision floating point number 'value'.

The following methods support packing strings, bytes, and opaque data:

 -- 方法: Packer.pack_fstring (n, s)

     Packs a fixed length string, 's'.  'n' is the length of the string
     but it is 'not' packed into the data buffer.  The string is padded
     with null bytes if necessary to guaranteed 4 byte alignment.

 -- 方法: Packer.pack_fopaque (n, data)

     Packs a fixed length opaque data stream, similarly to *note
     pack_fstring(): 46f6.

 -- 方法: Packer.pack_string (s)

     Packs a variable length string, 's'.  The length of the string is
     first packed as an unsigned integer, then the string data is packed
     with *note pack_fstring(): 46f6.

 -- 方法: Packer.pack_opaque (data)

     Packs a variable length opaque data string, similarly to *note
     pack_string(): 46f8.

 -- 方法: Packer.pack_bytes (bytes)

     Packs a variable length byte stream, similarly to *note
     pack_string(): 46f8.

The following methods support packing arrays and lists:

 -- 方法: Packer.pack_list (list, pack_item)

     Packs a 'list' of homogeneous items.  This method is useful for
     lists with an indeterminate size; i.e.  the size is not available
     until the entire list has been walked.  For each item in the list,
     an unsigned integer ‘1’ is packed first, followed by the data value
     from the list.  'pack_item' is the function that is called to pack
     the individual item.  At the end of the list, an unsigned integer
     ‘0’ is packed.

     For example, to pack a list of integers, the code might appear like
     this:

          import xdrlib
          p = xdrlib.Packer()
          p.pack_list([1, 2, 3], p.pack_int)

 -- 方法: Packer.pack_farray (n, array, pack_item)

     Packs a fixed length list ('array') of homogeneous items.  'n' is
     the length of the list; it is 'not' packed into the buffer, but a
     *note ValueError: 183. exception is raised if ‘len(array)’ is not
     equal to 'n'.  As above, 'pack_item' is the function used to pack
     each element.

 -- 方法: Packer.pack_array (list, pack_item)

     Packs a variable length 'list' of homogeneous items.  First, the
     length of the list is packed as an unsigned integer, then each
     element is packed as in *note pack_farray(): 46fc. above.


File: python.info,  Node: Unpacker Objects,  Next: 例外<17>,  Prev: Packer Objects,  Up: xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼

5.36.20.2 Unpacker Objects
..........................

The *note Unpacker: 46ef. class offers the following methods:

 -- 方法: Unpacker.reset (data)

     Resets the string buffer with the given 'data'.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.get_position ()

     Returns the current unpack position in the data buffer.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.set_position (position)

     Sets the data buffer unpack position to 'position'.  You should be
     careful about using *note get_position(): 4701. and *note
     set_position(): 4702.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.get_buffer ()

     Returns the current unpack data buffer as a string.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.done ()

     Indicates unpack completion.  Raises an *note Error: 4705.
     exception if all of the data has not been unpacked.

In addition, every data type that can be packed with a *note Packer:
46ee, can be unpacked with an *note Unpacker: 46ef.  Unpacking methods
are of the form ‘unpack_type()’, and take no arguments.  They return the
unpacked object.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.unpack_float ()

     Unpacks a single-precision floating point number.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.unpack_double ()

     Unpacks a double-precision floating point number, similarly to
     *note unpack_float(): 4706.

In addition, the following methods unpack strings, bytes, and opaque
data:

 -- 方法: Unpacker.unpack_fstring (n)

     Unpacks and returns a fixed length string.  'n' is the number of
     characters expected.  Padding with null bytes to guaranteed 4 byte
     alignment is assumed.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.unpack_fopaque (n)

     Unpacks and returns a fixed length opaque data stream, similarly to
     *note unpack_fstring(): 4708.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.unpack_string ()

     Unpacks and returns a variable length string.  The length of the
     string is first unpacked as an unsigned integer, then the string
     data is unpacked with *note unpack_fstring(): 4708.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.unpack_opaque ()

     Unpacks and returns a variable length opaque data string, similarly
     to *note unpack_string(): 470a.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.unpack_bytes ()

     Unpacks and returns a variable length byte stream, similarly to
     *note unpack_string(): 470a.

The following methods support unpacking arrays and lists:

 -- 方法: Unpacker.unpack_list (unpack_item)

     Unpacks and returns a list of homogeneous items.  The list is
     unpacked one element at a time by first unpacking an unsigned
     integer flag.  If the flag is ‘1’, then the item is unpacked and
     appended to the list.  A flag of ‘0’ indicates the end of the list.
     'unpack_item' is the function that is called to unpack the items.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.unpack_farray (n, unpack_item)

     Unpacks and returns (as a list) a fixed length array of homogeneous
     items.  'n' is number of list elements to expect in the buffer.  As
     above, 'unpack_item' is the function used to unpack each element.

 -- 方法: Unpacker.unpack_array (unpack_item)

     Unpacks and returns a variable length 'list' of homogeneous items.
     First, the length of the list is unpacked as an unsigned integer,
     then each element is unpacked as in *note unpack_farray(): 470e.
     above.


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<17>,  Prev: Unpacker Objects,  Up: xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼

5.36.20.3 例外
..............

Exceptions in this module are coded as class instances:

 -- 例外: xdrlib.Error

     The base exception class.  *note Error: 4705. has a single public
     attribute ‘msg’ containing the description of the error.

 -- 例外: xdrlib.ConversionError

     Class derived from *note Error: 4705.  Contains no additional
     instance variables.

Here is an example of how you would catch one of these exceptions:

     import xdrlib
     p = xdrlib.Packer()
     try:
         p.pack_double(8.01)
     except xdrlib.ConversionError as instance:
         print('packing the double failed:', instance.msg)


File: python.info,  Node: 安全性注意事項<4>,  Prev: 已被取代的模組,  Up: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library

5.37 安全性注意事項
===================

以下模組具有特定的安全性注意事項：

   * *note base64: c.：*note base64 安全性注意事項: 3406.在 RFC 4648(1)

   * *note cgi: 13.：*note CGI 安全性注意事項: 4560.

   * *note hashlib: 63.：*note 所有建構函式都採用 "usedforsecurity"
     僅限關鍵字引數，並禁用已知的不安全與被阻擋的演算法: 2845.

   * *note http.server: 6d. 不適合在正式環境使用，因其僅實作基本的安全檢
     查。請參閱*note 安全注意事項: 382b.。

   * *note logging: 82.：*note 日誌配置使用 eval(): 2aa0.

   * *note multiprocessing: 8f.：*note Connection.recv() 使用 pickle:
     2e45.

   * *note pickle: a1.：*note 限制 pickle 中的全域變數: 2616.

   * *note random: b3. 不該用於安全性相關用途，請改用 *note secrets: bb.

   * *note shelve: be.：*note shelve 為基於
     pickle，因此不適合用來處理不受信任的來源: 2634.

   * *note ssl: ca.：*note SSL/TLS 安全性注意事項: 301e.

   * *note subprocess: d0.：*note 子行程安全性注意事項: 2eec.

   * *note tempfile: da.：*note mktemp 由於存在競爭條件 (race condition)
     漏洞而被棄用: 25d3.

   * *note xml: 11b.：*note XML 漏洞: 3435.

   * *note zipfile: 12b.：*note 惡意準備的 .zip
     檔案可能會導致硬碟空間耗盡: 275f.

*note -I: 79f. 命令列選項可用於在隔離模式下運行 Python。若其無法使用，可
以改用 *note -P: 391. 選項或 *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 392. 環境變數，避免
*note sys.path: 35e. 新增潛在的不安全路徑，例如當前目錄、腳本的目錄或空
字串。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html


File: python.info,  Node: 擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器,  Next: Python/C API 參考手冊,  Prev: Python 標準函式庫 Standard Library,  Up: Top

6 擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器
**************************

這份說明文件描述如何在 C 或 C++ 中編寫模組，並使用新模組來擴充 Python 直
譯器功能。那些模組不僅可以定義新的函式，也可以定義新的物件型別及其方法
(method)。文件內容也會描述如何將 Python 直譯器嵌入另一個應用程式中，做為
一種擴充語言 (extension language) 使用。最後，它會展示如何編譯及連結擴充
模組，使那些模組可以動態地（在執行環境）被載入到直譯器中，前提是底層作業
系統有支援這個功能。

這份說明文件假設你具備 Python 的基礎知識。關於此語言的非正式介紹，請參閱
*note Python 教學: 19ca.。*note Python 語言參考手冊: 13e.給予此語言更為
正式的定義。*note Python 標準函式庫 (Standard Library): 13d. 記錄了賦予
此語言廣泛應用範圍的物件型別、函式與（內建的和以 Python 編寫的）模組。

關於完整的 Python/C API 詳細介紹，請參閱另外一份 *note Python/C API
參考手冊: 19cc.。

* Menu:

* 推薦的第三方工具::
* 不使用第三方工具建立擴充::
* 在更大的應用程式中嵌入 CPython 運行環境 (runtime): 在更大的應用程式中嵌入 CPython 運行環境 runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: 推薦的第三方工具,  Next: 不使用第三方工具建立擴充,  Up: 擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器

6.1 推薦的第三方工具
====================

這份指南僅涵蓋了此 CPython 版本所提供的、用以建立擴充的基本工具。第三方
工具，例如 Cython(1)、cffi(2)、SWIG(3) 和 Numba(4)，提供了更為簡單及更為
複雜的多種方法，來為 Python 建立 C 和 C ++ 擴充。

也參考
......

Python 封裝使用者指南：二進制擴充(5)

     Python 封裝使用者指南 (Python Packaging User Guide) 不僅涵蓋了數個
     可以用來簡化二進制擴充建立過程的工具，也會討論為何建立一個擴充模組
     可能會是你的優先考量。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org/

   (2) https://cffi.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://www.swig.org

   (4) https://numba.pydata.org/

   (5) https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: 不使用第三方工具建立擴充,  Next: 在更大的應用程式中嵌入 CPython 運行環境 runtime,  Prev: 推薦的第三方工具,  Up: 擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器

6.2 不使用第三方工具建立擴充
============================

本指南中的這一節將說明，在沒有第三方工具的協助下，如何建立 C 和 C ++ 擴
充。它主要是寫給使用那些工具的創作者們，而不是讓你建立自己的 C 擴充的推
薦方法。

* Menu:

* 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python::
* Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: Defining Extension Types Tutorial.
* Defining Extension Types; Assorted Topics: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics.
* 建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件::
* 建置 Windows 上的 C 和 C++ 擴充::


File: python.info,  Node: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python,  Next: Defining Extension Types Tutorial,  Up: 不使用第三方工具建立擴充

6.2.1 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python
-----------------------------

It is quite easy to add new built-in modules to Python, if you know how
to program in C. Such 'extension modules' can do two things that can't
be done directly in Python: they can implement new built-in object
types, and they can call C library functions and system calls.

To support extensions, the Python API (Application Programmers
Interface) defines a set of functions, macros and variables that provide
access to most aspects of the Python run-time system.  The Python API is
incorporated in a C source file by including the header ‘"Python.h"’.

The compilation of an extension module depends on its intended use as
well as on your system setup; details are given in later chapters.

     備註: The C extension interface is specific to CPython, and
     extension modules do not work on other Python implementations.  In
     many cases, it is possible to avoid writing C extensions and
     preserve portability to other implementations.  For example, if
     your use case is calling C library functions or system calls, you
     should consider using the *note ctypes: 28. module or the cffi(1)
     library rather than writing custom C code.  These modules let you
     write Python code to interface with C code and are more portable
     between implementations of Python than writing and compiling a C
     extension module.

* Menu:

* 一個簡單範例::
* Intermezzo; Errors and Exceptions: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions.
* 回到範例::
* The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function::
* Compilation and Linkage::
* Calling Python Functions from C::
* Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions::
* Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions::
* Building Arbitrary Values::
* Reference Counts::
* Writing Extensions in C++::
* Providing a C API for an Extension Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cffi.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: 一個簡單範例,  Next: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.1 一個簡單範例
....................

Let's create an extension module called ‘spam’ (the favorite food of
Monty Python fans...)  and let's say we want to create a Python
interface to the C library function ‘system()’ (1).  This function takes
a null-terminated character string as argument and returns an integer.
We want this function to be callable from Python as follows:

     >>> import spam
     >>> status = spam.system("ls -l")

Begin by creating a file ‘spammodule.c’.  (Historically, if a module is
called ‘spam’, the C file containing its implementation is called
‘spammodule.c’; if the module name is very long, like ‘spammify’, the
module name can be just ‘spammify.c’.)

The first two lines of our file can be:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

which pulls in the Python API (you can add a comment describing the
purpose of the module and a copyright notice if you like).

     備註: Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions which
     affect the standard headers on some systems, you 'must' include
     ‘Python.h’ before any standard headers are included.

     It is recommended to always define ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before
     including ‘Python.h’.  See *note Extracting Parameters in Extension
     Functions: 471f. for a description of this macro.

All user-visible symbols defined by ‘Python.h’ have a prefix of ‘Py’ or
‘PY’, except those defined in standard header files.  For convenience,
and since they are used extensively by the Python interpreter,
‘"Python.h"’ includes a few standard header files: ‘<stdio.h>’,
‘<string.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’, and ‘<stdlib.h>’.  If the latter header file
does not exist on your system, it declares the functions ‘malloc()’,
‘free()’ and ‘realloc()’ directly.

The next thing we add to our module file is the C function that will be
called when the Python expression ‘spam.system(string)’ is evaluated
(we'll see shortly how it ends up being called):

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = system(command);
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }

There is a straightforward translation from the argument list in Python
(for example, the single expression ‘"ls -l"’) to the arguments passed
to the C function.  The C function always has two arguments,
conventionally named 'self' and 'args'.

The 'self' argument points to the module object for module-level
functions; for a method it would point to the object instance.

The 'args' argument will be a pointer to a Python tuple object
containing the arguments.  Each item of the tuple corresponds to an
argument in the call's argument list.  The arguments are Python objects
-- in order to do anything with them in our C function we have to
convert them to C values.  The function *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.
in the Python API checks the argument types and converts them to C
values.  It uses a template string to determine the required types of
the arguments as well as the types of the C variables into which to
store the converted values.  More about this later.

*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. returns true (nonzero) if all arguments
have the right type and its components have been stored in the variables
whose addresses are passed.  It returns false (zero) if an invalid
argument list was passed.  In the latter case it also raises an
appropriate exception so the calling function can return ‘NULL’
immediately (as we saw in the example).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) An interface for this function already exists in the standard
module *note os: 9c. -- it was chosen as a simple and straightforward
example.


File: python.info,  Node: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions,  Next: 回到範例,  Prev: 一個簡單範例,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.2 Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
.........................................

An important convention throughout the Python interpreter is the
following: when a function fails, it should set an exception condition
and return an error value (usually ‘-1’ or a ‘NULL’ pointer).  Exception
information is stored in three members of the interpreter's thread
state.  These are ‘NULL’ if there is no exception.  Otherwise they are
the C equivalents of the members of the Python tuple returned by *note
sys.exc_info(): 487.  These are the exception type, exception instance,
and a traceback object.  It is important to know about them to
understand how errors are passed around.

The Python API defines a number of functions to set various types of
exceptions.

The most common one is *note PyErr_SetString(): 30b.  Its arguments are
an exception object and a C string.  The exception object is usually a
predefined object like ‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’.  The C string
indicates the cause of the error and is converted to a Python string
object and stored as the "associated value" of the exception.

Another useful function is *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 4722, which only
takes an exception argument and constructs the associated value by
inspection of the global variable ‘errno’.  The most general function is
*note PyErr_SetObject(): 30a, which takes two object arguments, the
exception and its associated value.  You don't need to *note
Py_INCREF(): 2fb. the objects passed to any of these functions.

You can test non-destructively whether an exception has been set with
*note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7.  This returns the current exception
object, or ‘NULL’ if no exception has occurred.  You normally don't need
to call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to see whether an error occurred
in a function call, since you should be able to tell from the return
value.

When a function 'f' that calls another function 'g' detects that the
latter fails, 'f' should itself return an error value (usually ‘NULL’ or
‘-1’).  It should 'not' call one of the ‘PyErr_*’ functions -- one has
already been called by 'g'.  'f"s caller is then supposed to also return
an error indication to 'its' caller, again 'without' calling ‘PyErr_*’,
and so on -- the most detailed cause of the error was already reported
by the function that first detected it.  Once the error reaches the
Python interpreter's main loop, this aborts the currently executing
Python code and tries to find an exception handler specified by the
Python programmer.

(There are situations where a module can actually give a more detailed
error message by calling another ‘PyErr_*’ function, and in such cases
it is fine to do so.  As a general rule, however, this is not necessary,
and can cause information about the cause of the error to be lost: most
operations can fail for a variety of reasons.)

To ignore an exception set by a function call that failed, the exception
condition must be cleared explicitly by calling *note PyErr_Clear():
ec5.  The only time C code should call *note PyErr_Clear(): ec5. is if
it doesn't want to pass the error on to the interpreter but wants to
handle it completely by itself (possibly by trying something else, or
pretending nothing went wrong).

Every failing ‘malloc()’ call must be turned into an exception -- the
direct caller of ‘malloc()’ (or ‘realloc()’) must call *note
PyErr_NoMemory(): 4723. and return a failure indicator itself.  All the
object-creating functions (for example, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 160b.)
already do this, so this note is only relevant to those who call
‘malloc()’ directly.

Also note that, with the important exception of *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. and friends, functions that return an integer
status usually return a positive value or zero for success and ‘-1’ for
failure, like Unix system calls.

Finally, be careful to clean up garbage (by making *note Py_XDECREF():
5a9. or *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. calls for objects you have already
created) when you return an error indicator!

The choice of which exception to raise is entirely yours.  There are
predeclared C objects corresponding to all built-in Python exceptions,
such as ‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’, which you can use directly.  Of
course, you should choose exceptions wisely -- don't use
‘PyExc_TypeError’ to mean that a file couldn't be opened (that should
probably be ‘PyExc_OSError’).  If something's wrong with the argument
list, the *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. function usually raises
‘PyExc_TypeError’.  If you have an argument whose value must be in a
particular range or must satisfy other conditions, ‘PyExc_ValueError’ is
appropriate.

You can also define a new exception that is unique to your module.  For
this, you usually declare a static object variable at the beginning of
your file:

     static PyObject *SpamError;

and initialize it in your module's initialization function
(‘PyInit_spam()’) with an exception object:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;

         m = PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);
         Py_XINCREF(SpamError);
         if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "error", SpamError) < 0) {
             Py_XDECREF(SpamError);
             Py_CLEAR(SpamError);
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Note that the Python name for the exception object is ‘spam.error’.  The
*note PyErr_NewException(): 10fe. function may create a class with the
base class being *note Exception: 81e. (unless another class is passed
in instead of ‘NULL’), described in *note 內建的例外: 1657.

Note also that the ‘SpamError’ variable retains a reference to the newly
created exception class; this is intentional!  Since the exception could
be removed from the module by external code, an owned reference to the
class is needed to ensure that it will not be discarded, causing
‘SpamError’ to become a dangling pointer.  Should it become a dangling
pointer, C code which raises the exception could cause a core dump or
other unintended side effects.

We discuss the use of *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 134a. as a function return
type later in this sample.

The ‘spam.error’ exception can be raised in your extension module using
a call to *note PyErr_SetString(): 30b. as shown below:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = system(command);
         if (sts < 0) {
             PyErr_SetString(SpamError, "System command failed");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 回到範例,  Next: The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function,  Prev: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.3 回到範例
................

Going back to our example function, you should now be able to understand
this statement:

     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
         return NULL;

It returns ‘NULL’ (the error indicator for functions returning object
pointers) if an error is detected in the argument list, relying on the
exception set by *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.  Otherwise the string
value of the argument has been copied to the local variable ‘command’.
This is a pointer assignment and you are not supposed to modify the
string to which it points (so in Standard C, the variable ‘command’
should properly be declared as ‘const char *command’).

The next statement is a call to the Unix function ‘system()’, passing it
the string we just got from *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.:

     sts = system(command);

Our ‘spam.system()’ function must return the value of ‘sts’ as a Python
object.  This is done using the function *note PyLong_FromLong(): 160b.

     return PyLong_FromLong(sts);

In this case, it will return an integer object.  (Yes, even integers are
objects on the heap in Python!)

If you have a C function that returns no useful argument (a function
returning void), the corresponding Python function must return ‘None’.
You need this idiom to do so (which is implemented by the *note
Py_RETURN_NONE: 12e3. macro):

     Py_INCREF(Py_None);
     return Py_None;

*note Py_None: 4726. is the C name for the special Python object ‘None’.
It is a genuine Python object rather than a ‘NULL’ pointer, which means
"error" in most contexts, as we have seen.


File: python.info,  Node: The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function,  Next: Compilation and Linkage,  Prev: 回到範例,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.4 The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function
.............................................................

I promised to show how ‘spam_system()’ is called from Python programs.
First, we need to list its name and address in a "method table":

     static PyMethodDef SpamMethods[] = {
         ...
         {"system",  spam_system, METH_VARARGS,
          "Execute a shell command."},
         ...
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}        /* Sentinel */
     };

Note the third entry (‘METH_VARARGS’).  This is a flag telling the
interpreter the calling convention to be used for the C function.  It
should normally always be ‘METH_VARARGS’ or ‘METH_VARARGS |
METH_KEYWORDS’; a value of ‘0’ means that an obsolete variant of *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. is used.

When using only ‘METH_VARARGS’, the function should expect the
Python-level parameters to be passed in as a tuple acceptable for
parsing via *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.; more information on this
function is provided below.

The *note METH_KEYWORDS: 4729. bit may be set in the third field if
keyword arguments should be passed to the function.  In this case, the C
function should accept a third ‘PyObject *’ parameter which will be a
dictionary of keywords.  Use *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85.
to parse the arguments to such a function.

The method table must be referenced in the module definition structure:

     static struct PyModuleDef spammodule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         "spam",   /* name of module */
         spam_doc, /* module documentation, may be NULL */
         -1,       /* size of per-interpreter state of the module,
                      or -1 if the module keeps state in global variables. */
         SpamMethods
     };

This structure, in turn, must be passed to the interpreter in the
module's initialization function.  The initialization function must be
named ‘PyInit_name()’, where 'name' is the name of the module, and
should be the only non-‘static’ item defined in the module file:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         return PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
     }

Note that *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 134a. declares the function as ‘PyObject
*’ return type, declares any special linkage declarations required by
the platform, and for C++ declares the function as ‘extern "C"’.

When the Python program imports module ‘spam’ for the first time,
‘PyInit_spam()’ is called.  (See below for comments about embedding
Python.)  It calls *note PyModule_Create(): 472a, which returns a module
object, and inserts built-in function objects into the newly created
module based upon the table (an array of *note PyMethodDef: 134e.
structures) found in the module definition.  *note PyModule_Create():
472a. returns a pointer to the module object that it creates.  It may
abort with a fatal error for certain errors, or return ‘NULL’ if the
module could not be initialized satisfactorily.  The init function must
return the module object to its caller, so that it then gets inserted
into ‘sys.modules’.

When embedding Python, the ‘PyInit_spam()’ function is not called
automatically unless there's an entry in the ‘PyImport_Inittab’ table.
To add the module to the initialization table, use *note
PyImport_AppendInittab(): 156d, optionally followed by an import of the
module:

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         wchar_t *program = Py_DecodeLocale(argv[0], NULL);
         if (program == NULL) {
             fprintf(stderr, "Fatal error: cannot decode argv[0]\n");
             exit(1);
         }

         /* Add a built-in module, before Py_Initialize */
         if (PyImport_AppendInittab("spam", PyInit_spam) == -1) {
             fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not extend in-built modules table\n");
             exit(1);
         }

         /* Pass argv[0] to the Python interpreter */
         Py_SetProgramName(program);

         /* Initialize the Python interpreter.  Required.
            If this step fails, it will be a fatal error. */
         Py_Initialize();

         /* Optionally import the module; alternatively,
            import can be deferred until the embedded script
            imports it. */
         PyObject *pmodule = PyImport_ImportModule("spam");
         if (!pmodule) {
             PyErr_Print();
             fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not import module 'spam'\n");
         }

         ...

         PyMem_RawFree(program);
         return 0;
     }

     備註: Removing entries from ‘sys.modules’ or importing compiled
     modules into multiple interpreters within a process (or following a
     ‘fork()’ without an intervening ‘exec()’) can create problems for
     some extension modules.  Extension module authors should exercise
     caution when initializing internal data structures.

A more substantial example module is included in the Python source
distribution as ‘Modules/xxmodule.c’.  This file may be used as a
template or simply read as an example.

     備註: Unlike our ‘spam’ example, ‘xxmodule’ uses 'multi-phase
     initialization' (new in Python 3.5), where a PyModuleDef structure
     is returned from ‘PyInit_spam’, and creation of the module is left
     to the import machinery.  For details on multi-phase
     initialization, see PEP 489(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Compilation and Linkage,  Next: Calling Python Functions from C,  Prev: The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.5 Compilation and Linkage
...............................

There are two more things to do before you can use your new extension:
compiling and linking it with the Python system.  If you use dynamic
loading, the details may depend on the style of dynamic loading your
system uses; see the chapters about building extension modules (chapter
*note 建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件: 472d.) and additional information that
pertains only to building on Windows (chapter *note 建置 Windows 上的 C
和 C++ 擴充: 1bec.) for more information about this.

If you can't use dynamic loading, or if you want to make your module a
permanent part of the Python interpreter, you will have to change the
configuration setup and rebuild the interpreter.  Luckily, this is very
simple on Unix: just place your file (‘spammodule.c’ for example) in the
‘Modules/’ directory of an unpacked source distribution, add a line to
the file ‘Modules/Setup.local’ describing your file:

     spam spammodule.o

and rebuild the interpreter by running ‘make’ in the toplevel directory.
You can also run ‘make’ in the ‘Modules/’ subdirectory, but then you
must first rebuild ‘Makefile’ there by running '‘make’ Makefile'.  (This
is necessary each time you change the ‘Setup’ file.)

If your module requires additional libraries to link with, these can be
listed on the line in the configuration file as well, for instance:

     spam spammodule.o -lX11


File: python.info,  Node: Calling Python Functions from C,  Next: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions,  Prev: Compilation and Linkage,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.6 Calling Python Functions from C
.......................................

So far we have concentrated on making C functions callable from Python.
The reverse is also useful: calling Python functions from C. This is
especially the case for libraries that support so-called "callback"
functions.  If a C interface makes use of callbacks, the equivalent
Python often needs to provide a callback mechanism to the Python
programmer; the implementation will require calling the Python callback
functions from a C callback.  Other uses are also imaginable.

Fortunately, the Python interpreter is easily called recursively, and
there is a standard interface to call a Python function.  (I won't dwell
on how to call the Python parser with a particular string as input -- if
you're interested, have a look at the implementation of the *note -c:
3d3. command line option in ‘Modules/main.c’ from the Python source
code.)

Calling a Python function is easy.  First, the Python program must
somehow pass you the Python function object.  You should provide a
function (or some other interface) to do this.  When this function is
called, save a pointer to the Python function object (be careful to
*note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. it!)  in a global variable -- or wherever you
see fit.  For example, the following function might be part of a module
definition:

     static PyObject *my_callback = NULL;

     static PyObject *
     my_set_callback(PyObject *dummy, PyObject *args)
     {
         PyObject *result = NULL;
         PyObject *temp;

         if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O:set_callback", &temp)) {
             if (!PyCallable_Check(temp)) {
                 PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "parameter must be callable");
                 return NULL;
             }
             Py_XINCREF(temp);         /* Add a reference to new callback */
             Py_XDECREF(my_callback);  /* Dispose of previous callback */
             my_callback = temp;       /* Remember new callback */
             /* Boilerplate to return "None" */
             Py_INCREF(Py_None);
             result = Py_None;
         }
         return result;
     }

This function must be registered with the interpreter using the *note
METH_VARARGS: 1381. flag; this is described in section *note The
Module's Method Table and Initialization Function: 4727.  The *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. function and its arguments are documented in
section *note Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions: 471f.

The macros *note Py_XINCREF(): 8b0. and *note Py_XDECREF(): 5a9.
increment/decrement the reference count of an object and are safe in the
presence of ‘NULL’ pointers (but note that 'temp' will not be ‘NULL’ in
this context).  More info on them in section *note Reference Counts:
4730.

Later, when it is time to call the function, you call the C function
*note PyObject_CallObject(): 4731.  This function has two arguments,
both pointers to arbitrary Python objects: the Python function, and the
argument list.  The argument list must always be a tuple object, whose
length is the number of arguments.  To call the Python function with no
arguments, pass in ‘NULL’, or an empty tuple; to call it with one
argument, pass a singleton tuple.  *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db. returns a
tuple when its format string consists of zero or more format codes
between parentheses.  For example:

     int arg;
     PyObject *arglist;
     PyObject *result;
     ...
     arg = 123;
     ...
     /* Time to call the callback */
     arglist = Py_BuildValue("(i)", arg);
     result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
     Py_DECREF(arglist);

*note PyObject_CallObject(): 4731. returns a Python object pointer: this
is the return value of the Python function.  *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 4731. is "reference-count-neutral" with respect
to its arguments.  In the example a new tuple was created to serve as
the argument list, which is *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.-ed immediately after
the *note PyObject_CallObject(): 4731. call.

The return value of *note PyObject_CallObject(): 4731. is "new": either
it is a brand new object, or it is an existing object whose reference
count has been incremented.  So, unless you want to save it in a global
variable, you should somehow *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. the result, even
(especially!)  if you are not interested in its value.

Before you do this, however, it is important to check that the return
value isn't ‘NULL’.  If it is, the Python function terminated by raising
an exception.  If the C code that called *note PyObject_CallObject():
4731. is called from Python, it should now return an error indication to
its Python caller, so the interpreter can print a stack trace, or the
calling Python code can handle the exception.  If this is not possible
or desirable, the exception should be cleared by calling *note
PyErr_Clear(): ec5.  For example:

     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     ...use result...
     Py_DECREF(result);

Depending on the desired interface to the Python callback function, you
may also have to provide an argument list to *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 4731.  In some cases the argument list is also
provided by the Python program, through the same interface that
specified the callback function.  It can then be saved and used in the
same manner as the function object.  In other cases, you may have to
construct a new tuple to pass as the argument list.  The simplest way to
do this is to call *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db.  For example, if you want
to pass an integral event code, you might use the following code:

     PyObject *arglist;
     ...
     arglist = Py_BuildValue("(l)", eventcode);
     result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
     Py_DECREF(arglist);
     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     /* Here maybe use the result */
     Py_DECREF(result);

Note the placement of ‘Py_DECREF(arglist)’ immediately after the call,
before the error check!  Also note that strictly speaking this code is
not complete: *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db. may run out of memory, and
this should be checked.

You may also call a function with keyword arguments by using *note
PyObject_Call(): 7a7, which supports arguments and keyword arguments.
As in the above example, we use *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db. to construct
the dictionary.

     PyObject *dict;
     ...
     dict = Py_BuildValue("{s:i}", "name", val);
     result = PyObject_Call(my_callback, NULL, dict);
     Py_DECREF(dict);
     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     /* Here maybe use the result */
     Py_DECREF(result);


File: python.info,  Node: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions,  Next: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions,  Prev: Calling Python Functions from C,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.7 Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
....................................................

The *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. function is declared as follows:

     int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject *arg, const char *format, ...);

The 'arg' argument must be a tuple object containing an argument list
passed from Python to a C function.  The 'format' argument must be a
format string, whose syntax is explained in *note 剖析引數與建置數值:
6dc. in the Python/C API Reference Manual.  The remaining arguments must
be addresses of variables whose type is determined by the format string.

Note that while *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. checks that the Python
arguments have the required types, it cannot check the validity of the
addresses of C variables passed to the call: if you make mistakes there,
your code will probably crash or at least overwrite random bits in
memory.  So be careful!

Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller
are 'borrowed' references; do not decrement their reference count!

一些呼叫範例：

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN  /* Make "s#" use Py_ssize_t rather than int. */
     #include <Python.h>

     int ok;
     int i, j;
     long k, l;
     const char *s;
     Py_ssize_t size;

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""); /* 沒有引數 */
         /* Python 呼叫：f() */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &s); /* A string */
         /* Possible Python call: f('whoops!') */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "lls", &k, &l, &s); /* Two longs and a string */
         /* Possible Python call: f(1, 2, 'three') */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "(ii)s#", &i, &j, &s, &size);
         /* A pair of ints and a string, whose size is also returned */
         /* Possible Python call: f((1, 2), 'three') */

     {
         const char *file;
         const char *mode = "r";
         int bufsize = 0;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s|si", &file, &mode, &bufsize);
         /* A string, and optionally another string and an integer */
         /* Possible Python calls:
            f('spam')
            f('spam', 'w')
            f('spam', 'wb', 100000) */
     }

     {
         int left, top, right, bottom, h, v;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "((ii)(ii))(ii)",
                  &left, &top, &right, &bottom, &h, &v);
         /* A rectangle and a point */
         /* Possible Python call:
            f(((0, 0), (400, 300)), (10, 10)) */
     }

     {
         Py_complex c;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "D:myfunction", &c);
         /* a complex, also providing a function name for errors */
         /* Possible Python call: myfunction(1+2j) */
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions,  Next: Building Arbitrary Values,  Prev: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.8 Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
..................................................

The *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85. function is declared as
follows:

     int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *arg, PyObject *kwdict,
                                     const char *format, char *kwlist[], ...);

The 'arg' and 'format' parameters are identical to those of the *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. function.  The 'kwdict' parameter is the
dictionary of keywords received as the third parameter from the Python
runtime.  The 'kwlist' parameter is a ‘NULL’-terminated list of strings
which identify the parameters; the names are matched with the type
information from 'format' from left to right.  On success, *note
PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85. returns true, otherwise it returns
false and raises an appropriate exception.

     備註: Nested tuples cannot be parsed when using keyword arguments!
     Keyword parameters passed in which are not present in the 'kwlist'
     will cause *note TypeError: 2ba. to be raised.

Here is an example module which uses keywords, based on an example by
Geoff Philbrick (<philbrick@hks.com>):

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN  /* Make "s#" use Py_ssize_t rather than int. */
     #include <Python.h>

     static PyObject *
     keywdarg_parrot(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *keywds)
     {
         int voltage;
         const char *state = "a stiff";
         const char *action = "voom";
         const char *type = "Norwegian Blue";

         static char *kwlist[] = {"voltage", "state", "action", "type", NULL};

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, "i|sss", kwlist,
                                          &voltage, &state, &action, &type))
             return NULL;

         printf("-- This parrot wouldn't %s if you put %i Volts through it.\n",
                action, voltage);
         printf("-- Lovely plumage, the %s -- It's %s!\n", type, state);

         Py_RETURN_NONE;
     }

     static PyMethodDef keywdarg_methods[] = {
         /* The cast of the function is necessary since PyCFunction values
          * only take two PyObject* parameters, and keywdarg_parrot() takes
          * three.
          */
         {"parrot", (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))keywdarg_parrot, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS,
          "Print a lovely skit to standard output."},
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}   /* sentinel */
     };

     static struct PyModuleDef keywdargmodule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         "keywdarg",
         NULL,
         -1,
         keywdarg_methods
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_keywdarg(void)
     {
         return PyModule_Create(&keywdargmodule);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Building Arbitrary Values,  Next: Reference Counts,  Prev: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.9 Building Arbitrary Values
.................................

This function is the counterpart to *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.  It
is declared as follows:

     PyObject *Py_BuildValue(const char *format, ...);

It recognizes a set of format units similar to the ones recognized by
*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe, but the arguments (which are input to the
function, not output) must not be pointers, just values.  It returns a
new Python object, suitable for returning from a C function called from
Python.

One difference with *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.: while the latter
requires its first argument to be a tuple (since Python argument lists
are always represented as tuples internally), *note Py_BuildValue():
6db. does not always build a tuple.  It builds a tuple only if its
format string contains two or more format units.  If the format string
is empty, it returns ‘None’; if it contains exactly one format unit, it
returns whatever object is described by that format unit.  To force it
to return a tuple of size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.

Examples (to the left the call, to the right the resulting Python
value):

     Py_BuildValue("")                        None
     Py_BuildValue("i", 123)                  123
     Py_BuildValue("iii", 123, 456, 789)      (123, 456, 789)
     Py_BuildValue("s", "hello")              'hello'
     Py_BuildValue("y", "hello")              b'hello'
     Py_BuildValue("ss", "hello", "world")    ('hello', 'world')
     Py_BuildValue("s#", "hello", 4)          'hell'
     Py_BuildValue("y#", "hello", 4)          b'hell'
     Py_BuildValue("()")                      ()
     Py_BuildValue("(i)", 123)                (123,)
     Py_BuildValue("(ii)", 123, 456)          (123, 456)
     Py_BuildValue("(i,i)", 123, 456)         (123, 456)
     Py_BuildValue("[i,i]", 123, 456)         [123, 456]
     Py_BuildValue("{s:i,s:i}",
                   "abc", 123, "def", 456)    {'abc': 123, 'def': 456}
     Py_BuildValue("((ii)(ii)) (ii)",
                   1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)          (((1, 2), (3, 4)), (5, 6))


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Counts,  Next: Writing Extensions in C++,  Prev: Building Arbitrary Values,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.10 Reference Counts
.........................

In languages like C or C++, the programmer is responsible for dynamic
allocation and deallocation of memory on the heap.  In C, this is done
using the functions ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.  In C++, the operators
‘new’ and ‘delete’ are used with essentially the same meaning and we'll
restrict the following discussion to the C case.

Every block of memory allocated with ‘malloc()’ should eventually be
returned to the pool of available memory by exactly one call to
‘free()’.  It is important to call ‘free()’ at the right time.  If a
block's address is forgotten but ‘free()’ is not called for it, the
memory it occupies cannot be reused until the program terminates.  This
is called a 'memory leak'.  On the other hand, if a program calls
‘free()’ for a block and then continues to use the block, it creates a
conflict with reuse of the block through another ‘malloc()’ call.  This
is called 'using freed memory'.  It has the same bad consequences as
referencing uninitialized data -- core dumps, wrong results, mysterious
crashes.

Common causes of memory leaks are unusual paths through the code.  For
instance, a function may allocate a block of memory, do some
calculation, and then free the block again.  Now a change in the
requirements for the function may add a test to the calculation that
detects an error condition and can return prematurely from the function.
It's easy to forget to free the allocated memory block when taking this
premature exit, especially when it is added later to the code.  Such
leaks, once introduced, often go undetected for a long time: the error
exit is taken only in a small fraction of all calls, and most modern
machines have plenty of virtual memory, so the leak only becomes
apparent in a long-running process that uses the leaking function
frequently.  Therefore, it's important to prevent leaks from happening
by having a coding convention or strategy that minimizes this kind of
errors.

Since Python makes heavy use of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, it needs a
strategy to avoid memory leaks as well as the use of freed memory.  The
chosen method is called 'reference counting'.  The principle is simple:
every object contains a counter, which is incremented when a reference
to the object is stored somewhere, and which is decremented when a
reference to it is deleted.  When the counter reaches zero, the last
reference to the object has been deleted and the object is freed.

An alternative strategy is called 'automatic garbage collection'.
(Sometimes, reference counting is also referred to as a garbage
collection strategy, hence my use of "automatic" to distinguish the
two.)  The big advantage of automatic garbage collection is that the
user doesn't need to call ‘free()’ explicitly.  (Another claimed
advantage is an improvement in speed or memory usage -- this is no hard
fact however.)  The disadvantage is that for C, there is no truly
portable automatic garbage collector, while reference counting can be
implemented portably (as long as the functions ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’
are available -- which the C Standard guarantees).  Maybe some day a
sufficiently portable automatic garbage collector will be available for
C. Until then, we'll have to live with reference counts.

While Python uses the traditional reference counting implementation, it
also offers a cycle detector that works to detect reference cycles.
This allows applications to not worry about creating direct or indirect
circular references; these are the weakness of garbage collection
implemented using only reference counting.  Reference cycles consist of
objects which contain (possibly indirect) references to themselves, so
that each object in the cycle has a reference count which is non-zero.
Typical reference counting implementations are not able to reclaim the
memory belonging to any objects in a reference cycle, or referenced from
the objects in the cycle, even though there are no further references to
the cycle itself.

The cycle detector is able to detect garbage cycles and can reclaim
them.  The *note gc: 5b. module exposes a way to run the detector (the
*note collect(): 883. function), as well as configuration interfaces and
the ability to disable the detector at runtime.

* Menu:

* Reference Counting in Python::
* Ownership Rules::
* Thin Ice::
* NULL 指標::


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Counting in Python,  Next: Ownership Rules,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.1.11 Reference Counting in Python
.....................................

There are two macros, ‘Py_INCREF(x)’ and ‘Py_DECREF(x)’, which handle
the incrementing and decrementing of the reference count.  *note
Py_DECREF(): 2fc. also frees the object when the count reaches zero.
For flexibility, it doesn't call ‘free()’ directly -- rather, it makes a
call through a function pointer in the object's 'type object'.  For this
purpose (and others), every object also contains a pointer to its type
object.

The big question now remains: when to use ‘Py_INCREF(x)’ and
‘Py_DECREF(x)’?  Let's first introduce some terms.  Nobody "owns" an
object; however, you can 'own a reference' to an object.  An object's
reference count is now defined as the number of owned references to it.
The owner of a reference is responsible for calling *note Py_DECREF():
2fc. when the reference is no longer needed.  Ownership of a reference
can be transferred.  There are three ways to dispose of an owned
reference: pass it on, store it, or call *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.
Forgetting to dispose of an owned reference creates a memory leak.

It is also possible to 'borrow' (1) a reference to an object.  The
borrower of a reference should not call *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.  The
borrower must not hold on to the object longer than the owner from which
it was borrowed.  Using a borrowed reference after the owner has
disposed of it risks using freed memory and should be avoided completely
(2).

The advantage of borrowing over owning a reference is that you don't
need to take care of disposing of the reference on all possible paths
through the code -- in other words, with a borrowed reference you don't
run the risk of leaking when a premature exit is taken.  The
disadvantage of borrowing over owning is that there are some subtle
situations where in seemingly correct code a borrowed reference can be
used after the owner from which it was borrowed has in fact disposed of
it.

A borrowed reference can be changed into an owned reference by calling
*note Py_INCREF(): 2fb.  This does not affect the status of the owner
from which the reference was borrowed -- it creates a new owned
reference, and gives full owner responsibilities (the new owner must
dispose of the reference properly, as well as the previous owner).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The metaphor of "borrowing" a reference is not completely
correct: the owner still has a copy of the reference.

   (2) Checking that the reference count is at least 1 'does not work'
-- the reference count itself could be in freed memory and may thus be
reused for another object!


File: python.info,  Node: Ownership Rules,  Next: Thin Ice,  Prev: Reference Counting in Python,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.1.12 Ownership Rules
........................

Whenever an object reference is passed into or out of a function, it is
part of the function's interface specification whether ownership is
transferred with the reference or not.

Most functions that return a reference to an object pass on ownership
with the reference.  In particular, all functions whose function it is
to create a new object, such as *note PyLong_FromLong(): 160b. and *note
Py_BuildValue(): 6db, pass ownership to the receiver.  Even if the
object is not actually new, you still receive ownership of a new
reference to that object.  For instance, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 160b.
maintains a cache of popular values and can return a reference to a
cached item.

Many functions that extract objects from other objects also transfer
ownership with the reference, for instance *note
PyObject_GetAttrString(): 473c.  The picture is less clear, here,
however, since a few common routines are exceptions: *note
PyTuple_GetItem(): 473d, *note PyList_GetItem(): 473e, *note
PyDict_GetItem(): 6e0, and *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 473f. all
return references that you borrow from the tuple, list or dictionary.

The function *note PyImport_AddModule(): 4740. also returns a borrowed
reference, even though it may actually create the object it returns:
this is possible because an owned reference to the object is stored in
‘sys.modules’.

When you pass an object reference into another function, in general, the
function borrows the reference from you -- if it needs to store it, it
will use *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. to become an independent owner.  There
are exactly two important exceptions to this rule: *note
PyTuple_SetItem(): 4741. and *note PyList_SetItem(): 4742.  These
functions take over ownership of the item passed to them -- even if they
fail!  (Note that *note PyDict_SetItem(): 4743. and friends don't take
over ownership -- they are "normal.")

When a C function is called from Python, it borrows references to its
arguments from the caller.  The caller owns a reference to the object,
so the borrowed reference's lifetime is guaranteed until the function
returns.  Only when such a borrowed reference must be stored or passed
on, it must be turned into an owned reference by calling *note
Py_INCREF(): 2fb.

The object reference returned from a C function that is called from
Python must be an owned reference -- ownership is transferred from the
function to its caller.


File: python.info,  Node: Thin Ice,  Next: NULL 指標,  Prev: Ownership Rules,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.1.13 Thin Ice
.................

There are a few situations where seemingly harmless use of a borrowed
reference can lead to problems.  These all have to do with implicit
invocations of the interpreter, which can cause the owner of a reference
to dispose of it.

The first and most important case to know about is using *note
Py_DECREF(): 2fc. on an unrelated object while borrowing a reference to
a list item.  For instance:

     void
     bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

         PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
     }

This function first borrows a reference to ‘list[0]’, then replaces
‘list[1]’ with the value ‘0’, and finally prints the borrowed reference.
Looks harmless, right?  But it's not!

Let's follow the control flow into *note PyList_SetItem(): 4742.  The
list owns references to all its items, so when item 1 is replaced, it
has to dispose of the original item 1.  Now let's suppose the original
item 1 was an instance of a user-defined class, and let's further
suppose that the class defined a ‘__del__()’ method.  If this class
instance has a reference count of 1, disposing of it will call its
‘__del__()’ method.

Since it is written in Python, the ‘__del__()’ method can execute
arbitrary Python code.  Could it perhaps do something to invalidate the
reference to ‘item’ in ‘bug()’?  You bet!  Assuming that the list passed
into ‘bug()’ is accessible to the ‘__del__()’ method, it could execute a
statement to the effect of ‘del list[0]’, and assuming this was the last
reference to that object, it would free the memory associated with it,
thereby invalidating ‘item’.

The solution, once you know the source of the problem, is easy:
temporarily increment the reference count.  The correct version of the
function reads:

     void
     no_bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

         Py_INCREF(item);
         PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0);
         Py_DECREF(item);
     }

This is a true story.  An older version of Python contained variants of
this bug and someone spent a considerable amount of time in a C debugger
to figure out why his ‘__del__()’ methods would fail...

The second case of problems with a borrowed reference is a variant
involving threads.  Normally, multiple threads in the Python interpreter
can't get in each other's way, because there is a global lock protecting
Python's entire object space.  However, it is possible to temporarily
release this lock using the macro *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 4746,
and to re-acquire it using *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8dc.  This is
common around blocking I/O calls, to let other threads use the processor
while waiting for the I/O to complete.  Obviously, the following
function has the same problem as the previous one:

     void
     bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
         Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
         ...some blocking I/O call...
         Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
     }


File: python.info,  Node: NULL 指標,  Prev: Thin Ice,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.1.14 NULL 指標
..................

In general, functions that take object references as arguments do not
expect you to pass them ‘NULL’ pointers, and will dump core (or cause
later core dumps) if you do so.  Functions that return object references
generally return ‘NULL’ only to indicate that an exception occurred.
The reason for not testing for ‘NULL’ arguments is that functions often
pass the objects they receive on to other function -- if each function
were to test for ‘NULL’, there would be a lot of redundant tests and the
code would run more slowly.

It is better to test for ‘NULL’ only at the "source:" when a pointer
that may be ‘NULL’ is received, for example, from ‘malloc()’ or from a
function that may raise an exception.

The macros *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. and *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. do not
check for ‘NULL’ pointers -- however, their variants *note Py_XINCREF():
8b0. and *note Py_XDECREF(): 5a9. do.

The macros for checking for a particular object type (‘Pytype_Check()’)
don't check for ‘NULL’ pointers -- again, there is much code that calls
several of these in a row to test an object against various different
expected types, and this would generate redundant tests.  There are no
variants with ‘NULL’ checking.

The C function calling mechanism guarantees that the argument list
passed to C functions (‘args’ in the examples) is never ‘NULL’ -- in
fact it guarantees that it is always a tuple (1).

It is a severe error to ever let a ‘NULL’ pointer "escape" to the Python
user.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) These guarantees don't hold when you use the "old" style calling
convention -- this is still found in much existing code.


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Extensions in C++,  Next: Providing a C API for an Extension Module,  Prev: Reference Counts,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.15 Writing Extensions in C++
..................................

It is possible to write extension modules in C++.  Some restrictions
apply.  If the main program (the Python interpreter) is compiled and
linked by the C compiler, global or static objects with constructors
cannot be used.  This is not a problem if the main program is linked by
the C++ compiler.  Functions that will be called by the Python
interpreter (in particular, module initialization functions) have to be
declared using ‘extern "C"’.  It is unnecessary to enclose the Python
header files in ‘extern "C" {...}’ -- they use this form already if the
symbol ‘__cplusplus’ is defined (all recent C++ compilers define this
symbol).


File: python.info,  Node: Providing a C API for an Extension Module,  Prev: Writing Extensions in C++,  Up: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python

6.2.1.16 Providing a C API for an Extension Module
..................................................

Many extension modules just provide new functions and types to be used
from Python, but sometimes the code in an extension module can be useful
for other extension modules.  For example, an extension module could
implement a type "collection" which works like lists without order.
Just like the standard Python list type has a C API which permits
extension modules to create and manipulate lists, this new collection
type should have a set of C functions for direct manipulation from other
extension modules.

At first sight this seems easy: just write the functions (without
declaring them ‘static’, of course), provide an appropriate header file,
and document the C API. And in fact this would work if all extension
modules were always linked statically with the Python interpreter.  When
modules are used as shared libraries, however, the symbols defined in
one module may not be visible to another module.  The details of
visibility depend on the operating system; some systems use one global
namespace for the Python interpreter and all extension modules (Windows,
for example), whereas others require an explicit list of imported
symbols at module link time (AIX is one example), or offer a choice of
different strategies (most Unices).  And even if symbols are globally
visible, the module whose functions one wishes to call might not have
been loaded yet!

Portability therefore requires not to make any assumptions about symbol
visibility.  This means that all symbols in extension modules should be
declared ‘static’, except for the module's initialization function, in
order to avoid name clashes with other extension modules (as discussed
in section *note The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function:
4727.).  And it means that symbols that 'should' be accessible from
other extension modules must be exported in a different way.

Python provides a special mechanism to pass C-level information
(pointers) from one extension module to another one: Capsules.  A
Capsule is a Python data type which stores a pointer (void*).  Capsules
can only be created and accessed via their C API, but they can be passed
around like any other Python object.  In particular, they can be
assigned to a name in an extension module's namespace.  Other extension
modules can then import this module, retrieve the value of this name,
and then retrieve the pointer from the Capsule.

There are many ways in which Capsules can be used to export the C API of
an extension module.  Each function could get its own Capsule, or all C
API pointers could be stored in an array whose address is published in a
Capsule.  And the various tasks of storing and retrieving the pointers
can be distributed in different ways between the module providing the
code and the client modules.

Whichever method you choose, it's important to name your Capsules
properly.  The function *note PyCapsule_New(): 474c. takes a name
parameter (const char*); you're permitted to pass in a ‘NULL’ name, but
we strongly encourage you to specify a name.  Properly named Capsules
provide a degree of runtime type-safety; there is no feasible way to
tell one unnamed Capsule from another.

In particular, Capsules used to expose C APIs should be given a name
following this convention:

     modulename.attributename

The convenience function *note PyCapsule_Import(): 1640. makes it easy
to load a C API provided via a Capsule, but only if the Capsule's name
matches this convention.  This behavior gives C API users a high degree
of certainty that the Capsule they load contains the correct C API.

The following example demonstrates an approach that puts most of the
burden on the writer of the exporting module, which is appropriate for
commonly used library modules.  It stores all C API pointers (just one
in the example!)  in an array of void pointers which becomes the value
of a Capsule.  The header file corresponding to the module provides a
macro that takes care of importing the module and retrieving its C API
pointers; client modules only have to call this macro before accessing
the C API.

The exporting module is a modification of the ‘spam’ module from section
*note 一個簡單範例: 471e.  The function ‘spam.system()’ does not call
the C library function ‘system()’ directly, but a function
‘PySpam_System()’, which would of course do something more complicated
in reality (such as adding "spam" to every command).  This function
‘PySpam_System()’ is also exported to other extension modules.

The function ‘PySpam_System()’ is a plain C function, declared ‘static’
like everything else:

     static int
     PySpam_System(const char *command)
     {
         return system(command);
     }

The function ‘spam_system()’ is modified in a trivial way:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = PySpam_System(command);
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }

In the beginning of the module, right after the line

     #include <Python.h>

two more lines must be added:

     #define SPAM_MODULE
     #include "spammodule.h"

The ‘#define’ is used to tell the header file that it is being included
in the exporting module, not a client module.  Finally, the module's
initialization function must take care of initializing the C API pointer
array:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         static void *PySpam_API[PySpam_API_pointers];
         PyObject *c_api_object;

         m = PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         /* Initialize the C API pointer array */
         PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM] = (void *)PySpam_System;

         /* Create a Capsule containing the API pointer array's address */
         c_api_object = PyCapsule_New((void *)PySpam_API, "spam._C_API", NULL);

         if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "_C_API", c_api_object) < 0) {
             Py_XDECREF(c_api_object);
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Note that ‘PySpam_API’ is declared ‘static’; otherwise the pointer array
would disappear when ‘PyInit_spam()’ terminates!

The bulk of the work is in the header file ‘spammodule.h’, which looks
like this:

     #ifndef Py_SPAMMODULE_H
     #define Py_SPAMMODULE_H
     #ifdef __cplusplus
     extern "C" {
     #endif

     /* Header file for spammodule */

     /* C API functions */
     #define PySpam_System_NUM 0
     #define PySpam_System_RETURN int
     #define PySpam_System_PROTO (const char *command)

     /* Total number of C API pointers */
     #define PySpam_API_pointers 1


     #ifdef SPAM_MODULE
     /* This section is used when compiling spammodule.c */

     static PySpam_System_RETURN PySpam_System PySpam_System_PROTO;

     #else
     /* This section is used in modules that use spammodule's API */

     static void **PySpam_API;

     #define PySpam_System \
      (*(PySpam_System_RETURN (*)PySpam_System_PROTO) PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM])

     /* Return -1 on error, 0 on success.
      * PyCapsule_Import will set an exception if there's an error.
      */
     static int
     import_spam(void)
     {
         PySpam_API = (void **)PyCapsule_Import("spam._C_API", 0);
         return (PySpam_API != NULL) ? 0 : -1;
     }

     #endif

     #ifdef __cplusplus
     }
     #endif

     #endif /* !defined(Py_SPAMMODULE_H) */

All that a client module must do in order to have access to the function
‘PySpam_System()’ is to call the function (or rather macro)
‘import_spam()’ in its initialization function:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_client(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;

         m = PyModule_Create(&clientmodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;
         if (import_spam() < 0)
             return NULL;
         /* additional initialization can happen here */
         return m;
     }

The main disadvantage of this approach is that the file ‘spammodule.h’
is rather complicated.  However, the basic structure is the same for
each function that is exported, so it has to be learned only once.

Finally it should be mentioned that Capsules offer additional
functionality, which is especially useful for memory allocation and
deallocation of the pointer stored in a Capsule.  The details are
described in the Python/C API Reference Manual in the section *note
Capsules: 474d. and in the implementation of Capsules (files
‘Include/pycapsule.h’ and ‘Objects/pycapsule.c’ in the Python source
code distribution).

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Extension Types Tutorial,  Next: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics,  Prev: 以 C 或 C++ 擴充 Python,  Up: 不使用第三方工具建立擴充

6.2.2 Defining Extension Types: Tutorial
----------------------------------------

Python allows the writer of a C extension module to define new types
that can be manipulated from Python code, much like the built-in *note
str: 157. and *note list: 40a. types.  The code for all extension types
follows a pattern, but there are some details that you need to
understand before you can get started.  This document is a gentle
introduction to the topic.

* Menu:

* The Basics::
* Adding data and methods to the Basic example::
* Providing finer control over data attributes::
* Supporting cyclic garbage collection::
* Subclassing other types::


File: python.info,  Node: The Basics,  Next: Adding data and methods to the Basic example,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.2.2.1 The Basics
..................

The *note CPython: 4f7. runtime sees all Python objects as variables of
type *note PyObject: 6d1.*, which serves as a "base type" for all Python
objects.  The *note PyObject: 6d1. structure itself only contains the
object's *note reference count: 4752. and a pointer to the object's
"type object".  This is where the action is; the type object determines
which (C) functions get called by the interpreter when, for instance, an
attribute gets looked up on an object, a method called, or it is
multiplied by another object.  These C functions are called "type
methods".

So, if you want to define a new extension type, you need to create a new
type object.

This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here's a
minimal, but complete, module that defines a new type named ‘Custom’
inside a C extension module ‘custom’:

     備註: What we're showing here is the traditional way of defining
     'static' extension types.  It should be adequate for most uses.
     The C API also allows defining heap-allocated extension types using
     the *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c. function, which isn't covered in
     this tutorial.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         /* Type-specific fields go here. */
     } CustomObject;

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
         .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         Py_INCREF(&CustomType);
         if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(&CustomType);
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Now that's quite a bit to take in at once, but hopefully bits will seem
familiar from the previous chapter.  This file defines three things:

  1. What a ‘Custom’ 'object' contains: this is the ‘CustomObject’
     struct, which is allocated once for each ‘Custom’ instance.

  2. How the ‘Custom’ 'type' behaves: this is the ‘CustomType’ struct,
     which defines a set of flags and function pointers that the
     interpreter inspects when specific operations are requested.

  3. How to initialize the ‘custom’ module: this is the ‘PyInit_custom’
     function and the associated ‘custommodule’ struct.

The first bit is:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
     } CustomObject;

This is what a Custom object will contain.  ‘PyObject_HEAD’ is mandatory
at the start of each object struct and defines a field called ‘ob_base’
of type *note PyObject: 6d1, containing a pointer to a type object and a
reference count (these can be accessed using the macros *note Py_TYPE:
597. and *note Py_REFCNT: 6dd. respectively).  The reason for the macro
is to abstract away the layout and to enable additional fields in *note
debug builds: 69f.

     備註: There is no semicolon above after the *note PyObject_HEAD:
     116f. macro.  Be wary of adding one by accident: some compilers
     will complain.

Of course, objects generally store additional data besides the standard
‘PyObject_HEAD’ boilerplate; for example, here is the definition for
standard Python floats:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         double ob_fval;
     } PyFloatObject;

The second bit is the definition of the type object.

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
         .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
     };

     備註: We recommend using C99-style designated initializers as
     above, to avoid listing all the *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. fields
     that you don't care about and also to avoid caring about the
     fields' declaration order.

The actual definition of *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. in ‘object.h’ has many
more *note fields: 7d1. than the definition above.  The remaining fields
will be filled with zeros by the C compiler, and it's common practice to
not specify them explicitly unless you need them.

We're going to pick it apart, one field at a time:

     .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)

This line is mandatory boilerplate to initialize the ‘ob_base’ field
mentioned above.

     .tp_name = "custom.Custom",

The name of our type.  This will appear in the default textual
representation of our objects and in some error messages, for example:

     >>> "" + custom.Custom()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "custom.Custom") to str

Note that the name is a dotted name that includes both the module name
and the name of the type within the module.  The module in this case is
‘custom’ and the type is ‘Custom’, so we set the type name to
‘custom.Custom’.  Using the real dotted import path is important to make
your type compatible with the *note pydoc: b0. and *note pickle: a1.
modules.

     .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
     .tp_itemsize = 0,

This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when creating
new ‘Custom’ instances.  *note tp_itemsize: 1d02. is only used for
variable-sized objects and should otherwise be zero.

     備註: If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and
     your type has the same *note tp_basicsize: 7cb. as its base type,
     you may have problems with multiple inheritance.  A Python subclass
     of your type will have to list your type first in its *note
     __bases__: 131f, or else it will not be able to call your type's
     *note __new__(): 30f. method without getting an error.  You can
     avoid this problem by ensuring that your type has a larger value
     for *note tp_basicsize: 7cb. than its base type does.  Most of the
     time, this will be true anyway, because either your base type will
     be *note object: 8d9, or else you will be adding data members to
     your base type, and therefore increasing its size.

We set the class flags to *note Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT: 4753.

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,

All types should include this constant in their flags.  It enables all
of the members defined until at least Python 3.3.  If you need further
members, you will need to OR the corresponding flags.

We provide a doc string for the type in *note tp_doc: 4754.

     .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),

To enable object creation, we have to provide a *note tp_new: 30e.
handler.  This is the equivalent of the Python method *note __new__():
30f, but has to be specified explicitly.  In this case, we can just use
the default implementation provided by the API function *note
PyType_GenericNew(): 4755.

     .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,

Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in
‘PyInit_custom()’:

     if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
         return;

This initializes the ‘Custom’ type, filling in a number of members to
the appropriate default values, including *note ob_type: 4756. that we
initially set to ‘NULL’.

     Py_INCREF(&CustomType);
     if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
         Py_DECREF(&CustomType);
         Py_DECREF(m);
         return NULL;
     }

This adds the type to the module dictionary.  This allows us to create
‘Custom’ instances by calling the ‘Custom’ class:

     >>> import custom
     >>> mycustom = custom.Custom()

That's it!  All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a
file called ‘custom.c’,

     [build-system]
     requires = ["setuptools"]
     build-backend = "setuptools.build_meta"

     [project]
     name = "custom"
     version = "1"

in a file called ‘pyproject.toml’, and

     from setuptools import Extension, setup
     setup(ext_modules=[Extension("custom", ["custom.c"])])

in a file called ‘setup.py’; then typing

     $ python -m pip install .

in a shell should produce a file ‘custom.so’ in a subdirectory and
install it; now fire up Python -- you should be able to ‘import custom’
and play around with ‘Custom’ objects.

That wasn't so hard, was it?

Of course, the current Custom type is pretty uninteresting.  It has no
data and doesn't do anything.  It can't even be subclassed.


File: python.info,  Node: Adding data and methods to the Basic example,  Next: Providing finer control over data attributes,  Prev: The Basics,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.2.2.2 Adding data and methods to the Basic example
....................................................

Let's extend the basic example to add some data and methods.  Let's also
make the type usable as a base class.  We'll create a new module,
‘custom2’ that adds these capabilities:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
          "first name"},
         {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
          "last name"},
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         if (self->first == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
             return NULL;
         }
         if (self->last == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom2.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base =PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom2",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom2(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

This version of the module has a number of changes.

The ‘Custom’ type now has three data attributes in its C struct,
'first', 'last', and 'number'.  The 'first' and 'last' variables are
Python strings containing first and last names.  The 'number' attribute
is a C integer.

The object structure is updated accordingly:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

Because we now have data to manage, we have to be more careful about
object allocation and deallocation.  At a minimum, we need a
deallocation method:

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

which is assigned to the *note tp_dealloc: 4758. member:

     .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,

This method first clears the reference counts of the two Python
attributes.  *note Py_XDECREF(): 5a9. correctly handles the case where
its argument is ‘NULL’ (which might happen here if ‘tp_new’ failed
midway).  It then calls the *note tp_free: 4759. member of the object's
type (computed by ‘Py_TYPE(self)’) to free the object's memory.  Note
that the object's type might not be ‘CustomType’, because the object may
be an instance of a subclass.

     備註: The explicit cast to ‘destructor’ above is needed because we
     defined ‘Custom_dealloc’ to take a ‘CustomObject *’ argument, but
     the ‘tp_dealloc’ function pointer expects to receive a ‘PyObject *’
     argument.  Otherwise, the compiler will emit a warning.  This is
     object-oriented polymorphism, in C!

We want to make sure that the first and last names are initialized to
empty strings, so we provide a ‘tp_new’ implementation:

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

and install it in the *note tp_new: 30e. member:

     .tp_new = Custom_new,

The ‘tp_new’ handler is responsible for creating (as opposed to
initializing) objects of the type.  It is exposed in Python as the *note
__new__(): 30f. method.  It is not required to define a ‘tp_new’ member,
and indeed many extension types will simply reuse *note
PyType_GenericNew(): 4755. as done in the first version of the ‘Custom’
type above.  In this case, we use the ‘tp_new’ handler to initialize the
‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes to non-‘NULL’ default values.

‘tp_new’ is passed the type being instantiated (not necessarily
‘CustomType’, if a subclass is instantiated) and any arguments passed
when the type was called, and is expected to return the instance
created.  ‘tp_new’ handlers always accept positional and keyword
arguments, but they often ignore the arguments, leaving the argument
handling to initializer (a.k.a.  ‘tp_init’ in C or ‘__init__’ in Python)
methods.

     備註: ‘tp_new’ shouldn't call ‘tp_init’ explicitly, as the
     interpreter will do it itself.

The ‘tp_new’ implementation calls the *note tp_alloc: 475a. slot to
allocate memory:

     self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);

Since memory allocation may fail, we must check the *note tp_alloc:
475a. result against ‘NULL’ before proceeding.

     備註: We didn't fill the *note tp_alloc: 475a. slot ourselves.
     Rather *note PyType_Ready(): 595. fills it for us by inheriting it
     from our base class, which is *note object: 8d9. by default.  Most
     types use the default allocation strategy.

     備註: If you are creating a co-operative *note tp_new: 30e. (one
     that calls a base type's *note tp_new: 30e. or *note __new__():
     30f.), you must 'not' try to determine what method to call using
     method resolution order at runtime.  Always statically determine
     what type you are going to call, and call its *note tp_new: 30e.
     directly, or via ‘type->tp_base->tp_new’.  If you do not do this,
     Python subclasses of your type that also inherit from other
     Python-defined classes may not work correctly.  (Specifically, you
     may not be able to create instances of such subclasses without
     getting a *note TypeError: 2ba.)

We also define an initialization function which accepts arguments to
provide initial values for our instance:

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             tmp = self->first;
             Py_INCREF(first);
             self->first = first;
             Py_XDECREF(tmp);
         }
         if (last) {
             tmp = self->last;
             Py_INCREF(last);
             self->last = last;
             Py_XDECREF(tmp);
         }
         return 0;
     }

by filling the *note tp_init: 310. slot.

     .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,

The *note tp_init: 310. slot is exposed in Python as the *note
__init__(): 4ae. method.  It is used to initialize an object after it's
created.  Initializers always accept positional and keyword arguments,
and they should return either ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on error.

Unlike the ‘tp_new’ handler, there is no guarantee that ‘tp_init’ is
called at all (for example, the *note pickle: a1. module by default
doesn't call *note __init__(): 4ae. on unpickled instances).  It can
also be called multiple times.  Anyone can call the ‘__init__()’ method
on our objects.  For this reason, we have to be extra careful when
assigning the new attribute values.  We might be tempted, for example to
assign the ‘first’ member like this:

     if (first) {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_INCREF(first);
         self->first = first;
     }

But this would be risky.  Our type doesn't restrict the type of the
‘first’ member, so it could be any kind of object.  It could have a
destructor that causes code to be executed that tries to access the
‘first’ member; or that destructor could release the *note Global
interpreter Lock: 6df. and let arbitrary code run in other threads that
accesses and modifies our object.

To be paranoid and protect ourselves against this possibility, we almost
always reassign members before decrementing their reference counts.
When don't we have to do this?

   * when we absolutely know that the reference count is greater than 1;

   * when we know that deallocation of the object (1) will neither
     release the *note GIL: 6df. nor cause any calls back into our
     type's code;

   * when decrementing a reference count in a *note tp_dealloc: 4758.
     handler on a type which doesn't support cyclic garbage collection
     (2).

We want to expose our instance variables as attributes.  There are a
number of ways to do that.  The simplest way is to define member
definitions:

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
          "first name"},
         {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
          "last name"},
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

and put the definitions in the *note tp_members: 475b. slot:

     .tp_members = Custom_members,

Each member definition has a member name, type, offset, access flags and
documentation string.  See the *note Generic Attribute Management: 475c.
section below for details.

A disadvantage of this approach is that it doesn't provide a way to
restrict the types of objects that can be assigned to the Python
attributes.  We expect the first and last names to be strings, but any
Python objects can be assigned.  Further, the attributes can be deleted,
setting the C pointers to ‘NULL’.  Even though we can make sure the
members are initialized to non-‘NULL’ values, the members can be set to
‘NULL’ if the attributes are deleted.

We define a single method, ‘Custom.name()’, that outputs the objects
name as the concatenation of the first and last names.

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         if (self->first == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
             return NULL;
         }
         if (self->last == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

The method is implemented as a C function that takes a ‘Custom’ (or
‘Custom’ subclass) instance as the first argument.  Methods always take
an instance as the first argument.  Methods often take positional and
keyword arguments as well, but in this case we don't take any and don't
need to accept a positional argument tuple or keyword argument
dictionary.  This method is equivalent to the Python method:

     def name(self):
         return "%s %s" % (self.first, self.last)

Note that we have to check for the possibility that our ‘first’ and
‘last’ members are ‘NULL’.  This is because they can be deleted, in
which case they are set to ‘NULL’.  It would be better to prevent
deletion of these attributes and to restrict the attribute values to be
strings.  We'll see how to do that in the next section.

Now that we've defined the method, we need to create an array of method
definitions:

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

(note that we used the *note METH_NOARGS: 134b. flag to indicate that
the method is expecting no arguments other than 'self')

and assign it to the *note tp_methods: 475d. slot:

     .tp_methods = Custom_methods,

Finally, we'll make our type usable as a base class for subclassing.
We've written our methods carefully so far so that they don't make any
assumptions about the type of the object being created or used, so all
we need to do is to add the *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 475e. to our
class flag definition:

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,

We rename ‘PyInit_custom()’ to ‘PyInit_custom2()’, update the module
name in the *note PyModuleDef: 7c1. struct, and update the full class
name in the *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. struct.

Finally, we update our ‘setup.py’ file to include the new module,

     from setuptools import Extension, setup
     setup(ext_modules=[
         Extension("custom", ["custom.c"]),
         Extension("custom2", ["custom2.c"]),
     ])

and then we re-install so that we can ‘import custom2’:

     $ python -m pip install .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This is true when we know that the object is a basic type, like a
string or a float.

   (2) We relied on this in the *note tp_dealloc: 4758. handler in this
example, because our type doesn't support garbage collection.


File: python.info,  Node: Providing finer control over data attributes,  Next: Supporting cyclic garbage collection,  Prev: Adding data and methods to the Basic example,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.2.2.3 Providing finer control over data attributes
....................................................

In this section, we'll provide finer control over how the ‘first’ and
‘last’ attributes are set in the ‘Custom’ example.  In the previous
version of our module, the instance variables ‘first’ and ‘last’ could
be set to non-string values or even deleted.  We want to make sure that
these attributes always contain strings.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->first);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->last);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The last attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom3.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
         .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom3",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom3(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

To provide greater control, over the ‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes,
we'll use custom getter and setter functions.  Here are the functions
for getting and setting the ‘first’ attribute:

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         Py_INCREF(self->first);
         return self->first;
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         PyObject *tmp;
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         tmp = self->first;
         Py_INCREF(value);
         self->first = value;
         Py_DECREF(tmp);
         return 0;
     }

The getter function is passed a ‘Custom’ object and a "closure", which
is a void pointer.  In this case, the closure is ignored.  (The closure
supports an advanced usage in which definition data is passed to the
getter and setter.  This could, for example, be used to allow a single
set of getter and setter functions that decide the attribute to get or
set based on data in the closure.)

The setter function is passed the ‘Custom’ object, the new value, and
the closure.  The new value may be ‘NULL’, in which case the attribute
is being deleted.  In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute is
deleted or if its new value is not a string.

We create an array of *note PyGetSetDef: a19. structures:

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

and register it in the *note tp_getset: 4760. slot:

     .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,

The last item in a *note PyGetSetDef: a19. structure is the "closure"
mentioned above.  In this case, we aren't using a closure, so we just
pass ‘NULL’.

We also remove the member definitions for these attributes:

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

We also need to update the *note tp_init: 310. handler to only allow
strings (1) to be passed:

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             tmp = self->first;
             Py_INCREF(first);
             self->first = first;
             Py_DECREF(tmp);
         }
         if (last) {
             tmp = self->last;
             Py_INCREF(last);
             self->last = last;
             Py_DECREF(tmp);
         }
         return 0;
     }

With these changes, we can assure that the ‘first’ and ‘last’ members
are never ‘NULL’ so we can remove checks for ‘NULL’ values in almost all
cases.  This means that most of the *note Py_XDECREF(): 5a9. calls can
be converted to *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. calls.  The only place we can't
change these calls is in the ‘tp_dealloc’ implementation, where there is
the possibility that the initialization of these members failed in
‘tp_new’.

We also rename the module initialization function and module name in the
initialization function, as we did before, and we add an extra
definition to the ‘setup.py’ file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) We now know that the first and last members are strings, so
perhaps we could be less careful about decrementing their reference
counts, however, we accept instances of string subclasses.  Even though
deallocating normal strings won't call back into our objects, we can't
guarantee that deallocating an instance of a string subclass won't call
back into our objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting cyclic garbage collection,  Next: Subclassing other types,  Prev: Providing finer control over data attributes,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.2.2.4 Supporting cyclic garbage collection
............................................

Python has a *note cyclic garbage collector (GC): 16ef. that can
identify unneeded objects even when their reference counts are not zero.
This can happen when objects are involved in cycles.  For example,
consider:

     >>> l = []
     >>> l.append(l)
     >>> del l

In this example, we create a list that contains itself.  When we delete
it, it still has a reference from itself.  Its reference count doesn't
drop to zero.  Fortunately, Python's cyclic garbage collector will
eventually figure out that the list is garbage and free it.

In the second version of the ‘Custom’ example, we allowed any kind of
object to be stored in the ‘first’ or ‘last’ attributes (1).  Besides,
in the second and third versions, we allowed subclassing ‘Custom’, and
subclasses may add arbitrary attributes.  For any of those two reasons,
‘Custom’ objects can participate in cycles:

     >>> import custom3
     >>> class Derived(custom3.Custom): pass
     ...
     >>> n = Derived()
     >>> n.some_attribute = n

To allow a ‘Custom’ instance participating in a reference cycle to be
properly detected and collected by the cyclic GC, our ‘Custom’ type
needs to fill two additional slots and to enable a flag that enables
these slots:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         Py_VISIT(self->first);
         Py_VISIT(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     static int
     Custom_clear(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_CLEAR(self->first);
         Py_CLEAR(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         Custom_clear(self);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->first);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->last);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The last attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom4.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_traverse = (traverseproc) Custom_traverse,
         .tp_clear = (inquiry) Custom_clear,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
         .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom4",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom4(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

First, the traversal method lets the cyclic GC know about subobjects
that could participate in cycles:

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         int vret;
         if (self->first) {
             vret = visit(self->first, arg);
             if (vret != 0)
                 return vret;
         }
         if (self->last) {
             vret = visit(self->last, arg);
             if (vret != 0)
                 return vret;
         }
         return 0;
     }

For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the
‘visit()’ function, which is passed to the traversal method.  The
‘visit()’ function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra
argument 'arg' passed to the traversal method.  It returns an integer
value that must be returned if it is non-zero.

Python provides a *note Py_VISIT(): 4762. macro that automates calling
visit functions.  With *note Py_VISIT(): 4762, we can minimize the
amount of boilerplate in ‘Custom_traverse’:

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         Py_VISIT(self->first);
         Py_VISIT(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     備註: The *note tp_traverse: 594. implementation must name its
     arguments exactly 'visit' and 'arg' in order to use *note
     Py_VISIT(): 4762.

Second, we need to provide a method for clearing any subobjects that can
participate in cycles:

     static int
     Custom_clear(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_CLEAR(self->first);
         Py_CLEAR(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

Notice the use of the *note Py_CLEAR(): 307. macro.  It is the
recommended and safe way to clear data attributes of arbitrary types
while decrementing their reference counts.  If you were to call *note
Py_XDECREF(): 5a9. instead on the attribute before setting it to ‘NULL’,
there is a possibility that the attribute's destructor would call back
into code that reads the attribute again ('especially' if there is a
reference cycle).

     備註: You could emulate *note Py_CLEAR(): 307. by writing:

          PyObject *tmp;
          tmp = self->first;
          self->first = NULL;
          Py_XDECREF(tmp);

     Nevertheless, it is much easier and less error-prone to always use
     *note Py_CLEAR(): 307. when deleting an attribute.  Don't try to
     micro-optimize at the expense of robustness!

The deallocator ‘Custom_dealloc’ may call arbitrary code when clearing
attributes.  It means the circular GC can be triggered inside the
function.  Since the GC assumes reference count is not zero, we need to
untrack the object from the GC by calling *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack():
137e. before clearing members.  Here is our reimplemented deallocator
using *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 137e. and ‘Custom_clear’:

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         Custom_clear(self);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

Finally, we add the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag to the class
flags:

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,

That's pretty much it.  If we had written custom *note tp_alloc: 475a.
or *note tp_free: 4759. handlers, we'd need to modify them for cyclic
garbage collection.  Most extensions will use the versions automatically
provided.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Also, even with our attributes restricted to strings instances,
the user could pass arbitrary *note str: 157. subclasses and therefore
still create reference cycles.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing other types,  Prev: Supporting cyclic garbage collection,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.2.2.5 Subclassing other types
...............................

It is possible to create new extension types that are derived from
existing types.  It is easiest to inherit from the built in types, since
an extension can easily use the *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. it needs.  It
can be difficult to share these *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. structures
between extension modules.

In this example we will create a ‘SubList’ type that inherits from the
built-in *note list: 40a. type.  The new type will be completely
compatible with regular lists, but will have an additional ‘increment()’
method that increases an internal counter:

     >>> import sublist
     >>> s = sublist.SubList(range(3))
     >>> s.extend(s)
     >>> print(len(s))
     6
     >>> print(s.increment())
     1
     >>> print(s.increment())
     2

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     typedef struct {
         PyListObject list;
         int state;
     } SubListObject;

     static PyObject *
     SubList_increment(SubListObject *self, PyObject *unused)
     {
         self->state++;
         return PyLong_FromLong(self->state);
     }

     static PyMethodDef SubList_methods[] = {
         {"increment", (PyCFunction) SubList_increment, METH_NOARGS,
          PyDoc_STR("increment state counter")},
         {NULL},
     };

     static int
     SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0)
             return -1;
         self->state = 0;
         return 0;
     }

     static PyTypeObject SubListType = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "sublist.SubList",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("SubList objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(SubListObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_init = (initproc) SubList_init,
         .tp_methods = SubList_methods,
     };

     static PyModuleDef sublistmodule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "sublist",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_sublist(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
         if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&sublistmodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         Py_INCREF(&SubListType);
         if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(&SubListType);
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

As you can see, the source code closely resembles the ‘Custom’ examples
in previous sections.  We will break down the main differences between
them.

     typedef struct {
         PyListObject list;
         int state;
     } SubListObject;

The primary difference for derived type objects is that the base type's
object structure must be the first value.  The base type will already
include the *note PyObject_HEAD(): 116f. at the beginning of its
structure.

When a Python object is a ‘SubList’ instance, its ‘PyObject *’ pointer
can be safely cast to both ‘PyListObject *’ and ‘SubListObject *’:

     static int
     SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0)
             return -1;
         self->state = 0;
         return 0;
     }

We see above how to call through to the *note __init__(): 4ae. method of
the base type.

This pattern is important when writing a type with custom *note tp_new:
30e. and *note tp_dealloc: 4758. members.  The *note tp_new: 30e.
handler should not actually create the memory for the object with its
*note tp_alloc: 475a, but let the base class handle it by calling its
own *note tp_new: 30e.

The *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. struct supports a *note tp_base: 4764.
specifying the type's concrete base class.  Due to cross-platform
compiler issues, you can't fill that field directly with a reference to
*note PyList_Type: 4765.; it should be done later in the module
initialization function:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_sublist(void)
     {
         PyObject* m;
         SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
         if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&sublistmodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         Py_INCREF(&SubListType);
         if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(&SubListType);
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Before calling *note PyType_Ready(): 595, the type structure must have
the *note tp_base: 4764. slot filled in.  When we are deriving an
existing type, it is not necessary to fill out the *note tp_alloc: 475a.
slot with *note PyType_GenericNew(): 4755. - the allocation function
from the base type will be inherited.

After that, calling *note PyType_Ready(): 595. and adding the type
object to the module is the same as with the basic ‘Custom’ examples.

註解
....


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics,  Next: 建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件,  Prev: Defining Extension Types Tutorial,  Up: 不使用第三方工具建立擴充

6.2.3 Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics
-----------------------------------------------

This section aims to give a quick fly-by on the various type methods you
can implement and what they do.

Here is the definition of *note PyTypeObject: 8f8, with some fields only
used in *note debug builds: 69f. omitted:

     typedef struct _typeobject {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */
         Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

         /* Methods to implement standard operations */

         destructor tp_dealloc;
         Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
         getattrfunc tp_getattr;
         setattrfunc tp_setattr;
         PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)
                                         or tp_reserved (Python 3) */
         reprfunc tp_repr;

         /* Method suites for standard classes */

         PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
         PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
         PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

         /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */

         hashfunc tp_hash;
         ternaryfunc tp_call;
         reprfunc tp_str;
         getattrofunc tp_getattro;
         setattrofunc tp_setattro;

         /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */
         PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

         /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */
         unsigned long tp_flags;

         const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */
         /* call function for all accessible objects */
         traverseproc tp_traverse;

         /* delete references to contained objects */
         inquiry tp_clear;

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */
         /* rich comparisons */
         richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

         /* weak reference enabler */
         Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

         /* Iterators */
         getiterfunc tp_iter;
         iternextfunc tp_iternext;

         /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */
         struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
         struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
         struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
         // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type
         struct _typeobject *tp_base;
         PyObject *tp_dict;
         descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
         descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
         Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
         initproc tp_init;
         allocfunc tp_alloc;
         newfunc tp_new;
         freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */
         inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */
         PyObject *tp_bases;
         PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */
         PyObject *tp_cache;
         PyObject *tp_subclasses;
         PyObject *tp_weaklist;
         destructor tp_del;

         /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6 */
         unsigned int tp_version_tag;

         destructor tp_finalize;
         vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

         /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */
         unsigned char tp_watched;
     } PyTypeObject;

Now that's a 'lot' of methods.  Don't worry too much though - if you
have a type you want to define, the chances are very good that you will
only implement a handful of these.

As you probably expect by now, we're going to go over this and give more
information about the various handlers.  We won't go in the order they
are defined in the structure, because there is a lot of historical
baggage that impacts the ordering of the fields.  It's often easiest to
find an example that includes the fields you need and then change the
values to suit your new type.

     const char *tp_name; /* For printing */

The name of the type - as mentioned in the previous chapter, this will
appear in various places, almost entirely for diagnostic purposes.  Try
to choose something that will be helpful in such a situation!

     Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

These fields tell the runtime how much memory to allocate when new
objects of this type are created.  Python has some built-in support for
variable length structures (think: strings, tuples) which is where the
*note tp_itemsize: 1d02. field comes in.  This will be dealt with later.

     const char *tp_doc;

Here you can put a string (or its address) that you want returned when
the Python script references ‘obj.__doc__’ to retrieve the doc string.

Now we come to the basic type methods - the ones most extension types
will implement.

* Menu:

* Finalization and De-allocation::
* Object Presentation::
* Attribute Management::
* Object Comparison::
* Abstract Protocol Support::
* Weak Reference Support::
* More Suggestions::


File: python.info,  Node: Finalization and De-allocation,  Next: Object Presentation,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.1 Finalization and De-allocation
......................................

     destructor tp_dealloc;

This function is called when the reference count of the instance of your
type is reduced to zero and the Python interpreter wants to reclaim it.
If your type has memory to free or other clean-up to perform, you can
put it here.  The object itself needs to be freed here as well.  Here is
an example of this function:

     static void
     newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         free(obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr);
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject *)obj);
     }

If your type supports garbage collection, the destructor should call
*note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 137e. before clearing any member fields:

     static void
     newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(obj);
         Py_CLEAR(obj->other_obj);
         ...
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject *)obj);
     }

One important requirement of the deallocator function is that it leaves
any pending exceptions alone.  This is important since deallocators are
frequently called as the interpreter unwinds the Python stack; when the
stack is unwound due to an exception (rather than normal returns),
nothing is done to protect the deallocators from seeing that an
exception has already been set.  Any actions which a deallocator
performs which may cause additional Python code to be executed may
detect that an exception has been set.  This can lead to misleading
errors from the interpreter.  The proper way to protect against this is
to save a pending exception before performing the unsafe action, and
restoring it when done.  This can be done using the *note PyErr_Fetch():
2f4. and *note PyErr_Restore(): 2f5. functions:

     static void
     my_dealloc(PyObject *obj)
     {
         MyObject *self = (MyObject *) obj;
         PyObject *cbresult;

         if (self->my_callback != NULL) {
             PyObject *err_type, *err_value, *err_traceback;

             /* This saves the current exception state */
             PyErr_Fetch(&err_type, &err_value, &err_traceback);

             cbresult = PyObject_CallNoArgs(self->my_callback);
             if (cbresult == NULL)
                 PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self->my_callback);
             else
                 Py_DECREF(cbresult);

             /* This restores the saved exception state */
             PyErr_Restore(err_type, err_value, err_traceback);

             Py_DECREF(self->my_callback);
         }
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject*)self);
     }

     備註: There are limitations to what you can safely do in a
     deallocator function.  First, if your type supports garbage
     collection (using *note tp_traverse: 594. and/or *note tp_clear:
     476b.), some of the object's members can have been cleared or
     finalized by the time *note tp_dealloc: 4758. is called.  Second,
     in *note tp_dealloc: 4758, your object is in an unstable state: its
     reference count is equal to zero.  Any call to a non-trivial object
     or API (as in the example above) might end up calling *note
     tp_dealloc: 4758. again, causing a double free and a crash.

     Starting with Python 3.4, it is recommended not to put any complex
     finalization code in *note tp_dealloc: 4758, and instead use the
     new *note tp_finalize: 8f9. type method.

     也參考
     ......

     PEP 442(1) explains the new finalization scheme.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: Object Presentation,  Next: Attribute Management,  Prev: Finalization and De-allocation,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.2 Object Presentation
...........................

In Python, there are two ways to generate a textual representation of an
object: the *note repr(): 61e. function, and the *note str(): 157.
function.  (The *note print(): e02. function just calls *note str():
157.)  These handlers are both optional.

     reprfunc tp_repr;
     reprfunc tp_str;

The *note tp_repr: 476d. handler should return a string object
containing a representation of the instance for which it is called.
Here is a simple example:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_repr(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Repr-ified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                     obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
     }

If no *note tp_repr: 476d. handler is specified, the interpreter will
supply a representation that uses the type's *note tp_name: 16c8. and a
uniquely identifying value for the object.

The *note tp_str: 476e. handler is to *note str(): 157. what the *note
tp_repr: 476d. handler described above is to *note repr(): 61e.; that
is, it is called when Python code calls *note str(): 157. on an instance
of your object.  Its implementation is very similar to the *note
tp_repr: 476d. function, but the resulting string is intended for human
consumption.  If *note tp_str: 476e. is not specified, the *note
tp_repr: 476d. handler is used instead.

以下是個簡單的範例：

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_str(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Stringified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                     obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Attribute Management,  Next: Object Comparison,  Prev: Object Presentation,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.3 Attribute Management
............................

For every object which can support attributes, the corresponding type
must provide the functions that control how the attributes are resolved.
There needs to be a function which can retrieve attributes (if any are
defined), and another to set attributes (if setting attributes is
allowed).  Removing an attribute is a special case, for which the new
value passed to the handler is ‘NULL’.

Python supports two pairs of attribute handlers; a type that supports
attributes only needs to implement the functions for one pair.  The
difference is that one pair takes the name of the attribute as a char*,
while the other accepts a *note PyObject: 6d1.*.  Each type can use
whichever pair makes more sense for the implementation's convenience.

     getattrfunc  tp_getattr;        /* char * version */
     setattrfunc  tp_setattr;
     /* ... */
     getattrofunc tp_getattro;       /* PyObject * version */
     setattrofunc tp_setattro;

If accessing attributes of an object is always a simple operation (this
will be explained shortly), there are generic implementations which can
be used to provide the *note PyObject: 6d1.* version of the attribute
management functions.  The actual need for type-specific attribute
handlers almost completely disappeared starting with Python 2.2, though
there are many examples which have not been updated to use some of the
new generic mechanism that is available.

* Menu:

* Generic Attribute Management::
* Type-specific Attribute Management::


File: python.info,  Node: Generic Attribute Management,  Next: Type-specific Attribute Management,  Up: Attribute Management

6.2.3.4 Generic Attribute Management
....................................

Most extension types only use 'simple' attributes.  So, what makes the
attributes simple?  There are only a couple of conditions that must be
met:

  1. The name of the attributes must be known when *note PyType_Ready():
     595. is called.

  2. No special processing is needed to record that an attribute was
     looked up or set, nor do actions need to be taken based on the
     value.

Note that this list does not place any restrictions on the values of the
attributes, when the values are computed, or how relevant data is
stored.

When *note PyType_Ready(): 595. is called, it uses three tables
referenced by the type object to create *note descriptor: 1d03.s which
are placed in the dictionary of the type object.  Each descriptor
controls access to one attribute of the instance object.  Each of the
tables is optional; if all three are ‘NULL’, instances of the type will
only have attributes that are inherited from their base type, and should
leave the *note tp_getattro: 4771. and *note tp_setattro: 4772. fields
‘NULL’ as well, allowing the base type to handle attributes.

The tables are declared as three fields of the type object:

     struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
     struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
     struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;

If *note tp_methods: 475d. is not ‘NULL’, it must refer to an array of
*note PyMethodDef: 134e. structures.  Each entry in the table is an
instance of this structure:

     typedef struct PyMethodDef {
         const char  *ml_name;       /* method name */
         PyCFunction  ml_meth;       /* implementation function */
         int          ml_flags;      /* flags */
         const char  *ml_doc;        /* docstring */
     } PyMethodDef;

One entry should be defined for each method provided by the type; no
entries are needed for methods inherited from a base type.  One
additional entry is needed at the end; it is a sentinel that marks the
end of the array.  The *note ml_name: 4773. field of the sentinel must
be ‘NULL’.

The second table is used to define attributes which map directly to data
stored in the instance.  A variety of primitive C types are supported,
and access may be read-only or read-write.  The structures in the table
are defined as:

     typedef struct PyMemberDef {
         const char *name;
         int         type;
         int         offset;
         int         flags;
         const char *doc;
     } PyMemberDef;

For each entry in the table, a *note descriptor: 1d03. will be
constructed and added to the type which will be able to extract a value
from the instance structure.  The *note type: 4774. field should contain
a type code like *note Py_T_INT: 348. or *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 349.; the
value will be used to determine how to convert Python values to and from
C values.  The *note flags: 4775. field is used to store flags which
control how the attribute can be accessed: you can set it to *note
Py_READONLY: 34a. to prevent Python code from setting it.

An interesting advantage of using the *note tp_members: 475b. table to
build descriptors that are used at runtime is that any attribute defined
this way can have an associated doc string simply by providing the text
in the table.  An application can use the introspection API to retrieve
the descriptor from the class object, and get the doc string using its
*note __doc__: 1aa1. attribute.

As with the *note tp_methods: 475d. table, a sentinel entry with a *note
ml_name: 4773. value of ‘NULL’ is required.


File: python.info,  Node: Type-specific Attribute Management,  Prev: Generic Attribute Management,  Up: Attribute Management

6.2.3.5 Type-specific Attribute Management
..........................................

For simplicity, only the char* version will be demonstrated here; the
type of the name parameter is the only difference between the char* and
*note PyObject: 6d1.* flavors of the interface.  This example
effectively does the same thing as the generic example above, but does
not use the generic support added in Python 2.2.  It explains how the
handler functions are called, so that if you do need to extend their
functionality, you'll understand what needs to be done.

The *note tp_getattr: 4777. handler is called when the object requires
an attribute look-up.  It is called in the same situations where the
*note __getattr__(): 1fa. method of a class would be called.

舉例來說：

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_getattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name)
     {
         if (strcmp(name, "data") == 0)
         {
             return PyLong_FromLong(obj->data);
         }

         PyErr_Format(PyExc_AttributeError,
                      "'%.100s' object has no attribute '%.400s'",
                      Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_name, name);
         return NULL;
     }

The *note tp_setattr: 4778. handler is called when the *note
__setattr__(): 1cbf. or *note __delattr__(): 1cc0. method of a class
instance would be called.  When an attribute should be deleted, the
third parameter will be ‘NULL’.  Here is an example that simply raises
an exception; if this were really all you wanted, the *note tp_setattr:
4778. handler should be set to ‘NULL’.

     static int
     newdatatype_setattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name, PyObject *v)
     {
         PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError, "Read-only attribute: %s", name);
         return -1;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Object Comparison,  Next: Abstract Protocol Support,  Prev: Attribute Management,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.6 Object Comparison
.........................

     richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

The *note tp_richcompare: 477a. handler is called when comparisons are
needed.  It is analogous to the *note rich comparison methods: 1cf3,
like ‘__lt__()’, and also called by *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 477b.
and *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 177f.

This function is called with two Python objects and the operator as
arguments, where the operator is one of ‘Py_EQ’, ‘Py_NE’, ‘Py_LE’,
‘Py_GE’, ‘Py_LT’ or ‘Py_GT’.  It should compare the two objects with
respect to the specified operator and return ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’ if
the comparison is successful, ‘Py_NotImplemented’ to indicate that
comparison is not implemented and the other object's comparison method
should be tried, or ‘NULL’ if an exception was set.

Here is a sample implementation, for a datatype that is considered equal
if the size of an internal pointer is equal:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_richcmp(newdatatypeobject *obj1, newdatatypeobject *obj2, int op)
     {
         PyObject *result;
         int c, size1, size2;

         /* code to make sure that both arguments are of type
            newdatatype omitted */

         size1 = obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;
         size2 = obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;

         switch (op) {
         case Py_LT: c = size1 <  size2; break;
         case Py_LE: c = size1 <= size2; break;
         case Py_EQ: c = size1 == size2; break;
         case Py_NE: c = size1 != size2; break;
         case Py_GT: c = size1 >  size2; break;
         case Py_GE: c = size1 >= size2; break;
         }
         result = c ? Py_True : Py_False;
         Py_INCREF(result);
         return result;
      }


File: python.info,  Node: Abstract Protocol Support,  Next: Weak Reference Support,  Prev: Object Comparison,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.7 Abstract Protocol Support
.................................

Python supports a variety of 'abstract' 'protocols;' the specific
interfaces provided to use these interfaces are documented in *note
抽象物件層 (Abstract Objects Layer): 477d.

A number of these abstract interfaces were defined early in the
development of the Python implementation.  In particular, the number,
mapping, and sequence protocols have been part of Python since the
beginning.  Other protocols have been added over time.  For protocols
which depend on several handler routines from the type implementation,
the older protocols have been defined as optional blocks of handlers
referenced by the type object.  For newer protocols there are additional
slots in the main type object, with a flag bit being set to indicate
that the slots are present and should be checked by the interpreter.
(The flag bit does not indicate that the slot values are non-‘NULL’.
The flag may be set to indicate the presence of a slot, but a slot may
still be unfilled.)

     PyNumberMethods   *tp_as_number;
     PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
     PyMappingMethods  *tp_as_mapping;

If you wish your object to be able to act like a number, a sequence, or
a mapping object, then you place the address of a structure that
implements the C type *note PyNumberMethods: 128e, *note
PySequenceMethods: 477e, or *note PyMappingMethods: 477f, respectively.
It is up to you to fill in this structure with appropriate values.  You
can find examples of the use of each of these in the ‘Objects’ directory
of the Python source distribution.

     hashfunc tp_hash;

This function, if you choose to provide it, should return a hash number
for an instance of your data type.  Here is a simple example:

     static Py_hash_t
     newdatatype_hash(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         Py_hash_t result;
         result = obj->some_size + 32767 * obj->some_number;
         if (result == -1)
            result = -2;
         return result;
     }

‘Py_hash_t’ is a signed integer type with a platform-varying width.
Returning ‘-1’ from *note tp_hash: 4780. indicates an error, which is
why you should be careful to avoid returning it when hash computation is
successful, as seen above.

     ternaryfunc tp_call;

This function is called when an instance of your data type is "called",
for example, if ‘obj1’ is an instance of your data type and the Python
script contains ‘obj1('hello')’, the *note tp_call: 2df. handler is
invoked.

This function takes three arguments:

  1. 'self' is the instance of the data type which is the subject of the
     call.  If the call is ‘obj1('hello')’, then 'self' is ‘obj1’.

  2. 'args' is a tuple containing the arguments to the call.  You can
     use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. to extract the arguments.

  3. 'kwds' is a dictionary of keyword arguments that were passed.  If
     this is non-‘NULL’ and you support keyword arguments, use *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85. to extract the arguments.  If
     you do not want to support keyword arguments and this is
     non-‘NULL’, raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. with a message saying
     that keyword arguments are not supported.

Here is a toy ‘tp_call’ implementation:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_call(newdatatypeobject *obj, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         PyObject *result;
         const char *arg1;
         const char *arg2;
         const char *arg3;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "sss:call", &arg1, &arg2, &arg3)) {
             return NULL;
         }
         result = PyUnicode_FromFormat(
             "Returning -- value: [%d] arg1: [%s] arg2: [%s] arg3: [%s]\n",
             obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size,
             arg1, arg2, arg3);
         return result;
     }

     /* 疊代器 */
     getiterfunc tp_iter;
     iternextfunc tp_iternext;

These functions provide support for the iterator protocol.  Both
handlers take exactly one parameter, the instance for which they are
being called, and return a new reference.  In the case of an error, they
should set an exception and return ‘NULL’.  *note tp_iter: 1365.
corresponds to the Python *note __iter__(): 1ced. method, while *note
tp_iternext: 1366. corresponds to the Python *note __next__(): 115d.
method.

Any *note iterable: 10ba. object must implement the *note tp_iter: 1365.
handler, which must return an *note iterator: 1718. object.  Here the
same guidelines apply as for Python classes:

   * For collections (such as lists and tuples) which can support
     multiple independent iterators, a new iterator should be created
     and returned by each call to *note tp_iter: 1365.

   * Objects which can only be iterated over once (usually due to side
     effects of iteration, such as file objects) can implement *note
     tp_iter: 1365. by returning a new reference to themselves - and
     should also therefore implement the *note tp_iternext: 1366.
     handler.

Any *note iterator: 1718. object should implement both *note tp_iter:
1365. and *note tp_iternext: 1366.  An iterator's *note tp_iter: 1365.
handler should return a new reference to the iterator.  Its *note
tp_iternext: 1366. handler should return a new reference to the next
object in the iteration, if there is one.  If the iteration has reached
the end, *note tp_iternext: 1366. may return ‘NULL’ without setting an
exception, or it may set *note StopIteration: a5d. 'in addition' to
returning ‘NULL’; avoiding the exception can yield slightly better
performance.  If an actual error occurs, *note tp_iternext: 1366. should
always set an exception and return ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Weak Reference Support,  Next: More Suggestions,  Prev: Abstract Protocol Support,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.8 Weak Reference Support
..............................

One of the goals of Python's weak reference implementation is to allow
any type to participate in the weak reference mechanism without
incurring the overhead on performance-critical objects (such as
numbers).

也參考
......

Documentation for the *note weakref: 10f. module.

For an object to be weakly referenceable, the extension type must set
the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF’ bit of the *note tp_flags: 1691. field.
The legacy *note tp_weaklistoffset: 7cc. field should be left as zero.

Concretely, here is how the statically declared type object would look:

     static PyTypeObject TrivialType = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         /* ... other members omitted for brevity ... */
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF | ...,
     };

The only further addition is that ‘tp_dealloc’ needs to clear any weak
references (by calling *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 305.):

     static void
     Trivial_dealloc(TrivialObject *self)
     {
         /* Clear weakrefs first before calling any destructors */
         PyObject_ClearWeakRefs((PyObject *) self);
         /* ... remainder of destruction code omitted for brevity ... */
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: More Suggestions,  Prev: Weak Reference Support,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.9 More Suggestions
........................

In order to learn how to implement any specific method for your new data
type, get the *note CPython: 4f7. source code.  Go to the ‘Objects’
directory, then search the C source files for ‘tp_’ plus the function
you want (for example, ‘tp_richcompare’).  You will find examples of the
function you want to implement.

When you need to verify that an object is a concrete instance of the
type you are implementing, use the *note PyObject_TypeCheck(): 16cd.
function.  A sample of its use might be something like the following:

     if (!PyObject_TypeCheck(some_object, &MyType)) {
         PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "arg #1 not a mything");
         return NULL;
     }

也參考
......

Download CPython source releases.

     ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/source/’

The CPython project on GitHub, where the CPython source code is developed.

     ‘https://github.com/python/cpython’


File: python.info,  Node: 建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件,  Next: 建置 Windows 上的 C 和 C++ 擴充,  Prev: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics,  Up: 不使用第三方工具建立擴充

6.2.4 建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件
----------------------------

一個 CPython 的 C 擴充套件是一個共用函式庫（例如在 Linux 上的 ‘.so’ 檔案
，在 Windows 上的 ‘.pyd’），會匯出一個'初始化函式'。

To be importable, the shared library must be available on *note
PYTHONPATH: eb1, and must be named after the module name, with an
appropriate extension.  When using setuptools, the correct filename is
generated automatically.

The initialization function has the signature:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyInit_modulename (void)

It returns either a fully initialized module, or a *note PyModuleDef:
7c1. instance.  See *note 初始化 C 模組: 4786. for details.

For modules with ASCII-only names, the function must be named
‘PyInit_<modulename>’, with ‘<modulename>’ replaced by the name of the
module.  When using *note Multi-phase initialization: 4787, non-ASCII
module names are allowed.  In this case, the initialization function
name is ‘PyInitU_<modulename>’, with ‘<modulename>’ encoded using
Python's 'punycode' encoding with hyphens replaced by underscores.  In
Python:

     def initfunc_name(name):
         try:
             suffix = b'_' + name.encode('ascii')
         except UnicodeEncodeError:
             suffix = b'U_' + name.encode('punycode').replace(b'-', b'_')
         return b'PyInit' + suffix

It is possible to export multiple modules from a single shared library
by defining multiple initialization functions.  However, importing them
requires using symbolic links or a custom importer, because by default
only the function corresponding to the filename is found.  See the
'"Multiple modules in one library"' section in PEP 489(1) for details.
* Menu:

* Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools,  Up: 建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件

6.2.4.1 Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools
.....................................................

Python 3.12 and newer no longer come with distutils.  Please refer to
the ‘setuptools’ documentation at
‘https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/setuptools.html’ to learn
more about how build and distribute C/C++ extensions with setuptools.


File: python.info,  Node: 建置 Windows 上的 C 和 C++ 擴充,  Prev: 建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件,  Up: 不使用第三方工具建立擴充

6.2.5 建置 Windows 上的 C 和 C++ 擴充
-------------------------------------

This chapter briefly explains how to create a Windows extension module
for Python using Microsoft Visual C++, and follows with more detailed
background information on how it works.  The explanatory material is
useful for both the Windows programmer learning to build Python
extensions and the Unix programmer interested in producing software
which can be successfully built on both Unix and Windows.

Module authors are encouraged to use the distutils approach for building
extension modules, instead of the one described in this section.  You
will still need the C compiler that was used to build Python; typically
Microsoft Visual C++.

     備註: This chapter mentions a number of filenames that include an
     encoded Python version number.  These filenames are represented
     with the version number shown as ‘XY’; in practice, ‘'X'’ will be
     the major version number and ‘'Y'’ will be the minor version number
     of the Python release you're working with.  For example, if you are
     using Python 2.2.1, ‘XY’ will actually be ‘22’.

* Menu:

* A Cookbook Approach::
* Differences Between Unix and Windows::
* Using DLLs in Practice::


File: python.info,  Node: A Cookbook Approach,  Next: Differences Between Unix and Windows,  Up: 建置 Windows 上的 C 和 C++ 擴充

6.2.5.1 A Cookbook Approach
...........................

There are two approaches to building extension modules on Windows, just
as there are on Unix: use the ‘setuptools’ package to control the build
process, or do things manually.  The setuptools approach works well for
most extensions; documentation on using ‘setuptools’ to build and
package extension modules is available in *note Building C and C++
Extensions with setuptools: d7b.  If you find you really need to do
things manually, it may be instructive to study the project file for the
winsound(1) standard library module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/PCbuild/winsound.vcxproj


File: python.info,  Node: Differences Between Unix and Windows,  Next: Using DLLs in Practice,  Prev: A Cookbook Approach,  Up: 建置 Windows 上的 C 和 C++ 擴充

6.2.5.2 Differences Between Unix and Windows
............................................

Unix and Windows use completely different paradigms for run-time loading
of code.  Before you try to build a module that can be dynamically
loaded, be aware of how your system works.

In Unix, a shared object (‘.so’) file contains code to be used by the
program, and also the names of functions and data that it expects to
find in the program.  When the file is joined to the program, all
references to those functions and data in the file's code are changed to
point to the actual locations in the program where the functions and
data are placed in memory.  This is basically a link operation.

In Windows, a dynamic-link library (‘.dll’) file has no dangling
references.  Instead, an access to functions or data goes through a
lookup table.  So the DLL code does not have to be fixed up at runtime
to refer to the program's memory; instead, the code already uses the
DLL's lookup table, and the lookup table is modified at runtime to point
to the functions and data.

In Unix, there is only one type of library file (‘.a’) which contains
code from several object files (‘.o’).  During the link step to create a
shared object file (‘.so’), the linker may find that it doesn't know
where an identifier is defined.  The linker will look for it in the
object files in the libraries; if it finds it, it will include all the
code from that object file.

In Windows, there are two types of library, a static library and an
import library (both called ‘.lib’).  A static library is like a Unix
‘.a’ file; it contains code to be included as necessary.  An import
library is basically used only to reassure the linker that a certain
identifier is legal, and will be present in the program when the DLL is
loaded.  So the linker uses the information from the import library to
build the lookup table for using identifiers that are not included in
the DLL. When an application or a DLL is linked, an import library may
be generated, which will need to be used for all future DLLs that depend
on the symbols in the application or DLL.

Suppose you are building two dynamic-load modules, B and C, which should
share another block of code A. On Unix, you would 'not' pass ‘A.a’ to
the linker for ‘B.so’ and ‘C.so’; that would cause it to be included
twice, so that B and C would each have their own copy.  In Windows,
building ‘A.dll’ will also build ‘A.lib’.  You 'do' pass ‘A.lib’ to the
linker for B and C. ‘A.lib’ does not contain code; it just contains
information which will be used at runtime to access A's code.

In Windows, using an import library is sort of like using ‘import spam’;
it gives you access to spam's names, but does not create a separate
copy.  On Unix, linking with a library is more like ‘from spam import
*’; it does create a separate copy.


File: python.info,  Node: Using DLLs in Practice,  Prev: Differences Between Unix and Windows,  Up: 建置 Windows 上的 C 和 C++ 擴充

6.2.5.3 Using DLLs in Practice
..............................

Windows Python is built in Microsoft Visual C++; using other compilers
may or may not work.  The rest of this section is MSVC++ specific.

When creating DLLs in Windows, you must pass ‘pythonXY.lib’ to the
linker.  To build two DLLs, spam and ni (which uses C functions found in
spam), you could use these commands:

     cl /LD /I/python/include spam.c ../libs/pythonXY.lib
     cl /LD /I/python/include ni.c spam.lib ../libs/pythonXY.lib

The first command created three files: ‘spam.obj’, ‘spam.dll’ and
‘spam.lib’.  ‘Spam.dll’ does not contain any Python functions (such as
*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.), but it does know how to find the Python
code thanks to ‘pythonXY.lib’.

The second command created ‘ni.dll’ (and ‘.obj’ and ‘.lib’), which knows
how to find the necessary functions from spam, and also from the Python
executable.

Not every identifier is exported to the lookup table.  If you want any
other modules (including Python) to be able to see your identifiers, you
have to say ‘_declspec(dllexport)’, as in ‘void _declspec(dllexport)
initspam(void)’ or ‘PyObject _declspec(dllexport) *NiGetSpamData(void)’.

Developer Studio will throw in a lot of import libraries that you do not
really need, adding about 100K to your executable.  To get rid of them,
use the Project Settings dialog, Link tab, to specify 'ignore default
libraries'.  Add the correct ‘msvcrt`xx'.lib’ to the list of libraries.


File: python.info,  Node: 在更大的應用程式中嵌入 CPython 運行環境 runtime,  Prev: 不使用第三方工具建立擴充,  Up: 擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器

6.3 在更大的應用程式中嵌入 CPython 運行環境 (runtime)
=====================================================

有時候，相較於建立一個擴充，使其在 Python 直譯器中可作為主應用程式運行，
還不如將 CPython 運行環境嵌入至一個更大的應用程式中更可取。本節將涵蓋一
些要成功完成此任務所涉及的細節。

* Menu:

* 在其它 App 內嵌入 Python::


File: python.info,  Node: 在其它 App 內嵌入 Python,  Up: 在更大的應用程式中嵌入 CPython 運行環境 runtime

6.3.1 在其它 App 內嵌入 Python
------------------------------

The previous chapters discussed how to extend Python, that is, how to
extend the functionality of Python by attaching a library of C functions
to it.  It is also possible to do it the other way around: enrich your
C/C++ application by embedding Python in it.  Embedding provides your
application with the ability to implement some of the functionality of
your application in Python rather than C or C++.  This can be used for
many purposes; one example would be to allow users to tailor the
application to their needs by writing some scripts in Python.  You can
also use it yourself if some of the functionality can be written in
Python more easily.

Embedding Python is similar to extending it, but not quite.  The
difference is that when you extend Python, the main program of the
application is still the Python interpreter, while if you embed Python,
the main program may have nothing to do with Python -- instead, some
parts of the application occasionally call the Python interpreter to run
some Python code.

So if you are embedding Python, you are providing your own main program.
One of the things this main program has to do is initialize the Python
interpreter.  At the very least, you have to call the function *note
Py_Initialize(): 6e2.  There are optional calls to pass command line
arguments to Python.  Then later you can call the interpreter from any
part of the application.

There are several different ways to call the interpreter: you can pass a
string containing Python statements to *note PyRun_SimpleString(): 4795,
or you can pass a stdio file pointer and a file name (for identification
in error messages only) to *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4796.  You can also
call the lower-level operations described in the previous chapters to
construct and use Python objects.

也參考
......

*note Python/C API 參考手冊: 19cc.

     The details of Python's C interface are given in this manual.  A
     great deal of necessary information can be found here.

* Menu:

* Very High Level Embedding::
* Beyond Very High Level Embedding; An overview: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview.
* Pure Embedding::
* Extending Embedded Python::
* Embedding Python in C++::
* Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems::


File: python.info,  Node: Very High Level Embedding,  Next: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview,  Up: 在其它 App 內嵌入 Python

6.3.1.1 Very High Level Embedding
.................................

The simplest form of embedding Python is the use of the very high level
interface.  This interface is intended to execute a Python script
without needing to interact with the application directly.  This can for
example be used to perform some operation on a file.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         wchar_t *program = Py_DecodeLocale(argv[0], NULL);
         if (program == NULL) {
             fprintf(stderr, "Fatal error: cannot decode argv[0]\n");
             exit(1);
         }
         Py_SetProgramName(program);  /* optional but recommended */
         Py_Initialize();
         PyRun_SimpleString("from time import time,ctime\n"
                            "print('Today is', ctime(time()))\n");
         if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
             exit(120);
         }
         PyMem_RawFree(program);
         return 0;
     }

The *note Py_SetProgramName(): 188c. function should be called before
*note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. to inform the interpreter about paths to
Python run-time libraries.  Next, the Python interpreter is initialized
with *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2, followed by the execution of a
hard-coded Python script that prints the date and time.  Afterwards, the
*note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. call shuts the interpreter down, followed by
the end of the program.  In a real program, you may want to get the
Python script from another source, perhaps a text-editor routine, a
file, or a database.  Getting the Python code from a file can better be
done by using the *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4796. function, which saves
you the trouble of allocating memory space and loading the file
contents.


File: python.info,  Node: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview,  Next: Pure Embedding,  Prev: Very High Level Embedding,  Up: 在其它 App 內嵌入 Python

6.3.1.2 Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview
.....................................................

The high level interface gives you the ability to execute arbitrary
pieces of Python code from your application, but exchanging data values
is quite cumbersome to say the least.  If you want that, you should use
lower level calls.  At the cost of having to write more C code, you can
achieve almost anything.

It should be noted that extending Python and embedding Python is quite
the same activity, despite the different intent.  Most topics discussed
in the previous chapters are still valid.  To show this, consider what
the extension code from Python to C really does:

  1. Convert data values from Python to C,

  2. Perform a function call to a C routine using the converted values,
     and

  3. Convert the data values from the call from C to Python.

When embedding Python, the interface code does:

  1. Convert data values from C to Python,

  2. Perform a function call to a Python interface routine using the
     converted values, and

  3. Convert the data values from the call from Python to C.

As you can see, the data conversion steps are simply swapped to
accommodate the different direction of the cross-language transfer.  The
only difference is the routine that you call between both data
conversions.  When extending, you call a C routine, when embedding, you
call a Python routine.

This chapter will not discuss how to convert data from Python to C and
vice versa.  Also, proper use of references and dealing with errors is
assumed to be understood.  Since these aspects do not differ from
extending the interpreter, you can refer to earlier chapters for the
required information.


File: python.info,  Node: Pure Embedding,  Next: Extending Embedded Python,  Prev: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview,  Up: 在其它 App 內嵌入 Python

6.3.1.3 Pure Embedding
......................

The first program aims to execute a function in a Python script.  Like
in the section about the very high level interface, the Python
interpreter does not directly interact with the application (but that
will change in the next section).

The code to run a function defined in a Python script is:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         PyObject *pName, *pModule, *pFunc;
         PyObject *pArgs, *pValue;
         int i;

         if (argc < 3) {
             fprintf(stderr,"Usage: call pythonfile funcname [args]\n");
             return 1;
         }

         Py_Initialize();
         pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
         /* Error checking of pName left out */

         pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);
         Py_DECREF(pName);

         if (pModule != NULL) {
             pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
             /* pFunc is a new reference */

             if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
                 pArgs = PyTuple_New(argc - 3);
                 for (i = 0; i < argc - 3; ++i) {
                     pValue = PyLong_FromLong(atoi(argv[i + 3]));
                     if (!pValue) {
                         Py_DECREF(pArgs);
                         Py_DECREF(pModule);
                         fprintf(stderr, "Cannot convert argument\n");
                         return 1;
                     }
                     /* pValue reference stolen here: */
                     PyTuple_SetItem(pArgs, i, pValue);
                 }
                 pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);
                 Py_DECREF(pArgs);
                 if (pValue != NULL) {
                     printf("Result of call: %ld\n", PyLong_AsLong(pValue));
                     Py_DECREF(pValue);
                 }
                 else {
                     Py_DECREF(pFunc);
                     Py_DECREF(pModule);
                     PyErr_Print();
                     fprintf(stderr,"Call failed\n");
                     return 1;
                 }
             }
             else {
                 if (PyErr_Occurred())
                     PyErr_Print();
                 fprintf(stderr, "Cannot find function \"%s\"\n", argv[2]);
             }
             Py_XDECREF(pFunc);
             Py_DECREF(pModule);
         }
         else {
             PyErr_Print();
             fprintf(stderr, "Failed to load \"%s\"\n", argv[1]);
             return 1;
         }
         if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
             return 120;
         }
         return 0;
     }

This code loads a Python script using ‘argv[1]’, and calls the function
named in ‘argv[2]’.  Its integer arguments are the other values of the
‘argv’ array.  If you *note compile and link: 479d. this program (let's
call the finished executable ‘call’), and use it to execute a Python
script, such as:

     def multiply(a,b):
         print("Will compute", a, "times", b)
         c = 0
         for i in range(0, a):
             c = c + b
         return c

then the result should be:

     $ call multiply multiply 3 2
     Will compute 3 times 2
     Result of call: 6

Although the program is quite large for its functionality, most of the
code is for data conversion between Python and C, and for error
reporting.  The interesting part with respect to embedding Python starts
with

     Py_Initialize();
     pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
     /* Error checking of pName left out */
     pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);

After initializing the interpreter, the script is loaded using *note
PyImport_Import(): 126d.  This routine needs a Python string as its
argument, which is constructed using the *note PyUnicode_FromString():
479e. data conversion routine.

     pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
     /* pFunc is a new reference */

     if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
         ...
     }
     Py_XDECREF(pFunc);

Once the script is loaded, the name we're looking for is retrieved using
*note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 473c.  If the name exists, and the
object returned is callable, you can safely assume that it is a
function.  The program then proceeds by constructing a tuple of
arguments as normal.  The call to the Python function is then made with:

     pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);

Upon return of the function, ‘pValue’ is either ‘NULL’ or it contains a
reference to the return value of the function.  Be sure to release the
reference after examining the value.


File: python.info,  Node: Extending Embedded Python,  Next: Embedding Python in C++,  Prev: Pure Embedding,  Up: 在其它 App 內嵌入 Python

6.3.1.4 Extending Embedded Python
.................................

Until now, the embedded Python interpreter had no access to
functionality from the application itself.  The Python API allows this
by extending the embedded interpreter.  That is, the embedded
interpreter gets extended with routines provided by the application.
While it sounds complex, it is not so bad.  Simply forget for a while
that the application starts the Python interpreter.  Instead, consider
the application to be a set of subroutines, and write some glue code
that gives Python access to those routines, just like you would write a
normal Python extension.  For example:

     static int numargs=0;

     /* Return the number of arguments of the application command line */
     static PyObject*
     emb_numargs(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         if(!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":numargs"))
             return NULL;
         return PyLong_FromLong(numargs);
     }

     static PyMethodDef EmbMethods[] = {
         {"numargs", emb_numargs, METH_VARARGS,
          "Return the number of arguments received by the process."},
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef EmbModule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, "emb", NULL, -1, EmbMethods,
         NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL
     };

     static PyObject*
     PyInit_emb(void)
     {
         return PyModule_Create(&EmbModule);
     }

Insert the above code just above the ‘main()’ function.  Also, insert
the following two statements before the call to *note Py_Initialize():
6e2.:

     numargs = argc;
     PyImport_AppendInittab("emb", &PyInit_emb);

These two lines initialize the ‘numargs’ variable, and make the
‘emb.numargs()’ function accessible to the embedded Python interpreter.
With these extensions, the Python script can do things like

     import emb
     print("Number of arguments", emb.numargs())

In a real application, the methods will expose an API of the application
to Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Embedding Python in C++,  Next: Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems,  Prev: Extending Embedded Python,  Up: 在其它 App 內嵌入 Python

6.3.1.5 Embedding Python in C++
...............................

It is also possible to embed Python in a C++ program; precisely how this
is done will depend on the details of the C++ system used; in general
you will need to write the main program in C++, and use the C++ compiler
to compile and link your program.  There is no need to recompile Python
itself using C++.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems,  Prev: Embedding Python in C++,  Up: 在其它 App 內嵌入 Python

6.3.1.6 Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems
.....................................................

It is not necessarily trivial to find the right flags to pass to your
compiler (and linker) in order to embed the Python interpreter into your
application, particularly because Python needs to load library modules
implemented as C dynamic extensions (‘.so’ files) linked against it.

To find out the required compiler and linker flags, you can execute the
‘python`X.Y'-config’ script which is generated as part of the
installation process (a ‘python3-config’ script may also be available).
This script has several options, of which the following will be directly
useful to you:

   * ‘pythonX.Y-config --cflags’ will give you the recommended flags
     when compiling:

          $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --cflags
          -I/opt/include/python3.11 -I/opt/include/python3.11 -Wsign-compare  -DNDEBUG -g -fwrapv -O3 -Wall

   * ‘pythonX.Y-config --ldflags --embed’ will give you the recommended
     flags when linking:

          $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --ldflags --embed
          -L/opt/lib/python3.11/config-3.11-x86_64-linux-gnu -L/opt/lib -lpython3.11 -lpthread -ldl  -lutil -lm

     備註: To avoid confusion between several Python installations (and
     especially between the system Python and your own compiled Python),
     it is recommended that you use the absolute path to
     ‘python`X.Y'-config’, as in the above example.

If this procedure doesn't work for you (it is not guaranteed to work for
all Unix-like platforms; however, we welcome *note bug reports: 47a4.)
you will have to read your system's documentation about dynamic linking
and/or examine Python's ‘Makefile’ (use *note
sysconfig.get_makefile_filename(): 40ec. to find its location) and
compilation options.  In this case, the *note sysconfig: d5. module is a
useful tool to programmatically extract the configuration values that
you will want to combine together.  For example:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBS')
     '-lpthread -ldl  -lutil'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LINKFORSHARED')
     '-Xlinker -export-dynamic'


File: python.info,  Node: Python/C API 參考手冊,  Next: 安裝 Python 模組,  Prev: 擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器,  Up: Top

7 Python/C API 參考手冊
***********************

對於想要編寫擴充模組或是嵌入 Python 的 C 和 C++ 程式設計師們，這份手冊記
錄了可使用的 API（應用程式介面）。在*note 擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器:
19cb.中也有相關的內容，它描述了編寫擴充的一般原則，但並沒有詳細說明 API
函式。

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<11>.
* C API 穩定性::
* The Very High Level Layer::
* 參照計數: 參照計數<2>.
* 例外處理::
* 工具::
* 抽象物件層 (Abstract Objects Layer): 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer.
* 具體物件層::
* Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: Initialization Finalization and Threads.
* Python 初始化設定::
* 記憶體管理::
* Object Implementation Support::
* API 和 ABI 版本管理::


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<11>,  Next: C API 穩定性,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.1 簡介
========

對於 Python 的應用程式開發介面使得 C 和 C++ 開發者能夠在各種層級存取
Python 直譯器。該 API 同樣可用於 C++，但為簡潔起見，通常將其稱為
Python/C API。使用 Python/C API 有兩個不同的原因，第一個是為特定目的來編
寫'擴充模組'；這些是擴充 Python 直譯器的 C 模組，這可能是最常見的用法。
第二個原因是在更大的應用程式中將 Python 作為零件使用；這種技術通常在應用
程式中稱為 'embedding'（嵌入式）Python。

編寫擴充模組是一個相對容易理解的過程，其中「食譜 (cookbook)」方法很有效
。有幾種工具可以在一定程度上自動化該過程，儘管人們從早期就將 Python 嵌入
到其他應用程式中，但嵌入 Python 的過程並不像編寫擴充那樣簡單。

不論你是嵌入還是擴充 Python，許多 API 函式都是很有用的；此外，大多數嵌入
Python 的應用程式也需要提供自定義擴充模組，因此在嘗試將 Python 嵌入實際
應用程式之前熟悉編寫擴充可能是個好主意。

* Menu:

* 編寫標準::
* 引入檔案 (include files): 引入檔案 include files.
* 有用的巨集::
* 物件、型別和參照計數::
* 例外: 例外<18>.
* 嵌入式Python::
* 除錯建置::


File: python.info,  Node: 編寫標準,  Next: 引入檔案 include files,  Up: 簡介<11>

7.1.1 編寫標準
--------------

如果你正在編寫要引入於 CPython 中的 C 程式碼，你'必須'遵循 PEP 7(1) 中定
義的指南和標準。無論你貢獻的 Python 版本如何，這些指南都適用。對於你自己
的第三方擴充模組，則不必遵循這些約定，除非你希望最終將它們貢獻給 Python。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/


File: python.info,  Node: 引入檔案 include files,  Next: 有用的巨集,  Prev: 編寫標準,  Up: 簡介<11>

7.1.2 引入檔案 (include files)
------------------------------

使用 Python/C API 所需的所有函式、型別和巨集的定義都透過以下這幾行來在你
的程式碼中引入：

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

這意味著會引入以下標準標頭：‘<stdio.h>’、‘<string.h>’、‘<errno.h>’、
‘<limits.h>’、‘<assert.h>’ 和 ‘<stdlib.h>’（如果可用）。

     備註: 由於 Python 可能會定義一些會影響某些系統上標準標頭檔的預處理
     器 (pre-processor)，因此你'必須'在引入任何標準標頭檔之前引入
     ‘Python.h’。

     建議在引入 ‘Python.h’ 之前都要定義 ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’。有關此巨集的
     說明，請參閱*note 剖析引數與建置數值: 6dc.。

所有定義於 Python.h 中且使用者可見的名稱（另外透過標準標頭檔引入的除外）
都具有 ‘Py’ 或 ‘_Py’ 前綴。以 ‘_Py’ 開頭的名稱供 Python 實作內部使用，擴
充編寫者不應使用。結構成員名稱沒有保留前綴。

     備註: 使用者程式碼不應定義任何以 ‘Py’ 或 ‘_Py’ 開頭的名稱。這會讓讀
     者感到困惑，並危及使用者程式碼在未來 Python 版本上的可移植性，這些
     版本可能會定義以這些前綴之一開頭的其他名稱。

標頭檔通常隨 Python 一起安裝。在 Unix 上它們位於目錄
‘`prefix'/include/pythonversion/’ 和
‘`exec_prefix'/include/pythonversion/’，其中 *note prefix: 1b52. 和
*note exec_prefix: 1b53. 由 Python 的 ‘configure’ 腳本的相應參數定義，
'version' 是 ‘'%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2]’。在 Windows 上，標頭安裝在
‘`prefix'/include’ 中，其中 ‘prefix’ 是指定給安裝程式 (installer) 用的安
裝目錄。

要引入標頭，請將兩個（如果不同）目錄放在編譯器的引入搜索路徑 (search
path) 中。'不要'將父目錄放在搜索路徑上，然後使用 ‘#include
<pythonX.Y/Python.h>’；這會在多平台建置上壞掉，因為 *note prefix: 1b52.
下獨立於平台的標頭包括來自 *note exec_prefix: 1b53. 的平台特定標頭。

C++ 使用者應注意，儘管 API 完全使用 C 來定義，但標頭檔適當地將入口點聲明
為 ‘extern "C"’。因此，無需執行任何特殊操作即可使用 C++ 中的 API。


File: python.info,  Node: 有用的巨集,  Next: 物件、型別和參照計數,  Prev: 引入檔案 include files,  Up: 簡介<11>

7.1.3 有用的巨集
----------------

Python 標頭檔中定義了幾個有用的巨集，大多被定義在它們有用的地方附近（例
如 *note Py_RETURN_NONE: 12e3.），其他是更通用的工具程式。以下並不一定是
完整的列表。

 -- C 巨集: PyMODINIT_FUNC

     Declare an extension module ‘PyInit’ initialization function.  The
     function return type is *note PyObject: 6d1.*.  The macro declares
     any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and for
     C++ declares the function as ‘extern "C"’.

     The initialization function must be named ‘PyInit_NAME’, where
     'name' is the name of the module, and should be the only
     non-‘static’ item defined in the module file.  Example:

          static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
              PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
              .m_name = "spam",
              ...
          };

          PyMODINIT_FUNC
          PyInit_spam(void)
          {
              return PyModule_Create(&spam_module);
          }

 -- C 巨集: Py_ABS (x)

     回傳 ‘x’ 的絕對值。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: Py_ALWAYS_INLINE

     要求編譯器總是嵌入靜態行內函式 (static inline function)，編譯器可以
     忽略它並決定不嵌入該函式。

     在禁用函式嵌入的除錯模式下建置 Python 時，它可用於嵌入有性能要求的
     靜態行內函式。例如，MSC 在除錯模式下建置時禁用函式嵌入。

     盲目地使用 Py_ALWAYS_INLINE 標記靜態行內函式可能會導致更差的性能（
     例如程式碼大小增加）。在成本/收益分析方面，編譯器通常比開發人員更聰
     明。

     如果 Python 是*note 在除錯模式下建置: 69f.（如果 *note Py_DEBUG:
     3e51. 巨集有被定義），*note Py_ALWAYS_INLINE: 168a. 巨集就什麼都不
     會做。

     它必須在函式回傳型別之前被指定。用法：

          static inline Py_ALWAYS_INLINE int random(void) { return 4; }

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: Py_CHARMASK (c)

     引數必須是 [-128, 127] 或 [0, 255] 範圍內的字元或整數。這個巨集會將
     ‘c’ 轉換為 ‘unsigned char’ 並回傳。

 -- C 巨集: Py_DEPRECATED (version)

     將其用於已棄用的聲明。巨集必須放在符號名稱之前。

     範例：

          Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增了 MSVC 支援。

 -- C 巨集: Py_GETENV (s)

     類似於 ‘getenv(s)’，但如果在命令列上傳遞了 *note -E: 79e. 則回傳
     ‘NULL’ （請見 *note PyConfig.use_environment: 330.）。

 -- C 巨集: Py_MAX (x, y)

     回傳 ‘x’ 和 ‘y’ 之間的最大值。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: Py_MEMBER_SIZE (type, member)

     以位元組為單位回傳結構 (‘type’) ‘member’ 的大小。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: Py_MIN (x, y)

     回傳 ‘x’ 和 ‘y’ 之間的最小值。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: Py_NO_INLINE

     禁用函式的嵌入。例如，它減少了 C 堆疊的消耗：對大量嵌入程式碼的
     LTO+PGO 建置很有用（請參閱 bpo-33720(1)）。

     用法：

          Py_NO_INLINE static int random(void) { return 4; }

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: Py_STRINGIFY (x)

     將 ‘x’ 轉換為 C 字串。例如 ‘Py_STRINGIFY(123)’ 會回傳 ‘"123"’。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: Py_UNREACHABLE ()

     當你的設計中有無法達到的程式碼路徑時，請使用此選項。例如在 ‘case’ 語
     句已涵蓋了所有可能值的 ‘switch’ 陳述式中的 ‘default:’ 子句。在你可
     能想要呼叫 ‘assert(0)’ 或 ‘abort()’ 的地方使用它。

     在發布模式 (release mode) 下，巨集幫助編譯器最佳化程式碼，並避免有
     關無法存取程式碼的警告。例如該巨集是在發布模式下於 GCC 使用
     ‘__builtin_unreachable()’ 來實作。

     ‘Py_UNREACHABLE()’ 的一個用途是，在對一個永不回傳但並未聲明為
     ‘_Py_NO_RETURN’ 的函式之呼叫後使用。

     如果程式碼路徑是極不可能但在特殊情況下可以到達，則不得使用此巨集。
     例如在低記憶體條件下或系統呼叫回傳了超出預期範圍的值。在這種情況下
     ，最好將錯誤回報給呼叫者。如果無法回報錯誤則可以使用 *note
     Py_FatalError(): 7c7.。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: Py_UNUSED (arg)

     將此用於函式定義中未使用的參數以消除編譯器警告。例如：‘int func(int
     a, int Py_UNUSED(b)) { return a; }’。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: PyDoc_STRVAR (name, str)

     建立一個名為 ‘name’ 的變數，可以在文件字串中使用。如果 Python 是在
     沒有文件字串的情況下建置，則該值將為空。

     如 PEP 7(2) 中所指明，使用 *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 174d. 作為文件字串可
     以支援在沒有文件字串的情況下建置 Python。

     範例：

          PyDoc_STRVAR(pop_doc, "Remove and return the rightmost element.");

          static PyMethodDef deque_methods[] = {
              // ...
              {"pop", (PyCFunction)deque_pop, METH_NOARGS, pop_doc},
              // ...
          }

 -- C 巨集: PyDoc_STR (str)

     為給定的輸入字串建立一個文件字串，如果文件字串被禁用則建立空字串。

     如 PEP 7(3) 中所指明，使用 *note PyDoc_STR: 15d9. 指定文件字串以支
     援在沒有文件字串下建置 Python。

     範例：

          static PyMethodDef pysqlite_row_methods[] = {
              {"keys", (PyCFunction)pysqlite_row_keys, METH_NOARGS,
                  PyDoc_STR("Returns the keys of the row.")},
              {NULL, NULL}
          };

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/


File: python.info,  Node: 物件、型別和參照計數,  Next: 例外<18>,  Prev: 有用的巨集,  Up: 簡介<11>

7.1.4 物件、型別和參照計數
--------------------------

大多數 Python/C API 函式都有一個或多個引數以及一個型別為 *note PyObject:
6d1.* 的回傳值，此型別是一個指標，指向一個表示任意 Python 物件的晦暗
(opaque) 資料型別。由於在大多數情況下，Python 語言以相同的方式處理所有
Python 物件型別（例如賦值、作用域規則和引數傳遞），因此它們應該由單個 C
型別來表示。幾乎所有的 Python 物件都存在於堆積 (heap) 中：你永遠不會聲明
*note PyObject: 6d1. 型別的自動變數或靜態變數，只能聲明 *note PyObject:
6d1.* 型別的指標變數。唯一的例外是型別物件；由於它們絕不能被釋放，因此它
們通常是靜態 *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. 物件。

所有 Python 物件（甚至是 Python 整數）都有一個型別 ('type') 和一個參照計
數 ('reference count')。一個物件的型別決定了它是什麼種類的物件（例如一個
整數、一個 list 或一個使用者定義的函式；還有更多型別，請見*note
標準型別階層: 1c77.）。對於每個眾所周知的型別，都有一個巨集來檢查物件是
否屬於該型別；例如，若（且唯若）*a* 指向的物件是 Python list 時，
‘PyList_Check(a)’ 為真。

* Menu:

* 參照計數::
* 型別::


File: python.info,  Node: 參照計數,  Next: 型別,  Up: 物件、型別和參照計數

7.1.4.1 參照計數
................

參照計數很重要，因為現今的電腦記憶體大小是有限的（而且通常是非常有限的）
；它計算有多少個不同的地方用有了一個物件的*note 強參照: 5a8.。這樣的地方
可以是另一個物件，或者全域（或靜態）C 變數，或者某個 C 函式中的本地變數
。當一個物件的最後一個*note 強參照: 5a8.被釋放時（即其的參照計數變為零）
，該物件將被解除配置 (deallocated)。如果它包含對其他物件的參照，則它們的
參照會被釋放。如果這樣的釋放使得再也沒有任何對於它們的參照，則可以依次為
那些其他物件解除配置，依此類推。（此處相互參照物件的存在是個明顯的問題；
目前，解決方案是「就不要那樣做」。）

參照計數總是被明確地操作。正常的方法是使用巨集 *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. 來
取得對於物件的參照（即參照計數加一），並使用巨集 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.
來釋放參照（即將參照計數減一）。*note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 巨集比 incref 巨
集複雜得多，因為它必須檢查參照計數是否變為零，然後呼叫物件的釋放器
(deallocator)。釋放器是包含在物件型別結構中的函式指標。特定型別的釋放器
，在如果是一個複合物件型別（例如 list）時負責釋放物件中包含的其他物件的
參照，並執行任何需要的額外完結步驟。參照計數不可能溢出；至少與虛擬記憶體
中用來保存參照計數的不同記憶體位置數量一樣多的位元會被使用（假設
‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) >= sizeof(void*)’）。因此參照計數增加是一個簡單的操
作。

沒有必要為每個包含物件指標的本地變數物件都持有一個*note 強參照: 5a8.（即
增加參照計數）。理論上，當變數指向它時，物件的參照計數會增加 1，而當變數
離開作用域時就會減少 1。然而這兩者會相互抵消，所以最後參照計數沒有改變。
使用參照計數的唯一真正原因是防止物件還有變數指向它時被解除配置。如果我們
知道至少有一個物件的其他參照生存了至少與我們的變數一樣久，就不需要臨時增
加建立新的*note 強參照: 5a8.（即增加參照計數）。出現這種情況的一個重要情
況是在從 Python 呼叫的擴充模組中作為引數傳遞給 C 函式的物件；呼叫機制保
證在呼叫期間保持對每個參數的參照。

然而，一個常見的陷阱是從一個 list 中提取一個物件並保留它一段時間而不取得
其參照。某些其他操作可能會從列表中刪除該物件，減少其參照計數並可能取消分
配它。真正的危險是看似無害的操作可能會呼叫可以執行此操作的任意 Python 程
式碼；有一個程式碼路徑允許控制權從 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 回歸使用者，
因此幾乎任何操作都有潛在危險。

一種安全的方法是都使用通用 (generics) 操作（名稱以 ‘PyObject_’、
‘PyNumber_’、‘PySequence_’ 或 ‘PyMapping_’ 開頭的函式）。這些操作總是建
立新的對於它們回傳物件的*note 強參照: 5a8.（即增加其參照計數）。這讓呼叫
者有責任在處理完結果後呼叫 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.；這就成為第二本質。

* Menu:

* 參照計數詳細資訊::


File: python.info,  Node: 參照計數詳細資訊,  Up: 參照計數

7.1.4.2 參照計數詳細資訊
........................

Python/C API 中函式的參照計數行為最好用'參照的所有權'來解釋。所有權附屬
於參照而非物件（物件並非被擁有，它們總是共享的）。「擁有參照」意味著當不
再需要該參照時，負責在其上呼叫 Py_DECREF。所有權也可以轉移，這意味著接收
參照所有權的程式碼最終會負責在不需要參照時透過呼叫 *note Py_DECREF():
2fc. 或 *note Py_XDECREF(): 5a9. 釋放參照 -- 或者將這個責任再傳遞出去（
通常是給它的呼叫者）。當一個函式將參照的所有權傳遞給它的呼叫者時，呼叫者
被稱為接收到一個'新'參照。當沒有所有權轉移時，呼叫者被稱為'借用'參照。如
果是*note 借用參照: 47ba.就不需要做任何事情。

相反地，當呼叫的函式傳入物件的參照時，有兩種可能性：函式有'竊取 (steal)'
物件的參照，或者沒有。 '竊取參照'意味著當你將參照傳遞給函式時，該函式假
定它現在擁有該參照，並且你不再對它負責。

很少有函式會竊取參照；兩個值得注意的例外是 *note PyList_SetItem(): 4742.
和 *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 4741.，它們竊取了對項目的參照（但不是對項目
所在的 tuple 或 list 的參照！）。因為有著使用新建立的物件來增加
(populate) tuple 或 list 的習慣，這些函式旨在竊取參照；例如，建立 tuple
‘(1, 2, "three")’ 的程式碼可以如下所示（先暫時忘記錯誤處理；更好的編寫方
式如下所示）：

     PyObject *t;

     t = PyTuple_New(3);
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 0, PyLong_FromLong(1L));
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 1, PyLong_FromLong(2L));
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 2, PyUnicode_FromString("three"));

這裡 *note PyLong_FromLong(): 160b. 會回傳一個新的參照，它立即被 *note
PyTuple_SetItem(): 4741. 竊取。如果你想繼續使用一個物件，儘管對它的參照
將被竊取，請在呼叫參照竊取函式之前使用 *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. 來獲取另
一個參照。

附帶地說，*note PyTuple_SetItem(): 4741. 是設定 tuple 項目的'唯一'方法；
*note PySequence_SetItem(): 1842. 和 *note PyObject_SetItem(): 47bb. 拒
絕這樣做，因為 tuple 是一種不可變 (immutable) 的資料型別。你應該只對你自
己建立的 tuple 使用 *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 4741.。

可以使用 *note PyList_New(): 47bc. 和 *note PyList_SetItem(): 4742. 編寫
用於填充列表的等效程式碼。

但是在實際操作中你很少會使用這些方法來建立和增加 tuple 和 list。有一個通
用函式 *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db. 可以從 C 值建立最常見的物件，由
'format string' 引導。例如上面的兩個程式碼可以用以下程式碼替換（它還負責
了錯誤檢查）：

     PyObject *tuple, *list;

     tuple = Py_BuildValue("(iis)", 1, 2, "three");
     list = Py_BuildValue("[iis]", 1, 2, "three");

更常見的是以那些借用參照的項目來使用 *note PyObject_SetItem(): 47bb. 及
其系列函式，比如傳遞給你正在編寫的函式的引數。在那種情況下，他們關於參照
的行為會比較穩健，因為你不取得新的一個參照就可以放棄參照（「讓它被竊取」
）。例如，此函式將 list（實際上是任何可變序列）的所有項目設定於給定項目
：

     int
     set_all(PyObject *target, PyObject *item)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;

         n = PyObject_Length(target);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1;
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             PyObject *index = PyLong_FromSsize_t(i);
             if (!index)
                 return -1;
             if (PyObject_SetItem(target, index, item) < 0) {
                 Py_DECREF(index);
                 return -1;
             }
             Py_DECREF(index);
         }
         return 0;
     }

函式回傳值的情況略有不同。雖然傳遞對大多數函式的參照不會改變你對該參照的
所有權責任，但許多回傳物件參照的函式會給你該參照的所有權。原因很簡單：在
很多情況下，回傳的物件是即時建立的，你獲得的參照是對該物件的唯一參照。因
此回傳物件參照的通用函式，如 *note PyObject_GetItem(): 47bd. 和 *note
PySequence_GetItem(): 1841.，總是回傳一個新的參照（呼叫者成為參照的所有
者）。

重要的是要意識到你是否擁有一個函式回傳的參照只取決於你呼叫哪個函式 -- '羽
毛 (plumage)*（作為引數傳遞給函式的物件之型別）*不會進入它！'因此，如果
你使用 *note PyList_GetItem(): 473e. 從 list 中提取一個項目，你不會擁有
其參照 -- 但如果你使用 *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1841. 從同一 list 中
獲取相同的項目（且恰好使用完全相同的引數），你確實會擁有對回傳物件的參照
。

以下是一個範例，說明如何編寫函式來計算一個整數 list 中項目的總和；一次使
用 *note PyList_GetItem(): 473e.，一次使用 *note PySequence_GetItem():
1841.：

     long
     sum_list(PyObject *list)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;
         long total = 0, value;
         PyObject *item;

         n = PyList_Size(list);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1; /* Not a list */
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             item = PyList_GetItem(list, i); /* Can't fail */
             if (!PyLong_Check(item)) continue; /* Skip non-integers */
             value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
             if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                 /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
                 return -1;
             total += value;
         }
         return total;
     }

     long
     sum_sequence(PyObject *sequence)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;
         long total = 0, value;
         PyObject *item;
         n = PySequence_Length(sequence);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1; /* Has no length */
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             item = PySequence_GetItem(sequence, i);
             if (item == NULL)
                 return -1; /* Not a sequence, or other failure */
             if (PyLong_Check(item)) {
                 value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
                 Py_DECREF(item);
                 if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                     /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
                     return -1;
                 total += value;
             }
             else {
                 Py_DECREF(item); /* Discard reference ownership */
             }
         }
         return total;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 型別,  Prev: 參照計數,  Up: 物件、型別和參照計數

7.1.4.3 型別
............

有少數幾個其他的資料型別在 Python/C API 中發揮重要作用；大多數是簡單的 C
型別，例如 int、long、double 和 char*。一些結構型別被用於描述用於列出模
組所匯出的函式或新物件型別的資料屬性的靜態表，其他則用於描述複數的值。這
些將與使用它們的函式一起討論。

 -- C 型別: type Py_ssize_t
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  一個帶符號的整數型別，使得
     ‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) == sizeof(size_t)’。 C99 沒有直接定義這樣的東西
     （size_t 是無符號整數型別）。有關詳細資訊，請參閱 PEP 353(1)。
     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ 是 *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. 型別的最大正值。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/


File: python.info,  Node: 例外<18>,  Next: 嵌入式Python,  Prev: 物件、型別和參照計數,  Up: 簡介<11>

7.1.5 例外
----------

如果需要特定的錯誤處理，Python 開發者就只需要處理例外；未處理的例外會自
動傳遞給呼叫者，然後傳遞給呼叫者的呼叫者，依此類推，直到它們到達頂層直譯
器，在那裡它們透過堆疊回溯 (stack trace) 回報給使用者。

然而，對於 C 開發者來說，錯誤檢查總是必須是顯式的。除非在函式的文件中另
有明確聲明，否則 Python/C API 中的所有函式都可以引發例外。通常當一個函式
遇到錯誤時，它會設定一個例外，丟棄它擁有的任何物件參照，並回傳一個錯誤指
示器。如果沒有另外文件記錄，這個指示器要麼是 ‘NULL’ 不然就是 ‘-1’，取決
於函式的回傳型別。有些函式會回傳布林值 true/false 結果，false 表示錯誤。
很少有函式不回傳明確的錯誤指示器或者有不明確的回傳值，而需要使用 *note
PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. 明確測試錯誤。這些例外都會被明確地記錄於文件。

例外的狀態會在個別執行緒的存儲空間 (per-thread storage) 中維護（這相當於
在非執行緒應用程式中使用全域存儲空間）。執行緒可以處於兩種狀態之一：發生
例外或未發生例外。函式 *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. 可用於檢查這一點：
當例外發生時，它回傳對例外型別物件的借用參照，否則回傳 ‘NULL’。設定例外
狀態的函式有很多：*note PyErr_SetString(): 30b. 是最常見的（儘管不是最通
用的）設定例外狀態的函式，而 *note PyErr_Clear(): ec5. 是用來清除例外狀
態。

完整的例外狀態由三個（都可以為 ‘NULL’ 的）物件組成：例外型別、對應的例外
值和回溯。這些與 ‘sys.exc_info()’ 的 Python 結果具有相同的含義；但是它們
並不相同：Python 物件表示由 Python *note try: 4ea. ...  *note except:
3a8. 陳述式處理的最後一個例外，而 C 層級的例外狀態僅在例外在 C 函式間傳
遞時存在，直到它到達 Python 位元組碼直譯器的主迴圈，該迴圈負責將它傳遞給
‘sys.exc_info()’ 和其系列函式。

請注意，從 Python 1.5 開始，從 Python 程式碼存取例外狀態的首選且支援執行
緒安全的方法是呼叫 *note sys.exc_info(): 487. 函式，它回傳 Python 程式碼
的個別執行緒例外狀態。此外，兩種存取例外狀態方法的語義都發生了變化，因此
捕獲例外的函式將保存和恢復其執行緒的例外狀態，從而保留其呼叫者的例外狀態
。這可以防止例外處理程式碼中的常見錯誤，這些錯誤是由看似無辜的函式覆蓋了
正在處理的例外而引起的；它還替回溯中被堆疊幀 (stack frame) 參照的物件減
少了通常不需要的生命週期延長。

作為一般原則，呼叫另一個函式來執行某些任務的函式應該檢查被呼叫函式是否引
發了例外，如果是，則將例外狀態傳遞給它的呼叫者。它應該丟棄它擁有的任何物
件參照，並回傳一個錯誤指示符，但它'不應該'設定另一個例外 -- 這將覆蓋剛剛
引發的例外，並丟失關於錯誤確切原因的重要資訊。

上面的 ‘sum_sequence()’ 範例展示了一個檢測例外並將其繼續傳遞的例子。碰巧
這個例子在檢測到錯誤時不需要清理任何擁有的參照。以下範例函式展示了一些錯
誤清理。首先，為了提醒你為什麼喜歡 Python，我們展示了等效的 Python 程式
碼：

     def incr_item(dict, key):
         try:
             item = dict[key]
         except KeyError:
             item = 0
         dict[key] = item + 1

這是相應的 C 程式碼：

     int
     incr_item(PyObject *dict, PyObject *key)
     {
         /* Objects all initialized to NULL for Py_XDECREF */
         PyObject *item = NULL, *const_one = NULL, *incremented_item = NULL;
         int rv = -1; /* Return value initialized to -1 (failure) */

         item = PyObject_GetItem(dict, key);
         if (item == NULL) {
             /* Handle KeyError only: */
             if (!PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_KeyError))
                 goto error;

             /* Clear the error and use zero: */
             PyErr_Clear();
             item = PyLong_FromLong(0L);
             if (item == NULL)
                 goto error;
         }
         const_one = PyLong_FromLong(1L);
         if (const_one == NULL)
             goto error;

         incremented_item = PyNumber_Add(item, const_one);
         if (incremented_item == NULL)
             goto error;

         if (PyObject_SetItem(dict, key, incremented_item) < 0)
             goto error;
         rv = 0; /* Success */
         /* Continue with cleanup code */

      error:
         /* Cleanup code, shared by success and failure path */

         /* Use Py_XDECREF() to ignore NULL references */
         Py_XDECREF(item);
         Py_XDECREF(const_one);
         Py_XDECREF(incremented_item);

         return rv; /* -1 for error, 0 for success */
     }

這個例子代表了在 C 語言中對使用 ‘goto’ 陳述句的認同！它闡述了以 *note
PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 47c2. 和 *note PyErr_Clear(): ec5. 來處理特定
的例外，以及以 *note Py_XDECREF(): 5a9. 來配置其所擁有且可能為 ‘NULL’ 的
參照（注意名稱中的 ‘'X'’；*note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 在遇到 ‘NULL’ 參照時會
崩潰）。重要的是，用於保存擁有的參照的變數被初始化為 ‘NULL’ 以使其能夠順
利作用；同樣地，回傳值被初始化為 ‘-1’（失敗），並且僅在最後一次呼叫成功
後才設定為成功。


File: python.info,  Node: 嵌入式Python,  Next: 除錯建置,  Prev: 例外<18>,  Up: 簡介<11>

7.1.6 嵌入式Python
------------------

只有 Python 直譯器的嵌入者（而不是擴充編寫者）需要擔心的一項重要任務是
Python 直譯器的初始化與完成階段。直譯器的大部分功能只能在直譯器初始化後
使用。

基本的初始化函式是 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2.。這會初始化帶有載入模組的
表，並建立基礎模組 *note builtins: 10.、*note __main__: 1. 和 *note sys:
d3.。它還會初始化模組搜索路徑 (‘sys.path’)。

*note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 不設定「腳本引數列表 (script argument list)」
(‘sys.argv’)。如果稍後將要執行的 Python 程式碼需要此變數，則必須設定
*note PyConfig.argv: 350. 和 *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 16fe.，請見
*note Python 初始化配置: 5ad.。

在大多數系統上（特別是在 Unix 和 Windows 上，儘管細節略有不同），*note
Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 會假設Python 函式庫相對於 Python 直譯器可執行檔案
的位置固定，並根據其對標準 Python 直譯器可執行檔案位置的最佳猜測來計算模
組搜索路徑。或者更詳細地說，它會在 shell 命令搜索路徑（環境變數 ‘PATH’）
中找到名為 ‘python’ 的可執行檔案，並在其父目錄中查找一個名為
‘lib/python`X.Y'’ 的目錄的相對位置。

例如，如果在 ‘/usr/local/bin/python’ 中找到 Python 可執行檔案，它將假定
函式庫位於 ‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’ 中。（事實上這個特定的路徑也是「
後備 (fallback)」位置，當在 ‘PATH’ 中找不到名為 ‘python’ 的可執行檔案時
使用。）使用者可以透過設定環境變數來覆蓋此行為 *note PYTHONHOME: 365.，
或者透過設定 *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. 在標準路徑前面插入額外的目錄。

嵌入的應用程式可以透過在呼叫 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. '之前'呼叫
‘Py_SetProgramName(file)’ 來引導搜索。請注意 *note PYTHONHOME: 365. 仍然
覆蓋它並且 *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. 仍然插入在標準路徑的前面。需要完全控制
權的應用程式必須實作自己的 *note Py_GetPath(): 35d.、*note
Py_GetPrefix(): 35f.、*note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 35b. 和 *note
Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 361.（全部定義在 ‘Modules/getpath.c’)。

有時會希望能夠「取消初始化 (uninitialize)」Python。例如，應用程式可能想
要重新開始（再次呼叫 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2.）或者應用程式簡單地完成
了對 Python 的使用並想要釋放 Python 分配的記憶體。這可以透過呼叫 *note
Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. 來完成。如果 Python 當前處於初始化狀態，函式 *note
Py_IsInitialized(): 47c5. 會回傳 true。有關這些功能的更多資訊將在後面的
章節中給出。請注意 *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. '不會'釋放由 Python 直譯
器分配的所有記憶體，例如目前無法釋放被擴充模組所分配的記憶體。


File: python.info,  Node: 除錯建置,  Prev: 嵌入式Python,  Up: 簡介<11>

7.1.7 除錯建置
--------------

Python 可以在建置時使用多個巨集來啟用對直譯器和擴充模組的額外檢查，這些
檢查往往會在執行環境 (runtime) 增加大量開銷 (overhead)，因此預設情況下不
啟用它們。

Python 原始碼發佈版本中的 ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ 檔案有一份包含多種除
錯構置的完整列表，為支援追蹤參照計數、為記憶體分配器除錯或對主直譯器迴圈
進行低階分析的建置。本節的其餘部分將僅描述最常用的建置。

 -- C 巨集: Py_DEBUG

使用定義的 ‘Py_DEBUG’ 巨集編譯直譯器會生成 *note Python 的除錯建置:
69f.。 ‘Py_DEBUG’ 在 Unix 建置中要透過在 ‘./configure’ 命令中加入 *note
-with-pydebug: 1b76. 來啟用。非 Python 限定的 ‘_DEBUG’ 巨集的存在也暗示
了這一點。當 ‘Py_DEBUG’ 在 Unix 建置中啟用時，編譯器最佳化會被禁用。

除了下面描述的參照計數除錯之外，還會執行額外的檢查，請參閱 *note Python
除錯建置: 69f.。

定義 ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ 來啟用參照追蹤（參見*note 調用 -with-trace-refs
選項: 6d2.）。當有定義時，透過向每個 *note PyObject: 6d1. 新增兩個額外欄
位來維護有效物件的循環雙向鍊表 (circular doubly linked list)。全體分配也
有被追蹤。退出時將印出所有現行參照。（在交互模式下，這發生在直譯器運行的
每個陳述句之後。）

有關更多詳細資訊，請參閱 Python 原始碼發布版中的
‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’。


File: python.info,  Node: C API 穩定性,  Next: The Very High Level Layer,  Prev: 簡介<11>,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.2 C API 穩定性
================

除非有另外記錄於文件，Python 的 C API 被包含在向後相容性策略 PEP 387(1)
中。大多數改動都是相容於原始碼的（通常只會增加新的 API）。更改現有 API 或
刪除 API 僅在棄用期後或修復嚴重問題時進行。

CPython 的應用程式二進位介面 (Application Binary Interface, ABI) 在次要
版本中是向前和向後相容的（如果它們以相同的方式編譯；請參閱下面的*note
平台注意事項: 47ca.）。因此，為 Python 3.10.0 編譯的程式碼將能夠在
3.10.8 上運行，反之亦然，但 3.9.x 和 3.11.x 就需要分別編譯。

C API 有兩層級，有不同的穩定性期望：

   - *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，可能會在次要版本中發生變化，而沒有棄用階段
     。會在名稱中以 ‘PyUnstable’ 前綴來標記。

   - *note 受限 API: 2d4.，在多個次要版本之間相容。當有定義 *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 5b2. 時，只有這個子集會從 ‘Python.h’ 公開。

下面將更詳細地討論這些內容。

帶有底線前綴的名稱是私有 API (private API)，像是 ‘_Py_InternalState’，即
使在補丁版本 (patch release) 中也可能被更改，不會另行通知。如果你需要使
用這個 API，可以聯繫 CPython 開發者(2) 並針對你的使用方法來討論是否新增
公開的 API。

* Menu:

* 不穩定的 C API::
* 穩定的應用程式二進位介面::
* 平台注意事項::
* 受限 API 的內容::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30


File: python.info,  Node: 不穩定的 C API,  Next: 穩定的應用程式二進位介面,  Up: C API 穩定性

7.2.1 不穩定的 C API
--------------------

任何以 ‘PyUnstable’ 前綴命名的 API 都會公開 CPython 實作細節，並可能在每
個次要版本中進行更改（例如從 3.9 到 3.10），而不會出現任何棄用警告。但是
它不會在錯誤修復發布版本中發生變化（例如從 3.10.0 到 3.10.1）。

它通常用於專門的低階工具，例如偵錯器。

使用此 API 的專案應該要遵循 CPython 開發細節，並花費額外的力氣來針對這些
變動來做調整。


File: python.info,  Node: 穩定的應用程式二進位介面,  Next: 平台注意事項,  Prev: 不穩定的 C API,  Up: C API 穩定性

7.2.2 穩定的應用程式二進位介面
------------------------------

為簡單起見，本文件討論'擴充 (extension)'，但受限 API 和穩定 ABI 在所有
API 使用方式中都以相同的方式運作 - 例如在嵌入式 Python (embedding
Python) 中。

* Menu:

* 受限 C API::
* 穩定 ABI::
* 受限 API 範圍和性能::
* 受限 API 注意事項::


File: python.info,  Node: 受限 C API,  Next: 穩定 ABI,  Up: 穩定的應用程式二進位介面

7.2.2.1 受限 C API
..................

Python 3.2 引入了'受限 API (Limited API)'，它是 Python C API 的一個子集
。僅使用受限 API 的擴充可以只編譯一次就使用於多個版本的 Python。受限 API
的內容*note 列在下方: 5b7.。

 -- C 巨集: Py_LIMITED_API

     在包含 ‘Python.h’ 之前定義此巨集以選擇只使用受限 API，並挑選受限
     API 版本。

     將 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 定義為對應於你的擴充有支援的最低 Python 版本的
     *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 56a. 值。該擴充無需重新編譯即可與從指定版本開
     始的所有 Python 3 版本一起使用，並且可以使用過去版本有引入的受限
     API。

     與其直接使用 ‘PY_VERSION_HEX’ 巨集，不如寫死 (hardcode) 最小次要版
     本（例如代表 Python 3.10 的 ‘0x030A0000’），以便在使用未來的 Python
     版本進行編譯時仍保持穩定性。

     你還可以將 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 定義為 ‘3’，這與 ‘0x03020000’（Python
     3.2，引入了受限 API 的版本）相同。


File: python.info,  Node: 穩定 ABI,  Next: 受限 API 範圍和性能,  Prev: 受限 C API,  Up: 穩定的應用程式二進位介面

7.2.2.2 穩定 ABI
................

為了實現它，Python 提供了一個'穩定 ABI (Stable ABI)'：一組將在各個
Python 3.x 版本之間保持相容的符號。

穩定 ABI 被包含在*note 受限 API: 2d4. 中開放的符號，但也包含其他符號 - 例
如，支援舊版受限 API 所必需的函式。

在 Windows 上，使用穩定 ABI 的擴充應該連接到 ‘python3.dll’ 而不是特定版
本的函式庫，例如 ‘python39.dll’。

在某些平台上，Python 將查找並加載以 ‘abi3’ 標籤命名的共享函式庫檔案（例
如 ‘mymodule.abi3.so’）。它不檢查此類擴充是否符合穩定的 ABI。確保的責任
在使用者（或者打包工具）身上，例如使用 3.10+ 受限 API 建置的擴充不會為較
低版本的 Python 所安裝。

穩定 ABI 中的所有函式都作為函式存在於 Python 的共享函式庫中，而不僅是作
為巨集。這使得它們可被用於不使用 C 預處理器 (preprocessor) 的語言。


File: python.info,  Node: 受限 API 範圍和性能,  Next: 受限 API 注意事項,  Prev: 穩定 ABI,  Up: 穩定的應用程式二進位介面

7.2.2.3 受限 API 範圍和性能
...........................

受限 API 的目標是允許使用完整的 C API 進行所有可能的操作，但可能會降低性
能。

例如，雖然 *note PyList_GetItem(): 473e. 可用，但它的「不安全」巨集變體
*note PyList_GET_ITEM(): 47d1. 為不可用。巨集運行可以更快，因為它可以依
賴 list 物件的特定版本實作細節。

如果沒有定義 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’，一些 C API 函式將被嵌入或被替換為巨集。定
義 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 會禁用嵌入，從而隨著 Python 資料結構的改進而提高穩定
性，但可能會降低性能。

通過省略 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 定義，可以使用特定版本的 ABI 編譯受限 API 擴充
。這可以提高該 Python 版本的性能，但會限制相容性。使用 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
編譯將產生一個擴充，可以在特定版本的擴充不可用的地方發布 — 例如，用於即
將發布的 Python 版本的預發布版本 (prerelease)。


File: python.info,  Node: 受限 API 注意事項,  Prev: 受限 API 範圍和性能,  Up: 穩定的應用程式二進位介面

7.2.2.4 受限 API 注意事項
.........................

請注意，使用 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 進行編譯'不'完全保證程式碼符合*note 受限
API: 2d4. 或*note 穩定 ABI: 47cf.。‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 僅涵蓋定義，但 API 還
包括其他議題，例如預期的語義 (semantic)。

‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 無法防範的一個問題是使用在較低 Python 版本中無效的引數
來呼叫函式。例如一個開始接受 ‘NULL’ 作為引數的函式。在 Python 3.9 中，
‘NULL’ 現在代表選擇預設行為，但在 Python 3.8 中，引數將被直接使用，導致
‘NULL’ 取消參照 (dereference) 且崩潰 (crash)。類似的引數適用於結構
(struct) 的欄位。

另一個問題是，當有定義 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 時，一些結構欄位目前不會被隱藏，
即使它們是受限 API 的一部分。

出於這些原因，我們建議要以它支援的'所有'次要 Python 版本來測試擴充，並且
最好使用'最低'版本進行建置。

我們也建議要查看所有使用過的 API 的文件，檢查它是否明確屬於受限 API。即
使有定義 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’，一些私有聲明也會因為技術原因（或者甚至是無意
地，例如臭蟲）而被公開出來。

另請注意，受限 API 不一定是穩定的：在 Python 3.8 中使用 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
進行編譯意味著擴充將能以 Python 3.12 運行，但不一定能以 Python 3.12 '編
譯'。特別是如果穩定 ABI 保持穩定，部分受限 API 可能會被棄用和刪除。


File: python.info,  Node: 平台注意事項,  Next: 受限 API 的內容,  Prev: 穩定的應用程式二進位介面,  Up: C API 穩定性

7.2.3 平台注意事項
------------------

ABI 穩定性不僅取決於 Python，還取決於使用的編譯器、低階函式庫和編譯器選
項。出於*note 穩定 ABI: 47cf. 的目的，這些細節定義了一個「平台」。它們通
常取決於作業系統種類和處理器架構

每個特定的 Python 發布者都有責任確保特定平台上的所有 Python 版本都以不破
壞穩定 ABI 的方式建置。‘python.org’ 和許多第三方發布者發布的 Windows 和
macOS 版本就是這種情況。


File: python.info,  Node: 受限 API 的內容,  Prev: 平台注意事項,  Up: C API 穩定性

7.2.4 受限 API 的內容
---------------------

目前，*note 受限 API: 2d4. 包括以下項目：

   * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 2e5.

   * *note PyAIter_Check(): 47d5.

   * *note PyArg_Parse(): 17c4.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85.

   * *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 137f.

   * *note PyArg_VaParse(): 47d6.

   * *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 12e6.

   * *note PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(): 47d7.

   * ‘PyBaseObject_Type’

   * *note PyBool_FromLong(): 47d8.

   * *note PyBool_Type: 47d9.

   * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): 574.

   * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 575.

   * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 571.

   * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 56e.

   * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 573.

   * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 576.

   * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 56f.

   * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 570.

   * ‘PyByteArrayIter_Type’

   * *note PyByteArray_AsString(): 47da.

   * *note PyByteArray_Concat(): 47db.

   * *note PyByteArray_FromObject(): 1225.

   * *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 1226.

   * *note PyByteArray_Resize(): 47dc.

   * *note PyByteArray_Size(): 47dd.

   * *note PyByteArray_Type: 47de.

   * ‘PyBytesIter_Type’

   * *note PyBytes_AsString(): 6b5.

   * *note PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 47df.

   * *note PyBytes_Concat(): 47e0.

   * *note PyBytes_ConcatAndDel(): 47e1.

   * ‘PyBytes_DecodeEscape()’

   * *note PyBytes_FromFormat(): 180e.

   * *note PyBytes_FromFormatV(): 47e2.

   * *note PyBytes_FromObject(): 47e3.

   * *note PyBytes_FromString(): 47e4.

   * *note PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 1224.

   * ‘PyBytes_Repr()’

   * *note PyBytes_Size(): 47e5.

   * *note PyBytes_Type: 47e6.

   * *note PyCFunction: 12e8.

   * *note PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 47e7.

   * ‘PyCFunction_Call()’

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetFlags()’

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetFunction()’

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetSelf()’

   * *note PyCFunction_New(): 16c9.

   * *note PyCFunction_NewEx(): 1769.

   * ‘PyCFunction_Type’

   * *note PyCMethod_New(): 16c3.

   * *note PyCallIter_New(): 47e8.

   * *note PyCallIter_Type: 47e9.

   * *note PyCallable_Check(): 47ea.

   * *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 47eb.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetContext(): 47ec.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetDestructor(): 47ed.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetName(): 47ee.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetPointer(): 47ef.

   * *note PyCapsule_Import(): 1640.

   * *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 11eb.

   * *note PyCapsule_New(): 474c.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetContext(): 47f0.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetDestructor(): 47f1.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetName(): 47f2.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetPointer(): 47f3.

   * ‘PyCapsule_Type’

   * ‘PyClassMethodDescr_Type’

   * *note PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors(): 47f4.

   * *note PyCodec_Decode(): 370.

   * *note PyCodec_Decoder(): 47f5.

   * *note PyCodec_Encode(): 371.

   * *note PyCodec_Encoder(): 47f6.

   * *note PyCodec_IgnoreErrors(): 47f7.

   * *note PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder(): 47f8.

   * *note PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder(): 47f9.

   * *note PyCodec_KnownEncoding(): 47fa.

   * *note PyCodec_LookupError(): 47fb.

   * *note PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): d30.

   * *note PyCodec_Register(): 47fc.

   * *note PyCodec_RegisterError(): 47fd.

   * *note PyCodec_ReplaceErrors(): 47fe.

   * *note PyCodec_StreamReader(): 47ff.

   * *note PyCodec_StreamWriter(): 4800.

   * *note PyCodec_StrictErrors(): 4801.

   * *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 6c6.

   * *note PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors(): 4802.

   * *note PyComplex_FromDoubles(): 4803.

   * *note PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(): 4804.

   * *note PyComplex_RealAsDouble(): 4805.

   * *note PyComplex_Type: 4806.

   * *note PyDescr_NewClassMethod(): 4807.

   * *note PyDescr_NewGetSet(): 4808.

   * *note PyDescr_NewMember(): 4809.

   * *note PyDescr_NewMethod(): 1768.

   * ‘PyDictItems_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterItem_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterKey_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterValue_Type’

   * ‘PyDictKeys_Type’

   * *note PyDictProxy_New(): 480a.

   * ‘PyDictProxy_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterItem_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterKey_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterValue_Type’

   * ‘PyDictValues_Type’

   * *note PyDict_Clear(): 480b.

   * *note PyDict_Contains(): 480c.

   * *note PyDict_Copy(): 480d.

   * *note PyDict_DelItem(): 480e.

   * *note PyDict_DelItemString(): 480f.

   * *note PyDict_GetItem(): 6e0.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 473f.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 4810.

   * *note PyDict_Items(): 4811.

   * *note PyDict_Keys(): 4812.

   * *note PyDict_Merge(): 4813.

   * *note PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(): 4814.

   * *note PyDict_New(): 4815.

   * *note PyDict_Next(): 4816.

   * *note PyDict_SetItem(): 4743.

   * *note PyDict_SetItemString(): 13e7.

   * *note PyDict_Size(): 4817.

   * *note PyDict_Type: 4818.

   * *note PyDict_Update(): 4819.

   * *note PyDict_Values(): 481a.

   * ‘PyEllipsis_Type’

   * ‘PyEnum_Type’

   * *note PyErr_BadArgument(): 481b.

   * *note PyErr_BadInternalCall(): 481c.

   * *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 17c.

   * *note PyErr_Clear(): ec5.

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’

   * *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 2f9.

   * *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 47c2.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2f4.

   * *note PyErr_Format(): d32.

   * *note PyErr_FormatV(): d31.

   * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 589.

   * *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 586.

   * *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2f2.

   * *note PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(): 481d.

   * *note PyErr_NewException(): 10fe.

   * *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 10fd.

   * *note PyErr_NoMemory(): 4723.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 368.

   * *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7.

   * *note PyErr_Print(): 171b.

   * *note PyErr_PrintEx(): 481e.

   * ‘PyErr_ProgramText()’

   * *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): b87.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 2f5.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 481f.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 14a0.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 4820.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects(): 4821.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 588.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 4722.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(): 149f.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 4822.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects(): 4823.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 4824.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 14a1.

   * *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 587.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): bb0.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): b86.

   * *note PyErr_SetInterrupt(): 4825.

   * *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): 6cf.

   * *note PyErr_SetNone(): 4826.

   * *note PyErr_SetObject(): 30a.

   * *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 2f3.

   * *note PyErr_SetString(): 30b.

   * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocation(): 4827.

   * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 4828.

   * *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 12bd.

   * *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 14c6.

   * *note PyErr_WarnFormat(): 4829.

   * *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 17ca.

   * *note PyEval_AcquireLock(): 482a.

   * *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 482b.

   * ‘PyEval_CallFunction()’

   * ‘PyEval_CallMethod()’

   * ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords()’

   * *note PyEval_EvalCode(): 6b4.

   * *note PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1530.

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrame(): 482c.

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): ec2.

   * *note PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 482d.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 1588.

   * *note PyEval_GetFuncDesc(): 482e.

   * *note PyEval_GetFuncName(): 482f.

   * *note PyEval_GetGlobals(): 4830.

   * *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 4831.

   * *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 4832.

   * *note PyEval_ReleaseLock(): 4833.

   * *note PyEval_ReleaseThread(): 4834.

   * *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8db.

   * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 110f.

   * *note PyEval_ThreadsInitialized(): 4835.

   * ‘PyExc_ArithmeticError’

   * ‘PyExc_AssertionError’

   * ‘PyExc_AttributeError’

   * ‘PyExc_BaseException’

   * ‘PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup’

   * ‘PyExc_BlockingIOError’

   * ‘PyExc_BrokenPipeError’

   * ‘PyExc_BufferError’

   * ‘PyExc_BytesWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_ChildProcessError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionResetError’

   * ‘PyExc_DeprecationWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_EOFError’

   * ‘PyExc_EncodingWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_EnvironmentError’

   * ‘PyExc_Exception’

   * ‘PyExc_FileExistsError’

   * ‘PyExc_FileNotFoundError’

   * ‘PyExc_FloatingPointError’

   * ‘PyExc_FutureWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_GeneratorExit’

   * ‘PyExc_IOError’

   * ‘PyExc_ImportError’

   * ‘PyExc_ImportWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_IndentationError’

   * ‘PyExc_IndexError’

   * ‘PyExc_InterruptedError’

   * ‘PyExc_IsADirectoryError’

   * ‘PyExc_KeyError’

   * ‘PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt’

   * ‘PyExc_LookupError’

   * ‘PyExc_MemoryError’

   * ‘PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError’

   * ‘PyExc_NameError’

   * ‘PyExc_NotADirectoryError’

   * ‘PyExc_NotImplementedError’

   * ‘PyExc_OSError’

   * ‘PyExc_OverflowError’

   * ‘PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_PermissionError’

   * ‘PyExc_ProcessLookupError’

   * ‘PyExc_RecursionError’

   * ‘PyExc_ReferenceError’

   * ‘PyExc_ResourceWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_RuntimeError’

   * ‘PyExc_RuntimeWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_StopAsyncIteration’

   * ‘PyExc_StopIteration’

   * ‘PyExc_SyntaxError’

   * ‘PyExc_SyntaxWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_SystemError’

   * ‘PyExc_SystemExit’

   * ‘PyExc_TabError’

   * ‘PyExc_TimeoutError’

   * ‘PyExc_TypeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnboundLocalError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_UserWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_ValueError’

   * ‘PyExc_Warning’

   * ‘PyExc_WindowsError’

   * ‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’

   * ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’

   * *note PyException_GetArgs(): 2f6.

   * *note PyException_GetCause(): 4836.

   * *note PyException_GetContext(): 4837.

   * *note PyException_GetTraceback(): 4838.

   * *note PyException_SetArgs(): 2f7.

   * *note PyException_SetCause(): 4839.

   * *note PyException_SetContext(): 483a.

   * *note PyException_SetTraceback(): 17cb.

   * *note PyFile_FromFd(): 483b.

   * *note PyFile_GetLine(): 483c.

   * *note PyFile_WriteObject(): 483d.

   * *note PyFile_WriteString(): 483e.

   * ‘PyFilter_Type’

   * *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): 8b5.

   * *note PyFloat_FromDouble(): 483f.

   * *note PyFloat_FromString(): 4840.

   * *note PyFloat_GetInfo(): 125f.

   * *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 125d.

   * *note PyFloat_GetMin(): 125e.

   * *note PyFloat_Type: 4841.

   * *note PyFrameObject: 5a1.

   * *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 5a2.

   * *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5a3.

   * *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 12b8.

   * *note PyFrozenSet_Type: 4842.

   * *note PyGC_Collect(): 7d2.

   * *note PyGC_Disable(): 6d8.

   * *note PyGC_Enable(): 6d7.

   * *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 6d9.

   * *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd.

   * *note PyGILState_GetThisThreadState(): 4843.

   * *note PyGILState_Release(): 142a.

   * ‘PyGILState_STATE’

   * *note PyGetSetDef: a19.

   * ‘PyGetSetDescr_Type’

   * *note PyImport_AddModule(): 4740.

   * *note PyImport_AddModuleObject(): 4844.

   * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 156d.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 4845.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 4846.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 4847.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4848.

   * *note PyImport_GetImporter(): 147f.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 1035.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicTag(): 4849.

   * *note PyImport_GetModule(): a14.

   * *note PyImport_GetModuleDict(): 484a.

   * *note PyImport_Import(): 126d.

   * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModule(): 484b.

   * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 484c.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 355.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 1036.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(): 484d.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 354.

   * *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 484e.

   * *note PyIndex_Check(): 7ce.

   * *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Clear(): 3ef5.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Delete(): 484f.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 7b4.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_GetDict(): 4850.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): a27.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_New(): 3ef6.

   * *note PyIter_Check(): 16ca.

   * *note PyIter_Next(): 4851.

   * *note PyIter_Send(): 6c7.

   * ‘PyListIter_Type’

   * ‘PyListRevIter_Type’

   * *note PyList_Append(): 4852.

   * *note PyList_AsTuple(): 4853.

   * *note PyList_GetItem(): 473e.

   * *note PyList_GetSlice(): 4854.

   * *note PyList_Insert(): 4855.

   * *note PyList_New(): 47bc.

   * *note PyList_Reverse(): 4856.

   * *note PyList_SetItem(): 4742.

   * *note PyList_SetSlice(): 4857.

   * *note PyList_Size(): 128a.

   * *note PyList_Sort(): 4858.

   * *note PyList_Type: 4765.

   * *note PyLongObject: 317.

   * ‘PyLongRangeIter_Type’

   * *note PyLong_AsDouble(): 4859.

   * *note PyLong_AsLong(): 8b1.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 10fb.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongLong(): 485a.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 10fa.

   * *note PyLong_AsSize_t(): 485b.

   * *note PyLong_AsSsize_t(): 485c.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLong(): 485d.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 1129.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(): 17c6.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask(): 485e.

   * *note PyLong_AsVoidPtr(): 485f.

   * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): 781.

   * *note PyLong_FromLong(): 160b.

   * *note PyLong_FromLongLong(): 160c.

   * *note PyLong_FromSize_t(): 17a0.

   * *note PyLong_FromSsize_t(): 4860.

   * *note PyLong_FromString(): 4861.

   * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 179e.

   * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 179f.

   * *note PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 4862.

   * *note PyLong_GetInfo(): 4863.

   * *note PyLong_Type: 4864.

   * ‘PyMap_Type’

   * *note PyMapping_Check(): 4865.

   * *note PyMapping_GetItemString(): 4866.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 4867.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 4868.

   * *note PyMapping_Items(): a1f.

   * *note PyMapping_Keys(): a1d.

   * *note PyMapping_Length(): 4869.

   * *note PyMapping_SetItemString(): 486a.

   * *note PyMapping_Size(): 1844.

   * *note PyMapping_Values(): a1e.

   * *note PyMem_Calloc(): d2e.

   * *note PyMem_Free(): 12b5.

   * *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace.

   * *note PyMem_Realloc(): ec8.

   * *note PyMemberDef: 2d3.

   * ‘PyMemberDescr_Type’

   * *note PyMember_GetOne(): 346.

   * *note PyMember_SetOne(): 347.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 577.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1003.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromObject(): 486b.

   * *note PyMemoryView_GetContiguous(): 486c.

   * ‘PyMemoryView_Type’

   * *note PyMethodDef: 134e.

   * ‘PyMethodDescr_Type’

   * *note PyModuleDef: 7c1.

   * ‘PyModuleDef_Base’

   * *note PyModuleDef_Init(): 486d.

   * ‘PyModuleDef_Type’

   * *note PyModule_AddFunctions(): 486e.

   * *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 13b3.

   * *note PyModule_AddObject(): 6ca.

   * *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6c9.

   * *note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 13b4.

   * *note PyModule_AddType(): 7b9.

   * *note PyModule_Create2(): 486f.

   * *note PyModule_ExecDef(): d35.

   * *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): d34.

   * *note PyModule_GetDef(): 4870.

   * *note PyModule_GetDict(): 4871.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 369.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 36a.

   * *note PyModule_GetName(): 4872.

   * *note PyModule_GetNameObject(): 4873.

   * *note PyModule_GetState(): 7c4.

   * *note PyModule_New(): 4874.

   * *note PyModule_NewObject(): 4875.

   * *note PyModule_SetDocString(): 4876.

   * *note PyModule_Type: 4877.

   * *note PyNumber_Absolute(): 4878.

   * *note PyNumber_Add(): 4879.

   * *note PyNumber_And(): 487a.

   * *note PyNumber_AsSsize_t(): 487b.

   * *note PyNumber_Check(): 8b2.

   * *note PyNumber_Divmod(): 487c.

   * *note PyNumber_Float(): 8b4.

   * *note PyNumber_FloorDivide(): 487d.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAdd(): 487e.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 487f.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide(): 4880.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceLshift(): 4881.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): d37.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply(): 4882.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 4883.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlacePower(): 4884.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder(): 4885.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRshift(): 4886.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 4887.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide(): 4888.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceXor(): 4889.

   * *note PyNumber_Index(): 6c1.

   * *note PyNumber_Invert(): 488a.

   * *note PyNumber_Long(): 8b3.

   * *note PyNumber_Lshift(): 488b.

   * *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): d36.

   * *note PyNumber_Multiply(): 488c.

   * *note PyNumber_Negative(): 488d.

   * *note PyNumber_Or(): 488e.

   * *note PyNumber_Positive(): 488f.

   * *note PyNumber_Power(): 4890.

   * *note PyNumber_Remainder(): 4891.

   * *note PyNumber_Rshift(): 4892.

   * *note PyNumber_Subtract(): 4893.

   * *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 15b7.

   * *note PyNumber_TrueDivide(): 4894.

   * *note PyNumber_Xor(): 4895.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 36b.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 36c.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): a21.

   * *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): a20.

   * *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 15e5.

   * *note PyOS_FSPath(): b88.

   * *note PyOS_InputHook: 314.

   * ‘PyOS_InterruptOccurred()’

   * *note PyOS_double_to_string(): 4896.

   * *note PyOS_getsig(): 13b5.

   * ‘PyOS_mystricmp()’

   * ‘PyOS_mystrnicmp()’

   * *note PyOS_setsig(): 13b6.

   * *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4897.

   * *note PyOS_snprintf(): 1382.

   * *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 112a.

   * *note PyOS_strtol(): 4898.

   * *note PyOS_strtoul(): 4899.

   * *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 1383.

   * *note PyObject: 6d1.

   * *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 6d0.

   * *note PyObject.ob_type: 4756.

   * *note PyObject_ASCII(): 489a.

   * *note PyObject_AsCharBuffer(): 489b.

   * *note PyObject_AsFileDescriptor(): 489c.

   * *note PyObject_AsReadBuffer(): 489d.

   * *note PyObject_AsWriteBuffer(): 489e.

   * *note PyObject_Bytes(): 489f.

   * *note PyObject_Call(): 7a7.

   * *note PyObject_CallFunction(): 8f4.

   * *note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 48a0.

   * *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 301.

   * *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 17e1.

   * *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 7b6.

   * *note PyObject_CallObject(): 4731.

   * *note PyObject_Calloc(): d2f.

   * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 56c.

   * *note PyObject_CheckReadBuffer(): 48a1.

   * *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 305.

   * *note PyObject_CopyData(): 572.

   * *note PyObject_DelItem(): 48a2.

   * ‘PyObject_DelItemString()’

   * *note PyObject_Dir(): 48a3.

   * *note PyObject_Format(): 4454.

   * *note PyObject_Free(): acd.

   * *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 137c.

   * *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 7bb.

   * *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 7ba.

   * *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 137d.

   * *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 137e.

   * *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 48a4.

   * *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 170f.

   * *note PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 48a5.

   * *note PyObject_GenericSetDict(): 48a6.

   * *note PyObject_GetAIter(): 48a7.

   * *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 48a8.

   * *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 473c.

   * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d.

   * *note PyObject_GetItem(): 47bd.

   * *note PyObject_GetIter(): 48a9.

   * *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 2cd.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 48aa.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttrString(): 14dd.

   * *note PyObject_Hash(): 373.

   * *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1235.

   * *note PyObject_Init(): 8b6.

   * *note PyObject_InitVar(): 172e.

   * *note PyObject_IsInstance(): d26.

   * *note PyObject_IsSubclass(): d27.

   * *note PyObject_IsTrue(): 48ab.

   * *note PyObject_Length(): 48ac.

   * *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0.

   * *note PyObject_Not(): 48ad.

   * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12b6.

   * *note PyObject_Repr(): ec3.

   * *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 477b.

   * *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 177f.

   * ‘PyObject_SelfIter()’

   * *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 48ae.

   * *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 13e8.

   * *note PyObject_SetItem(): 47bb.

   * *note PyObject_Size(): 48af.

   * *note PyObject_Str(): ec4.

   * *note PyObject_Type(): 48b0.

   * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2e3.

   * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 2e4.

   * *note PyProperty_Type: 48b1.

   * ‘PyRangeIter_Type’

   * ‘PyRange_Type’

   * ‘PyReversed_Type’

   * *note PySeqIter_New(): 48b2.

   * *note PySeqIter_Type: 48b3.

   * *note PySequence_Check(): 48b4.

   * *note PySequence_Concat(): 48b5.

   * *note PySequence_Contains(): 48b6.

   * *note PySequence_Count(): 48b7.

   * *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1843.

   * *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 48b8.

   * *note PySequence_Fast(): 48b9.

   * *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1841.

   * *note PySequence_GetSlice(): 48ba.

   * ‘PySequence_In()’

   * *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 48bb.

   * *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 48bc.

   * *note PySequence_Index(): 48bd.

   * *note PySequence_Length(): 48be.

   * *note PySequence_List(): 48bf.

   * *note PySequence_Repeat(): 48c0.

   * *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1842.

   * *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 48c1.

   * *note PySequence_Size(): 1840.

   * *note PySequence_Tuple(): 48c2.

   * ‘PySetIter_Type’

   * *note PySet_Add(): 12b9.

   * *note PySet_Clear(): 48c3.

   * *note PySet_Contains(): 12bb.

   * *note PySet_Discard(): 12ba.

   * *note PySet_New(): 12b7.

   * *note PySet_Pop(): 48c4.

   * *note PySet_Size(): 12bc.

   * *note PySet_Type: 48c5.

   * *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 36f.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndices(): 48c6.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 36d.

   * *note PySlice_New(): 48c7.

   * *note PySlice_Type: 48c8.

   * *note PySlice_Unpack(): 36e.

   * *note PyState_AddModule(): 48c9.

   * *note PyState_FindModule(): 48ca.

   * *note PyState_RemoveModule(): 48cb.

   * *note PyStructSequence_Desc: a1b.

   * *note PyStructSequence_Field: a1a.

   * *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 48cc.

   * *note PyStructSequence_New(): 48cd.

   * *note PyStructSequence_NewType(): 48ce.

   * *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 48cf.

   * *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 7c6.

   * ‘PySuper_Type’

   * *note PySys_AddWarnOption(): a87.

   * *note PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode(): a86.

   * *note PySys_AddXOption(): 48d0.

   * *note PySys_FormatStderr(): 48d1.

   * *note PySys_FormatStdout(): 48d2.

   * *note PySys_GetObject(): 5ab.

   * *note PySys_GetXOptions(): 48d3.

   * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

   * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 359.

   * *note PySys_SetArgv(): 11e7.

   * *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11e6.

   * *note PySys_SetObject(): 48d4.

   * *note PySys_SetPath(): 15e3.

   * *note PySys_WriteStderr(): 48d5.

   * *note PySys_WriteStdout(): 48d6.

   * *note PyThreadState: 5a6.

   * *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1429.

   * *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 177c.

   * *note PyThreadState_Get(): 48d7.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetDict(): 48d8.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5a7.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 7b5.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 7b3.

   * *note PyThreadState_New(): 48d9.

   * *note PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): a25.

   * *note PyThreadState_Swap(): 48da.

   * ‘PyThread_GetInfo()’

   * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 37e.

   * ‘PyThread_acquire_lock()’

   * ‘PyThread_acquire_lock_timed()’

   * ‘PyThread_allocate_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_create_key(): 374.

   * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 376.

   * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 37c.

   * ‘PyThread_exit_thread()’

   * ‘PyThread_free_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 37a.

   * ‘PyThread_get_stacksize()’

   * ‘PyThread_get_thread_ident()’

   * ‘PyThread_get_thread_native_id()’

   * ‘PyThread_init_thread()’

   * ‘PyThread_release_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 378.

   * ‘PyThread_set_stacksize()’

   * ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’

   * *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 375.

   * *note PyThread_tss_create(): 48db.

   * *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 37d.

   * *note PyThread_tss_free(): 377.

   * *note PyThread_tss_get(): 37b.

   * *note PyThread_tss_is_created(): 48dc.

   * *note PyThread_tss_set(): 379.

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Here()’

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Print()’

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Type’

   * ‘PyTupleIter_Type’

   * *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 473d.

   * *note PyTuple_GetSlice(): 48dd.

   * *note PyTuple_New(): 48de.

   * *note PyTuple_Pack(): 48df.

   * *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 4741.

   * *note PyTuple_Size(): 48e0.

   * *note PyTuple_Type: 48e1.

   * *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.

   * *note PyType_ClearCache(): 48e2.

   * *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2d5.

   * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6.

   * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c.

   * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 30d.

   * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8b7.

   * *note PyType_GenericNew(): 4755.

   * *note PyType_GetFlags(): 172d.

   * *note PyType_GetModule(): 7b0.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 7b1.

   * *note PyType_GetName(): 565.

   * *note PyType_GetQualName(): 566.

   * *note PyType_GetSlot(): 6cd.

   * *note PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 2ce.

   * *note PyType_IsSubtype(): 48e3.

   * *note PyType_Modified(): 15bf.

   * *note PyType_Ready(): 595.

   * *note PyType_Slot: 48e4.

   * *note PyType_Spec: 14a3.

   * *note PyType_Type: 2d1.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create(): 48e5.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding(): 48e6.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd(): 48e7.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject(): 48e8.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason(): 48e9.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart(): 48ea.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd(): 48eb.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason(): 48ec.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart(): 48ed.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding(): 48ee.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd(): 48ef.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject(): 48f0.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason(): 48f1.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart(): 48f2.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd(): 48f3.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason(): 48f4.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart(): 48f5.

   * ‘PyUnicodeIter_Type’

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd(): 48f6.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject(): 48f7.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason(): 48f8.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart(): 48f9.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd(): 48fa.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason(): 48fb.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart(): 48fc.

   * ‘PyUnicode_Append()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AppendAndDel()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(): 1026.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsCharmapString(): 48fd.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(): 48fe.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(): 1025.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(): 1027.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1024.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 100c.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 6f3.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(): 48ff.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF32String(): 4900.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 6c8.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 1022.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1023.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsWideChar(): 1845.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 6f4.

   * ‘PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap()’

   * *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 6ef.

   * *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 10fc.

   * *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 1033.

   * *note PyUnicode_Contains(): 4901.

   * *note PyUnicode_Count(): 4902.

   * *note PyUnicode_Decode(): 17c2.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeASCII(): 4903.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(): 4904.

   * ‘PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful()’

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 14a2.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4905.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(): 4906.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocale(): 4907.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): a2a.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 4908.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 4909.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(): 490a.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(): 490b.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 490c.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(): 490d.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 490e.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(): 490f.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(): 4910.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(): 4911.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 1569.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(): 4912.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 1028.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 183e.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): a2b.

   * *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): b89.

   * *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 306.

   * *note PyUnicode_Find(): 4913.

   * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 6f1.

   * *note PyUnicode_Format(): 4914.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(): 4915.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 303.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromObject(): 4916.

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromOrdinal()’

   * *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 479e.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(): 4917.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 1020.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding()’

   * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 6eb.

   * *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 13e6.

   * *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 6e9.

   * *note PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(): 1779.

   * *note PyUnicode_Join(): 1034.

   * ‘PyUnicode_Partition()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_RPartition()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_RSplit()’

   * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 1004.

   * *note PyUnicode_Replace(): 4918.

   * ‘PyUnicode_Resize()’

   * *note PyUnicode_RichCompare(): 4919.

   * *note PyUnicode_Split(): 491a.

   * *note PyUnicode_Splitlines(): 491b.

   * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 6ee.

   * *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 6f0.

   * *note PyUnicode_Translate(): 491c.

   * *note PyUnicode_Type: 491d.

   * *note PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 1005.

   * *note PyVarObject: 3e7b.

   * ‘PyVarObject.ob_base’

   * *note PyVarObject.ob_size: 491e.

   * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2db.

   * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 2da.

   * ‘PyWeakReference’

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 356.

   * *note PyWeakref_NewProxy(): 491f.

   * *note PyWeakref_NewRef(): 1621.

   * ‘PyWrapperDescr_Type’

   * *note PyWrapper_New(): 4920.

   * ‘PyZip_Type’

   * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 7c5.

   * *note Py_AtExit(): 4921.

   * *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 4746.

   * *note Py_BLOCK_THREADS: 4922.

   * *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db.

   * *note Py_BytesMain(): 805.

   * *note Py_CompileString(): 6b3.

   * *note Py_DecRef(): 4923.

   * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28.

   * *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8dc.

   * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a29.

   * *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1632.

   * *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7b7.

   * *note Py_Exit(): bc3.

   * *note Py_FatalError(): 7c7.

   * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’

   * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’

   * *note Py_Finalize(): 11e8.

   * *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84.

   * *note Py_GenericAlias(): 4924.

   * *note Py_GenericAliasType: 4925.

   * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 12a4.

   * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 4926.

   * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 4927.

   * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 35b.

   * *note Py_GetPath(): 35d.

   * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 4928.

   * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 35f.

   * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 361.

   * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 363.

   * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 364.

   * ‘Py_GetRecursionLimit()’

   * *note Py_GetVersion(): 4929.

   * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’

   * *note Py_IncRef(): 492a.

   * *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2.

   * *note Py_InitializeEx(): 492b.

   * *note Py_Is(): 6d3.

   * *note Py_IsFalse(): 6d6.

   * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 47c5.

   * *note Py_IsNone(): 6d4.

   * *note Py_IsTrue(): 6d5.

   * *note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 7b8.

   * *note Py_Main(): a8a.

   * ‘Py_MakePendingCalls()’

   * *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 1582.

   * *note Py_NewRef(): 6cb.

   * *note Py_ReprEnter(): 492c.

   * *note Py_ReprLeave(): 492d.

   * *note Py_SetPath(): 1be6.

   * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 188c.

   * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 188d.

   * ‘Py_SetRecursionLimit()’

   * *note Py_UCS4: 1008.

   * *note Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS: 492e.

   * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’

   * *note Py_VaBuildValue(): 492f.

   * *note Py_Version: 569.

   * *note Py_XNewRef(): 6cc.

   * *note Py_buffer: 56b.

   * ‘Py_intptr_t’

   * *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.

   * ‘Py_uintptr_t’

   * *note allocfunc: 4930.

   * *note binaryfunc: 4931.

   * *note descrgetfunc: 4932.

   * *note descrsetfunc: 4933.

   * *note destructor: 4934.

   * *note getattrfunc: 4935.

   * *note getattrofunc: 4936.

   * *note getbufferproc: 4937.

   * *note getiterfunc: 4938.

   * *note getter: 4939.

   * *note hashfunc: 493a.

   * *note initproc: 493b.

   * *note inquiry: 493c.

   * *note iternextfunc: 493d.

   * *note lenfunc: 493e.

   * *note newfunc: 493f.

   * *note objobjargproc: 4940.

   * *note objobjproc: 4941.

   * *note releasebufferproc: 4942.

   * *note reprfunc: 4943.

   * *note richcmpfunc: 4944.

   * *note setattrfunc: 4945.

   * *note setattrofunc: 4946.

   * *note setter: 4947.

   * *note ssizeargfunc: 4948.

   * *note ssizeobjargproc: 4949.

   * ‘ssizessizeargfunc’

   * ‘ssizessizeobjargproc’

   * ‘symtable’

   * *note ternaryfunc: 494a.

   * *note traverseproc: 494b.

   * *note unaryfunc: 494c.

   * *note vectorcallfunc: 2dc.

   * *note visitproc: 494d.


File: python.info,  Node: The Very High Level Layer,  Next: 參照計數<2>,  Prev: C API 穩定性,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.3 The Very High Level Layer
=============================

The functions in this chapter will let you execute Python source code
given in a file or a buffer, but they will not let you interact in a
more detailed way with the interpreter.

Several of these functions accept a start symbol from the grammar as a
parameter.  The available start symbols are *note Py_eval_input: 4951,
*note Py_file_input: 4952, and *note Py_single_input: 4953.  These are
described following the functions which accept them as parameters.

Note also that several of these functions take FILE* parameters.  One
particular issue which needs to be handled carefully is that the ‘FILE’
structure for different C libraries can be different and incompatible.
Under Windows (at least), it is possible for dynamically linked
extensions to actually use different libraries, so care should be taken
that FILE* parameters are only passed to these functions if it is
certain that they were created by the same library that the Python
runtime is using.

 -- C 函式: int Py_Main (int argc, wchar_t **argv)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  The main program for the
     standard interpreter.  This is made available for programs which
     embed Python.  The 'argc' and 'argv' parameters should be prepared
     exactly as those which are passed to a C program's ‘main()’
     function (converted to wchar_t according to the user's locale).  It
     is important to note that the argument list may be modified (but
     the contents of the strings pointed to by the argument list are
     not).  The return value will be ‘0’ if the interpreter exits
     normally (i.e., without an exception), ‘1’ if the interpreter exits
     due to an exception, or ‘2’ if the parameter list does not
     represent a valid Python command line.

     Note that if an otherwise unhandled *note SystemExit: bb2. is
     raised, this function will not return ‘1’, but exit the process, as
     long as *note PyConfig.inspect: 326. is zero.

 -- C 函式: int Py_BytesMain (int argc, char **argv)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.8 版本開始.'  Similar to
     *note Py_Main(): a8a. but 'argv' is an array of bytes strings.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_AnyFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     4955. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_AnyFileFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     4955. below, leaving the 'closeit' argument set to ‘0’.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_AnyFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int
          closeit)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     4955. below, leaving the 'flags' argument set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     If 'fp' refers to a file associated with an interactive device
     (console or terminal input or Unix pseudo-terminal), return the
     value of *note PyRun_InteractiveLoop(): 4958, otherwise return the
     result of *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4796.  'filename' is decoded
     from the filesystem encoding (*note sys.getfilesystemencoding():
     abf.).  If 'filename' is ‘NULL’, this function uses ‘"???"’ as the
     filename.  If 'closeit' is true, the file is closed before
     ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’ returns.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_SimpleString (const char *command)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags():
     4959. below, leaving the *note PyCompilerFlags: 8f3.* argument set
     to ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (const char *command,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Executes the Python source code from 'command' in the *note
     __main__: 1. module according to the 'flags' argument.  If *note
     __main__: 1. does not already exist, it is created.  Returns ‘0’ on
     success or ‘-1’ if an exception was raised.  If there was an error,
     there is no way to get the exception information.  For the meaning
     of 'flags', see below.

     Note that if an otherwise unhandled *note SystemExit: bb2. is
     raised, this function will not return ‘-1’, but exit the process,
     as long as *note PyConfig.inspect: 326. is zero.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_SimpleFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags():
     16de. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_SimpleFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int
          closeit)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags():
     16de. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Similar to *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags(): 4959, but the Python
     source code is read from 'fp' instead of an in-memory string.
     'filename' should be the name of the file, it is decoded from *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.  If 'closeit' is true,
     the file is closed before ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’ returns.

          備註: On Windows, 'fp' should be opened as binary mode (e.g.
          ‘fopen(filename, "rb")’).  Otherwise, Python may not handle
          script file with LF line ending correctly.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_InteractiveOne (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags(): 495c. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Read and execute a single statement from a file associated with an
     interactive device according to the 'flags' argument.  The user
     will be prompted using ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’.  'filename' is
     decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.

     Returns ‘0’ when the input was executed successfully, ‘-1’ if there
     was an exception, or an error code from the ‘errcode.h’ include
     file distributed as part of Python if there was a parse error.
     (Note that ‘errcode.h’ is not included by ‘Python.h’, so must be
     included specifically if needed.)

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_InteractiveLoop (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags(): 495d. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: int PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Read and execute statements from a file associated with an
     interactive device until EOF is reached.  The user will be prompted
     using ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’.  'filename' is decoded from the
     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.  Returns ‘0’ at
     EOF or a negative number upon failure.

 -- C 變數: int (*PyOS_InputHook)(void)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Can be set to point to a
     function with the prototype ‘int func(void)’.  The function will be
     called when Python's interpreter prompt is about to become idle and
     wait for user input from the terminal.  The return value is
     ignored.  Overriding this hook can be used to integrate the
     interpreter's prompt with other event loops, as done in the
     ‘Modules/_tkinter.c’ in the Python source code.

     在 3.12 版的變更: This function is only called from the *note main
     interpreter: 316.

 -- C 變數: char *(*PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer)(FILE*, FILE*, const
          char*)

     Can be set to point to a function with the prototype ‘char
     *func(FILE *stdin, FILE *stdout, char *prompt)’, overriding the
     default function used to read a single line of input at the
     interpreter's prompt.  The function is expected to output the
     string 'prompt' if it's not ‘NULL’, and then read a line of input
     from the provided standard input file, returning the resulting
     string.  For example, The *note readline: b5. module sets this hook
     to provide line-editing and tab-completion features.

     The result must be a string allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc():
     ec6. or *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): ec7, or ‘NULL’ if an error
     occurred.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The result must be allocated by *note
     PyMem_RawMalloc(): ec6. or *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): ec7, instead
     of being allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace. or *note
     PyMem_Realloc(): ec8.

     在 3.12 版的變更: This function is only called from the *note main
     interpreter: 316.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyRun_String (const char *str, int
          start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_StringFlags(): 495e. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyRun_StringFlags (const char *str,
          int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Execute Python source code from 'str' in the
     context specified by the objects 'globals' and 'locals' with the
     compiler flags specified by 'flags'.  'globals' must be a
     dictionary; 'locals' can be any object that implements the mapping
     protocol.  The parameter 'start' specifies the start token that
     should be used to parse the source code.

     Returns the result of executing the code as a Python object, or
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyRun_File (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4960. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and
     'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyRun_FileEx (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, int
          closeit)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4960. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyRun_FileFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4960. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyRun_FileExFlags (FILE *fp, const
          char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject
          *locals, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Similar to *note PyRun_StringFlags(): 495e,
     but the Python source code is read from 'fp' instead of an
     in-memory string.  'filename' should be the name of the file, it is
     decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.
     If 'closeit' is true, the file is closed before *note
     PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4960. returns.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_CompileString (const char *str,
          const char *filename, int start)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is a
     simplified interface to *note Py_CompileStringFlags(): 4963. below,
     leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_CompileStringFlags (const char
          *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' This is a simplified interface to *note
     Py_CompileStringExFlags(): 4964. below, with 'optimize' set to
     ‘-1’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_CompileStringObject (const char
          *str, PyObject *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags,
          int optimize)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Parse and compile the Python source code in
     'str', returning the resulting code object.  The start token is
     given by 'start'; this can be used to constrain the code which can
     be compiled and should be *note Py_eval_input: 4951, *note
     Py_file_input: 4952, or *note Py_single_input: 4953.  The filename
     specified by 'filename' is used to construct the code object and
     may appear in tracebacks or *note SyntaxError: 146. exception
     messages.  This returns ‘NULL’ if the code cannot be parsed or
     compiled.

     The integer 'optimize' specifies the optimization level of the
     compiler; a value of ‘-1’ selects the optimization level of the
     interpreter as given by *note -O: c2c. options.  Explicit levels
     are ‘0’ (no optimization; ‘__debug__’ is true), ‘1’ (asserts are
     removed, ‘__debug__’ is false) or ‘2’ (docstrings are removed too).

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_CompileStringExFlags (const char
          *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags,
          int optimize)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Like *note Py_CompileStringObject(): 4965, but
     'filename' is a byte string decoded from the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 2bd.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyEval_EvalCode (PyObject *co,
          PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is a
     simplified interface to *note PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1530, with just
     the code object, and global and local variables.  The other
     arguments are set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyEval_EvalCodeEx (PyObject *co,
          PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *const *args,
          int argcount, PyObject *const *kws, int kwcount, PyObject
          *const *defs, int defcount, PyObject *kwdefs, PyObject
          *closure)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Evaluate a
     precompiled code object, given a particular environment for its
     evaluation.  This environment consists of a dictionary of global
     variables, a mapping object of local variables, arrays of
     arguments, keywords and defaults, a dictionary of default values
     for *note keyword-only: 8d6. arguments and a closure tuple of
     cells.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyEval_EvalFrame (PyFrameObject *f)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Evaluate
     an execution frame.  This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): ec2, for backward compatibility.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyEval_EvalFrameEx (PyFrameObject *f,
          int throwflag)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is
     the main, unvarnished function of Python interpretation.  The code
     object associated with the execution frame 'f' is executed,
     interpreting bytecode and executing calls as needed.  The
     additional 'throwflag' parameter can mostly be ignored - if true,
     then it causes an exception to immediately be thrown; this is used
     for the *note throw(): 243. methods of generator objects.

     在 3.4 版的變更: This function now includes a debug assertion to
     help ensure that it does not silently discard an active exception.

 -- C 函式: int PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (PyCompilerFlags *cf)

     This function changes the flags of the current evaluation frame,
     and returns true on success, false on failure.

 -- C 變數: int Py_eval_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for isolated expressions;
     for use with *note Py_CompileString(): 6b3.

 -- C 變數: int Py_file_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for sequences of
     statements as read from a file or other source; for use with *note
     Py_CompileString(): 6b3.  This is the symbol to use when compiling
     arbitrarily long Python source code.

 -- C 變數: int Py_single_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for a single statement;
     for use with *note Py_CompileString(): 6b3.  This is the symbol
     used for the interactive interpreter loop.

 -- C 結構: struct PyCompilerFlags

     This is the structure used to hold compiler flags.  In cases where
     code is only being compiled, it is passed as ‘int flags’, and in
     cases where code is being executed, it is passed as
     ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’.  In this case, ‘from __future__ import’
     can modify 'flags'.

     Whenever ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’ is ‘NULL’, *note cf_flags: 4967.
     is treated as equal to ‘0’, and any modification due to ‘from
     __future__ import’ is discarded.

      -- C 成員函數: int cf_flags

          Compiler flags.

      -- C 成員函數: int cf_feature_version

          'cf_feature_version' is the minor Python version.  It should
          be initialized to ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’.

          The field is ignored by default, it is used if and only if
          ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ flag is set in *note cf_flags: 4967.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 新增 'cf_feature_version' 欄位。

 -- C 變數: int CO_FUTURE_DIVISION

     This bit can be set in 'flags' to cause division operator ‘/’ to be
     interpreted as "true division" according to PEP 238(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: 參照計數<2>,  Next: 例外處理,  Prev: The Very High Level Layer,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.4 參照計數
============

本節中的函式與巨集用於管理 Python 物件的參照計數。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. Py_REFCNT (PyObject *o)

     取得物件 'o' 的參照計數。

     請注意，回傳的值可能實際上並不反映實際保存了多少對該物件的參照。例
     如，某些物件是「不滅的 (immortal)」，並且具有非常高的參照計數，不能
     反映實際的參照數量。因此，除了 0 或 1 以外，不要依賴回傳值的準確性
     。

     使用 *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 6de. 函式設定物件參照計數。

     在 3.10 版的變更: *note Py_REFCNT(): 6dd. 更改為行內靜態函式
     (inline static function)。

     在 3.11 版的變更: 參數型別不再是 const *note PyObject: 6d1.*。

 -- C 函式: void Py_SET_REFCNT (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t refcnt)

     設定物件 'o' 的參照計數。

     請注意，此函式對不滅的(1)物件沒有影響。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 不滅的物件不會被修改。

 -- C 函式: void Py_INCREF (PyObject *o)

     代表取得對於物件 'o' 的新*note 強參照: 5a8.，即它正在使用且不應被銷
     毀。

     此函式通常用於將*note 借用參照: 47ba.原地 (in-place) 轉換為*note
     強參照: 5a8.。*note Py_NewRef(): 6cb. 函式可用於建立新的*note
     強參照: 5a8.。

     使用完該物件後，透過呼叫 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 來釋放它。

     該物件不能為 ‘NULL’；如果你不確定它不是 ‘NULL’，請使用 *note
     Py_XINCREF(): 8b0.。

     不要期望此函式會以任何方式實際修改 'o'，至少對於 某些物件(2)來說，
     此函式沒有任何效果。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 不滅的物件不會被修改。

 -- C 函式: void Py_XINCREF (PyObject *o)

     與 *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. 類似，但物件 'o' 可以為 ‘NULL’，在這種情
     況下這就不會有任何效果。

     另請見 *note Py_XNewRef(): 6cc.。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_NewRef (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  建立對物件的
     新*note 強參照: 5a8.：於 'o' 呼叫 *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. 並回傳物
     件 'o'。

     當不再需要*note 強參照: 5a8.時，應對其呼叫 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.
     以釋放該參照。

     物件 'o' 不能為 ‘NULL’；如果 'o' 可以為 ‘NULL’，則使用 *note
     Py_XNewRef(): 6cc.。

     舉例來說：

          Py_INCREF(obj);
          self->attr = obj;

     可以寫成：

          self->attr = Py_NewRef(obj);

     另請參閱 *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb.。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_XNewRef (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  與 *note
     Py_NewRef(): 6cb. 類似，但物件 'o' 可以為 NULL。

     如果物件 'o' 為 ‘NULL’，則該函式僅回傳 ‘NULL’。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void Py_DECREF (PyObject *o)

     釋放一個對物件 'o' 的*note 強參照: 5a8.，代表該參照不會再被使用。

     如果最後一個*note 強參照: 5a8.被釋放（即物件的參照計數達到零），則
     觸發物件之型別的釋放函式 (deallocation function)（不得為 ‘NULL’）。

     此函式通常用於在退出作用域之前刪除*note 強參照: 5a8.。

     該物件不能為 ‘NULL’；如果你不確定它不是 ‘NULL’，請改用 *note
     Py_XDECREF(): 5a9.。

     不要期望此函式會以任何方式實際修改 'o'，至少對於 某些物件(3)來說，
     此函式沒有任何效果。

          警告: 釋放函式可以導致任意 Python 程式碼被調用（例如，當釋放具
          有 *note __del__(): 1cf2. 方法的類別實例時）。雖然此類程式碼中
          的例外不會被傳遞出來，但​​執行的程式碼可以自由存取所有 Python 全
          域變數。這意味著在調用 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 之前，可從全域
          變數存取的任何物件都應處於一致狀態。例如，從 list 中刪除物件的
          程式碼應將已刪除物件的參照複製到臨時變數中，更新 list 資料結構
          ，然後為臨時變數呼叫 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 不滅的物件不會被修改。

 -- C 函式: void Py_XDECREF (PyObject *o)

     和 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 類似，但該物件可以是 ‘NULL’，在這種情況
     下巨集不起作用。在這裡也會出現與 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 相同的警告
     。

 -- C 函式: void Py_CLEAR (PyObject *o)

     釋放對於物件 'o' 的*note 強參照: 5a8.。該物件可能是 ‘NULL’，在這種
     情況下巨集不起作用；否則，效果與 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 相同，除非
     引數也設定為 ‘NULL’。*note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 的警告不適用於傳遞的物
     件，因為巨集在釋放其參照之前小心地使用臨時變數並將引數設定為
     ‘NULL’。

     每當要釋放垃圾回收 (garbage collection) 期間可能被遍歷到之對於物件
     的參照時，使用此巨集是個好主意。

     在 3.12 版的變更: 巨集引數現在僅會被求值 (evaluate) 一次。如果引數
     有其他副作用，則不再重複作用。

 -- C 函式: void Py_IncRef (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  代表取得對於物件 'o' 的*note
     強參照: 5a8.。*note Py_XINCREF(): 8b0. 的函式版本。它可用於 Python
     的 runtime 動態嵌入。

 -- C 函式: void Py_DecRef (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  釋放對物件 'o' 的*note 強參照:
     5a8.。*note Py_XDECREF(): 5a9. 的函式版本。它可用於 Python 的
     runtime 動態嵌入。

 -- C 巨集: Py_SETREF (dst, src)

     巨集安全地釋放對於物件 'dst' 的*note 強參照: 5a8.並將 'dst' 設定為
     'src'。

     與 *note Py_CLEAR(): 307. 的情況一樣，「明顯的」程式碼可能是致命的
     ：

          Py_DECREF(dst);
          dst = src;

     安全的方法是：

          Py_SETREF(dst, src);

     這會在釋放對 'dst' 舊值的參照_之前_將 'dst' 設定為 'src'，使得因
     'dst' 被拆除而觸發的任何副作用 (side-effect) 之程式碼不會相信 'dst'
     是指向一個有效物件。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 巨集引數現在僅會被求值一次。如果引數有其他副作用
     ，則不再重複作用。

 -- C 巨集: Py_XSETREF (dst, src)

     *note Py_SETREF: 308. 巨集的變體，請改用 *note Py_XDECREF(): 5a9. 而
     非 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 巨集引數現在僅會被求值一次。如果引數有其他副作用
     ，則不再重複作用。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/


File: python.info,  Node: 例外處理,  Next: 工具,  Prev: 參照計數<2>,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.5 例外處理
============

The functions described in this chapter will let you handle and raise
Python exceptions.  It is important to understand some of the basics of
Python exception handling.  It works somewhat like the POSIX ‘errno’
variable: there is a global indicator (per thread) of the last error
that occurred.  Most C API functions don't clear this on success, but
will set it to indicate the cause of the error on failure.  Most C API
functions also return an error indicator, usually ‘NULL’ if they are
supposed to return a pointer, or ‘-1’ if they return an integer
(exception: the ‘PyArg_*’ functions return ‘1’ for success and ‘0’ for
failure).

Concretely, the error indicator consists of three object pointers: the
exception's type, the exception's value, and the traceback object.  Any
of those pointers can be ‘NULL’ if non-set (although some combinations
are forbidden, for example you can't have a non-‘NULL’ traceback if the
exception type is ‘NULL’).

When a function must fail because some function it called failed, it
generally doesn't set the error indicator; the function it called
already set it.  It is responsible for either handling the error and
clearing the exception or returning after cleaning up any resources it
holds (such as object references or memory allocations); it should 'not'
continue normally if it is not prepared to handle the error.  If
returning due to an error, it is important to indicate to the caller
that an error has been set.  If the error is not handled or carefully
propagated, additional calls into the Python/C API may not behave as
intended and may fail in mysterious ways.

     備註: The error indicator is 'not' the result of *note
     sys.exc_info(): 487.  The former corresponds to an exception that
     is not yet caught (and is therefore still propagating), while the
     latter returns an exception after it is caught (and has therefore
     stopped propagating).

* Menu:

* Printing and clearing::
* Raising exceptions::
* Issuing warnings::
* Querying the error indicator::
* Signal Handling: Signal Handling<2>.
* 例外類別: 例外類別<2>.
* 例外物件::
* Unicode Exception Objects::
* Recursion Control::
* Standard Exceptions::
* Standard Warning Categories::


File: python.info,  Node: Printing and clearing,  Next: Raising exceptions,  Up: 例外處理

7.5.1 Printing and clearing
---------------------------

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_Clear ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Clear the error indicator.  If
     the error indicator is not set, there is no effect.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_PrintEx (int set_sys_last_vars)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Print a standard traceback to
     ‘sys.stderr’ and clear the error indicator.  'Unless' the error is
     a ‘SystemExit’, in that case no traceback is printed and the Python
     process will exit with the error code specified by the ‘SystemExit’
     instance.

     Call this function 'only' when the error indicator is set.
     Otherwise it will cause a fatal error!

     If 'set_sys_last_vars' is nonzero, the variable *note sys.last_exc:
     1e5. is set to the printed exception.  For backwards compatibility,
     the deprecated variables *note sys.last_type: 1e6, *note
     sys.last_value: 1e7. and *note sys.last_traceback: 1e8. are also
     set to the type, value and traceback of this exception,
     respectively.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The setting of *note sys.last_exc: 1e5. was
     added.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_Print ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  ‘PyErr_PrintEx(1)’ 的別名。

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_WriteUnraisable (PyObject *obj)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Call *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 479. using the current exception and 'obj'
     argument.

     This utility function prints a warning message to ‘sys.stderr’ when
     an exception has been set but it is impossible for the interpreter
     to actually raise the exception.  It is used, for example, when an
     exception occurs in an *note __del__(): 1cf2. method.

     The function is called with a single argument 'obj' that identifies
     the context in which the unraisable exception occurred.  If
     possible, the repr of 'obj' will be printed in the warning message.
     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, only the traceback is printed.

     An exception must be set when calling this function.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Print a traceback.  Print only traceback if 'obj'
     is ‘NULL’.

     在 3.8 版的變更: 使用 *note sys.unraisablehook(): 479.。

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_DisplayException (PyObject *exc)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'  Print the
     standard traceback display of ‘exc’ to ‘sys.stderr’, including
     chained exceptions and notes.

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Raising exceptions,  Next: Issuing warnings,  Prev: Printing and clearing,  Up: 例外處理

7.5.2 Raising exceptions
------------------------

These functions help you set the current thread's error indicator.  For
convenience, some of these functions will always return a ‘NULL’ pointer
for use in a ‘return’ statement.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_SetString (PyObject *type, const char *message)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is the most common way to
     set the error indicator.  The first argument specifies the
     exception type; it is normally one of the standard exceptions, e.g.
     ‘PyExc_RuntimeError’.  You need not create a new *note strong
     reference: 5a8. to it (e.g.  with *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb.).  The
     second argument is an error message; it is decoded from ‘'utf-8'’.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_SetObject (PyObject *type, PyObject *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This function is similar to
     *note PyErr_SetString(): 30b. but lets you specify an arbitrary
     Python object for the "value" of the exception.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_Format (PyObject *exception,
          const char *format, ...)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This
     function sets the error indicator and returns ‘NULL’.  'exception'
     should be a Python exception class.  The 'format' and subsequent
     parameters help format the error message; they have the same
     meaning and values as in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302.
     'format' is an ASCII-encoded string.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_FormatV (PyObject *exception,
          const char *format, va_list vargs)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.5 版
     本開始.'  Same as *note PyErr_Format(): d32, but taking a ‘va_list’
     argument rather than a variable number of arguments.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_SetNone (PyObject *type)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(type, Py_None)’.

 -- C 函式: int PyErr_BadArgument ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, message)’, where 'message'
     indicates that a built-in operation was invoked with an illegal
     argument.  It is mostly for internal use.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_NoMemory ()
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is
     a shorthand for ‘PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_MemoryError)’; it returns
     ‘NULL’ so an object allocation function can write ‘return
     PyErr_NoMemory();’ when it runs out of memory.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_SetFromErrno (PyObject *type)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     This is a convenience function to raise an exception when a C
     library function has returned an error and set the C variable
     ‘errno’.  It constructs a tuple object whose first item is the
     integer ‘errno’ value and whose second item is the corresponding
     error message (gotten from ‘strerror()’), and then calls
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(type, object)’.  On Unix, when the ‘errno’ value
     is ‘EINTR’, indicating an interrupted system call, this calls *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 17c, and if that set the error indicator,
     leaves it set to that.  The function always returns ‘NULL’, so a
     wrapper function around a system call can write ‘return
     PyErr_SetFromErrno(type);’ when the system call returns an error.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject
          (PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Similar
     to *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 4722, with the additional behavior
     that if 'filenameObject' is not ‘NULL’, it is passed to the
     constructor of 'type' as a third parameter.  In the case of *note
     OSError: 644. exception, this is used to define the ‘filename’
     attribute of the exception instance.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects
          (PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject, PyObject
          *filenameObject2)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版
     本開始.'  Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject():
     4822, but takes a second filename object, for raising errors when a
     function that takes two filenames fails.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename
          (PyObject *type, const char *filename)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Similar
     to *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 4822, but the
     filename is given as a C string.  'filename' is decoded from the
     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (int ierr)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on
     Windows 自 3.7 版本開始.'  This is a convenience function to raise
     *note OSError: 644.  If called with 'ierr' of ‘0’, the error code
     returned by a call to ‘GetLastError()’ is used instead.  It calls
     the Win32 function ‘FormatMessage()’ to retrieve the Windows
     description of error code given by 'ierr' or ‘GetLastError()’, then
     it constructs a *note OSError: 644. object with the *note winerror:
     2025. attribute set to the error code, the *note strerror: 2026.
     attribute set to the corresponding error message (gotten from
     ‘FormatMessage()’), and then calls ‘PyErr_SetObject(PyExc_OSError,
     object)’.  This function always returns ‘NULL’.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (PyObject
          *type, int ierr)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on
     Windows 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 4824, with an additional parameter
     specifying the exception type to be raised.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename
          (int ierr, const char *filename)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on
     Windows 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 4824, with the additional behavior that
     if 'filename' is not ‘NULL’, it is decoded from the filesystem
     encoding (*note os.fsdecode(): aba.) and passed to the constructor
     of *note OSError: 644. as a third parameter to be used to define
     the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (PyObject *type,
          int ierr, PyObject *filename)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on
     Windows 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 481f, with the additional behavior
     that if 'filename' is not ‘NULL’, it is passed to the constructor
     of *note OSError: 644. as a third parameter to be used to define
     the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (PyObject
          *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename, PyObject *filename2)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on
     Windows 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 4820, but accepts a
     second filename object.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename
          (PyObject *type, int ierr, const char *filename)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on
     Windows 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 14a1, with an additional
     parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_SetImportError (PyObject *msg,
          PyObject *name, PyObject *path)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版
     本開始.'  This is a convenience function to raise *note
     ImportError: 145.  'msg' will be set as the exception's message
     string.  'name' and 'path', both of which can be ‘NULL’, will be
     set as the *note ImportError: 145.'s respective ‘name’ and ‘path’
     attributes.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass (PyObject
          *exception, PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject *path)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.6 版
     本開始.'  Much like *note PyErr_SetImportError(): bb0. but this
     function allows for specifying a subclass of *note ImportError:
     145. to raise.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (PyObject *filename, int
          lineno, int col_offset)

     Set file, line, and offset information for the current exception.
     If the current exception is not a *note SyntaxError: 146, then it
     sets additional attributes, which make the exception printing
     subsystem think the exception is a *note SyntaxError: 146.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (const char *filename, int
          lineno, int col_offset)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Like *note
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject(): 4971, but 'filename' is a byte string
     decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_SyntaxLocation (const char *filename, int lineno)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Like *note
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 4828, but the 'col_offset' parameter is
     omitted.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_BadInternalCall ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError, message)’, where 'message'
     indicates that an internal operation (e.g.  a Python/C API
     function) was invoked with an illegal argument.  It is mostly for
     internal use.


File: python.info,  Node: Issuing warnings,  Next: Querying the error indicator,  Prev: Raising exceptions,  Up: 例外處理

7.5.3 Issuing warnings
----------------------

Use these functions to issue warnings from C code.  They mirror similar
functions exported by the Python *note warnings: 10d. module.  They
normally print a warning message to 'sys.stderr'; however, it is also
possible that the user has specified that warnings are to be turned into
errors, and in that case they will raise an exception.  It is also
possible that the functions raise an exception because of a problem with
the warning machinery.  The return value is ‘0’ if no exception is
raised, or ‘-1’ if an exception is raised.  (It is not possible to
determine whether a warning message is actually printed, nor what the
reason is for the exception; this is intentional.)  If an exception is
raised, the caller should do its normal exception handling (for example,
*note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. owned references and return an error value).

 -- C 函式: int PyErr_WarnEx (PyObject *category, const char *message,
          Py_ssize_t stack_level)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Issue a warning message.  The
     'category' argument is a warning category (see below) or ‘NULL’;
     the 'message' argument is a UTF-8 encoded string.  'stack_level' is
     a positive number giving a number of stack frames; the warning will
     be issued from the currently executing line of code in that stack
     frame.  A 'stack_level' of 1 is the function calling *note
     PyErr_WarnEx(): 12bd, 2 is the function above that, and so forth.

     Warning categories must be subclasses of ‘PyExc_Warning’;
     ‘PyExc_Warning’ is a subclass of ‘PyExc_Exception’; the default
     warning category is ‘PyExc_RuntimeWarning’.  The standard Python
     warning categories are available as global variables whose names
     are enumerated at *note Standard Warning Categories: 4973.

     For information about warning control, see the documentation for
     the *note warnings: 10d. module and the *note -W: 6ff. option in
     the command line documentation.  There is no C API for warning
     control.

 -- C 函式: int PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (PyObject *category, PyObject
          *message, PyObject *filename, int lineno, PyObject *module,
          PyObject *registry)

     Issue a warning message with explicit control over all warning
     attributes.  This is a straightforward wrapper around the Python
     function *note warnings.warn_explicit(): b6e.; see there for more
     information.  The 'module' and 'registry' arguments may be set to
     ‘NULL’ to get the default effect described there.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyErr_WarnExplicit (PyObject *category, const char
          *message, const char *filename, int lineno, const char
          *module, PyObject *registry)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_WarnExplicitObject(): 4974. except that 'message' and
     'module' are UTF-8 encoded strings, and 'filename' is decoded from
     the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.

 -- C 函式: int PyErr_WarnFormat (PyObject *category, Py_ssize_t
          stack_level, const char *format, ...)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Function similar to *note
     PyErr_WarnEx(): 12bd, but use *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302. to
     format the warning message.  'format' is an ASCII-encoded string.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyErr_ResourceWarning (PyObject *source, Py_ssize_t
          stack_level, const char *format, ...)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.6 版本開始.'  Function
     similar to *note PyErr_WarnFormat(): 4829, but 'category' is *note
     ResourceWarning: aa3. and it passes 'source' to
     ‘warnings.WarningMessage’.

     在 3.6 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying the error indicator,  Next: Signal Handling<2>,  Prev: Issuing warnings,  Up: 例外處理

7.5.4 Querying the error indicator
----------------------------------

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_Occurred ()
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Test
     whether the error indicator is set.  If set, return the exception
     'type' (the first argument to the last call to one of the
     ‘PyErr_Set*’ functions or to *note PyErr_Restore(): 2f5.).  If not
     set, return ‘NULL’.  You do not own a reference to the return
     value, so you do not need to *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. it.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

          備註: Do not compare the return value to a specific exception;
          use *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 47c2. instead, shown
          below.  (The comparison could easily fail since the exception
          may be an instance instead of a class, in the case of a class
          exception, or it may be a subclass of the expected exception.)

 -- C 函式: int PyErr_ExceptionMatches (PyObject *exc)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Equivalent to
     ‘PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyErr_Occurred(), exc)’.  This should
     only be called when an exception is actually set; a memory access
     violation will occur if no exception has been raised.

 -- C 函式: int PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (PyObject *given, PyObject
          *exc)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return true if the 'given'
     exception matches the exception type in 'exc'.  If 'exc' is a class
     object, this also returns true when 'given' is an instance of a
     subclass.  If 'exc' is a tuple, all exception types in the tuple
     (and recursively in subtuples) are searched for a match.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_GetRaisedException (void)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本
     開始.'  Return the exception currently being raised, clearing the
     error indicator at the same time.  Return ‘NULL’ if the error
     indicator is not set.

     This function is used by code that needs to catch exceptions, or
     code that needs to save and restore the error indicator
     temporarily.

     舉例來說：

          {
             PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

             /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */

             PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
          }

     也參考
     ......

     *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 586, to save the exception
     currently being handled.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_SetRaisedException (PyObject *exc)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'  Set 'exc' as
     the exception currently being raised, clearing the existing
     exception if one is set.

          警告: This call steals a reference to 'exc', which must be a
          valid exception.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_Fetch (PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue,
          PyObject **ptraceback)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2f2.
     instead.

     Retrieve the error indicator into three variables whose addresses
     are passed.  If the error indicator is not set, set all three
     variables to ‘NULL’.  If it is set, it will be cleared and you own
     a reference to each object retrieved.  The value and traceback
     object may be ‘NULL’ even when the type object is not.

          備註: This function is normally only used by legacy code that
          needs to catch exceptions or save and restore the error
          indicator temporarily.

          舉例來說：

               {
                  PyObject *type, *value, *traceback;
                  PyErr_Fetch(&type, &value, &traceback);

                  /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */

                  PyErr_Restore(type, value, traceback);
               }

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_Restore (PyObject *type, PyObject *value,
          PyObject *traceback)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 2f3.
     instead.

     Set the error indicator from the three objects, 'type', 'value',
     and 'traceback', clearing the existing exception if one is set.  If
     the objects are ‘NULL’, the error indicator is cleared.  Do not
     pass a ‘NULL’ type and non-‘NULL’ value or traceback.  The
     exception type should be a class.  Do not pass an invalid exception
     type or value.  (Violating these rules will cause subtle problems
     later.)  This call takes away a reference to each object: you must
     own a reference to each object before the call and after the call
     you no longer own these references.  (If you don't understand this,
     don't use this function.  I warned you.)

          備註: This function is normally only used by legacy code that
          needs to save and restore the error indicator temporarily.
          Use *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2f4. to save the current error
          indicator.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_NormalizeException (PyObject **exc, PyObject
          **val, PyObject **tb)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2f2.
     instead, to avoid any possible de-normalization.

     Under certain circumstances, the values returned by *note
     PyErr_Fetch(): 2f4. below can be "unnormalized", meaning that
     ‘*exc’ is a class object but ‘*val’ is not an instance of the same
     class.  This function can be used to instantiate the class in that
     case.  If the values are already normalized, nothing happens.  The
     delayed normalization is implemented to improve performance.

          備註: This function 'does not' implicitly set the *note
          __traceback__: 1158. attribute on the exception value.  If
          setting the traceback appropriately is desired, the following
          additional snippet is needed:

               if (tb != NULL) {
                 PyException_SetTraceback(val, tb);
               }

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_GetHandledException (void)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Retrieve the
     active exception instance, as would be returned by *note
     sys.exception(): 488.  This refers to an exception that was
     'already caught', not to an exception that was freshly raised.
     Returns a new reference to the exception or ‘NULL’.  Does not
     modify the interpreter's exception state.

          備註: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_SetHandledException(): 587. to restore or clear the
          exception state.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_SetHandledException (PyObject *exc)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Set the
     active exception, as known from ‘sys.exception()’.  This refers to
     an exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that
     was freshly raised.  To clear the exception state, pass ‘NULL’.

          備註: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_GetHandledException(): 586. to get the exception state.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_GetExcInfo (PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue,
          PyObject **ptraceback)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Retrieve the
     old-style representation of the exception info, as known from *note
     sys.exc_info(): 487.  This refers to an exception that was 'already
     caught', not to an exception that was freshly raised.  Returns new
     references for the three objects, any of which may be ‘NULL’.  Does
     not modify the exception info state.  This function is kept for
     backwards compatibility.  Prefer using *note
     PyErr_GetHandledException(): 586.

          備註: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 588. to restore or clear the exception
          state.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_SetExcInfo (PyObject *type, PyObject *value,
          PyObject *traceback)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Set the
     exception info, as known from ‘sys.exc_info()’.  This refers to an
     exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that was
     freshly raised.  This function steals the references of the
     arguments.  To clear the exception state, pass ‘NULL’ for all three
     arguments.  This function is kept for backwards compatibility.
     Prefer using *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 587.

          備註: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 589. to read the exception state.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ arguments are no
     longer used and can be NULL. The interpreter now derives them from
     the exception instance (the ‘value’ argument).  The function still
     steals references of all three arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Signal Handling<2>,  Next: 例外類別<2>,  Prev: Querying the error indicator,  Up: 例外處理

7.5.5 Signal Handling
---------------------

 -- C 函式: int PyErr_CheckSignals ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     This function interacts with Python's signal handling.

     If the function is called from the main thread and under the main
     Python interpreter, it checks whether a signal has been sent to the
     processes and if so, invokes the corresponding signal handler.  If
     the *note signal: c1. module is supported, this can invoke a signal
     handler written in Python.

     The function attempts to handle all pending signals, and then
     returns ‘0’.  However, if a Python signal handler raises an
     exception, the error indicator is set and the function returns ‘-1’
     immediately (such that other pending signals may not have been
     handled yet: they will be on the next *note PyErr_CheckSignals():
     17c. invocation).

     If the function is called from a non-main thread, or under a
     non-main Python interpreter, it does nothing and returns ‘0’.

     This function can be called by long-running C code that wants to be
     interruptible by user requests (such as by pressing Ctrl-C).

          備註: The default Python signal handler for ‘SIGINT’ raises
          the *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. exception.

 -- C 函式: void PyErr_SetInterrupt ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Simulate the effect of a ‘SIGINT’ signal arriving.  This is
     equivalent to ‘PyErr_SetInterruptEx(SIGINT)’.

          備註: This function is async-signal-safe.  It can be called
          without the *note GIL: 6df. and from a C signal handler.

 -- C 函式: int PyErr_SetInterruptEx (int signum)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'

     Simulate the effect of a signal arriving.  The next time *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 17c. is called, the Python signal handler for
     the given signal number will be called.

     This function can be called by C code that sets up its own signal
     handling and wants Python signal handlers to be invoked as expected
     when an interruption is requested (for example when the user
     presses Ctrl-C to interrupt an operation).

     If the given signal isn't handled by Python (it was set to *note
     signal.SIG_DFL: 15f2. or *note signal.SIG_IGN: 15f1.), it will be
     ignored.

     If 'signum' is outside of the allowed range of signal numbers, ‘-1’
     is returned.  Otherwise, ‘0’ is returned.  The error indicator is
     never changed by this function.

          備註: This function is async-signal-safe.  It can be called
          without the *note GIL: 6df. and from a C signal handler.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PySignal_SetWakeupFd (int fd)

     This utility function specifies a file descriptor to which the
     signal number is written as a single byte whenever a signal is
     received.  'fd' must be non-blocking.  It returns the previous such
     file descriptor.

     The value ‘-1’ disables the feature; this is the initial state.
     This is equivalent to *note signal.set_wakeup_fd(): 9cd. in Python,
     but without any error checking.  'fd' should be a valid file
     descriptor.  The function should only be called from the main
     thread.

     在 3.5 版的變更: On Windows, the function now also supports socket
     handles.


File: python.info,  Node: 例外類別<2>,  Next: 例外物件,  Prev: Signal Handling<2>,  Up: 例外處理

7.5.6 例外類別
--------------

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_NewException (const char *name,
          PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This
     utility function creates and returns a new exception class.  The
     'name' argument must be the name of the new exception, a C string
     of the form ‘module.classname’.  The 'base' and 'dict' arguments
     are normally ‘NULL’.  This creates a class object derived from
     *note Exception: 81e. (accessible in C as ‘PyExc_Exception’).

     The *note __module__: af5. attribute of the new class is set to the
     first part (up to the last dot) of the 'name' argument, and the
     class name is set to the last part (after the last dot).  The
     'base' argument can be used to specify alternate base classes; it
     can either be only one class or a tuple of classes.  The 'dict'
     argument can be used to specify a dictionary of class variables and
     methods.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (const char
          *name, const char *doc, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Same as
     *note PyErr_NewException(): 10fe, except that the new exception
     class can easily be given a docstring: If 'doc' is non-‘NULL’, it
     will be used as the docstring for the exception class.

     在 3.2 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 例外物件,  Next: Unicode Exception Objects,  Prev: 例外類別<2>,  Up: 例外處理

7.5.7 例外物件
--------------

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyException_GetTraceback (PyObject
          *ex)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     traceback associated with the exception as a new reference, as
     accessible from Python through the *note __traceback__: 1158.
     attribute.  If there is no traceback associated, this returns
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: int PyException_SetTraceback (PyObject *ex, PyObject *tb)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the traceback associated
     with the exception to 'tb'.  Use ‘Py_None’ to clear it.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyException_GetContext (PyObject *ex)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     context (another exception instance during whose handling 'ex' was
     raised) associated with the exception as a new reference, as
     accessible from Python through the *note __context__: 1159.
     attribute.  If there is no context associated, this returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: void PyException_SetContext (PyObject *ex, PyObject *ctx)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the context associated
     with the exception to 'ctx'.  Use ‘NULL’ to clear it.  There is no
     type check to make sure that 'ctx' is an exception instance.  This
     steals a reference to 'ctx'.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyException_GetCause (PyObject *ex)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     cause (either an exception instance, or ‘None’, set by ‘raise ...
     from ...’) associated with the exception as a new reference, as
     accessible from Python through the *note __cause__: 115a.
     attribute.

 -- C 函式: void PyException_SetCause (PyObject *ex, PyObject *cause)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the cause associated with
     the exception to 'cause'.  Use ‘NULL’ to clear it.  There is no
     type check to make sure that 'cause' is either an exception
     instance or ‘None’.  This steals a reference to 'cause'.

     The *note __suppress_context__: 1e44. attribute is implicitly set
     to ‘True’ by this function.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyException_GetArgs (PyObject *ex)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本
     開始.'  Return *note args: 2f8. of exception 'ex'.

 -- C 函式: void PyException_SetArgs (PyObject *ex, PyObject *args)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'  Set *note
     args: 2f8. of exception 'ex' to 'args'.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar
          (PyObject *orig, PyObject *excs)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Implement part of the interpreter's implementation of ‘except*’.
     'orig' is the original exception that was caught, and 'excs' is the
     list of the exceptions that need to be raised.  This list contains
     the unhandled part of 'orig', if any, as well as the exceptions
     that were raised from the ‘except*’ clauses (so they have a
     different traceback from 'orig') and those that were reraised (and
     have the same traceback as 'orig').  Return the *note
     ExceptionGroup: 17b. that needs to be reraised in the end, or
     ‘None’ if there is nothing to reraise.

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Exception Objects,  Next: Recursion Control,  Prev: 例外物件,  Up: 例外處理

7.5.8 Unicode Exception Objects
-------------------------------

The following functions are used to create and modify Unicode exceptions
from C.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (const
          char *encoding, const char *object, Py_ssize_t length,
          Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     *note UnicodeDecodeError: 85a. object with the attributes
     'encoding', 'object', 'length', 'start', 'end' and 'reason'.
     'encoding' and 'reason' are UTF-8 encoded strings.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding
          (PyObject *exc)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     'encoding' attribute of the given exception object.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     'object' attribute of the given exception object.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          *start)
 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          *start)
 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *start)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Get the 'start' attribute of
     the given exception object and place it into '*start'.  'start'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          start)
 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          start)
 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t start)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the 'start' attribute of
     the given exception object to 'start'.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’
     on failure.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          *end)
 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          *end)
 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *end)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Get the 'end' attribute of the
     given exception object and place it into '*end'.  'end' must not be
     ‘NULL’.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          end)
 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          end)
 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t end)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the 'end' attribute of the
     given exception object to 'end'.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     failure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     'reason' attribute of the given exception object.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const
          char *reason)
 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const
          char *reason)
 -- C 函式: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const
          char *reason)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the 'reason' attribute of
     the given exception object to 'reason'.  Return ‘0’ on success,
     ‘-1’ on failure.


File: python.info,  Node: Recursion Control,  Next: Standard Exceptions,  Prev: Unicode Exception Objects,  Up: 例外處理

7.5.9 Recursion Control
-----------------------

These two functions provide a way to perform safe recursive calls at the
C level, both in the core and in extension modules.  They are needed if
the recursive code does not necessarily invoke Python code (which tracks
its recursion depth automatically).  They are also not needed for
'tp_call' implementations because the *note call protocol: 312. takes
care of recursion handling.

 -- C 函式: int Py_EnterRecursiveCall (const char *where)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.9 版本開始.'  Marks a point
     where a recursive C-level call is about to be performed.

     If ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ is defined, this function checks if the OS
     stack overflowed using *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 15e5.  If this is
     the case, it sets a *note MemoryError: 1460. and returns a nonzero
     value.

     The function then checks if the recursion limit is reached.  If
     this is the case, a *note RecursionError: be1. is set and a nonzero
     value is returned.  Otherwise, zero is returned.

     'where' should be a UTF-8 encoded string such as ‘" in instance
     check"’ to be concatenated to the *note RecursionError: be1.
     message caused by the recursion depth limit.

     在 3.9 版的變更: This function is now also available in the *note
     limited API: 2d4.

 -- C 函式: void Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (void)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.9 版本開始.'  Ends a *note
     Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7b7.  Must be called once for each
     'successful' invocation of *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7b7.

     在 3.9 版的變更: This function is now also available in the *note
     limited API: 2d4.

Properly implementing *note tp_repr: 476d. for container types requires
special recursion handling.  In addition to protecting the stack, *note
tp_repr: 476d. also needs to track objects to prevent cycles.  The
following two functions facilitate this functionality.  Effectively,
these are the C equivalent to *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 1084.

 -- C 函式: int Py_ReprEnter (PyObject *object)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Called at the beginning of the
     *note tp_repr: 476d. implementation to detect cycles.

     If the object has already been processed, the function returns a
     positive integer.  In that case the *note tp_repr: 476d.
     implementation should return a string object indicating a cycle.
     As examples, *note dict: 239. objects return ‘{...}’ and *note
     list: 40a. objects return ‘[...]’.

     The function will return a negative integer if the recursion limit
     is reached.  In that case the *note tp_repr: 476d. implementation
     should typically return ‘NULL’.

     Otherwise, the function returns zero and the *note tp_repr: 476d.
     implementation can continue normally.

 -- C 函式: void Py_ReprLeave (PyObject *object)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Ends a *note Py_ReprEnter():
     492c.  Must be called once for each invocation of *note
     Py_ReprEnter(): 492c. that returns zero.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Exceptions,  Next: Standard Warning Categories,  Prev: Recursion Control,  Up: 例外處理

7.5.10 Standard Exceptions
--------------------------

All standard Python exceptions are available as global variables whose
names are ‘PyExc_’ followed by the Python exception name.  These have
the type *note PyObject: 6d1.*; they are all class objects.  For
completeness, here are all the variables:

C 名稱                                        Python 名稱                           註解
                                                                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BaseException’                         *note BaseException: 3ab.             (1)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_Exception’                             *note Exception: 81e.                 (2)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ArithmeticError’                       *note ArithmeticError: 201d.          (3)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_AssertionError’                        *note AssertionError: 4a6.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_AttributeError’                        *note AttributeError: 3ca.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BlockingIOError’                       *note BlockingIOError: eed.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BrokenPipeError’                       *note BrokenPipeError: ef2.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BufferError’                           *note BufferError: 15f5.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ChildProcessError’                     *note ChildProcessError: eee.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError’                *note ConnectionAbortedError: ef3.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionError’                       *note ConnectionError: c82.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError’                *note ConnectionRefusedError: ef4.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionResetError’                  *note ConnectionResetError: ef5.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_EOFError’                              *note EOFError: 116a.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_FileExistsError’                       *note FileExistsError: eb4.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_FileNotFoundError’                     *note FileNotFoundError: d46.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_FloatingPointError’                    *note FloatingPointError: 201e.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_GeneratorExit’                         *note GeneratorExit: 1236.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ImportError’                           *note ImportError: 145.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_IndentationError’                      *note IndentationError: 5c5.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_IndexError’                            *note IndexError: 13ac.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_InterruptedError’                      *note InterruptedError: bfe.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_IsADirectoryError’                     *note IsADirectoryError: eef.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_KeyError’                              *note KeyError: 8ed.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt’                     *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_LookupError’                           *note LookupError: 1f64.              (4)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_MemoryError’                           *note MemoryError: 1460.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError’                   *note ModuleNotFoundError: 99f.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_NameError’                             *note NameError: 144.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_NotADirectoryError’                    *note NotADirectoryError: ef0.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_NotImplementedError’                   *note NotImplementedError: bc0.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_OSError’                               *note OSError: 644.                   (5)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_OverflowError’                         *note OverflowError: 6ad.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_PermissionError’                       *note PermissionError: bb5.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ProcessLookupError’                    *note ProcessLookupError: ef1.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_RecursionError’                        *note RecursionError: be1.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ReferenceError’                        *note ReferenceError: 1386.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_RuntimeError’                          *note RuntimeError: 17a.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_StopAsyncIteration’                    *note StopAsyncIteration: 1813.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_StopIteration’                         *note StopIteration: a5d.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_SyntaxError’                           *note SyntaxError: 146.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_SystemError’                           *note SystemError: 304.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_SystemExit’                            *note SystemExit: bb2.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_TabError’                              *note TabError: 2c7.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_TimeoutError’                          *note TimeoutError: 65b.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_TypeError’                             *note TypeError: 2ba.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnboundLocalError’                     *note UnboundLocalError: 13ad.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError’                    *note UnicodeDecodeError: 85a.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError’                    *note UnicodeEncodeError: 473.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeError’                          *note UnicodeError: 1137.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError’                 *note UnicodeTranslateError: 2034.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ValueError’                            *note ValueError: 183.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’                     *note ZeroDivisionError: 784.
                                              

在 3.3 版被加入: ‘PyExc_BlockingIOError’, ‘PyExc_BrokenPipeError’,
‘PyExc_ChildProcessError’, ‘PyExc_ConnectionError’,
‘PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError’, ‘PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError’,
‘PyExc_ConnectionResetError’, ‘PyExc_FileExistsError’,
‘PyExc_FileNotFoundError’, ‘PyExc_InterruptedError’,
‘PyExc_IsADirectoryError’, ‘PyExc_NotADirectoryError’,
‘PyExc_PermissionError’, ‘PyExc_ProcessLookupError’ 和
‘PyExc_TimeoutError’ 是在 PEP 3151(6) 被引入。

在 3.5 版被加入: ‘PyExc_StopAsyncIteration’ 和 ‘PyExc_RecursionError’。

在 3.6 版被加入: ‘PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError’。

These are compatibility aliases to ‘PyExc_OSError’:

C 名稱                                    註解
                                          
---------------------------------------------------------
                                          
‘PyExc_EnvironmentError’

‘PyExc_IOError’

‘PyExc_WindowsError’                      (7)
                                          

在 3.3 版的變更: These aliases used to be separate exception types.

註解：

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This is a base class for other standard exceptions.

   (2) This is a base class for other standard exceptions.

   (3) This is a base class for other standard exceptions.

   (4) This is a base class for other standard exceptions.

   (5) This is a base class for other standard exceptions.

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/

   (7) Only defined on Windows; protect code that uses this by testing
that the preprocessor macro ‘MS_WINDOWS’ is defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Warning Categories,  Prev: Standard Exceptions,  Up: 例外處理

7.5.11 Standard Warning Categories
----------------------------------

All standard Python warning categories are available as global variables
whose names are ‘PyExc_’ followed by the Python exception name.  These
have the type *note PyObject: 6d1.*; they are all class objects.  For
completeness, here are all the variables:

C 名稱                                         Python 名稱                           註解
                                                                                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_Warning’                                *note Warning: 204a.                  (1)
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_BytesWarning’                           *note BytesWarning: a88.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_DeprecationWarning’                     *note DeprecationWarning: 179.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_FutureWarning’                          *note FutureWarning: 241.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_ImportWarning’                          *note ImportWarning: 247.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning’              *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 700.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_ResourceWarning’                        *note ResourceWarning: aa3.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_RuntimeWarning’                         *note RuntimeWarning: 8e7.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_SyntaxWarning’                          *note SyntaxWarning: 178.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_UnicodeWarning’                         *note UnicodeWarning: 1294.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_UserWarning’                            *note UserWarning: 204b.
                                               

在 3.2 版被加入: ‘PyExc_ResourceWarning’.

註解：

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This is a base class for other standard warning categories.


File: python.info,  Node: 工具,  Next: 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer,  Prev: 例外處理,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.6 工具
========

本章中的函式可用來執行各種工具任務，包括幫助 C 程式碼提升跨平臺可攜性
(portable)、在 C 中使用 Python module（模組）、以及剖析函式引數並基於 C
中的值來構建 Python 中的值等。

* Menu:

* 作業系統工具::
* 系統函式::
* 行程控制::
* 引入模組: 引入模組<2>.
* 資料 marshal 的支援::
* 剖析引數與建置數值::
* 字串轉換與格式化::
* PyHash API::
* Reflection::
* 編解碼器註冊表和支援函式::
* 對 Perf Map 的支援::


File: python.info,  Node: 作業系統工具,  Next: 系統函式,  Up: 工具

7.6.1 作業系統工具
------------------

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyOS_FSPath (PyObject *path)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.6 版本
     開始.'  Return the file system representation for 'path'.  If the
     object is a *note str: 157. or *note bytes: 2c1. object, then a new
     *note strong reference: 5a8. is returned.  If the object implements
     the *note os.PathLike: ab7. interface, then *note __fspath__():
     ab8. is returned as long as it is a *note str: 157. or *note bytes:
     2c1. object.  Otherwise *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised and ‘NULL’
     is returned.

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int Py_FdIsInteractive (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     Return true (nonzero) if the standard I/O file 'fp' with name
     'filename' is deemed interactive.  This is the case for files for
     which ‘isatty(fileno(fp))’ is true.  If the *note
     PyConfig.interactive: 324. is non-zero, this function also returns
     true if the 'filename' pointer is ‘NULL’ or if the name is equal to
     one of the strings ‘'<stdin>'’ or ‘'???'’.

     This function must not be called before Python is initialized.

 -- C 函式: void PyOS_BeforeFork ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on platforms with fork() 自 3.7
     版本開始.'  Function to prepare some internal state before a
     process fork.  This should be called before calling ‘fork()’ or any
     similar function that clones the current process.  Only available
     on systems where ‘fork()’ is defined.

          警告: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from the *note
          "main" thread: 4988. (of the *note "main" interpreter: 316.).
          The same is true for ‘PyOS_BeforeFork()’.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyOS_AfterFork_Parent ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on platforms with fork() 自 3.7
     版本開始.'  Function to update some internal state after a process
     fork.  This should be called from the parent process after calling
     ‘fork()’ or any similar function that clones the current process,
     regardless of whether process cloning was successful.  Only
     available on systems where ‘fork()’ is defined.

          警告: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from the *note
          "main" thread: 4988. (of the *note "main" interpreter: 316.).
          The same is true for ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()’.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyOS_AfterFork_Child ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on platforms with fork() 自 3.7
     版本開始.'  Function to update internal interpreter state after a
     process fork.  This must be called from the child process after
     calling ‘fork()’, or any similar function that clones the current
     process, if there is any chance the process will call back into the
     Python interpreter.  Only available on systems where ‘fork()’ is
     defined.

          警告: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from the *note
          "main" thread: 4988. (of the *note "main" interpreter: 316.).
          The same is true for ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Child()’.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     也參考
     ......

     *note os.register_at_fork(): 26e. allows registering custom Python
     functions to be called by *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): a20, *note
     PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): a21. and *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     36c.

 -- C 函式: void PyOS_AfterFork ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on platforms with fork().'
     Function to update some internal state after a process fork; this
     should be called in the new process if the Python interpreter will
     continue to be used.  If a new executable is loaded into the new
     process, this function does not need to be called.

     在 3.7 版之後被棄用: This function is superseded by *note
     PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 36c.

 -- C 函式: int PyOS_CheckStack ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on platforms with USE_STACKCHECK
     自 3.7 版本開始.'

     Return true when the interpreter runs out of stack space.  This is
     a reliable check, but is only available when ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ is
     defined (currently on certain versions of Windows using the
     Microsoft Visual C++ compiler).  ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ will be defined
     automatically; you should never change the definition in your own
     code.

 -- C 型別: typedef void (*PyOS_sighandler_t)(int)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 函式: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4897. PyOS_getsig (int i)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the current signal
     handler for signal 'i'.  This is a thin wrapper around either
     ‘sigaction()’ or ‘signal()’.  Do not call those functions directly!

 -- C 函式: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4897. PyOS_setsig (int i,
          PyOS_sighandler_t h)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the signal handler for
     signal 'i' to be 'h'; return the old signal handler.  This is a
     thin wrapper around either ‘sigaction()’ or ‘signal()’.  Do not
     call those functions directly!

 -- C 函式: wchar_t *Py_DecodeLocale (const char *arg, size_t *size)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'
          警告: This function should not be called directly: use the
          *note PyConfig: 345. API with the *note
          PyConfig_SetBytesString(): 7f8. function which ensures that
          *note Python is preinitialized: 3a01.

          This function must not be called before *note Python is
          preinitialized: 3a01. and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is
          properly configured: see the *note Py_PreInitialize(): 343.
          function.

     Decode a byte string from the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 2bd.  If the error handler is *note surrogateescape error
     handler: 217a, undecodable bytes are decoded as characters in range
     U+DC80..U+DCFF; and if a byte sequence can be decoded as a
     surrogate character, the bytes are escaped using the
     surrogateescape error handler instead of decoding them.

     Return a pointer to a newly allocated wide character string, use
     *note PyMem_RawFree(): 4989. to free the memory.  If size is not
     ‘NULL’, write the number of wide characters excluding the null
     character into ‘*size’

     Return ‘NULL’ on decoding error or memory allocation error.  If
     'size' is not ‘NULL’, ‘*size’ is set to ‘(size_t)-1’ on memory
     error or set to ‘(size_t)-2’ on decoding error.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd. are selected
     by *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 340.
     and *note filesystem_errors: 341. members of *note PyConfig: 345.

     Decoding errors should never happen, unless there is a bug in the C
     library.

     Use the *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a29. function to encode the
     character string back to a byte string.

     也參考
     ......

     The *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4905. and *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): a2a. functions.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in the
     *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on
     Windows if *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 33d. is
     zero;

 -- C 函式: char *Py_EncodeLocale (const wchar_t *text, size_t
          *error_pos)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Encode a wide
     character string to the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 2bd.  If the error handler is *note surrogateescape error
     handler: 217a, surrogate characters in the range U+DC80..U+DCFF are
     converted to bytes 0x80..0xFF.

     Return a pointer to a newly allocated byte string, use *note
     PyMem_Free(): 12b5. to free the memory.  Return ‘NULL’ on encoding
     error or memory allocation error.

     If error_pos is not ‘NULL’, ‘*error_pos’ is set to ‘(size_t)-1’ on
     success, or set to the index of the invalid character on encoding
     error.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd. are selected
     by *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 340.
     and *note filesystem_errors: 341. members of *note PyConfig: 345.

     Use the *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. function to decode the bytes
     string back to a wide character string.

          警告: This function must not be called before *note Python is
          preinitialized: 3a01. and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is
          properly configured: see the *note Py_PreInitialize(): 343.
          function.

     也參考
     ......

     The *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 183e. and *note
     PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): a2b. functions.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in the
     *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on
     Windows if *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 33d. is
     zero.


File: python.info,  Node: 系統函式,  Next: 行程控制,  Prev: 作業系統工具,  Up: 工具

7.6.2 系統函式
--------------

These are utility functions that make functionality from the *note sys:
d3. module accessible to C code.  They all work with the current
interpreter thread's *note sys: d3. module's dict, which is contained in
the internal thread state structure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySys_GetObject (const char *name)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     object 'name' from the *note sys: d3. module or ‘NULL’ if it does
     not exist, without setting an exception.

 -- C 函式: int PySys_SetObject (const char *name, PyObject *v)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set 'name' in the *note sys:
     d3. module to 'v' unless 'v' is ‘NULL’, in which case 'name' is
     deleted from the sys module.  Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error.

 -- C 函式: void PySys_ResetWarnOptions ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Reset *note sys.warnoptions:
     35a. to an empty list.  This function may be called prior to *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6e2.

 -- C 函式: void PySys_AddWarnOption (const wchar_t *s)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This API is kept for backward
     compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.warnoptions: 498c. should be
     used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Append 's' to *note sys.warnoptions: 35a.  This function must be
     called prior to *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. in order to affect the
     warnings filter list.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: void PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode (PyObject *unicode)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This API is kept for backward
     compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.warnoptions: 498c. should be
     used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Append 'unicode' to *note sys.warnoptions: 35a.

     Note: this function is not currently usable from outside the
     CPython implementation, as it must be called prior to the implicit
     import of *note warnings: 10d. in *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. to be
     effective, but can't be called until enough of the runtime has been
     initialized to permit the creation of Unicode objects.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: void PySys_SetPath (const wchar_t *path)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This API is kept for backward
     compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3e3. and
     *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3e4. should be used
     instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Set *note sys.path: 35e. to a list object of paths found in 'path'
     which should be a list of paths separated with the platform's
     search path delimiter (‘:’ on Unix, ‘;’ on Windows).

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: void PySys_WriteStdout (const char *format, ...)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Write the output string
     described by 'format' to *note sys.stdout: 92a.  No exceptions are
     raised, even if truncation occurs (see below).

     'format' should limit the total size of the formatted output string
     to 1000 bytes or less - after 1000 bytes, the output string is
     truncated.  In particular, this means that no unrestricted "%s"
     formats should occur; these should be limited using "%.<N>s" where
     <N> is a decimal number calculated so that <N> plus the maximum
     size of other formatted text does not exceed 1000 bytes.  Also
     watch out for "%f", which can print hundreds of digits for very
     large numbers.

     If a problem occurs, or *note sys.stdout: 92a. is unset, the
     formatted message is written to the real (C level) 'stdout'.

 -- C 函式: void PySys_WriteStderr (const char *format, ...)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  As *note PySys_WriteStdout():
     48d6, but write to *note sys.stderr: 778. or 'stderr' instead.

 -- C 函式: void PySys_FormatStdout (const char *format, ...)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Function similar to
     PySys_WriteStdout() but format the message using *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 303. and don't truncate the message to an
     arbitrary length.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PySys_FormatStderr (const char *format, ...)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  As *note PySys_FormatStdout():
     48d2, but write to *note sys.stderr: 778. or 'stderr' instead.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PySys_AddXOption (const wchar_t *s)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  This API is
     kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.xoptions:
     498d. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization
     Configuration: 5ad.

     Parse 's' as a set of *note -X: 188. options and add them to the
     current options mapping as returned by *note PySys_GetXOptions():
     48d3.  This function may be called prior to *note Py_Initialize():
     6e2.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySys_GetXOptions ()
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Return the current dictionary of *note -X: 188. options,
     similarly to *note sys._xoptions: 1b33.  On error, ‘NULL’ is
     returned and an exception is set.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PySys_Audit (const char *event, const char *format, ...)

     Raise an auditing event with any active hooks.  Return zero for
     success and non-zero with an exception set on failure.

     If any hooks have been added, 'format' and other arguments will be
     used to construct a tuple to pass.  Apart from ‘N’, the same format
     characters as used in *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db. are available.
     If the built value is not a tuple, it will be added into a
     single-element tuple.  (The ‘N’ format option consumes a reference,
     but since there is no way to know whether arguments to this
     function will be consumed, using it may cause reference leaks.)

     Note that ‘#’ format characters should always be treated as *note
     Py_ssize_t: 8ab, regardless of whether ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was
     defined.

     *note sys.audit(): 174a. performs the same function from Python
     code.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

     在 3.8.2 版的變更: Require *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. for ‘#’ format
     characters.  Previously, an unavoidable deprecation warning was
     raised.

 -- C 函式: int PySys_AddAuditHook (Py_AuditHookFunction hook, void
          *userData)

     Append the callable 'hook' to the list of active auditing hooks.
     Return zero on success and non-zero on failure.  If the runtime has
     been initialized, also set an error on failure.  Hooks added
     through this API are called for all interpreters created by the
     runtime.

     The 'userData' pointer is passed into the hook function.  Since
     hook functions may be called from different runtimes, this pointer
     should not refer directly to Python state.

     This function is safe to call before *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2.
     When called after runtime initialization, existing audit hooks are
     notified and may silently abort the operation by raising an error
     subclassed from *note Exception: 81e. (other errors will not be
     silenced).

     The hook function is always called with the GIL held by the Python
     interpreter that raised the event.

     See PEP 578(1) for a detailed description of auditing.  Functions
     in the runtime and standard library that raise events are listed in
     the *note audit events table: 1643.  Details are in each function's
     documentation.

     If the interpreter is initialized, this function raises an auditing
     event ‘sys.addaudithook’ with no arguments.  If any existing hooks
     raise an exception derived from *note Exception: 81e, the new hook
     will not be added and the exception is cleared.  As a result,
     callers cannot assume that their hook has been added unless they
     control all existing hooks.

      -- C 型別: typedef int (*Py_AuditHookFunction)(const char *event,
               *note PyObject: 6d1. *args, void *userData)

          The type of the hook function.  'event' is the C string event
          argument passed to *note PySys_Audit(): 175a.  'args' is
          guaranteed to be a *note PyTupleObject: 498f.  'userData' is
          the argument passed to PySys_AddAuditHook().

     在 3.8 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: 行程控制,  Next: 引入模組<2>,  Prev: 系統函式,  Up: 工具

7.6.3 行程控制
--------------

 -- C 函式: void Py_FatalError (const char *message)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Print a fatal error message and kill the process.  No cleanup is
     performed.  This function should only be invoked when a condition
     is detected that would make it dangerous to continue using the
     Python interpreter; e.g., when the object administration appears to
     be corrupted.  On Unix, the standard C library function ‘abort()’
     is called which will attempt to produce a ‘core’ file.

     The ‘Py_FatalError()’ function is replaced with a macro which logs
     automatically the name of the current function, unless the
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Log the function name automatically.

 -- C 函式: void Py_Exit (int status)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Exit the current process.  This calls *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84.
     and then calls the standard C library function ‘exit(status)’.  If
     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. indicates an error, the exit status is
     set to 120.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Errors from finalization no longer ignored.

 -- C 函式: int Py_AtExit (void (*func)())
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Register a cleanup function to be called by *note Py_FinalizeEx():
     b84.  The cleanup function will be called with no arguments and
     should return no value.  At most 32 cleanup functions can be
     registered.  When the registration is successful, *note
     Py_AtExit(): 4921. returns ‘0’; on failure, it returns ‘-1’.  The
     cleanup function registered last is called first.  Each cleanup
     function will be called at most once.  Since Python's internal
     finalization will have completed before the cleanup function, no
     Python APIs should be called by 'func'.


File: python.info,  Node: 引入模組<2>,  Next: 資料 marshal 的支援,  Prev: 行程控制,  Up: 工具

7.6.4 引入模組
--------------

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_ImportModule (const char
          *name)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     This is a wrapper around *note PyImport_Import(): 126d. which takes
     a const char* as an argument instead of a *note PyObject: 6d1.*.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock (const
          char *name)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This
     function is a deprecated alias of *note PyImport_ImportModule():
     355.

     在 3.3 版的變更: This function used to fail immediately when the
     import lock was held by another thread.  In Python 3.3 though, the
     locking scheme switched to per-module locks for most purposes, so
     this function's special behaviour isn't needed anymore.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_ImportModuleEx (const char
          *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'

     Import a module.  This is best described by referring to the
     built-in Python function *note __import__(): 70d.

     The return value is a new reference to the imported module or
     top-level package, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.
     Like for *note __import__(): 70d, the return value when a submodule
     of a package was requested is normally the top-level package,
     unless a non-empty 'fromlist' was given.

     Failing imports remove incomplete module objects, like with *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 355.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist, int level)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Import a module.  This is best described by referring to
     the built-in Python function *note __import__(): 70d, as the
     standard *note __import__(): 70d. function calls this function
     directly.

     The return value is a new reference to the imported module or
     top-level package, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.
     Like for *note __import__(): 70d, the return value when a submodule
     of a package was requested is normally the top-level package,
     unless a non-empty 'fromlist' was given.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (const char
          *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist, int level)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Similar to
     *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(): 484d, but the name is a
     UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Negative values for 'level' are no longer
     accepted.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_Import (PyObject *name)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is a
     higher-level interface that calls the current "import hook
     function" (with an explicit 'level' of 0, meaning absolute import).
     It invokes the *note __import__(): 70d. function from the
     ‘__builtins__’ of the current globals.  This means that the import
     is done using whatever import hooks are installed in the current
     environment.

     This function always uses absolute imports.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_ReloadModule (PyObject *m)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Reload a
     module.  Return a new reference to the reloaded module, or ‘NULL’
     with an exception set on failure (the module still exists in this
     case).

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_AddModuleObject (PyObject
          *name)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Return the module object corresponding to a module name.
     The 'name' argument may be of the form ‘package.module’.  First
     check the modules dictionary if there's one there, and if not,
     create a new one and insert it in the modules dictionary.  Return
     ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

          備註: This function does not load or import the module; if the
          module wasn't already loaded, you will get an empty module
          object.  Use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 355. or one of its
          variants to import a module.  Package structures implied by a
          dotted name for 'name' are not created if not already present.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_AddModule (const char *name)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Similar to
     *note PyImport_AddModuleObject(): 4844, but the name is a UTF-8
     encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_ExecCodeModule (const char
          *name, PyObject *co)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Given a module name (possibly of the form ‘package.module’) and a
     code object read from a Python bytecode file or obtained from the
     built-in function *note compile(): 554, load the module.  Return a
     new reference to the module object, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set
     if an error occurred.  'name' is removed from *note sys.modules:
     1745. in error cases, even if 'name' was already in *note
     sys.modules: 1745. on entry to *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule():
     4845.  Leaving incompletely initialized modules in *note
     sys.modules: 1745. is dangerous, as imports of such modules have no
     way to know that the module object is an unknown (and probably
     damaged with respect to the module author's intents) state.

     The module's *note __spec__: 1ca7. and *note __loader__: 24d. will
     be set, if not set already, with the appropriate values.  The
     spec's loader will be set to the module's ‘__loader__’ (if set) and
     to an instance of *note SourceFileLoader: f0a. otherwise.

     The module's *note __file__: 1cae. attribute will be set to the
     code object's *note co_filename: 11fc.  If applicable, *note
     __cached__: 248. will also be set.

     This function will reload the module if it was already imported.
     See *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 484e. for the intended way to
     reload a module.

     If 'name' points to a dotted name of the form ‘package.module’, any
     package structures not already created will still not be created.

     See also *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 4846. and *note
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4848.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The setting of *note __cached__: 248. and *note
     __loader__: 24d. is deprecated.  See *note ModuleSpec: 1ca9. for
     alternatives.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (const char
          *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Like *note
     PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 4845, but the *note __file__: 1cae.
     attribute of the module object is set to 'pathname' if it is
     non-‘NULL’.

     也請見 *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4848.。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *co, PyObject *pathname, PyObject
          *cpathname)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 4846, but the *note
     __cached__: 248. attribute of the module object is set to
     'cpathname' if it is non-‘NULL’.  Of the three functions, this is
     the preferred one to use.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Setting *note __cached__: 248. is deprecated.
     See *note ModuleSpec: 1ca9. for alternatives.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames
          (const char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname, const
          char *cpathname)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Like *note
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 4847, but 'name', 'pathname' and
     'cpathname' are UTF-8 encoded strings.  Attempts are also made to
     figure out what the value for 'pathname' should be from 'cpathname'
     if the former is set to ‘NULL’.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Uses ‘imp.source_from_cache()’ in calculating the
     source path if only the bytecode path is provided.

     在 3.12 版的變更: 不再使用已被移除的 ‘imp’ 模組。

 -- C 函式: long PyImport_GetMagicNumber ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the magic number for
     Python bytecode files (a.k.a.  ‘.pyc’ file).  The magic number
     should be present in the first four bytes of the bytecode file, in
     little-endian byte order.  Returns ‘-1’ on error.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 當失敗時回傳 ‘-1’。

 -- C 函式: const char *PyImport_GetMagicTag ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the magic tag string
     for PEP 3147(1) format Python bytecode file names.  Keep in mind
     that the value at ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is authoritative
     and should be used instead of this function.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_GetModuleDict ()
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     dictionary used for the module administration (a.k.a.
     ‘sys.modules’).  Note that this is a per-interpreter variable.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_GetModule (PyObject *name)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.8 版本
     開始.'  Return the already imported module with the given name.  If
     the module has not been imported yet then returns ‘NULL’ but does
     not set an error.  Returns ‘NULL’ and sets an error if the lookup
     failed.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyImport_GetImporter (PyObject *path)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     finder object for a *note sys.path: 35e./‘pkg.__path__’ item
     'path', possibly by fetching it from the *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8. dict.  If it wasn't yet cached,
     traverse *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. until a hook is found that can
     handle the path item.  Return ‘None’ if no hook could; this tells
     our caller that the *note path based finder: 1d8b. could not find a
     finder for this path item.  Cache the result in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3d8.  Return a new reference to the finder
     object.

 -- C 函式: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (PyObject *name)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Load a frozen
     module named 'name'.  Return ‘1’ for success, ‘0’ if the module is
     not found, and ‘-1’ with an exception set if the initialization
     failed.  To access the imported module on a successful load, use
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 355.  (Note the misnomer -- this
     function would reload the module if it was already imported.)

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The ‘__file__’ attribute is no longer set on the
     module.

 -- C 函式: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (const char *name)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Similar to *note
     PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 484c, but the name is a UTF-8
     encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

 -- C 結構: struct _frozen

     This is the structure type definition for frozen module
     descriptors, as generated by the ‘freeze’ utility (see
     ‘Tools/freeze/’ in the Python source distribution).  Its
     definition, found in ‘Include/import.h’, is:

          struct _frozen {
              const char *name;
              const unsigned char *code;
              int size;
              bool is_package;
          };

     在 3.11 版的變更: The new ‘is_package’ field indicates whether the
     module is a package or not.  This replaces setting the ‘size’ field
     to a negative value.

 -- C 變數: const struct *note _frozen: 58c. *PyImport_FrozenModules

     This pointer is initialized to point to an array of *note _frozen:
     58c. records, terminated by one whose members are all ‘NULL’ or
     zero.  When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this
     table.  Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a
     dynamically created collection of frozen modules.

 -- C 函式: int PyImport_AppendInittab (const char *name, PyObject
          *(*initfunc)(void))
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Add a single module to the
     existing table of built-in modules.  This is a convenience wrapper
     around *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 156e, returning ‘-1’ if the
     table could not be extended.  The new module can be imported by the
     name 'name', and uses the function 'initfunc' as the initialization
     function called on the first attempted import.  This should be
     called before *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2.

 -- C 結構: struct _inittab

     Structure describing a single entry in the list of built-in
     modules.  Programs which embed Python may use an array of these
     structures in conjunction with *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     156e. to provide additional built-in modules.  The structure
     consists of two members:

      -- C 成員函數: const char *name

          The module name, as an ASCII encoded string.

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*initfunc)(void)

          Initialization function for a module built into the
          interpreter.

 -- C 函式: int PyImport_ExtendInittab (struct _inittab *newtab)

     Add a collection of modules to the table of built-in modules.  The
     'newtab' array must end with a sentinel entry which contains ‘NULL’
     for the *note name: 4996. field; failure to provide the sentinel
     value can result in a memory fault.  Returns ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’
     if insufficient memory could be allocated to extend the internal
     table.  In the event of failure, no modules are added to the
     internal table.  This must be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     6e2.

     If Python is initialized multiple times, *note
     PyImport_AppendInittab(): 156d. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     156e. must be called before each Python initialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: 資料 marshal 的支援,  Next: 剖析引數與建置數值,  Prev: 引入模組<2>,  Up: 工具

7.6.5 資料 marshal 的支援
-------------------------

These routines allow C code to work with serialized objects using the
same data format as the *note marshal: 88. module.  There are functions
to write data into the serialization format, and additional functions
that can be used to read the data back.  Files used to store marshalled
data must be opened in binary mode.

Numeric values are stored with the least significant byte first.

The module supports two versions of the data format: version 0 is the
historical version, version 1 shares interned strings in the file, and
upon unmarshalling.  Version 2 uses a binary format for floating-point
numbers.  ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ indicates the current file format
(currently 2).

 -- C 函式: void PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (long value, FILE *file, int
          version)

     Marshal a long integer, 'value', to 'file'.  This will only write
     the least-significant 32 bits of 'value'; regardless of the size of
     the native long type.  'version' indicates the file format.

     This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator.
     Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to check for that.

 -- C 函式: void PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (PyObject *value, FILE
          *file, int version)

     Marshal a Python object, 'value', to 'file'.  'version' indicates
     the file format.

     This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator.
     Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to check for that.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString
          (PyObject *value, int version)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Return a bytes object containing the
     marshalled representation of 'value'.  'version' indicates the file
     format.

The following functions allow marshalled values to be read back in.

 -- C 函式: long PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (FILE *file)

     Return a C long from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading.
     Only a 32-bit value can be read in using this function, regardless
     of the native size of long.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 116a.)
     and returns ‘-1’.

 -- C 函式: int PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (FILE *file)

     Return a C short from the data stream in a FILE* opened for
     reading.  Only a 16-bit value can be read in using this function,
     regardless of the native size of short.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 116a.)
     and returns ‘-1’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (FILE
          *file)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Return a Python object from the data stream in
     a FILE* opened for reading.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 116a,
     *note ValueError: 183. or *note TypeError: 2ba.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile (FILE
          *file)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Return a Python object from the data stream in
     a FILE* opened for reading.  Unlike *note
     PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile(): 499d, this function assumes that no
     further objects will be read from the file, allowing it to
     aggressively load file data into memory so that the
     de-serialization can operate from data in memory rather than
     reading a byte at a time from the file.  Only use these variant if
     you are certain that you won't be reading anything else from the
     file.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 116a,
     *note ValueError: 183. or *note TypeError: 2ba.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString (const
          char *data, Py_ssize_t len)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Return a Python object from the data stream in
     a byte buffer containing 'len' bytes pointed to by 'data'.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 116a,
     *note ValueError: 183. or *note TypeError: 2ba.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: 剖析引數與建置數值,  Next: 字串轉換與格式化,  Prev: 資料 marshal 的支援,  Up: 工具

7.6.6 剖析引數與建置數值
------------------------

These functions are useful when creating your own extensions functions
and methods.  Additional information and examples are available in *note
擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器: 19cb.

The first three of these functions described, *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
2fe, *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85, and *note PyArg_Parse():
17c4, all use 'format strings' which are used to tell the function about
the expected arguments.  The format strings use the same syntax for each
of these functions.

* Menu:

* Parsing arguments::
* Building values::


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing arguments,  Next: Building values,  Up: 剖析引數與建置數值

7.6.6.1 Parsing arguments
.........................

A format string consists of zero or more "format units."  A format unit
describes one Python object; it is usually a single character or a
parenthesized sequence of format units.  With a few exceptions, a format
unit that is not a parenthesized sequence normally corresponds to a
single address argument to these functions.  In the following
description, the quoted form is the format unit; the entry in (round)
parentheses is the Python object type that matches the format unit; and
the entry in [square] brackets is the type of the C variable(s) whose
address should be passed.

* Menu:

* Strings and buffers::
* 數字::
* 其他物件::
* API 函式::


File: python.info,  Node: Strings and buffers,  Next: 數字,  Up: Parsing arguments

7.6.6.2 Strings and buffers
...........................

These formats allow accessing an object as a contiguous chunk of memory.
You don't have to provide raw storage for the returned unicode or bytes
area.

Unless otherwise stated, buffers are not NUL-terminated.

There are three ways strings and buffers can be converted to C:

   * Formats such as ‘y*’ and ‘s*’ fill a *note Py_buffer: 56b.
     structure.  This locks the underlying buffer so that the caller can
     subsequently use the buffer even inside a *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 4746. block without the risk of mutable
     data being resized or destroyed.  As a result, 'you have to call'
     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 576. after you have finished processing
     the data (or in any early abort case).

   * The ‘es’, ‘es#’, ‘et’ and ‘et#’ formats allocate the result buffer.
     'You have to call' *note PyMem_Free(): 12b5. after you have
     finished processing the data (or in any early abort case).

   * Other formats take a *note str: 157. or a read-only *note
     bytes-like object: b9f, such as *note bytes: 2c1, and provide a
     ‘const char *’ pointer to its buffer.  In this case the buffer is
     "borrowed": it is managed by the corresponding Python object, and
     shares the lifetime of this object.  You won't have to release any
     memory yourself.

     To ensure that the underlying buffer may be safely borrowed, the
     object's *note PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: 579. field must be
     ‘NULL’.  This disallows common mutable objects such as *note
     bytearray: 2c0, but also some read-only objects such as *note
     memoryview: 17f. of *note bytes: 2c1.

     Besides this ‘bf_releasebuffer’ requirement, there is no check to
     verify whether the input object is immutable (e.g.  whether it
     would honor a request for a writable buffer, or whether another
     thread can mutate the data).

     備註: For all ‘#’ variants of formats (‘s#’, ‘y#’, etc.), the macro
     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ must be defined before including ‘Python.h’.  On
     Python 3.9 and older, the type of the length argument is *note
     Py_ssize_t: 8ab. if the ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro is defined, or int
     otherwise.

‘s’ (*note str: 157.) [const char *]

     Convert a Unicode object to a C pointer to a character string.  A
     pointer to an existing string is stored in the character pointer
     variable whose address you pass.  The C string is NUL-terminated.
     The Python string must not contain embedded null code points; if it
     does, a *note ValueError: 183. exception is raised.  Unicode
     objects are converted to C strings using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.  If
     this conversion fails, a *note UnicodeError: 1137. is raised.

          備註: This format does not accept *note bytes-like objects:
          b9f.  If you want to accept filesystem paths and convert them
          to C character strings, it is preferable to use the ‘O&’
          format with *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): b89. as
          'converter'.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Previously, *note TypeError: 2ba. was raised when
     embedded null code points were encountered in the Python string.

‘s*’（*note str: 157. 或 *note bytes-like object: b9f.）[Py_buffer]

     This format accepts Unicode objects as well as bytes-like objects.
     It fills a *note Py_buffer: 56b. structure provided by the caller.
     In this case the resulting C string may contain embedded NUL bytes.
     Unicode objects are converted to C strings using ‘'utf-8'’
     encoding.

‘s#’ (*note str: 157, read-only *note bytes-like object: b9f.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.]

     Like ‘s*’, except that it provides a *note borrowed buffer: 49a3.
     The result is stored into two C variables, the first one a pointer
     to a C string, the second one its length.  The string may contain
     embedded null bytes.  Unicode objects are converted to C strings
     using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.

‘z’（*note str: 157. 或 ‘None’）[const char *]

     Like ‘s’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case
     the C pointer is set to ‘NULL’.

‘z*’（*note str: 157.、*note bytes-like object: b9f. 或 ‘None’）[Py_buffer]

     Like ‘s*’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case
     the ‘buf’ member of the *note Py_buffer: 56b. structure is set to
     ‘NULL’.

‘z#’ (*note str: 157, read-only *note bytes-like object: b9f. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.]

     Like ‘s#’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case
     the C pointer is set to ‘NULL’.

‘y’（唯讀 *note bytes-like object: b9f.）[const char *]

     This format converts a bytes-like object to a C pointer to a *note
     borrowed: 49a3. character string; it does not accept Unicode
     objects.  The bytes buffer must not contain embedded null bytes; if
     it does, a *note ValueError: 183. exception is raised.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Previously, *note TypeError: 2ba. was raised when
     embedded null bytes were encountered in the bytes buffer.

‘y*’ (*note bytes-like object: b9f.) [Py_buffer]

     This variant on ‘s*’ doesn't accept Unicode objects, only
     bytes-like objects.  'This is the recommended way to accept binary
     data.'

‘y#’ (read-only *note bytes-like object: b9f.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.]

     This variant on ‘s#’ doesn't accept Unicode objects, only
     bytes-like objects.

‘S’ (*note bytes: 2c1.) [PyBytesObject *]

     Requires that the Python object is a *note bytes: 2c1. object,
     without attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 2ba. if
     the object is not a bytes object.  The C variable may also be
     declared as *note PyObject: 6d1.*.

‘Y’ (*note bytearray: 2c0.) [PyByteArrayObject *]

     Requires that the Python object is a *note bytearray: 2c0. object,
     without attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 2ba. if
     the object is not a *note bytearray: 2c0. object.  The C variable
     may also be declared as *note PyObject: 6d1.*.

‘U’ (*note str: 157.) [PyObject *]

     Requires that the Python object is a Unicode object, without
     attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 2ba. if the
     object is not a Unicode object.  The C variable may also be
     declared as *note PyObject: 6d1.*.

‘w*’ （可讀寫 *note bytes-like object: b9f.） [Py_buffer]

     This format accepts any object which implements the read-write
     buffer interface.  It fills a *note Py_buffer: 56b. structure
     provided by the caller.  The buffer may contain embedded null
     bytes.  The caller have to call *note PyBuffer_Release(): 576. when
     it is done with the buffer.

‘es’ (*note str: 157.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

     This variant on ‘s’ is used for encoding Unicode into a character
     buffer.  It only works for encoded data without embedded NUL bytes.

     This format requires two arguments.  The first is only used as
     input, and must be a const char* which points to the name of an
     encoding as a NUL-terminated string, or ‘NULL’, in which case
     ‘'utf-8'’ encoding is used.  An exception is raised if the named
     encoding is not known to Python.  The second argument must be a
     char**; the value of the pointer it references will be set to a
     buffer with the contents of the argument text.  The text will be
     encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument.

     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. will allocate a buffer of the needed
     size, copy the encoded data into this buffer and adjust '*buffer'
     to reference the newly allocated storage.  The caller is
     responsible for calling *note PyMem_Free(): 12b5. to free the
     allocated buffer after use.

‘et’ (*note str: 157, *note bytes: 2c1. or *note bytearray: 2c0.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

     Same as ‘es’ except that byte string objects are passed through
     without recoding them.  Instead, the implementation assumes that
     the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter.

‘es#’ (*note str: 157.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *buffer_length]

     This variant on ‘s#’ is used for encoding Unicode into a character
     buffer.  Unlike the ‘es’ format, this variant allows input data
     which contains NUL characters.

     It requires three arguments.  The first is only used as input, and
     must be a const char* which points to the name of an encoding as a
     NUL-terminated string, or ‘NULL’, in which case ‘'utf-8'’ encoding
     is used.  An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known
     to Python.  The second argument must be a char**; the value of the
     pointer it references will be set to a buffer with the contents of
     the argument text.  The text will be encoded in the encoding
     specified by the first argument.  The third argument must be a
     pointer to an integer; the referenced integer will be set to the
     number of bytes in the output buffer.

     There are two modes of operation:

     If '*buffer' points a ‘NULL’ pointer, the function will allocate a
     buffer of the needed size, copy the encoded data into this buffer
     and set '*buffer' to reference the newly allocated storage.  The
     caller is responsible for calling *note PyMem_Free(): 12b5. to free
     the allocated buffer after usage.

     If '*buffer' points to a non-‘NULL’ pointer (an already allocated
     buffer), *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. will use this location as
     the buffer and interpret the initial value of '*buffer_length' as
     the buffer size.  It will then copy the encoded data into the
     buffer and NUL-terminate it.  If the buffer is not large enough, a
     *note ValueError: 183. will be set.

     In both cases, '*buffer_length' is set to the length of the encoded
     data without the trailing NUL byte.

‘et#’ (*note str: 157, *note bytes: 2c1. or *note bytearray: 2c0.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *buffer_length]

     Same as ‘es#’ except that byte string objects are passed through
     without recoding them.  Instead, the implementation assumes that
     the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter.

在 3.12 版的變更: ‘u’, ‘u#’, ‘Z’, and ‘Z#’ are removed because they used
a legacy ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation.


File: python.info,  Node: 數字,  Next: 其他物件,  Prev: Strings and buffers,  Up: Parsing arguments

7.6.6.3 數字
............

‘b’ (*note int: 17e.) [unsigned char]

     Convert a nonnegative Python integer to an unsigned tiny int,
     stored in a C unsigned char.

‘B’ (*note int: 17e.) [unsigned char]

     Convert a Python integer to a tiny int without overflow checking,
     stored in a C unsigned char.

‘h’ (*note int: 17e.) [short int]

     將一個 Python 整數轉換成 C 的 short int。

‘H’ (*note int: 17e.) [unsigned short int]

     將一個 Python 整數轉換成 C 的 unsigned short int，轉換過程無溢位檢
     查。

‘i’ (*note int: 17e.) [int]

     將一個 Python 整數轉換成 C 的 int。

‘I’ (*note int: 17e.) [unsigned int]

     將一個 Python 整數轉換成 C 的 unsigned int，轉換過程無溢位檢查。

‘l’ (*note int: 17e.) [long int]

     將一個 Python 整數轉換成 C 的 long int。

‘k’ (*note int: 17e.) [unsigned long]

     將一個 Python 整數轉換成 C 的 unsigned long，轉換過程無溢位檢查。

‘L’ (*note int: 17e.) [long long]

     將一個 Python 整數轉換成 C 的 long long。

‘K’ (*note int: 17e.) [unsigned long long]

     將一個 Python 整數轉換成 C 的 unsigned long long，轉換過程無溢位檢
     查。

‘n’ (*note int: 17e.) [*note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.]

     將一個 Python 整數轉換成 C 的 *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.。

‘c’（*note bytes: 2c1. 或長度為 1 的 *note bytearray: 2c0.）[char]

     Convert a Python byte, represented as a *note bytes: 2c1. or *note
     bytearray: 2c0. object of length 1, to a C char.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 允許 *note bytearray: 2c0. 物件。

‘C’（長度為 1 的 *note str: 157.）[int]

     Convert a Python character, represented as a *note str: 157. object
     of length 1, to a C int.

‘f’ (*note float: 26a.) [float]

     將一個 Python 浮點數轉換成 C 的 :c:type:float。

‘d’ (*note float: 26a.) [double]

     將一個 Python 浮點數轉換成 C 的 :c:type:double。

‘D’ (*note complex: 26b.) [Py_complex]

     將一個 Python 複數轉換成 C 的 *note Py_complex: 49a5. 結構。


File: python.info,  Node: 其他物件,  Next: API 函式,  Prev: 數字,  Up: Parsing arguments

7.6.6.4 其他物件
................

‘O’（物件）[PyObject *]

     Store a Python object (without any conversion) in a C object
     pointer.  The C program thus receives the actual object that was
     passed.  A new *note strong reference: 5a8. to the object is not
     created (i.e.  its reference count is not increased).  The pointer
     stored is not ‘NULL’.

‘O!’（物件）['typeobject', PyObject *]

     Store a Python object in a C object pointer.  This is similar to
     ‘O’, but takes two C arguments: the first is the address of a
     Python type object, the second is the address of the C variable (of
     type *note PyObject: 6d1.*) into which the object pointer is
     stored.  If the Python object does not have the required type,
     *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised.

‘O&’（物件）['converter', 'anything']

     Convert a Python object to a C variable through a 'converter'
     function.  This takes two arguments: the first is a function, the
     second is the address of a C variable (of arbitrary type),
     converted to void*.  The 'converter' function in turn is called as
     follows:

          status = converter(object, address);

     where 'object' is the Python object to be converted and 'address'
     is the void* argument that was passed to the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
     function.  The returned 'status' should be ‘1’ for a successful
     conversion and ‘0’ if the conversion has failed.  When the
     conversion fails, the 'converter' function should raise an
     exception and leave the content of 'address' unmodified.

     If the 'converter' returns ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’, it may get
     called a second time if the argument parsing eventually fails,
     giving the converter a chance to release any memory that it had
     already allocated.  In this second call, the 'object' parameter
     will be ‘NULL’; 'address' will have the same value as in the
     original call.

     在 3.1 版的變更: 加入 ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’。

‘p’ (*note bool: 17d.) [int]

     Tests the value passed in for truth (a boolean 'p'redicate) and
     converts the result to its equivalent C true/false integer value.
     Sets the int to ‘1’ if the expression was true and ‘0’ if it was
     false.  This accepts any valid Python value.  See *note 真值檢測:
     1eef. for more information about how Python tests values for truth.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

‘(items)’ (*note tuple: 4e6.) ['matching-items']

     The object must be a Python sequence whose length is the number of
     format units in 'items'.  The C arguments must correspond to the
     individual format units in 'items'.  Format units for sequences may
     be nested.

It is possible to pass "long" integers (integers whose value exceeds the
platform's ‘LONG_MAX’) however no proper range checking is done -- the
most significant bits are silently truncated when the receiving field is
too small to receive the value (actually, the semantics are inherited
from downcasts in C -- your mileage may vary).

A few other characters have a meaning in a format string.  These may not
occur inside nested parentheses.  They are:

‘|’

     Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list
     are optional.  The C variables corresponding to optional arguments
     should be initialized to their default value -- when an optional
     argument is not specified, *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. does not
     touch the contents of the corresponding C variable(s).

‘$’

     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85. only: Indicates that the
     remaining arguments in the Python argument list are keyword-only.
     Currently, all keyword-only arguments must also be optional
     arguments, so ‘|’ must always be specified before ‘$’ in the format
     string.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

‘:’

     The list of format units ends here; the string after the colon is
     used as the function name in error messages (the "associated value"
     of the exception that *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. raises).

‘;’

     The list of format units ends here; the string after the semicolon
     is used as the error message 'instead' of the default error
     message.  ‘:’ and ‘;’ mutually exclude each other.

Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller
are 'borrowed' references; do not release them (i.e.  do not decrement
their reference count)!

Additional arguments passed to these functions must be addresses of
variables whose type is determined by the format string; these are used
to store values from the input tuple.  There are a few cases, as
described in the list of format units above, where these parameters are
used as input values; they should match what is specified for the
corresponding format unit in that case.

For the conversion to succeed, the 'arg' object must match the format
and the format must be exhausted.  On success, the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
functions return true, otherwise they return false and raise an
appropriate exception.  When the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ functions fail due to
conversion failure in one of the format units, the variables at the
addresses corresponding to that and the following format units are left
untouched.


File: python.info,  Node: API 函式,  Prev: 其他物件,  Up: Parsing arguments

7.6.6.5 API 函式
................

 -- C 函式: int PyArg_ParseTuple (PyObject *args, const char *format,
          ...)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Parse the parameters of a
     function that takes only positional parameters into local
     variables.  Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false
     and raises the appropriate exception.

 -- C 函式: int PyArg_VaParse (PyObject *args, const char *format,
          va_list vargs)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Identical to *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe, except that it accepts a va_list rather
     than a variable number of arguments.

 -- C 函式: int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args, PyObject
          *kw, const char *format, char *keywords[], ...)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Parse the parameters of a
     function that takes both positional and keyword parameters into
     local variables.  The 'keywords' argument is a ‘NULL’-terminated
     array of keyword parameter names.  Empty names denote *note
     positional-only parameters: 8d1.  Returns true on success; on
     failure, it returns false and raises the appropriate exception.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Added support for *note positional-only
     parameters: 8d1.

 -- C 函式: int PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args, PyObject
          *kw, const char *format, char *keywords[], va_list vargs)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Identical to *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85, except that it accepts a
     va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.

 -- C 函式: int PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (PyObject*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Ensure that the keys in the
     keywords argument dictionary are strings.  This is only needed if
     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85. is not used, since the
     latter already does this check.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyArg_Parse (PyObject *args, const char *format, ...)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Function used to deconstruct
     the argument lists of "old-style" functions -- these are functions
     which use the ‘METH_OLDARGS’ parameter parsing method, which has
     been removed in Python 3.  This is not recommended for use in
     parameter parsing in new code, and most code in the standard
     interpreter has been modified to no longer use this for that
     purpose.  It does remain a convenient way to decompose other
     tuples, however, and may continue to be used for that purpose.

 -- C 函式: int PyArg_UnpackTuple (PyObject *args, const char *name,
          Py_ssize_t min, Py_ssize_t max, ...)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  A simpler form of parameter
     retrieval which does not use a format string to specify the types
     of the arguments.  Functions which use this method to retrieve
     their parameters should be declared as *note METH_VARARGS: 1381. in
     function or method tables.  The tuple containing the actual
     parameters should be passed as 'args'; it must actually be a tuple.
     The length of the tuple must be at least 'min' and no more than
     'max'; 'min' and 'max' may be equal.  Additional arguments must be
     passed to the function, each of which should be a pointer to a
     *note PyObject: 6d1.* variable; these will be filled in with the
     values from 'args'; they will contain *note borrowed references:
     47ba.  The variables which correspond to optional parameters not
     given by 'args' will not be filled in; these should be initialized
     by the caller.  This function returns true on success and false if
     'args' is not a tuple or contains the wrong number of elements; an
     exception will be set if there was a failure.

     This is an example of the use of this function, taken from the
     sources for the ‘_weakref’ helper module for weak references:

          static PyObject *
          weakref_ref(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
          {
              PyObject *object;
              PyObject *callback = NULL;
              PyObject *result = NULL;

              if (PyArg_UnpackTuple(args, "ref", 1, 2, &object, &callback)) {
                  result = PyWeakref_NewRef(object, callback);
              }
              return result;
          }

     The call to *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 137f. in this example is
     entirely equivalent to this call to *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.:

          PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O|O:ref", &object, &callback)


File: python.info,  Node: Building values,  Prev: Parsing arguments,  Up: 剖析引數與建置數值

7.6.6.6 Building values
.......................

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_BuildValue (const char *format,
          ...)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     new value based on a format string similar to those accepted by the
     ‘PyArg_Parse*’ family of functions and a sequence of values.
     Returns the value or ‘NULL’ in the case of an error; an exception
     will be raised if ‘NULL’ is returned.

     *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db. does not always build a tuple.  It
     builds a tuple only if its format string contains two or more
     format units.  If the format string is empty, it returns ‘None’; if
     it contains exactly one format unit, it returns whatever object is
     described by that format unit.  To force it to return a tuple of
     size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.

     When memory buffers are passed as parameters to supply data to
     build objects, as for the ‘s’ and ‘s#’ formats, the required data
     is copied.  Buffers provided by the caller are never referenced by
     the objects created by *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db.  In other words,
     if your code invokes ‘malloc()’ and passes the allocated memory to
     *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db, your code is responsible for calling
     ‘free()’ for that memory once *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db. returns.

     In the following description, the quoted form is the format unit;
     the entry in (round) parentheses is the Python object type that the
     format unit will return; and the entry in [square] brackets is the
     type of the C value(s) to be passed.

     The characters space, tab, colon and comma are ignored in format
     strings (but not within format units such as ‘s#’).  This can be
     used to make long format strings a tad more readable.

     ‘s’（*note str: 157. 或 ‘None’）[const char *]

          Convert a null-terminated C string to a Python *note str: 157.
          object using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.  If the C string pointer is
          ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is used.

     ‘s#’（*note str: 157. 或 ‘None’）[const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.]

          Convert a C string and its length to a Python *note str: 157.
          object using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.  If the C string pointer is
          ‘NULL’, the length is ignored and ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘y’ (*note bytes: 2c1.) [const char *]

          This converts a C string to a Python *note bytes: 2c1. object.
          If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘y#’ (*note bytes: 2c1.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.]

          This converts a C string and its lengths to a Python object.
          If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘z’（*note str: 157. 或 ‘None’）[const char *]

          和 ‘s’ 相同。

     ‘z#’（*note str: 157. 或 ‘None’）[const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.]

          和 ‘s#’ 相同。

     ‘u’ (*note str: 157.) [const wchar_t *]

          Convert a null-terminated ‘wchar_t’ buffer of Unicode (UTF-16
          or UCS-4) data to a Python Unicode object.  If the Unicode
          buffer pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘u#’ (*note str: 157.) [const wchar_t *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.]

          Convert a Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4) data buffer and its length
          to a Python Unicode object.  If the Unicode buffer pointer is
          ‘NULL’, the length is ignored and ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘U’（*note str: 157. 或 ‘None’）[const char *]

          和 ‘s’ 相同。

     ‘U#’（*note str: 157. 或 ‘None’）[const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.]

          和 ‘s#’ 相同。

     ‘i’ (*note int: 17e.) [int]

          將一個 C 的 int 轉換成 Python 整數物件。

     ‘b’ (*note int: 17e.) [char]

          將一個 C 的 char 轉換成 Python 整數物件。

     ‘h’ (*note int: 17e.) [short int]

          將一個 C 的 short int 轉換成 Python 整數物件。

     ‘l’ (*note int: 17e.) [long int]

          將一個 C 的 long int 轉換成 Python 整數物件。

     ‘B’ (*note int: 17e.) [unsigned char]

          將一個 C 的 unsigned char 轉換成 Python 整數物件。

     ‘H’ (*note int: 17e.) [unsigned short int]

          將一個 C 的 unsigned short int 轉換成 Python 整數物件。

     ‘I’ (*note int: 17e.) [unsigned int]

          將一個 C 的 unsigned int 轉換成 Python 整數物件。

     ‘k’ (*note int: 17e.) [unsigned long]

          將一個 C 的 unsigned long 轉換成 Python 整數物件。

     ‘L’ (*note int: 17e.) [long long]

          將一個 C 的 long long 轉換成 Python 整數物件。

     ‘K’ (*note int: 17e.) [unsigned long long]

          將一個 C 的 unsigned long long 轉換成 Python 整數物件。

     ‘n’ (*note int: 17e.) [*note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.]

          將一個 C 的 *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. 轉換成 Python 整數。

     ‘c’（長度為 1 的 *note bytes: 2c1.）[char]

          將一個 C 中代表一個位元組的 int 轉換成 Python 中長度為一的
          *note bytes: 2c1.。

     ‘C’（長度為 1 的 *note str: 157.）[int]

          將一個 C 中代表一個字元的 int 轉換成 Python 中長度為一的 *note
          str: 157.。

     ‘d’ (*note float: 26a.) [double]

          將一個 C 的 double 轉換成 Python 浮點數。

     ‘f’ (*note float: 26a.) [float]

          將一個 C 的 float 轉換成 Python 浮點數。

     ‘D’ (*note complex: 26b.) [Py_complex *]

          將一個 C 的 *note Py_complex: 49a5. 結構轉換成 Python 複數。

     ‘O’（物件）[PyObject *]

          Pass a Python object untouched but create a new *note strong
          reference: 5a8. to it (i.e.  its reference count is
          incremented by one).  If the object passed in is a ‘NULL’
          pointer, it is assumed that this was caused because the call
          producing the argument found an error and set an exception.
          Therefore, *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db. will return ‘NULL’ but
          won't raise an exception.  If no exception has been raised
          yet, *note SystemError: 304. is set.

     ‘S’（物件）[PyObject *]

          和 ‘O’ 相同。

     ‘N’（物件）[PyObject *]

          Same as ‘O’, except it doesn't create a new *note strong
          reference: 5a8.  Useful when the object is created by a call
          to an object constructor in the argument list.

     ‘O&’（物件）['converter', 'anything']

          Convert 'anything' to a Python object through a 'converter'
          function.  The function is called with 'anything' (which
          should be compatible with void*) as its argument and should
          return a "new" Python object, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred.

     ‘(items)’ (*note tuple: 4e6.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python tuple with the same
          number of items.

     ‘[items]’ (*note list: 40a.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python list with the same
          number of items.

     ‘{items}’ (*note dict: 239.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python dictionary.  Each
          pair of consecutive C values adds one item to the dictionary,
          serving as key and value, respectively.

     If there is an error in the format string, the *note SystemError:
     304. exception is set and ‘NULL’ returned.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_VaBuildValue (const char *format,
          va_list vargs)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Identical
     to *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db, except that it accepts a va_list
     rather than a variable number of arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: 字串轉換與格式化,  Next: PyHash API,  Prev: 剖析引數與建置數值,  Up: 工具

7.6.7 字串轉換與格式化
----------------------

用於數字轉換和格式化字串輸出的函式。

 -- C 函式: int PyOS_snprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char
          *format, ...)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  根據格式字串 'format' 和額外引
     數，輸出不超過 'size' 位元組給 'str'。請參閱 Unix 手冊頁面
     ‘snprintf(3)(1)’。

 -- C 函式: int PyOS_vsnprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char
          *format, va_list va)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  根據格式字串 'format' 和變數引
     數串列 'va'，輸出不超過 'size' 位元組給 'str'。Unix 手冊頁面
     ‘vsnprintf(3)(2)’。

*note PyOS_snprintf(): 1382. 和 *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 1383. 包裝標準 C
函式庫函式 ‘snprintf()’ 和 ‘vsnprintf()’。它們的目的是確保邊角案例
(corner case) 下的行為一致，而標準 C 函式則不然。

包裝器確保回傳時 ‘str[size-1]’ 始終為 ‘'\0'’。他們永遠不會在 str 中寫入
超過 'size' 位元組（包括尾隨的 ‘'\0'’）。這兩個函式都要求 ‘str != NULL’、
‘size > 0’、‘format != NULL’ 和 ‘size < INT_MAX’。請注意，這表示沒有與
C99 ‘n = snprintf(NULL, 0, ...)’ 等效的函式來決定必要的緩衝區大小。

這些函式的回傳值 ('rv') 應如下被直譯：

   * 當 ‘0 <= rv < size’ 時，輸出轉換成功，'rv' 字元被寫入 'str'（不包括
     ‘str[rv]’ 處的尾隨 ‘'\0'’ 位元組）。

   * 當 ‘rv >= size’ 時，輸出轉換被截斷，並且需要具有 ‘rv + 1’ 位元組的
     緩衝區才能成功。在這種情況下，‘str[size-1]’ 是 ‘'\0'’。

   * 當 ‘rv < 0’ 時，代表「有不好的事情發生了」。在這種情況下，
     ‘str[size-1]’ 也是 ‘'\0'’，但 'str' 的其餘部分未定義。錯誤的確切原
     因取決於底層平台。

以下函式提供與區域設定無關 (locale-independent) 的字串到數字的轉換。

 -- C 函式: unsigned long PyOS_strtoul (const char *str, char **ptr, int
          base)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Convert the initial part of
     the string in ‘str’ to an unsigned long value according to the
     given ‘base’, which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be
     the special value ‘0’.

     Leading white space and case of characters are ignored.  If ‘base’
     is zero it looks for a leading ‘0b’, ‘0o’ or ‘0x’ to tell which
     base.  If these are absent it defaults to ‘10’.  Base must be 0 or
     between 2 and 36 (inclusive).  If ‘ptr’ is non-‘NULL’ it will
     contain a pointer to the end of the scan.

     If the converted value falls out of range of corresponding return
     type, range error occurs (‘errno’ is set to ‘ERANGE’) and
     ‘ULONG_MAX’ is returned.  If no conversion can be performed, ‘0’ is
     returned.

     也請見 Unix 手冊頁面 ‘strtoul(3)(3)’。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: long PyOS_strtol (const char *str, char **ptr, int base)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Convert the initial part of
     the string in ‘str’ to an long value according to the given ‘base’,
     which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be the special
     value ‘0’.

     Same as *note PyOS_strtoul(): 4899, but return a long value instead
     and ‘LONG_MAX’ on overflows.

     也請見 Unix 手冊頁面 ‘strtol(3)(4)’。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: double PyOS_string_to_double (const char *s, char **endptr,
          PyObject *overflow_exception)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  將字串 ‘s’ 轉換為 double，失敗
     時引發 Python 例外。接受的字串集合對應於 Python 的 *note float():
     26a. 建構函式接受的字串集合，但 ‘s’ 不得有前導或尾隨的空格。轉換與
     目前區域設定無關。

     如果 ‘endptr’ 為 ‘NULL’，則轉換整個字串。如果字串不是浮點數的有效表
     示，則引發 *note ValueError: 183. 並回傳 ‘-1.0’。

     如果 endptr 不是 ‘NULL’，則盡可能轉換字串，並將 ‘*endptr’ 設定為指
     向第一個未轉換的字元。如果字串的初始片段都不是浮點數的有效表示，則
     設定 ‘*endptr’ 指向字串的開頭，引發 ValueError 並回傳 ‘-1.0’。

     如果 ‘s’ 表示的值太大而無法儲存在浮點數中（例如 ‘"1e500"’ 在許多平
     台上都是這樣的字串），如果 ‘overflow_exception’ 為 ‘NULL’ 則回傳
     ‘Py_HUGE_VAL’（會帶有適當的符號）並且不設定任何例外。否則，
     ‘overflow_exception’ 必須指向一個 Python 例外物件；引發該例外並回傳
     ‘-1.0’。在這兩種情況下，將 ‘*endptr’ 設定為指向轉換後的值之後的第一
     個字元。

     如果轉換期間發生任何其他錯誤（例如記憶體不足的錯誤），請設定適當的
     Python 例外並回傳 ‘-1.0’。

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: char *PyOS_double_to_string (double val, char format_code,
          int precision, int flags, int *ptype)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  使用提供的 'format_code'、
     'precision' 和 'flags' 將 double 'val' 轉換為字串。

     'format_code' 必須是 ‘'e'’、‘'E'’、‘'f'’、‘'F'’、‘'g'’、‘'G'’ 或
     ‘'r'’ 其中之一。對於 ‘'r'’，提供的 'precision' 必須為 0 並會被忽略
     。‘'r'’ 格式碼指定標準 *note repr(): 61e. 格式。

     'flags' 可以是零個或多個值 ‘Py_DTSF_SIGN’、‘Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0’ 或
     ‘Py_DTSF_ALT’，會被聯集在一起：

        * ‘Py_DTSF_SIGN’ 代表總是在回傳的字串前面加上符號字元，即使
          'val' 非負數。

        * ‘Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0’ 代表確保回傳的字串看起來不會像整數。

        * ‘Py_DTSF_ALT’ 代表要套用「備用的 (alternate)」格式化規則。有關
          詳細資訊，請參閱 *note PyOS_snprintf(): 1382. ‘'#'’ 的文件。

     如果 'ptype' 是非 ‘NULL’，那麼它指向的值將被設定為
     ‘Py_DTST_FINITE’、‘Py_DTST_INFINITE’ 或 ‘Py_DTST_NAN’ 其中之一，分
     別代表 'val' 是有限數、無限數或非數。

     回傳值是指向 'buffer' 的指標，其中包含轉換後的字串，如果轉換失敗則
     回傳 ‘NULL’。呼叫者負責透過呼叫 *note PyMem_Free(): 12b5. 來釋放回
     傳的字串。

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyOS_stricmp (const char *s1, const char *s2)

     不區分大小寫的字串比較。函式的作用方式幾乎與 ‘strcmp()’ 相同，只是
     它忽略大小寫。

 -- C 函式: int PyOS_strnicmp (const char *s1, const char *s2,
          Py_ssize_t size)

     不區分大小寫的字串比較。函式的作用方式幾乎與 ‘strncmp()’ 相同，只是
     它忽略大小寫。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/snprintf(3)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/vsnprintf(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/strtoul(3)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/strtol(3)


File: python.info,  Node: PyHash API,  Next: Reflection,  Prev: 字串轉換與格式化,  Up: 工具

7.6.8 PyHash API
----------------

另請參閱 *note PyTypeObject.tp_hash: 4780. 成員。

 -- C 型別: type Py_hash_t

     雜湊值型別：有符號整數。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type Py_uhash_t

     雜湊值型別：無符號整數。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type PyHash_FuncDef

     *note PyHash_GetFuncDef(): 49b3. 所使用的雜湊函式定義。

      -- C 成員函數: const char *name

          雜湊函式名稱（UTF-8 編碼字串）。

      -- C 成員函數: const int hash_bits

          雜湊值的內部大小（以位元為單位）。

      -- C 成員函數: const int seed_bits

          Seed 輸入的大小（以位元為單位）。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyHash_FuncDef: 49b2. *PyHash_GetFuncDef (void)

     取得雜湊函式定義。

     也參考
     ......

     PEP 456(1)「安全且可交替使用的雜湊演算法 (Secure and
     interchangeable hash algorithm)」。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/


File: python.info,  Node: Reflection,  Next: 編解碼器註冊表和支援函式,  Prev: PyHash API,  Up: 工具

7.6.9 Reflection
----------------

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyEval_GetBuiltins (void)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     dictionary of the builtins in the current execution frame, or the
     interpreter of the thread state if no frame is currently executing.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyEval_GetLocals (void)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     dictionary of the local variables in the current execution frame,
     or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyEval_GetGlobals (void)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     dictionary of the global variables in the current execution frame,
     or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing.

 -- C 函式: *note PyFrameObject: 5a1. *PyEval_GetFrame (void)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     current thread state's frame, which is ‘NULL’ if no frame is
     currently executing.

     另請見 *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5a7.。

 -- C 函式: const char *PyEval_GetFuncName (PyObject *func)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the name of 'func' if
     it is a function, class or instance object, else the name of
     'func's type.

 -- C 函式: const char *PyEval_GetFuncDesc (PyObject *func)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a description string,
     depending on the type of 'func'.  Return values include "()" for
     functions and methods, " constructor", " instance", and " object".
     Concatenated with the result of *note PyEval_GetFuncName(): 482f,
     the result will be a description of 'func'.


File: python.info,  Node: 編解碼器註冊表和支援函式,  Next: 對 Perf Map 的支援,  Prev: Reflection,  Up: 工具

7.6.10 編解碼器註冊表和支援函式
-------------------------------

 -- C 函式: int PyCodec_Register (PyObject *search_function)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  註冊一個新的編解碼器搜索函式。

     作為副作用 (side effect)，這會嘗試載入 ‘encodings’（如果尚未完成）
     ，以確保它始終位於搜索函式列表中的第一個。

 -- C 函式: int PyCodec_Unregister (PyObject *search_function)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  取消註冊編解
     碼器搜索函式並清除註冊表 (registry) 的快取。如果搜索函式並未被註冊
     ，則不執行任何操作。成功回傳 0，發生錯誤時會引發例外並回傳 -1。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyCodec_KnownEncoding (const char *encoding)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  回傳 ‘1’ 或 ‘0’，具體取決於是
     否有給定 'encoding' 的已註冊編解碼器。這個函式總會成功。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_Encode (PyObject *object,
          const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  基於泛用編
     解碼器的編碼 API。

     'object' 被傳遞給以給定 'encoding' 所查找到的編碼器函式，並使用以
     'errors' 定義的錯誤處理方法。'errors' 可以設為 ‘NULL’ 來使用編解碼
     器定義的預設方法。如果找不到編碼器，則引發 *note LookupError:
     1f64.。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_Decode (PyObject *object,
          const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  基於泛用編
     解碼器的解碼 API。

     'object' 被傳遞給以給定 'encoding' 所查找到的解碼器函式，並使用以
     'errors' 定義的錯誤處理方法。'errors' 可以設為 ‘NULL’ 來使用編解碼
     器定義的預設方法。如果找不到編碼器，則引發 *note LookupError:
     1f64.。

* Menu:

* 編解碼器查找 API::
* 用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API::


File: python.info,  Node: 編解碼器查找 API,  Next: 用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API,  Up: 編解碼器註冊表和支援函式

7.6.10.1 編解碼器查找 API
.........................

在以下函式中，查找的 'encoding' 字串的所有字元將轉換為小寫，這使得透過此
機制查找的編碼可以不區分大小寫而更有效率。如果未找到編解碼器，則會設定
*note KeyError: 8ed. 並回傳 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_Encoder (const char *encoding)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  取得給定
     'encoding' 的編碼器函式。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_Decoder (const char *encoding)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  取得給定
     'encoding' 的解碼器函式。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (const char
          *encoding, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  取得給定
     'encoding' 的 *note IncrementalEncoder: 215e. 物件。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (const char
          *encoding, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  取得給定
     'encoding' 的 *note IncrementalDecoder: 215f. 物件。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_StreamReader (const char
          *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  取得給定
     'encoding' 的 *note StreamReader: 2163. 工廠函式。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_StreamWriter (const char
          *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  取得給定
     'encoding' 的 *note StreamWriter: 2162. 工廠函式。


File: python.info,  Node: 用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API,  Prev: 編解碼器查找 API,  Up: 編解碼器註冊表和支援函式

7.6.10.2 用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API
................................................

 -- C 函式: int PyCodec_RegisterError (const char *name, PyObject
          *error)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  在給定的 'name' 下註冊錯誤處理
     回呼 (callback) 函式 'error'。當編解碼器遇到無法編碼的字元/無法解碼
     的位元組並且 'name' 被指定為呼叫編碼/解碼函式時的錯誤參數時，將呼叫
     此回呼函式。

     回呼取得單個引數，即 *note UnicodeEncodeError: 473.、*note
     UnicodeDecodeError: 85a. 或 *note UnicodeTranslateError: 2034. 的實
     例，其中包含關於有問題的字元或位元組序列及其在原始字串中偏移量的資
     訊（有關取得此資訊的函式，請參閱 *note Unicode Exception Objects:
     497b.）。回呼必須引發給定的例外，或者回傳一個包含有問題序列的替換的
     二元組 (two-item tuple)，以及一個代表原始字串中應該被恢復的編碼/解
     碼偏移量的整數。

     成功時回傳 ‘0’，錯誤時回傳 ‘-1’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_LookupError (const char *name)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  查找
     'name' 下已註冊的錯誤處理回呼函式。作為一種特殊情況，可以傳遞
     ‘NULL’，在這種情況下，將回傳 "strict" 的錯誤處理回呼。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_StrictErrors (PyObject *exc)
     '回傳值：總是為 NULL。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  引發
     'exc' 作為例外。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (PyObject *exc)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  忽略
     unicode 錯誤，跳過錯誤的輸入。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (PyObject *exc)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  將 unicode
     編碼錯誤替換為 ‘?’ 或 ‘U+FFFD’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  將 unicode
     編碼錯誤替換為 XML 字元參照。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  將 unicode
     編碼錯誤替換為反斜線跳脫（‘\x’、‘\u’ 和 ‘\U’）。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (PyObject
          *exc)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  將 unicode 編碼錯誤替換為 ‘\N{...}’ 跳脫。

     在 3.5 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 對 Perf Map 的支援,  Prev: 編解碼器註冊表和支援函式,  Up: 工具

7.6.11 對 Perf Map 的支援
-------------------------

在支援的平台上（截至撰寫本文時，僅限 Linux），runtime 可以利用 'perf map
檔案'使得外部分析工具（例如 perf(1)）可以見到 Python 函式。正在運行的行
程可能會在 ‘/tmp’ 目錄中建立一個檔案，其中包含可以將一段可執行程式碼對映
到名稱的各個條目。此介面在 Linux Perf 工具的文件(2)中有被描述。

在 Python 中，這些輔助 API 可以被依賴於運行期間 (on the fly) 產生機器碼
的函式庫和功能所使用。

請注意，這些 API 不需要持有全域直譯器鎖 (GIL)。

 -- C 函式: int PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (void)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     打開 ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ 檔案，除非它已經打開，並建立一個鎖以確保
     執行緒安全地 (thread-safe) 寫入該檔案（前提是寫入是透過 *note
     PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry(): 14fb. 完成的）。通常不需要明確地呼
     叫它；只需使用 *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry(): 14fb. 它就會在
     首次呼叫時初始化狀態。

     建立/打開 perf map 檔案成功時回傳 ‘0’，失敗時回傳 ‘-1’，建立鎖時失
     敗則回傳 ‘-2’。檢查 ‘errno’ 以獲取更多造成失敗的資訊。

 -- C 函式: int PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (const void *code_addr,
          unsigned int code_size, const char *entry_name)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     將單一條目寫入 ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ 檔案。此函式是執行緒安全的。以
     下是一個條目的範例：

          # address      size  name
          7f3529fcf759 b     py::bar:/run/t.py

     如果尚未開啟 perf map 檔案，將在寫入條目之前呼叫 *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 14fc.。成功時回傳 ‘0’，失敗時回傳與
     *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 14fc. 失敗時相同的錯誤碼。

 -- C 函式: void PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (void)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     關閉由 *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 14fc. 開啟的 perf map
     檔案，這是在直譯器關閉期間由 runtime 本身呼叫的。一般來說，除了處理
     forking 等特定場景外，不應該明確地呼叫它。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page

   (2) 
https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/tree/tools/perf/Documentation/jit-interface.txt


File: python.info,  Node: 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer,  Next: 具體物件層,  Prev: 工具,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.7 抽象物件層 (Abstract Objects Layer)
=======================================

本章中的函式與 Python 物件相互作用，無論其型別、或具有廣泛類別的物件型別
（例如所有數值型別或所有序列型別）。當使用於不適用的物件型別時，他們會引
發一個 Python 異常 (exception)。

這些函式是不可能用於未正確初始化的物件（例如一個由 *note PyList_New():
47bc. 建立的 list 物件），而其中的項目沒有被設為一些非 ‘NULL’ 的值。

* Menu:

* 物件協定::
* 呼叫協定 (Call Protocol): 呼叫協定 Call Protocol.
* 數字協定::
* 序列協定::
* 對映協定::
* 疊代器協議::
* 緩衝協定 (Buffer Protocol): 緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol.
* 舊式緩衝協定 (Buffer Protocol): 舊式緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: 物件協定,  Next: 呼叫協定 Call Protocol,  Up: 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.1 物件協定
--------------

 -- C 變數: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_NotImplemented

     The ‘NotImplemented’ singleton, used to signal that an operation is
     not implemented for the given type combination.

 -- C 巨集: Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED

     Properly handle returning *note Py_NotImplemented: 49c6. from
     within a C function (that is, create a new *note strong reference:
     5a8. to *note NotImplemented: 5f2. and return it).

 -- C 巨集: Py_PRINT_RAW

     Flag to be used with multiple functions that print the object (like
     *note PyObject_Print(): 183f. and *note PyFile_WriteObject():
     483d.).  If passed, these function would use the *note str(): 157.
     of the object instead of the *note repr(): 61e.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_Print (PyObject *o, FILE *fp, int flags)

     Print an object 'o', on file 'fp'.  Returns ‘-1’ on error.  The
     flags argument is used to enable certain printing options.  The
     only option currently supported is *note Py_PRINT_RAW: 49c8.; if
     given, the *note str(): 157. of the object is written instead of
     the *note repr(): 61e.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_HasAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns ‘1’ if 'o' has the
     attribute 'attr_name', and ‘0’ otherwise.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘hasattr(o, attr_name)’.  This function
     always succeeds.

          備註: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note
          __getattr__(): 1fa. and *note __getattribute__(): a33. methods
          are silently ignored.  For proper error handling, use *note
          PyObject_GetAttr(): 48a8. instead.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_HasAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_HasAttr(): 48aa, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const
     char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject:
     6d1.*.

          備註: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note
          __getattr__(): 1fa. and *note __getattribute__(): a33. methods
          or while creating the temporary *note str: 157. object are
          silently ignored.  For proper error handling, use *note
          PyObject_GetAttrString(): 473c. instead.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_GetAttr (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *attr_name)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Retrieve
     an attribute named 'attr_name' from object 'o'.  Returns the
     attribute value on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘o.attr_name’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_GetAttrString (PyObject *o,
          const char *attr_name)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is
     the same as *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 48a8, but 'attr_name' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 6d1.*.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_GenericGetAttr (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *name)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Generic
     attribute getter function that is meant to be put into a type
     object's ‘tp_getattro’ slot.  It looks for a descriptor in the
     dictionary of classes in the object's MRO as well as an attribute
     in the object's *note __dict__: 2e2. (if present).  As outlined in
     *note Implementing Descriptors: ab5, data descriptors take
     preference over instance attributes, while non-data descriptors
     don't.  Otherwise, an *note AttributeError: 3ca. is raised.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_SetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name,
          PyObject *v)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the value of the attribute
     named 'attr_name', for object 'o', to the value 'v'.  Raise an
     exception and return ‘-1’ on failure; return ‘0’ on success.  This
     is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o.attr_name = v’.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the attribute is deleted.  This behaviour is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 49c9, but
     there are currently no plans to remove it.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_SetAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name, PyObject *v)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_SetAttr(): 48ae, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const
     char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject:
     6d1.*.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the attribute is deleted, but this feature is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PyObject_DelAttrString(): 13e9.

     The number of different attribute names passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated
     string as 'attr_name'.  For attribute names that aren't known at
     compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 479e.
     and *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 48ae. directly.  For more details,
     see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 13e6, which may be used
     internally to create a key object.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_GenericSetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *name,
          PyObject *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Generic attribute setter and
     deleter function that is meant to be put into a type object's *note
     tp_setattro: 4772. slot.  It looks for a data descriptor in the
     dictionary of classes in the object's MRO, and if found it takes
     preference over setting or deleting the attribute in the instance
     dictionary.  Otherwise, the attribute is set or deleted in the
     object's *note __dict__: 2e2. (if present).  On success, ‘0’ is
     returned, otherwise an *note AttributeError: 3ca. is raised and
     ‘-1’ is returned.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_DelAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)

     Delete attribute named 'attr_name', for object 'o'.  Returns ‘-1’
     on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘del
     o.attr_name’.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_DelAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name)

     This is the same as *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 49c9, but 'attr_name'
     is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather
     than a *note PyObject: 6d1.*.

     The number of different attribute names passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated
     string as 'attr_name'.  For attribute names that aren't known at
     compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 479e.
     and *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 49c9. directly.  For more details,
     see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 13e6, which may be used
     internally to create a key object for lookup.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_GenericGetDict (PyObject *o,
          void *context)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本
     開始.'  A generic implementation for the getter of a ‘__dict__’
     descriptor.  It creates the dictionary if necessary.

     This function may also be called to get the *note __dict__: 2e2. of
     the object 'o'.  Pass ‘NULL’ for 'context' when calling it.  Since
     this function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, it
     may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 48a8. when
     accessing an attribute on the object.

     在失敗時，會回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_GenericSetDict (PyObject *o, PyObject *value,
          void *context)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  A generic
     implementation for the setter of a ‘__dict__’ descriptor.  This
     implementation does not allow the dictionary to be deleted.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. **_PyObject_GetDictPtr (PyObject *obj)

     Return a pointer to *note __dict__: 2e2. of the object 'obj'.  If
     there is no ‘__dict__’, return ‘NULL’ without setting an exception.

     This function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, so it
     may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 48a8. when
     accessing an attribute on the object.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_RichCompare (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2, int opid)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Compare
     the values of 'o1' and 'o2' using the operation specified by
     'opid', which must be one of *note Py_LT: 49cb, *note Py_LE: 49cc,
     *note Py_EQ: 49cd, *note Py_NE: 49ce, *note Py_GT: 49cf, or *note
     Py_GE: 49d0, corresponding to ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘==’, ‘!=’, ‘>’, or ‘>=’
     respectively.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1
     op o2’, where ‘op’ is the operator corresponding to 'opid'.
     Returns the value of the comparison on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_RichCompareBool (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2,
          int opid)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Compare the values of 'o1' and
     'o2' using the operation specified by 'opid', like *note
     PyObject_RichCompare(): 477b, but returns ‘-1’ on error, ‘0’ if the
     result is false, ‘1’ otherwise.

     備註: If 'o1' and 'o2' are the same object, *note
     PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 177f. will always return ‘1’ for *note
     Py_EQ: 49cd. and ‘0’ for *note Py_NE: 49ce.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_Format (PyObject *obj,
          PyObject *format_spec)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Format 'obj' using
     'format_spec'.  This is equivalent to the Python expression
     ‘format(obj, format_spec)’.

     'format_spec' may be ‘NULL’.  In this case the call is equivalent
     to ‘format(obj)’.  Returns the formatted string on success, ‘NULL’
     on failure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_Repr (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Compute a string representation of object 'o'.  Returns the string
     representation on success, ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘repr(o)’.  Called by the *note
     repr(): 61e. built-in function.

     在 3.4 版的變更: This function now includes a debug assertion to
     help ensure that it does not silently discard an active exception.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_ASCII (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     As *note PyObject_Repr(): ec3, compute a string representation of
     object 'o', but escape the non-ASCII characters in the string
     returned by *note PyObject_Repr(): ec3. with ‘\x’, ‘\u’ or ‘\U’
     escapes.  This generates a string similar to that returned by *note
     PyObject_Repr(): ec3. in Python 2.  Called by the *note ascii():
     1255. built-in function.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_Str (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Compute a
     string representation of object 'o'.  Returns the string
     representation on success, ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘str(o)’.  Called by the *note
     str(): 157. built-in function and, therefore, by the *note print():
     e02. function.

     在 3.4 版的變更: This function now includes a debug assertion to
     help ensure that it does not silently discard an active exception.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_Bytes (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Compute a bytes representation of object 'o'.  ‘NULL’ is returned
     on failure and a bytes object on success.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘bytes(o)’, when 'o' is not an integer.
     Unlike ‘bytes(o)’, a TypeError is raised when 'o' is an integer
     instead of a zero-initialized bytes object.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_IsSubclass (PyObject *derived, PyObject *cls)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return ‘1’ if the class
     'derived' is identical to or derived from the class 'cls',
     otherwise return ‘0’.  In case of an error, return ‘-1’.

     If 'cls' is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in
     'cls'.  The result will be ‘1’ when at least one of the checks
     returns ‘1’, otherwise it will be ‘0’.

     If 'cls' has a *note __subclasscheck__(): 1d10. method, it will be
     called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP
     3119(1).  Otherwise, 'derived' is a subclass of 'cls' if it is a
     direct or indirect subclass, i.e.  contained in *note cls.__mro__:
     1cbb.

     Normally only class objects, i.e.  instances of *note type: bbb. or
     a derived class, are considered classes.  However, objects can
     override this by having a *note __bases__: 131f. attribute (which
     must be a tuple of base classes).

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_IsInstance (PyObject *inst, PyObject *cls)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return ‘1’ if 'inst' is an
     instance of the class 'cls' or a subclass of 'cls', or ‘0’ if not.
     On error, returns ‘-1’ and sets an exception.

     If 'cls' is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in
     'cls'.  The result will be ‘1’ when at least one of the checks
     returns ‘1’, otherwise it will be ‘0’.

     If 'cls' has a *note __instancecheck__(): 1d0f. method, it will be
     called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP
     3119(2).  Otherwise, 'inst' is an instance of 'cls' if its class is
     a subclass of 'cls'.

     An instance 'inst' can override what is considered its class by
     having a *note __class__: 1320. attribute.

     An object 'cls' can override if it is considered a class, and what
     its base classes are, by having a *note __bases__: 131f. attribute
     (which must be a tuple of base classes).

 -- C 函式: *note Py_hash_t: 10f8. PyObject_Hash (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Compute and return the hash value of an object 'o'.  On failure,
     return ‘-1’.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘hash(o)’.

     在 3.2 版的變更: The return type is now Py_hash_t.  This is a
     signed integer the same size as *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_hash_t: 10f8. PyObject_HashNotImplemented (PyObject
          *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set a *note TypeError: 2ba.
     indicating that ‘type(o)’ is not *note hashable: 409. and return
     ‘-1’.  This function receives special treatment when stored in a
     ‘tp_hash’ slot, allowing a type to explicitly indicate to the
     interpreter that it is not hashable.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_IsTrue (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns ‘1’ if the object 'o'
     is considered to be true, and ‘0’ otherwise.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘not not o’.  On failure, return ‘-1’.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_Not (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns ‘0’ if the object 'o'
     is considered to be true, and ‘1’ otherwise.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘not o’.  On failure, return ‘-1’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_Type (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     When 'o' is non-‘NULL’, returns a type object corresponding to the
     object type of object 'o'.  On failure, raises *note SystemError:
     304. and returns ‘NULL’.  This is equivalent to the Python
     expression ‘type(o)’.  This function creates a new *note strong
     reference: 5a8. to the return value.  There's really no reason to
     use this function instead of the *note Py_TYPE(): 597. function,
     which returns a pointer of type *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.*, except
     when a new *note strong reference: 5a8. is needed.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_TypeCheck (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is of type 'type' or a subtype of
     'type', and ‘0’ otherwise.  Both parameters must be non-‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyObject_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyObject_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return the length of object 'o'.  If the object 'o' provides either
     the sequence and mapping protocols, the sequence length is
     returned.  On error, ‘-1’ is returned.  This is the equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘len(o)’.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyObject_LengthHint (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t defaultvalue)

     Return an estimated length for the object 'o'.  First try to return
     its actual length, then an estimate using *note __length_hint__():
     d90, and finally return the default value.  On error return ‘-1’.
     This is the equivalent to the Python expression
     ‘operator.length_hint(o, defaultvalue)’.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_GetItem (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *key)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return
     element of 'o' corresponding to the object 'key' or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o[key]’.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_SetItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key, PyObject
          *v)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Map the object 'key' to the
     value 'v'.  Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on failure; return
     ‘0’ on success.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
     ‘o[key] = v’.  This function 'does not' steal a reference to 'v'.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Remove the mapping for the
     object 'key' from the object 'o'.  Return ‘-1’ on failure.  This is
     equivalent to the Python statement ‘del o[key]’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_Dir (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘dir(o)’, returning a (possibly
     empty) list of strings appropriate for the object argument, or
     ‘NULL’ if there was an error.  If the argument is ‘NULL’, this is
     like the Python ‘dir()’, returning the names of the current locals;
     in this case, if no execution frame is active then ‘NULL’ is
     returned but *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. will return false.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_GetIter (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘iter(o)’.  It returns a new
     iterator for the object argument, or the object itself if the
     object is already an iterator.  Raises *note TypeError: 2ba. and
     returns ‘NULL’ if the object cannot be iterated.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_GetAIter (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本
     開始.'  This is the equivalent to the Python expression ‘aiter(o)’.
     Takes an ‘AsyncIterable’ object and returns an ‘AsyncIterator’ for
     it.  This is typically a new iterator but if the argument is an
     ‘AsyncIterator’, this returns itself.  Raises *note TypeError: 2ba.
     and returns ‘NULL’ if the object cannot be iterated.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void *PyObject_GetTypeData (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *cls)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'  Get a
     pointer to subclass-specific data reserved for 'cls'.

     The object 'o' must be an instance of 'cls', and 'cls' must have
     been created using negative *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2cc.
     Python does not check this.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyType_GetTypeDataSize (PyTypeObject
          *cls)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'  Return the
     size of the instance memory space reserved for 'cls', i.e.  the
     size of the memory *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 2cd. returns.

     This may be larger than requested using *note
     -PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2cc.; it is safe to use this larger size
     (e.g.  with ‘memset()’).

     The type 'cls' 'must' have been created using negative *note
     PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2cc.  Python does not check this.

     On error, set an exception and return a negative value.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void *PyObject_GetItemData (PyObject *o)

     Get a pointer to per-item data for a class with *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 2cf.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.  *note TypeError:
     2ba. is raised if 'o' does not have *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END:
     2cf. set.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: 呼叫協定 Call Protocol,  Next: 數字協定,  Prev: 物件協定,  Up: 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.2 呼叫協定 (Call Protocol)
------------------------------

CPython 支援兩種不同的呼叫協定：'tp_call' 和 vectorcall（向量呼叫）。

* Menu:

* tp_call 協定::
* Vectorcall 協定::
* 物件呼叫 API::
* 呼叫支援 API::


File: python.info,  Node: tp_call 協定,  Next: Vectorcall 協定,  Up: 呼叫協定 Call Protocol

7.7.2.1 'tp_call' 協定
......................

設定 *note tp_call: 2df. 的類別之實例都是可呼叫的。該擴充槽 (slot) 的簽
章為：

     PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *callable, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

要達成一個呼叫會使用一個 tuple（元組）表示位置引數、一個 dict 表示關鍵字
引數，類似於 Python 程式碼中的 ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’。'args' 必須
不為 NULL（如果沒有引數，會使用一個空 tuple），但如果沒有關鍵字引數，
'kwargs' 可以是 'NULL'。

這個慣例不僅會被 'tp_call' 使用，*note tp_new: 30e. 和 *note tp_init:
310. 也這樣傳遞引數。

使用 *note PyObject_Call(): 7a7. 或其他*note 呼叫 API: 49d4. 來呼叫一個
物件。


File: python.info,  Node: Vectorcall 協定,  Next: 物件呼叫 API,  Prev: tp_call 協定,  Up: 呼叫協定 Call Protocol

7.7.2.2 Vectorcall 協定
.......................

在 3.9 版被加入.

Vectorcall 協定是在 PEP 590(1) 被引入的，它是使函式呼叫更加有效率的附加
協定。

經驗法則上，如果可呼叫物件有支援，CPython 於內部呼叫中會更傾向使用
vectorcall。然而，這並不是一個硬性規定。此外，有些第三方擴充套件會直接使
用 'tp_call'（而不是使用 *note PyObject_Call(): 7a7.）。因此，一個支援
vectorcall 的類別也必須實作 *note tp_call: 2df.。此外，無論使用哪種協定
，可呼叫物件的行為都必須是相同的。要達成這個目的的推薦做法是將 *note
tp_call: 2df. 設定為 *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2db.。這值得一再提醒：

     警告: 一個支援 vectorcall 的類別'必須'也實作具有相同語義的 *note
     tp_call: 2df.。

在 3.12 版的變更: The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9. flag is now
removed from a class when the class's *note __call__(): 2dd. method is
reassigned.  (This internally sets *note tp_call: 2df. only, and thus
may make it behave differently than the vectorcall function.)  In
earlier Python versions, vectorcall should only be used with *note
immutable: 2de. or static types.

如果一個類別的 vectorcall 比 'tp_call' 慢，就不應該實作 vectorcall。例如
，如果被呼叫者需要將引數轉換為 args tuple（引數元組）和 kwargs dict（關
鍵字引數字典），那麼實作 vectorcall 就沒有意義。

類別可以透過啟用 *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9. 旗標並將 *note
tp_vectorcall_offset: 49d6. 設定為物件結構中有出現 'vectorcallfunc' 的
offset 來實作 vectorcall 協定。這是一個指向具有以下簽章之函式的指標：

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*vectorcallfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6d1. *callable, *note PyObject: 6d1. *const *args,
          size_t nargsf, *note PyObject: 6d1. *kwnames)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'

   - 'callable' 是指被呼叫的物件。

   - 
     'args' 是一個 C 語言陣列 (array)，包含位置引數與後面

          關鍵字引數的值。如果沒有引數，這個值可以是 'NULL'。

   - 
     'nargsf' 是位置引數的數量加上可能會有的

          *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 2e5. 旗標。如果要從
          'nargsf' 獲得實際的位置引數數量，請使用 *note
          PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 2da.。

   - 
     'kwnames' 是一個包含所有關鍵字引數名稱的 tuple；

          換句話說，就是 kwargs 字典的鍵。這些名字必須是字串（‘str’ 或其
          子類別的實例)，並且它們必須是不重複的。如果沒有關鍵字引數，那
          麼 'kwnames' 可以用 'NULL' 代替。

 -- C 巨集: PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'  如果在
     vectorcall 的 'nargsf' 引數中設定了此旗標，則允許被呼叫者臨時更改
     ‘args[-1]’ 的值。換句話說，'args' 指向向量中的引數 1（不是 0）。被
     呼叫方必須在回傳之前還原 ‘args[-1]’ 的值。

     對於 *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 2e4.，這個旗標的改變意味著
     可能是 ‘args[0]’ 被改變。

     當可以以幾乎無代價的方式（無需佔據額外的記憶體）來達成，那麼會推薦
     呼叫者使用 *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 2e5.。這樣做會讓如
     bound method（繫結方法）之類的可呼叫函式非常有效地繼續向前呼叫（這
     類函式包含一個在首位的 'self' 引數）。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

要呼叫一個實作了 vectorcall 的物件，請就像其他可呼叫物件一樣使用*note
呼叫 API: 49d4. 中的函式。*note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2e3. 通常是最有效
率的。

     備註: 在 CPython 3.8 中，vectorcall API 和相關函式暫定以帶開頭底線
     的名稱提供：‘_PyObject_Vectorcall’、‘_Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’、
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod’、‘_PyVectorcall_Function’、
     ‘_PyObject_CallOneArg’、‘_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs’、
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg’。此外，‘PyObject_VectorcallDict’ 也以
     ‘_PyObject_FastCallDict’ 名稱提供。這些舊名稱仍有被定義，做為不帶底
     線的新名稱的別名。

* Menu:

* 遞迴控制::
* Vectorcall 支援 API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: 遞迴控制,  Next: Vectorcall 支援 API,  Up: Vectorcall 協定

7.7.2.3 遞迴控制
................

在使用 'tp_call' 時，被呼叫者不必擔心*note 遞迴: 497c.：CPython 對於使用
'tp_call' 的呼叫會使用 *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7b7. 和 *note
Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 7b8.。

為保證效率，這不適用於使用 vectorcall 的呼叫：被呼叫方在需要時應當使用
'Py_EnterRecursiveCall' 和 'Py_LeaveRecursiveCall'。


File: python.info,  Node: Vectorcall 支援 API,  Prev: 遞迴控制,  Up: Vectorcall 協定

7.7.2.4 Vectorcall 支援 API
...........................

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyVectorcall_NARGS (size_t nargsf)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'  給定一個
     vectorcall 'nargsf' 引數，回傳引數的實際數量。目前等同於：

          (Py_ssize_t)(nargsf & ~PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET)

     然而，應使用 ‘PyVectorcall_NARGS’ 函式以便將來需要擴充。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note vectorcallfunc: 2dc. PyVectorcall_Function (PyObject
          *op)

     如果 'op' 不支援 vectorcall 協定（因為型別不支援或特定實例不支援）
     ，就回傳 'NULL'。否則，回傳儲存在 'op' 中的 vectorcall 函式指標。這
     個函式不會引發例外。

     這大多在檢查 'op' 是否支援 vectorcall 時能派上用場，可以透過檢查
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function(op) != NULL’ 來達成。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyVectorcall_Call (PyObject *callable,
          PyObject *tuple, PyObject *dict)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'  呼叫
     'callable' 的 *note vectorcallfunc: 2dc.，其位置引數和關鍵字引數分
     別以 tuple 和 dict 格式給定。

     這是一個專門函式，其目的是被放入 *note tp_call: 2df. 擴充槽或是用於
     ‘tp_call’ 的實作。它不會檢查 *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9.
     旗標並且它不會退回 (fall back) 使用 ‘tp_call’。

     在 3.8 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 物件呼叫 API,  Next: 呼叫支援 API,  Prev: Vectorcall 協定,  Up: 呼叫協定 Call Protocol

7.7.2.5 物件呼叫 API
....................

有多個函式可被用來呼叫 Python 物件。各個函式會將其引數轉換為被呼叫物件所
支援的慣用形式 – 可以是 'tp_call' 或 vectorcall。為了儘可能減少轉換的進
行，請選擇一個適合你所擁有資料格式的函式。

下表總結了可用的函式；請參閱各個說明文件以瞭解詳情。

函式                                           callable               args                     kwargs
                                                                                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_Call(): 7a7.                    ‘PyObject *’           tuple                    dict/‘NULL’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 7b6.              ‘PyObject *’           --                       --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallOneArg(): 7bc.              ‘PyObject *’           一個物件                 --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallObject(): 4731.             ‘PyObject *’           tuple/‘NULL’             --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallFunction(): 8f4.            ‘PyObject *’           format                   --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethod(): 301.              物件 + ‘char*’         format                   --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 48a0.    ‘PyObject *’           可變引數                 --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 17e1.      物件 + 名稱            可變引數                 --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs(): 49db.       物件 + 名稱            --                       --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodOneArg(): 49dc.       物件 + 名稱            一個物件                 --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2e3.              ‘PyObject *’           vectorcall               vectorcall
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_VectorcallDict(): 49dd.         ‘PyObject *’           vectorcall               dict/‘NULL’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 2e4.        引數 + 名稱            vectorcall               vectorcall
                                                                                               

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_Call (PyObject *callable,
          PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  呼叫一個可
     呼叫的 Python 物件 'callable'，附帶由 tuple 'args' 所給定的引數及由
     字典 'kwargs' 所給定的關鍵字引數。

     'args' 必須不為 'NULL'；如果不需要引數，請使用一個空 tuple。如果不
     需要關鍵字引數，則 'kwargs' 可以為 'NULL'。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

     這等價於 Python 運算式 ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_CallNoArgs (PyObject
          *callable)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本
     開始.'  呼叫一個可呼叫的 Python 物件 'callable' 並不附帶任何引數。
     這是不帶引數呼叫 Python 可呼叫物件的最有效方式。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_CallOneArg (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *arg)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 呼叫一個可呼叫的 Python 物件 'callable' 並附帶
     正好一個位置引數 'arg' 而沒有關鍵字引數。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_CallObject (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *args)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  呼叫一個可
     呼叫的 Python 物件 'callable'，附帶由 tuple 'args' 所給定的引數。如
     果不需要傳入引數，則 'args' 可以為 'NULL'。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

     這等價於 Python 運算式 ‘callable(*args)’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_CallFunction (PyObject
          *callable, const char *format, ...)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  呼叫一個可
     呼叫的 Python 物件 'callable'，附帶數量可變的 C 引數。這些 C 引數使
     用 *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db. 風格的格式字串來描述。格式可以為
     'NULL'，表示沒有提供任何引數。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

     這等價於 Python 運算式 ‘callable(*args)’。

     注意，如果你只傳入 *note PyObject: 6d1.* 引數，則 *note
     PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 48a0. 是另一個更快速的選擇。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 這個 'format' 的型別已從 ‘char *’ 更改。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_CallMethod (PyObject *obj,
          const char *name, const char *format, ...)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  呼叫 'obj'
     物件中名為 'name' 的 method 並附帶數量可變的 C 引數。這些 C 引數由
     *note Py_BuildValue(): 6db. 格式字串來描述，並應當生成一個 tuple。

     格式可以為 'NULL'，表示沒有提供任何引數。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

     這等價於 Python 運算式 ‘obj.name(arg1, arg2, ...)’。

     注意，如果你只傳入 *note PyObject: 6d1.* 引數，則 *note
     PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 17e1. 是另一個更快速的選擇。

     在 3.4 版的變更: 'name' 和 'format' 的型別已從 ‘char *’ 更改。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs (PyObject
          *callable, ...)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  呼叫一個可
     呼叫的 Python 物件 'callable'，附帶數量可變的 *note PyObject: 6d1.*
     引數。這些引數是以位置在 'NULL' 後面、數量可變的參數來提供。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

     這等價於 Python 運算式 ‘callable(arg1, arg2, ...)’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (PyObject
          *obj, PyObject *name, ...)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  呼叫
     Python 物件 'obj' 中的一個 method，其中 method 名稱由 'name' 中的
     Python 字串物件給定。被呼叫時會附帶數量可變的 *note PyObject: 6d1.*
     引數。這些引數是以位置在 'NULL' 後面、且數量可變的參數來提供。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs (PyObject
          *obj, PyObject *name)

     不附帶任何引數地呼叫 Python 物件 'obj' 中的一個 method，其中 method
     名稱由 'name' 中的 Python 字串物件給定。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_CallMethodOneArg (PyObject
          *obj, PyObject *name, PyObject *arg)

     附帶一個位置引數 'arg' 地呼叫 Python 物件 'obj' 中的一個 method，其
     中 method 名稱由 'name' 中的 Python 字串物件給定。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_Vectorcall (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwnames)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'  呼叫一個可呼
     叫的 Python 物件 'callable'。附帶引數與 *note vectorcallfunc: 2dc.
     的相同。如果 'callable' 支援 *note vectorcall: 2d7.，則它會直接呼叫
     存放在 'callable' 中的 vectorcall 函式。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_VectorcallDict (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwdict)

     附帶與在 *note vectorcall: 2d7. 協定中傳入的相同位置引數來呼叫
     'callable'，但會加上以字典 'kwdict' 格式傳入的關鍵字引數。'args' 陣
     列將只包含位置引數。

     無論內部使用了哪一種協定，都會需要進行引數的轉換。因此，此函式應該
     只有在呼叫方已經擁有一個要作為關鍵字引數的字典、但沒有作為位置引數
     的 tuple 時才被使用。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_VectorcallMethod (PyObject
          *name, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwnames)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'  使用
     vectorcall 呼叫慣例來呼叫一個 method。method 的名稱以 Python 字串
     'name' 的格式給定。被呼叫 method 的物件為 'args[0]'，而 'args' 陣列
     從 'args[1]' 開始的部分則代表呼叫的引數。必須傳入至少一個位置引數。
     'nargsf' 為包括 'args[0]' 在內的位置引數的數量，如果 ‘args[0]’ 的值
     可能被臨時改變則要再加上 *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET:
     2e5.。關鍵字引數可以像在 *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2e3. 中一樣被
     傳入。

     如果物件具有 *note Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR: 49de. 特性，這將以
     完整的 'args' 向量作為引數來呼叫 unbound method（未繫結方法）物件。

     成功時回傳結果，或在失敗時引發一個例外並回傳 'NULL'。

     在 3.9 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 呼叫支援 API,  Prev: 物件呼叫 API,  Up: 呼叫協定 Call Protocol

7.7.2.6 呼叫支援 API
....................

 -- C 函式: int PyCallable_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  判定物件 'o' 是否為可呼叫的。
     如果物件是可呼叫物件則回傳 ‘1’，其他情況回傳 ‘0’。這個函式不會呼叫
     失敗。


File: python.info,  Node: 數字協定,  Next: 序列協定,  Prev: 呼叫協定 Call Protocol,  Up: 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.3 數字協定
--------------

 -- C 函式: int PyNumber_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns ‘1’ if the object 'o'
     provides numeric protocols, and false otherwise.  This function
     always succeeds.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Returns ‘1’ if 'o' is an index integer.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Add (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the result of adding 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 + o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Subtract (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the result of subtracting 'o2' from 'o1', or ‘NULL’ on failure.
     This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 - o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Multiply (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the result of multiplying 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.
     This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 * o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Returns the result of matrix multiplication on 'o1' and
     'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 @ o2’.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_FloorDivide (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     floor of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 // o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_TrueDivide (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of 'o1' divided
     by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The return value is "approximate"
     because binary floating-point numbers are approximate; it is not
     possible to represent all real numbers in base two.  This function
     can return a floating-point value when passed two integers.  This
     is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 / o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Remainder (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the remainder of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This
     is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 % o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Divmod (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     See the built-in function *note divmod(): 7e5.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘divmod(o1, o2)’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Power (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2, PyObject *o3)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     See the built-in function *note pow(): 816.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘pow(o1,
     o2, o3)’, where 'o3' is optional.  If 'o3' is to be ignored, pass
     *note Py_None: 4726. in its place (passing ‘NULL’ for 'o3' would
     cause an illegal memory access).

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Negative (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the negation of 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘-o’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Positive (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of
     the Python expression ‘+o’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Absolute (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Returns the absolute value of 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python expression ‘abs(o)’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Invert (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the bitwise negation of 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This
     is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘~o’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Lshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the result of left shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 <<
     o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Rshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the result of right shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 >>
     o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_And (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the "bitwise and" of 'o1' and 'o2' on success and ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 &
     o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Xor (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the "bitwise exclusive or" of 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 ^
     o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Or (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the "bitwise or" of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.
     This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 | o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the result of adding 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The
     operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 += o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the result of subtracting 'o2' from 'o1', or ‘NULL’ on failure.
     The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 -= o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the result of multiplying 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The
     operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 *= o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Returns the result of matrix multiplication on 'o1' and
     'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when
     'o1' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
     ‘o1 @= o2’.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the mathematical floor of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 //= o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of 'o1' divided
     by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The return value is "approximate"
     because binary floating-point numbers are approximate; it is not
     possible to represent all real numbers in base two.  This function
     can return a floating-point value when passed two integers.  The
     operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 /= o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the remainder of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The
     operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 %= o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlacePower (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     See the built-in function *note pow(): 816.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 **= o2’ when o3
     is *note Py_None: 4726, or an in-place variant of ‘pow(o1, o2, o3)’
     otherwise.  If 'o3' is to be ignored, pass *note Py_None: 4726. in
     its place (passing ‘NULL’ for 'o3' would cause an illegal memory
     access).

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the result of left shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 <<= o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the result of right shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 >>= o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the "bitwise and" of 'o1' and 'o2' on success and ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 &= o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceXor (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the "bitwise exclusive or" of 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 ^= o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_InPlaceOr (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the "bitwise or" of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.
     The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 |= o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Long (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Returns the 'o' converted to an integer object on success, or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘int(o)’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Float (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Returns the 'o' converted to a float object on success, or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘float(o)’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_Index (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the 'o' converted to a Python int on success or ‘NULL’ with a *note
     TypeError: 2ba. exception raised on failure.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The result always has exact type *note int: 17e.
     Previously, the result could have been an instance of a subclass of
     ‘int’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyNumber_ToBase (PyObject *n, int
          base)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the integer 'n' converted to base 'base' as a string.  The 'base'
     argument must be one of 2, 8, 10, or 16.  For base 2, 8, or 16, the
     returned string is prefixed with a base marker of ‘'0b'’, ‘'0o'’,
     or ‘'0x'’, respectively.  If 'n' is not a Python int, it is
     converted with *note PyNumber_Index(): 6c1. first.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyNumber_AsSsize_t (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *exc)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns 'o' converted to a
     *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. value if 'o' can be interpreted as an
     integer.  If the call fails, an exception is raised and ‘-1’ is
     returned.

     If 'o' can be converted to a Python int but the attempt to convert
     to a *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. value would raise an *note
     OverflowError: 6ad, then the 'exc' argument is the type of
     exception that will be raised (usually *note IndexError: 13ac. or
     *note OverflowError: 6ad.).  If 'exc' is ‘NULL’, then the exception
     is cleared and the value is clipped to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’ for a
     negative integer or ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ for a positive integer.

 -- C 函式: int PyIndex_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.8 版本開始.'  Returns ‘1’
     if 'o' is an index integer (has the ‘nb_index’ slot of the
     ‘tp_as_number’ structure filled in), and ‘0’ otherwise.  This
     function always succeeds.


File: python.info,  Node: 序列協定,  Next: 對映協定,  Prev: 數字協定,  Up: 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.4 序列協定
--------------

 -- C 函式: int PySequence_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return ‘1’ if the object
     provides the sequence protocol, and ‘0’ otherwise.  Note that it
     returns ‘1’ for Python classes with a *note __getitem__(): 4e7.
     method, unless they are *note dict: 239. subclasses, since in
     general it is impossible to determine what type of keys the class
     supports.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PySequence_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PySequence_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Returns the number of objects in sequence 'o' on success, and ‘-1’
     on failure.  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘len(o)’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySequence_Concat (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     concatenation of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, and ‘NULL’ on failure.
     This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 + o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySequence_Repeat (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t count)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     result of repeating sequence object 'o' 'count' times, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o *
     count’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySequence_InPlaceConcat (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     concatenation of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, and ‘NULL’ on failure.
     The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 += o2’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t count)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     result of repeating sequence object 'o' 'count' times, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o *= count’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySequence_GetItem (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     'i'th element of 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent
     of the Python expression ‘o[i]’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySequence_GetSlice (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     slice of sequence object 'o' between 'i1' and 'i2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o[i1:i2]’.

 -- C 函式: int PySequence_SetItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject
          *v)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Assign object 'v' to the 'i'th
     element of 'o'.  Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on failure;
     return ‘0’ on success.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     statement ‘o[i] = v’.  This function 'does not' steal a reference
     to 'v'.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the element is deleted, but this feature is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1843.

 -- C 函式: int PySequence_DelItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Delete the 'i'th element of
     object 'o'.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of
     the Python statement ‘del o[i]’.

 -- C 函式: int PySequence_SetSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1,
          Py_ssize_t i2, PyObject *v)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Assign the sequence object 'v'
     to the slice in sequence object 'o' from 'i1' to 'i2'.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python statement ‘o[i1:i2] = v’.

 -- C 函式: int PySequence_DelSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1,
          Py_ssize_t i2)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Delete the slice in sequence
     object 'o' from 'i1' to 'i2'.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python statement ‘del o[i1:i2]’.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PySequence_Count (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the number of
     occurrences of 'value' in 'o', that is, return the number of keys
     for which ‘o[key] == value’.  On failure, return ‘-1’.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘o.count(value)’.

 -- C 函式: int PySequence_Contains (PyObject *o, PyObject *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Determine if 'o' contains
     'value'.  If an item in 'o' is equal to 'value', return ‘1’,
     otherwise return ‘0’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is equivalent
     to the Python expression ‘value in o’.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PySequence_Index (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the first index 'i' for
     which ‘o[i] == value’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is equivalent
     to the Python expression ‘o.index(value)’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySequence_List (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     list object with the same contents as the sequence or iterable 'o',
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The returned list is guaranteed to be new.
     This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘list(o)’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySequence_Tuple (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return a tuple object with the same contents as the sequence or
     iterable 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  If 'o' is a tuple, a new
     reference will be returned, otherwise a tuple will be constructed
     with the appropriate contents.  This is equivalent to the Python
     expression ‘tuple(o)’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySequence_Fast (PyObject *o, const
          char *m)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     sequence or iterable 'o' as an object usable by the other
     ‘PySequence_Fast*’ family of functions.  If the object is not a
     sequence or iterable, raises *note TypeError: 2ba. with 'm' as the
     message text.  Returns ‘NULL’ on failure.

     The ‘PySequence_Fast*’ functions are thus named because they assume
     'o' is a *note PyTupleObject: 498f. or a *note PyListObject: 49e6.
     and access the data fields of 'o' directly.

     As a CPython implementation detail, if 'o' is already a sequence or
     list, it will be returned.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (PyObject
          *o)

     Returns the length of 'o', assuming that 'o' was returned by *note
     PySequence_Fast(): 48b9. and that 'o' is not ‘NULL’.  The size can
     also be retrieved by calling *note PySequence_Size(): 1840. on 'o',
     but *note PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE(): 49e7. is faster because it
     can assume 'o' is a list or tuple.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' Return the 'i'th element of 'o', assuming that
     'o' was returned by *note PySequence_Fast(): 48b9, 'o' is not
     ‘NULL’, and that 'i' is within bounds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. **PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (PyObject *o)

     Return the underlying array of PyObject pointers.  Assumes that 'o'
     was returned by *note PySequence_Fast(): 48b9. and 'o' is not
     ‘NULL’.

     Note, if a list gets resized, the reallocation may relocate the
     items array.  So, only use the underlying array pointer in contexts
     where the sequence cannot change.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySequence_ITEM (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Return the 'i'th element of 'o' or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  Faster form of *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1841. but
     without checking that *note PySequence_Check(): 48b4. on 'o' is
     true and without adjustment for negative indices.


File: python.info,  Node: 對映協定,  Next: 疊代器協議,  Prev: 序列協定,  Up: 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.5 對映協定
--------------

另請參閱 *note PyObject_GetItem(): 47bd.、*note PyObject_SetItem():
47bb. 和 *note PyObject_DelItem(): 48a2.。

 -- C 函式: int PyMapping_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  如果物件有提供對映協定或支援切
     片 (slicing) 則回傳 ‘1’，否則回傳 ‘0’。請注意，對於具有 *note
     __getitem__(): 4e7. 方法的 Python 類別，它會回傳 ‘1’，因為通常無法
     確定該類別支援什麼類型的鍵。這個函式總會是成功的。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyMapping_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyMapping_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     成功時回傳物件 'o' 中的鍵數，失敗時回傳 ‘-1’。這相當於 Python 運算
     式 ‘len(o)’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMapping_GetItemString (PyObject *o,
          const char *key)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  這與 *note
     PyObject_GetItem(): 47bd. 相同，但 'key' 被指定為 const char* UTF-8
     編碼位元組字串，而不是 *note PyObject: 6d1.*。

 -- C 函式: int PyMapping_SetItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key,
          PyObject *v)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  這與 *note PyObject_SetItem():
     47bb. 相同，但 'key' 被指定為 const char* UTF-8 編碼位元組字串，而
     不是 *note PyObject: 6d1.*。

 -- C 函式: int PyMapping_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)

     這是 *note PyObject_DelItem(): 48a2. 的別名。

 -- C 函式: int PyMapping_DelItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key)

     這與 *note PyObject_DelItem(): 48a2. 相同，但 'key' 被指定為 const
     char* UTF-8 編碼位元組字串，而不是 *note PyObject: 6d1.*。

 -- C 函式: int PyMapping_HasKey (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  如果對映物件具有鍵 'key' 則回
     傳 ‘1’，否則回傳 ‘0’。這相當於 Python 運算式 ‘key in o’。這個函式總
     會是成功的。

          備註: 當它呼叫 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 方法時發生的例外將被
          默默忽略。為了適當地處理錯誤，請改用 *note PyObject_GetItem():
          47bd.。

 -- C 函式: int PyMapping_HasKeyString (PyObject *o, const char *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  這與 *note PyMapping_HasKey():
     4867. 相同，但 'key' 被指定為 const char* UTF-8 編碼位元組字串，而
     不是 *note PyObject: 6d1.*。

          備註: 當它呼叫 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 方法或建立臨時 *note
          str: 157. 物件時發生的例外將被默默忽略。為了適當地處理錯誤，請
          改用 *note PyMapping_GetItemString(): 4866.。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMapping_Keys (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  成功時回傳
     一個物件 'o' 內之鍵的串列，失敗時回傳 ‘NULL’。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 在以前，該函式會回傳串列或元組。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMapping_Values (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  成功時回傳
     物件 'o' 中值的串列。失敗時回傳 ‘NULL’。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 在以前，該函式會回傳串列或元組。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMapping_Items (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  成功時回傳
     物件 'o' 內之項目的串列，其中每個項目都是包含鍵值對的元組。失敗時回
     傳 ‘NULL’。

     在 3.7 版的變更: 在以前，該函式會回傳串列或元組。


File: python.info,  Node: 疊代器協議,  Next: 緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol,  Prev: 對映協定,  Up: 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.6 疊代器協議
----------------

有兩個專門用於疊代器的函式。

 -- C 函式: int PyIter_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.8 版本開始.'  如果物件 'o'
     可以安全地傳遞給 *note PyIter_Next(): 4851. 則回傳非零 (non-zero)，
     否則回傳 0。這個函式一定會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: int PyAIter_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  如果物件 'o'
     有提供 ‘AsyncIterator’ 協議，則回傳非零，否則回傳 0。這個函式一定會
     執行成功。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyIter_Next (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  回傳疊代器
     'o' 的下一個值。根據 *note PyIter_Check(): 16ca.，該物件必須是一個
     疊代器（由呼叫者檢查）。如果沒有剩餘值，則回傳 ‘NULL’ 且不設定例外
     。如果檢索項目時發生錯誤，則回傳 ‘NULL’ 並傳遞例外。

要編寫一個疊代於疊代器的迴圈，C 程式碼應該會像這樣：

     PyObject *iterator = PyObject_GetIter(obj);
     PyObject *item;

     if (iterator == NULL) {
         /* propagate error */
     }

     while ((item = PyIter_Next(iterator))) {
         /* do something with item */
         ...
         /* release reference when done */
         Py_DECREF(item);
     }

     Py_DECREF(iterator);

     if (PyErr_Occurred()) {
         /* propagate error */
     }
     else {
         /* continue doing useful work */
     }

 -- C 型別: type PySendResult

     用於表示 *note PyIter_Send(): 6c7. 不同結果的列舉 (enum) 值。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PySendResult: 49f3. PyIter_Send (PyObject *iter,
          PyObject *arg, PyObject **presult)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  將 'arg' 值
     發送到疊代器 'iter' 中。回傳：

        - 如果疊代器有回傳則為 ‘PYGEN_RETURN’。回傳值透過 'presult' 回傳
          。

        - 如果疊代器有產生 (yield) 則為 ‘PYGEN_NEXT’。產生值透過
          'presult' 回傳。

        - 如果疊代器引發例外則為 ‘PYGEN_ERROR’。 'presult' 被設定為
          ‘NULL’。

     在 3.10 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol,  Next: 舊式緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol,  Prev: 疊代器協議,  Up: 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.7 緩衝協定 (Buffer Protocol)
--------------------------------

Certain objects available in Python wrap access to an underlying memory
array or 'buffer'.  Such objects include the built-in *note bytes: 2c1.
and *note bytearray: 2c0, and some extension types like *note
array.array: 18f.  Third-party libraries may define their own types for
special purposes, such as image processing or numeric analysis.

While each of these types have their own semantics, they share the
common characteristic of being backed by a possibly large memory buffer.
It is then desirable, in some situations, to access that buffer directly
and without intermediate copying.

Python provides such a facility at the C level in the form of the *note
buffer protocol: 148.  This protocol has two sides:

   - on the producer side, a type can export a "buffer interface" which
     allows objects of that type to expose information about their
     underlying buffer.  This interface is described in the section
     *note Buffer Object Structures: 49f6.;

   - on the consumer side, several means are available to obtain a
     pointer to the raw underlying data of an object (for example a
     method parameter).

Simple objects such as *note bytes: 2c1. and *note bytearray: 2c0.
expose their underlying buffer in byte-oriented form.  Other forms are
possible; for example, the elements exposed by an *note array.array:
18f. can be multi-byte values.

An example consumer of the buffer interface is the *note write(): b48.
method of file objects: any object that can export a series of bytes
through the buffer interface can be written to a file.  While ‘write()’
only needs read-only access to the internal contents of the object
passed to it, other methods such as *note readinto(): 299a. need write
access to the contents of their argument.  The buffer interface allows
objects to selectively allow or reject exporting of read-write and
read-only buffers.

There are two ways for a consumer of the buffer interface to acquire a
buffer over a target object:

   * call *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d. with the right parameters;

   * call *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. (or one of its siblings) with
     one of the ‘y*’, ‘w*’ or ‘s*’ *note format codes: 6dc.

In both cases, *note PyBuffer_Release(): 576. must be called when the
buffer isn't needed anymore.  Failure to do so could lead to various
issues such as resource leaks.

* Menu:

* Buffer structure::
* Buffer request types::
* Complex arrays::
* Buffer-related functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer structure,  Next: Buffer request types,  Up: 緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol

7.7.7.1 Buffer structure
........................

Buffer structures (or simply "buffers") are useful as a way to expose
the binary data from another object to the Python programmer.  They can
also be used as a zero-copy slicing mechanism.  Using their ability to
reference a block of memory, it is possible to expose any data to the
Python programmer quite easily.  The memory could be a large, constant
array in a C extension, it could be a raw block of memory for
manipulation before passing to an operating system library, or it could
be used to pass around structured data in its native, in-memory format.

Contrary to most data types exposed by the Python interpreter, buffers
are not *note PyObject: 6d1. pointers but rather simple C structures.
This allows them to be created and copied very simply.  When a generic
wrapper around a buffer is needed, a *note memoryview: 49f9. object can
be created.

For short instructions how to write an exporting object, see *note
Buffer Object Structures: 49f6.  For obtaining a buffer, see *note
PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d.

 -- C 型別: type Py_buffer
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. （包含所有成員） 自 3.11 版本開
     始.'
      -- C 成員函數: void *buf

          A pointer to the start of the logical structure described by
          the buffer fields.  This can be any location within the
          underlying physical memory block of the exporter.  For
          example, with negative *note strides: 49fb. the value may
          point to the end of the memory block.

          For *note contiguous: 1fbe. arrays, the value points to the
          beginning of the memory block.

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyObject: 6d1. *obj

          A new reference to the exporting object.  The reference is
          owned by the consumer and automatically released (i.e.
          reference count decremented) and set to ‘NULL’ by *note
          PyBuffer_Release(): 576.  The field is the equivalent of the
          return value of any standard C-API function.

          As a special case, for 'temporary' buffers that are wrapped by
          *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 577. or *note
          PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 575. this field is ‘NULL’.  In general,
          exporting objects MUST NOT use this scheme.

      -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. len

          ‘product(shape) * itemsize’.  For contiguous arrays, this is
          the length of the underlying memory block.  For non-contiguous
          arrays, it is the length that the logical structure would have
          if it were copied to a contiguous representation.

          Accessing ‘((char *)buf)[0] up to ((char *)buf)[len-1]’ is
          only valid if the buffer has been obtained by a request that
          guarantees contiguity.  In most cases such a request will be
          *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 49fe. or *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1229.

      -- C 成員函數: int readonly

          An indicator of whether the buffer is read-only.  This field
          is controlled by the *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1229. flag.

      -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. itemsize

          Item size in bytes of a single element.  Same as the value of
          *note struct.calcsize(): 17a1. called on non-‘NULL’ *note
          format: 4a01. values.

          Important exception: If a consumer requests a buffer without
          the *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4a02. flag, *note format: 4a01. will
          be set to ‘NULL’, but *note itemsize: 4a00. still has the
          value for the original format.

          If *note shape: 4a03. is present, the equality ‘product(shape)
          * itemsize == len’ still holds and the consumer can use *note
          itemsize: 4a00. to navigate the buffer.

          If *note shape: 4a03. is ‘NULL’ as a result of a *note
          PyBUF_SIMPLE: 49fe. or a *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1229. request,
          the consumer must disregard *note itemsize: 4a00. and assume
          ‘itemsize == 1’.

      -- C 成員函數: char *format

          A 'NULL' terminated string in *note struct: cf. module style
          syntax describing the contents of a single item.  If this is
          ‘NULL’, ‘"B"’ (unsigned bytes) is assumed.

          This field is controlled by the *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4a02.
          flag.

      -- C 成員函數: int ndim

          The number of dimensions the memory represents as an
          n-dimensional array.  If it is ‘0’, *note buf: 49fa. points to
          a single item representing a scalar.  In this case, *note
          shape: 4a03, *note strides: 49fb. and *note suboffsets: 4a05.
          MUST be ‘NULL’.  The maximum number of dimensions is given by
          *note PyBUF_MAX_NDIM: 4a06.

      -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *shape

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. of length *note ndim: 4a04.
          indicating the shape of the memory as an n-dimensional array.
          Note that ‘shape[0] * ... * shape[ndim-1] * itemsize’ MUST be
          equal to *note len: 49fd.

          Shape values are restricted to ‘shape[n] >= 0’.  The case
          ‘shape[n] == 0’ requires special attention.  See *note complex
          arrays: 4a07. for further information.

          The shape array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *strides

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. of length *note ndim: 4a04.
          giving the number of bytes to skip to get to a new element in
          each dimension.

          Stride values can be any integer.  For regular arrays, strides
          are usually positive, but a consumer MUST be able to handle
          the case ‘strides[n] <= 0’.  See *note complex arrays: 4a07.
          for further information.

          The strides array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *suboffsets

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. of length *note ndim: 4a04.
          If ‘suboffsets[n] >= 0’, the values stored along the nth
          dimension are pointers and the suboffset value dictates how
          many bytes to add to each pointer after de-referencing.  A
          suboffset value that is negative indicates that no
          de-referencing should occur (striding in a contiguous memory
          block).

          If all suboffsets are negative (i.e.  no de-referencing is
          needed), then this field must be ‘NULL’ (the default value).

          This type of array representation is used by the Python
          Imaging Library (PIL). See *note complex arrays: 4a07. for
          further information how to access elements of such an array.

          The suboffsets array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C 成員函數: void *internal

          This is for use internally by the exporting object.  For
          example, this might be re-cast as an integer by the exporter
          and used to store flags about whether or not the shape,
          strides, and suboffsets arrays must be freed when the buffer
          is released.  The consumer MUST NOT alter this value.

常數：

 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_MAX_NDIM

     The maximum number of dimensions the memory represents.  Exporters
     MUST respect this limit, consumers of multi-dimensional buffers
     SHOULD be able to handle up to ‘PyBUF_MAX_NDIM’ dimensions.
     Currently set to 64.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer request types,  Next: Complex arrays,  Prev: Buffer structure,  Up: 緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol

7.7.7.2 Buffer request types
............................

Buffers are usually obtained by sending a buffer request to an exporting
object via *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d.  Since the complexity of the
logical structure of the memory can vary drastically, the consumer uses
the 'flags' argument to specify the exact buffer type it can handle.

All *note Py_buffer: 56b. fields are unambiguously defined by the
request type.

* Menu:

* request-independent fields::
* readonly, format: readonly format.
* shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets.
* contiguity requests::
* compound requests::


File: python.info,  Node: request-independent fields,  Next: readonly format,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.3 request-independent fields
..................................

The following fields are not influenced by 'flags' and must always be
filled in with the correct values: *note obj: 49fc, *note buf: 49fa,
*note len: 49fd, *note itemsize: 4a00, *note ndim: 4a04.


File: python.info,  Node: readonly format,  Next: shape strides suboffsets,  Prev: request-independent fields,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.4 readonly, format
........................

      -- C 巨集: PyBUF_WRITABLE

          Controls the *note readonly: 49ff. field.  If set, the
          exporter MUST provide a writable buffer or else report
          failure.  Otherwise, the exporter MAY provide either a
          read-only or writable buffer, but the choice MUST be
          consistent for all consumers.  For example, *note
          PyBUF_SIMPLE: 49fe. | *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1229. can be used
          to request a simple writable buffer.

      -- C 巨集: PyBUF_FORMAT

          Controls the *note format: 4a01. field.  If set, this field
          MUST be filled in correctly.  Otherwise, this field MUST be
          ‘NULL’.

*note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1229. can be |'d to any of the flags in the next
section.  Since *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 49fe. is defined as 0, *note
PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1229. can be used as a stand-alone flag to request a
simple writable buffer.

*note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4a02. must be |'d to any of the flags except *note
PyBUF_SIMPLE: 49fe, because the latter already implies format ‘B’
(unsigned bytes).  ‘PyBUF_FORMAT’ cannot be used on its own.


File: python.info,  Node: shape strides suboffsets,  Next: contiguity requests,  Prev: readonly format,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.5 shape, strides, suboffsets
..................................

The flags that control the logical structure of the memory are listed in
decreasing order of complexity.  Note that each flag contains all bits
of the flags below it.

Request                           shape       strides       suboffsets
                                                            
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_INDIRECT        yes         yes           if needed
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_STRIDES         yes         yes           NULL
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_ND              yes         NULL          NULL
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_SIMPLE          NULL        NULL          NULL
                                                            


File: python.info,  Node: contiguity requests,  Next: compound requests,  Prev: shape strides suboffsets,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.6 contiguity requests
...........................

C or Fortran *note contiguity: 1fbe. can be explicitly requested, with
and without stride information.  Without stride information, the buffer
must be C-contiguous.

Request                                 shape       strides       suboffsets       contig
                                                                                   
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                   
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS          yes         yes           NULL             C
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS          yes         yes           NULL             F
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS        yes         yes           NULL             C 或 F
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
*note PyBUF_ND: 4a0f.                   yes         NULL          NULL             C
                                                                                   


File: python.info,  Node: compound requests,  Prev: contiguity requests,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.7 compound requests
.........................

All possible requests are fully defined by some combination of the flags
in the previous section.  For convenience, the buffer protocol provides
frequently used combinations as single flags.

In the following table 'U' stands for undefined contiguity.  The
consumer would have to call *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 573. to
determine contiguity.

Request                             shape       strides       suboffsets       contig       readonly       format
                                                                                                           
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                           
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_FULL              yes         yes           if needed        U            0              yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_FULL_RO           yes         yes           if needed        U            1 或 0         yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_RECORDS           yes         yes           NULL             U            0              yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_RECORDS_RO        yes         yes           NULL             U            1 或 0         yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_STRIDED           yes         yes           NULL             U            0              NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_STRIDED_RO        yes         yes           NULL             U            1 或 0         NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_CONTIG            yes         NULL          NULL             C            0              NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_CONTIG_RO         yes         NULL          NULL             C            1 或 0         NULL
                                                                                                           


File: python.info,  Node: Complex arrays,  Next: Buffer-related functions,  Prev: Buffer request types,  Up: 緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol

7.7.7.8 Complex arrays
......................

* Menu:

* NumPy-style; shape and strides: NumPy-style shape and strides.
* PIL-style; shape, strides and suboffsets: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets.


File: python.info,  Node: NumPy-style shape and strides,  Next: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets,  Up: Complex arrays

7.7.7.9 NumPy-style: shape and strides
......................................

The logical structure of NumPy-style arrays is defined by *note
itemsize: 4a00, *note ndim: 4a04, *note shape: 4a03. and *note strides:
49fb.

If ‘ndim == 0’, the memory location pointed to by *note buf: 49fa. is
interpreted as a scalar of size *note itemsize: 4a00.  In that case,
both *note shape: 4a03. and *note strides: 49fb. are ‘NULL’.

If *note strides: 49fb. is ‘NULL’, the array is interpreted as a
standard n-dimensional C-array.  Otherwise, the consumer must access an
n-dimensional array as follows:

     ptr = (char *)buf + indices[0] * strides[0] + ... + indices[n-1] * strides[n-1];
     item = *((typeof(item) *)ptr);

As noted above, *note buf: 49fa. can point to any location within the
actual memory block.  An exporter can check the validity of a buffer
with this function:

     def verify_structure(memlen, itemsize, ndim, shape, strides, offset):
         """Verify that the parameters represent a valid array within
            the bounds of the allocated memory:
                char *mem: start of the physical memory block
                memlen: length of the physical memory block
                offset: (char *)buf - mem
         """
         if offset % itemsize:
             return False
         if offset < 0 or offset+itemsize > memlen:
             return False
         if any(v % itemsize for v in strides):
             return False

         if ndim <= 0:
             return ndim == 0 and not shape and not strides
         if 0 in shape:
             return True

         imin = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
                    if strides[j] <= 0)
         imax = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
                    if strides[j] > 0)

         return 0 <= offset+imin and offset+imax+itemsize <= memlen


File: python.info,  Node: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets,  Prev: NumPy-style shape and strides,  Up: Complex arrays

7.7.7.10 PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets
.................................................

In addition to the regular items, PIL-style arrays can contain pointers
that must be followed in order to get to the next element in a
dimension.  For example, the regular three-dimensional C-array ‘char
v[2][2][3]’ can also be viewed as an array of 2 pointers to 2
two-dimensional arrays: ‘char (*v[2])[2][3]’.  In suboffsets
representation, those two pointers can be embedded at the start of *note
buf: 49fa, pointing to two ‘char x[2][3]’ arrays that can be located
anywhere in memory.

Here is a function that returns a pointer to the element in an N-D array
pointed to by an N-dimensional index when there are both non-‘NULL’
strides and suboffsets:

     void *get_item_pointer(int ndim, void *buf, Py_ssize_t *strides,
                            Py_ssize_t *suboffsets, Py_ssize_t *indices) {
         char *pointer = (char*)buf;
         int i;
         for (i = 0; i < ndim; i++) {
             pointer += strides[i] * indices[i];
             if (suboffsets[i] >=0 ) {
                 pointer = *((char**)pointer) + suboffsets[i];
             }
         }
         return (void*)pointer;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer-related functions,  Prev: Complex arrays,  Up: 緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol

7.7.7.11 Buffer-related functions
.................................

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_CheckBuffer (PyObject *obj)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Return ‘1’
     if 'obj' supports the buffer interface otherwise ‘0’.  When ‘1’ is
     returned, it doesn't guarantee that *note PyObject_GetBuffer():
     56d. will succeed.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_GetBuffer (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view,
          int flags)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Send a
     request to 'exporter' to fill in 'view' as specified by 'flags'.
     If the exporter cannot provide a buffer of the exact type, it MUST
     raise *note BufferError: 15f5, set ‘view->obj’ to ‘NULL’ and return
     ‘-1’.

     On success, fill in 'view', set ‘view->obj’ to a new reference to
     'exporter' and return 0.  In the case of chained buffer providers
     that redirect requests to a single object, ‘view->obj’ MAY refer to
     this object instead of 'exporter' (See *note Buffer Object
     Structures: 49f6.).

     Successful calls to *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d. must be paired
     with calls to *note PyBuffer_Release(): 576, similar to ‘malloc()’
     and ‘free()’.  Thus, after the consumer is done with the buffer,
     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 576. must be called exactly once.

 -- C 函式: void PyBuffer_Release (Py_buffer *view)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Release the
     buffer 'view' and release the *note strong reference: 5a8. (i.e.
     decrement the reference count) to the view's supporting object,
     ‘view->obj’.  This function MUST be called when the buffer is no
     longer being used, otherwise reference leaks may occur.

     It is an error to call this function on a buffer that was not
     obtained via *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (const char
          *format)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Return the
     implied *note itemsize: 4a00. from *note format: 4a01.  On error,
     raise an exception and return -1.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyBuffer_IsContiguous (const Py_buffer *view, char
          order)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Return ‘1’
     if the memory defined by the 'view' is C-style ('order' is ‘'C'’)
     or Fortran-style ('order' is ‘'F'’) *note contiguous: 1fbe. or
     either one ('order' is ‘'A'’).  Return ‘0’ otherwise.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: void *PyBuffer_GetPointer (const Py_buffer *view, const
          Py_ssize_t *indices)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Get the
     memory area pointed to by the 'indices' inside the given 'view'.
     'indices' must point to an array of ‘view->ndim’ indices.

 -- C 函式: int PyBuffer_FromContiguous (const Py_buffer *view, const
          void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, char fort)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Copy
     contiguous 'len' bytes from 'buf' to 'view'.  'fort' can be ‘'C'’
     or ‘'F'’ (for C-style or Fortran-style ordering).  ‘0’ is returned
     on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C 函式: int PyBuffer_ToContiguous (void *buf, const Py_buffer *src,
          Py_ssize_t len, char order)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Copy 'len'
     bytes from 'src' to its contiguous representation in 'buf'.
     'order' can be ‘'C'’ or ‘'F'’ or ‘'A'’ (for C-style or
     Fortran-style ordering or either one).  ‘0’ is returned on success,
     ‘-1’ on error.

     This function fails if 'len' != 'src->len'.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_CopyData (PyObject *dest, PyObject *src)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Copy data
     from 'src' to 'dest' buffer.  Can convert between C-style and or
     Fortran-style buffers.

     ‘0’ is returned on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C 函式: void PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (int ndims, Py_ssize_t
          *shape, Py_ssize_t *strides, int itemsize, char order)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Fill the
     'strides' array with byte-strides of a *note contiguous: 1fbe.
     (C-style if 'order' is ‘'C'’ or Fortran-style if 'order' is ‘'F'’)
     array of the given shape with the given number of bytes per
     element.

 -- C 函式: int PyBuffer_FillInfo (Py_buffer *view, PyObject *exporter,
          void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, int readonly, int flags)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Handle
     buffer requests for an exporter that wants to expose 'buf' of size
     'len' with writability set according to 'readonly'.  'buf' is
     interpreted as a sequence of unsigned bytes.

     The 'flags' argument indicates the request type.  This function
     always fills in 'view' as specified by flags, unless 'buf' has been
     designated as read-only and *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1229. is set in
     'flags'.

     On success, set ‘view->obj’ to a new reference to 'exporter' and
     return 0.  Otherwise, raise *note BufferError: 15f5, set
     ‘view->obj’ to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’;

     If this function is used as part of a *note getbufferproc: 49f6,
     'exporter' MUST be set to the exporting object and 'flags' must be
     passed unmodified.  Otherwise, 'exporter' MUST be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: 舊式緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol,  Prev: 緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol,  Up: 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.8 舊式緩衝協定 (Buffer Protocol)
------------------------------------

在 3.0 版之後被棄用.

這些函式是 Python 2 中「舊式緩衝區協定」API 的一部分。在 Python 3 中，該
協議已經不存在，但這些函式仍有公開以供移植 2.x 程式碼。它們充當*note
新式緩衝區協定: 148.的相容性包裝器，但它們無法讓你控制匯出 (export) 緩衝
區時所獲取資源的生命週期。

因此，建議你呼叫 *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d. （或是以 ‘y*’ 或 ‘w*’
*note 格式碼 (format code): 6dc. 呼叫 *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. 系
列函式）獲取物件的緩衝區視圖 (buffer view)，以及緩衝區視圖可被釋放時呼叫
*note PyBuffer_Release(): 576. 。

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_AsCharBuffer (PyObject *obj, const char
          **buffer, Py_ssize_t *buffer_len)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  回傳一個指向可用作基於字元輸入
     之唯讀記憶體位置的指標。 'obj' 引數必須支援單一片段
     (single-segment) 字元緩衝區介面。成功時回傳 ‘0’，並將 'buffer' 設定
     為記憶體位置、將 'buffer_len' 設定為緩衝區長度。回傳 ‘-1’ 並在錯誤
     時設定 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_AsReadBuffer (PyObject *obj, const void
          **buffer, Py_ssize_t *buffer_len)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  回傳一個指向包含任意資料之唯讀
     記憶體位置的指標。'obj' 引數必須支援單一片段可讀緩衝區介面。成功時
     回傳 ‘0’，並將 'buffer' 設定為記憶體位置、將 'buffer_len' 設定為緩
     衝區長度。回傳 ‘-1’ 並在錯誤時設定 *note TypeError: 2ba.。

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_CheckReadBuffer (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  如果 'o' 支援單一片段可讀緩衝
     區介面，則回傳 ‘1’，否則回傳 ‘0’。這個函式一定會執行成功的。

     請注意，該函式嘗試獲取和釋放緩衝區，並且呼叫相應函式時發生的例外將
     被抑制。要獲取錯誤報告，請改用 *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d.。

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_AsWriteBuffer (PyObject *obj, void **buffer,
          Py_ssize_t *buffer_len)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  回傳指向可寫記憶體位置的指標。
     'obj' 引數必須支援單一片段字元緩衝區介面。成功時回傳 ‘0’，並將
     'buffer' 設定為記憶體位置，且將 'buffer_len' 設定為緩衝區長度。回傳
     ‘-1’ 並在錯誤時設定 *note TypeError: 2ba.。


File: python.info,  Node: 具體物件層,  Next: Initialization Finalization and Threads,  Prev: 抽象物件層 Abstract Objects Layer,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.8 具體物件層
==============

此章節列出的函式僅能接受某些特定的 Python 物件型別，將錯誤型別的物件傳遞
給它們並不是什麼好事，如果你從 Python 程式當中接收到一個不確定是否為正確
型別的物件，那麼請一定要先做型別檢查。例如使用 *note PyDict_Check():
4a23. 來確認一個物件是否為字典。本章結構類似於 Python 物件型別的"族譜圖
(family tree)"。

     警告: 雖然本章所述之函式仔細地檢查了傳入物件的型別，但大多並無檢查
     是否為 ‘NULL’。允許 ‘NULL’ 的傳入可能造成記憶體的不合法存取和直譯器
     的立即中止。

* Menu:

* 基礎物件::
* 數值物件::
* 序列物件::
* 容器物件::
* 函式物件: 函式物件<2>.
* 其他物件: 其他物件<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 基礎物件,  Next: 數值物件,  Up: 具體物件層

7.8.1 基礎物件
--------------

此段落描述 Python 型別物件與單例 (singleton) 物件 ‘None’。

* Menu:

* 型別物件::
* None 物件::


File: python.info,  Node: 型別物件,  Next: None 物件,  Up: 基礎物件

7.8.1.1 型別物件
................

 -- C 型別: type PyTypeObject
     ' 為 *note 受限 API 的一部分: 2d8. （做為一個不透明結構 (opaque
     struct)）.'  The C structure of the objects used to describe
     built-in types.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyType_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is the type object for
     type objects; it is the same object as *note type: bbb. in the
     Python layer.

 -- C 函式: int PyType_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is a type object, including
     instances of types derived from the standard type object.  Return 0
     in all other cases.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyType_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is a type object, but not a
     subtype of the standard type object.  Return 0 in all other cases.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: unsigned int PyType_ClearCache ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Clear the internal lookup
     cache.  Return the current version tag.

 -- C 函式: unsigned long PyType_GetFlags (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the *note tp_flags:
     1691. member of 'type'.  This function is primarily meant for use
     with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’; the individual flag bits are guaranteed to
     be stable across Python releases, but access to *note tp_flags:
     1691. itself is not part of the *note limited API: 2d4.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The return type is now ‘unsigned long’ rather than
     ‘long’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyType_GetDict (PyTypeObject *type)

     Return the type object's internal namespace, which is otherwise
     only exposed via a read-only proxy (*note cls.__dict__: ac5.).
     This is a replacement for accessing *note tp_dict: 14bf. directly.
     The returned dictionary must be treated as read-only.

     This function is meant for specific embedding and language-binding
     cases, where direct access to the dict is necessary and indirect
     access (e.g.  via the proxy or *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 48a8.)
     isn't adequate.

     Extension modules should continue to use ‘tp_dict’, directly or
     indirectly, when setting up their own types.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyType_Modified (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Invalidate the internal lookup
     cache for the type and all of its subtypes.  This function must be
     called after any manual modification of the attributes or base
     classes of the type.

 -- C 函式: int PyType_AddWatcher (PyType_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a type watcher.  Return a non-negative
     integer ID which must be passed to future calls to *note
     PyType_Watch(): 2ed.  In case of error (e.g.  no more watcher IDs
     available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyType_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' (previously returned from
     *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 2ec.).  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error (e.g.  if 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     An extension should never call ‘PyType_ClearWatcher’ with a
     'watcher_id' that was not returned to it by a previous call to
     *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 2ec.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyType_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *type)

     Mark 'type' as watched.  The callback granted 'watcher_id' by *note
     PyType_AddWatcher(): 2ec. will be called whenever *note
     PyType_Modified(): 15bf. reports a change to 'type'.  (The callback
     may be called only once for a series of consecutive modifications
     to 'type', if ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ is not called on 'type' between
     the modifications; this is an implementation detail and subject to
     change.)

     An extension should never call ‘PyType_Watch’ with a 'watcher_id'
     that was not returned to it by a previous call to *note
     PyType_AddWatcher(): 2ec.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*PyType_WatchCallback)(*note PyObject: 6d1.
          *type)

     Type of a type-watcher callback function.

     The callback must not modify 'type' or cause *note
     PyType_Modified(): 15bf. to be called on 'type' or any type in its
     MRO; violating this rule could cause infinite recursion.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyType_HasFeature (PyTypeObject *o, int feature)

     Return non-zero if the type object 'o' sets the feature 'feature'.
     Type features are denoted by single bit flags.

 -- C 函式: int PyType_IS_GC (PyTypeObject *o)

     Return true if the type object includes support for the cycle
     detector; this tests the type flag *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593.

 -- C 函式: int PyType_IsSubtype (PyTypeObject *a, PyTypeObject *b)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return true if 'a' is a
     subtype of 'b'.

     This function only checks for actual subtypes, which means that
     *note __subclasscheck__(): 1d10. is not called on 'b'.  Call *note
     PyObject_IsSubclass(): d27. to do the same check that *note
     issubclass(): 5df. would do.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyType_GenericAlloc (PyTypeObject
          *type, Py_ssize_t nitems)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Generic
     handler for the *note tp_alloc: 475a. slot of a type object.  Use
     Python's default memory allocation mechanism to allocate a new
     instance and initialize all its contents to ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyType_GenericNew (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Generic
     handler for the *note tp_new: 30e. slot of a type object.  Create a
     new instance using the type's *note tp_alloc: 475a. slot.

 -- C 函式: int PyType_Ready (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Finalize a type object.  This
     should be called on all type objects to finish their
     initialization.  This function is responsible for adding inherited
     slots from a type's base class.  Return ‘0’ on success, or return
     ‘-1’ and sets an exception on error.

          備註: If some of the base classes implements the GC protocol
          and the provided type does not include the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. in its flags, then the GC protocol
          will be automatically implemented from its parents.  On the
          contrary, if the type being created does include *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. in its flags then it 'must' implement
          the GC protocol itself by at least implementing the *note
          tp_traverse: 594. handle.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyType_GetName (PyTypeObject *type)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本
     開始.'  Return the type's name.  Equivalent to getting the type's
     *note __name__: 131e. attribute.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyType_GetQualName (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本
     開始.'  Return the type's qualified name.  Equivalent to getting
     the type's *note __qualname__: 1cb8. attribute.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void *PyType_GetSlot (PyTypeObject *type, int slot)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.4 版本開始.'  Return the
     function pointer stored in the given slot.  If the result is
     ‘NULL’, this indicates that either the slot is ‘NULL’, or that the
     function was called with invalid parameters.  Callers will
     typically cast the result pointer into the appropriate function
     type.

     See *note PyType_Slot.slot: 4a2c. for possible values of the 'slot'
     argument.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: *note PyType_GetSlot(): 6cd. can now accept all
     types.  Previously, it was limited to *note heap types: 7a6.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyType_GetModule (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Return the
     module object associated with the given type when the type was
     created using *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6.

     If no module is associated with the given type, sets *note
     TypeError: 2ba. and returns ‘NULL’.

     This function is usually used to get the module in which a method
     is defined.  Note that in such a method,
     ‘PyType_GetModule(Py_TYPE(self))’ may not return the intended
     result.  ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ may be a 'subclass' of the intended class,
     and subclasses are not necessarily defined in the same module as
     their superclass.  See *note PyCMethod: 57b. to get the class that
     defines the method.  See *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 57a. for
     cases when ‘PyCMethod’ cannot be used.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void *PyType_GetModuleState (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Return the
     state of the module object associated with the given type.  This is
     a shortcut for calling *note PyModule_GetState(): 7c4. on the
     result of *note PyType_GetModule(): 7b0.

     If no module is associated with the given type, sets *note
     TypeError: 2ba. and returns ‘NULL’.

     If the 'type' has an associated module but its state is ‘NULL’,
     returns ‘NULL’ without setting an exception.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyType_GetModuleByDef (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyModuleDef *def)

     Find the first superclass whose module was created from the given
     *note PyModuleDef: 7c1. 'def', and return that module.

     If no module is found, raises a *note TypeError: 2ba. and returns
     ‘NULL’.

     This function is intended to be used together with *note
     PyModule_GetState(): 7c4. to get module state from slot methods
     (such as *note tp_init: 310. or *note nb_add: 4a2d.) and other
     places where a method's defining class cannot be passed using the
     *note PyCMethod: 57b. calling convention.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (PyTypeObject *type)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Attempt to assign a version tag to the given type.

     Returns 1 if the type already had a valid version tag or a new one
     was assigned, or 0 if a new tag could not be assigned.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

* Menu:

* Creating Heap-Allocated Types::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Heap-Allocated Types,  Up: 型別物件

7.8.1.2 Creating Heap-Allocated Types
.....................................

The following functions and structs are used to create *note heap types:
7a6.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyType_FromMetaclass (PyTypeObject
          *metaclass, PyObject *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject
          *bases)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'  Create and
     return a *note heap type: 7a6. from the 'spec' (see *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 6e7.).

     The metaclass 'metaclass' is used to construct the resulting type
     object.  When 'metaclass' is ‘NULL’, the metaclass is derived from
     'bases' (or 'Py_tp_base[s]' slots if 'bases' is ‘NULL’, see below).

     Metaclasses that override *note tp_new: 30e. are not supported,
     except if ‘tp_new’ is ‘NULL’.  (For backwards compatibility, other
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions allow such metaclasses.  They ignore
     ‘tp_new’, which may result in incomplete initialization.  This is
     deprecated and in Python 3.14+ such metaclasses will not be
     supported.)

     The 'bases' argument can be used to specify base classes; it can
     either be only one class or a tuple of classes.  If 'bases' is
     ‘NULL’, the 'Py_tp_bases' slot is used instead.  If that also is
     ‘NULL’, the 'Py_tp_base' slot is used instead.  If that also is
     ‘NULL’, the new type derives from *note object: 8d9.

     The 'module' argument can be used to record the module in which the
     new class is defined.  It must be a module object or ‘NULL’.  If
     not ‘NULL’, the module is associated with the new type and can
     later be retrieved with *note PyType_GetModule(): 7b0.  The
     associated module is not inherited by subclasses; it must be
     specified for each class individually.

     This function calls *note PyType_Ready(): 595. on the new type.

     Note that this function does 'not' fully match the behavior of
     calling *note type(): bbb. or using the *note class: 1168.
     statement.  With user-provided base types or metaclasses, prefer
     *note calling: 49d4. *note type: bbb. (or the metaclass) over
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions.  Specifically:

        * *note __new__(): 30f. is not called on the new class (and it
          must be set to ‘type.__new__’).

        * *note __init__(): 4ae. is not called on the new class.

        * *note __init_subclass__(): 42c. is not called on any bases.

        * *note __set_name__(): ab4. is not called on new descriptors.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyType_FromModuleAndSpec (PyObject
          *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本
     開始.'  等價於 ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, module, spec, bases)’。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: The function now accepts a single class as the
     'bases' argument and ‘NULL’ as the ‘tp_doc’ slot.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The function now finds and uses a metaclass
     corresponding to the provided base classes.  Previously, only *note
     type: bbb. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 30e. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 30e. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyType_FromSpecWithBases (PyType_Spec
          *spec, PyObject *bases)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.3 版本
     開始.'  等價於 ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, bases)’。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: The function now finds and uses a metaclass
     corresponding to the provided base classes.  Previously, only *note
     type: bbb. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 30e. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 30e. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyType_FromSpec (PyType_Spec *spec)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  等價於
     ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, NULL)’。

     在 3.12 版的變更: The function now finds and uses a metaclass
     corresponding to the base classes provided in 'Py_tp_base[s]'
     slots.  Previously, only *note type: bbb. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 30e. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 30e. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C 型別: type PyType_Spec
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. （包含所有成員）.'  Structure
     defining a type's behavior.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *name

          Name of the type, used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_name:
          16c8.

      -- C 成員函數: int basicsize

          If positive, specifies the size of the instance in bytes.  It
          is used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 7cb.

          If zero, specifies that *note tp_basicsize: 7cb. should be
          inherited.

          If negative, the absolute value specifies how much space
          instances of the class need 'in addition' to the superclass.
          Use *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 2cd. to get a pointer to
          subclass-specific memory reserved this way.

          在 3.12 版的變更: Previously, this field could not be
          negative.

      -- C 成員函數: int itemsize

          Size of one element of a variable-size type, in bytes.  Used
          to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize: 1d02.  See
          ‘tp_itemsize’ documentation for caveats.

          If zero, *note tp_itemsize: 1d02. is inherited.  Extending
          arbitrary variable-sized classes is dangerous, since some
          types use a fixed offset for variable-sized memory, which can
          then overlap fixed-sized memory used by a subclass.  To help
          prevent mistakes, inheriting ‘itemsize’ is only possible in
          the following situations:

             - The base is not variable-sized (its *note tp_itemsize:
               1d02.).

             - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2cc. is
               positive, suggesting that the memory layout of the base
               class is known.

             - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2cc. is zero,
               suggesting that the subclass does not access the
               instance's memory directly.

             - With the *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 2cf. flag.

      -- C 成員函數: unsigned int flags

          Type flags, used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags: 1691.

          If the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE’ flag is not set, *note
          PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 30d. sets it automatically.

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyType_Slot: 48e4. *slots

          Array of *note PyType_Slot: 48e4. structures.  Terminated by
          the special slot value ‘{0, NULL}’.

          Each slot ID should be specified at most once.

 -- C 型別: type PyType_Slot
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. （包含所有成員）.'  Structure
     defining optional functionality of a type, containing a slot ID and
     a value pointer.

      -- C 成員函數: int slot

               A slot ID.

               Slot IDs are named like the field names of the structures
               *note PyTypeObject: 8f8, *note PyNumberMethods: 128e,
               *note PySequenceMethods: 477e, *note PyMappingMethods:
               477f. and *note PyAsyncMethods: 4a34. with an added ‘Py_’
               prefix.  For example, use:

                  * ‘Py_tp_dealloc’ to set *note
                    PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc: 4758.

                  * ‘Py_nb_add’ to set *note PyNumberMethods.nb_add:
                    4a2d.

                  * ‘Py_sq_length’ to set *note
                    PySequenceMethods.sq_length: 4a35.

               The following “offset” fields cannot be set using *note
               PyType_Slot: 48e4.:

                       * *note tp_weaklistoffset: 7cc. (use *note
                         Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 2e1. instead if
                         possible)

                       * *note tp_dictoffset: 4a36.（如果可能，請改用
                         *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2e0.）

                       * *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 49d6.（請用 *note
                         PyMemberDef: 4a37. 中的
                         ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’）

                    If it is not possible to switch to a ‘MANAGED’ flag
                    (for example, for vectorcall or to support Python
                    older than 3.12), specify the offset in *note
                    Py_tp_members: 475b.  See *note PyMemberDef
                    documentation: 4a37. for details.

               The following fields cannot be set at all when creating a
               heap type:

                  * *note tp_vectorcall: 4a38. (use *note tp_new: 30e.
                    and/or *note tp_init: 310.)

                  * Internal fields: *note tp_dict: 14bf, *note tp_mro:
                    4a39, *note tp_cache: 4a3a, *note tp_subclasses:
                    2ff, and *note tp_weaklist: 4a3b.

               Setting ‘Py_tp_bases’ or ‘Py_tp_base’ may be problematic
               on some platforms.  To avoid issues, use the 'bases'
               argument of *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 30d.
               instead.

          在 3.9 版的變更: Slots in *note PyBufferProcs: 4a3c. may be
          set in the unlimited API.

          在 3.11 版的變更: *note bf_getbuffer: 578. and *note
          bf_releasebuffer: 579. are now available under the *note
          limited API: 2d4.

      -- C 成員函數: void *pfunc

          The desired value of the slot.  In most cases, this is a
          pointer to a function.

          Slots other than ‘Py_tp_doc’ may not be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: None 物件,  Prev: 型別物件,  Up: 基礎物件

7.8.1.3 ‘None’ 物件
...................

Note that the *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. for ‘None’ is not directly
exposed in the Python/C API. Since ‘None’ is a singleton, testing for
object identity (using ‘==’ in C) is sufficient.  There is no
‘PyNone_Check()’ function for the same reason.

 -- C 變數: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_None

     The Python ‘None’ object, denoting lack of value.  This object has
     no methods and is immortal(1).

在 3.12 版的變更: *note Py_None: 4726. 為不滅的 (immortal)。

 -- C 巨集: Py_RETURN_NONE

     Return *note Py_None: 4726. from a function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/


File: python.info,  Node: 數值物件,  Next: 序列物件,  Prev: 基礎物件,  Up: 具體物件層

7.8.2 數值物件
--------------

* Menu:

* 整數物件::
* Boolean（布林）物件::
* 浮點數（Floating-Point）物件::
* 複數物件::


File: python.info,  Node: 整數物件,  Next: Boolean（布林）物件,  Up: 數值物件

7.8.2.1 整數物件
................

All integers are implemented as "long" integer objects of arbitrary
size.

On error, most ‘PyLong_As*’ APIs return ‘(return type)-1’ which cannot
be distinguished from a number.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to
disambiguate.

 -- C 型別: type PyLongObject
     ' 為 *note 受限 API 的一部分: 2d8. （做為一個不透明結構 (opaque
     struct)）.'  This subtype of *note PyObject: 6d1. represents a
     Python integer object.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyLong_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents the Python integer type.  This is the
     same object as *note int: 17e. in the Python layer.

 -- C 函式: int PyLong_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyLongObject: 317. or a
     subtype of *note PyLongObject: 317.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyLong_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyLongObject: 317, but not a
     subtype of *note PyLongObject: 317.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyLong_FromLong (long v)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new *note PyLongObject: 317. object from 'v', or ‘NULL’ on failure.

     The current implementation keeps an array of integer objects for
     all integers between ‘-5’ and ‘256’.  When you create an int in
     that range you actually just get back a reference to the existing
     object.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (unsigned long
          v)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new *note PyLongObject: 317. object from a C unsigned long, or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyLong_FromSsize_t (Py_ssize_t v)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new *note PyLongObject: 317. object from a C *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab,
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyLong_FromSize_t (size_t v)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new *note PyLongObject: 317. object from a C ‘size_t’, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyLong_FromLongLong (long long v)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new *note PyLongObject: 317. object from a C long long, or ‘NULL’
     on failure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong (unsigned
          long long v)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new *note PyLongObject: 317. object from a C unsigned long long, or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyLong_FromDouble (double v)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new *note PyLongObject: 317. object from the integer part of 'v',
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyLong_FromString (const char *str,
          char **pend, int base)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new *note PyLongObject: 317. based on the string value in 'str',
     which is interpreted according to the radix in 'base', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  If 'pend' is non-‘NULL’, '*pend' will point to the end of
     'str' on success or to the first character that could not be
     processed on error.  If 'base' is ‘0’, 'str' is interpreted using
     the *note Integer literals: 1c58. definition; in this case, leading
     zeros in a non-zero decimal number raises a *note ValueError: 183.
     If 'base' is not ‘0’, it must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’, inclusive.
     Leading and trailing whitespace and single underscores after a base
     specifier and between digits are ignored.  If there are no digits
     or 'str' is not NULL-terminated following the digits and trailing
     whitespace, *note ValueError: 183. will be raised.

     也參考
     ......

     Python methods *note int.to_bytes(): 1663. and *note
     int.from_bytes(): 1622. to convert a *note PyLongObject: 317.
     to/from an array of bytes in base ‘256’.  You can call those from C
     using *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 301.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (PyObject *u,
          int base)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Convert a sequence of Unicode digits in the
     string 'u' to a Python integer value.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyLong_FromVoidPtr (void *p)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Python integer from the pointer 'p'.  The pointer value can be
     retrieved from the resulting value using *note PyLong_AsVoidPtr():
     485f.

 -- C 函式: long PyLong_AsLong (PyObject *obj)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return a C long representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an
     instance of *note PyLongObject: 317, first call its *note
     __index__(): 51f. method (if present) to convert it to a *note
     PyLongObject: 317.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. if the value of 'obj' is out of
     range for a long.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to
     disambiguate.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Use *note __index__(): 51f. if available.

     在 3.10 版的變更: This function will no longer use *note __int__():
     51e.

 -- C 函式: long PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj, int *overflow)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a C long representation
     of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note PyLongObject: 317,
     first call its *note __index__(): 51f. method (if present) to
     convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 317.

     If the value of 'obj' is greater than ‘LONG_MAX’ or less than
     ‘LONG_MIN’, set '*overflow' to ‘1’ or ‘-1’, respectively, and
     return ‘-1’; otherwise, set '*overflow' to ‘0’.  If any other
     exception occurs set '*overflow' to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’ as usual.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to
     disambiguate.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Use *note __index__(): 51f. if available.

     在 3.10 版的變更: This function will no longer use *note __int__():
     51e.

 -- C 函式: long long PyLong_AsLongLong (PyObject *obj)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return a C long long representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an
     instance of *note PyLongObject: 317, first call its *note
     __index__(): 51f. method (if present) to convert it to a *note
     PyLongObject: 317.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. if the value of 'obj' is out of
     range for a long long.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to
     disambiguate.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Use *note __index__(): 51f. if available.

     在 3.10 版的變更: This function will no longer use *note __int__():
     51e.

 -- C 函式: long long PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj, int
          *overflow)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a C long long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 317, first call its *note __index__(): 51f. method
     (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 317.

     If the value of 'obj' is greater than ‘LLONG_MAX’ or less than
     ‘LLONG_MIN’, set '*overflow' to ‘1’ or ‘-1’, respectively, and
     return ‘-1’; otherwise, set '*overflow' to ‘0’.  If any other
     exception occurs set '*overflow' to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’ as usual.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to
     disambiguate.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Use *note __index__(): 51f. if available.

     在 3.10 版的變更: This function will no longer use *note __int__():
     51e.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyLong_AsSsize_t (PyObject *pylong)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return a C *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. representation of 'pylong'.
     'pylong' must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 317.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C 函式: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (PyObject *pylong)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return a C unsigned long representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must
     be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 317.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a unsigned long.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred():
     16c7. to disambiguate.

 -- C 函式: size_t PyLong_AsSize_t (PyObject *pylong)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return a C ‘size_t’ representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must be
     an instance of *note PyLongObject: 317.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a ‘size_t’.

     Returns ‘(size_t)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7.
     to disambiguate.

 -- C 函式: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (PyObject
          *pylong)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return a C unsigned long long representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong'
     must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 317.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for an unsigned long long.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long long)-1’ on error.  Use *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to disambiguate.

     在 3.1 版的變更: A negative 'pylong' now raises *note
     OverflowError: 6ad, not *note TypeError: 2ba.

 -- C 函式: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (PyObject *obj)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a C unsigned long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 317, first call its *note __index__(): 51f. method
     (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 317.

     If the value of 'obj' is out of range for an unsigned long, return
     the reduction of that value modulo ‘ULONG_MAX + 1’.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred():
     16c7. to disambiguate.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Use *note __index__(): 51f. if available.

     在 3.10 版的變更: This function will no longer use *note __int__():
     51e.

 -- C 函式: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (PyObject
          *obj)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a C unsigned long long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 317, first call its *note __index__(): 51f. method
     (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 317.

     If the value of 'obj' is out of range for an unsigned long long,
     return the reduction of that value modulo ‘ULLONG_MAX + 1’.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long long)-1’ on error.  Use *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to disambiguate.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Use *note __index__(): 51f. if available.

     在 3.10 版的變更: This function will no longer use *note __int__():
     51e.

 -- C 函式: double PyLong_AsDouble (PyObject *pylong)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a C double
     representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must be an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 317.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6ad. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a double.

     Returns ‘-1.0’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C 函式: void *PyLong_AsVoidPtr (PyObject *pylong)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Convert a Python integer
     'pylong' to a C void pointer.  If 'pylong' cannot be converted, an
     *note OverflowError: 6ad. will be raised.  This is only assured to
     produce a usable void pointer for values created with *note
     PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 4862.

     Returns ‘NULL’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyLong_GetInfo (void)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  On success, return a read only
     *note named tuple: 449, that holds information about Python's
     internal representation of integers.  See *note sys.int_info: 1128.
     for description of individual fields.

     在失敗時，會回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。

     在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (const PyLongObject *op)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Return 1 if 'op' is compact, 0 otherwise.

     This function makes it possible for performance-critical code to
     implement a “fast path” for small integers.  For compact values use
     *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 319.; for others fall back to
     a *note PyLong_As*: 485b. function or *note calling: 301. *note
     int.to_bytes(): 1663.

     The speedup is expected to be negligible for most users.

     Exactly what values are considered compact is an implementation
     detail and is subject to change.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue (const
          PyLongObject *op)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     If 'op' is compact, as determined by *note
     PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 318, return its value.

     Otherwise, the return value is undefined.

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean（布林）物件,  Next: 浮點數（Floating-Point）物件,  Prev: 整數物件,  Up: 數值物件

7.8.2.2 Boolean（布林）物件
...........................

Python 中的 boolean 是以整數子類別化來實現的。只有 *note Py_False: 4a4b.
和 *note Py_True: 4a4c. 兩個 boolean。因此一般的建立和刪除函式並不適用於
boolean。但下列巨集 (macro) 是可用的。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyBool_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents the Python boolean type; it is the
     same object as *note bool: 17d. in the Python layer.

 -- C 函式: int PyBool_Check (PyObject *o)

     如果 'o' 的型別為 *note PyBool_Type: 47d9. 則回傳真值。此函式總是會
     成功執行。

 -- C 變數: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_False

     Python 的 ‘False’ 物件。此物件沒有任何方法且為不滅的 (immortal)(1)。

在 3.12 版的變更: *note Py_False: 4a4b. 為不滅的。

 -- C 變數: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_True

     Python 的 ‘True’ 物件。此物件沒有任何方法且為不滅的 (immortal)(2)。

在 3.12 版的變更: *note Py_True: 4a4c. 為不滅的。

 -- C 巨集: Py_RETURN_FALSE

     從函式回傳 *note Py_False: 4a4b.。

 -- C 巨集: Py_RETURN_TRUE

     從函式回傳 *note Py_True: 4a4c.。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyBool_FromLong (long v)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  根據 'v' 的
     實際值來回傳 *note Py_True: 4a4c. 或者 *note Py_False: 4a4b.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/


File: python.info,  Node: 浮點數（Floating-Point）物件,  Next: 複數物件,  Prev: Boolean（布林）物件,  Up: 數值物件

7.8.2.3 浮點數（Floating-Point）物件
....................................

 -- C 型別: type PyFloatObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6d1. represents a Python
     floating-point object.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyFloat_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents the Python floating-point type.  This
     is the same object as *note float: 26a. in the Python layer.

 -- C 函式: int PyFloat_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyFloatObject: 4a51. or a
     subtype of *note PyFloatObject: 4a51.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyFloat_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyFloatObject: 4a51, but not
     a subtype of *note PyFloatObject: 4a51.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFloat_FromString (PyObject *str)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     *note PyFloatObject: 4a51. object based on the string value in
     'str', or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFloat_FromDouble (double v)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     *note PyFloatObject: 4a51. object from 'v', or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C 函式: double PyFloat_AsDouble (PyObject *pyfloat)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a C double
     representation of the contents of 'pyfloat'.  If 'pyfloat' is not a
     Python floating-point object but has a *note __float__(): 810.
     method, this method will first be called to convert 'pyfloat' into
     a float.  If ‘__float__()’ is not defined then it falls back to
     *note __index__(): 51f.  This method returns ‘-1.0’ upon failure,
     so one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to check for
     errors.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Use *note __index__(): 51f. if available.

 -- C 函式: double PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (PyObject *pyfloat)

     Return a C double representation of the contents of 'pyfloat', but
     without error checking.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFloat_GetInfo (void)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     structseq instance which contains information about the precision,
     minimum and maximum values of a float.  It's a thin wrapper around
     the header file ‘float.h’.

 -- C 函式: double PyFloat_GetMax ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the maximum
     representable finite float 'DBL_MAX' as C double.

 -- C 函式: double PyFloat_GetMin ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the minimum normalized
     positive float 'DBL_MIN' as C double.

* Menu:

* Pack and Unpack functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Pack and Unpack functions,  Up: 浮點數（Floating-Point）物件

7.8.2.4 Pack and Unpack functions
.................................

The pack and unpack functions provide an efficient platform-independent
way to store floating-point values as byte strings.  The Pack routines
produce a bytes string from a C double, and the Unpack routines produce
a C double from such a bytes string.  The suffix (2, 4 or 8) specifies
the number of bytes in the bytes string.

On platforms that appear to use IEEE 754 formats these functions work by
copying bits.  On other platforms, the 2-byte format is identical to the
IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format, the 4-byte format (32-bit) is
identical to the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format, and the
8-byte format to the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format, although
the packing of INFs and NaNs (if such things exist on the platform)
isn't handled correctly, and attempting to unpack a bytes string
containing an IEEE INF or NaN will raise an exception.

On non-IEEE platforms with more precision, or larger dynamic range, than
IEEE 754 supports, not all values can be packed; on non-IEEE platforms
with less precision, or smaller dynamic range, not all values can be
unpacked.  What happens in such cases is partly accidental (alas).

在 3.11 版被加入.

* Menu:

* Pack functions::
* Unpack functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Pack functions,  Next: Unpack functions,  Up: Pack and Unpack functions

7.8.2.5 Pack functions
......................

The pack routines write 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'.  'le' is an
int argument, non-zero if you want the bytes string in little-endian
format (exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’, or ‘p+6’ ‘p+7’), zero if you
want big-endian format (exponent first, at 'p').  The ‘PY_BIG_ENDIAN’
constant can be used to use the native endian: it is equal to ‘1’ on big
endian processor, or ‘0’ on little endian processor.

Return value: ‘0’ if all is OK, ‘-1’ if error (and an exception is set,
most likely *note OverflowError: 6ad.).

There are two problems on non-IEEE platforms:

   * What this does is undefined if 'x' is a NaN or infinity.

   * ‘-0.0’ and ‘+0.0’ produce the same bytes string.

 -- C 函式: int PyFloat_Pack2 (double x, unsigned char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format.

 -- C 函式: int PyFloat_Pack4 (double x, unsigned char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format.

 -- C 函式: int PyFloat_Pack8 (double x, unsigned char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format.


File: python.info,  Node: Unpack functions,  Prev: Pack functions,  Up: Pack and Unpack functions

7.8.2.6 Unpack functions
........................

The unpack routines read 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'.  'le' is an
int argument, non-zero if the bytes string is in little-endian format
(exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’ or ‘p+6’ and ‘p+7’), zero if big-endian
(exponent first, at 'p').  The ‘PY_BIG_ENDIAN’ constant can be used to
use the native endian: it is equal to ‘1’ on big endian processor, or
‘0’ on little endian processor.

Return value: The unpacked double.  On error, this is ‘-1.0’ and *note
PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. is true (and an exception is set, most likely
*note OverflowError: 6ad.).

Note that on a non-IEEE platform this will refuse to unpack a bytes
string that represents a NaN or infinity.

 -- C 函式: double PyFloat_Unpack2 (const unsigned char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format as a C double.

 -- C 函式: double PyFloat_Unpack4 (const unsigned char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format as a C double.

 -- C 函式: double PyFloat_Unpack8 (const unsigned char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format as a C double.


File: python.info,  Node: 複數物件,  Prev: 浮點數（Floating-Point）物件,  Up: 數值物件

7.8.2.7 複數物件
................

從 C API 來看，Python 的複數物件被實作為兩種不同的型別：一種是公開給
Python 程式的 Python 物件，另一種是表示實際複數值的 C 結構。API 提供了與
兩者一起作用的函式。

* Menu:

* 作為 C 結構的複數::
* 作為 Python 物件的複數::


File: python.info,  Node: 作為 C 結構的複數,  Next: 作為 Python 物件的複數,  Up: 複數物件

7.8.2.8 作為 C 結構的複數
.........................

請注意，接受這些結構作為參數並將它們作為結果回傳的函式是'按值 (by
value)' 執行的，而不是透過指標取消參照 (dereference) 它們。這在整個 API
中都是一致的。

 -- C 型別: type Py_complex

     相對於 Python 複數物件之數值部分的 C 結構。大多數處理複數物件的函式
     根據需求會使用這種型別的結構作為輸入或輸出值。

      -- C 成員函數: double real
      -- C 成員函數: double imag

     該結構被定義為：

          typedef struct {
              double real;
              double imag;
          } Py_complex;

 -- C 函式: *note Py_complex: 49a5. _Py_c_sum (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     以 C 的 *note Py_complex: 49a5. 表示形式來回傳兩個複數之和。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_complex: 49a5. _Py_c_diff (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     以 C 的 *note Py_complex: 49a5. 表示形式來回傳兩個複數間的差。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_complex: 49a5. _Py_c_neg (Py_complex num)

     以 C 的 *note Py_complex: 49a5. 表示形式來回傳複數 'num' 的相反數
     (negation)。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_complex: 49a5. _Py_c_prod (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     以 C 的 *note Py_complex: 49a5. 表示形式來回傳兩個複數的乘積。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_complex: 49a5. _Py_c_quot (Py_complex dividend,
          Py_complex divisor)

     以 C 的 *note Py_complex: 49a5. 表示形式來回傳兩個複數的商。

     如果 'divisor' 為 null，則此方法會回傳零並將 ‘errno’ 設定為 ‘EDOM’。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_complex: 49a5. _Py_c_pow (Py_complex num,
          Py_complex exp)

     以 C 的 *note Py_complex: 49a5. 表示形式來回傳 'num' 的 'exp' 次方
     的結果。

     如果 'num' 為 null 且 'exp' 不是正實數，則此方法會回傳零並將
     ‘errno’ 設定為 ‘EDOM’。


File: python.info,  Node: 作為 Python 物件的複數,  Prev: 作為 C 結構的複數,  Up: 複數物件

7.8.2.9 作為 Python 物件的複數
..............................

 -- C 型別: type PyComplexObject

     這個 *note PyObject: 6d1. 的子型別代表一個 Python 複數物件。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyComplex_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  這個 *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.
     的實例代表 Python 複數型別。它與 Python 層中的 *note complex: 26b.
     是同一個物件。

 -- C 函式: int PyComplex_Check (PyObject *p)

     如果其引數是一個 *note PyComplexObject: 4a65. 或者是 *note
     PyComplexObject: 4a65. 的子型別，則會回傳 true。這個函式不會失敗。

 -- C 函式: int PyComplex_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     如果其引數是一個 *note PyComplexObject: 4a65.，但不是 *note
     PyComplexObject: 4a65. 的子型別，則會回傳 true。這個函式不會失敗。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyComplex_FromCComplex (Py_complex v)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 從 C 的 *note Py_complex: 49a5. 值建立一個新的
     Python 複數物件。在錯誤時回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyComplex_FromDoubles (double real,
          double imag)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  從 'real'
     和 'imag' 回傳一個新的 *note PyComplexObject: 4a65. 物件。在錯誤時
     回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。

 -- C 函式: double PyComplex_RealAsDouble (PyObject *op)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  以 C 的 double 形式回傳 'op' 的
     實部。

     失敗時，此方法回傳 ‘-1.0’ 並設定例外，因此應該呼叫 *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. 來檢查錯誤。

 -- C 函式: double PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (PyObject *op)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  將 'op' 的虛部作為 C 的 double
     回傳。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_complex: 49a5. PyComplex_AsCComplex (PyObject *op)

     回傳複數 'op' 的 *note Py_complex: 49a5. 值。

     如果 'op' 不是 Python 複數物件，但有一個 *note __complex__(): 3dd.
     方法，則首先會呼叫該方法將 'op' 轉換為 Python 複數物件。如果
     ‘__complex__()’ 並未定義，那麼它會回退到 *note __float__(): 810.。
     如果 ‘__float__()’ 未定義，則它將繼續回退為 *note __index__():
     51f.。

     失敗時，此方法回傳 *note Py_complex: 49a5. 並將 *note real: 4a5c. 設
     為 ‘-1.0’，並設定例外，因此應該呼叫 *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. 來
     檢查錯誤。

     在 3.8 版的變更: 如果可用則使用 *note __index__(): 51f.。


File: python.info,  Node: 序列物件,  Next: 容器物件,  Prev: 數值物件,  Up: 具體物件層

7.8.3 序列物件
--------------

序列物件的一般操作在前一章節討論過了；此段落將討論 Python 語言特有的特定
型別序列物件。

* Menu:

* 位元組物件 (Bytes Objects): 位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
* 位元組陣列物件 (Byte Array Objects): 位元組陣列物件 Byte Array Objects.
* Unicode 物件與編解碼器::
* Tuple（元組）物件::
* Struct Sequence Objects::
* List（串列）物件::


File: python.info,  Node: 位元組物件 Bytes Objects,  Next: 位元組陣列物件 Byte Array Objects,  Up: 序列物件

7.8.3.1 位元組物件 (Bytes Objects)
..................................

These functions raise *note TypeError: 2ba. when expecting a bytes
parameter and called with a non-bytes parameter.

 -- C 型別: type PyBytesObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6d1. represents a Python bytes
     object.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyBytes_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents the Python bytes type; it is the same
     object as *note bytes: 2c1. in the Python layer.

 -- C 函式: int PyBytes_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytes object or an instance of a
     subtype of the bytes type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyBytes_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytes object, but not an
     instance of a subtype of the bytes type.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyBytes_FromString (const char *v)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new bytes object with a copy of the string 'v' as value on success,
     and ‘NULL’ on failure.  The parameter 'v' must not be ‘NULL’; it
     will not be checked.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (const char
          *v, Py_ssize_t len)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new bytes object with a copy of the string 'v' as value and length
     'len' on success, and ‘NULL’ on failure.  If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the
     contents of the bytes object are uninitialized.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyBytes_FromFormat (const char
          *format, ...)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Take a C
     ‘printf()’-style 'format' string and a variable number of
     arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python bytes object
     and return a bytes object with the values formatted into it.  The
     variable arguments must be C types and must correspond exactly to
     the format characters in the 'format' string.  The following format
     characters are allowed:

     Format Characters       Type                Comment
                                                 
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     ‘%%’                    'n/a'               The literal % character.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%c’                    int                 A single byte, represented as a C
                                                 int.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%d’                    int                 等價於 ‘printf("%d")’.  (1)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%u’                    unsigned int        等價於 ‘printf("%u")’.  (2)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%ld’                   long                等價於 ‘printf("%ld")’.  (3)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%lu’                   unsigned long       等價於 ‘printf("%lu")’.  (4)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%zd’                   *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.等價於 ‘printf("%zd")’.  (5)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%zu’                   size_t              等價於 ‘printf("%zu")’.  (6)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%i’                    int                 等價於 ‘printf("%i")’.  (7)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%x’                    int                 等價於 ‘printf("%x")’.  (8)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%s’                    const char*         A null-terminated C character
                                                 array.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%p’                    const void*         The hex representation of a C
                                                 pointer.  Mostly equivalent to
                                                 ‘printf("%p")’ except that it is
                                                 guaranteed to start with the
                                                 literal ‘0x’ regardless of what
                                                 the platform's ‘printf’ yields.
                                                 

     An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format
     string to be copied as-is to the result object, and any extra
     arguments discarded.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyBytes_FromFormatV (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Identical
     to *note PyBytes_FromFormat(): 180e. except that it takes exactly
     two arguments.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyBytes_FromObject (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     bytes representation of object 'o' that implements the buffer
     protocol.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyBytes_Size (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the length of the bytes
     in bytes object 'o'.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyBytes_GET_SIZE (PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note PyBytes_Size(): 47e5, but without error checking.

 -- C 函式: char *PyBytes_AsString (PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a pointer to the
     contents of 'o'.  The pointer refers to the internal buffer of 'o',
     which consists of ‘len(o) + 1’ bytes.  The last byte in the buffer
     is always null, regardless of whether there are any other null
     bytes.  The data must not be modified in any way, unless the object
     was just created using ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’.  It
     must not be deallocated.  If 'o' is not a bytes object at all,
     *note PyBytes_AsString(): 6b5. returns ‘NULL’ and raises *note
     TypeError: 2ba.

 -- C 函式: char *PyBytes_AS_STRING (PyObject *string)

     Similar to *note PyBytes_AsString(): 6b5, but without error
     checking.

 -- C 函式: int PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (PyObject *obj, char **buffer,
          Py_ssize_t *length)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the null-terminated
     contents of the object 'obj' through the output variables 'buffer'
     and 'length'.  Returns ‘0’ on success.

     If 'length' is ‘NULL’, the bytes object may not contain embedded
     null bytes; if it does, the function returns ‘-1’ and a *note
     ValueError: 183. is raised.

     The buffer refers to an internal buffer of 'obj', which includes an
     additional null byte at the end (not counted in 'length').  The
     data must not be modified in any way, unless the object was just
     created using ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’.  It must not
     be deallocated.  If 'obj' is not a bytes object at all, *note
     PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 47df. returns ‘-1’ and raises *note
     TypeError: 2ba.

     在 3.5 版的變更: Previously, *note TypeError: 2ba. was raised when
     embedded null bytes were encountered in the bytes object.

 -- C 函式: void PyBytes_Concat (PyObject **bytes, PyObject *newpart)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a new bytes object in
     '*bytes' containing the contents of 'newpart' appended to 'bytes';
     the caller will own the new reference.  The reference to the old
     value of 'bytes' will be stolen.  If the new object cannot be
     created, the old reference to 'bytes' will still be discarded and
     the value of '*bytes' will be set to ‘NULL’; the appropriate
     exception will be set.

 -- C 函式: void PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (PyObject **bytes, PyObject
          *newpart)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a new bytes object in
     '*bytes' containing the contents of 'newpart' appended to 'bytes'.
     This version releases the *note strong reference: 5a8. to 'newpart'
     (i.e.  decrements its reference count).

 -- C 函式: int _PyBytes_Resize (PyObject **bytes, Py_ssize_t newsize)

     A way to resize a bytes object even though it is "immutable".  Only
     use this to build up a brand new bytes object; don't use this if
     the bytes may already be known in other parts of the code.  It is
     an error to call this function if the refcount on the input bytes
     object is not one.  Pass the address of an existing bytes object as
     an lvalue (it may be written into), and the new size desired.  On
     success, '*bytes' holds the resized bytes object and ‘0’ is
     returned; the address in '*bytes' may differ from its input value.
     If the reallocation fails, the original bytes object at '*bytes' is
     deallocated, '*bytes' is set to ‘NULL’, *note MemoryError: 1460. is
     set, and ‘-1’ is returned.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (2) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (3) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (4) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (5) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (6) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (7) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (8) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.


File: python.info,  Node: 位元組陣列物件 Byte Array Objects,  Next: Unicode 物件與編解碼器,  Prev: 位元組物件 Bytes Objects,  Up: 序列物件

7.8.3.2 位元組陣列物件 (Byte Array Objects)
...........................................

 -- C 型別: type PyByteArrayObject

     這個 *note PyObject: 6d1. 的子型別代表了 Python 的位元組陣列物件。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyByteArray_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  這個 *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.
     的實例代表了 Python 的位元組陣列型別；在 Python 層中的 *note
     bytearray: 2c0. 為同一個物件。

* Menu:

* 型別檢查巨集::
* 直接 API 函式::
* 巨集::


File: python.info,  Node: 型別檢查巨集,  Next: 直接 API 函式,  Up: 位元組陣列物件 Byte Array Objects

7.8.3.3 型別檢查巨集
....................

 -- C 函式: int PyByteArray_Check (PyObject *o)

     如果物件 'o' 是一個位元組陣列物件，或者是位元組陣列型別的子型別的實
     例，則回傳真值。此函式總是會成功執行。

 -- C 函式: int PyByteArray_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     如果物件 'o' 是一個位元組陣列物件，但不是位元組陣列型別的子型別的實
     例，則回傳真值。此函式總是會成功執行。


File: python.info,  Node: 直接 API 函式,  Next: 巨集,  Prev: 型別檢查巨集,  Up: 位元組陣列物件 Byte Array Objects

7.8.3.4 直接 API 函式
.....................

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyByteArray_FromObject (PyObject *o)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  由任意物件
     'o' 回傳一個新的位元組陣列物件，並實作了*note 緩衝協議 (buffer
     protocol): 148.。

     在失敗時，會回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (const
          char *string, Py_ssize_t len)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  從
     'string' 及其長度 'len' 建立一個新的位元組陣列物件。

     在失敗時，會回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyByteArray_Concat (PyObject *a,
          PyObject *b)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  連接位元組
     陣列 'a' 和 'b'，並回傳一個包含結果的新位元組陣列。

     在失敗時，會回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyByteArray_Size (PyObject
          *bytearray)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  在檢查為 ‘NULL’ 指標後，回傳
     'bytearray' 的大小。

 -- C 函式: char *PyByteArray_AsString (PyObject *bytearray)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  在檢查是否為 ‘NULL’ 指標後，將
     'bytearray' 的內容回傳為字元陣列。回傳的陣列總是會多附加一個空位元
     組。

 -- C 函式: int PyByteArray_Resize (PyObject *bytearray, Py_ssize_t len)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  將 'bytearray' 的內部緩衝區大
     小調整為 'len'。


File: python.info,  Node: 巨集,  Prev: 直接 API 函式,  Up: 位元組陣列物件 Byte Array Objects

7.8.3.5 巨集
............

這些巨集犧牲了安全性以換取速度，並且它們不會檢查指標。

 -- C 函式: char *PyByteArray_AS_STRING (PyObject *bytearray)

     與 *note PyByteArray_AsString(): 47da. 類似，但沒有錯誤檢查。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (PyObject
          *bytearray)

     與 *note PyByteArray_Size(): 47dd. 類似，但沒有錯誤檢查。


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode 物件與編解碼器,  Next: Tuple（元組）物件,  Prev: 位元組陣列物件 Byte Array Objects,  Up: 序列物件

7.8.3.6 Unicode 物件與編解碼器
..............................

* Menu:

* Unicode 物件::
* Built-in Codecs::
* Methods and Slot Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode 物件,  Next: Built-in Codecs,  Up: Unicode 物件與編解碼器

7.8.3.7 Unicode 物件
....................

Since the implementation of PEP 393(1) in Python 3.3, Unicode objects
internally use a variety of representations, in order to allow handling
the complete range of Unicode characters while staying memory efficient.
There are special cases for strings where all code points are below 128,
256, or 65536; otherwise, code points must be below 1114112 (which is
the full Unicode range).

UTF-8 representation is created on demand and cached in the Unicode
object.

     備註: The *note Py_UNICODE: 358. representation has been removed
     since Python 3.12 with deprecated APIs.  See PEP 623(2) for more
     information.

* Menu:

* Unicode Type::
* Unicode Character Properties::
* Creating and accessing Unicode strings::
* Locale Encoding::
* File System Encoding::
* wchar_t 支援::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Type,  Next: Unicode Character Properties,  Up: Unicode 物件

7.8.3.8 Unicode Type
....................

These are the basic Unicode object types used for the Unicode
implementation in Python:

 -- C 型別: type Py_UCS4
 -- C 型別: type Py_UCS2
 -- C 型別: type Py_UCS1
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  These types are typedefs for
     unsigned integer types wide enough to contain characters of 32
     bits, 16 bits and 8 bits, respectively.  When dealing with single
     Unicode characters, use *note Py_UCS4: 1008.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type Py_UNICODE

     This is a typedef of ‘wchar_t’, which is a 16-bit type or 32-bit
     type depending on the platform.

     在 3.3 版的變更: In previous versions, this was a 16-bit type or a
     32-bit type depending on whether you selected a "narrow" or "wide"
     Unicode version of Python at build time.

 -- C 型別: type PyASCIIObject
 -- C 型別: type PyCompactUnicodeObject
 -- C 型別: type PyUnicodeObject

     These subtypes of *note PyObject: 6d1. represent a Python Unicode
     object.  In almost all cases, they shouldn't be used directly,
     since all API functions that deal with Unicode objects take and
     return *note PyObject: 6d1. pointers.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyUnicode_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents the Python Unicode type.  It is
     exposed to Python code as ‘str’.

The following APIs are C macros and static inlined functions for fast
checks and access to internal read-only data of Unicode objects:

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicode_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a Unicode object or an instance
     of a Unicode subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicode_CheckExact (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a Unicode object, but not an
     instance of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicode_READY (PyObject *unicode)

     Returns ‘0’.  This API is kept only for backward compatibility.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版之後被棄用: This API does nothing since Python 3.12.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return the length of the Unicode string, in code points.  'unicode'
     has to be a Unicode object in the "canonical" representation (not
     checked).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS1: 1006. *PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)
 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS2: 1007. *PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)
 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS4: 1008. *PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return a pointer to the canonical representation cast to UCS1, UCS2
     or UCS4 integer types for direct character access.  No checks are
     performed if the canonical representation has the correct character
     size; use *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1011. to select the right
     function.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND
 -- C 巨集: PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND
 -- C 巨集: PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND

     Return values of the *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1011. macro.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版的變更: ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’ 已被移除。

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicode_KIND (PyObject *unicode)

     Return one of the PyUnicode kind constants (see above) that
     indicate how many bytes per character this Unicode object uses to
     store its data.  'unicode' has to be a Unicode object in the
     "canonical" representation (not checked).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void *PyUnicode_DATA (PyObject *unicode)

     Return a void pointer to the raw Unicode buffer.  'unicode' has to
     be a Unicode object in the "canonical" representation (not
     checked).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyUnicode_WRITE (int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t
          index, Py_UCS4 value)

     Write into a canonical representation 'data' (as obtained with
     *note PyUnicode_DATA(): 100d.).  This function performs no sanity
     checks, and is intended for usage in loops.  The caller should
     cache the 'kind' value and 'data' pointer as obtained from other
     calls.  'index' is the index in the string (starts at 0) and
     'value' is the new code point value which should be written to that
     location.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS4: 1008. PyUnicode_READ (int kind, void *data,
          Py_ssize_t index)

     Read a code point from a canonical representation 'data' (as
     obtained with *note PyUnicode_DATA(): 100d.).  No checks or ready
     calls are performed.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS4: 1008. PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t index)

     Read a character from a Unicode object 'unicode', which must be in
     the "canonical" representation.  This is less efficient than *note
     PyUnicode_READ(): 1015. if you do multiple consecutive reads.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS4: 1008. PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return the maximum code point that is suitable for creating another
     string based on 'unicode', which must be in the "canonical"
     representation.  This is always an approximation but more efficient
     than iterating over the string.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (PyObject *unicode)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return ‘1’ if the string is a
     valid identifier according to the language definition, section
     *note Identifiers and keywords: 1c27.  Return ‘0’ otherwise.

     在 3.9 版的變更: The function does not call *note Py_FatalError():
     7c7. anymore if the string is not ready.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Character Properties,  Next: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Prev: Unicode Type,  Up: Unicode 物件

7.8.3.9 Unicode Character Properties
....................................

Unicode provides many different character properties.  The most often
needed ones are available through these macros which are mapped to C
functions depending on the Python configuration.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a whitespace
     character.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a lowercase
     character.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an uppercase
     character.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a titlecase
     character.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a linebreak
     character.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a decimal character.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a digit character.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a numeric character.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an alphabetic
     character.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an alphanumeric
     character.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a printable
     character.  Nonprintable characters are those characters defined in
     the Unicode character database as "Other" or "Separator", excepting
     the ASCII space (0x20) which is considered printable.  (Note that
     printable characters in this context are those which should not be
     escaped when *note repr(): 61e. is invoked on a string.  It has no
     bearing on the handling of strings written to *note sys.stdout:
     92a. or *note sys.stderr: 778.)

These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions:

 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS4: 1008. Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to lower case.

     在 3.3 版之後被棄用: This function uses simple case mappings.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS4: 1008. Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to upper case.

     在 3.3 版之後被棄用: This function uses simple case mappings.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS4: 1008. Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to title case.

     在 3.3 版之後被棄用: This function uses simple case mappings.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a decimal positive integer.
     Return ‘-1’ if this is not possible.  This function does not raise
     exceptions.

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a single digit integer.
     Return ‘-1’ if this is not possible.  This function does not raise
     exceptions.

 -- C 函式: double Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a double.  Return ‘-1.0’ if
     this is not possible.  This function does not raise exceptions.

These APIs can be used to work with surrogates:

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a surrogate (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’).

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a high surrogate (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDBFF’).

 -- C 函式: int Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a low surrogate (‘0xDC00 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’).

 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS4: 1008. Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (Py_UCS4
          high, Py_UCS4 low)

     Join two surrogate characters and return a single *note Py_UCS4:
     1008. value.  'high' and 'low' are respectively the leading and
     trailing surrogates in a surrogate pair.  'high' must be in the
     range [0xD800; 0xDBFF] and 'low' must be in the range [0xDC00;
     0xDFFF].


File: python.info,  Node: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Next: Locale Encoding,  Prev: Unicode Character Properties,  Up: Unicode 物件

7.8.3.10 Creating and accessing Unicode strings
...............................................

To create Unicode objects and access their basic sequence properties,
use these APIs:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_New (Py_ssize_t size,
          Py_UCS4 maxchar)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Create a new Unicode object.  'maxchar' should
     be the true maximum code point to be placed in the string.  As an
     approximation, it can be rounded up to the nearest value in the
     sequence 127, 255, 65535, 1114111.

     This is the recommended way to allocate a new Unicode object.
     Objects created using this function are not resizable.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (int kind,
          const void *buffer, Py_ssize_t size)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Create a new Unicode object with the given
     'kind' (possible values are *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1012. etc.,
     as returned by *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1011.).  The 'buffer' must
     point to an array of 'size' units of 1, 2 or 4 bytes per character,
     as given by the kind.

     If necessary, the input 'buffer' is copied and transformed into the
     canonical representation.  For example, if the 'buffer' is a UCS4
     string (*note PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1014.) and it consists only of
     codepoints in the UCS1 range, it will be transformed into UCS1
     (*note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1012.).

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Unicode object from the char buffer 'str'.  The bytes will be
     interpreted as being UTF-8 encoded.  The buffer is copied into the
     new object.  The return value might be a shared object, i.e.
     modification of the data is not allowed.

     This function raises *note SystemError: 304. when:

        * 'size' < 0,

        * 'str' is ‘NULL’ and 'size' > 0

     在 3.12 版的變更: 'str' == ‘NULL’ with 'size' > 0 is not allowed
     anymore.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_FromString (const char *str)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Unicode object from a UTF-8 encoded null-terminated char buffer
     'str'.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_FromFormat (const char
          *format, ...)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Take a C
     ‘printf()’-style 'format' string and a variable number of
     arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python Unicode
     string and return a string with the values formatted into it.  The
     variable arguments must be C types and must correspond exactly to
     the format characters in the 'format' ASCII-encoded string.

     A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the
     following components, which must occur in this order:

       1. The ‘'%'’ character, which marks the start of the specifier.

       2. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some
          conversion types.

       3. Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an ‘'*'’
          (asterisk), the actual width is given in the next argument,
          which must be of type int, and the object to convert comes
          after the minimum field width and optional precision.

       4. Precision (optional), given as a ‘'.'’ (dot) followed by the
          precision.  If specified as ‘'*'’ (an asterisk), the actual
          precision is given in the next argument, which must be of type
          int, and the value to convert comes after the precision.

       5. Length modifier (optional).

       6. Conversion type.

     The conversion flag characters are:

     旗標        含義
                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.
                 
                 
     ‘-’         The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ‘0’ flag if
                 both are given).
                 

     The length modifiers for following integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’,
     ‘o’, ‘u’, ‘x’, or ‘X’) specify the type of the argument (int by
     default):

     Modifier       Types
                    
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     ‘l’            long 或 unsigned long
                    
                    
     ‘ll’           long long 或 unsigned long long
                    
                    
     ‘j’            ‘intmax_t’ 或 ‘uintmax_t’
                    
                    
     ‘z’            ‘size_t’ 或 ‘ssize_t’
                    
                    
     ‘t’            ‘ptrdiff_t’
                    

     The length modifier ‘l’ for following conversions ‘s’ or ‘V’
     specify that the type of the argument is const wchar_t*.

     The conversion specifiers are:

     Conversion Specifier                  Type                                  Comment
                                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                 
     ‘%’                                   'n/a'                                 The literal ‘%’ character.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘d’, ‘i’                              Specified by the length modifier      The decimal representation of a
                                                                                 signed C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘u’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The decimal representation of an
                                                                                 unsigned C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘o’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The octal representation of an
                                                                                 unsigned C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘x’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The hexadecimal representation of
                                                                                 an unsigned C integer (lowercase).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘X’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The hexadecimal representation of
                                                                                 an unsigned C integer (uppercase).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘c’                                   int                                   A single character.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘s’                                   const char* 或 const wchar_t*         A null-terminated C character
                                                                                 array.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘p’                                   const void*                           The hex representation of a C
                                                                                 pointer.  Mostly equivalent to
                                                                                 ‘printf("%p")’ except that it is
                                                                                 guaranteed to start with the
                                                                                 literal ‘0x’ regardless of what the
                                                                                 platform's ‘printf’ yields.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘A’                                   *note PyObject: 6d1.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note ascii(): 1255.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘U’                                   *note PyObject: 6d1.*                 一 Unicode 物件。
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘V’                                   *note PyObject: 6d1.*、const char*    A Unicode object (which may be
                                           或 const wchar_t*                     ‘NULL’) and a null-terminated C
                                                                                 character array as a second
                                                                                 parameter (which will be used, if
                                                                                 the first parameter is ‘NULL’).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘S’                                   *note PyObject: 6d1.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note PyObject_Str(): ec4.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘R’                                   *note PyObject: 6d1.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note PyObject_Repr(): ec3.
                                                                                 

          備註: The width formatter unit is number of characters rather
          than bytes.  The precision formatter unit is number of bytes
          or ‘wchar_t’ items (if the length modifier ‘l’ is used) for
          ‘"%s"’ and ‘"%V"’ (if the ‘PyObject*’ argument is ‘NULL’), and
          a number of characters for ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’ and
          ‘"%V"’ (if the ‘PyObject*’ argument is not ‘NULL’).

          備註: Unlike to C ‘printf()’ the ‘0’ flag has effect even when
          a precision is given for integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’, ‘u’,
          ‘o’, ‘x’, or ‘X’).

     在 3.2 版的變更: Support for ‘"%lld"’ and ‘"%llu"’ added.

     在 3.3 版的變更: Support for ‘"%li"’, ‘"%lli"’ and ‘"%zi"’ added.

     在 3.4 版的變更: Support width and precision formatter for ‘"%s"’,
     ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%V"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’ added.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Support for conversion specifiers ‘o’ and ‘X’.
     Support for length modifiers ‘j’ and ‘t’.  Length modifiers are now
     applied to all integer conversions.  Length modifier ‘l’ is now
     applied to conversion specifiers ‘s’ and ‘V’.  Support for variable
     width and precision ‘*’.  Support for flag ‘-’.

     An unrecognized format character now sets a *note SystemError: 304.
     In previous versions it caused all the rest of the format string to
     be copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments
     discarded.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_FromFormatV (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Identical
     to *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 302. except that it takes exactly
     two arguments.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_FromObject (PyObject *obj)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Copy an
     instance of a Unicode subtype to a new true Unicode object if
     necessary.  If 'obj' is already a true Unicode object (not a
     subtype), return a new *note strong reference: 5a8. to the object.

     Objects other than Unicode or its subtypes will cause a *note
     TypeError: 2ba.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject (PyObject
          *obj, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Decode an
     encoded object 'obj' to a Unicode object.

     *note bytes: 2c1, *note bytearray: 2c0. and other *note bytes-like
     objects: b9f. are decoded according to the given 'encoding' and
     using the error handling defined by 'errors'.  Both can be ‘NULL’
     to have the interface use the default values (see *note Built-in
     Codecs: 4a98. for details).

     All other objects, including Unicode objects, cause a *note
     TypeError: 2ba. to be set.

     The API returns ‘NULL’ if there was an error.  The caller is
     responsible for decref'ing the returned objects.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyUnicode_GetLength (PyObject
          *unicode)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Return the
     length of the Unicode object, in code points.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘-1’.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyUnicode_CopyCharacters (PyObject
          *to, Py_ssize_t to_start, PyObject *from, Py_ssize_t
          from_start, Py_ssize_t how_many)

     Copy characters from one Unicode object into another.  This
     function performs character conversion when necessary and falls
     back to ‘memcpy()’ if possible.  Returns ‘-1’ and sets an exception
     on error, otherwise returns the number of copied characters.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyUnicode_Fill (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 fill_char)

     Fill a string with a character: write 'fill_char' into
     ‘unicode[start:start+length]’.

     Fail if 'fill_char' is bigger than the string maximum character, or
     if the string has more than 1 reference.

     Return the number of written character, or return ‘-1’ and raise an
     exception on error.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicode_WriteChar (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t
          index, Py_UCS4 character)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Write a
     character to a string.  The string must have been created through
     *note PyUnicode_New(): 6e1.  Since Unicode strings are supposed to
     be immutable, the string must not be shared, or have been hashed
     yet.

     This function checks that 'unicode' is a Unicode object, that the
     index is not out of bounds, and that the object can be modified
     safely (i.e.  that it its reference count is one).

     Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error with an exception set.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS4: 1008. PyUnicode_ReadChar (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t index)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Read a
     character from a string.  This function checks that 'unicode' is a
     Unicode object and the index is not out of bounds, in contrast to
     *note PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(): 1016, which performs no error
     checking.

     Return character on success, ‘-1’ on error with an exception set.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_Substring (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Return a substring of 'unicode', from character index
     'start' (included) to character index 'end' (excluded).  Negative
     indices are not supported.  On error, set an exception and return
     ‘NULL’.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS4: 1008. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_UCS4 *buffer, Py_ssize_t buflen, int copy_null)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Copy the
     string 'unicode' into a UCS4 buffer, including a null character, if
     'copy_null' is set.  Returns ‘NULL’ and sets an exception on error
     (in particular, a *note SystemError: 304. if 'buflen' is smaller
     than the length of 'unicode').  'buffer' is returned on success.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_UCS4: 1008. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (PyObject
          *unicode)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Copy the
     string 'unicode' into a new UCS4 buffer that is allocated using
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace.  If this fails, ‘NULL’ is returned with
     a *note MemoryError: 1460. set.  The returned buffer always has an
     extra null code point appended.

     在 3.3 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Locale Encoding,  Next: File System Encoding,  Prev: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Up: Unicode 物件

7.8.3.11 Locale Encoding
........................

The current locale encoding can be used to decode text from the
operating system.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t length, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Decode a string from UTF-8 on Android and VxWorks, or from
     the current locale encoding on other platforms.  The supported
     error handlers are ‘"strict"’ and ‘"surrogateescape"’ ( PEP
     383(1)).  The decoder uses ‘"strict"’ error handler if 'errors' is
     ‘NULL’.  'str' must end with a null character but cannot contain
     embedded null characters.

     Use *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4905. to decode a
     string from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.

     This function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451.

     也參考
     ......

     *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. 函式。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The function now also uses the current locale
     encoding for the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, except on
     Android.  Previously, *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. was used for
     the ‘surrogateescape’, and the current locale encoding was used for
     ‘strict’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (const char
          *str, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Similar to *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): a2a, but
     compute the string length using ‘strlen()’.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (PyObject
          *unicode, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Encode a Unicode object to UTF-8 on Android and VxWorks, or
     to the current locale encoding on other platforms.  The supported
     error handlers are ‘"strict"’ and ‘"surrogateescape"’ ( PEP
     383(2)).  The encoder uses ‘"strict"’ error handler if 'errors' is
     ‘NULL’.  Return a *note bytes: 2c1. object.  'unicode' cannot
     contain embedded null characters.

     Use *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 183e. to encode a string to
     the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.

     This function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451.

     也參考
     ......

     *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a29. 函式。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The function now also uses the current locale
     encoding for the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, except on
     Android.  Previously, *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a29. was used for
     the ‘surrogateescape’, and the current locale encoding was used for
     ‘strict’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/


File: python.info,  Node: File System Encoding,  Next: wchar_t 支援,  Prev: Locale Encoding,  Up: Unicode 物件

7.8.3.12 File System Encoding
.............................

Functions encoding to and decoding from the *note filesystem encoding
and error handler: 2bd. ( PEP 383(1) and PEP 529(2)).

To encode file names to *note bytes: 2c1. during argument parsing, the
‘"O&"’ converter should be used, passing *note PyUnicode_FSConverter():
b89. as the conversion function:

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicode_FSConverter (PyObject *obj, void *result)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  ParseTuple converter: encode
     *note str: 157. objects - obtained directly or through the *note
     os.PathLike: ab7. interface - to *note bytes: 2c1. using *note
     PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 183e.; *note bytes: 2c1. objects are
     output as-is.  'result' must be a *note PyBytesObject: 5ae.* which
     must be released when it is no longer used.

     在 3.1 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

To decode file names to *note str: 157. during argument parsing, the
‘"O&"’ converter should be used, passing *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder():
306. as the conversion function:

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicode_FSDecoder (PyObject *obj, void *result)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  ParseTuple converter: decode
     *note bytes: 2c1. objects - obtained either directly or indirectly
     through the *note os.PathLike: ab7. interface - to *note str: 157.
     using *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4905.; *note str:
     157. objects are output as-is.  'result' must be a *note
     PyUnicodeObject: 5b0.* which must be released when it is no longer
     used.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: Accepts a *note path-like object: 975.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Decode a
     string from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.

     If you need to decode a string from the current locale encoding,
     use *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): a2a.

     也參考
     ......

     *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. 函式。

     在 3.6 版的變更: The *note filesystem error handler: 2bd. is now
     used.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (const char
          *str)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Decode a
     null-terminated string from the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 2bd.

     If the string length is known, use *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4905.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The *note filesystem error handler: 2bd. is now
     used.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Encode a
     Unicode object to the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     2bd, and return *note bytes: 2c1.  Note that the resulting *note
     bytes: 2c1. object can contain null bytes.

     If you need to encode a string to the current locale encoding, use
     *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): a2b.

     也參考
     ......

     *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a29. 函式。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.6 版的變更: The *note filesystem error handler: 2bd. is now
     used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: wchar_t 支援,  Prev: File System Encoding,  Up: Unicode 物件

7.8.3.13 wchar_t 支援
.....................

‘wchar_t’ support for platforms which support it:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_FromWideChar (const wchar_t
          *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Unicode object from the ‘wchar_t’ buffer 'wstr' of the given
     'size'.  Passing ‘-1’ as the 'size' indicates that the function
     must itself compute the length, using ‘wcslen()’.  Return ‘NULL’ on
     failure.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyUnicode_AsWideChar (PyObject
          *unicode, wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Copy the Unicode object
     contents into the ‘wchar_t’ buffer 'wstr'.  At most 'size'
     ‘wchar_t’ characters are copied (excluding a possibly trailing null
     termination character).  Return the number of ‘wchar_t’ characters
     copied or ‘-1’ in case of an error.

     When 'wstr' is ‘NULL’, instead return the 'size' that would be
     required to store all of 'unicode' including a terminating null.

     Note that the resulting wchar_t* string may or may not be
     null-terminated.  It is the responsibility of the caller to make
     sure that the wchar_t* string is null-terminated in case this is
     required by the application.  Also, note that the wchar_t* string
     might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be
     truncated when used with most C functions.

 -- C 函式: wchar_t *PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t *size)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Convert the
     Unicode object to a wide character string.  The output string
     always ends with a null character.  If 'size' is not ‘NULL’, write
     the number of wide characters (excluding the trailing null
     termination character) into '*size'.  Note that the resulting
     ‘wchar_t’ string might contain null characters, which would cause
     the string to be truncated when used with most C functions.  If
     'size' is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains null characters a
     *note ValueError: 183. is raised.

     Returns a buffer allocated by *note PyMem_New: 139c. (use *note
     PyMem_Free(): 12b5. to free it) on success.  On error, returns
     ‘NULL’ and '*size' is undefined.  Raises a *note MemoryError: 1460.
     if memory allocation is failed.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: Raises a *note ValueError: 183. if 'size' is
     ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains null characters.


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in Codecs,  Next: Methods and Slot Functions,  Prev: Unicode 物件,  Up: Unicode 物件與編解碼器

7.8.3.14 Built-in Codecs
........................

Python provides a set of built-in codecs which are written in C for
speed.  All of these codecs are directly usable via the following
functions.

Many of the following APIs take two arguments encoding and errors, and
they have the same semantics as the ones of the built-in *note str():
157. string object constructor.

Setting encoding to ‘NULL’ causes the default encoding to be used which
is UTF-8.  The file system calls should use *note
PyUnicode_FSConverter(): b89. for encoding file names.  This uses the
*note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd. internally.

Error handling is set by errors which may also be set to ‘NULL’ meaning
to use the default handling defined for the codec.  Default error
handling for all built-in codecs is "strict" (*note ValueError: 183. is
raised).

The codecs all use a similar interface.  Only deviations from the
following generic ones are documented for simplicity.

* Menu:

* Generic Codecs::
* UTF-8 編解碼器::
* UTF-32 編解碼器::
* UTF-16 編解碼器::
* UTF-7 編解碼器::
* Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Latin-1 編解碼器::
* ASCII 編解碼器::
* Character Map Codecs::
* MBCS codecs for Windows::
* Methods & Slots::


File: python.info,  Node: Generic Codecs,  Next: UTF-8 編解碼器,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.15 Generic Codecs
.......................

These are the generic codec APIs:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_Decode (const char *str,
          Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the encoded string
     'str'.  'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as the
     parameters of the same name in the *note str(): 157. built-in
     function.  The codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec
     registry.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_AsEncodedString (PyObject
          *unicode, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Encode a
     Unicode object and return the result as Python bytes object.
     'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as the parameters of
     the same name in the Unicode *note encode(): 70e. method.  The
     codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec registry.
     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-8 編解碼器,  Next: UTF-32 編解碼器,  Prev: Generic Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.16 UTF-8 編解碼器
.......................

These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (const char *str,
          Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the UTF-8 encoded string
     'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t
          *consumed)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  If
     'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8():
     4911.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, trailing incomplete UTF-8 byte
     sequences will not be treated as an error.  Those bytes will not be
     decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be
     stored in 'consumed'.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Encode a
     Unicode object using UTF-8 and return the result as Python bytes
     object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception
     was raised by the codec.

 -- C 函式: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t *size)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Return a
     pointer to the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode object, and store the
     size of the encoded representation (in bytes) in 'size'.  The
     'size' argument can be ‘NULL’; in this case no size will be stored.
     The returned buffer always has an extra null byte appended (not
     included in 'size'), regardless of whether there are any other null
     code points.

     In the case of an error, ‘NULL’ is returned with an exception set
     and no 'size' is stored.

     This caches the UTF-8 representation of the string in the Unicode
     object, and subsequent calls will return a pointer to the same
     buffer.  The caller is not responsible for deallocating the buffer.
     The buffer is deallocated and pointers to it become invalid when
     the Unicode object is garbage collected.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The return type is now ‘const char *’ rather of
     ‘char *’.

     在 3.10 版的變更: This function is a part of the *note limited API:
     2d4.

 -- C 函式: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (PyObject *unicode)

     As *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 6c8, but does not store the
     size.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The return type is now ‘const char *’ rather of
     ‘char *’.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-32 編解碼器,  Next: UTF-16 編解碼器,  Prev: UTF-8 編解碼器,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.17 UTF-32 編解碼器
........................

These are the UTF-32 codec APIs:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Decode
     'size' bytes from a UTF-32 encoded buffer string and return the
     corresponding Unicode object.  'errors' (if non-‘NULL’) defines the
     error handling.  It defaults to "strict".

     If 'byteorder' is non-‘NULL’, the decoder starts decoding using the
     given byte order:

          *byteorder == -1: little endian
          *byteorder == 0:  native order
          *byteorder == 1:  big endian

     If ‘*byteorder’ is zero, and the first four bytes of the input data
     are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte
     order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string.
     If ‘*byteorder’ is ‘-1’ or ‘1’, any byte order mark is copied to
     the output.

     After completion, '*byteorder' is set to the current byte order at
     the end of input data.

     If 'byteorder' is ‘NULL’, the codec starts in native order mode.

     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int
          *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  If
     'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32():
     490d.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 490e. will not treat trailing
     incomplete UTF-32 byte sequences (such as a number of bytes not
     divisible by four) as an error.  Those bytes will not be decoded
     and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in
     'consumed'.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     Python byte string using the UTF-32 encoding in native byte order.
     The string always starts with a BOM mark.  Error handling is
     "strict".  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-16 編解碼器,  Next: UTF-7 編解碼器,  Prev: UTF-32 編解碼器,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.18 UTF-16 編解碼器
........................

These are the UTF-16 codec APIs:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Decode
     'size' bytes from a UTF-16 encoded buffer string and return the
     corresponding Unicode object.  'errors' (if non-‘NULL’) defines the
     error handling.  It defaults to "strict".

     If 'byteorder' is non-‘NULL’, the decoder starts decoding using the
     given byte order:

          *byteorder == -1: little endian
          *byteorder == 0:  native order
          *byteorder == 1:  big endian

     If ‘*byteorder’ is zero, and the first two bytes of the input data
     are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte
     order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string.
     If ‘*byteorder’ is ‘-1’ or ‘1’, any byte order mark is copied to
     the output (where it will result in either a ‘\ufeff’ or a ‘\ufffe’
     character).

     After completion, ‘*byteorder’ is set to the current byte order at
     the end of input data.

     If 'byteorder' is ‘NULL’, the codec starts in native order mode.

     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int
          *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  If
     'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16():
     490b.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 490c. will not treat trailing
     incomplete UTF-16 byte sequences (such as an odd number of bytes or
     a split surrogate pair) as an error.  Those bytes will not be
     decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be
     stored in 'consumed'.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     Python byte string using the UTF-16 encoding in native byte order.
     The string always starts with a BOM mark.  Error handling is
     "strict".  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-7 編解碼器,  Next: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Prev: UTF-16 編解碼器,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.19 UTF-7 編解碼器
.......................

These are the UTF-7 codec APIs:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (const char *str,
          Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the UTF-7 encoded string
     'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t
          *consumed)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  If
     'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7():
     490f.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, trailing incomplete UTF-7
     base-64 sections will not be treated as an error.  Those bytes will
     not be decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will
     be stored in 'consumed'.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Next: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Prev: UTF-7 編解碼器,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.20 Unicode-Escape Codecs
..............................

These are the "Unicode Escape" codec APIs:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the Unicode-Escape
     encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by
     the codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString
          (PyObject *unicode)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Encode a
     Unicode object using Unicode-Escape and return the result as a
     bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return ‘NULL’ if an
     exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Next: Latin-1 編解碼器,  Prev: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.21 Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs
..................................

These are the "Raw Unicode Escape" codec APIs:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the Raw-Unicode-Escape
     encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by
     the codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString
          (PyObject *unicode)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Encode a
     Unicode object using Raw-Unicode-Escape and return the result as a
     bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return ‘NULL’ if an
     exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Latin-1 編解碼器,  Next: ASCII 編解碼器,  Prev: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.22 Latin-1 編解碼器
.........................

These are the Latin-1 codec APIs: Latin-1 corresponds to the first 256
Unicode ordinals and only these are accepted by the codecs during
encoding.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the Latin-1 encoded
     string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the
     codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Encode a
     Unicode object using Latin-1 and return the result as Python bytes
     object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception
     was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: ASCII 編解碼器,  Next: Character Map Codecs,  Prev: Latin-1 編解碼器,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.23 ASCII 編解碼器
.......................

These are the ASCII codec APIs.  Only 7-bit ASCII data is accepted.  All
other codes generate errors.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the ASCII encoded string
     'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Encode a
     Unicode object using ASCII and return the result as Python bytes
     object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception
     was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Character Map Codecs,  Next: MBCS codecs for Windows,  Prev: ASCII 編解碼器,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.24 Character Map Codecs
.............................

This codec is special in that it can be used to implement many different
codecs (and this is in fact what was done to obtain most of the standard
codecs included in the ‘encodings’ package).  The codec uses mappings to
encode and decode characters.  The mapping objects provided must support
the *note __getitem__(): 4e7. mapping interface; dictionaries and
sequences work well.

These are the mapping codec APIs:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t length, PyObject *mapping, const char
          *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the encoded string 'str'
     using the given 'mapping' object.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception
     was raised by the codec.

     If 'mapping' is ‘NULL’, Latin-1 decoding will be applied.  Else
     'mapping' must map bytes ordinals (integers in the range from 0 to
     255) to Unicode strings, integers (which are then interpreted as
     Unicode ordinals) or ‘None’.  Unmapped data bytes - ones which
     cause a *note LookupError: 1f64, as well as ones which get mapped
     to ‘None’, ‘0xFFFE’ or ‘'\ufffe'’, are treated as undefined
     mappings and cause an error.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_AsCharmapString (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *mapping)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Encode a
     Unicode object using the given 'mapping' object and return the
     result as a bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

     The 'mapping' object must map Unicode ordinal integers to bytes
     objects, integers in the range from 0 to 255 or ‘None’.  Unmapped
     character ordinals (ones which cause a *note LookupError: 1f64.) as
     well as mapped to ‘None’ are treated as "undefined mapping" and
     cause an error.

The following codec API is special in that maps Unicode to Unicode.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_Translate (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *table, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Translate
     a string by applying a character mapping table to it and return the
     resulting Unicode object.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised
     by the codec.

     The mapping table must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode
     ordinal integers or ‘None’ (causing deletion of the character).

     Mapping tables need only provide the *note __getitem__(): 4e7.
     interface; dictionaries and sequences work well.  Unmapped
     character ordinals (ones which cause a *note LookupError: 1f64.)
     are left untouched and are copied as-is.

     'errors' has the usual meaning for codecs.  It may be ‘NULL’ which
     indicates to use the default error handling.


File: python.info,  Node: MBCS codecs for Windows,  Next: Methods & Slots,  Prev: Character Map Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.25 MBCS codecs for Windows
................................

These are the MBCS codec APIs.  They are currently only available on
Windows and use the Win32 MBCS converters to implement the conversions.
Note that MBCS (or DBCS) is a class of encodings, not just one.  The
target encoding is defined by the user settings on the machine running
the codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (const char *str,
          Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on Windows 自
     3.7 版本開始.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of
     the MBCS encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t
          *consumed)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on Windows 自
     3.7 版本開始.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 4908.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 4909. will not decode trailing lead
     byte and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored
     in 'consumed'.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on Windows 自
     3.7 版本開始.'  Encode a Unicode object using MBCS and return the
     result as Python bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (int
          code_page, PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. on Windows 自
     3.7 版本開始.'  Encode the Unicode object using the specified code
     page and return a Python bytes object.  Return ‘NULL’ if an
     exception was raised by the codec.  Use ‘CP_ACP’ code page to get
     the MBCS encoder.

     在 3.3 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods & Slots,  Prev: MBCS codecs for Windows,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.26 Methods & Slots
........................


File: python.info,  Node: Methods and Slot Functions,  Prev: Built-in Codecs,  Up: Unicode 物件與編解碼器

7.8.3.27 Methods and Slot Functions
...................................

The following APIs are capable of handling Unicode objects and strings
on input (we refer to them as strings in the descriptions) and return
Unicode objects or integers as appropriate.

They all return ‘NULL’ or ‘-1’ if an exception occurs.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_Concat (PyObject *left,
          PyObject *right)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Concat two
     strings giving a new Unicode string.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_Split (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Split a
     string giving a list of Unicode strings.  If 'sep' is ‘NULL’,
     splitting will be done at all whitespace substrings.  Otherwise,
     splits occur at the given separator.  At most 'maxsplit' splits
     will be done.  If negative, no limit is set.  Separators are not
     included in the resulting list.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_Splitlines (PyObject
          *unicode, int keepends)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Split a
     Unicode string at line breaks, returning a list of Unicode strings.
     CRLF is considered to be one line break.  If 'keepends' is ‘0’, the
     Line break characters are not included in the resulting strings.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_Join (PyObject *separator,
          PyObject *seq)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Join a
     sequence of strings using the given 'separator' and return the
     resulting Unicode string.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyUnicode_Tailmatch (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end,
          int direction)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return ‘1’ if 'substr' matches
     ‘unicode[start:end]’ at the given tail end ('direction' == ‘-1’
     means to do a prefix match, 'direction' == ‘1’ a suffix match), ‘0’
     otherwise.  Return ‘-1’ if an error occurred.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyUnicode_Find (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int
          direction)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the first position of
     'substr' in ‘unicode[start:end]’ using the given 'direction'
     ('direction' == ‘1’ means to do a forward search, 'direction' ==
     ‘-1’ a backward search).  The return value is the index of the
     first match; a value of ‘-1’ indicates that no match was found, and
     ‘-2’ indicates that an error occurred and an exception has been
     set.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyUnicode_FindChar (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_UCS4 ch, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int
          direction)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Return the
     first position of the character 'ch' in ‘unicode[start:end]’ using
     the given 'direction' ('direction' == ‘1’ means to do a forward
     search, 'direction' == ‘-1’ a backward search).  The return value
     is the index of the first match; a value of ‘-1’ indicates that no
     match was found, and ‘-2’ indicates that an error occurred and an
     exception has been set.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.7 版的變更: 'start' and 'end' are now adjusted to behave like
     ‘unicode[start:end]’.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyUnicode_Count (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the number of
     non-overlapping occurrences of 'substr' in ‘unicode[start:end]’.
     Return ‘-1’ if an error occurred.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_Replace (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *substr, PyObject *replstr, Py_ssize_t maxcount)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Replace at
     most 'maxcount' occurrences of 'substr' in 'unicode' with 'replstr'
     and return the resulting Unicode object.  'maxcount' == ‘-1’ means
     replace all occurrences.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicode_Compare (PyObject *left, PyObject *right)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Compare two strings and return
     ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’ for less than, equal, and greater than,
     respectively.

     This function returns ‘-1’ upon failure, so one should call *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to check for errors.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (PyObject *unicode,
          const char *string)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Compare a Unicode object,
     'unicode', with 'string' and return ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’ for less than,
     equal, and greater than, respectively.  It is best to pass only
     ASCII-encoded strings, but the function interprets the input string
     as ISO-8859-1 if it contains non-ASCII characters.

     This function does not raise exceptions.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_RichCompare (PyObject *left,
          PyObject *right, int op)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Rich
     compare two Unicode strings and return one of the following:

        * ‘NULL’ in case an exception was raised

        * *note Py_True: 4a4c. or *note Py_False: 4a4b. for successful
          comparisons

        * *note Py_NotImplemented: 49c6. in case the type combination is
          unknown

     Possible values for 'op' are *note Py_GT: 49cf, *note Py_GE: 49d0,
     *note Py_EQ: 49cd, *note Py_NE: 49ce, *note Py_LT: 49cb, and *note
     Py_LE: 49cc.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_Format (PyObject *format,
          PyObject *args)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new string object from 'format' and 'args'; this is analogous to
     ‘format % args’.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnicode_Contains (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Check whether 'substr' is
     contained in 'unicode' and return true or false accordingly.

     'substr' has to coerce to a one element Unicode string.  ‘-1’ is
     returned if there was an error.

 -- C 函式: void PyUnicode_InternInPlace (PyObject **p_unicode)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Intern the argument **note
     p_unicode: 6e9. in place.  The argument must be the address of a
     pointer variable pointing to a Python Unicode string object.  If
     there is an existing interned string that is the same as **note
     p_unicode: 6e9, it sets **note p_unicode: 6e9. to it (releasing the
     reference to the old string object and creating a new *note strong
     reference: 5a8. to the interned string object), otherwise it leaves
     **note p_unicode: 6e9. alone and interns it.

     (Clarification: even though there is a lot of talk about
     references, think of this function as reference-neutral.  You must
     own the object you pass in; after the call you no longer own the
     passed-in reference, but you newly own the result.)

     This function never raises an exception.  On error, it leaves its
     argument unchanged without interning it.

     Instances of subclasses of *note str: 157. may not be interned,
     that is, *note PyUnicode_CheckExact: 4a81.(**note p_unicode: 6e9.)
     must be true.  If it is not, then - as with any other error - the
     argument is left unchanged.

     Note that interned strings are not “immortal”.  You must keep a
     reference to the result to benefit from interning.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnicode_InternFromString (const char
          *str)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  A
     combination of *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 479e. and *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 6e9, meant for statically allocated
     strings.

     Return a new ("owned") reference to either a new Unicode string
     object that has been interned, or an earlier interned string object
     with the same value.

     Python may keep a reference to the result, or prevent it from being
     garbage-collected promptly.  For interning an unbounded number of
     different strings, such as ones coming from user input, prefer
     calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 479e. and *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 6e9. directly.


File: python.info,  Node: Tuple（元組）物件,  Next: Struct Sequence Objects,  Prev: Unicode 物件與編解碼器,  Up: 序列物件

7.8.3.28 Tuple（元組）物件
..........................

 -- C 型別: type PyTupleObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6d1. represents a Python tuple
     object.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyTuple_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents the Python tuple type; it is the same
     object as *note tuple: 4e6. in the Python layer.

 -- C 函式: int PyTuple_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a tuple object or an instance of a subtype of
     the tuple type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyTuple_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a tuple object, but not an instance of a
     subtype of the tuple type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyTuple_New (Py_ssize_t len)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new tuple object of size 'len', or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on
     failure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyTuple_Pack (Py_ssize_t n, ...)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new tuple object of size 'n', or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on
     failure.  The tuple values are initialized to the subsequent 'n' C
     arguments pointing to Python objects.  ‘PyTuple_Pack(2, a, b)’ is
     equivalent to ‘Py_BuildValue("(OO)", a, b)’.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyTuple_Size (PyObject *p)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Take a pointer to a tuple
     object, and return the size of that tuple.  On error, return ‘-1’
     and with an exception set.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyTuple_GET_SIZE (PyObject *p)

     Like *note PyTuple_Size(): 48e0, but without error checking.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyTuple_GetItem (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     object at position 'pos' in the tuple pointed to by 'p'.  If 'pos'
     is negative or out of bounds, return ‘NULL’ and set an *note
     IndexError: 13ac. exception.

     The returned reference is borrowed from the tuple 'p' (that is: it
     is only valid as long as you hold a reference to 'p').  To get a
     *note strong reference: 5a8, use *note
     Py_NewRef(PyTuple_GetItem(...)): 6cb. or *note
     PySequence_GetItem(): 1841.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyTuple_GET_ITEM (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' Like *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 473d, but does
     no checking of its arguments.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyTuple_GetSlice (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     slice of the tuple pointed to by 'p' between 'low' and 'high', or
     ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘p[low:high]’.
     Indexing from the end of the tuple is not supported.

 -- C 函式: int PyTuple_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject
          *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Insert a reference to object
     'o' at position 'pos' of the tuple pointed to by 'p'.  Return ‘0’
     on success.  If 'pos' is out of bounds, return ‘-1’ and set an
     *note IndexError: 13ac. exception.

          備註: This function "steals" a reference to 'o' and discards a
          reference to an item already in the tuple at the affected
          position.

 -- C 函式: void PyTuple_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject
          *o)

     Like *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 4741, but does no error checking, and
     should 'only' be used to fill in brand new tuples.

          備註: This function "steals" a reference to 'o', and, unlike
          *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 4741, does 'not' discard a reference
          to any item that is being replaced; any reference in the tuple
          at position 'pos' will be leaked.

 -- C 函式: int _PyTuple_Resize (PyObject **p, Py_ssize_t newsize)

     Can be used to resize a tuple.  'newsize' will be the new length of
     the tuple.  Because tuples are 'supposed' to be immutable, this
     should only be used if there is only one reference to the object.
     Do 'not' use this if the tuple may already be known to some other
     part of the code.  The tuple will always grow or shrink at the end.
     Think of this as destroying the old tuple and creating a new one,
     only more efficiently.  Returns ‘0’ on success.  Client code should
     never assume that the resulting value of ‘*p’ will be the same as
     before calling this function.  If the object referenced by ‘*p’ is
     replaced, the original ‘*p’ is destroyed.  On failure, returns ‘-1’
     and sets ‘*p’ to ‘NULL’, and raises *note MemoryError: 1460. or
     *note SystemError: 304.


File: python.info,  Node: Struct Sequence Objects,  Next: List（串列）物件,  Prev: Tuple（元組）物件,  Up: 序列物件

7.8.3.29 Struct Sequence Objects
................................

Struct sequence objects are the C equivalent of *note namedtuple(): 731.
objects, i.e.  a sequence whose items can also be accessed through
attributes.  To create a struct sequence, you first have to create a
specific struct sequence type.

 -- C 函式: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. *PyStructSequence_NewType
          (PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     new struct sequence type from the data in 'desc', described below.
     Instances of the resulting type can be created with *note
     PyStructSequence_New(): 48cd.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C 函式: void PyStructSequence_InitType (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)

     Initializes a struct sequence type 'type' from 'desc' in place.

 -- C 函式: int PyStructSequence_InitType2 (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)

     Like *note PyStructSequence_InitType(): e96, but returns ‘0’ on
     success and ‘-1’ with an exception set on failure.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type PyStructSequence_Desc
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. （包含所有成員）.'  Contains the
     meta information of a struct sequence type to create.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *name

          Fully qualified name of the type; null-terminated UTF-8
          encoded.  The name must contain the module name.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *doc

          Pointer to docstring for the type or ‘NULL’ to omit.

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyStructSequence_Field: a1a. *fields

          Pointer to ‘NULL’-terminated array with field names of the new
          type.

      -- C 成員函數: int n_in_sequence

          Number of fields visible to the Python side (if used as
          tuple).

 -- C 型別: type PyStructSequence_Field
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. （包含所有成員）.'  Describes a
     field of a struct sequence.  As a struct sequence is modeled as a
     tuple, all fields are typed as *note PyObject: 6d1.*.  The index in
     the *note fields: 4ab5. array of the *note PyStructSequence_Desc:
     a1b. determines which field of the struct sequence is described.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *name

          Name for the field or ‘NULL’ to end the list of named fields,
          set to *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 7c6. to leave
          unnamed.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *doc

          Field docstring or ‘NULL’ to omit.

 -- C 變數: const char *const PyStructSequence_UnnamedField
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  Special
     value for a field name to leave it unnamed.

     在 3.9 版的變更: The type was changed from ‘char *’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyStructSequence_New (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Creates an
     instance of 'type', which must have been created with *note
     PyStructSequence_NewType(): 48ce.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyStructSequence_GetItem (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     object at position 'pos' in the struct sequence pointed to by 'p'.
     No bounds checking is performed.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (PyObject
          *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' Macro equivalent of *note
     PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 48cc.

 -- C 函式: void PyStructSequence_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos,
          PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Sets the field at index 'pos'
     of the struct sequence 'p' to value 'o'.  Like *note
     PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 6e5, this should only be used to fill in brand
     new instances.

          備註: This function "steals" a reference to 'o'.

 -- C 函式: void PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t
          *pos, PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 48cf, but implemented
     as a static inlined function.

          備註: This function "steals" a reference to 'o'.


File: python.info,  Node: List（串列）物件,  Prev: Struct Sequence Objects,  Up: 序列物件

7.8.3.30 List（串列）物件
.........................

 -- C 型別: type PyListObject

     *note PyObject: 6d1. 的這個子型別表示 Python 的 list（串列）物件。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyList_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  此 *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. 實
     例表示 Python 的 list 型別。這與 Python 層中的 *note list: 40a. 是
     同一個物件。

 -- C 函式: int PyList_Check (PyObject *p)

     如果 'p' 是一個 list 物件或者是 list 型別之子型別的實例，就回傳
     true。這個函式永遠會成功執行。

 -- C 函式: int PyList_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     如果 'p' 是一個 list 物件但不是 list 型別的子型別的實例，就回傳
     true。這個函式永遠會成功執行。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyList_New (Py_ssize_t len)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  成功時回傳
     長度為 'len' 的新串列，失敗時回傳 ‘NULL’。

          備註: 如果 'len' 大於零，則回傳的串列物件之項目將被設定為
          ‘NULL’。因此，在使用 *note PyList_SetItem(): 4742. 來將所有項
          目設定為一個真實物件前，你無法使用像是 *note
          PySequence_SetItem(): 1842. 的使用抽象 API 函式，也不能將物件
          暴露 (expose) 給 Python 程式碼。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyList_Size (PyObject *list)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     回傳 'list' 串列物件的長度；這相當於串列物件的 ‘len(list)’。

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyList_GET_SIZE (PyObject *list)

     與 *note PyList_Size(): 128a. 類似，但沒有錯誤檢查。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyList_GetItem (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t index)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  回傳
     'list' 指向的串列中位於 'index' 位置的物件。該位置不可為負數；並不
     支援從串列尾末開始索引。如果 'index' 超出邊界範圍（<0 或
     >=len(list)）則回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定 *note IndexError: 13ac. 例外。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyList_GET_ITEM (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 與 *note PyList_GetItem(): 473e. 類似，但沒有
     錯誤檢查。

 -- C 函式: int PyList_SetItem (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index,
          PyObject *item)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  將串列中索引 'index' 處的項目
     設定為 'item'。成功時回傳 ‘0’。如果 'index' 超出邊界範圍則回傳 ‘-1’
     並設定一個 *note IndexError: 13ac. 例外。

          備註: 此函式「竊取」對 'item' 的參照，並丟棄對串列中受影響位置
          上已存在項目的參照。

 -- C 函式: void PyList_SET_ITEM (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject
          *o)

     *note PyList_SetItem(): 4742. 的巨集形式，沒有錯誤檢查。這通常僅用
     於填充沒有已存在內容的新串列。

          備註: 該巨集「竊取」對 'item' 的參照，並且與 *note
          PyList_SetItem(): 4742. 不同的是，它'不會'丟棄對任意被替換項目
          的參照；'list' 中位置 'i' 的任何參照都將被洩漏 (leak)。

 -- C 函式: int PyList_Insert (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index,
          PyObject *item)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  將項目 'item' 插入串列 'list'
     中索引 'index' 的位置之前。如果成功則回傳 ‘0’；如果失敗則回傳 ‘-1’
     並設定例外。類似於 ‘list.insert(index, item)’。

 -- C 函式: int PyList_Append (PyObject *list, PyObject *item)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  將物件 'item' 附加到串列
     'list' 的最後面。如果成功則回傳 ‘0’；如果不成功，則回傳 ‘-1’ 並設定
     例外。類似於 ‘list.append(item)’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyList_GetSlice (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  回傳
     'list' 中的物件串列，其中包含 'low' 和 'high' '之間'的物件。如果沒
     有成功則回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。類似於 ‘list[low:high]’。不支援從串
     列尾末開始索引。

 -- C 函式: int PyList_SetSlice (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low,
          Py_ssize_t high, PyObject *itemlist)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  將 'low' 和 'high' 之間的
     'list' 切片設定為 'itemlist' 的內容。類似於 ‘list[low:high] =
     itemlist’。'itemlist' 可能為 ‘NULL’，表示分配一個空串列（切片刪除）
     。成功時回傳 ‘0’，失敗時則回傳 ‘-1’。不支援從串列尾末開始索引。

 -- C 函式: int PyList_Sort (PyObject *list)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  對 'list' 的項目進行原地 (in
     place) 排序。成功時回傳 ‘0’，失敗時回傳 ‘-1’。這相當於
     ‘list.sort()’。

 -- C 函式: int PyList_Reverse (PyObject *list)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  原地反轉 'list' 的項目。成功時
     回傳 ‘0’，失敗時回傳 ‘-1’。這相當於 ‘list.reverse()’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyList_AsTuple (PyObject *list)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     回傳一個新的 tuple（元組）物件，其中包含 'list' 的內容；相當於
     ‘tuple(list)’。


File: python.info,  Node: 容器物件,  Next: 函式物件<2>,  Prev: 序列物件,  Up: 具體物件層

7.8.4 容器物件
--------------

* Menu:

* 字典物件::
* 集合物件::


File: python.info,  Node: 字典物件,  Next: 集合物件,  Up: 容器物件

7.8.4.1 字典物件
................

 -- C 型別: type PyDictObject

     *note PyObject: 6d1. 子型態代表一個 Python 字典物件。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyDict_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. 實例
     代表一個 Python 字典型態。此與 Python 層中的 *note dict: 239. 為同
     一個物件。

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_Check (PyObject *p)

     若 'p' 是一個字典物件或字典的子型態實例則會回傳 true。此函式每次都
     會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     若 'p' 是一個字典物件但並不是一個字典子型態的實例，則回傳 true。此
     函式每次都會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDict_New ()
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  回傳一個新
     的空字典，或在失敗時回傳 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDictProxy_New (PyObject *mapping)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     *note types.MappingProxyType: 186. object for a mapping which
     enforces read-only behavior.  This is normally used to create a
     view to prevent modification of the dictionary for non-dynamic
     class types.

 -- C 函式: void PyDict_Clear (PyObject *p)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Empty an existing dictionary
     of all key-value pairs.

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_Contains (PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Determine if dictionary 'p'
     contains 'key'.  If an item in 'p' is matches 'key', return ‘1’,
     otherwise return ‘0’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is equivalent
     to the Python expression ‘key in p’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDict_Copy (PyObject *p)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new dictionary that contains the same key-value pairs as 'p'.

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_SetItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject
          *val)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Insert 'val' into the
     dictionary 'p' with a key of 'key'.  'key' must be *note hashable:
     409.; if it isn't, *note TypeError: 2ba. will be raised.  Return
     ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure.  This function 'does not' steal
     a reference to 'val'.

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_SetItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key,
          PyObject *val)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is the same as *note
     PyDict_SetItem(): 4743, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 6d1.*.

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_DelItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Remove the entry in dictionary
     'p' with key 'key'.  'key' must be *note hashable: 409.; if it
     isn't, *note TypeError: 2ba. is raised.  If 'key' is not in the
     dictionary, *note KeyError: 8ed. is raised.  Return ‘0’ on success
     or ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_DelItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is the same as *note
     PyDict_DelItem(): 480e, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 6d1.*.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDict_GetItem (PyObject *p, PyObject
          *key)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     object from dictionary 'p' which has a key 'key'.  Return ‘NULL’ if
     the key 'key' is not present, but 'without' setting an exception.

          備註: Exceptions that occur while this calls *note __hash__():
          950. and *note __eq__(): 94f. methods are silently ignored.
          Prefer the *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 4810. function
          instead.

     在 3.10 版的變更: Calling this API without *note GIL: 6df. held had
     been allowed for historical reason.  It is no longer allowed.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDict_GetItemWithError (PyObject *p,
          PyObject *key)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Variant of
     *note PyDict_GetItem(): 6e0. that does not suppress exceptions.
     Return ‘NULL’ 'with' an exception set if an exception occurred.
     Return ‘NULL’ 'without' an exception set if the key wasn't present.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDict_GetItemString (PyObject *p,
          const char *key)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is
     the same as *note PyDict_GetItem(): 6e0, but 'key' is specified as
     a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 6d1.*.

          備註: Exceptions that occur while this calls *note __hash__():
          950. and *note __eq__(): 94f. methods or while creating the
          temporary *note str: 157. object are silently ignored.  Prefer
          using the *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 4810. function with
          your own *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 479e. 'key' instead.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDict_SetDefault (PyObject *p,
          PyObject *key, PyObject *defaultobj)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' This is the same as the Python-level *note
     dict.setdefault(): f0f.  If present, it returns the value
     corresponding to 'key' from the dictionary 'p'.  If the key is not
     in the dict, it is inserted with value 'defaultobj' and
     'defaultobj' is returned.  This function evaluates the hash
     function of 'key' only once, instead of evaluating it independently
     for the lookup and the insertion.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDict_Items (PyObject *p)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     *note PyListObject: 49e6. containing all the items from the
     dictionary.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDict_Keys (PyObject *p)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     *note PyListObject: 49e6. containing all the keys from the
     dictionary.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDict_Values (PyObject *p)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     *note PyListObject: 49e6. containing all the values from the
     dictionary 'p'.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyDict_Size (PyObject *p)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return the number of items in the dictionary.  This is equivalent
     to ‘len(p)’ on a dictionary.

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_Next (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *ppos, PyObject
          **pkey, PyObject **pvalue)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Iterate over all key-value
     pairs in the dictionary 'p'.  The *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. referred
     to by 'ppos' must be initialized to ‘0’ prior to the first call to
     this function to start the iteration; the function returns true for
     each pair in the dictionary, and false once all pairs have been
     reported.  The parameters 'pkey' and 'pvalue' should either point
     to *note PyObject: 6d1.* variables that will be filled in with each
     key and value, respectively, or may be ‘NULL’.  Any references
     returned through them are borrowed.  'ppos' should not be altered
     during iteration.  Its value represents offsets within the internal
     dictionary structure, and since the structure is sparse, the
     offsets are not consecutive.

     舉例來說：

          PyObject *key, *value;
          Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              /* do something interesting with the values... */
              ...
          }

     The dictionary 'p' should not be mutated during iteration.  It is
     safe to modify the values of the keys as you iterate over the
     dictionary, but only so long as the set of keys does not change.
     For example:

          PyObject *key, *value;
          Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              long i = PyLong_AsLong(value);
              if (i == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) {
                  return -1;
              }
              PyObject *o = PyLong_FromLong(i + 1);
              if (o == NULL)
                  return -1;
              if (PyDict_SetItem(self->dict, key, o) < 0) {
                  Py_DECREF(o);
                  return -1;
              }
              Py_DECREF(o);
          }

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_Merge (PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int override)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Iterate over mapping object
     'b' adding key-value pairs to dictionary 'a'.  'b' may be a
     dictionary, or any object supporting *note PyMapping_Keys(): a1d.
     and *note PyObject_GetItem(): 47bd.  If 'override' is true,
     existing pairs in 'a' will be replaced if a matching key is found
     in 'b', otherwise pairs will only be added if there is not a
     matching key in 'a'.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if an exception
     was raised.

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_Update (PyObject *a, PyObject *b)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is the same as
     ‘PyDict_Merge(a, b, 1)’ in C, and is similar to ‘a.update(b)’ in
     Python except that *note PyDict_Update(): 4819. doesn't fall back
     to the iterating over a sequence of key value pairs if the second
     argument has no "keys" attribute.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if
     an exception was raised.

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (PyObject *a, PyObject *seq2, int
          override)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Update or merge into
     dictionary 'a', from the key-value pairs in 'seq2'.  'seq2' must be
     an iterable object producing iterable objects of length 2, viewed
     as key-value pairs.  In case of duplicate keys, the last wins if
     'override' is true, else the first wins.  Return ‘0’ on success or
     ‘-1’ if an exception was raised.  Equivalent Python (except for the
     return value):

          def PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(a, seq2, override):
              for key, value in seq2:
                  if override or key not in a:
                      a[key] = value

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_AddWatcher (PyDict_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a dictionary watcher.  Return a non-negative
     integer id which must be passed to future calls to *note
     PyDict_Watch(): 2eb.  In case of error (e.g.  no more watcher IDs
     available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 2ea.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error (e.g.  if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)

     Mark dictionary 'dict' as watched.  The callback granted
     'watcher_id' by *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 2ea. will be called when
     'dict' is modified or deallocated.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’
     on error.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyDict_Unwatch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)

     Mark dictionary 'dict' as no longer watched.  The callback granted
     'watcher_id' by *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 2ea. will no longer be
     called when 'dict' is modified or deallocated.  The dict must
     previously have been watched by this watcher.  Return ‘0’ on
     success or ‘-1’ on error.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type PyDict_WatchEvent

     Enumeration of possible dictionary watcher events:
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’,
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’,
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’, or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*PyDict_WatchCallback)(*note PyDict_WatchEvent:
          4aca. event, *note PyObject: 6d1. *dict, *note PyObject: 6d1.
          *key, *note PyObject: 6d1. *new_value)

     Type of a dict watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’,
     both 'key' and 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’.  If 'event' is
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’, 'new_value' will
     be the new value for 'key'.  If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’,
     'key' is being deleted from the dictionary and 'new_value' will be
     ‘NULL’.

     ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ occurs when 'dict' was previously empty and
     another dict is merged into it.  To maintain efficiency of this
     operation, per-key ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ events are not issued in
     this case; instead a single ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ is issued, and
     'key' will be the source dictionary.

     The callback may inspect but must not modify 'dict'; doing so could
     have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.  Do not
     trigger Python code execution in the callback, as it could modify
     the dict as a side effect.

     If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’, taking a new reference in
     the callback to the about-to-be-destroyed dictionary will resurrect
     it and prevent it from being freed at this time.  When the
     resurrected object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active
     at that time will be called again.

     Callbacks occur before the notified modification to 'dict' takes
     place, so the prior state of 'dict' can be inspected.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 17ca.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 集合物件,  Prev: 字典物件,  Up: 容器物件

7.8.4.2 集合物件
................

This section details the public API for *note set: 3cc. and *note
frozenset: 3cd. objects.  Any functionality not listed below is best
accessed using either the abstract object protocol (including *note
PyObject_CallMethod(): 301, *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 177f,
*note PyObject_Hash(): 373, *note PyObject_Repr(): ec3, *note
PyObject_IsTrue(): 48ab, *note PyObject_Print(): 183f, and *note
PyObject_GetIter(): 48a9.) or the abstract number protocol (including
*note PyNumber_And(): 487a, *note PyNumber_Subtract(): 4893, *note
PyNumber_Or(): 488e, *note PyNumber_Xor(): 4895, *note
PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 487f, *note PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 4887,
*note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 4883, and *note PyNumber_InPlaceXor():
4889.).

 -- C 型別: type PySetObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6d1. is used to hold the internal
     data for both *note set: 3cc. and *note frozenset: 3cd. objects.
     It is like a *note PyDictObject: 31c. in that it is a fixed size
     for small sets (much like tuple storage) and will point to a
     separate, variable sized block of memory for medium and large sized
     sets (much like list storage).  None of the fields of this
     structure should be considered public and all are subject to
     change.  All access should be done through the documented API
     rather than by manipulating the values in the structure.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PySet_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is an instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 8f8. representing the Python *note set: 3cc. type.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyFrozenSet_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is an instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 8f8. representing the Python *note frozenset: 3cd.
     type.

The following type check macros work on pointers to any Python object.
Likewise, the constructor functions work with any iterable Python
object.

 -- C 函式: int PySet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 3cc. object or an instance of a
     subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyFrozenSet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note frozenset: 3cd. object or an instance
     of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyAnySet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 3cc. object, a *note frozenset:
     3cd. object, or an instance of a subtype.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 3cc. object but not an instance
     of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyAnySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 3cc. object or a *note
     frozenset: 3cd. object but not an instance of a subtype.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note frozenset: 3cd. object but not an
     instance of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySet_New (PyObject *iterable)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new *note set: 3cc. containing objects returned by the 'iterable'.
     The 'iterable' may be ‘NULL’ to create a new empty set.  Return the
     new set on success or ‘NULL’ on failure.  Raise *note TypeError:
     2ba. if 'iterable' is not actually iterable.  The constructor is
     also useful for copying a set (‘c=set(s)’).

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFrozenSet_New (PyObject *iterable)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new *note frozenset: 3cd. containing objects returned by the
     'iterable'.  The 'iterable' may be ‘NULL’ to create a new empty
     frozenset.  Return the new set on success or ‘NULL’ on failure.
     Raise *note TypeError: 2ba. if 'iterable' is not actually iterable.

The following functions and macros are available for instances of *note
set: 3cc. or *note frozenset: 3cd. or instances of their subtypes.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PySet_Size (PyObject *anyset)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return the length of a *note set: 3cc. or *note frozenset: 3cd.
     object.  Equivalent to ‘len(anyset)’.  Raises a *note SystemError:
     304. if 'anyset' is not a *note set: 3cc, *note frozenset: 3cd, or
     an instance of a subtype.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PySet_GET_SIZE (PyObject *anyset)

     Macro form of *note PySet_Size(): 12bc. without error checking.

 -- C 函式: int PySet_Contains (PyObject *anyset, PyObject *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return ‘1’ if found, ‘0’ if
     not found, and ‘-1’ if an error is encountered.  Unlike the Python
     *note __contains__(): 1cef. method, this function does not
     automatically convert unhashable sets into temporary frozensets.
     Raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. if the 'key' is unhashable.  Raise
     *note SystemError: 304. if 'anyset' is not a *note set: 3cc, *note
     frozenset: 3cd, or an instance of a subtype.

 -- C 函式: int PySet_Add (PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Add 'key' to a *note set: 3cc.
     instance.  Also works with *note frozenset: 3cd. instances (like
     *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 4741. it can be used to fill in the values
     of brand new frozensets before they are exposed to other code).
     Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure.  Raise a *note TypeError:
     2ba. if the 'key' is unhashable.  Raise a *note MemoryError: 1460.
     if there is no room to grow.  Raise a *note SystemError: 304. if
     'set' is not an instance of *note set: 3cc. or its subtype.

The following functions are available for instances of *note set: 3cc.
or its subtypes but not for instances of *note frozenset: 3cd. or its
subtypes.

 -- C 函式: int PySet_Discard (PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return ‘1’ if found and
     removed, ‘0’ if not found (no action taken), and ‘-1’ if an error
     is encountered.  Does not raise *note KeyError: 8ed. for missing
     keys.  Raise a *note TypeError: 2ba. if the 'key' is unhashable.
     Unlike the Python *note discard(): 1fd4. method, this function does
     not automatically convert unhashable sets into temporary
     frozensets.  Raise *note SystemError: 304. if 'set' is not an
     instance of *note set: 3cc. or its subtype.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySet_Pop (PyObject *set)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new reference to an arbitrary object in the 'set', and removes the
     object from the 'set'.  Return ‘NULL’ on failure.  Raise *note
     KeyError: 8ed. if the set is empty.  Raise a *note SystemError:
     304. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set: 3cc. or its subtype.

 -- C 函式: int PySet_Clear (PyObject *set)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Empty an existing set of all
     elements.  Return ‘0’ on success.  Return ‘-1’ and raise *note
     SystemError: 304. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set: 3cc. or
     its subtype.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式物件<2>,  Next: 其他物件<2>,  Prev: 容器物件,  Up: 具體物件層

7.8.5 函式物件
--------------

* Menu:

* 函式物件 (Function Objects): 函式物件 Function Objects.
* 實例方法物件 (Instance Method Objects): 實例方法物件 Instance Method Objects.
* 方法物件 (Method Objects): 方法物件 Method Objects.
* Cell 物件::
* 程式碼物件::
* Extra information::


File: python.info,  Node: 函式物件 Function Objects,  Next: 實例方法物件 Instance Method Objects,  Up: 函式物件<2>

7.8.5.1 函式物件 (Function Objects)
...................................

這有一些特用於 Python 函式的函式。

 -- C 型別: type PyFunctionObject

     用於函式的 C 結構。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyFunction_Type

     這是個 *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. 的實例，且代表了 Python 函式型別，
     Python 程式設計者可透過 ‘types.FunctionType’ 使用它。

 -- C 函式: int PyFunction_Check (PyObject *o)

     如果 'o' 是個函式物件（擁有 *note PyFunction_Type: 4adb. 的型別）則
     回傳 true。參數必須不為 ‘NULL’。此函式必能成功執行。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFunction_New (PyObject *code,
          PyObject *globals)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳一個與程式碼物件 'code' 相關聯的函式物件。
     'globals' 必須是一個帶有函式能夠存取的全域變數的字典。

     函式的文件字串 (docstring) 和名稱是從程式碼物件所取得，*note
     __module__: 1c8e. 是自 'globals' 所取得。引數預設值、標註
     (annotation) 和閉包 (closure) 被設為 ‘NULL’，*note __qualname__:
     1c8d. 被設為和程式碼物件 *note co_qualname: 1cc9. 欄位相同的值。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFunction_NewWithQualName (PyObject
          *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject *qualname)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 和 *note PyFunction_New(): 4add. 相似，但也允
     許函式物件 *note __qualname__: 1c8d. 屬性的設定，'qualname' 應為一
     個 unicode 物件或是 ‘NULL’；如為 ‘NULL’，‘__qualname__’ 屬性會被設
     為與程式碼物件 *note co_qualname: 1cc9. 欄位相同的值。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFunction_GetCode (PyObject *op)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 回傳與程式碼物件相關的函式物件 'op'。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFunction_GetGlobals (PyObject *op)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 回傳與全域函式字典相關的函式物件 'op'。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFunction_GetModule (PyObject *op)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 回傳一個*note 函式物件: 1ab4. 'op' 之 *note
     __module__: 1c8e. 屬性的 *note borrowed reference: 47ba.，它可以是
     'NULL'。

     這通常是個包含模組名稱的*note 字串: 157.，但可以被 Python 程式設為
     任何其他物件。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFunction_GetDefaults (PyObject *op)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 回傳函式物件 'op' 的引數預設值，這可以是一個含
     有多個引數的 tuple（元組）或 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: int PyFunction_SetDefaults (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *defaults)

     設定函式物件 'op' 的引數預設值。'defaults' 必須是 ‘Py_None’ 或一個
     tuple。

     引發 *note SystemError: 304. 且在失敗時回傳 ‘-1’。

 -- C 函式: void PyFunction_SetVectorcall (PyFunctionObject *func,
          vectorcallfunc vectorcall)

     為一個給定的函式物件 'func' 設定 vectorcall 欄位。

     Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of
     the unaltered (default) vectorcall function!

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFunction_GetClosure (PyObject *op)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 回傳與函式物件 'op' 相關聯的閉包，這可以是個
     ‘NULL’ 或是一個包含 cell 物件的 tuple。

 -- C 函式: int PyFunction_SetClosure (PyObject *op, PyObject *closure)

     設定與函式物件 'op' 相關聯的閉包，'closure' 必須是 ‘Py_None’ 或是一
     個包含 cell 物件的 tuple。

     引發 *note SystemError: 304. 且在失敗時回傳 ‘-1’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFunction_GetAnnotations (PyObject
          *op)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 回傳函式物件 'op' 的標註，這可以是一個可變動的
     (mutable) 字典或 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: int PyFunction_SetAnnotations (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *annotations)

     設定函式物件 'op' 的標註，'annotations' 必須是一個字典或 ‘Py_None’。

     引發 *note SystemError: 304. 且在失敗時回傳 ‘-1’。

 -- C 函式: int PyFunction_AddWatcher (PyFunction_WatchCallback
          callback)

     Register 'callback' as a function watcher for the current
     interpreter.  Return an ID which may be passed to *note
     PyFunction_ClearWatcher(): 4ae8.  In case of error (e.g.  no more
     watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyFunction_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyFunction_AddWatcher(): 4ae7. for the current interpreter.
     Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g.
     if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type PyFunction_WatchEvent

     Enumeration of possible function watcher events: -
     ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’ - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’ -
     ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_CODE’ - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_DEFAULTS’
     - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_KWDEFAULTS’

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*PyFunction_WatchCallback)(*note
          PyFunction_WatchEvent: 4ae9. event, *note PyFunctionObject:
          2e9. *func, *note PyObject: 6d1. *new_value)

     Type of a function watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’ or
     ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’ then 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’.
     Otherwise, 'new_value' will hold a *note borrowed reference: 47ba.
     to the new value that is about to be stored in 'func' for the
     attribute that is being modified.

     The callback may inspect but must not modify 'func'; doing so could
     have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is
     invoked after ‘func’ has been fully initialized.  Otherwise, the
     callback is invoked before the modification to 'func' takes place,
     so the prior state of 'func' can be inspected.  The runtime is
     permitted to optimize away the creation of function objects when
     possible.  In such cases no event will be emitted.  Although this
     creates the possibility of an observable difference of runtime
     behavior depending on optimization decisions, it does not change
     the semantics of the Python code being executed.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’, Taking a reference in the
     callback to the about-to-be-destroyed function will resurrect it,
     preventing it from being freed at this time.  When the resurrected
     object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that
     time will be called again.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 17ca.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 實例方法物件 Instance Method Objects,  Next: 方法物件 Method Objects,  Prev: 函式物件 Function Objects,  Up: 函式物件<2>

7.8.5.2 實例方法物件 (Instance Method Objects)
..............................................

實例方法是 *note PyCFunction: 12e8. 的包裝器 (wrapper)，也是將 *note
PyCFunction: 12e8. 繫結 (bind) 到類別物件的一種新方式。它替代了原先對
‘PyMethod_New(func, NULL, class)’ 的呼叫。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyInstanceMethod_Type

     *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. 的實例代表 Python 實例方法型別。它不會公開
     (expose) 給 Python 程式。

 -- C 函式: int PyInstanceMethod_Check (PyObject *o)

     如果 'o' 是一個實例方法物件（型別為 *note PyInstanceMethod_Type:
     4aee.）則回傳 true。參數必須不為 ‘NULL’。此函式總是會成功執行。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyInstanceMethod_New (PyObject *func)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳一個新的實例方法物件，'func' 為任意可呼叫
     物件，在實例方法被呼叫時 'func' 函式也會被呼叫。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyInstanceMethod_Function (PyObject
          *im)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 回傳關聯到實例方法 'im' 的函式物件。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION
          (PyObject *im)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 巨集 (macro) 版本的 *note
     PyInstanceMethod_Function(): 4af1.，忽略了錯誤檢查。


File: python.info,  Node: 方法物件 Method Objects,  Next: Cell 物件,  Prev: 實例方法物件 Instance Method Objects,  Up: 函式物件<2>

7.8.5.3 方法物件 (Method Objects)
.................................

方法為繫結函式 (bound function) 物件。方法總是會被繫結到一個使用者定義類
別的實例。未繫結方法（繫結到一個類別的方法）已不可用。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyMethod_Type

     這個 *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. 實例代表 Python 方法型別。它作為
     ‘types.MethodType’ 公開給 Python 程式。

 -- C 函式: int PyMethod_Check (PyObject *o)

     如果 'o' 是一個方法物件（型別為 *note PyMethod_Type: 4af5.）則回傳
     true。參數必須不為 ‘NULL’。此函式總是會成功執行。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMethod_New (PyObject *func, PyObject
          *self)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳一個新的方法物件，'func' 應為任意可呼叫物
     件，'self' 為該方法應繫結的實例。在方法被呼叫時，'func' 函式也會被
     呼叫。'self' 必須不為 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMethod_Function (PyObject *meth)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 回傳關聯到方法 'meth' 的函式物件。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (PyObject *meth)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 巨集版本的 *note PyMethod_Function(): 4af8.，
     忽略了錯誤檢查。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMethod_Self (PyObject *meth)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 回傳關聯到方法 'meth' 的實例。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMethod_GET_SELF (PyObject *meth)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 巨集版本的 *note PyMethod_Self(): 4afa.，忽略
     了錯誤檢查。


File: python.info,  Node: Cell 物件,  Next: 程式碼物件,  Prev: 方法物件 Method Objects,  Up: 函式物件<2>

7.8.5.4 Cell 物件
.................

"Cell" 物件用於實現被多個作用域所參照 (reference) 的變數。對於每個這樣的
變數，都會有個 cell 物件為了儲存該值而被建立；參照該值的每個 stack frame
中的區域性變數包含外部作用域的 cell 參照，它同樣使用了該變數。存取該值時
，將使用 cell 中包含的值而不是 cell 物件本身。這種對 cell 物件的去除參照
(de-reference) 需要生成的位元組碼 (byte-code) 有支援；存取時不會自動去除
參照。cell 物件在其他地方可能不太有用。

 -- C 型別: type PyCellObject

     Cell 物件所用之 C 結構。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyCell_Type

     對應 cell 物件的物件型別。

 -- C 函式: int PyCell_Check (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 是一個 cell 物件則回傳真值；'ob' 必須不為 ‘NULL’。此函式
     總是會成功執行。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCell_New (PyObject *ob)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 建立並回傳一個包含 'ob' 的新 cell 物件。參數可
     以為 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCell_Get (PyObject *cell)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳 cell 物件 'cell' 的內容，其可能為 ‘NULL’。
     如果 'cell' 不是一個 cell 物件，則將回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCell_GET (PyObject *cell)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' 回傳 cell 物件 'cell' 的內容，但是不檢查
     'cell' 是否非 ‘NULL’ 並且為一個 cell 物件。

 -- C 函式: int PyCell_Set (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

     將 cell 物件 'cell' 的內容設為 'value'。這將釋放任何對 cell 物件當
     前內容的參照。'value' 可以為 ‘NULL’。'cell' 必須不為 ‘NULL’。

     在成功時回傳 ‘0’。如果 'cell' 不是一個 cell 物件，則將設定例外並回
     傳 ‘-1’。

 -- C 函式: void PyCell_SET (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

     將 cell 物件 'cell' 的值設為 'value'。不會調整參照計數，並且不會進
     行任何安全檢查；'cell' 必須為非 ‘NULL’ 並且為一個 cell 物件。


File: python.info,  Node: 程式碼物件,  Next: Extra information,  Prev: Cell 物件,  Up: 函式物件<2>

7.8.5.5 程式碼物件
..................

Code objects are a low-level detail of the CPython implementation.  Each
one represents a chunk of executable code that hasn't yet been bound
into a function.

 -- C 型別: type PyCodeObject

     The C structure of the objects used to describe code objects.  The
     fields of this type are subject to change at any time.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyCode_Type

     This is an instance of *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. representing the
     Python *note code object: 5ca.

 -- C 函式: int PyCode_Check (PyObject *co)

     Return true if 'co' is a *note code object: 5ca.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyCode_GetNumFree (PyCodeObject *co)

     Return the number of free variables in a code object.

 -- C 函式: int PyCode_GetFirstFree (PyCodeObject *co)

     Return the position of the first free variable in a code object.

 -- C 函式: *note PyCodeObject: 58e. *PyUnstable_Code_New (int argcount,
          int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int flags,
          PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject
          *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject
          *filename, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname, int
          firstlineno, PyObject *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Return a new code object.  If you need a dummy code object to
     create a frame, use *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 11e5. instead.

     Since the definition of the bytecode changes often, calling *note
     PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4b0b. directly can bind you to a precise
     Python version.

     The many arguments of this function are inter-dependent in complex
     ways, meaning that subtle changes to values are likely to result in
     incorrect execution or VM crashes.  Use this function only with
     extreme care.

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 ‘qualname’ 和 ‘exceptiontable’ 參數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: Renamed from ‘PyCode_New’ as part of *note
     不穩定的 C API: 2cb.  The old name is deprecated, but will remain
     available until the signature changes again.

 -- C 函式: *note PyCodeObject: 58e. *PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs
          (int argcount, int posonlyargcount, int kwonlyargcount, int
          nlocals, int stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject
          *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject
          *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject
          *name, PyObject *qualname, int firstlineno, PyObject
          *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Similar to *note PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4b0b, but with an extra
     "posonlyargcount" for positional-only arguments.  The same caveats
     that apply to ‘PyUnstable_Code_New’ also apply to this function.

     在 3.8 版被加入: as ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’

     在 3.11 版的變更: 新增 ‘qualname’ 和 ‘exceptiontable’ 參數。

     在 3.12 版的變更: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’.
     The old name is deprecated, but will remain available until the
     signature changes again.

 -- C 函式: *note PyCodeObject: 58e. *PyCode_NewEmpty (const char
          *filename, const char *funcname, int firstlineno)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Return a new empty code object with the
     specified filename, function name, and first line number.  The
     resulting code object will raise an ‘Exception’ if executed.

 -- C 函式: int PyCode_Addr2Line (PyCodeObject *co, int byte_offset)

     Return the line number of the instruction that occurs on or before
     ‘byte_offset’ and ends after it.  If you just need the line number
     of a frame, use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5a3. instead.

     For efficiently iterating over the line numbers in a code object,
     use the API described in PEP 626(1).

 -- C 函式: int PyCode_Addr2Location (PyObject *co, int byte_offset, int
          *start_line, int *start_column, int *end_line, int
          *end_column)

     Sets the passed ‘int’ pointers to the source code line and column
     numbers for the instruction at ‘byte_offset’.  Sets the value to
     ‘0’ when information is not available for any particular element.

     Returns ‘1’ if the function succeeds and 0 otherwise.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCode_GetCode (PyCodeObject *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_code')’.  Returns a
     strong reference to a *note PyBytesObject: 5ae. representing the
     bytecode in a code object.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an
     exception is raised.

     This ‘PyBytesObject’ may be created on-demand by the interpreter
     and does not necessarily represent the bytecode actually executed
     by CPython.  The primary use case for this function is debuggers
     and profilers.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCode_GetVarnames (PyCodeObject *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_varnames')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 498f. containing
     the names of the local variables.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and
     an exception is raised.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCode_GetCellvars (PyCodeObject *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_cellvars')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 498f. containing
     the names of the local variables that are referenced by nested
     functions.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is
     raised.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCode_GetFreevars (PyCodeObject *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_freevars')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 498f. containing
     the names of the free variables.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and
     an exception is raised.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyCode_AddWatcher (PyCode_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a code object watcher for the current
     interpreter.  Return an ID which may be passed to *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 2ef.  In case of error (e.g.  no more
     watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyCode_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 2ee. for the current interpreter.
     Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g.
     if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type PyCodeEvent

     Enumeration of possible code object watcher events: -
     ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’ - ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*PyCode_WatchCallback)(*note PyCodeEvent: 4b0d.
          event, *note PyCodeObject: 58e. *co)

     Type of a code object watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is invoked
     after ‘co’ has been fully initialized.  Otherwise, the callback is
     invoked before the destruction of 'co' takes place, so the prior
     state of 'co' can be inspected.

     If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’, taking a reference in the
     callback to the about-to-be-destroyed code object will resurrect it
     and prevent it from being freed at this time.  When the resurrected
     object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that
     time will be called again.

     Users of this API should not rely on internal runtime
     implementation details.  Such details may include, but are not
     limited to, the exact order and timing of creation and destruction
     of code objects.  While changes in these details may result in
     differences observable by watchers (including whether a callback is
     invoked or not), it does not change the semantics of the Python
     code being executed.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 17ca.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers


File: python.info,  Node: Extra information,  Prev: 程式碼物件,  Up: 函式物件<2>

7.8.5.6 Extra information
.........................

To support low-level extensions to frame evaluation, such as external
just-in-time compilers, it is possible to attach arbitrary extra data to
code objects.

These functions are part of the unstable C API tier: this functionality
is a CPython implementation detail, and the API may change without
deprecation warnings.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex
          (freefunc free)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Return a new an opaque index value used to adding data to code
     objects.

     You generally call this function once (per interpreter) and use the
     result with ‘PyCode_GetExtra’ and ‘PyCode_SetExtra’ to manipulate
     data on individual code objects.

     If 'free' is not ‘NULL’: when a code object is deallocated, 'free'
     will be called on non-‘NULL’ data stored under the new index.  Use
     *note Py_DecRef(): 4923. when storing *note PyObject: 6d1.

     在 3.6 版被加入: as ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’

     在 3.12 版的變更: Renamed to
     ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’.  The old private name is
     deprecated, but will be available until the API changes.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t
          index, void **extra)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Set 'extra' to the extra data stored under the given index.  Return
     0 on success.  Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

     If no data was set under the index, set 'extra' to ‘NULL’ and
     return 0 without setting an exception.

     在 3.6 版被加入: as ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’

     在 3.12 版的變更: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra’.  The old
     private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API
     changes.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t
          index, void *extra)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Set the extra data stored under the given index to 'extra'.  Return
     0 on success.  Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

     在 3.6 版被加入: as ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’

     在 3.12 版的變更: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra’.  The old
     private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API
     changes.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他物件<2>,  Prev: 函式物件<2>,  Up: 具體物件層

7.8.6 其他物件
--------------

* Menu:

* 檔案物件 (File Objects): 檔案物件 File Objects.
* 模組物件::
* 疊代器（Iterator）物件::
* Descriptor（描述器）物件::
* 切片物件::
* MemoryView 物件::
* 弱參照物件: 弱參照物件<2>.
* Capsules: Capsules<2>.
* Frame 物件::
* 產生器 (Generator) 物件: 產生器 Generator 物件.
* Coroutine（協程）物件::
* 情境變數物件::
* DateTime 物件::
* 型別提示物件::


File: python.info,  Node: 檔案物件 File Objects,  Next: 模組物件,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.1 檔案物件 (File Objects)
...............................

這些 API 是用於內建檔案物件的 Python 2 C API 的最小模擬 (minimal
emulation)，它過去依賴於 C 標準函式庫對於緩衝 I/O (FILE*) 的支援。在
Python 3 中，檔案和串流使用新的 *note io: 79. 模組，它在操作系統的低階無
緩衝 I/O 上定義了多個層級。下面描述的函式是這些新 API 的便捷 C 包裝器，
主要用於直譯器中的內部錯誤報告；建議第三方程式碼改為存取 *note io: 79.
API。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFile_FromFd (int fd, const char
          *name, const char *mode, int buffering, const char *encoding,
          const char *errors, const char *newline, int closefd)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     Python file object from the file descriptor of an already opened
     file 'fd'.  The arguments 'name', 'encoding', 'errors' and
     'newline' can be ‘NULL’ to use the defaults; 'buffering' can be
     '-1' to use the default.  'name' is ignored and kept for backward
     compatibility.  Return ‘NULL’ on failure.  For a more comprehensive
     description of the arguments, please refer to the *note io.open():
     29d. function documentation.

          警告: 由於 Python 串流有自己的緩衝層，將它們與操作系統層級檔案
          描述器混合使用會產生各種問題（例如資料的排序不符合預期）。

     在 3.2 版的變更: 忽略 'name' 屬性。

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (PyObject *p)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  回傳與 'p' 關聯的檔案描述器作
     為 int。如果物件是整數，則回傳其值。如果不是整數，則呼叫物件的
     *note fileno(): 25ca. 方法（如果存在）；該方法必須回傳一個整數，它
     作為檔案描述器值回傳。設定例外並在失敗時回傳 ‘-1’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFile_GetLine (PyObject *p, int n)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Equivalent to ‘p.readline([n])’, this function reads one line from
     the object 'p'.  'p' may be a file object or any object with a
     *note readline(): 11bd. method.  If 'n' is ‘0’, exactly one line is
     read, regardless of the length of the line.  If 'n' is greater than
     ‘0’, no more than 'n' bytes will be read from the file; a partial
     line can be returned.  In both cases, an empty string is returned
     if the end of the file is reached immediately.  If 'n' is less than
     ‘0’, however, one line is read regardless of length, but *note
     EOFError: 116a. is raised if the end of the file is reached
     immediately.

 -- C 函式: int PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (Py_OpenCodeHookFunction handler)

     覆蓋 *note io.open_code(): 14e4. 的正常行為以透過提供的處理程式
     (handler) 傳遞其參數。

     The 'handler' is a function of type:

      -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1.
               *(*Py_OpenCodeHookFunction)(*note PyObject: 6d1.*, void*)

          Equivalent of *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*)(*note PyObject: 6d1.
          *path, void *userData), where 'path' is guaranteed to be *note
          PyUnicodeObject: 5b0.

     'userData' 指標被傳遞到掛鉤函式 (hook function) 中。由於可能會從不
     同的執行環境 (runtime) 呼叫掛鉤函式，因此該指標不應直接指向 Python
     狀態。

     由於此掛鉤函式是在導入期間有意使用的，因此請避免在其執行期間導入新
     模組，除非它們已知有被凍結或在 ‘sys.modules’ 中可用。

     Once a hook has been set, it cannot be removed or replaced, and
     later calls to *note PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 14e7. will fail.  On
     failure, the function returns -1 and sets an exception if the
     interpreter has been initialized.

     在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫此函式是安全的。

     不帶引數地引發一個*note 稽核事件 (auditing event): 168e.
     ‘setopencodehook’。

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyFile_WriteObject (PyObject *obj, PyObject *p, int
          flags)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     將物件 'obj' 寫入檔案物件 'p'。 'flags' 唯一支援的旗標是 *note
     Py_PRINT_RAW: 49c8.；如果有給定，則寫入物件的 *note str(): 157. 而
     不是 *note repr(): 61e.。在成功回傳 ‘0’ 或在失敗回傳 ‘-1’；將設定適
     當的例外。

 -- C 函式: int PyFile_WriteString (const char *s, PyObject *p)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  寫入字串 's' 到 檔案物件 'p'。
     當成功時回傳 0，而當失敗時回傳 -1，並會設定合適的例外狀況。


File: python.info,  Node: 模組物件,  Next: 疊代器（Iterator）物件,  Prev: 檔案物件 File Objects,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.2 模組物件
................

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyModule_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents the Python
     module type.  This is exposed to Python programs as
     ‘types.ModuleType’.

 -- C 函式: int PyModule_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a module object, or a subtype of a module
     object.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyModule_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a module object, but not a subtype of *note
     PyModule_Type: 4877.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyModule_NewObject (PyObject *name)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'

     Return a new module object with *note module.__name__: 1217. set to
     'name'.  The module's ‘__name__’, *note __doc__: 1625, *note
     __package__: 245. and *note __loader__: 24d. attributes are filled
     in (all but ‘__name__’ are set to ‘None’).  The caller is
     responsible for setting a *note __file__: 1cae. attribute.

     在失敗時回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

     在 3.4 版的變更: *note __package__: 245. and *note __loader__: 24d.
     are now set to ‘None’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyModule_New (const char *name)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Similar to
     *note PyModule_NewObject(): 4875, but the name is a UTF-8 encoded
     string instead of a Unicode object.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyModule_GetDict (PyObject *module)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return the dictionary object that implements 'module"s namespace;
     this object is the same as the *note __dict__: 2e2. attribute of
     the module object.  If 'module' is not a module object (or a
     subtype of a module object), *note SystemError: 304. is raised and
     ‘NULL’ is returned.

     It is recommended extensions use other ‘PyModule_*’ and
     ‘PyObject_*’ functions rather than directly manipulate a module's
     *note __dict__: 2e2.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyModule_GetNameObject (PyObject
          *module)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'

     Return 'module"s *note __name__: 1217. value.  If the module does
     not provide one, or if it is not a string, *note SystemError: 304.
     is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: const char *PyModule_GetName (PyObject *module)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_GetNameObject(): 4873. but return the name encoded to
     ‘'utf-8'’.

 -- C 函式: void *PyModule_GetState (PyObject *module)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the "state" of the
     module, that is, a pointer to the block of memory allocated at
     module creation time, or ‘NULL’.  See *note PyModuleDef.m_size:
     7c3.

 -- C 函式: *note PyModuleDef: 7c1. *PyModule_GetDef (PyObject *module)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a pointer to the *note
     PyModuleDef: 7c1. struct from which the module was created, or
     ‘NULL’ if the module wasn't created from a definition.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyModule_GetFilenameObject (PyObject
          *module)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return the name of the file from which 'module' was loaded using
     'module"s *note __file__: 1cae. attribute.  If this is not defined,
     or if it is not a string, raise *note SystemError: 304. and return
     ‘NULL’; otherwise return a reference to a Unicode object.

     在 3.2 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: const char *PyModule_GetFilename (PyObject *module)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 36a. but return the filename encoded
     to 'utf-8'.

     在 3.2 版之後被棄用: *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 369. raises
     *note UnicodeEncodeError: 473. on unencodable filenames, use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 36a. instead.

* Menu:

* 初始化 C 模組::
* 模組查找::


File: python.info,  Node: 初始化 C 模組,  Next: 模組查找,  Up: 模組物件

7.8.6.3 初始化 C 模組
.....................

Modules objects are usually created from extension modules (shared
libraries which export an initialization function), or compiled-in
modules (where the initialization function is added using *note
PyImport_AppendInittab(): 156d.).  See *note 建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件:
472d. or *note Extending Embedded Python: 47a0. for details.

The initialization function can either pass a module definition instance
to *note PyModule_Create(): 472a, and return the resulting module
object, or request "multi-phase initialization" by returning the
definition struct itself.

 -- C 型別: type PyModuleDef
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. （包含所有成員）.'  The module
     definition struct, which holds all information needed to create a
     module object.  There is usually only one statically initialized
     variable of this type for each module.

      -- C 成員函數: PyModuleDef_Base m_base

          Always initialize this member to ‘PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT’.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *m_name

          Name for the new module.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *m_doc

          Docstring for the module; usually a docstring variable created
          with *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 174d. is used.

      -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. m_size

          Module state may be kept in a per-module memory area that can
          be retrieved with *note PyModule_GetState(): 7c4, rather than
          in static globals.  This makes modules safe for use in
          multiple sub-interpreters.

          This memory area is allocated based on 'm_size' on module
          creation, and freed when the module object is deallocated,
          after the *note m_free: 7c0. function has been called, if
          present.

          Setting ‘m_size’ to ‘-1’ means that the module does not
          support sub-interpreters, because it has global state.

          Setting it to a non-negative value means that the module can
          be re-initialized and specifies the additional amount of
          memory it requires for its state.  Non-negative ‘m_size’ is
          required for multi-phase initialization.

          更多詳情請見 PEP 3121(1)。

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyMethodDef: 134e. *m_methods

          A pointer to a table of module-level functions, described by
          *note PyMethodDef: 134e. values.  Can be ‘NULL’ if no
          functions are present.

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyModuleDef_Slot: 4b23. *m_slots

          An array of slot definitions for multi-phase initialization,
          terminated by a ‘{0, NULL}’ entry.  When using single-phase
          initialization, 'm_slots' must be ‘NULL’.

          在 3.5 版的變更: Prior to version 3.5, this member was always
          set to ‘NULL’, and was defined as:

                -- C 成員函數: *note inquiry: 493c. m_reload

      -- C 成員函數: *note traverseproc: 494b. m_traverse

          A traversal function to call during GC traversal of the module
          object, or ‘NULL’ if not needed.

          This function is not called if the module state was requested
          but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after
          the module is created and before the module is executed (*note
          Py_mod_exec: 7c2. function).  More precisely, this function is
          not called if *note m_size: 7c3. is greater than 0 and the
          module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 7c4.)
          is ‘NULL’.

          在 3.9 版的變更: No longer called before the module state is
          allocated.

      -- C 成員函數: *note inquiry: 493c. m_clear

          A clear function to call during GC clearing of the module
          object, or ‘NULL’ if not needed.

          This function is not called if the module state was requested
          but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after
          the module is created and before the module is executed (*note
          Py_mod_exec: 7c2. function).  More precisely, this function is
          not called if *note m_size: 7c3. is greater than 0 and the
          module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 7c4.)
          is ‘NULL’.

          Like *note PyTypeObject.tp_clear: 476b, this function is not
          'always' called before a module is deallocated.  For example,
          when reference counting is enough to determine that an object
          is no longer used, the cyclic garbage collector is not
          involved and *note m_free: 7c0. is called directly.

          在 3.9 版的變更: No longer called before the module state is
          allocated.

      -- C 成員函數: *note freefunc: 4b25. m_free

          A function to call during deallocation of the module object,
          or ‘NULL’ if not needed.

          This function is not called if the module state was requested
          but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after
          the module is created and before the module is executed (*note
          Py_mod_exec: 7c2. function).  More precisely, this function is
          not called if *note m_size: 7c3. is greater than 0 and the
          module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 7c4.)
          is ‘NULL’.

          在 3.9 版的變更: No longer called before the module state is
          allocated.

* Menu:

* Single-phase initialization::
* Multi-phase initialization::
* Low-level module creation functions::
* 支援的函式::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/


File: python.info,  Node: Single-phase initialization,  Next: Multi-phase initialization,  Up: 初始化 C 模組

7.8.6.4 Single-phase initialization
...................................

The module initialization function may create and return the module
object directly.  This is referred to as "single-phase initialization",
and uses one of the following two module creation functions:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyModule_Create (PyModuleDef *def)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Create a new module object, given the
     definition in 'def'.  This behaves like *note PyModule_Create2():
     486f. with 'module_api_version' set to ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyModule_Create2 (PyModuleDef *def,
          int module_api_version)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     new module object, given the definition in 'def', assuming the API
     version 'module_api_version'.  If that version does not match the
     version of the running interpreter, a *note RuntimeWarning: 8e7. is
     emitted.

     在失敗時回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。

          備註: Most uses of this function should be using *note
          PyModule_Create(): 472a. instead; only use this if you are
          sure you need it.

Before it is returned from in the initialization function, the resulting
module object is typically populated using functions like *note
PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6c9.


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-phase initialization,  Next: Low-level module creation functions,  Prev: Single-phase initialization,  Up: 初始化 C 模組

7.8.6.5 Multi-phase initialization
..................................

An alternate way to specify extensions is to request "multi-phase
initialization".  Extension modules created this way behave more like
Python modules: the initialization is split between the 'creation
phase', when the module object is created, and the 'execution phase',
when it is populated.  The distinction is similar to the ‘__new__()’ and
‘__init__()’ methods of classes.

Unlike modules created using single-phase initialization, these modules
are not singletons: if the 'sys.modules' entry is removed and the module
is re-imported, a new module object is created, and the old module is
subject to normal garbage collection - as with Python modules.  By
default, multiple modules created from the same definition should be
independent: changes to one should not affect the others.  This means
that all state should be specific to the module object (using e.g.
using *note PyModule_GetState(): 7c4.), or its contents (such as the
module's *note __dict__: 2e2. or individual classes created with *note
PyType_FromSpec(): 30c.).

All modules created using multi-phase initialization are expected to
support *note sub-interpreters: 316.  Making sure multiple modules are
independent is typically enough to achieve this.

To request multi-phase initialization, the initialization function
(PyInit_modulename) returns a *note PyModuleDef: 7c1. instance with
non-empty *note m_slots: 4b22.  Before it is returned, the ‘PyModuleDef’
instance must be initialized with the following function:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyModuleDef_Init (PyModuleDef *def)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.5 版本
     開始.'  Ensures a module definition is a properly initialized
     Python object that correctly reports its type and reference count.

     Returns 'def' cast to ‘PyObject*’, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

The 'm_slots' member of the module definition must point to an array of
‘PyModuleDef_Slot’ structures:

 -- C 型別: type PyModuleDef_Slot

      -- C 成員函數: int slot

          A slot ID, chosen from the available values explained below.

      -- C 成員函數: void *value

          Value of the slot, whose meaning depends on the slot ID.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

The 'm_slots' array must be terminated by a slot with id 0.

The available slot types are:

 -- C 巨集: Py_mod_create

     Specifies a function that is called to create the module object
     itself.  The 'value' pointer of this slot must point to a function
     of the signature:

      -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *create_module (PyObject *spec,
               PyModuleDef *def)

     The function receives a *note ModuleSpec: 1ca9. instance, as
     defined in PEP 451(1), and the module definition.  It should return
     a new module object, or set an error and return ‘NULL’.

     This function should be kept minimal.  In particular, it should not
     call arbitrary Python code, as trying to import the same module
     again may result in an infinite loop.

     Multiple ‘Py_mod_create’ slots may not be specified in one module
     definition.

     If ‘Py_mod_create’ is not specified, the import machinery will
     create a normal module object using *note PyModule_New(): 4874.
     The name is taken from 'spec', not the definition, to allow
     extension modules to dynamically adjust to their place in the
     module hierarchy and be imported under different names through
     symlinks, all while sharing a single module definition.

     There is no requirement for the returned object to be an instance
     of *note PyModule_Type: 4877.  Any type can be used, as long as it
     supports setting and getting import-related attributes.  However,
     only ‘PyModule_Type’ instances may be returned if the ‘PyModuleDef’
     has non-‘NULL’ ‘m_traverse’, ‘m_clear’, ‘m_free’; non-zero
     ‘m_size’; or slots other than ‘Py_mod_create’.

 -- C 巨集: Py_mod_exec

     Specifies a function that is called to 'execute' the module.  This
     is equivalent to executing the code of a Python module: typically,
     this function adds classes and constants to the module.  The
     signature of the function is:

      -- C 函式: int exec_module (PyObject *module)

     If multiple ‘Py_mod_exec’ slots are specified, they are processed
     in the order they appear in the 'm_slots' array.

 -- C 巨集: Py_mod_multiple_interpreters

     Specifies one of the following values:

      -- C 巨集: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED

          The module does not support being imported in subinterpreters.

      -- C 巨集: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED

          The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, but
          only when they share the main interpreter's GIL. (See *note
          隔離擴充模組: 4b30.)

      -- C 巨集: Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED

          The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, even
          when they have their own GIL. (See *note 隔離擴充模組: 4b30.)

     This slot determines whether or not importing this module in a
     subinterpreter will fail.

     Multiple ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ slots may not be specified
     in one module definition.

     If ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ is not specified, the import
     machinery defaults to ‘Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED’.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

See PEP 489(2) for more details on multi-phase initialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Low-level module creation functions,  Next: 支援的函式,  Prev: Multi-phase initialization,  Up: 初始化 C 模組

7.8.6.6 Low-level module creation functions
...........................................

The following functions are called under the hood when using multi-phase
initialization.  They can be used directly, for example when creating
module objects dynamically.  Note that both ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’
and ‘PyModule_ExecDef’ must be called to fully initialize a module.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (PyModuleDef
          *def, PyObject *spec)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Create a new module object, given the
     definition in 'def' and the ModuleSpec 'spec'.  This behaves like
     *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): d34. with 'module_api_version'
     set to ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2 (PyModuleDef
          *def, PyObject *spec, int module_api_version)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Create a new module object, given the definition in 'def'
     and the ModuleSpec 'spec', assuming the API version
     'module_api_version'.  If that version does not match the version
     of the running interpreter, a *note RuntimeWarning: 8e7. is
     emitted.

     在失敗時回傳 ‘NULL’ 並設定例外。

          備註: Most uses of this function should be using *note
          PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): d33. instead; only use this if you
          are sure you need it.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyModule_ExecDef (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Process any
     execution slots (*note Py_mod_exec: 7c2.) given in 'def'.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyModule_SetDocString (PyObject *module, const char
          *docstring)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Set the
     docstring for 'module' to 'docstring'.  This function is called
     automatically when creating a module from ‘PyModuleDef’, using
     either ‘PyModule_Create’ or ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyModule_AddFunctions (PyObject *module, PyMethodDef
          *functions)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Add the
     functions from the ‘NULL’ terminated 'functions' array to 'module'.
     Refer to the *note PyMethodDef: 134e. documentation for details on
     individual entries (due to the lack of a shared module namespace,
     module level "functions" implemented in C typically receive the
     module as their first parameter, making them similar to instance
     methods on Python classes).  This function is called automatically
     when creating a module from ‘PyModuleDef’, using either
     ‘PyModule_Create’ or ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’.

     在 3.5 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 支援的函式,  Prev: Low-level module creation functions,  Up: 初始化 C 模組

7.8.6.7 支援的函式
..................

The module initialization function (if using single phase
initialization) or a function called from a module execution slot (if
using multi-phase initialization), can use the following functions to
help initialize the module state:

 -- C 函式: int PyModule_AddObjectRef (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, PyObject *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Add an
     object to 'module' as 'name'.  This is a convenience function which
     can be used from the module's initialization function.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, raise an exception and return
     ‘-1’.

     Return ‘-1’ if 'value' is ‘NULL’.  It must be called with an
     exception raised in this case.

     用法範例：

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              if (obj == NULL) {
                  return -1;
              }
              int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
              Py_DECREF(obj);
              return res;
           }

     The example can also be written without checking explicitly if
     'obj' is ‘NULL’:

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
              Py_XDECREF(obj);
              return res;
           }

     Note that ‘Py_XDECREF()’ should be used instead of ‘Py_DECREF()’ in
     this case, since 'obj' can be ‘NULL’.

     The number of different 'name' strings passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by only using statically allocated
     strings as 'name'.  For names that aren't known at compile time,
     prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 479e. and *note
     PyObject_SetAttr(): 48ae. directly.  For more details, see *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 13e6, which may be used internally to
     create a key object.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyModule_AddObject (PyObject *module, const char *name,
          PyObject *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6c9, but steals a reference to 'value' on
     success (if it returns ‘0’).

     The new *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6c9. function is
     recommended, since it is easy to introduce reference leaks by
     misusing the *note PyModule_AddObject(): 6ca. function.

          備註: Unlike other functions that steal references,
          ‘PyModule_AddObject()’ only releases the reference to 'value'
          'on success'.

          This means that its return value must be checked, and calling
          code must *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 'value' manually on error.

     用法範例：

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              if (obj == NULL) {
                  return -1;
              }
              if (PyModule_AddObject(module, "spam", obj) < 0) {
                  Py_DECREF(obj);
                  return -1;
              }
              // PyModule_AddObject() stole a reference to obj:
              // Py_DECREF(obj) is not needed here
              return 0;
          }

     The example can also be written without checking explicitly if
     'obj' is ‘NULL’:

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              if (PyModule_AddObject(module, "spam", obj) < 0) {
                  Py_XDECREF(obj);
                  return -1;
              }
              // PyModule_AddObject() stole a reference to obj:
              // Py_DECREF(obj) is not needed here
              return 0;
          }

     Note that ‘Py_XDECREF()’ should be used instead of ‘Py_DECREF()’ in
     this case, since 'obj' can be ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: int PyModule_AddIntConstant (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, long value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Add an integer constant to
     'module' as 'name'.  This convenience function can be used from the
     module's initialization function.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception
     set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     This is a convenience function that calls *note PyLong_FromLong():
     160b. and *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6c9.; see their
     documentation for details.

 -- C 函式: int PyModule_AddStringConstant (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, const char *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Add a string constant to
     'module' as 'name'.  This convenience function can be used from the
     module's initialization function.  The string 'value' must be
     ‘NULL’-terminated.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’
     on success.

     This is a convenience function that calls *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 13e6. and *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6c9.; see their documentation for details.

 -- C 巨集: PyModule_AddIntMacro (module, macro)

     Add an int constant to 'module'.  The name and the value are taken
     from 'macro'.  For example ‘PyModule_AddIntMacro(module, AF_INET)’
     adds the int constant 'AF_INET' with the value of 'AF_INET' to
     'module'.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on
     success.

 -- C 巨集: PyModule_AddStringMacro (module, macro)

     Add a string constant to 'module'.

 -- C 函式: int PyModule_AddType (PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *type)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Add a type
     object to 'module'.  The type object is finalized by calling
     internally *note PyType_Ready(): 595.  The name of the type object
     is taken from the last component of *note tp_name: 16c8. after dot.
     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     在 3.9 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 模組查找,  Prev: 初始化 C 模組,  Up: 模組物件

7.8.6.8 模組查找
................

Single-phase initialization creates singleton modules that can be looked
up in the context of the current interpreter.  This allows the module
object to be retrieved later with only a reference to the module
definition.

These functions will not work on modules created using multi-phase
initialization, since multiple such modules can be created from a single
definition.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyState_FindModule (PyModuleDef *def)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns
     the module object that was created from 'def' for the current
     interpreter.  This method requires that the module object has been
     attached to the interpreter state with *note PyState_AddModule():
     48c9. beforehand.  In case the corresponding module object is not
     found or has not been attached to the interpreter state yet, it
     returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: int PyState_AddModule (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.3 版本開始.'  Attaches the
     module object passed to the function to the interpreter state.
     This allows the module object to be accessible via *note
     PyState_FindModule(): 48ca.

     Only effective on modules created using single-phase
     initialization.

     Python calls ‘PyState_AddModule’ automatically after importing a
     module, so it is unnecessary (but harmless) to call it from module
     initialization code.  An explicit call is needed only if the
     module's own init code subsequently calls ‘PyState_FindModule’.
     The function is mainly intended for implementing alternative import
     mechanisms (either by calling it directly, or by referring to its
     implementation for details of the required state updates).

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     成功時回傳 ‘0’，在失敗時回傳 ‘-1’ 並設定例外。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyState_RemoveModule (PyModuleDef *def)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.3 版本開始.'  Removes the
     module object created from 'def' from the interpreter state.
     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     在 3.3 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: 疊代器（Iterator）物件,  Next: Descriptor（描述器）物件,  Prev: 模組物件,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.9 疊代器（Iterator）物件
..............................

Python 提供了兩種通用的疊代器 (iterator) 物件，第一種是序列疊代器
(sequence iterator)，適用於支援 *note __getitem__(): 4e7. 方法的任意序列
，第二種是與可呼叫 (callable) 物件和哨兵值 (sentinel value) 一起使用，會
呼叫序列中的每個可呼叫物件，當回傳哨兵值時就結束疊代。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PySeqIter_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  此型別物件用於由 *note
     PySeqIter_New(): 48b2. 所回傳的疊代器物件以及用於內建序列型別的內建
     函式 *note iter(): 5f7. 的單引數形式。

 -- C 函式: int PySeqIter_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if the type of 'op' is *note PySeqIter_Type: 48b3.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySeqIter_New (PyObject *seq)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return an
     iterator that works with a general sequence object, 'seq'.  The
     iteration ends when the sequence raises *note IndexError: 13ac. for
     the subscripting operation.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyCallIter_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Type object for iterator
     objects returned by *note PyCallIter_New(): 47e8. and the
     two-argument form of the *note iter(): 5f7. built-in function.

 -- C 函式: int PyCallIter_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if the type of 'op' is *note PyCallIter_Type: 47e9.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCallIter_New (PyObject *callable,
          PyObject *sentinel)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new iterator.  The first parameter, 'callable', can be any Python
     callable object that can be called with no parameters; each call to
     it should return the next item in the iteration.  When 'callable'
     returns a value equal to 'sentinel', the iteration will be
     terminated.


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor（描述器）物件,  Next: 切片物件,  Prev: 疊代器（Iterator）物件,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.10 Descriptor（描述器）物件
.................................

"Descriptor" 是描述物件某些屬性的物件，它們存在於型別物件的 dictionary（
字典）中。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyProperty_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  內建 descriptor 型別的型別物件
     。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDescr_NewGetSet (PyTypeObject *type,
          struct PyGetSetDef *getset)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDescr_NewMember (PyTypeObject *type,
          struct PyMemberDef *meth)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDescr_NewMethod (PyTypeObject *type,
          struct PyMethodDef *meth)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDescr_NewWrapper (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct wrapperbase *wrapper, void *wrapped)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDescr_NewClassMethod (PyTypeObject
          *type, PyMethodDef *method)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 函式: int PyDescr_IsData (PyObject *descr)

     如果 descriptor 物件 'descr' 描述的是一個資料屬性則回傳非零值，或者
     如果它描述的是一個方法則返回 ‘0’。'descr' 必須為一個 descriptor 物
     件；沒有錯誤檢查。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyWrapper_New (PyObject*, PyObject*)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'


File: python.info,  Node: 切片物件,  Next: MemoryView 物件,  Prev: Descriptor（描述器）物件,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.11 切片物件
.................

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PySlice_Type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  The type object for slice
     objects.  This is the same as *note slice: 180. in the Python
     layer.

 -- C 函式: int PySlice_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a slice object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PySlice_New (PyObject *start, PyObject
          *stop, PyObject *step)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     new slice object with the given values.  The 'start', 'stop', and
     'step' parameters are used as the values of the slice object
     attributes of the same names.  Any of the values may be ‘NULL’, in
     which case the ‘None’ will be used for the corresponding attribute.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set if the new object could not be
     allocated.

 -- C 函式: int PySlice_GetIndices (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t length,
          Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Retrieve the start, stop and
     step indices from the slice object 'slice', assuming a sequence of
     length 'length'.  Treats indices greater than 'length' as errors.

     Returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on error with no exception set
     (unless one of the indices was not ‘None’ and failed to be
     converted to an integer, in which case ‘-1’ is returned with an
     exception set).

     You probably do not want to use this function.

     在 3.2 版的變更: The parameter type for the 'slice' parameter was
     ‘PySliceObject*’ before.

 -- C 函式: int PySlice_GetIndicesEx (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step,
          Py_ssize_t *slicelength)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Usable replacement for *note
     PySlice_GetIndices(): 48c6.  Retrieve the start, stop, and step
     indices from the slice object 'slice' assuming a sequence of length
     'length', and store the length of the slice in 'slicelength'.  Out
     of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the
     handling of normal slices.

     成功時回傳 ‘0’ ，在失敗時回傳 ‘-1’ 並設定例外。

          備註: This function is considered not safe for resizable
          sequences.  Its invocation should be replaced by a combination
          of *note PySlice_Unpack(): 36e. and *note
          PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 36f. where

               if (PySlice_GetIndicesEx(slice, length, &start, &stop, &step, &slicelength) < 0) {
                   // return error
               }

          is replaced by

               if (PySlice_Unpack(slice, &start, &stop, &step) < 0) {
                   // return error
               }
               slicelength = PySlice_AdjustIndices(length, &start, &stop, step);

     在 3.2 版的變更: The parameter type for the 'slice' parameter was
     ‘PySliceObject*’ before.

     在 3.6.1 版的變更: If ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is not set or set to the
     value between ‘0x03050400’ and ‘0x03060000’ (not including) or
     ‘0x03060100’ or higher ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’ is implemented as a
     macro using ‘PySlice_Unpack()’ and ‘PySlice_AdjustIndices()’.
     Arguments 'start', 'stop' and 'step' are evaluated more than once.

     在 3.6.1 版之後被棄用: If ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is set to the value less
     than ‘0x03050400’ or between ‘0x03060000’ and ‘0x03060100’ (not
     including) ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’ is a deprecated function.

 -- C 函式: int PySlice_Unpack (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t *start,
          Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Extract the
     start, stop and step data members from a slice object as C
     integers.  Silently reduce values larger than ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ to
     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’, silently boost the start and stop values less
     than ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’ to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’, and silently boost the
     step values less than ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ to ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’.

     成功時回傳 ‘0’，在失敗時回傳 ‘-1’ 並設定例外。

     在 3.6.1 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PySlice_AdjustIndices (Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t step)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Adjust
     start/end slice indices assuming a sequence of the specified
     length.  Out of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent
     with the handling of normal slices.

     Return the length of the slice.  Always successful.  Doesn't call
     Python code.

     在 3.6.1 版被加入.

* Menu:

* Ellipsis Object::


File: python.info,  Node: Ellipsis Object,  Up: 切片物件

7.8.6.12 Ellipsis Object
........................

 -- C 變數: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_Ellipsis

     The Python ‘Ellipsis’ object.  This object has no methods.  Like
     *note Py_None: 4726, it is an immortal(1).  singleton object.

     在 3.12 版的變更: *note Py_Ellipsis: 4b43. 為不滅的 (immortal)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/


File: python.info,  Node: MemoryView 物件,  Next: 弱參照物件<2>,  Prev: 切片物件,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.13 MemoryView 物件
........................

A *note memoryview: 17f. object exposes the C level *note buffer
interface: 148. as a Python object which can then be passed around like
any other object.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMemoryView_FromObject (PyObject
          *obj)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     memoryview object from an object that provides the buffer
     interface.  If 'obj' supports writable buffer exports, the
     memoryview object will be read/write, otherwise it may be either
     read-only or read/write at the discretion of the exporter.

 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_READ

     Flag to request a readonly buffer.

 -- C 巨集: PyBUF_WRITE

     Flag to request a writable buffer.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMemoryView_FromMemory (char *mem,
          Py_ssize_t size, int flags)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本
     開始.'  Create a memoryview object using 'mem' as the underlying
     buffer.  'flags' can be one of *note PyBUF_READ: 4b46. or *note
     PyBUF_WRITE: 4b47.

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (const
          Py_buffer *view)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本
     開始.'  Create a memoryview object wrapping the given buffer
     structure 'view'.  For simple byte buffers, *note
     PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1003. is the preferred function.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMemoryView_GetContiguous (PyObject
          *obj, int buffertype, char order)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     memoryview object to a *note contiguous: 1fbe. chunk of memory (in
     either 'C' or 'F'ortran 'order') from an object that defines the
     buffer interface.  If memory is contiguous, the memoryview object
     points to the original memory.  Otherwise, a copy is made and the
     memoryview points to a new bytes object.

     'buffertype' can be one of *note PyBUF_READ: 4b46. or *note
     PyBUF_WRITE: 4b47.

 -- C 函式: int PyMemoryView_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a memoryview object.  It is not
     currently allowed to create subclasses of *note memoryview: 17f.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_buffer: 56b. *PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER (PyObject
          *mview)

     Return a pointer to the memoryview's private copy of the exporter's
     buffer.  'mview' 'must' be a memoryview instance; this macro
     doesn't check its type, you must do it yourself or you will risk
     crashes.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (PyObject
          *mview)

     Return either a pointer to the exporting object that the memoryview
     is based on or ‘NULL’ if the memoryview has been created by one of
     the functions *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1003. or *note
     PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 577.  'mview' 'must' be a memoryview
     instance.


File: python.info,  Node: 弱參照物件<2>,  Next: Capsules<2>,  Prev: MemoryView 物件,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.14 弱參照物件
...................

Python supports 'weak references' as first-class objects.  There are two
specific object types which directly implement weak references.  The
first is a simple reference object, and the second acts as a proxy for
the original object as much as it can.

 -- C 函式: int PyWeakref_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is either a reference or proxy object.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyWeakref_CheckRef (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a reference object.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyWeakref_CheckProxy (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a proxy object.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyWeakref_NewRef (PyObject *ob,
          PyObject *callback)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     weak reference object for the object 'ob'.  This will always return
     a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new object; an
     existing reference object may be returned.  The second parameter,
     'callback', can be a callable object that receives notification
     when 'ob' is garbage collected; it should accept a single
     parameter, which will be the weak reference object itself.
     'callback' may also be ‘None’ or ‘NULL’.  If 'ob' is not a weakly
     referenceable object, or if 'callback' is not callable, ‘None’, or
     ‘NULL’, this will return ‘NULL’ and raise *note TypeError: 2ba.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyWeakref_NewProxy (PyObject *ob,
          PyObject *callback)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     weak reference proxy object for the object 'ob'.  This will always
     return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new
     object; an existing proxy object may be returned.  The second
     parameter, 'callback', can be a callable object that receives
     notification when 'ob' is garbage collected; it should accept a
     single parameter, which will be the weak reference object itself.
     'callback' may also be ‘None’ or ‘NULL’.  If 'ob' is not a weakly
     referenceable object, or if 'callback' is not callable, ‘None’, or
     ‘NULL’, this will return ‘NULL’ and raise *note TypeError: 2ba.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyWeakref_GetObject (PyObject *ref)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the
     referenced object from a weak reference, 'ref'.  If the referent is
     no longer live, returns ‘Py_None’.

          備註: This function returns a *note borrowed reference: 47ba.
          to the referenced object.  This means that you should always
          call *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. on the object except when it
          cannot be destroyed before the last usage of the borrowed
          reference.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (PyObject *ref)
     '回傳值：借用參照。' Similar to *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 356,
     but does no error checking.

 -- C 函式: void PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (PyObject *object)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This function is called by the
     *note tp_dealloc: 4758. handler to clear weak references.

     This iterates through the weak references for 'object' and calls
     callbacks for those references which have one.  It returns when all
     callbacks have been attempted.


File: python.info,  Node: Capsules<2>,  Next: Frame 物件,  Prev: 弱參照物件<2>,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.15 Capsules
.................

Refer to *note Providing a C API for an Extension Module: 11ec. for more
information on using these objects.

在 3.1 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type PyCapsule

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6d1. represents an opaque value,
     useful for C extension modules who need to pass an opaque value (as
     a void* pointer) through Python code to other C code.  It is often
     used to make a C function pointer defined in one module available
     to other modules, so the regular import mechanism can be used to
     access C APIs defined in dynamically loaded modules.

 -- C 型別: type PyCapsule_Destructor
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  The type of a destructor
     callback for a capsule.  Defined as:

          typedef void (*PyCapsule_Destructor)(PyObject *);

     See *note PyCapsule_New(): 474c. for the semantics of
     PyCapsule_Destructor callbacks.

 -- C 函式: int PyCapsule_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyCapsule: 1107.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCapsule_New (void *pointer, const
          char *name, PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a
     *note PyCapsule: 1107. encapsulating the 'pointer'.  The 'pointer'
     argument may not be ‘NULL’.

     On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     The 'name' string may either be ‘NULL’ or a pointer to a valid C
     string.  If non-‘NULL’, this string must outlive the capsule.
     (Though it is permitted to free it inside the 'destructor'.)

     If the 'destructor' argument is not ‘NULL’, it will be called with
     the capsule as its argument when it is destroyed.

     If this capsule will be stored as an attribute of a module, the
     'name' should be specified as ‘modulename.attributename’.  This
     will enable other modules to import the capsule using *note
     PyCapsule_Import(): 1640.

 -- C 函式: void *PyCapsule_GetPointer (PyObject *capsule, const char
          *name)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Retrieve the 'pointer' stored
     in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     The 'name' parameter must compare exactly to the name stored in the
     capsule.  If the name stored in the capsule is ‘NULL’, the 'name'
     passed in must also be ‘NULL’.  Python uses the C function
     ‘strcmp()’ to compare capsule names.

 -- C 函式: *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 47eb. PyCapsule_GetDestructor
          (PyObject *capsule)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the current destructor
     stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and return
     ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ destructor.  This makes
     a ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 11eb. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C 函式: void *PyCapsule_GetContext (PyObject *capsule)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the current context
     stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and return
     ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ context.  This makes a
     ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 11eb. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C 函式: const char *PyCapsule_GetName (PyObject *capsule)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the current name stored
     in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ name.  This makes a
     ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 11eb. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 16c7. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C 函式: void *PyCapsule_Import (const char *name, int no_block)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Import a pointer to a C object
     from a capsule attribute in a module.  The 'name' parameter should
     specify the full name to the attribute, as in ‘module.attribute’.
     The 'name' stored in the capsule must match this string exactly.

     Return the capsule's internal 'pointer' on success.  On failure,
     set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     在 3.3 版的變更: 'no_block' has no effect anymore.

 -- C 函式: int PyCapsule_IsValid (PyObject *capsule, const char *name)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Determines whether or not
     'capsule' is a valid capsule.  A valid capsule is non-‘NULL’,
     passes *note PyCapsule_CheckExact(): 4b53, has a non-‘NULL’ pointer
     stored in it, and its internal name matches the 'name' parameter.
     (See *note PyCapsule_GetPointer(): 47ef. for information on how
     capsule names are compared.)

     In other words, if *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 11eb. returns a true
     value, calls to any of the accessors (any function starting with
     ‘PyCapsule_Get’) are guaranteed to succeed.

     Return a nonzero value if the object is valid and matches the name
     passed in.  Return ‘0’ otherwise.  This function will not fail.

 -- C 函式: int PyCapsule_SetContext (PyObject *capsule, void *context)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the context pointer inside
     'capsule' to 'context'.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C 函式: int PyCapsule_SetDestructor (PyObject *capsule,
          PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the destructor inside
     'capsule' to 'destructor'.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C 函式: int PyCapsule_SetName (PyObject *capsule, const char *name)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the name inside 'capsule'
     to 'name'.  If non-‘NULL’, the name must outlive the capsule.  If
     the previous 'name' stored in the capsule was not ‘NULL’, no
     attempt is made to free it.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C 函式: int PyCapsule_SetPointer (PyObject *capsule, void *pointer)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the void pointer inside
     'capsule' to 'pointer'.  The pointer may not be ‘NULL’.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.


File: python.info,  Node: Frame 物件,  Next: 產生器 Generator 物件,  Prev: Capsules<2>,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.16 Frame 物件
...................

 -- C 型別: type PyFrameObject
     ' 為 *note 受限 API 的一部分: 2d8. （做為一個不透明結構 (opaque
     struct)）.'  用來描述 frame 物件的 C 結構。

     在這個結構中沒有公開的成員。

     在 3.11 版的變更: The members of this structure were removed from
     the public C API. Refer to the *note What's New entry: 5a0. for
     details.

The *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 1588. and *note PyThreadState_GetFrame():
5a7. functions can be used to get a frame object.

See also *note Reflection: 49b9.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyFrame_Type

     The type of frame objects.  It is the same object as *note
     types.FrameType: 1624. in the Python layer.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Previously, this type was only available after
     including ‘<frameobject.h>’.

 -- C 函式: int PyFrame_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return non-zero if 'obj' is a frame object.

     在 3.11 版的變更: Previously, this function was only available
     after including ‘<frameobject.h>’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyFrameObject: 5a1. *PyFrame_GetBack (PyFrameObject
          *frame)

     Get the 'frame' next outer frame.

     Return a *note strong reference: 5a8, or ‘NULL’ if 'frame' has no
     outer frame.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFrame_GetBuiltins (PyFrameObject
          *frame)

     取得 'frame' 的 *note f_builtins: 1cde. 屬性。

     回傳 *note strong reference: 5a8.。結果不能為 ‘NULL’。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyCodeObject: 58e. *PyFrame_GetCode (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Get the
     'frame' code.

     回傳 *note strong reference: 5a8.。

     The result (frame code) cannot be ‘NULL’.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFrame_GetGenerator (PyFrameObject
          *frame)

     Get the generator, coroutine, or async generator that owns this
     frame, or ‘NULL’ if this frame is not owned by a generator.  Does
     not raise an exception, even if the return value is ‘NULL’.

     回傳 *note strong reference: 5a8. 或 ‘NULL’。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFrame_GetGlobals (PyFrameObject
          *frame)

     取得 'frame' 的 *note f_globals: 1cdd. 屬性。

     回傳 *note strong reference: 5a8.。結果不能為 ‘NULL’。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyFrame_GetLasti (PyFrameObject *frame)

     取得 'frame' 的 *note f_lasti: 6b6. 屬性。

     如果 ‘frame.f_lasti’ 是 ‘None’ 則回傳 -1。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFrame_GetVar (PyFrameObject *frame,
          PyObject *name)

     取得 'frame' 的變數 'name'。

        * 在成功時回傳變數值的 *note strong reference: 5a8.。

        * 如果變數不存在，則引發 *note NameError: 144. 並回傳 ‘NULL’。

        * 在錯誤時引發例外並回傳 ‘NULL’。

     'name' 的型別必須是 *note str: 157.。

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFrame_GetVarString (PyFrameObject
          *frame, const char *name)

     Similar to *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 2f0, but the variable name is a
     C string encoded in UTF-8.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyFrame_GetLocals (PyFrameObject
          *frame)

     Get the 'frame"s *note f_locals: 5a5. attribute (*note dict: 239.).

     回傳 *note strong reference: 5a8.。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyFrame_GetLineNumber (PyFrameObject *frame)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Return the
     line number that 'frame' is currently executing.

* Menu:

* Internal Frames::


File: python.info,  Node: Internal Frames,  Up: Frame 物件

7.8.6.17 Internal Frames
........................

Unless using PEP 523(1), you will not need this.

 -- C 結構: struct _PyInterpreterFrame

     The interpreter's internal frame representation.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode
          (struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
          Return a *note strong reference: 5a8. to the code object for
          the frame.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Return the byte offset into the last executed instruction.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Return the currently executing line number, or -1 if there is no
     line number.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: 產生器 Generator 物件,  Next: Coroutine（協程）物件,  Prev: Frame 物件,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.18 產生器 (Generator) 物件
................................

產生器物件是 Python 用來實現產生器疊代器 (generator iterator) 的物件。它
們通常透過疊代會產生值的函式來建立，而不是顯式呼叫 *note PyGen_New():
4b5e. 或 *note PyGen_NewWithQualName(): 4b5f.。

 -- C 型別: type PyGenObject

     用於產生器物件的 C 結構。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyGen_Type

     與產生器物件對應的型別物件。

 -- C 函式: int PyGen_Check (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 是一個產生器 (generator) 物件則回傳真值；'ob' 必須不為
     ‘NULL’。此函式總是會成功執行。

 -- C 函式: int PyGen_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別是 *note PyGen_Type: 4b61. 則回傳真值；'ob' 必須不
     為 ‘NULL’。此函式總是會成功執行。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyGen_New (PyFrameObject *frame)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 基於 'frame' 物件建立並回傳一個新的產生器物件
     。此函式會取走一個對 'frame' 的參照 (reference)。引數必須不為
     ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyGen_NewWithQualName (PyFrameObject
          *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 基於 'frame' 物件建立並回傳一個新的產生器物件
     ，其中 ‘__name__’ 和 ‘__qualname__’ 設為 'name' 和 'qualname'。此函
     式會取走一個對 'frame' 的參照。'frame' 引數必須不為 ‘NULL’。


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine（協程）物件,  Next: 情境變數物件,  Prev: 產生器 Generator 物件,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.19 Coroutine（協程）物件
..............................

在 3.5 版被加入.

Coroutine 物件是那些以 ‘async’ 關鍵字來宣告的函式所回傳的物件。

 -- C 型別: type PyCoroObject

     用於 coroutine 物件的 C 結構。

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyCoro_Type

     與 coroutine 物件對應的型別物件。

 -- C 函式: int PyCoro_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別是 *note PyCoro_Type: 4b67. 則回傳真值；'ob' 必須不
     為 ‘NULL’。此函式總是會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCoro_New (PyFrameObject *frame,
          PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 基於 'frame' 物件來建立並回傳一個新的
     coroutine 物件，其中 ‘__name__’ 和 ‘__qualname__’ 被設為 'name' 和
     'qualname'。此函式會取得一個對 'frame' 的參照 (reference)。'frame'
     引數必須不為 ‘NULL’。


File: python.info,  Node: 情境變數物件,  Next: DateTime 物件,  Prev: Coroutine（協程）物件,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.20 情境變數物件
.....................

在 3.7 版被加入.

在 3.7.1 版的變更:

     備註: In Python 3.7.1 the signatures of all context variables C
     APIs were 'changed' to use *note PyObject: 6d1. pointers instead of
     *note PyContext: 4b6c, *note PyContextVar: 4b6d, and *note
     PyContextToken: 4b6e, e.g.:

          // in 3.7.0:
          PyContext *PyContext_New(void);

          // in 3.7.1+:
          PyObject *PyContext_New(void);

     更多細節請見 bpo-34762(1)。

This section details the public C API for the *note contextvars: 22.
module.

 -- C 型別: type PyContext

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.Context:
     13ce. object.

 -- C 型別: type PyContextVar

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.ContextVar:
     2f26. object.

 -- C 型別: type PyContextToken

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.Token: 2f2c.
     object.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyContext_Type

     The type object representing the 'context' type.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyContextVar_Type

     The type object representing the 'context variable' type.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyContextToken_Type

     The type object representing the 'context variable token' type.

Type-check macros:

 -- C 函式: int PyContext_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContext_Type: 4b6f.  'o' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyContextVar_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContextVar_Type: 4b70.  'o'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C 函式: int PyContextToken_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContextToken_Type: 4b71.  'o'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

Context object management functions:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyContext_New (void)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Create a new empty context object.  Returns
     ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyContext_Copy (PyObject *ctx)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Create a shallow copy of the passed 'ctx'
     context object.  Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyContext_CopyCurrent (void)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Create a shallow copy of the current thread
     context.  Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C 函式: int PyContext_Enter (PyObject *ctx)

     Set 'ctx' as the current context for the current thread.  Returns
     ‘0’ on success, and ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C 函式: int PyContext_Exit (PyObject *ctx)

     Deactivate the 'ctx' context and restore the previous context as
     the current context for the current thread.  Returns ‘0’ on
     success, and ‘-1’ on error.

Context variable functions:

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyContextVar_New (const char *name,
          PyObject *def)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Create a new ‘ContextVar’ object.  The 'name'
     parameter is used for introspection and debug purposes.  The 'def'
     parameter specifies a default value for the context variable, or
     ‘NULL’ for no default.  If an error has occurred, this function
     returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C 函式: int PyContextVar_Get (PyObject *var, PyObject
          *default_value, PyObject **value)

     Get the value of a context variable.  Returns ‘-1’ if an error has
     occurred during lookup, and ‘0’ if no error occurred, whether or
     not a value was found.

     If the context variable was found, 'value' will be a pointer to it.
     If the context variable was 'not' found, 'value' will point to:

        - 'default_value', if not ‘NULL’;

        - the default value of 'var', if not ‘NULL’;

        - ‘NULL’

     Except for ‘NULL’, the function returns a new reference.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyContextVar_Set (PyObject *var,
          PyObject *value)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' Set the value of 'var' to 'value' in the
     current context.  Returns a new token object for this change, or
     ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C 函式: int PyContextVar_Reset (PyObject *var, PyObject *token)

     Reset the state of the 'var' context variable to that it was in
     before *note PyContextVar_Set(): 4b7c. that returned the 'token'
     was called.  This function returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on
     error.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762


File: python.info,  Node: DateTime 物件,  Next: 型別提示物件,  Prev: 情境變數物件,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.21 DateTime 物件
......................

*note datetime: 2e. 模組提供各種日期和時間物件。在使用任何這些函式之前，
必須將標頭檔 ‘datetime.h’ 引入於原始碼中（請注意，‘Python.h’ 並無引入該
標頭檔），且巨集 ‘PyDateTime_IMPORT’ 必須被調用，而這通常作為模組初始化
函式的一部分。該巨集將指向 C 結構的指標放入靜態變數 ‘PyDateTimeAPI’ 中，
該變數會被以下巨集使用。

 -- C 型別: type PyDateTime_Date

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6d1. represents a Python date
     object.

 -- C 型別: type PyDateTime_DateTime

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6d1. represents a Python datetime
     object.

 -- C 型別: type PyDateTime_Time

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6d1. represents a Python time
     object.

 -- C 型別: type PyDateTime_Delta

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6d1. represents the difference
     between two datetime values.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyDateTime_DateType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents the Python
     date type; it is the same object as *note datetime.date: 72f. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyDateTime_DateTimeType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents the Python
     datetime type; it is the same object as *note datetime.datetime:
     224. in the Python layer.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyDateTime_TimeType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents the Python
     time type; it is the same object as *note datetime.time: 6c5. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyDateTime_DeltaType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents Python type
     for the difference between two datetime values; it is the same
     object as *note datetime.timedelta: 813. in the Python layer.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. PyDateTime_TZInfoType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. represents the Python
     time zone info type; it is the same object as *note
     datetime.tzinfo: 3d1. in the Python layer.

用於存取 UTC 單例 (singleton) 的巨集：

 -- C 變數: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC

     回傳表示 UTC 的時區單例，是與 *note datetime.timezone.utc: 40d. 相
     同的物件。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

型別檢查巨集：

 -- C 函式: int PyDate_Check (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別為 *note PyDateTime_DateType: 4b85. 或
     ‘PyDateTime_DateType’ 的子型別，則回傳 true。 'ob' 不得為 ‘NULL’。
     這個函式一定會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: int PyDate_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別為 *note PyDateTime_DateType: 4b85.，則回傳 true。
     'ob' 不得為 ‘NULL’。這個函式一定會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_Check (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別為 *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 4b86. 或
     ‘PyDateTime_DateTimeType’ 的子型別，則回傳 true。'ob' 不得為
     ‘NULL’。這個函式一定會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別為 *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 4b86.，則回傳
     true。'ob' 不得為 ‘NULL’。這個函式一定會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: int PyTime_Check (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別為 *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 4b87. 或
     ‘PyDateTime_TimeType’ 的子型別，則回傳 true。'ob' 不得為 ‘NULL’。這
     個函式一定會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: int PyTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別為 *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 4b87.，則回傳 true。
     'ob' 不得為 ‘NULL’。這個函式一定會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: int PyDelta_Check (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別為 *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 4b88. 或
     ‘PyDateTime_DeltaType’ 的子型別，則回傳 true。'ob' 不得為 ‘NULL’。
     這個函式一定會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: int PyDelta_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別為 *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 4b88.，則回傳 true。
     'ob' 不得為 ‘NULL’。這個函式一定會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: int PyTZInfo_Check (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別為 *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 4b89. 或
     ‘PyDateTime_TZInfoType’ 的子型別，則回傳 true。'ob' 不得為 ‘NULL’。
     這個函式一定會執行成功。

 -- C 函式: int PyTZInfo_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     如果 'ob' 的型別為 *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 4b89.，則回傳 true。
     'ob' 不得為 ‘NULL’。這個函式一定會執行成功。

建立物件的巨集：

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDate_FromDate (int year, int month,
          int day)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳一個有特定年、月、日的物件 *note
     datetime.date: 72f.。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (int year,
          int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second, int
          usecond)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳一個有特定年、月、日、時、分、秒、微秒的物
     件 *note datetime.datetime: 224.。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold (int
          year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second,
          int usecond, int fold)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳一個有特定年、月、日、時、分、秒、微秒與
     fold（時間折疊）的物件 *note datetime.datetime: 224.。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyTime_FromTime (int hour, int minute,
          int second, int usecond)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳一個有特定時、分、秒、微秒的物件 *note
     datetime.date: 72f.。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (int hour, int
          minute, int second, int usecond, int fold)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳一個有特定時、分、秒、微秒與 fold（時間折
     疊）的物件 *note datetime.time: 6c5.。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDelta_FromDSU (int days, int
          seconds, int useconds)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳一個 *note datetime.timedelta: 813. 物件，
     表示給定的天數、秒數和微秒數。執行標準化 (normalization) 以便生成的
     微秒數和秒數位於 *note datetime.timedelta: 813. 物件記錄的範圍內。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyTimeZone_FromOffset (PyObject
          *offset)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳一個 *note datetime.timezone: f4e. 物件，
     其未命名的固定偏移量由 'offset' 引數表示。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName (PyObject
          *offset, PyObject *name)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 回傳一個 *note datetime.timezone: f4e. 物件，
     其固定偏移量由 'offset' 引數表示，並帶有 tzname 'name'。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

從 date 物件中提取欄位的巨集。引數必須是個 *note PyDateTime_Date: 4b81.
的實例，包括子類別（例如 *note PyDateTime_DateTime: 4b82.）。引數不得為
‘NULL’，並且不會檢查型別：

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     回傳年份，為正整數。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     回傳月份，為正整數，從 1 到 12。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_GET_DAY (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     回傳日期，為正整數，從 1 到 31。

從 datetime 物件中提取欄位的巨集。引數必須是個 *note
PyDateTime_DateTime: 4b82. 的實例，包括子類別。引數不得為 ‘NULL’，並且不
會檢查型別：

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     回傳小時，為正整數，從 0 到 23。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     回傳分鐘，為正整數，從 0 到 59。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     回傳秒，為正整數，從0 到59。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     回傳微秒，為正整數，從 0 到 999999。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     回傳 fold，為 0 或 1 的正整數。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO
          (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     回傳 tzinfo（可能是 ‘None’）。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

從 time 物件中提取欄位的巨集。引數必須是個 *note PyDateTime_Time: 4b83.
的實例，包括子類別。引數不得為 ‘NULL’，並且不會檢查型別：

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     回傳小時，為正整數，從 0 到 23。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     回傳分鐘，為正整數，從 0 到 59。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     回傳秒，為正整數，從0 到59。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     回傳微秒，為正整數，從 0 到 999999。

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     回傳 fold，為 0 或 1 的正整數。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO
          (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     回傳 tzinfo（可能是 ‘None’）。

     在 3.10 版被加入.

從 time delta 物件中提取欄位的巨集。引數必須是個 *note PyDateTime_Delta:
4b84. 的實例，包括子類別。引數不能為 ‘NULL’，並且不會檢查型別：

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     以 -999999999 到 999999999 之間的整數形式回傳天數。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     以 0 到 86399 之間的整數形式回傳秒數。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     以 0 到 999999 之間的整數形式回傳微秒數。

     在 3.3 版被加入.

為了方便模組實作 DB API 的巨集：

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (PyObject
          *args)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 給定一個適合傳遞給 *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 228. 的引數元組，建立並回傳一個
     新的 *note datetime.datetime: 224. 物件。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyDate_FromTimestamp (PyObject *args)
     '回傳值：新的參照。' 給定一個適合傳遞給 *note
     datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): 1407. 的引數元組，建立並回傳一個新的
     *note datetime.date: 72f. 物件。


File: python.info,  Node: 型別提示物件,  Prev: DateTime 物件,  Up: 其他物件<2>

7.8.6.22 型別提示物件
.....................

提供了數個用於型別提示的內建型別。目前有兩種 - *note GenericAlias: 4af.
和 *note Union: 5e0.。只有 ‘GenericAlias’ 有公開 (expose) 給 C。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *Py_GenericAlias (PyObject *origin,
          PyObject *args)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.9 版本開始.'  建立一個
     *note GenericAlias: 4af. 物件，等同於呼叫 Python 的 *note
     types.GenericAlias: 60c. class。 'origin' 和 'args' 引數分別設定了
     ‘GenericAlias’ 的 ‘__origin__’ 與 ‘__args__’ 屬性。'origin' 應該要
     是個 *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.* 且 'args' 可以是個 *note
     PyTupleObject: 498f.* 或任意 ‘PyObject*’。如果傳入的 'args' 不是個
     tuple（元組），則會自動建立一個長度為 1 的 tuple 且 ‘__args__’ 會被
     設為 ‘(args,)’。只會進行最少的引數檢查，所以即便 'origin' 不是個型
     別，函式也會不會失敗。 ‘GenericAlias’ 的 ‘__parameters__’ 屬性會自
     ‘__args__’ 惰性地建立 (constructed lazily)。當失敗時，會引發一個例
     外並回傳 ‘NULL’。

     以下是個讓一個擴充型別泛用化 (generic) 的例子：

          ...
          static PyMethodDef my_obj_methods[] = {
              // Other methods.
              ...
              {"__class_getitem__", Py_GenericAlias, METH_O|METH_CLASS, "See PEP 585"}
              ...
          }

     也參考
     ......

     資料模型方法 *note __class_getitem__(): 54c.。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 變數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. Py_GenericAliasType
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.9 版本開始.'  *note
     Py_GenericAlias(): 4924. 所回傳該物件的 C 型別。等價於 Python 中的
     *note types.GenericAlias: 60c.。

     在 3.9 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Initialization Finalization and Threads,  Next: Python 初始化設定,  Prev: 具體物件層,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.9 Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
=============================================

也請參見 *note Python 初始化設定: 5ad.。

* Menu:

* Python 初始化之前::
* Global configuration variables::
* Initializing and finalizing the interpreter::
* Process-wide parameters::
* Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock::
* Sub-interpreter support::
* Asynchronous Notifications::
* Profiling and Tracing::
* Advanced Debugger Support::
* Thread Local Storage Support::


File: python.info,  Node: Python 初始化之前,  Next: Global configuration variables,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.1 Python 初始化之前
-----------------------

In an application embedding Python, the *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2.
function must be called before using any other Python/C API functions;
with the exception of a few functions and the *note global configuration
variables: 4bb2.

The following functions can be safely called before Python is
initialized:

   * Configuration functions:

        * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 156d.

        * *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 156e.

        * ‘PyInitFrozenExtensions()’

        * *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 31a.

        * *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ad2.

        * *note PyObject_SetArenaAllocator(): 4bb3.

        * *note Py_SetPath(): 1be6.

        * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 188c.

        * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 188d.

        * *note Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding(): e94.

        * *note PySys_AddWarnOption(): a87.

        * *note PySys_AddXOption(): 48d0.

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 359.

   * Informative functions:

        * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 47c5.

        * *note PyMem_GetAllocator(): 4bb4.

        * *note PyObject_GetArenaAllocator(): 4bb5.

        * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 12a4.

        * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 4926.

        * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 4927.

        * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 4928.

        * *note Py_GetVersion(): 4929.

   * Utilities:

        * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28.

   * Memory allocators:

        * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): ec6.

        * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): ec7.

        * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): d2d.

        * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 4989.

     備註: The following functions 'should not be called' before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6e2.: *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a29, *note
     Py_GetPath(): 35d, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 35f, *note
     Py_GetExecPrefix(): 35b, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 361, *note
     Py_GetPythonHome(): 364, *note Py_GetProgramName(): 363. and *note
     PyEval_InitThreads(): 4832.


File: python.info,  Node: Global configuration variables,  Next: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Prev: Python 初始化之前,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.2 Global configuration variables
------------------------------------

Python has variables for the global configuration to control different
features and options.  By default, these flags are controlled by *note
command line options: 1b1e.

When a flag is set by an option, the value of the flag is the number of
times that the option was set.  For example, ‘-b’ sets *note
Py_BytesWarningFlag: 32b. to 1 and ‘-bb’ sets *note Py_BytesWarningFlag:
32b. to 2.

 -- C 變數: int Py_BytesWarningFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.bytes_warning: 32c. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Issue a warning when comparing *note bytes: 2c1. or *note
     bytearray: 2c0. with *note str: 157. or *note bytes: 2c1. with
     *note int: 17e.  Issue an error if greater or equal to ‘2’.

     由 *note -b: 3d7. 選項設定。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_DebugFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.parser_debug: 31e. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on
     compilation options).

     由 *note -d: 1b26. 選項與 *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1b27. 環境變數設定。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.write_bytecode: 332. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     If set to non-zero, Python won't try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
     import of source modules.

     由 *note -B: 123c. 選項與 *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 123d. 環境
     變數設定。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_FrozenFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 32e. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Suppress error messages when calculating the module search path in
     *note Py_GetPath(): 35d.

     Private flag used by ‘_freeze_module’ and ‘frozenmain’ programs.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_HashRandomizationFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.hash_seed: 339. and *note PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 338.
     should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization
     Configuration: 5ad.

     如果環境變數 *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f13. 被設定為一個非空字串則設為
     ‘1’。

     If the flag is non-zero, read the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f13.
     environment variable to initialize the secret hash seed.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.use_environment: 330. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     忽略所有可能被設定的 ‘PYTHON*’ 環境變數，例如 *note PYTHONPATH:
     eb1. 與 *note PYTHONHOME: 365.。

     由 *note -E: 79e. 與 *note -I: 79f. 選項設定。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_InspectFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.inspect: 326. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     When a script is passed as first argument or the *note -c: 3d3.
     option is used, enter interactive mode after executing the script
     or the command, even when *note sys.stdin: 2bf. does not appear to
     be a terminal.

     由 *note -i: 1352. 選項與 *note PYTHONINSPECT: 1351. 環境變數設定。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_InteractiveFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.interactive: 324. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     由 *note -i: 1352. 選項設定。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_IsolatedFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.isolated: 33b. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Run Python in isolated mode.  In isolated mode *note sys.path: 35e.
     contains neither the script's directory nor the user's
     site-packages directory.

     由 *note -i: 1352. 選項設定。

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 33d. should be used
     instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     If the flag is non-zero, use the ‘mbcs’ encoding with ‘replace’
     error handler, instead of the UTF-8 encoding with ‘surrogatepass’
     error handler, for the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     2bd.

     如果環境變數 *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: ac0. 被設定為一個
     非空字串則設為 ‘1’。

     更多詳情請見 PEP 529(1)。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 33f. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     If the flag is non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 11a2. instead of
     ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys: d3. standard streams.

     Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: ac3. environment
     variable is set to a non-empty string.

     更多詳情請見 PEP 528(2)。

     *note Availability: 1b45.: Windows.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_NoSiteFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.site_import: 32a. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Disable the import of the module *note site: c2. and the
     site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 35e. that it
     entails.  Also disable these manipulations if *note site: c2. is
     explicitly imported later (call *note site.main(): 1b2b. if you
     want them to be triggered).

     由 *note -S: 103a. 選項設定。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_NoUserSiteDirectory

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.user_site_directory: 334. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Don't add the *note user site-packages directory: 1b2a. to *note
     sys.path: 35e.

     由 *note -s: 121a. 選項、*note -I: 79f. 選項與 *note
     PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 121b. 環境變數設定。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_OptimizeFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.optimization_level: 328. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     由 *note -O: c2c. 選項與 *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 1b28. 環境變數設定。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_QuietFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.quiet: 322. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Don't display the copyright and version messages even in
     interactive mode.

     由 *note -q: 1b29. 選項設定。

     在 3.2 版被加入.

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 336. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.

     由 *note -u: 1780. 選項與 *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 1781. 環境變數設
     定。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 變數: int Py_VerboseFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.verbose: 320. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the
     place (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.  If
     greater or equal to ‘2’, print a message for each file that is
     checked for when searching for a module.  Also provides information
     on module cleanup at exit.

     由 *note -v: 1295. 選項與 *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1b2c. 環境變數設定。

     在 3.12 版之後被棄用.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Next: Process-wide parameters,  Prev: Global configuration variables,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.3 Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
-------------------------------------------------

 -- C 函式: void Py_Initialize ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Initialize the Python interpreter.  In an application embedding
     Python, this should be called before using any other Python/C API
     functions; see *note Before Python Initialization: a26. for the few
     exceptions.

     This initializes the table of loaded modules (‘sys.modules’), and
     creates the fundamental modules *note builtins: 10, *note __main__:
     1. and *note sys: d3.  It also initializes the module search path
     (‘sys.path’).  It does not set ‘sys.argv’; use *note
     PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11e6. for that.  This is a no-op when called for
     a second time (without calling *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. first).
     There is no return value; it is a fatal error if the initialization
     fails.

     Use the *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. function to customize
     the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

          備註: On Windows, changes the console mode from ‘O_TEXT’ to
          ‘O_BINARY’, which will also affect non-Python uses of the
          console using the C Runtime.

 -- C 函式: void Py_InitializeEx (int initsigs)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This function works like *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6e2. if 'initsigs' is ‘1’.  If 'initsigs' is ‘0’,
     it skips initialization registration of signal handlers, which
     might be useful when Python is embedded.

     Use the *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. function to customize
     the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

 -- C 函式: int Py_IsInitialized ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return true (nonzero) when the
     Python interpreter has been initialized, false (zero) if not.
     After *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. is called, this returns false
     until *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. is called again.

 -- C 函式: int Py_FinalizeEx ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.6 版本開始.'  Undo all
     initializations made by *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. and subsequent
     use of Python/C API functions, and destroy all sub-interpreters
     (see *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 1582. below) that were created and
     not yet destroyed since the last call to *note Py_Initialize():
     6e2.  Ideally, this frees all memory allocated by the Python
     interpreter.  This is a no-op when called for a second time
     (without calling *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. again first).

     Since this is the reverse of *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2, it should
     be called in the same thread with the same interpreter active.
     That means the main thread and the main interpreter.  This should
     never be called while *note Py_RunMain(): 809. is running.

     Normally the return value is ‘0’.  If there were errors during
     finalization (flushing buffered data), ‘-1’ is returned.

     This function is provided for a number of reasons.  An embedding
     application might want to restart Python without having to restart
     the application itself.  An application that has loaded the Python
     interpreter from a dynamically loadable library (or DLL) might want
     to free all memory allocated by Python before unloading the DLL.
     During a hunt for memory leaks in an application a developer might
     want to free all memory allocated by Python before exiting from the
     application.

     'Bugs and caveats:' The destruction of modules and objects in
     modules is done in random order; this may cause destructors (*note
     __del__(): 1cf2. methods) to fail when they depend on other objects
     (even functions) or modules.  Dynamically loaded extension modules
     loaded by Python are not unloaded.  Small amounts of memory
     allocated by the Python interpreter may not be freed (if you find a
     leak, please report it).  Memory tied up in circular references
     between objects is not freed.  Some memory allocated by extension
     modules may not be freed.  Some extensions may not work properly if
     their initialization routine is called more than once; this can
     happen if an application calls *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. and
     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. more than once.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks’。

     在 3.6 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void Py_Finalize ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is a backwards-compatible
     version of *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. that disregards the return
     value.


File: python.info,  Node: Process-wide parameters,  Next: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock,  Prev: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.4 Process-wide parameters
-----------------------------

 -- C 函式: int Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding (const char *encoding,
          const char *errors)

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 40a1. and *note PyConfig.stdio_errors:
     40a2. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization
     Configuration: 5ad.

     This function should be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2,
     if it is called at all.  It specifies which encoding and error
     handling to use with standard IO, with the same meanings as in
     *note str.encode(): 70e.

     It overrides *note PYTHONIOENCODING: e9d. values, and allows
     embedding code to control IO encoding when the environment variable
     does not work.

     'encoding' and/or 'errors' may be ‘NULL’ to use *note
     PYTHONIOENCODING: e9d. and/or default values (depending on other
     settings).

     Note that *note sys.stderr: 778. always uses the "backslashreplace"
     error handler, regardless of this (or any other) setting.

     If *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. is called, this function will need
     to be called again in order to affect subsequent calls to *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6e2.

     Returns ‘0’ if successful, a nonzero value on error (e.g.  calling
     after the interpreter has already been initialized).

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: void Py_SetProgramName (const wchar_t *name)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.program_name: 351. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     This function should be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2.
     is called for the first time, if it is called at all.  It tells the
     interpreter the value of the ‘argv[0]’ argument to the ‘main()’
     function of the program (converted to wide characters).  This is
     used by *note Py_GetPath(): 35d. and some other functions below to
     find the Python run-time libraries relative to the interpreter
     executable.  The default value is ‘'python'’.  The argument should
     point to a zero-terminated wide character string in static storage
     whose contents will not change for the duration of the program's
     execution.  No code in the Python interpreter will change the
     contents of this storage.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: wchar_t *Py_GetProgramName ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return the program name set with *note Py_SetProgramName(): 188c,
     or the default.  The returned string points into static storage;
     the caller should not modify its value.

     此函式不應該在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，否則會回傳
     ‘NULL’。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 如果在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，現在
     會回傳 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: wchar_t *Py_GetPrefix ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the 'prefix' for
     installed platform-independent files.  This is derived through a
     number of complicated rules from the program name set with *note
     Py_SetProgramName(): 188c. and some environment variables; for
     example, if the program name is ‘'/usr/local/bin/python'’, the
     prefix is ‘'/usr/local'’.  The returned string points into static
     storage; the caller should not modify its value.  This corresponds
     to the ‘prefix’ variable in the top-level ‘Makefile’ and the *note
     -prefix: 1b52. argument to the ‘configure’ script at build time.
     The value is available to Python code as ‘sys.prefix’.  It is only
     useful on Unix.  See also the next function.

     此函式不應該在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，否則會回傳
     ‘NULL’。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 如果在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，現在
     會回傳 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: wchar_t *Py_GetExecPrefix ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the 'exec-prefix' for
     installed platform-'dependent' files.  This is derived through a
     number of complicated rules from the program name set with *note
     Py_SetProgramName(): 188c. and some environment variables; for
     example, if the program name is ‘'/usr/local/bin/python'’, the
     exec-prefix is ‘'/usr/local'’.  The returned string points into
     static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  This
     corresponds to the ‘exec_prefix’ variable in the top-level
     ‘Makefile’ and the ‘--exec-prefix’ argument to the ‘configure’
     script at build time.  The value is available to Python code as
     ‘sys.exec_prefix’.  It is only useful on Unix.

     Background: The exec-prefix differs from the prefix when platform
     dependent files (such as executables and shared libraries) are
     installed in a different directory tree.  In a typical
     installation, platform dependent files may be installed in the
     ‘/usr/local/plat’ subtree while platform independent may be
     installed in ‘/usr/local’.

     Generally speaking, a platform is a combination of hardware and
     software families, e.g.  Sparc machines running the Solaris 2.x
     operating system are considered the same platform, but Intel
     machines running Solaris 2.x are another platform, and Intel
     machines running Linux are yet another platform.  Different major
     revisions of the same operating system generally also form
     different platforms.  Non-Unix operating systems are a different
     story; the installation strategies on those systems are so
     different that the prefix and exec-prefix are meaningless, and set
     to the empty string.  Note that compiled Python bytecode files are
     platform independent (but not independent from the Python version
     by which they were compiled!).

     System administrators will know how to configure the ‘mount’ or
     ‘automount’ programs to share ‘/usr/local’ between platforms while
     having ‘/usr/local/plat’ be a different filesystem for each
     platform.

     此函式不應該在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，否則會回傳
     ‘NULL’。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 如果在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，現在
     會回傳 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: wchar_t *Py_GetProgramFullPath ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return the full program name of the Python executable; this is
     computed as a side-effect of deriving the default module search
     path from the program name (set by *note Py_SetProgramName(): 188c.
     above).  The returned string points into static storage; the caller
     should not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code
     as ‘sys.executable’.

     此函式不應該在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，否則會回傳
     ‘NULL’。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 如果在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，現在
     會回傳 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: wchar_t *Py_GetPath ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return the default module search path; this is computed from the
     program name (set by *note Py_SetProgramName(): 188c. above) and
     some environment variables.  The returned string consists of a
     series of directory names separated by a platform dependent
     delimiter character.  The delimiter character is ‘':'’ on Unix and
     macOS, ‘';'’ on Windows.  The returned string points into static
     storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The list *note
     sys.path: 35e. is initialized with this value on interpreter
     startup; it can be (and usually is) modified later to change the
     search path for loading modules.

     此函式不應該在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，否則會回傳
     ‘NULL’。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 如果在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，現在
     會回傳 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: void Py_SetPath (const wchar_t*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3e3. and *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3e4. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Set the default module search path.  If this function is called
     before *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2, then *note Py_GetPath(): 35d.
     won't attempt to compute a default search path but uses the one
     provided instead.  This is useful if Python is embedded by an
     application that has full knowledge of the location of all modules.
     The path components should be separated by the platform dependent
     delimiter character, which is ‘':'’ on Unix and macOS, ‘';'’ on
     Windows.

     This also causes *note sys.executable: 362. to be set to the
     program full path (see *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 361.) and for
     *note sys.prefix: 360. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 35c. to be empty.
     It is up to the caller to modify these if required after calling
     *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_* string.

     The path argument is copied internally, so the caller may free it
     after the call completes.

     在 3.8 版的變更: The program full path is now used for *note
     sys.executable: 362, instead of the program name.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: const char *Py_GetVersion ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the version of this
     Python interpreter.  This is a string that looks something like

          "3.0a5+ (py3k:63103M, May 12 2008, 00:53:55) \n[GCC 4.2.3]"

     The first word (up to the first space character) is the current
     Python version; the first characters are the major and minor
     version separated by a period.  The returned string points into
     static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The value
     is available to Python code as *note sys.version: b8d.

     See also the *note Py_Version: 569. constant.

 -- C 函式: const char *Py_GetPlatform ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Return the platform identifier for the current platform.  On Unix,
     this is formed from the "official" name of the operating system,
     converted to lower case, followed by the major revision number;
     e.g., for Solaris 2.x, which is also known as SunOS 5.x, the value
     is ‘'sunos5'’.  On macOS, it is ‘'darwin'’.  On Windows, it is
     ‘'win'’.  The returned string points into static storage; the
     caller should not modify its value.  The value is available to
     Python code as ‘sys.platform’.

 -- C 函式: const char *Py_GetCopyright ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the official copyright
     string for the current Python version, for example

     ‘'Copyright 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam'’

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     ‘sys.copyright’.

 -- C 函式: const char *Py_GetCompiler ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return an indication of the
     compiler used to build the current Python version, in square
     brackets, for example:

          "[GCC 2.7.2.2]"

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     part of the variable ‘sys.version’.

 -- C 函式: const char *Py_GetBuildInfo ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return information about the
     sequence number and build date and time of the current Python
     interpreter instance, for example

          "#67, Aug  1 1997, 22:34:28"

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     part of the variable ‘sys.version’.

 -- C 函式: void PySys_SetArgvEx (int argc, wchar_t **argv, int
          updatepath)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.argv: 350, *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 16fe. and *note
     PyConfig.safe_path: 58a. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Set *note sys.argv: 10f9. based on 'argc' and 'argv'.  These
     parameters are similar to those passed to the program's ‘main()’
     function with the difference that the first entry should refer to
     the script file to be executed rather than the executable hosting
     the Python interpreter.  If there isn't a script that will be run,
     the first entry in 'argv' can be an empty string.  If this function
     fails to initialize *note sys.argv: 10f9, a fatal condition is
     signalled using *note Py_FatalError(): 7c7.

     If 'updatepath' is zero, this is all the function does.  If
     'updatepath' is non-zero, the function also modifies *note
     sys.path: 35e. according to the following algorithm:

        - If the name of an existing script is passed in ‘argv[0]’, the
          absolute path of the directory where the script is located is
          prepended to *note sys.path: 35e.

        - Otherwise (that is, if 'argc' is ‘0’ or ‘argv[0]’ doesn't
          point to an existing file name), an empty string is prepended
          to *note sys.path: 35e, which is the same as prepending the
          current working directory (‘"."’).

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_* string.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 6c2. and *note PyConfig.argv:
     350. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

          備註: It is recommended that applications embedding the Python
          interpreter for purposes other than executing a single script
          pass ‘0’ as 'updatepath', and update *note sys.path: 35e.
          themselves if desired.  See CVE 2008-5983(1).

          On versions before 3.1.3, you can achieve the same effect by
          manually popping the first *note sys.path: 35e. element after
          having called *note PySys_SetArgv(): 11e7, for example using:

               PyRun_SimpleString("import sys; sys.path.pop(0)\n");

     在 3.1.3 版被加入.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: void PySys_SetArgv (int argc, wchar_t **argv)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This API is kept for backward
     compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.argv: 350. and *note
     PyConfig.parse_argv: 16fe. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     This function works like *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11e6. with
     'updatepath' set to ‘1’ unless the ‘python’ interpreter was started
     with the *note -I: 79f.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_* string.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 6c2. and *note PyConfig.argv:
     350. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     在 3.4 版的變更: The 'updatepath' value depends on *note -I: 79f.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: void Py_SetPythonHome (const wchar_t *home)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This API is kept for backward
     compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.home: 352. should be used
     instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5ad.

     Set the default "home" directory, that is, the location of the
     standard Python libraries.  See *note PYTHONHOME: 365. for the
     meaning of the argument string.

     The argument should point to a zero-terminated character string in
     static storage whose contents will not change for the duration of
     the program's execution.  No code in the Python interpreter will
     change the contents of this storage.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_* string.

     在 3.11 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: wchar_t *Py_GetPythonHome ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the default "home",
     that is, the value set by a previous call to *note
     Py_SetPythonHome(): 188d, or the value of the *note PYTHONHOME:
     365. environment variable if it is set.

     此函式不應該在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，否則會回傳
     ‘NULL’。

     在 3.10 版的變更: 如果在 *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. 之前呼叫，現在
     會回傳 ‘NULL’。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983


File: python.info,  Node: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock,  Next: Sub-interpreter support,  Prev: Process-wide parameters,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.5 Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
--------------------------------------------------

The Python interpreter is not fully thread-safe.  In order to support
multi-threaded Python programs, there's a global lock, called the *note
global interpreter lock: 141. or *note GIL: 6df, that must be held by
the current thread before it can safely access Python objects.  Without
the lock, even the simplest operations could cause problems in a
multi-threaded program: for example, when two threads simultaneously
increment the reference count of the same object, the reference count
could end up being incremented only once instead of twice.

Therefore, the rule exists that only the thread that has acquired the
*note GIL: 6df. may operate on Python objects or call Python/C API
functions.  In order to emulate concurrency of execution, the
interpreter regularly tries to switch threads (see *note
sys.setswitchinterval(): 78b.).  The lock is also released around
potentially blocking I/O operations like reading or writing a file, so
that other Python threads can run in the meantime.

The Python interpreter keeps some thread-specific bookkeeping
information inside a data structure called *note PyThreadState: 5a6.
There's also one global variable pointing to the current *note
PyThreadState: 5a6.: it can be retrieved using *note
PyThreadState_Get(): 48d7.

* Menu:

* Releasing the GIL from extension code::
* Non-Python created threads::
* Cautions about fork(): Cautions about fork.
* 高階 API::
* 低階 API::


File: python.info,  Node: Releasing the GIL from extension code,  Next: Non-Python created threads,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.1 Releasing the GIL from extension code
.............................................

Most extension code manipulating the *note GIL: 6df. has the following
simple structure:

     Save the thread state in a local variable.
     Release the global interpreter lock.
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     Reacquire the global interpreter lock.
     Restore the thread state from the local variable.

This is so common that a pair of macros exists to simplify it:

     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS

The *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 4746. macro opens a new block and
declares a hidden local variable; the *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8dc.
macro closes the block.

The block above expands to the following code:

     PyThreadState *_save;

     _save = PyEval_SaveThread();
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);

Here is how these functions work: the global interpreter lock is used to
protect the pointer to the current thread state.  When releasing the
lock and saving the thread state, the current thread state pointer must
be retrieved before the lock is released (since another thread could
immediately acquire the lock and store its own thread state in the
global variable).  Conversely, when acquiring the lock and restoring the
thread state, the lock must be acquired before storing the thread state
pointer.

     備註: Calling system I/O functions is the most common use case for
     releasing the GIL, but it can also be useful before calling
     long-running computations which don't need access to Python
     objects, such as compression or cryptographic functions operating
     over memory buffers.  For example, the standard *note zlib: 12d.
     and *note hashlib: 63. modules release the GIL when compressing or
     hashing data.


File: python.info,  Node: Non-Python created threads,  Next: Cautions about fork,  Prev: Releasing the GIL from extension code,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.2 Non-Python created threads
..................................

When threads are created using the dedicated Python APIs (such as the
*note threading: e7. module), a thread state is automatically associated
to them and the code showed above is therefore correct.  However, when
threads are created from C (for example by a third-party library with
its own thread management), they don't hold the GIL, nor is there a
thread state structure for them.

If you need to call Python code from these threads (often this will be
part of a callback API provided by the aforementioned third-party
library), you must first register these threads with the interpreter by
creating a thread state data structure, then acquiring the GIL, and
finally storing their thread state pointer, before you can start using
the Python/C API. When you are done, you should reset the thread state
pointer, release the GIL, and finally free the thread state data
structure.

The *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd. and *note PyGILState_Release():
142a. functions do all of the above automatically.  The typical idiom
for calling into Python from a C thread is:

     PyGILState_STATE gstate;
     gstate = PyGILState_Ensure();

     /* Perform Python actions here. */
     result = CallSomeFunction();
     /* evaluate result or handle exception */

     /* Release the thread. No Python API allowed beyond this point. */
     PyGILState_Release(gstate);

Note that the ‘PyGILState_*’ functions assume there is only one global
interpreter (created automatically by *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2.).
Python supports the creation of additional interpreters (using *note
Py_NewInterpreter(): 1582.), but mixing multiple interpreters and the
‘PyGILState_*’ API is unsupported.


File: python.info,  Node: Cautions about fork,  Next: 高階 API,  Prev: Non-Python created threads,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.3 Cautions about fork()
.............................

Another important thing to note about threads is their behaviour in the
face of the C ‘fork()’ call.  On most systems with ‘fork()’, after a
process forks only the thread that issued the fork will exist.  This has
a concrete impact both on how locks must be handled and on all stored
state in CPython's runtime.

The fact that only the "current" thread remains means any locks held by
other threads will never be released.  Python solves this for *note
os.fork(): 233. by acquiring the locks it uses internally before the
fork, and releasing them afterwards.  In addition, it resets any *note
Lock Objects: 2ddf. in the child.  When extending or embedding Python,
there is no way to inform Python of additional (non-Python) locks that
need to be acquired before or reset after a fork.  OS facilities such as
‘pthread_atfork()’ would need to be used to accomplish the same thing.
Additionally, when extending or embedding Python, calling ‘fork()’
directly rather than through *note os.fork(): 233. (and returning to or
calling into Python) may result in a deadlock by one of Python's
internal locks being held by a thread that is defunct after the fork.
*note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 36c. tries to reset the necessary locks,
but is not always able to.

The fact that all other threads go away also means that CPython's
runtime state there must be cleaned up properly, which *note os.fork():
233. does.  This means finalizing all other *note PyThreadState: 5a6.
objects belonging to the current interpreter and all other *note
PyInterpreterState: 6f5. objects.  Due to this and the special nature of
the *note "main" interpreter: 316, ‘fork()’ should only be called in
that interpreter's "main" thread, where the CPython global runtime was
originally initialized.  The only exception is if ‘exec()’ will be
called immediately after.


File: python.info,  Node: 高階 API,  Next: 低階 API,  Prev: Cautions about fork,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.4 高階 API
................

These are the most commonly used types and functions when writing C
extension code, or when embedding the Python interpreter:

 -- C 型別: type PyInterpreterState
     ' 為 *note 受限 API 的一部分: 2d8. （做為一個不透明結構 (opaque
     struct)）.'  This data structure represents the state shared by a
     number of cooperating threads.  Threads belonging to the same
     interpreter share their module administration and a few other
     internal items.  There are no public members in this structure.

     Threads belonging to different interpreters initially share
     nothing, except process state like available memory, open file
     descriptors and such.  The global interpreter lock is also shared
     by all threads, regardless of to which interpreter they belong.

 -- C 型別: type PyThreadState
     ' 為 *note 受限 API 的一部分: 2d8. （做為一個不透明結構 (opaque
     struct)）.'  This data structure represents the state of a single
     thread.  The only public data member is:

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. *interp

          This thread's interpreter state.

 -- C 函式: void PyEval_InitThreads ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Deprecated function which does nothing.

     In Python 3.6 and older, this function created the GIL if it didn't
     exist.

     在 3.9 版的變更: 此函式現在不會做任何事情。

     在 3.7 版的變更: This function is now called by *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6e2, so you don't have to call it yourself
     anymore.

     在 3.2 版的變更: This function cannot be called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6e2. anymore.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: int PyEval_ThreadsInitialized ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Returns a non-zero value if
     *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 4832. has been called.  This function
     can be called without holding the GIL, and therefore can be used to
     avoid calls to the locking API when running single-threaded.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The *note GIL: 6df. is now initialized by *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6e2.

     在 3.9 版之後被棄用.

 -- C 函式: *note PyThreadState: 5a6. *PyEval_SaveThread ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Release the global interpreter
     lock (if it has been created) and reset the thread state to ‘NULL’,
     returning the previous thread state (which is not ‘NULL’).  If the
     lock has been created, the current thread must have acquired it.

 -- C 函式: void PyEval_RestoreThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Acquire the global interpreter
     lock (if it has been created) and set the thread state to 'tstate',
     which must not be ‘NULL’.  If the lock has been created, the
     current thread must not have acquired it, otherwise deadlock
     ensues.

          備註: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was
          not created by Python.  You can use ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or
          *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8de. to check if the interpreter is
          in process of being finalized before calling this function to
          avoid unwanted termination.

 -- C 函式: *note PyThreadState: 5a6. *PyThreadState_Get ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the current thread
     state.  The global interpreter lock must be held.  When the current
     thread state is ‘NULL’, this issues a fatal error (so that the
     caller needn't check for ‘NULL’).

 -- C 函式: *note PyThreadState: 5a6. *PyThreadState_Swap (PyThreadState
          *tstate)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Swap the current thread state
     with the thread state given by the argument 'tstate', which may be
     ‘NULL’.  The global interpreter lock must be held and is not
     released.

The following functions use thread-local storage, and are not compatible
with sub-interpreters:

 -- C 函式: PyGILState_STATE PyGILState_Ensure ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Ensure that the current thread
     is ready to call the Python C API regardless of the current state
     of Python, or of the global interpreter lock.  This may be called
     as many times as desired by a thread as long as each call is
     matched with a call to *note PyGILState_Release(): 142a.  In
     general, other thread-related APIs may be used between *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 142a.
     calls as long as the thread state is restored to its previous state
     before the Release().  For example, normal usage of the *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 4746. and *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8dc.
     macros is acceptable.

     The return value is an opaque "handle" to the thread state when
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd. was called, and must be passed to
     *note PyGILState_Release(): 142a. to ensure Python is left in the
     same state.  Even though recursive calls are allowed, these handles
     'cannot' be shared - each unique call to *note PyGILState_Ensure():
     8dd. must save the handle for its call to *note
     PyGILState_Release(): 142a.

     When the function returns, the current thread will hold the GIL and
     be able to call arbitrary Python code.  Failure is a fatal error.

          備註: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was
          not created by Python.  You can use ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or
          *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8de. to check if the interpreter is
          in process of being finalized before calling this function to
          avoid unwanted termination.

 -- C 函式: void PyGILState_Release (PyGILState_STATE)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Release any resources
     previously acquired.  After this call, Python's state will be the
     same as it was prior to the corresponding *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd. call (but generally this state will be
     unknown to the caller, hence the use of the GILState API).

     Every call to *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd. must be matched by a
     call to *note PyGILState_Release(): 142a. on the same thread.

 -- C 函式: *note PyThreadState: 5a6. *PyGILState_GetThisThreadState ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Get the current thread state
     for this thread.  May return ‘NULL’ if no GILState API has been
     used on the current thread.  Note that the main thread always has
     such a thread-state, even if no auto-thread-state call has been
     made on the main thread.  This is mainly a helper/diagnostic
     function.

 -- C 函式: int PyGILState_Check ()

     Return ‘1’ if the current thread is holding the GIL and ‘0’
     otherwise.  This function can be called from any thread at any
     time.  Only if it has had its Python thread state initialized and
     currently is holding the GIL will it return ‘1’.  This is mainly a
     helper/diagnostic function.  It can be useful for example in
     callback contexts or memory allocation functions when knowing that
     the GIL is locked can allow the caller to perform sensitive actions
     or otherwise behave differently.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

The following macros are normally used without a trailing semicolon;
look for example usage in the Python source distribution.

 -- C 巨集: Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This macro expands to ‘{
     PyThreadState *_save; _save = PyEval_SaveThread();’.  Note that it
     contains an opening brace; it must be matched with a following
     *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8dc. macro.  See above for further
     discussion of this macro.

 -- C 巨集: Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This macro expands to
     ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save); }’.  Note that it contains a closing
     brace; it must be matched with an earlier *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 4746. macro.  See above for further
     discussion of this macro.

 -- C 巨集: Py_BLOCK_THREADS
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This macro expands to
     ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);’: it is equivalent to *note
     Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8dc. without the closing brace.

 -- C 巨集: Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This macro expands to ‘_save =
     PyEval_SaveThread();’: it is equivalent to *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 4746. without the opening brace and
     variable declaration.


File: python.info,  Node: 低階 API,  Prev: 高階 API,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.5 低階 API
................

All of the following functions must be called after *note
Py_Initialize(): 6e2.

在 3.7 版的變更: *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2. now initializes the *note
GIL: 6df.

 -- C 函式: *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. *PyInterpreterState_New ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a new interpreter state
     object.  The global interpreter lock need not be held, but may be
     held if it is necessary to serialize calls to this function.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_New’。

 -- C 函式: void PyInterpreterState_Clear (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Reset all information in an
     interpreter state object.  The global interpreter lock must be
     held.

     引發一個不附帶引數的*note 稽核事件: 168e.
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear’。

 -- C 函式: void PyInterpreterState_Delete (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Destroy an interpreter state
     object.  The global interpreter lock need not be held.  The
     interpreter state must have been reset with a previous call to
     *note PyInterpreterState_Clear(): 3ef5.

 -- C 函式: *note PyThreadState: 5a6. *PyThreadState_New
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Create a new thread state
     object belonging to the given interpreter object.  The global
     interpreter lock need not be held, but may be held if it is
     necessary to serialize calls to this function.

 -- C 函式: void PyThreadState_Clear (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Reset all information in a
     thread state object.  The global interpreter lock must be held.

     在 3.9 版的變更: This function now calls the
     ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback.  Previously, that happened in
     *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 177c.

 -- C 函式: void PyThreadState_Delete (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Destroy a thread state object.
     The global interpreter lock need not be held.  The thread state
     must have been reset with a previous call to *note
     PyThreadState_Clear(): 1429.

 -- C 函式: void PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (void)

     Destroy the current thread state and release the global interpreter
     lock.  Like *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 177c, the global
     interpreter lock must be held.  The thread state must have been
     reset with a previous call to *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1429.

 -- C 函式: *note PyFrameObject: 5a1. *PyThreadState_GetFrame
          (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Get the
     current frame of the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     Return a *note strong reference: 5a8.  Return ‘NULL’ if no frame is
     currently executing.

     也請見 *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 1588.。

     'tstate' 不可為 ‘NULL’。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: uint64_t PyThreadState_GetID (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Get the
     unique thread state identifier of the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     'tstate' 不可為 ‘NULL’。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. *PyThreadState_GetInterpreter
          (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Get the
     interpreter of the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     'tstate' 不可為 ‘NULL’。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyThreadState_EnterTracing (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Suspend tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     Resume them using the *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 568.
     function.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Resume tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate'
     suspended by the *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 567. function.

     See also *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 1375. and *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 1374. functions.

     在 3.11 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. *PyInterpreterState_Get
          (void)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.9 版本開始.'  Get the
     current interpreter.

     Issue a fatal error if there no current Python thread state or no
     current interpreter.  It cannot return NULL.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int64_t PyInterpreterState_GetID (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Return the
     interpreter's unique ID. If there was any error in doing so then
     ‘-1’ is returned and an error is set.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyInterpreterState_GetDict
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.8 版本開始.'  Return a
     dictionary in which interpreter-specific data may be stored.  If
     this function returns ‘NULL’ then no exception has been raised and
     the caller should assume no interpreter-specific dict is available.

     This is not a replacement for *note PyModule_GetState(): 7c4, which
     extensions should use to store interpreter-specific state
     information.

     在 3.8 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*_PyFrameEvalFunction)(*note
          PyThreadState: 5a6. *tstate, *note _PyInterpreterFrame: 4b57.
          *frame, int throwflag)

     Type of a frame evaluation function.

     The 'throwflag' parameter is used by the ‘throw()’ method of
     generators: if non-zero, handle the current exception.

     在 3.9 版的變更: The function now takes a 'tstate' parameter.

     在 3.11 版的變更: The 'frame' parameter changed from
     ‘PyFrameObject*’ to ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’.

 -- C 函式: *note _PyFrameEvalFunction: 58d.
          _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)

     Get the frame evaluation function.

     See the PEP 523(1) "Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython".

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc
          (PyInterpreterState *interp, _PyFrameEvalFunction eval_frame)

     Set the frame evaluation function.

     See the PEP 523(2) "Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython".

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyThreadState_GetDict ()
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return a
     dictionary in which extensions can store thread-specific state
     information.  Each extension should use a unique key to use to
     store state in the dictionary.  It is okay to call this function
     when no current thread state is available.  If this function
     returns ‘NULL’, no exception has been raised and the caller should
     assume no current thread state is available.

 -- C 函式: int PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (unsigned long id, PyObject
          *exc)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Asynchronously raise an
     exception in a thread.  The 'id' argument is the thread id of the
     target thread; 'exc' is the exception object to be raised.  This
     function does not steal any references to 'exc'.  To prevent naive
     misuse, you must write your own C extension to call this.  Must be
     called with the GIL held.  Returns the number of thread states
     modified; this is normally one, but will be zero if the thread id
     isn't found.  If 'exc' is ‘NULL’, the pending exception (if any)
     for the thread is cleared.  This raises no exceptions.

     在 3.7 版的變更: The type of the 'id' parameter changed from long
     to unsigned long.

 -- C 函式: void PyEval_AcquireThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Acquire the global interpreter
     lock and set the current thread state to 'tstate', which must not
     be ‘NULL’.  The lock must have been created earlier.  If this
     thread already has the lock, deadlock ensues.

          備註: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was
          not created by Python.  You can use ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or
          *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8de. to check if the interpreter is
          in process of being finalized before calling this function to
          avoid unwanted termination.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Updated to be consistent with *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8db, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): 8dc, and
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd, and terminate the current thread if
     called while the interpreter is finalizing.

     *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8db. is a higher-level function which
     is always available (even when threads have not been initialized).

 -- C 函式: void PyEval_ReleaseThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Reset the current thread state
     to ‘NULL’ and release the global interpreter lock.  The lock must
     have been created earlier and must be held by the current thread.
     The 'tstate' argument, which must not be ‘NULL’, is only used to
     check that it represents the current thread state -- if it isn't, a
     fatal error is reported.

     *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 110f. is a higher-level function which
     is always available (even when threads have not been initialized).

 -- C 函式: void PyEval_AcquireLock ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Acquire the global interpreter
     lock.  The lock must have been created earlier.  If this thread
     already has the lock, a deadlock ensues.

     在 3.2 版之後被棄用: This function does not update the current
     thread state.  Please use *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8db. or
     *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 482b. instead.

          備註: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was
          not created by Python.  You can use ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or
          *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8de. to check if the interpreter is
          in process of being finalized before calling this function to
          avoid unwanted termination.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Updated to be consistent with *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8db, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): 8dc, and
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8dd, and terminate the current thread if
     called while the interpreter is finalizing.

 -- C 函式: void PyEval_ReleaseLock ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Release the global interpreter
     lock.  The lock must have been created earlier.

     在 3.2 版之後被棄用: This function does not update the current
     thread state.  Please use *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 110f. or *note
     PyEval_ReleaseThread(): 4834. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Sub-interpreter support,  Next: Asynchronous Notifications,  Prev: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.6 Sub-interpreter support
-----------------------------

While in most uses, you will only embed a single Python interpreter,
there are cases where you need to create several independent
interpreters in the same process and perhaps even in the same thread.
Sub-interpreters allow you to do that.

The "main" interpreter is the first one created when the runtime
initializes.  It is usually the only Python interpreter in a process.
Unlike sub-interpreters, the main interpreter has unique process-global
responsibilities like signal handling.  It is also responsible for
execution during runtime initialization and is usually the active
interpreter during runtime finalization.  The *note
PyInterpreterState_Main(): 4bc4. function returns a pointer to its
state.

You can switch between sub-interpreters using the *note
PyThreadState_Swap(): 48da. function.  You can create and destroy them
using the following functions:

 -- C 型別: type PyInterpreterConfig

     Structure containing most parameters to configure a
     sub-interpreter.  Its values are used only in *note
     Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 16c. and never modified by the
     runtime.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

     Structure fields:

      -- C 成員函數: int use_main_obmalloc

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter will use its own
          "object" allocator state.  Otherwise it will use (share) the
          main interpreter's.

          If this is ‘0’ then *note check_multi_interp_extensions: 4bc6.
          must be ‘1’ (non-zero).  If this is ‘1’ then *note gil: 4bc7.
          must not be *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 4bc8.

      -- C 成員函數: int allow_fork

          If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support forking the
          process in any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently
          active.  Otherwise fork is unrestricted.

          Note that the *note subprocess: d0. module still works when
          fork is disallowed.

      -- C 成員函數: int allow_exec

          If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support replacing the
          current process via exec (e.g.  *note os.execv(): 2897.) in
          any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently active.
          Otherwise exec is unrestricted.

          Note that the *note subprocess: d0. module still works when
          exec is disallowed.

      -- C 成員函數: int allow_threads

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter's *note threading: e7.
          module won't create threads.  Otherwise threads are allowed.

      -- C 成員函數: int allow_daemon_threads

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter's *note threading: e7.
          module won't create daemon threads.  Otherwise daemon threads
          are allowed (as long as *note allow_threads: 4bcb. is
          non-zero).

      -- C 成員函數: int check_multi_interp_extensions

          If this is ‘0’ then all extension modules may be imported,
          including legacy (single-phase init) modules, in any thread
          where the sub-interpreter is currently active.  Otherwise only
          multi-phase init extension modules (see PEP 489(1)) may be
          imported.  (Also see *note Py_mod_multiple_interpreters:
          4b2d.)

          This must be ‘1’ (non-zero) if *note use_main_obmalloc: 4bc5.
          is ‘0’.

      -- C 成員函數: int gil

          This determines the operation of the GIL for the
          sub-interpreter.  It may be one of the following:

           -- C 巨集: PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL

               Use the default selection (*note
               PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL: 4bce.).

           -- C 巨集: PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL

               Use (share) the main interpreter's GIL.

           -- C 巨集: PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL

               Use the sub-interpreter's own GIL.

          If this is *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 4bc8. then *note
          PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc: 4bc5. must be ‘0’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig
          (PyThreadState **tstate_p, const PyInterpreterConfig *config)

     Create a new sub-interpreter.  This is an (almost) totally separate
     environment for the execution of Python code.  In particular, the
     new interpreter has separate, independent versions of all imported
     modules, including the fundamental modules *note builtins: 10,
     *note __main__: 1. and *note sys: d3.  The table of loaded modules
     (‘sys.modules’) and the module search path (‘sys.path’) are also
     separate.  The new environment has no ‘sys.argv’ variable.  It has
     new standard I/O stream file objects ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ and
     ‘sys.stderr’ (however these refer to the same underlying file
     descriptors).

     The given 'config' controls the options with which the interpreter
     is initialized.

     Upon success, 'tstate_p' will be set to the first thread state
     created in the new sub-interpreter.  This thread state is made in
     the current thread state.  Note that no actual thread is created;
     see the discussion of thread states below.  If creation of the new
     interpreter is unsuccessful, 'tstate_p' is set to ‘NULL’; no
     exception is set since the exception state is stored in the current
     thread state and there may not be a current thread state.

     Like all other Python/C API functions, the global interpreter lock
     must be held before calling this function and is still held when it
     returns.  Likewise a current thread state must be set on entry.  On
     success, the returned thread state will be set as current.  If the
     sub-interpreter is created with its own GIL then the GIL of the
     calling interpreter will be released.  When the function returns,
     the new interpreter's GIL will be held by the current thread and
     the previously interpreter's GIL will remain released here.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

     Sub-interpreters are most effective when isolated from each other,
     with certain functionality restricted:

          PyInterpreterConfig config = {
              .use_main_obmalloc = 0,
              .allow_fork = 0,
              .allow_exec = 0,
              .allow_threads = 1,
              .allow_daemon_threads = 0,
              .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
              .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
          };
          PyThreadState *tstate = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&config);

     Note that the config is used only briefly and does not get
     modified.  During initialization the config's values are converted
     into various *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. values.  A read-only
     copy of the config may be stored internally on the *note
     PyInterpreterState: 6f5.

     Extension modules are shared between (sub-)interpreters as follows:

        * For modules using multi-phase initialization, e.g.  *note
          PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): d33, a separate module object is
          created and initialized for each interpreter.  Only C-level
          static and global variables are shared between these module
          objects.

        * For modules using single-phase initialization, e.g.  *note
          PyModule_Create(): 472a, the first time a particular extension
          is imported, it is initialized normally, and a (shallow) copy
          of its module's dictionary is squirreled away.  When the same
          extension is imported by another (sub-)interpreter, a new
          module is initialized and filled with the contents of this
          copy; the extension's ‘init’ function is not called.  Objects
          in the module's dictionary thus end up shared across
          (sub-)interpreters, which might cause unwanted behavior (see
          *note Bugs and caveats: 4bcf. below).

          Note that this is different from what happens when an
          extension is imported after the interpreter has been
          completely re-initialized by calling *note Py_FinalizeEx():
          b84. and *note Py_Initialize(): 6e2.; in that case, the
          extension's ‘initmodule’ function 'is' called again.  As with
          multi-phase initialization, this means that only C-level
          static and global variables are shared between these modules.

 -- C 函式: *note PyThreadState: 5a6. *Py_NewInterpreter (void)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Create a new sub-interpreter.  This is essentially just a wrapper
     around *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 16c. with a config that
     preserves the existing behavior.  The result is an unisolated
     sub-interpreter that shares the main interpreter's GIL, allows
     fork/exec, allows daemon threads, and allows single-phase init
     modules.

 -- C 函式: void Py_EndInterpreter (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

     Destroy the (sub-)interpreter represented by the given thread
     state.  The given thread state must be the current thread state.
     See the discussion of thread states below.  When the call returns,
     the current thread state is ‘NULL’.  All thread states associated
     with this interpreter are destroyed.  The global interpreter lock
     used by the target interpreter must be held before calling this
     function.  No GIL is held when it returns.

     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. will destroy all sub-interpreters that
     haven't been explicitly destroyed at that point.

* Menu:

* A Per-Interpreter GIL::
* Bugs and caveats::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Next: Bugs and caveats,  Up: Sub-interpreter support

7.9.6.1 A Per-Interpreter GIL
.............................

Using *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 16c. you can create a
sub-interpreter that is completely isolated from other interpreters,
including having its own GIL. The most important benefit of this
isolation is that such an interpreter can execute Python code without
being blocked by other interpreters or blocking any others.  Thus a
single Python process can truly take advantage of multiple CPU cores
when running Python code.  The isolation also encourages a different
approach to concurrency than that of just using threads.  (See PEP
554(1).)

Using an isolated interpreter requires vigilance in preserving that
isolation.  That especially means not sharing any objects or mutable
state without guarantees about thread-safety.  Even objects that are
otherwise immutable (e.g.  ‘None’, ‘(1, 5)’) can't normally be shared
because of the refcount.  One simple but less-efficient approach around
this is to use a global lock around all use of some state (or object).
Alternately, effectively immutable objects (like integers or strings)
can be made safe in spite of their refcounts by making them "immortal".
In fact, this has been done for the builtin singletons, small integers,
and a number of other builtin objects.

If you preserve isolation then you will have access to proper multi-core
computing without the complications that come with free-threading.
Failure to preserve isolation will expose you to the full consequences
of free-threading, including races and hard-to-debug crashes.

Aside from that, one of the main challenges of using multiple isolated
interpreters is how to communicate between them safely (not break
isolation) and efficiently.  The runtime and stdlib do not provide any
standard approach to this yet.  A future stdlib module would help
mitigate the effort of preserving isolation and expose effective tools
for communicating (and sharing) data between interpreters.

在 3.12 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/


File: python.info,  Node: Bugs and caveats,  Prev: A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Up: Sub-interpreter support

7.9.6.2 Bugs and caveats
........................

Because sub-interpreters (and the main interpreter) are part of the same
process, the insulation between them isn't perfect -- for example, using
low-level file operations like *note os.close(): 9d1. they can
(accidentally or maliciously) affect each other's open files.  Because
of the way extensions are shared between (sub-)interpreters, some
extensions may not work properly; this is especially likely when using
single-phase initialization or (static) global variables.  It is
possible to insert objects created in one sub-interpreter into a
namespace of another (sub-)interpreter; this should be avoided if
possible.

Special care should be taken to avoid sharing user-defined functions,
methods, instances or classes between sub-interpreters, since import
operations executed by such objects may affect the wrong
(sub-)interpreter's dictionary of loaded modules.  It is equally
important to avoid sharing objects from which the above are reachable.

Also note that combining this functionality with ‘PyGILState_*’ APIs is
delicate, because these APIs assume a bijection between Python thread
states and OS-level threads, an assumption broken by the presence of
sub-interpreters.  It is highly recommended that you don't switch
sub-interpreters between a pair of matching *note PyGILState_Ensure():
8dd. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 142a. calls.  Furthermore,
extensions (such as *note ctypes: 28.) using these APIs to allow calling
of Python code from non-Python created threads will probably be broken
when using sub-interpreters.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous Notifications,  Next: Profiling and Tracing,  Prev: Sub-interpreter support,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.7 Asynchronous Notifications
--------------------------------

A mechanism is provided to make asynchronous notifications to the main
interpreter thread.  These notifications take the form of a function
pointer and a void pointer argument.

 -- C 函式: int Py_AddPendingCall (int (*func)(void*), void *arg)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Schedule a function to be
     called from the main interpreter thread.  On success, ‘0’ is
     returned and 'func' is queued for being called in the main thread.
     On failure, ‘-1’ is returned without setting any exception.

     When successfully queued, 'func' will be 'eventually' called from
     the main interpreter thread with the argument 'arg'.  It will be
     called asynchronously with respect to normally running Python code,
     but with both these conditions met:

        * on a *note bytecode: 39f. boundary;

        * with the main thread holding the *note global interpreter
          lock: 141. ('func' can therefore use the full C API).

     'func' must return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ on failure with an
     exception set.  'func' won't be interrupted to perform another
     asynchronous notification recursively, but it can still be
     interrupted to switch threads if the global interpreter lock is
     released.

     This function doesn't need a current thread state to run, and it
     doesn't need the global interpreter lock.

     To call this function in a subinterpreter, the caller must hold the
     GIL. Otherwise, the function 'func' can be scheduled to be called
     from the wrong interpreter.

          警告: This is a low-level function, only useful for very
          special cases.  There is no guarantee that 'func' will be
          called as quick as possible.  If the main thread is busy
          executing a system call, 'func' won't be called before the
          system call returns.  This function is generally 'not'
          suitable for calling Python code from arbitrary C threads.
          Instead, use the *note PyGILState API: 4bbc.

     在 3.1 版被加入.

     在 3.9 版的變更: If this function is called in a subinterpreter,
     the function 'func' is now scheduled to be called from the
     subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main interpreter.
     Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls.


File: python.info,  Node: Profiling and Tracing,  Next: Advanced Debugger Support,  Prev: Asynchronous Notifications,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.8 Profiling and Tracing
---------------------------

The Python interpreter provides some low-level support for attaching
profiling and execution tracing facilities.  These are used for
profiling, debugging, and coverage analysis tools.

This C interface allows the profiling or tracing code to avoid the
overhead of calling through Python-level callable objects, making a
direct C function call instead.  The essential attributes of the
facility have not changed; the interface allows trace functions to be
installed per-thread, and the basic events reported to the trace
function are the same as had been reported to the Python-level trace
functions in previous versions.

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*Py_tracefunc)(*note PyObject: 6d1. *obj, *note
          PyFrameObject: 5a1. *frame, int what, *note PyObject: 6d1.
          *arg)

     The type of the trace function registered using *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 1374. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 1375.  The
     first parameter is the object passed to the registration function
     as 'obj', 'frame' is the frame object to which the event pertains,
     'what' is one of the constants *note PyTrace_CALL: 4bd5, *note
     PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4bd6, *note PyTrace_LINE: 4bd7, *note
     PyTrace_RETURN: 4bd8, *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4bd9, *note
     PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 4bda, *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4bdb, or *note
     PyTrace_OPCODE: 4bdc, and 'arg' depends on the value of 'what':

     Value of 'what'                     'arg' 的含義
                                         
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                         
     *note PyTrace_CALL: 4bd5.           Always *note Py_None: 4726.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4bd6.      Exception information as returned by
                                         *note sys.exc_info(): 487.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_LINE: 4bd7.           Always *note Py_None: 4726.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_RETURN: 4bd8.         Value being returned to the caller, or
                                         ‘NULL’ if caused by an exception.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4bd9.         被呼叫的函式物件。
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 4bda.    被呼叫的函式物件。
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4bdb.       被呼叫的函式物件。
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 4bdc.         Always *note Py_None: 4726.
                                         

 -- C 變數: int PyTrace_CALL

     The value of the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc: 4bd4.
     function when a new call to a function or method is being reported,
     or a new entry into a generator.  Note that the creation of the
     iterator for a generator function is not reported as there is no
     control transfer to the Python bytecode in the corresponding frame.

 -- C 變數: int PyTrace_EXCEPTION

     The value of the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc: 4bd4.
     function when an exception has been raised.  The callback function
     is called with this value for 'what' when after any bytecode is
     processed after which the exception becomes set within the frame
     being executed.  The effect of this is that as exception
     propagation causes the Python stack to unwind, the callback is
     called upon return to each frame as the exception propagates.  Only
     trace functions receives these events; they are not needed by the
     profiler.

 -- C 變數: int PyTrace_LINE

     The value passed as the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc:
     4bd4. function (but not a profiling function) when a line-number
     event is being reported.  It may be disabled for a frame by setting
     *note f_trace_lines: a3c. to '0' on that frame.

 -- C 變數: int PyTrace_RETURN

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4bd4.
     functions when a call is about to return.

 -- C 變數: int PyTrace_C_CALL

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4bd4.
     functions when a C function is about to be called.

 -- C 變數: int PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4bd4.
     functions when a C function has raised an exception.

 -- C 變數: int PyTrace_C_RETURN

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4bd4.
     functions when a C function has returned.

 -- C 變數: int PyTrace_OPCODE

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4bd4.
     functions (but not profiling functions) when a new opcode is about
     to be executed.  This event is not emitted by default: it must be
     explicitly requested by setting *note f_trace_opcodes: a3d. to '1'
     on the frame.

 -- C 函式: void PyEval_SetProfile (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

     Set the profiler function to 'func'.  The 'obj' parameter is passed
     to the function as its first parameter, and may be any Python
     object, or ‘NULL’.  If the profile function needs to maintain
     state, using a different value for 'obj' for each thread provides a
     convenient and thread-safe place to store it.  The profile function
     is called for all monitored events except *note PyTrace_LINE: 4bd7.
     *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 4bdc. and *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4bd6.

     See also the *note sys.setprofile(): 1376. function.

     呼叫者必須持有 *note GIL: 6df.。

 -- C 函式: void PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func,
          PyObject *obj)

     Like *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 1374. but sets the profile function
     in all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead
     of the setting it only on the current thread.

     呼叫者必須持有 *note GIL: 6df.。

     As *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 1374, this function ignores any
     exceptions raised while setting the profile functions in all
     threads.

在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyEval_SetTrace (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

     Set the tracing function to 'func'.  This is similar to *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 1374, except the tracing function does receive
     line-number events and per-opcode events, but does not receive any
     event related to C function objects being called.  Any trace
     function registered using *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 1375. will not
     receive *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4bd9, *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION:
     4bda. or *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4bdb. as a value for the 'what'
     parameter.

     也請見 *note sys.settrace(): 1377. 函式。

     呼叫者必須持有 *note GIL: 6df.。

 -- C 函式: void PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject
          *obj)

     Like *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 1375. but sets the tracing function
     in all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead
     of the setting it only on the current thread.

     呼叫者必須持有 *note GIL: 6df.。

     As *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 1375, this function ignores any
     exceptions raised while setting the trace functions in all threads.

在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Advanced Debugger Support,  Next: Thread Local Storage Support,  Prev: Profiling and Tracing,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.9 Advanced Debugger Support
-------------------------------

These functions are only intended to be used by advanced debugging
tools.

 -- C 函式: *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. *PyInterpreterState_Head ()

     Return the interpreter state object at the head of the list of all
     such objects.

 -- C 函式: *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. *PyInterpreterState_Main ()

     Return the main interpreter state object.

 -- C 函式: *note PyInterpreterState: 6f5. *PyInterpreterState_Next
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)

     Return the next interpreter state object after 'interp' from the
     list of all such objects.

 -- C 函式: *note PyThreadState: 5a6. *PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)

     Return the pointer to the first *note PyThreadState: 5a6. object in
     the list of threads associated with the interpreter 'interp'.

 -- C 函式: *note PyThreadState: 5a6. *PyThreadState_Next (PyThreadState
          *tstate)

     Return the next thread state object after 'tstate' from the list of
     all such objects belonging to the same *note PyInterpreterState:
     6f5. object.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Local Storage Support,  Prev: Advanced Debugger Support,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.10 Thread Local Storage Support
-----------------------------------

The Python interpreter provides low-level support for thread-local
storage (TLS) which wraps the underlying native TLS implementation to
support the Python-level thread local storage API (*note
threading.local: 1533.).  The CPython C level APIs are similar to those
offered by pthreads and Windows: use a thread key and functions to
associate a void* value per thread.

The GIL does 'not' need to be held when calling these functions; they
supply their own locking.

Note that ‘Python.h’ does not include the declaration of the TLS APIs,
you need to include ‘pythread.h’ to use thread-local storage.

     備註: None of these API functions handle memory management on
     behalf of the void* values.  You need to allocate and deallocate
     them yourself.  If the void* values happen to be *note PyObject:
     6d1.*, these functions don't do refcount operations on them either.

* Menu:

* Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
* 執行緒局部儲存 (Thread Local Storage, TLS) API：: 執行緒局部儲存 Thread Local Storage TLS API：.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Specific Storage TSS API,  Next: 執行緒局部儲存 Thread Local Storage TLS API：,  Up: Thread Local Storage Support

7.9.10.1 Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API
..........................................

TSS API is introduced to supersede the use of the existing TLS API
within the CPython interpreter.  This API uses a new type *note
Py_tss_t: 933. instead of int to represent thread keys.

在 3.7 版被加入.

也參考
......

"A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython" ( PEP 539(1))

 -- C 型別: type Py_tss_t

     This data structure represents the state of a thread key, the
     definition of which may depend on the underlying TLS
     implementation, and it has an internal field representing the key's
     initialization state.  There are no public members in this
     structure.

     When *note Py_LIMITED_API: 2d8. is not defined, static allocation
     of this type by *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4be2. is allowed.

 -- C 巨集: Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT

     This macro expands to the initializer for *note Py_tss_t: 933.
     variables.  Note that this macro won't be defined with *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 2d8.

* Menu:

* Dynamic Allocation::
* 方法: 方法<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: Dynamic Allocation,  Next: 方法<2>,  Up: Thread Specific Storage TSS API

7.9.10.2 Dynamic Allocation
...........................

Dynamic allocation of the *note Py_tss_t: 933, required in extension
modules built with *note Py_LIMITED_API: 2d8, where static allocation of
this type is not possible due to its implementation being opaque at
build time.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_tss_t: 933. *PyThread_tss_alloc ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Return a
     value which is the same state as a value initialized with *note
     Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4be2, or ‘NULL’ in the case of dynamic
     allocation failure.

 -- C 函式: void PyThread_tss_free (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Free the
     given 'key' allocated by *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 375, after
     first calling *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 37d. to ensure any
     associated thread locals have been unassigned.  This is a no-op if
     the 'key' argument is ‘NULL’.

          備註: A freed key becomes a dangling pointer.  You should
          reset the key to ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: 方法<2>,  Prev: Dynamic Allocation,  Up: Thread Specific Storage TSS API

7.9.10.3 方法
.............

The parameter 'key' of these functions must not be ‘NULL’.  Moreover,
the behaviors of *note PyThread_tss_set(): 379. and *note
PyThread_tss_get(): 37b. are undefined if the given *note Py_tss_t: 933.
has not been initialized by *note PyThread_tss_create(): 48db.

 -- C 函式: int PyThread_tss_is_created (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Return a
     non-zero value if the given *note Py_tss_t: 933. has been
     initialized by *note PyThread_tss_create(): 48db.

 -- C 函式: int PyThread_tss_create (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Return a zero
     value on successful initialization of a TSS key.  The behavior is
     undefined if the value pointed to by the 'key' argument is not
     initialized by *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4be2.  This function can be
     called repeatedly on the same key - calling it on an already
     initialized key is a no-op and immediately returns success.

 -- C 函式: void PyThread_tss_delete (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Destroy a TSS
     key to forget the values associated with the key across all
     threads, and change the key's initialization state to
     uninitialized.  A destroyed key is able to be initialized again by
     *note PyThread_tss_create(): 48db.  This function can be called
     repeatedly on the same key - calling it on an already destroyed key
     is a no-op.

 -- C 函式: int PyThread_tss_set (Py_tss_t *key, void *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Return a zero
     value to indicate successfully associating a void* value with a TSS
     key in the current thread.  Each thread has a distinct mapping of
     the key to a void* value.

 -- C 函式: void *PyThread_tss_get (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Return the
     void* value associated with a TSS key in the current thread.  This
     returns ‘NULL’ if no value is associated with the key in the
     current thread.


File: python.info,  Node: 執行緒局部儲存 Thread Local Storage TLS API：,  Prev: Thread Specific Storage TSS API,  Up: Thread Local Storage Support

7.9.10.4 執行緒局部儲存 (Thread Local Storage, TLS) API：
.........................................................

在 3.7 版之後被棄用: This API is superseded by *note Thread Specific
Storage (TSS) API: 932.

     備註: This version of the API does not support platforms where the
     native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast to
     ‘int’.  On such platforms, *note PyThread_create_key(): 374. will
     return immediately with a failure status, and the other TLS
     functions will all be no-ops on such platforms.

Due to the compatibility problem noted above, this version of the API
should not be used in new code.

 -- C 函式: int PyThread_create_key ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 函式: void PyThread_delete_key (int key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 函式: int PyThread_set_key_value (int key, void *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 函式: void *PyThread_get_key_value (int key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 函式: void PyThread_delete_key_value (int key)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 函式: void PyThread_ReInitTLS ()
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'


File: python.info,  Node: Python 初始化設定,  Next: 記憶體管理,  Prev: Initialization Finalization and Threads,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.10 Python 初始化設定
======================

在 3.8 版被加入.

Python can be initialized with *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. and
the *note PyConfig: 345. structure.  It can be preinitialized with *note
Py_PreInitialize(): 343. and the *note PyPreConfig: 7f0. structure.

There are two kinds of configuration:

   * The *note Python Configuration: 4be8. can be used to build a
     customized Python which behaves as the regular Python.  For
     example, environment variables and command line arguments are used
     to configure Python.

   * The *note Isolated Configuration: 4be9. can be used to embed Python
     into an application.  It isolates Python from the system.  For
     example, environment variables are ignored, the LC_CTYPE locale is
     left unchanged and no signal handler is registered.

The *note Py_RunMain(): 809. function can be used to write a customized
Python program.

See also *note Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: 4baf.

也參考
......

PEP 587(1) "Python Initialization Configuration".

* Menu:

* 範例: 範例<51>.
* PyWideStringList::
* PyStatus::
* PyPreConfig::
* Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig::
* PyConfig::
* Initialization with PyConfig::
* Isolated Configuration::
* Python Configuration::
* Python Path Configuration::
* Py_RunMain(): Py_RunMain.
* Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv.
* Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<51>,  Next: PyWideStringList,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.1 範例
-----------

Example of customized Python always running in isolated mode:

     int main(int argc, char **argv)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
         config.isolated = 1;

         /* Decode command line arguments.
            Implicitly preinitialize Python (in isolated mode). */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(&config, argc, argv);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);

         return Py_RunMain();

     exception:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         if (PyStatus_IsExit(status)) {
             return status.exitcode;
         }
         /* Display the error message and exit the process with
            non-zero exit code */
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: PyWideStringList,  Next: PyStatus,  Prev: 範例<51>,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.2 PyWideStringList
-----------------------

 -- C 型別: type PyWideStringList

     ‘wchar_t*’ 字串串列。

     If 'length' is non-zero, 'items' must be non-‘NULL’ and all strings
     must be non-‘NULL’.

     方法：

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyWideStringList_Append
               (PyWideStringList *list, const wchar_t *item)

          Append 'item' to 'list'.

          Python must be preinitialized to call this function.

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyWideStringList_Insert
               (PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t index, const wchar_t
               *item)

          Insert 'item' into 'list' at 'index'.

          If 'index' is greater than or equal to 'list' length, append
          'item' to 'list'.

          'index' must be greater than or equal to ‘0’.

          Python must be preinitialized to call this function.

     Structure fields:

      -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. length

          串列長度。

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t **items

          List items.


File: python.info,  Node: PyStatus,  Next: PyPreConfig,  Prev: PyWideStringList,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.3 PyStatus
---------------

 -- C 型別: type PyStatus

     Structure to store an initialization function status: success,
     error or exit.

     For an error, it can store the C function name which created the
     error.

     Structure fields:

      -- C 成員函數: int exitcode

          Exit code.  Argument passed to ‘exit()’.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *err_msg

          錯誤訊息。

      -- C 成員函數: const char *func

          Name of the function which created an error, can be ‘NULL’.

     Functions to create a status:

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyStatus_Ok (void)

          Success.

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyStatus_Error (const char
               *err_msg)

          Initialization error with a message.

          'err_msg' 不可為 ‘NULL’。

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyStatus_NoMemory (void)

          Memory allocation failure (out of memory).

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyStatus_Exit (int exitcode)

          Exit Python with the specified exit code.

     Functions to handle a status:

      -- C 函式: int PyStatus_Exception (PyStatus status)

          Is the status an error or an exit?  If true, the exception
          must be handled; by calling *note Py_ExitStatusException():
          806. for example.

      -- C 函式: int PyStatus_IsError (PyStatus status)

          Is the result an error?

      -- C 函式: int PyStatus_IsExit (PyStatus status)

          Is the result an exit?

      -- C 函式: void Py_ExitStatusException (PyStatus status)

          Call ‘exit(exitcode)’ if 'status' is an exit.  Print the error
          message and exit with a non-zero exit code if 'status' is an
          error.  Must only be called if ‘PyStatus_Exception(status)’ is
          non-zero.

     備註: Internally, Python uses macros which set ‘PyStatus.func’,
     whereas functions to create a status set ‘func’ to ‘NULL’.

範例：

     PyStatus alloc(void **ptr, size_t size)
     {
         *ptr = PyMem_RawMalloc(size);
         if (*ptr == NULL) {
             return PyStatus_NoMemory();
         }
         return PyStatus_Ok();
     }

     int main(int argc, char **argv)
     {
         void *ptr;
         PyStatus status = alloc(&ptr, 16);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }
         PyMem_Free(ptr);
         return 0;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: PyPreConfig,  Next: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Prev: PyStatus,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.4 PyPreConfig
------------------

 -- C 型別: type PyPreConfig

     Structure used to preinitialize Python.

     Function to initialize a preconfiguration:

      -- C 函式: void PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyPreConfig
               *preconfig)

          Initialize the preconfiguration with *note Python
          Configuration: 4be8.

      -- C 函式: void PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyPreConfig
               *preconfig)

          Initialize the preconfiguration with *note Isolated
          Configuration: 4be9.

     Structure fields:

      -- C 成員函數: int allocator

          Name of the Python memory allocators:

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’ (‘0’): don't change memory
               allocators (use defaults).

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEFAULT’ (‘1’): *note default memory
               allocators: 1b42.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEBUG’ (‘2’): *note default memory
               allocators: 1b42. with *note debug hooks: 1b44.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC’ (‘3’): use ‘malloc()’ of the C
               library.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘4’): force usage of
               ‘malloc()’ with *note debug hooks: 1b44.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ (‘5’): *note Python pymalloc
               memory allocator: b7e.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘6’): *note Python
               pymalloc memory allocator: b7e. with *note debug hooks:
               1b44.

          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ and
          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ are not supported if Python
          is *note configured using -without-pymalloc: 1b72.

          請見*note 記憶體管理: 4bf4.。

          預設：‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’。

      -- C 成員函數: int configure_locale

          Set the LC_CTYPE locale to the user preferred locale.

          If equals to ‘0’, set *note coerce_c_locale: 4bf6. and *note
          coerce_c_locale_warn: 4bf7. members to ‘0’.

          請見 *note locale encoding: 1419.。

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 成員函數: int coerce_c_locale

          If equals to ‘2’, coerce the C locale.

          If equals to ‘1’, read the LC_CTYPE locale to decide if it
          should be coerced.

          請見 *note locale encoding: 1419.。

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 成員函數: int coerce_c_locale_warn

          If non-zero, emit a warning if the C locale is coerced.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 成員函數: int dev_mode

          *note Python Development Mode: 703.: see *note
          PyConfig.dev_mode: 4bf9.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 成員函數: int isolated

          Isolated mode: see *note PyConfig.isolated: 33b.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 成員函數: int legacy_windows_fs_encoding

          如果不為 0：

             * 將 *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 342. 設為 ‘0’、

             * 將 *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 340. 設為
               ‘"mbcs"’、

             * 將 *note PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 341. 設為
               ‘"replace"’。

          Initialized from the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: ac0.
          environment variable value.

          Only available on Windows.  ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ macro can be
          used for Windows specific code.

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: int parse_argv

          If non-zero, *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): 807. and *note
          Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): 808. parse their ‘argv’
          argument the same way the regular Python parses command line
          arguments: see *note Command Line Arguments: e9a.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 成員函數: int use_environment

          Use *note environment variables: 3e6.?  See *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 330.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 成員函數: int utf8_mode

          If non-zero, enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451.

          Set to ‘0’ or ‘1’ by the *note -X utf8: 188. command line
          option and the *note PYTHONUTF8: 92c. environment variable.

          Also set to ‘1’ if the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale is ‘C’ or ‘POSIX’.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.


File: python.info,  Node: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Next: PyConfig,  Prev: PyPreConfig,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.5 Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig
--------------------------------------------

The preinitialization of Python:

   * Set the Python memory allocators (*note PyPreConfig.allocator:
     4bf3.)

   * Configure the LC_CTYPE locale (*note locale encoding: 1419.)

   * Set the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451. (*note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode:
     342.)

The current preconfiguration (‘PyPreConfig’ type) is stored in
‘_PyRuntime.preconfig’.

Functions to preinitialize Python:

 -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. Py_PreInitialize (const PyPreConfig
          *preconfig)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     'preconfig' 不可為 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs (const
          PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, char *const *argv)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     Parse 'argv' command line arguments (bytes strings) if *note
     parse_argv: 4bfb. of 'preconfig' is non-zero.

     'preconfig' 不可為 ‘NULL’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (const
          PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     Parse 'argv' command line arguments (wide strings) if *note
     parse_argv: 4bfb. of 'preconfig' is non-zero.

     'preconfig' 不可為 ‘NULL’。

The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using
*note PyStatus_Exception(): 7fd. and *note Py_ExitStatusException():
806.

For *note Python Configuration: 4be8. (*note
PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 7fb.), if Python is initialized with
command line arguments, the command line arguments must also be passed
to preinitialize Python, since they have an effect on the
pre-configuration like encodings.  For example, the *note -X utf8: 188.
command line option enables the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 451.

‘PyMem_SetAllocator()’ can be called after *note Py_PreInitialize():
343. and before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. to install a
custom memory allocator.  It can be called before *note
Py_PreInitialize(): 343. if *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 4bf3. is set to
‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’.

Python memory allocation functions like *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): ec6.
must not be used before the Python preinitialization, whereas calling
directly ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ is always safe.  *note
Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. must not be called before the Python
preinitialization.

Example using the preinitialization to enable the *note Python UTF-8
Mode: 451.:

     PyStatus status;
     PyPreConfig preconfig;
     PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(&preconfig);

     preconfig.utf8_mode = 1;

     status = Py_PreInitialize(&preconfig);
     if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

     /* at this point, Python speaks UTF-8 */

     Py_Initialize();
     /* ... use Python API here ... */
     Py_Finalize();


File: python.info,  Node: PyConfig,  Next: Initialization with PyConfig,  Prev: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.6 PyConfig
---------------

 -- C 型別: type PyConfig

     Structure containing most parameters to configure Python.

     When done, the *note PyConfig_Clear(): 7f3. function must be used
     to release the configuration memory.

     Structure methods:

      -- C 函式: void PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyConfig *config)

          Initialize configuration with the *note Python Configuration:
          4be8.

      -- C 函式: void PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyConfig *config)

          Initialize configuration with the *note Isolated
          Configuration: 4be9.

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyConfig_SetString (PyConfig
               *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const wchar_t *str)

          Copy the wide character string 'str' into ‘*config_str’.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a01. if needed.

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyConfig_SetBytesString (PyConfig
               *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const char *str)

          Decode 'str' using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28. and set the
          result into ‘*config_str’.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a01. if needed.

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyConfig_SetArgv (PyConfig
               *config, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

          Set command line arguments (*note argv: 350. member of
          'config') from the 'argv' list of wide character strings.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a01. if needed.

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyConfig_SetBytesArgv (PyConfig
               *config, int argc, char *const *argv)

          Set command line arguments (*note argv: 350. member of
          'config') from the 'argv' list of bytes strings.  Decode bytes
          using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a28.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a01. if needed.

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyConfig_SetWideStringList
               (PyConfig *config, PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t
               length, wchar_t **items)

          Set the list of wide strings 'list' to 'length' and 'items'.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a01. if needed.

      -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. PyConfig_Read (PyConfig *config)

          Read all Python configuration.

          Fields which are already initialized are left unchanged.

          Fields for *note path configuration: 6e3. are no longer
          calculated or modified when calling this function, as of
          Python 3.11.

          The *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa. function only parses *note
          PyConfig.argv: 350. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          16fe. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed.  Since Python
          arguments are stripped from *note PyConfig.argv: 350, parsing
          arguments twice would parse the application options as Python
          options.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a01. if needed.

          在 3.10 版的變更: The *note PyConfig.argv: 350. arguments are
          now only parsed once, *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 16fe. is set
          to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed, and arguments are only
          parsed if *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 16fe. equals ‘1’.

          在 3.11 版的變更: *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa. no longer
          calculates all paths, and so fields listed under *note Python
          Path Configuration: 6e3. may no longer be updated until *note
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. is called.

      -- C 函式: void PyConfig_Clear (PyConfig *config)

          Release configuration memory.

     Most ‘PyConfig’ methods *note preinitialize Python: 3a01. if
     needed.  In that case, the Python preinitialization configuration
     (*note PyPreConfig: 7f0.) in based on the *note PyConfig: 345.  If
     configuration fields which are in common with *note PyPreConfig:
     7f0. are tuned, they must be set before calling a *note PyConfig:
     345. method:

        * *note PyConfig.dev_mode: 4bf9.

        * *note PyConfig.isolated: 33b.

        * *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 16fe.

        * *note PyConfig.use_environment: 330.

     Moreover, if *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): 7f6. or *note
     PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): 7f7. is used, this method must be called
     before other methods, since the preinitialization configuration
     depends on command line arguments (if *note parse_argv: 16fe. is
     non-zero).

     The caller of these methods is responsible to handle exceptions
     (error or exit) using ‘PyStatus_Exception()’ and
     ‘Py_ExitStatusException()’.

     Structure fields:

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyWideStringList: 7f2. argv

          命令列引數：*note sys.argv: 10f9.。

          Set *note parse_argv: 16fe. to ‘1’ to parse *note argv: 350.
          the same way the regular Python parses Python command line
          arguments and then to strip Python arguments from *note argv:
          350.

          If *note argv: 350. is empty, an empty string is added to
          ensure that *note sys.argv: 10f9. always exists and is never
          empty.

          預設值：‘NULL’。

          See also the *note orig_argv: 6c2. member.

      -- C 成員函數: int safe_path

          If equals to zero, ‘Py_RunMain()’ prepends a potentially
          unsafe path to *note sys.path: 35e. at startup:

             * If *note argv[0]: 350. is equal to ‘L"-m"’ (‘python -m
               module’), prepend the current working directory.

             * If running a script (‘python script.py’), prepend the
               script's directory.  If it's a symbolic link, resolve
               symbolic links.

             * Otherwise (‘python -c code’ and ‘python’), prepend an
               empty string, which means the current working directory.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -P: 391. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 392. environment variable.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python config, ‘1’ in isolated config.

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *base_exec_prefix

          *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 403e.。

          預設值：‘NULL’。

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. output.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *base_executable

          Python base executable: ‘sys._base_executable’.

          Set by the ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable.

          Set from *note PyConfig.executable: 4c01. if ‘NULL’.

          預設值：‘NULL’。

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. output.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *base_prefix

          *note sys.base_prefix: 39a0.。

          預設值：‘NULL’。

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. output.

      -- C 成員函數: int buffered_stdio

          If equals to ‘0’ and *note configure_c_stdio: 4c03. is
          non-zero, disable buffering on the C streams stdout and
          stderr.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -u: 1780. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 1781. environment variable.

          stdin is always opened in buffered mode.

          預設值：‘1’。

      -- C 成員函數: int bytes_warning

          If equals to ‘1’, issue a warning when comparing *note bytes:
          2c1. or *note bytearray: 2c0. with *note str: 157, or
          comparing *note bytes: 2c1. with *note int: 17e.

          If equal or greater to ‘2’, raise a *note BytesWarning: a88.
          exception in these cases.

          Incremented by the *note -b: 3d7. command line option.

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: int warn_default_encoding

          If non-zero, emit a *note EncodingWarning: 1b32. warning when
          *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5d9. uses its default encoding.  See
          *note 選擇性加入的編碼警告: 1b46. for details.

          預設：‘0’。

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- C 成員函數: int code_debug_ranges

          If equals to ‘0’, disables the inclusion of the end line and
          column mappings in code objects.  Also disables traceback
          printing carets to specific error locations.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 3a4. environment
          variable and by the *note -X no_debug_ranges: 188. command
          line option.

          預設值：‘1’。

          在 3.11 版被加入.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *check_hash_pycs_mode

          Control the validation behavior of hash-based ‘.pyc’ files:
          value of the *note -check-hash-based-pycs: 1b25. command line
          option.

          Valid values:

             - ‘L"always"’: Hash the source file for invalidation
               regardless of value of the 'check_source' flag.

             - ‘L"never"’: Assume that hash-based pycs always are valid.

             - ‘L"default"’: The 'check_source' flag in hash-based pycs
               determines invalidation.

          預設：‘L"default"’。

          See also PEP 552(1) "Deterministic pycs".

      -- C 成員函數: int configure_c_stdio

          If non-zero, configure C standard streams:

             * On Windows, set the binary mode (‘O_BINARY’) on stdin,
               stdout and stderr.

             * If *note buffered_stdio: 336. equals zero, disable
               buffering of stdin, stdout and stderr streams.

             * If *note interactive: 324. is non-zero, enable stream
               buffering on stdin and stdout (only stdout on Windows).

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 成員函數: int dev_mode

          If non-zero, enable the *note Python Development Mode: 703.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -X dev: 188. option and the *note
          PYTHONDEVMODE: 942. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 成員函數: int dump_refs

          Dump Python references?

          If non-zero, dump all objects which are still alive at exit.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 7ea. environment
          variable.

          Need a special build of Python with the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro
          defined: see the *note configure -with-trace-refs option: 6d2.

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *exec_prefix

          The site-specific directory prefix where the
          platform-dependent Python files are installed: *note
          sys.exec_prefix: 35c.

          預設值：‘NULL’。

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. output.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *executable

          The absolute path of the executable binary for the Python
          interpreter: *note sys.executable: 362.

          預設值：‘NULL’。

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. output.

      -- C 成員函數: int faulthandler

          Enable faulthandler?

          If non-zero, call *note faulthandler.enable(): b0b. at
          startup.

          Set to ‘1’ by *note -X faulthandler: 188. and the *note
          PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: f16. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *filesystem_encoding

          *note Filesystem encoding: 2bd.: *note
          sys.getfilesystemencoding(): abf.

          On macOS, Android and VxWorks: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default.

          On Windows: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default, or ‘"mbcs"’ if *note
          legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 33d. of *note PyPreConfig: 7f0. is
          non-zero.

          Default encoding on other platforms:

             * ‘"utf-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 342. is
               non-zero.

             * ‘"ascii"’ if Python detects that ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’
               announces the ASCII encoding, whereas the ‘mbstowcs()’
               function decodes from a different encoding (usually
               Latin1).

             * ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ returns an empty
               string.

             * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 1419.:
               ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ result.

          At Python startup, the encoding name is normalized to the
          Python codec name.  For example, ‘"ANSI_X3.4-1968"’ is
          replaced with ‘"ascii"’.

          See also the *note filesystem_errors: 341. member.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *filesystem_errors

          *note Filesystem error handler: 2bd.: *note
          sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): b53.

          On Windows: use ‘"surrogatepass"’ by default, or ‘"replace"’
          if *note legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 33d. of *note
          PyPreConfig: 7f0. is non-zero.

          On other platforms: use ‘"surrogateescape"’ by default.

          Supported error handlers:

             * ‘"strict"’

             * ‘"surrogateescape"’

             * ‘"surrogatepass"’ (only supported with the UTF-8
               encoding)

          See also the *note filesystem_encoding: 340. member.

      -- C 成員函數: unsigned long hash_seed

      -- C 成員函數: int use_hash_seed

          Randomized hash function seed.

          If *note use_hash_seed: 338. is zero, a seed is chosen
          randomly at Python startup, and *note hash_seed: 339. is
          ignored.

          Set by the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f13. environment variable.

          Default 'use_hash_seed' value: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in
          isolated mode.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *home

          Python home directory.

          If *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 188d. has been called, use its
          argument if it is not ‘NULL’.

          Set by the *note PYTHONHOME: 365. environment variable.

          預設值：‘NULL’。

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. input.

      -- C 成員函數: int import_time

          If non-zero, profile import time.

          Set the ‘1’ by the *note -X importtime: 188. option and the
          *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: 94a. environment variable.

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: int inspect

          Enter interactive mode after executing a script or a command.

          If greater than ‘0’, enable inspect: when a script is passed
          as first argument or the -c option is used, enter interactive
          mode after executing the script or the command, even when
          *note sys.stdin: 2bf. does not appear to be a terminal.

          Incremented by the *note -i: 1352. command line option.  Set
          to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 1351. environment variable
          is non-empty.

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: int install_signal_handlers

          Install Python signal handlers?

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 成員函數: int interactive

          If greater than ‘0’, enable the interactive mode (REPL).

          Incremented by the *note -i: 1352. command line option.

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: int int_max_str_digits

          Configures the *note integer string conversion length
          limitation: 3ea.  An initial value of ‘-1’ means the value
          will be taken from the command line or environment or
          otherwise default to 4300 (*note
          sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 2014.).  A value of ‘0’
          disables the limitation.  Values greater than zero but less
          than 640 (*note sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold:
          40a0.) are unsupported and will produce an error.

          Configured by the *note -X int_max_str_digits: 188. command
          line flag or the *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1589.
          environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode.  4300 (*note
          sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 2014.) in isolated mode.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- C 成員函數: int isolated

          If greater than ‘0’, enable isolated mode:

             * Set *note safe_path: 58a. to ‘1’: don't prepend a
               potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 35e. at Python
               startup, such as the current directory, the script's
               directory or an empty string.

             * 將 *note use_environment: 330. 設定為 ‘0’：忽略 ‘PYTHON’
               環境變數。

             * Set *note user_site_directory: 334. to ‘0’: don't add the
               user site directory to *note sys.path: 35e.

             * Python REPL doesn't import *note readline: b5. nor enable
               default readline configuration on interactive prompts.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -I: 79f. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode.

          See also the *note Isolated Configuration: 4be9. and *note
          PyPreConfig.isolated: 4bfa.

      -- C 成員函數: int legacy_windows_stdio

          If non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 11a2. instead of
          ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys.stdin: 2bf, *note
          sys.stdout: 92a. and *note sys.stderr: 778.

          Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: ac3.
          environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

          Only available on Windows.  ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ macro can be
          used for Windows specific code.

          預設：‘0’。

          See also the PEP 528(2) (Change Windows console encoding to
          UTF-8).

      -- C 成員函數: int malloc_stats

          If non-zero, dump statistics on *note Python pymalloc memory
          allocator: b7e. at exit.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 1946. environment
          variable.

          The option is ignored if Python is *note configured using the
          -without-pymalloc option: 1b72.

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *platlibdir

          Platform library directory name: *note sys.platlibdir: 777.

          Set by the *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 1715. environment variable.

          Default: value of the ‘PLATLIBDIR’ macro which is set by the
          *note configure -with-platlibdir option: 1b68. (default:
          ‘"lib"’, or ‘"DLLs"’ on Windows).

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. input.

          在 3.9 版被加入.

          在 3.11 版的變更: This macro is now used on Windows to locate
          the standard library extension modules, typically under
          ‘DLLs’.  However, for compatibility, note that this value is
          ignored for any non-standard layouts, including in-tree builds
          and virtual environments.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *pythonpath_env

          Module search paths (*note sys.path: 35e.) as a string
          separated by ‘DELIM’ (*note os.pathsep: 1b36.).

          Set by the *note PYTHONPATH: eb1. environment variable.

          預設值：‘NULL’。

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. input.

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyWideStringList: 7f2. module_search_paths

      -- C 成員函數: int module_search_paths_set

          Module search paths: *note sys.path: 35e.

          If *note module_search_paths_set: 3e4. is equal to ‘0’, *note
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. will replace *note
          module_search_paths: 3e3. and sets *note
          module_search_paths_set: 3e4. to ‘1’.

          Default: empty list (‘module_search_paths’) and ‘0’
          (‘module_search_paths_set’).

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. output.

      -- C 成員函數: int optimization_level

          Compilation optimization level:

             * ‘0’: Peephole optimizer, set ‘__debug__’ to ‘True’.

             * ‘1’: Level 0, remove assertions, set ‘__debug__’ to
               ‘False’.

             * ‘2’: Level 1, strip docstrings.

          Incremented by the *note -O: c2c. command line option.  Set to
          the *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 1b28. environment variable value.

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyWideStringList: 7f2. orig_argv

          The list of the original command line arguments passed to the
          Python executable: *note sys.orig_argv: 667.

          If *note orig_argv: 6c2. list is empty and *note argv: 350. is
          not a list only containing an empty string, *note
          PyConfig_Read(): 5aa. copies *note argv: 350. into *note
          orig_argv: 6c2. before modifying *note argv: 350. (if *note
          parse_argv: 16fe. is non-zero).

          See also the *note argv: 350. member and the *note
          Py_GetArgcArgv(): 172f. function.

          Default: empty list.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- C 成員函數: int parse_argv

          Parse command line arguments?

          If equals to ‘1’, parse *note argv: 350. the same way the
          regular Python parses *note command line arguments: e9a, and
          strip Python arguments from *note argv: 350.

          The *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa. function only parses *note
          PyConfig.argv: 350. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          16fe. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed.  Since Python
          arguments are stripped from *note PyConfig.argv: 350, parsing
          arguments twice would parse the application options as Python
          options.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

          在 3.10 版的變更: The *note PyConfig.argv: 350. arguments are
          now only parsed if *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 16fe. equals to
          ‘1’.

      -- C 成員函數: int parser_debug

          Parser debug mode.  If greater than ‘0’, turn on parser
          debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation
          options).

          Incremented by the *note -d: 1b26. command line option.  Set
          to the *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1b27. environment variable value.

          Need a *note debug build of Python: 69f. (the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro
          must be defined).

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: int pathconfig_warnings

          If non-zero, calculation of path configuration is allowed to
          log warnings into ‘stderr’.  If equals to ‘0’, suppress these
          warnings.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. input.

          在 3.11 版的變更: Now also applies on Windows.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *prefix

          The site-specific directory prefix where the platform
          independent Python files are installed: *note sys.prefix: 360.

          預設值：‘NULL’。

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. output.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *program_name

          Program name used to initialize *note executable: 4c01. and in
          early error messages during Python initialization.

             * If ‘Py_SetProgramName()’ has been called, use its
               argument.

             * On macOS, use *note PYTHONEXECUTABLE: 1b3a. environment
               variable if set.

             * If the ‘WITH_NEXT_FRAMEWORK’ macro is defined, use
               ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable if set.

             * Use ‘argv[0]’ of *note argv: 350. if available and
               non-empty.

             * Otherwise, use ‘L"python"’ on Windows, or ‘L"python3"’ on
               other platforms.

          預設值：‘NULL’。

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6e3. input.

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *pycache_prefix

          Directory where cached ‘.pyc’ files are written: *note
          sys.pycache_prefix: 7e8.

          Set by the *note -X pycache_prefix=PATH: 188. command line
          option and the *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 7e7. environment
          variable.

          If ‘NULL’, *note sys.pycache_prefix: 7e8. is set to ‘None’.

          預設值：‘NULL’。

      -- C 成員函數: int quiet

          Quiet mode.  If greater than ‘0’, don't display the copyright
          and version at Python startup in interactive mode.

          Incremented by the *note -q: 1b29. command line option.

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *run_command

          Value of the *note -c: 3d3. command line option.

          Used by *note Py_RunMain(): 809.

          預設值：‘NULL’。

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *run_filename

          Filename passed on the command line: trailing command line
          argument without *note -c: 3d3. or *note -m: 3d4.  It is used
          by the *note Py_RunMain(): 809. function.

          For example, it is set to ‘script.py’ by the ‘python3
          script.py arg’ command line.

          也請見 *note PyConfig.skip_source_first_line: 4c12. 選項。

          預設值：‘NULL’。

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *run_module

          Value of the *note -m: 3d4. command line option.

          Used by *note Py_RunMain(): 809.

          預設值：‘NULL’。

      -- C 成員函數: int show_ref_count

          Show total reference count at exit (excluding immortal
          objects)?

          Set to ‘1’ by *note -X showrefcount: 188. command line option.

          Need a *note debug build of Python: 69f. (the ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’
          macro must be defined).

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: int site_import

          Import the *note site: c2. module at startup?

          If equal to zero, disable the import of the module site and
          the site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 35e. that
          it entails.

          Also disable these manipulations if the *note site: c2. module
          is explicitly imported later (call *note site.main(): 1b2b. if
          you want them to be triggered).

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -S: 103a. command line option.

          *note sys.flags.no_site: 489. is set to the inverted value of
          *note site_import: 32a.

          預設值：‘1’。

      -- C 成員函數: int skip_source_first_line

          If non-zero, skip the first line of the *note
          PyConfig.run_filename: 4c11. source.

          It allows the usage of non-Unix forms of ‘#!cmd’.  This is
          intended for a DOS specific hack only.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -x: 1b2f. command line option.

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *stdio_encoding

      -- C 成員函數: wchar_t *stdio_errors

          Encoding and encoding errors of *note sys.stdin: 2bf, *note
          sys.stdout: 92a. and *note sys.stderr: 778. (but *note
          sys.stderr: 778. always uses ‘"backslashreplace"’ error
          handler).

          If *note Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding(): e94. has been called,
          use its 'error' and 'errors' arguments if they are not ‘NULL’.

          Use the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: e9d. environment variable if
          it is non-empty.

          Default encoding:

             * ‘"UTF-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 342. is
               non-zero.

             * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 1419.

          Default error handler:

             * On Windows: use ‘"surrogateescape"’.

             * ‘"surrogateescape"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 342.
               is non-zero, or if the LC_CTYPE locale is "C" or "POSIX".

             * ‘"strict"’ otherwise.

      -- C 成員函數: int tracemalloc

          Enable tracemalloc?

          If non-zero, call *note tracemalloc.start(): 1b30. at startup.

          Set by *note -X tracemalloc=N: 188. command line option and by
          the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1b31. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 成員函數: int perf_profiling

          Enable compatibility mode with the perf profiler?

          If non-zero, initialize the perf trampoline.  See *note Python
          對 Linux perf 分析器的支援: 151. for more information.

          Set by *note -X perf: 188. command line option and by the
          *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 187. environment variable.

          預設值：‘1’。

          在 3.12 版被加入.

      -- C 成員函數: int use_environment

          Use *note environment variables: 3e6.?

          If equals to zero, ignore the *note environment variables:
          3e6.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -E: 79e. environment variable.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 成員函數: int user_site_directory

          If non-zero, add the user site directory to *note sys.path:
          35e.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -s: 121a. and *note -I: 79f. command
          line options.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 121b. environment
          variable.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 成員函數: int verbose

          Verbose mode.  If greater than ‘0’, print a message each time
          a module is imported, showing the place (filename or built-in
          module) from which it is loaded.

          If greater than or equal to ‘2’, print a message for each file
          that is checked for when searching for a module.  Also
          provides information on module cleanup at exit.

          Incremented by the *note -v: 1295. command line option.

          Set by the *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1b2c. environment variable
          value.

          預設：‘0’。

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyWideStringList: 7f2. warnoptions

          Options of the *note warnings: 10d. module to build warnings
          filters, lowest to highest priority: *note sys.warnoptions:
          35a.

          The *note warnings: 10d. module adds *note sys.warnoptions:
          35a. in the reverse order: the last *note
          PyConfig.warnoptions: 498c. item becomes the first item of
          ‘warnings.filters’ which is checked first (highest priority).

          The *note -W: 6ff. command line options adds its value to
          *note warnoptions: 498c, it can be used multiple times.

          The *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a0b. environment variable can also
          be used to add warning options.  Multiple options can be
          specified, separated by commas (‘,’).

          Default: empty list.

      -- C 成員函數: int write_bytecode

          If equal to ‘0’, Python won't try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
          import of source modules.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -B: 123c. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 123d. environment variable.

          *note sys.dont_write_bytecode: 406c. is initialized to the
          inverted value of *note write_bytecode: 332.

          預設值：‘1’。

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyWideStringList: 7f2. xoptions

          Values of the *note -X: 188. command line options: *note
          sys._xoptions: 1b33.

          Default: empty list.

If *note parse_argv: 16fe. is non-zero, *note argv: 350. arguments are
parsed the same way the regular Python parses *note command line
arguments: e9a, and Python arguments are stripped from *note argv: 350.

The *note xoptions: 498d. options are parsed to set other options: see
the *note -X: 188. command line option.

在 3.9 版的變更: The ‘show_alloc_count’ field has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: Initialization with PyConfig,  Next: Isolated Configuration,  Prev: PyConfig,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.7 Initialization with PyConfig
-----------------------------------

Function to initialize Python:

 -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. Py_InitializeFromConfig (const PyConfig
          *config)

     Initialize Python from 'config' configuration.

The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using
*note PyStatus_Exception(): 7fd. and *note Py_ExitStatusException():
806.

If *note PyImport_FrozenModules(): 2d8a, *note PyImport_AppendInittab():
156d. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 156e. are used, they must be
set or called after Python preinitialization and before the Python
initialization.  If Python is initialized multiple times, *note
PyImport_AppendInittab(): 156d. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 156e.
must be called before each Python initialization.

The current configuration (‘PyConfig’ type) is stored in
‘PyInterpreterState.config’.

Example setting the program name:

     void init_python(void)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Set the program name. Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
         status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                     L"/path/to/my_program");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         return;

     exception:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

More complete example modifying the default configuration, read the
configuration, and then override some parameters.  Note that since 3.11,
many parameters are not calculated until initialization, and so values
cannot be read from the configuration structure.  Any values set before
initialize is called will be left unchanged by initialization:

     PyStatus init_python(const char *program_name)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Set the program name before reading the configuration
            (decode byte string from the locale encoding).

            Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                          program_name);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Read all configuration at once */
         status = PyConfig_Read(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Specify sys.path explicitly */
         /* If you want to modify the default set of paths, finish
            initialization first and then use PySys_GetObject("path") */
         config.module_search_paths_set = 1;
         status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                          L"/path/to/stdlib");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }
         status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                          L"/path/to/more/modules");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Override executable computed by PyConfig_Read() */
         status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.executable,
                                     L"/path/to/my_executable");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);

     done:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         return status;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Isolated Configuration,  Next: Python Configuration,  Prev: Initialization with PyConfig,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.8 Isolated Configuration
-----------------------------

*note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 7fa. and *note
PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 7f4. functions create a configuration to
isolate Python from the system.  For example, to embed Python into an
application.

This configuration ignores global configuration variables, environment
variables, command line arguments (*note PyConfig.argv: 350. is not
parsed) and user site directory.  The C standard streams (ex: ‘stdout’)
and the LC_CTYPE locale are left unchanged.  Signal handlers are not
installed.

Configuration files are still used with this configuration to determine
paths that are unspecified.  Ensure *note PyConfig.home: 352. is
specified to avoid computing the default path configuration.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Configuration,  Next: Python Path Configuration,  Prev: Isolated Configuration,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.9 Python Configuration
---------------------------

*note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 7fb. and *note
PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 7f5. functions create a configuration to
build a customized Python which behaves as the regular Python.

Environments variables and command line arguments are used to configure
Python, whereas global configuration variables are ignored.

This function enables C locale coercion ( PEP 538(1)) and *note Python
UTF-8 Mode: 451. ( PEP 540(2)) depending on the LC_CTYPE locale, *note
PYTHONUTF8: 92c. and *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: 929. environment
variables.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Path Configuration,  Next: Py_RunMain,  Prev: Python Configuration,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.10 Python Path Configuration
---------------------------------

*note PyConfig: 345. contains multiple fields for the path
configuration:

   * Path configuration inputs:

        * *note PyConfig.home: 352.

        * *note PyConfig.platlibdir: 1713.

        * *note PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 32e.

        * *note PyConfig.program_name: 351.

        * *note PyConfig.pythonpath_env: 4c0d.

        * current working directory: to get absolute paths

        * ‘PATH’ environment variable to get the program full path (from
          *note PyConfig.program_name: 351.)

        * ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ 環境變數

        * (Windows only) Application paths in the registry under
          "SoftwarePythonPythonCoreX.YPythonPath" of HKEY_CURRENT_USER
          and HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (where X.Y is the Python version).

   * Path configuration output fields:

        * *note PyConfig.base_exec_prefix: 4bff.

        * *note PyConfig.base_executable: 4c00.

        * *note PyConfig.base_prefix: 4c02.

        * *note PyConfig.exec_prefix: 4c08.

        * *note PyConfig.executable: 4c01.

        * *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3e4, *note
          PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3e3.

        * *note PyConfig.prefix: 4c0e.

If at least one "output field" is not set, Python calculates the path
configuration to fill unset fields.  If *note module_search_paths_set:
3e4. is equal to ‘0’, *note module_search_paths: 3e3. is overridden and
*note module_search_paths_set: 3e4. is set to ‘1’.

It is possible to completely ignore the function calculating the default
path configuration by setting explicitly all path configuration output
fields listed above.  A string is considered as set even if it is
non-empty.  ‘module_search_paths’ is considered as set if
‘module_search_paths_set’ is set to ‘1’.  In this case,
‘module_search_paths’ will be used without modification.

Set *note pathconfig_warnings: 32e. to ‘0’ to suppress warnings when
calculating the path configuration (Unix only, Windows does not log any
warning).

If *note base_prefix: 4c02. or *note base_exec_prefix: 4bff. fields are
not set, they inherit their value from *note prefix: 4c0e. and *note
exec_prefix: 4c08. respectively.

*note Py_RunMain(): 809. and *note Py_Main(): a8a. modify *note
sys.path: 35e.:

   * If *note run_filename: 4c11. is set and is a directory which
     contains a ‘__main__.py’ script, prepend *note run_filename: 4c11.
     to *note sys.path: 35e.

   * If *note isolated: 33b. is zero:

        * If *note run_module: 4c13. is set, prepend the current
          directory to *note sys.path: 35e.  Do nothing if the current
          directory cannot be read.

        * If *note run_filename: 4c11. is set, prepend the directory of
          the filename to *note sys.path: 35e.

        * Otherwise, prepend an empty string to *note sys.path: 35e.

If *note site_import: 32a. is non-zero, *note sys.path: 35e. can be
modified by the *note site: c2. module.  If *note user_site_directory:
334. is non-zero and the user's site-package directory exists, the *note
site: c2. module appends the user's site-package directory to *note
sys.path: 35e.

The following configuration files are used by the path configuration:

   * ‘pyvenv.cfg’

   * ‘._pth’ file (ex: ‘python._pth’)

   * ‘pybuilddir.txt’ (Unix only)

If a ‘._pth’ file is present:

   * 將 *note isolated: 33b. 設定為 ‘1’。

   * 將 *note use_environment: 330. 設定為 ‘0’。

   * 將 *note site_import: 32a. 設定為 ‘0’。

   * 將 *note safe_path: 58a. 設定為 ‘1’。

The ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable is used to set *note
PyConfig.base_executable: 4c00.


File: python.info,  Node: Py_RunMain,  Next: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Prev: Python Path Configuration,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.11 Py_RunMain()
--------------------

 -- C 函式: int Py_RunMain (void)

     Execute the command (*note PyConfig.run_command: 4c10.), the script
     (*note PyConfig.run_filename: 4c11.) or the module (*note
     PyConfig.run_module: 4c13.) specified on the command line or in the
     configuration.

     By default and when if *note -i: 1352. option is used, run the
     REPL.

     Finally, finalizes Python and returns an exit status that can be
     passed to the ‘exit()’ function.

See *note Python Configuration: 4be8. for an example of customized
Python always running in isolated mode using *note Py_RunMain(): 809.


File: python.info,  Node: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Next: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API,  Prev: Py_RunMain,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.12 Py_GetArgcArgv()
------------------------

 -- C 函式: void Py_GetArgcArgv (int *argc, wchar_t ***argv)

     Get the original command line arguments, before Python modified
     them.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 6c2. member.


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API,  Prev: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Up: Python 初始化設定

7.10.13 Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API
----------------------------------------------------------

This section is a private provisional API introducing multi-phase
initialization, the core feature of PEP 432(1):

   * "Core" initialization phase, "bare minimum Python":

        * 內建型別；

        * 內建例外；

        * Builtin and frozen modules;

        * The *note sys: d3. module is only partially initialized (ex:
          *note sys.path: 35e. doesn't exist yet).

   * "Main" initialization phase, Python is fully initialized:

        * Install and configure *note importlib: 71.;

        * Apply the *note Path Configuration: 6e3.;

        * Install signal handlers;

        * Finish *note sys: d3. module initialization (ex: create *note
          sys.stdout: 92a. and *note sys.path: 35e.);

        * Enable optional features like *note faulthandler: 53. and
          *note tracemalloc: fa.;

        * 引入 *note site: c2. 模組；

        * etc.

Private provisional API:

   * ‘PyConfig._init_main’: if set to ‘0’, *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. stops at the "Core" initialization
     phase.

 -- C 函式: *note PyStatus: 7f1. _Py_InitializeMain (void)

     Move to the "Main" initialization phase, finish the Python
     initialization.

No module is imported during the "Core" phase and the ‘importlib’ module
is not configured: the *note Path Configuration: 6e3. is only applied
during the "Main" phase.  It may allow to customize Python in Python to
override or tune the *note Path Configuration: 6e3, maybe install a
custom *note sys.meta_path: b9d. importer or an import hook, etc.

It may become possible to calculate the *note Path Configuration: 6e3.
in Python, after the Core phase and before the Main phase, which is one
of the PEP 432(2) motivation.

The "Core" phase is not properly defined: what should be and what should
not be available at this phase is not specified yet.  The API is marked
as private and provisional: the API can be modified or even be removed
anytime until a proper public API is designed.

Example running Python code between "Core" and "Main" initialization
phases:

     void init_python(void)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
         config._init_main = 0;

         /* ... customize 'config' configuration ... */

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }

         /* Use sys.stderr because sys.stdout is only created
            by _Py_InitializeMain() */
         int res = PyRun_SimpleString(
             "import sys; "
             "print('Run Python code before _Py_InitializeMain', "
                    "file=sys.stderr)");
         if (res < 0) {
             exit(1);
         }

         /* ... put more configuration code here ... */

         status = _Py_InitializeMain();
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }
     }

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/


File: python.info,  Node: 記憶體管理,  Next: Object Implementation Support,  Prev: Python 初始化設定,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.11 記憶體管理
===============

* Menu:

* 總覽: 總覽<2>.
* Allocator Domains::
* Raw Memory Interface::
* 記憶體介面::
* Object allocators::
* Default Memory Allocators::
* Customize Memory Allocators::
* Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators::
* The pymalloc allocator::
* tracemalloc C API::
* 範例: 範例<52>.


File: python.info,  Node: 總覽<2>,  Next: Allocator Domains,  Up: 記憶體管理

7.11.1 總覽
-----------

Memory management in Python involves a private heap containing all
Python objects and data structures.  The management of this private heap
is ensured internally by the 'Python memory manager'.  The Python memory
manager has different components which deal with various dynamic storage
management aspects, like sharing, segmentation, preallocation or
caching.

At the lowest level, a raw memory allocator ensures that there is enough
room in the private heap for storing all Python-related data by
interacting with the memory manager of the operating system.  On top of
the raw memory allocator, several object-specific allocators operate on
the same heap and implement distinct memory management policies adapted
to the peculiarities of every object type.  For example, integer objects
are managed differently within the heap than strings, tuples or
dictionaries because integers imply different storage requirements and
speed/space tradeoffs.  The Python memory manager thus delegates some of
the work to the object-specific allocators, but ensures that the latter
operate within the bounds of the private heap.

It is important to understand that the management of the Python heap is
performed by the interpreter itself and that the user has no control
over it, even if they regularly manipulate object pointers to memory
blocks inside that heap.  The allocation of heap space for Python
objects and other internal buffers is performed on demand by the Python
memory manager through the Python/C API functions listed in this
document.

To avoid memory corruption, extension writers should never try to
operate on Python objects with the functions exported by the C library:
‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’.  This will result in
mixed calls between the C allocator and the Python memory manager with
fatal consequences, because they implement different algorithms and
operate on different heaps.  However, one may safely allocate and
release memory blocks with the C library allocator for individual
purposes, as shown in the following example:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     ...Do some I/O operation involving buf...
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     free(buf); /* malloc'ed */
     return res;

In this example, the memory request for the I/O buffer is handled by the
C library allocator.  The Python memory manager is involved only in the
allocation of the bytes object returned as a result.

In most situations, however, it is recommended to allocate memory from
the Python heap specifically because the latter is under control of the
Python memory manager.  For example, this is required when the
interpreter is extended with new object types written in C. Another
reason for using the Python heap is the desire to 'inform' the Python
memory manager about the memory needs of the extension module.  Even
when the requested memory is used exclusively for internal, highly
specific purposes, delegating all memory requests to the Python memory
manager causes the interpreter to have a more accurate image of its
memory footprint as a whole.  Consequently, under certain circumstances,
the Python memory manager may or may not trigger appropriate actions,
like garbage collection, memory compaction or other preventive
procedures.  Note that by using the C library allocator as shown in the
previous example, the allocated memory for the I/O buffer escapes
completely the Python memory manager.

也參考
......

The *note PYTHONMALLOC: acc. environment variable can be used to
configure the memory allocators used by Python.

The *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 1946. environment variable can be used to
print statistics of the *note pymalloc memory allocator: b7e. every time
a new pymalloc object arena is created, and on shutdown.


File: python.info,  Node: Allocator Domains,  Next: Raw Memory Interface,  Prev: 總覽<2>,  Up: 記憶體管理

7.11.2 Allocator Domains
------------------------

All allocating functions belong to one of three different "domains" (see
also *note PyMemAllocatorDomain: 4c25.).  These domains represent
different allocation strategies and are optimized for different
purposes.  The specific details on how every domain allocates memory or
what internal functions each domain calls is considered an
implementation detail, but for debugging purposes a simplified table can
be found at *note here: 1b42.  There is no hard requirement to use the
memory returned by the allocation functions belonging to a given domain
for only the purposes hinted by that domain (although this is the
recommended practice).  For example, one could use the memory returned
by *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): ec6. for allocating Python objects or the
memory returned by *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0. for allocating memory
for buffers.

The three allocation domains are:

   * Raw domain: intended for allocating memory for general-purpose
     memory buffers where the allocation 'must' go to the system
     allocator or where the allocator can operate without the *note GIL:
     6df.  The memory is requested directly to the system.

   * "Mem" domain: intended for allocating memory for Python buffers and
     general-purpose memory buffers where the allocation must be
     performed with the *note GIL: 6df. held.  The memory is taken from
     the Python private heap.

   * Object domain: intended for allocating memory belonging to Python
     objects.  The memory is taken from the Python private heap.

When freeing memory previously allocated by the allocating functions
belonging to a given domain,the matching specific deallocating functions
must be used.  For example, *note PyMem_Free(): 12b5. must be used to
free memory allocated using *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw Memory Interface,  Next: 記憶體介面,  Prev: Allocator Domains,  Up: 記憶體管理

7.11.3 Raw Memory Interface
---------------------------

The following function sets are wrappers to the system allocator.  These
functions are thread-safe, the *note GIL: 141. does not need to be held.

The *note default raw memory allocator: 1b42. uses the following
functions: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’; call
‘malloc(1)’ (or ‘calloc(1, 1)’) when requesting zero bytes.

在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void *PyMem_RawMalloc (size_t n)

     Allocates 'n' bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the
     allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C 函式: void *PyMem_RawCalloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)

     Allocates 'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_RawCalloc(1,
     1)’ had been called instead.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void *PyMem_RawRealloc (void *p, size_t n)

     Resizes the memory block pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The
     contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new
     sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(n)’;
     else if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is
     not freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): ec6, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): ec7. or
     *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): d2d.

     If the request fails, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): ec7. returns ‘NULL’
     and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C 函式: void PyMem_RawFree (void *p)

     Frees the memory block pointed to by 'p', which must have been
     returned by a previous call to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): ec6, *note
     PyMem_RawRealloc(): ec7. or *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): d2d.
     Otherwise, or if ‘PyMem_RawFree(p)’ has been called before,
     undefined behavior occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.


File: python.info,  Node: 記憶體介面,  Next: Object allocators,  Prev: Raw Memory Interface,  Up: 記憶體管理

7.11.4 記憶體介面
-----------------

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but
specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for
allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

The *note default memory allocator: 1b42. uses the *note pymalloc memory
allocator: b7e.

     警告: The *note GIL: 141. must be held when using these functions.

在 3.6 版的變更: The default allocator is now pymalloc instead of system
‘malloc()’.

 -- C 函式: void *PyMem_Malloc (size_t n)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Allocates 'n' bytes and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyMem_Malloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C 函式: void *PyMem_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Allocates
     'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and returns a
     pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the
     request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_Calloc(1, 1)’
     had been called instead.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void *PyMem_Realloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Resizes the memory block
     pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The contents will be unchanged to
     the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyMem_Malloc(n)’; else
     if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not
     freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace, *note PyMem_Realloc(): ec8. or *note
     PyMem_Calloc(): d2e.

     If the request fails, *note PyMem_Realloc(): ec8. returns ‘NULL’
     and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C 函式: void PyMem_Free (void *p)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Frees the memory block pointed
     to by 'p', which must have been returned by a previous call to
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace, *note PyMem_Realloc(): ec8. or *note
     PyMem_Calloc(): d2e.  Otherwise, or if ‘PyMem_Free(p)’ has been
     called before, undefined behavior occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.

The following type-oriented macros are provided for convenience.  Note
that 'TYPE' refers to any C type.

 -- C 巨集: PyMem_New (TYPE, n)

     Same as *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace, but allocates ‘(n *
     sizeof(TYPE))’ bytes of memory.  Returns a pointer cast to ‘TYPE*’.
     The memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C 巨集: PyMem_Resize (p, TYPE, n)

     Same as *note PyMem_Realloc(): ec8, but the memory block is resized
     to ‘(n * sizeof(TYPE))’ bytes.  Returns a pointer cast to ‘TYPE*’.
     On return, 'p' will be a pointer to the new memory area, or ‘NULL’
     in the event of failure.

     This is a C preprocessor macro; 'p' is always reassigned.  Save the
     original value of 'p' to avoid losing memory when handling errors.

 -- C 函式: void PyMem_Del (void *p)

     和 *note PyMem_Free(): 12b5. 相同。

In addition, the following macro sets are provided for calling the
Python memory allocator directly, without involving the C API functions
listed above.  However, note that their use does not preserve binary
compatibility across Python versions and is therefore deprecated in
extension modules.

   * ‘PyMem_MALLOC(size)’

   * ‘PyMem_NEW(type, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_REALLOC(ptr, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_RESIZE(ptr, type, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_FREE(ptr)’

   * ‘PyMem_DEL(ptr)’


File: python.info,  Node: Object allocators,  Next: Default Memory Allocators,  Prev: 記憶體介面,  Up: 記憶體管理

7.11.5 Object allocators
------------------------

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but
specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for
allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

     備註: There is no guarantee that the memory returned by these
     allocators can be successfully cast to a Python object when
     intercepting the allocating functions in this domain by the methods
     described in the *note Customize Memory Allocators: 4c2b. section.

The *note default object allocator: 1b42. uses the *note pymalloc memory
allocator: b7e.

     警告: The *note GIL: 141. must be held when using these functions.

 -- C 函式: void *PyObject_Malloc (size_t n)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Allocates 'n' bytes and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyObject_Malloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C 函式: void *PyObject_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.7 版本開始.'  Allocates
     'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and returns a
     pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the
     request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyObject_Calloc(1,
     1)’ had been called instead.

     在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void *PyObject_Realloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Resizes the memory block
     pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The contents will be unchanged to
     the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyObject_Malloc(n)’;
     else if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is
     not freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12b6. or
     *note PyObject_Calloc(): d2f.

     If the request fails, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12b6. returns
     ‘NULL’ and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C 函式: void PyObject_Free (void *p)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Frees the memory block pointed
     to by 'p', which must have been returned by a previous call to
     *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12b6. or
     *note PyObject_Calloc(): d2f.  Otherwise, or if ‘PyObject_Free(p)’
     has been called before, undefined behavior occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.


File: python.info,  Node: Default Memory Allocators,  Next: Customize Memory Allocators,  Prev: Object allocators,  Up: 記憶體管理

7.11.6 Default Memory Allocators
--------------------------------

Default memory allocators:

配置                                名稱                     PyMem_RawMalloc        PyMem_Malloc              PyObject_Malloc
                                                                                                              
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                              
Release build                       ‘"pymalloc"’             ‘malloc’               ‘pymalloc’                ‘pymalloc’
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
Debug build                         ‘"pymalloc_debug"’       ‘malloc’ + debug       ‘pymalloc’ + debug        ‘pymalloc’ + debug
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
Release build, without pymalloc     ‘"malloc"’               ‘malloc’               ‘malloc’                  ‘malloc’
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
Debug build, without pymalloc       ‘"malloc_debug"’         ‘malloc’ + debug       ‘malloc’ + debug          ‘malloc’ + debug
                                                                                                              

Legend:

   * Name: value for *note PYTHONMALLOC: acc. environment variable.

   * ‘malloc’: system allocators from the standard C library, C
     functions: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’.

   * ‘pymalloc’: *note pymalloc memory allocator: b7e.

   * "+ debug": with *note debug hooks on the Python memory allocators:
     1b44.

   * "Debug build": *note Python build in debug mode: 69f.


File: python.info,  Node: Customize Memory Allocators,  Next: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Prev: Default Memory Allocators,  Up: 記憶體管理

7.11.7 Customize Memory Allocators
----------------------------------

在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type PyMemAllocatorEx

     Structure used to describe a memory block allocator.  The structure
     has the following fields:

     欄位                                                           意義
                                                                    
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
     ‘void *ctx’                                                    user context passed as first argument
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* malloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’                         allocate a memory block
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* calloc(void *ctx, size_t nelem, size_t elsize)’         allocate a memory block initialized with
                                                                    zeros
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* realloc(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t new_size)’         allocate or resize a memory block
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr)’                              free a memory block
                                                                    

     在 3.5 版的變更: The ‘PyMemAllocator’ structure was renamed to
     *note PyMemAllocatorEx: d50. and a new ‘calloc’ field was added.

 -- C 型別: type PyMemAllocatorDomain

     Enum used to identify an allocator domain.  Domains:

      -- C 巨集: PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW

          函式：

             * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): ec6.

             * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): ec7.

             * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): d2d.

             * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 4989.

      -- C 巨集: PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM

          函式：

             * *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace,

             * *note PyMem_Realloc(): ec8.

             * *note PyMem_Calloc(): d2e.

             * *note PyMem_Free(): 12b5.

      -- C 巨集: PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ

          函式：

             * *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0.

             * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12b6.

             * *note PyObject_Calloc(): d2f.

             * *note PyObject_Free(): acd.

 -- C 函式: void PyMem_GetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain,
          PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

     Get the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

 -- C 函式: void PyMem_SetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain,
          PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

     Set the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

     The new allocator must return a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer when
     requesting zero bytes.

     For the *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1b43. domain, the allocator must be
     thread-safe: the *note GIL: 141. is not held when the allocator is
     called.

     For the remaining domains, the allocator must also be thread-safe:
     the allocator may be called in different interpreters that do not
     share a ‘GIL’.

     If the new allocator is not a hook (does not call the previous
     allocator), the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ad2. function must
     be called to reinstall the debug hooks on top on the new allocator.

     See also *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 4bf3. and *note Preinitialize
     Python with PyPreConfig: 3a01.

          警告: *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 31a. does have the following
          contract:

             * It can be called after *note Py_PreInitialize(): 343. and
               before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. to install a
               custom memory allocator.  There are no restrictions over
               the installed allocator other than the ones imposed by
               the domain (for instance, the Raw Domain allows the
               allocator to be called without the GIL held).  See *note
               the section on allocator domains: 4c24. for more
               information.

             * If called after Python has finish initializing (after
               *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. has been called)
               the allocator 'must' wrap the existing allocator.
               Substituting the current allocator for some other
               arbitrary one is 'not supported'.

     在 3.12 版的變更: All allocators must be thread-safe.

 -- C 函式: void PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (void)

     Setup *note debug hooks in the Python memory allocators: 1b44. to
     detect memory errors.


File: python.info,  Node: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Next: The pymalloc allocator,  Prev: Customize Memory Allocators,  Up: 記憶體管理

7.11.8 Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators
--------------------------------------------------

When *note Python is built in debug mode: 69f, the *note
PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ad2. function is called at the *note Python
preinitialization: 3a01. to setup debug hooks on Python memory
allocators to detect memory errors.

The *note PYTHONMALLOC: acc. environment variable can be used to install
debug hooks on a Python compiled in release mode (ex:
‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’).

The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ad2. function can be used to set
debug hooks after calling *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 31a.

These debug hooks fill dynamically allocated memory blocks with special,
recognizable bit patterns.  Newly allocated memory is filled with the
byte ‘0xCD’ (‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’), freed memory is filled with the byte
‘0xDD’ (‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’).  Memory blocks are surrounded by "forbidden
bytes" filled with the byte ‘0xFD’ (‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’).  Strings of
these bytes are unlikely to be valid addresses, floats, or ASCII
strings.

Runtime 檢查：

   - Detect API violations.  For example, detect if *note
     PyObject_Free(): acd. is called on a memory block allocated by
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace.

   - Detect write before the start of the buffer (buffer underflow).

   - Detect write after the end of the buffer (buffer overflow).

   - Check that the *note GIL: 141. is held when allocator functions of
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: acf. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0.)
     and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ad1. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace.)
     domains are called.

On error, the debug hooks use the *note tracemalloc: fa. module to get
the traceback where a memory block was allocated.  The traceback is only
displayed if *note tracemalloc: fa. is tracing Python memory allocations
and the memory block was traced.

Let 'S' = ‘sizeof(size_t)’.  ‘2*S’ bytes are added at each end of each
block of 'N' bytes requested.  The memory layout is like so, where p
represents the address returned by a malloc-like or realloc-like
function (‘p[i:j]’ means the slice of bytes from ‘*(p+i)’ inclusive up
to ‘*(p+j)’ exclusive; note that the treatment of negative indices
differs from a Python slice):

‘p[-2*S:-S]’

     Number of bytes originally asked for.  This is a size_t, big-endian
     (easier to read in a memory dump).

‘p[-S]’

     API identifier (ASCII character):

        * ‘'r'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1b43.

        * ‘'m'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ad1.

        * ‘'o'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: acf.

‘p[-S+1:0]’

     Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch under- writes and
     reads.

‘p[0:N]’

     The requested memory, filled with copies of PYMEM_CLEANBYTE, used
     to catch reference to uninitialized memory.  When a realloc-like
     function is called requesting a larger memory block, the new excess
     bytes are also filled with PYMEM_CLEANBYTE. When a free-like
     function is called, these are overwritten with PYMEM_DEADBYTE, to
     catch reference to freed memory.  When a realloc- like function is
     called requesting a smaller memory block, the excess old bytes are
     also filled with PYMEM_DEADBYTE.

‘p[N:N+S]’

     Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch over- writes and
     reads.

‘p[N+S:N+2*S]’

     Only used if the ‘PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO’ macro is defined (not
     defined by default).

     A serial number, incremented by 1 on each call to a malloc-like or
     realloc-like function.  Big-endian ‘size_t’.  If "bad memory" is
     detected later, the serial number gives an excellent way to set a
     breakpoint on the next run, to capture the instant at which this
     block was passed out.  The static function bumpserialno() in
     obmalloc.c is the only place the serial number is incremented, and
     exists so you can set such a breakpoint easily.

A realloc-like or free-like function first checks that the
PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE bytes at each end are intact.  If they've been
altered, diagnostic output is written to stderr, and the program is
aborted via Py_FatalError().  The other main failure mode is provoking a
memory error when a program reads up one of the special bit patterns and
tries to use it as an address.  If you get in a debugger then and look
at the object, you're likely to see that it's entirely filled with
PYMEM_DEADBYTE (meaning freed memory is getting used) or PYMEM_CLEANBYTE
(meaning uninitialized memory is getting used).

在 3.6 版的變更: The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ad2. function now
also works on Python compiled in release mode.  On error, the debug
hooks now use *note tracemalloc: fa. to get the traceback where a memory
block was allocated.  The debug hooks now also check if the GIL is held
when functions of *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: acf. and *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ad1. domains are called.

在 3.8 版的變更: Byte patterns ‘0xCB’ (‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’), ‘0xDB’
(‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’) and ‘0xFB’ (‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’) have been replaced
with ‘0xCD’, ‘0xDD’ and ‘0xFD’ to use the same values than Windows CRT
debug ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.


File: python.info,  Node: The pymalloc allocator,  Next: tracemalloc C API,  Prev: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Up: 記憶體管理

7.11.9 The pymalloc allocator
-----------------------------

Python has a 'pymalloc' allocator optimized for small objects (smaller
or equal to 512 bytes) with a short lifetime.  It uses memory mappings
called "arenas" with a fixed size of either 256 KiB on 32-bit platforms
or 1 MiB on 64-bit platforms.  It falls back to *note PyMem_RawMalloc():
ec6. and *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): ec7. for allocations larger than 512
bytes.

'pymalloc' is the *note default allocator: 1b42. of the *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ad1. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): ace.) and *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: acf. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): ad0.) domains.

The arena allocator uses the following functions:

   * ‘VirtualAlloc()’ and ‘VirtualFree()’ on Windows,

   * ‘mmap()’ and ‘munmap()’ if available,

   * ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ otherwise.

This allocator is disabled if Python is configured with the *note
-without-pymalloc: 1b72. option.  It can also be disabled at runtime
using the *note PYTHONMALLOC: acc. environment variable (ex:
‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’).

* Menu:

* Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator::


File: python.info,  Node: Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator,  Up: The pymalloc allocator

7.11.9.1 Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator
...........................................

在 3.4 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type PyObjectArenaAllocator

     Structure used to describe an arena allocator.  The structure has
     three fields:

     欄位                                                   意義
                                                            
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
     ‘void *ctx’                                            user context passed as first argument
                                                            
                                                            
     ‘void* alloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’                  allocate an arena of size bytes
                                                            
                                                            
     ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t size)’         free an arena
                                                            

 -- C 函式: void PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator
          *allocator)

     Get the arena allocator.

 -- C 函式: void PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator
          *allocator)

     Set the arena allocator.


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc C API,  Next: 範例<52>,  Prev: The pymalloc allocator,  Up: 記憶體管理

7.11.10 tracemalloc C API
-------------------------

在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyTraceMalloc_Track (unsigned int domain, uintptr_t ptr,
          size_t size)

     Track an allocated memory block in the *note tracemalloc: fa.
     module.

     Return ‘0’ on success, return ‘-1’ on error (failed to allocate
     memory to store the trace).  Return ‘-2’ if tracemalloc is
     disabled.

     If memory block is already tracked, update the existing trace.

 -- C 函式: int PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (unsigned int domain, uintptr_t
          ptr)

     Untrack an allocated memory block in the *note tracemalloc: fa.
     module.  Do nothing if the block was not tracked.

     Return ‘-2’ if tracemalloc is disabled, otherwise return ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<52>,  Prev: tracemalloc C API,  Up: 記憶體管理

7.11.11 範例
------------

Here is the example from section *note 總覽: 4c21, rewritten so that the
I/O buffer is allocated from the Python heap by using the first function
set:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     PyMem_Free(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_Malloc */
     return res;

The same code using the type-oriented function set:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     PyMem_Del(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_New */
     return res;

Note that in the two examples above, the buffer is always manipulated
via functions belonging to the same set.  Indeed, it is required to use
the same memory API family for a given memory block, so that the risk of
mixing different allocators is reduced to a minimum.  The following code
sequence contains two errors, one of which is labeled as 'fatal' because
it mixes two different allocators operating on different heaps.

     char *buf1 = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ);
     char *buf2 = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ);
     char *buf3 = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ);
     ...
     PyMem_Del(buf3);  /* Wrong -- should be PyMem_Free() */
     free(buf2);       /* Right -- allocated via malloc() */
     free(buf1);       /* Fatal -- should be PyMem_Del()  */

In addition to the functions aimed at handling raw memory blocks from
the Python heap, objects in Python are allocated and released with *note
PyObject_New: 7c9, *note PyObject_NewVar: 7ca. and *note PyObject_Del():
1348.

These will be explained in the next chapter on defining and implementing
new object types in C.


File: python.info,  Node: Object Implementation Support,  Next: API 和 ABI 版本管理,  Prev: 記憶體管理,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.12 Object Implementation Support
==================================

This chapter describes the functions, types, and macros used when
defining new object types.

* Menu:

* 在 heap 上分配物件::
* 通用物件結構::
* 型別物件: 型別物件<2>.
* Number Object Structures::
* Mapping Object Structures::
* Sequence Object Structures::
* Buffer Object Structures::
* Async Object Structures::
* Slot Type typedefs::
* 範例: 範例<53>.
* 循環垃圾回收的支援::


File: python.info,  Node: 在 heap 上分配物件,  Next: 通用物件結構,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.1 在 heap 上分配物件
-------------------------

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *_PyObject_New (PyTypeObject *type)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'

 -- C 函式: *note PyVarObject: 3e7b. *_PyObject_NewVar (PyTypeObject
          *type, Py_ssize_t size)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyObject_Init (PyObject *op,
          PyTypeObject *type)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Initialize
     a newly allocated object 'op' with its type and initial reference.
     Returns the initialized object.  Other fields of the object are not
     affected.

 -- C 函式: *note PyVarObject: 3e7b. *PyObject_InitVar (PyVarObject *op,
          PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)
     '回傳值：借用參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  它會做到
     *note PyObject_Init(): 8b6. 的所有功能，並且會初始化一個大小可變物
     件的長度資訊。

 -- C 巨集: PyObject_New (TYPE, typeobj)

     使用 C 結構型別 'TYPE' 和 Python 型別物件 'typeobj'
     (‘PyTypeObject*’) 分配一個新的 Python 物件。未在該 Python 物件標頭
     (header) 中定義的欄位不會被初始化；呼叫者會擁有那個對於物件的唯一參
     照（物件的參照計數為一）。記憶體分配大小由 type 物件的 *note
     tp_basicsize: 7cb. 欄位來指定。

 -- C 巨集: PyObject_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size)

     使用 C 的結構型別 'TYPE' 和 Python 的型別物件 'typeobj'
     (‘PyTypeObject*’) 分配一個新的 Python 物件。未在該 Python 物件標頭
     中定義的欄位不會被初始化。記憶體空間預留了 'TYPE' 結構大小再加上
     'typeobj' 物件中 *note tp_itemsize: 1d02. 欄位提供的 'size'
     (‘Py_ssize_t’) 欄位的值。這對於實現如 tuple 這種能夠在建立期間決定
     自己大小的物件是很實用的。將欄位的陣列嵌入到相同的記憶體分配中可以
     減少記憶體分配的次數，這提高了記憶體管理的效率。

 -- C 函式: void PyObject_Del (void *op)

     釋放由 *note PyObject_New: 7c9. 或者 *note PyObject_NewVar: 7ca. 分
     配給物件的記憶體。這通常是在物件型別所指定的 *note tp_dealloc:
     4758. handler 中呼叫。呼叫這個函式以後，物件的各欄位都不可以被存取
     ，因為原本分配的記憶體已不再是一個有效的 Python 物件。

 -- C 變數: *note PyObject: 6d1. _Py_NoneStruct

     這個物件像是 Python 中的 ‘None’。它只應該透過 *note Py_None: 4726.
     巨集來存取，該巨集的拿到指向該物件的指標。

也參考
......

*note PyModule_Create(): 472a.

     分配記憶體和建立擴充模組。


File: python.info,  Node: 通用物件結構,  Next: 型別物件<2>,  Prev: 在 heap 上分配物件,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.2 通用物件結構
-------------------

There are a large number of structures which are used in the definition
of object types for Python.  This section describes these structures and
how they are used.

* Menu:

* Base object types and macros::
* 實作函式與方法::
* Accessing attributes of extension types::


File: python.info,  Node: Base object types and macros,  Next: 實作函式與方法,  Up: 通用物件結構

7.12.2.1 Base object types and macros
.....................................

All Python objects ultimately share a small number of fields at the
beginning of the object's representation in memory.  These are
represented by the *note PyObject: 6d1. and *note PyVarObject: 3e7b.
types, which are defined, in turn, by the expansions of some macros also
used, whether directly or indirectly, in the definition of all other
Python objects.  Additional macros can be found under *note reference
counting: 496b.

 -- C 型別: type PyObject
     ' 為 *note 受限 API 的一部分: 2d8.  （只有部分成員是穩定 ABI 的一部
     分。）' All object types are extensions of this type.  This is a
     type which contains the information Python needs to treat a pointer
     to an object as an object.  In a normal "release" build, it
     contains only the object's reference count and a pointer to the
     corresponding type object.  Nothing is actually declared to be a
     *note PyObject: 6d1, but every pointer to a Python object can be
     cast to a *note PyObject: 6d1.*.  Access to the members must be
     done by using the macros *note Py_REFCNT: 6dd. and *note Py_TYPE:
     597.

 -- C 型別: type PyVarObject
     ' 為 *note 受限 API 的一部分: 2d8.  （只有部分成員是穩定 ABI 的一部
     分。）' This is an extension of *note PyObject: 6d1. that adds the
     *note ob_size: 491e. field.  This is only used for objects that
     have some notion of 'length'.  This type does not often appear in
     the Python/C API. Access to the members must be done by using the
     macros *note Py_REFCNT: 6dd, *note Py_TYPE: 597, and *note Py_SIZE:
     599.

 -- C 巨集: PyObject_HEAD

     This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent
     objects without a varying length.  The PyObject_HEAD macro expands
     to:

          PyObject ob_base;

     See documentation of *note PyObject: 6d1. above.

 -- C 巨集: PyObject_VAR_HEAD

     This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent
     objects with a length that varies from instance to instance.  The
     PyObject_VAR_HEAD macro expands to:

          PyVarObject ob_base;

     請見上面 *note PyVarObject: 3e7b. 的文件。

 -- C 函式: int Py_Is (PyObject *x, PyObject *y)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Test if the
     'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int Py_IsNone (PyObject *x)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Test if an
     object is the ‘None’ singleton, the same as ‘x is None’ in Python.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int Py_IsTrue (PyObject *x)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Test if an
     object is the ‘True’ singleton, the same as ‘x is True’ in Python.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int Py_IsFalse (PyObject *x)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Test if an
     object is the ‘False’ singleton, the same as ‘x is False’ in
     Python.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. *Py_TYPE (PyObject *o)

     Get the type of the Python object 'o'.

     Return a *note borrowed reference: 47ba.

     Use the *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 598. function to set an object type.

     在 3.11 版的變更: *note Py_TYPE(): 597. is changed to an inline
     static function.  The parameter type is no longer const *note
     PyObject: 6d1.*.

 -- C 函式: int Py_IS_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' type is 'type'.  Return zero
     otherwise.  Equivalent to: ‘Py_TYPE(o) == type’.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void Py_SET_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     將物件 'o' 的型別設為 'type'。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. Py_SIZE (PyVarObject *o)

     取得 Python 物件 'o' 的大小。

     Use the *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 59a. function to set an object size.

     在 3.11 版的變更: *note Py_SIZE(): 599. is changed to an inline
     static function.  The parameter type is no longer const *note
     PyVarObject: 3e7b.*.

 -- C 函式: void Py_SET_SIZE (PyVarObject *o, Py_ssize_t size)

     將物件 'o' 的大小設為 'size'。

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: PyObject_HEAD_INIT (type)

     This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
     *note PyObject: 6d1. type.  This macro expands to:

          _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
          1, type,

 -- C 巨集: PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (type, size)

     This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
     *note PyVarObject: 3e7b. type, including the *note ob_size: 491e.
     field.  This macro expands to:

          _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
          1, type, size,


File: python.info,  Node: 實作函式與方法,  Next: Accessing attributes of extension types,  Prev: Base object types and macros,  Up: 通用物件結構

7.12.2.2 實作函式與方法
.......................

 -- C 型別: type PyCFunction
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Type of the functions used to
     implement most Python callables in C. Functions of this type take
     two *note PyObject: 6d1.* parameters and return one such value.  If
     the return value is ‘NULL’, an exception shall have been set.  If
     not ‘NULL’, the return value is interpreted as the return value of
     the function as exposed in Python.  The function must return a new
     reference.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunction(PyObject *self,
                                PyObject *args);

 -- C 型別: type PyCFunctionWithKeywords
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Type of the functions used to
     implement Python callables in C with signature *note METH_VARARGS |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 4c46.  The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunctionWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                            PyObject *args,
                                            PyObject *kwargs);

 -- C 型別: type _PyCFunctionFast

     Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_FASTCALL: 15eb.  The function signature is:

          PyObject *_PyCFunctionFast(PyObject *self,
                                     PyObject *const *args,
                                     Py_ssize_t nargs);

 -- C 型別: type _PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords

     Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 4c49.  The function
     signature is:

          PyObject *_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                                 PyObject *const *args,
                                                 Py_ssize_t nargs,
                                                 PyObject *kwnames);

 -- C 型別: type PyCMethod

     Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 145b.
     The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCMethod(PyObject *self,
                              PyTypeObject *defining_class,
                              PyObject *const *args,
                              Py_ssize_t nargs,
                              PyObject *kwnames)

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type PyMethodDef
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. （包含所有成員）.'  Structure
     used to describe a method of an extension type.  This structure has
     four fields:

      -- C 成員函數: const char *ml_name

          Name of the method.

      -- C 成員函數: *note PyCFunction: 12e8. ml_meth

          Pointer to the C implementation.

      -- C 成員函數: int ml_flags

          Flags bits indicating how the call should be constructed.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *ml_doc

          Points to the contents of the docstring.

The *note ml_meth: 4c4a. is a C function pointer.  The functions may be
of different types, but they always return *note PyObject: 6d1.*.  If
the function is not of the *note PyCFunction: 12e8, the compiler will
require a cast in the method table.  Even though *note PyCFunction:
12e8. defines the first parameter as *note PyObject: 6d1.*, it is common
that the method implementation uses the specific C type of the 'self'
object.

The *note ml_flags: 4c4b. field is a bitfield which can include the
following flags.  The individual flags indicate either a calling
convention or a binding convention.

There are these calling conventions:

 -- C 巨集: METH_VARARGS

     This is the typical calling convention, where the methods have the
     type *note PyCFunction: 12e8.  The function expects two *note
     PyObject: 6d1.* values.  The first one is the 'self' object for
     methods; for module functions, it is the module object.  The second
     parameter (often called 'args') is a tuple object representing all
     arguments.  This parameter is typically processed using *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe. or *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 137f.

 -- C 巨集: METH_KEYWORDS

     Can only be used in certain combinations with other flags: *note
     METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS: 4c46, *note METH_FASTCALL |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 4c49. and *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 145b.

*note METH_VARARGS: 1381. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 4729.

     Methods with these flags must be of type *note
     PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 47e7.  The function expects three
     parameters: 'self', 'args', 'kwargs' where 'kwargs' is a dictionary
     of all the keyword arguments or possibly ‘NULL’ if there are no
     keyword arguments.  The parameters are typically processed using
     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b85.

 -- C 巨集: METH_FASTCALL

     Fast calling convention supporting only positional arguments.  The
     methods have the type *note _PyCFunctionFast: 4c47.  The first
     parameter is 'self', the second parameter is a C array of *note
     PyObject: 6d1.* values indicating the arguments and the third
     parameter is the number of arguments (the length of the array).

     在 3.7 版被加入.

     在 3.10 版的變更: ‘METH_FASTCALL’ is now part of the *note stable
     ABI: 47cf.

*note METH_FASTCALL: 15eb. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 4729.

     Extension of *note METH_FASTCALL: 15eb. supporting also keyword
     arguments, with methods of type *note _PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords:
     4c48.  Keyword arguments are passed the same way as in the *note
     vectorcall protocol: 2d7.: there is an additional fourth *note
     PyObject: 6d1.* parameter which is a tuple representing the names
     of the keyword arguments (which are guaranteed to be strings) or
     possibly ‘NULL’ if there are no keywords.  The values of the
     keyword arguments are stored in the 'args' array, after the
     positional arguments.

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: METH_METHOD

     Can only be used in the combination with other flags: *note
     METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 145b.

*note METH_METHOD: 7b2. | *note METH_FASTCALL: 15eb. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 4729.

     Extension of *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 4c49. supporting
     the 'defining class', that is, the class that contains the method
     in question.  The defining class might be a superclass of
     ‘Py_TYPE(self)’.

     The method needs to be of type *note PyCMethod: 57b, the same as
     for ‘METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS’ with ‘defining_class’ argument
     added after ‘self’.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: METH_NOARGS

     Methods without parameters don't need to check whether arguments
     are given if they are listed with the *note METH_NOARGS: 134b.
     flag.  They need to be of type *note PyCFunction: 12e8.  The first
     parameter is typically named 'self' and will hold a reference to
     the module or object instance.  In all cases the second parameter
     will be ‘NULL’.

     The function must have 2 parameters.  Since the second parameter is
     unused, *note Py_UNUSED: 14f8. can be used to prevent a compiler
     warning.

 -- C 巨集: METH_O

     Methods with a single object argument can be listed with the *note
     METH_O: 1380. flag, instead of invoking *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
     2fe. with a ‘"O"’ argument.  They have the type *note PyCFunction:
     12e8, with the 'self' parameter, and a *note PyObject: 6d1.*
     parameter representing the single argument.

These two constants are not used to indicate the calling convention but
the binding when use with methods of classes.  These may not be used for
functions defined for modules.  At most one of these flags may be set
for any given method.

 -- C 巨集: METH_CLASS

     The method will be passed the type object as the first parameter
     rather than an instance of the type.  This is used to create 'class
     methods', similar to what is created when using the *note
     classmethod(): 24b. built-in function.

 -- C 巨集: METH_STATIC

     The method will be passed ‘NULL’ as the first parameter rather than
     an instance of the type.  This is used to create 'static methods',
     similar to what is created when using the *note staticmethod():
     5f9. built-in function.

One other constant controls whether a method is loaded in place of
another definition with the same method name.

 -- C 巨集: METH_COEXIST

     The method will be loaded in place of existing definitions.
     Without 'METH_COEXIST', the default is to skip repeated
     definitions.  Since slot wrappers are loaded before the method
     table, the existence of a 'sq_contains' slot, for example, would
     generate a wrapped method named *note __contains__(): 1cef. and
     preclude the loading of a corresponding PyCFunction with the same
     name.  With the flag defined, the PyCFunction will be loaded in
     place of the wrapper object and will co-exist with the slot.  This
     is helpful because calls to PyCFunctions are optimized more than
     wrapper object calls.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCMethod_New (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self, PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *cls)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.9 版本
     開始.'  Turn 'ml' into a Python *note callable: 266d. object.  The
     caller must ensure that 'ml' outlives the *note callable: 266d.
     Typically, 'ml' is defined as a static variable.

     The 'self' parameter will be passed as the 'self' argument to the C
     function in ‘ml->ml_meth’ when invoked.  'self' can be ‘NULL’.

     The *note callable: 266d. object's ‘__module__’ attribute can be
     set from the given 'module' argument.  'module' should be a Python
     string, which will be used as name of the module the function is
     defined in.  If unavailable, it can be set to *note None: 470. or
     ‘NULL’.

     也參考
     ......

     *note function.__module__: 1c8e.

     The 'cls' parameter will be passed as the 'defining_class' argument
     to the C function.  Must be set if *note METH_METHOD: 7b2. is set
     on ‘ml->ml_flags’.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCFunction_NewEx (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self, PyObject *module)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  等價於
     ‘PyCMethod_New(ml, self, module, NULL)’。

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyCFunction_New (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self)
     '回傳值：新的參照。'' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.4 版本
     開始.'  等價於 ‘PyCMethod_New(ml, self, NULL, NULL)’。


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing attributes of extension types,  Prev: 實作函式與方法,  Up: 通用物件結構

7.12.2.3 Accessing attributes of extension types
................................................

 -- C 型別: type PyMemberDef
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. （包含所有成員）.'  Structure
     which describes an attribute of a type which corresponds to a C
     struct member.  When defining a class, put a NULL-terminated array
     of these structures in the *note tp_members: 475b. slot.

     Its fields are, in order:

      -- C 成員函數: const char *name

          Name of the member.  A NULL value marks the end of a
          ‘PyMemberDef[]’ array.

          The string should be static, no copy is made of it.

      -- C 成員函數: int type

          The type of the member in the C struct.  See *note Member
          types: 1444. for the possible values.

      -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. offset

          The offset in bytes that the member is located on the type’s
          object struct.

      -- C 成員函數: int flags

          Zero or more of the *note Member flags: 4c50, combined using
          bitwise OR.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *doc

          The docstring, or NULL. The string should be static, no copy
          is made of it.  Typically, it is defined using *note
          PyDoc_STR: 15d9.

     By default (when *note flags: 4775. is ‘0’), members allow both
     read and write access.  Use the *note Py_READONLY: 34a. flag for
     read-only access.  Certain types, like *note Py_T_STRING: 4c52,
     imply *note Py_READONLY: 34a.  Only *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 34d. (and
     legacy *note T_OBJECT: 34c.) members can be deleted.  For
     heap-allocated types (created using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c.
     or similar), ‘PyMemberDef’ may contain a definition for the special
     member ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’, corresponding to *note
     tp_vectorcall_offset: 49d6. in type objects.  These must be defined
     with ‘Py_T_PYSSIZET’ and ‘Py_READONLY’, for example:

          static PyMemberDef spam_type_members[] = {
              {"__vectorcalloffset__", Py_T_PYSSIZET,
               offsetof(Spam_object, vectorcall), Py_READONLY},
              {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
          };

     (You may need to ‘#include <stddef.h>’ for ‘offsetof()’.)

     The legacy offsets *note tp_dictoffset: 4a36. and *note
     tp_weaklistoffset: 7cc. can be defined similarly using
     ‘"__dictoffset__"’ and ‘"__weaklistoffset__"’ members, but
     extensions are strongly encouraged to use *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2e0. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     2e1. instead.

     在 3.12 版的變更: ‘PyMemberDef’ is always available.  Previously,
     it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyMember_GetOne (const char *obj_addr,
          struct PyMemberDef *m)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Get an attribute belonging to
     the object at address 'obj_addr'.  The attribute is described by
     ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'.  Returns ‘NULL’ on error.

     在 3.12 版的變更: ‘PyMember_GetOne’ is always available.
     Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

 -- C 函式: int PyMember_SetOne (char *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef *m,
          PyObject *o)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set an attribute belonging to
     the object at address 'obj_addr' to object 'o'.  The attribute to
     set is described by ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'.  Returns ‘0’ if successful
     and a negative value on failure.

     在 3.12 版的變更: ‘PyMember_SetOne’ is always available.
     Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

* Menu:

* Member flags::
* Member types::
* Defining Getters and Setters::


File: python.info,  Node: Member flags,  Next: Member types,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.12.2.4 Member flags
.....................

The following flags can be used with *note PyMemberDef.flags: 4775.:

 -- C 巨集: Py_READONLY

     不可寫入。

 -- C 巨集: Py_AUDIT_READ

     Emit an ‘object.__getattr__’ *note audit event: 1643. before
     reading.

 -- C 巨集: Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET

     Indicates that the *note offset: 4c4f. of this ‘PyMemberDef’ entry
     indicates an offset from the subclass-specific data, rather than
     from ‘PyObject’.

     Can only be used as part of *note Py_tp_members: 475b. *note slot:
     48e4. when creating a class using negative *note basicsize: 2cc.
     It is mandatory in that case.

     This flag is only used in *note PyType_Slot: 48e4.  When setting
     *note tp_members: 475b. during class creation, Python clears it and
     sets *note PyMemberDef.offset: 4c4f. to the offset from the
     ‘PyObject’ struct.

在 3.10 版的變更: The ‘RESTRICTED’, ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and
‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ macros available with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ are
deprecated.  ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and ‘RESTRICTED’ are equivalent to *note
Py_AUDIT_READ: 34b.; ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ does nothing.

在 3.12 版的變更: The ‘READONLY’ macro was renamed to *note Py_READONLY:
34a.  The ‘PY_AUDIT_READ’ macro was renamed with the ‘Py_’ prefix.  The
new names are now always available.  Previously, these required
‘#include "structmember.h"’.  The header is still available and it
provides the old names.


File: python.info,  Node: Member types,  Next: Defining Getters and Setters,  Prev: Member flags,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.12.2.5 Member types
.....................

*note PyMemberDef.type: 4774. can be one of the following macros
corresponding to various C types.  When the member is accessed in
Python, it will be converted to the equivalent Python type.  When it is
set from Python, it will be converted back to the C type.  If that is
not possible, an exception such as *note TypeError: 2ba. or *note
ValueError: 183. is raised.

Unless marked (D), attributes defined this way cannot be deleted using
e.g.  *note del: 1570. or *note delattr(): 1ee5.

巨集名稱                             C type                            Python type
                                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_BYTE                char                              *note int: 17e.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_SHORT               short                             *note int: 17e.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_INT                 int                               *note int: 17e.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_LONG                long                              *note int: 17e.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_LONGLONG            long long                         *note int: 17e.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_UBYTE               unsigned char                     *note int: 17e.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_UINT                unsigned int                      *note int: 17e.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_USHORT              unsigned short                    *note int: 17e.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_ULONG               unsigned long                     *note int: 17e.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_ULONGLONG           unsigned long long                *note int: 17e.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_PYSSIZET            *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.            *note int: 17e.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_FLOAT               float                             *note float: 26a.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_DOUBLE              double                            *note float: 26a.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_BOOL                char （寫成 0 或 1）              *note bool: 17d.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_STRING              const char* (*)                   *note str: 157. (RO)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_STRING_INPLACE      const char[] (*)                  *note str: 157. (RO)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_CHAR                char (0-127)                      *note str: 157. (**)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 巨集: Py_T_OBJECT_EX           *note PyObject: 6d1.*             *note object: 8d9. (D)
                                                                       

     (*): Zero-terminated, UTF8-encoded C string.  With ‘Py_T_STRING’
     the C representation is a pointer; with ‘Py_T_STRING_INPLACE’ the
     string is stored directly in the structure.

     (**): String of length 1.  Only ASCII is accepted.

     (RO): Implies *note Py_READONLY: 34a.

     (D): Can be deleted, in which case the pointer is set to ‘NULL’.
     Reading a ‘NULL’ pointer raises *note AttributeError: 3ca.

在 3.12 版被加入: In previous versions, the macros were only available
with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ and were named without the ‘Py_’ prefix
(e.g.  as ‘T_INT’).  The header is still available and contains the old
names, along with the following deprecated types:

 -- C 巨集: T_OBJECT

     Like ‘Py_T_OBJECT_EX’, but ‘NULL’ is converted to ‘None’.  This
     results in surprising behavior in Python: deleting the attribute
     effectively sets it to ‘None’.

 -- C 巨集: T_NONE

     Always ‘None’.  Must be used with *note Py_READONLY: 34a.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Getters and Setters,  Prev: Member types,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.12.2.6 Defining Getters and Setters
.....................................

 -- C 型別: type PyGetSetDef
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. （包含所有成員）.'  Structure to
     define property-like access for a type.  See also description of
     the *note PyTypeObject.tp_getset: 4760. slot.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *name

          屬性名稱

      -- C 成員函數: *note getter: 4939. get

          C function to get the attribute.

      -- C 成員函數: *note setter: 4947. set

          Optional C function to set or delete the attribute.  If
          ‘NULL’, the attribute is read-only.

      -- C 成員函數: const char *doc

          可選的文件字串

      -- C 成員函數: void *closure

          Optional user data pointer, providing additional data for
          getter and setter.

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*getter)(*note PyObject:
          6d1.*, void*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  The ‘get’ function takes one
     *note PyObject: 6d1.* parameter (the instance) and a user data
     pointer (the associated ‘closure’):

     It should return a new reference on success or ‘NULL’ with a set
     exception on failure.

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*setter)(*note PyObject: 6d1.*, *note PyObject:
          6d1.*, void*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  ‘set’ functions take two *note
     PyObject: 6d1.* parameters (the instance and the value to be set)
     and a user data pointer (the associated ‘closure’):

     In case the attribute should be deleted the second parameter is
     ‘NULL’.  Should return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ with a set exception
     on failure.


File: python.info,  Node: 型別物件<2>,  Next: Number Object Structures,  Prev: 通用物件結構,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.3 型別物件
---------------

Perhaps one of the most important structures of the Python object system
is the structure that defines a new type: the *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.
structure.  Type objects can be handled using any of the ‘PyObject_*’ or
‘PyType_*’ functions, but do not offer much that's interesting to most
Python applications.  These objects are fundamental to how objects
behave, so they are very important to the interpreter itself and to any
extension module that implements new types.

Type objects are fairly large compared to most of the standard types.
The reason for the size is that each type object stores a large number
of values, mostly C function pointers, each of which implements a small
part of the type's functionality.  The fields of the type object are
examined in detail in this section.  The fields will be described in the
order in which they occur in the structure.

In addition to the following quick reference, the *note 範例: 4c6b.
section provides at-a-glance insight into the meaning and use of *note
PyTypeObject: 8f8.

* Menu:

* Quick Reference::
* PyTypeObject Definition::
* PyObject Slots::
* PyVarObject Slots::
* PyTypeObject Slots::
* Static Types::
* Heap Types::


File: python.info,  Node: Quick Reference,  Next: PyTypeObject Definition,  Up: 型別物件<2>

7.12.3.1 Quick Reference
........................

* Menu:

* "tp slots"::
* sub-slots::
* slot typedefs::


File: python.info,  Node: "tp slots",  Next: sub-slots,  Up: Quick Reference

7.12.3.2 "tp slots"
...................

PyTypeObject Slot      *note Type: 4c6f.      special                Info
(1)                                           methods/attrs          (2)
                                                                     
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                     
O                      T                      D                      I
                                                                     
                                                                                       
<R>                    const char *           __name__               X     X
*note tp_name: 16c8.                                                       

*note tp_basicsize: 7cb.*note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.                       X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_itemsize: 1d02.*note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.                             X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_dealloc: 4758.*note destructor: 4934.                       X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_vectorcall_offset: 49d6.*note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.                    X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_getattr: 4777.)*note getattrfunc: 4935.__getattribute__,                     G
                                              __getattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
(*note tp_setattr: 4778.)*note setattrfunc: 4945.__setattr__,                          G
                                              __delattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_async: d51.*note PyAsyncMethods: 4a34.*note sub-slots: 4c70.               %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_repr: 476d.   *note reprfunc: 4943.  __repr__               X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_number: 7cf.*note PyNumberMethods: 128e.*note sub-slots: 4c70.             %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_sequence: 4c71.*note PySequenceMethods: 477e.*note sub-slots: 4c70.        %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_mapping: 4c72.*note PyMappingMethods: 477f.*note sub-slots: 4c70.          %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_hash: 4780.   *note hashfunc: 493a.  __hash__               X                 G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_call: 2df.    *note ternaryfunc: 494a.__call__                    X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_str: 476e.    *note reprfunc: 4943.  __str__                X                 X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_getattro: 4771.*note getattrofunc: 4936.__getattribute__,   X     X           G
                                              __getattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_setattro: 4772.*note setattrofunc: 4946.__setattr__,        X     X           G
                                              __delattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_buffer: 7cd.*note PyBufferProcs: 4a3c.                                     %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_flags: 1691.  unsigned long                                 X     X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_doc: 4754.    const char *           __doc__                X     X
                                                                           
                                                                                       
*note tp_traverse: 594.*note traverseproc: 494b.                           X           G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_clear: 476b.  *note inquiry: 493c.                                X           G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_richcompare: 477a.*note richcmpfunc: 4944.__lt__, __le__,   X                 G
                                              __eq__, __ne__,                          
                                              __gt__, __ge__
                                              
                                                                                       
(*note tp_weaklistoffset: 7cc.)*note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.                      X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_iter: 1365.   *note getiterfunc: 4938.__iter__                                X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_iternext: 1366.*note iternextfunc: 493d.__next__                              X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_methods: 475d.*note PyMethodDef: 134e.                      X     X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_members: 475b.*note PyMemberDef: 2d3.                             X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_getset: 4760. *note PyGetSetDef: a19.                       X     X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_base: 4764.   *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.__base__                          X
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_dict: 14bf.   *note PyObject: 6d1.   __dict__                           ?
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_descr_get: 4c73.*note descrgetfunc: 4932.__get__                              X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_descr_set: 16cc.*note descrsetfunc: 4933.__set__, __delete__                  X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_dictoffset: 4a36.)*note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.                         X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_init: 310.    *note initproc: 493b.  __init__               X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_alloc: 475a.  *note allocfunc: 4930.                        X           ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_new: 30e.     *note newfunc: 493f.   __new__                X     X     ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_free: 4759.   *note freefunc: 4b25.                         X     X     ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_is_gc: 4c74.  *note inquiry: 493c.                                X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
<*note tp_bases: 4c75.>*note PyObject: 6d1.   __bases__                          ~
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
<*note tp_mro: 4a39.>  *note PyObject: 6d1.   __mro__                            ~
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_cache: 4a3a.]*note PyObject: 6d1.
                       *
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_subclasses: 2ff.]void *             __subclasses__
                                              
                                                                                       
[*note tp_weaklist: 4a3b.]*note PyObject: 6d1.
                       *
                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_del: 4c76.)  *note destructor: 4934.
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_version_tag: 4c77.]unsigned int
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_finalize: 8f9.*note destructor: 4934.__del__                                  X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_vectorcall: 4a38.*note vectorcallfunc: 2dc.
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_watched: 4c78.]unsigned char
                       

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) '()': A slot name in parentheses indicates it is (effectively)
deprecated.

'<>': Names in angle brackets should be initially set to ‘NULL’ and
treated as read-only.

'[]': Names in square brackets are for internal use only.

'<R>' (as a prefix) means the field is required (must be non-‘NULL’).

   (2) Columns:

'"O"': set on ‘PyBaseObject_Type’

'"T"': set on *note PyType_Type: 2d1.

'"D"': default (if slot is set to ‘NULL’)

     X - PyType_Ready sets this value if it is NULL
     ~ - PyType_Ready always sets this value (it should be NULL)
     ? - PyType_Ready may set this value depending on other slots

     Also see the inheritance column ("I").

'"I"': inheritance

     X - type slot is inherited via *PyType_Ready* if defined with a *NULL* value
     % - the slots of the sub-struct are inherited individually
     G - inherited, but only in combination with other slots; see the slot's description
     ? - it's complicated; see the slot's description

Note that some slots are effectively inherited through the normal
attribute lookup chain.


File: python.info,  Node: sub-slots,  Next: slot typedefs,  Prev: "tp slots",  Up: Quick Reference

7.12.3.3 sub-slots
..................

Slot                           *note Type: 4c6f.     special
                                                     methods
                                                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     
*note am_await: 4c7a.          *note unaryfunc: 494c.__await__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_aiter: 4c7b.          *note unaryfunc: 494c.__aiter__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_anext: 4c7c.          *note unaryfunc: 494c.__anext__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_send: 4c7d.           *note sendfunc: 4c7e.
                               
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_add: 4a2d.            *note binaryfunc: 4931.__add__
                                                     __radd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_add: 4c7f.    *note binaryfunc: 4931.__iadd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_subtract: 4c80.       *note binaryfunc: 4931.__sub__
                                                     __rsub__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_subtract: 4c81.*note binaryfunc: 4931.__isub__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_multiply: 4c82.       *note binaryfunc: 4931.__mul__
                                                     __rmul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_multiply: 4c83.*note binaryfunc: 4931.__imul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_remainder: 4c84.      *note binaryfunc: 4931.__mod__
                                                     __rmod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_remainder: 4c85.*note binaryfunc: 4931.__imod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_divmod: 4c86.         *note binaryfunc: 4931.__divmod__
                                                     __rdivmod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_power: 4c87.          *note ternaryfunc: 494a.__pow__
                                                     __rpow__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_power: 4c88.  *note ternaryfunc: 494a.__ipow__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_negative: 4c89.       *note unaryfunc: 494c.__neg__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_positive: 4c8a.       *note unaryfunc: 494c.__pos__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_absolute: 4c8b.       *note unaryfunc: 494c.__abs__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_bool: 4c8c.           *note inquiry: 493c.  __bool__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_invert: 4c8d.         *note unaryfunc: 494c.__invert__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_lshift: 4c8e.         *note binaryfunc: 4931.__lshift__
                                                     __rlshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_lshift: 4c8f. *note binaryfunc: 4931.__ilshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_rshift: 4c90.         *note binaryfunc: 4931.__rshift__
                                                     __rrshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_rshift: 4c91. *note binaryfunc: 4931.__irshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_and: 4c92.            *note binaryfunc: 4931.__and__
                                                     __rand__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_and: 4c93.    *note binaryfunc: 4931.__iand__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_xor: 4c94.            *note binaryfunc: 4931.__xor__
                                                     __rxor__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_xor: 4c95.    *note binaryfunc: 4931.__ixor__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_or: 4c96.             *note binaryfunc: 4931.__or__ __ror__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_or: 4c97.     *note binaryfunc: 4931.__ior__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_int: 4c98.            *note unaryfunc: 494c.__int__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_reserved: 4c99.       void *
                               
                                                     
*note nb_float: 4c9a.          *note unaryfunc: 494c.__float__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_floor_divide: 4c9b.   *note binaryfunc: 4931.__floordiv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_floor_divide: 4c9c.*note binaryfunc: 4931.__ifloordiv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_true_divide: 4c9d.    *note binaryfunc: 4931.__truediv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_true_divide: 4c9e.*note binaryfunc: 4931.__itruediv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_index: 128d.          *note unaryfunc: 494c.__index__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_matrix_multiply: 4c9f.*note binaryfunc: 4931.__matmul__
                                                     __rmatmul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_matrix_multiply: 4ca0.*note binaryfunc: 4931.__imatmul__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_length: 4ca1.         *note lenfunc: 493e.  __len__
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_subscript: 1703.      *note binaryfunc: 4931.__getitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_ass_subscript: 4ca2.  *note objobjargproc: 4940.__setitem__,
                                                     __delitem__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_length: 4a35.         *note lenfunc: 493e.  __len__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_concat: 4ca3.         *note binaryfunc: 4931.__add__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_repeat: 4ca4.         *note ssizeargfunc: 4948.__mul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_item: 1702.           *note ssizeargfunc: 4948.__getitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_ass_item: 4ca5.       *note ssizeobjargproc: 4949.__setitem__
                                                     __delitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_contains: 4ca6.       *note objobjproc: 4941.__contains__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_inplace_concat: 4ca7. *note binaryfunc: 4931.__iadd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_inplace_repeat: 4ca8. *note ssizeargfunc: 4948.__imul__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note bf_getbuffer: 578.       *note getbufferproc(): 4937.
                               
                                                     
*note bf_releasebuffer: 579.   *note releasebufferproc(): 4942.
                               


File: python.info,  Node: slot typedefs,  Prev: sub-slots,  Up: Quick Reference

7.12.3.4 slot typedefs
......................

typedef                           Parameter Types                   Return Type
                                                                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
*note allocfunc: 4930.                 *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. *   *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.       
                                  
                                                                    
*note destructor: 4934.           *note PyObject: 6d1. *            void
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note freefunc: 4b25.             void *                            void
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note traverseproc: 494b.              *note PyObject: 6d1. *       int
                                       *note visitproc: 494d.       
                                       void *
                                  
                                                                    
*note newfunc: 493f.                   *note PyObject: 6d1. *       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note initproc: 493b.                  *note PyObject: 6d1. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note reprfunc: 4943.             *note PyObject: 6d1. *            *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note getattrfunc: 4935.               *note PyObject: 6d1. *       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                       const char *                 
                                  
                                                                    
*note setattrfunc: 4945.               *note PyObject: 6d1. *       int
                                       const char *                 
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note getattrofunc: 4936.              *note PyObject: 6d1. *       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note setattrofunc: 4946.              *note PyObject: 6d1. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note descrgetfunc: 4932.              *note PyObject: 6d1. *       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note descrsetfunc: 4933.              *note PyObject: 6d1. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note hashfunc: 493a.             *note PyObject: 6d1. *            Py_hash_t
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note richcmpfunc: 4944.               *note PyObject: 6d1. *       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *       
                                       int
                                  
                                                                    
*note getiterfunc: 4938.          *note PyObject: 6d1. *            *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note iternextfunc: 493d.         *note PyObject: 6d1. *            *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note lenfunc: 493e.              *note PyObject: 6d1. *            *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note getbufferproc: 4937.             *note PyObject: 6d1. *       int
                                       *note Py_buffer: 56b. *      
                                       int
                                  
                                                                    
*note releasebufferproc: 4942.         *note PyObject: 6d1. *       void
                                       *note Py_buffer: 56b. *      
                                  
                                                                    
*note inquiry: 493c.              *note PyObject: 6d1. *            int
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note unaryfunc: 494c.                 *note PyObject: 6d1. *       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note binaryfunc: 4931.                *note PyObject: 6d1. *       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note ternaryfunc: 494a.               *note PyObject: 6d1. *       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note ssizeargfunc: 4948.              *note PyObject: 6d1. *       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.       
                                  
                                                                    
*note ssizeobjargproc: 4949.           *note PyObject: 6d1. *       int
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.       
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note objobjproc: 4941.                *note PyObject: 6d1. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note objobjargproc: 4940.             *note PyObject: 6d1. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6d1. *
                                  

更多細節請見下方的 *note Slot Type typedefs: 4caa.。


File: python.info,  Node: PyTypeObject Definition,  Next: PyObject Slots,  Prev: Quick Reference,  Up: 型別物件<2>

7.12.3.5 PyTypeObject Definition
................................

The structure definition for *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. can be found in
‘Include/object.h’.  For convenience of reference, this repeats the
definition found there:

     typedef struct _typeobject {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */
         Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

         /* Methods to implement standard operations */

         destructor tp_dealloc;
         Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
         getattrfunc tp_getattr;
         setattrfunc tp_setattr;
         PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)
                                         or tp_reserved (Python 3) */
         reprfunc tp_repr;

         /* Method suites for standard classes */

         PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
         PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
         PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

         /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */

         hashfunc tp_hash;
         ternaryfunc tp_call;
         reprfunc tp_str;
         getattrofunc tp_getattro;
         setattrofunc tp_setattro;

         /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */
         PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

         /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */
         unsigned long tp_flags;

         const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */
         /* call function for all accessible objects */
         traverseproc tp_traverse;

         /* delete references to contained objects */
         inquiry tp_clear;

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */
         /* rich comparisons */
         richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

         /* weak reference enabler */
         Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

         /* Iterators */
         getiterfunc tp_iter;
         iternextfunc tp_iternext;

         /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */
         struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
         struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
         struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
         // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type
         struct _typeobject *tp_base;
         PyObject *tp_dict;
         descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
         descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
         Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
         initproc tp_init;
         allocfunc tp_alloc;
         newfunc tp_new;
         freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */
         inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */
         PyObject *tp_bases;
         PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */
         PyObject *tp_cache;
         PyObject *tp_subclasses;
         PyObject *tp_weaklist;
         destructor tp_del;

         /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6 */
         unsigned int tp_version_tag;

         destructor tp_finalize;
         vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

         /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */
         unsigned char tp_watched;
     } PyTypeObject;


File: python.info,  Node: PyObject Slots,  Next: PyVarObject Slots,  Prev: PyTypeObject Definition,  Up: 型別物件<2>

7.12.3.6 PyObject Slots
.......................

The type object structure extends the *note PyVarObject: 3e7b.
structure.  The *note ob_size: 491e. field is used for dynamic types
(created by ‘type_new()’, usually called from a class statement).  Note
that *note PyType_Type: 2d1. (the metatype) initializes *note
tp_itemsize: 1d02, which means that its instances (i.e.  type objects)
'must' have the *note ob_size: 491e. field.

 -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *note PyObject: 6d1.ob_refcnt
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is the type object's
     reference count, initialized to ‘1’ by the ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’
     macro.  Note that for *note statically allocated type objects: 596,
     the type's instances (objects whose *note ob_type: 4756. points
     back to the type) do 'not' count as references.  But for *note
     dynamically allocated type objects: 7a6, the instances 'do' count
     as references.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. **note PyObject: 6d1.ob_type
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  This is the type's type, in
     other words its metatype.  It is initialized by the argument to the
     ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro, and its value should normally be
     ‘&PyType_Type’.  However, for dynamically loadable extension
     modules that must be usable on Windows (at least), the compiler
     complains that this is not a valid initializer.  Therefore, the
     convention is to pass ‘NULL’ to the ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro and
     to initialize this field explicitly at the start of the module's
     initialization function, before doing anything else.  This is
     typically done like this:

          Foo_Type.ob_type = &PyType_Type;

     This should be done before any instances of the type are created.
     *note PyType_Ready(): 595. checks if *note ob_type: 4756. is
     ‘NULL’, and if so, initializes it to the *note ob_type: 4756. field
     of the base class.  *note PyType_Ready(): 595. will not change this
     field if it is non-zero.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyObject: 6d1. **note PyObject: 6d1._ob_next
 -- C 成員函數: *note PyObject: 6d1. **note PyObject: 6d1._ob_prev

     These fields are only present when the macro ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ is
     defined (see the *note configure -with-trace-refs option: 6d2.).

     Their initialization to ‘NULL’ is taken care of by the
     ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro.  For *note statically allocated
     objects: 596, these fields always remain ‘NULL’.  For *note
     dynamically allocated objects: 7a6, these two fields are used to
     link the object into a doubly linked list of 'all' live objects on
     the heap.

     This could be used for various debugging purposes; currently the
     only uses are the ‘sys.getobjects()’ function and to print the
     objects that are still alive at the end of a run when the
     environment variable *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 7ea. is set.

     'Inheritance:'

     These fields are not inherited by subtypes.


File: python.info,  Node: PyVarObject Slots,  Next: PyTypeObject Slots,  Prev: PyObject Slots,  Up: 型別物件<2>

7.12.3.7 PyVarObject Slots
..........................

 -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *note PyVarObject: 3e7b.ob_size
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  For *note statically allocated
     type objects: 596, this should be initialized to zero.  For *note
     dynamically allocated type objects: 7a6, this field has a special
     internal meaning.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTypeObject Slots,  Next: Static Types,  Prev: PyVarObject Slots,  Up: 型別物件<2>

7.12.3.8 PyTypeObject Slots
...........................

Each slot has a section describing inheritance.  If *note
PyType_Ready(): 595. may set a value when the field is set to ‘NULL’
then there will also be a "Default" section.  (Note that many fields set
on ‘PyBaseObject_Type’ and *note PyType_Type: 2d1. effectively act as
defaults.)

 -- C 成員函數: const char **note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_name

     Pointer to a NUL-terminated string containing the name of the type.
     For types that are accessible as module globals, the string should
     be the full module name, followed by a dot, followed by the type
     name; for built-in types, it should be just the type name.  If the
     module is a submodule of a package, the full package name is part
     of the full module name.  For example, a type named ‘T’ defined in
     module ‘M’ in subpackage ‘Q’ in package ‘P’ should have the *note
     tp_name: 16c8. initializer ‘"P.Q.M.T"’.

     For *note dynamically allocated type objects: 7a6, this should just
     be the type name, and the module name explicitly stored in the type
     dict as the value for key ‘'__module__'’.

     For *note statically allocated type objects: 596, the 'tp_name'
     field should contain a dot.  Everything before the last dot is made
     accessible as the *note __module__: af5. attribute, and everything
     after the last dot is made accessible as the *note __name__: 131e.
     attribute.

     If no dot is present, the entire *note tp_name: 16c8. field is made
     accessible as the *note __name__: 131e. attribute, and the *note
     __module__: af5. attribute is undefined (unless explicitly set in
     the dictionary, as explained above).  This means your type will be
     impossible to pickle.  Additionally, it will not be listed in
     module documentations created with pydoc.

     This field must not be ‘NULL’.  It is the only required field in
     *note PyTypeObject(): 8f8. (other than potentially *note
     tp_itemsize: 1d02.).

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.

 -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_basicsize
 -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_itemsize

     These fields allow calculating the size in bytes of instances of
     the type.

     There are two kinds of types: types with fixed-length instances
     have a zero *note tp_itemsize: 1d02. field, types with
     variable-length instances have a non-zero *note tp_itemsize: 1d02.
     field.  For a type with fixed-length instances, all instances have
     the same size, given in *note tp_basicsize: 7cb.

     For a type with variable-length instances, the instances must have
     an *note ob_size: 491e. field, and the instance size is *note
     tp_basicsize: 7cb. plus N times *note tp_itemsize: 1d02, where N is
     the "length" of the object.  The value of N is typically stored in
     the instance's *note ob_size: 491e. field.  There are exceptions:
     for example, ints use a negative *note ob_size: 491e. to indicate a
     negative number, and N is ‘abs(ob_size)’ there.  Also, the presence
     of an *note ob_size: 491e. field in the instance layout doesn't
     mean that the instance structure is variable-length (for example,
     the structure for the list type has fixed-length instances, yet
     those instances have a meaningful *note ob_size: 491e. field).

     The basic size includes the fields in the instance declared by the
     macro *note PyObject_HEAD: 116f. or *note PyObject_VAR_HEAD: 4c42.
     (whichever is used to declare the instance struct) and this in turn
     includes the *note _ob_prev: 4cae. and *note _ob_next: 4cad. fields
     if they are present.  This means that the only correct way to get
     an initializer for the *note tp_basicsize: 7cb. is to use the
     ‘sizeof’ operator on the struct used to declare the instance
     layout.  The basic size does not include the GC header size.

     A note about alignment: if the variable items require a particular
     alignment, this should be taken care of by the value of *note
     tp_basicsize: 7cb.  Example: suppose a type implements an array of
     ‘double’.  *note tp_itemsize: 1d02. is ‘sizeof(double)’.  It is the
     programmer's responsibility that *note tp_basicsize: 7cb. is a
     multiple of ‘sizeof(double)’ (assuming this is the alignment
     requirement for ‘double’).

     For any type with variable-length instances, this field must not be
     ‘NULL’.

     'Inheritance:'

     These fields are inherited separately by subtypes.  If the base
     type has a non-zero *note tp_itemsize: 1d02, it is generally not
     safe to set *note tp_itemsize: 1d02. to a different non-zero value
     in a subtype (though this depends on the implementation of the base
     type).

 -- C 成員函數: *note destructor: 4934. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_dealloc

     A pointer to the instance destructor function.  This function must
     be defined unless the type guarantees that its instances will never
     be deallocated (as is the case for the singletons ‘None’ and
     ‘Ellipsis’).  The function signature is:

          void tp_dealloc(PyObject *self);

     The destructor function is called by the *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.
     and *note Py_XDECREF(): 5a9. macros when the new reference count is
     zero.  At this point, the instance is still in existence, but there
     are no references to it.  The destructor function should free all
     references which the instance owns, free all memory buffers owned
     by the instance (using the freeing function corresponding to the
     allocation function used to allocate the buffer), and call the
     type's *note tp_free: 4759. function.  If the type is not
     subtypable (doesn't have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 475e. flag
     bit set), it is permissible to call the object deallocator directly
     instead of via *note tp_free: 4759.  The object deallocator should
     be the one used to allocate the instance; this is normally *note
     PyObject_Del(): 1348. if the instance was allocated using *note
     PyObject_New: 7c9. or *note PyObject_NewVar: 7ca, or *note
     PyObject_GC_Del(): 137c. if the instance was allocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_New: 8f5. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: 8f6.

     If the type supports garbage collection (has the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag bit set), the destructor should call
     *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 137e. before clearing any member
     fields.

          static void foo_dealloc(foo_object *self) {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
              Py_CLEAR(self->ref);
              Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *)self);
          }

     Finally, if the type is heap allocated (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE:
     6e7.), the deallocator should release the owned reference to its
     type object (via *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.) after calling the type
     deallocator.  In order to avoid dangling pointers, the recommended
     way to achieve this is:

          static void foo_dealloc(foo_object *self) {
              PyTypeObject *tp = Py_TYPE(self);
              // free references and buffers here
              tp->tp_free(self);
              Py_DECREF(tp);
          }

          警告: In a garbage collected Python, ‘tp_dealloc’ may be
          called from any Python thread, not just the thread which
          created the object (if the object becomes part of a refcount
          cycle, that cycle might be collected by a garbage collection
          on any thread).  This is not a problem for Python API calls,
          since the thread on which ‘tp_dealloc’ is called will own the
          Global Interpreter Lock (GIL). However, if the object being
          destroyed in turn destroys objects from some other C or C++
          library, care should be taken to ensure that destroying those
          objects on the thread which called ‘tp_dealloc’ will not
          violate any assumptions of the library.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_vectorcall_offset

     An optional offset to a per-instance function that implements
     calling the object using the *note vectorcall protocol: 2d7, a more
     efficient alternative of the simpler *note tp_call: 2df.

     This field is only used if the flag *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9. is set.  If so, this must be a
     positive integer containing the offset in the instance of a *note
     vectorcallfunc: 2dc. pointer.

     The 'vectorcallfunc' pointer may be ‘NULL’, in which case the
     instance behaves as if *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9. was
     not set: calling the instance falls back to *note tp_call: 2df.

     Any class that sets ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ must also set
     *note tp_call: 2df. and make sure its behaviour is consistent with
     the 'vectorcallfunc' function.  This can be done by setting
     'tp_call' to *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2db.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Before version 3.8, this slot was named
     ‘tp_print’.  In Python 2.x, it was used for printing to a file.  In
     Python 3.0 to 3.7, it was unused.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Before version 3.12, it was not recommended for
     *note mutable heap types: 7a6. to implement the vectorcall
     protocol.  When a user sets *note __call__: 2dd. in Python code,
     only 'tp_call' is updated, likely making it inconsistent with the
     vectorcall function.  Since 3.12, setting ‘__call__’ will disable
     vectorcall optimization by clearing the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9. flag.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is always inherited.  However, the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2d9. flag is not always inherited.  If
     it's not set, then the subclass won't use *note vectorcall: 2d7,
     except when *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2db. is explicitly called.

 -- C 成員函數: *note getattrfunc: 4935. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_getattr

     An optional pointer to the get-attribute-string function.

     This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a
     function that acts the same as the *note tp_getattro: 4771.
     function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object
     to give the attribute name.

     'Inheritance:'

     群組：*note tp_getattr: 4777.、*note tp_getattro: 4771.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_getattro: 4771.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_getattr: 4777.
     and *note tp_getattro: 4771. from its base type when the subtype's
     *note tp_getattr: 4777. and *note tp_getattro: 4771. are both
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C 成員函數: *note setattrfunc: 4945. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_setattr

     An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting
     attributes.

     This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a
     function that acts the same as the *note tp_setattro: 4772.
     function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object
     to give the attribute name.

     'Inheritance:'

     群組：*note tp_setattr: 4778.、*note tp_setattro: 4772.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_setattro: 4772.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_setattr: 4778.
     and *note tp_setattro: 4772. from its base type when the subtype's
     *note tp_setattr: 4778. and *note tp_setattro: 4772. are both
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyAsyncMethods: 4a34. **note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_as_async

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement *note awaitable: ae0. and *note
     asynchronous iterator: bef. protocols at the C-level.  See *note
     Async Object Structures: 4cb1. for details.

     在 3.5 版被加入: Formerly known as ‘tp_compare’ and ‘tp_reserved’.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_async: d51. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C 成員函數: *note reprfunc: 4943. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_repr

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     function *note repr(): 61e.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Repr(): ec3.:

          PyObject *tp_repr(PyObject *self);

     The function must return a string or a Unicode object.  Ideally,
     this function should return a string that, when passed to *note
     eval(): 6b0, given a suitable environment, returns an object with
     the same value.  If this is not feasible, it should return a string
     starting with ‘'<'’ and ending with ‘'>'’ from which both the type
     and the value of the object can be deduced.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     '預設：'

     When this field is not set, a string of the form ‘<%s object at
     %p>’ is returned, where ‘%s’ is replaced by the type name, and ‘%p’
     by the object's memory address.

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyNumberMethods: 128e. **note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_as_number

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the number protocol.  These fields
     are documented in *note Number Object Structures: 4cb2.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_number: 7cf. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C 成員函數: *note PySequenceMethods: 477e. **note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_as_sequence

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the sequence protocol.  These
     fields are documented in *note Sequence Object Structures: 4cb3.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_sequence: 4c71. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyMappingMethods: 477f. **note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_as_mapping

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the mapping protocol.  These fields
     are documented in *note Mapping Object Structures: 4cb4.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_mapping: 4c72. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C 成員函數: *note hashfunc: 493a. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_hash

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     function *note hash(): 3df.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Hash(): 373.:

          Py_hash_t tp_hash(PyObject *);

     The value ‘-1’ should not be returned as a normal return value;
     when an error occurs during the computation of the hash value, the
     function should set an exception and return ‘-1’.

     When this field is not set ('and' *note tp_richcompare: 477a. is
     not set), an attempt to take the hash of the object raises *note
     TypeError: 2ba.  This is the same as setting it to *note
     PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1235.

     This field can be set explicitly to *note
     PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1235. to block inheritance of the
     hash method from a parent type.  This is interpreted as the
     equivalent of ‘__hash__ = None’ at the Python level, causing
     ‘isinstance(o, collections.Hashable)’ to correctly return ‘False’.
     Note that the converse is also true - setting ‘__hash__ = None’ on
     a class at the Python level will result in the ‘tp_hash’ slot being
     set to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1235.

     'Inheritance:'

     群組：*note tp_hash: 4780.、*note tp_richcompare: 477a.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_richcompare: 477a.: a subtype inherits both of *note
     tp_richcompare: 477a. and *note tp_hash: 4780, when the subtype's
     *note tp_richcompare: 477a. and *note tp_hash: 4780. are both
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C 成員函數: *note ternaryfunc: 494a. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_call

     An optional pointer to a function that implements calling the
     object.  This should be ‘NULL’ if the object is not callable.  The
     signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Call(): 7a7.:

          PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C 成員函數: *note reprfunc: 4943. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_str

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     operation *note str(): 157.  (Note that *note str: 157. is a type
     now, and *note str(): 157. calls the constructor for that type.
     This constructor calls *note PyObject_Str(): ec4. to do the actual
     work, and *note PyObject_Str(): ec4. will call this handler.)

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Str(): ec4.:

          PyObject *tp_str(PyObject *self);

     The function must return a string or a Unicode object.  It should
     be a "friendly" string representation of the object, as this is the
     representation that will be used, among other things, by the *note
     print(): e02. function.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     '預設：'

     When this field is not set, *note PyObject_Repr(): ec3. is called
     to return a string representation.

 -- C 成員函數: *note getattrofunc: 4936. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_getattro

     An optional pointer to the get-attribute function.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 48a8.:

          PyObject *tp_getattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr);

     It is usually convenient to set this field to *note
     PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 48a4, which implements the normal way of
     looking for object attributes.

     'Inheritance:'

     群組：*note tp_getattr: 4777.、*note tp_getattro: 4771.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_getattr:
     4777.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_getattr: 4777. and *note
     tp_getattro: 4771. from its base type when the subtype's *note
     tp_getattr: 4777. and *note tp_getattro: 4771. are both ‘NULL’.

     '預設：'

     ‘PyBaseObject_Type’ uses *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 48a4.

 -- C 成員函數: *note setattrofunc: 4946. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_setattro

     An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting
     attributes.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 48ae.:

          int tp_setattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr, PyObject *value);

     In addition, setting 'value' to ‘NULL’ to delete an attribute must
     be supported.  It is usually convenient to set this field to *note
     PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 48a5, which implements the normal way of
     setting object attributes.

     'Inheritance:'

     群組：*note tp_setattr: 4778.、*note tp_setattro: 4772.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_setattr:
     4778.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_setattr: 4778. and *note
     tp_setattro: 4772. from its base type when the subtype's *note
     tp_setattr: 4778. and *note tp_setattro: 4772. are both ‘NULL’.

     '預設：'

     ‘PyBaseObject_Type’ uses *note PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 48a5.

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyBufferProcs: 4a3c. **note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_as_buffer

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the buffer interface.  These fields
     are documented in *note Buffer Object Structures: 49f6.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_buffer: 7cd. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C 成員函數: unsigned long *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_flags

     This field is a bit mask of various flags.  Some flags indicate
     variant semantics for certain situations; others are used to
     indicate that certain fields in the type object (or in the
     extension structures referenced via *note tp_as_number: 7cf, *note
     tp_as_sequence: 4c71, *note tp_as_mapping: 4c72, and *note
     tp_as_buffer: 7cd.) that were historically not always present are
     valid; if such a flag bit is clear, the type fields it guards must
     not be accessed and must be considered to have a zero or ‘NULL’
     value instead.

     'Inheritance:'

     Inheritance of this field is complicated.  Most flag bits are
     inherited individually, i.e.  if the base type has a flag bit set,
     the subtype inherits this flag bit.  The flag bits that pertain to
     extension structures are strictly inherited if the extension
     structure is inherited, i.e.  the base type's value of the flag bit
     is copied into the subtype together with a pointer to the extension
     structure.  The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag bit is
     inherited together with the *note tp_traverse: 594. and *note
     tp_clear: 476b. fields, i.e.  if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593.
     flag bit is clear in the subtype and the *note tp_traverse: 594.
     and *note tp_clear: 476b. fields in the subtype exist and have
     ‘NULL’ values.  ..  XXX are most flag bits 'really' inherited
     individually?

     '預設：'

     ‘PyBaseObject_Type’ 使用 ‘Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT |
     Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE’。

     'Bit Masks:'

     The following bit masks are currently defined; these can be ORed
     together using the ‘|’ operator to form the value of the *note
     tp_flags: 1691. field.  The macro *note PyType_HasFeature(): 172c.
     takes a type and a flags value, 'tp' and 'f', and checks whether
     ‘tp->tp_flags & f’ is non-zero.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE

          This bit is set when the type object itself is allocated on
          the heap, for example, types created dynamically using *note
          PyType_FromSpec(): 30c.  In this case, the *note ob_type:
          4756. field of its instances is considered a reference to the
          type, and the type object is INCREF'ed when a new instance is
          created, and DECREF'ed when an instance is destroyed (this
          does not apply to instances of subtypes; only the type
          referenced by the instance's ob_type gets INCREF'ed or
          DECREF'ed).  Heap types should also *note support garbage
          collection: 4cb5. as they can form a reference cycle with
          their own module object.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE

          This bit is set when the type can be used as the base type of
          another type.  If this bit is clear, the type cannot be
          subtyped (similar to a "final" class in Java).

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_READY

          This bit is set when the type object has been fully
          initialized by *note PyType_Ready(): 595.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_READYING

          This bit is set while *note PyType_Ready(): 595. is in the
          process of initializing the type object.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC

          This bit is set when the object supports garbage collection.
          If this bit is set, instances must be created using *note
          PyObject_GC_New: 8f5. and destroyed using *note
          PyObject_GC_Del(): 137c.  More information in section *note
          循環垃圾回收的支援: 4cb5.  This bit also implies that the
          GC-related fields *note tp_traverse: 594. and *note tp_clear:
          476b. are present in the type object.

          'Inheritance:'

          Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593, *note tp_traverse: 594,
          *note tp_clear: 476b.

          The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag bit is inherited
          together with the *note tp_traverse: 594. and *note tp_clear:
          476b. fields, i.e.  if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag
          bit is clear in the subtype and the *note tp_traverse: 594.
          and *note tp_clear: 476b. fields in the subtype exist and have
          ‘NULL’ values.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT

          This is a bitmask of all the bits that pertain to the
          existence of certain fields in the type object and its
          extension structures.  Currently, it includes the following
          bits: ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION’.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR

          This bit indicates that objects behave like unbound methods.

          If this flag is set for ‘type(meth)’, then:

             - ‘meth.__get__(obj, cls)(*args, **kwds)’ (with ‘obj’ not
               None) must be equivalent to ‘meth(obj, *args, **kwds)’.

             - ‘meth.__get__(None, cls)(*args, **kwds)’ must be
               equivalent to ‘meth(*args, **kwds)’.

          This flag enables an optimization for typical method calls
          like ‘obj.meth()’: it avoids creating a temporary "bound
          method" object for ‘obj.meth’.

          在 3.8 版被加入.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is never inherited by types without the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2de. flag set.  For extension types,
          it is inherited whenever *note tp_descr_get: 4c73. is
          inherited.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT

          This bit indicates that instances of the class have a
          ‘~object.__dict__’ attribute, and that the space for the
          dictionary is managed by the VM.

          If this flag is set, *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. should
          also be set.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_dictoffset: 4a36.
          field is set in a superclass.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF

          This bit indicates that instances of the class should be
          weakly referenceable.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_weaklistoffset:
          7cc. field is set in a superclass.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END

          Only usable with variable-size types, i.e.  ones with non-zero
          *note tp_itemsize: 1d02.

          Indicates that the variable-sized portion of an instance of
          this type is at the end of the instance's memory area, at an
          offset of ‘Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_basicsize’ (which may be different
          in each subclass).

          When setting this flag, be sure that all superclasses either
          use this memory layout, or are not variable-sized.  Python
          does not check this.

          在 3.12 版被加入.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS

          These flags are used by functions such as *note
          PyLong_Check(): 4a46. to quickly determine if a type is a
          subclass of a built-in type; such specific checks are faster
          than a generic check, like *note PyObject_IsInstance(): d26.
          Custom types that inherit from built-ins should have their
          *note tp_flags: 1691. set appropriately, or the code that
          interacts with such types will behave differently depending on
          what kind of check is used.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE

          This bit is set when the *note tp_finalize: 8f9. slot is
          present in the type structure.

          在 3.4 版被加入.

          在 3.8 版之後被棄用: This flag isn't necessary anymore, as the
          interpreter assumes the *note tp_finalize: 8f9. slot is always
          present in the type structure.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL

          This bit is set when the class implements the *note vectorcall
          protocol: 2d7.  See *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 49d6. for
          details.

          'Inheritance:'

          This bit is inherited if *note tp_call: 2df. is also
          inherited.

          在 3.9 版被加入.

          在 3.12 版的變更: This flag is now removed from a class when
          the class's *note __call__(): 2dd. method is reassigned.

          This flag can now be inherited by mutable classes.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE

          This bit is set for type objects that are immutable: type
          attributes cannot be set nor deleted.

          *note PyType_Ready(): 595. automatically applies this flag to
          *note static types: 596.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is not inherited.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION

          Disallow creating instances of the type: set *note tp_new:
          30e. to NULL and don't create the ‘__new__’ key in the type
          dictionary.

          The flag must be set before creating the type, not after.  For
          example, it must be set before *note PyType_Ready(): 595. is
          called on the type.

          The flag is set automatically on *note static types: 596. if
          *note tp_base: 4764. is NULL or ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’ and *note
          tp_new: 30e. is NULL.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is not inherited.  However, subclasses will not be
          instantiable unless they provide a non-NULL *note tp_new: 30e.
          (which is only possible via the C API).

               備註: To disallow instantiating a class directly but
               allow instantiating its subclasses (e.g.  for an *note
               abstract base class: 1047.), do not use this flag.
               Instead, make *note tp_new: 30e. only succeed for
               subclasses.

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING

          This bit indicates that instances of the class may match
          mapping patterns when used as the subject of a *note match:
          62f. block.  It is automatically set when registering or
          subclassing *note collections.abc.Mapping: 702, and unset when
          registering *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1055.

               備註: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1676. and *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1677. are mutually exclusive; it is
               an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1677.

          也參考
          ......

          PEP 634(1) - Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE

          This bit indicates that instances of the class may match
          sequence patterns when used as the subject of a *note match:
          62f. block.  It is automatically set when registering or
          subclassing *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1055, and unset
          when registering *note collections.abc.Mapping: 702.

               備註: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1676. and *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1677. are mutually exclusive; it is
               an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1676.

          也參考
          ......

          PEP 634(2) - Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

          在 3.10 版被加入.

      -- C 巨集: Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG

          Internal.  Do not set or unset this flag.  To indicate that a
          class has changed call *note PyType_Modified(): 15bf.

               警告: This flag is present in header files, but is an
               internal feature and should not be used.  It will be
               removed in a future version of CPython

 -- C 成員函數: const char **note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_doc

     An optional pointer to a NUL-terminated C string giving the
     docstring for this type object.  This is exposed as the *note
     __doc__: 1aa1. attribute on the type and instances of the type.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is 'not' inherited by subtypes.

 -- C 成員函數: *note traverseproc: 494b. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_traverse

     An optional pointer to a traversal function for the garbage
     collector.  This is only used if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593.
     flag bit is set.  The signature is:

          int tp_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg);

     More information about Python's garbage collection scheme can be
     found in section *note 循環垃圾回收的支援: 4cb5.

     The *note tp_traverse: 594. pointer is used by the garbage
     collector to detect reference cycles.  A typical implementation of
     a *note tp_traverse: 594. function simply calls *note Py_VISIT():
     4762. on each of the instance's members that are Python objects
     that the instance owns.  For example, this is function
     ‘local_traverse()’ from the ‘_thread’ extension module:

          static int
          local_traverse(localobject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
          {
              Py_VISIT(self->args);
              Py_VISIT(self->kw);
              Py_VISIT(self->dict);
              return 0;
          }

     Note that *note Py_VISIT(): 4762. is called only on those members
     that can participate in reference cycles.  Although there is also a
     ‘self->key’ member, it can only be ‘NULL’ or a Python string and
     therefore cannot be part of a reference cycle.

     On the other hand, even if you know a member can never be part of a
     cycle, as a debugging aid you may want to visit it anyway just so
     the *note gc: 5b. module's *note get_referents(): 626. function
     will include it.

          警告: When implementing *note tp_traverse: 594, only the
          members that the instance 'owns' (by having *note strong
          references: 5a8. to them) must be visited.  For instance, if
          an object supports weak references via the *note tp_weaklist:
          4a3b. slot, the pointer supporting the linked list (what
          'tp_weaklist' points to) must 'not' be visited as the instance
          does not directly own the weak references to itself (the
          weakreference list is there to support the weak reference
          machinery, but the instance has no strong reference to the
          elements inside it, as they are allowed to be removed even if
          the instance is still alive).

     Note that *note Py_VISIT(): 4762. requires the 'visit' and 'arg'
     parameters to ‘local_traverse()’ to have these specific names;
     don't name them just anything.

     Instances of *note heap-allocated types: 7a6. hold a reference to
     their type.  Their traversal function must therefore either visit
     *note Py_TYPE(self): 597, or delegate this responsibility by
     calling ‘tp_traverse’ of another heap-allocated type (such as a
     heap-allocated superclass).  If they do not, the type object may
     not be garbage-collected.

     在 3.9 版的變更: Heap-allocated types are expected to visit
     ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ in ‘tp_traverse’.  In earlier versions of Python,
     due to bug 40217(3), doing this may lead to crashes in subclasses.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593, *note tp_traverse: 594, *note
     tp_clear: 476b.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_clear:
     476b. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag bit: the flag
     bit, *note tp_traverse: 594, and *note tp_clear: 476b. are all
     inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the subtype.

 -- C 成員函數: *note inquiry: 493c. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_clear

     An optional pointer to a clear function for the garbage collector.
     This is only used if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag bit is
     set.  The signature is:

          int tp_clear(PyObject *);

     The *note tp_clear: 476b. member function is used to break
     reference cycles in cyclic garbage detected by the garbage
     collector.  Taken together, all *note tp_clear: 476b. functions in
     the system must combine to break all reference cycles.  This is
     subtle, and if in any doubt supply a *note tp_clear: 476b.
     function.  For example, the tuple type does not implement a *note
     tp_clear: 476b. function, because it's possible to prove that no
     reference cycle can be composed entirely of tuples.  Therefore the
     *note tp_clear: 476b. functions of other types must be sufficient
     to break any cycle containing a tuple.  This isn't immediately
     obvious, and there's rarely a good reason to avoid implementing
     *note tp_clear: 476b.

     Implementations of *note tp_clear: 476b. should drop the instance's
     references to those of its members that may be Python objects, and
     set its pointers to those members to ‘NULL’, as in the following
     example:

          static int
          local_clear(localobject *self)
          {
              Py_CLEAR(self->key);
              Py_CLEAR(self->args);
              Py_CLEAR(self->kw);
              Py_CLEAR(self->dict);
              return 0;
          }

     The *note Py_CLEAR(): 307. macro should be used, because clearing
     references is delicate: the reference to the contained object must
     not be released (via *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc.) until after the
     pointer to the contained object is set to ‘NULL’.  This is because
     releasing the reference may cause the contained object to become
     trash, triggering a chain of reclamation activity that may include
     invoking arbitrary Python code (due to finalizers, or weakref
     callbacks, associated with the contained object).  If it's possible
     for such code to reference 'self' again, it's important that the
     pointer to the contained object be ‘NULL’ at that time, so that
     'self' knows the contained object can no longer be used.  The *note
     Py_CLEAR(): 307. macro performs the operations in a safe order.

     Note that *note tp_clear: 476b. is not 'always' called before an
     instance is deallocated.  For example, when reference counting is
     enough to determine that an object is no longer used, the cyclic
     garbage collector is not involved and *note tp_dealloc: 4758. is
     called directly.

     Because the goal of *note tp_clear: 476b. functions is to break
     reference cycles, it's not necessary to clear contained objects
     like Python strings or Python integers, which can't participate in
     reference cycles.  On the other hand, it may be convenient to clear
     all contained Python objects, and write the type's *note
     tp_dealloc: 4758. function to invoke *note tp_clear: 476b.

     More information about Python's garbage collection scheme can be
     found in section *note 循環垃圾回收的支援: 4cb5.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593, *note tp_traverse: 594, *note
     tp_clear: 476b.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_traverse: 594. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag bit:
     the flag bit, *note tp_traverse: 594, and *note tp_clear: 476b. are
     all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the
     subtype.

 -- C 成員函數: *note richcmpfunc: 4944. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_richcompare

     An optional pointer to the rich comparison function, whose
     signature is:

          PyObject *tp_richcompare(PyObject *self, PyObject *other, int op);

     The first parameter is guaranteed to be an instance of the type
     that is defined by *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.

     The function should return the result of the comparison (usually
     ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’).  If the comparison is undefined, it must
     return ‘Py_NotImplemented’, if another error occurred it must
     return ‘NULL’ and set an exception condition.

     The following constants are defined to be used as the third
     argument for *note tp_richcompare: 477a. and for *note
     PyObject_RichCompare(): 477b.:

     常數                     Comparison
                              
     ------------------------------------------
                              
      -- C 巨集: Py_LT        ‘<’
                              
                              
      -- C 巨集: Py_LE        ‘<=’
                              
                              
      -- C 巨集: Py_EQ        ‘==’
                              
                              
      -- C 巨集: Py_NE        ‘!=’
                              
                              
      -- C 巨集: Py_GT        ‘>’
                              
                              
      -- C 巨集: Py_GE        ‘>=’
                              

     The following macro is defined to ease writing rich comparison
     functions:

      -- C 巨集: Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (VAL_A, VAL_B, op)

          Return ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’ from the function, depending on
          the result of a comparison.  VAL_A and VAL_B must be orderable
          by C comparison operators (for example, they may be C ints or
          floats).  The third argument specifies the requested
          operation, as for *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 477b.

          The returned value is a new *note strong reference: 5a8.

          On error, sets an exception and returns ‘NULL’ from the
          function.

          在 3.7 版被加入.

     'Inheritance:'

     群組：*note tp_hash: 4780.、*note tp_richcompare: 477a.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_hash:
     4780.: a subtype inherits *note tp_richcompare: 477a. and *note
     tp_hash: 4780. when the subtype's *note tp_richcompare: 477a. and
     *note tp_hash: 4780. are both ‘NULL’.

     '預設：'

     ‘PyBaseObject_Type’ provides a *note tp_richcompare: 477a.
     implementation, which may be inherited.  However, if only *note
     tp_hash: 4780. is defined, not even the inherited function is used
     and instances of the type will not be able to participate in any
     comparisons.

 -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_weaklistoffset

     While this field is still supported, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 2e1. should be used instead, if at all
     possible.

     If the instances of this type are weakly referenceable, this field
     is greater than zero and contains the offset in the instance
     structure of the weak reference list head (ignoring the GC header,
     if present); this offset is used by *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs():
     305. and the ‘PyWeakref_*’ functions.  The instance structure needs
     to include a field of type *note PyObject: 6d1.* which is
     initialized to ‘NULL’.

     Do not confuse this field with *note tp_weaklist: 4a3b.; that is
     the list head for weak references to the type object itself.

     It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     2e1. bit and *note tp_weaklistoffset: 7cc.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes, but see the rules listed
     below.  A subtype may override this offset; this means that the
     subtype uses a different weak reference list head than the base
     type.  Since the list head is always found via *note
     tp_weaklistoffset: 7cc, this should not be a problem.

     '預設：'

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 2e1. bit is set in the
     *note tp_flags: 1691. field, then *note tp_weaklistoffset: 7cc.
     will be set to a negative value, to indicate that it is unsafe to
     use this field.

 -- C 成員函數: *note getiterfunc: 4938. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_iter

     An optional pointer to a function that returns an *note iterator:
     1718. for the object.  Its presence normally signals that the
     instances of this type are *note iterable: 10ba. (although
     sequences may be iterable without this function).

     This function has the same signature as *note PyObject_GetIter():
     48a9.:

          PyObject *tp_iter(PyObject *self);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C 成員函數: *note iternextfunc: 493d. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_iternext

     An optional pointer to a function that returns the next item in an
     *note iterator: 1718.  The signature is:

          PyObject *tp_iternext(PyObject *self);

     When the iterator is exhausted, it must return ‘NULL’; a *note
     StopIteration: a5d. exception may or may not be set.  When another
     error occurs, it must return ‘NULL’ too.  Its presence signals that
     the instances of this type are iterators.

     Iterator types should also define the *note tp_iter: 1365.
     function, and that function should return the iterator instance
     itself (not a new iterator instance).

     This function has the same signature as *note PyIter_Next(): 4851.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C 成員函數: struct *note PyMethodDef: 134e. **note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_methods

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyMethodDef: 134e. structures, declaring regular methods of this
     type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 14bf. below) containing a method
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (methods are inherited
     through a different mechanism).

 -- C 成員函數: struct *note PyMemberDef: 2d3. **note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_members

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyMemberDef: 2d3. structures, declaring regular data members
     (fields or slots) of instances of this type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 14bf. below) containing a member
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (members are inherited
     through a different mechanism).

 -- C 成員函數: struct *note PyGetSetDef: a19. **note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_getset

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyGetSetDef: a19. structures, declaring computed attributes of
     instances of this type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 14bf. below) containing a getset
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (computed attributes are
     inherited through a different mechanism).

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. **note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_base

     An optional pointer to a base type from which type properties are
     inherited.  At this level, only single inheritance is supported;
     multiple inheritance require dynamically creating a type object by
     calling the metatype.

          備註: 
          Slot initialization is subject to the rules of initializing
          globals.  C99 requires the initializers to be "address
          constants".  Function designators like *note
          PyType_GenericNew(): 4755, with implicit conversion to a
          pointer, are valid C99 address constants.

          However, the unary '&' operator applied to a non-static
          variable like ‘PyBaseObject_Type’ is not required to produce
          an address constant.  Compilers may support this (gcc does),
          MSVC does not.  Both compilers are strictly standard
          conforming in this particular behavior.

          Consequently, *note tp_base: 4764. should be set in the
          extension module's init function.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (obviously).

     '預設：'

     This field defaults to ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’ (which to Python
     programmers is known as the type *note object: 8d9.).

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyObject: 6d1. **note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_dict

     The type's dictionary is stored here by *note PyType_Ready(): 595.

     This field should normally be initialized to ‘NULL’ before
     PyType_Ready is called; it may also be initialized to a dictionary
     containing initial attributes for the type.  Once *note
     PyType_Ready(): 595. has initialized the type, extra attributes for
     the type may be added to this dictionary only if they don't
     correspond to overloaded operations (like *note __add__(): 1d1f.).
     Once initialization for the type has finished, this field should be
     treated as read-only.

     Some types may not store their dictionary in this slot.  Use *note
     PyType_GetDict(): 14be. to retrieve the dictionary for an arbitrary
     type.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Internals detail: For static builtin types, this
     is always ‘NULL’.  Instead, the dict for such types is stored on
     ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Use *note PyType_GetDict(): 14be. to get the
     dict for an arbitrary type.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (though the attributes
     defined in here are inherited through a different mechanism).

     '預設：'

     If this field is ‘NULL’, *note PyType_Ready(): 595. will assign a
     new dictionary to it.

          警告: It is not safe to use *note PyDict_SetItem(): 4743. on
          or otherwise modify *note tp_dict: 14bf. with the dictionary
          C-API.

 -- C 成員函數: *note descrgetfunc: 4932. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_descr_get

     An optional pointer to a "descriptor get" function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject * tp_descr_get(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *type);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C 成員函數: *note descrsetfunc: 4933. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_descr_set

     An optional pointer to a function for setting and deleting a
     descriptor's value.

     The function signature is:

          int tp_descr_set(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *value);

     The 'value' argument is set to ‘NULL’ to delete the value.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C 成員函數: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_dictoffset

     While this field is still supported, *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT:
     2e0. should be used instead, if at all possible.

     If the instances of this type have a dictionary containing instance
     variables, this field is non-zero and contains the offset in the
     instances of the type of the instance variable dictionary; this
     offset is used by *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 48a4.

     Do not confuse this field with *note tp_dict: 14bf.; that is the
     dictionary for attributes of the type object itself.

     The value specifies the offset of the dictionary from the start of
     the instance structure.

     The *note tp_dictoffset: 4a36. should be regarded as write-only.
     To get the pointer to the dictionary call *note
     PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 170f.  Calling *note
     PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 170f. may need to allocate memory for
     the dictionary, so it is may be more efficient to call *note
     PyObject_GetAttr(): 48a8. when accessing an attribute on the
     object.

     It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     2e1. bit and *note tp_dictoffset: 4a36.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.  A subtype should not override
     this offset; doing so could be unsafe, if C code tries to access
     the dictionary at the previous offset.  To properly support
     inheritance, use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2e0.

     '預設：'

     This slot has no default.  For *note static types: 596, if the
     field is ‘NULL’ then no *note __dict__: 2e2. gets created for
     instances.

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2e0. bit is set in the *note
     tp_dict: 14bf. field, then *note tp_dictoffset: 4a36. will be set
     to ‘-1’, to indicate that it is unsafe to use this field.

 -- C 成員函數: *note initproc: 493b. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_init

     An optional pointer to an instance initialization function.

     This function corresponds to the *note __init__(): 4ae. method of
     classes.  Like ‘__init__()’, it is possible to create an instance
     without calling ‘__init__()’, and it is possible to reinitialize an
     instance by calling its ‘__init__()’ method again.

     The function signature is:

          int tp_init(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

     The self argument is the instance to be initialized; the 'args' and
     'kwds' arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the
     call to *note __init__(): 4ae.

     The *note tp_init: 310. function, if not ‘NULL’, is called when an
     instance is created normally by calling its type, after the type's
     *note tp_new: 30e. function has returned an instance of the type.
     If the *note tp_new: 30e. function returns an instance of some
     other type that is not a subtype of the original type, no *note
     tp_init: 310. function is called; if *note tp_new: 30e. returns an
     instance of a subtype of the original type, the subtype's *note
     tp_init: 310. is called.

     Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ and sets an exception on error.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     '預設：'

     For *note static types: 596. this field does not have a default.

 -- C 成員函數: *note allocfunc: 4930. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_alloc

     An optional pointer to an instance allocation function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *tp_alloc(PyTypeObject *self, Py_ssize_t nitems);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic
     subtypes (subtypes created by a class statement).

     '預設：'

     For dynamic subtypes, this field is always set to *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8b7, to force a standard heap allocation
     strategy.

     For static subtypes, ‘PyBaseObject_Type’ uses *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8b7.  That is the recommended value for all
     statically defined types.

 -- C 成員函數: *note newfunc: 493f. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_new

     An optional pointer to an instance creation function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *tp_new(PyTypeObject *subtype, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

     The 'subtype' argument is the type of the object being created; the
     'args' and 'kwds' arguments represent positional and keyword
     arguments of the call to the type.  Note that 'subtype' doesn't
     have to equal the type whose *note tp_new: 30e. function is called;
     it may be a subtype of that type (but not an unrelated type).

     The *note tp_new: 30e. function should call
     ‘subtype->tp_alloc(subtype, nitems)’ to allocate space for the
     object, and then do only as much further initialization as is
     absolutely necessary.  Initialization that can safely be ignored or
     repeated should be placed in the *note tp_init: 310. handler.  A
     good rule of thumb is that for immutable types, all initialization
     should take place in *note tp_new: 30e, while for mutable types,
     most initialization should be deferred to *note tp_init: 310.

     Set the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 311. flag to
     disallow creating instances of the type in Python.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes, except it is not inherited by
     *note static types: 596. whose *note tp_base: 4764. is ‘NULL’ or
     ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’.

     '預設：'

     For *note static types: 596. this field has no default.  This means
     if the slot is defined as ‘NULL’, the type cannot be called to
     create new instances; presumably there is some other way to create
     instances, like a factory function.

 -- C 成員函數: *note freefunc: 4b25. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_free

     An optional pointer to an instance deallocation function.  Its
     signature is:

          void tp_free(void *self);

     An initializer that is compatible with this signature is *note
     PyObject_Free(): acd.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic
     subtypes (subtypes created by a class statement)

     '預設：'

     In dynamic subtypes, this field is set to a deallocator suitable to
     match *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8b7. and the value of the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag bit.

     For static subtypes, ‘PyBaseObject_Type’ uses *note PyObject_Del():
     1348.

 -- C 成員函數: *note inquiry: 493c. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_is_gc

     An optional pointer to a function called by the garbage collector.

     The garbage collector needs to know whether a particular object is
     collectible or not.  Normally, it is sufficient to look at the
     object's type's *note tp_flags: 1691. field, and check the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag bit.  But some types have a mixture
     of statically and dynamically allocated instances, and the
     statically allocated instances are not collectible.  Such types
     should define this function; it should return ‘1’ for a collectible
     instance, and ‘0’ for a non-collectible instance.  The signature
     is:

          int tp_is_gc(PyObject *self);

     (The only example of this are types themselves.  The metatype,
     *note PyType_Type: 2d1, defines this function to distinguish
     between statically and *note dynamically allocated types: 7a6.)

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     '預設：'

     This slot has no default.  If this field is ‘NULL’, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. is used as the functional equivalent.

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyObject: 6d1. **note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_bases

     Tuple of base types.

     This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only.
     Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: 595.

     For dynamically created classes, the ‘Py_tp_bases’ *note slot:
     48e4. can be used instead of the 'bases' argument of *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 30d.  The argument form is preferred.

          警告: Multiple inheritance does not work well for statically
          defined types.  If you set ‘tp_bases’ to a tuple, Python will
          not raise an error, but some slots will only be inherited from
          the first base.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyObject: 6d1. **note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_mro

     Tuple containing the expanded set of base types, starting with the
     type itself and ending with *note object: 8d9, in Method Resolution
     Order.

     This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only.
     Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: 595.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited; it is calculated fresh by *note
     PyType_Ready(): 595.

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyObject: 6d1. **note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_cache

     Unused.  Internal use only.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C 成員函數: void **note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_subclasses

     A collection of subclasses.  Internal use only.  May be an invalid
     pointer.

     To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note
     __subclasses__(): 300.

     在 3.12 版的變更: For some types, this field does not hold a valid
     *note PyObject: 6d1.*.  The type was changed to void* to indicate
     this.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C 成員函數: *note PyObject: 6d1. **note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_weaklist

     Weak reference list head, for weak references to this type object.
     Not inherited.  Internal use only.

     在 3.12 版的變更: Internals detail: For the static builtin types
     this is always ‘NULL’, even if weakrefs are added.  Instead, the
     weakrefs for each are stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Use the
     public C-API or the internal ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’
     macro to avoid the distinction.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C 成員函數: *note destructor: 4934. *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_del

     This field is deprecated.  Use *note tp_finalize: 8f9. instead.

 -- C 成員函數: unsigned int *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_version_tag

     Used to index into the method cache.  Internal use only.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C 成員函數: *note destructor: 4934. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_finalize

     An optional pointer to an instance finalization function.  Its
     signature is:

          void tp_finalize(PyObject *self);

     If *note tp_finalize: 8f9. is set, the interpreter calls it once
     when finalizing an instance.  It is called either from the garbage
     collector (if the instance is part of an isolated reference cycle)
     or just before the object is deallocated.  Either way, it is
     guaranteed to be called before attempting to break reference
     cycles, ensuring that it finds the object in a sane state.

     *note tp_finalize: 8f9. should not mutate the current exception
     status; therefore, a recommended way to write a non-trivial
     finalizer is:

          static void
          local_finalize(PyObject *self)
          {
              PyObject *error_type, *error_value, *error_traceback;

              /* Save the current exception, if any. */
              PyErr_Fetch(&error_type, &error_value, &error_traceback);

              /* ... */

              /* Restore the saved exception. */
              PyErr_Restore(error_type, error_value, error_traceback);
          }

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     在 3.4 版被加入.

     在 3.8 版的變更: Before version 3.8 it was necessary to set the
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 367. flags bit in order for this
     field to be used.  This is no longer required.

     也參考
     ......

     "Safe object finalization" ( PEP 442(4))

 -- C 成員函數: *note vectorcallfunc: 2dc. *note PyTypeObject:
          8f8.tp_vectorcall

     Vectorcall function to use for calls of this type object.  In other
     words, it is used to implement *note vectorcall: 2d7. for
     ‘type.__call__’.  If ‘tp_vectorcall’ is ‘NULL’, the default call
     implementation using *note __new__(): 30f. and *note __init__():
     4ae. is used.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is never inherited.

     在 3.9 版被加入: (the field exists since 3.8 but it's only used
     since 3.9)

 -- C 成員函數: unsigned char *note PyTypeObject: 8f8.tp_watched

     Internal.  Do not use.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue40217

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: Static Types,  Next: Heap Types,  Prev: PyTypeObject Slots,  Up: 型別物件<2>

7.12.3.9 Static Types
.....................

Traditionally, types defined in C code are 'static', that is, a static
*note PyTypeObject: 8f8. structure is defined directly in code and
initialized using *note PyType_Ready(): 595.

This results in types that are limited relative to types defined in
Python:

   * Static types are limited to one base, i.e.  they cannot use
     multiple inheritance.

   * Static type objects (but not necessarily their instances) are
     immutable.  It is not possible to add or modify the type object's
     attributes from Python.

   * Static type objects are shared across *note sub-interpreters: 316,
     so they should not include any subinterpreter-specific state.

Also, since *note PyTypeObject: 8f8. is only part of the *note Limited
API: 2d4. as an opaque struct, any extension modules using static types
must be compiled for a specific Python minor version.


File: python.info,  Node: Heap Types,  Prev: Static Types,  Up: 型別物件<2>

7.12.3.10 Heap Types
....................

An alternative to *note static types: 596. is 'heap-allocated types', or
'heap types' for short, which correspond closely to classes created by
Python's ‘class’ statement.  Heap types have the *note
Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 6e7. flag set.

This is done by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 14a3. structure and calling
*note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c, *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 30d,
*note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6, or *note PyType_FromMetaclass():
2d5.


File: python.info,  Node: Number Object Structures,  Next: Mapping Object Structures,  Prev: 型別物件<2>,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.4 Number Object Structures
-------------------------------

 -- C 型別: type PyNumberMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the number protocol.  Each function is used by the
     function of similar name documented in the *note 數字協定: 49e1.
     section.

     Here is the structure definition:

          typedef struct {
               binaryfunc nb_add;
               binaryfunc nb_subtract;
               binaryfunc nb_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_remainder;
               binaryfunc nb_divmod;
               ternaryfunc nb_power;
               unaryfunc nb_negative;
               unaryfunc nb_positive;
               unaryfunc nb_absolute;
               inquiry nb_bool;
               unaryfunc nb_invert;
               binaryfunc nb_lshift;
               binaryfunc nb_rshift;
               binaryfunc nb_and;
               binaryfunc nb_xor;
               binaryfunc nb_or;
               unaryfunc nb_int;
               void *nb_reserved;
               unaryfunc nb_float;

               binaryfunc nb_inplace_add;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_subtract;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_remainder;
               ternaryfunc nb_inplace_power;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_lshift;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_rshift;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_and;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_xor;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_or;

               binaryfunc nb_floor_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_true_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_floor_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_true_divide;

               unaryfunc nb_index;

               binaryfunc nb_matrix_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_matrix_multiply;
          } PyNumberMethods;

          備註: Binary and ternary functions must check the type of all
          their operands, and implement the necessary conversions (at
          least one of the operands is an instance of the defined type).
          If the operation is not defined for the given operands, binary
          and ternary functions must return ‘Py_NotImplemented’, if
          another error occurred they must return ‘NULL’ and set an
          exception.

          備註: The *note nb_reserved: 4c99. field should always be
          ‘NULL’.  It was previously called ‘nb_long’, and was renamed
          in Python 3.0.1.

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_add

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_subtract

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_multiply

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_remainder

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_divmod

 -- C 成員函數: *note ternaryfunc: 494a. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_power

 -- C 成員函數: *note unaryfunc: 494c. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_negative

 -- C 成員函數: *note unaryfunc: 494c. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_positive

 -- C 成員函數: *note unaryfunc: 494c. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_absolute

 -- C 成員函數: *note inquiry: 493c. *note PyNumberMethods: 128e.nb_bool

 -- C 成員函數: *note unaryfunc: 494c. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_invert

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_lshift

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_rshift

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_and

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_xor

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_or

 -- C 成員函數: *note unaryfunc: 494c. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_int

 -- C 成員函數: void **note PyNumberMethods: 128e.nb_reserved

 -- C 成員函數: *note unaryfunc: 494c. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_float

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_add

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_subtract

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_multiply

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_remainder

 -- C 成員函數: *note ternaryfunc: 494a. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_power

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_lshift

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_rshift

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_and

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_xor

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_or

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_floor_divide

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_true_divide

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_floor_divide

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_true_divide

 -- C 成員函數: *note unaryfunc: 494c. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_index

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_matrix_multiply

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyNumberMethods:
          128e.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Object Structures,  Next: Sequence Object Structures,  Prev: Number Object Structures,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.5 Mapping Object Structures
--------------------------------

 -- C 型別: type PyMappingMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the mapping protocol.  It has three members:

 -- C 成員函數: *note lenfunc: 493e. *note PyMappingMethods:
          477f.mp_length

     This function is used by *note PyMapping_Size(): 1844. and *note
     PyObject_Size(): 48af, and has the same signature.  This slot may
     be set to ‘NULL’ if the object has no defined length.

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PyMappingMethods:
          477f.mp_subscript

     This function is used by *note PyObject_GetItem(): 47bd. and *note
     PySequence_GetSlice(): 48ba, and has the same signature as
     ‘PyObject_GetItem()’.  This slot must be filled for the *note
     PyMapping_Check(): 4865. function to return ‘1’, it can be ‘NULL’
     otherwise.

 -- C 成員函數: *note objobjargproc: 4940. *note PyMappingMethods:
          477f.mp_ass_subscript

     This function is used by *note PyObject_SetItem(): 47bb, *note
     PyObject_DelItem(): 48a2, *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 48c1. and
     *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 48b8.  It has the same signature as
     ‘PyObject_SetItem()’, but 'v' can also be set to ‘NULL’ to delete
     an item.  If this slot is ‘NULL’, the object does not support item
     assignment and deletion.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Object Structures,  Next: Buffer Object Structures,  Prev: Mapping Object Structures,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.6 Sequence Object Structures
---------------------------------

 -- C 型別: type PySequenceMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the sequence protocol.

 -- C 成員函數: *note lenfunc: 493e. *note PySequenceMethods:
          477e.sq_length

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Size(): 1840. and *note
     PyObject_Size(): 48af, and has the same signature.  It is also used
     for handling negative indices via the *note sq_item: 1702. and the
     *note sq_ass_item: 4ca5. slots.

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PySequenceMethods:
          477e.sq_concat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Concat(): 48b5. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by the ‘+’ operator, after
     trying the numeric addition via the *note nb_add: 4a2d. slot.

 -- C 成員函數: *note ssizeargfunc: 4948. *note PySequenceMethods:
          477e.sq_repeat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Repeat(): 48c0. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by the ‘*’ operator, after
     trying numeric multiplication via the *note nb_multiply: 4c82.
     slot.

 -- C 成員函數: *note ssizeargfunc: 4948. *note PySequenceMethods:
          477e.sq_item

     This function is used by *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1841. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by *note PyObject_GetItem():
     47bd, after trying the subscription via the *note mp_subscript:
     1703. slot.  This slot must be filled for the *note
     PySequence_Check(): 48b4. function to return ‘1’, it can be ‘NULL’
     otherwise.

     Negative indexes are handled as follows: if the *note sq_length:
     4a35. slot is filled, it is called and the sequence length is used
     to compute a positive index which is passed to *note sq_item: 1702.
     If ‘sq_length’ is ‘NULL’, the index is passed as is to the
     function.

 -- C 成員函數: *note ssizeobjargproc: 4949. *note PySequenceMethods:
          477e.sq_ass_item

     This function is used by *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1842. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by *note PyObject_SetItem():
     47bb. and *note PyObject_DelItem(): 48a2, after trying the item
     assignment and deletion via the *note mp_ass_subscript: 4ca2. slot.
     This slot may be left to ‘NULL’ if the object does not support item
     assignment and deletion.

 -- C 成員函數: *note objobjproc: 4941. *note PySequenceMethods:
          477e.sq_contains

     This function may be used by *note PySequence_Contains(): 48b6. and
     has the same signature.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this
     case ‘PySequence_Contains()’ simply traverses the sequence until it
     finds a match.

 -- C 成員函數: *note binaryfunc: 4931. *note PySequenceMethods:
          477e.sq_inplace_concat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 48bb.
     and has the same signature.  It should modify its first operand,
     and return it.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this case
     ‘PySequence_InPlaceConcat()’ will fall back to *note
     PySequence_Concat(): 48b5.  It is also used by the augmented
     assignment ‘+=’, after trying numeric in-place addition via the
     *note nb_inplace_add: 4c7f. slot.

 -- C 成員函數: *note ssizeargfunc: 4948. *note PySequenceMethods:
          477e.sq_inplace_repeat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 48bc.
     and has the same signature.  It should modify its first operand,
     and return it.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this case
     ‘PySequence_InPlaceRepeat()’ will fall back to *note
     PySequence_Repeat(): 48c0.  It is also used by the augmented
     assignment ‘*=’, after trying numeric in-place multiplication via
     the *note nb_inplace_multiply: 4c83. slot.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer Object Structures,  Next: Async Object Structures,  Prev: Sequence Object Structures,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.7 Buffer Object Structures
-------------------------------

 -- C 型別: type PyBufferProcs

     This structure holds pointers to the functions required by the
     *note Buffer protocol: 148.  The protocol defines how an exporter
     object can expose its internal data to consumer objects.

 -- C 成員函數: *note getbufferproc: 4937. *note PyBufferProcs:
          4a3c.bf_getbuffer

     The signature of this function is:

          int (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags);

     Handle a request to 'exporter' to fill in 'view' as specified by
     'flags'.  Except for point (3), an implementation of this function
     MUST take these steps:

       1. Check if the request can be met.  If not, raise *note
          BufferError: 15f5, set view->obj to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’.

       2. Fill in the requested fields.

       3. Increment an internal counter for the number of exports.

       4. Set view->obj to 'exporter' and increment view->obj.

       5. 回傳 ‘0’。

     If 'exporter' is part of a chain or tree of buffer providers, two
     main schemes can be used:

        * Re-export: Each member of the tree acts as the exporting
          object and sets view->obj to a new reference to itself.

        * Redirect: The buffer request is redirected to the root object
          of the tree.  Here, view->obj will be a new reference to the
          root object.

     The individual fields of 'view' are described in section *note
     Buffer structure: 49f7, the rules how an exporter must react to
     specific requests are in section *note Buffer request types: 41c6.

     All memory pointed to in the *note Py_buffer: 56b. structure
     belongs to the exporter and must remain valid until there are no
     consumers left.  *note format: 4a01, *note shape: 4a03, *note
     strides: 49fb, *note suboffsets: 4a05. and *note internal: 4a08.
     are read-only for the consumer.

     *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 575. provides an easy way of exposing a
     simple bytes buffer while dealing correctly with all request types.

     *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 56d. is the interface for the consumer
     that wraps this function.

 -- C 成員函數: *note releasebufferproc: 4942. *note PyBufferProcs:
          4a3c.bf_releasebuffer

     The signature of this function is:

          void (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view);

     Handle a request to release the resources of the buffer.  If no
     resources need to be released, *note
     PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: 579. may be ‘NULL’.  Otherwise, a
     standard implementation of this function will take these optional
     steps:

       1. Decrement an internal counter for the number of exports.

       2. If the counter is ‘0’, free all memory associated with 'view'.

     The exporter MUST use the *note internal: 4a08. field to keep track
     of buffer-specific resources.  This field is guaranteed to remain
     constant, while a consumer MAY pass a copy of the original buffer
     as the 'view' argument.

     This function MUST NOT decrement view->obj, since that is done
     automatically in *note PyBuffer_Release(): 576. (this scheme is
     useful for breaking reference cycles).

     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 576. is the interface for the consumer
     that wraps this function.


File: python.info,  Node: Async Object Structures,  Next: Slot Type typedefs,  Prev: Buffer Object Structures,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.8 Async Object Structures
------------------------------

在 3.5 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: type PyAsyncMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions required to
     implement *note awaitable: ae0. and *note asynchronous iterator:
     bef. objects.

     Here is the structure definition:

          typedef struct {
              unaryfunc am_await;
              unaryfunc am_aiter;
              unaryfunc am_anext;
              sendfunc am_send;
          } PyAsyncMethods;

 -- C 成員函數: *note unaryfunc: 494c. *note PyAsyncMethods:
          4a34.am_await

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_await(PyObject *self);

     The returned object must be an *note iterator: 1718, i.e.  *note
     PyIter_Check(): 16ca. must return ‘1’ for it.

     This slot may be set to ‘NULL’ if an object is not an *note
     awaitable: ae0.

 -- C 成員函數: *note unaryfunc: 494c. *note PyAsyncMethods:
          4a34.am_aiter

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_aiter(PyObject *self);

     Must return an *note asynchronous iterator: bef. object.  See *note
     __anext__(): 1c9b. for details.

     This slot may be set to ‘NULL’ if an object does not implement
     asynchronous iteration protocol.

 -- C 成員函數: *note unaryfunc: 494c. *note PyAsyncMethods:
          4a34.am_anext

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_anext(PyObject *self);

     Must return an *note awaitable: ae0. object.  See *note
     __anext__(): 1c9b. for details.  This slot may be set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C 成員函數: *note sendfunc: 4c7e. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4a34.am_send

     The signature of this function is:

          PySendResult am_send(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg, PyObject **result);

     See *note PyIter_Send(): 6c7. for details.  This slot may be set to
     ‘NULL’.

     在 3.10 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Slot Type typedefs,  Next: 範例<53>,  Prev: Async Object Structures,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.9 Slot Type typedefs
-------------------------

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*allocfunc)(*note
          PyTypeObject: 8f8. *cls, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. nitems)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  The purpose of this function
     is to separate memory allocation from memory initialization.  It
     should return a pointer to a block of memory of adequate length for
     the instance, suitably aligned, and initialized to zeros, but with
     *note ob_refcnt: 6d0. set to ‘1’ and *note ob_type: 4756. set to
     the type argument.  If the type's *note tp_itemsize: 1d02. is
     non-zero, the object's *note ob_size: 491e. field should be
     initialized to 'nitems' and the length of the allocated memory
     block should be ‘tp_basicsize + nitems*tp_itemsize’, rounded up to
     a multiple of ‘sizeof(void*)’; otherwise, 'nitems' is not used and
     the length of the block should be *note tp_basicsize: 7cb.

     This function should not do any other instance initialization, not
     even to allocate additional memory; that should be done by *note
     tp_new: 30e.

 -- C 型別: typedef void (*destructor)(*note PyObject: 6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 型別: typedef void (*freefunc)(void*)

     請見 *note tp_free: 4759.。

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*newfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  請見 *note tp_new: 30e.。

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*initproc)(*note PyObject: 6d1.*, *note
          PyObject: 6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  請見 *note tp_init: 310.。

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*reprfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  請見 *note tp_repr: 476d.。

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*getattrfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6d1. *self, char *attr)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the value of the named
     attribute for the object.

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*setattrfunc)(*note PyObject: 6d1. *self, char
          *attr, *note PyObject: 6d1. *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the value of the named
     attribute for the object.  The value argument is set to ‘NULL’ to
     delete the attribute.

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*getattrofunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6d1. *self, *note PyObject: 6d1. *attr)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Return the value of the named
     attribute for the object.

     請見 *note tp_getattro: 4771.。

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*setattrofunc)(*note PyObject: 6d1. *self,
          *note PyObject: 6d1. *attr, *note PyObject: 6d1. *value)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Set the value of the named
     attribute for the object.  The value argument is set to ‘NULL’ to
     delete the attribute.

     請見 *note tp_setattro: 4772.。

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*descrgetfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  請見 *note tp_descr_get:
     4c73.。

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*descrsetfunc)(*note PyObject: 6d1.*, *note
          PyObject: 6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  請見 *note tp_descr_set:
     16cc.。

 -- C 型別: typedef *note Py_hash_t: 10f8. (*hashfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  請見 *note tp_hash: 4780.。

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*richcmpfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*, int)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  請見 *note tp_richcompare:
     477a.。

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*getiterfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  請見 *note tp_iter: 1365.。

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*iternextfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  請見 *note tp_iternext: 1366.。

 -- C 型別: typedef *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. (*lenfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*getbufferproc)(*note PyObject: 6d1.*, *note
          Py_buffer: 56b.*, int)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'

 -- C 型別: typedef void (*releasebufferproc)(*note PyObject: 6d1.*,
          *note Py_buffer: 56b.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.12 版本開始.'

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*unaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*binaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PySendResult: 49f3. (*sendfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*, *note PyObject:
          6d1.**)

     請見 *note am_send: 4c7d.。

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*ternaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 型別: typedef *note PyObject: 6d1. *(*ssizeargfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6d1.*, *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab.)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*ssizeobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 6d1.*, *note
          Py_ssize_t: 8ab, *note PyObject: 6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*objobjproc)(*note PyObject: 6d1.*, *note
          PyObject: 6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*objobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 6d1.*, *note
          PyObject: 6d1.*, *note PyObject: 6d1.*)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<53>,  Next: 循環垃圾回收的支援,  Prev: Slot Type typedefs,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.10 範例
------------

The following are simple examples of Python type definitions.  They
include common usage you may encounter.  Some demonstrate tricky corner
cases.  For more examples, practical info, and a tutorial, see *note
Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: 474f. and *note Defining Extension
Types; Assorted Topics: 4768.

A basic *note static type: 596.:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         const char *data;
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
         .tp_new = myobj_new,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
     };

You may also find older code (especially in the CPython code base) with
a more verbose initializer:

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         "mymod.MyObject",               /* tp_name */
         sizeof(MyObject),               /* tp_basicsize */
         0,                              /* tp_itemsize */
         (destructor)myobj_dealloc,      /* tp_dealloc */
         0,                              /* tp_vectorcall_offset */
         0,                              /* tp_getattr */
         0,                              /* tp_setattr */
         0,                              /* tp_as_async */
         (reprfunc)myobj_repr,           /* tp_repr */
         0,                              /* tp_as_number */
         0,                              /* tp_as_sequence */
         0,                              /* tp_as_mapping */
         0,                              /* tp_hash */
         0,                              /* tp_call */
         0,                              /* tp_str */
         0,                              /* tp_getattro */
         0,                              /* tp_setattro */
         0,                              /* tp_as_buffer */
         0,                              /* tp_flags */
         PyDoc_STR("My objects"),        /* tp_doc */
         0,                              /* tp_traverse */
         0,                              /* tp_clear */
         0,                              /* tp_richcompare */
         0,                              /* tp_weaklistoffset */
         0,                              /* tp_iter */
         0,                              /* tp_iternext */
         0,                              /* tp_methods */
         0,                              /* tp_members */
         0,                              /* tp_getset */
         0,                              /* tp_base */
         0,                              /* tp_dict */
         0,                              /* tp_descr_get */
         0,                              /* tp_descr_set */
         0,                              /* tp_dictoffset */
         0,                              /* tp_init */
         0,                              /* tp_alloc */
         myobj_new,                      /* tp_new */
     };

A type that supports weakrefs, instance dicts, and hashing:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         const char *data;
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE |
              Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC | Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT |
              Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF,
         .tp_new = myobj_new,
         .tp_traverse = (traverseproc)myobj_traverse,
         .tp_clear = (inquiry)myobj_clear,
         .tp_alloc = PyType_GenericNew,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
         .tp_hash = (hashfunc)myobj_hash,
         .tp_richcompare = PyBaseObject_Type.tp_richcompare,
     };

A str subclass that cannot be subclassed and cannot be called to create
instances (e.g.  uses a separate factory func) using *note
Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 311. flag:

     typedef struct {
         PyUnicodeObject raw;
         char *extra;
     } MyStr;

     static PyTypeObject MyStr_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyStr",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyStr),
         .tp_base = NULL,  // set to &PyUnicode_Type in module init
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("my custom str"),
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
     };

The simplest *note static type: 596. with fixed-length instances:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
     };

The simplest *note static type: 596. with variable-length instances:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *data[1];
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject) - sizeof(char *),
         .tp_itemsize = sizeof(char *),
     };


File: python.info,  Node: 循環垃圾回收的支援,  Prev: 範例<53>,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.11 循環垃圾回收的支援
--------------------------

Python's support for detecting and collecting garbage which involves
circular references requires support from object types which are
"containers" for other objects which may also be containers.  Types
which do not store references to other objects, or which only store
references to atomic types (such as numbers or strings), do not need to
provide any explicit support for garbage collection.

To create a container type, the *note tp_flags: 1691. field of the type
object must include the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. and provide an
implementation of the *note tp_traverse: 594. handler.  If instances of
the type are mutable, a *note tp_clear: 476b. implementation must also
be provided.

*note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593.

     Objects with a type with this flag set must conform with the rules
     documented here.  For convenience these objects will be referred to
     as container objects.

Constructors for container types must conform to two rules:

  1. The memory for the object must be allocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_New: 8f5. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: 8f6.

  2. Once all the fields which may contain references to other
     containers are initialized, it must call *note PyObject_GC_Track():
     137d.

Similarly, the deallocator for the object must conform to a similar pair
of rules:

  1. Before fields which refer to other containers are invalidated,
     *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 137e. must be called.

  2. The object's memory must be deallocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_Del(): 137c.

          警告: If a type adds the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, then it 'must'
          implement at least a *note tp_traverse: 594. handler or
          explicitly use one from its subclass or subclasses.

          When calling *note PyType_Ready(): 595. or some of the APIs
          that indirectly call it like *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases():
          30d. or *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c. the interpreter will
          automatically populate the *note tp_flags: 1691, *note
          tp_traverse: 594. and *note tp_clear: 476b. fields if the type
          inherits from a class that implements the garbage collector
          protocol and the child class does 'not' include the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag.

 -- C 巨集: PyObject_GC_New (TYPE, typeobj)

     Analogous to *note PyObject_New: 7c9. but for container objects
     with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag set.

 -- C 巨集: PyObject_GC_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size)

     Analogous to *note PyObject_NewVar: 7ca. but for container objects
     with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag set.

 -- C 函式: *note PyObject: 6d1. *PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData
          (PyTypeObject *type, size_t extra_size)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Analogous to *note PyObject_GC_New: 8f5. but allocates 'extra_size'
     bytes at the end of the object (at offset *note tp_basicsize:
     7cb.).  The allocated memory is initialized to zeros, except for
     the *note Python object header: 6d1.

     The extra data will be deallocated with the object, but otherwise
     it is not managed by Python.

          警告: The function is marked as unstable because the final
          mechanism for reserving extra data after an instance is not
          yet decided.  For allocating a variable number of fields,
          prefer using *note PyVarObject: 3e7b. and *note tp_itemsize:
          1d02. instead.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 巨集: PyObject_GC_Resize (TYPE, op, newsize)

     Resize an object allocated by *note PyObject_NewVar: 7ca.  Returns
     the resized object of type ‘TYPE*’ (refers to any C type) or ‘NULL’
     on failure.

     'op' must be of type *note PyVarObject: 3e7b.* and must not be
     tracked by the collector yet.  'newsize' must be of type *note
     Py_ssize_t: 8ab.

 -- C 函式: void PyObject_GC_Track (PyObject *op)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Adds the object 'op' to the
     set of container objects tracked by the collector.  The collector
     can run at unexpected times so objects must be valid while being
     tracked.  This should be called once all the fields followed by the
     *note tp_traverse: 594. handler become valid, usually near the end
     of the constructor.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_IS_GC (PyObject *obj)

     Returns non-zero if the object implements the garbage collector
     protocol, otherwise returns 0.

     The object cannot be tracked by the garbage collector if this
     function returns 0.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_GC_IsTracked (PyObject *op)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.9 版本開始.'  Returns 1 if
     the object type of 'op' implements the GC protocol and 'op' is
     being currently tracked by the garbage collector and 0 otherwise.

     This is analogous to the Python function *note gc.is_tracked():
     11a0.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (PyObject *op)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.9 版本開始.'  Returns 1 if
     the object type of 'op' implements the GC protocol and 'op' has
     been already finalized by the garbage collector and 0 otherwise.

     This is analogous to the Python function *note gc.is_finalized():
     738.

     在 3.9 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: void PyObject_GC_Del (void *op)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Releases memory allocated to
     an object using *note PyObject_GC_New: 8f5. or *note
     PyObject_GC_NewVar: 8f6.

 -- C 函式: void PyObject_GC_UnTrack (void *op)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Remove the object 'op' from
     the set of container objects tracked by the collector.  Note that
     *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 137d. can be called again on this object
     to add it back to the set of tracked objects.  The deallocator
     (*note tp_dealloc: 4758. handler) should call this for the object
     before any of the fields used by the *note tp_traverse: 594.
     handler become invalid.

在 3.8 版的變更: The ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’ and ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’
macros have been removed from the public C API.

The *note tp_traverse: 594. handler accepts a function parameter of this
type:

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*visitproc)(*note PyObject: 6d1. *object, void
          *arg)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Type of the visitor function
     passed to the *note tp_traverse: 594. handler.  The function should
     be called with an object to traverse as 'object' and the third
     parameter to the *note tp_traverse: 594. handler as 'arg'.  The
     Python core uses several visitor functions to implement cyclic
     garbage detection; it's not expected that users will need to write
     their own visitor functions.

The *note tp_traverse: 594. handler must have the following type:

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*traverseproc)(*note PyObject: 6d1. *self,
          *note visitproc: 494d. visit, void *arg)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Traversal function for a
     container object.  Implementations must call the 'visit' function
     for each object directly contained by 'self', with the parameters
     to 'visit' being the contained object and the 'arg' value passed to
     the handler.  The 'visit' function must not be called with a ‘NULL’
     object argument.  If 'visit' returns a non-zero value that value
     should be returned immediately.

To simplify writing *note tp_traverse: 594. handlers, a *note
Py_VISIT(): 4762. macro is provided.  In order to use this macro, the
*note tp_traverse: 594. implementation must name its arguments exactly
'visit' and 'arg':

 -- C 函式: void Py_VISIT (PyObject *o)

     If 'o' is not ‘NULL’, call the 'visit' callback, with arguments 'o'
     and 'arg'.  If 'visit' returns a non-zero value, then return it.
     Using this macro, *note tp_traverse: 594. handlers look like:

          static int
          my_traverse(Noddy *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
          {
              Py_VISIT(self->foo);
              Py_VISIT(self->bar);
              return 0;
          }

The *note tp_clear: 476b. handler must be of the *note inquiry: 493c.
type, or ‘NULL’ if the object is immutable.

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*inquiry)(*note PyObject: 6d1. *self)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Drop references that may have
     created reference cycles.  Immutable objects do not have to define
     this method since they can never directly create reference cycles.
     Note that the object must still be valid after calling this method
     (don't just call *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. on a reference).  The
     collector will call this method if it detects that this object is
     involved in a reference cycle.

* Menu:

* Controlling the Garbage Collector State::
* Querying Garbage Collector State::


File: python.info,  Node: Controlling the Garbage Collector State,  Next: Querying Garbage Collector State,  Up: 循環垃圾回收的支援

7.12.11.1 Controlling the Garbage Collector State
.................................................

The C-API provides the following functions for controlling garbage
collection runs.

 -- C 函式: *note Py_ssize_t: 8ab. PyGC_Collect (void)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8.'  Perform a full garbage
     collection, if the garbage collector is enabled.  (Note that *note
     gc.collect(): 883. runs it unconditionally.)

     Returns the number of collected + unreachable objects which cannot
     be collected.  If the garbage collector is disabled or already
     collecting, returns ‘0’ immediately.  Errors during garbage
     collection are passed to *note sys.unraisablehook: 479.  This
     function does not raise exceptions.

 -- C 函式: int PyGC_Enable (void)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Enable the
     garbage collector: similar to *note gc.enable(): 4171.  Returns the
     previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyGC_Disable (void)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Disable the
     garbage collector: similar to *note gc.disable(): 4172.  Returns
     the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     在 3.10 版被加入.

 -- C 函式: int PyGC_IsEnabled (void)
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.10 版本開始.'  Query the
     state of the garbage collector: similar to *note gc.isenabled():
     4173.  Returns the current state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     在 3.10 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying Garbage Collector State,  Prev: Controlling the Garbage Collector State,  Up: 循環垃圾回收的支援

7.12.11.2 Querying Garbage Collector State
..........................................

The C-API provides the following interface for querying information
about the garbage collector.

 -- C 函式: void PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (gcvisitobjects_t callback,
          void *arg)

          這是 不穩定 API，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。 '這是 *note 不穩定 API: 2cb.，它可能在小版本發布中沒有任何警告地被變更。': 
     Run supplied 'callback' on all live GC-capable objects.  'arg' is
     passed through to all invocations of 'callback'.

          警告: If new objects are (de)allocated by the callback it is
          undefined if they will be visited.

          Garbage collection is disabled during operation.  Explicitly
          running a collection in the callback may lead to undefined
          behaviour e.g.  visiting the same objects multiple times or
          not at all.

     在 3.12 版被加入.

 -- C 型別: typedef int (*gcvisitobjects_t)(*note PyObject: 6d1.
          *object, void *arg)

     Type of the visitor function to be passed to *note
     PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects(): 4cce.  'arg' is the same as the 'arg'
     passed to ‘PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects’.  Return ‘0’ to continue
     iteration, return ‘1’ to stop iteration.  Other return values are
     reserved for now so behavior on returning anything else is
     undefined.

     在 3.12 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: API 和 ABI 版本管理,  Prev: Object Implementation Support,  Up: Python/C API 參考手冊

7.13 API 和 ABI 版本管理
========================

CPython 透過以下巨集 (macro) 公開其版本號。請注意，對應到的是'建置
(built)' 所用到的版本，並不一定是'執行環境 (run time)' 所使用的版本。

關於跨版本 API 和 ABI 穩定性的討論，請見 *note C API 穩定性: 2d8.。

 -- C 巨集: PY_MAJOR_VERSION

     在 ‘3.4.1a2’ 中的 ‘3’。

 -- C 巨集: PY_MINOR_VERSION

     在 ‘3.4.1a2’ 中的 ‘4’。

 -- C 巨集: PY_MICRO_VERSION

     在 ‘3.4.1a2’ 中的 ‘1’。

 -- C 巨集: PY_RELEASE_LEVEL

     在 ‘3.4.1a2’ 中的 ‘a’。‘0xA’ 代表 alpha 版本、‘0xB’ 代表 beta 版本
     、‘0xC’ 為發布候選版本、‘0xF’ 則為最終版。

 -- C 巨集: PY_RELEASE_SERIAL

     在 ‘3.4.1a2’ 中的 ‘2’。零則為最終發布版本。

 -- C 巨集: PY_VERSION_HEX

     被編碼為單一整數的 Python 版本號。

     所代表的版本資訊可以用以下規則將其看做是一個 32 位元數字來獲得：

     位元組串    位元（大端位元組序 (big       意義                          ‘3.4.1a2’ 中的值
                 endian order)）                                             
                 
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             
     1           1-8                           ‘PY_MAJOR_VERSION’            ‘0x03’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     2           9-16                          ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’            ‘0x04’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     3           17-24                         ‘PY_MICRO_VERSION’            ‘0x01’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     4           25-28                         ‘PY_RELEASE_LEVEL’            ‘0xA’
                                                                             
                                               
     29-32       ‘PY_RELEASE_SERIAL’           ‘0x2’
                                               

     因此 ‘3.4.1a2’ 代表 hexversion ‘0x030401a2’、‘3.10.0’ 代表
     hexversion ‘0x030a00f0’。

     使用它進行數值比較，例如 ‘#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= ...’。

     該版本也可透過符號 *note Py_Version: 569. 獲得。

 -- C 變數: const unsigned long Py_Version
     ' 為 *note 穩定 ABI 的一部分: 2d8. 自 3.11 版本開始.'  編碼為單個常
     數整數的 Python 執行環境版本號，格式與 *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 56a. 巨
     集相同。這包含在執行環境使用的 Python 版本。

     在 3.11 版被加入.

所有提到的巨集都定義在 Include/patchlevel.h(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Include/patchlevel.h


File: python.info,  Node: 安裝 Python 模組,  Next: Python 如何達成任務,  Prev: Python/C API 參考手冊,  Up: Top

8 安裝 Python 模組
******************


電子郵件: <distutils-sig@python.org>

作為一個普及的開源開發專案，Python 有一個活躍的支持社群，由其貢獻者及使
用者組成，而他們也讓他們的軟體可被其他 Python 開發者在開源授權條款下使用
。

這樣可以讓 Python 使用者們有效地共享和合作，並受益於其他人對常見（有時甚
至是罕見）的問題已經建立的解決方案，更可以在公用社群中潛在地貢獻他們自己
的解決方案。

這份指南涵蓋了上述過程中的安裝部分。如果是要建立及分享你自己的 Python 專
案，請參考 Python packaging user guide(1)。

     備註: 對於企業和其他機構的使用者，要注意到，許多組織對於使用和貢獻
     開源軟體都有自己的政策。在開始使用配備 Python 的發布及安裝工具時，
     請將那些政策納入考量。

* Menu:

* 關鍵術語::
* 基本用法: 基本用法<4>.
* 我該如何...？: 我該如何 ？.
* 常見的安裝問題::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/


File: python.info,  Node: 關鍵術語,  Next: 基本用法<4>,  Up: 安裝 Python 模組

8.1 關鍵術語
============

   * ‘pip’ 是首選的安裝程式。從 Python 3.4 開始，它被預設包含在 Python 二
     進制安裝程式中。

   * 'virtual environment（虛擬環境）'是一種半隔離的 Python 環境，可以為
     某個特定應用程式安裝其所需的套件，而不用在整個系統上安裝它們。

   * ‘venv’ 是建立虛擬環境的標準工具，它從 Python 3.3 開始成為 Python 的
     一部分。從 Python 3.4 開始，它會預設地安裝 ‘pip’ 到所有被建立的虛擬
     環境。

   * ‘virtualenv’ 是 ‘venv’ 的一個第三方替代方案（及其前身）。它使虛擬環
     境可以在 Python 3.4 之前的版本被使用，那些版本要不是根本沒提供
     ‘venv’，就是無法自動安裝 ‘pip’ 到所建立的環境中。

   * Python 套件索引 (Python Package Index)(1) 是開源授權套件的一個公共
     儲存庫，其中的套件皆可被其他 Python 使用者所使用。

   * Python 封裝管理站 (Python Packaging Authority)(2) 是一個由開發者和
     說明文件作者組成的團隊，負責維護及改進標準封裝工具，以及相關的元資
     料 (metadata) 和檔案格式標準。他們在 GitHub(3) 平台上維護各種工具、
     說明文件及問題追蹤系統。

   * ‘distutils’ 是最早的建置和發布系統，於 1998 年首次被加入 Python 標
     準函式庫。雖然直接使用 ‘distutils’ 的方式已經被逐步淘汰，它仍然是現
     今封裝和發布的基礎結構根基，而且它不僅仍然是標準函式庫的一部分，它
     的名稱也以其他的方式存活著（例如：用於協調 Python 封裝標準開發的郵
     寄清單就是以它命名）。

在 3.5 版的變更: 對於建立虛擬環境，現在推薦使用 ‘venv’。

也參考
......

Python 封裝使用者指南：建立和使用虛擬環境(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) https://www.pypa.io/

   (3) https://github.com/pypa

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/installing/#creating-virtual-environments


File: python.info,  Node: 基本用法<4>,  Next: 我該如何 ？,  Prev: 關鍵術語,  Up: 安裝 Python 模組

8.2 基本用法
============

標準封裝工具皆是以能從命令列使用的方式被設計的。

以下指令將從 Python 套件索引安裝一個模組的最新版本及其依賴套件
(dependencies)：

     python -m pip install SomePackage

     備註: 對於 POSIX 使用者（包括 macOS 和 Linux 使用者），本指南中的範
     例皆假設有使用 *note virtual environment: 1af7.。

     對於 Windows 使用者，本指南中的範例皆假設在安裝 Python 時，「可調整
     系統 PATH 環境變數」的選項已被選取。

在命令列中直接指定一個明確的或最小的版本也是可行的。當使用像是 ‘>’、‘<’
的比較運算子，或某些可被 shell 所解釋的其他特殊字元時，套件名稱與版本編
號應該要放在雙引號內：

     python -m pip install SomePackage==1.0.4    # specific version
     python -m pip install "SomePackage>=1.0.4"  # minimum version

通常，如果一個合適的模組已被安裝，嘗試再次安裝它將不會有任何效果。要升級
現有的模組就必須明確地請求：

     python -m pip install --upgrade SomePackage

關於 ‘pip’ 及其能力的更多資訊和資源，可以在 Python 封裝使用者指南(1)中找
到。

虛擬環境的建立是使用 *note venv: 10c. 模組來完成。要在一個已啟用的虛擬環
境中安裝套件，可使用前面展示的指令。

也參考
......

Python 封裝使用者指南：安裝 Python 發布套件(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/installing/


File: python.info,  Node: 我該如何 ？,  Next: 常見的安裝問題,  Prev: 基本用法<4>,  Up: 安裝 Python 模組

8.3 我該如何...？
=================

接下來是關於一些常見任務的快速解答或連結。

* Menu:

* ...在 Python 3.4 之前的 Python 版本中安裝 pip？: 在 Python 3 4 之前的 Python 版本中安裝 pip？.
* ...只為目前的使用者安裝套件？: 只為目前的使用者安裝套件？.
* ...安裝科學的 Python 套件？: 安裝科學的 Python 套件？.
* ...平行安裝多個 Python 版本並使用它們？: 平行安裝多個 Python 版本並使用它們？.


File: python.info,  Node: 在 Python 3 4 之前的 Python 版本中安裝 pip？,  Next: 只為目前的使用者安裝套件？,  Up: 我該如何 ？

8.3.1 ...在 Python 3.4 之前的 Python 版本中安裝 ‘pip’？
-------------------------------------------------------

Python 是從 Python 3.4 才開始綁定 ‘pip’ 的。對於更早的版本，‘pip’ 需要被
「自助安裝 (bootstrapped)」，請參考 Python 封裝使用者指南中的說明。

也參考
......

Python 封裝使用者指南：安裝套件的需求(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/installing/#requirements-for-installing-packages


File: python.info,  Node: 只為目前的使用者安裝套件？,  Next: 安裝科學的 Python 套件？,  Prev: 在 Python 3 4 之前的 Python 版本中安裝 pip？,  Up: 我該如何 ？

8.3.2 ...只為目前的使用者安裝套件？
-----------------------------------

把 ‘--user’ 選項傳給 ‘python -m pip install’，這樣將會只為目前使用者而非
系統的所有使用者安裝套件。


File: python.info,  Node: 安裝科學的 Python 套件？,  Next: 平行安裝多個 Python 版本並使用它們？,  Prev: 只為目前的使用者安裝套件？,  Up: 我該如何 ？

8.3.3 ...安裝科學的 Python 套件？
---------------------------------

許多科學類 Python 套件都有複雜的二進制依賴套件，且目前不太容易直接使用
‘pip’ 安裝。目前為止，使用其他方法(1)而非嘗試用 ‘pip’ 來安裝它們，對使用
者來說通常會更簡單。

也參考
......

Python 封裝使用者指南：安裝科學套件(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/science/


File: python.info,  Node: 平行安裝多個 Python 版本並使用它們？,  Prev: 安裝科學的 Python 套件？,  Up: 我該如何 ？

8.3.4 ...平行安裝多個 Python 版本並使用它們？
---------------------------------------------

在 Linux、macOS 以及其他 POSIX 系統中，使用帶有版本編號的 Python 指令並
結合 ‘-m’ 開關參數 (switch)，來運行 ‘pip’ 的適當副本：

     python2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
     python2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
     python3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
     python3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4

使用帶有合適版本編號的 ‘pip’ 指令，也是可行的。

在 Windows 中，使用 Python 啟動指令 ‘py’ 並結合 ‘-m’ 開關參數 (switch)：

     py -2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
     py -2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
     py -3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
     py -3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4


File: python.info,  Node: 常見的安裝問題,  Prev: 我該如何 ？,  Up: 安裝 Python 模組

8.4 常見的安裝問題
==================

* Menu:

* 在 Linux 上安裝套件至系統 Python::
* 未安裝 pip::
* 安裝二進制擴充 (binary extension): 安裝二進制擴充 binary extension.


File: python.info,  Node: 在 Linux 上安裝套件至系統 Python,  Next: 未安裝 pip,  Up: 常見的安裝問題

8.4.1 在 Linux 上安裝套件至系統 Python
--------------------------------------

在 Linux 系統，Python 的某個安裝版本通常會被內含在 Linux 的發行版中。要
安裝套件到這個 Python 版本上需要系統的 root 權限，並且可能會干擾到系統套
件管理器的運作。如果其他系統組件非預期地以 ‘pip’ 被升級，也會干擾這些組
件的運作。

在這樣的系統上，以 ‘pip’ 安裝套件時，通常較好的方式是使用虛擬環境，或以
個別使用者安裝。


File: python.info,  Node: 未安裝 pip,  Next: 安裝二進制擴充 binary extension,  Prev: 在 Linux 上安裝套件至系統 Python,  Up: 常見的安裝問題

8.4.2 未安裝 pip
----------------

‘pip’ 沒有預設被安裝也是有可能的。一個潛在的解法是：

     python -m ensurepip --default-pip

這裡還有其他關於安裝 pip(1)的資源。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/#ensure-pip-setuptools-and-wheel-are-up-to-date


File: python.info,  Node: 安裝二進制擴充 binary extension,  Prev: 未安裝 pip,  Up: 常見的安裝問題

8.4.3 安裝二進制擴充 (binary extension)
---------------------------------------

Python 基本上相當倚賴以原始碼為基礎的發布方式，也會期望使用者在安裝過程
的某個階段，從原始碼來編譯擴充模組。

隨著引入對二進制 ‘wheel’ 格式的支援，以及透過 Python 套件索引能夠至少在
Windows 和 macOS 發布 wheel 檔案，這個問題預期將會逐漸消失，因為使用者將
能夠更頻繁地安裝預建置 (pre-built) 的擴充，而不再需要自己建置它們。

有一些解決方案，可用來安裝那些還無法以預建置的 ‘wheel’ 檔案被使用的科學
軟體(1)，這些方案也有助於取得其他的二進制擴充，且無需在本機對它們進行建
置。

也參考
......

Python 封裝使用者指南：二進制擴充(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 如何達成任務,  Next: Python 常見問題,  Prev: 安裝 Python 模組,  Up: Top

9 Python 如何達成任務
*********************

「Python 如何達成任務 (HOWTOs)」是一系列的說明文件，其內容會盡量完整地涵
蓋某些單一、特定的主題。以 Linux 說明文件專案的 HOWTO 系列為模範，本系列
的目標是提供比 Python 函式庫參考手冊更實用的說明文件。

目前有以下這些任務指南：

* Menu:

* 遷移延伸模組到 Python 3::
* Curses Programming with Python::
* 描述器 (Descriptor) 指南: 描述器 Descriptor 指南.
* 使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯::
* Enum HOWTO::
* 函式編程 HOWTO::
* 如何使用 Logging 模組::
* Logging Cookbook::
* 如何使用正規表示式::
* Socket 程式設計指南::
* 排序技法::
* Unicode HOWTO::
* 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源::
* ipaddress 模組介紹::
* 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython::
* Python 對 Linux perf 分析器的支援::
* 註釋 (annotation) 最佳實踐: 註釋 annotation 最佳實踐.
* 隔離擴充模組::
* The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order.


File: python.info,  Node: 遷移延伸模組到 Python 3,  Next: Curses Programming with Python,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.1 遷移延伸模組到 Python 3
===========================

We recommend the following resources for porting extension modules to
Python 3:

   * The Migrating C extensions(1) chapter from 'Supporting Python 3: An
     in-depth guide', a book on moving from Python 2 to Python 3 in
     general, guides the reader through porting an extension module.

   * The Porting guide(2) from the 'py3c' project provides opinionated
     suggestions with supporting code.

   * The Cython(3) and CFFI(4) libraries offer abstractions over
     Python's C API. Extensions generally need to be re-written to use
     one of them, but the library then handles differences between
     various Python versions and implementations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://python3porting.com/cextensions.html

   (2) https://py3c.readthedocs.io/en/latest/guide.html

   (3) https://cython.org/

   (4) https://cffi.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Curses Programming with Python,  Next: 描述器 Descriptor 指南,  Prev: 遷移延伸模組到 Python 3,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.2 Curses Programming with Python
==================================


作者: A.M. Kuchling, Eric S. Raymond


發佈版本: 2.04

摘要
....

This document describes how to use the *note curses: 29. extension
module to control text-mode displays.

* Menu:

* What is curses?::
* Starting and ending a curses application::
* Windows and Pads::
* Displaying Text::
* 使用者輸入::
* For More Information::


File: python.info,  Node: What is curses?,  Next: Starting and ending a curses application,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.1 What is curses?
---------------------

The curses library supplies a terminal-independent screen-painting and
keyboard-handling facility for text-based terminals; such terminals
include VT100s, the Linux console, and the simulated terminal provided
by various programs.  Display terminals support various control codes to
perform common operations such as moving the cursor, scrolling the
screen, and erasing areas.  Different terminals use widely differing
codes, and often have their own minor quirks.

In a world of graphical displays, one might ask "why bother"?  It's true
that character-cell display terminals are an obsolete technology, but
there are niches in which being able to do fancy things with them are
still valuable.  One niche is on small-footprint or embedded Unixes that
don't run an X server.  Another is tools such as OS installers and
kernel configurators that may have to run before any graphical support
is available.

The curses library provides fairly basic functionality, providing the
programmer with an abstraction of a display containing multiple
non-overlapping windows of text.  The contents of a window can be
changed in various ways--adding text, erasing it, changing its
appearance--and the curses library will figure out what control codes
need to be sent to the terminal to produce the right output.  curses
doesn't provide many user-interface concepts such as buttons,
checkboxes, or dialogs; if you need such features, consider a user
interface library such as Urwid(1).

The curses library was originally written for BSD Unix; the later System
V versions of Unix from AT&T added many enhancements and new functions.
BSD curses is no longer maintained, having been replaced by ncurses,
which is an open-source implementation of the AT&T interface.  If you're
using an open-source Unix such as Linux or FreeBSD, your system almost
certainly uses ncurses.  Since most current commercial Unix versions are
based on System V code, all the functions described here will probably
be available.  The older versions of curses carried by some proprietary
Unixes may not support everything, though.

The Windows version of Python doesn't include the *note curses: 29.
module.  A ported version called UniCurses(2) is available.

* Menu:

* Python curses 模組::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/UniCurses/


File: python.info,  Node: Python curses 模組,  Up: What is curses?

9.2.1.1 Python curses 模組
..........................

The Python module is a fairly simple wrapper over the C functions
provided by curses; if you're already familiar with curses programming
in C, it's really easy to transfer that knowledge to Python.  The
biggest difference is that the Python interface makes things simpler by
merging different C functions such as ‘addstr()’, ‘mvaddstr()’, and
‘mvwaddstr()’ into a single *note addstr(): 2b37. method.  You'll see
this covered in more detail later.

This HOWTO is an introduction to writing text-mode programs with curses
and Python.  It doesn't attempt to be a complete guide to the curses
API; for that, see the Python library guide's section on ncurses, and
the C manual pages for ncurses.  It will, however, give you the basic
ideas.


File: python.info,  Node: Starting and ending a curses application,  Next: Windows and Pads,  Prev: What is curses?,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.2 Starting and ending a curses application
----------------------------------------------

Before doing anything, curses must be initialized.  This is done by
calling the *note initscr(): 2b3d. function, which will determine the
terminal type, send any required setup codes to the terminal, and create
various internal data structures.  If successful, ‘initscr()’ returns a
window object representing the entire screen; this is usually called
‘stdscr’ after the name of the corresponding C variable.

     import curses
     stdscr = curses.initscr()

Usually curses applications turn off automatic echoing of keys to the
screen, in order to be able to read keys and only display them under
certain circumstances.  This requires calling the *note noecho(): 2b63.
function.

     curses.noecho()

Applications will also commonly need to react to keys instantly, without
requiring the Enter key to be pressed; this is called cbreak mode, as
opposed to the usual buffered input mode.

     curses.cbreak()

Terminals usually return special keys, such as the cursor keys or
navigation keys such as Page Up and Home, as a multibyte escape
sequence.  While you could write your application to expect such
sequences and process them accordingly, curses can do it for you,
returning a special value such as *note curses.KEY_LEFT: 2bdd.  To get
curses to do the job, you'll have to enable keypad mode.

     stdscr.keypad(True)

Terminating a curses application is much easier than starting one.
You'll need to call:

     curses.nocbreak()
     stdscr.keypad(False)
     curses.echo()

to reverse the curses-friendly terminal settings.  Then call the *note
endwin(): 2b3a. function to restore the terminal to its original
operating mode.

     curses.endwin()

A common problem when debugging a curses application is to get your
terminal messed up when the application dies without restoring the
terminal to its previous state.  In Python this commonly happens when
your code is buggy and raises an uncaught exception.  Keys are no longer
echoed to the screen when you type them, for example, which makes using
the shell difficult.

In Python you can avoid these complications and make debugging much
easier by importing the *note curses.wrapper(): 8cc. function and using
it like this:

     from curses import wrapper

     def main(stdscr):
         # Clear screen
         stdscr.clear()

         # This raises ZeroDivisionError when i == 10.
         for i in range(0, 11):
             v = i-10
             stdscr.addstr(i, 0, '10 divided by {} is {}'.format(v, 10/v))

         stdscr.refresh()
         stdscr.getkey()

     wrapper(main)

The *note wrapper(): 8cc. function takes a callable object and does the
initializations described above, also initializing colors if color
support is present.  ‘wrapper()’ then runs your provided callable.  Once
the callable returns, ‘wrapper()’ will restore the original state of the
terminal.  The callable is called inside a *note try: 4ea...*note
except: 3a8. that catches exceptions, restores the state of the
terminal, and then re-raises the exception.  Therefore your terminal
won't be left in a funny state on exception and you'll be able to read
the exception's message and traceback.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows and Pads,  Next: Displaying Text,  Prev: Starting and ending a curses application,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.3 Windows and Pads
----------------------

Windows are the basic abstraction in curses.  A window object represents
a rectangular area of the screen, and supports methods to display text,
erase it, allow the user to input strings, and so forth.

The ‘stdscr’ object returned by the *note initscr(): 2b3d. function is a
window object that covers the entire screen.  Many programs may need
only this single window, but you might wish to divide the screen into
smaller windows, in order to redraw or clear them separately.  The *note
newwin(): 2b61. function creates a new window of a given size, returning
the new window object.

     begin_x = 20; begin_y = 7
     height = 5; width = 40
     win = curses.newwin(height, width, begin_y, begin_x)

Note that the coordinate system used in curses is unusual.  Coordinates
are always passed in the order 'y,x', and the top-left corner of a
window is coordinate (0,0).  This breaks the normal convention for
handling coordinates where the 'x' coordinate comes first.  This is an
unfortunate difference from most other computer applications, but it's
been part of curses since it was first written, and it's too late to
change things now.

Your application can determine the size of the screen by using the *note
curses.LINES: 14ab. and *note curses.COLS: 14ac. variables to obtain the
'y' and 'x' sizes.  Legal coordinates will then extend from ‘(0,0)’ to
‘(curses.LINES - 1, curses.COLS - 1)’.

When you call a method to display or erase text, the effect doesn't
immediately show up on the display.  Instead you must call the *note
refresh(): 2b38. method of window objects to update the screen.

This is because curses was originally written with slow 300-baud
terminal connections in mind; with these terminals, minimizing the time
required to redraw the screen was very important.  Instead curses
accumulates changes to the screen and displays them in the most
efficient manner when you call ‘refresh()’.  For example, if your
program displays some text in a window and then clears the window,
there's no need to send the original text because they're never visible.

In practice, explicitly telling curses to redraw a window doesn't really
complicate programming with curses much.  Most programs go into a flurry
of activity, and then pause waiting for a keypress or some other action
on the part of the user.  All you have to do is to be sure that the
screen has been redrawn before pausing to wait for user input, by first
calling ‘stdscr.refresh()’ or the ‘refresh()’ method of some other
relevant window.

A pad is a special case of a window; it can be larger than the actual
display screen, and only a portion of the pad displayed at a time.
Creating a pad requires the pad's height and width, while refreshing a
pad requires giving the coordinates of the on-screen area where a
subsection of the pad will be displayed.

     pad = curses.newpad(100, 100)
     # These loops fill the pad with letters; addch() is
     # explained in the next section
     for y in range(0, 99):
         for x in range(0, 99):
             pad.addch(y,x, ord('a') + (x*x+y*y) % 26)

     # Displays a section of the pad in the middle of the screen.
     # (0,0) : coordinate of upper-left corner of pad area to display.
     # (5,5) : coordinate of upper-left corner of window area to be filled
     #         with pad content.
     # (20, 75) : coordinate of lower-right corner of window area to be
     #          : filled with pad content.
     pad.refresh( 0,0, 5,5, 20,75)

The ‘refresh()’ call displays a section of the pad in the rectangle
extending from coordinate (5,5) to coordinate (20,75) on the screen; the
upper left corner of the displayed section is coordinate (0,0) on the
pad.  Beyond that difference, pads are exactly like ordinary windows and
support the same methods.

If you have multiple windows and pads on screen there is a more
efficient way to update the screen and prevent annoying screen flicker
as each part of the screen gets updated.  ‘refresh()’ actually does two
things:

  1. Calls the *note noutrefresh(): 2b36. method of each window to
     update an underlying data structure representing the desired state
     of the screen.

  2. Calls the function *note doupdate(): 2b35. function to change the
     physical screen to match the desired state recorded in the data
     structure.

Instead you can call ‘noutrefresh()’ on a number of windows to update
the data structure, and then call ‘doupdate()’ to update the screen.


File: python.info,  Node: Displaying Text,  Next: 使用者輸入,  Prev: Windows and Pads,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.4 Displaying Text
---------------------

From a C programmer's point of view, curses may sometimes look like a
twisty maze of functions, all subtly different.  For example, ‘addstr()’
displays a string at the current cursor location in the ‘stdscr’ window,
while ‘mvaddstr()’ moves to a given y,x coordinate first before
displaying the string.  ‘waddstr()’ is just like ‘addstr()’, but allows
specifying a window to use instead of using ‘stdscr’ by default.
‘mvwaddstr()’ allows specifying both a window and a coordinate.

Fortunately the Python interface hides all these details.  ‘stdscr’ is a
window object like any other, and methods such as *note addstr(): 2b37.
accept multiple argument forms.  Usually there are four different forms.

Form                                  描述
                                      
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
'str' 或 'ch'                         Display the string 'str' or character 'ch' at the
                                      current position
                                      
                                      
'str' or 'ch', 'attr'                 Display the string 'str' or character 'ch', using
                                      attribute 'attr' at the current position
                                      
                                      
'y'、'x'、'str' 或 'ch'               Move to position 'y,x' within the window, and
                                      display 'str' or 'ch'
                                      
                                      
'y'、'x'、'str' 或 'ch'、'attr'       Move to position 'y,x' within the window, and
                                      display 'str' or 'ch', using attribute 'attr'
                                      

Attributes allow displaying text in highlighted forms such as boldface,
underline, reverse code, or in color.  They'll be explained in more
detail in the next subsection.

The *note addstr(): 2b37. method takes a Python string or bytestring as
the value to be displayed.  The contents of bytestrings are sent to the
terminal as-is.  Strings are encoded to bytes using the value of the
window's *note encoding: f2c. attribute; this defaults to the default
system encoding as returned by *note locale.getencoding(): 258.

The *note addch(): 2b7c. methods take a character, which can be either a
string of length 1, a bytestring of length 1, or an integer.

Constants are provided for extension characters; these constants are
integers greater than 255.  For example, *note ACS_PLMINUS: 2c4a. is a
+/- symbol, and *note ACS_ULCORNER: 2b86. is the upper left corner of a
box (handy for drawing borders).  You can also use the appropriate
Unicode character.

Windows remember where the cursor was left after the last operation, so
if you leave out the 'y,x' coordinates, the string or character will be
displayed wherever the last operation left off.  You can also move the
cursor with the ‘move(y,x)’ method.  Because some terminals always
display a flashing cursor, you may want to ensure that the cursor is
positioned in some location where it won't be distracting; it can be
confusing to have the cursor blinking at some apparently random
location.

If your application doesn't need a blinking cursor at all, you can call
‘curs_set(False)’ to make it invisible.  For compatibility with older
curses versions, there's a ‘leaveok(bool)’ function that's a synonym for
*note curs_set(): 2b2f.  When 'bool' is true, the curses library will
attempt to suppress the flashing cursor, and you won't need to worry
about leaving it in odd locations.

* Menu:

* Attributes and Color::


File: python.info,  Node: Attributes and Color,  Up: Displaying Text

9.2.4.1 Attributes and Color
............................

Characters can be displayed in different ways.  Status lines in a
text-based application are commonly shown in reverse video, or a text
viewer may need to highlight certain words.  curses supports this by
allowing you to specify an attribute for each cell on the screen.

An attribute is an integer, each bit representing a different attribute.
You can try to display text with multiple attribute bits set, but curses
doesn't guarantee that all the possible combinations are available, or
that they're all visually distinct.  That depends on the ability of the
terminal being used, so it's safest to stick to the most commonly
available attributes, listed here.

屬性                       描述
                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                           
*note A_BLINK: 2bc9.       Blinking text
                           
                           
*note A_BOLD: 2bca.        Extra bright or bold text
                           
                           
*note A_DIM: 2bcb.         Half bright text
                           
                           
*note A_REVERSE: 2b2d.     Reverse-video text
                           
                           
*note A_STANDOUT: 2b2c.    The best highlighting mode available
                           
                           
*note A_UNDERLINE: 2bcf.   Underlined text
                           

So, to display a reverse-video status line on the top line of the
screen, you could code:

     stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Current mode: Typing mode",
                   curses.A_REVERSE)
     stdscr.refresh()

The curses library also supports color on those terminals that provide
it.  The most common such terminal is probably the Linux console,
followed by color xterms.

To use color, you must call the *note start_color(): 2b6d. function soon
after calling *note initscr(): 2b3d, to initialize the default color set
(the *note curses.wrapper(): 8cc. function does this automatically).
Once that's done, the *note has_colors(): 2b4f. function returns TRUE if
the terminal in use can actually display color.  (Note: curses uses the
American spelling 'color', instead of the Canadian/British spelling
'colour'.  If you're used to the British spelling, you'll have to resign
yourself to misspelling it for the sake of these functions.)

The curses library maintains a finite number of color pairs, containing
a foreground (or text) color and a background color.  You can get the
attribute value corresponding to a color pair with the *note
color_pair(): 2b2b. function; this can be bitwise-OR'ed with other
attributes such as *note A_REVERSE: 2b2d, but again, such combinations
are not guaranteed to work on all terminals.

An example, which displays a line of text using color pair 1:

     stdscr.addstr("Pretty text", curses.color_pair(1))
     stdscr.refresh()

As I said before, a color pair consists of a foreground and background
color.  The ‘init_pair(n, f, b)’ function changes the definition of
color pair 'n', to foreground color f and background color b.  Color
pair 0 is hard-wired to white on black, and cannot be changed.

Colors are numbered, and *note start_color(): 2b6d. initializes 8 basic
colors when it activates color mode.  They are: 0:black, 1:red, 2:green,
3:yellow, 4:blue, 5:magenta, 6:cyan, and 7:white.  The *note curses: 29.
module defines named constants for each of these colors: *note
curses.COLOR_BLACK: 2c5c, *note curses.COLOR_RED: 2c61, and so forth.

Let's put all this together.  To change color 1 to red text on a white
background, you would call:

     curses.init_pair(1, curses.COLOR_RED, curses.COLOR_WHITE)

When you change a color pair, any text already displayed using that
color pair will change to the new colors.  You can also display new text
in this color with:

     stdscr.addstr(0,0, "RED ALERT!", curses.color_pair(1))

Very fancy terminals can change the definitions of the actual colors to
a given RGB value.  This lets you change color 1, which is usually red,
to purple or blue or any other color you like.  Unfortunately, the Linux
console doesn't support this, so I'm unable to try it out, and can't
provide any examples.  You can check if your terminal can do this by
calling *note can_change_color(): 2b28, which returns ‘True’ if the
capability is there.  If you're lucky enough to have such a talented
terminal, consult your system's man pages for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: 使用者輸入,  Next: For More Information,  Prev: Displaying Text,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.5 使用者輸入
----------------

The C curses library offers only very simple input mechanisms.  Python's
*note curses: 29. module adds a basic text-input widget.  (Other
libraries such as Urwid(1) have more extensive collections of widgets.)

There are two methods for getting input from a window:

   * *note getch(): 2b41. refreshes the screen and then waits for the
     user to hit a key, displaying the key if *note echo(): 2b39. has
     been called earlier.  You can optionally specify a coordinate to
     which the cursor should be moved before pausing.

   * *note getkey(): 2b9a. does the same thing but converts the integer
     to a string.  Individual characters are returned as 1-character
     strings, and special keys such as function keys return longer
     strings containing a key name such as ‘KEY_UP’ or ‘^G’.

It's possible to not wait for the user using the *note nodelay(): 2bb0.
window method.  After ‘nodelay(True)’, ‘getch()’ and ‘getkey()’ for the
window become non-blocking.  To signal that no input is ready, ‘getch()’
returns ‘curses.ERR’ (a value of -1) and ‘getkey()’ raises an exception.
There's also a *note halfdelay(): 2b53. function, which can be used to
(in effect) set a timer on each ‘getch()’; if no input becomes available
within a specified delay (measured in tenths of a second), curses raises
an exception.

The ‘getch()’ method returns an integer; if it's between 0 and 255, it
represents the ASCII code of the key pressed.  Values greater than 255
are special keys such as Page Up, Home, or the cursor keys.  You can
compare the value returned to constants such as *note curses.KEY_PPAGE:
2bee, *note curses.KEY_HOME: 2bdf, or *note curses.KEY_LEFT: 2bdd.  The
main loop of your program may look something like this:

     while True:
         c = stdscr.getch()
         if c == ord('p'):
             PrintDocument()
         elif c == ord('q'):
             break  # Exit the while loop
         elif c == curses.KEY_HOME:
             x = y = 0

The *note curses.ascii: 2a. module supplies ASCII class membership
functions that take either integer or 1-character string arguments;
these may be useful in writing more readable tests for such loops.  It
also supplies conversion functions that take either integer or
1-character-string arguments and return the same type.  For example,
*note curses.ascii.ctrl(): 2ca3. returns the control character
corresponding to its argument.

There's also a method to retrieve an entire string, *note getstr():
2b9d.  It isn't used very often, because its functionality is quite
limited; the only editing keys available are the backspace key and the
Enter key, which terminates the string.  It can optionally be limited to
a fixed number of characters.

     curses.echo()            # Enable echoing of characters

     # Get a 15-character string, with the cursor on the top line
     s = stdscr.getstr(0,0, 15)

The *note curses.textpad: 2c. module supplies a text box that supports
an Emacs-like set of keybindings.  Various methods of the *note Textbox:
2c65. class support editing with input validation and gathering the edit
results either with or without trailing spaces.  Here's an example:

     import curses
     from curses.textpad import Textbox, rectangle

     def main(stdscr):
         stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Enter IM message: (hit Ctrl-G to send)")

         editwin = curses.newwin(5,30, 2,1)
         rectangle(stdscr, 1,0, 1+5+1, 1+30+1)
         stdscr.refresh()

         box = Textbox(editwin)

         # Let the user edit until Ctrl-G is struck.
         box.edit()

         # Get resulting contents
         message = box.gather()

See the library documentation on *note curses.textpad: 2c. for more
details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/


File: python.info,  Node: For More Information,  Prev: 使用者輸入,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.6 For More Information
--------------------------

This HOWTO doesn't cover some advanced topics, such as reading the
contents of the screen or capturing mouse events from an xterm instance,
but the Python library page for the *note curses: 29. module is now
reasonably complete.  You should browse it next.

If you're in doubt about the detailed behavior of the curses functions,
consult the manual pages for your curses implementation, whether it's
ncurses or a proprietary Unix vendor's.  The manual pages will document
any quirks, and provide complete lists of all the functions, attributes,
and *note ACS_*: 2c36. characters available to you.

Because the curses API is so large, some functions aren't supported in
the Python interface.  Often this isn't because they're difficult to
implement, but because no one has needed them yet.  Also, Python doesn't
yet support the menu library associated with ncurses.  Patches adding
support for these would be welcome; see the Python Developer's Guide(1)
to learn more about submitting patches to Python.

   * Writing Programs with NCURSES(2): a lengthy tutorial for C
     programmers.

   * ncurses 使用者手冊(3)

   * ncurses 問答集(4)

   * "Use curses...  don't swear"(5): video of a PyCon 2013 talk on
     controlling terminals using curses or Urwid.

   * "Console Applications with Urwid"(6): video of a PyCon CA 2012 talk
     demonstrating some applications written using Urwid.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/

   (2) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses-intro.html

   (3) https://linux.die.net/man/3/ncurses

   (4) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses.faq.html

   (5) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eN1eZtjLEnU

   (6) https://pyvideo.org/video/1568/console-applications-with-urwid


File: python.info,  Node: 描述器 Descriptor 指南,  Next: 使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯,  Prev: Curses Programming with Python,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.3 描述器 (Descriptor) 指南
============================


作者: Raymond Hettinger


聯絡方式: <python at rcn dot com>

*note 描述器: 1d03.讓物件自訂屬性能夠被查找、儲存和刪除。

此指南有四個主要章節：

  1. The "primer" gives a basic overview, moving gently from simple
     examples, adding one feature at a time.  Start here if you're new
     to descriptors.

  2. The second section shows a complete, practical descriptor example.
     If you already know the basics, start there.

  3. The third section provides a more technical tutorial that goes into
     the detailed mechanics of how descriptors work.  Most people don't
     need this level of detail.

  4. The last section has pure Python equivalents for built-in
     descriptors that are written in C. Read this if you're curious
     about how functions turn into bound methods or about the
     implementation of common tools like *note classmethod(): 24b, *note
     staticmethod(): 5f9, *note property(): 424, and *note __slots__:
     3d2.

* Menu:

* Primer::
* Complete Practical Example::
* Technical Tutorial::
* Pure Python Equivalents::


File: python.info,  Node: Primer,  Next: Complete Practical Example,  Up: 描述器 Descriptor 指南

9.3.1 Primer
------------

In this primer, we start with the most basic possible example and then
we'll add new capabilities one by one.

* Menu:

* Simple example; A descriptor that returns a constant: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant.
* Dynamic lookups::
* Managed attributes::
* Customized names::
* Closing thoughts::


File: python.info,  Node: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant,  Next: Dynamic lookups,  Up: Primer

9.3.1.1 Simple example: A descriptor that returns a constant
............................................................

The ‘Ten’ class is a descriptor whose ‘__get__()’ method always returns
the constant ‘10’:

     class Ten:
         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return 10

To use the descriptor, it must be stored as a class variable in another
class:

     class A:
         x = 5                       # Regular class attribute
         y = Ten()                   # Descriptor instance

An interactive session shows the difference between normal attribute
lookup and descriptor lookup:

     >>> a = A()                     # Make an instance of class A
     >>> a.x                         # Normal attribute lookup
     5
     >>> a.y                         # Descriptor lookup
     10

In the ‘a.x’ attribute lookup, the dot operator finds ‘'x': 5’ in the
class dictionary.  In the ‘a.y’ lookup, the dot operator finds a
descriptor instance, recognized by its ‘__get__’ method.  Calling that
method returns ‘10’.

Note that the value ‘10’ is not stored in either the class dictionary or
the instance dictionary.  Instead, the value ‘10’ is computed on demand.

This example shows how a simple descriptor works, but it isn't very
useful.  For retrieving constants, normal attribute lookup would be
better.

In the next section, we'll create something more useful, a dynamic
lookup.


File: python.info,  Node: Dynamic lookups,  Next: Managed attributes,  Prev: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant,  Up: Primer

9.3.1.2 Dynamic lookups
.......................

Interesting descriptors typically run computations instead of returning
constants:

     import os

     class DirectorySize:

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return len(os.listdir(obj.dirname))

     class Directory:

         size = DirectorySize()              # Descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, dirname):
             self.dirname = dirname          # Regular instance attribute

An interactive session shows that the lookup is dynamic — it computes
different, updated answers each time:

     >>> s = Directory('songs')
     >>> g = Directory('games')
     >>> s.size                              # The songs directory has twenty files
     20
     >>> g.size                              # The games directory has three files
     3
     >>> os.remove('games/chess')            # Delete a game
     >>> g.size                              # File count is automatically updated
     2

Besides showing how descriptors can run computations, this example also
reveals the purpose of the parameters to ‘__get__()’.  The 'self'
parameter is 'size', an instance of 'DirectorySize'.  The 'obj'
parameter is either 'g' or 's', an instance of 'Directory'.  It is the
'obj' parameter that lets the ‘__get__()’ method learn the target
directory.  The 'objtype' parameter is the class 'Directory'.


File: python.info,  Node: Managed attributes,  Next: Customized names,  Prev: Dynamic lookups,  Up: Primer

9.3.1.3 Managed attributes
..........................

A popular use for descriptors is managing access to instance data.  The
descriptor is assigned to a public attribute in the class dictionary
while the actual data is stored as a private attribute in the instance
dictionary.  The descriptor's ‘__get__()’ and ‘__set__()’ methods are
triggered when the public attribute is accessed.

In the following example, 'age' is the public attribute and '_age' is
the private attribute.  When the public attribute is accessed, the
descriptor logs the lookup or update:

     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class LoggedAgeAccess:

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             value = obj._age
             logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', 'age', value)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             logging.info('Updating %r to %r', 'age', value)
             obj._age = value

     class Person:

         age = LoggedAgeAccess()             # Descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, name, age):
             self.name = name                # Regular instance attribute
             self.age = age                  # Calls __set__()

         def birthday(self):
             self.age += 1                   # Calls both __get__() and __set__()

An interactive session shows that all access to the managed attribute
'age' is logged, but that the regular attribute 'name' is not logged:

     >>> mary = Person('Mary M', 30)         # The initial age update is logged
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 30
     >>> dave = Person('David D', 40)
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 40

     >>> vars(mary)                          # The actual data is in a private attribute
     {'name': 'Mary M', '_age': 30}
     >>> vars(dave)
     {'name': 'David D', '_age': 40}

     >>> mary.age                            # Access the data and log the lookup
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
     30
     >>> mary.birthday()                     # Updates are logged as well
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 31

     >>> dave.name                           # Regular attribute lookup isn't logged
     'David D'
     >>> dave.age                            # Only the managed attribute is logged
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 40
     40

One major issue with this example is that the private name '_age' is
hardwired in the 'LoggedAgeAccess' class.  That means that each instance
can only have one logged attribute and that its name is unchangeable.
In the next example, we'll fix that problem.


File: python.info,  Node: Customized names,  Next: Closing thoughts,  Prev: Managed attributes,  Up: Primer

9.3.1.4 Customized names
........................

When a class uses descriptors, it can inform each descriptor about which
variable name was used.

In this example, the ‘Person’ class has two descriptor instances, 'name'
and 'age'.  When the ‘Person’ class is defined, it makes a callback to
‘__set_name__()’ in 'LoggedAccess' so that the field names can be
recorded, giving each descriptor its own 'public_name' and
'private_name':

     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class LoggedAccess:

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.public_name = name
             self.private_name = '_' + name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             value = getattr(obj, self.private_name)
             logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', self.public_name, value)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             logging.info('Updating %r to %r', self.public_name, value)
             setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

     class Person:

         name = LoggedAccess()                # First descriptor instance
         age = LoggedAccess()                 # Second descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, name, age):
             self.name = name                 # Calls the first descriptor
             self.age = age                   # Calls the second descriptor

         def birthday(self):
             self.age += 1

An interactive session shows that the ‘Person’ class has called
‘__set_name__()’ so that the field names would be recorded.  Here we
call *note vars(): 182e. to look up the descriptor without triggering
it:

     >>> vars(vars(Person)['name'])
     {'public_name': 'name', 'private_name': '_name'}
     >>> vars(vars(Person)['age'])
     {'public_name': 'age', 'private_name': '_age'}

The new class now logs access to both 'name' and 'age':

     >>> pete = Person('Peter P', 10)
     INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Peter P'
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 10
     >>> kate = Person('Catherine C', 20)
     INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Catherine C'
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 20

The two 'Person' instances contain only the private names:

     >>> vars(pete)
     {'_name': 'Peter P', '_age': 10}
     >>> vars(kate)
     {'_name': 'Catherine C', '_age': 20}


File: python.info,  Node: Closing thoughts,  Prev: Customized names,  Up: Primer

9.3.1.5 Closing thoughts
........................

A *note descriptor: 1d03. is what we call any object that defines
‘__get__()’, ‘__set__()’, or ‘__delete__()’.

Optionally, descriptors can have a ‘__set_name__()’ method.  This is
only used in cases where a descriptor needs to know either the class
where it was created or the name of class variable it was assigned to.
(This method, if present, is called even if the class is not a
descriptor.)

Descriptors get invoked by the dot operator during attribute lookup.  If
a descriptor is accessed indirectly with
‘vars(some_class)[descriptor_name]’, the descriptor instance is returned
without invoking it.

Descriptors only work when used as class variables.  When put in
instances, they have no effect.

The main motivation for descriptors is to provide a hook allowing
objects stored in class variables to control what happens during
attribute lookup.

Traditionally, the calling class controls what happens during lookup.
Descriptors invert that relationship and allow the data being looked-up
to have a say in the matter.

Descriptors are used throughout the language.  It is how functions turn
into bound methods.  Common tools like *note classmethod(): 24b, *note
staticmethod(): 5f9, *note property(): 424, and *note
functools.cached_property(): 2c5. are all implemented as descriptors.


File: python.info,  Node: Complete Practical Example,  Next: Technical Tutorial,  Prev: Primer,  Up: 描述器 Descriptor 指南

9.3.2 Complete Practical Example
--------------------------------

In this example, we create a practical and powerful tool for locating
notoriously hard to find data corruption bugs.

* Menu:

* Validator class::
* Custom validators::
* Practical application::


File: python.info,  Node: Validator class,  Next: Custom validators,  Up: Complete Practical Example

9.3.2.1 Validator class
.......................

A validator is a descriptor for managed attribute access.  Prior to
storing any data, it verifies that the new value meets various type and
range restrictions.  If those restrictions aren't met, it raises an
exception to prevent data corruption at its source.

This ‘Validator’ class is both an *note abstract base class: 1047. and a
managed attribute descriptor:

     from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

     class Validator(ABC):

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.private_name = '_' + name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return getattr(obj, self.private_name)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             self.validate(value)
             setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

         @abstractmethod
         def validate(self, value):
             pass

Custom validators need to inherit from ‘Validator’ and must supply a
‘validate()’ method to test various restrictions as needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom validators,  Next: Practical application,  Prev: Validator class,  Up: Complete Practical Example

9.3.2.2 Custom validators
.........................

Here are three practical data validation utilities:

  1. ‘OneOf’ verifies that a value is one of a restricted set of
     options.

  2. ‘Number’ verifies that a value is either an *note int: 17e. or
     *note float: 26a.  Optionally, it verifies that a value is between
     a given minimum or maximum.

  3. ‘String’ verifies that a value is a *note str: 157.  Optionally, it
     validates a given minimum or maximum length.  It can validate a
     user-defined predicate(1) as well.

     class OneOf(Validator):

         def __init__(self, *options):
             self.options = set(options)

         def validate(self, value):
             if value not in self.options:
                 raise ValueError(f'Expected {value!r} to be one of {self.options!r}')

     class Number(Validator):

         def __init__(self, minvalue=None, maxvalue=None):
             self.minvalue = minvalue
             self.maxvalue = maxvalue

         def validate(self, value):
             if not isinstance(value, (int, float)):
                 raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an int or float')
             if self.minvalue is not None and value < self.minvalue:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be at least {self.minvalue!r}'
                 )
             if self.maxvalue is not None and value > self.maxvalue:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no more than {self.maxvalue!r}'
                 )

     class String(Validator):

         def __init__(self, minsize=None, maxsize=None, predicate=None):
             self.minsize = minsize
             self.maxsize = maxsize
             self.predicate = predicate

         def validate(self, value):
             if not isinstance(value, str):
                 raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an str')
             if self.minsize is not None and len(value) < self.minsize:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no smaller than {self.minsize!r}'
                 )
             if self.maxsize is not None and len(value) > self.maxsize:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no bigger than {self.maxsize!r}'
                 )
             if self.predicate is not None and not self.predicate(value):
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {self.predicate} to be true for {value!r}'
                 )

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)


File: python.info,  Node: Practical application,  Prev: Custom validators,  Up: Complete Practical Example

9.3.2.3 Practical application
.............................

Here's how the data validators can be used in a real class:

     class Component:

         name = String(minsize=3, maxsize=10, predicate=str.isupper)
         kind = OneOf('wood', 'metal', 'plastic')
         quantity = Number(minvalue=0)

         def __init__(self, name, kind, quantity):
             self.name = name
             self.kind = kind
             self.quantity = quantity

The descriptors prevent invalid instances from being created:

     >>> Component('Widget', 'metal', 5)      # Blocked: 'Widget' is not all uppercase
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected <method 'isupper' of 'str' objects> to be true for 'Widget'

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metle', 5)      # Blocked: 'metle' is misspelled
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected 'metle' to be one of {'metal', 'plastic', 'wood'}

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', -5)     # Blocked: -5 is negative
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected -5 to be at least 0
     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 'V')    # Blocked: 'V' isn't a number
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     TypeError: Expected 'V' to be an int or float

     >>> c = Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 5)  # Allowed:  The inputs are valid


File: python.info,  Node: Technical Tutorial,  Next: Pure Python Equivalents,  Prev: Complete Practical Example,  Up: 描述器 Descriptor 指南

9.3.3 Technical Tutorial
------------------------

What follows is a more technical tutorial for the mechanics and details
of how descriptors work.

* Menu:

* 摘要::
* Definition and introduction::
* 描述器協定::
* Overview of descriptor invocation::
* Invocation from an instance::
* Invocation from a class::
* Invocation from super::
* Summary of invocation logic::
* Automatic name notification::
* ORM 範例::


File: python.info,  Node: 摘要,  Next: Definition and introduction,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.1 摘要
............

Defines descriptors, summarizes the protocol, and shows how descriptors
are called.  Provides an example showing how object relational mappings
work.

Learning about descriptors not only provides access to a larger toolset,
it creates a deeper understanding of how Python works.


File: python.info,  Node: Definition and introduction,  Next: 描述器協定,  Prev: 摘要,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.2 Definition and introduction
...................................

In general, a descriptor is an attribute value that has one of the
methods in the descriptor protocol.  Those methods are ‘__get__()’,
‘__set__()’, and ‘__delete__()’.  If any of those methods are defined
for an attribute, it is said to be a *note descriptor: 1d03.

The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the
attribute from an object's dictionary.  For instance, ‘a.x’ has a lookup
chain starting with ‘a.__dict__['x']’, then ‘type(a).__dict__['x']’, and
continuing through the method resolution order of ‘type(a)’.  If the
looked-up value is an object defining one of the descriptor methods,
then Python may override the default behavior and invoke the descriptor
method instead.  Where this occurs in the precedence chain depends on
which descriptor methods were defined.

Descriptors are a powerful, general purpose protocol.  They are the
mechanism behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and
*note super(): 206.  They are used throughout Python itself.
Descriptors simplify the underlying C code and offer a flexible set of
new tools for everyday Python programs.


File: python.info,  Node: 描述器協定,  Next: Overview of descriptor invocation,  Prev: Definition and introduction,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.3 描述器協定
..................

‘descr.__get__(self, obj, type=None)’

‘descr.__set__(self, obj, value)’

‘descr.__delete__(self, obj)’

That is all there is to it.  Define any of these methods and an object
is considered a descriptor and can override default behavior upon being
looked up as an attribute.

If an object defines ‘__set__()’ or ‘__delete__()’, it is considered a
data descriptor.  Descriptors that only define ‘__get__()’ are called
non-data descriptors (they are often used for methods but other uses are
possible).

Data and non-data descriptors differ in how overrides are calculated
with respect to entries in an instance's dictionary.  If an instance's
dictionary has an entry with the same name as a data descriptor, the
data descriptor takes precedence.  If an instance's dictionary has an
entry with the same name as a non-data descriptor, the dictionary entry
takes precedence.

To make a read-only data descriptor, define both ‘__get__()’ and
‘__set__()’ with the ‘__set__()’ raising an *note AttributeError: 3ca.
when called.  Defining the ‘__set__()’ method with an exception raising
placeholder is enough to make it a data descriptor.


File: python.info,  Node: Overview of descriptor invocation,  Next: Invocation from an instance,  Prev: 描述器協定,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.4 Overview of descriptor invocation
.........................................

A descriptor can be called directly with ‘desc.__get__(obj)’ or
‘desc.__get__(None, cls)’.

But it is more common for a descriptor to be invoked automatically from
attribute access.

The expression ‘obj.x’ looks up the attribute ‘x’ in the chain of
namespaces for ‘obj’.  If the search finds a descriptor outside of the
instance *note __dict__: 2e2, its *note __get__(): 135e. method is
invoked according to the precedence rules listed below.

The details of invocation depend on whether ‘obj’ is an object, class,
or instance of super.


File: python.info,  Node: Invocation from an instance,  Next: Invocation from a class,  Prev: Overview of descriptor invocation,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.5 Invocation from an instance
...................................

Instance lookup scans through a chain of namespaces giving data
descriptors the highest priority, followed by instance variables, then
non-data descriptors, then class variables, and lastly ‘__getattr__()’
if it is provided.

If a descriptor is found for ‘a.x’, then it is invoked with:
‘desc.__get__(a, type(a))’.

The logic for a dotted lookup is in *note object.__getattribute__():
a33.  Here is a pure Python equivalent:

     def find_name_in_mro(cls, name, default):
         "Emulate _PyType_Lookup() in Objects/typeobject.c"
         for base in cls.__mro__:
             if name in vars(base):
                 return vars(base)[name]
         return default

     def object_getattribute(obj, name):
         "Emulate PyObject_GenericGetAttr() in Objects/object.c"
         null = object()
         objtype = type(obj)
         cls_var = find_name_in_mro(objtype, name, null)
         descr_get = getattr(type(cls_var), '__get__', null)
         if descr_get is not null:
             if (hasattr(type(cls_var), '__set__')
                 or hasattr(type(cls_var), '__delete__')):
                 return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)     # data descriptor
         if hasattr(obj, '__dict__') and name in vars(obj):
             return vars(obj)[name]                          # instance variable
         if descr_get is not null:
             return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)         # non-data descriptor
         if cls_var is not null:
             return cls_var                                  # class variable
         raise AttributeError(name)

Note, there is no ‘__getattr__()’ hook in the ‘__getattribute__()’ code.
That is why calling ‘__getattribute__()’ directly or with
‘super().__getattribute__’ will bypass ‘__getattr__()’ entirely.

Instead, it is the dot operator and the *note getattr(): a32. function
that are responsible for invoking ‘__getattr__()’ whenever
‘__getattribute__()’ raises an *note AttributeError: 3ca.  Their logic
is encapsulated in a helper function:

     def getattr_hook(obj, name):
         "Emulate slot_tp_getattr_hook() in Objects/typeobject.c"
         try:
             return obj.__getattribute__(name)
         except AttributeError:
             if not hasattr(type(obj), '__getattr__'):
                 raise
         return type(obj).__getattr__(obj, name)             # __getattr__


File: python.info,  Node: Invocation from a class,  Next: Invocation from super,  Prev: Invocation from an instance,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.6 Invocation from a class
...............................

The logic for a dotted lookup such as ‘A.x’ is in
‘type.__getattribute__()’.  The steps are similar to those for *note
object.__getattribute__(): a33. but the instance dictionary lookup is
replaced by a search through the class's *note method resolution order:
1f16.

If a descriptor is found, it is invoked with ‘desc.__get__(None, A)’.

The full C implementation can be found in ‘type_getattro()’ and
‘_PyType_Lookup()’ in Objects/typeobject.c(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Objects/typeobject.c


File: python.info,  Node: Invocation from super,  Next: Summary of invocation logic,  Prev: Invocation from a class,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.7 Invocation from super
.............................

The logic for super's dotted lookup is in the ‘__getattribute__()’
method for object returned by *note super(): 206.

A dotted lookup such as ‘super(A, obj).m’ searches
‘obj.__class__.__mro__’ for the base class ‘B’ immediately following ‘A’
and then returns ‘B.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj, A)’.  If not a
descriptor, ‘m’ is returned unchanged.

The full C implementation can be found in ‘super_getattro()’ in
Objects/typeobject.c(1).  A pure Python equivalent can be found in
Guido's Tutorial(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Objects/typeobject.c

   (2) 
https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.3/descrintro/#cooperation


File: python.info,  Node: Summary of invocation logic,  Next: Automatic name notification,  Prev: Invocation from super,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.8 Summary of invocation logic
...................................

The mechanism for descriptors is embedded in the ‘__getattribute__()’
methods for *note object: 8d9, *note type: bbb, and *note super(): 206.

要記住的重點是：

   * Descriptors are invoked by the ‘__getattribute__()’ method.

   * Classes inherit this machinery from *note object: 8d9, *note type:
     bbb, or *note super(): 206.

   * Overriding ‘__getattribute__()’ prevents automatic descriptor calls
     because all the descriptor logic is in that method.

   * *note object.__getattribute__(): a33. and ‘type.__getattribute__()’
     make different calls to ‘__get__()’.  The first includes the
     instance and may include the class.  The second puts in ‘None’ for
     the instance and always includes the class.

   * Data descriptors always override instance dictionaries.

   * Non-data descriptors may be overridden by instance dictionaries.


File: python.info,  Node: Automatic name notification,  Next: ORM 範例,  Prev: Summary of invocation logic,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.9 Automatic name notification
...................................

Sometimes it is desirable for a descriptor to know what class variable
name it was assigned to.  When a new class is created, the *note type:
bbb. metaclass scans the dictionary of the new class.  If any of the
entries are descriptors and if they define ‘__set_name__()’, that method
is called with two arguments.  The 'owner' is the class where the
descriptor is used, and the 'name' is the class variable the descriptor
was assigned to.

The implementation details are in ‘type_new()’ and ‘set_names()’ in
Objects/typeobject.c(1).

Since the update logic is in ‘type.__new__()’, notifications only take
place at the time of class creation.  If descriptors are added to the
class afterwards, ‘__set_name__()’ will need to be called manually.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Objects/typeobject.c


File: python.info,  Node: ORM 範例,  Prev: Automatic name notification,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.10 ORM 範例
.................

The following code is a simplified skeleton showing how data descriptors
could be used to implement an object relational mapping(1).

The essential idea is that the data is stored in an external database.
The Python instances only hold keys to the database's tables.
Descriptors take care of lookups or updates:

     class Field:

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.fetch = f'SELECT {name} FROM {owner.table} WHERE {owner.key}=?;'
             self.store = f'UPDATE {owner.table} SET {name}=? WHERE {owner.key}=?;'

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return conn.execute(self.fetch, [obj.key]).fetchone()[0]

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             conn.execute(self.store, [value, obj.key])
             conn.commit()

We can use the ‘Field’ class to define models(2) that describe the
schema for each table in a database:

     class Movie:
         table = 'Movies'                    # Table name
         key = 'title'                       # Primary key
         director = Field()
         year = Field()

         def __init__(self, key):
             self.key = key

     class Song:
         table = 'Music'
         key = 'title'
         artist = Field()
         year = Field()
         genre = Field()

         def __init__(self, key):
             self.key = key

To use the models, first connect to the database:

     >>> import sqlite3
     >>> conn = sqlite3.connect('entertainment.db')

An interactive session shows how data is retrieved from the database and
how it can be updated:

     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director
     'George Lucas'
     >>> jaws = Movie('Jaws')
     >>> f'Released in {jaws.year} by {jaws.director}'
     'Released in 1975 by Steven Spielberg'

     >>> Song('Country Roads').artist
     'John Denver'

     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director = 'J.J. Abrams'
     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director
     'J.J. Abrams'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%E2%80%93relational_mapping

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model


File: python.info,  Node: Pure Python Equivalents,  Prev: Technical Tutorial,  Up: 描述器 Descriptor 指南

9.3.4 Pure Python Equivalents
-----------------------------

The descriptor protocol is simple and offers exciting possibilities.
Several use cases are so common that they have been prepackaged into
built-in tools.  Properties, bound methods, static methods, class
methods, and __slots__ are all based on the descriptor protocol.

* Menu:

* Properties::
* Functions and methods::
* Kinds of methods::
* Static methods::
* Class methods::
* Member objects and __slots__::


File: python.info,  Node: Properties,  Next: Functions and methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.1 Properties
..................

Calling *note property(): 424. is a succinct way of building a data
descriptor that triggers a function call upon access to an attribute.
Its signature is:

     property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None) -> property

The documentation shows a typical use to define a managed attribute ‘x’:

     class C:
         def getx(self): return self.__x
         def setx(self, value): self.__x = value
         def delx(self): del self.__x
         x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

To see how *note property(): 424. is implemented in terms of the
descriptor protocol, here is a pure Python equivalent:

     class Property:
         "Emulate PyProperty_Type() in Objects/descrobject.c"

         def __init__(self, fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None):
             self.fget = fget
             self.fset = fset
             self.fdel = fdel
             if doc is None and fget is not None:
                 doc = fget.__doc__
             self.__doc__ = doc
             self._name = ''

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self._name = name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             if self.fget is None:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'property {self._name!r} of {type(obj).__name__!r} object has no getter'
                  )
             return self.fget(obj)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             if self.fset is None:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'property {self._name!r} of {type(obj).__name__!r} object has no setter'
                  )
             self.fset(obj, value)

         def __delete__(self, obj):
             if self.fdel is None:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'property {self._name!r} of {type(obj).__name__!r} object has no deleter'
                  )
             self.fdel(obj)

         def getter(self, fget):
             prop = type(self)(fget, self.fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)
             prop._name = self._name
             return prop

         def setter(self, fset):
             prop = type(self)(self.fget, fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)
             prop._name = self._name
             return prop

         def deleter(self, fdel):
             prop = type(self)(self.fget, self.fset, fdel, self.__doc__)
             prop._name = self._name
             return prop

The *note property(): 424. builtin helps whenever a user interface has
granted attribute access and then subsequent changes require the
intervention of a method.

For instance, a spreadsheet class may grant access to a cell value
through ‘Cell('b10').value’.  Subsequent improvements to the program
require the cell to be recalculated on every access; however, the
programmer does not want to affect existing client code accessing the
attribute directly.  The solution is to wrap access to the value
attribute in a property data descriptor:

     class Cell:
         ...

         @property
         def value(self):
             "Recalculate the cell before returning value"
             self.recalc()
             return self._value

Either the built-in *note property(): 424. or our ‘Property()’
equivalent would work in this example.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions and methods,  Next: Kinds of methods,  Prev: Properties,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.2 Functions and methods
.............................

Python's object oriented features are built upon a function based
environment.  Using non-data descriptors, the two are merged seamlessly.

Functions stored in class dictionaries get turned into methods when
invoked.  Methods only differ from regular functions in that the object
instance is prepended to the other arguments.  By convention, the
instance is called 'self' but could be called 'this' or any other
variable name.

Methods can be created manually with *note types.MethodType: 15c8. which
is roughly equivalent to:

     class MethodType:
         "Emulate PyMethod_Type in Objects/classobject.c"

         def __init__(self, func, obj):
             self.__func__ = func
             self.__self__ = obj

         def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             func = self.__func__
             obj = self.__self__
             return func(obj, *args, **kwargs)

To support automatic creation of methods, functions include the
‘__get__()’ method for binding methods during attribute access.  This
means that functions are non-data descriptors that return bound methods
during dotted lookup from an instance.  Here's how it works:

     class Function:
         ...

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             "Simulate func_descr_get() in Objects/funcobject.c"
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             return MethodType(self, obj)

Running the following class in the interpreter shows how the function
descriptor works in practice:

     class D:
         def f(self, x):
              return x

The function has a *note qualified name: 1716. attribute to support
introspection:

     >>> D.f.__qualname__
     'D.f'

Accessing the function through the class dictionary does not invoke
‘__get__()’.  Instead, it just returns the underlying function object:

     >>> D.__dict__['f']
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

Dotted access from a class calls ‘__get__()’ which just returns the
underlying function unchanged:

     >>> D.f
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

The interesting behavior occurs during dotted access from an instance.
The dotted lookup calls ‘__get__()’ which returns a bound method object:

     >>> d = D()
     >>> d.f
     <bound method D.f of <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>>

Internally, the bound method stores the underlying function and the
bound instance:

     >>> d.f.__func__
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

     >>> d.f.__self__
     <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>

If you have ever wondered where 'self' comes from in regular methods or
where 'cls' comes from in class methods, this is it!


File: python.info,  Node: Kinds of methods,  Next: Static methods,  Prev: Functions and methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.3 Kinds of methods
........................

Non-data descriptors provide a simple mechanism for variations on the
usual patterns of binding functions into methods.

To recap, functions have a ‘__get__()’ method so that they can be
converted to a method when accessed as attributes.  The non-data
descriptor transforms an ‘obj.f(*args)’ call into ‘f(obj, *args)’.
Calling ‘cls.f(*args)’ becomes ‘f(*args)’.

This chart summarizes the binding and its two most useful variants:

     Transformation        Called from an object      Called from a class
                                                      
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
     函式                  f(obj, *args)              f(*args)
                                                      
                                                      
     staticmethod          f(*args)                   f(*args)
                                                      
                                                      
     classmethod           f(type(obj), *args)        f(cls, *args)
                                                      


File: python.info,  Node: Static methods,  Next: Class methods,  Prev: Kinds of methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.4 Static methods
......................

Static methods return the underlying function without changes.  Calling
either ‘c.f’ or ‘C.f’ is the equivalent of a direct lookup into
‘object.__getattribute__(c, "f")’ or ‘object.__getattribute__(C, "f")’.
As a result, the function becomes identically accessible from either an
object or a class.

Good candidates for static methods are methods that do not reference the
‘self’ variable.

For instance, a statistics package may include a container class for
experimental data.  The class provides normal methods for computing the
average, mean, median, and other descriptive statistics that depend on
the data.  However, there may be useful functions which are conceptually
related but do not depend on the data.  For instance, ‘erf(x)’ is handy
conversion routine that comes up in statistical work but does not
directly depend on a particular dataset.  It can be called either from
an object or the class: ‘s.erf(1.5) --> .9332’ or ‘Sample.erf(1.5) -->
.9332’.

Since static methods return the underlying function with no changes, the
example calls are unexciting:

     class E:
         @staticmethod
         def f(x):
             return x * 10

     >>> E.f(3)
     30
     >>> E().f(3)
     30

Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of *note
staticmethod(): 5f9. would look like this:

     import functools

     class StaticMethod:
         "Emulate PyStaticMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

         def __init__(self, f):
             self.f = f
             functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return self.f

         def __call__(self, *args, **kwds):
             return self.f(*args, **kwds)

The *note functools.update_wrapper(): eb6. call adds a ‘__wrapped__’
attribute that refers to the underlying function.  Also it carries
forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like the
wrapped function: *note __name__: 1165, *note __qualname__: 1c8d, *note
__doc__: 106a, and *note __annotations__: 1069.


File: python.info,  Node: Class methods,  Next: Member objects and __slots__,  Prev: Static methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.5 Class methods
.....................

Unlike static methods, class methods prepend the class reference to the
argument list before calling the function.  This format is the same for
whether the caller is an object or a class:

     class F:
         @classmethod
         def f(cls, x):
             return cls.__name__, x

     >>> F.f(3)
     ('F', 3)
     >>> F().f(3)
     ('F', 3)

This behavior is useful whenever the method only needs to have a class
reference and does not rely on data stored in a specific instance.  One
use for class methods is to create alternate class constructors.  For
example, the classmethod *note dict.fromkeys(): 1fd9. creates a new
dictionary from a list of keys.  The pure Python equivalent is:

     class Dict(dict):
         @classmethod
         def fromkeys(cls, iterable, value=None):
             "Emulate dict_fromkeys() in Objects/dictobject.c"
             d = cls()
             for key in iterable:
                 d[key] = value
             return d

Now a new dictionary of unique keys can be constructed like this:

     >>> d = Dict.fromkeys('abracadabra')
     >>> type(d) is Dict
     True
     >>> d
     {'a': None, 'b': None, 'r': None, 'c': None, 'd': None}

Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of *note
classmethod(): 24b. would look like this:

     import functools

     class ClassMethod:
         "Emulate PyClassMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

         def __init__(self, f):
             self.f = f
             functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

         def __get__(self, obj, cls=None):
             if cls is None:
                 cls = type(obj)
             if hasattr(type(self.f), '__get__'):
                 # This code path was added in Python 3.9
                 # and was deprecated in Python 3.11.
                 return self.f.__get__(cls, cls)
             return MethodType(self.f, cls)

The code path for ‘hasattr(type(self.f), '__get__')’ was added in Python
3.9 and makes it possible for *note classmethod(): 24b. to support
chained decorators.  For example, a classmethod and property could be
chained together.  In Python 3.11, this functionality was deprecated.

     class G:
         @classmethod
         @property
         def __doc__(cls):
             return f'A doc for {cls.__name__!r}'

     >>> G.__doc__
     "A doc for 'G'"

The *note functools.update_wrapper(): eb6. call in ‘ClassMethod’ adds a
‘__wrapped__’ attribute that refers to the underlying function.  Also it
carries forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like
the wrapped function: *note __name__: 1165, *note __qualname__: 1c8d,
*note __doc__: 106a, and *note __annotations__: 1069.


File: python.info,  Node: Member objects and __slots__,  Prev: Class methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.6 Member objects and __slots__
....................................

When a class defines ‘__slots__’, it replaces instance dictionaries with
a fixed-length array of slot values.  From a user point of view that has
several effects:

1.  Provides immediate detection of bugs due to misspelled attribute
assignments.  Only attribute names specified in ‘__slots__’ are allowed:

     class Vehicle:
         __slots__ = ('id_number', 'make', 'model')

     >>> auto = Vehicle()
     >>> auto.id_nubmer = 'VYE483814LQEX'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'Vehicle' object has no attribute 'id_nubmer'

2.  Helps create immutable objects where descriptors manage access to
private attributes stored in ‘__slots__’:

     class Immutable:

         __slots__ = ('_dept', '_name')          # Replace the instance dictionary

         def __init__(self, dept, name):
             self._dept = dept                   # Store to private attribute
             self._name = name                   # Store to private attribute

         @property                               # Read-only descriptor
         def dept(self):
             return self._dept

         @property
         def name(self):                         # Read-only descriptor
             return self._name

     >>> mark = Immutable('Botany', 'Mark Watney')
     >>> mark.dept
     'Botany'
     >>> mark.dept = 'Space Pirate'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: property 'dept' of 'Immutable' object has no setter
     >>> mark.location = 'Mars'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'Immutable' object has no attribute 'location'

3.  Saves memory.  On a 64-bit Linux build, an instance with two
attributes takes 48 bytes with ‘__slots__’ and 152 bytes without.  This
flyweight design pattern(1) likely only matters when a large number of
instances are going to be created.

4.  Improves speed.  Reading instance variables is 35% faster with
‘__slots__’ (as measured with Python 3.10 on an Apple M1 processor).

5.  Blocks tools like *note functools.cached_property(): 2c5. which
require an instance dictionary to function correctly:

     from functools import cached_property

     class CP:
         __slots__ = ()                          # Eliminates the instance dict

         @cached_property                        # Requires an instance dict
         def pi(self):
             return 4 * sum((-1.0)**n / (2.0*n + 1.0)
                            for n in reversed(range(100_000)))

     >>> CP().pi
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: No '__dict__' attribute on 'CP' instance to cache 'pi' property.

It is not possible to create an exact drop-in pure Python version of
‘__slots__’ because it requires direct access to C structures and
control over object memory allocation.  However, we can build a mostly
faithful simulation where the actual C structure for slots is emulated
by a private ‘_slotvalues’ list.  Reads and writes to that private
structure are managed by member descriptors:

     null = object()

     class Member:

         def __init__(self, name, clsname, offset):
             'Emulate PyMemberDef in Include/structmember.h'
             # Also see descr_new() in Objects/descrobject.c
             self.name = name
             self.clsname = clsname
             self.offset = offset

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             'Emulate member_get() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             # Also see PyMember_GetOne() in Python/structmember.c
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
             if value is null:
                 raise AttributeError(self.name)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             'Emulate member_set() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = value

         def __delete__(self, obj):
             'Emulate member_delete() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
             if value is null:
                 raise AttributeError(self.name)
             obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = null

         def __repr__(self):
             'Emulate member_repr() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             return f'<Member {self.name!r} of {self.clsname!r}>'

The ‘type.__new__()’ method takes care of adding member objects to class
variables:

     class Type(type):
         'Simulate how the type metaclass adds member objects for slots'

         def __new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs):
             'Emulate type_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
             # type_new() calls PyTypeReady() which calls add_methods()
             slot_names = mapping.get('slot_names', [])
             for offset, name in enumerate(slot_names):
                 mapping[name] = Member(name, clsname, offset)
             return type.__new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs)

The *note object.__new__(): 30f. method takes care of creating instances
that have slots instead of an instance dictionary.  Here is a rough
simulation in pure Python:

     class Object:
         'Simulate how object.__new__() allocates memory for __slots__'

         def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
             'Emulate object_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
             inst = super().__new__(cls)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names'):
                 empty_slots = [null] * len(cls.slot_names)
                 object.__setattr__(inst, '_slotvalues', empty_slots)
             return inst

         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
             cls = type(self)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
                 )
             super().__setattr__(name, value)

         def __delattr__(self, name):
             'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
             cls = type(self)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
                 )
             super().__delattr__(name)

To use the simulation in a real class, just inherit from ‘Object’ and
set the *note metaclass: 1d19. to ‘Type’:

     class H(Object, metaclass=Type):
         'Instance variables stored in slots'

         slot_names = ['x', 'y']

         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

At this point, the metaclass has loaded member objects for 'x' and 'y':

     >>> from pprint import pp
     >>> pp(dict(vars(H)))
     {'__module__': '__main__',
      '__doc__': 'Instance variables stored in slots',
      'slot_names': ['x', 'y'],
      '__init__': <function H.__init__ at 0x7fb5d302f9d0>,
      'x': <Member 'x' of 'H'>,
      'y': <Member 'y' of 'H'>}

When instances are created, they have a ‘slot_values’ list where the
attributes are stored:

     >>> h = H(10, 20)
     >>> vars(h)
     {'_slotvalues': [10, 20]}
     >>> h.x = 55
     >>> vars(h)
     {'_slotvalues': [55, 20]}

Misspelled or unassigned attributes will raise an exception:

     >>> h.xz
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'H' object has no attribute 'xz'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyweight_pattern


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯,  Next: Enum HOWTO,  Prev: 描述器 Descriptor 指南,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.4 使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯
===================================================

本文件解釋如何將 Python GDB 擴充功能 ‘python-gdb.py’ 與 GDB 偵錯器一起使
用來為 CPython 擴充功能和 CPython 直譯器本身偵錯。

在為崩潰或死鎖等低階問題幀錯時，低階偵錯器（例如 GDB）對於診斷和修正問題
非常有用。預設情況下，GDB（或其任何前端）不支援特定於 CPython 直譯器的高
階資訊。

‘python-gdb.py’ 擴充功能將 CPython 直譯器資訊新增至 GDB。此擴充有助於內
省 (introspect) 目前執行的 Python 函式的堆疊。給定一個由 *note PyObject:
6d1.* 指標表示的 Python 物件，擴充功能會顯示該物件的型別和值。

正在開發 CPython 擴充功能或修補用 C 編寫之 CPython 部分的開發人員可以使
用本文件來學習如何將 ‘python-gdb.py’ 擴充功能與 GDB 一起使用。

     備註: 本文件假設你熟悉 GDB 和 CPython C API 的基礎知識。它整合了
     devguide(1) 和 Python wiki(2) 的指引。

* Menu:

* 先決條件::
* 使用偵錯建置與使用開發模式::
* 使用 python-gdb 擴充功能::
* 與 GDB 指令一起使用::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DebuggingWithGdb


File: python.info,  Node: 先決條件,  Next: 使用偵錯建置與使用開發模式,  Up: 使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯

9.4.1 先決條件
--------------

你需要有：

   - GDB 7 或更之後的版本。（對於早期版本的 GDB，請參閱 Python 3.11 或更
     早版本的原始程式碼中的 ‘Misc/gdbinit’。）

   - 對 Python 和你在偵錯的任何擴充功能來說的與 GDB 相容的偵錯資訊。

   - ‘python-gdb.py’ 擴充。

該擴充功能是用 Python 建置的，但可能會單獨發布或根本不發布。以下我們將一
些常見系統的提示作為範例。請注意，即使說明與你的系統匹配，它們也可能已過
時。

* Menu:

* 使用從原始碼建置的 Python 進行設定::
* 從 Linux 發行版設定 Python::


File: python.info,  Node: 使用從原始碼建置的 Python 進行設定,  Next: 從 Linux 發行版設定 Python,  Up: 先決條件

9.4.1.1 使用從原始碼建置的 Python 進行設定
..........................................

當你從原始程式碼建立 CPython 時，偵錯資訊應該可用，並且建置應該將
‘python-gdb.py’ 檔案新增至儲存庫的根目錄中。

若要啟用支援，你必須將包含 ‘python-gdb.py’ 的目錄新增至 GDB 的
"auto-load-safe-path"。如果你還沒有這樣做，最新版本的 GDB 將列印警告，其
中包含有關如何執行此操作的說明。

     備註: 如果你沒有看到適合你的 GDB 版本的說明，請將其放入你的設定檔中
     （‘~/.gdbinit’ 或 ‘~/.config/gdb/gdbinit’）：

          add-auto-load-safe-path /path/to/cpython

     你也可以新增多個路徑，要以 ‘:’ 分隔。


File: python.info,  Node: 從 Linux 發行版設定 Python,  Prev: 使用從原始碼建置的 Python 進行設定,  Up: 先決條件

9.4.1.2 從 Linux 發行版設定 Python
..................................

大多數 Linux 系統在名為 ‘python-debuginfo’、‘python-dbg’ 或類似的套件中
提供系統 Python 的偵錯資訊。例如：

   - Fedora：

               sudo dnf install gdb
               sudo dnf debuginfo-install python3

   - Ubuntu：

               sudo apt install gdb python3-dbg

在最近的幾個 Linux 系統上，GDB 可以使用 'debuginfod' 自動下載偵錯符號。
但是這不會安裝 ‘python-gdb.py’ 擴充功能；你通常需要另外安裝偵錯資訊套件
。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用偵錯建置與使用開發模式,  Next: 使用 python-gdb 擴充功能,  Prev: 先決條件,  Up: 使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯

9.4.2 使用偵錯建置與使用開發模式
--------------------------------

為了更輕鬆地進行偵錯，你可能需要：

   - 使用 Python 的*note 偵錯建置: 69f.。（從原始碼建置時，請使用
     ‘configure --with-pydebug’。在 Linux 發行版上，安裝並執行諸如
     ‘python-debug’ 或 ‘python-dbg’ 之類的套件（如果可用））。

   - 使用 runtime *note 開發模式: 703. (‘-X dev’)。

兩者都啟用額外的斷言 (assertion) 並停用一些最佳化。有時這會隱藏你試圖想
尋找的錯誤，但在大多數情況下，它們會使過程變得更容易。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 python-gdb 擴充功能,  Next: 與 GDB 指令一起使用,  Prev: 使用偵錯建置與使用開發模式,  Up: 使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯

9.4.3 使用 ‘python-gdb’ 擴充功能
--------------------------------

載入擴充功能後，它提供兩個主要功能：Python 值的漂亮列印器和附加命令。

* Menu:

* 漂亮列印器::
* py-list::
* py-up 和 py-down::
* py-bt::
* py-print::
* py-locals::


File: python.info,  Node: 漂亮列印器,  Next: py-list,  Up: 使用 python-gdb 擴充功能

9.4.3.1 漂亮列印器
..................

這是啟用此擴充功能時 GDB 回溯 (backtrace) 的樣子（有被截斷）：

     #0  0x000000000041a6b1 in PyObject_Malloc (nbytes=Cannot access memory at address 0x7fffff7fefe8
     ) at Objects/obmalloc.c:748
     #1  0x000000000041b7c0 in _PyObject_DebugMallocApi (id=111 'o', nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1445
     #2  0x000000000041b717 in _PyObject_DebugMalloc (nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1412
     #3  0x000000000044060a in _PyUnicode_New (length=11) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:346
     #4  0x00000000004466aa in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8Stateful (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0, consumed=
         0x0) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2531
     #5  0x0000000000446647 in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8 (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0)
         at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2495
     #6  0x0000000000440d1b in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromStringAndSize (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11)
         at Objects/unicodeobject.c:551
     #7  0x0000000000440d94 in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromString (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/unicodeobject.c:569
     #8  0x0000000000584abd in PyDict_GetItemString (v=
         {'Yuck': <type at remote 0xad4730>, '__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fd5ee8>, '__file__': 'Lib/test/crashers/nasty_eq_vs_dict.py', '__package__': None, 'y': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaacd80>, 'dict': {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 2, 3: 3}, '__cached__': None, '__name__': '__main__', 'z': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaace60>, '__doc__': None}, key=
         0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/dictobject.c:2171

請注意 ‘PyDict_GetItemString’ 的字典引數如何顯示為其 ‘repr()’，而不是不
透明的 ‘PyObject *’ 指標。

該擴充功能透過為 ‘PyObject *’ 型別的值提供自訂列印例程來運作。如果需要存
取物件較低階的詳細資訊，請將值轉換為適當型別的指標。例如：

     (gdb) p globals
     $1 = {'__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>, '__name__':
     '__main__', 'ctypes': <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>, '__doc__': None,
     '__package__': None}

     (gdb) p *(PyDictObject*)globals
     $2 = {ob_refcnt = 3, ob_type = 0x3dbdf85820, ma_fill = 5, ma_used = 5,
     ma_mask = 7, ma_table = 0x63d0f8, ma_lookup = 0x3dbdc7ea70
     <lookdict_string>, ma_smalltable = {{me_hash = 7065186196740147912,
     me_key = '__builtins__', me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>},
     {me_hash = -368181376027291943, me_key = '__name__',
     me_value ='__main__'}, {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
     {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
     {me_hash = -9177857982131165996, me_key = 'ctypes',
     me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>},
     {me_hash = -8518757509529533123, me_key = '__doc__', me_value = None},
     {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0}, {
       me_hash = 6614918939584953775, me_key = '__package__', me_value = None}}}

請注意，漂亮列印器其實並不呼叫 ‘repr()’。對於基本型別，他們嘗試緊密匹配
其結果。

一個可能令人困惑的地方是，某些型別的自訂列印器看起來很像 GDB 標準類型的
內建列印器。例如，Python ‘int’ (*note PyLongObject: 317.*) 的漂亮列印器
給出的表示法無法與常規機器層級整數之其一區分：

     (gdb) p some_machine_integer
     $3 = 42

     (gdb) p some_python_integer
     $4 = 42

可以透過轉換 (cast) 為 *note PyLongObject: 317.* 來揭示內部結構：

     (gdb) p '(PyLongObject')some_python_integer $5 = {ob_base =
     {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 8, ob_type = 0x3dad39f5e0}, ob_size = 1},
     ob_digit = {42}}

使用 ‘str’ 型別時也可能會出現類似的困惑，其中的輸出看起來很像對於 ‘char
*’ 的 gdb 內建列印器 ：

     (gdb) p ptr_to_python_str
     $6 = '__builtins__'

‘str’ 實例的漂亮列印器預設使用單引號（Python 的 ‘repr’ 對於字串也是如此
），而 ‘char *’ 值的標準列印器使用雙引號並包含十六進位位址：

     (gdb) p ptr_to_char_star
     $7 = 0x6d72c0 "hello world"

同樣，可以透過轉換為 *note PyUnicodeObject: 5b0.* 來揭示實作細節：

     (gdb) p *(PyUnicodeObject*)$6
     $8 = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 33, ob_type = 0x3dad3a95a0}, length = 12,
     str = 0x7ffff2128500, hash = 7065186196740147912, state = 1, defenc = 0x0}


File: python.info,  Node: py-list,  Next: py-up 和 py-down,  Prev: 漂亮列印器,  Up: 使用 python-gdb 擴充功能

9.4.3.2 ‘py-list’
.................

     該擴充功能新增了一個 ‘py-list’ 命令，該命令列出了所選執行緒中當前
     frame 的 Python 原始程式碼（如果有）。當前的列會標有 ">"：

          (gdb) py-list
           901        if options.profile:
           902            options.profile = False
           903            profile_me()
           904            return
           905
          >906        u = UI()
           907        if not u.quit:
           908            try:
           909                gtk.main()
           910            except KeyboardInterrupt:
           911                # properly quit on a keyboard interrupt...

     使用 ‘py-list START’ 列出 Python 原始碼中不同的列號，使用 ‘py-list
     START,END’ 列出 Python 原始碼中特定範圍的列。


File: python.info,  Node: py-up 和 py-down,  Next: py-bt,  Prev: py-list,  Up: 使用 python-gdb 擴充功能

9.4.3.3 ‘py-up’ 和 ‘py-down’
............................

     ‘py-up’ 和 ‘py-down’ 命令類似於 GDB 的常規 ‘up’ 和 ‘down’ 命令，但
     嘗試在 CPython frame 層級移動，而不是 C frame。

     GDB 並不總是能夠讀取相關的 frame 資訊，這取決於編譯 CPython 的最佳
     化等級。在內部，這些指令會尋找正在執行預設 frame 計算 (evaluation)
     函式（即 CPython 中迴圈的核心位元組碼直譯器）的 C frame，並尋找相關
     ‘PyFrameObject *’ 的值。

     它們在執行緒內發出（於 C 層級的）frame 編號。

     例如：

          (gdb) py-up
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
          gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          (gdb) py-up
          #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
          gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game(main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
              main.start_game()
          (gdb) py-up
          Unable to find an older python frame

     所以現在我們處於 Python 堆疊的頂端。

     frame 編號與 GDB 標準 ‘backtrace’ 指令顯示的 frame 編號相對應。此指
     令會跳過不執行 Python 程式碼的 C frame。

     回到下面：

          (gdb) py-down
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          (gdb) py-down
          #34 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #23 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #19 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
                      swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
          (gdb) py-down
          #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
                      gtk.main()
          (gdb) py-down
          #8 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          Unable to find a newer python frame

     我們現在處於 Python 堆疊的底部。

     請注意，在 Python 3.12 及更高版本中，同一個 C 堆疊 frame 可用於多個
     Python 堆疊 frame。這意味著 ‘py-up’ 和 ‘py-down’ 可以一次移動多個
     Python frame。例如：

          (gdb) py-up
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb62b0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 5, in recursive_function (n=0)
             time.sleep(5)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6240, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=1)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb61d0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=2)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6160, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=3)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb60f0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=4)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6080, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=5)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6020, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 9, in <module> ()
             recursive_function(5)
          (gdb) py-up
          Unable to find an older python frame


File: python.info,  Node: py-bt,  Next: py-print,  Prev: py-up 和 py-down,  Up: 使用 python-gdb 擴充功能

9.4.3.4 ‘py-bt’
...............

     ‘py-bt’ 指令嘗試顯示目前執行緒的 Python 層級回溯。

     例如：

          (gdb) py-bt
          #8 (unable to read python frame information)
          #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
                      gtk.main()
          #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
                      swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
          #19 (unable to read python frame information)
          #23 (unable to read python frame information)
          #34 (unable to read python frame information)
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game (main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
              main.start_game()

     The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB's standard
     ‘backtrace’ command.


File: python.info,  Node: py-print,  Next: py-locals,  Prev: py-bt,  Up: 使用 python-gdb 擴充功能

9.4.3.5 ‘py-print’
..................

     ‘py-print’ 命令查找 Python 名稱並嘗試列印它。它在當前執行緒中尋找局
     部變數，然後是全域變數，最後是內建變數：

          (gdb) py-print self
          local 'self' = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
          main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
          (gdb) py-print __name__
          global '__name__' = 'gnome_sudoku.dialog_swallower'
          (gdb) py-print len
          builtin 'len' = <built-in function len>
          (gdb) py-print scarlet_pimpernel
          'scarlet_pimpernel' not found

     如果目前 C frame 對應多個 Python frame，則 ‘py-print’ 僅考慮第一個
     。


File: python.info,  Node: py-locals,  Prev: py-print,  Up: 使用 python-gdb 擴充功能

9.4.3.6 ‘py-locals’
...................

     ‘py-locals’ 命令尋找所選執行緒中當前 Python frame 內的所有 Python 局
     部變數，並列印它們的表示：

          (gdb) py-locals
          self = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
          main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
          d = <gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>

     如果目前 C frame 對應於多個 Python frame，則會顯示所有這些 frame 的
     局部變數：

          (gdb) py-locals
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 0
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 1
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 2
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 3
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 4
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 5
          Locals for <module>


File: python.info,  Node: 與 GDB 指令一起使用,  Prev: 使用 python-gdb 擴充功能,  Up: 使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯

9.4.4 與 GDB 指令一起使用
-------------------------

擴充命令補充了 GDB 的內建命令。例如，你可以將 ‘py-bt’ 顯示的 frame 編號
與 ‘frame’ 命令一同使用來跳到所選執行緒中的特定 frame，如下所示：

     (gdb) py-bt
     (output snipped)
     #68 Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> ()
             main()
     (gdb) frame 68
     #68 0x00000000004cd1e6 in PyEval_EvalFrameEx (f=Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> (), throwflag=0) at Python/ceval.c:2665
     2665                            x = call_function(&sp, oparg);
     (gdb) py-list
     1543        # Run the tests in a context manager that temporary changes the CWD to a
     1544        # temporary and writable directory. If it's not possible to create or
     1545        # change the CWD, the original CWD will be used. The original CWD is
     1546        # available from test_support.SAVEDCWD.
     1547        with test_support.temp_cwd(TESTCWD, quiet=True):
     >1548            main()

‘info threads’ 命令將為你提供行程內的執行緒串列，你可以使用 ‘thread’ 命
令選擇不同的執行緒：

     (gdb) info threads
       105 Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
       104 Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
     * 1 Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)  0x00000038e46d73e3 in select () at ../sysdeps/unix/syscall-template.S:82

你可以使用 ‘thread apply all COMMAND’（或簡短地用 ‘t a a COMMAND’）在所
有執行緒上執行命令。使用 ‘py-bt’ 你可以看到每個執行緒在 Python 層級正在
做什麼：

     (gdb) t a a py-bt

     Thread 105 (Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)):
     #5 Frame 0x7fffd00019d0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140737213728528), count=1, owner=140737213728528)
             self.__block.acquire()
     #8 Frame 0x7fffac001640, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858a90>, saved_state=(1, 140737213728528))
                 self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
     #12 Frame 0x7fffb8001a10, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
                 cond.wait()
     #16 Frame 0x7fffb8001c40, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140737213728528)
                     f()

     Thread 104 (Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)):
     #5 Frame 0x7fffe4001580, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140736940992272), count=1, owner=140736940992272)
             self.__block.acquire()
     #8 Frame 0x7fffc8002090, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858860>, saved_state=(1, 140736940992272))
                 self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
     #12 Frame 0x7fffac001c90, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
                 cond.wait()
     #16 Frame 0x7fffac0011c0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140736940992272)
                     f()

     Thread 1 (Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)):
     #5 Frame 0xcb5380, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 16, in _wait ()
         time.sleep(0.01)
     #8 Frame 0x7fffd00024a0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 378, in _check_notify (self=<ConditionTests(_testMethodName='test_notify', _resultForDoCleanups=<TestResult(_original_stdout=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc191e0>, skipped=[], _mirrorOutput=False, testsRun=39, buffer=False, _original_stderr=<file at remote 0x7ffff7fc6340>, _stdout_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c7f8>, _stderr_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c790>, _moduleSetUpFailed=False, expectedFailures=[], errors=[], _previousTestClass=<type at remote 0x928310>, unexpectedSuccesses=[], failures=[], shouldStop=False, failfast=False) at remote 0xc185a0>, _threads=(0,), _cleanups=[], _type_equality_funcs={<type at remote 0x7eba00>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd750e0>, <type at remote 0x7e7820>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75160>, <type at remote 0x7e30e0>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75060>, <type at remote 0x7e7d20>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd751e0>, <type at remote 0x7f19e0...(truncated)
             _wait()


File: python.info,  Node: Enum HOWTO,  Next: 函式編程 HOWTO,  Prev: 使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.5 Enum HOWTO
==============

An *note Enum: 42b. is a set of symbolic names bound to unique values.
They are similar to global variables, but they offer a more useful *note
repr(): 61e, grouping, type-safety, and a few other features.

They are most useful when you have a variable that can take one of a
limited selection of values.  For example, the days of the week:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Weekday(Enum):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
     ...     THURSDAY = 4
     ...     FRIDAY = 5
     ...     SATURDAY = 6
     ...     SUNDAY = 7

Or perhaps the RGB primary colors:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3

As you can see, creating an *note Enum: 42b. is as simple as writing a
class that inherits from *note Enum: 42b. itself.

     備註: Case of Enum Members

     Because Enums are used to represent constants, and to help avoid
     issues with name clashes between mixin-class methods/attributes and
     enum names, we strongly recommend using UPPER_CASE names for
     members, and will be using that style in our examples.

Depending on the nature of the enum a member's value may or may not be
important, but either way that value can be used to get the
corresponding member:

     >>> Weekday(3)
     <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 3>

As you can see, the ‘repr()’ of a member shows the enum name, the member
name, and the value.  The ‘str()’ of a member shows only the enum name
and member name:

     >>> print(Weekday.THURSDAY)
     Weekday.THURSDAY

The 'type' of an enumeration member is the enum it belongs to:

     >>> type(Weekday.MONDAY)
     <enum 'Weekday'>
     >>> isinstance(Weekday.FRIDAY, Weekday)
     True

Enum members have an attribute that contains just their ‘name’:

     >>> print(Weekday.TUESDAY.name)
     TUESDAY

Likewise, they have an attribute for their ‘value’:

     >>> Weekday.WEDNESDAY.value
     3

Unlike many languages that treat enumerations solely as name/value
pairs, Python Enums can have behavior added.  For example, *note
datetime.date: 72f. has two methods for returning the weekday:
‘weekday()’ and ‘isoweekday()’.  The difference is that one of them
counts from 0-6 and the other from 1-7.  Rather than keep track of that
ourselves we can add a method to the ‘Weekday’ enum to extract the day
from the ‘date’ instance and return the matching enum member:

     @classmethod
     def from_date(cls, date):
         return cls(date.isoweekday())

The complete ‘Weekday’ enum now looks like this:

     >>> class Weekday(Enum):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
     ...     THURSDAY = 4
     ...     FRIDAY = 5
     ...     SATURDAY = 6
     ...     SUNDAY = 7
     ...     #
     ...     @classmethod
     ...     def from_date(cls, date):
     ...         return cls(date.isoweekday())

Now we can find out what today is!  Observe:

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> Weekday.from_date(date.today())
     <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>

Of course, if you're reading this on some other day, you'll see that day
instead.

This ‘Weekday’ enum is great if our variable only needs one day, but
what if we need several?  Maybe we're writing a function to plot chores
during a week, and don't want to use a *note list: 40a. - we could use a
different type of *note Enum: 42b.:

     >>> from enum import Flag
     >>> class Weekday(Flag):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 4
     ...     THURSDAY = 8
     ...     FRIDAY = 16
     ...     SATURDAY = 32
     ...     SUNDAY = 64

We've changed two things: we're inherited from *note Flag: 41d, and the
values are all powers of 2.

Just like the original ‘Weekday’ enum above, we can have a single
selection:

     >>> first_week_day = Weekday.MONDAY
     >>> first_week_day
     <Weekday.MONDAY: 1>

But *note Flag: 41d. also allows us to combine several members into a
single variable:

     >>> weekend = Weekday.SATURDAY | Weekday.SUNDAY
     >>> weekend
     <Weekday.SATURDAY|SUNDAY: 96>

You can even iterate over a *note Flag: 41d. variable:

     >>> for day in weekend:
     ...     print(day)
     Weekday.SATURDAY
     Weekday.SUNDAY

Okay, let's get some chores set up:

     >>> chores_for_ethan = {
     ...     'feed the cat': Weekday.MONDAY | Weekday.WEDNESDAY | Weekday.FRIDAY,
     ...     'do the dishes': Weekday.TUESDAY | Weekday.THURSDAY,
     ...     'answer SO questions': Weekday.SATURDAY,
     ...     }

And a function to display the chores for a given day:

     >>> def show_chores(chores, day):
     ...     for chore, days in chores.items():
     ...         if day in days:
     ...             print(chore)
     ...
     >>> show_chores(chores_for_ethan, Weekday.SATURDAY)
     answer SO questions

In cases where the actual values of the members do not matter, you can
save yourself some work and use *note auto(): b09. for the values:

     >>> from enum import auto
     >>> class Weekday(Flag):
     ...     MONDAY = auto()
     ...     TUESDAY = auto()
     ...     WEDNESDAY = auto()
     ...     THURSDAY = auto()
     ...     FRIDAY = auto()
     ...     SATURDAY = auto()
     ...     SUNDAY = auto()
     ...     WEEKEND = SATURDAY | SUNDAY

* Menu:

* Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes::
* Duplicating enum members and values::
* Ensuring unique enumeration values::
* Using automatic values::
* Iteration: Iteration<2>.
* 比較::
* Allowed members and attributes of enumerations::
* Restricted Enum subclassing::
* Dataclass support::
* Pickling::
* Functional API: Functional API<2>.
* Derived Enumerations::
* When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__.
* How are Enums and Flags different?::
* Enum Cookbook::
* Subclassing EnumType::


File: python.info,  Node: Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes,  Next: Duplicating enum members and values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.1 Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes
---------------------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes it's useful to access members in enumerations programmatically
(i.e.  situations where ‘Color.RED’ won't do because the exact color is
not known at program-writing time).  ‘Enum’ allows such access:

     >>> Color(1)
     <Color.RED: 1>
     >>> Color(3)
     <Color.BLUE: 3>

If you want to access enum members by 'name', use item access:

     >>> Color['RED']
     <Color.RED: 1>
     >>> Color['GREEN']
     <Color.GREEN: 2>

If you have an enum member and need its ‘name’ or ‘value’:

     >>> member = Color.RED
     >>> member.name
     'RED'
     >>> member.value
     1


File: python.info,  Node: Duplicating enum members and values,  Next: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Prev: Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.2 Duplicating enum members and values
-----------------------------------------

Having two enum members with the same name is invalid:

     >>> class Shape(Enum):
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...     SQUARE = 3
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: 'SQUARE' already defined as 2

However, an enum member can have other names associated with it.  Given
two entries ‘A’ and ‘B’ with the same value (and ‘A’ defined first), ‘B’
is an alias for the member ‘A’.  By-value lookup of the value of ‘A’
will return the member ‘A’.  By-name lookup of ‘A’ will return the
member ‘A’.  By-name lookup of ‘B’ will also return the member ‘A’:

     >>> class Shape(Enum):
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...     DIAMOND = 1
     ...     CIRCLE = 3
     ...     ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape.SQUARE
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
     >>> Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
     >>> Shape(2)
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>

     備註: Attempting to create a member with the same name as an
     already defined attribute (another member, a method, etc.)  or
     attempting to create an attribute with the same name as a member is
     not allowed.


File: python.info,  Node: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Next: Using automatic values,  Prev: Duplicating enum members and values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.3 Ensuring unique enumeration values
----------------------------------------

By default, enumerations allow multiple names as aliases for the same
value.  When this behavior isn't desired, you can use the *note
unique(): 2345. decorator:

     >>> from enum import Enum, unique
     >>> @unique
     ... class Mistake(Enum):
     ...     ONE = 1
     ...     TWO = 2
     ...     THREE = 3
     ...     FOUR = 3
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE


File: python.info,  Node: Using automatic values,  Next: Iteration<2>,  Prev: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.4 Using automatic values
----------------------------

If the exact value is unimportant you can use *note auto: b09.:

     >>> from enum import Enum, auto
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> [member.value for member in Color]
     [1, 2, 3]

The values are chosen by ‘_generate_next_value_()’, which can be
overridden:

     >>> class AutoName(Enum):
     ...     @staticmethod
     ...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
     ...         return name
     ...
     >>> class Ordinal(AutoName):
     ...     NORTH = auto()
     ...     SOUTH = auto()
     ...     EAST = auto()
     ...     WEST = auto()
     ...
     >>> [member.value for member in Ordinal]
     ['NORTH', 'SOUTH', 'EAST', 'WEST']

     備註: The ‘_generate_next_value_()’ method must be defined before
     any members.


File: python.info,  Node: Iteration<2>,  Next: 比較,  Prev: Using automatic values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.5 Iteration
---------------

Iterating over the members of an enum does not provide the aliases:

     >>> list(Shape)
     [<Shape.SQUARE: 2>, <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>, <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>]
     >>> list(Weekday)
     [<Weekday.MONDAY: 1>, <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>, <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 4>, <Weekday.THURSDAY: 8>, <Weekday.FRIDAY: 16>, <Weekday.SATURDAY: 32>, <Weekday.SUNDAY: 64>]

Note that the aliases ‘Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE’ and ‘Weekday.WEEKEND’
aren't shown.

The special attribute ‘__members__’ is a read-only ordered mapping of
names to members.  It includes all names defined in the enumeration,
including the aliases:

     >>> for name, member in Shape.__members__.items():
     ...     name, member
     ...
     ('SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)
     ('DIAMOND', <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>)
     ('CIRCLE', <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>)
     ('ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)

The ‘__members__’ attribute can be used for detailed programmatic access
to the enumeration members.  For example, finding all the aliases:

     >>> [name for name, member in Shape.__members__.items() if member.name != name]
     ['ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE']

     備註: Aliases for flags include values with multiple flags set,
     such as ‘3’, and no flags set, i.e.  ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: 比較,  Next: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Prev: Iteration<2>,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.6 比較
----------

Enumeration members are compared by identity:

     >>> Color.RED is Color.RED
     True
     >>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE
     False
     >>> Color.RED is not Color.BLUE
     True

Ordered comparisons between enumeration values are 'not' supported.
Enum members are not integers (but see *note IntEnum: 4d27. below):

     >>> Color.RED < Color.BLUE
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'Color' and 'Color'

Equality comparisons are defined though:

     >>> Color.BLUE == Color.RED
     False
     >>> Color.BLUE != Color.RED
     True
     >>> Color.BLUE == Color.BLUE
     True

Comparisons against non-enumeration values will always compare not equal
(again, *note IntEnum: b4c. was explicitly designed to behave
differently, see below):

     >>> Color.BLUE == 2
     False

     警告: It is possible to reload modules - if a reloaded module
     contains enums, they will be recreated, and the new members may not
     compare identical/equal to the original members.


File: python.info,  Node: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Next: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Prev: 比較,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.7 Allowed members and attributes of enumerations
----------------------------------------------------

Most of the examples above use integers for enumeration values.  Using
integers is short and handy (and provided by default by the *note
Functional API: 4d29.), but not strictly enforced.  In the vast majority
of use-cases, one doesn't care what the actual value of an enumeration
is.  But if the value 'is' important, enumerations can have arbitrary
values.

Enumerations are Python classes, and can have methods and special
methods as usual.  If we have this enumeration:

     >>> class Mood(Enum):
     ...     FUNKY = 1
     ...     HAPPY = 3
     ...
     ...     def describe(self):
     ...         # self is the member here
     ...         return self.name, self.value
     ...
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'my custom str! {0}'.format(self.value)
     ...
     ...     @classmethod
     ...     def favorite_mood(cls):
     ...         # cls here is the enumeration
     ...         return cls.HAPPY
     ...

Then:

     >>> Mood.favorite_mood()
     <Mood.HAPPY: 3>
     >>> Mood.HAPPY.describe()
     ('HAPPY', 3)
     >>> str(Mood.FUNKY)
     'my custom str! 1'

The rules for what is allowed are as follows: names that start and end
with a single underscore are reserved by enum and cannot be used; all
other attributes defined within an enumeration will become members of
this enumeration, with the exception of special methods (‘__str__()’,
‘__add__()’, etc.), descriptors (methods are also descriptors), and
variable names listed in ‘_ignore_’.

Note: if your enumeration defines ‘__new__()’ and/or ‘__init__()’, any
value(s) given to the enum member will be passed into those methods.
See *note Planet: 4d2a. for an example.

     備註: The ‘__new__()’ method, if defined, is used during creation
     of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum's ‘__new__()’
     which is used after class creation for lookup of existing members.
     See *note When to use __new__() vs.  __init__(): 4d2b. for more
     details.


File: python.info,  Node: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Next: Dataclass support,  Prev: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.8 Restricted Enum subclassing
---------------------------------

A new *note Enum: 42b. class must have one base enum class, up to one
concrete data type, and as many *note object: 8d9.-based mixin classes
as needed.  The order of these base classes is:

     class EnumName([mix-in, ...,] [data-type,] base-enum):
         pass

Also, subclassing an enumeration is allowed only if the enumeration does
not define any members.  So this is forbidden:

     >>> class MoreColor(Color):
     ...     PINK = 17
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: <enum 'MoreColor'> cannot extend <enum 'Color'>

但這是允許的：

     >>> class Foo(Enum):
     ...     def some_behavior(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> class Bar(Foo):
     ...     HAPPY = 1
     ...     SAD = 2
     ...

Allowing subclassing of enums that define members would lead to a
violation of some important invariants of types and instances.  On the
other hand, it makes sense to allow sharing some common behavior between
a group of enumerations.  (See *note OrderedEnum: 4d2d. for an example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Dataclass support,  Next: Pickling,  Prev: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.9 Dataclass support
-----------------------

When inheriting from a *note dataclass: 3bc, the *note __repr__(): 154f.
omits the inherited class' name.  For example:

     >>> from dataclasses import dataclass, field
     >>> @dataclass
     ... class CreatureDataMixin:
     ...     size: str
     ...     legs: int
     ...     tail: bool = field(repr=False, default=True)
     ...
     >>> class Creature(CreatureDataMixin, Enum):
     ...     BEETLE = 'small', 6
     ...     DOG = 'medium', 4
     ...
     >>> Creature.DOG
     <Creature.DOG: size='medium', legs=4>

Use the ‘dataclass()’ argument ‘repr=False’ to use the standard *note
repr(): 61e.

在 3.12 版的變更: Only the dataclass fields are shown in the value area,
not the dataclass' name.


File: python.info,  Node: Pickling,  Next: Functional API<2>,  Prev: Dataclass support,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.10 Pickling
---------------

Enumerations can be pickled and unpickled:

     >>> from test.test_enum import Fruit
     >>> from pickle import dumps, loads
     >>> Fruit.TOMATO is loads(dumps(Fruit.TOMATO))
     True

The usual restrictions for pickling apply: picklable enums must be
defined in the top level of a module, since unpickling requires them to
be importable from that module.

     備註: With pickle protocol version 4 it is possible to easily
     pickle enums nested in other classes.

It is possible to modify how enum members are pickled/unpickled by
defining ‘__reduce_ex__()’ in the enumeration class.  The default method
is by-value, but enums with complicated values may want to use by-name:

     >>> import enum
     >>> class MyEnum(enum.Enum):
     ...     __reduce_ex__ = enum.pickle_by_enum_name

     備註: Using by-name for flags is not recommended, as unnamed
     aliases will not unpickle.


File: python.info,  Node: Functional API<2>,  Next: Derived Enumerations,  Prev: Pickling,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.11 Functional API
---------------------

The *note Enum: 42b. class is callable, providing the following
functional API:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG')
     >>> Animal
     <enum 'Animal'>
     >>> Animal.ANT
     <Animal.ANT: 1>
     >>> list(Animal)
     [<Animal.ANT: 1>, <Animal.BEE: 2>, <Animal.CAT: 3>, <Animal.DOG: 4>]

The semantics of this API resemble *note namedtuple: 731.  The first
argument of the call to *note Enum: 42b. is the name of the enumeration.

The second argument is the 'source' of enumeration member names.  It can
be a whitespace-separated string of names, a sequence of names, a
sequence of 2-tuples with key/value pairs, or a mapping (e.g.
dictionary) of names to values.  The last two options enable assigning
arbitrary values to enumerations; the others auto-assign increasing
integers starting with 1 (use the ‘start’ parameter to specify a
different starting value).  A new class derived from *note Enum: 42b. is
returned.  In other words, the above assignment to ‘Animal’ is
equivalent to:

     >>> class Animal(Enum):
     ...     ANT = 1
     ...     BEE = 2
     ...     CAT = 3
     ...     DOG = 4
     ...

The reason for defaulting to ‘1’ as the starting number and not ‘0’ is
that ‘0’ is ‘False’ in a boolean sense, but by default enum members all
evaluate to ‘True’.

Pickling enums created with the functional API can be tricky as frame
stack implementation details are used to try and figure out which module
the enumeration is being created in (e.g.  it will fail if you use a
utility function in a separate module, and also may not work on
IronPython or Jython).  The solution is to specify the module name
explicitly as follows:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', module=__name__)

     警告: If ‘module’ is not supplied, and Enum cannot determine what
     it is, the new Enum members will not be unpicklable; to keep errors
     closer to the source, pickling will be disabled.

The new pickle protocol 4 also, in some circumstances, relies on *note
__qualname__: 1cb8. being set to the location where pickle will be able
to find the class.  For example, if the class was made available in
class SomeData in the global scope:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', qualname='SomeData.Animal')

The complete signature is:

     Enum(
         value='NewEnumName',
         names=<...>,
         *,
         module='...',
         qualname='...',
         type=<mixed-in class>,
         start=1,
         )

   * 'value': What the new enum class will record as its name.

   * 'names': The enum members.  This can be a whitespace- or
     comma-separated string (values will start at 1 unless otherwise
     specified):

          'RED GREEN BLUE' | 'RED,GREEN,BLUE' | 'RED, GREEN, BLUE'

     or an iterator of names:

          ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

     or an iterator of (name, value) pairs:

          [('CYAN', 4), ('MAGENTA', 5), ('YELLOW', 6)]

     or a mapping:

          {'CHARTREUSE': 7, 'SEA_GREEN': 11, 'ROSEMARY': 42}

   * 'module': name of module where new enum class can be found.

   * 'qualname': where in module new enum class can be found.

   * 'type': type to mix in to new enum class.

   * 'start': number to start counting at if only names are passed in.

在 3.5 版的變更: The 'start' parameter was added.


File: python.info,  Node: Derived Enumerations,  Next: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Prev: Functional API<2>,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.12 Derived Enumerations
---------------------------

* Menu:

* IntEnum::
* StrEnum::
* IntFlag::
* Flag::
* 其他: 其他<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: IntEnum,  Next: StrEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.5.12.1 IntEnum
................

The first variation of *note Enum: 42b. that is provided is also a
subclass of *note int: 17e.  Members of an *note IntEnum: b4c. can be
compared to integers; by extension, integer enumerations of different
types can also be compared to each other:

     >>> from enum import IntEnum
     >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
     ...     CIRCLE = 1
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> class Request(IntEnum):
     ...     POST = 1
     ...     GET = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape == 1
     False
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == 1
     True
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Request.POST
     True

However, they still can't be compared to standard *note Enum: 42b.
enumerations:

     >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
     ...     CIRCLE = 1
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Color.RED
     False

*note IntEnum: b4c. values behave like integers in other ways you'd
expect:

     >>> int(Shape.CIRCLE)
     1
     >>> ['a', 'b', 'c'][Shape.CIRCLE]
     'b'
     >>> [i for i in range(Shape.SQUARE)]
     [0, 1]


File: python.info,  Node: StrEnum,  Next: IntFlag,  Prev: IntEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.5.12.2 StrEnum
................

The second variation of *note Enum: 42b. that is provided is also a
subclass of *note str: 157.  Members of a *note StrEnum: 414. can be
compared to strings; by extension, string enumerations of different
types can also be compared to each other.

在 3.11 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: IntFlag,  Next: Flag,  Prev: StrEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.5.12.3 IntFlag
................

The next variation of *note Enum: 42b. provided, *note IntFlag: 2093, is
also based on *note int: 17e.  The difference being *note IntFlag: 2093.
members can be combined using the bitwise operators (&, |, ^, ~) and the
result is still an *note IntFlag: 2093. member, if possible.  Like *note
IntEnum: b4c, *note IntFlag: 2093. members are also integers and can be
used wherever an *note int: 17e. is used.

     備註: Any operation on an *note IntFlag: 2093. member besides the
     bit-wise operations will lose the *note IntFlag: 2093. membership.

     Bit-wise operations that result in invalid *note IntFlag: 2093.
     values will lose the *note IntFlag: 2093. membership.  See *note
     FlagBoundary: 41e. for details.

在 3.6 版被加入.

在 3.11 版的變更.

Sample *note IntFlag: 2093. class:

     >>> from enum import IntFlag
     >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
     ...     R = 4
     ...     W = 2
     ...     X = 1
     ...
     >>> Perm.R | Perm.W
     <Perm.R|W: 6>
     >>> Perm.R + Perm.W
     6
     >>> RW = Perm.R | Perm.W
     >>> Perm.R in RW
     True

It is also possible to name the combinations:

     >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
     ...     R = 4
     ...     W = 2
     ...     X = 1
     ...     RWX = 7
     ...
     >>> Perm.RWX
     <Perm.RWX: 7>
     >>> ~Perm.RWX
     <Perm: 0>
     >>> Perm(7)
     <Perm.RWX: 7>

     備註: Named combinations are considered aliases.  Aliases do not
     show up during iteration, but can be returned from by-value
     lookups.

在 3.11 版的變更.

Another important difference between *note IntFlag: 2093. and *note
Enum: 42b. is that if no flags are set (the value is 0), its boolean
evaluation is *note False: 98f.:

     >>> Perm.R & Perm.X
     <Perm: 0>
     >>> bool(Perm.R & Perm.X)
     False

Because *note IntFlag: 2093. members are also subclasses of *note int:
17e. they can be combined with them (but may lose *note IntFlag: 2093.
membership:

     >>> Perm.X | 4
     <Perm.R|X: 5>

     >>> Perm.X + 8
     9

     備註: The negation operator, ‘~’, always returns an *note IntFlag:
     2093. member with a positive value:

          >>> (~Perm.X).value == (Perm.R|Perm.W).value == 6
          True

*note IntFlag: 2093. members can also be iterated over:

     >>> list(RW)
     [<Perm.R: 4>, <Perm.W: 2>]

在 3.11 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: Flag,  Next: 其他<2>,  Prev: IntFlag,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.5.12.4 Flag
.............

The last variation is *note Flag: 41d.  Like *note IntFlag: 2093, *note
Flag: 41d. members can be combined using the bitwise operators (&, |, ^,
~).  Unlike *note IntFlag: 2093, they cannot be combined with, nor
compared against, any other *note Flag: 41d. enumeration, nor *note int:
17e.  While it is possible to specify the values directly it is
recommended to use *note auto: b09. as the value and let *note Flag:
41d. select an appropriate value.

在 3.6 版被加入.

Like *note IntFlag: 2093, if a combination of *note Flag: 41d. members
results in no flags being set, the boolean evaluation is *note False:
98f.:

     >>> from enum import Flag, auto
     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.RED & Color.GREEN
     <Color: 0>
     >>> bool(Color.RED & Color.GREEN)
     False

Individual flags should have values that are powers of two (1, 2, 4, 8,
...), while combinations of flags will not:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...     WHITE = RED | BLUE | GREEN
     ...
     >>> Color.WHITE
     <Color.WHITE: 7>

Giving a name to the "no flags set" condition does not change its
boolean value:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     BLACK = 0
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.BLACK
     <Color.BLACK: 0>
     >>> bool(Color.BLACK)
     False

*note Flag: 41d. members can also be iterated over:

     >>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
     >>> list(purple)
     [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 2>]

在 3.11 版被加入.

     備註: For the majority of new code, *note Enum: 42b. and *note
     Flag: 41d. are strongly recommended, since *note IntEnum: b4c. and
     *note IntFlag: 2093. break some semantic promises of an enumeration
     (by being comparable to integers, and thus by transitivity to other
     unrelated enumerations).  *note IntEnum: b4c. and *note IntFlag:
     2093. should be used only in cases where *note Enum: 42b. and *note
     Flag: 41d. will not do; for example, when integer constants are
     replaced with enumerations, or for interoperability with other
     systems.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他<2>,  Prev: Flag,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.5.12.5 其他
.............

While *note IntEnum: b4c. is part of the *note enum: 51. module, it
would be very simple to implement independently:

     class IntEnum(int, Enum):
         pass

This demonstrates how similar derived enumerations can be defined; for
example a ‘FloatEnum’ that mixes in *note float: 26a. instead of *note
int: 17e.

一些規則：

  1. When subclassing *note Enum: 42b, mix-in types must appear before
     *note Enum: 42b. itself in the sequence of bases, as in the *note
     IntEnum: b4c. example above.

  2. Mix-in types must be subclassable.  For example, *note bool: 17d.
     and *note range: 782. are not subclassable and will throw an error
     during Enum creation if used as the mix-in type.

  3. While *note Enum: 42b. can have members of any type, once you mix
     in an additional type, all the members must have values of that
     type, e.g.  *note int: 17e. above.  This restriction does not apply
     to mix-ins which only add methods and don't specify another type.

  4. When another data type is mixed in, the ‘value’ attribute is 'not
     the same' as the enum member itself, although it is equivalent and
     will compare equal.

  5. A ‘data type’ is a mixin that defines ‘__new__()’, or a *note
     dataclass: 3bc.

  6. %-style formatting: ‘%s’ and ‘%r’ call the *note Enum: 42b. class's
     ‘__str__()’ and ‘__repr__()’ respectively; other codes (such as
     ‘%i’ or ‘%h’ for IntEnum) treat the enum member as its mixed-in
     type.

  7. *note Formatted string literals: 7ed, *note str.format(): 41b, and
     *note format(): 417. will use the enum's ‘__str__()’ method.

     備註: Because *note IntEnum: b4c, *note IntFlag: 2093, and *note
     StrEnum: 414. are designed to be drop-in replacements for existing
     constants, their ‘__str__()’ method has been reset to their data
     types' ‘__str__()’ method.


File: python.info,  Node: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Next: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Prev: Derived Enumerations,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.13 When to use ‘__new__()’ vs. ‘__init__()’
-----------------------------------------------

‘__new__()’ must be used whenever you want to customize the actual value
of the *note Enum: 42b. member.  Any other modifications may go in
either ‘__new__()’ or ‘__init__()’, with ‘__init__()’ being preferred.

For example, if you want to pass several items to the constructor, but
only want one of them to be the value:

     >>> class Coordinate(bytes, Enum):
     ...     """
     ...     Coordinate with binary codes that can be indexed by the int code.
     ...     """
     ...     def __new__(cls, value, label, unit):
     ...         obj = bytes.__new__(cls, [value])
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         obj.label = label
     ...         obj.unit = unit
     ...         return obj
     ...     PX = (0, 'P.X', 'km')
     ...     PY = (1, 'P.Y', 'km')
     ...     VX = (2, 'V.X', 'km/s')
     ...     VY = (3, 'V.Y', 'km/s')
     ...

     >>> print(Coordinate['PY'])
     Coordinate.PY

     >>> print(Coordinate(3))
     Coordinate.VY

     警告: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the lookup-only
     ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the data type
     directly.

* Menu:

* Finer Points::


File: python.info,  Node: Finer Points,  Up: When to use __new__ vs __init__

9.5.13.1 Finer Points
.....................

* Menu:

* Supported __dunder__ names::
* Supported _sunder_ names::
* _Private__names::
* Enum member type::
* Creating members that are mixed with other data types::
* Boolean value of Enum classes and members::
* Enum classes with methods::
* Combining members of Flag::
* Flag and IntFlag minutia::


File: python.info,  Node: Supported __dunder__ names,  Next: Supported _sunder_ names,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.2 Supported ‘__dunder__’ names
.....................................

‘__members__’ is a read-only ordered mapping of ‘member_name’:‘member’
items.  It is only available on the class.

‘__new__()’, if specified, must create and return the enum members; it
is also a very good idea to set the member's ‘_value_’ appropriately.
Once all the members are created it is no longer used.


File: python.info,  Node: Supported _sunder_ names,  Next: _Private__names,  Prev: Supported __dunder__ names,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.3 Supported ‘_sunder_’ names
...................................

   - ‘_name_’ - 成員的名稱

   - ‘_value_’ - value of the member; can be set / modified in ‘__new__’

   - ‘_missing_’ - a lookup function used when a value is not found; may
     be overridden

   - ‘_ignore_’ - a list of names, either as a *note list: 40a. or a
     *note str: 157, that will not be transformed into members, and will
     be removed from the final class

   - ‘_order_’ - used in Python 2/3 code to ensure member order is
     consistent (class attribute, removed during class creation)

   - ‘_generate_next_value_’ - used by the *note Functional API: 4d29.
     and by *note auto: b09. to get an appropriate value for an enum
     member; may be overridden

     備註: For standard *note Enum: 42b. classes the next value chosen
     is the last value seen incremented by one.

     For *note Flag: 41d. classes the next value chosen will be the next
     highest power-of-two, regardless of the last value seen.

在 3.6 版被加入: ‘_missing_’、‘_order_’、‘_generate_next_value_’

在 3.7 版被加入: ‘_ignore_’

To help keep Python 2 / Python 3 code in sync an ‘_order_’ attribute can
be provided.  It will be checked against the actual order of the
enumeration and raise an error if the two do not match:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     _order_ = 'RED GREEN BLUE'
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     BLUE = 3
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: member order does not match _order_:
       ['RED', 'BLUE', 'GREEN']
       ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

     備註: In Python 2 code the ‘_order_’ attribute is necessary as
     definition order is lost before it can be recorded.


File: python.info,  Node: _Private__names,  Next: Enum member type,  Prev: Supported _sunder_ names,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.4 _Private__names
........................

*note Private names: 1aaf. are not converted to enum members, but remain
normal attributes.

在 3.11 版的變更.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum member type,  Next: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Prev: _Private__names,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.5 ‘Enum’ member type
...........................

Enum members are instances of their enum class, and are normally
accessed as ‘EnumClass.member’.  In certain situations, such as writing
custom enum behavior, being able to access one member directly from
another is useful, and is supported; however, in order to avoid name
clashes between member names and attributes/methods from mixed-in
classes, upper-case names are strongly recommended.

在 3.5 版的變更.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Next: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Prev: Enum member type,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.6 Creating members that are mixed with other data types
..............................................................

When subclassing other data types, such as *note int: 17e. or *note str:
157, with an *note Enum: 42b, all values after the ‘=’ are passed to
that data type's constructor.  For example:

     >>> class MyEnum(IntEnum):      # help(int) -> int(x, base=10) -> integer
     ...     example = '11', 16      # so x='11' and base=16
     ...
     >>> MyEnum.example.value        # and hex(11) is...
     17


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Next: Enum classes with methods,  Prev: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.7 Boolean value of ‘Enum’ classes and members
....................................................

Enum classes that are mixed with non-*note Enum: 42b. types (such as
*note int: 17e, *note str: 157, etc.)  are evaluated according to the
mixed-in type's rules; otherwise, all members evaluate as *note True:
a70.  To make your own enum's boolean evaluation depend on the member's
value add the following to your class:

     def __bool__(self):
         return bool(self.value)

Plain *note Enum: 42b. classes always evaluate as *note True: a70.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum classes with methods,  Next: Combining members of Flag,  Prev: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.8 ‘Enum’ classes with methods
....................................

If you give your enum subclass extra methods, like the *note Planet:
4d2a. class below, those methods will show up in a *note dir(): 42d. of
the member, but not of the class:

     >>> dir(Planet)
     ['EARTH', 'JUPITER', 'MARS', 'MERCURY', 'NEPTUNE', 'SATURN', 'URANUS', 'VENUS', '__class__', '__doc__', '__members__', '__module__']
     >>> dir(Planet.EARTH)
     ['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'mass', 'name', 'radius', 'surface_gravity', 'value']


File: python.info,  Node: Combining members of Flag,  Next: Flag and IntFlag minutia,  Prev: Enum classes with methods,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.9 Combining members of ‘Flag’
....................................

Iterating over a combination of *note Flag: 41d. members will only
return the members that are comprised of a single bit:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     MAGENTA = RED | BLUE
     ...     YELLOW = RED | GREEN
     ...     CYAN = GREEN | BLUE
     ...
     >>> Color(3)  # named combination
     <Color.YELLOW: 3>
     >>> Color(7)      # not named combination
     <Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>


File: python.info,  Node: Flag and IntFlag minutia,  Prev: Combining members of Flag,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.10 ‘Flag’ and ‘IntFlag’ minutia
......................................

Using the following snippet for our examples:

     >>> class Color(IntFlag):
     ...     BLACK = 0
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 4
     ...     PURPLE = RED | BLUE
     ...     WHITE = RED | GREEN | BLUE
     ...

the following are true:

   - single-bit flags are canonical

   - multi-bit and zero-bit flags are aliases

   - only canonical flags are returned during iteration:

          >>> list(Color.WHITE)
          [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

   - negating a flag or flag set returns a new flag/flag set with the
     corresponding positive integer value:

          >>> Color.BLUE
          <Color.BLUE: 4>

          >>> ~Color.BLUE
          <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

   - names of pseudo-flags are constructed from their members' names:

          >>> (Color.RED | Color.GREEN).name
          'RED|GREEN'

          >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
          ...     R = 4
          ...     W = 2
          ...     X = 1
          ...
          >>> (Perm.R & Perm.W).name is None  # effectively Perm(0)
          True

   - multi-bit flags, aka aliases, can be returned from operations:

          >>> Color.RED | Color.BLUE
          <Color.PURPLE: 5>

          >>> Color(7)  # 或 Color(-1)
          <Color.WHITE: 7>

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color.BLACK: 0>

   - membership / containment checking: zero-valued flags are always
     considered to be contained:

          >>> Color.BLACK in Color.WHITE
          True

     otherwise, only if all bits of one flag are in the other flag will
     True be returned:

          >>> Color.PURPLE in Color.WHITE
          True

          >>> Color.GREEN in Color.PURPLE
          False

There is a new boundary mechanism that controls how out-of-range /
invalid bits are handled: ‘STRICT’, ‘CONFORM’, ‘EJECT’, and ‘KEEP’:

   * STRICT -> raises an exception when presented with invalid values

   * CONFORM -> discards any invalid bits

   * EJECT -> lose Flag status and become a normal int with the given
     value

   * KEEP -> keep the extra bits

        - keeps Flag status and extra bits

        - extra bits do not show up in iteration

        - extra bits do show up in repr() and str()

The default for Flag is ‘STRICT’, the default for ‘IntFlag’ is ‘EJECT’,
and the default for ‘_convert_’ is ‘KEEP’ (see ‘ssl.Options’ for an
example of when ‘KEEP’ is needed).


File: python.info,  Node: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Next: Enum Cookbook,  Prev: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.14 How are Enums and Flags different?
-----------------------------------------

Enums have a custom metaclass that affects many aspects of both derived
*note Enum: 42b. classes and their instances (members).

* Menu:

* Enum Classes::
* Flag Classes::
* Enum Members (aka instances): Enum Members aka instances.
* Flag Members::


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Classes,  Next: Flag Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.1 Enum Classes
.....................

The *note EnumType: 413. metaclass is responsible for providing the
‘__contains__()’, ‘__dir__()’, ‘__iter__()’ and other methods that allow
one to do things with an *note Enum: 42b. class that fail on a typical
class, such as ‘list(Color)’ or ‘some_enum_var in Color’.  *note
EnumType: 413. is responsible for ensuring that various other methods on
the final *note Enum: 42b. class are correct (such as ‘__new__()’,
‘__getnewargs__()’, ‘__str__()’ and ‘__repr__()’).


File: python.info,  Node: Flag Classes,  Next: Enum Members aka instances,  Prev: Enum Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.2 Flag Classes
.....................

Flags have an expanded view of aliasing: to be canonical, the value of a
flag needs to be a power-of-two value, and not a duplicate name.  So, in
addition to the *note Enum: 42b. definition of alias, a flag with no
value (a.k.a.  ‘0’) or with more than one power-of-two value (e.g.  ‘3’)
is considered an alias.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Members aka instances,  Next: Flag Members,  Prev: Flag Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.3 Enum Members (aka instances)
.....................................

The most interesting thing about enum members is that they are
singletons.  *note EnumType: 413. creates them all while it is creating
the enum class itself, and then puts a custom ‘__new__()’ in place to
ensure that no new ones are ever instantiated by returning only the
existing member instances.


File: python.info,  Node: Flag Members,  Prev: Enum Members aka instances,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.4 Flag Members
.....................

Flag members can be iterated over just like the *note Flag: 41d. class,
and only the canonical members will be returned.  For example:

     >>> list(Color)
     [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

(Note that ‘BLACK’, ‘PURPLE’, and ‘WHITE’ do not show up.)

Inverting a flag member returns the corresponding positive value, rather
than a negative value -- for example:

     >>> ~Color.RED
     <Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

Flag members have a length corresponding to the number of power-of-two
values they contain.  For example:

     >>> len(Color.PURPLE)
     2


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Cookbook,  Next: Subclassing EnumType,  Prev: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.15 Enum Cookbook
--------------------

While *note Enum: 42b, *note IntEnum: b4c, *note StrEnum: 414, *note
Flag: 41d, and *note IntFlag: 2093. are expected to cover the majority
of use-cases, they cannot cover them all.  Here are recipes for some
different types of enumerations that can be used directly, or as
examples for creating one's own.

* Menu:

* Omitting values::
* OrderedEnum::
* DuplicateFreeEnum::
* Planet::
* TimePeriod::


File: python.info,  Node: Omitting values,  Next: OrderedEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.1 Omitting values
........................

In many use-cases, one doesn't care what the actual value of an
enumeration is.  There are several ways to define this type of simple
enumeration:

   - use instances of *note auto: b09. for the value

   - use instances of *note object: 8d9. as the value

   - use a descriptive string as the value

   - use a tuple as the value and a custom ‘__new__()’ to replace the
     tuple with an *note int: 17e. value

Using any of these methods signifies to the user that these values are
not important, and also enables one to add, remove, or reorder members
without having to renumber the remaining members.

* Menu:

* 使用 auto::
* 使用 object::
* Using a descriptive string::
* Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__.


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 auto,  Next: 使用 object,  Up: Omitting values

9.5.15.2 使用 ‘auto’
....................

Using *note auto: b09. would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 3>


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 object,  Next: Using a descriptive string,  Prev: 使用 auto,  Up: Omitting values

9.5.15.3 使用 ‘object’
......................

Using *note object: 8d9. would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = object()
     ...     GREEN = object()
     ...     BLUE = object()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: <object object at 0x...>>

This is also a good example of why you might want to write your own
‘__repr__()’:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = object()
     ...     GREEN = object()
     ...     BLUE = object()
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return "<%s.%s>" % (self.__class__.__name__, self._name_)
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN>


File: python.info,  Node: Using a descriptive string,  Next: Using a custom __new__,  Prev: 使用 object,  Up: Omitting values

9.5.15.4 Using a descriptive string
...................................

Using a string as the value would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 'stop'
     ...     GREEN = 'go'
     ...     BLUE = 'too fast!'
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 'go'>


File: python.info,  Node: Using a custom __new__,  Prev: Using a descriptive string,  Up: Omitting values

9.5.15.5 Using a custom ‘__new__()’
...................................

Using an auto-numbering ‘__new__()’ would look like:

     >>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls):
     ...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
     ...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         return obj
     ...
     >>> class Color(AutoNumber):
     ...     RED = ()
     ...     GREEN = ()
     ...     BLUE = ()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 2>

To make a more general purpose ‘AutoNumber’, add ‘*args’ to the
signature:

     >>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls, *args):      # this is the only change from above
     ...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
     ...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         return obj
     ...

Then when you inherit from ‘AutoNumber’ you can write your own
‘__init__’ to handle any extra arguments:

     >>> class Swatch(AutoNumber):
     ...     def __init__(self, pantone='unknown'):
     ...         self.pantone = pantone
     ...     AUBURN = '3497'
     ...     SEA_GREEN = '1246'
     ...     BLEACHED_CORAL = () # New color, no Pantone code yet!
     ...
     >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN
     <Swatch.SEA_GREEN: 2>
     >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN.pantone
     '1246'
     >>> Swatch.BLEACHED_CORAL.pantone
     'unknown'

     備註: The ‘__new__()’ method, if defined, is used during creation
     of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum's ‘__new__()’
     which is used after class creation for lookup of existing members.

     警告: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the lookup-only
     ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the data type
     directly - e.g.:

          obj = int.__new__(cls, value)


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedEnum,  Next: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Prev: Omitting values,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.6 OrderedEnum
....................

An ordered enumeration that is not based on *note IntEnum: b4c. and so
maintains the normal *note Enum: 42b. invariants (such as not being
comparable to other enumerations):

     >>> class OrderedEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __ge__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value >= other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __gt__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value > other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __le__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value <= other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __lt__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value < other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...
     >>> class Grade(OrderedEnum):
     ...     A = 5
     ...     B = 4
     ...     C = 3
     ...     D = 2
     ...     F = 1
     ...
     >>> Grade.C < Grade.A
     True


File: python.info,  Node: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Next: Planet,  Prev: OrderedEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.7 DuplicateFreeEnum
..........................

Raises an error if a duplicate member value is found instead of creating
an alias:

     >>> class DuplicateFreeEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __init__(self, *args):
     ...         cls = self.__class__
     ...         if any(self.value == e.value for e in cls):
     ...             a = self.name
     ...             e = cls(self.value).name
     ...             raise ValueError(
     ...                 "aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  %r --> %r"
     ...                 % (a, e))
     ...
     >>> class Color(DuplicateFreeEnum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3
     ...     GRENE = 2
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  'GRENE' --> 'GREEN'

     備註: This is a useful example for subclassing Enum to add or
     change other behaviors as well as disallowing aliases.  If the only
     desired change is disallowing aliases, the *note unique(): 2345.
     decorator can be used instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Planet,  Next: TimePeriod,  Prev: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.8 Planet
...............

If ‘__new__()’ or ‘__init__()’ is defined, the value of the enum member
will be passed to those methods:

     >>> class Planet(Enum):
     ...     MERCURY = (3.303e+23, 2.4397e6)
     ...     VENUS   = (4.869e+24, 6.0518e6)
     ...     EARTH   = (5.976e+24, 6.37814e6)
     ...     MARS    = (6.421e+23, 3.3972e6)
     ...     JUPITER = (1.9e+27,   7.1492e7)
     ...     SATURN  = (5.688e+26, 6.0268e7)
     ...     URANUS  = (8.686e+25, 2.5559e7)
     ...     NEPTUNE = (1.024e+26, 2.4746e7)
     ...     def __init__(self, mass, radius):
     ...         self.mass = mass       # in kilograms
     ...         self.radius = radius   # in meters
     ...     @property
     ...     def surface_gravity(self):
     ...         # universal gravitational constant  (m3 kg-1 s-2)
     ...         G = 6.67300E-11
     ...         return G * self.mass / (self.radius * self.radius)
     ...
     >>> Planet.EARTH.value
     (5.976e+24, 6378140.0)
     >>> Planet.EARTH.surface_gravity
     9.802652743337129


File: python.info,  Node: TimePeriod,  Prev: Planet,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.9 TimePeriod
...................

An example to show the ‘_ignore_’ attribute in use:

     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> class Period(timedelta, Enum):
     ...     "different lengths of time"
     ...     _ignore_ = 'Period i'
     ...     Period = vars()
     ...     for i in range(367):
     ...         Period['day_%d' % i] = i
     ...
     >>> list(Period)[:2]
     [<Period.day_0: datetime.timedelta(0)>, <Period.day_1: datetime.timedelta(days=1)>]
     >>> list(Period)[-2:]
     [<Period.day_365: datetime.timedelta(days=365)>, <Period.day_366: datetime.timedelta(days=366)>]


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing EnumType,  Prev: Enum Cookbook,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.16 Subclassing EnumType
---------------------------

While most enum needs can be met by customizing *note Enum: 42b.
subclasses, either with class decorators or custom functions, *note
EnumType: 413. can be subclassed to provide a different Enum experience.


File: python.info,  Node: 函式編程 HOWTO,  Next: 如何使用 Logging 模組,  Prev: Enum HOWTO,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.6 函式編程 HOWTO
==================


作者: A. M. Kuchling


發佈版本: 0.32

In this document, we'll take a tour of Python's features suitable for
implementing programs in a functional style.  After an introduction to
the concepts of functional programming, we'll look at language features
such as *note iterator: 1718.s and *note generator: ef7.s and relevant
library modules such as *note itertools: 7b. and *note functools: 5a.

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<12>.
* Iterators::
* Generator expressions and list comprehensions::
* Generators::
* 內建函式: 內建函式<2>.
* itertools 模組::
* functools 模組::
* Small functions and the lambda expression::
* Revision History and Acknowledgements::
* References: References<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<12>,  Next: Iterators,  Up: 函式編程 HOWTO

9.6.1 簡介
----------

This section explains the basic concept of functional programming; if
you're just interested in learning about Python language features, skip
to the next section on *note Iterators: 4d51.

Programming languages support decomposing problems in several different
ways:

   * Most programming languages are 'procedural': programs are lists of
     instructions that tell the computer what to do with the program's
     input.  C, Pascal, and even Unix shells are procedural languages.

   * In 'declarative' languages, you write a specification that
     describes the problem to be solved, and the language implementation
     figures out how to perform the computation efficiently.  SQL is the
     declarative language you're most likely to be familiar with; a SQL
     query describes the data set you want to retrieve, and the SQL
     engine decides whether to scan tables or use indexes, which
     subclauses should be performed first, etc.

   * 'Object-oriented' programs manipulate collections of objects.
     Objects have internal state and support methods that query or
     modify this internal state in some way.  Smalltalk and Java are
     object-oriented languages.  C++ and Python are languages that
     support object-oriented programming, but don't force the use of
     object-oriented features.

   * 'Functional' programming decomposes a problem into a set of
     functions.  Ideally, functions only take inputs and produce
     outputs, and don't have any internal state that affects the output
     produced for a given input.  Well-known functional languages
     include the ML family (Standard ML, OCaml, and other variants) and
     Haskell.

The designers of some computer languages choose to emphasize one
particular approach to programming.  This often makes it difficult to
write programs that use a different approach.  Other languages are
multi-paradigm languages that support several different approaches.
Lisp, C++, and Python are multi-paradigm; you can write programs or
libraries that are largely procedural, object-oriented, or functional in
all of these languages.  In a large program, different sections might be
written using different approaches; the GUI might be object-oriented
while the processing logic is procedural or functional, for example.

In a functional program, input flows through a set of functions.  Each
function operates on its input and produces some output.  Functional
style discourages functions with side effects that modify internal state
or make other changes that aren't visible in the function's return
value.  Functions that have no side effects at all are called 'purely
functional'.  Avoiding side effects means not using data structures that
get updated as a program runs; every function's output must only depend
on its input.

Some languages are very strict about purity and don't even have
assignment statements such as ‘a=3’ or ‘c = a + b’, but it's difficult
to avoid all side effects, such as printing to the screen or writing to
a disk file.  Another example is a call to the *note print(): e02. or
*note time.sleep(): 499. function, neither of which returns a useful
value.  Both are called only for their side effects of sending some text
to the screen or pausing execution for a second.

Python programs written in functional style usually won't go to the
extreme of avoiding all I/O or all assignments; instead, they'll provide
a functional-appearing interface but will use non-functional features
internally.  For example, the implementation of a function will still
use assignments to local variables, but won't modify global variables or
have other side effects.

Functional programming can be considered the opposite of object-oriented
programming.  Objects are little capsules containing some internal state
along with a collection of method calls that let you modify this state,
and programs consist of making the right set of state changes.
Functional programming wants to avoid state changes as much as possible
and works with data flowing between functions.  In Python you might
combine the two approaches by writing functions that take and return
instances representing objects in your application (e-mail messages,
transactions, etc.).

Functional design may seem like an odd constraint to work under.  Why
should you avoid objects and side effects?  There are theoretical and
practical advantages to the functional style:

   * Formal provability.

   * Modularity.

   * Composability.

   * Ease of debugging and testing.

* Menu:

* Formal provability::
* Modularity::
* Ease of debugging and testing::
* Composability::


File: python.info,  Node: Formal provability,  Next: Modularity,  Up: 簡介<12>

9.6.1.1 Formal provability
..........................

A theoretical benefit is that it's easier to construct a mathematical
proof that a functional program is correct.

For a long time researchers have been interested in finding ways to
mathematically prove programs correct.  This is different from testing a
program on numerous inputs and concluding that its output is usually
correct, or reading a program's source code and concluding that the code
looks right; the goal is instead a rigorous proof that a program
produces the right result for all possible inputs.

The technique used to prove programs correct is to write down
'invariants', properties of the input data and of the program's
variables that are always true.  For each line of code, you then show
that if invariants X and Y are true 'before' the line is executed, the
slightly different invariants X' and Y' are true 'after' the line is
executed.  This continues until you reach the end of the program, at
which point the invariants should match the desired conditions on the
program's output.

Functional programming's avoidance of assignments arose because
assignments are difficult to handle with this technique; assignments can
break invariants that were true before the assignment without producing
any new invariants that can be propagated onward.

Unfortunately, proving programs correct is largely impractical and not
relevant to Python software.  Even trivial programs require proofs that
are several pages long; the proof of correctness for a moderately
complicated program would be enormous, and few or none of the programs
you use daily (the Python interpreter, your XML parser, your web
browser) could be proven correct.  Even if you wrote down or generated a
proof, there would then be the question of verifying the proof; maybe
there's an error in it, and you wrongly believe you've proved the
program correct.


File: python.info,  Node: Modularity,  Next: Ease of debugging and testing,  Prev: Formal provability,  Up: 簡介<12>

9.6.1.2 Modularity
..................

A more practical benefit of functional programming is that it forces you
to break apart your problem into small pieces.  Programs are more
modular as a result.  It's easier to specify and write a small function
that does one thing than a large function that performs a complicated
transformation.  Small functions are also easier to read and to check
for errors.


File: python.info,  Node: Ease of debugging and testing,  Next: Composability,  Prev: Modularity,  Up: 簡介<12>

9.6.1.3 Ease of debugging and testing
.....................................

Testing and debugging a functional-style program is easier.

Debugging is simplified because functions are generally small and
clearly specified.  When a program doesn't work, each function is an
interface point where you can check that the data are correct.  You can
look at the intermediate inputs and outputs to quickly isolate the
function that's responsible for a bug.

Testing is easier because each function is a potential subject for a
unit test.  Functions don't depend on system state that needs to be
replicated before running a test; instead you only have to synthesize
the right input and then check that the output matches expectations.


File: python.info,  Node: Composability,  Prev: Ease of debugging and testing,  Up: 簡介<12>

9.6.1.4 Composability
.....................

As you work on a functional-style program, you'll write a number of
functions with varying inputs and outputs.  Some of these functions will
be unavoidably specialized to a particular application, but others will
be useful in a wide variety of programs.  For example, a function that
takes a directory path and returns all the XML files in the directory,
or a function that takes a filename and returns its contents, can be
applied to many different situations.

Over time you'll form a personal library of utilities.  Often you'll
assemble new programs by arranging existing functions in a new
configuration and writing a few functions specialized for the current
task.


File: python.info,  Node: Iterators,  Next: Generator expressions and list comprehensions,  Prev: 簡介<12>,  Up: 函式編程 HOWTO

9.6.2 Iterators
---------------

I'll start by looking at a Python language feature that's an important
foundation for writing functional-style programs: iterators.

An iterator is an object representing a stream of data; this object
returns the data one element at a time.  A Python iterator must support
a method called *note __next__(): 115d. that takes no arguments and
always returns the next element of the stream.  If there are no more
elements in the stream, *note __next__(): 115d. must raise the *note
StopIteration: a5d. exception.  Iterators don't have to be finite,
though; it's perfectly reasonable to write an iterator that produces an
infinite stream of data.

The built-in *note iter(): 5f7. function takes an arbitrary object and
tries to return an iterator that will return the object's contents or
elements, raising *note TypeError: 2ba. if the object doesn't support
iteration.  Several of Python's built-in data types support iteration,
the most common being lists and dictionaries.  An object is called *note
iterable: 10ba. if you can get an iterator for it.

You can experiment with the iteration interface manually:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> it = iter(L)
     >>> it
     <...iterator object at ...>
     >>> it.__next__()  # same as next(it)
     1
     >>> next(it)
     2
     >>> next(it)
     3
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     StopIteration
     >>>

Python expects iterable objects in several different contexts, the most
important being the *note for: 265. statement.  In the statement ‘for X
in Y’, Y must be an iterator or some object for which *note iter(): 5f7.
can create an iterator.  These two statements are equivalent:

     for i in iter(obj):
         print(i)

     for i in obj:
         print(i)

Iterators can be materialized as lists or tuples by using the *note
list(): 40a. or *note tuple(): 4e6. constructor functions:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> iterator = iter(L)
     >>> t = tuple(iterator)
     >>> t
     (1, 2, 3)

Sequence unpacking also supports iterators: if you know an iterator will
return N elements, you can unpack them into an N-tuple:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> iterator = iter(L)
     >>> a, b, c = iterator
     >>> a, b, c
     (1, 2, 3)

Built-in functions such as *note max(): d8d. and *note min(): d8c. can
take a single iterator argument and will return the largest or smallest
element.  The ‘"in"’ and ‘"not in"’ operators also support iterators: ‘X
in iterator’ is true if X is found in the stream returned by the
iterator.  You'll run into obvious problems if the iterator is infinite;
*note max(): d8d, *note min(): d8c. will never return, and if the
element X never appears in the stream, the ‘"in"’ and ‘"not in"’
operators won't return either.

Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there's no way to get
the previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it.
Iterator objects can optionally provide these additional capabilities,
but the iterator protocol only specifies the *note __next__(): 115d.
method.  Functions may therefore consume all of the iterator's output,
and if you need to do something different with the same stream, you'll
have to create a new iterator.

* Menu:

* Data Types That Support Iterators::


File: python.info,  Node: Data Types That Support Iterators,  Up: Iterators

9.6.2.1 Data Types That Support Iterators
.........................................

We've already seen how lists and tuples support iterators.  In fact, any
Python sequence type, such as strings, will automatically support
creation of an iterator.

Calling *note iter(): 5f7. on a dictionary returns an iterator that will
loop over the dictionary's keys:

     >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
     ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
     >>> for key in m:
     ...     print(key, m[key])
     Jan 1
     Feb 2
     Mar 3
     Apr 4
     May 5
     Jun 6
     Jul 7
     Aug 8
     Sep 9
     Oct 10
     Nov 11
     Dec 12

Note that starting with Python 3.7, dictionary iteration order is
guaranteed to be the same as the insertion order.  In earlier versions,
the behaviour was unspecified and could vary between implementations.

Applying *note iter(): 5f7. to a dictionary always loops over the keys,
but dictionaries have methods that return other iterators.  If you want
to iterate over values or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the
*note values(): 5ed. or *note items(): 5ee. methods to get an
appropriate iterator.

The *note dict(): 239. constructor can accept an iterator that returns a
finite stream of ‘(key, value)’ tuples:

     >>> L = [('Italy', 'Rome'), ('France', 'Paris'), ('US', 'Washington DC')]
     >>> dict(iter(L))
     {'Italy': 'Rome', 'France': 'Paris', 'US': 'Washington DC'}

Files also support iteration by calling the *note readline(): 1ab2.
method until there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can
read each line of a file like this:

     for line in file:
         # do something for each line
         ...

Sets can take their contents from an iterable and let you iterate over
the set's elements:

     >>> S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}
     >>> for i in S:
     ...     print(i)
     2
     3
     5
     7
     11
     13


File: python.info,  Node: Generator expressions and list comprehensions,  Next: Generators,  Prev: Iterators,  Up: 函式編程 HOWTO

9.6.3 Generator expressions and list comprehensions
---------------------------------------------------

Two common operations on an iterator's output are 1) performing some
operation for every element, 2) selecting a subset of elements that meet
some condition.  For example, given a list of strings, you might want to
strip off trailing whitespace from each line or extract all the strings
containing a given substring.

List comprehensions and generator expressions (short form: "listcomps"
and "genexps") are a concise notation for such operations, borrowed from
the functional programming language Haskell
(‘https://www.haskell.org/’).  You can strip all the whitespace from a
stream of strings with the following code:

     >>> line_list = ['  line 1\n', 'line 2  \n', ' \n', '']

     >>> # Generator expression -- returns iterator
     >>> stripped_iter = (line.strip() for line in line_list)

     >>> # List comprehension -- returns list
     >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list]

You can select only certain elements by adding an ‘"if"’ condition:

     >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list
     ...                  if line != ""]

With a list comprehension, you get back a Python list; ‘stripped_list’
is a list containing the resulting lines, not an iterator.  Generator
expressions return an iterator that computes the values as necessary,
not needing to materialize all the values at once.  This means that list
comprehensions aren't useful if you're working with iterators that
return an infinite stream or a very large amount of data.  Generator
expressions are preferable in these situations.

Generator expressions are surrounded by parentheses ("()") and list
comprehensions are surrounded by square brackets ("[]").  Generator
expressions have the form:

     ( expression for expr in sequence1
                  if condition1
                  for expr2 in sequence2
                  if condition2
                  for expr3 in sequence3
                  ...
                  if condition3
                  for exprN in sequenceN
                  if conditionN )

Again, for a list comprehension only the outside brackets are different
(square brackets instead of parentheses).

The elements of the generated output will be the successive values of
‘expression’.  The ‘if’ clauses are all optional; if present,
‘expression’ is only evaluated and added to the result when ‘condition’
is true.

Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, but
the parentheses signalling a function call also count.  If you want to
create an iterator that will be immediately passed to a function you can
write:

     obj_total = sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

The ‘for...in’ clauses contain the sequences to be iterated over.  The
sequences do not have to be the same length, because they are iterated
over from left to right, 'not' in parallel.  For each element in
‘sequence1’, ‘sequence2’ is looped over from the beginning.  ‘sequence3’
is then looped over for each resulting pair of elements from ‘sequence1’
and ‘sequence2’.

To put it another way, a list comprehension or generator expression is
equivalent to the following Python code:

     for expr1 in sequence1:
         if not (condition1):
             continue   # Skip this element
         for expr2 in sequence2:
             if not (condition2):
                 continue   # Skip this element
             ...
             for exprN in sequenceN:
                 if not (conditionN):
                     continue   # Skip this element

                 # Output the value of
                 # the expression.

This means that when there are multiple ‘for...in’ clauses but no ‘if’
clauses, the length of the resulting output will be equal to the product
of the lengths of all the sequences.  If you have two lists of length 3,
the output list is 9 elements long:

     >>> seq1 = 'abc'
     >>> seq2 = (1, 2, 3)
     >>> [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3),
      ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3),
      ('c', 1), ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python's grammar, if ‘expression’
is creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses.  The first
list comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is
correct:

     # 語法錯誤
     [x, y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     # 正確
     [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]


File: python.info,  Node: Generators,  Next: 內建函式<2>,  Prev: Generator expressions and list comprehensions,  Up: 函式編程 HOWTO

9.6.4 Generators
----------------

Generators are a special class of functions that simplify the task of
writing iterators.  Regular functions compute a value and return it, but
generators return an iterator that returns a stream of values.

You're doubtless familiar with how regular function calls work in Python
or C. When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its
local variables are created.  When the function reaches a ‘return’
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the value is returned
to the caller.  A later call to the same function creates a new private
namespace and a fresh set of local variables.  But, what if the local
variables weren't thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could
later resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators
provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here's the simplest example of a generator function:

     >>> def generate_ints(N):
     ...    for i in range(N):
     ...        yield i

Any function containing a *note yield: 811. keyword is a generator
function; this is detected by Python's *note bytecode: 39f. compiler
which compiles the function specially as a result.

When you call a generator function, it doesn't return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the ‘yield’ expression, the generator outputs
the value of ‘i’, similar to a ‘return’ statement.  The big difference
between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on reaching a ‘yield’
the generator's state of execution is suspended and local variables are
preserved.  On the next call to the generator's *note __next__(): 1abb.
method, the function will resume executing.

Here's a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object generate_ints at ...>
     >>> next(gen)
     0
     >>> next(gen)
     1
     >>> next(gen)
     2
     >>> next(gen)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "stdin", line 1, in <module>
       File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a, b, c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, ‘return value’ causes
‘StopIteration(value)’ to be raised from the *note __next__(): 1abb.
method.  Once this happens, or the bottom of the function is reached,
the procession of values ends and the generator cannot yield any further
values.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note __next__(): 115d. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class can be much
messier.

The test suite included with Python's library,
Lib/test/test_generators.py(1), contains a number of more interesting
examples.  Here's one generator that implements an in-order traversal of
a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x

             yield t.label

             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘test_generators.py’ produce solutions for the
N-Queens problem (placing N queens on an NxN chess board so that no
queen threatens another) and the Knight's Tour (finding a route that
takes a knight to every square of an NxN chessboard without visiting any
square twice).

* Menu:

* Passing values into a generator::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/test/test_generators.py


File: python.info,  Node: Passing values into a generator,  Up: Generators

9.6.4.1 Passing values into a generator
.......................................

In Python 2.4 and earlier, generators only produced output.  Once a
generator's code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to
pass any new information into the function when its execution is
resumed.  You could hack together this ability by making the generator
look at a global variable or by passing in some mutable object that
callers then modify, but these approaches are messy.

In Python 2.5 there's a simple way to pass values into a generator.
*note yield: 811. became an expression, returning a value that can be
assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on:

     val = (yield i)

I recommend that you 'always' put parentheses around a ‘yield’
expression when you're doing something with the returned value, as in
the above example.  The parentheses aren't always necessary, but it's
easier to always add them instead of having to remember when they're
needed.

( PEP 342(1) explains the exact rules, which are that a
‘yield’-expression must always be parenthesized except when it occurs at
the top-level expression on the right-hand side of an assignment.  This
means you can write ‘val = yield i’ but have to use parentheses when
there's an operation, as in ‘val = (yield i) + 12’.)

Values are sent into a generator by calling its *note send(value): 1d5f.
method.  This method resumes the generator's code and the ‘yield’
expression returns the specified value.  If the regular *note
__next__(): 1abb. method is called, the ‘yield’ returns ‘None’.

Here's a simple counter that increments by 1 and allows changing the
value of the internal counter.

     def counter(maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             val = (yield i)
             # If value provided, change counter
             if val is not None:
                 i = val
             else:
                 i += 1

And here's an example of changing the counter:

     >>> it = counter(10)
     >>> next(it)
     0
     >>> next(it)
     1
     >>> it.send(8)
     8
     >>> next(it)
     9
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 15, in <module>
         it.next()
     StopIteration

Because ‘yield’ will often be returning ‘None’, you should always check
for this case.  Don't just use its value in expressions unless you're
sure that the *note send(): 1d5f. method will be the only method used to
resume your generator function.

In addition to *note send(): 1d5f, there are two other methods on
generators:

   * *note throw(value): 243. is used to raise an exception inside the
     generator; the exception is raised by the ‘yield’ expression where
     the generator's execution is paused.

   * *note close(): 158c. raises a *note GeneratorExit: 1236. exception
     inside the generator to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this
     exception, the generator's code must either raise *note
     GeneratorExit: 1236. or *note StopIteration: a5d.; catching the
     exception and doing anything else is illegal and will trigger a
     *note RuntimeError: 17a.  *note close(): 158c. will also be called
     by Python's garbage collector when the generator is
     garbage-collected.

     If you need to run cleanup code when a *note GeneratorExit: 1236.
     occurs, I suggest using a ‘try: ... finally:’ suite instead of
     catching *note GeneratorExit: 1236.

The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from
one-way producers of information into both producers and consumers.

Generators also become 'coroutines', a more generalized form of
subroutines.  Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another
point (the top of the function, and a ‘return’ statement), but
coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points
(the ‘yield’ statements).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: 內建函式<2>,  Next: itertools 模組,  Prev: Generators,  Up: 函式編程 HOWTO

9.6.5 內建函式
--------------

Let's look in more detail at built-in functions often used with
iterators.

Two of Python's built-in functions, *note map(): 68f. and *note
filter(): 690. duplicate the features of generator expressions:

*note map(f, iterA, iterB, ...): 68f. returns an iterator over the sequence

     ‘f(iterA[0], iterB[0]), f(iterA[1], iterB[1]), f(iterA[2],
     iterB[2]), ...’.

          >>> def upper(s):
          ...     return s.upper()

          >>> list(map(upper, ['sentence', 'fragment']))
          ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']
          >>> [upper(s) for s in ['sentence', 'fragment']]
          ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']

You can of course achieve the same effect with a list comprehension.

*note filter(predicate, iter): 690. returns an iterator over all the
sequence elements that meet a certain condition, and is similarly
duplicated by list comprehensions.  A 'predicate' is a function that
returns the truth value of some condition; for use with *note filter():
690, the predicate must take a single value.

     >>> def is_even(x):
     ...     return (x % 2) == 0

     >>> list(filter(is_even, range(10)))
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

This can also be written as a list comprehension:

     >>> list(x for x in range(10) if is_even(x))
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

*note enumerate(iter, start=0): 12f0. counts off the elements in the
iterable returning 2-tuples containing the count (from 'start') and each
element.

     >>> for item in enumerate(['subject', 'verb', 'object']):
     ...     print(item)
     (0, 'subject')
     (1, 'verb')
     (2, 'object')

*note enumerate(): 12f0. is often used when looping through a list and
recording the indexes at which certain conditions are met:

     f = open('data.txt', 'r')
     for i, line in enumerate(f):
         if line.strip() == '':
             print('Blank line at line #%i' % i)

*note sorted(iterable, key=None, reverse=False): a2f. collects all the
elements of the iterable into a list, sorts the list, and returns the
sorted result.  The 'key' and 'reverse' arguments are passed through to
the constructed list's *note sort(): a30. method.

     >>> import random
     >>> # Generate 8 random numbers between [0, 10000)
     >>> rand_list = random.sample(range(10000), 8)
     >>> rand_list
     [769, 7953, 9828, 6431, 8442, 9878, 6213, 2207]
     >>> sorted(rand_list)
     [769, 2207, 6213, 6431, 7953, 8442, 9828, 9878]
     >>> sorted(rand_list, reverse=True)
     [9878, 9828, 8442, 7953, 6431, 6213, 2207, 769]

(For a more detailed discussion of sorting, see the *note 排序技法:
1f14.)

The *note any(iter): 1291. and *note all(iter): 1292. built-ins look at
the truth values of an iterable's contents.  *note any(): 1291. returns
‘True’ if any element in the iterable is a true value, and *note all():
1292. returns ‘True’ if all of the elements are true values:

     >>> any([0, 1, 0])
     True
     >>> any([0, 0, 0])
     False
     >>> any([1, 1, 1])
     True
     >>> all([0, 1, 0])
     False
     >>> all([0, 0, 0])
     False
     >>> all([1, 1, 1])
     True

*note zip(iterA, iterB, ...): 5ef. takes one element from each iterable
and returns them in a tuple:

     zip(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       ('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)

It doesn't construct an in-memory list and exhaust all the input
iterators before returning; instead tuples are constructed and returned
only if they're requested.  (The technical term for this behaviour is
lazy evaluation(1).)

This iterator is intended to be used with iterables that are all of the
same length.  If the iterables are of different lengths, the resulting
stream will be the same length as the shortest iterable.

     zip(['a', 'b'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       ('a', 1), ('b', 2)

You should avoid doing this, though, because an element may be taken
from the longer iterators and discarded.  This means you can't go on to
use the iterators further because you risk skipping a discarded element.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation


File: python.info,  Node: itertools 模組,  Next: functools 模組,  Prev: 內建函式<2>,  Up: 函式編程 HOWTO

9.6.6 itertools 模組
--------------------

The *note itertools: 7b. module contains a number of commonly used
iterators as well as functions for combining several iterators.  This
section will introduce the module's contents by showing small examples.

The module's functions fall into a few broad classes:

   * Functions that create a new iterator based on an existing iterator.

   * Functions for treating an iterator's elements as function
     arguments.

   * Functions for selecting portions of an iterator's output.

   * A function for grouping an iterator's output.

* Menu:

* 建立新的疊代器::
* Calling functions on elements::
* Selecting elements::
* Combinatoric functions::
* Grouping elements::


File: python.info,  Node: 建立新的疊代器,  Next: Calling functions on elements,  Up: itertools 模組

9.6.6.1 建立新的疊代器
......................

*note itertools.count(start, step): 1118. returns an infinite stream of
evenly spaced values.  You can optionally supply the starting number,
which defaults to 0, and the interval between numbers, which defaults to
1:

     itertools.count() =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...
     itertools.count(10) =>
       10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...
     itertools.count(10, 5) =>
       10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, ...

*note itertools.cycle(iter): 24aa. saves a copy of the contents of a
provided iterable and returns a new iterator that returns its elements
from first to last.  The new iterator will repeat these elements
infinitely.

     itertools.cycle([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...

*note itertools.repeat(elem, [n]): 24ab. returns the provided element
'n' times, or returns the element endlessly if 'n' is not provided.

     itertools.repeat('abc') =>
       abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, ...
     itertools.repeat('abc', 5) =>
       abc, abc, abc, abc, abc

*note itertools.chain(iterA, iterB, ...): 1f15. takes an arbitrary
number of iterables as input, and returns all the elements of the first
iterator, then all the elements of the second, and so on, until all of
the iterables have been exhausted.

     itertools.chain(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       a, b, c, 1, 2, 3

*note itertools.islice(iter, [start], stop, [step]): 9a6. returns a
stream that's a slice of the iterator.  With a single 'stop' argument,
it will return the first 'stop' elements.  If you supply a starting
index, you'll get 'stop-start' elements, and if you supply a value for
'step', elements will be skipped accordingly.  Unlike Python's string
and list slicing, you can't use negative values for 'start', 'stop', or
'step'.

     itertools.islice(range(10), 8) =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
     itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8) =>
       2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
     itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8, 2) =>
       2, 4, 6

*note itertools.tee(iter, [n]): 24b0. replicates an iterator; it returns
'n' independent iterators that will all return the contents of the
source iterator.  If you don't supply a value for 'n', the default is 2.
Replicating iterators requires saving some of the contents of the source
iterator, so this can consume significant memory if the iterator is
large and one of the new iterators is consumed more than the others.

     itertools.tee( itertools.count() ) =>
        iterA, iterB

     where iterA ->
        0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...

     and   iterB ->
        0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...


File: python.info,  Node: Calling functions on elements,  Next: Selecting elements,  Prev: 建立新的疊代器,  Up: itertools 模組

9.6.6.2 Calling functions on elements
.....................................

The *note operator: 9a. module contains a set of functions corresponding
to Python's operators.  Some examples are *note operator.add(a, b):
24d3. (adds two values), *note operator.ne(a, b): 24c3. (same as ‘a !=
b’), and *note operator.attrgetter('id'): cad. (returns a callable that
fetches the ‘.id’ attribute).

*note itertools.starmap(func, iter): f72. assumes that the iterable will
return a stream of tuples, and calls 'func' using these tuples as the
arguments:

     itertools.starmap(os.path.join,
                       [('/bin', 'python'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'java'),
                        ('/usr', 'bin', 'perl'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'ruby')])
     =>
       /bin/python, /usr/bin/java, /usr/bin/perl, /usr/bin/ruby


File: python.info,  Node: Selecting elements,  Next: Combinatoric functions,  Prev: Calling functions on elements,  Up: itertools 模組

9.6.6.3 Selecting elements
..........................

Another group of functions chooses a subset of an iterator's elements
based on a predicate.

*note itertools.filterfalse(predicate, iter): 1efc. is the opposite of
*note filter(): 690, returning all elements for which the predicate
returns false:

     itertools.filterfalse(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, ...

*note itertools.takewhile(predicate, iter): 24af. returns elements for
as long as the predicate returns true.  Once the predicate returns
false, the iterator will signal the end of its results.

     def less_than_10(x):
         return x < 10

     itertools.takewhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

     itertools.takewhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       0

*note itertools.dropwhile(predicate, iter): 24ad. discards elements
while the predicate returns true, and then returns the rest of the
iterable's results.

     itertools.dropwhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
       10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...

     itertools.dropwhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...

*note itertools.compress(data, selectors): 1117. takes two iterators and
returns only those elements of 'data' for which the corresponding
element of 'selectors' is true, stopping whenever either one is
exhausted:

     itertools.compress([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [True, True, False, False, True]) =>
        1, 2, 5


File: python.info,  Node: Combinatoric functions,  Next: Grouping elements,  Prev: Selecting elements,  Up: itertools 模組

9.6.6.4 Combinatoric functions
..............................

The *note itertools.combinations(iterable, r): 11a4. returns an iterator
giving all possible 'r'-tuple combinations of the elements contained in
'iterable'.

     itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 5)

     itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 3) =>
       (1, 2, 3), (1, 2, 4), (1, 2, 5), (1, 3, 4), (1, 3, 5), (1, 4, 5),
       (2, 3, 4), (2, 3, 5), (2, 4, 5),
       (3, 4, 5)

The elements within each tuple remain in the same order as 'iterable'
returned them.  For example, the number 1 is always before 2, 3, 4, or 5
in the examples above.  A similar function, *note
itertools.permutations(iterable, r=None): 16f0, removes this constraint
on the order, returning all possible arrangements of length 'r':

     itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5),
       (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)

     itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), (1, 2, 3, 5, 4), (1, 2, 4, 3, 5),
       ...
       (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)

If you don't supply a value for 'r' the length of the iterable is used,
meaning that all the elements are permuted.

Note that these functions produce all of the possible combinations by
position and don't require that the contents of 'iterable' are unique:

     itertools.permutations('aba', 3) =>
       ('a', 'b', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('b', 'a', 'a'),
       ('b', 'a', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('a', 'b', 'a')

The identical tuple ‘('a', 'a', 'b')’ occurs twice, but the two 'a'
strings came from different positions.

The *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r): 1116.
function relaxes a different constraint: elements can be repeated within
a single tuple.  Conceptually an element is selected for the first
position of each tuple and then is replaced before the second element is
selected.

     itertools.combinations_with_replacement([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 4), (4, 5),
       (5, 5)


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping elements,  Prev: Combinatoric functions,  Up: itertools 模組

9.6.6.5 Grouping elements
.........................

The last function I'll discuss, *note itertools.groupby(iter,
key_func=None): 24ae, is the most complicated.  ‘key_func(elem)’ is a
function that can compute a key value for each element returned by the
iterable.  If you don't supply a key function, the key is simply each
element itself.

*note groupby(): 24ae. collects all the consecutive elements from the
underlying iterable that have the same key value, and returns a stream
of 2-tuples containing a key value and an iterator for the elements with
that key.

     city_list = [('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL'),
                  ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK'),
                  ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ'),
                  ...
                 ]

     def get_state(city_state):
         return city_state[1]

     itertools.groupby(city_list, get_state) =>
       ('AL', iterator-1),
       ('AK', iterator-2),
       ('AZ', iterator-3), ...

     where
     iterator-1 =>
       ('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL')
     iterator-2 =>
       ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK')
     iterator-3 =>
       ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ')

*note groupby(): 24ae. assumes that the underlying iterable's contents
will already be sorted based on the key.  Note that the returned
iterators also use the underlying iterable, so you have to consume the
results of iterator-1 before requesting iterator-2 and its corresponding
key.


File: python.info,  Node: functools 模組,  Next: Small functions and the lambda expression,  Prev: itertools 模組,  Up: 函式編程 HOWTO

9.6.7 functools 模組
--------------------

The *note functools: 5a. module contains some higher-order functions.  A
'higher-order function' takes one or more functions as input and returns
a new function.  The most useful tool in this module is the *note
functools.partial(): d4e. function.

For programs written in a functional style, you'll sometimes want to
construct variants of existing functions that have some of the
parameters filled in.  Consider a Python function ‘f(a, b, c)’; you may
wish to create a new function ‘g(b, c)’ that's equivalent to ‘f(1, b,
c)’; you're filling in a value for one of ‘f()’'s parameters.  This is
called "partial function application".

The constructor for *note partial(): d4e. takes the arguments
‘(function, arg1, arg2, ..., kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)’.  The
resulting object is callable, so you can just call it to invoke
‘function’ with the filled-in arguments.

以下是個很小但實際的範例：

     import functools

     def log(message, subsystem):
         """Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."""
         print('%s: %s' % (subsystem, message))
         ...

     server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
     server_log('Unable to open socket')

*note functools.reduce(func, iter, [initial_value]): 116d. cumulatively
performs an operation on all the iterable's elements and, therefore,
can't be applied to infinite iterables.  'func' must be a function that
takes two elements and returns a single value.  *note
functools.reduce(): 116d. takes the first two elements A and B returned
by the iterator and calculates ‘func(A, B)’.  It then requests the third
element, C, calculates ‘func(func(A, B), C)’, combines this result with
the fourth element returned, and continues until the iterable is
exhausted.  If the iterable returns no values at all, a *note TypeError:
2ba. exception is raised.  If the initial value is supplied, it's used
as a starting point and ‘func(initial_value, A)’ is the first
calculation.

     >>> import operator, functools
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, ['A', 'BB', 'C'])
     'ABBC'
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, [])
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)
     6
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [], 1)
     1

If you use *note operator.add(): 24d3. with *note functools.reduce():
116d, you'll add up all the elements of the iterable.  This case is so
common that there's a special built-in called *note sum(): 181. to
compute it:

     >>> import functools, operator
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.add, [1, 2, 3, 4], 0)
     10
     >>> sum([1, 2, 3, 4])
     10
     >>> sum([])
     0

For many uses of *note functools.reduce(): 116d, though, it can be
clearer to just write the obvious *note for: 265. loop:

     import functools
     # Instead of:
     product = functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)

     # You can write:
     product = 1
     for i in [1, 2, 3]:
         product *= i

A related function is *note itertools.accumulate(iterable,
func=operator.add): 843.  It performs the same calculation, but instead
of returning only the final result, *note accumulate(): 843. returns an
iterator that also yields each partial result:

     itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       1, 3, 6, 10, 15

     itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], operator.mul) =>
       1, 2, 6, 24, 120

* Menu:

* operator 模組::


File: python.info,  Node: operator 模組,  Up: functools 模組

9.6.7.1 operator 模組
.....................

The *note operator: 9a. module was mentioned earlier.  It contains a set
of functions corresponding to Python's operators.  These functions are
often useful in functional-style code because they save you from writing
trivial functions that perform a single operation.

Some of the functions in this module are:

   * 數學運算：‘add()’、‘sub()’、‘mul()’、‘floordiv()’、‘abs()’...

   * Logical operations: ‘not_()’, ‘truth()’.

   * Bitwise operations: ‘and_()’, ‘or_()’, ‘invert()’.

   * Comparisons: ‘eq()’, ‘ne()’, ‘lt()’, ‘le()’, ‘gt()’, and ‘ge()’.

   * Object identity: ‘is_()’, ‘is_not()’.

Consult the operator module's documentation for a complete list.


File: python.info,  Node: Small functions and the lambda expression,  Next: Revision History and Acknowledgements,  Prev: functools 模組,  Up: 函式編程 HOWTO

9.6.8 Small functions and the lambda expression
-----------------------------------------------

When writing functional-style programs, you'll often need little
functions that act as predicates or that combine elements in some way.

If there's a Python built-in or a module function that's suitable, you
don't need to define a new function at all:

     stripped_lines = [line.strip() for line in lines]
     existing_files = filter(os.path.exists, file_list)

If the function you need doesn't exist, you need to write it.  One way
to write small functions is to use the *note lambda: 1131. expression.
‘lambda’ takes a number of parameters and an expression combining these
parameters, and creates an anonymous function that returns the value of
the expression:

     adder = lambda x, y: x+y

     print_assign = lambda name, value: name + '=' + str(value)

An alternative is to just use the ‘def’ statement and define a function
in the usual way:

     def adder(x, y):
         return x + y

     def print_assign(name, value):
         return name + '=' + str(value)

Which alternative is preferable?  That's a style question; my usual
course is to avoid using ‘lambda’.

One reason for my preference is that ‘lambda’ is quite limited in the
functions it can define.  The result has to be computable as a single
expression, which means you can't have multiway ‘if... elif... else’
comparisons or ‘try... except’ statements.  If you try to do too much in
a ‘lambda’ statement, you'll end up with an overly complicated
expression that's hard to read.  Quick, what's the following code doing?

     import functools
     total = functools.reduce(lambda a, b: (0, a[1] + b[1]), items)[1]

You can figure it out, but it takes time to disentangle the expression
to figure out what's going on.  Using a short nested ‘def’ statements
makes things a little bit better:

     import functools
     def combine(a, b):
         return 0, a[1] + b[1]

     total = functools.reduce(combine, items)[1]

But it would be best of all if I had simply used a ‘for’ loop:

     total = 0
     for a, b in items:
         total += b

Or the *note sum(): 181. built-in and a generator expression:

     total = sum(b for a, b in items)

Many uses of *note functools.reduce(): 116d. are clearer when written as
‘for’ loops.

Fredrik Lundh once suggested the following set of rules for refactoring
uses of ‘lambda’:

  1. Write a lambda function.

  2. Write a comment explaining what the heck that lambda does.

  3. Study the comment for a while, and think of a name that captures
     the essence of the comment.

  4. Convert the lambda to a def statement, using that name.

  5. Remove the comment.

I really like these rules, but you're free to disagree about whether
this lambda-free style is better.


File: python.info,  Node: Revision History and Acknowledgements,  Next: References<2>,  Prev: Small functions and the lambda expression,  Up: 函式編程 HOWTO

9.6.9 Revision History and Acknowledgements
-------------------------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Ian Bicking, Nick Coghlan, Nick Efford, Raymond Hettinger, Jim
Jewett, Mike Krell, Leandro Lameiro, Jussi Salmela, Collin Winter, Blake
Winton.

Version 0.1: posted June 30 2006.

Version 0.11: posted July 1 2006.  Typo fixes.

Version 0.2: posted July 10 2006.  Merged genexp and listcomp sections
into one.  Typo fixes.

Version 0.21: Added more references suggested on the tutor mailing list.

Version 0.30: Adds a section on the ‘functional’ module written by
Collin Winter; adds short section on the operator module; a few other
edits.


File: python.info,  Node: References<2>,  Prev: Revision History and Acknowledgements,  Up: 函式編程 HOWTO

9.6.10 References
-----------------

* Menu:

* General::
* Python-specific::
* Python 說明文件::


File: python.info,  Node: General,  Next: Python-specific,  Up: References<2>

9.6.10.1 General
................

'Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs', by Harold Abelson
and Gerald Jay Sussman with Julie Sussman.  The book can be found at
‘https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp’.  In this classic textbook of computer
science, chapters 2 and 3 discuss the use of sequences and streams to
organize the data flow inside a program.  The book uses Scheme for its
examples, but many of the design approaches described in these chapters
are applicable to functional-style Python code.

‘https://www.defmacro.org/ramblings/fp.html’: A general introduction to
functional programming that uses Java examples and has a lengthy
historical introduction.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming’: General
Wikipedia entry describing functional programming.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’: 協程 (coroutines) 的條目。

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_application’: 偏函式 (partial
application) 概念的條目。

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying’: currying 概念的條目。


File: python.info,  Node: Python-specific,  Next: Python 說明文件,  Prev: General,  Up: References<2>

9.6.10.2 Python-specific
........................

‘https://gnosis.cx/TPiP/’: The first chapter of David Mertz's book ‘Text
Processing in Python’ discusses functional programming for text
processing, in the section titled "Utilizing Higher-Order Functions in
Text Processing".

Mertz also wrote a 3-part series of articles on functional programming
for IBM's DeveloperWorks site; see part 1(1), part 2(2), and part 3(3),

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://developer.ibm.com/articles/l-prog/

   (2) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog2/

   (3) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog3/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 說明文件,  Prev: Python-specific,  Up: References<2>

9.6.10.3 Python 說明文件
........................

*note itertools: 7b. 模組的說明文件。

*note functools: 5a. 模組的說明文件。

*note operator: 9a. 模組的說明文件。

PEP 289(1)：「產生器運算式 (Generator Expressions)」

PEP 342(2): "Coroutines via Enhanced Generators" describes the new
generator features in Python 2.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: 如何使用 Logging 模組,  Next: Logging Cookbook,  Prev: 函式編程 HOWTO,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.7 如何使用 Logging 模組
=========================


作者: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

This page contains tutorial information.  For links to reference
information and a logging cookbook, please see *note 其他資源: 4d6c.

* Menu:

* 基礎 Logging 指南::
* Advanced Logging Tutorial::
* Logging Levels: Logging Levels<2>.
* Useful Handlers::
* Exceptions raised during logging::
* Using arbitrary objects as messages::
* 最佳化: 最佳化<17>.
* 其他資源: 其他資源<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 基礎 Logging 指南,  Next: Advanced Logging Tutorial,  Up: 如何使用 Logging 模組

9.7.1 基礎 Logging 指南
-----------------------

軟體執行時，追蹤有什麼事件發生的動作稱為 Logging。軟體開發者會使用
Logging 這樣的機制是因為想知道在運行過程中是否有特定的事件發生。事件會被
一段訊息所描述。這段訊息可能包含一些因為此事件發生而改變的資料。開發者也
可以指派事件的重要程度，重要程度有時候也會被稱作 '程度' 或是 '嚴重性' 。

* Menu:

* 什麼時候使用 logging::
* 一個簡單範例: 一個簡單範例<2>.
* Logging to a file::
* Logging variable data::
* Changing the format of displayed messages::
* Displaying the date/time in messages::
* Next Steps::


File: python.info,  Node: 什麼時候使用 logging,  Next: 一個簡單範例<2>,  Up: 基礎 Logging 指南

9.7.1.1 什麼時候使用 logging
............................

You can access logging functionality by creating a logger via ‘logger =
getLogger(__name__)’, and then calling the logger's *note debug(): ca4,
*note info(): 2a4f, *note warning(): 2a51, *note error(): 2a52. and
*note critical(): ca3. methods.  To determine when to use logging, and
to see which logger methods to use when, see the table below.  It
states, for each of a set of common tasks, the best tool to use for that
task.

Task you want to perform                  The best tool for the task
                                          
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
Display console output for ordinary       *note print(): e02.
usage of a command line script or         
program

Report events that occur during normal    A logger's *note info(): 2a4f. (or
operation of a program (e.g.  for         *note debug(): ca4. method for very
status monitoring or fault                detailed output for diagnostic purposes)
investigation)                            

Issue a warning regarding a particular    *note warnings.warn(): 1391. in library
runtime event                             code if the issue is avoidable and the
                                          client application should be modified to
                                          eliminate the warning
                                          
                                          A logger's *note warning(): 2a51. method
                                          if there is nothing the client
                                          application can do about the situation,
                                          but the event should still be noted
                                          
                                          
Report an error regarding a particular    Raise an exception
runtime event                             

Report suppression of an error without    A logger's *note error(): 2a52,
raising an exception (e.g.  error         *note exception(): ca2. or
handler in a long-running server          *note critical(): ca3. method as
process)                                  appropriate for the specific error and
                                          application domain
                                          

The logger methods are named after the level or severity of the events
they are used to track.  The standard levels and their applicability are
described below (in increasing order of severity):

Level              When it's used
                   
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
‘DEBUG’            Detailed information, typically of interest
                   only when diagnosing problems.
                   
                   
‘INFO’             Confirmation that things are working as
                   expected.
                   
                   
‘WARNING’          An indication that something unexpected
                   happened, or indicative of some problem in the
                   near future (e.g.  'disk space low').  The
                   software is still working as expected.
                   
                   
‘ERROR’            Due to a more serious problem, the software has
                   not been able to perform some function.
                   
                   
‘CRITICAL’         A serious error, indicating that the program
                   itself may be unable to continue running.
                   

The default level is ‘WARNING’, which means that only events of this
level and above will be tracked, unless the logging package is
configured to do otherwise.

Events that are tracked can be handled in different ways.  The simplest
way of handling tracked events is to print them to the console.  Another
common way is to write them to a disk file.


File: python.info,  Node: 一個簡單範例<2>,  Next: Logging to a file,  Prev: 什麼時候使用 logging,  Up: 基礎 Logging 指南

9.7.1.2 一個簡單範例
....................

一個非常簡單的例子是：

     import logging
     logging.warning('Watch out!')  # 將會印出訊息至控制台
     logging.info('I told you so')  # 不會印出任何東西

If you type these lines into a script and run it, you'll see:

     WARNING:root:Watch out!

printed out on the console.  The ‘INFO’ message doesn't appear because
the default level is ‘WARNING’.  The printed message includes the
indication of the level and the description of the event provided in the
logging call, i.e.  'Watch out!'.  The actual output can be formatted
quite flexibly if you need that; formatting options will also be
explained later.

Notice that in this example, we use functions directly on the ‘logging’
module, like ‘logging.debug’, rather than creating a logger and calling
functions on it.  These functions operation on the root logger, but can
be useful as they will call *note basicConfig(): 846. for you if it has
not been called yet, like in this example.  In larger programs you'll
usually want to control the logging configuration explicitly however -
so for that reason as well as others, it's better to create loggers and
call their methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to a file,  Next: Logging variable data,  Prev: 一個簡單範例<2>,  Up: 基礎 Logging 指南

9.7.1.3 Logging to a file
.........................

A very common situation is that of recording logging events in a file,
so let's look at that next.  Be sure to try the following in a newly
started Python interpreter, and don't just continue from the session
described above:

     import logging
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', encoding='utf-8', level=logging.DEBUG)
     logger.debug('This message should go to the log file')
     logger.info('So should this')
     logger.warning('And this, too')
     logger.error('And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö')

在 3.9 版的變更: The 'encoding' argument was added.  In earlier Python
versions, or if not specified, the encoding used is the default value
used by *note open(): 29c.  While not shown in the above example, an
'errors' argument can also now be passed, which determines how encoding
errors are handled.  For available values and the default, see the
documentation for *note open(): 29c.

And now if we open the file and look at what we have, we should find the
log messages:

     DEBUG:__main__:This message should go to the log file
     INFO:__main__:So should this
     WARNING:__main__:And this, too
     ERROR:__main__:And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö

This example also shows how you can set the logging level which acts as
the threshold for tracking.  In this case, because we set the threshold
to ‘DEBUG’, all of the messages were printed.

If you want to set the logging level from a command-line option such as:

     --log=INFO

and you have the value of the parameter passed for ‘--log’ in some
variable 'loglevel', you can use:

     getattr(logging, loglevel.upper())

to get the value which you'll pass to *note basicConfig(): 846. via the
'level' argument.  You may want to error check any user input value,
perhaps as in the following example:

     # assuming loglevel is bound to the string value obtained from the
     # command line argument. Convert to upper case to allow the user to
     # specify --log=DEBUG or --log=debug
     numeric_level = getattr(logging, loglevel.upper(), None)
     if not isinstance(numeric_level, int):
         raise ValueError('Invalid log level: %s' % loglevel)
     logging.basicConfig(level=numeric_level, ...)

The call to *note basicConfig(): 846. should come 'before' any calls to
a logger's methods such as *note debug(): ca4, *note info(): 2a4f, etc.
Otherwise, that logging event may not be handled in the desired manner.

If you run the above script several times, the messages from successive
runs are appended to the file 'example.log'.  If you want each run to
start afresh, not remembering the messages from earlier runs, you can
specify the 'filemode' argument, by changing the call in the above
example to:

     logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', filemode='w', level=logging.DEBUG)

The output will be the same as before, but the log file is no longer
appended to, so the messages from earlier runs are lost.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging variable data,  Next: Changing the format of displayed messages,  Prev: Logging to a file,  Up: 基礎 Logging 指南

9.7.1.4 Logging variable data
.............................

To log variable data, use a format string for the event description
message and append the variable data as arguments.  For example:

     import logging
     logging.warning('%s before you %s', 'Look', 'leap!')

will display:

     WARNING:root:Look before you leap!

As you can see, merging of variable data into the event description
message uses the old, %-style of string formatting.  This is for
backwards compatibility: the logging package pre-dates newer formatting
options such as *note str.format(): 41b. and *note string.Template: 484.
These newer formatting options 'are' supported, but exploring them is
outside the scope of this tutorial: see *note Using particular
formatting styles throughout your application: 2a70. for more
information.


File: python.info,  Node: Changing the format of displayed messages,  Next: Displaying the date/time in messages,  Prev: Logging variable data,  Up: 基礎 Logging 指南

9.7.1.5 Changing the format of displayed messages
.................................................

To change the format which is used to display messages, you need to
specify the format you want to use:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(levelname)s:%(message)s', level=logging.DEBUG)
     logging.debug('This message should appear on the console')
     logging.info('So should this')
     logging.warning('And this, too')

which would print:

     DEBUG:This message should appear on the console
     INFO:So should this
     WARNING:And this, too

Notice that the 'root' which appeared in earlier examples has
disappeared.  For a full set of things that can appear in format
strings, you can refer to the documentation for *note LogRecord
attributes: 2a4e, but for simple usage, you just need the 'levelname'
(severity), 'message' (event description, including variable data) and
perhaps to display when the event occurred.  This is described in the
next section.


File: python.info,  Node: Displaying the date/time in messages,  Next: Next Steps,  Prev: Changing the format of displayed messages,  Up: 基礎 Logging 指南

9.7.1.6 Displaying the date/time in messages
............................................

To display the date and time of an event, you would place '%(asctime)s'
in your format string:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s')
     logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

which should print something like this:

     2010-12-12 11:41:42,612 is when this event was logged.

The default format for date/time display (shown above) is like ISO8601
or RFC 3339(1).  If you need more control over the formatting of the
date/time, provide a 'datefmt' argument to ‘basicConfig’, as in this
example:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s', datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
     logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

which would display something like this:

     12/12/2010 11:46:36 AM is when this event was logged.

The format of the 'datefmt' argument is the same as supported by *note
time.strftime(): 107a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3339.html


File: python.info,  Node: Next Steps,  Prev: Displaying the date/time in messages,  Up: 基礎 Logging 指南

9.7.1.7 Next Steps
..................

That concludes the basic tutorial.  It should be enough to get you up
and running with logging.  There's a lot more that the logging package
offers, but to get the best out of it, you'll need to invest a little
more of your time in reading the following sections.  If you're ready
for that, grab some of your favourite beverage and carry on.

If your logging needs are simple, then use the above examples to
incorporate logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems
or don't understand something, please post a question on the
comp.lang.python Usenet group (available at
‘https://groups.google.com/g/comp.lang.python’) and you should receive
help before too long.

Still here?  You can carry on reading the next few sections, which
provide a slightly more advanced/in-depth tutorial than the basic one
above.  After that, you can take a look at the *note Logging Cookbook:
1088.


File: python.info,  Node: Advanced Logging Tutorial,  Next: Logging Levels<2>,  Prev: 基礎 Logging 指南,  Up: 如何使用 Logging 模組

9.7.2 Advanced Logging Tutorial
-------------------------------

The logging library takes a modular approach and offers several
categories of components: loggers, handlers, filters, and formatters.

   * Loggers expose the interface that application code directly uses.

   * Handlers send the log records (created by loggers) to the
     appropriate destination.

   * Filters provide a finer grained facility for determining which log
     records to output.

   * Formatters specify the layout of log records in the final output.

Log event information is passed between loggers, handlers, filters and
formatters in a *note LogRecord: e78. instance.

Logging is performed by calling methods on instances of the *note
Logger: 9a9. class (hereafter called 'loggers').  Each instance has a
name, and they are conceptually arranged in a namespace hierarchy using
dots (periods) as separators.  For example, a logger named 'scan' is the
parent of loggers 'scan.text', 'scan.html' and 'scan.pdf'.  Logger names
can be anything you want, and indicate the area of an application in
which a logged message originates.

A good convention to use when naming loggers is to use a module-level
logger, in each module which uses logging, named as follows:

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

This means that logger names track the package/module hierarchy, and
it's intuitively obvious where events are logged just from the logger
name.

The root of the hierarchy of loggers is called the root logger.  That's
the logger used by the functions *note debug(): 2a50, *note info():
2a7b, *note warning(): 1303, *note error(): 2a8f. and *note critical():
2a90, which just call the same-named method of the root logger.  The
functions and the methods have the same signatures.  The root logger's
name is printed as 'root' in the logged output.

It is, of course, possible to log messages to different destinations.
Support is included in the package for writing log messages to files,
HTTP GET/POST locations, email via SMTP, generic sockets, queues, or
OS-specific logging mechanisms such as syslog or the Windows NT event
log.  Destinations are served by 'handler' classes.  You can create your
own log destination class if you have special requirements not met by
any of the built-in handler classes.

By default, no destination is set for any logging messages.  You can
specify a destination (such as console or file) by using *note
basicConfig(): 846. as in the tutorial examples.  If you call the
functions *note debug(): 2a50, *note info(): 2a7b, *note warning():
1303, *note error(): 2a8f. and *note critical(): 2a90, they will check
to see if no destination is set; and if one is not set, they will set a
destination of the console (‘sys.stderr’) and a default format for the
displayed message before delegating to the root logger to do the actual
message output.

The default format set by *note basicConfig(): 846. for messages is:

     severity:logger name:message

You can change this by passing a format string to *note basicConfig():
846. with the 'format' keyword argument.  For all options regarding how
a format string is constructed, see *note Formatter Objects: 2a6d.

* Menu:

* Logging Flow::
* Loggers::
* Handlers::
* Formatters::
* Configuring Logging::
* What happens if no configuration is provided::
* Configuring Logging for a Library::


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Flow,  Next: Loggers,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.1 Logging Flow
....................

The flow of log event information in loggers and handlers is illustrated
in the following diagram.

[image src="python-figures/logging_flow.png"]



File: python.info,  Node: Loggers,  Next: Handlers,  Prev: Logging Flow,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.2 Loggers
...............

*note Logger: 9a9. objects have a threefold job.  First, they expose
several methods to application code so that applications can log
messages at runtime.  Second, logger objects determine which log
messages to act upon based upon severity (the default filtering
facility) or filter objects.  Third, logger objects pass along relevant
log messages to all interested log handlers.

The most widely used methods on logger objects fall into two categories:
configuration and message sending.

These are the most common configuration methods:

   * *note Logger.setLevel(): 1302. specifies the lowest-severity log
     message a logger will handle, where debug is the lowest built-in
     severity level and critical is the highest built-in severity.  For
     example, if the severity level is INFO, the logger will handle only
     INFO, WARNING, ERROR, and CRITICAL messages and will ignore DEBUG
     messages.

   * *note Logger.addHandler(): 2a49. and *note Logger.removeHandler():
     2a4a. add and remove handler objects from the logger object.
     Handlers are covered in more detail in *note Handlers: 4d79.

   * *note Logger.addFilter(): 2a53. and *note Logger.removeFilter():
     2a54. add and remove filter objects from the logger object.
     Filters are covered in more detail in *note Filter Objects: 2a78.

You don't need to always call these methods on every logger you create.
See the last two paragraphs in this section.

With the logger object configured, the following methods create log
messages:

   * *note Logger.debug(): ca4, *note Logger.info(): 2a4f, *note
     Logger.warning(): 2a51, *note Logger.error(): 2a52, and *note
     Logger.critical(): ca3. all create log records with a message and a
     level that corresponds to their respective method names.  The
     message is actually a format string, which may contain the standard
     string substitution syntax of ‘%s’, ‘%d’, ‘%f’, and so on.  The
     rest of their arguments is a list of objects that correspond with
     the substitution fields in the message.  With regard to ‘**kwargs’,
     the logging methods care only about a keyword of ‘exc_info’ and use
     it to determine whether to log exception information.

   * *note Logger.exception(): ca2. creates a log message similar to
     *note Logger.error(): 2a52.  The difference is that *note
     Logger.exception(): ca2. dumps a stack trace along with it.  Call
     this method only from an exception handler.

   * *note Logger.log(): ca1. takes a log level as an explicit argument.
     This is a little more verbose for logging messages than using the
     log level convenience methods listed above, but this is how to log
     at custom log levels.

*note getLogger(): 7a1. returns a reference to a logger instance with
the specified name if it is provided, or ‘root’ if not.  The names are
period-separated hierarchical structures.  Multiple calls to *note
getLogger(): 7a1. with the same name will return a reference to the same
logger object.  Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list
are children of loggers higher up in the list.  For example, given a
logger with a name of ‘foo’, loggers with names of ‘foo.bar’,
‘foo.bar.baz’, and ‘foo.bam’ are all descendants of ‘foo’.

Loggers have a concept of 'effective level'.  If a level is not
explicitly set on a logger, the level of its parent is used instead as
its effective level.  If the parent has no explicit level set, 'its'
parent is examined, and so on - all ancestors are searched until an
explicitly set level is found.  The root logger always has an explicit
level set (‘WARNING’ by default).  When deciding whether to process an
event, the effective level of the logger is used to determine whether
the event is passed to the logger's handlers.

Child loggers propagate messages up to the handlers associated with
their ancestor loggers.  Because of this, it is unnecessary to define
and configure handlers for all the loggers an application uses.  It is
sufficient to configure handlers for a top-level logger and create child
loggers as needed.  (You can, however, turn off propagation by setting
the 'propagate' attribute of a logger to ‘False’.)


File: python.info,  Node: Handlers,  Next: Formatters,  Prev: Loggers,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.3 Handlers
................

*note Handler: 1306. objects are responsible for dispatching the
appropriate log messages (based on the log messages' severity) to the
handler's specified destination.  *note Logger: 9a9. objects can add
zero or more handler objects to themselves with an *note addHandler():
2a49. method.  As an example scenario, an application may want to send
all log messages to a log file, all log messages of error or higher to
stdout, and all messages of critical to an email address.  This scenario
requires three individual handlers where each handler is responsible for
sending messages of a specific severity to a specific location.

The standard library includes quite a few handler types (see *note
Useful Handlers: 4d7b.); the tutorials use mainly *note StreamHandler:
1089. and *note FileHandler: 1671. in its examples.

There are very few methods in a handler for application developers to
concern themselves with.  The only handler methods that seem relevant
for application developers who are using the built-in handler objects
(that is, not creating custom handlers) are the following configuration
methods:

   * The *note setLevel(): 2a61. method, just as in logger objects,
     specifies the lowest severity that will be dispatched to the
     appropriate destination.  Why are there two *note setLevel(): 2a61.
     methods?  The level set in the logger determines which severity of
     messages it will pass to its handlers.  The level set in each
     handler determines which messages that handler will send on.

   * *note setFormatter(): 2a62. selects a Formatter object for this
     handler to use.

   * *note addFilter(): 2a63. and *note removeFilter(): 2a64.
     respectively configure and deconfigure filter objects on handlers.

Application code should not directly instantiate and use instances of
*note Handler: 1306.  Instead, the *note Handler: 1306. class is a base
class that defines the interface that all handlers should have and
establishes some default behavior that child classes can use (or
override).


File: python.info,  Node: Formatters,  Next: Configuring Logging,  Prev: Handlers,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.4 Formatters
..................

Formatter objects configure the final order, structure, and contents of
the log message.  Unlike the base *note logging.Handler: 1306. class,
application code may instantiate formatter classes, although you could
likely subclass the formatter if your application needs special
behavior.  The constructor takes three optional arguments - a message
format string, a date format string and a style indicator.

 -- 方法: logging.Formatter.__init__ (fmt=None, datefmt=None, style='%')

If there is no message format string, the default is to use the raw
message.  If there is no date format string, the default date format is:

     %Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S

with the milliseconds tacked on at the end.  The ‘style’ is one of
‘'%'’, ‘'{'’, or ‘'$'’.  If one of these is not specified, then ‘'%'’
will be used.

If the ‘style’ is ‘'%'’, the message format string uses ‘%(<dictionary
key>)s’ styled string substitution; the possible keys are documented in
*note LogRecord attributes: 2a4e.  If the style is ‘'{'’, the message
format string is assumed to be compatible with *note str.format(): 41b.
(using keyword arguments), while if the style is ‘'$'’ then the message
format string should conform to what is expected by *note
string.Template.substitute(): 1ae0.

在 3.2 版的變更: 新增 ‘style’ 參數。

The following message format string will log the time in a
human-readable format, the severity of the message, and the contents of
the message, in that order:

     '%(asctime)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'

Formatters use a user-configurable function to convert the creation time
of a record to a tuple.  By default, *note time.localtime(): 1370. is
used; to change this for a particular formatter instance, set the
‘converter’ attribute of the instance to a function with the same
signature as *note time.localtime(): 1370. or *note time.gmtime(): 1051.
To change it for all formatters, for example if you want all logging
times to be shown in GMT, set the ‘converter’ attribute in the Formatter
class (to ‘time.gmtime’ for GMT display).


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring Logging,  Next: What happens if no configuration is provided,  Prev: Formatters,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.5 Configuring Logging
...........................

Programmers can configure logging in three ways:

  1. Creating loggers, handlers, and formatters explicitly using Python
     code that calls the configuration methods listed above.

  2. Creating a logging config file and reading it using the *note
     fileConfig(): 9ab. function.

  3. Creating a dictionary of configuration information and passing it
     to the *note dictConfig(): 1041. function.

For the reference documentation on the last two options, see *note
Configuration functions: 1182.  The following example configures a very
simple logger, a console handler, and a simple formatter using Python
code:

     import logging

     # create logger
     logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # create console handler and set level to debug
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # create formatter
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')

     # add formatter to ch
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)

     # add ch to logger
     logger.addHandler(ch)

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

Running this module from the command line produces the following output:

     $ python simple_logging_module.py
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,618 - simple_example - DEBUG - debug message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,620 - simple_example - INFO - info message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,695 - simple_example - WARNING - warn message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,697 - simple_example - ERROR - error message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,773 - simple_example - CRITICAL - critical message

The following Python module creates a logger, handler, and formatter
nearly identical to those in the example listed above, with the only
difference being the names of the objects:

     import logging
     import logging.config

     logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

     # create logger
     logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

Here is the logging.conf file:

     [loggers]
     keys=root,simpleExample

     [handlers]
     keys=consoleHandler

     [formatters]
     keys=simpleFormatter

     [logger_root]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=consoleHandler

     [logger_simpleExample]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=consoleHandler
     qualname=simpleExample
     propagate=0

     [handler_consoleHandler]
     class=StreamHandler
     level=DEBUG
     formatter=simpleFormatter
     args=(sys.stdout,)

     [formatter_simpleFormatter]
     format=%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s

The output is nearly identical to that of the non-config-file-based
example:

     $ python simple_logging_config.py
     2005-03-19 15:38:55,977 - simpleExample - DEBUG - debug message
     2005-03-19 15:38:55,979 - simpleExample - INFO - info message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,054 - simpleExample - WARNING - warn message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,055 - simpleExample - ERROR - error message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,130 - simpleExample - CRITICAL - critical message

You can see that the config file approach has a few advantages over the
Python code approach, mainly separation of configuration and code and
the ability of noncoders to easily modify the logging properties.

     警告: The *note fileConfig(): 9ab. function takes a default
     parameter, ‘disable_existing_loggers’, which defaults to ‘True’ for
     reasons of backward compatibility.  This may or may not be what you
     want, since it will cause any non-root loggers existing before the
     *note fileConfig(): 9ab. call to be disabled unless they (or an
     ancestor) are explicitly named in the configuration.  Please refer
     to the reference documentation for more information, and specify
     ‘False’ for this parameter if you wish.

     The dictionary passed to *note dictConfig(): 1041. can also specify
     a Boolean value with key ‘disable_existing_loggers’, which if not
     specified explicitly in the dictionary also defaults to being
     interpreted as ‘True’.  This leads to the logger-disabling
     behaviour described above, which may not be what you want - in
     which case, provide the key explicitly with a value of ‘False’.

Note that the class names referenced in config files need to be either
relative to the logging module, or absolute values which can be resolved
using normal import mechanisms.  Thus, you could use either *note
WatchedFileHandler: 2acd. (relative to the logging module) or
‘mypackage.mymodule.MyHandler’ (for a class defined in package
‘mypackage’ and module ‘mymodule’, where ‘mypackage’ is available on the
Python import path).

In Python 3.2, a new means of configuring logging has been introduced,
using dictionaries to hold configuration information.  This provides a
superset of the functionality of the config-file-based approach outlined
above, and is the recommended configuration method for new applications
and deployments.  Because a Python dictionary is used to hold
configuration information, and since you can populate that dictionary
using different means, you have more options for configuration.  For
example, you can use a configuration file in JSON format, or, if you
have access to YAML processing functionality, a file in YAML format, to
populate the configuration dictionary.  Or, of course, you can construct
the dictionary in Python code, receive it in pickled form over a socket,
or use whatever approach makes sense for your application.

Here's an example of the same configuration as above, in YAML format for
the new dictionary-based approach:

     version: 1
     formatters:
       simple:
         format: '%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'
     handlers:
       console:
         class: logging.StreamHandler
         level: DEBUG
         formatter: simple
         stream: ext://sys.stdout
     loggers:
       simpleExample:
         level: DEBUG
         handlers: [console]
         propagate: no
     root:
       level: DEBUG
       handlers: [console]

For more information about logging using a dictionary, see *note
Configuration functions: 1182.


File: python.info,  Node: What happens if no configuration is provided,  Next: Configuring Logging for a Library,  Prev: Configuring Logging,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.6 What happens if no configuration is provided
....................................................

If no logging configuration is provided, it is possible to have a
situation where a logging event needs to be output, but no handlers can
be found to output the event.

The event is output using a 'handler of last resort', stored in *note
lastResort: 108b.  This internal handler is not associated with any
logger, and acts like a *note StreamHandler: 1089. which writes the
event description message to the current value of ‘sys.stderr’
(therefore respecting any redirections which may be in effect).  No
formatting is done on the message - just the bare event description
message is printed.  The handler's level is set to ‘WARNING’, so all
events at this and greater severities will be output.

在 3.2 版的變更: For versions of Python prior to 3.2, the behaviour is
as follows:

   * If *note raiseExceptions: 108a. is ‘False’ (production mode), the
     event is silently dropped.

   * If *note raiseExceptions: 108a. is ‘True’ (development mode), a
     message 'No handlers could be found for logger X.Y.Z' is printed
     once.

To obtain the pre-3.2 behaviour, *note lastResort: 108b. can be set to
‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring Logging for a Library,  Prev: What happens if no configuration is provided,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.7 Configuring Logging for a Library
.........................................

When developing a library which uses logging, you should take care to
document how the library uses logging - for example, the names of
loggers used.  Some consideration also needs to be given to its logging
configuration.  If the using application does not use logging, and
library code makes logging calls, then (as described in the previous
section) events of severity ‘WARNING’ and greater will be printed to
‘sys.stderr’.  This is regarded as the best default behaviour.

If for some reason you 'don't' want these messages printed in the
absence of any logging configuration, you can attach a do-nothing
handler to the top-level logger for your library.  This avoids the
message being printed, since a handler will always be found for the
library's events: it just doesn't produce any output.  If the library
user configures logging for application use, presumably that
configuration will add some handlers, and if levels are suitably
configured then logging calls made in library code will send output to
those handlers, as normal.

A do-nothing handler is included in the logging package: *note
NullHandler: 1119. (since Python 3.1).  An instance of this handler
could be added to the top-level logger of the logging namespace used by
the library ('if' you want to prevent your library's logged events being
output to ‘sys.stderr’ in the absence of logging configuration).  If all
logging by a library 'foo' is done using loggers with names matching
'foo.x', 'foo.x.y', etc.  then the code:

     import logging
     logging.getLogger('foo').addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

should have the desired effect.  If an organisation produces a number of
libraries, then the logger name specified can be 'orgname.foo' rather
than just 'foo'.

     備註: It is strongly advised that you 'do not log to the root
     logger' in your library.  Instead, use a logger with a unique and
     easily identifiable name, such as the ‘__name__’ for your library's
     top-level package or module.  Logging to the root logger will make
     it difficult or impossible for the application developer to
     configure the logging verbosity or handlers of your library as they
     wish.

     備註: It is strongly advised that you 'do not add any handlers
     other than' *note NullHandler: 1119. 'to your library's loggers'.
     This is because the configuration of handlers is the prerogative of
     the application developer who uses your library.  The application
     developer knows their target audience and what handlers are most
     appropriate for their application: if you add handlers 'under the
     hood', you might well interfere with their ability to carry out
     unit tests and deliver logs which suit their requirements.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Levels<2>,  Next: Useful Handlers,  Prev: Advanced Logging Tutorial,  Up: 如何使用 Logging 模組

9.7.3 Logging Levels
--------------------

The numeric values of logging levels are given in the following table.
These are primarily of interest if you want to define your own levels,
and need them to have specific values relative to the predefined levels.
If you define a level with the same numeric value, it overwrites the
predefined value; the predefined name is lost.

Level              Numeric value
                   
---------------------------------------
                   
‘CRITICAL’         50
                   
                   
‘ERROR’            40
                   
                   
‘WARNING’          30
                   
                   
‘INFO’             20
                   
                   
‘DEBUG’            10
                   
                   
‘NOTSET’           0
                   

Levels can also be associated with loggers, being set either by the
developer or through loading a saved logging configuration.  When a
logging method is called on a logger, the logger compares its own level
with the level associated with the method call.  If the logger's level
is higher than the method call's, no logging message is actually
generated.  This is the basic mechanism controlling the verbosity of
logging output.

Logging messages are encoded as instances of the *note LogRecord: e78.
class.  When a logger decides to actually log an event, a *note
LogRecord: e78. instance is created from the logging message.

Logging messages are subjected to a dispatch mechanism through the use
of 'handlers', which are instances of subclasses of the *note Handler:
1306. class.  Handlers are responsible for ensuring that a logged
message (in the form of a *note LogRecord: e78.) ends up in a particular
location (or set of locations) which is useful for the target audience
for that message (such as end users, support desk staff, system
administrators, developers).  Handlers are passed *note LogRecord: e78.
instances intended for particular destinations.  Each logger can have
zero, one or more handlers associated with it (via the *note
addHandler(): 2a49. method of *note Logger: 9a9.).  In addition to any
handlers directly associated with a logger, 'all handlers associated
with all ancestors of the logger' are called to dispatch the message
(unless the 'propagate' flag for a logger is set to a false value, at
which point the passing to ancestor handlers stops).

Just as for loggers, handlers can have levels associated with them.  A
handler's level acts as a filter in the same way as a logger's level
does.  If a handler decides to actually dispatch an event, the *note
emit(): 2a6b. method is used to send the message to its destination.
Most user-defined subclasses of *note Handler: 1306. will need to
override this *note emit(): 2a6b.

* Menu:

* Custom Levels::


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Levels,  Up: Logging Levels<2>

9.7.3.1 Custom Levels
.....................

Defining your own levels is possible, but should not be necessary, as
the existing levels have been chosen on the basis of practical
experience.  However, if you are convinced that you need custom levels,
great care should be exercised when doing this, and it is possibly 'a
very bad idea to define custom levels if you are developing a library'.
That's because if multiple library authors all define their own custom
levels, there is a chance that the logging output from such multiple
libraries used together will be difficult for the using developer to
control and/or interpret, because a given numeric value might mean
different things for different libraries.


File: python.info,  Node: Useful Handlers,  Next: Exceptions raised during logging,  Prev: Logging Levels<2>,  Up: 如何使用 Logging 模組

9.7.4 Useful Handlers
---------------------

In addition to the base *note Handler: 1306. class, many useful
subclasses are provided:

  1. *note StreamHandler: 1089. instances send messages to streams
     (file-like objects).

  2. *note FileHandler: 1671. instances send messages to disk files.

  3. *note BaseRotatingHandler: 2ad1. is the base class for handlers
     that rotate log files at a certain point.  It is not meant to be
     instantiated directly.  Instead, use *note RotatingFileHandler:
     13f4. or *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: dee.

  4. *note RotatingFileHandler: 13f4. instances send messages to disk
     files, with support for maximum log file sizes and log file
     rotation.

  5. *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: dee. instances send messages to
     disk files, rotating the log file at certain timed intervals.

  6. *note SocketHandler: def. instances send messages to TCP/IP
     sockets.  Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported.

  7. *note DatagramHandler: df0. instances send messages to UDP sockets.
     Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported.

  8. *note SMTPHandler: 2afd. instances send messages to a designated
     email address.

  9. *note SysLogHandler: 457. instances send messages to a Unix syslog
     daemon, possibly on a remote machine.

  10. *note NTEventLogHandler: 2af5. instances send messages to a
     Windows NT/2000/XP event log.

  11. *note MemoryHandler: 2ab1. instances send messages to a buffer in
     memory, which is flushed whenever specific criteria are met.

  12. *note HTTPHandler: ca5. instances send messages to an HTTP server
     using either ‘GET’ or ‘POST’ semantics.

  13. *note WatchedFileHandler: 2acd. instances watch the file they are
     logging to.  If the file changes, it is closed and reopened using
     the file name.  This handler is only useful on Unix-like systems;
     Windows does not support the underlying mechanism used.

  14. *note QueueHandler: 15a4. instances send messages to a queue, such
     as those implemented in the *note queue: b1. or *note
     multiprocessing: 8f. modules.

  15. *note NullHandler: 1119. instances do nothing with error messages.
     They are used by library developers who want to use logging, but
     want to avoid the 'No handlers could be found for logger 'XXX"
     message which can be displayed if the library user has not
     configured logging.  See *note Configuring Logging for a Library:
     2aca. for more information.

在 3.1 版被加入: The *note NullHandler: 1119. class.

在 3.2 版被加入: The *note QueueHandler: 15a4. class.

The *note NullHandler: 1119, *note StreamHandler: 1089. and *note
FileHandler: 1671. classes are defined in the core logging package.  The
other handlers are defined in a sub-module, *note logging.handlers: 84.
(There is also another sub-module, *note logging.config: 83, for
configuration functionality.)

Logged messages are formatted for presentation through instances of the
*note Formatter: 1307. class.  They are initialized with a format string
suitable for use with the % operator and a dictionary.

For formatting multiple messages in a batch, instances of *note
BufferingFormatter: 2a74. can be used.  In addition to the format string
(which is applied to each message in the batch), there is provision for
header and trailer format strings.

When filtering based on logger level and/or handler level is not enough,
instances of *note Filter: 108c. can be added to both *note Logger: 9a9.
and *note Handler: 1306. instances (through their *note addFilter():
2a63. method).  Before deciding to process a message further, both
loggers and handlers consult all their filters for permission.  If any
filter returns a false value, the message is not processed further.

The basic *note Filter: 108c. functionality allows filtering by specific
logger name.  If this feature is used, messages sent to the named logger
and its children are allowed through the filter, and all others dropped.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions raised during logging,  Next: Using arbitrary objects as messages,  Prev: Useful Handlers,  Up: 如何使用 Logging 模組

9.7.5 Exceptions raised during logging
--------------------------------------

The logging package is designed to swallow exceptions which occur while
logging in production.  This is so that errors which occur while
handling logging events - such as logging misconfiguration, network or
other similar errors - do not cause the application using logging to
terminate prematurely.

*note SystemExit: bb2. and *note KeyboardInterrupt: 815. exceptions are
never swallowed.  Other exceptions which occur during the *note emit():
2a6b. method of a *note Handler: 1306. subclass are passed to its *note
handleError(): 2a6a. method.

The default implementation of *note handleError(): 2a6a. in *note
Handler: 1306. checks to see if a module-level variable, *note
raiseExceptions: 108a, is set.  If set, a traceback is printed to *note
sys.stderr: 778.  If not set, the exception is swallowed.

     備註: The default value of *note raiseExceptions: 108a. is ‘True’.
     This is because during development, you typically want to be
     notified of any exceptions that occur.  It's advised that you set
     *note raiseExceptions: 108a. to ‘False’ for production usage.


File: python.info,  Node: Using arbitrary objects as messages,  Next: 最佳化<17>,  Prev: Exceptions raised during logging,  Up: 如何使用 Logging 模組

9.7.6 Using arbitrary objects as messages
-----------------------------------------

In the preceding sections and examples, it has been assumed that the
message passed when logging the event is a string.  However, this is not
the only possibility.  You can pass an arbitrary object as a message,
and its *note __str__(): 418. method will be called when the logging
system needs to convert it to a string representation.  In fact, if you
want to, you can avoid computing a string representation altogether -
for example, the *note SocketHandler: def. emits an event by pickling it
and sending it over the wire.


File: python.info,  Node: 最佳化<17>,  Next: 其他資源<2>,  Prev: Using arbitrary objects as messages,  Up: 如何使用 Logging 模組

9.7.7 最佳化
------------

Formatting of message arguments is deferred until it cannot be avoided.
However, computing the arguments passed to the logging method can also
be expensive, and you may want to avoid doing it if the logger will just
throw away your event.  To decide what to do, you can call the *note
isEnabledFor(): 1187. method which takes a level argument and returns
true if the event would be created by the Logger for that level of call.
You can write code like this:

     if logger.isEnabledFor(logging.DEBUG):
         logger.debug('Message with %s, %s', expensive_func1(),
                                             expensive_func2())

so that if the logger's threshold is set above ‘DEBUG’, the calls to
‘expensive_func1’ and ‘expensive_func2’ are never made.

     備註: In some cases, *note isEnabledFor(): 1187. can itself be more
     expensive than you'd like (e.g.  for deeply nested loggers where an
     explicit level is only set high up in the logger hierarchy).  In
     such cases (or if you want to avoid calling a method in tight
     loops), you can cache the result of a call to *note isEnabledFor():
     1187. in a local or instance variable, and use that instead of
     calling the method each time.  Such a cached value would only need
     to be recomputed when the logging configuration changes dynamically
     while the application is running (which is not all that common).

There are other optimizations which can be made for specific
applications which need more precise control over what logging
information is collected.  Here's a list of things you can do to avoid
processing during logging which you don't need:

What you don't want to collect                            How to avoid collecting it
                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                          
Information about where calls were made from.             Set ‘logging._srcfile’ to ‘None’.  This avoids
                                                          calling *note sys._getframe(): 4df, which may help to
                                                          speed up your code in environments like PyPy (which
                                                          can't speed up code that uses
                                                          *note sys._getframe(): 4df.).
                                                          
                                                          
Threading information.                                    將 ‘logging.logThreads’ 設為 ‘False’。
                                                          
                                                          
當前的行程 ID (*note os.getpid(): 287b.)                  將 ‘logging.logProcesses’ 設為 ‘False’。
                                                          
                                                          
Current process name when using ‘multiprocessing’ to      將 ‘logging.logMultiprocessing’ 設為 ‘False’。
manage multiple processes.                                

Current *note asyncio.Task: 203. name when using          將 ‘logging.logAsyncioTasks’ 設為 ‘False’。
‘asyncio’.                                                

Also note that the core logging module only includes the basic handlers.
If you don't import *note logging.handlers: 84. and *note
logging.config: 83, they won't take up any memory.


File: python.info,  Node: 其他資源<2>,  Prev: 最佳化<17>,  Up: 如何使用 Logging 模組

9.7.8 其他資源
--------------

也參考
......

*note logging: 82. 模組

     API reference for the logging module.

*note logging.config: 83. 模組

     Configuration API for the logging module.

*note logging.handlers: 84. 模組

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.

*note A logging cookbook: 1088.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Cookbook,  Next: 如何使用正規表示式,  Prev: 如何使用 Logging 模組,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.8 Logging Cookbook
====================


作者: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

This page contains a number of recipes related to logging, which have
been found useful in the past.  For links to tutorial and reference
information, please see *note Other resources: 4d8b.

* Menu:

* Using logging in multiple modules::
* Logging from multiple threads::
* Multiple handlers and formatters::
* Logging to multiple destinations::
* Custom handling of levels::
* Configuration server example::
* Dealing with handlers that block::
* Sending and receiving logging events across a network::
* Adding contextual information to your logging output::
* Use of contextvars::
* Imparting contextual information in handlers::
* Logging to a single file from multiple processes::
* Using file rotation::
* Use of alternative formatting styles::
* Customizing LogRecord::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example::
* An example dictionary-based configuration::
* Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing::
* A more elaborate multiprocessing example::
* Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler::
* Implementing structured logging::
* Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): Customizing handlers with dictConfig.
* Using particular formatting styles throughout your application::
* Configuring filters with dictConfig(): Configuring filters with dictConfig.
* Customized exception formatting::
* Speaking logging messages::
* Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally::
* Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering.
* Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration.
* Using a context manager for selective logging::
* A CLI application starter template::
* A Qt GUI for logging::
* Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support::
* How to treat a logger like an output stream::
* Patterns to avoid::
* Other resources::


File: python.info,  Node: Using logging in multiple modules,  Next: Logging from multiple threads,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.1 Using logging in multiple modules
---------------------------------------

Multiple calls to ‘logging.getLogger('someLogger')’ return a reference
to the same logger object.  This is true not only within the same
module, but also across modules as long as it is in the same Python
interpreter process.  It is true for references to the same object;
additionally, application code can define and configure a parent logger
in one module and create (but not configure) a child logger in a
separate module, and all logger calls to the child will pass up to the
parent.  Here is a main module:

     import logging
     import auxiliary_module

     # create logger with 'spam_application'
     logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create file handler which logs even debug messages
     fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
     fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create console handler with a higher log level
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
     # create formatter and add it to the handlers
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
     fh.setFormatter(formatter)
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handlers to the logger
     logger.addHandler(fh)
     logger.addHandler(ch)

     logger.info('creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
     a = auxiliary_module.Auxiliary()
     logger.info('created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
     logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
     a.do_something()
     logger.info('finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
     logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.some_function()')
     auxiliary_module.some_function()
     logger.info('done with auxiliary_module.some_function()')

Here is the auxiliary module:

     import logging

     # create logger
     module_logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary')

     class Auxiliary:
         def __init__(self):
             self.logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary')
             self.logger.info('creating an instance of Auxiliary')

         def do_something(self):
             self.logger.info('doing something')
             a = 1 + 1
             self.logger.info('done doing something')

     def some_function():
         module_logger.info('received a call to "some_function"')

The output looks like this:

     2005-03-23 23:47:11,663 - spam_application - INFO -
        creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        creating an instance of Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application - INFO -
        created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application - INFO -
        calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        doing something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,669 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        done doing something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,670 - spam_application - INFO -
        finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,671 - spam_application - INFO -
        calling auxiliary_module.some_function()
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,672 - spam_application.auxiliary - INFO -
        received a call to 'some_function'
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,673 - spam_application - INFO -
        done with auxiliary_module.some_function()


File: python.info,  Node: Logging from multiple threads,  Next: Multiple handlers and formatters,  Prev: Using logging in multiple modules,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.2 Logging from multiple threads
-----------------------------------

Logging from multiple threads requires no special effort.  The following
example shows logging from the main (initial) thread and another thread:

     import logging
     import threading
     import time

     def worker(arg):
         while not arg['stop']:
             logging.debug('Hi from myfunc')
             time.sleep(0.5)

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(relativeCreated)6d %(threadName)s %(message)s')
         info = {'stop': False}
         thread = threading.Thread(target=worker, args=(info,))
         thread.start()
         while True:
             try:
                 logging.debug('Hello from main')
                 time.sleep(0.75)
             except KeyboardInterrupt:
                 info['stop'] = True
                 break
         thread.join()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

When run, the script should print something like the following:

        0 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
        3 MainThread Hello from main
      505 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
      755 MainThread Hello from main
     1007 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     1507 MainThread Hello from main
     1508 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     2010 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     2258 MainThread Hello from main
     2512 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3009 MainThread Hello from main
     3013 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3515 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3761 MainThread Hello from main
     4017 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     4513 MainThread Hello from main
     4518 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc

This shows the logging output interspersed as one might expect.  This
approach works for more threads than shown here, of course.


File: python.info,  Node: Multiple handlers and formatters,  Next: Logging to multiple destinations,  Prev: Logging from multiple threads,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.3 Multiple handlers and formatters
--------------------------------------

Loggers are plain Python objects.  The *note addHandler(): 2a49. method
has no minimum or maximum quota for the number of handlers you may add.
Sometimes it will be beneficial for an application to log all messages
of all severities to a text file while simultaneously logging errors or
above to the console.  To set this up, simply configure the appropriate
handlers.  The logging calls in the application code will remain
unchanged.  Here is a slight modification to the previous simple
module-based configuration example:

     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create file handler which logs even debug messages
     fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
     fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create console handler with a higher log level
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
     # create formatter and add it to the handlers
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)
     fh.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handlers to logger
     logger.addHandler(ch)
     logger.addHandler(fh)

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

Notice that the 'application' code does not care about multiple
handlers.  All that changed was the addition and configuration of a new
handler named 'fh'.

The ability to create new handlers with higher- or lower-severity
filters can be very helpful when writing and testing an application.
Instead of using many ‘print’ statements for debugging, use
‘logger.debug’: Unlike the print statements, which you will have to
delete or comment out later, the logger.debug statements can remain
intact in the source code and remain dormant until you need them again.
At that time, the only change that needs to happen is to modify the
severity level of the logger and/or handler to debug.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to multiple destinations,  Next: Custom handling of levels,  Prev: Multiple handlers and formatters,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.4 Logging to multiple destinations
--------------------------------------

Let's say you want to log to console and file with different message
formats and in differing circumstances.  Say you want to log messages
with levels of DEBUG and higher to file, and those messages at level
INFO and higher to the console.  Let's also assume that the file should
contain timestamps, but the console messages should not.  Here's how you
can achieve this:

     import logging

     # set up logging to file - see previous section for more details
     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                         format='%(asctime)s %(name)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s',
                         datefmt='%m-%d %H:%M',
                         filename='/tmp/myapp.log',
                         filemode='w')
     # define a Handler which writes INFO messages or higher to the sys.stderr
     console = logging.StreamHandler()
     console.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     # set a format which is simpler for console use
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(name)-12s: %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
     # tell the handler to use this format
     console.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handler to the root logger
     logging.getLogger('').addHandler(console)

     # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
     logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

     # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
     # application:

     logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
     logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

     logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
     logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
     logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
     logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

When you run this, on the console you will see

     root        : INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
     myapp.area1 : INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
     myapp.area2 : WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
     myapp.area2 : ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

and in the file you will see something like

     10-22 22:19 root         INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

As you can see, the DEBUG message only shows up in the file.  The other
messages are sent to both destinations.

This example uses console and file handlers, but you can use any number
and combination of handlers you choose.

Note that the above choice of log filename ‘/tmp/myapp.log’ implies use
of a standard location for temporary files on POSIX systems.  On
Windows, you may need to choose a different directory name for the log -
just ensure that the directory exists and that you have the permissions
to create and update files in it.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom handling of levels,  Next: Configuration server example,  Prev: Logging to multiple destinations,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.5 Custom handling of levels
-------------------------------

Sometimes, you might want to do something slightly different from the
standard handling of levels in handlers, where all levels above a
threshold get processed by a handler.  To do this, you need to use
filters.  Let's look at a scenario where you want to arrange things as
follows:

   * Send messages of severity ‘INFO’ and ‘WARNING’ to ‘sys.stdout’

   * Send messages of severity ‘ERROR’ and above to ‘sys.stderr’

   * Send messages of severity ‘DEBUG’ and above to file ‘app.log’

Suppose you configure logging with the following JSON:

     {
         "version": 1,
         "disable_existing_loggers": false,
         "formatters": {
             "simple": {
                 "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
             }
         },
         "handlers": {
             "stdout": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "INFO",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"
             },
             "stderr": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "ERROR",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
             },
             "file": {
                 "class": "logging.FileHandler",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "filename": "app.log",
                 "mode": "w"
             }
         },
         "root": {
             "level": "DEBUG",
             "handlers": [
                 "stderr",
                 "stdout",
                 "file"
             ]
         }
     }

This configuration does 'almost' what we want, except that ‘sys.stdout’
would show messages of severity ‘ERROR’ and above as well as ‘INFO’ and
‘WARNING’ messages.  To prevent this, we can set up a filter which
excludes those messages and add it to the relevant handler.  This can be
configured by adding a ‘filters’ section parallel to ‘formatters’ and
‘handlers’:

     {
         "filters": {
             "warnings_and_below": {
                 "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
                 "level": "WARNING"
             }
         }
     }

and changing the section on the ‘stdout’ handler to add it:

     {
         "stdout": {
             "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
             "level": "INFO",
             "formatter": "simple",
             "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
             "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
         }
     }

A filter is just a function, so we can define the ‘filter_maker’ (a
factory function) as follows:

     def filter_maker(level):
         level = getattr(logging, level)

         def filter(record):
             return record.levelno <= level

         return filter

This converts the string argument passed in to a numeric level, and
returns a function which only returns ‘True’ if the level of the passed
in record is at or below the specified level.  Note that in this example
I have defined the ‘filter_maker’ in a test script ‘main.py’ that I run
from the command line, so its module will be ‘__main__’ - hence the
‘__main__.filter_maker’ in the filter configuration.  You will need to
change that if you define it in a different module.

With the filter added, we can run ‘main.py’, which in full is:

     import json
     import logging
     import logging.config

     CONFIG = '''
     {
         "version": 1,
         "disable_existing_loggers": false,
         "formatters": {
             "simple": {
                 "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
             }
         },
         "filters": {
             "warnings_and_below": {
                 "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
                 "level": "WARNING"
             }
         },
         "handlers": {
             "stdout": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "INFO",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
                 "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
             },
             "stderr": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "ERROR",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
             },
             "file": {
                 "class": "logging.FileHandler",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "filename": "app.log",
                 "mode": "w"
             }
         },
         "root": {
             "level": "DEBUG",
             "handlers": [
                 "stderr",
                 "stdout",
                 "file"
             ]
         }
     }
     '''

     def filter_maker(level):
         level = getattr(logging, level)

         def filter(record):
             return record.levelno <= level

         return filter

     logging.config.dictConfig(json.loads(CONFIG))
     logging.debug('A DEBUG message')
     logging.info('An INFO message')
     logging.warning('A WARNING message')
     logging.error('An ERROR message')
     logging.critical('A CRITICAL message')

And after running it like this:

     python main.py 2>stderr.log >stdout.log

We can see the results are as expected:

     $ more *.log
     ::::::::::::::
     app.log
     ::::::::::::::
     DEBUG    - A DEBUG message
     INFO     - An INFO message
     WARNING  - A WARNING message
     ERROR    - An ERROR message
     CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
     ::::::::::::::
     stderr.log
     ::::::::::::::
     ERROR    - An ERROR message
     CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
     ::::::::::::::
     stdout.log
     ::::::::::::::
     INFO     - An INFO message
     WARNING  - A WARNING message


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration server example,  Next: Dealing with handlers that block,  Prev: Custom handling of levels,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.6 Configuration server example
----------------------------------

Here is an example of a module using the logging configuration server:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import time
     import os

     # read initial config file
     logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

     # create and start listener on port 9999
     t = logging.config.listen(9999)
     t.start()

     logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

     try:
         # loop through logging calls to see the difference
         # new configurations make, until Ctrl+C is pressed
         while True:
             logger.debug('debug message')
             logger.info('info message')
             logger.warning('warn message')
             logger.error('error message')
             logger.critical('critical message')
             time.sleep(5)
     except KeyboardInterrupt:
         # cleanup
         logging.config.stopListening()
         t.join()

And here is a script that takes a filename and sends that file to the
server, properly preceded with the binary-encoded length, as the new
logging configuration:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     import socket, sys, struct

     with open(sys.argv[1], 'rb') as f:
         data_to_send = f.read()

     HOST = 'localhost'
     PORT = 9999
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     print('connecting...')
     s.connect((HOST, PORT))
     print('sending config...')
     s.send(struct.pack('>L', len(data_to_send)))
     s.send(data_to_send)
     s.close()
     print('complete')


File: python.info,  Node: Dealing with handlers that block,  Next: Sending and receiving logging events across a network,  Prev: Configuration server example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.7 Dealing with handlers that block
--------------------------------------

Sometimes you have to get your logging handlers to do their work without
blocking the thread you're logging from.  This is common in web
applications, though of course it also occurs in other scenarios.

A common culprit which demonstrates sluggish behaviour is the *note
SMTPHandler: 2afd.: sending emails can take a long time, for a number of
reasons outside the developer's control (for example, a poorly
performing mail or network infrastructure).  But almost any
network-based handler can block: Even a *note SocketHandler: def.
operation may do a DNS query under the hood which is too slow (and this
query can be deep in the socket library code, below the Python layer,
and outside your control).

One solution is to use a two-part approach.  For the first part, attach
only a *note QueueHandler: 15a4. to those loggers which are accessed
from performance-critical threads.  They simply write to their queue,
which can be sized to a large enough capacity or initialized with no
upper bound to their size.  The write to the queue will typically be
accepted quickly, though you will probably need to catch the *note
queue.Full: 2e2b. exception as a precaution in your code.  If you are a
library developer who has performance-critical threads in their code, be
sure to document this (together with a suggestion to attach only
‘QueueHandlers’ to your loggers) for the benefit of other developers who
will use your code.

The second part of the solution is *note QueueListener: ca6, which has
been designed as the counterpart to *note QueueHandler: 15a4.  A *note
QueueListener: ca6. is very simple: it's passed a queue and some
handlers, and it fires up an internal thread which listens to its queue
for LogRecords sent from ‘QueueHandlers’ (or any other source of
‘LogRecords’, for that matter).  The ‘LogRecords’ are removed from the
queue and passed to the handlers for processing.

The advantage of having a separate *note QueueListener: ca6. class is
that you can use the same instance to service multiple ‘QueueHandlers’.
This is more resource-friendly than, say, having threaded versions of
the existing handler classes, which would eat up one thread per handler
for no particular benefit.

An example of using these two classes follows (imports omitted):

     que = queue.Queue(-1)  # no limit on size
     queue_handler = QueueHandler(que)
     handler = logging.StreamHandler()
     listener = QueueListener(que, handler)
     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.addHandler(queue_handler)
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)s: %(message)s')
     handler.setFormatter(formatter)
     listener.start()
     # The log output will display the thread which generated
     # the event (the main thread) rather than the internal
     # thread which monitors the internal queue. This is what
     # you want to happen.
     root.warning('Look out!')
     listener.stop()

which, when run, will produce:

     MainThread: Look out!

     備註: Although the earlier discussion wasn't specifically talking
     about async code, but rather about slow logging handlers, it should
     be noted that when logging from async code, network and even file
     handlers could lead to problems (blocking the event loop) because
     some logging is done from *note asyncio: 9. internals.  It might be
     best, if any async code is used in an application, to use the above
     approach for logging, so that any blocking code runs only in the
     ‘QueueListener’ thread.

在 3.5 版的變更: Prior to Python 3.5, the *note QueueListener: ca6.
always passed every message received from the queue to every handler it
was initialized with.  (This was because it was assumed that level
filtering was all done on the other side, where the queue is filled.)
From 3.5 onwards, this behaviour can be changed by passing a keyword
argument ‘respect_handler_level=True’ to the listener's constructor.
When this is done, the listener compares the level of each message with
the handler's level, and only passes a message to a handler if it's
appropriate to do so.


File: python.info,  Node: Sending and receiving logging events across a network,  Next: Adding contextual information to your logging output,  Prev: Dealing with handlers that block,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.8 Sending and receiving logging events across a network
-----------------------------------------------------------

Let's say you want to send logging events across a network, and handle
them at the receiving end.  A simple way of doing this is attaching a
*note SocketHandler: def. instance to the root logger at the sending
end:

     import logging, logging.handlers

     rootLogger = logging.getLogger('')
     rootLogger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     socketHandler = logging.handlers.SocketHandler('localhost',
                         logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)
     # don't bother with a formatter, since a socket handler sends the event as
     # an unformatted pickle
     rootLogger.addHandler(socketHandler)

     # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
     logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

     # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
     # application:

     logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
     logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

     logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
     logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
     logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
     logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

At the receiving end, you can set up a receiver using the *note
socketserver: c7. module.  Here is a basic working example:

     import pickle
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import socketserver
     import struct


     class LogRecordStreamHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):
         """Handler for a streaming logging request.

         This basically logs the record using whatever logging policy is
         configured locally.
         """

         def handle(self):
             """
             Handle multiple requests - each expected to be a 4-byte length,
             followed by the LogRecord in pickle format. Logs the record
             according to whatever policy is configured locally.
             """
             while True:
                 chunk = self.connection.recv(4)
                 if len(chunk) < 4:
                     break
                 slen = struct.unpack('>L', chunk)[0]
                 chunk = self.connection.recv(slen)
                 while len(chunk) < slen:
                     chunk = chunk + self.connection.recv(slen - len(chunk))
                 obj = self.unPickle(chunk)
                 record = logging.makeLogRecord(obj)
                 self.handleLogRecord(record)

         def unPickle(self, data):
             return pickle.loads(data)

         def handleLogRecord(self, record):
             # if a name is specified, we use the named logger rather than the one
             # implied by the record.
             if self.server.logname is not None:
                 name = self.server.logname
             else:
                 name = record.name
             logger = logging.getLogger(name)
             # N.B. EVERY record gets logged. This is because Logger.handle
             # is normally called AFTER logger-level filtering. If you want
             # to do filtering, do it at the client end to save wasting
             # cycles and network bandwidth!
             logger.handle(record)

     class LogRecordSocketReceiver(socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer):
         """
         Simple TCP socket-based logging receiver suitable for testing.
         """

         allow_reuse_address = True

         def __init__(self, host='localhost',
                      port=logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT,
                      handler=LogRecordStreamHandler):
             socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer.__init__(self, (host, port), handler)
             self.abort = 0
             self.timeout = 1
             self.logname = None

         def serve_until_stopped(self):
             import select
             abort = 0
             while not abort:
                 rd, wr, ex = select.select([self.socket.fileno()],
                                            [], [],
                                            self.timeout)
                 if rd:
                     self.handle_request()
                 abort = self.abort

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(
             format='%(relativeCreated)5d %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
         tcpserver = LogRecordSocketReceiver()
         print('About to start TCP server...')
         tcpserver.serve_until_stopped()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

First run the server, and then the client.  On the client side, nothing
is printed on the console; on the server side, you should see something
like:

     About to start TCP server...
        59 root            INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
        59 myapp.area1     DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
        69 myapp.area1     INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
        69 myapp.area2     WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
        69 myapp.area2     ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

Note that there are some security issues with pickle in some scenarios.
If these affect you, you can use an alternative serialization scheme by
overriding the *note makePickle(): 2ae6. method and implementing your
alternative there, as well as adapting the above script to use your
alternative serialization.

* Menu:

* Running a logging socket listener in production::


File: python.info,  Node: Running a logging socket listener in production,  Up: Sending and receiving logging events across a network

9.8.8.1 Running a logging socket listener in production
.......................................................

To run a logging listener in production, you may need to use a
process-management tool such as Supervisor(1).  Here is a Gist(2) which
provides the bare-bones files to run the above functionality using
Supervisor.  It consists of the following files:

檔案                          目的
                              
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘prepare.sh’                  A Bash script to prepare the environment for testing
                              
                              
‘supervisor.conf’             The Supervisor configuration file, which has entries
                              for the listener and a multi-process web application
                              
                              
‘ensure_app.sh’               A Bash script to ensure that Supervisor is running
                              with the above configuration
                              
                              
‘log_listener.py’             The socket listener program which receives log events
                              and records them to a file
                              
                              
‘main.py’                     A simple web application which performs logging via a
                              socket connected to the listener
                              
                              
‘webapp.json’                 A JSON configuration file for the web application
                              
                              
‘client.py’                   A Python script to exercise the web application
                              

The web application uses Gunicorn(3), which is a popular web application
server that starts multiple worker processes to handle requests.  This
example setup shows how the workers can write to the same log file
without conflicting with one another -- they all go through the socket
listener.

To test these files, do the following in a POSIX environment:

  1. Download the Gist(4) as a ZIP archive using the Download ZIP
     button.

  2. Unzip the above files from the archive into a scratch directory.

  3. In the scratch directory, run ‘bash prepare.sh’ to get things
     ready.  This creates a ‘run’ subdirectory to contain
     Supervisor-related and log files, and a ‘venv’ subdirectory to
     contain a virtual environment into which ‘bottle’, ‘gunicorn’ and
     ‘supervisor’ are installed.

  4. Run ‘bash ensure_app.sh’ to ensure that Supervisor is running with
     the above configuration.

  5. Run ‘venv/bin/python client.py’ to exercise the web application,
     which will lead to records being written to the log.

  6. Inspect the log files in the ‘run’ subdirectory.  You should see
     the most recent log lines in files matching the pattern ‘app.log*’.
     They won't be in any particular order, since they have been handled
     concurrently by different worker processes in a non-deterministic
     way.

  7. You can shut down the listener and the web application by running
     ‘venv/bin/supervisorctl -c supervisor.conf shutdown’.

You may need to tweak the configuration files in the unlikely event that
the configured ports clash with something else in your test environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://supervisord.org/

   (2) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b

   (3) https://gunicorn.org/

   (4) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b


File: python.info,  Node: Adding contextual information to your logging output,  Next: Use of contextvars,  Prev: Sending and receiving logging events across a network,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.9 Adding contextual information to your logging output
----------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes you want logging output to contain contextual information in
addition to the parameters passed to the logging call.  For example, in
a networked application, it may be desirable to log client-specific
information in the log (e.g.  remote client's username, or IP address).
Although you could use the 'extra' parameter to achieve this, it's not
always convenient to pass the information in this way.  While it might
be tempting to create *note Logger: 9a9. instances on a per-connection
basis, this is not a good idea because these instances are not garbage
collected.  While this is not a problem in practice, when the number of
*note Logger: 9a9. instances is dependent on the level of granularity
you want to use in logging an application, it could be hard to manage if
the number of *note Logger: 9a9. instances becomes effectively
unbounded.

* Menu:

* Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information::
* Using Filters to impart contextual information::


File: python.info,  Node: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information,  Next: Using Filters to impart contextual information,  Up: Adding contextual information to your logging output

9.8.9.1 Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information
.............................................................

An easy way in which you can pass contextual information to be output
along with logging event information is to use the *note LoggerAdapter:
1186. class.  This class is designed to look like a *note Logger: 9a9,
so that you can call *note debug(): 2a50, *note info(): 2a7b, *note
warning(): 1303, *note error(): 2a8f, *note exception(): 1304, *note
critical(): 2a90. and *note log(): 2a91.  These methods have the same
signatures as their counterparts in *note Logger: 9a9, so you can use
the two types of instances interchangeably.

When you create an instance of *note LoggerAdapter: 1186, you pass it a
*note Logger: 9a9. instance and a dict-like object which contains your
contextual information.  When you call one of the logging methods on an
instance of *note LoggerAdapter: 1186, it delegates the call to the
underlying instance of *note Logger: 9a9. passed to its constructor, and
arranges to pass the contextual information in the delegated call.
Here's a snippet from the code of *note LoggerAdapter: 1186.:

     def debug(self, msg, /, *args, **kwargs):
         """
         Delegate a debug call to the underlying logger, after adding
         contextual information from this adapter instance.
         """
         msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
         self.logger.debug(msg, *args, **kwargs)

The *note process(): 2a88. method of *note LoggerAdapter: 1186. is where
the contextual information is added to the logging output.  It's passed
the message and keyword arguments of the logging call, and it passes
back (potentially) modified versions of these to use in the call to the
underlying logger.  The default implementation of this method leaves the
message alone, but inserts an 'extra' key in the keyword argument whose
value is the dict-like object passed to the constructor.  Of course, if
you had passed an 'extra' keyword argument in the call to the adapter,
it will be silently overwritten.

The advantage of using 'extra' is that the values in the dict-like
object are merged into the *note LogRecord: e78. instance's __dict__,
allowing you to use customized strings with your *note Formatter: 1307.
instances which know about the keys of the dict-like object.  If you
need a different method, e.g.  if you want to prepend or append the
contextual information to the message string, you just need to subclass
*note LoggerAdapter: 1186. and override *note process(): 2a88. to do
what you need.  Here is a simple example:

     class CustomAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
         """
         This example adapter expects the passed in dict-like object to have a
         'connid' key, whose value in brackets is prepended to the log message.
         """
         def process(self, msg, kwargs):
             return '[%s] %s' % (self.extra['connid'], msg), kwargs

which you can use like this:

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     adapter = CustomAdapter(logger, {'connid': some_conn_id})

Then any events that you log to the adapter will have the value of
‘some_conn_id’ prepended to the log messages.

* Menu:

* Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information::


File: python.info,  Node: Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information,  Up: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information

9.8.9.2 Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information
.....................................................................

You don't need to pass an actual dict to a *note LoggerAdapter: 1186. -
you could pass an instance of a class which implements ‘__getitem__’ and
‘__iter__’ so that it looks like a dict to logging.  This would be
useful if you want to generate values dynamically (whereas the values in
a dict would be constant).


File: python.info,  Node: Using Filters to impart contextual information,  Prev: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information,  Up: Adding contextual information to your logging output

9.8.9.3 Using Filters to impart contextual information
......................................................

You can also add contextual information to log output using a
user-defined *note Filter: 108c.  ‘Filter’ instances are allowed to
modify the ‘LogRecords’ passed to them, including adding additional
attributes which can then be output using a suitable format string, or
if needed a custom *note Formatter: 1307.

For example in a web application, the request being processed (or at
least, the interesting parts of it) can be stored in a threadlocal
(*note threading.local: 1533.) variable, and then accessed from a
‘Filter’ to add, say, information from the request - say, the remote IP
address and remote user's username - to the ‘LogRecord’, using the
attribute names 'ip' and 'user' as in the ‘LoggerAdapter’ example above.
In that case, the same format string can be used to get similar output
to that shown above.  Here's an example script:

     import logging
     from random import choice

     class ContextFilter(logging.Filter):
         """
         This is a filter which injects contextual information into the log.

         Rather than use actual contextual information, we just use random
         data in this demo.
         """

         USERS = ['jim', 'fred', 'sheila']
         IPS = ['123.231.231.123', '127.0.0.1', '192.168.0.1']

         def filter(self, record):

             record.ip = choice(ContextFilter.IPS)
             record.user = choice(ContextFilter.USERS)
             return True

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL)
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                             format='%(asctime)-15s %(name)-5s %(levelname)-8s IP: %(ip)-15s User: %(user)-8s %(message)s')
         a1 = logging.getLogger('a.b.c')
         a2 = logging.getLogger('d.e.f')

         f = ContextFilter()
         a1.addFilter(f)
         a2.addFilter(f)
         a1.debug('A debug message')
         a1.info('An info message with %s', 'some parameters')
         for x in range(10):
             lvl = choice(levels)
             lvlname = logging.getLevelName(lvl)
             a2.log(lvl, 'A message at %s level with %d %s', lvlname, 2, 'parameters')

which, when run, produces something like:

     2010-09-06 22:38:15,292 a.b.c DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A debug message
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 a.b.c INFO     IP: 192.168.0.1     User: sheila   An info message with some parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: jim      A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f INFO     IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at INFO level with 2 parameters


File: python.info,  Node: Use of contextvars,  Next: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Prev: Adding contextual information to your logging output,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.10 Use of ‘contextvars’
---------------------------

Since Python 3.7, the *note contextvars: 22. module has provided
context-local storage which works for both *note threading: e7. and
*note asyncio: 9. processing needs.  This type of storage may thus be
generally preferable to thread-locals.  The following example shows how,
in a multi-threaded environment, logs can populated with contextual
information such as, for example, request attributes handled by web
applications.

For the purposes of illustration, say that you have different web
applications, each independent of the other but running in the same
Python process and using a library common to them.  How can each of
these applications have their own log, where all logging messages from
the library (and other request processing code) are directed to the
appropriate application's log file, while including in the log
additional contextual information such as client IP, HTTP request method
and client username?

Let's assume that the library can be simulated by the following code:

     # webapplib.py
     import logging
     import time

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def useful():
         # Just a representative event logged from the library
         logger.debug('Hello from webapplib!')
         # Just sleep for a bit so other threads get to run
         time.sleep(0.01)

We can simulate the multiple web applications by means of two simple
classes, ‘Request’ and ‘WebApp’.  These simulate how real threaded web
applications work - each request is handled by a thread:

     # main.py
     import argparse
     from contextvars import ContextVar
     import logging
     import os
     from random import choice
     import threading
     import webapplib

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     class Request:
         """
         A simple dummy request class which just holds dummy HTTP request method,
         client IP address and client username
         """
         def __init__(self, method, ip, user):
             self.method = method
             self.ip = ip
             self.user = user

     # A dummy set of requests which will be used in the simulation - we'll just pick
     # from this list randomly. Note that all GET requests are from 192.168.2.XXX
     # addresses, whereas POST requests are from 192.16.3.XXX addresses. Three users
     # are represented in the sample requests.

     REQUESTS = [
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.20', 'jim'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.20', 'fred'),
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.21', 'sheila'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.21', 'jim'),
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.22', 'fred'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.22', 'sheila'),
     ]

     # Note that the format string includes references to request context information
     # such as HTTP method, client IP and username

     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)-11s %(appName)s %(name)-9s %(user)-6s %(ip)s %(method)-4s %(message)s')

     # Create our context variables. These will be filled at the start of request
     # processing, and used in the logging that happens during that processing

     ctx_request = ContextVar('request')
     ctx_appname = ContextVar('appname')

     class InjectingFilter(logging.Filter):
         """
         A filter which injects context-specific information into logs and ensures
         that only information for a specific webapp is included in its log
         """
         def __init__(self, app):
             self.app = app

         def filter(self, record):
             request = ctx_request.get()
             record.method = request.method
             record.ip = request.ip
             record.user = request.user
             record.appName = appName = ctx_appname.get()
             return appName == self.app.name

     class WebApp:
         """
         A dummy web application class which has its own handler and filter for a
         webapp-specific log.
         """
         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name
             handler = logging.FileHandler(name + '.log', 'w')
             f = InjectingFilter(self)
             handler.setFormatter(formatter)
             handler.addFilter(f)
             root.addHandler(handler)
             self.num_requests = 0

         def process_request(self, request):
             """
             This is the dummy method for processing a request. It's called on a
             different thread for every request. We store the context information into
             the context vars before doing anything else.
             """
             ctx_request.set(request)
             ctx_appname.set(self.name)
             self.num_requests += 1
             logger.debug('Request processing started')
             webapplib.useful()
             logger.debug('Request processing finished')

     def main():
         fn = os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(__file__))[0]
         adhf = argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
         ap = argparse.ArgumentParser(formatter_class=adhf, prog=fn,
                                      description='Simulate a couple of web '
                                                  'applications handling some '
                                                  'requests, showing how request '
                                                  'context can be used to '
                                                  'populate logs')
         aa = ap.add_argument
         aa('--count', '-c', type=int, default=100, help='How many requests to simulate')
         options = ap.parse_args()

         # Create the dummy webapps and put them in a list which we can use to select
         # from randomly
         app1 = WebApp('app1')
         app2 = WebApp('app2')
         apps = [app1, app2]
         threads = []
         # Add a common handler which will capture all events
         handler = logging.FileHandler('app.log', 'w')
         handler.setFormatter(formatter)
         root.addHandler(handler)

         # Generate calls to process requests
         for i in range(options.count):
             try:
                 # Pick an app at random and a request for it to process
                 app = choice(apps)
                 request = choice(REQUESTS)
                 # Process the request in its own thread
                 t = threading.Thread(target=app.process_request, args=(request,))
                 threads.append(t)
                 t.start()
             except KeyboardInterrupt:
                 break

         # Wait for the threads to terminate
         for t in threads:
             t.join()

         for app in apps:
             print('%s processed %s requests' % (app.name, app.num_requests))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

If you run the above, you should find that roughly half the requests go
into ‘app1.log’ and the rest into ‘app2.log’, and the all the requests
are logged to ‘app.log’.  Each webapp-specific log will contain only log
entries for only that webapp, and the request information will be
displayed consistently in the log (i.e.  the information in each dummy
request will always appear together in a log line).  This is illustrated
by the following shell output:

     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ python main.py
     app1 processed 51 requests
     app2 processed 49 requests
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ wc -l *.log
       153 app1.log
       147 app2.log
       300 app.log
       600 total
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app1.log
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app2.log
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head app.log
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 webapplib jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-4 (process_request) app2 __main__  fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-4 (process_request) app2 webapplib fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-6 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app1.log | wc -l
     153
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app2.log | wc -l
     147
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app.log | wc -l
     153
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app.log | wc -l
     147


File: python.info,  Node: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Next: Logging to a single file from multiple processes,  Prev: Use of contextvars,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.11 Imparting contextual information in handlers
---------------------------------------------------

Each *note Handler: 1306. has its own chain of filters.  If you want to
add contextual information to a *note LogRecord: e78. without leaking it
to other handlers, you can use a filter that returns a new *note
LogRecord: e78. instead of modifying it in-place, as shown in the
following script:

     import copy
     import logging

     def filter(record: logging.LogRecord):
         record = copy.copy(record)
         record.user = 'jim'
         return record

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger = logging.getLogger()
         logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
         handler = logging.StreamHandler()
         formatter = logging.Formatter('%(message)s from %(user)-8s')
         handler.setFormatter(formatter)
         handler.addFilter(filter)
         logger.addHandler(handler)

         logger.info('A log message')


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to a single file from multiple processes,  Next: Using file rotation,  Prev: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.12 Logging to a single file from multiple processes
-------------------------------------------------------

Although logging is thread-safe, and logging to a single file from
multiple threads in a single process 'is' supported, logging to a single
file from 'multiple processes' is 'not' supported, because there is no
standard way to serialize access to a single file across multiple
processes in Python.  If you need to log to a single file from multiple
processes, one way of doing this is to have all the processes log to a
*note SocketHandler: def, and have a separate process which implements a
socket server which reads from the socket and logs to file.  (If you
prefer, you can dedicate one thread in one of the existing processes to
perform this function.)  *note This section: 4d95. documents this
approach in more detail and includes a working socket receiver which can
be used as a starting point for you to adapt in your own applications.

You could also write your own handler which uses the *note Lock: 2e0e.
class from the *note multiprocessing: 8f. module to serialize access to
the file from your processes.  The existing *note FileHandler: 1671. and
subclasses do not make use of *note multiprocessing: 8f. at present,
though they may do so in the future.  Note that at present, the *note
multiprocessing: 8f. module does not provide working lock functionality
on all platforms (see ‘https://bugs.python.org/issue3770’).

Alternatively, you can use a ‘Queue’ and a *note QueueHandler: 15a4. to
send all logging events to one of the processes in your multi-process
application.  The following example script demonstrates how you can do
this; in the example a separate listener process listens for events sent
by other processes and logs them according to its own logging
configuration.  Although the example only demonstrates one way of doing
it (for example, you may want to use a listener thread rather than a
separate listener process - the implementation would be analogous) it
does allow for completely different logging configurations for the
listener and the other processes in your application, and can be used as
the basis for code meeting your own specific requirements:

     # You'll need these imports in your own code
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import multiprocessing

     # Next two import lines for this demo only
     from random import choice, random
     import time

     #
     # Because you'll want to define the logging configurations for listener and workers, the
     # listener and worker process functions take a configurer parameter which is a callable
     # for configuring logging for that process. These functions are also passed the queue,
     # which they use for communication.
     #
     # In practice, you can configure the listener however you want, but note that in this
     # simple example, the listener does not apply level or filter logic to received records.
     # In practice, you would probably want to do this logic in the worker processes, to avoid
     # sending events which would be filtered out between processes.
     #
     # The size of the rotated files is made small so you can see the results easily.
     def listener_configurer():
         root = logging.getLogger()
         h = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('mptest.log', 'a', 300, 10)
         f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(processName)-10s %(name)s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
         h.setFormatter(f)
         root.addHandler(h)

     # This is the listener process top-level loop: wait for logging events
     # (LogRecords)on the queue and handle them, quit when you get a None for a
     # LogRecord.
     def listener_process(queue, configurer):
         configurer()
         while True:
             try:
                 record = queue.get()
                 if record is None:  # We send this as a sentinel to tell the listener to quit.
                     break
                 logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
                 logger.handle(record)  # No level or filter logic applied - just do it!
             except Exception:
                 import sys, traceback
                 print('Whoops! Problem:', file=sys.stderr)
                 traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stderr)

     # Arrays used for random selections in this demo

     LEVELS = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING,
               logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL]

     LOGGERS = ['a.b.c', 'd.e.f']

     MESSAGES = [
         'Random message #1',
         'Random message #2',
         'Random message #3',
     ]

     # The worker configuration is done at the start of the worker process run.
     # Note that on Windows you can't rely on fork semantics, so each process
     # will run the logging configuration code when it starts.
     def worker_configurer(queue):
         h = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(queue)  # Just the one handler needed
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.addHandler(h)
         # send all messages, for demo; no other level or filter logic applied.
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # This is the worker process top-level loop, which just logs ten events with
     # random intervening delays before terminating.
     # The print messages are just so you know it's doing something!
     def worker_process(queue, configurer):
         configurer(queue)
         name = multiprocessing.current_process().name
         print('Worker started: %s' % name)
         for i in range(10):
             time.sleep(random())
             logger = logging.getLogger(choice(LOGGERS))
             level = choice(LEVELS)
             message = choice(MESSAGES)
             logger.log(level, message)
         print('Worker finished: %s' % name)

     # Here's where the demo gets orchestrated. Create the queue, create and start
     # the listener, create ten workers and start them, wait for them to finish,
     # then send a None to the queue to tell the listener to finish.
     def main():
         queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)
         listener = multiprocessing.Process(target=listener_process,
                                            args=(queue, listener_configurer))
         listener.start()
         workers = []
         for i in range(10):
             worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                              args=(queue, worker_configurer))
             workers.append(worker)
             worker.start()
         for w in workers:
             w.join()
         queue.put_nowait(None)
         listener.join()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

A variant of the above script keeps the logging in the main process, in
a separate thread:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import logging.handlers
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
     import random
     import threading
     import time

     def logger_thread(q):
         while True:
             record = q.get()
             if record is None:
                 break
             logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
             logger.handle(record)


     def worker_process(q):
         qh = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(q)
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         root.addHandler(qh)
         levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
                   logging.CRITICAL]
         loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
                    'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
         for i in range(100):
             lvl = random.choice(levels)
             logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
             logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         q = Queue()
         d = {
             'version': 1,
             'formatters': {
                 'detailed': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 }
             },
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'level': 'INFO',
                 },
                 'file': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
                 'foofile': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
                 'errors': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'level': 'ERROR',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
             },
             'loggers': {
                 'foo': {
                     'handlers': ['foofile']
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'level': 'DEBUG',
                 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors']
             },
         }
         workers = []
         for i in range(5):
             wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1), args=(q,))
             workers.append(wp)
             wp.start()
         logging.config.dictConfig(d)
         lp = threading.Thread(target=logger_thread, args=(q,))
         lp.start()
         # At this point, the main process could do some useful work of its own
         # Once it's done that, it can wait for the workers to terminate...
         for wp in workers:
             wp.join()
         # And now tell the logging thread to finish up, too
         q.put(None)
         lp.join()

This variant shows how you can e.g.  apply configuration for particular
loggers - e.g.  the ‘foo’ logger has a special handler which stores all
events in the ‘foo’ subsystem in a file ‘mplog-foo.log’.  This will be
used by the logging machinery in the main process (even though the
logging events are generated in the worker processes) to direct the
messages to the appropriate destinations.

* Menu:

* Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor.
* Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI::


File: python.info,  Node: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor,  Next: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI,  Up: Logging to a single file from multiple processes

9.8.12.1 Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor
.....................................................

If you want to use *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. to
start your worker processes, you need to create the queue slightly
differently.  Instead of

     queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)

you should use

     queue = multiprocessing.Manager().Queue(-1)  # also works with the examples above

and you can then replace the worker creation from this:

     workers = []
     for i in range(10):
         worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                          args=(queue, worker_configurer))
         workers.append(worker)
         worker.start()
     for w in workers:
         w.join()

to this (remembering to first import *note concurrent.futures: 1f.):

     with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=10) as executor:
         for i in range(10):
             executor.submit(worker_process, queue, worker_configurer)


File: python.info,  Node: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI,  Prev: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor,  Up: Logging to a single file from multiple processes

9.8.12.2 Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI
............................................................

When deploying Web applications using Gunicorn(1) or uWSGI(2) (or
similar), multiple worker processes are created to handle client
requests.  In such environments, avoid creating file-based handlers
directly in your web application.  Instead, use a *note SocketHandler:
def. to log from the web application to a listener in a separate
process.  This can be set up using a process management tool such as
Supervisor - see *note Running a logging socket listener in production:
4d97. for more details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gunicorn.org/

   (2) https://uwsgi-docs.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Using file rotation,  Next: Use of alternative formatting styles,  Prev: Logging to a single file from multiple processes,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.13 Using file rotation
--------------------------

Sometimes you want to let a log file grow to a certain size, then open a
new file and log to that.  You may want to keep a certain number of
these files, and when that many files have been created, rotate the
files so that the number of files and the size of the files both remain
bounded.  For this usage pattern, the logging package provides a *note
RotatingFileHandler: 13f4.:

     import glob
     import logging
     import logging.handlers

     LOG_FILENAME = 'logging_rotatingfile_example.out'

     # Set up a specific logger with our desired output level
     my_logger = logging.getLogger('MyLogger')
     my_logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # Add the log message handler to the logger
     handler = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler(
                   LOG_FILENAME, maxBytes=20, backupCount=5)

     my_logger.addHandler(handler)

     # Log some messages
     for i in range(20):
         my_logger.debug('i = %d' % i)

     # See what files are created
     logfiles = glob.glob('%s*' % LOG_FILENAME)

     for filename in logfiles:
         print(filename)

The result should be 6 separate files, each with part of the log history
for the application:

     logging_rotatingfile_example.out
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.1
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.2
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.3
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.4
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.5

The most current file is always ‘logging_rotatingfile_example.out’, and
each time it reaches the size limit it is renamed with the suffix ‘.1’.
Each of the existing backup files is renamed to increment the suffix
(‘.1’ becomes ‘.2’, etc.)  and the ‘.6’ file is erased.

Obviously this example sets the log length much too small as an extreme
example.  You would want to set 'maxBytes' to an appropriate value.


File: python.info,  Node: Use of alternative formatting styles,  Next: Customizing LogRecord,  Prev: Using file rotation,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.14 Use of alternative formatting styles
-------------------------------------------

When logging was added to the Python standard library, the only way of
formatting messages with variable content was to use the %-formatting
method.  Since then, Python has gained two new formatting approaches:
*note string.Template: 484. (added in Python 2.4) and *note
str.format(): 41b. (added in Python 2.6).

Logging (as of 3.2) provides improved support for these two additional
formatting styles.  The *note Formatter: 1307. class been enhanced to
take an additional, optional keyword parameter named ‘style’.  This
defaults to ‘'%'’, but other possible values are ‘'{'’ and ‘'$'’, which
correspond to the other two formatting styles.  Backwards compatibility
is maintained by default (as you would expect), but by explicitly
specifying a style parameter, you get the ability to specify format
strings which work with *note str.format(): 41b. or *note
string.Template: 484.  Here's an example console session to show the
possibilities:

     >>> import logging
     >>> root = logging.getLogger()
     >>> root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     >>> handler = logging.StreamHandler()
     >>> bf = logging.Formatter('{asctime} {name} {levelname:8s} {message}',
     ...                        style='{')
     >>> handler.setFormatter(bf)
     >>> root.addHandler(handler)
     >>> logger = logging.getLogger('foo.bar')
     >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
     2010-10-28 15:11:55,341 foo.bar DEBUG    This is a DEBUG message
     >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
     2010-10-28 15:12:11,526 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
     >>> df = logging.Formatter('$asctime $name ${levelname} $message',
     ...                        style='$')
     >>> handler.setFormatter(df)
     >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
     2010-10-28 15:13:06,924 foo.bar DEBUG This is a DEBUG message
     >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
     2010-10-28 15:13:11,494 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
     >>>

Note that the formatting of logging messages for final output to logs is
completely independent of how an individual logging message is
constructed.  That can still use %-formatting, as shown here:

     >>> logger.error('This is an%s %s %s', 'other,', 'ERROR,', 'message')
     2010-10-28 15:19:29,833 foo.bar ERROR This is another, ERROR, message
     >>>

Logging calls (‘logger.debug()’, ‘logger.info()’ etc.)  only take
positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with
keyword parameters used only for determining options for how to handle
the actual logging call (e.g.  the ‘exc_info’ keyword parameter to
indicate that traceback information should be logged, or the ‘extra’
keyword parameter to indicate additional contextual information to be
added to the log).  So you cannot directly make logging calls using
*note str.format(): 41b. or *note string.Template: 484. syntax, because
internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format
string and the variable arguments.  There would be no changing this
while preserving backward compatibility, since all logging calls which
are out there in existing code will be using %-format strings.

There is, however, a way that you can use {}- and $- formatting to
construct your individual log messages.  Recall that for a message you
can use an arbitrary object as a message format string, and that the
logging package will call ‘str()’ on that object to get the actual
format string.  Consider the following two classes:

     class BraceMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

     class DollarMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             from string import Template
             return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or
$-formatting to be used to build the actual "message" part which appears
in the formatted log output in place of "%(message)s" or "{message}" or
"$message".  It's a little unwieldy to use the class names whenever you
want to log something, but it's quite palatable if you use an alias such
as __ (double underscore -- not to be confused with _, the single
underscore used as a synonym/alias for *note gettext.gettext(): 12d9. or
its brethren).

The above classes are not included in Python, though they're easy enough
to copy and paste into your own code.  They can be used as follows
(assuming that they're declared in a module called ‘wherever’):

     >>> from wherever import BraceMessage as __
     >>> print(__('Message with {0} {name}', 2, name='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>> class Point: pass
     ...
     >>> p = Point()
     >>> p.x = 0.5
     >>> p.y = 0.5
     >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})',
     ...       point=p))
     Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)
     >>> from wherever import DollarMessage as __
     >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>>

While the above examples use ‘print()’ to show how the formatting works,
you would of course use ‘logger.debug()’ or similar to actually log
using this approach.

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty
with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the
logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to
be output to a log by a handler.  So the only slightly unusual thing
which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format
string and the arguments, not just the format string.  That's because
the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of
the ‘XXXMessage’ classes.

If you prefer, you can use a *note LoggerAdapter: 1186. to achieve a
similar effect to the above, as in the following example:

     import logging

     class Message:
         def __init__(self, fmt, args):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args)

     class StyleAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
         def log(self, level, msg, /, *args, stacklevel=1, **kwargs):
             if self.isEnabledFor(level):
                 msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
                 self.logger.log(level, Message(msg, args), **kwargs,
                                 stacklevel=stacklevel+1)

     logger = StyleAdapter(logging.getLogger(__name__))

     def main():
         logger.debug('Hello, {}', 'world!')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
         main()

The above script should log the message ‘Hello, world!’ when run with
Python 3.8 or later.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing LogRecord,  Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Prev: Use of alternative formatting styles,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.15 Customizing ‘LogRecord’
------------------------------

Every logging event is represented by a *note LogRecord: e78. instance.
When an event is logged and not filtered out by a logger's level, a
*note LogRecord: e78. is created, populated with information about the
event and then passed to the handlers for that logger (and its
ancestors, up to and including the logger where further propagation up
the hierarchy is disabled).  Before Python 3.2, there were only two
places where this creation was done:

   * *note Logger.makeRecord(): 2a58, which is called in the normal
     process of logging an event.  This invoked *note LogRecord: e78.
     directly to create an instance.

   * *note makeLogRecord(): 2a7f, which is called with a dictionary
     containing attributes to be added to the LogRecord.  This is
     typically invoked when a suitable dictionary has been received over
     the network (e.g.  in pickle form via a *note SocketHandler: def,
     or in JSON form via an *note HTTPHandler: ca5.).

This has usually meant that if you need to do anything special with a
*note LogRecord: e78, you've had to do one of the following.

   * Create your own *note Logger: 9a9. subclass, which overrides *note
     Logger.makeRecord(): 2a58, and set it using *note setLoggerClass():
     2a8e. before any loggers that you care about are instantiated.

   * Add a *note Filter: 108c. to a logger or handler, which does the
     necessary special manipulation you need when its *note filter():
     2a7a. method is called.

The first approach would be a little unwieldy in the scenario where
(say) several different libraries wanted to do different things.  Each
would attempt to set its own *note Logger: 9a9. subclass, and the one
which did this last would win.

The second approach works reasonably well for many cases, but does not
allow you to e.g.  use a specialized subclass of *note LogRecord: e78.
Library developers can set a suitable filter on their loggers, but they
would have to remember to do this every time they introduced a new
logger (which they would do simply by adding new packages or modules and
doing

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

at module level).  It's probably one too many things to think about.
Developers could also add the filter to a *note NullHandler: 1119.
attached to their top-level logger, but this would not be invoked if an
application developer attached a handler to a lower-level library logger
-- so output from that handler would not reflect the intentions of the
library developer.

In Python 3.2 and later, *note LogRecord: e78. creation is done through
a factory, which you can specify.  The factory is just a callable you
can set with *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2a83, and interrogate with
*note getLogRecordFactory(): 2a82.  The factory is invoked with the same
signature as the *note LogRecord: e78. constructor, as *note LogRecord:
e78. is the default setting for the factory.

This approach allows a custom factory to control all aspects of
LogRecord creation.  For example, you could return a subclass, or just
add some additional attributes to the record once created, using a
pattern similar to this:

     old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

     def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
         record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
         record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
         return record

     logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

This pattern allows different libraries to chain factories together, and
as long as they don't overwrite each other's attributes or
unintentionally overwrite the attributes provided as standard, there
should be no surprises.  However, it should be borne in mind that each
link in the chain adds run-time overhead to all logging operations, and
the technique should only be used when the use of a *note Filter: 108c.
does not provide the desired result.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Prev: Customizing LogRecord,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.16 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example
-------------------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Subclass QueueHandler::
* Subclass QueueListener::


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueHandler,  Next: Subclass QueueListener,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

9.8.16.1 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’
................................

You can use a *note QueueHandler: 15a4. subclass to send messages to
other kinds of queues, for example a ZeroMQ 'publish' socket.  In the
example below,the socket is created separately and passed to the handler
(as its 'queue'):

     import zmq   # using pyzmq, the Python binding for ZeroMQ
     import json  # for serializing records portably

     ctx = zmq.Context()
     sock = zmq.Socket(ctx, zmq.PUB)  # or zmq.PUSH, or other suitable value
     sock.bind('tcp://*:5556')        # or wherever

     class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
         def enqueue(self, record):
             self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)


     handler = ZeroMQSocketHandler(sock)

Of course there are other ways of organizing this, for example passing
in the data needed by the handler to create the socket:

     class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
         def __init__(self, uri, socktype=zmq.PUB, ctx=None):
             self.ctx = ctx or zmq.Context()
             socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, socktype)
             socket.bind(uri)
             super().__init__(socket)

         def enqueue(self, record):
             self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)

         def close(self):
             self.queue.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueListener,  Prev: Subclass QueueHandler,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

9.8.16.2 Subclass ‘QueueListener’
.................................

You can also subclass *note QueueListener: ca6. to get messages from
other kinds of queues, for example a ZeroMQ 'subscribe' socket.  Here's
an example:

     class ZeroMQSocketListener(QueueListener):
         def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
             self.ctx = kwargs.get('ctx') or zmq.Context()
             socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, zmq.SUB)
             socket.setsockopt_string(zmq.SUBSCRIBE, '')  # subscribe to everything
             socket.connect(uri)
             super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

         def dequeue(self):
             msg = self.queue.recv_json()
             return logging.makeLogRecord(msg)


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Next: An example dictionary-based configuration,  Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.17 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ‘pynng’ example
--------------------------------------------------------------------

In a similar way to the above section, we can implement a listener and
handler using pynng(1), which is a Python binding to NNG(2), billed as a
spiritual successor to ZeroMQ. The following snippets illustrate - you
can test them in an environment which has ‘pynng’ installed.  Just for
variety, we present the listener first.

* Menu:

* Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>.
* Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pynng/

   (2) https://nng.nanomsg.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueListener<2>,  Next: Subclass QueueHandler<2>,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

9.8.17.1 Subclass ‘QueueListener’
.................................

     # listener.py
     import json
     import logging
     import logging.handlers

     import pynng

     DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

     interrupted = False

     class NNGSocketListener(logging.handlers.QueueListener):

         def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
             # Have a timeout for interruptability, and open a
             # subscriber socket
             socket = pynng.Sub0(listen=uri, recv_timeout=500)
             # The b'' subscription matches all topics
             topics = kwargs.pop('topics', None) or b''
             socket.subscribe(topics)
             # We treat the socket as a queue
             super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

         def dequeue(self, block):
             data = None
             # Keep looping while not interrupted and no data received over the
             # socket
             while not interrupted:
                 try:
                     data = self.queue.recv(block=block)
                     break
                 except pynng.Timeout:
                     pass
                 except pynng.Closed:  # sometimes happens when you hit Ctrl-C
                     break
             if data is None:
                 return None
             # Get the logging event sent from a publisher
             event = json.loads(data.decode('utf-8'))
             return logging.makeLogRecord(event)

         def enqueue_sentinel(self):
             # Not used in this implementation, as the socket isn't really a
             # queue
             pass

     logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
     listener = NNGSocketListener(DEFAULT_ADDR, logging.StreamHandler(), topics=b'')
     listener.start()
     print('Press Ctrl-C to stop.')
     try:
         while True:
             pass
     except KeyboardInterrupt:
         interrupted = True
     finally:
         listener.stop()


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueHandler<2>,  Prev: Subclass QueueListener<2>,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

9.8.17.2 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’
................................

     # sender.py
     import json
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import time
     import random

     import pynng

     DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

     class NNGSocketHandler(logging.handlers.QueueHandler):

         def __init__(self, uri):
             socket = pynng.Pub0(dial=uri, send_timeout=500)
             super().__init__(socket)

         def enqueue(self, record):
             # Send the record as UTF-8 encoded JSON
             d = dict(record.__dict__)
             data = json.dumps(d)
             self.queue.send(data.encode('utf-8'))

         def close(self):
             self.queue.close()

     logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
     handler = NNGSocketHandler(DEFAULT_ADDR)
     # Make sure the process ID is in the output
     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                         handlers=[logging.StreamHandler(), handler],
                         format='%(levelname)-8s %(name)10s %(process)6s %(message)s')
     levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
               logging.CRITICAL)
     logger_names = ('myapp', 'myapp.lib1', 'myapp.lib2')
     msgno = 1
     while True:
         # Just randomly select some loggers and levels and log away
         level = random.choice(levels)
         logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(logger_names))
         logger.log(level, 'Message no. %5d' % msgno)
         msgno += 1
         delay = random.random() * 2 + 0.5
         time.sleep(delay)

You can run the above two snippets in separate command shells.  If we
run the listener in one shell and run the sender in two separate shells,
we should see something like the following.  In the first sender shell:

     $ python sender.py
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
     INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

In the second sender shell:

     $ python sender.py
     INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
     INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
     DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

In the listener shell:

     $ python listener.py
     Press Ctrl-C to stop.
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
     INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
     INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
     INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
     DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

As you can see, the logging from the two sender processes is interleaved
in the listener's output.


File: python.info,  Node: An example dictionary-based configuration,  Next: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing,  Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.18 An example dictionary-based configuration
------------------------------------------------

Below is an example of a logging configuration dictionary - it's taken
from the documentation on the Django project(1).  This dictionary is
passed to *note dictConfig(): 1041. to put the configuration into
effect:

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'verbose': {
                 'format': '{levelname} {asctime} {module} {process:d} {thread:d} {message}',
                 'style': '{',
             },
             'simple': {
                 'format': '{levelname} {message}',
                 'style': '{',
             },
         },
         'filters': {
             'special': {
                 '()': 'project.logging.SpecialFilter',
                 'foo': 'bar',
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console': {
                 'level': 'INFO',
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'simple',
             },
             'mail_admins': {
                 'level': 'ERROR',
                 'class': 'django.utils.log.AdminEmailHandler',
                 'filters': ['special']
             }
         },
         'loggers': {
             'django': {
                 'handlers': ['console'],
                 'propagate': True,
             },
             'django.request': {
                 'handlers': ['mail_admins'],
                 'level': 'ERROR',
                 'propagate': False,
             },
             'myproject.custom': {
                 'handlers': ['console', 'mail_admins'],
                 'level': 'INFO',
                 'filters': ['special']
             }
         }
     }

For more information about this configuration, you can see the relevant
section(2) of the Django documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging

   (2) 
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging


File: python.info,  Node: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing,  Next: A more elaborate multiprocessing example,  Prev: An example dictionary-based configuration,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.19 Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
---------------------------------------------------------------------

An example of how you can define a namer and rotator is given in the
following runnable script, which shows gzip compression of the log file:

     import gzip
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import os
     import shutil

     def namer(name):
         return name + ".gz"

     def rotator(source, dest):
         with open(source, 'rb') as f_in:
             with gzip.open(dest, 'wb') as f_out:
                 shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)
         os.remove(source)


     rh = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('rotated.log', maxBytes=128, backupCount=5)
     rh.rotator = rotator
     rh.namer = namer

     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     root.addHandler(rh)
     f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(message)s')
     rh.setFormatter(f)
     for i in range(1000):
         root.info(f'Message no. {i + 1}')

After running this, you will see six new files, five of which are
compressed:

     $ ls rotated.log*
     rotated.log       rotated.log.2.gz  rotated.log.4.gz
     rotated.log.1.gz  rotated.log.3.gz  rotated.log.5.gz
     $ zcat rotated.log.1.gz
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 996
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 997
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 998


File: python.info,  Node: A more elaborate multiprocessing example,  Next: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler,  Prev: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.20 A more elaborate multiprocessing example
-----------------------------------------------

The following working example shows how logging can be used with
multiprocessing using configuration files.  The configurations are
fairly simple, but serve to illustrate how more complex ones could be
implemented in a real multiprocessing scenario.

In the example, the main process spawns a listener process and some
worker processes.  Each of the main process, the listener and the
workers have three separate configurations (the workers all share the
same configuration).  We can see logging in the main process, how the
workers log to a QueueHandler and how the listener implements a
QueueListener and a more complex logging configuration, and arranges to
dispatch events received via the queue to the handlers specified in the
configuration.  Note that these configurations are purely illustrative,
but you should be able to adapt this example to your own scenario.

Here's the script - the docstrings and the comments hopefully explain
how it works:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import logging.handlers
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, Event, current_process
     import os
     import random
     import time

     class MyHandler:
         """
         A simple handler for logging events. It runs in the listener process and
         dispatches events to loggers based on the name in the received record,
         which then get dispatched, by the logging system, to the handlers
         configured for those loggers.
         """

         def handle(self, record):
             if record.name == "root":
                 logger = logging.getLogger()
             else:
                 logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)

             if logger.isEnabledFor(record.levelno):
                 # The process name is transformed just to show that it's the listener
                 # doing the logging to files and console
                 record.processName = '%s (for %s)' % (current_process().name, record.processName)
                 logger.handle(record)

     def listener_process(q, stop_event, config):
         """
         This could be done in the main process, but is just done in a separate
         process for illustrative purposes.

         This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
         starts the listener and waits for the main process to signal completion
         via the event. The listener is then stopped, and the process exits.
         """
         logging.config.dictConfig(config)
         listener = logging.handlers.QueueListener(q, MyHandler())
         listener.start()
         if os.name == 'posix':
             # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
             # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
             # dictConfig call.
             # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
             # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
             # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
             logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
             logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
         stop_event.wait()
         listener.stop()

     def worker_process(config):
         """
         A number of these are spawned for the purpose of illustration. In
         practice, they could be a heterogeneous bunch of processes rather than
         ones which are identical to each other.

         This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
         and logs a hundred messages with random levels to randomly selected
         loggers.

         A small sleep is added to allow other processes a chance to run. This
         is not strictly needed, but it mixes the output from the different
         processes a bit more than if it's left out.
         """
         logging.config.dictConfig(config)
         levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
                   logging.CRITICAL]
         loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
                    'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
         if os.name == 'posix':
             # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
             # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
             # dictConfig call.
             # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
             # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
             # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
             logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
             logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
         for i in range(100):
             lvl = random.choice(levels)
             logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
             logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)
             time.sleep(0.01)

     def main():
         q = Queue()
         # The main process gets a simple configuration which prints to the console.
         config_initial = {
             'version': 1,
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'level': 'INFO'
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['console'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # The worker process configuration is just a QueueHandler attached to the
         # root logger, which allows all messages to be sent to the queue.
         # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
         # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
         # be there in the child following a fork().
         config_worker = {
             'version': 1,
             'disable_existing_loggers': True,
             'handlers': {
                 'queue': {
                     'class': 'logging.handlers.QueueHandler',
                     'queue': q
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['queue'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # The listener process configuration shows that the full flexibility of
         # logging configuration is available to dispatch events to handlers however
         # you want.
         # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
         # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
         # be there in the child following a fork().
         config_listener = {
             'version': 1,
             'disable_existing_loggers': True,
             'formatters': {
                 'detailed': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 },
                 'simple': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 }
             },
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'formatter': 'simple',
                     'level': 'INFO'
                 },
                 'file': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed'
                 },
                 'foofile': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed'
                 },
                 'errors': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                     'level': 'ERROR'
                 }
             },
             'loggers': {
                 'foo': {
                     'handlers': ['foofile']
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # Log some initial events, just to show that logging in the parent works
         # normally.
         logging.config.dictConfig(config_initial)
         logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
         logger.info('About to create workers ...')
         workers = []
         for i in range(5):
             wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1),
                          args=(config_worker,))
             workers.append(wp)
             wp.start()
             logger.info('Started worker: %s', wp.name)
         logger.info('About to create listener ...')
         stop_event = Event()
         lp = Process(target=listener_process, name='listener',
                      args=(q, stop_event, config_listener))
         lp.start()
         logger.info('Started listener')
         # We now hang around for the workers to finish their work.
         for wp in workers:
             wp.join()
         # Workers all done, listening can now stop.
         # Logging in the parent still works normally.
         logger.info('Telling listener to stop ...')
         stop_event.set()
         lp.join()
         logger.info('All done.')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler,  Next: Implementing structured logging,  Prev: A more elaborate multiprocessing example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.21 Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
------------------------------------------------------------

RFC 5424(1) requires that a Unicode message be sent to a syslog daemon
as a set of bytes which have the following structure: an optional
pure-ASCII component, followed by a UTF-8 Byte Order Mark (BOM),
followed by Unicode encoded using UTF-8.  (See the relevant section of
the specification(2).)

In Python 3.1, code was added to *note SysLogHandler: 457. to insert a
BOM into the message, but unfortunately, it was implemented incorrectly,
with the BOM appearing at the beginning of the message and hence not
allowing any pure-ASCII component to appear before it.

As this behaviour is broken, the incorrect BOM insertion code is being
removed from Python 3.2.4 and later.  However, it is not being replaced,
and if you want to produce RFC 5424(3)-compliant messages which include
a BOM, an optional pure-ASCII sequence before it and arbitrary Unicode
after it, encoded using UTF-8, then you need to do the following:

  1. Attach a *note Formatter: 1307. instance to your *note
     SysLogHandler: 457. instance, with a format string such as:

          'ASCII section\ufeffUnicode section'

     The Unicode code point U+FEFF, when encoded using UTF-8, will be
     encoded as a UTF-8 BOM - the byte-string ‘b'\xef\xbb\xbf'’.

  2. Replace the ASCII section with whatever placeholders you like, but
     make sure that the data that appears in there after substitution is
     always ASCII (that way, it will remain unchanged after UTF-8
     encoding).

  3. Replace the Unicode section with whatever placeholders you like; if
     the data which appears there after substitution contains characters
     outside the ASCII range, that's fine - it will be encoded using
     UTF-8.

The formatted message 'will' be encoded using UTF-8 encoding by
‘SysLogHandler’.  If you follow the above rules, you should be able to
produce RFC 5424(4)-compliant messages.  If you don't, logging may not
complain, but your messages will not be RFC 5424-compliant, and your
syslog daemon may complain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html#section-6

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing structured logging,  Next: Customizing handlers with dictConfig,  Prev: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.22 Implementing structured logging
--------------------------------------

Although most logging messages are intended for reading by humans, and
thus not readily machine-parseable, there might be circumstances where
you want to output messages in a structured format which 'is' capable of
being parsed by a program (without needing complex regular expressions
to parse the log message).  This is straightforward to achieve using the
logging package.  There are a number of ways in which this could be
achieved, but the following is a simple approach which uses JSON to
serialise the event in a machine-parseable manner:

     import json
     import logging

     class StructuredMessage:
         def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
             self.message = message
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, json.dumps(self.kwargs))

     _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
     logging.info(_('message 1', foo='bar', bar='baz', num=123, fnum=123.456))

If the above script is run, it prints:

     message 1 >>> {"fnum": 123.456, "num": 123, "bar": "baz", "foo": "bar"}

Note that the order of items might be different according to the version
of Python used.

If you need more specialised processing, you can use a custom JSON
encoder, as in the following complete example:

     import json
     import logging


     class Encoder(json.JSONEncoder):
         def default(self, o):
             if isinstance(o, set):
                 return tuple(o)
             elif isinstance(o, str):
                 return o.encode('unicode_escape').decode('ascii')
             return super().default(o)

     class StructuredMessage:
         def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
             self.message = message
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             s = Encoder().encode(self.kwargs)
             return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, s)

     _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
         logging.info(_('message 1', set_value={1, 2, 3}, snowman='\u2603'))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

When the above script is run, it prints:

     message 1 >>> {"snowman": "\u2603", "set_value": [1, 2, 3]}

Note that the order of items might be different according to the version
of Python used.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing handlers with dictConfig,  Next: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Prev: Implementing structured logging,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.23 Customizing handlers with ‘dictConfig()’
-----------------------------------------------

There are times when you want to customize logging handlers in
particular ways, and if you use *note dictConfig(): 1041. you may be
able to do this without subclassing.  As an example, consider that you
may want to set the ownership of a log file.  On POSIX, this is easily
done using *note shutil.chown(): fbd, but the file handlers in the
stdlib don't offer built-in support.  You can customize handler creation
using a plain function such as:

     def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
         if owner:
             if not os.path.exists(filename):
                 open(filename, 'a').close()
             shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
         return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

You can then specify, in a logging configuration passed to *note
dictConfig(): 1041, that a logging handler be created by calling this
function:

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'default': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'file':{
                 # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
                 # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
                 # its formatter.
                 '()': owned_file_handler,
                 'level':'DEBUG',
                 'formatter': 'default',
                 # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
                 # as keyword arguments.
                 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
                 'filename': 'chowntest.log',
                 'mode': 'w',
                 'encoding': 'utf-8',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['file'],
             'level': 'DEBUG',
         },
     }

In this example I am setting the ownership using the ‘pulse’ user and
group, just for the purposes of illustration.  Putting it together into
a working script, ‘chowntest.py’:

     import logging, logging.config, os, shutil

     def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
         if owner:
             if not os.path.exists(filename):
                 open(filename, 'a').close()
             shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
         return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'default': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'file':{
                 # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
                 # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
                 # its formatter.
                 '()': owned_file_handler,
                 'level':'DEBUG',
                 'formatter': 'default',
                 # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
                 # as keyword arguments.
                 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
                 'filename': 'chowntest.log',
                 'mode': 'w',
                 'encoding': 'utf-8',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['file'],
             'level': 'DEBUG',
         },
     }

     logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
     logger = logging.getLogger('mylogger')
     logger.debug('A debug message')

To run this, you will probably need to run as ‘root’:

     $ sudo python3.3 chowntest.py
     $ cat chowntest.log
     2013-11-05 09:34:51,128 DEBUG mylogger A debug message
     $ ls -l chowntest.log
     -rw-r--r-- 1 pulse pulse 55 2013-11-05 09:34 chowntest.log

Note that this example uses Python 3.3 because that's where *note
shutil.chown(): fbd. makes an appearance.  This approach should work
with any Python version that supports *note dictConfig(): 1041. -
namely, Python 2.7, 3.2 or later.  With pre-3.3 versions, you would need
to implement the actual ownership change using e.g.  *note os.chown():
f7d.

In practice, the handler-creating function may be in a utility module
somewhere in your project.  Instead of the line in the configuration:

     '()': owned_file_handler,

you could use e.g.:

     '()': 'ext://project.util.owned_file_handler',

where ‘project.util’ can be replaced with the actual name of the package
where the function resides.  In the above working script, using
‘'ext://__main__.owned_file_handler'’ should work.  Here, the actual
callable is resolved by *note dictConfig(): 1041. from the ‘ext://’
specification.

This example hopefully also points the way to how you could implement
other types of file change - e.g.  setting specific POSIX permission
bits - in the same way, using *note os.chmod(): f7c.

Of course, the approach could also be extended to types of handler other
than a *note FileHandler: 1671. - for example, one of the rotating file
handlers, or a different type of handler altogether.


File: python.info,  Node: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Next: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Prev: Customizing handlers with dictConfig,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.24 Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
---------------------------------------------------------------------

In Python 3.2, the *note Formatter: 1307. gained a ‘style’ keyword
parameter which, while defaulting to ‘%’ for backward compatibility,
allowed the specification of ‘{’ or ‘$’ to support the formatting
approaches supported by *note str.format(): 41b. and *note
string.Template: 484.  Note that this governs the formatting of logging
messages for final output to logs, and is completely orthogonal to how
an individual logging message is constructed.

Logging calls (*note debug(): ca4, *note info(): 2a4f. etc.)  only take
positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with
keyword parameters used only for determining options for how to handle
the logging call (e.g.  the ‘exc_info’ keyword parameter to indicate
that traceback information should be logged, or the ‘extra’ keyword
parameter to indicate additional contextual information to be added to
the log).  So you cannot directly make logging calls using *note
str.format(): 41b. or *note string.Template: 484. syntax, because
internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format
string and the variable arguments.  There would be no changing this
while preserving backward compatibility, since all logging calls which
are out there in existing code will be using %-format strings.

There have been suggestions to associate format styles with specific
loggers, but that approach also runs into backward compatibility
problems because any existing code could be using a given logger name
and using %-formatting.

For logging to work interoperably between any third-party libraries and
your code, decisions about formatting need to be made at the level of
the individual logging call.  This opens up a couple of ways in which
alternative formatting styles can be accommodated.

* Menu:

* Using LogRecord factories::
* Using custom message objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Using LogRecord factories,  Next: Using custom message objects,  Up: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

9.8.24.1 Using LogRecord factories
..................................

In Python 3.2, along with the *note Formatter: 1307. changes mentioned
above, the logging package gained the ability to allow users to set
their own *note LogRecord: e78. subclasses, using the *note
setLogRecordFactory(): 2a83. function.  You can use this to set your own
subclass of *note LogRecord: e78, which does the Right Thing by
overriding the *note getMessage(): 2a81. method.  The base class
implementation of this method is where the ‘msg % args’ formatting
happens, and where you can substitute your alternate formatting;
however, you should be careful to support all formatting styles and
allow %-formatting as the default, to ensure interoperability with other
code.  Care should also be taken to call ‘str(self.msg)’, just as the
base implementation does.

Refer to the reference documentation on *note setLogRecordFactory():
2a83. and *note LogRecord: e78. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: Using custom message objects,  Prev: Using LogRecord factories,  Up: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

9.8.24.2 Using custom message objects
.....................................

There is another, perhaps simpler way that you can use {}- and $-
formatting to construct your individual log messages.  You may recall
(from *note Using arbitrary objects as messages: 2a80.) that when
logging you can use an arbitrary object as a message format string, and
that the logging package will call *note str(): 157. on that object to
get the actual format string.  Consider the following two classes:

     class BraceMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

     class DollarMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             from string import Template
             return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or
$-formatting to be used to build the actual "message" part which appears
in the formatted log output in place of “%(message)s” or “{message}” or
“$message”.  If you find it a little unwieldy to use the class names
whenever you want to log something, you can make it more palatable if
you use an alias such as ‘M’ or ‘_’ for the message (or perhaps ‘__’, if
you are using ‘_’ for localization).

Examples of this approach are given below.  Firstly, formatting with
*note str.format(): 41b.:

     >>> __ = BraceMessage
     >>> print(__('Message with {0} {1}', 2, 'placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>> class Point: pass
     ...
     >>> p = Point()
     >>> p.x = 0.5
     >>> p.y = 0.5
     >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})', point=p))
     Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)

Secondly, formatting with *note string.Template: 484.:

     >>> __ = DollarMessage
     >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>>

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty
with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the
logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to
be output to a log by a handler.  So the only slightly unusual thing
which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format
string and the arguments, not just the format string.  That’s because
the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of
the ‘XXXMessage’ classes shown above.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Next: Customized exception formatting,  Prev: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.25 Configuring filters with ‘dictConfig()’
----------------------------------------------

You 'can' configure filters using *note dictConfig(): 1041, though it
might not be obvious at first glance how to do it (hence this recipe).
Since *note Filter: 108c. is the only filter class included in the
standard library, and it is unlikely to cater to many requirements (it's
only there as a base class), you will typically need to define your own
*note Filter: 108c. subclass with an overridden *note filter(): 2a7a.
method.  To do this, specify the ‘()’ key in the configuration
dictionary for the filter, specifying a callable which will be used to
create the filter (a class is the most obvious, but you can provide any
callable which returns a *note Filter: 108c. instance).  Here is a
complete example:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import sys

     class MyFilter(logging.Filter):
         def __init__(self, param=None):
             self.param = param

         def filter(self, record):
             if self.param is None:
                 allow = True
             else:
                 allow = self.param not in record.msg
             if allow:
                 record.msg = 'changed: ' + record.msg
             return allow

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'filters': {
             'myfilter': {
                 '()': MyFilter,
                 'param': 'noshow',
             }
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'filters': ['myfilter']
             }
         },
         'root': {
             'level': 'DEBUG',
             'handlers': ['console']
         },
     }

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
         logging.debug('hello')
         logging.debug('hello - noshow')

This example shows how you can pass configuration data to the callable
which constructs the instance, in the form of keyword parameters.  When
run, the above script will print:

     changed: hello

which shows that the filter is working as configured.

A couple of extra points to note:

   * If you can't refer to the callable directly in the configuration
     (e.g.  if it lives in a different module, and you can't import it
     directly where the configuration dictionary is), you can use the
     form ‘ext://...’ as described in *note Access to external objects:
     2aae.  For example, you could have used the text
     ‘'ext://__main__.MyFilter'’ instead of ‘MyFilter’ in the above
     example.

   * As well as for filters, this technique can also be used to
     configure custom handlers and formatters.  See *note User-defined
     objects: 2aa2. for more information on how logging supports using
     user-defined objects in its configuration, and see the other
     cookbook recipe *note Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): 4db4.
     above.


File: python.info,  Node: Customized exception formatting,  Next: Speaking logging messages,  Prev: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.26 Customized exception formatting
--------------------------------------

There might be times when you want to do customized exception formatting
- for argument's sake, let's say you want exactly one line per logged
event, even when exception information is present.  You can do this with
a custom formatter class, as shown in the following example:

     import logging

     class OneLineExceptionFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         def formatException(self, exc_info):
             """
             Format an exception so that it prints on a single line.
             """
             result = super().formatException(exc_info)
             return repr(result)  # or format into one line however you want to

         def format(self, record):
             s = super().format(record)
             if record.exc_text:
                 s = s.replace('\n', '') + '|'
             return s

     def configure_logging():
         fh = logging.FileHandler('output.txt', 'w')
         f = OneLineExceptionFormatter('%(asctime)s|%(levelname)s|%(message)s|',
                                       '%d/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S')
         fh.setFormatter(f)
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         root.addHandler(fh)

     def main():
         configure_logging()
         logging.info('Sample message')
         try:
             x = 1 / 0
         except ZeroDivisionError as e:
             logging.exception('ZeroDivisionError: %s', e)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

When run, this produces a file with exactly two lines:

     28/01/2015 07:21:23|INFO|Sample message|
     28/01/2015 07:21:23|ERROR|ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero|'Traceback (most recent call last):\n  File "logtest7.py", line 30, in main\n    x = 1 / 0\nZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero'|

While the above treatment is simplistic, it points the way to how
exception information can be formatted to your liking.  The *note
traceback: f9. module may be helpful for more specialized needs.


File: python.info,  Node: Speaking logging messages,  Next: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Prev: Customized exception formatting,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.27 Speaking logging messages
--------------------------------

There might be situations when it is desirable to have logging messages
rendered in an audible rather than a visible format.  This is easy to do
if you have text-to-speech (TTS) functionality available in your system,
even if it doesn't have a Python binding.  Most TTS systems have a
command line program you can run, and this can be invoked from a handler
using *note subprocess: d0.  It's assumed here that TTS command line
programs won't expect to interact with users or take a long time to
complete, and that the frequency of logged messages will be not so high
as to swamp the user with messages, and that it's acceptable to have the
messages spoken one at a time rather than concurrently, The example
implementation below waits for one message to be spoken before the next
is processed, and this might cause other handlers to be kept waiting.
Here is a short example showing the approach, which assumes that the
‘espeak’ TTS package is available:

     import logging
     import subprocess
     import sys

     class TTSHandler(logging.Handler):
         def emit(self, record):
             msg = self.format(record)
             # Speak slowly in a female English voice
             cmd = ['espeak', '-s150', '-ven+f3', msg]
             p = subprocess.Popen(cmd, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
                                  stderr=subprocess.STDOUT)
             # wait for the program to finish
             p.communicate()

     def configure_logging():
         h = TTSHandler()
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.addHandler(h)
         # the default formatter just returns the message
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     def main():
         logging.info('Hello')
         logging.debug('Goodbye')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         configure_logging()
         sys.exit(main())

When run, this script should say "Hello" and then "Goodbye" in a female
voice.

The above approach can, of course, be adapted to other TTS systems and
even other systems altogether which can process messages via external
programs run from a command line.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Next: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Prev: Speaking logging messages,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.28 Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
-------------------------------------------------------------------

There might be situations where you want to log messages in a temporary
area and only output them if a certain condition occurs.  For example,
you may want to start logging debug events in a function, and if the
function completes without errors, you don't want to clutter the log
with the collected debug information, but if there is an error, you want
all the debug information to be output as well as the error.

Here is an example which shows how you could do this using a decorator
for your functions where you want logging to behave this way.  It makes
use of the *note logging.handlers.MemoryHandler: 2ab1, which allows
buffering of logged events until some condition occurs, at which point
the buffered events are ‘flushed’ - passed to another handler (the
‘target’ handler) for processing.  By default, the ‘MemoryHandler’
flushed when its buffer gets filled up or an event whose level is
greater than or equal to a specified threshold is seen.  You can use
this recipe with a more specialised subclass of ‘MemoryHandler’ if you
want custom flushing behavior.

The example script has a simple function, ‘foo’, which just cycles
through all the logging levels, writing to ‘sys.stderr’ to say what
level it's about to log at, and then actually logging a message at that
level.  You can pass a parameter to ‘foo’ which, if true, will log at
ERROR and CRITICAL levels - otherwise, it only logs at DEBUG, INFO and
WARNING levels.

The script just arranges to decorate ‘foo’ with a decorator which will
do the conditional logging that's required.  The decorator takes a
logger as a parameter and attaches a memory handler for the duration of
the call to the decorated function.  The decorator can be additionally
parameterised using a target handler, a level at which flushing should
occur, and a capacity for the buffer (number of records buffered).
These default to a *note StreamHandler: 1089. which writes to
‘sys.stderr’, ‘logging.ERROR’ and ‘100’ respectively.

Here's the script:

     import logging
     from logging.handlers import MemoryHandler
     import sys

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     logger.addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

     def log_if_errors(logger, target_handler=None, flush_level=None, capacity=None):
         if target_handler is None:
             target_handler = logging.StreamHandler()
         if flush_level is None:
             flush_level = logging.ERROR
         if capacity is None:
             capacity = 100
         handler = MemoryHandler(capacity, flushLevel=flush_level, target=target_handler)

         def decorator(fn):
             def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
                 logger.addHandler(handler)
                 try:
                     return fn(*args, **kwargs)
                 except Exception:
                     logger.exception('call failed')
                     raise
                 finally:
                     super(MemoryHandler, handler).flush()
                     logger.removeHandler(handler)
             return wrapper

         return decorator

     def write_line(s):
         sys.stderr.write('%s\n' % s)

     def foo(fail=False):
         write_line('about to log at DEBUG ...')
         logger.debug('Actually logged at DEBUG')
         write_line('about to log at INFO ...')
         logger.info('Actually logged at INFO')
         write_line('about to log at WARNING ...')
         logger.warning('Actually logged at WARNING')
         if fail:
             write_line('about to log at ERROR ...')
             logger.error('Actually logged at ERROR')
             write_line('about to log at CRITICAL ...')
             logger.critical('Actually logged at CRITICAL')
         return fail

     decorated_foo = log_if_errors(logger)(foo)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         write_line('Calling undecorated foo with False')
         assert not foo(False)
         write_line('Calling undecorated foo with True')
         assert foo(True)
         write_line('Calling decorated foo with False')
         assert not decorated_foo(False)
         write_line('Calling decorated foo with True')
         assert decorated_foo(True)

When this script is run, the following output should be observed:

     Calling undecorated foo with False
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     Calling undecorated foo with True
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     about to log at ERROR ...
     about to log at CRITICAL ...
     Calling decorated foo with False
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     Calling decorated foo with True
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     about to log at ERROR ...
     Actually logged at DEBUG
     Actually logged at INFO
     Actually logged at WARNING
     Actually logged at ERROR
     about to log at CRITICAL ...
     Actually logged at CRITICAL

As you can see, actual logging output only occurs when an event is
logged whose severity is ERROR or greater, but in that case, any
previous events at lower severities are also logged.

You can of course use the conventional means of decoration:

     @log_if_errors(logger)
     def foo(fail=False):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Next: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Prev: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.29 Sending logging messages to email, with buffering
--------------------------------------------------------

To illustrate how you can send log messages via email, so that a set
number of messages are sent per email, you can subclass *note
BufferingHandler: 2b02.  In the following example, which you can adapt
to suit your specific needs, a simple test harness is provided which
allows you to run the script with command line arguments specifying what
you typically need to send things via SMTP. (Run the downloaded script
with the ‘-h’ argument to see the required and optional arguments.)

     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import smtplib

     class BufferingSMTPHandler(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler):
         def __init__(self, mailhost, port, username, password, fromaddr, toaddrs,
                      subject, capacity):
             logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.__init__(self, capacity)
             self.mailhost = mailhost
             self.mailport = port
             self.username = username
             self.password = password
             self.fromaddr = fromaddr
             if isinstance(toaddrs, str):
                 toaddrs = [toaddrs]
             self.toaddrs = toaddrs
             self.subject = subject
             self.setFormatter(logging.Formatter("%(asctime)s %(levelname)-5s %(message)s"))

         def flush(self):
             if len(self.buffer) > 0:
                 try:
                     smtp = smtplib.SMTP(self.mailhost, self.mailport)
                     smtp.starttls()
                     smtp.login(self.username, self.password)
                     msg = "From: %s\r\nTo: %s\r\nSubject: %s\r\n\r\n" % (self.fromaddr, ','.join(self.toaddrs), self.subject)
                     for record in self.buffer:
                         s = self.format(record)
                         msg = msg + s + "\r\n"
                     smtp.sendmail(self.fromaddr, self.toaddrs, msg)
                     smtp.quit()
                 except Exception:
                     if logging.raiseExceptions:
                         raise
                 self.buffer = []

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import argparse

         ap = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         aa = ap.add_argument
         aa('host', metavar='HOST', help='SMTP server')
         aa('--port', '-p', type=int, default=587, help='SMTP port')
         aa('user', metavar='USER', help='SMTP username')
         aa('password', metavar='PASSWORD', help='SMTP password')
         aa('to', metavar='TO', help='Addressee for emails')
         aa('sender', metavar='SENDER', help='Sender email address')
         aa('--subject', '-s',
            default='Test Logging email from Python logging module (buffering)',
            help='Subject of email')
         options = ap.parse_args()
         logger = logging.getLogger()
         logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         h = BufferingSMTPHandler(options.host, options.port, options.user,
                                  options.password, options.sender,
                                  options.to, options.subject, 10)
         logger.addHandler(h)
         for i in range(102):
             logger.info("Info index = %d", i)
         h.flush()
         h.close()

If you run this script and your SMTP server is correctly set up, you
should find that it sends eleven emails to the addressee you specify.
The first ten emails will each have ten log messages, and the eleventh
will have two messages.  That makes up 102 messages as specified in the
script.


File: python.info,  Node: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Next: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Prev: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.30 Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
---------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes you want to format times using UTC, which can be done using a
class such as ‘UTCFormatter’, shown below:

     import logging
     import time

     class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         converter = time.gmtime

and you can then use the ‘UTCFormatter’ in your code instead of *note
Formatter: 1307.  If you want to do that via configuration, you can use
the *note dictConfig(): 1041. API with an approach illustrated by the
following complete example:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import time

     class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         converter = time.gmtime

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'utc': {
                 '()': UTCFormatter,
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
             },
             'local': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
             }
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console1': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'utc',
             },
             'console2': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'local',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['console1', 'console2'],
        }
     }

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
         logging.warning('The local time is %s', time.asctime())

When this script is run, it should print something like:

     2015-10-17 12:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015
     2015-10-17 13:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015

showing how the time is formatted both as local time and UTC, one for
each handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Next: A CLI application starter template,  Prev: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.31 Using a context manager for selective logging
----------------------------------------------------

There are times when it would be useful to temporarily change the
logging configuration and revert it back after doing something.  For
this, a context manager is the most obvious way of saving and restoring
the logging context.  Here is a simple example of such a context
manager, which allows you to optionally change the logging level and add
a logging handler purely in the scope of the context manager:

     import logging
     import sys

     class LoggingContext:
         def __init__(self, logger, level=None, handler=None, close=True):
             self.logger = logger
             self.level = level
             self.handler = handler
             self.close = close

         def __enter__(self):
             if self.level is not None:
                 self.old_level = self.logger.level
                 self.logger.setLevel(self.level)
             if self.handler:
                 self.logger.addHandler(self.handler)

         def __exit__(self, et, ev, tb):
             if self.level is not None:
                 self.logger.setLevel(self.old_level)
             if self.handler:
                 self.logger.removeHandler(self.handler)
             if self.handler and self.close:
                 self.handler.close()
             # implicit return of None => don't swallow exceptions

If you specify a level value, the logger's level is set to that value in
the scope of the with block covered by the context manager.  If you
specify a handler, it is added to the logger on entry to the block and
removed on exit from the block.  You can also ask the manager to close
the handler for you on block exit - you could do this if you don't need
the handler any more.

To illustrate how it works, we can add the following block of code to
the above:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger = logging.getLogger('foo')
         logger.addHandler(logging.StreamHandler())
         logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
         logger.info('1. This should appear just once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('2. This should not appear.')
         with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG):
             logger.debug('3. This should appear once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('4. This should not appear.')
         h = logging.StreamHandler(sys.stdout)
         with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG, handler=h, close=True):
             logger.debug('5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.')
         logger.info('6. This should appear just once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('7. This should not appear.')

We initially set the logger's level to ‘INFO’, so message #1 appears and
message #2 doesn't.  We then change the level to ‘DEBUG’ temporarily in
the following ‘with’ block, and so message #3 appears.  After the block
exits, the logger's level is restored to ‘INFO’ and so message #4
doesn't appear.  In the next ‘with’ block, we set the level to ‘DEBUG’
again but also add a handler writing to ‘sys.stdout’.  Thus, message #5
appears twice on the console (once via ‘stderr’ and once via ‘stdout’).
After the ‘with’ statement's completion, the status is as it was before
so message #6 appears (like message #1) whereas message #7 doesn't (just
like message #2).

If we run the resulting script, the result is as follows:

     $ python logctx.py
     1. This should appear just once on stderr.
     3. This should appear once on stderr.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     6. This should appear just once on stderr.

If we run it again, but pipe ‘stderr’ to ‘/dev/null’, we see the
following, which is the only message written to ‘stdout’:

     $ python logctx.py 2>/dev/null
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.

Once again, but piping ‘stdout’ to ‘/dev/null’, we get:

     $ python logctx.py >/dev/null
     1. This should appear just once on stderr.
     3. This should appear once on stderr.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     6. This should appear just once on stderr.

In this case, the message #5 printed to ‘stdout’ doesn't appear, as
expected.

Of course, the approach described here can be generalised, for example
to attach logging filters temporarily.  Note that the above code works
in Python 2 as well as Python 3.


File: python.info,  Node: A CLI application starter template,  Next: A Qt GUI for logging,  Prev: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.32 A CLI application starter template
-----------------------------------------

Here's an example which shows how you can:

   * Use a logging level based on command-line arguments

   * Dispatch to multiple subcommands in separate files, all logging at
     the same level in a consistent way

   * Make use of simple, minimal configuration

Suppose we have a command-line application whose job is to stop, start
or restart some services.  This could be organised for the purposes of
illustration as a file ‘app.py’ that is the main script for the
application, with individual commands implemented in ‘start.py’,
‘stop.py’ and ‘restart.py’.  Suppose further that we want to control the
verbosity of the application via a command-line argument, defaulting to
‘logging.INFO’.  Here's one way that ‘app.py’ could be written:

     import argparse
     import importlib
     import logging
     import os
     import sys

     def main(args=None):
         scriptname = os.path.basename(__file__)
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(scriptname)
         levels = ('DEBUG', 'INFO', 'WARNING', 'ERROR', 'CRITICAL')
         parser.add_argument('--log-level', default='INFO', choices=levels)
         subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='command',
                                            help='Available commands:')
         start_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('start', help='Start a service')
         start_cmd.add_argument('name', metavar='NAME',
                                help='Name of service to start')
         stop_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('stop',
                                          help='Stop one or more services')
         stop_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                               help='Name of service to stop')
         restart_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('restart',
                                             help='Restart one or more services')
         restart_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                                  help='Name of service to restart')
         options = parser.parse_args()
         # the code to dispatch commands could all be in this file. For the purposes
         # of illustration only, we implement each command in a separate module.
         try:
             mod = importlib.import_module(options.command)
             cmd = getattr(mod, 'command')
         except (ImportError, AttributeError):
             print('Unable to find the code for command \'%s\'' % options.command)
             return 1
         # Could get fancy here and load configuration from file or dictionary
         logging.basicConfig(level=options.log_level,
                             format='%(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s')
         cmd(options)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         sys.exit(main())

And the ‘start’, ‘stop’ and ‘restart’ commands can be implemented in
separate modules, like so for starting:

     # start.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         logger.debug('About to start %s', options.name)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Started the \'%s\' service.', options.name)

and thus for stopping:

     # stop.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         n = len(options.names)
         if n == 1:
             plural = ''
             services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
         else:
             plural = 's'
             services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
             i = services.rfind(', ')
             services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
         logger.debug('About to stop %s', services)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Stopped the %s service%s.', services, plural)

and similarly for restarting:

     # restart.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         n = len(options.names)
         if n == 1:
             plural = ''
             services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
         else:
             plural = 's'
             services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
             i = services.rfind(', ')
             services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
         logger.debug('About to restart %s', services)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Restarted the %s service%s.', services, plural)

If we run this application with the default log level, we get output
like this:

     $ python app.py start foo
     INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

     $ python app.py stop foo bar
     INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

     $ python app.py restart foo bar baz
     INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

The first word is the logging level, and the second word is the module
or package name of the place where the event was logged.

If we change the logging level, then we can change the information sent
to the log.  For example, if we want more information:

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG start foo
     DEBUG start About to start foo
     INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG stop foo bar
     DEBUG stop About to stop 'foo' and 'bar'
     INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG restart foo bar baz
     DEBUG restart About to restart 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz'
     INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

And if we want less:

     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING start foo
     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING stop foo bar
     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING restart foo bar baz

In this case, the commands don't print anything to the console, since
nothing at ‘WARNING’ level or above is logged by them.


File: python.info,  Node: A Qt GUI for logging,  Next: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Prev: A CLI application starter template,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.33 A Qt GUI for logging
---------------------------

A question that comes up from time to time is about how to log to a GUI
application.  The Qt(1) framework is a popular cross-platform UI
framework with Python bindings using PySide2(2) or PyQt5(3) libraries.

The following example shows how to log to a Qt GUI. This introduces a
simple ‘QtHandler’ class which takes a callable, which should be a slot
in the main thread that does GUI updates.  A worker thread is also
created to show how you can log to the GUI from both the UI itself (via
a button for manual logging) as well as a worker thread doing work in
the background (here, just logging messages at random levels with random
short delays in between).

The worker thread is implemented using Qt's ‘QThread’ class rather than
the *note threading: e7. module, as there are circumstances where one
has to use ‘QThread’, which offers better integration with other ‘Qt’
components.

The code should work with recent releases of any of ‘PySide6’, ‘PyQt6’,
‘PySide2’ or ‘PyQt5’.  You should be able to adapt the approach to
earlier versions of Qt.  Please refer to the comments in the code
snippet for more detailed information.

     import datetime
     import logging
     import random
     import sys
     import time

     # Deal with minor differences between different Qt packages
     try:
         from PySide6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
         Signal = QtCore.Signal
         Slot = QtCore.Slot
     except ImportError:
         try:
             from PyQt6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
             Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
             Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot
         except ImportError:
             try:
                 from PySide2 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
                 Signal = QtCore.Signal
                 Slot = QtCore.Slot
             except ImportError:
                 from PyQt5 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
                 Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
                 Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)


     #
     # Signals need to be contained in a QObject or subclass in order to be correctly
     # initialized.
     #
     class Signaller(QtCore.QObject):
         signal = Signal(str, logging.LogRecord)

     #
     # Output to a Qt GUI is only supposed to happen on the main thread. So, this
     # handler is designed to take a slot function which is set up to run in the main
     # thread. In this example, the function takes a string argument which is a
     # formatted log message, and the log record which generated it. The formatted
     # string is just a convenience - you could format a string for output any way
     # you like in the slot function itself.
     #
     # You specify the slot function to do whatever GUI updates you want. The handler
     # doesn't know or care about specific UI elements.
     #
     class QtHandler(logging.Handler):
         def __init__(self, slotfunc, *args, **kwargs):
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
             self.signaller = Signaller()
             self.signaller.signal.connect(slotfunc)

         def emit(self, record):
             s = self.format(record)
             self.signaller.signal.emit(s, record)

     #
     # This example uses QThreads, which means that the threads at the Python level
     # are named something like "Dummy-1". The function below gets the Qt name of the
     # current thread.
     #
     def ctname():
         return QtCore.QThread.currentThread().objectName()


     #
     # Used to generate random levels for logging.
     #
     LEVELS = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
               logging.CRITICAL)

     #
     # This worker class represents work that is done in a thread separate to the
     # main thread. The way the thread is kicked off to do work is via a button press
     # that connects to a slot in the worker.
     #
     # Because the default threadName value in the LogRecord isn't much use, we add
     # a qThreadName which contains the QThread name as computed above, and pass that
     # value in an "extra" dictionary which is used to update the LogRecord with the
     # QThread name.
     #
     # This example worker just outputs messages sequentially, interspersed with
     # random delays of the order of a few seconds.
     #
     class Worker(QtCore.QObject):
         @Slot()
         def start(self):
             extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
             logger.debug('Started work', extra=extra)
             i = 1
             # Let the thread run until interrupted. This allows reasonably clean
             # thread termination.
             while not QtCore.QThread.currentThread().isInterruptionRequested():
                 delay = 0.5 + random.random() * 2
                 time.sleep(delay)
                 try:
                     if random.random() < 0.1:
                         raise ValueError('Exception raised: %d' % i)
                     else:
                         level = random.choice(LEVELS)
                         logger.log(level, 'Message after delay of %3.1f: %d', delay, i, extra=extra)
                 except ValueError as e:
                     logger.exception('Failed: %s', e, extra=extra)
                 i += 1

     #
     # Implement a simple UI for this cookbook example. This contains:
     #
     # * A read-only text edit window which holds formatted log messages
     # * A button to start work and log stuff in a separate thread
     # * A button to log something from the main thread
     # * A button to clear the log window
     #
     class Window(QtWidgets.QWidget):

         COLORS = {
             logging.DEBUG: 'black',
             logging.INFO: 'blue',
             logging.WARNING: 'orange',
             logging.ERROR: 'red',
             logging.CRITICAL: 'purple',
         }

         def __init__(self, app):
             super().__init__()
             self.app = app
             self.textedit = te = QtWidgets.QPlainTextEdit(self)
             # Set whatever the default monospace font is for the platform
             f = QtGui.QFont('nosuchfont')
             if hasattr(f, 'Monospace'):
                 f.setStyleHint(f.Monospace)
             else:
                 f.setStyleHint(f.StyleHint.Monospace)  # for Qt6
             te.setFont(f)
             te.setReadOnly(True)
             PB = QtWidgets.QPushButton
             self.work_button = PB('Start background work', self)
             self.log_button = PB('Log a message at a random level', self)
             self.clear_button = PB('Clear log window', self)
             self.handler = h = QtHandler(self.update_status)
             # Remember to use qThreadName rather than threadName in the format string.
             fs = '%(asctime)s %(qThreadName)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s'
             formatter = logging.Formatter(fs)
             h.setFormatter(formatter)
             logger.addHandler(h)
             # Set up to terminate the QThread when we exit
             app.aboutToQuit.connect(self.force_quit)

             # Lay out all the widgets
             layout = QtWidgets.QVBoxLayout(self)
             layout.addWidget(te)
             layout.addWidget(self.work_button)
             layout.addWidget(self.log_button)
             layout.addWidget(self.clear_button)
             self.setFixedSize(900, 400)

             # Connect the non-worker slots and signals
             self.log_button.clicked.connect(self.manual_update)
             self.clear_button.clicked.connect(self.clear_display)

             # Start a new worker thread and connect the slots for the worker
             self.start_thread()
             self.work_button.clicked.connect(self.worker.start)
             # Once started, the button should be disabled
             self.work_button.clicked.connect(lambda : self.work_button.setEnabled(False))

         def start_thread(self):
             self.worker = Worker()
             self.worker_thread = QtCore.QThread()
             self.worker.setObjectName('Worker')
             self.worker_thread.setObjectName('WorkerThread')  # for qThreadName
             self.worker.moveToThread(self.worker_thread)
             # This will start an event loop in the worker thread
             self.worker_thread.start()

         def kill_thread(self):
             # Just tell the worker to stop, then tell it to quit and wait for that
             # to happen
             self.worker_thread.requestInterruption()
             if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
                 self.worker_thread.quit()
                 self.worker_thread.wait()
             else:
                 print('worker has already exited.')

         def force_quit(self):
             # For use when the window is closed
             if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
                 self.kill_thread()

         # The functions below update the UI and run in the main thread because
         # that's where the slots are set up

         @Slot(str, logging.LogRecord)
         def update_status(self, status, record):
             color = self.COLORS.get(record.levelno, 'black')
             s = '<pre><font color="%s">%s</font></pre>' % (color, status)
             self.textedit.appendHtml(s)

         @Slot()
         def manual_update(self):
             # This function uses the formatted message passed in, but also uses
             # information from the record to format the message in an appropriate
             # color according to its severity (level).
             level = random.choice(LEVELS)
             extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
             logger.log(level, 'Manually logged!', extra=extra)

         @Slot()
         def clear_display(self):
             self.textedit.clear()


     def main():
         QtCore.QThread.currentThread().setObjectName('MainThread')
         logging.getLogger().setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         app = QtWidgets.QApplication(sys.argv)
         example = Window(app)
         example.show()
         if hasattr(app, 'exec'):
             rc = app.exec()
         else:
             rc = app.exec_()
         sys.exit(rc)

     if __name__=='__main__':
         main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.qt.io/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/PySide2/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/PyQt5/


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Next: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Prev: A Qt GUI for logging,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.34 Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support
---------------------------------------------

Although RFC 5424(1) dates from 2009, most syslog servers are configured
by default to use the older RFC 3164(2), which hails from 2001.  When
‘logging’ was added to Python in 2003, it supported the earlier (and
only existing) protocol at the time.  Since RFC5424 came out, as there
has not been widespread deployment of it in syslog servers, the *note
SysLogHandler: 457. functionality has not been updated.

RFC 5424 contains some useful features such as support for structured
data, and if you need to be able to log to a syslog server with support
for it, you can do so with a subclassed handler which looks something
like this:

     import datetime
     import logging.handlers
     import re
     import socket
     import time

     class SysLogHandler5424(logging.handlers.SysLogHandler):

         tz_offset = re.compile(r'([+-]\d{2})(\d{2})$')
         escaped = re.compile(r'([\]"\\])')

         def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             self.msgid = kwargs.pop('msgid', None)
             self.appname = kwargs.pop('appname', None)
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

         def format(self, record):
             version = 1
             asctime = datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(record.created).isoformat()
             m = self.tz_offset.match(time.strftime('%z'))
             has_offset = False
             if m and time.timezone:
                 hrs, mins = m.groups()
                 if int(hrs) or int(mins):
                     has_offset = True
             if not has_offset:
                 asctime += 'Z'
             else:
                 asctime += f'{hrs}:{mins}'
             try:
                 hostname = socket.gethostname()
             except Exception:
                 hostname = '-'
             appname = self.appname or '-'
             procid = record.process
             msgid = '-'
             msg = super().format(record)
             sdata = '-'
             if hasattr(record, 'structured_data'):
                 sd = record.structured_data
                 # This should be a dict where the keys are SD-ID and the value is a
                 # dict mapping PARAM-NAME to PARAM-VALUE (refer to the RFC for what these
                 # mean)
                 # There's no error checking here - it's purely for illustration, and you
                 # can adapt this code for use in production environments
                 parts = []

                 def replacer(m):
                     g = m.groups()
                     return '\\' + g[0]

                 for sdid, dv in sd.items():
                     part = f'[{sdid}'
                     for k, v in dv.items():
                         s = str(v)
                         s = self.escaped.sub(replacer, s)
                         part += f' {k}="{s}"'
                     part += ']'
                     parts.append(part)
                 sdata = ''.join(parts)
             return f'{version} {asctime} {hostname} {appname} {procid} {msgid} {sdata} {msg}'

You'll need to be familiar with RFC 5424 to fully understand the above
code, and it may be that you have slightly different needs (e.g.  for
how you pass structural data to the log).  Nevertheless, the above
should be adaptable to your speciric needs.  With the above handler,
you'd pass structured data using something like this:

     sd = {
         'foo@12345': {'bar': 'baz', 'baz': 'bozz', 'fizz': r'buzz'},
         'foo@54321': {'rab': 'baz', 'zab': 'bozz', 'zzif': r'buzz'}
     }
     extra = {'structured_data': sd}
     i = 1
     logger.debug('Message %d', i, extra=extra)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3164.html


File: python.info,  Node: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Next: Patterns to avoid,  Prev: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.35 How to treat a logger like an output stream
--------------------------------------------------

Sometimes, you need to interface to a third-party API which expects a
file-like object to write to, but you want to direct the API's output to
a logger.  You can do this using a class which wraps a logger with a
file-like API. Here's a short script illustrating such a class:

     import logging

     class LoggerWriter:
         def __init__(self, logger, level):
             self.logger = logger
             self.level = level

         def write(self, message):
             if message != '\n':  # avoid printing bare newlines, if you like
                 self.logger.log(self.level, message)

         def flush(self):
             # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
             # object - so optional depending on your situation
             pass

         def close(self):
             # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
             # object - so optional depending on your situation. You might want
             # to set a flag so that later calls to write raise an exception
             pass

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
         logger = logging.getLogger('demo')
         info_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
         debug_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.DEBUG)
         print('An INFO message', file=info_fp)
         print('A DEBUG message', file=debug_fp)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

When this script is run, it prints

     INFO:demo:An INFO message
     DEBUG:demo:A DEBUG message

You could also use ‘LoggerWriter’ to redirect ‘sys.stdout’ and
‘sys.stderr’ by doing something like this:

     import sys

     sys.stdout = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
     sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)

You should do this 'after' configuring logging for your needs.  In the
above example, the *note basicConfig(): 846. call does this (using the
‘sys.stderr’ value 'before' it is overwritten by a ‘LoggerWriter’
instance).  Then, you'd get this kind of result:

     >>> print('Foo')
     INFO:demo:Foo
     >>> print('Bar', file=sys.stderr)
     WARNING:demo:Bar
     >>>

Of course, the examples above show output according to the format used
by *note basicConfig(): 846, but you can use a different formatter when
you configure logging.

Note that with the above scheme, you are somewhat at the mercy of
buffering and the sequence of write calls which you are intercepting.
For example, with the definition of ‘LoggerWriter’ above, if you have
the snippet

     sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)
     1 / 0

then running the script results in

     WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):

     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 53, in <module>

     WARNING:demo:
     WARNING:demo:main()
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 49, in main

     WARNING:demo:
     WARNING:demo:1 / 0
     WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError
     WARNING:demo::
     WARNING:demo:division by zero

As you can see, this output isn't ideal.  That's because the underlying
code which writes to ‘sys.stderr’ makes multiple writes, each of which
results in a separate logged line (for example, the last three lines
above).  To get around this problem, you need to buffer things and only
output log lines when newlines are seen.  Let's use a slightly better
implementation of ‘LoggerWriter’:

     class BufferingLoggerWriter(LoggerWriter):
         def __init__(self, logger, level):
             super().__init__(logger, level)
             self.buffer = ''

         def write(self, message):
             if '\n' not in message:
                 self.buffer += message
             else:
                 parts = message.split('\n')
                 if self.buffer:
                     s = self.buffer + parts.pop(0)
                     self.logger.log(self.level, s)
                 self.buffer = parts.pop()
                 for part in parts:
                     self.logger.log(self.level, part)

This just buffers up stuff until a newline is seen, and then logs
complete lines.  With this approach, you get better output:

     WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 55, in <module>
     WARNING:demo:    main()
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 52, in main
     WARNING:demo:    1/0
     WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns to avoid,  Next: Other resources,  Prev: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.36 Patterns to avoid
------------------------

Although the preceding sections have described ways of doing things you
might need to do or deal with, it is worth mentioning some usage
patterns which are 'unhelpful', and which should therefore be avoided in
most cases.  The following sections are in no particular order.

* Menu:

* Opening the same log file multiple times::
* Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters::
* Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library::
* Creating a lot of loggers::


File: python.info,  Node: Opening the same log file multiple times,  Next: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.1 Opening the same log file multiple times
.................................................

On Windows, you will generally not be able to open the same file
multiple times as this will lead to a "file is in use by another
process" error.  However, on POSIX platforms you'll not get any errors
if you open the same file multiple times.  This could be done
accidentally, for example by:

   * Adding a file handler more than once which references the same file
     (e.g.  by a copy/paste/forget-to-change error).

   * Opening two files that look different, as they have different
     names, but are the same because one is a symbolic link to the
     other.

   * Forking a process, following which both parent and child have a
     reference to the same file.  This might be through use of the *note
     multiprocessing: 8f. module, for example.

Opening a file multiple times might 'appear' to work most of the time,
but can lead to a number of problems in practice:

   * Logging output can be garbled because multiple threads or processes
     try to write to the same file.  Although logging guards against
     concurrent use of the same handler instance by multiple threads,
     there is no such protection if concurrent writes are attempted by
     two different threads using two different handler instances which
     happen to point to the same file.

   * An attempt to delete a file (e.g.  during file rotation) silently
     fails, because there is another reference pointing to it.  This can
     lead to confusion and wasted debugging time - log entries end up in
     unexpected places, or are lost altogether.  Or a file that was
     supposed to be moved remains in place, and grows in size
     unexpectedly despite size-based rotation being supposedly in place.

Use the techniques outlined in *note Logging to a single file from
multiple processes: 4d9f. to circumvent such issues.


File: python.info,  Node: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Next: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Prev: Opening the same log file multiple times,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.2 Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters
.............................................................................

While there might be unusual cases where you'll need to do this, in
general there is no point because loggers are singletons.  Code can
always access a given logger instance by name using
‘logging.getLogger(name)’, so passing instances around and holding them
as instance attributes is pointless.  Note that in other languages such
as Java and C#, loggers are often static class attributes.  However,
this pattern doesn't make sense in Python, where the module (and not the
class) is the unit of software decomposition.


File: python.info,  Node: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Next: Creating a lot of loggers,  Prev: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.3 Adding handlers other than ‘NullHandler’ to a logger in a library
..........................................................................

Configuring logging by adding handlers, formatters and filters is the
responsibility of the application developer, not the library developer.
If you are maintaining a library, ensure that you don't add handlers to
any of your loggers other than a *note NullHandler: 1119. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating a lot of loggers,  Prev: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.4 Creating a lot of loggers
..................................

Loggers are singletons that are never freed during a script execution,
and so creating lots of loggers will use up memory which can't then be
freed.  Rather than create a logger per e.g.  file processed or network
connection made, use the *note existing mechanisms: 2a87. for passing
contextual information into your logs and restrict the loggers created
to those describing areas within your application (generally modules,
but occasionally slightly more fine-grained than that).


File: python.info,  Node: Other resources,  Prev: Patterns to avoid,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.37 Other resources
----------------------

也參考
......

*note logging: 82. 模組

     API reference for the logging module.

*note logging.config: 83. 模組

     Configuration API for the logging module.

*note logging.handlers: 84. 模組

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.

*note 基礎教學: 1086.

*note 進階教學: 1087.


File: python.info,  Node: 如何使用正規表示式,  Next: Socket 程式設計指南,  Prev: Logging Cookbook,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.9 如何使用正規表示式
======================


作者: A.M. Kuchling <<amk@amk.ca>>

摘要
....

此文件為如何在 Python 中使用 *note re: b4. 模組來撰寫正規表示式的入門指
導。進階使用及參考文件請見函式庫參考一章。

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<13>.
* Simple Patterns::
* Using Regular Expressions::
* More Pattern Power::
* Modifying Strings::
* Common Problems::
* Feedback::


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<13>,  Next: Simple Patterns,  Up: 如何使用正規表示式

9.9.1 簡介
----------

正規表示式 (也稱為 REs、regexes 或 regex patterns) 是一個輕量且高專業化
的程式語言。在 Python 中可透過內建的 *note re: b4. 模組直接使用。你可以
使用此輕量化的語言針對想要匹配的一組字串撰寫規則，這組字串可能包含了英語
句子、e-mail 地址、TeX 命令或任何東西。你可以檢查如「這組字串是否匹配這
個規則？」或「這組字串中是否有任一處匹配這個規則？」。除此之外，你也可以
使用 REs 來修改或是切割字串。

Regular expression patterns are compiled into a series of bytecodes
which are then executed by a matching engine written in C. For advanced
use, it may be necessary to pay careful attention to how the engine will
execute a given RE, and write the RE in a certain way in order to
produce bytecode that runs faster.  Optimization isn't covered in this
document, because it requires that you have a good understanding of the
matching engine's internals.

The regular expression language is relatively small and restricted, so
not all possible string processing tasks can be done using regular
expressions.  There are also tasks that 'can' be done with regular
expressions, but the expressions turn out to be very complicated.  In
these cases, you may be better off writing Python code to do the
processing; while Python code will be slower than an elaborate regular
expression, it will also probably be more understandable.


File: python.info,  Node: Simple Patterns,  Next: Using Regular Expressions,  Prev: 簡介<13>,  Up: 如何使用正規表示式

9.9.2 Simple Patterns
---------------------

We'll start by learning about the simplest possible regular expressions.
Since regular expressions are used to operate on strings, we'll begin
with the most common task: matching characters.

For a detailed explanation of the computer science underlying regular
expressions (deterministic and non-deterministic finite automata), you
can refer to almost any textbook on writing compilers.

* Menu:

* Matching Characters::
* Repeating Things::


File: python.info,  Node: Matching Characters,  Next: Repeating Things,  Up: Simple Patterns

9.9.2.1 Matching Characters
...........................

Most letters and characters will simply match themselves.  For example,
the regular expression ‘test’ will match the string ‘test’ exactly.
(You can enable a case-insensitive mode that would let this RE match
‘Test’ or ‘TEST’ as well; more about this later.)

There are exceptions to this rule; some characters are special
'metacharacters', and don't match themselves.  Instead, they signal that
some out-of-the-ordinary thing should be matched, or they affect other
portions of the RE by repeating them or changing their meaning.  Much of
this document is devoted to discussing various metacharacters and what
they do.

Here's a complete list of the metacharacters; their meanings will be
discussed in the rest of this HOWTO.

     . ^ $ * + ? { } [ ] \ | ( )

The first metacharacters we'll look at are ‘[’ and ‘]’.  They're used
for specifying a character class, which is a set of characters that you
wish to match.  Characters can be listed individually, or a range of
characters can be indicated by giving two characters and separating them
by a ‘'-'’.  For example, ‘[abc]’ will match any of the characters ‘a’,
‘b’, or ‘c’; this is the same as ‘[a-c]’, which uses a range to express
the same set of characters.  If you wanted to match only lowercase
letters, your RE would be ‘[a-z]’.

Metacharacters (except ‘\’) are not active inside classes.  For example,
‘[akm$]’ will match any of the characters ‘'a'’, ‘'k'’, ‘'m'’, or ‘'$'’;
‘'$'’ is usually a metacharacter, but inside a character class it's
stripped of its special nature.

You can match the characters not listed within the class by
'complementing' the set.  This is indicated by including a ‘'^'’ as the
first character of the class.  For example, ‘[^5]’ will match any
character except ‘'5'’.  If the caret appears elsewhere in a character
class, it does not have special meaning.  For example: ‘[5^]’ will match
either a ‘'5'’ or a ‘'^'’.

Perhaps the most important metacharacter is the backslash, ‘\’.  As in
Python string literals, the backslash can be followed by various
characters to signal various special sequences.  It's also used to
escape all the metacharacters so you can still match them in patterns;
for example, if you need to match a ‘[’ or ‘\’, you can precede them
with a backslash to remove their special meaning: ‘\[’ or ‘\\’.

Some of the special sequences beginning with ‘'\'’ represent predefined
sets of characters that are often useful, such as the set of digits, the
set of letters, or the set of anything that isn't whitespace.

Let's take an example: ‘\w’ matches any alphanumeric character.  If the
regex pattern is expressed in bytes, this is equivalent to the class
‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.  If the regex pattern is a string, ‘\w’ will match all
the characters marked as letters in the Unicode database provided by the
*note unicodedata: 100. module.  You can use the more restricted
definition of ‘\w’ in a string pattern by supplying the *note re.ASCII:
428. flag when compiling the regular expression.

The following list of special sequences isn't complete.  For a complete
list of sequences and expanded class definitions for Unicode string
patterns, see the last part of *note Regular Expression Syntax: 52f. in
the Standard Library reference.  In general, the Unicode versions match
any character that's in the appropriate category in the Unicode
database.

‘\d’

     Matches any decimal digit; this is equivalent to the class ‘[0-9]’.

‘\D’

     Matches any non-digit character; this is equivalent to the class
     ‘[^0-9]’.

‘\s’

     Matches any whitespace character; this is equivalent to the class
     ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\S’

     Matches any non-whitespace character; this is equivalent to the
     class ‘[^ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\w’

     Matches any alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the class
     ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.

‘\W’

     Matches any non-alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the
     class ‘[^a-zA-Z0-9_]’.

These sequences can be included inside a character class.  For example,
‘[\s,.]’ is a character class that will match any whitespace character,
or ‘','’ or ‘'.'’.

The final metacharacter in this section is ‘.’.  It matches anything
except a newline character, and there's an alternate mode (*note
re.DOTALL: 2086.) where it will match even a newline.  ‘.’ is often used
where you want to match "any character".


File: python.info,  Node: Repeating Things,  Prev: Matching Characters,  Up: Simple Patterns

9.9.2.2 Repeating Things
........................

Being able to match varying sets of characters is the first thing
regular expressions can do that isn't already possible with the methods
available on strings.  However, if that was the only additional
capability of regexes, they wouldn't be much of an advance.  Another
capability is that you can specify that portions of the RE must be
repeated a certain number of times.

The first metacharacter for repeating things that we'll look at is ‘*’.
‘*’ doesn't match the literal character ‘'*'’; instead, it specifies
that the previous character can be matched zero or more times, instead
of exactly once.

For example, ‘ca*t’ will match ‘'ct'’ (0 ‘'a'’ characters), ‘'cat'’ (1
‘'a'’), ‘'caaat'’ (3 ‘'a'’ characters), and so forth.

Repetitions such as ‘*’ are 'greedy'; when repeating a RE, the matching
engine will try to repeat it as many times as possible.  If later
portions of the pattern don't match, the matching engine will then back
up and try again with fewer repetitions.

A step-by-step example will make this more obvious.  Let's consider the
expression ‘a[bcd]*b’.  This matches the letter ‘'a'’, zero or more
letters from the class ‘[bcd]’, and finally ends with a ‘'b'’.  Now
imagine matching this RE against the string ‘'abcbd'’.

Step       Matched         Explanation
                           
-----------------------------------------------------------------
                           
1          ‘a’             The ‘a’ in the RE matches.
                           
                           
2          ‘abcbd’         The engine matches ‘[bcd]*’, going
                           as far as it can, which is to the
                           end of the string.
                           
                           
3          'Failure'       The engine tries to match ‘b’, but
                           the current position is at the end
                           of the string, so it fails.
                           
                           
4          ‘abcb’          Back up, so that ‘[bcd]*’ matches
                           one less character.
                           
                           
5          'Failure'       Try ‘b’ again, but the current
                           position is at the last character,
                           which is a ‘'d'’.
                           
                           
6          ‘abc’           Back up again, so that ‘[bcd]*’ is
                           only matching ‘bc’.
                           
                           
6          ‘abcb’          Try ‘b’ again.  This time the
                           character at the current position
                           is ‘'b'’, so it succeeds.
                           

The end of the RE has now been reached, and it has matched ‘'abcb'’.
This demonstrates how the matching engine goes as far as it can at
first, and if no match is found it will then progressively back up and
retry the rest of the RE again and again.  It will back up until it has
tried zero matches for ‘[bcd]*’, and if that subsequently fails, the
engine will conclude that the string doesn't match the RE at all.

Another repeating metacharacter is ‘+’, which matches one or more times.
Pay careful attention to the difference between ‘*’ and ‘+’; ‘*’ matches
'zero' or more times, so whatever's being repeated may not be present at
all, while ‘+’ requires at least 'one' occurrence.  To use a similar
example, ‘ca+t’ will match ‘'cat'’ (1 ‘'a'’), ‘'caaat'’ (3 ‘'a'’s), but
won't match ‘'ct'’.

There are two more repeating operators or quantifiers.  The question
mark character, ‘?’, matches either once or zero times; you can think of
it as marking something as being optional.  For example, ‘home-?brew’
matches either ‘'homebrew'’ or ‘'home-brew'’.

The most complicated quantifier is ‘{m,n}’, where 'm' and 'n' are
decimal integers.  This quantifier means there must be at least 'm'
repetitions, and at most 'n'.  For example, ‘a/{1,3}b’ will match
‘'a/b'’, ‘'a//b'’, and ‘'a///b'’.  It won't match ‘'ab'’, which has no
slashes, or ‘'a////b'’, which has four.

You can omit either 'm' or 'n'; in that case, a reasonable value is
assumed for the missing value.  Omitting 'm' is interpreted as a lower
limit of 0, while omitting 'n' results in an upper bound of infinity.

The simplest case ‘{m}’ matches the preceding item exactly 'm' times.
For example, ‘a/{2}b’ will only match ‘'a//b'’.

Readers of a reductionist bent may notice that the three other
quantifiers can all be expressed using this notation.  ‘{0,}’ is the
same as ‘*’, ‘{1,}’ is equivalent to ‘+’, and ‘{0,1}’ is the same as
‘?’.  It's better to use ‘*’, ‘+’, or ‘?’ when you can, simply because
they're shorter and easier to read.


File: python.info,  Node: Using Regular Expressions,  Next: More Pattern Power,  Prev: Simple Patterns,  Up: 如何使用正規表示式

9.9.3 Using Regular Expressions
-------------------------------

Now that we've looked at some simple regular expressions, how do we
actually use them in Python?  The *note re: b4. module provides an
interface to the regular expression engine, allowing you to compile REs
into objects and then perform matches with them.

* Menu:

* Compiling Regular Expressions::
* The Backslash Plague::
* Performing Matches::
* Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<3>.
* Compilation Flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Compiling Regular Expressions,  Next: The Backslash Plague,  Up: Using Regular Expressions

9.9.3.1 Compiling Regular Expressions
.....................................

Regular expressions are compiled into pattern objects, which have
methods for various operations such as searching for pattern matches or
performing string substitutions.

     >>> import re
     >>> p = re.compile('ab*')
     >>> p
     re.compile('ab*')

*note re.compile(): a34. also accepts an optional 'flags' argument, used
to enable various special features and syntax variations.  We'll go over
the available settings later, but for now a single example will do:

     >>> p = re.compile('ab*', re.IGNORECASE)

The RE is passed to *note re.compile(): a34. as a string.  REs are
handled as strings because regular expressions aren't part of the core
Python language, and no special syntax was created for expressing them.
(There are applications that don't need REs at all, so there's no need
to bloat the language specification by including them.)  Instead, the
*note re: b4. module is simply a C extension module included with
Python, just like the *note socket: c6. or *note zlib: 12d. modules.

Putting REs in strings keeps the Python language simpler, but has one
disadvantage which is the topic of the next section.


File: python.info,  Node: The Backslash Plague,  Next: Performing Matches,  Prev: Compiling Regular Expressions,  Up: Using Regular Expressions

9.9.3.2 The Backslash Plague
............................

As stated earlier, regular expressions use the backslash character
(‘'\'’) to indicate special forms or to allow special characters to be
used without invoking their special meaning.  This conflicts with
Python's usage of the same character for the same purpose in string
literals.

Let's say you want to write a RE that matches the string ‘\section’,
which might be found in a LaTeX file.  To figure out what to write in
the program code, start with the desired string to be matched.  Next,
you must escape any backslashes and other metacharacters by preceding
them with a backslash, resulting in the string ‘\\section’.  The
resulting string that must be passed to *note re.compile(): a34. must be
‘\\section’.  However, to express this as a Python string literal, both
backslashes must be escaped 'again'.

Characters              Stage
                        
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                        
‘\section’              Text string to be matched
                        
                        
‘\\section’             Escaped backslash for
                        *note re.compile(): a34.
                        
                        
‘"\\\\section"’         Escaped backslashes for a string literal
                        

In short, to match a literal backslash, one has to write ‘'\\\\'’ as the
RE string, because the regular expression must be ‘\\’, and each
backslash must be expressed as ‘\\’ inside a regular Python string
literal.  In REs that feature backslashes repeatedly, this leads to lots
of repeated backslashes and makes the resulting strings difficult to
understand.

The solution is to use Python's raw string notation for regular
expressions; backslashes are not handled in any special way in a string
literal prefixed with ‘'r'’, so ‘r"\n"’ is a two-character string
containing ‘'\'’ and ‘'n'’, while ‘"\n"’ is a one-character string
containing a newline.  Regular expressions will often be written in
Python code using this raw string notation.

In addition, special escape sequences that are valid in regular
expressions, but not valid as Python string literals, now result in a
*note DeprecationWarning: 179. and will eventually become a *note
SyntaxError: 146, which means the sequences will be invalid if raw
string notation or escaping the backslashes isn't used.

Regular String          Raw string
                        
-----------------------------------------------
                        
‘"ab*"’                 ‘r"ab*"’
                        
                        
‘"\\\\section"’         ‘r"\\section"’
                        
                        
‘"\\w+\\s+\\1"’         ‘r"\w+\s+\1"’
                        


File: python.info,  Node: Performing Matches,  Next: Module-Level Functions<3>,  Prev: The Backslash Plague,  Up: Using Regular Expressions

9.9.3.3 Performing Matches
..........................

Once you have an object representing a compiled regular expression, what
do you do with it?  Pattern objects have several methods and attributes.
Only the most significant ones will be covered here; consult the *note
re: b4. docs for a complete listing.

Method/Attribute       Purpose
                       
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘match()’              Determine if the RE matches at the beginning of
                       the string.
                       
                       
‘search()’             Scan through a string, looking for any location
                       where this RE matches.
                       
                       
‘findall()’            Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
                       returns them as a list.
                       
                       
‘finditer()’           Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
                       returns them as an *note iterator: 1718.
                       

*note match(): 2098. and *note search(): 2099. return ‘None’ if no match
can be found.  If they're successful, a *note match object: e14.
instance is returned, containing information about the match: where it
starts and ends, the substring it matched, and more.

You can learn about this by interactively experimenting with the *note
re: b4. module.

This HOWTO uses the standard Python interpreter for its examples.
First, run the Python interpreter, import the *note re: b4. module, and
compile a RE:

     >>> import re
     >>> p = re.compile('[a-z]+')
     >>> p
     re.compile('[a-z]+')

Now, you can try matching various strings against the RE ‘[a-z]+’.  An
empty string shouldn't match at all, since ‘+’ means 'one or more
repetitions'.  *note match(): 2098. should return ‘None’ in this case,
which will cause the interpreter to print no output.  You can explicitly
print the result of ‘match()’ to make this clear.

     >>> p.match("")
     >>> print(p.match(""))
     None

Now, let's try it on a string that it should match, such as ‘tempo’.  In
this case, *note match(): 2098. will return a *note match object: e14,
so you should store the result in a variable for later use.

     >>> m = p.match('tempo')
     >>> m
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='tempo'>

Now you can query the *note match object: e14. for information about the
matching string.  Match object instances also have several methods and
attributes; the most important ones are:

Method/Attribute       Purpose
                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘group()’              Return the string matched by the RE
                       
                       
‘start()’              Return the starting position of the match
                       
                       
‘end()’                Return the ending position of the match
                       
                       
‘span()’               Return a tuple containing the (start, end)
                       positions of the match
                       

Trying these methods will soon clarify their meaning:

     >>> m.group()
     'tempo'
     >>> m.start(), m.end()
     (0, 5)
     >>> m.span()
     (0, 5)

*note group(): 20a9. returns the substring that was matched by the RE.
*note start(): 20ad. and *note end(): 20ae. return the starting and
ending index of the match.  *note span(): 20af. returns both start and
end indexes in a single tuple.  Since the *note match(): 2098. method
only checks if the RE matches at the start of a string, ‘start()’ will
always be zero.  However, the *note search(): 2099. method of patterns
scans through the string, so the match may not start at zero in that
case.

     >>> print(p.match('::: message'))
     None
     >>> m = p.search('::: message'); print(m)
     <re.Match object; span=(4, 11), match='message'>
     >>> m.group()
     'message'
     >>> m.span()
     (4, 11)

In actual programs, the most common style is to store the *note match
object: e14. in a variable, and then check if it was ‘None’.  This
usually looks like:

     p = re.compile( ... )
     m = p.match( 'string goes here' )
     if m:
         print('Match found: ', m.group())
     else:
         print('No match')

Two pattern methods return all of the matches for a pattern.  *note
findall(): 209f. returns a list of matching strings:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
     >>> p.findall('12 drummers drumming, 11 pipers piping, 10 lords a-leaping')
     ['12', '11', '10']

The ‘r’ prefix, making the literal a raw string literal, is needed in
this example because escape sequences in a normal "cooked" string
literal that are not recognized by Python, as opposed to regular
expressions, now result in a *note DeprecationWarning: 179. and will
eventually become a *note SyntaxError: 146.  See *note The Backslash
Plague: 4ddc.

*note findall(): 209f. has to create the entire list before it can be
returned as the result.  The *note finditer(): 20a0. method returns a
sequence of *note match object: e14. instances as an *note iterator:
1718.:

     >>> iterator = p.finditer('12 drummers drumming, 11 ... 10 ...')
     >>> iterator
     <callable_iterator object at 0x...>
     >>> for match in iterator:
     ...     print(match.span())
     ...
     (0, 2)
     (22, 24)
     (29, 31)


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Functions<3>,  Next: Compilation Flags,  Prev: Performing Matches,  Up: Using Regular Expressions

9.9.3.4 Module-Level Functions
..............................

You don't have to create a pattern object and call its methods; the
*note re: b4. module also provides top-level functions called *note
match(): 10c0, *note search(): 10bf, *note findall(): ebe, *note sub():
201, and so forth.  These functions take the same arguments as the
corresponding pattern method with the RE string added as the first
argument, and still return either ‘None’ or a *note match object: e14.
instance.

     >>> print(re.match(r'From\s+', 'Fromage amk'))
     None
     >>> re.match(r'From\s+', 'From amk Thu May 14 19:12:10 1998')
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='From '>

Under the hood, these functions simply create a pattern object for you
and call the appropriate method on it.  They also store the compiled
object in a cache, so future calls using the same RE won't need to parse
the pattern again and again.

Should you use these module-level functions, or should you get the
pattern and call its methods yourself?  If you're accessing a regex
within a loop, pre-compiling it will save a few function calls.  Outside
of loops, there's not much difference thanks to the internal cache.


File: python.info,  Node: Compilation Flags,  Prev: Module-Level Functions<3>,  Up: Using Regular Expressions

9.9.3.5 Compilation Flags
.........................

Compilation flags let you modify some aspects of how regular expressions
work.  Flags are available in the *note re: b4. module under two names,
a long name such as *note IGNORECASE: 14e2. and a short, one-letter form
such as *note I: 208a.  (If you're familiar with Perl's pattern
modifiers, the one-letter forms use the same letters; the short form of
*note re.VERBOSE: 2096. is *note re.X: 208f, for example.)  Multiple
flags can be specified by bitwise OR-ing them; ‘re.I | re.M’ sets both
the *note I: 208a. and *note M: 208c. flags, for example.

Here's a table of the available flags, followed by a more detailed
explanation of each one.

Flag                                  含義
                                      
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
*note ASCII: 428, *note A: 2089.      Makes several escapes like ‘\w’, ‘\b’, ‘\s’
                                      and ‘\d’ match only on ASCII characters with
                                      the respective property.
                                      
                                      
*note DOTALL: 2086, *note S: 208d.    Make ‘.’ match any character, including
                                      newlines.
                                      
                                      
*note IGNORECASE: 14e2,               Do case-insensitive matches.
*note I: 208a.                        

*note LOCALE: 9c8, *note L: 208b.     Do a locale-aware match.
                                      
                                      
*note MULTILINE: 2087,                Multi-line matching, affecting ‘^’ and ‘$’.
*note M: 208c.                        

*note VERBOSE: 2096, *note X: 208f.   Enable verbose REs, which can be organized
(for 'extended')                      more cleanly and understandably.
                                      

 -- 資料: re.I

 -- 資料: re.IGNORECASE

     Perform case-insensitive matching; character class and literal
     strings will match letters by ignoring case.  For example, ‘[A-Z]’
     will match lowercase letters, too.  Full Unicode matching also
     works unless the *note ASCII: 428. flag is used to disable
     non-ASCII matches.  When the Unicode patterns ‘[a-z]’ or ‘[A-Z]’
     are used in combination with the *note IGNORECASE: 14e2. flag, they
     will match the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters:
     'İ' (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), 'ı' (U+0131,
     Latin small letter dotless i), 'ſ' (U+017F, Latin small letter long
     s) and 'K' (U+212A, Kelvin sign).  ‘Spam’ will match ‘'Spam'’,
     ‘'spam'’, ‘'spAM'’, or ‘'ſpam'’ (the latter is matched only in
     Unicode mode).  This lowercasing doesn't take the current locale
     into account; it will if you also set the *note LOCALE: 9c8. flag.

 -- 資料: re.L

 -- 資料: re.LOCALE

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’ and case-insensitive matching dependent
     on the current locale instead of the Unicode database.

     Locales are a feature of the C library intended to help in writing
     programs that take account of language differences.  For example,
     if you're processing encoded French text, you'd want to be able to
     write ‘\w+’ to match words, but ‘\w’ only matches the character
     class ‘[A-Za-z]’ in bytes patterns; it won't match bytes
     corresponding to ‘é’ or ‘ç’.  If your system is configured properly
     and a French locale is selected, certain C functions will tell the
     program that the byte corresponding to ‘é’ should also be
     considered a letter.  Setting the *note LOCALE: 9c8. flag when
     compiling a regular expression will cause the resulting compiled
     object to use these C functions for ‘\w’; this is slower, but also
     enables ‘\w+’ to match French words as you'd expect.  The use of
     this flag is discouraged in Python 3 as the locale mechanism is
     very unreliable, it only handles one "culture" at a time, and it
     only works with 8-bit locales.  Unicode matching is already enabled
     by default in Python 3 for Unicode (str) patterns, and it is able
     to handle different locales/languages.

 -- 資料: re.M

 -- 資料: re.MULTILINE

     (‘^’ and ‘$’ haven't been explained yet; they'll be introduced in
     section *note More Metacharacters: 4de0.)

     Usually ‘^’ matches only at the beginning of the string, and ‘$’
     matches only at the end of the string and immediately before the
     newline (if any) at the end of the string.  When this flag is
     specified, ‘^’ matches at the beginning of the string and at the
     beginning of each line within the string, immediately following
     each newline.  Similarly, the ‘$’ metacharacter matches either at
     the end of the string and at the end of each line (immediately
     preceding each newline).

 -- 資料: re.S

 -- 資料: re.DOTALL

     Makes the ‘'.'’ special character match any character at all,
     including a newline; without this flag, ‘'.'’ will match anything
     'except' a newline.

 -- 資料: re.A

 -- 資料: re.ASCII

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’, ‘\s’ and ‘\S’ perform ASCII-only
     matching instead of full Unicode matching.  This is only meaningful
     for Unicode patterns, and is ignored for byte patterns.

 -- 資料: re.X

 -- 資料: re.VERBOSE

     This flag allows you to write regular expressions that are more
     readable by granting you more flexibility in how you can format
     them.  When this flag has been specified, whitespace within the RE
     string is ignored, except when the whitespace is in a character
     class or preceded by an unescaped backslash; this lets you organize
     and indent the RE more clearly.  This flag also lets you put
     comments within a RE that will be ignored by the engine; comments
     are marked by a ‘'#'’ that's neither in a character class or
     preceded by an unescaped backslash.

     For example, here's a RE that uses *note re.VERBOSE: 2096.; see how
     much easier it is to read?

          charref = re.compile(r"""
           &[#]                # Start of a numeric entity reference
           (
               0[0-7]+         # Octal form
             | [0-9]+          # Decimal form
             | x[0-9a-fA-F]+   # Hexadecimal form
           )
           ;                   # Trailing semicolon
          """, re.VERBOSE)

     Without the verbose setting, the RE would look like this:

          charref = re.compile("&#(0[0-7]+"
                               "|[0-9]+"
                               "|x[0-9a-fA-F]+);")

     In the above example, Python's automatic concatenation of string
     literals has been used to break up the RE into smaller pieces, but
     it's still more difficult to understand than the version using
     *note re.VERBOSE: 2096.


File: python.info,  Node: More Pattern Power,  Next: Modifying Strings,  Prev: Using Regular Expressions,  Up: 如何使用正規表示式

9.9.4 More Pattern Power
------------------------

So far we've only covered a part of the features of regular expressions.
In this section, we'll cover some new metacharacters, and how to use
groups to retrieve portions of the text that was matched.

* Menu:

* More Metacharacters::
* Grouping::
* Non-capturing and Named Groups::
* Lookahead Assertions::


File: python.info,  Node: More Metacharacters,  Next: Grouping,  Up: More Pattern Power

9.9.4.1 More Metacharacters
...........................

There are some metacharacters that we haven't covered yet.  Most of them
will be covered in this section.

Some of the remaining metacharacters to be discussed are 'zero-width
assertions'.  They don't cause the engine to advance through the string;
instead, they consume no characters at all, and simply succeed or fail.
For example, ‘\b’ is an assertion that the current position is located
at a word boundary; the position isn't changed by the ‘\b’ at all.  This
means that zero-width assertions should never be repeated, because if
they match once at a given location, they can obviously be matched an
infinite number of times.

‘|’

     Alternation, or the "or" operator.  If 'A' and 'B' are regular
     expressions, ‘A|B’ will match any string that matches either 'A' or
     'B'. ‘|’ has very low precedence in order to make it work
     reasonably when you're alternating multi-character strings.
     ‘Crow|Servo’ will match either ‘'Crow'’ or ‘'Servo'’, not ‘'Cro'’,
     a ‘'w'’ or an ‘'S'’, and ‘'ervo'’.

     To match a literal ‘'|'’, use ‘\|’, or enclose it inside a
     character class, as in ‘[|]’.

‘^’

     Matches at the beginning of lines.  Unless the *note MULTILINE:
     2087. flag has been set, this will only match at the beginning of
     the string.  In *note MULTILINE: 2087. mode, this also matches
     immediately after each newline within the string.

     For example, if you wish to match the word ‘From’ only at the
     beginning of a line, the RE to use is ‘^From’.

          >>> print(re.search('^From', 'From Here to Eternity'))
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match='From'>
          >>> print(re.search('^From', 'Reciting From Memory'))
          None

     To match a literal ‘'^'’, use ‘\^’.

‘$’

     Matches at the end of a line, which is defined as either the end of
     the string, or any location followed by a newline character.

          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}'))
          <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>
          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block} '))
          None
          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}\n'))
          <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>

     To match a literal ‘'$'’, use ‘\$’ or enclose it inside a character
     class, as in ‘[$]’.

‘\A’

     Matches only at the start of the string.  When not in *note
     MULTILINE: 2087. mode, ‘\A’ and ‘^’ are effectively the same.  In
     *note MULTILINE: 2087. mode, they're different: ‘\A’ still matches
     only at the beginning of the string, but ‘^’ may match at any
     location inside the string that follows a newline character.

‘\Z’

     Matches only at the end of the string.

‘\b’

     Word boundary.  This is a zero-width assertion that matches only at
     the beginning or end of a word.  A word is defined as a sequence of
     alphanumeric characters, so the end of a word is indicated by
     whitespace or a non-alphanumeric character.

     The following example matches ‘class’ only when it's a complete
     word; it won't match when it's contained inside another word.

          >>> p = re.compile(r'\bclass\b')
          >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
          <re.Match object; span=(3, 8), match='class'>
          >>> print(p.search('the declassified algorithm'))
          None
          >>> print(p.search('one subclass is'))
          None

     There are two subtleties you should remember when using this
     special sequence.  First, this is the worst collision between
     Python's string literals and regular expression sequences.  In
     Python's string literals, ‘\b’ is the backspace character, ASCII
     value 8.  If you're not using raw strings, then Python will convert
     the ‘\b’ to a backspace, and your RE won't match as you expect it
     to.  The following example looks the same as our previous RE, but
     omits the ‘'r'’ in front of the RE string.

          >>> p = re.compile('\bclass\b')
          >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
          None
          >>> print(p.search('\b' + 'class' + '\b'))
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 7), match='\x08class\x08'>

     Second, inside a character class, where there's no use for this
     assertion, ‘\b’ represents the backspace character, for
     compatibility with Python's string literals.

‘\B’

     Another zero-width assertion, this is the opposite of ‘\b’, only
     matching when the current position is not at a word boundary.


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping,  Next: Non-capturing and Named Groups,  Prev: More Metacharacters,  Up: More Pattern Power

9.9.4.2 Grouping
................

Frequently you need to obtain more information than just whether the RE
matched or not.  Regular expressions are often used to dissect strings
by writing a RE divided into several subgroups which match different
components of interest.  For example, an RFC-822 header line is divided
into a header name and a value, separated by a ‘':'’, like this:

     From: author@example.com
     User-Agent: Thunderbird 1.5.0.9 (X11/20061227)
     MIME-Version: 1.0
     To: editor@example.com

This can be handled by writing a regular expression which matches an
entire header line, and has one group which matches the header name, and
another group which matches the header's value.

Groups are marked by the ‘'('’, ‘')'’ metacharacters.  ‘'('’ and ‘')'’
have much the same meaning as they do in mathematical expressions; they
group together the expressions contained inside them, and you can repeat
the contents of a group with a quantifier, such as ‘*’, ‘+’, ‘?’, or
‘{m,n}’.  For example, ‘(ab)*’ will match zero or more repetitions of
‘ab’.

     >>> p = re.compile('(ab)*')
     >>> print(p.match('ababababab').span())
     (0, 10)

Groups indicated with ‘'('’, ‘')'’ also capture the starting and ending
index of the text that they match; this can be retrieved by passing an
argument to *note group(): 20a9, *note start(): 20ad, *note end(): 20ae,
and *note span(): 20af.  Groups are numbered starting with 0.  Group 0
is always present; it's the whole RE, so *note match object: e14.
methods all have group 0 as their default argument.  Later we'll see how
to express groups that don't capture the span of text that they match.

     >>> p = re.compile('(a)b')
     >>> m = p.match('ab')
     >>> m.group()
     'ab'
     >>> m.group(0)
     'ab'

Subgroups are numbered from left to right, from 1 upward.  Groups can be
nested; to determine the number, just count the opening parenthesis
characters, going from left to right.

     >>> p = re.compile('(a(b)c)d')
     >>> m = p.match('abcd')
     >>> m.group(0)
     'abcd'
     >>> m.group(1)
     'abc'
     >>> m.group(2)
     'b'

*note group(): 20a9. can be passed multiple group numbers at a time, in
which case it will return a tuple containing the corresponding values
for those groups.

     >>> m.group(2,1,2)
     ('b', 'abc', 'b')

The *note groups(): 20ab. method returns a tuple containing the strings
for all the subgroups, from 1 up to however many there are.

     >>> m.groups()
     ('abc', 'b')

Backreferences in a pattern allow you to specify that the contents of an
earlier capturing group must also be found at the current location in
the string.  For example, ‘\1’ will succeed if the exact contents of
group 1 can be found at the current position, and fails otherwise.
Remember that Python's string literals also use a backslash followed by
numbers to allow including arbitrary characters in a string, so be sure
to use a raw string when incorporating backreferences in a RE.

For example, the following RE detects doubled words in a string.

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(\w+)\s+\1\b')
     >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
     'the the'

Backreferences like this aren't often useful for just searching through
a string -- there are few text formats which repeat data in this way --
but you'll soon find out that they're 'very' useful when performing
string substitutions.


File: python.info,  Node: Non-capturing and Named Groups,  Next: Lookahead Assertions,  Prev: Grouping,  Up: More Pattern Power

9.9.4.3 Non-capturing and Named Groups
......................................

Elaborate REs may use many groups, both to capture substrings of
interest, and to group and structure the RE itself.  In complex REs, it
becomes difficult to keep track of the group numbers.  There are two
features which help with this problem.  Both of them use a common syntax
for regular expression extensions, so we'll look at that first.

Perl 5 is well known for its powerful additions to standard regular
expressions.  For these new features the Perl developers couldn't choose
new single-keystroke metacharacters or new special sequences beginning
with ‘\’ without making Perl's regular expressions confusingly different
from standard REs.  If they chose ‘&’ as a new metacharacter, for
example, old expressions would be assuming that ‘&’ was a regular
character and wouldn't have escaped it by writing ‘\&’ or ‘[&]’.

The solution chosen by the Perl developers was to use ‘(?...)’ as the
extension syntax.  ‘?’ immediately after a parenthesis was a syntax
error because the ‘?’ would have nothing to repeat, so this didn't
introduce any compatibility problems.  The characters immediately after
the ‘?’ indicate what extension is being used, so ‘(?=foo)’ is one thing
(a positive lookahead assertion) and ‘(?:foo)’ is something else (a
non-capturing group containing the subexpression ‘foo’).

Python supports several of Perl's extensions and adds an extension
syntax to Perl's extension syntax.  If the first character after the
question mark is a ‘P’, you know that it's an extension that's specific
to Python.

Now that we've looked at the general extension syntax, we can return to
the features that simplify working with groups in complex REs.

Sometimes you'll want to use a group to denote a part of a regular
expression, but aren't interested in retrieving the group's contents.
You can make this fact explicit by using a non-capturing group:
‘(?:...)’, where you can replace the ‘...’ with any other regular
expression.

     >>> m = re.match("([abc])+", "abc")
     >>> m.groups()
     ('c',)
     >>> m = re.match("(?:[abc])+", "abc")
     >>> m.groups()
     ()

Except for the fact that you can't retrieve the contents of what the
group matched, a non-capturing group behaves exactly the same as a
capturing group; you can put anything inside it, repeat it with a
repetition metacharacter such as ‘*’, and nest it within other groups
(capturing or non-capturing).  ‘(?:...)’ is particularly useful when
modifying an existing pattern, since you can add new groups without
changing how all the other groups are numbered.  It should be mentioned
that there's no performance difference in searching between capturing
and non-capturing groups; neither form is any faster than the other.

A more significant feature is named groups: instead of referring to them
by numbers, groups can be referenced by a name.

The syntax for a named group is one of the Python-specific extensions:
‘(?P<name>...)’.  'name' is, obviously, the name of the group.  Named
groups behave exactly like capturing groups, and additionally associate
a name with a group.  The *note match object: e14. methods that deal
with capturing groups all accept either integers that refer to the group
by number or strings that contain the desired group's name.  Named
groups are still given numbers, so you can retrieve information about a
group in two ways:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'(?P<word>\b\w+\b)')
     >>> m = p.search( '(((( Lots of punctuation )))' )
     >>> m.group('word')
     'Lots'
     >>> m.group(1)
     'Lots'

Additionally, you can retrieve named groups as a dictionary with *note
groupdict(): 20ac.:

     >>> m = re.match(r'(?P<first>\w+) (?P<last>\w+)', 'Jane Doe')
     >>> m.groupdict()
     {'first': 'Jane', 'last': 'Doe'}

Named groups are handy because they let you use easily remembered names,
instead of having to remember numbers.  Here's an example RE from the
*note imaplib: 6f. module:

     InternalDate = re.compile(r'INTERNALDATE "'
             r'(?P<day>[ 123][0-9])-(?P<mon>[A-Z][a-z][a-z])-'
             r'(?P<year>[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9])'
             r' (?P<hour>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<min>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<sec>[0-9][0-9])'
             r' (?P<zonen>[-+])(?P<zoneh>[0-9][0-9])(?P<zonem>[0-9][0-9])'
             r'"')

It's obviously much easier to retrieve ‘m.group('zonem')’, instead of
having to remember to retrieve group 9.

The syntax for backreferences in an expression such as ‘(...)\1’ refers
to the number of the group.  There's naturally a variant that uses the
group name instead of the number.  This is another Python extension:
‘(?P=name)’ indicates that the contents of the group called 'name'
should again be matched at the current point.  The regular expression
for finding doubled words, ‘\b(\w+)\s+\1\b’ can also be written as
‘\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b’:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b')
     >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
     'the the'


File: python.info,  Node: Lookahead Assertions,  Prev: Non-capturing and Named Groups,  Up: More Pattern Power

9.9.4.4 Lookahead Assertions
............................

Another zero-width assertion is the lookahead assertion.  Lookahead
assertions are available in both positive and negative form, and look
like this:

‘(?=...)’

     Positive lookahead assertion.  This succeeds if the contained
     regular expression, represented here by ‘...’, successfully matches
     at the current location, and fails otherwise.  But, once the
     contained expression has been tried, the matching engine doesn't
     advance at all; the rest of the pattern is tried right where the
     assertion started.

‘(?!...)’

     Negative lookahead assertion.  This is the opposite of the positive
     assertion; it succeeds if the contained expression 'doesn't' match
     at the current position in the string.

To make this concrete, let's look at a case where a lookahead is useful.
Consider a simple pattern to match a filename and split it apart into a
base name and an extension, separated by a ‘.’.  For example, in
‘news.rc’, ‘news’ is the base name, and ‘rc’ is the filename's
extension.

The pattern to match this is quite simple:

‘.*[.].*$’

Notice that the ‘.’ needs to be treated specially because it's a
metacharacter, so it's inside a character class to only match that
specific character.  Also notice the trailing ‘$’; this is added to
ensure that all the rest of the string must be included in the
extension.  This regular expression matches ‘foo.bar’ and ‘autoexec.bat’
and ‘sendmail.cf’ and ‘printers.conf’.

Now, consider complicating the problem a bit; what if you want to match
filenames where the extension is not ‘bat’?  Some incorrect attempts:

‘.*[.][^b].*$’ The first attempt above tries to exclude ‘bat’ by
requiring that the first character of the extension is not a ‘b’.  This
is wrong, because the pattern also doesn't match ‘foo.bar’.

‘.*[.]([^b]..|.[^a].|..[^t])$’

The expression gets messier when you try to patch up the first solution
by requiring one of the following cases to match: the first character of
the extension isn't ‘b’; the second character isn't ‘a’; or the third
character isn't ‘t’.  This accepts ‘foo.bar’ and rejects ‘autoexec.bat’,
but it requires a three-letter extension and won't accept a filename
with a two-letter extension such as ‘sendmail.cf’.  We'll complicate the
pattern again in an effort to fix it.

‘.*[.]([^b].?.?|.[^a]?.?|..?[^t]?)$’

In the third attempt, the second and third letters are all made optional
in order to allow matching extensions shorter than three characters,
such as ‘sendmail.cf’.

The pattern's getting really complicated now, which makes it hard to
read and understand.  Worse, if the problem changes and you want to
exclude both ‘bat’ and ‘exe’ as extensions, the pattern would get even
more complicated and confusing.

A negative lookahead cuts through all this confusion:

‘.*[.](?!bat$)[^.]*$’ The negative lookahead means: if the expression
‘bat’ doesn't match at this point, try the rest of the pattern; if
‘bat$’ does match, the whole pattern will fail.  The trailing ‘$’ is
required to ensure that something like ‘sample.batch’, where the
extension only starts with ‘bat’, will be allowed.  The ‘[^.]*’ makes
sure that the pattern works when there are multiple dots in the
filename.

Excluding another filename extension is now easy; simply add it as an
alternative inside the assertion.  The following pattern excludes
filenames that end in either ‘bat’ or ‘exe’:

‘.*[.](?!bat$|exe$)[^.]*$’


File: python.info,  Node: Modifying Strings,  Next: Common Problems,  Prev: More Pattern Power,  Up: 如何使用正規表示式

9.9.5 Modifying Strings
-----------------------

Up to this point, we've simply performed searches against a static
string.  Regular expressions are also commonly used to modify strings in
various ways, using the following pattern methods:

Method/Attribute       Purpose
                       
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘split()’              Split the string into a list, splitting it
                       wherever the RE matches
                       
                       
‘sub()’                Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
                       replace them with a different string
                       
                       
‘subn()’               Does the same thing as ‘sub()’, but returns the
                       new string and the number of replacements
                       

* Menu:

* Splitting Strings::
* Search and Replace: Search and Replace<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Splitting Strings,  Next: Search and Replace<2>,  Up: Modifying Strings

9.9.5.1 Splitting Strings
.........................

The *note split(): 209e. method of a pattern splits a string apart
wherever the RE matches, returning a list of the pieces.  It's similar
to the *note split(): d2a. method of strings but provides much more
generality in the delimiters that you can split by; string ‘split()’
only supports splitting by whitespace or by a fixed string.  As you'd
expect, there's a module-level *note re.split(): 9ca. function, too.

 -- 方法: .split (string[, maxsplit=0])

     Split 'string' by the matches of the regular expression.  If
     capturing parentheses are used in the RE, then their contents will
     also be returned as part of the resulting list.  If 'maxsplit' is
     nonzero, at most 'maxsplit' splits are performed.

You can limit the number of splits made, by passing a value for
'maxsplit'.  When 'maxsplit' is nonzero, at most 'maxsplit' splits will
be made, and the remainder of the string is returned as the final
element of the list.  In the following example, the delimiter is any
sequence of non-alphanumeric characters.

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
     >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().')
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', 'short', 'and', 'sweet', 'of', 'split', '']
     >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().', 3)
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test, short and sweet, of split().']

Sometimes you're not only interested in what the text between delimiters
is, but also need to know what the delimiter was.  If capturing
parentheses are used in the RE, then their values are also returned as
part of the list.  Compare the following calls:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
     >>> p2 = re.compile(r'(\W+)')
     >>> p.split('This... is a test.')
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', '']
     >>> p2.split('This... is a test.')
     ['This', '... ', 'is', ' ', 'a', ' ', 'test', '.', '']

The module-level function *note re.split(): 9ca. adds the RE to be used
as the first argument, but is otherwise the same.

     >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.')
     ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
     >>> re.split(r'([\W]+)', 'Words, words, words.')
     ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
     >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.', 1)
     ['Words', 'words, words.']


File: python.info,  Node: Search and Replace<2>,  Prev: Splitting Strings,  Up: Modifying Strings

9.9.5.2 Search and Replace
..........................

Another common task is to find all the matches for a pattern, and
replace them with a different string.  The *note sub(): 20a1. method
takes a replacement value, which can be either a string or a function,
and the string to be processed.

 -- 方法: .sub (replacement, string[, count=0])

     Returns the string obtained by replacing the leftmost
     non-overlapping occurrences of the RE in 'string' by the
     replacement 'replacement'.  If the pattern isn't found, 'string' is
     returned unchanged.

     The optional argument 'count' is the maximum number of pattern
     occurrences to be replaced; 'count' must be a non-negative integer.
     The default value of 0 means to replace all occurrences.

Here's a simple example of using the *note sub(): 20a1. method.  It
replaces colour names with the word ‘colour’:

     >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
     >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
     'colour socks and colour shoes'
     >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes', count=1)
     'colour socks and red shoes'

The *note subn(): 20a2. method does the same work, but returns a 2-tuple
containing the new string value and the number of replacements that were
performed:

     >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
     >>> p.subn('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
     ('colour socks and colour shoes', 2)
     >>> p.subn('colour', 'no colours at all')
     ('no colours at all', 0)

Empty matches are replaced only when they're not adjacent to a previous
empty match.

     >>> p = re.compile('x*')
     >>> p.sub('-', 'abxd')
     '-a-b--d-'

If 'replacement' is a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed.
That is, ‘\n’ is converted to a single newline character, ‘\r’ is
converted to a carriage return, and so forth.  Unknown escapes such as
‘\&’ are left alone.  Backreferences, such as ‘\6’, are replaced with
the substring matched by the corresponding group in the RE. This lets
you incorporate portions of the original text in the resulting
replacement string.

This example matches the word ‘section’ followed by a string enclosed in
‘{’, ‘}’, and changes ‘section’ to ‘subsection’:

     >>> p = re.compile('section{ ( [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First} section{second}')
     'subsection{First} subsection{second}'

There's also a syntax for referring to named groups as defined by the
‘(?P<name>...)’ syntax.  ‘\g<name>’ will use the substring matched by
the group named ‘name’, and ‘\g<number>’ uses the corresponding group
number.  ‘\g<2>’ is therefore equivalent to ‘\2’, but isn't ambiguous in
a replacement string such as ‘\g<2>0’.  (‘\20’ would be interpreted as a
reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2 followed by the
literal character ‘'0'’.)  The following substitutions are all
equivalent, but use all three variations of the replacement string.

     >>> p = re.compile('section{ (?P<name> [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<1>}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<name>}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'

'replacement' can also be a function, which gives you even more control.
If 'replacement' is a function, the function is called for every
non-overlapping occurrence of 'pattern'.  On each call, the function is
passed a *note match object: e14. argument for the match and can use
this information to compute the desired replacement string and return
it.

In the following example, the replacement function translates decimals
into hexadecimal:

     >>> def hexrepl(match):
     ...     "Return the hex string for a decimal number"
     ...     value = int(match.group())
     ...     return hex(value)
     ...
     >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
     >>> p.sub(hexrepl, 'Call 65490 for printing, 49152 for user code.')
     'Call 0xffd2 for printing, 0xc000 for user code.'

When using the module-level *note re.sub(): 201. function, the pattern
is passed as the first argument.  The pattern may be provided as an
object or as a string; if you need to specify regular expression flags,
you must either use a pattern object as the first parameter, or use
embedded modifiers in the pattern string, e.g.  ‘sub("(?i)b+", "x",
"bbbb BBBB")’ returns ‘'x x'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Common Problems,  Next: Feedback,  Prev: Modifying Strings,  Up: 如何使用正規表示式

9.9.6 Common Problems
---------------------

Regular expressions are a powerful tool for some applications, but in
some ways their behaviour isn't intuitive and at times they don't behave
the way you may expect them to.  This section will point out some of the
most common pitfalls.

* Menu:

* Use String Methods::
* match() versus search(): match versus search.
* Greedy versus Non-Greedy::
* Using re.VERBOSE: Using re VERBOSE.


File: python.info,  Node: Use String Methods,  Next: match versus search,  Up: Common Problems

9.9.6.1 Use String Methods
..........................

Sometimes using the *note re: b4. module is a mistake.  If you're
matching a fixed string, or a single character class, and you're not
using any *note re: b4. features such as the *note IGNORECASE: 14e2.
flag, then the full power of regular expressions may not be required.
Strings have several methods for performing operations with fixed
strings and they're usually much faster, because the implementation is a
single small C loop that's been optimized for the purpose, instead of
the large, more generalized regular expression engine.

One example might be replacing a single fixed string with another one;
for example, you might replace ‘word’ with ‘deed’.  *note re.sub(): 201.
seems like the function to use for this, but consider the *note
replace(): 10eb. method.  Note that ‘replace()’ will also replace ‘word’
inside words, turning ‘swordfish’ into ‘sdeedfish’, but the naive RE
‘word’ would have done that, too.  (To avoid performing the substitution
on parts of words, the pattern would have to be ‘\bword\b’, in order to
require that ‘word’ have a word boundary on either side.  This takes the
job beyond ‘replace()’'s abilities.)

Another common task is deleting every occurrence of a single character
from a string or replacing it with another single character.  You might
do this with something like ‘re.sub('\n', ' ', S)’, but *note
translate(): 1f60. is capable of doing both tasks and will be faster
than any regular expression operation can be.

In short, before turning to the *note re: b4. module, consider whether
your problem can be solved with a faster and simpler string method.


File: python.info,  Node: match versus search,  Next: Greedy versus Non-Greedy,  Prev: Use String Methods,  Up: Common Problems

9.9.6.2 match() versus search()
...............................

The *note match(): 10c0. function only checks if the RE matches at the
beginning of the string while *note search(): 10bf. will scan forward
through the string for a match.  It's important to keep this distinction
in mind.  Remember, ‘match()’ will only report a successful match which
will start at 0; if the match wouldn't start at zero, ‘match()’ will
'not' report it.

     >>> print(re.match('super', 'superstition').span())
     (0, 5)
     >>> print(re.match('super', 'insuperable'))
     None

On the other hand, *note search(): 10bf. will scan forward through the
string, reporting the first match it finds.

     >>> print(re.search('super', 'superstition').span())
     (0, 5)
     >>> print(re.search('super', 'insuperable').span())
     (2, 7)

Sometimes you'll be tempted to keep using *note re.match(): 10c0, and
just add ‘.*’ to the front of your RE. Resist this temptation and use
*note re.search(): 10bf. instead.  The regular expression compiler does
some analysis of REs in order to speed up the process of looking for a
match.  One such analysis figures out what the first character of a
match must be; for example, a pattern starting with ‘Crow’ must match
starting with a ‘'C'’.  The analysis lets the engine quickly scan
through the string looking for the starting character, only trying the
full match if a ‘'C'’ is found.

Adding ‘.*’ defeats this optimization, requiring scanning to the end of
the string and then backtracking to find a match for the rest of the RE.
Use *note re.search(): 10bf. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Greedy versus Non-Greedy,  Next: Using re VERBOSE,  Prev: match versus search,  Up: Common Problems

9.9.6.3 Greedy versus Non-Greedy
................................

When repeating a regular expression, as in ‘a*’, the resulting action is
to consume as much of the pattern as possible.  This fact often bites
you when you're trying to match a pair of balanced delimiters, such as
the angle brackets surrounding an HTML tag.  The naive pattern for
matching a single HTML tag doesn't work because of the greedy nature of
‘.*’.

     >>> s = '<html><head><title>Title</title>'
     >>> len(s)
     32
     >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).span())
     (0, 32)
     >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).group())
     <html><head><title>Title</title>

The RE matches the ‘'<'’ in ‘'<html>'’, and the ‘.*’ consumes the rest
of the string.  There's still more left in the RE, though, and the ‘>’
can't match at the end of the string, so the regular expression engine
has to backtrack character by character until it finds a match for the
‘>’.  The final match extends from the ‘'<'’ in ‘'<html>'’ to the ‘'>'’
in ‘'</title>'’, which isn't what you want.

In this case, the solution is to use the non-greedy quantifiers ‘*?’,
‘+?’, ‘??’, or ‘{m,n}?’, which match as 'little' text as possible.  In
the above example, the ‘'>'’ is tried immediately after the first ‘'<'’
matches, and when it fails, the engine advances a character at a time,
retrying the ‘'>'’ at every step.  This produces just the right result:

     >>> print(re.match('<.*?>', s).group())
     <html>

(Note that parsing HTML or XML with regular expressions is painful.
Quick-and-dirty patterns will handle common cases, but HTML and XML have
special cases that will break the obvious regular expression; by the
time you've written a regular expression that handles all of the
possible cases, the patterns will be 'very' complicated.  Use an HTML or
XML parser module for such tasks.)


File: python.info,  Node: Using re VERBOSE,  Prev: Greedy versus Non-Greedy,  Up: Common Problems

9.9.6.4 Using re.VERBOSE
........................

By now you've probably noticed that regular expressions are a very
compact notation, but they're not terribly readable.  REs of moderate
complexity can become lengthy collections of backslashes, parentheses,
and metacharacters, making them difficult to read and understand.

For such REs, specifying the *note re.VERBOSE: 2096. flag when compiling
the regular expression can be helpful, because it allows you to format
the regular expression more clearly.

The ‘re.VERBOSE’ flag has several effects.  Whitespace in the regular
expression that 'isn't' inside a character class is ignored.  This means
that an expression such as ‘dog | cat’ is equivalent to the less
readable ‘dog|cat’, but ‘[a b]’ will still match the characters ‘'a'’,
‘'b'’, or a space.  In addition, you can also put comments inside a RE;
comments extend from a ‘#’ character to the next newline.  When used
with triple-quoted strings, this enables REs to be formatted more
neatly:

     pat = re.compile(r"""
      \s*                 # Skip leading whitespace
      (?P<header>[^:]+)   # Header name
      \s* :               # Whitespace, and a colon
      (?P<value>.*?)      # The header's value -- *? used to
                          # lose the following trailing whitespace
      \s*$                # Trailing whitespace to end-of-line
     """, re.VERBOSE)

This is far more readable than:

     pat = re.compile(r"\s*(?P<header>[^:]+)\s*:(?P<value>.*?)\s*$")


File: python.info,  Node: Feedback,  Prev: Common Problems,  Up: 如何使用正規表示式

9.9.7 Feedback
--------------

Regular expressions are a complicated topic.  Did this document help you
understand them?  Were there parts that were unclear, or Problems you
encountered that weren't covered here?  If so, please send suggestions
for improvements to the author.

The most complete book on regular expressions is almost certainly
Jeffrey Friedl's Mastering Regular Expressions, published by O'Reilly.
Unfortunately, it exclusively concentrates on Perl and Java's flavours
of regular expressions, and doesn't contain any Python material at all,
so it won't be useful as a reference for programming in Python.  (The
first edition covered Python's now-removed ‘regex’ module, which won't
help you much.)  Consider checking it out from your library.


File: python.info,  Node: Socket 程式設計指南,  Next: 排序技法,  Prev: 如何使用正規表示式,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.10 Socket 程式設計指南
========================


作者: Gordon McMillan

摘要
....

Sockets 在各處都被廣泛使用，但卻是一項被誤解最嚴重的技術之一。這是一篇對
sockets 的概論介紹。這並不是一個完整的教學指南 - 你還需要做許多準備才能
讓 sockets 正常運作。這篇文章也沒有包含細節（其中有非常多的細節），但我
希望這篇文章能夠讓你有足夠的背景知識，以便開始正確的使用 sockets 程式設
計。

* Menu:

* Sockets::
* 建立一個 Socket::
* 使用一個 Socket::
* 結束連線::
* 非阻塞的 Sockets::


File: python.info,  Node: Sockets,  Next: 建立一個 Socket,  Up: Socket 程式設計指南

9.10.1 Sockets
--------------

我只會討論關於 INET（例如：IPv4）的 sockets，但它們涵蓋了幾乎 99% 的
sockets 使用場景。而我也將僅討論關於 STREAM（比如：TCP）類型的 sockets -
除非你真的知道你在做什麼（在這種情況下，這份指南可能不適合你），使用
STREAM 類型的 socket 會獲得比其他 sockets 類型更好的表現和性能。我將會嘗
試解釋 socket 是什麼，以及如何使用阻塞 (blocking) 和非阻塞
(non-blocking) sockets 的一些建議。但首先我會先談論阻塞 sockets。在處理
非阻塞 sockets 之前，你需要了解它們的工作原理。

要理解這些東西的困難點之一在於 "scoket" 可以代表多種具有些微差異的東西，
這主要取決於上下文。所以首先，讓我們先區分「用戶端 (client)」socket 和「
伺服器端 (server)」socket 的差別，「用戶端」socket 表示通訊的一端，「伺
服器端」socket 更像是一個電話總機接線員。用戶端應用程式（例如：你的瀏覽
器）只能使用「用戶端」socket; 它所連接的網路伺服器則同時使用「伺服器端」
socket 和 「用戶端」socket 來進行通訊。

* Menu:

* 歷史::


File: python.info,  Node: 歷史,  Up: Sockets

9.10.1.1 歷史
.............

在各種形式的 IPC (Inter Process Communication) 中，sockets 是最受歡迎的
。在任何特定的平台上，可能會存在其他更快速的 IPC 形式，但對於跨平台通訊
來說，sockets 是唯一的選擇。

Sockets 作為 Unix 的 BSD 分支的一部分在 Berkeley 被發明出來。它們隨著網
際網路的普及而迅速蔓延開來。這是有很好的理由 — sockets 和 INET 的結合讓
世界各地任何的機器之間的通訊變得非常簡單（至少與其它方案相比是如此）。


File: python.info,  Node: 建立一個 Socket,  Next: 使用一個 Socket,  Prev: Sockets,  Up: Socket 程式設計指南

9.10.2 建立一個 Socket
----------------------

大致上來說，當你點擊了帶你來到這個頁面的連結時，你的瀏覽器做了以下的操作
：

     # create an INET, STREAMing socket
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     # now connect to the web server on port 80 - the normal http port
     s.connect(("www.python.org", 80))

當 ‘connect’ 完成時，這個 socket ‘s’ 可以用來發送請求來取得頁面的文本。
同一個 socket 也會讀取回傳值，然後再被銷毀。是的，會被銷毀。用戶端
socket 通常只用來做一次交換（或是一小組連續交換）。

網路伺服器 (web server) 的運作就稍微複雜一點。首先，網路伺服器會建立一個
「伺服器端 socket」：

     # create an INET, STREAMing socket
     serversocket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     # bind the socket to a public host, and a well-known port
     serversocket.bind((socket.gethostname(), 80))
     # become a server socket
     serversocket.listen(5)

有幾件事需要注意：我們使用了 ‘socket.gethostname()’，這樣 socket 才能對
外部網路可見。如果我們使用了 ‘s.bind(('localhost', 80))’ 或
‘s.bind(('127.0.0.1', 80))’，我們會得到一個「伺服器端」socket，但是只能
在同一台機器內可見。‘s.bind(('', 80))’ 指定 socket 可以透過機器的任何地
址存取。

第二個要注意的是：數字小的連接埠 (port) 通常保留給「廣為人知的」服務（
HTTP、SNMP等）。如果你只是想執行程式，可以使用一個數字較大的連接埠（4 位
數字）。

最後，‘listen’ 引數告訴 socket 函式庫 (library)，我們希望在佇列 (queue)
中累積達 5 個（正常的最大值）連線請求後再拒絕外部連線。如果其餘的程式碼
編寫正確，這應該足夠了。

現在我們有一個監聽 80 連接埠的「伺服器端」socket 了，我們可以進入網路伺
服器的主迴圈了：

     while True:
         # accept connections from outside
         (clientsocket, address) = serversocket.accept()
         # now do something with the clientsocket
         # in this case, we'll pretend this is a threaded server
         ct = client_thread(clientsocket)
         ct.run()

事實上，有三種方法可以讓這個迴圈運作 - 分配一個執行緒 (thread) 來處理
‘clientsocket’ 、建立一個新行程 (process) 來處理 ‘clientsocket’，或者將
這個程式重新改寫成使用非阻塞 socket，並使用 ‘select’ 在我們的「伺服器端
」socket 和任何有效的 ‘clientsocket’ 之間進行多工處理。稍後將會更詳細的
介紹。現在最重要的是理解：這就是「伺服器端」socket 做的'所有' 事情。它不
會發送任何資料、也不接收任何資料，它只會建立「伺服器端」socket。每個
‘clientsocket’ 都是為了回應某些'其他' ‘connect()’ 到我們綁定的主機上的「
用戶端」socket。一但 ‘clientsocket’ 建立完成，就會繼續監聽更多的連線請求
。兩個「用戶端」可以隨意的通訊 - 它們使用的是一些動態分配的連接埠，會在
通訊結束的時候被回收並重新利用。

* Menu:

* IPC::


File: python.info,  Node: IPC,  Up: 建立一個 Socket

9.10.2.1 IPC
............

如果你需要在一台機器上的兩個行程間進行快速的行程間通訊 (IPC)，你應該考慮
使用管道 (pipes) 或共享記憶體 (shared memory)。如果你確定要使用 AF_INET
sockets，請將「伺服器端」socket 綁定到 ‘'localhost'’。在大多數平台上，這
樣將會繞過幾個網路程式碼層，並且速度會更快一些。

也參考
......

*note multiprocessing: 8f. 將跨平台行程間通訊整合到更高層的 API 中。


File: python.info,  Node: 使用一個 Socket,  Next: 結束連線,  Prev: 建立一個 Socket,  Up: Socket 程式設計指南

9.10.3 使用一個 Socket
----------------------

首先需要注意，網頁瀏覽器的「用戶端」socket 和網路伺服器的「用戶端」
socket 是非常類似的。也就是說，這是一個「點對點 (peer to peer)」的通訊方
式，或者也可以說'作為設計者，你必須決定通訊的規則'。通常情況下，
‘connect’ 的 socket 會通過發送一個請求或者信號來開始一次通訊。但這屬於設
計決策，而不是 socket 的規則。

現在有兩組可供通訊使用的動詞。你可以使用 ‘send’ 和 ‘recv’，或者可以將用
戶端 socket 轉換成類似檔案的形式，並使用 ‘read’ 和 ‘write’。後者是 Java
中呈現 socket 的方式。我不打算在這裡討論它，只是提醒你需要在 socket 上使
用 ‘flush’。這些是緩衝的「檔案」，一個常見的錯誤是使用 ‘write’ 寫入某些
內容，然後直接 ‘read’ 回覆。如果不使用 ‘flush’，你可能會一直等待這個回覆
，因為請求可能還在你的輸出緩衝中。

現在我們來到 sockets 的主要障礙 - ‘send’ 和 ‘recv’ 操作的是網路緩衝區。
他們不一定會處理你提供給它們的所有位元組（或者是你期望它處理的位元組），
因為它們主要的重點是處理網路緩衝區。一般來說，它們會在關聯的網路衝區已滿
(‘send’) 或已清空 (‘recv’) 時回傳，然後告訴你它們處理了多少位元組。'你'
的責任是一直呼叫它們直到你所有的訊息處理完成。

當 ‘recv’ 回傳「零位元組 (0 bytes)」時，就表示另一端已經關閉（或著正在關
閉）連線。你再也不能從這個連線上取得任何資料了。你可能還是可以成功發送資
料；我稍後會對此進行更詳細的解釋。

像 HTTP 這樣的協議只使用一個 socket 進行一次傳輸，用戶端發送一個請求，然
後讀取一個回覆。就這樣，然後這個 socket 就會被銷毀。這表示者用戶端可以通
過接收「零位元組」來檢測回覆的結束。

但是如果你打算在之後的傳輸中重新利用 socket 的話，你需要明白'socket 中是
不存在' EOT （傳輸結束）。重申一次：如果一個 socket 的 ‘send’ 或 ‘recv’
處理了「零位元組」後回傳，表示連線已經斷開。如果連線'沒有' 斷開，你可能
會永遠處於等待 ‘recv’ 的狀態，因為（就目前來說）socket '不會' 告訴你沒有
更多資料可以讀取了。現在，如果你稍微思考一下，你就會意識到 socket 的一個
基本事實：'訊息要麼是一個固定的長度（不好的做法），要麼是可以被分隔的（
普通的做法），要麼是指定其長度（更好地做法），要麼通過關閉連線來結束。
'完全由你來決定要使用哪種方式（但有些方法比其他方法來的更好）。

假設你不想結束連線，最簡單的方式就是使用固定長度的訊息：

     class MySocket:
         """demonstration class only
           - coded for clarity, not efficiency
         """

         def __init__(self, sock=None):
             if sock is None:
                 self.sock = socket.socket(
                                 socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
             else:
                 self.sock = sock

         def connect(self, host, port):
             self.sock.connect((host, port))

         def mysend(self, msg):
             totalsent = 0
             while totalsent < MSGLEN:
                 sent = self.sock.send(msg[totalsent:])
                 if sent == 0:
                     raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
                 totalsent = totalsent + sent

         def myreceive(self):
             chunks = []
             bytes_recd = 0
             while bytes_recd < MSGLEN:
                 chunk = self.sock.recv(min(MSGLEN - bytes_recd, 2048))
                 if chunk == b'':
                     raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
                 chunks.append(chunk)
                 bytes_recd = bytes_recd + len(chunk)
             return b''.join(chunks)

發送部分的程式碼幾乎可用於任何訊息的傳送方式 - 在 Python 中你發送一個字
串，可以用 ‘len()’ 來確認他的長度（即使字串包含了 ‘\0’ 字元）。在這裡，
主要是接收的程式碼變得更複雜一些。（在 C 語言中，情況沒有變得更糟，只是
如果訊息中包含了 ‘\0’ 字元，你就不能使用 ‘strlen’ 函式。）

最簡單的改進方法是將訊息的第一個字元表示訊息的類型，並根據訊息的類型來決
定訊息的長度。現在你需要使用兩次 ‘recv’ - 第一次用於接收（至少）第一個字
元來得知長度，第二次用於在迴圈中接收剩下的訊息。如果你決定使用分隔符號的
方式，你將會以某個任意的區塊大小進行接收（4096 或 8192 通常是網路緩衝區
大小的良好選擇），並在收到的內容中掃描分隔符號。

需要注意的一個複雜情況是，如果你的通訊協議允許連續發送多個訊息（沒有任何
回應），並且你傳遞給 ‘recv’ 函式一個任意的區塊大小，最後有可能讀取到下一
條訊息的開頭。你需要將其放在一旁並保留下來，直到需要使用的時候。

使用長度作為訊息的前綴（例如，使用 5 個數字字元表示）會變得更複雜，因為
（信不信由你）你可能無法在一次 ‘recv’ 中獲得所有 5 個字元。在一般使用下
，可能不會有這個狀況，但在高負載的網路下，除非使用兩個 ‘recv’ （第一個用
於確定長度，第二個用於取得訊息的資料部分），否則你的程式碼很快就會出現錯
誤。這令人非常頭痛。同樣的情況也會讓你發現 ‘send’ 並不總能在一次傳輸中完
全清除所有內容。儘管已經閱讀了這篇文章，但最終還是無法解決！

為了節省篇幅、培養你的技能（並保持我的競爭優勢），這些改進方法留給讀者自
行練習。現在讓我們開始進行清理工作。

* Menu:

* 二進位資料::


File: python.info,  Node: 二進位資料,  Up: 使用一個 Socket

9.10.3.1 二進位資料
...................

使用 socket 傳輸二進位資料完全是可行的。最主要的問題在於不同機器使用不同
的二進位資料格式。例如，網路二進位順序(1) 採用的是「大端序 big-endian」
，所以一個值為 ‘1’ 的 16 位元整數會表示成兩個 16 進位的位元組 ‘00 01’。
然而大多數常見的處理器 (x86/AMD64，ARM，RISC-V) 採用的是「小端序
little-endian」，所以相同的 ‘1’ 會被表示成 ‘01 00’。（譯者注：將一個多位
數的低位放在較小的位址處，高位放在較大的位址處，則稱小端序；反之則稱大端
序。）

Socket 函式庫提供了用於轉換 16 位元和 32 位元整數的函式 - ‘ntohl, htonl,
ntohs, htons’，其中 "n" 表示 'network'，"h" 表示 'host'，"s" 表示
'short'，"l" 表示 'long'。當網路的位元組順序和主機位元組順序相同時，這些
函式不會做任何操作，但當主機的位元組順序相反時，這些函式會適當的交換位元
組順序。

在現今的 64 位元機器中，二進位資料的 ASCII 表示通常會比二進位表示要小，
這是因為在很多情況下，大多數整數的值為 0 或者 1。例如，字串形式的 ‘"0"’
是兩個位元組，而完整的 64 位元整數則是 8 個位元組。當然，這對固定長度的
訊息來說不太適合，需要自行決定。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness#Networking


File: python.info,  Node: 結束連線,  Next: 非阻塞的 Sockets,  Prev: 使用一個 Socket,  Up: Socket 程式設計指南

9.10.4 結束連線
---------------

嚴格來說，在關閉 socket 前，你應該使用 ‘shutdown’ 函式。‘shutdown’ 函式
是發送給 socket 另一端的一個提醒。根據你傳遞的引數，它可以表示「我不會再
發送任何訊息了，但我仍然會持續監聽」，或者是「我不會再繼續監聽了，真讚！
」。然而，大多數的 socket 函式庫或程式設計師都習慣忽略這種禮節，因為通常
情況下 ‘close’ 跟 ‘shutdown(); close()’ 是一樣的。所以在大多數情況下，不
需要再特地使用 ‘shutdown’ 了。

有效使用 ‘shutdown’ 的一種方式是在類似 HTTP 的交換中，用戶端發送請求後，
然後使用 ‘shutdown(1)’。這告訴伺服器「這個用戶端已經發送完成，但仍可以接
收」。伺服器可以通過接收「零位元組」來檢測 "EOF"。這樣它就可以確定已經接
收到完整的請求。伺服器發送回覆，如果 ‘send’ 成功完成，那麼用戶端確實在持
續接收。

Python 更進一步地採取自動關閉的步驟，並且當 socket 被垃圾回收機制回收時
，如果需要的話，他會自動執行 ‘close’。但依賴這個機制是一個非常不好的習慣
，如果你的 socket 在沒有 ‘close’ 的情況下消失了，那麼另一端的 socket 可
能會認為你只是慢了一步，而無期限的等待。'請務必' 在使用完畢後使用
‘close’ 關閉你的 sockets。

* Menu:

* Sockets 何時銷毀::


File: python.info,  Node: Sockets 何時銷毀,  Up: 結束連線

9.10.4.1 Sockets 何時銷毀
.........................

使用阻塞式 socket 最糟糕的地方可能是在另一端突然強制關閉（未執行
‘close’）的情況下會發生什麼？你的 socket 很可能會處於阻塞狀態。TCP 是一
種可靠的協議，它在放棄連線之前會等待很長很長的時間。如果你正在使用執行緒
，整個執行緒基本上已經無法使用。在這方面，你無法做太多事情。只要你不做一
些愚蠢的事情，比如在執行阻塞式讀取時持有一個鎖，那麼執行緒並不會消耗太多
資源。'不要'試圖終止執行緒 - 執行緒比行程更有效的部分原因是它們避免了與
自動回收資源相關的開銷。換句話說，如果你確實設法終止了執行緒，整個行程可
能會出現問題。


File: python.info,  Node: 非阻塞的 Sockets,  Prev: 結束連線,  Up: Socket 程式設計指南

9.10.5 非阻塞的 Sockets
-----------------------

如果你已經理解了前面的內容，你已經知道了大部分關於使用 sockets 的機制的
所需知識，你仍然會以非常相似的方式使用相同的函式。就這樣而已，如果你做的
對，你的程式就會是近乎完美的。

在 Python 中可以使用 ‘socket.setblocking(False)’ 來設定為非阻塞。在 C 的
作法更為複雜（例如，你需要在 BSD 風格的 ‘O_NONBLOCK’ 和幾乎沒有區別的
POSIX 風格的 ‘O_NDELAY’ 之間做出選擇，這與 ‘TCP_NODELAY’ 完全不同），但
基本思想是一樣的，你要在建立 socket 後但在使用它之前執行此操作。（實際上
，如果你願意的話，你甚至可以來回切換。）

主要的機制差異在於 ‘send’、‘recv’、‘connect’ 和 ‘accept’ 可能在沒有執行
任何操作的情況下就回傳了。你當然有多種選擇。你可以檢查回傳值和錯誤代碼，
但這些操作通常會讓自己抓狂。如果你不相信我，不妨試試看。你的應用程式會變
得臃腫、錯誤百出，並且占用 CPU。所以，讓我們跳過無腦的解決方案，使用正確
的方式。

使用 ‘select’。

在 C 中，編寫 ‘select’ 是非常複雜的，但在 Python 中，這很簡單，並與 C 的
版本非常類似，如果你理解了 Python 中的 ‘select’，在 C 中處理它時也不會有
太大的困難：

     ready_to_read, ready_to_write, in_error = \
                    select.select(
                       potential_readers,
                       potential_writers,
                       potential_errs,
                       timeout)

你傳遞給 ‘select’ 三個列表：第一個列表包含你可能想要嘗試讀取的所有
sockets；第二個包含所有你可能想要嘗試寫入的 sockets，最後一個（通常為空
）包含你想要檢查錯誤的 sockets。你應該注意，一個 socket 可以同時存在於多
個列表中。‘select’ 呼叫是阻塞的，但你可以設置超時。通常這是一個明智的做
法 - 除非有充分的理由，否則給它一個很長的超時（比如一分鐘）。

作為回傳，你將獲得三個列表。它們包含實際上可讀取、可寫入和出錯的
sockets。這些列表中的每一個都是你傳入的相應列表的子集（可能為空）。

如果一個 socket 在輸出的可讀列表中，你可以幾乎確定，在這個業務中我們能夠
得到的最接近確定的事情是，對該 socket 的 ‘recv’ 呼叫將會回傳一些'內容'。
對於可寫列表，也是同樣的想法。你將能夠發送一些 '內容'。也許不是全部，但
'一些內容'總比什麼都沒有好。（實際上，任何比較正常的 socket 都會以可寫的
方式回傳 - 這只是意味者「外送網路 (outbound network)」的緩衝空間是可用的
。）

如果你有一個「伺服器端」socket，請將其放在 potential_readers 列表中，如
果它在可讀列表中出現，你的 ‘accept’ 呼叫（幾乎可以確定）會成功。如果你建
立了一個新的 socket 去 ‘connect’ 到其他地方，請將它放在
potential_writers 列表中，如果它在可寫列表中出現，那麼他有可能已經連接上
了。

實際上，即使是使用阻塞式 socket 的情況下，‘select’ 也很方便。這是一種判
斷是否會被阻塞的方法之一 - 當緩衝區中有某些內容時， socket 會回傳為可讀
。然而，這仍然無法解決判斷另一端是否完成，或者只是忙於其他事情的問題。

'可移植性警告'：在 Unix 上，‘select’ 同時適用於 sockets 和文件。但請不要
在 Windows 上嘗試這麼做，在 Windows 上，‘select’ 只適用於 sockets。同時
，請注意，在 C 語言中，許多更進階的 socket 選項在 Windows 上有不同的實現
方式。實際上，在 Windows 上，我通常會使用執行緒（這非常，非常有效）與我
的 sockets 一起使用。


File: python.info,  Node: 排序技法,  Next: Unicode HOWTO,  Prev: Socket 程式設計指南,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.11 排序技法
=============


作者: Andrew Dalke 和 Raymond Hettinger

Python 的串列有一個內建的 *note list.sort(): a30. 方法可以原地
(in-place) 排序該串列，也有一個內建的 *note sorted(): a2f. 函式可以排序
可疊代物件 (iterable) 並建立一個新的排序好的串列。

在這份文件裡，我們探索使用 Python 排序資料的各種方法。

* Menu:

* 基礎排序::
* 鍵函式 (key functions): 鍵函式 key functions.
* Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation::
* 升冪與降冪::
* 排序穩定性與複合排序::
* 裝飾-排序-移除裝飾 (decorate-sort-undecorate): 裝飾-排序-移除裝飾 decorate-sort-undecorate.
* 比較函式 (comparison functions): 比較函式 comparison functions.
* 雜項說明::
* Partial Sorts::


File: python.info,  Node: 基礎排序,  Next: 鍵函式 key functions,  Up: 排序技法

9.11.1 基礎排序
---------------

單純的升冪排序很容易做到：只要呼叫 *note sorted(): a2f. 函式，它會回傳一
個新的串列：

     >>> sorted([5, 2, 3, 1, 4])
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

你也可以使用 *note list.sort(): a30. 方法，它會原地排序串列（並回傳
‘None’ 以避免混淆）。它通常會比 *note sorted(): a2f. 來得不方便——但如果
你不需要保留原始串列的話，它會稍微有效率一點。

     >>> a = [5, 2, 3, 1, 4]
     >>> a.sort()
     >>> a
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

另一個差異是 *note list.sort(): a30. 方法只有定義在串列上，而 *note
sorted(): a2f. 函式可以接受任何可疊代物件。

     >>> sorted({1: 'D', 2: 'B', 3: 'B', 4: 'E', 5: 'A'})
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]


File: python.info,  Node: 鍵函式 key functions,  Next: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Prev: 基礎排序,  Up: 排序技法

9.11.2 鍵函式 (key functions)
-----------------------------

*note list.sort(): a30. 和 *note sorted(): a2f. 都有一個參數 'key' 可以
指定一個函式（或其它可呼叫物件 (callable)），這個函式會在每個串列元素做
比較前被呼叫。

例如這裡有一個不區分大小寫的字串比對：

     >>> sorted("This is a test string from Andrew".split(), key=str.casefold)
     ['a', 'Andrew', 'from', 'is', 'string', 'test', 'This']

參數 'key' 的值必須是一個函式（或其它可呼叫物件），且這個函式接受單一引
數並回傳一個用來排序的鍵。因為對每個輸入來說鍵函式只會被呼叫一次，所以這
個做法是快速的。

一個常見的模式是在排序複雜物件的時候使用一部分物件的索引值當作鍵，例如：

     >>> student_tuples = [
     ...     ('john', 'A', 15),
     ...     ('jane', 'B', 12),
     ...     ('dave', 'B', 10),
     ... ]
     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=lambda student: student[2])   # sort by age
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

相同的做法也適用在有命名屬性的物件，例如：

     >>> class Student:
     ...     def __init__(self, name, grade, age):
     ...         self.name = name
     ...         self.grade = grade
     ...         self.age = age
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return repr((self.name, self.grade, self.age))

     >>> student_objects = [
     ...     Student('john', 'A', 15),
     ...     Student('jane', 'B', 12),
     ...     Student('dave', 'B', 10),
     ... ]
     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=lambda student: student.age)   # sort by age
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Objects with named attributes can be made by a regular class as shown
above, or they can be instances of *note dataclass: 3bc. or a *note
named tuple: 449.


File: python.info,  Node: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Next: 升冪與降冪,  Prev: 鍵函式 key functions,  Up: 排序技法

9.11.3 Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation
----------------------------------------------------------------

上述的*note 鍵函式: c7d.模式非常常見，所以 Python 提供了方便的函式讓物件
存取更簡單且快速。*note operator: 9a. 模組裡有 *note itemgetter(): 8ad.、
*note attrgetter(): cad. 及 *note methodcaller(): cae. 函式可以使用。

使用這些函式讓上面的範例變得更簡單且快速：

     >>> from operator import itemgetter, attrgetter

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

operator 模組的函式允許多層的排序，例如先用 'grade' 排序再用 'age' 排序
：

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(1,2))
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('grade', 'age'))
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

The *note functools: 5a. module provides another helpful tool for making
key-functions.  The *note partial(): d4e. function can reduce the
arity(1) of a multi-argument function making it suitable for use as a
key-function.

     >>> from functools import partial
     >>> from unicodedata import normalize

     >>> names = 'Zoë Åbjørn Núñez Élana Zeke Abe Nubia Eloise'.split()

     >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFD'))
     ['Abe', 'Åbjørn', 'Eloise', 'Élana', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë']

     >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFC'))
     ['Abe', 'Eloise', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë', 'Åbjørn', 'Élana']

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity


File: python.info,  Node: 升冪與降冪,  Next: 排序穩定性與複合排序,  Prev: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Up: 排序技法

9.11.4 升冪與降冪
-----------------

*note list.sort(): a30. 和 *note sorted(): a2f. 都有一個 boolean 參數
'reverse' 用來表示是否要降冪排序。例如將學生資料依據 'age' 做降冪排序：

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2), reverse=True)
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'), reverse=True)
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]


File: python.info,  Node: 排序穩定性與複合排序,  Next: 裝飾-排序-移除裝飾 decorate-sort-undecorate,  Prev: 升冪與降冪,  Up: 排序技法

9.11.5 排序穩定性與複合排序
---------------------------

排序保證是穩定的(1)，意思是當有多筆資料有相同的鍵，它們會維持原來的順序
。

     >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
     >>> sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0))
     [('blue', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 1), ('red', 2)]

可以注意到有兩筆資料的鍵都是 'blue'，它們會維持本來的順序，即 ‘('blue',
1)’ 保證在 ‘('blue', 2)’ 前面。

這個美妙的特性讓你可以用一連串的排序來作出複合排序。例如對學生資料用
'grade' 做降冪排序再用 'age' 做升冪排序，你可以先用 'age' 排序一遍再用
'grade' 排序一遍：

     >>> s = sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))     # sort on secondary key
     >>> sorted(s, key=attrgetter('grade'), reverse=True)       # now sort on primary key, descending
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

這可以抽出一個包裝函式 (wrapper function)，接受一個串列及多個欄位及升降
冪的元組為引數，來對這個串列排序多遍。

     >>> def multisort(xs, specs):
     ...     for key, reverse in reversed(specs):
     ...         xs.sort(key=attrgetter(key), reverse=reverse)
     ...     return xs

     >>> multisort(list(student_objects), (('grade', True), ('age', False)))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Python 裡使用的 Timsort(2) 演算法，因為能利用資料集裡已經有的順序，可以
有效率地做多次排序。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting_algorithm#Stability

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort


File: python.info,  Node: 裝飾-排序-移除裝飾 decorate-sort-undecorate,  Next: 比較函式 comparison functions,  Prev: 排序穩定性與複合排序,  Up: 排序技法

9.11.6 裝飾-排序-移除裝飾 (decorate-sort-undecorate)
----------------------------------------------------

這個用語的來源是因為它做了以下三件事情：

   * 首先，原始串列會裝飾 (decorated) 上新的值用來控制排序的順序。

   * 接下來，排序裝飾過的串列。

   * 最後，裝飾會被移除，並以新的順序產生一個只包含原始值的串列。

例如用上面說的方式來以 'grade' 排序學生資料：

     >>> decorated = [(student.grade, i, student) for i, student in enumerate(student_objects)]
     >>> decorated.sort()
     >>> [student for grade, i, student in decorated]               # undecorate
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

這個方式會有效是因為元組是依照字典順序 (lexicographically) 來比較，先比
較第一個項目，如果一樣再比較第二個項目，並依此類推。

在所有情況下都把索引 'i' 加入已裝飾的串列並不是絕對需要的，但這樣做會有
兩個好處：

   * 排序會是穩定的 - 如果兩個項目有相同的鍵，它們在排序好的串列中會保持
     原來的順序。

   * 原始項目不需要是可以比較的，因為最多只會用到前兩個項目就能決定裝飾
     過的元組的順序。例如原始串列可以包含不能直接用來排序的複數。

這個用語的另一個名字是 Schwartzian transform(1)，是由於 Randal L.
Schwartz 讓這個方法在 Perl 程式設計師間普及。

而因為 Python 的排序提供了鍵函式，已經不太需要用到這個方法了。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwartzian_transform


File: python.info,  Node: 比較函式 comparison functions,  Next: 雜項說明,  Prev: 裝飾-排序-移除裝飾 decorate-sort-undecorate,  Up: 排序技法

9.11.7 比較函式 (comparison functions)
--------------------------------------

不像鍵函式回傳一個用來排序的值，比較函式計算兩個輸入間的相對順序。

例如天秤(1)比較兩邊樣本並給出相對的順序：較輕、相同或較重。同樣地，像是
‘cmp(a, b)’ 這樣的比較函式會回傳負數代表小於、0 代表輸入相同或正數代表大
於。

當從其它語言翻譯演算法的時候常看到比較函式。有些函式庫也會提供比較函式作
為其 API 的一部份，例如 *note locale.strcoll(): 3a03. 就是一個比較函式。

為了滿足這些情境，Python 提供 *note functools.cmp_to_key: 106b. 來包裝比
較函式，讓其可以當作鍵函式來使用：

     sorted(words, key=cmp_to_key(strcoll))  # locale-aware sort order

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Balance_à_tabac_1850.JPG


File: python.info,  Node: 雜項說明,  Next: Partial Sorts,  Prev: 比較函式 comparison functions,  Up: 排序技法

9.11.8 雜項說明
---------------

   * 要處理能理解本地語系 (locale aware) 的排序可以使用 *note
     locale.strxfrm(): 3a05. 當作鍵函式，或 *note locale.strcoll():
     3a03. 當作比較函式。這樣做是必要的，因為在不同文化中就算是相同的字
     母，按「字母順序」排序的結果也各不相同。

   * 'reverse' 參數依然會維持排序穩定性（即有相同鍵的資料會保持原來順序
     ）。有趣的是，不加這個參數也可以模擬這個效果，只要使用內建的 *note
     reversed(): 691. 函式兩次：

          >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
          >>> standard_way = sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0), reverse=True)
          >>> double_reversed = list(reversed(sorted(reversed(data), key=itemgetter(0))))
          >>> assert standard_way == double_reversed
          >>> standard_way
          [('red', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 1), ('blue', 2)]

   * 排序時會使用 ‘<’ 來比較兩個物件，因此要在類別裡面加入排序順序比較規
     則是簡單的，只要透過定義 *note __lt__(): 119c. 方法：

          >>> Student.__lt__ = lambda self, other: self.age < other.age
          >>> sorted(student_objects)
          [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

     However, note that ‘<’ can fall back to using *note __gt__(): 119e.
     if *note __lt__(): 119c. is not implemented (see *note
     object.__lt__(): 119c. for details on the mechanics).  To avoid
     surprises, PEP 8(1) recommends that all six comparison methods be
     implemented.  The *note total_ordering(): dcf. decorator is
     provided to make that task easier.

   * 鍵函式不需要直接依賴用來排序的物件。鍵函式也可以存取外部資源，例如
     如果學生成績儲存在字典裡，它可以用來排序一個單獨的學生姓名串列：

          >>> students = ['dave', 'john', 'jane']
          >>> newgrades = {'john': 'F', 'jane':'A', 'dave': 'C'}
          >>> sorted(students, key=newgrades.__getitem__)
          ['jane', 'dave', 'john']

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Partial Sorts,  Prev: 雜項說明,  Up: 排序技法

9.11.9 Partial Sorts
--------------------

Some applications require only some of the data to be ordered.  The
standard library provides several tools that do less work than a full
sort:

   * *note min(): d8c. and *note max(): d8d. return the smallest and
     largest values, respectively.  These functions make a single pass
     over the input data and require almost no auxiliary memory.

   * *note heapq.nsmallest(): 22c5. and *note heapq.nlargest(): 22c4.
     return the 'n' smallest and largest values, respectively.  These
     functions make a single pass over the data keeping only 'n'
     elements in memory at a time.  For values of 'n' that are small
     relative to the number of inputs, these functions make far fewer
     comparisons than a full sort.

   * *note heapq.heappush(): 132f. and *note heapq.heappop(): 1330.
     create and maintain a partially sorted arrangement of data that
     keeps the smallest element at position ‘0’.  These functions are
     suitable for implementing priority queues which are commonly used
     for task scheduling.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode HOWTO,  Next: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源,  Prev: 排序技法,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.12 Unicode HOWTO
==================


發佈版本: 1.12

This HOWTO discusses Python's support for the Unicode specification for
representing textual data, and explains various problems that people
commonly encounter when trying to work with Unicode.

* Menu:

* Introduction to Unicode::
* Python's Unicode Support::
* Reading and Writing Unicode Data::
* 致謝: 致謝<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction to Unicode,  Next: Python's Unicode Support,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.12.1 Introduction to Unicode
------------------------------

* Menu:

* 定義::
* Encodings::
* References: References<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: 定義,  Next: Encodings,  Up: Introduction to Unicode

9.12.1.1 定義
.............

Today's programs need to be able to handle a wide variety of characters.
Applications are often internationalized to display messages and output
in a variety of user-selectable languages; the same program might need
to output an error message in English, French, Japanese, Hebrew, or
Russian.  Web content can be written in any of these languages and can
also include a variety of emoji symbols.  Python's string type uses the
Unicode Standard for representing characters, which lets Python programs
work with all these different possible characters.

Unicode (‘https://www.unicode.org/’) is a specification that aims to
list every character used by human languages and give each character its
own unique code.  The Unicode specifications are continually revised and
updated to add new languages and symbols.

A 'character' is the smallest possible component of a text.  'A', 'B',
'C', etc., are all different characters.  So are 'È' and 'Í'. Characters
vary depending on the language or context you're talking about.  For
example, there's a character for "Roman Numeral One", 'Ⅰ', that's
separate from the uppercase letter 'I'. They'll usually look the same,
but these are two different characters that have different meanings.

The Unicode standard describes how characters are represented by 'code
points'.  A code point value is an integer in the range 0 to 0x10FFFF
(about 1.1 million values, the actual number assigned(1) is less than
that).  In the standard and in this document, a code point is written
using the notation ‘U+265E’ to mean the character with value ‘0x265e’
(9,822 in decimal).

The Unicode standard contains a lot of tables listing characters and
their corresponding code points:

     0061    'a'; LATIN SMALL LETTER A
     0062    'b'; LATIN SMALL LETTER B
     0063    'c'; LATIN SMALL LETTER C
     ...
     007B    '{'; LEFT CURLY BRACKET
     ...
     2167    'Ⅷ'; ROMAN NUMERAL EIGHT
     2168    'Ⅸ'; ROMAN NUMERAL NINE
     ...
     265E    '♞'; BLACK CHESS KNIGHT
     265F    '♟'; BLACK CHESS PAWN
     ...
     1F600   '😀'; GRINNING FACE
     1F609   '😉'; WINKING FACE
     ...

Strictly, these definitions imply that it's meaningless to say 'this is
character ‘U+265E’'.  ‘U+265E’ is a code point, which represents some
particular character; in this case, it represents the character 'BLACK
CHESS KNIGHT', '♞'.  In informal contexts, this distinction between code
points and characters will sometimes be forgotten.

A character is represented on a screen or on paper by a set of graphical
elements that's called a 'glyph'.  The glyph for an uppercase A, for
example, is two diagonal strokes and a horizontal stroke, though the
exact details will depend on the font being used.  Most Python code
doesn't need to worry about glyphs; figuring out the correct glyph to
display is generally the job of a GUI toolkit or a terminal's font
renderer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/latest/#Summary


File: python.info,  Node: Encodings,  Next: References<3>,  Prev: 定義,  Up: Introduction to Unicode

9.12.1.2 Encodings
..................

To summarize the previous section: a Unicode string is a sequence of
code points, which are numbers from 0 through ‘0x10FFFF’ (1,114,111
decimal).  This sequence of code points needs to be represented in
memory as a set of 'code units', and 'code units' are then mapped to
8-bit bytes.  The rules for translating a Unicode string into a sequence
of bytes are called a 'character encoding', or just an 'encoding'.

The first encoding you might think of is using 32-bit integers as the
code unit, and then using the CPU's representation of 32-bit integers.
In this representation, the string "Python" might look like this:

        P           y           t           h           o           n
     0x50 00 00 00 79 00 00 00 74 00 00 00 68 00 00 00 6f 00 00 00 6e 00 00 00
        0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

This representation is straightforward but using it presents a number of
problems.

  1. It's not portable; different processors order the bytes
     differently.

  2. It's very wasteful of space.  In most texts, the majority of the
     code points are less than 127, or less than 255, so a lot of space
     is occupied by ‘0x00’ bytes.  The above string takes 24 bytes
     compared to the 6 bytes needed for an ASCII representation.
     Increased RAM usage doesn't matter too much (desktop computers have
     gigabytes of RAM, and strings aren't usually that large), but
     expanding our usage of disk and network bandwidth by a factor of 4
     is intolerable.

  3. It's not compatible with existing C functions such as ‘strlen()’,
     so a new family of wide string functions would need to be used.

Therefore this encoding isn't used very much, and people instead choose
other encodings that are more efficient and convenient, such as UTF-8.

UTF-8 is one of the most commonly used encodings, and Python often
defaults to using it.  UTF stands for "Unicode Transformation Format",
and the '8' means that 8-bit values are used in the encoding.  (There
are also UTF-16 and UTF-32 encodings, but they are less frequently used
than UTF-8.)  UTF-8 uses the following rules:

  1. If the code point is < 128, it's represented by the corresponding
     byte value.

  2. If the code point is >= 128, it's turned into a sequence of two,
     three, or four bytes, where each byte of the sequence is between
     128 and 255.

UTF-8 has several convenient properties:

  1. It can handle any Unicode code point.

  2. A Unicode string is turned into a sequence of bytes that contains
     embedded zero bytes only where they represent the null character
     (U+0000).  This means that UTF-8 strings can be processed by C
     functions such as ‘strcpy()’ and sent through protocols that can't
     handle zero bytes for anything other than end-of-string markers.

  3. A string of ASCII text is also valid UTF-8 text.

  4. UTF-8 is fairly compact; the majority of commonly used characters
     can be represented with one or two bytes.

  5. If bytes are corrupted or lost, it's possible to determine the
     start of the next UTF-8-encoded code point and resynchronize.  It's
     also unlikely that random 8-bit data will look like valid UTF-8.

  6. UTF-8 is a byte oriented encoding.  The encoding specifies that
     each character is represented by a specific sequence of one or more
     bytes.  This avoids the byte-ordering issues that can occur with
     integer and word oriented encodings, like UTF-16 and UTF-32, where
     the sequence of bytes varies depending on the hardware on which the
     string was encoded.


File: python.info,  Node: References<3>,  Prev: Encodings,  Up: Introduction to Unicode

9.12.1.3 References
...................

The Unicode Consortium site(1) has character charts, a glossary, and PDF
versions of the Unicode specification.  Be prepared for some difficult
reading.  A chronology(2) of the origin and development of Unicode is
also available on the site.

On the Computerphile Youtube channel, Tom Scott briefly discusses the
history of Unicode and UTF-8(3) (9 minutes 36 seconds).

To help understand the standard, Jukka Korpela has written an
introductory guide(4) to reading the Unicode character tables.

Another good introductory article(5) was written by Joel Spolsky.  If
this introduction didn't make things clear to you, you should try
reading this alternate article before continuing.

Wikipedia entries are often helpful; see the entries for "character
encoding(6)" and UTF-8(7), for example.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/history/

   (3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MijmeoH9LT4

   (4) https://jkorpela.fi/unicode/guide.html

   (5) 
https://www.joelonsoftware.com/2003/10/08/the-absolute-minimum-every-software-developer-absolutely-positively-must-know-about-unicode-and-character-sets-no-excuses/

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8


File: python.info,  Node: Python's Unicode Support,  Next: Reading and Writing Unicode Data,  Prev: Introduction to Unicode,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.12.2 Python's Unicode Support
-------------------------------

Now that you've learned the rudiments of Unicode, we can look at
Python's Unicode features.

* Menu:

* The String Type::
* Converting to Bytes::
* Unicode Literals in Python Source Code::
* Unicode Properties::
* Comparing Strings::
* Unicode Regular Expressions::
* References: References<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: The String Type,  Next: Converting to Bytes,  Up: Python's Unicode Support

9.12.2.1 The String Type
........................

Since Python 3.0, the language's *note str: 157. type contains Unicode
characters, meaning any string created using ‘"unicode rocks!"’,
‘'unicode rocks!'’, or the triple-quoted string syntax is stored as
Unicode.

The default encoding for Python source code is UTF-8, so you can simply
include a Unicode character in a string literal:

     try:
         with open('/tmp/input.txt', 'r') as f:
             ...
     except OSError:
         # 'File not found' error message.
         print("Fichier non trouvé")

Side note: Python 3 also supports using Unicode characters in
identifiers:

     répertoire = "/tmp/records.log"
     with open(répertoire, "w") as f:
         f.write("test\n")

If you can't enter a particular character in your editor or want to keep
the source code ASCII-only for some reason, you can also use escape
sequences in string literals.  (Depending on your system, you may see
the actual capital-delta glyph instead of a u escape.)

     >>> "\N{GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA}"  # Using the character name
     '\u0394'
     >>> "\u0394"                          # Using a 16-bit hex value
     '\u0394'
     >>> "\U00000394"                      # Using a 32-bit hex value
     '\u0394'

In addition, one can create a string using the *note decode(): 70f.
method of *note bytes: 2c1.  This method takes an 'encoding' argument,
such as ‘UTF-8’, and optionally an 'errors' argument.

The 'errors' argument specifies the response when the input string can't
be converted according to the encoding's rules.  Legal values for this
argument are ‘'strict'’ (raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError: 85a.
exception), ‘'replace'’ (use ‘U+FFFD’, ‘REPLACEMENT CHARACTER’),
‘'ignore'’ (just leave the character out of the Unicode result), or
‘'backslashreplace'’ (inserts a ‘\xNN’ escape sequence).  The following
examples show the differences:

     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "strict")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     UnicodeDecodeError: 'utf-8' codec can't decode byte 0x80 in position 0:
       invalid start byte
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "replace")
     '\ufffdabc'
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "backslashreplace")
     '\\x80abc'
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "ignore")
     'abc'

Encodings are specified as strings containing the encoding's name.
Python comes with roughly 100 different encodings; see the Python
Library Reference at *note Standard Encodings: c30. for a list.  Some
encodings have multiple names; for example, ‘'latin-1'’, ‘'iso_8859_1'’
and ‘'8859’' are all synonyms for the same encoding.

One-character Unicode strings can also be created with the *note chr():
1c83. built-in function, which takes integers and returns a Unicode
string of length 1 that contains the corresponding code point.  The
reverse operation is the built-in *note ord(): 1c82. function that takes
a one-character Unicode string and returns the code point value:

     >>> chr(57344)
     '\ue000'
     >>> ord('\ue000')
     57344


File: python.info,  Node: Converting to Bytes,  Next: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code,  Prev: The String Type,  Up: Python's Unicode Support

9.12.2.2 Converting to Bytes
............................

The opposite method of *note bytes.decode(): 70f. is *note str.encode():
70e, which returns a *note bytes: 2c1. representation of the Unicode
string, encoded in the requested 'encoding'.

The 'errors' parameter is the same as the parameter of the *note
decode(): 70f. method but supports a few more possible handlers.  As
well as ‘'strict'’, ‘'ignore'’, and ‘'replace'’ (which in this case
inserts a question mark instead of the unencodable character), there is
also ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ (inserts an XML character reference),
‘backslashreplace’ (inserts a ‘\uNNNN’ escape sequence) and
‘namereplace’ (inserts a ‘\N{...}’ escape sequence).

The following example shows the different results:

     >>> u = chr(40960) + 'abcd' + chr(1972)
     >>> u.encode('utf-8')
     b'\xea\x80\x80abcd\xde\xb4'
     >>> u.encode('ascii')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     UnicodeEncodeError: 'ascii' codec can't encode character '\ua000' in
       position 0: ordinal not in range(128)
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'ignore')
     b'abcd'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'replace')
     b'?abcd?'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'xmlcharrefreplace')
     b'&#40960;abcd&#1972;'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')
     b'\\ua000abcd\\u07b4'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'namereplace')
     b'\\N{YI SYLLABLE IT}abcd\\u07b4'

The low-level routines for registering and accessing the available
encodings are found in the *note codecs: 19. module.  Implementing new
encodings also requires understanding the *note codecs: 19. module.
However, the encoding and decoding functions returned by this module are
usually more low-level than is comfortable, and writing new encodings is
a specialized task, so the module won't be covered in this HOWTO.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code,  Next: Unicode Properties,  Prev: Converting to Bytes,  Up: Python's Unicode Support

9.12.2.3 Unicode Literals in Python Source Code
...............................................

In Python source code, specific Unicode code points can be written using
the ‘\u’ escape sequence, which is followed by four hex digits giving
the code point.  The ‘\U’ escape sequence is similar, but expects eight
hex digits, not four:

     >>> s = "a\xac\u1234\u20ac\U00008000"
     ... #     ^^^^ two-digit hex escape
     ... #         ^^^^^^ four-digit Unicode escape
     ... #                     ^^^^^^^^^^ eight-digit Unicode escape
     >>> [ord(c) for c in s]
     [97, 172, 4660, 8364, 32768]

Using escape sequences for code points greater than 127 is fine in small
doses, but becomes an annoyance if you're using many accented
characters, as you would in a program with messages in French or some
other accent-using language.  You can also assemble strings using the
*note chr(): 1c83. built-in function, but this is even more tedious.

Ideally, you'd want to be able to write literals in your language's
natural encoding.  You could then edit Python source code with your
favorite editor which would display the accented characters naturally,
and have the right characters used at runtime.

Python supports writing source code in UTF-8 by default, but you can use
almost any encoding if you declare the encoding being used.  This is
done by including a special comment as either the first or second line
of the source file:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     # -*- coding: latin-1 -*-

     u = 'abcdé'
     print(ord(u[-1]))

The syntax is inspired by Emacs's notation for specifying variables
local to a file.  Emacs supports many different variables, but Python
only supports 'coding'.  The ‘-*-’ symbols indicate to Emacs that the
comment is special; they have no significance to Python but are a
convention.  Python looks for ‘coding: name’ or ‘coding=name’ in the
comment.

If you don't include such a comment, the default encoding used will be
UTF-8 as already mentioned.  See also PEP 263(1) for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Properties,  Next: Comparing Strings,  Prev: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code,  Up: Python's Unicode Support

9.12.2.4 Unicode Properties
...........................

The Unicode specification includes a database of information about code
points.  For each defined code point, the information includes the
character's name, its category, the numeric value if applicable (for
characters representing numeric concepts such as the Roman numerals,
fractions such as one-third and four-fifths, etc.).  There are also
display-related properties, such as how to use the code point in
bidirectional text.

The following program displays some information about several
characters, and prints the numeric value of one particular character:

     import unicodedata

     u = chr(233) + chr(0x0bf2) + chr(3972) + chr(6000) + chr(13231)

     for i, c in enumerate(u):
         print(i, '%04x' % ord(c), unicodedata.category(c), end=" ")
         print(unicodedata.name(c))

     # Get numeric value of second character
     print(unicodedata.numeric(u[1]))

When run, this prints:

     0 00e9 Ll LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE
     1 0bf2 No TAMIL NUMBER ONE THOUSAND
     2 0f84 Mn TIBETAN MARK HALANTA
     3 1770 Lo TAGBANWA LETTER SA
     4 33af So SQUARE RAD OVER S SQUARED
     1000.0

The category codes are abbreviations describing the nature of the
character.  These are grouped into categories such as "Letter",
"Number", "Punctuation", or "Symbol", which in turn are broken up into
subcategories.  To take the codes from the above output, ‘'Ll'’ means
'Letter, lowercase', ‘'No'’ means "Number, other", ‘'Mn'’ is "Mark,
nonspacing", and ‘'So'’ is "Symbol, other".  See the General Category
Values section of the Unicode Character Database documentation(1) for a
list of category codes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#General_Category_Values


File: python.info,  Node: Comparing Strings,  Next: Unicode Regular Expressions,  Prev: Unicode Properties,  Up: Python's Unicode Support

9.12.2.5 Comparing Strings
..........................

Unicode adds some complication to comparing strings, because the same
set of characters can be represented by different sequences of code
points.  For example, a letter like 'ê' can be represented as a single
code point U+00EA, or as U+0065 U+0302, which is the code point for 'e'
followed by a code point for 'COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT'. These will
produce the same output when printed, but one is a string of length 1
and the other is of length 2.

One tool for a case-insensitive comparison is the *note casefold(): c4e.
string method that converts a string to a case-insensitive form
following an algorithm described by the Unicode Standard.  This
algorithm has special handling for characters such as the German letter
'ß' (code point U+00DF), which becomes the pair of lowercase letters
'ss'.

     >>> street = 'Gürzenichstraße'
     >>> street.casefold()
     'gürzenichstrasse'

A second tool is the *note unicodedata: 100. module's *note normalize():
4d3. function that converts strings to one of several normal forms,
where letters followed by a combining character are replaced with single
characters.  *note normalize(): 4d3. can be used to perform string
comparisons that won't falsely report inequality if two strings use
combining characters differently:

     import unicodedata

     def compare_strs(s1, s2):
         def NFD(s):
             return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

         return NFD(s1) == NFD(s2)

     single_char = 'ê'
     multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'
     print('length of first string=', len(single_char))
     print('length of second string=', len(multiple_chars))
     print(compare_strs(single_char, multiple_chars))

When run, this outputs:

     $ python compare-strs.py
     length of first string= 1
     length of second string= 2
     True

The first argument to the *note normalize(): 4d3. function is a string
giving the desired normalization form, which can be one of 'NFC',
'NFKC', 'NFD', and 'NFKD'.

The Unicode Standard also specifies how to do caseless comparisons:

     import unicodedata

     def compare_caseless(s1, s2):
         def NFD(s):
             return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

         return NFD(NFD(s1).casefold()) == NFD(NFD(s2).casefold())

     # Example usage
     single_char = 'ê'
     multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'

     print(compare_caseless(single_char, multiple_chars))

This will print ‘True’.  (Why is ‘NFD()’ invoked twice?  Because there
are a few characters that make *note casefold(): c4e. return a
non-normalized string, so the result needs to be normalized again.  See
section 3.13 of the Unicode Standard for a discussion and an example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Regular Expressions,  Next: References<4>,  Prev: Comparing Strings,  Up: Python's Unicode Support

9.12.2.6 Unicode Regular Expressions
....................................

The regular expressions supported by the *note re: b4. module can be
provided either as bytes or strings.  Some of the special character
sequences such as ‘\d’ and ‘\w’ have different meanings depending on
whether the pattern is supplied as bytes or a string.  For example, ‘\d’
will match the characters ‘[0-9]’ in bytes but in strings will match any
character that's in the ‘'Nd'’ category.

The string in this example has the number 57 written in both Thai and
Arabic numerals:

     import re
     p = re.compile(r'\d+')

     s = "Over \u0e55\u0e57 57 flavours"
     m = p.search(s)
     print(repr(m.group()))

When executed, ‘\d+’ will match the Thai numerals and print them out.
If you supply the *note re.ASCII: 428. flag to *note compile(): a34,
‘\d+’ will match the substring "57" instead.

Similarly, ‘\w’ matches a wide variety of Unicode characters but only
‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ in bytes or if *note re.ASCII: 428. is supplied, and ‘\s’
will match either Unicode whitespace characters or ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.


File: python.info,  Node: References<4>,  Prev: Unicode Regular Expressions,  Up: Python's Unicode Support

9.12.2.7 References
...................

Some good alternative discussions of Python's Unicode support are:

   * Processing Text Files in Python 3(1), by Nick Coghlan.

   * Pragmatic Unicode(2), a PyCon 2012 presentation by Ned Batchelder.

The *note str: 157. type is described in the Python library reference at
*note Text Sequence Type -- str: 19f0.

*note unicodedata: 100. 模組的文件。

*note codecs: 19. 模組的文件。

Marc-André Lemburg gave a presentation titled "Python and Unicode" (PDF
slides)(3) at EuroPython 2002.  The slides are an excellent overview of
the design of Python 2's Unicode features (where the Unicode string type
is called ‘unicode’ and literals start with ‘u’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://python-notes.curiousefficiency.org/en/latest/python3/text_file_processing.html

   (2) https://nedbatchelder.com/text/unipain.html

   (3) https://downloads.egenix.com/python/Unicode-EPC2002-Talk.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and Writing Unicode Data,  Next: 致謝<10>,  Prev: Python's Unicode Support,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.12.3 Reading and Writing Unicode Data
---------------------------------------

Once you've written some code that works with Unicode data, the next
problem is input/output.  How do you get Unicode strings into your
program, and how do you convert Unicode into a form suitable for storage
or transmission?

It's possible that you may not need to do anything depending on your
input sources and output destinations; you should check whether the
libraries used in your application support Unicode natively.  XML
parsers often return Unicode data, for example.  Many relational
databases also support Unicode-valued columns and can return Unicode
values from an SQL query.

Unicode data is usually converted to a particular encoding before it
gets written to disk or sent over a socket.  It's possible to do all the
work yourself: open a file, read an 8-bit bytes object from it, and
convert the bytes with ‘bytes.decode(encoding)’.  However, the manual
approach is not recommended.

One problem is the multi-byte nature of encodings; one Unicode character
can be represented by several bytes.  If you want to read the file in
arbitrary-sized chunks (say, 1024 or 4096 bytes), you need to write
error-handling code to catch the case where only part of the bytes
encoding a single Unicode character are read at the end of a chunk.  One
solution would be to read the entire file into memory and then perform
the decoding, but that prevents you from working with files that are
extremely large; if you need to read a 2 GiB file, you need 2 GiB of
RAM.  (More, really, since for at least a moment you'd need to have both
the encoded string and its Unicode version in memory.)

The solution would be to use the low-level decoding interface to catch
the case of partial coding sequences.  The work of implementing this has
already been done for you: the built-in *note open(): 29c. function can
return a file-like object that assumes the file's contents are in a
specified encoding and accepts Unicode parameters for methods such as
*note read(): 1a7a. and *note write(): 1a69.  This works through *note
open(): 29c.'s 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters which are interpreted
just like those in *note str.encode(): 70e. and *note bytes.decode():
70f.

Reading Unicode from a file is therefore simple:

     with open('unicode.txt', encoding='utf-8') as f:
         for line in f:
             print(repr(line))

It's also possible to open files in update mode, allowing both reading
and writing:

     with open('test', encoding='utf-8', mode='w+') as f:
         f.write('\u4500 blah blah blah\n')
         f.seek(0)
         print(repr(f.readline()[:1]))

The Unicode character ‘U+FEFF’ is used as a byte-order mark (BOM), and
is often written as the first character of a file in order to assist
with autodetection of the file's byte ordering.  Some encodings, such as
UTF-16, expect a BOM to be present at the start of a file; when such an
encoding is used, the BOM will be automatically written as the first
character and will be silently dropped when the file is read.  There are
variants of these encodings, such as 'utf-16-le' and 'utf-16-be' for
little-endian and big-endian encodings, that specify one particular byte
ordering and don't skip the BOM.

In some areas, it is also convention to use a "BOM" at the start of
UTF-8 encoded files; the name is misleading since UTF-8 is not
byte-order dependent.  The mark simply announces that the file is
encoded in UTF-8.  For reading such files, use the 'utf-8-sig' codec to
automatically skip the mark if present.

* Menu:

* Unicode filenames::
* Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs::
* References: References<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode filenames,  Next: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs,  Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data

9.12.3.1 Unicode filenames
..........................

Most of the operating systems in common use today support filenames that
contain arbitrary Unicode characters.  Usually this is implemented by
converting the Unicode string into some encoding that varies depending
on the system.  Today Python is converging on using UTF-8: Python on
MacOS has used UTF-8 for several versions, and Python 3.6 switched to
using UTF-8 on Windows as well.  On Unix systems, there will only be a
*note filesystem encoding: 2bd.  if you've set the ‘LANG’ or ‘LC_CTYPE’
environment variables; if you haven't, the default encoding is again
UTF-8.

The *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): abf. function returns the
encoding to use on your current system, in case you want to do the
encoding manually, but there's not much reason to bother.  When opening
a file for reading or writing, you can usually just provide the Unicode
string as the filename, and it will be automatically converted to the
right encoding for you:

     filename = 'filename\u4500abc'
     with open(filename, 'w') as f:
         f.write('blah\n')

Functions in the *note os: 9c. module such as *note os.stat(): 1bf. will
also accept Unicode filenames.

The *note os.listdir(): f88. function returns filenames, which raises an
issue: should it return the Unicode version of filenames, or should it
return bytes containing the encoded versions?  *note os.listdir(): f88.
can do both, depending on whether you provided the directory path as
bytes or a Unicode string.  If you pass a Unicode string as the path,
filenames will be decoded using the filesystem's encoding and a list of
Unicode strings will be returned, while passing a byte path will return
the filenames as bytes.  For example, assuming the default *note
filesystem encoding: 2bd. is UTF-8, running the following program:

     fn = 'filename\u4500abc'
     f = open(fn, 'w')
     f.close()

     import os
     print(os.listdir(b'.'))
     print(os.listdir('.'))

will produce the following output:

     $ python listdir-test.py
     [b'filename\xe4\x94\x80abc', ...]
     ['filename\u4500abc', ...]

The first list contains UTF-8-encoded filenames, and the second list
contains the Unicode versions.

Note that on most occasions, you should can just stick with using
Unicode with these APIs.  The bytes APIs should only be used on systems
where undecodable file names can be present; that's pretty much only
Unix systems now.


File: python.info,  Node: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs,  Next: References<5>,  Prev: Unicode filenames,  Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data

9.12.3.2 Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs
................................................

This section provides some suggestions on writing software that deals
with Unicode.

The most important tip is:

     Software should only work with Unicode strings internally, decoding
     the input data as soon as possible and encoding the output only at
     the end.

If you attempt to write processing functions that accept both Unicode
and byte strings, you will find your program vulnerable to bugs wherever
you combine the two different kinds of strings.  There is no automatic
encoding or decoding: if you do e.g.  ‘str + bytes’, a *note TypeError:
2ba. will be raised.

When using data coming from a web browser or some other untrusted
source, a common technique is to check for illegal characters in a
string before using the string in a generated command line or storing it
in a database.  If you're doing this, be careful to check the decoded
string, not the encoded bytes data; some encodings may have interesting
properties, such as not being bijective or not being fully
ASCII-compatible.  This is especially true if the input data also
specifies the encoding, since the attacker can then choose a clever way
to hide malicious text in the encoded bytestream.

* Menu:

* Converting Between File Encodings::
* Files in an Unknown Encoding::


File: python.info,  Node: Converting Between File Encodings,  Next: Files in an Unknown Encoding,  Up: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs

9.12.3.3 Converting Between File Encodings
..........................................

The *note StreamRecoder: 17d5. class can transparently convert between
encodings, taking a stream that returns data in encoding #1 and behaving
like a stream returning data in encoding #2.

For example, if you have an input file 'f' that's in Latin-1, you can
wrap it with a *note StreamRecoder: 17d5. to return bytes encoded in
UTF-8:

     new_f = codecs.StreamRecoder(f,
         # en/decoder: used by read() to encode its results and
         # by write() to decode its input.
         codecs.getencoder('utf-8'), codecs.getdecoder('utf-8'),

         # reader/writer: used to read and write to the stream.
         codecs.getreader('latin-1'), codecs.getwriter('latin-1') )


File: python.info,  Node: Files in an Unknown Encoding,  Prev: Converting Between File Encodings,  Up: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs

9.12.3.4 Files in an Unknown Encoding
.....................................

What can you do if you need to make a change to a file, but don't know
the file's encoding?  If you know the encoding is ASCII-compatible and
only want to examine or modify the ASCII parts, you can open the file
with the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler:

     with open(fname, 'r', encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
         data = f.read()

     # make changes to the string 'data'

     with open(fname + '.new', 'w',
               encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
         f.write(data)

The ‘surrogateescape’ error handler will decode any non-ASCII bytes as
code points in a special range running from U+DC80 to U+DCFF. These code
points will then turn back into the same bytes when the
‘surrogateescape’ error handler is used to encode the data and write it
back out.


File: python.info,  Node: References<5>,  Prev: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs,  Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data

9.12.3.5 References
...................

One section of Mastering Python 3 Input/Output(1), a PyCon 2010 talk by
David Beazley, discusses text processing and binary data handling.

The PDF slides for Marc-André Lemburg's presentation "Writing
Unicode-aware Applications in Python"(2) discuss questions of character
encodings as well as how to internationalize and localize an
application.  These slides cover Python 2.x only.

The Guts of Unicode in Python(3) is a PyCon 2013 talk by Benjamin
Peterson that discusses the internal Unicode representation in Python
3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyvideo.org/video/289/pycon-2010-mastering-python-3-i-o

   (2) 
https://downloads.egenix.com/python/LSM2005-Developing-Unicode-aware-applications-in-Python.pdf

   (3) https://pyvideo.org/video/1768/the-guts-of-unicode-in-python


File: python.info,  Node: 致謝<10>,  Prev: Reading and Writing Unicode Data,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.12.4 致謝
-----------

The initial draft of this document was written by Andrew Kuchling.  It
has since been revised further by Alexander Belopolsky, Georg Brandl,
Andrew Kuchling, and Ezio Melotti.

Thanks to the following people who have noted errors or offered
suggestions on this article: Éric Araujo, Nicholas Bastin, Nick Coghlan,
Marius Gedminas, Kent Johnson, Ken Krugler, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin
von Löwis, Terry J. Reedy, Serhiy Storchaka, Eryk Sun, Chad Whitacre,
Graham Wideman.


File: python.info,  Node: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源,  Next: ipaddress 模組介紹,  Prev: Unicode HOWTO,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.13 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源
=====================================


作者: Michael Foord(1)

* Menu:

* 簡介: 簡介<14>.
* 從 URL 取得資源::
* Handling Exceptions::
* info and geturl::
* Openers and Handlers::
* Basic Authentication::
* Proxies::
* Sockets and Layers::
* 註解: 註解<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://agileabstractions.com/


File: python.info,  Node: 簡介<14>,  Next: 從 URL 取得資源,  Up: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源

9.13.1 簡介
-----------

Related Articles
................

以下這些與 Python 有關的文章說不定能幫到你:

   * Basic Authentication(1)

          以 Python 為例的 'Basic Authentication' 教學。

'urllib.request' 是一個用來從 URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) 取得資料
的Python模組。它提供一個了非常簡單的介面能接受多種不同的協議，'urlopen'
函式。也提供了較複雜的介面用於處理一些常見的狀況，例如：基本的
authentication、cookies、proxies 等等，這些都可以由 handler 或 opener 物
件操作。

urllib.request supports fetching URLs for many "URL schemes" (identified
by the string before the ‘":"’ in URL - for example ‘"ftp"’ is the URL
scheme of ‘"ftp://python.org/"’) using their associated network
protocols (e.g.  FTP, HTTP). This tutorial focuses on the most common
case, HTTP.

一般情形下 'urlopen' 是非常容易使用的，但當你遇到錯誤或者較複雜的情況下
，你可能需要對超文本協議 HyperText Transfer Protocol 有一定的了解。最完
整且具參考價值的是 RFC 2616(2)，不過它是一份技術文件並不容易閱讀，以下的
教學會提供足夠的 HTTP 知識來幫助你使用 'urllib'。這份教學並非要取代
*note urllib.request: 106. 這份文件，你還是會需要它。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: 從 URL 取得資源,  Next: Handling Exceptions,  Prev: 簡介<14>,  Up: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源

9.13.2 從 URL 取得資源
----------------------

以下是使用 urllib.request 最簡單的方法:

     import urllib.request
     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
        html = response.read()

If you wish to retrieve a resource via URL and store it in a temporary
location, you can do so via the *note shutil.copyfileobj(): 8a8. and
*note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(): 1ed. functions:

     import shutil
     import tempfile
     import urllib.request

     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
         with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False) as tmp_file:
             shutil.copyfileobj(response, tmp_file)

     with open(tmp_file.name) as html:
         pass

Many uses of urllib will be that simple (note that instead of an 'http:'
URL we could have used a URL starting with 'ftp:', 'file:', etc.).
However, it's the purpose of this tutorial to explain the more
complicated cases, concentrating on HTTP.

HTTP is based on requests and responses - the client makes requests and
servers send responses.  urllib.request mirrors this with a ‘Request’
object which represents the HTTP request you are making.  In its
simplest form you create a Request object that specifies the URL you
want to fetch.  Calling ‘urlopen’ with this Request object returns a
response object for the URL requested.  This response is a file-like
object, which means you can for example call ‘.read()’ on the response:

     import urllib.request

     req = urllib.request.Request('http://python.org/')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

Note that urllib.request makes use of the same Request interface to
handle all URL schemes.  For example, you can make an FTP request like
so:

     req = urllib.request.Request('ftp://example.com/')

In the case of HTTP, there are two extra things that Request objects
allow you to do: First, you can pass data to be sent to the server.
Second, you can pass extra information ("metadata") 'about' the data or
about the request itself, to the server - this information is sent as
HTTP "headers".  Let's look at each of these in turn.

* Menu:

* Data::
* Headers::


File: python.info,  Node: Data,  Next: Headers,  Up: 從 URL 取得資源

9.13.2.1 Data
.............

Sometimes you want to send data to a URL (often the URL will refer to a
CGI (Common Gateway Interface) script or other web application).  With
HTTP, this is often done using what's known as a 'POST' request.  This
is often what your browser does when you submit a HTML form that you
filled in on the web.  Not all POSTs have to come from forms: you can
use a POST to transmit arbitrary data to your own application.  In the
common case of HTML forms, the data needs to be encoded in a standard
way, and then passed to the Request object as the ‘data’ argument.  The
encoding is done using a function from the *note urllib.parse: 105.
library.

     import urllib.parse
     import urllib.request

     url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
     values = {'name' : 'Michael Foord',
               'location' : 'Northampton',
               'language' : 'Python' }

     data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
     data = data.encode('ascii') # data should be bytes
     req = urllib.request.Request(url, data)
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

Note that other encodings are sometimes required (e.g.  for file upload
from HTML forms - see HTML Specification, Form Submission(1) for more
details).

If you do not pass the ‘data’ argument, urllib uses a 'GET' request.
One way in which GET and POST requests differ is that POST requests
often have "side-effects": they change the state of the system in some
way (for example by placing an order with the website for a
hundredweight of tinned spam to be delivered to your door).  Though the
HTTP standard makes it clear that POSTs are intended to 'always' cause
side-effects, and GET requests 'never' to cause side-effects, nothing
prevents a GET request from having side-effects, nor a POST requests
from having no side-effects.  Data can also be passed in an HTTP GET
request by encoding it in the URL itself.

This is done as follows:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> data = {}
     >>> data['name'] = 'Somebody Here'
     >>> data['location'] = 'Northampton'
     >>> data['language'] = 'Python'
     >>> url_values = urllib.parse.urlencode(data)
     >>> print(url_values)  # The order may differ from below.
     name=Somebody+Here&language=Python&location=Northampton
     >>> url = 'http://www.example.com/example.cgi'
     >>> full_url = url + '?' + url_values
     >>> data = urllib.request.urlopen(full_url)

Notice that the full URL is created by adding a ‘?’ to the URL, followed
by the encoded values.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/interact/forms.html#h-17.13


File: python.info,  Node: Headers,  Prev: Data,  Up: 從 URL 取得資源

9.13.2.2 Headers
................

We'll discuss here one particular HTTP header, to illustrate how to add
headers to your HTTP request.

Some websites (1) dislike being browsed by programs, or send different
versions to different browsers (2).  By default urllib identifies itself
as ‘Python-urllib/x.y’ (where ‘x’ and ‘y’ are the major and minor
version numbers of the Python release, e.g.  ‘Python-urllib/2.5’), which
may confuse the site, or just plain not work.  The way a browser
identifies itself is through the ‘User-Agent’ header (3).  When you
create a Request object you can pass a dictionary of headers in.  The
following example makes the same request as above, but identifies itself
as a version of Internet Explorer (4).

     import urllib.parse
     import urllib.request

     url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
     user_agent = 'Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; Win64; x64)'
     values = {'name': 'Michael Foord',
               'location': 'Northampton',
               'language': 'Python' }
     headers = {'User-Agent': user_agent}

     data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
     data = data.encode('ascii')
     req = urllib.request.Request(url, data, headers)
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

The response also has two useful methods.  See the section on *note info
and geturl: 4e20. which comes after we have a look at what happens when
things go wrong.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Google for example.

   (2) Browser sniffing is a very bad practice for website design -
building sites using web standards is much more sensible.  Unfortunately
a lot of sites still send different versions to different browsers.

   (3) The user agent for MSIE 6 is ''Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 6.0;
Windows NT 5.1; SV1; .NET CLR 1.1.4322)"

   (4) For details of more HTTP request headers, see Quick Reference to
HTTP Headers (https://jkorpela.fi/http.html).


File: python.info,  Node: Handling Exceptions,  Next: info and geturl,  Prev: 從 URL 取得資源,  Up: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源

9.13.3 Handling Exceptions
--------------------------

'urlopen' raises *note URLError: 3660. when it cannot handle a response
(though as usual with Python APIs, built-in exceptions such as *note
ValueError: 183, *note TypeError: 2ba. etc.  may also be raised).

*note HTTPError: e70. is the subclass of *note URLError: 3660. raised in
the specific case of HTTP URLs.

The exception classes are exported from the *note urllib.error: 104.
module.

* Menu:

* URLError::
* HTTPError::
* Wrapping it Up::


File: python.info,  Node: URLError,  Next: HTTPError,  Up: Handling Exceptions

9.13.3.1 URLError
.................

Often, URLError is raised because there is no network connection (no
route to the specified server), or the specified server doesn't exist.
In this case, the exception raised will have a 'reason' attribute, which
is a tuple containing an error code and a text error message.

例如：

     >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.pretend_server.org')
     >>> try: urllib.request.urlopen(req)
     ... except urllib.error.URLError as e:
     ...     print(e.reason)
     ...
     (4, 'getaddrinfo failed')


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPError,  Next: Wrapping it Up,  Prev: URLError,  Up: Handling Exceptions

9.13.3.2 HTTPError
..................

Every HTTP response from the server contains a numeric "status code".
Sometimes the status code indicates that the server is unable to fulfil
the request.  The default handlers will handle some of these responses
for you (for example, if the response is a "redirection" that requests
the client fetch the document from a different URL, urllib will handle
that for you).  For those it can't handle, urlopen will raise an *note
HTTPError: e70.  Typical errors include '404' (page not found), '403'
(request forbidden), and '401' (authentication required).

See section 10 of RFC 2616(1) for a reference on all the HTTP error
codes.

The *note HTTPError: e70. instance raised will have an integer 'code'
attribute, which corresponds to the error sent by the server.

* Menu:

* Error Codes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Error Codes,  Up: HTTPError

9.13.3.3 Error Codes
....................

Because the default handlers handle redirects (codes in the 300 range),
and codes in the 100-299 range indicate success, you will usually only
see error codes in the 400-599 range.

*note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses: 36ff. is a useful
dictionary of response codes in that shows all the response codes used
by RFC 2616(1).  The dictionary is reproduced here for convenience

     # Table mapping response codes to messages; entries have the
     # form {code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}.
     responses = {
         100: ('Continue', 'Request received, please continue'),
         101: ('Switching Protocols',
               'Switching to new protocol; obey Upgrade header'),

         200: ('OK', 'Request fulfilled, document follows'),
         201: ('Created', 'Document created, URL follows'),
         202: ('Accepted',
               'Request accepted, processing continues off-line'),
         203: ('Non-Authoritative Information', 'Request fulfilled from cache'),
         204: ('No Content', 'Request fulfilled, nothing follows'),
         205: ('Reset Content', 'Clear input form for further input.'),
         206: ('Partial Content', 'Partial content follows.'),

         300: ('Multiple Choices',
               'Object has several resources -- see URI list'),
         301: ('Moved Permanently', 'Object moved permanently -- see URI list'),
         302: ('Found', 'Object moved temporarily -- see URI list'),
         303: ('See Other', 'Object moved -- see Method and URL list'),
         304: ('Not Modified',
               'Document has not changed since given time'),
         305: ('Use Proxy',
               'You must use proxy specified in Location to access this '
               'resource.'),
         307: ('Temporary Redirect',
               'Object moved temporarily -- see URI list'),

         400: ('Bad Request',
               'Bad request syntax or unsupported method'),
         401: ('Unauthorized',
               'No permission -- see authorization schemes'),
         402: ('Payment Required',
               'No payment -- see charging schemes'),
         403: ('Forbidden',
               'Request forbidden -- authorization will not help'),
         404: ('Not Found', 'Nothing matches the given URI'),
         405: ('Method Not Allowed',
               'Specified method is invalid for this server.'),
         406: ('Not Acceptable', 'URI not available in preferred format.'),
         407: ('Proxy Authentication Required', 'You must authenticate with '
               'this proxy before proceeding.'),
         408: ('Request Timeout', 'Request timed out; try again later.'),
         409: ('Conflict', 'Request conflict.'),
         410: ('Gone',
               'URI no longer exists and has been permanently removed.'),
         411: ('Length Required', 'Client must specify Content-Length.'),
         412: ('Precondition Failed', 'Precondition in headers is false.'),
         413: ('Request Entity Too Large', 'Entity is too large.'),
         414: ('Request-URI Too Long', 'URI is too long.'),
         415: ('Unsupported Media Type', 'Entity body in unsupported format.'),
         416: ('Requested Range Not Satisfiable',
               'Cannot satisfy request range.'),
         417: ('Expectation Failed',
               'Expect condition could not be satisfied.'),

         500: ('Internal Server Error', 'Server got itself in trouble'),
         501: ('Not Implemented',
               'Server does not support this operation'),
         502: ('Bad Gateway', 'Invalid responses from another server/proxy.'),
         503: ('Service Unavailable',
               'The server cannot process the request due to a high load'),
         504: ('Gateway Timeout',
               'The gateway server did not receive a timely response'),
         505: ('HTTP Version Not Supported', 'Cannot fulfill request.'),
         }

When an error is raised the server responds by returning an HTTP error
code 'and' an error page.  You can use the *note HTTPError: e70.
instance as a response on the page returned.  This means that as well as
the code attribute, it also has read, geturl, and info, methods as
returned by the ‘urllib.response’ module:

     >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.python.org/fish.html')
     >>> try:
     ...     urllib.request.urlopen(req)
     ... except urllib.error.HTTPError as e:
     ...     print(e.code)
     ...     print(e.read())
     ...
     404
     b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
       "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">\n\n\n<html
       ...
       <title>Page Not Found</title>\n
       ...

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Wrapping it Up,  Prev: HTTPError,  Up: Handling Exceptions

9.13.3.4 Wrapping it Up
.......................

So if you want to be prepared for *note HTTPError: e70. 'or' *note
URLError: 3660. there are two basic approaches.  I prefer the second
approach.

* Menu:

* Number 1::
* Number 2::


File: python.info,  Node: Number 1,  Next: Number 2,  Up: Wrapping it Up

9.13.3.5 Number 1
.................

     from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
     from urllib.error import URLError, HTTPError
     req = Request(someurl)
     try:
         response = urlopen(req)
     except HTTPError as e:
         print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
         print('Error code: ', e.code)
     except URLError as e:
         print('We failed to reach a server.')
         print('Reason: ', e.reason)
     else:
         # everything is fine

     備註: The ‘except HTTPError’ 'must' come first, otherwise ‘except
     URLError’ will 'also' catch an *note HTTPError: e70.


File: python.info,  Node: Number 2,  Prev: Number 1,  Up: Wrapping it Up

9.13.3.6 Number 2
.................

     from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
     from urllib.error import URLError
     req = Request(someurl)
     try:
         response = urlopen(req)
     except URLError as e:
         if hasattr(e, 'reason'):
             print('We failed to reach a server.')
             print('Reason: ', e.reason)
         elif hasattr(e, 'code'):
             print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
             print('Error code: ', e.code)
     else:
         # everything is fine


File: python.info,  Node: info and geturl,  Next: Openers and Handlers,  Prev: Handling Exceptions,  Up: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源

9.13.4 info and geturl
----------------------

The response returned by urlopen (or the *note HTTPError: e70. instance)
has two useful methods ‘info()’ and ‘geturl()’ and is defined in the
module *note urllib.response: 107.

   * 'geturl' - this returns the real URL of the page fetched.  This is
     useful because ‘urlopen’ (or the opener object used) may have
     followed a redirect.  The URL of the page fetched may not be the
     same as the URL requested.

   * 'info' - this returns a dictionary-like object that describes the
     page fetched, particularly the headers sent by the server.  It is
     currently an *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3716. instance.

Typical headers include 'Content-length', 'Content-type', and so on.
See the Quick Reference to HTTP Headers(1) for a useful listing of HTTP
headers with brief explanations of their meaning and use.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://jkorpela.fi/http.html


File: python.info,  Node: Openers and Handlers,  Next: Basic Authentication,  Prev: info and geturl,  Up: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源

9.13.5 Openers and Handlers
---------------------------

When you fetch a URL you use an opener (an instance of the perhaps
confusingly named *note urllib.request.OpenerDirector: 3661.).  Normally
we have been using the default opener - via ‘urlopen’ - but you can
create custom openers.  Openers use handlers.  All the "heavy lifting"
is done by the handlers.  Each handler knows how to open URLs for a
particular URL scheme (http, ftp, etc.), or how to handle an aspect of
URL opening, for example HTTP redirections or HTTP cookies.

You will want to create openers if you want to fetch URLs with specific
handlers installed, for example to get an opener that handles cookies,
or to get an opener that does not handle redirections.

To create an opener, instantiate an ‘OpenerDirector’, and then call
‘.add_handler(some_handler_instance)’ repeatedly.

Alternatively, you can use ‘build_opener’, which is a convenience
function for creating opener objects with a single function call.
‘build_opener’ adds several handlers by default, but provides a quick
way to add more and/or override the default handlers.

Other sorts of handlers you might want to can handle proxies,
authentication, and other common but slightly specialised situations.

‘install_opener’ can be used to make an ‘opener’ object the (global)
default opener.  This means that calls to ‘urlopen’ will use the opener
you have installed.

Opener objects have an ‘open’ method, which can be called directly to
fetch urls in the same way as the ‘urlopen’ function: there's no need to
call ‘install_opener’, except as a convenience.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Authentication,  Next: Proxies,  Prev: Openers and Handlers,  Up: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源

9.13.6 Basic Authentication
---------------------------

To illustrate creating and installing a handler we will use the
‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’.  For a more detailed discussion of this subject
- including an explanation of how Basic Authentication works - see the
Basic Authentication Tutorial(1).

When authentication is required, the server sends a header (as well as
the 401 error code) requesting authentication.  This specifies the
authentication scheme and a 'realm'.  The header looks like:
‘WWW-Authenticate: SCHEME realm="REALM"’.

例如

     WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm="cPanel Users"

The client should then retry the request with the appropriate name and
password for the realm included as a header in the request.  This is
'basic authentication'.  In order to simplify this process we can create
an instance of ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ and an opener to use this handler.

The ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ uses an object called a password manager to
handle the mapping of URLs and realms to passwords and usernames.  If
you know what the realm is (from the authentication header sent by the
server), then you can use a ‘HTTPPasswordMgr’.  Frequently one doesn't
care what the realm is.  In that case, it is convenient to use
‘HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm’.  This allows you to specify a default
username and password for a URL. This will be supplied in the absence of
you providing an alternative combination for a specific realm.  We
indicate this by providing ‘None’ as the realm argument to the
‘add_password’ method.

The top-level URL is the first URL that requires authentication.  URLs
"deeper" than the URL you pass to .add_password() will also match.

     # create a password manager
     password_mgr = urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm()

     # Add the username and password.
     # If we knew the realm, we could use it instead of None.
     top_level_url = "http://example.com/foo/"
     password_mgr.add_password(None, top_level_url, username, password)

     handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr)

     # create "opener" (OpenerDirector instance)
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(handler)

     # use the opener to fetch a URL
     opener.open(a_url)

     # Install the opener.
     # Now all calls to urllib.request.urlopen use our opener.
     urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

     備註: In the above example we only supplied our
     ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ to ‘build_opener’.  By default openers have
     the handlers for normal situations - ‘ProxyHandler’ (if a proxy
     setting such as an ‘http_proxy’ environment variable is set),
     ‘UnknownHandler’, ‘HTTPHandler’, ‘HTTPDefaultErrorHandler’,
     ‘HTTPRedirectHandler’, ‘FTPHandler’, ‘FileHandler’, ‘DataHandler’,
     ‘HTTPErrorProcessor’.

‘top_level_url’ is in fact 'either' a full URL (including the 'http:'
scheme component and the hostname and optionally the port number) e.g.
‘"http://example.com/"’ 'or' an "authority" (i.e.  the hostname,
optionally including the port number) e.g.  ‘"example.com"’ or
‘"example.com:8080"’ (the latter example includes a port number).  The
authority, if present, must NOT contain the "userinfo" component - for
example ‘"joe:password@example.com"’ is not correct.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml


File: python.info,  Node: Proxies,  Next: Sockets and Layers,  Prev: Basic Authentication,  Up: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源

9.13.7 Proxies
--------------

'urllib' will auto-detect your proxy settings and use those.  This is
through the ‘ProxyHandler’, which is part of the normal handler chain
when a proxy setting is detected.  Normally that's a good thing, but
there are occasions when it may not be helpful (1).  One way to do this
is to setup our own ‘ProxyHandler’, with no proxies defined.  This is
done using similar steps to setting up a Basic Authentication(2)
handler:

     >>> proxy_support = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({})
     >>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_support)
     >>> urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

     備註: Currently ‘urllib.request’ 'does not' support fetching of
     ‘https’ locations through a proxy.  However, this can be enabled by
     extending urllib.request as shown in the recipe (3).

     備註: ‘HTTP_PROXY’ will be ignored if a variable ‘REQUEST_METHOD’
     is set; see the documentation on *note getproxies(): 365d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In my case I have to use a proxy to access the internet at work.
If you attempt to fetch 'localhost' URLs through this proxy it blocks
them.  IE is set to use the proxy, which urllib picks up on.  In order
to test scripts with a localhost server, I have to prevent urllib from
using the proxy.

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml

   (3) urllib opener for SSL proxy (CONNECT method): ASPN Cookbook
Recipe
(https://code.activestate.com/recipes/456195-urrlib2-opener-for-ssl-proxy-connect-method/).


File: python.info,  Node: Sockets and Layers,  Next: 註解<2>,  Prev: Proxies,  Up: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源

9.13.8 Sockets and Layers
-------------------------

The Python support for fetching resources from the web is layered.
urllib uses the *note http.client: 6a. library, which in turn uses the
socket library.

As of Python 2.3 you can specify how long a socket should wait for a
response before timing out.  This can be useful in applications which
have to fetch web pages.  By default the socket module has 'no timeout'
and can hang.  Currently, the socket timeout is not exposed at the
http.client or urllib.request levels.  However, you can set the default
timeout globally for all sockets using

     import socket
     import urllib.request

     # timeout in seconds
     timeout = 10
     socket.setdefaulttimeout(timeout)

     # this call to urllib.request.urlopen now uses the default timeout
     # we have set in the socket module
     req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.voidspace.org.uk')
     response = urllib.request.urlopen(req)

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: 註解<2>,  Prev: Sockets and Layers,  Up: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源

9.13.9 註解
-----------

This document was reviewed and revised by John Lee.


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress 模組介紹,  Next: 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython,  Prev: 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.14 ipaddress 模組介紹
=======================


作者: Peter Moody


作者: Nick Coghlan

總攬
....

這份文件旨在為 *note ipaddress: 7a. 模組提供一個初步介紹。文件主要針對那
些不熟悉 IP 網路術語的使用者，但對想要了解 *note ipaddress: 7a. 模組如何
表示 IP 網址概念的網路工程師也可能有用。

* Menu:

* Creating Address/Network/Interface objects::
* Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects::
* Networks as lists of Addresses::
* Comparisons: Comparisons<2>.
* Using IP Addresses with other modules::
* Getting more detail when instance creation fails::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects,  Next: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects,  Up: ipaddress 模組介紹

9.14.1 Creating Address/Network/Interface objects
-------------------------------------------------

Since *note ipaddress: 7a. is a module for inspecting and manipulating
IP addresses, the first thing you'll want to do is create some objects.
You can use *note ipaddress: 7a. to create objects from strings and
integers.

* Menu:

* A Note on IP Versions::
* IP Host Addresses::
* 定義網路::
* Host Interfaces::


File: python.info,  Node: A Note on IP Versions,  Next: IP Host Addresses,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.14.1.1 A Note on IP Versions
..............................

For readers that aren't particularly familiar with IP addressing, it's
important to know that the Internet Protocol (IP) is currently in the
process of moving from version 4 of the protocol to version 6.  This
transition is occurring largely because version 4 of the protocol
doesn't provide enough addresses to handle the needs of the whole world,
especially given the increasing number of devices with direct
connections to the internet.

Explaining the details of the differences between the two versions of
the protocol is beyond the scope of this introduction, but readers need
to at least be aware that these two versions exist, and it will
sometimes be necessary to force the use of one version or the other.


File: python.info,  Node: IP Host Addresses,  Next: 定義網路,  Prev: A Note on IP Versions,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.14.1.2 IP Host Addresses
..........................

Addresses, often referred to as "host addresses" are the most basic unit
when working with IP addressing.  The simplest way to create addresses
is to use the *note ipaddress.ip_address(): 38fe. factory function,
which automatically determines whether to create an IPv4 or IPv6 address
based on the passed in value:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:DB8::1')
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

Addresses can also be created directly from integers.  Values that will
fit within 32 bits are assumed to be IPv4 addresses:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(42540766411282592856903984951653826561)
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

To force the use of IPv4 or IPv6 addresses, the relevant classes can be
invoked directly.  This is particularly useful to force creation of IPv6
addresses for small integers:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(1)
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(1)
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address(1)
     IPv6Address('::1')


File: python.info,  Node: 定義網路,  Next: Host Interfaces,  Prev: IP Host Addresses,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.14.1.3 定義網路
.................

Host addresses are usually grouped together into IP networks, so *note
ipaddress: 7a. provides a way to create, inspect and manipulate network
definitions.  IP network objects are constructed from strings that
define the range of host addresses that are part of that network.  The
simplest form for that information is a "network address/network prefix"
pair, where the prefix defines the number of leading bits that are
compared to determine whether or not an address is part of the network
and the network address defines the expected value of those bits.

As for addresses, a factory function is provided that determines the
correct IP version automatically:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

Network objects cannot have any host bits set.  The practical effect of
this is that ‘192.0.2.1/24’ does not describe a network.  Such
definitions are referred to as interface objects since the
ip-on-a-network notation is commonly used to describe network interfaces
of a computer on a given network and are described further in the next
section.

By default, attempting to create a network object with host bits set
will result in *note ValueError: 183. being raised.  To request that the
additional bits instead be coerced to zero, the flag ‘strict=False’ can
be passed to the constructor:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     ValueError: 192.0.2.1/24 has host bits set
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24', strict=False)
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

While the string form offers significantly more flexibility, networks
can also be defined with integers, just like host addresses.  In this
case, the network is considered to contain only the single address
identified by the integer, so the network prefix includes the entire
network address:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network(3221225984)
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network(42540766411282592856903984951653826560)
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/128')

As with addresses, creation of a particular kind of network can be
forced by calling the class constructor directly instead of using the
factory function.


File: python.info,  Node: Host Interfaces,  Prev: 定義網路,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.14.1.4 Host Interfaces
........................

As mentioned just above, if you need to describe an address on a
particular network, neither the address nor the network classes are
sufficient.  Notation like ‘192.0.2.1/24’ is commonly used by network
engineers and the people who write tools for firewalls and routers as
shorthand for "the host ‘192.0.2.1’ on the network ‘192.0.2.0/24’",
Accordingly, *note ipaddress: 7a. provides a set of hybrid classes that
associate an address with a particular network.  The interface for
creation is identical to that for defining network objects, except that
the address portion isn't constrained to being a network address.

     >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     IPv4Interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
     IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1/96')

Integer inputs are accepted (as with networks), and use of a particular
IP version can be forced by calling the relevant constructor directly.


File: python.info,  Node: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects,  Next: Networks as lists of Addresses,  Prev: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects,  Up: ipaddress 模組介紹

9.14.2 Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects
---------------------------------------------------

You've gone to the trouble of creating an
IPv(4|6)(Address|Network|Interface) object, so you probably want to get
information about it.  *note ipaddress: 7a. tries to make doing this
easy and intuitive.

Extracting the IP version:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> addr6 = ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::1')
     >>> addr6.version
     6
     >>> addr4.version
     4

Obtaining the network from an interface:

     >>> host4 = ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     >>> host4.network
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> host6 = ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
     >>> host6.network
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

Finding out how many individual addresses are in a network:

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> net4.num_addresses
     256
     >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     >>> net6.num_addresses
     4294967296

Iterating through the "usable" addresses on a network:

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> for x in net4.hosts():
     ...     print(x)
     192.0.2.1
     192.0.2.2
     192.0.2.3
     192.0.2.4
     ...
     192.0.2.252
     192.0.2.253
     192.0.2.254

Obtaining the netmask (i.e.  set bits corresponding to the network
prefix) or the hostmask (any bits that are not part of the netmask):

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> net4.netmask
     IPv4Address('255.255.255.0')
     >>> net4.hostmask
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.255')
     >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     >>> net6.netmask
     IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::')
     >>> net6.hostmask
     IPv6Address('::ffff:ffff')

Exploding or compressing the address:

     >>> addr6.exploded
     '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001'
     >>> addr6.compressed
     '2001:db8::1'
     >>> net6.exploded
     '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000/96'
     >>> net6.compressed
     '2001:db8::/96'

While IPv4 doesn't support explosion or compression, the associated
objects still provide the relevant properties so that version neutral
code can easily ensure the most concise or most verbose form is used for
IPv6 addresses while still correctly handling IPv4 addresses.


File: python.info,  Node: Networks as lists of Addresses,  Next: Comparisons<2>,  Prev: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects,  Up: ipaddress 模組介紹

9.14.3 Networks as lists of Addresses
-------------------------------------

It's sometimes useful to treat networks as lists.  This means it is
possible to index them like this:

     >>> net4[1]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> net4[-1]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.255')
     >>> net6[1]
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')
     >>> net6[-1]
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::ffff:ffff')

It also means that network objects lend themselves to using the list
membership test syntax like this:

     if address in network:
         # do something

Containment testing is done efficiently based on the network prefix:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     True
     >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.3.0/24')
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Comparisons<2>,  Next: Using IP Addresses with other modules,  Prev: Networks as lists of Addresses,  Up: ipaddress 模組介紹

9.14.4 Comparisons
------------------

*note ipaddress: 7a. provides some simple, hopefully intuitive ways to
compare objects, where it makes sense:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') < ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.2')
     True

A *note TypeError: 2ba. exception is raised if you try to compare
objects of different versions or different types.


File: python.info,  Node: Using IP Addresses with other modules,  Next: Getting more detail when instance creation fails,  Prev: Comparisons<2>,  Up: ipaddress 模組介紹

9.14.5 Using IP Addresses with other modules
--------------------------------------------

Other modules that use IP addresses (such as *note socket: c6.) usually
won't accept objects from this module directly.  Instead, they must be
coerced to an integer or string that the other module will accept:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> str(addr4)
     '192.0.2.1'
     >>> int(addr4)
     3221225985


File: python.info,  Node: Getting more detail when instance creation fails,  Prev: Using IP Addresses with other modules,  Up: ipaddress 模組介紹

9.14.6 Getting more detail when instance creation fails
-------------------------------------------------------

When creating address/network/interface objects using the
version-agnostic factory functions, any errors will be reported as *note
ValueError: 183. with a generic error message that simply says the
passed in value was not recognized as an object of that type.  The lack
of a specific error is because it's necessary to know whether the value
is 'supposed' to be IPv4 or IPv6 in order to provide more detail on why
it has been rejected.

To support use cases where it is useful to have access to this
additional detail, the individual class constructors actually raise the
*note ValueError: 183. subclasses *note ipaddress.AddressValueError:
3904. and *note ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: 3927. to indicate exactly
which part of the definition failed to parse correctly.

The error messages are significantly more detailed when using the class
constructors directly.  For example:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address("192.168.0.256")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: '192.168.0.256' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 address
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address("192.168.0.256")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ipaddress.AddressValueError: Octet 256 (> 255) not permitted in '192.168.0.256'

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network("192.168.0.1/64")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: '192.168.0.1/64' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 network
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network("192.168.0.1/64")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: '64' is not a valid netmask

However, both of the module specific exceptions have *note ValueError:
183. as their parent class, so if you're not concerned with the
particular type of error, you can still write code like the following:

     try:
         network = ipaddress.IPv4Network(address)
     except ValueError:
         print('address/netmask is invalid for IPv4:', address)


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython,  Next: Python 對 Linux perf 分析器的支援,  Prev: ipaddress 模組介紹,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.15 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython
==========================================


作者: David Malcolm


作者: Łukasz Langa

DTrace 和 SystemTap 都是監測工具，各自都提供了一種檢查電腦系統之行程
(process) 正在執行什麼操作的方法。它們都使用了領域限定 (domain-specific)
的語言，允許使用者編寫以下腳本：

   - 過濾要觀察的行程

   - 收集來自感興趣之行程的資料

   - 以這些資料產生報告

從 Python 3.6 開始，CPython 可以使用嵌入式「標記 (marker)」（也稱為「探
針 (probe)」）建置，可以透過 DTrace 或 SystemTap 腳本進行觀察，從而更輕
鬆地監視系統之 CPython 行程正在執行的操作。

'CPython 實作細節：' DTrace 標記是 CPython 直譯器的實作細節。不保證
CPython 版本之間的探針相容性。更改 CPython 版本時，DTrace 腳本可能會停止
運作或錯誤地運作，而不會發出警告。

* Menu:

* 啟用靜態標記::
* 靜態 DTrace 探針::
* 靜態 SystemTap 標記::
* 可用的靜態標記::
* SystemTap Tapsets::
* 範例: 範例<54>.


File: python.info,  Node: 啟用靜態標記,  Next: 靜態 DTrace 探針,  Up: 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython

9.15.1 啟用靜態標記
-------------------

macOS 內建了對 DTrace 的支援。在 Linux 上，為了建置帶有 SystemTap 嵌入標
記的 CPython，必須安裝 SystemTap 開發工具。

在 Linux 機器上，這可以透過以下方式完成：

     $ yum install systemtap-sdt-devel

或是：

     $ sudo apt-get install systemtap-sdt-dev

然後 CPython 必須使用*note 配置 -with-dtrace 選項: 1b7b.：

     checking for --with-dtrace... yes

在 macOS 上，你可以透過在後台運行 Python 行程並列出 Python 發布者
(provider) 所提供的所有可用探針，以列出可用的 DTrace 探針：

     $ python3.6 -q &
     $ sudo dtrace -l -P python$!  # 或 dtrace -l -m python3.6

        ID   PROVIDER            MODULE                          FUNCTION NAME
     29564 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-entry
     29565 python18035        python3.6             dtrace_function_entry function-entry
     29566 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-return
     29567 python18035        python3.6            dtrace_function_return function-return
     29568 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-done
     29569 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-start
     29570 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault line
     29571 python18035        python3.6                 maybe_dtrace_line line

在 Linux 上，你可以透過查看二進位建置檔案中是否包含 ".note.stapsdt" 部分
來驗證 SystemTap 靜態標記是否存在。

     $ readelf -S ./python | grep .note.stapsdt
     [30] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00308d78

如果你已將 Python 建置為共享函式庫（使用 *note -enable-shared: 68e. 配置
選項），則需要在共享函式庫中查找。例如：

     $ readelf -S libpython3.3dm.so.1.0 | grep .note.stapsdt
     [29] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00365b68

足夠現代化的 readelf 可以印出元資料 (metadata)：

     $ readelf -n ./python

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000254 with length 0x00000020:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         GNU                  0x00000010          NT_GNU_ABI_TAG (ABI version tag)
             OS: Linux, ABI: 2.6.32

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000274 with length 0x00000024:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         GNU                  0x00000014          NT_GNU_BUILD_ID (unique build ID bitstring)
             Build ID: df924a2b08a7e89f6e11251d4602022977af2670

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x002d6c30 with length 0x00000144:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         stapsdt              0x00000031          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: gc__start
             Location: 0x00000000004371c3, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf6
             Arguments: -4@%ebx
         stapsdt              0x00000030          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: gc__done
             Location: 0x00000000004374e1, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf8
             Arguments: -8@%rax
         stapsdt              0x00000045          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: function__entry
             Location: 0x000000000053db6c, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6be8
             Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax
         stapsdt              0x00000046          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: function__return
             Location: 0x000000000053dba8, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bea
             Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax

上述元資料包含 SystemTap 的資訊，描述了它如何修補策略性放置的機器碼指令
以啟用 SystemTap 腳本使用的追蹤 hook。


File: python.info,  Node: 靜態 DTrace 探針,  Next: 靜態 SystemTap 標記,  Prev: 啟用靜態標記,  Up: 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython

9.15.2 靜態 DTrace 探針
-----------------------

以下範例示範 DTrace 腳本可用於顯示 Python 腳本的呼叫/回傳階層結構，僅在
名為 "start" 的函式的呼叫內進行追蹤。換句話說，引入時的函式呼叫不會被列
出：

     self int indent;

     python$target:::function-entry
     /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
     {
             self->trace = 1;
     }

     python$target:::function-entry
     /self->trace/
     {
             printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
             printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
             printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
             self->indent++;
     }

     python$target:::function-return
     /self->trace/
     {
             self->indent--;
             printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
             printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
             printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
     }

     python$target:::function-return
     /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
     {
             self->trace = 0;
     }

可以這樣呼叫：

     $ sudo dtrace -q -s call_stack.d -c "python3.6 script.py"

輸出如下所示：

     156641360502280  function-entry:call_stack.py:start:23
     156641360518804  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_1:1
     156641360532797  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360546807 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360563367 function-return: call_stack.py:function_1:2
     156641360578365  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_2:5
     156641360591757  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_1:1
     156641360605556  function-entry:   call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360617482 function-return:   call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360629814 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_1:2
     156641360642285 function-return: call_stack.py:function_2:6
     156641360656770  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360669707 function-return: call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360687853  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_4:13
     156641360700719 function-return: call_stack.py:function_4:14
     156641360719640  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_5:18
     156641360732567 function-return: call_stack.py:function_5:21
     156641360747370 function-return:call_stack.py:start:28


File: python.info,  Node: 靜態 SystemTap 標記,  Next: 可用的靜態標記,  Prev: 靜態 DTrace 探針,  Up: 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython

9.15.3 靜態 SystemTap 標記
--------------------------

使用 SystemTap 整合的低階方法是直接使用靜態標記。這會需要你明確聲明包含
它們的二進位檔案。

例如，此 SystemTap 腳本可用於顯示 Python 腳本的呼叫/回傳階層結構：

     probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {
          filename = user_string($arg1);
          funcname = user_string($arg2);
          lineno = $arg3;

          printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\\n",
                 thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

     probe process("python").mark("function__return") {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;

         printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\\n",
                thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

可以這樣呼叫：

     $ stap \
       show-call-hierarchy.stp \
       -c "./python test.py"

輸出如下所示：

     11408 python(8274):        => __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:362
     11414 python(8274):         => __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:425
     11418 python(8274):          => encode in Lib/os.py:490
     11424 python(8274):          <= encode in Lib/os.py:493
     11428 python(8274):         <= __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:426
     11433 python(8274):        <= __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:366

其中的行 (column) 是：

   - 自腳本開始以來的時間（以微秒為單位）

   - 可執行檔案的名稱

   - 行程的 PID

其餘部分表示腳本執行時的呼叫/回傳階層結構。

對於以 *note -enable-shared: 68e. 建置的 CPython，標記被包含在 libpython
共享函式庫中，並且探針的帶點路徑 (dotted path) 需要反映這一點。例如，上
面範例中的這一列：

     probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {

應該改為讀取：

     probe process("python").library("libpython3.6dm.so.1.0").mark("function__entry") {

（假設 CPython 3.6 的*note 除錯建置版本: 69f.）


File: python.info,  Node: 可用的靜態標記,  Next: SystemTap Tapsets,  Prev: 靜態 SystemTap 標記,  Up: 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython

9.15.4 可用的靜態標記
---------------------

 -- Object: function__entry(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     該標記表示 Python 函式的執行已經開始。它僅針對純 Python（位元組碼）
     函式觸發。

     檔案名稱、函式名稱和列號作為位置引數提供給追蹤腳本，必須使用
     ‘$arg1’、‘$arg2’、‘$arg3’ 來存取：

             * ‘$arg1’ : ‘(const char *)’ 檔案名稱，可使用
               ‘user_string($arg1)’ 存取

             * ‘$arg2’ ：‘(const char *)’ 函式名稱，可使用
               ‘user_string($arg2)’ 存取

             * ‘$arg3’ : ‘int’ 列號

 -- Object: function__return(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     該標記與 ‘function__entry()’ 相反，表示 Python 函式的執行已結束（透
     過 ‘return’ 或透過例外）。它僅針對純 Python（位元組碼）函式觸發。

     引數與 ‘function__entry()’ 相同

 -- Object: line(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     該標記表示一列 Python 即將被執行。它相當於使用 Python 分析器來逐行
     追蹤。它不在 C 函式內觸發。

     引數與 ‘function__entry()’ 相同。

 -- Object: gc__start(int generation)

     當 Python 直譯器開始垃圾回收 (garbage collection) 週期時觸發。
     ‘arg0’ 是要掃描的一代 (generation)，如 *note gc.collect(): 883.。

 -- Object: gc__done(long collected)

     當 Python 直譯器完成垃圾回收週期時觸發。‘arg0’ 是收集到的物件數量。

 -- Object: import__find__load__start(str modulename)

     在 *note importlib: 71. 嘗試查找並載入模組之前觸發。‘arg0’ 是模組名
     稱。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- Object: import__find__load__done(str modulename, int found)

     在呼叫 *note importlib: 71. 的 find_and_load 函式後觸發。 ‘arg0’ 是
     模組名稱，‘arg1’ 代表模組是否已成功載入。

     在 3.7 版被加入.

 -- Object: audit(str event, void *tuple)

     當呼叫 *note sys.audit(): 174a. 或 *note PySys_Audit(): 175a. 時觸
     發。‘arg0’ 是 C 字串形式的事件名稱，‘arg1’ 是指向元組 (tuple) 物件
     的 *note PyObject: 6d1. 指標。

     在 3.8 版被加入.


File: python.info,  Node: SystemTap Tapsets,  Next: 範例<54>,  Prev: 可用的靜態標記,  Up: 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython

9.15.5 SystemTap Tapsets
------------------------

使用 SystemTap 整合的高階方法是使用 "tapset"：SystemTap 相當於一個函式庫
，它隱藏了靜態標記的一些低階詳細資訊。

這是一個 tapset 檔案，是基於 CPython 的非共享建置版本：

     /*
        Provide a higher-level wrapping around the function__entry and
        function__return markers:
      \*/
     probe python.function.entry = process("python").mark("function__entry")
     {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;
         frameptr = $arg4
     }
     probe python.function.return = process("python").mark("function__return")
     {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;
         frameptr = $arg4
     }

如果此檔案是安裝在 SystemTap 的 tapset 目錄中（例如
‘/usr/share/systemtap/tapset’），則這些額外的探測點將可被使用：

 -- Object: python.function.entry(str filename, str funcname, int
          lineno, frameptr)

     該探測點表示 Python 函式的執行已經開始。它僅針對純 Python（位元組碼
     ）函式觸發。

 -- Object: python.function.return(str filename, str funcname, int
          lineno, frameptr)

     這個探測點與 ‘python.function.return’ 相反，表示 Python 函式的執行
     已經結束（透過 ‘return’ 或者透過例外）。它僅針對純 Python（位元組碼
     ）函式觸發。


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<54>,  Prev: SystemTap Tapsets,  Up: 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython

9.15.6 範例
-----------

此 SystemTap 腳本使用上面的 tapset 來更清晰地實作上面給出的追蹤 Python 函
式呼叫階層結構的範例，而無需直接命名靜態標記：

     probe python.function.entry
     {
       printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\n",
              thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

     probe python.function.return
     {
       printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\n",
              thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

以下腳本使用上面的 tapset 來提供所有正在運行之 CPython 程式碼的近乎最高
層視角，顯示整個系統中每秒最常被進入的 20 個位元組碼幀 (bytecode frame)：

     global fn_calls;

     probe python.function.entry
     {
         fn_calls[pid(), filename, funcname, lineno] += 1;
     }

     probe timer.ms(1000) {
         printf("\033[2J\033[1;1H") /* clear screen \*/
         printf("%6s %80s %6s %30s %6s\n",
                "PID", "FILENAME", "LINE", "FUNCTION", "CALLS")
         foreach ([pid, filename, funcname, lineno] in fn_calls- limit 20) {
             printf("%6d %80s %6d %30s %6d\n",
                 pid, filename, lineno, funcname,
                 fn_calls[pid, filename, funcname, lineno]);
         }
         delete fn_calls;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Python 對 Linux perf 分析器的支援,  Next: 註釋 annotation 最佳實踐,  Prev: 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測 CPython,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.16 Python 對 Linux ‘perf’ 分析器的支援
========================================


作者: Pablo Galindo

Linux 性能分析器 (Linux perf profiler)(1) 是一個非常強大的工具，可讓你分
析並獲取有關應用程式的性能資訊。‘perf’ 還擁有一個非常活躍的工具生態系統
，有助於分析其生成的資料。

在 Python 應用程式中使用 ‘perf’ 分析器的主要問題是 ‘perf’ 僅獲取有關原生
符號的資訊，即用 C 編寫的函式和程式的名稱。這表示程式碼中的 Python 函式
名稱和檔案名稱不會出現在 ‘perf’ 的輸出中。

從 Python 3.12 開始，直譯器可以在特殊模式下執行，該模式允許 Python 函式
出現在 ‘perf’ 分析器的輸出中。啟用此模式後，直譯器將在執行每個 Python 函
式之前插入 (interpose) 一小段動態編譯的程式碼，並使用 *note perf map
檔案: 49be.來告訴 ‘perf’ 這段程式碼與相關聯的 Python 函式間的關係。

     備註: 目前對 ‘perf’ 分析器的支援僅適用於 Linux 的特定架構上。檢查
     ‘configure’ 建構步驟的輸出或檢查 ‘python -m sysconfig | grep
     HAVE_PERF_TRAMPOLINE’ 的輸出來查看你的系統是否支援。

例如，參考以下腳本：

     def foo(n):
         result = 0
         for _ in range(n):
             result += 1
         return result

     def bar(n):
         foo(n)

     def baz(n):
         bar(n)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         baz(1000000)

我們可以執行 ‘perf’ 以 9999 赫茲採樣 CPU 堆疊追蹤 (stack trace)：

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py

然後我們可以使用 ‘perf report’ 來分析資料：

     $ perf report --stdio -n -g

     # Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
     # ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  ..........................................
     #
         91.08%     0.00%             0  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
                 |
                 ---_start
                 |
                     --90.71%--__libc_start_main
                             Py_BytesMain
                             |
                             |--56.88%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                             |          |
                             |          |--56.13%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                             |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                             |          |          |
                             |          |          |--55.02%--run_mod
                             |          |          |          |
                             |          |          |           --54.65%--PyEval_EvalCode
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     |
                             |          |          |                     |--51.67%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |--11.52%--_PyLong_Add
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |--2.97%--_PyObject_Malloc
     ...

如你所見，Python 函式未顯示在輸出中，僅顯示 ‘_Py_Eval_EvalFrameDefault’
（為 Python 位元組碼 (bytecode) 求值的函式）。不幸的是，這不是很有用，因
為所有 Python 函式都使用相同的 C 函式來替位元組碼求值，因此我們無法知道
哪個 Python 函式是對應於哪個位元組碼計算函式。

作為替代，如果我們在啟用 ‘perf’ 支援的情況下執行相同的實驗，我們會得到：

     $ perf report --stdio -n -g

     # Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
     # ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  .....................................................................
     #
         90.58%     0.36%             1  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
                 |
                 ---_start
                 |
                     --89.86%--__libc_start_main
                             Py_BytesMain
                             |
                             |--55.43%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                             |          |
                             |          |--54.71%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                             |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                             |          |          |
                             |          |          |--53.62%--run_mod
                             |          |          |          |
                             |          |          |           --53.26%--PyEval_EvalCode
                             |          |          |                     py::<module>:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::baz:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::bar:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::foo:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     |
                             |          |          |                     |--51.81%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |--13.77%--_PyLong_Add
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |--3.26%--_PyObject_Malloc

* Menu:

* 如何啟用 perf 分析支援::
* 如何獲得最佳結果::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org


File: python.info,  Node: 如何啟用 perf 分析支援,  Next: 如何獲得最佳結果,  Up: Python 對 Linux perf 分析器的支援

9.16.1 如何啟用 ‘perf’ 分析支援
-------------------------------

要啟用 ‘perf’ 分析支援，可以在一開始就使用環境變數 *note
PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 187. 或使用 *note -X perf: 188. 選項，也可以使用
*note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 189. 和 *note
sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 18a. 來動態啟用。

‘sys’ 函式優先於 ‘-X’ 選項、‘-X’ 選項優先於環境變數。

例如，使用環境變數：

     $ PYTHONPERFSUPPORT=1 python script.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data

例如，使用 ‘-X’ 選項：

     $ python -X perf script.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data

例如，在 ‘example.py’ 檔案中使用 *note sys: d3. API：

     import sys

     sys.activate_stack_trampoline("perf")
     do_profiled_stuff()
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline()

     non_profiled_stuff()

...然後：

     $ python ./example.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data


File: python.info,  Node: 如何獲得最佳結果,  Prev: 如何啟用 perf 分析支援,  Up: Python 對 Linux perf 分析器的支援

9.16.2 如何獲得最佳結果
-----------------------

為了獲得最佳結果，應使用 ‘CFLAGS="-fno-omit-frame-pointer
-mno-omit-leaf-frame-pointer"’ 來進行 Python 編譯，因為這能允許分析器僅
使用 frame 指標而不是 DWARF 除錯資訊來解析 (unwind)。這是因為，由於插入
以允許 ‘perf’ 支援的程式碼是動態生成的，因此它沒有任何可用的 DWARF 除錯
資訊。

你可以透過執行以下指令來檢查你的系統是否已使用此旗標進行編譯：

     $ python -m sysconfig | grep 'no-omit-frame-pointer'

如果你沒有看到任何輸出，則表示你的直譯器尚未使用 frame 指標進行編譯，因
此它可能無法在 ‘perf’ 的輸出中顯示 Python 函式。


File: python.info,  Node: 註釋 annotation 最佳實踐,  Next: 隔離擴充模組,  Prev: Python 對 Linux perf 分析器的支援,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.17 註釋 (annotation) 最佳實踐
===============================


作者: Larry Hastings

摘要
....

本文件旨在封裝 (encapsulate) 使用註釋字典 (annotations dicts) 的最佳實踐
。如果你寫 Python 程式碼並在調查 Python 物件上的 ‘__annotations__’ ，我
們鼓勵你遵循下面描述的準則。

本文件分為四個部分：在 Python 3.10 及更高版本中存取物件註釋的最佳實踐、
在 Python 3.9 及更早版本中存取物件註釋的最佳實踐、適用於任何Python 版本
‘__annotations__’ 的最佳實踐，以及 ‘__annotations__’ 的奇異之處。

請注意，本文件是特別說明 ‘__annotations__’ 的使用，而非'如何使用'註釋。
如果你正在尋找如何在你的程式碼中使用「型別提示 (type hint)」的資訊，請查
閱模組 (module) *note typing: ff.。

* Menu:

* 在 Python 3.10 及更高版本中存取物件的註釋字典: 在 Python 3 10 及更高版本中存取物件的註釋字典.
* 在 Python 3.9 及更早版本中存取物件的註釋字典: 在 Python 3 9 及更早版本中存取物件的註釋字典.
* 手動取消字串化註釋::
* 任何 Python 版本中 __annotations__ 的最佳實踐::
* __annotations__ 奇異之處::


File: python.info,  Node: 在 Python 3 10 及更高版本中存取物件的註釋字典,  Next: 在 Python 3 9 及更早版本中存取物件的註釋字典,  Up: 註釋 annotation 最佳實踐

9.17.1 在 Python 3.10 及更高版本中存取物件的註釋字典
----------------------------------------------------

Python 3.10 在標準函式庫中新增了一個新函式：*note
inspect.get_annotations(): 636.。在 Python 3.10 及更高版本中，呼叫此函式
是存取任何支援註釋的物件的註釋字典的最佳實踐。此函式也可以為你「取消字串
化 (un-stringize)」字串化註釋。

若由於某種原因 *note inspect.get_annotations(): 636. 對你的場合不可行，
你可以手動存取 ‘__annotations__’ 資料成員。 Python 3.10 中的最佳實踐也已
經改變：從 Python 3.10 開始，保證 ‘o.__annotations__’ '始終'適用於
Python 函式、類別 (class) 和模組。如果你確定正在檢查的物件是這三個'特定
'物件之一，你可以簡單地使用 ‘o.__annotations__’ 來取得物件的註釋字典。

但是，其他型別的 callable（可呼叫物件）（例如，由 *note
functools.partial(): d4e. 建立的 callable）可能沒有定義
‘__annotations__’ 屬性 (attribute)。當存取可能未知的物件的
‘__annotations__’ 時，Python 3.10 及更高版本中的最佳實踐是使用三個參數呼
叫 *note getattr(): a32.，例如 ‘getattr(o, '__annotations__', None)’。

在 Python 3.10 之前，存取未定義註釋但具有註釋的父類別的類別上的
‘__annotations__’ 將傳回父類別的 ‘__annotations__’。在 Python 3.10 及更
高版本中，子類別的註釋將會是一個空字典。


File: python.info,  Node: 在 Python 3 9 及更早版本中存取物件的註釋字典,  Next: 手動取消字串化註釋,  Prev: 在 Python 3 10 及更高版本中存取物件的註釋字典,  Up: 註釋 annotation 最佳實踐

9.17.2 在 Python 3.9 及更早版本中存取物件的註釋字典
---------------------------------------------------

在 Python 3.9 及更早版本中，存取物件的註釋字典比新版本複雜得多。問題出在
於這些舊版 Python 中有設計缺陷，特別是與類別註釋有關的設計缺陷。

存取其他物件（如函式、其他 callable 和模組）的註釋字典的最佳實踐與 3.10
的最佳實踐相同，假設你沒有呼叫 *note inspect.get_annotations(): 636.：你
應該使用三個：參數 *note getattr(): a32. 來存取物件的 ‘__annotations__’
屬性。

不幸的是，這不是類別的最佳實踐。問題是，由於 ‘__annotations__’ 在類別上
是選填的 (optional)，並且因為類別可以從其基底類別 (base class) 繼承屬性
，所以存取類別的 ‘__annotations__’ 屬性可能會無意中回傳'基底類別的註釋字
典。'舉例來說：

     class Base:
         a: int = 3
         b: str = 'abc'

     class Derived(Base):
         pass

     print(Derived.__annotations__)

這將印出 (print) 來自 ‘Base’ 的註釋字典，而不是 ‘Derived’。

Your code will have to have a separate code path if the object you're
examining is a class (‘isinstance(o, type)’).  In that case, best
practice relies on an implementation detail of Python 3.9 and before: if
a class has annotations defined, they are stored in the class's *note
__dict__: ac5. dictionary.  Since the class may or may not have
annotations defined, best practice is to call the *note get(): 1fda.
method on the class dict.

總而言之，以下是一些範例程式碼，可以安全地存取 Python 3.9 及先前版本中任
意物件上的 ‘__annotations__’ 屬性：

     if isinstance(o, type):
         ann = o.__dict__.get('__annotations__', None)
     else:
         ann = getattr(o, '__annotations__', None)

運行此程式碼後，‘ann’ 應該是字典或 ‘None’。我們鼓勵你在進一步檢查之前使
用 *note isinstance(): 14b. 仔細檢查 ‘ann’ 的型別。

Note that some exotic or malformed type objects may not have a *note
__dict__: ac5. attribute, so for extra safety you may also wish to use
*note getattr(): a32. to access ‘__dict__’.


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9.17.3 手動取消字串化註釋
-------------------------

在某些註釋可能被「字串化」的情況下，並且你希望評估這些字串以產生它們表示
的 Python 值，最好呼叫 *note inspect.get_annotations(): 636. 來為你完成
這項工作。

如果你使用的是 Python 3.9 或更早版本，或者由於某種原因你無法使用 *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 636.，則需要複製其邏輯。我們鼓勵你檢查目前
Python 版本中 *note inspect.get_annotations(): 636. 的實作並遵循類似的方
法。

簡而言之，如果你希望評估任意物件 ‘o’ 上的字串化註釋：

   * 如果 ‘o’ 是一個模組，則在呼叫 *note eval(): 6b0. 時使用
     ‘o.__dict__’ 作為‘全域變數’。

   * 如果 ‘o’ 是一個類別，當呼叫 *note eval(): 6b0. 時，則使用
     ‘sys.modules[o.__module__].__dict__’ 作為‘全域變數’，使用
     ‘dict(vars(o))’ 作為‘區域變數’。

   * 如果 ‘o’ 是使用 *note functools.update_wrapper(): eb6.、*note
     functools.wraps(): dea. 或 *note functools.partial(): d4e. 包裝的
     callable ，請依據需求，透過存取 ‘o.__wrapped__’ 或 ‘o.func’ 來疊代
     解開它，直到找到根解包函式。

   * 如果 ‘o’ 是 callable（但不是類別），則在呼叫 *note eval(): 6b0. 時
     使用 *note o.__globals__: 1164. 作為全域變數。

然而，並非所有用作註釋的字串值都可以透過 *note eval(): 6b0. 成功轉換為
Python 值。理論上，字串值可以包含任何有效的字串，並且在實踐中，型別提示
存在有效的用例，需要使用特定「無法」評估的字串值進行註釋。例如：

   * 在 Python 3.10 支援 PEP 604(1) 聯合型別 (union type) ‘|’ 之前使用它
     。

   * Runtime 中不需要的定義，僅在 *note typing.TYPE_CHECKING: b62. 為
     true 時匯入。

如果 *note eval(): 6b0. 嘗試計算這類型的值，它將失敗並引發例外。因此，在
設計使用註釋的函式庫 API 時，建議僅在呼叫者 (caller) 明確請求時嘗試評估
字串值。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/


File: python.info,  Node: 任何 Python 版本中 __annotations__ 的最佳實踐,  Next: __annotations__ 奇異之處,  Prev: 手動取消字串化註釋,  Up: 註釋 annotation 最佳實踐

9.17.4 任何 Python 版本中 ‘__annotations__’ 的最佳實踐
------------------------------------------------------

   * 你應該避免直接指派給物件的 ‘__annotations__’ 成員。讓 Python 管理設
     定 ‘__annotations__’。

   * 如果你直接指派給物件的 ‘__annotations__’ 成員，則應始終將其設為
     ‘dict’ 物件。

   * 如果直接存取物件的 ‘__annotations__’ 成員，則應在嘗試檢查其內容之前
     確保它是字典。

   * 你應該避免修改 ‘__annotations__’ 字典。

   * 你應該避免刪除物件的 ‘__annotations__’ 屬性。


File: python.info,  Node: __annotations__ 奇異之處,  Prev: 任何 Python 版本中 __annotations__ 的最佳實踐,  Up: 註釋 annotation 最佳實踐

9.17.5 ‘__annotations__’ 奇異之處
---------------------------------

在 Python 3 的所有版本中，如果沒有在該物件上定義註釋，則函式物件會延遲建
立 (lazy-create) 註釋字典。你可以使用 ‘del fn.__annotations__’ 刪除
‘__annotations__’ 屬性，但如果你隨後存取 ‘fn.__annotations__’，該物件將
建立一個新的空字典，它將作為註釋儲存並傳回。在函式延遲建立註釋字典之前刪
除函式上的註釋將拋出 ‘AttributeError’；連續兩次使用 ‘del
fn.__annotations__’ 保證總是拋出 ‘AttributeError’ 。

上一段的所有內容也適用於 Python 3.10 及更高版本中的類別和模組物件。

在 Python 3 的所有版本中，你可以將函式物件上的 ‘__annotations__’ 設定為
‘None’。但是，隨後使用 ‘fn.__annotations__’ 存取該物件上的註釋將根據本節
第一段的內容延遲建立一個空字典。對於任何 Python 版本中的模組和類別來說，
情況'並非如此'；這些物件允許將 ‘__annotations__’ 設定為任何 Python 值，
並且將保留設定的任何值。

如果 Python 為你字串化你的註釋（使用 ‘from __future__ import
annotations’），並且你指定一個字串作為註釋，則該字串本身將被引用。實際上
，註釋被引用了'兩次。'例如：

     from __future__ import annotations
     def foo(a: "str"): pass

     print(foo.__annotations__)

這會印出 ‘{'a': "'str'"}’。這不應該被認為是一個「奇異的事」，他在這裡被
簡單提及，因為他可能會讓人意想不到。


File: python.info,  Node: 隔離擴充模組,  Next: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Prev: 註釋 annotation 最佳實踐,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.18 隔離擴充模組
=================

摘要
....

Traditionally, state belonging to Python extension modules was kept in C
‘static’ variables, which have process-wide scope.  This document
describes problems of such per-process state and shows a safer way:
per-module state.

The document also describes how to switch to per-module state where
possible.  This transition involves allocating space for that state,
potentially switching from static types to heap types, and—perhaps most
importantly—accessing per-module state from code.

* Menu:

* Who should read this::
* 背景: 背景<2>.
* Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters::
* Heap Types: Heap Types<2>.
* Open Issues::


File: python.info,  Node: Who should read this,  Next: 背景<2>,  Up: 隔離擴充模組

9.18.1 Who should read this
---------------------------

This guide is written for maintainers of *note C-API: 19cc. extensions
who would like to make that extension safer to use in applications where
Python itself is used as a library.


File: python.info,  Node: 背景<2>,  Next: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Prev: Who should read this,  Up: 隔離擴充模組

9.18.2 背景
-----------

An 'interpreter' is the context in which Python code runs.  It contains
configuration (e.g.  the import path) and runtime state (e.g.  the set
of imported modules).

Python supports running multiple interpreters in one process.  There are
two cases to think about—users may run interpreters:

   - in sequence, with several *note Py_InitializeEx(): 492b./*note
     Py_FinalizeEx(): b84. cycles, and

   - in parallel, managing "sub-interpreters" using *note
     Py_NewInterpreter(): 1582./*note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1632.

Both cases (and combinations of them) would be most useful when
embedding Python within a library.  Libraries generally shouldn't make
assumptions about the application that uses them, which include assuming
a process-wide "main Python interpreter".

Historically, Python extension modules don't handle this use case well.
Many extension modules (and even some stdlib modules) use 'per-process'
global state, because C ‘static’ variables are extremely easy to use.
Thus, data that should be specific to an interpreter ends up being
shared between interpreters.  Unless the extension developer is careful,
it is very easy to introduce edge cases that lead to crashes when a
module is loaded in more than one interpreter in the same process.

Unfortunately, 'per-interpreter' state is not easy to achieve.
Extension authors tend to not keep multiple interpreters in mind when
developing, and it is currently cumbersome to test the behavior.

* Menu:

* Enter Per-Module State::
* Isolated Module Objects::
* Surprising Edge Cases::


File: python.info,  Node: Enter Per-Module State,  Next: Isolated Module Objects,  Up: 背景<2>

9.18.2.1 Enter Per-Module State
...............................

Instead of focusing on per-interpreter state, Python's C API is evolving
to better support the more granular 'per-module' state.  This means that
C-level data should be attached to a 'module object'.  Each interpreter
creates its own module object, keeping the data separate.  For testing
the isolation, multiple module objects corresponding to a single
extension can even be loaded in a single interpreter.

Per-module state provides an easy way to think about lifetime and
resource ownership: the extension module will initialize when a module
object is created, and clean up when it's freed.  In this regard, a
module is just like any other *note PyObject: 6d1.*; there are no "on
interpreter shutdown" hooks to think—or forget—about.

Note that there are use cases for different kinds of "globals":
per-process, per-interpreter, per-thread or per-task state.  With
per-module state as the default, these are still possible, but you
should treat them as exceptional cases: if you need them, you should
give them additional care and testing.  (Note that this guide does not
cover them.)


File: python.info,  Node: Isolated Module Objects,  Next: Surprising Edge Cases,  Prev: Enter Per-Module State,  Up: 背景<2>

9.18.2.2 Isolated Module Objects
................................

The key point to keep in mind when developing an extension module is
that several module objects can be created from a single shared library.
For example:

     >>> import sys
     >>> import binascii
     >>> old_binascii = binascii
     >>> del sys.modules['binascii']
     >>> import binascii  # create a new module object
     >>> old_binascii == binascii
     False

As a rule of thumb, the two modules should be completely independent.
All objects and state specific to the module should be encapsulated
within the module object, not shared with other module objects, and
cleaned up when the module object is deallocated.  Since this just is a
rule of thumb, exceptions are possible (see *note Managing Global State:
4e51.), but they will need more thought and attention to edge cases.

While some modules could do with less stringent restrictions, isolated
modules make it easier to set clear expectations and guidelines that
work across a variety of use cases.


File: python.info,  Node: Surprising Edge Cases,  Prev: Isolated Module Objects,  Up: 背景<2>

9.18.2.3 Surprising Edge Cases
..............................

Note that isolated modules do create some surprising edge cases.  Most
notably, each module object will typically not share its classes and
exceptions with other similar modules.  Continuing from the *note
example above: 4e50, note that ‘old_binascii.Error’ and ‘binascii.Error’
are separate objects.  In the following code, the exception is 'not'
caught:

     >>> old_binascii.Error == binascii.Error
     False
     >>> try:
     ...     old_binascii.unhexlify(b'qwertyuiop')
     ... except binascii.Error:
     ...     print('boo')
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

This is expected.  Notice that pure-Python modules behave the same way:
it is a part of how Python works.

The goal is to make extension modules safe at the C level, not to make
hacks behave intuitively.  Mutating ‘sys.modules’ "manually" counts as a
hack.


File: python.info,  Node: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Next: Heap Types<2>,  Prev: 背景<2>,  Up: 隔離擴充模組

9.18.3 Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters
-----------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Managing Global State::
* Managing Per-Module State::
* Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process.
* Module State Access from Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Managing Global State,  Next: Managing Per-Module State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.1 Managing Global State
..............................

Sometimes, the state associated with a Python module is not specific to
that module, but to the entire process (or something else "more global"
than a module).  For example:

   - The ‘readline’ module manages 'the' terminal.

   - A module running on a circuit board wants to control 'the' on-board
     LED.

In these cases, the Python module should provide 'access' to the global
state, rather than 'own' it.  If possible, write the module so that
multiple copies of it can access the state independently (along with
other libraries, whether for Python or other languages).  If that is not
possible, consider explicit locking.

If it is necessary to use process-global state, the simplest way to
avoid issues with multiple interpreters is to explicitly prevent a
module from being loaded more than once per process—see *note Opt-Out;
Limiting to One Module Object per Process: 4e54.


File: python.info,  Node: Managing Per-Module State,  Next: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Prev: Managing Global State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.2 Managing Per-Module State
..................................

To use per-module state, use *note multi-phase extension module
initialization: 4787.  This signals that your module supports multiple
interpreters correctly.

Set ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ to a positive number to request that many bytes
of storage local to the module.  Usually, this will be set to the size
of some module-specific ‘struct’, which can store all of the module's
C-level state.  In particular, it is where you should put pointers to
classes (including exceptions, but excluding static types) and settings
(e.g.  ‘csv’'s *note field_size_limit: 15d4.) which the C code needs to
function.

     備註: Another option is to store state in the module's ‘__dict__’,
     but you must avoid crashing when users modify ‘__dict__’ from
     Python code.  This usually means error- and type-checking at the C
     level, which is easy to get wrong and hard to test sufficiently.

     However, if module state is not needed in C code, storing it in
     ‘__dict__’ only is a good idea.

If the module state includes ‘PyObject’ pointers, the module object must
hold references to those objects and implement the module-level hooks
‘m_traverse’, ‘m_clear’ and ‘m_free’.  These work like ‘tp_traverse’,
‘tp_clear’ and ‘tp_free’ of a class.  Adding them will require some work
and make the code longer; this is the price for modules which can be
unloaded cleanly.

An example of a module with per-module state is currently available as
xxlimited(1); example module initialization shown at the bottom of the
file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/master/Modules/xxlimited.c


File: python.info,  Node: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Next: Module State Access from Functions,  Prev: Managing Per-Module State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.3 Opt-Out: Limiting to One Module Object per Process
...........................................................

A non-negative ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ signals that a module supports
multiple interpreters correctly.  If this is not yet the case for your
module, you can explicitly make your module loadable only once per
process.  For example:

     static int loaded = 0;

     static int
     exec_module(PyObject* module)
     {
         if (loaded) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError,
                             "cannot load module more than once per process");
             return -1;
         }
         loaded = 1;
         // ... rest of initialization
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Functions,  Prev: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.4 Module State Access from Functions
...........................................

Accessing the state from module-level functions is straightforward.
Functions get the module object as their first argument; for extracting
the state, you can use ‘PyModule_GetState’:

     static PyObject *
     func(PyObject *module, PyObject *args)
     {
         my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
         if (state == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
         // ... rest of logic
     }

     備註: ‘PyModule_GetState’ may return ‘NULL’ without setting an
     exception if there is no module state, i.e.  ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’
     was zero.  In your own module, you're in control of ‘m_size’, so
     this is easy to prevent.


File: python.info,  Node: Heap Types<2>,  Next: Open Issues,  Prev: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Up: 隔離擴充模組

9.18.4 Heap Types
-----------------

Traditionally, types defined in C code are 'static'; that is, ‘static
PyTypeObject’ structures defined directly in code and initialized using
‘PyType_Ready()’.

Such types are necessarily shared across the process.  Sharing them
between module objects requires paying attention to any state they own
or access.  To limit the possible issues, static types are immutable at
the Python level: for example, you can't set ‘str.myattribute = 123’.

'CPython 實作細節：' Sharing truly immutable objects between
interpreters is fine, as long as they don't provide access to mutable
objects.  However, in CPython, every Python object has a mutable
implementation detail: the reference count.  Changes to the refcount are
guarded by the GIL. Thus, code that shares any Python objects across
interpreters implicitly depends on CPython's current, process-wide GIL.

Because they are immutable and process-global, static types cannot
access "their" module state.  If any method of such a type requires
access to module state, the type must be converted to a 'heap-allocated
type', or 'heap type' for short.  These correspond more closely to
classes created by Python's ‘class’ statement.

For new modules, using heap types by default is a good rule of thumb.

* Menu:

* Changing Static Types to Heap Types::
* Defining Heap Types::
* Garbage-Collection Protocol::
* Module State Access from Classes::
* Module State Access from Regular Methods::
* Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters.
* Lifetime of the Module State::


File: python.info,  Node: Changing Static Types to Heap Types,  Next: Defining Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.1 Changing Static Types to Heap Types
............................................

Static types can be converted to heap types, but note that the heap type
API was not designed for "lossless" conversion from static types—that
is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static type.  So,
when rewriting the class definition in a new API, you are likely to
unintentionally change a few details (e.g.  pickleability or inherited
slots).  Always test the details that are important to you.

Watch out for the following two points in particular (but note that this
is not a comprehensive list):

   * Unlike static types, heap type objects are mutable by default.  Use
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2de. flag to prevent
     mutability.

   * Heap types inherit *note tp_new: 30e. by default, so it may become
     possible to instantiate them from Python code.  You can prevent
     this with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 311. flag.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Heap Types,  Next: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Prev: Changing Static Types to Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.2 Defining Heap Types
............................

Heap types can be created by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 14a3.
structure, a description or "blueprint" of a class, and calling *note
PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6. to construct a new class object.

     備註: Other functions, like *note PyType_FromSpec(): 30c, can also
     create heap types, but *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6.
     associates the module with the class, allowing access to the module
     state from methods.

The class should generally be stored in 'both' the module state (for
safe access from C) and the module's ‘__dict__’ (for access from Python
code).


File: python.info,  Node: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Next: Module State Access from Classes,  Prev: Defining Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.3 Garbage-Collection Protocol
....................................

Instances of heap types hold a reference to their type.  This ensures
that the type isn't destroyed before all its instances are, but may
result in reference cycles that need to be broken by the garbage
collector.

To avoid memory leaks, instances of heap types must implement the
garbage collection protocol.  That is, heap types should:

   - Have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. flag.

   - Define a traverse function using ‘Py_tp_traverse’, which visits the
     type (e.g.  using ‘Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self))’).

Please refer to the documentation of *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 593. and
*note tp_traverse: 594. for additional considerations.

The API for defining heap types grew organically, leaving it somewhat
awkward to use in its current state.  The following sections will guide
you through common issues.

* Menu:

* tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower.
* Delegating tp_traverse::
* Defining tp_dealloc::
* Not overriding tp_free::
* Avoiding PyObject_New::


File: python.info,  Node: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower,  Next: Delegating tp_traverse,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.4 ‘tp_traverse’ in Python 3.8 and lower
..............................................

The requirement to visit the type from ‘tp_traverse’ was added in Python
3.9.  If you support Python 3.8 and lower, the traverse function must
'not' visit the type, so it must be more complicated:

     static int my_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
             Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
         }
         return 0;
     }

Unfortunately, *note Py_Version: 569. was only added in Python 3.11.  As
a replacement, use:

   * *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 56a, if not using the stable ABI, or

   * *note sys.version_info: 49c. (via *note PySys_GetObject(): 5ab. and
     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 2fe.).


File: python.info,  Node: Delegating tp_traverse,  Next: Defining tp_dealloc,  Prev: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.5 Delegating ‘tp_traverse’
.................................

If your traverse function delegates to the *note tp_traverse: 594. of
its base class (or another type), ensure that ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ is visited
only once.  Note that only heap type are expected to visit the type in
‘tp_traverse’.

For example, if your traverse function includes:

     base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

...and ‘base’ may be a static type, then it should also include:

     if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
         // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self)
     } else {
         if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
             Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
         }
     }

It is not necessary to handle the type's reference count in *note
tp_new: 30e. and *note tp_clear: 476b.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining tp_dealloc,  Next: Not overriding tp_free,  Prev: Delegating tp_traverse,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.6 Defining ‘tp_dealloc’
..............................

If your type has a custom *note tp_dealloc: 4758. function, it needs to:

   - call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 137e. before any fields are
     invalidated, and

   - decrement the reference count of the type.

To keep the type valid while ‘tp_free’ is called, the type's refcount
needs to be decremented 'after' the instance is deallocated.  For
example:

     static void my_dealloc(PyObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         ...
         PyTypeObject *type = Py_TYPE(self);
         type->tp_free(self);
         Py_DECREF(type);
     }

The default ‘tp_dealloc’ function does this, so if your type does 'not'
override ‘tp_dealloc’ you don't need to add it.


File: python.info,  Node: Not overriding tp_free,  Next: Avoiding PyObject_New,  Prev: Defining tp_dealloc,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.7 Not overriding ‘tp_free’
.................................

The *note tp_free: 4759. slot of a heap type must be set to *note
PyObject_GC_Del(): 137c.  This is the default; do not override it.


File: python.info,  Node: Avoiding PyObject_New,  Prev: Not overriding tp_free,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.8 Avoiding ‘PyObject_New’
................................

GC-tracked objects need to be allocated using GC-aware functions.

If you use use *note PyObject_New(): 7c9. or *note PyObject_NewVar():
7ca.:

   - Get and call type's *note tp_alloc: 475a. slot, if possible.  That
     is, replace ‘TYPE *o = PyObject_New(TYPE, typeobj)’ with:

          TYPE *o = typeobj->tp_alloc(typeobj, 0);

     Replace ‘o = PyObject_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size)’ with the same,
     but use size instead of the 0.

   - If the above is not possible (e.g.  inside a custom ‘tp_alloc’),
     call *note PyObject_GC_New(): 8f5. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar():
     8f6.:

          TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_New(TYPE, typeobj);

          TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size);


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Classes,  Next: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Prev: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.9 Module State Access from Classes
.........................................

If you have a type object defined with *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec():
2d6, you can call *note PyType_GetModule(): 7b0. to get the associated
module, and then *note PyModule_GetState(): 7c4. to get the module's
state.

To save a some tedious error-handling boilerplate code, you can combine
these two steps with *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 7b1, resulting in:

     my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(type);
     if (state == NULL) {
         return NULL;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Next: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Prev: Module State Access from Classes,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.10 Module State Access from Regular Methods
..................................................

Accessing the module-level state from methods of a class is somewhat
more complicated, but is possible thanks to API introduced in Python
3.9.  To get the state, you need to first get the 'defining class', and
then get the module state from it.

The largest roadblock is getting 'the class a method was defined in', or
that method's "defining class" for short.  The defining class can have a
reference to the module it is part of.

Do not confuse the defining class with ‘Py_TYPE(self)’.  If the method
is called on a 'subclass' of your type, ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ will refer to
that subclass, which may be defined in different module than yours.

     備註: The following Python code can illustrate the concept.
     ‘Base.get_defining_class’ returns ‘Base’ even if ‘type(self) ==
     Sub’:

          class Base:
              def get_type_of_self(self):
                  return type(self)

              def get_defining_class(self):
                  return __class__

          class Sub(Base):
              pass

For a method to get its "defining class", it must use the *note
METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 145b. *note calling
convention: 134e. and the corresponding *note PyCMethod: 57b. signature:

     PyObject *PyCMethod(
         PyObject *self,               // object the method was called on
         PyTypeObject *defining_class, // defining class
         PyObject *const *args,        // C array of arguments
         Py_ssize_t nargs,             // length of "args"
         PyObject *kwnames)            // NULL, or dict of keyword arguments

Once you have the defining class, call *note PyType_GetModuleState():
7b1. to get the state of its associated module.

For example:

     static PyObject *
     example_method(PyObject *self,
             PyTypeObject *defining_class,
             PyObject *const *args,
             Py_ssize_t nargs,
             PyObject *kwnames)
     {
         my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(defining_class);
         if (state == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
         ... // rest of logic
     }

     PyDoc_STRVAR(example_method_doc, "...");

     static PyMethodDef my_methods[] = {
         {"example_method",
           (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))example_method,
           METH_METHOD|METH_FASTCALL|METH_KEYWORDS,
           example_method_doc}
         {NULL},
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Next: Lifetime of the Module State,  Prev: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.11 Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters
....................................................................

     備註: This is new in Python 3.11.

Slot methods—the fast C equivalents for special methods, such as *note
nb_add: 4a2d. for *note __add__: 1d1f. or *note tp_new: 30e. for
initialization—have a very simple API that doesn't allow passing in the
defining class, unlike with *note PyCMethod: 57b.  The same goes for
getters and setters defined with *note PyGetSetDef: a19.

To access the module state in these cases, use the *note
PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 57a. function, and pass in the module
definition.  Once you have the module, call *note PyModule_GetState():
7c4. to get the state:

     PyObject *module = PyType_GetModuleByDef(Py_TYPE(self), &module_def);
     my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
     if (state == NULL) {
         return NULL;
     }

‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ works by searching the *note method resolution
order: 1f16. (i.e.  all superclasses) for the first superclass that has
a corresponding module.

     備註: In very exotic cases (inheritance chains spanning multiple
     modules created from the same definition),
     ‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ might not return the module of the true
     defining class.  However, it will always return a module with the
     same definition, ensuring a compatible C memory layout.


File: python.info,  Node: Lifetime of the Module State,  Prev: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.12 Lifetime of the Module State
......................................

When a module object is garbage-collected, its module state is freed.
For each pointer to (a part of) the module state, you must hold a
reference to the module object.

Usually this is not an issue, because types created with *note
PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2d6, and their instances, hold a reference
to the module.  However, you must be careful in reference counting when
you reference module state from other places, such as callbacks for
external libraries.


File: python.info,  Node: Open Issues,  Prev: Heap Types<2>,  Up: 隔離擴充模組

9.18.5 Open Issues
------------------

Several issues around per-module state and heap types are still open.

Discussions about improving the situation are best held on the capi-sig
mailing list(1).

* Menu:

* Per-Class Scope::
* Lossless Conversion to Heap Types::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/capi-sig.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Per-Class Scope,  Next: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types,  Up: Open Issues

9.18.5.1 Per-Class Scope
........................

It is currently (as of Python 3.11) not possible to attach state to
individual 'types' without relying on CPython implementation details
(which may change in the future—perhaps, ironically, to allow a proper
solution for per-class scope).


File: python.info,  Node: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types,  Prev: Per-Class Scope,  Up: Open Issues

9.18.5.2 Lossless Conversion to Heap Types
..........................................

The heap type API was not designed for "lossless" conversion from static
types; that is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static
type.


File: python.info,  Node: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Prev: 隔離擴充模組,  Up: Python 如何達成任務

9.19 The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order
===========================================

     備註: This is a historical document, provided as an appendix to the
     official documentation.  The Method Resolution Order discussed here
     was 'introduced' in Python 2.3, but it is still used in later
     versions - including Python 3.

By Michele Simionato(1).


摘要: 'This document is intended for Python programmers who want to
understand the C3 Method Resolution Order used in Python 2.3.  Although
it is not intended for newbies, it is quite pedagogical with many worked
out examples.  I am not aware of other publicly available documents with
the same scope, therefore it should be useful.'

Disclaimer:

     'I donate this document to the Python Software Foundation, under
     the Python 2.3 license.  As usual in these circumstances, I warn
     the reader that what follows' should 'be correct, but I don't give
     any warranty.  Use it at your own risk and peril!'

致謝

     'All the people of the Python mailing list who sent me their
     support.  Paul Foley who pointed out various imprecisions and made
     me to add the part on local precedence ordering.  David Goodger for
     help with the formatting in reStructuredText.  David Mertz for help
     with the editing.  Finally, Guido van Rossum who enthusiastically
     added this document to the official Python 2.3 home-page.'

* Menu:

* The beginning::
* The C3 Method Resolution Order::
* 範例: 範例<55>.
* Bad Method Resolution Orders::
* The end::
* Resources::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/


File: python.info,  Node: The beginning,  Next: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.1 The beginning
--------------------

     'Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas' - Virgilius

Everything started with a post by Samuele Pedroni to the Python
development mailing list (1).  In his post, Samuele showed that the
Python 2.2 method resolution order is not monotonic and he proposed to
replace it with the C3 method resolution order.  Guido agreed with his
arguments and therefore now Python 2.3 uses C3.  The C3 method itself
has nothing to do with Python, since it was invented by people working
on Dylan and it is described in a paper intended for lispers (2).  The
present paper gives a (hopefully) readable discussion of the C3
algorithm for Pythonistas who want to understand the reasons for the
change.

First of all, let me point out that what I am going to say only applies
to the 'new style classes' introduced in Python 2.2: 'classic classes'
maintain their old method resolution order, depth first and then left to
right.  Therefore, there is no breaking of old code for classic classes;
and even if in principle there could be breaking of code for Python 2.2
new style classes, in practice the cases in which the C3 resolution
order differs from the Python 2.2 method resolution order are so rare
that no real breaking of code is expected.  Therefore:

     'Don't be scared!'

Moreover, unless you make strong use of multiple inheritance and you
have non-trivial hierarchies, you don't need to understand the C3
algorithm, and you can easily skip this paper.  On the other hand, if
you really want to know how multiple inheritance works, then this paper
is for you.  The good news is that things are not as complicated as you
might expect.

Let me begin with some basic definitions.

  1. Given a class C in a complicated multiple inheritance hierarchy, it
     is a non-trivial task to specify the order in which methods are
     overridden, i.e.  to specify the order of the ancestors of C.

  2. The list of the ancestors of a class C, including the class itself,
     ordered from the nearest ancestor to the furthest, is called the
     class precedence list or the 'linearization' of C.

  3. The 'Method Resolution Order' (MRO) is the set of rules that
     construct the linearization.  In the Python literature, the idiom
     "the MRO of C" is also used as a synonymous for the linearization
     of the class C.

  4. For instance, in the case of single inheritance hierarchy, if C is
     a subclass of C1, and C1 is a subclass of C2, then the
     linearization of C is simply the list [C, C1 , C2].  However, with
     multiple inheritance hierarchies, the construction of the
     linearization is more cumbersome, since it is more difficult to
     construct a linearization that respects 'local precedence ordering'
     and 'monotonicity'.

  5. I will discuss the local precedence ordering later, but I can give
     the definition of monotonicity here.  A MRO is monotonic when the
     following is true: 'if C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of C,
     then C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of any subclass of C'.
     Otherwise, the innocuous operation of deriving a new class could
     change the resolution order of methods, potentially introducing
     very subtle bugs.  Examples where this happens will be shown later.

  6. Not all classes admit a linearization.  There are cases, in
     complicated hierarchies, where it is not possible to derive a class
     such that its linearization respects all the desired properties.

Here I give an example of this situation.  Consider the hierarchy

     >>> O = object
     >>> class X(O): pass
     >>> class Y(O): pass
     >>> class A(X,Y): pass
     >>> class B(Y,X): pass

which can be represented with the following inheritance graph, where I
have denoted with O the ‘object’ class, which is the beginning of any
hierarchy for new style classes:

           -----------
          |           |
          |    O      |
          |  /   \    |
           - X    Y  /
             |  / | /
             | /  |/
             A    B
             \   /
               ?

In this case, it is not possible to derive a new class C from A and B,
since X precedes Y in A, but Y precedes X in B, therefore the method
resolution order would be ambiguous in C.

Python 2.3 raises an exception in this situation (TypeError: MRO
conflict among bases Y, X) forbidding the naive programmer from creating
ambiguous hierarchies.  Python 2.2 instead does not raise an exception,
but chooses an 'ad hoc' ordering (CABXYO in this case).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The thread on python-dev started by Samuele Pedroni:
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’

   (2) The paper 'A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan':
‘https://doi.org/10.1145/236337.236343’


File: python.info,  Node: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Next: 範例<55>,  Prev: The beginning,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.2 The C3 Method Resolution Order
-------------------------------------

Let me introduce a few simple notations which will be useful for the
following discussion.  I will use the shortcut notation:

     C1 C2 ... CN

to indicate the list of classes [C1, C2, ...  , CN].

The 'head' of the list is its first element:

     head = C1

whereas the 'tail' is the rest of the list:

     tail = C2 ... CN.

I shall also use the notation:

     C + (C1 C2 ... CN) = C C1 C2 ... CN

to denote the sum of the lists [C] + [C1, C2, ...  ,CN].

Now I can explain how the MRO works in Python 2.3.

Consider a class C in a multiple inheritance hierarchy, with C
inheriting from the base classes B1, B2, ...  , BN. We want to compute
the linearization L[C] of the class C. The rule is the following:

     'the linearization of C is the sum of C plus the merge of the
     linearizations of the parents and the list of the parents.'

In symbolic notation:

     L[C(B1 ... BN)] = C + merge(L[B1] ... L[BN], B1 ... BN)

In particular, if C is the ‘object’ class, which has no parents, the
linearization is trivial:

     L[object] = object.

However, in general one has to compute the merge according to the
following prescription:

     'take the head of the first list, i.e L[B1][0]; if this head is not
     in the tail of any of the other lists, then add it to the
     linearization of C and remove it from the lists in the merge,
     otherwise look at the head of the next list and take it, if it is a
     good head.  Then repeat the operation until all the class are
     removed or it is impossible to find good heads.  In this case, it
     is impossible to construct the merge, Python 2.3 will refuse to
     create the class C and will raise an exception.'

This prescription ensures that the merge operation 'preserves' the
ordering, if the ordering can be preserved.  On the other hand, if the
order cannot be preserved (as in the example of serious order
disagreement discussed above) then the merge cannot be computed.

The computation of the merge is trivial if C has only one parent (single
inheritance); in this case:

     L[C(B)] = C + merge(L[B],B) = C + L[B]

However, in the case of multiple inheritance things are more cumbersome
and I don't expect you can understand the rule without a couple of
examples ;-)


File: python.info,  Node: 範例<55>,  Next: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Prev: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.3 範例
-----------

First example.  Consider the following hierarchy:

     >>> O = object
     >>> class F(O): pass
     >>> class E(O): pass
     >>> class D(O): pass
     >>> class C(D,F): pass
     >>> class B(D,E): pass
     >>> class A(B,C): pass

In this case the inheritance graph can be drawn as:

                                    6
                                   ---
          Level 3                 | O |                  (more general)
                                /  ---  \
                               /    |    \                      |
                              /     |     \                     |
                             /      |      \                    |
                            ---    ---    ---                   |
          Level 2        3 | D | 4| E |  | F | 5                |
                            ---    ---    ---                   |
                             \  \ _ /       |                   |
                              \    / \ _    |                   |
                               \  /      \  |                   |
                                ---      ---                    |
          Level 1            1 | B |    | C | 2                 |
                                ---      ---                    |
                                  \      /                      |
                                   \    /                      \ /
                                     ---
          Level 0                 0 | A |                (more specialized)
                                     ---

The linearizations of O,D,E and F are trivial:

     L[O] = O
     L[D] = D O
     L[E] = E O
     L[F] = F O

The linearization of B can be computed as:

     L[B] = B + merge(DO, EO, DE)

We see that D is a good head, therefore we take it and we are reduced to
compute ‘merge(O,EO,E)’.  Now O is not a good head, since it is in the
tail of the sequence EO. In this case the rule says that we have to skip
to the next sequence.  Then we see that E is a good head; we take it and
we are reduced to compute ‘merge(O,O)’ which gives O. Therefore:

     L[B] =  B D E O

Using the same procedure one finds:

     L[C] = C + merge(DO,FO,DF)
          = C + D + merge(O,FO,F)
          = C + D + F + merge(O,O)
          = C D F O

Now we can compute:

     L[A] = A + merge(BDEO,CDFO,BC)
          = A + B + merge(DEO,CDFO,C)
          = A + B + C + merge(DEO,DFO)
          = A + B + C + D + merge(EO,FO)
          = A + B + C + D + E + merge(O,FO)
          = A + B + C + D + E + F + merge(O,O)
          = A B C D E F O

In this example, the linearization is ordered in a pretty nice way
according to the inheritance level, in the sense that lower levels (i.e.
more specialized classes) have higher precedence (see the inheritance
graph).  However, this is not the general case.

I leave as an exercise for the reader to compute the linearization for
my second example:

     >>> O = object
     >>> class F(O): pass
     >>> class E(O): pass
     >>> class D(O): pass
     >>> class C(D,F): pass
     >>> class B(E,D): pass
     >>> class A(B,C): pass

The only difference with the previous example is the change B(D,E) ->
B(E,D); however even such a little modification completely changes the
ordering of the hierarchy:

                                     6
                                    ---
          Level 3                  | O |
                                 /  ---  \
                                /    |    \
                               /     |     \
                              /      |      \
                            ---     ---    ---
          Level 2        2 | E | 4 | D |  | F | 5
                            ---     ---    ---
                             \      / \     /
                              \    /   \   /
                               \  /     \ /
                                ---     ---
          Level 1            1 | B |   | C | 3
                                ---     ---
                                 \       /
                                  \     /
                                    ---
          Level 0                0 | A |
                                    ---

Notice that the class E, which is in the second level of the hierarchy,
precedes the class C, which is in the first level of the hierarchy, i.e.
E is more specialized than C, even if it is in a higher level.

A lazy programmer can obtain the MRO directly from Python 2.2, since in
this case it coincides with the Python 2.3 linearization.  It is enough
to invoke the *note mro(): 1cbd. method of class A:

     >>> A.mro()
     [<class 'A'>, <class 'B'>, <class 'E'>,
     <class 'C'>, <class 'D'>, <class 'F'>,
     <class 'object'>]

Finally, let me consider the example discussed in the first section,
involving a serious order disagreement.  In this case, it is
straightforward to compute the linearizations of O, X, Y, A and B:

          L[O] = 0
          L[X] = X O
          L[Y] = Y O
          L[A] = A X Y O
          L[B] = B Y X O

However, it is impossible to compute the linearization for a class C
that inherits from A and B:

     L[C] = C + merge(AXYO, BYXO, AB)
          = C + A + merge(XYO, BYXO, B)
          = C + A + B + merge(XYO, YXO)

At this point we cannot merge the lists XYO and YXO, since X is in the
tail of YXO whereas Y is in the tail of XYO: therefore there are no good
heads and the C3 algorithm stops.  Python 2.3 raises an error and
refuses to create the class C.


File: python.info,  Node: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Next: The end,  Prev: 範例<55>,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.4 Bad Method Resolution Orders
-----------------------------------

A MRO is 'bad' when it breaks such fundamental properties as local
precedence ordering and monotonicity.  In this section, I will show that
both the MRO for classic classes and the MRO for new style classes in
Python 2.2 are bad.

It is easier to start with the local precedence ordering.  Consider the
following example:

     >>> F=type('Food',(),{'remember2buy':'spam'})
     >>> E=type('Eggs',(F,),{'remember2buy':'eggs'})
     >>> G=type('GoodFood',(F,E),{}) # under Python 2.3 this is an error!

with inheritance diagram

                       O
                       |
          (buy spam)   F
                       | \
                       | E   (buy eggs)
                       | /
                       G

                (buy eggs or spam ?)

We see that class G inherits from F and E, with F 'before' E: therefore
we would expect the attribute 'G.remember2buy' to be inherited by
'F.rembermer2buy' and not by 'E.remember2buy': nevertheless Python 2.2
gives

     >>> G.remember2buy
     'eggs'

This is a breaking of local precedence ordering since the order in the
local precedence list, i.e.  the list of the parents of G, is not
preserved in the Python 2.2 linearization of G:

     L[G,P22]= G E F object   # F *follows* E

One could argue that the reason why F follows E in the Python 2.2
linearization is that F is less specialized than E, since F is the
superclass of E; nevertheless the breaking of local precedence ordering
is quite non-intuitive and error prone.  This is particularly true since
it is a different from old style classes:

     >>> class F: remember2buy='spam'
     >>> class E(F): remember2buy='eggs'
     >>> class G(F,E): pass
     >>> G.remember2buy
     'spam'

In this case the MRO is GFEF and the local precedence ordering is
preserved.

As a general rule, hierarchies such as the previous one should be
avoided, since it is unclear if F should override E or vice-versa.
Python 2.3 solves the ambiguity by raising an exception in the creation
of class G, effectively stopping the programmer from generating
ambiguous hierarchies.  The reason for that is that the C3 algorithm
fails when the merge:

     merge(FO,EFO,FE)

cannot be computed, because F is in the tail of EFO and E is in the tail
of FE.

The real solution is to design a non-ambiguous hierarchy, i.e.  to
derive G from E and F (the more specific first) and not from F and E; in
this case the MRO is GEF without any doubt.

                     O
                     |
                     F (spam)
                   / |
          (eggs)   E |
                   \ |
                     G
                       (eggs, no doubt)

Python 2.3 forces the programmer to write good hierarchies (or, at
least, less error-prone ones).

On a related note, let me point out that the Python 2.3 algorithm is
smart enough to recognize obvious mistakes, as the duplication of
classes in the list of parents:

     >>> class A(object): pass
     >>> class C(A,A): pass # error
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     TypeError: duplicate base class A

Python 2.2 (both for classic classes and new style classes) in this
situation, would not raise any exception.

Finally, I would like to point out two lessons we have learned from this
example:

  1. despite the name, the MRO determines the resolution order of
     attributes, not only of methods;

  2. the default food for Pythonistas is spam !  (but you already knew
     that ;-)

Having discussed the issue of local precedence ordering, let me now
consider the issue of monotonicity.  My goal is to show that neither the
MRO for classic classes nor that for Python 2.2 new style classes is
monotonic.

To prove that the MRO for classic classes is non-monotonic is rather
trivial, it is enough to look at the diamond diagram:

             C
            / \
           /   \
          A     B
           \   /
            \ /
             D

One easily discerns the inconsistency:

     L[B,P21] = B C        # B precedes C : B's methods win
     L[D,P21] = D A C B C  # B follows C  : C's methods win!

On the other hand, there are no problems with the Python 2.2 and 2.3
MROs, they give both:

     L[D] = D A B C

Guido points out in his essay (1) that the classic MRO is not so bad in
practice, since one can typically avoids diamonds for classic classes.
But all new style classes inherit from ‘object’, therefore diamonds are
unavoidable and inconsistencies shows up in every multiple inheritance
graph.

The MRO of Python 2.2 makes breaking monotonicity difficult, but not
impossible.  The following example, originally provided by Samuele
Pedroni, shows that the MRO of Python 2.2 is non-monotonic:

     >>> class A(object): pass
     >>> class B(object): pass
     >>> class C(object): pass
     >>> class D(object): pass
     >>> class E(object): pass
     >>> class K1(A,B,C): pass
     >>> class K2(D,B,E): pass
     >>> class K3(D,A):   pass
     >>> class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

Here are the linearizations according to the C3 MRO (the reader should
verify these linearizations as an exercise and draw the inheritance
diagram ;-)

     L[A] = A O
     L[B] = B O
     L[C] = C O
     L[D] = D O
     L[E] = E O
     L[K1]= K1 A B C O
     L[K2]= K2 D B E O
     L[K3]= K3 D A O
     L[Z] = Z K1 K2 K3 D A B C E O

Python 2.2 gives exactly the same linearizations for A, B, C, D, E, K1,
K2 and K3, but a different linearization for Z:

     L[Z,P22] = Z K1 K3 A K2 D B C E O

It is clear that this linearization is 'wrong', since A comes before D
whereas in the linearization of K3 A comes 'after' D. In other words, in
K3 methods derived by D override methods derived by A, but in Z, which
still is a subclass of K3, methods derived by A override methods derived
by D! This is a violation of monotonicity.  Moreover, the Python 2.2
linearization of Z is also inconsistent with local precedence ordering,
since the local precedence list of the class Z is [K1, K2, K3] (K2
precedes K3), whereas in the linearization of Z K2 'follows' K3.  These
problems explain why the 2.2 rule has been dismissed in favor of the C3
rule.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Guido van Rossum's essay, 'Unifying types and classes in Python
2.2':
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20140210194412/http://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.2/descrintro’


File: python.info,  Node: The end,  Next: Resources,  Prev: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.5 The end
--------------

This section is for the impatient reader, who skipped all the previous
sections and jumped immediately to the end.  This section is for the
lazy programmer too, who didn't want to exercise her/his brain.
Finally, it is for the programmer with some hubris, otherwise s/he would
not be reading a paper on the C3 method resolution order in multiple
inheritance hierarchies ;-) These three virtues taken all together (and
'not' separately) deserve a prize: the prize is a short Python 2.2
script that allows you to compute the 2.3 MRO without risk to your
brain.  Simply change the last line to play with the various examples I
have discussed in this paper.:

     #<mro.py>

     """C3 algorithm by Samuele Pedroni (with readability enhanced by me)."""

     class __metaclass__(type):
         "All classes are metamagically modified to be nicely printed"
         __repr__ = lambda cls: cls.__name__

     class ex_2:
         "Serious order disagreement" #From Guido
         class O: pass
         class X(O): pass
         class Y(O): pass
         class A(X,Y): pass
         class B(Y,X): pass
         try:
             class Z(A,B): pass #creates Z(A,B) in Python 2.2
         except TypeError:
             pass # Z(A,B) cannot be created in Python 2.3

     class ex_5:
         "My first example"
         class O: pass
         class F(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class C(D,F): pass
         class B(D,E): pass
         class A(B,C): pass

     class ex_6:
         "My second example"
         class O: pass
         class F(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class C(D,F): pass
         class B(E,D): pass
         class A(B,C): pass

     class ex_9:
         "Difference between Python 2.2 MRO and C3" #From Samuele
         class O: pass
         class A(O): pass
         class B(O): pass
         class C(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class K1(A,B,C): pass
         class K2(D,B,E): pass
         class K3(D,A): pass
         class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

     def merge(seqs):
         print '\n\nCPL[%s]=%s' % (seqs[0][0],seqs),
         res = []; i=0
         while 1:
           nonemptyseqs=[seq for seq in seqs if seq]
           if not nonemptyseqs: return res
           i+=1; print '\n',i,'round: candidates...',
           for seq in nonemptyseqs: # find merge candidates among seq heads
               cand = seq[0]; print ' ',cand,
               nothead=[s for s in nonemptyseqs if cand in s[1:]]
               if nothead: cand=None #reject candidate
               else: break
           if not cand: raise "Inconsistent hierarchy"
           res.append(cand)
           for seq in nonemptyseqs: # remove cand
               if seq[0] == cand: del seq[0]

     def mro(C):
         "Compute the class precedence list (mro) according to C3"
         return merge([[C]]+map(mro,C.__bases__)+[list(C.__bases__)])

     def print_mro(C):
         print '\nMRO[%s]=%s' % (C,mro(C))
         print '\nP22 MRO[%s]=%s' % (C,C.mro())

     print_mro(ex_9.Z)

     #</mro.py>

That's all folks,

     enjoy !


File: python.info,  Node: Resources,  Prev: The end,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.6 Resources
----------------


File: python.info,  Node: Python 常見問題,  Next: 已棄用項目,  Prev: Python 如何達成任務,  Up: Top

10 Python 常見問題
******************

* Menu:

* 一般的 Python 常見問答集::
* 程式開發常見問答集::
* 設計和歷史常見問答集::
* 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題::
* 擴充/嵌入常見問題集::
* 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集::
* 圖形使用者介面常見問答集::
* 「為什麼 Python 被安裝在我的機器上？」常見問答集::


File: python.info,  Node: 一般的 Python 常見問答集,  Next: 程式開發常見問答集,  Up: Python 常見問題

10.1 一般的 Python 常見問答集
=============================

* Menu:

* 一般資訊::
* 在真實世界中的 Python::


File: python.info,  Node: 一般資訊,  Next: 在真實世界中的 Python,  Up: 一般的 Python 常見問答集

10.1.1 一般資訊
---------------

* Menu:

* 什麼是 Python？::
* 什麼是 Python 軟體基金會？::
* 使用 Python 時有任何版權限制嗎？::
* 當初為什麼 Python 會被創造出來？::
* 什麼是 Python 擅長的事情？::
* Python 的版本編號系統是如何運作的？::
* 我要如何得到 Python 的原始碼複本？::
* 我要如何取得 Python 的說明文件？::
* 我從來沒有寫過程式，有沒有 Python 的教學？::
* 有沒有 Python 專屬的新聞群組或郵件討論群？::
* 如何取得 Python 的 beta 測試版本？::
* 如何提交 Python 的錯誤報告和修補程式？::
* 是否有關於 Python 的任何已出版文章可供參考？::
* 有沒有關於 Python 的書？::
* www.python.org 的真實位置在哪裡？: www python org 的真實位置在哪裡？.
* 為什麼要取名為 Python？::
* 我需要喜歡「Monty Python 的飛行馬戲團」嗎？::


File: python.info,  Node: 什麼是 Python？,  Next: 什麼是 Python 軟體基金會？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.1 什麼是 Python？
........................

Python 是一種直譯的、互動的、物件導向的程式設計語言。它結合了模組、例外
、動態型別 (dynamic typing)、非常高階的動態資料型別，以及 class（類別）
。它能支援物件導向程式設計之外的多種程式設計典範，例如程序式
(procedural) 和函式語言 (functional) 程式設計。Python 結合了卓越的功能與
非常清晰的語法。它有許多系統呼叫和函式庫的介面，以及各種視窗系統的介面，
並且在 C 或 C++ 中可以擴充。它還可以作為一種擴充語言，使用於需要可程式化
介面 (programmable interface) 的應用程式。最後，Python 是可攜的
(portable)：它能運行在許多 Unix 的變體上，包括 Linux 和 macOS，也能運行
在 Windows 上。

要尋找更多內容，請從 *note Python 教學: 19ca.開始。Python 初學者指南
(1)可連結到其他介紹式教學以及學習 Python 的資源。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: 什麼是 Python 軟體基金會？,  Next: 使用 Python 時有任何版權限制嗎？,  Prev: 什麼是 Python？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.2 什麼是 Python 軟體基金會？
...................................

Python 軟體基金會 (Python Software Foundation) 是一個獨立的非營利性組織
，它擁有 Python 2.1 版與之後各版本的版權。PSF 的使命在於推展 Python 程式
設計語言相關的開放原始碼技術，以及宣傳 Python 的使用。PSF 首頁的網址是
‘https://www.python.org/psf/’。

在美國捐款給 PSF 是免稅的。如果你使用了 Python 且發現它很有用，請至 PSF
捐款頁面(1)為它做出貢獻。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/psf/donations/


File: python.info,  Node: 使用 Python 時有任何版權限制嗎？,  Next: 當初為什麼 Python 會被創造出來？,  Prev: 什麼是 Python 軟體基金會？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.3 使用 Python 時有任何版權限制嗎？
.........................................

你可以對原始碼做任何你想做的事情，只要你保留版權，並且在你製作的任何關於
Python 的說明文件中顯示這些版權即可。如果你遵守版權規則，就可以將 Python
用於商業用途，以原始碼或二進制形式（修改或未修改）銷售 Python 的複本，或
者以某種形式銷售內含 Python 的產品。當然，我們仍然會想要知道所有的
Python 商業用途。

請參閱 授權頁面(1)，查詢更深入的說明和 PSF 授權全文的連結。

Python 標誌是註冊商標，在某些情況下需要許可才能使用它。請參閱商標使用政
策(2)以取得更多資訊。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3/license.html

   (2) https://www.python.org/psf/trademarks/


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10.1.1.4 當初為什麼 Python 會被創造出來？
.........................................

以下是由 Guido van Rossum 所撰寫，關於這一切如何開始的'非常'簡短的摘要：

     我在 CWI 的 ABC 小組中擁有實作直譯語言方面的豐富經驗，而透過與該小
     組的合作，我學到了很多關於語言設計的知識。這是許多 Python 功能的起
     源，包括使用縮排進行陳述式分組以及納入非常高階的資料型別（儘管在
     Python 中的細節都已經不同）。

     我對 ABC 語言有一些牢騷，但我也喜歡它的許多功能。想要擴充 ABC 語言
     （或其實作）來去除我的抱怨是不可能的。事實上，缺乏可擴充性就是它最
     大的問題之一。我有一些使用 Modula-2+ 的經驗，也與 Modula-3 的設計者
     交談過，並閱讀了 Modula-3 的報告。Modula-3 就是用於例外及另外一些
     Python 功能的語法和語義的起源。

     我當時正在 CWI 的 Amoeba 分散式作業系統小組工作。我們需要一種比編寫
     C 程式或 Bourne shell 腳本更好的方法來進行系統管理，因為 Amoeba 有
     自己的系統呼叫介面，而它無法簡單地從 Bourne shell 進行存取。我在
     Amoeba 中處理錯誤的經驗，使我深切地意識到例外作為程式設計語言功能的
     重要性。

     我突然想到，一種具有類似 ABC 的語法但可以存取 Amoeba 系統呼叫的腳本
     語言將能滿足該需求。我了解編寫 Amoeba 專用語言是愚蠢的，所以我決定
     ，我需要一種可以廣泛擴充的語言。

     在 1989 年的聖誕節假期，我有很多自由時間，所以我決定來嘗試一下。在
     接下來的一年裡，雖然我大部分時間仍然在為此而努力，但 Python 在
     Amoeba 專案中的使用得到了越來越多的成功，且同事們的回饋也使我為它增
     加了許多早期的改進。

     在 1991 年 2月，經過一年多的發展，我決定將它發表到 USENET。其他的記
     錄都在 ‘Misc/HISTORY’ 檔案中。


File: python.info,  Node: 什麼是 Python 擅長的事情？,  Next: Python 的版本編號系統是如何運作的？,  Prev: 當初為什麼 Python 會被創造出來？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.5 什麼是 Python 擅長的事情？
...................................

Python 是一種高階的、用途廣泛的程式設計語言，可以用來解決許多不同類型的
問題。

這個語言提供了一個大型的標準函式庫，涵蓋了字串處理（正規表示式、
Unicode、檔案之間的差異計算）、網際網路協定（HTTP、FTP、SMTP、XML-RPC、
POP、IMAP）、軟體工程（單元測試、日誌記錄、效能分析、剖析 Python 程式碼
）以及作業系統介面（系統呼叫、檔案系統、TCP/IP 插座 (socket)）等領域。請
查看 *note Python 標準函式庫 (Standard Library): 13d. 的目錄，以了解可用
的函式。此外，還有各式各樣的第三方擴充。請查詢 Python 套件索引 (Python
Package Index)(1) 來尋找你有興趣的套件。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: Python 的版本編號系統是如何運作的？,  Next: 我要如何得到 Python 的原始碼複本？,  Prev: 什麼是 Python 擅長的事情？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.6 Python 的版本編號系統是如何運作的？
............................................

Python 各版本會被編號為 "A.B.C" 或 "A.B"：

   * 'A' 為主要版本編號 - 它只會在語言中有真正重大的變更時才會增加。

   * 'B' 為次要版本編號 - 只有在影響範圍較小的變更出現時增加。

   * 'C' 為微小版本編號 —- 會在每個錯誤修正發布 (bugfix release) 增加。

並非所有的發布版本都是錯誤修正發布版本。在一個新功能發布版本的準備階段，
會發布一系列開發版本，標示為 alpha、beta 或候選發布版本 (release
candidate)。Alpha 是介面尚未最終化的早期發布版本；看到兩個 alpha 發布版
本之間的介面變更並不會令人意外。Beta 則更為穩定，保留了現有的介面，但可
能會增加新的模組，而候選發布版本會被凍結，除了需要修正關鍵錯誤之外，不會
再進行任何變更。

Alpha、beta 和候選發布版本都有一個額外的後綴：

   * Alpha 版本的後綴是 "aN"，其中 'N' 是某個較小的數字。

   * Beta 版本的後綴是 "bN"，其中 'N' 是某個較小的數字。

   * 候選發布版本的後綴是 "rcN"，其中 'N' 是某個較小的數字。

換句話說，所有標記為 '2.0aN' 的版本都在標記為 '2.0bN' 的版本之前，而
'2.0bN' 版本都在標記為 '2.0rcN' 的版本之前，而'它們'都是在 2.0 版之前。

你還可以找到帶有「+」後綴的版本編號，例如「2.2+」。這些是未發布的版本，
直接從 CPython 的開發儲存庫被建置。實際上，在每一次的最終次要版本發布完
成之後，版本編號將會被增加到下一個次要版本，並成為「a0」版，例如「
2.4a0」。

See the Developer's Guide(1) for more information about the development
cycle, and PEP 387(2) to learn more about Python's backward
compatibility policy.  See also the documentation for *note sys.version:
b8d, *note sys.hexversion: 409c, and *note sys.version_info: 49c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/developer-workflow/development-cycle/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: 我要如何得到 Python 的原始碼複本？,  Next: 我要如何取得 Python 的說明文件？,  Prev: Python 的版本編號系統是如何運作的？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.7 我要如何得到 Python 的原始碼複本？
...........................................

最新的 Python 原始碼發行版永遠可以從 python.org 取得，在
‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’。最新的開發中原始碼可以在
‘https://github.com/python/cpython/’ 取得。

原始碼發行版是一個以 gzip 壓縮的 tar 檔，它包含完整的 C 原始碼、Sphinx 格
式的說明文件、Python 函式庫模組、範例程式，以及幾個好用的可自由發行軟體
。該原始碼在大多數 UNIX 平台上，都是可以立即編譯及運行的。

關於取得和編譯原始碼的詳細資訊，請參閱 Python 開發人員指南中的 "Getting
Started" 段落(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/setup/


File: python.info,  Node: 我要如何取得 Python 的說明文件？,  Next: 我從來沒有寫過程式，有沒有 Python 的教學？,  Prev: 我要如何得到 Python 的原始碼複本？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.8 我要如何取得 Python 的說明文件？
.........................................

Python 目前穩定版本的標準說明文件可在 ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’ 找到
。PDF、純文字和可下載的 HTML 版本也可在
‘https://docs.python.org/3/download.html’ 找到。

說明文件是以 reStructuredText 格式編寫，並由 Sphinx 說明文件工具(1)處理
。說明文件的 reStructuredText 原始碼是 Python 原始碼發行版的一部分。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sphinx-doc.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 我從來沒有寫過程式，有沒有 Python 的教學？,  Next: 有沒有 Python 專屬的新聞群組或郵件討論群？,  Prev: 我要如何取得 Python 的說明文件？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.9 我從來沒有寫過程式，有沒有 Python 的教學？
...................................................

有許多可用的教學和書籍。標準說明文件包括 *note Python 教學: 19ca.。

要尋找 Python 程式設計初學者的資訊，包括教學資源列表，請參閱初學者指南
(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: 有沒有 Python 專屬的新聞群組或郵件討論群？,  Next: 如何取得 Python 的 beta 測試版本？,  Prev: 我從來沒有寫過程式，有沒有 Python 的教學？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.10 有沒有 Python 專屬的新聞群組或郵件討論群？
....................................................

有一個新聞群組 (newsgroup)，‘comp.lang.python’，也有一個郵件討論群
(mailing list)，python-list(1)。新聞群組和郵件討論群是彼此相通的——如果你
能閱讀新聞，則無需加入郵件討論群。‘comp.lang.python’ 的流量很高，每天會
收到數百篇文章，而 Usenet 的讀者通常較能夠處理這樣的文章數量。

新的軟體發布版本及事件的通知，可以在 comp.lang.python.announce 中找到，
這是一個低流量的精選討論群，每天收到大約五篇文章。它也能從
python-announce 郵件討論群(2)的頁面中訂閱。

關於其他郵件討論群和新聞群組的更多資訊，可以在
‘https://www.python.org/community/lists/’ 中找到。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-list

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-announce-list.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 如何取得 Python 的 beta 測試版本？,  Next: 如何提交 Python 的錯誤報告和修補程式？,  Prev: 有沒有 Python 專屬的新聞群組或郵件討論群？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.11 如何取得 Python 的 beta 測試版本？
............................................

Alpha 和 beta 發布版本可以從 ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’ 取得。
所有的發布版本都會在 comp.lang.python 和 comp.lang.python.announce 新聞
群組上宣布，也會在 Python 首頁 ‘https://www.python.org/’ 中宣布；RSS 新
聞摘要也是可使用的。

你也可以藉由 Git 來存取 Python 的開發版本。更多詳細資訊，請參閱 Python 開
發人員指南(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/


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10.1.1.12 如何提交 Python 的錯誤報告和修補程式？
................................................

要回報一個錯誤 (bug) 或提交一個修補程式 (patch)，請使用於
‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’ 的問題追蹤系統。

關於如何開發 Python 的更多資訊，請參閱 Python 開發人員指南(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/


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10.1.1.13 是否有關於 Python 的任何已出版文章可供參考？
......................................................

也許最好是引用你最喜歡的關於 Python 的書。

最早討論 Python 的文章(1)是在 1991 年寫的，但現在來看已經過時了。

     Guido van Rossum 和 Jelke de Boer，「使用 Python 程式設計語言互動式
     測試遠端伺服器」，CWI 季刊，第 4 卷，第 4 期（1991 年 12 月），阿姆
     斯特丹，第 283–303 頁。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/18204


File: python.info,  Node: 有沒有關於 Python 的書？,  Next: www python org 的真實位置在哪裡？,  Prev: 是否有關於 Python 的任何已出版文章可供參考？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.14 有沒有關於 Python 的書？
..................................

有，很多書已經出版，也有更多正在出版中的書。請參閱 python.org 的 wiki 在
‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonBooks’ 頁面中的書目清單。

你也可以在網路書店搜尋關鍵字「Python」，並過濾掉 Monty Python 的結果；或
者可以搜尋「Python」和「語言」。


File: python.info,  Node: www python org 的真實位置在哪裡？,  Next: 為什麼要取名為 Python？,  Prev: 有沒有關於 Python 的書？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.15 www.python.org 的真實位置在哪裡？
...........................................

Python 專案的基礎建設遍佈世界各地，由 Python 基礎建設團隊管理。詳細資訊
在此(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://infra.psf.io


File: python.info,  Node: 為什麼要取名為 Python？,  Next: 我需要喜歡「Monty Python 的飛行馬戲團」嗎？,  Prev: www python org 的真實位置在哪裡？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.16 為什麼要取名為 Python？
.................................

當 Guido van Rossum 開始實作 Python 時，他也正在閱讀 1970 年代 BBC 喜劇
節目「Monty Python 的飛行馬戲團」(1)的出版劇本。Van Rossum 認為他需要一
個簡短、獨特且略帶神秘的名字，因此他決定將該語言稱為 Python。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python


File: python.info,  Node: 我需要喜歡「Monty Python 的飛行馬戲團」嗎？,  Prev: 為什麼要取名為 Python？,  Up: 一般資訊

10.1.1.17 我需要喜歡「Monty Python 的飛行馬戲團」嗎？
.....................................................

不需要，但它有幫助。:)


File: python.info,  Node: 在真實世界中的 Python,  Prev: 一般資訊,  Up: 一般的 Python 常見問答集

10.1.2 在真實世界中的 Python
----------------------------

* Menu:

* Python 的穩定性如何？::
* 有多少人在使用 Python？::
* 有沒有任何重要的專案使用 Python 完成開發？::
* Python 未來預期會有哪些新的開發？::
* 對 Python 提出不相容的變更建議是否適當？::
* Python 對於入門的程式設計師而言是否為好的語言？::


File: python.info,  Node: Python 的穩定性如何？,  Next: 有多少人在使用 Python？,  Up: 在真實世界中的 Python

10.1.2.1 Python 的穩定性如何？
..............................

非常穩定。自從 1991 年開始，大約每隔 6 到 18 個月都會發布新的穩定版本，
而且這看起來會繼續進行。從 3.9 版開始，Python 每隔 12 個月將會釋出一個新
功能發行版本 ( PEP 602(1))。

開發人員會釋出針對先前版本的錯誤修正發布版本，因此現有發布版本的穩定性會
逐漸提高。錯誤修正發布版本是由版本編號的第三個部分表示（例如 3.5.3，
3.6.2），這些版本會被用於改善穩定性；在錯誤修正發布版本中，只會包含針對
已知問題的修正，並且會保證介面在一系列的錯誤修正發布版本中維持不變。

The latest stable releases can always be found on the Python download
page(2).  Python 3.x is the recommended version and supported by most
widely used libraries.  Python 2.x is not maintained anymore(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/


File: python.info,  Node: 有多少人在使用 Python？,  Next: 有沒有任何重要的專案使用 Python 完成開發？,  Prev: Python 的穩定性如何？,  Up: 在真實世界中的 Python

10.1.2.2 有多少人在使用 Python？
................................

可能有幾百萬個使用者，但實際的數量是難以確定的。

Python 是可以免費下載的，所以不會有銷售數據，而且它可以從許多不同的網站
取得，並與許多 Linux 發行版套裝在一起，所以下載次數的統計也無法反映完整
的情況。

comp.lang.python 新聞群組非常活躍，但並非所有 Python 使用者都會在該群組
發表文章或甚至閱讀它。


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10.1.2.3 有沒有任何重要的專案使用 Python 完成開發？
...................................................

要查看使用 Python 的專案清單，請參閱
‘https://www.python.org/about/success’。藉由查詢過去的 Python 會議記錄
(1)可以看見來自許多不同公司和組織的貢獻。

備受矚目的 Python 專案包括 Mailman 郵件討論群管理員(2)和 Zope 應用程式伺
服器(3)。有一些 Linux 發行版，最著名的是 Red Hat(4)，已經用 Python 編寫
了部分或全部的安裝程式及系統管理軟體。內部使用 Python 的公司包括 Google、
Yahoo 和 Lucasfilm Ltd。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/community/workshops/

   (2) https://www.list.org

   (3) https://www.zope.dev

   (4) https://www.redhat.com


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10.1.2.4 Python 未來預期會有哪些新的開發？
..........................................

請至 ‘https://peps.python.org/’ 參閱 Python 增強提案 (Python Enhancement
Proposal, PEP)。PEP 是用來描述一項被建議的 Python 新功能的設計文件，它提
供了簡潔的技術規範及基本原理。請尋找一篇名為「Python X.Y Release
Schedule（發布時程表）」的 PEP，其中 X.Y 是一個尚未公開發布的版本。

新的開發會在 python-dev 郵件討論群(1)中討論。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-dev.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 對 Python 提出不相容的變更建議是否適當？,  Next: Python 對於入門的程式設計師而言是否為好的語言？,  Prev: Python 未來預期會有哪些新的開發？,  Up: 在真實世界中的 Python

10.1.2.5 對 Python 提出不相容的變更建議是否適當？
.................................................

一般來說，不適當。全世界已經有數百萬行 Python 程式碼，因此在語言中的任何
變更，若會使現有程式的一小部分成為無效，它都是不被允許的。即使你可以提供
轉換程式，仍然會有需要更新全部說明文件的問題；市面上已經有很多介紹
Python 的書，而我們不想一下子就把它們都變為無效。

如果一項功能必須被變更，那麼一定要提供逐步升級的路徑。 PEP 5(1) 描述了要
引進反向不相容 (backward-incompatible) 的變更，同時也要對使用者的擾亂最
小化，所需遵循的程序。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/


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10.1.2.6 Python 對於入門的程式設計師而言是否為好的語言？
........................................................

是的。

學生們仍然普遍地會從一種程序語言和靜態型別語言 (statically typed
language) 開始入門，這些語言像是 Pascal、C，或是 C++ 或 Java 的某個子集
。透過學習 Python 作為他們的第一個語言，學生們可能會學得更好。Python 具
有非常簡單且一致的語法和一個大型的標準函式庫，最重要的是，在入門程式設計
課程中使用 Python 可以讓學生專注於重要的程式設計技巧，例如問題的分解和資
料型別的設計。使用 Python，可以快速地向學生介紹基本觀念，例如迴圈和程序
。他們甚至可能在第一堂課中就學到使用者自訂的物件。

對於以前從未進行過程式設計的學生來說，使用靜態型別語言似乎是不自然的。它
使學生必須掌握額外的複雜性，並減慢了課程的節奏。學生們正在試圖學著像電腦
一樣思考、分解問題、設計一致的介面，並封裝資料。雖然從長遠來看，學習使用
靜態型別語言很重要，但在學生的第一堂程式設計課程中，它不一定是最好的課程
主題。

Python 的許多其他面向使它成為一種很好的第一語言。像 Java 一樣，Python 有
一個大型的標準函式庫，因此學生可以在課程的早期就被指派程式設計的專案，且
這些專案能夠'做'一些事情。指派的內容不會侷限於標準的四功能計算機和平衡檢
驗程式。透過使用標準函式庫，學生可以在學習程式設計基礎知識的同時，獲得處
理真實應用程式的滿足感。使用標準函式庫還可以教導學生程式碼再使用 (code
reuse) 的課題。像是 PyGame 等第三方模組也有助於延伸學生的學習領域。

Python 的互動式直譯器使學生能夠在程式設計時測試語言的功能。他們可以開著
一個運行直譯器的視窗，同時在另一個視窗中輸入他們的程式原始碼。如果他們不
記得 list（串列）的 method（方法），他們可以像這樣做：

     >>> L = []
     >>> dir(L)
     ['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__delitem__',
     '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__',
     '__getattribute__', '__getitem__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__iadd__',
     '__imul__', '__init__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__',
     '__mul__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__',
     '__repr__', '__reversed__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__setitem__',
     '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'append', 'clear',
     'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove',
     'reverse', 'sort']
     >>> [d for d in dir(L) if '__' not in d]
     ['append', 'clear', 'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove', 'reverse', 'sort']

     >>> help(L.append)
     Help on built-in function append:

     append(...)
         L.append(object) -> None -- append object to end

     >>> L.append(1)
     >>> L
     [1]

有了直譯器，當學生正在程式設計時，說明文件永遠都不會遠離他們。

Python 也有很好的 IDE。IDLE 是 Python 的一個跨平臺 IDE，它以 Python 編寫
並使用 Tkinter。Emacs 使用者會很高興知道 Emacs 有一個非常好的 Python 模
式。這些程式設計環境全部都能提供語法突顯 (syntax highlighting)、自動縮排
，以及在編寫程式時存取互動式直譯器。要查看 Python 編輯環境的完整清單，請
參閱 Python wiki(1)。

如果你想討論 Python 在教育領域中的使用，你可能會有興趣加入 edu-sig 郵件
討論群(2)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors

   (2) https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/edu-sig


File: python.info,  Node: 程式開發常見問答集,  Next: 設計和歷史常見問答集,  Prev: 一般的 Python 常見問答集,  Up: Python 常見問題

10.2 程式開發常見問答集
=======================

* Menu:

* 常見問題::
* 核心語言::
* 數字和字串::
* Performance: Performance<4>.
* Sequences (Tuples/Lists): Sequences Tuples/Lists.
* 物件::
* 模組: 模組<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: 常見問題,  Next: 核心語言,  Up: 程式開發常見問答集

10.2.1 常見問題
---------------

* Menu:

* 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段,具有中斷點,步驟執行等功能的除錯器？: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？.
* 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？::
* 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？::
* Python 程式碼是否有編碼標準或風格指南？::


File: python.info,  Node: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？,  Next: 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？,  Up: 常見問題

10.2.1.1 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段,具有中斷點,步驟執行等功能的除錯器？
.......................................................................

有的。

下面描述了幾個 Python 除錯器，內建函式 *note breakpoint(): 917. 允許你進
入其中任何一個。

pdb 模組是一個簡單但足夠的 Python 控制台模式除錯器。它是標準 Python 函式
庫的一部分，並*note 記錄在函式庫參考手冊: a0.中。你也可以參考 pdb 的程式
碼作為範例來編寫自己的除錯器。

IDLE 交互式開發環境，它是標準 Python 發行版的一部分（通常作為
Tools/scripts/idle3(1) 提供），包括一個圖形除錯器。

PythonWin 是一個 Python IDE，它包含一個基於 pdb 的 GUI 除錯器。
PythonWin 除錯器為斷點著色並具有許多很酷的功能，例如除錯非 PythonWin 程
式。 PythonWin 作為 pywin32(2) 專案的一部分和作為 ActivePython(3) 的一部
分發佈。

Eric(4) 是一個基於 PyQt 和 Scintilla 編輯元件所建構的 IDE。

trepan3k(5) 是一個類似 gdb 的除錯器。

Visual Studio Code(6) 是一個整合了版本控制軟體與除錯工具的 IDE。

有數個商業化Python整合化開發工具包含圖形除錯功能。這些包含：

   * Wing IDE(7)

   * Komodo IDE(8)

   * PyCharm(9)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/scripts/idle3

   (2) https://github.com/mhammond/pywin32

   (3) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (4) https://eric-ide.python-projects.org/

   (5) https://github.com/rocky/python3-trepan/

   (6) https://code.visualstudio.com/

   (7) https://wingware.com/

   (8) https://www.activestate.com/products/komodo-ide/

   (9) https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/


File: python.info,  Node: 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？,  Next: 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？,  Prev: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？,  Up: 常見問題

10.2.1.2 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？
..................................................

有的。

Pylint(1) 和 Pyflakes(2) 進行基本檢查以幫助你儘早抓出錯誤。

靜態型別檢查器，例如 Mypy(3)、Pyre(4) 和 Pytype(5) 可以檢查 Python 原始
碼中的型別提示。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pylint.pycqa.org/en/latest/index.html

   (2) https://github.com/PyCQA/pyflakes

   (3) https://mypy-lang.org/

   (4) https://pyre-check.org/

   (5) https://github.com/google/pytype


File: python.info,  Node: 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？,  Next: Python 程式碼是否有編碼標準或風格指南？,  Prev: 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？,  Up: 常見問題

10.2.1.3 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？
.................................................

You don't need the ability to compile Python to C code if all you want
is a stand-alone program that users can download and run without having
to install the Python distribution first.  There are a number of tools
that determine the set of modules required by a program and bind these
modules together with a Python binary to produce a single executable.

One is to use the freeze tool, which is included in the Python source
tree as Tools/freeze(1).  It converts Python byte code to C arrays; with
a C compiler you can embed all your modules into a new program, which is
then linked with the standard Python modules.

It works by scanning your source recursively for import statements (in
both forms) and looking for the modules in the standard Python path as
well as in the source directory (for built-in modules).  It then turns
the bytecode for modules written in Python into C code (array
initializers that can be turned into code objects using the marshal
module) and creates a custom-made config file that only contains those
built-in modules which are actually used in the program.  It then
compiles the generated C code and links it with the rest of the Python
interpreter to form a self-contained binary which acts exactly like your
script.

以下套件可以幫助建立 console 和 GUI 可執行檔案：

   * Nuitka(2)（跨平台）

   * PyInstaller(3)（跨平台）

   * PyOxidizer(4)（跨平台）

   * cx_Freeze(5)（跨平台）

   * py2app(6)（僅限 macOS）

   * py2exe(7)（僅限 Windows）

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Tools/freeze

   (2) https://nuitka.net/

   (3) https://pyinstaller.org/

   (4) https://pyoxidizer.readthedocs.io/en/stable/

   (5) https://marcelotduarte.github.io/cx_Freeze/

   (6) https://github.com/ronaldoussoren/py2app

   (7) https://www.py2exe.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 程式碼是否有編碼標準或風格指南？,  Prev: 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？,  Up: 常見問題

10.2.1.4 Python 程式碼是否有編碼標準或風格指南？
................................................

是的。標準函式庫模組所需的編碼風格稱為 PEP 8(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: 核心語言,  Next: 數字和字串,  Prev: 常見問題,  Up: 程式開發常見問答集

10.2.2 核心語言
---------------

* Menu:

* 為什麼當變數有值時，我仍得到錯誤訊息 UnboundLocalError？::
* Python 的區域變數和全域變數有什麼規則？::
* Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?::
* 如何跨模組共享全域變數？::
* What are the "best practices" for using import in a module?::
* Why are default values shared between objects?::
* How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?::
* 引數 (arguments) 和參數 (parameters) 有什麼區別？: 引數 arguments 和參數 parameters 有什麼區別？.
* 為什麼更改 list 'y' 也會更改 list 'x'？::
* How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?.
* How do you make a higher order function in Python?::
* 如何在 Python 中複製物件？::
* 如何找到物件的方法或屬性？::
* 我的程式碼如何發現物件的名稱？::
* What's up with the comma operator's precedence?::
* 是否有等效於 C 的 "?;" 三元運算子？: 是否有等效於 C 的 "? " 三元運算子？.
* Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?::
* What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?.


File: python.info,  Node: 為什麼當變數有值時，我仍得到錯誤訊息 UnboundLocalError？,  Next: Python 的區域變數和全域變數有什麼規則？,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.1 為什麼當變數有值時，我仍得到錯誤訊息 UnboundLocalError？
.................................................................

It can be a surprise to get the *note UnboundLocalError: 13ad. in
previously working code when it is modified by adding an assignment
statement somewhere in the body of a function.

這段程式碼:

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def bar():
     ...     print(x)
     ...
     >>> bar()
     10

可以執行,但是這段程式:

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def foo():
     ...     print(x)
     ...     x += 1

導致 ‘UnboundLocalError’：

     >>> foo()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     UnboundLocalError: local variable 'x' referenced before assignment

This is because when you make an assignment to a variable in a scope,
that variable becomes local to that scope and shadows any similarly
named variable in the outer scope.  Since the last statement in foo
assigns a new value to ‘x’, the compiler recognizes it as a local
variable.  Consequently when the earlier ‘print(x)’ attempts to print
the uninitialized local variable and an error results.

在上面的示例中，你可以透過將其聲明為全域變數來存取外部範圍變數：

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def foobar():
     ...     global x
     ...     print(x)
     ...     x += 1
     ...
     >>> foobar()
     10

This explicit declaration is required in order to remind you that
(unlike the superficially analogous situation with class and instance
variables) you are actually modifying the value of the variable in the
outer scope:

     >>> print(x)
     11

You can do a similar thing in a nested scope using the *note nonlocal:
113b. keyword:

     >>> def foo():
     ...    x = 10
     ...    def bar():
     ...        nonlocal x
     ...        print(x)
     ...        x += 1
     ...    bar()
     ...    print(x)
     ...
     >>> foo()
     10
     11


File: python.info,  Node: Python 的區域變數和全域變數有什麼規則？,  Next: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?,  Prev: 為什麼當變數有值時，我仍得到錯誤訊息 UnboundLocalError？,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.2 Python 的區域變數和全域變數有什麼規則？
................................................

In Python, variables that are only referenced inside a function are
implicitly global.  If a variable is assigned a value anywhere within
the function's body, it's assumed to be a local unless explicitly
declared as global.

Though a bit surprising at first, a moment's consideration explains
this.  On one hand, requiring *note global: 1a13. for assigned variables
provides a bar against unintended side-effects.  On the other hand, if
‘global’ was required for all global references, you'd be using ‘global’
all the time.  You'd have to declare as global every reference to a
built-in function or to a component of an imported module.  This clutter
would defeat the usefulness of the ‘global’ declaration for identifying
side-effects.


File: python.info,  Node: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?,  Next: 如何跨模組共享全域變數？,  Prev: Python 的區域變數和全域變數有什麼規則？,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.3 Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?
...........................................................................................

假設你使用 for 循環來定義幾個不同的 lambda（甚至是普通函式），例如：

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(5):
     ...     squares.append(lambda: x**2)

This gives you a list that contains 5 lambdas that calculate ‘x**2’.
You might expect that, when called, they would return, respectively,
‘0’, ‘1’, ‘4’, ‘9’, and ‘16’.  However, when you actually try you will
see that they all return ‘16’:

     >>> squares[2]()
     16
     >>> squares[4]()
     16

This happens because ‘x’ is not local to the lambdas, but is defined in
the outer scope, and it is accessed when the lambda is called -- not
when it is defined.  At the end of the loop, the value of ‘x’ is ‘4’, so
all the functions now return ‘4**2’, i.e.  ‘16’.  You can also verify
this by changing the value of ‘x’ and see how the results of the lambdas
change:

     >>> x = 8
     >>> squares[2]()
     64

In order to avoid this, you need to save the values in variables local
to the lambdas, so that they don't rely on the value of the global ‘x’:

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(5):
     ...     squares.append(lambda n=x: n**2)

Here, ‘n=x’ creates a new variable ‘n’ local to the lambda and computed
when the lambda is defined so that it has the same value that ‘x’ had at
that point in the loop.  This means that the value of ‘n’ will be ‘0’ in
the first lambda, ‘1’ in the second, ‘2’ in the third, and so on.
Therefore each lambda will now return the correct result:

     >>> squares[2]()
     4
     >>> squares[4]()
     16

請注意，此行為並非 lambda 所特有，也適用於常規函式。


File: python.info,  Node: 如何跨模組共享全域變數？,  Next: What are the "best practices" for using import in a module?,  Prev: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.4 如何跨模組共享全域變數？
.................................

The canonical way to share information across modules within a single
program is to create a special module (often called config or cfg).
Just import the config module in all modules of your application; the
module then becomes available as a global name.  Because there is only
one instance of each module, any changes made to the module object get
reflected everywhere.  For example:

config.py：

     x = 0   # Default value of the 'x' configuration setting

mod.py：

     import config
     config.x = 1

main.py：

     import config
     import mod
     print(config.x)

Note that using a module is also the basis for implementing the
singleton design pattern, for the same reason.


File: python.info,  Node: What are the "best practices" for using import in a module?,  Next: Why are default values shared between objects?,  Prev: 如何跨模組共享全域變數？,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.5 What are the "best practices" for using import in a module?
....................................................................

In general, don't use ‘from modulename import *’.  Doing so clutters the
importer's namespace, and makes it much harder for linters to detect
undefined names.

Import modules at the top of a file.  Doing so makes it clear what other
modules your code requires and avoids questions of whether the module
name is in scope.  Using one import per line makes it easy to add and
delete module imports, but using multiple imports per line uses less
screen space.

It's good practice if you import modules in the following order:

  1. 標準函式庫模組 —— 例如 *note sys: d3.、*note os: 9c.、*note
     argparse: 6.、*note re: b4.

  2. third-party library modules (anything installed in Python's
     site-packages directory) - e.g.  ‘dateutil’, ‘requests’,
     ‘PIL.Image’

  3. locally developed modules

It is sometimes necessary to move imports to a function or class to
avoid problems with circular imports.  Gordon McMillan says:

     Circular imports are fine where both modules use the "import
     <module>" form of import.  They fail when the 2nd module wants to
     grab a name out of the first ("from module import name") and the
     import is at the top level.  That's because names in the 1st are
     not yet available, because the first module is busy importing the
     2nd.

In this case, if the second module is only used in one function, then
the import can easily be moved into that function.  By the time the
import is called, the first module will have finished initializing, and
the second module can do its import.

It may also be necessary to move imports out of the top level of code if
some of the modules are platform-specific.  In that case, it may not
even be possible to import all of the modules at the top of the file.
In this case, importing the correct modules in the corresponding
platform-specific code is a good option.

Only move imports into a local scope, such as inside a function
definition, if it's necessary to solve a problem such as avoiding a
circular import or are trying to reduce the initialization time of a
module.  This technique is especially helpful if many of the imports are
unnecessary depending on how the program executes.  You may also want to
move imports into a function if the modules are only ever used in that
function.  Note that loading a module the first time may be expensive
because of the one time initialization of the module, but loading a
module multiple times is virtually free, costing only a couple of
dictionary lookups.  Even if the module name has gone out of scope, the
module is probably available in *note sys.modules: 1745.


File: python.info,  Node: Why are default values shared between objects?,  Next: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?,  Prev: What are the "best practices" for using import in a module?,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.6 Why are default values shared between objects?
.......................................................

This type of bug commonly bites neophyte programmers.  Consider this
function:

     def foo(mydict={}):  # Danger: shared reference to one dict for all calls
         ... compute something ...
         mydict[key] = value
         return mydict

The first time you call this function, ‘mydict’ contains a single item.
The second time, ‘mydict’ contains two items because when ‘foo()’ begins
executing, ‘mydict’ starts out with an item already in it.

It is often expected that a function call creates new objects for
default values.  This is not what happens.  Default values are created
exactly once, when the function is defined.  If that object is changed,
like the dictionary in this example, subsequent calls to the function
will refer to this changed object.

By definition, immutable objects such as numbers, strings, tuples, and
‘None’, are safe from change.  Changes to mutable objects such as
dictionaries, lists, and class instances can lead to confusion.

Because of this feature, it is good programming practice to not use
mutable objects as default values.  Instead, use ‘None’ as the default
value and inside the function, check if the parameter is ‘None’ and
create a new list/dictionary/whatever if it is.  For example, don't
write:

     def foo(mydict={}):
         ...

但是：

     def foo(mydict=None):
         if mydict is None:
             mydict = {}  # create a new dict for local namespace

This feature can be useful.  When you have a function that's
time-consuming to compute, a common technique is to cache the parameters
and the resulting value of each call to the function, and return the
cached value if the same value is requested again.  This is called
"memoizing", and can be implemented like this:

     # Callers can only provide two parameters and optionally pass _cache by keyword
     def expensive(arg1, arg2, *, _cache={}):
         if (arg1, arg2) in _cache:
             return _cache[(arg1, arg2)]

         # Calculate the value
         result = ... expensive computation ...
         _cache[(arg1, arg2)] = result           # Store result in the cache
         return result

You could use a global variable containing a dictionary instead of the
default value; it's a matter of taste.


File: python.info,  Node: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?,  Next: 引數 arguments 和參數 parameters 有什麼區別？,  Prev: Why are default values shared between objects?,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.7 How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?
....................................................................................

Collect the arguments using the ‘*’ and ‘**’ specifiers in the
function's parameter list; this gives you the positional arguments as a
tuple and the keyword arguments as a dictionary.  You can then pass
these arguments when calling another function by using ‘*’ and ‘**’:

     def f(x, *args, **kwargs):
         ...
         kwargs['width'] = '14.3c'
         ...
         g(x, *args, **kwargs)


File: python.info,  Node: 引數 arguments 和參數 parameters 有什麼區別？,  Next: 為什麼更改 list 'y' 也會更改 list 'x'？,  Prev: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.8 引數 (arguments) 和參數 (parameters) 有什麼區別？
..........................................................

*note Parameters: 1c8f. are defined by the names that appear in a
function definition, whereas *note arguments: 154. are the values
actually passed to a function when calling it.  Parameters define what
*note kind of arguments: 1c8f. a function can accept.  For example,
given the function definition:

     def func(foo, bar=None, **kwargs):
         pass

'foo'、'bar' 和 'kwargs' 是 ‘func’ 的參數。然而，當呼叫 ‘func’ 時，例如
：

     func(42, bar=314, extra=somevar)

‘42’ 、 ‘314’ 和 ‘somevar’ 是引數。


File: python.info,  Node: 為什麼更改 list 'y' 也會更改 list 'x'？,  Next: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?,  Prev: 引數 arguments 和參數 parameters 有什麼區別？,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.9 為什麼更改 list 'y' 也會更改 list 'x'？
................................................

如果你寫了像這樣的程式碼：

     >>> x = []
     >>> y = x
     >>> y.append(10)
     >>> y
     [10]
     >>> x
     [10]

你可能想知道為什麼將一個元素附加到 ‘y’ 時也會改變 ‘x’。

產生這個結果的原因有兩個：

  1. Variables are simply names that refer to objects.  Doing ‘y = x’
     doesn't create a copy of the list - it creates a new variable ‘y’
     that refers to the same object ‘x’ refers to.  This means that
     there is only one object (the list), and both ‘x’ and ‘y’ refer to
     it.

  2. list 是 *note mutable: 19f4.，這意味著你可以變更它們的內容。

After the call to ‘append()’, the content of the mutable object has
changed from ‘[]’ to ‘[10]’.  Since both the variables refer to the same
object, using either name accesses the modified value ‘[10]’.

If we instead assign an immutable object to ‘x’:

     >>> x = 5  # ints are immutable
     >>> y = x
     >>> x = x + 1  # 5 can't be mutated, we are creating a new object here
     >>> x
     6
     >>> y
     5

we can see that in this case ‘x’ and ‘y’ are not equal anymore.  This is
because integers are *note immutable: 19ef, and when we do ‘x = x + 1’
we are not mutating the int ‘5’ by incrementing its value; instead, we
are creating a new object (the int ‘6’) and assigning it to ‘x’ (that
is, changing which object ‘x’ refers to).  After this assignment we have
two objects (the ints ‘6’ and ‘5’) and two variables that refer to them
(‘x’ now refers to ‘6’ but ‘y’ still refers to ‘5’).

Some operations (for example ‘y.append(10)’ and ‘y.sort()’) mutate the
object, whereas superficially similar operations (for example ‘y = y +
[10]’ and *note sorted(y): a2f.) create a new object.  In general in
Python (and in all cases in the standard library) a method that mutates
an object will return ‘None’ to help avoid getting the two types of
operations confused.  So if you mistakenly write ‘y.sort()’ thinking it
will give you a sorted copy of ‘y’, you'll instead end up with ‘None’,
which will likely cause your program to generate an easily diagnosed
error.

However, there is one class of operations where the same operation
sometimes has different behaviors with different types: the augmented
assignment operators.  For example, ‘+=’ mutates lists but not tuples or
ints (‘a_list += [1, 2, 3]’ is equivalent to ‘a_list.extend([1, 2, 3])’
and mutates ‘a_list’, whereas ‘some_tuple += (1, 2, 3)’ and ‘some_int +=
1’ create new objects).

換句話說：

   * If we have a mutable object (*note list: 40a, *note dict: 239,
     *note set: 3cc, etc.), we can use some specific operations to
     mutate it and all the variables that refer to it will see the
     change.

   * If we have an immutable object (*note str: 157, *note int: 17e,
     *note tuple: 4e6, etc.), all the variables that refer to it will
     always see the same value, but operations that transform that value
     into a new value always return a new object.

If you want to know if two variables refer to the same object or not,
you can use the *note is: 268. operator, or the built-in function *note
id(): 1293.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?,  Next: How do you make a higher order function in Python?,  Prev: 為什麼更改 list 'y' 也會更改 list 'x'？,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.10 How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?
...............................................................................

Remember that arguments are passed by assignment in Python.  Since
assignment just creates references to objects, there's no alias between
an argument name in the caller and callee, and so no call-by-reference
per se.  You can achieve the desired effect in a number of ways.

  1. 透過回傳結果的元組：

          >>> def func1(a, b):
          ...     a = 'new-value'        # a and b are local names
          ...     b = b + 1              # assigned to new objects
          ...     return a, b            # return new values
          ...
          >>> x, y = 'old-value', 99
          >>> func1(x, y)
          ('new-value', 100)

     This is almost always the clearest solution.

  2. By using global variables.  This isn't thread-safe, and is not
     recommended.

  3. By passing a mutable (changeable in-place) object:

          >>> def func2(a):
          ...     a[0] = 'new-value'     # 'a' references a mutable list
          ...     a[1] = a[1] + 1        # changes a shared object
          ...
          >>> args = ['old-value', 99]
          >>> func2(args)
          >>> args
          ['new-value', 100]

  4. By passing in a dictionary that gets mutated:

          >>> def func3(args):
          ...     args['a'] = 'new-value'     # args is a mutable dictionary
          ...     args['b'] = args['b'] + 1   # change it in-place
          ...
          >>> args = {'a': 'old-value', 'b': 99}
          >>> func3(args)
          >>> args
          {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

  5. Or bundle up values in a class instance:

          >>> class Namespace:
          ...     def __init__(self, /, **args):
          ...         for key, value in args.items():
          ...             setattr(self, key, value)
          ...
          >>> def func4(args):
          ...     args.a = 'new-value'        # args is a mutable Namespace
          ...     args.b = args.b + 1         # change object in-place
          ...
          >>> args = Namespace(a='old-value', b=99)
          >>> func4(args)
          >>> vars(args)
          {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

     There's almost never a good reason to get this complicated.

Your best choice is to return a tuple containing the multiple results.


File: python.info,  Node: How do you make a higher order function in Python?,  Next: 如何在 Python 中複製物件？,  Prev: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.11 How do you make a higher order function in Python?
............................................................

You have two choices: you can use nested scopes or you can use callable
objects.  For example, suppose you wanted to define ‘linear(a,b)’ which
returns a function ‘f(x)’ that computes the value ‘a*x+b’.  Using nested
scopes:

     def linear(a, b):
         def result(x):
             return a * x + b
         return result

或者使用可呼叫物件：

     class linear:

         def __init__(self, a, b):
             self.a, self.b = a, b

         def __call__(self, x):
             return self.a * x + self.b

In both cases,

     taxes = linear(0.3, 2)

gives a callable object where ‘taxes(10e6) == 0.3 * 10e6 + 2’.

The callable object approach has the disadvantage that it is a bit
slower and results in slightly longer code.  However, note that a
collection of callables can share their signature via inheritance:

     class exponential(linear):
         # __init__ inherited
         def __call__(self, x):
             return self.a * (x ** self.b)

物件可以封裝多個方法的狀態：

     class counter:

         value = 0

         def set(self, x):
             self.value = x

         def up(self):
             self.value = self.value + 1

         def down(self):
             self.value = self.value - 1

     count = counter()
     inc, dec, reset = count.up, count.down, count.set

這裡的 ‘inc()’、‘dec()’ 和 ‘reset()’ 就像共享相同計數變數的函式一樣。


File: python.info,  Node: 如何在 Python 中複製物件？,  Next: 如何找到物件的方法或屬性？,  Prev: How do you make a higher order function in Python?,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.12 如何在 Python 中複製物件？
....................................

In general, try *note copy.copy(): 2b5. or *note copy.deepcopy(): 9cb.
for the general case.  Not all objects can be copied, but most can.

Some objects can be copied more easily.  Dictionaries have a *note
copy(): a31. method:

     newdict = olddict.copy()

序列可以透過切片 (slicing) 複製：

     new_l = l[:]


File: python.info,  Node: 如何找到物件的方法或屬性？,  Next: 我的程式碼如何發現物件的名稱？,  Prev: 如何在 Python 中複製物件？,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.13 如何找到物件的方法或屬性？
....................................

For an instance ‘x’ of a user-defined class, *note dir(x): 42d. returns
an alphabetized list of the names containing the instance attributes and
methods and attributes defined by its class.


File: python.info,  Node: 我的程式碼如何發現物件的名稱？,  Next: What's up with the comma operator's precedence?,  Prev: 如何找到物件的方法或屬性？,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.14 我的程式碼如何發現物件的名稱？
........................................

Generally speaking, it can't, because objects don't really have names.
Essentially, assignment always binds a name to a value; the same is true
of ‘def’ and ‘class’ statements, but in that case the value is a
callable.  Consider the following code:

     >>> class A:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> B = A
     >>> a = B()
     >>> b = a
     >>> print(b)
     <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>
     >>> print(a)
     <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>

Arguably the class has a name: even though it is bound to two names and
invoked through the name ‘B’ the created instance is still reported as
an instance of class ‘A’.  However, it is impossible to say whether the
instance's name is ‘a’ or ‘b’, since both names are bound to the same
value.

Generally speaking it should not be necessary for your code to "know the
names" of particular values.  Unless you are deliberately writing
introspective programs, this is usually an indication that a change of
approach might be beneficial.

在 comp.lang.python 中，Fredrik Lundh 曾針對這個問題給出了一個極好的比喻
：

     就像你在門廊上發現的那隻貓的名字一樣：貓（物件）本身不能告訴你它的
     名字，它也不關心 - 所以找出它叫什麼的唯一方法是詢問所有鄰居（命名空
     間）是否是他們的貓（物件）...

     ....如果你發現它有很多名字，或者根本沒有名字，請不要感到驚訝！


File: python.info,  Node: What's up with the comma operator's precedence?,  Next: 是否有等效於 C 的 "? " 三元運算子？,  Prev: 我的程式碼如何發現物件的名稱？,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.15 What's up with the comma operator's precedence?
.........................................................

Comma is not an operator in Python.  Consider this session:

     >>> "a" in "b", "a"
     (False, 'a')

Since the comma is not an operator, but a separator between expressions
the above is evaluated as if you had entered:

     ("a" in "b"), "a"

而不是：

     "a" in ("b", "a")

The same is true of the various assignment operators (‘=’, ‘+=’ etc).
They are not truly operators but syntactic delimiters in assignment
statements.


File: python.info,  Node: 是否有等效於 C 的 "? " 三元運算子？,  Next: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?,  Prev: What's up with the comma operator's precedence?,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.16 是否有等效於 C 的 "?:" 三元運算子？
.............................................

有的，語法如下：

     [on_true] if [expression] else [on_false]

     x, y = 50, 25
     small = x if x < y else y

Before this syntax was introduced in Python 2.5, a common idiom was to
use logical operators:

     [expression] and [on_true] or [on_false]

However, this idiom is unsafe, as it can give wrong results when
'on_true' has a false boolean value.  Therefore, it is always better to
use the ‘... if ... else ...’ form.


File: python.info,  Node: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?,  Next: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?,  Prev: 是否有等效於 C 的 "? " 三元運算子？,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.17 Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?
..................................................................

Yes.  Usually this is done by nesting *note lambda: 1131. within
‘lambda’.  See the following three examples, slightly adapted from Ulf
Bartelt:

     from functools import reduce

     # Primes < 1000
     print(list(filter(None,map(lambda y:y*reduce(lambda x,y:x*y!=0,
     map(lambda x,y=y:y%x,range(2,int(pow(y,0.5)+1))),1),range(2,1000)))))

     # First 10 Fibonacci numbers
     print(list(map(lambda x,f=lambda x,f:(f(x-1,f)+f(x-2,f)) if x>1 else 1:
     f(x,f), range(10))))

     # Mandelbrot set
     print((lambda Ru,Ro,Iu,Io,IM,Sx,Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+'\n'+y,map(lambda y,
     Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,Sy=Sy,L=lambda yc,Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,i=IM,
     Sx=Sx,Sy=Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda x,xc=Ru,yc=yc,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,
     i=i,Sx=Sx,F=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f:(k<=0)or (x*x+y*y
     >=4.0) or 1+f(xc,yc,x*x-y*y+xc,2.0*x*y+yc,k-1,f):f(xc,yc,x,y,k,f):chr(
     64+F(Ru+x*(Ro-Ru)/Sx,yc,0,0,i)),range(Sx))):L(Iu+y*(Io-Iu)/Sy),range(Sy
     ))))(-2.1, 0.7, -1.2, 1.2, 30, 80, 24))
     #    \___ ___/  \___ ___/  |   |   |__ lines on screen
     #        V          V      |   |______ columns on screen
     #        |          |      |__________ maximum of "iterations"
     #        |          |_________________ range on y axis
     #        |____________________________ range on x axis

孩子們，不要在家裡嘗試這個！


File: python.info,  Node: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?,  Prev: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?,  Up: 核心語言

10.2.2.18 What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?
..........................................................................

A slash in the argument list of a function denotes that the parameters
prior to it are positional-only.  Positional-only parameters are the
ones without an externally usable name.  Upon calling a function that
accepts positional-only parameters, arguments are mapped to parameters
based solely on their position.  For example, *note divmod(): 7e5. is a
function that accepts positional-only parameters.  Its documentation
looks like this:

     >>> help(divmod)
     Help on built-in function divmod in module builtins:

     divmod(x, y, /)
         Return the tuple (x//y, x%y).  Invariant: div*y + mod == x.

The slash at the end of the parameter list means that both parameters
are positional-only.  Thus, calling *note divmod(): 7e5. with keyword
arguments would lead to an error:

     >>> divmod(x=3, y=4)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: divmod() takes no keyword arguments


File: python.info,  Node: 數字和字串,  Next: Performance<4>,  Prev: 核心語言,  Up: 程式開發常見問答集

10.2.3 數字和字串
-----------------

* Menu:

* 如何指定十六進位和八進位整數？::
* 為什麼 -22 // 10 回傳 -3？::
* How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?::
* 如何將字串轉換為數字？::
* 如何將數字轉換為字串？::
* How do I modify a string in place?::
* How do I use strings to call functions/methods?::
* Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?.
* Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?.
* 'UnicodeDecodeError' 或 'UnicodeEncodeErro' 錯誤是什麼意思？::
* Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?::


File: python.info,  Node: 如何指定十六進位和八進位整數？,  Next: 為什麼 -22 // 10 回傳 -3？,  Up: 數字和字串

10.2.3.1 如何指定十六進位和八進位整數？
.......................................

To specify an octal digit, precede the octal value with a zero, and then
a lower or uppercase "o".  For example, to set the variable "a" to the
octal value "10" (8 in decimal), type:

     >>> a = 0o10
     >>> a
     8

Hexadecimal is just as easy.  Simply precede the hexadecimal number with
a zero, and then a lower or uppercase "x".  Hexadecimal digits can be
specified in lower or uppercase.  For example, in the Python
interpreter:

     >>> a = 0xa5
     >>> a
     165
     >>> b = 0XB2
     >>> b
     178


File: python.info,  Node: 為什麼 -22 // 10 回傳 -3？,  Next: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?,  Prev: 如何指定十六進位和八進位整數？,  Up: 數字和字串

10.2.3.2 為什麼 -22 // 10 回傳 -3？
...................................

It's primarily driven by the desire that ‘i % j’ have the same sign as
‘j’.  If you want that, and also want:

     i == (i // j) * j + (i % j)

那麼整數除法必須回傳向下取整的結果。 C 還要求保留​​該識別性，然後截斷 ‘i
// j’ 的編譯器需要使 ‘i % j’ 具有與 ‘i’ 相同的符號。

There are few real use cases for ‘i % j’ when ‘j’ is negative.  When ‘j’
is positive, there are many, and in virtually all of them it's more
useful for ‘i % j’ to be ‘>= 0’.  If the clock says 10 now, what did it
say 200 hours ago?  ‘-190 % 12 == 2’ is useful; ‘-190 % 12 == -10’ is a
bug waiting to bite.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?,  Next: 如何將字串轉換為數字？,  Prev: 為什麼 -22 // 10 回傳 -3？,  Up: 數字和字串

10.2.3.3 How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?
...................................................................

Trying to lookup an ‘int’ literal attribute in the normal manner gives a
*note SyntaxError: 146. because the period is seen as a decimal point:

     >>> 1.__class__
       File "<stdin>", line 1
       1.__class__
        ^
     SyntaxError: invalid decimal literal

The solution is to separate the literal from the period with either a
space or parentheses.

     >>> 1 .__class__
     <class 'int'>
     >>> (1).__class__
     <class 'int'>


File: python.info,  Node: 如何將字串轉換為數字？,  Next: 如何將數字轉換為字串？,  Prev: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?,  Up: 數字和字串

10.2.3.4 如何將字串轉換為數字？
...............................

For integers, use the built-in *note int(): 17e. type constructor, e.g.
‘int('144') == 144’.  Similarly, *note float(): 26a. converts to a
floating-point number, e.g.  ‘float('144') == 144.0’.

By default, these interpret the number as decimal, so that ‘int('0144')
== 144’ holds true, and ‘int('0x144')’ raises *note ValueError: 183.
‘int(string, base)’ takes the base to convert from as a second optional
argument, so ‘int( '0x144', 16) == 324’.  If the base is specified as 0,
the number is interpreted using Python's rules: a leading '0o' indicates
octal, and '0x' indicates a hex number.

Do not use the built-in function *note eval(): 6b0. if all you need is
to convert strings to numbers.  *note eval(): 6b0. will be significantly
slower and it presents a security risk: someone could pass you a Python
expression that might have unwanted side effects.  For example, someone
could pass ‘__import__('os').system("rm -rf $HOME")’ which would erase
your home directory.

*note eval(): 6b0. also has the effect of interpreting numbers as Python
expressions, so that e.g.  ‘eval('09')’ gives a syntax error because
Python does not allow leading '0' in a decimal number (except '0').


File: python.info,  Node: 如何將數字轉換為字串？,  Next: How do I modify a string in place?,  Prev: 如何將字串轉換為數字？,  Up: 數字和字串

10.2.3.5 如何將數字轉換為字串？
...............................

To convert, e.g., the number ‘144’ to the string ‘'144'’, use the
built-in type constructor *note str(): 157.  If you want a hexadecimal
or octal representation, use the built-in functions *note hex(): 115f.
or *note oct(): 115e.  For fancy formatting, see the *note f-string（f
字串）: 7ed. and *note 格式化文字語法: 121f. sections, e.g.
‘"{:04d}".format(144)’ yields ‘'0144'’ and ‘"{:.3f}".format(1.0/3.0)’
yields ‘'0.333'’.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I modify a string in place?,  Next: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?,  Prev: 如何將數字轉換為字串？,  Up: 數字和字串

10.2.3.6 How do I modify a string in place?
...........................................

You can't, because strings are immutable.  In most situations, you
should simply construct a new string from the various parts you want to
assemble it from.  However, if you need an object with the ability to
modify in-place unicode data, try using an *note io.StringIO: db1.
object or the *note array: 7. module:

     >>> import io
     >>> s = "Hello, world"
     >>> sio = io.StringIO(s)
     >>> sio.getvalue()
     'Hello, world'
     >>> sio.seek(7)
     7
     >>> sio.write("there!")
     6
     >>> sio.getvalue()
     'Hello, there!'

     >>> import array
     >>> a = array.array('u', s)
     >>> print(a)
     array('u', 'Hello, world')
     >>> a[0] = 'y'
     >>> print(a)
     array('u', 'yello, world')
     >>> a.tounicode()
     'yello, world'


File: python.info,  Node: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?,  Next: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Prev: How do I modify a string in place?,  Up: 數字和字串

10.2.3.7 How do I use strings to call functions/methods?
........................................................

There are various techniques.

   * The best is to use a dictionary that maps strings to functions.
     The primary advantage of this technique is that the strings do not
     need to match the names of the functions.  This is also the primary
     technique used to emulate a case construct:

          def a():
              pass

          def b():
              pass

          dispatch = {'go': a, 'stop': b}  # Note lack of parens for funcs

          dispatch[get_input()]()  # Note trailing parens to call function

   * 使用內建函式 *note getattr(): a32.：

          import foo
          getattr(foo, 'bar')()

     Note that *note getattr(): a32. works on any object, including
     classes, class instances, modules, and so on.

     This is used in several places in the standard library, like this:

          class Foo:
              def do_foo(self):
                  ...

              def do_bar(self):
                  ...

          f = getattr(foo_instance, 'do_' + opname)
          f()

   * 使用 *note locals(): 173. 解析函式名稱：

          def myFunc():
              print("hello")

          fname = "myFunc"

          f = locals()[fname]
          f()


File: python.info,  Node: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Next: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Prev: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?,  Up: 數字和字串

10.2.3.8 Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?
..............................................................................................

You can use ‘S.rstrip("\r\n")’ to remove all occurrences of any line
terminator from the end of the string ‘S’ without removing other
trailing whitespace.  If the string ‘S’ represents more than one line,
with several empty lines at the end, the line terminators for all the
blank lines will be removed:

     >>> lines = ("line 1 \r\n"
     ...          "\r\n"
     ...          "\r\n")
     >>> lines.rstrip("\n\r")
     'line 1 '

Since this is typically only desired when reading text one line at a
time, using ‘S.rstrip()’ this way works well.


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Next: 'UnicodeDecodeError' 或 'UnicodeEncodeErro' 錯誤是什麼意思？,  Prev: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Up: 數字和字串

10.2.3.9 Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?
...................................................

Not as such.

For simple input parsing, the easiest approach is usually to split the
line into whitespace-delimited words using the *note split(): d2a.
method of string objects and then convert decimal strings to numeric
values using *note int(): 17e. or *note float(): 26a.  ‘split()’
supports an optional "sep" parameter which is useful if the line uses
something other than whitespace as a separator.

For more complicated input parsing, regular expressions are more
powerful than C's ‘sscanf’ and better suited for the task.


File: python.info,  Node: 'UnicodeDecodeError' 或 'UnicodeEncodeErro' 錯誤是什麼意思？,  Next: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?,  Prev: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Up: 數字和字串

10.2.3.10 'UnicodeDecodeError' 或 'UnicodeEncodeErro' 錯誤是什麼意思？
......................................................................

請參閱 *note Unicode HOWTO: 1138.。


File: python.info,  Node: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?,  Prev: 'UnicodeDecodeError' 或 'UnicodeEncodeErro' 錯誤是什麼意思？,  Up: 數字和字串

10.2.3.11 Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?
...................................................................

A raw string ending with an odd number of backslashes will escape the
string's quote:

     >>> r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
              ^
     SyntaxError: unterminated string literal (detected at line 1)

There are several workarounds for this.  One is to use regular strings
and double the backslashes:

     >>> 'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Another is to concatenate a regular string containing an escaped
backslash to the raw string:

     >>> r'C:\this\will\work' '\\'
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

It is also possible to use *note os.path.join(): 14ed. to append a
backslash on Windows:

     >>> os.path.join(r'C:\this\will\work', '')
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Note that while a backslash will "escape" a quote for the purposes of
determining where the raw string ends, no escaping occurs when
interpreting the value of the raw string.  That is, the backslash
remains present in the value of the raw string:

     >>> r'backslash\'preserved'
     "backslash\\'preserved"

Also see the specification in the *note language reference: 1c37.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance<4>,  Next: Sequences Tuples/Lists,  Prev: 數字和字串,  Up: 程式開發常見問答集

10.2.4 Performance
------------------

* Menu:

* 我的程式太慢了。我該如何加快速度？::
* What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?::


File: python.info,  Node: 我的程式太慢了。我該如何加快速度？,  Next: What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?,  Up: Performance<4>

10.2.4.1 我的程式太慢了。我該如何加快速度？
...........................................

That's a tough one, in general.  First, here are a list of things to
remember before diving further:

   * Performance characteristics vary across Python implementations.
     This FAQ focuses on *note CPython: 4f7.

   * Behaviour can vary across operating systems, especially when
     talking about I/O or multi-threading.

   * You should always find the hot spots in your program 'before'
     attempting to optimize any code (see the *note profile: aa.
     module).

   * Writing benchmark scripts will allow you to iterate quickly when
     searching for improvements (see the *note timeit: e9. module).

   * It is highly recommended to have good code coverage (through unit
     testing or any other technique) before potentially introducing
     regressions hidden in sophisticated optimizations.

That being said, there are many tricks to speed up Python code.  Here
are some general principles which go a long way towards reaching
acceptable performance levels:

   * Making your algorithms faster (or changing to faster ones) can
     yield much larger benefits than trying to sprinkle
     micro-optimization tricks all over your code.

   * Use the right data structures.  Study documentation for the *note
     內建型別: 1f24. and the *note collections: 1b. module.

   * When the standard library provides a primitive for doing something,
     it is likely (although not guaranteed) to be faster than any
     alternative you may come up with.  This is doubly true for
     primitives written in C, such as builtins and some extension types.
     For example, be sure to use either the *note list.sort(): a30.
     built-in method or the related *note sorted(): a2f. function to do
     sorting (and see the *note 排序技法: 1f14. for examples of
     moderately advanced usage).

   * Abstractions tend to create indirections and force the interpreter
     to work more.  If the levels of indirection outweigh the amount of
     useful work done, your program will be slower.  You should avoid
     excessive abstraction, especially under the form of tiny functions
     or methods (which are also often detrimental to readability).

If you have reached the limit of what pure Python can allow, there are
tools to take you further away.  For example, Cython(1) can compile a
slightly modified version of Python code into a C extension, and can be
used on many different platforms.  Cython can take advantage of
compilation (and optional type annotations) to make your code
significantly faster than when interpreted.  If you are confident in
your C programming skills, you can also *note write a C extension
module: 19cb. yourself.

也參考
......

有個 wiki 頁面專門介紹效能改進小提示(2)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonSpeed/PerformanceTips


File: python.info,  Node: What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?,  Prev: 我的程式太慢了。我該如何加快速度？,  Up: Performance<4>

10.2.4.2 What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?
.............................................................................

*note str: 157. and *note bytes: 2c1. objects are immutable, therefore
concatenating many strings together is inefficient as each concatenation
creates a new object.  In the general case, the total runtime cost is
quadratic in the total string length.

To accumulate many *note str: 157. objects, the recommended idiom is to
place them into a list and call *note str.join(): 1f41. at the end:

     chunks = []
     for s in my_strings:
         chunks.append(s)
     result = ''.join(chunks)

(another reasonably efficient idiom is to use *note io.StringIO: db1.)

To accumulate many *note bytes: 2c1. objects, the recommended idiom is
to extend a *note bytearray: 2c0. object using in-place concatenation
(the ‘+=’ operator):

     result = bytearray()
     for b in my_bytes_objects:
         result += b


File: python.info,  Node: Sequences Tuples/Lists,  Next: 物件,  Prev: Performance<4>,  Up: 程式開發常見問答集

10.2.5 Sequences (Tuples/Lists)
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* How do I convert between tuples and lists?::
* What's a negative index?::
* How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?::
* How do you remove duplicates from a list?::
* How do you remove multiple items from a list::
* How do you make an array in Python?::
* How do I create a multidimensional list?::
* How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?::
* Why does a_tuple[i] += ['item'] raise an exception when the addition works?::
* I want to do a complicated sort; can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?.
* How can I sort one list by values from another list?::


File: python.info,  Node: How do I convert between tuples and lists?,  Next: What's a negative index?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.1 How do I convert between tuples and lists?
...................................................

The type constructor ‘tuple(seq)’ converts any sequence (actually, any
iterable) into a tuple with the same items in the same order.

For example, ‘tuple([1, 2, 3])’ yields ‘(1, 2, 3)’ and ‘tuple('abc')’
yields ‘('a', 'b', 'c')’.  If the argument is a tuple, it does not make
a copy but returns the same object, so it is cheap to call *note
tuple(): 4e6. when you aren't sure that an object is already a tuple.

The type constructor ‘list(seq)’ converts any sequence or iterable into
a list with the same items in the same order.  For example, ‘list((1, 2,
3))’ yields ‘[1, 2, 3]’ and ‘list('abc')’ yields ‘['a', 'b', 'c']’.  If
the argument is a list, it makes a copy just like ‘seq[:]’ would.


File: python.info,  Node: What's a negative index?,  Next: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?,  Prev: How do I convert between tuples and lists?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.2 What's a negative index?
.................................

Python sequences are indexed with positive numbers and negative numbers.
For positive numbers 0 is the first index 1 is the second index and so
forth.  For negative indices -1 is the last index and -2 is the
penultimate (next to last) index and so forth.  Think of ‘seq[-n]’ as
the same as ‘seq[len(seq)-n]’.

Using negative indices can be very convenient.  For example ‘S[:-1]’ is
all of the string except for its last character, which is useful for
removing the trailing newline from a string.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?,  Next: How do you remove duplicates from a list?,  Prev: What's a negative index?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.3 How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?
...........................................................

Use the *note reversed(): 691. built-in function:

     for x in reversed(sequence):
         ...  # do something with x ...

This won't touch your original sequence, but build a new copy with
reversed order to iterate over.


File: python.info,  Node: How do you remove duplicates from a list?,  Next: How do you remove multiple items from a list,  Prev: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.4 How do you remove duplicates from a list?
..................................................

See the Python Cookbook for a long discussion of many ways to do this:

     ‘https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/’

If you don't mind reordering the list, sort it and then scan from the
end of the list, deleting duplicates as you go:

     if mylist:
         mylist.sort()
         last = mylist[-1]
         for i in range(len(mylist)-2, -1, -1):
             if last == mylist[i]:
                 del mylist[i]
             else:
                 last = mylist[i]

If all elements of the list may be used as set keys (i.e.  they are all
*note hashable: 409.) this is often faster

     mylist = list(set(mylist))

This converts the list into a set, thereby removing duplicates, and then
back into a list.


File: python.info,  Node: How do you remove multiple items from a list,  Next: How do you make an array in Python?,  Prev: How do you remove duplicates from a list?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.5 How do you remove multiple items from a list
.....................................................

As with removing duplicates, explicitly iterating in reverse with a
delete condition is one possibility.  However, it is easier and faster
to use slice replacement with an implicit or explicit forward iteration.
Here are three variations.:

     mylist[:] = filter(keep_function, mylist)
     mylist[:] = (x for x in mylist if keep_condition)
     mylist[:] = [x for x in mylist if keep_condition]

The list comprehension may be fastest.


File: python.info,  Node: How do you make an array in Python?,  Next: How do I create a multidimensional list?,  Prev: How do you remove multiple items from a list,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.6 How do you make an array in Python?
............................................

Use a list:

     ["this", 1, "is", "an", "array"]

Lists are equivalent to C or Pascal arrays in their time complexity; the
primary difference is that a Python list can contain objects of many
different types.

The ‘array’ module also provides methods for creating arrays of fixed
types with compact representations, but they are slower to index than
lists.  Also note that NumPy(1) and other third party packages define
array-like structures with various characteristics as well.

To get Lisp-style linked lists, you can emulate 'cons cells' using
tuples:

     lisp_list = ("like",  ("this",  ("example", None) ) )

If mutability is desired, you could use lists instead of tuples.  Here
the analogue of a Lisp 'car' is ‘lisp_list[0]’ and the analogue of 'cdr'
is ‘lisp_list[1]’.  Only do this if you're sure you really need to,
because it's usually a lot slower than using Python lists.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I create a multidimensional list?,  Next: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?,  Prev: How do you make an array in Python?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.7 How do I create a multidimensional list?
.................................................

You probably tried to make a multidimensional array like this:

     >>> A = [[None] * 2] * 3

如果你印出它，這看起來是正確的：

     >>> A
     [[None, None], [None, None], [None, None]]

But when you assign a value, it shows up in multiple places:

     >>> A[0][0] = 5
     >>> A
     [[5, None], [5, None], [5, None]]

The reason is that replicating a list with ‘*’ doesn't create copies, it
only creates references to the existing objects.  The ‘*3’ creates a
list containing 3 references to the same list of length two.  Changes to
one row will show in all rows, which is almost certainly not what you
want.

The suggested approach is to create a list of the desired length first
and then fill in each element with a newly created list:

     A = [None] * 3
     for i in range(3):
         A[i] = [None] * 2

This generates a list containing 3 different lists of length two.  You
can also use a list comprehension:

     w, h = 2, 3
     A = [[None] * w for i in range(h)]

Or, you can use an extension that provides a matrix datatype; NumPy(1)
is the best known.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?,  Next: Why does a_tuple[i] += ['item'] raise an exception when the addition works?,  Prev: How do I create a multidimensional list?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.8 How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?
......................................................................

To call a method or function and accumulate the return values is a list,
a *note list comprehension: 4cc. is an elegant solution:

     result = [obj.method() for obj in mylist]

     result = [function(obj) for obj in mylist]

To just run the method or function without saving the return values, a
plain *note for: 265. loop will suffice:

     for obj in mylist:
         obj.method()

     for obj in mylist:
         function(obj)


File: python.info,  Node: Why does a_tuple[i] += ['item'] raise an exception when the addition works?,  Next: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?,  Prev: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.9 Why does a_tuple[i] += ['item'] raise an exception when the addition works?
....................................................................................

This is because of a combination of the fact that augmented assignment
operators are 'assignment' operators, and the difference between mutable
and immutable objects in Python.

This discussion applies in general when augmented assignment operators
are applied to elements of a tuple that point to mutable objects, but
we'll use a ‘list’ and ‘+=’ as our exemplar.

If you wrote:

     >>> a_tuple = (1, 2)
     >>> a_tuple[0] += 1
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

The reason for the exception should be immediately clear: ‘1’ is added
to the object ‘a_tuple[0]’ points to (‘1’), producing the result object,
‘2’, but when we attempt to assign the result of the computation, ‘2’,
to element ‘0’ of the tuple, we get an error because we can't change
what an element of a tuple points to.

Under the covers, what this augmented assignment statement is doing is
approximately this:

     >>> result = a_tuple[0] + 1
     >>> a_tuple[0] = result
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

It is the assignment part of the operation that produces the error,
since a tuple is immutable.

When you write something like:

     >>> a_tuple = (['foo'], 'bar')
     >>> a_tuple[0] += ['item']
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

The exception is a bit more surprising, and even more surprising is the
fact that even though there was an error, the append worked:

     >>> a_tuple[0]
     ['foo', 'item']

To see why this happens, you need to know that (a) if an object
implements an *note __iadd__(): 1d21. magic method, it gets called when
the ‘+=’ augmented assignment is executed, and its return value is what
gets used in the assignment statement; and (b) for lists, ‘__iadd__()’
is equivalent to calling ‘extend()’ on the list and returning the list.
That's why we say that for lists, ‘+=’ is a "shorthand" for
‘list.extend()’:

     >>> a_list = []
     >>> a_list += [1]
     >>> a_list
     [1]

這等價於：

     >>> result = a_list.__iadd__([1])
     >>> a_list = result

The object pointed to by a_list has been mutated, and the pointer to the
mutated object is assigned back to ‘a_list’.  The end result of the
assignment is a no-op, since it is a pointer to the same object that
‘a_list’ was previously pointing to, but the assignment still happens.

Thus, in our tuple example what is happening is equivalent to:

     >>> result = a_tuple[0].__iadd__(['item'])
     >>> a_tuple[0] = result
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

The ‘__iadd__()’ succeeds, and thus the list is extended, but even
though ‘result’ points to the same object that ‘a_tuple[0]’ already
points to, that final assignment still results in an error, because
tuples are immutable.


File: python.info,  Node: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?,  Next: How can I sort one list by values from another list?,  Prev: Why does a_tuple[i] += ['item'] raise an exception when the addition works?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.10 I want to do a complicated sort: can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?
........................................................................................

The technique, attributed to Randal Schwartz of the Perl community,
sorts the elements of a list by a metric which maps each element to its
"sort value".  In Python, use the ‘key’ argument for the *note
list.sort(): a30. method:

     Isorted = L[:]
     Isorted.sort(key=lambda s: int(s[10:15]))


File: python.info,  Node: How can I sort one list by values from another list?,  Prev: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.11 How can I sort one list by values from another list?
..............................................................

Merge them into an iterator of tuples, sort the resulting list, and then
pick out the element you want.

     >>> list1 = ["what", "I'm", "sorting", "by"]
     >>> list2 = ["something", "else", "to", "sort"]
     >>> pairs = zip(list1, list2)
     >>> pairs = sorted(pairs)
     >>> pairs
     [("I'm", 'else'), ('by', 'sort'), ('sorting', 'to'), ('what', 'something')]
     >>> result = [x[1] for x in pairs]
     >>> result
     ['else', 'sort', 'to', 'something']


File: python.info,  Node: 物件,  Next: 模組<5>,  Prev: Sequences Tuples/Lists,  Up: 程式開發常見問答集

10.2.6 物件
-----------

* Menu:

* 什麼是類別 (class)？: 什麼是類別 class ？.
* 什麼是方法 (method)？: 什麼是方法 method ？.
* What is self?::
* How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?::
* What is delegation?::
* How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?::
* How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?::
* How do I create static class data and static class methods?::
* How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?.
* I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.
* My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.
* How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?::
* Why does the result of id() appear to be not unique?: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?.
* 我什麼時候可以依靠 is 運算子進行識別性測試？::
* 子類別如何控制不可變實例中存儲的資料？::
* 如何快取方法呼叫？::


File: python.info,  Node: 什麼是類別 class ？,  Next: 什麼是方法 method ？,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.1 什麼是類別 (class)？
.............................

A class is the particular object type created by executing a class
statement.  Class objects are used as templates to create instance
objects, which embody both the data (attributes) and code (methods)
specific to a datatype.

A class can be based on one or more other classes, called its base
class(es).  It then inherits the attributes and methods of its base
classes.  This allows an object model to be successively refined by
inheritance.  You might have a generic ‘Mailbox’ class that provides
basic accessor methods for a mailbox, and subclasses such as
‘MboxMailbox’, ‘MaildirMailbox’, ‘OutlookMailbox’ that handle various
specific mailbox formats.


File: python.info,  Node: 什麼是方法 method ？,  Next: What is self?,  Prev: 什麼是類別 class ？,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.2 什麼是方法 (method)？
..............................

A method is a function on some object ‘x’ that you normally call as
‘x.name(arguments...)’.  Methods are defined as functions inside the
class definition:

     class C:
         def meth(self, arg):
             return arg * 2 + self.attribute


File: python.info,  Node: What is self?,  Next: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?,  Prev: 什麼是方法 method ？,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.3 What is self?
......................

Self is merely a conventional name for the first argument of a method.
A method defined as ‘meth(self, a, b, c)’ should be called as ‘x.meth(a,
b, c)’ for some instance ‘x’ of the class in which the definition
occurs; the called method will think it is called as ‘meth(x, a, b, c)’.

另請參閱 *note 為何「self」在方法 (method) 定義和呼叫時一定要明確使用？:
4ec9.。


File: python.info,  Node: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?,  Next: What is delegation?,  Prev: What is self?,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.4 How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?
............................................................................................

Use the built-in function *note isinstance(obj, cls): 14b.  You can
check if an object is an instance of any of a number of classes by
providing a tuple instead of a single class, e.g.  ‘isinstance(obj,
(class1, class2, ...))’, and can also check whether an object is one of
Python's built-in types, e.g.  ‘isinstance(obj, str)’ or
‘isinstance(obj, (int, float, complex))’.

Note that *note isinstance(): 14b. also checks for virtual inheritance
from an *note abstract base class: 1047.  So, the test will return
‘True’ for a registered class even if hasn't directly or indirectly
inherited from it.  To test for "true inheritance", scan the *note MRO:
32d3. of the class:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     class P:
          pass

     class C(P):
         pass

     Mapping.register(P)

     >>> c = C()
     >>> isinstance(c, C)        # direct
     True
     >>> isinstance(c, P)        # indirect
     True
     >>> isinstance(c, Mapping)  # virtual
     True

     # Actual inheritance chain
     >>> type(c).__mro__
     (<class 'C'>, <class 'P'>, <class 'object'>)

     # Test for "true inheritance"
     >>> Mapping in type(c).__mro__
     False

Note that most programs do not use *note isinstance(): 14b. on
user-defined classes very often.  If you are developing the classes
yourself, a more proper object-oriented style is to define methods on
the classes that encapsulate a particular behaviour, instead of checking
the object's class and doing a different thing based on what class it
is.  For example, if you have a function that does something:

     def search(obj):
         if isinstance(obj, Mailbox):
             ...  # code to search a mailbox
         elif isinstance(obj, Document):
             ...  # code to search a document
         elif ...

A better approach is to define a ‘search()’ method on all the classes
and just call it:

     class Mailbox:
         def search(self):
             ...  # code to search a mailbox

     class Document:
         def search(self):
             ...  # code to search a document

     obj.search()


File: python.info,  Node: What is delegation?,  Next: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?,  Prev: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.5 What is delegation?
............................

Delegation is an object oriented technique (also called a design
pattern).  Let's say you have an object ‘x’ and want to change the
behaviour of just one of its methods.  You can create a new class that
provides a new implementation of the method you're interested in
changing and delegates all other methods to the corresponding method of
‘x’.

Python programmers can easily implement delegation.  For example, the
following class implements a class that behaves like a file but converts
all written data to uppercase:

     class UpperOut:

         def __init__(self, outfile):
             self._outfile = outfile

         def write(self, s):
             self._outfile.write(s.upper())

         def __getattr__(self, name):
             return getattr(self._outfile, name)

Here the ‘UpperOut’ class redefines the ‘write()’ method to convert the
argument string to uppercase before calling the underlying
‘self._outfile.write()’ method.  All other methods are delegated to the
underlying ‘self._outfile’ object.  The delegation is accomplished via
the *note __getattr__(): 1fa. method; consult *note the language
reference: 1cf5. for more information about controlling attribute
access.

Note that for more general cases delegation can get trickier.  When
attributes must be set as well as retrieved, the class must define a
*note __setattr__(): 1cbf. method too, and it must do so carefully.  The
basic implementation of ‘__setattr__()’ is roughly equivalent to the
following:

     class X:
         ...
         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             self.__dict__[name] = value
         ...

Many *note __setattr__(): 1cbf. implementations call
‘object.__setattr__()’ to set an attribute on self without causing
infinite recursion:

     class X:
         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             # Custom logic here...
             object.__setattr__(self, name, value)

Alternatively, it is possible to set attributes by inserting entries
into *note self.__dict__: 2e2. directly.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?,  Next: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?,  Prev: What is delegation?,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.6 How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?
.............................................................................................

使用內建的 *note super(): 206. 函式：

     class Derived(Base):
         def meth(self):
             super().meth()  # calls Base.meth

In the example, *note super(): 206. will automatically determine the
instance from which it was called (the ‘self’ value), look up the *note
method resolution order: 1f16. (MRO) with ‘type(self).__mro__’, and
return the next in line after ‘Derived’ in the MRO: ‘Base’.


File: python.info,  Node: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?,  Next: How do I create static class data and static class methods?,  Prev: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.7 How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?
...............................................................................

You could assign the base class to an alias and derive from the alias.
Then all you have to change is the value assigned to the alias.
Incidentally, this trick is also handy if you want to decide dynamically
(e.g.  depending on availability of resources) which base class to use.
Example:

     class Base:
         ...

     BaseAlias = Base

     class Derived(BaseAlias):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: How do I create static class data and static class methods?,  Next: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?,  Prev: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.8 How do I create static class data and static class methods?
....................................................................

Both static data and static methods (in the sense of C++ or Java) are
supported in Python.

For static data, simply define a class attribute.  To assign a new value
to the attribute, you have to explicitly use the class name in the
assignment:

     class C:
         count = 0   # number of times C.__init__ called

         def __init__(self):
             C.count = C.count + 1

         def getcount(self):
             return C.count  # or return self.count

‘c.count’ also refers to ‘C.count’ for any ‘c’ such that ‘isinstance(c,
C)’ holds, unless overridden by ‘c’ itself or by some class on the
base-class search path from ‘c.__class__’ back to ‘C’.

Caution: within a method of C, an assignment like ‘self.count = 42’
creates a new and unrelated instance named "count" in ‘self’'s own dict.
Rebinding of a class-static data name must always specify the class
whether inside a method or not:

     C.count = 314

靜態方法是可能的：

     class C:
         @staticmethod
         def static(arg1, arg2, arg3):
             # 沒有 'self' 參數！
             ...

However, a far more straightforward way to get the effect of a static
method is via a simple module-level function:

     def getcount():
         return C.count

If your code is structured so as to define one class (or tightly related
class hierarchy) per module, this supplies the desired encapsulation.


File: python.info,  Node: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?,  Next: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam,  Prev: How do I create static class data and static class methods?,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.9 How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?
................................................................

This answer actually applies to all methods, but the question usually
comes up first in the context of constructors.

在 C++ 中你會寫成

     class C {
         C() { cout << "No arguments\n"; }
         C(int i) { cout << "Argument is " << i << "\n"; }
     }

In Python you have to write a single constructor that catches all cases
using default arguments.  For example:

     class C:
         def __init__(self, i=None):
             if i is None:
                 print("No arguments")
             else:
                 print("Argument is", i)

This is not entirely equivalent, but close enough in practice.

You could also try a variable-length argument list, e.g.

     def __init__(self, *args):
         ...

The same approach works for all method definitions.


File: python.info,  Node: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam,  Next: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object,  Prev: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.10 I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.
............................................................................

Variable names with double leading underscores are "mangled" to provide
a simple but effective way to define class private variables.  Any
identifier of the form ‘__spam’ (at least two leading underscores, at
most one trailing underscore) is textually replaced with
‘_classname__spam’, where ‘classname’ is the current class name with any
leading underscores stripped.

The identifier can be used unchanged within the class, but to access it
outside the class, the mangled name must be used:

     class A:
         def __one(self):
             return 1
         def two(self):
             return 2 * self.__one()

     class B(A):
         def three(self):
             return 3 * self._A__one()

     four = 4 * A()._A__one()

In particular, this does not guarantee privacy since an outside user can
still deliberately access the private attribute; many Python programmers
never bother to use private variable names at all.

也參考
......

The *note private name mangling specifications: 1aaf. for details and
special cases.


File: python.info,  Node: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object,  Next: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?,  Prev: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.11 My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.
.................................................................................

There are several possible reasons for this.

The *note del: 1570. statement does not necessarily call *note
__del__(): 1cf2. - it simply decrements the object's reference count,
and if this reaches zero ‘__del__()’ is called.

If your data structures contain circular links (e.g.  a tree where each
child has a parent reference and each parent has a list of children) the
reference counts will never go back to zero.  Once in a while Python
runs an algorithm to detect such cycles, but the garbage collector might
run some time after the last reference to your data structure vanishes,
so your ‘__del__()’ method may be called at an inconvenient and random
time.  This is inconvenient if you're trying to reproduce a problem.
Worse, the order in which object's ‘__del__()’ methods are executed is
arbitrary.  You can run *note gc.collect(): 883. to force a collection,
but there 'are' pathological cases where objects will never be
collected.

Despite the cycle collector, it's still a good idea to define an
explicit ‘close()’ method on objects to be called whenever you're done
with them.  The ‘close()’ method can then remove attributes that refer
to subobjects.  Don't call ‘__del__()’ directly - ‘__del__()’ should
call ‘close()’ and ‘close()’ should make sure that it can be called more
than once for the same object.

Another way to avoid cyclical references is to use the *note weakref:
10f. module, which allows you to point to objects without incrementing
their reference count.  Tree data structures, for instance, should use
weak references for their parent and sibling references (if they need
them!).

Finally, if your ‘__del__()’ method raises an exception, a warning
message is printed to *note sys.stderr: 778.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?,  Next: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?,  Prev: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.12 How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?
................................................................

Python does not keep track of all instances of a class (or of a built-in
type).  You can program the class's constructor to keep track of all
instances by keeping a list of weak references to each instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?,  Next: 我什麼時候可以依靠 is 運算子進行識別性測試？,  Prev: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.13 Why does the result of ‘id()’ appear to be not unique?
................................................................

The *note id(): 1293. builtin returns an integer that is guaranteed to
be unique during the lifetime of the object.  Since in CPython, this is
the object's memory address, it happens frequently that after an object
is deleted from memory, the next freshly created object is allocated at
the same position in memory.  This is illustrated by this example:

     >>> id(1000)
     13901272
     >>> id(2000)
     13901272

The two ids belong to different integer objects that are created before,
and deleted immediately after execution of the ‘id()’ call.  To be sure
that objects whose id you want to examine are still alive, create
another reference to the object:

     >>> a = 1000; b = 2000
     >>> id(a)
     13901272
     >>> id(b)
     13891296


File: python.info,  Node: 我什麼時候可以依靠 is 運算子進行識別性測試？,  Next: 子類別如何控制不可變實例中存儲的資料？,  Prev: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.14 我什麼時候可以依靠 'is' 運算子進行識別性測試？
........................................................

‘is’ 運算子測試物件識別性。測試 ‘a is b’ 等同於 ‘id(a) == id(b)’ 。

識別性測試最重要的屬性是物件始終與自身相同， ‘a is a’ 總是回傳 ‘True’ 。
識別性測試通常比相等性測試更快。與相等性測試不同，識別性測試保證回傳布林
值 ‘True’ 或 ‘False’ 。

然而，'只有'當物件識別性得到保證時，識別性測試才能代替相等性測試。一般來
說，保證識別性的情況有以下三種：

1) Assignments create new names but do not change object identity.
After the assignment ‘new = old’, it is guaranteed that ‘new is old’.

2) Putting an object in a container that stores object references does
not change object identity.  After the list assignment ‘s[0] = x’, it is
guaranteed that ‘s[0] is x’.

3) If an object is a singleton, it means that only one instance of that
object can exist.  After the assignments ‘a = None’ and ‘b = None’, it
is guaranteed that ‘a is b’ because ‘None’ is a singleton.

在大多數其他情況下，識別性測試是不可取的，相等性測試是首選。特別是，識別
性測試不應用於檢查常數，例如不能保證是單例的 *note int: 17e. 和 *note
str: 157.：

     >>> a = 1000
     >>> b = 500
     >>> c = b + 500
     >>> a is c
     False

     >>> a = 'Python'
     >>> b = 'Py'
     >>> c = b + 'thon'
     >>> a is c
     False

Likewise, new instances of mutable containers are never identical:

     >>> a = []
     >>> b = []
     >>> a is b
     False

在標準函式庫程式碼中，你將看到幾種正確使用識別性測試的常見模式：

1) As recommended by PEP 8(1), an identity test is the preferred way to
check for ‘None’.  This reads like plain English in code and avoids
confusion with other objects that may have boolean values that evaluate
to false.

2) Detecting optional arguments can be tricky when ‘None’ is a valid
input value.  In those situations, you can create a singleton sentinel
object guaranteed to be distinct from other objects.  For example, here
is how to implement a method that behaves like *note dict.pop(): 1fdc.:

     _sentinel = object()

     def pop(self, key, default=_sentinel):
         if key in self:
             value = self[key]
             del self[key]
             return value
         if default is _sentinel:
             raise KeyError(key)
         return default

3) Container implementations sometimes need to augment equality tests
with identity tests.  This prevents the code from being confused by
objects such as ‘float('NaN')’ that are not equal to themselves.

例如，以下是 ‘collections.abc.Sequence.__contains__()’ 的實作：

     def __contains__(self, value):
         for v in self:
             if v is value or v == value:
                 return True
         return False

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: 子類別如何控制不可變實例中存儲的資料？,  Next: 如何快取方法呼叫？,  Prev: 我什麼時候可以依靠 is 運算子進行識別性測試？,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.15 子類別如何控制不可變實例中存儲的資料？
................................................

When subclassing an immutable type, override the *note __new__(): 30f.
method instead of the *note __init__(): 4ae. method.  The latter only
runs 'after' an instance is created, which is too late to alter data in
an immutable instance.

All of these immutable classes have a different signature than their
parent class:

     from datetime import date

     class FirstOfMonthDate(date):
         "Always choose the first day of the month"
         def __new__(cls, year, month, day):
             return super().__new__(cls, year, month, 1)

     class NamedInt(int):
         "Allow text names for some numbers"
         xlat = {'zero': 0, 'one': 1, 'ten': 10}
         def __new__(cls, value):
             value = cls.xlat.get(value, value)
             return super().__new__(cls, value)

     class TitleStr(str):
         "Convert str to name suitable for a URL path"
         def __new__(cls, s):
             s = s.lower().replace(' ', '-')
             s = ''.join([c for c in s if c.isalnum() or c == '-'])
             return super().__new__(cls, s)

這些類別可以像這樣使用：

     >>> FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 14)
     FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 1)
     >>> NamedInt('ten')
     10
     >>> NamedInt(20)
     20
     >>> TitleStr('Blog: Why Python Rocks')
     'blog-why-python-rocks'


File: python.info,  Node: 如何快取方法呼叫？,  Prev: 子類別如何控制不可變實例中存儲的資料？,  Up: 物件

10.2.6.16 如何快取方法呼叫？
............................

The two principal tools for caching methods are *note
functools.cached_property(): 2c5. and *note functools.lru_cache(): 834.
The former stores results at the instance level and the latter at the
class level.

The 'cached_property' approach only works with methods that do not take
any arguments.  It does not create a reference to the instance.  The
cached method result will be kept only as long as the instance is alive.

The advantage is that when an instance is no longer used, the cached
method result will be released right away.  The disadvantage is that if
instances accumulate, so too will the accumulated method results.  They
can grow without bound.

'lru_cache' 方法適用於具有*note 可雜湊: 409.引數的方法。除非特別努力傳遞
弱參照，否則它會建立對實例的參照。

The advantage of the least recently used algorithm is that the cache is
bounded by the specified 'maxsize'.  The disadvantage is that instances
are kept alive until they age out of the cache or until the cache is
cleared.

這個例子展示了各種技術：

     class Weather:
         "Lookup weather information on a government website"

         def __init__(self, station_id):
             self._station_id = station_id
             # The _station_id is private and immutable

         def current_temperature(self):
             "Latest hourly observation"
             # Do not cache this because old results
             # can be out of date.

         @cached_property
         def location(self):
             "Return the longitude/latitude coordinates of the station"
             # Result only depends on the station_id

         @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
         def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='mm'):
             "Rainfall on a given date"
             # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.

The above example assumes that the 'station_id' never changes.  If the
relevant instance attributes are mutable, the 'cached_property' approach
can't be made to work because it cannot detect changes to the
attributes.

To make the 'lru_cache' approach work when the 'station_id' is mutable,
the class needs to define the *note __eq__(): 94f. and *note __hash__():
950. methods so that the cache can detect relevant attribute updates:

     class Weather:
         "Example with a mutable station identifier"

         def __init__(self, station_id):
             self.station_id = station_id

         def change_station(self, station_id):
             self.station_id = station_id

         def __eq__(self, other):
             return self.station_id == other.station_id

         def __hash__(self):
             return hash(self.station_id)

         @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
         def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='cm'):
             'Rainfall on a given date'
             # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.


File: python.info,  Node: 模組<5>,  Prev: 物件,  Up: 程式開發常見問答集

10.2.7 模組
-----------

* Menu:

* 如何建立 .pyc 檔案？: 如何建立 pyc 檔案？.
* 如何找到當前模組名稱？::
* How can I have modules that mutually import each other?::
* __import__('x.y.z') 回傳 <module 'x'>，那我怎麼得到 z？: __import__ 'x y z' 回傳 <module 'x'>，那我怎麼得到 z？.
* 當我編輯需要引入的模組並重新引入它時，更動沒有反應出來。為什麼會這樣？::


File: python.info,  Node: 如何建立 pyc 檔案？,  Next: 如何找到當前模組名稱？,  Up: 模組<5>

10.2.7.1 如何建立 .pyc 檔案？
.............................

When a module is imported for the first time (or when the source file
has changed since the current compiled file was created) a ‘.pyc’ file
containing the compiled code should be created in a ‘__pycache__’
subdirectory of the directory containing the ‘.py’ file.  The ‘.pyc’
file will have a filename that starts with the same name as the ‘.py’
file, and ends with ‘.pyc’, with a middle component that depends on the
particular ‘python’ binary that created it.  (See PEP 3147(1) for
details.)

One reason that a ‘.pyc’ file may not be created is a permissions
problem with the directory containing the source file, meaning that the
‘__pycache__’ subdirectory cannot be created.  This can happen, for
example, if you develop as one user but run as another, such as if you
are testing with a web server.

Unless the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 123d. environment variable is
set, creation of a .pyc file is automatic if you're importing a module
and Python has the ability (permissions, free space, etc...)  to create
a ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory and write the compiled module to that
subdirectory.

Running Python on a top level script is not considered an import and no
‘.pyc’ will be created.  For example, if you have a top-level module
‘foo.py’ that imports another module ‘xyz.py’, when you run ‘foo’ (by
typing ‘python foo.py’ as a shell command), a ‘.pyc’ will be created for
‘xyz’ because ‘xyz’ is imported, but no ‘.pyc’ file will be created for
‘foo’ since ‘foo.py’ isn't being imported.

If you need to create a ‘.pyc’ file for ‘foo’ - that is, to create a
‘.pyc’ file for a module that is not imported - you can, using the *note
py_compile: ae. and *note compileall: 1e. modules.

The *note py_compile: ae. module can manually compile any module.  One
way is to use the ‘compile()’ function in that module interactively:

     >>> import py_compile
     >>> py_compile.compile('foo.py')

This will write the ‘.pyc’ to a ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory in the same
location as ‘foo.py’ (or you can override that with the optional
parameter ‘cfile’).

You can also automatically compile all files in a directory or
directories using the *note compileall: 1e. module.  You can do it from
the shell prompt by running ‘compileall.py’ and providing the path of a
directory containing Python files to compile:

     python -m compileall .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: 如何找到當前模組名稱？,  Next: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?,  Prev: 如何建立 pyc 檔案？,  Up: 模組<5>

10.2.7.2 如何找到當前模組名稱？
...............................

A module can find out its own module name by looking at the predefined
global variable ‘__name__’.  If this has the value ‘'__main__'’, the
program is running as a script.  Many modules that are usually used by
importing them also provide a command-line interface or a self-test, and
only execute this code after checking ‘__name__’:

     def main():
         print('Running test...')
         ...

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?,  Next: __import__ 'x y z' 回傳 <module 'x'>，那我怎麼得到 z？,  Prev: 如何找到當前模組名稱？,  Up: 模組<5>

10.2.7.3 How can I have modules that mutually import each other?
................................................................

假設你有以下模組：

‘foo.py’：

     from bar import bar_var
     foo_var = 1

‘bar.py’：

     from foo import foo_var
     bar_var = 2

The problem is that the interpreter will perform the following steps:

   * main imports ‘foo’

   * Empty globals for ‘foo’ are created

   * ‘foo’ 被編譯並開始執行

   * ‘foo’ 引入 ‘bar’

   * Empty globals for ‘bar’ are created

   * ‘bar’ 已被編譯並開始執行

   * ‘bar’ imports ‘foo’ (which is a no-op since there already is a
     module named ‘foo’)

   * The import mechanism tries to read ‘foo_var’ from ‘foo’ globals, to
     set ‘bar.foo_var = foo.foo_var’

The last step fails, because Python isn't done with interpreting ‘foo’
yet and the global symbol dictionary for ‘foo’ is still empty.

The same thing happens when you use ‘import foo’, and then try to access
‘foo.foo_var’ in global code.

此問題有（至少）三種可能的解決方法。

Guido van Rossum recommends avoiding all uses of ‘from <module> import
...’, and placing all code inside functions.  Initializations of global
variables and class variables should use constants or built-in functions
only.  This means everything from an imported module is referenced as
‘<module>.<name>’.

Jim Roskind 建議在每個模組中按以下順序執行各個步驟：

   * exports (globals, functions, and classes that don't need imported
     base classes)

   * ‘import’ 陳述式

   * 活躍程式碼（包括從引入值初始化的全域變數）。

Van Rossum doesn't like this approach much because the imports appear in
a strange place, but it does work.

Matthias Urlichs 建議重構你的程式碼，以便打從一開始就不需要遞迴引入。

這些方案並不衝突。


File: python.info,  Node: __import__ 'x y z' 回傳 <module 'x'>，那我怎麼得到 z？,  Next: 當我編輯需要引入的模組並重新引入它時，更動沒有反應出來。為什麼會這樣？,  Prev: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?,  Up: 模組<5>

10.2.7.4 __import__('x.y.z') 回傳 <module 'x'>，那我怎麼得到 z？
................................................................

Consider using the convenience function *note import_module(): 298. from
*note importlib: 71. instead:

     z = importlib.import_module('x.y.z')


File: python.info,  Node: 當我編輯需要引入的模組並重新引入它時，更動沒有反應出來。為什麼會這樣？,  Prev: __import__ 'x y z' 回傳 <module 'x'>，那我怎麼得到 z？,  Up: 模組<5>

10.2.7.5 當我編輯需要引入的模組並重新引入它時，更動沒有反應出來。為什麼會這樣？
...............................................................................

For reasons of efficiency as well as consistency, Python only reads the
module file on the first time a module is imported.  If it didn't, in a
program consisting of many modules where each one imports the same basic
module, the basic module would be parsed and re-parsed many times.  To
force re-reading of a changed module, do this:

     import importlib
     import modname
     importlib.reload(modname)

Warning: this technique is not 100% fool-proof.  In particular, modules
containing statements like

     from modname import some_objects

will continue to work with the old version of the imported objects.  If
the module contains class definitions, existing class instances will
'not' be updated to use the new class definition.  This can result in
the following paradoxical behaviour:

     >>> import importlib
     >>> import cls
     >>> c = cls.C()                # Create an instance of C
     >>> importlib.reload(cls)
     <module 'cls' from 'cls.py'>
     >>> isinstance(c, cls.C)       # isinstance is false?!?
     False

如果印出類別物件的「識別性」，問題的本質就很清楚了：

     >>> hex(id(c.__class__))
     '0x7352a0'
     >>> hex(id(cls.C))
     '0x4198d0'


File: python.info,  Node: 設計和歷史常見問答集,  Next: 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題,  Prev: 程式開發常見問答集,  Up: Python 常見問題

10.3 設計和歷史常見問答集
=========================

* Menu:

* 為什麼 Python 使用縮排將陳述式進行分組？::
* 為什麼我會從簡單的數學運算得到奇怪的結果？::
* 為何浮點數運算如此不精確？::
* 為什麼 Python 字串不可變動？::
* 為何「self」在方法 (method) 定義和呼叫時一定要明確使用？: 為何「self」在方法 method 定義和呼叫時一定要明確使用？.
* 為何我不能在運算式 (expression) 中使用指派運算？: 為何我不能在運算式 expression 中使用指派運算？.
* 為何 Python 對於一些功能實作使用方法（像是 list.index()），另一些使用函式（像是 len(list)）？: 為何 Python 對於一些功能實作使用方法（像是 list index ），另一些使用函式（像是 len list ）？.
* 為何 join() 是字串方法而非串列 (list) 或元組 (tuple) 方法？: 為何 join 是字串方法而非串列 list 或元組 tuple 方法？.
* 例外處理有多快？::
* 為什麼 Python 內沒有 switch 或 case 陳述式？::
* 為何不能在直譯器上模擬執行緒，而要使用作業系統的特定實作方式？::
* 為何 lambda 運算式不能包含陳述式？::
* Python 可以被編譯成機器語言、C 語言或其他種語言嗎？::
* Python 如何管理記憶體？::
* 為何 CPython 不使用更多傳統的垃圾回收機制？::
* 當 CPython 結束時，為何所有的記憶體不會被釋放？::
* 為何要把元組 (tuple) 和串列 (list) 分成兩個資料型態？: 為何要把元組 tuple 和串列 list 分成兩個資料型態？.
* 串列 (list) 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？: 串列 list 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？.
* 字典 (dictionaries) 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？: 字典 dictionaries 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？.
* 為何字典的鍵一定是不可變的？::
* 為何 list.sort() 不是回傳排序過的串列？: 為何 list sort 不是回傳排序過的串列？.
* 如何在 Python 中指定和強制使用一個介面規範 (interface spec)？: 如何在 Python 中指定和強制使用一個介面規範 interface spec ？.
* 為何沒有 goto 語法？::
* 為何純字串 (r-string) 不能以反斜線結尾？: 為何純字串 r-string 不能以反斜線結尾？.
* 為何 Python 沒有屬性賦值的 with 陳述式？::
* 為何產生器 (generator) 不支援 with 陳述式？: 為何產生器 generator 不支援 with 陳述式？.
* 為何 if、while、def、class 陳述式裡需要冒號？::
* 為何 Python 允許在串列和元組末端加上逗號？::


File: python.info,  Node: 為什麼 Python 使用縮排將陳述式進行分組？,  Next: 為什麼我會從簡單的數學運算得到奇怪的結果？,  Up: 設計和歷史常見問答集

10.3.1 為什麼 Python 使用縮排將陳述式進行分組？
-----------------------------------------------

Guido van Rossum 相信使用縮排來分組超級優雅，並且對提高一般 Python 程式
的清晰度有許多貢獻。許多人在學習一段時間之後就愛上了這個功能。

因為沒有開始/結束括號，因此剖析器和人類讀者感知到的分組就不存在分歧。偶
爾 C 語言的程式設計師會遇到這樣的程式碼片段：

     if (x <= y)
             x++;
             y--;
     z++;

如果條件為真，只有 ‘x++’ 陳述式會被執行，但縮排會讓很多人對他有不同的理
解。即使是資深的 C 語言開發者有時也會盯著他許久，思考為何即便 ‘x > y’，
但 ‘y’ 還是減少了。

因為沒有開頭與結尾的括號，Python 比起其他語言會更不容易遇到程式碼風格的
衝突。在 C 語言中，有多種不同的方法來放置花括號。在習慣讀寫特定風格後，
去讀（或是必須去寫）另一種風格會覺得不太舒服。

很多程式碼風格會把 begin/end 獨立放在一行。這會讓程式碼很長且浪費珍貴的
螢幕空間，要概覽程式時也變得較為困難。理想上來說，一個函式應該要佔一個螢
幕（大概 20 至 30 行）。20 行的 Python 程式碼比起 20 行的 C 程式碼可以做
更多事。雖然沒有開頭與結尾的括號並非單一原因（沒有變數宣告及高階的資料型
別同樣有關），但縮排式的語法確實給了幫助。


File: python.info,  Node: 為什麼我會從簡單的數學運算得到奇怪的結果？,  Next: 為何浮點數運算如此不精確？,  Prev: 為什麼 Python 使用縮排將陳述式進行分組？,  Up: 設計和歷史常見問答集

10.3.2 為什麼我會從簡單的數學運算得到奇怪的結果？
-------------------------------------------------

請見下一個問題。


File: python.info,  Node: 為何浮點數運算如此不精確？,  Next: 為什麼 Python 字串不可變動？,  Prev: 為什麼我會從簡單的數學運算得到奇怪的結果？,  Up: 設計和歷史常見問答集

10.3.3 為何浮點數運算如此不精確？
---------------------------------

使用者時常對這樣的結果感到驚訝：

     >>> 1.2 - 1.0
     0.19999999999999996

然後認為這是 Python 的 bug，但這並不是。這跟 Python 幾乎沒有關係，而是和
底層如何處理浮點數有關係。

CPython 的 *note float: 26a. 型別使用了 C 的 ‘double’ 型別來儲存。一個
*note float: 26a. 物件的值會以固定的精度（通常為 53 位元）存為二進制浮點
數，Python 使用 C 來運算浮點數，而他的結果會依處理器中的硬體實作方式來決
定。這表示就浮點數運算來說，Python 和 C、Java 等很多受歡迎的語言有一樣的
行為。

很多數字可以簡單地寫成十進位表示，但卻無法簡單地以二進制浮點數表示。比方
說，在以下程式碼執行後：

     >>> x = 1.2

‘x’ 裡的值是一個（很接近）1.2 的估計值，但並非精確地等於 1.2。以一般的電
腦來說，他實際儲存的值是：

     1.0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011 (binary)

而這個值正是：

     1.1999999999999999555910790149937383830547332763671875 (decimal)

53 位元的精度讓 Python 可以有 15 至 16 小數位的準確度。

要更完全的解釋可以查閱在 Python 教學的*note 浮點運算: 1b06.一章。


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10.3.4 為什麼 Python 字串不可變動？
-----------------------------------

有許多優點。

其一是效能：知道字串不可變動後，我們就可以在創造他的時候就分配好空間，而
後他的儲存空間需求就是固定不變的。這也是元組 (tuple) 和串列 (list) 相異
的其中一個原因。

另一個優點是在 Python 中，字串和數字一樣「基本」。沒有任何行為會把 8 這
個數值改成其他數值；同理，在 Python 中也沒有任何行為會修改字串「eight」
。


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10.3.5 為何「self」在方法 (method) 定義和呼叫時一定要明確使用？
---------------------------------------------------------------

此構想從 Modula-3 而來。因為許多原因，他可以說是非常實用。

第一，這樣可以更明顯表現出你在用方法 (method) 或是實例 (instance) 的屬性
，而非一個區域變數。即使不知道類別 (class) 的定義，當看到 ‘self.x’ 或
‘self.meth()’，就會很清楚地知道是正在使用實例的變數或是方法。在 C++ 裡，
你可以藉由沒有區域變數宣告來判斷這件事 ── 但在 Python 裡沒有區域變數宣告
，所以你必須去看類別的定義來確定。有些 C++ 和 Java 的程式碼規格要求要在
實例屬性的名稱加上前綴 ‘m_’，所以這種明確性在那些語言也是很好用的。

第二，當你想明確地使用或呼叫在某個類別裡的方法的時候，你不需要特殊的語法
。在 C++ 裡，如果你想用一個在繼承類別時被覆寫的基底類別方法，必須要用
‘::’ 運算子 - 但在 Python 裡，你可以直接寫成 ‘baseclass.methodname(self,
<argument list>)’。這在 *note __init__(): 4ae. 方法很好用，特別是在一個
繼承的類別要擴充基底類別的方法而要呼叫他時。

最後，他解決了關於實例變數指派的語法問題：因為區域變數在 Python 是（定義
為）在函式內被指派值的變數（且沒有被明確宣告成全域），所以會需要一個方法
來告訴直譯器這個指派運算是針對實例變數，而非針對區域變數，這在語法層面處
理較好（為了效率）。C++ 用宣告解決了這件事，但 Python 沒有，而為了這個原
因而引入變數宣告機制又略嫌浪費。但使用明確的 ‘self.var’ 就可以把這個問題
圓滿解決。同理，在用實例變數的時候必須寫成 ‘self.var’ 即代表對於在方法中
不特定的名稱不需要去看實例的內容。換句話說，區域變數和實例變數存在於兩個
不同的命名空間 (namespace)，而你需要告訴 Python 要使用哪一個。


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10.3.6 為何我不能在運算式 (expression) 中使用指派運算？
-------------------------------------------------------

從 Python 3.8 開始，你可以這麼做了！

指派運算式使用海象運算子 ‘:=’ 來在運算式中指派變數值：

     while chunk := fp.read(200):
        print(chunk)

更多資訊請見 PEP 572(1)。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: 為何 Python 對於一些功能實作使用方法（像是 list index ），另一些使用函式（像是 len list ）？,  Next: 為何 join 是字串方法而非串列 list 或元組 tuple 方法？,  Prev: 為何我不能在運算式 expression 中使用指派運算？,  Up: 設計和歷史常見問答集

10.3.7 為何 Python 對於一些功能實作使用方法（像是 list.index()），另一些使用函式（像是 len(list)）？
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

如 Guido 所說：

     （一） 對一些運算來說，前綴寫法看起來會比後綴寫法好 ── 前綴（和中綴
     ！）運算在數學上有更久遠的傳統，這些符號在視覺上幫助數學家們更容易
     思考問題。想想把 x*(a+b) 這種式子展開成 x*a + x*b 的簡單，再比較一
     下古老的圈圈符號記法的笨拙就知道了。

     （二） 當我看到一段程式碼寫著 len(x)，我'知道'他要找某個東西的長度
     。這告訴了我兩件事：結果是一個整數、參數是某種容器。相對地，當我看
     到 x.len()，我必須先知道 x 是某種容器，並實作了一個介面或是繼承了一
     個有標準 len() 的類別。遇到一個沒有實作映射 (mapping) 的類別卻有
     get() 或 keys() 方法，或是不是檔案但卻有 write() 方法時，我們偶爾會
     覺得困惑。

-- ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-3000/2006-November/004643.html’


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10.3.8 為何 join() 是字串方法而非串列 (list) 或元組 (tuple) 方法？
------------------------------------------------------------------

自 Python 1.6 之後，字串變得很像其他標準的型別，也在此時，一些可以和字串
模組的函式有相同功能的方法也被加入。大多數的新方法都被廣泛接受，但有一個
方法似乎讓一些程式人員不舒服：

     ", ".join(['1', '2', '4', '8', '16'])

結果是：

     "1, 2, 4, 8, 16"

通常有兩個反對這個用法的論點。

第一項這麼說：「用字串文本 (string literal) （字串常數）看起來真的很醜」
，也許真的如此，但字串文本就只是一個固定值。如果方法可以用在值為字串的變
數上，那沒道理字串文本不能被使用。

第二個反對意見通常是：「我是在叫一個序列把它的成員用一個字串常數連接起來
」。但很遺憾地，你並不是在這樣做。因為某種原因，把 *note split(): d2a. 當
成字串方法比較簡單，因為這樣我們可以輕易地看到：

     "1, 2, 4, 8, 16".split(", ")

這是在叫一個字串文本回傳由指定的分隔符號（或是預設為空白）分出的子字串的
指令。

*note join(): 1f41. 是一個字串方法，因為在用他的時候，你是告訴分隔字串去
走遍整個字串序列，並將自己插入到相鄰的兩項之間。這個方法的參數可以是任何
符合序列規則的物件，包括自定義的新類別。在 bytes 和 bytearray 物件也有類
似的方法可用。


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10.3.9 例外處理有多快？
-----------------------

如果沒有例外被丟出，一個 *note try: 4ea./*note except: 3a8. 區塊是非常有
效率的。事實上，抓捕例外要付出昂貴的代價。在 Python 2.0 以前，這樣使用是
相當常見的：

     try:
         value = mydict[key]
     except KeyError:
         mydict[key] = getvalue(key)
         value = mydict[key]

這只有在你預料這個字典大多數時候都有鍵的時候才合理。如果並非如此，你應該
寫成：

     if key in mydict:
         value = mydict[key]
     else:
         value = mydict[key] = getvalue(key)

單就這個情況來說，你也可以用 ‘value = dict.setdefault(key,
getvalue(key))’，不過只有在 ‘getvalue()’ 代價不大的時候才能用，畢竟他每
次都會被執行。


File: python.info,  Node: 為什麼 Python 內沒有 switch 或 case 陳述式？,  Next: 為何不能在直譯器上模擬執行緒，而要使用作業系統的特定實作方式？,  Prev: 例外處理有多快？,  Up: 設計和歷史常見問答集

10.3.10 為什麼 Python 內沒有 switch 或 case 陳述式？
----------------------------------------------------

In general, structured switch statements execute one block of code when
an expression has a particular value or set of values.  Since Python
3.10 one can easily match literal values, or constants within a
namespace, with a ‘match ... case’ statement.  An older alternative is a
sequence of ‘if... elif... elif... else’.

如果可能性很多，你可以用字典去映射要呼叫的函式。舉例來說：

     if key in mydict:
         value = mydict[key]
     else:
         value = mydict[key] = getvalue(key)

對於呼叫物件裡的方法，你可以利用內建用來找尋特定方法的函式 *note
getattr(): a32. 來做進一步的簡化：

     class MyVisitor:
         def visit_a(self):
             ...

         def dispatch(self, value):
             method_name = 'visit_' + str(value)
             method = getattr(self, method_name)
             method()

我們建議在方法名稱加上前綴，以這個例子來說是 像是 ‘visit_’。沒有前綴的話
，一旦收到從不信任來源的值，攻擊者便可以隨意呼叫在你的專案內的方法。

Imitating switch with fallthrough, as with C's switch-case-default, is
possible, much harder, and less needed.


File: python.info,  Node: 為何不能在直譯器上模擬執行緒，而要使用作業系統的特定實作方式？,  Next: 為何 lambda 運算式不能包含陳述式？,  Prev: 為什麼 Python 內沒有 switch 或 case 陳述式？,  Up: 設計和歷史常見問答集

10.3.11 為何不能在直譯器上模擬執行緒，而要使用作業系統的特定實作方式？
----------------------------------------------------------------------

答案一：很不幸地，直譯器對每個 Python 的堆疊框 (stack frame) 會推至少一
個 C 的堆疊框。同時，擴充套件可以隨時呼叫 Python，因此完整的實作必須要支
援 C 的執行緒。

答案二：幸運地，無堆疊 (Stackless) Python(1) 完全重新設計了直譯器迴圈，
並避免了 C 堆疊。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/stackless-dev/stackless/wiki


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10.3.12 為何 lambda 運算式不能包含陳述式？
------------------------------------------

Python 的 lambda 運算式不能包含陳述式是因為 Python 的語法框架無法處理包
在運算式中的陳述式。然而，在 Python 裡這並不是一個嚴重的問題。不像在其他
語言中有獨立功能的 lambda，Python 的 lambda 只是一個在你懶得定義函式時可
用的一個簡寫表達法。

函式已經是 Python 裡的一級物件 (first class objects)，而且可以在區域範圍
內被宣告。因此唯一用 lambda 而非區域性的函式的優點就是你不需要多想一個函
式名稱 — 但這樣就會是一個區域變數被指定成函式物件（和 lambda 運算式的結
果同類）！


File: python.info,  Node: Python 可以被編譯成機器語言、C 語言或其他種語言嗎？,  Next: Python 如何管理記憶體？,  Prev: 為何 lambda 運算式不能包含陳述式？,  Up: 設計和歷史常見問答集

10.3.13 Python 可以被編譯成機器語言、C 語言或其他種語言嗎？
-----------------------------------------------------------

Cython(1) 可以編譯一個調整過有選擇性註解的 Python 版本。Nuitka(2) 是一個
有潛力編譯器，可以把 Python 編譯成 C++，他的目標是支援完整的 Python 語言
。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org/

   (2) https://nuitka.net/


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10.3.14 Python 如何管理記憶體？
-------------------------------

Python 記憶體管理的細節取決於實作。Python 的標準實作 *note CPython: 4f7.
使用參照計次 (reference counting) 來偵測不再被存取的物件，並用另一個機制
來收集參照循環 (reference cycle)、定期執行循環偵測演算法來找不再使用的循
環並刪除相關物件。 *note gc: 5b. 模組提供了可以執行垃圾收集、抓取除錯統
計數據和調整收集器參數的函式。

然而，在其他實作（像是 Jython(1) 或 PyPy(2)）中，會使用像是成熟的垃圾收
集器等不同機制。如果你的 Python 程式碼的表現取決於參照計次的實作，這個相
異處會導致一些微小的移植問題。

在一些 Python 實作中，下面這段程式碼（在 CPython 可以正常運作）可能會把
檔案描述子 (file descriptor) 用盡：

     for file in very_long_list_of_files:
         f = open(file)
         c = f.read(1)

實際上，使用 CPython 的參照計次和解構方案 (destructor scheme)，每個對
‘f’ 的新指派都會關閉前面打開的檔案。然而用傳統的垃圾回收 (GC) 的話，這些
檔案物件只會在不固定且有可能很長的時間後被收集（並關閉）。

如果你希望你的程式碼在任何 Python 實作版本中都可以運作，那你應該清楚地關
閉檔案或是使用 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式，如此一來，不用管記憶體管理的方法
，他也會正常運作：

     for file in very_long_list_of_files:
         with open(file) as f:
             c = f.read(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org

   (2) https://pypy.org


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10.3.15 為何 CPython 不使用更多傳統的垃圾回收機制？
---------------------------------------------------

第一，這並不是 C 的標準功能，因此他的可攜性低。（對，我們知道 Boehm GC 函
式庫。他有可相容於'大多數'平台的組合語言程式碼，但依然不是全部，而即便它
大多數是通透的，也並不完全，要讓它跟 Python 相容還是需要做一些修補。）

傳統的垃圾收集 (GC) 在 Python 被嵌入其他應用程式時也成了一個問題。在獨立
的 Python 程式裡當然可以把標準的 ‘malloc()’ 和 ‘free()’ 換成 GC 函式庫提
供的其他版本；但一個嵌著 Python 的應用程式可能想用'自己'的 malloc() 和
free() 替代品，而不是用 Python 的。以現在來說，CPython 和實作 malloc() 和
free() 的程式相處融洽。


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10.3.16 當 CPython 結束時，為何所有的記憶體不會被釋放？
-------------------------------------------------------

當離開 Python 時，從 Python 模組的全域命名空間來的物件並非總是會被釋放。
在有循環引用的時候，這可能會發生。有些記憶體是被 C 函式庫取用的，他們不
可能被釋放（例如：像是 Purify 之類的工具會抱怨）。然而，Python 在關閉的
時候會積極清理記憶體並嘗試刪除每個物件。

如果你想要強迫 Python 在釋放記憶體時刪除特定的東西，你可以用 *note
atexit: a. 模組來執行會強制刪除的函式。


File: python.info,  Node: 為何要把元組 tuple 和串列 list 分成兩個資料型態？,  Next: 串列 list 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？,  Prev: 當 CPython 結束時，為何所有的記憶體不會被釋放？,  Up: 設計和歷史常見問答集

10.3.17 為何要把元組 (tuple) 和串列 (list) 分成兩個資料型態？
-------------------------------------------------------------

串列和元組在很多方面相當相似，但通常用在完全不同的地方。元組可以想成
Pascal 的 ‘record’ 或是 C 的 ‘struct’，是一小群相關聯但可能是不同型別的
資料集合，以一組為單位進行操作。舉例來說，一個笛卡兒坐標系可以適當地表示
成一個有二或三個值的元組。

另一方面，串列更像是其他語言的陣列 (array)。他可以有不固定個同類別物件，
且為逐項操作。舉例來說，*note os.listdir('.'): f88. 回傳當下目錄裡的檔案
，以包含字串的串列表示。如果你新增了幾個檔案到這個目錄，一般來說操作結果
的函式也會正常運作。

元組則是不可變的，代表一旦元組被建立，你就不能夠改變裡面的任何一個值。而
串列可變，所以你可以改變裡面的元素。只有不可變的元素可以成為字典的鍵，所
以只能把元組當成鍵，而串列則不行。


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10.3.18 串列 (list) 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？
-----------------------------------------------

CPython 的串列 (list) 事實上是可變長度的陣列 (array)，而不是像 Lisp 語言
的鏈接串列 (linked list)。實作上，他是一個連續的物件參照 (reference) 陣
列，並把指向此陣列的指標 (pointer) 和陣列長度存在串列的標頭結構內。

因此，用索引來找串列特定項 ‘a[i]’ 的代價和串列大小或是索引值無關。

當新物件被新增或插入時，陣列會被調整大小。為了改善多次加入物件的效率，我
們有用一些巧妙的方法，當陣列必須變大時，會多收集一些額外的空間，接下來幾
次新增時就不需要再調整大小了。


File: python.info,  Node: 字典 dictionaries 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？,  Next: 為何字典的鍵一定是不可變的？,  Prev: 串列 list 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？,  Up: 設計和歷史常見問答集

10.3.19 字典 (dictionaries) 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？
-------------------------------------------------------

CPython 的字典是用可調整大小的雜湊表 (hash table) 實作的。比起 B 樹
(B-tree)，在搜尋（目前為止最常見的操作）方面有更好的表現，實作上也較為簡
單。

字典利用內建 *note hash(): 3df. 函式，對每個鍵做雜湊計算。雜湊結果依據鍵
的值和個別執行緒 (processes) 的種子而有相當大的差距。例如，‘'Python'’ 的
雜湊是 ‘-539294296’，而只差一個字的 ‘'python'’ 則是 ‘1142331976’。雜湊結
果接著被用來計算值在內部陣列儲存的位置。假設你存的鍵都有不同的雜湊值，那
字典只需要常數時間 — 用大 O 表示法 (Big-O notation) 就是 'O'(1) — 來找任
意一個鍵。


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10.3.20 為何字典的鍵一定是不可變的？
------------------------------------

實作字典用的雜湊表是根據鍵的值做計算從而找到鍵的。如果鍵可變的話，他的值
就可以改變，則雜湊的結果也會一起變動。但改變鍵的物件的人無從得知他被用來
當成字典的鍵，所以無法修改字典的內容。然後，當你嘗試在字典中尋找這個物件
時，因為雜湊值不同的緣故，你找不到他。而如果你嘗試用舊的值去尋找，也一樣
找不到，因為他的雜湊結果和原先物件不同。

如果你想要用串列作為字典的索引，把他轉換成元組即可。‘tuple(L)’ 函式會建
立一個和串列 ‘L’ 一樣內容的元組。而元組是不可變的，所以可以用來當成字典
的鍵。

也有人提出一些不能接受的方法：

   - 用串列的記憶體位址（物件 id）來雜湊。這不會成功，因為你如果用同樣的
     值建立一個新的串列，是找不到的。舉例來說：

          mydict = {[1, 2]: '12'}
          print(mydict[[1, 2]])

     這將會導致 *note KeyError: 8ed. 例外，因為 ‘[1, 2]’ 的 id 在第一行
     和第二行是不同的。換句話說，字典的鍵應該要用 ‘==’ 來做比較，而不是
     用 *note is: 268.。

   - 複製一個串列作為鍵。這一樣不會成功，因為串列是可變的，他可以包含自
     己的參照，所以複製會形成一個無窮迴圈。

   - 允許串列作為鍵，但告訴使用者不要更動他。當你不小心忘記或是更動了這
     個串列，會產生一種難以追蹤的 bug。他同時也違背了一項字典的重要定則
     ：在 ‘d.keys()’ 的每個值都可以當成字典的鍵。

   - 一旦串列被當成鍵，把他標記成只能讀取。問題是，這不只要避免最上層的
     物件改變值，就像用元組包含串列來做為鍵。把一個物件當成鍵，需要將從
     他開始可以接觸到的所有物件都標記成只能讀取 — 所以再一次，自己參照自
     己的物件會導致無窮迴圈。

如果你需要的話，這裡有個小技巧可以幫你，但請自己承擔風險：你可以把一個可
變物件包裝進一個有 *note __eq__(): 94f. 和 *note __hash__(): 950. 方法的
類別實例。只要這種包裝物件還存在於字典（或其他類似結構）中，你就必須確定
在字典（或其他用雜湊為基底的結構）中他們的雜湊值會保持恆定。

     class ListWrapper:
         def __init__(self, the_list):
             self.the_list = the_list

         def __eq__(self, other):
             return self.the_list == other.the_list

         def __hash__(self):
             l = self.the_list
             result = 98767 - len(l)*555
             for i, el in enumerate(l):
                 try:
                     result = result + (hash(el) % 9999999) * 1001 + i
                 except Exception:
                     result = (result % 7777777) + i * 333
             return result

請注意，雜湊的計算可能變得複雜，因為有串列成員不可雜湊 (unhashable) 和算
術溢位的可能性。

此外，不管物件是否在字典中，如果 ‘o1 == o2’（即 ‘o1.__eq__(o2) is True’）
，則 ‘hash(o1) == hash(o2)’（即 ‘o1.__hash__() == o2.__hash__()’），這個
事實必須要成立。如果無法滿足這項限制，那字典和其他用雜湊為基底的結構會出
現不正常的行為。

至於 ‘ListWrapper’，只要這個包裝過的物件在字典中，裡面的串列就不能改變以
避免不正常的事情發生。除非你已經謹慎思考過你的需求和無法滿足條件的後果，
不然請不要這麼做。請自行注意。


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10.3.21 為何 list.sort() 不是回傳排序過的串列？
-----------------------------------------------

在重視效能的情況下，把串列複製一份有些浪費。因此，*note list.sort():
a30. 直接在串列裡做排序。為了提醒你這件事，他不會回傳排序過的串列。這樣
一來，當你需要排序過和未排序過的串列時，你就不會被誤導而不小心覆蓋掉串列
。

如果你想要他回傳新的串列，那可以改用內建的 *note sorted(): a2f.。他會用
提供的可疊代物件 (iterable) 來排序建立新串列，並回傳之。例如，以下這個範
例會說明如何有序地疊代字典的鍵：

     for key in sorted(mydict):
         ...  # do whatever with mydict[key]...


File: python.info,  Node: 如何在 Python 中指定和強制使用一個介面規範 interface spec ？,  Next: 為何沒有 goto 語法？,  Prev: 為何 list sort 不是回傳排序過的串列？,  Up: 設計和歷史常見問答集

10.3.22 如何在 Python 中指定和強制使用一個介面規範 (interface spec)？
---------------------------------------------------------------------

像是 C++ 和 Java 等語言提供了模組的介面規範，他描述了該模組的方法和函式
的原型。很多人認為這種在編譯時強制執行的介面規範在建構大型程式時十分有幫
助。

Python 2.6 加入了 *note abc: 4. 模組，讓你可以定義抽象基底類別 (Abstract
Base Class, ABC)。你可以使用 *note isinstance(): 14b. 和 *note
issubclass(): 5df. 來確認一個實例或是類別是否實作了某個抽象基底類別。而
*note collections.abc: 1c. 模組定義了一系列好用的抽象基底類別，像是
*note Iterable: 1fe6.、*note Container: 1fe8. 和 *note MutableMapping:
f3d.。

對 Python 來說，很多介面規範的優點可以用對元件適當的測試規則來達到。

一個針對模組的好測試套件提供了回歸測試 (regression testing)，並作為模組
介面規範和一組範例。許多 Python 模組可以直接當成腳本執行，並提供簡單的「
自我測試」。即便模組使用了複雜的外部介面，他依然可以用外部介面的簡單的「
樁」(stub) 模擬來獨立測試。*note doctest: 36. 和 *note unittest: 101. 模
組或第三方的測試框架可以用來建構詳盡徹底的測試套件來測試模組裡的每一行程
式碼。

就像介面規範一樣，一個適當的測試規則在建造大型又複雜的 Python 應用程式時
可以幫上忙。事實上，他可能可以有更好的表現，因為介面規範無法測試程式的特
定屬性。舉例來說，‘list.append()’ 方法應該要在某個內部的串列最後面加上新
的元素，而介面規範沒辦法測試你的 ‘list.append()’ 是不是真的有正確的實作
，但這在測試套件裡是件很簡單的事。

撰寫測試套件相當有幫助，而你會像要把程式碼設計成好測試的樣子。測試驅動開
發 (test-driven development) 是一個越來越受歡迎的設計方法，他要求先完成
部分的測試套件，再去撰寫真的要用的程式碼。當然 Python 也允許你草率地不寫
任何測試。


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10.3.23 為何沒有 goto 語法？
----------------------------

在 1970 年代，人們了解到沒有限制的 goto 會導致混亂、難以理解和修改的「義
大利麵」程式碼 ("spaghetti" code)。在高階語言裡，這也是不需要的，因為有
方法可以做邏輯分支（以 Python 來說，用 *note if: 266. 陳述式和 *note or:
269.、*note and: 263. 及 *note if: 266./*note else: 264. 運算式）和迴圈
（用 *note while: 19f8. 和 *note for: 265. 陳述式，可能會有 *note
continue: 80d. 和 *note break: 8fc.）。

我們也可以用例外來做「結構化的 goto」，這甚至可以跨函式呼叫。很多人覺得
例外可以方便地模擬在 C、Fortran 和其他語言裡各種合理使用的 ‘go’ 和
‘goto’。例如：

     class label(Exception): pass  # declare a label

     try:
         ...
         if condition: raise label()  # goto label
         ...
     except label:  # where to goto
         pass
     ...

這依然不能讓你跳進迴圈內，這通常被認為是對 ‘goto’ 的濫用。請小心使用。


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10.3.24 為何純字串 (r-string) 不能以反斜線結尾？
------------------------------------------------

更精確地來說，他不能以奇數個反斜線結尾：尾端未配對的反斜線會使結尾的引號
被轉義 (escapes)，變成一個未結束的字串。

設計出純字串是為了提供有自己反斜線轉義處理的處理器（主要是正規表示式）一
個方便的輸入方式。這種處理器會把未配對的結尾反斜線當成錯誤，所以純字串不
允許如此。相對地，他讓你用一個反斜線轉義引號。這些規則在他們預想的目的上
正常地運作。

如果你嘗試建立 Windows 的路徑名稱，請注意 Windows 系統指令也接受一般斜線
：

     f = open("/mydir/file.txt")  # works fine!

如果你嘗試建立 DOS 指令的路徑名稱，試試看使用以下的範例：

     dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir" "\\"
     dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir\ "[:-1]
     dir = "\\this\\is\\my\\dos\\dir\\"


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10.3.25 為何 Python 沒有屬性賦值的 with 陳述式？
------------------------------------------------

Python 的 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式包裝了一區塊程式的執行，在進入和離開該
區塊時執行程式碼。一些語言會有像如下的結構：

     with obj:
         a = 1               # equivalent to obj.a = 1
         total = total + 1   # obj.total = obj.total + 1

但在 Python，這種結構是模糊的。

在其他語言裡，像是 Object Pascal、Delphi 和 C++，使用的是靜態型別，所以
我們可以清楚地知道是哪一個成員被指派值。這是靜態型別的重點 — 在編譯的時
候，編譯器'永遠'都知道每個變數的作用域 (scope)。

Python 使用的是動態型別。所以我們不可能提前知道在執行時哪個屬性會被使用
到。成員屬性可能在執行時從物件中被新增或移除。這使得如果簡單來看的話，我
們無法得知以下哪個屬性會被使用：區域的、全域的、或是成員屬性？

以下列不完整的程式碼為例：

     def foo(a):
         with a:
             print(x)

這段程式碼假設 ‘a’ 有一個叫做 ‘x’ 的成員屬性。然後，Python 裡並沒有任何
跡象告訴直譯器這件事。在假設「a」是一個整數的話，那會發生什麼事？如果有
一個全域變數稱為 ‘x’，那在這個 *note with: 3c5. 區塊會被使用嗎？如你所見
，Python 動態的天性使得這種選擇更加困難。

然而 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式或類似的語言特性（減少程式碼量）的主要好處可
以透過賦值來達成。相較於這樣寫：

     function(args).mydict[index][index].a = 21
     function(args).mydict[index][index].b = 42
     function(args).mydict[index][index].c = 63

應該寫成這樣：

     ref = function(args).mydict[index][index]
     ref.a = 21
     ref.b = 42
     ref.c = 63

這也有提升執行速度的副作用，因為 Python 的名稱綁定解析會在執行的時候發生
，而第二版只需要執行解析一次即可。

類似的提案包括引入語法以進一步減少程式碼量，例如使用「前導點 (leading
dot)」，但這些提案已被捨棄，以維持程式的明確性（參閱
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-ideas/2016-May/040070.html’）
。


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10.3.26 為何產生器 (generator) 不支援 with 陳述式？
---------------------------------------------------

出於技術原因，把產生器直接用作情境 (context) 管理器會無法正常運作。因為
通常來說，產生器是被當成疊代器 (iterator)，到最後完成時不需要被手動關閉
。但如果你需要的話，你可以在 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式裡用 *note
contextlib.closing(generator): 26c3. 來包裝他。


File: python.info,  Node: 為何 if、while、def、class 陳述式裡需要冒號？,  Next: 為何 Python 允許在串列和元組末端加上逗號？,  Prev: 為何產生器 generator 不支援 with 陳述式？,  Up: 設計和歷史常見問答集

10.3.27 為何 if、while、def、class 陳述式裡需要冒號？
-----------------------------------------------------

需要冒號主要是為了增加可讀性（由 ABC 語言的實驗得知）。試想如下範例：

     if a == b
         print(a)

以及：

     if a == b:
         print(a)

注意第二個例子稍微易讀一些的原因。可以更進一步觀察，一個冒號是如何放在這
個 FAQ 答案的例子裡的，這是標準的英文用法。

另一個小原因是冒號會使編輯器更容易做語法突顯，他們只需要看冒號的位置就可
以決定是否需要更多縮排，而不用做更多繁複精密的程式碼剖析。


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10.3.28 為何 Python 允許在串列和元組末端加上逗號？
--------------------------------------------------

Python 允許你在串列、元組和字典的結尾加上逗號：

     [1, 2, 3,]
     ('a', 'b', 'c',)
     d = {
         "A": [1, 5],
         "B": [6, 7],  # last trailing comma is optional but good style
     }

這有許多原因可被允許。

當你要把串列、元組或字典的值寫成多行時，這樣做會讓你新增元素時較為方便，
因為你不需要在前一行加上逗號。這幾行的值也可以被重新排序，而不會導致語法
錯誤。

不小心遺漏了逗號會導致難以發現的錯誤，例如：

     x = [
       "fee",
       "fie"
       "foo",
       "fum"
     ]

這個串列看起來有四個元素，但他其實只有三個：「fee」、「fiefoo」、「fum」
。永遠記得加上逗號以避免這種錯誤。

允許結尾逗號也讓生成的程式碼更容易產生。


File: python.info,  Node: 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題,  Next: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集,  Prev: 設計和歷史常見問答集,  Up: Python 常見問題

10.4 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題
===============================

* Menu:

* 常見函式問題::
* 常見課題::
* 執行緒::
* 輸入與輸出::
* 網路 (Network)/網際網路 (Internet) 程式: 網路 Network /網際網路 Internet 程式.
* 資料庫::
* 數學和數值::


File: python.info,  Node: 常見函式問題,  Next: 常見課題,  Up: 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題

10.4.1 常見函式問題
-------------------

* Menu:

* 我如何找到執行任務 X 的模組或應用程式？::
* 哪裡可以找到 math.py (socket.py, regex.py, 等...) 來源檔案？: 哪裡可以找到 math py socket py regex py 等 來源檔案？.
* 我如何使 Python script 執行在 Unix？::
* 是否有適用於 Python 的 curses/termcap 套件？::
* Python 中是否有等同於 C 的 onexit() 的函式？: Python 中是否有等同於 C 的 onexit 的函式？.
* 為什麼我的信號處理程式不起作用？::


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10.4.1.1 我如何找到執行任務 X 的模組或應用程式？
................................................

Check *note the Library Reference: 13d. to see if there's a relevant
standard library module.  (Eventually you'll learn what's in the
standard library and will be able to skip this step.)

For third-party packages, search the Python Package Index(1) or try
Google(2) or another web search engine.  Searching for "Python" plus a
keyword or two for your topic of interest will usually find something
helpful.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) https://www.google.com


File: python.info,  Node: 哪裡可以找到 math py socket py regex py 等 來源檔案？,  Next: 我如何使 Python script 執行在 Unix？,  Prev: 我如何找到執行任務 X 的模組或應用程式？,  Up: 常見函式問題

10.4.1.2 哪裡可以找到 math.py (socket.py, regex.py, 等...) 來源檔案？
.....................................................................

If you can't find a source file for a module it may be a built-in or
dynamically loaded module implemented in C, C++ or other compiled
language.  In this case you may not have the source file or it may be
something like ‘mathmodule.c’, somewhere in a C source directory (not on
the Python Path).

有（至少）三種 Python 模組：

  1. 以 Python 編寫的模組 (.py)；

  2. 用 C 編寫並動態載入的模組（.dll、.pyd、.so、.sl 等）；

  3. 用 C 編寫並與直譯器鏈接的模組；要獲得這些 list，請輸入：

          import sys
          print(sys.builtin_module_names)


File: python.info,  Node: 我如何使 Python script 執行在 Unix？,  Next: 是否有適用於 Python 的 curses/termcap 套件？,  Prev: 哪裡可以找到 math py socket py regex py 等 來源檔案？,  Up: 常見函式問題

10.4.1.3 我如何使 Python script 執行在 Unix？
.............................................

You need to do two things: the script file's mode must be executable and
the first line must begin with ‘#!’ followed by the path of the Python
interpreter.

The first is done by executing ‘chmod +x scriptfile’ or perhaps ‘chmod
755 scriptfile’.

The second can be done in a number of ways.  The most straightforward
way is to write

     #!/usr/local/bin/python

as the very first line of your file, using the pathname for where the
Python interpreter is installed on your platform.

If you would like the script to be independent of where the Python
interpreter lives, you can use the ‘env’ program.  Almost all Unix
variants support the following, assuming the Python interpreter is in a
directory on the user's ‘PATH’:

     #!/usr/bin/env python

'Don't' do this for CGI scripts.  The ‘PATH’ variable for CGI scripts is
often very minimal, so you need to use the actual absolute pathname of
the interpreter.

Occasionally, a user's environment is so full that the ‘/usr/bin/env’
program fails; or there's no env program at all.  In that case, you can
try the following hack (due to Alex Rezinsky):

     #! /bin/sh
     """:"
     exec python $0 ${1+"$@"}
     """

The minor disadvantage is that this defines the script's __doc__ string.
However, you can fix that by adding

     __doc__ = """...Whatever..."""


File: python.info,  Node: 是否有適用於 Python 的 curses/termcap 套件？,  Next: Python 中是否有等同於 C 的 onexit 的函式？,  Prev: 我如何使 Python script 執行在 Unix？,  Up: 常見函式問題

10.4.1.4 是否有適用於 Python 的 curses/termcap 套件？
.....................................................

For Unix variants: The standard Python source distribution comes with a
curses module in the Modules(1) subdirectory, though it's not compiled
by default.  (Note that this is not available in the Windows
distribution - there is no curses module for Windows.)

The *note curses: 29. module supports basic curses features as well as
many additional functions from ncurses and SYSV curses such as colour,
alternative character set support, pads, and mouse support.  This means
the module isn't compatible with operating systems that only have BSD
curses, but there don't seem to be any currently maintained OSes that
fall into this category.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Modules


File: python.info,  Node: Python 中是否有等同於 C 的 onexit 的函式？,  Next: 為什麼我的信號處理程式不起作用？,  Prev: 是否有適用於 Python 的 curses/termcap 套件？,  Up: 常見函式問題

10.4.1.5 Python 中是否有等同於 C 的 onexit() 的函式？
.....................................................

The *note atexit: a. module provides a register function that is similar
to C's ‘onexit()’.


File: python.info,  Node: 為什麼我的信號處理程式不起作用？,  Prev: Python 中是否有等同於 C 的 onexit 的函式？,  Up: 常見函式問題

10.4.1.6 為什麼我的信號處理程式不起作用？
.........................................

The most common problem is that the signal handler is declared with the
wrong argument list.  It is called as

     handler(signum, frame)

所以它應該用兩個參數聲明：

     def handler(signum, frame):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: 常見課題,  Next: 執行緒,  Prev: 常見函式問題,  Up: 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題

10.4.2 常見課題
---------------

* Menu:

* 如何測試 Python 程式或元件？::
* How do I create documentation from doc strings?::
* How do I get a single keypress at a time?::


File: python.info,  Node: 如何測試 Python 程式或元件？,  Next: How do I create documentation from doc strings?,  Up: 常見課題

10.4.2.1 如何測試 Python 程式或元件？
.....................................

Python comes with two testing frameworks.  The *note doctest: 36. module
finds examples in the docstrings for a module and runs them, comparing
the output with the expected output given in the docstring.

The *note unittest: 101. module is a fancier testing framework modelled
on Java and Smalltalk testing frameworks.

To make testing easier, you should use good modular design in your
program.  Your program should have almost all functionality encapsulated
in either functions or class methods - and this sometimes has the
surprising and delightful effect of making the program run faster
(because local variable accesses are faster than global accesses).
Furthermore the program should avoid depending on mutating global
variables, since this makes testing much more difficult to do.

The "global main logic" of your program may be as simple as

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main_logic()

at the bottom of the main module of your program.

Once your program is organized as a tractable collection of function and
class behaviours, you should write test functions that exercise the
behaviours.  A test suite that automates a sequence of tests can be
associated with each module.  This sounds like a lot of work, but since
Python is so terse and flexible it's surprisingly easy.  You can make
coding much more pleasant and fun by writing your test functions in
parallel with the "production code", since this makes it easy to find
bugs and even design flaws earlier.

"Support modules" that are not intended to be the main module of a
program may include a self-test of the module.

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         self_test()

Even programs that interact with complex external interfaces may be
tested when the external interfaces are unavailable by using "fake"
interfaces implemented in Python.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I create documentation from doc strings?,  Next: How do I get a single keypress at a time?,  Prev: 如何測試 Python 程式或元件？,  Up: 常見課題

10.4.2.2 How do I create documentation from doc strings?
........................................................

The *note pydoc: b0. module can create HTML from the doc strings in your
Python source code.  An alternative for creating API documentation
purely from docstrings is epydoc(1).  Sphinx(2) can also include
docstring content.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://epydoc.sourceforge.net/

   (2) https://www.sphinx-doc.org


File: python.info,  Node: How do I get a single keypress at a time?,  Prev: How do I create documentation from doc strings?,  Up: 常見課題

10.4.2.3 How do I get a single keypress at a time?
..................................................

For Unix variants there are several solutions.  It's straightforward to
do this using curses, but curses is a fairly large module to learn.


File: python.info,  Node: 執行緒,  Next: 輸入與輸出,  Prev: 常見課題,  Up: 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題

10.4.3 執行緒
-------------

* Menu:

* 如何使用執行緒編寫程式？::
* 我的執行緒似乎都沒有運行：為什麼？::
* How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?::
* What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?::
* 不能擺脫全局直譯器鎖嗎？::


File: python.info,  Node: 如何使用執行緒編寫程式？,  Next: 我的執行緒似乎都沒有運行：為什麼？,  Up: 執行緒

10.4.3.1 如何使用執行緒編寫程式？
.................................

Be sure to use the *note threading: e7. module and not the *note
_thread: 2. module.  The *note threading: e7. module builds convenient
abstractions on top of the low-level primitives provided by the *note
_thread: 2. module.


File: python.info,  Node: 我的執行緒似乎都沒有運行：為什麼？,  Next: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?,  Prev: 如何使用執行緒編寫程式？,  Up: 執行緒

10.4.3.2 我的執行緒似乎都沒有運行：為什麼？
...........................................

As soon as the main thread exits, all threads are killed.  Your main
thread is running too quickly, giving the threads no time to do any
work.

A simple fix is to add a sleep to the end of the program that's long
enough for all the threads to finish:

     import threading, time

     def thread_task(name, n):
         for i in range(n):
             print(name, i)

     for i in range(10):
         T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
         T.start()

     time.sleep(10)  # <---------------------------!

But now (on many platforms) the threads don't run in parallel, but
appear to run sequentially, one at a time!  The reason is that the OS
thread scheduler doesn't start a new thread until the previous thread is
blocked.

A simple fix is to add a tiny sleep to the start of the run function:

     def thread_task(name, n):
         time.sleep(0.001)  # <--------------------!
         for i in range(n):
             print(name, i)

     for i in range(10):
         T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
         T.start()

     time.sleep(10)

Instead of trying to guess a good delay value for *note time.sleep():
499, it's better to use some kind of semaphore mechanism.  One idea is
to use the *note queue: b1. module to create a queue object, let each
thread append a token to the queue when it finishes, and let the main
thread read as many tokens from the queue as there are threads.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?,  Next: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?,  Prev: 我的執行緒似乎都沒有運行：為什麼？,  Up: 執行緒

10.4.3.3 How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?
..................................................................

The easiest way is to use the *note concurrent.futures: 1f. module,
especially the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 555. class.

Or, if you want fine control over the dispatching algorithm, you can
write your own logic manually.  Use the *note queue: b1. module to
create a queue containing a list of jobs.  The *note Queue: 121d. class
maintains a list of objects and has a ‘.put(obj)’ method that adds items
to the queue and a ‘.get()’ method to return them.  The class will take
care of the locking necessary to ensure that each job is handed out
exactly once.

Here's a trivial example:

     import threading, queue, time

     # The worker thread gets jobs off the queue.  When the queue is empty, it
     # assumes there will be no more work and exits.
     # (Realistically workers will run until terminated.)
     def worker():
         print('Running worker')
         time.sleep(0.1)
         while True:
             try:
                 arg = q.get(block=False)
             except queue.Empty:
                 print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
                 print('queue empty')
                 break
             else:
                 print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
                 print('running with argument', arg)
                 time.sleep(0.5)

     # Create queue
     q = queue.Queue()

     # Start a pool of 5 workers
     for i in range(5):
         t = threading.Thread(target=worker, name='worker %i' % (i+1))
         t.start()

     # Begin adding work to the queue
     for i in range(50):
         q.put(i)

     # Give threads time to run
     print('Main thread sleeping')
     time.sleep(5)

When run, this will produce the following output:

     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Main thread sleeping
     Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 0
     Worker <Thread(worker 2, started 130283824404752)> running with argument 1
     Worker <Thread(worker 3, started 130283816012048)> running with argument 2
     Worker <Thread(worker 4, started 130283807619344)> running with argument 3
     Worker <Thread(worker 5, started 130283799226640)> running with argument 4
     Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 5
     ...

Consult the module's documentation for more details; the *note Queue:
121d. class provides a featureful interface.


File: python.info,  Node: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?,  Next: 不能擺脫全局直譯器鎖嗎？,  Prev: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?,  Up: 執行緒

10.4.3.4 What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?
.............................................................

A *note global interpreter lock: 141. (GIL) is used internally to ensure
that only one thread runs in the Python VM at a time.  In general,
Python offers to switch among threads only between bytecode
instructions; how frequently it switches can be set via *note
sys.setswitchinterval(): 78b.  Each bytecode instruction and therefore
all the C implementation code reached from each instruction is therefore
atomic from the point of view of a Python program.

In theory, this means an exact accounting requires an exact
understanding of the PVM bytecode implementation.  In practice, it means
that operations on shared variables of built-in data types (ints, lists,
dicts, etc) that "look atomic" really are.

For example, the following operations are all atomic (L, L1, L2 are
lists, D, D1, D2 are dicts, x, y are objects, i, j are ints):

     L.append(x)
     L1.extend(L2)
     x = L[i]
     x = L.pop()
     L1[i:j] = L2
     L.sort()
     x = y
     x.field = y
     D[x] = y
     D1.update(D2)
     D.keys()

這些不是：

     i = i+1
     L.append(L[-1])
     L[i] = L[j]
     D[x] = D[x] + 1

Operations that replace other objects may invoke those other objects'
*note __del__(): 1cf2. method when their reference count reaches zero,
and that can affect things.  This is especially true for the mass
updates to dictionaries and lists.  When in doubt, use a mutex!


File: python.info,  Node: 不能擺脫全局直譯器鎖嗎？,  Prev: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?,  Up: 執行緒

10.4.3.5 不能擺脫全局直譯器鎖嗎？
.................................

The *note global interpreter lock: 141. (GIL) is often seen as a
hindrance to Python's deployment on high-end multiprocessor server
machines, because a multi-threaded Python program effectively only uses
one CPU, due to the insistence that (almost) all Python code can only
run while the GIL is held.

Back in the days of Python 1.5, Greg Stein actually implemented a
comprehensive patch set (the "free threading" patches) that removed the
GIL and replaced it with fine-grained locking.  Adam Olsen recently did
a similar experiment in his python-safethread(1) project.
Unfortunately, both experiments exhibited a sharp drop in single-thread
performance (at least 30% slower), due to the amount of fine-grained
locking necessary to compensate for the removal of the GIL.

This doesn't mean that you can't make good use of Python on multi-CPU
machines!  You just have to be creative with dividing the work up
between multiple 'processes' rather than multiple 'threads'.  The *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 727. class in the new *note concurrent.futures: 1f.
module provides an easy way of doing so; the *note multiprocessing: 8f.
module provides a lower-level API in case you want more control over
dispatching of tasks.

Judicious use of C extensions will also help; if you use a C extension
to perform a time-consuming task, the extension can release the GIL
while the thread of execution is in the C code and allow other threads
to get some work done.  Some standard library modules such as *note
zlib: 12d. and *note hashlib: 63. already do this.

It has been suggested that the GIL should be a per-interpreter-state
lock rather than truly global; interpreters then wouldn't be able to
share objects.  Unfortunately, this isn't likely to happen either.  It
would be a tremendous amount of work, because many object
implementations currently have global state.  For example, small
integers and short strings are cached; these caches would have to be
moved to the interpreter state.  Other object types have their own free
list; these free lists would have to be moved to the interpreter state.
And so on.

And I doubt that it can even be done in finite time, because the same
problem exists for 3rd party extensions.  It is likely that 3rd party
extensions are being written at a faster rate than you can convert them
to store all their global state in the interpreter state.

And finally, once you have multiple interpreters not sharing any state,
what have you gained over running each interpreter in a separate
process?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-safethread


File: python.info,  Node: 輸入與輸出,  Next: 網路 Network /網際網路 Internet 程式,  Prev: 執行緒,  Up: 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題

10.4.4 輸入與輸出
-----------------

* Menu:

* 如何刪除檔案？（以及其他檔案問題...）: 如何刪除檔案？（以及其他檔案問題 ）.
* 如何複製檔案？::
* 如何讀取（或寫入）二進位制資料？::
* I can't seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why?: I can't seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?.
* 如何存取序列 (RS232) 連接埠？: 如何存取序列 RS232 連接埠？.
* 為什麼關閉 sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) 並沒有真正關閉它？: 為什麼關閉 sys stdout stdin stderr 並沒有真正關閉它？.


File: python.info,  Node: 如何刪除檔案？（以及其他檔案問題 ）,  Next: 如何複製檔案？,  Up: 輸入與輸出

10.4.4.1 如何刪除檔案？（以及其他檔案問題...）
..............................................

Use ‘os.remove(filename)’ or ‘os.unlink(filename)’; for documentation,
see the *note os: 9c. module.  The two functions are identical; *note
unlink(): f84. is simply the name of the Unix system call for this
function.

To remove a directory, use *note os.rmdir(): f82.; use *note os.mkdir():
1c1. to create one.  ‘os.makedirs(path)’ will create any intermediate
directories in ‘path’ that don't exist.  ‘os.removedirs(path)’ will
remove intermediate directories as long as they're empty; if you want to
delete an entire directory tree and its contents, use *note
shutil.rmtree(): 1d8.

要重新命名檔案，請使用 ‘os.rename(old_path, new_path)’。

To truncate a file, open it using ‘f = open(filename, "rb+")’, and use
‘f.truncate(offset)’; offset defaults to the current seek position.
There's also ‘os.ftruncate(fd, offset)’ for files opened with *note
os.open(): c09, where 'fd' is the file descriptor (a small integer).

The *note shutil: c0. module also contains a number of functions to work
on files including *note copyfile(): 8a4, *note copytree(): 872, and
*note rmtree(): 1d8.


File: python.info,  Node: 如何複製檔案？,  Next: 如何讀取（或寫入）二進位制資料？,  Prev: 如何刪除檔案？（以及其他檔案問題 ）,  Up: 輸入與輸出

10.4.4.2 如何複製檔案？
.......................

The *note shutil: c0. module contains a *note copyfile(): 8a4. function.
Note that on Windows NTFS volumes, it does not copy alternate data
streams(1) nor resource forks(2) on macOS HFS+ volumes, though both are
now rarely used.  It also doesn't copy file permissions and metadata,
though using *note shutil.copy2(): 8a6. instead will preserve most
(though not all) of it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTFS#Alternate_data_stream_(ADS)

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_fork


File: python.info,  Node: 如何讀取（或寫入）二進位制資料？,  Next: I can't seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?,  Prev: 如何複製檔案？,  Up: 輸入與輸出

10.4.4.3 如何讀取（或寫入）二進位制資料？
.........................................

To read or write complex binary data formats, it's best to use the *note
struct: cf. module.  It allows you to take a string containing binary
data (usually numbers) and convert it to Python objects; and vice versa.

For example, the following code reads two 2-byte integers and one 4-byte
integer in big-endian format from a file:

     import struct

     with open(filename, "rb") as f:
         s = f.read(8)
         x, y, z = struct.unpack(">hhl", s)

The '>' in the format string forces big-endian data; the letter 'h'
reads one "short integer" (2 bytes), and 'l' reads one "long integer" (4
bytes) from the string.

For data that is more regular (e.g.  a homogeneous list of ints or
floats), you can also use the *note array: 7. module.

     備註: To read and write binary data, it is mandatory to open the
     file in binary mode (here, passing ‘"rb"’ to *note open(): 29c.).
     If you use ‘"r"’ instead (the default), the file will be open in
     text mode and ‘f.read()’ will return *note str: 157. objects rather
     than *note bytes: 2c1. objects.


File: python.info,  Node: I can't seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?,  Next: 如何存取序列 RS232 連接埠？,  Prev: 如何讀取（或寫入）二進位制資料？,  Up: 輸入與輸出

10.4.4.4 I can't seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why?
..............................................................................

*note os.read(): c0c. is a low-level function which takes a file
descriptor, a small integer representing the opened file.  *note
os.popen(): 8d3. creates a high-level file object, the same type
returned by the built-in *note open(): 29c. function.  Thus, to read 'n'
bytes from a pipe 'p' created with *note os.popen(): 8d3, you need to
use ‘p.read(n)’.


File: python.info,  Node: 如何存取序列 RS232 連接埠？,  Next: 為什麼關閉 sys stdout stdin stderr 並沒有真正關閉它？,  Prev: I can't seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?,  Up: 輸入與輸出

10.4.4.5 如何存取序列 (RS232) 連接埠？
......................................

對於 Win32、OSX、Linux、BSD、Jython、IronPython：

     pyserial(1)

對於 Unix，請參閱 Mitch Chapman 的 Usenet 貼文：

     ‘https://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9@ohioee.com’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pyserial/


File: python.info,  Node: 為什麼關閉 sys stdout stdin stderr 並沒有真正關閉它？,  Prev: 如何存取序列 RS232 連接埠？,  Up: 輸入與輸出

10.4.4.6 為什麼關閉 sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) 並沒有真正關閉它？
.................................................................

Python *note 檔案物件: 1054.是低階 C 檔案描述器的高階抽象層。

For most file objects you create in Python via the built-in *note
open(): 29c. function, ‘f.close()’ marks the Python file object as being
closed from Python's point of view, and also arranges to close the
underlying C file descriptor.  This also happens automatically in ‘f’'s
destructor, when ‘f’ becomes garbage.

But stdin, stdout and stderr are treated specially by Python, because of
the special status also given to them by C. Running ‘sys.stdout.close()’
marks the Python-level file object as being closed, but does 'not' close
the associated C file descriptor.

To close the underlying C file descriptor for one of these three, you
should first be sure that's what you really want to do (e.g., you may
confuse extension modules trying to do I/O). If it is, use *note
os.close(): 9d1.:

     os.close(stdin.fileno())
     os.close(stdout.fileno())
     os.close(stderr.fileno())

或者你可以分別使用數字常數 0、1 和 2。


File: python.info,  Node: 網路 Network /網際網路 Internet 程式,  Next: 資料庫,  Prev: 輸入與輸出,  Up: 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題

10.4.5 網路 (Network)/網際網路 (Internet) 程式
----------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Python 有哪些 WWW 工具？::
* 如何模擬 CGI 表單送出 (submission) (METHOD=POST)？: 如何模擬 CGI 表單送出 submission METHOD=POST ？.
* 我應該使用什麼模組來輔助產生 HTML？::
* 如何從 Python 腳本發送郵件？::
* How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket?: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 有哪些 WWW 工具？,  Next: 如何模擬 CGI 表單送出 submission METHOD=POST ？,  Up: 網路 Network /網際網路 Internet 程式

10.4.5.1 Python 有哪些 WWW 工具？
.................................

See the chapters titled *note 網路協定 (Internet protocols) 及支援:
360c. and *note 網際網路資料處理: 3225. in the Library Reference Manual.
Python has many modules that will help you build server-side and
client-side web systems.

A summary of available frameworks is maintained by Paul Boddie at
‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming’.

Cameron Laird maintains a useful set of pages about Python web
technologies at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20210224183619/http://phaseit.net/claird/comp.lang.python/web_python’.


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10.4.5.2 如何模擬 CGI 表單送出 (submission) (METHOD=POST)？
...........................................................

I would like to retrieve web pages that are the result of POSTing a
form.  Is there existing code that would let me do this easily?

是的，這是一個 *note urllib.request: 106. 的簡單範例：

     #!/usr/local/bin/python

     import urllib.request

     # build the query string
     qs = "First=Josephine&MI=Q&Last=Public"

     # connect and send the server a path
     req = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.some-server.out-there'
                                  '/cgi-bin/some-cgi-script', data=qs)
     with req:
         msg, hdrs = req.read(), req.info()

Note that in general for percent-encoded POST operations, query strings
must be quoted using *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d15.  For example,
to send ‘name=Guy Steele, Jr.’:

     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> urllib.parse.urlencode({'name': 'Guy Steele, Jr.'})
     'name=Guy+Steele%2C+Jr.'

也參考
......

*note 如何使用 urllib 套件取得網路資源: 36d6. 內有大量範例。


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10.4.5.3 我應該使用什麼模組來輔助產生 HTML？
............................................

You can find a collection of useful links on the Web Programming wiki
page(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming


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10.4.5.4 如何從 Python 腳本發送郵件？
.....................................

使用標準函式庫模組 *note smtplib: c4.。

Here's a very simple interactive mail sender that uses it.  This method
will work on any host that supports an SMTP listener.

     import sys, smtplib

     fromaddr = input("From: ")
     toaddrs  = input("To: ").split(',')
     print("Enter message, end with ^D:")
     msg = ''
     while True:
         line = sys.stdin.readline()
         if not line:
             break
         msg += line

     # The actual mail send
     server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     server.sendmail(fromaddr, toaddrs, msg)
     server.quit()

A Unix-only alternative uses sendmail.  The location of the sendmail
program varies between systems; sometimes it is ‘/usr/lib/sendmail’,
sometimes ‘/usr/sbin/sendmail’.  The sendmail manual page will help you
out.  Here's some sample code:

     import os

     SENDMAIL = "/usr/sbin/sendmail"  # sendmail location
     p = os.popen("%s -t -i" % SENDMAIL, "w")
     p.write("To: receiver@example.com\n")
     p.write("Subject: test\n")
     p.write("\n")  # blank line separating headers from body
     p.write("Some text\n")
     p.write("some more text\n")
     sts = p.close()
     if sts != 0:
         print("Sendmail exit status", sts)


File: python.info,  Node: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?,  Prev: 如何從 Python 腳本發送郵件？,  Up: 網路 Network /網際網路 Internet 程式

10.4.5.5 How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket?
.....................................................................

*note select: bc. 模組通常用於幫助處理 socket 上的非同步 I/O。

To prevent the TCP connect from blocking, you can set the socket to
non-blocking mode.  Then when you do the *note connect(): c1a, you will
either connect immediately (unlikely) or get an exception that contains
the error number as ‘.errno’.  ‘errno.EINPROGRESS’ indicates that the
connection is in progress, but hasn't finished yet.  Different OSes will
return different values, so you're going to have to check what's
returned on your system.

You can use the *note connect_ex(): 13b0. method to avoid creating an
exception.  It will just return the errno value.  To poll, you can call
*note connect_ex(): 13b0. again later - ‘0’ or ‘errno.EISCONN’ indicate
that you're connected - or you can pass this socket to *note
select.select(): c17. to check if it's writable.

     備註: *note asyncio: 9. 模組提供了一個通用的單執行緒並發非同步函式
     庫，可用於編寫非阻塞網路程式碼。第三方 Twisted(1) 函式庫是一種流行
     且功能豐富的替代方案。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://twisted.org/


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10.4.6 資料庫
-------------

* Menu:

* Python 中是否有任何資料庫套件的介面？::
* How do you implement persistent objects in Python?::


File: python.info,  Node: Python 中是否有任何資料庫套件的介面？,  Next: How do you implement persistent objects in Python?,  Up: 資料庫

10.4.6.1 Python 中是否有任何資料庫套件的介面？
..............................................

有的。

Interfaces to disk-based hashes such as *note DBM: 32. and *note GDBM:
31. are also included with standard Python.  There is also the *note
sqlite3: c9. module, which provides a lightweight disk-based relational
database.

Support for most relational databases is available.  See the
DatabaseProgramming wiki page(1) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DatabaseProgramming


File: python.info,  Node: How do you implement persistent objects in Python?,  Prev: Python 中是否有任何資料庫套件的介面？,  Up: 資料庫

10.4.6.2 How do you implement persistent objects in Python?
...........................................................

The *note pickle: a1. library module solves this in a very general way
(though you still can't store things like open files, sockets or
windows), and the *note shelve: be. library module uses pickle and
(g)dbm to create persistent mappings containing arbitrary Python
objects.


File: python.info,  Node: 數學和數值,  Prev: 資料庫,  Up: 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題

10.4.7 數學和數值
-----------------

* Menu:

* 如何在 Python 中生成隨機數？::


File: python.info,  Node: 如何在 Python 中生成隨機數？,  Up: 數學和數值

10.4.7.1 如何在 Python 中生成隨機數？
.....................................

標準模組 *note random: b3. 實作了一個隨機數生成器。用法很簡單：

     import random
     random.random()

這將回傳 [0, 1) 範圍內的隨機浮點數。

該模組中還有許多其他專用生成器，例如：

   * ‘randrange(a, b)’ 會選擇 [a, b) 範圍內的一個整數。

   * ‘uniform(a, b)’ 會選擇 [a, b) 範圍內的浮點數。

   * ‘normalvariate(mean, sdev)’ 對常態（高斯）分佈進行採樣 (sample)。

一些更高階的函式會直接對序列進行操作，例如：

   * ‘choice(S)’ 會從給定序列中選擇一個隨機元素。

   * ‘shuffle(L)’ 會原地 (in-place) 打亂 list，即隨機排列它。

還有一個 ‘Random’ 類別，你可以將它實例化以建立多個獨立的隨機數生成器。


File: python.info,  Node: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集,  Next: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集,  Prev: 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題,  Up: Python 常見問題

10.5 擴充/嵌入常見問題集
========================

* Menu:

* 我可以在 C 中建立自己的函式嗎？::
* 我可以在 C++ 中建立自己的函式嗎？::
* 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？::
* 如何從 C 執行任意 Python 陳述式？::
* How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?::
* 如何從 Python 物件中提取 C 值？::
* 如何使用 Py_BuildValue() 建立任意長度的元組？: 如何使用 Py_BuildValue 建立任意長度的元組？.
* 如何從 C 呼叫物件的方法？::
* 我如何捕捉 PyErr_Print() 的輸出（或任何印出到 stdout/stderr 的東西）？: 我如何捕捉 PyErr_Print 的輸出（或任何印出到 stdout/stderr 的東西）？.
* 如何從 C 存取用 Python 編寫的模組？::
* How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?::
* 我使用安裝檔案新增了一個模組，但 make 失敗了；為什麼？::
* 如何為擴充套件除錯？::
* 我想在我的 Linux 系統上編譯一個 Python 模組，但是缺少一些檔案。為什麼？::
* 如何從「無效輸入」區分出「不完整輸入」？::
* 如何找到未定義的 g++ 符號 __builtin_new 或 __pure_virtual？::
* Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?: Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python e g through inheritance ?.


File: python.info,  Node: 我可以在 C 中建立自己的函式嗎？,  Next: 我可以在 C++ 中建立自己的函式嗎？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.1 我可以在 C 中建立自己的函式嗎？
--------------------------------------

是的，你可以在 C 中建立包含函式、變數、例外甚至新型別的內建模組，*note
擴充和嵌入 Python 直譯器: 19cb. 文件中有相關說明。

大多數中級或進階 Python 書籍也會涵蓋這個主題。


File: python.info,  Node: 我可以在 C++ 中建立自己的函式嗎？,  Next: 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？,  Prev: 我可以在 C 中建立自己的函式嗎？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.2 我可以在 C++ 中建立自己的函式嗎？
----------------------------------------

Yes, using the C compatibility features found in C++.  Place ‘extern "C"
{ ... }’ around the Python include files and put ‘extern "C"’ before
each function that is going to be called by the Python interpreter.
Global or static C++ objects with constructors are probably not a good
idea.


File: python.info,  Node: 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？,  Next: 如何從 C 執行任意 Python 陳述式？,  Prev: 我可以在 C++ 中建立自己的函式嗎？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.3 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？
----------------------------------

要編寫你自己的 C 擴充有許多替代方法，取決於你要執行的具體操作為何。

Cython(1) and its relative Pyrex(2) are compilers that accept a slightly
modified form of Python and generate the corresponding C code.  Cython
and Pyrex make it possible to write an extension without having to learn
Python's C API.

If you need to interface to some C or C++ library for which no Python
extension currently exists, you can try wrapping the library's data
types and functions with a tool such as SWIG(3). SIP(4), CXX(5)
Boost(6), or Weave(7) are also alternatives for wrapping C++ libraries.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org

   (2) https://www.csse.canterbury.ac.nz/greg.ewing/python/Pyrex/

   (3) https://www.swig.org

   (4) https://github.com/Python-SIP/sip

   (5) https://cxx.sourceforge.net/

   (6) https://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html

   (7) https://github.com/scipy/weave


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10.5.4 如何從 C 執行任意 Python 陳述式？
----------------------------------------

The highest-level function to do this is *note PyRun_SimpleString():
4795. which takes a single string argument to be executed in the context
of the module ‘__main__’ and returns ‘0’ for success and ‘-1’ when an
exception occurred (including *note SyntaxError: 146.).  If you want
more control, use *note PyRun_String(): 17bb.; see the source for *note
PyRun_SimpleString(): 4795. in ‘Python/pythonrun.c’.


File: python.info,  Node: How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?,  Next: 如何從 Python 物件中提取 C 值？,  Prev: 如何從 C 執行任意 Python 陳述式？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.5 How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?
----------------------------------------------------------------

Call the function *note PyRun_String(): 17bb. from the previous question
with the start symbol *note Py_eval_input: 4951.; it parses an
expression, evaluates it and returns its value.


File: python.info,  Node: 如何從 Python 物件中提取 C 值？,  Next: 如何使用 Py_BuildValue 建立任意長度的元組？,  Prev: How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.6 如何從 Python 物件中提取 C 值？
--------------------------------------

That depends on the object's type.  If it's a tuple, *note
PyTuple_Size(): 48e0. returns its length and *note PyTuple_GetItem():
473d. returns the item at a specified index.  Lists have similar
functions, *note PyList_Size(): 128a. and *note PyList_GetItem(): 473e.

For bytes, *note PyBytes_Size(): 47e5. returns its length and *note
PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 47df. provides a pointer to its value and its
length.  Note that Python bytes objects may contain null bytes so C's
‘strlen()’ should not be used.

要測試物件的型別，首先確保它不是 ‘NULL’，然後再使用 *note
PyBytes_Check(): 1223.、*note PyTuple_Check(): 4aae.、*note
PyList_Check(): 4abe. 等函式。

There is also a high-level API to Python objects which is provided by
the so-called 'abstract' interface - read ‘Include/abstract.h’ for
further details.  It allows interfacing with any kind of Python sequence
using calls like *note PySequence_Length(): 48be, *note
PySequence_GetItem(): 1841, etc.  as well as many other useful protocols
such as numbers (*note PyNumber_Index(): 6c1. et al.)  and mappings in
the PyMapping APIs.


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10.5.7 如何使用 Py_BuildValue() 建立任意長度的元組？
----------------------------------------------------

這無法做到。請改用 *note PyTuple_Pack(): 48df.。


File: python.info,  Node: 如何從 C 呼叫物件的方法？,  Next: 我如何捕捉 PyErr_Print 的輸出（或任何印出到 stdout/stderr 的東西）？,  Prev: 如何使用 Py_BuildValue 建立任意長度的元組？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.8 如何從 C 呼叫物件的方法？
--------------------------------

The *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 301. function can be used to call an
arbitrary method of an object.  The parameters are the object, the name
of the method to call, a format string like that used with *note
Py_BuildValue(): 6db, and the argument values:

     PyObject *
     PyObject_CallMethod(PyObject *object, const char *method_name,
                         const char *arg_format, ...);

This works for any object that has methods - whether built-in or
user-defined.  You are responsible for eventually *note Py_DECREF():
2fc.'ing the return value.

例如，使用引數 10、0 呼叫檔案物件的 "seek" 方法（假設檔案物件指標為 "f"）
：

     res = PyObject_CallMethod(f, "seek", "(ii)", 10, 0);
     if (res == NULL) {
             ... an exception occurred ...
     }
     else {
             Py_DECREF(res);
     }

Note that since *note PyObject_CallObject(): 4731. 'always' wants a
tuple for the argument list, to call a function without arguments, pass
"()" for the format, and to call a function with one argument, surround
the argument in parentheses, e.g.  "(i)".


File: python.info,  Node: 我如何捕捉 PyErr_Print 的輸出（或任何印出到 stdout/stderr 的東西）？,  Next: 如何從 C 存取用 Python 編寫的模組？,  Prev: 如何從 C 呼叫物件的方法？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.9 我如何捕捉 PyErr_Print() 的輸出（或任何印出到 stdout/stderr 的東西）？
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

In Python code, define an object that supports the ‘write()’ method.
Assign this object to *note sys.stdout: 92a. and *note sys.stderr: 778.
Call print_error, or just allow the standard traceback mechanism to
work.  Then, the output will go wherever your ‘write()’ method sends it.

最簡單的方法是使用 *note io.StringIO: db1. 類別：

     >>> import io, sys
     >>> sys.stdout = io.StringIO()
     >>> print('foo')
     >>> print('hello world!')
     >>> sys.stderr.write(sys.stdout.getvalue())
     foo
     hello world!

A custom object to do the same would look like this:

     >>> import io, sys
     >>> class StdoutCatcher(io.TextIOBase):
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.data = []
     ...     def write(self, stuff):
     ...         self.data.append(stuff)
     ...
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.stdout = StdoutCatcher()
     >>> print('foo')
     >>> print('hello world!')
     >>> sys.stderr.write(''.join(sys.stdout.data))
     foo
     hello world!


File: python.info,  Node: 如何從 C 存取用 Python 編寫的模組？,  Next: How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?,  Prev: 我如何捕捉 PyErr_Print 的輸出（或任何印出到 stdout/stderr 的東西）？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.10 如何從 C 存取用 Python 編寫的模組？
-------------------------------------------

You can get a pointer to the module object as follows:

     module = PyImport_ImportModule("<modulename>");

If the module hasn't been imported yet (i.e.  it is not yet present in
*note sys.modules: 1745.), this initializes the module; otherwise it
simply returns the value of ‘sys.modules["<modulename>"]’.  Note that it
doesn't enter the module into any namespace - it only ensures it has
been initialized and is stored in *note sys.modules: 1745.

You can then access the module's attributes (i.e.  any name defined in
the module) as follows:

     attr = PyObject_GetAttrString(module, "<attrname>");

Calling *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 13e8. to assign to variables in
the module also works.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?,  Next: 我使用安裝檔案新增了一個模組，但 make 失敗了；為什麼？,  Prev: 如何從 C 存取用 Python 編寫的模組？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.11 How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?
------------------------------------------------------

Depending on your requirements, there are many approaches.  To do this
manually, begin by reading *note the "Extending and Embedding" document:
19cb.  Realize that for the Python run-time system, there isn't a whole
lot of difference between C and C++ - so the strategy of building a new
Python type around a C structure (pointer) type will also work for C++
objects.

對於 C++ 函式庫，請參閱 *note 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？: 4f24.。


File: python.info,  Node: 我使用安裝檔案新增了一個模組，但 make 失敗了；為什麼？,  Next: 如何為擴充套件除錯？,  Prev: How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.12 我使用安裝檔案新增了一個模組，但 make 失敗了；為什麼？
--------------------------------------------------------------

Setup must end in a newline, if there is no newline there, the build
process fails.  (Fixing this requires some ugly shell script hackery,
and this bug is so minor that it doesn't seem worth the effort.)


File: python.info,  Node: 如何為擴充套件除錯？,  Next: 我想在我的 Linux 系統上編譯一個 Python 模組，但是缺少一些檔案。為什麼？,  Prev: 我使用安裝檔案新增了一個模組，但 make 失敗了；為什麼？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.13 如何為擴充套件除錯？
----------------------------

When using GDB with dynamically loaded extensions, you can't set a
breakpoint in your extension until your extension is loaded.

In your ‘.gdbinit’ file (or interactively), add the command:

     br _PyImport_LoadDynamicModule

然後，當你運行 GDB 時：

     $ gdb /local/bin/python
     gdb) run myscript.py
     gdb) continue # repeat until your extension is loaded
     gdb) finish   # so that your extension is loaded
     gdb) br myfunction.c:50
     gdb) continue


File: python.info,  Node: 我想在我的 Linux 系統上編譯一個 Python 模組，但是缺少一些檔案。為什麼？,  Next: 如何從「無效輸入」區分出「不完整輸入」？,  Prev: 如何為擴充套件除錯？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.14 我想在我的 Linux 系統上編譯一個 Python 模組，但是缺少一些檔案。為什麼？
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Most packaged versions of Python omit some files required for compiling
Python extensions.

For Red Hat, install the python3-devel RPM to get the necessary files.

For Debian, run ‘apt-get install python3-dev’.


File: python.info,  Node: 如何從「無效輸入」區分出「不完整輸入」？,  Next: 如何找到未定義的 g++ 符號 __builtin_new 或 __pure_virtual？,  Prev: 我想在我的 Linux 系統上編譯一個 Python 模組，但是缺少一些檔案。為什麼？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.15 如何從「無效輸入」區分出「不完整輸入」？
------------------------------------------------

Sometimes you want to emulate the Python interactive interpreter's
behavior, where it gives you a continuation prompt when the input is
incomplete (e.g.  you typed the start of an "if" statement or you didn't
close your parentheses or triple string quotes), but it gives you a
syntax error message immediately when the input is invalid.

在 Python 中，你可以使用 *note codeop: 1a. 模組，它充分模擬了剖析器
(parser) 的行為。像是 IDLE 就有使用它。

The easiest way to do it in C is to call *note PyRun_InteractiveLoop():
4958. (perhaps in a separate thread) and let the Python interpreter
handle the input for you.  You can also set the *note
PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 315. to point at your custom input
function.  See ‘Modules/readline.c’ and ‘Parser/myreadline.c’ for more
hints.


File: python.info,  Node: 如何找到未定義的 g++ 符號 __builtin_new 或 __pure_virtual？,  Next: Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python e g through inheritance ?,  Prev: 如何從「無效輸入」區分出「不完整輸入」？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.16 如何找到未定義的 g++ 符號 __builtin_new 或 __pure_virtual？
-------------------------------------------------------------------

To dynamically load g++ extension modules, you must recompile Python,
relink it using g++ (change LINKCC in the Python Modules Makefile), and
link your extension module using g++ (e.g., ‘g++ -shared -o mymodule.so
mymodule.o’).


File: python.info,  Node: Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python e g through inheritance ?,  Prev: 如何找到未定義的 g++ 符號 __builtin_new 或 __pure_virtual？,  Up: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集

10.5.17 Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

是的，你可以繼承內建類別，例如 *note int: 17e.、*note list: 40a.、*note
dict: 239. 等。

Boost Python 函式庫（BPL，
‘https://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html’）提供了一種從 C++ 執
行此操作的方法（即你可以使用 BPL 來繼承用 C++ 編寫的擴充類別）。


File: python.info,  Node: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集,  Next: 圖形使用者介面常見問答集,  Prev: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集,  Up: Python 常見問題

10.6 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集
========================================

* Menu:

* 如何在 Windows 作業系統裡運行 Python 程式？::
* 如何使 Python 腳本可以執行？::
* 為什麼 Python 有時需要這麼長的時間才能開始？::
* 如何從 Python 腳本製作可執行檔？::
* *.pyd 檔是否與 DLL 相同？: * pyd 檔是否與 DLL 相同？.
* 如何將 Python 嵌入 Windows 應用程式中？::
* 如何防止編輯器在我的 Python 原始碼中插入 tab？::
* 如何在不阻塞的情況下檢查 keypress？::
* 如何解決遺漏 api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll 的錯誤？: 如何解決遺漏 api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll 的錯誤？.


File: python.info,  Node: 如何在 Windows 作業系統裡運行 Python 程式？,  Next: 如何使 Python 腳本可以執行？,  Up: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集

10.6.1 如何在 Windows 作業系統裡運行 Python 程式？
--------------------------------------------------

這個問題的答案可能有點複雜。如果你經常使用「命令提示字元」執行程式，那這
對你來說不會是什麼難事。如果不然，那就需要更仔細的說明了。

除非你使用某種整合開發環境，否則你最終將會在所謂的「命令提示字元視窗」中
'打字輸入' Windows 命令。通常，你可以透過從搜尋欄中搜尋 ‘cmd’ 來建立這樣
的視窗。你應該能夠認出何時已啟動這樣的視窗，因為你將看到 Windows「命令提
示字元」，它通常看起來像這樣：

     C:\>

第一個字母可能不一樣，且後面也可能還有其他內容，因此你可能會很容易看到類
似以下的文字：

     D:\YourName\Projects\Python>

取決於你的電腦如何被設置，以及你最近對它所做的其他操作。一旦你啟動了這樣
一個視窗，你就即將可以運行 Python 程式了。

你需要了解，你的 Python 腳本必須被另一個稱為 Python '直譯器'的程序來處理
。直譯器會讀取你的腳本，將其編譯為位元組碼，然後執行該位元組碼以運行你的
程式。那麼，你要如何安排直譯器來處理你的 Python 呢？

首先，你需要確保你的命令視窗會將單字 "py" 識別為啟動直譯器的指令。如果你
已經開啟一個命令視窗，則你應該試試輸入命令 ‘py’ 並按下 return 鍵：

     C:\Users\YourName> py

然後，你應該看到類似下面的內容：

     Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (Intel)] on win32
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>>

你已經啟動直譯器中的「互動模式」。這表示你能夠以互動方式輸入 Python 陳述
式或運算式，並在等待時執行或計算它們。這是 Python 最強大的功能之一。輸入
你所選的幾個運算式並查看結果，可以檢驗此功能：

     >>> print("Hello")
     Hello
     >>> "Hello" * 3
     'HelloHelloHello'

許多人將互動模式作為方便但可高度程式化的計算機。如果你要結束互動式
Python 對話，請呼叫 *note exit(): 1f1f. 函式或是按住 ‘Ctrl’ 鍵再輸入
‘Z’，然後按下 "‘Enter’" 鍵以返回 Windows 命令提示字元。

你可能還會發現你有一個開始功能表項目，像是：開始 ‣ 所有程式 ‣ Python 3.x
‣ Python（命令行），它會讓你在一個新視窗中看到 ‘>>>’ 提示字元。如果是這
樣，該視窗將在你呼叫 *note exit(): 1f1f. 函式或輸入 ‘Ctrl-Z’ 字元後消失
；Windows 正在該視窗中運行單一個「python」命令，並在你終止直譯器時將其關
閉。

現在我們知道 ‘py’ 命令已被識別，而你可以將你的 Python 腳本提供給它。你必
須為 Python 腳本給定絕對路徑或相對路徑。假設你的 Python 腳本位於桌面上，
並被命名為 ‘hello.py’，且你的命令提示字元在你的家目錄 (home directory) 中
順利地被開啟，那麼你就會看到類似以下的內容：

     C:\Users\YourName>

因此，現在你將透過鍵入 ‘py’ 加上腳本路徑，來使用 ‘py’ 命令將你的腳本提供
給 Python：

     C:\Users\YourName> py Desktop\hello.py
     hello


File: python.info,  Node: 如何使 Python 腳本可以執行？,  Next: 為什麼 Python 有時需要這麼長的時間才能開始？,  Prev: 如何在 Windows 作業系統裡運行 Python 程式？,  Up: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集

10.6.2 如何使 Python 腳本可以執行？
-----------------------------------

在 Windows 上，標準的 Python 安裝程式已將 .py 副檔名與一種檔案類型
(Python.File) 進行關聯，並為該檔案類型提供一個開啟命令來運行直譯器
(‘D:\Program Files\Python\python.exe "%1" %*’)。這足以使腳本能以類似
'foo.py' 的形式從命令提示字元被執行。如果你希望能夠簡單地輸入 'foo' 來執
行腳本，而不用加上副檔名，則需要將 .py 新增至 PATHEXT 環境變數中。


File: python.info,  Node: 為什麼 Python 有時需要這麼長的時間才能開始？,  Next: 如何從 Python 腳本製作可執行檔？,  Prev: 如何使 Python 腳本可以執行？,  Up: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集

10.6.3 為什麼 Python 有時需要這麼長的時間才能開始？
---------------------------------------------------

通常 Python 在 Windows 上啟動得非常快，但偶爾會有一些錯誤報告，內容是
Python 突然開始需要很長的時間才能啟動。這種情形更令人費解，因為 Python 在
其他 Windows 系統上可以正常工作，而那些系統似乎也有相同的配置。

這個問題可能是由發生此問題的電腦上的病毒檢查軟體配置錯誤所引起的。目前已
知某些病毒掃描程式，在它們被配置為監視來自檔案系統的所有讀取時，會引入兩
個數量級的啟動負擔。請試著檢查你系統上的病毒掃描軟體配置，以確保它們的配
置確實相同。當 McAfee 被配置為掃描所有檔案系統的讀取活動時，它是一個特定
的違規者。


File: python.info,  Node: 如何從 Python 腳本製作可執行檔？,  Next: * pyd 檔是否與 DLL 相同？,  Prev: 為什麼 Python 有時需要這麼長的時間才能開始？,  Up: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集

10.6.4 如何從 Python 腳本製作可執行檔？
---------------------------------------

請參閱*note 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？: 4e92.該章節列出了
用於製作可執行檔的工具清單。


File: python.info,  Node: * pyd 檔是否與 DLL 相同？,  Next: 如何將 Python 嵌入 Windows 應用程式中？,  Prev: 如何從 Python 腳本製作可執行檔？,  Up: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集

10.6.5 ‘*.pyd’ 檔是否與 DLL 相同？
----------------------------------

是的，.pyd 檔類似於 dll，但也有一些區別。如果你有一個名為 ‘foo.pyd’ 的
DLL，則它必須具有函式 ‘PyInit_foo()’。接著你可以將 "import foo" 寫入
Python 腳本，Python 將會搜尋 foo.pyd（以及 foo.py、foo.pyc），如果
Python 找到它，將會嘗試呼叫 ‘PyInit_foo()’ 來將它初始化。你並不會將你的
.exe 與 foo.lib 連結 (link)，因為這會導致 Windows 要求 DLL 的存在。

請注意，foo.pyd 的搜尋路徑是 PYTHONPATH，與 Windows 用於搜尋 foo.dll 的
路徑不同。此外，foo.pyd 不需存在即可運行你的程式，然而如果你將程式連結了
一個 dll，則該 dll 會是必要的。當然，如果你想要 ‘import foo’，foo.pyd 就
是必要的。在 DLL 中，連結是以 ‘__declspec(dllexport)’ 在原始碼中被宣告。
在 .pyd 中，連結是在一個可用函式的 list（串列）中被定義。


File: python.info,  Node: 如何將 Python 嵌入 Windows 應用程式中？,  Next: 如何防止編輯器在我的 Python 原始碼中插入 tab？,  Prev: * pyd 檔是否與 DLL 相同？,  Up: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集

10.6.6 如何將 Python 嵌入 Windows 應用程式中？
----------------------------------------------

在 Windows 應用程式中嵌入 Python 直譯器的過程可以總結如下：

  1. '不要'直接將 Python 建置到你的 .exe 檔中。在 Windows 上，Python 必
     須是一個 DLL 來處理模組的 import，而那些模組本身也是 DLL。（這是第
     一個未正式記載的關鍵事實。）請改為連結到 ‘python`NN'.dll’；它通常被
     安裝在 ‘C:\Windows\System’ 中。'NN' 是 Python 版本，例如 "33" 就是
     指 Python 3.3。

     你可以透過兩種不同的方式連結到 Python。載入時連結 (load-time
     linking) 表示要連結到 ‘python`NN'.lib’，而執行環境連結 (run-time
     linking) 表示要連結到 ‘python`NN'.dll’。（一般註解：
     ‘python`NN'.lib’ 是 ‘python`NN'.dll’ 相對應的所謂 "import lib"。它
     只會為鏈接器定義符號。）

     執行環境連結大大簡化了連結選項；所有事情都會發生在執行環境。你的程
     式碼必須使用 Windows ‘LoadLibraryEx()’ 常式 (routine) 來載入
     ‘python`NN'.dll’。該程式碼也必須用 Windows ‘GetProcAddress()’ 常式
     所取得的指標，來使用 ‘python`NN'.dll’ 中的（即為 Python C API 的）
     存取常式和資料。對於任何呼叫 Python C API 常式的 C 程式碼，巨集可以
     讓使用這些指標的過程透明化。

  2. 如果你使用 SWIG，則可輕鬆地建立一個 Python 「擴充模組」，該模組將使
     應用程式的資料和 method（方法）可供 Python 使用。SWIG 會為你處理幾
     乎所有的繁瑣細節。結果就是，你會將 C 程式碼連結'到'你的 .exe 檔裡（
     ！）你'不必'建立 DLL 檔，而這也簡化了連結。

  3. SWIG 將建立一個 init 函式（一個 C 函式），其名稱取決於擴充模組的名
     稱。例如，如果模組的名稱是 leo，則該 init 函式會命名為 initleo()。
     如果你使用 SWIG shadow class（類別），則 init 函式會命名為
     initleoc()。這會初始化被 shadow class 所用的大多數隱藏的 helper
     class。

     你可以將步驟 2 中的 C 程式碼連結到 .exe 檔中的原因是，呼叫初始化函
     式就等效於 import 模組進 Python！（這是第二個未正式記載的關鍵事實。
     ）

  4. 簡而言之，你可以使用以下程式碼，以你的擴充模組初始化 Python 直譯器
     。

          #include <Python.h>
          ...
          Py_Initialize();  // Initialize Python.
          initmyAppc();  // Initialize (import) the helper class.
          PyRun_SimpleString("import myApp");  // Import the shadow class.

  5. Python 的 C API 有兩個問題，如果你使用 MSVC（用於建置 pythonNN.dll
     的編譯器）以外的編譯器，這些問題將會變得明顯。

     問題 1：使用 ‘FILE *’ 引數的所謂「非常高階」的函式，在多編譯器
     (multi-compiler) 的環境中會無法作用，因為每個編譯器對 ‘struct FILE’
     的概念不同。從實作的觀點來看，這些都是非常_低階_的函式。

     問題 2：SWIG 在為 void 函式產生包裝函式 (wrapper) 時會產生以下程式
     碼：

          Py_INCREF(Py_None);
          _resultobj = Py_None;
          return _resultobj;

     唉，Py_None 是一個巨集，它會延伸到一個參照，指向 pythonNN.dll 內部
     的一種稱為 _Py_NoneStruct 的複雜資料結構。同樣的，此程式碼在多編譯
     器環境中將會失效。請將此類程式碼替換為：

          return Py_BuildValue("");

     有可能可以使用 SWIG 的 ‘%typemap’ 命令以自動進行程式碼變更，雖然我
     未曾這樣正常運作過（我是一個完全的 SWIG 新手）。

  6. 使用 Python shell 腳本從你的 Windows 應用程式內部建造一個 Python 直
     譯器視窗不是一個好主意；該視窗將會獨立於你的應用程式視窗系統。與其
     如此，你（或 wxPythonWindow class）應該要建立一個「本機」直譯器視窗
     。將該視窗連接到 Python 直譯器是很容易的。你可以將 Python 的 i/o 重
     定向 (redirect) 到可支援讀取和寫入的任何物件，因此你只需要一個包含
     read() 和 write() method 的 Python 物件（在你的擴充模組中被定義）就
     可以了。


File: python.info,  Node: 如何防止編輯器在我的 Python 原始碼中插入 tab？,  Next: 如何在不阻塞的情況下檢查 keypress？,  Prev: 如何將 Python 嵌入 Windows 應用程式中？,  Up: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集

10.6.7 如何防止編輯器在我的 Python 原始碼中插入 tab？
-----------------------------------------------------

FAQ 不建議使用 tab，且 Python 風格指南 PEP 8(1) 建議在分散式 Python 程式
碼使用 4 個空格；這也是 Emacs 的 python 模式預設值。

在任何編輯器下，將 tab 和空格混合都是一個壞主意。MSVC 在這方面也是一樣，
且可以輕鬆配置為使用空格：選擇工具 ‣ 選項 ‣ Tabs，然後對於「預設」檔案類
型，將「Tab 大小」和「縮排大小」設定為 4，然後選擇「插入空格」單選鈕。

如果混合 tab 和空格造成前導空白字元出現問題，則 Python 會引發 *note
IndentationError: 5c5. 或 *note TabError: 2c7.。你也可以運行 *note
tabnanny: d7. 模組，在批次模式下檢查目錄樹。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: 如何在不阻塞的情況下檢查 keypress？,  Next: 如何解決遺漏 api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll 的錯誤？,  Prev: 如何防止編輯器在我的 Python 原始碼中插入 tab？,  Up: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集

10.6.8 如何在不阻塞的情況下檢查 keypress？
------------------------------------------

使用 *note msvcrt: 8e. 模組。這是一個標準的 Windows 專用擴充模組。它定義
了一個函式 ‘kbhit()’，該函式會檢查是否出現鍵盤打擊 (keyboard hit)，以及
函式 ‘getch()’，該函式會取得一個字元且不會將其印出。


File: python.info,  Node: 如何解決遺漏 api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll 的錯誤？,  Prev: 如何在不阻塞的情況下檢查 keypress？,  Up: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集

10.6.9 如何解決遺漏 api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll 的錯誤？
--------------------------------------------------------------

使用 Windows 8.1 或更早版本時，若尚未安裝所有的更新，則可能會在 Python
3.5 以上的版本發生這種情況。首先要確保你的作業系統仍受支援並且是最新的，
如果這無法解決問題，請造訪 Microsoft 支援頁面(1)以取得關於手動安裝 C
Runtime 更新的指南。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/3118401/


File: python.info,  Node: 圖形使用者介面常見問答集,  Next: 「為什麼 Python 被安裝在我的機器上？」常見問答集,  Prev: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集,  Up: Python 常見問題

10.7 圖形使用者介面常見問答集
=============================

* Menu:

* 圖形使用者介面 (GUI) 的常見問題: 圖形使用者介面 GUI 的常見問題.
* Python 有哪些 GUI 套件？::
* Tkinter 的問答::


File: python.info,  Node: 圖形使用者介面 GUI 的常見問題,  Next: Python 有哪些 GUI 套件？,  Up: 圖形使用者介面常見問答集

10.7.1 圖形使用者介面 (GUI) 的常見問題
--------------------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: Python 有哪些 GUI 套件？,  Next: Tkinter 的問答,  Prev: 圖形使用者介面 GUI 的常見問題,  Up: 圖形使用者介面常見問答集

10.7.2 Python 有哪些 GUI 套件？
-------------------------------

Python 的標準版本會包含一個 Tcl/Tk 小工具集 (widget set) 的物件導向介面
，稱為 *note tkinter: 3aff.。這可能是最容易安裝（因為它已包含在 Python 的
大多數二進制發行版本(1)中）和使用的。有關 Tk 的詳細資訊（包含指向原始碼
的指標），請參閱 Tcl/Tk 首頁(2)。Tcl/Tk 在 macOS、Windows 和 Unix 平台上
是完全可攜 (portable) 的。

根據你要使用的平台，還有其他幾種選擇。在 python wiki 上可以找到一份跨平
台的(3)以及各平台專屬的(4) GUI 框架清單。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://www.tcl.tk

   (3) 
https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Cross-Platform_Frameworks

   (4) 
https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Platform-specific_Frameworks


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter 的問答,  Prev: Python 有哪些 GUI 套件？,  Up: 圖形使用者介面常見問答集

10.7.3 Tkinter 的問答
---------------------

* Menu:

* 如何凍結 Tkinter 應用程式？::
* 是否可以在等待 I/O 時處理 Tk 事件？::
* 我無法讓鍵繫結 (key binding) 在 Tkinter 中作用：為什麼？: 我無法讓鍵繫結 key binding 在 Tkinter 中作用：為什麼？.


File: python.info,  Node: 如何凍結 Tkinter 應用程式？,  Next: 是否可以在等待 I/O 時處理 Tk 事件？,  Up: Tkinter 的問答

10.7.3.1 如何凍結 Tkinter 應用程式？
....................................

凍結 (freeze) 是一個能建立獨立應用程式的工具。在凍結 Tkinter 應用程式時
，該應用程式不是真正的獨立，因為該應用程式仍然需要 Tcl 和 Tk 函式庫。

將應用程式與 Tcl 和 Tk 函式庫一併發送是一種解決方法，並在執行環境
(run-time) 使用 ‘TCL_LIBRARY’ 和 ‘TK_LIBRARY’ 環境變數來指向該函式庫。

要得到真正獨立的應用程式，必須將構成函式庫的 Tcl 腳本也整合到應用程式中
。一個可支援該方法的工具是 SAM（stand-alone modules，獨立模組），它是
Tix 發行版的一部分 (‘https://tix.sourceforge.net/’)。

請在 SAM 被啟用的情況下建置 Tix，對 Python 的 ‘Modules/tkappinit.c’ 中的
‘Tclsam_init()’ 等函式執行適當的呼叫，並與 libtclsam 和 libtksam 連結（
你可能也會 include Tix 函式庫）。


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10.7.3.2 是否可以在等待 I/O 時處理 Tk 事件？
............................................

在 Windows 以外的平台上是可以的，你甚至不需要執行緒！但是，你必須稍微調
整你的 I/O 程式碼。Tk 具有等效於 Xt 的 ‘XtAddInput()’ 的函式呼叫，它能讓
你記錄一個回呼 (callback) 函式，當 I/O 在一個檔案描述符 (file
descriptor) 上可進行時，該函式將會從 Tk mainloop 被呼叫。請參閱*note
File Handlers: 3b1c.。


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10.7.3.3 我無法讓鍵繫結 (key binding) 在 Tkinter 中作用：為什麼？
.................................................................

一個經常聽到的抱怨是，儘管事件處理程式 (event handler) 已經*note 繫結:
3b17.到帶有 ‘bind()’ method 的事件，但在按下相應的鍵時，該事件也沒有被處
理。

最常見的原因是，繫結到的小工具並沒有「鍵盤焦點 (keyboard focus)」。請查
看 Tk 說明文件中關於焦點命令的敘述。通常，點擊一個小工具，會讓它得到鍵盤
焦點（但不適用於標籤；請參閱 takefocus 選項）。


File: python.info,  Node: 「為什麼 Python 被安裝在我的機器上？」常見問答集,  Prev: 圖形使用者介面常見問答集,  Up: Python 常見問題

10.8 「為什麼 Python 被安裝在我的機器上？」常見問答集
=====================================================

* Menu:

* 什麼是 Python？: 什麼是 Python？<2>.
* 為什麼 Python 被安裝在我的機器上?::
* 我能夠自行刪除 Python 嗎？::


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10.8.1 什麼是 Python？
----------------------

Python 是一種程式語言。它被使用於不同種類的應用程式中。因為 Python 屬於
容易學習的語言，它在一些高中和大學課程中被用作介紹程式語言的工具；但它也
被專業的軟體開發人員所使用，例如 Google、美國太空總署與盧卡斯電影公司。

若你想學習更多關於 Python 的知識，可以先從 Python 初學者指引(1)開始閱讀
。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


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10.8.2 為什麼 Python 被安裝在我的機器上?
----------------------------------------

若你發現曾安裝 Python 於系統中，但不記得何時安裝過，那有可能是透過以下幾
種途徑安裝的。

   * 也許其他使用此電腦的使用者想要學習撰寫程式並且安裝了 Python；你需要
     回想一下誰曾經使用此機器且可能進行安裝。

   * 安裝於機器的第三方應用程式可能以 Python 語言撰寫並且安裝了 Python。
     這樣的應用程式並不少，從 GUI 程式到網路伺服器和管理者腳本都有。

   * 一些安裝 Windows 的機器也被安裝 Python。截至撰寫此文件的當下，我們
     得知 HP 與 Compaq 出廠的機器都預設安裝 Python。顯然的 HP 與 Compaq
     部分的管理工具程式是透過 Python 語言所撰寫。

   * 許多相容於 Unix 系統，例如 macOS 和一些 Linux 發行版本預設安裝
     Python；它被包含在基礎安裝內。


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10.8.3 我能夠自行刪除 Python 嗎？
---------------------------------

需要依據 Python 的安裝方式決定。

若有人是有意地安裝 Python，你可自行移除移除它，這不會造成其他影響。
Windows 作業系統中，請於控制台 (Control Panel) 中尋找新增/移除程式來解除
安裝。

若 Python 是透過第三方應用程式安裝時，你也可自行移除，不過該應用程式將無
法正常執行。你應該使用應用程式解除安裝功能而非直接刪除 Python。

當作業系統預設安裝 Python，不建議移除它。對你而言某些工具程式是重要不可
或缺的，若自行移除它，透過 Python 撰寫的工具程式將無法正常執行。重新安裝
整個系統，才能再次解決這些問題。


File: python.info,  Node: 已棄用項目,  Next: 術語表,  Prev: Python 常見問題,  Up: Top

11 已棄用項目
*************

* Menu:

* Python 3.13 中待移除的項目: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目<2>.
* Python 3.14 中待移除的項目: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<3>.
* Python 3.15 中待移除的項目: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<3>.
* Python 3.16 中待移除的項目: Python 3 16 中待移除的項目<2>.
* 未來版本中的待移除項目: 未來版本中的待移除項目<3>.
* C API 的棄用項目::


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11.1 Python 3.13 中待移除的項目
===============================

模組（請見 PEP 594(1)）：

   * *note aifc: 5.

   * *note audioop: b.

   * *note cgi: 13.

   * *note cgitb: 14.

   * *note chunk: 15.

   * *note crypt: 26.

   * *note imghdr: 70.

   * *note mailcap: 87.

   * *note msilib: 8d.

   * *note nis: 97.

   * *note nntplib: 98.

   * *note ossaudiodev: 9e.

   * *note pipes: a3.

   * *note sndhdr: c5.

   * *note spwd: c8.

   * *note sunau: d1.

   * *note telnetlib: d9.

   * *note uu: 10a.

   * *note xdrlib: 11a.

其他模組：

   * ‘lib2to3’ 和 ‘2to3’ 程式 (gh-84540(2))

API：

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ (gh-90765(3))

   * ‘locale.resetlocale()’ (gh-90817(4))

   * ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ (gh-50096(5))

   * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’ (gh-50096(6))

   * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’ (gh-50096(7))

   * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ (gh-50096(8))

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ (gh-67048(9))

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ (gh-86421(10))

   * *note classmethod: 24b. 描述器鏈接 (gh-89519(11))

   * *note importlib.resources: 75. 的已棄用方法：

        * ‘contents()’

        * ‘is_resource()’

        * ‘open_binary()’

        * ‘open_text()’

        * ‘path()’

        * ‘read_binary()’

        * ‘read_text()’

     請改用 *note importlib.resources.files(): 1ab.。請參閱
     importlib-resources: Migrating from Legacy(12) (gh-106531(13))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84540

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90765

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86421

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (12) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html#migrating-from-legacy

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531


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11.2 Python 3.14 中待移除的項目
===============================

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 24d. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 24e. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.14, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note argparse: 6.：‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ 的 'type'、
     'choices' 和 'metavar' 參數已被棄用，將在 3.14 中移除。 (由 Nikita
     Sobolev 於 gh-92248(1) 貢獻。)

   * *note ast: 8.：自 Python 3.8 起，下列功能已在文件中被棄用，現在在存
     取或使用時會於 runtime 發出 *note DeprecationWarning: 179.，並將在
     Python 3.14 中移除：

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     請改用 *note ast.Constant: 217.。（由 Serhiy Storchaka 於
     gh-90953(2) 貢獻。）

   * *note asyncio: 9.：

        * 已棄用並將在 Python 3.14 中移除的 child watcher 類別：*note
          MultiLoopChildWatcher: 218.、*note FastChildWatcher: 219.、
          *note AbstractChildWatcher: 21a. 和 *note SafeChildWatcher:
          21b.。 (由 Kumar Aditya 於 gh-94597(3) 貢獻。)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 21c.、*note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 21d.、*note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 21e. 和
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          21f. 已被棄用並將在 Python 3.14 中移除。（由 Kumar Aditya 於
          gh-94597(4) 貢獻。）

        * 預設事件迴圈策略的 *note get_event_loop(): 220. 方法現在會在沒
          有設定目前事件迴圈且決定建立一個時發出 *note
          DeprecationWarning: 179.。 (由 Serhiy Storchaka 和 Guido van
          Rossum 於 gh-100160(5) 貢獻。)

   * *note collections.abc: 1c.：已棄用 *note ByteString: 223.。請改用
     ‘Sequence’ 或 *note Buffer: 170.。在 typing 中使用時，請改用聯集，
     如 ‘bytes | bytearray’，或 *note collections.abc.Buffer: 170.。（由
     Shantanu Jain 於 gh-91896(6) 貢獻。）

   * *note email: 37.：已棄用 *note email.utils.localtime(): 22a. 中的
     'isdst' 參數。（由 Alan Williams 於 gh-72346(7) 貢獻。）

   * *note importlib: 71.：‘__package__’ 和 ‘__cached__’ 將不再被設定或
     被 import 系統考慮。 (gh-97879(8))

   * *note importlib.abc: 72. 的已棄用類別：

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     請改用 *note importlib.resources.abc: 76. 類別：

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 22b.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 22c.

     （由 Jason R. Coombs 和 Hugo van Kemenade 貢獻於 gh-93963(9)。）

   * *note itertools: 7b. 有不以文件記錄、效率低下、過去常有 bug 且不一
     致的 copy、deepcopy 和 pickle 操作支援。將在 3.14 中移除以大幅減少
     程式碼量和維護負擔。 (由 Raymond Hettinger 於 gh-101588(10) 貢獻。)

   * *note multiprocessing: 8f.：預設的啟動方法將在 Linux、BSD 和其他非
     macOS POSIX 平台上更改為更安全的 方法，目前 ‘'fork'’ 是預設值
     (gh-84559(11))。對此增加一個 runtime 警告被認為太過擾人，因為 大多
     數程式碼不會在意。請使用 *note get_context(): 22d. 或 *note
     set_start_method(): 22e. API 來明確指定你的程式碼何時'需要'
     ‘'fork'’。請參閱 *note Contexts and start methods: 22f.。

   * *note pathlib: 9f.：已棄用 *note is_relative_to(): 24f. 和 *note
     relative_to(): 1cc.：額外引數的傳遞已被棄用。

   * *note pkgutil: a4.：*note find_loader(): 230. 和 *note
     get_loader(): 231. 現在會引發 *note DeprecationWarning: 179.；請改
     用 *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 232.。 (由 Nikita Sobolev 於
     gh-97850(12) 貢獻。)

   * *note pty: ac.：

        * ‘master_open()’：請用 *note pty.openpty(): 250.。

        * ‘slave_open()’：請用 *note pty.openpty(): 250.。

   * *note sqlite3: c9.：

        * *note version: 251. 和 *note version_info: 252.。

        * *note execute(): 236. 和 *note executemany(): 253.，如果使用
          *note named placeholders: 237. 且 'parameters' 是序列而不是
          *note dict: 239.。

   * *note typing: ff.：自 Python 3.9 起已被棄用的 *note ByteString:
     23f. 現在在使用時會發出 *note DeprecationWarning: 179.。

   * *note urllib: 103.：‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ 已被棄用：它並非預期的公
     開 API。(由 Gregory P. Smith 於 gh-88168(13) 貢獻。)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


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11.3 Python 3.15 中待移除的項目
===============================

   * *note http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 255. 將會被移除，連同其相
     關的 ‘--cgi’ 旗標到 ‘python -m http.server’。它已經過時且很少被使用
     。沒有直接的替代方案。'任何東西'都比 CGI 更好的來介接一個帶有請求處
     理器的網頁伺服器。

   * *note locale: 81.：*note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 256. 已在
     Python 3.11 中被棄用，原本計劃在 Python 3.13 中移除 (gh-90817(1))，
     但被延後至 Python 3.15。請改用 *note locale.setlocale(): 257.、
     *note locale.getencoding(): 258. 和 *note locale.getlocale(): 259.。
     (由 Hugo van Kemenade 於 gh-111187(2) 貢獻。)

   * *note pathlib: 9f.：*note pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved(): 25a. 已被
     棄用並計劃在 Python 3.15 中移除。從 Python 3.13 開始，請用
     ‘os.path.isreserved’ 來偵測 Windows 上的保留路徑。

   * *note platform: a5.：*note java_ver(): 25b. 已被棄用並將在 3.15 中
     移除。它幾乎沒有被測試過，API 令人困惑並且只對 Jython 支援有用。 (由
     Nikita Sobolev 於 gh-116349(3) 貢獻。)

   * *note threading: e7.：對 *note threading.RLock(): 25c. 傳遞任何引數
     現在已被棄用。C 版本允許任意數量的引數和關鍵字引數，但它們會被忽略
     。Python 版本不允許任何引數。所有引數將在 Python 3.15 中從 *note
     threading.RLock(): 25c. 中移除。 (由 Nikita Sobolev 於 gh-102029(4)
     貢獻。)

   * *note typing.NamedTuple: 1fb.：

        * 用於建立 ‘NamedTuple’ 類別的未以文件記錄之關鍵字引數語法 (‘NT
          = NamedTuple("NT", x=int)’) 已棄用，並將在 3.15 中被禁止。請改
          用基於類別的語法或函式語法 (functional syntax)。

   * *note types: fe.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 25d.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 249.
          was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 179. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).)

   * *note typing: ff.:

        * 當使用函式語法來建立 ‘NamedTuple’ 類別時，沒將值傳遞給
          'fields' 參數的方式 (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT")’) 已被棄用，將
          ‘None’ 傳遞給 'fields' 參數（‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", None)’）也
          已被棄用。這兩者將在 Python 3.15 中會被禁止。要建立一個沒有欄
          位的 ‘NamedTuple’ 類別，請使用 ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ 或
          ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", [])’。

   * *note typing.TypedDict: 153.：當使用函式語法來建立 ‘TypedDict’ 類別
     時，沒將值傳遞給 'fields' 參數的方式（‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’）已被
     棄用，將 ‘None’ 傳遞給 'fields' 參數（‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’）
     也已被棄用。這兩者將在 Python 3.15 中會被禁止。要建立一個沒有欄位的
     ‘TypedDict’ 類別，請使用 ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ 或 ‘TD =
     TypedDict("TD", {})’。

   * *note wave: 10e.：已棄用 *note wave.Wave_read: 25e. 和 *note
     wave.Wave_write: 25f. 類別的 ‘getmark()’、‘setmark()’ 和
     ‘getmarkers()’ 方法。它們將在 Python 3.15 中被移除。 (由 Victor
     Stinner 於 gh-105096(7) 貢獻。)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102029

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 16 中待移除的項目<2>,  Next: 未來版本中的待移除項目<3>,  Prev: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<3>,  Up: 已棄用項目

11.4 Python 3.16 中待移除的項目
===============================

   * *note array: 7.：*note array.array: 18f. ‘'u'’ 型別 (‘wchar_t’)：請
     改用 ‘'w'’ 型別 (‘Py_UCS4’)。

   * *note builtins: 10.：‘~bool’，對 bool 進行位元反轉。

   * *note symtable: d2.：由於並沒有太多關注，已棄用 *note
     symtable.Class.get_methods(): 261.。 (由 Bénédikt Tran 於
     gh-119698(1) 貢獻。)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698


File: python.info,  Node: 未來版本中的待移除項目<3>,  Next: C API 的棄用項目,  Prev: Python 3 16 中待移除的項目<2>,  Up: 已棄用項目

11.5 未來版本中的待移除項目
===========================

以下 API 將在未來被移除，雖然目前尚未安排移除日期。

   * *note argparse: 6.：已棄用巢狀引數群組和巢狀互斥群組。

   * *note array: 7. 的 ‘'u'’ 格式碼 (gh-57281(1))

   * *note builtins: 10.：

        * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’。

        * 產生器：‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ 和 ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’ 簽名
          已被棄用：請改用 ‘throw(exc)’ 和 ‘athrow(exc)’，為單引數簽名。

        * 目前 Python 接受數值字面值後面立即接關鍵字，例如 ‘0in x’、‘1or
          x’、‘0if 1else 2’。它讓表達式模糊且容易混淆，如 ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’（可以解釋為 ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ 或 ‘[0x1f or x in y]’）。如
          果數值字面值後立即接 *note and: 263.、*note else: 264.、*note
          for: 265.、*note if: 266.、*note in: 267.、*note is: 268. 和
          *note or: 269. 之一的關鍵字，則會引發語法警告。在未來版本中，
          它將被更改為語法錯誤。(gh-87999(2))

        * ‘__index__()’ 和 ‘__int__()’ 方法回傳非 int 型別的支援：這些方
          法將需要回傳 *note int: 17e. 的嚴格子類別實例。

        * 回傳 *note float: 26a. 嚴格子類別 ‘__float__()’ 方法的支援：這
          些方法將需要回傳 *note float: 26a. 的實例。

        * 回傳 *note complex: 26b. 嚴格子類別 ‘__complex__()’ 方法的支援
          ：這些方法將需要回傳 *note complex: 26b. 的實例。

        * 將 ‘int()’ 委派給 ‘__trunc__()’ 方法。

        * 在 *note complex(): 26b. 建構子中將複數作為 'real' 或 'imag' 引
          數傳遞現在已被棄用；它應該只作為單個位置引數傳遞。 (由 Serhiy
          Storchaka 於 gh-109218(3) 貢獻。)

   * *note calendar: 12.：‘calendar.January’ 和 ‘calendar.February’ 常數
     已被棄用並被 *note calendar.JANUARY: 221. 和 *note
     calendar.FEBRUARY: 222. 取代。 (由 Prince Roshan 於 gh-103636(4) 貢
     獻。)

   * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 249.：請改用 *note
     codeobject.co_lines(): 26c. 方法。

   * *note datetime: 2e.：

        * *note utcnow(): 225.：請改用
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’。

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 226.：請改用
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’。

   * *note gettext: 5e.：複數值必須是整數。

   * *note importlib: 71.：

        * ‘load_module()’ method：請改用 ‘exec_module()’。

        * *note cache_from_source(): 26d. 'debug_override' 參數已被棄用
          ：請改用 'optimization' 參數。

   * *note importlib.metadata: 74.：

        * ‘EntryPoints’ 元組介面。

        * 回傳值上的隱式 ‘None’。

   * *note mailbox: 86.：已棄用 StringIO 輸入和文本模式，請改用 BytesIO
     和二進位模式。

   * *note os: 9c.：在多執行緒行程中呼叫 *note os.register_at_fork():
     26e.。

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’：'exc_info' 參數的元組值已被棄用，請用例
     外實例。

   * *note re: b4.：現在對正規表示式中的數值群組參照和群組名稱用了更嚴格
     的規則。現在只有 ASCII 數碼序列被接受作為數值參照。位元組模式和替換
     字串中的群組名稱現在只能包含 ASCII 字母、數碼和底線。（由 Serhiy
     Storchaka 於 gh-91760(5) 貢獻。）

   * ‘sre_compile’、‘sre_constants’ 和 ‘sre_parse’ 模組。

   * *note shutil: c0.：*note rmtree(): 1d8. 的 'onerror' 參數在 Python
     3.12 中已被棄用；請改用 'onexc' 參數。

   * *note ssl: ca. 選項和協定：

        * 不帶協定引數的 *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f. 已被棄用。

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 26f.：*note set_npn_protocols(): 270. 和
          ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ 已被棄用：請改用 ALPN。

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ 選項

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ 選項

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note sysconfig.is_python_build(): 271. 的 'check_home' 參數已被棄
     用並被忽略。

   * *note threading: e7. 方法：

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’：請用 *note notify_all():
          272.。

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’：請用 *note is_set(): 273.。

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’、*note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 274.：請用 *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 275. 屬性。

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’、*note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 276.：請用 *note
          threading.Thread.name: 277. 屬性。

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’：請用 *note
          threading.current_thread(): 278.。

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’：請用 *note
          threading.active_count(): 279.。

   * *note typing.Text: 27a. (gh-92332(6))。

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 27b.：從測試案例中回傳非
     ‘None’ 的值已被棄用。

   * *note urllib.parse: 105. 已棄用函式：請改用 *note urlparse(): 27c.。

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note urllib.request: 106.：呼叫請求的 *note URLopener: 27d. 和
     *note FancyURLopener: 27e. 風格已被棄用。請改用更新的 *note
     urlopen(): 27f. 函式和方法。

   * *note wsgiref: 113.：‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ 不應該進行部分
     寫入。

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 120.：已棄用對 *note Element: 240. 的
     真值測試。在未來版本中，它將始終回傳 ‘True’。請改用明確的
     ‘len(elem)’ 或 ‘elem is not None’ 測試。

   * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 280. 已被棄用：請改用
     *note exec_module(): 281.。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57281

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332


File: python.info,  Node: C API 的棄用項目,  Prev: 未來版本中的待移除項目<3>,  Up: 已棄用項目

11.6 C API 的棄用項目
=====================

* Menu:

* Python 3.14 中待移除的項目: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<4>.
* Python 3.15 中待移除的項目: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<4>.
* 未來版本中的待移除項目: 未來版本中的待移除項目<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<4>,  Next: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<4>,  Up: C API 的棄用項目

11.6.1 Python 3.14 中待移除的項目
---------------------------------

   * *note PyDictObject: 31c. 中的 ‘ma_version_tag’ 欄位，用於擴充模組 (
     PEP 699(1)；gh-101193(2))。

   * 使用可變基底建立*note 不可變型別: 2de. (gh-95388(3))。

   * 設定 Python 初始化的函式，Python 3.11 中已被棄用：

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 350. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 350. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 351.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 352. instead.

     *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. API 應該與 *note PyConfig:
     345. 一起使用。

   * 全域設定變數：

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 31d.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          31e. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 31f.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 320.
          instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 321.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 322.
          instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 323.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 324. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 325.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 326.
          instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 327.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 328. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 329.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          32a. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 32b.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 32c. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 32d.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 32e. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 32f.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 330. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 331.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 332. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 333.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 334. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 335.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 336. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 337.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 338. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          339. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 33a.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 33b.
          instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 33c.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 33d. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 33e.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 33f. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 340. instead.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 340. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 341. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 342. instead.
          (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 343.)

     *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 344. API 應該與 *note PyConfig:
     345. 一起使用。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<4>,  Next: 未來版本中的待移除項目<4>,  Prev: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<4>,  Up: C API 的棄用項目

11.6.2 Python 3.15 中待移除的項目
---------------------------------

   * ‘libmpdecimal’ 的打包副本 (bundled copy)。

   * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 354.: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 355. instead.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 356. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT():
     357.: Use ‘PyWeakref_GetRef()’ instead.

   * *note Py_UNICODE: 358. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use
     ‘wchar_t’ instead.

   * Python 初始化函式：

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 359.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 35a. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 35b.: Get *note sys.exec_prefix:
          35c. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 35d.: Get *note sys.path: 35e. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 35f.: Get *note sys.prefix: 360.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 361.: Get *note sys.executable:
          362. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 363.: Get *note sys.executable:
          362. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 364.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 352.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 365. environment variable instead.


File: python.info,  Node: 未來版本中的待移除項目<4>,  Prev: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<4>,  Up: C API 的棄用項目

11.6.3 未來版本中的待移除項目
-----------------------------

下列 API 已被棄用並將會被移除，不過目前尚未訂定移除日期。

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 367.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2f4.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     2f2. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 368.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2f2. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 2f5.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     2f3. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 369.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 36a. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 36b.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     36c. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 36d.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     36e. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 36f. instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 370.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 370.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 371.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 371.
     instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 372.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 2f9.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ 成員：請改為呼叫 *note PyObject_Hash():
     373.。

   * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ 成員。

   * 執行緒局部儲存 (Thread Local Storage, TLS) API：

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 374.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 375. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 376.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 377. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 378.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 379. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 37a.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 37b. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 37c.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 37d. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 37e.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: 術語表,  Next: 關於這些說明文件,  Prev: 已棄用項目,  Up: Top

12 術語表
*********

‘>>>’

     互動式 shell 的預設 Python 提示字元。常見於能在直譯器中以互動方式被
     執行的程式碼範例。

‘...’

     可以表示：

        * 在一個被縮排的程式碼區塊、在一對匹配的左右定界符（delimiter，
          例如括號、方括號、花括號或三引號）內部，或是在指定一個裝飾器
          (decorator) 之後，要輸入程式碼時，互動式 shell 顯示的預設
          Python 提示字元。

        * 內建常數 *note Ellipsis: 1f1b.。

2to3

     一個試著將 Python 2.x 程式碼轉換為 Python 3.x 程式碼的工具，它是透
     過處理大部分的不相容性來達成此目的，而這些不相容性能夠透過剖析原始
     碼和遍歷剖析樹而被檢測出來。

     2to3 在可以標準函式庫中以 *note lib2to3: 7f. 被使用；它提供了一個獨
     立的入口點，在 ‘Tools/scripts/2to3’。請參閱 *note 2to3 -- 自動將
     Python 2的程式碼轉成 Python 3: 522.。

abstract base class（抽象基底類別）

     抽象基底類別（又稱為 ABC）提供了一種定義介面的方法，作為 *note
     duck-typing: 4f5b.（鴨子型別）的補充。其他類似的技術，像是 *note
     hasattr(): 1f9.，則顯得笨拙或是帶有細微的錯誤（例如使用*note
     魔術方法 (magic method): 1cf7.）。ABC 採用虛擬的 subclass（子類別）
     ，它們並不繼承自另一個 class（類別），但仍可被 *note isinstance():
     14b. 及 *note issubclass(): 5df. 辨識；請參閱 *note abc: 4. 模組的
     說明文件。Python 有許多內建的 ABC，用於資料結構（在 *note
     collections.abc: 1c. 模組）、數字（在 *note numbers: 99. 模組）、串
     流（在 *note io: 79. 模組）及 import 尋檢器和載入器（在 *note
     importlib.abc: 72. 模組）。你可以使用 *note abc: 4. 模組建立自己的
     ABC。

annotation（註釋）

     一個與變數、class 屬性、函式的參數或回傳值相關聯的標籤。照慣例，它
     被用來作為 *note type hint: 1d14.（型別提示）。

     在執行環境 (runtime)，區域變數的註釋無法被存取，但全域變數、class 屬
     性和函式的註解，會分別被儲存在模組、class 和函式的
     ‘__annotations__’ 特殊屬性中。

     請參閱 *note variable annotation: bcb.、*note function annotation:
     1a2c.、 PEP 484(1) 和 PEP 526(2)，這些章節皆有此功能的說明。關於註
     釋的最佳實踐方法也請參閱 *note 註釋 (annotation) 最佳實踐: 5fa.。

argument（引數）

     呼叫函式時被傳遞給 *note function: 1de6.（或 *note method: 4f5c.）
     的值。引數有兩種：

        * '關鍵字引數 (keyword argument)'：在函式呼叫中，以識別字（
          identifier，例如 ‘name=’）開頭的引數，或是以 ‘**’ 後面
          dictionary（字典）內的值被傳遞的引數。例如，‘3’ 和 ‘5’ 都是以
          下 *note complex(): 26b. 呼叫中的關鍵字引數：

               complex(real=3, imag=5)
               complex(**{'real': 3, 'imag': 5})

        * '位置引數 (positional argument)'：不是關鍵字引數的引數。位置引
          數可在一個引數列表的起始處出現，和（或）作為 ‘*’ 之後的 *note
          iterable: 10ba.（可疊代物件）中的元素被傳遞。例如，‘3’ 和 ‘5’
          都是以下呼叫中的位置引數：

               complex(3, 5)
               complex(*(3, 5))

     引數會被指定給函式主體中的附名區域變數。關於支配這個指定過程的規則
     ，請參閱*note Calls: bf3.章節。在語法上，任何運算式都可以被用來表示
     一個引數；其評估值會被指定給區域變數。

     另請參閱術語表的 *note parameter: 1c8f.（參數）條目、常見問題中的
     *note 引數和參數之間的差異: 4e9d.，以及 PEP 362(3)。

asynchronous context manager（非同步情境管理器）

     一個可以控制 *note async with: 3c8. 陳述式中所見環境的物件，而它是
     透過定義 *note __aenter__(): 1d63. 和 *note __aexit__(): 1d64.
     method（方法）來控制的。由 PEP 492(4) 引入。

asynchronous generator（非同步產生器）

     一個會回傳 *note asynchronous generator iterator: 4094.（非同步產生
     器疊代器）的函式。它看起來像一個以 *note async def: 3c3. 定義的協程
     函式 (coroutine function)，但不同的是它包含了 *note yield: 811. 運
     算式，能生成一系列可用於 *note async for: 8fe. 迴圈的值。

     這個術語通常用來表示一個非同步產生器函式，但在某些情境中，也可能是
     表示'非同步產生器疊代器 (asynchronous generator iterator)'。萬一想
     表達的意思不夠清楚，那就使用完整的術語，以避免歧義。

     一個非同步產生器函式可能包含 *note await: 542. 運算式，以及 *note
     async for: 8fe. 和 *note async with: 3c8. 陳述式。

asynchronous generator iterator（非同步產生器疊代器）

     一個由 *note asynchronous generator: 1dcb.（非同步產生器）函式所建
     立的物件。

     這是一個 *note asynchronous iterator: bef.（非同步疊代器），當它以
     *note __anext__(): 1c9b. method 被呼叫時，會回傳一個可等待物件
     (awaitable object)，該物件將執行非同步產生器的函式主體，直到遇到下
     一個 *note yield: 811. 運算式。

     每個 *note yield: 811. 會暫停處理程序，並記住位置執行狀態（包括區域
     變數及擱置中的 try 陳述式）。當'非同步產生器疊代器'以另一個被 *note
     __anext__(): 1c9b. 回傳的可等待物件有效地回復時，它會從停止的地方繼
     續執行。請參閱 PEP 492(5) 和 PEP 525(6)。

asynchronous iterable（非同步可疊代物件）

     一個物件，它可以在 *note async for: 8fe. 陳述式中被使用。必須從它的
     *note __aiter__(): a5e. method 回傳一個 *note asynchronous
     iterator: bef.（非同步疊代器）。由 PEP 492(7) 引入。

asynchronous iterator（非同步疊代器）

     一個實作 *note __aiter__(): a5e. 和 *note __anext__(): 1c9b. method
     的物件。*note __anext__(): 1c9b. 必須回傳一個 *note awaitable:
     ae0.（可等待物件）。*note async for: 8fe. 會解析非同步疊代器的
     *note __anext__(): 1c9b. method 所回傳的可等待物件，直到它引發
     *note StopAsyncIteration: 1813. 例外。由 PEP 492(8) 引入。

attribute（屬性）

     一個與某物件相關聯的值，該值大多能透過使用點分隔運算式 (dotted
     expression) 的名稱被參照。例如，如果物件 'o' 有一個屬性 'a'，則該屬
     性能以 'o.a' 被參照。

     如果一個物件允許，給予該物件一個名稱不是由*note Identifiers and
     keywords: 1c27.所定義之識別符 (identifier) 的屬性是有可能的，例如使
     用 *note setattr(): 1eec.。像這樣的屬性將無法使用點分隔運算式來存取
     ，而是需要使用 *note getattr(): a32. 來取得它。

awaitable（可等待物件）

     一個可以在 *note await: 542. 運算式中被使用的物件。它可以是一個
     *note coroutine: 1ae.（協程），或是一個有 *note __await__(): 1d5a.
     method 的物件。另請參閱 PEP 492(9)。

BDFL

     Benevolent Dictator For Life（終身仁慈獨裁者），又名 Guido van
     Rossum(10)，Python 的創造者。

binary file（二進位檔案）

     一個能夠讀取和寫入 *note bytes-like objects: b9f.（類位元組串物件）
     的 *note file object: 1054.（檔案物件）。二進位檔案的例子有：以二進
     位模式（‘'rb'’、‘'wb'’ 或 ‘'rb+'’）開啟的檔案、*note
     sys.stdin.buffer: 2bf.、*note sys.stdout.buffer: 92a.，以及 *note
     io.BytesIO: d24. 和 *note gzip.GzipFile: 28d. 實例。

     另請參閱 *note text file: 1a7b.（文字檔案），它是一個能夠讀取和寫入
     *note str: 157. 物件的檔案物件。

borrowed reference（借用參照）

     在 Python 的 C API 中，借用參照是一個對物件的參照，其中使用該物件的
     程式碼並不擁有這個參照。如果該物件被銷毀，它會成為一個迷途指標
     (dangling pointer)。例如，一次垃圾回收 (garbage collection) 可以移
     除對物件的最後一個 *note strong reference: 5a8.（強參照），而將該物
     件銷毀。

     對 *note borrowed reference: 47ba. 呼叫 *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. 以
     將它原地 (in-place) 轉換為 *note strong reference: 5a8. 是被建議的
     做法，除非該物件不能在最後一次使用借用參照之前被銷毀。*note
     Py_NewRef(): 6cb. 函式可用於建立一個新的 *note strong reference:
     5a8.。

bytes-like object（類位元組串物件）

     一個支援*note 緩衝協定 (Buffer Protocol): 148.且能夠匯出 C-*note
     contiguous: 1fbe. 緩衝區的物件。這包括所有的 *note bytes: 2c1.、
     *note bytearray: 2c0. 和 *note array.array: 18f. 物件，以及許多常見
     的 *note memoryview: 17f. 物件。類位元組串物件可用於處理二進位資料
     的各種運算；這些運算包括壓縮、儲存至二進位檔案和透過 socket（插座）
     發送。

     有些運算需要二進位資料是可變的。說明文件通常會將這些物件稱為「可讀
     寫的類位元組串物件」。可變緩衝區的物件包括 *note bytearray: 2c0.，
     以及 *note bytearray: 2c0. 的 *note memoryview: 17f.。其他的運算需
     要讓二進位資料被儲存在不可變物件（「唯讀的類位元組串物件」）中；這
     些物件包括 *note bytes: 2c1.，以及 *note bytes: 2c1. 物件的 *note
     memoryview: 17f.。

bytecode（位元組碼）

     Python 的原始碼會被編譯成位元組碼，它是 Python 程式在 CPython 直譯
     器中的內部表示法。該位元組碼也會被暫存在 ‘.pyc’ 檔案中，以便第二次
     執行同一個檔案時能夠更快速（可以不用從原始碼重新編譯為位元組碼）。
     這種「中間語言 (intermediate language)」據說是運行在一個 *note
     virtual machine: 31d2.（虛擬機器）上，該虛擬機器會執行與每個位元組
     碼對應的機器碼 (machine code)。要注意的是，位元組碼理論上是無法在不
     同的 Python 虛擬機器之間運作的，也不能在不同版本的 Python 之間保持
     穩定。

     位元組碼的指令列表可以在 *note dis 模組: 3a0.的說明文件中找到。

callable（可呼叫物件）

     一個 callable 是可以被呼叫的物件，呼叫時可能以下列形式帶有一組引數
     （請見 *note argument: 154.）：

          callable(argument1, argument2, argumentN)

     一個 *note function: 1de6. 與其延伸的 *note method: 4f5c. 都是
     callable。一個有實作 *note __call__(): 2dd. 方法的 class 之實例也是
     個 callable。

callback（回呼）

     作為引數被傳遞的一個副程式 (subroutine) 函式，會在未來的某個時間點
     被執行。

class（類別）

     一個用於建立使用者定義物件的模板。Class 的定義通常會包含 method 的
     定義，這些 method 可以在 class 的實例上進行操作。

class variable（類別變數）

     一個在 class 中被定義，且應該只能在 class 層次（意即不是在 class 的
     實例中）被修改的變數。

complex number（複數）

     一個我們熟悉的實數系統的擴充，在此所有數字都會被表示為一個實部和一
     個虛部之和。虛數就是虛數單位（‘-1’ 的平方根）的實數倍，此單位通常在
     數學中被寫為 ‘i’，在工程學中被寫為 ‘j’。Python 內建了對複數的支援，
     它是用後者的記法來表示複數；虛部會帶著一個後綴的 ‘j’ 被編寫，例如
     ‘3+1j’。若要將 *note math: 89. 模組內的工具等效地用於複數，請使用
     *note cmath: 16. 模組。複數的使用是一個相當進階的數學功能。如果你沒
     有察覺到對它們的需求，那麼幾乎能確定你可以安全地忽略它們。

context manager（情境管理器）

     一個可以控制 *note with: 3c5. 陳述式中所見環境的物件，而它是透過定
     義 *note __enter__(): 3b8. 和 *note __exit__(): 1191. method 來控制
     的。請參閱 PEP 343(11)。

context variable（情境變數）

     一個變數，其值可以根據上下文的情境而有所不同。這類似執行緒區域儲存
     區 (Thread-Local Storage)，在其中，一個變數在每個執行緒可能具有不同
     的值。然而，關於情境變數，在一個執行緒中可能會有多個情境，而情境變
     數的主要用途，是在並行的非同步任務 (concurrent asynchronous task) 中
     ，對於變數狀態的追蹤。請參閱 *note contextvars: 22.。

contiguous（連續的）

     如果一個緩衝區是 'C-contiguous' 或是 'Fortran contiguous'，則它會確
     切地被視為是連續的。零維 (zero-dimensional) 的緩衝區都是 C 及
     Fortran contiguous。在一維 (one-dimensional) 陣列中，各項目必須在記
     憶體中彼此相鄰地排列，而其索引順序是從零開始遞增。在多維的
     (multidimensional) C-contiguous 陣列中，按記憶體位址的順序訪問各個
     項目時，最後一個索引的變化最快。然而，在 Fortran contiguous 陣列中
     ，第一個索引的變化最快。

coroutine（協程）

     協程是副程式 (subroutine) 的一種更為廣義的形式。副程式是在某個時間
     點被進入並在另一個時間點被退出。協程可以在許多不同的時間點被進入、
     退出和回復。它們能夠以 *note async def: 3c3. 陳述式被實作。另請參閱
     PEP 492(12)。

coroutine function（協程函式）

     一個回傳 *note coroutine: 1ae.（協程）物件的函式。一個協程函式能以
     *note async def: 3c3. 陳述式被定義，並可能會包含 *note await: 542.、
     *note async for: 8fe. 和 *note async with: 3c8. 關鍵字。這些關鍵字
     由 PEP 492(13) 引入。

CPython

     Python 程式語言的標準實作 (canonical implementation)，被發布在
     python.org(14) 上。「CPython」這個術語在必要時被使用，以區分此實作
     與其它語言的實作，例如 Jython 或 IronPython。

decorator（裝飾器）

     一個函式，它會回傳另一個函式，通常它會使用 ‘@wrapper’ 語法，被應用
     為一種函式的變換 (function transformation)。裝飾器的常見範例是
     *note classmethod(): 24b. 和 *note staticmethod(): 5f9.。

     裝飾器語法只是語法糖。以下兩個函式定義在語義上是等效的：

          def f(arg):
              ...
          f = staticmethod(f)

          @staticmethod
          def f(arg):
              ...

     Class 也存在相同的概念，但在那裡比較不常用。關於裝飾器的更多內容，
     請參閱*note 函式定義: 1a2b.和 *note class 定義: 1168.的說明文件。

descriptor（描述器）

     任何定義了 *note __get__(): 135e.、*note __set__(): 1cfb. 或 *note
     __delete__(): 1cfc. method 的物件。當一個 class 屬性是一個描述器時
     ，它的特殊連結行為會在屬性查找時被觸發。通常，使用 'a.b' 來取得、設
     定或刪除某個屬性時，會在 'a' 的 class 字典中查找名稱為 'b' 的物件，
     但如果 'b' 是一個描述器，則相對應的描述器 method 會被呼叫。對描述器
     的理解是深入理解 Python 的關鍵，因為它們是許多功能的基礎，這些功能
     包括函式、method、屬性 (property)、class method、靜態 method，以及
     對 super class（父類別）的參照。

     關於描述器 method 的更多資訊，請參閱*note Implementing Descriptors:
     ab5.或*note 描述器使用指南: 1363.。

dictionary（字典）

     一個關聯陣列 (associative array)，其中任意的鍵會被映射到值。鍵可以
     是任何帶有 *note __hash__(): 950. 和 *note __eq__(): 94f. method 的
     物件。在 Perl 中被稱為雜湊 (hash)。

dictionary comprehension（字典綜合運算）

     一種緊密的方法，用來處理一個可疊代物件中的全部或部分元素，並將處理
     結果以一個字典回傳。‘results = {n: n ** 2 for n in range(10)}’ 會產
     生一個字典，它包含了鍵 ‘n’ 映射到值 ‘n ** 2’。請參閱*note Displays
     for lists, sets and dictionaries: 3c2.。

dictionary view（字典檢視）

     從 *note dict.keys(): 5ec.、*note dict.values(): 5ed. 及 *note
     dict.items(): 5ee. 回傳的物件被稱為字典檢視。它們提供了字典中項目的
     動態檢視，這表示當字典有變動時，該檢視會反映這些變動。若要強制將字
     典檢視轉為完整的 list（串列），須使用 ‘list(dictview)’。請參閱*note
     字典視圖物件: 1fdb.。

docstring（說明字串）

     A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class,
     function or module.  While ignored when the suite is executed, it
     is recognized by the compiler and put into the *note __doc__: 767.
     attribute of the enclosing class, function or module.  Since it is
     available via introspection, it is the canonical place for
     documentation of the object.

duck-typing（鴨子型別）

     一種程式設計風格，它不是藉由檢查一個物件的型別來確定它是否具有正確
     的介面；取而代之的是，method 或屬性會單純地被呼叫或使用。（「如果它
     看起來像一隻鴨子而且叫起來像一隻鴨子，那麼它一定是一隻鴨子。」）因
     為強調介面而非特定型別，精心設計的程式碼能讓多形替代 (polymorphic
     substitution) 來增進它的靈活性。鴨子型別要避免使用 *note type():
     bbb. 或 *note isinstance(): 14b. 進行測試。（但是請注意，鴨子型別可
     以用*note 抽象基底類別 (abstract base class): 1047. 來補充。）然而
     ，它通常會採用 *note hasattr(): 1f9. 測試，或是 *note EAFP: 28f9. 程
     式設計風格。

EAFP

     Easier to ask for forgiveness than permission.（請求寬恕比請求許可
     更容易。）這種常見的 Python 編碼風格會先假設有效的鍵或屬性的存在，
     並在該假設被推翻時再捕獲例外。這種乾淨且快速的風格，其特色是存在許
     多的 *note try: 4ea. 和 *note except: 3a8. 陳述式。該技術與許多其他
     語言（例如 C）常見的 *note LBYL: 4f62. 風格形成了對比。

expression（運算式）

     一段可以被評估並求值的語法。換句話說，一個運算式就是文字、名稱、屬
     性存取、運算子或函式呼叫等運算式元件的累積，而這些元件都能回傳一個
     值。與許多其他語言不同的是，並非所有的 Python 語言構造都是運算式。
     另外有一些 *note statement: 2501.（陳述式）不能被用作運算式，例如
     *note while: 19f8.。賦值 (assignment) 也是陳述式，而不是運算式。

extension module（擴充模組）

     一個以 C 或 C++ 編寫的模組，它使用 Python 的 C API 來與核心及使用者
     程式碼進行互動。

f-string（f 字串）

     以 ‘'f'’ 或 ‘'F'’ 為前綴的字串文本通常被稱為「f 字串」，它是*note
     格式化的字串文本: 7ed.的縮寫。另請參閱 PEP 498(15)。

file object（檔案物件）

     一個讓使用者透過檔案導向 (file-oriented) API（如 ‘read()’ 或
     ‘write()’ 等 method）來操作底層資源的物件。根據檔案物件被建立的方式
     ，它能夠協調對真實磁碟檔案或是其他類型的儲存器或通訊裝置（例如標準
     輸入／輸出、記憶體內緩衝區、socket（插座）、管線 (pipe) 等）的存取
     。檔案物件也被稱為'類檔案物件 (file-like object)' 或'串流
     (stream)'。

     實際上，有三種檔案物件：原始的*note 二進位檔案: 1a7c.、緩衝的*note
     二進位檔案: 1a7c.和*note 文字檔案: 1a7b.。它們的介面在 *note io:
     79. 模組中被定義。建立檔案物件的標準方法是使用 *note open(): 29c. 函
     式。

file-like object（類檔案物件）

     *note file object: 1054.（檔案物件）的同義字。

filesystem encoding and error handler（檔案系統編碼和錯誤處理函式）

     Python 所使用的一種編碼和錯誤處理函式，用來解碼來自作業系統的位元組
     ，以及將 Unicode 編碼到作業系統。

     檔案系統編碼必須保證能成功解碼所有小於 128 的位元組。如果檔案系統編
     碼無法提供此保證，則 API 函式會引發 *note UnicodeError: 1137.。

     *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): abf. 和 *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): b53. 函式可用於取得檔案系統編碼和
     錯誤處理函式。

     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.（檔案系統編碼和錯
     誤處理函式）會在 Python 啟動時由 *note PyConfig_Read(): 5aa. 函式來
     配置：請參閱 *note filesystem_encoding: 340.，以及 *note PyConfig:
     345. 的成員 *note filesystem_errors: 341.。

     另請參閱 *note locale encoding: 1419.（區域編碼）。

finder（尋檢器）

     一個物件，它會嘗試為正在被 import 的模組尋找 *note loader: 1463.（
     載入器）。

     有兩種類型的尋檢器：*note 元路徑尋檢器 (meta path finder): f06. 會
     使用 *note sys.meta_path: b9d.，而*note 路徑項目尋檢器 (path entry
     finder): f07. 會使用 *note sys.path_hooks: eb8.。

     See *note Finders and loaders: 1d85. and *note importlib: 71. for
     much more detail.

floor division（向下取整除法）

     向下無條件捨去到最接近整數的數學除法。向下取整除法的運算子是 ‘//’。
     例如，運算式 ‘11 // 4’ 的計算結果為 ‘2’，與 float（浮點數）真除法所
     回傳的 ‘2.75’ 不同。請注意，‘(-11) // 4’ 的結果是 ‘-3’，因為是
     ‘-2.75’ 被'向下'無條件捨去。請參閱 PEP 238(16)。

function（函式）

     一連串的陳述式，它能夠向呼叫者回傳一些值。它也可以被傳遞零個或多個
     *note 引數: 154.，這些引數可被使用於函式本體的執行。另請參閱 *note
     parameter: 1c8f.（參數）、*note method: 4f5c.（方法），以及*note
     函式定義: 1a2b.章節。

function annotation（函式註釋）

     函式參數或回傳值的一個 *note annotation: 168.（註釋）。

     函式註釋通常被使用於*note 型別提示: 1d14.：例如，這個函式預期會得到
     兩個 *note int: 17e. 引數，並會有一個 *note int: 17e. 回傳值：

          def sum_two_numbers(a: int, b: int) -> int:
             return a + b

     函式註釋的語法在*note 函式定義: 1a2b.章節有詳細解釋。

     請參閱 *note variable annotation: bcb. 和 PEP 484(17)，皆有此功能的
     描述。關於註釋的最佳實踐方法，另請參閱 *note 註釋 (annotation)
     最佳實踐: 5fa.。

__future__

     *note future 陳述式: 3bf.：‘from __future__ import <feature>’，會指
     示編譯器使用那些在 Python 未來的發布版本中將成為標準的語法或語義，
     來編譯當前的模組。而 *note __future__: 0. 模組則記錄了 'feature（功
     能）'可能的值。透過 import 此模組並對其變數求值，你可以看見一個新的
     功能是何時首次被新增到此語言中，以及它何時將會（或已經）成為預設的
     功能：

          >>> import __future__
          >>> __future__.division
          _Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192)

garbage collection（垃圾回收）

     當記憶體不再被使用時，將其釋放的過程。Python 執行垃圾回收，是透過參
     照計數 (reference counting)，以及一個能夠檢測和中斷參照循環
     (reference cycle) 的循環垃圾回收器 (cyclic garbage collector) 來完
     成。垃圾回收器可以使用 *note gc: 5b. 模組對其進行控制。

generator（產生器）

     一個會回傳 *note generator iterator: a3f.（產生器疊代器）的函式。它
     看起來像一個正常的函式，但不同的是它包含了 *note yield: 811. 運算式
     ，能產生一系列的值，這些值可用於 for 迴圈，或是以 *note next():
     5f8. 函式，每次檢索其中的一個值。

     這個術語通常用來表示一個產生器函式，但在某些情境中，也可能是表示'產
     生器疊代器'。萬一想表達的意思不夠清楚，那就使用完整的術語，以避免歧
     義。

generator iterator（產生器疊代器）

     一個由 *note generator: ef7.（產生器）函式所建立的物件。

     每個 *note yield: 811. 會暫停處理程序，並記住位置執行狀態（包括區域
     變數及擱置中的 try 陳述式）。當'產生器疊代器'回復時，它會從停止的地
     方繼續執行（與那些每次調用時都要重新開始的函式有所不同）。

generator expression（產生器運算式）

     一個會回傳疊代器的運算式。它看起來像一個正常的運算式，後面接著一個
     ‘for’ 子句，該子句定義了迴圈變數、範圍以及一個選擇性的 ‘if’ 子句。
     該組合運算式會為外層函式產生多個值：

          >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))         # sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81
          285

generic function（泛型函式）

     一個由多個函式組成的函式，該函式會對不同的型別實作相同的運算。呼叫
     期間應該使用哪種實作，是由調度演算法 (dispatch algorithm) 來決定。

     另請參閱 *note single dispatch: 837.（單一調度）術語表條目、*note
     functools.singledispatch(): 434. 裝飾器和 PEP 443(18)。

generic type（泛型型別）

     一個能夠被參數化 (parameterized) 的 *note type: 1708.（型別）；通常
     是一個 *note 容器型別: 1d1d.，像是 *note list: 40a. 和 *note dict:
     239.。它被用於*note 型別提示: 1d14.和*note 註釋: 168.。

     詳情請參閱*note 泛型別名型別: 4af.、 PEP 483(19)、 PEP 484(20)、
     PEP 585(21) 和 *note typing: ff. 模組。

GIL

     請參閱 *note global interpreter lock: 141.（全域直譯器鎖）。

global interpreter lock（全域直譯器鎖）

     *note CPython: 4f7. 直譯器所使用的機制，用以確保每次都只有一個執行
     緒能執行 Python 的 *note bytecode: 39f.（位元組碼）。透過使物件模型
     （包括關鍵的內建型別，如 *note dict: 239.）自動地避免並行存取
     (concurrent access) 的危險，此機制可以簡化 CPython 的實作。鎖定整個
     直譯器，會使直譯器更容易成為多執行緒 (multi-threaded)，但代價是會犧
     牲掉多處理器的機器能夠提供的一大部分平行性 (parallelism)。

     然而，有些擴充模組，無論是標準的或是第三方的，它們被設計成在執行壓
     縮或雜湊等計算密集 (computationally intensive) 的任務時，可以解除
     GIL。另外，在執行 I/O 時，GIL 總是會被解除。

     過去對於建立「無限制執行緒」直譯器（以更高的精細度鎖定共享資料的直
     譯器）的努力並未成功，因為在一般的單一處理器情況下，效能會有所損失
     。一般認為，若要克服這個效能問題，會使實作變得複雜許多，進而付出更
     高的維護成本。

hash-based pyc（雜湊架構的 pyc）

     一個位元組碼 (bytecode) 暫存檔，它使用雜湊值而不是對應原始檔案的最
     後修改時間，來確定其有效性。請參閱*note Cached bytecode
     invalidation: 3e0.。

hashable（可雜湊的）

     如果一個物件有一個雜湊值，該值在其生命週期中永不改變（它需要一個
     *note __hash__(): 950. method），且可與其他物件互相比較（它需要一個
     *note __eq__(): 94f. method），那麼它就是一個'可雜湊'物件。比較結果
     為相等的多個可雜湊物件，它們必須擁有相同的雜湊值。

     可雜湊性 (hashability) 使一個物件可用作 dictionary（字典）的鍵和
     set（集合）的成員，因為這些資料結構都在其內部使用了雜湊值。

     大多數的 Python 不可變內建物件都是可雜湊的；可變的容器（例如 list 或
     dictionary）並不是；而不可變的容器（例如 tuple（元組）和 frozenset）
     ，只有當它們的元素是可雜湊的，它們本身才是可雜湊的。若物件是使用者
     自定 class 的實例，則這些物件會被預設為可雜湊的。它們在互相比較時都
     是不相等的（除非它們與自己比較），而它們的雜湊值則是衍生自它們的
     *note id(): 1293.。

IDLE

     Python 的 Integrated Development and Learning Environment（整合開發
     與學習環境）。*note IDLE: ea9. 是一個基本的編輯器和直譯器環境，它和
     Python 的標準發行版本一起被提供。

immortal

     'Immortal objects' are a CPython implementation detail introduced
     in PEP 683(22).

     If an object is immortal, its *note reference count: 4752. is never
     modified, and therefore it is never deallocated while the
     interpreter is running.  For example, *note True: a70. and *note
     None: 470. are immortal in CPython.

immutable（不可變物件）

     一個具有固定值的物件。不可變物件包括數字、字串和 tuple（元組）。這
     類物件是不能被改變的。如果一個不同的值必須被儲存，則必須建立一個新
     的物件。它們在需要恆定雜湊值的地方，扮演重要的角色，例如
     dictionary（字典）中的一個鍵。

import path（引入路徑）

     一個位置（或*note 路徑項目: 1d96.）的列表，而那些位置就是在 import
     模組時，會被 *note path based finder: 1d8b.（基於路徑的尋檢器）搜尋
     模組的位置。在 import 期間，此位置列表通常是來自 *note sys.path:
     35e.，但對於子套件 (subpackage) 而言，它也可能是來自父套件的
     ‘__path__’ 屬性。

importing（引入）

     一個過程。一個模組中的 Python 程式碼可以透過此過程，被另一個模組中
     的 Python 程式碼使用。

importer（引入器）

     一個能夠尋找及載入模組的物件；它既是 *note finder: 1caf.（尋檢器）
     也是 *note loader: 1463.（載入器）物件。

interactive（互動的）

     Python 有一個互動式直譯器，這表示你可以在直譯器的提示字元輸入陳述式
     和運算式，立即執行它們並且看到它們的結果。只要啟動 ‘python’，不需要
     任何引數（可能藉由從你的電腦的主選單選擇它）。這是測試新想法或檢查
     模塊和包的非常強大的方法（請記住help(x)）。

interpreted（直譯的）

     Python 是一種直譯語言，而不是編譯語言，不過這個區分可能有些模糊，因
     為有位元組碼 (bytecode) 編譯器的存在。這表示原始檔案可以直接被運行
     ，而不需明確地建立另一個執行檔，然後再執行它。直譯語言通常比編譯語
     言有更短的開發／除錯週期，不過它們的程式通常也運行得較慢。另請參閱
     *note interactive: 4f67.（互動的）。

interpreter shutdown（直譯器關閉）

     當 Python 直譯器被要求關閉時，它會進入一個特殊階段，在此它逐漸釋放
     所有被配置的資源，例如模組和各種關鍵內部結構。它也會多次呼叫*note
     垃圾回收器 (garbage collector): 16ef.。這能夠觸發使用者自定的解構函
     式 (destructor) 或弱引用的回呼 (weakref callback)，並執行其中的程式
     碼。在關閉階段被執行的程式碼會遇到各種例外，因為它所依賴的資源可能
     不再有作用了（常見的例子是函式庫模組或是警告機制）。

     直譯器關閉的主要原因，是 ‘__main__’ 模組或正被運行的腳本已經執行完
     成。

iterable（可疊代物件）

     一種能夠一次回傳一個其中成員的物件。可疊代物件的例子包括所有的序列
     型別（像是 *note list: 40a.、*note str: 157. 和 *note tuple: 4e6.）
     和某些非序列型別，像是 *note dict: 239.、*note 檔案物件: 1054.，以
     及你所定義的任何 class 物件，只要那些 class 有 *note __iter__():
     1aba. method 或是實作 *note sequence: 238.（序列）語意的 *note
     __getitem__(): 4e7. method，該物件就是可疊代物件。

     可疊代物件可用於 *note for: 265. 迴圈和許多其他需要一個序列的地方
     (*note zip(): 5ef.、*note map(): 68f...)。當一個可疊代物件作為引數
     被傳遞給內建函式 *note iter(): 5f7. 時，它會為該物件回傳一個疊代器
     。此疊代器適用於針對一組值進行一遍 (one pass) 運算。使用疊代器時，
     通常不一定要呼叫 *note iter(): 5f7. 或自行處理疊代器物件。*note
     for: 265. 陳述式會自動地為你處理這些事，它會建立一個暫時性的未命名
     變數，用於在迴圈期間保有該疊代器。另請參閱 *note iterator: 1718.（
     疊代器）、*note sequence: 238.（序列）和 *note generator: ef7.（產
     生器）。

iterator（疊代器）

     一個表示資料流的物件。重複地呼叫疊代器的 *note __next__(): 115d.
     method（或是將它傳遞給內建函式 *note next(): 5f8.）會依序回傳資料流
     中的各項目。當不再有資料時，則會引發 *note StopIteration: a5d. 例外
     。此時，該疊代器物件已被用盡，而任何對其 ‘__next__()’ method 的進一
     步呼叫，都只會再次引發 *note StopIteration: a5d.。疊代器必須有一個
     *note __iter__(): 1aba. method，它會回傳疊代器物件本身，所以每個疊
     代器也都是可疊代物件，且可以用於大多數適用其他可疊代物件的場合。一
     個明顯的例外，是嘗試多遍疊代 (multiple iteration passes) 的程式碼。
     一個容器物件（像是 *note list: 40a.）在每次你將它傳遞給 *note
     iter(): 5f7. 函式或在 *note for: 265. 迴圈中使用它時，都會產生一個
     全新的疊代器。使用疊代器嘗試此事（多遍疊代）時，只會回傳在前一遍疊
     代中被用過的、同一個已被用盡的疊代器物件，使其看起來就像一個空的容
     器。

     在*note 疊代器型別: 1f09.文中可以找到更多資訊。

     'CPython 實作細節：' CPython 並不是始終如一地都會檢查「疊代器有定義
     *note __iter__(): 1aba.」這個規定。

key function（鍵函式）

     鍵函式或理序函式 (collation function) 是一個可呼叫 (callable) 函式
     ，它會回傳一個用於排序 (sorting) 或定序 (ordering) 的值。例如，
     *note locale.strxfrm(): 3a05. 被用來產生一個了解區域特定排序慣例的
     排序鍵。

     Python 中的許多工具，都接受以鍵函式來控制元素被定序或分組的方式。它
     們包括 *note min(): d8c.、*note max(): d8d.、*note sorted(): a2f.、
     *note list.sort(): a30.、*note heapq.merge(): c7c.、*note
     heapq.nsmallest(): 22c5.、*note heapq.nlargest(): 22c4. 和 *note
     itertools.groupby(): 24ae.。

     有幾種方法可以建立一個鍵函式。例如，*note str.lower(): 15ba. method
     可以作為不分大小寫排序的鍵函式。或者，一個鍵函式也可以從 *note
     lambda: 1131. 運算式被建造，例如 ‘lambda r: (r[0], r[2])’。另外，
     *note operator.attrgetter(): cad.、*note operator.itemgetter():
     8ad. 和 *note operator.methodcaller(): cae. 為三個鍵函式的建構函式
     (constructor)。關於如何建立和使用鍵函式的範例，請參閱*note
     如何排序: 1f14.。

keyword argument（關鍵字引數）

     請參閱 *note argument: 154.（引數）。

lambda

     由單一 *note expression: 1d18.（運算式）所組成的一個匿名行內函式
     (inline function)，於該函式被呼叫時求值。建立 lambda 函式的語法是
     ‘lambda [parameters]: expression’

LBYL

     Look before you leap.（三思而後行。）這種編碼風格會在進行呼叫或查找
     之前，明確地測試先決條件。這種風格與 *note EAFP: 28f9. 方式形成對比
     ，且它的特色是會有許多 *note if: 266. 陳述式的存在。

     在一個多執行緒環境中，LBYL 方式有在「三思」和「後行」之間引入了競爭
     條件 (race condition) 的風險。例如以下程式碼 ‘if key in mapping:
     return mapping[key]’，如果另一個執行緒在測試之後但在查找之前，從
     'mapping' 中移除了 'key'，則該程式碼就會失效。這個問題可以用鎖
     (lock) 或使用 EAFP 編碼方式來解決。

list（串列）

     一個 Python 內建的 *note sequence: 238. （序列）。儘管它的名字是
     list，它其實更類似其他語言中的一個陣列 (array) 而較不像一個鏈結串列
     (linked list)，因為存取元素的時間複雜度是 'O'(1)。

list comprehension（串列綜合運算）

     一種用來處理一個序列中的全部或部分元素，並將處理結果以一個 list 回
     傳的簡要方法。‘result = ['{:#04x}'.format(x) for x in range(256) if
     x % 2 == 0]’ 會產生一個字串 list，其中包含 0 到 255 範圍內，所有偶
     數的十六進位數 (0x..)。*note if: 266. 子句是選擇性的。如果省略它，
     則 ‘range(256)’ 中的所有元素都會被處理。

loader（載入器）

     An object that loads a module.  It must define a method named
     ‘load_module()’.  A loader is typically returned by a *note finder:
     1caf.  See also:

        * *note Finders and loaders: 1d85.

        * *note importlib.abc.Loader: d48.

        * PEP 302(23)

locale encoding（區域編碼）

     在 Unix 上，它是 LC_CTYPE 區域設定的編碼。它可以用 *note
     locale.setlocale(locale.LC_CTYPE, new_locale): 257. 來設定。

     在 Windows 上，它是 ANSI 代碼頁（code page，例如 ‘"cp1252"’）。

     在 Android 和 VxWorks 上，Python 使用 ‘"utf-8"’ 作為區域編碼。

     *note locale.getencoding(): 258. 可以用來取得區域編碼。

     也請參考 *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2bd.。

magic method（魔術方法）

     *note special method: 167e.（特殊方法）的一個非正式同義詞。

mapping（對映）

     一個容器物件，它支援任意鍵的查找，且能實作 *note abstract base
     classes（抽象基底類別）: 6a3.中，*note collections.abc.Mapping:
     702. 或 *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: f3d. 所指定的 method。
     範例包括 *note dict: 239.、*note collections.defaultdict: 104e.、
     *note collections.OrderedDict: 3ce. 和 *note collections.Counter:
     f28.。

meta path finder（元路徑尋檢器）

     一種經由搜尋 *note sys.meta_path: b9d. 而回傳的 *note finder:
     1caf.（尋檢器）。元路徑尋檢器與*note 路徑項目尋檢器 (path entry
     finder): f07. 相關但是不同。

     關於元路徑尋檢器實作的 method，請參閱 *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 69a.。

metaclass（元類別）

     一種 class 的 class。Class 定義過程會建立一個 class 名稱、一個
     class dictionary（字典），以及一個 base class（基底類別）的列表。
     Metaclass 負責接受這三個引數，並建立該 class。大多數的物件導向程式
     語言會提供一個預設的實作。Python 的特別之處在於它能夠建立自訂的
     metaclass。大部分的使用者從未需要此工具，但是當需要時，metaclass 可
     以提供強大且優雅的解決方案。它們已被用於記錄屬性存取、增加執行緒安
     全性、追蹤物件建立、實作單例模式 (singleton)，以及許多其他的任務。

     更多資訊可以在*note Metaclasses: 1d06.章節中找到。

method（方法）

     一個在 class 本體內被定義的函式。如果 method 作為其 class 實例的一
     個屬性被呼叫，則它將會得到該實例物件成為它的第一個 *note argument:
     154.（引數）（此引數通常被稱為 ‘self’）。請參閱 *note function:
     1de6.（函式）和 *note nested scope: 1efb.（巢狀作用域）。

method resolution order（方法解析順序）

     方法解析順序是在查找某個成員的過程中，base class（基底類別）被搜尋
     的順序。關於 Python 自 2.3 版直譯器所使用的演算法細節，請參閱 *note
     The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 131d.。

module（模組）

     一個擔任 Python 程式碼的組織單位 (organizational unit) 的物件。模組
     有一個命名空間，它包含任意的 Python 物件。模組是藉由 *note
     importing: 1d7c. 的過程，被載入至 Python。

     另請參閱 *note package: 1cab.（套件）。

module spec（模組規格）

     一個命名空間，它包含用於載入模組的 import 相關資訊。它是 *note
     importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1ca9. 的一個實例。

     See also *note Module specs: 1caa.

MRO

     請參閱 *note method resolution order: 1f16.（方法解析順序）。

mutable（可變物件）

     可變物件可以改變它們的值，但維持它們的 *note id(): 1293.。另請參閱
     *note immutable: 19ef.（不可變物件）。

named tuple（附名元組）

     術語「named tuple（附名元組）」是指從 tuple 繼承的任何型別或 class，
     且它的可索引 (indexable) 元素也可以用附名屬性來存取。這些型別或
     class 也可以具有其他的特性。

     有些內建型別是 named tuple，包括由 *note time.localtime(): 1370. 和
     *note os.stat(): 1bf. 回傳的值。另一個例子是 *note sys.float_info:
     17cc.：

          >>> sys.float_info[1]                   # indexed access
          1024
          >>> sys.float_info.max_exp              # named field access
          1024
          >>> isinstance(sys.float_info, tuple)   # kind of tuple
          True

     有些 named tuple 是內建型別（如上例）。或者，一個 named tuple 也可
     以從一個正規的 class 定義來建立，只要該 class 是繼承自 *note tuple:
     4e6.，且定義了附名欄位 (named field) 即可。這類的 class 可以手工編
     寫、可以繼承自 *note typing.NamedTuple: 1fb. 來建立，也可以使用工廠
     函式 (factory function) *note collections.namedtuple(): 731. 來建立
     。後者技術也增加了一些額外的 method，這些 method 可能是在手寫或內建
     的 named tuple 中，無法找到的。

namespace（命名空間）

     變數被儲存的地方。命名空間是以 dictionary（字典）被實作。有區域的、
     全域的及內建的命名空間，而在物件中（在 method 中）也有巢狀的命名空
     間。命名空間藉由防止命名衝突，來支援模組化。例如，函式 *note
     builtins.open: 29c. 和 *note os.open(): c09. 是透過它們的命名空間來
     區分彼此。命名空間也藉由明確地區分是哪個模組在實作一個函式，來增進
     可讀性及可維護性。例如，寫出 *note random.seed(): 1108. 或 *note
     itertools.islice(): 9a6. 明確地表示，這些函式分別是由 *note random:
     b3. 和 *note itertools: 7b. 模組在實作。

namespace package（命名空間套件）

     一個 PEP 420(24) *note package: 1cab.（套件），它只能作為子套件
     (subpackage) 的一個容器。命名空間套件可能沒有實體的表示法，而且具體
     來說它們不像是一個 *note regular package: 1d80.（正規套件），因為它
     們並沒有 ‘__init__.py’ 這個檔案。

     另請參閱 *note module: 14de.（模組）。

nested scope（巢狀作用域）

     能夠參照外層定義 (enclosing definition) 中的變數的能力。舉例來說，
     一個函式如果是在另一個函式中被定義，則它便能夠參照外層函式中的變數
     。請注意，在預設情況下，巢狀作用域僅適用於參照，而無法用於賦值。區
     域變數能在最內層作用域中讀取及寫入。同樣地，全域變數是在全域命名空
     間中讀取及寫入。*note nonlocal: 113b. 容許對外層作用域進行寫入。

new-style class（新式類別）

     一個舊名，它是指現在所有的 class 物件所使用的 class 風格。在早期的
     Python 版本中，只有新式 class 才能使用 Python 較新的、多樣的功能，
     像是 *note __slots__: 1361.、描述器 (descriptor)、屬性 (property)、
     *note __getattribute__(): a33.、class method（類別方法）和 static
     method（靜態方法）。

object（物件）

     具有狀態（屬性或值）及被定義的行為（method）的任何資料。它也是任何
     *note new-style class: 2604.（新式類別）的最終 base class（基底類別
     ）。

package（套件）

     一個 Python 的 *note module: 14de.（模組），它可以包含子模組
     (submodule) 或是遞迴的子套件 (subpackage)。技術上而言，套件就是具有
     ‘__path__’ 屬性的一個 Python 模組。

     另請參閱 *note regular package: 1d80.（正規套件）和 *note namespace
     package: 1a5d.（命名空間套件）。

parameter（參數）

     在 *note function: 1de6.（函式）或 method 定義中的一個命名實體
     (named entity)，它指明該函式能夠接受的一個 *note argument: 154.（引
     數），或在某些情況下指示多個引數。共有有五種不同的參數類型：

        * 'positional-or-keyword'（位置或關鍵字）：指明一個可以*note
          按照位置: 154.或是作為*note 關鍵字引數: 154.被傳遞的引數。這是
          參數的預設類型，例如以下的 'foo' 和 'bar'：

               def func(foo, bar=None): ...

        * 'positional-only'（僅限位置）：指明一個只能按照位置被提供的引
          數。在函式定義的參數列表中包含一個 ‘/’ 字元，就可以在該字元前
          面定義僅限位置參數，例如以下的 'posonly1' 和 'posonly2'：

               def func(posonly1, posonly2, /, positional_or_keyword): ...

        * 'keyword-only'（僅限關鍵字）：指明一個只能以關鍵字被提供的引數
          。在函式定義的參數列表中，包含一個任意數量位置參數
          (var-positional parameter) 或是單純的 ‘*’ 字元，就可以在其後方
          定義僅限關鍵字參數，例如以下的 'kw_only1' 和 'kw_only2'：

               def func(arg, *, kw_only1, kw_only2): ...

        * 'var-positional'（任意數量位置）：指明一串能以任意序列被提供的
          位置引數（在已被其他參數接受的任何位置引數之外）。這類參數是透
          過在其參數名稱字首加上 ‘*’ 來定義的，例如以下的 'args'：

               def func(*args, **kwargs): ...

        * 'var-keyword'（任意數量關鍵字）：指明可被提供的任意數量關鍵字
          引數（在已被其他參數接受的任何關鍵字引數之外）。這類參數是透過
          在其參數名稱字首加上 ‘**’ 來定義的，例如上面範例中的 'kwargs'。

     參數可以指明引數是選擇性的或必需的，也可以為一些選擇性的引數指定預
     設值。

     另請參閱術語表的 *note argument: 154.（引數）條目、常見問題中的
     *note 引數和參數之間的差異: 4e9d.、*note inspect.Parameter: c8e.
     class、*note 函式定義: 1a2b.章節，以及 PEP 362(25)。

path entry（路徑項目）

     在 *note import path: 1d88.（引入路徑）中的一個位置，而 *note path
     based finder: 1d8b. （基於路徑的尋檢器）會參考該位置來尋找要 import
     的模組。

path entry finder（路徑項目尋檢器）

     被 *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. 中的一個可呼叫物件 (callable)（意即一
     個 *note path entry hook: 1d98.）所回傳的一種 *note finder: 1caf.，
     它知道如何以一個 *note path entry: 1d96.定位模組。

     關於路徑項目尋檢器實作的 method，請參閱 *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 69b.。

path entry hook（路徑項目鉤）

     在 *note sys.path_hooks: eb8. 列表中的一個可呼叫物件 (callable)，若
     它知道如何在一個特定的 *note path entry: 1d96. 中尋找模組，則會回傳
     一個 *note path entry finder: f07.（路徑項目尋檢器）。

path based finder（基於路徑的尋檢器）

     預設的*note 元路徑尋檢器 (meta path finder): f06. 之一，它會在一個
     *note import path: 1d88. 中搜尋模組。

path-like object（類路徑物件）

     一個表示檔案系統路徑的物件。類路徑物件可以是一個表示路徑的 *note
     str: 157. 或 *note bytes: 2c1. 物件，或是一個實作 *note
     os.PathLike: ab7. 協定的物件。透過呼叫 *note os.fspath(): ab9. 函式
     ，一個支援 *note os.PathLike: ab7. 協定的物件可以被轉換為 *note
     str: 157. 或 *note bytes: 2c1. 檔案系統路徑；而 *note
     os.fsdecode(): aba. 及 *note os.fsencode(): abb. 則分別可用於確保
     *note str: 157. 及 *note bytes: 2c1. 的結果。由 PEP 519(26) 引入。

PEP

     Python Enhancement Proposal（Python 增強提案）。PEP 是一份設計說明
     文件，它能為 Python 社群提供資訊，或是描述 Python 的一個新功能或該
     功能的程序和環境。PEP 應該要提供簡潔的技術規範以及被提案功能的運作
     原理。

     PEP 的存在目的，是要成為重大新功能的提案、社群中關於某個問題的意見
     收集，以及已納入 Python 的設計決策的記錄，這些過程的主要機制。PEP 的
     作者要負責在社群內建立共識並記錄反對意見。

     請參閱 PEP 1(27)。

portion（部分）

     在單一目錄中的一組檔案（也可能儲存在一個 zip 檔中），這些檔案能對一
     個命名空間套件 (namespace package) 有所貢獻，如同 PEP 420(28) 中的
     定義。

positional argument（位置引數）

     請參閱 *note argument: 154.（引數）。

provisional API（暫行 API）

     暫行 API 是指，從標準函式庫的向後相容性 (backwards compatibility) 保
     證中，故意被排除的 API。雖然此類介面，只要它們被標示為暫行的，理論
     上並不會有重大的變更，但如果核心開發人員認為有必要，也可能會出現向
     後不相容的變更（甚至包括移除該介面）。這種變更並不會無端地產生——只
     有 API 被納入之前未察覺的嚴重基本缺陷被揭露時，它們才會發生。

     即使對於暫行 API，向後不相容的變更也會被視為「最後的解決方案」——對
     於任何被發現的問題，仍然會盡可能找出一個向後相容的解決方案。

     這個過程使得標準函式庫能隨著時間不斷進化，而避免耗費過長的時間去鎖
     定有問題的設計錯誤。請參閱 PEP 411(29) 了解更多細節。

provisional package（暫行套件）

     請參閱 *note provisional API: 958.（暫行 API）。

Python 3000

     Python 3.x 系列版本的暱稱（很久以前創造的，當時第 3 版的發布是在遙
     遠的未來。）也可以縮寫為「Py3k」。

Pythonic（Python 風格的）

     一個想法或一段程式碼，它應用了 Python 語言最常見的慣用語，而不是使
     用其他語言常見的概念來實作程式碼。例如，Python 中常見的一種習慣用法
     ，是使用一個 *note for: 265. 陳述式，對一個可疊代物件的所有元素進行
     迴圈。許多其他語言並沒有這種類型的架構，所以不熟悉 Python 的人有時
     會使用一個數值計數器來代替：

          for i in range(len(food)):
              print(food[i])

     相較之下，以下方法更簡潔、更具有 Python 風格：

          for piece in food:
              print(piece)

qualified name（限定名稱）

     一個「點分隔名稱」，它顯示從一個模組的全域作用域到該模組中定義的
     class、函式或 method 的「路徑」，如 PEP 3155(30) 中的定義。對於頂層
     的函式和 class 而言，限定名稱與其物件名稱相同：

          >>> class C:
          ...     class D:
          ...         def meth(self):
          ...             pass
          ...
          >>> C.__qualname__
          'C'
          >>> C.D.__qualname__
          'C.D'
          >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
          'C.D.meth'

     當用於引用模組時，'完全限定名稱 (fully qualified name)' 是表示該模
     組的完整點分隔路徑，包括任何的父套件，例如 ‘email.mime.text’：

          >>> import email.mime.text
          >>> email.mime.text.__name__
          'email.mime.text'

reference count（參照計數）

     對於一個物件的參照次數。當一個物件的參照計數下降到零時，它會被解除
     配置 (deallocated)。有些物件是「不滅的 (immortal)」並擁有不會被改變
     的參照計數，也因此永遠不會被解除配置。參照計數通常在 Python 程式碼
     中看不到，但它卻是 *note CPython: 4f7. 實作的一個關鍵元素。程式設計
     師可以呼叫 *note getrefcount(): 4093. 函式來回傳一個特定物件的參照
     計數。

regular package（正規套件）

     一個傳統的 *note package: 1cab.（套件），例如一個包含 ‘__init__.py’
     檔案的目錄。

     另請參閱 *note namespace package: 1a5d.（命名空間套件）。

__slots__

     在 class 內部的一個宣告，它藉由預先宣告實例屬性的空間，以及消除實例
     dictionary（字典），來節省記憶體。雖然該技術很普遍，但它有點難以正
     確地使用，最好保留給那種在一個記憶體關鍵 (memory-critical) 的應用程
     式中存在大量實例的罕見情況。

sequence（序列）

     An *note iterable: 10ba. which supports efficient element access
     using integer indices via the *note __getitem__(): 4e7. special
     method and defines a *note __len__(): 1cf4. method that returns the
     length of the sequence.  Some built-in sequence types are *note
     list: 40a, *note str: 157, *note tuple: 4e6, and *note bytes: 2c1.
     Note that *note dict: 239. also supports *note __getitem__(): 4e7.
     and ‘__len__()’, but is considered a mapping rather than a sequence
     because the lookups use arbitrary *note hashable: 409. keys rather
     than integers.

     抽象基底類別 (abstract base class) *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     1055. 定義了一個更加豐富的介面，並不僅止於 *note __getitem__():
     4e7. 和 *note __len__(): 1cf4.，還增加了 ‘count()’、‘index()’、
     *note __contains__(): 1cef. 和 *note __reversed__(): 1cee.。實作此
     擴充介面的型別，可以使用 *note register(): f1f. 被明確地註冊。更多
     關於序列方法的文件，請見*note 常見序列操作: 1f3f.。

set comprehension（集合綜合運算）

     一種緊密的方法，用來處理一個可疊代物件中的全部或部分元素，並將處理
     結果以一個 set 回傳。‘results = {c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not
     in 'abc'}’ 會產生一個字串 set：‘{'r', 'd'}’。請參閱*note Displays
     for lists, sets and dictionaries: 3c2.。

single dispatch（單一調度）

     *note generic function: 836.（泛型函式）調度的一種形式，在此，實作
     的選擇是基於單一引數的型別。

slice（切片）

     一個物件，它通常包含一段 *note sequence: 238.（序列）的某一部分。建
     立一段切片的方法是使用下標符號 (subscript notation) ‘[]’，若要給出
     多個數字，則在數字之間使用冒號，例如 ‘variable_name[1:3:5]’。在括號
     （下標）符號的內部，會使用 *note slice: 180. 物件。

soft deprecated

     A soft deprecated API should not be used in new code, but it is
     safe for already existing code to use it.  The API remains
     documented and tested, but will not be enhanced further.

     Soft deprecation, unlike normal deprecation, does not plan on
     removing the API and will not emit warnings.

     See PEP 387: Soft Deprecation(31).

special method（特殊方法）

     一種會被 Python 自動呼叫的 method，用於對某種型別執行某種運算，例如
     加法。這種 method 的名稱會在開頭和結尾有兩個下底線。Special method
     在*note Special method names: ad6.中有詳細說明。

statement（陳述式）

     陳述式是一個套組（suite，一個程式碼「區塊」）中的一部分。陳述式可以
     是一個 *note expression: 1d18.（運算式），或是含有關鍵字（例如
     *note if: 266.、*note while: 19f8. 或 *note for: 265.）的多種結構之
     一。

static type checker（靜態型別檢查器）

     會讀取 Python 程式碼並分析的外部工具，能夠找出錯誤，像是使用了不正
     確的型別。另請參閱*note 型別提示 (type hints): 1d14. 以及 *note
     typing: ff. 模組。

strong reference（強參照）

     在 Python 的 C API 中，強參照是對物件的參照，該物件為持有該參照的程
     式碼所擁有。建立參照時透過呼叫 *note Py_INCREF(): 2fb. 來獲得強參照
     、刪除參照時透過 *note Py_DECREF(): 2fc. 釋放強參照。

     *note Py_NewRef(): 6cb. 函式可用於建立一個對物件的強參照。通常，在
     退出強參照的作用域之前，必須在該強參照上呼叫 *note Py_DECREF():
     2fc. 函式，以避免洩漏一個參照。

     另請參閱 *note borrowed reference: 47ba.（借用參照）。

text encoding（文字編碼）

     Python 中的字串是一個 Unicode 碼點 (code point) 的序列（範圍在
     ‘U+0000’ - ‘U+10FFFF’ 之間）。若要儲存或傳送一個字串，它必須被序列
     化為一個位元組序列。

     將一個字串序列化為位元組序列，稱為「編碼」，而從位元組序列重新建立
     該字串則稱為「解碼 (decoding)」。

     有多種不同的文字序列化編解碼器 (*note codecs: c30.)，它們被統稱為「
     文字編碼」。

text file（文字檔案）

     一個能夠讀取和寫入 *note str: 157. 物件的一個 *note file object:
     1054.（檔案物件）。通常，文字檔案實際上是存取位元組導向的資料流
     (byte-oriented datastream) 並會自動處理 *note text encoding: 1f0e.（
     文字編碼）。文字檔案的例子有：以文字模式（‘'r'’ 或 ‘'w'’）開啟的檔
     案、*note sys.stdin: 2bf.、*note sys.stdout: 92a. 以及 *note
     io.StringIO: db1. 的實例。

     另請參閱 *note binary file: 1a7c.（二進位檔案），它是一個能夠讀取和
     寫入*note 類位元組串物件 (bytes-like object): b9f. 的檔案物件。

triple-quoted string（三引號內字串）

     由三個雙引號 (") 或單引號 (') 的作為邊界的一個字串。雖然它們並沒有
     提供異於單引號字串的任何額外功能，但基於許多原因，它們仍是很有用的
     。它們讓你可以在字串中包含未跳脫 (unescaped) 的單引號和雙引號，而且
     它們不需使用連續字元 (continuation character) 就可以跨越多行，這使
     得它們在編寫說明字串時特別有用。

type（型別）

     The type of a Python object determines what kind of object it is;
     every object has a type.  An object's type is accessible as its
     *note __class__: 1320. attribute or can be retrieved with
     ‘type(obj)’.

type alias（型別別名）

     一個型別的同義詞，透過將型別指定給一個識別符 (identifier) 來建立。

     型別別名對於簡化*note 型別提示 (type hint): 1d14. 很有用。例如：

          def remove_gray_shades(
                  colors: list[tuple[int, int, int]]) -> list[tuple[int, int, int]]:
              pass

     可以寫成這樣，更具有可讀性：

          Color = tuple[int, int, int]

          def remove_gray_shades(colors: list[Color]) -> list[Color]:
              pass

     請參閱 *note typing: ff. 和 PEP 484(32)，有此功能的描述。

type hint（型別提示）

     一種 *note annotation: 168.（註釋），它指定一個變數、一個 class 屬
     性或一個函式的參數或回傳值的預期型別。

     型別提示是選擇性的，而不是被 Python 強制的，但它們對*note
     靜態型別檢查器 (static type checkers): 21b9.很有用，並能協助 IDE 完
     成程式碼的補全 (completion) 和重構 (refactoring)。

     全域變數、class 屬性和函式（不含區域變數）的型別提示，都可以使用
     *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4b0. 來存取。

     請參閱 *note typing: ff. 和 PEP 484(33)，有此功能的描述。

universal newlines（通用換行字元）

     一種解譯文字流 (text stream) 的方式，會將以下所有的情況識別為一行的
     結束：Unix 行尾慣例 ‘'\n'’、Windows 慣例 ‘'\r\n'’ 和舊的 Macintosh
     慣例 ‘'\r'’。請參閱 PEP 278(34) 和 PEP 3116(35)，以及用於 *note
     bytes.splitlines(): 1fac. 的附加用途。

variable annotation（變數註釋）

     一個變數或 class 屬性的 *note annotation: 168.（註釋）。

     註釋變數或 class 屬性時，賦值是選擇性的：

          class C:
              field: 'annotation'

     變數註釋通常用於*note 型別提示 (type hint): 1d14.：例如，這個變數預
     期會取得 *note int: 17e.（整數）值：

          count: int = 0

     變數註釋的語法在*note Annotated assignment statements: 1e34.章節有
     詳細的解釋。

     請參閱 *note function annotation: 1a2c.（函式註釋）、 PEP 484(36) 和
     PEP 526(37)，皆有此功能的描述。關於註釋的最佳實踐方法，另請參閱
     *note 註釋 (annotation) 最佳實踐: 5fa.。

virtual environment（虛擬環境）

     一個協作隔離 (cooperatively isolated) 的執行環境，能讓 Python 的使
     用者和應用程式得以安裝和升級 Python 發佈套件，而不會對同一個系統上
     運行的其他 Python 應用程式的行為產生干擾。

     另請參閱 *note venv: 10c.。

virtual machine（虛擬機器）

     一部完全由軟體所定義的電腦 (computer)。Python 的虛擬機器會執行由
     *note bytecode: 39f.（位元組碼）編譯器所發出的位元組碼。

Zen of Python（Python 之禪）

     Python 設計原則與哲學的列表，其內容有助於理解和使用此語言。此列表可
     以透過在互動式提式字元後輸入「‘import this’」來找到它。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (10) https://gvanrossum.github.io/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (14) https://www.python.org

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (30) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/#soft-deprecation

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/

   (35) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


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13 關於這些說明文件
*******************

這些說明文件是透過 Sphinx(1) （一個專為 Python 說明文件所撰寫的文件處理
器）將使用 reStructuredText(2) 撰寫的原始檔轉換而成。

如同 Python 自身，透過自願者的努力下產出文件與封裝後自動化執行工具。若想
要回報臭蟲，請見 *note 處理錯誤 (Bug): 47a4. 頁面，內含相關資訊。我們永
遠歡迎新的自願者加入！

致謝：

   * Fred L. Drake, Jr.，原始 Python 文件工具集的創造者以及一大部份內容
     的作者；

   * 創造 reStructuredText 和 Docutils 工具組的 Docutils(3) 專案；

   * Fredrik Lundh 先生，Sphinx 從他的 Alternative Python Reference 計劃
     中獲得許多的好主意。

* Menu:

* Python 文件的貢獻者們::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/

   (2) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/rst.html

   (3) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/


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13.1 Python 文件的貢獻者們
==========================

許多人都曾為 Python 這門語言、Python 標準函式庫和 Python 說明文件貢獻過
。Python 所發佈的原始碼中含有部份貢獻者的清單，請見 Misc/ACKS(1) 。

正因為 Python 社群的撰寫與貢獻才有這份這麼棒的說明文件 - 感謝所有貢獻過
的人們！

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Misc/ACKS


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14 處理錯誤 (Bug)
*****************

Python 已經是一個以穩定著稱的成熟程式語言。為了維持「穩定」的信譽，開發
者們想知道任何你在 Python 中發現的缺失。

有時候自己直接修復錯誤並且送出一個修正給 Python 會比較快，因為這樣會加速
流程而且不會困擾到太多人。學習如何*note 貢獻給 Python: 4f77.。

* Menu:

* 說明文件的錯誤::
* 使用 Python 問題追蹤系統::
* 開始讓自己貢獻 Python::


File: python.info,  Node: 說明文件的錯誤,  Next: 使用 Python 問題追蹤系統,  Up: 處理錯誤 Bug

14.1 說明文件的錯誤
===================

如果你在這份說明文件中發現了錯誤並想要幫助我們改進，請將錯誤報告提交到
*note 追蹤系統 (tracker): 4f79.。如果你有相應的修正建議，請一併提交。（
譯者註：如果是繁體中文說明文件翻譯相關的錯誤，請提交到
‘https://github.com/python/python-docs-zh-tw/issues’。）

你也可以在我們的說明文件 Discourse 討論區(1)中新增一個討論事項。

If you find a bug in the theme (HTML / CSS / JavaScript) of the
documentation, please submit a bug report on the python-doc-theme bug
tracker(2).

如果你的時間有限，也可以將說明文件的錯誤報告以電子郵件寄到
<docs@python.org>（程式碼執行的錯誤可以寄到 <python-list@python.org>）。
「docs@」是一個由志工們所運行的郵寄清單；你的請求會被注意到，但可能需要
一些時間才會被處理。

也參考
......

說明文件錯誤(3)

     一系列已被提交至 Python 問題追蹤系統的有關說明文件的錯誤。

問題追蹤系統(4)

     在追蹤系統上回報改進建議的過程簡介。

貢獻說明文件(5)

     給有意成為 Python 說明文件貢獻者的綜合指南。

說明文件翻譯(6)

     一份 GitHub 網頁的清單，裡面有各個說明文件翻譯團隊的連結，以及他們
     的主要聯絡人。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://discuss.python.org/c/documentation/26

   (2) https://github.com/python/python-docs-theme

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/issues?q=is%3Aissue+is%3Aopen+label%3Adocs

   (4) https://devguide.python.org/tracker/

   (5) 
https://devguide.python.org/docquality/#helping-with-documentation

   (6) https://devguide.python.org/documentation/translating/


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14.2 使用 Python 問題追蹤系統
=============================

對於 Python 本身的問題報告，應該透過 GitHub 問題追蹤系統
(‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’) 提交。這個 GitHub 問題追蹤
系統提供了一個網頁表單，可以輸入並提交相關資訊給開發者。

填寫報告的第一步，是確認該問題是否已經被回報過了。這樣做的好處，除了可以
節省開發者的時間，也能讓你了解目前關於該問題的處理進度；有可能已經在下一
個發行版本中修正了這個問題，也有可能需要更詳細的資訊（在這種情況下，如果
可以，非常歡迎你提供資訊！）。要確認是否重複回報，請使用頁面頂端的搜尋框
來搜尋追蹤系統。

如果你想回報的問題還沒有在問題列表出現過，請登入 GitHub。如果你還沒有
GitHub 帳戶，請點選「Sign up」連結來建立一個新的帳戶。你無法以匿名方式提
交錯誤報告。

如果已經登入，那你就可以提交問題了。請點選列表頂端區域的「New issue」按
鈕，來回報一個新的問題。

提交的表單中有兩個欄位，「Title」及「Comment」。

在「Title」欄位，輸入對該問題'非常'簡短的描述；最好少於十個單字。

在「Comment」欄位，請詳細描述該問題，包括你預期發生的情況和實際發生的情
況。請確定說明中包含了涉及到的任何擴充模組，以及你當時所使用的硬體和軟體
平台（視情況而定，可以附上版本資訊）。

每一份問題報告都會被一位開發人員查核，並由他決定要做出什麼變更來修正這個
問題。每當該問題有修正動作時，你會收到更新回報。

也參考
......

如何有效地回報錯誤(1)

     這篇文章詳細說明如何建立一份有用的錯誤報告。它描述了什麼樣的資訊是
     有用的，以及這些資訊為什麼有用。

錯誤撰寫指南(2)

     撰寫一份優良錯誤報告的相關資訊。部分的文章內容是針對 Mozilla 專案，
     但它也描述了通用的好習慣。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/bugs.html

   (2) https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/page.cgi?id=bug-writing.html


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14.3 開始讓自己貢獻 Python
==========================

除了只是回報你所發現的錯誤之外，同樣也歡迎你提交修正它們的修補程式
(patch)。你可以在 Python 開發者指南(1)中找到如何開始修補 Python 的更多資
訊。如果你有任何問題，核心導師郵寄清單(2)是一個友善的地方，你可以在那裡
得到，關於 Python 修正錯誤的過程中，所有問題的答案。

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/core-mentorship.python.org/


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15 版權宣告
***********

Python 和這份說明文件的版權：

Copyright © 2001-2023 Python Software Foundation 保留一切權利。

Copyright © 2000 BeOpen.com 保留一切權利。

Copyright © 1995-2000 Corporation for National Research Initiatives 保留
一切權利。

Copyright © 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum 保留一切權利。

__________________________________________________________________

完整的授權條款資訊請參見*note 沿革與授權: 4f7e.。


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16 沿革與授權
*************

* Menu:

* 軟體沿革::
* 關於存取或以其他方式使用 Python 的合約條款::
* 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝::


File: python.info,  Node: 軟體沿革,  Next: 關於存取或以其他方式使用 Python 的合約條款,  Up: 沿革與授權

16.1 軟體沿革
=============

Python 是由荷蘭數學和計算機科學研究學會（CWI，見 ‘https://www.cwi.nl/’）
的 Guido van Rossum 於 1990 年代早期所創造，目的是作為一種稱為 ABC 語言
的後繼者。儘管 Python 包含了許多來自其他人的貢獻，Guido 仍是其主要作者。

1995 年，Guido 在維吉尼亞州雷斯頓的國家創新研究公司（CNRI，見
‘https://www.cnri.reston.va.us/’）繼續他在 Python 的工作，並在那裡發佈了
該軟體的多個版本。

2000 年五月，Guido 和 Python 核心開發團隊轉移到 BeOpen.com 並成立了
BeOpen PythonLabs 團隊。同年十月，PythonLabs 團隊轉移到 Digital
Creations（現為 Zope Corporation；見 ‘https://www.zope.org/’）。2001 年
，Python 軟體基金會（PSF，見 ‘https://www.python.org/psf/’）成立，這是一
個專為擁有 Python 相關的智慧財產權而創立的非營利組織。Zope Corporation 是
PSF 的一個贊助會員。

所有的 Python 版本都是開源的（有關開源的定義，參閱
‘https://opensource.org/’）。歷史上，大多數但非全部的 Python 版本，也是
GPL 相容的；以下表格總結各個版本的差異。

發佈版本             源自               年份             擁有者           GPL 相容性？
                                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
0.9.0 至 1.2         不適用             1991-1995        CWI              是
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.3 至 1.5.2         1.2                1995-1999        CNRI             是
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.6                  1.5.2              2000             CNRI             否
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.0                  1.6                2000             BeOpen.com       否
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.6.1                1.6                2001             CNRI             否
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1                  2.0+1.6.1          2001             PSF              否
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.0.1                2.0+1.6.1          2001             PSF              是
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.1                2.1+2.0.1          2001             PSF              是
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.2                2.1.1              2002             PSF              是
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.3                2.1.2              2002             PSF              是
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.2 以上             2.1.1              2001 至今        PSF              是
                                                                          

     備註: GPL 相容並不表示我們是在 GPL 下發佈 Python。不像 GPL，所有的
     Python 授權都可以讓你發佈修改後的版本，但不一定要使你的變更成為開源
     。GPL 相容的授權使得 Python 可以結合其他在 GPL 下發佈的軟體一起使用
     ；但其它的授權則不行。

感謝許多的外部志工，在 Guido 指導下的付出，使得這些版本的發佈成為可能。


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16.2 關於存取或以其他方式使用 Python 的合約條款
===============================================

Python 軟體和說明文件的授權是基於 *note PSF 授權合約: 4f83.。

從 Python 3.8.6 開始，說明文件中的範例、程式庫和其他程式碼，是被雙重授權
(dual licensed) 於 PSF 授權合約以及 *note Zero-Clause BSD 授權: 4f84.。

有些被納入 Python 中的軟體是基於不同的授權。這些授權將會與其授權之程式碼
一起被列出。關於這些授權的不完整清單，請參閱*note
被收錄軟體的授權與致謝: 4f85.。

* Menu:

* 用於 PYTHON 3.12.7 的 PSF 授權合約: 用於 PYTHON 3 12 7 的 PSF 授權合約.
* 用於 PYTHON 2.0 的 BEOPEN.COM 授權合約: 用於 PYTHON 2 0 的 BEOPEN COM 授權合約.
* 用於 PYTHON 1.6.1 的 CNRI 授權合約: 用於 PYTHON 1 6 1 的 CNRI 授權合約.
* 用於 PYTHON 0.9.0 至 1.2 的 CWI 授權合約: 用於 PYTHON 0 9 0 至 1 2 的 CWI 授權合約.
* 用於 PYTHON 3.12.7 說明文件內程式碼的 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD 授權: 用於 PYTHON 3 12 7 說明文件內程式碼的 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD 授權.


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16.2.1 用於 PYTHON 3.12.7 的 PSF 授權合約
-----------------------------------------

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and
        the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python
        3.12.7 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation.

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby
        grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
        analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
        distribute, and otherwise use Python 3.12.7 alone or in any derivative
        version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of
        copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001-2023 Python Software Foundation; All Rights
        Reserved" are retained in Python 3.12.7 alone or in any derivative version
        prepared by Licensee.

     3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
        incorporates Python 3.12.7 or any part thereof, and wants to make the
        derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby
        agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python
        3.12.7.

     4. PSF is making Python 3.12.7 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
        PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
        EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
        WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
        USE OF PYTHON 3.12.7 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 3.12.7
        FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
        MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 3.12.7, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
        THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship
        of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee.  This License
        Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a
        trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
        third party.

     8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python 3.12.7, Licensee agrees
        to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.


File: python.info,  Node: 用於 PYTHON 2 0 的 BEOPEN COM 授權合約,  Next: 用於 PYTHON 1 6 1 的 CNRI 授權合約,  Prev: 用於 PYTHON 3 12 7 的 PSF 授權合約,  Up: 關於存取或以其他方式使用 Python 的合約條款

16.2.2 用於 PYTHON 2.0 的 BEOPEN.COM 授權合約
---------------------------------------------

BEOPEN PYTHON 開源授權合約第 1 版

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at
        160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization
        ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary
        form and its associated documentation ("the Software").

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement,
        BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license
        to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative
        works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative
        version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the
        Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee.

     3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
        BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
        EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
        WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
        USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR
        ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING,
        MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF
        ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects
        by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions.
        Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of
        agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee.  This License
        Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a
        trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
        third party.  As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at
        ‘http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html’ may be used according to the permissions
        granted on that web page.

     7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be
        bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.


File: python.info,  Node: 用於 PYTHON 1 6 1 的 CNRI 授權合約,  Next: 用於 PYTHON 0 9 0 至 1 2 的 CWI 授權合約,  Prev: 用於 PYTHON 2 0 的 BEOPEN COM 授權合約,  Up: 關於存取或以其他方式使用 Python 的合約條款

16.2.3 用於 PYTHON 1.6.1 的 CNRI 授權合約
-----------------------------------------

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research
        Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191
        ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and
        otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its
        associated documentation.

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby
        grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
        analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
        distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version,
        provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright,
        i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All
        Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version
        prepared by Licensee.  Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement,
        Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1
        is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License
        Agreement.  This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the
        internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle):
        1895.22/1013.  This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the
        internet using the following URL: ‘http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013’."

     3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
        incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative
        work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to
        include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1.

     4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.  CNRI
        MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF EXAMPLE,
        BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY
        OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF
        PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR
        ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
        MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
        THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property
        law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright
        law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the
        Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions.
        Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python
        1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed
        under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of
        Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or
        with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement.  Nothing in
        this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency,
        partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee.  This License Agreement
        does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark
        sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third
        party.

     8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing
        or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and
        conditions of this License Agreement.


File: python.info,  Node: 用於 PYTHON 0 9 0 至 1 2 的 CWI 授權合約,  Next: 用於 PYTHON 3 12 7 說明文件內程式碼的 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD 授權,  Prev: 用於 PYTHON 1 6 1 的 CNRI 授權合約,  Up: 關於存取或以其他方式使用 Python 的合約條款

16.2.4 用於 PYTHON 0.9.0 至 1.2 的 CWI 授權合約
-----------------------------------------------

     Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The
     Netherlands.  All rights reserved.

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
     documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that
     the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright
     notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that
     the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or
     publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
     SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO
     EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT
     OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE,
     DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS
     SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: 用於 PYTHON 3 12 7 說明文件內程式碼的 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD 授權,  Prev: 用於 PYTHON 0 9 0 至 1 2 的 CWI 授權合約,  Up: 關於存取或以其他方式使用 Python 的合約條款

16.2.5 用於 PYTHON 3.12.7 說明文件內程式碼的 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD 授權
-----------------------------------------------------------------

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
     purpose with or without fee is hereby granted.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
     REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
     AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
     INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM
     LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR
     OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
     PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝,  Prev: 關於存取或以其他方式使用 Python 的合約條款,  Up: 沿革與授權

16.3 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝
===========================

本節是一個不完整但持續增加的授權與致謝清單，對象是在 Python 發佈版本中所
收錄的第三方軟體。

* Menu:

* Mersenne Twister::
* Sockets: Sockets<2>.
* 非同步 socket 服務::
* Cookie 管理::
* 執行追蹤::
* UUencode 與 UUdecode 函式::
* XML 遠端程序呼叫::
* test_epoll::
* Select kqueue::
* SipHash24::
* strtod 與 dtoa::
* OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>.
* expat::
* libffi::
* zlib: zlib<3>.
* cfuhash::
* libmpdec::
* W3C C14N 測試套件::
* Audioop::
* asyncio: asyncio<11>.


File: python.info,  Node: Mersenne Twister,  Next: Sockets<2>,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.1 Mersenne Twister
-----------------------

*note random: b3. 模組底下的 ‘_random’ C 擴充程式包含了以
‘http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html’
的下載內容為基礎的程式碼。以下是原始程式碼的完整聲明：

     A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26.
     Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto.

     Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed)
     or init_by_array(init_key, key_length).

     Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura,
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

      1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

      2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
         documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

      3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote
         products derived from this software without specific prior written
         permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR
     CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
     EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
     PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
     PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
     LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
     NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
     SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


     Any feedback is very welcome.
     http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html
     email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space)


File: python.info,  Node: Sockets<2>,  Next: 非同步 socket 服務,  Prev: Mersenne Twister,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.2 Sockets
--------------

*note socket: c6. 模組使用 ‘getaddrinfo()’ 和 ‘getnameinfo()’ 函式，它們
在 WIDE 專案（‘https://www.wide.ad.jp/’）內，於不同的原始檔案中被編碼：

     Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project.
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
     3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors
        may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
        without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: 非同步 socket 服務,  Next: Cookie 管理,  Prev: Sockets<2>,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.3 非同步 socket 服務
-------------------------

‘test.support.asynchat’ 和 ‘test.support.asyncore’ 模組包含以下聲明：

     Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing

                             All Rights Reserved

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
     its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
     copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam
     Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
     distribution of the software without specific, written prior
     permission.

     SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE,
     INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN
     NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR
     CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
     OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
     NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN
     CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Cookie 管理,  Next: 執行追蹤,  Prev: 非同步 socket 服務,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.4 Cookie 管理
------------------

*note http.cookies: 6c. 模組包含以下聲明：

     Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu>

                    All Rights Reserved

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software
     and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
     copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
     Timothy O'Malley  not be used in advertising or publicity
     pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
     SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
     AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR
     ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
     WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
     PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: 執行追蹤,  Next: UUencode 與 UUdecode 函式,  Prev: Cookie 管理,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.5 執行追蹤
---------------

*note trace: f8. 模組包含以下聲明：

     portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights...
     err...  reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the
     Python 2.2 license.
     Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx
     http://zooko.com/
     mailto:zooko@zooko.com

     Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Skip Montanaro

     Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Andrew Dalke

     Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Skip Montanaro

     Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved.


     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and
     its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies,
     and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
     supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix,
     Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
     distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission.


File: python.info,  Node: UUencode 與 UUdecode 函式,  Next: XML 遠端程序呼叫,  Prev: 執行追蹤,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.6 UUencode 與 UUdecode 函式
--------------------------------

*note uu: 10a. 模組包含以下聲明：

     Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse
     Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America.
                            All Rights Reserved
     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
     documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted,
     provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that
     both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
     supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse
     not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution
     of the software without specific, written prior permission.
     LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO
     THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
     FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
     WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
     ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
     OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.

     Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995:
     - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion
       between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C
       version is still 5 times faster, though.
     - Arguments more compliant with Python standard


File: python.info,  Node: XML 遠端程序呼叫,  Next: test_epoll,  Prev: UUencode 與 UUdecode 函式,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.7 XML 遠端程序呼叫
-----------------------

*note xmlrpc.client: 128. 模組包含以下聲明：

         The XML-RPC client interface is

     Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB
     Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh

     By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its
     associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood,
     and will comply with the following terms and conditions:

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
     its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is
     hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in
     all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
     Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity
     pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD
     TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT-
     ABILITY AND FITNESS.  IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR
     BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY
     DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE
     OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: test_epoll,  Next: Select kqueue,  Prev: XML 遠端程序呼叫,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.8 test_epoll
-----------------

‘test.test_epoll’ 模組包含以下聲明：

     Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories.

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
     included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
     LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
     OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
     WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Select kqueue,  Next: SipHash24,  Prev: test_epoll,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.9 Select kqueue
--------------------

*note select: bc. 模組對於 kqueue 介面包含以下聲明：

     Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: SipHash24,  Next: strtod 與 dtoa,  Prev: Select kqueue,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.10 SipHash24
-----------------

‘Python/pyhash.c’ 檔案包含 Marek Majkowski' 基於 Dan Bernstein 的
SipHash24 演算法的實作。它包含以下聲明：

     <MIT License>
     Copyright (c) 2013  Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org>

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
     of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
     in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
     to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
     copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
     furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
     all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
     </MIT License>

     Original location:
        https://github.com/majek/csiphash/

     Solution inspired by code from:
        Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little)
        djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2)
        Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c)


File: python.info,  Node: strtod 與 dtoa,  Next: OpenSSL<2>,  Prev: SipHash24,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.11 strtod 與 dtoa
----------------------

‘Python/dtoa.c’ 檔案提供了 C 的 dtoa 和 strtod 函式，用於將 C 的雙精度浮
點數和字串互相轉換。該檔案是衍生自 David M. Gay 建立的同名檔案，後者現在
可以從
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c’
下載。於 2009 年 3 月 16 日所檢索的原始檔案包含以下版權與授權聲明：

     /****************************************************************
      *
      * The author of this software is David M. Gay.
      *
      * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies.
      *
      * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any
      * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice
      * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy
      * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting
      * documentation for such software.
      *
      * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
      * WARRANTY.  IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY
      * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY
      * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
      *
      ***************************************************************/


File: python.info,  Node: OpenSSL<2>,  Next: expat,  Prev: strtod 與 dtoa,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.12 OpenSSL
---------------

如果 OpenSSL 函式庫可被作業系統使用，則 *note hashlib: 63.、*note posix:
a8.、*note ssl: ca.、*note crypt: 26. 模組會使用它來提升效能。此外，因為
Windows 和 macOS 的 Python 安裝程式可能包含 OpenSSL 函式庫的副本，所以我
們也在此收錄 OpenSSL 授權的副本。對於 OpenSSL 3.0 版本以及由此衍生的更新
版本則適用 Apache 許可證 v2：

                                   Apache License
                             Version 2.0, January 2004
                          https://www.apache.org/licenses/

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File: python.info,  Node: expat,  Next: libffi,  Prev: OpenSSL<2>,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.13 expat
-------------

除非在建置 *note pyexpat: 121. 擴充時設定為 ‘--with-system-expat’，否則
該擴充會用一個內含 expat 原始碼的副本來建置：

     Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd
                                    and Clark Cooper

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
     in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.
     IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
     CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
     TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE
     SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: libffi,  Next: zlib<3>,  Prev: expat,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.14 libffi
--------------

除非在建置 ‘_ctypes’ 模組底下 ‘_ctypes’ 擴充程式時設定為
‘--with-system-libffi’，否則該擴充會用一個內含 libffi 原始碼的副本來建置
：

     Copyright (c) 1996-2008  Red Hat, Inc and others.

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     ``Software''), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
     in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED ``AS IS'', WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT
     HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
     OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
     DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<3>,  Next: cfuhash,  Prev: libffi,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.15 zlib
------------

如果在系統上找到的 zlib 版本太舊以致於無法用於建置 *note zlib: 12d. 擴充
，則該擴充會用一個內含 zlib 原始碼的副本來建置：

     Copyright (C) 1995-2011 Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler

     This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied
     warranty.  In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
     arising from the use of this software.

     Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
     including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
     freely, subject to the following restrictions:

     1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
        claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
        in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
        appreciated but is not required.

     2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
        misrepresented as being the original software.

     3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.

     Jean-loup Gailly        Mark Adler
     jloup@gzip.org          madler@alumni.caltech.edu


File: python.info,  Node: cfuhash,  Next: libmpdec,  Prev: zlib<3>,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.16 cfuhash
---------------

*note tracemalloc: fa. 使用的雜湊表 (hash table) 實作，是以 cfuhash 專案
為基礎：

     Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens
     All rights reserved.

     This code is released under the BSD license:

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

       * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

       * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above
         copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
         disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided
         with the distribution.

       * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its
         contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived
         from this software without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS
     FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
     COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
     INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
     (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
     SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT,
     STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
     ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED
     OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: libmpdec,  Next: W3C C14N 測試套件,  Prev: cfuhash,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.17 libmpdec
----------------

除非在建置 *note decimal: 33. 模組底下 ‘_decimal’ C 擴充程式時設定為
‘--with-system-libmpdec’，否則該模組會用一個內含 libmpdec 函式庫的副本來
建置：

     Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: W3C C14N 測試套件,  Next: Audioop,  Prev: libmpdec,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.18 W3C C14N 測試套件
-------------------------

*note test: dc. 程式包中的 C14N 2.0 測試套件
(‘Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/’) 是從 W3C 網站
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/’ 被檢索，且是基於 3-clause
BSD 授權被發佈：

     Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang),
     All Rights Reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

     * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice,
       this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright
       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
       documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
     * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be
       used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without
       specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
     OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
     SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
     DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
     THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
     (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
     OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: Audioop,  Next: asyncio<11>,  Prev: W3C C14N 測試套件,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.19 Audioop
---------------

audioop 模組使用 SoX 專案的 g771.c 檔案中的程式碼。
‘https://sourceforge.net/projects/sox/files/sox/12.17.7/sox-12.17.7.tar.gz’

     This source code is a product of Sun Microsystems, Inc.  and is
     provided for unrestricted use.  Users may copy or modify this
     source code without charge.

     SUN SOURCE CODE IS PROVIDED AS IS WITH NO WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND
     INCLUDING THE WARRANTIES OF DESIGN, MERCHANTIBILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR ARISING FROM A COURSE OF DEALING, USAGE OR
     TRADE PRACTICE.

     Sun source code is provided with no support and without any
     obligation on the part of Sun Microsystems, Inc.  to assist in its
     use, correction, modification or enhancement.

     SUN MICROSYSTEMS, INC. SHALL HAVE NO LIABILITY WITH RESPECT TO THE
     INFRINGEMENT OF COPYRIGHTS, TRADE SECRETS OR ANY PATENTS BY THIS
     SOFTWARE OR ANY PART THEREOF.

     In no event will Sun Microsystems, Inc.  be liable for any lost
     revenue or profits or other special, indirect and consequential
     damages, even if Sun has been advised of the possibility of such
     damages.

     Sun Microsystems, Inc.  2550 Garcia Avenue Mountain View,
     California 94043


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<11>,  Prev: Audioop,  Up: 被收錄軟體的授權與致謝

16.3.20 asyncio
---------------

*note asyncio: 9. 模組的部分內容是從 uvloop 0.16(1) 中收錄過來，其基於
MIT 授權來發佈：

     Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc.  http://magic.io

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
     included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
     LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
     OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
     WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0


File: python.info,  Node: Python 模組索引,  Next: 索引,  Prev: 沿革與授權,  Up: Top

Python 模組索引
***************

* Menu:

* __future__: 0. Future statement definitions
* __main__: 1. The environment where top-level code is run. Covers
                        command-line interfaces, import-time
                        behavior, and ''__name__ ==
                        '__main__'''.
* _thread: 2. Low-level threading API.
* _tkinter: 3. A binary module that contains the low-level interface
                        to Tcl/Tk.
* abc: 4. Abstract base classes according to :pep:'3119'.
* aifc: 5. Read and write audio files in AIFF or AIFC format.
* argparse: 6. Command-line option and argument parsing library.
* array: 7. Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric
                        values.
* ast: 8. Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation.
* asyncio: 9. Asynchronous I/O.
* atexit: a. Register and execute cleanup functions.
* audioop: b. Manipulate raw audio data.
* base64: c. RFC 4648: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data
                        Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85
* bdb: d. Debugger framework.
* binascii: e. Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-
                        encoded binary representations.
* bisect: f. Array bisection algorithms for binary searching.
* builtins: 10. The module that provides the built-in namespace.
* bz2: 11. Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression.
* calendar: 12. Functions for working with calendars, including
                        some emulation of the Unix cal program.
* cgi: 13. Helpers for running Python scripts via the Common
                        Gateway Interface.
* cgitb: 14. Configurable traceback handler for CGI scripts.
* chunk: 15. Module to read IFF chunks.
* cmath: 16. Mathematical functions for complex numbers.
* cmd: 17. Build line-oriented command interpreters.
* code: 18. Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops.
* codecs: 19. Encode and decode data and streams.
* codeop: 1a. Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code.
* collections: 1b. Container datatypes
* collections.abc: 1c. Abstract base classes for containers
* colorsys: 1d. Conversion functions between RGB and other color
                        systems.
* compileall: 1e. Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a
                        directory tree.
* concurrent.futures: 1f. Execute computations concurrently using threads or
                        processes.
* configparser: 20. Configuration file parser.
* contextlib: 21. Utilities for with-statement contexts.
* contextvars: 22. Context Variables
* copy: 23. Shallow and deep copy operations.
* copyreg: 24. Register pickle support functions.
* cProfile: 25.
* crypt: 26. The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords.
* csv: 27. Write and read tabular data to and from delimited
                        files.
* ctypes: 28. A foreign function library for Python.
* curses: 29. An interface to the curses library, providing
                        portable terminal handling.
* curses.ascii: 2a. Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII
                        characters.
* curses.panel: 2b. A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses
                        windows.
* curses.textpad: 2c. Emacs-like input editing in a curses window.
* dataclasses: 2d. Generate special methods on user-defined classes.
* datetime: 2e. Basic date and time types.
* dbm: 2f. Interfaces to various Unix "database" formats.
* dbm.dumb: 30. Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface.
* dbm.gnu: 31. GNU database manager
* dbm.ndbm: 32. The New Database Manager
* decimal: 33. Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic
                        Specification.
* difflib: 34. Helpers for computing differences between objects.
* dis: 35. Disassembler for Python bytecode.
* doctest: 36. Test pieces of code within docstrings.
* email: 37. Package supporting the parsing,
                        manipulating, and generating email messages.
* email.charset: 38. Character Sets
* email.contentmanager: 39. Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts
* email.encoders: 3a. Encoders for email message payloads.
* email.errors: 3b. The exception classes used by the email package.
* email.generator: 3c. Generate flat text email messages from a message
                        structure.
* email.header: 3d. Representing non-ASCII headers
* email.headerregistry: 3e. Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name
* email.iterators: 3f. Iterate over a message object tree.
* email.message: 40. The base class representing email messages.
* email.mime: 41. Build MIME messages.
* email.mime.application: 42.
* email.mime.audio: 43.
* email.mime.base: 44.
* email.mime.image: 45.
* email.mime.message: 46.
* email.mime.multipart: 47.
* email.mime.nonmultipart: 48.
* email.mime.text: 49.
* email.parser: 4a. Parse flat text email messages to produce a message
                        object structure.
* email.policy: 4b. Controlling the parsing and generating of messages
* email.utils: 4c. Miscellaneous email package utilities.
* encodings.idna: 4d. Internationalized Domain Names implementation
* encodings.mbcs: 4e. Windows ANSI codepage
* encodings.utf_8_sig: 4f. UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
* ensurepip: 50. Bootstrapping the "pip" installer into an existing
                        Python installation or virtual environment.
* enum: 51. Implementation of an enumeration class.
* errno: 52. Standard errno system symbols.
* faulthandler: 53. Dump the Python traceback.
* fcntl: 54. The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls.
* filecmp: 55. Compare files efficiently.
* fileinput: 56. Loop over standard input or a list of files.
* fnmatch: 57. Unix shell style filename pattern matching.
* fractions: 58. Rational numbers.
* ftplib: 59. FTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* functools: 5a. Higher-order functions and operations on callable
                        objects.
* gc: 5b. Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector.
* getopt: 5c. Portable parser for command line options; support both
                        short and long option names.
* getpass: 5d. Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the
                        userid.
* gettext: 5e. Multilingual internationalization services.
* glob: 5f. Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion.
* graphlib: 60. Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
* grp: 61. The group database (getgrnam() and friends).
* gzip: 62. Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression
                        using file objects.
* hashlib: 63. Secure hash and message digest algorithms.
* heapq: 64. Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue).
* hmac: 65. Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC)
                        implementation
* html: 66. Helpers for manipulating HTML.
* html.entities: 67. Definitions of HTML general entities.
* html.parser: 68. A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML.
* http: 69. HTTP status codes and messages
* http.client: 6a. HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets).
* http.cookiejar: 6b. Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies.
* http.cookies: 6c. Support for HTTP state management (cookies).
* http.server: 6d. HTTP server and request handlers.
* idlelib: 6e. Implementation package for the IDLE shell/editor.
* imaplib: 6f. IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets).
* imghdr: 70. Determine the type of image contained in a file or
                        byte stream.
* importlib: 71. The implementation of the import machinery.
* importlib.abc: 72. Abstract base classes related to import
* importlib.machinery: 73. Importers and path hooks
* importlib.metadata: 74. Accessing package metadata
* importlib.resources: 75. Package resource reading, opening, and
                        access
* importlib.resources.abc: 76. Abstract base classes for resources
* importlib.util: 77. Utility code for importers
* inspect: 78. Extract information and source code from live objects.
* io: 79. Core tools for working with streams.
* ipaddress: 7a. IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.
* itertools: 7b. Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
* json: 7c. Encode and decode the JSON format.
* json.tool: 7d. A command line to validate and pretty-print JSON.
* keyword: 7e. Test whether a string is a keyword in Python.
* lib2to3: 7f. The 2to3 library
* linecache: 80. Provides random access to individual lines from text
                        files.
* locale: 81. Internationalization services.
* logging: 82. Flexible event logging system for applications.
* logging.config: 83. Configuration of the logging module.
* logging.handlers: 84. Handlers for the logging module.
* lzma: 85. A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library.
* mailbox: 86. Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
* mailcap: 87. Mailcap file handling.
* marshal: 88. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back
                        (with different constraints).
* math: 89. Mathematical functions (sin() etc.).
* mimetypes: 8a. Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types.
* mmap: 8b. Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows.
* modulefinder: 8c. Find modules used by a script.
* msilib: 8d. Creation of Microsoft Installer files, and CAB
                        files.
* msvcrt: 8e. Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++
                        runtime.
* multiprocessing: 8f. Process-based parallelism.
* multiprocessing.connection: 90. API for dealing with sockets.
* multiprocessing.dummy: 91. Dumb wrapper around threading.
* multiprocessing.managers: 92. Share data between process with shared objects.
* multiprocessing.pool: 93. Create pools of processes.
* multiprocessing.shared_memory: 94. Provides shared memory for direct access
                                 across processes.
* multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 95. Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory.
* netrc: 96. Loading of .netrc files.
* nis: 97. Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages) library.
* nntplib: 98. NNTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* numbers: 99. Numeric abstract base classes (Complex,
                        Real, Integral, etc.).
* operator: 9a. Functions corresponding to the standard operators.
* optparse: 9b. Command-line option parsing library.
* os: 9c. Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
* os.path: 9d. Operations on pathnames.
* ossaudiodev: 9e. Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
* pathlib: 9f. Object-oriented filesystem paths
* pdb: a0. The Python debugger for interactive interpreters.
* pickle: a1. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back.
* pickletools: a2. Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols
                        and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some
                        useful functions.
* pipes: a3. A Python interface to Unix shell pipelines.
* pkgutil: a4. Utilities for the import system.
* platform: a5. Retrieves as much platform identifying data as
                        possible.
* plistlib: a6. Generate and parse Apple plist files.
* poplib: a7. POP3 protocol client (requires sockets).
* posix: a8. The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via
                        module os).
* pprint: a9. Data pretty printer.
* profile: aa. Python source profiler.
* pstats: ab. Statistics object for use with the profiler.
* pty: ac. Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Unix.
* pwd: ad. The password database (getpwnam() and friends).
* py_compile: ae. Generate byte-code files from Python source files.
* pyclbr: af. Supports information extraction for a Python module
                        browser.
* pydoc: b0. Documentation generator and online help system.
* queue: b1. A synchronized queue class.
* quopri: b2. Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted-
                        printable encoding.
* random: b3. Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common
                        distributions.
* re: b4. Regular expression operations.
* readline: b5. GNU readline support for Python.
* reprlib: b6. Alternate repr() implementation with size limits.
* resource: b7. An interface to provide resource usage information on
                        the current process.
* rlcompleter: b8. Python identifier completion, suitable for the
                        GNU readline library.
* runpy: b9. Locate and run Python modules without importing them
                        first.
* sched: ba. General purpose event scheduler.
* secrets: bb. Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
* select: bc. Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams.
* selectors: bd. High-level I/O multiplexing.
* shelve: be. Python object persistence.
* shlex: bf. Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages.
* shutil: c0. High-level file operations, including copying.
* signal: c1. Set handlers for asynchronous events.
* site: c2. Module responsible for site-specific configuration.
* sitecustomize: c3.
* smtplib: c4. SMTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* sndhdr: c5. Determine type of a sound file.
* socket: c6. Low-level networking interface.
* socketserver: c7. A framework for network servers.
* spwd: c8. The shadow password database (getspnam() and friends).
* sqlite3: c9. A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x.
* ssl: ca. TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
* stat: cb. Utilities for interpreting the results of
                        os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat().
* statistics: cc. Mathematical statistics functions
* string: cd. Common string operations.
* stringprep: ce. String preparation, as per RFC 3453
* struct: cf. Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
* subprocess: d0. Subprocess management.
* sunau: d1. Provide an interface to the Sun AU sound format.
* symtable: d2. Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables.
* sys: d3. Access system-specific parameters and functions.
* sys.monitoring: d4. Access and control event monitoring
* sysconfig: d5. Python's configuration information
* syslog: d6. An interface to the Unix syslog library routines.
* tabnanny: d7. Tool for detecting white space related problems in
                        Python source files in a directory tree.
* tarfile: d8. Read and write tar-format archive files.
* telnetlib: d9. Telnet client class.
* tempfile: da. Generate temporary files and directories.
* termios: db. POSIX style tty control.
* test: dc. Regression tests package containing the testing suite
                        for Python.
* test.regrtest: dd. Drives the regression test suite.
* test.support: de. Support for Python's regression test suite.
* test.support.bytecode_helper: df. Support tools for testing correct bytecode
                                generation.
* test.support.import_helper: e0. Support for import tests.
* test.support.os_helper: e1. Support for os tests.
* test.support.script_helper: e2. Support for Python's script execution tests.
* test.support.socket_helper: e3. Support for socket tests.
* test.support.threading_helper: e4. Support for threading tests.
* test.support.warnings_helper: e5. Support for warnings tests.
* textwrap: e6. Text wrapping and filling
* threading: e7. Thread-based parallelism.
* time: e8. Time access and conversions.
* timeit: e9. Measure the execution time of small code snippets.
* tkinter: ea. Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces
* tkinter.colorchooser: eb. Color choosing dialog
* tkinter.commondialog: ec. Tkinter base class for dialogs
* tkinter.dnd: ed. Tkinter drag-and-drop interface
* tkinter.filedialog: ee. Dialog classes for file selection
* tkinter.font: ef. Tkinter font-wrapping class
* tkinter.messagebox: f0. Various types of alert dialogs
* tkinter.scrolledtext: f1. Text widget with a vertical scroll bar.
* tkinter.simpledialog: f2. Simple dialog windows
* tkinter.tix: f3. Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter
* tkinter.ttk: f4. Tk themed widget set
* token: f5. Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse
                        tree.
* tokenize: f6. Lexical scanner for Python source code.
* tomllib: f7. Parse TOML files.
* trace: f8. Trace or track Python statement execution.
* traceback: f9. Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
* tracemalloc: fa. Trace memory allocations.
* tty: fb. Utility functions that perform common terminal control
                        operations.
* turtle: fc. An educational framework for simple graphics
                        applications
* turtledemo: fd. A viewer for example turtle scripts
* types: fe. Names for built-in types.
* typing: ff. Support for type hints (see :pep:'484').
* unicodedata: 100. Access the Unicode Database.
* unittest: 101. Unit testing framework for Python.
* unittest.mock: 102. Mock object library.
* urllib: 103.
* urllib.error: 104. Exception classes raised by urllib.request.
* urllib.parse: 105. Parse URLs into or assemble them from components.
* urllib.request: 106. Extensible library for opening URLs.
* urllib.response: 107. Response classes used by urllib.
* urllib.robotparser: 108. Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about
                        fetchability of other URLs.
* usercustomize: 109.
* uu: 10a. Encode and decode files in uuencode format.
* uuid: 10b. UUID objects (universally unique identifiers)
                        according to RFC 4122
* venv: 10c. Creation of virtual environments.
* warnings: 10d. Issue warning messages and control their disposition.
* wave: 10e. Provide an interface to the WAV sound format.
* weakref: 10f. Support for weak references and weak dictionaries.
* webbrowser: 110. Easy-to-use controller for web browsers.
* winreg: 111. Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows
                        registry.
* winsound: 112. Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows.
* wsgiref: 113. WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
* wsgiref.handlers: 114. WSGI server/gateway base classes.
* wsgiref.headers: 115. WSGI response header tools.
* wsgiref.simple_server: 116. A simple WSGI HTTP server.
* wsgiref.types: 117. WSGI types for static type checking
* wsgiref.util: 118. WSGI environment utilities.
* wsgiref.validate: 119. WSGI conformance checker.
* xdrlib: 11a. Encoders and decoders for the External Data
                        Representation (XDR).
* xml: 11b. Package containing XML processing modules
* xml.dom: 11c. Document Object Model API for Python.
* xml.dom.minidom: 11d. Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation.
* xml.dom.pulldom: 11e. Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX
                        events.
* xml.etree.ElementInclude: 11f.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: 120. Implementation of the ElementTree API.
* xml.parsers.expat: 121. An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser.
* xml.parsers.expat.errors: 122.
* xml.parsers.expat.model: 123.
* xml.sax: 124. Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience
                        functions.
* xml.sax.handler: 125. Base classes for SAX event handlers.
* xml.sax.saxutils: 126. Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX.
* xml.sax.xmlreader: 127. Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must
                        implement.
* xmlrpc.client: 128. XML-RPC client access.
* xmlrpc.server: 129. Basic XML-RPC server implementations.
* zipapp: 12a. Manage executable Python zip archives
* zipfile: 12b. Read and write ZIP-format archive files.
* zipimport: 12c. Support for importing Python modules from ZIP
                        archives.
* zlib: 12d. Low-level interface to compression and decompression
                        routines compatible with gzip.
* zoneinfo: 12e. IANA time zone support


File: python.info,  Node: 索引,  Prev: Python 模組索引,  Up: Top

索引
****

[index]
* Menu:

* _ （底線）;gettext:                    GNU gettext API.    (line   32)
* _ （底線）;於字串格式化:               格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   99)
* _ （底線）;於數值常數中:               Numeric literals.   (line   13)
* _ （底線）;於數值常數中 <1>:           Integer literals.   (line   39)
* __, identifiers（識別器）:             軟關鍵字.           (line   21)
* __abs__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  108)
* __abs__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   65)
* __add__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __add__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   70)
* __aenter__() (object 的方法):          Asynchronous Context Managers.
                                                             (line   14)
* __aexit__() (object 的方法):           Asynchronous Context Managers.
                                                             (line   19)
* __aiter__() (object 的方法):           Asynchronous Iterators.
                                                             (line   14)
* __all__:                               從套件中 import *.  (line    6)
* __all__（可選模組屬性）:               import 陳述式.      (line   84)
* __all__（套件變數）:                   引入模組<2>.        (line    8)
* __and__() (enum.Flag 的方法):          資料型別<2>.        (line  439)
* __and__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __and__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   75)
* __anext__() (agen 的方法):             Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   10)
* __anext__() (object 的方法):           Asynchronous Iterators.
                                                             (line   18)
* __annotations__ (function 的屬性):     特殊可寫屬性.       (line   44)
* __annotations__ (module 的屬性):       Other writable attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* __annotations__ (type 的屬性):         Special attributes. (line   37)
* __annotations__ （函式屬性）:          特殊可寫屬性.       (line    6)
* __annotations__ （模組屬性）:          模組<2>.            (line   21)
* __annotations__ （類別屬性）:          Special attributes. (line    6)
* __args__ (genericalias 的屬性):        GenericAlias 物件的特殊屬性.
                                                             (line   15)
* __await__() (object 的方法):           Awaitable Objects.  (line   14)
* __bases__ (type 的屬性):               Special attributes. (line   27)
* __bases__ （類別屬性）:                Special attributes. (line    6)
* __bool__() (object 的方法):            Basic customization.
                                                             (line  320)
* __bool__() （物件方法）:               Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __bound__ (typing.TypeVar 的屬性):     Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  174)
* __breakpointhook__ (於 sys 模組中):    sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  404)
* __buffer__() (object 的方法):          Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   15)
* __bytes__() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  127)
* __bytes__() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  137)
* __bytes__() (object 的方法):           Basic customization.
                                                             (line  146)
* __cached__ (module attribute):         模組<2>.            (line   21)
* __cached__ (module 的屬性):            Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  133)
* __call__() (argparse.Action 的方法):   Action classes.     (line   28)
* __call__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry 的方法): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  390)
* __call__() (enum.EnumType 的方法):     資料型別<2>.        (line   15)
* __call__() (object 的方法):            Emulating callable objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* __call__() (weakref.finalize 的方法):  weakref --- 弱參照. (line  238)
* __call__() (於 operator 模組中):       operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  206)
* __call__() （物件方法）:               Calls.              (line  155)
* __callback__ (weakref.ref 的屬性):     weakref --- 弱參照. (line   98)
* __cause__ (BaseException 的屬性):      例外的情境.         (line    8)
* __cause__ (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   44)
* __cause__（例外屬性）:                 raise 陳述式.       (line   30)
* __cause__（例外屬性） <1>:             例外的情境.         (line    6)
* __ceil__() (fractions.Fraction 的方法): fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line  183)
* __ceil__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  138)
* __class__ (object 的屬性):             Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (unittest.mock.Mock 的屬性): Mock 類別.          (line  513)
* __class__ （實例屬性）:                Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ （方法 cell）:               Creating the class object.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ （模組屬性）:                Customizing module attribute access.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class_getitem__() (object 的類別方法): Emulating generic types.
                                                             (line   32)
* __classcell__ （類別命名空間項目）:    Creating the class object.
                                                             (line    6)
* __closure__ (function 的屬性):         特殊唯讀屬性.       (line   16)
* __closure__ （函式屬性）:              特殊唯讀屬性.       (line    6)
* __code__ (function 的屬性):            特殊可寫屬性.       (line   36)
* __code__ （函式屬性）:                 特殊可寫屬性.       (line    6)
* __code__（函式物件屬性）:              Code Objects.       (line    6)
* __complex__() (object 的方法):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  116)
* __concat__() (於 operator 模組中):     operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  164)
* __constraints__ (typing.TypeVar 的屬性): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  183)
* __contains__() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  177)
* __contains__() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  299)
* __contains__() (enum.EnumType 的方法): 資料型別<2>.        (line   57)
* __contains__() (enum.Flag 的方法):     資料型別<2>.        (line  377)
* __contains__() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法): Mailbox 物件.     (line  203)
* __contains__() (object 的方法):        Emulating container types.
                                                             (line  150)
* __contains__() (於 operator 模組中):   operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  169)
* __context__ (BaseException 的屬性):    例外的情境.         (line    8)
* __context__ (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   48)
* __context__（例外屬性）:               raise 陳述式.       (line   30)
* __context__（例外屬性） <1>:           例外的情境.         (line    6)
* __contravariant__ (typing.TypeVar 的屬性): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  162)
* __copy__() （複製協定）:               copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作.
                                                             (line   63)
* __covariant__ (typing.TypeVar 的屬性): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  158)
* __debug__:                             assert 陳述式.      (line   21)
* __debug__ (內建變數):                  內建常數.           (line   59)
* __deepcopy__() （複製協定）:           copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作.
                                                             (line   63)
* __defaults__ (function 的屬性):        特殊可寫屬性.       (line   30)
* __defaults__ （函式屬性）:             特殊可寫屬性.       (line    6)
* __del__() (io.IOBase 的方法):          I/O 基礎類別.       (line  145)
* __del__() (object 的方法):             Basic customization.
                                                             (line   53)
* __delattr__() (object 的方法):         Customizing attribute access.
                                                             (line   69)
* __delete__() (object 的方法):          Implementing Descriptors.
                                                             (line   42)
* __delitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  224)
* __delitem__() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  333)
* __delitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法): Mailbox 物件.      (line   76)
* __delitem__() (mailbox.MH 的方法):     MH 物件.            (line   76)
* __delitem__() (object 的方法):         Emulating container types.
                                                             (line  108)
* __delitem__() (於 operator 模組中):    operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  178)
* __dict__ (function 的屬性):            特殊可寫屬性.       (line   39)
* __dict__ (module 的屬性):              Module dictionaries.
                                                             (line    8)
* __dict__ (object 的屬性):              Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* __dict__ (type 的屬性):                Special attributes. (line   22)
* __dict__ （函式屬性）:                 特殊可寫屬性.       (line    6)
* __dict__ （實例屬性）:                 Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dict__ （模組屬性）:                 Module dictionaries.
                                                             (line    8)
* __dict__ （類別屬性）:                 Special attributes. (line    6)
* __dict__（模組屬性）:                  模組物件.           (line   46)
* __dir__ （模組屬性）:                  Customizing module attribute access.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dir__() (enum.Enum 的方法):          資料型別<2>.        (line  166)
* __dir__() (enum.EnumType 的方法):      資料型別<2>.        (line   70)
* __dir__() (object 的方法):             Customizing attribute access.
                                                             (line   78)
* __dir__() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.          (line  272)
* __displayhook__ (於 sys 模組中):       sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  404)
* __divmod__() (object 的方法):          Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __doc__ (definition 的屬性):           特殊屬性.           (line   26)
* __doc__ (function 的屬性):             特殊可寫屬性.       (line   12)
* __doc__ (method 的屬性):               Instance methods.   (line   18)
* __doc__ (module 的屬性):               Other writable attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* __doc__ (type 的屬性):                 Special attributes. (line   33)
* __doc__ （函式屬性）:                  特殊可寫屬性.       (line    6)
* __doc__ （方法屬性）:                  Instance methods.   (line    9)
* __doc__ （模組屬性）:                  模組<2>.            (line   21)
* __doc__ （類別屬性）:                  Special attributes. (line    6)
* __doc__（模組屬性）:                   模組物件.           (line   25)
* __enter__() (contextmanager 的方法):   情境管理器型別.     (line   11)
* __enter__() (object 的方法):           With Statement Context Managers.
                                                             (line   22)
* __enter__() (winreg.PyHKEY 的方法):    Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* __eq__() (email.charset.Charset 的方法): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line  148)
* __eq__() (email.header.Header 的方法): email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line  170)
* __eq__() (memoryview 的方法):          Memory Views.       (line  112)
* __eq__() (object 的方法):              Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __eq__() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* __eq__()（實例方法）:                  比較運算.           (line   46)
* __excepthook__ (於 sys 模組中):        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  404)
* __excepthook__ (於 threading 模組中):  threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  109)
* __exit__() (contextmanager 的方法):    情境管理器型別.     (line   27)
* __exit__() (object 的方法):            With Statement Context Managers.
                                                             (line   28)
* __exit__() (winreg.PyHKEY 的方法):     Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* __file__ (module 的屬性):              Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  131)
* __file__ （模組屬性）:                 模組<2>.            (line   21)
* __file__（模組屬性）:                  模組物件.           (line   25)
* __file__（模組屬性） <1>:              模組物件.           (line   87)
* __float__() (object 的方法):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  116)
* __floor__() (fractions.Fraction 的方法): fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line  173)
* __floor__() (object 的方法):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  138)
* __floordiv__() (object 的方法):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __floordiv__() (於 operator 模組中):   operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   80)
* __format__:                            內建函式.           (line  679)
* __format__() (datetime.date 的方法):   date 物件.          (line  288)
* __format__() (datetime.datetime 的方法): datetime 物件.    (line  737)
* __format__() (datetime.time 的方法):   time 物件.          (line  225)
* __format__() (enum.Enum 的方法):       資料型別<2>.        (line  301)
* __format__() (fractions.Fraction 的方法): fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line  200)
* __format__() (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的方法): Address objects.
                                                             (line  177)
* __format__() (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的方法): Address objects.
                                                             (line  309)
* __format__() (object 的方法):          Basic customization.
                                                             (line  153)
* __fspath__() (os.PathLike 的方法):     行程參數.           (line  127)
* __func__ (method 的屬性):              Instance methods.   (line   15)
* __func__ （方法屬性）:                 Instance methods.   (line    9)
* __future__:                            術語表.             (line  470)
* __future__;future statement（future 陳述式）: Future statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* __ge__() (object 的方法):              Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __ge__() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* __ge__()（實例方法）:                  比較運算.           (line   46)
* __get__() (object 的方法):             Implementing Descriptors.
                                                             (line   15)
* __getattr__ （模組屬性）:              Customizing module attribute access.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getattr__() (object 的方法):         Customizing attribute access.
                                                             (line   10)
* __getattribute__() (object 的方法):    Customizing attribute access.
                                                             (line   33)
* __getitem__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry 的方法): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  385)
* __getitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  187)
* __getitem__() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  308)
* __getitem__() (enum.EnumType 的方法):  資料型別<2>.        (line   78)
* __getitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法): Mailbox 物件.      (line  148)
* __getitem__() (object 的方法):         Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   78)
* __getitem__() (re.Match 的方法):       Match Objects.      (line   89)
* __getitem__() （對映物件方法）:        Special method names.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getitem__() (於 operator 模組中):    operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  183)
* __getnewargs__() (object 的方法):      Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   47)
* __getnewargs_ex__() (object 的方法):   Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   29)
* __getstate__() (object 的方法):        Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   61)
* __getstate__()（copy 協定）:           Handling Stateful Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* __globals__ (function 的屬性):         特殊唯讀屬性.       (line   10)
* __globals__ （函式屬性）:              特殊唯讀屬性.       (line    6)
* __gt__() (object 的方法):              Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __gt__() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* __gt__()（實例方法）:                  比較運算.           (line   46)
* __hash__() (object 的方法):            Basic customization.
                                                             (line  239)
* __iadd__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __iadd__() (於 operator 模組中):       原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   33)
* __iand__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __iand__() (於 operator 模組中):       原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   38)
* __iconcat__() (於 operator 模組中):    原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   43)
* __ifloordiv__() (object 的方法):       Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __ifloordiv__() (於 operator 模組中):  原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   48)
* __ilshift__() (object 的方法):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __ilshift__() (於 operator 模組中):    原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   53)
* __imatmul__() (object 的方法):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __imatmul__() (於 operator 模組中):    原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   68)
* __imod__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __imod__() (於 operator 模組中):       原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   58)
* __import__() (於 importlib 模組中):    函式<11>.           (line    6)
* __imul__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __imul__() (於 operator 模組中):       原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   63)
* __index__() (object 的方法):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  124)
* __index__() (於 operator 模組中):      operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   85)
* __infer_variance__ (typing.TypeVar 的屬性): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  167)
* __init__() (asyncio.Future 的方法):    Future and Task private constructors.
                                                             (line   17)
* __init__() (asyncio.Task 的方法):      Future and Task private constructors.
                                                             (line   23)
* __init__() (difflib.HtmlDiff 的方法):  difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line   92)
* __init__() (enum.Enum 的方法):         資料型別<2>.        (line  215)
* __init__() (logging.Handler 的方法):   Handler Objects.    (line   13)
* __init__() (logging.logging.Formatter 的方法): Formatters. (line   13)
* __init__() (object 的方法):            Basic customization.
                                                             (line   37)
* __init_subclass__() (enum.Enum 的方法): 資料型別<2>.       (line  227)
* __init_subclass__() (object 的類別方法): Customizing class creation.
                                                             (line   13)
* __instancecheck__() (type 的方法):     Customizing instance and subclass checks.
                                                             (line   15)
* __int__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  116)
* __interactivehook__ (於 sys 模組中):   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1116)
* __inv__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   93)
* __invert__() (object 的方法):          Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  108)
* __invert__() (於 operator 模組中):     operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   93)
* __ior__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __ior__() (於 operator 模組中):        原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   75)
* __ipow__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __ipow__() (於 operator 模組中):       原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   80)
* __irshift__() (object 的方法):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __irshift__() (於 operator 模組中):    原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   85)
* __isub__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __isub__() (於 operator 模組中):       原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   90)
* __iter__() (container 的方法):         疊代器型別.         (line   12)
* __iter__() (enum.EnumType 的方法):     資料型別<2>.        (line   86)
* __iter__() (iterator 的方法):          疊代器型別.         (line   22)
* __iter__() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):   Mailbox 物件.       (line  116)
* __iter__() (object 的方法):            Emulating container types.
                                                             (line  122)
* __iter__() (unittest.TestSuite 的方法): Grouping tests.    (line   60)
* __itruediv__() (object 的方法):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __itruediv__() (於 operator 模組中):   原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   95)
* __ixor__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __ixor__() (於 operator 模組中):       原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line  100)
* __kwdefaults__ (function 的屬性):      特殊可寫屬性.       (line   51)
* __kwdefaults__ （函式屬性）:           特殊可寫屬性.       (line    6)
* __le__() (object 的方法):              Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __le__() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* __le__()（實例方法）:                  比較運算.           (line   46)
* __len__() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  173)
* __len__() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  295)
* __len__() (enum.EnumType 的方法):      資料型別<2>.        (line   93)
* __len__() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):    Mailbox 物件.       (line  208)
* __len__() (object 的方法):             Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   39)
* __len__() （對映物件方法）:            Basic customization.
                                                             (line  322)
* __length_hint__() (object 的方法):     Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   54)
* __loader__ (module attribute):         模組<2>.            (line   21)
* __loader__ (module 的屬性):            Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   93)
* __loader__（模組屬性）:                模組物件.           (line   25)
* __lshift__() (object 的方法):          Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __lshift__() (於 operator 模組中):     operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  100)
* __lt__() (object 的方法):              Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __lt__() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* __lt__()（實例方法）:                  比較運算.           (line   46)
* __matmul__() (object 的方法):          Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __matmul__() (於 operator 模組中):     operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  115)
* __members__ (enum.EnumType 的屬性):    資料型別<2>.        (line  100)
* __missing__():                         Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line   89)
* __missing__() (collections.defaultdict 的方法): defaultdict 物件.
                                                             (line   19)
* __missing__() (object 的方法):         Emulating container types.
                                                             (line  117)
* __mod__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __mod__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  105)
* __module__ (definition 的屬性):        特殊屬性.           (line   22)
* __module__ (function 的屬性):          特殊可寫屬性.       (line   26)
* __module__ (method 的屬性):            Instance methods.   (line   28)
* __module__ (type 的屬性):              Special attributes. (line   18)
* __module__ (typing.NewType 的屬性):    Other special directives.
                                                             (line  100)
* __module__ (typing.TypeAliasType 的屬性): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  453)
* __module__ （函式屬性）:               特殊可寫屬性.       (line    6)
* __module__ （方法屬性）:               Instance methods.   (line    9)
* __module__ （類別屬性）:               Special attributes. (line    6)
* __mro__ (type 的屬性):                 Special attributes. (line   59)
* __mro_entries__() (object 的方法):     Resolving MRO entries.
                                                             (line    6)
* __mul__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __mul__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  110)
* __name__ (definition 的屬性):          特殊屬性.           (line   10)
* __name__ (function 的屬性):            特殊可寫屬性.       (line   16)
* __name__ (method 的屬性):              Instance methods.   (line   24)
* __name__ (module 的屬性):              Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* __name__ (type 的屬性):                Special attributes. (line   10)
* __name__ (typing.NewType 的屬性):      Other special directives.
                                                             (line  104)
* __name__ (typing.ParamSpec 的屬性):    Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  383)
* __name__ (typing.TypeAliasType 的屬性): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  445)
* __name__ (typing.TypeVar 的屬性):      Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  154)
* __name__ (typing.TypeVarTuple 的屬性): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  302)
* __name__ （函式屬性）:                 特殊可寫屬性.       (line    6)
* __name__ （方法屬性）:                 Instance methods.   (line    9)
* __name__ （模組屬性）:                 模組<2>.            (line   21)
* __name__ （類別屬性）:                 Special attributes. (line    6)
* __name__（模組屬性）:                  模組物件.           (line   25)
* __name__（模組屬性） <1>:              模組物件.           (line   61)
* __ne__() (email.charset.Charset 的方法): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line  153)
* __ne__() (email.header.Header 的方法): email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line  175)
* __ne__() (object 的方法):              Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __ne__() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* __ne__()（實例方法）:                  比較運算.           (line   46)
* __neg__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  108)
* __neg__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  122)
* __new__() (enum.Enum 的方法):          資料型別<2>.        (line  254)
* __new__() (object 的方法):             Basic customization.
                                                             (line    6)
* __next__() (csv.csvreader 的方法):     讀取器物件.         (line    9)
* __next__() (generator 的方法):         Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   12)
* __next__() (iterator 的方法):          疊代器型別.         (line   28)
* __not__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   43)
* __notes__ (BaseException 的屬性):      基底類別 base classes.
                                                             (line   49)
* __notes__ (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   66)
* __objclass__ (object 的屬性):          Implementing Descriptors.
                                                             (line   50)
* __optional_keys__ (typing.TypedDict 的屬性): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  391)
* __or__() (enum.Flag 的方法):           資料型別<2>.        (line  432)
* __or__() (object 的方法):              Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __or__() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  127)
* __origin__ (genericalias 的屬性):      GenericAlias 物件的特殊屬性.
                                                             (line    8)
* __package__ (module attribute):        模組<2>.            (line   21)
* __package__ (module 的屬性):           Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* __package__（模組屬性）:               模組物件.           (line   25)
* __parameters__ (genericalias 的屬性):  GenericAlias 物件的特殊屬性.
                                                             (line   23)
* __path__ (module attribute):           模組<2>.            (line   21)
* __path__ (module 的屬性):              Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  120)
* __pos__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  108)
* __pos__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  132)
* __post_init__() (於 dataclasses 模組中): Post-init processing.
                                                             (line    6)
* __pow__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __pow__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  137)
* __prepare__ （元類別方法）:            Preparing the class namespace.
                                                             (line    6)
* __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__:                   PyConfig.           (line  176)
* __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>:               PyConfig.           (line  675)
* __qualname__ (definition 的屬性):      特殊屬性.           (line   15)
* __qualname__ (function 的屬性):        特殊可寫屬性.       (line   20)
* __qualname__ (type 的屬性):            Special attributes. (line   14)
* __radd__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rand__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rdivmod__() (object 的方法):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __reduce__() (object 的方法):          Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line  124)
* __reduce_ex__() (object 的方法):       Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line  179)
* __release_buffer__() (object 的方法):  Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   25)
* __repr__() (enum.Enum 的方法):         資料型別<2>.        (line  270)
* __repr__() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy 的方法): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line  145)
* __repr__() (netrc.netrc 的方法):       netrc 物件.         (line   14)
* __repr__() (object 的方法):            Basic customization.
                                                             (line  114)
* __required_keys__ (typing.TypedDict 的屬性): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  387)
* __reversed__() (enum.EnumType 的方法): 資料型別<2>.        (line  104)
* __reversed__() (object 的方法):        Emulating container types.
                                                             (line  129)
* __rfloordiv__() (object 的方法):       Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rlshift__() (object 的方法):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rmatmul__() (object 的方法):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rmod__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rmul__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __ror__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __round__() (fractions.Fraction 的方法): fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line  189)
* __round__() (object 的方法):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  138)
* __rpow__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rrshift__() (object 的方法):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rshift__() (object 的方法):          Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __rshift__() (於 operator 模組中):     operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  142)
* __rsub__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rtruediv__() (object 的方法):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rxor__() (object 的方法):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __self__ (method 的屬性):              Instance methods.   (line   11)
* __self__ （方法屬性）:                 Instance methods.   (line    9)
* __set__() (object 的方法):             Implementing Descriptors.
                                                             (line   33)
* __set_name__() (object 的方法):        Customizing class creation.
                                                             (line   47)
* __setattr__() (object 的方法):         Customizing attribute access.
                                                             (line   54)
* __setitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  202)
* __setitem__() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  319)
* __setitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法): Mailbox 物件.      (line   90)
* __setitem__() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法): Mailbox 物件<2>.   (line   92)
* __setitem__() (object 的方法):         Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   99)
* __setitem__() (於 operator 模組中):    operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  192)
* __setstate__() (object 的方法):        Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   88)
* __setstate__()（copy 協定）:           Handling Stateful Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* __slots__:                             術語表.             (line 1098)
* __spec__ (module attribute):           模組<2>.            (line   21)
* __spec__ (module 的屬性):              Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* __stderr__ (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1793)
* __stdin__ (於 sys 模組中):             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1793)
* __stdout__ (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1793)
* __str__() (datetime.date 的方法):      date 物件.          (line  261)
* __str__() (datetime.datetime 的方法):  datetime 物件.      (line  707)
* __str__() (datetime.time 的方法):      time 物件.          (line  215)
* __str__() (email.charset.Charset 的方法): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line  143)
* __str__() (email.header.Header 的方法): email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line  158)
* __str__() (email.headerregistry.Address 的方法): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  447)
* __str__() (email.headerregistry.Group 的方法): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  481)
* __str__() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line   94)
* __str__() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  100)
* __str__() (enum.Enum 的方法):          資料型別<2>.        (line  286)
* __str__() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy 的方法): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line  149)
* __str__() (object 的方法):             Basic customization.
                                                             (line  131)
* __sub__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __sub__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  147)
* __subclasscheck__() (type 的方法):     Customizing instance and subclass checks.
                                                             (line   21)
* __subclasses__() (type 的方法):        Special methods.    (line   15)
* __subclasshook__() (abc.ABCMeta 的方法): abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   81)
* __supertype__ (typing.NewType 的屬性): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  108)
* __suppress_context__ (BaseException 的屬性): 例外的情境.   (line    8)
* __suppress_context__ (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   61)
* __suppress_context__（例外屬性）:      例外的情境.         (line    6)
* __total__ (typing.TypedDict 的屬性):   Other special directives.
                                                             (line  362)
* __traceback__ (BaseException 的屬性):  基底類別 base classes.
                                                             (line   37)
* __traceback__（例外屬性）:             raise 陳述式.       (line    6)
* __truediv__() (importlib.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  533)
* __truediv__() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  136)
* __truediv__() (object 的方法):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __truediv__() (於 operator 模組中):    operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  152)
* __trunc__() (object 的方法):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  138)
* __type_params__ (definition 的屬性):   特殊屬性.           (line   31)
* __type_params__ (function 的屬性):     特殊可寫屬性.       (line   55)
* __type_params__ (type 的屬性):         Special attributes. (line   52)
* __type_params__ (typing.TypeAliasType 的屬性): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  461)
* __type_params__ （函式屬性）:          特殊可寫屬性.       (line    6)
* __type_params__ （類別屬性）:          Special attributes. (line    6)
* __unpacked__ (genericalias 的屬性):    GenericAlias 物件的特殊屬性.
                                                             (line   38)
* __unraisablehook__ (於 sys 模組中):    sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  404)
* __value__ (typing.TypeAliasType 的屬性): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  473)
* __version__ (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line   20)
* __xor__() (enum.Flag 的方法):          資料型別<2>.        (line  448)
* __xor__() (object 的方法):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __xor__() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  157)
* _, identifiers（識別器）:              軟關鍵字.           (line   22)
* _anonymous_ (ctypes.Structure 的屬性): Structured data types.
                                                             (line   87)
* _asdict() (collections.somenamedtuple 的方法): namedtuple 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式.
                                                             (line   98)
* _b_base_ (ctypes._CData 的屬性):       Data types.         (line   71)
* _b_needsfree_ (ctypes._CData 的屬性):  Data types.         (line   78)
* _callmethod() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy 的方法): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* _CData (ctypes 中的類別):              Data types.         (line    6)
* _CFuncPtr (ctypes 中的類別):           Foreign functions.  (line   22)
* _clear_type_cache() (於 sys 模組中):   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  179)
* _current_exceptions() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  207)
* _current_frames() (於 sys 模組中):     sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  188)
* _debugmallocstats() (於 sys 模組中):   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  263)
* _emscripten_info (於 sys 模組中):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  327)
* _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1707)
* _enter_task() (於 asyncio 模組中):     Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   22)
* _exit() (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line  122)
* _Feature (__future__ 中的類別):        模組內容<9>.        (line   48)
* _field_defaults (collections.somenamedtuple 的屬性): namedtuple 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式.
                                                             (line  138)
* _fields (ast.AST 的屬性):              節點 Node 類別.     (line   18)
* _fields (collections.somenamedtuple 的屬性): namedtuple 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式.
                                                             (line  125)
* _fields_ (ctypes.Structure 的屬性):    Structured data types.
                                                             (line   43)
* _flush() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的方法): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line   99)
* _frozen (C struct):                    引入模組<2>.        (line  245)
* _generate_next_value_() (enum.Enum 的方法): 資料型別<2>.   (line  187)
* _get_child_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.  (line  280)
* _get_preferred_schemes() (於 sysconfig 模組中): 安裝路徑函式.
                                                             (line   41)
* _getframe() (於 sys 模組中):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  856)
* _getframemodulename() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  870)
* _getvalue() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy 的方法): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line  138)
* _handle (ctypes.PyDLL 的屬性):         Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  154)
* _ignore_ (enum.Enum 的屬性):           資料型別<2>.        (line  159)
* _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions() (於 importlib.util 模組中): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  168)
* _inittab (C struct):                   引入模組<2>.        (line  281)
* _inittab.initfunc (C member):          引入模組<2>.        (line  293)
* _inittab.name (C member):              引入模組<2>.        (line  289)
* _leave_task() (於 asyncio 模組中):     Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   30)
* _length_ (ctypes.Array 的屬性):        Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   18)
* _log (logging.LoggerAdapter 的屬性):   LoggerAdapter 物件. (line   29)
* _make() (collections.somenamedtuple 的類別方法): namedtuple 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式.
                                                             (line   90)
* _makeResult() (unittest.TextTestRunner 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  491)
* _missing_() (enum.Enum 的方法):        資料型別<2>.        (line  232)
* _name (ctypes.PyDLL 的屬性):           Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  158)
* _name_ (enum.Enum 的屬性):             資料型別<2>.        (line  147)
* _numeric_repr_() (enum.Flag 的方法):   資料型別<2>.        (line  468)
* _objects (ctypes._CData 的屬性):       Data types.         (line   83)
* _order_ (enum.Enum 的屬性):            資料型別<2>.        (line  155)
* _pack_ (ctypes.Structure 的屬性):      Structured data types.
                                                             (line   79)
* _parse() (gettext.NullTranslations 的方法): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   21)
* _Pointer (ctypes 中的類別):            Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   31)
* _Py_c_diff (C function):               作為 C 結構的複數.  (line   30)
* _Py_c_neg (C function):                作為 C 結構的複數.  (line   35)
* _Py_c_pow (C function):                作為 C 結構的複數.  (line   52)
* _Py_c_prod (C function):               作為 C 結構的複數.  (line   40)
* _Py_c_quot (C function):               作為 C 結構的複數.  (line   45)
* _Py_c_sum (C function):                作為 C 結構的複數.  (line   25)
* _Py_InitializeMain (C function):       Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line   44)
* _Py_NoneStruct (C var):                在 heap 上分配物件. (line   51)
* _PyBytes_Resize (C function):          位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line  176)
* _PyCFunctionFast (C type):             實作函式與方法.     (line   29)
* _PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords (C type): 實作函式與方法.     (line   38)
* _PyCode_GetExtra（C 函式）:            Extra information.  (line   45)
* _PyCode_SetExtra（C 函式）:            Extra information.  (line   58)
* _PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex（C 函式）: Extra information.
                                                             (line   29)
* _PyFrameEvalFunction (C type):         低階 API.           (line  147)
* _PyInterpreterFrame (C struct):        Internal Frames.    (line    8)
* _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (C function): 低階 API.
                                                             (line  161)
* _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc (C function): 低階 API.
                                                             (line  171)
* _PyObject_GetDictPtr (C function):     物件協定.           (line  167)
* _PyObject_New (C function):            在 heap 上分配物件. (line    6)
* _PyObject_NewVar (C function):         在 heap 上分配物件. (line    9)
* _PyTuple_Resize (C function):          Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   96)
* _register_task() (於 asyncio 模組中):  Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   10)
* _replace() (collections.somenamedtuple 的方法): namedtuple 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式.
                                                             (line  114)
* _setroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 的方法): ElementTree 物件.
                                                             (line   15)
* _SimpleCData (ctypes 中的類別):        Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* _structure() (於 email.iterators 模組中): email iterators：疊代器.
                                                             (line   44)
* _type_ (ctypes._Pointer 的屬性):       Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   46)
* _type_ (ctypes.Array 的屬性):          Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   24)
* _unregister_task() (於 asyncio 模組中): Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   16)
* _value_ (enum.Enum 的屬性):            資料型別<2>.        (line  151)
* _write() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的方法): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line   93)
* _xoptions (於 sys 模組中):             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1976)
* - （減號）;binary operator（二元運算子）: Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   83)
* - （減號）;binary operator（二元運算子） <1>: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* - （減號）;unary operator（一元運算子）: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* - （減號）;unary operator（一元運算子） <1>: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* - （減號）;於 doctests 中:             可選旗標.           (line  171)
* - （減號）;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中:   glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line   10)
* - （減號）;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中 <1>: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line   15)
* - （減號）;於 printf 風格格式化:       printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   66)
* - （減號）;於 printf 風格格式化 <1>:   printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   63)
* - （減號）;於字串格式化:               格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   61)
* - （減號）;於正規表示式中:             正規表示式語法.     (line  178)
* -=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:   Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* ->;function annotations（函式註釋）:   函式註釋 Function Annotations.
                                                             (line    6)
* ->;function annotations（函式註釋） <1>: 函式定義.         (line  107)
* , （逗號）:                            Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line   20)
* , （逗號）;argument list（引數列表）:  Slicings.           (line   38)
* , （逗號）;expression list（表達式列表）: 類別定義.        (line    6)
* , （逗號）;expression list（運算式串列）: List displays.   (line    6)
* , （逗號）;expression list（運算式串列） <1>: Set displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* , （逗號）;expression list（運算式串列） <2>: Expression lists.
                                                             (line    6)
* , （逗號）;expression list（運算式列表）: assert 陳述式.   (line    6)
* , （逗號）;identifier list（識別符號清單）: global 陳述式. (line    6)
* , （逗號）;identifier list（識別符號清單） <1>: nonlocal 陳述式.
                                                             (line    6)
* , （逗號）;import statement（引入陳述式）: import 陳述式.  (line    6)
* , （逗號）;parameter list（參數列表）: 函式定義.           (line    6)
* , （逗號）;slicing（切片）:            Slicings.           (line    6)
* , （逗號）;with statement（with 陳述式）: The with statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* , （逗號）;於字串格式化:               格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   93)
* , （逗號）;於字典顯示:                 Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* , （逗號）;於目標列表中:               Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   35)
* ; （冒號）;annotated variable（註釋變數）: Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;compound statement（複合陳述式）: The if statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;compound statement（複合陳述式） <1>: The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;compound statement（複合陳述式） <2>: The for statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;compound statement（複合陳述式） <3>: The try statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;compound statement（複合陳述式） <4>: The with statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;compound statement（複合陳述式） <5>: The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;compound statement（複合陳述式） <6>: 函式定義. (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;compound statement（複合陳述式） <7>: 類別定義. (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;function annotations（函式註釋）: 函式註釋 Function Annotations.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;function annotations（函式註釋） <1>: 函式定義. (line  107)
* ; （冒號）;lambda expression（lambda 運算式）: Lambdas.    (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;path separator (POSIX)（路徑分隔器 (POSIX)）: Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  118)
* ; （冒號）;slicing（切片）:            Slicings.           (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;於 SQL 陳述式中:            Cursor 物件.        (line   24)
* ; （冒號）;於字串格式化:               格式化文字語法.     (line   13)
* ; （冒號）;於字典運算式:               Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; （冒號）;於格式化字串常數中:         String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* ; （分號）:                            複合陳述式.         (line   18)
* ; （分號） <1>:                        Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  118)
* ;= （冒號等於）:                       Boolean operations. (line   38)
* ! (pdb command):                       Debugger Commands.  (line  378)
* ! （驚嘆號）;於 command interpreter（指令直譯器）中: Cmd 物件.
                                                             (line   27)
* ! （驚嘆號）;於 curses 模組中:         curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  229)
* ! （驚嘆號）;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中: glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line   10)
* ! （驚嘆號）;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中 <1>: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line   15)
* ! （驚嘆號）;於 struct format strings（結構格式字串）: Byte Order Size and Alignment.
                                                             (line   13)
* ! （驚嘆號）;於字串格式化:             格式化文字語法.     (line   13)
* ! （驚嘆號）;於格式化字串常數中:       String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* ! patterns:                            Patterns.           (line    6)
* ? （問號）;replacement character（替代字元）: Error Handlers.
                                                             (line   15)
* ? （問號）;於 argparse 模組中:         nargs.              (line   24)
* ? （問號）;於 AST 文法中:              節點 Node 類別.     (line   18)
* ? （問號）;於 command interpreter（指令直譯器）中: Cmd 物件.
                                                             (line   27)
* ? （問號）;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中:   glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line   10)
* ? （問號）;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中 <1>: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line   15)
* ? （問號）;於 SQL 陳述式中:            Cursor 物件.        (line   24)
* ? （問號）;於 struct format strings（結構格式字串）: Format Characters.
                                                             (line   86)
* ? （問號）;於 struct format strings（結構格式字串） <1>: Format Characters.
                                                             (line  168)
* ? （問號）;於正規表示式中:             正規表示式語法.     (line   81)
* ??;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line   86)
* ?+;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line   96)
* . （點）;attribute reference（屬性參照）: Attribute references.
                                                             (line    6)
* . （點）;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中:     glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line   10)
* . （點）;於 pathnames（路徑名稱）中:   Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   84)
* . （點）;於 pathnames（路徑名稱）中 <1>: Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  112)
* . （點）;於 printf 風格格式化:         printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   26)
* . （點）;於 printf 風格格式化 <1>:     printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   23)
* . （點）;於字串格式化:                 格式化文字語法.     (line   13)
* . （點）;於數值常數中:                 Integer literals.   (line   40)
* . （點）;於正規表示式中:               正規表示式語法.     (line   46)
* ..;於 pathnames（路徑名稱）中:         Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   90)
* ...:                                   術語表.             (line    9)
* ...;ellipsis literal（刪節號）:        Ellipsis.           (line    6)
* ...;ellipsis literal（刪節號） <1>:    內建常數.           (line   53)
* ...;ellipsis literal（刪節號） <2>:    The Null Object.    (line   12)
* ...;interpreter prompt（直譯器提示）:  How are Docstring Examples Recognized?.
                                                             (line   26)
* ...;interpreter prompt（直譯器提示） <1>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1408)
* ...;placeholder（佔位符號）:           textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  277)
* ...;placeholder（佔位符號） <1>:       PrettyPrinter 物件. (line    6)
* ...;placeholder（佔位符號） <2>:       reprlib --- repr 的替代實作.
                                                             (line   60)
* ...;於 doctests 中:                    可選旗標.           (line   49)
* .ini;file（檔案）:                     configparser --- 設定檔剖析器.
                                                             (line    8)
* .pdbrc;file（檔案）:                   Debugger Commands.  (line   56)
* ' （單引號）;string literal（字串常數）: Literals.         (line    8)
* ''';string literal（字串常數）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   36)
* " （雙引號）;string literal（字串常數）: Literals.         (line    8)
* """;string literal（字串常數）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   36)
* (?;;於正規表示式中:                    正規表示式語法.     (line  281)
* (?;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  242)
* (?!;於正規表示式中:                    正規表示式語法.     (line  398)
* (?(;於正規表示式中:                    正規表示式語法.     (line  441)
* (?#;於正規表示式中:                    正規表示式語法.     (line  387)
* (?<!;於正規表示式中:                   正規表示式語法.     (line  432)
* (?<=;於正規表示式中:                   正規表示式語法.     (line  404)
* (?=;於正規表示式中:                    正規表示式語法.     (line  391)
* (?P<;於正規表示式中:                   正規表示式語法.     (line  344)
* (?P=;於正規表示式中:                   正規表示式語法.     (line  382)
* () （圓括號）;call（呼叫）:            Slicings.           (line   38)
* () （圓括號）;class definition（類別定義）: 類別定義.      (line    6)
* () （圓括號）;function definition（函式定義）: 函式定義.   (line    6)
* () （圓括號）;generator expression（產生器運算式）: Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* () （圓括號）;tuple display:           Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line    6)
* () （圓括號）;於 printf 風格格式化:    printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   26)
* () （圓括號）;於 printf 風格格式化 <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   23)
* () （圓括號）;於正規表示式中:          正規表示式語法.     (line  233)
* () （圓括號）;於賦值目標列表中:        Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   35)
* [] （方括號）;list expression（串列運算式）: List displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* [] （方括號）;subscription（下標）:    Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* [] （方括號）;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中: glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line   10)
* [] （方括號）;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中 <1>: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line   15)
* [] （方括號）;於字串格式化:            格式化文字語法.     (line   13)
* [] （方括號）;於正規表示式中:          正規表示式語法.     (line  171)
* [] （方括號）;於賦值目標列表中:        Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   35)
* {} （花括號）;dictionary expression（字典運算式）: Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* {} （花括號）;set expression（集合運算式）: Set displays.  (line    6)
* {} （花括號）;於字串格式化:            格式化文字語法.     (line   13)
* {} （花括號）;於格式化字串常數中:      String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* {} （花括號）;於正規表示式中:          正規表示式語法.     (line  115)
* @ （在）;class definition（類別定義）: 類別定義.           (line   44)
* @ （在）;function definition（函式定義）: 函式定義.        (line   33)
* @ （在）;於 struct format strings（結構格式字串）: Byte Order Size and Alignment.
                                                             (line   13)
* * （星號）;function definition（函式定義）: 函式定義.      (line   91)
* * （星號）;import statement（引入陳述式）: import 陳述式.  (line   80)
* * （星號）;於 argparse 模組中:         nargs.              (line   57)
* * （星號）;於 AST 文法中:              節點 Node 類別.     (line   18)
* * （星號）;於 expression list（運算式串列）: Expression lists.
                                                             (line   18)
* * （星號）;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中:   glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line   10)
* * （星號）;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中 <1>: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line   15)
* * （星號）;於 printf 風格格式化:       printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   26)
* * （星號）;於 printf 風格格式化 <1>:   printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   23)
* * （星號）;於函式呼叫中:               任意引數列表 Arbitrary Argument Lists.
                                                             (line    6)
* * （星號）;於函式呼叫中 <1>:           Calls.              (line   72)
* * （星號）;於正規表示式中:             正規表示式語法.     (line   69)
* * （星號）;於賦值目標列表中:           Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   35)
* *?;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line   86)
* **;function definition（函式定義）:    函式定義.           (line   91)
* **;於 glob 風格的萬用字元中:           glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line   47)
* **;於函式呼叫中:                       拆解引數列表（Unpacking Argument Lists）.
                                                             (line   17)
* **;於函式呼叫中 <1>:                   Calls.              (line   99)
* **;於字典顯示:                         Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   23)
* **=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:  Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* *+;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line   96)
* *=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:   Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* / （斜線）;function definition（函式定義）: 函式定義.      (line   91)
* / （斜線）;於 pathnames（路徑名稱）中: Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   96)
* / （斜線）;於 pathnames（路徑名稱）中 <1>: Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  105)
* //=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:  Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* /=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:   Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* \ （反斜線）;escape sequence（跳脫序列）: String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \ （反斜線）;escape sequence（跳脫序列） <1>: Error Handlers.
                                                             (line   15)
* \ （反斜線）;in pathnames (Windows)（在路徑名稱中 (Windows)）: Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   96)
* \ （反斜線）;於正規表示式中:           正規表示式語法.     (line  156)
* \ （反斜線）;於正規表示式中 <1>:       正規表示式語法.     (line  190)
* \ （反斜線）;於正規表示式中 <2>:       正規表示式語法.     (line  460)
* \\;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \\;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \a;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \A;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  472)
* \a;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \b;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \b;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  476)
* \B;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  494)
* \b;於正規表示式中 <1>:                 正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \d;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  510)
* \D;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  525)
* \f;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \f;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \g;於正規表示式中:                     Functions.          (line  208)
* \n;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \N;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \N;escape sequence（跳脫序列） <1>:    Error Handlers.     (line   54)
* \n;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \N;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \r;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \r;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \s;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  532)
* \S;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  548)
* \t;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \t;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \u;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \U;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \u;escape sequence（跳脫序列） <1>:    Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* \U;escape sequence（跳脫序列） <1>:    Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* \u;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \U;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \v;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \v;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \w;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  555)
* \W;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  572)
* \x;escape sequence（跳脫序列）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \x;escape sequence（跳脫序列） <1>:    Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* \x;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  587)
* \Z;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line  583)
* &=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:   Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* # (hash);comment（註解）:              一個非正式的 Python 簡介.
                                                             (line   12)
* # （井字號）;comment（註解）:          Comments.           (line    6)
* # （井字號）;comment（註解） <1>:      site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   46)
* # （井字號）;source encoding declaration（原始編碼宣告）: Encoding declarations.
                                                             (line    6)
* # （井字號）;於 doctests 中:           可選旗標.           (line  172)
* # （井字號）;於 printf 風格格式化:     printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   66)
* # （井字號）;於 printf 風格格式化 <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   63)
* # （井字號）;於字串格式化:             格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   81)
* # （井字號）;於正規表示式中:           旗標.               (line  129)
* % （百分號）;datetime format（日期時間格式）: timezone 物件.
                                                             (line   71)
* % （百分號）;datetime format（日期時間格式） <1>: 函式<4>. (line  241)
* % （百分號）;datetime format（日期時間格式） <2>: 函式<4>. (line  389)
* % （百分號）;environment variables expansion (Windows) （環境變數展開 (Windows)）: 函式<12>.
                                                             (line  228)
* % （百分號）;environment variables expansion (Windows)（環境變數展開 (Windows)）: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  136)
* % （百分號）;interpolation in configuration files（設定檔中的插值）: Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   10)
* % （百分號）;printf 風格格式化:        printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* % （百分號）;printf 風格格式化 <1>:    printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* %=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:   Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* %APPDATA%:                             Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line   13)
* ^ （插入符號）;marker（標記）:         What About Exceptions?.
                                                             (line   93)
* ^ （插入符號）;marker（標記） <1>:     Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* ^ （插入符號）;於 curses 模組中:       curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  229)
* ^ （插入符號）;於字串格式化:           格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   35)
* ^ （插入符號）;於正規表示式中:         正規表示式語法.     (line   53)
* ^ （插入符號）;於正規表示式中 <1>:     正規表示式語法.     (line  194)
* ^=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:   Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* + （加號）;binary operator（二元運算子）: Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   74)
* + （加號）;binary operator（二元運算子） <1>: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* + （加號）;unary operator（一元運算子）: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* + （加號）;unary operator（一元運算子） <1>: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* + （加號）;於 argparse 模組中:         nargs.              (line   69)
* + （加號）;於 doctests 中:             可選旗標.           (line  172)
* + （加號）;於 printf 風格格式化:       printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   66)
* + （加號）;於 printf 風格格式化 <1>:   printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   63)
* + （加號）;於字串格式化:               格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   61)
* + （加號）;於正規表示式中:             正規表示式語法.     (line   75)
* +?;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line   86)
* ++;於正規表示式中:                     正規表示式語法.     (line   96)
* +=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:   Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* < （小於）;於 struct format strings（結構格式字串）: Byte Order Size and Alignment.
                                                             (line   13)
* < （小於）;於字串格式化:               格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   35)
* <<=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:  Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* <BLANKLINE>:                           可選旗標.           (line   30)
* = （等於）;assignment statement（賦值陳述式）: Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* = （等於）;class definition（類別定義）: Metaclasses.      (line    6)
* = （等於）;for help in debugging using string literals（使用字串常數進行除錯）: String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* = （等於）;function definition（函式定義）: 函式定義.      (line   66)
* = （等於）;於 struct format strings（結構格式字串）: Byte Order Size and Alignment.
                                                             (line   13)
* = （等於）;於函式呼叫中:               Slicings.           (line   37)
* = （等於）;於字串格式化:               格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   35)
* > （大於）;於 struct format strings（結構格式字串）: Byte Order Size and Alignment.
                                                             (line   13)
* > （大於）;於字串格式化:               格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   35)
* >>=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:  Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* >>>:                                   術語表.             (line    6)
* >>>;interpreter prompt（直譯器提示）:  How are Docstring Examples Recognized?.
                                                             (line   26)
* >>>;interpreter prompt（直譯器提示） <1>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1408)
* | （垂直線）;於正規表示式中:           正規表示式語法.     (line  220)
* |=;augmented assignment（增強賦值）:   Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* ~ （波浪號）;home directory expansion（家目錄展開）: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  114)
* $ （金錢符號）;environment variables expansion（環境變數展開）: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  136)
* $ （金錢符號）;interpolation in configuration files（設定檔中的插值）: Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   41)
* $ （金錢符號）;於 template strings（模板字串）: 模板字串.  (line   11)
* $ （金錢符號）;於正規表示式中:         正規表示式語法.     (line   58)
* 0b;integer literal（整數常數）:        Numeric literals.   (line   14)
* 0o;integer literal（整數常數）:        Numeric literals.   (line   14)
* 0x;integer literal（整數常數）:        Numeric literals.   (line   14)
* 2-digit years（2 位數年份）:           time --- 時間存取與轉換.
                                                             (line   28)
* 2to3:                                  術語表.             (line   21)
* A (於 re 模組中):                      旗標.               (line   16)
* A_ALTCHARSET (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line   67)
* A_ATTRIBUTES (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  128)
* A_BLINK (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line   70)
* A_BOLD (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line   73)
* A_CHARTEXT (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  131)
* A_COLOR (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  134)
* A_DIM (於 curses 模組中):              Constants.          (line   76)
* A_HORIZONTAL (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  101)
* A_INVIS (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line   79)
* A_ITALIC (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line   82)
* A_LEFT (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  104)
* A_LOW (於 curses 模組中):              Constants.          (line  107)
* A_NORMAL (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line   85)
* A_PROTECT (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line   88)
* A_REVERSE (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line   91)
* A_RIGHT (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  110)
* A_STANDOUT (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line   95)
* A_TOP (於 curses 模組中):              Constants.          (line  113)
* A_UNDERLINE (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line   98)
* A_VERTICAL (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  116)
* A-LAW:                                 aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  163)
* a-LAW:                                 audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   20)
* A-LAW <1>:                             sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別.
                                                             (line    8)
* a2b_base64() (於 binascii 模組中):     binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line   40)
* a2b_hex() (於 binascii 模組中):        binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line  143)
* a2b_qp() (於 binascii 模組中):         binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line   70)
* a2b_uu() (於 binascii 模組中):         binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line   25)
* a85decode() (於 base64 模組中):        base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  170)
* a85encode() (於 base64 模組中):        base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  149)
* ABC (abc 中的類別):                    abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   23)
* ABCMeta (abc 中的類別):                abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   46)
* ABDAY_1 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_2 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_3 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_4 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_5 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_6 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_7 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  226)
* abiflags (於 sys 模組中):              sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line   12)
* ABMON_1 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_10 (於 locale 模組中):           locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_11 (於 locale 模組中):           locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_12 (於 locale 模組中):           locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_2 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_3 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_4 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_5 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_6 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_7 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_8 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_9 (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABORT (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中):  tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  127)
* abort() (asyncio.Barrier 的方法):      Barrier.            (line   87)
* abort() (asyncio.DatagramTransport 的方法): Datagram Transports.
                                                             (line   15)
* abort() (asyncio.WriteTransport 的方法): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* abort() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):           FTP 物件.           (line  134)
* abort() (threading.Barrier 的方法):    Barrier Objects.    (line   82)
* abort() (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line   16)
* abort（C 函式）:                       行程控制.           (line    7)
* ABORTRETRYIGNORE (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  142)
* ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   52)
* above() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法):   Panel Objects.      (line   13)
* abs() (decimal.Context 的方法):        Context objects.    (line  249)
* abs() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   65)
* absolute() (pathlib.Path 的方法):      Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   37)
* AbsoluteLinkError:                     tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  251)
* AbsolutePathError:                     tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  237)
* abspath() (於 os.path 模組中):         os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line   43)
* abstract base class（抽象基底類別）:   術語表.             (line   30)
* AbstractAsyncContextManager (contextlib 中的類別): Utilities.
                                                             (line   19)
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  311)
* AbstractChildWatcher (asyncio 中的類別): Process Watchers. (line   43)
* abstractclassmethod() (於 abc 模組中): abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  212)
* AbstractContextManager (contextlib 中的類別): Utilities.   (line    8)
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  349)
* AbstractEventLoop (asyncio 中的類別):  事件迴圈實作.       (line   42)
* AbstractEventLoopPolicy (asyncio 中的類別): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* abstractmethod() (於 abc 模組中):      abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  146)
* abstractproperty() (於 abc 模組中):    abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  250)
* AbstractSet (typing 中的類別):         collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line    6)
* abstractstaticmethod() (於 abc 模組中): abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  231)
* accept() (multiprocessing.connection.Listener 的方法): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   84)
* accept() (socket.socket 的方法):       Socket 物件.        (line   13)
* access() (於 os 模組中):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line   51)
* accumulate() (於 itertools 模組中):    Itertool 函式.      (line    9)
* ACK (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   37)
* aclose() (agen 的方法):                Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   60)
* aclose() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack 的方法): Utilities.    (line  650)
* aclosing() (於 contextlib 模組中):     Utilities.          (line  188)
* acos() (於 cmath 模組中):              三角函數.           (line    6)
* acos() (於 math 模組中):               Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* acosh() (於 cmath 模組中):             雙曲函數.           (line    6)
* acosh() (於 math 模組中):              Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* acquire() (_thread.lock 的方法):       _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line  118)
* acquire() (asyncio.Condition 的方法):  Condition.          (line   41)
* acquire() (asyncio.Lock 的方法):       Lock.               (line   34)
* acquire() (asyncio.Semaphore 的方法):  Semaphore.          (line   39)
* acquire() (logging.Handler 的方法):    Handler Objects.    (line   26)
* acquire() (multiprocessing.Lock 的方法): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   63)
* acquire() (multiprocessing.RLock 的方法): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  117)
* acquire() (threading.Condition 的方法): Condition Objects. (line   85)
* acquire() (threading.Lock 的方法):     Lock Objects.       (line   43)
* acquire() (threading.RLock 的方法):    RLock 物件.         (line   44)
* acquire() (threading.Semaphore 的方法): Semaphore Objects. (line   34)
* ACS_BBSS (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  472)
* ACS_BLOCK (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  475)
* ACS_BOARD (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  478)
* ACS_BSBS (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  481)
* ACS_BSSB (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  484)
* ACS_BSSS (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  487)
* ACS_BTEE (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  490)
* ACS_BULLET (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  493)
* ACS_CKBOARD (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  496)
* ACS_DARROW (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  499)
* ACS_DEGREE (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  502)
* ACS_DIAMOND (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  505)
* ACS_GEQUAL (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  508)
* ACS_HLINE (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  511)
* ACS_LANTERN (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  514)
* ACS_LARROW (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  517)
* ACS_LEQUAL (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  520)
* ACS_LLCORNER (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  523)
* ACS_LRCORNER (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  526)
* ACS_LTEE (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  529)
* ACS_NEQUAL (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  532)
* ACS_PI (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  535)
* ACS_PLMINUS (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  538)
* ACS_PLUS (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  541)
* ACS_RARROW (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  544)
* ACS_RTEE (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  547)
* ACS_S1 (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  550)
* ACS_S3 (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  553)
* ACS_S7 (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  556)
* ACS_S9 (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  559)
* ACS_SBBS (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  562)
* ACS_SBSB (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  565)
* ACS_SBSS (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  568)
* ACS_SSBB (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  571)
* ACS_SSBS (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  574)
* ACS_SSSB (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  577)
* ACS_SSSS (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  580)
* ACS_STERLING (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  583)
* ACS_TTEE (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  586)
* ACS_UARROW (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  589)
* ACS_ULCORNER (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  592)
* ACS_URCORNER (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  595)
* ACS_VLINE (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  598)
* Action (argparse 中的類別):            Action classes.     (line   11)
* action (optparse.Option 的屬性):       Option attributes.  (line   19)
* ACTIONS (optparse.Option 的屬性):      Adding new actions. (line   31)
* activate_stack_trampoline() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1673)
* active_children() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Miscellaneous<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* active_count() (於 threading 模組中):  threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line   52)
* actual() (tkinter.font.Font 的方法):   tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   46)
* Add (ast 中的類別):                    運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* add_alias() (於 email.charset 模組中): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line  191)
* add_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  637)
* add_argument_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Argument groups.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_argument() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): The add_argument method.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  649)
* add_cgi_vars() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的方法): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  115)
* add_charset() (於 email.charset 模組中): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line  162)
* add_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher 的方法): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   45)
* add_codec() (於 email.charset 模組中): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line  200)
* add_cookie_header() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 的方法): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line   11)
* add_data() (於 msilib 模組中):         msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line   76)
* add_dll_directory() (於 os 模組中):    行程管理.           (line   24)
* add_done_callback() (asyncio.Future 的方法): Future 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* add_done_callback() (asyncio.Task 的方法): Task Object.    (line  101)
* add_done_callback() (concurrent.futures.Future 的方法): Future 物件.
                                                             (line   55)
* add_fallback() (gettext.NullTranslations 的方法): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   28)
* add_file() (msilib.Directory 的方法):  Directory Objects.  (line   30)
* add_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 的方法): MaildirMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   76)
* add_flag() (mailbox.mboxMessage 的方法): mboxMessage 物件. (line   79)
* add_flag() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 的方法): MMDFMessage 物件. (line   78)
* add_folder() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法): Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line   72)
* add_folder() (mailbox.MH 的方法):      MH 物件.            (line   42)
* add_get_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager 的方法): email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容.
                                                             (line   75)
* add_handler() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector 的方法): OpenerDirector 物件.
                                                             (line    8)
* add_header() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  258)
* add_header() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  366)
* add_header() (urllib.request.Request 的方法): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* add_header() (wsgiref.headers.Headers 的方法): wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具.
                                                             (line   49)
* add_history() (於 readline 模組中):    History list.       (line   38)
* add_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage 的方法): BabylMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   55)
* add_mutually_exclusive_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Mutual exclusion.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_note() (BaseException 的方法):     基底類別 base classes.
                                                             (line   42)
* add_option() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): Defining options.
                                                             (line   14)
* add_parent() (urllib.request.BaseHandler 的方法): BaseHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   10)
* add_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr 的方法): HTTPPasswordMgr 物件.
                                                             (line    9)
* add_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 的方法): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件.
                                                             (line   10)
* add_reader() (asyncio.loop 的方法):    監視檔案描述器.     (line    6)
* add_related() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  624)
* add_section() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  109)
* add_section() (configparser.RawConfigParser 的方法): RawConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line   26)
* add_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage 的方法): MHMessage 物件. (line   41)
* add_set_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager 的方法): email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容.
                                                             (line   80)
* add_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop 的方法): Unix 訊號.     (line    6)
* add_stream() (於 msilib 模組中):       msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line  106)
* add_subparsers() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Sub-commands.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_tables() (於 msilib 模組中):       msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line   97)
* add_type() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 的方法): MimeTypes 物件.   (line   97)
* add_type() (於 mimetypes 模組中):      mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line  107)
* add_unredirected_header() (urllib.request.Request 的方法): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* add_writer() (asyncio.loop 的方法):    監視檔案描述器.     (line   16)
* add() (decimal.Context 的方法):        Context objects.    (line  253)
* add() (frozenset 的方法):              Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  195)
* add() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 的方法): graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能.
                                                             (line   72)
* add() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):        Mailbox 物件.       (line   59)
* add() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法):        Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line   92)
* add() (msilib.RadioButtonGroup 的方法): GUI classes.       (line   32)
* add() (pstats.Stats 的方法):           The Stats Class.    (line   49)
* add() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法):        TarFile 物件.       (line  261)
* add() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 的方法):   ttk Notebook.       (line    8)
* add() (於 audioop 模組中):             audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   34)
* add() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   70)
* addAsyncCleanup() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  875)
* addaudithook() (於 sys 模組中):        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line   25)
* addch() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line    9)
* addClassCleanup() (unittest.TestCase 的類別方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  802)
* addCleanup() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.       (line  762)
* addcomponent() (turtle.Shape 的方法):  Public classes.     (line   65)
* addDuration() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  438)
* addError() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  368)
* addExpectedFailure() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  404)
* addFailure() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  379)
* addfile() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法):    TarFile 物件.       (line  279)
* addFilter() (logging.Handler 的方法):  Handler Objects.    (line   52)
* addFilter() (logging.Logger 的方法):   Logger 物件.        (line  322)
* addHandler() (logging.Logger 的方法):  Logger 物件.        (line  339)
* addinfourl (urllib.response 中的類別): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   12)
* addition（加）:                        Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   74)
* addLevelName() (於 logging 模組中):    Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  128)
* addModuleCleanup() (於 unittest 模組中): setUpModule and tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   22)
* addnstr() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line   23)
* AddPackagePath() (於 modulefinder 模組中): modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組.
                                                             (line   14)
* addr_spec (email.headerregistry.Address 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  441)
* Address (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  403)
* address (email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  222)
* address (multiprocessing.connection.Listener 的屬性): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   99)
* address (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager 的屬性): Managers.
                                                             (line  137)
* address_exclude() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  160)
* address_exclude() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  342)
* address_family (socketserver.BaseServer 的屬性): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* address_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  331)
* addresses (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  195)
* addresses (email.headerregistry.Group 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  476)
* AddressHeader (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  180)
* addressof() (於 ctypes 模組中):        Utility functions.  (line    6)
* AddressValueError:                     Custom Exceptions.  (line    9)
* addshape() (於 turtle 模組中):         Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   70)
* addsitedir() (於 site 模組中):         模組內容<10>.       (line   50)
* addSkip() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  396)
* addstr() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line   31)
* addSubTest() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  422)
* addSuccess() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  390)
* addTest() (unittest.TestSuite 的方法): Grouping tests.     (line   25)
* addTests() (unittest.TestSuite 的方法): Grouping tests.    (line   30)
* addTypeEqualityFunc() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  579)
* addUnexpectedSuccess() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  414)
* adjust_int_max_str_digits() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  729)
* adjusted() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):   Decimal objects.    (line  113)
* adler32() (於 zlib 模組中):            zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line   25)
* ADPCM, Intel/DVI:                      audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   20)
* adpcm2lin() (於 audioop 模組中):       audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   41)
* AF_ALG (於 socket 模組中):             常數<7>.            (line  255)
* AF_CAN (於 socket 模組中):             常數<7>.            (line  121)
* AF_DIVERT (於 socket 模組中):          常數<7>.            (line  194)
* AF_HYPERV (於 socket 模組中):          常數<7>.            (line  337)
* AF_INET (於 socket 模組中):            常數<7>.            (line   11)
* AF_INET6 (於 socket 模組中):           常數<7>.            (line   11)
* AF_LINK (於 socket 模組中):            常數<7>.            (line  279)
* AF_PACKET (於 socket 模組中):          常數<7>.            (line  204)
* AF_QIPCRTR (於 socket 模組中):         常數<7>.            (line  307)
* AF_RDS (於 socket 模組中):             常數<7>.            (line  226)
* AF_UNIX (於 socket 模組中):            常數<7>.            (line   11)
* AF_UNSPEC (於 socket 模組中):          常數<7>.            (line   21)
* AF_VSOCK (於 socket 模組中):           常數<7>.            (line  266)
* aifc() (aifc.aifc 的方法):             aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  137)
* AIFF:                                  aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line    8)
* AIFF <1>:                              chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line    8)
* AIFF-C:                                aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line    8)
* AIFF-C <1>:                            chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line    8)
* aiff() (aifc.aifc 的方法):             aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  131)
* alarm() (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line  269)
* alaw2lin() (於 audioop 模組中):        audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   48)
* ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.
                                                             (line  446)
* ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>. (line  446)
* AlertDescription (ssl 中的類別):       常數<8>.            (line  459)
* algorithm (sys.hash_info 的屬性):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1002)
* algorithms_available (於 hashlib 模組中): 屬性.            (line   16)
* algorithms_guaranteed (於 hashlib 模組中): 屬性.           (line    8)
* alias (ast 中的類別):                  引入 imports.       (line   38)
* alias (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line  350)
* alignment() (於 ctypes 模組中):        Utility functions.  (line   13)
* alive (weakref.finalize 的屬性):       weakref --- 弱參照. (line  254)
* ALL_COMPLETED (於 asyncio 模組中):     Waiting Primitives. (line   45)
* ALL_COMPLETED (於 concurrent.futures 模組中): 模組函式.    (line   33)
* all_errors (於 ftplib 模組中):         模組變數.           (line   25)
* all_features (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   95)
* all_frames (tracemalloc.Filter 的屬性): Filter.            (line   58)
* all_properties (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line  127)
* all_suffixes() (於 importlib.machinery 模組中): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   54)
* all_tasks() (於 asyncio 模組中):       Introspection.      (line   16)
* allocate_lock() (於 _thread 模組中):   _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line   70)
* allocfunc (C type):                    Slot Type typedefs. (line    6)
* allow_reuse_address (socketserver.BaseServer 的屬性): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的方法): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   65)
* ALT_DIGITS (於 locale 模組中):         locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  331)
* alt() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):        curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  221)
* altsep (於 os 模組中):                 Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  105)
* altzone (於 time 模組中):              Timezone Constants. (line    6)
* ALWAYS_EQ (於 test.support 模組中):    test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  173)
* ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option 的屬性): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   43)
* AmbiguousOptionError:                  例外<16>.           (line   25)
* AMPER (於 token 模組中):               token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  102)
* AMPEREQUAL (於 token 模組中):          token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  190)
* Anchor (importlib.resources 中的類別): importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   45)
* anchor (pathlib.PurePath 的屬性):      方法與屬性.         (line   57)
* And (ast 中的類別):                    運算式<2>.          (line   85)
* and_() (於 operator 模組中):           operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   75)
* AnnAssign (ast 中的類別):              陳述式.             (line   41)
* Annotated (於 typing 模組中):          特別型式.           (line  214)
* annotated（註釋）;assignment（賦值）:  Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* annotation (inspect.Parameter 的屬性): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  207)
* annotation（註記）;type annotation（型別註記）；type hint（型別提示）: 型別註釋的型別 --- 泛型別名 Generic Alias 、聯合 Union.
                                                             (line    6)
* annotation（註釋）:                    術語表.             (line   44)
* anonymous（匿名）;function （函式）:   Lambdas.            (line    6)
* answer_challenge() (於 multiprocessing.connection 模組中): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   25)
* anticipate_failure() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  448)
* Any (於 typing 模組中):                特別型別.           (line    8)
* ANY (於 unittest.mock 模組中):         ANY.                (line    6)
* ANY_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性): Buffer flags. (line   29)
* AnyStr (於 typing 模組中):             特別型別.           (line   20)
* api_version (於 sys 模組中):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1934)
* apilevel (於 sqlite3 模組中):          Module constants.   (line   60)
* apop() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   42)
* APPDATA:                               PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   26)
* append_history_file() (於 readline 模組中): History file.  (line   20)
* append() (array.array 的方法):         array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  107)
* append() (collections.deque 的方法):   deque 物件.         (line   29)
* append() (email.header.Header 的方法): email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   96)
* append() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line   33)
* append() (msilib.CAB 的方法):          CAB 物件.           (line   15)
* append() (pipes.Template 的方法):      Template Objects.   (line   22)
* append() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line   87)
* append()（序列方法）:                  Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* appendChild() (xml.dom.Node 的方法):   Node Objects.       (line  115)
* appendleft() (collections.deque 的方法): deque 物件.       (line   33)
* application_uri() (於 wsgiref.util 模組中): wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line   28)
* apply (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line   10)
* apply_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 的方法): Process Pools.
                                                             (line   71)
* apply_defaults() (inspect.BoundArguments 的方法): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  349)
* apply() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 的方法): Process Pools. (line   63)
* APRIL (於 calendar 模組中):            calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* architecture() (於 platform 模組中):   跨平台.             (line    6)
* archive (zipimport.zipimporter 的屬性): zipimporter 物件.  (line   95)
* AREGTYPE (於 tarfile 模組中):          tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  267)
* aRepr (於 reprlib 模組中):             reprlib --- repr 的替代實作.
                                                             (line   43)
* arg (ast 中的類別):                    函式和類別定義.     (line   68)
* args (BaseException 的屬性):           基底類別 base classes.
                                                             (line   15)
* args (functools.partial 的屬性):       partial 物件.       (line   14)
* args (inspect.BoundArguments 的屬性):  Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  334)
* args (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  253)
* args (subprocess.CompletedProcess 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  105)
* args (subprocess.Popen 的屬性):        Popen Objects.      (line  101)
* args (typing.ParamSpec 的屬性):        Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  368)
* args_from_interpreter_flags() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  315)
* argtypes (ctypes._CFuncPtr 的屬性):    Foreign functions.  (line   46)
* argument（引數）:                      術語表.             (line   57)
* argument（引數）;call semantics（呼叫語意）: Slicings.     (line   38)
* argument（引數）;function definition（函式定義）: 函式定義.
                                                             (line   66)
* argument（引數）;與 parameter（參數）的差異: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?.
                                                             (line   17)
* ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter (argparse 中的類別): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* ArgumentError:                         Exceptions<2>.      (line    6)
* ArgumentError <1>:                     Foreign functions.  (line   94)
* ArgumentParser (argparse 中的類別):    ArgumentParser 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* arguments (ast 中的類別):              函式和類別定義.     (line   51)
* arguments (inspect.BoundArguments 的屬性): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  315)
* ArgumentTypeError:                     Exceptions<2>.      (line   14)
* argv (於 sys 模組中):                  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line   68)
* argv（sys 模組中）:                    Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  271)
* arithmetic;conversion:                 Arithmetic conversions.
                                                             (line    6)
* arithmetic（算術）:                    數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* ArithmeticError:                       基底類別 base classes.
                                                             (line   61)
* array (array 中的類別):                array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line   77)
* Array (ctypes 中的類別):               Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line    6)
* Array() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  212)
* Array() (於 multiprocessing 模組中):   共享的 ctypes 物件. (line   42)
* Array() (於 multiprocessing.sharedctypes 模組中): multiprocessing sharedctypes 模組.
                                                             (line   51)
* arrays（陣列）:                        array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line    6)
* arraysize (sqlite3.Cursor 的屬性):     Cursor 物件.        (line  170)
* article() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):       方法.               (line  241)
* AS pattern, OR pattern, capture pattern, wildcard pattern: Patterns.
                                                             (line    6)
* as_bytes() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  105)
* as_bytes() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  105)
* as_completed() (於 asyncio 模組中):    Waiting Primitives. (line   59)
* as_completed() (於 concurrent.futures 模組中): 模組函式.   (line   36)
* as_file() (於 importlib.resources 模組中): importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   73)
* as_integer_ratio() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  121)
* as_integer_ratio() (float 的方法):     浮點數的附加 methods.
                                                             (line    9)
* as_integer_ratio() (fractions.Fraction 的方法): fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line  117)
* as_integer_ratio() (int 的方法):       整數型別的附加 methods.
                                                             (line  148)
* as_posix() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法):  方法與屬性.         (line  159)
* as_string() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line   61)
* as_string() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line   60)
* as_tuple() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):   Decimal objects.    (line  135)
* as_uri() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法):    方法與屬性.         (line  169)
* as;except clause（例外子句）:          except clause.      (line   30)
* as;import statement（引入陳述式）:     import 陳述式.      (line   39)
* as;match statement（匹配陳述式）:      The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* as;with statement（with 陳述式）:      The with statement. (line    6)
* ASCII:                                 Notation.           (line   32)
* ASCII <1>:                             Literals.           (line    8)
* ASCII (於 re 模組中):                  旗標.               (line   16)
* ascii_letters (於 string 模組中):      字串常數.           (line    8)
* ascii_lowercase (於 string 模組中):    字串常數.           (line   13)
* ascii_uppercase (於 string 模組中):    字串常數.           (line   18)
* ascii() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):      curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  212)
* asctime() (於 time 模組中):            函式<4>.            (line    6)
* asdict() (於 dataclasses 模組中):      模組內容<8>.        (line  329)
* asend() (agen 的方法):                 Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   28)
* asin() (於 cmath 模組中):              三角函數.           (line   11)
* asin() (於 math 模組中):               Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   11)
* asinh() (於 cmath 模組中):             雙曲函數.           (line   11)
* asinh() (於 math 模組中):              Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* askcolor() (於 tkinter.colorchooser 模組中): tkinter colorchooser --- 顏色選擇對話框.
                                                             (line   16)
* askdirectory() (於 tkinter.filedialog 模組中): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   54)
* askfloat() (於 tkinter.simpledialog 模組中): tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框.
                                                             (line   14)
* askinteger() (於 tkinter.simpledialog 模組中): tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框.
                                                             (line   14)
* askokcancel() (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  101)
* askopenfile() (於 tkinter.filedialog 模組中): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   31)
* askopenfilename() (於 tkinter.filedialog 模組中): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   42)
* askopenfilenames() (於 tkinter.filedialog 模組中): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   42)
* askopenfiles() (於 tkinter.filedialog 模組中): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   31)
* askquestion() (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line   95)
* askretrycancel() (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  107)
* asksaveasfile() (於 tkinter.filedialog 模組中): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   37)
* asksaveasfilename() (於 tkinter.filedialog 模組中): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   49)
* askstring() (於 tkinter.simpledialog 模組中): tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框.
                                                             (line   14)
* askyesno() (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  113)
* askyesnocancel() (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  119)
* Assert (ast 中的類別):                 陳述式.             (line  131)
* assert_any_await() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 的方法): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line  781)
* assert_any_call() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.  (line  129)
* assert_awaited_once_with() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 的方法): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line  765)
* assert_awaited_once() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 的方法): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line  732)
* assert_awaited_with() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 的方法): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line  748)
* assert_awaited() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 的方法): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line  713)
* assert_called_once_with() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line  116)
* assert_called_once() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line   89)
* assert_called_with() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line  106)
* assert_called() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.    (line   78)
* assert_has_awaits() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 的方法): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line  797)
* assert_has_calls() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別. (line  144)
* assert_never() (於 typing 模組中):     函式與裝飾器.       (line   44)
* assert_not_awaited() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 的方法): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line  823)
* assert_not_called() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line  165)
* assert_python_failure() (於 test.support.script_helper 模組中): test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   54)
* assert_python_ok() (於 test.support.script_helper 模組中): test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   38)
* assert_type() (於 typing 模組中):      函式與裝飾器.       (line   15)
* assertAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  504)
* assertCountEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases. (line  558)
* assertDictEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.  (line  667)
* assertEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.      (line  177)
* assertFalse() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.      (line  201)
* assertGreater() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.    (line  528)
* assertGreaterEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  528)
* assertIn() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.         (line  228)
* assertInBytecode() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase 的方法): test support bytecode_helper --- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具.
                                                             (line   22)
* AssertionError:                        實體例外.           (line    8)
* assertIs() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.         (line  213)
* assertIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases. (line  235)
* assertIsNone() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.     (line  221)
* assertIsNot() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.      (line  213)
* assertIsNotNone() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.  (line  221)
* assertLess() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.       (line  528)
* assertLessEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.  (line  528)
* assertListEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.  (line  644)
* assertLogs() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.       (line  404)
* assertMultiLineEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  619)
* assertNoLogs() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.     (line  448)
* assertNotAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  504)
* assertNotEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.   (line  196)
* assertNotIn() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.      (line  228)
* assertNotInBytecode() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase 的方法): test support bytecode_helper --- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具.
                                                             (line   28)
* assertNotIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  235)
* assertNotRegex() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.   (line  541)
* assertRaises() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.     (line  275)
* assertRaisesRegex() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  315)
* assertRegex() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.      (line  541)
* asserts (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line   15)
* assertSequenceEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  629)
* assertSetEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.   (line  655)
* assertTrue() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.       (line  201)
* assertTupleEqual() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases. (line  644)
* assertWarns() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.      (line  340)
* assertWarnsRegex() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases. (line  380)
* Assign (ast 中的類別):                 陳述式.             (line    6)
* assignment expression（賦值運算式）:   Boolean operations. (line   38)
* assignment（賦值）;statement（陳述式）: Mutable sequences. (line    6)
* assignment（賦值）;statement（陳述式） <1>: Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* AST (ast 中的類別):                    節點 Node 類別.     (line    6)
* ast 命令列選項; -a:                    命令列用法<3>.      (line   28)
* ast 命令列選項; -h:                    命令列用法<3>.      (line   14)
* ast 命令列選項; -help:                 命令列用法<3>.      (line   14)
* ast 命令列選項; -i:                    命令列用法<3>.      (line   32)
* ast 命令列選項; -include-attributes:   命令列用法<3>.      (line   28)
* ast 命令列選項; -indent:               命令列用法<3>.      (line   32)
* ast 命令列選項; -m:                    命令列用法<3>.      (line   18)
* ast 命令列選項; -mode:                 命令列用法<3>.      (line   18)
* ast 命令列選項; -no-type-comments:     命令列用法<3>.      (line   24)
* astimezone() (datetime.datetime 的方法): datetime 物件.    (line  455)
* astuple() (於 dataclasses 模組中):     模組內容<8>.        (line  361)
* ASYNC (於 token 模組中):               token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  250)
* async for;於 comprehensions（綜合運算）: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   14)
* AsyncContextDecorator (contextlib 中的類別): Utilities.    (line  463)
* AsyncContextManager (typing 中的類別): contextlib ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   16)
* asynccontextmanager() (於 contextlib 模組中): Utilities.   (line   94)
* AsyncExitStack (contextlib 中的類別):  Utilities.          (line  621)
* AsyncFor (ast 中的類別):               async 和 await.     (line   44)
* AsyncFunctionDef (ast 中的類別):       async 和 await.     (line    6)
* AsyncGenerator (collections.abc 中的類別): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  163)
* AsyncGenerator (typing 中的類別):      Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   21)
* AsyncGeneratorType (於 types 模組中):  Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   48)
* asynchronous context manager（非同步情境管理器）: 術語表.  (line   85)
* asynchronous generator iterator（非同步產生器疊代器）: 術語表.
                                                             (line  105)
* asynchronous generator（非同步產生器）: 術語表.            (line   91)
* asynchronous generator（非同步產生器）;asynchronous iterator（非同步疊代器）: Asynchronous generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* asynchronous generator（非同步產生器）;function （函式）: Asynchronous generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* asynchronous iterable（非同步可疊代物件）: 術語表.         (line  120)
* asynchronous iterator（非同步疊代器）: 術語表.             (line  126)
* asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL (內建變數): 常數<6>.            (line   23)
* asyncio.subprocess.PIPE (內建變數):    常數<6>.            (line    6)
* asyncio.subprocess.Process (內建類別): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   11)
* asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT (內建變數):  常數<6>.            (line   17)
* AsyncIterable (collections.abc 中的類別): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  149)
* AsyncIterable (typing 中的類別):       Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   36)
* AsyncIterator (collections.abc 中的類別): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  156)
* AsyncIterator (typing 中的類別):       Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   46)
* AsyncMock (unittest.mock 中的類別):    Mock 類別.          (line  649)
* AsyncResult (multiprocessing.pool 中的類別): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  191)
* asyncSetUp() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  851)
* asyncTearDown() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  860)
* AsyncWith (ast 中的類別):              async 和 await.     (line   44)
* AT (於 token 模組中):                  token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  222)
* at_eof() (asyncio.StreamReader 的方法): StreamReader.      (line   70)
* atan() (於 cmath 模組中):              三角函數.           (line   15)
* atan() (於 math 模組中):               Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* atan2() (於 math 模組中):              Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   21)
* atanh() (於 cmath 模組中):             雙曲函數.           (line   16)
* atanh() (於 math 模組中):              Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* ATEQUAL (於 token 模組中):             token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  226)
* atexit (weakref.finalize 的屬性):      weakref --- 弱參照. (line  258)
* athrow() (agen 的方法):                Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   43)
* atof() (於 locale 模組中):             locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  508)
* atoi() (於 locale 模組中):             locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  514)
* atom:                                  Atoms.              (line    6)
* attach_loop() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher 的方法): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   63)
* attach_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.      (line  233)
* attach() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  166)
* AttlistDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  246)
* attrgetter() (於 operator 模組中):     operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  218)
* attrib (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的屬性): Element 物件.
                                                             (line   45)
* Attribute (ast 中的類別):              運算式<2>.          (line  164)
* attribute（屬性）:                     標準型別階層.       (line   13)
* attribute（屬性） <1>:                 術語表.             (line  134)
* attribute（屬性）;assignment（賦值）:  Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* attribute（屬性）;assignment（賦值） <1>: Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   76)
* attribute（屬性）;deletion（刪除）:    del 陳述式<2>.      (line   20)
* attribute（屬性）;reference（參照）:   Attribute references.
                                                             (line    6)
* AttributeError:                        實體例外.           (line   12)
* attributes (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):      Node Objects.       (line   26)
* AttributesImpl (xml.sax.xmlreader 中的類別): xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面.
                                                             (line   69)
* AttributesNSImpl (xml.sax.xmlreader 中的類別): xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面.
                                                             (line   80)
* attroff() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line   53)
* attron() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line   58)
* attrset() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line   63)
* Audio Interchange File Format（音訊交換檔案格式）: aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line    8)
* Audio Interchange File Format（音訊交換檔案格式） <1>: chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line    8)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721 (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   91)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722 (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   91)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3 (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   91)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5 (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   91)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8 (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   82)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   91)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   91)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16 (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   82)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24 (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   82)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32 (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   82)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8 (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   82)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8 (於 sunau 模組中): sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   82)
* AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC (於 sunau 模組中):    sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   77)
* AUDIODEV:                              ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取.
                                                             (line   57)
* audit events（稽核事件）:              除錯與效能分析.     (line   12)
* audit() (於 sys 模組中):               sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line   89)
* auditing:                              sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line   91)
* AugAssign (ast 中的類別):              陳述式.             (line   98)
* augmented（增強）;assignment（賦值）:  Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* AUGUST (於 calendar 模組中):           calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* auth() (ftplib.FTP_TLS 的方法):        FTP_TLS 物件.       (line   83)
* auth() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):          SMTP 物件.          (line  141)
* authenticate() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法): IMAP4 物件.         (line   37)
* AuthenticationError:                   Process 與例外.     (line  240)
* authenticators() (netrc.netrc 的方法): netrc 物件.         (line    8)
* authkey (multiprocessing.Process 的屬性): Process 與例外.  (line  141)
* auto (enum 中的類別):                  通用項目與裝飾器.   (line    6)
* autocommit (sqlite3.Connection 的屬性): Connection 物件.   (line  700)
* autorange() (timeit.Timer 的方法):     Python 介面.        (line   76)
* available_timezones() (於 zoneinfo 模組中): 函式<2>.       (line    6)
* avg() (於 audioop 模組中):             audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   54)
* avgpp() (於 audioop 模組中):           audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   58)
* avoids_symlink_attacks (shutil.rmtree 的屬性): Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  310)
* Await (ast 中的類別):                  async 和 await.     (line   14)
* AWAIT (於 token 模組中):               token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  248)
* await_args (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 的屬性): Mock 類別.    (line  851)
* await_args_list (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 的屬性): Mock 類別.
                                                             (line  868)
* await_count (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 的屬性): Mock 類別.   (line  836)
* await;於 comprehensions（綜合運算）:   Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   45)
* Awaitable (collections.abc 中的類別):  Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  109)
* Awaitable (typing 中的類別):           Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   56)
* awaitable（可等待物件）:               術語表.             (line  145)
* b';bytes literal（位元組常數）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   46)
* b";bytes literal（位元組常數）:        String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   46)
* b16decode() (於 base64 模組中):        base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  138)
* b16encode() (於 base64 模組中):        base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  133)
* b2a_base64() (於 binascii 模組中):     binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line   61)
* b2a_hex() (於 binascii 模組中):        binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line  114)
* b2a_qp() (於 binascii 模組中):         binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line   77)
* b2a_uu() (於 binascii 模組中):         binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line   31)
* b32decode() (於 base64 模組中):        base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   98)
* b32encode() (於 base64 模組中):        base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   93)
* b32hexdecode() (於 base64 模組中):     base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  122)
* b32hexencode() (於 base64 模組中):     base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  115)
* b64decode() (於 base64 模組中):        base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   49)
* b64encode() (於 base64 模組中):        base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   35)
* b85decode() (於 base64 模組中):        base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  198)
* b85encode() (於 base64 模組中):        base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  188)
* Babyl (mailbox 中的類別):              Babyl 物件.         (line    6)
* BabylMessage (mailbox 中的類別):       BabylMessage 物件.  (line    6)
* back() (於 turtle 模組中):             Turtle motion.      (line   24)
* backslash character（反斜線字元）:     Explicit line joining.
                                                             (line    6)
* backslashreplace_errors() (於 codecs 模組中): Error Handlers.
                                                             (line  161)
* backslashreplace;error handler's name（錯誤處理器名稱）: Error Handlers.
                                                             (line   15)
* backup() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法):  Connection 物件.    (line  498)
* backward() (於 turtle 模組中):         Turtle motion.      (line   24)
* BadGzipFile:                           gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援.
                                                             (line   62)
* BadOptionError:                        例外<16>.           (line   21)
* BadStatusLine:                         http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  177)
* BadZipFile:                            zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案.
                                                             (line   24)
* BadZipfile:                            zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案.
                                                             (line   30)
* Balloon (tkinter.tix 中的類別):        Basic Widgets.      (line    6)
* Barrier (asyncio 中的類別):            Barrier.            (line    6)
* Barrier (multiprocessing 中的類別):    Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   13)
* Barrier (threading 中的類別):          Barrier Objects.    (line   36)
* Barrier() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  160)
* base_exec_prefix (於 sys 模組中):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  118)
* base_prefix (於 sys 模組中):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  132)
* base64;encoding（編碼）:               base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line    8)
* BaseCGIHandler (wsgiref.handlers 中的類別): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line   47)
* BaseCookie (http.cookies 中的類別):    http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理.
                                                             (line   39)
* BaseException:                         基底類別 base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* BaseExceptionGroup:                    例外群組.           (line   12)
* BaseHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  251)
* BaseHandler (wsgiref.handlers 中的類別): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line   77)
* BaseHeader (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line   37)
* BaseHTTPRequestHandler (http.server 中的類別): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   51)
* BaseManager (multiprocessing.managers 中的類別): Managers. (line   23)
* basename() (於 os.path 模組中):        os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line   51)
* BaseProtocol (asyncio 中的類別):       Base Protocols.     (line    6)
* BaseProxy (multiprocessing.managers 中的類別): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* BaseRequestHandler (socketserver 中的類別): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* BaseRotatingHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   12)
* BaseSelector (selectors 中的類別):     Classes<3>.         (line   53)
* BaseServer (socketserver 中的類別):    Server Objects.     (line    6)
* basestring (2to3 fixer):               Fixers.             (line   60)
* BaseTransport (asyncio 中的類別):      Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line    6)
* basicConfig() (於 logging 模組中):     Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  204)
* BasicContext (decimal 中的類別):       Context objects.    (line   65)
* BasicInterpolation (configparser 中的類別): Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   10)
* batched() (於 itertools 模組中):       Itertool 函式.      (line   65)
* baudrate() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line   18)
* bbox() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法):  ttk Treeview.       (line    8)
* BDADDR_ANY (於 socket 模組中):         常數<7>.            (line  290)
* BDADDR_LOCAL (於 socket 模組中):       常數<7>.            (line  290)
* Bdb (bdb 中的類別):                    bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  128)
* BdbQuit:                               bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line   15)
* BDFL:                                  術語表.             (line  151)
* beep() (於 curses 模組中):             函式<5>.            (line   26)
* Beep() (於 winsound 模組中):           winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line   12)
* BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  301)
* BEFORE_WITH (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  450)
* begin_fill() (於 turtle 模組中):       Filling.            (line   16)
* begin_poly() (於 turtle 模組中):       Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* BEL (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   40)
* BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   59)
* below() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法):   Panel Objects.      (line   17)
* benchmarking（基準測試）:              函式<4>.            (line  176)
* benchmarking（基準測試） <1>:          函式<4>.            (line  195)
* benchmarking（基準測試） <2>:          函式<4>.            (line  498)
* betavariate() (於 random 模組中):      實數分布.           (line   27)
* bgcolor() (於 turtle 模組中):          Window control.     (line    6)
* bgpic() (於 turtle 模組中):            Window control.     (line   21)
* bias() (於 audioop 模組中):            audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   64)
* bidirectional() (於 unicodedata 模組中): unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   54)
* bigaddrspacetest() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  558)
* BigEndianStructure (ctypes 中的類別):  Structured data types.
                                                             (line   22)
* BigEndianUnion (ctypes 中的類別):      Structured data types.
                                                             (line   10)
* bigmemtest() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  542)
* Binary (msilib 中的類別):              msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line   91)
* Binary (xmlrpc.client 中的類別):       Binary Objects.     (line    6)
* binary file（二進位檔案）:             術語表.             (line  156)
* binary literal（二進位常數）:          Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* binary semaphores（二進位號誌）:       _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* BINARY_OP (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  182)
* BINARY_SLICE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  218)
* BINARY_SUBSCR (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  193)
* binary（二進位）;arithmetic;operation（操作）: Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* binary（二進位）;bitwise（位元）;operation（操作）: Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* binary（二進位）;literals（字面值）:   數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   15)
* binaryfunc (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line  112)
* BinaryIO (typing 中的類別):            ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* bind (widgets):                        Bindings and Events.
                                                             (line    6)
* bind_partial() (inspect.Signature 的方法): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  128)
* bind_port() (於 test.support.socket_helper 模組中): test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   37)
* bind_textdomain_codeset() (於 locale 模組中): Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   16)
* bind_unix_socket() (於 test.support.socket_helper 模組中): test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   54)
* bind() (inspect.Signature 的方法):     Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  121)
* bind() (socket.socket 的方法):         Socket 物件.        (line   30)
* binding（繫結）;name（名稱）:          Binding of names.   (line    6)
* binding（繫結）;name（名稱） <1>:      Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* bindtextdomain() (於 gettext 模組中):  GNU gettext API.    (line   14)
* bindtextdomain() (於 locale 模組中):   Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   14)
* binomialvariate() (於 random 模組中):  離散分布.           (line    8)
* BinOp (ast 中的類別):                  運算式<2>.          (line   41)
* bisect_left() (於 bisect 模組中):      bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   20)
* bisect_right() (於 bisect 模組中):     bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   40)
* bisect() (於 bisect 模組中):           bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   40)
* bit_count() (int 的方法):              整數型別的附加 methods.
                                                             (line   33)
* bit_length() (int 的方法):             整數型別的附加 methods.
                                                             (line    9)
* BitAnd (ast 中的類別):                 運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* bitmap() (msilib.Dialog 的方法):       GUI classes.        (line   58)
* BitOr (ast 中的類別):                  運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* bits_per_digit (sys.int_info 的屬性):  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1090)
* bitwise（位元）;and:                   Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   12)
* bitwise（位元）;operations（操作）:    整數型別的位元運算. (line    6)
* bitwise（位元）;or:                    Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* bitwise（位元）;xor:                   Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* BitXor (ast 中的類別):                 運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* bk() (於 turtle 模組中):               Turtle motion.      (line   24)
* bkgd() (curses.window 的方法):         Window Objects.     (line   68)
* bkgdset() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line   80)
* blake2b, blake2s:                      BLAKE2.             (line    6)
* blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (於 hashlib 模組中): 常數<5>.      (line   24)
* blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE (於 hashlib 模組中): 常數<5>.         (line   18)
* blake2b.PERSON_SIZE (於 hashlib 模組中): 常數<5>.          (line   12)
* blake2b.SALT_SIZE (於 hashlib 模組中): 常數<5>.            (line    6)
* blake2b() (於 hashlib 模組中):         建立雜湊物件.       (line    8)
* blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (於 hashlib 模組中): 常數<5>.      (line   26)
* blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE (於 hashlib 模組中): 常數<5>.         (line   20)
* blake2s.PERSON_SIZE (於 hashlib 模組中): 常數<5>.          (line   14)
* blake2s.SALT_SIZE (於 hashlib 模組中): 常數<5>.            (line    8)
* blake2s() (於 hashlib 模組中):         建立雜湊物件.       (line   13)
* blank line（空白列）:                  Blank lines.        (line    6)
* BLKTYPE (於 tarfile 模組中):           tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  284)
* Blob (sqlite3 中的類別):               Blob 物件.          (line    6)
* blobopen() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.   (line   30)
* block:                                 Structure of a program.
                                                             (line    6)
* block_on_close (socketserver.ThreadingMixIn 的屬性): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   45)
* block_size (hmac.HMAC 的屬性):         hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line   82)
* blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的方法): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   52)
* BlockingIOError:                       作業系統例外.       (line    8)
* BlockingIOError <1>:                   高階模組介面.       (line   62)
* blocksize (http.client.HTTPConnection 的屬性): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line  155)
* BNF:                                   Notation.           (line    6)
* BNF <1>:                               運算式.             (line    6)
* body_encode() (email.charset.Charset 的方法): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line  133)
* body_encoding (email.charset.Charset 的屬性): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line   65)
* body_line_iterator() (於 email.iterators 模組中): email iterators：疊代器.
                                                             (line   14)
* body() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line  272)
* body() (tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog 的方法): tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框.
                                                             (line   25)
* BOLD (於 tkinter.font 模組中):         tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   15)
* BOM (於 codecs 模組中):                codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  249)
* BOM_BE (於 codecs 模組中):             codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  249)
* BOM_LE (於 codecs 模組中):             codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  249)
* BOM_UTF16 (於 codecs 模組中):          codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  249)
* BOM_UTF16_BE (於 codecs 模組中):       codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  249)
* BOM_UTF16_LE (於 codecs 模組中):       codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  249)
* BOM_UTF32 (於 codecs 模組中):          codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  249)
* BOM_UTF32_BE (於 codecs 模組中):       codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  249)
* BOM_UTF32_LE (於 codecs 模組中):       codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  249)
* BOM_UTF8 (於 codecs 模組中):           codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  249)
* bool (內建類別):                       內建函式.           (line  122)
* BOOLEAN_STATES (configparser.ConfigParser 的屬性): Customizing Parser Behaviour.
                                                             (line  246)
* Boolean（布林）;operation（操作）:     Boolean operations. (line    6)
* Boolean（布林）;operations（操作）:    真值檢測.           (line    6)
* Boolean（布林）;operations（操作） <1>: Boolean（布林）運算 --- and or not.
                                                             (line    6)
* Boolean（布林）;values:                Boolean 型別 - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* Boolean（布林值）;type（型別）:        內建函式.           (line  133)
* BooleanOptionalAction (argparse 中的類別): action.         (line  107)
* BoolOp (ast 中的類別):                 運算式<2>.          (line   69)
* bootstrap() (於 ensurepip 模組中):     模組 API.           (line   12)
* border() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line   91)
* borrowed reference（借用參照）:        術語表.             (line  167)
* bottom_panel() (於 curses.panel 模組中): 函式<6>.          (line    8)
* bottom() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法):  Panel Objects.      (line   21)
* BoundArguments (inspect 中的類別):     Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  309)
* BoundaryError:                         email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
                                                             (line   38)
* BoundedSemaphore (asyncio 中的類別):   BoundedSemaphore.   (line    6)
* BoundedSemaphore (multiprocessing 中的類別): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   19)
* BoundedSemaphore (threading 中的類別): Semaphore Objects.  (line   73)
* BoundedSemaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  167)
* box() (curses.window 的方法):          Window Objects.     (line  129)
* bpbynumber (bdb.Breakpoint 的屬性):    bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  109)
* bpformat() (bdb.Breakpoint 的方法):    bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line   55)
* bplist (bdb.Breakpoint 的屬性):        bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  114)
* bpprint() (bdb.Breakpoint 的方法):     bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line   74)
* BRANCH (monitoring event):             事件.               (line    8)
* Break (ast 中的類別):                  流程控制.           (line   96)
* break (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line   94)
* break_anywhere() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):     bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  261)
* break_here() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):         bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  252)
* break_long_words (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性): textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  249)
* break_on_hyphens (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性): textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  259)
* Breakpoint (bdb 中的類別):             bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line   21)
* breakpointhook() (於 sys 模組中):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  226)
* breakpoints（中斷點）:                 Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   29)
* broadcast_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* broadcast_address (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  311)
* broken (asyncio.Barrier 的屬性):       Barrier.            (line  103)
* broken (threading.Barrier 的屬性):     Barrier Objects.    (line  101)
* BrokenBarrierError:                    Barrier Objects.    (line  106)
* BrokenBarrierError <1>:                Barrier.            (line  108)
* BrokenExecutor:                        例外類別.           (line   17)
* BrokenPipeError:                       作業系統例外.       (line   35)
* BrokenProcessPool:                     例外類別.           (line   37)
* BrokenThreadPool:                      例外類別.           (line   30)
* BROWSER:                               webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line   20)
* BROWSER <1>:                           webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line  108)
* BS (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   43)
* BsdDbShelf (shelve 中的類別):          Restrictions.       (line   60)
* buf (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory 的屬性): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line   72)
* buffer (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line   64)
* Buffer (collections.abc 中的類別):     Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  173)
* buffer (io.TextIOBase 的屬性):         文字 I/O<2>.        (line   30)
* buffer (unittest.TestResult 的屬性):   Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  293)
* buffer interface（緩衝介面）;(請見緩衝協定): 疊代器協議.   (line   73)
* buffer object（緩衝物件）;(請見緩衝協定): 疊代器協議.      (line   72)
* buffer protocol（緩衝區協定）;binary sequence types（二進位序列型別）: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line  189)
* buffer protocol（緩衝區協定）;str（內建類別）: Text Sequence Type --- str.
                                                             (line   61)
* buffer protocol（緩衝協定）:           疊代器協議.         (line   73)
* buffer size, I/O（緩衝區大小、I/O）:   內建函式.           (line 1231)
* buffer_info() (array.array 的方法):    array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  111)
* buffer_size (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  120)
* buffer_text (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  127)
* buffer_updated() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol 的方法): Buffered Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   33)
* buffer_used (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  138)
* BufferedIOBase (io 中的類別):          I/O 基礎類別.       (line  196)
* BufferedProtocol (asyncio 中的類別):   Base Protocols.     (line   15)
* BufferedRandom (io 中的類別):          Buffered Streams.   (line  138)
* BufferedReader (io 中的類別):          Buffered Streams.   (line   56)
* BufferedRWPair (io 中的類別):          Buffered Streams.   (line  153)
* BufferedWriter (io 中的類別):          Buffered Streams.   (line   97)
* BufferError:                           基底類別 base classes.
                                                             (line   67)
* BufferFlags (inspect 中的類別):        Buffer flags.       (line    6)
* BufferingFormatter (logging 中的類別): Formatter Objects.  (line  131)
* BufferingHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   19)
* BufferTooShort:                        Process 與例外.     (line  232)
* bufsize() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  214)
* BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (opcode):          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  629)
* BUILD_LIST (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  612)
* BUILD_MAP (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  620)
* build_opener() (於 urllib.request 模組中): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  123)
* BUILD_SET (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  616)
* BUILD_SLICE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1041)
* BUILD_STRING (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  638)
* BUILD_TUPLE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  599)
* built-in function; __import__():       內建函式.           (line 1902)
* built-in function; abs():              內建函式.           (line   43)
* built-in function; aiter():            內建函式.           (line   48)
* built-in function; all():              內建函式.           (line   58)
* built-in function; anext():            內建函式.           (line   69)
* built-in function; any():              內建函式.           (line   84)
* built-in function; ascii():            內建函式.           (line   95)
* built-in function; bin():              內建函式.           (line  102)
* built-in function; breakpoint():       內建函式.           (line  135)
* built-in function; callable():         內建函式.           (line  210)
* built-in function; chr():              內建函式.           (line  221)
* built-in function; classmethod():      內建函式.           (line  230)
* built-in function; compile():          內建函式.           (line  263)
* built-in function; delattr():          內建函式.           (line  395)
* built-in function; dir():              內建函式.           (line  415)
* built-in function; divmod():           內建函式.           (line  465)
* built-in function; enumerate():        內建函式.           (line  474)
* built-in function; eval():             內建函式.           (line  496)
* built-in function; exec():             內建函式.           (line  555)
* built-in function; filter():           內建函式.           (line  606)
* built-in function; format():           內建函式.           (line  679)
* built-in function; getattr():          內建函式.           (line  708)
* built-in function; globals():          內建函式.           (line  722)
* built-in function; hasattr():          內建函式.           (line  727)
* built-in function; hash():             內建函式.           (line  733)
* built-in function; help():             內建函式.           (line  742)
* built-in function; hex():              內建函式.           (line  760)
* built-in function; id():               內建函式.           (line  789)
* built-in function; input():            內建函式.           (line  799)
* built-in function; isinstance():       內建函式.           (line  884)
* built-in function; issubclass():       內建函式.           (line  898)
* built-in function; iter():             內建函式.           (line  909)
* built-in function; len():              內建函式.           (line  934)
* built-in function; locals():           內建函式.           (line  951)
* built-in function; map():              內建函式.           (line  961)
* built-in function; max():              內建函式.           (line  970)
* built-in function; min():              內建函式.           (line 1000)
* built-in function; multiprocessing.Manager(): Managers.    (line   12)
* built-in function; next():             內建函式.           (line 1025)
* built-in function; oct():              內建函式.           (line 1044)
* built-in function; open():             內建函式.           (line 1067)
* built-in function; ord():              內建函式.           (line 1273)
* built-in function; pow():              內建函式.           (line 1279)
* built-in function; print():            內建函式.           (line 1316)
* built-in function; property.deleter(): 內建函式.           (line 1387)
* built-in function; property.getter():  內建函式.           (line 1383)
* built-in function; property.setter():  內建函式.           (line 1385)
* built-in function; repr():             內建函式.           (line 1429)
* built-in function; reversed():         內建函式.           (line 1452)
* built-in function; round():            內建函式.           (line 1459)
* built-in function; setattr():          內建函式.           (line 1497)
* built-in function; sorted():           內建函式.           (line 1546)
* built-in function; staticmethod():     內建函式.           (line 1581)
* built-in function; sum():              內建函式.           (line 1635)
* built-in function; vars():             內建函式.           (line 1783)
* built-in function; zip():              內建函式.           (line 1805)
* built-in function（內建函式）;__import__: 引入模組<2>.     (line   27)
* built-in function（內建函式）;abs:     Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  113)
* built-in function（內建函式）;abs <1>: 數字協定.           (line   91)
* built-in function（內建函式）;bytes（位元組）: Basic customization.
                                                             (line  148)
* built-in function（內建函式）;call（呼叫）: Calls.         (line  140)
* built-in function（內建函式）;chr:     Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   15)
* built-in function（內建函式）;classmethod: 實作函式與方法. (line  197)
* built-in function（內建函式）;compile（編譯）: global 陳述式.
                                                             (line   28)
* built-in function（內建函式）;compile（編譯） <1>: Code Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function（內建函式）;compile（編譯） <2>: Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   57)
* built-in function（內建函式）;compile（編譯） <3>: 引入模組<2>.
                                                             (line  109)
* built-in function（內建函式）;complex（複數）: Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  120)
* built-in function（內建函式）;complex（複數） <1>: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* built-in function（內建函式）;divmod:  Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   26)
* built-in function（內建函式）;divmod <1>: Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   56)
* built-in function（內建函式）;divmod <2>: 數字協定.        (line   64)
* built-in function（內建函式）;eval:    global 陳述式.      (line   28)
* built-in function（內建函式）;eval <1>: 運算式輸入.        (line    6)
* built-in function（內建函式）;eval <2>: Code Objects.      (line   17)
* built-in function（內建函式）;eval <3>: 函式<3>.           (line   87)
* built-in function（內建函式）;eval <4>: PrettyPrinter 物件.
                                                             (line   68)
* built-in function（內建函式）;exec:    global 陳述式.      (line   28)
* built-in function（內建函式）;exec <1>: 內建函式.          (line  555)
* built-in function（內建函式）;exec <2>: Code Objects.      (line   17)
* built-in function（內建函式）;float:   Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  120)
* built-in function（內建函式）;float <1>: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* built-in function（內建函式）;float <2>: 數字協定.         (line  246)
* built-in function（內建函式）;hash（雜湊）: Basic customization.
                                                             (line  241)
* built-in function（內建函式）;hash（雜湊） <1>: Immutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function（內建函式）;hash（雜湊） <2>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  329)
* built-in function（內建函式）;help（幫助）: 作業系統介面.  (line   18)
* built-in function（內建函式）;id:      Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* built-in function（內建函式）;int:     Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  120)
* built-in function（內建函式）;int <1>: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* built-in function（內建函式）;int <2>: 數字協定.           (line  239)
* built-in function（內建函式）;len:     Sequences.          (line    6)
* built-in function（內建函式）;len <1>: Set types.          (line    6)
* built-in function（內建函式）;len <2>: Mappings.           (line    6)
* built-in function（內建函式）;len <3>: Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   41)
* built-in function（內建函式）;len <4>: Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* built-in function（內建函式）;len <5>: Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function（內建函式）;len <6>: 對映協定.           (line   17)
* built-in function（內建函式）;len <7>: List（串列）物件.   (line   36)
* built-in function（內建函式）;len <8>: 字典物件.           (line  138)
* built-in function（內建函式）;len <9>: 集合物件.           (line   97)
* built-in function（內建函式）;max:     Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* built-in function（內建函式）;min:     Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* built-in function（內建函式）;open:    讀寫檔案.           (line    6)
* built-in function（內建函式）;open <1>: I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function（內建函式）;ord:     Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   15)
* built-in function（內建函式）;pow:     Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   26)
* built-in function（內建函式）;pow <1>: Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   26)
* built-in function（內建函式）;pow <2>: Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   56)
* built-in function（內建函式）;pow <3>: Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   67)
* built-in function（內建函式）;pow <4>: 數字協定.           (line   72)
* built-in function（內建函式）;pow <5>: 數字協定.           (line  193)
* built-in function（內建函式）;print:   Basic customization.
                                                             (line  153)
* built-in function（內建函式）;range:   The for statement.  (line   37)
* built-in function（內建函式）;repr:    Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* built-in function（內建函式）;repr <1>: Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   90)
* built-in function（內建函式）;repr <2>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  267)
* built-in function（內建函式）;round:   Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  143)
* built-in function（內建函式）;slice（切片）: Slice objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function（內建函式）;slice（切片） <1>: Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1043)
* built-in function（內建函式）;staticmethod: 實作函式與方法.
                                                             (line  204)
* built-in function（內建函式）;tuple（元組）: List（串列）物件.
                                                             (line  110)
* built-in function（內建函式）;type（型別）: Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* built-in function（內建函式）;type（型別） <1>: Metaclasses.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function（內建函式）;type（型別） <2>: Type Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function（内建函式）;len:     序列協定.           (line   16)
* built-in function（内建函式）;tuple（元组）: 序列協定.     (line  115)
* built-in method（內建方法）;call（呼叫）: Calls.           (line  140)
* built-in（內建）;method（方法）:       Built-in methods.   (line    6)
* built-in（內建）;type（型別）:         內建型別.           (line    8)
* builtin_module_names (於 sys 模組中):  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  153)
* BuiltinFunctionType (於 types 模組中): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   80)
* BuiltinImporter (importlib.machinery 中的類別): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   64)
* BuiltinMethodType (於 types 模組中):   Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   80)
* bulit-in function（內建函式）;ascii:   物件協定.           (line  221)
* bulit-in function（內建函式）;bytes（位元組）: 物件協定.   (line  242)
* bulit-in function（內建函式）;hash（雜湊）: 物件協定.      (line  292)
* bulit-in function（內建函式）;len:     物件協定.           (line  338)
* bulit-in function（內建函式）;repr:    物件協定.           (line  210)
* bulit-in function（內建函式）;type（型別）: 物件協定.      (line  320)
* busy_retry() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  195)
* BUTTON_ALT (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  629)
* BUTTON_CTRL (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  626)
* BUTTON_SHIFT (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  623)
* ButtonBox (tkinter.tix 中的類別):      Basic Widgets.      (line   13)
* buttonbox() (tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog 的方法): tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框.
                                                             (line   30)
* BUTTONn_CLICKED (於 curses 模組中):    Constants.          (line  614)
* BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED (於 curses 模組中): Constants.      (line  617)
* BUTTONn_PRESSED (於 curses 模組中):    Constants.          (line  608)
* BUTTONn_RELEASED (於 curses 模組中):   Constants.          (line  611)
* BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED (於 curses 模組中): Constants.      (line  620)
* bye() (於 turtle 模組中):              Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line    6)
* byref() (於 ctypes 模組中):            Utility functions.  (line   18)
* byte（位元組）:                        Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   39)
* bytearray (內建類別):                  Bytearray Objects.  (line    9)
* bytearray（位元組陣列）:               Mutable sequences.  (line   25)
* bytearray（位元組陣列）;formatting（格式化）: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytearray（位元組陣列）;interpolation（插值）: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytearray（位元組陣列）;methods（方法）: Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Bytecode (dis 中的類別):               Bytecode analysis.  (line   12)
* BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (於 importlib.machinery 模組中): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   38)
* Bytecode.codeobj (於 dis 模組中):      Bytecode analysis.  (line   46)
* Bytecode.first_line (於 dis 模組中):   Bytecode analysis.  (line   50)
* bytecode（位元組碼）:                  Code objects.       (line    6)
* bytecode（位元組碼） <1>:              術語表.             (line  197)
* BytecodeTestCase (test.support.bytecode_helper 中的類別): test support bytecode_helper --- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具.
                                                             (line   13)
* byteorder (於 sys 模組中):             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  146)
* bytes (uuid.UUID 的屬性):              uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line   79)
* bytes (內建類別):                      Bytes Objects.      (line   12)
* bytes literal（位元組常數）:           Literals.           (line    8)
* bytes_le (uuid.UUID 的屬性):           uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line   84)
* bytes_warning (sys.flags 的屬性):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  541)
* bytes-like object（類位元組串物件）:   術語表.             (line  181)
* bytes（位元組）:                       Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   39)
* bytes（位元組）;formatting（格式化）:  printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes（位元組）;interpolation（插值）: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes（位元組）;methods（方法）:       Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes（位元組）;str（內建類別）:       Text Sequence Type --- str.
                                                             (line   61)
* BytesFeedParser (email.parser 中的類別): FeedParser API.   (line   28)
* BytesGenerator (email.generator 中的類別): email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line   43)
* BytesHeaderParser (email.parser 中的類別): Parser API.     (line   67)
* BytesIO (io 中的類別):                 Buffered Streams.   (line    9)
* BytesParser (email.parser 中的類別):   Parser API.         (line   18)
* ByteString (collections.abc 中的類別): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   68)
* ByteString (typing 中的類別):          collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   13)
* byteswap() (array.array 的方法):       array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  126)
* byteswap() (於 audioop 模組中):        audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   69)
* BytesWarning:                          警告.               (line   72)
* BZ2Compressor (bz2 中的類別):          Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line    6)
* BZ2Decompressor (bz2 中的類別):        Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   33)
* BZ2File (bz2 中的類別):                De compression of files.
                                                             (line   39)
* C:                                     String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* c_bool (ctypes 中的類別):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  207)
* c_byte (ctypes 中的類別):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* c_char (ctypes 中的類別):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* c_char_p (ctypes 中的類別):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* C_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性): Buffer flags.   (line   25)
* c_contiguous (memoryview 的屬性):      Memory Views.       (line  472)
* c_double (ctypes 中的類別):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   65)
* c_float (ctypes 中的類別):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   76)
* c_int (ctypes 中的類別):               Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* c_int16 (ctypes 中的類別):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   93)
* c_int32 (ctypes 中的類別):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* c_int64 (ctypes 中的類別):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  103)
* c_int8 (ctypes 中的類別):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   88)
* c_long (ctypes 中的類別):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  108)
* c_longdouble (ctypes 中的類別):        Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   70)
* c_longlong (ctypes 中的類別):          Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  113)
* C_RAISE (monitoring event):            事件.               (line   16)
* C_RETURN (monitoring event):           事件.               (line   21)
* c_short (ctypes 中的類別):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  119)
* c_size_t (ctypes 中的類別):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  124)
* c_ssize_t (ctypes 中的類別):           Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  128)
* c_time_t (ctypes 中的類別):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  134)
* c_ubyte (ctypes 中的類別):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  140)
* c_uint (ctypes 中的類別):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  146)
* c_uint16 (ctypes 中的類別):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  158)
* c_uint32 (ctypes 中的類別):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  163)
* c_uint64 (ctypes 中的類別):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  168)
* c_uint8 (ctypes 中的類別):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  153)
* c_ulong (ctypes 中的類別):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  173)
* c_ulonglong (ctypes 中的類別):         Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  178)
* c_ushort (ctypes 中的類別):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  184)
* c_void_p (ctypes 中的類別):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  189)
* c_wchar (ctypes 中的類別):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  194)
* c_wchar_p (ctypes 中的類別):           Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  201)
* C-contiguous（C 連續的）:              shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   26)
* C-contiguous（C 連續的） <1>:          術語表.             (line  264)
* C;language（語言）:                    標準型別階層.       (line    6)
* C;language（語言） <1>:                numbers Real float. (line    6)
* C;language（語言） <2>:                Built-in functions. (line    6)
* C;language（語言） <3>:                Comparisons.        (line    6)
* C;language（語言） <4>:                數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* C;structures（結構）:                  struct --- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料.
                                                             (line    8)
* C14NWriterTarget (xml.etree.ElementTree 中的類別): TreeBuilder 物件.
                                                             (line   94)
* CAB (msilib 中的類別):                 CAB 物件.           (line    6)
* CACHE (opcode):                        Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  126)
* cache_from_source() (於 importlib.util 模組中): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   21)
* cache() (於 functools 模組中):         functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line   15)
* cached (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  415)
* cached_property() (於 functools 模組中): functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line   45)
* CacheFTPHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  408)
* calcobjsize() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  431)
* calcsize() (於 struct 模組中):         函式與例外.         (line   55)
* calcvobjsize() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  437)
* Calendar (calendar 中的類別):          calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   22)
* calendar 命令列選項; -c:               命令列用法.         (line  104)
* calendar 命令列選項; -css:             命令列用法.         (line  104)
* calendar 命令列選項; -e:               命令列用法.         (line   64)
* calendar 命令列選項; -encoding:        命令列用法.         (line   64)
* calendar 命令列選項; -h:               命令列用法.         (line   56)
* calendar 命令列選項; -help:            命令列用法.         (line   56)
* calendar 命令列選項; -L:               命令列用法.         (line   60)
* calendar 命令列選項; -l:               命令列用法.         (line   89)
* calendar 命令列選項; -lines:           命令列用法.         (line   89)
* calendar 命令列選項; -locale:          命令列用法.         (line   60)
* calendar 命令列選項; -m:               命令列用法.         (line   98)
* calendar 命令列選項; -months:          命令列用法.         (line   98)
* calendar 命令列選項; -s:               命令列用法.         (line   94)
* calendar 命令列選項; -spacing:         命令列用法.         (line   94)
* calendar 命令列選項; -t:               命令列用法.         (line   69)
* calendar 命令列選項; -type:            命令列用法.         (line   69)
* calendar 命令列選項; -w:               命令列用法.         (line   84)
* calendar 命令列選項; -width:           命令列用法.         (line   84)
* calendar 命令列選項; month:            命令列用法.         (line   77)
* calendar 命令列選項; year:             命令列用法.         (line   73)
* calendar() (於 calendar 模組中):       calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  314)
* Call (ast 中的類別):                   運算式<2>.          (line  119)
* CALL (monitoring event):               事件.               (line   12)
* CALL (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  955)
* call_args (unittest.mock.Mock 的屬性): Mock 類別.          (line  400)
* call_args_list (unittest.mock.Mock 的屬性): Mock 類別.     (line  440)
* call_at() (asyncio.loop 的方法):       排程延遲的回呼函式. (line   31)
* call_count (unittest.mock.Mock 的屬性): Mock 類別.         (line  300)
* call_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 錯誤處理 API.
                                                             (line   41)
* CALL_FUNCTION_EX (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  989)
* CALL_INTRINSIC_1 (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1164)
* CALL_INTRINSIC_2 (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1225)
* call_later() (asyncio.loop 的方法):    排程延遲的回呼函式. (line    9)
* call_list() (unittest.mock.call 的方法): call.             (line   19)
* call_soon_threadsafe() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 排程回呼函式.
                                                             (line   22)
* call_soon() (asyncio.loop 的方法):     排程回呼函式.       (line    6)
* call_tracing() (於 sys 模組中):        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  162)
* call() (於 operator 模組中):           operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  206)
* call() (於 subprocess 模組中):         Older high-level API.
                                                             (line   10)
* call() (於 unittest.mock 模組中):      call.               (line    6)
* call（呼叫）:                          Slicings.           (line   38)
* call（呼叫）;instance（實例）:         Emulating callable objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* Callable (collections.abc 中的類別):   Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   19)
* Callable (於 typing 模組中):           Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   22)
* callable（可呼叫物件）:                術語表.             (line  210)
* CallableProxyType (於 weakref 模組中): weakref --- 弱參照. (line  278)
* callback (optparse.Option 的屬性):     Option attributes.  (line   68)
* callback_args (optparse.Option 的屬性): Option attributes. (line   74)
* callback_kwargs (optparse.Option 的屬性): Option attributes.
                                                             (line   74)
* callback() (contextlib.ExitStack 的方法): Utilities.       (line  582)
* callback（回呼）:                      術語表.             (line  221)
* callbacks (於 gc 模組中):              gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  218)
* called (unittest.mock.Mock 的屬性):    Mock 類別.          (line  289)
* CalledProcessError:                    Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  205)
* calloc（C 函式）:                      總覽<2>.            (line   33)
* CAN (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   97)
* CAN_BCM (於 socket 模組中):            常數<7>.            (line  137)
* can_change_color() (於 curses 模組中): 函式<5>.            (line   30)
* can_fetch() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 的方法): urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line   32)
* CAN_ISOTP (於 socket 模組中):          常數<7>.            (line  176)
* CAN_J1939 (於 socket 模組中):          常數<7>.            (line  185)
* CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES (於 socket 模組中):  常數<7>.            (line  152)
* CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS (於 socket 模組中): 常數<7>.          (line  165)
* can_symlink() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   74)
* can_write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter 的方法): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   43)
* can_write_eof() (asyncio.WriteTransport 的方法): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   14)
* can_xattr() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   78)
* CANCEL (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  135)
* cancel_command() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   82)
* cancel_dump_traceback_later() (於 faulthandler 模組中): Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout.
                                                             (line   29)
* cancel_join_thread() (multiprocessing.Queue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  192)
* cancel() (asyncio.Future 的方法):      Future 物件<2>.     (line  105)
* cancel() (asyncio.Handle 的方法):      回呼處理.           (line   17)
* cancel() (asyncio.Task 的方法):        Task Object.        (line  199)
* cancel() (concurrent.futures.Future 的方法): Future 物件.  (line   14)
* cancel() (sched.scheduler 的方法):     排程器物件.         (line   36)
* cancel() (threading.Timer 的方法):     Timer Objects.      (line   35)
* cancel() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler 的方法): tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援.
                                                             (line   48)
* cancelled() (asyncio.Future 的方法):   Future 物件<2>.     (line   65)
* cancelled() (asyncio.Handle 的方法):   回呼處理.           (line   21)
* cancelled() (asyncio.Task 的方法):     Task Object.        (line  260)
* cancelled() (concurrent.futures.Future 的方法): Future 物件.
                                                             (line   19)
* CancelledError:                        例外類別.           (line    6)
* CancelledError <1>:                    例外<8>.            (line   17)
* cancelling() (asyncio.Task 的方法):    Task Object.        (line  309)
* CannotSendHeader:                      http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  169)
* CannotSendRequest:                     http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  165)
* canonic() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):            bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  148)
* canonical() (decimal.Context 的方法):  Context objects.    (line  257)
* canonical() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):  Decimal objects.    (line  140)
* canonicalize() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>. (line    6)
* capa() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   24)
* capitalize() (bytearray 的方法):       Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  469)
* capitalize() (bytes 的方法):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  469)
* capitalize() (str 的方法):             String Methods<2>.  (line   22)
* captured_stderr() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  325)
* captured_stdin() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  325)
* captured_stdout() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  325)
* captureWarnings() (於 logging 模組中): Integration with the warnings module.
                                                             (line    9)
* capwords() (於 string 模組中):         輔助函式.           (line    6)
* case block:                            Irrefutable Case Blocks.
                                                             (line    6)
* casefold() (str 的方法):               String Methods<2>.  (line   32)
* cast() (memoryview 的方法):            Memory Views.       (line  272)
* cast() (於 ctypes 模組中):             Utility functions.  (line   32)
* cast() (於 typing 模組中):             函式與裝飾器.       (line    6)
* cat() (於 nis 模組中):                 nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面.
                                                             (line   37)
* catch_threading_exception() (於 test.support.threading_helper 模組中): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   46)
* catch_unraisable_exception() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  588)
* catch_warnings (warnings 中的類別):    Available Context Managers.
                                                             (line    6)
* category() (於 unicodedata 模組中):    unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   49)
* cbreak() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line   35)
* cbrt() (於 math 模組中):               Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* CC:                                    New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   58)
* ccc() (ftplib.FTP_TLS 的方法):         FTP_TLS 物件.       (line   92)
* cdf() (statistics.NormalDist 的方法):  NormalDist 物件.    (line   67)
* CDLL (ctypes 中的類別):                Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line    9)
* ceil() (於 math 模組中):               數論與表現函式.     (line    6)
* ceil()（於 math 模組）:                數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   97)
* CellType (於 types 模組中):            Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   69)
* center() (bytearray 的方法):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  288)
* center() (bytes 的方法):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  288)
* center() (str 的方法):                 String Methods<2>.  (line   48)
* CERT_NONE (於 ssl 模組中):             常數<8>.            (line   11)
* CERT_OPTIONAL (於 ssl 模組中):         常數<8>.            (line   23)
* CERT_REQUIRED (於 ssl 模組中):         常數<8>.            (line   36)
* cert_store_stats() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.  (line   91)
* cert_time_to_seconds() (於 ssl 模組中): 認證處理.          (line    6)
* CertificateError:                      例外<11>.           (line   85)
* certificates（憑證）:                  SSL Contexts.       (line  662)
* CFLAGS:                                New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* CFLAGS <1>:                            Performance options.
                                                             (line   28)
* CFLAGS <2>:                            編譯器旗標.         (line   26)
* CFLAGS <3>:                            編譯器旗標.         (line   28)
* CFLAGS <4>:                            編譯器旗標.         (line   32)
* CFLAGS <5>:                            編譯器旗標.         (line   54)
* CFLAGS <6>:                            Linker flags.       (line   18)
* CFLAGS_NODIST:                         編譯器旗標.         (line   24)
* CFLAGS_NODIST <1>:                     編譯器旗標.         (line   61)
* CFLAGS_NODIST <2>:                     Linker flags.       (line   26)
* cfmakecbreak() (於 tty 模組中):        tty --- 終端機控制函式.
                                                             (line   26)
* cfmakeraw() (於 tty 模組中):           tty --- 終端機控制函式.
                                                             (line   18)
* CFUNCTYPE() (於 ctypes 模組中):        Function prototypes.
                                                             (line   15)
* cget() (tkinter.font.Font 的方法):     tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   50)
* cgi_directories (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  503)
* CGI;debugging（除錯）:                 Debugging CGI scripts.
                                                             (line    6)
* CGI;exceptions（例外）:                cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式.
                                                             (line    8)
* CGI;protocol（協定）:                  cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援.
                                                             (line    8)
* CGI;security（安全）:                  Caring about security.
                                                             (line    6)
* CGI;tracebacks（回溯）:                cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式.
                                                             (line    8)
* CGIHandler (wsgiref.handlers 中的類別): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line   10)
* CGIHTTPRequestHandler (http.server 中的類別): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  477)
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server 中的類別): xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器.
                                                             (line   50)
* chain() (於 itertools 模組中):         Itertool 函式.      (line   91)
* chaining（鏈接）;comparisons（比較）:  Comparisons.        (line   19)
* chaining（鏈結）;comparisons（比較）:  比較運算.           (line    6)
* ChainMap (collections 中的類別):       ChainMap 物件.      (line   15)
* ChainMap (typing 中的類別):            collections 中型別的別名.
                                                             (line   28)
* change_cwd() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   82)
* CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.            (line  410)
* channels() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  133)
* CHAR_MAX (於 locale 模組中):           locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  576)
* character（字元）:                     Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   15)
* character（字元） <1>:                 Subscriptions.      (line   58)
* character（字元） <2>:                 unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line    6)
* CharacterDataHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  278)
* characters_written (BlockingIOError 的屬性): 作業系統例外. (line   17)
* characters() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line  129)
* Charset (email.charset 中的類別):      email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line   22)
* charset() (gettext.NullTranslations 的方法): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   68)
* chdir() (於 contextlib 模組中):        Utilities.          (line  365)
* chdir() (於 os 模組中):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  115)
* check (lzma.LZMADecompressor 的屬性):  Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  159)
* check__all__() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  667)
* check_call() (於 subprocess 模組中):   Older high-level API.
                                                             (line   42)
* check_disallow_instantiation() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  721)
* CHECK_EG_MATCH (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  413)
* CHECK_EXC_MATCH (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  405)
* check_free_after_iterating() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  655)
* check_hostname (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性): SSL Contexts.      (line  494)
* check_impl_detail() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  289)
* check_no_resource_warning() (於 test.support.warnings_helper 模組中): test support warnings_helper --- 用於 warnings 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   24)
* check_output() (doctest.OutputChecker 的方法): OutputChecker 物件.
                                                             (line   17)
* check_output() (於 subprocess 模組中): Older high-level API.
                                                             (line   78)
* check_returncode() (subprocess.CompletedProcess 的方法): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  134)
* check_syntax_error() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  562)
* check_syntax_warning() (於 test.support.warnings_helper 模組中): test support warnings_helper --- 用於 warnings 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   31)
* check_unused_args() (string.Formatter 的方法): 自訂字串格式.
                                                             (line   87)
* check_warnings() (於 test.support.warnings_helper 模組中): test support warnings_helper --- 用於 warnings 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   47)
* check() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):        IMAP4 物件.         (line   58)
* check() (於 tabnanny 模組中):          tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排.
                                                             (line   16)
* checkbox() (msilib.Dialog 的方法):     GUI classes.        (line   76)
* checkcache() (於 linecache 模組中):    linecache --- 隨機存取文字列.
                                                             (line   43)
* CHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode 的屬性): py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line  109)
* checkfuncname() (於 bdb 模組中):       bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  449)
* CheckList (tkinter.tix 中的類別):      Hierarchical ListBox.
                                                             (line   13)
* checksizeof() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  443)
* checksum（核對和）;Cyclic Redundancy Check（循環冗餘核對）: zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line   97)
* chflags() (於 os 模組中):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  133)
* chgat() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  135)
* childNodes (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):      Node Objects.       (line   49)
* ChildProcessError:                     作業系統例外.       (line   22)
* children (pyclbr.Class 的屬性):        Class Objects.      (line   35)
* children (pyclbr.Function 的屬性):     函式物件.           (line   34)
* children (tkinter.Tk 的屬性):          Tkinter Modules.    (line   88)
* chksum (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):       TarInfo 物件.       (line  137)
* chmod() (pathlib.Path 的方法):         Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   16)
* chmod() (於 os 模組中):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  174)
* choice() (於 random 模組中):           回傳序列的函式.     (line    6)
* choice() (於 secrets 模組中):          亂數.               (line   14)
* choices (optparse.Option 的屬性):      Option attributes.  (line   63)
* choices() (於 random 模組中):          回傳序列的函式.     (line   11)
* Chooser (tkinter.colorchooser 中的類別): tkinter colorchooser --- 顏色選擇對話框.
                                                             (line   14)
* chown() (於 os 模組中):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  238)
* chown() (於 shutil 模組中):            Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  381)
* chroot() (於 os 模組中):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  264)
* CHRTYPE (於 tarfile 模組中):           tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  280)
* Chunk (chunk 中的類別):                chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line   52)
* cipher;DES:                            crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式.
                                                             (line    8)
* cipher() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法):       SSL Sockets.        (line  186)
* circle() (於 turtle 模組中):           Turtle motion.      (line  211)
* CIRCUMFLEX (於 token 模組中):          token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  154)
* CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL (於 token 模組中):     token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  198)
* Clamped (decimal 中的類別):            Signals.            (line   20)
* Class (pyclbr 中的類別):               Class Objects.      (line    6)
* Class (symtable 中的類別):             檢查符號表.         (line   92)
* class instance（類別實例）;attribute（屬性）: Class instances.
                                                             (line    6)
* class instance（類別實例）;attribute（屬性）;assignment（賦值）: Class instances.
                                                             (line   21)
* class instance（類別實例）;call（呼叫）: Calls.            (line  149)
* class object（類別物件）;call（呼叫）: Custom classes.     (line   19)
* class object（類別物件）;call（呼叫） <1>: Custom classes. (line   31)
* class object（類別物件）;call（呼叫） <2>: Calls.          (line  145)
* class variable（類別變數）:            術語表.             (line  231)
* class（類別）:                         術語表.             (line  226)
* class（類別）;attribute（屬性）:       Custom classes.     (line   19)
* class（類別）;attribute（屬性）;assignment（賦值）: Custom classes.
                                                             (line   28)
* class（類別）;body:                    Executing the class body.
                                                             (line    6)
* class（類別）;constructor（建構函式）: Basic customization.
                                                             (line   39)
* class（類別）;definition（定義）:      return 陳述式.      (line    6)
* class（類別）;definition（定義） <1>:  類別定義.           (line    6)
* class（類別）;instance（實例）:        Class instances.    (line    6)
* class（類別）;name（名稱）:            類別定義.           (line    6)
* ClassDef (ast 中的類別):               函式和類別定義.     (line  173)
* ClassMethodDescriptorType (於 types 模組中): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  115)
* ClassVar (於 typing 模組中):           特別型式.           (line  148)
* clause（子句）:                        複合陳述式.         (line   18)
* CLD_CONTINUED (於 os 模組中):          行程管理.           (line 1029)
* CLD_DUMPED (於 os 模組中):             行程管理.           (line 1029)
* CLD_EXITED (於 os 模組中):             行程管理.           (line 1029)
* CLD_KILLED (於 os 模組中):             行程管理.           (line 1029)
* CLD_STOPPED (於 os 模組中):            行程管理.           (line 1029)
* CLD_TRAPPED (於 os 模組中):            行程管理.           (line 1029)
* clean() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法):      Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line   83)
* cleandoc() (於 inspect 模組中):        取得原始碼.         (line   71)
* CleanImport (test.support.import_helper 中的類別): test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   85)
* cleanup functions（清理函式）:         行程控制.           (line   33)
* CLEANUP_THROW (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  291)
* cleanup() (tempfile.TemporaryDirectory 的方法): tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  171)
* clear (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line  116)
* Clear Breakpoint:                      Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* clear_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):   bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  363)
* clear_all_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb 的方法): bdb --- 偵錯器框架.
                                                             (line  358)
* clear_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):   bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  352)
* clear_break() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):        bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  347)
* clear_cache() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo 的類別方法): The ZoneInfo class.
                                                             (line   58)
* clear_cache() (於 filecmp 模組中):     filecmp --- 檔案與目錄比較.
                                                             (line   56)
* clear_content() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  669)
* clear_flags() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.   (line  171)
* clear_frames() (於 traceback 模組中):  Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  161)
* clear_history() (於 readline 模組中):  History list.       (line    8)
* clear_overloads() (於 typing 模組中):  函式與裝飾器.       (line  303)
* clear_session_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 的方法): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line   90)
* clear_traces() (於 tracemalloc 模組中): 函式<10>.          (line    6)
* clear_traps() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.   (line  175)
* clear() (asyncio.Event 的方法):        Event.              (line   56)
* clear() (collections.deque 的方法):    deque 物件.         (line   37)
* clear() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  151)
* clear() (dict 的方法):                 Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line  135)
* clear() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  665)
* clear() (frame 的方法):                Frame object methods.
                                                             (line    8)
* clear() (frozenset 的方法):            Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  213)
* clear() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 的方法): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line   78)
* clear() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):      Mailbox 物件.       (line  212)
* clear() (threading.Event 的方法):      Event Objects.      (line   36)
* clear() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line   58)
* clear() (於 turtle 模組中):            More drawing control.
                                                             (line   23)
* clear()（序列方法）:                   Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* clearcache() (於 linecache 模組中):    linecache --- 隨機存取文字列.
                                                             (line   38)
* ClearData() (msilib.Record 的方法):    Record Objects.     (line   37)
* clearok() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line  156)
* clearscreen() (於 turtle 模組中):      Window control.     (line   46)
* clearstamp() (於 turtle 模組中):       Turtle motion.      (line  282)
* clearstamps() (於 turtle 模組中):      Turtle motion.      (line  301)
* client_address (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   71)
* client_address (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler 的屬性): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* Client() (於 multiprocessing.connection 模組中): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   34)
* CLOCK_BOOTTIME (於 time 模組中):       Clock ID Constants. (line    9)
* clock_getres() (於 time 模組中):       函式<4>.            (line   35)
* clock_gettime_ns() (於 time 模組中):   函式<4>.            (line   56)
* clock_gettime() (於 time 模組中):      函式<4>.            (line   44)
* CLOCK_HIGHRES (於 time 模組中):        Clock ID Constants. (line   23)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC (於 time 模組中):      Clock ID Constants. (line   34)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW (於 time 模組中):  Clock ID Constants. (line   43)
* CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID (於 time 模組中): Clock ID Constants.
                                                             (line   52)
* CLOCK_PROF (於 time 模組中):           Clock ID Constants. (line   60)
* CLOCK_REALTIME (於 time 模組中):       Clock ID Constants. (line  111)
* clock_seq (uuid.UUID 的屬性):          uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  118)
* clock_seq_hi_variant (uuid.UUID 的屬性): uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  106)
* clock_seq_low (uuid.UUID 的屬性):      uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  109)
* clock_settime_ns() (於 time 模組中):   函式<4>.            (line   77)
* clock_settime() (於 time 模組中):      函式<4>.            (line   65)
* CLOCK_TAI (於 time 模組中):            Clock ID Constants. (line   68)
* CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID (於 time 模組中): Clock ID Constants.
                                                             (line   80)
* CLOCK_UPTIME (於 time 模組中):         Clock ID Constants. (line   88)
* CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW (於 time 模組中):     Clock ID Constants. (line   98)
* CLONE_FILES (於 os 模組中):            行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_FS (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_NEWCGROUP (於 os 模組中):        行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_NEWIPC (於 os 模組中):           行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_NEWNET (於 os 模組中):           行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_NEWNS (於 os 模組中):            行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_NEWPID (於 os 模組中):           行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_NEWTIME (於 os 模組中):          行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_NEWUSER (於 os 模組中):          行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_NEWUTS (於 os 模組中):           行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_SIGHAND (於 os 模組中):          行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_SYSVSEM (於 os 模組中):          行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_THREAD (於 os 模組中):           行程參數.           (line  622)
* CLONE_VM (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  622)
* clone() (email.generator.BytesGenerator 的方法): email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line  112)
* clone() (email.generator.Generator 的方法): email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line  208)
* clone() (email.policy.Policy 的方法):  email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  223)
* clone() (pipes.Template 的方法):       Template Objects.   (line   12)
* clone() (於 turtle 模組中):            Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   32)
* cloneNode() (xml.dom.Node 的方法):     Node Objects.       (line  147)
* close_connection (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   80)
* close() (aifc.aifc 的方法):            aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  119)
* close() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher 的方法): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   81)
* close() (asyncio.BaseTransport 的方法): Base Transport.    (line    6)
* close() (asyncio.loop 的方法):         啟動和停止迴圈.     (line   40)
* close() (asyncio.Runner 的方法):       Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   47)
* close() (asyncio.Server 的方法):       Server 物件.        (line   30)
* close() (asyncio.StreamWriter 的方法): StreamWriter.       (line   34)
* close() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 的方法): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   59)
* close() (chunk.Chunk 的方法):          chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line   81)
* close() (contextlib.ExitStack 的方法): Utilities.          (line  614)
* close() (coroutine 的方法):            Coroutine Objects.  (line   49)
* close() (dbm.dumb.dumbdbm 的方法):     dbm dumb --- 可攜式 DBM 實作.
                                                             (line   83)
* close() (dbm.gnu.gdbm 的方法):         dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line  110)
* close() (dbm.ndbm.ndbm 的方法):        dbm ndbm --- 新資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line   66)
* close() (email.parser.BytesFeedParser 的方法): FeedParser API.
                                                             (line   65)
* close() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):           FTP 物件.           (line  322)
* close() (generator 的方法):            Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   64)
* close() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.  (line   14)
* close() (http.client.HTTPConnection 的方法): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line  151)
* close() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):        IMAP4 物件.         (line   62)
* close() (io.IOBase 的方法):            I/O 基礎類別.       (line   42)
* close() (logging.FileHandler 的方法):  FileHandler.        (line   27)
* close() (logging.Handler 的方法):      Handler Objects.    (line   73)
* close() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler 的方法): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   56)
* close() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler 的方法): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   29)
* close() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 的方法): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   20)
* close() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler 的方法): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   46)
* close() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):      Mailbox 物件.       (line  269)
* close() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法):      Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line  114)
* close() (mailbox.MH 的方法):           MH 物件.            (line  104)
* close() (mmap.mmap 的方法):            mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  175)
* Close() (msilib.Database 的方法):      Database Objects.   (line   22)
* Close() (msilib.View 的方法):          View Objects.       (line   35)
* close() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 的方法): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* close() (multiprocessing.connection.Listener 的方法): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   91)
* close() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 的方法): Process Pools. (line  168)
* close() (multiprocessing.Process 的方法): Process 與例外.  (line  196)
* close() (multiprocessing.Queue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.  (line  173)
* close() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory 的方法): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line   56)
* close() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  219)
* close() (os.scandir 的方法):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  855)
* close() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* close() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device 的方法): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* close() (select.devpoll 的方法):       /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* close() (select.epoll 的方法):         Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* close() (select.kqueue 的方法):        Kqueue Objects.     (line    6)
* close() (selectors.BaseSelector 的方法): Classes<3>.       (line  137)
* close() (shelve.Shelf 的方法):         shelve --- Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   77)
* close() (socket.socket 的方法):        Socket 物件.        (line   41)
* close() (sqlite3.Blob 的方法):         Blob 物件.          (line   37)
* close() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法):   Connection 物件.    (line   84)
* close() (sqlite3.Cursor 的方法):       Cursor 物件.        (line  153)
* close() (sunau.AU_read 的方法):        AU_read 物件.       (line    8)
* close() (sunau.AU_write 的方法):       AU_write 物件.      (line   53)
* close() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法):      TarFile 物件.       (line  309)
* close() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法):     Telnet Objects.     (line   88)
* close() (urllib.request.BaseHandler 的方法): BaseHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   14)
* close() (wave.Wave_read 的方法):       Wave_read 物件.     (line   12)
* close() (wave.Wave_write 的方法):      Wave_write 物件.    (line   26)
* Close() (winreg.PyHKEY 的方法):        Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 的方法): TreeBuilder 物件.
                                                             (line   28)
* close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser 的方法): XMLParser 物件.
                                                             (line   20)
* close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser 的方法): XMLPullParser 物件.
                                                             (line   41)
* close() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser 的方法): IncrementalParser 物件.
                                                             (line   13)
* close() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):      ZipFile 物件.       (line  105)
* close() (於 fileinput 模組中):         fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line  132)
* close() (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* close() (於 socket 模組中):            其他函式<2>.        (line    9)
* close（os 模組中）:                    Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  192)
* closed (http.client.HTTPResponse 的屬性): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   75)
* closed (io.IOBase 的屬性):             I/O 基礎類別.       (line   51)
* closed (mmap.mmap 的屬性):             mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  181)
* closed (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的屬性): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  230)
* closed (select.devpoll 的屬性):        /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* closed (select.epoll 的屬性):          Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* closed (select.kqueue 的屬性):         Kqueue Objects.     (line   10)
* CloseKey() (於 winreg 模組中):         函式<12>.           (line    8)
* closelog() (於 syslog 模組中):         syslog --- Unix syslog 函式庫例程.
                                                             (line   78)
* closerange() (於 os 模組中):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   32)
* closing() (於 contextlib 模組中):      Utilities.          (line  153)
* clrtobot() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  161)
* clrtoeol() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  167)
* Cmd (cmd 中的類別):                    cmd --- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援.
                                                             (line   15)
* cmd (subprocess.CalledProcessError 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  216)
* cmd (subprocess.TimeoutExpired 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  173)
* cmdloop() (cmd.Cmd 的方法):            Cmd 物件.           (line    8)
* cmdqueue (cmd.Cmd 的屬性):             Cmd 物件.           (line  143)
* cmp_op (於 dis 模組中):                Opcode collections. (line   21)
* cmp_to_key() (於 functools 模組中):    functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line  103)
* cmp() (於 filecmp 模組中):             filecmp --- 檔案與目錄比較.
                                                             (line   16)
* cmpfiles() (於 filecmp 模組中):        filecmp --- 檔案與目錄比較.
                                                             (line   36)
* CMSG_LEN() (於 socket 模組中):         其他函式<2>.        (line  307)
* CMSG_SPACE() (於 socket 模組中):       其他函式<2>.        (line  324)
* co_argcount (codeobject 的屬性):       特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   14)
* co_argcount （程式碼物件屬性）:        Code objects.       (line   16)
* CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR (於 inspect 模組中): Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   52)
* co_cellvars (codeobject 的屬性):       特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   39)
* co_cellvars （程式碼物件屬性）:        Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_code (codeobject 的屬性):           特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   48)
* co_code （程式碼物件屬性）:            Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_consts (codeobject 的屬性):         特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   52)
* co_consts （程式碼物件屬性）:          Code objects.       (line   16)
* CO_COROUTINE (於 inspect 模組中):      Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   35)
* co_filename (codeobject 的屬性):       特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   60)
* co_filename （程式碼物件屬性）:        Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_firstlineno (codeobject 的屬性):    特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   64)
* co_firstlineno （程式碼物件屬性）:     Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_flags (codeobject 的屬性):          特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   78)
* co_flags （程式碼物件屬性）:           Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_freevars (codeobject 的屬性):       特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   44)
* co_freevars （程式碼物件屬性）:        Code objects.       (line   16)
* CO_FUTURE_DIVISION (C var):            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  368)
* CO_GENERATOR (於 inspect 模組中):      Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   30)
* CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE (於 inspect 模組中): Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   43)
* co_kwonlyargcount (codeobject 的屬性): 特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   25)
* co_kwonlyargcount （程式碼物件屬性）:  Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_lines() (codeobject 的方法):        用於程式碼物件的方法.
                                                             (line   43)
* co_lnotab (codeobject 的屬性):         特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   67)
* co_lnotab （程式碼物件屬性）:          Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_name (codeobject 的屬性):           特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line    6)
* co_name （程式碼物件屬性）:            Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_names (codeobject 的屬性):          特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   56)
* co_names （程式碼物件屬性）:           Code objects.       (line   16)
* CO_NESTED (於 inspect 模組中):         Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   26)
* CO_NEWLOCALS (於 inspect 模組中):      Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   13)
* co_nlocals (codeobject 的屬性):        特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   30)
* co_nlocals （程式碼物件屬性）:         Code objects.       (line   16)
* CO_OPTIMIZED (於 inspect 模組中):      Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line    9)
* co_positions() (codeobject 的方法):    用於程式碼物件的方法.
                                                             (line    6)
* co_posonlyargcount (codeobject 的屬性): 特殊唯讀屬性<2>.   (line   20)
* co_posonlyargcount （程式碼物件屬性）: Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_qualname (codeobject 的屬性):       特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line    9)
* co_qualname （程式碼物件屬性）:        Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_stacksize (codeobject 的屬性):      特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   75)
* co_stacksize （程式碼物件屬性）:       Code objects.       (line   16)
* CO_VARARGS (於 inspect 模組中):        Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   18)
* CO_VARKEYWORDS (於 inspect 模組中):    Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   22)
* co_varnames (codeobject 的屬性):       特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   34)
* co_varnames （程式碼物件屬性）:        Code objects.       (line   16)
* code (SystemExit 的屬性):              實體例外.           (line  320)
* code (urllib.error.HTTPError 的屬性):  urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line   39)
* code (urllib.response.addinfourl 的屬性): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   39)
* code (xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError 的屬性): 例外<14>.  (line   14)
* code (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError 的屬性): ExpatError 例外.
                                                             (line    9)
* code object（程式碼物件）:             Code objects.       (line    6)
* code object（程式碼物件） <1>:         Methods.            (line   43)
* code object（程式碼物件） <2>:         marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line   25)
* code object（程式碼物件） <3>:         Cell 物件.          (line   50)
* code_context (inspect.FrameInfo 的屬性): 直譯器堆疊.       (line   32)
* code_context (inspect.Traceback 的屬性): 直譯器堆疊.       (line   72)
* code_info() (於 dis 模組中):           Analysis functions. (line   11)
* code（程式碼）;block:                  執行模型.           (line    6)
* Codec (codecs 中的類別):               Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line    9)
* CodecInfo (codecs 中的類別):           codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   58)
* Codecs:                                codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line    8)
* Codecs;decode（解碼）:                 codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line    8)
* Codecs;encode（編碼）:                 codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line    8)
* coded_value (http.cookies.Morsel 的屬性): Morsel 物件.     (line   49)
* codepoint2name (於 html.entities 模組中): html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義.
                                                             (line   31)
* codes (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   16)
* CODESET (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  184)
* CodeType (types 中的類別):             Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   55)
* coding（程式編寫）;style（風格）:      間奏曲：程式碼風格 Coding Style.
                                                             (line    6)
* col_offset (ast.AST 的屬性):           節點 Node 類別.     (line   32)
* collapse_addresses() (於 ipaddress 模組中): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   43)
* collapse_rfc2231_value() (於 email.utils 模組中): email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  199)
* collect() (於 gc 模組中):              gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   31)
* collectedDurations (unittest.TestResult 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  277)
* Collection (collections.abc 中的類別): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   37)
* Collection (typing 中的類別):          collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   22)
* colno (json.JSONDecodeError 的屬性):   例外<12>.           (line   26)
* colno (re.error 的屬性):               Exceptions.         (line   32)
* colon (mailbox.Maildir 的屬性):        Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line   45)
* COLON (於 token 模組中):               token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   70)
* COLONEQUAL (於 token 模組中):          token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  238)
* COLOR_BLACK (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  641)
* COLOR_BLUE (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  644)
* color_content() (於 curses 模組中):    函式<5>.            (line   45)
* COLOR_CYAN (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  647)
* COLOR_GREEN (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  650)
* COLOR_MAGENTA (於 curses 模組中):      Constants.          (line  653)
* color_pair() (於 curses 模組中):       函式<5>.            (line   53)
* COLOR_PAIRS (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line   41)
* COLOR_RED (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  656)
* COLOR_WHITE (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  659)
* COLOR_YELLOW (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  662)
* color() (於 turtle 模組中):            Color control.      (line  104)
* colormode() (於 turtle 模組中):        Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   33)
* COLORS (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line   36)
* COLS (於 curses 模組中):               Constants.          (line   46)
* column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.      (line   35)
* columnize() (cmd.Cmd 的方法):          Cmd 物件.           (line   88)
* COLUMNS:                               函式<5>.            (line  595)
* COLUMNS <1>:                           函式<5>.            (line  598)
* columns (os.terminal_size 的屬性):     Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line   30)
* comb() (於 math 模組中):               數論與表現函式.     (line   12)
* combinations_with_replacement() (於 itertools 模組中): Itertool 函式.
                                                             (line  150)
* combinations() (於 itertools 模組中):  Itertool 函式.      (line  112)
* combine() (datetime.datetime 的類別方法): datetime 物件.   (line  178)
* combining() (於 unicodedata 模組中):   unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   59)
* ComboBox (tkinter.tix 中的類別):       Basic Widgets.      (line   18)
* Combobox (tkinter.ttk 中的類別):       ttk Combobox.       (line    6)
* comma:                                 Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line   20)
* COMMA (於 token 模組中):               token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   74)
* command (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   93)
* command line（命令列）:                完整的 Python 程式. (line   19)
* CommandCompiler (codeop 中的類別):     codeop --- 編譯 Python 程式碼.
                                                             (line   65)
* commands (pdb command):                Debugger Commands.  (line  150)
* comment (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性): Cookie 物件<2>.    (line   62)
* comment (http.cookies.Morsel 的屬性):  Morsel 物件.        (line   13)
* comment (zipfile.ZipFile 的屬性):      ZipFile 物件.       (line  350)
* comment (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性):      ZipInfo 物件.       (line   88)
* COMMENT (於 token 模組中):             token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  264)
* comment_url (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性): Cookie 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   67)
* comment() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 的方法): TreeBuilder 物件.
                                                             (line   49)
* comment() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler 的方法): LexicalHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   18)
* Comment() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.      (line   72)
* comment（註解）:                       Comments.           (line    6)
* commenters (shlex.shlex 的屬性):       shlex 物件.         (line   85)
* CommentHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  335)
* commit() (msilib.CAB 的方法):          CAB 物件.           (line   24)
* Commit() (msilib.Database 的方法):     Database Objects.   (line   11)
* commit() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法):  Connection 物件.    (line   68)
* common (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):        The dircmp class.   (line   59)
* Common Gateway Interface（通用閘道器介面）: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983: Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983 <1>: Build and C API Changes<8>.
                                                             (line   47)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983 <2>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  309)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876: Security<38>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876 <1>: Security<41>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876 <2>: Security<47>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2013-0340: Security<18>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2013-1753: Library<96>.
                                                             (line  193)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2014-0224: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   30)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2014-4616: Library<96>.
                                                             (line 1122)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2015-1283: Security<44>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2015-1283 <1>: Security<49>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718: Security<38>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <1>: Security<38>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <2>: Security<38>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <3>: Security<41>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <4>: Security<41>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <5>: Security<42>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <6>: Security<47>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <7>: Security<47>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <8>: Security<47>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0772: Security<44>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0772 <1>: Security<49>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-1000110: Library<75>.
                                                             (line   82)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-1000110 <1>: Library<82>.
                                                             (line  267)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-2183: Library<74>.
                                                             (line  178)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-2183 <1>: Library<82>.
                                                             (line  205)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-3189: Windows<23>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472: Security<38>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472 <1>: Security<42>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472 <2>: Security<47>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300: Security<38>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300 <1>: Security<41>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300 <2>: Security<47>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063: Security<38>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063 <1>: Security<41>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063 <2>: Security<47>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-1000158: Security<46>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233: Security<38>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233 <1>: Security<41>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233 <2>: Security<47>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060: Security<35>.
                                                             (line   48)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060 <1>: Security<36>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060 <2>: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061: Security<35>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061 <1>: Security<36>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061 <2>: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-14647: Security<35>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-25032: Windows<23>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-8970: Security<35>.
                                                             (line   38)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-8970 <1>: Security<36>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-12900: Windows<23>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-15903: Security<31>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-18348: Security<28>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-20907: Library<39>.
                                                             (line  186)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-5010: Security<35>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-9740: Security<33>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-9948: Security<32>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735: 其他 CPython 實作更動.
                                                             (line   48)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <1>: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <2>: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <3>: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <4>: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <5>: Integer string conversion length limitation.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-15523: Security<25>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-15801: Security<25>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-8492: Security<27>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2021-3426: Security<20>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-26488: Windows<23>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-37434: Windows<20>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-42919: Security<16>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-4303: Security<12>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-4303 <1>: Security<12>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-0286: Security<12>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-24329: Security<11>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-27043: Security<9>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-40217: Security<7>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425: Security<5>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <1>: Documentation<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <2>: XML 漏洞.
                                                             (line   85)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-6507: Library<8>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030: os.   (line   33)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030 <1>: tempfile.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030 <2>: Security<4>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 257:  應用技巧和典範實務（best practices）.
                                                             (line   16)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 295:  ssl.                (line   21)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 295 <1>: Library<23>.     (line  516)
* common_dirs (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):   The dircmp class.   (line   71)
* common_files (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):  The dircmp class.   (line   75)
* common_funny (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):  The dircmp class.   (line   79)
* common_types (於 mimetypes 模組中):    mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line  144)
* commonpath() (於 os.path 模組中):      os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line   60)
* commonprefix() (於 os.path 模組中):    os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line   71)
* communicate() (asyncio.subprocess.Process 的方法): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   50)
* communicate() (subprocess.Popen 的方法): Popen Objects.    (line   36)
* Compare (ast 中的類別):                運算式<2>.          (line   90)
* compare_digest() (於 hmac 模組中):     hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line   99)
* compare_digest() (於 secrets 模組中):  其他函式.           (line    6)
* compare_networks() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  237)
* compare_networks() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  352)
* COMPARE_OP (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  729)
* compare_signal() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.
                                                             (line  265)
* compare_signal() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  157)
* compare_to() (tracemalloc.Snapshot 的方法): Snapshot.      (line   13)
* compare_total_mag() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.
                                                             (line  273)
* compare_total_mag() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  189)
* compare_total() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects. (line  269)
* compare_total() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects. (line  164)
* compare() (decimal.Context 的方法):    Context objects.    (line  261)
* compare() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):    Decimal objects.    (line  146)
* compare() (difflib.Differ 的方法):     Differ Objects.     (line   38)
* COMPARISON_FLAGS (於 doctest 模組中):  可選旗標.           (line  104)
* comparison（比較）:                    Basic customization.
                                                             (line  187)
* comparison（比較） <1>:                Comparisons.        (line    6)
* Compat32 (email.policy 中的類別):      email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  562)
* compat32 (於 email.policy 模組中):     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  617)
* Compile (codeop 中的類別):             codeop --- 編譯 Python 程式碼.
                                                             (line   56)
* compile_command() (於 code 模組中):    code --- 直譯器基底類別.
                                                             (line   47)
* compile_command() (於 codeop 模組中):  codeop --- 編譯 Python 程式碼.
                                                             (line   29)
* compile_dir() (於 compileall 模組中):  Public functions.   (line    6)
* compile_file() (於 compileall 模組中): Public functions.   (line   93)
* compile_path() (於 compileall 模組中): Public functions.   (line  156)
* compile() (於 py_compile 模組中):      py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   24)
* compile() (於 re 模組中):              Functions.          (line    6)
* compileall 命令列選項; -b:             Command-line use.   (line   59)
* compileall 命令列選項; -d:             Command-line use.   (line   32)
* compileall 命令列選項; -e:             Command-line use.   (line  100)
* compileall 命令列選項; -f:             Command-line use.   (line   22)
* compileall 命令列選項; -hardlink-dupes: Command-line use.  (line  104)
* compileall 命令列選項; -i:             Command-line use.   (line   53)
* compileall 命令列選項; -invalidation-mode: Command-line use.
                                                             (line   80)
* compileall 命令列選項; -j:             Command-line use.   (line   74)
* compileall 命令列選項; -l:             Command-line use.   (line   17)
* compileall 命令列選項; -o:             Command-line use.   (line   94)
* compileall 命令列選項; -p:             Command-line use.   (line   42)
* compileall 命令列選項; -q:             Command-line use.   (line   26)
* compileall 命令列選項; -r:             Command-line use.   (line   67)
* compileall 命令列選項; -s:             Command-line use.   (line   40)
* compileall 命令列選項; -x:             Command-line use.   (line   47)
* compileall 命令列選項; directory:      Command-line use.   (line    9)
* compileall 命令列選項; file:           Command-line use.   (line    9)
* compiler_flag (__future__._Feature 的屬性): 模組內容<9>.   (line   81)
* complete_statement() (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module functions.
                                                             (line  101)
* complete() (rlcompleter.Completer 的方法): rlcompleter --- GNU readline 的補全函式.
                                                             (line   43)
* completedefault() (cmd.Cmd 的方法):    Cmd 物件.           (line   82)
* CompletedProcess (subprocess 中的類別): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  100)
* Completer (rlcompleter 中的類別):      rlcompleter --- GNU readline 的補全函式.
                                                             (line   39)
* Complex (numbers 中的類別):            數值的階層.         (line    6)
* complex (內建類別):                    內建函式.           (line  323)
* complex literal（複數常數）:           Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* complex number（複數）:                術語表.             (line  236)
* complex number（複數）;literals（字面值）: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   15)
* complex（複數）;number（數字）:        numbers Complex complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* compound（複合）;statement（陳述式）:  複合陳述式.         (line    6)
* comprehension (ast 中的類別):          綜合運算式 comprehensions.
                                                             (line   51)
* comprehensions:                        Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line    6)
* compress_size (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性): ZipInfo 物件.      (line  139)
* compress_type (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性): ZipInfo 物件.      (line   84)
* compress() (bz2.BZ2Compressor 的方法): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   15)
* compress() (lzma.LZMACompressor 的方法): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line   81)
* compress() (zlib.Compress 的方法):     zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  161)
* compress() (於 bz2 模組中):            One-shot de compression.
                                                             (line    6)
* compress() (於 gzip 模組中):           gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  184)
* compress() (於 itertools 模組中):      Itertool 函式.      (line  188)
* compress() (於 lzma 模組中):           Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  183)
* compress() (於 zlib 模組中):           zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line   37)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  233)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  319)
* compression() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法):  SSL Sockets.        (line  204)
* CompressionError:                      tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  207)
* compressobj() (於 zlib 模組中):        zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line   65)
* COMSPEC:                               行程管理.           (line  760)
* COMSPEC <1>:                           Popen Constructor.  (line  112)
* concat() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  164)
* Concatenate (於 typing 模組中):        特別型式.           (line   64)
* concatenation（串接）;operation（操作）: Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* cond (bdb.Breakpoint 的屬性):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line   95)
* Condition (asyncio 中的類別):          Condition.          (line    6)
* Condition (multiprocessing 中的類別):  Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   32)
* condition (pdb command):               Debugger Commands.  (line  143)
* Condition (threading 中的類別):        Condition Objects.  (line   72)
* condition() (msilib.Control 的方法):   GUI classes.        (line   22)
* Condition() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  172)
* Conditional（條件式）;expression:      Boolean operations. (line    6)
* conditional（條件式）;expression:      Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* config() (tkinter.font.Font 的方法):   tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   54)
* ConfigParser (configparser 中的類別):  ConfigParser 物件.  (line    6)
* configuration information（設定資訊）: sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取.
                                                             (line   10)
* configuration（設定）;file（檔案）:    configparser --- 設定檔剖析器.
                                                             (line    8)
* configure_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.   (line  239)
* configure() (tkinter.ttk.Style 的方法): Ttk Styling.       (line   24)
* CONFORM (enum.FlagBoundary 的屬性):    資料型別<2>.        (line  618)
* confstr_names (於 os 模組中):          Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   28)
* confstr() (於 os 模組中):              Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line    6)
* conjugate() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):  Decimal objects.    (line  201)
* conjugate() (numbers.Complex 的方法):  數值的階層.         (line   22)
* conjugate()（複數方法）:               數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   85)
* connect_accepted_socket() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 建立網路伺服器.
                                                             (line  117)
* connect_ex() (socket.socket 的方法):   Socket 物件.        (line   86)
* connect_read_pipe() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 使用管道.       (line    6)
* connect_write_pipe() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 使用管道.      (line   22)
* connect() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):         FTP 物件.           (line   80)
* connect() (http.client.HTTPConnection 的方法): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line  142)
* connect() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line   76)
* connect() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):       SMTP 物件.          (line   33)
* connect() (socket.socket 的方法):      Socket 物件.        (line   62)
* connect() (於 sqlite3 模組中):         Module functions.   (line    6)
* Connection (multiprocessing.connection 中的類別): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* Connection (sqlite3 中的類別):         Connection 物件.    (line    6)
* connection (sqlite3.Cursor 的屬性):    Cursor 物件.        (line  176)
* connection_lost() (asyncio.BaseProtocol 的方法): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   23)
* connection_made() (asyncio.BaseProtocol 的方法): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   15)
* ConnectionAbortedError:                作業系統例外.       (line   42)
* ConnectionError:                       作業系統例外.       (line   27)
* ConnectionRefusedError:                作業系統例外.       (line   48)
* ConnectionResetError:                  作業系統例外.       (line   53)
* ConnectRegistry() (於 winreg 模組中):  函式<12>.           (line   17)
* const (optparse.Option 的屬性):        Option attributes.  (line   58)
* Constant (ast 中的類別):               文本 Literals.      (line    6)
* constant（常數）:                      Literals.           (line    6)
* constructor() (於 copyreg 模組中):     copyreg --- 註冊 pickle 支援函式.
                                                             (line   15)
* consumed (asyncio.LimitOverrunError 的屬性): 例外<8>.      (line   61)
* Container (collections.abc 中的類別):  Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Container (typing 中的類別):           collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   32)
* container（容器）:                     Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   67)
* container（容器） <1>:                 Custom classes.     (line   19)
* container（容器）;iteration over（疊代於）: 疊代器型別.    (line    6)
* CONTAINS_OP (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  744)
* contains() (於 operator 模組中):       operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  169)
* content (urllib.error.ContentTooShortError 的屬性): urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line   65)
* content_disposition (email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  285)
* content_manager (email.policy.EmailPolicy 的屬性): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  418)
* content_type (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  272)
* ContentDispositionHeader (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  280)
* ContentHandler (xml.sax.handler 中的類別): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   18)
* ContentManager (email.contentmanager 中的類別): email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容.
                                                             (line   12)
* contents (ctypes._Pointer 的屬性):     Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   50)
* contents() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  481)
* contents() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   68)
* contents() (於 importlib.resources 模組中): 已棄用函式.    (line  129)
* ContentTooShortError:                  urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line   60)
* ContentTransferEncoding (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  290)
* ContentTypeHeader (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  267)
* Context (contextvars 中的類別):        Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line   20)
* Context (decimal 中的類別):            Context objects.    (line  115)
* context (ssl.SSLSocket 的屬性):        SSL Sockets.        (line  297)
* context management protocol（情境管理協定）: 情境管理器型別.
                                                             (line    6)
* context manager（情境管理器）:         With Statement Context Managers.
                                                             (line   14)
* context manager（情境管理器） <1>:     情境管理器型別.     (line    6)
* context manager（情境管理器） <2>:     術語表.             (line  246)
* context variable（情境變數）:          術語表.             (line  252)
* context_diff() (於 difflib 模組中):    difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line  155)
* ContextDecorator (contextlib 中的類別): Utilities.         (line  383)
* ContextManager (typing 中的類別):      contextlib ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line    6)
* contextmanager() (於 contextlib 模組中): Utilities.        (line   31)
* ContextVar (contextvars 中的類別):     Context Variables.  (line    6)
* CONTIG (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性):   Buffer flags.       (line   33)
* CONTIG_RO (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性): Buffer flags.      (line   35)
* contiguous (memoryview 的屬性):        Memory Views.       (line  486)
* contiguous（連續的）:                  shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   26)
* contiguous（連續的） <1>:              術語表.             (line  260)
* Continue (ast 中的類別):               流程控制.           (line   96)
* continue (pdb command):                Debugger Commands.  (line  216)
* CONTINUOUS (enum.EnumCheck 的屬性):    資料型別<2>.        (line  560)
* Control (msilib 中的類別):             GUI classes.        (line    9)
* Control (tkinter.tix 中的類別):        Basic Widgets.      (line   24)
* control() (msilib.Dialog 的方法):      GUI classes.        (line   45)
* control() (select.kqueue 的方法):      Kqueue Objects.     (line   22)
* controlnames (於 curses.ascii 模組中): curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  240)
* controls() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device 的方法): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* CONTTYPE (於 tarfile 模組中):          tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  296)
* ConversionError:                       例外<17>.           (line   13)
* convert_arg_line_to_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Customizing file parsing.
                                                             (line    6)
* convert_field() (string.Formatter 的方法): 自訂字串格式.   (line  104)
* Cookie (http.cookiejar 中的類別):      http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line  112)
* CookieError:                           http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理.
                                                             (line   34)
* CookieJar (http.cookiejar 中的類別):   http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line   45)
* cookiejar (urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor 的屬性): HTTPCookieProcessor 物件.
                                                             (line    8)
* CookiePolicy (http.cookiejar 中的類別): http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line   76)
* Coordinated Universal Time（世界協調時間）: time --- 時間存取與轉換.
                                                             (line   32)
* COPY (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  108)
* copy_abs() (decimal.Context 的方法):   Context objects.    (line  278)
* copy_abs() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):   Decimal objects.    (line  206)
* copy_context() (於 contextvars 模組中): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line    6)
* copy_decimal() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.  (line  185)
* copy_file_range() (於 os 模組中):      File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   44)
* COPY_FREE_VARS (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  934)
* copy_location() (於 ast 模組中):       ast 輔助程式.       (line  130)
* copy_negate() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.   (line  282)
* copy_negate() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.   (line  212)
* copy_sign() (decimal.Context 的方法):  Context objects.    (line  286)
* copy_sign() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):  Decimal objects.    (line  218)
* copy() (collections.deque 的方法):     deque 物件.         (line   41)
* copy() (contextvars.Context 的方法):   Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line   75)
* copy() (decimal.Context 的方法):       Context objects.    (line  181)
* copy() (dict 的方法):                  Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line  139)
* copy() (frozenset 的方法):             Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  123)
* copy() (hashlib.hash 的方法):          雜湊物件.           (line   45)
* copy() (hmac.HMAC 的方法):             hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line   71)
* copy() (http.cookies.Morsel 的方法):   Morsel 物件.        (line   95)
* copy() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):         IMAP4 物件.         (line   68)
* copy() (pipes.Template 的方法):        Template Objects.   (line   48)
* copy() (tkinter.font.Font 的方法):     tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   58)
* copy() (types.MappingProxyType 的方法): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  254)
* copy() (zlib.Compress 的方法):         zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  178)
* copy() (zlib.Decompress 的方法):       zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  233)
* copy() (於 copy 模組中):               copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作.
                                                             (line   17)
* copy() (於 multiprocessing.sharedctypes 模組中): multiprocessing sharedctypes 模組.
                                                             (line   83)
* copy() (於 shutil 模組中):             Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  120)
* copy()（序列方法）:                    Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* Copy（複製）:                          Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* copy（複製）;protocol（協定）:         Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line  111)
* copy2() (於 shutil 模組中):            Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  152)
* copyfile() (於 shutil 模組中):         Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   17)
* copyfileobj() (於 shutil 模組中):      Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* copying files（複製檔案）:             shutil — 高階檔案操作.
                                                             (line    8)
* copymode() (於 shutil 模組中):         Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   59)
* copyright (內建變數):                  由 site module（模組）所添增的常數.
                                                             (line   24)
* copyright (於 sys 模組中):             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  174)
* copyright（sys 模組中）:               Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  243)
* copysign() (於 math 模組中):           數論與表現函式.     (line   26)
* copystat() (於 shutil 模組中):         Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   77)
* copytree() (於 shutil 模組中):         Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  191)
* Coroutine (collections.abc 中的類別):  Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  127)
* Coroutine (typing 中的類別):           Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* coroutine function（協程函式）:        術語表.             (line  277)
* coroutine() (於 types 模組中):         Coroutine Utility Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* coroutine（協程）:                     Special method lookup.
                                                             (line   74)
* coroutine（協程） <1>:                 Yield expressions.  (line   53)
* coroutine（協程） <2>:                 術語表.             (line  270)
* coroutine（協程）;function （函式）:   Coroutine functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* CoroutineType (於 types 模組中):       Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   41)
* correlation() (於 statistics 模組中):  函式細節.           (line  451)
* cos() (於 cmath 模組中):               三角函數.           (line   20)
* cos() (於 math 模組中):                Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   31)
* cosh() (於 cmath 模組中):              雙曲函數.           (line   21)
* cosh() (於 math 模組中):               Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   21)
* count (tracemalloc.Statistic 的屬性):  Statistic.          (line   15)
* count (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff 的屬性): StatisticDiff.   (line   15)
* count_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff 的屬性): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   20)
* count() (array.array 的方法):          array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  132)
* count() (bytearray 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* count() (bytes 的方法):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* count() (collections.deque 的方法):    deque 物件.         (line   47)
* count() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList 的方法): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line  271)
* count() (str 的方法):                  String Methods<2>.  (line   55)
* count() (於 itertools 模組中):         Itertool 函式.      (line  199)
* count()（序列方法）:                   Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* Counter (collections 中的類別):        Counter 物件.       (line   23)
* Counter (typing 中的類別):             collections 中型別的別名.
                                                             (line   37)
* countOf() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  174)
* countTestCases() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.   (line  728)
* countTestCases() (unittest.TestSuite 的方法): Grouping tests.
                                                             (line   55)
* covariance() (於 statistics 模組中):   函式細節.           (line  429)
* CoverageResults (trace 中的類別):      Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   47)
* CPPFLAGS:                              New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* CPPFLAGS <1>:                          Preprocessor flags. (line    8)
* CPPFLAGS <2>:                          Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* CPPFLAGS <3>:                          Linker flags.       (line   50)
* CPU time（CPU 時間）:                  函式<4>.            (line  195)
* CPU time（CPU 時間） <1>:              函式<4>.            (line  498)
* cpu_count() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Miscellaneous<2>. (line   13)
* cpu_count() (於 os 模組中):            Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   37)
* CPython:                               術語表.             (line  284)
* cpython_only() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  520)
* CR (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   64)
* crawl_delay() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 的方法): urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line   46)
* CRC (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性):          ZipInfo 物件.       (line  135)
* crc_hqx() (於 binascii 模組中):        binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line   91)
* crc32() (於 binascii 模組中):          binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line   98)
* crc32() (於 zlib 模組中):              zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line   95)
* create_aggregate() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  153)
* create_archive() (於 zipapp 模組中):   Python API.         (line    8)
* create_autospec() (於 unittest.mock 模組中): create_autospec.
                                                             (line    6)
* CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line  124)
* create_collation() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  293)
* create_configuration() (venv.EnvBuilder 的方法): API<2>.   (line  134)
* create_connection() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 打開網路連線.   (line    6)
* create_connection() (於 socket 模組中): 建立 sockets.      (line   82)
* create_datagram_endpoint() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 打開網路連線.
                                                             (line  127)
* create_decimal_from_float() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.
                                                             (line  213)
* create_decimal() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.
                                                             (line  189)
* create_default_context() (於 ssl 模組中): 語境建立.        (line    8)
* CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line  114)
* create_eager_task_factory() (於 asyncio 模組中): Eager Task Factory.
                                                             (line   32)
* create_empty_file() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   91)
* create_function() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  111)
* create_future() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 建立 Futures 和 Tasks.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_module() (importlib.abc.Loader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  103)
* create_module() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  308)
* create_module() (zipimport.zipimporter 的方法): zipimporter 物件.
                                                             (line   23)
* CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   38)
* CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   43)
* CREATE_NO_WINDOW (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   99)
* create_server() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 建立網路伺服器.     (line    6)
* create_server() (於 socket 模組中):    建立 sockets.       (line  113)
* create_stats() (profile.Profile 的方法): profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   86)
* create_string_buffer() (於 ctypes 模組中): Utility functions.
                                                             (line   39)
* create_subprocess_exec() (於 asyncio 模組中): 建立子行程.  (line    6)
* create_subprocess_shell() (於 asyncio 模組中): 建立子行程. (line   23)
* create_system (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性): ZipInfo 物件.      (line   99)
* create_task() (asyncio.loop 的方法):   建立 Futures 和 Tasks.
                                                             (line   15)
* create_task() (asyncio.TaskGroup 的方法): Task Groups.     (line   17)
* create_task() (於 asyncio 模組中):     Creating Tasks.     (line   10)
* create_unicode_buffer() (於 ctypes 模組中): Utility functions.
                                                             (line   57)
* create_unix_connection() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 打開網路連線.
                                                             (line  193)
* create_unix_server() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 建立網路伺服器.
                                                             (line   95)
* create_version (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性): ZipInfo 物件.     (line  103)
* create_window_function() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  204)
* create() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line   72)
* create() (venv.EnvBuilder 的方法):     API<2>.             (line   52)
* create() (於 venv 模組中):             API<2>.             (line  213)
* createAttribute() (xml.dom.Document 的方法): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* createAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Document 的方法): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* createComment() (xml.dom.Document 的方法): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* createDocument() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation 的方法): DOMImplementation 物件.
                                                             (line   16)
* createDocumentType() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation 的方法): DOMImplementation 物件.
                                                             (line   26)
* createElement() (xml.dom.Document 的方法): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* createElementNS() (xml.dom.Document 的方法): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* createfilehandler() (_tkinter.Widget.tk 的方法): File Handlers.
                                                             (line   27)
* CreateKey() (於 winreg 模組中):        函式<12>.           (line   35)
* CreateKeyEx() (於 winreg 模組中):      函式<12>.           (line   63)
* createLock() (logging.Handler 的方法): Handler Objects.    (line   20)
* createLock() (logging.NullHandler 的方法): NullHandler.    (line   24)
* createProcessingInstruction() (xml.dom.Document 的方法): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* CreateRecord() (於 msilib 模組中):     msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line   57)
* createSocket() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 的方法): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   72)
* createSocket() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler 的方法): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   50)
* createTextNode() (xml.dom.Document 的方法): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* credits (內建變數):                    由 site module（模組）所添增的常數.
                                                             (line   24)
* CRITICAL (於 logging 模組中):          Logging Levels.     (line   45)
* critical() (logging.Logger 的方法):    Logger 物件.        (line  304)
* critical() (於 logging 模組中):        Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   86)
* CRNCYSTR (於 locale 模組中):           locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  292)
* cross() (於 audioop 模組中):           audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   77)
* CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION (於 msvcrt 模組中): Other Functions.  (line   12)
* crypt() (於 crypt 模組中):             模組函式<2>.        (line    8)
* crypt(3):                              crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式.
                                                             (line    8)
* crypt(3) <1>:                          crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式.
                                                             (line   22)
* crypt(3) <2>:                          模組函式<2>.        (line   32)
* cryptography（密碼學）:                加密服務.           (line    6)
* cssclass_month (calendar.HTMLCalendar 的屬性): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  202)
* cssclass_month_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar 的屬性): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  195)
* cssclass_noday (calendar.HTMLCalendar 的屬性): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  182)
* cssclass_year (calendar.HTMLCalendar 的屬性): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  209)
* cssclass_year_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar 的屬性): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  216)
* cssclasses (calendar.HTMLCalendar 的屬性): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  170)
* cssclasses_weekday_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar 的屬性): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  188)
* csv:                                   csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入.
                                                             (line    8)
* cte (email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  294)
* cte_type (email.policy.Policy 的屬性): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  160)
* ctermid() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line    9)
* ctime() (datetime.date 的方法):        date 物件.          (line  265)
* ctime() (datetime.datetime 的方法):    datetime 物件.      (line  712)
* ctime() (於 time 模組中):              函式<4>.            (line   85)
* CTRL_BREAK_EVENT (於 signal 模組中):   模組內容<5>.        (line  199)
* CTRL_C_EVENT (於 signal 模組中):       模組內容<5>.        (line  190)
* ctrl() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):       curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  216)
* curdir (於 os 模組中):                 Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   84)
* currency() (於 locale 模組中):         locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  473)
* current_process() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Miscellaneous<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* current_task() (於 asyncio 模組中):    Introspection.      (line    6)
* current_thread() (於 threading 模組中): threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line   60)
* current() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox 的方法): ttk Combobox.     (line    8)
* CurrentByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  195)
* CurrentColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  199)
* currentframe() (於 inspect 模組中):    直譯器堆疊.         (line  159)
* CurrentLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  203)
* curs_set() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line   61)
* Cursor (sqlite3 中的類別):             Cursor 物件.        (line   19)
* cursor() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法):  Connection 物件.    (line   23)
* cursyncup() (curses.window 的方法):    Window Objects.     (line  171)
* Cut（剪下）:                           Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* cwd() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):             FTP 物件.           (line  293)
* cwd() (pathlib.Path 的類別方法):       Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   29)
* cycle() (於 itertools 模組中):         Itertool 函式.      (line  218)
* CycleError:                            例外<2>.            (line    8)
* Cyclic Redundancy Check（循環冗餘核對）: zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line   97)
* D_FMT (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  195)
* D_T_FMT (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  189)
* daemon (multiprocessing.Process 的屬性): Process 與例外.   (line  101)
* daemon (threading.Thread 的屬性):      Thread Objects.     (line  202)
* daemon_threads (socketserver.ThreadingMixIn 的屬性): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   55)
* dangling;else:                         複合陳述式.         (line   55)
* data (collections.UserDict 的屬性):    UserDict 物件.      (line   20)
* data (collections.UserList 的屬性):    UserList 物件.      (line   23)
* data (collections.UserString 的屬性):  UserString 物件.    (line   20)
* data (select.kevent 的屬性):           Kevent Objects.     (line  175)
* data (selectors.SelectorKey 的屬性):   Classes<3>.         (line   48)
* data (urllib.request.Request 的屬性):  Request Objects.    (line   39)
* data (xml.dom.Comment 的屬性):         Comment Objects.    (line    9)
* data (xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction 的屬性): ProcessingInstruction 物件.
                                                             (line   14)
* data (xml.dom.Text 的屬性):            Text and CDATASection Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* data (xmlrpc.client.Binary 的屬性):    Binary Objects.     (line   12)
* data_filter() (於 tarfile 模組中):     Default named filters.
                                                             (line   36)
* data_open() (urllib.request.DataHandler 的方法): DataHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* data_received() (asyncio.Protocol 的方法): Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   13)
* data() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 的方法): TreeBuilder 物件.
                                                             (line   33)
* data（資料）:                          Objects values and types.
                                                             (line    6)
* data（資料）;tabular（表格）:          csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入.
                                                             (line    8)
* data（資料）;type（型別）:             標準型別階層.       (line    6)
* DatabaseError:                         例外<4>.            (line   44)
* databases（資料庫）:                   dbm dumb --- 可攜式 DBM 實作.
                                                             (line    8)
* dataclass_transform() (於 typing 模組中): 函式與裝飾器.    (line  114)
* dataclass() (於 dataclasses 模組中):   模組內容<8>.        (line    6)
* DataError:                             例外<4>.            (line   51)
* datagram_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol 的方法): Datagram Protocols.
                                                             (line    9)
* DatagramHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* DatagramProtocol (asyncio 中的類別):   Base Protocols.     (line   20)
* DatagramRequestHandler (socketserver 中的類別): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* DatagramTransport (asyncio 中的類別):  Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   43)
* DataHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  398)
* date (datetime 中的類別):              date 物件.          (line   13)
* date_time (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性):    ZipInfo 物件.       (line   54)
* date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  318)
* date() (datetime.datetime 的方法):     datetime 物件.      (line  420)
* date() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line  298)
* DateHeader (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  136)
* datetime (datetime 中的類別):          datetime 物件.      (line   17)
* datetime (email.headerregistry.DateHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  145)
* DateTime (xmlrpc.client 中的類別):     日期時間物件.       (line    6)
* Day (calendar 中的類別):               calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  358)
* day (datetime.date 的屬性):            date 物件.          (line  124)
* day (datetime.datetime 的屬性):        datetime 物件.      (line  294)
* DAY_1 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_2 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_3 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_4 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_5 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_6 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_7 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  212)
* day_abbr (於 calendar 模組中):         calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  337)
* day_name (於 calendar 模組中):         calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  328)
* daylight (於 time 模組中):             Timezone Constants. (line   13)
* Daylight Saving Time（日光節約時間）:  time --- 時間存取與轉換.
                                                             (line   36)
* days (datetime.timedelta 的屬性):      timedelta 物件.     (line   95)
* DbfilenameShelf (shelve 中的類別):     Restrictions.       (line   73)
* DC1 (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   76)
* DC2 (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   79)
* DC3 (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   82)
* DC4 (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   85)
* dcgettext() (於 locale 模組中):        Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   10)
* ddocumentation strings（說明字串）:    定義函式 function.  (line   20)
* ddocumentation strings（說明字串） <1>: 說明文件字串 Documentation Strings.
                                                             (line    6)
* deactivate_stack_trampoline() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1689)
* deallocation, object:                  Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* debug (imaplib.IMAP4 的屬性):          IMAP4 物件.         (line  398)
* debug (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line  406)
* debug (shlex.shlex 的屬性):            shlex 物件.         (line  161)
* debug (sys.flags 的屬性):              sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  511)
* debug (zipfile.ZipFile 的屬性):        ZipFile 物件.       (line  344)
* DEBUG (於 logging 模組中):             Logging Levels.     (line   24)
* DEBUG (於 re 模組中):                  旗標.               (line   32)
* DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (於 importlib.machinery 模組中): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   20)
* DEBUG_COLLECTABLE (於 gc 模組中):      gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  255)
* DEBUG_LEAK (於 gc 模組中):             gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  272)
* DEBUG_SAVEALL (於 gc 模組中):          gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  267)
* debug_src() (於 doctest 模組中):       Debugging.          (line  147)
* DEBUG_STATS (於 gc 模組中):            gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  251)
* DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE (於 gc 模組中):    gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  259)
* debug() (logging.Logger 的方法):       Logger 物件.        (line  183)
* debug() (pipes.Template 的方法):       Template Objects.   (line   16)
* debug() (unittest.TestCase 的方法):    Test cases.         (line  120)
* debug() (unittest.TestSuite 的方法):   Grouping tests.     (line   48)
* debug() (於 doctest 模組中):           Debugging.          (line  124)
* debug() (於 logging 模組中):           Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   46)
* debugger（除錯器）:                    threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  176)
* debugger（除錯器） <1>:                Debug menu Shell window only.
                                                             (line   15)
* debugger（除錯器） <2>:                sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  891)
* debugger（除錯器） <3>:                sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1525)
* debugger（除錯器）;configuration（設定）;file（檔案）: Debugger Commands.
                                                             (line   56)
* debugging（除錯）:                     pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line    8)
* debugging（除錯）;assertions（斷言）:  assert 陳述式.      (line    6)
* debuglevel (http.client.HTTPResponse 的屬性): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   69)
* DebugRunner (doctest 中的類別):        Debugging.          (line  168)
* DECEMBER (於 calendar 模組中):         calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* Decimal (decimal 中的類別):            Decimal objects.    (line    6)
* decimal literal（十進位常數）:         Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* decimal() (於 unicodedata 模組中):     unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   31)
* DecimalException (decimal 中的類別):   Signals.            (line   28)
* decode (codecs.CodecInfo 的屬性):      codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   69)
* decode_header() (於 email.header 模組中): email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line  183)
* decode_header() (於 nntplib 模組中):   Utility functions<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* decode_params() (於 email.utils 模組中): email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  216)
* decode_rfc2231() (於 email.utils 模組中): email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  187)
* decode_source() (於 importlib.util 模組中): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   72)
* decode() (bytearray 的方法):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   92)
* decode() (bytes 的方法):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   92)
* decode() (codecs.Codec 的方法):        Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line   29)
* decode() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder 的方法): IncrementalDecoder 物件.
                                                             (line   28)
* decode() (json.JSONDecoder 的方法):    編碼器與解碼器.     (line   80)
* decode() (xmlrpc.client.Binary 的方法): Binary Objects.    (line   20)
* decode() (xmlrpc.client.DateTime 的方法): 日期時間物件.    (line   13)
* decode() (於 base64 模組中):           base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  207)
* decode() (於 codecs 模組中):           codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   34)
* decode() (於 quopri 模組中):           quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料.
                                                             (line   16)
* decode() (於 uu 模組中):               xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line   41)
* decodebytes() (於 base64 模組中):      base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  213)
* DecodedGenerator (email.generator 中的類別): email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line  232)
* decodestring() (於 quopri 模組中):     quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料.
                                                             (line   34)
* decomposition() (於 unicodedata 模組中): unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   75)
* decompress() (bz2.BZ2Decompressor 的方法): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   45)
* decompress() (lzma.LZMADecompressor 的方法): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  132)
* decompress() (zlib.Decompress 的方法): zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  209)
* decompress() (於 bz2 模組中):          One-shot de compression.
                                                             (line   16)
* decompress() (於 gzip 模組中):         gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  205)
* decompress() (於 lzma 模組中):         Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  192)
* decompress() (於 zlib 模組中):         zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  106)
* decompressobj() (於 zlib 模組中):      zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  141)
* decorator（裝飾器）:                   術語表.             (line  290)
* DEDENT (於 token 模組中):              token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   52)
* DEDENT token（縮排標誌）:              Indentation.        (line   33)
* DEDENT token（縮排標誌） <1>:          複合陳述式.         (line   55)
* dedent() (於 textwrap 模組中):         textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line   76)
* deepcopy() (於 copy 模組中):           copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作.
                                                             (line   21)
* def_prog_mode() (於 curses 模組中):    函式<5>.            (line   70)
* def_shell_mode() (於 curses 模組中):   函式<5>.            (line   77)
* default (inspect.Parameter 的屬性):    Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  201)
* default (optparse.Option 的屬性):      Option attributes.  (line   44)
* default (於 email.policy 模組中):      email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  503)
* DEFAULT (於 unittest.mock 模組中):     DEFAULT.            (line    6)
* DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE (於 io 模組中):    高階模組介面.       (line    6)
* default_bufsize (於 xml.dom.pulldom 模組中): xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹.
                                                             (line  103)
* default_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 錯誤處理 API.
                                                             (line   31)
* default_factory (collections.defaultdict 的屬性): defaultdict 物件.
                                                             (line   41)
* DEFAULT_FORMAT (於 tarfile 模組中):    tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  328)
* DEFAULT_IGNORES (於 filecmp 模組中):   The dircmp class.   (line  111)
* default_loader() (於 xml.etree.ElementInclude 模組中): 函式<9>.
                                                             (line    6)
* default_max_str_digits (sys.int_info 的屬性): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1099)
* default_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler 的方法): BaseHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   30)
* DEFAULT_PROTOCOL (於 pickle 模組中):   模組介面.           (line   21)
* default_timer() (於 timeit 模組中):    Python 介面.        (line   29)
* default() (cmd.Cmd 的方法):            Cmd 物件.           (line   76)
* default() (json.JSONEncoder 的方法):   編碼器與解碼器.     (line  181)
* default（預設）;parameter（參數）;value（值）: 函式定義.   (line   66)
* DefaultContext (decimal 中的類別):     Context objects.    (line   90)
* DefaultCookiePolicy (http.cookiejar 中的類別): http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line   81)
* defaultdict (collections 中的類別):    defaultdict 物件.   (line    6)
* DefaultDict (typing 中的類別):         collections 中型別的別名.
                                                             (line    6)
* DefaultEventLoopPolicy (asyncio 中的類別): Policy Objects. (line   54)
* DefaultHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  350)
* DefaultHandlerExpand() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  357)
* defaults() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  100)
* DefaultSelector (selectors 中的類別):  Classes<3>.         (line  161)
* defaultTestLoader (於 unittest 模組中): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  457)
* defaultTestResult() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  733)
* defects (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line   52)
* defects (email.message.EmailMessage 的屬性): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  709)
* defects (email.message.Message 的屬性): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  722)
* defpath (於 os 模組中):                Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  124)
* DefragResult (urllib.parse 中的類別):  Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   40)
* DefragResultBytes (urllib.parse 中的類別): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   65)
* degrees() (於 math 模組中):            Angular conversion. (line    6)
* degrees() (於 turtle 模組中):          Settings for measurement.
                                                             (line    6)
* Del (ast 中的類別):                    變數.               (line   10)
* DEL (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  124)
* del_param() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  381)
* del_param() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  541)
* delay_output() (於 curses 模組中):     函式<5>.            (line   85)
* delay() (於 turtle 模組中):            Animation control.  (line    6)
* delayload (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar 的屬性): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line  159)
* delch() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  176)
* dele() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   68)
* Delete (ast 中的類別):                 陳述式.             (line  144)
* DELETE_ATTR (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  552)
* DELETE_DEREF (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  924)
* DELETE_FAST (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  874)
* DELETE_GLOBAL (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  566)
* DELETE_NAME (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  506)
* DELETE_SUBSCR (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  210)
* delete() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):          FTP 物件.           (line  287)
* delete() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line   76)
* delete() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.      (line   73)
* deleteacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):    IMAP4 物件.         (line   80)
* deletefilehandler() (_tkinter.Widget.tk 的方法): File Handlers.
                                                             (line   37)
* DeleteKey() (於 winreg 模組中):        函式<12>.           (line  102)
* DeleteKeyEx() (於 winreg 模組中):      函式<12>.           (line  124)
* deleteln() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  180)
* deleteMe() (bdb.Breakpoint 的方法):    bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line   41)
* DeleteValue() (於 winreg 模組中):      函式<12>.           (line  160)
* deletion（刪除）;target:               del 陳述式<2>.      (line    6)
* deletion（刪除）;target;list（串列）:  del 陳述式<2>.      (line    6)
* delimiter (csv.Dialect 的屬性):        Dialect 與格式參數. (line   16)
* delimiters（分隔符號）:                Delimiters.         (line    6)
* delitem() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  178)
* deliver_challenge() (於 multiprocessing.connection 模組中): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   15)
* delocalize() (於 locale 模組中):       locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  494)
* demo_app() (於 wsgiref.simple_server 模組中): wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   33)
* denominator (fractions.Fraction 的屬性): fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line  113)
* denominator (numbers.Rational 的屬性): 數值的階層.         (line   50)
* DeprecationWarning:                    警告.               (line   17)
* deque (collections 中的類別):          deque 物件.         (line    6)
* Deque (typing 中的類別):               collections 中型別的別名.
                                                             (line   46)
* dequeue() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 的方法): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   49)
* DER_cert_to_PEM_cert() (於 ssl 模組中): 認證處理.          (line   48)
* derive() (BaseExceptionGroup 的方法):  例外群組.           (line   61)
* derwin() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  185)
* descrgetfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   69)
* description (inspect.Parameter.kind 的屬性): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  267)
* description (sqlite3.Cursor 的屬性):   Cursor 物件.        (line  189)
* description() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):   方法.               (line  149)
* descriptions() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):  方法.               (line  135)
* descriptor（描述器）:                  術語表.             (line  309)
* descrsetfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   74)
* deserialize() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  666)
* dest (optparse.Option 的屬性):         Option attributes.  (line   35)
* destructor (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line   24)
* destructor（解構函式）:                Basic customization.
                                                             (line   55)
* destructor（解構函式） <1>:            Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   71)
* detach() (io.BufferedIOBase 的方法):   I/O 基礎類別.       (line  225)
* detach() (io.TextIOBase 的方法):       文字 I/O<2>.        (line   37)
* detach() (socket.socket 的方法):       Socket 物件.        (line  100)
* detach() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.      (line   79)
* detach() (weakref.finalize 的方法):    weakref --- 弱參照. (line  244)
* Detach() (winreg.PyHKEY 的方法):       Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* DETACHED_PROCESS (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line  106)
* detect_api_mismatch() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  630)
* detect_encoding() (於 tokenize 模組中): Tokenizing Input.  (line   77)
* deterministic profiling:               Introduction to the profilers.
                                                             (line    6)
* dev_mode (sys.flags 的屬性):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  550)
* device_encoding() (於 os 模組中):      File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   81)
* devmajor (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):     TarInfo 物件.       (line  141)
* devminor (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):     TarInfo 物件.       (line  145)
* devnull (於 os 模組中):                Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  139)
* DEVNULL (於 subprocess 模組中):        Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  141)
* devpoll() (於 select 模組中):          select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line   36)
* DevpollSelector (selectors 中的類別):  Classes<3>.         (line  184)
* dgettext() (於 gettext 模組中):        GNU gettext API.    (line   39)
* dgettext() (於 locale 模組中):         Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line    8)
* Dialect (csv 中的類別):                模組內容<3>.        (line  167)
* dialect (csv.csvreader 的屬性):        讀取器物件.         (line   18)
* dialect (csv.csvwriter 的屬性):        寫入器物件.         (line   29)
* Dialog (msilib 中的類別):              GUI classes.        (line   38)
* Dialog (tkinter.commondialog 中的類別): tkinter commondialog --- Dialog window templates.
                                                             (line   14)
* Dialog (tkinter.simpledialog 中的類別): tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框.
                                                             (line   21)
* dict (2to3 fixer):                     Fixers.             (line   70)
* Dict (ast 中的類別):                   文本 Literals.      (line  100)
* Dict (typing 中的類別):                內建型別的別名.     (line    6)
* dict (內建類別):                       Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line   19)
* DICT_MERGE (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  678)
* DICT_UPDATE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  667)
* dict() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  221)
* DictComp (ast 中的類別):               綜合運算式 comprehensions.
                                                             (line    6)
* dictConfig() (於 logging.config 模組中): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* dictionary comprehension（字典綜合運算）: 術語表.          (line  329)
* dictionary view（字典檢視）:           術語表.             (line  336)
* dictionary（字典）:                    術語表.             (line  323)
* dictionary（字典）;comprehensions:     Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* dictionary（字典）;display:            Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* DictReader (csv 中的類別):             模組內容<3>.        (line   93)
* DictWriter (csv 中的類別):             模組內容<3>.        (line  134)
* diff_bytes() (於 difflib 模組中):      difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line  335)
* diff_files (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):    The dircmp class.   (line   90)
* Differ (difflib 中的類別):             difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line   50)
* difference_update() (frozenset 的方法): Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  182)
* difference() (frozenset 的方法):       Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  109)
* dig (sys.float_info 的屬性):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  608)
* digest_size (hmac.HMAC 的屬性):        hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line   78)
* digest() (hashlib.hash 的方法):        雜湊物件.           (line   33)
* digest() (hashlib.shake 的方法):       SHAKE 可變長度摘要. (line   14)
* digest() (hmac.HMAC 的方法):           hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line   49)
* digest() (於 hmac 模組中):             hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line   27)
* digit() (於 unicodedata 模組中):       unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   37)
* digits (於 string 模組中):             字串常數.           (line   23)
* dir() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):             FTP 物件.           (line  271)
* dircmp (filecmp 中的類別):             The dircmp class.   (line    6)
* Directory (msilib 中的類別):           Directory Objects.  (line    6)
* Directory (tkinter.filedialog 中的類別): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   71)
* directory（目錄）;changing（改變）:    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  117)
* directory（目錄）;creating（建立）:    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  528)
* directory（目錄）;deleting（刪除）:    Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  264)
* directory（目錄）;deleting（刪除） <1>: Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  715)
* directory（目錄）;traversal（遍歷）:   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1619)
* directory（目錄）;traversal（遍歷） <1>: Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1720)
* directory（目錄）;walking:             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1619)
* directory（目錄）;walking <1>:         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1720)
* DirEntry (os 中的類別):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  893)
* DirList (tkinter.tix 中的類別):        File Selectors.     (line    6)
* dirname() (於 os.path 模組中):         os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line   87)
* dirs_double_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   86)
* dirs_select_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   90)
* DirSelectBox (tkinter.tix 中的類別):   File Selectors.     (line   26)
* DirSelectDialog (tkinter.tix 中的類別): File Selectors.    (line   20)
* DirsOnSysPath (test.support.import_helper 中的類別): test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   95)
* DirTree (tkinter.tix 中的類別):        File Selectors.     (line   13)
* DIRTYPE (於 tarfile 模組中):           tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  288)
* dis 命令列選項; -h:                    Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   13)
* dis 命令列選項; -help:                 Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   13)
* dis() (dis.Bytecode 的方法):           Bytecode analysis.  (line   54)
* dis() (於 dis 模組中):                 Analysis functions. (line   40)
* dis() (於 pickletools 模組中):         程式化介面.         (line    6)
* disable (pdb command):                 Debugger Commands.  (line  123)
* DISABLE (於 sys.monitoring 模組中):    停用事件.           (line    6)
* disable_faulthandler() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  349)
* disable_gc() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  361)
* disable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   10)
* disable() (bdb.Breakpoint 的方法):     bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line   51)
* disable() (profile.Profile 的方法):    profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   82)
* disable() (於 faulthandler 模組中):    Fault handler state.
                                                             (line   26)
* disable() (於 gc 模組中):              gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   23)
* disable() (於 logging 模組中):         Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  105)
* disabled (logging.Logger 的屬性):      Logger 物件.        (line   95)
* DisableReflectionKey() (於 winreg 模組中): 函式<12>.       (line  481)
* disassemble() (於 dis 模組中):         Analysis functions. (line   93)
* discard (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性): Cookie 物件<2>.    (line   58)
* discard() (frozenset 的方法):          Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  204)
* discard() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):    Mailbox 物件.       (line   76)
* discard() (mailbox.MH 的方法):         MH 物件.            (line   76)
* disco() (於 dis 模組中):               Analysis functions. (line   93)
* discover() (unittest.TestLoader 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  117)
* disk_usage() (於 shutil 模組中):       Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  363)
* dispatch_call() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):      bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  209)
* dispatch_exception() (bdb.Bdb 的方法): bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  229)
* dispatch_line() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):      bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  199)
* dispatch_return() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):    bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  219)
* dispatch_table (pickle.Pickler 的屬性): 模組介面.          (line  176)
* DISPLAY:                               Tkinter Modules.    (line   27)
* display (pdb command):                 Debugger Commands.  (line  281)
* display_name (email.headerregistry.Address 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  426)
* display_name (email.headerregistry.Group 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  470)
* displayhook() (於 sys 模組中):         sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  283)
* dist() (於 math 模組中):               Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   35)
* distance() (於 turtle 模組中):         Tell Turtle's state.
                                                             (line   68)
* distb() (於 dis 模組中):               Analysis functions. (line   79)
* Distribution (importlib.metadata 中的類別): Distributions. (line   14)
* distribution() (於 importlib.metadata 模組中): Distributions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Div (ast 中的類別):                    運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* divide_int() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.    (line  294)
* divide() (decimal.Context 的方法):     Context objects.    (line  290)
* division（除）:                        Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   34)
* DivisionByZero (decimal 中的類別):     Signals.            (line   33)
* divmod() (decimal.Context 的方法):     Context objects.    (line  298)
* DLE (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   73)
* DllCanUnloadNow() (於 ctypes 模組中):  Utility functions.  (line   75)
* DllGetClassObject() (於 ctypes 模組中): Utility functions. (line   81)
* dllhandle (於 sys 模組中):             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  277)
* dnd_start() (於 tkinter.dnd 模組中):   tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援.
                                                             (line   65)
* DndHandler (tkinter.dnd 中的類別):     tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援.
                                                             (line   43)
* dngettext() (於 gettext 模組中):       GNU gettext API.    (line   58)
* dnpgettext() (於 gettext 模組中):      GNU gettext API.    (line   69)
* do_clear() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):           bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  292)
* do_command() (curses.textpad.Textbox 的方法): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* do_GET() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  383)
* do_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法): SSL Sockets.        (line  110)
* do_HEAD() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  376)
* do_help() (cmd.Cmd 的方法):            Cmd 物件.           (line   49)
* do_POST() (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  510)
* doc (json.JSONDecodeError 的屬性):     例外<12>.           (line   14)
* doc_header (cmd.Cmd 的屬性):           Cmd 物件.           (line  155)
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server 中的類別): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   22)
* DocFileSuite() (於 doctest 模組中):    Unittest API.       (line   24)
* doClassCleanups() (unittest.TestCase 的類別方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  827)
* doCleanups() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.       (line  785)
* docmd() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):         SMTP 物件.          (line   17)
* docstring (doctest.DocTest 的屬性):    DocTest 物件.       (line   49)
* docstring（說明字串）:                 類別定義.           (line    6)
* docstring（說明字串） <1>:             術語表.             (line  344)
* docstrings（說明字串）:                定義函式 function.  (line   20)
* docstrings（說明字串） <1>:            說明文件字串 Documentation Strings.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTest (doctest 中的類別):            DocTest 物件.       (line    6)
* DocTestFailure:                        Debugging.          (line  186)
* DocTestFinder (doctest 中的類別):      DocTestFinder 物件. (line    6)
* DocTestParser (doctest 中的類別):      DocTestParser 物件. (line    6)
* DocTestRunner (doctest 中的類別):      DocTestRunner 物件. (line    6)
* DocTestSuite() (於 doctest 模組中):    Unittest API.       (line   99)
* doctype() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 的方法): TreeBuilder 物件.
                                                             (line   67)
* documentation string（文件字串）:      特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   98)
* documentation（文件）;generation（產生）: pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統.
                                                             (line    8)
* documentation（文件）;online（線上）:  pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統.
                                                             (line    8)
* documentElement (xml.dom.Document 的屬性): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* DocXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server 中的類別): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   27)
* DocXMLRPCServer (xmlrpc.server 中的類別): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   11)
* domain (email.headerregistry.Address 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  437)
* domain (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性): Cookie 物件<2>.     (line   41)
* domain (http.cookies.Morsel 的屬性):   Morsel 物件.        (line   13)
* domain (tracemalloc.DomainFilter 的屬性): DomainFilter.    (line   20)
* domain (tracemalloc.Filter 的屬性):    Filter.             (line   31)
* domain (tracemalloc.Trace 的屬性):     Trace.              (line   15)
* domain_initial_dot (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性): Cookie 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   90)
* domain_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy 的方法): CookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   27)
* domain_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性): Cookie 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   86)
* DomainFilter (tracemalloc 中的類別):   DomainFilter.       (line    6)
* DomainLiberal (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  156)
* DomainRFC2965Match (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  149)
* DomainStrict (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  161)
* DomainStrictNoDots (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  136)
* DomainStrictNonDomain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  142)
* DOMEventStream (xml.dom.pulldom 中的類別): DOMEventStream 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* DOMException:                          例外<15>.           (line   18)
* doModuleCleanups() (於 unittest 模組中): setUpModule and tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   44)
* DomstringSizeErr:                      例外<15>.           (line   23)
* done() (asyncio.Future 的方法):        Future 物件<2>.     (line   57)
* done() (asyncio.Task 的方法):          Task Object.        (line   66)
* done() (concurrent.futures.Future 的方法): Future 物件.    (line   27)
* done() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 的方法): graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能.
                                                             (line  117)
* done() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法):       Unpacker Objects.   (line   26)
* done() (於 turtle 模組中):             Using screen events.
                                                             (line  106)
* DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE (於 doctest 模組中): 可選旗標.       (line   30)
* DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1 (於 doctest 模組中): 可選旗標.      (line   18)
* dont_write_bytecode (sys.flags 的屬性): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  526)
* dont_write_bytecode (於 sys 模組中):   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  319)
* doRollover() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler 的方法): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* doRollover() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler 的方法): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  106)
* DOT (於 token 模組中):                 token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  118)
* dot() (於 turtle 模組中):              Turtle motion.      (line  252)
* DOTALL (於 re 模組中):                 旗標.               (line  107)
* doublequote (csv.Dialect 的屬性):      Dialect 與格式參數. (line   20)
* DOUBLESLASH (於 token 模組中):         token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  214)
* DOUBLESLASHEQUAL (於 token 模組中):    token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  218)
* DOUBLESTAR (於 token 模組中):          token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  166)
* DOUBLESTAREQUAL (於 token 模組中):     token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  210)
* doupdate() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line   89)
* down (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line   84)
* down() (於 turtle 模組中):             Drawing state.      (line    6)
* dpgettext() (於 gettext 模組中):       GNU gettext API.    (line   65)
* drain() (asyncio.StreamWriter 的方法): StreamWriter.       (line   61)
* drive (pathlib.PurePath 的屬性):       方法與屬性.         (line    8)
* drop_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性): textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  201)
* dropwhile() (於 itertools 模組中):     Itertool 函式.      (line  236)
* dst() (datetime.datetime 的方法):      datetime 物件.      (line  514)
* dst() (datetime.time 的方法):          time 物件.          (line  243)
* dst() (datetime.timezone 的方法):      timezone 物件.      (line   57)
* dst() (datetime.tzinfo 的方法):        tzinfo 物件.        (line   65)
* DTDHandler (xml.sax.handler 中的類別): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   24)
* duck-typing（鴨子型別）:               術語表.             (line  353)
* dump_stats() (profile.Profile 的方法): profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   96)
* dump_stats() (pstats.Stats 的方法):    The Stats Class.    (line   59)
* dump_traceback_later() (於 faulthandler 模組中): Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout.
                                                             (line    6)
* dump_traceback() (於 faulthandler 模組中): Dumping the traceback.
                                                             (line    6)
* dump() (pickle.Pickler 的方法):        模組介面.           (line  155)
* dump() (tracemalloc.Snapshot 的方法):  Snapshot.           (line   29)
* dump() (於 ast 模組中):                ast 輔助程式.       (line  224)
* dump() (於 json 模組中):               基本用法<3>.        (line    6)
* dump() (於 marshal 模組中):            marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line   40)
* dump() (於 pickle 模組中):             模組介面.           (line   35)
* dump() (於 plistlib 模組中):           plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案.
                                                             (line   81)
* dump() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.         (line   86)
* dumps() (於 json 模組中):              基本用法<3>.        (line   70)
* dumps() (於 marshal 模組中):           marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line   70)
* dumps() (於 pickle 模組中):            模組介面.           (line   47)
* dumps() (於 plistlib 模組中):          plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案.
                                                             (line  111)
* dumps() (於 xmlrpc.client 模組中):     便捷的函式.         (line    6)
* dup() (socket.socket 的方法):          Socket 物件.        (line  108)
* dup() (於 os 模組中):                  File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   93)
* dup2() (於 os 模組中):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  106)
* DuplicateOptionError:                  例外<5>.            (line   24)
* DuplicateSectionError:                 例外<5>.            (line   14)
* dwFlags (subprocess.STARTUPINFO 的屬性): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   19)
* DynamicClassAttribute() (於 types 模組中): Additional Utility Classes and Functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* e (於 cmath 模組中):                   常數<3>.            (line   10)
* e (於 math 模組中):                    常數<2>.            (line   11)
* e;於數值常數中:                        Integer literals.   (line   40)
* E2BIG (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   54)
* EACCES (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   80)
* EADDRINUSE (於 errno 模組中):          errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  432)
* EADDRNOTAVAIL (於 errno 模組中):       errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  436)
* EADV (於 errno 模組中):                errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  306)
* EAFNOSUPPORT (於 errno 模組中):        errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  428)
* EAFP:                                  術語表.             (line  365)
* EAGAIN (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   71)
* eager_task_factory() (於 asyncio 模組中): Eager Task Factory.
                                                             (line    6)
* EALREADY (於 errno 模組中):            errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  501)
* east_asian_width() (於 unicodedata 模組中): unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   64)
* EBADE (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  242)
* EBADF (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   62)
* EBADFD (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  342)
* EBADMSG (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  330)
* EBADR (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  246)
* EBADRQC (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  258)
* EBADSLT (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  262)
* EBFONT (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  270)
* EBUSY (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   93)
* ECANCELED (於 errno 模組中):           errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  554)
* ECHILD (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   66)
* echo() (於 curses 模組中):             函式<5>.            (line  105)
* echochar() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  195)
* ECHRNG (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  210)
* ECOMM (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  314)
* ECONNABORTED (於 errno 模組中):        errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  452)
* ECONNREFUSED (於 errno 模組中):        errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  488)
* ECONNRESET (於 errno 模組中):          errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  457)
* EDEADLK (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  173)
* EDEADLOCK (於 errno 模組中):           errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  266)
* EDESTADDRREQ (於 errno 模組中):        errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  390)
* edit() (curses.textpad.Textbox 的方法): Textbox objects.   (line   19)
* EDOM (於 errno 模組中):                errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  165)
* EDOTDOT (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  326)
* EDQUOT (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  535)
* EEXIST (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   97)
* EFAULT (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   85)
* EFBIG (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  140)
* EFD_CLOEXEC (於 os 模組中):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1894)
* EFD_NONBLOCK (於 os 模組中):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1903)
* EFD_SEMAPHORE (於 os 模組中):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1912)
* effective() (於 bdb 模組中):           bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  460)
* ehlo_or_helo_if_needed() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法): SMTP 物件. (line   75)
* ehlo() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):          SMTP 物件.          (line   58)
* EHOSTDOWN (於 errno 模組中):           errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  493)
* EHOSTUNREACH (於 errno 模組中):        errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  497)
* EIDRM (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  206)
* EILSEQ (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  370)
* EINPROGRESS (於 errno 模組中):         errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  506)
* EINTR (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   41)
* EINVAL (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  120)
* EIO (於 errno 模組中):                 errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   46)
* EISCONN (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  466)
* EISDIR (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  115)
* EISNAM (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  527)
* EJECT (enum.FlagBoundary 的屬性):      資料型別<2>.        (line  631)
* EL2HLT (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  238)
* EL2NSYNC (於 errno 模組中):            errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  214)
* EL3HLT (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  218)
* EL3RST (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  222)
* Element (xml.etree.ElementTree 中的類別): Element 物件.    (line    6)
* element_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style 的方法): Ttk Styling.  (line  131)
* element_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style 的方法): Ttk Styling.   (line  188)
* element_options() (tkinter.ttk.Style 的方法): Ttk Styling. (line  192)
* ElementDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  240)
* elements() (collections.Counter 的方法): Counter 物件.     (line   60)
* ElementTree (xml.etree.ElementTree 中的類別): ElementTree 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* ELIBACC (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  350)
* ELIBBAD (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  354)
* ELIBEXEC (於 errno 模組中):            errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  366)
* ELIBMAX (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  362)
* ELIBSCN (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  358)
* Ellinghouse, Lance:                    xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line   24)
* Ellipsis (內建變數):                   內建常數.           (line   53)
* ELLIPSIS (於 doctest 模組中):          可選旗標.           (line   49)
* ELLIPSIS (於 token 模組中):            token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  234)
* EllipsisType (於 types 模組中):        Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  143)
* ELNRNG (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  226)
* ELOOP (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  193)
* else;conditional expression（條件運算式）: Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* EM (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  100)
* EmailMessage (email.message 中的類別): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line   52)
* EmailPolicy (email.policy 中的類別):   email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  359)
* EMFILE (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  128)
* emit() (logging.FileHandler 的方法):   FileHandler.        (line   31)
* emit() (logging.Handler 的方法):       Handler Objects.    (line  107)
* emit() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler 的方法): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* emit() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler 的方法): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   29)
* emit() (logging.handlers.HTTPHandler 的方法): HTTPHandler. (line   36)
* emit() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler 的方法): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   38)
* emit() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler 的方法): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   35)
* emit() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler 的方法): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   47)
* emit() (logging.handlers.SMTPHandler 的方法): SMTPHandler. (line   35)
* emit() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 的方法): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* emit() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler 的方法): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   61)
* emit() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler 的方法): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  110)
* emit() (logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler 的方法): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   50)
* emit() (logging.NullHandler 的方法):   NullHandler.        (line   16)
* emit() (logging.StreamHandler 的方法): StreamHandler.      (line   17)
* EMLINK (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  156)
* Empty:                                 queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別.
                                                             (line   67)
* empty (inspect.Parameter 的屬性):      Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  184)
* empty (inspect.Signature 的屬性):      Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line   99)
* EMPTY_NAMESPACE (於 xml.dom 模組中):   模組內容<6>.        (line   35)
* empty;list（串列）:                    List displays.      (line    6)
* empty;tuple:                           Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line   16)
* empty() (asyncio.Queue 的方法):        Queue.              (line   25)
* empty() (multiprocessing.Queue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.  (line  116)
* empty() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  229)
* empty() (queue.Queue 的方法):          佇列物件.           (line   14)
* empty() (queue.SimpleQueue 的方法):    SimpleQueue 物件.   (line   13)
* empty() (sched.scheduler 的方法):      排程器物件.         (line   41)
* empty（空的）;tuple（元組）:           Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   29)
* emptyline() (cmd.Cmd 的方法):          Cmd 物件.           (line   70)
* emscripten_version (sys._emscripten_info 的屬性): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  333)
* EMSGSIZE (於 errno 模組中):            errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  394)
* EMULTIHOP (於 errno 模組中):           errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  322)
* enable (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  130)
* enable_callback_tracebacks() (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module functions.
                                                             (line  122)
* enable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   31)
* enable_load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  404)
* enable_traversal() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 的方法): ttk Notebook.
                                                             (line   73)
* ENABLE_USER_SITE (於 site 模組中):     模組內容<10>.       (line   10)
* enable() (bdb.Breakpoint 的方法):      bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line   47)
* enable() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line   84)
* enable() (profile.Profile 的方法):     profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   78)
* enable() (於 cgitb 模組中):            cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式.
                                                             (line   33)
* enable() (於 faulthandler 模組中):     Fault handler state.
                                                             (line    6)
* enable() (於 gc 模組中):               gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   19)
* EnableControlFlowGuard:                Build<28>.          (line   47)
* enabled (bdb.Breakpoint 的屬性):       bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  105)
* EnableReflectionKey() (於 winreg 模組中): 函式<12>.        (line  499)
* ENAMETOOLONG (於 errno 模組中):        errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  177)
* ENAVAIL (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  523)
* enclose() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line  200)
* encode (codecs.CodecInfo 的屬性):      codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   69)
* encode_7or8bit() (於 email.encoders 模組中): email encoders：編碼器.
                                                             (line   49)
* encode_base64() (於 email.encoders 模組中): email encoders：編碼器.
                                                             (line   42)
* encode_noop() (於 email.encoders 模組中): email encoders：編碼器.
                                                             (line   54)
* encode_quopri() (於 email.encoders 模組中): email encoders：編碼器.
                                                             (line   35)
* encode_rfc2231() (於 email.utils 模組中): email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  191)
* encode() (codecs.Codec 的方法):        Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line   11)
* encode() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder 的方法): IncrementalEncoder 物件.
                                                             (line   28)
* encode() (email.header.Header 的方法): email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line  125)
* encode() (json.JSONEncoder 的方法):    編碼器與解碼器.     (line  199)
* encode() (str 的方法):                 String Methods<2>.  (line   64)
* encode() (xmlrpc.client.Binary 的方法): Binary Objects.    (line   25)
* encode() (xmlrpc.client.DateTime 的方法): 日期時間物件.    (line   17)
* encode() (於 base64 模組中):           base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  220)
* encode() (於 codecs 模組中):           codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   23)
* encode() (於 quopri 模組中):           quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料.
                                                             (line   24)
* encode() (於 uu 模組中):               xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line   29)
* encodebytes() (於 base64 模組中):      base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  229)
* EncodedFile() (於 codecs 模組中):      codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  202)
* encodePriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler 的方法): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   95)
* encodestring() (於 quopri 模組中):     quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料.
                                                             (line   39)
* encoding (curses.window 的屬性):       Window Objects.     (line  210)
* encoding (io.TextIOBase 的屬性):       文字 I/O<2>.        (line   15)
* encoding (UnicodeError 的屬性):        實體例外.           (line  351)
* ENCODING (於 tarfile 模組中):          tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  262)
* ENCODING (於 token 模組中):            token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  288)
* encoding declarations (source file)（編碼宣告（原始檔案））: Encoding declarations.
                                                             (line    6)
* encodings_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes 的屬性): MimeTypes 物件.
                                                             (line   33)
* encodings_map (於 mimetypes 模組中):   mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line  136)
* EncodingWarning:                       警告.               (line   64)
* end (UnicodeError 的屬性):             實體例外.           (line  367)
* END_ASYNC_FOR (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  278)
* end_col_offset (ast.AST 的屬性):       節點 Node 類別.     (line   32)
* end_fill() (於 turtle 模組中):         Filling.            (line   20)
* END_FOR (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   93)
* end_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  273)
* end_lineno (ast.AST 的屬性):           節點 Node 類別.     (line   32)
* end_lineno (SyntaxError 的屬性):       實體例外.           (line  264)
* end_lineno (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   91)
* end_ns() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 的方法): TreeBuilder 物件.
                                                             (line   86)
* end_offset (SyntaxError 的屬性):       實體例外.           (line  269)
* end_offset (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line  107)
* end_poly() (於 turtle 模組中):         Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   11)
* END_SEND (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  101)
* end() (re.Match 的方法):               Match Objects.      (line  146)
* end() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 的方法): TreeBuilder 物件.
                                                             (line   38)
* endCDATA() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler 的方法): LexicalHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   39)
* EndCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  346)
* EndDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  235)
* endDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   40)
* endDTD() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler 的方法): LexicalHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   28)
* endElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   95)
* EndElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  270)
* endElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line  121)
* endheaders() (http.client.HTTPConnection 的方法): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line  183)
* ENDMARKER (於 token 模組中):           token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   40)
* EndNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  325)
* endpos (re.Match 的屬性):              Match Objects.      (line  185)
* endPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   73)
* endswith() (bytearray 的方法):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  120)
* endswith() (bytes 的方法):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  120)
* endswith() (str 的方法):               String Methods<2>.  (line   87)
* endwin() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line  110)
* ENETDOWN (於 errno 模組中):            errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  440)
* ENETRESET (於 errno 模組中):           errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  448)
* ENETUNREACH (於 errno 模組中):         errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  444)
* ENFILE (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  124)
* ENOANO (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  254)
* ENOBUFS (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  462)
* ENOCSI (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  234)
* ENODATA (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  278)
* ENODEV (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  106)
* ENOENT (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   31)
* ENOEXEC (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   58)
* ENOLCK (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  181)
* ENOLINK (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  302)
* ENOMEM (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   76)
* ENOMSG (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  202)
* ENONET (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  290)
* ENOPKG (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  294)
* ENOPROTOOPT (於 errno 模組中):         errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  402)
* ENOSPC (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  144)
* ENOSR (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  286)
* ENOSTR (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  274)
* ENOSYS (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  185)
* ENOTBLK (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   89)
* ENOTCAPABLE (於 errno 模組中):         errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  545)
* ENOTCONN (於 errno 模組中):            errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  470)
* ENOTDIR (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  110)
* ENOTEMPTY (於 errno 模組中):           errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  189)
* ENOTNAM (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  519)
* ENOTRECOVERABLE (於 errno 模組中):     errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  566)
* ENOTSOCK (於 errno 模組中):            errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  386)
* ENOTSUP (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  418)
* ENOTTY (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  132)
* ENOTUNIQ (於 errno 模組中):            errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  338)
* ENQ (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   34)
* enqueue_sentinel() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 的方法): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   90)
* enqueue() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler 的方法): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   78)
* ensure_directories() (venv.EnvBuilder 的方法): API<2>.     (line   78)
* ensure_future() (於 asyncio 模組中):   Future 函式.        (line   19)
* enter_async_context() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack 的方法): Utilities.
                                                             (line  631)
* enter_context() (contextlib.ExitStack 的方法): Utilities.  (line  547)
* enter() (sched.scheduler 的方法):      排程器物件.         (line   26)
* enterabs() (sched.scheduler 的方法):   排程器物件.         (line    8)
* enterAsyncContext() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  880)
* enterClassContext() (unittest.TestCase 的類別方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  818)
* enterContext() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.     (line  776)
* enterModuleContext() (於 unittest 模組中): setUpModule and tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   35)
* entities (xml.dom.DocumentType 的屬性): DocumentType 物件. (line   38)
* EntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  299)
* entitydefs (於 html.entities 模組中):  html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義.
                                                             (line   23)
* EntityResolver (xml.sax.handler 中的類別): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   31)
* entry_points() (於 importlib.metadata 模組中): Entry points.
                                                             (line    6)
* EntryPoint (importlib.metadata 中的類別): Entry points.    (line   26)
* EntryPoints (importlib.metadata 中的類別): Entry points.   (line   18)
* Enum (enum 中的類別):                  資料型別<2>.        (line  114)
* enum_certificates() (於 ssl 模組中):   認證處理.           (line   78)
* enum_crls() (於 ssl 模組中):           認證處理.           (line   99)
* EnumCheck (enum 中的類別):             資料型別<2>.        (line  540)
* enumerate() (於 threading 模組中):     threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  140)
* EnumKey() (於 winreg 模組中):          函式<12>.           (line  172)
* EnumType (enum 中的類別):              資料型別<2>.        (line    6)
* EnumValue() (於 winreg 模組中):        函式<12>.           (line  191)
* EnvBuilder (venv 中的類別):            API<2>.             (line   10)
* environ (於 os 模組中):                行程參數.           (line   16)
* environ (於 posix 模組中):             值得注意的模組內容. (line    9)
* environb (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line   58)
* environment variables（環境變數）;deleting（刪除）: 行程參數.
                                                             (line  582)
* environment variables（環境變數）;setting（設定）: 行程參數.
                                                             (line  354)
* environment（環境）:                   Resolution of names.
                                                             (line   12)
* EnvironmentError:                      實體例外.           (line  399)
* Environments （環境）;virtual （虛擬）: venv --- 建立虛擬環境.
                                                             (line   10)
* EnvironmentVarGuard (test.support.os_helper 中的類別): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   48)
* ENXIO (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   50)
* eof (bz2.BZ2Decompressor 的屬性):      Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   72)
* eof (lzma.LZMADecompressor 的屬性):    Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  165)
* eof (shlex.shlex 的屬性):              shlex 物件.         (line  177)
* eof (ssl.MemoryBIO 的屬性):            Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  139)
* eof (zlib.Decompress 的屬性):          zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  201)
* eof_received() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol 的方法): Buffered Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   40)
* eof_received() (asyncio.Protocol 的方法): Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   30)
* EOFError:                              實體例外.           (line   24)
* EOFError（內建例外）:                  檔案物件 File Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* EOPNOTSUPP (於 errno 模組中):          errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  414)
* EOT (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   31)
* EOVERFLOW (於 errno 模組中):           errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  334)
* EOWNERDEAD (於 errno 模組中):          errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  560)
* EPERM (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   26)
* EPFNOSUPPORT (於 errno 模組中):        errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  424)
* epilogue (email.message.EmailMessage 的屬性): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  701)
* epilogue (email.message.Message 的屬性): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  712)
* EPIPE (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  160)
* epoch（紀元）:                         time --- 時間存取與轉換.
                                                             (line   17)
* epoll() (於 select 模組中):            select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line   54)
* EpollSelector (selectors 中的類別):    Classes<3>.         (line  175)
* EPROTO (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  318)
* EPROTONOSUPPORT (於 errno 模組中):     errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  406)
* EPROTOTYPE (於 errno 模組中):          errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  398)
* epsilon (sys.float_info 的屬性):       sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  601)
* Eq (ast 中的類別):                     運算式<2>.          (line  106)
* eq() (於 operator 模組中):             operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* EQEQUAL (於 token 模組中):             token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  134)
* EQFULL (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  539)
* EQUAL (於 token 模組中):               token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  114)
* ERA (於 locale 模組中):                locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  299)
* ERA_D_FMT (於 locale 模組中):          locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  321)
* ERA_D_T_FMT (於 locale 模組中):        locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  316)
* ERA_T_FMT (於 locale 模組中):          locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  326)
* ERANGE (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  169)
* erase() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  220)
* erasechar() (於 curses 模組中):        函式<5>.            (line  114)
* EREMCHG (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  346)
* EREMOTE (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  298)
* EREMOTEIO (於 errno 模組中):           errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  531)
* ERESTART (於 errno 模組中):            errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  374)
* erf() (於 math 模組中):                Special functions.  (line    6)
* erfc() (於 math 模組中):               Special functions.  (line   20)
* EROFS (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  152)
* ERR (於 curses 模組中):                Constants.          (line    8)
* errcheck (ctypes._CFuncPtr 的屬性):    Foreign functions.  (line   70)
* errcode (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError 的屬性): ProtocolError 物件.
                                                             (line   17)
* errmsg (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError 的屬性): ProtocolError 物件.
                                                             (line   21)
* errno (OSError 的屬性):                實體例外.           (line  138)
* error:                                 Exceptions.         (line    6)
* error <1>:                             函式與例外.         (line    8)
* Error:                                 copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作.
                                                             (line   25)
* Error <1>:                             Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  452)
* error <2>:                             dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面.
                                                             (line   16)
* error <3>:                             dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line   17)
* error <4>:                             dbm ndbm --- 新資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line   23)
* error <5>:                             dbm dumb --- 可攜式 DBM 實作.
                                                             (line   23)
* Error <2>:                             例外<4>.            (line   15)
* error <6>:                             zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line   21)
* Error <3>:                             模組內容<3>.        (line  293)
* Error <4>:                             例外<5>.            (line    6)
* error <7>:                             os --- 各種作業系統介面.
                                                             (line   43)
* error <8>:                             getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器.
                                                             (line   85)
* error <9>:                             函式<5>.            (line    8)
* error <10>:                            _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line   18)
* error <11>:                            例外<10>.           (line    6)
* error <12>:                            select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line   29)
* Error <5>:                             例外<13>.           (line    8)
* Error <6>:                             binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line  156)
* error <13>:                            xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析.
                                                             (line   31)
* Error <7>:                             webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line   49)
* Error <8>:                             wave --- 讀寫 WAV 檔案.
                                                             (line   47)
* Error <9>:                             locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line   22)
* error <14>:                            resource --- 資源使用資訊.
                                                             (line   19)
* error <15>:                            audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   29)
* error <16>:                            nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面.
                                                             (line   62)
* Error <10>:                            sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   70)
* Error <11>:                            xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line   55)
* Error <12>:                            例外<17>.           (line    8)
* ERROR (於 logging 模組中):             Logging Levels.     (line   40)
* ERROR (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中):  tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  170)
* error handling（錯誤處理）:            例外.               (line    6)
* error_body (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  219)
* error_content_type (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  157)
* error_headers (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  213)
* error_leader() (shlex.shlex 的方法):   shlex 物件.         (line   69)
* error_message_format (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  149)
* error_output() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的方法): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  191)
* error_perm:                            模組變數.           (line   15)
* error_proto:                           模組變數.           (line   20)
* error_proto <1>:                       poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   87)
* error_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol 的方法): Datagram Protocols.
                                                             (line   15)
* error_reply:                           模組變數.           (line    6)
* error_status (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  208)
* error_temp:                            模組變數.           (line   10)
* error() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Exiting methods. (line   19)
* error() (logging.Logger 的方法):       Logger 物件.        (line  299)
* error() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector 的方法): OpenerDirector 物件.
                                                             (line   54)
* error() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler 的方法): ErrorHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   16)
* error() (於 logging 模組中):           Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   80)
* ErrorByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  170)
* ErrorCode (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  174)
* errorcode (於 errno 模組中):           errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   13)
* ErrorColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  180)
* ErrorHandler (xml.sax.handler 中的類別): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   38)
* errorlevel (tarfile.TarFile 的屬性):   TarFile 物件.       (line  212)
* ErrorLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  184)
* errors (io.TextIOBase 的屬性):         文字 I/O<2>.        (line   20)
* errors (unittest.TestLoader 的屬性):   Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   17)
* errors (unittest.TestResult 的屬性):   Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  246)
* errors（錯誤）:                        例外.               (line    6)
* Errors（錯誤）;logging（日誌）:        logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具.
                                                             (line    8)
* ErrorStream (wsgiref.types 中的類別):  wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line   27)
* ErrorString() (於 xml.parsers.expat 模組中): xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析.
                                                             (line   42)
* ERRORTOKEN (於 token 模組中):          token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  268)
* ESC (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  106)
* escape (shlex.shlex 的屬性):           shlex 物件.         (line  110)
* escape sequence（跳脫序列）:           String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* escape() (於 glob 模組中):             glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line   93)
* escape() (於 html 模組中):             html --- 超連結標記語言 HTML 支援.
                                                             (line   12)
* escape() (於 re 模組中):               Functions.          (line  254)
* escape() (於 xml.sax.saxutils 模組中): xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式.
                                                             (line   14)
* escapechar (csv.Dialect 的屬性):       Dialect 與格式參數. (line   30)
* escapedquotes (shlex.shlex 的屬性):    shlex 物件.         (line  122)
* ESHUTDOWN (於 errno 模組中):           errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  474)
* ESOCKTNOSUPPORT (於 errno 模組中):     errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  410)
* ESPIPE (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  148)
* ESRCH (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line   36)
* ESRMNT (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  310)
* ESTALE (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  511)
* ESTRPIPE (於 errno 模組中):            errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  378)
* ETB (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   94)
* ETH_P_ALL (於 socket 模組中):          常數<7>.            (line  214)
* ETHERTYPE_ARP (於 socket 模組中):      常數<7>.            (line  357)
* ETHERTYPE_IP (於 socket 模組中):       常數<7>.            (line  357)
* ETHERTYPE_IPV6 (於 socket 模組中):     常數<7>.            (line  357)
* ETHERTYPE_VLAN (於 socket 模組中):     常數<7>.            (line  357)
* ETIME (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  282)
* ETIMEDOUT (於 errno 模組中):           errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  483)
* Etiny() (decimal.Context 的方法):      Context objects.    (line  232)
* ETOOMANYREFS (於 errno 模組中):        errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  479)
* Etop() (decimal.Context 的方法):       Context objects.    (line  238)
* ETX (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   28)
* ETXTBSY (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  136)
* EUCLEAN (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  515)
* EUNATCH (於 errno 模組中):             errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  230)
* EUSERS (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  382)
* evaluation;order（順序）:              Evaluation order.   (line    6)
* Event (asyncio 中的類別):              Event.              (line    6)
* Event (multiprocessing 中的類別):      Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   41)
* Event (threading 中的類別):            Event Objects.      (line   14)
* event scheduling（事件排程）:          sched --- 事件排程器.
                                                             (line    8)
* EVENT_READ (於 selectors 模組中):      Classes<3>.         (line   23)
* EVENT_WRITE (於 selectors 模組中):     Classes<3>.         (line   26)
* event() (msilib.Control 的方法):       GUI classes.        (line   14)
* Event() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  182)
* eventfd_read() (於 os 模組中):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1874)
* eventfd_write() (於 os 模組中):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1884)
* eventfd() (於 os 模組中):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1821)
* events (selectors.SelectorKey 的屬性): Classes<3>.         (line   44)
* events (widgets):                      Bindings and Events.
                                                             (line    6)
* EWOULDBLOCK (於 errno 模組中):         errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  197)
* EX_CANTCREAT (於 os 模組中):           行程管理.           (line  206)
* EX_CONFIG (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  242)
* EX_DATAERR (於 os 模組中):             行程管理.           (line  155)
* EX_IOERR (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line  213)
* EX_NOHOST (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  174)
* EX_NOINPUT (於 os 模組中):             行程管理.           (line  161)
* EX_NOPERM (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  235)
* EX_NOTFOUND (於 os 模組中):            行程管理.           (line  249)
* EX_NOUSER (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  168)
* EX_OK (於 os 模組中):                  行程管理.           (line  140)
* EX_OSERR (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line  192)
* EX_OSFILE (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  199)
* EX_PROTOCOL (於 os 模組中):            行程管理.           (line  228)
* EX_SOFTWARE (於 os 模組中):            行程管理.           (line  186)
* EX_TEMPFAIL (於 os 模組中):            行程管理.           (line  220)
* EX_UNAVAILABLE (於 os 模組中):         行程管理.           (line  180)
* EX_USAGE (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line  148)
* Example (doctest 中的類別):            Example 物件.       (line    6)
* example (doctest.DocTestFailure 的屬性): Debugging.        (line  200)
* example (doctest.UnexpectedException 的屬性): Debugging.   (line  221)
* examples (doctest.DocTest 的屬性):     DocTest 物件.       (line   17)
* exc_info (doctest.UnexpectedException 的屬性): Debugging.  (line  225)
* exc_info （sys 模組中）:               Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* exc_info （sys 模組中） <1>:           例外<18>.           (line   33)
* exc_info() (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  432)
* exc_msg (doctest.Example 的屬性):      Example 物件.       (line   31)
* exc_type (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   79)
* excel (csv 中的類別):                  模組內容<3>.        (line  185)
* excel_tab (csv 中的類別):              模組內容<3>.        (line  190)
* except (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line   82)
* ExceptHandler (ast 中的類別):          流程控制.           (line  202)
* excepthook() （sys 模組中）:           cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式.
                                                             (line   36)
* excepthook() (於 sys 模組中):          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  376)
* excepthook() (於 threading 模組中):    threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line   70)
* Exception:                             基底類別 base classes.
                                                             (line   56)
* EXCEPTION (於 _tkinter 模組中):        File Handlers.      (line   41)
* exception handler（例外處理器）:       例外.               (line    6)
* EXCEPTION_HANDLED (monitoring event):  事件.               (line   26)
* exception;AttributeError:              Attribute references.
                                                             (line   10)
* exception;GeneratorExit:               Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   64)
* exception;GeneratorExit <1>:           Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   60)
* exception;NameError:                   Identifiers Names.  (line   10)
* exception;StopAsyncIteration:          Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   10)
* exception;StopIteration:               Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   12)
* exception;TypeError:                   Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   23)
* exception;ValueError:                  Shifting operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* exception;ZeroDivisionError:           Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   34)
* exception() (asyncio.Future 的方法):   Future 物件<2>.     (line  114)
* exception() (asyncio.Task 的方法):     Task Object.        (line   87)
* exception() (concurrent.futures.Future 的方法): Future 物件.
                                                             (line   43)
* exception() (logging.Logger 的方法):   Logger 物件.        (line  315)
* exception() (於 logging 模組中):       Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   92)
* exception() (於 sys 模組中):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  420)
* exception（例外）:                     例外.               (line    6)
* exception（例外） <1>:                 raise 陳述式.       (line    6)
* exception（例外）;AssertionError:      assert 陳述式.      (line   21)
* exception（例外）;chaining:            例外的情境.         (line    6)
* exception（例外）;chaining（鏈結）:    raise 陳述式.       (line   30)
* exception（例外）;handler（處理器）:   Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* exception（例外）;ImportError:         import 陳述式.      (line    6)
* exception（例外）;StopIteration:       yield 陳述式.       (line    6)
* ExceptionGroup:                        例外群組.           (line   10)
* exceptions (BaseExceptionGroup 的屬性): 例外群組.          (line   32)
* exceptions (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   53)
* exceptions（例外）;於 CGI 腳本中:      cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式.
                                                             (line    8)
* EXCLAMATION (於 token 模組中):         token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  242)
* exclusive（排外）;or:                  Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* EXDEV (於 errno 模組中):               errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  102)
* exec (2to3 fixer):                     Fixers.             (line   86)
* exec_module() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  253)
* exec_module() (importlib.abc.Loader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  114)
* exec_module() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  398)
* exec_module() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  315)
* exec_module() (zipimport.zipimporter 的方法): zipimporter 物件.
                                                             (line   31)
* exec_prefix (於 sys 模組中):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  451)
* execfile (2to3 fixer):                 Fixers.             (line   90)
* execl() (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line   53)
* execle() (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line   53)
* execlp() (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line   53)
* execlpe() (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line   53)
* executable (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  468)
* Executable Zip Files（可執行的 Zip 檔案）: zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案.
                                                             (line   10)
* executable（sys 模組中）:              Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  142)
* Execute() (msilib.View 的方法):        View Objects.       (line    6)
* execute() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.    (line   93)
* execute() (sqlite3.Cursor 的方法):     Cursor 物件.        (line   24)
* executemany() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line   99)
* executemany() (sqlite3.Cursor 的方法): Cursor 物件.        (line   59)
* executescript() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  105)
* executescript() (sqlite3.Cursor 的方法): Cursor 物件.      (line  100)
* execution model（執行模型）:           執行模型.           (line    6)
* execution（執行）;frame:               Structure of a program.
                                                             (line   18)
* execution（執行）;frame <1>:           類別定義.           (line    6)
* execution（執行）;stack（堆疊）:       Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* ExecutionLoader (importlib.abc 中的類別): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  265)
* Executor (concurrent.futures 中的類別): Executor 物件.     (line    6)
* execv() (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line   53)
* execve() (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line   53)
* execvp() (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line   53)
* execvpe() (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line   53)
* ExFileSelectBox (tkinter.tix 中的類別): File Selectors.    (line   34)
* EXFULL (於 errno 模組中):              errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line  250)
* exists() (pathlib.Path 的方法):        Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   33)
* exists() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.      (line   89)
* exists() (zipfile.Path 的方法):        Path Objects.       (line   55)
* exists() (於 os.path 模組中):          os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line   94)
* exit (內建變數):                       由 site module（模組）所添增的常數.
                                                             (line   11)
* exit() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Exiting methods.  (line    6)
* exit() (於 _thread 模組中):            _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line   65)
* exit() (於 sys 模組中):                sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  475)
* exit（C 函式）:                        行程控制.           (line   23)
* exitcode (multiprocessing.Process 的屬性): Process 與例外. (line  126)
* exitfunc (2to3 fixer):                 Fixers.             (line   96)
* exitonclick() (於 turtle 模組中):      Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   10)
* ExitStack (contextlib 中的類別):       Utilities.          (line  504)
* exp() (decimal.Context 的方法):        Context objects.    (line  303)
* exp() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):        Decimal objects.    (line  231)
* exp() (於 cmath 模組中):               冪函數和對數函數.   (line    6)
* exp() (於 math 模組中):                Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* exp2() (於 math 模組中):               Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   18)
* expand_tabs (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性): textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  167)
* expand() (re.Match 的方法):            Match Objects.      (line   22)
* ExpandEnvironmentStrings() (於 winreg 模組中): 函式<12>.   (line  228)
* expandNode() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream 的方法): DOMEventStream 物件.
                                                             (line   21)
* expandtabs() (bytearray 的方法):       Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  480)
* expandtabs() (bytes 的方法):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  480)
* expandtabs() (str 的方法):             String Methods<2>.  (line   94)
* expanduser() (pathlib.Path 的方法):    Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   17)
* expanduser() (於 os.path 模組中):      os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  114)
* expandvars() (於 os.path 模組中):      os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  136)
* Expat:                                 xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析.
                                                             (line   12)
* ExpatError:                            xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析.
                                                             (line   25)
* expect() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法):    Telnet Objects.     (line  120)
* expected (asyncio.IncompleteReadError 的屬性): 例外<8>.    (line   47)
* expectedFailure() (於 unittest 模組中): Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   98)
* expectedFailures (unittest.TestResult 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  266)
* expired() (asyncio.Timeout 的方法):    Timeouts.           (line   72)
* expires (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性): Cookie 物件<2>.    (line   53)
* expires (http.cookies.Morsel 的屬性):  Morsel 物件.        (line   13)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.  (line   60)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.  (line  109)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.  (line  241)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.  (line  321)
* expm1() (於 math 模組中):              Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* expovariate() (於 random 模組中):      實數分布.           (line   32)
* Expr (ast 中的類別):                   運算式<2>.          (line    6)
* expression:                            運算式.             (line    6)
* Expression (ast 中的類別):             根節點.             (line   25)
* expression;list（串列）:               Expression lists.   (line    6)
* expression;list（串列） <1>:           Expression statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* expression;list（串列） <2>:           Expression statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* expression;statement（陳述式）:        Expression statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* expression（運算式）:                  術語表.             (line  373)
* expunge() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):      IMAP4 物件.         (line   93)
* extend_path() (於 pkgutil 模組中):     pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line   18)
* extend() (array.array 的方法):         array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  136)
* extend() (collections.deque 的方法):   deque 物件.         (line   53)
* extend() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line   93)
* extend()（序列方法）:                  Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* EXTENDED_ARG (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1059)
* ExtendedContext (decimal 中的類別):    Context objects.    (line   76)
* ExtendedInterpolation (configparser 中的類別): Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   41)
* extendleft() (collections.deque 的方法): deque 物件.       (line   57)
* extension module（擴充模組）:          術語表.             (line  381)
* EXTENSION_SUFFIXES (於 importlib.machinery 模組中): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   47)
* extension（擴充）;module（模組）:      標準型別階層.       (line    6)
* ExtensionFileLoader (importlib.machinery 中的類別): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  282)
* extensions_map (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  363)
* External Data Representation （外部資料表示）: xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line    8)
* External Data Representation（外部資料表示法）: Data stream format.
                                                             (line    6)
* external_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性): ZipInfo 物件.      (line  127)
* ExternalClashError:                    例外<13>.           (line   24)
* ExternalEntityParserCreate() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* ExternalEntityRefHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  373)
* extra (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性):        ZipInfo 物件.       (line   93)
* extract_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 的方法): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line   31)
* extract_stack() (於 traceback 模組中): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   93)
* extract_tb() (於 traceback 模組中):    Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* extract_version (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性): ZipInfo 物件.    (line  107)
* extract() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法):    TarFile 物件.       (line  168)
* extract() (traceback.StackSummary 的類別方法): StackSummary 物件.
                                                             (line   12)
* extract() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):    ZipFile 物件.       (line  176)
* extractall() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法): TarFile 物件.       (line  131)
* extractall() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法): ZipFile 物件.       (line  203)
* ExtractError:                          tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  217)
* extractfile() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法): TarFile 物件.      (line  201)
* extraction_filter (tarfile.TarFile 的屬性): TarFile 物件.  (line  232)
* extsep (於 os 模組中):                 Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  112)
* f_back （frame 屬性）:                 Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_back (frame 的屬性):                 特殊唯讀屬性<3>.    (line    6)
* f_builtins （frame 屬性）:             Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_builtins (frame 的屬性):             特殊唯讀屬性<3>.    (line   24)
* f_code （frame 屬性）:                 Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_code (frame 的屬性):                 特殊唯讀屬性<3>.    (line   10)
* F_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性): Buffer flags.   (line   27)
* f_contiguous (memoryview 的屬性):      Memory Views.       (line  479)
* f_globals （frame 屬性）:              Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_globals (frame 的屬性):              特殊唯讀屬性<3>.    (line   20)
* f_lasti （frame 屬性）:                Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_lasti (frame 的屬性):                特殊唯讀屬性<3>.    (line   28)
* f_lineno （frame 屬性）:               特殊唯讀屬性<3>.    (line   32)
* f_lineno (frame 的屬性):               特殊可寫屬性<2>.    (line   23)
* f_locals （frame 屬性）:               Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_locals (frame 的屬性):               特殊唯讀屬性<3>.    (line   16)
* F_LOCK (於 os 模組中):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  265)
* F_OK (於 os 模組中):                   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  106)
* F_TEST (於 os 模組中):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  265)
* F_TLOCK (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  265)
* f_trace （frame 屬性）:                特殊唯讀屬性<3>.    (line   33)
* f_trace (frame 的屬性):                特殊可寫屬性<2>.    (line    6)
* f_trace_lines （frame 屬性）:          特殊唯讀屬性<3>.    (line   33)
* f_trace_lines (frame 的屬性):          特殊可寫屬性<2>.    (line   12)
* f_trace_opcodes （frame 屬性）:        特殊唯讀屬性<3>.    (line   33)
* f_trace_opcodes (frame 的屬性):        特殊可寫屬性<2>.    (line   16)
* F_ULOCK (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  265)
* f-string:                              更華麗的輸出格式.   (line   81)
* f-string（f 字串）:                    String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* f-string（f 字串） <1>:                術語表.             (line  386)
* f';formatted string literal（格式化字串常數）: String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   64)
* f";formatted string literal（格式化字串常數）: String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   64)
* fabs() (於 math 模組中):               數論與表現函式.     (line   31)
* factorial() (於 math 模組中):          數論與表現函式.     (line   35)
* factory() (importlib.util.LazyLoader 的類別方法): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  222)
* FAIL_FAST (於 doctest 模組中):         可選旗標.           (line  140)
* fail() (unittest.TestCase 的方法):     Test cases.         (line  679)
* failfast (unittest.TestResult 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  304)
* failureException:                      Unittest API.       (line  140)
* failureException (unittest.TestCase 的屬性): Test cases.   (line  684)
* failures (unittest.TestResult 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  252)
* FakePath (test.support.os_helper 中的類別): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   59)
* False:                                 numbers Integral.   (line   27)
* false:                                 真值檢測.           (line    6)
* False <1>:                             真值檢測.           (line   20)
* False <2>:                             Boolean 型別 - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* False (內建變數):                      內建常數.           (line    8)
* False（內建物件）:                     真值檢測.           (line   14)
* families() (於 tkinter.font 模組中):   tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   85)
* family (socket.socket 的屬性):         Socket 物件.        (line  616)
* FancyURLopener (urllib.request 中的類別): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  145)
* fast (pickle.Pickler 的屬性):          模組介面.           (line  215)
* FastChildWatcher (asyncio 中的類別):   Process Watchers.   (line  142)
* fatalError() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler 的方法): ErrorHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   24)
* Fault (xmlrpc.client 中的類別):        Fault Objects.      (line    6)
* faultCode (xmlrpc.client.Fault 的屬性): Fault Objects.     (line   11)
* faultString (xmlrpc.client.Fault 的屬性): Fault Objects.   (line   15)
* fchdir() (於 os 模組中):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  272)
* fchmod() (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  120)
* fchown() (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  134)
* FCICreate() (於 msilib 模組中):        msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line   28)
* fcntl() (於 fcntl 模組中):             fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line   49)
* fd (selectors.SelectorKey 的屬性):     Classes<3>.         (line   40)
* fd_count() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   96)
* fd() (於 turtle 模組中):               Turtle motion.      (line    6)
* fdatasync() (於 os 模組中):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  149)
* fdopen() (於 os 模組中):               File Object Creation.
                                                             (line    9)
* Feature (msilib 中的類別):             Features.           (line    6)
* feature_external_ges (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   81)
* feature_external_pes (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   88)
* feature_namespace_prefixes (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   60)
* feature_namespaces (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   53)
* feature_string_interning (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   67)
* feature_validation (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   74)
* FEBRUARY (於 calendar 模組中):         calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* feed_eof() (asyncio.StreamReader 的方法): StreamReader.    (line   15)
* feed() (email.parser.BytesFeedParser 的方法): FeedParser API.
                                                             (line   56)
* feed() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.   (line    8)
* feed() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser 的方法): XMLParser 物件.
                                                             (line   27)
* feed() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser 的方法): XMLPullParser 物件.
                                                             (line   18)
* feed() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser 的方法): IncrementalParser 物件.
                                                             (line    9)
* FeedParser (email.parser 中的類別):    FeedParser API.     (line   71)
* fetch() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):        IMAP4 物件.         (line   99)
* Fetch() (msilib.View 的方法):          View Objects.       (line   18)
* fetchall() (sqlite3.Cursor 的方法):    Cursor 物件.        (line  146)
* fetchmany() (sqlite3.Cursor 的方法):   Cursor 物件.        (line  129)
* fetchone() (sqlite3.Cursor 的方法):    Cursor 物件.        (line  122)
* FF (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   61)
* fflags (select.kevent 的屬性):         Kevent Objects.     (line   90)
* Field (dataclasses 中的類別):          模組內容<8>.        (line  302)
* field_size_limit() (於 csv 模組中):    模組內容<3>.        (line   86)
* field() (於 dataclasses 模組中):       模組內容<8>.        (line  208)
* fieldnames (csv.DictReader 的屬性):    讀取器物件.         (line   29)
* fields (uuid.UUID 的屬性):             uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line   89)
* fields() (於 dataclasses 模組中):      模組內容<8>.        (line  321)
* FIFOTYPE (於 tarfile 模組中):          tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  292)
* file (bdb.Breakpoint 的屬性):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line   81)
* file (pyclbr.Class 的屬性):            Class Objects.      (line   12)
* file (pyclbr.Function 的屬性):         函式物件.           (line   11)
* file object（檔案物件）:               術語表.             (line  391)
* file object（檔案物件）;io 模組:       總覽.               (line    6)
* file object（檔案物件）;open() 內建函式: 內建函式.         (line 1067)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  394)
* file_digest() (於 hashlib 模組中):     檔案雜湊.           (line    9)
* file_open() (urllib.request.FileHandler 的方法): FileHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* file_size (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性):    ZipInfo 物件.       (line  143)
* file-like object（類檔案物件）:        術語表.             (line  405)
* file（檔案）;byte-code（位元組碼）:    py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line    8)
* file（檔案）;copying（複製）:          shutil — 高階檔案操作.
                                                             (line    8)
* file（檔案）;large files（大型檔案）:  對大檔案 Large File 的支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* file（檔案）;mime.types:               mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line  124)
* file（檔案）;modes（模式）:            內建函式.           (line 1088)
* fileConfig() (於 logging.config 模組中): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line   61)
* FileCookieJar (http.cookiejar 中的類別): http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line   56)
* FileDialog (tkinter.filedialog 中的類別): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   78)
* FileEntry (tkinter.tix 中的類別):      File Selectors.     (line   50)
* FileExistsError:                       作業系統例外.       (line   58)
* FileFinder (importlib.machinery 中的類別): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  147)
* FileHandler (logging 中的類別):        FileHandler.        (line   10)
* FileHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  394)
* FileInput (fileinput 中的類別):        fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line  139)
* FileIO (io 中的類別):                  原始檔案 I/O.       (line    6)
* filelineno() (於 fileinput 模組中):    fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line  104)
* FileLoader (importlib.abc 中的類別):   importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  284)
* filemode() (於 stat 模組中):           stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  121)
* filename (doctest.DocTest 的屬性):     DocTest 物件.       (line   36)
* filename (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar 的屬性): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line  154)
* filename (inspect.FrameInfo 的屬性):   直譯器堆疊.         (line   17)
* filename (inspect.Traceback 的屬性):   直譯器堆疊.         (line   57)
* filename (netrc.NetrcParseError 的屬性): netrc --- netrc 檔案處理.
                                                             (line   45)
* filename (OSError 的屬性):             實體例外.           (line  158)
* filename (SyntaxError 的屬性):         實體例外.           (line  246)
* filename (traceback.FrameSummary 的屬性): FrameSummary 物件.
                                                             (line   27)
* filename (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   83)
* filename (tracemalloc.Frame 的屬性):   Frame.              (line   13)
* filename (zipfile.ZipFile 的屬性):     ZipFile 物件.       (line  340)
* filename (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性):     ZipInfo 物件.       (line   50)
* filename_only (於 tabnanny 模組中):    tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排.
                                                             (line   29)
* filename_pattern (tracemalloc.Filter 的屬性): Filter.      (line   54)
* filename() (於 fileinput 模組中):      fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line   86)
* filename2 (OSError 的屬性):            實體例外.           (line  158)
* filenames（檔案名稱）;pathname expansion（路徑名稱展開）: glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line    8)
* filenames（檔案名稱）;wildcard expansion（萬用字元展開）: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line    8)
* fileno() (bz2.BZ2File 的方法):         De compression of files.
                                                             (line   86)
* fileno() (http.client.HTTPResponse 的方法): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   36)
* fileno() (io.IOBase 的方法):           I/O 基礎類別.       (line   55)
* fileno() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 的方法): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* fileno() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* fileno() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device 的方法): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* fileno() (select.devpoll 的方法):      /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* fileno() (select.epoll 的方法):        Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* fileno() (select.kqueue 的方法):       Kqueue Objects.     (line   14)
* fileno() (selectors.DevpollSelector 的方法): Classes<3>.   (line  188)
* fileno() (selectors.EpollSelector 的方法): Classes<3>.     (line  179)
* fileno() (selectors.KqueueSelector 的方法): Classes<3>.    (line  199)
* fileno() (socket.socket 的方法):       Socket 物件.        (line  118)
* fileno() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects. (line   14)
* fileno() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法):    Telnet Objects.     (line   96)
* fileno() (於 fileinput 模組中):        fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line   91)
* FileNotFoundError:                     作業系統例外.       (line   63)
* fileobj (selectors.SelectorKey 的屬性): Classes<3>.        (line   36)
* files_double_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   94)
* files_select_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   98)
* files() (importlib.abc.TraversableResources 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  573)
* files() (importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  169)
* files() (於 importlib.metadata 模組中): Distribution files.
                                                             (line    6)
* files() (於 importlib.resources 模組中): importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   51)
* FileSelectBox (tkinter.tix 中的類別):  File Selectors.     (line   42)
* filesystem encoding and error handler（檔案系統編碼和錯誤處理函式）: 術語表.
                                                             (line  409)
* FileType (argparse 中的類別):          FileType 物件.      (line    6)
* FileWrapper (wsgiref.types 中的類別):  wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line   31)
* FileWrapper (wsgiref.util 中的類別):   wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line   98)
* fill() (textwrap.TextWrapper 的方法):  textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  296)
* fill() (於 textwrap 模組中):           textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line   33)
* fillcolor() (於 turtle 模組中):        Color control.      (line   58)
* filling() (於 turtle 模組中):          Filling.            (line    6)
* fillvalue (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):       Repr 物件.          (line   10)
* filter (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  101)
* Filter (logging 中的類別):             Filter Objects.     (line   13)
* filter (select.kevent 的屬性):         Kevent Objects.     (line   15)
* Filter (tracemalloc 中的類別):         Filter.             (line    6)
* filter_command() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  102)
* FILTER_DIR (於 unittest.mock 模組中):  FILTER_DIR.         (line    6)
* filter_traces() (tracemalloc.Snapshot 的方法): Snapshot.   (line   35)
* filter() (logging.Filter 的方法):      Filter Objects.     (line   20)
* filter() (logging.Handler 的方法):     Handler Objects.    (line   60)
* filter() (logging.Logger 的方法):      Logger 物件.        (line  330)
* filter() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line  121)
* filter() (於 fnmatch 模組中):          fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line   70)
* FilterError:                           tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  228)
* filterfalse() (於 itertools 模組中):   Itertool 函式.      (line  256)
* filterwarnings() (於 warnings 模組中): Available Functions.
                                                             (line  106)
* Final (於 typing 模組中):              特別型式.           (line  174)
* final() (於 typing 模組中):            函式與裝飾器.       (line  311)
* finalization, of objects:              Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* finalize (weakref 中的類別):           weakref --- 弱參照. (line  217)
* finalizer（終結函式）:                 Basic customization.
                                                             (line   55)
* find_class() (pickle.Unpickler 的方法): 模組介面.          (line  287)
* find_class()（pickle 協定）:           Restricting Globals.
                                                             (line    6)
* find_library() (於 ctypes.util 模組中): Utility functions. (line   88)
* find_loader() (於 pkgutil 模組中):     pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line   47)
* find_longest_match() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 的方法): SequenceMatcher 物件.
                                                             (line   64)
* find_msvcrt() (於 ctypes.util 模組中): Utility functions.  (line   97)
* find_spec() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   35)
* find_spec() (importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   71)
* find_spec() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  177)
* find_spec() (importlib.machinery.PathFinder 的類別方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  112)
* find_spec() (zipimport.zipimporter 的方法): zipimporter 物件.
                                                             (line   38)
* find_spec() (於 importlib.util 模組中): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  101)
* find_unused_port() (於 test.support.socket_helper 模組中): test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   15)
* find_user_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr 的方法): HTTPPasswordMgr 物件.
                                                             (line   16)
* find_user_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 的方法): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件.
                                                             (line   19)
* find() (bytearray 的方法):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  131)
* find() (bytes 的方法):                 Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  131)
* find() (doctest.DocTestFinder 的方法): DocTestFinder 物件. (line   32)
* find() (mmap.mmap 的方法):             mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  187)
* find() (str 的方法):                   String Methods<2>.  (line  115)
* find() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line  101)
* find() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 的方法): ElementTree 物件.
                                                             (line   21)
* find() (於 gettext 模組中):            Class-based API.    (line   14)
* findall() (re.Pattern 的方法):         Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   84)
* findall() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line  110)
* findall() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 的方法): ElementTree 物件.
                                                             (line   26)
* findall() (於 re 模組中):              Functions.          (line  127)
* findCaller() (logging.Logger 的方法):  Logger 物件.        (line  347)
* finder（尋檢器）:                      術語表.             (line  428)
* finder（搜尋器）:                      Finders and loaders.
                                                             (line    6)
* finder（搜尋器）;find_spec:            The meta path.      (line    6)
* findfactor() (於 audioop 模組中):      audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   82)
* findfile() (於 test.support 模組中):   test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  268)
* findfit() (於 audioop 模組中):         audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   91)
* finditer() (re.Pattern 的方法):        Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* finditer() (於 re 模組中):             Functions.          (line  153)
* findlabels() (於 dis 模組中):          Analysis functions. (line  161)
* findlinestarts() (於 dis 模組中):      Analysis functions. (line  147)
* findmatch() (於 mailcap 模組中):       mailcap --- Mailcap 檔案處理.
                                                             (line   28)
* findmax() (於 audioop 模組中):         audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  102)
* findtext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line  119)
* findtext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 的方法): ElementTree 物件.
                                                             (line   31)
* finish_request() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* finish() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler 的方法): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* finish() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler 的方法): tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援.
                                                             (line   52)
* FIRST_COMPLETED (於 asyncio 模組中):   Waiting Primitives. (line   35)
* FIRST_COMPLETED (於 concurrent.futures 模組中): 模組函式.  (line   25)
* FIRST_EXCEPTION (於 asyncio 模組中):   Waiting Primitives. (line   39)
* FIRST_EXCEPTION (於 concurrent.futures 模組中): 模組函式.  (line   28)
* firstChild (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):      Node Objects.       (line   54)
* firstkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm 的方法):      dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line   77)
* firstweekday() (於 calendar 模組中):   calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  265)
* fix_missing_locations() (於 ast 模組中): ast 輔助程式.     (line  117)
* fix_sentence_endings (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性): textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  222)
* Flag (enum 中的類別):                  資料型別<2>.        (line  371)
* flag_bits (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性):    ZipInfo 物件.       (line  115)
* FlagBoundary (enum 中的類別):          資料型別<2>.        (line  596)
* flags (re.Pattern 的屬性):             Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* flags (select.kevent 的屬性):          Kevent Objects.     (line   52)
* flags (於 sys 模組中):                 sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  506)
* flash() (於 curses 模組中):            函式<5>.            (line  132)
* flatten() (email.generator.BytesGenerator 的方法): email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line   80)
* flatten() (email.generator.Generator 的方法): email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line  175)
* flattening（攤平）;objects（物件）:    pickle --- Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line    8)
* float (內建類別):                      內建函式.           (line  621)
* float_info (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  586)
* float_repr_style (於 sys 模組中):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  694)
* floating-point literal（浮點數常數）:  Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* floating-point（浮點）;number（數字）: numbers Real float. (line    6)
* floating-point（浮點數）;literals（字面值）: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   15)
* FloatingPointError:                    實體例外.           (line   30)
* FloatOperation (decimal 中的類別):     Signals.            (line  100)
* flock() (於 fcntl 模組中):             fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line  130)
* floor division（向下取整除法）:        術語表.             (line  440)
* floor() (於 math 模組中):              數論與表現函式.     (line   43)
* floor()（於 math 模組）:               數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   97)
* FloorDiv (ast 中的類別):               運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* floordiv() (於 operator 模組中):       operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   80)
* flush_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  282)
* flush_std_streams() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  400)
* flush() (bz2.BZ2Compressor 的方法):    Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   25)
* flush() (io.BufferedWriter 的方法):    Buffered Streams.   (line  125)
* flush() (io.IOBase 的方法):            I/O 基礎類別.       (line   60)
* flush() (logging.Handler 的方法):      Handler Objects.    (line   68)
* flush() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler 的方法): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   30)
* flush() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler 的方法): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   61)
* flush() (logging.StreamHandler 的方法): StreamHandler.     (line   25)
* flush() (lzma.LZMACompressor 的方法):  Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line   91)
* flush() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):      Mailbox 物件.       (line  249)
* flush() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法):      Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line  103)
* flush() (mailbox.MH 的方法):           MH 物件.            (line   99)
* flush() (mmap.mmap 的方法):            mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  197)
* flush() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser 的方法): XMLParser 物件.
                                                             (line   31)
* flush() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser 的方法): XMLPullParser 物件.
                                                             (line   22)
* flush() (zlib.Compress 的方法):        zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  167)
* flush() (zlib.Decompress 的方法):      zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  225)
* flushinp() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line  139)
* FlushKey() (於 winreg 模組中):         函式<12>.           (line  239)
* fma() (decimal.Context 的方法):        Context objects.    (line  307)
* fma() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):        Decimal objects.    (line  269)
* fmean() (於 statistics 模組中):        函式細節.           (line   42)
* fmod() (於 math 模組中):               數論與表現函式.     (line   49)
* FMT_BINARY (於 plistlib 模組中):       plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案.
                                                             (line  141)
* FMT_XML (於 plistlib 模組中):          plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案.
                                                             (line  135)
* fnmatch() (於 fnmatch 模組中):         fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line   45)
* fnmatchcase() (於 fnmatch 模組中):     fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line   64)
* focus() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.       (line   93)
* fold (datetime.datetime 的屬性):       datetime 物件.      (line  320)
* fold (datetime.time 的屬性):           time 物件.          (line   71)
* fold_binary() (email.policy.Compat32 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  607)
* fold_binary() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  486)
* fold_binary() (email.policy.Policy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  350)
* fold() (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader 的方法): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line   72)
* fold() (email.policy.Compat32 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  599)
* fold() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  466)
* fold() (email.policy.Policy 的方法):   email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  335)
* Font (tkinter.font 中的類別):          tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   20)
* For (ast 中的類別):                    流程控制.           (line   42)
* FOR_ITER (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  828)
* for;於 comprehensions（綜合運算）:     Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   14)
* forget() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 的方法): ttk Notebook.      (line   17)
* forget() (於 test.support.import_helper 模組中): test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   10)
* fork() (於 os 模組中):                 行程管理.           (line  255)
* fork() (於 pty 模組中):                pty --- 偽終端工具. (line   22)
* ForkingMixIn (socketserver 中的類別):  Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   27)
* ForkingTCPServer (socketserver 中的類別): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ForkingUDPServer (socketserver 中的類別): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ForkingUnixDatagramServer (socketserver 中的類別): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ForkingUnixStreamServer (socketserver 中的類別): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* forkpty() (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  299)
* Form (tkinter.tix 中的類別):           Form Geometry Manager.
                                                             (line    9)
* FORMAT (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性):   Buffer flags.       (line   19)
* format (memoryview 的屬性):            Memory Views.       (line  420)
* format (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList 的屬性): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line  280)
* format (struct.Struct 的屬性):         Classes<2>.         (line   54)
* format_datetime() (於 email.utils 模組中): email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  173)
* format_exc() (於 traceback 模組中):    Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  148)
* format_exception_only() (traceback.TracebackException 的方法): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line  147)
* format_exception_only() (於 traceback 模組中): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  110)
* format_exception() (於 traceback 模組中): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  132)
* format_field() (string.Formatter 的方法): 自訂字串格式.    (line   98)
* format_frame_summary() (traceback.StackSummary 的方法): StackSummary 物件.
                                                             (line   53)
* format_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Printing help.
                                                             (line   30)
* format_list() (於 traceback 模組中):   Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  100)
* format_map() (str 的方法):             String Methods<2>.  (line  159)
* format_stack_entry() (bdb.Bdb 的方法): bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  408)
* format_stack() (於 traceback 模組中):  Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  157)
* format_string() (於 locale 模組中):    locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  456)
* format_tb() (於 traceback 模組中):     Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  153)
* format_usage() (argparse.Action 的方法): Action classes.   (line   56)
* format_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Printing help.
                                                             (line   25)
* FORMAT_VALUE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1067)
* format() (logging.BufferingFormatter 的方法): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  154)
* format() (logging.Formatter 的方法):   Formatter Objects.  (line   52)
* format() (logging.Handler 的方法):     Handler Objects.    (line  102)
* format() (pprint.PrettyPrinter 的方法): PrettyPrinter 物件.
                                                             (line   82)
* format() (str 的方法):                 String Methods<2>.  (line  129)
* format() (string.Formatter 的方法):    自訂字串格式.       (line   15)
* format() (traceback.StackSummary 的方法): StackSummary 物件.
                                                             (line   38)
* format() (traceback.TracebackException 的方法): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line  135)
* format() (tracemalloc.Traceback 的方法): Traceback.        (line   37)
* format() （內建函式）;__str__() （物件方法）: Basic customization.
                                                             (line  131)
* formataddr() (於 email.utils 模組中):  email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line   71)
* formatargvalues() (於 inspect 模組中): 類別與函式.         (line   73)
* formatdate() (於 email.utils 模組中):  email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  152)
* FormatError:                           例外<13>.           (line   31)
* FormatError() (於 ctypes 模組中):      Utility functions.  (line  107)
* formatException() (logging.Formatter 的方法): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  116)
* formatFooter() (logging.BufferingFormatter 的方法): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  147)
* formatHeader() (logging.BufferingFormatter 的方法): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  140)
* formatmonth() (calendar.HTMLCalendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  145)
* formatmonth() (calendar.TextCalendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  114)
* formatmonthname() (calendar.HTMLCalendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  163)
* formatStack() (logging.Formatter 的方法): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  124)
* formatted string literal:              更華麗的輸出格式.   (line   81)
* formatted string literal（格式化字串常數）: String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* FormattedValue (ast 中的類別):         文本 Literals.      (line   17)
* Formatter (logging 中的類別):          Formatter Objects.  (line    6)
* Formatter (string 中的類別):           自訂字串格式.       (line   11)
* formatTime() (logging.Formatter 的方法): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* formatting（格式化）、字串 (%):        printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatting（格式化）;bytearray (%):    printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatting（格式化）;bytes (%):        printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatwarning() (於 warnings 模組中):  Available Functions.
                                                             (line   97)
* formatyear() (calendar.HTMLCalendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  150)
* formatyear() (calendar.TextCalendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  126)
* formatyearpage() (calendar.HTMLCalendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  155)
* Fortran contiguous（Fortran 連續的）:  shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   25)
* Fortran contiguous（Fortran 連續的） <1>: 術語表.          (line  264)
* forward() (於 turtle 模組中):          Turtle motion.      (line    6)
* ForwardRef (typing 中的類別):          Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  117)
* fp (urllib.error.HTTPError 的屬性):    urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line   56)
* fpathconf() (於 os 模組中):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  158)
* Fraction (fractions 中的類別):         fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line   16)
* frame (inspect.FrameInfo 的屬性):      直譯器堆疊.         (line   13)
* frame (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText 的屬性): tkinter scrolledtext --- 捲動文字小工具.
                                                             (line   26)
* Frame (tracemalloc 中的類別):          Frame.              (line    6)
* FrameInfo (inspect 中的類別):          直譯器堆疊.         (line   11)
* FrameSummary (traceback 中的類別):     FrameSummary 物件.  (line   11)
* FrameType (於 types 模組中):           Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  194)
* free_tool_id() (於 sys.monitoring 模組中): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line   13)
* free;variable（變數）:                 Binding of names.   (line   48)
* free（C 函式）:                        總覽<2>.            (line   33)
* freedesktop_os_release() (於 platform 模組中): Linux 平台. (line    6)
* freefunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   27)
* freeze utility（凍結工具）:            引入模組<2>.        (line  247)
* freeze_support() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Miscellaneous<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* freeze() (於 gc 模組中):               gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  173)
* frexp() (於 math 模組中):              數論與表現函式.     (line   61)
* FRIDAY (於 calendar 模組中):           calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  346)
* from_address() (ctypes._CData 的方法): Data types.         (line   42)
* from_buffer_copy() (ctypes._CData 的方法): Data types.     (line   31)
* from_buffer() (ctypes._CData 的方法):  Data types.         (line   19)
* from_bytes() (int 的類別方法):         整數型別的附加 methods.
                                                             (line  101)
* from_callable() (inspect.Signature 的類別方法): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  153)
* from_decimal() (fractions.Fraction 的類別方法): fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line  142)
* from_exception() (traceback.TracebackException 的類別方法): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line  118)
* from_file() (zipfile.ZipInfo 的類別方法): ZipInfo 物件.    (line   14)
* from_file() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo 的類別方法): The ZoneInfo class.
                                                             (line   28)
* from_float() (decimal.Decimal 的類別方法): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  242)
* from_float() (fractions.Fraction 的類別方法): fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line  131)
* from_iterable() (itertools.chain 的類別方法): Itertool 函式.
                                                             (line  102)
* from_list() (traceback.StackSummary 的類別方法): StackSummary 物件.
                                                             (line   31)
* from_param() (ctypes._CData 的方法):   Data types.         (line   51)
* from_samples() (statistics.NormalDist 的類別方法): NormalDist 物件.
                                                             (line   39)
* from_traceback() (dis.Bytecode 的類別方法): Bytecode analysis.
                                                             (line   40)
* from;import statement（引入陳述式）:   Binding of names.   (line    9)
* from;import statement（引入陳述式） <1>: import 陳述式.    (line   52)
* from;yield from expression（yield from 運算式）: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   65)
* frombuf() (tarfile.TarInfo 的類別方法): TarInfo 物件.      (line   37)
* frombytes() (array.array 的方法):      array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  143)
* fromfd() (select.epoll 的方法):        Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* fromfd() (select.kqueue 的方法):       Kqueue Objects.     (line   18)
* fromfd() (於 socket 模組中):           建立 sockets.       (line  157)
* fromfile() (array.array 的方法):       array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  152)
* fromhex() (bytearray 的類別方法):      Bytearray Objects.  (line   36)
* fromhex() (bytes 的類別方法):          Bytes Objects.      (line   62)
* fromhex() (float 的類別方法):          浮點數的附加 methods.
                                                             (line   35)
* fromisocalendar() (datetime.date 的類別方法): date 物件.   (line   91)
* fromisocalendar() (datetime.datetime 的類別方法): datetime 物件.
                                                             (line  243)
* fromisoformat() (datetime.date 的類別方法): date 物件.     (line   63)
* fromisoformat() (datetime.datetime 的類別方法): datetime 物件.
                                                             (line  194)
* fromisoformat() (datetime.time 的類別方法): time 物件.     (line  107)
* fromkeys() (collections.Counter 的方法): Counter 物件.     (line  107)
* fromkeys() (dict 的類別方法):          Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line  143)
* fromlist() (array.array 的方法):       array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  159)
* fromordinal() (datetime.date 的類別方法): date 物件.       (line   54)
* fromordinal() (datetime.datetime 的類別方法): datetime 物件.
                                                             (line  169)
* fromshare() (於 socket 模組中):        建立 sockets.       (line  174)
* fromstring() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.   (line   99)
* fromstringlist() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.
                                                             (line  107)
* fromtarfile() (tarfile.TarInfo 的類別方法): TarInfo 物件.  (line   44)
* fromtimestamp() (datetime.date 的類別方法): date 物件.     (line   35)
* fromtimestamp() (datetime.datetime 的類別方法): datetime 物件.
                                                             (line   98)
* fromunicode() (array.array 的方法):    array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  164)
* fromutc() (datetime.timezone 的方法):  timezone 物件.      (line   61)
* fromutc() (datetime.tzinfo 的方法):    tzinfo 物件.        (line  163)
* FrozenImporter (importlib.machinery 中的類別): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   77)
* FrozenInstanceError:                   模組內容<8>.        (line  494)
* FrozenSet (typing 中的類別):           內建型別的別名.     (line   39)
* frozenset (內建類別):                  Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line   33)
* FS (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  109)
* fs_is_case_insensitive() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line  100)
* FS_NONASCII (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   10)
* fsdecode() (於 os 模組中):             行程參數.           (line   95)
* fsencode() (於 os 模組中):             行程參數.           (line   82)
* fspath() (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  108)
* fstat() (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  180)
* fstatvfs() (於 os 模組中):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  192)
* fstring:                               更華麗的輸出格式.   (line   81)
* FSTRING_END (於 token 模組中):         token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  262)
* FSTRING_MIDDLE (於 token 模組中):      token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  260)
* FSTRING_START (於 token 模組中):       token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  258)
* fstring（f 字串）:                     String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* fsum() (於 math 模組中):               數論與表現函式.     (line   68)
* fsync() (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  200)
* FTP:                                   urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   37)
* FTP (ftplib 中的類別):                 FTP 物件.           (line    6)
* ftp_open() (urllib.request.FTPHandler 的方法): FTPHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* FTP_TLS (ftplib 中的類別):             FTP_TLS 物件.       (line    6)
* FTP;ftplib（標準模組）:                ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* FTP;protocol（協定）:                  urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line    6)
* FTP;protocol（協定） <1>:              ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* FTPHandler (urllib.request 中的類別):  urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  404)
* ftruncate() (於 os 模組中):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  213)
* Full:                                  queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別.
                                                             (line   72)
* FULL (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性):     Buffer flags.       (line   45)
* FULL_RO (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性):  Buffer flags.       (line   47)
* full_url (urllib.request.Request 的屬性): Request Objects. (line   11)
* full() (asyncio.Queue 的方法):         Queue.              (line   29)
* full() (multiprocessing.Queue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.   (line  125)
* full() (queue.Queue 的方法):           佇列物件.           (line   20)
* fullmatch() (re.Pattern 的方法):       Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* fullmatch() (於 re 模組中):            Functions.          (line   67)
* fully_trusted_filter() (於 tarfile 模組中): Default named filters.
                                                             (line    9)
* func (functools.partial 的屬性):       partial 物件.       (line    9)
* funcattrs (2to3 fixer):                Fixers.             (line  105)
* funcname (bdb.Breakpoint 的屬性):      bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  100)
* function (inspect.FrameInfo 的屬性):   直譯器堆疊.         (line   27)
* function (inspect.Traceback 的屬性):   直譯器堆疊.         (line   67)
* Function (pyclbr 中的類別):            函式物件.           (line    6)
* Function (symtable 中的類別):          檢查符號表.         (line   68)
* function （函式）;annotations（註釋）: 函式定義.           (line  107)
* function （函式）;argument（引數）:    Callable types.     (line    6)
* function （函式）;call（呼叫）:        Callable types.     (line    6)
* function （函式）;call（呼叫） <1>:    Calls.              (line  131)
* function （函式）;call（呼叫） <2>:    Calls.              (line  140)
* function （函式）;definition（定義）:  return 陳述式.      (line    6)
* function （函式）;definition（定義） <1>: 函式定義.        (line    6)
* function （函式）;generator（產生器）: yield 陳述式.       (line    6)
* function （函式）;name（名稱）:        函式定義.           (line    6)
* function （函式）;name（名稱） <1>:    函式定義.           (line    6)
* function annotation（函式註釋）:       術語表.             (line  454)
* function（函式）:                      術語表.             (line  447)
* function（函式）;annotations（註釋）:  函式註釋 Function Annotations.
                                                             (line    6)
* FunctionDef (ast 中的類別):            函式和類別定義.     (line    6)
* FunctionTestCase (unittest 中的類別):  Test cases.         (line  939)
* FunctionType (ast 中的類別):           根節點.             (line   55)
* FunctionType (於 types 模組中):        Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   25)
* funny_files (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):   The dircmp class.   (line   95)
* future (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  111)
* Future (asyncio 中的類別):             Future 物件<2>.     (line    6)
* Future (concurrent.futures 中的類別):  Future 物件.        (line    9)
* future;statement（陳述式）:            Future statements.  (line    6)
* FutureWarning:                         警告.               (line   48)
* fwalk() (於 os 模組中):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1717)
* G.722:                                 aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  163)
* gaierror:                              例外<10>.           (line   27)
* gamma() (於 math 模組中):              Special functions.  (line   29)
* gammavariate() (於 random 模組中):     實數分布.           (line   41)
* garbage (於 gc 模組中):                gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  201)
* garbage collection（垃圾回收）:        Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   37)
* garbage collection（垃圾回收） <1>:    術語表.             (line  484)
* gather() (curses.textpad.Textbox 的方法): Textbox objects. (line  109)
* gather() (於 asyncio 模組中):          Running Tasks Concurrently.
                                                             (line    6)
* gauss() (於 random 模組中):            實數分布.           (line   53)
* gc_collect() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  353)
* gcd() (於 math 模組中):                數論與表現函式.     (line   81)
* gcvisitobjects_t (C type):             Querying Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   26)
* ge() (於 operator 模組中):             operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* gen_uuid() (於 msilib 模組中):         msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line  111)
* generate_tokens() (於 tokenize 模組中): Tokenizing Input.  (line   38)
* Generator (collections.abc 中的類別):  Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   56)
* Generator (email.generator 中的類別):  email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line  140)
* Generator (typing 中的類別):           Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   37)
* generator expression（產生器運算式）:  術語表.             (line  511)
* generator expression（產生器運算式） <1>: 術語表.          (line  511)
* generator iterator（產生器疊代器）:    術語表.             (line  501)
* generator（產生器）:                   術語表.             (line  492)
* generator（產生器） <1>:               術語表.             (line  492)
* generator（產生器）;expression:        Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator（產生器）;function （函式）: Generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator（產生器）;function （函式） <1>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator（產生器）;function （函式） <2>: yield 陳述式.   (line    6)
* generator（產生器）;iterator（疊代器）: yield 陳述式.      (line    6)
* generator（產生器）;itorator（疊代器）: Generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* GeneratorExit:                         實體例外.           (line   34)
* GeneratorExp (ast 中的類別):           綜合運算式 comprehensions.
                                                             (line    6)
* GeneratorType (於 types 模組中):       Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   36)
* Generic (typing 中的類別):             Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line   15)
* generic function（泛型函式）:          術語表.             (line  519)
* generic type（泛型型別）:              術語表.             (line  526)
* generic_visit() (ast.NodeVisitor 的方法): ast 輔助程式.    (line  164)
* Generic（泛型）;Alias（別名）:         泛型別名型別.       (line    6)
* generic（泛型）;special;attribute（屬性）: 標準型別階層.   (line   13)
* GenericAlias (types 中的類別):         Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  149)
* genops() (於 pickletools 模組中):      程式化介面.         (line   19)
* geometric_mean() (於 statistics 模組中): 函式細節.         (line   69)
* GET_AITER (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  262)
* get_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):     bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  392)
* get_all_start_methods() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Miscellaneous<2>.
                                                             (line   71)
* get_all() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  252)
* get_all() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  360)
* get_all() (wsgiref.headers.Headers 的方法): wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具.
                                                             (line   40)
* GET_ANEXT (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  271)
* get_annotations() (於 inspect 模組中): 類別與函式.         (line  155)
* get_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer 的方法): wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   59)
* get_archive_formats() (於 shutil 模組中): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   68)
* get_args() (於 typing 模組中):         Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line   80)
* get_asyncgen_hooks() (於 sys 模組中):  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  952)
* get_attribute() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  583)
* GET_AWAITABLE (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  243)
* get_begidx() (於 readline 模組中):     Completion.         (line   40)
* get_blocking() (於 os 模組中):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  226)
* get_body_encoding() (email.charset.Charset 的方法): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line   94)
* get_body() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  515)
* get_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  401)
* get_boundary() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  577)
* get_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):     bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  368)
* get_break() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  377)
* get_breaks() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):         bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  382)
* get_buffer() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol 的方法): Buffered Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   21)
* get_buffer() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法):   Packer Objects.     (line    8)
* get_buffer() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects.   (line   22)
* get_bytes() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):  Mailbox 物件.       (line  167)
* get_ca_certs() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.      (line  181)
* get_cache_token() (於 abc 模組中):     abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  291)
* get_channel_binding() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法): SSL Sockets. (line  215)
* get_charset() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  264)
* get_charsets() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  429)
* get_charsets() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  611)
* get_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy 的方法): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* get_child_watcher() (於 asyncio 模組中): Process Watchers. (line   25)
* get_children() (symtable.SymbolTable 的方法): 檢查符號表.  (line   64)
* get_children() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line   19)
* get_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.       (line  195)
* get_clock_info() (於 time 模組中):     函式<4>.            (line   95)
* get_close_matches() (於 difflib 模組中): difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line  204)
* get_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  201)
* get_code() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  393)
* get_code() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  327)
* get_code() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  263)
* get_code() (zipimport.zipimporter 的方法): zipimporter 物件.
                                                             (line   45)
* get_completer_delims() (於 readline 模組中): Completion.   (line   50)
* get_completer() (於 readline 模組中):  Completion.         (line   29)
* get_completion_type() (於 readline 模組中): Completion.    (line   34)
* get_config_h_filename() (於 sysconfig 模組中): 其他函式<3>.
                                                             (line   68)
* get_config_var() (於 sysconfig 模組中): Configuration variables.
                                                             (line   26)
* get_config_vars() (於 sysconfig 模組中): Configuration variables.
                                                             (line   16)
* get_content_charset() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  422)
* get_content_charset() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  600)
* get_content_disposition() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  452)
* get_content_disposition() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  625)
* get_content_maintype() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  322)
* get_content_maintype() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  430)
* get_content_subtype() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  328)
* get_content_subtype() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  436)
* get_content_type() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  306)
* get_content_type() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  414)
* get_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager 的方法): email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容.
                                                             (line   19)
* get_content() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  579)
* get_content() (於 email.contentmanager 模組中): Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   24)
* get_context() (asyncio.Handle 的方法): 回呼處理.           (line   11)
* get_context() (asyncio.Task 的方法):   Task Object.        (line  170)
* get_context() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Miscellaneous<2>.
                                                             (line   80)
* get_coro() (asyncio.Task 的方法):      Task Object.        (line  157)
* get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  966)
* get_count() (於 gc 模組中):            gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   95)
* get_current_history_length() (於 readline 模組中): History list.
                                                             (line   14)
* get_data() (importlib.abc.FileLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  316)
* get_data() (importlib.abc.ResourceLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  182)
* get_data() (zipimport.zipimporter 的方法): zipimporter 物件.
                                                             (line   50)
* get_data() (於 pkgutil 模組中):        pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line  158)
* get_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 的方法): MaildirMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   92)
* get_debug() (asyncio.loop 的方法):     啟用除錯模式.       (line    6)
* get_debug() (於 gc 模組中):            gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   51)
* get_default_domain() (於 nis 模組中):  nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面.
                                                             (line   56)
* get_default_scheme() (於 sysconfig 模組中): 安裝路徑函式.  (line   14)
* get_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  333)
* get_default_type() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  441)
* get_default_verify_paths() (於 ssl 模組中): 認證處理.      (line   58)
* get_default() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Parser defaults.
                                                             (line   33)
* get_dialect() (於 csv 模組中):         模組內容<3>.        (line   76)
* get_disassembly_as_string() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase 的方法): test support bytecode_helper --- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具.
                                                             (line   18)
* get_docstring() (於 ast 模組中):       ast 輔助程式.       (line   96)
* get_doctest() (doctest.DocTestParser 的方法): DocTestParser 物件.
                                                             (line   13)
* get_endidx() (於 readline 模組中):     Completion.         (line   40)
* get_environ() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler 的方法): wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   79)
* get_errno() (於 ctypes 模組中):        Utility functions.  (line  120)
* get_escdelay() (於 curses 模組中):     函式<5>.            (line  448)
* get_event_loop_policy() (於 asyncio 模組中): Getting and Setting the Policy.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy 的方法): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* get_event_loop() (於 asyncio 模組中):  事件迴圈.           (line   35)
* get_events() (於 sys.monitoring 模組中): Setting events globally.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_examples() (doctest.DocTestParser 的方法): DocTestParser 物件.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 錯誤處理 API.
                                                             (line   24)
* get_exec_path() (於 os 模組中):        行程參數.           (line  167)
* get_extra_info() (asyncio.BaseTransport 的方法): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   21)
* get_extra_info() (asyncio.StreamWriter 的方法): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   56)
* get_field() (string.Formatter 的方法): 自訂字串格式.       (line   51)
* get_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):    bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  387)
* get_file() (mailbox.Babyl 的方法):     Babyl 物件.         (line   49)
* get_file() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):   Mailbox 物件.       (line  183)
* get_file() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法):   Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line  120)
* get_file() (mailbox.mbox 的方法):      mbox 物件.          (line   32)
* get_file() (mailbox.MH 的方法):        MH 物件.            (line   93)
* get_file() (mailbox.MMDF 的方法):      MMDF 物件.          (line   29)
* get_filename() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  391)
* get_filename() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  567)
* get_filename() (importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  271)
* get_filename() (importlib.abc.FileLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  312)
* get_filename() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  335)
* get_filename() (zipimport.zipimporter 的方法): zipimporter 物件.
                                                             (line   58)
* get_filter() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  106)
* get_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 的方法): MaildirMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_flags() (mailbox.mboxMessage 的方法): mboxMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_flags() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 的方法): MMDFMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_folder() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法): Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line   66)
* get_folder() (mailbox.MH 的方法):      MH 物件.            (line   36)
* get_frees() (symtable.Function 的方法): 檢查符號表.        (line   88)
* get_freeze_count() (於 gc 模組中):     gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  193)
* get_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage 的方法): mboxMessage 物件. (line   47)
* get_from() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 的方法): MMDFMessage 物件. (line   46)
* get_full_url() (urllib.request.Request 的方法): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* get_globals() (symtable.Function 的方法): 檢查符號表.      (line   80)
* get_grouped_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 的方法): SequenceMatcher 物件.
                                                             (line  168)
* get_handle_inheritable() (於 os 模組中): Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   35)
* get_header() (urllib.request.Request 的方法): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  120)
* get_history_item() (於 readline 模組中): History list.     (line   20)
* get_history_length() (於 readline 模組中): History file.   (line   30)
* get_id() (symtable.SymbolTable 的方法): 檢查符號表.        (line   21)
* get_ident() (於 _thread 模組中):       _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line   74)
* get_ident() (於 threading 模組中):     threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  117)
* get_identifiers() (string.Template 的方法): 模板字串.      (line   66)
* get_identifiers() (symtable.SymbolTable 的方法): 檢查符號表.
                                                             (line   51)
* get_importer() (於 pkgutil 模組中):    pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 的方法): MaildirMessage 物件.
                                                             (line  102)
* get_inheritable() (socket.socket 的方法): Socket 物件.     (line  127)
* get_inheritable() (於 os 模組中):      Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   26)
* get_instructions() (於 dis 模組中):    Analysis functions. (line  126)
* get_int_max_str_digits() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  797)
* get_interpreter() (於 zipapp 模組中):  Python API.         (line   82)
* GET_ITER (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  160)
* get_key() (selectors.BaseSelector 的方法): Classes<3>.     (line  145)
* get_labels() (mailbox.Babyl 的方法):   Babyl 物件.         (line   35)
* get_labels() (mailbox.BabylMessage 的方法): BabylMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_last_error() (於 ctypes 模組中):   Utility functions.  (line  127)
* GET_LEN (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  461)
* get_line_buffer() (於 readline 模組中): Line buffer.       (line    8)
* get_lineno() (symtable.SymbolTable 的方法): 檢查符號表.    (line   34)
* get_loader() (於 pkgutil 模組中):      pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line   76)
* get_local_events() (於 sys.monitoring 模組中): Per code object events.
                                                             (line    8)
* get_locals() (symtable.Function 的方法): 檢查符號表.       (line   76)
* get_logger() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Logging.         (line   11)
* get_loop() (asyncio.Future 的方法):    Future 物件<2>.     (line  127)
* get_loop() (asyncio.Runner 的方法):    Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   55)
* get_loop() (asyncio.Server 的方法):    Server 物件.        (line   40)
* get_makefile_filename() (於 sysconfig 模組中): 其他函式<3>.
                                                             (line   72)
* get_map() (selectors.BaseSelector 的方法): Classes<3>.     (line  153)
* get_matching_blocks() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 的方法): SequenceMatcher 物件.
                                                             (line  107)
* get_message() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法): Mailbox 物件.      (line  160)
* get_method() (urllib.request.Request 的方法): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* get_methods() (symtable.Class 的方法): 檢查符號表.         (line   96)
* get_mixed_type_key() (於 ipaddress 模組中): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   56)
* get_name() (asyncio.Task 的方法):      Task Object.        (line  177)
* get_name() (symtable.Symbol 的方法):   檢查符號表.         (line  136)
* get_name() (symtable.SymbolTable 的方法): 檢查符號表.      (line   25)
* get_namespace() (symtable.Symbol 的方法): 檢查符號表.      (line  203)
* get_namespaces() (symtable.Symbol 的方法): 檢查符號表.     (line  199)
* get_native_id() (於 _thread 模組中):   _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line   81)
* get_native_id() (於 threading 模組中): threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  127)
* get_nonlocals() (symtable.Function 的方法): 檢查符號表.    (line   84)
* get_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的方法): Cookie 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  102)
* get_nowait() (asyncio.Queue 的方法):   Queue.              (line   41)
* get_nowait() (multiprocessing.Queue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  165)
* get_nowait() (queue.Queue 的方法):     佇列物件.           (line   53)
* get_nowait() (queue.SimpleQueue 的方法): SimpleQueue 物件. (line   44)
* get_object_traceback() (於 tracemalloc 模組中): 函式<10>.  (line   12)
* get_objects() (於 gc 模組中):          gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   55)
* get_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 的方法): SequenceMatcher 物件.
                                                             (line  125)
* get_option_group() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): Grouping Options.
                                                             (line  103)
* get_option() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   37)
* get_origin() (於 typing 模組中):       Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line   57)
* get_original_bases() (於 types 模組中): Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   71)
* get_original_stdout() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  310)
* get_osfhandle() (於 msvcrt 模組中):    File Operations.    (line   55)
* get_output_charset() (email.charset.Charset 的方法): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line  109)
* get_overloads() (於 typing 模組中):    函式與裝飾器.       (line  286)
* get_pagesize() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  277)
* get_param() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  476)
* get_parameters() (symtable.Function 的方法): 檢查符號表.   (line   72)
* get_params() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  455)
* get_path_names() (於 sysconfig 模組中): 安裝路徑函式.      (line   57)
* get_path() (於 sysconfig 模組中):      安裝路徑函式.       (line   62)
* get_paths() (於 sysconfig 模組中):     安裝路徑函式.       (line   93)
* get_payload() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  179)
* get_pid() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 的方法): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_pipe_transport() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 的方法): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   10)
* get_platform() (於 sysconfig 模組中):  其他函式<3>.        (line   11)
* get_poly() (於 turtle 模組中):         Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   17)
* get_position() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects. (line   12)
* get_preferred_scheme() (於 sysconfig 模組中): 安裝路徑函式.
                                                             (line   24)
* get_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport 的方法): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   88)
* get_proxy_response_headers() (http.client.HTTPConnection 的方法): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line  133)
* get_python_version() (於 sysconfig 模組中): 其他函式<3>.   (line    6)
* get_ready() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 的方法): graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能.
                                                             (line  130)
* get_recsrc() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device 的方法): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   84)
* get_referents() (於 gc 模組中):        gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  121)
* get_referrers() (於 gc 模組中):        gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  104)
* get_request() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  131)
* get_returncode() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 的方法): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   29)
* get_running_loop() (於 asyncio 模組中): 事件迴圈.          (line   25)
* get_scheme_names() (於 sysconfig 模組中): 安裝路徑函式.    (line    9)
* get_scheme() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的方法): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  161)
* get_selection() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  110)
* get_sequences() (mailbox.MH 的方法):   MH 物件.            (line   53)
* get_sequences() (mailbox.MHMessage 的方法): MHMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   32)
* get_server_certificate() (於 ssl 模組中): 認證處理.        (line   28)
* get_server() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_shapepoly() (於 turtle 模組中):    Appearance.         (line  187)
* get_socket() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法): Telnet Objects.    (line   92)
* get_source_segment() (於 ast 模組中):  ast 輔助程式.       (line  106)
* get_source() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  215)
* get_source() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  410)
* get_source() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  331)
* get_source() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  268)
* get_source() (zipimport.zipimporter 的方法): zipimporter 物件.
                                                             (line   66)
* get_stack() (asyncio.Task 的方法):     Task Object.        (line  121)
* get_stack() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  399)
* get_start_method() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Miscellaneous<2>.
                                                             (line   92)
* get_starttag_text() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.
                                                             (line   28)
* get_stats_profile() (pstats.Stats 的方法): The Stats Class.
                                                             (line  225)
* get_stats() (於 gc 模組中):            gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   66)
* get_stderr() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的方法): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  110)
* get_stderr() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler 的方法): wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   87)
* get_stdin() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的方法): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  105)
* get_string() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法): Mailbox 物件.       (line  175)
* get_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 的方法): MaildirMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_symbols() (symtable.SymbolTable 的方法): 檢查符號表.   (line   60)
* get_tabsize() (於 curses 模組中):      函式<5>.            (line  463)
* get_task_factory() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 建立 Futures 和 Tasks.
                                                             (line   43)
* get_terminal_size() (於 os 模組中):    Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line    8)
* get_terminal_size() (於 shutil 模組中): Querying the size of the output terminal.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_threshold() (於 gc 模組中):        gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   99)
* get_token() (shlex.shlex 的方法):      shlex 物件.         (line    8)
* get_tool() (於 sys.monitoring 模組中): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_traceback_limit() (於 tracemalloc 模組中): 函式<10>.   (line   22)
* get_traced_memory() (於 tracemalloc 模組中): 函式<10>.     (line   32)
* get_tracemalloc_memory() (於 tracemalloc 模組中): 函式<10>.
                                                             (line   56)
* get_type_hints() (於 typing 模組中):   Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_type() (symtable.SymbolTable 的方法): 檢查符號表.      (line   11)
* get_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  150)
* get_unixfrom() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  161)
* get_unpack_formats() (於 shutil 模組中): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  190)
* get_usage() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): 其他方法.      (line   22)
* get_value() (string.Formatter 的方法): 自訂字串格式.       (line   61)
* get_version() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): Printing a version string.
                                                             (line   34)
* get_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage 的方法): BabylMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_wch() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line  240)
* get_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport 的方法): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   23)
* get_write_buffer_size() (asyncio.WriteTransport 的方法): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   19)
* GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER (opcode):          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  164)
* get() (asyncio.Queue 的方法):          Queue.              (line   36)
* get() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  211)
* get() (contextvars.Context 的方法):    Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line   90)
* get() (contextvars.ContextVar 的方法): Context Variables.  (line   30)
* get() (dict 的方法):                   Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line  155)
* get() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  243)
* get() (email.message.Message 的方法):  email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  352)
* get() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):        Mailbox 物件.       (line  148)
* get() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult 的方法): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  196)
* get() (multiprocessing.Queue 的方法):  Pipes and Queues.   (line  150)
* get() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  236)
* get() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device 的方法): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* get() (queue.Queue 的方法):            佇列物件.           (line   39)
* get() (queue.SimpleQueue 的方法):      SimpleQueue 物件.   (line   35)
* get() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox 的方法):   ttk Combobox.       (line   15)
* get() (tkinter.ttk.Spinbox 的方法):    ttk Spinbox.        (line    8)
* get() (types.MappingProxyType 的方法): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  258)
* get() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line   64)
* get() (於 webbrowser 模組中):          webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line   90)
* getacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line  106)
* getaddresses() (於 email.utils 模組中): email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line   85)
* getaddrinfo() (asyncio.loop 的方法):   DNS.                (line    6)
* getaddrinfo() (於 socket 模組中):      其他函式<2>.        (line   17)
* getallocatedblocks() (於 sys 模組中):  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  706)
* getandroidapilevel() (於 sys 模組中):  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  727)
* getannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法): IMAP4 物件.        (line  111)
* getargvalues() (於 inspect 模組中):    類別與函式.         (line   62)
* getasyncgenlocals() (於 inspect 模組中): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   99)
* getasyncgenstate() (於 inspect 模組中): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   47)
* getatime() (於 os.path 模組中):        os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  147)
* getattr_static() (於 inspect 模組中):  Fetching attributes statically.
                                                             (line   16)
* getattrfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   43)
* getAttribute() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.  (line   31)
* getAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* getAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* getAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* getattrofunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   54)
* GetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* getbegyx() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  224)
* getbkgd() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line  228)
* getblocking() (socket.socket 的方法):  Socket 物件.        (line  164)
* getboolean() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  245)
* getbuffer() (io.BytesIO 的方法):       Buffered Streams.   (line   21)
* getbufferproc (C type):                Slot Type typedefs. (line  100)
* getByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 的方法): InputSource 物件.
                                                             (line   48)
* getcallargs() (於 inspect 模組中):     類別與函式.         (line   92)
* getcanvas() (於 turtle 模組中):        Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   54)
* getcapabilities() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法): 方法.             (line   34)
* getcaps() (於 mailcap 模組中):         mailcap --- Mailcap 檔案處理.
                                                             (line   78)
* getch() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  233)
* getch() (於 msvcrt 模組中):            Console I/O.        (line   10)
* getCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 的方法): InputSource 物件.
                                                             (line   64)
* getche() (於 msvcrt 模組中):           Console I/O.        (line   25)
* getChild() (logging.Logger 的方法):    Logger 物件.        (line  159)
* getChildren() (logging.Logger 的方法): Logger 物件.        (line  171)
* getclasstree() (於 inspect 模組中):    類別與函式.         (line    6)
* getclosurevars() (於 inspect 模組中):  類別與函式.         (line  123)
* getcode() (http.client.HTTPResponse 的方法): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   87)
* getcode() (urllib.response.addinfourl 的方法): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   44)
* GetColumnInfo() (msilib.View 的方法):  View Objects.       (line   12)
* getColumnNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator 的方法): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* getcomments() (於 inspect 模組中):     取得原始碼.         (line   18)
* getcompname() (aifc.aifc 的方法):      aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line   76)
* getcompname() (sunau.AU_read 的方法):  AU_read 物件.       (line   32)
* getcompname() (wave.Wave_read 的方法): Wave_read 物件.     (line   37)
* getcomptype() (aifc.aifc 的方法):      aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line   70)
* getcomptype() (sunau.AU_read 的方法):  AU_read 物件.       (line   28)
* getcomptype() (wave.Wave_read 的方法): Wave_read 物件.     (line   33)
* getconfig() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.  (line  616)
* getContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   21)
* getcontext() (於 decimal 模組中):      Context objects.    (line   14)
* getcoroutinelocals() (於 inspect 模組中): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   91)
* getcoroutinestate() (於 inspect 模組中): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   28)
* getctime() (於 os.path 模組中):        os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  161)
* getcwd() (於 os 模組中):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  283)
* getcwdb() (於 os 模組中):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  287)
* getcwdu (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  115)
* getdecoder() (於 codecs 模組中):       codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  107)
* getdefaultencoding() (於 sys 模組中):  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  735)
* getdefaultlocale() (於 locale 模組中): locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  337)
* getdefaulttimeout() (於 socket 模組中): 其他函式<2>.       (line  346)
* getdlopenflags() (於 sys 模組中):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  740)
* getdoc() (於 inspect 模組中):          取得原始碼.         (line    6)
* getDOMImplementation() (於 xml.dom 模組中): 模組內容<6>.   (line   17)
* getDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   30)
* getEffectiveLevel() (logging.Logger 的方法): Logger 物件.  (line  149)
* getegid() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  177)
* getElementsByTagName() (xml.dom.Document 的方法): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* getElementsByTagName() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* getElementsByTagNameNS() (xml.dom.Document 的方法): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* getElementsByTagNameNS() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* getencoder() (於 codecs 模組中):       codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   99)
* getEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 的方法): InputSource 物件.
                                                             (line   32)
* getencoding() (於 locale 模組中):      locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  398)
* getEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   39)
* getenv() (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  135)
* getenvb() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  151)
* getErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   50)
* geteuid() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  185)
* getEvent() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream 的方法): DOMEventStream 物件.
                                                             (line   11)
* getEventCategory() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler 的方法): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* getEventType() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler 的方法): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   49)
* getException() (xml.sax.SAXException 的方法): SAXException 物件.
                                                             (line   13)
* getFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   69)
* GetFieldCount() (msilib.Record 的方法): Record Objects.    (line    6)
* getfile() (於 inspect 模組中):         取得原始碼.         (line   27)
* getFilesToDelete() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler 的方法): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  115)
* getfilesystemencodeerrors() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  780)
* getfilesystemencoding() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  749)
* getfirst() (cgi.FieldStorage 的方法):  Higher Level Interface.
                                                             (line   56)
* getfloat() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  238)
* getfmts() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* getfqdn() (於 socket 模組中):          其他函式<2>.        (line   71)
* getframeinfo() (於 inspect 模組中):    直譯器堆疊.         (line  123)
* getframerate() (aifc.aifc 的方法):     aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line   62)
* getframerate() (sunau.AU_read 的方法): AU_read 物件.       (line   20)
* getframerate() (wave.Wave_read 的方法): Wave_read 物件.    (line   25)
* getfullargspec() (於 inspect 模組中):  類別與函式.         (line   17)
* getgeneratorlocals() (於 inspect 模組中): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   72)
* getgeneratorstate() (於 inspect 模組中): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   12)
* getgid() (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  191)
* getgrall() (於 grp 模組中):            grp --- 群組資料庫. (line   58)
* getgrgid() (於 grp 模組中):            grp --- 群組資料庫. (line   44)
* getgrnam() (於 grp 模組中):            grp --- 群組資料庫. (line   53)
* getgrouplist() (於 os 模組中):         行程參數.           (line  200)
* getgroups() (於 os 模組中):            行程參數.           (line  211)
* getHandlerByName() (於 logging 模組中): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  183)
* getHandlerNames() (於 logging 模組中): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  190)
* getheader() (http.client.HTTPResponse 的方法): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   24)
* getheaders() (http.client.HTTPResponse 的方法): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   32)
* gethostbyaddr() (於 socket 模組中):    其他函式<2>.        (line  127)
* gethostbyaddr()（於 socket 模組）:     行程參數.           (line  552)
* gethostbyname_ex() (於 socket 模組中): 其他函式<2>.        (line   98)
* gethostbyname() (於 socket 模組中):    其他函式<2>.        (line   83)
* gethostname() (於 socket 模組中):      其他函式<2>.        (line  115)
* gethostname()（於 socket 模組）:       行程參數.           (line  552)
* getincrementaldecoder() (於 codecs 模組中): codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  123)
* getincrementalencoder() (於 codecs 模組中): codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  115)
* getinfo() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):    ZipFile 物件.       (line  110)
* getinnerframes() (於 inspect 模組中):  直譯器堆疊.         (line  145)
* GetInputContext() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* getint() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  231)
* GetInteger() (msilib.Record 的方法):   Record Objects.     (line   11)
* getitem() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  183)
* getiterfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   88)
* getitimer() (於 signal 模組中):        模組內容<5>.        (line  434)
* getkey() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  248)
* GetLastError() (於 ctypes 模組中):     Utility functions.  (line  113)
* getLength() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes 的方法): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   11)
* getLevelName() (於 logging 模組中):    Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  150)
* getLevelNamesMapping() (於 logging 模組中): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  141)
* getlimit() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.   (line  560)
* getline() (於 linecache 模組中):       linecache --- 隨機存取文字列.
                                                             (line   23)
* getLineNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator 的方法): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* getlist() (cgi.FieldStorage 的方法):   Higher Level Interface.
                                                             (line   67)
* getloadavg() (於 os 模組中):           Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   49)
* getlocale() (於 locale 模組中):        locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  363)
* getLogger() (於 logging 模組中):       Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* getLoggerClass() (於 logging 模組中):  Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* getlogin() (於 os 模組中):             行程參數.           (line  234)
* getLogRecordFactory() (於 logging 模組中): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   34)
* getMandatoryRelease() (__future__._Feature 的方法): 模組內容<9>.
                                                             (line   69)
* getmark() (aifc.aifc 的方法):          aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line   95)
* getmark() (sunau.AU_read 的方法):      AU_read 物件.       (line   71)
* getmark() (wave.Wave_read 的方法):     Wave_read 物件.     (line   63)
* getmarkers() (aifc.aifc 的方法):       aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line   88)
* getmarkers() (sunau.AU_read 的方法):   AU_read 物件.       (line   67)
* getmarkers() (wave.Wave_read 的方法):  Wave_read 物件.     (line   59)
* getmaxyx() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  255)
* getmember() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法):  TarFile 物件.       (line   96)
* getmembers_static() (於 inspect 模組中): Types and members.
                                                             (line  322)
* getmembers() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法): TarFile 物件.       (line  104)
* getmembers() (於 inspect 模組中):      Types and members.  (line  309)
* getMessage() (logging.LogRecord 的方法): LogRecord 物件.   (line   64)
* getMessage() (xml.sax.SAXException 的方法): SAXException 物件.
                                                             (line    9)
* getMessageID() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler 的方法): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   60)
* getmodule() (於 inspect 模組中):       取得原始碼.         (line   33)
* getmodulename() (於 inspect 模組中):   Types and members.  (line  338)
* getmouse() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line  145)
* getmro() (於 inspect 模組中):          類別與函式.         (line   84)
* getmtime() (於 os.path 模組中):        os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  153)
* getname() (chunk.Chunk 的方法):        chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line   72)
* getName() (threading.Thread 的方法):   Thread Objects.     (line  159)
* getNameByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS 的方法): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   16)
* getnameinfo() (asyncio.loop 的方法):   DNS.                (line   11)
* getnameinfo() (於 socket 模組中):      其他函式<2>.        (line  143)
* getnames() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法):   TarFile 物件.       (line  110)
* getNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes 的方法): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   15)
* getnchannels() (aifc.aifc 的方法):     aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line   54)
* getnchannels() (sunau.AU_read 的方法): AU_read 物件.       (line   12)
* getnchannels() (wave.Wave_read 的方法): Wave_read 物件.    (line   17)
* getnframes() (aifc.aifc 的方法):       aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line   66)
* getnframes() (sunau.AU_read 的方法):   AU_read 物件.       (line   24)
* getnframes() (wave.Wave_read 的方法):  Wave_read 物件.     (line   29)
* getnode:                               uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  167)
* getnode() (於 uuid 模組中):            uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  153)
* getopt() (於 getopt 模組中):           getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器.
                                                             (line   25)
* GetoptError:                           getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器.
                                                             (line   74)
* getOptionalRelease() (__future__._Feature 的方法): 模組內容<9>.
                                                             (line   65)
* getouterframes() (於 inspect 模組中):  直譯器堆疊.         (line  131)
* getoutput() (於 subprocess 模組中):    Legacy Shell Invocation Functions.
                                                             (line   44)
* getpagesize() (於 resource 模組中):    Resource Usage.     (line  101)
* getparams() (aifc.aifc 的方法):        aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line   82)
* getparams() (sunau.AU_read 的方法):    AU_read 物件.       (line   38)
* getparams() (wave.Wave_read 的方法):   Wave_read 物件.     (line   42)
* getparyx() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  259)
* getpass() (於 getpass 模組中):         getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具.
                                                             (line   17)
* GetPassWarning:                        getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具.
                                                             (line   33)
* getpeercert() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法):  SSL Sockets.        (line  125)
* getpeername() (socket.socket 的方法):  Socket 物件.        (line  135)
* getpen() (於 turtle 模組中):           Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   40)
* getpgid() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  245)
* getpgrp() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  253)
* getpid() (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  259)
* getpos() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法. (line   24)
* getppid() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  266)
* getpreferredencoding() (於 locale 模組中): locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  374)
* getpriority() (於 os 模組中):          行程參數.           (line  277)
* getprofile() (於 sys 模組中):          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  885)
* getprofile() (於 threading 模組中):    threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  198)
* GetProperty() (msilib.SummaryInformation 的方法): Summary Information Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* getProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   83)
* GetPropertyCount() (msilib.SummaryInformation 的方法): Summary Information Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* getprotobyname() (於 socket 模組中):   其他函式<2>.        (line  163)
* getproxies() (於 urllib.request 模組中): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  154)
* getPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 的方法): InputSource 物件.
                                                             (line   10)
* getPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator 的方法): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* getpwall() (於 pwd 模組中):            pwd --- 密碼資料庫. (line   63)
* getpwnam() (於 pwd 模組中):            pwd --- 密碼資料庫. (line   59)
* getpwuid() (於 pwd 模組中):            pwd --- 密碼資料庫. (line   55)
* getQNameByName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS 的方法): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   20)
* getQNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS 的方法): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   24)
* getquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):     IMAP4 物件.         (line  116)
* getquotaroot() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法): IMAP4 物件.         (line  121)
* getrandbits() (random.Random 的方法):  替代產生器.         (line   39)
* getrandbits() (於 random 模組中):      回傳整數的函式.     (line   33)
* getrandom() (於 os 模組中):            Random numbers.     (line    6)
* getreader() (於 codecs 模組中):        codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  131)
* getrecursionlimit() (於 sys 模組中):   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  820)
* getrefcount() (於 sys 模組中):         sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  805)
* GetReparseDeferralEnabled() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  111)
* getresgid() (於 os 模組中):            行程參數.           (line  324)
* getresponse() (http.client.HTTPConnection 的方法): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line   74)
* getresuid() (於 os 模組中):            行程參數.           (line  315)
* getrlimit() (於 resource 模組中):      Resource Limits.    (line   24)
* getroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 的方法): ElementTree 物件.
                                                             (line   36)
* getrusage() (於 resource 模組中):      Resource Usage.     (line    8)
* getsample() (於 audioop 模組中):       audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  111)
* getsampwidth() (aifc.aifc 的方法):     aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line   58)
* getsampwidth() (sunau.AU_read 的方法): AU_read 物件.       (line   16)
* getsampwidth() (wave.Wave_read 的方法): Wave_read 物件.    (line   21)
* getscreen() (於 turtle 模組中):        Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   51)
* getservbyname() (於 socket 模組中):    其他函式<2>.        (line  174)
* getservbyport() (於 socket 模組中):    其他函式<2>.        (line  185)
* GetSetDescriptorType (於 types 模組中): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  199)
* getshapes() (於 turtle 模組中):        Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   63)
* getsid() (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  510)
* getsignal() (於 signal 模組中):        模組內容<5>.        (line  284)
* getsitepackages() (於 site 模組中):    模組內容<10>.       (line   56)
* getsize() (chunk.Chunk 的方法):        chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line   77)
* getsize() (於 os.path 模組中):         os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  170)
* getsizeof() (於 sys 模組中):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  827)
* getsockname() (socket.socket 的方法):  Socket 物件.        (line  143)
* getsockopt() (socket.socket 的方法):   Socket 物件.        (line  149)
* getsource() (於 inspect 模組中):       取得原始碼.         (line   59)
* getsourcefile() (於 inspect 模組中):   取得原始碼.         (line   38)
* getsourcelines() (於 inspect 模組中):  取得原始碼.         (line   45)
* getspall() (於 spwd 模組中):           spwd --- shadow 密碼資料庫.
                                                             (line   74)
* getspnam() (於 spwd 模組中):           spwd --- shadow 密碼資料庫.
                                                             (line   67)
* getstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder 的方法): IncrementalDecoder 物件.
                                                             (line   44)
* getstate() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder 的方法): IncrementalEncoder 物件.
                                                             (line   42)
* getstate() (random.Random 的方法):     替代產生器.         (line   22)
* getstate() (於 random 模組中):         簿記函式 bookkeeping functions.
                                                             (line   28)
* getstatusoutput() (於 subprocess 模組中): Legacy Shell Invocation Functions.
                                                             (line   11)
* getstr() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  265)
* GetString() (msilib.Record 的方法):    Record Objects.     (line   16)
* getSubject() (logging.handlers.SMTPHandler 的方法): SMTPHandler.
                                                             (line   39)
* GetSummaryInformation() (msilib.Database 的方法): Database Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* getswitchinterval() (於 sys 模組中):   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  849)
* getSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 的方法): InputSource 物件.
                                                             (line   18)
* getSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator 的方法): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* getsyx() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line  163)
* gettarinfo() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法): TarFile 物件.       (line  287)
* gettempdir() (於 tempfile 模組中):     tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  269)
* gettempdirb() (於 tempfile 模組中):    tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  299)
* gettempprefix() (於 tempfile 模組中):  tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  305)
* gettempprefixb() (於 tempfile 模組中): tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  309)
* getter (C type):                       Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   33)
* getTestCaseNames() (unittest.TestLoader 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  111)
* gettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations 的方法): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   38)
* gettext() (gettext.NullTranslations 的方法): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   35)
* gettext() (於 gettext 模組中):         GNU gettext API.    (line   32)
* gettext() (於 locale 模組中):          Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line    6)
* gettimeout() (socket.socket 的方法):   Socket 物件.        (line  173)
* gettrace() (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  889)
* gettrace() (於 threading 模組中):      threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  174)
* getturtle() (於 turtle 模組中):        Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   40)
* getType() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes 的方法): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   19)
* getuid() (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  333)
* getunicodeinternedsize() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  721)
* geturl() (http.client.HTTPResponse 的方法): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   79)
* geturl() (urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult 的方法): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   12)
* geturl() (urllib.response.addinfourl 的方法): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   30)
* getuser() (於 getpass 模組中):         getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具.
                                                             (line   37)
* getuserbase() (於 site 模組中):        模組內容<10>.       (line   62)
* getusersitepackages() (於 site 模組中): 模組內容<10>.      (line   70)
* getvalue() (io.BytesIO 的方法):        Buffered Streams.   (line   38)
* getvalue() (io.StringIO 的方法):       文字 I/O<2>.        (line  263)
* getValue() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes 的方法): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   24)
* getValueByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS 的方法): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   12)
* getwch() (於 msvcrt 模組中):           Console I/O.        (line   20)
* getwche() (於 msvcrt 模組中):          Console I/O.        (line   30)
* getweakrefcount() (於 weakref 模組中): weakref --- 弱參照. (line  120)
* getweakrefs() (於 weakref 模組中):     weakref --- 弱參照. (line  124)
* getwelcome() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):      FTP 物件.           (line  108)
* getwelcome() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):    方法.               (line   28)
* getwelcome() (poplib.POP3 的方法):     POP3 物件.          (line   20)
* getwin() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line  169)
* getwindowsversion() (於 sys 模組中):   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  899)
* getwriter() (於 codecs 模組中):        codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  139)
* getxattr() (於 os 模組中):             Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   10)
* getyx() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  276)
* gid (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):          TarInfo 物件.       (line  113)
* GIL:                                   術語表.             (line  535)
* glob() (msilib.Directory 的方法):      Directory Objects.  (line   39)
* glob() (pathlib.Path 的方法):          讀取目錄.           (line   28)
* glob() (於 glob 模組中):               glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line   29)
* Global (ast 中的類別):                 函式和類別定義.     (line  148)
* global interpreter lock（全域直譯器鎖）: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* global interpreter lock（全域直譯器鎖） <1>: 術語表.       (line  539)
* global_enum() (於 enum 模組中):        通用項目與裝飾器.   (line   80)
* global;name（名稱）;binding（繫結）:   global 陳述式.      (line    6)
* global（全域）;namespace（命名空間）:  特殊唯讀屬性.       (line    6)
* globs (doctest.DocTest 的屬性):        DocTest 物件.       (line   22)
* gmtime() (於 time 模組中):             函式<4>.            (line  124)
* gname (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):        TarInfo 物件.       (line  129)
* GNOME:                                 The Catalog constructor.
                                                             (line    6)
* GNU_FORMAT (於 tarfile 模組中):        tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  320)
* gnu_getopt() (於 getopt 模組中):       getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器.
                                                             (line   62)
* GNUTranslations (gettext 中的類別):    The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   33)
* GNUTYPE_LONGLINK (於 tarfile 模組中):  tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  304)
* GNUTYPE_LONGNAME (於 tarfile 模組中):  tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  300)
* GNUTYPE_SPARSE (於 tarfile 模組中):    tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  308)
* go() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  114)
* got (doctest.DocTestFailure 的屬性):   Debugging.          (line  204)
* goto() (於 turtle 模組中):             Turtle motion.      (line   74)
* grammar（文法）:                       Notation.           (line    6)
* Graphical User Interface（圖形使用者介面）: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces.
                                                             (line    6)
* GREATER (於 token 模組中):             token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  110)
* GREATEREQUAL (於 token 模組中):        token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  146)
* Greenwich Mean Time（格林威治標準時間）: time --- 時間存取與轉換.
                                                             (line   32)
* GRND_NONBLOCK (於 os 模組中):          Random numbers.     (line   76)
* GRND_RANDOM (於 os 模組中):            Random numbers.     (line   89)
* Group (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  457)
* group() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):         方法.               (line  158)
* group() (pathlib.Path 的方法):         Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   11)
* group() (re.Match 的方法):             Match Objects.      (line   35)
* groupby() (於 itertools 模組中):       Itertool 函式.      (line  270)
* groupdict() (re.Match 的方法):         Match Objects.      (line  135)
* groupindex (re.Pattern 的屬性):        Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* grouping（群組）:                      Indentation.        (line    6)
* groups (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  188)
* groups (re.Pattern 的屬性):            Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line  113)
* groups() (re.Match 的方法):            Match Objects.      (line  112)
* GS (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  112)
* Gt (ast 中的類別):                     運算式<2>.          (line  106)
* gt() (於 operator 模組中):             operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* GtE (ast 中的類別):                    運算式<2>.          (line  106)
* guard:                                 Guards.             (line    6)
* guess_all_extensions() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 的方法): MimeTypes 物件.
                                                             (line   65)
* guess_all_extensions() (於 mimetypes 模組中): mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line   51)
* guess_extension() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 的方法): MimeTypes 物件.
                                                             (line   55)
* guess_extension() (於 mimetypes 模組中): mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line   63)
* guess_scheme() (於 wsgiref.util 模組中): wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line   11)
* guess_type() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 的方法): MimeTypes 物件. (line   60)
* guess_type() (於 mimetypes 模組中):    mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line   24)
* GUI:                                   以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces.
                                                             (line    6)
* gzip 命令列選項; -best:                命令列選項.         (line   14)
* gzip 命令列選項; -d:                   命令列選項.         (line   18)
* gzip 命令列選項; -decompress:          命令列選項.         (line   18)
* gzip 命令列選項; -fast:                命令列選項.         (line   10)
* gzip 命令列選項; -h:                   命令列選項.         (line   22)
* gzip 命令列選項; -help:                命令列選項.         (line   22)
* gzip 命令列選項; file:                 命令列選項.         (line    6)
* GzipFile (gzip 中的類別):              gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援.
                                                             (line   70)
* halfdelay() (於 curses 模組中):        函式<5>.            (line  211)
* Handle (asyncio 中的類別):             回呼處理.           (line    6)
* handle an exception（處理例外）:       例外.               (line    6)
* handle_charref() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.
                                                             (line   75)
* handle_comment() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.
                                                             (line   82)
* handle_data() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.
                                                             (line   64)
* handle_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.
                                                             (line   94)
* handle_defect() (email.policy.Policy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  234)
* handle_endtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.
                                                             (line   51)
* handle_entityref() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.
                                                             (line   69)
* handle_error() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  137)
* handle_expect_100() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  205)
* handle_one_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  199)
* handle_pi() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.
                                                             (line  102)
* handle_request() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* handle_request() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 的方法): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   50)
* handle_startendtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.
                                                             (line   57)
* handle_starttag() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.
                                                             (line   37)
* handle_timeout() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  147)
* handle() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  192)
* handle() (logging.Handler 的方法):     Handler Objects.    (line   81)
* handle() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 的方法): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   66)
* handle() (logging.Logger 的方法):      Logger 物件.        (line  362)
* handle() (logging.NullHandler 的方法): NullHandler.        (line   20)
* handle() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler 的方法): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* handle() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler 的方法): wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   92)
* handleError() (logging.Handler 的方法): Handler Objects.   (line   88)
* handleError() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 的方法): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   33)
* Handler (logging 中的類別):            Handler Objects.    (line   11)
* handler() (於 cgitb 模組中):           cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式.
                                                             (line   69)
* handlers (logging.Logger 的屬性):      Logger 物件.        (line   85)
* Handlers (signal 中的類別):            模組內容<5>.        (line   24)
* hardlink_to() (pathlib.Path 的方法):   建立檔案與目錄.     (line   63)
* harmonic_mean() (於 statistics 模組中): 函式細節.          (line   87)
* HAS_ALPN (於 ssl 模組中):              常數<8>.            (line  337)
* has_children() (symtable.SymbolTable 的方法): 檢查符號表.  (line   46)
* has_colors() (於 curses 模組中):       函式<5>.            (line  176)
* has_dualstack_ipv6() (於 socket 模組中): 建立 sockets.     (line  150)
* HAS_ECDH (於 ssl 模組中):              常數<8>.            (line  351)
* has_extended_color_support() (於 curses 模組中): 函式<5>.  (line  181)
* has_extn() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):      SMTP 物件.          (line   85)
* has_header() (csv.Sniffer 的方法):     模組內容<3>.        (line  215)
* has_header() (urllib.request.Request 的方法): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   94)
* has_ic() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line  192)
* has_il() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line  199)
* has_ipv6 (於 socket 模組中):           常數<7>.            (line  285)
* has_key (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  119)
* has_key() (於 curses 模組中):          函式<5>.            (line  206)
* has_location (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  429)
* HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.      (line  344)
* has_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的方法): Cookie 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* HAS_NPN (於 ssl 模組中):               常數<8>.            (line  366)
* has_option() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  129)
* has_option() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   42)
* has_section() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  120)
* HAS_SNI (於 ssl 模組中):               常數<8>.            (line  359)
* HAS_SSLv2 (於 ssl 模組中):             常數<8>.            (line  374)
* HAS_SSLv3 (於 ssl 模組中):             常數<8>.            (line  380)
* has_ticket (ssl.SSLSession 的屬性):    SSL session.        (line   20)
* HAS_TLSv1 (於 ssl 模組中):             常數<8>.            (line  386)
* HAS_TLSv1_1 (於 ssl 模組中):           常數<8>.            (line  392)
* HAS_TLSv1_2 (於 ssl 模組中):           常數<8>.            (line  398)
* HAS_TLSv1_3 (於 ssl 模組中):           常數<8>.            (line  404)
* hasarg (於 dis 模組中):                Opcode collections. (line   25)
* hasAttribute() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.  (line   22)
* hasAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* hasAttributes() (xml.dom.Node 的方法): Node Objects.       (line   94)
* hasChildNodes() (xml.dom.Node 的方法): Node Objects.       (line   98)
* hascompare (於 dis 模組中):            Opcode collections. (line   59)
* hasconst (於 dis 模組中):              Opcode collections. (line   31)
* hasexc (於 dis 模組中):                Opcode collections. (line   63)
* hasFeature() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation 的方法): DOMImplementation 物件.
                                                             (line   11)
* hasfree (於 dis 模組中):               Opcode collections. (line   35)
* hash character（井字號）:              Comments.           (line    6)
* hash_bits (sys.hash_info 的屬性):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1007)
* hash_info (於 sys 模組中):             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  976)
* hash_randomization (sys.flags 的屬性): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  547)
* hash-based pyc（雜湊架構的 pyc）:      術語表.             (line  557)
* hash.block_size (於 hashlib 模組中):   雜湊物件.           (line   12)
* hash.digest_size (於 hashlib 模組中):  雜湊物件.           (line    8)
* Hashable (collections.abc 中的類別):   Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* Hashable (typing 中的類別):            Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   50)
* hashable（可雜湊）:                    Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   37)
* hashable（可雜湊的）:                  術語表.             (line  563)
* hasHandlers() (logging.Logger 的方法): Logger 物件.        (line  377)
* hashfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   79)
* hasjabs (於 dis 模組中):               Opcode collections. (line   51)
* hasjrel (於 dis 模組中):               Opcode collections. (line   47)
* haslocal (於 dis 模組中):              Opcode collections. (line   55)
* hasname (於 dis 模組中):               Opcode collections. (line   43)
* HAVE_ARGUMENT (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1146)
* HAVE_CONTEXTVAR (於 decimal 模組中):   常數<4>.            (line   32)
* HAVE_DOCSTRINGS (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  161)
* HAVE_THREADS (於 decimal 模組中):      常數<4>.            (line   25)
* HCI_DATA_DIR (於 socket 模組中):       常數<7>.            (line  298)
* HCI_FILTER (於 socket 模組中):         常數<7>.            (line  298)
* HCI_TIME_STAMP (於 socket 模組中):     常數<7>.            (line  298)
* head() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line  266)
* Header (email.header 中的類別):        email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   60)
* header_encode_lines() (email.charset.Charset 的方法): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line  123)
* header_encode() (email.charset.Charset 的方法): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line  116)
* header_encoding (email.charset.Charset 的屬性): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line   57)
* header_factory (email.policy.EmailPolicy 的屬性): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  407)
* header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  593)
* header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  457)
* header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.Policy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  318)
* header_items() (urllib.request.Request 的方法): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* header_max_count() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  434)
* header_max_count() (email.policy.Policy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  259)
* header_offset (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性): ZipInfo 物件.      (line  131)
* header_source_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  581)
* header_source_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  440)
* header_source_parse() (email.policy.Policy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  281)
* header_store_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  589)
* header_store_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  448)
* header_store_parse() (email.policy.Policy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  302)
* HeaderDefect:                          email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
                                                             (line   67)
* HeaderError:                           tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  223)
* HeaderParseError:                      email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
                                                             (line   26)
* HeaderParser (email.parser 中的類別):  Parser API.         (line  105)
* HeaderRegistry (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  299)
* headers (http.client.HTTPResponse 的屬性): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   56)
* headers (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  109)
* headers (urllib.error.HTTPError 的屬性): urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line   49)
* headers (urllib.response.addinfourl 的屬性): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   19)
* Headers (wsgiref.headers 中的類別):    wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具.
                                                             (line    9)
* headers (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError 的屬性): ProtocolError 物件.
                                                             (line   25)
* HeaderWriteError:                      email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
                                                             (line   57)
* heading() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.     (line   99)
* heading() (於 turtle 模組中):          Tell Turtle's state.
                                                             (line   58)
* heapify() (於 heapq 模組中):           heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法.
                                                             (line   50)
* heapmin() (於 msvcrt 模組中):          Other Functions.    (line    6)
* heappop() (於 heapq 模組中):           heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法.
                                                             (line   38)
* heappush() (於 heapq 模組中):          heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法.
                                                             (line   34)
* heappushpop() (於 heapq 模組中):       heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法.
                                                             (line   44)
* heapreplace() (於 heapq 模組中):       heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法.
                                                             (line   54)
* helo() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):          SMTP 物件.          (line   47)
* help (optparse.Option 的屬性):         Option attributes.  (line   80)
* help (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line   70)
* help() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line  214)
* help（幫助）;online（線上）:           pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統.
                                                             (line    8)
* herror:                                例外<10>.           (line   13)
* hex (uuid.UUID 的屬性):                uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  121)
* hex() (bytearray 的方法):              Bytearray Objects.  (line   52)
* hex() (bytes 的方法):                  Bytes Objects.      (line   78)
* hex() (float 的方法):                  浮點數的附加 methods.
                                                             (line   30)
* hex() (memoryview 的方法):             Memory Views.       (line  187)
* hexadecimal literal（十六進位常數）:   Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* hexadecimal（十六進位）;literals（字面值）: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   15)
* hexdigest() (hashlib.hash 的方法):     雜湊物件.           (line   39)
* hexdigest() (hashlib.shake 的方法):    SHAKE 可變長度摘要. (line   20)
* hexdigest() (hmac.HMAC 的方法):        hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line   60)
* hexdigits (於 string 模組中):          字串常數.           (line   27)
* hexlify() (於 binascii 模組中):        binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line  114)
* hexversion (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1019)
* hidden() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法):  Panel Objects.      (line   25)
* hide_cookie2 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy 的屬性): CookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   76)
* hide() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法):    Panel Objects.      (line   30)
* hide() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 的方法):  ttk Notebook.       (line   22)
* hideturtle() (於 turtle 模組中):       Visibility.         (line    6)
* HierarchyRequestErr:                   例外<15>.           (line   29)
* HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   66)
* HIGHEST_PROTOCOL (於 pickle 模組中):   模組介面.           (line   14)
* hits (bdb.Breakpoint 的屬性):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  123)
* HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT (於 winreg 模組中):  HKEY_* Constants.   (line    6)
* HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG (於 winreg 模組中): HKEY_* Constants.  (line   38)
* HKEY_CURRENT_USER (於 winreg 模組中):  HKEY_* Constants.   (line   12)
* HKEY_DYN_DATA (於 winreg 模組中):      HKEY_* Constants.   (line   43)
* HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (於 winreg 模組中): HKEY_* Constants.   (line   19)
* HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA (於 winreg 模組中): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line   31)
* HKEY_USERS (於 winreg 模組中):         HKEY_* Constants.   (line   25)
* hline() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  281)
* HList (tkinter.tix 中的類別):          Hierarchical ListBox.
                                                             (line    6)
* hls_to_rgb() (於 colorsys 模組中):     colorsys --- 顏色系統間的轉換.
                                                             (line   37)
* HOME:                                  os path<3>.         (line   15)
* HOME <1>:                              Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line  117)
* HOME <2>:                              Windows<40>.        (line   15)
* HOME <3>:                              Windows<40>.        (line   18)
* HOME <4>:                              os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  119)
* HOME <5>:                              os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  134)
* HOME <6>:                              Tkinter Modules.    (line   66)
* home() (pathlib.Path 的類別方法):      Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line    6)
* home() (於 turtle 模組中):             Turtle motion.      (line  195)
* HOMEDRIVE:                             os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  125)
* HOMEPATH:                              os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  125)
* hook_compressed() (於 fileinput 模組中): fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line  196)
* hook_encoded() (於 fileinput 模組中):  fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line  216)
* hooks;import（引入）:                  Import hooks.       (line    6)
* hooks;meta:                            Import hooks.       (line    6)
* hooks;path（路徑）:                    Import hooks.       (line    6)
* host (urllib.request.Request 的屬性):  Request Objects.    (line   25)
* hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.  (line   97)
* hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.  (line  313)
* hostname_checks_common_name (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  615)
* hosts (netrc.netrc 的屬性):            netrc 物件.         (line   21)
* hosts() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的方法): Network objects.   (line  136)
* hosts() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的方法): Network objects.   (line  331)
* hour (datetime.datetime 的屬性):       datetime 物件.      (line  299)
* hour (datetime.time 的屬性):           time 物件.          (line   50)
* HRESULT (ctypes 中的類別):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  213)
* hStdError (subprocess.STARTUPINFO 的屬性): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   42)
* hStdInput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO 的屬性): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   27)
* hStdOutput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO 的屬性): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   35)
* hsv_to_rgb() (於 colorsys 模組中):     colorsys --- 顏色系統間的轉換.
                                                             (line   45)
* HT (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   49)
* ht() (於 turtle 模組中):               Visibility.         (line    6)
* HTML:                                  html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTML <1>:                              urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   29)
* html() (於 cgitb 模組中):              cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式.
                                                             (line   60)
* html5 (於 html.entities 模組中):       html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義.
                                                             (line   14)
* HTMLCalendar (calendar 中的類別):      calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  139)
* HtmlDiff (difflib 中的類別):           difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line   82)
* HTMLParser (html.parser 中的類別):     html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器.
                                                             (line   14)
* htonl() (於 socket 模組中):            其他函式<2>.        (line  213)
* htons() (於 socket 模組中):            其他函式<2>.        (line  220)
* HTTP (於 email.policy 模組中):         email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  524)
* http_error_301() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 的方法): HTTPRedirectHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   35)
* http_error_302() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 的方法): HTTPRedirectHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   41)
* http_error_303() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 的方法): HTTPRedirectHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   46)
* http_error_307() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 的方法): HTTPRedirectHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   51)
* http_error_308() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 的方法): HTTPRedirectHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   57)
* http_error_401() (urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler 的方法): HTTPBasicAuthHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_401() (urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler 的方法): HTTPDigestAuthHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_407() (urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler 的方法): ProxyBasicAuthHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_407() (urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler 的方法): ProxyDigestAuthHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_auth_reqed() (urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler 的方法): AbstractBasicAuthHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_auth_reqed() (urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler 的方法): AbstractDigestAuthHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_default() (urllib.request.BaseHandler 的方法): BaseHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   66)
* http_open() (urllib.request.HTTPHandler 的方法): HTTPHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTP_PORT (於 http.client 模組中):     http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  200)
* http_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor 的方法): HTTPErrorProcessor 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_version (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  254)
* HTTP;http.client（標準模組）:          http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;http（標準模組）:                 http --- HTTP 模組. (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol（協定）:                 urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTP;protocol（協定） <1>:             urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   29)
* HTTP;protocol（協定） <2>:             http --- HTTP 模組. (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol（協定） <3>:             http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol（協定） <4>:             http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol（協定） <5>:             cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援.
                                                             (line    8)
* http.server;security（安全）:          安全性注意事項<3>.  (line    6)
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  333)
* HTTPConnection (http.client 中的類別): http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   31)
* HTTPCookieProcessor (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  265)
* httpd:                                 http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTPDefaultErrorHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  256)
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  357)
* HTTPError:                             urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line   28)
* HTTPErrorProcessor (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  417)
* HTTPException:                         http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  131)
* HTTPHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): HTTPHandler.      (line   10)
* HTTPHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  381)
* HTTPMessage (http.client 中的類別):    HTTPMessage 物件.   (line    6)
* HTTPMethod (http 中的類別):            HTTP 狀態分類.      (line   38)
* httponly (http.cookies.Morsel 的屬性): Morsel 物件.        (line   13)
* HTTPPasswordMgr (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  291)
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  295)
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  301)
* HTTPRedirectHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  261)
* HTTPResponse (http.client 中的類別):   http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   99)
* https_open() (urllib.request.HTTPSHandler 的方法): HTTPSHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPS_PORT (於 http.client 模組中):    http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  204)
* https_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor 的方法): HTTPErrorProcessor 物件.
                                                             (line   18)
* HTTPSConnection (http.client 中的類別): http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   62)
* HTTPServer (http.server 中的類別):     http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   30)
* HTTPSHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  385)
* HTTPStatus (http 中的類別):            http --- HTTP 模組. (line   27)
* HV_GUID_BROADCAST (於 socket 模組中):  常數<7>.            (line  337)
* HV_GUID_CHILDREN (於 socket 模組中):   常數<7>.            (line  337)
* HV_GUID_LOOPBACK (於 socket 模組中):   常數<7>.            (line  337)
* HV_GUID_PARENT (於 socket 模組中):     常數<7>.            (line  337)
* HV_GUID_WILDCARD (於 socket 模組中):   常數<7>.            (line  337)
* HV_GUID_ZERO (於 socket 模組中):       常數<7>.            (line  337)
* HV_PROTOCOL_RAW (於 socket 模組中):    常數<7>.            (line  337)
* HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU (於 socket 模組中): 常數<7>.
                                                             (line  337)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT (於 socket 模組中): 常數<7>.      (line  337)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX (於 socket 模組中): 常數<7>.  (line  337)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND (於 socket 模組中): 常數<7>.    (line  337)
* hypot() (於 math 模組中):              Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   47)
* I (於 re 模組中):                      旗標.               (line   38)
* I/O control（I/O 控制）;buffering（緩衝）: 內建函式.       (line 1231)
* I/O control（I/O 控制）;buffering（緩衝） <1>: Socket 物件.
                                                             (line  212)
* iadd() (於 operator 模組中):           原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   33)
* iand() (於 operator 模組中):           原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   38)
* iconcat() (於 operator 模組中):        原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   43)
* id (ssl.SSLSession 的屬性):            SSL session.        (line   12)
* id() (unittest.TestCase 的方法):       Test cases.         (line  743)
* idcok() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  288)
* ident (select.kevent 的屬性):          Kevent Objects.     (line    8)
* ident (threading.Thread 的屬性):       Thread Objects.     (line  167)
* identchars (cmd.Cmd 的屬性):           Cmd 物件.           (line  135)
* identifier:                            Identifiers Names.  (line    6)
* identifier（識別器）:                  Identifiers and keywords.
                                                             (line    6)
* identify_column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  143)
* identify_element() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  172)
* identify_region() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  150)
* identify_row() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  139)
* identify() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 的方法): ttk Notebook.    (line   31)
* identify() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.    (line  133)
* identify() (tkinter.ttk.Widget 的方法): ttk Widget.        (line   11)
* identity of an object（物件的識別）:   Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* identity;test（測試）:                 Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   39)
* idioms (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  123)
* IDLE:                                  IDLE<62>.           (line    8)
* IDLE <1>:                              術語表.             (line  580)
* IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   73)
* IDLESTARTUP:                           IDLE<35>.           (line  176)
* IDLESTARTUP <1>:                       IDLE<39>.           (line    9)
* IDLESTARTUP <2>:                       IDLE<45>.           (line    9)
* IDLESTARTUP <3>:                       Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* idlok() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  296)
* If (ast 中的類別):                     流程控制.           (line    8)
* if_indextoname() (於 socket 模組中):   其他函式<2>.        (line  415)
* if_nameindex() (於 socket 模組中):     其他函式<2>.        (line  372)
* if_nametoindex() (於 socket 模組中):   其他函式<2>.        (line  397)
* if;conditional expression（條件運算式）: Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* if;於 comprehensions（綜合運算）:      Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   14)
* IfExp (ast 中的類別):                  運算式<2>.          (line  152)
* ifloordiv() (於 operator 模組中):      原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   48)
* iglob() (於 glob 模組中):              glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line   71)
* ignorableWhitespace() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line  150)
* ignore (bdb.Breakpoint 的屬性):        bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  119)
* ignore (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  134)
* IGNORE (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  131)
* ignore_environment (sys.flags 的屬性): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  535)
* ignore_errors() (於 codecs 模組中):    Error Handlers.     (line  147)
* IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL (於 doctest 模組中): 可選旗標.     (line   58)
* ignore_patterns() (於 shutil 模組中):  Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  184)
* ignore_warnings() (於 test.support.warnings_helper 模組中): test support warnings_helper --- 用於 warnings 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   10)
* ignore;error handler's name（錯誤處理器名稱）: Error Handlers.
                                                             (line   15)
* IGNORECASE (於 re 模組中):             旗標.               (line   38)
* ihave() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):         方法.               (line  291)
* IISCGIHandler (wsgiref.handlers 中的類別): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line   22)
* IllegalMonthError:                     calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  413)
* IllegalWeekdayError:                   calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  422)
* ilshift() (於 operator 模組中):        原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   53)
* imag (numbers.Complex 的屬性):         數值的階層.         (line   18)
* imag (sys.hash_info 的屬性):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  998)
* imaginary literal（虛數常數）:         Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* imap_unordered() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 的方法): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  141)
* imap() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 的方法): Process Pools.  (line  126)
* IMAP4 (imaplib 中的類別):              imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line   25)
* IMAP4_SSL (imaplib 中的類別):          imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line   74)
* IMAP4_SSL;protocol（協定）:            imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4_stream (imaplib 中的類別):       imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  104)
* IMAP4_stream;protocol（協定）:         imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4;protocol（協定）:                imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4.abort:                           imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line   58)
* IMAP4.error:                           imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line   53)
* IMAP4.readonly:                        imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line   65)
* imatmul() (於 operator 模組中):        原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   68)
* immedok() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line  302)
* immortal:                              術語表.             (line  586)
* immutable object（不可變物件）:        Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* immutable;data（資料）;type（型別）:   Literals<2>.        (line   17)
* immutable;object（物件）:              Literals<2>.        (line   17)
* immutable;object（物件） <1>:          Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   37)
* immutable（不可變）;sequence（序列）;type（型別）: Immutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* immutable（不可變物件）:               術語表.             (line  596)
* imod() (於 operator 模組中):           原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   58)
* impl_detail() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  524)
* implementation (於 sys 模組中):        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1042)
* import (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  139)
* Import (ast 中的類別):                 引入 imports.       (line    6)
* import hooks:                          Import hooks.       (line    6)
* import machinery（引入機制）:          模組引入系統.       (line    6)
* import path（引入路徑）:               術語表.             (line  603)
* import_fresh_module() (於 test.support.import_helper 模組中): test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   15)
* IMPORT_FROM (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  759)
* import_module() (於 importlib 模組中): 函式<11>.           (line   15)
* import_module() (於 test.support.import_helper 模組中): test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   50)
* IMPORT_NAME (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  750)
* importer（引入器）:                    術語表.             (line  616)
* ImportError:                           實體例外.           (line   41)
* ImportFrom (ast 中的類別):             引入 imports.       (line   20)
* importing（引入）:                     術語表.             (line  611)
* imports (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  143)
* imports2 (2to3 fixer):                 Fixers.             (line  147)
* ImportWarning:                         警告.               (line   53)
* ImproperConnectionState:               http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  161)
* imul() (於 operator 模組中):           原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   63)
* In (ast 中的類別):                     運算式<2>.          (line  106)
* in_dll() (ctypes._CData 的方法):       Data types.         (line   63)
* in_table_a1() (於 stringprep 模組中):  stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   40)
* in_table_b1() (於 stringprep 模組中):  stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   45)
* in_table_c11_c12() (於 stringprep 模組中): stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   69)
* in_table_c11() (於 stringprep 模組中): stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   60)
* in_table_c12() (於 stringprep 模組中): stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   64)
* in_table_c21_c22() (於 stringprep 模組中): stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   84)
* in_table_c21() (於 stringprep 模組中): stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   74)
* in_table_c22() (於 stringprep 模組中): stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   79)
* in_table_c3() (於 stringprep 模組中):  stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   89)
* in_table_c4() (於 stringprep 模組中):  stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   93)
* in_table_c5() (於 stringprep 模組中):  stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   98)
* in_table_c6() (於 stringprep 模組中):  stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line  102)
* in_table_c7() (於 stringprep 模組中):  stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line  107)
* in_table_c8() (於 stringprep 模組中):  stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line  112)
* in_table_c9() (於 stringprep 模組中):  stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line  117)
* in_table_d1() (於 stringprep 模組中):  stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line  121)
* in_table_d2() (於 stringprep 模組中):  stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line  126)
* in_transaction (sqlite3.Connection 的屬性): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  734)
* inch() (curses.window 的方法):         Window Objects.     (line  310)
* include() (於 xml.etree.ElementInclude 模組中): 函式<9>.   (line   17)
* inclusive (tracemalloc.DomainFilter 的屬性): DomainFilter. (line   12)
* inclusive (tracemalloc.Filter 的屬性): Filter.             (line   39)
* inclusive（包含）;or:                  Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* Incomplete:                            binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line  160)
* IncompleteRead:                        http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  157)
* IncompleteReadError:                   例外<8>.            (line   39)
* incr_item():                           例外<18>.           (line   58)
* incr_item() <1>:                       例外<18>.           (line  103)
* increment_lineno() (於 ast 模組中):    ast 輔助程式.       (line  125)
* IncrementalDecoder (codecs 中的類別):  IncrementalDecoder 物件.
                                                             (line   11)
* incrementaldecoder (codecs.CodecInfo 的屬性): codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   78)
* IncrementalEncoder (codecs 中的類別):  IncrementalEncoder 物件.
                                                             (line   11)
* incrementalencoder (codecs.CodecInfo 的屬性): codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   78)
* IncrementalNewlineDecoder (io 中的類別): 文字 I/O<2>.      (line  285)
* IncrementalParser (xml.sax.xmlreader 中的類別): xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面.
                                                             (line   20)
* indent (doctest.Example 的屬性):       Example 物件.       (line   47)
* indent (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):          Repr 物件.          (line   54)
* INDENT (於 token 模組中):              token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   50)
* INDENT token（縮排標誌）:              Indentation.        (line   33)
* indent() (於 textwrap 模組中):         textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  102)
* indent() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.       (line  117)
* indentation（縮排）:                   Indentation.        (line    6)
* IndentationError:                      實體例外.           (line  282)
* index (inspect.FrameInfo 的屬性):      直譯器堆疊.         (line   37)
* index (inspect.Traceback 的屬性):      直譯器堆疊.         (line   77)
* index operation（索引操作）:           Sequences.          (line    6)
* index() (array.array 的方法):          array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  171)
* index() (bytearray 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  152)
* index() (bytes 的方法):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  152)
* index() (collections.deque 的方法):    deque 物件.         (line   62)
* index() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList 的方法): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line  275)
* index() (str 的方法):                  String Methods<2>.  (line  174)
* index() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 的方法): ttk Notebook.       (line   36)
* index() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.       (line  178)
* index() (於 operator 模組中):          operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   85)
* index()（序列方法）:                   Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* IndexError:                            實體例外.           (line   66)
* indexOf() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  188)
* IndexSizeErr:                          例外<15>.           (line   34)
* indices() (slice 的方法):              Slice objects.      (line   16)
* INDIRECT (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性): Buffer flags.       (line   31)
* inet_aton() (於 socket 模組中):        其他函式<2>.        (line  230)
* inet_ntoa() (於 socket 模組中):        其他函式<2>.        (line  250)
* inet_ntop() (於 socket 模組中):        其他函式<2>.        (line  285)
* inet_pton() (於 socket 模組中):        其他函式<2>.        (line  267)
* Inexact (decimal 中的類別):            Signals.            (line   42)
* inf (sys.hash_info 的屬性):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  990)
* inf (於 cmath 模組中):                 常數<3>.            (line   20)
* inf (於 math 模組中):                  常數<2>.            (line   26)
* infile (shlex.shlex 的屬性):           shlex 物件.         (line  139)
* Infinity（無窮）:                      內建函式.           (line  625)
* infj (於 cmath 模組中):                常數<3>.            (line   26)
* INFO (於 logging 模組中):              Logging Levels.     (line   29)
* INFO (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中):   tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  172)
* info() (dis.Bytecode 的方法):          Bytecode analysis.  (line   60)
* info() (gettext.NullTranslations 的方法): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   63)
* info() (http.client.HTTPResponse 的方法): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   83)
* info() (logging.Logger 的方法):        Logger 物件.        (line  285)
* info() (urllib.response.addinfourl 的方法): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   34)
* info() (於 logging 模組中):            Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   64)
* infolist() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):   ZipFile 物件.       (line  117)
* inheritance（繼承）:                   類別定義.           (line    6)
* ini file（ini 檔案）:                  configparser --- 設定檔剖析器.
                                                             (line    8)
* init_color() (於 curses 模組中):       函式<5>.            (line  220)
* init_database() (於 msilib 模組中):    msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line   62)
* init_pair() (於 curses 模組中):        函式<5>.            (line  232)
* init() (於 mimetypes 模組中):          mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line   78)
* inited (於 mimetypes 模組中):          mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line  117)
* initgroups() (於 os 模組中):           行程參數.           (line  342)
* initial_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性): textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  210)
* initproc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   35)
* initscr() (於 curses 模組中):          函式<5>.            (line  245)
* inode() (os.DirEntry 的方法):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  944)
* input (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  153)
* input_charset (email.charset.Charset 的屬性): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line   51)
* input_codec (email.charset.Charset 的屬性): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line   80)
* input() (於 fileinput 模組中):         fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line   56)
* input（輸入）:                         運算式輸入.         (line    6)
* InputOnly (tkinter.tix 中的類別):      Miscellaneous Widgets.
                                                             (line    6)
* InputSource (xml.sax.xmlreader 中的類別): xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面.
                                                             (line   51)
* InputStream (wsgiref.types 中的類別):  wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line   23)
* inquiry (C type):                      循環垃圾回收的支援. (line  196)
* insch() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  316)
* insdelln() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  323)
* insert_text() (於 readline 模組中):    Line buffer.        (line   13)
* insert() (array.array 的方法):         array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  179)
* insert() (collections.deque 的方法):   deque 物件.         (line   70)
* insert() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 的方法): ttk Notebook.      (line   41)
* insert() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.      (line  183)
* insert() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line  130)
* insert()（序列方法）:                  Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* insertBefore() (xml.dom.Node 的方法):  Node Objects.       (line  121)
* insertln() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  331)
* insnstr() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line  336)
* insort_left() (於 bisect 模組中):      bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   52)
* insort_right() (於 bisect 模組中):     bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   66)
* insort() (於 bisect 模組中):           bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   66)
* inspect (sys.flags 的屬性):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  514)
* inspect 命令列選項; -details:          命令列介面<6>.      (line   13)
* InspectLoader (importlib.abc 中的類別): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  196)
* insstr() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  347)
* install_opener() (於 urllib.request 模組中): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  115)
* install_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder 的方法): API<2>.        (line  169)
* install() (gettext.NullTranslations 的方法): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   72)
* install() (於 gettext 模組中):         Class-based API.    (line   69)
* installHandler() (於 unittest 模組中): Signal Handling.    (line   29)
* instance（實例）;call（呼叫）:         Calls.              (line  155)
* instate() (tkinter.ttk.Widget 的方法): ttk Widget.         (line   18)
* instr() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  357)
* instream (shlex.shlex 的屬性):         shlex 物件.         (line  145)
* Instruction (dis 中的類別):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   10)
* INSTRUCTION (monitoring event):        事件.               (line   30)
* Instruction.arg (於 dis 模組中):       Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   24)
* Instruction.argrepr (於 dis 模組中):   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   32)
* Instruction.argval (於 dis 模組中):    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   28)
* Instruction.is_jump_target (於 dis 模組中): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   45)
* Instruction.offset (於 dis 模組中):    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   37)
* Instruction.opcode (於 dis 模組中):    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   14)
* Instruction.opname (於 dis 模組中):    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   20)
* Instruction.positions (於 dis 模組中): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   49)
* Instruction.starts_line (於 dis 模組中): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   41)
* int (uuid.UUID 的屬性):                uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  125)
* int (內建類別):                        內建函式.           (line  821)
* int_info (於 sys 模組中):              sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1085)
* int_max_str_digits (sys.flags 的屬性): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  559)
* Int2AP() (於 imaplib 模組中):          imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  118)
* integer literal（整數常數）:           Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* integer（整數）:                       Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   15)
* integer（整數）;literals（字面值）:    數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   15)
* integer（整數）;representation（表示）: numbers Integral.  (line    9)
* Integral (numbers 中的類別):           數值的階層.         (line   54)
* Integrated Development Environment（整合開發環境）: IDLE<62>.
                                                             (line    8)
* IntegrityError:                        例外<4>.            (line   65)
* Intel/DVI ADPCM:                       audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   20)
* IntEnum (enum 中的類別):               資料型別<2>.        (line  321)
* interact (pdb command):                Debugger Commands.  (line  342)
* interact() (code.InteractiveConsole 的方法): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* interact() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法):  Telnet Objects.     (line  112)
* interact() (於 code 模組中):           code --- 直譯器基底類別.
                                                             (line   32)
* Interactive (ast 中的類別):            根節點.             (line   36)
* interactive (sys.flags 的屬性):        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  517)
* interactive mode（互動模式）:          完整的 Python 程式. (line   15)
* interactive（互動的）:                 術語表.             (line  621)
* InteractiveConsole (code 中的類別):    code --- 直譯器基底類別.
                                                             (line   25)
* InteractiveInterpreter (code 中的類別): code --- 直譯器基底類別.
                                                             (line   15)
* InterfaceError:                        例外<4>.            (line   37)
* intern (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  157)
* intern() (於 sys 模組中):              sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1130)
* internal type（內部型別）:             Internal types.     (line    6)
* internal_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性): ZipInfo 物件.      (line  123)
* Internaldate2tuple() (於 imaplib 模組中): imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  112)
* InternalError:                         例外<4>.            (line   71)
* internalSubset (xml.dom.DocumentType 的屬性): DocumentType 物件.
                                                             (line   27)
* INTERNET_TIMEOUT (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line   64)
* Internet（網際網路）:                  網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpolated string literal:           更華麗的輸出格式.   (line   81)
* interpolated string literal（插值字串常數）: String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* interpolation（插值）、字串 (%):       printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpolation（插值）;bytearray (%):   printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpolation（插值）;bytes (%):       printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* InterpolationDepthError:               例外<5>.            (line   42)
* InterpolationError:                    例外<5>.            (line   37)
* InterpolationMissingOptionError:       例外<5>.            (line   49)
* InterpolationSyntaxError:              例外<5>.            (line   54)
* interpreted（直譯的）:                 術語表.             (line  628)
* interpreter lock（直譯器鎖）:          Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpreter prompts（直譯器提示）:     sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1408)
* interpreter shutdown（直譯器關閉）:    術語表.             (line  636)
* interpreter_requires_environment() (於 test.support.script_helper 模組中): test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line    9)
* interpreter（直譯器）:                 最高層級元件.       (line    6)
* interrupt_main() (於 _thread 模組中):  _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line   48)
* interrupt() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.  (line  330)
* InterruptedError:                      作業系統例外.       (line   68)
* intersection_update() (frozenset 的方法): Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  175)
* intersection() (frozenset 的方法):     Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  102)
* IntFlag (enum 中的類別):               資料型別<2>.        (line  481)
* intro (cmd.Cmd 的屬性):                Cmd 物件.           (line  150)
* InuseAttributeErr:                     例外<15>.           (line   39)
* inv_cdf() (statistics.NormalDist 的方法): NormalDist 物件. (line   73)
* inv() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   93)
* InvalidAccessErr:                      例外<15>.           (line   44)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   49)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   84)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  184)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.machinery.PathFinder 的類別方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  134)
* invalidate_caches() (zipimport.zipimporter 的方法): zipimporter 物件.
                                                             (line   88)
* invalidate_caches() (於 importlib 模組中): 函式<11>.       (line   40)
* InvalidCharacterErr:                   例外<15>.           (line   49)
* InvalidModificationErr:                例外<15>.           (line   57)
* InvalidOperation (decimal 中的類別):   Signals.            (line   50)
* InvalidStateErr:                       例外<15>.           (line   61)
* InvalidStateError:                     例外類別.           (line   24)
* InvalidStateError <1>:                 例外<8>.            (line   27)
* InvalidTZPathWarning:                  Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line   12)
* InvalidURL:                            http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  140)
* inversion（反轉）:                     Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   18)
* Invert (ast 中的類別):                 運算式<2>.          (line   27)
* invert() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   93)
* invocation（調用）:                    Callable types.     (line    6)
* IO (typing 中的類別):                  ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  418)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  418)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK (於 stat 模組中): stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  418)
* IOBase (io 中的類別):                  I/O 基礎類別.       (line    6)
* IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID (於 socket 模組中): 常數<7>.
                                                             (line  266)
* ioctl() (socket.socket 的方法):        Socket 物件.        (line  179)
* ioctl() (於 fcntl 模組中):             fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line   75)
* IOError:                               實體例外.           (line  401)
* ior() (於 operator 模組中):            原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   75)
* ip (ipaddress.IPv4Interface 的屬性):   Interface objects.  (line   19)
* ip (ipaddress.IPv6Interface 的屬性):   Interface objects.  (line   74)
* ip_address() (於 ipaddress 模組中):    Convenience factory functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* ip_interface() (於 ipaddress 模組中):  Convenience factory functions.
                                                             (line   37)
* ip_network() (於 ipaddress 模組中):    Convenience factory functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* ipow() (於 operator 模組中):           原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   80)
* ipv4_mapped (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  281)
* IPv4Address (ipaddress 中的類別):      Address objects.    (line   13)
* IPv4Interface (ipaddress 中的類別):    Interface objects.  (line    9)
* IPv4Network (ipaddress 中的類別):      Network objects.    (line   13)
* IPV6_ENABLED (於 test.support.socket_helper 模組中): test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   11)
* IPv6Address (ipaddress 中的類別):      Address objects.    (line  202)
* IPv6Interface (ipaddress 中的類別):    Interface objects.  (line   64)
* IPv6Network (ipaddress 中的類別):      Network objects.    (line  253)
* irrefutable case block:                Irrefutable Case Blocks.
                                                             (line    6)
* irshift() (於 operator 模組中):        原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   85)
* Is (ast 中的類別):                     運算式<2>.          (line  106)
* is_() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   55)
* is_absolute() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法): 方法與屬性.       (line  181)
* is_active() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher 的方法): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   72)
* is_active() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 的方法): graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能.
                                                             (line   94)
* is_alive() (multiprocessing.Process 的方法): Process 與例外.
                                                             (line   93)
* is_alive() (threading.Thread 的方法):  Thread Objects.     (line  193)
* is_android (於 test.support 模組中):   test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line   39)
* is_annotated() (symtable.Symbol 的方法): 檢查符號表.       (line  168)
* is_assigned() (symtable.Symbol 的方法): 檢查符號表.        (line  179)
* is_async (pyclbr.Function 的屬性):     函式物件.           (line   41)
* is_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  443)
* is_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 的方法): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件.
                                                             (line   30)
* is_block_device() (pathlib.Path 的方法): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  111)
* is_blocked() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的方法): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   60)
* is_canonical() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.  (line  311)
* is_canonical() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.  (line  277)
* is_char_device() (pathlib.Path 的方法): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  119)
* IS_CHARACTER_JUNK() (於 difflib 模組中): difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line  360)
* is_check_supported() (於 lzma 模組中): Miscellaneous.      (line    6)
* is_closed() (asyncio.loop 的方法):     啟動和停止迴圈.     (line   36)
* is_closing() (asyncio.BaseTransport 的方法): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   17)
* is_closing() (asyncio.StreamWriter 的方法): StreamWriter.  (line   98)
* is_dataclass() (於 dataclasses 模組中): 模組內容<8>.       (line  451)
* is_declared_global() (symtable.Symbol 的方法): 檢查符號表. (line  160)
* is_dir() (importlib.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  521)
* is_dir() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  103)
* is_dir() (os.DirEntry 的方法):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  955)
* is_dir() (pathlib.Path 的方法):        Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   59)
* is_dir() (zipfile.Path 的方法):        Path Objects.       (line   47)
* is_dir() (zipfile.ZipInfo 的方法):     ZipInfo 物件.       (line   42)
* is_enabled() (於 faulthandler 模組中): Fault handler state.
                                                             (line   31)
* is_expired() (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的方法): Cookie 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  113)
* is_fifo() (pathlib.Path 的方法):       Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  103)
* is_file() (importlib.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  525)
* is_file() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  107)
* is_file() (os.DirEntry 的方法):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  984)
* is_file() (pathlib.Path 的方法):       Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   51)
* is_file() (zipfile.Path 的方法):       Path Objects.       (line   51)
* is_finalized() (於 gc 模組中):         gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  154)
* is_finalizing() (於 sys 模組中):       sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1145)
* is_finite() (decimal.Context 的方法):  Context objects.    (line  315)
* is_finite() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):  Decimal objects.    (line  284)
* is_free() (symtable.Symbol 的方法):    檢查符號表.         (line  174)
* is_global (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects. (line  135)
* is_global (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects. (line  261)
* is_global() (symtable.Symbol 的方法):  檢查符號表.         (line  152)
* is_hop_by_hop() (於 wsgiref.util 模組中): wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line   93)
* is_imported() (symtable.Symbol 的方法): 檢查符號表.        (line  144)
* is_infinite() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.   (line  319)
* is_infinite() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.   (line  289)
* is_integer() (float 的方法):           浮點數的附加 methods.
                                                             (line   15)
* is_integer() (fractions.Fraction 的方法): fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line  125)
* is_integer() (int 的方法):             整數型別的附加 methods.
                                                             (line  155)
* is_junction() (os.DirEntry 的方法):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1019)
* is_junction() (pathlib.Path 的方法):   Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   74)
* is_jython (於 test.support 模組中):    test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line   35)
* IS_LINE_JUNK() (於 difflib 模組中):    difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line  353)
* is_linetouched() (curses.window 的方法): Window Objects.   (line  367)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  172)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  271)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  307)
* is_local() (symtable.Symbol 的方法):   檢查符號表.         (line  164)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  167)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  269)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  305)
* is_mount() (pathlib.Path 的方法):      Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   81)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line   70)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  257)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  297)
* is_multipart() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  132)
* is_multipart() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  144)
* is_namespace() (symtable.Symbol 的方法): 檢查符號表.       (line  183)
* is_nan() (decimal.Context 的方法):     Context objects.    (line  323)
* is_nan() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):     Decimal objects.    (line  294)
* is_nested() (symtable.SymbolTable 的方法): 檢查符號表.     (line   42)
* is_nonlocal() (symtable.Symbol 的方法): 檢查符號表.        (line  156)
* is_normal() (decimal.Context 的方法):  Context objects.    (line  328)
* is_normal() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):  Decimal objects.    (line  299)
* is_normalized() (於 unicodedata 模組中): unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line  117)
* is_not_allowed() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的方法): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   74)
* is_not() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   59)
* IS_OP (opcode):                        Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  738)
* is_optimized() (symtable.SymbolTable 的方法): 檢查符號表.  (line   38)
* is_package() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  227)
* is_package() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  415)
* is_package() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  322)
* is_package() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  214)
* is_package() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  258)
* is_package() (zipimport.zipimporter 的方法): zipimporter 物件.
                                                             (line   73)
* is_parameter() (symtable.Symbol 的方法): 檢查符號表.       (line  148)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  259)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  299)
* is_python_build() (於 sysconfig 模組中): 其他函式<3>.      (line   50)
* is_qnan() (decimal.Context 的方法):    Context objects.    (line  333)
* is_qnan() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):    Decimal objects.    (line  305)
* is_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport 的方法): Read-only Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* is_referenced() (symtable.Symbol 的方法): 檢查符號表.      (line  140)
* is_relative_to() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法): 方法與屬性.    (line  200)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  163)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  267)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  303)
* is_reserved() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法): 方法與屬性.       (line  222)
* is_resource_enabled() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  242)
* is_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  475)
* is_resource() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   62)
* is_resource() (於 importlib.resources 模組中): 已棄用函式. (line  118)
* is_running() (asyncio.loop 的方法):    啟動和停止迴圈.     (line   32)
* is_safe (uuid.UUID 的屬性):            uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  144)
* is_serving() (asyncio.Server 的方法):  Server 物件.        (line   84)
* is_set() (asyncio.Event 的方法):       Event.              (line   63)
* is_set() (threading.Event 的方法):     Event Objects.      (line   24)
* is_signed() (decimal.Context 的方法):  Context objects.    (line  338)
* is_signed() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):  Decimal objects.    (line  310)
* is_site_local (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  273)
* is_site_local (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  357)
* is_skipped_line() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):    bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  243)
* is_snan() (decimal.Context 的方法):    Context objects.    (line  342)
* is_snan() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):    Decimal objects.    (line  316)
* is_socket() (pathlib.Path 的方法):     Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   95)
* is_stack_trampoline_active() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1699)
* is_subnormal() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.  (line  347)
* is_subnormal() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.  (line  321)
* is_symlink() (os.DirEntry 的方法):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1000)
* is_symlink() (pathlib.Path 的方法):    Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   67)
* is_tarfile() (於 tarfile 模組中):      tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  188)
* is_term_resized() (於 curses 模組中):  函式<5>.            (line  253)
* is_tracing() (於 tracemalloc 模組中):  函式<10>.           (line   61)
* is_tracked() (於 gc 模組中):           gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  132)
* is_typeddict() (於 typing 模組中):     Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line   98)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  158)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  265)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  301)
* is_valid() (string.Template 的方法):   模板字串.           (line   59)
* is_wintouched() (curses.window 的方法): Window Objects.    (line  374)
* is_zero() (decimal.Context 的方法):    Context objects.    (line  351)
* is_zero() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):    Decimal objects.    (line  326)
* is_zipfile() (於 zipfile 模組中):      zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案.
                                                             (line   72)
* isabs() (於 os.path 模組中):           os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  177)
* isabstract() (於 inspect 模組中):      Types and members.  (line  499)
* IsADirectoryError:                     作業系統例外.       (line   77)
* isalnum() (bytearray 的方法):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  507)
* isalnum() (bytes 的方法):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  507)
* isalnum() (str 的方法):                String Methods<2>.  (line  179)
* isalnum() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  134)
* isalpha() (bytearray 的方法):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  525)
* isalpha() (bytes 的方法):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  525)
* isalpha() (str 的方法):                String Methods<2>.  (line  186)
* isalpha() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  139)
* isascii() (bytearray 的方法):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  540)
* isascii() (bytes 的方法):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  540)
* isascii() (str 的方法):                String Methods<2>.  (line  196)
* isascii() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  144)
* isasyncgen() (於 inspect 模組中):      Types and members.  (line  460)
* isasyncgenfunction() (於 inspect 模組中): Types and members.
                                                             (line  443)
* isatty() (chunk.Chunk 的方法):         chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line   91)
* isatty() (io.IOBase 的方法):           I/O 基礎類別.       (line   65)
* isatty() (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  245)
* isawaitable() (於 inspect 模組中):     Types and members.  (line  422)
* isblank() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  148)
* isblk() (tarfile.TarInfo 的方法):      TarInfo 物件.       (line  209)
* isbuiltin() (於 inspect 模組中):       Types and members.  (line  480)
* ischr() (tarfile.TarInfo 的方法):      TarInfo 物件.       (line  205)
* isclass() (於 inspect 模組中):         Types and members.  (line  357)
* isclose() (於 cmath 模組中):           分類函式.           (line   20)
* isclose() (於 math 模組中):            數論與表現函式.     (line   91)
* iscntrl() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  152)
* iscode() (於 inspect 模組中):          Types and members.  (line  476)
* iscoroutine() (於 asyncio 模組中):     Introspection.      (line   26)
* iscoroutine() (於 inspect 模組中):     Types and members.  (line  415)
* iscoroutinefunction() (於 inspect 模組中): Types and members.
                                                             (line  383)
* isctrl() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):     curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  193)
* isDaemon() (threading.Thread 的方法):  Thread Objects.     (line  215)
* isdatadescriptor() (於 inspect 模組中): Types and members. (line  521)
* isdecimal() (str 的方法):              String Methods<2>.  (line  204)
* isdev() (tarfile.TarInfo 的方法):      TarInfo 物件.       (line  217)
* isdevdrive() (於 os.path 模組中):      os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  231)
* isdigit() (bytearray 的方法):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  548)
* isdigit() (bytes 的方法):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  548)
* isdigit() (str 的方法):                String Methods<2>.  (line  212)
* isdigit() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  157)
* isdir() (tarfile.TarInfo 的方法):      TarInfo 物件.       (line  193)
* isdir() (於 os.path 模組中):           os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  193)
* isdisjoint() (frozenset 的方法):       Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line   68)
* isdown() (於 turtle 模組中):           Drawing state.      (line   86)
* iselement() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.    (line  129)
* isenabled() (於 gc 模組中):            gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   27)
* isEnabledFor() (logging.Logger 的方法): Logger 物件.       (line  141)
* isendwin() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line  258)
* ISEOF() (於 token 模組中):             token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   34)
* isfifo() (tarfile.TarInfo 的方法):     TarInfo 物件.       (line  213)
* isfile() (tarfile.TarInfo 的方法):     TarInfo 物件.       (line  184)
* isfile() (於 os.path 模組中):          os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  185)
* isfinite() (於 cmath 模組中):          分類函式.           (line    6)
* isfinite() (於 math 模組中):           數論與表現函式.     (line  124)
* isfirstline() (於 fileinput 模組中):   fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line  111)
* isframe() (於 inspect 模組中):         Types and members.  (line  472)
* isfunction() (於 inspect 模組中):      Types and members.  (line  366)
* isfuture() (於 asyncio 模組中):        Future 函式.        (line    6)
* isgenerator() (於 inspect 模組中):     Types and members.  (line  379)
* isgeneratorfunction() (於 inspect 模組中): Types and members.
                                                             (line  371)
* isgetsetdescriptor() (於 inspect 模組中): Types and members.
                                                             (line  534)
* isgraph() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  162)
* isidentifier() (str 的方法):           String Methods<2>.  (line  222)
* isinf() (於 cmath 模組中):             分類函式.           (line   12)
* isinf() (於 math 模組中):              數論與表現函式.     (line  131)
* isinstance (2to3 fixer):               Fixers.             (line  161)
* isjunction() (於 os.path 模組中):      os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  201)
* iskeyword() (於 keyword 模組中):       keyword --- 檢驗 Python 關鍵字.
                                                             (line   13)
* isleap() (於 calendar 模組中):         calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  269)
* islice() (於 itertools 模組中):        Itertool 函式.      (line  327)
* islink() (於 os.path 模組中):          os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  209)
* islnk() (tarfile.TarInfo 的方法):      TarInfo 物件.       (line  201)
* islower() (bytearray 的方法):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  562)
* islower() (bytes 的方法):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  562)
* islower() (str 的方法):                String Methods<2>.  (line  240)
* islower() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  166)
* ismemberdescriptor() (於 inspect 模組中): Types and members.
                                                             (line  543)
* ismeta() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):     curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  197)
* ismethod() (於 inspect 模組中):        Types and members.  (line  362)
* ismethoddescriptor() (於 inspect 模組中): Types and members.
                                                             (line  503)
* ismethodwrapper() (於 inspect 模組中): Types and members.  (line  485)
* ismodule() (於 inspect 模組中):        Types and members.  (line  353)
* ismount() (於 os.path 模組中):         os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  216)
* isnan() (於 cmath 模組中):             分類函式.           (line   16)
* isnan() (於 math 模組中):              數論與表現函式.     (line  135)
* ISNONTERMINAL() (於 token 模組中):     token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   30)
* IsNot (ast 中的類別):                  運算式<2>.          (line  106)
* isnumeric() (str 的方法):              String Methods<2>.  (line  246)
* isocalendar() (datetime.date 的方法):  date 物件.          (line  226)
* isocalendar() (datetime.datetime 的方法): datetime 物件.   (line  625)
* isoformat() (datetime.date 的方法):    date 物件.          (line  253)
* isoformat() (datetime.datetime 的方法): datetime 物件.     (line  630)
* isoformat() (datetime.time 的方法):    time 物件.          (line  161)
* isolated (sys.flags 的屬性):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  520)
* IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (unittest 中的類別): Test cases.   (line  844)
* isolation_level (sqlite3.Connection 的屬性): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  744)
* isoweekday() (datetime.date 的方法):   date 物件.          (line  219)
* isoweekday() (datetime.datetime 的方法): datetime 物件.    (line  619)
* isprint() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  170)
* isprintable() (str 的方法):            String Methods<2>.  (line  256)
* ispunct() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  174)
* isqrt() (於 math 模組中):              數論與表現函式.     (line  140)
* isreadable() (pprint.PrettyPrinter 的方法): PrettyPrinter 物件.
                                                             (line   66)
* isreadable() (於 pprint 模組中):       函式<3>.            (line   85)
* isrecursive() (pprint.PrettyPrinter 的方法): PrettyPrinter 物件.
                                                             (line   74)
* isrecursive() (於 pprint 模組中):      函式<3>.            (line   94)
* isreg() (tarfile.TarInfo 的方法):      TarInfo 物件.       (line  189)
* isReservedKey() (http.cookies.Morsel 的方法): Morsel 物件. (line   61)
* isroutine() (於 inspect 模組中):       Types and members.  (line  495)
* isSameNode() (xml.dom.Node 的方法):    Node Objects.       (line  102)
* issoftkeyword() (於 keyword 模組中):   keyword --- 檢驗 Python 關鍵字.
                                                             (line   23)
* isspace() (bytearray 的方法):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  579)
* isspace() (bytes 的方法):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  579)
* isspace() (str 的方法):                String Methods<2>.  (line  268)
* isspace() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  179)
* isstdin() (於 fileinput 模組中):       fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line  116)
* issubset() (frozenset 的方法):         Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line   74)
* issuperset() (frozenset 的方法):       Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line   85)
* issym() (tarfile.TarInfo 的方法):      TarInfo 物件.       (line  197)
* ISTERMINAL() (於 token 模組中):        token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   26)
* istitle() (bytearray 的方法):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  587)
* istitle() (bytes 的方法):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  587)
* istitle() (str 的方法):                String Methods<2>.  (line  278)
* istraceback() (於 inspect 模組中):     Types and members.  (line  468)
* isub() (於 operator 模組中):           原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   90)
* isupper() (bytearray 的方法):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  601)
* isupper() (bytes 的方法):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  601)
* isupper() (str 的方法):                String Methods<2>.  (line  285)
* isupper() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):    curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  184)
* isvisible() (於 turtle 模組中):        Visibility.         (line   22)
* isxdigit() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):   curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  188)
* ITALIC (於 tkinter.font 模組中):       tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   15)
* item selection（項目選取）:            Sequences.          (line    6)
* item() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法):  ttk Treeview.       (line  201)
* item() (xml.dom.NamedNodeMap 的方法):  NamedNodeMap 物件.  (line   12)
* item() (xml.dom.NodeList 的方法):      NodeList 物件.      (line   15)
* itemgetter() (於 operator 模組中):     operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  253)
* items() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  258)
* items() (contextvars.Context 的方法):  Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line  113)
* items() (dict 的方法):                 Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line  161)
* items() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  238)
* items() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  347)
* items() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):      Mailbox 物件.       (line  142)
* items() (types.MappingProxyType 的方法): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  265)
* items() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line   71)
* itemsize (array.array 的屬性):         array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  103)
* itemsize (memoryview 的屬性):          Memory Views.       (line  432)
* ItemsView (collections.abc 中的類別):  Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  102)
* ItemsView (typing 中的類別):           collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   40)
* iter_attachments() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  557)
* iter_child_nodes() (於 ast 模組中):    ast 輔助程式.       (line  141)
* iter_fields() (於 ast 模組中):         ast 輔助程式.       (line  136)
* iter_importers() (於 pkgutil 模組中):  pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line   92)
* iter_modules() (於 pkgutil 模組中):    pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line  108)
* iter_parts() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  573)
* iter_unpack() (struct.Struct 的方法):  Classes<2>.         (line   46)
* iter_unpack() (於 struct 模組中):      函式與例外.         (line   42)
* iter() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line  136)
* iter() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 的方法): ElementTree 物件.
                                                             (line   40)
* Iterable (collections.abc 中的類別):   Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   26)
* Iterable (typing 中的類別):            Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* iterable（可疊代）;unpacking（解包）:  Expression lists.   (line   18)
* iterable（可疊代物件）:                術語表.             (line  648)
* Iterator (collections.abc 中的類別):   Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   43)
* Iterator (typing 中的類別):            Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   14)
* iterator protocol（疊代器協定）:       疊代器型別.         (line    6)
* iterator（疊代器）:                    術語表.             (line  667)
* iterdecode() (於 codecs 模組中):       codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  233)
* iterdir() (importlib.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  517)
* iterdir() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   99)
* iterdir() (pathlib.Path 的方法):       讀取目錄.           (line    6)
* iterdir() (zipfile.Path 的方法):       Path Objects.       (line   43)
* iterdump() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.   (line  477)
* iterencode() (json.JSONEncoder 的方法): 編碼器與解碼器.    (line  206)
* iterencode() (於 codecs 模組中):       codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  221)
* iterfind() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line  147)
* iterfind() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 的方法): ElementTree 物件.
                                                             (line   47)
* iteritems() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):  Mailbox 物件.       (line  133)
* iterkeys() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):   Mailbox 物件.       (line  107)
* itermonthdates() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   38)
* itermonthdays() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   44)
* itermonthdays2() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   51)
* itermonthdays3() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   58)
* itermonthdays4() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   66)
* iternextfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   92)
* iterparse() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.    (line  135)
* itertext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line  156)
* itertools (2to3 fixer):                Fixers.             (line  174)
* itertools_imports (2to3 fixer):        Fixers.             (line  168)
* itervalues() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法): Mailbox 物件.       (line  116)
* iterweekdays() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   33)
* ITIMER_PROF (於 signal 模組中):        模組內容<5>.        (line  223)
* ITIMER_REAL (於 signal 模組中):        模組內容<5>.        (line  213)
* ITIMER_VIRTUAL (於 signal 模組中):     模組內容<5>.        (line  218)
* ItimerError:                           模組內容<5>.        (line  256)
* itruediv() (於 operator 模組中):       原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line   95)
* ixor() (於 operator 模組中):           原地 in-place 運算子.
                                                             (line  100)
* j;於數值常數中:                        浮點數常數 Floating-point literals.
                                                             (line   28)
* Jansen, Jack:                          xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line   24)
* JANUARY (於 calendar 模組中):          calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* java_ver() (於 platform 模組中):       Java 平台.          (line    6)
* Java;language（語言）:                 numbers Real float. (line    6)
* join_thread() (multiprocessing.Queue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  180)
* join_thread() (於 test.support.threading_helper 模組中): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* join() (asyncio.Queue 的方法):         Queue.              (line   46)
* join() (bytearray 的方法):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  164)
* join() (bytes 的方法):                 Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  164)
* join() (multiprocessing.JoinableQueue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  265)
* join() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 的方法): Process Pools.  (line  180)
* join() (multiprocessing.Process 的方法): Process 與例外.   (line   66)
* join() (queue.Queue 的方法):           佇列物件.           (line   73)
* join() (str 的方法):                   String Methods<2>.  (line  300)
* join() (threading.Thread 的方法):      Thread Objects.     (line  127)
* join() (於 os.path 模組中):            os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  245)
* join() (於 shlex 模組中):              shlex --- 簡單的語法分析.
                                                             (line   29)
* JoinableQueue (multiprocessing 中的類別): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  244)
* JoinedStr (ast 中的類別):              文本 Literals.      (line   39)
* joinpath() (importlib.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  529)
* joinpath() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  111)
* joinpath() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法):  方法與屬性.         (line  235)
* joinpath() (zipfile.Path 的方法):      Path Objects.       (line   94)
* js_output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie 的方法): Cookie 物件. (line   32)
* js_output() (http.cookies.Morsel 的方法): Morsel 物件.     (line   72)
* json.tool 命令列選項; -compact:        命令列選項<3>.      (line   48)
* json.tool 命令列選項; -h:              命令列選項<3>.      (line   54)
* json.tool 命令列選項; -help:           命令列選項<3>.      (line   54)
* json.tool 命令列選項; -indent:         命令列選項<3>.      (line   48)
* json.tool 命令列選項; -json-lines:     命令列選項<3>.      (line   42)
* json.tool 命令列選項; -no-ensure-ascii: 命令列選項<3>.     (line   35)
* json.tool 命令列選項; -no-indent:      命令列選項<3>.      (line   48)
* json.tool 命令列選項; -sort-keys:      命令列選項<3>.      (line   29)
* json.tool 命令列選項; -tab:            命令列選項<3>.      (line   48)
* json.tool 命令列選項; infile:          命令列選項<3>.      (line    6)
* json.tool 命令列選項; outfile:         命令列選項<3>.      (line   24)
* JSONDecodeError:                       例外<12>.           (line    6)
* JSONDecoder (json 中的類別):           編碼器與解碼器.     (line    6)
* JSONEncoder (json 中的類別):           編碼器與解碼器.     (line   96)
* JULY (於 calendar 模組中):             calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* JUMP (monitoring event):               事件.               (line   34)
* JUMP (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1299)
* jump (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  220)
* JUMP_BACKWARD (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  769)
* JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode):   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  775)
* JUMP_FORWARD (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  765)
* JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1301)
* JUNE (於 calendar 模組中):             calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* kbhit() (於 msvcrt 模組中):            Console I/O.        (line    6)
* KDEDIR:                                webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line  181)
* KEEP (enum.FlagBoundary 的屬性):       資料型別<2>.        (line  645)
* kevent() (於 select 模組中):           select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line  106)
* key (http.cookies.Morsel 的屬性):      Morsel 物件.        (line   53)
* key (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo 的屬性):        The ZoneInfo class. (line   75)
* key function（鍵函式）:                術語表.             (line  688)
* KEY_A1 (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  236)
* KEY_A3 (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  239)
* KEY_ALL_ACCESS (於 winreg 模組中):     Access Rights.      (line    8)
* KEY_B2 (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  242)
* KEY_BACKSPACE (於 curses 模組中):      Constants.          (line  166)
* KEY_BEG (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  254)
* KEY_BREAK (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  148)
* KEY_BTAB (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  251)
* KEY_C1 (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  245)
* KEY_C3 (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  248)
* KEY_CANCEL (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  257)
* KEY_CATAB (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  218)
* KEY_CLEAR (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  191)
* KEY_CLOSE (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  260)
* KEY_COMMAND (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  263)
* KEY_COPY (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  266)
* KEY_CREATE (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  269)
* KEY_CREATE_LINK (於 winreg 模組中):    Access Rights.      (line   51)
* KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY (於 winreg 模組中): Access Rights.      (line   38)
* KEY_CTAB (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  215)
* KEY_DC (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  182)
* KEY_DL (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  176)
* KEY_DOWN (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  151)
* KEY_EIC (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  188)
* KEY_END (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  272)
* KEY_ENTER (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  221)
* KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS (於 winreg 模組中): Access Rights.  (line   42)
* KEY_EOL (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  197)
* KEY_EOS (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  194)
* KEY_EXECUTE (於 winreg 模組中):        Access Rights.      (line   26)
* KEY_EXIT (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  275)
* KEY_F0 (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  169)
* KEY_FIND (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  278)
* KEY_Fn (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  173)
* KEY_HELP (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  281)
* KEY_HOME (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  163)
* KEY_IC (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  185)
* KEY_IL (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  179)
* KEY_LEFT (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  157)
* KEY_LL (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  233)
* KEY_MARK (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  284)
* KEY_MAX (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  425)
* KEY_MESSAGE (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  287)
* KEY_MIN (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  145)
* KEY_MOUSE (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  419)
* KEY_MOVE (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  290)
* KEY_NEXT (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  293)
* KEY_NOTIFY (於 winreg 模組中):         Access Rights.      (line   46)
* KEY_NPAGE (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  206)
* KEY_OPEN (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  296)
* KEY_OPTIONS (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  299)
* KEY_PPAGE (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  209)
* KEY_PREVIOUS (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  302)
* KEY_PRINT (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  230)
* KEY_QUERY_VALUE (於 winreg 模組中):    Access Rights.      (line   30)
* KEY_READ (於 winreg 模組中):           Access Rights.      (line   20)
* KEY_REDO (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  305)
* KEY_REFERENCE (於 curses 模組中):      Constants.          (line  308)
* KEY_REFRESH (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  311)
* KEY_REPLACE (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  314)
* KEY_RESET (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  227)
* KEY_RESIZE (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  422)
* KEY_RESTART (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  317)
* KEY_RESUME (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  320)
* KEY_RIGHT (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  160)
* KEY_SAVE (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  323)
* KEY_SBEG (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  326)
* KEY_SCANCEL (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  329)
* KEY_SCOMMAND (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  332)
* KEY_SCOPY (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  335)
* KEY_SCREATE (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  338)
* KEY_SDC (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  341)
* KEY_SDL (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  344)
* KEY_SELECT (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  347)
* KEY_SEND (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  350)
* KEY_SEOL (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  353)
* KEY_SET_VALUE (於 winreg 模組中):      Access Rights.      (line   34)
* KEY_SEXIT (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  356)
* KEY_SF (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  200)
* KEY_SFIND (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  359)
* KEY_SHELP (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  362)
* KEY_SHOME (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  365)
* KEY_SIC (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line  368)
* KEY_SLEFT (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  371)
* KEY_SMESSAGE (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  374)
* KEY_SMOVE (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  377)
* KEY_SNEXT (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  380)
* KEY_SOPTIONS (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  383)
* KEY_SPREVIOUS (於 curses 模組中):      Constants.          (line  386)
* KEY_SPRINT (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  389)
* KEY_SR (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  203)
* KEY_SREDO (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  392)
* KEY_SREPLACE (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  395)
* KEY_SRESET (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  224)
* KEY_SRIGHT (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  398)
* KEY_SRSUME (於 curses 模組中):         Constants.          (line  401)
* KEY_SSAVE (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  404)
* KEY_SSUSPEND (於 curses 模組中):       Constants.          (line  407)
* KEY_STAB (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  212)
* KEY_SUNDO (於 curses 模組中):          Constants.          (line  410)
* KEY_SUSPEND (於 curses 模組中):        Constants.          (line  413)
* KEY_UNDO (於 curses 模組中):           Constants.          (line  416)
* KEY_UP (於 curses 模組中):             Constants.          (line  154)
* KEY_WOW64_32KEY (於 winreg 模組中):    64-bit Specific.    (line   14)
* KEY_WOW64_64KEY (於 winreg 模組中):    64-bit Specific.    (line    8)
* KEY_WRITE (於 winreg 模組中):          Access Rights.      (line   15)
* key（鍵）:                             Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* key/value pair（鍵/值對）:             Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* KeyboardInterrupt:                     實體例外.           (line   76)
* KeyboardInterrupt（內建例外）:         Signal Handling<2>. (line    7)
* KeyboardInterrupt（內建例外） <1>:     Signal Handling<2>. (line   34)
* KeyboardInterrupt（內建例外） <2>:     Signal Handling<2>. (line   43)
* KeyError:                              實體例外.           (line   72)
* keylog_filename (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性): SSL Contexts.     (line  529)
* keyname() (於 curses 模組中):          函式<5>.            (line  263)
* keypad() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  379)
* keyrefs() (weakref.WeakKeyDictionary 的方法): weakref --- 弱參照.
                                                             (line  164)
* keys() (contextvars.Context 的方法):   Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line  105)
* keys() (dict 的方法):                  Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line  166)
* keys() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  230)
* keys() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  339)
* keys() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):       Mailbox 物件.       (line  111)
* keys() (sqlite3.Row 的方法):           Row 物件.           (line   18)
* keys() (types.MappingProxyType 的方法): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  270)
* keys() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line   76)
* KeysView (collections.abc 中的類別):   Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  102)
* KeysView (typing 中的類別):            collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   49)
* keyword (ast 中的類別):                運算式<2>.          (line  147)
* keyword argument（關鍵字引數）:        術語表.             (line  709)
* keyword（關鍵字）:                     關鍵字.             (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字） <1>:                 軟關鍵字.           (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;as:                  import 陳述式.      (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;as <1>:              The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;as <2>:              The with statement. (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;as <3>:              The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;async:               協程函式定義.       (line    9)
* keyword（關鍵字）;await:               Calls.              (line  157)
* keyword（關鍵字）;await <1>:           協程函式定義.       (line    9)
* keyword（關鍵字）;case:                The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;elif:                The if statement.   (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;else:                break 陳述式.       (line   12)
* keyword（關鍵字）;else <1>:            The if statement.   (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;else <2>:            The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;else <3>:            The for statement.  (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;else <4>:            The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;else <5>:            except* 子句.       (line   57)
* keyword（關鍵字）;except:              The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;except_star:         except clause.      (line   82)
* keyword（關鍵字）;finally:             return 陳述式.      (line   17)
* keyword（關鍵字）;finally <1>:         break 陳述式.       (line   18)
* keyword（關鍵字）;finally <2>:         continue 陳述式.    (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;finally <3>:         The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;finally <4>:         else clause.        (line   11)
* keyword（關鍵字）;from:                Yield expressions.  (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;from <1>:            import 陳述式.      (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;if:                  The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;in:                  The for statement.  (line    6)
* keyword（關鍵字）;yield:               Yield expressions.  (line    6)
* keywords (functools.partial 的屬性):   partial 物件.       (line   19)
* kill_python() (於 test.support.script_helper 模組中): test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   73)
* kill() (asyncio.subprocess.Process 的方法): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  105)
* kill() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 的方法): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   35)
* kill() (multiprocessing.Process 的方法): Process 與例外.   (line  189)
* kill() (subprocess.Popen 的方法):      Popen Objects.      (line   92)
* kill() (於 os 模組中):                 行程管理.           (line  323)
* killchar() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line  273)
* killpg() (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line  346)
* kind (inspect.Parameter 的屬性):       Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  213)
* knownfiles (於 mimetypes 模組中):      mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line  122)
* kqueue() (於 select 模組中):           select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line   96)
* KqueueSelector (selectors 中的類別):   Classes<3>.         (line  195)
* KW_NAMES (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1010)
* KW_ONLY (於 dataclasses 模組中):       模組內容<8>.        (line  467)
* kwargs (inspect.BoundArguments 的屬性): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  339)
* kwargs (typing.ParamSpec 的屬性):      Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  370)
* kwlist (於 keyword 模組中):            keyword --- 檢驗 Python 關鍵字.
                                                             (line   17)
* L (於 re 模組中):                      旗標.               (line   58)
* LabelEntry (tkinter.tix 中的類別):     Basic Widgets.      (line   31)
* LabelFrame (tkinter.tix 中的類別):     Basic Widgets.      (line   37)
* lambda:                                術語表.             (line  713)
* Lambda (ast 中的類別):                 函式和類別定義.     (line   30)
* lambda;expression:                     Lambdas.            (line    6)
* lambda;expression（運算式）:           函式定義.           (line  126)
* lambda;form:                           Lambdas.            (line    6)
* LambdaType (於 types 模組中):          Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   25)
* LANG:                                  GNU gettext API.    (line   21)
* LANG <1>:                              Class-based API.    (line   26)
* LANG <2>:                              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line   49)
* LANG <3>:                              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  345)
* LANG <4>:                              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  349)
* LANGUAGE:                              GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* LANGUAGE <1>:                          Class-based API.    (line   25)
* large files（大型檔案）:               對大檔案 Large File 的支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* LARGEST (於 test.support 模組中):      test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  183)
* LargeZipFile:                          zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案.
                                                             (line   37)
* last_accepted (multiprocessing.connection.Listener 的屬性): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line  103)
* last_exc (於 sys 模組中):              sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1152)
* last_traceback （sys 模組中）:         Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* last_traceback (於 sys 模組中):        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1165)
* last_type (於 sys 模組中):             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1165)
* last_value (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1165)
* last() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line  237)
* lastChild (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):       Node Objects.       (line   59)
* lastcmd (cmd.Cmd 的屬性):              Cmd 物件.           (line  139)
* lastgroup (re.Match 的屬性):           Match Objects.      (line  200)
* lastindex (re.Match 的屬性):           Match Objects.      (line  192)
* lastResort (於 logging 模組中):        Module-Level Attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* lastrowid (sqlite3.Cursor 的屬性):     Cursor 物件.        (line  199)
* layout() (tkinter.ttk.Style 的方法):   Ttk Styling.        (line   96)
* lazycache() (於 linecache 模組中):     linecache --- 隨機存取文字列.
                                                             (line   50)
* LazyLoader (importlib.util 中的類別):  importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  192)
* LBRACE (於 token 模組中):              token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  126)
* LBYL:                                  術語表.             (line  719)
* LC_ALL:                                GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* LC_ALL <1>:                            Class-based API.    (line   25)
* LC_ALL (於 locale 模組中):             locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  567)
* LC_COLLATE (於 locale 模組中):         locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  533)
* LC_CTYPE (於 locale 模組中):           locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  519)
* LC_MESSAGES:                           GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* LC_MESSAGES <1>:                       Class-based API.    (line   26)
* LC_MESSAGES (於 locale 模組中):        locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  549)
* LC_MONETARY (於 locale 模組中):        locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  544)
* LC_NUMERIC (於 locale 模組中):         locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  559)
* LC_TIME (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  539)
* lchflags() (於 os 模組中):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  295)
* lchmod() (pathlib.Path 的方法):        Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   33)
* lchmod() (於 os 模組中):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  309)
* lchown() (於 os 模組中):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  328)
* lcm() (於 math 模組中):                數論與表現函式.     (line  151)
* LDCXXSHARED:                           Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line  154)
* ldexp() (於 math 模組中):              數論與表現函式.     (line  159)
* LDFLAGS:                               New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* LDFLAGS <1>:                           Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* LDFLAGS <2>:                           Linker flags.       (line   15)
* LDFLAGS <3>:                           Linker flags.       (line   18)
* LDFLAGS <4>:                           Linker flags.       (line   28)
* LDFLAGS <5>:                           Linker flags.       (line   31)
* LDFLAGS <6>:                           Linker flags.       (line   35)
* LDFLAGS <7>:                           Linker flags.       (line   50)
* LDFLAGS_NODIST:                        Linker flags.       (line   26)
* LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>:                    Linker flags.       (line   40)
* le() (於 operator 模組中):             operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* leading whitespace（前置空白）:        Indentation.        (line    6)
* leapdays() (於 calendar 模組中):       calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  274)
* leaveok() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line  386)
* left (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):          The dircmp class.   (line   41)
* left_list (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):     The dircmp class.   (line   49)
* left_only (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):     The dircmp class.   (line   63)
* left() (於 turtle 模組中):             Turtle motion.      (line   57)
* LEFTSHIFT (於 token 模組中):           token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  158)
* LEFTSHIFTEQUAL (於 token 模組中):      token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  202)
* LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* lenfunc (C type):                      Slot Type typedefs. (line   96)
* length (xml.dom.NamedNodeMap 的屬性):  NamedNodeMap 物件.  (line    8)
* length (xml.dom.NodeList 的屬性):      NodeList 物件.      (line   21)
* length_hint() (於 operator 模組中):    operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  197)
* LESS (於 token 模組中):                token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  106)
* LESSEQUAL (於 token 模組中):           token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  142)
* level (logging.Logger 的屬性):         Logger 物件.        (line   33)
* lexical analysis（詞法分析）:          詞法分析.           (line    6)
* lexical definitions（詞法定義）:       Notation.           (line   32)
* LexicalHandler (xml.sax.handler 中的類別): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   45)
* lexists() (於 os.path 模組中):         os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  106)
* LF (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   52)
* lgamma() (於 math 模組中):             Special functions.  (line   35)
* libc_ver() (於 platform 模組中):       Unix 平台.          (line    6)
* LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX (於 msvcrt 模組中): Other Functions.
                                                             (line   21)
* library (ssl.SSLError 的屬性):         例外<11>.           (line   16)
* library (於 dbm.ndbm 模組中):          dbm ndbm --- 新資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line   29)
* LibraryLoader (ctypes 中的類別):       Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  167)
* license (內建變數):                    由 site module（模組）所添增的常數.
                                                             (line   29)
* LifoQueue (asyncio 中的類別):          LIFO Queue.         (line    6)
* LifoQueue (queue 中的類別):            queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別.
                                                             (line   34)
* light-weight processes（輕量級行程）:  _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* limit_denominator() (fractions.Fraction 的方法): fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line  151)
* LimitOverrunError:                     例外<8>.            (line   55)
* lin2adpcm() (於 audioop 模組中):       audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  115)
* lin2alaw() (於 audioop 模組中):        audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  129)
* lin2lin() (於 audioop 模組中):         audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  136)
* lin2ulaw() (於 audioop 模組中):        audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  151)
* line (bdb.Breakpoint 的屬性):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line   85)
* LINE (monitoring event):               事件.               (line   38)
* line (traceback.FrameSummary 的屬性):  FrameSummary 物件.  (line   42)
* line continuation（列延續）:           Explicit line joining.
                                                             (line    6)
* line joining（列連接）:                Logical lines.      (line    6)
* line joining（列連接） <1>:            Explicit line joining.
                                                             (line    6)
* line structure（列結構）:              Line structure.     (line    6)
* line_buffering (io.TextIOWrapper 的屬性): 文字 I/O<2>.     (line  169)
* line_num (csv.csvreader 的屬性):       讀取器物件.         (line   22)
* line-buffered I/O（行緩衝 I/O）:       內建函式.           (line 1231)
* line() (msilib.Dialog 的方法):         GUI classes.        (line   62)
* linear_regression() (於 statistics 模組中): 函式細節.      (line  494)
* lineno (ast.AST 的屬性):               節點 Node 類別.     (line   32)
* lineno (doctest.DocTest 的屬性):       DocTest 物件.       (line   42)
* lineno (doctest.Example 的屬性):       Example 物件.       (line   41)
* lineno (inspect.FrameInfo 的屬性):     直譯器堆疊.         (line   22)
* lineno (inspect.Traceback 的屬性):     直譯器堆疊.         (line   62)
* lineno (json.JSONDecodeError 的屬性):  例外<12>.           (line   22)
* lineno (netrc.NetrcParseError 的屬性): netrc --- netrc 檔案處理.
                                                             (line   49)
* lineno (pyclbr.Class 的屬性):          Class Objects.      (line   24)
* lineno (pyclbr.Function 的屬性):       函式物件.           (line   23)
* lineno (re.error 的屬性):              Exceptions.         (line   28)
* lineno (shlex.shlex 的屬性):           shlex 物件.         (line  168)
* lineno (SyntaxError 的屬性):           實體例外.           (line  250)
* lineno (traceback.FrameSummary 的屬性): FrameSummary 物件. (line   33)
* lineno (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   87)
* lineno (tracemalloc.Filter 的屬性):    Filter.             (line   49)
* lineno (tracemalloc.Frame 的屬性):     Frame.              (line   17)
* lineno (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError 的屬性): ExpatError 例外.
                                                             (line   27)
* lineno() (於 fileinput 模組中):        fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line   97)
* LINES:                                 函式<5>.            (line  125)
* LINES <1>:                             函式<5>.            (line  595)
* LINES <2>:                             函式<5>.            (line  597)
* lines (os.terminal_size 的屬性):       Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line   34)
* LINES (於 curses 模組中):              Constants.          (line   53)
* linesep (email.policy.Policy 的屬性):  email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  153)
* linesep (於 os 模組中):                Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  130)
* lineterminator (csv.Dialect 的屬性):   Dialect 與格式參數. (line   39)
* LineTooLong:                           http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  182)
* link() (於 os 模組中):                 Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  342)
* linkname (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):     TarInfo 物件.       (line   95)
* LinkOutsideDestinationError:           tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  255)
* List (ast 中的類別):                   文本 Literals.      (line   64)
* list (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  230)
* List (typing 中的類別):                內建型別的別名.     (line   17)
* list (內建類別):                       List（串列）<2>.    (line   10)
* list comprehension（串列綜合運算）:    術語表.             (line  737)
* LIST_APPEND (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  321)
* list_dialects() (於 csv 模組中):       模組內容<3>.        (line   82)
* LIST_EXTEND (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  645)
* list_folders() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法): Mailbox 物件<2>.  (line   62)
* list_folders() (mailbox.MH 的方法):    MH 物件.            (line   32)
* list() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):         IMAP4 物件.         (line  126)
* list() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  230)
* list() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line  104)
* list() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   57)
* list() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法):       TarFile 物件.       (line  115)
* list（串列）:                          術語表.             (line  731)
* list（串列）;comprehensions:           List displays.      (line    6)
* list（串列）;display:                  List displays.      (line    6)
* ListComp (ast 中的類別):               綜合運算式 comprehensions.
                                                             (line    6)
* listdir() (於 os 模組中):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  364)
* listdrives() (於 os 模組中):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  400)
* listen() (socket.socket 的方法):       Socket 物件.        (line  197)
* listen() (於 logging.config 模組中):   Configuration functions.
                                                             (line  118)
* listen() (於 turtle 模組中):           Using screen events.
                                                             (line    6)
* listener (logging.handlers.QueueHandler 的屬性): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   84)
* Listener (multiprocessing.connection 中的類別): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   50)
* listMethods() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system 的方法): ServerProxy 物件.
                                                             (line   17)
* listmounts() (於 os 模組中):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  418)
* ListNoteBook (tkinter.tix 中的類別):   Manager Widgets.    (line   13)
* listvolumes() (於 os 模組中):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  441)
* listxattr() (於 os 模組中):            Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   26)
* literal:                               Literals<2>.        (line    6)
* Literal (於 typing 模組中):            特別型式.           (line  118)
* literal_eval() (於 ast 模組中):        ast 輔助程式.       (line   66)
* literal（常數）:                       Literals.           (line    6)
* LiteralString (於 typing 模組中):      特別型別.           (line   54)
* LittleEndianStructure (ctypes 中的類別): Structured data types.
                                                             (line   26)
* LittleEndianUnion (ctypes 中的類別):   Structured data types.
                                                             (line   16)
* ljust() (bytearray 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  300)
* ljust() (bytes 的方法):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  300)
* ljust() (str 的方法):                  String Methods<2>.  (line  308)
* LK_LOCK (於 msvcrt 模組中):            File Operations.    (line   19)
* LK_NBLCK (於 msvcrt 模組中):           File Operations.    (line   27)
* LK_NBRLCK (於 msvcrt 模組中):          File Operations.    (line   27)
* LK_RLCK (於 msvcrt 模組中):            File Operations.    (line   19)
* LK_UNLCK (於 msvcrt 模組中):           File Operations.    (line   33)
* ll (pdb command):                      Debugger Commands.  (line  246)
* LMTP (smtplib 中的類別):               smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  104)
* ln() (decimal.Context 的方法):         Context objects.    (line  355)
* ln() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):         Decimal objects.    (line  331)
* LNKTYPE (於 tarfile 模組中):           tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  272)
* Load (ast 中的類別):                   變數.               (line   10)
* LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR (opcode):         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  438)
* LOAD_ATTR (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  685)
* LOAD_BUILD_CLASS (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  445)
* load_cert_chain() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.   (line  104)
* LOAD_CLOSURE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  885)
* LOAD_CONST (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  570)
* load_default_certs() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  135)
* LOAD_DEREF (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  897)
* load_dh_params() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.    (line  354)
* load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  451)
* LOAD_FAST (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  845)
* LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (opcode):          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  862)
* LOAD_FAST_CHECK (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  854)
* LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (opcode):      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  905)
* LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (opcode):    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  589)
* LOAD_GLOBAL (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  838)
* LOAD_LOCALS (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  580)
* LOAD_METHOD (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1306)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.FileLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  305)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  259)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.Loader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  126)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  404)
* load_module() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  229)
* load_module() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  273)
* load_module() (zipimport.zipimporter 的方法): zipimporter 物件.
                                                             (line   79)
* LOAD_NAME (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  574)
* load_package_tests() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  615)
* LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  703)
* load_verify_locations() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  152)
* load() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar 的方法): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line  126)
* load() (http.cookies.BaseCookie 的方法): Cookie 物件.      (line   40)
* load() (pickle.Unpickler 的方法):      模組介面.           (line  268)
* load() (tracemalloc.Snapshot 的類別方法): Snapshot.        (line   50)
* load() (於 json 模組中):               基本用法<3>.        (line   83)
* load() (於 marshal 模組中):            marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line   54)
* load() (於 pickle 模組中):             模組介面.           (line   58)
* load() (於 plistlib 模組中):           plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案.
                                                             (line   46)
* load() (於 tomllib 模組中):            tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案.
                                                             (line   30)
* Loader (importlib.abc 中的類別):       importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   91)
* loader (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  380)
* loader_state (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  409)
* loader（載入器）:                      Finders and loaders.
                                                             (line    6)
* loader（載入器） <1>:                  術語表.             (line  745)
* LoadError:                             http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line   34)
* LoadFileDialog (tkinter.filedialog 中的類別): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  135)
* LoadKey() (於 winreg 模組中):          函式<12>.           (line  258)
* LoadLibrary() (ctypes.LibraryLoader 的方法): Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  178)
* loads() (於 json 模組中):              基本用法<3>.        (line  137)
* loads() (於 marshal 模組中):           marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line   81)
* loads() (於 pickle 模組中):            模組介面.           (line   76)
* loads() (於 plistlib 模組中):          plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案.
                                                             (line   74)
* loads() (於 tomllib 模組中):           tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案.
                                                             (line   44)
* loads() (於 xmlrpc.client 模組中):     便捷的函式.         (line   19)
* loadTestsFromModule() (unittest.TestLoader 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   41)
* loadTestsFromName() (unittest.TestLoader 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   70)
* loadTestsFromNames() (unittest.TestLoader 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  104)
* loadTestsFromTestCase() (unittest.TestLoader 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   29)
* local (threading 中的類別):            Thread-Local Data.  (line   15)
* LOCAL_CREDS (於 socket 模組中):        常數<7>.            (line  314)
* LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT (於 socket 模組中): 常數<7>.        (line  314)
* localcontext() (於 decimal 模組中):    Context objects.    (line   25)
* LOCALE (於 re 模組中):                 旗標.               (line   58)
* locale encoding（區域編碼）:           術語表.             (line  758)
* localeconv() (於 locale 模組中):       locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line   53)
* LocaleHTMLCalendar (calendar 中的類別): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  243)
* LocaleTextCalendar (calendar 中的類別): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  238)
* localize() (於 locale 模組中):         locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  501)
* localName (xml.dom.Attr 的屬性):       Attr Objects.       (line   13)
* localName (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):       Node Objects.       (line   64)
* localtime() (於 email.utils 模組中):   email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line   13)
* localtime() (於 time 模組中):          函式<4>.            (line  132)
* Locator (xml.sax.xmlreader 中的類別):  xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面.
                                                             (line   43)
* Lock (asyncio 中的類別):               Lock.               (line    6)
* Lock (multiprocessing 中的類別):       Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   45)
* lock (sys.thread_info 的屬性):         sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1851)
* Lock (threading 中的類別):             Lock Objects.       (line   33)
* LOCK_EX (於 fcntl 模組中):             fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line  158)
* LOCK_NB (於 fcntl 模組中):             fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line  162)
* LOCK_SH (於 fcntl 模組中):             fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line  154)
* LOCK_UN (於 fcntl 模組中):             fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line  150)
* lock, interpreter（鎖、直譯器）:       Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* lock() (mailbox.Babyl 的方法):         Babyl 物件.         (line   59)
* lock() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):       Mailbox 物件.       (line  256)
* lock() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法):       Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line  108)
* lock() (mailbox.mbox 的方法):          mbox 物件.          (line   38)
* lock() (mailbox.MH 的方法):            MH 物件.            (line   84)
* lock() (mailbox.MMDF 的方法):          MMDF 物件.          (line   35)
* Lock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  187)
* locked() (_thread.lock 的方法):        _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line  141)
* locked() (asyncio.Condition 的方法):   Condition.          (line   56)
* locked() (asyncio.Lock 的方法):        Lock.               (line   56)
* locked() (asyncio.Semaphore 的方法):   Semaphore.          (line   46)
* locked() (threading.Lock 的方法):      Lock Objects.       (line   87)
* lockf() (於 fcntl 模組中):             fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line  143)
* lockf() (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  250)
* locking() (於 msvcrt 模組中):          File Operations.    (line    6)
* LockType (於 _thread 模組中):          _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line   24)
* log_date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  327)
* log_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  296)
* log_exception() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的方法): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  178)
* log_message() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  302)
* log_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  289)
* log_to_stderr() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Logging.      (line   24)
* log() (logging.Logger 的方法):         Logger 物件.        (line  310)
* log() (於 cmath 模組中):               冪函數和對數函數.   (line   10)
* log() (於 logging 模組中):             Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   99)
* log() (於 math 模組中):                Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* log10() (decimal.Context 的方法):      Context objects.    (line  359)
* log10() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):      Decimal objects.    (line  337)
* log10() (於 cmath 模組中):             冪函數和對數函數.   (line   15)
* log10() (於 math 模組中):              Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   67)
* log1p() (於 math 模組中):              Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   48)
* log2() (於 math 模組中):               Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   53)
* logb() (decimal.Context 的方法):       Context objects.    (line  363)
* logb() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):       Decimal objects.    (line  343)
* Logger (logging 中的類別):             Logger 物件.        (line   24)
* LoggerAdapter (logging 中的類別):      LoggerAdapter 物件. (line   11)
* logical line（邏輯列）:                Logical lines.      (line    6)
* logical_and() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.   (line  367)
* logical_and() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.   (line  351)
* logical_invert() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.
                                                             (line  372)
* logical_invert() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  357)
* logical_or() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.    (line  376)
* logical_or() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.    (line  362)
* logical_xor() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.   (line  381)
* logical_xor() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.   (line  368)
* login_cram_md5() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法): IMAP4 物件.       (line  137)
* login_tty() (於 os 模組中):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  276)
* login() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):           FTP 物件.           (line  113)
* login() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):        IMAP4 物件.         (line  132)
* login() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):         方法.               (line   48)
* login() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):         SMTP 物件.          (line  102)
* LOGNAME:                               行程參數.           (line  239)
* LOGNAME <1>:                           getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具.
                                                             (line   41)
* lognormvariate() (於 random 模組中):   實數分布.           (line   65)
* logout() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line  143)
* LogRecord (logging 中的類別):          LogRecord 物件.     (line   11)
* long (2to3 fixer):                     Fixers.             (line  181)
* LONG_MAX（C 巨集）:                    整數物件.           (line  112)
* LONG_TIMEOUT (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line   92)
* longMessage (unittest.TestCase 的屬性): Test cases.        (line  693)
* longname() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line  280)
* lookup_error() (於 codecs 模組中):     Error Handlers.     (line  130)
* lookup() (symtable.SymbolTable 的方法): 檢查符號表.        (line   56)
* lookup() (tkinter.ttk.Style 的方法):   Ttk Styling.        (line   81)
* lookup() (於 codecs 模組中):           codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   47)
* lookup() (於 unicodedata 模組中):      unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   16)
* LookupError:                           基底類別 base classes.
                                                             (line   71)
* loop control（迴圈控制）;target:       break 陳述式.       (line   12)
* loop（迴圈）;over mutable sequence（於可變序列）: Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   75)
* loop（迴圈）;statement（陳述式）:      break 陳述式.       (line    6)
* loop（迴圈）;statement（陳述式） <1>:  continue 陳述式.    (line    6)
* loop（迴圈）;statement（陳述式） <2>:  The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* loop（迴圈）;statement（陳述式） <3>:  The for statement.  (line    6)
* LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line   47)
* lower() (bytearray 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  619)
* lower() (bytes 的方法):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  619)
* lower() (str 的方法):                  String Methods<2>.  (line  315)
* LPAR (於 token 模組中):                token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   54)
* lpAttributeList (subprocess.STARTUPINFO 的屬性): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   60)
* lru_cache() (於 functools 模組中):     functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line  123)
* lseek() (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  287)
* LShift (ast 中的類別):                 運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* lshift() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  100)
* LSQB (於 token 模組中):                token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   62)
* lstat() (pathlib.Path 的方法):         Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   28)
* lstat() (於 os 模組中):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  461)
* lstrip() (bytearray 的方法):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  312)
* lstrip() (bytes 的方法):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  312)
* lstrip() (str 的方法):                 String Methods<2>.  (line  323)
* lsub() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):         IMAP4 物件.         (line  150)
* Lt (ast 中的類別):                     運算式<2>.          (line  106)
* lt() (於 operator 模組中):             operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* lt() (於 turtle 模組中):               Turtle motion.      (line   57)
* LtE (ast 中的類別):                    運算式<2>.          (line  106)
* LWPCookieJar (http.cookiejar 中的類別): FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line   28)
* LZMACompressor (lzma 中的類別):        Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line    6)
* LZMADecompressor (lzma 中的類別):      Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  100)
* LZMAError:                             lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮.
                                                             (line   24)
* LZMAFile (lzma 中的類別):              Reading and writing compressed files.
                                                             (line   44)
* M (於 re 模組中):                      旗標.               (line   81)
* mac_ver() (於 platform 模組中):        macOS 平台.         (line    6)
* machine() (於 platform 模組中):        跨平台.             (line   31)
* macros (netrc.netrc 的屬性):           netrc 物件.         (line   26)
* MADV_AUTOSYNC (於 mmap 模組中):        MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_CORE (於 mmap 模組中):            MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DODUMP (於 mmap 模組中):          MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DOFORK (於 mmap 模組中):          MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTDUMP (於 mmap 模組中):        MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTFORK (於 mmap 模組中):        MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTNEED (於 mmap 模組中):        MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_FREE (於 mmap 模組中):            MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_FREE_REUSABLE (於 mmap 模組中):   MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_FREE_REUSE (於 mmap 模組中):      MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_HUGEPAGE (於 mmap 模組中):        MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_HWPOISON (於 mmap 模組中):        MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_MERGEABLE (於 mmap 模組中):       MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOCORE (於 mmap 模組中):          MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOHUGEPAGE (於 mmap 模組中):      MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NORMAL (於 mmap 模組中):          MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOSYNC (於 mmap 模組中):          MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_PROTECT (於 mmap 模組中):         MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_RANDOM (於 mmap 模組中):          MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_REMOVE (於 mmap 模組中):          MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_SEQUENTIAL (於 mmap 模組中):      MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE (於 mmap 模組中):    MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_UNMERGEABLE (於 mmap 模組中):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_WILLNEED (於 mmap 模組中):        MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* madvise() (mmap.mmap 的方法):          mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  215)
* magic method（魔術方法）:              術語表.             (line  770)
* MAGIC_NUMBER (於 importlib.util 模組中): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   13)
* magic;method（方法）:                  術語表.             (line  774)
* MagicMock (unittest.mock 中的類別):    Magic Mock.         (line    9)
* Mailbox (mailbox 中的類別):            Mailbox 物件.       (line    6)
* Maildir (mailbox 中的類別):            Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line    6)
* MaildirMessage (mailbox 中的類別):     MaildirMessage 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* main_thread() (於 threading 模組中):   threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  148)
* main():                                Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    9)
* main() <1>:                            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   42)
* main() <2>:                            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  271)
* main() (於 site 模組中):               模組內容<10>.       (line   41)
* main() (於 unittest 模組中):           Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  514)
* mainloop() (於 turtle 模組中):         Using screen events.
                                                             (line  106)
* maintype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  276)
* major (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  247)
* major() (於 os 模組中):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  605)
* make_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  604)
* make_archive() (於 shutil 模組中):     Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* make_bad_fd() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line  105)
* MAKE_CELL (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  878)
* make_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 的方法): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line   61)
* make_dataclass() (於 dataclasses 模組中): 模組內容<8>.     (line  381)
* make_file() (difflib.HtmlDiff 的方法): difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line  112)
* MAKE_FUNCTION (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1018)
* make_header() (於 email.header 模組中): email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line  200)
* make_legacy_pyc() (於 test.support.import_helper 模組中): test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   78)
* make_mixed() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  614)
* make_msgid() (於 email.utils 模組中):  email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line   27)
* make_parser() (於 xml.sax 模組中):     xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援.
                                                             (line   28)
* make_pkg() (於 test.support.script_helper 模組中): test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   93)
* make_related() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  595)
* make_script() (於 test.support.script_helper 模組中): test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   78)
* make_server() (於 wsgiref.simple_server 模組中): wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   12)
* make_table() (difflib.HtmlDiff 的方法): difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line  144)
* make_zip_pkg() (於 test.support.script_helper 模組中): test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   98)
* make_zip_script() (於 test.support.script_helper 模組中): test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   85)
* makedev() (於 os 模組中):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  615)
* makedirs() (於 os 模組中):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  526)
* makeelement() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line  164)
* makefile() （socket 方法）:            I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* makefile() (socket.socket 的方法):     Socket 物件.        (line  209)
* makeLogRecord() (於 logging 模組中):   Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  196)
* makePickle() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 的方法): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   45)
* makeRecord() (logging.Logger 的方法):  Logger 物件.        (line  371)
* makeSocket() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler 的方法): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   37)
* makeSocket() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 的方法): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   39)
* maketrans() (bytearray 的靜態方法):    Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  174)
* maketrans() (bytes 的靜態方法):        Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  174)
* maketrans() (str 的靜態方法):          String Methods<2>.  (line  345)
* malloc（C 函式）:                      總覽<2>.            (line   33)
* manager (logging.LoggerAdapter 的屬性): LoggerAdapter 物件.
                                                             (line   25)
* mangle_from_ (email.policy.Compat32 的屬性): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  574)
* mangle_from_ (email.policy.Policy 的屬性): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  187)
* MANPAGER:                              pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統.
                                                             (line   46)
* MANPAGER <1>:                          pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統.
                                                             (line   48)
* mant_dig (sys.float_info 的屬性):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  613)
* map (2to3 fixer):                      Fixers.             (line  185)
* MAP_ADD (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  330)
* MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER (於 mmap 模組中):    MAP_* 常數.         (line    6)
* MAP_ANON (於 mmap 模組中):             MAP_* 常數.         (line    6)
* MAP_ANONYMOUS (於 mmap 模組中):        MAP_* 常數.         (line    6)
* map_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 的方法): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  107)
* MAP_CONCEAL (於 mmap 模組中):          MAP_* 常數.         (line    6)
* MAP_DENYWRITE (於 mmap 模組中):        MAP_* 常數.         (line    6)
* MAP_EXECUTABLE (於 mmap 模組中):       MAP_* 常數.         (line    6)
* MAP_POPULATE (於 mmap 模組中):         MAP_* 常數.         (line    6)
* MAP_PRIVATE (於 mmap 模組中):          MAP_* 常數.         (line    6)
* MAP_SHARED (於 mmap 模組中):           MAP_* 常數.         (line    6)
* MAP_STACK (於 mmap 模組中):            MAP_* 常數.         (line    6)
* map_table_b2() (於 stringprep 模組中): stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   50)
* map_table_b3() (於 stringprep 模組中): stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   55)
* map_to_type() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry 的方法): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  377)
* map() (concurrent.futures.Executor 的方法): Executor 物件. (line   20)
* map() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 的方法): Process Pools.   (line   90)
* map() (tkinter.ttk.Style 的方法):      Ttk Styling.        (line   48)
* mapLogRecord() (logging.handlers.HTTPHandler 的方法): HTTPHandler.
                                                             (line   27)
* Mapping (collections.abc 中的類別):    Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   97)
* Mapping (typing 中的類別):             collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   57)
* mapping() (msilib.Control 的方法):     GUI classes.        (line   18)
* mapping（對映）:                       術語表.             (line  774)
* MappingProxyType (types 中的類別):     Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  223)
* MappingView (collections.abc 中的類別): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  102)
* MappingView (typing 中的類別):         collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   65)
* mapPriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler 的方法): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line  201)
* maps (collections.ChainMap 的屬性):    ChainMap 物件.      (line   34)
* maps() (於 nis 模組中):                nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面.
                                                             (line   49)
* MARCH (於 calendar 模組中):            calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* markcoroutinefunction() (於 inspect 模組中): Types and members.
                                                             (line  399)
* marshalling;objects（物件）:           pickle --- Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line    8)
* masking（遮罩）;operations（操作）:    整數型別的位元運算. (line    6)
* master (tkinter.Tk 的屬性):            Tkinter Modules.    (line   77)
* Match (ast 中的類別):                  模式匹配 pattern matching.
                                                             (line    6)
* Match (re 中的類別):                   Match Objects.      (line   15)
* Match (typing 中的類別):               Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   10)
* match_case (ast 中的類別):             模式匹配 pattern matching.
                                                             (line   14)
* MATCH_CLASS (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1092)
* MATCH_KEYS (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  487)
* MATCH_MAPPING (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  468)
* MATCH_SEQUENCE (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  477)
* match_value() (test.support.Matcher 的方法): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  776)
* match;case:                            The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* match() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法):     方法與屬性.         (line  248)
* match() (re.Pattern 的方法):           Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* match() (於 nis 模組中):               nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面.
                                                             (line   24)
* match() (於 re 模組中):                Functions.          (line   48)
* MatchAs (ast 中的類別):                模式匹配 pattern matching.
                                                             (line  288)
* MatchClass (ast 中的類別):             模式匹配 pattern matching.
                                                             (line  226)
* Matcher (test.support 中的類別):       test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  770)
* matches() (test.support.Matcher 的方法): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  772)
* MatchMapping (ast 中的類別):           模式匹配 pattern matching.
                                                             (line  184)
* MatchOr (ast 中的類別):                模式匹配 pattern matching.
                                                             (line  328)
* MatchSequence (ast 中的類別):          模式匹配 pattern matching.
                                                             (line  115)
* MatchSingleton (ast 中的類別):         模式匹配 pattern matching.
                                                             (line   90)
* MatchStar (ast 中的類別):              模式匹配 pattern matching.
                                                             (line  145)
* MatchValue (ast 中的類別):             模式匹配 pattern matching.
                                                             (line   64)
* matmul() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  115)
* MatMult (ast 中的類別):                運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* matrix multiplication（矩陣乘法）:     Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   26)
* max (datetime.date 的屬性):            date 物件.          (line  105)
* max (datetime.datetime 的屬性):        datetime 物件.      (line  274)
* max (datetime.time 的屬性):            time 物件.          (line   37)
* max (datetime.timedelta 的屬性):       timedelta 物件.     (line   78)
* max (sys.float_info 的屬性):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  618)
* max_10_exp (sys.float_info 的屬性):    sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  627)
* max_count (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line   60)
* MAX_EMAX (於 decimal 模組中):          常數<4>.            (line   16)
* max_exp (sys.float_info 的屬性):       sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  622)
* MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH (於 configparser 模組中): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  328)
* max_line_length (email.policy.Policy 的屬性): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  146)
* max_lines (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性): textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  269)
* max_mag() (decimal.Context 的方法):    Context objects.    (line  390)
* max_mag() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):    Decimal objects.    (line  381)
* max_memuse (於 test.support 模組中):   test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  143)
* MAX_PREC (於 decimal 模組中):          常數<4>.            (line   13)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  255)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  295)
* MAX_Py_ssize_t (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  139)
* max() (decimal.Context 的方法):        Context objects.    (line  386)
* max() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):        Decimal objects.    (line  374)
* max() (於 audioop 模組中):             audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  158)
* maxarray (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):        Repr 物件.          (line   22)
* maxdeque (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):        Repr 物件.          (line   22)
* maxdict (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):         Repr 物件.          (line   22)
* maxDiff (unittest.TestCase 的屬性):    Test cases.         (line  710)
* maxfrozenset (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):    Repr 物件.          (line   22)
* MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion 的屬性): 常數<8>.        (line  497)
* maximum_version (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性): SSL Contexts.     (line  540)
* maxlen (collections.deque 的屬性):     deque 物件.         (line  109)
* maxlevel (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):        Repr 物件.          (line   17)
* maxlist (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):         Repr 物件.          (line   22)
* maxlong (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):         Repr 物件.          (line   34)
* maxother (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):        Repr 物件.          (line   47)
* maxpp() (於 audioop 模組中):           audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  163)
* maxset (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):          Repr 物件.          (line   22)
* maxsize (asyncio.Queue 的屬性):        Queue.              (line   21)
* maxsize (於 sys 模組中):               sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1173)
* maxstring (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):       Repr 物件.          (line   39)
* maxtuple (reprlib.Repr 的屬性):        Repr 物件.          (line   22)
* maxunicode (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1179)
* MAXYEAR (於 datetime 模組中):          常數.               (line   13)
* MAY (於 calendar 模組中):              calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* MB_ICONASTERISK (於 winsound 模組中):  winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line  128)
* MB_ICONEXCLAMATION (於 winsound 模組中): winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line  132)
* MB_ICONHAND (於 winsound 模組中):      winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line  136)
* MB_ICONQUESTION (於 winsound 模組中):  winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line  140)
* MB_OK (於 winsound 模組中):            winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line  144)
* mbox (mailbox 中的類別):               mbox 物件.          (line    6)
* mboxMessage (mailbox 中的類別):        mboxMessage 物件.   (line    6)
* md5() (於 hashlib 模組中):             建構函式.           (line   19)
* mean (statistics.NormalDist 的屬性):   NormalDist 物件.    (line   19)
* mean() (於 statistics 模組中):         函式細節.           (line    9)
* measure() (tkinter.font.Font 的方法):  tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   62)
* median (statistics.NormalDist 的屬性): NormalDist 物件.    (line   23)
* median_grouped() (於 statistics 模組中): 函式細節.         (line  178)
* median_high() (於 statistics 模組中):  函式細節.           (line  162)
* median_low() (於 statistics 模組中):   函式細節.           (line  146)
* median() (於 statistics 模組中):       函式細節.           (line  122)
* member() (於 enum 模組中):             通用項目與裝飾器.   (line   68)
* MemberDescriptorType (於 types 模組中): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  207)
* membership（成員）;test（測試）:       Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* memfd_create() (於 os 模組中):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1777)
* memmove() (於 ctypes 模組中):          Utility functions.  (line  134)
* MemoryBIO (ssl 中的類別):              Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  130)
* MemoryError:                           實體例外.           (line   89)
* MemoryHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): MemoryHandler.  (line   41)
* memoryview (內建類別):                 Memory Views.       (line   10)
* memset() (於 ctypes 模組中):           Utility functions.  (line  140)
* merge() (於 heapq 模組中):             heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法.
                                                             (line   69)
* message (BaseExceptionGroup 的屬性):   例外群組.           (line   28)
* Message (email.message 中的類別):      email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line   49)
* Message (mailbox 中的類別):            Message 物件.       (line    6)
* Message (tkinter.messagebox 中的類別): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line   20)
* message digest（訊息摘要）、MD5:       hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要.
                                                             (line    8)
* message_factory (email.policy.Policy 的屬性): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  196)
* message_from_binary_file() (於 email 模組中): Parser API.  (line  128)
* message_from_bytes() (於 email 模組中): Parser API.        (line  115)
* message_from_file() (於 email 模組中): Parser API.         (line  151)
* message_from_string() (於 email 模組中): Parser API.       (line  141)
* MessageBeep() (於 winsound 模組中):    winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line   31)
* MessageClass (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  173)
* MessageDefect:                         email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
                                                             (line   62)
* MessageError:                          email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
                                                             (line   13)
* MessageParseError:                     email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
                                                             (line   19)
* messages (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   22)
* meta hooks:                            Import hooks.       (line    6)
* meta path finder（元路徑尋檢器）:      術語表.             (line  783)
* meta_path (於 sys 模組中):             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1189)
* meta() (於 curses 模組中):             函式<5>.            (line  287)
* metaclass (2to3 fixer):                Fixers.             (line  191)
* metaclass hint（元類別提示）:          Determining the appropriate metaclass.
                                                             (line    6)
* metaclass（元類別）:                   Metaclasses.        (line    6)
* metaclass（元類別） <1>:               術語表.             (line  792)
* metadata() (於 importlib.metadata 模組中): Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line    6)
* MetaPathFinder (importlib.abc 中的類別): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   27)
* metavar (optparse.Option 的屬性):      Option attributes.  (line   88)
* MetavarTypeHelpFormatter (argparse 中的類別): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* Meter (tkinter.tix 中的類別):          Basic Widgets.      (line   44)
* METH_CLASS (C macro):                  實作函式與方法.     (line  195)
* METH_COEXIST (C macro):                實作函式與方法.     (line  212)
* METH_FASTCALL (C macro):               實作函式與方法.     (line  124)
* METH_KEYWORDS (C macro):               實作函式與方法.     (line  108)
* METH_METHOD (C macro):                 實作函式與方法.     (line  151)
* METH_NOARGS (C macro):                 實作函式與方法.     (line  169)
* METH_O (C macro):                      實作函式與方法.     (line  182)
* METH_STATIC (C macro):                 實作函式與方法.     (line  202)
* METH_VARARGS (C macro):                實作函式與方法.     (line   98)
* method (urllib.request.Request 的屬性): Request Objects.   (line   52)
* method resolution order（方法解析順序）: 術語表.           (line  811)
* METHOD_BLOWFISH (於 crypt 模組中):     雜湊方法.           (line   22)
* method_calls (unittest.mock.Mock 的屬性): Mock 類別.       (line  461)
* METHOD_CRYPT (於 crypt 模組中):        雜湊方法.           (line   34)
* METHOD_MD5 (於 crypt 模組中):          雜湊方法.           (line   29)
* METHOD_SHA256 (於 crypt 模組中):       雜湊方法.           (line   17)
* METHOD_SHA512 (於 crypt 模組中):       雜湊方法.           (line   11)
* method（方法）:                        術語表.             (line  804)
* method（方法）;call（呼叫）:           Calls.              (line  140)
* methodattrs (2to3 fixer):              Fixers.             (line  196)
* methodcaller() (於 operator 模組中):   operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  301)
* MethodDescriptorType (於 types 模組中): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  108)
* methodHelp() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system 的方法): ServerProxy 物件.
                                                             (line   43)
* methods (pyclbr.Class 的屬性):         Class Objects.      (line   50)
* methods (於 crypt 模組中):             模組屬性.           (line    8)
* methodSignature() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system 的方法): ServerProxy 物件.
                                                             (line   22)
* MethodType (於 types 模組中):          Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   76)
* MethodType（types 模組中）:            函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* MethodType（types 模組中） <1>:        方法物件 Method Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* MethodType（types 模組中） <2>:        模組物件.           (line    7)
* MethodWrapperType (於 types 模組中):   Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   95)
* metrics() (tkinter.font.Font 的方法):  tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   67)
* MFD_ALLOW_SEALING (於 os 模組中):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_CLOEXEC (於 os 模組中):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_16GB (於 os 模組中):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_16MB (於 os 模組中):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_1GB (於 os 模組中):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_1MB (於 os 模組中):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_256MB (於 os 模組中):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_2GB (於 os 模組中):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_2MB (於 os 模組中):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_32MB (於 os 模組中):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_512KB (於 os 模組中):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_512MB (於 os 模組中):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_64KB (於 os 模組中):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_8MB (於 os 模組中):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_MASK (於 os 模組中):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGE_SHIFT (於 os 模組中):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MFD_HUGETLB (於 os 模組中):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1795)
* MH (mailbox 中的類別):                 MH 物件.            (line    6)
* MHMessage (mailbox 中的類別):          MHMessage 物件.     (line    6)
* microsecond (datetime.datetime 的屬性): datetime 物件.     (line  311)
* microsecond (datetime.time 的屬性):    time 物件.          (line   62)
* microseconds (datetime.timedelta 的屬性): timedelta 物件.  (line  114)
* MIME;base64 encoding（base64 編碼）:   base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;content type（內容類型）:         mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;headers（標頭）:                  mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line   26)
* MIME;headers（標頭） <1>:              cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;quoted-printable encoding（可列印字元編碼）: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIMEApplication (email.mime.application 中的類別): email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line   95)
* MIMEAudio (email.mime.audio 中的類別): email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line  125)
* MIMEBase (email.mime.base 中的類別):   email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line   30)
* MIMEImage (email.mime.image 中的類別): email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line  157)
* MIMEMessage (email.mime.message 中的類別): email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line  190)
* MIMEMultipart (email.mime.multipart 中的類別): email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line   66)
* MIMENonMultipart (email.mime.nonmultipart 中的類別): email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line   55)
* MIMEPart (email.message 中的類別):     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  715)
* MIMEText (email.mime.text 中的類別):   email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line  208)
* MimeTypes (mimetypes 中的類別):        MimeTypes 物件.     (line   10)
* MIMEVersionHeader (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  234)
* min (datetime.date 的屬性):            date 物件.          (line  101)
* min (datetime.datetime 的屬性):        datetime 物件.      (line  269)
* min (datetime.time 的屬性):            time 物件.          (line   33)
* min (datetime.timedelta 的屬性):       timedelta 物件.     (line   73)
* min (sys.float_info 的屬性):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  632)
* min_10_exp (sys.float_info 的屬性):    sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  645)
* MIN_EMIN (於 decimal 模組中):          常數<4>.            (line   19)
* MIN_ETINY (於 decimal 模組中):         常數<4>.            (line   22)
* min_exp (sys.float_info 的屬性):       sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  640)
* min_mag() (decimal.Context 的方法):    Context objects.    (line  398)
* min_mag() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):    Decimal objects.    (line  393)
* min() (decimal.Context 的方法):        Context objects.    (line  394)
* min() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):        Decimal objects.    (line  386)
* MINEQUAL (於 token 模組中):            token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  174)
* MINIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion 的屬性): 常數<8>.        (line  495)
* minimum_version (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性): SSL Contexts.     (line  558)
* minmax() (於 audioop 模組中):          audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  167)
* minor (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  251)
* minor() (於 os 模組中):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  610)
* MINUS (於 token 模組中):               token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   86)
* minus() (decimal.Context 的方法):      Context objects.    (line  402)
* minus（減）:                           Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* minute (datetime.datetime 的屬性):     datetime 物件.      (line  303)
* minute (datetime.time 的屬性):         time 物件.          (line   54)
* MINYEAR (於 datetime 模組中):          常數.               (line    8)
* mirrored() (於 unicodedata 模組中):    unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   69)
* misc_header (cmd.Cmd 的屬性):          Cmd 物件.           (line  160)
* MISSING (contextvars.Token 的屬性):    Context Variables.  (line   94)
* MISSING (於 dataclasses 模組中):       模組內容<8>.        (line  463)
* MISSING (於 sys.monitoring 模組中):    回呼函式引數.       (line    6)
* MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  153)
* missing_compiler_executable() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  660)
* MissingSectionHeaderError:             例外<5>.            (line   60)
* MIXERDEV:                              ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取.
                                                             (line   77)
* mkd() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):             FTP 物件.           (line  297)
* mkdir() (pathlib.Path 的方法):         建立檔案與目錄.     (line   19)
* mkdir() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):      ZipFile 物件.       (line  326)
* mkdir() (於 os 模組中):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  493)
* mkdtemp() (於 tempfile 模組中):        tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  243)
* mkfifo() (於 os 模組中):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  564)
* mknod() (於 os 模組中):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  585)
* mksalt() (於 crypt 模組中):            模組函式<2>.        (line   39)
* mkstemp() (於 tempfile 模組中):        tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  194)
* mktemp() (於 tempfile 模組中):         已棄用的函式和變數. (line   12)
* mktime_tz() (於 email.utils 模組中):   email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  146)
* mktime() (於 time 模組中):             函式<4>.            (line  143)
* mlsd() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):            FTP 物件.           (line  250)
* mmap (mmap 中的類別):                  mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line   54)
* MMDF (mailbox 中的類別):               MMDF 物件.          (line    6)
* MMDFMessage (mailbox 中的類別):        MMDFMessage 物件.   (line    6)
* Mock (unittest.mock 中的類別):         Mock 類別.          (line   20)
* mock_add_spec() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.    (line  225)
* mock_calls (unittest.mock.Mock 的屬性): Mock 類別.         (line  478)
* mock_open() (於 unittest.mock 模組中): mock_open.          (line    6)
* Mod (ast 中的類別):                    運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* mod() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  105)
* mode (io.FileIO 的屬性):               原始檔案 I/O.       (line   55)
* mode (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的屬性): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  238)
* mode (statistics.NormalDist 的屬性):   NormalDist 物件.    (line   27)
* mode (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):         TarInfo 物件.       (line   78)
* mode() (於 statistics 模組中):         函式細節.           (line  227)
* mode() (於 turtle 模組中):             Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* modf() (於 math 模組中):               數論與表現函式.     (line  163)
* modified() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 的方法): urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line   42)
* Modify() (msilib.View 的方法):         View Objects.       (line   23)
* modify() (select.devpoll 的方法):      /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* modify() (select.epoll 的方法):        Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* modify() (select.poll 的方法):         Polling Objects.    (line   60)
* modify() (selectors.BaseSelector 的方法): Classes<3>.      (line   94)
* Module (ast 中的類別):                 根節點.             (line    6)
* module (pyclbr.Class 的屬性):          Class Objects.      (line   16)
* module (pyclbr.Function 的屬性):       函式物件.           (line   15)
* Module browser（模組瀏覽器）:          File menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   22)
* module spec:                           Finders and loaders.
                                                             (line    6)
* module spec（模組規格）:               術語表.             (line  825)
* module_from_spec() (於 importlib.util 模組中): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  121)
* module; __future__:                    __future__ --- Future 陳述式定義.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; __main__:                      __main__ --- 頂層程式碼環境.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; _thread:                       _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; _tkinter:                      Tkinter Modules.    (line  150)
* module; abc:                           abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; aifc:                          aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; argparse:                      argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; array:                         array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ast:                           ast --- 抽象語法樹 Abstract Syntax Trees.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asyncio:                       asyncio --- 非同步 I/O.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; atexit:                        atexit --- 退出處理函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; audioop:                       audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; base64:                        base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bdb:                           bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line    6)
* module; binascii:                      binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bisect:                        bisect --- 陣列二分演算法 Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; builtins:                      builtins --- 內建物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bz2:                           bz2 --- bzip2 壓縮的支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; calendar:                      calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cgi:                           cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cgitb:                         cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; chunk:                         chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cmath:                         cmath --- 複數的數學函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cmd:                           cmd --- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; code:                          code --- 直譯器基底類別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; codecs:                        codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; codeop:                        codeop --- 編譯 Python 程式碼.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; collections:                   collections --- 容器資料型態.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; collections.abc:               collections abc --- 容器的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; colorsys:                      colorsys --- 顏色系統間的轉換.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; compileall:                    compileall --- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; concurrent.futures:            concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; configparser:                  configparser --- 設定檔剖析器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; contextlib:                    contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; contextvars:                   contextvars --- 情境變數.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; copy:                          copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; copyreg:                       copyreg --- 註冊 pickle 支援函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cProfile:                      profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; crypt:                         crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; csv:                           csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ctypes:                        ctypes --- 用於 Python 的外部函式庫.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses:                        curses --- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.ascii:                  curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.panel:                  curses panel --- curses 的面板堆疊擴充.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.textpad:                curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dataclasses:                   dataclasses --- Data Classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; datetime:                      datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm:                           dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.dumb:                      dbm dumb --- 可攜式 DBM 實作.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.gnu:                       dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.ndbm:                      dbm ndbm --- 新資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; decimal:                       decimal --- 十進位固定點和浮點運算.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; difflib:                       difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dis:                           dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; doctest:                       doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email:                         email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.charset:                 email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.contentmanager:          email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.encoders:                email encoders：編碼器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.errors:                  email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.generator:               email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.header:                  email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.headerregistry:          email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.iterators:               email iterators：疊代器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.message:                 email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.mime:                    email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.mime.application:        email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line   95)
* module; email.mime.audio:              email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line  125)
* module; email.mime.base:               email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line   30)
* module; email.mime.image:              email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line  157)
* module; email.mime.message:            email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line  190)
* module; email.mime.multipart:          email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line   66)
* module; email.mime.nonmultipart:       email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line   55)
* module; email.mime.text:               email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件.
                                                             (line  208)
* module; email.parser:                  email parser：剖析電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.policy:                  email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.utils:                   email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.idna:                encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.mbcs:                encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.utf_8_sig:           encodings utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ensurepip:                     ensurepip --- pip 安裝器的初始建置 bootstrapping.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; enum:                          enum --- 對列舉的支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; errno:                         errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; faulthandler:                  faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fcntl:                         fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; filecmp:                       filecmp --- 檔案與目錄比較.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fileinput:                     fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fnmatch:                       fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fractions:                     fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ftplib:                        ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; functools:                     functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gc:                            gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; getopt:                        getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; getpass:                       getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gettext:                       gettext --- 多語言國際化服務.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; glob:                          glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; graphlib:                      graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; grp:                           grp --- 群組資料庫. (line    6)
* module; gzip:                          gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; hashlib:                       hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; heapq:                         heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; hmac:                          hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html:                          html --- 超連結標記語言 HTML 支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html.entities:                 html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html.parser:                   html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http:                          http --- HTTP 模組. (line    6)
* module; http.client:                   http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.cookiejar:                http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.cookies:                  http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.server:                   http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; idlelib:                       idlelib.            (line    6)
* module; imaplib:                       imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imghdr:                        imghdr --- 推測圖片種類.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib:                     importlib --- import 的實作.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.abc:                 importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.machinery:           importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.metadata:            importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.resources:           importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.resources.abc:       importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.util:                importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; inspect:                       inspect --- 檢視活動物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; io:                            io — 處理資料串流的核心工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ipaddress:                     ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 操作函式庫.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; itertools:                     itertools --- 建立產生高效率迴圈之疊代器的函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; json:                          json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; json.tool:                     命令列介面<3>.      (line    6)
* module; keyword:                       keyword --- 檢驗 Python 關鍵字.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; lib2to3:                       lib2to3 --- 2to3's library.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; linecache:                     linecache --- 隨機存取文字列.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; locale:                        locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging:                       logging --- Python 的日誌記錄工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging.config:                logging config --- 日誌記錄配置.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging.handlers:              logging handlers --- 日誌紀錄處理器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; lzma:                          lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mailbox:                       mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mailcap:                       mailcap --- Mailcap 檔案處理.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; marshal:                       marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; math:                          math --- 數學函式.  (line    6)
* module; mimetypes:                     mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mmap:                          mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; modulefinder:                  modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; msilib:                        msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; msvcrt:                        msvcrt --- MS VC++ runtime 提供的有用例程.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing:               multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.connection:    Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.dummy:         multiprocessing dummy 模組.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.managers:      Managers.           (line   19)
* module; multiprocessing.pool:          Process Pools.      (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.shared_memory: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.sharedctypes:  multiprocessing sharedctypes 模組.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; netrc:                         netrc --- netrc 檔案處理.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; nis:                           nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; nntplib:                       nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; numbers:                       numbers --- 數值的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; operator:                      operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; optparse:                      optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; os:                            os --- 各種作業系統介面.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; os.path:                       os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ossaudiodev:                   ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pathlib:                       pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pdb:                           pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pickle:                        pickle --- Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pickletools:                   pickletools --- pickle 開發者的工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pipes:                         pipes --- shell pipelines 介面.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pkgutil:                       pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; platform:                      platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; plistlib:                      plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; poplib:                        poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; posix:                         posix --- 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pprint:                        pprint --- 資料美化列印器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; profile:                       profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pstats:                        The Stats Class.    (line    9)
* module; pty:                           pty --- 偽終端工具. (line    6)
* module; pwd:                           pwd --- 密碼資料庫. (line    6)
* module; py_compile:                    py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pyclbr:                        pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pydoc:                         pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; queue:                         queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; quopri:                        quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; random:                        random --- 生成偽隨機數.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; re:                            re --- 正規表示式 regular expression 操作.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; readline:                      readline --- GNU readline 介面.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; reprlib:                       reprlib --- repr 的替代實作.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; resource:                      resource --- 資源使用資訊.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; rlcompleter:                   rlcompleter --- GNU readline 的補全函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; runpy:                         runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sched:                         sched --- 事件排程器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; secrets:                       secrets --- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; select:                        select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; selectors:                     selectors --- 高階 I/O 多工.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shelve:                        shelve --- Python object persistence.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shlex:                         shlex --- 簡單的語法分析.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shutil:                        shutil — 高階檔案操作.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; signal:                        signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; site:                          site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sitecustomize:                 sitecustomize.      (line    6)
* module; smtplib:                       smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sndhdr:                        sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; socket:                        socket --- 低階網路介面.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; socketserver:                  socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; spwd:                          spwd --- shadow 密碼資料庫.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sqlite3:                       sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ssl:                           ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; stat:                          stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; statistics:                    statistics --- 數學統計函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; string:                        string --- 常見的字串操作.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; stringprep:                    stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; struct:                        struct --- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; subprocess:                    subprocess --- 子行程管理.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sunau:                         sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; symtable:                      symtable --- 存取編譯器的符號表.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sys:                           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sys.monitoring:                sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sysconfig:                     sysconfig --- 提供 Python 設定資訊的存取.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; syslog:                        syslog --- Unix syslog 函式庫例程.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tabnanny:                      tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tarfile:                       tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; telnetlib:                     telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tempfile:                      tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; termios:                       termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test:                          test --- Python 的回歸測試 regression tests 套件.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.regrtest:                 使用命令列介面執行測試.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support:                  test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.bytecode_helper:  test support bytecode_helper --- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.import_helper:    test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.os_helper:        test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.script_helper:    test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.socket_helper:    test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.threading_helper: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.warnings_helper:  test support warnings_helper --- 用於 warnings 測試的工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; textwrap:                      textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; threading:                     threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; time:                          time --- 時間存取與轉換.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; timeit:                        timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter:                       tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.colorchooser:          tkinter colorchooser --- 顏色選擇對話框.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.commondialog:          tkinter commondialog --- Dialog window templates.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.dnd:                   tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.filedialog:            tkinter filedialog --- File selection dialogs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.font:                  tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.messagebox:            tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.scrolledtext:          tkinter scrolledtext --- 捲動文字小工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.simpledialog:          tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.tix:                   tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.ttk:                   tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; token:                         token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tokenize:                      tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tomllib:                       tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; trace:                         trace --- 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; traceback:                     traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tracemalloc:                   tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tty:                           tty --- 終端機控制函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; turtle:                        turtle --- 龜圖學 Turtle graphics.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; turtledemo:                    turtledemo --- Demo scripts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; types:                         types --- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; typing:                        typing --- 支援型別提示.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unicodedata:                   unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unittest:                      unittest --- 單元測試框架.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unittest.mock:                 unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib:                        urllib --- URL 處理模組.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.error:                  urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.parse:                  urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.request:                urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.response:               urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.robotparser:            urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; usercustomize:                 usercustomize.      (line    6)
* module; uu:                            xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; uuid:                          uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line    8)
* module; venv:                          venv --- 建立虛擬環境.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; warnings:                      warnings --- 警告控制.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wave:                          wave --- 讀寫 WAV 檔案.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; weakref:                       weakref --- 弱參照. (line    6)
* module; webbrowser:                    webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; winreg:                        winreg --- Windows 註冊表存取.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; winsound:                      winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref:                       wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.handlers:              wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.headers:               wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.simple_server:         wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.types:                 wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.util:                  wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.validate:              wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xdrlib:                        xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml:                           XML 處理模組.       (line    6)
* module; xml.dom:                       xml dom --- Document 物件模型 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom.minidom:               xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom.pulldom:               xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.etree.ElementInclude:      函式<9>.            (line    6)
* module; xml.etree.ElementTree:         xml etree cElementTree --- ElementTree XML API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat:             xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat.errors:      Expat error constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat.model:       Content Model Descriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax:                       xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.handler:               xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.saxutils:              xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.xmlreader:             xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc.client:                 xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc.server:                 xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipapp:                        zipapp —-- 管理可執行的 Python zip 封存檔案.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipfile:                       zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipimport:                     zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zlib:                          zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zoneinfo:                      zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module（模組）:                        術語表.             (line  817)
* module（模組）;__main__:               Resolution of names.
                                                             (line   54)
* module（模組）;__main__ <1>:           完整的 Python 程式. (line    6)
* module（模組）;__main__ <2>:           完整的 Python 程式. (line   15)
* module（模組）;__main__ <3>:           runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line   30)
* module（模組）;__main__ <4>:           runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line  101)
* module（模組）;__main__ <5>:           嵌入式Python.       (line   10)
* module（模組）;_locale:                locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line   16)
* module（模組）;array（陣列）:          Mutable sequences.  (line   10)
* module（模組）;base64:                 binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line    6)
* module（模組）;bdb:                    pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   17)
* module（模組）;builtins（內建）:       dir 函式.           (line   45)
* module（模組）;builtins（內建） <1>:   完整的 Python 程式. (line    6)
* module（模組）;builtins（內建） <2>:   內建函式.           (line 1905)
* module（模組）;builtins（內建） <3>:   嵌入式Python.       (line   10)
* module（模組）;cmd:                    pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   17)
* module（模組）;collections:            Mutable sequences.  (line   11)
* module（模組）;copy（複製）:           copyreg --- 註冊 pickle 支援函式.
                                                             (line    8)
* module（模組）;crypt:                  pwd --- 密碼資料庫. (line   44)
* module（模組）;dbm.gnu:                字典.               (line   25)
* module（模組）;dbm.gnu <1>:            Restrictions.       (line    6)
* module（模組）;dbm.ndbm:               字典.               (line   25)
* module（模組）;dbm.ndbm <1>:           Restrictions.       (line    6)
* module（模組）;errno:                  實體例外.           (line  126)
* module（模組）;glob:                   fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line   34)
* module（模組）;importing（引入）:      import 陳述式.      (line    6)
* module（模組）;io:                     I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module（模組）;json:                   使用 json 儲存結構化資料.
                                                             (line    6)
* module（模組）;math（數學）:           常數<3>.            (line   44)
* module（模組）;namespace（命名空間）:  模組<2>.            (line   21)
* module（模組）;os:                     posix --- 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line   13)
* module（模組）;pickle:                 copy --- 淺層 shallow 和深層 deep 複製操作.
                                                             (line   59)
* module（模組）;pickle <1>:             copyreg --- 註冊 pickle 支援函式.
                                                             (line    8)
* module（模組）;pickle <2>:             shelve --- Python object persistence.
                                                             (line    8)
* module（模組）;pickle <3>:             marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line   14)
* module（模組）;pty:                    File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  463)
* module（模組）;pwd:                    os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  119)
* module（模組）;pyexpat:                xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析.
                                                             (line   20)
* module（模組）;re:                     fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line    8)
* module（模組）;search（搜尋）;path（路徑）: 模組的搜尋路徑.
                                                             (line    6)
* module（模組）;search（搜尋）;path（路徑） <1>: linecache --- 隨機存取文字列.
                                                             (line   30)
* module（模組）;search（搜尋）;path（路徑） <2>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1249)
* module（模組）;search（搜尋）;path（路徑） <3>: site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   14)
* module（模組）;search（搜尋）;path（路徑） <4>: 嵌入式Python.
                                                             (line   10)
* module（模組）;shelve:                 marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line   14)
* module（模組）;signal（訊號）:         _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line  157)
* module（模組）;signal（訊號） <1>:     Signal Handling<2>. (line    7)
* module（模組）;signal（訊號） <2>:     Signal Handling<2>. (line   34)
* module（模組）;signal（訊號） <3>:     Signal Handling<2>. (line   43)
* module（模組）;socket:                 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* module（模組）;stat:                   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1091)
* module（模組）;struct:                 Socket 物件.        (line  568)
* module（模組）;sys:                    標準模組.           (line    6)
* module（模組）;sys <1>:                except clause.      (line   59)
* module（模組）;sys <2>:                完整的 Python 程式. (line    6)
* module（模組）;sys <3>:                內建函式.           (line 1231)
* module（模組）;sys <4>:                嵌入式Python.       (line   10)
* module（模組）;urllib.request:         http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* module（模組）;uu:                     binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line    6)
* ModuleFinder (modulefinder 中的類別):  modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組.
                                                             (line   22)
* ModuleInfo (pkgutil 中的類別):         pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line   12)
* ModuleNotFoundError:                   實體例外.           (line   58)
* modules (modulefinder.ModuleFinder 的屬性): modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組.
                                                             (line   41)
* modules (於 sys 模組中):               sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1222)
* modules_cleanup() (於 test.support.import_helper 模組中): test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   69)
* modules_setup() (於 test.support.import_helper 模組中): test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   65)
* modules（sys 模組中）:                 引入模組<2>.        (line    8)
* modules（sys 模組中） <1>:             Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* ModuleSpec (importlib.machinery 中的類別): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  358)
* ModuleType (types 中的類別):           Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  122)
* modulo（餘數）:                        Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   46)
* modulus (sys.hash_info 的屬性):        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  986)
* MON_1 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_10 (於 locale 模組中):             locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_11 (於 locale 模組中):             locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_12 (於 locale 模組中):             locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_2 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_3 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_4 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_5 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_6 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_7 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_8 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_9 (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  236)
* MONDAY (於 calendar 模組中):           calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  346)
* monotonic_ns() (於 time 模組中):       函式<4>.            (line  168)
* monotonic() (於 time 模組中):          函式<4>.            (line  153)
* Month (calendar 中的類別):             calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  404)
* month (calendar.IllegalMonthError 的屬性): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  418)
* month (datetime.date 的屬性):          date 物件.          (line  120)
* month (datetime.datetime 的屬性):      datetime 物件.      (line  290)
* month_abbr (於 calendar 模組中):       calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  376)
* month_name (於 calendar 模組中):       calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  365)
* month() (於 calendar 模組中):          calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  305)
* monthcalendar() (於 calendar 模組中):  calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  295)
* monthdatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   74)
* monthdays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   79)
* monthdayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   84)
* monthrange() (於 calendar 模組中):     calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  290)
* Morsel (http.cookies 中的類別):        Morsel 物件.        (line    6)
* most_common() (collections.Counter 的方法): Counter 物件.  (line   70)
* mouseinterval() (於 curses 模組中):    函式<5>.            (line  292)
* mousemask() (於 curses 模組中):        函式<5>.            (line  299)
* move_to_end() (collections.OrderedDict 的方法): OrderedDict 物件.
                                                             (line   64)
* move() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法):    Panel Objects.      (line   35)
* move() (curses.window 的方法):         Window Objects.     (line  395)
* move() (mmap.mmap 的方法):             mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  228)
* move() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法):  ttk Treeview.       (line  210)
* move() (於 shutil 模組中):             Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  319)
* MozillaCookieJar (http.cookiejar 中的類別): FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line    9)
* MRO:                                   術語表.             (line  832)
* mro() (type 的方法):                   Special methods.    (line    9)
* msg (http.client.HTTPResponse 的屬性): HTTPResponse 物件.  (line   40)
* msg (json.JSONDecodeError 的屬性):     例外<12>.           (line   10)
* msg (netrc.NetrcParseError 的屬性):    netrc --- netrc 檔案處理.
                                                             (line   41)
* msg (re.error 的屬性):                 Exceptions.         (line   15)
* msg (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line  114)
* msg() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法):       Telnet Objects.     (line   77)
* msi:                                   msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line    8)
* mt_interact() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法): Telnet Objects.   (line  116)
* mtime (gzip.GzipFile 的屬性):          gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  140)
* mtime (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):        TarInfo 物件.       (line   69)
* mtime() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 的方法): urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line   37)
* mul() (於 audioop 模組中):             audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  172)
* mul() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  110)
* Mult (ast 中的類別):                   運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* MultiCall (xmlrpc.client 中的類別):    MultiCall 物件.     (line    9)
* MULTILINE (於 re 模組中):              旗標.               (line   81)
* MultiLoopChildWatcher (asyncio 中的類別): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line  106)
* multimode() (於 statistics 模組中):    函式細節.           (line  259)
* MultipartConversionError:              email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
                                                             (line   42)
* multiplication（乘）:                  Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* multiply() (decimal.Context 的方法):   Context objects.    (line  407)
* mutable object（可變物件）:            Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* mutable sequence（可變序列）;loop over（迴圈）: Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   75)
* mutable（可變）;sequence（序列）;type（型別）: Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* mutable（可變物件）:                   術語表.             (line  836)
* MutableMapping (collections.abc 中的類別): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   97)
* MutableMapping (typing 中的類別):      collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   73)
* MutableSequence (collections.abc 中的類別): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   68)
* MutableSequence (typing 中的類別):     collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   81)
* MutableSet (collections.abc 中的類別): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   92)
* MutableSet (typing 中的類別):          collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   89)
* mvderwin() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  399)
* mvwin() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  406)
* myrights() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):     IMAP4 物件.         (line  157)
* N_TOKENS (於 token 模組中):            token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  270)
* n_waiting (asyncio.Barrier 的屬性):    Barrier.            (line   98)
* n_waiting (threading.Barrier 的屬性):  Barrier Objects.    (line   97)
* NAK (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   88)
* Name (ast 中的類別):                   變數.               (line    6)
* name (codecs.CodecInfo 的屬性):        codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   65)
* name (contextvars.ContextVar 的屬性):  Context Variables.  (line   24)
* name (doctest.DocTest 的屬性):         DocTest 物件.       (line   30)
* name (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line   45)
* name (enum.Enum 的屬性):               資料型別<2>.        (line  118)
* name (gzip.GzipFile 的屬性):           gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  153)
* name (hashlib.hash 的屬性):            雜湊物件.           (line   18)
* name (hmac.HMAC 的屬性):               hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line   88)
* name (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性):   Cookie 物件<2>.     (line   28)
* name (ImportError 的屬性):             實體例外.           (line   48)
* name (importlib.abc.FileLoader 的屬性): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  297)
* name (importlib.abc.Traversable 的屬性): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  512)
* name (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  300)
* name (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  374)
* name (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  206)
* name (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  250)
* name (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 的屬性): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   94)
* name (inspect.Parameter 的屬性):       Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  189)
* name (io.FileIO 的屬性):               原始檔案 I/O.       (line   59)
* name (logging.Logger 的屬性):          Logger 物件.        (line   26)
* name (multiprocessing.Process 的屬性): Process 與例外.     (line   82)
* name (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory 的屬性): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line   76)
* name (os.DirEntry 的屬性):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  919)
* name (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的屬性): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  234)
* name (pathlib.PurePath 的屬性):        方法與屬性.         (line  111)
* name (pyclbr.Class 的屬性):            Class Objects.      (line   20)
* name (pyclbr.Function 的屬性):         函式物件.           (line   19)
* name (sys.thread_info 的屬性):         sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1838)
* name (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):         TarInfo 物件.       (line   61)
* name (tempfile.TemporaryDirectory 的屬性): tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  165)
* name (threading.Thread 的屬性):        Thread Objects.     (line  153)
* name (traceback.FrameSummary 的屬性):  FrameSummary 物件.  (line   37)
* name (xml.dom.Attr 的屬性):            Attr Objects.       (line    8)
* name (xml.dom.DocumentType 的屬性):    DocumentType 物件.  (line   33)
* name (zipfile.Path 的屬性):            Path Objects.       (line   21)
* name (於 os 模組中):                   os --- 各種作業系統介面.
                                                             (line   47)
* NAME (於 token 模組中):                token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   42)
* name (於 webbrowser 模組中):           Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* name() (於 unicodedata 模組中):        unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   25)
* name（名稱）:                          Identifiers and keywords.
                                                             (line    6)
* name（名稱） <1>:                      Binding of names.   (line    6)
* name（名稱） <2>:                      Identifiers Names.  (line    6)
* name（名稱）;binding（綁定）:          函式定義.           (line    6)
* name（名稱）;binding（綁定） <1>:      函式定義.           (line    6)
* name（名稱）;binding（綁定） <2>:      類別定義.           (line    6)
* name（名稱）;binding（繫結）:          import 陳述式.      (line    6)
* name（名稱）;binding（繫結） <1>:      import 陳述式.      (line   52)
* name（名稱）;mangling:                 Identifiers Names.  (line   14)
* name（名稱）;mangling（修飾）:         私有變數.           (line   12)
* name2codepoint (於 html.entities 模組中): html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義.
                                                             (line   27)
* named expression（附名運算式）:        Boolean operations. (line   37)
* Named Shared Memory（附名共享記憶體）: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line   10)
* named tuple（附名元組）:               術語表.             (line  841)
* NAMED_FLAGS (enum.EnumCheck 的屬性):   資料型別<2>.        (line  574)
* NamedExpr (ast 中的類別):              運算式<2>.          (line  177)
* NamedTemporaryFile() (於 tempfile 模組中): tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line   63)
* NamedTuple (typing 中的類別):          Other special directives.
                                                             (line   10)
* namedtuple() (於 collections 模組中):  namedtuple 擁有具名欄位之 tuple 的工廠函式.
                                                             (line   10)
* NameError:                             實體例外.           (line   97)
* NameError（內建例外）:                 Resolution of names.
                                                             (line   16)
* namelist() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):   ZipFile 物件.       (line  124)
* nameprep() (於 encodings.idna 模組中): encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   50)
* namer (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler 的屬性): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   17)
* namereplace_errors() (於 codecs 模組中): Error Handlers.   (line  181)
* namereplace;error handler's name（錯誤處理器名稱）: Error Handlers.
                                                             (line   54)
* names() (於 tkinter.font 模組中):      tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   89)
* Namespace (argparse 中的類別):         The Namespace object.
                                                             (line    6)
* Namespace (multiprocessing.managers 中的類別): Managers.   (line  242)
* namespace package（命名空間套件）:     術語表.             (line  877)
* NAMESPACE_DNS (於 uuid 模組中):        uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  191)
* NAMESPACE_OID (於 uuid 模組中):        uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  200)
* NAMESPACE_URL (於 uuid 模組中):        uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  196)
* NAMESPACE_X500 (於 uuid 模組中):       uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  204)
* namespace() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):    IMAP4 物件.         (line  162)
* Namespace() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  192)
* namespace（命名空間）:                 Naming and binding. (line    6)
* namespace（命名空間） <1>:             術語表.             (line  866)
* NamespaceErr:                          例外<15>.           (line   66)
* NamespaceLoader (importlib.machinery 中的類別): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  341)
* namespaceURI (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):    Node Objects.       (line   74)
* nametofont() (於 tkinter.font 模組中): tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   93)
* NaN:                                   內建函式.           (line  625)
* nan (sys.hash_info 的屬性):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  994)
* nan (於 cmath 模組中):                 常數<3>.            (line   32)
* nan (於 math 模組中):                  常數<2>.            (line   33)
* nanj (於 cmath 模組中):                常數<3>.            (line   38)
* NannyNag:                              tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排.
                                                             (line   34)
* napms() (於 curses 模組中):            函式<5>.            (line  308)
* nargs (optparse.Option 的屬性):        Option attributes.  (line   50)
* native_id (threading.Thread 的屬性):   Thread Objects.     (line  175)
* nbytes (memoryview 的屬性):            Memory Views.       (line  379)
* ncurses_version (於 curses 模組中):    Constants.          (line   24)
* ND (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性):       Buffer flags.       (line   21)
* ndiff() (於 difflib 模組中):           difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line  232)
* ndim (memoryview 的屬性):              Memory Views.       (line  445)
* ne (2to3 fixer):                       Fixers.             (line  201)
* ne() (於 operator 模組中):             operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* needs_input (bz2.BZ2Decompressor 的屬性): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   85)
* needs_input (lzma.LZMADecompressor 的屬性): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  175)
* neg() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  122)
* negation（否定）:                      Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* nested scope（巢狀作用域）:            術語表.             (line  886)
* netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.   (line  101)
* netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.   (line  315)
* NetmaskValueError:                     Custom Exceptions.  (line   13)
* netrc (netrc 中的類別):                netrc --- netrc 檔案處理.
                                                             (line   13)
* NetrcParseError:                       netrc --- netrc 檔案處理.
                                                             (line   36)
* netscape (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy 的屬性): CookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   68)
* network (ipaddress.IPv4Interface 的屬性): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* network (ipaddress.IPv6Interface 的屬性): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* Network News Transfer Protocol（網路新聞傳輸協定）: nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* network_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* network_address (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  309)
* Never (於 typing 模組中):              特別型別.           (line   85)
* NEVER_EQ (於 test.support 模組中):     test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  178)
* new_child() (collections.ChainMap 的方法): ChainMap 物件.  (line   40)
* new_class() (於 types 模組中):         Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line    6)
* new_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy 的方法): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* new_event_loop() (於 asyncio 模組中):  事件迴圈.           (line   59)
* new_panel() (於 curses.panel 模組中):  函式<6>.            (line   12)
* new-style class（新式類別）:           術語表.             (line  894)
* new() (於 hashlib 模組中):             建構函式.           (line    6)
* new() (於 hmac 模組中):                hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line   12)
* newfunc (C type):                      Slot Type typedefs. (line   31)
* newgroups() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):     方法.               (line   80)
* NEWLINE (於 token 模組中):             token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   48)
* NEWLINE token（換行標誌）:             Logical lines.      (line    6)
* NEWLINE token（換行標誌） <1>:         複合陳述式.         (line   55)
* newlines (io.TextIOBase 的屬性):       文字 I/O<2>.        (line   24)
* newnews() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):       方法.               (line   95)
* newpad() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line  312)
* NewType (typing 中的類別):             Other special directives.
                                                             (line   87)
* newwin() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line  332)
* next (2to3 fixer):                     Fixers.             (line  205)
* next (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  192)
* next_minus() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.    (line  411)
* next_minus() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.    (line  398)
* next_plus() (decimal.Context 的方法):  Context objects.    (line  415)
* next_plus() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):  Decimal objects.    (line  404)
* next_toward() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.   (line  419)
* next_toward() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.   (line  410)
* next() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line  233)
* next() (tarfile.TarFile 的方法):       TarFile 物件.       (line  125)
* next() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法):  ttk Treeview.       (line  221)
* nextafter() (於 math 模組中):          數論與表現函式.     (line  168)
* nextfile() (於 fileinput 模組中):      fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流.
                                                             (line  121)
* nextkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm 的方法):       dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line   85)
* nextSibling (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):     Node Objects.       (line   42)
* ngettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations 的方法): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   47)
* ngettext() (gettext.NullTranslations 的方法): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   41)
* ngettext() (於 gettext 模組中):        GNU gettext API.    (line   44)
* nice() (於 os 模組中):                 行程管理.           (line  354)
* NL (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   55)
* NL (於 token 模組中):                  token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  266)
* nl_langinfo() (於 locale 模組中):      locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  172)
* nl() (於 curses 模組中):               函式<5>.            (line  342)
* nlargest() (於 heapq 模組中):          heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法.
                                                             (line   90)
* nlst() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):            FTP 物件.           (line  262)
* NNTP (nntplib 中的類別):               nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line   62)
* nntp_implementation (nntplib.NNTP 的屬性): 屬性<2>.        (line   14)
* NNTP_SSL (nntplib 中的類別):           nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  105)
* nntp_version (nntplib.NNTP 的屬性):    屬性<2>.            (line    6)
* NNTP;protocol（協定）:                 nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* NNTPDataError:                         nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  169)
* NNTPError:                             nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  138)
* NNTPPermanentError:                    nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  159)
* NNTPProtocolError:                     nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  164)
* NNTPReplyError:                        nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  149)
* NNTPTemporaryError:                    nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  154)
* NO (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中):     tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  139)
* no_cache() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo 的類別方法): The ZoneInfo class.
                                                             (line   41)
* NO_EVENTS (monitoring event):          事件.               (line   94)
* no_proxy:                              urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  282)
* no_site (sys.flags 的屬性):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  532)
* no_tracing() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  530)
* no_type_check_decorator() (於 typing 模組中): 函式與裝飾器.
                                                             (line  360)
* no_type_check() (於 typing 模組中):    函式與裝飾器.       (line  348)
* no_user_site (sys.flags 的屬性):       sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  529)
* nocbreak() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line  348)
* NoDataAllowedErr:                      例外<15>.           (line   83)
* node (uuid.UUID 的屬性):               uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  112)
* node() (於 platform 模組中):           跨平台.             (line   35)
* nodelay() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line  410)
* nodeName (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):        Node Objects.       (line   79)
* NodeTransformer (ast 中的類別):        ast 輔助程式.       (line  184)
* nodeType (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):        Node Objects.       (line    8)
* nodeValue (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):       Node Objects.       (line   88)
* NodeVisitor (ast 中的類別):            ast 輔助程式.       (line  151)
* noecho() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line  353)
* NOEXPR (於 locale 模組中):             locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  281)
* NOFLAG (於 re 模組中):                 旗標.               (line   95)
* NoModificationAllowedErr:              例外<15>.           (line   88)
* nonblock() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* NonCallableMagicMock (unittest.mock 中的類別): Magic Mock. (line   20)
* NonCallableMock (unittest.mock 中的類別): Mock 類別.       (line  534)
* None (內建變數):                       內建常數.           (line   18)
* None（內建物件）:                      真值檢測.           (line   14)
* NoneType (於 types 模組中):            Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   19)
* nonl() (於 curses 模組中):             函式<5>.            (line  357)
* Nonlocal (ast 中的類別):               函式和類別定義.     (line  148)
* nonmember() (於 enum 模組中):          通用項目與裝飾器.   (line   74)
* nonzero (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  211)
* noop() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):         IMAP4 物件.         (line  166)
* noop() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   79)
* NoOptionError:                         例外<5>.            (line   32)
* NOP (opcode):                          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   82)
* noqiflush() (於 curses 模組中):        函式<5>.            (line  367)
* noraw() (於 curses 模組中):            函式<5>.            (line  375)
* NoReturn (於 typing 模組中):           特別型別.           (line   85)
* NORMAL (於 tkinter.font 模組中):       tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   15)
* NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   80)
* NormalDist (statistics 中的類別):      NormalDist 物件.    (line   12)
* NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE (於 doctest 模組中): 可選旗標.        (line   39)
* normalize() (decimal.Context 的方法):  Context objects.    (line  423)
* normalize() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):  Decimal objects.    (line  418)
* normalize() (xml.dom.Node 的方法):     Node Objects.       (line  141)
* normalize() (於 locale 模組中):        locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  420)
* normalize() (於 unicodedata 模組中):   unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   81)
* normalvariate() (於 random 模組中):    實數分布.           (line   71)
* normcase() (於 os.path 模組中):        os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  262)
* normpath() (於 os.path 模組中):        os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  269)
* NoSectionError:                        例外<5>.            (line   10)
* NoSuchMailboxError:                    例外<13>.           (line   12)
* Not (ast 中的類別):                    運算式<2>.          (line   27)
* not_() (於 operator 模組中):           operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   43)
* NotADirectoryError:                    作業系統例外.       (line   82)
* notation（標記法）:                    Notation.           (line    6)
* notationDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler 的方法): DTDHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    8)
* NotationDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  312)
* notations (xml.dom.DocumentType 的屬性): DocumentType 物件.
                                                             (line   46)
* NotConnected:                          http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  136)
* NoteBook (tkinter.tix 中的類別):       Manager Widgets.    (line   22)
* Notebook (tkinter.ttk 中的類別):       ttk Notebook.       (line    6)
* NotEmptyError:                         例外<13>.           (line   19)
* NotEq (ast 中的類別):                  運算式<2>.          (line  106)
* NOTEQUAL (於 token 模組中):            token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  138)
* NotFoundErr:                           例外<15>.           (line   72)
* notify_all() (asyncio.Condition 的方法): Condition.        (line   60)
* notify_all() (threading.Condition 的方法): Condition Objects.
                                                             (line  172)
* notify() (asyncio.Condition 的方法):   Condition.          (line   48)
* notify() (threading.Condition 的方法): Condition Objects.  (line  152)
* notimeout() (curses.window 的方法):    Window Objects.     (line  414)
* NotImplemented (內建變數):             內建常數.           (line   25)
* NotImplementedError:                   實體例外.           (line  108)
* NotImplementedType (於 types 模組中):  Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  102)
* NotIn (ast 中的類別):                  運算式<2>.          (line  106)
* NotRequired (於 typing 模組中):        特別型式.           (line  206)
* NOTSET (於 logging 模組中):            Logging Levels.     (line   16)
* NotStandaloneHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  363)
* NotSupportedErr:                       例外<15>.           (line   78)
* NotSupportedError:                     例外<4>.            (line   85)
* noutrefresh() (curses.window 的方法):  Window Objects.     (line  422)
* NOVEMBER (於 calendar 模組中):         calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* now() (datetime.datetime 的類別方法):  datetime 物件.      (line   60)
* npgettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations 的方法): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   79)
* npgettext() (gettext.NullTranslations 的方法): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   55)
* npgettext() (於 gettext 模組中):       GNU gettext API.    (line   67)
* NSIG (於 signal 模組中):               模組內容<5>.        (line  208)
* nsmallest() (於 heapq 模組中):         heapq --- 堆積佇列 heap queue 演算法.
                                                             (line   97)
* NT_OFFSET (於 token 模組中):           token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  272)
* NTEventLogHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   11)
* ntohl() (於 socket 模組中):            其他函式<2>.        (line  196)
* ntohs() (於 socket 模組中):            其他函式<2>.        (line  203)
* ntransfercmd() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):    FTP 物件.           (line  244)
* NUL (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   19)
* null;operation（操作）:                pass 陳述式<2>.     (line    6)
* null;operation（操作） <1>:            pass 陳述式<2>.     (line    6)
* nullcontext() (於 contextlib 模組中):  Utilities.          (line  221)
* NullHandler (logging 中的類別):        NullHandler.        (line   12)
* NullTranslations (gettext 中的類別):   The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   13)
* num_addresses (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* num_addresses (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  327)
* num_tickets (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性):   SSL Contexts.       (line  565)
* Number (numbers 中的類別):             numbers --- 數值的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   13)
* NUMBER (於 token 模組中):              token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   44)
* number_class() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.  (line  427)
* number_class() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.  (line  441)
* number（數字）:                        Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* numerator (fractions.Fraction 的屬性): fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line  109)
* numerator (numbers.Rational 的屬性):   數值的階層.         (line   46)
* numeric literal（數值常數）:           Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* numeric() (於 unicodedata 模組中):     unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line   43)
* numeric（數值）;conversions（轉換）:   數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   97)
* numeric（數值）;literals（字面值）:    數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   15)
* numinput() (於 turtle 模組中):         Input methods.      (line   22)
* numliterals (2to3 fixer):              Fixers.             (line  216)
* O_APPEND (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  402)
* O_ASYNC (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  444)
* O_BINARY (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  424)
* O_CLOEXEC (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  412)
* O_CREAT (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  402)
* O_DIRECT (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  444)
* O_DIRECTORY (於 os 模組中):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  444)
* O_DSYNC (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  412)
* O_EVTONLY (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  434)
* O_EXCL (於 os 模組中):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  402)
* O_EXLOCK (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  444)
* O_FSYNC (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  434)
* O_NDELAY (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  412)
* O_NOATIME (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  444)
* O_NOCTTY (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  412)
* O_NOFOLLOW (於 os 模組中):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  444)
* O_NOFOLLOW_ANY (於 os 模組中):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  434)
* O_NOINHERIT (於 os 模組中):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  424)
* O_NONBLOCK (於 os 模組中):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  412)
* O_PATH (於 os 模組中):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  444)
* O_RANDOM (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  424)
* O_RDONLY (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  402)
* O_RDWR (於 os 模組中):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  402)
* O_RSYNC (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  412)
* O_SEQUENTIAL (於 os 模組中):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  424)
* O_SHLOCK (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  444)
* O_SHORT_LIVED (於 os 模組中):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  424)
* O_SYMLINK (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  434)
* O_SYNC (於 os 模組中):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  412)
* O_TEMPORARY (於 os 模組中):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  424)
* O_TEXT (於 os 模組中):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  424)
* O_TMPFILE (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  444)
* O_TRUNC (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  402)
* O_WRONLY (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  402)
* obj (memoryview 的屬性):               Memory Views.       (line  368)
* object (UnicodeError 的屬性):          實體例外.           (line  359)
* object (內建類別):                     內建函式.           (line 1033)
* object.__match_args__ (內建變數):      Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching.
                                                             (line   12)
* object.__slots__ (內建變數):           __slots__<2>.       (line   14)
* object（模組）;module（模組）:         模組物件.           (line    6)
* object（物件）:                        Objects values and types.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件） <1>:                    術語表.             (line  902)
* object（物件）;asynchronous-generator（非同步產生器）: Asynchronous generator functions<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* object（物件）;Boolean（布林）:        numbers Integral.   (line   27)
* object（物件）;Boolean（布林） <1>:    數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;built-in function（內建函式）: Built-in functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;built-in function（內建函式） <1>: Calls.   (line  140)
* object（物件）;built-in method（內建方法）: Built-in methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;built-in method（內建方法） <1>: Calls.     (line  140)
* object（物件）;bytearray（位元組陣列）: Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;bytearray（位元組陣列） <1>: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;bytearray（位元組陣列） <2>: Bytearray Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;bytearray（位元組陣列） <3>: 位元組陣列物件 Byte Array Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;bytes（位元組）:        Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;bytes（位元組） <1>:    Bytes Objects.      (line    6)
* object（物件）;bytes（位元組） <2>:    位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* object（物件）;callable（可呼叫物件）: Callable types.     (line    6)
* object（物件）;callable（可呼叫物件） <1>: Slicings.       (line   38)
* object（物件）;Capsule:                Capsules<2>.        (line    6)
* object（物件）;class instance（類別實例）: Custom classes. (line   19)
* object（物件）;class instance（類別實例） <1>: Class instances.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;class instance（類別實例） <2>: Calls.      (line  149)
* object（物件）;class（類別）:          Custom classes.     (line   19)
* object（物件）;class（類別） <1>:      Calls.              (line  145)
* object（物件）;class（類別） <2>:      類別定義.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;code（程式碼）:         Code objects.       (line    6)
* object（物件）;code（程式碼） <1>:     Methods.            (line   44)
* object（物件）;code（程式碼） <2>:     marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line   25)
* object（物件）;code（程式碼） <3>:     Cell 物件.          (line   51)
* object（物件）;complex number（複數）: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;complex number（複數） <1>: 複數物件.       (line    6)
* object（物件）;complex（複數）:        numbers Complex complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;deallocation:           Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;dictionary（字典）:     字典.               (line    6)
* object（物件）;dictionary（字典） <1>: Custom classes.     (line   19)
* object（物件）;dictionary（字典） <2>: Basic customization.
                                                             (line  241)
* object（物件）;dictionary（字典） <3>: Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;dictionary（字典） <4>: Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object（物件）;dictionary（字典） <5>: Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  115)
* object（物件）;dictionary（字典） <6>: Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;dictionary（字典） <7>: 字典物件.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;Ellipsis:               Ellipsis.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;file（檔案）:           讀寫檔案.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;file（檔案） <1>:       檔案物件 File Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;finalization:           Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;floating-point（浮點）: numbers Real float. (line    6)
* object（物件）;floating-point（浮點） <1>: 浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;floating-point（浮點數）: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;frame:                  Frame objects.      (line    6)
* object（物件）;frozenset（凍結集合）:  Set types.          (line   29)
* object（物件）;frozenset（凍結集合） <1>: 集合物件.        (line    6)
* object（物件）;function （函式）:      自訂函式.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;function （函式） <1>:  Built-in functions. (line    6)
* object（物件）;function （函式） <2>:  Calls.              (line  131)
* object（物件）;function （函式） <3>:  Calls.              (line  140)
* object（物件）;function （函式） <4>:  函式定義.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;function（函式）:       函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;generator（產生器）:    特殊唯讀屬性<2>.    (line   82)
* object（物件）;generator（產生器） <1>: Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;generator（產生器） <2>: Yield expressions. (line  109)
* object（物件）;GenericAlias（泛型別名）: 泛型別名型別.     (line    6)
* object（物件）;immutable sequence（不可變序列）: Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;immutable（不可變）:    Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;instance（實例）:       Custom classes.     (line   19)
* object（物件）;instance（實例） <1>:   Class instances.    (line    6)
* object（物件）;instance（實例） <2>:   Calls.              (line  149)
* object（物件）;instancemethod:         實例方法物件 Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;integer（整数）:        整數物件.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;integer（整數）:        numbers Integral.   (line    6)
* object（物件）;integer（整數） <1>:    數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;io.StringIO:            Text Sequence Type --- str.
                                                             (line   36)
* object（物件）;list（串列）:           Mutable sequences.  (line   18)
* object（物件）;list（串列） <1>:       List displays.      (line    6)
* object（物件）;list（串列） <2>:       Attribute references.
                                                             (line   10)
* object（物件）;list（串列） <3>:       Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object（物件）;list（串列） <4>:       Slicings.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;list（串列） <5>:       Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  106)
* object（物件）;list（串列） <6>:       Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;list（串列） <7>:       List（串列）<2>.    (line    6)
* object（物件）;list（串列） <8>:       List（串列）物件.   (line    6)
* object（物件）;long integer（長整数）: 整數物件.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;mapping（對映）:        Mappings.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;mapping（對映） <1>:    Class instances.    (line   26)
* object（物件）;mapping（對映） <2>:    Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object（物件）;mapping（對映） <3>:    Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  115)
* object（物件）;mapping（對映） <4>:    Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;mapping（對映） <5>:    容器物件.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;memoryview（記憶體視圖）: Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;memoryview（記憶體視圖） <1>: Ellipsis Object.
                                                             (line   13)
* object（物件）;method（方法）:         實例物件.           (line   23)
* object（物件）;method（方法） <1>:     Instance methods.   (line    6)
* object（物件）;method（方法） <2>:     Built-in methods.   (line    6)
* object（物件）;method（方法） <3>:     Calls.              (line  140)
* object（物件）;method（方法） <4>:     Methods.            (line    6)
* object（物件）;method（方法） <5>:     方法物件 Method Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;module（模組）:         模組<2>.            (line    6)
* object（物件）;module（模組） <1>:     Attribute references.
                                                             (line   10)
* object（物件）;mutable sequence（可變序列）: Mutable sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;mutable（可變的）:      Mutable sequences.  (line    6)
* object（物件）;mutable（可變的） <1>:  Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;mutable（可變的） <2>:  Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  101)
* object（物件）;None:                   None.               (line    6)
* object（物件）;None <1>:               Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* object（物件）;None <2>:               None 物件.          (line    6)
* object（物件）;NotImplemented:         NotImplemented.     (line    6)
* object（物件）;numeric（數值）:        numbers Number.     (line    6)
* object（物件）;numeric（數值） <1>:    Class instances.    (line   26)
* object（物件）;numeric（數值） <2>:    比較運算.           (line   41)
* object（物件）;numeric（數值） <3>:    數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;numeric（數值） <4>:    數值物件.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;range:                  Ranges.             (line    6)
* object（物件）;sequence（序列）:       Sequences.          (line    6)
* object（物件）;sequence（序列） <1>:   Class instances.    (line   26)
* object（物件）;sequence（序列） <2>:   Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object（物件）;sequence（序列） <3>:   Slicings.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;sequence（序列） <4>:   Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* object（物件）;sequence（序列） <5>:   Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  106)
* object（物件）;sequence（序列） <6>:   The for statement.  (line    6)
* object（物件）;sequence（序列） <7>:   Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;sequence（序列） <8>:   序列物件.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;set type（集合型別）:   Set types.          (line    6)
* object（物件）;set（集合）:            Set types.          (line   23)
* object（物件）;set（集合） <1>:        Set displays.       (line    6)
* object（物件）;set（集合） <2>:        Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;set（集合） <3>:        集合物件.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;slice（切片）:          Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   66)
* object（物件）;socket:                 socket --- 低階網路介面.
                                                             (line   22)
* object（物件）;string（字串）:         Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object（物件）;string（字串） <1>:     Slicings.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;string（字串） <2>:     Ranges.             (line  125)
* object（物件）;traceback:              Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* object（物件）;traceback <1>:          raise 陳述式.       (line   21)
* object（物件）;traceback <2>:          except clause.      (line   59)
* object（物件）;traceback <3>:          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  443)
* object（物件）;traceback <4>:          traceback --- 列印或取得堆疊回溯 stack traceback.
                                                             (line   19)
* object（物件）;tuple:                  Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object（物件）;tuple <1>:              Slicings.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;tuple <2>:              Expression lists.   (line   13)
* object（物件）;tuple（元組）:          Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   29)
* object（物件）;tuple（元組） <1>:      Immutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;tuple（元組） <2>:      Tuples.             (line    6)
* object（物件）;tuple（元組） <3>:      Tuple（元組）物件.  (line    6)
* object（物件）;type（型別）:           內建函式.           (line 1741)
* object（物件）;type（型別） <1>:       物件、型別和參照計數.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;type（型別） <2>:       型別物件.           (line    6)
* object（物件）;Union（聯合）:          聯合型別 Union Type.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;user-defined function（使用者定義函式）: 自訂函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;user-defined function（使用者定義函式） <1>: Calls.
                                                             (line  131)
* object（物件）;user-defined function（使用者定義函式） <2>: 函式定義.
                                                             (line    6)
* object（物件）;user-defined method（使用者定義方法）: Instance methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* objects（物件）;comparing（比較）:     比較運算.           (line   41)
* objobjargproc (C type):                Slot Type typedefs. (line  138)
* objobjproc (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line  134)
* obufcount() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  218)
* obuffree() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  223)
* octal literal（八進位常數）:           Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* octal（八進位）;literals（字面值）:    數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   15)
* octdigits (於 string 模組中):          字串常數.           (line   31)
* OCTOBER (於 calendar 模組中):          calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* offset (SyntaxError 的屬性):           實體例外.           (line  255)
* offset (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):       TarInfo 物件.       (line  149)
* offset (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line  102)
* offset (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError 的屬性): ExpatError 例外.
                                                             (line   32)
* offset_data (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):  TarInfo 物件.       (line  153)
* OK (於 curses 模組中):                 Constants.          (line   13)
* OK (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中):     tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  133)
* ok_command() (tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  140)
* ok_command() (tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  150)
* ok_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  119)
* OKCANCEL (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  151)
* old_value (contextvars.Token 的屬性):  Context Variables.  (line   87)
* OleDLL (ctypes 中的類別):              Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line   35)
* on_motion() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler 的方法): tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援.
                                                             (line   56)
* on_release() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler 的方法): tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援.
                                                             (line   61)
* onclick() (於 turtle 模組中):          Using screen events.
                                                             (line   56)
* ondrag() (於 turtle 模組中):           Using events.       (line   57)
* onecmd() (cmd.Cmd 的方法):             Cmd 物件.           (line   59)
* onkey() (於 turtle 模組中):            Using screen events.
                                                             (line   12)
* onkeypress() (於 turtle 模組中):       Using screen events.
                                                             (line   35)
* onkeyrelease() (於 turtle 模組中):     Using screen events.
                                                             (line   12)
* onrelease() (於 turtle 模組中):        Using events.       (line   30)
* onscreenclick() (於 turtle 模組中):    Using screen events.
                                                             (line   56)
* ontimer() (於 turtle 模組中):          Using screen events.
                                                             (line   86)
* OP (於 token 模組中):                  token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  246)
* OP_ALL (於 ssl 模組中):                常數<8>.            (line  185)
* OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.      (line  262)
* OP_ENABLE_KTLS (於 ssl 模組中):        常數<8>.            (line  317)
* OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.       (line  283)
* OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.         (line  309)
* OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.         (line  331)
* OP_NO_COMPRESSION (於 ssl 模組中):     常數<8>.            (line  292)
* OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION (於 ssl 模組中):   常數<8>.            (line  253)
* OP_NO_SSLv2 (於 ssl 模組中):           常數<8>.            (line  192)
* OP_NO_SSLv3 (於 ssl 模組中):           常數<8>.            (line  201)
* OP_NO_TICKET (於 ssl 模組中):          常數<8>.            (line  303)
* OP_NO_TLSv1 (於 ssl 模組中):           常數<8>.            (line  210)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_1 (於 ssl 模組中):         常數<8>.            (line  221)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_2 (於 ssl 模組中):         常數<8>.            (line  231)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_3 (於 ssl 模組中):         常數<8>.            (line  241)
* OP_SINGLE_DH_USE (於 ssl 模組中):      常數<8>.            (line  269)
* OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE (於 ssl 模組中):    常數<8>.            (line  276)
* Open (tkinter.filedialog 中的類別):    Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   60)
* open_binary() (於 importlib.resources 模組中): 已棄用函式. (line   30)
* open_code() (於 io 模組中):            高階模組介面.       (line   21)
* open_connection() (於 asyncio 模組中): 串流.               (line   41)
* open_flags (於 dbm.gnu 模組中):        dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line   68)
* open_new_tab() (webbrowser.controller 的方法): Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* open_new_tab() (於 webbrowser 模組中): webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line   82)
* open_new() (webbrowser.controller 的方法): Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* open_new() (於 webbrowser 模組中):     webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line   74)
* open_osfhandle() (於 msvcrt 模組中):   File Operations.    (line   44)
* open_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  460)
* open_resource() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   47)
* open_text() (於 importlib.resources 模組中): 已棄用函式.   (line   45)
* open_unix_connection() (於 asyncio 模組中): 串流.          (line  105)
* open_unknown() (urllib.request.URLopener 的方法): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  108)
* open_urlresource() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  572)
* open() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):         IMAP4 物件.         (line  170)
* open() (importlib.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  537)
* open() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  141)
* open() (pathlib.Path 的方法):          Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (pipes.Template 的方法):        Template Objects.   (line   42)
* open() (tarfile.TarFile 的類別方法):   TarFile 物件.       (line   91)
* open() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法):      Telnet Objects.     (line   64)
* open() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector 的方法): OpenerDirector 物件.
                                                             (line   42)
* open() (urllib.request.URLopener 的方法): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line   97)
* open() (webbrowser.controller 的方法): Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* open() (zipfile.Path 的方法):          Path Objects.       (line   25)
* open() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):       ZipFile 物件.       (line  128)
* open() (於 aifc 模組中):               aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line   33)
* open() (於 bz2 模組中):                De compression of files.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (於 codecs 模組中):             codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  172)
* open() (於 dbm 模組中):                dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面.
                                                             (line   41)
* open() (於 dbm.dumb 模組中):           dbm dumb --- 可攜式 DBM 實作.
                                                             (line   29)
* open() (於 dbm.gnu 模組中):            dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line   23)
* open() (於 dbm.ndbm 模組中):           dbm ndbm --- 新資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line   33)
* open() (於 gzip 模組中):               gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援.
                                                             (line   28)
* open() (於 io 模組中):                 高階模組介面.       (line   12)
* open() (於 lzma 模組中):               Reading and writing compressed files.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (於 os 模組中):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  359)
* open() (於 ossaudiodev 模組中):        ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取.
                                                             (line   45)
* open() (於 shelve 模組中):             shelve --- Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   17)
* open() (於 sunau 模組中):              sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line   50)
* open() (於 tarfile 模組中):            tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line   41)
* open() (於 tokenize 模組中):           Tokenizing Input.   (line  100)
* open() (於 wave 模組中):               wave --- 讀寫 WAV 檔案.
                                                             (line   18)
* open() (於 webbrowser 模組中):         webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line   55)
* OpenDatabase() (於 msilib 模組中):     msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line   47)
* OpenerDirector (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  245)
* OpenKey() (於 winreg 模組中):          函式<12>.           (line  286)
* OpenKeyEx() (於 winreg 模組中):        函式<12>.           (line  286)
* openlog() (於 syslog 模組中):          syslog --- Unix syslog 函式庫例程.
                                                             (line   51)
* openmixer() (於 ossaudiodev 模組中):   ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取.
                                                             (line   73)
* openpty() (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  461)
* openpty() (於 pty 模組中):             pty --- 偽終端工具. (line   35)
* OPENSSL_VERSION (於 ssl 模組中):       常數<8>.            (line  417)
* OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (於 ssl 模組中):  常數<8>.            (line  426)
* OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.           (line  435)
* OpenSSL;（使用於 hashlib 模組中）:     雜湊演算法.         (line   17)
* OpenSSL;（用於 ssl 模組）:             ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器.
                                                             (line    8)
* OpenView() (msilib.Database 的方法):   Database Objects.   (line    6)
* OperationalError:                      例外<4>.            (line   57)
* operations on（操作於）;dictionary（字典）;type（型別）: Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* operations on（操作於）;integer（整數）;type（型別）: 整數型別的位元運算.
                                                             (line    6)
* operations on（操作於）;list（串列）;type（型別）: Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* operations on（操作於）;mapping（對映）;type（型別）: Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* operations on（操作於）;numeric（數值）;type（型別）: 數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   85)
* operations on（操作於）;sequence（序列）;type（型別）: Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* operations on（操作於）;sequence（序列）;type（型別） <1>: Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* operator (2to3 fixer):                 Fixers.             (line  220)
* operator（運算子）;- （減號）:         Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* operator（運算子）;- （減號） <1>:     Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   83)
* operator（運算子）;- （減號） <2>:     數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator（運算子）;!=:                 Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;!= <1>:             比較運算.           (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;@ （在）:           Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   26)
* operator（運算子）;* （星號）:         Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* operator（運算子）;* （星號） <1>:     數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator（運算子）;**:                 The power operator. (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;** <1>:             數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator（運算子）;/ （斜線）:         Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   34)
* operator（運算子）;/ （斜線） <1>:     數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator（運算子）;//:                 Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   34)
* operator（運算子）;// <1>:             數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator（運算子）;& （和號）:         Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   12)
* operator（運算子）;& （和號） <1>:     整數型別的位元運算. (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;% （百分號）:       Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   46)
* operator（運算子）;% （百分號） <1>:   數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator（運算子）;^ （插入符號）:     Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* operator（運算子）;^ （插入符號） <1>: 整數型別的位元運算. (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;+ （加號）:         Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* operator（運算子）;+ （加號） <1>:     Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   74)
* operator（運算子）;+ （加號） <2>:     數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator（運算子）;< （小於）:         Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;< （小於） <1>:     比較運算.           (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;<<:                 Shifting operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;<< <1>:             整數型別的位元運算. (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;<=:                 Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;<= <1>:             比較運算.           (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;==:                 Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;== <1>:             比較運算.           (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;> （大於）:         Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;> （大於） <1>:     比較運算.           (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;>=:                 Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;>= <1>:             比較運算.           (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;>>:                 Shifting operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;>> <1>:             整數型別的位元運算. (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;| （垂直線）:       Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* operator（運算子）;| （垂直線） <1>:   整數型別的位元運算. (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;~ （波浪號）:       Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   18)
* operator（運算子）;~ （波浪號） <1>:   整數型別的位元運算. (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;and:                Boolean operations. (line   21)
* operator（運算子）;and <1>:            真值檢測.           (line   20)
* operator（運算子）;and <2>:            Boolean（布林）運算 --- and or not.
                                                             (line   22)
* operator（運算子）;comparison（比較）: 比較運算.           (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;in:                 Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* operator（運算子）;in <1>:             比較運算.           (line   58)
* operator（運算子）;in <2>:             Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator（運算子）;is:                 Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   39)
* operator（運算子）;is <1>:             比較運算.           (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;is not:             Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   39)
* operator（運算子）;is not <1>:         比較運算.           (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;not:                Boolean operations. (line   18)
* operator（運算子）;not <1>:            Boolean（布林）運算 --- and or not.
                                                             (line   22)
* operator（運算子）;not in:             Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* operator（運算子）;not in <1>:         比較運算.           (line   58)
* operator（運算子）;not in <2>:         Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator（運算子）;or:                 Boolean operations. (line   25)
* operator（運算子）;or <1>:             真值檢測.           (line   20)
* operator（運算子）;or <2>:             Boolean（布林）運算 --- and or not.
                                                             (line   22)
* operator（運算子）;overloading（多載）: Special method names.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator（運算子）;precedence（優先順序）: Operator precedence.
                                                             (line    6)
* operators（運算子）:                   Operators.          (line    6)
* opmap (於 dis 模組中):                 Opcode collections. (line   17)
* opname (於 dis 模組中):                Opcode collections. (line   13)
* OPT:                                   Debug options.      (line   34)
* optim_args_from_interpreter_flags() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  320)
* optimize (sys.flags 的屬性):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  523)
* optimize() (於 pickletools 模組中):    程式化介面.         (line   26)
* OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (於 importlib.machinery 模組中): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   29)
* Option (optparse 中的類別):            Option attributes.  (line    6)
* Optional (於 typing 模組中):           特別型式.           (line   44)
* OptionConflictError:                   例外<16>.           (line   11)
* OptionError:                           例外<16>.           (line    6)
* OptionGroup (optparse 中的類別):       Grouping Options.   (line   12)
* OptionMenu (tkinter.tix 中的類別):     Basic Widgets.      (line   49)
* OptionParser (optparse 中的類別):      Creating the parser.
                                                             (line    9)
* options (doctest.Example 的屬性):      Example 物件.       (line   53)
* Options (ssl 中的類別):                常數<8>.            (line  299)
* options (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性):       SSL Contexts.       (line  573)
* options() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  125)
* OptionValueError:                      例外<16>.           (line   16)
* optionxform() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  307)
* Or (ast 中的類別):                     運算式<2>.          (line   85)
* or_() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  127)
* ordered_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  145)
* OrderedDict (collections 中的類別):    OrderedDict 物件.   (line   50)
* OrderedDict (typing 中的類別):         collections 中型別的別名.
                                                             (line   17)
* orig_argv (於 sys 模組中):             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1234)
* origin (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  386)
* origin_req_host (urllib.request.Request 的屬性): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* origin_server (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  243)
* os_environ (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  143)
* OSError:                               實體例外.           (line  122)
* OSSAudioError:                         ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取.
                                                             (line   32)
* output:                                Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* output (subprocess.CalledProcessError 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  220)
* output (subprocess.TimeoutExpired 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  181)
* output (unittest.TestCase 的屬性):     Test cases.         (line  433)
* output_charset (email.charset.Charset 的屬性): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line   72)
* output_codec (email.charset.Charset 的屬性): email charset：表示字元集合.
                                                             (line   86)
* output_difference() (doctest.OutputChecker 的方法): OutputChecker 物件.
                                                             (line   26)
* output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie 的方法): Cookie 物件.    (line   24)
* output() (http.cookies.Morsel 的方法): Morsel 物件.        (line   65)
* OutputChecker (doctest 中的類別):      OutputChecker 物件. (line    6)
* OutputString() (http.cookies.Morsel 的方法): Morsel 物件.  (line   80)
* OutsideDestinationError:               tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  241)
* over() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line  167)
* Overflow (decimal 中的類別):           Signals.            (line   67)
* OverflowError:                         實體例外.           (line  176)
* OverflowError（内建例外）:             整數物件.           (line  112)
* OverflowError（内建例外） <1>:         整數物件.           (line  150)
* OverflowError（内建例外） <2>:         整數物件.           (line  191)
* OverflowError（内建例外） <3>:         整數物件.           (line  203)
* OverflowError（内建例外） <4>:         整數物件.           (line  215)
* OverflowError（内建例外） <5>:         整數物件.           (line  228)
* overlap() (statistics.NormalDist 的方法): NormalDist 物件. (line   82)
* overlaps() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  155)
* overlaps() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  340)
* overlay() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line  429)
* overload() (於 typing 模組中):         函式與裝飾器.       (line  247)
* override() (於 typing 模組中):         函式與裝飾器.       (line  368)
* overwrite() (curses.window 的方法):    Window Objects.     (line  442)
* owner() (pathlib.Path 的方法):         Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line    6)
* p (pdb command):                       Debugger Commands.  (line  258)
* P_ALL (於 os 模組中):                  行程管理.           (line  942)
* P_DETACH (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line  677)
* P_NOWAIT (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line  657)
* P_NOWAITO (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  657)
* P_OVERLAY (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  677)
* P_PGID (於 os 模組中):                 行程管理.           (line  942)
* P_PID (於 os 模組中):                  行程管理.           (line  942)
* P_PIDFD (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line  942)
* P_WAIT (於 os 模組中):                 行程管理.           (line  667)
* pack_array() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法):   Packer Objects.     (line   86)
* pack_bytes() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法):   Packer Objects.     (line   54)
* pack_double() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法):  Packer Objects.     (line   26)
* pack_farray() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法):  Packer Objects.     (line   78)
* pack_float() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法):   Packer Objects.     (line   22)
* pack_fopaque() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法): Packer Objects.     (line   38)
* pack_fstring() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法): Packer Objects.     (line   32)
* pack_into() (struct.Struct 的方法):    Classes<2>.         (line   29)
* pack_into() (於 struct 模組中):        函式與例外.         (line   19)
* pack_list() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法):    Packer Objects.     (line   61)
* pack_opaque() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法):  Packer Objects.     (line   49)
* pack_string() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法):  Packer Objects.     (line   43)
* pack() (mailbox.MH 的方法):            MH 物件.            (line   64)
* pack() (struct.Struct 的方法):         Classes<2>.         (line   24)
* pack() (於 struct 模組中):             函式與例外.         (line   13)
* Package (於 importlib.resources 模組中): 已棄用函式.       (line   11)
* package variable（套件變數）;__all__:  引入模組<2>.        (line    8)
* package（套件）:                       套件.               (line    6)
* package（套件） <1>:                   site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   65)
* package（套件） <2>:                   術語表.             (line  908)
* package（套件）;namespace（命名空間）: Namespace packages. (line    6)
* package（套件）;portion（部分）:       Namespace packages. (line    6)
* package（套件）;regular（一般）:       Regular packages.   (line    6)
* PackageMetadata (importlib.metadata 中的類別): Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line   14)
* PackageNotFoundError:                  Overview<2>.        (line   35)
* PackagePath (importlib.metadata 中的類別): Distribution files.
                                                             (line   18)
* packages_distributions() (於 importlib.metadata 模組中): Mapping import to distribution packages.
                                                             (line    6)
* packed (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.    (line   71)
* packed (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.    (line  249)
* Packer (xdrlib 中的類別):              xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line   21)
* packing (widgets):                     The Packer.         (line    6)
* packing（打包）;binary（二進位）;data（資料）: struct --- 將位元組直譯為打包起來的二進位資料.
                                                             (line    8)
* PAGER:                                 pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統.
                                                             (line   46)
* pair_content() (於 curses 模組中):     函式<5>.            (line  380)
* pair_number() (於 curses 模組中):      函式<5>.            (line  386)
* pairwise() (於 itertools 模組中):      Itertool 函式.      (line  365)
* PanedWindow (tkinter.tix 中的類別):    Manager Widgets.    (line    6)
* Parameter (inspect 中的類別):          Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  174)
* parameter（參數）:                     術語表.             (line  917)
* parameter（參數）;call semantics（呼叫語意）: Calls.       (line   25)
* parameter（參數）;function definition（函式定義）: Class Patterns.
                                                             (line  140)
* parameter（參數）;與 argument（引數）的差異: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?.
                                                             (line   16)
* ParameterizedMIMEHeader (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  255)
* parameters (inspect.Signature 的屬性): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  104)
* params (email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  263)
* ParamSpec (ast 中的類別):              型別參數 type parameters.
                                                             (line   31)
* ParamSpec (typing 中的類別):           Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  311)
* ParamSpecArgs (於 typing 模組中):      Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  411)
* ParamSpecKwargs (於 typing 模組中):    Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  411)
* paramstyle (於 sqlite3 模組中):        Module constants.   (line   65)
* pardir (於 os 模組中):                 Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   90)
* paren (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  252)
* parent (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  422)
* parent (logging.Logger 的屬性):        Logger 物件.        (line   42)
* parent (pathlib.PurePath 的屬性):      方法與屬性.         (line   84)
* parent (pyclbr.Class 的屬性):          Class Objects.      (line   28)
* parent (pyclbr.Function 的屬性):       函式物件.           (line   27)
* parent (urllib.request.BaseHandler 的屬性): BaseHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   25)
* parent_process() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Miscellaneous<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* parent() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.      (line  226)
* parenthesized form:                    Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line    6)
* parentNode (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):      Node Objects.       (line   17)
* parents (collections.ChainMap 的屬性): ChainMap 物件.      (line   52)
* parents (pathlib.PurePath 的屬性):     方法與屬性.         (line   70)
* paretovariate() (於 random 模組中):    實數分布.           (line   83)
* parse_and_bind() (於 readline 模組中): Init file.          (line    8)
* parse_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): The parse_args method.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_args() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): 剖析引數.     (line    9)
* PARSE_COLNAMES (於 sqlite3 模組中):    Module constants.   (line   13)
* parse_config_h() (於 sysconfig 模組中): 其他函式<3>.       (line   57)
* PARSE_DECLTYPES (於 sqlite3 模組中):   Module constants.   (line   26)
* parse_header() (於 cgi 模組中):        函式<13>.           (line   52)
* parse_headers() (於 http.client 模組中): http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  110)
* parse_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Intermixed parsing.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_known_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Partial parsing.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_known_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Intermixed parsing.
                                                             (line    9)
* parse_multipart() (於 cgi 模組中):     函式<13>.           (line   24)
* parse_qs() (於 urllib.parse 模組中):   URL Parsing.        (line  152)
* parse_qsl() (於 urllib.parse 模組中):  URL Parsing.        (line  198)
* parse() (doctest.DocTestParser 的方法): DocTestParser 物件.
                                                             (line   29)
* parse() (email.parser.BytesParser 的方法): Parser API.     (line   34)
* parse() (email.parser.Parser 的方法):  Parser API.         (line   85)
* parse() (string.Formatter 的方法):     自訂字串格式.       (line   36)
* parse() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 的方法): urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line   28)
* parse() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 的方法): ElementTree 物件.
                                                             (line   54)
* Parse() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* parse() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line    8)
* parse() (於 ast 模組中):               ast 輔助程式.       (line    9)
* parse() (於 cgi 模組中):               函式<13>.           (line    9)
* parse() (於 xml.dom.minidom 模組中):   xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作.
                                                             (line   36)
* parse() (於 xml.dom.pulldom 模組中):   xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹.
                                                             (line   85)
* parse() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.        (line  173)
* parse() (於 xml.sax 模組中):           xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援.
                                                             (line   39)
* parseaddr() (於 email.utils 模組中):   email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line   57)
* parsebytes() (email.parser.BytesParser 的方法): Parser API.
                                                             (line   54)
* parsedate_to_datetime() (於 email.utils 模組中): email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  130)
* parsedate_tz() (於 email.utils 模組中): email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  119)
* parsedate() (於 email.utils 模組中):   email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  107)
* ParseError (xml.etree.ElementTree 中的類別): 例外<14>.     (line    6)
* ParseFile() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* ParseFlags() (於 imaplib 模組中):      imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  123)
* Parser (email.parser 中的類別):        Parser API.         (line   75)
* parser（剖析器）:                      詞法分析.           (line    6)
* ParserCreate() (於 xml.parsers.expat 模組中): xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析.
                                                             (line   46)
* ParseResult (urllib.parse 中的類別):   Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   48)
* ParseResultBytes (urllib.parse 中的類別): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   73)
* parsestr() (email.parser.Parser 的方法): Parser API.       (line   95)
* parseString() (於 xml.dom.minidom 模組中): xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作.
                                                             (line   49)
* parseString() (於 xml.dom.pulldom 模組中): xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹.
                                                             (line   98)
* parseString() (於 xml.sax 模組中):     xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援.
                                                             (line   50)
* ParsingError:                          例外<5>.            (line   65)
* partial (asyncio.IncompleteReadError 的屬性): 例外<8>.     (line   51)
* partial() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):      IMAP4 物件.         (line  189)
* partial() (於 functools 模組中):       functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line  278)
* partialmethod (functools 中的類別):    functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line  305)
* parties (asyncio.Barrier 的屬性):      Barrier.            (line   94)
* parties (threading.Barrier 的屬性):    Barrier Objects.    (line   93)
* partition() (bytearray 的方法):        Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  185)
* partition() (bytes 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  185)
* partition() (str 的方法):              String Methods<2>.  (line  361)
* parts (pathlib.PurePath 的屬性):       對個別組成的存取.   (line    8)
* Pass (ast 中的類別):                   陳述式.             (line  159)
* pass_() (poplib.POP3 的方法):          POP3 物件.          (line   36)
* Paste（貼上）:                         Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* patch.dict() (於 unittest.mock 模組中): patch dict.        (line    6)
* patch.multiple() (於 unittest.mock 模組中): patch multiple.
                                                             (line    6)
* patch.object() (於 unittest.mock 模組中): patch object.    (line    6)
* patch.stopall() (於 unittest.mock 模組中): patch 方法：啟動與停止.
                                                             (line   67)
* patch() (於 test.support 模組中):      test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  642)
* patch() (於 unittest.mock 模組中):     patch.              (line    9)
* PATH:                                  Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line  144)
* PATH <1>:                              Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* PATH <2>:                              Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* PATH <3>:                              Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* PATH <4>:                              Windows<21>.        (line   56)
* PATH <5>:                              Windows<25>.        (line   14)
* PATH <6>:                              Security<33>.       (line   16)
* PATH <7>:                              Security<33>.       (line   20)
* PATH <8>:                              模組的搜尋路徑.     (line   13)
* PATH <9>:                              可執行的 Python 腳本.
                                                             (line   11)
* PATH <10>:                             環境變數.           (line   27)
* PATH <11>:                             雜項<2>.            (line   15)
* PATH <12>:                             安裝步驟.           (line   33)
* PATH <13>:                             安裝步驟.           (line   56)
* PATH <14>:                             安裝排除使用者介面. (line   76)
* PATH <15>:                             安裝排除使用者介面. (line   80)
* PATH <16>:                             Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   23)
* PATH <17>:                             Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   35)
* PATH <18>:                             Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   14)
* PATH <19>:                             Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   21)
* PATH <20>:                             Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   22)
* PATH <21>:                             Python Launcher for Windows.
                                                             (line   13)
* PATH <22>:                             From the command-line.
                                                             (line    9)
* PATH <23>:                             Shebang Lines.      (line   52)
* PATH <24>:                             Shebang Lines.      (line   54)
* PATH <25>:                             Shebang Lines.      (line   59)
* PATH <26>:                             Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  407)
* PATH <27>:                             行程管理.           (line   45)
* PATH <28>:                             行程管理.           (line   86)
* PATH <29>:                             行程管理.           (line   89)
* PATH <30>:                             行程管理.           (line   92)
* PATH <31>:                             行程管理.           (line  528)
* PATH <32>:                             行程管理.           (line  615)
* PATH <33>:                             行程管理.           (line  619)
* PATH <34>:                             行程管理.           (line  621)
* PATH <35>:                             Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  121)
* PATH <36>:                             Popen Constructor.  (line   34)
* PATH <37>:                             webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line  218)
* PATH <38>:                             虛擬環境如何運作.   (line   13)
* PATH <39>:                             虛擬環境如何運作.   (line   56)
* PATH <40>:                             虛擬環境如何運作.   (line   61)
* PATH <41>:                             site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   60)
* PATH <42>:                             Installing your CGI script on a Unix system.
                                                             (line   29)
* PATH <43>:                             Common problems and solutions.
                                                             (line   23)
* PATH <44>:                             嵌入式Python.       (line   22)
* PATH <45>:                             嵌入式Python.       (line   28)
* PATH <46>:                             我如何使 Python script 執行在 Unix？.
                                                             (line   24)
* PATH <47>:                             我如何使 Python script 執行在 Unix？.
                                                             (line   28)
* path (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性):   Cookie 物件<2>.     (line   45)
* path (http.cookies.Morsel 的屬性):     Morsel 物件.        (line   13)
* path (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   97)
* path (ImportError 的屬性):             實體例外.           (line   52)
* path (importlib.abc.FileLoader 的屬性): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  301)
* path (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  304)
* path (importlib.machinery.FileFinder 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  173)
* path (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  210)
* path (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  254)
* path (os.DirEntry 的屬性):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  929)
* Path (pathlib 中的類別):               實體路徑.           (line    9)
* Path (zipfile 中的類別):               Path Objects.       (line    6)
* path (於 sys 模組中):                  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1247)
* path based finder（基於路徑的尋檢器）: 術語表.             (line  980)
* path based finder（基於路徑的搜尋器）: The Path Based Finder.
                                                             (line    6)
* Path browser（路徑瀏覽器）:            File menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   22)
* path entry finder（路徑項目尋檢器）:   術語表.             (line  965)
* path entry hook（路徑項目鉤）:         術語表.             (line  974)
* path entry（路徑項目）:                術語表.             (line  959)
* path hooks:                            Import hooks.       (line    6)
* path_hook() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder 的類別方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  188)
* path_hooks (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1280)
* path_importer_cache (於 sys 模組中):   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1289)
* path_mtime() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  367)
* path_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy 的方法): CookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   56)
* path_stats() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  345)
* path_stats() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  219)
* path-like object（類路徑物件）:        術語表.             (line  985)
* Path.stem (於 zipfile 模組中):         Path Objects.       (line   66)
* Path.suffix (於 zipfile 模組中):       Path Objects.       (line   60)
* Path.suffixes (於 zipfile 模組中):     Path Objects.       (line   72)
* path() (於 importlib.resources 模組中): 已棄用函式.        (line   98)
* path（sys 模組中）:                    嵌入式Python.       (line   10)
* path（sys 模組中） <1>:                Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* path（sys 模組中） <2>:                Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  158)
* path（sys 模組中） <3>:                Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  178)
* path（路徑）;configuration（設定）;file（檔案）: site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   65)
* path（路徑）;operations（操作）:       pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑.
                                                             (line   10)
* path（路徑）;operations（操作） <1>:   os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line    9)
* pathconf_names (於 os 模組中):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  644)
* pathconf() (於 os 模組中):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  620)
* PathEntryFinder (importlib.abc 中的類別): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   59)
* PATHEXT:                               Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* PATHEXT <1>:                           Library<38>.        (line  138)
* PATHEXT <2>:                           安裝排除使用者介面. (line   76)
* PATHEXT <3>:                           安裝排除使用者介面. (line   80)
* PATHEXT <4>:                           Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  418)
* PathFinder (importlib.machinery 中的類別): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  103)
* PathLike (os 中的類別):                行程參數.           (line  120)
* pathname2url() (於 urllib.request 模組中): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  142)
* pathsep (於 os 模組中):                Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  118)
* Pattern (re 中的類別):                 Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* pattern (re.error 的屬性):             Exceptions.         (line   19)
* pattern (re.Pattern 的屬性):           Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* Pattern (typing 中的類別):             Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   10)
* pattern matching（模式匹配）:          The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* pause_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport 的方法): Read-only Transports.
                                                             (line   12)
* pause_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol 的方法): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   40)
* pause() (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line  312)
* PAX_FORMAT (於 tarfile 模組中):        tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  324)
* pax_headers (tarfile.TarFile 的屬性):  TarFile 物件.       (line  314)
* pax_headers (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):  TarInfo 物件.       (line  161)
* pbkdf2_hmac() (於 hashlib 模組中):     密鑰的生成.         (line   11)
* pd() (於 turtle 模組中):               Drawing state.      (line    6)
* Pdb (pdb 中的類別):                    pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  174)
* Pdb（pdb 中的類別）:                   pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   17)
* pdf() (statistics.NormalDist 的方法):  NormalDist 物件.    (line   57)
* peek() (bz2.BZ2File 的方法):           De compression of files.
                                                             (line   72)
* peek() (gzip.GzipFile 的方法):         gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  125)
* peek() (io.BufferedReader 的方法):     Buffered Streams.   (line   75)
* peek() (lzma.LZMAFile 的方法):         Reading and writing compressed files.
                                                             (line   85)
* peek() (weakref.finalize 的方法):      weakref --- 弱參照. (line  249)
* PEM_cert_to_DER_cert() (於 ssl 模組中): 認證處理.          (line   53)
* pen() (於 turtle 模組中):              Drawing state.      (line   33)
* pencolor() (於 turtle 模組中):         Color control.      (line    6)
* pending (ssl.MemoryBIO 的屬性):        Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  135)
* pending() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法):      SSL Sockets.        (line  292)
* PendingDeprecationWarning:             警告.               (line   27)
* pendown() (於 turtle 模組中):          Drawing state.      (line    6)
* pensize() (於 turtle 模組中):          Drawing state.      (line   18)
* penup() (於 turtle 模組中):            Drawing state.      (line   12)
* PEP:                                   術語表.             (line  995)
* PERCENT (於 token 模組中):             token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  122)
* PERCENTEQUAL (於 token 模組中):        token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  186)
* perf_counter_ns() (於 time 模組中):    函式<4>.            (line  187)
* perf_counter() (於 time 模組中):       函式<4>.            (line  174)
* perm() (於 math 模組中):               數論與表現函式.     (line  194)
* PermissionError:                       作業系統例外.       (line   89)
* permutations() (於 itertools 模組中):  Itertool 函式.      (line  384)
* Persist() (msilib.SummaryInformation 的方法): Summary Information Objects.
                                                             (line   29)
* persistence（持續性）:                 pickle --- Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line    8)
* persistent_id() (pickle.Pickler 的方法): 模組介面.         (line  160)
* persistent_id（pickle 協定）:          Persistence of External Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* persistent_load() (pickle.Unpickler 的方法): 模組介面.     (line  275)
* persistent_load（pickle 協定）:        Persistence of External Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* persistent（持續）;objects（物件）:    pickle --- Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line    8)
* PF_CAN (於 socket 模組中):             常數<7>.            (line  121)
* PF_DIVERT (於 socket 模組中):          常數<7>.            (line  194)
* PF_PACKET (於 socket 模組中):          常數<7>.            (line  204)
* PF_RDS (於 socket 模組中):             常數<7>.            (line  226)
* pformat() (pprint.PrettyPrinter 的方法): PrettyPrinter 物件.
                                                             (line   50)
* pformat() (於 pprint 模組中):          函式<3>.            (line   76)
* pgettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations 的方法): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   68)
* pgettext() (gettext.NullTranslations 的方法): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   47)
* pgettext() (於 gettext 模組中):        GNU gettext API.    (line   63)
* PGO (於 test.support 模組中):          test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  106)
* phase() (於 cmath 模組中):             轉換到極座標和從極座標做轉換.
                                                             (line   16)
* Philbrick, Geoff:                      Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions.
                                                             (line   25)
* physical line（物理列）:               Logical lines.      (line    6)
* physical line（物理列） <1>:           Explicit line joining.
                                                             (line    6)
* physical line（物理列） <2>:           String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* pi (於 cmath 模組中):                  常數<3>.            (line    6)
* pi (於 math 模組中):                   常數<2>.            (line    6)
* pi() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 的方法): TreeBuilder 物件.
                                                             (line   56)
* pickle() (於 copyreg 模組中):          copyreg --- 註冊 pickle 支援函式.
                                                             (line   20)
* PickleBuffer (pickle 中的類別):        模組介面.           (line  302)
* PickleError:                           模組介面.           (line   95)
* Pickler (pickle 中的類別):             模組介面.           (line  121)
* pickletools 命令列選項; -a:            命令列選項<4>.      (line    6)
* pickletools 命令列選項; -annotate:     命令列選項<4>.      (line    6)
* pickletools 命令列選項; -indentlevel:  命令列選項<4>.      (line   14)
* pickletools 命令列選項; -l:            命令列選項<4>.      (line   14)
* pickletools 命令列選項; -m:            命令列選項<4>.      (line   18)
* pickletools 命令列選項; -memo:         命令列選項<4>.      (line   18)
* pickletools 命令列選項; -o:            命令列選項<4>.      (line   10)
* pickletools 命令列選項; -output:       命令列選項<4>.      (line   10)
* pickletools 命令列選項; -p:            命令列選項<4>.      (line   22)
* pickletools 命令列選項; -preamble:     命令列選項<4>.      (line   22)
* pickling;objects（物件）:              pickle --- Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line    8)
* PicklingError:                         模組介面.           (line  100)
* pid (asyncio.subprocess.Process 的屬性): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  137)
* pid (multiprocessing.Process 的屬性):  Process 與例外.     (line  121)
* pid (subprocess.Popen 的屬性):         Popen Objects.      (line  142)
* PIDFD_NONBLOCK (於 os 模組中):         行程管理.           (line  373)
* pidfd_open() (於 os 模組中):           行程管理.           (line  361)
* pidfd_send_signal() (於 signal 模組中): 模組內容<5>.       (line  330)
* PidfdChildWatcher (asyncio 中的類別):  Process Watchers.   (line  156)
* PIP_USER:                              Windows<42>.        (line  102)
* PIPE (於 subprocess 模組中):           Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  149)
* PIPE_BUF (於 select 模組中):           select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line  160)
* pipe_connection_lost() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol 的方法): Subprocess Protocols.
                                                             (line   19)
* pipe_data_received() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol 的方法): Subprocess Protocols.
                                                             (line   10)
* PIPE_MAX_SIZE (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  110)
* Pipe() (於 multiprocessing 模組中):    Pipes and Queues.   (line   79)
* pipe() (於 os 模組中):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  472)
* pipe2() (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  482)
* placeholder (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性): textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  277)
* platform (於 sys 模組中):              sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1299)
* platform() (於 platform 模組中):       跨平台.             (line   40)
* platform（sys 模組中）:                Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  226)
* platlibdir (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1367)
* PlaySound() (於 winsound 模組中):      winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line   20)
* plist;file（檔案）:                    plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案.
                                                             (line    8)
* plock() (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line  385)
* PLUS (於 token 模組中):                token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   82)
* plus() (decimal.Context 的方法):       Context objects.    (line  431)
* plus（加）:                            Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* PLUSEQUAL (於 token 模組中):           token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  170)
* pm() (於 pdb 模組中):                  pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  164)
* POINTER() (於 ctypes 模組中):          Utility functions.  (line  146)
* pointer() (於 ctypes 模組中):          Utility functions.  (line  152)
* polar() (於 cmath 模組中):             轉換到極座標和從極座標做轉換.
                                                             (line   31)
* Policy (email.policy 中的類別):        email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  129)
* poll() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 的方法): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* poll() (select.devpoll 的方法):        /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* poll() (select.epoll 的方法):          Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* poll() (select.poll 的方法):           Polling Objects.    (line   77)
* poll() (subprocess.Popen 的方法):      Popen Objects.      (line    8)
* poll() (於 select 模組中):             select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line   88)
* PollSelector (selectors 中的類別):     Classes<3>.         (line  171)
* Pool (multiprocessing.pool 中的類別):  Process Pools.      (line    9)
* pop_all() (contextlib.ExitStack 的方法): Utilities.        (line  594)
* POP_BLOCK (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1294)
* POP_EXCEPT (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  378)
* POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  793)
* POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  816)
* POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (opcode):         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  804)
* POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  782)
* pop_source() (shlex.shlex 的方法):     shlex 物件.         (line   63)
* POP_TOP (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   87)
* pop() (array.array 的方法):            array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  184)
* pop() (collections.deque 的方法):      deque 物件.         (line   79)
* pop() (dict 的方法):                   Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line  171)
* pop() (frozenset 的方法):              Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  208)
* pop() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):        Mailbox 物件.       (line  216)
* pop()（序列方法）:                     Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* POP3 (poplib 中的類別):                poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   34)
* POP3_SSL (poplib 中的類別):            poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   53)
* POP3;protocol（協定）:                 poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* Popen (subprocess 中的類別):           Popen Constructor.  (line   11)
* popen() (於 os 模組):                  select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line  141)
* popen() (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line  392)
* popen() （於 os 模組中）:              I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* popitem() (collections.OrderedDict 的方法): OrderedDict 物件.
                                                             (line   57)
* popitem() (dict 的方法):               Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line  177)
* popitem() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):    Mailbox 物件.       (line  225)
* popleft() (collections.deque 的方法):  deque 物件.         (line   84)
* PopupMenu (tkinter.tix 中的類別):      Basic Widgets.      (line   53)
* port (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性):   Cookie 物件<2>.     (line   36)
* port_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性): Cookie 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* portion（部分）:                       術語表.             (line 1008)
* pos (json.JSONDecodeError 的屬性):     例外<12>.           (line   18)
* pos (re.error 的屬性):                 Exceptions.         (line   23)
* pos (re.Match 的屬性):                 Match Objects.      (line  178)
* pos() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  132)
* pos() (於 turtle 模組中):              Tell Turtle's state.
                                                             (line    6)
* position (xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError 的屬性): 例外<14>.
                                                             (line   20)
* position() (於 turtle 模組中):         Tell Turtle's state.
                                                             (line    6)
* positional argument（位置引數）:       術語表.             (line 1014)
* Positions (dis 中的類別):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   58)
* positions (inspect.FrameInfo 的屬性):  直譯器堆疊.         (line   42)
* positions (inspect.Traceback 的屬性):  直譯器堆疊.         (line   82)
* Positions.col_offset (於 dis 模組中):  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   67)
* Positions.end_col_offset (於 dis 模組中): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   69)
* Positions.end_lineno (於 dis 模組中):  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   65)
* Positions.lineno (於 dis 模組中):      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   63)
* POSIX Shared Memory（POSIX 共享記憶體）: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line   10)
* POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED (於 os 模組中):    File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  516)
* POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE (於 os 模組中):     File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  516)
* POSIX_FADV_NORMAL (於 os 模組中):      File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  516)
* POSIX_FADV_RANDOM (於 os 模組中):      File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  516)
* POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL (於 os 模組中):  File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  516)
* POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED (於 os 模組中):    File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  516)
* posix_fadvise() (於 os 模組中):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  502)
* posix_fallocate() (於 os 模組中):      File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  493)
* POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE (於 os 模組中):      行程管理.           (line  458)
* POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2 (於 os 模組中):       行程管理.           (line  464)
* POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN (於 os 模組中):       行程管理.           (line  452)
* posix_spawn() (於 os 模組中):          行程管理.           (line  430)
* posix_spawnp() (於 os 模組中):         行程管理.           (line  520)
* POSIX;I/O control（I/O 控制）:         termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line    6)
* POSIXLY_CORRECT:                       getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器.
                                                             (line   71)
* PosixPath (pathlib 中的類別):          實體路徑.           (line   20)
* post_handshake_auth (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性): SSL Contexts. (line  591)
* post_mortem() (於 pdb 模組中):         pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  157)
* post_setup() (venv.EnvBuilder 的方法): API<2>.             (line  163)
* post() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line  278)
* post() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  179)
* postcmd() (cmd.Cmd 的方法):            Cmd 物件.           (line  104)
* postloop() (cmd.Cmd 的方法):           Cmd 物件.           (line  122)
* Pow (ast 中的類別):                    運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* pow() (於 math 模組中):                Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   72)
* pow() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  137)
* power() (decimal.Context 的方法):      Context objects.    (line  437)
* power（次方）;operation（操作）:       The power operator. (line    6)
* pp (pdb command):                      Debugger Commands.  (line  266)
* pp() (於 pprint 模組中):               函式<3>.            (line    6)
* pprint() (pprint.PrettyPrinter 的方法): PrettyPrinter 物件.
                                                             (line   56)
* pprint() (於 pprint 模組中):           函式<3>.            (line   67)
* prcal() (於 calendar 模組中):          calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  310)
* pread() (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  530)
* preadv() (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  543)
* preamble (email.message.EmailMessage 的屬性): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  677)
* preamble (email.message.Message 的屬性): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  688)
* precmd() (cmd.Cmd 的方法):             Cmd 物件.           (line   94)
* prefix (xml.dom.Attr 的屬性):          Attr Objects.       (line   18)
* prefix (xml.dom.Node 的屬性):          Node Objects.       (line   69)
* prefix (zipimport.zipimporter 的屬性): zipimporter 物件.   (line  100)
* prefix (於 sys 模組中):                sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1392)
* PREFIXES (於 site 模組中):             模組內容<10>.       (line    6)
* prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects. (line  132)
* prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects. (line  329)
* preloop() (cmd.Cmd 的方法):            Cmd 物件.           (line  116)
* prepare_class() (於 types 模組中):     Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   22)
* prepare_input_source() (於 xml.sax.saxutils 模組中): xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式.
                                                             (line   81)
* prepare() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 的方法): graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能.
                                                             (line   87)
* prepare() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler 的方法): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   45)
* prepare() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 的方法): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   57)
* PrepareProtocol (sqlite3 中的類別):    PrepareProtocol 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* prepend() (pipes.Template 的方法):     Template Objects.   (line   37)
* PrettyPrinter (pprint 中的類別):       PrettyPrinter 物件. (line    6)
* prev() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法):  ttk Treeview.       (line  231)
* previousSibling (xml.dom.Node 的屬性): Node Objects.       (line   32)
* primary（主要）:                       Primaries.          (line    6)
* print (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  258)
* print_callees() (pstats.Stats 的方法): The Stats Class.    (line  217)
* print_callers() (pstats.Stats 的方法): The Stats Class.    (line  196)
* print_directory() (於 cgi 模組中):     函式<13>.           (line   83)
* print_environ_usage() (於 cgi 模組中): 函式<13>.           (line   87)
* print_environ() (於 cgi 模組中):       函式<13>.           (line   75)
* print_exc() (timeit.Timer 的方法):     Python 介面.        (line  108)
* print_exc() (於 traceback 模組中):     Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* print_exception() (於 traceback 模組中): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* print_form() (於 cgi 模組中):          函式<13>.           (line   79)
* print_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Printing help.
                                                             (line   16)
* print_last() (於 traceback 模組中):    Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* print_stack() (asyncio.Task 的方法):   Task Object.        (line  143)
* print_stack() (於 traceback 模組中):   Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   69)
* print_stats() (profile.Profile 的方法): profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   91)
* print_stats() (pstats.Stats 的方法):   The Stats Class.    (line  164)
* print_tb() (於 traceback 模組中):      Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* print_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Printing help.
                                                             (line   10)
* print_usage() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): 其他方法.    (line   15)
* print_version() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): Printing a version string.
                                                             (line   26)
* print_warning() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  408)
* print() (traceback.TracebackException 的方法): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line  128)
* print() （內建函式）;__str__() （物件方法）: Basic customization.
                                                             (line  131)
* printable (於 string 模組中):          字串常數.           (line   40)
* printdir() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):   ZipFile 物件.       (line  225)
* printf 風格格式化:                     printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* printf 風格格式化 <1>:                 printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* PRIO_DARWIN_BG (於 os 模組中):         行程參數.           (line  303)
* PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI (於 os 模組中):      行程參數.           (line  303)
* PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS (於 os 模組中):    行程參數.           (line  303)
* PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD (於 os 模組中):     行程參數.           (line  303)
* PRIO_PGRP (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  292)
* PRIO_PROCESS (於 os 模組中):           行程參數.           (line  292)
* PRIO_USER (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  292)
* PriorityQueue (asyncio 中的類別):      Priority Queue（優先佇列）.
                                                             (line    6)
* PriorityQueue (queue 中的類別):        queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別.
                                                             (line   40)
* private;names:                         Identifiers Names.  (line   14)
* prlimit() (於 resource 模組中):        Resource Limits.    (line   56)
* prmonth() (calendar.TextCalendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  121)
* prmonth() (於 calendar 模組中):        calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  301)
* ProactorEventLoop (asyncio 中的類別):  事件迴圈實作.       (line   31)
* procedure;call:                        Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* Process (multiprocessing 中的類別):    Process 與例外.     (line    6)
* process_exited() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol 的方法): Subprocess Protocols.
                                                             (line   26)
* process_request() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  156)
* process_time_ns() (於 time 模組中):    函式<4>.            (line  204)
* process_time() (於 time 模組中):       函式<4>.            (line  193)
* process_tokens() (於 tabnanny 模組中): tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排.
                                                             (line   39)
* process;group（群組）:                 行程參數.           (line  193)
* process;group（群組） <1>:             行程參數.           (line  255)
* process;id:                            行程參數.           (line  261)
* process;id of parent:                  行程參數.           (line  268)
* process;killing:                       行程管理.           (line  325)
* process;killing <1>:                   行程管理.           (line  348)
* process;scheduling priority（排程優先權）: 行程參數.       (line  279)
* process;scheduling priority（排程優先權） <1>: 行程參數.   (line  467)
* process;signalling（信號）:            行程管理.           (line  325)
* process;signalling（信號） <1>:        行程管理.           (line  348)
* process() (logging.LoggerAdapter 的方法): LoggerAdapter 物件.
                                                             (line   16)
* ProcessError:                          Process 與例外.     (line  228)
* processes, light-weight（行程，輕量級）: _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* processingInstruction() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line  164)
* ProcessingInstruction() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.
                                                             (line  180)
* ProcessingInstructionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  274)
* ProcessLookupError:                    作業系統例外.       (line   98)
* processor time（處理器時間）:          函式<4>.            (line  195)
* processor time（處理器時間） <1>:      函式<4>.            (line  498)
* processor() (於 platform 模組中):      跨平台.             (line   57)
* ProcessPoolExecutor (concurrent.futures 中的類別): ProcessPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   19)
* prod() (於 math 模組中):               數論與表現函式.     (line  210)
* product() (於 itertools 模組中):       Itertool 函式.      (line  431)
* Profile (profile 中的類別):            profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   35)
* profile function:                      threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  182)
* profile function <1>:                  threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  200)
* profile function <2>:                  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  887)
* profile function <3>:                  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1439)
* PROFILE_TASK:                          Performance options.
                                                             (line   12)
* profiler:                              sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  887)
* profiler <1>:                          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1439)
* profiling, deterministic:              Introduction to the profilers.
                                                             (line    6)
* program（程式）:                       完整的 Python 程式. (line    6)
* ProgrammingError:                      例外<4>.            (line   78)
* Progressbar (tkinter.ttk 中的類別):    ttk Progressbar.    (line    6)
* prompt (cmd.Cmd 的屬性):               Cmd 物件.           (line  131)
* prompt_user_passwd() (urllib.request.FancyURLopener 的方法): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  182)
* prompts, interpreter（提示、直譯器）:  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1408)
* propagate (logging.Logger 的屬性):     Logger 物件.        (line   50)
* property (內建類別):                   內建函式.           (line 1337)
* property list（屬性清單）:             plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案.
                                                             (line    8)
* property_declaration_handler (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line  106)
* property_dom_node (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line  113)
* property_lexical_handler (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line   99)
* property_xml_string (於 xml.sax.handler 模組中): xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別.
                                                             (line  120)
* property() (於 enum 模組中):           通用項目與裝飾器.   (line   32)
* PropertyMock (unittest.mock 中的類別): Mock 類別.          (line  599)
* prot_c() (ftplib.FTP_TLS 的方法):      FTP_TLS 物件.       (line  103)
* prot_p() (ftplib.FTP_TLS 的方法):      FTP_TLS 物件.       (line   99)
* proto (socket.socket 的屬性):          Socket 物件.        (line  624)
* Protocol (asyncio 中的類別):           Base Protocols.     (line   10)
* protocol (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性):      SSL Contexts.       (line  610)
* Protocol (typing 中的類別):            Other special directives.
                                                             (line  116)
* PROTOCOL_SSLv23 (於 ssl 模組中):       常數<8>.            (line  141)
* PROTOCOL_SSLv3 (於 ssl 模組中):        常數<8>.            (line  147)
* PROTOCOL_TLS (於 ssl 模組中):          常數<8>.            (line  116)
* PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT (於 ssl 模組中):   常數<8>.            (line  127)
* PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER (於 ssl 模組中):   常數<8>.            (line  135)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1 (於 ssl 模組中):        常數<8>.            (line  161)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1 (於 ssl 模組中):      常數<8>.            (line  167)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 (於 ssl 模組中):      常數<8>.            (line  176)
* protocol_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  162)
* PROTOCOL_VERSION (imaplib.IMAP4 的屬性): IMAP4 物件.       (line  393)
* protocol（協定）;context management（情境管理）: 情境管理器型別.
                                                             (line    6)
* protocol（協定）;iterator（疊代器）:   疊代器型別.         (line    6)
* protocol（協定）;Telnet:               telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* ProtocolError (xmlrpc.client 中的類別): ProtocolError 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* provisional API（暫行 API）:           術語表.             (line 1018)
* provisional package（暫行套件）:       術語表.             (line 1032)
* proxy() (於 weakref 模組中):           weakref --- 弱參照. (line  105)
* proxyauth() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):    IMAP4 物件.         (line  194)
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  342)
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  374)
* ProxyHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  269)
* ProxyType (於 weakref 模組中):         weakref --- 弱參照. (line  274)
* ProxyTypes (於 weakref 模組中):        weakref --- 弱參照. (line  282)
* pryear() (calendar.TextCalendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  134)
* ps1 (於 sys 模組中):                   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1405)
* ps2 (於 sys 模組中):                   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1405)
* pstdev() (於 statistics 模組中):       函式細節.           (line  272)
* pthread_getcpuclockid() (於 time 模組中): 函式<4>.         (line   19)
* pthread_kill() (於 signal 模組中):     模組內容<5>.        (line  343)
* pthread_sigmask() (於 signal 模組中):  模組內容<5>.        (line  373)
* pthreads:                              _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line   14)
* pthreads (sys._emscripten_info 的屬性): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  343)
* pu() (於 turtle 模組中):               Drawing state.      (line   12)
* publicId (xml.dom.DocumentType 的屬性): DocumentType 物件. (line   17)
* PullDom (xml.dom.pulldom 中的類別):    xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹.
                                                             (line   77)
* punctuation (於 string 模組中):        字串常數.           (line   35)
* punctuation_chars (shlex.shlex 的屬性): shlex 物件.        (line  182)
* PurePath (pathlib 中的類別):           純路徑.             (line    9)
* PurePosixPath (pathlib 中的類別):      純路徑.             (line   67)
* PureWindowsPath (pathlib 中的類別):    純路徑.             (line   77)
* purge() (於 re 模組中):                Functions.          (line  287)
* Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH (於 ssl 模組中):   常數<8>.            (line  473)
* Purpose.SERVER_AUTH (於 ssl 模組中):   常數<8>.            (line  465)
* push_async_callback() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack 的方法): Utilities.
                                                             (line  645)
* push_async_exit() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack 的方法): Utilities.
                                                             (line  640)
* PUSH_EXC_INFO (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  397)
* PUSH_NULL (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1003)
* push_source() (shlex.shlex 的方法):    shlex 物件.         (line   56)
* push_token() (shlex.shlex 的方法):     shlex 物件.         (line   16)
* push() (code.InteractiveConsole 的方法): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* push() (contextlib.ExitStack 的方法):  Utilities.          (line  561)
* pushbutton() (msilib.Dialog 的方法):   GUI classes.        (line   66)
* put_nowait() (asyncio.Queue 的方法):   Queue.              (line   61)
* put_nowait() (multiprocessing.Queue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  146)
* put_nowait() (queue.Queue 的方法):     佇列物件.           (line   35)
* put_nowait() (queue.SimpleQueue 的方法): SimpleQueue 物件. (line   30)
* put() (asyncio.Queue 的方法):          Queue.              (line   56)
* put() (multiprocessing.Queue 的方法):  Pipes and Queues.   (line  131)
* put() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  240)
* put() (queue.Queue 的方法):            佇列物件.           (line   26)
* put() (queue.SimpleQueue 的方法):      SimpleQueue 物件.   (line   18)
* putch() (於 msvcrt 模組中):            Console I/O.        (line   35)
* putenv() (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  352)
* putheader() (http.client.HTTPConnection 的方法): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line  176)
* putp() (於 curses 模組中):             函式<5>.            (line  392)
* putrequest() (http.client.HTTPConnection 的方法): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line  165)
* putwch() (於 msvcrt 模組中):           Console I/O.        (line   39)
* putwin() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  455)
* pvariance() (於 statistics 模組中):    函式細節.           (line  280)
* pwd() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):             FTP 物件.           (line  301)
* pwrite() (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  602)
* pwritev() (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  613)
* Py_ABS (C macro):                      有用的巨集.         (line   33)
* Py_AddPendingCall (C function):        Asynchronous Notifications.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_ALWAYS_INLINE (C macro):            有用的巨集.         (line   39)
* Py_AtExit (C function):                行程控制.           (line   32)
* Py_AUDIT_READ (C macro):               Member flags.       (line   12)
* Py_AuditHookFunction (C type):         系統函式.           (line  183)
* Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro):      高階 API.           (line  161)
* Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS（C 巨集）:      Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_BLOCK_THREADS (C macro):            高階 API.           (line  175)
* Py_buffer (C type):                    Buffer structure.   (line   25)
* Py_buffer.buf (C member):              Buffer structure.   (line   27)
* Py_buffer.format (C member):           Buffer structure.   (line   89)
* Py_buffer.internal (C member):         Buffer structure.   (line  152)
* Py_buffer.itemsize (C member):         Buffer structure.   (line   69)
* Py_buffer.len (C member):              Buffer structure.   (line   52)
* Py_buffer.ndim (C member):             Buffer structure.   (line   98)
* Py_buffer.obj (C member):              Buffer structure.   (line   39)
* Py_buffer.readonly (C member):         Buffer structure.   (line   64)
* Py_buffer.shape (C member):            Buffer structure.   (line  107)
* Py_buffer.strides (C member):          Buffer structure.   (line  120)
* Py_buffer.suboffsets (C member):       Buffer structure.   (line  133)
* Py_BuildValue (C function):            Building values.    (line    6)
* Py_BytesMain (C function):             The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   41)
* Py_BytesWarningFlag (C var):           Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_CHARMASK (C macro):                 有用的巨集.         (line   61)
* Py_CLEAR (C function):                 參照計數<2>.        (line  123)
* Py_CompileString (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  239)
* Py_CompileString（C 函式）:            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  326)
* Py_CompileString（C 函式） <1>:        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  331)
* Py_CompileString（C 函式） <2>:        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  338)
* Py_CompileStringExFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  272)
* Py_CompileStringFlags (C function):    The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  245)
* Py_CompileStringObject (C function):   The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  251)
* Py_complex (C type):                   作為 C 結構的複數.  (line   10)
* Py_complex.imag (C member):            作為 C 結構的複數.  (line   15)
* Py_complex.real (C member):            作為 C 結構的複數.  (line   15)
* Py_DEBUG (C macro):                    除錯建置.           (line   14)
* Py_DEBUG (於 test.support 模組中):     test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  115)
* Py_DebugFlag (C var):                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   29)
* Py_DecodeLocale (C function):          作業系統工具.       (line  115)
* Py_DECREF (C function):                參照計數<2>.        (line   92)
* Py_DecRef (C function):                參照計數<2>.        (line  142)
* Py_DECREF（C 函式）:                   參照計數.           (line   15)
* Py_DEPRECATED (C macro):               有用的巨集.         (line   66)
* Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_Ellipsis (C var):                   Ellipsis Object.    (line    6)
* Py_EncodeLocale (C function):          作業系統工具.       (line  168)
* Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro):        高階 API.           (line  168)
* Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS（C 巨集）:        Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_EndInterpreter (C function):        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  202)
* Py_EnterRecursiveCall (C function):    Recursion Control.  (line   13)
* Py_EQ (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1005)
* Py_eval_input (C var):                 The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  324)
* Py_Exit (C function):                  行程控制.           (line   22)
* Py_ExitStatusException (C function):   PyStatus.           (line   65)
* Py_False (C var):                      Boolean（布林）物件.
                                                             (line   20)
* Py_FatalError (C function):            行程控制.           (line    6)
* Py_FatalError():                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  271)
* Py_FdIsInteractive (C function):       作業系統工具.       (line   18)
* Py_file_input (C var):                 The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  329)
* Py_Finalize (C function):              Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   90)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function):            Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   45)
* Py_FinalizeEx（C 函式）:               行程控制.           (line   23)
* Py_FinalizeEx（C 函式） <1>:           行程控制.           (line   33)
* Py_FinalizeEx（C 函式） <2>:           Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_FinalizeEx（C 函式） <3>:           Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  165)
* Py_FinalizeEx（C 函式） <4>:           Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  203)
* Py_FrozenFlag (C var):                 Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   56)
* Py_GE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1014)
* Py_GenericAlias (C function):          型別提示物件.       (line    9)
* Py_GenericAliasType (C var):           型別提示物件.       (line   40)
* Py_GetArgcArgv (C function):           Py_GetArgcArgv.     (line    6)
* Py_GetBuildInfo (C function):          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  258)
* Py_GetCompiler (C function):           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  247)
* Py_GetCopyright (C function):          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  237)
* Py_GETENV (C macro):                   有用的巨集.         (line   76)
* Py_GetExecPrefix (C function):         Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   97)
* Py_GetExecPrefix（C 函式）:            嵌入式Python.       (line   32)
* Py_GetPath (C function):               Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  157)
* Py_GetPath():                          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetPath() <1>:                      Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  178)
* Py_GetPath（C 函式）:                  嵌入式Python.       (line   32)
* Py_GetPlatform (C function):           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  225)
* Py_GetPrefix (C function):             Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   78)
* Py_GetPrefix（C 函式）:                嵌入式Python.       (line   32)
* Py_GetProgramFullPath (C function):    Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  141)
* Py_GetProgramFullPath（C 函式）:       嵌入式Python.       (line   32)
* Py_GetProgramName (C function):        Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   65)
* Py_GetPythonHome (C function):         Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  360)
* Py_GetVersion (C function):            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  211)
* Py_GT (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1011)
* Py_hash_t (C type):                    PyHash API.         (line    8)
* Py_HashRandomizationFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   69)
* Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   84)
* Py_INCREF (C function):                參照計數<2>.        (line   34)
* Py_IncRef (C function):                參照計數<2>.        (line  137)
* Py_INCREF（C 函式）:                   參照計數.           (line   15)
* Py_Initialize (C function):            Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_Initialize():                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    9)
* Py_Initialize() <1>:                   Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_Initialize（C 函式）:               嵌入式Python.       (line   10)
* Py_Initialize（C 函式） <1>:           Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  165)
* Py_InitializeEx (C function):          Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_InitializeFromConfig (C function):  Initialization with PyConfig.
                                                             (line    8)
* Py_InspectFlag (C var):                Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   97)
* Py_InteractiveFlag (C var):            Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  112)
* Py_Is (C function):                    Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   55)
* Py_IS_TYPE (C function):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   92)
* Py_IsFalse (C function):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   73)
* Py_IsInitialized (C function):         Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   39)
* Py_IsInitialized（C 函式）:            嵌入式Python.       (line   39)
* Py_IsNone (C function):                Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   61)
* Py_IsolatedFlag (C var):               Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  122)
* Py_IsTrue (C function):                Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   67)
* Py_LE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1002)
* Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (C function):    Recursion Control.  (line   33)
* Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag (C var): Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  138)
* Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag (C var):     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  158)
* Py_LIMITED_API (C macro):              受限 C API.         (line   10)
* Py_LT (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  999)
* Py_Main (C function):                  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   24)
* PY_MAJOR_VERSION (C macro):            API 和 ABI 版本管理.
                                                             (line   11)
* Py_MAX (C macro):                      有用的巨集.         (line   81)
* Py_MEMBER_SIZE (C macro):              有用的巨集.         (line   87)
* PY_MICRO_VERSION (C macro):            API 和 ABI 版本管理.
                                                             (line   19)
* Py_MIN (C macro):                      有用的巨集.         (line   93)
* PY_MINOR_VERSION (C macro):            API 和 ABI 版本管理.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_mod_create (C macro):               Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   61)
* Py_mod_exec (C macro):                 Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   95)
* Py_mod_multiple_interpreters (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  107)
* Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  111)
* Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  115)
* Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  121)
* Py_NE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1008)
* Py_NewInterpreter (C function):        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  192)
* Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig (C function): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  109)
* Py_NewRef (C function):                參照計數<2>.        (line   60)
* Py_NO_INLINE (C macro):                有用的巨集.         (line   99)
* Py_None (C var):                       None 物件.          (line   11)
* Py_NoSiteFlag (C var):                 Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  176)
* Py_NotImplemented (C var):             物件協定.           (line    6)
* Py_NoUserSiteDirectory (C var):        Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  192)
* py_object (ctypes 中的類別):           Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  218)
* Py_OpenCodeHookFunction (C type):      檔案物件 File Objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* Py_OptimizeFlag (C var):               Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  206)
* Py_PreInitialize (C function):         Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   38)
* Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_PRINT_RAW (C macro):                物件協定.           (line   17)
* Py_PRINT_RAW（C 巨集）:                檔案物件 File Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* PY_PYTHON:                             Customizing default Python versions.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_QuietFlag (C var):                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  216)
* Py_READONLY (C macro):                 Member flags.       (line    8)
* Py_REFCNT (C function):                參照計數<2>.        (line    8)
* Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET (C macro):          Member flags.       (line   17)
* PY_RELEASE_LEVEL (C macro):            API 和 ABI 版本管理.
                                                             (line   23)
* PY_RELEASE_SERIAL (C macro):           API 和 ABI 版本管理.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_ReprEnter (C function):             Recursion Control.  (line   47)
* Py_ReprLeave (C function):             Recursion Control.  (line   64)
* PY_RESUME (monitoring event):          事件.               (line   43)
* PY_RETURN (monitoring event):          事件.               (line   48)
* Py_RETURN_FALSE (C macro):             Boolean（布林）物件.
                                                             (line   32)
* Py_RETURN_NONE (C macro):              None 物件.          (line   18)
* Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED (C macro):    物件協定.           (line   11)
* Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (C macro):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1020)
* Py_RETURN_TRUE (C macro):              Boolean（布林）物件.
                                                             (line   36)
* Py_RunMain (C function):               Py_RunMain.         (line    6)
* Py_SET_REFCNT (C function):            參照計數<2>.        (line   24)
* Py_SET_SIZE (C function):              Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  115)
* Py_SET_TYPE (C function):              Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   99)
* Py_SetPath (C function):               Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  177)
* Py_SetPath():                          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  158)
* Py_SetProgramName (C function):        Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   41)
* Py_SetProgramName():                   Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_SetProgramName() <1>:               Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   66)
* Py_SetProgramName() <2>:               Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  142)
* Py_SetProgramName（C 函式）:           嵌入式Python.       (line   32)
* Py_SetPythonHome (C function):         Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  341)
* Py_SETREF (C macro):                   參照計數<2>.        (line  147)
* Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding (C function): Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_single_input (C var):               The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  336)
* Py_SIZE (C function):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  105)
* Py_ssize_t (C type):                   型別.               (line   11)
* PY_SSIZE_T_MAX（C 巨集）:              整數物件.           (line  191)
* PY_START (monitoring event):           事件.               (line   53)
* Py_STRINGIFY (C macro):                有用的巨集.         (line  110)
* Py_T_BOOL (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   59)
* Py_T_BYTE (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   20)
* Py_T_CHAR (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   68)
* Py_T_DOUBLE (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   56)
* Py_T_FLOAT (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   53)
* Py_T_INT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   26)
* Py_T_LONG (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   29)
* Py_T_LONGLONG (C macro):               Member types.       (line   32)
* Py_T_OBJECT_EX (C macro):              Member types.       (line   71)
* Py_T_PYSSIZET (C macro):               Member types.       (line   50)
* Py_T_SHORT (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   23)
* Py_T_STRING (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   62)
* Py_T_STRING_INPLACE (C macro):         Member types.       (line   65)
* Py_T_UBYTE (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   35)
* Py_T_UINT (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   38)
* Py_T_ULONG (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   44)
* Py_T_ULONGLONG (C macro):              Member types.       (line   47)
* Py_T_USHORT (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   41)
* PY_THROW (monitoring event):           事件.               (line   58)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  673)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  527)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS (C macro):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  667)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  577)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  671)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  729)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  686)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  555)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL (C macro):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  697)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  509)
* Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  715)
* Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END (C macro):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line  641)
* Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  663)
* Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  661)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT (C macro):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line  613)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF (C macro):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  629)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  757)
* Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  588)
* Py_TPFLAGS_READY (C macro):            PyTypeObject Slots. (line  537)
* Py_TPFLAGS_READYING (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  546)
* Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  781)
* Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS (C macro):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  665)
* Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  675)
* Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line  669)
* Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  805)
* Py_tracefunc (C type):                 Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_True (C var):                       Boolean（布林）物件.
                                                             (line   26)
* Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT (C macro):           Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_tss_t (C type):                     Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
                                                             (line   17)
* Py_TYPE (C function):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   80)
* Py_UCS1 (C type):                      Unicode Type.       (line    9)
* Py_UCS2 (C type):                      Unicode Type.       (line    9)
* Py_UCS4 (C type):                      Unicode Type.       (line    9)
* Py_uhash_t (C type):                   PyHash API.         (line   14)
* Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS (C macro):          高階 API.           (line  180)
* Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag (C var):        Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  231)
* Py_UNICODE (C type):                   Unicode Type.       (line   19)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  111)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  115)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (C function):  Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  107)
* Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   52)
* Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   47)
* Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   35)
* Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   39)
* Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (C function):   Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (C function):   Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   57)
* Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   25)
* Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   20)
* Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  119)
* Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   88)
* Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   94)
* Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   70)
* Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  100)
* Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   82)
* Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   76)
* Py_UNREACHABLE (C macro):              有用的巨集.         (line  116)
* Py_UNUSED (C macro):                   有用的巨集.         (line  136)
* PY_UNWIND (monitoring event):          事件.               (line   62)
* Py_VaBuildValue (C function):          Building values.    (line  201)
* PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET (C macro): Vectorcall 協定. (line   62)
* Py_VerboseFlag (C var):                Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  244)
* Py_Version (C var):                    API 和 ABI 版本管理.
                                                             (line   65)
* PY_VERSION_HEX (C macro):              API 和 ABI 版本管理.
                                                             (line   32)
* Py_VISIT (C function):                 循環垃圾回收的支援. (line  179)
* Py_XDECREF (C function):               參照計數<2>.        (line  117)
* Py_XDECREF（C 函式）:                  例外<18>.           (line  103)
* Py_XINCREF (C function):               參照計數<2>.        (line   53)
* Py_XNewRef (C function):               參照計數<2>.        (line   84)
* Py_XSETREF (C macro):                  參照計數<2>.        (line  171)
* PY_YIELD (monitoring event):           事件.               (line   66)
* PyAIter_Check (C function):            疊代器協議.         (line   13)
* PyAnySet_Check (C function):           集合物件.           (line   54)
* PyAnySet_CheckExact (C function):      集合物件.           (line   67)
* PyArg_Parse (C function):              API 函式.           (line   45)
* PyArg_ParseTuple (C function):         API 函式.           (line    6)
* PyArg_ParseTuple（C 函式）:            Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): API 函式.        (line   19)
* PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords（C 函式）: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyArg_UnpackTuple (C function):        API 函式.           (line   55)
* PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (C function): API 函式.     (line   37)
* PyArg_VaParse (C function):            API 函式.           (line   13)
* PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): API 函式.      (line   31)
* PyASCIIObject (C type):                Unicode Type.       (line   28)
* PyAsyncMethods (C type):               Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_anext (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_await (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_send (C member):     Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyBool_Check (C function):             Boolean（布林）物件.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyBool_FromLong (C function):          Boolean（布林）物件.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyBool_Type (C var):                   Boolean（布林）物件.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):        contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):          contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyBUF_CONTIG (C macro):                compound requests.  (line   36)
* PyBUF_CONTIG_RO (C macro):             compound requests.  (line   39)
* PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):          contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyBUF_FORMAT (C macro):                readonly format.    (line   16)
* PyBUF_FULL (C macro):                  compound requests.  (line   18)
* PyBUF_FULL_RO (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   21)
* PyBUF_INDIRECT (C macro):              shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyBUF_MAX_NDIM (C macro):              Buffer structure.   (line  162)
* PyBUF_ND (C macro):                    shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyBUF_READ (C macro):                  MemoryView 物件.    (line   18)
* PyBUF_RECORDS (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   24)
* PyBUF_RECORDS_RO (C macro):            compound requests.  (line   27)
* PyBUF_SIMPLE (C macro):                shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyBUF_STRIDED (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   30)
* PyBUF_STRIDED_RO (C macro):            compound requests.  (line   33)
* PyBUF_STRIDES (C macro):               shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyBUF_WRITABLE (C macro):              readonly format.    (line    6)
* PyBUF_WRITE (C macro):                 MemoryView 物件.    (line   22)
* PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (C function): Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyBuffer_FillInfo (C function):        Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   95)
* PyBuffer_FromContiguous (C function):  Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyBuffer_GetPointer (C function):      Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyBuffer_IsContiguous (C function):    Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyBuffer_Release (C function):         Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (C function):  Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyBuffer_ToContiguous (C function):    Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyBufferProcs (C type):                Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer (C member): Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer (C member): Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyBufferProcs（C 型別）:               緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyByteArray_AS_STRING (C function):    巨集.               (line    8)
* PyByteArray_AsString (C function):     直接 API 函式.      (line   32)
* PyByteArray_Check (C function):        型別檢查巨集.       (line    6)
* PyByteArray_CheckExact (C function):   型別檢查巨集.       (line   11)
* PyByteArray_Concat (C function):       直接 API 函式.      (line   20)
* PyByteArray_FromObject (C function):   直接 API 函式.      (line    6)
* PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (C function): 直接 API 函式. (line   13)
* PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (C function):     巨集.               (line   12)
* PyByteArray_Resize (C function):       直接 API 函式.      (line   37)
* PyByteArray_Size (C function):         直接 API 函式.      (line   27)
* PyByteArray_Type (C var):              位元組陣列物件 Byte Array Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyByteArrayObject (C type):            位元組陣列物件 Byte Array Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyBytes_AS_STRING (C function):        位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line  134)
* PyBytes_AsString (C function):         位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (C function):  位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line  139)
* PyBytes_Check (C function):            位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyBytes_CheckExact (C function):       位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyBytes_Concat (C function):           位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line  160)
* PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (C function):     位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line  169)
* PyBytes_FromFormat (C function):       位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyBytes_FromFormatV (C function):      位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyBytes_FromObject (C function):       位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line  110)
* PyBytes_FromString (C function):       位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (C function): 位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyBytes_GET_SIZE (C function):         位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line  119)
* PyBytes_Size (C function):             位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* PyBytes_Type (C var):                  位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyBytesObject (C type):                位元組物件 Bytes Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* pycache_prefix (於 sys 模組中):        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  355)
* PyCallable_Check (C function):         呼叫支援 API.       (line    6)
* PyCallIter_Check (C function):         疊代器（Iterator）物件.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyCallIter_New (C function):           疊代器（Iterator）物件.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyCallIter_Type (C var):               疊代器（Iterator）物件.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyCapsule (C type):                    Capsules<2>.        (line   11)
* PyCapsule_CheckExact (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   29)
* PyCapsule_Destructor (C type):         Capsules<2>.        (line   20)
* PyCapsule_GetContext (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   75)
* PyCapsule_GetDestructor (C function):  Capsules<2>.        (line   64)
* PyCapsule_GetName (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line   85)
* PyCapsule_GetPointer (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   54)
* PyCapsule_Import (C function):         Capsules<2>.        (line   94)
* PyCapsule_IsValid (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line  105)
* PyCapsule_New (C function):            Capsules<2>.        (line   34)
* PyCapsule_SetContext (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line  120)
* PyCapsule_SetDestructor (C function):  Capsules<2>.        (line  127)
* PyCapsule_SetName (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line  135)
* PyCapsule_SetPointer (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line  144)
* PyCell_Check (C function):             Cell 物件.          (line   21)
* PyCell_Get (C function):               Cell 物件.          (line   30)
* PyCell_GET (C function):               Cell 物件.          (line   34)
* PyCell_New (C function):               Cell 物件.          (line   26)
* PyCell_Set (C function):               Cell 物件.          (line   38)
* PyCell_SET (C function):               Cell 物件.          (line   46)
* PyCell_Type (C var):                   Cell 物件.          (line   17)
* PyCellObject (C type):                 Cell 物件.          (line   13)
* PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT (於 ast 模組中): 編譯器旗標<2>. (line    8)
* PyCF_ONLY_AST (於 ast 模組中):         編譯器旗標<2>.      (line   15)
* PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS (於 ast 模組中):    編譯器旗標<2>.      (line   19)
* PyCFunction (C type):                  實作函式與方法.     (line    6)
* PyCFunction_New (C function):          實作函式與方法.     (line  257)
* PyCFunction_NewEx (C function):        實作函式與方法.     (line  252)
* PyCFunctionWithKeywords (C type):      實作函式與方法.     (line   20)
* PycInvalidationMode (py_compile 中的類別): py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyCMethod (C type):                    實作函式與方法.     (line   49)
* PyCMethod_New (C function):            實作函式與方法.     (line  225)
* PyCode_Addr2Line (C function):         程式碼物件.         (line   86)
* PyCode_Addr2Location (C function):     程式碼物件.         (line   95)
* PyCode_AddWatcher (C function):        程式碼物件.         (line  149)
* PyCode_Check (C function):             程式碼物件.         (line   20)
* PyCode_ClearWatcher (C function):      程式碼物件.         (line  158)
* PyCode_GetCellvars (C function):       程式碼物件.         (line  130)
* PyCode_GetCode (C function):           程式碼物件.         (line  107)
* PyCode_GetFirstFree (C function):      程式碼物件.         (line   29)
* PyCode_GetFreevars (C function):       程式碼物件.         (line  140)
* PyCode_GetNumFree (C function):        程式碼物件.         (line   25)
* PyCode_GetVarnames (C function):       程式碼物件.         (line  121)
* PyCode_New（C 函式）:                  程式碼物件.         (line   55)
* PyCode_NewEmpty (C function):          程式碼物件.         (line   80)
* PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs（C 函式）:   程式碼物件.         (line   72)
* PyCode_Type (C var):                   程式碼物件.         (line   15)
* PyCode_WatchCallback (C type):         程式碼物件.         (line  174)
* PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors (C function): 用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyCodec_Decode (C function):           編解碼器註冊表和支援函式.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyCodec_Decoder (C function):          編解碼器查找 API.   (line   14)
* PyCodec_Encode (C function):           編解碼器註冊表和支援函式.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyCodec_Encoder (C function):          編解碼器查找 API.   (line   10)
* PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (C function):     用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (C function): 編解碼器查找 API. (line   23)
* PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (C function): 編解碼器查找 API. (line   18)
* PyCodec_KnownEncoding (C function):    編解碼器註冊表和支援函式.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyCodec_LookupError (C function):      用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (C function): 用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API.
                                                             (line   50)
* PyCodec_Register (C function):         編解碼器註冊表和支援函式.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCodec_RegisterError (C function):    用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (C function):    用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyCodec_StreamReader (C function):     編解碼器查找 API.   (line   28)
* PyCodec_StreamWriter (C function):     編解碼器查找 API.   (line   33)
* PyCodec_StrictErrors (C function):     用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyCodec_Unregister (C function):       編解碼器註冊表和支援函式.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors (C function): 用於 Unicode 編碼錯誤處理程式的註冊 API.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyCodeEvent (C type):                  程式碼物件.         (line  167)
* PyCodeObject (C type):                 程式碼物件.         (line   10)
* PyCompactUnicodeObject (C type):       Unicode Type.       (line   28)
* PyCompileError:                        py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyCompilerFlags (C struct):            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  342)
* PyCompilerFlags.cf_feature_version (C member): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  358)
* PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags (C member):   The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  354)
* PyComplex_AsCComplex (C function):     作為 Python 物件的複數.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyComplex_Check (C function):          作為 Python 物件的複數.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyComplex_CheckExact (C function):     作為 Python 物件的複數.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyComplex_FromCComplex (C function):   作為 Python 物件的複數.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyComplex_FromDoubles (C function):    作為 Python 物件的複數.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (C function):   作為 Python 物件的複數.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyComplex_RealAsDouble (C function):   作為 Python 物件的複數.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyComplex_Type (C var):                作為 Python 物件的複數.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyComplexObject (C type):              作為 Python 物件的複數.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyConfig (C type):                     PyConfig.           (line    6)
* PyConfig_Clear (C function):           PyConfig.           (line   94)
* PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyConfig.        (line   20)
* PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyConfig.          (line   15)
* PyConfig_Read (C function):            PyConfig.           (line   65)
* PyConfig_SetArgv (C function):         PyConfig.           (line   40)
* PyConfig_SetBytesArgv (C function):    PyConfig.           (line   48)
* PyConfig_SetBytesString (C function):  PyConfig.           (line   32)
* PyConfig_SetString (C function):       PyConfig.           (line   25)
* PyConfig_SetWideStringList (C function): PyConfig.         (line   57)
* PyConfig.argv (C member):              PyConfig.           (line  125)
* PyConfig.base_exec_prefix (C member):  PyConfig.           (line  164)
* PyConfig.base_executable (C member):   PyConfig.           (line  172)
* PyConfig.base_prefix (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  184)
* PyConfig.buffered_stdio (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  192)
* PyConfig.bytes_warning (C member):     PyConfig.           (line  205)
* PyConfig.check_hash_pycs_mode (C member): PyConfig.        (line  242)
* PyConfig.code_debug_ranges (C member): PyConfig.           (line  228)
* PyConfig.configure_c_stdio (C member): PyConfig.           (line  262)
* PyConfig.dev_mode (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  277)
* PyConfig.dump_refs (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  286)
* PyConfig.exec_prefix (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  300)
* PyConfig.executable (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  310)
* PyConfig.faulthandler (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  319)
* PyConfig.filesystem_encoding (C member): PyConfig.         (line  331)
* PyConfig.filesystem_errors (C member): PyConfig.           (line  364)
* PyConfig.hash_seed (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  386)
* PyConfig.home (C member):              PyConfig.           (line  401)
* PyConfig.import_time (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  414)
* PyConfig.inspect (C member):           PyConfig.           (line  423)
* PyConfig.install_signal_handlers (C member): PyConfig.     (line  438)
* PyConfig.int_max_str_digits (C member): PyConfig.          (line  452)
* PyConfig.interactive (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  444)
* PyConfig.isolated (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  472)
* PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio (C member): PyConfig.        (line  497)
* PyConfig.malloc_stats (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  514)
* PyConfig.module_search_paths (C member): PyConfig.         (line  558)
* PyConfig.module_search_paths_set (C member): PyConfig.     (line  560)
* PyConfig.optimization_level (C member): PyConfig.          (line  574)
* PyConfig.orig_argv (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  590)
* PyConfig.parse_argv (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  608)
* PyConfig.parser_debug (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  629)
* PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings (C member): PyConfig.         (line  643)
* PyConfig.perf_profiling (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  824)
* PyConfig.platlibdir (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  527)
* PyConfig.prefix (C member):            PyConfig.           (line  655)
* PyConfig.program_name (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  664)
* PyConfig.pycache_prefix (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  688)
* PyConfig.pythonpath_env (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  547)
* PyConfig.quiet (C member):             PyConfig.           (line  701)
* PyConfig.run_command (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  710)
* PyConfig.run_filename (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  718)
* PyConfig.run_module (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  731)
* PyConfig.safe_path (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  142)
* PyConfig.show_ref_count (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  739)
* PyConfig.site_import (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  751)
* PyConfig.skip_source_first_line (C member): PyConfig.      (line  770)
* PyConfig.stdio_encoding (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  782)
* PyConfig.stdio_errors (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  784)
* PyConfig.tracemalloc (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  813)
* PyConfig.use_environment (C member):   PyConfig.           (line  838)
* PyConfig.use_hash_seed (C member):     PyConfig.           (line  388)
* PyConfig.user_site_directory (C member): PyConfig.         (line  849)
* PyConfig.verbose (C member):           PyConfig.           (line  862)
* PyConfig.warn_default_encoding (C member): PyConfig.       (line  218)
* PyConfig.warnoptions (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  879)
* PyConfig.write_bytecode (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  899)
* PyConfig.xoptions (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  912)
* PyContext (C type):                    情境變數物件.       (line   26)
* PyContext_CheckExact (C function):     情境變數物件.       (line   55)
* PyContext_Copy (C function):           情境變數物件.       (line   76)
* PyContext_CopyCurrent (C function):    情境變數物件.       (line   80)
* PyContext_Enter (C function):          情境變數物件.       (line   84)
* PyContext_Exit (C function):           情境變數物件.       (line   89)
* PyContext_New (C function):            情境變數物件.       (line   72)
* PyContext_Type (C var):                情境變數物件.       (line   41)
* PyContextToken (C type):               情境變數物件.       (line   36)
* PyContextToken_CheckExact (C function): 情境變數物件.      (line   65)
* PyContextToken_Type (C var):           情境變數物件.       (line   49)
* PyContextVar (C type):                 情境變數物件.       (line   31)
* PyContextVar_CheckExact (C function):  情境變數物件.       (line   60)
* PyContextVar_Get (C function):         情境變數物件.       (line  105)
* PyContextVar_New (C function):         情境變數物件.       (line   97)
* PyContextVar_Reset (C function):       情境變數物件.       (line  129)
* PyContextVar_Set (C function):         情境變數物件.       (line  123)
* PyContextVar_Type (C var):             情境變數物件.       (line   45)
* PyCoro_CheckExact (C function):        Coroutine（協程）物件.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyCoro_New (C function):               Coroutine（協程）物件.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyCoro_Type (C var):                   Coroutine（協程）物件.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyCoroObject (C type):                 Coroutine（協程）物件.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyDate_Check (C function):             DateTime 物件.      (line   73)
* PyDate_CheckExact (C function):        DateTime 物件.      (line   79)
* PyDate_FromDate (C function):          DateTime 物件.      (line  130)
* PyDate_FromTimestamp (C function):     DateTime 物件.      (line  291)
* PyDateTime_Check (C function):         DateTime 物件.      (line   84)
* PyDateTime_CheckExact (C function):    DateTime 物件.      (line   90)
* PyDateTime_Date (C type):              DateTime 物件.      (line   12)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (C function): DateTime 物件.      (line  217)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (C function): DateTime 物件.      (line  201)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): DateTime 物件.
                                                             (line  213)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (C function): DateTime 物件.    (line  205)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (C function): DateTime 物件.    (line  209)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO (C function): DateTime 物件.    (line  223)
* PyDateTime_DateTime (C type):          DateTime 物件.      (line   17)
* PyDateTime_DateTimeType (C var):       DateTime 物件.      (line   38)
* PyDateTime_DateType (C var):           DateTime 物件.      (line   32)
* PyDateTime_Delta (C type):             DateTime 物件.      (line   27)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (C function): DateTime 物件.     (line  265)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (C function): DateTime 物件.
                                                             (line  277)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (C function): DateTime 物件.  (line  271)
* PyDateTime_DeltaType (C var):          DateTime 物件.      (line   50)
* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (C function): DateTime 物件.    (line  135)
* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold (C function): DateTime 物件.
                                                             (line  141)
* PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (C function): DateTime 物件.      (line  285)
* PyDateTime_GET_DAY (C function):       DateTime 物件.      (line  193)
* PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (C function):     DateTime 物件.      (line  189)
* PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (C function):      DateTime 物件.      (line  185)
* PyDateTime_Time (C type):              DateTime 物件.      (line   22)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (C function): DateTime 物件.      (line  249)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (C function): DateTime 物件.      (line  233)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): DateTime 物件.
                                                             (line  245)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (C function): DateTime 物件.    (line  237)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (C function): DateTime 物件.    (line  241)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO (C function): DateTime 物件.    (line  255)
* PyDateTime_TimeType (C var):           DateTime 物件.      (line   44)
* PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC (C var):       DateTime 物件.      (line   64)
* PyDateTime_TZInfoType (C var):         DateTime 物件.      (line   56)
* PyDelta_Check (C function):            DateTime 物件.      (line  106)
* PyDelta_CheckExact (C function):       DateTime 物件.      (line  112)
* PyDelta_FromDSU (C function):          DateTime 物件.      (line  161)
* PyDescr_IsData (C function):           Descriptor（描述器）物件.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyDescr_NewClassMethod (C function):   Descriptor（描述器）物件.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyDescr_NewGetSet (C function):        Descriptor（描述器）物件.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyDescr_NewMember (C function):        Descriptor（描述器）物件.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyDescr_NewMethod (C function):        Descriptor（描述器）物件.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyDescr_NewWrapper (C function):       Descriptor（描述器）物件.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyDict_AddWatcher (C function):        字典物件.           (line  224)
* PyDict_Check (C function):             字典物件.           (line   15)
* PyDict_CheckExact (C function):        字典物件.           (line   20)
* PyDict_Clear (C function):             字典物件.           (line   36)
* PyDict_ClearWatcher (C function):      字典物件.           (line  233)
* PyDict_Contains (C function):          字典物件.           (line   40)
* PyDict_Copy (C function):              字典物件.           (line   46)
* PyDict_DelItem (C function):           字典物件.           (line   64)
* PyDict_DelItemString (C function):     字典物件.           (line   71)
* PyDict_GetItem (C function):           字典物件.           (line   76)
* PyDict_GetItemString (C function):     字典物件.           (line   97)
* PyDict_GetItemWithError (C function):  字典物件.           (line   90)
* PyDict_Items (C function):             字典物件.           (line  122)
* PyDict_Keys (C function):              字典物件.           (line  127)
* PyDict_Merge (C function):             字典物件.           (line  191)
* PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (C function):     字典物件.           (line  209)
* PyDict_New (C function):               字典物件.           (line   25)
* PyDict_Next (C function):              字典物件.           (line  143)
* PyDict_SetDefault (C function):        字典物件.           (line  110)
* PyDict_SetItem (C function):           字典物件.           (line   50)
* PyDict_SetItemString (C function):     字典物件.           (line   58)
* PyDict_Size (C function):              字典物件.           (line  137)
* PyDict_Type (C var):                   字典物件.           (line   10)
* PyDict_Unwatch (C function):           字典物件.           (line  250)
* PyDict_Update (C function):            字典物件.           (line  201)
* PyDict_Values (C function):            字典物件.           (line  132)
* PyDict_Watch (C function):             字典物件.           (line  241)
* PyDict_WatchCallback (C type):         字典物件.           (line  269)
* PyDict_WatchEvent (C type):            字典物件.           (line  260)
* PyDictObject (C type):                 字典物件.           (line    6)
* PyDictProxy_New (C function):          字典物件.           (line   29)
* PyDLL (ctypes 中的類別):               Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line   67)
* PyDoc_STR (C macro):                   有用的巨集.         (line  161)
* PyDoc_STRVAR (C macro):                有用的巨集.         (line  143)
* PyErr_BadArgument (C function):        Raising exceptions. (line   44)
* PyErr_BadInternalCall (C function):    Raising exceptions. (line  209)
* PyErr_CheckSignals (C function):       Signal Handling<2>. (line    6)
* PyErr_Clear (C function):              Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyErr_Clear（C 函式）:                 例外<18>.           (line   18)
* PyErr_Clear（C 函式） <1>:             例外<18>.           (line  103)
* PyErr_DisplayException (C function):   Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function):   Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyErr_ExceptionMatches（C 函式）:      例外<18>.           (line  103)
* PyErr_Fetch (C function):              Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyErr_Fetch（C 函式）:                 Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyErr_Format (C function):             Raising exceptions. (line   23)
* PyErr_FormatV (C function):            Raising exceptions. (line   32)
* PyErr_GetExcInfo (C function):         Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  177)
* PyErr_GetHandledException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  148)
* PyErr_GetRaisedException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyErr_NewException (C function):       例外類別<2>.        (line    6)
* PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (C function): 例外類別<2>.       (line   23)
* PyErr_NoMemory (C function):           Raising exceptions. (line   50)
* PyErr_NormalizeException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  125)
* PyErr_Occurred (C function):           Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyErr_Occurred（C 函式）:              例外<18>.           (line   10)
* PyErr_Print (C function):              Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyErr_PrintEx (C function):            Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyErr_ResourceWarning (C function):    Issuing warnings.   (line   68)
* PyErr_Restore (C function):            Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  102)
* PyErr_Restore（C 函式）:               Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  112)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  157)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  133)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  145)
* PyErr_SetExcInfo (C function):         Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  196)
* PyErr_SetFromErrno (C function):       Raising exceptions. (line   56)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line   90)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (C function):  Raising exceptions. (line   97)
* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  121)
* PyErr_SetHandledException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  164)
* PyErr_SetImportError (C function):     Raising exceptions. (line  166)
* PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  177)
* PyErr_SetInterrupt (C function):       Signal Handling<2>. (line   33)
* PyErr_SetInterruptEx (C function):     Signal Handling<2>. (line   42)
* PyErr_SetNone (C function):            Raising exceptions. (line   40)
* PyErr_SetObject (C function):          Raising exceptions. (line   18)
* PyErr_SetRaisedException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyErr_SetString (C function):          Raising exceptions. (line   10)
* PyErr_SetString（C 函式）:             例外<18>.           (line   18)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocation (C function):     Raising exceptions. (line  204)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (C function):   Raising exceptions. (line  196)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  186)
* PyErr_WarnEx (C function):             Issuing warnings.   (line   19)
* PyErr_WarnExplicit (C function):       Issuing warnings.   (line   52)
* PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (C function): Issuing warnings.   (line   40)
* PyErr_WarnFormat (C function):         Issuing warnings.   (line   60)
* PyErr_WriteUnraisable (C function):    Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyEval_AcquireLock (C function):       低階 API.           (line  236)
* PyEval_AcquireThread (C function):     低階 API.           (line  204)
* PyEval_AcquireThread():                高階 API.           (line   31)
* PyEval_EvalCode (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  281)
* PyEval_EvalCodeEx (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  288)
* PyEval_EvalFrame (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  301)
* PyEval_EvalFrameEx (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  306)
* PyEval_GetBuiltins (C function):       Reflection.         (line    6)
* PyEval_GetFrame (C function):          Reflection.         (line   21)
* PyEval_GetFuncDesc (C function):       Reflection.         (line   33)
* PyEval_GetFuncName (C function):       Reflection.         (line   28)
* PyEval_GetGlobals (C function):        Reflection.         (line   16)
* PyEval_GetLocals (C function):         Reflection.         (line   11)
* PyEval_InitThreads (C function):       高階 API.           (line   30)
* PyEval_InitThreads():                  Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  319)
* PyEval_ReleaseLock (C function):       低階 API.           (line  257)
* PyEval_ReleaseThread (C function):     低階 API.           (line  225)
* PyEval_ReleaseThread():                高階 API.           (line   31)
* PyEval_RestoreThread (C function):     高階 API.           (line   66)
* PyEval_RestoreThread():                高階 API.           (line   31)
* PyEval_RestoreThread（C 函式）:        Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyEval_SaveThread (C function):        高階 API.           (line   60)
* PyEval_SaveThread():                   高階 API.           (line   31)
* PyEval_SaveThread（C 函式）:           Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyEval_SetProfile (C function):        Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (C function): Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  131)
* PyEval_SetTrace (C function):          Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  146)
* PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (C function): Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  161)
* PyEval_ThreadsInitialized (C function): 高階 API.          (line   49)
* PyExc_ArithmeticError（C 變數）:       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_AssertionError（C 變數）:        Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_AttributeError（C 變數）:        Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BaseException（C 變數）:         Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BlockingIOError（C 變數）:       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BrokenPipeError（C 變數）:       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BufferError（C 變數）:           Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BytesWarning（C 變數）:          Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ChildProcessError（C 變數）:     Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError（C 變數）: Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionError（C 變數）:       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError（C 變數）: Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionResetError（C 變數）:  Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_DeprecationWarning（C 變數）:    Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_EnvironmentError（C 變數）:      Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line  189)
* PyExc_EOFError（C 變數）:              Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_Exception（C 變數）:             Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FileExistsError（C 變數）:       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FileNotFoundError（C 變數）:     Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FloatingPointError（C 變數）:    Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FutureWarning（C 變數）:         Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_GeneratorExit（C 變數）:         Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ImportError（C 變數）:           Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ImportWarning（C 變數）:         Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_IndentationError（C 變數）:      Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_IndexError（C 變數）:            Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_InterruptedError（C 變數）:      Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_IOError（C 變數）:               Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line  189)
* PyExc_IsADirectoryError（C 變數）:     Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt（C 變數）:     Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_KeyError（C 變數）:              Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_LookupError（C 變數）:           Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_MemoryError（C 變數）:           Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError（C 變數）:   Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_NameError（C 變數）:             Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_NotADirectoryError（C 變數）:    Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_NotImplementedError（C 變數）:   Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_OSError（C 變數）:               Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_OverflowError（C 變數）:         Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning（C 變數）: Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_PermissionError（C 變數）:       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ProcessLookupError（C 變數）:    Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_RecursionError（C 變數）:        Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ReferenceError（C 變數）:        Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ResourceWarning（C 變數）:       Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_RuntimeError（C 變數）:          Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_RuntimeWarning（C 變數）:        Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_StopAsyncIteration（C 變數）:    Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_StopIteration（C 變數）:         Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SyntaxError（C 變數）:           Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SyntaxWarning（C 變數）:         Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SystemError（C 變數）:           Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SystemExit（C 變數）:            Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_TabError（C 變數）:              Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_TimeoutError（C 變數）:          Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_TypeError（C 變數）:             Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnboundLocalError（C 變數）:     Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError（C 變數）:    Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError（C 變數）:    Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeError（C 變數）:          Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError（C 變數）: Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeWarning（C 變數）:        Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UserWarning（C 變數）:           Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ValueError（C 變數）:            Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_Warning（C 變數）:               Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_WindowsError（C 變數）:          Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line  189)
* PyExc_ZeroDivisionError（C 變數）:     Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyException_GetArgs (C function):      例外物件.           (line   47)
* PyException_GetCause (C function):     例外物件.           (line   31)
* PyException_GetContext (C function):   例外物件.           (line   18)
* PyException_GetTraceback (C function): 例外物件.           (line    6)
* PyException_SetArgs (C function):      例外物件.           (line   51)
* PyException_SetCause (C function):     例外物件.           (line   38)
* PyException_SetContext (C function):   例外物件.           (line   25)
* PyException_SetTraceback (C function): 例外物件.           (line   14)
* PyFile_FromFd (C function):            檔案物件 File Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyFile_GetLine (C function):           檔案物件 File Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (C function):   檔案物件 File Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* PyFile_WriteObject (C function):       檔案物件 File Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* PyFile_WriteString (C function):       檔案物件 File Objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (C function):        浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyFloat_AsDouble (C function):         浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyFloat_Check (C function):            浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyFloat_CheckExact (C function):       浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyFloat_FromDouble (C function):       浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyFloat_FromString (C function):       浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyFloat_GetInfo (C function):          浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyFloat_GetMax (C function):           浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyFloat_GetMin (C function):           浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyFloat_Pack2 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   22)
* PyFloat_Pack4 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   26)
* PyFloat_Pack8 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   30)
* PyFloat_Type (C var):                  浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyFloat_Unpack2 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   20)
* PyFloat_Unpack4 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   24)
* PyFloat_Unpack8 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   28)
* PyFloatObject (C type):                浮點數（Floating-Point）物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyFrame_Check (C function):            Frame 物件.         (line   29)
* PyFrame_GetBack (C function):          Frame 物件.         (line   36)
* PyFrame_GetBuiltins (C function):      Frame 物件.         (line   46)
* PyFrame_GetCode (C function):          Frame 物件.         (line   55)
* PyFrame_GetGenerator (C function):     Frame 物件.         (line   66)
* PyFrame_GetGlobals (C function):       Frame 物件.         (line   77)
* PyFrame_GetLasti (C function):         Frame 物件.         (line   86)
* PyFrame_GetLineNumber (C function):    Frame 物件.         (line  126)
* PyFrame_GetLocals (C function):        Frame 物件.         (line  117)
* PyFrame_GetVar (C function):           Frame 物件.         (line   94)
* PyFrame_GetVarString (C function):     Frame 物件.         (line  109)
* PyFrame_Type (C var):                  Frame 物件.         (line   21)
* PyFrameObject (C type):                Frame 物件.         (line    6)
* PyFrozenSet_Check (C function):        集合物件.           (line   49)
* PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (C function):   集合物件.           (line   73)
* PyFrozenSet_New (C function):          集合物件.           (line   86)
* PyFrozenSet_Type (C var):              集合物件.           (line   35)
* PyFunction_AddWatcher (C function):    函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line  100)
* PyFunction_Check (C function):         函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyFunction_ClearWatcher (C function):  函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line  110)
* PyFunction_GetAnnotations (C function): 函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyFunction_GetClosure (C function):    函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyFunction_GetCode (C function):       函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyFunction_GetDefaults (C function):   函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyFunction_GetGlobals (C function):    函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* PyFunction_GetModule (C function):     函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyFunction_New (C function):           函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyFunction_NewWithQualName (C function): 函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyFunction_SetAnnotations (C function): 函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyFunction_SetClosure (C function):    函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyFunction_SetDefaults (C function):   函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyFunction_SetVectorcall (C function): 函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   67)
* PyFunction_Type (C var):               函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyFunction_WatchCallback (C type):     函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyFunction_WatchEvent (C type):        函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line  119)
* PyFunctionObject (C type):             函式物件 Function Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYFUNCTYPE() (於 ctypes 模組中):       Function prototypes.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyGC_Collect (C function):             Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyGC_Disable (C function):             Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyGC_Enable (C function):              Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyGC_IsEnabled (C function):           Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyGen_Check (C function):              產生器 Generator 物件.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyGen_CheckExact (C function):         產生器 Generator 物件.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyGen_New (C function):                產生器 Generator 物件.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyGen_NewWithQualName (C function):    產生器 Generator 物件.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyGen_Type (C var):                    產生器 Generator 物件.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyGenObject (C type):                  產生器 Generator 物件.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyGetSetDef (C type):                  Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyGetSetDef.closure (C member):        Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyGetSetDef.doc (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyGetSetDef.get (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyGetSetDef.name (C member):           Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyGetSetDef.set (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyGILState_Check (C function):         高階 API.           (line  145)
* PyGILState_Ensure (C function):        高階 API.           (line   96)
* PyGILState_GetThisThreadState (C function): 高階 API.      (line  137)
* PyGILState_Release (C function):       高階 API.           (line  127)
* PyHash_FuncDef (C type):               PyHash API.         (line   20)
* PyHash_FuncDef.hash_bits (C member):   PyHash API.         (line   28)
* PyHash_FuncDef.name (C member):        PyHash API.         (line   24)
* PyHash_FuncDef.seed_bits (C member):   PyHash API.         (line   32)
* PyHash_GetFuncDef (C function):        PyHash API.         (line   38)
* PyImport_AddModule (C function):       引入模組<2>.        (line  102)
* PyImport_AddModuleObject (C function): 引入模組<2>.        (line   85)
* PyImport_AppendInittab (C function):   引入模組<2>.        (line  271)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModule (C function):  引入模組<2>.        (line  107)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (C function): 引入模組<2>.       (line  146)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (C function): 引入模組<2>.   (line  155)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames (C function): 引入模組<2>.
                                                             (line  169)
* PyImport_ExtendInittab (C function):   引入模組<2>.        (line  298)
* PyImport_FrozenModules (C var):        引入模組<2>.        (line  263)
* PyImport_GetImporter (C function):     引入模組<2>.        (line  215)
* PyImport_GetMagicNumber (C function):  引入模組<2>.        (line  185)
* PyImport_GetMagicTag (C function):     引入模組<2>.        (line  193)
* PyImport_GetModule (C function):       引入模組<2>.        (line  206)
* PyImport_GetModuleDict (C function):   引入模組<2>.        (line  201)
* PyImport_Import (C function):          引入模組<2>.        (line   68)
* PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (C function): 引入模組<2>.     (line  240)
* PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (C function): 引入模組<2>.
                                                             (line  227)
* PyImport_ImportModule (C function):    引入模組<2>.        (line    6)
* PyImport_ImportModuleEx (C function):  引入模組<2>.        (line   24)
* PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (C function): 引入模組<2>.      (line   58)
* PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject (C function): 引入模組<2>.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock (C function): 引入模組<2>.    (line   13)
* PyImport_ReloadModule (C function):    引入模組<2>.        (line   79)
* PyIndex_Check (C function):            數字協定.           (line  285)
* PyInit_modulename (C function):        建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyInstanceMethod_Check (C function):   實例方法物件 Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyInstanceMethod_Function (C function): 實例方法物件 Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function): 實例方法物件 Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyInstanceMethod_New (C function):     實例方法物件 Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyInstanceMethod_Type (C var):         實例方法物件 Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyInterpreterConfig (C type):          Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  102)
* PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   98)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_daemon_threads (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_exec (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_fork (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_threads (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyInterpreterConfig.check_multi_interp_extensions (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyInterpreterConfig.gil (C member):    Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyInterpreterState (C type):           高階 API.           (line    9)
* PyInterpreterState_Clear (C function): 低階 API.           (line   20)
* PyInterpreterState_Delete (C function): 低階 API.          (line   28)
* PyInterpreterState_Get (C function):   低階 API.           (line  112)
* PyInterpreterState_GetDict (C function): 低階 API.         (line  134)
* PyInterpreterState_GetID (C function): 低階 API.           (line  124)
* PyInterpreterState_Head (C function):  Advanced Debugger Support.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyInterpreterState_Main (C function):  Advanced Debugger Support.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyInterpreterState_New (C function):   低階 API.           (line   12)
* PyInterpreterState_Next (C function):  Advanced Debugger Support.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead (C function): Advanced Debugger Support.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyIter_Check (C function):             疊代器協議.         (line    8)
* PyIter_Next (C function):              疊代器協議.         (line   20)
* PyIter_Send (C function):              疊代器協議.         (line   57)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL:              Windows<6>.         (line   31)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>:          Windows<23>.        (line   15)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <2>:          安裝隨選.           (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL:             安裝隨選.           (line   12)
* PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG:                      Diagnostics.        (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN:                     Dry Run.            (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN <1>:                 安裝隨選.           (line   14)
* PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH:             Shebang Lines.      (line   57)
* PyList_Append (C function):            List（串列）物件.   (line   81)
* PyList_AsTuple (C function):           List（串列）物件.   (line  109)
* PyList_Check (C function):             List（串列）物件.   (line   15)
* PyList_CheckExact (C function):        List（串列）物件.   (line   20)
* PyList_GET_ITEM (C function):          List（串列）物件.   (line   51)
* PyList_GET_SIZE (C function):          List（串列）物件.   (line   40)
* PyList_GetItem (C function):           List（串列）物件.   (line   44)
* PyList_GetItem（C 函式）:              參照計數詳細資訊.   (line   97)
* PyList_GetSlice (C function):          List（串列）物件.   (line   86)
* PyList_Insert (C function):            List（串列）物件.   (line   75)
* PyList_New (C function):               List（串列）物件.   (line   25)
* PyList_Reverse (C function):           List（串列）物件.   (line  105)
* PyList_SET_ITEM (C function):          List（串列）物件.   (line   65)
* PyList_SetItem (C function):           List（串列）物件.   (line   56)
* PyList_SetItem（C 函式）:              參照計數詳細資訊.   (line   19)
* PyList_SetSlice (C function):          List（串列）物件.   (line   93)
* PyList_Size (C function):              List（串列）物件.   (line   35)
* PyList_Sort (C function):              List（串列）物件.   (line  100)
* PyList_Type (C var):                   List（串列）物件.   (line   10)
* PyListObject (C type):                 List（串列）物件.   (line    6)
* PyLong_AsDouble (C function):          整數物件.           (line  277)
* PyLong_AsLong (C function):            整數物件.           (line  111)
* PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (C function): 整數物件.           (line  130)
* PyLong_AsLongLong (C function):        整數物件.           (line  149)
* PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (C function): 整數物件.       (line  168)
* PyLong_AsSize_t (C function):          整數物件.           (line  214)
* PyLong_AsSsize_t (C function):         整數物件.           (line  190)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (C function):    整數物件.           (line  202)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (C function): 整數物件.          (line  226)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (C function): 整數物件.      (line  259)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (C function): 整數物件.          (line  242)
* PyLong_AsVoidPtr (C function):         整數物件.           (line  288)
* PyLong_Check (C function):             整數物件.           (line   23)
* PyLong_CheckExact (C function):        整數物件.           (line   28)
* PyLong_FromDouble (C function):        整數物件.           (line   69)
* PyLong_FromLong (C function):          整數物件.           (line   33)
* PyLong_FromLongLong (C function):      整數物件.           (line   58)
* PyLong_FromSize_t (C function):        整數物件.           (line   53)
* PyLong_FromSsize_t (C function):       整數物件.           (line   48)
* PyLong_FromString (C function):        整數物件.           (line   74)
* PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (C function): 整數物件.           (line   98)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (C function):  整數物件.           (line   42)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong (C function): 整數物件.        (line   63)
* PyLong_FromVoidPtr (C function):       整數物件.           (line  105)
* PyLong_GetInfo (C function):           整數物件.           (line  298)
* PyLong_Type (C var):                   整數物件.           (line   18)
* PyLongObject (C type):                 整數物件.           (line   13)
* PyMapping_Check (C function):          對映協定.           (line    9)
* PyMapping_DelItem (C function):        對映協定.           (line   34)
* PyMapping_DelItemString (C function):  對映協定.           (line   38)
* PyMapping_GetItemString (C function):  對映協定.           (line   22)
* PyMapping_HasKey (C function):         對映協定.           (line   43)
* PyMapping_HasKeyString (C function):   對映協定.           (line   52)
* PyMapping_Items (C function):          對映協定.           (line   73)
* PyMapping_Keys (C function):           對映協定.           (line   61)
* PyMapping_Length (C function):         對映協定.           (line   15)
* PyMapping_SetItemString (C function):  對映協定.           (line   28)
* PyMapping_Size (C function):           對映協定.           (line   15)
* PyMapping_Values (C function):         對映協定.           (line   67)
* PyMappingMethods (C type):             Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_length (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile (C function): 資料 marshal 的支援.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (C function): 資料 marshal 的支援.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (C function): 資料 marshal 的支援.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString (C function): 資料 marshal 的支援.
                                                             (line   90)
* PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (C function): 資料 marshal 的支援.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (C function): 資料 marshal 的支援.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (C function): 資料 marshal 的支援.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString (C function): 資料 marshal 的支援.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyMem_Calloc (C function):             記憶體介面.         (line   27)
* PyMem_Del (C function):                記憶體介面.         (line   83)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   64)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyMem_Free (C function):               記憶體介面.         (line   55)
* PyMem_GetAllocator (C function):       Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyMem_Malloc (C function):             記憶體介面.         (line   18)
* PyMem_New (C macro):                   記憶體介面.         (line   67)
* PyMem_RawCalloc (C function):          Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyMem_RawFree (C function):            Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyMem_RawMalloc (C function):          Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyMem_RawRealloc (C function):         Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyMem_Realloc (C function):            記憶體介面.         (line   39)
* PyMem_Resize (C macro):                記憶體介面.         (line   73)
* PyMem_SetAllocator (C function):       Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (C function):    Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyMemAllocatorDomain (C type):         Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyMemAllocatorEx (C type):             Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyMember_GetOne (C function):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyMember_SetOne (C function):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyMemberDef (C type):                  Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyMemberDef.doc (C member):            Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyMemberDef.flags (C member):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyMemberDef.name (C member):           Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyMemberDef.offset (C member):         Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyMemberDef.type (C member):           Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyMemoryView_Check (C function):       MemoryView 物件.    (line   54)
* PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (C function):  MemoryView 物件.    (line   35)
* PyMemoryView_FromMemory (C function):  MemoryView 物件.    (line   26)
* PyMemoryView_FromObject (C function):  MemoryView 物件.    (line   10)
* PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (C function):    MemoryView 物件.    (line   68)
* PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER (C function):  MemoryView 物件.    (line   60)
* PyMemoryView_GetContiguous (C function): MemoryView 物件.  (line   42)
* PyMethod_Check (C function):           方法物件 Method Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyMethod_Function (C function):        方法物件 Method Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function):    方法物件 Method Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyMethod_GET_SELF (C function):        方法物件 Method Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyMethod_New (C function):             方法物件 Method Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyMethod_Self (C function):            方法物件 Method Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyMethod_Type (C var):                 方法物件 Method Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyMethodDef (C type):                  實作函式與方法.     (line   63)
* PyMethodDef.ml_doc (C member):         實作函式與方法.     (line   80)
* PyMethodDef.ml_flags (C member):       實作函式與方法.     (line   76)
* PyMethodDef.ml_meth (C member):        實作函式與方法.     (line   72)
* PyMethodDef.ml_name (C member):        實作函式與方法.     (line   68)
* PyMODINIT_FUNC (C macro):              有用的巨集.         (line   10)
* PyModule_AddFunctions (C function):    Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   52)
* PyModule_AddIntConstant (C function):  支援的函式.         (line  116)
* PyModule_AddIntMacro (C macro):        支援的函式.         (line  139)
* PyModule_AddObject (C function):       支援的函式.         (line   62)
* PyModule_AddObjectRef (C function):    支援的函式.         (line   11)
* PyModule_AddStringConstant (C function): 支援的函式.       (line  127)
* PyModule_AddStringMacro (C macro):     支援的函式.         (line  147)
* PyModule_AddType (C function):         支援的函式.         (line  151)
* PyModule_Check (C function):           模組物件.           (line   13)
* PyModule_CheckExact (C function):      模組物件.           (line   18)
* PyModule_Create (C function):          Single-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyModule_Create2 (C function):         Single-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyModule_ExecDef (C function):         Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (C function):  Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2 (C function): Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyModule_GetDef (C function):          模組物件.           (line   80)
* PyModule_GetDict (C function):         模組物件.           (line   45)
* PyModule_GetFilename (C function):     模組物件.           (line   96)
* PyModule_GetFilenameObject (C function): 模組物件.         (line   85)
* PyModule_GetName (C function):         模組物件.           (line   69)
* PyModule_GetNameObject (C function):   模組物件.           (line   58)
* PyModule_GetState (C function):        模組物件.           (line   74)
* PyModule_New (C function):             模組物件.           (line   40)
* PyModule_NewObject (C function):       模組物件.           (line   23)
* PyModule_SetDocString (C function):    Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyModule_Type (C var):                 模組物件.           (line    6)
* PyModuleDef (C type):                  初始化 C 模組.      (line   17)
* PyModuleDef_Init (C function):         Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyModuleDef_Slot (C type):             Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyModuleDef_Slot.slot (C member):      Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyModuleDef_Slot.value (C member):     Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   51)
* PyModuleDef.m_base (C member):         初始化 C 模組.      (line   23)
* PyModuleDef.m_clear (C member):        初始化 C 模組.      (line   91)
* PyModuleDef.m_doc (C member):          初始化 C 模組.      (line   31)
* PyModuleDef.m_free (C member):         初始化 C 模組.      (line  113)
* PyModuleDef.m_methods (C member):      初始化 C 模組.      (line   58)
* PyModuleDef.m_name (C member):         初始化 C 模組.      (line   27)
* PyModuleDef.m_size (C member):         初始化 C 模組.      (line   36)
* PyModuleDef.m_slots (C member):        初始化 C 模組.      (line   64)
* PyModuleDef.m_slots.m_reload (C member): 初始化 C 模組.    (line   73)
* PyModuleDef.m_traverse (C member):     初始化 C 模組.      (line   75)
* PyNumber_Absolute (C function):        數字協定.           (line   90)
* PyNumber_Add (C function):             數字協定.           (line   13)
* PyNumber_And (C function):             數字協定.           (line  115)
* PyNumber_AsSsize_t (C function):       數字協定.           (line  270)
* PyNumber_Check (C function):           數字協定.           (line    6)
* PyNumber_Divmod (C function):          數字協定.           (line   62)
* PyNumber_Float (C function):           數字協定.           (line  245)
* PyNumber_FloorDivide (C function):     數字協定.           (line   40)
* PyNumber_Index (C function):           數字協定.           (line  252)
* PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (C function):      數字協定.           (line  135)
* PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (C function):      數字協定.           (line  217)
* PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide (C function): 數字協定.        (line  166)
* PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (C function):   數字協定.           (line  203)
* PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply (C function): 數字協定.     (line  156)
* PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (C function): 數字協定.           (line  149)
* PyNumber_InPlaceOr (C function):       數字協定.           (line  231)
* PyNumber_InPlacePower (C function):    數字協定.           (line  191)
* PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (C function): 數字協定.          (line  184)
* PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (C function):   數字協定.           (line  210)
* PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (C function): 數字協定.           (line  142)
* PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (C function): 數字協定.         (line  173)
* PyNumber_InPlaceXor (C function):      數字協定.           (line  224)
* PyNumber_Invert (C function):          數字協定.           (line   96)
* PyNumber_Long (C function):            數字協定.           (line  238)
* PyNumber_Lshift (C function):          數字協定.           (line  101)
* PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (C function):  數字協定.           (line   31)
* PyNumber_Multiply (C function):        數字協定.           (line   25)
* PyNumber_Negative (C function):        數字協定.           (line   80)
* PyNumber_Or (C function):              數字協定.           (line  129)
* PyNumber_Positive (C function):        數字協定.           (line   85)
* PyNumber_Power (C function):           數字協定.           (line   70)
* PyNumber_Remainder (C function):       數字協定.           (line   56)
* PyNumber_Rshift (C function):          數字協定.           (line  108)
* PyNumber_Subtract (C function):        數字協定.           (line   19)
* PyNumber_ToBase (C function):          數字協定.           (line  261)
* PyNumber_TrueDivide (C function):      數字協定.           (line   46)
* PyNumber_Xor (C function):             數字協定.           (line  122)
* PyNumberMethods (C type):              Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_absolute (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   94)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_add (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_and (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  108)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_bool (C member):    Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   97)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_divmod (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_float (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  122)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_floor_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  155)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_index (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  167)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_add (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  125)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_and (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  146)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_floor_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  161)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_lshift (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  140)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  173)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  131)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_or (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  152)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_power (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  137)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_remainder (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  134)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_rshift (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  143)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_subtract (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_true_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  164)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_xor (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  149)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_int (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_invert (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_lshift (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  102)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_matrix_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  170)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_negative (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_or (C member):      Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  114)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_positive (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_power (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_remainder (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   79)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_reserved (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  120)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_rshift (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_subtract (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   73)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_true_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  158)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_xor (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  111)
* PyObject (C type):                     Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyObject_AsCharBuffer (C function):    舊式緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyObject_ASCII (C function):           物件協定.           (line  220)
* PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (C function): 檔案物件 File Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyObject_AsReadBuffer (C function):    舊式緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyObject_AsWriteBuffer (C function):   舊式緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyObject_Bytes (C function):           物件協定.           (line  241)
* PyObject_Call (C function):            物件呼叫 API.       (line   55)
* PyObject_CallFunction (C function):    物件呼叫 API.       (line   97)
* PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs (C function): 物件呼叫 API.   (line  130)
* PyObject_CallMethod (C function):      物件呼叫 API.       (line  113)
* PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs (C function): 物件呼叫 API.      (line  149)
* PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (C function): 物件呼叫 API.     (line  140)
* PyObject_CallMethodOneArg (C function): 物件呼叫 API.      (line  159)
* PyObject_CallNoArgs (C function):      物件呼叫 API.       (line   68)
* PyObject_CallObject (C function):      物件呼叫 API.       (line   87)
* PyObject_CallObject（C 函式）:         Calling Python Functions from C.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyObject_Calloc (C function):          Object allocators.  (line   29)
* PyObject_CallOneArg (C function):      物件呼叫 API.       (line   78)
* PyObject_CheckBuffer (C function):     Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyObject_CheckReadBuffer (C function): 舊式緩衝協定 Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (C function):   弱參照物件<2>.      (line   67)
* PyObject_CopyData (C function):        Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyObject_Del (C function):             在 heap 上分配物件. (line   44)
* PyObject_DelAttr (C function):         物件協定.           (line  122)
* PyObject_DelAttrString (C function):   物件協定.           (line  128)
* PyObject_DelItem (C function):         物件協定.           (line  369)
* PyObject_Dir (C function):             物件協定.           (line  374)
* PyObject_Format (C function):          物件協定.           (line  199)
* PyObject_Free (C function):            Object allocators.  (line   57)
* PyObject_GC_Del (C function):          循環垃圾回收的支援. (line  132)
* PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (C function):  循環垃圾回收的支援. (line  122)
* PyObject_GC_IsTracked (C function):    循環垃圾回收的支援. (line  112)
* PyObject_GC_New (C macro):             循環垃圾回收的支援. (line   56)
* PyObject_GC_NewVar (C macro):          循環垃圾回收的支援. (line   61)
* PyObject_GC_Resize (C macro):          循環垃圾回收的支援. (line   86)
* PyObject_GC_Track (C function):        循環垃圾回收的支援. (line   96)
* PyObject_GC_UnTrack (C function):      循環垃圾回收的支援. (line  137)
* PyObject_GenericGetAttr (C function):  物件協定.           (line   70)
* PyObject_GenericGetDict (C function):  物件協定.           (line  143)
* PyObject_GenericSetAttr (C function):  物件協定.           (line  110)
* PyObject_GenericSetDict (C function):  物件協定.           (line  159)
* PyObject_GetAIter (C function):        物件協定.           (line  390)
* PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (C function): Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyObject_GetAttr (C function):         物件協定.           (line   56)
* PyObject_GetAttrString (C function):   物件協定.           (line   63)
* PyObject_GetBuffer (C function):       Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyObject_GetItem (C function):         物件協定.           (line  356)
* PyObject_GetItemData (C function):     物件協定.           (line  429)
* PyObject_GetIter (C function):         物件協定.           (line  383)
* PyObject_GetTypeData (C function):     物件協定.           (line  400)
* PyObject_HasAttr (C function):         物件協定.           (line   32)
* PyObject_HasAttrString (C function):   物件協定.           (line   43)
* PyObject_Hash (C function):            物件協定.           (line  291)
* PyObject_HashNotImplemented (C function): 物件協定.        (line  301)
* PyObject_HEAD (C macro):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro):          Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  121)
* PyObject_Init (C function):            在 heap 上分配物件. (line   13)
* PyObject_InitVar (C function):         在 heap 上分配物件. (line   20)
* PyObject_IS_GC (C function):           循環垃圾回收的支援. (line  104)
* PyObject_IsInstance (C function):      物件協定.           (line  270)
* PyObject_IsSubclass (C function):      物件協定.           (line  250)
* PyObject_IsTrue (C function):          物件協定.           (line  309)
* PyObject_Length (C function):          物件協定.           (line  336)
* PyObject_LengthHint (C function):      物件協定.           (line  345)
* PyObject_Malloc (C function):          Object allocators.  (line   20)
* PyObject_New (C macro):                在 heap 上分配物件. (line   26)
* PyObject_NewVar (C macro):             在 heap 上分配物件. (line   34)
* PyObject_Not (C function):             物件協定.           (line  314)
* PyObject_Print (C function):           物件協定.           (line   24)
* PyObject_Realloc (C function):         Object allocators.  (line   41)
* PyObject_Repr (C function):            物件協定.           (line  209)
* PyObject_RichCompare (C function):     物件協定.           (line  176)
* PyObject_RichCompareBool (C function): 物件協定.           (line  188)
* PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (C function): Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyObject_SetAttr (C function):         物件協定.           (line   81)
* PyObject_SetAttrString (C function):   物件協定.           (line   92)
* PyObject_SetItem (C function):         物件協定.           (line  362)
* PyObject_Size (C function):            物件協定.           (line  336)
* PyObject_Str (C function):             物件協定.           (line  230)
* PyObject_Type (C function):            物件協定.           (line  319)
* PyObject_TypeCheck (C function):       物件協定.           (line  331)
* PyObject_VAR_HEAD (C macro):           Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyObject_Vectorcall (C function):      物件呼叫 API.       (line  169)
* PyObject_VectorcallDict (C function):  物件呼叫 API.       (line  181)
* PyObject_VectorcallMethod (C function): 物件呼叫 API.      (line  195)
* PyObject._ob_next (C member):          PyObject Slots.     (line   50)
* PyObject._ob_prev (C member):          PyObject Slots.     (line   50)
* PyObject.ob_refcnt (C member):         PyObject Slots.     (line   13)
* PyObject.ob_type (C member):           PyObject Slots.     (line   26)
* PyObjectArenaAllocator (C type):       Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyOS_AfterFork (C function):           作業系統工具.       (line   79)
* PyOS_AfterFork_Child (C function):     作業系統工具.       (line   56)
* PyOS_AfterFork_Parent (C function):    作業系統工具.       (line   42)
* PyOS_BeforeFork (C function):          作業系統工具.       (line   29)
* PyOS_CheckStack (C function):          作業系統工具.       (line   89)
* PyOS_double_to_string (C function):    字串轉換與格式化.   (line  104)
* PyOS_FSPath (C function):              作業系統工具.       (line    6)
* PyOS_getsig (C function):              作業系統工具.       (line  103)
* PyOS_InputHook (C var):                The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  157)
* PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer (C var):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  169)
* PyOS_setsig (C function):              作業系統工具.       (line  108)
* PyOS_sighandler_t (C type):            作業系統工具.       (line  100)
* PyOS_snprintf (C function):            字串轉換與格式化.   (line    8)
* PyOS_stricmp (C function):             字串轉換與格式化.   (line  134)
* PyOS_string_to_double (C function):    字串轉換與格式化.   (line   78)
* PyOS_strnicmp (C function):            字串轉換與格式化.   (line  139)
* PyOS_strtol (C function):              字串轉換與格式化.   (line   65)
* PyOS_strtoul (C function):             字串轉換與格式化.   (line   43)
* PyOS_vsnprintf (C function):           字串轉換與格式化.   (line   14)
* PyPreConfig (C type):                  PyPreConfig.        (line    6)
* PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyPreConfig.  (line   18)
* PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyPreConfig.    (line   12)
* PyPreConfig.allocator (C member):      PyPreConfig.        (line   26)
* PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale (C member): PyPreConfig.       (line   71)
* PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale_warn (C member): PyPreConfig.  (line   82)
* PyPreConfig.configure_locale (C member): PyPreConfig.      (line   60)
* PyPreConfig.dev_mode (C member):       PyPreConfig.        (line   88)
* PyPreConfig.isolated (C member):       PyPreConfig.        (line   95)
* PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding (C member): PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line  101)
* PyPreConfig.parse_argv (C member):     PyPreConfig.        (line  121)
* PyPreConfig.use_environment (C member): PyPreConfig.       (line  130)
* PyPreConfig.utf8_mode (C member):      PyPreConfig.        (line  137)
* PyProperty_Type (C var):               Descriptor（描述器）物件.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyRun_AnyFile (C function):            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyRun_AnyFileEx (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (C function):     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyRun_AnyFileFlags (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyRun_File (C function):               The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  211)
* PyRun_FileEx (C function):             The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  217)
* PyRun_FileExFlags (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  229)
* PyRun_FileFlags (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  223)
* PyRun_InteractiveLoop (C function):    The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  142)
* PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  148)
* PyRun_InteractiveOne (C function):     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  122)
* PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyRun_SimpleFile (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   97)
* PyRun_SimpleFileEx (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  103)
* PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  109)
* PyRun_SimpleString (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   83)
* PyRun_String (C function):             The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  193)
* PyRun_StringFlags (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  198)
* PySendResult (C type):                 疊代器協議.         (line   51)
* PySeqIter_Check (C function):          疊代器（Iterator）物件.
                                                             (line   16)
* PySeqIter_New (C function):            疊代器（Iterator）物件.
                                                             (line   21)
* PySeqIter_Type (C var):                疊代器（Iterator）物件.
                                                             (line   11)
* PySequence_Check (C function):         序列協定.           (line    6)
* PySequence_Concat (C function):        序列協定.           (line   21)
* PySequence_Contains (C function):      序列協定.           (line   96)
* PySequence_Count (C function):         序列協定.           (line   89)
* PySequence_DelItem (C function):       序列協定.           (line   72)
* PySequence_DelSlice (C function):      序列協定.           (line   83)
* PySequence_Fast (C function):          序列協定.           (line  123)
* PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (C function): 序列協定.           (line  147)
* PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (C function): 序列協定.           (line  138)
* PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (C function):    序列協定.           (line  153)
* PySequence_GetItem (C function):       序列協定.           (line   48)
* PySequence_GetItem（C 函式）:          參照計數詳細資訊.   (line   97)
* PySequence_GetSlice (C function):      序列協定.           (line   54)
* PySequence_Index (C function):         序列協定.           (line  102)
* PySequence_InPlaceConcat (C function): 序列協定.           (line   34)
* PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (C function): 序列協定.           (line   41)
* PySequence_ITEM (C function):          序列協定.           (line  163)
* PySequence_Length (C function):        序列協定.           (line   14)
* PySequence_List (C function):          序列協定.           (line  108)
* PySequence_Repeat (C function):        序列協定.           (line   27)
* PySequence_SetItem (C function):       序列協定.           (line   61)
* PySequence_SetSlice (C function):      序列協定.           (line   77)
* PySequence_Size (C function):          序列協定.           (line   14)
* PySequence_Tuple (C function):         序列協定.           (line  114)
* PySequenceMethods (C type):            Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   50)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_concat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   19)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_contains (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   60)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   68)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   79)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_item (C member):  Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   34)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_length (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   11)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   26)
* PySet_Add (C function):                集合物件.           (line  117)
* PySet_Check (C function):              集合物件.           (line   44)
* PySet_CheckExact (C function):         集合物件.           (line   60)
* PySet_Clear (C function):              集合物件.           (line  148)
* PySet_Contains (C function):           集合物件.           (line  108)
* PySet_Discard (C function):            集合物件.           (line  131)
* PySet_GET_SIZE (C function):           集合物件.           (line  104)
* PySet_New (C function):                集合物件.           (line   78)
* PySet_Pop (C function):                集合物件.           (line  141)
* PySet_Size (C function):               集合物件.           (line   96)
* PySet_Type (C var):                    集合物件.           (line   31)
* PySetObject (C type):                  集合物件.           (line   19)
* PySignal_SetWakeupFd (C function):     Signal Handling<2>. (line   67)
* PySlice_AdjustIndices (C function):    切片物件.           (line   97)
* PySlice_Check (C function):            切片物件.           (line   11)
* PySlice_GetIndices (C function):       切片物件.           (line   27)
* PySlice_GetIndicesEx (C function):     切片物件.           (line   43)
* PySlice_New (C function):              切片物件.           (line   16)
* PySlice_Type (C var):                  切片物件.           (line    6)
* PySlice_Unpack (C function):           切片物件.           (line   84)
* PyState_AddModule (C function):        模組查找.           (line   24)
* PyState_FindModule (C function):       模組查找.           (line   15)
* PyState_RemoveModule (C function):     模組查找.           (line   47)
* PyStatus (C type):                     PyStatus.           (line    6)
* PyStatus_Error (C function):           PyStatus.           (line   34)
* PyStatus_Exception (C function):       PyStatus.           (line   51)
* PyStatus_Exit (C function):            PyStatus.           (line   45)
* PyStatus_IsError (C function):         PyStatus.           (line   57)
* PyStatus_IsExit (C function):          PyStatus.           (line   61)
* PyStatus_NoMemory (C function):        PyStatus.           (line   41)
* PyStatus_Ok (C function):              PyStatus.           (line   30)
* PyStatus.err_msg (C member):           PyStatus.           (line   20)
* PyStatus.exitcode (C member):          PyStatus.           (line   16)
* PyStatus.func (C member):              PyStatus.           (line   24)
* PyStructSequence_Desc (C type):        Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.doc (C member):  Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.fields (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.n_in_sequence (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.name (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyStructSequence_Field (C type):       Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyStructSequence_Field.doc (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyStructSequence_Field.name (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyStructSequence_GetItem (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyStructSequence_InitType (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyStructSequence_InitType2 (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyStructSequence_New (C function):     Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* PyStructSequence_NewType (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* PyStructSequence_SetItem (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   98)
* PyStructSequence_UnnamedField (C var): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* PySys_AddAuditHook (C function):       系統函式.           (line  149)
* PySys_AddWarnOption (C function):      系統函式.           (line   27)
* PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode (C function): 系統函式.         (line   38)
* PySys_AddXOption (C function):         系統函式.           (line  100)
* PySys_Audit (C function):              系統函式.           (line  123)
* PySys_FormatStderr (C function):       系統函式.           (line   94)
* PySys_FormatStdout (C function):       系統函式.           (line   86)
* PySys_GetObject (C function):          系統函式.           (line   11)
* PySys_GetXOptions (C function):        系統函式.           (line  115)
* PySys_ResetWarnOptions (C function):   系統函式.           (line   22)
* PySys_SetArgv (C function):            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  321)
* PySys_SetArgv（C 函式）:               Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* PySys_SetArgvEx (C function):          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  269)
* PySys_SetArgvEx（C 函式）:             Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* PySys_SetObject (C function):          系統函式.           (line   16)
* PySys_SetPath (C function):            系統函式.           (line   53)
* PySys_WriteStderr (C function):        系統函式.           (line   82)
* PySys_WriteStdout (C function):        系統函式.           (line   65)
* Python 3000:                           術語表.             (line 1036)
* Python Editor（Python 編輯器）:        IDLE<62>.           (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0007#documentation-strings: Documentation<21>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0249#threadsafety: Module constants.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0453#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0477#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0564#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0626#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers: 程式碼物件.
                                                             (line   93)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0632#migration-advice: 發布重點摘要.
                                                             (line  108)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0683: 參照計數<2>.       (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1:   New Development Process.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1 <1>: New Development Process.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1 <2>: 術語表.           (line 1008)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 100: Unicode<2>.         (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11:  建置變更<2>.        (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <1>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <2>: Unsupported Operating Systems.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <3>: 函式庫變更.      (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <4>: Build<20>.       (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <5>: Build<20>.       (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <6>: Build<56>.       (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <7>: 建置需求.        (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <8>: 在 Windows 上使用 Python.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <9>: 其他平台.        (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3: 建置變更<2>.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 201: New Development Process.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 205: PEP 205 Weak References.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 205 <1>: weakref --- 弱參照.
                                                             (line  290)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 207: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 207 <1>: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 208: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 217: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218 <1>: 其他語言更動<16>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218 <2>: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227 <1>: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227 <2>: 模組內容<9>.    (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 229: PEP 229 New Build System.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 230: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 232: PEP 232 Function Attributes.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 234: PEP 234：疊代器.    (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 235: 簡介<9>.            (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <1>: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <2>: PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <3>: Future statements.
                                                             (line   85)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <4>: 模組內容<9>.    (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237: 整數.               (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <1>: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <2>: 其他語言更動<16>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <3>: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <4>: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line  182)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <5>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line  189)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238: 整數.               (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <1>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <2>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <3>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <4>: 模組內容<9>.    (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <5>: The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  371)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <6>: 術語表.         (line  447)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241 <1>: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241 <2>: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 243: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 246: Documentation<20>.  (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 246 <1>: PrepareProtocol 物件.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 247: hmac<3>.            (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249: sqlite3.            (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <1>: sqlite3 套件.   (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <2>: sqlite3 套件.   (line  110)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <3>: Library<22>.    (line  121)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <4>: Library<25>.    (line  296)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <5>: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <6>: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <7>: Module functions.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <8>: Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  702)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <9>: Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  705)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <10>: Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  717)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <11>: 例外<4>.       (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <12>: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <13>: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <14>: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252: 相關連結.           (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252 <1>: 相關連結.       (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252 <2>: Implementing Descriptors.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253: Old and New Classes.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <1>: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <2>: 相關連結.       (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <3>: 相關連結.       (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <4>: 相關連結.       (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <1>: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
                                                             (line  131)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <2>: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <3>: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <4>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   89)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <5>: 模組內容<9>.    (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 261: Unicode 變更.       (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 261 <1>: Unicode 變更.   (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263: 其他語言更動<15>.   (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <1>: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <2>: Core and Builtins<29>.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <3>: 簡介<9>.        (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <4>: Tokenizing Input.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <5>: Tokenizing Input.
                                                             (line   89)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <6>: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 264: 其他改動與修正.     (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <1>: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <2>: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <3>: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 274: New Syntax.         (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 277: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 278: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 278 <1>: 術語表.         (line 1263)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 279: PEP 279：enumerate. (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282: PEP 282 The logging Package.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <1>: PEP 282 The logging Package.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <2>: Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <3>: Integration with the warnings module.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 285: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 285 <1>: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 288: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  146)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289 <1>: 其他語言更動<16>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289 <2>: Python 說明文件.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 292: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 292 <1>: 模板字串.       (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 293: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3000: Python 3 0.        (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 301: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302: 使用 importlib 作為 import 的實作.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <1>: 明顯的變更.     (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <2>: 移植 Python 程式碼.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <3>: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  106)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <4>: New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  289)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <5>: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <6>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <7>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <8>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <9>: 模組引入系統.   (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <10>: References.    (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <11>: 內建函式.      (line 1913)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <12>: linecache --- 隨機存取文字列.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <13>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1287)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <14>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1297)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <15>: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <16>: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <17>: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <18>: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line   85)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <19>: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line  106)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <20>: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <21>: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line  156)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <22>: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <23>: 簡介<9>.       (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <24>: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   93)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <25>: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  175)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <26>: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  199)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <27>: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  269)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <28>: 術語表.        (line  757)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 305: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 305 <1>: csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <1>: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <2>: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <3>: Data stream format.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308 <1>: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308 <2>: Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 309: PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3100: Python 3 0.        (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <1>: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <2>: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
                                                             (line  161)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <3>: 自訂字串格式.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <4>: 自訂字串格式.  (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3102: New Syntax.        (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3104: New Syntax.        (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3104 <1>: nonlocal 陳述式.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105: Print Is A Function.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105 <1>: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105 <2>: 模組內容<9>.   (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3106: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <1>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <2>: New Syntax.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <3>: 函式註釋 Function Annotations.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <4>: 函式定義.      (line  145)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108: 函式庫變更.        (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108 <1>: 函式庫變更.    (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108 <2>: 函式庫變更.    (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3109: 語法變更.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3109 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110: 語法變更.          (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110 <2>: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3111: Builtins.          (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3112: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3112 <1>: 模組內容<9>.   (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3113: 已被移除的語法.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3114: Operators And Special Methods.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115: types<6>.          (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <1>: 語法變更.      (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <2>: Preparing the class namespace.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <3>: 類別定義.      (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <4>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <5>: 函式和類別定義.
                                                             (line  183)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116: 最佳化<11>.        (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116 <1>: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116 <2>: 術語表.        (line 1263)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <1>: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <2>: API 變更.      (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <3>: 建置和 C API 更改.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <4>: Build and C API Changes<6>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <5>: PEP 3118：修訂緩衝協定.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <6>: Library<62>.   (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <7>: Library<67>.   (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <8>: Library<96>.   (line  958)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <9>: Memory Views.  (line  114)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  139)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <1>: Customizing instance and subclass checks.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <2>: Examples and Recipes.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <3>: abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <4>: 物件協定.      (line  260)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <5>: 物件協定.      (line  280)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3120: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3120 <1>: 詞法分析.      (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3120 <2>: 簡介<9>.       (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121: Build and C API Changes<6>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121 <1>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line  230)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121 <2>: 初始化 C 模組. (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3123: Build and C API Changes<6>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3127: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129 <1>: 函式定義.      (line  167)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129 <2>: 類別定義.      (line   89)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  109)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131 <1>: Library<51>.   (line  599)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131 <2>: Identifiers and keywords.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131 <3>: Identifiers and keywords.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3132: New Syntax.        (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3132 <1>: Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  158)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134: 語法變更.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <2>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <3>: Library<25>.   (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <4>: 基底類別 base classes.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3135: Builtins.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3135 <1>: Creating the class object.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3137: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3138: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 314: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141 <1>: numbers --- 數值的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141 <2>: abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3144: ipaddress<6>.      (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147: PEP 421：新增 sys implementation.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <1>: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <2>: 「編譯」Python 檔案.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <3>: Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  151)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <4>: test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <5>: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <6>: 簡介<9>.       (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <7>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <8>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <9>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <10>: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <11>: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <12>: Command-line use.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <13>: Public functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <14>: Public functions.
                                                             (line  119)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <15>: 引入模組<2>.  (line  195)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <16>: 如何建立 pyc 檔案？.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3148: PEP 3148：concurrent futures 模組.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3148 <1>: 模組函式.      (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149 <1>: Core and Builtins<93>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149 <2>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <1>: 作業系統例外.  (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <2>: 例外<10>.      (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <3>: select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <4>: resource --- 資源使用資訊.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <5>: Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line  181)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <1>: pickle<4>.     (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <2>: Library<51>.   (line 1279)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <3>: Data stream format.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3155: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3155 <1>: 術語表.        (line 1062)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <1>: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <2>: asyncio<10>.   (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <3>: asyncio<10>.   (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <4>: selectors<2>.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <1>: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
                                                             (line  125)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <2>: 其他語言更動<16>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <3>: 函式定義.       (line  164)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <4>: 類別定義.       (line   92)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 322: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 322 <1>: 其他語言更動<16>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 324: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 324 <1>: subprocess --- 子行程管理.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 325: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  147)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 327: Context 型別.       (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328: 移植 Python 程式碼. (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <1>: 已被移除的語法. (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <2>: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <3>: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <4>: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <5>: 其他語言更動<16>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <6>: References.     (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <7>: 內建函式.       (line 1931)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <8>: 模組內容<9>.    (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <9>: 簡介<9>.        (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 331: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 333: wsgiref 套件.       (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 333 <1>: wsgiref 套件.   (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333: 新增模組<2>.       (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <1>: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <2>: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <3>: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <4>: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <5>: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <6>: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <7>: wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <8>: wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <9>: wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <10>: wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <11>: wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <12>: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  196)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <13>: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  210)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <14>: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  216)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <15>: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  225)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <16>: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  261)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <17>: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <18>: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams <1>: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#optional-platform-specific-file-handling: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#the-start-response-callable: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <1>: 介面選項.       (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <2>: References.     (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <3>: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line  178)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 339: Build and C API Changes<9>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 341: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <1>: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  140)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <2>: Porting to Python 2 5.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <3>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <4>: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <5>: Passing values into a generator.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <6>: Python 說明文件.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343: contextlib 模組.    (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <1>: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <2>: contextlib 模組<2>.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <3>: With Statement Context Managers.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <4>: The with statement.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <5>: Using a context manager as a function decorator.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <6>: 模組內容<9>.    (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <7>: 術語表.         (line  252)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 347: Build and C API Changes<9>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352 <1>: Deprecations and Removals.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352 <2>: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353: 移植到 Python 3 10<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <1>: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <2>: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <3>: Build and C API Changes<9>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <4>: C API<33>.      (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <5>: 型別.           (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 356: Python 2 5 有什麼新功能.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 357: PEP 357 The '__index__' method.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 361: Python 2 6 有什麼新功能.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362: PEP 362：函式簽名物件.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <1>: Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  380)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <2>: 術語表.         (line   85)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <3>: 術語表.         (line  959)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366: 明顯的變更.         (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <1>: Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <2>: References.     (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <3>: References.     (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <4>: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line  182)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <5>: 簡介<9>.        (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <1>: Library<23>.    (line  605)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  151)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <3>: 環境變數.       (line  199)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <4>: 環境變數.       (line  211)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <5>: 命令列介面<7>.  (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 371: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
                                                             (line  145)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 372: PEP 372：有序字典.  (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 372 <1>: PEP 372：有序字典.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 372 <2>: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 373: Python 2 x 的未來.  (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 373 <1>: Python 的穩定性如何？.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378 <1>: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378 <2>: 格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380 <1>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values: The STOP_ITERATION event.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383: Documentation<21>.  (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <1>: Error Handlers. (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <2>: Socket 系列家族.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <3>: Locale Encoding.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <4>: Locale Encoding.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <5>: File System Encoding.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384: 已刪除<2>.          (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384 <1>: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384 <2>: C API<27>.      (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 385: Code Repository.    (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387: 警告.               (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <1>: 警告.           (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <2>: C API 穩定性.   (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <3>: Python 的版本編號系統是如何運作的？.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 389: PEP 389 Argparse 命令列剖析模組.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 389 <1>: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 391: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 391 <1>: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 392: Python 3 2 有什麼新功能.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393: 已刪除<2>.          (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <1>: Porting to Python 3 9<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <2>: 已移除<6>.      (line  101)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <3>: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <4>: 功能性.         (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <5>: 性能和資源使用情況.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <6>: 最佳化<9>.      (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <7>: 建置和 C API 更改.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <8>: 已棄用的 Python 模組、函式和方法.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <9>: C API 中已棄用的函式和型別.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <10>: Porting C code.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <11>: C API<25>.     (line  142)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <12>: Encodings and Unicode.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <13>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1184)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <14>: Unicode 物件.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397 <1>: PEP 397：適用於 Windows 的 Python 啟動器.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397 <2>: Python Launcher for Windows.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 398: Python 3 3 有什麼新功能.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 4:   函式庫變更.         (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 405: PEP 405：虛擬環境.  (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 405 <1>: venv --- 建立虛擬環境.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 409: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  964)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <1>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  974)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <2>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1651)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <3>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1671)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <4>: 術語表.         (line 1032)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 412: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 412 <1>: functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 414: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 414 <1>: String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 418: time<7>.            (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <1>: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <2>: Core and Builtins<78>.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <3>: Core and Builtins<83>.
                                                             (line  114)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <4>: 模組引入系統.   (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <5>: Namespace packages.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <6>: __path__ attributes on modules.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <7>: __path__ attributes on modules.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <8>: References.     (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <9>: References.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <10>: References.    (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <11>: 簡介<9>.       (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <12>: 術語表.        (line  881)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <13>: 術語表.        (line 1013)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421: SimpleNamespace.    (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421 <1>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1078)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421 <2>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1083)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 424: 其他語言更動<9>.    (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 424 <1>: operator<3>.    (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428 <1>: pathlib<9>.     (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428 <2>: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 429: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432: Other CPython implementation changes.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <1>: Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line  312)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <2>: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <3>: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 434: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 434 <1>: idlelib.        (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435 <1>: enum<8>.        (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435 <2>: enum<8>.        (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  120)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436 <1>: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436 <2>: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 441: zipapp<2>.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 441 <1>: zipapp<2>.      (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442: 已移除<5>.          (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <1>: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <2>: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  115)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <3>: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <4>: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <5>: C API<40>.      (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <6>: gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  215)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <7>: Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   89)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <8>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1601)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443 <1>: functools<5>.   (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443 <2>: 術語表.         (line  526)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <1>: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <2>: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <3>: Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <1>: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <2>: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <3>: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <1>: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <2>: Documentation<68>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <3>: Documentation<72>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <4>: Core and Builtins<86>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <5>: Core and Builtins<89>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <6>: Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <7>: Calls.          (line  121)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <8>: Expression lists.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450 <1>: statistics<5>.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450 <2>: statistics<5>.  (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451: zipimport.          (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <1>: zipimport<2>.   (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <2>: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <3>: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <4>: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <5>: Library<23>.    (line  457)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <6>: Core and Builtins<78>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <7>: References.     (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <8>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1216)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <9>: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <10>: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <11>: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <12>: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line  168)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <13>: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line  186)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <14>: 簡介<9>.       (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <15>: Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <1>: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <2>: Bootstrapping pip By Default.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <3>: Documentation Changes.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <4>: ensurepip<2>.   (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <5>: venv<6>.        (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <6>: Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <7>: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <8>: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <9>: Documentation Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <10>: ensurepip --- pip 安裝器的初始建置 bootstrapping.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454 <1>: tracemalloc<4>. (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454 <2>: tracemalloc<4>. (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456 <1>: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456 <2>: PyHash API.     (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461 <1>: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461 <2>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line  198)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <1>: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <2>: Build and C API Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <3>: Tools/Demos<49>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <1>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <2>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <3>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468 <1>: Library<69>.    (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468 <2>: OrderedDict 物件.
                                                             (line   93)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471 <1>: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471 <2>: Library<95>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <1>: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <2>: Changes in the Python API<6>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <3>: Library<60>.    (line  228)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <4>: Library<93>.    (line  143)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <5>: 內建函式.       (line 1260)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <6>: 作業系統例外.   (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <7>: File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  392)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <8>: File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  697)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <9>: File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  869)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <10>: 行程管理.      (line  912)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <11>: 函式<4>.       (line  235)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <12>: Socket 物件.   (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <13>: Socket 物件.   (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <14>: Socket 物件.   (line  249)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <15>: Socket 物件.   (line  263)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <16>: Socket 物件.   (line  339)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <17>: Socket 物件.   (line  413)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <18>: Socket 物件.   (line  432)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <19>: Socket 物件.   (line  451)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <20>: Socket 物件.   (line  495)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <21>: select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line  157)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <22>: /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <23>: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <24>: Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <25>: Kqueue Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <26>: Classes<3>.    (line  133)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <27>: 模組內容<5>.   (line  586)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <28>: 模組內容<5>.   (line  605)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 476: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 477: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 478: Python 3 4 有什麼新功能.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479: Changes in Python Behavior.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <1>: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <2>: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <3>: Library<51>.    (line 1267)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <4>: Library<55>.    (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <5>: Core and Builtins<57>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <6>: Library<63>.    (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <7>: Library<76>.    (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <8>: Library<82>.    (line  326)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <9>: 實體例外.       (line  224)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <10>: 實體例外.      (line  226)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <11>: 模組內容<9>.   (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 483: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 483 <1>: 術語表.         (line  534)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484: PEP 695：型別參數語法.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <1>: New Features Related to Type Hints.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <2>: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <3>: 型別提示相關的新特性.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <4>: PEP 646：可變參數泛型 variadic generics.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <5>: 與型別提示相關的新功能.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <6>: PEP 612：參數規範變數.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <7>: PEP 613：型別別名 TypeAlias.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <8>: ast<2>.         (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <9>: ast<2>.         (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <10>: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <11>: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <12>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <13>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <14>: 函式註釋 Function Annotations.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <15>: Emulating generic types.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <16>: Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <17>: 函式定義.      (line  149)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <18>: GenericAlias 物件的特殊屬性.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <19>: NewType.       (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <20>: 標稱 nominal 子型別 vs 結構子型別.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <21>: 標稱 nominal 子型別 vs 結構子型別.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <22>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <23>: 函式與裝飾器.  (line  280)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <24>: 根節點.        (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <25>: ast 輔助程式.  (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <26>: ast 輔助程式.  (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <27>: 編譯器旗標<2>. (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <28>: 術語表.        (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <29>: 術語表.        (line  468)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <30>: 術語表.        (line  534)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <31>: 術語表.        (line 1243)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <32>: 術語表.        (line 1257)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <33>: 術語表.        (line 1283)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484#annotating-instance-and-class-methods: PEP 673：Self 型別.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <1>: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <2>: Library<91>.    (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <3>: 數論與表現函式. (line  122)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <4>: 分類函式.       (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486 <1>: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486 <2>: Windows<74>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <1>: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <2>: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <3>: Changes in the Python API<5>.
                                                             (line  104)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <4>: Documentation<58>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <5>: Documentation<65>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <6>: Core and Builtins<75>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <1>: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <2>: Changes in the Python API<6>.
                                                             (line   79)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <3>: Core and Builtins<93>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <4>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <5>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <6>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <7>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <8>: test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <9>: 簡介<9>.        (line   79)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <10>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <11>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <12>: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <1>: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <2>: Build and C API Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <3>: Library<19>.    (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <4>: Library<35>.    (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <5>: Library<35>.    (line   79)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <6>: Core and Builtins<36>.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <7>: Library<36>.    (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <8>: Library<36>.    (line  177)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <9>: Core and Builtins<37>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <10>: Library<37>.   (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <11>: C API<31>.     (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <12>: C API<31>.     (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <13>: C API<31>.     (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <14>: C API<31>.     (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <15>: C API<31>.     (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <16>: C API<31>.     (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <17>: C API<31>.     (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <18>: C API<31>.     (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <19>: C API<31>.     (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <20>: C API<31>.     (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <21>: C API<31>.     (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <22>: Library<38>.   (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <23>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <24>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <25>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <26>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <27>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <28>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <29>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <30>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <31>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <32>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <33>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line  102)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <34>: Library<39>.   (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <35>: Library<39>.   (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <36>: Library<39>.   (line  423)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <37>: Core and Builtins<40>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <38>: Core and Builtins<40>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <39>: Core and Builtins<40>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <40>: Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <41>: Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <42>: Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <43>: Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <44>: Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <45>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <46>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <47>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <48>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <49>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  109)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <50>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <51>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <52>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <53>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <54>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <55>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <56>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <57>: 簡介<9>.       (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <58>: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <59>: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  292)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <60>: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  311)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <61>: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  317)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <62>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  183)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <63>: The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <64>: 建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <65>: Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  137)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <66>: Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <1>: 新關鍵字.       (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <2>: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <3>: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <4>: New Keywords.   (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <5>: C API 中的改動<6>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <6>: Core and Builtins<60>.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <7>: Library<77>.    (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <8>: Library<83>.    (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <9>: Core and Builtins<90>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <10>: Awaitable Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <11>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line  106)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <12>: async with 陳述式.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <13>: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  166)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <14>: Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <15>: Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <16>: 術語表.        (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <17>: 術語表.        (line  120)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <18>: 術語表.        (line  126)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <19>: 術語表.        (line  134)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <20>: 術語表.        (line  151)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <21>: 術語表.        (line  277)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <22>: 術語表.        (line  284)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 493: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 494: Python 3 6 有什麼新功能.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <1>: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <2>: Library<75>.    (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <3>: Using ZoneInfo. (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <1>: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <2>: Core and Builtins<78>.
                                                             (line  283)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <3>: f-string（f 字串）.
                                                             (line  154)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <4>: 術語表.         (line  391)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 5:   PEP 230 Warning Framework.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 5 <1>: 對 Python 提出不相容的變更建議是否適當？.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506: secrets.            (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506 <1>: Library<78>.    (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506 <2>: secrets --- 產生用於管理機密的安全亂數.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 511: Changes in the Python API<5>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514: Windows py exe 啟動程式 launcher 的改進.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <1>: Windows<23>.    (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <2>: Windows<66>.    (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <3>: From the command-line.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515: fractions<2>.       (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <1>: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <2>: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <3>: Core and Builtins<74>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <4>: Core and Builtins<74>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <5>: 格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <6>: fractions --- 有理數.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <1>: Library<75>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <2>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <3>: Library<77>.    (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <4>: Library<77>.    (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <5>: Library<77>.    (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <6>: C API<61>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <7>: 術語表.         (line  995)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 520: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523: 新增特性<2>.        (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <1>: 移植至 Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <2>: Porting to Python 3 9<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <3>: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <4>: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <5>: Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <6>: Tools/Demos<31>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <7>: Tools/Demos<35>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <8>: Core and Builtins<74>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <9>: Internal Frames.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <10>: 低階 API.      (line  167)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <11>: 低階 API.      (line  176)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524: Summary -- Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <1>: os<7>.          (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <2>: os<7>.          (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <3>: Library<74>.    (line  150)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <4>: Library<74>.    (line  154)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <5>: Random numbers. (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <1>: Core and Builtins<74>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <2>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line  104)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <3>: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  166)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <4>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  961)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <5>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1646)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <6>: Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <7>: 術語表.         (line  120)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526: 其他語言更動<3>.    (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <1>: ast<2>.         (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <2>: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <3>: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <4>: typing<7>.      (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <5>: Core and Builtins<74>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <6>: Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <7>: 函式定義.       (line  153)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <8>: 特別型式.       (line  152)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <9>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <10>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  239)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <11>: dataclasses --- Data Classes.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <12>: 類別變數.      (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <13>: ast 輔助程式.  (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <14>: 編譯器旗標<2>. (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <15>: 術語表.        (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <16>: 術語表.        (line 1284)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <1>: UTF-8 模式.     (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <2>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  170)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <3>: PyConfig.       (line  511)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529: Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <1>: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <2>: Documentation<21>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <3>: Library<46>.    (line  619)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <4>: Windows<61>.    (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <5>: 環境變數.       (line  338)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <6>: UTF-8 模式.     (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <7>: Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  292)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <8>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  774)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <9>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1722)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <10>: File System Encoding.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <11>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  152)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <1>: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <2>: Core and Builtins<74>.
                                                             (line  145)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <3>: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <1>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <2>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <3>: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <4>: Documentation<48>.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <5>: Documentation<49>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <6>: Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line  134)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <7>: 環境變數.       (line  407)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <8>: 一般選項.       (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <9>: locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  523)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <10>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <1>: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <2>: C API<50>.      (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <3>: Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <1>: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <2>: Core and Builtins<58>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <3>: Python UTF-8 模式.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <4>: locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  523)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <5>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544: typing<6>.          (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544 <1>: 標稱 nominal 子型別 vs 結構子型別.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544 <2>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  138)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 545: PEP 545：Python 文件翻譯.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 545 <1>: PEP 545：Python 文件翻譯.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552: 其他 CPython 實作更動.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <1>: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <2>: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <3>: Library<51>.    (line  794)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <4>: Core and Builtins<58>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <5>: 簡介<9>.        (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <6>: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <7>: PyConfig.       (line  260)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 553: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 553 <1>: Core and Builtins<60>.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 554: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 554 <1>: A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 557: dataclasses<3>.     (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 557 <1>: dataclasses --- Data Classes.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <1>: types<3>.       (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <2>: Core and Builtins<58>.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <3>: Resolving MRO entries.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <4>: __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__.
                                                             (line   85)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <5>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <6>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <7>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <1>: Library<58>.    (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <2>: Core and Builtins<58>.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <3>: Customizing module attribute access.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563: PEP 563 可能不是未來.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <1>: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <2>: Library<32>.    (line  300)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <3>: Core and Builtins<38>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <4>: Future statements.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <5>: 函式定義.       (line  158)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <6>: 常數<9>.        (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <7>: 模組內容<9>.    (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <8>: 模組內容<9>.    (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <1>: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <2>: time<4>.        (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <3>: Library<60>.    (line  299)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 565: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 565 <1>: 警告.           (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 566: Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567: contextvars.        (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <1>: asyncio<6>.     (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <2>: Documentation<48>.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <3>: Documentation<50>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <4>: Core and Builtins<57>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <5>: contextvars --- 情境變數.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <6>: 排程回呼函式.   (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <7>: 排程延遲的回呼函式.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <8>: 排程延遲的回呼函式.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <9>: Future 物件<2>. (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570: Positional-only parameters.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <1>: Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line  160)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <2>: Core and Builtins<48>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <3>: 函式定義.       (line  105)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572: 其他語言更動.       (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <1>: Assignment expressions.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <2>: CPython 位元組碼變更<5>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <3>: Core and Builtins<20>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <4>: Documentation<39>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <5>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line  184)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <6>: Core and Builtins<51>.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <7>: Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <8>: Assignment expressions<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <9>: Capture Patterns.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <10>: 為何我不能在運算式 expression 中使用指派運算？.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573: Summary -- Release highlights.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <1>: New Features<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <2>: Core and Builtins<40>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <3>: C API<34>.      (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574 <1>: Data stream format.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574 <2>: 範例<8>.        (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <1>: 稽核事件表.     (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <2>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <3>: 系統函式.       (line  171)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584: Summary -- Release highlights.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <1>: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <2>: Library<41>.    (line  192)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <3>: Library<41>.    (line  195)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <4>: Library<41>.    (line  209)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <5>: Library<42>.    (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <6>: Library<42>.    (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <7>: Library<42>.    (line  120)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <8>: Library<42>.    (line  142)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <9>: ChainMap 物件.  (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <10>: defaultdict 物件.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <11>: OrderedDict 物件.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <12>: weakref --- 弱參照.
                                                             (line  157)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <13>: weakref --- 弱參照.
                                                             (line  173)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <14>: Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  232)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <15>: 行程參數.      (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <16>: 行程參數.      (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585: Summary -- Release highlights.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <1>: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <2>: Library<20>.    (line  158)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <3>: Library<29>.    (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <4>: Documentation<27>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <5>: GenericAlias 物件的特殊屬性.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <6>: collections abc --- 容器的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <7>: Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  175)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <8>: Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  126)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <9>: 棄用的別名.     (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <10>: 內建型別的別名.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <11>: 內建型別的別名.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <12>: 內建型別的別名.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <13>: 內建型別的別名.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <14>: 內建型別的別名.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <15>: 內建型別的別名.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <16>: collections 中型別的別名.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <17>: collections 中型別的別名.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <18>: collections 中型別的別名.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <19>: collections 中型別的別名.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <20>: collections 中型別的別名.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <21>: Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <22>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <23>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <24>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <25>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <26>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <27>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <28>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <29>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <30>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <31>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <32>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line  102)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <33>: collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line  110)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <34>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <35>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <36>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <37>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <38>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <39>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <40>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <41>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <42>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <43>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <44>: contextlib ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <45>: contextlib ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <46>: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <47>: 術語表.        (line  534)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586: typing<3>.          (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <1>: typing<5>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <2>: typing<6>.      (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <3>: 特別型式.       (line  139)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <1>: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <2>: C API<25>.      (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <3>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <4>: C API<41>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <5>: Python 初始化設定.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 589: typing<6>.          (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 589 <1>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  429)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590: 移植至 Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <1>: 最佳化<3>.      (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <2>: Summary -- Release highlights.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <3>: 最佳化<4>.      (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <4>: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <5>: Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <6>: Library<25>.    (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <7>: Core and Builtins<27>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <8>: Core and Builtins<30>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <9>: Core and Builtins<31>.
                                                             (line  348)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <10>: Core and Builtins<33>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <11>: Core and Builtins<33>.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <12>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <13>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <14>: Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <15>: Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <16>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <17>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <18>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <19>: C API<41>.     (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <20>: Vectorcall 協定.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591: typing<6>.          (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591 <1>: 特別型式.       (line  192)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591 <2>: 函式與裝飾器.   (line  335)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593: Summary -- Release highlights.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <1>: typing<4>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <2>: Library<43>.    (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <3>: 特別型式.       (line  359)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <4>: Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <1>: asynchat 和 asyncore.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <2>: smtpd.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <3>: 發布重點摘要<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <4>: 模組.           (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <5>: Library<22>.    (line  102)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <6>: Library<23>.    (line  684)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <7>: Library<24>.    (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <8>: Library<25>.    (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <9>: Library<25>.    (line  150)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <10>: Tests<23>.     (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <11>: nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <12>: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#aifc: aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#audioop: audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#cgi: cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#cgitb: cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#chunk: chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#crypt: crypt --- 用於檢查 Unix 密碼的函式.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#imghdr: imghdr --- 推測圖片種類.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#mailcap: mailcap --- Mailcap 檔案處理.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#msilib: msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#nis: nis --- Sun NIS Yellow Pages 介面.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#ossaudiodev: ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#pipes: pipes --- shell pipelines 介面.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#sndhdr: sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#spwd: spwd --- shadow 密碼資料庫.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#sunau: sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#telnetlib: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#uu-and-the-uu-encoding: xdrlib --- uuencode 檔案的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594#xdrlib: xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 596: Python 3 9 有什麼新功能.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597: 摘要 -- 發布重點.   (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597 <1>: Library<33>.    (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597 <2>: 選擇性加入的編碼警告.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 602: Summary -- Release highlights.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 602 <1>: Python 的穩定性如何？.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604: 摘要 -- 發布重點.   (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <1>: PEP 604：新型聯集運算子.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <2>: Library<36>.    (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <3>: Documentation<36>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <4>: 聯合型別 Union Type.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <5>: 手動取消字串化註釋.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612: 摘要 -- 發布重點.   (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <1>: PEP 612：參數規範變數.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <2>: Library<31>.    (line  691)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <3>: Library<32>.    (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <4>: Core and Builtins<36>.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <5>: Library<36>.    (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <6>: Library<36>.    (line  119)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <7>: 註釋 callable 物件.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <8>: 使用者定義泛型型別.
                                                             (line  166)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <9>: 特別型式.       (line  112)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <10>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  405)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <11>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613: 摘要 -- 發布重點.   (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <1>: PEP 613：型別別名 TypeAlias.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <2>: Library<38>.    (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <3>: 特別型別.       (line  206)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614: Summary -- Release highlights.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <1>: 其他語言更動<4>.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <2>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <3>: 函式定義.       (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <4>: 類別定義.       (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615: Summary -- Release highlights.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <1>: zoneinfo.       (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <2>: Library<40>.    (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <3>: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616: Summary -- Release highlights.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616 <1>: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616 <2>: Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <1>: 模組.           (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <2>: 帶括號的情境管理器.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <3>: Summary -- Release highlights.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <4>: New Parser.     (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <5>: 已棄用<7>.      (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <6>: Library<31>.    (line  178)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <7>: Library<41>.    (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <8>: 完整的語法規格書.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <9>: lib2to3 --- 2to3's library.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618: 摘要 -- 發布重點.   (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618 <1>: 其他語言更動<3>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618 <2>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line  209)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623: 發布重點摘要.       (line  104)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <1>: 最佳化.         (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <2>: 已移除<2>.      (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <3>: 摘要 -- 發布重點.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <4>: C API<18>.      (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <5>: Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <6>: Documentation<31>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <7>: Unicode 物件.   (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624: 發布重點摘要<2>.    (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <1>: 已移除<4>.      (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <2>: 摘要 -- 發布重點.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <3>: C API<25>.      (line  142)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624#alternative-apis: 已移除<4>.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626: 已棄用.             (line  211)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <1>: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <2>: 摘要 -- 發布重點.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <3>: Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line  422)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <4>: 用於程式碼物件的方法.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <5>: Analysis functions.
                                                             (line  157)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <6>: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<3>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628: cmath.              (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628 <1>: math<6>.        (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628 <2>: Library<75>.    (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632: 發布重點摘要.       (line  108)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <1>: distutils.      (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <2>: 摘要 -- 發布重點.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <3>: distutils<2>.   (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <4>: Library<22>.    (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634: 摘要 -- 發布重點.   (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <1>: 其他主要功能.   (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <2>: Core and Builtins<24>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <3>: Core and Builtins<32>.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <4>: Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <5>: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <6>: The match statement.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <7>: Class Patterns. (line  136)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <8>: lib2to3 --- 2to3's library.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <9>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  777)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <10>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  801)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 635: 摘要 -- 發布重點.   (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 635 <1>: 其他主要功能.   (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636: 摘要 -- 發布重點.   (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <1>: 其他主要功能.   (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <2>: match 陳述式.   (line  169)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <3>: The match statement.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <4>: Class Patterns. (line  138)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644: hashlib.            (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <1>: 摘要 -- 發布重點.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <2>: hashlib<3>.     (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <3>: ssl<2>.         (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <4>: 建置變更<3>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <5>: Library<23>.    (line  525)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <6>: Build<29>.      (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <7>: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646: PEP 646：可變參數泛型 variadic generics.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <1>: PEP 646：可變參數泛型 variadic generics.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <2>: Subscriptions.  (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <3>: Expression lists.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <4>: 函式定義.       (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <5>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  300)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647: 摘要 -- 發布重點.   (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <1>: PEP 647：使用者定義的型別防護.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <2>: Library<32>.    (line  182)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <3>: 特別型式.       (line  433)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649: Annotation scopes.  (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <1>: 模組內容<9>.    (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 652: PEP 652：維護穩定 ABI.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 652 <1>: C API<26>.      (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654: PEP 654：例外群組與 except*.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <1>: PEP 654：例外群組與 except*.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <2>: 新增 opcode.    (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <3>: Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line  174)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <4>: Core and Builtins<28>.
                                                             (line  146)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <5>: Core and Builtins<30>.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655: PEP 655：標記獨立 TypedDict 項目為必要或不必要.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <1>: Library<24>.    (line  266)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <2>: 特別型式.       (line  202)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <3>: 特別型式.       (line  210)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <4>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  435)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657: PEP 657：回溯 traceback 中更細緻的錯誤位置.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <1>: inspect<2>.     (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <2>: Library<24>.    (line  223)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <3>: Core and Builtins<31>.
                                                             (line  337)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 659: PEP 659：特化的適應性直譯器.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 659 <1>: PEP 659：特化的適應性直譯器.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669 <1>: Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line  203)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 670: 發布重點摘要<2>.    (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 670 <1>: 移植至 Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673: PEP 673：Self 型別. (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673 <1>: Library<26>.    (line  134)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673 <2>: 特別型別.       (line  174)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675: PEP 675：任意的文本字串型別 Arbitrary literal string type.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675 <1>: Library<25>.    (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675 <2>: 特別型別.       (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 676: Documentation<22>.  (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678: 其他語言更動.       (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <1>: PEP 678：運用例外註解使其更加詳盡.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <2>: Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line  183)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <3>: Core and Builtins<17>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <4>: Core and Builtins<24>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680: 發布重點摘要<2>.    (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680 <1>: 新增模組<2>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680 <2>: Library<25>.    (line  205)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681: PEP 681：資料類別轉換 Data class transforms.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681 <1>: Library<24>.    (line  110)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681 <2>: 函式與裝飾器.   (line  243)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 682: 其他語言更動<2>.    (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 682 <1>: 格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   79)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683: 新增特性<2>.        (line  146)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <1>: Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <2>: 參照計數<2>.    (line  104)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <3>: 術語表.         (line  591)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684 <1>: 新增特性<2>.    (line  181)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686: Python UTF-8 模式.  (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686 <1>: 文字編碼.       (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687: Library<16>.        (line  290)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <1>: Library<16>.    (line  297)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <2>: Library<16>.    (line  330)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <3>: Library<16>.    (line  333)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <4>: Library<16>.    (line  343)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <5>: Library<16>.    (line  400)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <6>: Core and Builtins<17>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <7>: Library<18>.    (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <8>: Library<18>.    (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <1>: Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line  211)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <2>: Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <3>: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  176)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 689: C API<13>.          (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <1>: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <2>: Library<16>.    (line  117)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <3>: Documentation<13>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <4>: 特別型式.       (line  479)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 693: Python 3 12 有什麼新功能.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695: PEP 695：型別參數語法.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <1>: PEP 695：型別參數語法.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <2>: CPython 位元組碼變更.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <3>: Library<4>.     (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <4>: Library<5>.     (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <5>: Library<9>.     (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <6>: Library<14>.    (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <7>: Library<15>.    (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <8>: Library<15>.    (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <9>: Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <10>: Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line  108)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <11>: Library<16>.   (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <12>: Annotation scopes.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <13>: type 陳述式.   (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <14>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <15>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  194)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <16>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  309)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <17>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  396)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <18>: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697: 新增特性<2>.        (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697 <1>: 新增特性<2>.    (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697 <2>: C API<11>.      (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698 <1>: Library<18>.    (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698 <2>: 函式與裝飾器.   (line  403)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699: 已棄用<2>.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <1>: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <2>: Build<16>.      (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <3>: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<4>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7:   Build and C API Changes<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <1>: 建置需求.         (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <2>: 編寫標準.         (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <3>: 有用的巨集.       (line  148)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <4>: 有用的巨集.       (line  165)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <1>: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <2>: tokenize.       (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <3>: 最佳化.         (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <4>: Python API 的變更.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <5>: Python API 的變更.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <6>: Python API 的變更.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706: 其他語言更動.       (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <1>: tarfile.        (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <2>: tarfile<2>.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <3>: tarfile<3>.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <4>: tarfile<5>.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <5>: Extraction filters.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <1>: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <2>: CPython 位元組碼變更.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <3>: Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line  213)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8:   函式庫變更.         (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <1>: Library<60>.      (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <2>: IDLE<61>.         (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <3>: 間奏曲：程式碼風格 Coding Style.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <4>: 編輯器與 IDE.     (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <5>: Value comparisons.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <6>: 內建函式.         (line 1570)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <7>: 雜項說明.         (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <8>: Python 程式碼是否有編碼標準或風格指南？.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <9>: 我什麼時候可以依靠 is 運算子進行識別性測試？.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <10>: 如何防止編輯器在我的 Python 原始碼中插入 tab？.
                                                             (line    6)
* python_branch() (於 platform 模組中):  跨平台.             (line   74)
* python_build() (於 platform 模組中):   跨平台.             (line   65)
* python_compiler() (於 platform 模組中): 跨平台.            (line   70)
* PYTHON_DOM:                            模組內容<6>.        (line   23)
* python_implementation() (於 platform 模組中): 跨平台.      (line   78)
* python_is_optimized() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  248)
* python_revision() (於 platform 模組中): 跨平台.            (line   83)
* python_version_tuple() (於 platform 模組中): 跨平台.       (line   94)
* python_version() (於 platform 模組中): 跨平台.             (line   87)
* python-m-py_compile 命令列選項; -:     Command-Line Interface<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* python-m-py_compile 命令列選項; -q:    Command-Line Interface<3>.
                                                             (line   19)
* python-m-py_compile 命令列選項; -quiet: Command-Line Interface<3>.
                                                             (line   19)
* python-m-py_compile 命令列選項; <file>: Command-Line Interface<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] 命令列選項; -h: 命令列介面.
                                                             (line   14)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] 命令列選項; -help: 命令列介面.
                                                             (line   14)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] 命令列選項; -v: 命令列介面.
                                                             (line   18)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] 命令列選項; -version: 命令列介面.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG:                    啟用除錯模式.       (line   10)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>:                除錯模式.           (line   11)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>:                Python 開發模式的影響.
                                                             (line   58)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT:                      PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>:                  內建函式.           (line  147)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>:                  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  241)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>:                  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  255)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>:                  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  259)
* PYTHONCASEOK:                          Changes in the Python API.
                                                             (line   29)
* PYTHONCASEOK <1>:                      PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
                                                             (line   17)
* PYTHONCASEOK <2>:                      Library<42>.        (line  144)
* PYTHONCASEOK <3>:                      內建函式.           (line 1970)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:                   PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>:               一般選項.           (line   87)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>:               Python UTF-8 模式.  (line   57)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>:               Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONDEBUG:                           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   37)
* PYTHONDEBUG <1>:                       Python Debug Build. (line   20)
* PYTHONDEBUG <2>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONDEBUG <3>:                       PyConfig.           (line  636)
* PYTHONDEVMODE:                         Python Development Mode -X dev.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <1>:                     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  293)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <2>:                     Python 開發模式.    (line   11)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <3>:                     PyConfig.           (line  281)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE:               Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>:           New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  625)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>:           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   19)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>:           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  324)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>:           Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>:           PyConfig.           (line  904)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <6>:           如何建立 pyc 檔案？.
                                                             (line   21)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS:                        Debug build uses the same ABI as release build.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>:                    Build<45>.          (line   54)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>:                    Debug options.      (line   22)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>:                    PyConfig.           (line  292)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>:                    PyObject Slots.     (line   66)
* PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE:                    Core and Builtins<31>.
                                                             (line  154)
* PYTHONEXECUTABLE:                      PyConfig.           (line  672)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER:                    faulthandler<4>.    (line   11)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>:                Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  255)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>:                Python 開發模式的影響.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>:                faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>:                PyConfig.           (line  326)
* PYTHONHASHSEED:                        內建函式和型別.     (line   17)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <1>:                    移植 Python 程式碼. (line    6)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <2>:                    Core and Builtins<58>.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <3>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  118)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <4>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  134)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <5>:                    環境變數.           (line  152)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <6>:                    Basic customization.
                                                             (line  316)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <7>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   76)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <8>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   79)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <9>:                    PyConfig.           (line  396)
* PYTHONHOME:                            Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* PYTHONHOME <1>:                        Summary -- Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  107)
* PYTHONHOME <2>:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   46)
* PYTHONHOME <3>:                        環境變數.           (line   19)
* PYTHONHOME <4>:                        環境變數.           (line   21)
* PYTHONHOME <5>:                        環境變數.           (line   38)
* PYTHONHOME <6>:                        找尋模組.           (line   29)
* PYTHONHOME <7>:                        找尋模組.           (line   47)
* PYTHONHOME <8>:                        找尋模組.           (line   81)
* PYTHONHOME <9>:                        test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   24)
* PYTHONHOME <10>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONHOME <11>:                       Virtual environments.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONHOME <12>:                       嵌入式Python.       (line   29)
* PYTHONHOME <13>:                       嵌入式Python.       (line   33)
* PYTHONHOME <14>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   91)
* PYTHONHOME <15>:                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  347)
* PYTHONHOME <16>:                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  363)
* PYTHONHOME <17>:                       PyConfig.           (line  408)
* PYTHONHOME <18>:                       Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<4>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Pythonic（Python 風格的）:             術語表.             (line 1041)
* PYTHONINSPECT:                         Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONINSPECT <1>:                     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   58)
* PYTHONINSPECT <2>:                     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  108)
* PYTHONINSPECT <3>:                     PyConfig.           (line  433)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS:                 Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line  106)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  277)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>:             設定限制.           (line    9)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>:             設定限制.           (line   16)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>:             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1107)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>:             PyConfig.           (line  464)
* PYTHONIOENCODING:                      Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <1>:                  Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <2>:                  環境變數.           (line  390)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <3>:                  Python UTF-8 模式.  (line   29)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <4>:                  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1765)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <5>:                  Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   19)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <6>:                  Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <7>:                  PyConfig.           (line  794)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING:         PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>:     sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1713)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>:     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  149)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>:     PyPreConfig.        (line  113)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO:              PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   12)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>:          環境變數.           (line  187)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>:          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1769)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>:          Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  167)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>:          PyConfig.           (line  503)
* PYTHONMALLOC:                          PYTHONMALLOC environment variable.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONMALLOC <1>:                      C API 中的改動<5>.  (line    9)
* PYTHONMALLOC <2>:                      Core and Builtins<78>.
                                                             (line   90)
* PYTHONMALLOC <3>:                      環境變數.           (line  317)
* PYTHONMALLOC <4>:                      Performance options.
                                                             (line   94)
* PYTHONMALLOC <5>:                      Python 開發模式的影響.
                                                             (line   41)
* PYTHONMALLOC <6>:                      Python 開發模式的影響.
                                                             (line   44)
* PYTHONMALLOC <7>:                      總覽<2>.            (line   75)
* PYTHONMALLOC <8>:                      Default Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   26)
* PYTHONMALLOC <9>:                      Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators.
                                                             (line   11)
* PYTHONMALLOC <10>:                     The pymalloc allocator.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS:                     Core and Builtins<78>.
                                                             (line   96)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>:                 PyConfig.           (line  519)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>:                 總覽<2>.            (line   78)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES:                   PEP 657：回溯 traceback 中更細緻的錯誤位置.
                                                             (line   58)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  322)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>:               用於程式碼物件的方法.
                                                             (line   40)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>:               PyConfig.           (line  234)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE:                      PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>:                  Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  146)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>:                  模組內容<10>.       (line   15)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>:                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  201)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>:                  PyConfig.           (line  857)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   78)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  212)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>:                    PyConfig.           (line  586)
* PYTHONPATH:                            Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHONPATH <1>:                        Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONPATH <2>:                        模組的搜尋路徑.     (line   13)
* PYTHONPATH <3>:                        標準模組.           (line   27)
* PYTHONPATH <4>:                        標準模組.           (line   27)
* PYTHONPATH <5>:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   45)
* PYTHONPATH <6>:                        環境變數.           (line   32)
* PYTHONPATH <7>:                        環境變數.           (line   39)
* PYTHONPATH <8>:                        環境變數.           (line   42)
* PYTHONPATH <9>:                        Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONPATH <10>:                       找尋模組.           (line   15)
* PYTHONPATH <11>:                       找尋模組.           (line   38)
* PYTHONPATH <12>:                       找尋模組.           (line   81)
* PYTHONPATH <13>:                       設定.               (line    6)
* PYTHONPATH <14>:                       Path entry finders. (line    6)
* PYTHONPATH <15>:                       Path entry finders. (line   23)
* PYTHONPATH <16>:                       test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONPATH <17>:                       sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1250)
* PYTHONPATH <18>:                       sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1255)
* PYTHONPATH <19>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONPATH <20>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONPATH <21>:                       Installing your CGI script on a Unix system.
                                                             (line   29)
* PYTHONPATH <22>:                       建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONPATH <23>:                       嵌入式Python.       (line   30)
* PYTHONPATH <24>:                       嵌入式Python.       (line   34)
* PYTHONPATH <25>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   90)
* PYTHONPATH <26>:                       PyConfig.           (line  552)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT:                     其他語言更動.       (line   85)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>:                 Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  342)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>:                 PyConfig.           (line  831)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <3>:                 如何啟用 perf 分析支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR:                      Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line  275)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>:                  The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>:                  PyConfig.           (line  531)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME:               其他語言更動<6>.    (line   47)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>:           Core and Builtins<60>.
                                                             (line   66)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>:           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  286)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>:           PyConfig.           (line  418)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX:                   Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>:               Core and Builtins<51>.
                                                             (line  402)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  306)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>:               sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  370)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>:               PyConfig.           (line  694)
* PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD:          Tests<22>.          (line   13)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH:                        發布重點摘要<2>.    (line   27)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>:                    其他語言更動<2>.    (line   35)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>:                    Security<17>.       (line    6)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  104)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>:                    sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1267)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>:                    安全性注意事項<4>.  (line   43)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>:                    PyConfig.           (line  157)
* PYTHONSTARTUP:                         sys<10>.            (line   17)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <1>:                     sys<10>.            (line   21)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <2>:                     IDLE<35>.           (line  176)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <3>:                     IDLE<39>.           (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <4>:                     IDLE<45>.           (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <5>:                     互動式啟動檔案.     (line    7)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <6>:                     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   55)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <7>:                     範例.               (line   10)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <8>:                     Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <9>:                     sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1120)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <10>:                    Readline configuration.
                                                             (line   12)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:                     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  272)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>:                 tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>:                 tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置.
                                                             (line   32)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>:                 函式<10>.           (line   90)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>:                 PyConfig.           (line  820)
* PYTHONTZPATH:                          Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED:                      Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line  107)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>:                  Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  166)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>:                  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1776)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>:                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  239)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>:                  PyConfig.           (line  198)
* PYTHONUSERBASE:                        PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONUSERBASE <1>:                    模組內容<10>.       (line   39)
* PYTHONUSERBASE <2>:                    模組內容<10>.       (line   66)
* PYTHONUSERSITE:                        test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONUTF8:                            PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONUTF8 <1>:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  300)
* PYTHONUTF8 <2>:                        環境變數.           (line  400)
* PYTHONUTF8 <3>:                        UTF-8 模式.         (line   18)
* PYTHONUTF8 <4>:                        Python UTF-8 模式.  (line   52)
* PYTHONUTF8 <5>:                        Python UTF-8 模式.  (line   54)
* PYTHONUTF8 <6>:                        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1767)
* PYTHONUTF8 <7>:                        PyPreConfig.        (line  142)
* PYTHONUTF8 <8>:                        Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONVERBOSE:                         Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  182)
* PYTHONVERBOSE <1>:                     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  256)
* PYTHONVERBOSE <2>:                     PyConfig.           (line  874)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING:             可選的 EncodingWarning 和 encoding="locale" 選項.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>:         Library<33>.        (line   45)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>:         Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  312)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>:         選擇性加入的編碼警告.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONWARNINGS:                        warnings<2>.        (line   21)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <1>:                    其他語言更動<11>.   (line  160)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <2>:                    Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <3>:                    Interpreter Changes.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <4>:                    Documentation<20>.  (line   67)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <5>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  236)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <6>:                    Python 開發模式的影響.
                                                             (line   26)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <7>:                    The Warnings Filter.
                                                             (line   46)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <8>:                    The Warnings Filter.
                                                             (line   56)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <9>:                    Describing Warning Filters.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <10>:                   Describing Warning Filters.
                                                             (line   21)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <11>:                   Default Warning Filter.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <12>:                   PyConfig.           (line  893)
* PyThread_create_key (C function):      執行緒局部儲存 Thread Local Storage TLS API：.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyThread_delete_key (C function):      執行緒局部儲存 Thread Local Storage TLS API：.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyThread_delete_key_value (C function): 執行緒局部儲存 Thread Local Storage TLS API：.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyThread_get_key_value (C function):   執行緒局部儲存 Thread Local Storage TLS API：.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyThread_ReInitTLS (C function):       執行緒局部儲存 Thread Local Storage TLS API：.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyThread_set_key_value (C function):   執行緒局部儲存 Thread Local Storage TLS API：.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyThread_tss_alloc (C function):       Dynamic Allocation. (line   11)
* PyThread_tss_create (C function):      方法<2>.            (line   16)
* PyThread_tss_delete (C function):      方法<2>.            (line   24)
* PyThread_tss_free (C function):        Dynamic Allocation. (line   17)
* PyThread_tss_get (C function):         方法<2>.            (line   39)
* PyThread_tss_is_created (C function):  方法<2>.            (line   11)
* PyThread_tss_set (C function):         方法<2>.            (line   33)
* PyThreadState (C type):                高階 API.           (line   21)
* PyThreadState_Clear (C function):      低階 API.           (line   41)
* PyThreadState_Delete (C function):     低階 API.           (line   49)
* PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (C function): 低階 API.        (line   55)
* PyThreadState_EnterTracing (C function): 低階 API.         (line   93)
* PyThreadState_Get (C function):        高階 API.           (line   80)
* PyThreadState_GetDict (C function):    低階 API.           (line  180)
* PyThreadState_GetFrame (C function):   低階 API.           (line   62)
* PyThreadState_GetID (C function):      低階 API.           (line   76)
* PyThreadState_GetInterpreter (C function): 低階 API.       (line   84)
* PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (C function): 低階 API.         (line  102)
* PyThreadState_New (C function):        低階 API.           (line   34)
* PyThreadState_Next (C function):       Advanced Debugger Support.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (C function): 低階 API.          (line  189)
* PyThreadState_Swap (C function):       高階 API.           (line   86)
* PyThreadState.interp (C member):       高階 API.           (line   26)
* PyThreadState（C 型別）:               Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyTime_Check (C function):             DateTime 物件.      (line   95)
* PyTime_CheckExact (C function):        DateTime 物件.      (line  101)
* PyTime_FromTime (C function):          DateTime 物件.      (line  149)
* PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (C function):   DateTime 物件.      (line  154)
* PyTimeZone_FromOffset (C function):    DateTime 物件.      (line  167)
* PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName (C function): DateTime 物件.  (line  174)
* PyTrace_C_CALL (C var):                Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   94)
* PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION (C var):           Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyTrace_C_RETURN (C var):              Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyTrace_CALL (C var):                  Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyTrace_EXCEPTION (C var):             Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyTrace_LINE (C var):                  Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyTrace_OPCODE (C var):                Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  109)
* PyTrace_RETURN (C var):                Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   89)
* PyTraceMalloc_Track (C function):      tracemalloc C API.  (line    8)
* PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (C function):    tracemalloc C API.  (line   20)
* PyTuple_Check (C function):            Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   16)
* PyTuple_CheckExact (C function):       Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   21)
* PyTuple_GET_ITEM (C function):         Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   60)
* PyTuple_GET_SIZE (C function):         Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   43)
* PyTuple_GetItem (C function):          Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   47)
* PyTuple_GetSlice (C function):         Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   65)
* PyTuple_New (C function):              Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   26)
* PyTuple_Pack (C function):             Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   31)
* PyTuple_SET_ITEM (C function):         Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   85)
* PyTuple_SetItem (C function):          Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   74)
* PyTuple_SetItem（C 函式）:             參照計數詳細資訊.   (line   19)
* PyTuple_Size (C function):             Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   38)
* PyTuple_Type (C var):                  Tuple（元組）物件.  (line   11)
* PyTupleObject (C type):                Tuple（元組）物件.  (line    6)
* PyType_AddWatcher (C function):        型別物件.           (line   67)
* PyType_Check (C function):             型別物件.           (line   16)
* PyType_CheckExact (C function):        型別物件.           (line   22)
* PyType_ClearCache (C function):        型別物件.           (line   28)
* PyType_ClearWatcher (C function):      型別物件.           (line   76)
* PyType_FromMetaclass (C function):     Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyType_FromModuleAndSpec (C function): Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyType_FromSpec (C function):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line   94)
* PyType_FromSpecWithBases (C function): Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line   78)
* PyType_GenericAlloc (C function):      型別物件.           (line  134)
* PyType_GenericNew (C function):        型別物件.           (line  141)
* PyType_GetDict (C function):           型別物件.           (line   44)
* PyType_GetFlags (C function):          型別物件.           (line   32)
* PyType_GetModule (C function):         型別物件.           (line  194)
* PyType_GetModuleByDef (C function):    型別物件.           (line  227)
* PyType_GetModuleState (C function):    型別物件.           (line  213)
* PyType_GetName (C function):           型別物件.           (line  163)
* PyType_GetQualName (C function):       型別物件.           (line  170)
* PyType_GetSlot (C function):           型別物件.           (line  178)
* PyType_GetTypeDataSize (C function):   物件協定.           (line  412)
* PyType_HasFeature (C function):        型別物件.           (line  115)
* PyType_IS_GC (C function):             型別物件.           (line  120)
* PyType_IsSubtype (C function):         型別物件.           (line  125)
* PyType_Modified (C function):          型別物件.           (line   61)
* PyType_Ready (C function):             型別物件.           (line  147)
* PyType_Slot (C type):                  Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  172)
* PyType_Slot.pfunc (C member):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  238)
* PyType_Slot.slot (C member):           Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  177)
* PyType_Spec (C type):                  Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  107)
* PyType_Spec.basicsize (C member):      Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  116)
* PyType_Spec.flags (C member):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  158)
* PyType_Spec.itemsize (C member):       Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyType_Spec.name (C member):           Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  111)
* PyType_Spec.slots (C member):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  165)
* PyType_Type (C var):                   型別物件.           (line   11)
* PyType_Watch (C function):             型別物件.           (line   88)
* PyType_WatchCallback (C type):         型別物件.           (line  104)
* PyTypeObject (C type):                 型別物件.           (line    6)
* PyTypeObject.tp_alloc (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1354)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_async (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  250)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  456)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_mapping (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line  315)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_number (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  291)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_sequence (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  303)
* PyTypeObject.tp_base (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1175)
* PyTypeObject.tp_bases (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1469)
* PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line   48)
* PyTypeObject.tp_cache (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1503)
* PyTypeObject.tp_call (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  364)
* PyTypeObject.tp_clear (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line  899)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  102)
* PyTypeObject.tp_del (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1543)
* PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1244)
* PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1257)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dict (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1208)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1273)
* PyTypeObject.tp_doc (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line  814)
* PyTypeObject.tp_finalize (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1555)
* PyTypeObject.tp_flags (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line  468)
* PyTypeObject.tp_free (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1416)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getattr (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  209)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getattro (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  402)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getset (C member):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1159)
* PyTypeObject.tp_hash (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  327)
* PyTypeObject.tp_init (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1318)
* PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1440)
* PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line   48)
* PyTypeObject.tp_iter (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1088)
* PyTypeObject.tp_iternext (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1104)
* PyTypeObject.tp_members (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1143)
* PyTypeObject.tp_methods (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1127)
* PyTypeObject.tp_mro (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1489)
* PyTypeObject.tp_name (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line   12)
* PyTypeObject.tp_new (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1377)
* PyTypeObject.tp_repr (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  265)
* PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  975)
* PyTypeObject.tp_setattr (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  229)
* PyTypeObject.tp_setattro (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  428)
* PyTypeObject.tp_str (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line  376)
* PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1511)
* PyTypeObject.tp_traverse (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  824)
* PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1603)
* PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall_offset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  169)
* PyTypeObject.tp_version_tag (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1547)
* PyTypeObject.tp_watched (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1619)
* PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1527)
* PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1052)
* PyTZInfo_Check (C function):           DateTime 物件.      (line  117)
* PyTZInfo_CheckExact (C function):      DateTime 物件.      (line  123)
* PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   74)
* PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Unicode Type.       (line   89)
* PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   74)
* PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Unicode Type.       (line   89)
* PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   74)
* PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Unicode Type.       (line   89)
* PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (C function):  ASCII 編解碼器.     (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsCharmapString (C function): Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyUnicode_AsEncodedString (C function): Generic Codecs.    (line   17)
* PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (C function): Latin-1 編解碼器.   (line   17)
* PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (C function):   MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString (C function): Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (C function):         Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  330)
* PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  340)
* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString (C function): Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (C function):  UTF-16 編解碼器.    (line   48)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (C function):  UTF-32 編解碼器.    (line   47)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (C function):         UTF-8 編解碼器.     (line   58)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (C function):  UTF-8 編解碼器.     (line   31)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (C function):   UTF-8 編解碼器.     (line   24)
* PyUnicode_AsWideChar (C function):     wchar_t 支援.       (line   16)
* PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (C function): wchar_t 支援.     (line   34)
* PyUnicode_Check (C function):          Unicode Type.       (line   47)
* PyUnicode_CheckExact (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   52)
* PyUnicode_Compare (C function):        Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (C function): Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   95)
* PyUnicode_Concat (C function):         Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyUnicode_Contains (C function):       Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyUnicode_CopyCharacters (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  267)
* PyUnicode_Count (C function):          Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyUnicode_DATA (C function):           Unicode Type.       (line  108)
* PyUnicode_Decode (C function):         Generic Codecs.     (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (C function):    ASCII 編解碼器.     (line    9)
* PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (C function):  Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (C function):   Latin-1 編解碼器.   (line   10)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (C function):   Locale Encoding.    (line   37)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize (C function): Locale Encoding.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (C function):     MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape (C function): Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape (C function): Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (C function):    UTF-16 編解碼器.    (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful (C function): UTF-16 編解碼器.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (C function):    UTF-32 編解碼器.    (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (C function): UTF-32 編解碼器.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (C function):     UTF-7 編解碼器.     (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (C function): UTF-7 編解碼器. (line   14)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (C function):     UTF-8 編解碼器.     (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (C function): UTF-8 編解碼器. (line   14)
* PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (C function):   Locale Encoding.    (line   45)
* PyUnicode_Fill (C function):           Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  278)
* PyUnicode_Find (C function):           Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyUnicode_FindChar (C function):       Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyUnicode_Format (C function):         Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  122)
* PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  241)
* PyUnicode_FromFormat (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   61)
* PyUnicode_FromFormatV (C function):    Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  226)
* PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyUnicode_FromObject (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  232)
* PyUnicode_FromString (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyUnicode_FromWideChar (C function):   wchar_t 支援.       (line    8)
* PyUnicode_FSConverter (C function):    File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyUnicode_FSDecoder (C function):      File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   65)
* PyUnicode_GetLength (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  258)
* PyUnicode_InternFromString (C function): Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  161)
* PyUnicode_InternInPlace (C function):  Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  135)
* PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (C function):   Unicode Type.       (line  157)
* PyUnicode_Join (C function):           Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyUnicode_KIND (C function):           Unicode Type.       (line   99)
* PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (C function): Unicode Type.       (line  147)
* PyUnicode_New (C function):            Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicode_READ (C function):           Unicode Type.       (line  129)
* PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (C function):      Unicode Type.       (line  138)
* PyUnicode_ReadChar (C function):       Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  308)
* PyUnicode_READY (C function):          Unicode Type.       (line   57)
* PyUnicode_Replace (C function):        Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyUnicode_RichCompare (C function):    Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyUnicode_Split (C function):          Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicode_Splitlines (C function):     Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyUnicode_Substring (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  320)
* PyUnicode_Tailmatch (C function):      Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyUnicode_Translate (C function):      Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyUnicode_Type (C var):                Unicode Type.       (line   39)
* PyUnicode_WRITE (C function):          Unicode Type.       (line  116)
* PyUnicode_WriteChar (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  292)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyUnicodeObject (C type):              Unicode Type.       (line   28)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyUnstable:                            不穩定的 C API.     (line    6)
* PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (C function): Extra information.  (line   35)
* PyUnstable_Code_New (C function):      程式碼物件.         (line   33)
* PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C function): 程式碼物件.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (C function): Extra information.  (line   51)
* PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C function): Extra information.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar (C function): 例外物件.     (line   55)
* PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (C function): Querying Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue (C function): 整數物件.       (line  326)
* PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (C function): 整數物件.          (line  308)
* PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData (C function): 循環垃圾回收的支援.
                                                             (line   66)
* PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (C function): 對 Perf Map 的支援.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (C function): 對 Perf Map 的支援.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (C function): 型別物件.   (line  244)
* PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (C function): 對 Perf Map 的支援.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyVarObject (C type):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro):       Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  129)
* PyVarObject.ob_size (C member):        PyVarObject Slots.  (line    6)
* PyVectorcall_Call (C function):        Vectorcall 支援 API.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyVectorcall_Function (C function):    Vectorcall 支援 API.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyVectorcall_NARGS (C function):       Vectorcall 支援 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyWeakref_Check (C function):          弱參照物件<2>.      (line   11)
* PyWeakref_CheckProxy (C function):     弱參照物件<2>.      (line   21)
* PyWeakref_CheckRef (C function):       弱參照物件<2>.      (line   16)
* PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (C function):     弱參照物件<2>.      (line   63)
* PyWeakref_GetObject (C function):      弱參照物件<2>.      (line   52)
* PyWeakref_NewProxy (C function):       弱參照物件<2>.      (line   39)
* PyWeakref_NewRef (C function):         弱參照物件<2>.      (line   26)
* PyWideStringList (C type):             PyWideStringList.   (line    6)
* PyWideStringList_Append (C function):  PyWideStringList.   (line   15)
* PyWideStringList_Insert (C function):  PyWideStringList.   (line   22)
* PyWideStringList.items (C member):     PyWideStringList.   (line   41)
* PyWideStringList.length (C member):    PyWideStringList.   (line   37)
* PyWrapper_New (C function):            Descriptor（描述器）物件.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyZipFile (zipfile 中的類別):          PyZipFile 物件.     (line   10)
* qiflush() (於 curses 模組中):          函式<5>.            (line  398)
* QName (xml.etree.ElementTree 中的類別): QName 物件.        (line    6)
* qsize() (asyncio.Queue 的方法):        Queue.              (line   67)
* qsize() (multiprocessing.Queue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.  (line  106)
* qsize() (queue.Queue 的方法):          佇列物件.           (line    9)
* qsize() (queue.SimpleQueue 的方法):    SimpleQueue 物件.   (line    8)
* qualified name（限定名稱）:            術語表.             (line 1058)
* quantiles() (statistics.NormalDist 的方法): NormalDist 物件.
                                                             (line   87)
* quantiles() (於 statistics 模組中):    函式細節.           (line  385)
* quantize() (decimal.Context 的方法):   Context objects.    (line  478)
* quantize() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):   Decimal objects.    (line  475)
* QueryInfoKey() (於 winreg 模組中):     函式<12>.           (line  318)
* QueryReflectionKey() (於 winreg 模組中): 函式<12>.         (line  515)
* QueryValue() (於 winreg 模組中):       函式<12>.           (line  347)
* QueryValueEx() (於 winreg 模組中):     函式<12>.           (line  367)
* QUESTION (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  174)
* Queue (asyncio 中的類別):              Queue.              (line    6)
* Queue (multiprocessing 中的類別):      Pipes and Queues.   (line   92)
* Queue (queue 中的類別):                queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別.
                                                             (line   28)
* queue (sched.scheduler 的屬性):        排程器物件.         (line   64)
* Queue() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  197)
* QueueEmpty:                            例外<7>.            (line    6)
* QueueFull:                             例外<7>.            (line   11)
* QueueHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): QueueHandler.    (line   21)
* QueueListener (logging.handlers 中的類別): QueueListener.  (line   25)
* quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 的方法): SequenceMatcher 物件.
                                                             (line  204)
* quiet (sys.flags 的屬性):              sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  544)
* quit (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  402)
* quit (內建變數):                       由 site module（模組）所添增的常數.
                                                             (line   11)
* quit() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):            FTP 物件.           (line  315)
* quit() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line   22)
* quit() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   83)
* quit() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):          SMTP 物件.          (line  340)
* quit() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  123)
* quitting (bdb.Bdb attribute):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  331)
* QUOTE_ALL (於 csv 模組中):             模組內容<3>.        (line  241)
* quote_from_bytes() (於 urllib.parse 模組中): URL Quoting.  (line   53)
* QUOTE_MINIMAL (於 csv 模組中):         模組內容<3>.        (line  245)
* QUOTE_NONE (於 csv 模組中):            模組內容<3>.        (line  256)
* QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (於 csv 模組中):      模組內容<3>.        (line  250)
* QUOTE_NOTNULL (於 csv 模組中):         模組內容<3>.        (line  265)
* quote_plus() (於 urllib.parse 模組中): URL Quoting.        (line   42)
* QUOTE_STRINGS (於 csv 模組中):         模組內容<3>.        (line  276)
* quote() (於 email.utils 模組中):       email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line   45)
* quote() (於 shlex 模組中):             shlex --- 簡單的語法分析.
                                                             (line   43)
* quote() (於 urllib.parse 模組中):      URL Quoting.        (line   13)
* quoteattr() (於 xml.sax.saxutils 模組中): xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式.
                                                             (line   38)
* quotechar (csv.Dialect 的屬性):        Dialect 與格式參數. (line   47)
* quoted-printable（可列印字元）;encoding（編碼）: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料.
                                                             (line    8)
* quotes (shlex.shlex 的屬性):           shlex 物件.         (line  115)
* quoting (csv.Dialect 的屬性):          Dialect 與格式參數. (line   54)
* R_OK (於 os 模組中):                   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  106)
* r';raw string literal（原始字串常數）: String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   51)
* r";raw string literal（原始字串常數）: String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   51)
* radians() (於 math 模組中):            Angular conversion. (line   10)
* radians() (於 turtle 模組中):          Settings for measurement.
                                                             (line   28)
* RadioButtonGroup (msilib 中的類別):    GUI classes.        (line   27)
* radiogroup() (msilib.Dialog 的方法):   GUI classes.        (line   71)
* radix (sys.float_info 的屬性):         sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  649)
* radix() (decimal.Context 的方法):      Context objects.    (line  483)
* radix() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):      Decimal objects.    (line  503)
* RADIXCHAR (於 locale 模組中):          locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  266)
* raise (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  262)
* Raise (ast 中的類別):                  陳述式.             (line  117)
* RAISE (monitoring event):              事件.               (line   71)
* raise an exception（引發例外）:        例外.               (line    6)
* raise_on_defect (email.policy.Policy 的屬性): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  181)
* raise_signal() (於 signal 模組中):     模組內容<5>.        (line  324)
* RAISE_VARARGS (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  942)
* raiseExceptions (於 logging 模組中):   Module-Level Attributes.
                                                             (line   19)
* raiseing;exception（例外）:            raise 陳述式.       (line    6)
* RAND_add() (於 ssl 模組中):            隨機產生.           (line   27)
* RAND_bytes() (於 ssl 模組中):          隨機產生.           (line    6)
* RAND_status() (於 ssl 模組中):         隨機產生.           (line   21)
* randbelow() (於 secrets 模組中):       亂數.               (line   18)
* randbits() (於 secrets 模組中):        亂數.               (line   22)
* randbytes() (於 random 模組中):        回傳位元組的函式.   (line    6)
* randint() (於 random 模組中):          回傳整數的函式.     (line   28)
* Random (random 中的類別):              替代產生器.         (line    6)
* random() (random.Random 的方法):       替代產生器.         (line   32)
* random() (於 random 模組中):           實數分布.           (line    9)
* randrange() (於 random 模組中):        回傳整數的函式.     (line    6)
* range (內建類別):                      Ranges.             (line   10)
* RARROW (於 token 模組中):              token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  230)
* ratecv() (於 audioop 模組中):          audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  178)
* ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 的方法): SequenceMatcher 物件.
                                                             (line  180)
* Rational (numbers 中的類別):           數值的階層.         (line   37)
* raw (io.BufferedIOBase 的屬性):        I/O 基礎類別.       (line  219)
* raw string（原始字串）:                String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   36)
* raw_data_manager (於 email.contentmanager 模組中): Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   11)
* raw_decode() (json.JSONDecoder 的方法): 編碼器與解碼器.    (line   88)
* raw_input (2to3 fixer):                Fixers.             (line  269)
* raw_input() (code.InteractiveConsole 的方法): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* raw() (pickle.PickleBuffer 的方法):    模組介面.           (line  318)
* raw() (於 curses 模組中):              函式<5>.            (line  405)
* RawArray() (於 multiprocessing.sharedctypes 模組中): multiprocessing sharedctypes 模組.
                                                             (line   16)
* RawConfigParser (configparser 中的類別): RawConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* RawDescriptionHelpFormatter (argparse 中的類別): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* RawIOBase (io 中的類別):               I/O 基礎類別.       (line  150)
* RawPen (turtle 中的類別):              Public classes.     (line    6)
* RawTextHelpFormatter (argparse 中的類別): formatter_class. (line   10)
* RawTurtle (turtle 中的類別):           Public classes.     (line    6)
* RawValue() (於 multiprocessing.sharedctypes 模組中): multiprocessing sharedctypes 模組.
                                                             (line   33)
* RBRACE (於 token 模組中):              token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  130)
* re (re.Match 的屬性):                  Match Objects.      (line  205)
* READ (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性):     Buffer flags.       (line   49)
* read_all() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法):  Telnet Objects.     (line   17)
* read_binary() (於 importlib.resources 模組中): 已棄用函式. (line   65)
* read_byte() (mmap.mmap 的方法):        mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  245)
* read_bytes() (importlib.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  546)
* read_bytes() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  150)
* read_bytes() (pathlib.Path 的方法):    Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   32)
* read_bytes() (zipfile.Path 的方法):    Path Objects.       (line   90)
* read_dict() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  195)
* read_eager() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法): Telnet Objects.    (line   34)
* read_environ() (於 wsgiref.handlers 模組中): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  259)
* read_events() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser 的方法): XMLPullParser 物件.
                                                             (line   48)
* read_file() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  173)
* read_history_file() (於 readline 模組中): History file.    (line    8)
* read_init_file() (於 readline 模組中): Init file.          (line   13)
* read_lazy() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法): Telnet Objects.     (line   42)
* read_mime_types() (於 mimetypes 模組中): mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line   99)
* READ_RESTRICTED（C 巨集）:             Member flags.       (line   32)
* read_sb_data() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法): Telnet Objects.  (line   58)
* read_some() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法): Telnet Objects.     (line   21)
* read_string() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  185)
* read_text() (importlib.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  550)
* read_text() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  154)
* read_text() (pathlib.Path 的方法):     Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   17)
* read_text() (zipfile.Path 的方法):     Path Objects.       (line   78)
* read_text() (於 importlib.resources 模組中): 已棄用函式.   (line   80)
* read_token() (shlex.shlex 的方法):     shlex 物件.         (line   20)
* read_until() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法): Telnet Objects.    (line    8)
* read_very_eager() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法): Telnet Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* read_very_lazy() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法): Telnet Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* read_windows_registry() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 的方法): MimeTypes 物件.
                                                             (line   86)
* read() (asyncio.StreamReader 的方法):  StreamReader.       (line   19)
* read() (chunk.Chunk 的方法):           chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line  108)
* read() (codecs.StreamReader 的方法):   StreamReader 物件.  (line   34)
* read() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  136)
* read() (http.client.HTTPResponse 的方法): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   13)
* read() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):         IMAP4 物件.         (line  199)
* read() (io.BufferedIOBase 的方法):     I/O 基礎類別.       (line  236)
* read() (io.BufferedReader 的方法):     Buffered Streams.   (line   82)
* read() (io.RawIOBase 的方法):          I/O 基礎類別.       (line  161)
* read() (io.TextIOBase 的方法):         文字 I/O<2>.        (line   52)
* read() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 的方法):   MimeTypes 物件.     (line   70)
* read() (mmap.mmap 的方法):             mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  235)
* read() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* read() (sqlite3.Blob 的方法):          Blob 物件.          (line   45)
* read() (ssl.MemoryBIO 的方法):         Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  144)
* read() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法):         SSL Sockets.        (line   69)
* read() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 的方法): urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line   24)
* read() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):       ZipFile 物件.       (line  234)
* read() (於 os 模組中):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  679)
* read1() (bz2.BZ2File 的方法):          De compression of files.
                                                             (line  110)
* read1() (io.BufferedIOBase 的方法):    I/O 基礎類別.       (line  249)
* read1() (io.BufferedReader 的方法):    Buffered Streams.   (line   88)
* read1() (io.BytesIO 的方法):           Buffered Streams.   (line   43)
* READABLE (於 _tkinter 模組中):         File Handlers.      (line   41)
* readable() (bz2.BZ2File 的方法):       De compression of files.
                                                             (line   92)
* readable() (io.IOBase 的方法):         I/O 基礎類別.       (line   69)
* readall() (io.RawIOBase 的方法):       I/O 基礎類別.       (line  175)
* reader() (於 csv 模組中):              模組內容<3>.        (line    8)
* ReadError:                             tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  202)
* readexactly() (asyncio.StreamReader 的方法): StreamReader. (line   43)
* readfp() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 的方法): MimeTypes 物件.     (line   78)
* readframes() (aifc.aifc 的方法):       aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  100)
* readframes() (sunau.AU_read 的方法):   AU_read 物件.       (line   44)
* readframes() (wave.Wave_read 的方法):  Wave_read 物件.     (line   48)
* readinto() (bz2.BZ2File 的方法):       De compression of files.
                                                             (line  120)
* readinto() (http.client.HTTPResponse 的方法): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   17)
* readinto() (io.BufferedIOBase 的方法): I/O 基礎類別.       (line  259)
* readinto() (io.RawIOBase 的方法):      I/O 基礎類別.       (line  180)
* readinto1() (io.BufferedIOBase 的方法): I/O 基礎類別.      (line  271)
* readinto1() (io.BytesIO 的方法):       Buffered Streams.   (line   49)
* readline() (asyncio.StreamReader 的方法): StreamReader.    (line   34)
* readline() (codecs.StreamReader 的方法): StreamReader 物件.
                                                             (line   60)
* readline() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):     IMAP4 物件.         (line  204)
* readline() (io.IOBase 的方法):         I/O 基礎類別.       (line   74)
* readline() (io.TextIOBase 的方法):     文字 I/O<2>.        (line   58)
* readline() (mmap.mmap 的方法):         mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  250)
* readlines() (codecs.StreamReader 的方法): StreamReader 物件.
                                                             (line   71)
* readlines() (io.IOBase 的方法):        I/O 基礎類別.       (line   83)
* readlink() (pathlib.Path 的方法):      Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   72)
* readlink() (於 os 模組中):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  653)
* readmodule_ex() (於 pyclbr 模組中):    pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援.
                                                             (line   31)
* readmodule() (於 pyclbr 模組中):       pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援.
                                                             (line   19)
* readonly (memoryview 的屬性):          Memory Views.       (line  416)
* READONLY（C 巨集）:                    Member flags.       (line   37)
* ReadTransport (asyncio 中的類別):      Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   20)
* readuntil() (asyncio.StreamReader 的方法): StreamReader.   (line   52)
* readv() (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  813)
* ready() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult 的方法): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  209)
* Real (numbers 中的類別):               數值的階層.         (line   26)
* real (numbers.Complex 的屬性):         數值的階層.         (line   14)
* Real Media File Format（Real Media 檔案格式）: chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line    8)
* real_max_memuse (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  148)
* real_quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 的方法): SequenceMatcher 物件.
                                                             (line  209)
* realloc（C 函式）:                     總覽<2>.            (line   33)
* realpath() (於 os.path 模組中):        os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  283)
* REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   87)
* reap_children() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  576)
* reap_threads() (於 test.support.threading_helper 模組中): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   17)
* reason (http.client.HTTPResponse 的屬性): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   65)
* reason (ssl.SSLError 的屬性):          例外<11>.           (line   24)
* reason (UnicodeError 的屬性):          實體例外.           (line  355)
* reason (urllib.error.HTTPError 的屬性): urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line   45)
* reason (urllib.error.URLError 的屬性): urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line   21)
* reattach() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.    (line  236)
* rebinding（重新繫結）;name（名稱）:    Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* reccontrols() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device 的方法): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* recent() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line  209)
* reconfigure() (io.TextIOWrapper 的方法): 文字 I/O<2>.      (line  180)
* record_original_stdout() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  305)
* RECORDS (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性):  Buffer flags.       (line   41)
* records (unittest.TestCase 的屬性):    Test cases.         (line  428)
* RECORDS_RO (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性): Buffer flags.     (line   43)
* rect() (於 cmath 模組中):              轉換到極座標和從極座標做轉換.
                                                             (line   37)
* rectangle() (於 curses.textpad 模組中): curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs.
                                                             (line   15)
* RecursionError:                        實體例外.           (line  184)
* recursive_repr() (於 reprlib 模組中):  reprlib --- repr 的替代實作.
                                                             (line   60)
* recv_bytes_into() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 的方法): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* recv_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 的方法): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* recv_fds() (於 socket 模組中):         其他函式<2>.        (line  447)
* recv_into() (socket.socket 的方法):    Socket 物件.        (line  390)
* recv() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 的方法): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* recv() (socket.socket 的方法):         Socket 物件.        (line  233)
* recvfrom_into() (socket.socket 的方法): Socket 物件.       (line  380)
* recvfrom() (socket.socket 的方法):     Socket 物件.        (line  251)
* recvmsg_into() (socket.socket 的方法): Socket 物件.        (line  341)
* recvmsg() (socket.socket 的方法):      Socket 物件.        (line  269)
* redirect_request() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 的方法): HTTPRedirectHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   15)
* redirect_stderr() (於 contextlib 模組中): Utilities.       (line  356)
* redirect_stdout() (於 contextlib 模組中): Utilities.       (line  316)
* redisplay() (於 readline 模組中):      Line buffer.        (line   19)
* redrawln() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  461)
* redrawwin() (curses.window 的方法):    Window Objects.     (line  467)
* reduce (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  273)
* reduce() (於 functools 模組中):        functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line  348)
* reducer_override() (pickle.Pickler 的方法): 模組介面.      (line  200)
* ref (weakref 中的類別):                weakref --- 弱參照. (line   72)
* refcount_test() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  535)
* reference count（參照計數）:           術語表.             (line 1083)
* reference counting（參照計數）:        Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   37)
* ReferenceError:                        實體例外.           (line  191)
* ReferenceType (於 weakref 模組中):     weakref --- 弱參照. (line  270)
* refold_source (email.policy.EmailPolicy 的屬性): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  387)
* refresh() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line  472)
* REG_BINARY (於 winreg 模組中):         Value Types.        (line    8)
* REG_DWORD (於 winreg 模組中):          Value Types.        (line   12)
* REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN (於 winreg 模組中): Value Types.      (line   21)
* REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (於 winreg 模組中): Value Types.   (line   16)
* REG_EXPAND_SZ (於 winreg 模組中):      Value Types.        (line   25)
* REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR (於 winreg 模組中): Value Types.
                                                             (line   60)
* REG_LINK (於 winreg 模組中):           Value Types.        (line   30)
* REG_MULTI_SZ (於 winreg 模組中):       Value Types.        (line   34)
* REG_NONE (於 winreg 模組中):           Value Types.        (line   39)
* REG_QWORD (於 winreg 模組中):          Value Types.        (line   43)
* REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (於 winreg 模組中): Value Types.   (line   49)
* REG_RESOURCE_LIST (於 winreg 模組中):  Value Types.        (line   56)
* REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST (於 winreg 模組中): Value Types.
                                                             (line   64)
* REG_SZ (於 winreg 模組中):             Value Types.        (line   68)
* RegexFlag (re 中的類別):               旗標.               (line    9)
* register_adapter() (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module functions.  (line  135)
* register_archive_format() (於 shutil 模組中): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   92)
* register_at_fork() (於 os 模組中):     行程管理.           (line  540)
* register_callback() (於 sys.monitoring 模組中): 註冊回呼函式.
                                                             (line    8)
* register_converter() (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module functions.
                                                             (line  142)
* register_defect() (email.policy.Policy 的方法): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  245)
* register_dialect() (於 csv 模組中):    模組內容<3>.        (line   62)
* register_error() (於 codecs 模組中):   Error Handlers.     (line  101)
* register_function() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 的方法): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* register_function() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer 的方法): SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件.
                                                             (line   10)
* register_instance() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 的方法): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   26)
* register_instance() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer 的方法): SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件.
                                                             (line   27)
* register_introspection_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 的方法): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   41)
* register_introspection_functions() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer 的方法): SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件.
                                                             (line   55)
* register_multicall_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 的方法): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   46)
* register_multicall_functions() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer 的方法): SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件.
                                                             (line   60)
* register_namespace() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.
                                                             (line  195)
* register_optionflag() (於 doctest 模組中): 可選旗標.       (line  161)
* register_shape() (於 turtle 模組中):   Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   70)
* register_unpack_format() (於 shutil 模組中): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  162)
* register() (abc.ABCMeta 的方法):       abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   60)
* register() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line   92)
* register() (select.devpoll 的方法):    /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* register() (select.epoll 的方法):      Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* register() (select.poll 的方法):       Polling Objects.    (line   15)
* register() (selectors.BaseSelector 的方法): Classes<3>.    (line   65)
* register() (於 atexit 模組中):         atexit --- 退出處理函式.
                                                             (line   22)
* register() (於 codecs 模組中):         codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  150)
* register() (於 faulthandler 模組中):   Dumping the traceback on a user signal.
                                                             (line    6)
* register() (於 webbrowser 模組中):     webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line   96)
* registerDOMImplementation() (於 xml.dom 模組中): 模組內容<6>.
                                                             (line    8)
* registerResult() (於 unittest 模組中): Signal Handling.    (line   35)
* REGTYPE (於 tarfile 模組中):           tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  267)
* regular package（正規套件）:           術語表.             (line 1091)
* relative_to() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法): 方法與屬性.       (line  293)
* relative（相對）;import（引入）:       import 陳述式.      (line   99)
* relative（相對）;URL（統一資源定位器）: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件.
                                                             (line    8)
* release() (_thread.lock 的方法):       _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line  137)
* release() (asyncio.Condition 的方法):  Condition.          (line   70)
* release() (asyncio.Lock 的方法):       Lock.               (line   47)
* release() (asyncio.Semaphore 的方法):  Semaphore.          (line   50)
* release() (logging.Handler 的方法):    Handler Objects.    (line   31)
* release() (memoryview 的方法):         Memory Views.       (line  238)
* release() (multiprocessing.Lock 的方法): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   91)
* release() (multiprocessing.RLock 的方法): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  147)
* release() (pickle.PickleBuffer 的方法): 模組介面.          (line  326)
* release() (threading.Condition 的方法): Condition Objects. (line   91)
* release() (threading.Lock 的方法):     Lock Objects.       (line   73)
* release() (threading.RLock 的方法):    RLock 物件.         (line   94)
* release() (threading.Semaphore 的方法): Semaphore Objects. (line   63)
* release() (於 platform 模組中):        跨平台.             (line  101)
* releasebufferproc (C type):            Slot Type typedefs. (line  104)
* reload (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  277)
* reload() (於 importlib 模組中):        函式<11>.           (line   55)
* relpath() (於 os.path 模組中):         os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  304)
* remainder_near() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.
                                                             (line  494)
* remainder_near() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  509)
* remainder() (decimal.Context 的方法):  Context objects.    (line  487)
* remainder() (於 math 模組中):          數論與表現函式.     (line  221)
* RemoteDisconnected:                    http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  187)
* remove_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher 的方法): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   56)
* remove_done_callback() (asyncio.Future 的方法): Future 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* remove_done_callback() (asyncio.Task 的方法): Task Object. (line  111)
* remove_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 的方法): MaildirMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   84)
* remove_flag() (mailbox.mboxMessage 的方法): mboxMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   85)
* remove_flag() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 的方法): MMDFMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   84)
* remove_folder() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法): Mailbox 物件<2>. (line   77)
* remove_folder() (mailbox.MH 的方法):   MH 物件.            (line   47)
* remove_header() (urllib.request.Request 的方法): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   99)
* remove_history_item() (於 readline 模組中): History list.  (line   26)
* remove_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage 的方法): BabylMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   59)
* remove_option() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  294)
* remove_option() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   47)
* remove_pyc() (msilib.Directory 的方法): Directory Objects. (line   45)
* remove_reader() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 監視檔案描述器.     (line   11)
* remove_section() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  301)
* remove_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage 的方法): MHMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   46)
* remove_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop 的方法): Unix 訊號.  (line   22)
* remove_writer() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 監視檔案描述器.     (line   24)
* remove() (array.array 的方法):         array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  189)
* remove() (collections.deque 的方法):   deque 物件.         (line   89)
* remove() (frozenset 的方法):           Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  199)
* remove() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):     Mailbox 物件.       (line   76)
* remove() (mailbox.MH 的方法):          MH 物件.            (line   76)
* remove() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line  170)
* remove() (於 os 模組中):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  689)
* remove()（序列方法）:                  Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* removeAttribute() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* removeAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* removeAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* removeChild() (xml.dom.Node 的方法):   Node Objects.       (line  128)
* removedirs() (於 os 模組中):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  713)
* removeFilter() (logging.Handler 的方法): Handler Objects.  (line   56)
* removeFilter() (logging.Logger 的方法): Logger 物件.       (line  326)
* removeHandler() (logging.Logger 的方法): Logger 物件.      (line  343)
* removeHandler() (於 unittest 模組中):  Signal Handling.    (line   52)
* removeprefix() (bytearray 的方法):     Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   52)
* removeprefix() (bytes 的方法):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   52)
* removeprefix() (str 的方法):           String Methods<2>.  (line  369)
* removeResult() (於 unittest 模組中):   Signal Handling.    (line   46)
* removesuffix() (bytearray 的方法):     Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   72)
* removesuffix() (bytes 的方法):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   72)
* removesuffix() (str 的方法):           String Methods<2>.  (line  382)
* removexattr() (於 os 模組中):          Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   40)
* rename() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):          FTP 物件.           (line  283)
* rename() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line  214)
* rename() (pathlib.Path 的方法):        Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line    6)
* rename() (於 os 模組中):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  730)
* renames (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  281)
* renames() (於 os 模組中):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  766)
* reopenIfNeeded() (logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler 的方法): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   41)
* reorganize() (dbm.gnu.gdbm 的方法):    dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line   96)
* repeat() (timeit.Timer 的方法):        Python 介面.        (line   90)
* repeat() (於 itertools 模組中):        Itertool 函式.      (line  466)
* repeat() (於 timeit 模組中):           Python 介面.        (line   17)
* repetition（重複）;operation（操作）:  Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* replace_errors() (於 codecs 模組中):   Error Handlers.     (line  154)
* replace_header() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  299)
* replace_header() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  407)
* replace_history_item() (於 readline 模組中): History list. (line   32)
* replace_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性): textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  182)
* replace;error handler's name（錯誤處理器名稱）: Error Handlers.
                                                             (line   15)
* replace() (bytearray 的方法):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  198)
* replace() (bytes 的方法):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  198)
* replace() (codeobject 的方法):         用於程式碼物件的方法.
                                                             (line   85)
* replace() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法): Panel Objects.      (line   39)
* replace() (datetime.date 的方法):      date 物件.          (line  180)
* replace() (datetime.datetime 的方法):  datetime 物件.      (line  442)
* replace() (datetime.time 的方法):      time 物件.          (line  149)
* replace() (inspect.Parameter 的方法):  Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  286)
* replace() (inspect.Signature 的方法):  Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  136)
* replace() (pathlib.Path 的方法):       Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line   30)
* replace() (str 的方法):                String Methods<2>.  (line  395)
* replace() (tarfile.TarInfo 的方法):    TarInfo 物件.       (line  166)
* replace() (於 dataclasses 模組中):     模組內容<8>.        (line  423)
* replace() (於 os 模組中):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  784)
* replaceChild() (xml.dom.Node 的方法):  Node Objects.       (line  135)
* ReplacePackage() (於 modulefinder 模組中): modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組.
                                                             (line   18)
* REPORT_CDIFF (於 doctest 模組中):      可選旗標.           (line  115)
* report_failure() (doctest.DocTestRunner 的方法): DocTestRunner 物件.
                                                             (line   70)
* report_full_closure() (filecmp.dircmp 的方法): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   28)
* REPORT_NDIFF (於 doctest 模組中):      可選旗標.           (line  120)
* REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE (於 doctest 模組中): 可選旗標.   (line  129)
* report_partial_closure() (filecmp.dircmp 的方法): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   23)
* report_start() (doctest.DocTestRunner 的方法): DocTestRunner 物件.
                                                             (line   48)
* report_success() (doctest.DocTestRunner 的方法): DocTestRunner 物件.
                                                             (line   59)
* REPORT_UDIFF (於 doctest 模組中):      可選旗標.           (line  110)
* report_unexpected_exception() (doctest.DocTestRunner 的方法): DocTestRunner 物件.
                                                             (line   81)
* report() (filecmp.dircmp 的方法):      The dircmp class.   (line   18)
* report() (modulefinder.ModuleFinder 的方法): modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組.
                                                             (line   32)
* REPORTING_FLAGS (於 doctest 模組中):   可選旗標.           (line  153)
* repr (2to3 fixer):                     Fixers.             (line  285)
* Repr (reprlib 中的類別):               reprlib --- repr 的替代實作.
                                                             (line   17)
* repr() (reprlib.Repr 的方法):          Repr 物件.          (line  107)
* repr() （內建函式）;__repr__() （物件方法）: Basic customization.
                                                             (line  114)
* repr() (於 reprlib 模組中):            reprlib --- repr 的替代實作.
                                                             (line   50)
* repr1() (reprlib.Repr 的方法):         Repr 物件.          (line  112)
* ReprEnum (enum 中的類別):              資料型別<2>.        (line  524)
* reprfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   39)
* request (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler 的屬性): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* Request (urllib.request 中的類別):     urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  172)
* request_queue_size (socketserver.BaseServer 的屬性): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   98)
* request_rate() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 的方法): urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line   54)
* request_uri() (於 wsgiref.util 模組中): wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line   22)
* request_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  104)
* request() (http.client.HTTPConnection 的方法): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line    8)
* RequestHandlerClass (socketserver.BaseServer 的屬性): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* requestline (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   86)
* Required (於 typing 模組中):           特別型式.           (line  197)
* requires_bz2() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  499)
* requires_docstrings() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  511)
* requires_freebsd_version() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  472)
* requires_gzip() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  495)
* requires_IEEE_754() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  487)
* requires_limited_api() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  515)
* requires_linux_version() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  477)
* requires_lzma() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  503)
* requires_mac_version() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  482)
* requires_resource() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  507)
* requires_zlib() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  491)
* requires() (於 importlib.metadata 模組中): Distribution requirements.
                                                             (line    6)
* requires() (於 test.support 模組中):   test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  256)
* RERAISE (monitoring event):            事件.               (line   76)
* RERAISE (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  386)
* reschedule() (asyncio.Timeout 的方法): Timeouts.           (line   68)
* reserved (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性):     ZipInfo 物件.       (line  111)
* reserved word（保留字）:               關鍵字.             (line    6)
* RESERVED_FUTURE (於 uuid 模組中):      uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  224)
* RESERVED_MICROSOFT (於 uuid 模組中):   uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  220)
* RESERVED_NCS (於 uuid 模組中):         uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  212)
* reset_mock() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 的方法): Mock 類別.  (line  830)
* reset_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock 的方法): Mock 類別.       (line  179)
* reset_peak() (於 tracemalloc 模組中):  函式<10>.           (line   38)
* reset_prog_mode() (於 curses 模組中):  函式<5>.            (line  411)
* reset_shell_mode() (於 curses 模組中): 函式<5>.            (line  416)
* reset_tzpath() (於 zoneinfo 模組中):   函式<2>.            (line   27)
* reset() (asyncio.Barrier 的方法):      Barrier.            (line   78)
* reset() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):              bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  158)
* reset() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder 的方法): IncrementalDecoder 物件.
                                                             (line   40)
* reset() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder 的方法): IncrementalEncoder 物件.
                                                             (line   35)
* reset() (codecs.StreamReader 的方法):  StreamReader 物件.  (line   83)
* reset() (codecs.StreamWriter 的方法):  StreamWriter 物件.  (line   42)
* reset() (contextvars.ContextVar 的方法): Context Variables.
                                                             (line   58)
* reset() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.  (line   20)
* reset() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  172)
* reset() (pipes.Template 的方法):       Template Objects.   (line    8)
* reset() (threading.Barrier 的方法):    Barrier Objects.    (line   71)
* reset() (xdrlib.Packer 的方法):        Packer Objects.     (line   12)
* reset() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法):      Unpacker Objects.   (line    8)
* reset() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream 的方法): DOMEventStream 物件.
                                                             (line   37)
* reset() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser 的方法): IncrementalParser 物件.
                                                             (line   19)
* reset() (於 turtle 模組中):            More drawing control.
                                                             (line    6)
* resetbuffer() (code.InteractiveConsole 的方法): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* resetlocale() (於 locale 模組中):      locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  431)
* resetscreen() (於 turtle 模組中):      Window control.     (line   59)
* resetty() (於 curses 模組中):          函式<5>.            (line  421)
* resetwarnings() (於 warnings 模組中):  Available Functions.
                                                             (line  128)
* resize_term() (於 curses 模組中):      函式<5>.            (line  426)
* resize() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  491)
* resize() (mmap.mmap 的方法):           mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  256)
* resize() (於 ctypes 模組中):           Utility functions.  (line  160)
* resizemode() (於 turtle 模組中):       Appearance.         (line   24)
* resizeterm() (於 curses 模組中):       函式<5>.            (line  436)
* resolution (datetime.date 的屬性):     date 物件.          (line  109)
* resolution (datetime.datetime 的屬性): datetime 物件.      (line  279)
* resolution (datetime.time 的屬性):     time 物件.          (line   42)
* resolution (datetime.timedelta 的屬性): timedelta 物件.    (line   84)
* resolve_bases() (於 types 模組中):     Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   57)
* resolve_name() (於 importlib.util 模組中): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   80)
* resolve_name() (於 pkgutil 模組中):    pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line  179)
* resolve() (pathlib.Path 的方法):       Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   48)
* resolveEntity() (xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver 的方法): EntityResolver 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* Resource (於 importlib.resources 模組中): 已棄用函式.      (line   22)
* resource_path() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  468)
* resource_path() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader 的方法): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   55)
* ResourceDenied:                        test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line   21)
* ResourceLoader (importlib.abc 中的類別): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  172)
* ResourceReader (importlib.abc 中的類別): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  423)
* ResourceReader (importlib.resources.abc 中的類別): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   12)
* ResourceWarning:                       警告.               (line   76)
* response (nntplib.NNTPError 的屬性):   nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  144)
* response() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):     IMAP4 物件.         (line  218)
* ResponseNotReady:                      http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  173)
* responses (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  179)
* responses (於 http.client 模組中):     http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  208)
* restart (pdb command):                 Debugger Commands.  (line  393)
* restart_events() (於 sys.monitoring 模組中): 停用事件.     (line   21)
* restore() (test.support.SaveSignals 的方法): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  765)
* restore() (於 difflib 模組中):         difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line  270)
* RESTRICTED（C 巨集）:                  Member flags.       (line   32)
* restricted（受限）;execution（執行）:  Builtins and restricted execution.
                                                             (line    6)
* restype (ctypes._CFuncPtr 的屬性):     Foreign functions.  (line   32)
* result() (asyncio.Future 的方法):      Future 物件<2>.     (line   27)
* result() (asyncio.Task 的方法):        Task Object.        (line   73)
* result() (concurrent.futures.Future 的方法): Future 物件.  (line   31)
* results() (trace.Trace 的方法):        Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   40)
* RESUME (opcode):                       Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1108)
* resume_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport 的方法): Read-only Transports.
                                                             (line   21)
* resume_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol 的方法): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   44)
* retr() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   63)
* retrbinary() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):      FTP 物件.           (line  154)
* retrieve() (urllib.request.URLopener 的方法): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  112)
* retrlines() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):       FTP 物件.           (line  177)
* RETRY (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中):  tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  129)
* RETRYCANCEL (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  155)
* Return (ast 中的類別):                 函式和類別定義.     (line  115)
* return (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  212)
* return_annotation (inspect.Signature 的屬性): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  115)
* RETURN_CONST (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  354)
* RETURN_GENERATOR (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1126)
* return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy 的方法): CookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   18)
* RETURN_VALUE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  350)
* return_value (unittest.mock.Mock 的屬性): Mock 類別.       (line  312)
* returncode (asyncio.subprocess.Process 的屬性): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  145)
* returncode (subprocess.CalledProcessError 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  211)
* returncode (subprocess.CompletedProcess 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  110)
* returncode (subprocess.Popen 的屬性):  Popen Objects.      (line  149)
* retval (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  412)
* reveal_type() (於 typing 模組中):      函式與裝飾器.       (line   82)
* reverse_order() (pstats.Stats 的方法): The Stats Class.    (line  157)
* reverse_pointer (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* reverse_pointer (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.
                                                             (line  251)
* reverse() (array.array 的方法):        array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  193)
* reverse() (collections.deque 的方法):  deque 物件.         (line   94)
* reverse() (於 audioop 模組中):         audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  191)
* reverse()（序列方法）:                 Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* Reversible (collections.abc 中的類別): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   49)
* Reversible (typing 中的類別):          Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   57)
* revert() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar 的方法): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line  142)
* rewind() (aifc.aifc 的方法):           aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  106)
* rewind() (sunau.AU_read 的方法):       AU_read 物件.       (line   50)
* rewind() (wave.Wave_read 的方法):      Wave_read 物件.     (line   52)
* RFC_4122 (於 uuid 模組中):             uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  216)
* RFC; RFC 1014:                         xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 1014 <1>:                     xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 1123:                         函式<4>.            (line  632)
* RFC; RFC 1123 <1>:                     函式<4>.            (line  643)
* RFC; RFC 1123 <2>:                     函式<4>.            (line  658)
* RFC; RFC 1321:                         hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 1422:                         Certificates.       (line   38)
* RFC; RFC 1422 <1>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   41)
* RFC; RFC 1521:                         安全性注意事項<2>.  (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 1521 <1>:                     quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 1521 <2>:                     quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 1522:                         binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 1522 <1>:                     quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 1522 <2>:                     quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 1524:                         mailcap --- Mailcap 檔案處理.
                                                             (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 1524 <1>:                     mailcap --- Mailcap 檔案處理.
                                                             (line   42)
* RFC; RFC 1730:                         imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 1738:                         URL Quoting.        (line  187)
* RFC; RFC 1750:                         隨機產生.           (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 1766:                         locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  357)
* RFC; RFC 1766 <1>:                     locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  370)
* RFC; RFC 1808:                         urllib.             (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <1>:                     urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <2>:                     URL Parsing.        (line   42)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <3>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  181)
* RFC; RFC 1832:                         xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line   39)
* RFC; RFC 1832 <1>:                     xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line   41)
* RFC; RFC 1869:                         smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 1869 <1>:                     smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  190)
* RFC; RFC 1870:                         smtpd<4>.           (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 1939:                         poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 1939 <1>:                     poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2014:                         hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 2033:                         New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  567)
* RFC; RFC 2045:                         email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <1>:                     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  314)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <2>:                     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  316)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <3>:                     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  319)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <4>:                     email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  239)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <5>:                     email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  297)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <6>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  420)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <7>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  424)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <8>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  427)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <9>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  524)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <10>:                    email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <11>:                    base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <12>:                    base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <13>:                    base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  226)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <14>:                    base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  233)
* RFC; RFC 2045 Section 6.8:             Binary Objects.     (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2046:                         email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2046 <1>:                     Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   83)
* RFC; RFC 2046 <2>:                     email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2047:                         PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <1>:                     email<7>.           (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <2>:                     email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <3>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  363)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <4>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  369)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <5>:                     email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line   78)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <6>:                     email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  123)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <7>:                     email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  128)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <8>:                     email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <9>:                     email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   55)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <10>:                    email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line  117)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <11>:                    email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line  141)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <12>:                    email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line   78)
* RFC; RFC 2060:                         imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2060 <1>:                     IMAP4 物件.         (line  317)
* RFC; RFC 2068:                         http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2104:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 2109:                         http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <1>:                     http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理.
                                                             (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <2>:                     http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理.
                                                             (line   67)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <3>:                     Morsel 物件.        (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <4>:                     Morsel 物件.        (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <5>:                     Morsel 物件.        (line   91)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <6>:                     Morsel 物件.        (line  103)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <7>:                     http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <8>:                     http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line  102)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <9>:                     http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line  114)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <10>:                    http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line  141)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <11>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <12>:                    Cookie 物件<2>.     (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <13>:                    Cookie 物件<2>.     (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <14>:                    Cookie 物件<2>.     (line   74)
* RFC; RFC 2183:                         email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2183 <1>:                     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  457)
* RFC; RFC 2183 <2>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  630)
* RFC; RFC 2231:                         Library<5>.         (line  106)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <1>:                     email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <2>:                     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  278)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <3>:                     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  281)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <4>:                     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  363)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <5>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  383)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <6>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  387)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <7>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  489)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <8>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  497)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <9>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  531)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <10>:                    email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <11>:                    email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  189)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <12>:                    email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  193)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <13>:                    email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  202)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <14>:                    email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  209)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <15>:                    email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  218)
* RFC; RFC 2295:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  184)
* RFC; RFC 2324:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  133)
* RFC; RFC 2342:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 2342 <1>:                     IMAP4 物件.         (line  164)
* RFC; RFC 2368:                         URL Quoting.        (line  177)
* RFC; RFC 2373:                         Address objects.    (line   95)
* RFC; RFC 2373 <1>:                     Address objects.    (line  161)
* RFC; RFC 2373 <2>:                     Address objects.    (line  170)
* RFC; RFC 2396:                         urllib parse<5>.    (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <1>:                     urllib.             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <2>:                     URL Parsing.        (line  257)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <3>:                     URL Quoting.        (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <4>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  172)
* RFC; RFC 2397:                         DataHandler 物件.   (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 2449:                         POP3 物件.          (line   26)
* RFC; RFC 2487:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 2518:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 2595:                         poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2595 <1>:                     POP3 物件.          (line  116)
* RFC; RFC 2616:                         PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <1>:                     wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line   95)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <2>:                     wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <3>:                     HTTPRedirectHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <4>:                     HTTPRedirectHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <5>:                     Legacy interface.   (line  162)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <6>:                     urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line   41)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <7>:                     簡介<14>.           (line   29)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <8>:                     HTTPError.          (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <9>:                     Error Codes.        (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 14.23:           HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2:           HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2 <1>:       HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2640:                         Changes in the Python API.
                                                             (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <1>:                     Tests<39>.          (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <2>:                     ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <3>:                     FTP 物件.           (line   60)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <4>:                     FTP_TLS 物件.       (line   62)
* RFC; RFC 2732:                         urllib parse<6>.    (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 2732 <1>:                     New and Improved Modules.
                                                             (line  643)
* RFC; RFC 2732 <2>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  168)
* RFC; RFC 2774:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  194)
* RFC; RFC 2818:                         ssl<11>.            (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2821:                         email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 2822:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <1>:                     標準模組庫.         (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <2>:                     函式<4>.            (line  634)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <3>:                     函式<4>.            (line  645)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <4>:                     函式<4>.            (line  374)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <5>:                     函式<4>.            (line  660)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <6>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  273)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <7>:                     email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <8>:                     email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <9>:                     email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <10>:                    email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <11>:                    email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line  116)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <12>:                    email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line  134)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <13>:                    email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line   29)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <14>:                    email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <15>:                    email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  112)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <16>:                    email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  239)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <17>:                    email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line  155)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <18>:                    Message 物件.       (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <19>:                    http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  114)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <20>:                    http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  116)
* RFC; RFC 2964:                         http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line  154)
* RFC; RFC 2965:                         urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  213)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <1>:                     urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  218)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <2>:                     Request Objects.    (line   50)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <3>:                     http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <4>:                     http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line  102)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <5>:                     http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line  114)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <6>:                     http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line  143)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <7>:                     http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line  145)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <8>:                     http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理.
                                                             (line  152)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <9>:                     FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <10>:                    CookiePolicy 物件.  (line   74)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <11>:                    CookiePolicy 物件.  (line   79)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <12>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <13>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   90)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <14>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  101)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <15>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  105)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <16>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  114)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <17>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  151)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <18>:                    Cookie 物件<2>.     (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <19>:                    範例<39>.           (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 2980:                         nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2980 <1>:                     方法.               (line  317)
* RFC; RFC 3056:                         Address objects.    (line  298)
* RFC; RFC 3164:                         Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3171:                         Address objects.    (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 3207:                         New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  572)
* RFC; RFC 3229:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   52)
* RFC; RFC 3280:                         SSL Sockets.        (line  134)
* RFC; RFC 3330:                         Address objects.    (line  169)
* RFC; RFC 3339:                         Displaying the date/time in messages.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 3454:                         Security<15>.       (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 3454 <1>:                     stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 3454 <2>:                     stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備.
                                                             (line   26)
* RFC; RFC 3490:                         Text Encodings.     (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <1>:                     encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <2>:                     encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   57)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <3>:                     encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   62)
* RFC; RFC 3490 Section 3.1:             encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 3491:                         Security<15>.       (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 3492:                         Text Encodings.     (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 3492 <1>:                     encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3493:                         範例<24>.           (line  227)
* RFC; RFC 3501:                         IMAP4 物件.         (line  328)
* RFC; RFC 3542:                         Library<51>.        (line  351)
* RFC; RFC 3542 <1>:                     其他函式<2>.        (line  312)
* RFC; RFC 3548:                         New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 3548 <1>:                     binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line   50)
* RFC; RFC 3548 <2>:                     binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line   65)
* RFC; RFC 3659:                         FTP 物件.           (line  252)
* RFC; RFC 3879:                         Address objects.    (line  276)
* RFC; RFC 3927:                         Address objects.    (line  174)
* RFC; RFC 3977:                         nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 3977 <1>:                     屬性<2>.            (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 3977 <2>:                     方法.               (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 3977 <3>:                     方法.               (line  138)
* RFC; RFC 3977 <4>:                     方法.               (line  318)
* RFC; RFC 3986:                         urllib parse.       (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <1>:                     urllib parse<3>.    (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <2>:                     urllib parse<4>.    (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <3>:                     urllib parse<5>.    (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <4>:                     urllib.             (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <5>:                     New and Improved Modules.
                                                             (line  622)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <6>:                     Porting to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   80)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <7>:                     urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件.
                                                             (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <8>:                     URL Parsing.        (line  142)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <9>:                     URL Parsing.        (line  368)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <10>:                    URL parsing security.
                                                             (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <11>:                    URL Quoting.        (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <12>:                    URL Quoting.        (line  160)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <13>:                    http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  101)
* RFC; RFC 4007:                         Address objects.    (line  219)
* RFC; RFC 4007 <1>:                     Address objects.    (line  290)
* RFC; RFC 4086:                         TLS 1 3.            (line   45)
* RFC; RFC 4122:                         New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  417)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <1>:                     New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  422)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <2>:                     uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <3>:                     uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <4>:                     uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line   68)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <5>:                     uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  131)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <6>:                     uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <7>:                     uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  218)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <8>:                     uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  231)
* RFC; RFC 4180:                         csv --- CSV 檔案讀取及寫入.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 4193:                         Address objects.    (line  278)
* RFC; RFC 4217:                         FTP_TLS 物件.       (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 4291:                         Library<31>.        (line  653)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <1>:                     Address objects.    (line  213)
* RFC; RFC 4380:                         Address objects.    (line  305)
* RFC; RFC 4627:                         json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 4627 <1>:                     位於頂層的非物件及非列表值.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4642:                         nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  117)
* RFC; RFC 4648:                         Documentation<28>.  (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <1>:                     base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <2>:                     base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <3>:                     base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <4>:                     base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  106)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <5>:                     base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  117)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <6>:                     base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line  124)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <7>:                     安全性注意事項<2>.  (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <8>:                     安全性注意事項<4>.  (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 4918:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   46)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <1>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  139)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <2>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  142)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <3>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  145)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <4>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  188)
* RFC; RFC 4954:                         SMTP 物件.          (line  135)
* RFC; RFC 4954 <1>:                     SMTP 物件.          (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 5161:                         imaplib<2>.         (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5161 <1>:                     IMAP4 物件.         (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 5246:                         常數<8>.            (line  451)
* RFC; RFC 5246 <1>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   53)
* RFC; RFC 5280:                         Other Changes.      (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <1>:                     Changes in the Python API<6>.
                                                             (line   95)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <2>:                     認證處理.           (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <3>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 5321:                         smtpd<4>.           (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5321 <1>:                     email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  453)
* RFC; RFC 5322:                         email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <1>:                     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <2>:                     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <3>:                     Parser API.         (line   41)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <4>:                     email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line  102)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <5>:                     email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line  195)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <6>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  149)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <7>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  342)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <8>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  363)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <9>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  369)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <10>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  381)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <11>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  414)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <12>:                    email errors：例外和缺陷類別.
                                                             (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <13>:                    email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <14>:                    email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  117)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <15>:                    email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  122)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <16>:                    email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  123)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <17>:                    email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  138)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <18>:                    email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  159)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <19>:                    email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  416)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <20>:                    email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  450)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <21>:                    email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  483)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <22>:                    email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <23>:                    SMTP 物件.          (line  313)
* RFC; RFC 5424:                         SysLogHandler.      (line   71)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <1>:                     Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <2>:                     Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <3>:                     Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <4>:                     Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5424 Section 6:               Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 5735:                         Address objects.    (line  160)
* RFC; RFC 5789:                         HTTP 方法.          (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 5842:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 5842 <1>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  191)
* RFC; RFC 5891:                         encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5894:                         Security<15>.       (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5895:                         encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5929:                         SSL Sockets.        (line  224)
* RFC; RFC 6066:                         常數<8>.            (line  361)
* RFC; RFC 6066 <1>:                     SSL Contexts.       (line  293)
* RFC; RFC 6066 <2>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   57)
* RFC; RFC 6152:                         smtpd<2>.           (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6531:                         email<4>.           (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <1>:                     smtpd<2>.           (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <2>:                     smtplib<2>.         (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <3>:                     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  102)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <4>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  385)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <5>:                     smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   67)
* RFC; RFC 6532:                         email<4>.           (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <1>:                     email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <2>:                     email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <3>:                     Parser API.         (line   42)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <4>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  383)
* RFC; RFC 6585:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  154)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <1>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <2>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  160)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <3>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  197)
* RFC; RFC 6855:                         imaplib<2>.         (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <1>:                     imaplib<2>.         (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <2>:                     IMAP4 物件.         (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <3>:                     IMAP4 物件.         (line   90)
* RFC; RFC 6856:                         poplib<2>.          (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 6856 <1>:                     POP3 物件.          (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 7159:                         json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 7159 <1>:                     合規性與互通性（Interoperability）.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 7159 <2>:                     位於頂層的非物件及非列表值.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 7230:                         urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  185)
* RFC; RFC 7230 <1>:                     HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line  191)
* RFC; RFC 7231:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <1>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <2>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <3>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <4>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <5>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <6>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <7>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   40)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <8>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   55)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <9>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   58)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <10>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   61)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <11>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <12>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   70)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <13>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   73)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <14>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   79)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <15>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   85)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <16>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <17>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   91)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <18>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <19>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   97)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <20>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  103)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <21>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  106)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <22>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <23>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  112)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <24>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  118)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <25>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  121)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <26>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  124)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <27>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  130)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <28>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  151)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <29>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  166)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <30>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  169)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <31>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  172)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <32>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  175)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <33>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  178)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <34>:                    HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  181)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <35>:                    HTTP 狀態分類.      (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <36>:                    HTTP 狀態分類.      (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <37>:                    HTTP 狀態分類.      (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <38>:                    HTTP 狀態分類.      (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <39>:                    HTTP 狀態分類.      (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <40>:                    HTTP 方法.          (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <41>:                    HTTP 方法.          (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <42>:                    HTTP 方法.          (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <43>:                    HTTP 方法.          (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <44>:                    HTTP 方法.          (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <45>:                    HTTP 方法.          (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <46>:                    HTTP 方法.          (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <47>:                    HTTP 方法.          (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 7232:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   67)
* RFC; RFC 7232 <1>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 7233:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 7233 <1>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  127)
* RFC; RFC 7235:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   82)
* RFC; RFC 7235 <1>:                     HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  100)
* RFC; RFC 7238:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   76)
* RFC; RFC 7301:                         Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 7301 <1>:                     常數<8>.            (line  340)
* RFC; RFC 7301 <2>:                     SSL Contexts.       (line  261)
* RFC; RFC 7525:                         TLS 1 3.            (line   65)
* RFC; RFC 7538:                         Library<30>.        (line  171)
* RFC; RFC 7540:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  136)
* RFC; RFC 7693:                         BLAKE2.             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 7725:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  163)
* RFC; RFC 7914:                         密鑰的生成.         (line   46)
* RFC; RFC 821:                          smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 821 <1>:                      smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  185)
* RFC; RFC 822:                          New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 822 <1>:                      函式<4>.            (line  627)
* RFC; RFC 822 <2>:                      函式<4>.            (line  630)
* RFC; RFC 822 <3>:                      函式<4>.            (line  638)
* RFC; RFC 822 <4>:                      函式<4>.            (line  641)
* RFC; RFC 822 <5>:                      函式<4>.            (line  653)
* RFC; RFC 822 <6>:                      函式<4>.            (line  656)
* RFC; RFC 822 <7>:                      email：範例.        (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 822 <8>:                      email header：國際化標頭.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 822 <9>:                      HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line  178)
* RFC; RFC 822 <10>:                     SMTP 物件.          (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 822 <11>:                     SMTP 物件.          (line  228)
* RFC; RFC 822 <12>:                     SMTP 物件.          (line  229)
* RFC; RFC 822 <13>:                     SMTP 範例.          (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 822 <14>:                     The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 8297:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 8305:                         打開網路連線.       (line   63)
* RFC; RFC 8305 <1>:                     打開網路連線.       (line   69)
* RFC; RFC 8470:                         HTTP 狀態碼.        (line  148)
* RFC; RFC 854:                          telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 854 <1>:                      telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端.
                                                             (line   67)
* RFC; RFC 9239:                         Library<23>.        (line   76)
* RFC; RFC 959:                          ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 977:                          nntplib --- NNTP 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line   16)
* rfc2109 (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性): Cookie 物件<2>.    (line   72)
* rfc2109_as_netscape (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   83)
* rfc2965 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy 的屬性): CookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   72)
* rfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  118)
* rfile (socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler 的屬性): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* rfind() (bytearray 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  212)
* rfind() (bytes 的方法):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  212)
* rfind() (mmap.mmap 的方法):            mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  272)
* rfind() (str 的方法):                  String Methods<2>.  (line  401)
* rgb_to_hls() (於 colorsys 模組中):     colorsys --- 顏色系統間的轉換.
                                                             (line   33)
* rgb_to_hsv() (於 colorsys 模組中):     colorsys --- 顏色系統間的轉換.
                                                             (line   41)
* rgb_to_yiq() (於 colorsys 模組中):     colorsys --- 顏色系統間的轉換.
                                                             (line   25)
* rglob() (pathlib.Path 的方法):         讀取目錄.           (line   67)
* richcmpfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   83)
* right (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):         The dircmp class.   (line   45)
* right_list (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):    The dircmp class.   (line   54)
* right_only (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):    The dircmp class.   (line   67)
* right() (於 turtle 模組中):            Turtle motion.      (line   40)
* RIGHTSHIFT (於 token 模組中):          token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  162)
* RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL (於 token 模組中):     token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  206)
* rindex() (bytearray 的方法):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  226)
* rindex() (bytes 的方法):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  226)
* rindex() (str 的方法):                 String Methods<2>.  (line  408)
* rjust() (bytearray 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  342)
* rjust() (bytes 的方法):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  342)
* rjust() (str 的方法):                  String Methods<2>.  (line  413)
* RLIM_INFINITY (於 resource 模組中):    Resource Limits.    (line   20)
* RLIMIT_AS (於 resource 模組中):        Resource Limits.    (line  148)
* RLIMIT_CORE (於 resource 模組中):      Resource Limits.    (line   91)
* RLIMIT_CPU (於 resource 模組中):       Resource Limits.    (line   98)
* RLIMIT_DATA (於 resource 模組中):      Resource Limits.    (line  110)
* RLIMIT_FSIZE (於 resource 模組中):     Resource Limits.    (line  106)
* RLIMIT_KQUEUES (於 resource 模組中):   Resource Limits.    (line  224)
* RLIMIT_MEMLOCK (於 resource 模組中):   Resource Limits.    (line  138)
* RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE (於 resource 模組中):  Resource Limits.    (line  153)
* RLIMIT_NICE (於 resource 模組中):      Resource Limits.    (line  161)
* RLIMIT_NOFILE (於 resource 模組中):    Resource Limits.    (line  129)
* RLIMIT_NPROC (於 resource 模組中):     Resource Limits.    (line  125)
* RLIMIT_NPTS (於 resource 模組中):      Resource Limits.    (line  216)
* RLIMIT_OFILE (於 resource 模組中):     Resource Limits.    (line  134)
* RLIMIT_RSS (於 resource 模組中):       Resource Limits.    (line  120)
* RLIMIT_RTPRIO (於 resource 模組中):    Resource Limits.    (line  170)
* RLIMIT_RTTIME (於 resource 模組中):    Resource Limits.    (line  178)
* RLIMIT_SBSIZE (於 resource 模組中):    Resource Limits.    (line  195)
* RLIMIT_SIGPENDING (於 resource 模組中): Resource Limits.   (line  187)
* RLIMIT_STACK (於 resource 模組中):     Resource Limits.    (line  114)
* RLIMIT_SWAP (於 resource 模組中):      Resource Limits.    (line  205)
* RLIMIT_VMEM (於 resource 模組中):      Resource Limits.    (line  142)
* RLock (multiprocessing 中的類別):      Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  101)
* RLock (threading 中的類別):            RLock 物件.         (line   32)
* RLock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  202)
* rmd() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):             FTP 物件.           (line  305)
* rmdir() (pathlib.Path 的方法):         Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line   54)
* rmdir() (於 os 模組中):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  805)
* rmdir() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line  110)
* RMFF:                                  chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line    8)
* rms() (於 audioop 模組中):             audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  196)
* rmtree() (於 shutil 模組中):           Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  261)
* rmtree() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line  117)
* RobotFileParser (urllib.robotparser 中的類別): urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line   15)
* robots.txt:                            urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line    8)
* rollback() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.   (line   76)
* rollover() (tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile 的方法): tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  137)
* ROMAN (於 tkinter.font 模組中):        tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器.
                                                             (line   15)
* root (pathlib.PurePath 的屬性):        方法與屬性.         (line   25)
* rotate() (collections.deque 的方法):   deque 物件.         (line  100)
* rotate() (decimal.Context 的方法):     Context objects.    (line  500)
* rotate() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):     Decimal objects.    (line  528)
* rotate() (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler 的方法): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   74)
* RotatingFileHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* rotation_filename() (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler 的方法): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   58)
* rotator (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler 的屬性): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   49)
* ROUND_05UP (於 decimal 模組中):        Rounding modes.     (line   34)
* ROUND_CEILING (於 decimal 模組中):     Rounding modes.     (line    6)
* ROUND_DOWN (於 decimal 模組中):        Rounding modes.     (line   10)
* ROUND_FLOOR (於 decimal 模組中):       Rounding modes.     (line   14)
* ROUND_HALF_DOWN (於 decimal 模組中):   Rounding modes.     (line   18)
* ROUND_HALF_EVEN (於 decimal 模組中):   Rounding modes.     (line   22)
* ROUND_HALF_UP (於 decimal 模組中):     Rounding modes.     (line   26)
* ROUND_UP (於 decimal 模組中):          Rounding modes.     (line   30)
* Rounded (decimal 中的類別):            Signals.            (line   77)
* rounds (sys.float_info 的屬性):        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  653)
* Row (sqlite3 中的類別):                Row 物件.           (line    6)
* row_factory (sqlite3.Connection 的屬性): Connection 物件.  (line  763)
* row_factory (sqlite3.Cursor 的屬性):   Cursor 物件.        (line  225)
* rowcount (sqlite3.Cursor 的屬性):      Cursor 物件.        (line  214)
* RPAR (於 token 模組中):                token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   58)
* rpartition() (bytearray 的方法):       Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  238)
* rpartition() (bytes 的方法):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  238)
* rpartition() (str 的方法):             String Methods<2>.  (line  420)
* rpc_paths (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler 的屬性): SimpleXMLRPCServer 物件.
                                                             (line   64)
* rpop() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   47)
* RS (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  115)
* rset() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   75)
* RShift (ast 中的類別):                 運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* rshift() (於 operator 模組中):         operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  142)
* rsplit() (bytearray 的方法):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  354)
* rsplit() (bytes 的方法):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  354)
* rsplit() (str 的方法):                 String Methods<2>.  (line  428)
* RSQB (於 token 模組中):                token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   66)
* rstrip() (bytearray 的方法):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  365)
* rstrip() (bytes 的方法):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  365)
* rstrip() (str 的方法):                 String Methods<2>.  (line  437)
* rt() (於 turtle 模組中):               Turtle motion.      (line   40)
* RTLD_DEEPBIND (於 os 模組中):          Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_GLOBAL (於 os 模組中):            Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_LAZY (於 os 模組中):              Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_LOCAL (於 os 模組中):             Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_NODELETE (於 os 模組中):          Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_NOLOAD (於 os 模組中):            Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_NOW (於 os 模組中):               Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* ruler (cmd.Cmd 的屬性):                Cmd 物件.           (line  172)
* run (pdb command):                     Debugger Commands.  (line  393)
* Run script（執行腳本）:                Format menu Editor window only.
                                                             (line   53)
* run_coroutine_threadsafe() (於 asyncio 模組中): Scheduling From Other Threads.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_docstring_examples() (於 doctest 模組中): 基礎 API.    (line  127)
* run_forever() (asyncio.loop 的方法):   啟動和停止迴圈.     (line   15)
* run_in_executor() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 在執行緒池或行程池中執行程式碼.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_in_subinterp() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  650)
* run_module() (於 runpy 模組中):        runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line   27)
* run_path() (於 runpy 模組中):          runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組.
                                                             (line   99)
* run_python_until_end() (於 test.support.script_helper 模組中): test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   29)
* run_script() (modulefinder.ModuleFinder 的方法): modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組.
                                                             (line   37)
* run_until_complete() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 啟動和停止迴圈.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_with_locale() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  459)
* run_with_tz() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  467)
* run() (asyncio.Runner 的方法):         Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   35)
* run() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):                bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  426)
* run() (contextvars.Context 的方法):    Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line   36)
* run() (doctest.DocTestRunner 的方法):  DocTestRunner 物件. (line   95)
* run() (multiprocessing.Process 的方法): Process 與例外.    (line   35)
* run() (pdb.Pdb 的方法):                pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  208)
* run() (profile.Profile 的方法):        profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line  100)
* run() (sched.scheduler 的方法):        排程器物件.         (line   45)
* run() (threading.Thread 的方法):       Thread Objects.     (line  104)
* run() (trace.Trace 的方法):            Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   22)
* run() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase 的方法): Test cases.
                                                             (line  889)
* run() (unittest.TestCase 的方法):      Test cases.         (line   83)
* run() (unittest.TestSuite 的方法):     Grouping tests.     (line   41)
* run() (unittest.TextTestRunner 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  506)
* run() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的方法): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line   84)
* run() (於 asyncio 模組中):             運行一個 asyncio 程式.
                                                             (line    6)
* run() (於 pdb 模組中):                 pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  121)
* run() (於 profile 模組中):             profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line    9)
* run() (於 subprocess 模組中):          Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   11)
* runcall() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):            bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  443)
* runcall() (pdb.Pdb 的方法):            pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  208)
* runcall() (profile.Profile 的方法):    profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line  109)
* runcall() (於 pdb 模組中):             pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  140)
* runcode() (code.InteractiveInterpreter 的方法): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* runctx() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):             bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  438)
* runctx() (profile.Profile 的方法):     profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line  104)
* runctx() (trace.Trace 的方法):         Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   28)
* runctx() (於 profile 模組中):          profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   23)
* runeval() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):            bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  432)
* runeval() (pdb.Pdb 的方法):            pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  208)
* runeval() (於 pdb 模組中):             pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  133)
* runfunc() (trace.Trace 的方法):        Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   35)
* Runner (asyncio 中的類別):             Runner context manager.
                                                             (line    6)
* running() (concurrent.futures.Future 的方法): Future 物件. (line   23)
* runsource() (code.InteractiveInterpreter 的方法): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* runtime (sys._emscripten_info 的屬性): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  338)
* runtime_checkable() (於 typing 模組中): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  160)
* RuntimeError:                          實體例外.           (line  198)
* RuntimeWarning:                        警告.               (line   44)
* RUSAGE_BOTH (於 resource 模組中):      Resource Usage.     (line  122)
* RUSAGE_CHILDREN (於 resource 模組中):  Resource Usage.     (line  116)
* RUSAGE_SELF (於 resource 模組中):      Resource Usage.     (line  110)
* RUSAGE_THREAD (於 resource 模組中):    Resource Usage.     (line  128)
* RWF_APPEND (於 os 模組中):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  665)
* RWF_DSYNC (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  645)
* RWF_HIPRI (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  589)
* RWF_NOWAIT (於 os 模組中):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  574)
* RWF_SYNC (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  655)
* S (於 re 模組中):                      旗標.               (line  107)
* S_ENFMT (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  317)
* S_IEXEC (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  331)
* S_IFBLK (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  206)
* S_IFCHR (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  214)
* S_IFDIR (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  210)
* S_IFDOOR (於 stat 模組中):             stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  222)
* S_IFIFO (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  218)
* S_IFLNK (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  198)
* S_IFMT() (於 stat 模組中):             stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   78)
* S_IFPORT (於 stat 模組中):             stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  228)
* S_IFREG (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  202)
* S_IFSOCK (於 stat 模組中):             stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  194)
* S_IFWHT (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  234)
* S_IMODE() (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   71)
* S_IREAD (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  323)
* S_IRGRP (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  289)
* S_IROTH (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  305)
* S_IRUSR (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  273)
* S_IRWXG (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  285)
* S_IRWXO (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  301)
* S_IRWXU (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  269)
* S_ISBLK() (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   30)
* S_ISCHR() (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   25)
* S_ISDIR() (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   21)
* S_ISDOOR() (於 stat 模組中):           stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   50)
* S_ISFIFO() (於 stat 模組中):           stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   38)
* S_ISGID (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  251)
* S_ISLNK() (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   42)
* S_ISPORT() (於 stat 模組中):           stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   56)
* S_ISREG() (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   34)
* S_ISSOCK() (於 stat 模組中):           stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   46)
* S_ISUID (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  247)
* S_ISVTX (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  262)
* S_ISWHT() (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line   62)
* S_IWGRP (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  293)
* S_IWOTH (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  309)
* S_IWRITE (於 stat 模組中):             stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  327)
* S_IWUSR (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  277)
* S_IXGRP (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  297)
* S_IXOTH (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  313)
* S_IXUSR (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  281)
* safe (uuid.SafeUUID 的屬性):           uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line   31)
* safe_path (sys.flags 的屬性):          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  556)
* safe_substitute() (string.Template 的方法): 模板字串.      (line   45)
* SafeChildWatcher (asyncio 中的類別):   Process Watchers.   (line  126)
* saferepr() (於 pprint 模組中):         函式<3>.            (line  101)
* SafeUUID (uuid 中的類別):              uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line   27)
* same_files (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):    The dircmp class.   (line   85)
* same_quantum() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.  (line  504)
* same_quantum() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.  (line  540)
* samefile() (pathlib.Path 的方法):      Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  128)
* samefile() (於 os.path 模組中):        os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  315)
* SameFileError:                         Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   52)
* sameopenfile() (於 os.path 模組中):    os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  328)
* samesite (http.cookies.Morsel 的屬性): Morsel 物件.        (line   13)
* samestat() (於 os.path 模組中):        os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  336)
* sample() (於 random 模組中):           回傳序列的函式.     (line   56)
* samples() (statistics.NormalDist 的方法): NormalDist 物件. (line   49)
* SATURDAY (於 calendar 模組中):         calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  346)
* save() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar 的方法): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line  106)
* save() (test.support.SaveSignals 的方法): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  760)
* SaveAs (tkinter.filedialog 中的類別):  Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   60)
* SAVEDCWD (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   14)
* SaveFileDialog (tkinter.filedialog 中的類別): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  145)
* SaveKey() (於 winreg 模組中):          函式<12>.           (line  394)
* SaveSignals (test.support 中的類別):   test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  755)
* savetty() (於 curses 模組中):          函式<5>.            (line  443)
* SAX2DOM (xml.dom.pulldom 中的類別):    xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹.
                                                             (line   81)
* SAXException:                          xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援.
                                                             (line   86)
* SAXNotRecognizedException:             xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援.
                                                             (line  111)
* SAXNotSupportedException:              xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援.
                                                             (line  118)
* SAXParseException:                     xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援.
                                                             (line  103)
* scaleb() (decimal.Context 的方法):     Context objects.    (line  508)
* scaleb() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):     Decimal objects.    (line  550)
* scandir() (於 os 模組中):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  822)
* scanf（C 函式）:                       模擬 scanf.         (line    6)
* SCHED_BATCH (於 os 模組中):            Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   19)
* SCHED_FIFO (於 os 模組中):             Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   32)
* sched_get_priority_max() (於 os 模組中): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   63)
* sched_get_priority_min() (於 os 模組中): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   58)
* sched_getaffinity() (於 os 模組中):    Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line  109)
* sched_getparam() (於 os 模組中):       Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   87)
* sched_getscheduler() (於 os 模組中):   Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   75)
* SCHED_IDLE (於 os 模組中):             Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   24)
* SCHED_OTHER (於 os 模組中):            Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   15)
* sched_param (os 中的類別):             Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   46)
* sched_priority (os.sched_param 的屬性): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   54)
* SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK (於 os 模組中):    Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   40)
* SCHED_RR (於 os 模組中):               Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   36)
* sched_rr_get_interval() (於 os 模組中): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   93)
* sched_setaffinity() (於 os 模組中):    Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line  102)
* sched_setparam() (於 os 模組中):       Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   81)
* sched_setscheduler() (於 os 模組中):   Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   68)
* SCHED_SPORADIC (於 os 模組中):         Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   28)
* sched_yield() (於 os 模組中):          Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   98)
* scheduler (sched 中的類別):            sched --- 事件排程器.
                                                             (line   12)
* schema (於 msilib 模組中):             Precomputed tables. (line   10)
* SCM_CREDS2 (於 socket 模組中):         常數<7>.            (line  314)
* scope_id (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.  (line  288)
* scope（作用域）:                       Naming and binding. (line    6)
* scope（作用域） <1>:                   Resolution of names.
                                                             (line    6)
* Screen (turtle 中的類別):              Public classes.     (line   30)
* screensize() (於 turtle 模組中):       Window control.     (line   63)
* script_from_examples() (於 doctest 模組中): Debugging.     (line   72)
* scroll() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  499)
* ScrolledCanvas (turtle 中的類別):      Public classes.     (line   34)
* ScrolledText (tkinter.scrolledtext 中的類別): tkinter scrolledtext --- 捲動文字小工具.
                                                             (line   24)
* scrollok() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  503)
* scrypt() (於 hashlib 模組中):          密鑰的生成.         (line   43)
* seal() (於 unittest.mock 模組中):      密封 mock.          (line    6)
* search() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line  223)
* search() (re.Pattern 的方法):          Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* search() (於 re 模組中):               Functions.          (line   36)
* second (datetime.datetime 的屬性):     datetime 物件.      (line  307)
* second (datetime.time 的屬性):         time 物件.          (line   58)
* seconds (datetime.timedelta 的屬性):   timedelta 物件.     (line   99)
* SECTCRE (configparser.ConfigParser 的屬性): Customizing Parser Behaviour.
                                                             (line  301)
* sections() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  104)
* secure (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性): Cookie 物件<2>.     (line   49)
* secure (http.cookies.Morsel 的屬性):   Morsel 物件.        (line   13)
* Secure Sockets Layer（安全 socket 層）: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器.
                                                             (line    8)
* security considerations（安全性注意事項）: 例外<17>.       (line   27)
* security_level (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性): SSL Contexts.      (line  627)
* see() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法):   ttk Treeview.       (line  240)
* seed_bits (sys.hash_info 的屬性):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1011)
* seed() (random.Random 的方法):         替代產生器.         (line   17)
* seed() (於 random 模組中):             簿記函式 bookkeeping functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* SEEK_CUR (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  310)
* SEEK_DATA (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  334)
* SEEK_END (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  310)
* SEEK_HOLE (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  334)
* SEEK_SET (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  310)
* seek() (chunk.Chunk 的方法):           chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line   95)
* seek() (io.IOBase 的方法):             I/O 基礎類別.       (line   94)
* seek() (io.TextIOBase 的方法):         文字 I/O<2>.        (line   66)
* seek() (io.TextIOWrapper 的方法):      文字 I/O<2>.        (line  203)
* seek() (mmap.mmap 的方法):             mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  282)
* seek() (sqlite3.Blob 的方法):          Blob 物件.          (line   63)
* seekable() (bz2.BZ2File 的方法):       De compression of files.
                                                             (line   98)
* seekable() (io.IOBase 的方法):         I/O 基礎類別.       (line  115)
* Select (tkinter.tix 中的類別):         Basic Widgets.      (line   59)
* select() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line  240)
* select() (selectors.BaseSelector 的方法): Classes<3>.      (line  108)
* select() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 的方法): ttk Notebook.      (line   51)
* select() (於 select 模組中):           select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line  113)
* selected_alpn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  230)
* selected_npn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  240)
* selection_add() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  263)
* selection_remove() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  270)
* selection_set() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  256)
* selection_toggle() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  277)
* selection() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.   (line  248)
* selector (urllib.request.Request 的屬性): Request Objects. (line   34)
* SelectorEventLoop (asyncio 中的類別):  事件迴圈實作.       (line   12)
* SelectorKey (selectors 中的類別):      Classes<3>.         (line   29)
* SelectSelector (selectors 中的類別):   Classes<3>.         (line  167)
* Self (於 typing 模組中):               特別型別.           (line  123)
* Semaphore (asyncio 中的類別):          Semaphore.          (line    6)
* Semaphore (multiprocessing 中的類別):  Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  166)
* Semaphore (threading 中的類別):        Semaphore Objects.  (line   19)
* Semaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  207)
* semaphores, binary（號誌，二進位）:    _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* SEMI (於 token 模組中):                token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   78)
* SEND (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1135)
* send_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 的方法): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* send_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  216)
* send_fds() (於 socket 模組中):         其他函式<2>.        (line  433)
* send_header() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  251)
* send_message() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):  SMTP 物件.          (line  303)
* send_response_only() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  263)
* send_response() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  236)
* send_signal() (asyncio.subprocess.Process 的方法): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   85)
* send_signal() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 的方法): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   44)
* send_signal() (subprocess.Popen 的方法): Popen Objects.    (line   75)
* send() (coroutine 的方法):             Coroutine Objects.  (line   23)
* send() (generator 的方法):             Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   27)
* send() (http.client.HTTPConnection 的方法): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line  210)
* send() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):         IMAP4 物件.         (line  247)
* send() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler 的方法): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* send() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 的方法): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   63)
* send() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 的方法): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* send() (socket.socket 的方法):         Socket 物件.        (line  399)
* sendall() (socket.socket 的方法):      Socket 物件.        (line  415)
* sendcmd() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):         FTP 物件.           (line  138)
* sendfile() (asyncio.loop 的方法):      傳輸檔案.           (line    6)
* sendfile() (socket.socket 的方法):     Socket 物件.        (line  507)
* sendfile() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的方法): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  234)
* sendfile() (於 os 模組中):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  699)
* SendfileNotAvailableError:             例外<8>.            (line   33)
* sendfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line  116)
* sendmail() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):      SMTP 物件.          (line  225)
* sendmsg_afalg() (socket.socket 的方法): Socket 物件.       (line  497)
* sendmsg() (socket.socket 的方法):      Socket 物件.        (line  453)
* sendto() (asyncio.DatagramTransport 的方法): Datagram Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* sendto() (socket.socket 的方法):       Socket 物件.        (line  434)
* sentinel (multiprocessing.Process 的屬性): Process 與例外. (line  156)
* sentinel (於 unittest.mock 模組中):    sentinel（哨兵）.   (line    6)
* sep (於 os 模組中):                    Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   96)
* SEPTEMBER (於 calendar 模組中):        calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  387)
* Sequence (collections.abc 中的類別):   Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   68)
* Sequence (typing 中的類別):            collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line   97)
* sequence (於 msilib 模組中):           Precomputed tables. (line   16)
* sequence（序列）:                      術語表.             (line 1105)
* sequence（序列）;item（項目）:         Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* sequence（序列）;iteration（疊代）:    疊代器型別.         (line    6)
* SequenceMatcher (difflib 中的類別):    SequenceMatcher 物件.
                                                             (line    8)
* serialize() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.  (line  645)
* serializing（序列化）;objects（物件）: pickle --- Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line    8)
* serve_forever() (asyncio.Server 的方法): Server 物件.      (line   60)
* serve_forever() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* Server (asyncio 中的類別):             Server 物件.        (line   12)
* server (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   76)
* server (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler 的屬性): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* server_activate() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  164)
* server_address (socketserver.BaseServer 的屬性): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* server_bind() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  170)
* server_close() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* server_hostname (ssl.SSLSocket 的屬性): SSL Sockets.       (line  310)
* server_side (ssl.SSLSocket 的屬性):    SSL Sockets.        (line  303)
* server_software (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  150)
* server_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  135)
* server_version (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  358)
* ServerProxy (xmlrpc.client 中的類別):  xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取.
                                                             (line   29)
* service_actions() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* session (ssl.SSLSocket 的屬性):        SSL Sockets.        (line  323)
* session_reused (ssl.SSLSocket 的屬性): SSL Sockets.        (line  333)
* session_stats() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.     (line  482)
* Set (ast 中的類別):                    文本 Literals.      (line   88)
* Set (collections.abc 中的類別):        Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   92)
* Set (typing 中的類別):                 內建型別的別名.     (line   28)
* set (內建類別):                        Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line   33)
* Set Breakpoint:                        Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* set comprehension（集合綜合運算）:     術語表.             (line 1124)
* SET_ADD (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  312)
* set_all():                             參照計數詳細資訊.   (line   83)
* set_allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的方法): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   70)
* set_alpn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  255)
* set_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer 的方法): wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   55)
* set_asyncgen_hooks() (於 sys 模組中):  sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1628)
* set_authorizer() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  336)
* set_auto_history() (於 readline 模組中): History list.     (line   43)
* set_blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的方法): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   56)
* set_blocking() (於 os 模組中):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  760)
* set_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  409)
* set_boundary() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  585)
* set_break() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  339)
* set_charset() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  234)
* set_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy 的方法): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* set_child_watcher() (於 asyncio 模組中): Process Watchers. (line   31)
* set_children() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line   25)
* set_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.       (line  241)
* set_completer_delims() (於 readline 模組中): Completion.   (line   50)
* set_completer() (於 readline 模組中):  Completion.         (line   14)
* set_completion_display_matches_hook() (於 readline 模組中): Completion.
                                                             (line   59)
* set_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager 的方法): email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容.
                                                             (line   40)
* set_content() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  587)
* set_content() (於 email.contentmanager 模組中): Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   34)
* set_continue() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):       bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  324)
* set_cookie_if_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 的方法): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line   69)
* set_cookie() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 的方法): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line   73)
* set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1653)
* set_current() (msilib.Feature 的方法): Features.           (line   14)
* set_data() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 的方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  380)
* set_data() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader 的方法): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  224)
* set_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 的方法): MaildirMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   97)
* set_debug() (asyncio.loop 的方法):     啟用除錯模式.       (line   13)
* set_debug() (於 gc 模組中):            gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   45)
* set_debuglevel() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):  FTP 物件.           (line   68)
* set_debuglevel() (http.client.HTTPConnection 的方法): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line   86)
* set_debuglevel() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法): 方法.              (line  307)
* set_debuglevel() (poplib.POP3 的方法): POP3 物件.          (line   11)
* set_debuglevel() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法): SMTP 物件.         (line    8)
* set_debuglevel() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法): Telnet Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* set_default_executor() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 在執行緒池或行程池中執行程式碼.
                                                             (line   73)
* set_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  340)
* set_default_type() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  448)
* set_default_verify_paths() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  232)
* set_defaults() (argparse.ArgumentParser 的方法): Parser defaults.
                                                             (line    6)
* set_defaults() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): 其他方法.   (line   27)
* set_ecdh_curve() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.    (line  367)
* set_errno() (於 ctypes 模組中):        Utility functions.  (line  168)
* set_escdelay() (於 curses 模組中):     函式<5>.            (line  454)
* set_event_loop_policy() (於 asyncio 模組中): Getting and Setting the Policy.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy 的方法): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* set_event_loop() (於 asyncio 模組中):  事件迴圈.           (line   55)
* set_events() (於 sys.monitoring 模組中): Setting events globally.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 錯誤處理 API.
                                                             (line    8)
* set_exception() (asyncio.Future 的方法): Future 物件<2>.   (line   50)
* set_exception() (concurrent.futures.Future 的方法): Future 物件.
                                                             (line   96)
* set_executable() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Miscellaneous<2>.
                                                             (line  110)
* set_filter() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  127)
* set_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 的方法): MaildirMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   72)
* set_flags() (mailbox.mboxMessage 的方法): mboxMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   72)
* set_flags() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 的方法): MMDFMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   71)
* set_forkserver_preload() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Miscellaneous<2>.
                                                             (line  125)
* set_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage 的方法): mboxMessage 物件. (line   53)
* set_from() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 的方法): MMDFMessage 物件. (line   52)
* set_handle_inheritable() (於 os 模組中): Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   41)
* set_history_length() (於 readline 模組中): History file.   (line   30)
* set_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 的方法): MaildirMessage 物件.
                                                             (line  108)
* set_inheritable() (socket.socket 的方法): Socket 物件.     (line  524)
* set_inheritable() (於 os 模組中):      Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   31)
* set_int_max_str_digits() (於 sys 模組中): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1429)
* set_labels() (mailbox.BabylMessage 的方法): BabylMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   51)
* set_last_error() (於 ctypes 模組中):   Utility functions.  (line  177)
* set_literal (2to3 fixer):              Fixers.             (line  289)
* set_local_events() (於 sys.monitoring 模組中): Per code object events.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_memlimit() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  300)
* set_name() (asyncio.Task 的方法):      Task Object.        (line  187)
* set_next() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):           bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  306)
* set_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的方法): Cookie 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  107)
* set_npn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts. (line  270)
* set_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy 的方法): CookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line    9)
* set_option_negotiation_callback() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法): Telnet Objects.
                                                             (line  142)
* set_param() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  349)
* set_param() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  516)
* set_pasv() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):        FTP 物件.           (line  187)
* set_payload() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  224)
* set_policy() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 的方法): CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件.
                                                             (line   57)
* set_position() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects. (line   16)
* set_pre_input_hook() (於 readline 模組中): Startup hooks.  (line   14)
* set_progress_handler() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  365)
* set_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport 的方法): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   81)
* set_proxy() (urllib.request.Request 的方法): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  114)
* set_quit() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):           bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  329)
* set_recsrc() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device 的方法): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   89)
* set_result() (asyncio.Future 的方法):  Future 物件<2>.     (line   43)
* set_result() (concurrent.futures.Future 的方法): Future 物件.
                                                             (line   87)
* set_return() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):         bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  310)
* set_running_or_notify_cancel() (concurrent.futures.Future 的方法): Future 物件.
                                                             (line   70)
* set_selection() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 的方法): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  131)
* set_seq1() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 的方法): SequenceMatcher 物件.
                                                             (line   54)
* set_seq2() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 的方法): SequenceMatcher 物件.
                                                             (line   59)
* set_seqs() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 的方法): SequenceMatcher 物件.
                                                             (line   44)
* set_sequences() (mailbox.MH 的方法):   MH 物件.            (line   58)
* set_sequences() (mailbox.MHMessage 的方法): MHMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   37)
* set_server_documentation() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 的方法): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* set_server_documentation() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer 的方法): DocXMLRPCServer 物件.
                                                             (line   24)
* set_server_name() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 的方法): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   18)
* set_server_name() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer 的方法): DocXMLRPCServer 物件.
                                                             (line   18)
* set_server_title() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 的方法): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_server_title() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer 的方法): DocXMLRPCServer 物件.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_servername_callback (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  339)
* set_start_method() (於 multiprocessing 模組中): Miscellaneous<2>.
                                                             (line  142)
* set_startup_hook() (於 readline 模組中): Startup hooks.    (line    6)
* set_step() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):           bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  302)
* set_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 的方法): MaildirMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   58)
* set_tabsize() (於 curses 模組中):      函式<5>.            (line  469)
* set_task_factory() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 建立 Futures 和 Tasks.
                                                             (line   34)
* set_threshold() (於 gc 模組中):        gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   81)
* set_trace_callback() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  379)
* set_trace() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  319)
* set_trace() (pdb.Pdb 的方法):          pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  208)
* set_trace() (於 bdb 模組中):           bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  476)
* set_trace() (於 pdb 模組中):           pdb --- The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  147)
* set_tunnel() (http.client.HTTPConnection 的方法): HTTPConnection 物件.
                                                             (line   96)
* set_type() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  549)
* set_unittest_reportflags() (於 doctest 模組中): Unittest API.
                                                             (line  173)
* set_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  144)
* set_unixfrom() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  156)
* set_until() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  314)
* SET_UPDATE (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  656)
* set_url() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 的方法): urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line   20)
* set_usage() (optparse.OptionParser 的方法): 其他方法.      (line    8)
* set_userptr() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法): Panel Objects.  (line   43)
* set_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage 的方法): BabylMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   68)
* set_wakeup_fd() (於 signal 模組中):    模組內容<5>.        (line  441)
* set_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport 的方法): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   33)
* set() (asyncio.Event 的方法):          Event.              (line   50)
* set() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  273)
* set() (configparser.RawConfigParser 的方法): RawConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line   37)
* set() (contextvars.ContextVar 的方法): Context Variables.  (line   46)
* set() (http.cookies.Morsel 的方法):    Morsel 物件.        (line   57)
* set() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device 的方法): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* set() (test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard 的方法): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   65)
* set() (threading.Event 的方法):        Event Objects.      (line   30)
* set() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox 的方法):   ttk Combobox.       (line   19)
* set() (tkinter.ttk.Spinbox 的方法):    ttk Spinbox.        (line   12)
* set() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法):   ttk Treeview.       (line  284)
* set() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的方法): Element 物件.
                                                             (line   81)
* set（集合）;comprehensions:            Set displays.       (line    6)
* set（集合）;display:                   Set displays.       (line    6)
* setacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line  254)
* setannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法): IMAP4 物件.        (line  259)
* setattrfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   48)
* setAttribute() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.  (line   67)
* setAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* setAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* setAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element 的方法): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   87)
* setattrofunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   61)
* SetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* setblocking() (socket.socket 的方法):  Socket 物件.        (line  531)
* setByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 的方法): InputSource 物件.
                                                             (line   36)
* setcbreak() (於 tty 模組中):           tty --- 終端機控制函式.
                                                             (line   50)
* setCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 的方法): InputSource 物件.
                                                             (line   55)
* SetComp (ast 中的類別):                綜合運算式 comprehensions.
                                                             (line    6)
* setcomptype() (aifc.aifc 的方法):      aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  161)
* setcomptype() (sunau.AU_write 的方法): AU_write 物件.      (line   26)
* setcomptype() (wave.Wave_write 的方法): Wave_write 物件.   (line   52)
* setconfig() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.  (line  629)
* setContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   25)
* setcontext() (於 decimal 模組中):      Context objects.    (line   18)
* setDaemon() (threading.Thread 的方法): Thread Objects.     (line  215)
* setdefault() (dict 的方法):            Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line  198)
* setdefault() (http.cookies.Morsel 的方法): Morsel 物件.    (line  101)
* setdefaulttimeout() (於 socket 模組中): 其他函式<2>.       (line  353)
* setdlopenflags() (於 sys 模組中):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1416)
* setDocumentLocator() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   10)
* setDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   34)
* setegid() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  377)
* setEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 的方法): InputSource 物件.
                                                             (line   22)
* setEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   43)
* setErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   54)
* seteuid() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  383)
* setFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   76)
* setfirstweekday() (於 calendar 模組中): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  255)
* setfmt() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* setFormatter() (logging.Handler 的方法): Handler Objects.  (line   48)
* setframerate() (aifc.aifc 的方法):     aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  151)
* setframerate() (sunau.AU_write 的方法): AU_write 物件.     (line   18)
* setframerate() (wave.Wave_write 的方法): Wave_write 物件.  (line   40)
* setgid() (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  389)
* setgroups() (於 os 模組中):            行程參數.           (line  395)
* seth() (於 turtle 模組中):             Turtle motion.      (line  166)
* setheading() (於 turtle 模組中):       Turtle motion.      (line  166)
* sethostname() (於 socket 模組中):      其他函式<2>.        (line  360)
* setinputsizes() (sqlite3.Cursor 的方法): Cursor 物件.      (line  162)
* SetInteger() (msilib.Record 的方法):   Record Objects.     (line   32)
* setitem() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  192)
* setitimer() (於 signal 模組中):        模組內容<5>.        (line  412)
* setLevel() (logging.Handler 的方法):   Handler Objects.    (line   35)
* setLevel() (logging.Logger 的方法):    Logger 物件.        (line  103)
* setlimit() (sqlite3.Connection 的方法): Connection 物件.   (line  583)
* setLocale() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   60)
* setlocale() (於 locale 模組中):        locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line   27)
* setLoggerClass() (於 logging 模組中):  Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  322)
* setlogmask() (於 syslog 模組中):       syslog --- Unix syslog 函式庫例程.
                                                             (line   97)
* setLogRecordFactory() (於 logging 模組中): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  333)
* setmark() (aifc.aifc 的方法):          aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  179)
* setMaxConns() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler 的方法): CacheFTPHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   13)
* setmode() (於 msvcrt 模組中):          File Operations.    (line   38)
* setName() (threading.Thread 的方法):   Thread Objects.     (line  159)
* setnchannels() (aifc.aifc 的方法):     aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  143)
* setnchannels() (sunau.AU_write 的方法): AU_write 物件.     (line    8)
* setnchannels() (wave.Wave_write 的方法): Wave_write 物件.  (line   32)
* setnframes() (aifc.aifc 的方法):       aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  155)
* setnframes() (sunau.AU_write 的方法):  AU_write 物件.      (line   22)
* setnframes() (wave.Wave_write 的方法): Wave_write 物件.    (line   47)
* setns() (於 os 模組中):                行程參數.           (line  410)
* setoutputsize() (sqlite3.Cursor 的方法): Cursor 物件.      (line  166)
* SetParamEntityParsing() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   54)
* setparameters() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  189)
* setparams() (aifc.aifc 的方法):        aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  171)
* setparams() (sunau.AU_write 的方法):   AU_write 物件.      (line   30)
* setparams() (wave.Wave_write 的方法):  Wave_write 物件.    (line   56)
* setpassword() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法): ZipFile 物件.      (line  229)
* setpgid() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  457)
* setpgrp() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  449)
* setpos() (aifc.aifc 的方法):           aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  111)
* setpos() (sunau.AU_read 的方法):       AU_read 物件.       (line   56)
* setpos() (wave.Wave_read 的方法):      Wave_read 物件.     (line   70)
* setpos() (於 turtle 模組中):           Turtle motion.      (line   74)
* setposition() (於 turtle 模組中):      Turtle motion.      (line   74)
* setpriority() (於 os 模組中):          行程參數.           (line  465)
* setprofile_all_threads() (於 threading 模組中): threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  187)
* setprofile() (於 sys 模組中):          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1437)
* setprofile() (於 threading 模組中):    threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  180)
* SetProperty() (msilib.SummaryInformation 的方法): Summary Information Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* setProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 的方法): XMLReader 物件.
                                                             (line   90)
* setPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 的方法): InputSource 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* setquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):     IMAP4 物件.         (line  264)
* setraw() (於 tty 模組中):              tty --- 終端機控制函式.
                                                             (line   41)
* setrecursionlimit() (於 sys 模組中):   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1493)
* setregid() (於 os 模組中):             行程參數.           (line  482)
* SetReparseDeferralEnabled() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   82)
* setresgid() (於 os 模組中):            行程參數.           (line  488)
* setresuid() (於 os 模組中):            行程參數.           (line  496)
* setreuid() (於 os 模組中):             行程參數.           (line  504)
* setrlimit() (於 resource 模組中):      Resource Limits.    (line   31)
* setsampwidth() (aifc.aifc 的方法):     aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  147)
* setsampwidth() (sunau.AU_write 的方法): AU_write 物件.     (line   12)
* setsampwidth() (wave.Wave_write 的方法): Wave_write 物件.  (line   36)
* setscrreg() (curses.window 的方法):    Window Objects.     (line  513)
* setsid() (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  517)
* setsockopt() (socket.socket 的方法):   Socket 物件.        (line  562)
* setstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder 的方法): IncrementalDecoder 物件.
                                                             (line   60)
* setstate() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder 的方法): IncrementalEncoder 物件.
                                                             (line   51)
* setstate() (random.Random 的方法):     替代產生器.         (line   27)
* setstate() (於 random 模組中):         簿記函式 bookkeeping functions.
                                                             (line   33)
* setStream() (logging.StreamHandler 的方法): StreamHandler. (line   32)
* SetStream() (msilib.Record 的方法):    Record Objects.     (line   26)
* SetString() (msilib.Record 的方法):    Record Objects.     (line   21)
* setswitchinterval （sys 模組中）:      Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line   15)
* setswitchinterval() (於 sys 模組中):   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1510)
* setswitchinterval() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  283)
* setSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 的方法): InputSource 物件.
                                                             (line   14)
* setsyx() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line  477)
* setTarget() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler 的方法): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   68)
* setter (C type):                       Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   42)
* settiltangle() (於 turtle 模組中):     Appearance.         (line  117)
* settimeout() (socket.socket 的方法):   Socket 物件.        (line  546)
* setTimeout() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler 的方法): CacheFTPHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    9)
* settrace_all_threads() (於 threading 模組中): threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  163)
* settrace() (於 sys 模組中):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1523)
* settrace() (於 threading 模組中):      threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  156)
* setuid() (於 os 模組中):               行程參數.           (line  524)
* setundobuffer() (於 turtle 模組中):    Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   61)
* SETUP_ANNOTATIONS (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  369)
* SETUP_CLEANUP (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1276)
* setup_environ() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的方法): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  167)
* SETUP_FINALLY (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1269)
* setup_python() (venv.EnvBuilder 的方法): API<2>.           (line  139)
* setup_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder 的方法): API<2>.          (line  147)
* setup_testing_defaults() (於 wsgiref.util 模組中): wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line   55)
* SETUP_WITH (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1284)
* setup() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler 的方法): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* setUp() (unittest.TestCase 的方法):    Test cases.         (line   33)
* setup() (於 turtle 模組中):            Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   20)
* setUpClass() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.       (line   55)
* setupterm() (於 curses 模組中):        函式<5>.            (line  482)
* SetValue() (於 winreg 模組中):         函式<12>.           (line  418)
* SetValueEx() (於 winreg 模組中):       函式<12>.           (line  449)
* setworldcoordinates() (於 turtle 模組中): Window control.  (line   89)
* setx() (於 turtle 模組中):             Turtle motion.      (line  138)
* setxattr() (於 os 模組中):             Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   56)
* sety() (於 turtle 模組中):             Turtle motion.      (line  152)
* SF_APPEND (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  374)
* SF_ARCHIVED (於 stat 模組中):          stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  366)
* SF_IMMUTABLE (於 stat 模組中):         stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  370)
* SF_MNOWAIT (於 os 模組中):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  739)
* SF_NOCACHE (於 os 模組中):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  750)
* SF_NODISKIO (於 os 模組中):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  739)
* SF_NOUNLINK (於 stat 模組中):          stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  378)
* SF_SNAPSHOT (於 stat 模組中):          stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  382)
* SF_SYNC (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  739)
* sha1() (於 hashlib 模組中):            建構函式.           (line   21)
* sha224() (於 hashlib 模組中):          建構函式.           (line   23)
* sha256() (於 hashlib 模組中):          建構函式.           (line   25)
* sha3_224() (於 hashlib 模組中):        建構函式.           (line   31)
* sha3_256() (於 hashlib 模組中):        建構函式.           (line   33)
* sha3_384() (於 hashlib 模組中):        建構函式.           (line   35)
* sha3_512() (於 hashlib 模組中):        建構函式.           (line   37)
* sha384() (於 hashlib 模組中):          建構函式.           (line   27)
* sha512() (於 hashlib 模組中):          建構函式.           (line   29)
* shake_128() (於 hashlib 模組中):       SHAKE 可變長度摘要. (line    6)
* shake_256() (於 hashlib 模組中):       SHAKE 可變長度摘要. (line    8)
* shape (memoryview 的屬性):             Memory Views.       (line  450)
* Shape (turtle 中的類別):               Public classes.     (line   43)
* shape() (於 turtle 模組中):            Appearance.         (line    6)
* shapesize() (於 turtle 模組中):        Appearance.         (line   52)
* shapetransform() (於 turtle 模組中):   Appearance.         (line  156)
* share() (socket.socket 的方法):        Socket 物件.        (line  596)
* ShareableList (multiprocessing.shared_memory 中的類別): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line  217)
* ShareableList() (multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager 的方法): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line  179)
* Shared Memory（共享記憶體）:           multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line   10)
* shared_ciphers() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法): SSL Sockets.      (line  193)
* shared_memory (sys._emscripten_info 的屬性): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  347)
* SharedMemory (multiprocessing.shared_memory 中的類別): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line   27)
* SharedMemory() (multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager 的方法): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line  174)
* SharedMemoryManager (multiprocessing.managers 中的類別): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line  153)
* shearfactor() (於 turtle 模組中):      Appearance.         (line   83)
* Shelf (shelve 中的類別):               Restrictions.       (line   27)
* shield() (於 asyncio 模組中):          Shielding From Cancellation.
                                                             (line    6)
* shift_path_info() (於 wsgiref.util 模組中): wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具.
                                                             (line   33)
* shift() (decimal.Context 的方法):      Context objects.    (line  513)
* shift() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):      Decimal objects.    (line  556)
* shifting（移位）;operations（操作）:   整數型別的位元運算. (line    6)
* shifting（移動）;operation（操作）:    Shifting operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* shlex (shlex 中的類別):                shlex --- 簡單的語法分析.
                                                             (line   91)
* shm (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList 的屬性): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line  285)
* SHORT_TIMEOUT (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line   79)
* shortDescription() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases. (line  749)
* shorten() (於 textwrap 模組中):        textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line   49)
* shouldFlush() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler 的方法): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   36)
* shouldFlush() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler 的方法): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   72)
* shouldStop (unittest.TestResult 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  284)
* show_code() (於 dis 模組中):           Analysis functions. (line   26)
* show_flag_values() (於 enum 模組中):   通用項目與裝飾器.   (line   88)
* show() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法):    Panel Objects.      (line   49)
* show() (tkinter.commondialog.Dialog 的方法): tkinter commondialog --- Dialog window templates.
                                                             (line   16)
* show() (tkinter.messagebox.Message 的方法): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line   69)
* showerror() (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line   88)
* showinfo() (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line   76)
* showsyntaxerror() (code.InteractiveInterpreter 的方法): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* showtraceback() (code.InteractiveInterpreter 的方法): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* showturtle() (於 turtle 模組中):       Visibility.         (line   15)
* showwarning() (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line   83)
* showwarning() (於 warnings 模組中):    Available Functions.
                                                             (line   85)
* shuffle() (於 random 模組中):          回傳序列的函式.     (line   42)
* SHUT_RD (於 socket 模組中):            常數<7>.            (line  368)
* SHUT_RDWR (於 socket 模組中):          常數<7>.            (line  368)
* SHUT_WR (於 socket 模組中):            常數<7>.            (line  368)
* shutdown_asyncgens() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 啟動和停止迴圈.
                                                             (line   50)
* shutdown_default_executor() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 啟動和停止迴圈.
                                                             (line   68)
* shutdown() (concurrent.futures.Executor 的方法): Executor 物件.
                                                             (line   46)
* shutdown() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):     IMAP4 物件.         (line  269)
* shutdown() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line   84)
* shutdown() (socket.socket 的方法):     Socket 物件.        (line  587)
* shutdown() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* shutdown() (於 logging 模組中):        Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  311)
* SI (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   70)
* side_effect (unittest.mock.Mock 的屬性): Mock 類別.        (line  337)
* SIG_BLOCK (於 signal 模組中):          模組內容<5>.        (line  231)
* SIG_DFL (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line   45)
* SIG_IGN (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line   53)
* SIG_SETMASK (於 signal 模組中):        模組內容<5>.        (line  246)
* SIG_UNBLOCK (於 signal 模組中):        模組內容<5>.        (line  238)
* SIGABRT (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line   58)
* SIGALRM (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line   62)
* SIGBREAK (於 signal 模組中):           模組內容<5>.        (line   68)
* SIGBUS (於 signal 模組中):             模組內容<5>.        (line   74)
* SIGCHLD (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line   80)
* SIGCLD (於 signal 模組中):             模組內容<5>.        (line   86)
* SIGCONT (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line   92)
* SIGFPE (於 signal 模組中):             模組內容<5>.        (line   98)
* SIGHUP (於 signal 模組中):             模組內容<5>.        (line  108)
* SIGILL (於 signal 模組中):             模組內容<5>.        (line  115)
* SIGINT (於 signal 模組中):             模組內容<5>.        (line  119)
* SIGINT（C 巨集）:                      Signal Handling<2>. (line    7)
* SIGINT（C 巨集） <1>:                  Signal Handling<2>. (line   34)
* siginterrupt() (於 signal 模組中):     模組內容<5>.        (line  484)
* SIGKILL (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line  125)
* Sigmasks (signal 中的類別):            模組內容<5>.        (line   31)
* signal() (於 signal 模組中):           模組內容<5>.        (line  499)
* Signals (signal 中的類別):             模組內容<5>.        (line   17)
* Signature (inspect 中的類別):          Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line   74)
* signature (inspect.BoundArguments 的屬性): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  345)
* signature() (於 inspect 模組中):       Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line   12)
* sigpending() (於 signal 模組中):       模組內容<5>.        (line  527)
* SIGPIPE (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line  133)
* SIGSEGV (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line  141)
* SIGSTKFLT (於 signal 模組中):          模組內容<5>.        (line  145)
* SIGTERM (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line  157)
* sigtimedwait() (於 signal 模組中):     模組內容<5>.        (line  588)
* SIGUSR1 (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line  161)
* SIGUSR2 (於 signal 模組中):            模組內容<5>.        (line  167)
* sigwait() (於 signal 模組中):          模組內容<5>.        (line  542)
* sigwaitinfo() (於 signal 模組中):      模組內容<5>.        (line  559)
* SIGWINCH (於 signal 模組中):           模組內容<5>.        (line  173)
* SIMPLE (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性):   Buffer flags.       (line   15)
* Simple Mail Transfer Protocol（簡單郵件傳輸協定）: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* simple;statement（陳述式）:            簡單陳述式.         (line    6)
* SimpleCookie (http.cookies 中的類別):  http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理.
                                                             (line   49)
* simplefilter() (於 warnings 模組中):   Available Functions.
                                                             (line  119)
* SimpleHandler (wsgiref.handlers 中的類別): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line   61)
* SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (http.server 中的類別): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  339)
* SimpleNamespace (types 中的類別):      Additional Utility Classes and Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* SimpleQueue (multiprocessing 中的類別): Pipes and Queues.  (line  214)
* SimpleQueue (queue 中的類別):          queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別.
                                                             (line   61)
* SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server 中的類別): xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器.
                                                             (line   63)
* SimpleXMLRPCServer (xmlrpc.server 中的類別): xmlrpc server --- 基本 XML-RPC 伺服器.
                                                             (line   24)
* sin() (於 cmath 模組中):               三角函數.           (line   24)
* sin() (於 math 模組中):                Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   65)
* single dispatch（單一調度）:           術語表.             (line 1131)
* SingleAddressHeader (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  217)
* singledispatch() (於 functools 模組中): functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line  373)
* singledispatchmethod (functools 中的類別): functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line  536)
* singleton（單例）;tuple（元組）:       Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   29)
* sinh() (於 cmath 模組中):              雙曲函數.           (line   25)
* sinh() (於 math 模組中):               Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   25)
* SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS (於 socket 模組中): 常數<7>.            (line  239)
* SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH (於 socket 模組中): 常數<7>.        (line  239)
* SIO_RCVALL (於 socket 模組中):         常數<7>.            (line  239)
* site 命令列選項; -user-base:           命令列介面<7>.      (line   18)
* site 命令列選項; -user-site:           命令列介面<7>.      (line   22)
* site_maps() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 的方法): urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line   63)
* site-packages;directory（目錄）:       site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   25)
* sitecustomize:                         客製化模組.         (line    6)
* sitecustomize <1>:                     客製化模組.         (line   18)
* sixtofour (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects. (line  295)
* size (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory 的屬性): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line   80)
* size (struct.Struct 的屬性):           Classes<2>.         (line   61)
* size (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):         TarInfo 物件.       (line   65)
* size (tracemalloc.Statistic 的屬性):   Statistic.          (line   19)
* size (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff 的屬性): StatisticDiff.    (line   26)
* size (tracemalloc.Trace 的屬性):       Trace.              (line   23)
* size_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff 的屬性): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   32)
* SIZE_MAX（C 巨集）:                    整數物件.           (line  215)
* size() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):            FTP 物件.           (line  309)
* size() (mmap.mmap 的方法):             mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  290)
* Sized (collections.abc 中的類別):      Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   15)
* Sized (typing 中的類別):               Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   65)
* sizeof_digit (sys.int_info 的屬性):    sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1095)
* sizeof() (於 ctypes 模組中):           Utility functions.  (line  186)
* SKIP (於 doctest 模組中):              可選旗標.           (line   92)
* skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  713)
* skip_unless_bind_unix_socket() (於 test.support.socket_helper 模組中): test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   59)
* skip_unless_symlink() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line  125)
* skip_unless_xattr() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line  130)
* skip() (chunk.Chunk 的方法):           chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line  116)
* skip() (於 unittest 模組中):           Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   85)
* skipIf() (於 unittest 模組中):         Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   90)
* skipinitialspace (csv.Dialect 的屬性): Dialect 與格式參數. (line   59)
* skipped (unittest.TestResult 的屬性):  Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  259)
* skippedEntity() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line  176)
* SkipTest:                              Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line  105)
* skipTest() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.         (line   97)
* skipUnless() (於 unittest 模組中):     Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   94)
* SLASH (於 token 模組中):               token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   94)
* SLASHEQUAL (於 token 模組中):          token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  182)
* slave() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):         方法.               (line  303)
* sleep() (於 asyncio 模組中):           Sleeping.           (line    6)
* sleep() (於 time 模組中):              函式<4>.            (line  210)
* sleeping_retry() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  217)
* Slice (ast 中的類別):                  下標 Subscripting.  (line   26)
* slice (內建類別):                      內建函式.           (line 1518)
* slice（切片）:                         Sequences.          (line   14)
* slice（切片） <1>:                     Mutable sequences.  (line    6)
* slice（切片） <2>:                     Slicings.           (line    6)
* slice（切片） <3>:                     術語表.             (line 1136)
* slice（切片）;assignment（賦值）:      Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  125)
* slice（切片）;assignment（賦值） <1>:  Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* slice（切片）;operation（操作）:       Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* slicing（切片）:                       Slicings.           (line    6)
* slow_callback_duration (asyncio.loop 的屬性): 啟用除錯模式.
                                                             (line   20)
* SMALLEST (於 test.support 模組中):     test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  188)
* SMTP (smtplib 中的類別):               smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   21)
* SMTP (於 email.policy 模組中):         email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  509)
* SMTP_SSL (smtplib 中的類別):           smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line   74)
* SMTP;protocol（協定）:                 smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line    8)
* SMTPAuthenticationError:               smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  177)
* SMTPConnectError:                      smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  162)
* SMTPDataError:                         smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  158)
* SMTPException:                         smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  123)
* SMTPHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): SMTPHandler.      (line   10)
* SMTPHeloError:                         smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  167)
* SMTPNotSupportedError:                 smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  171)
* SMTPRecipientsRefused:                 smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  151)
* SMTPResponseException:                 smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  137)
* SMTPSenderRefused:                     smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  145)
* SMTPServerDisconnected:                smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  131)
* SMTPUTF8 (於 email.policy 模組中):     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  515)
* Snapshot (tracemalloc 中的類別):       Snapshot.           (line    6)
* SND_ALIAS (於 winsound 模組中):        winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line   47)
* SND_ASYNC (於 winsound 模組中):        winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line  109)
* SND_FILENAME (於 winsound 模組中):     winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line   42)
* SND_LOOP (於 winsound 模組中):         winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line   88)
* SND_MEMORY (於 winsound 模組中):       winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line   94)
* SND_NODEFAULT (於 winsound 模組中):    winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line  113)
* SND_NOSTOP (於 winsound 模組中):       winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line  118)
* SND_NOWAIT (於 winsound 模組中):       winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line  122)
* SND_PURGE (於 winsound 模組中):        winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面.
                                                             (line  103)
* sni_callback (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性):  SSL Contexts.       (line  288)
* sniff() (csv.Sniffer 的方法):          模組內容<3>.        (line  209)
* Sniffer (csv 中的類別):                模組內容<3>.        (line  203)
* SO (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   67)
* SO_INCOMING_CPU (於 socket 模組中):    常數<7>.            (line  328)
* sock_accept() (asyncio.loop 的方法):   直接使用 socket 物件.
                                                             (line  101)
* SOCK_CLOEXEC (於 socket 模組中):       常數<7>.            (line   38)
* sock_connect() (asyncio.loop 的方法):  直接使用 socket 物件.
                                                             (line   83)
* SOCK_DGRAM (於 socket 模組中):         常數<7>.            (line   27)
* SOCK_MAX_SIZE (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  122)
* SOCK_NONBLOCK (於 socket 模組中):      常數<7>.            (line   38)
* SOCK_RAW (於 socket 模組中):           常數<7>.            (line   27)
* SOCK_RDM (於 socket 模組中):           常數<7>.            (line   27)
* sock_recv_into() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 直接使用 socket 物件.
                                                             (line   24)
* sock_recv() (asyncio.loop 的方法):     直接使用 socket 物件.
                                                             (line   11)
* sock_recvfrom_into() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 直接使用 socket 物件.
                                                             (line   46)
* sock_recvfrom() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 直接使用 socket 物件.
                                                             (line   35)
* sock_sendall() (asyncio.loop 的方法):  直接使用 socket 物件.
                                                             (line   57)
* sock_sendfile() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 直接使用 socket 物件.
                                                             (line  120)
* sock_sendto() (asyncio.loop 的方法):   直接使用 socket 物件.
                                                             (line   72)
* SOCK_SEQPACKET (於 socket 模組中):     常數<7>.            (line   27)
* SOCK_STREAM (於 socket 模組中):        常數<7>.            (line   27)
* socket (socket 中的類別):              建立 sockets.       (line    8)
* socket (socketserver.BaseServer 的屬性): Server Objects.   (line   85)
* socket_type (socketserver.BaseServer 的屬性): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  108)
* socket() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line  275)
* socket() (於 socket 模組):             select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line  141)
* SocketHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): SocketHandler.  (line   10)
* socketpair() (於 socket 模組中):       建立 sockets.       (line   64)
* sockets (asyncio.Server 的屬性):       Server 物件.        (line   94)
* SocketType (於 socket 模組中):         建立 sockets.       (line  184)
* soft deprecated:                       術語表.             (line 1143)
* soft keyword（軟關鍵字）:              軟關鍵字.           (line    6)
* SOFT_KEYWORD (於 token 模組中):        token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  256)
* softkwlist (於 keyword 模組中):        keyword --- 檢驗 Python 關鍵字.
                                                             (line   29)
* SOH (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   22)
* SOL_ALG (於 socket 模組中):            常數<7>.            (line  255)
* SOL_RDS (於 socket 模組中):            常數<7>.            (line  226)
* SOMAXCONN (於 socket 模組中):          常數<7>.            (line   54)
* sort_stats() (pstats.Stats 的方法):    The Stats Class.    (line   67)
* sort() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):         IMAP4 物件.         (line  279)
* sort() (list 的方法):                  List（串列）<2>.    (line   39)
* sortdict() (於 test.support 模組中):   test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  264)
* sortTestMethodsUsing (unittest.TestLoader 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  195)
* source (doctest.Example 的屬性):       Example 物件.       (line   17)
* source (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  275)
* source (shlex.shlex 的屬性):           shlex 物件.         (line  150)
* source character set（原始字元集合）:  Encoding declarations.
                                                             (line    6)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH:                     py_compile<3>.      (line    7)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>:                 Library<51>.        (line  452)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>:                 Build<53>.          (line   15)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>:                 py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   66)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>:                 py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   82)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>:                 py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   86)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>:                 Command-line use.   (line   90)
* source_from_cache() (於 importlib.util 模組中): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   58)
* source_hash() (於 importlib.util 模組中): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  160)
* SOURCE_SUFFIXES (於 importlib.machinery 模組中): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   13)
* source_to_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader 的靜態方法): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  236)
* SourceFileLoader (importlib.machinery 中的類別): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  198)
* sourcehook() (shlex.shlex 的方法):     shlex 物件.         (line   26)
* SourcelessFileLoader (importlib.machinery 中的類別): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  238)
* SourceLoader (importlib.abc 中的類別): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  320)
* SP (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  121)
* space;於字串格式化:                    格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   61)
* space（空白）:                         Indentation.        (line    6)
* space（空白）;於 printf 風格格式化:    printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   66)
* space（空白）;於 printf 風格格式化 <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   63)
* span() (re.Match 的方法):              Match Objects.      (line  171)
* sparse (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):       TarInfo 物件.       (line  157)
* spawn_python() (於 test.support.script_helper 模組中): test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   65)
* spawn() (於 pty 模組中):               pty --- 偽終端工具. (line   42)
* spawnl() (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line  576)
* spawnle() (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  576)
* spawnlp() (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  576)
* spawnlpe() (於 os 模組中):             行程管理.           (line  576)
* spawnv() (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line  576)
* spawnve() (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  576)
* spawnvp() (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  576)
* spawnvpe() (於 os 模組中):             行程管理.           (line  576)
* spec_from_file_location() (於 importlib.util 模組中): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  148)
* spec_from_loader() (於 importlib.util 模組中): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  137)
* special method（特殊方法）:            術語表.             (line 1154)
* special;attribute（屬性）:             標準型別階層.       (line   13)
* special;method（方法）:                術語表.             (line 1158)
* SpecialFileError:                      tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  246)
* specified_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的屬性): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  155)
* speed() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  140)
* speed() (於 turtle 模組中):            Turtle motion.      (line  328)
* Spinbox (tkinter.ttk 中的類別):        ttk Spinbox.        (line    6)
* SPLICE_F_MORE (於 os 模組中):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  807)
* SPLICE_F_MOVE (於 os 模組中):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  807)
* SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK (於 os 模組中):      File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  807)
* splice() (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  780)
* split() (BaseExceptionGroup 的方法):   例外群組.           (line   55)
* split() (bytearray 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  395)
* split() (bytes 的方法):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  395)
* split() (re.Pattern 的方法):           Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* split() (str 的方法):                  String Methods<2>.  (line  459)
* split() (於 os.path 模組中):           os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  347)
* split() (於 re 模組中):                Functions.          (line   80)
* split() (於 shlex 模組中):             shlex --- 簡單的語法分析.
                                                             (line   17)
* splitdrive() (於 os.path 模組中):      os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  360)
* splitext() (於 os.path 模組中):        os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  410)
* splitlines() (bytearray 的方法):       Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  638)
* splitlines() (bytes 的方法):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  638)
* splitlines() (str 的方法):             String Methods<2>.  (line  501)
* SplitResult (urllib.parse 中的類別):   Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   55)
* SplitResultBytes (urllib.parse 中的類別): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   82)
* splitroot() (於 os.path 模組中):       os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  381)
* SpooledTemporaryFile (tempfile 中的類別): tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  128)
* sprintf 風格格式化:                    printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* sprintf 風格格式化 <1>:                printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* SQLITE_DENY (於 sqlite3 模組中):       Module constants.   (line   44)
* sqlite_errorcode (sqlite3.Error 的屬性): 例外<4>.          (line   24)
* sqlite_errorname (sqlite3.Error 的屬性): 例外<4>.          (line   30)
* SQLITE_IGNORE (於 sqlite3 模組中):     Module constants.   (line   44)
* SQLITE_OK (於 sqlite3 模組中):         Module constants.   (line   44)
* sqlite_version (於 sqlite3 模組中):    Module constants.   (line   73)
* sqlite_version_info (於 sqlite3 模組中): Module constants. (line   78)
* sqrt() (decimal.Context 的方法):       Context objects.    (line  517)
* sqrt() (decimal.Decimal 的方法):       Decimal objects.    (line  567)
* sqrt() (於 cmath 模組中):              冪函數和對數函數.   (line   20)
* sqrt() (於 math 模組中):               Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   90)
* ssizeargfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line  126)
* ssizeobjargproc (C type):              Slot Type typedefs. (line  130)
* SSL:                                   ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器.
                                                             (line    8)
* ssl_version (ftplib.FTP_TLS 的屬性):   FTP_TLS 物件.       (line   79)
* SSLCertVerificationError:              例外<11>.           (line   71)
* SSLContext (ssl 中的類別):             SSL Contexts.       (line   14)
* SSLEOFError:                           例外<11>.           (line   64)
* SSLError:                              例外<11>.           (line    6)
* SSLErrorNumber (ssl 中的類別):         常數<8>.            (line  481)
* SSLKEYLOGFILE:                         語境建立.           (line   27)
* SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>:                     語境建立.           (line   56)
* SSLObject (ssl 中的類別):              Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* sslobject_class (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性): SSL Contexts.     (line  473)
* SSLSession (ssl 中的類別):             SSL session.        (line    8)
* SSLSocket (ssl 中的類別):              SSL Sockets.        (line    6)
* sslsocket_class (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性): SSL Contexts.     (line  447)
* SSLSyscallError:                       例外<11>.           (line   56)
* SSLv3 (ssl.TLSVersion 的屬性):         常數<8>.            (line  502)
* SSLWantReadError:                      例外<11>.           (line   40)
* SSLWantWriteError:                     例外<11>.           (line   48)
* SSLZeroReturnError:                    例外<11>.           (line   32)
* st_atime (os.stat_result 的屬性):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1165)
* ST_ATIME (於 stat 模組中):             stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  163)
* st_atime_ns (os.stat_result 的屬性):   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1182)
* st_birthtime (os.stat_result 的屬性):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1208)
* st_birthtime_ns (os.stat_result 的屬性): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1215)
* st_blksize (os.stat_result 的屬性):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1252)
* st_blocks (os.stat_result 的屬性):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1247)
* st_creator (os.stat_result 的屬性):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1288)
* st_ctime (os.stat_result 的屬性):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1173)
* ST_CTIME (於 stat 模組中):             stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  171)
* st_ctime_ns (os.stat_result 的屬性):   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1196)
* st_dev (os.stat_result 的屬性):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1141)
* ST_DEV (於 stat 模組中):               stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  142)
* st_file_attributes (os.stat_result 的屬性): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1298)
* st_flags (os.stat_result 的屬性):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1262)
* st_fstype (os.stat_result 的屬性):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1277)
* st_gen (os.stat_result 的屬性):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1270)
* st_gid (os.stat_result 的屬性):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1153)
* ST_GID (於 stat 模組中):               stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  154)
* st_ino (os.stat_result 的屬性):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1132)
* ST_INO (於 stat 模組中):               stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  138)
* st_mode (os.stat_result 的屬性):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1128)
* ST_MODE (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  134)
* st_mtime (os.stat_result 的屬性):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1169)
* ST_MTIME (於 stat 模組中):             stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  167)
* st_mtime_ns (os.stat_result 的屬性):   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1189)
* st_nlink (os.stat_result 的屬性):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1145)
* ST_NLINK (於 stat 模組中):             stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  146)
* st_rdev (os.stat_result 的屬性):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1258)
* st_reparse_tag (os.stat_result 的屬性): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1308)
* st_rsize (os.stat_result 的屬性):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1284)
* st_size (os.stat_result 的屬性):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1157)
* ST_SIZE (於 stat 模組中):              stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  158)
* st_type (os.stat_result 的屬性):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1292)
* st_uid (os.stat_result 的屬性):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1149)
* ST_UID (於 stat 模組中):               stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  150)
* st() (於 turtle 模組中):               Visibility.         (line   15)
* stack (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   75)
* stack viewer（堆疊檢視器）:            Debug menu Shell window only.
                                                             (line   15)
* stack_effect() (於 dis 模組中):        Analysis functions. (line  166)
* stack_size() (於 _thread 模組中):      _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line   92)
* stack_size() (於 threading 模組中):    threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  204)
* stack() (於 inspect 模組中):           直譯器堆疊.         (line  168)
* stack（堆疊）;trace（追蹤）:           Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* stackable（可堆疊）;streams（串流）:   codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line    8)
* StackSummary (traceback 中的類別):     StackSummary 物件.  (line   10)
* stamp() (於 turtle 模組中):            Turtle motion.      (line  272)
* Standard C（標準 C）:                  String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* standard input（標準輸入）:            完整的 Python 程式. (line   19)
* standard_b64decode() (於 base64 模組中): base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   76)
* standard_b64encode() (於 base64 模組中): base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   71)
* standard;output:                       Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* standarderror (2to3 fixer):            Fixers.             (line  294)
* standend() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  518)
* standout() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  523)
* STAR (於 token 模組中):                token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   90)
* STAREQUAL (於 token 模組中):           token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  178)
* starmap_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 的方法): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  159)
* starmap() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 的方法): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  148)
* starmap() (於 itertools 模組中):       Itertool 函式.      (line  487)
* Starred (ast 中的類別):                變數.               (line   41)
* start (range 的屬性):                  Ranges.             (line   61)
* start （slice 物件屬性）:              Slice objects.      (line   10)
* start (slice 的屬性):                  內建函式.           (line 1526)
* start (UnicodeError 的屬性):           實體例外.           (line  363)
* start_color() (於 curses 模組中):      函式<5>.            (line  490)
* start_component() (msilib.Directory 的方法): Directory Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* start_new_thread() (於 _thread 模組中): _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line   28)
* start_ns() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 的方法): TreeBuilder 物件.
                                                             (line   76)
* start_server() (於 asyncio 模組中):    串流.               (line   69)
* start_serving() (asyncio.Server 的方法): Server 物件.      (line   46)
* start_threads() (於 test.support.threading_helper 模組中): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   22)
* start_tls() (asyncio.loop 的方法):     TLS 升級.           (line    6)
* start_tls() (asyncio.StreamWriter 的方法): StreamWriter.   (line   73)
* start_unix_server() (於 asyncio 模組中): 串流.             (line  129)
* start() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 的方法): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   74)
* start() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line   57)
* start() (multiprocessing.Process 的方法): Process 與例外.  (line   58)
* start() (re.Match 的方法):             Match Objects.      (line  146)
* start() (threading.Thread 的方法):     Thread Objects.     (line   93)
* start() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar 的方法): ttk Progressbar. (line    8)
* start() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 的方法): TreeBuilder 物件.
                                                             (line   43)
* start() (於 tracemalloc 模組中):       函式<10>.           (line   68)
* start（切片物件屬性）:                 Slicings.           (line   26)
* startCDATA() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler 的方法): LexicalHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   32)
* StartCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  340)
* StartDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  224)
* startDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   32)
* startDTD() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler 的方法): LexicalHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   23)
* startElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   82)
* StartElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  262)
* startElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line  102)
* STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   33)
* STARTF_USESTDHANDLES (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   27)
* startfile() (於 os 模組中):            行程管理.           (line  689)
* StartNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  319)
* startPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 的方法): ContentHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   49)
* StartResponse (wsgiref.types 中的類別): wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line   10)
* startswith() (bytearray 的方法):       Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  251)
* startswith() (bytes 的方法):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  251)
* startswith() (str 的方法):             String Methods<2>.  (line  573)
* startTest() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  347)
* startTestRun() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  356)
* starttls() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):     IMAP4 物件.         (line  297)
* starttls() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):      方法.               (line   62)
* starttls() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):      SMTP 物件.          (line  184)
* STARTUPINFO (subprocess 中的類別):     Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line    9)
* stat_result (os 中的類別):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1120)
* stat() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line  219)
* stat() (os.DirEntry 的方法):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1030)
* stat() (pathlib.Path 的方法):          Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   12)
* stat() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   52)
* stat() (於 os 模組中):                 Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1065)
* state() (tkinter.ttk.Widget 的方法):   ttk Widget.         (line   25)
* statement grouping（陳述式群組）:      Indentation.        (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）:                   術語表.             (line 1160)
* statement（陳述式）;assert:            assert 陳述式.      (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;assert <1>:        實體例外.           (line   10)
* statement（陳述式）;assignment（賦值）、annotated（註釋）: Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;assignment（賦值）、augmented（增強）: Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;async def:         協程<2>.            (line    8)
* statement（陳述式）;async for:         協程函式定義.       (line   28)
* statement（陳述式）;async with:        async for 陳述式.   (line   42)
* statement（陳述式）;break:             break 陳述式.       (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;break <1>:         The while statement.
                                                             (line   17)
* statement（陳述式）;break <2>:         The for statement.  (line   21)
* statement（陳述式）;break <3>:         except* 子句.       (line   57)
* statement（陳述式）;break <4>:         finally clause.     (line   29)
* statement（陳述式）;class（類別）:     類別定義.           (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;continue:          continue 陳述式.    (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;continue <1>:      The while statement.
                                                             (line   17)
* statement（陳述式）;continue <2>:      The for statement.  (line   21)
* statement（陳述式）;continue <3>:      except* 子句.       (line   56)
* statement（陳述式）;continue <4>:      finally clause.     (line   29)
* statement（陳述式）;def:               函式定義.           (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;del:               Basic customization.
                                                             (line   55)
* statement（陳述式）;del <1>:           del 陳述式<2>.      (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;del <2>:           Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* statement（陳述式）;del <3>:           Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;except:            內建的例外.         (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;for:               for 陳述式.         (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;for <1>:           break 陳述式.       (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;for <2>:           continue 陳述式.    (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;for <3>:           The for statement.  (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;global:            del 陳述式<2>.      (line   15)
* statement（陳述式）;global <1>:        global 陳述式.      (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;if:                The if statement.   (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;if <1>:            真值檢測.           (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;import（引入）:    模組<2>.            (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;import（引入） <1>: import 陳述式.     (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;import（引入） <2>: 內建函式.          (line 1905)
* statement（陳述式）;import（引入） <3>: site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   46)
* statement（陳述式）;match:             The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;nonlocal:          nonlocal 陳述式.    (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;pass:              pass 陳述式<2>.     (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;raise:             raise 陳述式.       (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;raise <1>:         內建的例外.         (line   12)
* statement（陳述式）;return （回傳）:   return 陳述式.      (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;return （回傳） <1>: except* 子句.     (line   57)
* statement（陳述式）;return （回傳） <2>: finally clause.   (line   29)
* statement（陳述式）;try:               Traceback objects.  (line   31)
* statement（陳述式）;try <1>:           The try statement.  (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;try <2>:           內建的例外.         (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;type:              type 陳述式.        (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;while:             break 陳述式.       (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;while <1>:         continue 陳述式.    (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;while <2>:         The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;while <3>:         真值檢測.           (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;with:              With Statement Context Managers.
                                                             (line   14)
* statement（陳述式）;with <1>:          The with statement. (line    6)
* statement（陳述式）;yield:             yield 陳述式.       (line    6)
* static type checker（靜態型別檢查器）: 術語表.             (line 1167)
* static_order() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 的方法): graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能.
                                                             (line  140)
* Statistic (tracemalloc 中的類別):      Statistic.          (line    6)
* StatisticDiff (tracemalloc 中的類別):  StatisticDiff.      (line    6)
* statistics() (tracemalloc.Snapshot 的方法): Snapshot.      (line   56)
* StatisticsError:                       例外<3>.            (line    8)
* Stats (pstats 中的類別):               The Stats Class.    (line    9)
* status (http.client.HTTPResponse 的屬性): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   61)
* status (urllib.response.addinfourl 的屬性): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   24)
* status() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line  310)
* statvfs() (於 os 模組中):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1360)
* STD_ERROR_HANDLE (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   18)
* STD_INPUT_HANDLE (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line    8)
* STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE (於 subprocess 模組中): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   13)
* StdButtonBox (tkinter.tix 中的類別):   Basic Widgets.      (line   65)
* stderr (asyncio.subprocess.Process 的屬性): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  125)
* stderr (subprocess.CalledProcessError 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  229)
* stderr (subprocess.CompletedProcess 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  128)
* stderr (subprocess.Popen 的屬性):      Popen Objects.      (line  127)
* stderr (subprocess.TimeoutExpired 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  193)
* stderr （sys 模組中）:                 I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* stderr (於 sys 模組中):                sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1724)
* stderr（sys 模組中）:                  Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* stderr（sys 模組中） <1>:              Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  193)
* stdev (statistics.NormalDist 的屬性):  NormalDist 物件.    (line   31)
* stdev() (於 statistics 模組中):        函式細節.           (line  328)
* stdin (asyncio.subprocess.Process 的屬性): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  115)
* stdin (subprocess.Popen 的屬性):       Popen Objects.      (line  108)
* stdin （sys 模組中）:                  I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdin (於 sys 模組中):                 sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1724)
* stdin;stdout;sdterr:                   Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    9)
* stdin（sys 模組中）:                   Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* stdin（sys 模組中） <1>:               Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  193)
* stdio:                                 I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdlib_module_names (於 sys 模組中):   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1814)
* stdout (asyncio.subprocess.Process 的屬性): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  120)
* stdout (subprocess.CalledProcessError 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  225)
* stdout (subprocess.CompletedProcess 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  118)
* stdout (subprocess.Popen 的屬性):      Popen Objects.      (line  117)
* stdout (subprocess.TimeoutExpired 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  189)
* stdout （sys 模組中）:                 I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* STDOUT (於 subprocess 模組中):         Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  156)
* stdout (於 sys 模組中):                sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1724)
* stdout（sys 模組中）:                  Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* stdout（sys 模組中） <1>:              Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  193)
* stem (pathlib.PurePath 的屬性):        方法與屬性.         (line  148)
* step (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  186)
* step (range 的屬性):                   Ranges.             (line   70)
* step （slice 物件屬性）:               Slice objects.      (line   10)
* step (slice 的屬性):                   內建函式.           (line 1530)
* step() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar 的方法): ttk Progressbar.  (line   15)
* step（切片物件屬性）:                  Slicings.           (line   26)
* stereocontrols() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device 的方法): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* stls() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line  114)
* stop (range 的屬性):                   Ranges.             (line   66)
* stop （slice 物件屬性）:               Slice objects.      (line   10)
* stop (slice 的屬性):                   內建函式.           (line 1528)
* stop_here() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  247)
* STOP_ITERATION (monitoring event):     事件.               (line   81)
* stop() (asyncio.loop 的方法):          啟動和停止迴圈.     (line   28)
* stop() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 的方法): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   81)
* stop() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar 的方法): ttk Progressbar.  (line   21)
* stop() (unittest.TestResult 的方法):   Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  327)
* stop() (於 tracemalloc 模組中):        函式<10>.           (line   98)
* stop（切片物件屬性）:                  Slicings.           (line   26)
* StopAsyncIteration:                    實體例外.           (line  229)
* StopIteration:                         實體例外.           (line  203)
* stopListening() (於 logging.config 模組中): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line  174)
* stopTest() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  351)
* stopTestRun() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  362)
* storbinary() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):      FTP 物件.           (line  192)
* Store (ast 中的類別):                  變數.               (line   10)
* STORE_ACTIONS (optparse.Option 的屬性): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   35)
* STORE_ATTR (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  541)
* STORE_DEREF (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  916)
* STORE_FAST (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  870)
* STORE_GLOBAL (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  562)
* STORE_NAME (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  499)
* STORE_SLICE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  229)
* STORE_SUBSCR (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  201)
* store() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):        IMAP4 物件.         (line  314)
* storlines() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):       FTP 物件.           (line  220)
* str (內建類別):                        Text Sequence Type --- str.
                                                             (line   45)
* str_digits_check_threshold (sys.int_info 的屬性): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1104)
* str() (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  488)
* str（內建類別）;（亦請見 string）:     Ranges.             (line  126)
* strcoll() (於 locale 模組中):          locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  441)
* StreamError:                           tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  212)
* StreamHandler (logging 中的類別):      StreamHandler.      (line   11)
* StreamReader (asyncio 中的類別):       StreamReader.       (line    6)
* StreamReader (codecs 中的類別):        StreamReader 物件.  (line   10)
* streamreader (codecs.CodecInfo 的屬性): codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   87)
* StreamReaderWriter (codecs 中的類別):  StreamReaderWriter 物件.
                                                             (line   12)
* StreamRecoder (codecs 中的類別):       StreamRecoder 物件. (line   13)
* StreamRequestHandler (socketserver 中的類別): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* streams（串流）:                       codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line    8)
* StreamWriter (asyncio 中的類別):       StreamWriter.       (line    6)
* StreamWriter (codecs 中的類別):        StreamWriter 物件.  (line   10)
* streamwriter (codecs.CodecInfo 的屬性): codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line   87)
* StrEnum (enum 中的類別):               資料型別<2>.        (line  350)
* strerror (OSError 的屬性):             實體例外.           (line  153)
* strerror() (於 os 模組中):             行程參數.           (line  530)
* strerror（C 函式）:                    Raising exceptions. (line   57)
* strftime() (datetime.date 的方法):     date 物件.          (line  281)
* strftime() (datetime.datetime 的方法): datetime 物件.      (line  731)
* strftime() (datetime.time 的方法):     time 物件.          (line  219)
* strftime() (於 time 模組中):           函式<4>.            (line  241)
* strict (csv.Dialect 的屬性):           Dialect 與格式參數. (line   64)
* STRICT (enum.FlagBoundary 的屬性):     資料型別<2>.        (line  600)
* strict (於 email.policy 模組中):       email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  530)
* strict_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line   95)
* strict_errors() (於 codecs 模組中):    Error Handlers.     (line  141)
* strict_ns_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  117)
* strict_ns_set_initial_dollar (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  122)
* strict_ns_set_path (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  127)
* strict_ns_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  112)
* strict_rfc2965_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 的屬性): DefaultCookiePolicy 物件.
                                                             (line  103)
* strict;error handler's name（錯誤處理器名稱）: Error Handlers.
                                                             (line   15)
* STRIDED (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性):  Buffer flags.       (line   37)
* STRIDED_RO (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性): Buffer flags.     (line   39)
* STRIDES (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性):  Buffer flags.       (line   23)
* strides (memoryview 的屬性):           Memory Views.       (line  458)
* string (re.Match 的屬性):              Match Objects.      (line  210)
* STRING (於 token 模組中):              token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   46)
* string literal（字串常數）:            Literals.           (line    8)
* string_at() (於 ctypes 模組中):        Utility functions.  (line  191)
* string;formatted literal:              更華麗的輸出格式.   (line   81)
* string;interpolated literal:           更華麗的輸出格式.   (line   81)
* string（字串）;__format__() （物件方法）: Basic customization.
                                                             (line  153)
* string（字串）;__str__() （物件方法）: Basic customization.
                                                             (line  131)
* string（字串）;conversion:             Basic customization.
                                                             (line  153)
* string（字串）;conversion <1>:         Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* string（字串）;format()（內建函式）:   內建函式.           (line  679)
* string（字串）;formatted literal（格式化常數）: String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* string（字串）;formatting（格式化）、printf: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* string（字串）;immutable sequences（不可變序列）: Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   13)
* string（字串）;interpolated literal（插值常數）: String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* string（字串）;interpolation（插值）、printf: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* string（字串）;item（項目）:           Subscriptions.      (line   58)
* string（字串）;methods（方法）:        Text Sequence Type --- str.
                                                             (line   87)
* string（字串）;object representation（物件表示）: Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   91)
* string（字串）;PyObject_Str（C 函式）: 物件協定.           (line  230)
* string（字串）;str() （內建函式）:     內建函式.           (line 1624)
* string（字串）;str（內建類別）:        Text Sequence Type --- str.
                                                             (line   45)
* string（字串）;text sequence type（文字序列型別）: Ranges. (line  126)
* StringIO (io 中的類別):                文字 I/O<2>.        (line  238)
* strings（字串）, documentation（說明文件）: 定義函式 function.
                                                             (line   20)
* strings（字串）, documentation（說明文件） <1>: 說明文件字串 Documentation Strings.
                                                             (line    6)
* strip_dirs() (pstats.Stats 的方法):    The Stats Class.    (line   34)
* strip() (bytearray 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  441)
* strip() (bytes 的方法):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  441)
* strip() (str 的方法):                  String Methods<2>.  (line  580)
* stripspaces (curses.textpad.Textbox 的屬性): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* strong reference（強參照）:            術語表.             (line 1173)
* strptime() (datetime.datetime 的類別方法): datetime 物件.  (line  252)
* strptime() (於 time 模組中):           函式<4>.            (line  389)
* strsignal() (於 signal 模組中):        模組內容<5>.        (line  295)
* Struct (struct 中的類別):              Classes<2>.         (line    8)
* struct_time (time 中的類別):           函式<4>.            (line  416)
* structmember.h:                        Member types.       (line   85)
* Structure (ctypes 中的類別):           Structured data types.
                                                             (line   33)
* strxfrm() (於 locale 模組中):          locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  448)
* STX (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   25)
* Style (tkinter.ttk 中的類別):          Ttk Styling.        (line   20)
* Sub (ast 中的類別):                    運算式<2>.          (line   53)
* SUB (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  103)
* sub() (re.Pattern 的方法):             Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* sub() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  147)
* sub() (於 re 模組中):                  Functions.          (line  167)
* subclassing（子類別化）;immutable types（不可變型別）: Basic customization.
                                                             (line    8)
* subdirs (filecmp.dircmp 的屬性):       The dircmp class.   (line  100)
* SubElement() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.   (line  205)
* subgroup() (BaseExceptionGroup 的方法): 例外群組.          (line   37)
* submit() (concurrent.futures.Executor 的方法): Executor 物件.
                                                             (line   11)
* submodule_search_locations (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec 的屬性): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  396)
* subn() (re.Pattern 的方法):            Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* subn() (於 re 模組中):                 Functions.          (line  240)
* subnet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  215)
* subnet_of() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  348)
* subnets() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的方法): Network objects. (line  173)
* subnets() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的方法): Network objects. (line  344)
* Subnormal (decimal 中的類別):          Signals.            (line   86)
* suboffsets (memoryview 的屬性):        Memory Views.       (line  467)
* subpad() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  527)
* subprocess_exec() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 運行子行程.       (line   14)
* subprocess_shell() (asyncio.loop 的方法): 運行子行程.      (line   99)
* SubprocessError:                       Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  162)
* SubprocessProtocol (asyncio 中的類別): Base Protocols.     (line   24)
* SubprocessTransport (asyncio 中的類別): Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   50)
* subscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):    IMAP4 物件.         (line  338)
* Subscript (ast 中的類別):              下標 Subscripting.  (line    6)
* subscript（下標）;assignment（賦值）:  Mutable Sequence Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* subscript（下標）;operation（操作）:   Common Sequence Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* subscription（下標）:                  Sequences.          (line    6)
* subscription（下標） <1>:              Mutable sequences.  (line    6)
* subscription（下標） <2>:              Mappings.           (line    6)
* subscription（下標） <3>:              Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* subscription（下標）;assignment（賦值）: Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  101)
* subsequent_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性): textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  216)
* substitute() (string.Template 的方法): 模板字串.           (line   38)
* subTest() (unittest.TestCase 的方法):  Test cases.         (line  105)
* subtract() (collections.Counter 的方法): Counter 物件.     (line   80)
* subtract() (decimal.Context 的方法):   Context objects.    (line  521)
* subtraction（減）:                     Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   83)
* subtype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  278)
* subwin() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  534)
* successful() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult 的方法): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  213)
* suffix (pathlib.PurePath 的屬性):      方法與屬性.         (line  126)
* suffix_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes 的屬性): MimeTypes 物件.   (line   23)
* suffix_map (於 mimetypes 模組中):      mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line  128)
* suffixes (pathlib.PurePath 的屬性):    方法與屬性.         (line  137)
* suite（套裝）:                         複合陳述式.         (line   18)
* suiteClass (unittest.TestLoader 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  201)
* sum_list():                            參照計數詳細資訊.   (line  123)
* sum_sequence():                        參照計數詳細資訊.   (line  150)
* sum_sequence() <1>:                    例外<18>.           (line   46)
* summarize_address_range() (於 ipaddress 模組中): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* summarize() (doctest.DocTestRunner 的方法): DocTestRunner 物件.
                                                             (line  115)
* sumprod() (於 math 模組中):            數論與表現函式.     (line  243)
* SUNDAY (於 calendar 模組中):           calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  346)
* super (pyclbr.Class 的屬性):           Class Objects.      (line   42)
* super (內建類別):                      內建函式.           (line 1653)
* supernet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  226)
* supernet_of() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  350)
* supernet() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  199)
* supernet() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的方法): Network objects.
                                                             (line  346)
* supports_bytes_environ (於 os 模組中): 行程參數.           (line  536)
* supports_dir_fd (於 os 模組中):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1402)
* supports_effective_ids (於 os 模組中): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1427)
* supports_fd (於 os 模組中):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1446)
* supports_follow_symlinks (於 os 模組中): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1465)
* supports_unicode_filenames (於 os.path 模組中): os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  437)
* SupportsAbs (typing 中的類別):         協定<2>.            (line    9)
* SupportsBytes (typing 中的類別):       協定<2>.            (line   14)
* SupportsComplex (typing 中的類別):     協定<2>.            (line   18)
* SupportsFloat (typing 中的類別):       協定<2>.            (line   22)
* SupportsIndex (typing 中的類別):       協定<2>.            (line   26)
* SupportsInt (typing 中的類別):         協定<2>.            (line   32)
* SupportsRound (typing 中的類別):       協定<2>.            (line   36)
* suppress() (於 contextlib 模組中):     Utilities.          (line  269)
* SuppressCrashReport (test.support 中的類別): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  741)
* surrogateescape;error handler's name（錯誤處理器名稱）: Error Handlers.
                                                             (line   15)
* surrogatepass;error handler's name（錯誤處理器名稱）: Error Handlers.
                                                             (line   73)
* SW_HIDE (於 subprocess 模組中):        Windows Constants.  (line   23)
* SWAP (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  118)
* swap_attr() (於 test.support 模組中):  test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  366)
* swap_item() (於 test.support 模組中):  test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  383)
* swapcase() (bytearray 的方法):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  662)
* swapcase() (bytes 的方法):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  662)
* swapcase() (str 的方法):               String Methods<2>.  (line  604)
* Symbol (symtable 中的類別):            檢查符號表.         (line  131)
* SymbolTable (symtable 中的類別):       檢查符號表.         (line    6)
* symlink_to() (pathlib.Path 的方法):    建立檔案與目錄.     (line   41)
* symlink() (於 os 模組中):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1488)
* symmetric_difference_update() (frozenset 的方法): Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  188)
* symmetric_difference() (frozenset 的方法): Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  116)
* symtable() (於 symtable 模組中):       產生符號表.         (line    6)
* SYMTYPE (於 tarfile 模組中):           tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  276)
* SYN (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   91)
* sync() (dbm.dumb.dumbdbm 的方法):      dbm dumb --- 可攜式 DBM 實作.
                                                             (line   78)
* sync() (dbm.gnu.gdbm 的方法):          dbm gnu --- GNU 資料庫管理器.
                                                             (line  105)
* sync() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  165)
* sync() (shelve.Shelf 的方法):          shelve --- Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   69)
* sync() (於 os 模組中):                 Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1533)
* syncdown() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  544)
* synchronized() (於 multiprocessing.sharedctypes 模組中): multiprocessing sharedctypes 模組.
                                                             (line   88)
* SyncManager (multiprocessing.managers 中的類別): Managers. (line  150)
* syncok() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  550)
* syncup() (curses.window 的方法):       Window Objects.     (line  555)
* syntax（語法）:                        Notation.           (line    6)
* SyntaxErr:                             例外<15>.           (line   93)
* SyntaxError:                           實體例外.           (line  236)
* SyntaxWarning:                         警告.               (line   40)
* sys_exc (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  298)
* sys_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  142)
* sys.exc_info:                          Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* sys.exception:                         Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* sys.last_traceback:                    Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* sys.meta_path:                         The meta path.      (line    6)
* sys.modules:                           The module cache.   (line    6)
* sys.path:                              Path entry finders. (line    6)
* sys.path_hooks:                        Path entry finders. (line    6)
* sys.path_importer_cache:               Path entry finders. (line    6)
* sys.stderr:                            I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stdin:                             I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stdout:                            I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* sysconf_names (於 os 模組中):          Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   67)
* sysconf() (於 os 模組中):              Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   57)
* syslog() (於 syslog 模組中):           syslog --- Unix syslog 函式庫例程.
                                                             (line   20)
* SysLogHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): SysLogHandler.  (line   10)
* system_alias() (於 platform 模組中):   跨平台.             (line  111)
* system_must_validate_cert() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  454)
* system() (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line  744)
* system() (於 platform 模組中):         跨平台.             (line  106)
* SystemError:                           實體例外.           (line  292)
* SystemError（內建例外）:               模組物件.           (line   61)
* SystemError（內建例外） <1>:           模組物件.           (line   87)
* SystemExit:                            實體例外.           (line  303)
* SystemExit（內建例外）:                例外.               (line   26)
* systemId (xml.dom.DocumentType 的屬性): DocumentType 物件. (line   22)
* SystemRandom (random 中的類別):        替代產生器.         (line   44)
* SystemRandom (secrets 中的類別):       亂數.               (line    9)
* SystemRoot:                            Popen Constructor.  (line  307)
* T_BOOL（C 巨集）:                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_BYTE（C 巨集）:                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_CHAR（C 巨集）:                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_DOUBLE（C 巨集）:                    Member types.       (line   85)
* T_FLOAT（C 巨集）:                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_FMT (於 locale 模組中):              locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  201)
* T_FMT_AMPM (於 locale 模組中):         locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  207)
* T_INT（C 巨集）:                       Member types.       (line   85)
* T_LONG（C 巨集）:                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_LONGLONG（C 巨集）:                  Member types.       (line   85)
* T_NONE (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   96)
* T_OBJECT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   90)
* T_OBJECT_EX（C 巨集）:                 Member types.       (line   85)
* T_PYSSIZET（C 巨集）:                  Member types.       (line   85)
* T_SHORT（C 巨集）:                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_STRING_INPLACE（C 巨集）:            Member types.       (line   85)
* T_STRING（C 巨集）:                    Member types.       (line   85)
* T_UBYTE（C 巨集）:                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_UINT（C 巨集）:                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_ULONG（C 巨集）:                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_ULONGULONG（C 巨集）:                Member types.       (line   85)
* T_USHORT（C 巨集）:                    Member types.       (line   85)
* TAB (於 curses.ascii 模組中):          curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   46)
* tab() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 的方法):   ttk Notebook.       (line   60)
* tab（定位字元）:                       Indentation.        (line    6)
* TabError:                              實體例外.           (line  287)
* tabs() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 的方法):  ttk Notebook.       (line   69)
* tabsize (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性): textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  173)
* tag (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的屬性): Element 物件.  (line   16)
* tag_bind() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.    (line  292)
* tag_configure() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  298)
* tag_has() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.     (line  308)
* tagName (xml.dom.Element 的屬性):      Element Objects.    (line    9)
* tail (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的屬性): Element 物件. (line   21)
* take_snapshot() (於 tracemalloc 模組中): 函式<10>.         (line  110)
* takewhile() (於 itertools 模組中):     Itertool 函式.      (line  501)
* tan() (於 cmath 模組中):               三角函數.           (line   28)
* tan() (於 math 模組中):                Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   69)
* tanh() (於 cmath 模組中):              雙曲函數.           (line   29)
* tanh() (於 math 模組中):               Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   29)
* tar_filter() (於 tarfile 模組中):      Default named filters.
                                                             (line   15)
* TarError:                              tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  198)
* TarFile (tarfile 中的類別):            TarFile 物件.       (line   22)
* tarfile 命令列選項; -c:                命令列選項<2>.      (line   11)
* tarfile 命令列選項; -create:           命令列選項<2>.      (line   11)
* tarfile 命令列選項; -e:                命令列選項<2>.      (line   16)
* tarfile 命令列選項; -extract:          命令列選項<2>.      (line   16)
* tarfile 命令列選項; -filter:           命令列選項<2>.      (line   31)
* tarfile 命令列選項; -l:                命令列選項<2>.      (line    6)
* tarfile 命令列選項; -list:             命令列選項<2>.      (line    6)
* tarfile 命令列選項; -t:                命令列選項<2>.      (line   22)
* tarfile 命令列選項; -test:             命令列選項<2>.      (line   22)
* tarfile 命令列選項; -v:                命令列選項<2>.      (line   27)
* tarfile 命令列選項; -verbose:          命令列選項<2>.      (line   27)
* target:                                Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   27)
* target (xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction 的屬性): ProcessingInstruction 物件.
                                                             (line    9)
* target;list（串列）:                   Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   27)
* target;list（串列） <1>:               The for statement.  (line    6)
* target;list（串列）;assignment（賦值）: Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   35)
* TarInfo (tarfile 中的類別):            TarInfo 物件.       (line   33)
* tarinfo (tarfile.FilterError 的屬性):  tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  232)
* Task (asyncio 中的類別):               Task Object.        (line    6)
* task_done() (asyncio.Queue 的方法):    Queue.              (line   71)
* task_done() (multiprocessing.JoinableQueue 的方法): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  250)
* task_done() (queue.Queue 的方法):      佇列物件.           (line   60)
* TaskGroup (asyncio 中的類別):          Task Groups.        (line    9)
* tau (於 cmath 模組中):                 常數<3>.            (line   14)
* tau (於 math 模組中):                  常數<2>.            (line   16)
* tb_frame （traceback 屬性）:           Traceback objects.  (line   31)
* tb_frame (traceback 的屬性):           Traceback objects.  (line   33)
* tb_lasti （traceback 屬性）:           Traceback objects.  (line   31)
* tb_lasti (traceback 的屬性):           Traceback objects.  (line   43)
* tb_lineno （traceback 屬性）:          Traceback objects.  (line   31)
* tb_lineno (traceback 的屬性):          Traceback objects.  (line   40)
* tb_locals (unittest.TestResult 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  311)
* tb_next （traceback 屬性）:            Traceback objects.  (line   51)
* tb_next (traceback 的屬性):            Traceback objects.  (line   51)
* tbreak (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  111)
* tcdrain() (於 termios 模組中):         termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line   65)
* tcflow() (於 termios 模組中):          termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line   76)
* tcflush() (於 termios 模組中):         termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line   70)
* tcgetattr() (於 termios 模組中):       termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line   28)
* tcgetpgrp() (於 os 模組中):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  830)
* tcgetwinsize() (於 termios 模組中):    termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line   83)
* Tcl() (於 tkinter 模組中):             Tkinter Modules.    (line   94)
* TCPServer (socketserver 中的類別):     socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架.
                                                             (line   20)
* TCSADRAIN (於 termios 模組中):         termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line   50)
* TCSAFLUSH (於 termios 模組中):         termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line   54)
* TCSANOW (於 termios 模組中):           termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line   46)
* tcsendbreak() (於 termios 模組中):     termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line   59)
* tcsetattr() (於 termios 模組中):       termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line   39)
* tcsetpgrp() (於 os 模組中):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  837)
* tcsetwinsize() (於 termios 模組中):    termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line   91)
* tearDown() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.         (line   41)
* tearDownClass() (unittest.TestCase 的方法): Test cases.    (line   69)
* tee() (於 itertools 模組中):           Itertool 函式.      (line  518)
* teleport() (於 turtle 模組中):         Turtle motion.      (line  104)
* tell() (aifc.aifc 的方法):             aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  115)
* tell() (chunk.Chunk 的方法):           chunk --- 讀取 IFF 分塊資料.
                                                             (line  104)
* tell() (io.IOBase 的方法):             I/O 基礎類別.       (line  121)
* tell() (io.TextIOBase 的方法):         文字 I/O<2>.        (line   88)
* tell() (io.TextIOWrapper 的方法):      文字 I/O<2>.        (line  232)
* tell() (mmap.mmap 的方法):             mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  295)
* tell() (sqlite3.Blob 的方法):          Blob 物件.          (line   59)
* tell() (sunau.AU_read 的方法):         AU_read 物件.       (line   61)
* tell() (sunau.AU_write 的方法):        AU_write 物件.      (line   36)
* tell() (wave.Wave_read 的方法):        Wave_read 物件.     (line   74)
* tell() (wave.Wave_write 的方法):       Wave_write 物件.    (line   62)
* Telnet (telnetlib 中的類別):           telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端.
                                                             (line   34)
* TEMP:                                  Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line    7)
* TEMP <1>:                              tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  279)
* temp_cwd() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line  134)
* temp_dir() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line  148)
* temp_umask() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line  158)
* tempdir (於 tempfile 模組中):          tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  321)
* Template (pipes 中的類別):             pipes --- shell pipelines 介面.
                                                             (line   25)
* Template (string 中的類別):            模板字串.           (line   33)
* template (string.Template 的屬性):     模板字串.           (line   75)
* temporary (bdb.Breakpoint 的屬性):     bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line   90)
* temporary（臨時）;file name（檔案名稱）: tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line    8)
* temporary（臨時）;file（檔案）:        tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line    8)
* TemporaryDirectory (tempfile 中的類別): tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  157)
* TemporaryFile() (於 tempfile 模組中):  tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line   24)
* teredo (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.    (line  302)
* TERM:                                  函式<5>.            (line  485)
* TERM <1>:                              函式<5>.            (line  512)
* termattrs() (於 curses 模組中):        函式<5>.            (line  504)
* terminal_size (os 中的類別):           Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line   25)
* terminate() (asyncio.subprocess.Process 的方法): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   95)
* terminate() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 的方法): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   49)
* terminate() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 的方法): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  174)
* terminate() (multiprocessing.Process 的方法): Process 與例外.
                                                             (line  172)
* terminate() (subprocess.Popen 的方法): Popen Objects.      (line   86)
* termination model（終止模型）:         例外.               (line   20)
* terminator (logging.StreamHandler 的屬性): StreamHandler.  (line   47)
* termname() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line  510)
* ternary（三元）;operator（運算子）:    Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* ternaryfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line  122)
* test (doctest.DocTestFailure 的屬性):  Debugging.          (line  195)
* test (doctest.UnexpectedException 的屬性): Debugging.      (line  216)
* TEST_DATA_DIR (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  135)
* TEST_HOME_DIR (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  131)
* TEST_HTTP_URL (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  169)
* TEST_SUPPORT_DIR (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  127)
* test() (於 cgi 模組中):                函式<13>.           (line   69)
* TestCase (unittest 中的類別):          Test cases.         (line    6)
* TestFailed:                            test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line   15)
* testfile() (於 doctest 模組中):        基礎 API.           (line   12)
* TESTFN (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   18)
* TESTFN_NONASCII (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   24)
* TESTFN_UNDECODABLE (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   38)
* TESTFN_UNENCODABLE (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   32)
* TESTFN_UNICODE (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   44)
* TestLoader (unittest 中的類別):        Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* testMethodPrefix (unittest.TestLoader 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  187)
* testmod() (於 doctest 模組中):         基礎 API.           (line   90)
* testNamePatterns (unittest.TestLoader 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  209)
* TestResult (unittest 中的類別):        Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  226)
* tests (於 imghdr 模組中):              imghdr --- 推測圖片種類.
                                                             (line   78)
* tests (於 sndhdr 模組中):              sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別.
                                                             (line   80)
* testsource() (於 doctest 模組中):      Debugging.          (line  106)
* testsRun (unittest.TestResult 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  289)
* TestSuite (unittest 中的類別):         Grouping tests.     (line    6)
* testzip() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):    ZipFile 物件.       (line  251)
* text (SyntaxError 的屬性):             實體例外.           (line  260)
* text (traceback.TracebackException 的屬性): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   98)
* Text (typing 中的類別):                Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   28)
* text (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 的屬性): Element 物件. (line   21)
* text (於 msilib 模組中):               Precomputed tables. (line   23)
* text encoding（文字編碼）:             術語表.             (line 1185)
* text file（文字檔案）:                 術語表.             (line 1197)
* text mode（文字模式）:                 內建函式.           (line 1231)
* text_encoding() (於 io 模組中):        高階模組介面.       (line   35)
* text_factory (sqlite3.Connection 的屬性): Connection 物件. (line  774)
* text() (msilib.Dialog 的方法):         GUI classes.        (line   54)
* text() (於 cgitb 模組中):              cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式.
                                                             (line   51)
* Textbox (curses.textpad 中的類別):     Textbox objects.    (line    8)
* TextCalendar (calendar 中的類別):      calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  108)
* textdomain() (於 gettext 模組中):      GNU gettext API.    (line   26)
* textdomain() (於 locale 模組中):       Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   12)
* textinput() (於 turtle 模組中):        Input methods.      (line    6)
* TextIO (typing 中的類別):              ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* TextIOBase (io 中的類別):              文字 I/O<2>.        (line    6)
* TextIOWrapper (io 中的類別):           文字 I/O<2>.        (line   99)
* TextTestResult (unittest 中的類別):    Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  446)
* TextTestRunner (unittest 中的類別):    Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  463)
* TextWrapper (textwrap 中的類別):       textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  140)
* theme_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style 的方法): Ttk Styling.    (line  196)
* theme_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style 的方法): Ttk Styling.     (line  244)
* theme_settings() (tkinter.ttk.Style 的方法): Ttk Styling.  (line  206)
* theme_use() (tkinter.ttk.Style 的方法): Ttk Styling.       (line  248)
* THOUSEP (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  270)
* Thread (threading 中的類別):           Thread Objects.     (line   57)
* thread_info (於 sys 模組中):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1833)
* thread_time_ns() (於 time 模組中):     函式<4>.            (line  514)
* thread_time() (於 time 模組中):        函式<4>.            (line  496)
* thread() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):       IMAP4 物件.         (line  342)
* ThreadedChildWatcher (asyncio 中的類別): Process Watchers. (line   90)
* threading_cleanup() (於 test.support.threading_helper 模組中): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   31)
* threading_setup() (於 test.support.threading_helper 模組中): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   37)
* ThreadingHTTPServer (http.server 中的類別): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   37)
* ThreadingMixIn (socketserver 中的類別): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   27)
* ThreadingTCPServer (socketserver 中的類別): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ThreadingUDPServer (socketserver 中的類別): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ThreadingUnixDatagramServer (socketserver 中的類別): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ThreadingUnixStreamServer (socketserver 中的類別): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ThreadPool (multiprocessing.pool 中的類別): multiprocessing dummy 模組.
                                                             (line   16)
* ThreadPoolExecutor (concurrent.futures 中的類別): ThreadPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   39)
* threads（執行緒）;POSIX:               _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line   14)
* threadsafety (於 sqlite3 模組中):      Module constants.   (line   83)
* throw (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  303)
* throw() (coroutine 的方法):            Coroutine Objects.  (line   33)
* throw() (generator 的方法):            Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   38)
* THURSDAY (於 calendar 模組中):         calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  346)
* ticket_lifetime_hint (ssl.SSLSession 的屬性): SSL session. (line   18)
* tigetflag() (於 curses 模組中):        函式<5>.            (line  515)
* tigetnum() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line  522)
* tigetstr() (於 curses 模組中):         函式<5>.            (line  529)
* TILDE (於 token 模組中):               token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  150)
* tilt() (於 turtle 模組中):             Appearance.         (line  101)
* tiltangle() (於 turtle 模組中):        Appearance.         (line  136)
* time (datetime 中的類別):              time 物件.          (line   10)
* time (ssl.SSLSession 的屬性):          SSL session.        (line   14)
* time (uuid.UUID 的屬性):               uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  115)
* time_hi_version (uuid.UUID 的屬性):    uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  103)
* time_low (uuid.UUID 的屬性):           uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line   97)
* time_mid (uuid.UUID 的屬性):           uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  100)
* time_ns() (於 time 模組中):            函式<4>.            (line  489)
* time() (asyncio.loop 的方法):          排程延遲的回呼函式. (line   47)
* time() (datetime.datetime 的方法):     datetime 物件.      (line  424)
* time() (於 time 模組中):               函式<4>.            (line  469)
* Time2Internaldate() (於 imaplib 模組中): imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端.
                                                             (line  127)
* timedelta (datetime 中的類別):         timedelta 物件.     (line    9)
* TimedRotatingFileHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* timegm() (於 calendar 模組中):         calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  319)
* timeit 命令列選項; -h:                 命令列介面<4>.      (line   42)
* timeit 命令列選項; -help:              命令列介面<4>.      (line   42)
* timeit 命令列選項; -n:                 命令列介面<4>.      (line   12)
* timeit 命令列選項; -number:            命令列介面<4>.      (line   12)
* timeit 命令列選項; -p:                 命令列介面<4>.      (line   24)
* timeit 命令列選項; -process:           命令列介面<4>.      (line   24)
* timeit 命令列選項; -r:                 命令列介面<4>.      (line   16)
* timeit 命令列選項; -repeat:            命令列介面<4>.      (line   16)
* timeit 命令列選項; -s:                 命令列介面<4>.      (line   20)
* timeit 命令列選項; -setup:             命令列介面<4>.      (line   20)
* timeit 命令列選項; -u:                 命令列介面<4>.      (line   32)
* timeit 命令列選項; -unit:              命令列介面<4>.      (line   32)
* timeit 命令列選項; -v:                 命令列介面<4>.      (line   38)
* timeit 命令列選項; -verbose:           命令列介面<4>.      (line   38)
* timeit() (timeit.Timer 的方法):        Python 介面.        (line   61)
* timeit() (於 timeit 模組中):           Python 介面.        (line    8)
* timeout:                               例外<10>.           (line   40)
* Timeout (asyncio 中的類別):            Timeouts.           (line   50)
* timeout (socketserver.BaseServer 的屬性): Server Objects.  (line  114)
* timeout (ssl.SSLSession 的屬性):       SSL session.        (line   16)
* timeout (subprocess.TimeoutExpired 的屬性): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  177)
* timeout_at() (於 asyncio 模組中):      Timeouts.           (line   98)
* TIMEOUT_MAX (於 _thread 模組中):       _thread --- 低階執行緒 API.
                                                             (line  109)
* TIMEOUT_MAX (於 threading 模組中):     threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  230)
* timeout() (curses.window 的方法):      Window Objects.     (line  560)
* timeout() (於 asyncio 模組中):         Timeouts.           (line    6)
* TimeoutError:                          作業系統例外.       (line  103)
* TimeoutError <1>:                      Process 與例外.     (line  244)
* TimeoutError <2>:                      例外類別.           (line   10)
* TimeoutError <3>:                      例外<8>.            (line   10)
* TimeoutExpired:                        Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  168)
* Timer (threading 中的類別):            Timer Objects.      (line   25)
* Timer (timeit 中的類別):               Python 介面.        (line   36)
* TimerHandle (asyncio 中的類別):        回呼處理.           (line   27)
* times() (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line  779)
* TIMESTAMP (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode 的屬性): py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line  102)
* timestamp() (datetime.datetime 的方法): datetime 物件.     (line  576)
* timetuple() (datetime.date 的方法):    date 物件.          (line  192)
* timetuple() (datetime.datetime 的方法): datetime 物件.     (line  530)
* timetz() (datetime.datetime 的方法):   datetime 物件.      (line  433)
* timezone (datetime 中的類別):          timezone 物件.      (line   14)
* timezone (於 time 模組中):             Timezone Constants. (line   17)
* title() (bytearray 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  687)
* title() (bytes 的方法):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  687)
* title() (str 的方法):                  String Methods<2>.  (line  610)
* title() (於 turtle 模組中):            Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   49)
* Tix:                                   tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具.
                                                             (line    8)
* tix_addbitmapdir() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand 的方法): Tix 指令.
                                                             (line   47)
* tix_cget() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand 的方法): Tix 指令.      (line   32)
* tix_configure() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand 的方法): Tix 指令. (line   20)
* tix_filedialog() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand 的方法): Tix 指令.
                                                             (line   57)
* tix_getbitmap() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand 的方法): Tix 指令. (line   37)
* tix_getimage() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand 的方法): Tix 指令.  (line   68)
* tix_option_get() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand 的方法): Tix 指令.
                                                             (line   82)
* tix_resetoptions() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand 的方法): Tix 指令.
                                                             (line   86)
* tixCommand (tkinter.tix 中的類別):     Tix 指令.           (line    6)
* Tk:                                    以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces.
                                                             (line    6)
* Tk (tkinter 中的類別):                 Tkinter Modules.    (line   14)
* Tk (tkinter.tix 中的類別):             Using Tix.          (line    6)
* tk (tkinter.Tk 的屬性):                Tkinter Modules.    (line   70)
* Tk Option Data Types:                  Tk Option Data Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* Tkinter:                               以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces.
                                                             (line    6)
* TList (tkinter.tix 中的類別):          Tabular ListBox.    (line    6)
* TLS:                                   ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器.
                                                             (line    8)
* TLSv1 (ssl.TLSVersion 的屬性):         常數<8>.            (line  504)
* TLSv1_1 (ssl.TLSVersion 的屬性):       常數<8>.            (line  506)
* TLSv1_2 (ssl.TLSVersion 的屬性):       常數<8>.            (line  508)
* TLSv1_3 (ssl.TLSVersion 的屬性):       常數<8>.            (line  510)
* TLSVersion (ssl 中的類別):             常數<8>.            (line  487)
* tm_gmtoff (time.struct_time 的屬性):   函式<4>.            (line  457)
* tm_hour (time.struct_time 的屬性):     函式<4>.            (line  434)
* tm_isdst (time.struct_time 的屬性):    函式<4>.            (line  451)
* tm_mday (time.struct_time 的屬性):     函式<4>.            (line  431)
* tm_min (time.struct_time 的屬性):      函式<4>.            (line  437)
* tm_mon (time.struct_time 的屬性):      函式<4>.            (line  428)
* tm_sec (time.struct_time 的屬性):      函式<4>.            (line  440)
* tm_wday (time.struct_time 的屬性):     函式<4>.            (line  445)
* tm_yday (time.struct_time 的屬性):     函式<4>.            (line  448)
* tm_year (time.struct_time 的屬性):     函式<4>.            (line  425)
* tm_zone (time.struct_time 的屬性):     函式<4>.            (line  454)
* TMP:                                   tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  281)
* TMPDIR:                                Tests<21>.          (line   68)
* TMPDIR <1>:                            tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  277)
* to_bytes() (int 的方法):               整數型別的附加 methods.
                                                             (line   52)
* to_eng_string() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects. (line  525)
* to_eng_string() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects. (line  571)
* to_integral_exact() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects.
                                                             (line  535)
* to_integral_exact() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  590)
* to_integral_value() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  598)
* to_integral() (decimal.Decimal 的方法): Decimal objects.   (line  584)
* to_sci_string() (decimal.Context 的方法): Context objects. (line  539)
* to_thread() (於 asyncio 模組中):       Running in Threads. (line    6)
* ToASCII() (於 encodings.idna 模組中):  encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   55)
* tobuf() (tarfile.TarInfo 的方法):      TarInfo 物件.       (line   49)
* tobytes() (array.array 的方法):        array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  197)
* tobytes() (memoryview 的方法):         Memory Views.       (line  162)
* today() (datetime.date 的類別方法):    date 物件.          (line   29)
* today() (datetime.datetime 的類別方法): datetime 物件.     (line   47)
* tofile() (array.array 的方法):         array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  205)
* tok_name (於 token 模組中):            token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   20)
* token:                                 詞法分析.           (line    6)
* Token (contextvars 中的類別):          Context Variables.  (line   75)
* token (shlex.shlex 的屬性):            shlex 物件.         (line  172)
* token_bytes() (於 secrets 模組中):     產生權杖（token）.  (line    9)
* token_hex() (於 secrets 模組中):       產生權杖（token）.  (line   17)
* token_urlsafe() (於 secrets 模組中):   產生權杖（token）.  (line   26)
* TokenError:                            Tokenizing Input.   (line  107)
* tokenize 命令列選項; -e:               Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* tokenize 命令列選項; -exact:           Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* tokenize 命令列選項; -h:               Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   15)
* tokenize 命令列選項; -help:            Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   15)
* tokenize() (於 tokenize 模組中):       Tokenizing Input.   (line    8)
* tolist() (array.array 的方法):         array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  209)
* tolist() (memoryview 的方法):          Memory Views.       (line  203)
* TOMLDecodeError:                       tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案.
                                                             (line   54)
* tomono() (於 audioop 模組中):          audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  203)
* toordinal() (datetime.date 的方法):    date 物件.          (line  207)
* toordinal() (datetime.datetime 的方法): datetime 物件.     (line  571)
* top_panel() (於 curses.panel 模組中):  函式<6>.            (line   19)
* top() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法):     Panel Objects.      (line   53)
* top() (poplib.POP3 的方法):            POP3 物件.          (line   87)
* TopologicalSorter (graphlib 中的類別): graphlib —-- 使用類圖 graph-like 結構進行操作的功能.
                                                             (line   10)
* toprettyxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node 的方法): DOM 物件.     (line   72)
* toreadonly() (memoryview 的方法):      Memory Views.       (line  219)
* tostereo() (於 audioop 模組中):        audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  209)
* tostring() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.     (line  218)
* tostringlist() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>. (line  240)
* total_changes (sqlite3.Connection 的屬性): Connection 物件.
                                                             (line  784)
* total_nframe (tracemalloc.Traceback 的屬性): Traceback.    (line   28)
* total_ordering() (於 functools 模組中): functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line  236)
* total_seconds() (datetime.timedelta 的方法): timedelta 物件.
                                                             (line  231)
* total() (collections.Counter 的方法):  Counter 物件.       (line   94)
* touch() (pathlib.Path 的方法):         建立檔案與目錄.     (line    6)
* touchline() (curses.window 的方法):    Window Objects.     (line  570)
* touchwin() (curses.window 的方法):     Window Objects.     (line  577)
* tounicode() (array.array 的方法):      array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line  213)
* ToUnicode() (於 encodings.idna 模組中): encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   60)
* towards() (於 turtle 模組中):          Tell Turtle's state.
                                                             (line   15)
* toxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node 的方法): DOM 物件.           (line   52)
* tparm() (於 curses 模組中):            函式<5>.            (line  536)
* Trace (trace 中的類別):                Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* Trace (tracemalloc 中的類別):          Trace.              (line    6)
* trace function:                        threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  158)
* trace function <1>:                    threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性.
                                                             (line  176)
* trace function <2>:                    sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  891)
* trace function <3>:                    sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1525)
* trace 命令列選項; -c:                  Main options.       (line   12)
* trace 命令列選項; -C:                  Modifiers.          (line   11)
* trace 命令列選項; -count:              Main options.       (line   12)
* trace 命令列選項; -coverdir:           Modifiers.          (line   11)
* trace 命令列選項; -f:                  Modifiers.          (line    6)
* trace 命令列選項; -file:               Modifiers.          (line    6)
* trace 命令列選項; -g:                  Modifiers.          (line   33)
* trace 命令列選項; -help:               Command-Line Usage. (line   15)
* trace 命令列選項; -ignore-dir:         Filters.            (line   14)
* trace 命令列選項; -ignore-module:      Filters.            (line    8)
* trace 命令列選項; -l:                  Main options.       (line   23)
* trace 命令列選項; -listfuncs:          Main options.       (line   23)
* trace 命令列選項; -m:                  Modifiers.          (line   17)
* trace 命令列選項; -missing:            Modifiers.          (line   17)
* trace 命令列選項; -no-report:          Modifiers.          (line   27)
* trace 命令列選項; -r:                  Main options.       (line   27)
* trace 命令列選項; -R:                  Modifiers.          (line   27)
* trace 命令列選項; -report:             Main options.       (line   27)
* trace 命令列選項; -s:                  Modifiers.          (line   22)
* trace 命令列選項; -summary:            Modifiers.          (line   22)
* trace 命令列選項; -t:                  Main options.       (line   19)
* trace 命令列選項; -T:                  Main options.       (line   33)
* trace 命令列選項; -timing:             Modifiers.          (line   33)
* trace 命令列選項; -trace:              Main options.       (line   19)
* trace 命令列選項; -trackcalls:         Main options.       (line   33)
* trace 命令列選項; -version:            Command-Line Usage. (line   19)
* trace_dispatch() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):     bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  164)
* trace() (於 inspect 模組中):           直譯器堆疊.         (line  180)
* Traceback (inspect 中的類別):          直譯器堆疊.         (line   55)
* Traceback (tracemalloc 中的類別):      Traceback.          (line    6)
* traceback (tracemalloc.Statistic 的屬性): Statistic.       (line   23)
* traceback (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff 的屬性): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   38)
* traceback (tracemalloc.Trace 的屬性):  Trace.              (line   27)
* traceback_limit (tracemalloc.Snapshot 的屬性): Snapshot.   (line   83)
* traceback_limit (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  186)
* TracebackException (traceback 中的類別): TracebackException 物件.
                                                             (line   15)
* tracebacklimit (於 sys 模組中):        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1869)
* tracebacks（回溯）;於 CGI 腳本中:      cgitb --- CGI 腳本的回溯 traceback 管理程式.
                                                             (line    8)
* TracebackType (types 中的類別):        Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  185)
* tracer() (於 turtle 模組中):           Animation control.  (line   23)
* traces (tracemalloc.Snapshot 的屬性):  Snapshot.           (line   89)
* trailing;comma:                        Expression lists.   (line   29)
* transfercmd() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):     FTP 物件.           (line  228)
* transient_internet() (於 test.support.socket_helper 模組中): test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   64)
* translate() (bytearray 的方法):        Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  263)
* translate() (bytes 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  263)
* translate() (str 的方法):              String Methods<2>.  (line  644)
* translate() (於 fnmatch 模組中):       fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對.
                                                             (line   76)
* translation() (於 gettext 模組中):     Class-based API.    (line   44)
* Transport (asyncio 中的類別):          Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   29)
* transport (asyncio.StreamWriter 的屬性): StreamWriter.     (line   52)
* Transport Layer Security（傳輸層安全）: ssl --- socket 物件的 TLS/SSL 包裝器.
                                                             (line    8)
* Traversable (importlib.abc 中的類別):  importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  499)
* Traversable (importlib.resources.abc 中的類別): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line   86)
* TraversableResources (importlib.abc 中的類別): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  554)
* TraversableResources (importlib.resources.abc 中的類別): importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  158)
* traverseproc (C type):                 循環垃圾回收的支援. (line  164)
* Tree (tkinter.tix 中的類別):           Hierarchical ListBox.
                                                             (line   20)
* TreeBuilder (xml.etree.ElementTree 中的類別): TreeBuilder 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* Treeview (tkinter.ttk 中的類別):       ttk Treeview.       (line    6)
* triangular() (於 random 模組中):       實數分布.           (line   21)
* triple-quoted string（三引號內字串）:  術語表.             (line 1209)
* triple-quoted string（三引號字串）:    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   36)
* True:                                  numbers Integral.   (line   27)
* true:                                  真值檢測.           (line   10)
* True <1>:                              真值檢測.           (line   20)
* True <2>:                              Boolean 型別 - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* True (內建變數):                       內建常數.           (line   13)
* truediv() (於 operator 模組中):        operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  152)
* trunc() (於 math 模組中):              數論與表現函式.     (line  260)
* trunc()（於 math 模組）:               數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   97)
* truncate() (io.IOBase 的方法):         I/O 基礎類別.       (line  125)
* truncate() (於 os 模組中):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1541)
* truth() (於 operator 模組中):          operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line   50)
* truth（真）;value:                     真值檢測.           (line    6)
* Try (ast 中的類別):                    流程控制.           (line  129)
* TryStar (ast 中的類別):                流程控制.           (line  172)
* ttk:                                   tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具.
                                                             (line    8)
* tty;I/O control（I/O 控制）:           termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制.
                                                             (line    6)
* ttyname() (於 os 模組中):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  845)
* TUESDAY (於 calendar 模組中):          calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  346)
* Tuple (ast 中的類別):                  文本 Literals.      (line   64)
* tuple (內建類別):                      Tuples.             (line   12)
* Tuple (於 typing 模組中):              內建型別的別名.     (line   46)
* tuple_params (2to3 fixer):             Fixers.             (line  307)
* Turtle (turtle 中的類別):              Public classes.     (line   16)
* turtles() (於 turtle 模組中):          Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   96)
* TurtleScreen (turtle 中的類別):        Public classes.     (line   22)
* turtlesize() (於 turtle 模組中):       Appearance.         (line   52)
* type (optparse.Option 的屬性):         Option attributes.  (line   27)
* type (socket.socket 的屬性):           Socket 物件.        (line  620)
* type (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):         TarInfo 物件.       (line   86)
* Type (typing 中的類別):                內建型別的別名.     (line   56)
* type (urllib.request.Request 的屬性):  Request Objects.    (line   21)
* type (內建類別):                       內建函式.           (line 1737)
* type alias（型別別名）:                術語表.             (line 1224)
* type hint（型別提示）:                 術語表.             (line 1243)
* type of an object（物件的型別）:       Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* type parameter（型別參數）:            Type parameter lists.
                                                             (line    8)
* type_check_only() (於 typing 模組中):  函式與裝飾器.       (line  407)
* TYPE_CHECKER (optparse.Option 的屬性): Adding new types.   (line   16)
* TYPE_CHECKING (於 typing 模組中):      常數<9>.            (line    6)
* type_comment (ast.arg 的屬性):         函式和類別定義.     (line   73)
* type_comment (ast.Assign 的屬性):      陳述式.             (line   14)
* type_comment (ast.For 的屬性):         流程控制.           (line   50)
* type_comment (ast.FunctionDef 的屬性): 函式和類別定義.     (line   24)
* type_comment (ast.With 的屬性):        流程控制.           (line  238)
* TYPE_COMMENT (於 token 模組中):        token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  254)
* TYPE_IGNORE (於 token 模組中):         token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  252)
* type（型別）:                          標準型別階層.       (line    6)
* type（型別） <1>:                      術語表.             (line 1217)
* type（型別）;hierarchy（階層）:        標準型別階層.       (line    6)
* typeahead() (於 curses 模組中):        函式<5>.            (line  544)
* TypeAlias (ast 中的類別):              陳述式.             (line  169)
* TypeAlias (於 typing 模組中):          特別型別.           (line  178)
* TypeAliasType (typing 中的類別):       Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  432)
* typecode (array.array 的屬性):         array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line   99)
* typecodes (於 array 模組中):           array --- 高效率的數值型陣列.
                                                             (line   71)
* TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option 的屬性): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   39)
* typed_subpart_iterator() (於 email.iterators 模組中): email iterators：疊代器.
                                                             (line   26)
* TypedDict (typing 中的類別):           Other special directives.
                                                             (line  217)
* TypeError:                             實體例外.           (line  324)
* TypeGuard (於 typing 模組中):          特別型式.           (line  365)
* types (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  312)
* TYPES (optparse.Option 的屬性):        Adding new types.   (line   11)
* types_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes 的屬性): MimeTypes 物件.    (line   39)
* types_map (於 mimetypes 模組中):       mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型.
                                                             (line  140)
* types_map_inv (mimetypes.MimeTypes 的屬性): MimeTypes 物件.
                                                             (line   47)
* types（型別）, internal（內部）:       Internal types.     (line    6)
* TypeVar (ast 中的類別):                型別參數 type parameters.
                                                             (line    8)
* TypeVar (typing 中的類別):             Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line   54)
* TypeVarTuple (ast 中的類別):           型別參數 type parameters.
                                                             (line   54)
* TypeVarTuple (typing 中的類別):        Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  197)
* TZ:                                    函式<4>.            (line  524)
* TZ <1>:                                函式<4>.            (line  525)
* TZ <2>:                                函式<4>.            (line  533)
* TZ <3>:                                函式<4>.            (line  538)
* TZ <4>:                                函式<4>.            (line  540)
* TZ <5>:                                函式<4>.            (line  601)
* tzinfo (datetime 中的類別):            tzinfo 物件.        (line    6)
* tzinfo (datetime.datetime 的屬性):     datetime 物件.      (line  315)
* tzinfo (datetime.time 的屬性):         time 物件.          (line   66)
* tzname (於 time 模組中):               Timezone Constants. (line   23)
* tzname() (datetime.datetime 的方法):   datetime 物件.      (line  524)
* tzname() (datetime.time 的方法):       time 物件.          (line  253)
* tzname() (datetime.timezone 的方法):   timezone 物件.      (line   42)
* tzname() (datetime.tzinfo 的方法):     tzinfo 物件.        (line  123)
* TZPATH (於 zoneinfo 模組中):           Globals.            (line    6)
* tzset() (於 time 模組中):              函式<4>.            (line  521)
* U (於 re 模組中):                      旗標.               (line  116)
* u-LAW:                                 aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  163)
* u-LAW <1>:                             audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line   20)
* u-LAW <2>:                             sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別.
                                                             (line    8)
* u';string literal（字串常數）:         Literals.           (line    8)
* u";string literal（字串常數）:         Literals.           (line    8)
* UAdd (ast 中的類別):                   運算式<2>.          (line   27)
* ucd_3_2_0 (於 unicodedata 模組中):     unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line  131)
* udata (select.kevent 的屬性):          Kevent Objects.     (line  179)
* UDPServer (socketserver 中的類別):     socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架.
                                                             (line   30)
* UF_APPEND (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  346)
* UF_COMPRESSED (於 stat 模組中):        stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  358)
* UF_HIDDEN (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  362)
* UF_IMMUTABLE (於 stat 模組中):         stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  342)
* UF_NODUMP (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  338)
* UF_NOUNLINK (於 stat 模組中):          stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  354)
* UF_OPAQUE (於 stat 模組中):            stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果.
                                                             (line  350)
* UID (plistlib 中的類別):               plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案.
                                                             (line  122)
* uid (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):          TarInfo 物件.       (line  105)
* uid() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):          IMAP4 物件.         (line  365)
* uidl() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   99)
* ulaw2lin() (於 audioop 模組中):        audioop --- 操作原始聲音檔案.
                                                             (line  216)
* ULONG_MAX（C 巨集）:                   整數物件.           (line  203)
* ulp() (於 math 模組中):                數論與表現函式.     (line  269)
* umask() (於 os 模組中):                行程參數.           (line  543)
* unalias (pdb command):                 Debugger Commands.  (line  374)
* uname (tarfile.TarInfo 的屬性):        TarInfo 物件.       (line  121)
* uname() (於 os 模組中):                行程參數.           (line  550)
* uname() (於 platform 模組中):          跨平台.             (line  121)
* UNARY_INVERT (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  156)
* UNARY_NEGATIVE (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  148)
* UNARY_NOT (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  152)
* unary（一元）;arithmetic;operation（操作）: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* unary（一元）;bitwise（位元）;operation（操作）: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* unaryfunc (C type):                    Slot Type typedefs. (line  108)
* UnaryOp (ast 中的類別):                運算式<2>.          (line   22)
* unbinding（解除繫結）;name（名稱）:    del 陳述式<2>.      (line   15)
* UnboundLocalError:                     Resolution of names.
                                                             (line   16)
* UnboundLocalError <1>:                 實體例外.           (line  337)
* unbuffered I/O（非緩衝 I/O）:          內建函式.           (line 1231)
* UNC paths（UNC 路徑）;以及 os.makedirs(): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  528)
* uncancel() (asyncio.Task 的方法):      Task Object.        (line  269)
* UNCHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode 的屬性): py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line  115)
* unconsumed_tail (zlib.Decompress 的屬性): zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  194)
* unctrl() (於 curses 模組中):           函式<5>.            (line  556)
* unctrl() (於 curses.ascii 模組中):     curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  229)
* Underflow (decimal 中的類別):          Signals.            (line   93)
* undisplay (pdb command):               Debugger Commands.  (line  335)
* undo() (於 turtle 模組中):             Turtle motion.      (line  317)
* undobufferentries() (於 turtle 模組中): Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   74)
* undoc_header (cmd.Cmd 的屬性):         Cmd 物件.           (line  166)
* unescape() (於 html 模組中):           html --- 超連結標記語言 HTML 支援.
                                                             (line   22)
* unescape() (於 xml.sax.saxutils 模組中): xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式.
                                                             (line   28)
* UnexpectedException:                   Debugging.          (line  208)
* unexpectedSuccesses (unittest.TestResult 的屬性): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  272)
* unfreeze() (於 gc 模組中):             gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  187)
* unget_wch() (於 curses 模組中):        函式<5>.            (line  576)
* ungetch() (於 curses 模組中):          函式<5>.            (line  563)
* ungetch() (於 msvcrt 模組中):          Console I/O.        (line   44)
* ungetmouse() (於 curses 模組中):       函式<5>.            (line  585)
* ungetwch() (於 msvcrt 模組中):         Console I/O.        (line   50)
* unhexlify() (於 binascii 模組中):      binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換.
                                                             (line  143)
* Unicode:                               Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   15)
* Unicode <1>:                           unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line    6)
* Unicode <2>:                           codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line    8)
* unicode (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  317)
* UNICODE (於 re 模組中):                旗標.               (line  116)
* Unicode Consortium:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   36)
* Unicode;database（資料庫）:            unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnicodeDecodeError:                    實體例外.           (line  376)
* UnicodeEncodeError:                    實體例外.           (line  371)
* UnicodeError:                          實體例外.           (line  342)
* UnicodeTranslateError:                 實體例外.           (line  381)
* UnicodeWarning:                        警告.               (line   60)
* unidata_version (於 unicodedata 模組中): unicodedata --- Unicode 資料庫.
                                                             (line  127)
* unified_diff() (於 difflib 模組中):    difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具.
                                                             (line  292)
* uniform() (於 random 模組中):          實數分布.           (line   13)
* UnimplementedFileMode:                 http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  153)
* Union (ctypes 中的類別):               Structured data types.
                                                             (line    6)
* Union (於 typing 模組中):              特別型式.           (line    9)
* union() (frozenset 的方法):            Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line   96)
* union（聯集）;type（型別）:            聯合型別 Union Type.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnionType (types 中的類別):            Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  179)
* UNIQUE (enum.EnumCheck 的屬性):        資料型別<2>.        (line  545)
* unique() (於 enum 模組中):             通用項目與裝飾器.   (line   43)
* unittest 命令列選項; -b:               命令列模式選項.     (line    8)
* unittest 命令列選項; -buffer:          命令列模式選項.     (line    8)
* unittest 命令列選項; -c:               命令列模式選項.     (line   14)
* unittest 命令列選項; -catch:           命令列模式選項.     (line   14)
* unittest 命令列選項; -durations:       命令列模式選項.     (line   47)
* unittest 命令列選項; -f:               命令列模式選項.     (line   22)
* unittest 命令列選項; -failfast:        命令列模式選項.     (line   22)
* unittest 命令列選項; -k:               命令列模式選項.     (line   26)
* unittest 命令列選項; -locals:          命令列模式選項.     (line   43)
* unittest-discover 命令列選項; -p:      Test Discovery（測試探索）.
                                                             (line   33)
* unittest-discover 命令列選項; -pattern: Test Discovery（測試探索）.
                                                             (line   33)
* unittest-discover 命令列選項; -s:      Test Discovery（測試探索）.
                                                             (line   29)
* unittest-discover 命令列選項; -start-directory: Test Discovery（測試探索）.
                                                             (line   29)
* unittest-discover 命令列選項; -t:      Test Discovery（測試探索）.
                                                             (line   37)
* unittest-discover 命令列選項; -top-level-directory: Test Discovery（測試探索）.
                                                             (line   37)
* unittest-discover 命令列選項; -v:      Test Discovery（測試探索）.
                                                             (line   25)
* unittest-discover 命令列選項; -verbose: Test Discovery（測試探索）.
                                                             (line   25)
* universal newlines;bytearray.splitlines 方法: Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  638)
* universal newlines;bytes.splitlines 方法: Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  638)
* universal newlines;csv.reader 函式:    模組內容<3>.        (line    8)
* universal newlines;importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source 方法: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  212)
* universal newlines;io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder 類別: 文字 I/O<2>.
                                                             (line  285)
* universal newlines;io.TextIOWrapper 類別: 文字 I/O<2>.     (line  126)
* universal newlines;open() 內建函式:    內建函式.           (line 1179)
* universal newlines;str.splitlines 方法: String Methods<2>. (line  501)
* universal newlines;subprocess 模組:    Frequently Used Arguments.
                                                             (line   33)
* universal newlines;What's new（有什麼新功能）: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
                                                             (line   42)
* universal newlines;What's new（有什麼新功能） <1>: New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  137)
* universal newlines;What's new（有什麼新功能） <2>: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   36)
* universal newlines;What's new（有什麼新功能） <3>: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
                                                             (line   36)
* universal newlines（通用換行字元）:    術語表.             (line 1257)
* UNIX:                                  完整的 Python 程式. (line   19)
* unix_dialect (csv 中的類別):           模組內容<3>.        (line  195)
* unix_shell (於 test.support 模組中):   test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line   43)
* UNIX;file control（檔案控制）:         fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line    6)
* UNIX;I/O control（I/O 控制）:          fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnixDatagramServer (socketserver 中的類別): socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架.
                                                             (line   37)
* UnixStreamServer (socketserver 中的類別): socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架.
                                                             (line   37)
* unknown (uuid.SafeUUID 的屬性):        uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line   40)
* unknown_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser 的方法): HTMLParser 方法.
                                                             (line  113)
* unknown_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler 的方法): BaseHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   56)
* unknown_open() (urllib.request.UnknownHandler 的方法): UnknownHandler 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnknownHandler (urllib.request 中的類別): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  413)
* UnknownProtocol:                       http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  145)
* UnknownTransferEncoding:               http client --- HTTP 協定用戶端.
                                                             (line  149)
* unlink() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory 的方法): multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取.
                                                             (line   62)
* unlink() (pathlib.Path 的方法):        Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line   41)
* unlink() (xml.dom.minidom.Node 的方法): DOM 物件.          (line   10)
* unlink() (於 os 模組中):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1559)
* unlink() (於 test.support.os_helper 模組中): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line  162)
* unload() (於 test.support.import_helper 模組中): test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   74)
* unlock() (mailbox.Babyl 的方法):       Babyl 物件.         (line   59)
* unlock() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):     Mailbox 物件.       (line  265)
* unlock() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法):     Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line  108)
* unlock() (mailbox.mbox 的方法):        mbox 物件.          (line   38)
* unlock() (mailbox.MH 的方法):          MH 物件.            (line   84)
* unlock() (mailbox.MMDF 的方法):        MMDF 物件.          (line   35)
* Unpack (於 typing 模組中):             特別型式.           (line  438)
* unpack_archive() (於 shutil 模組中):   Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  125)
* unpack_array() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects. (line   91)
* unpack_bytes() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects. (line   70)
* unpack_double() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* UNPACK_EX (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  520)
* unpack_farray() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* unpack_float() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects. (line   36)
* unpack_fopaque() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* unpack_from() (struct.Struct 的方法):  Classes<2>.         (line   40)
* unpack_from() (於 struct 模組中):      函式與例外.         (line   34)
* unpack_fstring() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* unpack_list() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects.  (line   77)
* unpack_opaque() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* UNPACK_SEQUENCE (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  511)
* unpack_string() (xdrlib.Unpacker 的方法): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* unpack() (struct.Struct 的方法):       Classes<2>.         (line   34)
* unpack() (於 struct 模組中):           函式與例外.         (line   26)
* Unpacker (xdrlib 中的類別):            xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line   27)
* unpacking（解包）;dictionary（字典）:  Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   23)
* unpacking（解包）;於函式呼叫中:        Calls.              (line   72)
* unparse() (於 ast 模組中):             ast 輔助程式.       (line   52)
* unparsedEntityDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler 的方法): DTDHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   12)
* UnparsedEntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  290)
* Unpickler (pickle 中的類別):           模組介面.           (line  227)
* UnpicklingError:                       模組介面.           (line  108)
* unquote_plus() (於 urllib.parse 模組中): URL Quoting.      (line   81)
* unquote_to_bytes() (於 urllib.parse 模組中): URL Quoting.  (line   91)
* unquote() (於 email.utils 模組中):     email utils：雜項工具.
                                                             (line   50)
* unquote() (於 urllib.parse 模組中):    URL Quoting.        (line   61)
* unraisablehook() (於 sys 模組中):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1877)
* unreachable object（不可達物件）:      Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   37)
* unrecognized escape sequence（無法辨識的跳脫序列）: 跳脫序列.
                                                             (line  106)
* unregister_archive_format() (於 shutil 模組中): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  120)
* unregister_dialect() (於 csv 模組中):  模組內容<3>.        (line   70)
* unregister_unpack_format() (於 shutil 模組中): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  186)
* unregister() (select.devpoll 的方法):  /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* unregister() (select.epoll 的方法):    Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   89)
* unregister() (select.poll 的方法):     Polling Objects.    (line   67)
* unregister() (selectors.BaseSelector 的方法): Classes<3>.  (line   80)
* unregister() (於 atexit 模組中):       atexit --- 退出處理函式.
                                                             (line   48)
* unregister() (於 codecs 模組中):       codecs --- 編解碼器註冊表和基底類別.
                                                             (line  160)
* unregister() (於 faulthandler 模組中): Dumping the traceback on a user signal.
                                                             (line   23)
* unsafe (uuid.SafeUUID 的屬性):         uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line   36)
* unselect() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):     IMAP4 物件.         (line  376)
* unset() (test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard 的方法): test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具.
                                                             (line   70)
* unsetenv() (於 os 模組中):             行程參數.           (line  580)
* unshare() (於 os 模組中):              行程參數.           (line  598)
* UnstructuredHeader (email.headerregistry 中的類別): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  115)
* unsubscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):  IMAP4 物件.         (line  372)
* UnsupportedOperation:                  高階模組介面.       (line   66)
* until (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line  201)
* untokenize() (於 tokenize 模組中):     Tokenizing Input.   (line   57)
* untouchwin() (curses.window 的方法):   Window Objects.     (line  582)
* unused_data (bz2.BZ2Decompressor 的屬性): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   78)
* unused_data (lzma.LZMADecompressor 的屬性): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  169)
* unused_data (zlib.Decompress 的屬性):  zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  187)
* unverifiable (urllib.request.Request 的屬性): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* unwrap() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法):       SSL Sockets.        (line  251)
* unwrap() (於 inspect 模組中):          類別與函式.         (line  138)
* unwrap() (於 urllib.parse 模組中):     URL Parsing.        (line  396)
* up (pdb command):                      Debugger Commands.  (line   89)
* up() (於 turtle 模組中):               Drawing state.      (line   12)
* update_abstractmethods() (於 abc 模組中): abc --- 抽象基底類別.
                                                             (line  301)
* update_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 的方法): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件.
                                                             (line   24)
* update_lines_cols() (於 curses 模組中): 函式<5>.           (line  569)
* update_panels() (於 curses.panel 模組中): 函式<6>.         (line   23)
* update_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage 的方法): BabylMessage 物件.
                                                             (line   76)
* update_wrapper() (於 functools 模組中): functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line  583)
* update() (collections.Counter 的方法): Counter 物件.       (line  111)
* update() (dict 的方法):                Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line  204)
* update() (frozenset 的方法):           Set Types --- set frozenset.
                                                             (line  169)
* update() (hashlib.hash 的方法):        雜湊物件.           (line   28)
* update() (hmac.HMAC 的方法):           hmac --- 基於金鑰雜湊的訊息驗證.
                                                             (line   41)
* update() (http.cookies.Morsel 的方法): Morsel 物件.        (line   87)
* update() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):     Mailbox 物件.       (line  235)
* update() (mailbox.Maildir 的方法):     Mailbox 物件<2>.    (line   92)
* update() (trace.CoverageResults 的方法): Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   52)
* update() (於 turtle 模組中):           Animation control.  (line   46)
* upgrade_dependencies() (venv.EnvBuilder 的方法): API<2>.   (line  152)
* upper() (bytearray 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  730)
* upper() (bytes 的方法):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  730)
* upper() (str 的方法):                  String Methods<2>.  (line  662)
* urandom() (於 os 模組中):              Random numbers.     (line   29)
* url (http.client.HTTPResponse 的屬性): HTTPResponse 物件.  (line   51)
* url (urllib.error.HTTPError 的屬性):   urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line   35)
* url (urllib.response.addinfourl 的屬性): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   14)
* url (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError 的屬性): ProtocolError 物件.
                                                             (line   13)
* URL（統一資源定位器）:                 urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL（統一資源定位器） <1>:             urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL（統一資源定位器） <2>:             http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL（統一資源定位器） <3>:             cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL（統一資源定位器）;parsing（剖析）: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件.
                                                             (line    8)
* url2pathname() (於 urllib.request 模組中): urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  148)
* urlcleanup() (於 urllib.request 模組中): Legacy interface. (line   62)
* urldefrag() (於 urllib.parse 模組中):  URL Parsing.        (line  370)
* urlencode() (於 urllib.parse 模組中):  URL Quoting.        (line  104)
* URLError:                              urllib error --- urllib request 引發的例外類別.
                                                             (line   16)
* urljoin() (於 urllib.parse 模組中):    URL Parsing.        (line  340)
* urllib (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  321)
* urlopen() (於 urllib.request 模組中):  urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line   32)
* URLopener (urllib.request 中的類別):   Legacy interface.   (line   67)
* urlparse() (於 urllib.parse 模組中):   URL Parsing.        (line    9)
* urlretrieve() (於 urllib.request 模組中): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line   10)
* urlsafe_b64decode() (於 base64 模組中): base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   87)
* urlsafe_b64encode() (於 base64 模組中): base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼.
                                                             (line   81)
* urlsplit() (於 urllib.parse 模組中):   URL Parsing.        (line  250)
* urlunparse() (於 urllib.parse 模組中): URL Parsing.        (line  242)
* urlunsplit() (於 urllib.parse 模組中): URL Parsing.        (line  331)
* urn (uuid.UUID 的屬性):                uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  129)
* US (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line  118)
* use_default_colors() (於 curses 模組中): 函式<5>.          (line  600)
* use_env() (於 curses 模組中):          函式<5>.            (line  590)
* use_rawinput (cmd.Cmd 的屬性):         Cmd 物件.           (line  177)
* USE_STACKCHECK（C 巨集）:              作業系統工具.       (line   91)
* use_tool_id() (於 sys.monitoring 模組中): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line    6)
* UseForeignDTD() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* USER:                                  getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具.
                                                             (line   41)
* USER_BASE (於 site 模組中):            模組內容<10>.       (line   30)
* user_call() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  268)
* user_exception() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):     bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  287)
* user_line() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):          bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  276)
* user_return() (bdb.Bdb 的方法):        bdb --- 偵錯器框架. (line  282)
* USER_SITE (於 site 模組中):            模組內容<10>.       (line   19)
* user-defined（使用者定義）;function （函式）: 自訂函式.    (line    6)
* user-defined（使用者定義）;function （函式）;call（呼叫）: Calls.
                                                             (line  131)
* user-defined（使用者定義）;method（方法）: Instance methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* user() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line   31)
* user（使用者）;effective id:           行程參數.           (line  187)
* user（使用者）;id:                     行程參數.           (line  335)
* user（使用者）;id, setting（設定）:    行程參數.           (line  526)
* usercustomize:                         客製化模組.         (line    6)
* usercustomize <1>:                     客製化模組.         (line   19)
* UserDict (collections 中的類別):       UserDict 物件.      (line   10)
* UserList (collections 中的類別):       UserList 物件.      (line   13)
* USERNAME:                              os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  126)
* USERNAME <1>:                          行程參數.           (line  239)
* USERNAME <2>:                          getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具.
                                                             (line   41)
* username (email.headerregistry.Address 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  432)
* USERPROFILE:                           os path<3>.         (line   14)
* USERPROFILE <1>:                       Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line  116)
* USERPROFILE <2>:                       Windows<40>.        (line   15)
* USERPROFILE <3>:                       os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  124)
* userptr() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法): Panel Objects.      (line   57)
* UserString (collections 中的類別):     UserString 物件.    (line   10)
* UserWarning:                           警告.               (line   13)
* USTAR_FORMAT (於 tarfile 模組中):      tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案.
                                                             (line  316)
* USub (ast 中的類別):                   運算式<2>.          (line   27)
* UTC:                                   time --- 時間存取與轉換.
                                                             (line   32)
* utc (datetime.timezone 的屬性):        timezone 物件.      (line   68)
* UTC (於 datetime 模組中):              常數.               (line   18)
* utcfromtimestamp() (datetime.datetime 的類別方法): datetime 物件.
                                                             (line  129)
* utcnow() (datetime.datetime 的類別方法): datetime 物件.    (line   79)
* utcoffset() (datetime.datetime 的方法): datetime 物件.     (line  504)
* utcoffset() (datetime.time 的方法):    time 物件.          (line  233)
* utcoffset() (datetime.timezone 的方法): timezone 物件.     (line   30)
* utcoffset() (datetime.tzinfo 的方法):  tzinfo 物件.        (line   38)
* utctimetuple() (datetime.datetime 的方法): datetime 物件.  (line  549)
* utf8 (email.policy.EmailPolicy 的屬性): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  379)
* utf8_enabled (imaplib.IMAP4 的屬性):   IMAP4 物件.         (line  404)
* utf8_mode (sys.flags 的屬性):          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  553)
* utf8() (poplib.POP3 的方法):           POP3 物件.          (line  106)
* utime() (於 os 模組中):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1573)
* UUID (uuid 中的類別):                  uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line   44)
* uuid 命令列選項; -h:                   命令列的用法.       (line   14)
* uuid 命令列選項; -help:                命令列的用法.       (line   14)
* uuid 命令列選項; -n:                   命令列的用法.       (line   23)
* uuid 命令列選項; -N:                   命令列的用法.       (line   30)
* uuid 命令列選項; -name:                命令列的用法.       (line   30)
* uuid 命令列選項; -namespace:           命令列的用法.       (line   23)
* uuid 命令列選項; -u:                   命令列的用法.       (line   18)
* uuid 命令列選項; -uuid:                命令列的用法.       (line   18)
* uuid1:                                 uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  173)
* uuid1() (於 uuid 模組中):              uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  167)
* uuid3:                                 uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  179)
* uuid3() (於 uuid 模組中):              uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  173)
* uuid4:                                 uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  183)
* uuid4() (於 uuid 模組中):              uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  179)
* uuid5:                                 uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  188)
* uuid5() (於 uuid 模組中):              uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  183)
* UuidCreate() (於 msilib 模組中):       msilib --- 讀寫 Microsoft Installer 檔案.
                                                             (line   41)
* v4_int_to_packed() (於 ipaddress 模組中): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* v6_int_to_packed() (於 ipaddress 模組中): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   20)
* valid_signals() (於 signal 模組中):    模組內容<5>.        (line  304)
* validator() (於 wsgiref.validate 模組中): wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查.
                                                             (line   17)
* value (ctypes._SimpleCData 的屬性):    Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* value (enum.Enum 的屬性):              資料型別<2>.        (line  125)
* value (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性):  Cookie 物件<2>.     (line   32)
* value (http.cookies.Morsel 的屬性):    Morsel 物件.        (line   45)
* value (StopIteration 的屬性):          實體例外.           (line  208)
* value (xml.dom.Attr 的屬性):           Attr Objects.       (line   23)
* value of an object（物件的值）:        Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* value_decode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie 的方法): Cookie 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* value_encode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie 的方法): Cookie 物件.
                                                             (line   13)
* Value() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 的方法): Managers.
                                                             (line  216)
* Value() (於 multiprocessing 模組中):   共享的 ctypes 物件. (line    9)
* Value() (於 multiprocessing.sharedctypes 模組中): multiprocessing sharedctypes 模組.
                                                             (line   67)
* value（值）:                           Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* ValueError:                            實體例外.           (line  386)
* valuerefs() (weakref.WeakValueDictionary 的方法): weakref --- 弱參照.
                                                             (line  179)
* Values (optparse 中的類別):            Defining options.   (line   84)
* values() (contextvars.Context 的方法): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line  109)
* values() (dict 的方法):                Mapping Types --- dict.
                                                             (line  217)
* values() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  234)
* values() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  343)
* values() (mailbox.Mailbox 的方法):     Mailbox 物件.       (line  128)
* values() (types.MappingProxyType 的方法): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  274)
* ValuesView (collections.abc 中的類別): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  102)
* ValuesView (typing 中的類別):          collections abc 中容器 ABC 的別名.
                                                             (line  105)
* var (contextvars.Token 的屬性):        Context Variables.  (line   82)
* variable annotation（變數註釋）:       術語表.             (line 1264)
* variance (statistics.NormalDist 的屬性): NormalDist 物件.  (line   35)
* variance() (於 statistics 模組中):     函式細節.           (line  336)
* variant (uuid.UUID 的屬性):            uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  133)
* vbar (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText 的屬性): tkinter scrolledtext --- 捲動文字小工具.
                                                             (line   30)
* VBAR (於 token 模組中):                token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line   98)
* VBAREQUAL (於 token 模組中):           token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數.
                                                             (line  194)
* VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN (於 msvcrt 模組中): Other Functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* Vec2D (turtle 中的類別):               Public classes.     (line   85)
* vectorcallfunc (C type):               Vectorcall 協定.    (line   36)
* verbose (sys.flags 的屬性):            sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  538)
* VERBOSE (於 re 模組中):                旗標.               (line  126)
* verbose (於 tabnanny 模組中):          tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排.
                                                             (line   24)
* verbose (於 test.support 模組中):      test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line   29)
* VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.         (line   88)
* verify_client_post_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  260)
* verify_code (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError 的屬性): 例外<11>.
                                                             (line   77)
* VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.           (line   74)
* VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.            (line   64)
* VERIFY_DEFAULT (於 ssl 模組中):        常數<8>.            (line   57)
* verify_flags (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性):  SSL Contexts.       (line  634)
* verify_generated_headers (email.policy.Policy 的屬性): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  204)
* verify_message (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError 的屬性): 例外<11>.
                                                             (line   81)
* verify_mode (ssl.SSLContext 的屬性):   SSL Contexts.       (line  649)
* verify_request() (socketserver.BaseServer 的方法): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  175)
* VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.        (line  102)
* VERIFY_X509_STRICT (於 ssl 模組中):    常數<8>.            (line   81)
* VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST (於 ssl 模組中): 常數<8>.        (line   95)
* verify() (smtplib.SMTP 的方法):        SMTP 物件.          (line   91)
* verify() (於 enum 模組中):             通用項目與裝飾器.   (line   61)
* VerifyFlags (ssl 中的類別):            常數<8>.            (line  110)
* VerifyMode (ssl 中的類別):             常數<8>.            (line   51)
* version (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader 的屬性): email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件.
                                                             (line  242)
* version (http.client.HTTPResponse 的屬性): HTTPResponse 物件.
                                                             (line   46)
* version (http.cookiejar.Cookie 的屬性): Cookie 物件<2>.    (line   20)
* version (http.cookies.Morsel 的屬性):  Morsel 物件.        (line   13)
* version (ipaddress.IPv4Address 的屬性): Address objects.   (line   45)
* version (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.   (line   63)
* version (ipaddress.IPv6Address 的屬性): Address objects.   (line  253)
* version (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.   (line  293)
* version (sys.thread_info 的屬性):      sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1862)
* version (urllib.request.URLopener 的屬性): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  137)
* version (uuid.UUID 的屬性):            uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件.
                                                             (line  139)
* version (於 curses 模組中):            Constants.          (line   18)
* version (於 marshal 模組中):           marshal --- 内部 Python 物件序列化.
                                                             (line   94)
* version (於 sqlite3 模組中):           Module constants.   (line  122)
* version (於 sys 模組中):               sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1925)
* version_info (於 sqlite3 模組中):      Module constants.   (line  132)
* version_info (於 sys 模組中):          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1940)
* version_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的方法): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  312)
* version() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法):      SSL Sockets.        (line  282)
* version() (於 ensurepip 模組中):       模組 API.           (line    8)
* version() (於 importlib.metadata 模組中): Distribution versions.
                                                             (line    6)
* version() (於 platform 模組中):        跨平台.             (line  116)
* version（sys 模組中）:                 Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  217)
* version（sys 模組中） <1>:             Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  254)
* version（sys 模組中） <2>:             Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  265)
* vformat() (string.Formatter 的方法):   自訂字串格式.       (line   22)
* virtual environment（虛擬環境）:       術語表.             (line 1285)
* virtual machine（虛擬機器）:           術語表.             (line 1293)
* visit_Constant() (ast.NodeVisitor 的方法): ast 輔助程式.   (line  171)
* visit() (ast.NodeVisitor 的方法):      ast 輔助程式.       (line  158)
* visitproc (C type):                    循環垃圾回收的支援. (line  152)
* vline() (curses.window 的方法):        Window Objects.     (line  587)
* voidcmd() (ftplib.FTP 的方法):         FTP 物件.           (line  145)
* volume (zipfile.ZipInfo 的屬性):       ZipInfo 物件.       (line  119)
* vonmisesvariate() (於 random 模組中):  實數分布.           (line   77)
* VT (於 curses.ascii 模組中):           curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式.
                                                             (line   58)
* W_OK (於 os 模組中):                   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  106)
* wait_closed() (asyncio.Server 的方法): Server 物件.        (line   90)
* wait_closed() (asyncio.StreamWriter 的方法): StreamWriter. (line  104)
* wait_for() (asyncio.Condition 的方法): Condition.          (line   88)
* wait_for() (threading.Condition 的方法): Condition Objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* wait_for() (於 asyncio 模組中):        Timeouts.           (line  118)
* wait_process() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  416)
* wait_threads_exit() (於 test.support.threading_helper 模組中): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   41)
* wait() (asyncio.Barrier 的方法):       Barrier.            (line   52)
* wait() (asyncio.Condition 的方法):     Condition.          (line   77)
* wait() (asyncio.Event 的方法):         Event.              (line   43)
* wait() (asyncio.subprocess.Process 的方法): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   38)
* wait() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult 的方法): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  204)
* wait() (subprocess.Popen 的方法):      Popen Objects.      (line   13)
* wait() (threading.Barrier 的方法):     Barrier Objects.    (line   43)
* wait() (threading.Condition 的方法):   Condition Objects.  (line   97)
* wait() (threading.Event 的方法):       Event Objects.      (line   42)
* wait() (於 asyncio 模組中):            Waiting Primitives. (line    6)
* wait() (於 concurrent.futures 模組中): 模組函式.           (line    6)
* wait() (於 multiprocessing.connection 模組中): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line  113)
* wait() (於 os 模組中):                 行程管理.           (line  807)
* wait3() (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line  914)
* wait4() (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line  928)
* waitid() (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line  831)
* waitpid() (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line  869)
* waitstatus_to_exitcode() (於 os 模組中): 行程管理.         (line 1046)
* walk_packages() (於 pkgutil 模組中):   pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式.
                                                             (line  125)
* walk_stack() (於 traceback 模組中):    Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  169)
* walk_tb() (於 traceback 模組中):       Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  178)
* walk() (email.message.EmailMessage 的方法): email message：表示電子郵件訊息.
                                                             (line  464)
* walk() (email.message.Message 的方法): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  634)
* walk() (pathlib.Path 的方法):          讀取目錄.           (line   93)
* walk() (於 ast 模組中):                ast 輔助程式.       (line  146)
* walk() (於 os 模組中):                 Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1617)
* walrus operator（海象運算子）:         Boolean operations. (line   38)
* want (doctest.Example 的屬性):         Example 物件.       (line   23)
* warn_default_encoding (sys.flags 的屬性): sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  563)
* warn_explicit() (於 warnings 模組中):  Available Functions.
                                                             (line   62)
* warn() (於 warnings 模組中):           Available Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Warning:                               警告.               (line    9)
* Warning <1>:                           例外<4>.            (line    8)
* WARNING (於 logging 模組中):           Logging Levels.     (line   33)
* WARNING (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  176)
* warning() (logging.Logger 的方法):     Logger 物件.        (line  290)
* warning() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler 的方法): ErrorHandler 物件.
                                                             (line   29)
* warning() (於 logging 模組中):         Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   70)
* warnings （警告）:                     warnings --- 警告控制.
                                                             (line    8)
* WarningsRecorder (test.support.warnings_helper 中的類別): test support warnings_helper --- 用於 warnings 測試的工具.
                                                             (line  116)
* warnoptions (於 sys 模組中):           sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1953)
* wasSuccessful() (unittest.TestResult 的方法): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  318)
* WatchedFileHandler (logging.handlers 中的類別): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* Wave_read (wave 中的類別):             Wave_read 物件.     (line    6)
* Wave_write (wave 中的類別):            Wave_write 物件.    (line    6)
* WCONTINUED (於 os 模組中):             行程管理.           (line  968)
* WCOREDUMP() (於 os 模組中):            行程管理.           (line 1085)
* WeakKeyDictionary (weakref 中的類別):  weakref --- 弱參照. (line  128)
* WeakMethod (weakref 中的類別):         weakref --- 弱參照. (line  188)
* WeakSet (weakref 中的類別):            weakref --- 弱參照. (line  183)
* WeakValueDictionary (weakref 中的類別): weakref --- 弱參照.
                                                             (line  168)
* WEDNESDAY (於 calendar 模組中):        calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  346)
* weekday (calendar.IllegalWeekdayError 的屬性): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  427)
* weekday() (datetime.date 的方法):      date 物件.          (line  213)
* weekday() (datetime.datetime 的方法):  datetime 物件.      (line  613)
* weekday() (於 calendar 模組中):        calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  281)
* weekheader() (於 calendar 模組中):     calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  286)
* weibullvariate() (於 random 模組中):   實數分布.           (line   87)
* WEXITED (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line  977)
* WEXITSTATUS() (於 os 模組中):          行程管理.           (line 1131)
* wfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 的屬性): http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line  123)
* wfile (socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler 的屬性): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* what() (於 imghdr 模組中):             imghdr --- 推測圖片種類.
                                                             (line   18)
* what() (於 sndhdr 模組中):             sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別.
                                                             (line   25)
* whathdr() (於 sndhdr 模組中):          sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別.
                                                             (line   32)
* whatis (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  271)
* when() (asyncio.Timeout 的方法):       Timeouts.           (line   63)
* when() (asyncio.TimerHandle 的方法):   回呼處理.           (line   34)
* where (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line   78)
* which() (於 shutil 模組中):            Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  397)
* whichdb() (於 dbm 模組中):             dbm --- Unix "databases" 的介面.
                                                             (line   23)
* While (ast 中的類別):                  流程控制.           (line   73)
* whitespace (shlex.shlex 的屬性):       shlex 物件.         (line  104)
* whitespace (於 string 模組中):         字串常數.           (line   46)
* whitespace_split (shlex.shlex 的屬性): shlex 物件.         (line  128)
* Widget (tkinter.ttk 中的類別):         ttk Widget.         (line    9)
* width (sys.hash_info 的屬性):          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  982)
* width (textwrap.TextWrapper 的屬性):   textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  160)
* width() (於 turtle 模組中):            Drawing state.      (line   18)
* WIFCONTINUED() (於 os 模組中):         行程管理.           (line 1095)
* WIFEXITED() (於 os 模組中):            行程管理.           (line 1123)
* WIFSIGNALED() (於 os 模組中):          行程管理.           (line 1116)
* WIFSTOPPED() (於 os 模組中):           行程管理.           (line 1105)
* win32_edition() (於 platform 模組中):  Windows 平台.       (line   17)
* win32_is_iot() (於 platform 模組中):   Windows 平台.       (line   24)
* win32_ver() (於 platform 模組中):      Windows 平台.       (line    6)
* WinDLL (ctypes 中的類別):              Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line   53)
* window manager (widgets):              The Window Manager. (line    6)
* window_height() (於 turtle 模組中):    Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line  103)
* window_width() (於 turtle 模組中):     Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line  110)
* window() (curses.panel.Panel 的方法):  Panel Objects.      (line   62)
* Windows:                               完整的 Python 程式. (line   19)
* Windows ini file（Windows ini 檔案）:  configparser --- 設定檔剖析器.
                                                             (line    8)
* WindowsError:                          實體例外.           (line  403)
* WindowsPath (pathlib 中的類別):        實體路徑.           (line   30)
* WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy (asyncio 中的類別): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* WindowsRegistryFinder (importlib.machinery 中的類別): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   89)
* WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy (asyncio 中的類別): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   70)
* winerror (OSError 的屬性):             實體例外.           (line  142)
* WinError() (於 ctypes 模組中):         Utility functions.  (line  200)
* WINFUNCTYPE() (於 ctypes 模組中):      Function prototypes.
                                                             (line   25)
* WinSock:                               select --- 等待 I/O 完成.
                                                             (line  149)
* winver (於 sys 模組中):                sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1959)
* With (ast 中的類別):                   流程控制.           (line  233)
* WITH_EXCEPT_START (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  425)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface 的屬性): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Interface 的屬性): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  325)
* with_name() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法): 方法與屬性.         (line  334)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface 的屬性): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  118)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Interface 的屬性): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  323)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Interface 的屬性): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Interface 的屬性): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network 的屬性): Network objects.
                                                             (line  317)
* with_pymalloc() (於 test.support 模組中): test support --- Python 測試套件的工具.
                                                             (line  252)
* with_segments() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法): 方法與屬性.     (line  389)
* with_stem() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法): 方法與屬性.         (line  350)
* with_suffix() (pathlib.PurePath 的方法): 方法與屬性.       (line  373)
* with_traceback() (BaseException 的方法): 基底類別 base classes.
                                                             (line   22)
* withitem (ast 中的類別):               流程控制.           (line  242)
* WNOHANG (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line 1011)
* WNOWAIT (於 os 模組中):                行程管理.           (line 1019)
* wordchars (shlex.shlex 的屬性):        shlex 物件.         (line   91)
* World Wide Web （全球資訊網）:         網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* World Wide Web （全球資訊網） <1>:     urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件.
                                                             (line    8)
* World Wide Web （全球資訊網） <2>:     urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line    8)
* wrap_bio() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法):    SSL Contexts.       (line  456)
* wrap_future() (於 asyncio 模組中):     Future 函式.        (line   47)
* wrap_socket() (ssl.SSLContext 的方法): SSL Contexts.       (line  389)
* wrap() (textwrap.TextWrapper 的方法):  textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line  287)
* wrap() (於 textwrap 模組中):           textwrap --- 文字包裝與填充.
                                                             (line   16)
* wrapper() (於 curses 模組中):          函式<5>.            (line  609)
* WrapperDescriptorType (於 types 模組中): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   87)
* wraps() (於 functools 模組中):         functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作.
                                                             (line  623)
* WRITABLE (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性): Buffer flags.       (line   17)
* WRITABLE (於 _tkinter 模組中):         File Handlers.      (line   41)
* writable() (bz2.BZ2File 的方法):       De compression of files.
                                                             (line  104)
* writable() (io.IOBase 的方法):         I/O 基礎類別.       (line  135)
* WRITE (inspect.BufferFlags 的屬性):    Buffer flags.       (line   51)
* write_byte() (mmap.mmap 的方法):       mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  314)
* write_bytes() (pathlib.Path 的方法):   Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   62)
* write_docstringdict() (於 turtle 模組中): Translation of docstrings into different languages.
                                                             (line   10)
* write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter 的方法): StreamWriter.   (line   48)
* write_eof() (asyncio.WriteTransport 的方法): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   74)
* write_eof() (ssl.MemoryBIO 的方法):    Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  157)
* write_history_file() (於 readline 模組中): History file.   (line   14)
* WRITE_RESTRICTED（C 巨集）:            Member flags.       (line   32)
* write_results() (trace.CoverageResults 的方法): Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   57)
* write_text() (pathlib.Path 的方法):    Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   44)
* write_through (io.TextIOWrapper 的屬性): 文字 I/O<2>.      (line  173)
* write() (asyncio.StreamWriter 的方法): StreamWriter.       (line   13)
* write() (asyncio.WriteTransport 的方法): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   60)
* write() (code.InteractiveInterpreter 的方法): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* write() (codecs.StreamWriter 的方法):  StreamWriter 物件.  (line   31)
* write() (configparser.ConfigParser 的方法): ConfigParser 物件.
                                                             (line  280)
* write() (email.generator.BytesGenerator 的方法): email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line  118)
* write() (email.generator.Generator 的方法): email generator：產生 MIME 文件.
                                                             (line  214)
* write() (io.BufferedIOBase 的方法):    I/O 基礎類別.       (line  282)
* write() (io.BufferedWriter 的方法):    Buffered Streams.   (line  131)
* write() (io.RawIOBase 的方法):         I/O 基礎類別.       (line  187)
* write() (io.TextIOBase 的方法):        文字 I/O<2>.        (line   94)
* write() (mmap.mmap 的方法):            mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援.
                                                             (line  299)
* write() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* write() (sqlite3.Blob 的方法):         Blob 物件.          (line   53)
* write() (ssl.MemoryBIO 的方法):        Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  149)
* write() (ssl.SSLSocket 的方法):        SSL Sockets.        (line   86)
* write() (telnetlib.Telnet 的方法):     Telnet Objects.     (line  100)
* write() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 的方法): ElementTree 物件.
                                                             (line   62)
* write() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):      ZipFile 物件.       (line  261)
* write() (於 os 模組中):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  853)
* write() (於 turtle 模組中):            More drawing control.
                                                             (line   29)
* writeall() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device 的方法): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* writeframes() (aifc.aifc 的方法):      aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  190)
* writeframes() (sunau.AU_write 的方法): AU_write 物件.      (line   47)
* writeframes() (wave.Wave_write 的方法): Wave_write 物件.   (line   73)
* writeframesraw() (aifc.aifc 的方法):   aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案.
                                                             (line  197)
* writeframesraw() (sunau.AU_write 的方法): AU_write 物件.   (line   41)
* writeframesraw() (wave.Wave_write 的方法): Wave_write 物件.
                                                             (line   67)
* writeheader() (csv.DictWriter 的方法): 寫入器物件.         (line   35)
* writelines() (asyncio.StreamWriter 的方法): StreamWriter.  (line   23)
* writelines() (asyncio.WriteTransport 的方法): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   67)
* writelines() (codecs.StreamWriter 的方法): StreamWriter 物件.
                                                             (line   35)
* writelines() (io.IOBase 的方法):       I/O 基礎類別.       (line  140)
* writepy() (zipfile.PyZipFile 的方法):  PyZipFile 物件.     (line   20)
* writer() (於 csv 模組中):              模組內容<3>.        (line   36)
* writerow() (csv.csvwriter 的方法):     寫入器物件.         (line   14)
* writerows() (csv.csvwriter 的方法):    寫入器物件.         (line   22)
* writestr() (zipfile.ZipFile 的方法):   ZipFile 物件.       (line  296)
* WriteTransport (asyncio 中的類別):     Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   11)
* writev() (於 os 模組中):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  871)
* writexml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node 的方法): DOM 物件.        (line   27)
* writing;values:                        Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* WrongDocumentErr:                      例外<15>.           (line   97)
* ws_comma (2to3 fixer):                 Fixers.             (line  326)
* wsgi_file_wrapper (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  228)
* wsgi_multiprocess (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  131)
* wsgi_multithread (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  125)
* wsgi_run_once (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 的屬性): wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別.
                                                             (line  137)
* WSGIApplication (於 wsgiref.types 模組中): wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line   19)
* WSGIEnvironment (於 wsgiref.types 模組中): wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別.
                                                             (line   15)
* WSGIRequestHandler (wsgiref.simple_server 中的類別): wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   67)
* WSGIServer (wsgiref.simple_server 中的類別): wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line   40)
* wShowWindow (subprocess.STARTUPINFO 的屬性): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   49)
* WSTOPPED (於 os 模組中):               行程管理.           (line  989)
* WSTOPSIG() (於 os 模組中):             行程管理.           (line 1140)
* wstring_at() (於 ctypes 模組中):       Utility functions.  (line  211)
* WTERMSIG() (於 os 模組中):             行程管理.           (line 1149)
* WUNTRACED (於 os 模組中):              行程管理.           (line 1000)
* WWW:                                   網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* WWW <1>:                               urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW <2>:                               urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW;server（伺服器）:                  http server — HTTP 伺服器.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW;server（伺服器） <1>:              cgi --- 通用閘道器介面支援.
                                                             (line    8)
* X (於 re 模組中):                      旗標.               (line  126)
* X_OK (於 os 模組中):                   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  106)
* X509 certificate（X509 憑證）:         SSL Contexts.       (line  661)
* xatom() (imaplib.IMAP4 的方法):        IMAP4 物件.         (line  386)
* XATTR_CREATE (於 os 模組中):           Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   87)
* XATTR_REPLACE (於 os 模組中):          Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   93)
* XATTR_SIZE_MAX (於 os 模組中):         Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   82)
* xcor() (於 turtle 模組中):             Tell Turtle's state.
                                                             (line   34)
* XDR:                                   xdrlib --- XDR 資料的編碼與解碼.
                                                             (line    8)
* xhdr() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):          方法.               (line  320)
* XHTML:                                 html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器.
                                                             (line    8)
* XHTML_NAMESPACE (於 xml.dom 模組中):   模組內容<6>.        (line   53)
* XML_ERROR_ABORTED (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  180)
* XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  215)
* XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   29)
* XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   31)
* XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   37)
* XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   42)
* XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  135)
* XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   47)
* XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  126)
* XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  116)
* XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  128)
* XML_ERROR_FINISHED (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  184)
* XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  152)
* XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   51)
* XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  207)
* XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   53)
* XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   59)
* XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   64)
* XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  211)
* XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   69)
* XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   74)
* XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  118)
* XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  175)
* XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   78)
* XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   82)
* XML_ERROR_PUBLICID (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  165)
* XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   86)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  202)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  192)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  197)
* XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  190)
* XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  169)
* XML_ERROR_SYNTAX (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   91)
* XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   95)
* XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  160)
* XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  112)
* XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   99)
* XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  104)
* XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  124)
* XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  108)
* XML_ERROR_XML_DECL (於 xml.parsers.expat.errors 模組中): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  156)
* XML_NAMESPACE (於 xml.dom 模組中):     模組內容<6>.        (line   42)
* XML() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.          (line  266)
* xmlcharrefreplace_errors() (於 codecs 模組中): Error Handlers.
                                                             (line  172)
* xmlcharrefreplace;error handler's name（錯誤處理器名稱）: Error Handlers.
                                                             (line   54)
* XmlDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 的方法): XMLParser 物件<2>.
                                                             (line  213)
* XMLFilterBase (xml.sax.saxutils 中的類別): xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式.
                                                             (line   72)
* XMLGenerator (xml.sax.saxutils 中的類別): xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式.
                                                             (line   56)
* XMLID() (於 xml.etree.ElementTree 模組中): 函式<8>.        (line  274)
* XMLNS_NAMESPACE (於 xml.dom 模組中):   模組內容<6>.        (line   47)
* XMLParser (xml.etree.ElementTree 中的類別): XMLParser 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* XMLParserType (於 xml.parsers.expat 模組中): xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析.
                                                             (line   35)
* XMLPullParser (xml.etree.ElementTree 中的類別): XMLPullParser 物件.
                                                             (line    6)
* XMLReader (xml.sax.xmlreader 中的類別): xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面.
                                                             (line   16)
* xor() (於 operator 模組中):            operator --- 標準運算子替代函式.
                                                             (line  157)
* xover() (nntplib.NNTP 的方法):         方法.               (line  336)
* xrange (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  331)
* xreadlines (2to3 fixer):               Fixers.             (line  336)
* xview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.       (line  316)
* ycor() (於 turtle 模組中):             Tell Turtle's state.
                                                             (line   46)
* year (datetime.date 的屬性):           date 物件.          (line  116)
* year (datetime.datetime 的屬性):       datetime 物件.      (line  286)
* Year 2038（2038 年問題）:              time --- 時間存取與轉換.
                                                             (line   24)
* yeardatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   89)
* yeardays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line   96)
* yeardayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar 的方法): calendar --- 日曆相關函式.
                                                             (line  102)
* YES (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中):    tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  137)
* YESEXPR (於 locale 模組中):            locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  275)
* YESNO (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中):  tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  160)
* YESNOCANCEL (於 tkinter.messagebox 模組中): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示.
                                                             (line  164)
* Yield (ast 中的類別):                  函式和類別定義.     (line  126)
* YIELD_VALUE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  360)
* yield;expression:                      Yield expressions.  (line    6)
* yield;yield from（在有什麼新功能中）:  PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
                                                             (line   87)
* yield;範例:                            Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   74)
* YieldFrom (ast 中的類別):              函式和類別定義.     (line  126)
* yiq_to_rgb() (於 colorsys 模組中):     colorsys --- 顏色系統間的轉換.
                                                             (line   29)
* yview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 的方法): ttk Treeview.       (line  320)
* z;於字串格式化:                        格式規格 Format Specification 迷你語言.
                                                             (line   75)
* Zen of Python（Python 之禪）:          術語表.             (line 1298)
* ZeroDivisionError:                     實體例外.           (line  391)
* zfill() (bytearray 的方法):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  749)
* zfill() (bytes 的方法):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  749)
* zfill() (str 的方法):                  String Methods<2>.  (line  673)
* zip (2to3 fixer):                      Fixers.             (line  340)
* ZIP_BZIP2 (於 zipfile 模組中):         zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案.
                                                             (line   89)
* ZIP_DEFLATED (於 zipfile 模組中):      zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案.
                                                             (line   84)
* zip_longest() (於 itertools 模組中):   Itertool 函式.      (line  565)
* ZIP_LZMA (於 zipfile 模組中):          zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案.
                                                             (line   96)
* ZIP_STORED (於 zipfile 模組中):        zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案.
                                                             (line   80)
* zipapp 命令列選項; -c:                 命令執行列介面.     (line   45)
* zipapp 命令列選項; -compress:          命令執行列介面.     (line   45)
* zipapp 命令列選項; -h:                 命令執行列介面.     (line   61)
* zipapp 命令列選項; -help:              命令執行列介面.     (line   61)
* zipapp 命令列選項; -info:              命令執行列介面.     (line   55)
* zipapp 命令列選項; -m:                 命令執行列介面.     (line   35)
* zipapp 命令列選項; -main:              命令執行列介面.     (line   35)
* zipapp 命令列選項; -o:                 命令執行列介面.     (line   18)
* zipapp 命令列選項; -output:            命令執行列介面.     (line   18)
* zipapp 命令列選項; -p:                 命令執行列介面.     (line   29)
* zipapp 命令列選項; -python:            命令執行列介面.     (line   29)
* ZipFile (zipfile 中的類別):            ZipFile 物件.       (line    6)
* zipfile 命令列選項; -c:                Command-line options.
                                                             (line   11)
* zipfile 命令列選項; -create:           Command-line options.
                                                             (line   11)
* zipfile 命令列選項; -e:                Command-line options.
                                                             (line   16)
* zipfile 命令列選項; -extract:          Command-line options.
                                                             (line   16)
* zipfile 命令列選項; -l:                Command-line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* zipfile 命令列選項; -list:             Command-line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* zipfile 命令列選項; -metadata-encoding: Command-line options.
                                                             (line   26)
* zipfile 命令列選項; -t:                Command-line options.
                                                             (line   21)
* zipfile 命令列選項; -test:             Command-line options.
                                                             (line   21)
* zipimporter (zipimport 中的類別):      zipimporter 物件.   (line    8)
* ZipImportError:                        zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組.
                                                             (line   56)
* ZipInfo (zipfile 中的類別):            zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案.
                                                             (line   59)
* ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION (於 zlib 模組中): zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  249)
* ZLIB_VERSION (於 zlib 模組中):         zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮.
                                                             (line  243)
* ZoneInfo (zoneinfo 中的類別):          The ZoneInfo class. (line    6)
* ZoneInfoNotFoundError:                 Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line    6)
* zscore() (statistics.NormalDist 的方法): NormalDist 物件.  (line   96)
* 二進制模式:                            內建函式.           (line 1231)
* 命令列選項; -?:                        Generic options.    (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -b:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -B:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   16)
* 命令列選項; -build:                    Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   12)
* 命令列選項; -c:                        介面選項.           (line   36)
* 命令列選項; -check-hash-based-pycs:    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   21)
* 命令列選項; -d:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   35)
* 命令列選項; -disable-ipv6:             一般選項.           (line   16)
* 命令列選項; -disable-test-modules:     安裝選項.           (line   23)
* 命令列選項; -E:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   43)
* 命令列選項; -enable-big-digits:        一般選項.           (line   21)
* 命令列選項; -enable-bolt:              Performance options.
                                                             (line   59)
* 命令列選項; -enable-framework:         macOS 選項.         (line   15)
* 命令列選項; -enable-framework <1>:     macOS 選項.         (line   17)
* 命令列選項; -enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions: 一般選項.  (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -enable-optimizations:     Performance options.
                                                             (line   10)
* 命令列選項; -enable-profiling:         Performance options.
                                                             (line  106)
* 命令列選項; -enable-pystats:           一般選項.           (line  130)
* 命令列選項; -enable-shared:            Linker options.     (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -enable-universalsdk:      macOS 選項.         (line    8)
* 命令列選項; -enable-universalsdk <1>:  macOS 選項.         (line   10)
* 命令列選項; -enable-wasm-dynamic-linking: WebAssembly 選項.
                                                             (line   16)
* 命令列選項; -enable-wasm-pthreads:     WebAssembly 選項.   (line   26)
* 命令列選項; -exec-prefix:              安裝選項.           (line   16)
* 命令列選項; -h:                        Generic options.    (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -help:                     Generic options.    (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -help-all:                 Generic options.    (line   27)
* 命令列選項; -help-env:                 Generic options.    (line   13)
* 命令列選項; -help-xoptions:            Generic options.    (line   20)
* 命令列選項; -host:                     Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   16)
* 命令列選項; -i:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   50)
* 命令列選項; -I:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   61)
* 命令列選項; -J:                        你不該使用的選項.   (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -m:                        介面選項.           (line   50)
* 命令列選項; -O:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   73)
* 命令列選項; -OO:                       Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   82)
* 命令列選項; -P:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   90)
* 命令列選項; -prefix:                   安裝選項.           (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -q:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  109)
* 命令列選項; -R:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  116)
* 命令列選項; -s:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  141)
* 命令列選項; -S:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  153)
* 命令列選項; -u:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  161)
* 命令列選項; -V:                        Generic options.    (line   33)
* 命令列選項; -v:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  171)
* 命令列選項; -version:                  Generic options.    (line   33)
* 命令列選項; -W:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  184)
* 命令列選項; -with-address-sanitizer:   Debug options.      (line   54)
* 命令列選項; -with-assertions:          Debug options.      (line   29)
* 命令列選項; -with-build-python:        Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   20)
* 命令列選項; -with-builtin-hashlib-hashes: Security Options.
                                                             (line   20)
* 命令列選項; -with-computed-gotos:      Performance options.
                                                             (line   84)
* 命令列選項; -with-dbmliborder:         一般選項.           (line   67)
* 命令列選項; -with-dtrace:              Debug options.      (line   46)
* 命令列選項; -with-emscripten-target:   WebAssembly 選項.   (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -with-ensurepip:           安裝選項.           (line   31)
* 命令列選項; -with-framework-name:      macOS 選項.         (line   46)
* 命令列選項; -with-hash-algorithm:      Security Options.   (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -with-libc:                函式庫選項.         (line   44)
* 命令列選項; -with-libm:                函式庫選項.         (line   39)
* 命令列選項; -with-libs:                函式庫選項.         (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -with-lto:                 Performance options.
                                                             (line   43)
* 命令列選項; -with-memory-sanitizer:    Debug options.      (line   61)
* 命令列選項; -with-openssl:             函式庫選項.         (line   49)
* 命令列選項; -with-openssl-rpath:       函式庫選項.         (line   55)
* 命令列選項; -with-pkg-config:          一般選項.           (line  117)
* 命令列選項; -with-platlibdir:          一般選項.           (line   95)
* 命令列選項; -with-pydebug:             Debug options.      (line    6)
* 命令列選項; -with-readline:            函式庫選項.         (line   22)
* 命令列選項; -with-ssl-default-suites:  Security Options.   (line   39)
* 命令列選項; -with-strict-overflow:     Performance options.
                                                             (line  110)
* 命令列選項; -with-suffix:              一般選項.           (line   32)
* 命令列選項; -with-system-expat:        函式庫選項.         (line   10)
* 命令列選項; -with-system-libmpdec:     函式庫選項.         (line   15)
* 命令列選項; -with-trace-refs:          Debug options.      (line   11)
* 命令列選項; -with-tzpath:              一般選項.           (line   43)
* 命令列選項; -with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   68)
* 命令列選項; -with-universal-archs:     macOS 選項.         (line   23)
* 命令列選項; -with-valgrind:            Debug options.      (line   42)
* 命令列選項; -with-wheel-pkg-dir:       一般選項.           (line  105)
* 命令列選項; -without-c-locale-coercion: 一般選項.          (line   80)
* 命令列選項; -without-decimal-contextvar: 一般選項.         (line   56)
* 命令列選項; -without-doc-strings:      Performance options.
                                                             (line   96)
* 命令列選項; -without-freelists:        一般選項.           (line   89)
* 命令列選項; -without-pymalloc:         Performance options.
                                                             (line   89)
* 命令列選項; -without-readline:         函式庫選項.         (line   31)
* 命令列選項; -without-static-libpython: Linker options.     (line   11)
* 命令列選項; -x:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  245)
* 命令列選項; -X:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  250)
* 命令列選項; CONFIG_SITE:               Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   26)
* 基準量測 (Benchmarking):               timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間.
                                                             (line    8)
* 安全雜湊演算法、SHA1、SHA2、SHA224、SHA256、SHA384、SHA512、SHA3、Shake、Blake2: hashlib --- 安全雜湊與訊息摘要.
                                                             (line    8)
* 性能表現:                              timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間.
                                                             (line    8)
* 模組;__main__:                         Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* 模組;__main__ <1>:                     Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* 模組;__main__ <2>:                     Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  193)
* 模組;_thread:                          高階 API.           (line   49)
* 模組;array（陣列）:                    Binary Sequence Types --- bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* 模組;builtins（內建）:                 Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* 模組;builtins（內建） <1>:             Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* 模組;builtins（內建） <2>:             Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  193)
* 模組;math:                             數值型別 --- int、float、complex.
                                                             (line   97)
* 模組;re:                               String Methods<2>.  (line    6)
* 模組;search（搜尋）;path（路徑）:      Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* 模組;search（搜尋）;path（路徑） <1>:  Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  158)
* 模組;search（搜尋）;path（路徑） <2>:  Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  178)
* 模組;sys:                              Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* 模組;sys <1>:                          Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* 模組;sys <2>:                          Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  193)
* 模組;type（型別）:                     Type Objects.       (line    6)
* 環境變數; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__:         PyConfig.           (line  176)
* 環境變數; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>:     PyConfig.           (line  675)
* 環境變數; %APPDATA%:                   Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line   13)
* 環境變數; APPDATA:                     PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   26)
* 環境變數; AUDIODEV:                    ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取.
                                                             (line   57)
* 環境變數; BASECFLAGS:                  編譯器旗標.         (line   66)
* 環境變數; BASECPPFLAGS:                Preprocessor flags. (line   22)
* 環境變數; BLDSHARED:                   Linker flags.       (line   67)
* 環境變數; BROWSER:                     webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line   20)
* 環境變數; BROWSER <1>:                 webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line  108)
* 環境變數; CC:                          New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   58)
* 環境變數; CC <1>:                      編譯器旗標.         (line    6)
* 環境變數; CCSHARED:                    編譯器旗標.         (line   81)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS:                      New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS <1>:                  Performance options.
                                                             (line   28)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS <2>:                  編譯器旗標.         (line   18)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS <3>:                  編譯器旗標.         (line   26)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS <4>:                  編譯器旗標.         (line   28)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS <5>:                  編譯器旗標.         (line   32)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS <6>:                  編譯器旗標.         (line   54)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS <7>:                  Linker flags.       (line   18)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS_ALIASING:             編譯器旗標.         (line   74)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS_NODIST:               編譯器旗標.         (line   22)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS_NODIST <1>:           編譯器旗標.         (line   24)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS_NODIST <2>:           編譯器旗標.         (line   61)
* 環境變數; CFLAGS_NODIST <3>:           Linker flags.       (line   26)
* 環境變數; CFLAGSFORSHARED:             編譯器旗標.         (line   87)
* 環境變數; COLUMNS:                     函式<5>.            (line  595)
* 環境變數; COLUMNS <1>:                 函式<5>.            (line  598)
* 環境變數; COMPILEALL_OPTS:             編譯器旗標.         (line   41)
* 環境變數; COMSPEC:                     行程管理.           (line  760)
* 環境變數; COMSPEC <1>:                 Popen Constructor.  (line  112)
* 環境變數; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS:            編譯器旗標.         (line   52)
* 環境變數; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST:     編譯器旗標.         (line   59)
* 環境變數; CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS:          Preprocessor flags. (line    6)
* 環境變數; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS:           Linker flags.       (line   13)
* 環境變數; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST:    Linker flags.       (line   38)
* 環境變數; CPPFLAGS:                    New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* 環境變數; CPPFLAGS <1>:                Preprocessor flags. (line    8)
* 環境變數; CPPFLAGS <2>:                Preprocessor flags. (line   13)
* 環境變數; CPPFLAGS <3>:                Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* 環境變數; CPPFLAGS <4>:                Linker flags.       (line   50)
* 環境變數; CXX:                         編譯器旗標.         (line   12)
* 環境變數; DISPLAY:                     Tkinter Modules.    (line   27)
* 環境變數; EnableControlFlowGuard:      Build<28>.          (line   47)
* 環境變數; EXTRA_CFLAGS:                編譯器旗標.         (line   48)
* 環境變數; HOME:                        os path<3>.         (line   15)
* 環境變數; HOME <1>:                    Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line  117)
* 環境變數; HOME <2>:                    Windows<40>.        (line   15)
* 環境變數; HOME <3>:                    Windows<40>.        (line   18)
* 環境變數; HOME <4>:                    os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  119)
* 環境變數; HOME <5>:                    os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  134)
* 環境變數; HOME <6>:                    Tkinter Modules.    (line   66)
* 環境變數; HOMEDRIVE:                   os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  125)
* 環境變數; HOMEPATH:                    os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  125)
* 環境變數; IDLESTARTUP:                 IDLE<35>.           (line  176)
* 環境變數; IDLESTARTUP <1>:             IDLE<39>.           (line    9)
* 環境變數; IDLESTARTUP <2>:             IDLE<45>.           (line    9)
* 環境變數; IDLESTARTUP <3>:             Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* 環境變數; KDEDIR:                      webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line  181)
* 環境變數; LANG:                        GNU gettext API.    (line   21)
* 環境變數; LANG <1>:                    Class-based API.    (line   26)
* 環境變數; LANG <2>:                    locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line   49)
* 環境變數; LANG <3>:                    locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  345)
* 環境變數; LANG <4>:                    locale --- 國際化服務.
                                                             (line  349)
* 環境變數; LANGUAGE:                    GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* 環境變數; LANGUAGE <1>:                Class-based API.    (line   25)
* 環境變數; LC_ALL:                      GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* 環境變數; LC_ALL <1>:                  Class-based API.    (line   25)
* 環境變數; LC_MESSAGES:                 GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* 環境變數; LC_MESSAGES <1>:             Class-based API.    (line   26)
* 環境變數; LDCXXSHARED:                 Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line  154)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS:                     New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS <1>:                 Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS <2>:                 Linker flags.       (line   15)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS <3>:                 Linker flags.       (line   18)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS <4>:                 Linker flags.       (line   28)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS <5>:                 Linker flags.       (line   31)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS <6>:                 Linker flags.       (line   35)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS <7>:                 Linker flags.       (line   45)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS <8>:                 Linker flags.       (line   50)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS_NODIST:              Linker flags.       (line   24)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>:          Linker flags.       (line   26)
* 環境變數; LDFLAGS_NODIST <2>:          Linker flags.       (line   40)
* 環境變數; LDSHARED:                    Linker flags.       (line   61)
* 環境變數; LIBS:                        Linker flags.       (line   54)
* 環境變數; LINES:                       函式<5>.            (line  125)
* 環境變數; LINES <1>:                   函式<5>.            (line  595)
* 環境變數; LINES <2>:                   函式<5>.            (line  597)
* 環境變數; LINKCC:                      Linker flags.       (line    6)
* 環境變數; LOGNAME:                     行程參數.           (line  239)
* 環境變數; LOGNAME <1>:                 getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具.
                                                             (line   41)
* 環境變數; MANPAGER:                    pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統.
                                                             (line   46)
* 環境變數; MANPAGER <1>:                pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統.
                                                             (line   48)
* 環境變數; MIXERDEV:                    ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取.
                                                             (line   77)
* 環境變數; no_proxy:                    urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫.
                                                             (line  282)
* 環境變數; OPT:                         Debug options.      (line   34)
* 環境變數; OPT <1>:                     編譯器旗標.         (line   70)
* 環境變數; PAGER:                       pydoc --- 文件產生器與線上幫助系統.
                                                             (line   46)
* 環境變數; PATH:                        Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line  144)
* 環境變數; PATH <1>:                    Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* 環境變數; PATH <2>:                    Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* 環境變數; PATH <3>:                    Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* 環境變數; PATH <4>:                    Windows<21>.        (line   56)
* 環境變數; PATH <5>:                    Windows<25>.        (line   14)
* 環境變數; PATH <6>:                    Security<33>.       (line   16)
* 環境變數; PATH <7>:                    Security<33>.       (line   20)
* 環境變數; PATH <8>:                    模組的搜尋路徑.     (line   13)
* 環境變數; PATH <9>:                    可執行的 Python 腳本.
                                                             (line   11)
* 環境變數; PATH <10>:                   環境變數.           (line   27)
* 環境變數; PATH <11>:                   雜項<2>.            (line   15)
* 環境變數; PATH <12>:                   安裝步驟.           (line   33)
* 環境變數; PATH <13>:                   安裝步驟.           (line   56)
* 環境變數; PATH <14>:                   安裝排除使用者介面. (line   76)
* 環境變數; PATH <15>:                   安裝排除使用者介面. (line   80)
* 環境變數; PATH <16>:                   Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   23)
* 環境變數; PATH <17>:                   Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   35)
* 環境變數; PATH <18>:                   Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   14)
* 環境變數; PATH <19>:                   Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   21)
* 環境變數; PATH <20>:                   Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   22)
* 環境變數; PATH <21>:                   Python Launcher for Windows.
                                                             (line   13)
* 環境變數; PATH <22>:                   From the command-line.
                                                             (line    9)
* 環境變數; PATH <23>:                   Shebang Lines.      (line   52)
* 環境變數; PATH <24>:                   Shebang Lines.      (line   54)
* 環境變數; PATH <25>:                   Shebang Lines.      (line   59)
* 環境變數; PATH <26>:                   Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  407)
* 環境變數; PATH <27>:                   行程管理.           (line   45)
* 環境變數; PATH <28>:                   行程管理.           (line   86)
* 環境變數; PATH <29>:                   行程管理.           (line   89)
* 環境變數; PATH <30>:                   行程管理.           (line   92)
* 環境變數; PATH <31>:                   行程管理.           (line  528)
* 環境變數; PATH <32>:                   行程管理.           (line  615)
* 環境變數; PATH <33>:                   行程管理.           (line  619)
* 環境變數; PATH <34>:                   行程管理.           (line  621)
* 環境變數; PATH <35>:                   Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  121)
* 環境變數; PATH <36>:                   Popen Constructor.  (line   34)
* 環境變數; PATH <37>:                   webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器.
                                                             (line  218)
* 環境變數; PATH <38>:                   虛擬環境如何運作.   (line   13)
* 環境變數; PATH <39>:                   虛擬環境如何運作.   (line   56)
* 環境變數; PATH <40>:                   虛擬環境如何運作.   (line   61)
* 環境變數; PATH <41>:                   site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   60)
* 環境變數; PATH <42>:                   Installing your CGI script on a Unix system.
                                                             (line   29)
* 環境變數; PATH <43>:                   Common problems and solutions.
                                                             (line   23)
* 環境變數; PATH <44>:                   嵌入式Python.       (line   22)
* 環境變數; PATH <45>:                   嵌入式Python.       (line   28)
* 環境變數; PATH <46>:                   我如何使 Python script 執行在 Unix？.
                                                             (line   24)
* 環境變數; PATH <47>:                   我如何使 Python script 執行在 Unix？.
                                                             (line   28)
* 環境變數; PATHEXT:                     Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* 環境變數; PATHEXT <1>:                 Library<38>.        (line  138)
* 環境變數; PATHEXT <2>:                 安裝排除使用者介面. (line   76)
* 環境變數; PATHEXT <3>:                 安裝排除使用者介面. (line   80)
* 環境變數; PATHEXT <4>:                 Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  418)
* 環境變數; PIP_USER:                    Windows<42>.        (line  102)
* 環境變數; POSIXLY_CORRECT:             getopt --- 用於命令列選項的 C 風格剖析器.
                                                             (line   71)
* 環境變數; PROFILE_TASK:                Performance options.
                                                             (line   12)
* 環境變數; PROFILE_TASK <1>:            Performance options.
                                                             (line   34)
* 環境變數; PURIFY:                      編譯器旗標.         (line  130)
* 環境變數; PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS:    編譯器旗標.         (line  121)
* 環境變數; PY_CFLAGS:                   編譯器旗標.         (line   94)
* 環境變數; PY_CFLAGS_NODIST:            編譯器旗標.         (line   99)
* 環境變數; PY_CORE_CFLAGS:              編譯器旗標.         (line  115)
* 環境變數; PY_CORE_LDFLAGS:             Linker flags.       (line   83)
* 環境變數; PY_CPPFLAGS:                 Preprocessor flags. (line   26)
* 環境變數; PY_LDFLAGS:                  Linker flags.       (line   73)
* 環境變數; PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST:           Linker flags.       (line   77)
* 環境變數; PY_PYTHON:                   Customizing default Python versions.
                                                             (line   18)
* 環境變數; PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS:         編譯器旗標.         (line  106)
* 環境變數; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL:    Windows<6>.         (line   31)
* 環境變數; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>: Windows<23>.       (line   15)
* 環境變數; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <2>: 安裝隨選.          (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL:   安裝隨選.           (line   12)
* 環境變數; PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG:            Diagnostics.        (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN:           Dry Run.            (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN <1>:       安裝隨選.           (line   14)
* 環境變數; PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH:   Shebang Lines.      (line   57)
* 環境變數; PYTHON_DOM:                  模組內容<6>.        (line   23)
* 環境變數; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG:          環境變數.           (line  273)
* 環境變數; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>:      啟用除錯模式.       (line   10)
* 環境變數; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>:      除錯模式.           (line   11)
* 環境變數; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <3>:      Python 開發模式的影響.
                                                             (line   58)
* 環境變數; PYTHONBREAKPOINT:            PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   13)
* 環境變數; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>:        環境變數.           (line   81)
* 環境變數; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>:        內建函式.           (line  147)
* 環境變數; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>:        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  241)
* 環境變數; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>:        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  255)
* 環境變數; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <5>:        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  259)
* 環境變數; PYTHONCASEOK:                Changes in the Python API.
                                                             (line   29)
* 環境變數; PYTHONCASEOK <1>:            PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
                                                             (line   17)
* 環境變數; PYTHONCASEOK <2>:            Library<42>.        (line  144)
* 環境變數; PYTHONCASEOK <3>:            環境變數.           (line  127)
* 環境變數; PYTHONCASEOK <4>:            內建函式.           (line 1970)
* 環境變數; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:         PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   13)
* 環境變數; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>:     環境變數.           (line  353)
* 環境變數; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>:     一般選項.           (line   87)
* 環境變數; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>:     Python UTF-8 模式.  (line   57)
* 環境變數; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <4>:     Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   15)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDEBUG:                 Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   37)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDEBUG <1>:             環境變數.           (line   94)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDEBUG <2>:             Python Debug Build. (line   20)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDEBUG <3>:             Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDEBUG <4>:             PyConfig.           (line  636)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDEVMODE:               Python Development Mode -X dev.
                                                             (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDEVMODE <1>:           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  293)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDEVMODE <2>:           環境變數.           (line  409)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDEVMODE <3>:           Python 開發模式.    (line   11)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDEVMODE <4>:           PyConfig.           (line  281)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE:     Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>: New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  625)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   19)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>: 環境變數.           (line  132)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  324)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   51)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <6>: PyConfig.           (line  904)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <7>: 如何建立 pyc 檔案？.
                                                             (line   21)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDUMPREFS:              Debug build uses the same ABI as release build.
                                                             (line   15)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>:          Build<45>.          (line   54)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>:          除錯模式變數.       (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>:          Debug options.      (line   22)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>:          PyConfig.           (line  292)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDUMPREFS <5>:          PyObject Slots.     (line   66)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE:          Core and Builtins<31>.
                                                             (line  154)
* 環境變數; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE=FILENAME: 除錯模式變數.       (line   14)
* 環境變數; PYTHONEXECUTABLE:            環境變數.           (line  213)
* 環境變數; PYTHONEXECUTABLE <1>:        PyConfig.           (line  672)
* 環境變數; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER:          faulthandler<4>.    (line   11)
* 環境變數; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>:      Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  255)
* 環境變數; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>:      環境變數.           (line  241)
* 環境變數; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>:      Python 開發模式的影響.
                                                             (line   52)
* 環境變數; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>:      faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯.
                                                             (line   15)
* 環境變數; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <5>:      PyConfig.           (line  326)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHASHSEED:              內建函式和型別.     (line   17)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHASHSEED <1>:          移植 Python 程式碼. (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHASHSEED <2>:          Core and Builtins<58>.
                                                             (line   30)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHASHSEED <3>:          Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  118)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHASHSEED <4>:          Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  134)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHASHSEED <5>:          環境變數.           (line  147)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHASHSEED <6>:          環境變數.           (line  152)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHASHSEED <7>:          Basic customization.
                                                             (line  316)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHASHSEED <8>:          Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   76)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHASHSEED <9>:          Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   79)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHASHSEED <10>:         PyConfig.           (line  396)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME:                  Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <1>:              Summary -- Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  107)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <2>:              Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   46)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <3>:              環境變數.           (line   11)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <4>:              環境變數.           (line   19)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <5>:              環境變數.           (line   21)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <6>:              環境變數.           (line   38)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <7>:              找尋模組.           (line   29)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <8>:              找尋模組.           (line   47)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <9>:              找尋模組.           (line   81)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <10>:             test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   24)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <11>:             The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   30)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <12>:             Virtual environments.
                                                             (line   14)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <13>:             嵌入式Python.       (line   29)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <14>:             嵌入式Python.       (line   33)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <15>:             Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   91)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <16>:             Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  347)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <17>:             Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  363)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <18>:             PyConfig.           (line  408)
* 環境變數; PYTHONHOME <19>:             Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<4>.
                                                             (line   37)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINSPECT:               Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINSPECT <1>:           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   58)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINSPECT <2>:           環境變數.           (line  103)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINSPECT <3>:           Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  108)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINSPECT <4>:           PyConfig.           (line  433)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS:       Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line  106)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>:   Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  277)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>:   環境變數.           (line  165)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>:   設定限制.           (line    9)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>:   設定限制.           (line   16)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>:   sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1107)
* 環境變數; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <6>:   PyConfig.           (line  464)
* 環境變數; PYTHONIOENCODING:            Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* 環境變數; PYTHONIOENCODING <1>:        Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* 環境變數; PYTHONIOENCODING <2>:        環境變數.           (line  173)
* 環境變數; PYTHONIOENCODING <3>:        環境變數.           (line  390)
* 環境變數; PYTHONIOENCODING <4>:        Python UTF-8 模式.  (line   29)
* 環境變數; PYTHONIOENCODING <5>:        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1765)
* 環境變數; PYTHONIOENCODING <6>:        Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   19)
* 環境變數; PYTHONIOENCODING <7>:        Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   23)
* 環境變數; PYTHONIOENCODING <8>:        PyConfig.           (line  794)
* 環境變數; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   18)
* 環境變數; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>: 環境變數.     (line  326)
* 環境變數; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1713)
* 環境變數; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  149)
* 環境變數; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <4>: PyPreConfig.  (line  113)
* 環境變數; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO:    PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   12)
* 環境變數; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>: 環境變數.          (line  187)
* 環境變數; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>: 環境變數.          (line  340)
* 環境變數; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>: sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1769)
* 環境變數; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  167)
* 環境變數; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <5>: PyConfig.          (line  503)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC:                PYTHONMALLOC environment variable.
                                                             (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC <1>:            C API 中的改動<5>.  (line    9)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC <2>:            Core and Builtins<78>.
                                                             (line   90)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC <3>:            環境變數.           (line  280)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC <4>:            環境變數.           (line  317)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC <5>:            Performance options.
                                                             (line   94)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC <6>:            Python 開發模式的影響.
                                                             (line   41)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC <7>:            Python 開發模式的影響.
                                                             (line   44)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC <8>:            總覽<2>.            (line   75)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC <9>:            Default Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   26)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC <10>:           Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators.
                                                             (line   11)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOC <11>:           The pymalloc allocator.
                                                             (line   27)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS:           Core and Builtins<78>.
                                                             (line   96)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>:       環境變數.           (line  311)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>:       PyConfig.           (line  519)
* 環境變數; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <3>:       總覽<2>.            (line   78)
* 環境變數; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES:         PEP 657：回溯 traceback 中更細緻的錯誤位置.
                                                             (line   58)
* 環境變數; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>:     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  322)
* 環境變數; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>:     環境變數.           (line  439)
* 環境變數; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>:     用於程式碼物件的方法.
                                                             (line   40)
* 環境變數; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <4>:     PyConfig.           (line  234)
* 環境變數; PYTHONNOUSERSITE:            PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   30)
* 環境變數; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>:        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  146)
* 環境變數; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>:        環境變數.           (line  191)
* 環境變數; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>:        模組內容<10>.       (line   15)
* 環境變數; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>:        Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  201)
* 環境變數; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <5>:        PyConfig.           (line  857)
* 環境變數; PYTHONOPTIMIZE:              Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   78)
* 環境變數; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>:          環境變數.           (line   75)
* 環境變數; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>:          Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  212)
* 環境變數; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <3>:          PyConfig.           (line  586)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH:                  Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <1>:              Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <2>:              模組的搜尋路徑.     (line   13)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <3>:              標準模組.           (line   27)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <4>:              標準模組.           (line   27)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <5>:              Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   45)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <6>:              環境變數.           (line   24)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <7>:              環境變數.           (line   32)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <8>:              環境變數.           (line   39)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <9>:              環境變數.           (line   42)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <10>:             Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <11>:             找尋模組.           (line   15)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <12>:             找尋模組.           (line   38)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <13>:             找尋模組.           (line   81)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <14>:             設定.               (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <15>:             Path entry finders. (line   23)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <16>:             test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   25)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <17>:             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1250)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <18>:             sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1255)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <19>:             The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   14)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <20>:             The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   18)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <21>:             Installing your CGI script on a Unix system.
                                                             (line   29)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <22>:             建立 C 與 C++ 擴充套件.
                                                             (line    9)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <23>:             嵌入式Python.       (line   30)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <24>:             嵌入式Python.       (line   34)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <25>:             Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   90)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPATH <26>:             PyConfig.           (line  552)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT:           其他語言更動.       (line   85)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>:       Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  342)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>:       環境變數.           (line  450)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <3>:       PyConfig.           (line  831)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <4>:       如何啟用 perf 分析支援.
                                                             (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR:            Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line  275)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>:        環境變數.           (line   54)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>:        The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   51)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <3>:        PyConfig.           (line  531)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME:     其他語言更動<6>.    (line   47)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>: Core and Builtins<60>.
                                                             (line   66)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  286)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>: 環境變數.           (line  265)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <4>: PyConfig.           (line  418)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX:         Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files.
                                                             (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>:     Core and Builtins<51>.
                                                             (line  402)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>:     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  306)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>:     環境變數.           (line  138)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>:     sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line  370)
* 環境變數; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <5>:     PyConfig.           (line  694)
* 環境變數; PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD: Tests<22>.         (line   13)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSAFEPATH:              發布重點摘要<2>.    (line   27)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>:          其他語言更動<2>.    (line   35)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>:          Security<17>.       (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>:          Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  104)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>:          環境變數.           (line   46)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>:          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1267)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>:          安全性注意事項<4>.  (line   43)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSAFEPATH <7>:          PyConfig.           (line  157)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP:               sys<10>.            (line   17)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP <1>:           sys<10>.            (line   21)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP <2>:           IDLE<35>.           (line  176)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP <3>:           IDLE<39>.           (line    9)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP <4>:           IDLE<45>.           (line    9)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP <5>:           互動式啟動檔案.     (line    7)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP <6>:           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   55)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP <7>:           環境變數.           (line   61)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP <8>:           範例.               (line   10)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP <9>:           Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP <10>:          sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1120)
* 環境變數; PYTHONSTARTUP <11>:          Readline configuration.
                                                             (line   12)
* 環境變數; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  272)
* 環境變數; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>:       環境變數.           (line  252)
* 環境變數; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>:       tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置.
                                                             (line   25)
* 環境變數; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>:       tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置.
                                                             (line   32)
* 環境變數; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>:       函式<10>.           (line   90)
* 環境變數; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <5>:       PyConfig.           (line  820)
* 環境變數; PYTHONTZPATH:                Environment configuration.
                                                             (line   11)
* 環境變數; PYTHONTZPATH <1>:            Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line   14)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUNBUFFERED:            Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line  107)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>:        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  166)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>:        環境變數.           (line  116)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>:        sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1776)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>:        Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  239)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <5>:        PyConfig.           (line  198)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUSERBASE:              PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   23)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUSERBASE <1>:          環境變數.           (line  201)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUSERBASE <2>:          模組內容<10>.       (line   39)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUSERBASE <3>:          模組內容<10>.       (line   66)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUSERSITE:              test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具.
                                                             (line   25)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUTF8:                  PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUTF8 <1>:              Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  300)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUTF8 <2>:              環境變數.           (line  400)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUTF8 <3>:              環境變數.           (line  418)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUTF8 <4>:              UTF-8 模式.         (line   18)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUTF8 <5>:              Python UTF-8 模式.  (line   52)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUTF8 <6>:              Python UTF-8 模式.  (line   54)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUTF8 <7>:              sys --- 系統特定的參數與函式.
                                                             (line 1767)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUTF8 <8>:              PyPreConfig.        (line  142)
* 環境變數; PYTHONUTF8 <9>:              Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* 環境變數; PYTHONVERBOSE:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  182)
* 環境變數; PYTHONVERBOSE <1>:           環境變數.           (line  121)
* 環境變數; PYTHONVERBOSE <2>:           Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  256)
* 環境變數; PYTHONVERBOSE <3>:           PyConfig.           (line  874)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING:   可選的 EncodingWarning 和 encoding="locale" 選項.
                                                             (line   18)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>: Library<33>.      (line   45)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  312)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>: 環境變數.         (line  429)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <4>: 選擇性加入的編碼警告.
                                                             (line    9)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS:              warnings<2>.        (line   21)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <1>:          其他語言更動<11>.   (line  160)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <2>:          Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings.
                                                             (line   25)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <3>:          Interpreter Changes.
                                                             (line    6)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <4>:          Documentation<20>.  (line   67)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <5>:          Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  236)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <6>:          環境變數.           (line  219)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <7>:          Python 開發模式的影響.
                                                             (line   26)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <8>:          The Warnings Filter.
                                                             (line   46)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <9>:          The Warnings Filter.
                                                             (line   56)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <10>:         Describing Warning Filters.
                                                             (line    7)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <11>:         Describing Warning Filters.
                                                             (line   21)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <12>:         Default Warning Filter.
                                                             (line    7)
* 環境變數; PYTHONWARNINGS <13>:         PyConfig.           (line  893)
* 環境變數; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH:           py_compile<3>.      (line    7)
* 環境變數; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>:       Library<51>.        (line  452)
* 環境變數; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>:       Build<53>.          (line   15)
* 環境變數; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>:       py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   66)
* 環境變數; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>:       py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   82)
* 環境變數; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>:       py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案.
                                                             (line   86)
* 環境變數; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>:       Command-line use.   (line   90)
* 環境變數; SSLKEYLOGFILE:               語境建立.           (line   27)
* 環境變數; SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>:           語境建立.           (line   56)
* 環境變數; SystemRoot:                  Popen Constructor.  (line  307)
* 環境變數; TEMP:                        Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line    7)
* 環境變數; TEMP <1>:                    tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  279)
* 環境變數; TERM:                        函式<5>.            (line  485)
* 環境變數; TERM <1>:                    函式<5>.            (line  512)
* 環境變數; TMP:                         tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  281)
* 環境變數; TMPDIR:                      Tests<21>.          (line   68)
* 環境變數; TMPDIR <1>:                  tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄.
                                                             (line  277)
* 環境變數; TZ:                          函式<4>.            (line  524)
* 環境變數; TZ <1>:                      函式<4>.            (line  525)
* 環境變數; TZ <2>:                      函式<4>.            (line  533)
* 環境變數; TZ <3>:                      函式<4>.            (line  538)
* 環境變數; TZ <4>:                      函式<4>.            (line  540)
* 環境變數; TZ <5>:                      函式<4>.            (line  601)
* 環境變數; USER:                        getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具.
                                                             (line   41)
* 環境變數; USERNAME:                    os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  126)
* 環境變數; USERNAME <1>:                行程參數.           (line  239)
* 環境變數; USERNAME <2>:                getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具.
                                                             (line   41)
* 環境變數; USERPROFILE:                 os path<3>.         (line   14)
* 環境變數; USERPROFILE <1>:             Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line  116)
* 環境變數; USERPROFILE <2>:             Windows<40>.        (line   15)
* 環境變數; USERPROFILE <3>:             os path --- 常見的路徑名操作.
                                                             (line  124)
* 紀元秒數:                              time --- 時間存取與轉換.
                                                             (line   20)

                   



Tag Table:
Node: Top353
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Node: Python 有什麼新功能？222697
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Ref: whatsnew/3 12 what-s-new-in-python-3-12224652
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Node: 發布重點摘要225521
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Node: 新增特性230475
Ref: whatsnew/3 12 new-features230624
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Node: PEP 695：型別參數語法231163
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Ref: PEP 695：型別參數語法-Footnote-3233893
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Node: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings233991
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Node: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL238631
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Node: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython240133
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Node: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python240988
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Node: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining241922
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Node: Improved Error Messages243864
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Node: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing247178
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Node: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing248234
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Node: 其他語言更動249490
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Node: 新增模組255219
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Node: CPython 位元組碼變更283658
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Node: Demos and Tools286644
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Node: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目299600
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Node: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax1174108
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Ref: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax-Footnote-11177345
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Node: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication1177429
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Node: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations1179117
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Ref: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations-Footnote-11180445
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Node: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray1180529
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-471-os-scandir-function-a-better-and-faster-directory-iterator1184600
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Ref: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator-Footnote-11185934
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-475-retry-system-calls-failing-with-eintr1186259
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Node: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators1189407
Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-479-change-stopiteration-handling-inside-generators1189628
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Node: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality1191639
Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-485-a-function-for-testing-approximate-equality1191877
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Ref: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality-Footnote-11193053
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Node: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments1193137
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Ref: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments-Footnote-11193919
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Node: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files1194045
Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-488-elimination-of-pyo-files1194260
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Node: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization1195203
Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-489-multi-phase-extension-module-initialization1195347
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Ref: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization-Footnote-11196107
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Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients1442410
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Node: PEP 405：虛擬環境1447033
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Node: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator1461697
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Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients1929922
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Ref: 編譯 Python 在 Windows-Footnote-25799369
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Ref: difflib --- 計算差異的輔助工具-Footnote-36868568
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Ref: stringprep --- 網際網路字串準備-Footnote-16914594
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Ref: library/codecs encodings idna ToASCII7043275
Ref: 21af7043275
Ref: library/codecs encodings idna ToUnicode7043433
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Ref: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-17043578
Ref: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-27043637
Ref: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-37043696
Ref: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-47043755
Ref: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-57043814
Ref: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-67043853
Ref: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-77043924
Ref: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-87043983
Node: encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage7044042
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Ref: 4e7044303
Node: encodings utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature7044692
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Ref: library/codecs module-encodings utf_8_sig7044879
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Node: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別7047343
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Ref: 21b67047474
Ref: library/datetime datetime-basic-date-and-time-types7047474
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Ref: library/datetime module-datetime7047474
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Ref: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別-Footnote-17048766
Ref: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別-Footnote-27048834
Ref: datetime --- 日期與時間的基本型別-Footnote-37048885
Node: Aware and Naive Objects7048928
Ref: library/datetime aware-and-naive-objects7049046
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Ref: Aware and Naive Objects-Footnote-17050959
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Ref: library/datetime datetime MAXYEAR7051387
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Ref: library/datetime datetime UTC7051545
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Ref: library/datetime available-types7051818
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Ref: library/datetime common-properties7053676
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Node: Determining if an Object is Aware or Naive7054083
Ref: library/datetime determining-if-an-object-is-aware-or-naive7054198
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Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta seconds7058251
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Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta microseconds7058774
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Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta total_seconds7064703
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Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-timedelta7065272
Ref: 21da7065272
Node: date 物件7066200
Ref: library/datetime date-objects7066340
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date today7067078
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date fromisoformat7068485
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date fromisocalendar7069392
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date month7070117
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date __str__7075195
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date strftime7075770
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date __format__7076072
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Ref: date 物件-Footnote-17076497
Ref: date 物件-Footnote-27076798
Node: 用法範例：date7077012
Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-date7077079
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Node: datetime 物件7078964
Ref: library/datetime datetime-datetime7079099
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime7079544
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime today7080403
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utcnow7081569
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utcfromtimestamp7084113
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromordinal7085890
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime combine7086295
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromisoformat7087084
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromisocalendar7089182
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime strptime7089562
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime min7090196
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime max7090325
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime resolution7090474
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime year7090666
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime month7090764
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime day7090830
Ref: 21ca7090830
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime hour7090938
Ref: 21cb7090938
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime minute7090991
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime second7091046
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime microsecond7091101
Ref: 21ce7091101
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime tzinfo7091166
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fold7091324
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime date7096257
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime time7096355
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timetz7096660
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime replace7096947
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime astimezone7097524
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utcoffset7099868
Ref: 21f57099868
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime dst7100258
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime tzname7100636
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timetuple7100867
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utctimetuple7101711
Ref: 21fb7101711
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime toordinal7102879
Ref: 21fc7102879
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timestamp7103021
Ref: f307103021
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime weekday7104565
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isoweekday7104769
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isocalendar7105002
Ref: 7307105002
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isoformat7105194
Ref: 9887105194
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime __str__7108208
Ref: 21ff7108208
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime ctime7108351
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime strftime7108979
Ref: afb7108979
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime __format__7109220
Ref: 22017109220
Node: 用法範例：datetime7109628
Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-datetime7109703
Ref: 22027109703
Node: time 物件7114010
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Ref: library/datetime time-objects7114147
Ref: 22047114147
Ref: library/datetime datetime time7114351
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Ref: 22067115100
Ref: library/datetime datetime time resolution7115207
Ref: 22077115207
Ref: library/datetime datetime time hour7115472
Ref: 21c37115472
Ref: library/datetime datetime time minute7115521
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time second7115572
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time microsecond7115623
Ref: 21c67115623
Ref: library/datetime datetime time tzinfo7115684
Ref: 21c77115684
Ref: library/datetime datetime time fold7115832
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time fromisoformat7117419
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time isoformat7119533
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time __str__7121546
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time strftime7121652
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time __format__7121877
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time utcoffset7122233
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time dst7122619
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time tzname7122994
Ref: 220f7122994
Ref: time 物件-Footnote-17123294
Node: 用法範例：time7123359
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Ref: 22107123426
Node: tzinfo 物件7124295
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Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo utcoffset7126119
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Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo dst7127345
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Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo tzname7129928
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Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo fromutc7132067
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Node: timezone 物件7144605
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Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone tzname7146197
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Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone dst7146869
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Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone fromutc7146933
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Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone utc7147126
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Node: strftime 與 strptime 的行為7147203
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Ref: 221c7147338
Ref: library/datetime strftime-strptime-behavior7147338
Ref: 15967147338
Ref: library/datetime format-codes7149432
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Node: strftime 與 strptime 格式碼7149531
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Ref: 221d7149651
Ref: strftime 與 strptime 格式碼-Footnote-17160563
Node: 技術細節7160611
Ref: library/datetime technical-detail7160731
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Ref: 技術細節-Footnote-17166727
Node: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援7166827
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Ref: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援-Footnote-17168275
Ref: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援-Footnote-27168340
Ref: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援-Footnote-37168382
Ref: zoneinfo --- IANA 時區支援-Footnote-47168423
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Ref: library/zoneinfo using-zoneinfo7168566
Ref: 22217168566
Ref: Using ZoneInfo-Footnote-17170514
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Ref: library/zoneinfo data-sources7170685
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Ref: Data sources-Footnote-17171369
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Ref: library/zoneinfo envvar-PYTHONTZPATH7173569
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Ref: library/zoneinfo string-representations7178783
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo available_timezones7182252
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo reset_tzpath7183219
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo TZPATH7184072
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Ref: library/zoneinfo exceptions-and-warnings7184953
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfoNotFoundError7185020
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo InvalidTZPathWarning7185248
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Node: calendar --- 日曆相關函式7185422
Ref: library/calendar doc7185584
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Ref: library/calendar calendar-general-calendar-related-functions7185584
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Ref: library/calendar module-calendar7185584
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclasses7193211
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_month_head7193987
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Ref: library/calendar calendar AUGUST7201173
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Ref: library/calendar calendar DECEMBER7201291
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Month7201457
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Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError7201733
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Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError month7201895
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Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalWeekdayError7201952
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Ref: calendar --- 日曆相關函式-Footnote-17202447
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Node: collections --- 容器資料型態7206795
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Ref: collections --- 容器資料型態-Footnote-17209120
Node: ChainMap 物件7209201
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Ref: ChainMap 物件-Footnote-17213346
Ref: ChainMap 物件-Footnote-27213388
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Ref: ChainMap 物件-Footnote-47213530
Ref: ChainMap 物件-Footnote-57213609
Ref: ChainMap 物件-Footnote-67213706
Node: ChainMap 範例和用法7213759
Ref: library/collections chainmap-examples-and-recipes7213835
Ref: 22977213835
Node: Counter 物件7216781
Ref: library/collections counter-objects7216911
Ref: 22987216911
Ref: library/collections collections Counter7217609
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Ref: library/collections collections Counter elements7219518
Ref: 11957219518
Ref: library/collections collections Counter most_common7219969
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Ref: functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作-Footnote-57734527
Ref: functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作-Footnote-67734585
Ref: functools --- 可呼叫物件上的高階函式與操作-Footnote-77734640
Node: partial 物件7734705
Ref: library/functools id17734812
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Ref: library/functools partial-objects7734812
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Ref: library/functools functools partial func7734985
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Ref: library/functools functools partial args7735165
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Ref: library/functools functools partial keywords7735315
Ref: 24bd7735315
Node: operator --- 標準運算子替代函式7735869
Ref: library/operator doc7736029
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Ref: library/operator module-operator7736029
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Ref: library/operator operator-standard-operators-as-functions7736029
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Ref: library/operator operator lt7736799
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Ref: library/operator operator le7736830
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Ref: library/operator operator eq7736861
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Ref: library/operator operator ne7736892
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Ref: library/operator operator ge7736923
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Ref: library/operator operator gt7736954
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Ref: library/operator operator __lt__7736985
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Ref: library/operator operator __le__7737020
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Ref: library/operator operator __eq__7737055
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Ref: library/operator operator __ne__7737090
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Ref: library/operator operator __ge__7737125
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Ref: library/operator operator __gt__7737160
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Ref: library/operator operator not_7737815
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Ref: library/operator operator __not__7737847
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Ref: library/operator operator truth7738135
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Ref: library/operator operator is_7738313
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Ref: library/operator operator is_not7738399
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Ref: library/operator operator abs7738539
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Ref: library/operator operator __abs__7738570
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Ref: library/operator operator add7738641
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Ref: library/operator operator __add__7738673
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Ref: library/operator operator and_7738765
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Ref: library/operator operator __and__7738798
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Ref: library/operator operator floordiv7738895
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Ref: library/operator operator __floordiv__7738932
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Ref: library/operator operator index7739003
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Ref: library/operator operator __index__7739034
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Ref: library/operator operator inv7739292
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Ref: library/operator operator invert7739323
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Ref: library/operator operator __inv__7739357
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Ref: library/operator operator __invert__7739392
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Ref: library/operator operator lshift7739521
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Ref: library/operator operator __lshift__7739556
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Ref: library/operator operator mod7739640
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Ref: library/operator operator __mod__7739672
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Ref: library/operator operator mul7739737
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Ref: library/operator operator __mul__7739769
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Ref: library/operator operator matmul7739861
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Ref: library/operator operator __matmul__7739896
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Ref: library/operator operator neg7739992
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Ref: library/operator operator __neg__7740023
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Ref: library/operator operator or_7740113
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Ref: library/operator operator __or__7740145
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Ref: library/operator operator pos7740237
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Ref: library/operator operator __pos__7740268
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Ref: library/operator operator pow7740355
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Ref: library/operator operator __pow__7740387
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Ref: library/operator operator rshift7740480
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Ref: library/operator operator __rshift__7740515
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Ref: library/operator operator sub7740599
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Ref: library/operator operator __sub__7740631
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Ref: library/operator operator truediv7740696
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Ref: library/operator operator __truediv__7740732
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Ref: library/operator operator xor7740873
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Ref: library/operator operator __xor__7740905
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Ref: library/operator operator concat7741095
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Ref: library/operator operator __concat__7741130
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Ref: library/operator operator contains7741225
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Ref: library/operator operator __contains__7741262
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Ref: library/operator operator countOf7741382
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Ref: library/operator operator delitem7741466
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Ref: library/operator operator __delitem__7741502
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Ref: library/operator operator getitem7741587
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Ref: library/operator operator __getitem__7741623
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Ref: library/operator operator indexOf7741708
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Ref: library/operator operator setitem7741804
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Ref: library/operator operator __setitem__7741843
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Ref: library/operator operator length_hint7741938
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Ref: library/operator operator call7742244
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Ref: library/operator operator __call__7742296
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Ref: library/operator operator attrgetter7742702
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Ref: library/operator operator itemgetter7744025
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Ref: library/operator operator methodcaller7745781
Ref: cae7745781
Ref: operator --- 標準運算子替代函式-Footnote-17746601
Node: 運算子與函式間的對映7746669
Ref: library/operator mapping-operators-to-functions7746810
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Ref: library/operator operator-map7746810
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Node: 原地 in-place 運算子7754273
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Ref: library/operator operator iadd7755623
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Ref: library/operator operator __iadd__7755656
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Ref: library/operator operator iand7755747
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Ref: library/operator operator __iand__7755780
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Ref: library/operator operator iconcat7755871
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Ref: library/operator operator __iconcat__7755907
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Ref: library/operator operator ifloordiv7756035
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Ref: library/operator operator __ifloordiv__7756073
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Ref: library/operator operator ilshift7756175
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Ref: library/operator operator __ilshift__7756211
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Ref: library/operator operator imod7756309
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Ref: library/operator operator __imod__7756342
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Ref: library/operator operator imul7756433
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Ref: library/operator operator __imul__7756466
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Ref: library/operator operator imatmul7756557
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Ref: library/operator operator __imatmul__7756593
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Ref: library/operator operator ior7756718
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Ref: library/operator operator __ior__7756750
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Ref: library/operator operator ipow7756839
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Ref: library/operator operator __ipow__7756872
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Ref: library/operator operator irshift7756964
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Ref: library/operator operator __irshift__7757000
Ref: 25167757000
Ref: library/operator operator isub7757098
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Ref: library/operator operator __isub__7757131
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Ref: library/operator operator itruediv7757222
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Ref: library/operator operator __itruediv__7757259
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Ref: library/operator operator ixor7757358
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Ref: library/operator operator __ixor__7757391
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Node: 檔案與目錄存取7757482
Ref: library/filesys doc7757647
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Ref: library/filesys file-and-directory-access7757647
Ref: 251e7757647
Ref: library/filesys filesys7757647
Ref: 251f7757647
Node: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑7758689
Ref: library/pathlib doc7758834
Ref: 25207758834
Ref: library/pathlib module-pathlib7758834
Ref: 9f7758834
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib-object-oriented-filesystem-paths7758834
Ref: 25217758834
Ref: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑-Footnote-17760808
Ref: pathlib --- 物件導向檔案系統路徑-Footnote-27760875
Node: 基本用法7760917
Ref: library/pathlib basic-use7761026
Ref: 25257761026
Node: 純路徑7761952
Ref: library/pathlib id17762082
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Ref: library/pathlib pure-paths7762082
Ref: 25227762082
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath7762284
Ref: 1c87762284
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePosixPath7764708
Ref: 25277764708
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PureWindowsPath7765023
Ref: 14ce7765023
Ref: 純路徑-Footnote-17765744
Node: 通用屬性7765803
Ref: library/pathlib general-properties7765879
Ref: 25287765879
Node: 運算子7766757
Ref: library/pathlib operators7766866
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Node: 對個別組成的存取7768466
Ref: library/pathlib accessing-individual-parts7768578
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parts7768723
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Node: 方法與屬性7769135
Ref: library/pathlib methods-and-properties7769229
Ref: 252c7769229
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath drive7769316
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath root7769785
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath anchor7770791
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parents7771148
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parent7771616
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath name7772421
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffix7772834
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffixes7773136
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath stem7773442
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath as_posix7773744
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath as_uri7773995
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_absolute7774349
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_relative_to7774971
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_reserved7775660
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath joinpath7776139
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath match7776698
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath relative_to7778266
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_name7780401
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_stem7781104
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_suffix7782111
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_segments7782763
Ref: 1c97782763
Ref: 方法與屬性-Footnote-17783698
Node: 實體路徑7783790
Ref: library/pathlib concrete-paths7783948
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Ref: library/pathlib id27783948
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path7784184
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PosixPath7784554
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib WindowsPath7784875
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Node: Expanding and resolving paths7786129
Ref: library/pathlib expanding-and-resolving-paths7786245
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path home7786324
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path expanduser7786677
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path cwd7787075
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path absolute7787300
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path resolve7787607
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path readlink7788543
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Node: Querying file type and status7788824
Ref: library/pathlib querying-file-type-and-status7788974
Ref: 253c7788974
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path stat7789412
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lstat7790013
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path exists7790191
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_file7790738
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_dir7791110
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_symlink7791468
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_junction7791717
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_mount7791950
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_socket7792667
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_fifo7793045
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_block_device7793406
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_char_device7793804
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path samefile7794210
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Node: Reading and writing files7794747
Ref: library/pathlib reading-and-writing-files7794880
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path open7794953
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_text7795298
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_bytes7795725
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_text7796038
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_bytes7796590
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Node: 讀取目錄7796980
Ref: library/pathlib reading-directories7797105
Ref: 25407797105
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path iterdir7797148
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path glob7797970
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rglob7799827
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path walk7801041
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Node: 建立檔案與目錄7805904
Ref: library/pathlib creating-files-and-directories7806025
Ref: 25427806025
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path touch7806083
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path mkdir7806635
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path symlink_to7807684
Ref: 6487807684
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path hardlink_to7808570
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Node: Renaming and deleting7808821
Ref: library/pathlib renaming-and-deleting7808955
Ref: 25447808955
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rename7809020
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path replace7810076
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path unlink7810596
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rmdir7811077
Ref: 25417811077
Node: Permissions and ownership7811153
Ref: library/pathlib permissions-and-ownership7811257
Ref: 25477811257
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path owner7811330
Ref: 25487811330
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path group7811520
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path chmod7811698
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lchmod7812282
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Node: 與 os 模組裡的工具的對應關係7812480
Ref: library/pathlib correspondence-to-tools-in-the-os-module7812620
Ref: 254b7812620
Ref: 與 os 模組裡的工具的對應關係-Footnote-17817940
Ref: 與 os 模組裡的工具的對應關係-Footnote-27818248
Ref: 與 os 模組裡的工具的對應關係-Footnote-37818427
Ref: 與 os 模組裡的工具的對應關係-Footnote-47818649
Node: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作7818881
Ref: library/os path doc7819079
Ref: 25507819079
Ref: library/os path module-os path7819079
Ref: 9d7819079
Ref: library/os path os-path-common-pathname-manipulations7819079
Ref: 25517819079
Ref: library/os path os path abspath7821005
Ref: 11ae7821005
Ref: library/os path os path basename7821315
Ref: 254d7821315
Ref: library/os path os path commonpath7821783
Ref: cb77821783
Ref: library/os path os path commonprefix7822243
Ref: cb87822243
Ref: library/os path os path dirname7822872
Ref: 254c7822872
Ref: library/os path os path exists7823136
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Ref: library/os path os path lexists7823732
Ref: 8567823732
Ref: library/os path os path expanduser7824045
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Ref: library/os path os path expandvars7825121
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Ref: library/os path os path getatime7825585
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Ref: library/os path os path getmtime7825846
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Ref: library/os path os path getctime7826180
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Ref: library/os path os path getsize7826669
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Ref: library/os path os path isabs7826915
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Ref: library/os path os path isfile7827234
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Ref: library/os path os path isdir7827576
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Ref: library/os path os path ismount7828476
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Ref: library/os path os path isdevdrive7829397
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Ref: library/os path os path join7830052
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Ref: library/os path os path normcase7831107
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Ref: library/os path os path normpath7831416
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Ref: library/os path os path realpath7832245
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Ref: library/os path os path relpath7833210
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Ref: library/os path os path samefile7833706
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Ref: library/os path os path sameopenfile7834233
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Ref: library/os path os path samestat7834502
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Ref: library/os path os path splitdrive7835788
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Ref: library/os path os path splitroot7836603
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Ref: library/os path os path splitext7837844
Ref: 254e7837844
Ref: library/os path os path supports_unicode_filenames7838737
Ref: 12fd7838737
Ref: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作-Footnote-17838965
Ref: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作-Footnote-27839036
Ref: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作-Footnote-37839105
Ref: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作-Footnote-47839171
Ref: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作-Footnote-57839226
Ref: os path --- 常見的路徑名操作-Footnote-67839318
Node: fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流7839410
Ref: library/fileinput doc7839596
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Ref: library/fileinput fileinput-iterate-over-lines-from-multiple-input-streams7839596
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Ref: library/fileinput fileinput input7841870
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Ref: library/fileinput fileinput filename7843108
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Ref: library/fileinput fileinput fileno7843262
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Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isfirstline7843990
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Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isstdin7844140
Ref: 25607844140
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput nextfile7844281
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Ref: library/fileinput fileinput close7844819
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Ref: library/fileinput fileinput FileInput7844988
Ref: 5477844988
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_compressed7847698
Ref: 6217847698
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_encoded7848495
Ref: b0d7848495
Ref: fileinput --- 逐列疊代多個輸入串流-Footnote-17849083
Node: stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果7849152
Ref: library/stat doc7849335
Ref: 25637849335
Ref: library/stat module-stat7849335
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Ref: library/stat stat-interpreting-stat-results7849335
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Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDIR7849997
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Ref: library/stat stat S_ISCHR7850085
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Ref: library/stat stat S_ISFIFO7850393
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Ref: library/stat stat S_ISLNK7850490
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Ref: library/stat stat S_ISSOCK7850582
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Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDOOR7850668
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Ref: library/stat stat S_ISPORT7850780
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Ref: library/stat stat filemode7852886
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Ref: library/stat stat ST_MODE7853289
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Ref: library/stat stat ST_INO7853344
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Ref: library/stat stat ST_DEV7853389
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Ref: library/stat stat S_ISGID7855695
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Ref: library/stat stat S_ISVTX7856274
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IRWXU7856525
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IRUSR7856590
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IWUSR7856649
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IXUSR7856709
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IXGRP7856950
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IEXEC7857661
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Ref: library/stat stat UF_IMMUTABLE7857876
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED7859359
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA7859411
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Ref: stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果-Footnote-17860176
Ref: stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果-Footnote-27860240
Ref: stat --- 直譯 stat 的結果-Footnote-37860287
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Ref: library/filecmp doc7860546
Ref: 25b17860546
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp-file-and-directory-comparisons7860546
Ref: 25b27860546
Ref: library/filecmp module-filecmp7860546
Ref: 557860546
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmp7860989
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmpfiles7861780
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp clear_cache7862719
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Ref: filecmp --- 檔案與目錄比較-Footnote-17863034
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Ref: library/filecmp dircmp-objects7863187
Ref: 25b37863187
Ref: library/filecmp the-dircmp-class7863187
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp7863248
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report7863784
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_partial_closure7863901
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_full_closure7864042
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left7864561
Ref: 25b87864561
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right7864614
Ref: 25b97864614
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_list7864668
Ref: 25ba7864668
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_list7864783
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common7864899
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_only7864981
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_only7865058
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_dirs7865136
Ref: 25bf7865136
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_files7865213
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_funny7865282
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp same_files7865482
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp diff_files7865623
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp funny_files7865783
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp subdirs7865898
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp DEFAULT_IGNORES7866351
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Node: tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄7867034
Ref: library/tempfile doc7867230
Ref: 25c57867230
Ref: library/tempfile module-tempfile7867230
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-generate-temporary-files-and-directories7867230
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryFile7868345
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile NamedTemporaryFile7870416
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile7873998
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile rollover7874521
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory7875432
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory name7875893
Ref: 25cc7875893
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory cleanup7876191
Ref: 25cd7876191
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkstemp7877323
Ref: 25c87877323
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkdtemp7880251
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdir7881420
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdirb7882482
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempprefix7882629
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempprefixb7882750
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile tempdir7883311
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Ref: tempfile --- 生成臨時檔案和目錄-Footnote-17884367
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Ref: library/tempfile examples7884557
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-examples7884557
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Node: 已棄用的函式和變數7885939
Ref: library/tempfile deprecated-functions-and-variables7886061
Ref: 25d27886061
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-mktemp-deprecated7886061
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mktemp7886576
Ref: 16617886576
Node: glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展7887635
Ref: library/glob doc7887839
Ref: 25d47887839
Ref: library/glob glob-unix-style-pathname-pattern-expansion7887839
Ref: 25d57887839
Ref: library/glob module-glob7887839
Ref: 5f7887839
Ref: library/glob glob glob7888949
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Ref: library/glob glob iglob7891108
Ref: 6297891108
Ref: library/glob glob escape7891989
Ref: dd37891989
Ref: glob --- Unix 風格的路徑名稱模式擴展-Footnote-17893434
Node: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對7893498
Ref: library/fnmatch doc7893697
Ref: 25d67893697
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch-unix-filename-pattern-matching7893697
Ref: 25d77893697
Ref: library/fnmatch module-fnmatch7893697
Ref: 577893697
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch fnmatch7895241
Ref: 16727895241
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch fnmatchcase7895914
Ref: 16737895914
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch filter7896170
Ref: 16747896170
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch translate7896425
Ref: 18327896425
Ref: fnmatch --- Unix 檔案名稱模式比對-Footnote-17897004
Node: linecache --- 隨機存取文字列7897071
Ref: library/linecache doc7897252
Ref: 25d87897252
Ref: library/linecache linecache-random-access-to-text-lines7897252
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Ref: library/linecache module-linecache7897252
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Ref: library/linecache linecache getline7898061
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Ref: library/linecache linecache clearcache7898827
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Ref: library/linecache linecache checkcache7898994
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Ref: library/linecache linecache lazycache7899270
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Ref: linecache --- 隨機存取文字列-Footnote-17899818
Ref: linecache --- 隨機存取文字列-Footnote-27899887
Node: shutil — 高階檔案操作7899929
Ref: library/shutil doc7900060
Ref: 25de7900060
Ref: library/shutil module-shutil7900060
Ref: c07900060
Ref: library/shutil shutil-high-level-file-operations7900060
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Ref: shutil — 高階檔案操作-Footnote-17901139
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Ref: library/shutil directory-and-files-operations7901330
Ref: 25e07901330
Ref: library/shutil file-operations7901330
Ref: 25e17901330
Ref: library/shutil shutil copyfileobj7901413
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copyfile7902008
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Ref: library/shutil shutil SameFileError7903618
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copymode7903787
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copystat7904695
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copy7906791
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copy27908296
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Ref: library/shutil shutil ignore_patterns7909814
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copytree7910112
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Ref: library/shutil shutil rmtree7913569
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Ref: library/shutil shutil rmtree avoids_symlink_attacks7915904
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Ref: library/shutil shutil disk_usage7918274
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Ref: library/shutil platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations7922575
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations7922575
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Ref: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations-Footnote-17923685
Ref: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations-Footnote-27923750
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Ref: library/shutil copytree-example7923956
Ref: 25e67923956
Ref: library/shutil shutil-copytree-example7923956
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Ref: library/shutil rmtree-example7924723
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-rmtree-example7924723
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Node: Archiving operations7925262
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Ref: library/shutil id17925436
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Ref: Archiving operations-Footnote-17934161
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example7934317
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example-with-basedir7935522
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Ref: library/shutil querying-the-size-of-the-output-terminal7936761
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Ref: library/shutil shutil get_terminal_size7936864
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Ref: Querying the size of the output terminal-Footnote-17938485
Node: 資料持久性 Data Persistence7938568
Ref: library/persistence doc7938736
Ref: 25f87938736
Ref: library/persistence data-persistence7938736
Ref: 25f97938736
Ref: library/persistence persistence7938736
Ref: 25fa7938736
Node: pickle --- Python 物件序列化7939716
Ref: library/pickle doc7939865
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Ref: library/pickle module-pickle7939865
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Ref: library/pickle pickle-python-object-serialization7939865
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Ref: pickle --- Python 物件序列化-Footnote-17941641
Ref: pickle --- Python 物件序列化-Footnote-27941707
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Ref: library/pickle relationship-to-other-python-modules7941898
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Ref: 和 json 的比較-Footnote-17945638
Node: Data stream format7945663
Ref: library/pickle data-stream-format7945813
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Ref: library/pickle pickle-protocols7945813
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Ref: Data stream format-Footnote-17948776
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Ref: Data stream format-Footnote-37948860
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Ref: library/pickle module-interface7949054
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Ref: library/pickle pickle HIGHEST_PROTOCOL7949478
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Ref: library/pickle pickle DEFAULT_PROTOCOL7949753
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Ref: library/pickle pickle dump7950247
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Ref: library/pickle pickle PicklingError7952750
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Ref: library/pickle pickle UnpicklingError7953031
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Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler7953542
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Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler persistent_id7955261
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Ref: library/pickle what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled7962974
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Ref: What can be pickled and unpickled?-Footnote-17965714
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Ref: library/marshal doc8009327
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Ref: library/marshal marshal-internal-python-object-serialization8009327
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Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm open8025737
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Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm ndbm close8026891
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Ref: dbm ndbm --- 新資料庫管理器-Footnote-18026995
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Ref: dbm dumb --- 可攜式 DBM 實作-Footnote-18030231
Node: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面8030299
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Ref: library/sqlite3 module-sqlite38030460
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-db-api-2-0-interface-for-sqlite-databases8030460
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Ref: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面-Footnote-18031997
Ref: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面-Footnote-28032062
Ref: sqlite3 --- SQLite 資料庫的 DB-API 2 0 介面-Footnote-38032104
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-module-functions8039023
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 connect8039076
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 register_adapter8045184
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 register_converter8045520
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Ref: Module functions-Footnote-18046167
Ref: Module functions-Footnote-28046210
Ref: Module functions-Footnote-38046252
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Ref: library/sqlite3 module-constants8046442
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-module-constants8046442
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL8046495
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 PARSE_DECLTYPES8047289
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL8052543
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML8052587
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY8052631
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER8052679
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER8052843
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW8052894
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE8052942
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT8052997
Ref: 26828052997
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE8053052
Ref: 26838053052
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE8053105
Ref: 26848053105
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP8053156
Ref: 26858053156
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA8053204
Ref: 26868053204
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA8053255
Ref: 26878053255
Ref: Module constants-Footnote-18053765
Ref: Module constants-Footnote-28053808
Ref: Module constants-Footnote-38053863
Node: Connection 物件8053914
Ref: library/sqlite3 connection-objects8054024
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-objects8054024
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection8054077
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection blobopen8054904
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection commit8056165
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_aggregate8059596
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_window_function8061324
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_collation8064517
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection load_extension8071742
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection deserialize8078909
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection text_factory8083194
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Ref: Connection 物件-Footnote-98084272
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Node: Cursor 物件8084465
Ref: library/sqlite3 cursor-objects8084569
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-cursor-objects8084569
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor close8090530
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Ref: 269e8090834
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor lastrowid8092162
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Node: Row 物件8094309
Ref: library/sqlite3 row-objects8094407
Ref: 26a38094407
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-row-objects8094407
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Ref: 26a58094893
Node: Blob 物件8095171
Ref: library/sqlite3 blob-objects8095278
Ref: 26a68095278
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-blob-objects8095278
Ref: 26a78095278
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob write8097096
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Ref: 26ac8097410
Node: PrepareProtocol 物件8097834
Ref: library/sqlite3 prepareprotocol-objects8097940
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Ref: PrepareProtocol 物件-Footnote-18098271
Node: 例外<4>8098313
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Ref: 26938099743
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Ref: 16708100301
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Ref: 26b28100859
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Ref: 26918101437
Ref: 例外<4>-Footnote-18101868
Ref: 例外<4>-Footnote-28101910
Ref: 例外<4>-Footnote-38101950
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite-and-python-types8102128
Ref: 26b38102128
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-types8102128
Ref: 26628102128
Node: Default adapters and converters deprecated8104040
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Ref: 26b48104184
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-default-converters8104184
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Ref: Default adapters and converters deprecated-Footnote-18105401
Node: 命令列介面8105448
Ref: library/sqlite3 command-line-interface8105560
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Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-h8105889
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Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-help8105889
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Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-version8105935
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Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-guides8106165
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howtos8106165
Ref: 26528106165
Node: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries8106631
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-placeholders8106792
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Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-18109039
Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-28109091
Node: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values8109133
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Ref: 26bc8109354
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-adapters8109354
Ref: 265b8109354
Node: How to write adaptable objects8110143
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Ref: 26bd8110301
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-conform8110301
Ref: 26ae8110301
Node: How to register adapter callables8111212
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Node: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types8112014
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Ref: 265c8112211
Node: Adapter and converter recipes8114780
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Ref: 26c08114966
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-adapter-converter-recipes8114966
Ref: 2358114966
Node: How to use connection shortcut methods8116402
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Ref: 26c18116578
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-shortcuts8116578
Ref: 268a8116578
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Ref: 26c28118035
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-context-manager8118035
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Node: How to work with SQLite URIs8119788
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Ref: 26c48119960
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-uri-tricks8119960
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Ref: How to work with SQLite URIs-Footnote-18121263
Node: How to create and use row factories8121303
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howto-row-factory8121472
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Node: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings8124334
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Ref: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings-Footnote-18125803
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Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-38128644
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Ref: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute-Footnote-28131031
Node: 資料壓縮與保存8131123
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Ref: library/archiving archiving8131282
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Node: zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮8132001
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Ref: library/zlib zlib crc328137185
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Ref: library/zlib zlib decompress8137786
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Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress flush8140938
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Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress copy8141650
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Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress unused_data8141941
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Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress eof8142713
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Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress decompress8142939
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Ref: zlib --- 相容於 gzip 的壓縮-Footnote-18145277
Node: gzip --- gzip 檔案的支援8145322
Ref: library/gzip doc8145489
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Ref: library/gzip gzip-support-for-gzip-files8145489
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Ref: library/gzip module-gzip8145489
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Ref: library/gzip gzip open8146470
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Ref: library/gzip gzip-cli8156412
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Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-arg-file8156923
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Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-h8157249
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Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-help8157249
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Node: bz2 --- bzip2 壓縮的支援8157301
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Ref: library/bz2 bz2 open8158660
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Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File fileno8162134
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Ref: 15228165269
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Ref: f258168258
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Ref: library/bz2 examples-of-usage8168725
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Ref: 858171823
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAError8172639
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Ref: lzma --- 使用 LZMA 演算法進行壓縮-Footnote-18173035
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Ref: library/lzma lzma is_check_supported8186693
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Ref: zipfile --- 處理 ZIP 封存檔案-Footnote-18195710
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Node: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案8228036
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Ref: tarfile --- 讀取與寫入 tar 封存檔案-Footnote-18240702
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Ref: 16538292487
Ref: library/csv csv excel8293316
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Ref: library/csv csv unix_dialect8293695
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Ref: library/csv csv Sniffer8294012
Ref: 27d98294012
Ref: library/csv csv Sniffer sniff8294170
Ref: 27da8294170
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Ref: 16758294476
Ref: library/csv csv-constants8295557
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Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_ALL8295604
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Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_MINIMAL8295691
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Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_NONNUMERIC8295883
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Ref: 模組內容<3>-Footnote-18297749
Ref: 模組內容<3>-Footnote-28298062
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Ref: library/csv dialects-and-formatting-parameters8298516
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Ref: library/csv csv Dialect delimiter8299192
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Ref: library/csv csv Dialect doublequote8299323
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Ref: library/csv csv Dialect escapechar8299838
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Ref: library/csv csv csvwriter dialect8303939
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Ref: library/csv csv DictWriter writeheader8304070
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Ref: library/csv csv-examples8304625
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Ref: library/csv examples8304625
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Node: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器8306585
Ref: library/configparser doc8306750
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Ref: library/configparser configparser-configuration-file-parser8306750
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Ref: library/configparser module-configparser8306750
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Ref: configparser --- 設定檔剖析器-Footnote-18308208
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Ref: library/configparser quick-start8308391
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Ref: Quick Start-Footnote-18312129
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Ref: library/configparser supported-datatypes8312668
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ExtendedInterpolation8321375
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Ref: Interpolation of values-Footnote-18322867
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Ref: library/configparser mapping-protocol-access8323233
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Ref: Mapping Protocol Access-Footnote-18326118
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Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationError8363695
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Ref: library/configparser configparser MissingSectionHeaderError8364505
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Node: tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案8364957
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Ref: tomllib --- 剖析 TOML 檔案-Footnote-38367271
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Node: plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案8372711
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Ref: plistlib --- 產生和剖析 Apple plist 檔案-Footnote-18377507
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging NullHandler8993064
Ref: 11198993064
Ref: library/logging handlers logging NullHandler emit8993165
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging NullHandler handle8993234
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging NullHandler createLock8993305
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Node: WatchedFileHandler8993588
Ref: library/logging handlers watched-file-handler8993733
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Ref: library/logging handlers watchedfilehandler8993733
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers WatchedFileHandler8994748
Ref: 2acd8994748
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers WatchedFileHandler reopenIfNeeded8995569
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers WatchedFileHandler emit8995862
Ref: 2ace8995862
Node: BaseRotatingHandler8996030
Ref: library/logging handlers base-rotating-handler8996183
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Ref: library/logging handlers baserotatinghandler8996183
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BaseRotatingHandler8996570
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BaseRotatingHandler namer8996760
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BaseRotatingHandler rotator8998490
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BaseRotatingHandler rotation_filename8998772
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BaseRotatingHandler rotate8999319
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Node: RotatingFileHandler9000607
Ref: library/logging handlers rotating-file-handler9000766
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Ref: library/logging handlers rotatingfilehandler9000766
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers RotatingFileHandler9000958
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers RotatingFileHandler doRollover9002910
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers RotatingFileHandler emit9002990
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Node: TimedRotatingFileHandler9003122
Ref: library/logging handlers timed-rotating-file-handler9003275
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Ref: library/logging handlers timedrotatingfilehandler9003275
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers TimedRotatingFileHandler9003508
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers TimedRotatingFileHandler doRollover9008617
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers TimedRotatingFileHandler emit9008697
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers TimedRotatingFileHandler getFilesToDelete9008824
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Node: SocketHandler9009051
Ref: library/logging handlers socket-handler9009200
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Ref: library/logging handlers sockethandler9009200
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler9009412
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler close9009818
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler emit9009875
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler handleError9010308
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler makeSocket9010538
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler makePickle9010782
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler send9011588
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler createSocket9011909
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Node: DatagramHandler9013105
Ref: library/logging handlers datagram-handler9013243
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Ref: library/logging handlers datagramhandler9013243
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers DatagramHandler9013479
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers DatagramHandler emit9014394
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers DatagramHandler makeSocket9014746
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers DatagramHandler send9014933
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Node: SysLogHandler9015148
Ref: library/logging handlers syslog-handler9015290
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Ref: library/logging handlers sysloghandler9015290
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler9015496
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler close9017441
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler createSocket9017517
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler emit9017966
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler encodePriority9019830
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler mapPriority9023858
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Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-19024344
Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-29024399
Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-39024464
Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-49024523
Node: NTEventLogHandler9024588
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Ref: library/logging handlers nteventloghandler9024726
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler9025059
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler close9026121
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler emit9026523
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler getEventCategory9026681
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler getEventType9026883
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler getMessageID9027466
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Node: SMTPHandler9027896
Ref: library/logging handlers smtp-handler9028034
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Ref: library/logging handlers smtphandler9028034
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SMTPHandler9028231
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SMTPHandler emit9029480
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SMTPHandler getSubject9029584
Ref: 2aff9029584
Node: MemoryHandler9029730
Ref: library/logging handlers memory-handler9029862
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Ref: library/logging handlers memoryhandler9029862
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BufferingHandler9030565
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BufferingHandler emit9030762
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BufferingHandler flush9030952
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BufferingHandler shouldFlush9031189
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler9031372
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler close9032178
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler flush9032306
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler setTarget9032613
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler shouldFlush9032703
Ref: 2b099032703
Node: HTTPHandler9032829
Ref: library/logging handlers http-handler9032962
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Ref: library/logging handlers httphandler9032962
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers HTTPHandler9033193
Ref: ca59033193
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers HTTPHandler mapLogRecord9034140
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers HTTPHandler emit9034594
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Node: QueueHandler9035330
Ref: library/logging handlers queue-handler9035463
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Ref: library/logging handlers queuehandler9035463
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler9036204
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler emit9036881
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler prepare9037384
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler enqueue9039319
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler listener9039565
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Node: QueueListener9039857
Ref: library/logging handlers queue-listener9039970
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Ref: library/logging handlers queuelistener9039970
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener9040992
Ref: ca69040992
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener dequeue9042206
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener prepare9042487
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener handle9042804
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener start9043066
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener stop9043229
Ref: 2b199043229
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener enqueue_sentinel9043536
Ref: 2b1a9043536
Node: getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具9044034
Ref: library/getpass doc9044241
Ref: 2b1b9044241
Ref: library/getpass getpass-portable-password-input9044241
Ref: 2b1c9044241
Ref: library/getpass module-getpass9044241
Ref: 5d9044241
Ref: library/getpass getpass getpass9044728
Ref: 2b1d9044728
Ref: library/getpass getpass GetPassWarning9045643
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Ref: library/getpass getpass getuser9045769
Ref: 288c9045769
Ref: getpass --- 可攜式密碼輸入工具-Footnote-19046303
Node: curses --- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理9046370
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Ref: library/curses curses-terminal-handling-for-character-cell-displays9046591
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Ref: library/curses module-curses9046591
Ref: 299046591
Ref: curses --- 字元儲存格顯示的終端處理-Footnote-19048091
Node: 函式<5>9048154
Ref: library/curses curses-functions9048270
Ref: 2b229048270
Ref: library/curses functions9048270
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Ref: library/curses curses error9048366
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Ref: library/curses curses baudrate9048733
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Ref: library/curses curses beep9049083
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Ref: library/curses curses can_change_color9049147
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Ref: library/curses curses cbreak9049317
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Ref: library/curses curses color_content9049789
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Ref: library/curses curses color_pair9050170
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Ref: library/curses curses curs_set9050555
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Ref: library/curses curses def_prog_mode9050973
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Ref: library/curses curses def_shell_mode9051291
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Ref: library/curses curses delay_output9051627
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Ref: library/curses curses doupdate9051715
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Ref: library/curses curses echo9052538
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Ref: library/curses curses endwin9052672
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Ref: library/curses curses erasechar9052773
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Ref: library/curses curses filter9053037
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Ref: library/curses curses flash9053646
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Ref: library/curses curses flushinp9053903
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Ref: library/curses curses getmouse9054087
Ref: 2b409054087
Ref: library/curses curses getsyx9055082
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Ref: library/curses curses getwin9055291
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Ref: library/curses curses has_colors9055544
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Ref: library/curses curses has_extended_color_support9055674
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Ref: library/curses curses has_ic9056058
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Ref: library/curses curses has_il9056312
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Ref: library/curses curses has_key9056607
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Ref: library/curses curses halfdelay9056759
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Ref: library/curses curses init_color9057195
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Ref: library/curses curses init_pair9057849
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Ref: library/curses curses initscr9058568
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Ref: library/curses curses is_term_resized9058843
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Ref: library/curses curses isendwin9059012
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Ref: library/curses curses keyname9059168
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Ref: library/curses curses killchar9059693
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Ref: library/curses curses longname9059960
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Ref: library/curses curses meta9060233
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Ref: library/curses curses mouseinterval9060388
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Ref: library/curses curses mousemask9060693
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Ref: library/curses curses napms9061109
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Ref: library/curses curses newpad9061175
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Ref: library/curses curses newwin9062261
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Ref: library/curses curses nl9062624
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Ref: library/curses curses nocbreak9062837
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Ref: library/curses curses noecho9062952
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Ref: library/curses curses nonl9063049
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Ref: library/curses curses noqiflush9063540
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Ref: library/curses curses noraw9063928
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Ref: library/curses curses pair_content9064037
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Ref: library/curses curses pair_number9064261
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Ref: library/curses curses putp9064451
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Ref: library/curses curses qiflush9064695
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Ref: library/curses curses raw9064959
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Ref: library/curses curses reset_prog_mode9065199
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Ref: library/curses curses reset_shell_mode9065341
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Ref: library/curses curses resetty9065483
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Ref: library/curses curses resize_term9065623
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Ref: library/curses curses resizeterm9066160
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Ref: library/curses curses savetty9066431
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Ref: library/curses curses get_escdelay9066564
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Ref: library/curses curses set_escdelay9066688
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Ref: library/curses curses get_tabsize9066984
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Ref: library/curses curses set_tabsize9067106
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Ref: library/curses curses setsyx9067317
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Ref: library/curses curses setupterm9067485
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Ref: library/curses curses start_color9067900
Ref: 2b6d9067900
Ref: library/curses curses termattrs9068591
Ref: 2b709068591
Ref: library/curses curses termname9068819
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Ref: library/curses curses tigetflag9068966
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Ref: library/curses curses tigetnum9069280
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Ref: library/curses curses tigetstr9069594
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Ref: library/curses curses tparm9069898
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Ref: library/curses curses typeahead9070233
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Ref: library/curses curses unctrl9070820
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Ref: library/curses curses ungetch9071099
Ref: 2b789071099
Ref: library/curses curses update_lines_cols9071276
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Ref: library/curses curses unget_wch9071470
Ref: f2e9071470
Ref: library/curses curses ungetmouse9071690
Ref: 2b799071690
Ref: library/curses curses use_env9071854
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Ref: library/curses curses use_default_colors9072362
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Ref: library/curses curses wrapper9072793
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Node: Window Objects9073613
Ref: library/curses curses-window-objects9073747
Ref: 2b569073747
Ref: library/curses window-objects9073747
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Ref: library/curses curses window addch9073929
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Ref: library/curses curses window addnstr9074534
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Ref: library/curses curses window addstr9074793
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Ref: library/curses curses window attroff9075795
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Ref: library/curses curses window attron9075936
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Ref: library/curses curses window attrset9076073
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Ref: library/curses curses window bkgd9076217
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Ref: library/curses curses window bkgdset9076662
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Ref: library/curses curses window border9077222
Ref: 2b839077222
Ref: library/curses curses window box9079226
Ref: 2b8a9079226
Ref: library/curses curses window chgat9079454
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Ref: library/curses curses window clear9080078
Ref: 2b8d9080078
Ref: library/curses curses window clearok9080233
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Ref: library/curses curses window clrtobot9080378
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Ref: library/curses curses window clrtoeol9080575
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Ref: library/curses curses window cursyncup9080655
Ref: 2b929080655
Ref: library/curses curses window delch9080823
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Ref: library/curses curses window deleteln9080902
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Ref: library/curses curses window derwin9081026
Ref: 2b959081026
Ref: library/curses curses window echochar9081432
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Ref: library/curses curses window enclose9081586
Ref: 16ad9081586
Ref: library/curses curses window encoding9082004
Ref: f2c9082004
Ref: library/curses curses window erase9082382
Ref: 2b8e9082382
Ref: library/curses curses window getbegyx9082435
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Ref: library/curses curses window getbkgd9082538
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Ref: library/curses curses window getch9082651
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Ref: library/curses curses window get_wch9082971
Ref: f2d9082971
Ref: library/curses curses window getkey9083239
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Ref: library/curses curses window getmaxyx9083547
Ref: 2b9b9083547
Ref: library/curses curses window getparyx9083652
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Ref: library/curses curses window getstr9083856
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Ref: library/curses curses window getyx9084072
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Ref: library/curses curses window hline9084211
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Ref: library/curses curses window idcok9084397
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Ref: library/curses curses window idlok9084743
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Ref: library/curses curses window immedok9084936
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Ref: library/curses curses window inch9085285
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Ref: library/curses curses window insch9085473
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Ref: library/curses curses window insdelln9085687
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Ref: library/curses curses window insertln9086066
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Ref: library/curses curses window insnstr9086196
Ref: 2ba79086196
Ref: library/curses curses window insstr9086709
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Ref: library/curses curses window instr9087128
Ref: 2ba99087128
Ref: library/curses curses window is_linetouched9087524
Ref: 2baa9087524
Ref: library/curses curses window is_wintouched9087807
Ref: 2bab9087807
Ref: library/curses curses window keypad9087987
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Ref: library/curses curses window leaveok9088255
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Ref: library/curses curses window move9088599
Ref: 2bad9088599
Ref: library/curses curses window mvderwin9088682
Ref: 2bae9088682
Ref: library/curses curses window mvwin9088959
Ref: 2baf9088959
Ref: library/curses curses window nodelay9089075
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Ref: library/curses curses window notimeout9089184
Ref: 2bb19089184
Ref: library/curses curses window noutrefresh9089448
Ref: 2b369089448
Ref: library/curses curses window overlay9089722
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Ref: library/curses curses window overwrite9090371
Ref: 2bb39090371
Ref: library/curses curses window putwin9091023
Ref: 2b4e9091023
Ref: library/curses curses window redrawln9091229
Ref: 2bb49091229
Ref: library/curses curses window redrawwin9091435
Ref: 2bb59091435
Ref: library/curses curses window refresh9091581
Ref: 2b389091581
Ref: library/curses curses window resize9092602
Ref: 2bb69092602
Ref: library/curses curses window scroll9092952
Ref: 2bb79092952
Ref: library/curses curses window scrollok9093060
Ref: 2bb89093060
Ref: library/curses curses window setscrreg9093596
Ref: 2bb99093596
Ref: library/curses curses window standend9093765
Ref: 2bba9093765
Ref: library/curses curses window standout9093916
Ref: 2bbb9093916
Ref: library/curses curses window subpad9093986
Ref: 2bbc9093986
Ref: library/curses curses window subwin9094225
Ref: 2b969094225
Ref: library/curses curses window syncdown9094583
Ref: 2bbd9094583
Ref: library/curses curses window syncok9094829
Ref: 2bbe9094829
Ref: library/curses curses window syncup9094992
Ref: 2bbf9094992
Ref: library/curses curses window timeout9095118
Ref: 2bc09095118
Ref: library/curses curses window touchline9095621
Ref: 2b8c9095621
Ref: library/curses curses window touchwin9095929
Ref: 2bc19095929
Ref: library/curses curses window untouchwin9096054
Ref: 2bc29096054
Ref: library/curses curses window vline9096187
Ref: 15539096187
Ref: Window Objects-Footnote-19096446
Node: Constants9096489
Ref: library/curses constants9096605
Ref: 2bc39096605
Ref: library/curses curses ERR9096712
Ref: 2bc49096712
Ref: library/curses curses OK9096859
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Ref: library/curses curses version9097004
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Ref: library/curses curses __version__9097032
Ref: 2bc79097032
Ref: library/curses curses ncurses_version9097133
Ref: 82c9097133
Ref: library/curses curses COLORS9097554
Ref: 2b6e9097554
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_PAIRS9097712
Ref: 2b6f9097712
Ref: library/curses curses COLS9097880
Ref: 14ac9097880
Ref: library/curses curses LINES9098142
Ref: 14ab9098142
Ref: library/curses curses A_ALTCHARSET9098698
Ref: 2bc89098698
Ref: library/curses curses A_BLINK9098804
Ref: 2bc99098804
Ref: library/curses curses A_BOLD9098905
Ref: 2bca9098905
Ref: library/curses curses A_DIM9099005
Ref: 2bcb9099005
Ref: library/curses curses A_INVIS9099107
Ref: 2bcc9099107
Ref: library/curses curses A_ITALIC9099223
Ref: 2bcd9099223
Ref: library/curses curses A_NORMAL9099326
Ref: 2b259099326
Ref: library/curses curses A_PROTECT9099435
Ref: 2bce9099435
Ref: library/curses curses A_REVERSE9099541
Ref: 2b2d9099541
Ref: library/curses curses A_STANDOUT9099685
Ref: 2b2c9099685
Ref: library/curses curses A_UNDERLINE9099761
Ref: 2bcf9099761
Ref: library/curses curses A_HORIZONTAL9099838
Ref: 2bd09099838
Ref: library/curses curses A_LEFT9099935
Ref: 2bd19099935
Ref: library/curses curses A_LOW9100040
Ref: 2bd29100040
Ref: library/curses curses A_RIGHT9100147
Ref: 2bd39100147
Ref: library/curses curses A_TOP9100252
Ref: 2bd49100252
Ref: library/curses curses A_VERTICAL9100344
Ref: 2bd59100344
Ref: library/curses curses A_ATTRIBUTES9100735
Ref: 2bd69100735
Ref: library/curses curses A_CHARTEXT9100848
Ref: 2bd79100848
Ref: library/curses curses A_COLOR9100971
Ref: 2bd89100971
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MIN9101421
Ref: 2bd99101421
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BREAK9101535
Ref: 2bda9101535
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DOWN9101651
Ref: 2bdb9101651
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UP9101754
Ref: 2bdc9101754
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LEFT9101859
Ref: 2bdd9101859
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RIGHT9101965
Ref: 2bde9101965
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HOME9102070
Ref: 2bdf9102070
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BACKSPACE9102177
Ref: 2be09102177
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_F09102278
Ref: 2be19102278
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_Fn9102456
Ref: 2be29102456
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DL9102576
Ref: 2be39102576
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IL9102682
Ref: 2be49102682
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DC9102788
Ref: 2be59102788
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IC9102899
Ref: 2be69102899
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EIC9103027
Ref: 2be79103027
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLEAR9103145
Ref: 2be89103145
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOS9103250
Ref: 2be99103250
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOL9103367
Ref: 2bea9103367
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SF9103481
Ref: 2beb9103481
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SR9103597
Ref: 2bec9103597
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NPAGE9103727
Ref: 2bed9103727
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PPAGE9103831
Ref: 2bee9103831
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_STAB9103938
Ref: 2bef9103938
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CTAB9104040
Ref: 2bf09104040
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CATAB9104145
Ref: 2bf19104145
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_ENTER9104254
Ref: 2bf29104254
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRESET9104376
Ref: 2bf39104376
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESET9104503
Ref: 2bf49104503
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PRINT9104630
Ref: 2bf59104630
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LL9104727
Ref: 2bf69104727
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A19104854
Ref: 2bf79104854
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A39104969
Ref: 2bf89104969
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_B29105085
Ref: 2bf99105085
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C19105196
Ref: 2bfa9105196
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C39105311
Ref: 2bfb9105311
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BTAB9105429
Ref: 2bfc9105429
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BEG9105531
Ref: 2bfd9105531
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CANCEL9105644
Ref: 2bfe9105644
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLOSE9105744
Ref: 2bff9105744
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COMMAND9105827
Ref: 2c009105827
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COPY9105921
Ref: 2c019105921
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CREATE9106022
Ref: 2c029106022
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_END9106120
Ref: 2c039106120
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EXIT9106219
Ref: 2c049106219
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_FIND9106318
Ref: 2c059106318
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HELP9106417
Ref: 2c069106417
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MARK9106516
Ref: 2c079106516
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MESSAGE9106599
Ref: 2c089106599
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOVE9106687
Ref: 2c099106687
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NEXT9106786
Ref: 2c0a9106786
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPEN9106885
Ref: 2c0b9106885
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPTIONS9106968
Ref: 2c0c9106968
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PREVIOUS9107040
Ref: 2c0d9107040
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REDO9107136
Ref: 2c0e9107136
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFERENCE9107219
Ref: 2c0f9107219
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFRESH9107299
Ref: 2c109107299
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REPLACE9107371
Ref: 2c119107371
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESTART9107443
Ref: 2c129107443
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESUME9107533
Ref: 2c139107533
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SAVE9107632
Ref: 2c149107632
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SBEG9107731
Ref: 2c159107731
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCANCEL9107833
Ref: 2c169107833
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOMMAND9107912
Ref: 2c179107912
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOPY9108009
Ref: 2c189108009
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCREATE9108099
Ref: 2c199108099
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDC9108193
Ref: 2c1a9108193
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDL9108307
Ref: 2c1b9108307
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SELECT9108424
Ref: 2c1c9108424
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEND9108523
Ref: 2c1d9108523
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEOL9108629
Ref: 2c1e9108629
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEXIT9108743
Ref: 2c1f9108743
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SFIND9108850
Ref: 2c209108850
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHELP9108957
Ref: 2c219108957
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHOME9109064
Ref: 2c229109064
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SIC9109169
Ref: 2c239109169
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SLEFT9109279
Ref: 2c249109279
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMESSAGE9109375
Ref: 2c259109375
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMOVE9109472
Ref: 2c269109472
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SNEXT9109579
Ref: 2c279109579
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SOPTIONS9109669
Ref: 2c289109669
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPREVIOUS9109749
Ref: 2c299109749
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPRINT9109844
Ref: 2c2a9109844
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREDO9109951
Ref: 2c2b9109951
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREPLACE9110041
Ref: 2c2c9110041
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRIGHT9110139
Ref: 2c2d9110139
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRSUME9110253
Ref: 2c2e9110253
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSAVE9110361
Ref: 2c2f9110361
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSUSPEND9110451
Ref: 2c309110451
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUNDO9110548
Ref: 2c319110548
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUSPEND9110638
Ref: 2c329110638
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UNDO9110726
Ref: 2c339110726
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOUSE9110826
Ref: 2b429110826
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESIZE9110946
Ref: 2c349110946
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MAX9111059
Ref: 2c359111059
Ref: library/curses curses-acs-codes9112262
Ref: 2c369112262
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BBSS9112842
Ref: 2c379112842
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BLOCK9112972
Ref: 2c389112972
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BOARD9113082
Ref: 2c399113082
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSBS9113189
Ref: 2c3a9113189
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSB9113315
Ref: 2c3b9113315
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSS9113443
Ref: 2c3c9113443
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BTEE9113561
Ref: 2c3d9113561
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BULLET9113647
Ref: 2c3e9113647
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_CKBOARD9113716
Ref: 2c3f9113716
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DARROW9113802
Ref: 2c409113802
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DEGREE9113884
Ref: 2c419113884
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DIAMOND9113960
Ref: 2c429113960
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_GEQUAL9114030
Ref: 2c439114030
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_HLINE9114134
Ref: 2b859114134
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LANTERN9114224
Ref: 2c449114224
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LARROW9114301
Ref: 2c459114301
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LEQUAL9114374
Ref: 2c469114374
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LLCORNER9114458
Ref: 2b889114458
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LRCORNER9114543
Ref: 2b899114543
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LTEE9114645
Ref: 2c479114645
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_NEQUAL9114729
Ref: 2c489114729
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PI9114820
Ref: 2c499114820
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLMINUS9114907
Ref: 2c4a9114907
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLUS9115004
Ref: 2c4b9115004
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RARROW9115093
Ref: 2c4c9115093
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RTEE9115183
Ref: 2c4d9115183
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S19115282
Ref: 2c4e9115282
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S39115385
Ref: 2c4f9115385
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S79115488
Ref: 2c509115488
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S99115591
Ref: 2c519115591
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBBS9115696
Ref: 2c529115696
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSB9115825
Ref: 2c539115825
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSS9115949
Ref: 2c549115949
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBB9116069
Ref: 2c559116069
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBS9116197
Ref: 2c569116197
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSB9116318
Ref: 2c579116318
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSS9116437
Ref: 2c589116437
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_STERLING9116553
Ref: 2c599116553
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_TTEE9116646
Ref: 2c5a9116646
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_UARROW9116729
Ref: 2c5b9116729
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_ULCORNER9116800
Ref: 2b869116800
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_URCORNER9116880
Ref: 2b879116880
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_VLINE9116978
Ref: 2b849116978
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_PRESSED9117359
Ref: 2b439117359
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_RELEASED9117506
Ref: 2b449117506
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_CLICKED9117652
Ref: 2b459117652
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED9117775
Ref: 2b469117775
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED9117889
Ref: 2b479117889
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_SHIFT9118023
Ref: 2b489118023
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_CTRL9118185
Ref: 2b499118185
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_ALT9118349
Ref: 2b4a9118349
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLACK9118795
Ref: 2c5c9118795
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLUE9118881
Ref: 2c5d9118881
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_CYAN9118979
Ref: 2c5e9118979
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_GREEN9119082
Ref: 2c5f9119082
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_MAGENTA9119150
Ref: 2c609119150
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_RED9119254
Ref: 2c619119254
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_WHITE9119335
Ref: 2c629119335
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_YELLOW9119403
Ref: 2c639119403
Node: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs9119463
Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-text-input-widget-for-curses-programs9119689
Ref: 2c649119689
Ref: library/curses module-curses textpad9119689
Ref: 2c9119689
Ref: library/curses curses textpad rectangle9120279
Ref: 2c669120279
Node: Textbox objects9121000
Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-objects9121108
Ref: 2c679121108
Ref: library/curses textbox-objects9121108
Ref: 2c689121108
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox9121224
Ref: 2c659121224
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox edit9121702
Ref: 2c6a9121702
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox do_command9122273
Ref: 2c6b9122273
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox gather9125921
Ref: 2c6c9125921
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox stripspaces9126114
Ref: 2c699126114
Node: curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式9126522
Ref: library/curses ascii doc9126746
Ref: 2c6d9126746
Ref: library/curses ascii curses-ascii-utilities-for-ascii-characters9126746
Ref: 2c6e9126746
Ref: library/curses ascii module-curses ascii9126746
Ref: 2a9126746
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NUL9127331
Ref: 2c6f9127331
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SOH9127371
Ref: 2c709127371
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii STX9127457
Ref: 2c719127457
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETX9127521
Ref: 2c729127521
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EOT9127583
Ref: 2c739127583
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ENQ9127653
Ref: 2c749127653
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ACK9127752
Ref: 2c759127752
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BEL9127818
Ref: 2c769127818
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BS9127873
Ref: 2c779127873
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii TAB9127932
Ref: 2c789127932
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii HT9127986
Ref: 2c799127986
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii LF9128080
Ref: 2c7a9128080
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NL9128139
Ref: 2c7b9128139
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii VT9128226
Ref: 2c7c9128226
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FF9128288
Ref: 2c7d9128288
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CR9128347
Ref: 2c7e9128347
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SO9128412
Ref: 2c7f9128412
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SI9128502
Ref: 2c809128502
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DLE9128590
Ref: 2c819128590
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC19128657
Ref: 2c829128657
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC29128729
Ref: 2c839128729
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC39128821
Ref: 2c849128821
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC49128894
Ref: 2c859128894
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NAK9128961
Ref: 2c869128961
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SYN9129036
Ref: 2c879129036
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETB9129103
Ref: 2c889129103
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CAN9129176
Ref: 2c899129176
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EM9129233
Ref: 2c8a9129233
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SUB9129296
Ref: 2c8b9129296
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ESC9129357
Ref: 2c8c9129357
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FS9129414
Ref: 2c8d9129414
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii GS9129478
Ref: 2c8e9129478
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii RS9129543
Ref: 2c8f9129543
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii US9129632
Ref: 2c909129632
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SP9129696
Ref: 2c919129696
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DEL9129751
Ref: 2c929129751
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalnum9130049
Ref: 2c939130049
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalpha9130194
Ref: 2c949130194
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isascii9130337
Ref: 2c959130337
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isblank9130444
Ref: 2c969130444
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii iscntrl9130555
Ref: 2c979130555
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isdigit9130679
Ref: 2c989130679
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isgraph9130841
Ref: 2c999130841
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii islower9130940
Ref: 2c9a9130940
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isprint9131026
Ref: 2c9b9131026
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ispunct9131128
Ref: 2c9c9131128
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isspace9131269
Ref: 2c9d9131269
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isupper9131435
Ref: 2c9e9131435
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isxdigit9131517
Ref: 2c9f9131517
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isctrl9131658
Ref: 2ca09131658
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ismeta9131765
Ref: 2ca19131765
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ascii9132361
Ref: 2ca29132361
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ctrl9132466
Ref: 2ca39132466
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii alt9132632
Ref: 2ca49132632
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii unctrl9132902
Ref: 2ca59132902
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii controlnames9133453
Ref: 2ca69133453
Ref: curses ascii --- ASCII 字元的工具程式-Footnote-19133737
Node: curses panel --- curses 的面板堆疊擴充9133809
Ref: library/curses panel doc9134026
Ref: 2ca79134026
Ref: library/curses panel curses-panel-a-panel-stack-extension-for-curses9134026
Ref: 2ca89134026
Ref: library/curses panel module-curses panel9134026
Ref: 2b9134026
Node: 函式<6>9134479
Ref: library/curses panel cursespanel-functions9134592
Ref: 2ca99134592
Ref: library/curses panel functions9134592
Ref: 2caa9134592
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel bottom_panel9134694
Ref: 2cab9134694
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel new_panel9134787
Ref: 2cac9134787
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel top_panel9135085
Ref: 2cad9135085
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel update_panels9135172
Ref: 2cae9135172
Node: Panel Objects9135379
Ref: library/curses panel curses-panel-objects9135492
Ref: 2caf9135492
Ref: library/curses panel panel-objects9135492
Ref: 2cb09135492
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel above9135844
Ref: 2cb19135844
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel below9135921
Ref: 2cb29135921
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel bottom9135998
Ref: 2cb39135998
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hidden9136076
Ref: 2cb49136076
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hide9136196
Ref: 2cb59136196
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel move9136330
Ref: 2cb69136330
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel replace9136422
Ref: 2cb79136422
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel set_userptr9136526
Ref: 2cb89136526
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel show9136718
Ref: 2cb99136718
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel top9136801
Ref: 2cba9136801
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel userptr9136869
Ref: 2cbb9136869
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel window9136984
Ref: 2cbc9136984
Node: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取9137072
Ref: library/platform doc9137280
Ref: 2cbd9137280
Ref: library/platform module-platform9137280
Ref: a59137280
Ref: library/platform platform-access-to-underlying-platform-s-identifying-data9137280
Ref: 2cbe9137280
Ref: platform --- 對底層平臺識別資料的存取-Footnote-19137734
Node: 跨平台9137802
Ref: library/platform cross-platform9137917
Ref: 2cbf9137917
Ref: library/platform platform architecture9137955
Ref: 18169137955
Ref: library/platform platform machine9139225
Ref: 2cc09139225
Ref: library/platform platform node9139363
Ref: 2cc19139363
Ref: library/platform platform platform9139523
Ref: 151c9139523
Ref: library/platform platform processor9140371
Ref: 2cc39140371
Ref: library/platform platform python_build9140681
Ref: 2cc49140681
Ref: library/platform platform python_compiler9140833
Ref: 2cc59140833
Ref: library/platform platform python_branch9140943
Ref: 2cc69140943
Ref: library/platform platform python_implementation9141044
Ref: 2cc79141044
Ref: library/platform platform python_revision9141219
Ref: 2cc89141219
Ref: library/platform platform python_version9141325
Ref: 2cc99141325
Ref: library/platform platform python_version_tuple9141573
Ref: 2cca9141573
Ref: library/platform platform release9141835
Ref: 2ccb9141835
Ref: library/platform platform system9142003
Ref: 2ccc9142003
Ref: library/platform platform system_alias9142200
Ref: 2cc29142200
Ref: library/platform platform version9142454
Ref: 2ccd9142454
Ref: library/platform platform uname9142619
Ref: 18199142619
Node: Java 平台9143362
Ref: library/platform java-platform9143500
Ref: 2cce9143500
Ref: library/platform platform java_ver9143543
Ref: 25b9143543
Node: Windows 平台9143983
Ref: library/platform windows-platform9144124
Ref: 2ccf9144124
Ref: library/platform platform win32_ver9144173
Ref: 17379144173
Ref: library/platform platform win32_edition9144857
Ref: 2cd09144857
Ref: library/platform platform win32_is_iot9145104
Ref: 2cd19145104
Node: macOS 平台9145286
Ref: library/platform macos-platform9145427
Ref: 2cd29145427
Ref: library/platform platform mac_ver9145472
Ref: 181b9145472
Node: Unix 平台9145844
Ref: library/platform unix-platforms9145983
Ref: 2cd39145983
Ref: library/platform platform libc_ver9146026
Ref: 18189146026
Node: Linux 平台9146626
Ref: library/platform linux-platforms9146744
Ref: 2cd49146744
Ref: library/platform platform freedesktop_os_release9146789
Ref: 64c9146789
Ref: Linux 平台-Footnote-19148231
Node: errno --- 標準 errno 系統符號9148304
Ref: library/errno doc9148510
Ref: 2cd59148510
Ref: library/errno errno-standard-errno-system-symbols9148510
Ref: 2cd69148510
Ref: library/errno module-errno9148510
Ref: 529148510
Ref: library/errno errno errorcode9148901
Ref: 2cd79148901
Ref: library/errno errno EPERM9149424
Ref: 15999149424
Ref: library/errno errno ENOENT9149552
Ref: 20419149552
Ref: library/errno errno ESRCH9149685
Ref: 20459149685
Ref: library/errno errno EINTR9149808
Ref: bfd9149808
Ref: library/errno errno EIO9149937
Ref: 2cd89149937
Ref: library/errno errno ENXIO9149976
Ref: 2cd99149976
Ref: library/errno errno E2BIG9150033
Ref: 2cda9150033
Ref: library/errno errno ENOEXEC9150082
Ref: 2cdb9150082
Ref: library/errno errno EBADF9150133
Ref: 79c9150133
Ref: library/errno errno ECHILD9150180
Ref: 203a9150180
Ref: library/errno errno EAGAIN9150306
Ref: 20359150306
Ref: library/errno errno ENOMEM9150421
Ref: 2cdc9150421
Ref: library/errno errno EACCES9150467
Ref: 20449150467
Ref: library/errno errno EFAULT9150590
Ref: 2cdd9150590
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTBLK9150634
Ref: 2cde9150634
Ref: library/errno errno EBUSY9150689
Ref: 2cdf9150689
Ref: library/errno errno EEXIST9150744
Ref: 20409150744
Ref: library/errno errno EXDEV9150861
Ref: 28b99150861
Ref: library/errno errno ENODEV9150910
Ref: 2ce09150910
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTDIR9150957
Ref: 20439150957
Ref: library/errno errno EISDIR9151082
Ref: 20429151082
Ref: library/errno errno EINVAL9151204
Ref: 17d39151204
Ref: library/errno errno ENFILE9151253
Ref: 2ce19151253
Ref: library/errno errno EMFILE9151305
Ref: 2ce29151305
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTTY9151357
Ref: 2ce39151357
Ref: library/errno errno ETXTBSY9151406
Ref: 2ce49151406
Ref: library/errno errno EFBIG9151454
Ref: 2ce59151454
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSPC9151500
Ref: 2ce69151500
Ref: library/errno errno ESPIPE9151556
Ref: 2ce79151556
Ref: library/errno errno EROFS9151601
Ref: 2ce89151601
Ref: library/errno errno EMLINK9151654
Ref: 2ce99151654
Ref: library/errno errno EPIPE9151701
Ref: 203b9151701
Ref: library/errno errno EDOM9151817
Ref: 2cea9151817
Ref: library/errno errno ERANGE9151883
Ref: 2ceb9151883
Ref: library/errno errno EDEADLK9151945
Ref: 2cec9151945
Ref: library/errno errno ENAMETOOLONG9152008
Ref: 2ced9152008
Ref: library/errno errno ENOLCK9152065
Ref: 2cee9152065
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSYS9152123
Ref: 159a9152123
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTEMPTY9152180
Ref: 2cef9152180
Ref: library/errno errno ELOOP9152235
Ref: 2cf09152235
Ref: library/errno errno EWOULDBLOCK9152302
Ref: 20379152302
Ref: library/errno errno ENOMSG9152434
Ref: 2cf19152434
Ref: library/errno errno EIDRM9152493
Ref: 2cf29152493
Ref: library/errno errno ECHRNG9152543
Ref: 2cf39152543
Ref: library/errno errno EL2NSYNC9152603
Ref: 2cf49152603
Ref: library/errno errno EL3HLT9152662
Ref: 2cf59152662
Ref: library/errno errno EL3RST9152709
Ref: 2cf69152709
Ref: library/errno errno ELNRNG9152755
Ref: 2cf79152755
Ref: library/errno errno EUNATCH9152812
Ref: 2cf89152812
Ref: library/errno errno ENOCSI9152874
Ref: 2cf99152874
Ref: library/errno errno EL2HLT9152933
Ref: 2cfa9152933
Ref: library/errno errno EBADE9152980
Ref: 2cfb9152980
Ref: library/errno errno EBADR9153028
Ref: 2cfc9153028
Ref: library/errno errno EXFULL9153086
Ref: 2cfd9153086
Ref: library/errno errno ENOANO9153132
Ref: 2cfe9153132
Ref: library/errno errno EBADRQC9153173
Ref: 2cff9153173
Ref: library/errno errno EBADSLT9153227
Ref: 2d009153227
Ref: library/errno errno EDEADLOCK9153273
Ref: 2d019153273
Ref: library/errno errno EBFONT9153336
Ref: 2d029153336
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSTR9153389
Ref: 2d039153389
Ref: library/errno errno ENODATA9153441
Ref: 2d049153441
Ref: library/errno errno ETIME9153492
Ref: 2d059153492
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSR9153537
Ref: 2d069153537
Ref: library/errno errno ENONET9153593
Ref: 2d079153593
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPKG9153655
Ref: 2d089153655
Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTE9153709
Ref: 2d099153709
Ref: library/errno errno ENOLINK9153759
Ref: 2d0a9153759
Ref: library/errno errno EADV9153814
Ref: 2d0b9153814
Ref: library/errno errno ESRMNT9153860
Ref: 2d0c9153860
Ref: library/errno errno ECOMM9153906
Ref: 2d0d9153906
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTO9153965
Ref: 2d0e9153965
Ref: library/errno errno EMULTIHOP9154012
Ref: 2d0f9154012
Ref: library/errno errno EDOTDOT9154066
Ref: 2d109154066
Ref: library/errno errno EBADMSG9154118
Ref: 2d119154118
Ref: library/errno errno EOVERFLOW9154170
Ref: 2d129154170
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTUNIQ9154243
Ref: 2d139154243
Ref: library/errno errno EBADFD9154304
Ref: 2d149154304
Ref: library/errno errno EREMCHG9154365
Ref: 2d159154365
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBACC9154421
Ref: 2d169154421
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBBAD9154493
Ref: 2d179154493
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBSCN9154563
Ref: 2d189154563
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBMAX9154628
Ref: 2d199154628
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBEXEC9154709
Ref: 2d1a9154709
Ref: library/errno errno EILSEQ9154781
Ref: 2d1b9154781
Ref: library/errno errno ERESTART9154835
Ref: 2d1c9154835
Ref: library/errno errno ESTRPIPE9154913
Ref: 2d1d9154913
Ref: library/errno errno EUSERS9154966
Ref: 2d1e9154966
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSOCK9155013
Ref: 2d1f9155013
Ref: library/errno errno EDESTADDRREQ9155078
Ref: 2d209155078
Ref: library/errno errno EMSGSIZE9155145
Ref: 2d219155145
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTOTYPE9155196
Ref: 2d229155196
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPROTOOPT9155263
Ref: 2d239155263
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTONOSUPPORT9155323
Ref: 2d249155323
Ref: library/errno errno ESOCKTNOSUPPORT9155387
Ref: 2d259155387
Ref: library/errno errno EOPNOTSUPP9155454
Ref: 2d269155454
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSUP9155536
Ref: 2d279155536
Ref: library/errno errno EPFNOSUPPORT9155621
Ref: 2d289155621
Ref: library/errno errno EAFNOSUPPORT9155689
Ref: 2d299155689
Ref: library/errno errno EADDRINUSE9155768
Ref: 2d2a9155768
Ref: library/errno errno EADDRNOTAVAIL9155827
Ref: 2d2b9155827
Ref: library/errno errno ENETDOWN9155898
Ref: 2d2c9155898
Ref: library/errno errno ENETUNREACH9155948
Ref: 17ec9155948
Ref: library/errno errno ENETRESET9156008
Ref: 2d2d9156008
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNABORTED9156087
Ref: 203d9156087
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNRESET9156238
Ref: 203f9156238
Ref: library/errno errno ENOBUFS9156377
Ref: 15b59156377
Ref: library/errno errno EISCONN9156436
Ref: 2d2e9156436
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCONN9156509
Ref: 2d2f9156509
Ref: library/errno errno ESHUTDOWN9156579
Ref: 203c9156579
Ref: library/errno errno ETOOMANYREFS9156733
Ref: 2d309156733
Ref: library/errno errno ETIMEDOUT9156806
Ref: 20469156806
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNREFUSED9156932
Ref: 203e9156932
Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTDOWN9157069
Ref: 2d319157069
Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTUNREACH9157117
Ref: 2d329157117
Ref: library/errno errno EALREADY9157172
Ref: 20369157172
Ref: library/errno errno EINPROGRESS9157309
Ref: 20389157309
Ref: library/errno errno ESTALE9157445
Ref: 2d339157445
Ref: library/errno errno EUCLEAN9157499
Ref: 2d349157499
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTNAM9157557
Ref: 2d359157557
Ref: library/errno errno ENAVAIL9157618
Ref: 2d369157618
Ref: library/errno errno EISNAM9157681
Ref: 2d379157681
Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTEIO9157734
Ref: 2d389157734
Ref: library/errno errno EDQUOT9157786
Ref: 2d399157786
Ref: library/errno errno EQFULL9157833
Ref: 2d3a9157833
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCAPABLE9157925
Ref: 158b9157925
Ref: library/errno errno ECANCELED9158139
Ref: 2d3b9158139
Ref: library/errno errno EOWNERDEAD9158221
Ref: 2d3c9158221
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTRECOVERABLE9158296
Ref: 2d3d9158296
Node: ctypes --- 用於 Python 的外部函式庫9158387
Ref: library/ctypes doc9158535
Ref: 2d3e9158535
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-a-foreign-function-library-for-python9158535
Ref: 2d3f9158535
Ref: library/ctypes module-ctypes9158535
Ref: 289158535
Ref: ctypes --- 用於 Python 的外部函式庫-Footnote-19159033
Node: ctypes 教學9159096
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-ctypes-tutorial9159214
Ref: 2d409159214
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-tutorial9159214
Ref: 2d419159214
Node: Loading dynamic link libraries9160593
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-loading-dynamic-link-libraries9160718
Ref: 2d449160718
Ref: library/ctypes loading-dynamic-link-libraries9160718
Ref: 2d459160718
Node: Accessing functions from loaded dlls9162777
Ref: library/ctypes accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls9162923
Ref: 2d479162923
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls9162923
Ref: 2d489162923
Node: 呼叫函式9165143
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions9165281
Ref: 2d499165281
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions9165281
Ref: 2d4a9165281
Node: Fundamental data types9167702
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-fundamental-data-types9167831
Ref: 2d4b9167831
Ref: library/ctypes fundamental-data-types9167831
Ref: 2d4c9167831
Node: Calling functions continued9175968
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions-continued9176111
Ref: 2d5b9176111
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-continued9176111
Ref: 2d5c9176111
Node: Calling variadic functions9177184
Ref: library/ctypes calling-variadic-functions9177354
Ref: 2d5d9177354
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-variadic-functions9177354
Ref: 2d5e9177354
Node: Calling functions with your own custom data types9178051
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types9178252
Ref: 2d609178252
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-with-own-custom-data-types9178252
Ref: 2d619178252
Node: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes9179167
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-specifying-required-argument-types9179354
Ref: 2d629179354
Ref: library/ctypes specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes9179354
Ref: 2d639179354
Node: Return types9181207
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-return-types9181396
Ref: 2d659181396
Ref: library/ctypes return-types9181396
Ref: 2d669181396
Node: Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference9184521
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-passing-pointers9184673
Ref: 2d6a9184673
Ref: library/ctypes passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference9184673
Ref: 2d6b9184673
Node: Structures and unions9185765
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structures-unions9185945
Ref: 2d6e9185945
Ref: library/ctypes structures-and-unions9185945
Ref: 2d6f9185945
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structureunion-alignment-byte-order9188039
Ref: 2d719188039
Node: Structure/union alignment and byte order9188364
Ref: library/ctypes structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order9188528
Ref: 2d729188528
Node: Bit fields in structures and unions9189327
Ref: library/ctypes bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions9189476
Ref: 2d769189476
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-bit-fields-in-structures-unions9189476
Ref: 2d779189476
Node: Arrays9190070
Ref: library/ctypes arrays9190187
Ref: 2d789190187
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-arrays9190187
Ref: 2d799190187
Node: Pointers9191476
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-pointers9191574
Ref: 2d7a9191574
Ref: library/ctypes pointers9191574
Ref: 2d7b9191574
Node: Type conversions9194233
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-type-conversions9194341
Ref: 2d7e9194341
Ref: library/ctypes type-conversions9194341
Ref: 2d7f9194341
Node: Incomplete Types9196957
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-incomplete-types9197069
Ref: 2d819197069
Ref: library/ctypes incomplete-types9197069
Ref: 2d829197069
Node: 回呼函式9198683
Ref: library/ctypes callback-functions9198814
Ref: 2d839198814
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-callback-functions9198814
Ref: 2d849198814
Node: Accessing values exported from dlls9202667
Ref: library/ctypes accessing-values-exported-from-dlls9202791
Ref: 2d879202791
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-values-exported-from-dlls9202791
Ref: 2d889202791
Node: Surprises9205446
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-surprises9205583
Ref: 2d8b9205583
Ref: library/ctypes surprises9205583
Ref: 2d8c9205583
Node: Variable-sized data types9207752
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-variable-sized-data-types9207845
Ref: 2d8d9207845
Ref: library/ctypes variable-sized-data-types9207845
Ref: 2d8e9207845
Node: ctypes reference9209248
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-ctypes-reference9209366
Ref: 2d909209366
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-reference9209366
Ref: 2d919209366
Node: Finding shared libraries9209677
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-finding-shared-libraries9209787
Ref: 2d929209787
Ref: library/ctypes finding-shared-libraries9209787
Ref: 2d939209787
Node: Loading shared libraries9212344
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-loading-shared-libraries9212480
Ref: 2d949212480
Ref: library/ctypes loading-shared-libraries9212480
Ref: 2d959212480
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CDLL9212683
Ref: 82e9212683
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes OleDLL9213808
Ref: 153b9213808
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WinDLL9214647
Ref: 153c9214647
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL9215219
Ref: 153d9215219
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL _handle9219054
Ref: 2d9b9219054
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL _name9219133
Ref: 2d9c9219133
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader9219479
Ref: 2d9d9219479
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader LoadLibrary9219938
Ref: 2d469219938
Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-19221516
Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-29221582
Node: Foreign functions9221628
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-foreign-functions9221759
Ref: 2d9e9221759
Ref: library/ctypes foreign-functions9221759
Ref: 2d9f9221759
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr9222457
Ref: 2da09222457
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr restype9222760
Ref: 2d679222760
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr argtypes9223434
Ref: 2d5f9223434
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr errcheck9224694
Ref: 2d699224694
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes ArgumentError9225675
Ref: 2da19225675
Node: Function prototypes9226312
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-function-prototypes9226436
Ref: 2da29226436
Ref: library/ctypes function-prototypes9226436
Ref: 2da39226436
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CFUNCTYPE9227013
Ref: 2d859227013
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WINFUNCTYPE9227522
Ref: 2d869227522
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PYFUNCTYPE9227874
Ref: 2da49227874
Node: Utility functions9233332
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-utility-functions9233449
Ref: 2da59233449
Ref: library/ctypes utility-functions9233449
Ref: 2da69233449
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes addressof9233508
Ref: 2da79233508
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes alignment9233749
Ref: 2da89233749
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes byref9233907
Ref: 2d6c9233907
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes cast9234419
Ref: 2d809234419
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes create_string_buffer9234711
Ref: 2d5a9234711
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes create_unicode_buffer9235521
Ref: 17af9235521
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes DllCanUnloadNow9236345
Ref: 2da99236345
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes DllGetClassObject9236588
Ref: 2daa9236588
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes util find_library9236846
Ref: bbd9236846
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes util find_msvcrt9237236
Ref: 2dab9237236
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes FormatError9237690
Ref: 2dac9237690
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes GetLastError9237927
Ref: 2d689237927
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes get_errno9238199
Ref: 2d979238199
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes get_last_error9238447
Ref: 2d999238447
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes memmove9238718
Ref: 2dad9238718
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes memset9238960
Ref: 2dae9238960
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes POINTER9239211
Ref: 2d7d9239211
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes pointer9239436
Ref: 2d6d9239436
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes resize9239743
Ref: 2d8f9239743
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes set_errno9240079
Ref: 2d989240079
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes set_last_error9240389
Ref: 2d9a9240389
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes sizeof9240722
Ref: 2daf9240722
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes string_at9240891
Ref: 2db09240891
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WinError9241205
Ref: 2db19241205
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes wstring_at9241739
Ref: 2db29241739
Node: Data types9242099
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-data-types9242222
Ref: 2db39242222
Ref: library/ctypes data-types9242222
Ref: 2db49242222
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData9242267
Ref: 2db59242267
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_buffer9242903
Ref: 2db79242903
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_buffer_copy9243495
Ref: 2db89243495
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_address9244045
Ref: 2db99244045
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_param9244391
Ref: 2d649244391
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData in_dll9244950
Ref: 2d899244950
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _b_base_9245246
Ref: 2dba9245246
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _b_needsfree_9245548
Ref: 2dbb9245548
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _objects9245719
Ref: 2db69245719
Node: Fundamental data types<2>9246028
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-fundamental-data-types-29246155
Ref: 2dbc9246155
Ref: library/ctypes id19246155
Ref: 2dbd9246155
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _SimpleCData9246224
Ref: 2dbe9246224
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _SimpleCData value9246698
Ref: 2dbf9246698
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_byte9248057
Ref: 15399248057
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_char9248270
Ref: 2d4e9248270
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_char_p9248511
Ref: 2d589248511
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_double9248806
Ref: 16d09248806
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_longdouble9248936
Ref: 16d19248936
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_float9249184
Ref: 2d579249184
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int9249312
Ref: 2d429249312
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int89249577
Ref: 2dc09249577
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int169249701
Ref: 2dc19249701
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int329249828
Ref: 2dc29249828
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int649249953
Ref: 2dc39249953
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_long9250083
Ref: 2d439250083
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_longlong9250248
Ref: 2d549250248
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_short9250427
Ref: 2d509250427
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_size_t9250594
Ref: 2d569250594
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ssize_t9250669
Ref: 10cf9250669
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_time_t9250774
Ref: 15a79250774
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ubyte9250878
Ref: 153a9250878
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint9251093
Ref: 2d529251093
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint89251363
Ref: 2dc49251363
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint169251491
Ref: 2dc59251491
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint329251622
Ref: 2dc69251622
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint649251751
Ref: 2dc79251751
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ulong9251885
Ref: 2d539251885
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ulonglong9252053
Ref: 2d559252053
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ushort9252235
Ref: 2d519252235
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_void_p9252405
Ref: 2d599252405
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_wchar9252569
Ref: 2d4f9252569
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_wchar_p9252835
Ref: 169c9252835
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_bool9253043
Ref: 2d4d9253043
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes HRESULT9253258
Ref: 2d969253258
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes py_object9253420
Ref: 12aa9253420
Node: Structured data types9253810
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structured-data-types9253946
Ref: 2dc89253946
Ref: library/ctypes structured-data-types9253946
Ref: 2dc99253946
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Union9254013
Ref: 14529254013
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes BigEndianUnion9254112
Ref: 15f79254112
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LittleEndianUnion9254255
Ref: 15f89254255
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes BigEndianStructure9254404
Ref: 2d749254404
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LittleEndianStructure9254526
Ref: 2d759254526
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure9254796
Ref: 14539254796
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure _fields_9255221
Ref: 2d709255221
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure _pack_9256812
Ref: 2d739256812
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure _anonymous_9257174
Ref: 2dca9257174
Node: Arrays and pointers9259527
Ref: library/ctypes arrays-and-pointers9259629
Ref: 2dcb9259629
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-arrays-pointers9259629
Ref: 2dcc9259629
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Array9259692
Ref: 180f9259692
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Array _length_9260207
Ref: 2dcd9260207
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Array _type_9260433
Ref: 2dce9260433
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _Pointer9260628
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _Pointer _type_9261285
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _Pointer contents9261352
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Node: 並行執行 Concurrent Execution9261539
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Ref: library/concurrency concurrency9261731
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Ref: library/concurrency concurrent-execution9261731
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Node: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性9262893
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Ref: library/threading threading-thread-based-parallelism9263063
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Ref: library/threading threading current_thread9265302
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Ref: library/threading threading excepthook9265698
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Ref: library/threading threading __excepthook__9267031
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Ref: library/threading threading get_ident9267305
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Ref: library/threading threading get_native_id9267695
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Ref: library/threading threading enumerate9268170
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Ref: library/threading threading main_thread9268552
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Ref: library/threading threading settrace9268777
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Ref: library/threading threading settrace_all_threads9269042
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Ref: library/threading threading gettrace9269405
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Ref: library/threading threading setprofile9269531
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Ref: library/threading threading setprofile_all_threads9269802
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Ref: library/threading threading getprofile9270171
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Ref: library/threading threading stack_size9270304
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Ref: library/threading threading TIMEOUT_MAX9271628
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Ref: threading --- 基於執行緒的平行性-Footnote-19272980
Node: Thread-Local Data9273049
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Ref: library/threading threading local9273517
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Ref: Thread-Local Data-Footnote-19273783
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread9276650
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread start9278081
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Ref: library/threading meth-thread-join9279269
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread join9279269
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread name9280534
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread getName9280749
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread setName9280777
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread ident9280957
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread native_id9281341
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread is_alive9282153
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread daemon9282491
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread isDaemon9283082
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Node: Lock Objects9283295
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Ref: library/threading threading Lock9284838
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Ref: library/threading threading Lock acquire9285241
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Ref: library/threading threading Lock release9286574
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Ref: library/threading threading Lock locked9287059
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Ref: library/threading threading RLock acquire9289154
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Ref: library/threading threading RLock release9291138
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Node: Condition Objects9291835
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Ref: library/threading threading Condition release9295844
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Ref: library/threading threading Condition wait9296027
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Ref: library/threading threading Condition wait_for9297555
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Ref: library/threading threading Condition notify9298529
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Ref: library/threading threading Condition notify_all9299429
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Node: Semaphore Objects9299845
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Ref: library/threading threading Semaphore acquire9301377
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Ref: library/threading threading Semaphore release9302670
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Ref: library/threading threading BoundedSemaphore9303045
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Node: Event Objects9304534
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Ref: library/threading threading Event9305075
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Ref: library/threading threading Event is_set9305470
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Ref: library/threading threading Event set9305642
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Ref: library/threading threading Event clear9305870
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Ref: library/threading threading Event wait9306099
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Node: Timer Objects9306827
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Ref: library/threading threading Timer9307712
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Node: Barrier Objects9308348
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier9309488
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier wait9309833
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier reset9310983
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier abort9311420
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier broken9312094
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Ref: library/threading threading BrokenBarrierError9312208
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Node: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement9312383
Ref: library/threading using-locks-conditions-and-semaphores-in-the-with-statement9312544
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Node: multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性9313388
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Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing9313646
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-process-based-parallelism9313646
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Ref: multiprocessing --- 以行程為基礎的平行性-Footnote-19314242
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue qsize9348195
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue put_nowait9349834
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue get_nowait9350703
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing JoinableQueue join9354631
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Ref: Pipes and Queues-Footnote-19355135
Node: Miscellaneous<2>9355199
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Ref: Miscellaneous<2>-Footnote-19361459
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection send_bytes9363377
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv_bytes9363836
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv_bytes_into9364475
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-recv-pickle-security9366288
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Node: Synchronization primitives9366972
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing BoundedSemaphore9367636
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock acquire9369387
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock release9370913
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock9371282
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock acquire9372014
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock release9373661
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Semaphore9374638
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Ref: Synchronization primitives-Footnote-19375500
Node: 共享的 ctypes 物件9375564
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Node: multiprocessing sharedctypes 模組9378716
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes RawArray9379434
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes RawValue9380259
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes Array9381037
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes Value9381798
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes synchronized9382703
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Node: Managers9385703
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager9392230
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Lock9393505
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Namespace9393630
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Queue9393755
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager RLock9393887
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Semaphore9394013
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Array9394154
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Value9394253
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager list9394579
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy _callmethod9402435
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy __str__9404246
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool imap_unordered9411194
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection deliver_challenge9415749
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection answer_challenge9416153
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener last_accepted9419663
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection wait9420076
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Node: Authentication keys9424902
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-auth-keys9425016
Ref: 2e1e9425016
Node: Logging9426200
Ref: library/multiprocessing logging9426321
Ref: 2e879426321
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing get_logger9426589
Ref: 2e889426589
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing log_to_stderr9427102
Ref: 2e899427102
Node: multiprocessing dummy 模組9428207
Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing dummy9428300
Ref: 919428300
Ref: library/multiprocessing the-multiprocessing-dummy-module9428300
Ref: 2e8a9428300
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool ThreadPool9428814
Ref: 16e69428814
Node: Programming guidelines9430566
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-programming9430715
Ref: 2e049430715
Ref: library/multiprocessing programming-guidelines9430715
Ref: 2e8b9430715
Node: All start methods9430963
Ref: library/multiprocessing all-start-methods9431086
Ref: 2e8c9431086
Ref: All start methods-Footnote-19437169
Ref: All start methods-Footnote-29437233
Ref: All start methods-Footnote-39437297
Node: The spawn and forkserver start methods9437361
Ref: library/multiprocessing the-spawn-and-forkserver-start-methods9437484
Ref: 2e8d9437484
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-safe-main-import9438285
Ref: 2e8e9438285
Node: 範例<18>9439554
Ref: library/multiprocessing examples9439682
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-examples9439682
Ref: 2e2e9439682
Node: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取9448590
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory doc9448824
Ref: 2e909448824
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory module-multiprocessing shared_memory9448824
Ref: 949448824
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing-shared-memory-shared-memory-for-direct-access-across-processes9448824
Ref: 2e919448824
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory9450301
Ref: 14349450301
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory close9452052
Ref: 2e939452052
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory unlink9452359
Ref: 2e949452359
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory buf9453002
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory name9453097
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory size9453189
Ref: 2e979453189
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager9456259
Ref: 2e929456259
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager SharedMemory9457499
Ref: 2e989457499
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager ShareableList9457684
Ref: 2e999457684
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList9459495
Ref: 17499459495
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList count9462000
Ref: 2e9a9462000
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList index9462077
Ref: 2e9b9462077
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList format9462235
Ref: 2e9c9462235
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList shm9462377
Ref: 2e9d9462377
Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取-Footnote-19464899
Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取-Footnote-29464989
Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory --- 對於共享記憶體的跨行程直接存取-Footnote-39465016
Node: concurrent 套件9465072
Ref: library/concurrent doc9465297
Ref: 2e9e9465297
Ref: library/concurrent the-concurrent-package9465297
Ref: 2e9f9465297
Node: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務9465449
Ref: library/concurrent futures doc9465625
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent-futures-launching-parallel-tasks9465625
Ref: 2ea19465625
Ref: library/concurrent futures module-concurrent futures9465625
Ref: 1f9465625
Ref: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務-Footnote-19466711
Ref: concurrent futures --- 啟動平行任務-Footnote-29466797
Node: Executor 物件9466884
Ref: library/concurrent futures executor-objects9467004
Ref: 2ea39467004
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor9467053
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor submit9467224
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor map9467617
Ref: c5c9467617
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor shutdown9468964
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Node: ThreadPoolExecutor9470931
Ref: library/concurrent futures threadpoolexecutor9471079
Ref: 2ea49471079
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures ThreadPoolExecutor9472155
Ref: 5559472155
Node: ThreadPoolExecutor 範例9474339
Ref: library/concurrent futures id19474419
Ref: 2ea69474419
Ref: library/concurrent futures threadpoolexecutor-example9474419
Ref: 10449474419
Node: ProcessPoolExecutor9475623
Ref: library/concurrent futures processpoolexecutor9475769
Ref: 2ea79475769
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor9476537
Ref: 7279476537
Node: ProcessPoolExecutor 範例9479792
Ref: library/concurrent futures id29479874
Ref: 2ea99479874
Ref: library/concurrent futures processpoolexecutor-example9479874
Ref: 10459479874
Node: Future 物件9480776
Ref: library/concurrent futures future-objects9480916
Ref: 2eaa9480916
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future9481103
Ref: 10439481103
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future cancel9481301
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future cancelled9481537
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future running9481636
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future done9481742
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future result9481848
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future exception9482430
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future add_done_callback9483021
Ref: 2eb19483021
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future set_running_or_notify_cancel9483749
Ref: 2eb29483749
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future set_result9484643
Ref: 2eb49484643
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future set_exception9485009
Ref: 2eb59485009
Node: 模組函式9485416
Ref: library/concurrent futures module-functions9485549
Ref: 2eb69485549
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures wait9485590
Ref: 16359485590
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures FIRST_COMPLETED9486816
Ref: 2eb79486816
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures FIRST_EXCEPTION9487066
Ref: 2eb89487066
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures ALL_COMPLETED9487520
Ref: 2eb99487520
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures as_completed9487664
Ref: 2eb39487664
Ref: 模組函式-Footnote-19488607
Node: 例外類別9488649
Ref: library/concurrent futures exception-classes9488760
Ref: 2eba9488760
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures CancelledError9488801
Ref: 81f9488801
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures TimeoutError9488887
Ref: 2ebb9488887
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures BrokenExecutor9489128
Ref: 2ebc9489128
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures InvalidStateError9489361
Ref: 14099489361
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures thread BrokenThreadPool9489511
Ref: 2ea59489511
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures process BrokenProcessPool9489750
Ref: 2ea89489750
Node: subprocess --- 子行程管理9490092
Ref: library/subprocess doc9490276
Ref: 2ebd9490276
Ref: library/subprocess module-subprocess9490276
Ref: d09490276
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-subprocess-management9490276
Ref: 2ebe9490276
Ref: subprocess --- 子行程管理-Footnote-19491424
Ref: subprocess --- 子行程管理-Footnote-29491494
Node: Using the subprocess Module9491536
Ref: library/subprocess using-the-subprocess-module9491660
Ref: 2ebf9491660
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess run9491963
Ref: 9e59491963
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess9496520
Ref: cf19496520
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess args9496654
Ref: 2ec49496654
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess returncode9496773
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess stdout9497044
Ref: 2ec69497044
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess stderr9497472
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess check_returncode9497711
Ref: 2ec89497711
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess DEVNULL9497878
Ref: fe09497878
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess PIPE9498126
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STDOUT9498392
Ref: 2ec19498392
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess SubprocessError9498601
Ref: 2ec99498601
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired9498729
Ref: 2ec39498729
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired cmd9498885
Ref: 2eca9498885
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired timeout9498968
Ref: 2ecb9498968
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired output9499025
Ref: 2ecc9499025
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired stdout9499405
Ref: 2ecd9499405
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired stderr9499497
Ref: 2ece9499497
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError9499959
Ref: 11b89499959
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError returncode9500218
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError cmd9500383
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError output9500466
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError stdout9500634
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError stderr9500726
Ref: 2ed49500726
Node: Frequently Used Arguments9501021
Ref: library/subprocess frequently-used-arguments9501136
Ref: 2ec09501136
Ref: library/subprocess id19501136
Ref: 2ed59501136
Node: Popen Constructor9505286
Ref: library/subprocess popen-constructor9505419
Ref: 2eda9505419
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen9505714
Ref: 8e19505714
Ref: Popen Constructor-Footnote-19523305
Node: 例外<6>9523365
Ref: library/subprocess exceptions9523464
Ref: 2eeb9523464
Node: 安全性注意事項9524712
Ref: library/subprocess security-considerations9524858
Ref: 2ed99524858
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-security9524858
Ref: 2eec9524858
Ref: 安全性注意事項-Footnote-19525961
Ref: 安全性注意事項-Footnote-29526031
Node: Popen Objects9526087
Ref: library/subprocess popen-objects9526227
Ref: 2eee9526227
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen poll9526344
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen wait9526504
Ref: b519526504
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen communicate9527512
Ref: 2ec29527512
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen send_signal9529260
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen terminate9529647
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen kill9529866
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen args9530172
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stdin9530352
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stdout9530790
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stderr9531300
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen pid9532071
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen returncode9532250
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Node: Windows Popen Helpers9532745
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Ref: 2ef29532884
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO9533038
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO dwFlags9533456
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdInput9533767
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdOutput9534086
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdError9534392
Ref: 2ef79534392
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO wShowWindow9534695
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO lpAttributeList9535184
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Ref: Windows Popen Helpers-Footnote-19536436
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE9537005
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Ref: 2ef59537394
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW9537627
Ref: 2ef99537627
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE9537782
Ref: 2edf9537782
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP9537929
Ref: 2ee09537929
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS9538254
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS9538462
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS9538669
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS9539264
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess DETACHED_PROCESS9539984
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-replacements9547021
Ref: 101c9547021
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Ref: library/subprocess replacing-bin-sh-shell-command-substitution9548345
Ref: 2f029548345
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Ref: library/subprocess replacing-shell-pipeline9548745
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Ref: library/subprocess replacing-the-os-spawn-family9550718
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Ref: library/subprocess replacing-os-popen-os-popen2-os-popen39551567
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Ref: library/subprocess replacing-functions-from-the-popen2-module9553040
Ref: 2f079553040
Node: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions9554356
Ref: library/subprocess legacy-shell-invocation-functions9554532
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Node: 註解9556752
Ref: library/subprocess notes9556867
Ref: 2f099556867
Node: Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows9557035
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Ref: library/subprocess disable-vfork9558328
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Ref: library/subprocess disabling-use-of-vfork-or-posix-spawn9558462
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Node: sched --- 事件排程器9559779
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Ref: queue --- 同步佇列 synchronized queue 類別-Footnote-19568754
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Ref: library/queue queueobjects9568943
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Ref: library/queue queue Queue qsize9569113
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Ref: library/queue queue Queue empty9569306
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Ref: library/queue queue Queue full9569594
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Ref: library/queue queue Queue put9569880
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Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue empty9573656
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Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put9573855
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Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put_nowait9574633
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Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue get9574780
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Ref: 2f239575365
Node: contextvars --- 情境變數9575828
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars-context-variables9576023
Ref: 2f259576023
Ref: library/contextvars module-contextvars9576023
Ref: 229576023
Ref: contextvars --- 情境變數-Footnote-19576857
Node: Context Variables9576899
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar9577070
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar get9577904
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar set9578391
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar reset9578787
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token9579311
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context9580787
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context run9581380
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context copy9582807
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context get9583250
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context keys9583692
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context values9583783
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context items9583884
Ref: 2f369583884
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Ref: library/contextvars asyncio-support9584137
Ref: 2f379584137
Node: _thread --- 低階執行緒 API9585812
Ref: library/_thread doc9585950
Ref: 2f389585950
Ref: library/_thread module-_thread9585950
Ref: 29585950
Ref: library/_thread thread-low-level-threading-api9585950
Ref: 2f399585950
Ref: library/_thread thread error9586681
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Ref: library/_thread thread LockType9586848
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Ref: library/_thread thread start_new_thread9586912
Ref: 14739586912
Ref: library/_thread thread interrupt_main9587898
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Ref: library/_thread thread exit9588731
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Ref: library/_thread thread allocate_lock9588863
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Ref: library/_thread thread get_ident9589007
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Ref: library/_thread thread get_native_id9589367
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Ref: library/_thread thread stack_size9589805
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Ref: library/_thread thread TIMEOUT_MAX9590943
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Ref: library/_thread thread lock locked9592324
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Node: Networking and Interprocess Communication9593569
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Ref: library/ipc networking-and-interprocess-communication9593761
Ref: 2f479593761
Node: asyncio --- 非同步 I/O9594748
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Ref: library/asyncio asyncio-asynchronous-i-o9594889
Ref: 2f499594889
Ref: library/asyncio module-asyncio9594889
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Node: Runners 執行器9597674
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Ref: library/asyncio-runner runners9597777
Ref: 2f569597777
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Node: Certificates10061735
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Ref: Cipher selection-Footnote-110090574
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Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-110093478
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Ref: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects-Footnote-110109492
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Ref: library/select select kevent udata10123075
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Ref: selectors --- 高階 I/O 多工-Footnote-110123648
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Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey fd10126405
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Ref: Classes<3>-Footnote-110132464
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Ref: 31cc10132603
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Ref: library/signal doc10133837
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Ref: signal --- 設定非同步事件的處理函式-Footnote-110134291
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Ref: 31cf10134478
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Ref: 15f210138948
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Ref: 1b3d10139405
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGCLD10139916
Ref: 31de10139916
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGFPE10140148
Ref: 1b3c10140148
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGUSR110141505
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGUSR210141601
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Ref: 15cc10142836
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Ref: 144d10145405
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Ref: c2110157943
Ref: 模組內容<5>-Footnote-110158714
Ref: 模組內容<5>-Footnote-210158765
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Ref: 模組內容<5>-Footnote-410158865
Ref: 模組內容<5>-Footnote-510158910
Ref: 模組內容<5>-Footnote-610158956
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Ref: 模組內容<5>-Footnote-810159048
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Ref: 模組內容<5>-Footnote-1010159139
Ref: 模組內容<5>-Footnote-1110159197
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Ref: library/signal examples10159890
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Ref: library/signal signal-example10159890
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Ref: Note on SIGPIPE-Footnote-110162457
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Ref: 202210162647
Ref: library/signal note-on-signal-handlers-and-exceptions10162647
Ref: 31f010162647
Node: mmap --- 記憶體映射檔案的支援10165254
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Ref: 31f110165427
Ref: library/mmap mmap-memory-mapped-file-support10165427
Ref: 31f210165427
Ref: library/mmap module-mmap10165427
Ref: 8b10165427
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap10168103
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Ref: 31f610173272
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap closed10173483
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap find10173586
Ref: 31f810173586
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap flush10174014
Ref: 8e910174014
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap madvise10174901
Ref: 84f10174901
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap move10175469
Ref: 31fa10175469
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap read10175747
Ref: f6c10175747
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap read_byte10176197
Ref: 31fb10176197
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap readline10176345
Ref: 31fc10176345
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap resize10176570
Ref: 31fd10176570
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap rfind10177308
Ref: 31fe10177308
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap seek10177738
Ref: 31ff10177738
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap size10178120
Ref: 320010178120
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap tell10178259
Ref: 320110178259
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap write10178346
Ref: 320210178346
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap write_byte10179039
Ref: 320310179039
Node: MADV_* Constants10179402
Ref: library/mmap madv-constants10179515
Ref: 320410179515
Ref: library/mmap madvise-constants10179515
Ref: 31f910179515
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NORMAL10179568
Ref: 320510179568
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_RANDOM10179597
Ref: 320610179597
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_SEQUENTIAL10179626
Ref: 320710179626
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_WILLNEED10179659
Ref: 320810179659
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DONTNEED10179690
Ref: 320910179690
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_REMOVE10179721
Ref: 320a10179721
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DONTFORK10179750
Ref: 320b10179750
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DOFORK10179781
Ref: 320c10179781
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_HWPOISON10179810
Ref: 320d10179810
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_MERGEABLE10179841
Ref: 320e10179841
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_UNMERGEABLE10179873
Ref: 320f10179873
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE10179907
Ref: 321010179907
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_HUGEPAGE10179942
Ref: 321110179942
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NOHUGEPAGE10179973
Ref: 321210179973
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DONTDUMP10180006
Ref: 321310180006
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DODUMP10180037
Ref: 321410180037
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE10180066
Ref: 321510180066
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NOSYNC10180093
Ref: 321610180093
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_AUTOSYNC10180122
Ref: 321710180122
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NOCORE10180153
Ref: 321810180153
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_CORE10180182
Ref: 321910180182
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_PROTECT10180209
Ref: 321a10180209
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSABLE10180239
Ref: 321b10180239
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSE10180275
Ref: 321c10180275
Node: MAP_* 常數10180517
Ref: library/mmap id110180630
Ref: 321d10180630
Ref: library/mmap map-constants10180630
Ref: 31f510180630
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_SHARED10180673
Ref: 31f410180673
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_PRIVATE10180701
Ref: 31f310180701
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_DENYWRITE10180730
Ref: 321e10180730
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_EXECUTABLE10180761
Ref: 321f10180761
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ANON10180793
Ref: 322010180793
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ANONYMOUS10180819
Ref: 322110180819
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_POPULATE10180850
Ref: 171e10180850
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_STACK10180880
Ref: 322210180880
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER10180907
Ref: 151d10180907
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_CONCEAL10180942
Ref: 151e10180942
Node: 網際網路資料處理10181517
Ref: library/netdata doc10181710
Ref: 322310181710
Ref: library/netdata internet-data-handling10181710
Ref: 322410181710
Ref: library/netdata netdata10181710
Ref: 322510181710
Node: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件10182515
Ref: library/email doc10182657
Ref: 322610182657
Ref: library/email email-an-email-and-mime-handling-package10182657
Ref: 322710182657
Ref: library/email module-email10182657
Ref: 3710182657
Ref: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件-Footnote-110189303
Ref: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件-Footnote-210189377
Ref: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件-Footnote-310189436
Ref: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件-Footnote-410189495
Ref: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件-Footnote-510189554
Ref: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件-Footnote-610189613
Ref: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件-Footnote-710189672
Ref: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件-Footnote-810189731
Ref: email --- 郵件和 MIME 處理套件-Footnote-910189790
Node: email message：表示電子郵件訊息10189849
Ref: library/email message doc10190011
Ref: 322810190011
Ref: library/email message email-message-representing-an-email-message10190011
Ref: 322910190011
Ref: library/email message module-email message10190011
Ref: 4010190011
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage10192466
Ref: b0610192466
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_string10192948
Ref: 322c10192948
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __str__10194785
Ref: 322e10194785
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_bytes10195242
Ref: 322f10195242
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __bytes__10196406
Ref: 323010196406
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage is_multipart10196582
Ref: 323110196582
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_unixfrom10197257
Ref: 323210197257
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_unixfrom10197477
Ref: 323410197477
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __len__10198605
Ref: 323610198605
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __contains__10198703
Ref: 323710198703
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __getitem__10199093
Ref: 323810199093
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __setitem__10199808
Ref: 323b10199808
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __delitem__10200842
Ref: 323c10200842
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage keys10201064
Ref: 323510201064
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage values10201156
Ref: 323d10201156
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage items10201244
Ref: 323e10201244
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get10201373
Ref: 323f10201373
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_all10201721
Ref: 323910201721
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_header10201958
Ref: 324010201958
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage replace_header10203924
Ref: 324110203924
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_type10204230
Ref: 324210204230
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_maintype10205110
Ref: 324410205110
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_subtype10205314
Ref: 324510205314
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_default_type10205505
Ref: 324310205505
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_default_type10205825
Ref: 324610205825
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_param10206267
Ref: 324710206267
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage del_param10207886
Ref: 324910207886
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_filename10208322
Ref: 324a10208322
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_boundary10208861
Ref: 324c10208861
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_boundary10209225
Ref: 324d10209225
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_charset10209893
Ref: 324f10209893
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_charsets10210195
Ref: 325010210195
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage is_attachment10210888
Ref: 325110210888
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_disposition10211243
Ref: 325310211243
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage walk10211718
Ref: 325410211718
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_body10213729
Ref: 325510213729
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage iter_attachments10215844
Ref: 325610215844
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage iter_parts10216812
Ref: 325710216812
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content10217025
Ref: 325810217025
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_content10217435
Ref: 167b10217435
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_related10217845
Ref: 325b10217845
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_alternative10218333
Ref: 325c10218333
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_mixed10218852
Ref: 325d10218852
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_related10219391
Ref: 325e10219391
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_alternative10220148
Ref: 326010220148
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_attachment10220838
Ref: 326110220838
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage clear10221823
Ref: 326210221823
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage clear_content10221904
Ref: 326310221904
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage preamble10222165
Ref: 326410222165
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage epilogue10223424
Ref: 326510223424
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage defects10223767
Ref: 326610223767
Ref: library/email message email message MIMEPart10224006
Ref: dc710224006
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-110224386
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-210224459
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-310224656
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-410224715
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-510224774
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-610224833
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-710224892
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-810224951
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-910225010
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-1010225069
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-1110225129
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-1210225189
Ref: email message：表示電子郵件訊息-Footnote-1310225249
Node: email parser：剖析電子郵件訊息10225309
Ref: library/email parser doc10225516
Ref: 326710225516
Ref: library/email parser email-parser-parsing-email-messages10225516
Ref: 326810225516
Ref: library/email parser module-email parser10225516
Ref: 4a10225516
Ref: email parser：剖析電子郵件訊息-Footnote-110227903
Node: FeedParser API10227975
Ref: library/email parser feedparser-api10228084
Ref: 326a10228084
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser10229377
Ref: 105c10229377
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser feed10230577
Ref: 326b10230577
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser close10231012
Ref: 326c10231012
Ref: library/email parser email parser FeedParser10231252
Ref: 326910231252
Node: Parser API10231711
Ref: library/email parser parser-api10231845
Ref: 326d10231845
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser10232573
Ref: 105d10232573
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser parse10233234
Ref: 326e10233234
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser parsebytes10234274
Ref: 326f10234274
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesHeaderParser10234782
Ref: f4a10234782
Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser10235004
Ref: 103010235004
Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser parse10235342
Ref: 327010235342
Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser parsestr10235780
Ref: 327110235780
Ref: library/email parser email parser HeaderParser10236209
Ref: f4b10236209
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_bytes10236608
Ref: 105a10236608
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_binary_file10237074
Ref: 105b10237074
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_string10237548
Ref: 327210237548
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_file10237940
Ref: 327310237940
Ref: Parser API-Footnote-110238659
Ref: Parser API-Footnote-210238718
Node: Additional notes10238777
Ref: library/email parser additional-notes10238888
Ref: 327410238888
Node: email generator：產生 MIME 文件10240430
Ref: library/email generator doc10240624
Ref: 327510240624
Ref: library/email generator email-generator-generating-mime-documents10240624
Ref: 327610240624
Ref: library/email generator module-email generator10240624
Ref: 3c10240624
Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator10242727
Ref: 106010242727
Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator flatten10244633
Ref: 327810244633
Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator clone10246456
Ref: 327b10246456
Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator write10246655
Ref: 327910246655
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator10247705
Ref: 105f10247705
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator flatten10249549
Ref: 327c10249549
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator clone10251308
Ref: 327e10251308
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator write10251494
Ref: 327d10251494
Ref: library/email generator email generator DecodedGenerator10252404
Ref: b0210252404
Ref: email generator：產生 MIME 文件-Footnote-110253821
Ref: email generator：產生 MIME 文件-Footnote-210253897
Ref: email generator：產生 MIME 文件-Footnote-310254404
Ref: email generator：產生 MIME 文件-Footnote-410254456
Ref: email generator：產生 MIME 文件-Footnote-510254515
Ref: email generator：產生 MIME 文件-Footnote-610254567
Node: email policy Policy Objects10254626
Ref: library/email policy doc10254817
Ref: 327f10254817
Ref: library/email policy email-policy-policy-objects10254817
Ref: 328010254817
Ref: library/email policy module-email policy10254817
Ref: 4b10254817
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy10260778
Ref: f4210260778
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy max_line_length10261601
Ref: 322d10261601
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy linesep10261904
Ref: 328110261904
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy cte_type10262168
Ref: 327a10262168
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy raise_on_defect10263272
Ref: 328310263272
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy mangle_from_10263513
Ref: c6e10263513
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy message_factory10263835
Ref: b0310263835
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy verify_generated_headers10264109
Ref: 38410264109
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy clone10264952
Ref: f4410264952
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy handle_defect10265426
Ref: 328610265426
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy register_defect10265905
Ref: 328410265905
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_max_count10266598
Ref: 328710266598
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_source_parse10267660
Ref: 328810267660
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_store_parse10268669
Ref: 328910268669
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_fetch_parse10269430
Ref: 328a10269430
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy fold10270253
Ref: 328b10270253
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy fold_binary10270965
Ref: 328210270965
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy10271299
Ref: f4610271299
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy utf810272132
Ref: c7010272132
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy refold_source10272521
Ref: 327710272521
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_factory10273310
Ref: 328c10273310
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy content_manager10273918
Ref: dc810273918
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_max_count10274626
Ref: 328e10274626
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_source_parse10274832
Ref: 329010274832
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_store_parse10275213
Ref: 329110275213
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_fetch_parse10275694
Ref: 329210275694
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy fold10276120
Ref: 144610276120
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy fold_binary10277279
Ref: 329310277279
Ref: library/email policy email policy default10278098
Ref: 322b10278098
Ref: library/email policy email policy SMTP10278310
Ref: 329410278310
Ref: library/email policy email policy SMTPUTF810278514
Ref: 329510278514
Ref: library/email policy email policy HTTP10278930
Ref: 329610278930
Ref: library/email policy email policy strict10279124
Ref: 329710279124
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat3210280503
Ref: f4310280503
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 mangle_from_10281035
Ref: 329810281035
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_source_parse10281220
Ref: 329910281220
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_store_parse10281601
Ref: 329a10281601
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_fetch_parse10281707
Ref: 329b10281707
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 fold10281949
Ref: 329c10281949
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 fold_binary10282292
Ref: 329d10282292
Ref: library/email policy email policy compat3210282822
Ref: b0410282822
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-110283040
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-210283112
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-310283171
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-410283230
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-510283289
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-610283348
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-710283407
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-810283466
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-910283535
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1010283594
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1110283654
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1210283714
Node: email errors：例外和缺陷類別10283774
Ref: library/email errors doc10283970
Ref: 329e10283970
Ref: library/email errors email-errors-exception-and-defect-classes10283970
Ref: 329f10283970
Ref: library/email errors module-email errors10283970
Ref: 3b10283970
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageError10284253
Ref: 32a010284253
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageParseError10284491
Ref: 32a110284491
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderParseError10284765
Ref: 324e10284765
Ref: library/email errors email errors BoundaryError10285405
Ref: 32a210285405
Ref: library/email errors email errors MultipartConversionError10285482
Ref: 32a310285482
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderWriteError10286215
Ref: 328510286215
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageDefect10286344
Ref: 32a610286344
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderDefect10286512
Ref: 32a710286512
Ref: email errors：例外和缺陷類別-Footnote-110289376
Ref: email errors：例外和缺陷類別-Footnote-210289448
Node: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件10289507
Ref: library/email headerregistry doc10289717
Ref: 32a810289717
Ref: library/email headerregistry email-headerregistry-custom-header-objects10289717
Ref: 32a910289717
Ref: library/email headerregistry module-email headerregistry10289717
Ref: 3e10289717
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader10291473
Ref: 323a10291473
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader name10291787
Ref: 32ac10291787
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader defects10292031
Ref: 32ad10292031
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader max_count10292387
Ref: 328f10292387
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader fold10292901
Ref: 32ae10292901
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry UnstructuredHeader10295090
Ref: 32ab10295090
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry DateHeader10296166
Ref: 32af10296166
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry DateHeader datetime10296526
Ref: 32b010296526
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader10298091
Ref: 32b110298091
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader groups10298376
Ref: 32b210298376
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader addresses10298688
Ref: 32b510298688
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry SingleAddressHeader10299843
Ref: 32b710299843
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry SingleAddressHeader address10299985
Ref: 32b810299985
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader10300514
Ref: 32b910300514
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader version10300907
Ref: 32ba10300907
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader major10301031
Ref: 32bb10301031
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader minor10301105
Ref: 32bc10301105
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ParameterizedMIMEHeader10301179
Ref: 32bd10301179
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ParameterizedMIMEHeader params10301559
Ref: 324810301559
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader10301653
Ref: 32be10301653
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader content_type10301805
Ref: 32bf10301805
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader maintype10301908
Ref: 32c010301908
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader subtype10301935
Ref: 32c110301935
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentDispositionHeader10301961
Ref: 32c210301961
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentDispositionHeader content_disposition10302127
Ref: 32c310302127
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTransferEncoding10302261
Ref: 32c410302261
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTransferEncoding cte10302377
Ref: 32c510302377
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry10302543
Ref: 32aa10302543
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry map_to_type10304274
Ref: 32c610304274
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry __getitem__10304609
Ref: 32c710304609
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry __call__10304732
Ref: 32c810304732
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address10305372
Ref: 32b610305372
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address display_name10306218
Ref: 32c910306218
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address username10306441
Ref: 32ca10306441
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address domain10306558
Ref: 32cb10306558
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address addr_spec10306635
Ref: 32cc10306635
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address __str__10306850
Ref: 32cd10306850
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group10307289
Ref: 32b310307289
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group display_name10307829
Ref: 32b410307829
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group addresses10308081
Ref: 32ce10308081
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group __str__10308226
Ref: 32cf10308226
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-110308679
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-210308760
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-310308828
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-410308887
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-510308946
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-610309005
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-710309064
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-810309123
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-910309182
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-1010309241
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-1110309301
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-1210309361
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-1310309421
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-1410309481
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-1510309541
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-1610309601
Ref: email headerregistry：自訂標頭物件-Footnote-1710309661
Node: email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容10309721
Ref: library/email contentmanager doc10309909
Ref: 32d010309909
Ref: library/email contentmanager email-contentmanager-managing-mime-content10309909
Ref: 32d110309909
Ref: library/email contentmanager module-email contentmanager10309909
Ref: 3910309909
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager10310158
Ref: 32d210310158
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager get_content10310448
Ref: 325910310448
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager set_content10311282
Ref: 325a10311282
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager add_get_handler10312908
Ref: 32d410312908
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager add_set_handler10313100
Ref: 32d610313100
Ref: email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容-Footnote-110313465
Ref: email contentmanager：管理 MIME 內容-Footnote-210313546
Node: Content Manager Instances10313614
Ref: library/email contentmanager content-manager-instances10313717
Ref: 32d810313717
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager raw_data_manager10314057
Ref: 328d10314057
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager get_content10314789
Ref: 32d510314789
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager set_content10315373
Ref: 32d710315373
Ref: Content Manager Instances-Footnote-110319672
Node: email：範例10319731
Ref: library/email examples doc10319952
Ref: 32d910319952
Ref: library/email examples email-examples10319952
Ref: dc910319952
Ref: library/email examples id110319952
Ref: 32da10319952
Ref: email：範例-Footnote-110334558
Ref: email：範例-Footnote-210334616
Node: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API10334698
Ref: library/email compat32-message doc10334936
Ref: 32db10334936
Ref: library/email compat32-message compat32-message10334936
Ref: 322a10334936
Ref: library/email compat32-message email-message-message-representing-an-email-message-using-the-compat32-api10334936
Ref: 32dc10334936
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message10337491
Ref: b0510337491
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message as_string10338017
Ref: dc310338017
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __str__10340145
Ref: 32dd10340145
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message as_bytes10340310
Ref: dc410340310
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __bytes__10341868
Ref: dc510341868
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message is_multipart10342075
Ref: 325210342075
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_unixfrom10342741
Ref: 32de10342741
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_unixfrom10342879
Ref: 32df10342879
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message attach10343034
Ref: 325f10343034
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_payload10343652
Ref: 105e10343652
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_payload10346299
Ref: 32e010346299
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_charset10346761
Ref: 32e110346761
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_charset10348520
Ref: 32e210348520
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __len__10349968
Ref: 32e410349968
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __contains__10350066
Ref: 154810350066
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __getitem__10350436
Ref: 32e510350436
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __setitem__10350969
Ref: 32e710350969
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __delitem__10351524
Ref: 32e810351524
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message keys10351746
Ref: 32e310351746
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message values10351838
Ref: 32e910351838
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message items10351926
Ref: 32ea10351926
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get10352055
Ref: 32eb10352055
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_all10352368
Ref: 32e610352368
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message add_header10352605
Ref: 32ec10352605
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message replace_header10354572
Ref: 32ed10354572
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_type10354861
Ref: 32ee10354861
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_maintype10355715
Ref: 32f010355715
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_subtype10355919
Ref: 32f110355919
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_default_type10356110
Ref: 32ef10356110
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_default_type10356430
Ref: 32f210356430
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_params10356717
Ref: 32f310356717
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_param10357771
Ref: 32f410357771
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_param10359765
Ref: dc610359765
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message del_param10361030
Ref: 32f610361030
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_type10361471
Ref: 32f710361471
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_filename10362342
Ref: 32f810362342
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_boundary10362881
Ref: 32f910362881
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_boundary10363245
Ref: 32fa10363245
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_charset10364060
Ref: 32fb10364060
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_charsets10364548
Ref: 32fc10364548
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_disposition10365250
Ref: c6f10365250
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message walk10365613
Ref: 32fd10365613
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message preamble10367731
Ref: 32fe10367731
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message epilogue10368990
Ref: 32ff10368990
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message defects10369386
Ref: 330010369386
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-110369661
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-210369720
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-310369779
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-410369838
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-510369897
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-610369956
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-710370015
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-810370074
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-910370133
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1010370192
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1110370252
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1210370312
Node: email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件10370372
Ref: library/email mime doc10370626
Ref: 330110370626
Ref: library/email mime email-mime-creating-email-and-mime-objects-from-scratch10370626
Ref: 330210370626
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime10370626
Ref: 4110370626
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime base10371851
Ref: 4410371851
Ref: library/email mime email mime base MIMEBase10371851
Ref: 330310371851
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime nonmultipart10372998
Ref: 4810372998
Ref: library/email mime email mime nonmultipart MIMENonMultipart10372998
Ref: 32a410372998
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime multipart10373497
Ref: 4710373497
Ref: library/email mime email mime multipart MIMEMultipart10373497
Ref: 330410373497
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime application10374816
Ref: 4210374816
Ref: library/email mime email mime application MIMEApplication10374816
Ref: 330510374816
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime audio10376172
Ref: 4310376172
Ref: library/email mime email mime audio MIMEAudio10376172
Ref: 330610376172
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime image10377740
Ref: 4510377740
Ref: library/email mime email mime image MIMEImage10377740
Ref: 32a510377740
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime message10379388
Ref: 4610379388
Ref: library/email mime email mime message MIMEMessage10379388
Ref: 330710379388
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime text10380078
Ref: 4910380078
Ref: library/email mime email mime text MIMEText10380078
Ref: c7110380078
Ref: email mime：從頭開始建立電子郵件和 MIME 物件-Footnote-110381716
Node: email header：國際化標頭10381784
Ref: library/email header doc10381998
Ref: 330810381998
Ref: library/email header email-header-internationalized-headers10381998
Ref: 330910381998
Ref: library/email header module-email header10381998
Ref: 3d10381998
Ref: library/email header email header Header10384670
Ref: 167c10384670
Ref: library/email header email header Header append10386538
Ref: 330a10386538
Ref: library/email header email header Header encode10387873
Ref: 330b10387873
Ref: library/email header email header Header __str__10389500
Ref: 330c10389500
Ref: library/email header email header Header __eq__10389997
Ref: 330d10389997
Ref: library/email header email header Header __ne__10390133
Ref: 330e10390133
Ref: library/email header email header decode_header10390357
Ref: f4710390357
Ref: library/email header email header make_header10391012
Ref: f4810391012
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-110391707
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-210391779
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-310391838
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-410391896
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-510391955
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-610392014
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-710392073
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-810392132
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-910392191
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-1010392250
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-1110392310
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-1210392370
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-1310392430
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-1410392490
Ref: email header：國際化標頭-Footnote-1510392550
Node: email charset：表示字元集合10392610
Ref: library/email charset doc10392792
Ref: 330f10392792
Ref: library/email charset email-charset-representing-character-sets10392792
Ref: 331010392792
Ref: library/email charset module-email charset10392792
Ref: 3810392792
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset10393524
Ref: c7210393524
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_charset10395050
Ref: 331110395050
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encoding10395303
Ref: 331210395303
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encoding10395686
Ref: 331310395686
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_charset10395958
Ref: 331410395958
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_codec10396294
Ref: 331510396294
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_codec10396505
Ref: 331610396505
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_body_encoding10396814
Ref: 331710396814
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_output_charset10397531
Ref: 331810397531
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode10397735
Ref: 331910397735
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode_lines10397943
Ref: 331a10397943
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encode10398376
Ref: 331b10398376
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __str__10398708
Ref: 331c10398708
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __eq__10398867
Ref: 331d10398867
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __ne__10399003
Ref: 331e10399003
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_charset10399297
Ref: 331f10399297
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_alias10400616
Ref: 332110400616
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_codec10400938
Ref: 332010400938
Ref: email charset：表示字元集合-Footnote-110401328
Node: email encoders：編碼器10401401
Ref: library/email encoders doc10401579
Ref: 332210401579
Ref: library/email encoders email-encoders-encoders10401579
Ref: 332310401579
Ref: library/email encoders module-email encoders10401579
Ref: 3a10401579
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_quopri10403180
Ref: 332410403180
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_base6410403518
Ref: 332510403518
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_7or8bit10403883
Ref: 332610403883
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_noop10404108
Ref: 332710404108
Ref: email encoders：編碼器-Footnote-110404284
Ref: email encoders：編碼器-Footnote-210404358
Node: email utils：雜項工具10404504
Ref: library/email utils doc10404675
Ref: 332810404675
Ref: library/email utils email-utils-miscellaneous-utilities10404675
Ref: 332910404675
Ref: library/email utils module-email utils10404675
Ref: 4c10404675
Ref: library/email utils email utils localtime10404945
Ref: 22a10404945
Ref: library/email utils email utils make_msgid10405530
Ref: 332a10405530
Ref: library/email utils email utils quote10406420
Ref: 332b10406420
Ref: library/email utils email utils unquote10406597
Ref: 324b10406597
Ref: library/email utils email utils parseaddr10406865
Ref: 38810406865
Ref: library/email utils email utils formataddr10407426
Ref: 102d10407426
Ref: library/email utils email utils getaddresses10408101
Ref: 38710408101
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate10408943
Ref: 332c10408943
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate_tz10409569
Ref: 165110409569
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate_to_datetime10410145
Ref: f4d10410145
Ref: library/email utils email utils mktime_tz10411023
Ref: 332d10411023
Ref: library/email utils email utils formatdate10411258
Ref: 12da10411258
Ref: library/email utils email utils format_datetime10412203
Ref: f4c10412203
Ref: library/email utils email utils decode_rfc223110412887
Ref: 332e10412887
Ref: library/email utils email utils encode_rfc223110412985
Ref: 332f10412985
Ref: library/email utils email utils collapse_rfc2231_value10413381
Ref: 32f510413381
Ref: library/email utils email utils decode_params10414231
Ref: 333010414231
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-110414498
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-210414569
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-310414628
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-410414687
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-510414746
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-610414805
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-710415078
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-810415137
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-910415196
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-1010415255
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-1110415315
Ref: email utils：雜項工具-Footnote-1210415375
Node: email iterators：疊代器10415435
Ref: library/email iterators doc10415571
Ref: 333110415571
Ref: library/email iterators email-iterators-iterators10415571
Ref: 333210415571
Ref: library/email iterators module-email iterators10415571
Ref: 3f10415571
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators body_line_iterator10415968
Ref: 333310415968
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators typed_subpart_iterator10416542
Ref: 333410416542
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators _structure10417258
Ref: 333510417258
Ref: email iterators：疊代器-Footnote-110418749
Node: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器10418825
Ref: library/json doc10419021
Ref: 333610419021
Ref: library/json json-json-encoder-and-decoder10419021
Ref: 333710419021
Ref: library/json module-json10419021
Ref: 7c10419021
Ref: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器-Footnote-110423187
Ref: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器-Footnote-210423260
Ref: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器-Footnote-310423285
Ref: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器-Footnote-410423344
Ref: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器-Footnote-510423403
Ref: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器-Footnote-610423490
Ref: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器-Footnote-710423539
Ref: json --- JSON 編碼器與解碼器-Footnote-810423786
Node: 基本用法<3>10423812
Ref: library/json basic-usage10423929
Ref: 333910423929
Ref: library/json json dump10423970
Ref: bb710423970
Ref: library/json json dumps10427682
Ref: bb810427682
Ref: library/json json load10428485
Ref: b2110428485
Ref: library/json json loads10431612
Ref: 79610431612
Ref: 基本用法<3>-Footnote-110432501
Node: 編碼器與解碼器10432533
Ref: library/json encoders-and-decoders10432669
Ref: 333d10432669
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder10432725
Ref: bba10432725
Ref: library/json json-to-py-table10432964
Ref: 333c10432964
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder decode10436004
Ref: 333e10436004
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder raw_decode10436259
Ref: 333f10436259
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder10436615
Ref: bb910436615
Ref: library/json py-to-json-table10436903
Ref: 333a10436903
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder default10441384
Ref: 333b10441384
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder encode10442097
Ref: 334010442097
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder iterencode10442329
Ref: 334110442329
Ref: 編碼器與解碼器-Footnote-110442648
Node: 例外<12>10442680
Ref: library/json exceptions10442844
Ref: 334210442844
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError10442875
Ref: c9a10442875
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError msg10442994
Ref: 334310442994
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError doc10443061
Ref: 334410443061
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError pos10443128
Ref: 334510443128
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError lineno10443210
Ref: 334610443210
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError colno10443281
Ref: 334710443281
Node: 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）10443381
Ref: library/json standard-compliance-and-interoperability10443542
Ref: 334810443542
Ref: 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）-Footnote-110444596
Ref: 合規性與互通性（Interoperability）-Footnote-210444655
Node: 字元編碼格式10444742
Ref: library/json character-encodings10444873
Ref: 334910444873
Node: 正負無限與非數值10446173
Ref: library/json infinite-and-nan-number-values10446337
Ref: 334a10446337
Node: 物件內重複的名稱10447046
Ref: library/json repeated-names-within-an-object10447231
Ref: 334b10447231
Node: 位於頂層的非物件及非列表值10447703
Ref: library/json top-level-non-object-non-array-values10447876
Ref: 334c10447876
Ref: 位於頂層的非物件及非列表值-Footnote-110448440
Ref: 位於頂層的非物件及非列表值-Footnote-210448499
Node: 實作限制10448558
Ref: library/json implementation-limitations10448698
Ref: 334d10448698
Node: 命令列介面<3>10449526
Ref: library/json command-line-interface10449668
Ref: 334e10449668
Ref: library/json json-commandline10449668
Ref: 333810449668
Ref: library/json module-json tool10449668
Ref: 7d10449668
Ref: 命令列介面<3>-Footnote-110450571
Node: 命令列選項<3>10450640
Ref: library/json command-line-options10450713
Ref: 335010450713
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-arg-infile10450761
Ref: 335110450761
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-arg-outfile10451254
Ref: 335210451254
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-sort-keys10451390
Ref: 334f10451390
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-no-ensure-ascii10451507
Ref: 335310451507
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-json-lines10451667
Ref: 335410451667
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-indent10451785
Ref: 335510451785
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-tab10451785
Ref: 335610451785
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-no-indent10451785
Ref: 335710451785
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-compact10451785
Ref: 335810451785
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-h10451909
Ref: 335910451909
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-help10451909
Ref: 335a10451909
Node: mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱10451974
Ref: library/mailbox doc10452183
Ref: 335b10452183
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-manipulate-mailboxes-in-various-formats10452183
Ref: 335c10452183
Ref: library/mailbox module-mailbox10452183
Ref: 8610452183
Ref: mailbox --- 以各種格式操作郵件信箱-Footnote-110453024
Node: Mailbox 物件10453091
Ref: library/mailbox id110453210
Ref: 335d10453210
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-objects10453210
Ref: 335e10453210
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox10453265
Ref: 10e010453265
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox add10456052
Ref: 10df10456052
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox remove10456841
Ref: 335f10456841
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __delitem__10456871
Ref: 336310456871
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox discard10456906
Ref: 336010456906
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __setitem__10457451
Ref: 336410457451
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox iterkeys10458335
Ref: 336510458335
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox keys10458422
Ref: 336610458422
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox itervalues10458585
Ref: 336710458585
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __iter__10458616
Ref: 336810458616
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox values10459106
Ref: 336910459106
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox iteritems10459273
Ref: 336a10459273
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox items10459695
Ref: 336b10459695
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get10459889
Ref: 336c10459889
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __getitem__10459930
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox unlock10465054
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox close10465134
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Ref: library/mailbox maildir-objects10465521
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir colon10467700
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Ref: Mailbox 物件<2>-Footnote-110470969
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH close10477740
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Ref: MH 物件-Footnote-110478199
Ref: MH 物件-Footnote-210478235
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl lock10481046
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl unlock10481071
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF unlock10483209
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Ref: Message 物件-Footnote-110485979
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage10493428
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage remove_flag10496813
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage update_visible10505520
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage remove_flag10511345
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Node: 例外<13>10514278
Ref: library/mailbox exceptions10514412
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Error10514519
Ref: 33df10514519
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox NoSuchMailboxError10514610
Ref: 337e10514610
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox NotEmptyError10514914
Ref: 338110514914
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox ExternalClashError10515073
Ref: 337610515073
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox FormatError10515383
Ref: 33e010515383
Node: 範例<28>10515577
Ref: library/mailbox examples10515688
Ref: 33e110515688
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-examples10515688
Ref: 33e210515688
Node: mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型10517952
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes-map-filenames-to-mime-types10518183
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_type10519077
Ref: 143910519077
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_all_extensions10520398
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_extension10520961
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes init10521663
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes read_mime_types10522635
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes add_type10523010
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes inited10523465
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes knownfiles10523637
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes suffix_map10523849
Ref: 33ea10523849
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes encodings_map10524201
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes types_map10524302
Ref: 33ec10524302
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes common_types10524395
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Ref: mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型-Footnote-110524931
Ref: mimetypes --- 將檔案名稱對映到 MIME 類型-Footnote-210525000
Node: MimeTypes 物件10525071
Ref: library/mimetypes id110525174
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes-objects10525174
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes10525419
Ref: 137210525419
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes suffix_map10526102
Ref: 33f210526102
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes encodings_map10526581
Ref: 33f310526581
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map10526791
Ref: 33f410526791
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map_inv10527124
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_extension10527471
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_type10527649
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_all_extensions10527816
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read10528004
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes readfp10528317
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read_windows_registry10528648
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes add_type10528992
Ref: 33f910528992
Node: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼10529483
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Ref: library/base64 base64-base16-base32-base64-base85-data-encodings10529719
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Ref: library/base64 module-base6410529719
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b64encode10531321
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b64decode10532010
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Ref: library/base64 base64 standard_b64encode10532998
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Ref: library/base64 base64 standard_b64decode10533178
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Ref: library/base64 base64 urlsafe_b64encode10533374
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Ref: library/base64 base64 urlsafe_b64decode10533712
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b32encode10534031
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b32decode10534186
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b32hexencode10535084
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b32hexdecode10535291
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b16encode10535703
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Ref: library/base64 base64 a85encode10536309
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b85encode10538033
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Ref: library/base64 base64 decodebytes10538977
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Ref: library/base64 base64 encode10539188
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Ref: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼-Footnote-110540413
Ref: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼-Footnote-210540479
Ref: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼-Footnote-310540538
Ref: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼-Footnote-410540597
Ref: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼-Footnote-510540656
Ref: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼-Footnote-610540715
Ref: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼-Footnote-710540774
Ref: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼-Footnote-810540833
Ref: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼-Footnote-910540892
Ref: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼-Footnote-1010540951
Ref: base64 --- Base16、Base32、Base64、Base85 資料編碼-Footnote-1110541011
Node: 安全性注意事項<2>10541071
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Ref: library/base64 security-considerations10541189
Ref: 340710541189
Ref: 安全性注意事項<2>-Footnote-110541838
Ref: 安全性注意事項<2>-Footnote-210541897
Node: binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換10541956
Ref: library/binascii doc10542195
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Ref: library/binascii binascii-convert-between-binary-and-ascii10542195
Ref: 340910542195
Ref: library/binascii module-binascii10542195
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Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_uu10543212
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Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_uu10543460
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Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_base6410543831
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Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_base6410544488
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Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_qp10544830
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Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_qp10545125
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Ref: library/binascii binascii crc_hqx10545891
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Ref: library/binascii binascii crc3210546194
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Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_hex10546865
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Ref: library/binascii binascii hexlify10546927
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Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_hex10548105
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Ref: library/binascii binascii unhexlify10548143
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Ref: library/binascii binascii Error10548669
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Ref: library/binascii binascii Incomplete10548770
Ref: 340e10548770
Ref: binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換-Footnote-110549298
Ref: binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換-Footnote-210549357
Ref: binascii --- 在二進位制和 ASCII 之間轉換-Footnote-310549416
Node: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料10549475
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Ref: library/quopri module-quopri10549648
Ref: b210549648
Ref: library/quopri quopri-encode-and-decode-mime-quoted-printable-data10549648
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Ref: library/quopri quopri decode10550324
Ref: 21ab10550324
Ref: library/quopri quopri encode10550812
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Ref: library/quopri quopri decodestring10551491
Ref: 341110551491
Ref: library/quopri quopri encodestring10551692
Ref: 341210551692
Ref: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料-Footnote-110552150
Ref: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料-Footnote-210552216
Ref: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料-Footnote-310552275
Ref: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料-Footnote-410552334
Ref: quopri --- 編碼和解碼 MIME 可列印字元資料-Footnote-510552393
Node: Structured Markup Processing Tools10552452
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Ref: library/markup markup10552645
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Ref: library/markup structured-markup-processing-tools10552645
Ref: 341510552645
Node: html --- 超連結標記語言 HTML 支援10554133
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Ref: library/html html-hypertext-markup-language-support10554305
Ref: 341710554305
Ref: library/html module-html10554305
Ref: 6610554305
Ref: library/html html escape10554558
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Ref: library/html html unescape10555043
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Ref: html --- 超連結標記語言 HTML 支援-Footnote-110555715
Node: html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器10555788
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Ref: library/html parser module-html parser10556013
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser10556412
Ref: 6a210556412
Ref: html parser --- 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 剖析器-Footnote-110557491
Node: HTML 剖析器應用程式範例10557562
Ref: library/html parser example-html-parser-application10557707
Ref: 341a10557707
Node: HTMLParser 方法10558902
Ref: library/html parser htmlparser-methods10559066
Ref: 341b10559066
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser feed10559179
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser close10559449
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser reset10559777
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser getpos10559907
Ref: 341f10559907
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser get_starttag_text10560005
Ref: 342010560005
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_starttag10560486
Ref: 342210560486
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_endtag10561186
Ref: 342310561186
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_startendtag10561365
Ref: 342110561365
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_data10561753
Ref: 342410561753
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_entityref10561940
Ref: 342510561940
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_charref10562236
Ref: 342610562236
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_comment10562651
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_decl10563169
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_pi10563448
Ref: 342910563448
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser unknown_decl10564038
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Node: 範例<29>10564323
Ref: library/html parser examples10564446
Ref: 342b10564446
Ref: library/html parser htmlparser-examples10564446
Ref: 342c10564446
Node: html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義10567846
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Ref: library/html entities html-entities-definitions-of-html-general-entities10568045
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Ref: library/html entities module-html entities10568045
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Ref: library/html entities html entities html510568415
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Ref: library/html entities html entities entitydefs10568842
Ref: 343110568842
Ref: library/html entities html entities name2codepoint10568965
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Ref: library/html entities html entities codepoint2name10569075
Ref: 343010569075
Ref: html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義-Footnote-110569234
Ref: html entities --- HTML 一般實體的定義-Footnote-210569307
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom module-xml dom minidom10686992
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Ref: 350f10686992
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Ref: 351010688302
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Ref: xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作-Footnote-110691426
Ref: xml dom minidom --- 最小的 DOM 實作-Footnote-210691502
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom dom-objects10691655
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom Node unlink10691886
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom Node writexml10692662
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom Node toxml10693890
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Ref: DOM 物件-Footnote-110695416
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom dom-example10695952
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom minidom-and-the-dom-standard10698104
Ref: 351910698104
Node: xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹10700752
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom PullDom10703650
Ref: 351d10703650
Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom SAX2DOM10703772
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Ref: 352010703894
Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom parseString10704484
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom default_bufsize10704634
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Ref: xml dom pulldom --- 支援建置部分 DOM 樹-Footnote-110704948
Node: DOMEventStream 物件10705024
Ref: library/xml dom pulldom domeventstream-objects10705128
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom id110705128
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream10705189
Ref: 54510705189
Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream getEvent10705356
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream expandNode10705848
Ref: 351c10705848
Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream reset10706562
Ref: 352710706562
Node: xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援10706589
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Ref: library/xml sax module-xml sax10706807
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Ref: library/xml sax xml-sax-support-for-sax2-parsers10706807
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax make_parser10707872
Ref: 182410707872
Ref: library/xml sax xml sax parse10708366
Ref: 17e910708366
Ref: library/xml sax xml sax parseString10708959
Ref: d1c10708959
Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXException10710874
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXParseException10711742
Ref: 352d10711742
Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXNotRecognizedException10712150
Ref: 353010712150
Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXNotSupportedException10712449
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Ref: xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援-Footnote-110713458
Ref: xml sax --- SAX2 剖析器支援-Footnote-210713535
Node: SAXException 物件10713570
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXException getMessage10713794
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXException getException10713904
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Node: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別10714008
Ref: library/xml sax handler doc10714217
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Ref: library/xml sax handler module-xml sax handler10714217
Ref: 12510714217
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml-sax-handler-base-classes-for-sax-handlers10714217
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler10714914
Ref: 351e10714914
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler10715155
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler EntityResolver10715341
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler10715624
Ref: 352c10715624
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler10715899
Ref: 68710715899
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_namespaces10716191
Ref: 353a10716191
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_namespace_prefixes10716517
Ref: 353b10716517
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_string_interning10716948
Ref: 353c10716948
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_validation10717365
Ref: 353d10717365
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_external_ges10717706
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_external_pes10718021
Ref: 353e10718021
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler all_features10718404
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_lexical_handler10718474
Ref: 354010718474
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_declaration_handler10718796
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_dom_node10719156
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_xml_string10719548
Ref: 354310719548
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler all_properties10719818
Ref: 354410719818
Ref: xml sax handler --- SAX 處理函式的基本類別-Footnote-110720072
Node: ContentHandler 物件10720148
Ref: library/xml sax handler content-handler-objects10720283
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Ref: library/xml sax handler contenthandler-objects10720283
Ref: 354610720283
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler setDocumentLocator10720533
Ref: 354710720533
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startDocument10721606
Ref: 354810721606
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endDocument10721884
Ref: 354910721884
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startPrefixMapping10722252
Ref: 354a10722252
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endPrefixMapping10723454
Ref: 354b10723454
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startElement10723797
Ref: 13ba10723797
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Ref: 13bb10724438
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startElementNS10724666
Ref: 354d10724666
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endElementNS10725654
Ref: 354f10725654
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler characters10725927
Ref: 13bc10725927
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler ignorableWhitespace10726956
Ref: 355010726956
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler processingInstruction10727623
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler skippedEntity10728083
Ref: 355210728083
Node: DTDHandler 物件10728583
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Ref: library/xml sax handler dtdhandler-objects10728748
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler notationDecl10728869
Ref: 355510728869
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler unparsedEntityDecl10728976
Ref: 355610728976
Node: EntityResolver 物件10729114
Ref: library/xml sax handler entity-resolver-objects10729277
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Ref: library/xml sax handler entityresolver-objects10729277
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler EntityResolver resolveEntity10729340
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Node: ErrorHandler 物件10729608
Ref: library/xml sax handler errorhandler-objects10729775
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler error10730426
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler fatalError10730795
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler warning10730981
Ref: 355e10730981
Node: LexicalHandler 物件10731326
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler comment10732064
Ref: 356110732064
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler startDTD10732218
Ref: 356210732218
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler endDTD10732376
Ref: 356310732376
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler startCDATA10732456
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler endCDATA10732650
Ref: 356510732650
Node: xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式10732739
Ref: library/xml sax utils doc10732960
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Ref: library/xml sax utils module-xml sax saxutils10732960
Ref: 12610732960
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml-sax-saxutils-sax-utilities10732960
Ref: 356710732960
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils escape10733348
Ref: 356810733348
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils unescape10733997
Ref: 356910733997
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils quoteattr10734462
Ref: 356a10734462
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLGenerator10735369
Ref: 356b10735369
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLFilterBase10736227
Ref: 356c10736227
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils prepare_input_source10736648
Ref: 356d10736648
Ref: xml sax saxutils --- SAX 工具程式-Footnote-110737142
Node: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面10737219
Ref: library/xml sax reader doc10737447
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Ref: library/xml sax reader module-xml sax xmlreader10737447
Ref: 12710737447
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml-sax-xmlreader-interface-for-xml-parsers10737447
Ref: 357010737447
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader10737934
Ref: 352110737934
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser10738031
Ref: 357110738031
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator10739157
Ref: 352e10739157
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource10739491
Ref: d1b10739491
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesImpl10740260
Ref: 357210740260
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNSImpl10740860
Ref: 357310740860
Ref: xml sax xmlreader --- XML 剖析器的介面-Footnote-110741615
Node: XMLReader 物件10741693
Ref: library/xml sax reader id110741823
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xmlreader-objects10741823
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader parse10741946
Ref: 356e10741946
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getContentHandler10742528
Ref: 357610742528
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setContentHandler10742625
Ref: 357710742625
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getDTDHandler10742808
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setDTDHandler10742897
Ref: 357910742897
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getEntityResolver10743064
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setEntityResolver10743161
Ref: 357b10743161
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getErrorHandler10743453
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setErrorHandler10743546
Ref: 357d10743546
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setLocale10743750
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getFeature10744116
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setFeature10744398
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getProperty10744687
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setProperty10744978
Ref: 358110744978
Node: IncrementalParser 物件10745272
Ref: library/xml sax reader incremental-parser-objects10745426
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Ref: library/xml sax reader incrementalparser-objects10745426
Ref: 358310745426
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser feed10745580
Ref: 358410745580
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser close10745656
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser reset10745895
Ref: 358610745895
Node: Locator Objects10746157
Ref: library/xml sax reader id210746313
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Ref: library/xml sax reader locator-objects10746313
Ref: 358810746313
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getColumnNumber10746424
Ref: 358910746424
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getLineNumber10746527
Ref: 358a10746527
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getPublicId10746626
Ref: 358b10746626
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getSystemId10746720
Ref: 358c10746720
Node: InputSource 物件10746814
Ref: library/xml sax reader input-source-objects10746970
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Ref: library/xml sax reader inputsource-objects10746970
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setPublicId10747027
Ref: 358f10747027
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getPublicId10747134
Ref: 359010747134
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setSystemId10747242
Ref: 359110747242
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getSystemId10747349
Ref: 359210747349
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setEncoding10747457
Ref: 359310747457
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getEncoding10747843
Ref: 359410747843
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setByteStream10747937
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getByteStream10748370
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setCharacterStream10748578
Ref: 359710748578
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getCharacterStream10748892
Ref: 359810748892
Node: The Attributes Interface10748993
Ref: library/xml sax reader attributes-objects10749160
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Ref: library/xml sax reader the-attributes-interface10749160
Ref: 359910749160
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getLength10749490
Ref: 359a10749490
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getNames10749566
Ref: 359b10749566
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getType10749644
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getValue10749769
Ref: 359d10749769
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Ref: library/xml sax reader attributes-ns-objects10749993
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Ref: library/xml sax reader the-attributesns-interface10749993
Ref: 359e10749993
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getValueByQName10750326
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getNameByQName10750420
Ref: 35a010750420
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getQNameByName10750543
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getQNames10750664
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml-parsers-expat-fast-xml-parsing-using-expat10750937
Ref: 35a410750937
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError10751989
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat error10752192
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ErrorString10752471
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ParserCreate10752592
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Ref: xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析-Footnote-110755013
Ref: xml parsers expat --- 使用 Expat 進行快速 XML 剖析-Footnote-210755314
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Ref: library/pyexpat id210755487
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Ref: library/pyexpat xmlparser-objects10755487
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser Parse10755593
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ParseFile10755971
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetBase10756189
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetBase10756605
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetInputContext10756801
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityParserCreate10757084
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetParamEntityParsing10757597
Ref: 35b710757597
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UseForeignDTD10757962
Ref: 35b810757962
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetReparseDeferralEnabled10758949
Ref: 143010758949
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetReparseDeferralEnabled10760461
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_size10760691
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_text10760950
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_used10761493
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ordered_attributes10761763
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser specified_attributes10762252
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorByteIndex10763056
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorCode10763139
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorColumnNumber10763367
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorLineNumber10763456
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentByteIndex10763946
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentColumnNumber10764032
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentLineNumber10764124
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser XmlDeclHandler10764534
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartDoctypeDeclHandler10765143
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndDoctypeDeclHandler10765696
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ElementDeclHandler10765862
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser AttlistDeclHandler10766076
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartElementHandler10766980
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndElementHandler10767375
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ProcessingInstructionHandler10767466
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CharacterDataHandler10767580
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UnparsedEntityDeclHandler10768245
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EntityDeclHandler10768638
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotationDeclHandler10769373
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartNamespaceDeclHandler10769664
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndNamespaceDeclHandler10769942
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CommentHandler10770463
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartCdataSectionHandler10770649
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndCdataSectionHandler10770886
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandler10770979
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandlerExpand10771264
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotStandaloneHandler10771502
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityRefHandler10772022
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Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat errors10777717
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors codes10778305
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors messages10778446
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY10778603
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF10778664
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF10778867
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF10779060
Ref: 35e310779060
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE10779236
Ref: 35e410779236
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING10779363
Ref: 35e510779363
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN10779430
Ref: 35e610779430
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT10779646
Ref: 35e710779646
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI10779797
Ref: 35e810779797
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS10779952
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY10780129
Ref: 35ea10780129
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF10780243
Ref: 35eb10780243
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR10780379
Ref: 35ec10780379
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF10780494
Ref: 35ed10780494
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SYNTAX10780698
Ref: 35ee10780698
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH10780806
Ref: 35ef10780806
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN10780928
Ref: 35f010780928
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY10781114
Ref: 35f110781114
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING10781242
Ref: 35f210781242
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION10781362
Ref: 35f310781362
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING10781478
Ref: 35f410781478
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE10781551
Ref: 35f510781551
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE10781812
Ref: 35f610781812
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE10781877
Ref: 35f710781877
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD10781947
Ref: 35f810781947
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING10782255
Ref: 35f910782255
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX10782530
Ref: 35fa10782530
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX10782674
Ref: 35fb10782674
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE10782837
Ref: 35fc10782837
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_XML_DECL10782953
Ref: 35fd10782953
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL10783067
Ref: 35fe10783067
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PUBLICID10783205
Ref: 35ff10783205
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED10783329
Ref: 360010783329
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED10783553
Ref: 360110783553
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ABORTED10783707
Ref: 360210783707
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FINISHED10783821
Ref: 360310783821
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE10784067
Ref: 360410784067
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML10784126
Ref: 360510784126
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS10784314
Ref: 360610784314
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI10784478
Ref: 360710784478
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT10784690
Ref: 360810784690
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER10784813
Ref: 360910784813
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH10784929
Ref: 360a10784929
Node: 網路協定 Internet protocols 及支援10785111
Ref: library/internet doc10785295
Ref: 360b10785295
Ref: library/internet internet10785295
Ref: 360c10785295
Ref: library/internet internet-protocols-and-support10785295
Ref: 360d10785295
Node: webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器10787517
Ref: library/webbrowser doc10787690
Ref: 360e10787690
Ref: library/webbrowser module-webbrowser10787690
Ref: 11010787690
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser-convenient-web-browser-controller10787690
Ref: 360f10787690
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser Error10789855
Ref: 361110789855
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open10789983
Ref: 361010789983
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new10790875
Ref: 361210790875
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new_tab10791132
Ref: 361310791132
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser get10791397
Ref: 361410791397
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser register10791621
Ref: 361510791621
Ref: webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器-Footnote-110797639
Ref: webbrowser --- 方便的網頁瀏覽器控制器-Footnote-210797709
Node: Browser Controller Objects10797842
Ref: library/webbrowser browser-controller-objects10797953
Ref: 361610797953
Ref: library/webbrowser browser-controllers10797953
Ref: 361710797953
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser name10798133
Ref: 361810798133
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open10798207
Ref: 361910798207
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new10798467
Ref: 361a10798467
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new_tab10798686
Ref: 361b10798686
Node: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作10798895
Ref: library/wsgiref doc10799104
Ref: 361c10799104
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref10799104
Ref: 11310799104
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-wsgi-utilities-and-reference-implementation10799104
Ref: 361d10799104
Ref: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作-Footnote-110800914
Ref: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作-Footnote-210800978
Ref: wsgiref --- WSGI 工具與參考實作-Footnote-310801020
Node: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具10801057
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref util10801216
Ref: 11810801216
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-util-wsgi-environment-utilities10801216
Ref: 361e10801216
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util guess_scheme10801672
Ref: 362010801672
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util request_uri10802250
Ref: 362110802250
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util application_uri10802562
Ref: 362210802562
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util shift_path_info10802784
Ref: 362310802784
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util setup_testing_defaults10804273
Ref: 362410804273
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util is_hop_by_hop10805875
Ref: 362510805875
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util FileWrapper10806051
Ref: 54610806051
Ref: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具-Footnote-110807219
Ref: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具-Footnote-210807261
Ref: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具-Footnote-310807303
Ref: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具-Footnote-410807345
Ref: wsgiref util -- WSGI 環境工具-Footnote-510807387
Node: wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具10807446
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref headers10807674
Ref: 11510807674
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-headers-wsgi-response-header-tools10807674
Ref: 362710807674
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers10807904
Ref: d1810807904
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers get_all10809929
Ref: 362810809929
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers add_header10810358
Ref: 362910810358
Ref: wsgiref headers -- WSGI 回應標頭工具-Footnote-110811419
Node: wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器10811461
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref simple_server10811697
Ref: 11610811697
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-simple-server-a-simple-wsgi-http-server10811697
Ref: 362a10811697
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server make_server10812319
Ref: 362b10812319
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server demo_app10813129
Ref: 362c10813129
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer10813534
Ref: 362d10813534
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer set_app10814287
Ref: 362f10814287
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer get_app10814414
Ref: 363010814414
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler10814759
Ref: 363110814759
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_environ10815397
Ref: 363210815397
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_stderr10815828
Ref: 363310815828
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler handle10815984
Ref: 363410815984
Ref: wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器-Footnote-110816224
Ref: wsgiref simple_server -- 一個簡單的 WSGI HTTP 伺服器-Footnote-210816266
Node: wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查10816308
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref validate10816552
Ref: 11910816552
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-validate-wsgi-conformance-checker10816552
Ref: 363510816552
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref validate validator10817381
Ref: 363610817381
Ref: wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查-Footnote-110819495
Ref: wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查-Footnote-210819537
Ref: wsgiref validate --- WSGI 符合性檢查-Footnote-310819596
Node: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別10819638
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref handlers10819878
Ref: 11410819878
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-handlers-server-gateway-base-classes10819878
Ref: 363710819878
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers CGIHandler10820247
Ref: 363810820247
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers IISCGIHandler10820940
Ref: 363a10820940
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseCGIHandler10822361
Ref: 363910822361
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers SimpleHandler10823139
Ref: 363b10823139
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler10824060
Ref: 17d410824060
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler run10824369
Ref: 364110824369
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _write10824681
Ref: 363f10824681
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _flush10824982
Ref: 364010824982
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stdin10825222
Ref: 363c10825222
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stderr10825397
Ref: 363d10825397
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler add_cgi_vars10825574
Ref: 363e10825574
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multithread10826033
Ref: 364410826033
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multiprocess10826285
Ref: 364510826285
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_run_once10826539
Ref: 364610826539
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler os_environ10826758
Ref: 364710826758
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler server_software10827144
Ref: 364810827144
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_scheme10827709
Ref: 364a10827709
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler setup_environ10827985
Ref: 364b10827985
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler log_exception10828581
Ref: 364d10828581
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler traceback_limit10829032
Ref: 364e10829032
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_output10829218
Ref: 364f10829218
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_status10830149
Ref: 365010830149
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_headers10830335
Ref: 365110830335
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_body10830604
Ref: 365210830604
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_file_wrapper10830936
Ref: 364c10830936
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler sendfile10831213
Ref: 365310831213
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler origin_server10831645
Ref: 364910831645
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler http_version10832152
Ref: 365410832152
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers read_environ10832350
Ref: 104a10832350
Ref: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別-Footnote-110833208
Ref: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別-Footnote-210833250
Ref: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別-Footnote-310833292
Ref: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別-Footnote-410833334
Ref: wsgiref handlers -- 伺服器 / 閘道基本類別-Footnote-510833376
Node: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別10833418
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref types10833627
Ref: 11710833627
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-types-wsgi-types-for-static-type-checking10833627
Ref: 365510833627
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types StartResponse10833872
Ref: 365610833872
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIEnvironment10834022
Ref: 361f10834022
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIApplication10834120
Ref: 365710834120
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types InputStream10834233
Ref: 364210834233
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types ErrorStream10834346
Ref: 364310834346
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types FileWrapper10834459
Ref: 362610834459
Ref: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別-Footnote-110834694
Ref: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別-Footnote-210834736
Ref: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別-Footnote-310834806
Ref: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別-Footnote-410834848
Ref: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別-Footnote-510834914
Ref: wsgiref types -- 用於靜態型別檢查的 WSGI 型別-Footnote-610834980
Node: 範例<33>10835064
Ref: library/wsgiref examples10835214
Ref: 365810835214
Node: urllib --- URL 處理模組10837927
Ref: library/urllib doc10838146
Ref: 365910838146
Ref: library/urllib module-urllib10838146
Ref: 10310838146
Ref: library/urllib urllib-url-handling-modules10838146
Ref: 365a10838146
Ref: urllib --- URL 處理模組-Footnote-110838728
Node: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫10838792
Ref: library/urllib request doc10839024
Ref: 365b10839024
Ref: library/urllib request module-urllib request10839024
Ref: 10610839024
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-extensible-library-for-opening-urls10839024
Ref: 365c10839024
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlopen10840202
Ref: 27f10840202
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request install_opener10844556
Ref: 366310844556
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request build_opener10845010
Ref: 366410845010
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request pathname2url10846154
Ref: 13cb10846154
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request url2pathname10846448
Ref: 366c10846448
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request getproxies10846717
Ref: 365d10846717
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request10847874
Ref: e6a10847874
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector10852420
Ref: 366110852420
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler10852640
Ref: 366510852640
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDefaultErrorHandler10852800
Ref: 366710852800
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler10852993
Ref: 366810852993
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor10853079
Ref: 366e10853079
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyHandler10853182
Ref: 17b010853182
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr10854270
Ref: 366f10854270
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm10854388
Ref: 367010854388
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth10854630
Ref: d1410854630
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler10855019
Ref: 168f10855019
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPBasicAuthHandler10856362
Ref: 367310856362
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyBasicAuthHandler10856826
Ref: 367410856826
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractDigestAuthHandler10857166
Ref: 175e10857166
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDigestAuthHandler10857576
Ref: 367510857576
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyDigestAuthHandler10858436
Ref: 367610858436
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPHandler10858777
Ref: 366610858777
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPSHandler10858863
Ref: 10b610858863
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FileHandler10859190
Ref: 366a10859190
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request DataHandler10859254
Ref: e6910859254
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FTPHandler10859344
Ref: 366910859344
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler10859404
Ref: 14e610859404
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request UnknownHandler10859534
Ref: 366210859534
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor10859625
Ref: 366b10859625
Ref: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫-Footnote-110860482
Ref: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫-Footnote-210860556
Ref: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫-Footnote-310860607
Ref: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫-Footnote-410860666
Ref: urllib request --- 用來開啟 URLs 的可擴充函式庫-Footnote-510860725
Node: Request Objects10860784
Ref: library/urllib request id110860924
Ref: 367710860924
Ref: library/urllib request request-objects10860924
Ref: 367810860924
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request full_url10861193
Ref: e6c10861193
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request type10861483
Ref: 367910861483
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request host10861531
Ref: 367a10861531
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request origin_req_host10861655
Ref: 367b10861655
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request selector10861747
Ref: 367c10861747
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request data10861908
Ref: e6d10861908
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request unverifiable10862162
Ref: 367d10862162
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request method10862289
Ref: e6b10862289
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_method10862987
Ref: ffc10862987
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_header10863405
Ref: 366d10863405
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_unredirected_header10864085
Ref: 367e10864085
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request has_header10864211
Ref: 367f10864211
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request remove_header10864352
Ref: e6f10864352
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_full_url10864527
Ref: 368010864527
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request set_proxy10864682
Ref: 368110864682
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_header10864933
Ref: 368210864933
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request header_items10865099
Ref: 368310865099
Ref: Request Objects-Footnote-110865456
Node: OpenerDirector 物件10865515
Ref: library/urllib request opener-director-objects10865682
Ref: 368410865682
Ref: library/urllib request openerdirector-objects10865682
Ref: 368510865682
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector add_handler10865810
Ref: 368610865810
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector open10867307
Ref: e6e10867307
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector error10867990
Ref: 368b10867990
Node: BaseHandler 物件10869782
Ref: library/urllib request base-handler-objects10869960
Ref: 368e10869960
Ref: library/urllib request basehandler-objects10869960
Ref: 368f10869960
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler add_parent10870196
Ref: 369010870196
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler close10870275
Ref: 369110870275
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler parent10870653
Ref: 369210870653
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler default_open10870804
Ref: 368c10870804
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-open10871498
Ref: 368710871498
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler unknown_open10871869
Ref: 368d10871869
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler http_error_default10872281
Ref: 369310872281
Ref: library/urllib request http-error-nnn10873089
Ref: 368810873089
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-request10873593
Ref: 368910873593
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-response10874007
Ref: 368a10874007
Node: HTTPRedirectHandler 物件10874597
Ref: library/urllib request http-redirect-handler10874780
Ref: 369410874780
Ref: library/urllib request httpredirecthandler-objects10874780
Ref: 369510874780
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler redirect_request10875279
Ref: 369610875279
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30110876363
Ref: 369710876363
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30210876620
Ref: 369810876620
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30310876785
Ref: 369910876785
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30710876954
Ref: 369a10876954
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30810877214
Ref: 369b10877214
Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler 物件-Footnote-110877539
Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler 物件-Footnote-210877598
Node: HTTPCookieProcessor 物件10877657
Ref: library/urllib request http-cookie-processor10877841
Ref: 369c10877841
Ref: library/urllib request httpcookieprocessor-objects10877841
Ref: 369d10877841
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor cookiejar10877976
Ref: 369e10877976
Node: ProxyHandler 物件10878101
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-handler10878281
Ref: 36a010878281
Ref: library/urllib request proxyhandler-objects10878281
Ref: 36a110878281
Node: HTTPPasswordMgr 物件10878755
Ref: library/urllib request http-password-mgr10878944
Ref: 367110878944
Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgr-objects10878944
Ref: 36a210878944
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr add_password10879126
Ref: 36a310879126
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr find_user_password10879473
Ref: 161110879473
Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 物件10879847
Ref: library/urllib request http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth10880048
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Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgrwithpriorauth-objects10880048
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth add_password10880298
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth update_authenticated10880871
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth is_authenticated10881067
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Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler 物件10881233
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler http_error_auth_reqed10881520
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Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler 物件10882761
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Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler 物件10883196
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Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler 物件10883859
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Node: HTTPSHandler 物件10885100
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Node: FileHandler 物件10885472
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Node: DataHandler 物件10885996
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Ref: DataHandler 物件-Footnote-110886775
Node: FTPHandler 物件10886834
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Node: urllib parse --- 將 URL 剖析成元件10909964
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Ref: urllib robotparser --- robots txt 的剖析器-Footnote-110955395
Node: http --- HTTP 模組10955474
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Ref: http --- HTTP 模組-Footnote-110957253
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Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse readinto11000271
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Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getheader11000460
Ref: 373411000460
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getheaders11000843
Ref: 373511000843
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse fileno11000930
Ref: 373611000930
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse msg11001022
Ref: 371711001022
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse version11001238
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Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse url11001356
Ref: 373811001356
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse headers11001483
Ref: 373911001483
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse status11001619
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Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse reason11001690
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Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse debuglevel11001763
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Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse closed11001955
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Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse geturl11002033
Ref: 373d11002033
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse info11002143
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Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getcode11002255
Ref: 373f11002255
Node: 範例<35>11002369
Ref: library/http client examples11002507
Ref: 374011002507
Node: HTTPMessage 物件11005388
Ref: library/http client httpmessage-objects11005498
Ref: 374111005498
Ref: library/http client id311005498
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Ref: library/http client http client HTTPMessage11005555
Ref: 371611005555
Node: ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端11005777
Ref: library/ftplib doc11005970
Ref: 374311005970
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib-ftp-protocol-client11005970
Ref: 374411005970
Ref: library/ftplib module-ftplib11005970
Ref: 5911005970
Ref: ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端-Footnote-111007829
Ref: ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端-Footnote-211007895
Ref: ftplib --- FTP 協定用戶端-Footnote-311007953
Node: 參考11008012
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib-reference11008085
Ref: 374511008085
Ref: library/ftplib reference11008085
Ref: 374611008085
Node: FTP 物件11008179
Ref: library/ftplib ftp-objects11008255
Ref: 374711008255
Ref: library/ftplib id111008255
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP11008296
Ref: 73511008296
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP set_debuglevel11011081
Ref: 374a11011081
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP connect11011565
Ref: 374911011565
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP getwelcome11012828
Ref: 374b11012828
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP login11013027
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP abort11013963
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP sendcmd11014089
Ref: 374e11014089
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP voidcmd11014324
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP retrbinary11014719
Ref: 375111014719
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP retrlines11015726
Ref: 375311015726
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP set_pasv11016389
Ref: 375411016389
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP storbinary11016551
Ref: 119b11016551
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP storlines11017687
Ref: 375511017687
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP transfercmd11018171
Ref: 375211018171
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP ntransfercmd11019348
Ref: 375611019348
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP mlsd11019660
Ref: f5111019660
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP nlst11020345
Ref: f5211020345
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP dir11020751
Ref: f5311020751
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP rename11021409
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP delete11021528
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP cwd11021798
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP mkd11021879
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP pwd11021963
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP rmd11022045
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP size11022136
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP quit11022430
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP close11022798
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Ref: FTP 物件-Footnote-111023236
Ref: FTP 物件-Footnote-211023294
Ref: FTP 物件-Footnote-311023353
Ref: FTP 物件-Footnote-411023411
Node: FTP_TLS 物件11023470
Ref: library/ftplib ftp-tls-objects11023567
Ref: 376111023567
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS11023616
Ref: 73611023616
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS ssl_version11027219
Ref: 376311027219
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS auth11027335
Ref: 376411027335
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS ccc11027703
Ref: f5011027703
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS prot_p11027957
Ref: 376211027957
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS prot_c11028024
Ref: 376511028024
Ref: FTP_TLS 物件-Footnote-111028146
Ref: FTP_TLS 物件-Footnote-211028205
Ref: FTP_TLS 物件-Footnote-311028263
Node: 模組變數11028322
Ref: library/ftplib module-variables11028400
Ref: 376611028400
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_reply11028443
Ref: 375011028443
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_temp11028533
Ref: 376711028533
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_perm11028678
Ref: 375911028678
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_proto11028823
Ref: 376811028823
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib all_errors11028990
Ref: 376911028990
Node: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端11029488
Ref: library/poplib doc11029678
Ref: 376a11029678
Ref: library/poplib module-poplib11029678
Ref: a711029678
Ref: library/poplib poplib-pop3-protocol-client11029678
Ref: 376b11029678
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP311031017
Ref: 76211031017
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3_SSL11031907
Ref: 76311031907
Ref: library/poplib poplib error_proto11033421
Ref: 102f11033421
Ref: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端-Footnote-111034058
Ref: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端-Footnote-211034124
Ref: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端-Footnote-311034183
Ref: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端-Footnote-411034242
Ref: poplib --- POP3 協定用戶端-Footnote-511034301
Node: POP3 物件11034363
Ref: library/poplib id111034462
Ref: 376c11034462
Ref: library/poplib pop3-objects11034462
Ref: 376d11034462
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 set_debuglevel11034689
Ref: 376e11034689
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 getwelcome11035152
Ref: 376f11035152
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 capa11035243
Ref: e0911035243
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 user11035432
Ref: 377011035432
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 pass_11035550
Ref: 377111035550
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 apop11035745
Ref: 377211035745
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 rpop11035863
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Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 stat11035982
Ref: 377411035982
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 list11036114
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Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 retr11036306
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Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 dele11036469
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Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 rset11036747
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Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 noop11036822
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Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 quit11036898
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Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 top11036988
Ref: 377a11036988
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 uidl11037521
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Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 utf811037805
Ref: cc411037805
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 stls11038015
Ref: e0a11038015
Ref: POP3 物件-Footnote-111038816
Ref: POP3 物件-Footnote-211038875
Ref: POP3 物件-Footnote-311038934
Node: POP3 範例11038993
Ref: library/poplib id211039092
Ref: 377c11039092
Ref: library/poplib pop3-example11039092
Ref: 377d11039092
Node: imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端11039600
Ref: library/imaplib doc11039792
Ref: 377e11039792
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib-imap4-protocol-client11039792
Ref: 377f11039792
Ref: library/imaplib module-imaplib11039792
Ref: 6f11039792
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP411040683
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 error11041879
Ref: 378011041879
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 abort11042019
Ref: 378111042019
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readonly11042278
Ref: 378211042278
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_SSL11042630
Ref: 73f11042630
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_stream11044020
Ref: 74111044020
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Internaldate2tuple11044291
Ref: 378311044291
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Int2AP11044539
Ref: 378411044539
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib ParseFlags11044685
Ref: 378511044685
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Time2Internaldate11044804
Ref: 378611044804
Ref: imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端-Footnote-111046140
Ref: imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端-Footnote-211046207
Ref: imaplib --- IMAP4 協定客戶端-Footnote-311046266
Node: IMAP4 物件11046325
Ref: library/imaplib id111046428
Ref: 378711046428
Ref: library/imaplib imap4-objects11046428
Ref: 378811046428
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 append11047920
Ref: 378911047920
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 authenticate11048024
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 check11048857
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 close11048921
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 copy11049106
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 create11049218
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 deleteacl11049374
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 expunge11049803
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 fetch11050051
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getacl11050331
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getannotation11050485
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquota11050686
Ref: 379411050686
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquotaroot11050857
Ref: 379511050857
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 list11051045
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login11051314
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login_cram_md511051447
Ref: 379811051447
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 logout11051707
Ref: 379911051707
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 lsub11051902
Ref: 379a11051902
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 myrights11052192
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 namespace11052311
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 noop11052400
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 open11052460
Ref: 74011052460
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 partial11053401
Ref: 37a211053401
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 proxyauth11053578
Ref: 37a311053578
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 read11053728
Ref: 379e11053728
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readline11053844
Ref: 379f11053844
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 recent11053956
Ref: 37a411053956
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 rename11054111
Ref: 37a511054111
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 response11054219
Ref: 37a611054219
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 search11054377
Ref: 37a711054377
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 select11055053
Ref: 37a811055053
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 send11055348
Ref: 37a011055348
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setacl11055566
Ref: 37a911055566
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setannotation11055729
Ref: 37aa11055729
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setquota11055918
Ref: 37ab11055918
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 shutdown11056089
Ref: 37a111056089
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 socket11056276
Ref: 37ac11056276
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 sort11056362
Ref: 37ad11056362
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 starttls11057306
Ref: 10b811057306
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 status11057833
Ref: 37ae11057833
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 store11057929
Ref: 37af11057929
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 subscribe11059114
Ref: 37b011059114
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 thread11059185
Ref: 37b111059185
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 uid11060314
Ref: 37b211060314
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unsubscribe11060632
Ref: 37b311060632
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unselect11060709
Ref: 74211060709
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 xatom11061106
Ref: 37b411061106
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 PROTOCOL_VERSION11061310
Ref: 37b511061310
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 debug11061442
Ref: 37b611061442
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 utf8_enabled11061642
Ref: c8611061642
Ref: IMAP4 物件-Footnote-111061919
Ref: IMAP4 物件-Footnote-211061978
Ref: IMAP4 物件-Footnote-311062037
Ref: IMAP4 物件-Footnote-411062096
Ref: IMAP4 物件-Footnote-511062155
Ref: IMAP4 物件-Footnote-611062214
Node: IMAP4 範例11062273
Ref: library/imaplib id211062376
Ref: 37b711062376
Ref: library/imaplib imap4-example11062376
Ref: 37b811062376
Node: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端11062878
Ref: library/smtplib doc11063078
Ref: 37b911063078
Ref: library/smtplib module-smtplib11063078
Ref: c411063078
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib-smtp-protocol-client11063078
Ref: 37ba11063078
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP11063794
Ref: 76c11063794
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP_SSL11066373
Ref: 76d11066373
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib LMTP11067833
Ref: 76e11067833
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPException11068734
Ref: e2d11068734
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPServerDisconnected11068985
Ref: 37bd11068985
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPResponseException11069210
Ref: 37be11069210
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPSenderRefused11069572
Ref: 37bf11069572
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPRecipientsRefused11069806
Ref: 37c011069806
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPDataError11070076
Ref: 37c111070076
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPConnectError11070169
Ref: 37bb11070169
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPHeloError11070287
Ref: 37c211070287
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPNotSupportedError11070371
Ref: 17a611070371
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPAuthenticationError11070512
Ref: 37c311070512
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端-Footnote-111071227
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端-Footnote-211071294
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端-Footnote-311071352
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端-Footnote-411071411
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端-Footnote-511071470
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP 協定用戶端-Footnote-611071528
Node: SMTP 物件11071587
Ref: library/smtplib id111071687
Ref: 37c411071687
Ref: library/smtplib smtp-objects11071687
Ref: 37c511071687
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP set_debuglevel11071787
Ref: cd411071787
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP docmd11072136
Ref: 37c611072136
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP connect11072786
Ref: 17a711072786
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP helo11073477
Ref: 37c711073477
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo11073937
Ref: 37c811073937
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo_or_helo_if_needed11074842
Ref: 37ca11074842
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP has_extn11075182
Ref: 37c911075182
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP verify11075377
Ref: 37cb11075377
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP login11075798
Ref: 37cc11075798
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP auth11077373
Ref: cd311077373
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP starttls11079602
Ref: fc811079602
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP sendmail11081093
Ref: cd511081093
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP send_message11084568
Ref: cd611084568
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP quit11086641
Ref: 37bc11086641
Ref: SMTP 物件-Footnote-111087104
Ref: SMTP 物件-Footnote-211087162
Ref: SMTP 物件-Footnote-311087221
Ref: SMTP 物件-Footnote-411087280
Ref: SMTP 物件-Footnote-511087338
Ref: SMTP 物件-Footnote-611087396
Node: SMTP 範例11087455
Ref: library/smtplib id211087555
Ref: 37cd11087555
Ref: library/smtplib smtp-example11087555
Ref: 37ce11087555
Ref: SMTP 範例-Footnote-111088960
Node: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件11089018
Ref: library/uuid doc11089232
Ref: 37cf11089232
Ref: library/uuid module-uuid11089232
Ref: 10b11089232
Ref: library/uuid uuid-uuid-objects-according-to-rfc-412211089232
Ref: 37d011089232
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID11090339
Ref: 37d211090339
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID safe11090394
Ref: 37d311090394
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unsafe11090524
Ref: 37d411090524
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unknown11090615
Ref: 37d511090615
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID11090710
Ref: 8ac11090710
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes11092838
Ref: 37d711092838
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes_le11092980
Ref: 37d811092980
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID fields11093150
Ref: 37d911093150
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_low11093501
Ref: 37da11093501
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_mid11093695
Ref: 37db11093695
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_hi_version11093902
Ref: 37dc11093902
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_hi_variant11094107
Ref: 37dd11094107
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_low11094299
Ref: 37de11094299
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID node11094489
Ref: 37df11094489
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time11094686
Ref: 37e011094686
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq11094885
Ref: 37e111094885
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID hex11094998
Ref: 37e211094998
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID int11095090
Ref: 37d611095090
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID urn11095156
Ref: 37e311095156
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID variant11095238
Ref: 37e411095238
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID version11095479
Ref: 37e911095479
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID is_safe11095610
Ref: a0711095610
Ref: library/uuid uuid getnode11095818
Ref: a0811095818
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid111096783
Ref: a0911096783
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid311097090
Ref: 150b11097090
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid411097323
Ref: 37d111097323
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid511097386
Ref: 150c11097386
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_DNS11097712
Ref: 37ea11097712
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_URL11097862
Ref: 37eb11097862
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_OID11097963
Ref: 37ec11097963
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_X50011098068
Ref: 37ed11098068
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_NCS11098305
Ref: 37e511098305
Ref: library/uuid uuid RFC_412211098375
Ref: 37e611098375
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_MICROSOFT11098458
Ref: 37e711098458
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_FUTURE11098540
Ref: 37e811098540
Ref: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件-Footnote-111098987
Ref: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件-Footnote-211099051
Ref: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件-Footnote-311099110
Ref: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件-Footnote-411099169
Ref: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件-Footnote-511099228
Ref: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件-Footnote-611099287
Ref: uuid --- RFC 4122 定義的 UUID 物件-Footnote-711099346
Node: 命令列的用法11099405
Ref: library/uuid command-line-usage11099518
Ref: 37ee11099518
Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli11099518
Ref: 14d11099518
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-h11099776
Ref: 37ef11099776
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-help11099776
Ref: 37f011099776
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-u11099837
Ref: 37f111099837
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-uuid11099859
Ref: 37f211099859
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-n11099974
Ref: 37f311099974
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-namespace11100001
Ref: 37f411100001
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-N11100307
Ref: 37f511100307
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-name11100329
Ref: 37f611100329
Node: 範例<36>11100467
Ref: library/uuid example11100607
Ref: 37f711100607
Ref: library/uuid uuid-example11100607
Ref: 37f811100607
Node: 命令列的範例11101854
Ref: library/uuid command-line-example11101967
Ref: 37f911101967
Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli-example11101967
Ref: 37fa11101967
Node: socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架11102335
Ref: library/socketserver doc11102547
Ref: 37fb11102547
Ref: library/socketserver module-socketserver11102547
Ref: c711102547
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-a-framework-for-network-servers11102547
Ref: 37fc11102547
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver TCPServer11103126
Ref: 11b311103126
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UDPServer11103598
Ref: 37ff11103598
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixStreamServer11103902
Ref: 380011103902
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixDatagramServer11104016
Ref: 380111104016
Ref: socketserver --- 用於網路伺服器的框架-Footnote-111106342
Node: Server Creation Notes11106414
Ref: library/socketserver server-creation-notes11106542
Ref: 380511106542
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingMixIn11107314
Ref: 9d411107314
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn11107352
Ref: 9d511107352
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn block_on_close11108012
Ref: a6011108012
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn daemon_threads11108400
Ref: 380711108400
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingTCPServer11108927
Ref: 380811108927
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUDPServer11108969
Ref: 380911108969
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingTCPServer11109011
Ref: 380a11109011
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUDPServer11109055
Ref: 380611109055
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixStreamServer11109099
Ref: 380b11109099
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixDatagramServer11109148
Ref: 380c11109148
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixStreamServer11109199
Ref: 380d11109199
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixDatagramServer11109250
Ref: 380e11109250
Node: Server Objects11111603
Ref: library/socketserver server-objects11111763
Ref: 381011111763
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer11111814
Ref: fcd11111814
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer fileno11112214
Ref: 381311112214
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_request11112487
Ref: 11b611112487
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer serve_forever11113087
Ref: fcf11113087
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer service_actions11113736
Ref: fce11113736
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer shutdown11114038
Ref: 181c11114038
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_close11114318
Ref: 380411114318
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer address_family11114404
Ref: 381711114404
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer RequestHandlerClass11114610
Ref: 381211114610
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_address11114765
Ref: 381111114765
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer socket11115185
Ref: 381811115185
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer allow_reuse_address11115368
Ref: 381911115368
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer request_queue_size11115579
Ref: 381a11115579
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer socket_type11116063
Ref: 381b11116063
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer timeout11116253
Ref: 11b411116253
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer finish_request11116754
Ref: 381c11116754
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer get_request11116971
Ref: 381411116971
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_error11117199
Ref: bb311117199
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_timeout11117649
Ref: 11b511117649
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer process_request11118088
Ref: 381611118088
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_activate11118459
Ref: 37fe11118459
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_bind11118702
Ref: 37fd11118702
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer verify_request11118854
Ref: 381511118854
Node: Request Handler Objects11119435
Ref: library/socketserver request-handler-objects11119584
Ref: 381d11119584
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler11119653
Ref: 380211119653
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler setup11120008
Ref: 381e11120008
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler handle11120203
Ref: 380311120203
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler finish11120918
Ref: 382211120918
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler request11121197
Ref: 381f11121197
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler client_address11121330
Ref: 382011121330
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler server11121449
Ref: 382111121449
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver StreamRequestHandler11121546
Ref: b4711121546
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler11121592
Ref: 380f11121592
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler rfile11121841
Ref: 382311121841
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler wfile11122003
Ref: 382411122003
Node: 範例<37>11122275
Ref: library/socketserver examples11122401
Ref: 382511122401
Node: socketserver TCPServer 範例11122596
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-tcpserver-example11122710
Ref: 382611122710
Node: socketserver UDPServer 範例11125946
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-udpserver-example11126088
Ref: 382711126088
Node: Asynchronous Mixins11127701
Ref: library/socketserver asynchronous-mixins11127805
Ref: 382811127805
Node: http server — HTTP 伺服器11130151
Ref: library/http server doc11130358
Ref: 382911130358
Ref: library/http server http-server-http-servers11130358
Ref: 382a11130358
Ref: library/http server module-http server11130358
Ref: 6d11130358
Ref: library/http server http server HTTPServer11131398
Ref: 362e11131398
Ref: library/http server http server ThreadingHTTPServer11131752
Ref: 99c11131752
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler11132303
Ref: f5a11132303
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler client_address11133288
Ref: 382c11133288
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler server11133425
Ref: 382d11133425
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler close_connection11133491
Ref: 382e11133491
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler requestline11133723
Ref: 383011133723
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler command11134035
Ref: 383111134035
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler path11134136
Ref: 383211134136
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler request_version11134407
Ref: 383311134407
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler headers11134540
Ref: 371811134540
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler rfile11134964
Ref: 383511134964
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler wfile11135113
Ref: 383611135113
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler server_version11135548
Ref: 383711135548
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler sys_version11135832
Ref: 383811135832
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_message_format11136084
Ref: 383a11136084
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_content_type11136442
Ref: 383b11136442
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler protocol_version11136619
Ref: 383c11136619
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler MessageClass11137210
Ref: 383411137210
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler responses11137445
Ref: 36ff11137445
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle11138007
Ref: 383f11138007
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle_one_request11138307
Ref: 382f11138307
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle_expect_10011138505
Ref: 384011138505
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_error11139016
Ref: ddd11139016
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_response11140142
Ref: 384111140142
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_header11140946
Ref: 383d11140946
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_response_only11141514
Ref: 383e11141514
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler end_headers11141936
Ref: f5b11141936
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler flush_headers11142233
Ref: f5c11142233
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_request11142407
Ref: 384311142407
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_error11142704
Ref: 384411142704
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_message11142949
Ref: 384511142949
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler version_string11143438
Ref: 383911143438
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler date_time_string11143650
Ref: 384211143650
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_date_time_string11144038
Ref: 384611144038
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler address_string11144149
Ref: 384711144149
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler11144390
Ref: 99b11144390
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler server_version11145169
Ref: 384a11145169
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler extensions_map11145327
Ref: 384b11145327
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler do_HEAD11145824
Ref: 384911145824
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler do_GET11146112
Ref: 384811146112
Ref: library/http server http-server-cli11148664
Ref: dde11148664
Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler11150104
Ref: 25511150104
Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler cgi_directories11151295
Ref: 384c11151295
Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler do_POST11151532
Ref: 384d11151532
Ref: http server — HTTP 伺服器-Footnote-111152389
Ref: http server — HTTP 伺服器-Footnote-211152460
Ref: http server — HTTP 伺服器-Footnote-311152519
Ref: http server — HTTP 伺服器-Footnote-411152578
Node: 安全性注意事項<3>11152649
Ref: library/http server http-server-security11152740
Ref: 382b11152740
Ref: library/http server security-considerations11152740
Ref: 384e11152740
Node: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理11153369
Ref: library/http cookies doc11153579
Ref: 384f11153579
Ref: library/http cookies http-cookies-http-state-management11153579
Ref: 385011153579
Ref: library/http cookies module-http cookies11153579
Ref: 6c11153579
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies CookieError11154961
Ref: 385111154961
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie11155125
Ref: 385211155125
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies SimpleCookie11155515
Ref: 182f11155515
Ref: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理-Footnote-111156370
Ref: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理-Footnote-211156442
Ref: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理-Footnote-311156501
Ref: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理-Footnote-411156560
Ref: http cookies --- HTTP 狀態管理-Footnote-511156619
Node: Cookie 物件11156678
Ref: library/http cookies cookie-objects11156784
Ref: 385611156784
Ref: library/http cookies id111156784
Ref: 385711156784
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie value_decode11156831
Ref: 385411156831
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie value_encode11157102
Ref: 385511157102
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie output11157553
Ref: 385811157553
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie js_output11157919
Ref: 385911157919
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie load11158198
Ref: 385311158198
Node: Morsel 物件11158480
Ref: library/http cookies id211158605
Ref: 385a11158605
Ref: library/http cookies morsel-objects11158605
Ref: 385b11158605
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel11158652
Ref: a6711158652
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel expires11158883
Ref: 385c11158883
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel path11158913
Ref: 385d11158913
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel comment11158940
Ref: 385e11158940
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel domain11158970
Ref: 385f11158970
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel secure11159030
Ref: 386011159030
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel version11159059
Ref: 386111159059
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel httponly11159089
Ref: 123f11159089
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel samesite11159120
Ref: 386211159120
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel value11160048
Ref: a6511160048
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel coded_value11160105
Ref: a6611160105
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel key11160207
Ref: a6411160207
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel set11160261
Ref: a6811160261
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel isReservedKey11160370
Ref: 386311160370
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel output11160481
Ref: 386411160481
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel js_output11160821
Ref: 386511160821
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel OutputString11161095
Ref: 386611161095
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel update11161307
Ref: d4a11161307
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel copy11161605
Ref: d4911161605
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel setdefault11161758
Ref: 386711161758
Ref: Morsel 物件-Footnote-111161973
Ref: Morsel 物件-Footnote-211162032
Ref: Morsel 物件-Footnote-311162091
Ref: Morsel 物件-Footnote-411162150
Node: 範例<38>11162209
Ref: library/http cookies cookie-example11162312
Ref: 386811162312
Ref: library/http cookies example11162312
Ref: 386911162312
Node: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理11163960
Ref: library/http cookiejar doc11164182
Ref: 386a11164182
Ref: library/http cookiejar http-cookiejar-cookie-handling-for-http-clients11164182
Ref: 386b11164182
Ref: library/http cookiejar module-http cookiejar11164182
Ref: 6b11164182
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar LoadError11165735
Ref: 386c11165735
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar11166122
Ref: 369f11166122
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar11166599
Ref: 386d11166599
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy11167436
Ref: 386e11167436
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy11167597
Ref: 17f611167597
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie11169418
Ref: 387311169418
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-111171101
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-211171175
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-311171234
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-411171293
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-511171352
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-611171411
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-711171470
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-811171529
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-911171588
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-1011171647
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-1111171707
Ref: http cookiejar --- HTTP 客戶端的 Cookie 處理-Footnote-1211171767
Node: CookieJar 與 FileCookieJar 物件11171827
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-jar-objects11172016
Ref: 387411172016
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookiejar-and-filecookiejar-objects11172016
Ref: 387511172016
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar add_cookie_header11172288
Ref: 387611172288
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar extract_cookies11173201
Ref: 387711173201
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_policy11174430
Ref: 387911174430
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar make_cookies11174534
Ref: 387a11174534
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_cookie_if_ok11174821
Ref: 387b11174821
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_cookie11174944
Ref: 387c11174944
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar clear11175093
Ref: 387d11175093
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar clear_session_cookies11175598
Ref: 387e11175598
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar save11176239
Ref: 387f11176239
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar load11177092
Ref: 386f11177092
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar revert11177657
Ref: 387011177657
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar filename11178054
Ref: 388011178054
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar delayload11178188
Ref: 388111178188
Node: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers11178606
Ref: library/http cookiejar file-cookie-jar-classes11178823
Ref: 387111178823
Ref: library/http cookiejar filecookiejar-subclasses-and-co-operation-with-web-browsers11178823
Ref: 388211178823
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar MozillaCookieJar11179051
Ref: 388311179051
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar LWPCookieJar11179864
Ref: 388411179864
Ref: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers-Footnote-111180344
Node: CookiePolicy 物件11180403
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-policy-objects11180612
Ref: 388511180612
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookiepolicy-objects11180612
Ref: 388611180612
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy set_ok11180761
Ref: 387811180761
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy return_ok11181087
Ref: 388711181087
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy domain_return_ok11181416
Ref: 388811181416
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy path_return_ok11182794
Ref: 388911182794
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy netscape11183243
Ref: 388a11183243
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy rfc296511183313
Ref: 388b11183313
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy hide_cookie211183385
Ref: 388c11183385
Ref: CookiePolicy 物件-Footnote-111183927
Ref: CookiePolicy 物件-Footnote-211183986
Node: DefaultCookiePolicy 物件11184045
Ref: library/http cookiejar default-cookie-policy-objects11184211
Ref: 388d11184211
Ref: library/http cookiejar defaultcookiepolicy-objects11184211
Ref: 388e11184211
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy blocked_domains11186526
Ref: 388f11186526
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy set_blocked_domains11186637
Ref: 389011186637
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_blocked11186751
Ref: 389111186751
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy allowed_domains11186899
Ref: 389211186899
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy set_allowed_domains11187035
Ref: 389311187035
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_not_allowed11187169
Ref: 389411187169
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy rfc2109_as_netscape11187509
Ref: 387211187509
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_domain11188093
Ref: 389511188093
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_rfc2965_unverifiable11188390
Ref: 389611188390
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_unverifiable11188765
Ref: 389711188765
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_domain11188911
Ref: 389811188911
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_initial_dollar11189089
Ref: 389911189089
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_path11189241
Ref: 389a11189241
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNoDots11189558
Ref: 389b11189558
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNonDomain11189794
Ref: 389c11189794
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainRFC2965Match11190137
Ref: 389d11190137
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainLiberal11190371
Ref: 389e11190371
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrict11190516
Ref: 389f11190516
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 物件-Footnote-111190664
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 物件-Footnote-211190723
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 物件-Footnote-311190782
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 物件-Footnote-411190841
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 物件-Footnote-511190900
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 物件-Footnote-611190959
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 物件-Footnote-711191018
Node: Cookie 物件<2>11191077
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-objects11191234
Ref: 38a011191234
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie version11191993
Ref: 38a111191993
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie name11192344
Ref: 38a211192344
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie value11192399
Ref: 38a311192399
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie port11192476
Ref: 38a411192476
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain11192604
Ref: 38a511192604
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie path11192663
Ref: 38a611192663
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie secure11192755
Ref: 38a711192755
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie expires11192859
Ref: 38a811192859
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie discard11193009
Ref: 38aa11193009
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie comment11193083
Ref: 38ab11193083
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie comment_url11193213
Ref: 38ac11193213
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie rfc210911193357
Ref: 38ad11193357
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie port_specified11193760
Ref: 38ae11193760
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain_specified11193936
Ref: 38af11193936
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain_initial_dot11194042
Ref: 38b011194042
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie has_nonstandard_attr11194295
Ref: 38b111194295
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie get_nonstandard_attr11194409
Ref: 38b211194409
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie set_nonstandard_attr11194571
Ref: 38b311194571
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie is_expired11194743
Ref: 38a911194743
Ref: Cookie 物件<2>-Footnote-111195036
Ref: Cookie 物件<2>-Footnote-211195095
Ref: Cookie 物件<2>-Footnote-311195154
Ref: Cookie 物件<2>-Footnote-411195213
Node: 範例<39>11195272
Ref: library/http cookiejar examples11195394
Ref: 38b411195394
Ref: 範例<39>-Footnote-111196841
Node: xmlrpc --- XMLRPC 伺服器與用戶模組11196900
Ref: library/xmlrpc doc11197129
Ref: 38b511197129
Ref: library/xmlrpc xmlrpc-xmlrpc-server-and-client-modules11197129
Ref: 38b611197129
Node: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取11197670
Ref: library/xmlrpc client doc11197891
Ref: 38b711197891
Ref: library/xmlrpc client module-xmlrpc client11197891
Ref: 12811197891
Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc-client-xml-rpc-client-access11197891
Ref: 38b811197891
Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy11199043
Ref: 8a111199043
Ref: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取-Footnote-111206530
Ref: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取-Footnote-211206603
Ref: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取-Footnote-311206697
Ref: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC 客戶端存取-Footnote-411206753
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Ref: library/turtle turtle mode11422466
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Ref: library/turtle turtle colormode11423631
Ref: 3a9011423631
Ref: library/turtle turtle getcanvas11424263
Ref: 3a9111424263
Ref: library/turtle turtle getshapes11424512
Ref: 3a9211424512
Ref: library/turtle turtle register_shape11424704
Ref: 3a9311424704
Ref: library/turtle turtle addshape11424757
Ref: 3a9411424757
Ref: library/turtle turtle turtles11425716
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Ref: library/turtle turtle window_height11425880
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Ref: library/turtle turtle window_width11426015
Ref: 3a9711426015
Node: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen11426147
Ref: library/turtle methods-specific-to-screen-not-inherited-from-turtlescreen11426337
Ref: 3ab611426337
Ref: library/turtle screenspecific11426337
Ref: 3ab711426337
Ref: library/turtle turtle bye11426478
Ref: 3a9811426478
Ref: library/turtle turtle exitonclick11426543
Ref: 3a9911426543
Ref: library/turtle turtle setup11426975
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Ref: library/turtle turtle title11428281
Ref: 3a9b11428281
Node: Public classes11428539
Ref: library/turtle public-classes11428711
Ref: 3ab811428711
Ref: library/turtle turtle RawTurtle11428762
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Ref: library/turtle turtle RawPen11428800
Ref: 3aba11428800
Ref: library/turtle turtle Turtle11429062
Ref: 3abc11429062
Ref: library/turtle turtle TurtleScreen11429255
Ref: 3aab11429255
Ref: library/turtle turtle Screen11429445
Ref: 3a2e11429445
Ref: library/turtle turtle ScrolledCanvas11429541
Ref: 3abb11429541
Ref: library/turtle turtle Shape11429831
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Ref: library/turtle turtle Shape addcomponent11430605
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Ref: library/turtle turtle Vec2D11431199
Ref: 3a9e11431199
Node: 解釋<2>11431729
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Ref: library/turtle turtle-explanation11431865
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Node: Help and configuration11433281
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Node: How to use help11433622
Ref: library/turtle how-to-use-help11433755
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Node: Translation of docstrings into different languages11436073
Ref: library/turtle translation-of-docstrings-into-different-languages11436250
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Ref: library/turtle turtle write_docstringdict11436554
Ref: 3ac111436554
Node: How to configure Screen and Turtles11437574
Ref: library/turtle how-to-configure-screen-and-turtles11437727
Ref: 3ac211437727
Node: turtledemo --- Demo scripts11440528
Ref: library/turtle module-turtledemo11440692
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Ref: library/turtle turtledemo-demo-scripts11440692
Ref: 3ac311440692
Node: Changes since Python 2 611446523
Ref: library/turtle changes-since-python-2-611446689
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Node: Changes since Python 3 011447727
Ref: library/turtle changes-since-python-3-011447857
Ref: 3ac511447857
Node: cmd --- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援11449165
Ref: library/cmd doc11449346
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Ref: library/cmd cmd-support-for-line-oriented-command-interpreters11449346
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Ref: library/cmd module-cmd11449346
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd11449794
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Ref: cmd --- 以列為導向的指令直譯器支援-Footnote-111450981
Node: Cmd 物件11451044
Ref: library/cmd cmd-objects11451158
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Ref: library/cmd id111451158
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd cmdloop11451253
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd do_help11453318
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd onecmd11453851
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd emptyline11454442
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd default11454640
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd completedefault11454837
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd columnize11455059
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd precmd11455295
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd postcmd11455774
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd preloop11456407
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd postloop11456601
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd prompt11456885
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd identchars11456951
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd lastcmd11457043
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd cmdqueue11457113
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd intro11457361
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd doc_header11457512
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd misc_header11457629
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd undoc_header11457845
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd ruler11458058
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd use_rawinput11458229
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Node: Cmd Example11458702
Ref: library/cmd cmd-example11458816
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Ref: library/cmd id211458816
Ref: 3ae011458816
Node: shlex --- 簡單的語法分析11464165
Ref: library/shlex doc11464301
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Ref: library/shlex module-shlex11464301
Ref: bf11464301
Ref: library/shlex shlex-simple-lexical-analysis11464301
Ref: 3ae211464301
Ref: library/shlex shlex split11464810
Ref: 2be11464810
Ref: library/shlex shlex join11465403
Ref: 87011465403
Ref: library/shlex shlex quote11465859
Ref: fba11465859
Ref: library/shlex shlex-quote-warning11466085
Ref: 2eed11466085
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex11467709
Ref: b3a11467709
Ref: shlex --- 簡單的語法分析-Footnote-111469933
Node: shlex 物件11469998
Ref: library/shlex id111470100
Ref: 3ae611470100
Ref: library/shlex shlex-objects11470100
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex get_token11470200
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex push_token11470563
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex read_token11470645
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex sourcehook11470884
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex push_source11472420
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex pop_source11472723
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex error_leader11472922
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex commenters11473651
Ref: 3ae311473651
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex wordchars11473870
Ref: 3ae511473870
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex whitespace11474563
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escape11474758
Ref: 3af311474758
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex quotes11474920
Ref: 3af411474920
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escapedquotes11475202
Ref: 3af511475202
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex whitespace_split11475428
Ref: 3af111475428
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex infile11475956
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex instream11476184
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex source11476306
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex debug11476893
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex lineno11477154
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex token11477247
Ref: 3af911477247
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex eof11477361
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex punctuation_chars11477534
Ref: 17b111477534
Node: Parsing Rules11477938
Ref: library/shlex parsing-rules11478083
Ref: 3afa11478083
Ref: library/shlex shlex-parsing-rules11478083
Ref: 3afb11478083
Node: Improved Compatibility with Shells11480102
Ref: library/shlex improved-compatibility-with-shells11480226
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Ref: library/shlex improved-shell-compatibility11480226
Ref: b3b11480226
Node: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces11483061
Ref: library/tk doc11483239
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Ref: library/tk graphical-user-interfaces-with-tk11483239
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Ref: library/tk tkinter11483239
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Ref: 以 Tk 打造圖形使用者介面 Graphical User Interfaces-Footnote-111485104
Node: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面11485156
Ref: library/tkinter doc11485344
Ref: 3b0011485344
Ref: library/tkinter module-tkinter11485344
Ref: ea11485344
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-python-interface-to-tcl-tk11485344
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Ref: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面-Footnote-111488251
Ref: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面-Footnote-211488328
Ref: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面-Footnote-311488356
Ref: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面-Footnote-411488396
Ref: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面-Footnote-511488453
Ref: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面-Footnote-611488480
Ref: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面-Footnote-711488517
Ref: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面-Footnote-811488615
Ref: tkinter --- Tcl/Tk 的 Python 介面-Footnote-911488667
Node: Architecture11488726
Ref: library/tkinter architecture11488835
Ref: 3b0211488835
Ref: Architecture-Footnote-111491159
Node: Tkinter Modules11491199
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-modules11491339
Ref: 3b0411491339
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk11491666
Ref: 147c11491666
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk tk11493813
Ref: 3b0611493813
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk master11494109
Ref: 3b0711494109
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk children11494676
Ref: 3b0811494676
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tcl11494883
Ref: 3b0511494883
Ref: library/tkinter module-_tkinter11496484
Ref: 311496484
Node: Tkinter Life Preserver11497582
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-life-preserver11497725
Ref: 3b0911497725
Node: A Hello World Program11498581
Ref: library/tkinter a-hello-world-program11498691
Ref: 3b0a11498691
Node: Important Tk Concepts11500144
Ref: library/tkinter important-tk-concepts11500301
Ref: 3b0b11500301
Node: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk11501643
Ref: library/tkinter understanding-how-tkinter-wraps-tcl-tk11501808
Ref: 3b0c11501808
Node: How do I ? What option does ?11503949
Ref: library/tkinter how-do-i-what-option-does11504131
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Node: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual11505869
Ref: library/tkinter navigating-the-tcl-tk-reference-manual11506004
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Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-111508070
Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-211508127
Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-311508186
Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-411508239
Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-511508295
Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-611508354
Node: Threading model11508408
Ref: library/tkinter threading-model11508551
Ref: 3b0311508551
Node: Handy Reference11511563
Ref: library/tkinter handy-reference11511697
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Node: Setting Options11511951
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-setting-options11512037
Ref: 3b1111512037
Ref: Setting Options-Footnote-111515267
Node: The Packer11515314
Ref: library/tkinter the-packer11515423
Ref: 3b1211515423
Node: Packer Options11517063
Ref: library/tkinter packer-options11517182
Ref: 3b1311517182
Node: Coupling Widget Variables11517880
Ref: library/tkinter coupling-widget-variables11518007
Ref: 3b1411518007
Node: The Window Manager11520208
Ref: library/tkinter the-window-manager11520341
Ref: 3b1511520341
Node: Tk Option Data Types11521726
Ref: library/tkinter tk-option-data-types11521853
Ref: 3b1611521853
Node: Bindings and Events11524909
Ref: library/tkinter bindings-and-events11525037
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Ref: library/tkinter id211525037
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Ref: Bindings and Events-Footnote-111527882
Node: The index Parameter11527928
Ref: library/tkinter the-index-parameter11528042
Ref: 3b1911528042
Node: Images11529970
Ref: library/tkinter images11530056
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Ref: Images-Footnote-111530989
Node: File Handlers11531024
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-file-handlers11531134
Ref: 3b1c11531134
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Widget tk createfilehandler11532074
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Widget tk deletefilehandler11532509
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter READABLE11532591
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter WRITABLE11532621
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter EXCEPTION11532651
Ref: 3b2111532651
Node: tkinter colorchooser --- 顏色選擇對話框11532729
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Ref: 3b2211532966
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser module-tkinter colorchooser11532966
Ref: eb11532966
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter-colorchooser-color-choosing-dialog11532966
Ref: 3b2311532966
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter colorchooser Chooser11533432
Ref: 3b2411533432
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter colorchooser askcolor11533499
Ref: 3b2611533499
Ref: tkinter colorchooser --- 顏色選擇對話框-Footnote-111533885
Node: tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器11533966
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Ref: 3b2711534184
Ref: library/tkinter font module-tkinter font11534184
Ref: ef11534184
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter-font-tkinter-font-wrapper11534184
Ref: 3b2811534184
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font NORMAL11534556
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font BOLD11534588
Ref: 3b2a11534588
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font ITALIC11534618
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font ROMAN11534650
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font11534682
Ref: 16e011534682
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font actual11536132
Ref: 3b2d11536132
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font cget11536223
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font config11536303
Ref: 3b2f11536303
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font copy11536382
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font measure11536453
Ref: 3b3111536453
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font metrics11536687
Ref: 3b3211536687
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font families11537261
Ref: 3b3311537261
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font names11537361
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font nametofont11537445
Ref: 16e211537445
Ref: tkinter font --- Tkinter 字型包裝器-Footnote-111537663
Node: Tkinter 對話框11537735
Ref: library/dialog doc11537950
Ref: 3b3511537950
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-dialogs11537950
Ref: 3b3611537950
Node: tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框11538310
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter simpledialog11538473
Ref: f211538473
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-simpledialog-standard-tkinter-input-dialogs11538473
Ref: 3b3711538473
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askfloat11538868
Ref: 3b3811538868
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askinteger11538932
Ref: 16e311538932
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askstring11538998
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog11539176
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog body11539279
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog buttonbox11539431
Ref: 3b3c11539431
Ref: tkinter simpledialog --- 標準 Tkinter 輸入對話框-Footnote-111539602
Node: tkinter filedialog --- File selection dialogs11539683
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter filedialog11539903
Ref: ee11539903
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-filedialog-file-selection-dialogs11539903
Ref: 3b3d11539903
Ref: tkinter filedialog --- File selection dialogs-Footnote-111540335
Node: Native Load/Save Dialogs11540414
Ref: library/dialog native-load-save-dialogs11540520
Ref: 3b3e11540520
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfile11541523
Ref: 3b3f11541523
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfiles11541588
Ref: 3b4011541588
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog asksaveasfile11541781
Ref: 3b4211541781
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfilename11541948
Ref: 3b4411541948
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfilenames11542007
Ref: 3b4511542007
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog asksaveasfilename11542216
Ref: 3b4611542216
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askdirectory11542359
Ref: 3b4711542359
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Open11542583
Ref: 3b4111542583
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveAs11542644
Ref: 3b4311542644
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Directory11542966
Ref: 3b4811542966
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog11543201
Ref: 3b4911543201
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog cancel_command11543309
Ref: 3b4a11543309
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_double_event11543412
Ref: 3b4b11543412
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_select_event11543518
Ref: 3b4c11543518
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_double_event11543617
Ref: 3b4d11543617
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_select_event11543719
Ref: 3b4e11543719
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog filter_command11543821
Ref: 3b4f11543821
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_filter11543909
Ref: 3b5011543909
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_selection11543995
Ref: 3b5111543995
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog go11544079
Ref: 3b5211544079
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog ok_event11544221
Ref: 3b5311544221
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog quit11544308
Ref: 3b5411544308
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_filter11544393
Ref: 3b5511544393
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_selection11544465
Ref: 3b5611544465
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog11544560
Ref: 3b5711544560
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog ok_command11544725
Ref: 3b5811544725
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog11544866
Ref: 3b5911544866
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog ok_command11545033
Ref: 3b5a11545033
Node: tkinter commondialog --- Dialog window templates11545245
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter commondialog11545401
Ref: ec11545401
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-commondialog-dialog-window-templates11545401
Ref: 3b5b11545401
Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog11545793
Ref: 3b2511545793
Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog show11545859
Ref: 3b5c11545859
Ref: tkinter commondialog --- Dialog window templates-Footnote-111546063
Node: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示11546144
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox doc11546365
Ref: 3b5d11546365
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox module-tkinter messagebox11546365
Ref: f011546365
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter-messagebox-tkinter-message-prompts11546365
Ref: 3b5e11546365
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message11547038
Ref: 3b6311547038
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message show11548854
Ref: 3b6811548854
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showinfo11549096
Ref: 3b6911549096
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showwarning11549274
Ref: 3b6a11549274
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showerror11549436
Ref: 3b6b11549436
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askquestion11549615
Ref: 3b6c11549615
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askokcancel11549847
Ref: 3b6d11549847
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askretrycancel11550107
Ref: 3b6e11550107
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesno11550373
Ref: 3b7011550373
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesnocancel11550616
Ref: 3b7111550616
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-buttons11550926
Ref: 3b6411550926
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ABORT11550952
Ref: 3b7211550952
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox RETRY11551000
Ref: 3b6f11551000
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox IGNORE11551048
Ref: 3b7311551048
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox OK11551098
Ref: 3b5f11551098
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox CANCEL11551140
Ref: 3b6011551140
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YES11551190
Ref: 3b6111551190
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox NO11551234
Ref: 3b6211551234
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-types11551275
Ref: 3b6711551275
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ABORTRETRYIGNORE11551307
Ref: 3b7411551307
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox OKCANCEL11551602
Ref: 3b7511551602
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox RETRYCANCEL11551745
Ref: 3b7611551745
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNO11551902
Ref: 3b7711551902
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNOCANCEL11552036
Ref: 3b7811552036
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-icons11552208
Ref: 3b6511552208
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ERROR11552225
Ref: 3b7911552225
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox INFO11552273
Ref: 3b6611552273
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox QUESTION11552319
Ref: 3b7a11552319
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox WARNING11552373
Ref: 3b7b11552373
Ref: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter 訊息提示-Footnote-111552461
Node: tkinter scrolledtext --- 捲動文字小工具11552540
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Ref: 3b7c11552772
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext module-tkinter scrolledtext11552772
Ref: f111552772
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter-scrolledtext-scrolled-text-widget11552772
Ref: 3b7d11552772
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText11553676
Ref: 3b7e11553676
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText frame11553743
Ref: 3b7f11553743
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText vbar11553837
Ref: 3b8011553837
Ref: tkinter scrolledtext --- 捲動文字小工具-Footnote-111553930
Node: tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援11554011
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Ref: library/tkinter dnd module-tkinter dnd11554237
Ref: ed11554237
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter-dnd-drag-and-drop-support11554237
Ref: 3b8211554237
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler11555711
Ref: 3b8411555711
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler cancel11555900
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Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler finish11555983
Ref: 3b8611555983
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler on_motion11556077
Ref: 3b8711556077
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler on_release11556203
Ref: 3b8811556203
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd dnd_start11556309
Ref: 3b8311556309
Ref: tkinter dnd --- 拖放支援-Footnote-111556498
Node: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具11556569
Ref: library/tkinter ttk doc11556783
Ref: 3b8911556783
Ref: library/tkinter ttk module-tkinter ttk11556783
Ref: f411556783
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter-ttk-tk-themed-widgets11556783
Ref: 3b8a11556783
Ref: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具-Footnote-111557701
Ref: tkinter ttk --- Tk 主題化小工具-Footnote-211557772
Node: 使用 Ttk11557825
Ref: library/tkinter ttk using-ttk11557929
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Node: Ttk Widgets11559140
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-widgets11559259
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Node: Widget11560368
Ref: library/tkinter ttk widget11560485
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Node: 標準選項11560792
Ref: library/tkinter ttk standard-options11560881
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Node: Scrollable Widget Options11562403
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk label-options11563656
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Node: 相容性選項11565987
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk widget-states11566647
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Node: ttk Widget11568130
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-widget11568205
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget11568392
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget identify11568424
Ref: 3b9b11568424
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget instate11568667
Ref: 3b9c11568667
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget state11569009
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Node: Combobox11569397
Ref: library/tkinter ttk combobox11569510
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk options11570278
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk virtual-events11572619
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox11572926
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox current11572960
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox get11573236
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox set11573315
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Node: Spinbox11573399
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Ref: 3ba411573514
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk id111574351
Ref: 3ba511574351
Node: Virtual events<2>11576718
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id211576817
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Node: ttk Spinbox11577025
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-spinbox11577106
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox11577151
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox get11577184
Ref: 3ba811577184
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox set11577262
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Node: Notebook11577345
Ref: library/tkinter ttk notebook11577463
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Node: 選項<3>11577819
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Node: Tab Options11578961
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tab-options11579059
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Node: Tab Identifiers11580905
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tab-identifiers11581006
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Node: 虛擬事件11581528
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Node: ttk Notebook11581766
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook identify11582640
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook insert11582957
Ref: 3bb611582957
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook select11583320
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook tab11583634
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook tabs11583980
Ref: 3bb911583980
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook enable_traversal11584068
Ref: 3bad11584068
Node: Progressbar11584895
Ref: library/tkinter ttk progressbar11585015
Ref: 3bba11585015
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk id511585535
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Node: ttk Progressbar11587206
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-progressbar11587287
Ref: 3bbc11587287
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar11587340
Ref: 3b8f11587340
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar start11587377
Ref: 3bbd11587377
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar step11587645
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar stop11587790
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Node: Separator11587975
Ref: library/tkinter ttk separator11588095
Ref: 3bc011588095
Node: 選項<5>11588323
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id611588378
Ref: 3bc111588378
Node: Sizegrip11588717
Ref: library/tkinter ttk sizegrip11588834
Ref: 3bc211588834
Node: Platform-specific notes11589184
Ref: library/tkinter ttk platform-specific-notes11589265
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Node: Bugs11589521
Ref: library/tkinter ttk bugs11589602
Ref: 3bc411589602
Node: Treeview11589869
Ref: library/tkinter ttk treeview11589988
Ref: 3bc511589988
Node: 選項<6>11591340
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id711591415
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Node: Item Options11593788
Ref: library/tkinter ttk item-options11593883
Ref: 3bca11593883
Node: Tag Options11594934
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tag-options11595038
Ref: 3bcb11595038
Node: Column Identifiers11595683
Ref: library/tkinter ttk column-identifiers11595790
Ref: 3bc611595790
Node: 虛擬事件<2>11596657
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Ref: 3bcc11596765
Node: ttk Treeview11597586
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview bbox11597748
Ref: 3bcf11597748
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview get_children11598183
Ref: 3bd011598183
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview set_children11598349
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview column11598735
Ref: 3bd211598735
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview delete11599959
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview detach11600105
Ref: 3bd411600105
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview exists11600416
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview focus11600526
Ref: 3bcd11600526
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview heading11600715
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify11601698
Ref: 3bd711601698
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_row11601935
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_column11602030
Ref: 3bd911602030
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_region11602191
Ref: 3bda11602191
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_element11602827
Ref: 3bdb11602827
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview index11602955
Ref: 3bdc11602955
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview insert11603081
Ref: 3bdd11603081
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview item11603955
Ref: 3bde11603955
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview move11604333
Ref: 3bdf11604333
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview next11604768
Ref: 3be011604768
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview parent11604916
Ref: 3be111604916
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview prev11605063
Ref: 3be211605063
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview reattach11605216
Ref: 3be311605216
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview see11605325
Ref: 3be411605325
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection11605577
Ref: 8e311605577
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_set11605823
Ref: 8e511605823
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_add11606026
Ref: 3be511606026
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_remove11606222
Ref: 3be611606222
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_toggle11606423
Ref: 3be711606423
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview set11606646
Ref: 3be811606646
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_bind11607011
Ref: 3be911607011
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_configure11607279
Ref: 3bea11607279
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_has11607708
Ref: 3beb11607708
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview xview11607993
Ref: 3bc711607993
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview yview11608089
Ref: 3bc811608089
Node: Ttk Styling11608183
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-styling11608285
Ref: 3bec11608285
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttkstyling11608285
Ref: 3b9111608285
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style11608870
Ref: 3b9211608870
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style configure11608960
Ref: 3bed11608960
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style map11609687
Ref: 16f311609687
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style lookup11610952
Ref: 3bee11610952
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style layout11611473
Ref: 3bef11611473
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_create11612785
Ref: 146a11612785
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_names11615038
Ref: 3bf111615038
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_options11615143
Ref: 3bf211615143
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_create11615246
Ref: 3bf311615246
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_settings11615659
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_names11617118
Ref: 3bf511617118
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_use11617193
Ref: 3bf611617193
Ref: Ttk Styling-Footnote-111617490
Node: Layouts11617552
Ref: library/tkinter ttk layouts11617607
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk layout11618675
Ref: 3bf711618675
Node: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具11618676
Ref: library/tkinter tix doc11618870
Ref: 3bf811618870
Ref: library/tkinter tix module-tkinter tix11618870
Ref: f311618870
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter-tix-extension-widgets-for-tk11618870
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Ref: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具-Footnote-111620769
Ref: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具-Footnote-211620840
Ref: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具-Footnote-311620877
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Ref: tkinter tix --- Tk 擴充小工具-Footnote-511620992
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Ref: 3c0011621150
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Node: Tix Widgets11622158
Ref: library/tkinter tix tix-widgets11622277
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Ref: Tix Widgets-Footnote-111622616
Node: Basic Widgets11622695
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Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix ButtonBox11623105
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Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix Meter11624311
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Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix OptionMenu11624465
Ref: 3c0911624465
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Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix Select11624808
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Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-111625179
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-211625260
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-311625343
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Node: File Selectors11626088
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Node: Hierarchical ListBox11628868
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Node: Manager Widgets11630833
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Node: Image Types11632412
Ref: library/tkinter tix image-types11632525
Ref: 3c1b11632525
Ref: Image Types-Footnote-111633134
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Node: Miscellaneous Widgets11633290
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Node: Form Geometry Manager11633757
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Node: Tix 指令11634230
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Ref: 3c2011634331
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Ref: 3c2111634372
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Ref: 3c2511636288
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Node: IDLE<62>11639207
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Ref: library/idle editing-and-navigation11654668
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Ref: library/idle id211654668
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Node: Automatic indentation11657097
Ref: library/idle automatic-indentation11657225
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Node: Search and Replace11657807
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Node: Calltips11661004
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Node: Code Context11662724
Ref: library/idle code-context11662833
Ref: 3c3c11662833
Ref: library/idle id511662833
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Node: Shell window11663723
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Ref: library/doctest doctest-test-interactive-python-examples11841531
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Ref: library/doctest module-doctest11841531
Ref: 3611841531
Ref: doctest --- 測試互動式 Python 範例-Footnote-111845627
Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings11845694
Ref: library/doctest doctest-simple-testmod11845870
Ref: 3cd811845870
Ref: library/doctest simple-usage-checking-examples-in-docstrings11845870
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Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File11847643
Ref: library/doctest doctest-simple-testfile11847840
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Ref: library/doctest simple-usage-checking-examples-in-a-text-file11847840
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Node: How It Works11850184
Ref: library/doctest doctest-how-it-works11850347
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Ref: library/doctest how-it-works11850347
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Node: Which Docstrings Are Examined?11850996
Ref: library/doctest doctest-which-docstrings11851122
Ref: 3ce011851122
Ref: library/doctest which-docstrings-are-examined11851122
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Node: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?11852616
Ref: library/doctest doctest-finding-examples11852780
Ref: 3ce211852780
Ref: library/doctest how-are-docstring-examples-recognized11852780
Ref: 3ce311852780
Node: What's the Execution Context?11855890
Ref: library/doctest doctest-execution-context11856046
Ref: 3ce711856046
Ref: library/doctest what-s-the-execution-context11856046
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Node: What About Exceptions?11856754
Ref: library/doctest doctest-exceptions11856884
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Ref: library/doctest what-about-exceptions11856884
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Ref: library/doctest option-flags-and-directives11861427
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Ref: What About Exceptions?-Footnote-111861464
Node: 可選旗標11861664
Ref: library/doctest doctest-options11861775
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Ref: library/doctest option-flags11861775
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_111862387
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE11863013
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Ref: library/doctest doctest NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE11863468
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Ref: library/doctest doctest ELLIPSIS11863960
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Ref: library/doctest doctest IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL11864393
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Ref: library/doctest doctest SKIP11865855
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Ref: library/doctest doctest COMPARISON_FLAGS11866365
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Ref: library/doctest doctest REPORT_UDIFF11866537
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Ref: library/doctest doctest REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE11867323
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Ref: library/doctest doctest REPORTING_FLAGS11868371
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Node: Directives11869112
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Node: 警告<2>11871768
Ref: library/doctest doctest-warnings11871845
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Node: 基礎 API11873558
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Node: Unittest API11880695
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DocFileSuite11881596
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Node: Advanced API11889960
Ref: library/doctest advanced-api11890089
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Node: DocTest 物件11892216
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Node: Example 物件11894167
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Ref: library/doctest doctest Example indent11896061
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Node: DocTestFinder 物件11896654
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Node: DocTestParser 物件11900084
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestRunner run11906155
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Node: OutputChecker 物件11907577
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Node: unittest --- 單元測試框架11921032
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Ref: unittest --- 單元測試框架-Footnote-111924367
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Ref: unittest --- 單元測試框架-Footnote-811924755
Ref: unittest --- 單元測試框架-Footnote-911924799
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Ref: library/unittest basic-example11924966
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Ref: library/unittest unittest-minimal-example11924966
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Node: 命令執行列介面 Command-Line Interface11927835
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Node: 命令列模式選項11929399
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Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-locals11930976
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Node: Test Discovery（測試探索）11931489
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Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-top-level-directory11932816
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Node: Organizing test code11935202
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Node: Re-using old test code11940125
Ref: library/unittest legacy-unit-tests11940289
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Node: Skipping tests and expected failures11941831
Ref: library/unittest skipping-tests-and-expected-failures11942020
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Node: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests11946326
Ref: library/unittest distinguishing-test-iterations-using-subtests11946514
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Node: Classes and functions11949100
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Node: Test cases11949479
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Ref: library/unittest unittest TestSuite countTestCases11996392
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Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult stop12011586
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Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult startTest12012545
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Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult addSuccess12013940
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Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult addDuration12015778
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Ref: library/unittest unittest TextTestResult12016024
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Ref: library/unittest unittest defaultTestLoader12016418
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Ref: library/unittest unittest TextTestRunner run12018718
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Ref: library/unittest unittest main12019079
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Node: load_tests Protocol12022006
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Ref: library/unittest load-tests-protocol12022087
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Ref: 3d6612024900
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Ref: library/unittest setupclass-and-teardownclass12026913
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Ref: library/unittest unittest installHandler12031446
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Ref: library/unittest mock doc12032952
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Ref: 10212032952
Ref: library/unittest mock unittest-mock-mock-object-library12032952
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Ref: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫-Footnote-112034709
Ref: unittest mock — mock 物件函式庫-Footnote-212034782
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Ref: library/unittest mock the-mock-class12040352
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock12041320
Ref: 89612041320
Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_called12044560
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_called_once12044842
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_called_with12045428
Ref: 180612045428
Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_called_once_with12045814
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_any_call12046391
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_has_calls12047061
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_not_called12047951
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock reset_mock12048385
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock mock_add_spec12049997
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock attach_mock12050344
Ref: 140a12050344
Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock configure_mock12050638
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock __dir__12051854
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock _get_child_mock12052180
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock called12052585
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock call_count12052873
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock return_value12053178
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock side_effect12053964
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock call_args12056419
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock call_args_list12058145
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock method_calls12059135
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock mock_calls12059881
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock __class__12061396
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock NonCallableMock12062152
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock PropertyMock12064612
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock12066484
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_awaited12069201
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_awaited_once12069907
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_awaited_with12070465
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_awaited_once_with12071125
Ref: 3dbb12071125
Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_any_await12071824
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_has_awaits12072444
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_not_awaited12073551
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock reset_mock12073717
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock await_count12073966
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock await_args12074386
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock await_args_list12074983
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Ref: Mock 類別-Footnote-112075794
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Ref: library/unittest mock deleting-attributes12079615
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Ref: library/unittest mock id212079615
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Node: Mock 名稱與名稱屬性12080376
Ref: library/unittest mock mock-names-and-the-name-attribute12080509
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock patch12084006
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock patch dict12094503
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock patch stopall12104200
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Ref: library/unittest mock patch-builtins12104432
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Ref: Patch 描述器與代理物件 Proxy Objects-Footnote-112109160
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Ref: Mock 魔術方法-Footnote-212113765
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Ref: mock_open-Footnote-112130697
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Ref: library/2to3 to3fixer-tuple_params12215373
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Ref: library/2to3 to3fixer-urllib12215685
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Ref: lib2to3 --- 2to3's library-Footnote-112217413
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Ref: library/test writing-unit-tests-for-the-test-package12219448
Ref: 3e4312219448
Node: 使用命令列介面執行測試12224004
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Node: test support --- Python 測試套件的工具12226071
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Ref: library/test test support Matcher match_value12253082
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Ref: test support --- Python 測試套件的工具-Footnote-112253257
Node: test support socket_helper --- 用於 socket 測試的工具12253337
Ref: library/test module-test support socket_helper12253575
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Node: test support script_helper --- 用於 Python 執行測試的工具12256836
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Ref: library/test test support script_helper make_pkg12260844
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Node: test support bytecode_helper --- 用於測試位元組碼能正確產生的支援工具12261563
Ref: library/test module-test support bytecode_helper12261846
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Ref: library/test test-support-bytecode-helper-support-tools-for-testing-correct-bytecode-generation12261846
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Ref: library/test test support bytecode_helper BytecodeTestCase assertNotInBytecode12262634
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Node: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests12262789
Ref: library/test module-test support threading_helper12263058
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Ref: library/test test support threading_helper wait_threads_exit12264451
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Ref: library/test test support threading_helper catch_threading_exception12264622
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Node: test support os_helper --- 用於 os 測試的工具12265578
Ref: library/test module-test support os_helper12265820
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper temp_umask12271618
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Node: test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具12271980
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Ref: test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具-Footnote-112276553
Ref: test support import_helper --- 用於 import 測試的工具-Footnote-212276595
Node: test support warnings_helper --- 用於 warnings 測試的工具12276637
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Node: 稽核事件表12283073
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Ref: 稽核事件表-Footnote-112342692
Node: bdb --- 偵錯器框架12342734
Ref: library/bdb doc12342885
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Ref: library/bdb bdb set_trace12359236
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Ref: bdb --- 偵錯器框架-Footnote-112359383
Node: faulthandler --- 傾印 Python 回溯12359446
Ref: library/faulthandler doc12359609
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler-dump-the-python-traceback12359609
Ref: 3f4e12359609
Ref: library/faulthandler module-faulthandler12359609
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Node: Dumping the traceback12361990
Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-traceback12362113
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler dump_traceback12362176
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Node: Fault handler state12362598
Ref: library/faulthandler fault-handler-state12362768
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler enable12362827
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler is_enabled12363814
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Node: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout12363899
Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-tracebacks-after-a-timeout12364086
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Ref: timeit --- 測量小量程式片段的執行時間-Footnote-112426257
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Ref: trace --- 追蹤或追查 Python 陳述式執行-Footnote-112440508
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Ref: tracemalloc --- 追蹤記憶體配置-Footnote-112449156
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Ref: ensurepip --- pip 安裝器的初始建置 bootstrapping-Footnote-112480342
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_makefile_filename12657778
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Ref: library/__main__ name-main12661796
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Node: 什麼是「頂層程式碼環境」？12662591
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Ref: 打包時須考慮的事情-Footnote-112668207
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Ref: library/__main__ import-main12671333
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Ref: library/warnings doc12674578
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Ref: warnings --- 警告控制-Footnote-112676872
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Ref: library/warnings warning-categories12677048
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Ref: library/warnings warning-filter12681192
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Ref: library/warnings warning-disable12688377
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses dataclass12705213
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses field12714976
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses Field12719414
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses fields12720165
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses replace12724097
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses is_dataclass12725496
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses MISSING12725973
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Ref: 411412726078
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses FrozenInstanceError12727023
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Ref: 模組內容<8>-Footnote-112727331
Ref: 模組內容<8>-Footnote-212727386
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Node: contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts12739760
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Ref: contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts-Footnote-112740603
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib asynccontextmanager12744885
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib closing12747127
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib aclosing12748366
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Ref: Using a context manager as a function decorator-Footnote-112775696
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Ref: abc --- 抽象基底類別-Footnote-112794816
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Ref: library/atexit id112798439
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature12833530
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Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE12847519
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Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_SAVEALL12847893
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Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_LEAK12848100
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Ref: gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface-Footnote-112848339
Ref: gc --- 垃圾回收器介面 Garbage Collector interface-Footnote-212848428
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Ref: library/inspect doc12848673
Ref: 417d12848673
Ref: library/inspect inspect-inspect-live-objects12848673
Ref: 417e12848673
Ref: library/inspect module-inspect12848752
Ref: 7812848752
Ref: inspect --- 檢視活動物件-Footnote-112849886
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Ref: 178612850061
Ref: library/inspect types-and-members12850061
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getmembers12867116
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getmembers_static12867727
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getmodulename12868464
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Ref: library/inspect inspect ismodule12869123
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isfunction12869467
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isgeneratorfunction12869643
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isgenerator12869933
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Ref: library/inspect inspect iscoroutinefunction12870032
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Ref: library/inspect inspect markcoroutinefunction12870694
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Ref: library/inspect inspect iscoroutine12871283
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isawaitable12871469
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isasyncgenfunction12871943
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isasyncgen12872452
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Ref: library/inspect inspect istraceback12872680
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isframe12872776
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Ref: library/inspect inspect iscode12872864
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isbuiltin12872958
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Ref: library/inspect inspect ismethodwrapper12873092
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isroutine12873395
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isabstract12873525
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Ref: library/inspect inspect ismethoddescriptor12873632
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isdatadescriptor12874524
Ref: 418d12874524
Ref: library/inspect inspect isgetsetdescriptor12875154
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Ref: library/inspect inspect ismemberdescriptor12875496
Ref: 418f12875496
Node: 取得原始碼12875850
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Ref: 419012876016
Ref: library/inspect retrieving-source-code12876016
Ref: 419112876016
Ref: library/inspect inspect getdoc12876064
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getcomments12876568
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getfile12876986
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getmodule12877218
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getsourcelines12877675
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getsource12878386
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Ref: library/inspect inspect cleandoc12878933
Ref: 419212878933
Node: Introspecting callables with the Signature object12879342
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Ref: 419412879506
Ref: library/inspect introspecting-callables-with-the-signature-object12879506
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Ref: library/inspect inspect signature12879837
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature12882403
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature empty12883478
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature parameters12883595
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature return_annotation12884083
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature bind12884291
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature bind_partial12884568
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature replace12884944
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature from_callable12885697
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter12886411
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter empty12886792
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter name12886920
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter default12887376
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter kind12887749
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter replace12891188
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments12892199
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments arguments12892402
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments signature12893634
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments apply_defaults12893729
Ref: c8f12893729
Ref: Introspecting callables with the Signature object-Footnote-112894702
Node: 類別與函式12894744
Ref: library/inspect classes-and-functions12894908
Ref: 41a512894908
Ref: library/inspect inspect-classes-functions12894908
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getclasstree12894956
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getfullargspec12895533
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getargvalues12897891
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Ref: library/inspect inspect formatargvalues12898396
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getmro12898866
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getcallargs12899224
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getclosurevars12900585
Ref: f6412900585
Ref: library/inspect inspect unwrap12901297
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Ref: library/inspect inspect get_annotations12902028
Ref: 63612902028
Node: 直譯器堆疊12904924
Ref: library/inspect inspect-stack12905069
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Ref: library/inspect the-interpreter-stack12905069
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Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo12905374
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback12906761
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback function12907104
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback code_context12907237
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback index12907403
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback positions12907532
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getframeinfo12909458
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getouterframes12909721
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getinnerframes12910312
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Ref: library/inspect inspect currentframe12910900
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Ref: library/inspect inspect stack12911283
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Ref: library/inspect inspect trace12911767
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Node: Fetching attributes statically12912342
Ref: library/inspect fetching-attributes-statically12912538
Ref: 41b912912538
Ref: library/inspect inspect getattr_static12913120
Ref: 1b212913120
Node: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators12914923
Ref: library/inspect current-state-of-generators-coroutines-and-asynchronous-generators12915126
Ref: 41ba12915126
Ref: library/inspect inspect getgeneratorstate12915608
Ref: 10c912915608
Ref: library/inspect inspect getcoroutinestate12916001
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getasyncgenstate12916615
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getcoroutinelocals12918315
Ref: c9212918315
Ref: library/inspect inspect getasyncgenlocals12918550
Ref: 1b112918550
Node: Code Objects Bit Flags12918835
Ref: library/inspect code-objects-bit-flags12919020
Ref: 41bb12919020
Ref: library/inspect inspect-module-co-flags12919020
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Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_OPTIMIZED12919190
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Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_COROUTINE12919927
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Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE12920166
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Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR12920483
Ref: 41c412920483
Ref: Code Objects Bit Flags-Footnote-112921132
Ref: Code Objects Bit Flags-Footnote-212921174
Ref: Code Objects Bit Flags-Footnote-312921216
Node: Buffer flags12921258
Ref: library/inspect buffer-flags12921395
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags12921442
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags SIMPLE12921754
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags WRITABLE12921779
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags FORMAT12921806
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags ND12921831
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags C_CONTIGUOUS12921878
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags F_CONTIGUOUS12921909
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags ANY_CONTIGUOUS12921940
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags INDIRECT12921973
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags CONTIG12922000
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags CONTIG_RO12922025
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags STRIDED12922053
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags STRIDED_RO12922079
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags RECORDS12922108
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags FULL12922163
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags READ12922212
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags WRITE12922235
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Node: 命令列介面<6>12922288
Ref: library/inspect command-line-interface12922394
Ref: 41da12922394
Ref: library/inspect inspect-module-cli12922394
Ref: de812922394
Ref: library/inspect cmdoption-inspect-details12922752
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Node: site --- Site-specific configuration hook12922859
Ref: library/site doc12922997
Ref: 41dc12922997
Ref: library/site module-site12922997
Ref: c212922997
Ref: library/site site-site-specific-configuration-hook12922997
Ref: 41dd12922997
Ref: site --- Site-specific configuration hook-Footnote-112927407
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Ref: library/site module-sitecustomize12927584
Ref: c312927584
Ref: library/site sitecustomize12927584
Ref: 41de12927584
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Ref: library/site module-usercustomize12928492
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Ref: library/site usercustomize12928492
Ref: 41df12928492
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Ref: 41e112929447
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Ref: e5b12929447
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Ref: library/site module-contents12930266
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Ref: library/site site PREFIXES12930309
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Ref: 命令列介面<7>-Footnote-112934738
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Ref: library/custominterp doc12934930
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Ref: library/custominterp custom-python-interpreters12934930
Ref: 41ea12934930
Ref: library/custominterp custominterp12934930
Ref: 41eb12934930
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Ref: library/code code-interpreter-base-classes12935679
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Ref: library/code module-code12935679
Ref: 1812935679
Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter12936083
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Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole12936595
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Ref: library/code code interact12936906
Ref: 41ee12936906
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Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter showsyntaxerror12940970
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Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter showtraceback12941440
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Ref: library/code interactive-console-objects12942173
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Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole interact12942437
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Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole resetbuffer12943988
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Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole raw_input12944097
Ref: 41ef12944097
Node: codeop --- 編譯 Python 程式碼12944458
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Ref: 41fc12944591
Ref: library/codeop codeop-compile-python-code12944591
Ref: 41fd12944591
Ref: library/codeop module-codeop12944591
Ref: 1a12944591
Ref: library/codeop codeop compile_command12945544
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Ref: codeop --- 編譯 Python 程式碼-Footnote-112947778
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Ref: 420012947992
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Ref: library/modules modules12947992
Ref: 420212947992
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Ref: 420312949224
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Ref: 12c12949224
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport ZipImportError12951367
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Ref: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組-Footnote-112951649
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Ref: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組-Footnote-312951786
Ref: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組-Footnote-412951828
Ref: zipimport --- 從 Zip 封存檔案匯入模組-Footnote-512951870
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter invalidate_caches12954945
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter archive12955125
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter prefix12955253
Ref: 420f12955253
Node: 範例<44>12955657
Ref: library/zipimport examples12955777
Ref: 421012955777
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport-examples12955777
Ref: 421112955777
Node: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式12956469
Ref: library/pkgutil doc12956665
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Ref: library/pkgutil module-pkgutil12956665
Ref: a412956665
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil-package-extension-utility12956665
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil ModuleInfo12956950
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil extend_path12957116
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Ref: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式-Footnote-112966433
Ref: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式-Footnote-212966500
Ref: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式-Footnote-312966542
Ref: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式-Footnote-412966584
Ref: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式-Footnote-512966626
Ref: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式-Footnote-612966668
Ref: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式-Footnote-712966710
Ref: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式-Footnote-812966752
Ref: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式-Footnote-912966794
Ref: pkgutil --- 套件擴充工具程式-Footnote-1012966836
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Ref: library/modulefinder module-modulefinder12967091
Ref: 8c12967091
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-find-modules-used-by-a-script12967091
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Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder AddPackagePath12967569
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Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ReplacePackage12967705
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Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder12967851
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Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder report12968449
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Ref: modulefinder --- 搜尋腳本所使用的模組-Footnote-112968975
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Ref: 422012969159
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-example12969159
Ref: 421f12969159
Node: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組12970472
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Ref: library/runpy module-runpy12970655
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Ref: library/runpy runpy run_module12971666
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Ref: library/runpy runpy run_path12975094
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Ref: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組-Footnote-112979544
Ref: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組-Footnote-212979609
Ref: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組-Footnote-312979651
Ref: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組-Footnote-412979693
Ref: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組-Footnote-512979735
Ref: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組-Footnote-612979777
Ref: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組-Footnote-712979819
Ref: runpy --- 定位並執行 Python 模組-Footnote-812979861
Node: importlib --- import 的實作12979903
Ref: library/importlib doc12980105
Ref: 422312980105
Ref: library/importlib importlib-the-implementation-of-import12980105
Ref: 422412980105
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib12980105
Ref: 7112980105
Ref: importlib --- import 的實作-Footnote-112980742
Node: 簡介<9>12980821
Ref: library/importlib introduction12980916
Ref: 422512980916
Ref: 簡介<9>-Footnote-112983175
Ref: 簡介<9>-Footnote-212983227
Ref: 簡介<9>-Footnote-312983269
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Ref: 簡介<9>-Footnote-1112983606
Ref: 簡介<9>-Footnote-1212983649
Ref: 簡介<9>-Footnote-1312983692
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader12993137
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceLoader get_data12996783
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader get_source12998233
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader is_package12998813
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader source_to_code12999182
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader get_data13001839
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader13001960
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader path_mtime13003834
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader get_code13004880
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader exec_module13005003
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader13005866
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader open_resource13007710
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader resource_path13007971
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader is_resource13008207
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader contents13008421
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable13009290
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable name13009731
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable iterdir13009846
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable is_dir13009948
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable is_file13010050
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable joinpath13010148
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable __truediv__13010249
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable open13010359
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable read_bytes13010715
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable read_text13010796
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc TraversableResources13010888
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc TraversableResources files13011658
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Ref: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-113011846
Ref: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-213011919
Ref: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-313011961
Ref: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-413012003
Ref: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-513012045
Node: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks13012087
Ref: library/importlib importlib-machinery-importers-and-path-hooks13012319
Ref: 424613012319
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib machinery13012319
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SOURCE_SUFFIXES13012647
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery EXTENSION_SUFFIXES13013612
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery all_suffixes13013786
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery BuiltinImporter13014220
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FrozenImporter13014784
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery WindowsRegistryFinder13015203
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder13015684
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder find_spec13016000
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder invalidate_caches13017158
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder13017761
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder invalidate_caches13019312
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader13019838
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader set_data13020548
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader load_module13020687
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader13021004
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader path13021559
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader is_package13021624
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_code13021750
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_source13021886
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader load_module13022025
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader13022317
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader path13023059
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader create_module13023123
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader exec_module13023302
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader is_package13023462
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_code13023643
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_source13023752
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_filename13023868
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery NamespaceLoader13023980
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec13024633
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec name13025427
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader13025632
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec origin13025832
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec submodule_search_locations13026331
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader_state13026976
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec cached13027217
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec parent13027510
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec has_location13027798
Ref: 425f13027798
Ref: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks-Footnote-113028114
Ref: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks-Footnote-213028194
Ref: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks-Footnote-313028236
Ref: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks-Footnote-413028278
Ref: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks-Footnote-513028320
Node: importlib util -- Utility code for importers13028362
Ref: library/importlib importlib-util-utility-code-for-importers13028548
Ref: 426013028548
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib util13028548
Ref: 7713028548
Ref: library/importlib importlib util MAGIC_NUMBER13028871
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util cache_from_source13029113
Ref: 26d13029113
Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_from_cache13031012
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util decode_source13031635
Ref: de413031635
Ref: library/importlib importlib util resolve_name13031905
Ref: 74513031905
Ref: library/importlib importlib util find_spec13032803
Ref: 23213032803
Ref: library/importlib importlib util module_from_spec13033694
Ref: c8b13033694
Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_loader13034327
Ref: 69913034327
Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_file_location13034780
Ref: b1e13034780
Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_hash13035259
Ref: 426113035259
Ref: library/importlib importlib util _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions13035529
Ref: 426213035529
Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader13036641
Ref: b1a13036641
Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader factory13038124
Ref: 426313038124
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-113038687
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-213038761
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-313038803
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-413038845
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-513038887
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-613038929
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-713038971
Node: 範例<45>13039013
Ref: library/importlib examples13039143
Ref: 426413039143
Ref: library/importlib importlib-examples13039143
Ref: 426513039143
Node: Importing programmatically13039432
Ref: library/importlib importing-programmatically13039550
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Node: Checking if a module can be imported13039781
Ref: library/importlib checking-if-a-module-can-be-imported13039940
Ref: 426713039940
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Ref: library/importlib importing-a-source-file-directly13041011
Ref: 426813041011
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Ref: library/importlib implementing-lazy-imports13042324
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Ref: library/importlib setting-up-an-importer13043192
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Ref: library/importlib approximating-importlib-import-module13044881
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Ref: library/importlib resources doc13046598
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib-resources-package-resource-reading-opening-and-access13046598
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Ref: library/importlib resources module-importlib resources13046598
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources Anchor13048545
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources files13048744
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources as_file13049776
Ref: 1aa13049776
Ref: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-113050612
Ref: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-213050701
Ref: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-313050772
Ref: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-413050866
Ref: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-513050938
Node: 已棄用函式13051015
Ref: library/importlib resources deprecated-functions13051133
Ref: 426f13051133
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources Package13051444
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources Resource13051875
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources open_binary13052142
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources read_binary13053658
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources path13055167
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources is_resource13056044
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources contents13056511
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Ref: 427213057305
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib-resources-abc-abstract-base-classes-for-resources13057305
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader13057568
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader open_resource13059394
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader resource_path13059655
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader is_resource13059891
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader contents13060105
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable13060974
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable name13061261
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable iterdir13061376
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_dir13061466
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_file13061562
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable joinpath13061654
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable __truediv__13062766
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable open13062912
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_bytes13063268
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_text13063343
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources13063429
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources files13063952
Ref: 428113063952
Ref: importlib resources abc -- 資源的抽象基底類別-Footnote-113064140
Node: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料13064224
Ref: library/importlib metadata doc13064444
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib-metadata-accessing-package-metadata13064444
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Ref: library/importlib metadata module-importlib metadata13064444
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Ref: library/importlib metadata using13064444
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Ref: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料-Footnote-113066695
Ref: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料-Footnote-213066783
Ref: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料-Footnote-313066867
Ref: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料-Footnote-413066945
Ref: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料-Footnote-513067030
Ref: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料-Footnote-613067115
Ref: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料-Footnote-713067153
Ref: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料-Footnote-813067245
Ref: importlib metadata -- 存取套件的元資料-Footnote-913067314
Node: Overview<2>13067390
Ref: library/importlib metadata overview13067507
Ref: 428513067507
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackageNotFoundError13069010
Ref: 428a13069010
Ref: Overview<2>-Footnote-113069300
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Ref: library/importlib metadata functional-api13069523
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Ref: library/importlib metadata entry-points13069912
Ref: 63213069912
Ref: library/importlib metadata id213069912
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata entry_points13069957
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata EntryPoint13070807
Ref: 428f13070807
Ref: Entry points-Footnote-113073452
Ref: Entry points-Footnote-213073524
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Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-metadata13073715
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Ref: library/importlib metadata metadata13073715
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata metadata13073778
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackageMetadata13074113
Ref: 429213074113
Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-113075373
Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-213075478
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Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-413075604
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Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-versions13075825
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Ref: library/importlib metadata version13075825
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata version13075888
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Ref: Distribution versions-Footnote-113076374
Node: Distribution files13076458
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Ref: library/importlib metadata files13076591
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackagePath13077114
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Ref: Distribution files-Footnote-113078699
Ref: Distribution files-Footnote-213078783
Node: Distribution requirements13078880
Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-requirements13079031
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Ref: library/importlib metadata requirements13079031
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata requires13079102
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Ref: library/importlib metadata package-distributions13079596
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Ref: Distribution requirements-Footnote-113079633
Node: Mapping import to distribution packages13079717
Ref: library/importlib metadata import-distribution-package-mapping13079841
Ref: 429913079841
Ref: library/importlib metadata mapping-import-to-distribution-packages13079841
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata packages_distributions13079940
Ref: 429b13079940
Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-113080973
Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-213081057
Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-313081135
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Ref: library/importlib metadata distributions13081347
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Ref: library/importlib metadata id913081347
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Ref: 429d13081394
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution13081695
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Ref: Distributions-Footnote-113083086
Ref: Distributions-Footnote-213083170
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Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-discovery13083428
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Ref: library/importlib metadata extending-the-search-algorithm13084322
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Ref: Extending the search algorithm-Footnote-113086150
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Ref: library/sys_path_init doc13086391
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Ref: library/sys_path_init sys-path-init13086391
Ref: 1a5513086391
Ref: library/sys_path_init the-initialization-of-the-sys-path-module-search-path13086391
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Ref: library/language doc13092754
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Ref: library/language language13092754
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Ref: library/ast module-ast13094065
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Ref: ast --- 抽象語法樹 Abstract Syntax Trees-Footnote-113095188
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Ref: library/ast id113095389
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Ref: library/ast ast AST13102964
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Ref: library/ast ast AST _fields13103709
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Ref: library/ast ast AST lineno13104440
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Ref: library/ast ast AST col_offset13104464
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Ref: library/ast ast AST end_lineno13104492
Ref: 42b213104492
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Ref: 42b313104520
Ref: 節點 Node 類別-Footnote-113107511
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Ref: library/ast ast-root-nodes13107657
Ref: 42b513107657
Ref: library/ast root-nodes13107657
Ref: 42b613107657
Ref: library/ast ast Module13107693
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Ref: token --- 與 Python 剖析樹一起使用的常數-Footnote-113207737
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Ref: d713221112
Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny-detection-of-ambiguous-indentation13221112
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny check13221592
Ref: 43c613221592
Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny verbose13222038
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny filename_only13222218
Ref: 43c813222218
Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny NannyNag13222424
Ref: 43c913222424
Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny process_tokens13222602
Ref: 43ca13222602
Ref: tabnanny --- 偵測不良縮排-Footnote-113222907
Node: pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援13222975
Ref: library/pyclbr doc13223160
Ref: 43cb13223160
Ref: library/pyclbr module-pyclbr13223160
Ref: af13223160
Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr-python-module-browser-support13223160
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr readmodule13223848
Ref: 65113223848
Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr readmodule_ex13224457
Ref: 65213224457
Ref: pyclbr --- Python 模組瀏覽器支援-Footnote-113225512
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Ref: library/pyclbr function-objects13225688
Ref: 43cd13225688
Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr-function-objects13225688
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function13225729
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function file13225883
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function module13225968
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function lineno13226120
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Ref: library/py_compile doc13228468
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Ref: library/py_compile module-py_compile13228468
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Ref: library/py_compile py-compile-compile-python-source-files13228468
Ref: 43e313228468
Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PyCompileError13229082
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile compile13229208
Ref: 86e13229208
Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode13232937
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode TIMESTAMP13233362
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode CHECKED_HASH13233641
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode UNCHECKED_HASH13233884
Ref: 43e813233884
Ref: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案-Footnote-113234429
Ref: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案-Footnote-213234499
Ref: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案-Footnote-313234541
Ref: py_compile — 編譯 Python 來源檔案-Footnote-413234583
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Ref: 43e913234770
Ref: library/py_compile py-compile-cli13234770
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Ref: library/py_compile cmdoption-python-m-py_compile-arg-file13235199
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Ref: 43ed13235382
Ref: library/py_compile cmdoption-python-m-py_compile-quiet13235382
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Node: compileall --- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫13235674
Ref: library/compileall doc13235875
Ref: 43ef13235875
Ref: library/compileall compileall-byte-compile-python-libraries13235875
Ref: 43f013235875
Ref: library/compileall module-compileall13235875
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Ref: compileall --- 位元組編譯 Python 函式庫-Footnote-113236761
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Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-invalidation-mode13239492
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Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-e13240484
Ref: 440213240484
Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-hardlink-dupes13240564
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Ref: Command-line use-Footnote-113241847
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Ref: library/compileall public-functions13242014
Ref: 440413242014
Ref: library/compileall compileall compile_dir13242067
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Ref: library/compileall compileall compile_file13246154
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Ref: library/compileall compileall compile_path13249116
Ref: c5a13249116
Ref: Public functions-Footnote-113250804
Ref: Public functions-Footnote-213250846
Node: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器13250888
Ref: library/dis doc13251089
Ref: 440513251089
Ref: library/dis dis-disassembler-for-python-bytecode13251089
Ref: 440613251089
Ref: library/dis module-dis13251089
Ref: 3513251089
Ref: dis --- Python bytecode 的反組譯器-Footnote-113253496
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Ref: library/dis command-line-interface13253683
Ref: 440713253683
Ref: library/dis dis-cli13253683
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Ref: library/dis cmdoption-dis-h13253898
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Ref: library/dis bytecode-analysis13254271
Ref: 440b13254271
Ref: library/dis dis Bytecode13254513
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Ref: library/dis dis Bytecode from_traceback13255871
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Ref: library/dis dis Bytecode codeobj13256117
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Ref: library/dis dis code_info13257464
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Ref: Analysis functions-Footnote-113264084
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Ref: library/dis python-bytecode-instructions13264284
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Ref: 447a13314749
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-files13314749
Ref: 447b13314749
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt locking13314800
Ref: 3efe13314800
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_LOCK13315467
Ref: 447c13315467
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_RLCK13315494
Ref: 447d13315494
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_NBLCK13315737
Ref: 447e13315737
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_NBRLCK13315765
Ref: 447f13315765
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_UNLCK13315896
Ref: 448013315896
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt setmode13316005
Ref: 448113316005
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt open_osfhandle13316242
Ref: 3eff13316242
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt get_osfhandle13316743
Ref: 3efd13316743
Node: Console I/O13317005
Ref: library/msvcrt console-i-o13317149
Ref: 448213317149
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-console13317149
Ref: 448313317149
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt kbhit13317192
Ref: 448413317192
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getch13317282
Ref: 448513317282
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getwch13317761
Ref: 126413317761
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getche13317871
Ref: 448613317871
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getwche13318016
Ref: 126513318016
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt putch13318128
Ref: 448713318128
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt putwch13318230
Ref: 126613318230
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt ungetch13318352
Ref: 448813318352
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt ungetwch13318561
Ref: 448913318561
Node: Other Functions13318687
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-other13318807
Ref: 448a13318807
Ref: library/msvcrt other-functions13318807
Ref: 448b13318807
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt heapmin13318858
Ref: 448c13318858
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION13319049
Ref: 11ee13319049
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN13319161
Ref: 11ef13319161
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX13319292
Ref: 11f013319292
Node: winreg --- Windows 註冊表存取13319429
Ref: library/winreg doc13319631
Ref: 448d13319631
Ref: library/winreg module-winreg13319631
Ref: 11113319631
Ref: library/winreg winreg-windows-registry-access13319631
Ref: 448e13319631
Ref: library/winreg exception-changed13320040
Ref: 449013320040
Node: 函式<12>13320266
Ref: library/winreg functions13320366
Ref: 449113320366
Ref: library/winreg id113320366
Ref: 449213320366
Ref: library/winreg winreg CloseKey13320442
Ref: 449313320442
Ref: library/winreg winreg ConnectRegistry13320763
Ref: 3f0313320763
Ref: library/winreg winreg CreateKey13321455
Ref: 3f0413321455
Ref: library/winreg winreg CreateKeyEx13322422
Ref: 11f113322422
Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteKey13323767
Ref: 3f0513323767
Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteKeyEx13324517
Ref: 11f213324517
Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteValue13325797
Ref: 3f0613325797
Ref: library/winreg winreg EnumKey13326167
Ref: 3f0713326167
Ref: library/winreg winreg EnumValue13326834
Ref: 3f0813326834
Ref: library/winreg winreg ExpandEnvironmentStrings13328099
Ref: 126713328099
Ref: library/winreg winreg FlushKey13328452
Ref: 449a13328452
Ref: library/winreg winreg LoadKey13329268
Ref: 3f0913329268
Ref: library/winreg winreg OpenKey13330462
Ref: 3f0a13330462
Ref: library/winreg winreg OpenKeyEx13330533
Ref: 449d13330533
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryInfoKey13331609
Ref: 3f0c13331609
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryValue13332504
Ref: 3f0d13332504
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryValueEx13333378
Ref: 3f0e13333378
Ref: library/winreg winreg SaveKey13334254
Ref: 3f0f13334254
Ref: library/winreg winreg SetValue13335296
Ref: 3f1013335296
Ref: library/winreg winreg SetValueEx13336479
Ref: 155813336479
Ref: library/winreg winreg DisableReflectionKey13337729
Ref: 11f313337729
Ref: library/winreg winreg EnableReflectionKey13338363
Ref: 11f413338363
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryReflectionKey13338874
Ref: 11f513338874
Ref: 函式<12>-Footnote-113339380
Ref: 函式<12>-Footnote-213339457
Node: 常數<10>13339534
Ref: library/winreg constants13339666
Ref: 44a213339666
Ref: library/winreg id213339666
Ref: 44a313339666
Node: HKEY_* Constants13339845
Ref: library/winreg hkey-constants13339930
Ref: 449513339930
Ref: library/winreg id313339930
Ref: 44a413339930
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT13339983
Ref: 44a513339983
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CURRENT_USER13340236
Ref: 44a613340236
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE13340541
Ref: 449c13340541
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_USERS13340767
Ref: 449b13340767
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA13340978
Ref: 44a713340978
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG13341247
Ref: 44a813341247
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_DYN_DATA13341384
Ref: 44a913341384
Node: Access Rights13341478
Ref: library/winreg access-rights13341583
Ref: 449713341583
Ref: library/winreg id413341583
Ref: 44aa13341583
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_ALL_ACCESS13341694
Ref: 44ab13341694
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WRITE13341985
Ref: 449613341985
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_READ13342140
Ref: 449e13342140
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_EXECUTE13342321
Ref: 44b113342321
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_QUERY_VALUE13342395
Ref: 44ac13342395
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_SET_VALUE13342485
Ref: 44a013342485
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY13342578
Ref: 44ad13342578
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS13342670
Ref: 44ae13342670
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_NOTIFY13342772
Ref: 44af13342772
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_CREATE_LINK13342908
Ref: 44b013342908
Ref: Access Rights-Footnote-113343041
Node: 64-bit Specific13343118
Ref: library/winreg bit-access-rights13343183
Ref: 44b213343183
Ref: library/winreg bit-specific13343183
Ref: 44b313343183
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WOW64_64KEY13343302
Ref: 449813343302
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WOW64_32KEY13343492
Ref: 44b413343492
Ref: 64-bit Specific-Footnote-113343718
Node: Value Types13343790
Ref: library/winreg id513343870
Ref: 44b513343870
Ref: library/winreg value-types13343870
Ref: 44a113343870
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_BINARY13343965
Ref: 44b613343965
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD13344027
Ref: 44b713344027
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN13344078
Ref: 44b813344078
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN13344212
Ref: 44b913344212
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_EXPAND_SZ13344297
Ref: 449913344297
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_LINK13344428
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Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_MULTI_SZ13344488
Ref: 17be13344488
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_NONE13344656
Ref: 44bb13344656
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_QWORD13344714
Ref: b7013344714
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN13344795
Ref: 44bc13344795
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_RESOURCE_LIST13344956
Ref: 44bd13344956
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR13345031
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Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST13345106
Ref: 44bf13345106
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_SZ13345189
Ref: 449f13345189
Ref: Value Types-Footnote-113345284
Node: Registry Handle Objects13345361
Ref: library/winreg handle-object13345474
Ref: 448f13345474
Ref: library/winreg registry-handle-objects13345474
Ref: 44c013345474
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY Close13346633
Ref: 449413346633
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY Detach13346765
Ref: 3f0b13346765
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY __enter__13347368
Ref: 44c113347368
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY __exit__13347400
Ref: 44c213347400
Node: winsound --- Windows 的聲音播放介面13347795
Ref: library/winsound doc13347940
Ref: 44c313347940
Ref: library/winsound module-winsound13347940
Ref: 11213347940
Ref: library/winsound winsound-sound-playing-interface-for-windows13347940
Ref: 44c413347940
Ref: library/winsound winsound Beep13348271
Ref: b7213348271
Ref: library/winsound winsound PlaySound13348655
Ref: b7413348655
Ref: library/winsound winsound MessageBeep13349225
Ref: b7313349225
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_FILENAME13349828
Ref: 44c513349828
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_ALIAS13349963
Ref: 44c613349963
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_LOOP13351583
Ref: 44c813351583
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_MEMORY13351772
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_PURGE13352138
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_ASYNC13352302
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NODEFAULT13352400
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOSTOP13352525
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOWAIT13352607
Ref: 44cd13352607
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONASTERISK13352769
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Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONEXCLAMATION13352850
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Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONHAND13352938
Ref: 44d013352938
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONQUESTION13353012
Ref: 44d113353012
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_OK13353094
Ref: 44d213353094
Node: Unix 特有服務13353165
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Ref: library/unix unix13353320
Ref: 44d413353320
Ref: library/unix unix-specific-services13353320
Ref: 44d513353320
Node: posix --- 最常見的 POSIX 系統呼叫13354125
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Ref: 44d613354252
Ref: library/posix module-posix13354252
Ref: a813354252
Ref: library/posix posix-the-most-common-posix-system-calls13354252
Ref: 44d713354252
Node: 對大檔案 Large File 的支援13355434
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Ref: library/posix posix-large-files13355581
Ref: 44d913355581
Node: 值得注意的模組內容13356515
Ref: library/posix notable-module-contents13356662
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Ref: library/posix posix-contents13356662
Ref: 44db13356662
Ref: library/posix posix environ13356850
Ref: 44dc13356850
Node: pwd --- 密碼資料庫13357891
Ref: library/pwd doc13358050
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Ref: library/pwd module-pwd13358050
Ref: ad13358050
Ref: library/pwd pwd-the-password-database13358050
Ref: 44de13358050
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwuid13360341
Ref: 181713360341
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwnam13360438
Ref: 2edd13360438
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwall13360532
Ref: 44df13360532
Node: grp --- 群組資料庫13360815
Ref: library/grp doc13360968
Ref: 44e013360968
Ref: library/grp grp-the-group-database13360968
Ref: 44e113360968
Ref: library/grp module-grp13360968
Ref: 6113360968
Ref: library/grp grp getgrgid13362560
Ref: b9813362560
Ref: library/grp grp getgrnam13362858
Ref: 2edc13362858
Ref: library/grp grp getgrall13363032
Ref: 44e213363032
Node: termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制13363325
Ref: library/termios doc13363484
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Ref: library/termios module-termios13363484
Ref: db13363484
Ref: library/termios termios-posix-style-tty-control13363484
Ref: 44e413363484
Ref: library/termios termios tcgetattr13364495
Ref: 144713364495
Ref: library/termios termios tcsetattr13365071
Ref: 147113365071
Ref: library/termios termios TCSANOW13365348
Ref: 44e513365348
Ref: library/termios termios TCSADRAIN13365424
Ref: 44e613365424
Ref: library/termios termios TCSAFLUSH13365527
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Ref: library/termios termios tcsendbreak13365672
Ref: 44e813365672
Ref: library/termios termios tcdrain13365882
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Ref: library/termios termios tcflush13366003
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Ref: library/termios termios tcflow13366259
Ref: 44eb13366259
Ref: library/termios termios tcgetwinsize13366537
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Ref: library/termios termios tcsetwinsize13366779
Ref: 44ed13366779
Ref: termios --- POSIX 風格 tty 控制-Footnote-113367382
Node: 範例<47>13367429
Ref: library/termios example13367511
Ref: 44ee13367511
Ref: library/termios termios-example13367511
Ref: 44ef13367511
Node: tty --- 終端機控制函式13368264
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Ref: 44f013368423
Ref: library/tty module-tty13368423
Ref: fb13368423
Ref: library/tty tty-terminal-control-functions13368423
Ref: 44f113368423
Ref: library/tty tty cfmakeraw13368834
Ref: 146f13368834
Ref: library/tty tty cfmakecbreak13369056
Ref: 144913369056
Ref: library/tty tty setraw13369621
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Ref: library/tty tty setcbreak13370091
Ref: 144813370091
Ref: tty --- 終端機控制函式-Footnote-113371074
Node: pty --- 偽終端工具13371137
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Ref: library/pty module-pty13371299
Ref: ac13371299
Ref: library/pty pty-pseudo-terminal-utilities13371299
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Ref: library/pty pty fork13371951
Ref: 151f13371951
Ref: library/pty pty openpty13372538
Ref: 25013372538
Ref: library/pty pty spawn13372815
Ref: e0f13372815
Ref: pty --- 偽終端工具-Footnote-113375071
Node: 範例<48>13375134
Ref: library/pty example13375204
Ref: 44f413375204
Ref: 範例<48>-Footnote-113376417
Node: fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫13376463
Ref: library/fcntl doc13376627
Ref: 44f513376627
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl-the-fcntl-and-ioctl-system-calls13376627
Ref: 44f613376627
Ref: library/fcntl module-fcntl13376627
Ref: 5413376627
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl fcntl13378804
Ref: 311e13378804
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl ioctl13380258
Ref: 12eb13380258
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl flock13382594
Ref: 3efc13382594
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl lockf13383117
Ref: 125b13383117
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_UN13383455
Ref: 44f713383455
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_SH13383524
Ref: 44f813383524
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_EX13383590
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Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_NB13383660
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Ref: fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫-Footnote-113385962
Ref: fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫-Footnote-213386007
Ref: fcntl --- fcntl 和 ioctl 系統呼叫-Footnote-313386052
Node: resource --- 資源使用資訊13386097
Ref: library/resource doc13386276
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Ref: library/resource module-resource13386276
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Ref: resource --- 資源使用資訊-Footnote-113387066
Node: Resource Limits13387108
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Ref: 450013388200
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Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-113395105
Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-213395154
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Ref: library/resource resource-usage13395376
Ref: 450c13395376
Ref: library/resource resource getrusage13395491
Ref: 12a313395491
Ref: library/resource resource getpagesize13399989
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Ref: 450e13400292
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Ref: Resource Usage-Footnote-113401132
Node: syslog --- Unix syslog 函式庫例程13401181
Ref: library/syslog doc13401313
Ref: 451213401313
Ref: library/syslog module-syslog13401313
Ref: d613401313
Ref: library/syslog syslog-unix-syslog-library-routines13401313
Ref: 451313401313
Ref: library/syslog syslog syslog13401935
Ref: 2c413401935
Ref: library/syslog syslog openlog13403387
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Ref: library/syslog syslog closelog13404729
Ref: 2c313404729
Ref: library/syslog syslog setlogmask13405582
Ref: 3f0013405582
Node: 範例<49>13406860
Ref: library/syslog examples13406945
Ref: 451413406945
Node: 簡單範例<2>13407019
Ref: library/syslog simple-example13407081
Ref: 451513407081
Node: 模組命令列介面13407579
Ref: library/cmdline doc13407732
Ref: 451613407732
Ref: library/cmdline modules-command-line-interface-cli13407732
Ref: 451713407732
Node: 已被取代的模組13409151
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Ref: library/superseded superseded13409311
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Node: aifc --- 讀寫 AIFF 與 AIFC 檔案13411034
Ref: library/aifc doc13411173
Ref: 451b13411173
Ref: library/aifc aifc-read-and-write-aiff-and-aifc-files13411173
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Ref: library/aifc module-aifc13411173
Ref: 513411173
Ref: library/aifc aifc open13412550
Ref: a4213412550
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getnchannels13413606
Ref: 451d13413606
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getsampwidth13413710
Ref: 451e13413710
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getframerate13413798
Ref: 451f13413798
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getnframes13413900
Ref: 452013413900
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getcomptype13413985
Ref: 452113413985
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getcompname13414180
Ref: 452213414180
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getparams13414409
Ref: d9f13414409
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getmarkers13414611
Ref: 452313414611
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getmark13414930
Ref: 452413414930
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc readframes13415065
Ref: 452513415065
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc rewind13415282
Ref: 452613415282
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setpos13415413
Ref: 452713415413
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc tell13415486
Ref: 452813415486
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc close13415551
Ref: da013415551
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc aiff13416103
Ref: 452913416103
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc aifc13416307
Ref: 452a13416307
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setnchannels13416513
Ref: 452b13416513
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setsampwidth13416612
Ref: 452c13416612
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setframerate13416701
Ref: 452d13416701
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setnframes13416798
Ref: 452e13416798
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Ref: library/nntplib nntplib NNTP xover13528809
Ref: 45fb13528809
Ref: 方法-Footnote-113529221
Ref: 方法-Footnote-213529280
Ref: 方法-Footnote-313529339
Ref: 方法-Footnote-413529398
Node: Utility functions<2>13529457
Ref: library/nntplib utility-functions13529566
Ref: 45fc13529566
Ref: library/nntplib nntplib decode_header13529680
Ref: 45ed13529680
Node: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器13530269
Ref: library/optparse doc13530465
Ref: 45fd13530465
Ref: library/optparse module-optparse13530465
Ref: 9b13530465
Ref: library/optparse optparse-parser-for-command-line-options13530465
Ref: 45fe13530465
Ref: optparse --- 命令列選項剖析器-Footnote-113533363
Node: 背景13533431
Ref: library/optparse background13533529
Ref: 45ff13533529
Ref: library/optparse optparse-background13533529
Ref: 460013533529
Node: 術語13534001
Ref: library/optparse optparse-terminology13534080
Ref: 460113534080
Ref: library/optparse terminology13534080
Ref: 460213534080
Node: What are options for?13537893
Ref: library/optparse optparse-what-options-for13538015
Ref: 460313538015
Ref: library/optparse what-are-options-for13538015
Ref: 460413538015
Node: What are positional arguments for?13539687
Ref: library/optparse optparse-what-positional-arguments-for13539794
Ref: 460513539794
Ref: library/optparse what-are-positional-arguments-for13539794
Ref: 460613539794
Node: 教學<4>13541118
Ref: library/optparse optparse-tutorial13541240
Ref: 460713541240
Ref: library/optparse tutorial13541240
Ref: 460813541240
Node: Understanding option actions13543846
Ref: library/optparse optparse-understanding-option-actions13543945
Ref: 460d13543945
Ref: library/optparse understanding-option-actions13543945
Ref: 460e13543945
Node: The store action13544535
Ref: library/optparse optparse-store-action13544672
Ref: 461013544672
Ref: library/optparse the-store-action13544672
Ref: 461113544672
Node: Handling boolean flag options13546859
Ref: library/optparse handling-boolean-flag-options13546981
Ref: 461213546981
Ref: library/optparse optparse-handling-boolean-options13546981
Ref: 461313546981
Node: Other actions13547863
Ref: library/optparse optparse-other-actions13547983
Ref: 461413547983
Ref: library/optparse other-actions13547983
Ref: 461513547983
Node: Default values13548440
Ref: library/optparse default-values13548546
Ref: 461913548546
Ref: library/optparse optparse-default-values13548546
Ref: 461a13548546
Node: Generating help13550437
Ref: library/optparse generating-help13550555
Ref: 461b13550555
Ref: library/optparse optparse-generating-help13550555
Ref: 461c13550555
Node: Grouping Options13554697
Ref: library/optparse grouping-options13554765
Ref: 461d13554765
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionGroup13555098
Ref: 461e13555098
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_option_group13558597
Ref: 461f13558597
Node: Printing a version string13558865
Ref: library/optparse optparse-printing-version-string13558996
Ref: 462013558996
Ref: library/optparse printing-a-version-string13558996
Ref: 462113558996
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser print_version13559882
Ref: 462213559882
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_version13560256
Ref: 462413560256
Node: How optparse handles errors13560400
Ref: library/optparse how-optparse-handles-errors13560539
Ref: 462513560539
Ref: library/optparse optparse-how-optparse-handles-errors13560539
Ref: 462613560539
Node: Putting it all together13562625
Ref: library/optparse optparse-putting-it-all-together13562730
Ref: 462713562730
Ref: library/optparse putting-it-all-together13562730
Ref: 462813562730
Node: Reference Guide13563648
Ref: library/optparse optparse-reference-guide13563780
Ref: 461713563780
Ref: library/optparse reference-guide13563780
Ref: 462913563780
Node: Creating the parser13564128
Ref: library/optparse creating-the-parser13564229
Ref: 462a13564229
Ref: library/optparse optparse-creating-parser13564229
Ref: 462b13564229
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser13564376
Ref: 134413564376
Node: Populating the parser13567383
Ref: library/optparse optparse-populating-parser13567509
Ref: 462d13567509
Ref: library/optparse populating-the-parser13567509
Ref: 462e13567509
Node: Defining options13568795
Ref: library/optparse defining-options13568919
Ref: 462f13568919
Ref: library/optparse optparse-defining-options13568919
Ref: 463013568919
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser add_option13569337
Ref: 2a3813569337
Ref: library/optparse optparse Values13571420
Ref: 2a3a13571420
Node: Option attributes13572663
Ref: library/optparse option-attributes13572789
Ref: 463413572789
Ref: library/optparse optparse-option-attributes13572789
Ref: 463513572789
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option13572848
Ref: 463113572848
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option action13573467
Ref: 460913573467
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option type13573694
Ref: 460a13573694
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option dest13573917
Ref: 460b13573917
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option default13574257
Ref: 463713574257
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option nargs13574446
Ref: 463913574446
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option const13574683
Ref: 461613574683
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option choices13574790
Ref: 463a13574790
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback13574911
Ref: 463b13574911
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback_args13575140
Ref: 463c13575140
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback_kwargs13575173
Ref: 463d13575173
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option help13575334
Ref: 460c13575334
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option metavar13575679
Ref: 463e13575679
Node: Standard option actions13575879
Ref: library/optparse optparse-standard-option-actions13576010
Ref: 463213576010
Ref: library/optparse standard-option-actions13576010
Ref: 463f13576010
Node: Standard option types13584094
Ref: library/optparse optparse-standard-option-types13584220
Ref: 463613584220
Ref: library/optparse standard-option-types13584220
Ref: 464013584220
Node: 剖析引數13585700
Ref: library/optparse optparse-parsing-arguments13585847
Ref: 463313585847
Ref: library/optparse parsing-arguments13585847
Ref: 464113585847
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser parse_args13586001
Ref: 134513586001
Node: Querying and manipulating your option parser13587384
Ref: library/optparse optparse-querying-manipulating-option-parser13587535
Ref: 464213587535
Ref: library/optparse querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser13587535
Ref: 464313587535
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser disable_interspersed_args13587844
Ref: 2a3913587844
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser enable_interspersed_args13588632
Ref: 464413588632
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_option13588838
Ref: 464513588838
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser has_option13589011
Ref: 464613589011
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser remove_option13589187
Ref: 464713589187
Node: Conflicts between options13589573
Ref: library/optparse conflicts-between-options13589722
Ref: 464813589722
Ref: library/optparse optparse-conflicts-between-options13589722
Ref: 462c13589722
Node: Cleanup<2>13592181
Ref: library/optparse cleanup13592298
Ref: 464a13592298
Ref: library/optparse optparse-cleanup13592298
Ref: 464b13592298
Node: 其他方法13592711
Ref: library/optparse optparse-other-methods13592794
Ref: 464c13592794
Ref: library/optparse other-methods13592794
Ref: 464d13592794
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser set_usage13592892
Ref: 464e13592892
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser print_usage13593181
Ref: 462313593181
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_usage13593517
Ref: 464f13593517
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser set_defaults13593655
Ref: 463813593655
Node: Option Callbacks13594819
Ref: library/optparse option-callbacks13594960
Ref: 465013594960
Ref: library/optparse optparse-option-callbacks13594960
Ref: 461813594960
Node: Defining a callback option13596175
Ref: library/optparse defining-a-callback-option13596287
Ref: 465113596287
Ref: library/optparse optparse-defining-callback-option13596287
Ref: 465213596287
Node: How callbacks are called13598509
Ref: library/optparse how-callbacks-are-called13598658
Ref: 465313598658
Ref: library/optparse optparse-how-callbacks-called13598658
Ref: 465413598658
Node: Raising errors in a callback13601267
Ref: library/optparse optparse-raising-errors-in-callback13601425
Ref: 465513601425
Ref: library/optparse raising-errors-in-a-callback13601425
Ref: 465613601425
Node: Callback example 1 trivial callback13601905
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-1-trivial-callback13602076
Ref: 465713602076
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-113602076
Ref: 465813602076
Node: Callback example 2 check option order13602524
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-2-check-option-order13602716
Ref: 465913602716
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-213602716
Ref: 465a13602716
Node: Callback example 3 check option order generalized13603274
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized13603475
Ref: 465b13603475
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-313603475
Ref: 465c13603475
Node: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition13604250
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition13604448
Ref: 465d13604448
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-413604448
Ref: 465e13604448
Node: Callback example 5 fixed arguments13605242
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-5-fixed-arguments13605428
Ref: 465f13605428
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-513605428
Ref: 466013605428
Node: Callback example 6 variable arguments13606500
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-6-variable-arguments13606633
Ref: 466113606633
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-613606633
Ref: 466213606633
Node: Extending optparse13608732
Ref: library/optparse extending-optparse13608868
Ref: 466313608868
Ref: library/optparse optparse-extending-optparse13608868
Ref: 460f13608868
Node: Adding new types13609207
Ref: library/optparse adding-new-types13609305
Ref: 466413609305
Ref: library/optparse optparse-adding-new-types13609305
Ref: 466513609305
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPES13609599
Ref: 466613609599
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPE_CHECKER13609755
Ref: 466713609755
Node: Adding new actions13612775
Ref: library/optparse adding-new-actions13612873
Ref: 466813612873
Ref: library/optparse optparse-adding-new-actions13612873
Ref: 466913612873
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ACTIONS13613962
Ref: 466a13613962
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option STORE_ACTIONS13614035
Ref: 466b13614035
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPED_ACTIONS13614121
Ref: 466c13614121
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS13614207
Ref: 466d13614207
Node: 例外<16>13617499
Ref: library/optparse exceptions13617610
Ref: 466e13617610
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionError13617645
Ref: 2a3b13617645
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionConflictError13617783
Ref: 464913617783
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionValueError13617908
Ref: 2a3c13617908
Ref: library/optparse optparse BadOptionError13618028
Ref: 466f13618028
Ref: library/optparse optparse AmbiguousOptionError13618130
Ref: 467013618130
Node: ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取13618240
Ref: library/ossaudiodev doc13618436
Ref: 467113618436
Ref: library/ossaudiodev module-ossaudiodev13618436
Ref: 9e13618436
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev-access-to-oss-compatible-audio-devices13618436
Ref: 467213618436
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev OSSAudioError13619448
Ref: 467313619448
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev open13619964
Ref: 467413619964
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev openmixer13621359
Ref: 467513621359
Ref: ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取-Footnote-113621795
Ref: ossaudiodev --- 對 OSS 相容聲音裝置的存取-Footnote-213621849
Node: Audio Device Objects13621897
Ref: library/ossaudiodev audio-device-objects13622034
Ref: 467613622034
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudio-device-objects13622034
Ref: 467713622034
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device close13622628
Ref: 467813622628
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device fileno13622852
Ref: 467913622852
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device read13622953
Ref: 467a13622953
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device write13623261
Ref: 467b13623261
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device writeall13623778
Ref: 467c13623778
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device nonblock13624936
Ref: 467d13624936
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device getfmts13625103
Ref: 467e13625103
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device setfmt13627270
Ref: 467f13627270
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device channels13627635
Ref: 468013627635
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device speed13627963
Ref: 468113627963
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device sync13628701
Ref: 468213628701
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device reset13628984
Ref: 468313628984
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device post13629248
Ref: 468413629248
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device setparameters13629661
Ref: 468513629661
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device bufsize13630721
Ref: 468613630721
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device obufcount13630821
Ref: 468713630821
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device obuffree13630955
Ref: 468813630955
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device closed13631180
Ref: 468913631180
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device name13631278
Ref: 468a13631278
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device mode13631366
Ref: 468b13631366
Node: Mixer Device Objects13631478
Ref: library/ossaudiodev id113631615
Ref: 468c13631615
Ref: library/ossaudiodev mixer-device-objects13631615
Ref: 468d13631615
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device close13631728
Ref: 468e13631728
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device fileno13631929
Ref: 468f13631929
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device controls13632173
Ref: 469013632173
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device stereocontrols13633141
Ref: 469113633141
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device reccontrols13633586
Ref: 469213633586
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device get13633815
Ref: 469313633815
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device set13634310
Ref: 469413634310
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device get_recsrc13634871
Ref: 469513634871
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device set_recsrc13635032
Ref: 469613635032
Node: pipes --- shell pipelines 介面13635429
Ref: library/pipes doc13635626
Ref: 469713635626
Ref: library/pipes module-pipes13635626
Ref: a313635626
Ref: library/pipes pipes-interface-to-shell-pipelines13635626
Ref: 469813635626
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template13636381
Ref: 469913636381
Ref: pipes --- shell pipelines 介面-Footnote-113636754
Ref: pipes --- shell pipelines 介面-Footnote-213636819
Node: Template Objects13636867
Ref: library/pipes id113636952
Ref: 469a13636952
Ref: library/pipes template-objects13636952
Ref: 469b13636952
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template reset13637044
Ref: 469c13637044
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template clone13637131
Ref: 469d13637131
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template debug13637213
Ref: 469e13637213
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template append13637458
Ref: 469f13637458
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template prepend13638208
Ref: 46a013638208
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template open13638358
Ref: 46a113638358
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template copy13638560
Ref: 46a213638560
Node: sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別13638656
Ref: library/sndhdr doc13638833
Ref: 46a313638833
Ref: library/sndhdr module-sndhdr13638833
Ref: c513638833
Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr-determine-type-of-sound-file13638833
Ref: 46a413638833
Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr what13640185
Ref: cd813640185
Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr whathdr13640476
Ref: cd913640476
Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr tests13641908
Ref: 46a513641908
Ref: sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別-Footnote-113642476
Ref: sndhdr --- 判定聲音檔案的型別-Footnote-213642542
Node: spwd --- shadow 密碼資料庫13642591
Ref: library/spwd doc13642766
Ref: 46a613642766
Ref: library/spwd module-spwd13642766
Ref: c813642766
Ref: library/spwd spwd-the-shadow-password-database13642766
Ref: 46a713642766
Ref: library/spwd spwd getspnam13645439
Ref: bb413645439
Ref: library/spwd spwd getspall13645685
Ref: 46a813645685
Ref: spwd --- shadow 密碼資料庫-Footnote-113646039
Node: sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案13646086
Ref: library/sunau doc13646253
Ref: 46a913646253
Ref: library/sunau module-sunau13646253
Ref: d113646253
Ref: library/sunau sunau-read-and-write-sun-au-files13646253
Ref: 46aa13646253
Ref: library/sunau sunau open13647942
Ref: a5013647942
Ref: library/sunau sunau Error13648491
Ref: 46ab13648491
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC13648685
Ref: 46ac13648685
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_813648883
Ref: 46ad13648883
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_813648929
Ref: 46ae13648929
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_1613648976
Ref: 46af13648976
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_2413649024
Ref: 46b013649024
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_3213649072
Ref: 46b113649072
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_813649120
Ref: 46b213649120
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT13649229
Ref: 46b313649229
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE13649273
Ref: 46b413649273
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G72113649318
Ref: 46b513649318
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G72213649367
Ref: 46b613649367
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_313649416
Ref: 46b713649416
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_513649467
Ref: 46b813649467
Ref: sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案-Footnote-113649688
Ref: sunau --- 讀寫 Sun AU 檔案-Footnote-213649753
Node: AU_read 物件13649801
Ref: library/sunau au-read-objects13649906
Ref: 46b913649906
Ref: library/sunau id113649906
Ref: 46ba13649906
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read close13650047
Ref: 46bb13650047
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getnchannels13650180
Ref: 46bc13650180
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getsampwidth13650288
Ref: 46bd13650288
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getframerate13650362
Ref: 46be13650362
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getnframes13650427
Ref: 46bf13650427
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getcomptype13650493
Ref: 46c013650493
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getcompname13650629
Ref: 46c113650629
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getparams13650878
Ref: 46c213650878
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read readframes13651082
Ref: 46c313651082
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read rewind13651320
Ref: 46c413651320
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read setpos13651510
Ref: 46c513651510
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read tell13651662
Ref: 46c613651662
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getmarkers13651887
Ref: 46c713651887
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getmark13651949
Ref: 46c813651949
Node: AU_write 物件13652005
Ref: library/sunau au-write-objects13652110
Ref: 46c913652110
Ref: library/sunau id213652110
Ref: 46ca13652110
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setnchannels13652243
Ref: 46cb13652243
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setsampwidth13652307
Ref: e5313652307
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setframerate13652468
Ref: 46cc13652468
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setnframes13652545
Ref: 46cd13652545
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setcomptype13652646
Ref: 46ce13652646
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setparams13652778
Ref: 46cf13652778
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write tell13653035
Ref: 46d013653035
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write writeframesraw13653225
Ref: e5413653225
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write writeframes13653402
Ref: e5513653402
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write close13653595
Ref: 46d113653595
Node: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端13653836
Ref: library/telnetlib doc13654016
Ref: 46d213654016
Ref: library/telnetlib module-telnetlib13654016
Ref: d913654016
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib-telnet-client13654016
Ref: 46d313654016
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet13655418
Ref: b5613655418
Ref: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端-Footnote-113656966
Ref: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端-Footnote-213657035
Ref: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端-Footnote-313657087
Ref: telnetlib --- Telnet 客戶端-Footnote-413657145
Node: Telnet Objects13657203
Ref: library/telnetlib id113657306
Ref: 46d513657306
Ref: library/telnetlib telnet-objects13657306
Ref: 46d613657306
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_until13657415
Ref: 46d713657415
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_all13657771
Ref: 46d813657771
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_some13657874
Ref: 46d913657874
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_very_eager13658052
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Ref: c-api/veryhigh c CO_FUTURE_DIVISION13946288
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Ref: The Very High Level Layer-Footnote-113946501
Node: 參照計數<2>13946543
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Node: 例外處理13953817
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Node: Printing and clearing13956224
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Node: Raising exceptions13958870
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Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetString13959230
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Node: Issuing warnings13969808
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Node: Querying the error indicator13973751
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Node: Signal Handling<2>13983758
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Node: 例外類別<2>13987295
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Node: 例外物件13988896
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Node: Unicode Exception Objects13992654
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Node: Recursion Control13996947
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Ref: c-api/sys c Py_DecodeLocale14023286
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Node: 系統函式14027370
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetObject14027756
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Ref: c-api/sys c Py_AuditHookFunction14035724
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Ref: 系統函式-Footnote-114036188
Node: 行程控制14036230
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExtendInittab14052476
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Ref: 引入模組<2>-Footnote-114053285
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile14056326
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString14057114
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Node: 剖析引數與建置數值14057526
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Node: Parsing arguments14058270
Ref: c-api/arg parsing-arguments14058375
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Node: Strings and buffers14059086
Ref: c-api/arg strings-and-buffers14059174
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Ref: c-api/arg c-arg-borrowed-buffer14060184
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Node: 數字14069837
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Node: 其他物件14072093
Ref: c-api/arg other-objects14072193
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Ref: c-api/arg o-ampersand14073009
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Node: API 函式14077517
Ref: c-api/arg api-functions14077602
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Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ParseTuple14077639
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Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_VaParse14077979
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Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_Parse14079573
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Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_UnpackTuple14080203
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Node: Building values14082189
Ref: c-api/arg building-values14082294
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Ref: 字串轉換與格式化-Footnote-114097709
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Ref: 字串轉換與格式化-Footnote-314097806
Ref: 字串轉換與格式化-Footnote-414097853
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Unregister14101566
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Encode14102194
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Decode14102734
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Node: 編解碼器查找 API14103368
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Encoder14103838
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Decoder14104043
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StreamWriter14105070
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_RegisterError14105620
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IgnoreErrors14107180
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_ReplaceErrors14107386
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors14107838
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors14108105
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Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init14109143
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Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry14109985
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Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini14110784
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Ref: c-api/abstract abstract-objects-layer14111642
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Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE14292655
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Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE14294048
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Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER14294706
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Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL14295306
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Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC14295738
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Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE14295989
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Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD14500558
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Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO14500699
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Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS14501381
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Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_FromTimestamp14501593
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Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDate_FromTimestamp14501888
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Ref: c-api/typehints c Py_GenericAlias14502479
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Ref: c-api/typehints c Py_GenericAliasType14503899
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Ref: c-api/init initialization14504346
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Ref: c-api/init initialization-finalization-and-threads14504346
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag14511764
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag14512486
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_NoSiteFlag14513093
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_NoUserSiteDirectory14513682
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_OptimizeFlag14514153
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_QuietFlag14514493
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag14514888
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_VerboseFlag14515300
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Ref: Global configuration variables-Footnote-114515980
Ref: Global configuration variables-Footnote-214516022
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Ref: c-api/init initializing-and-finalizing-the-interpreter14516254
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_InitializeEx14517506
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_IsInitialized14517962
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_FinalizeEx14518273
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_Finalize14520759
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding14521222
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_SetProgramName14522600
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetProgramName14523766
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetPrefix14524270
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetExecPrefix14525314
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetProgramFullPath14527755
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetPath14528463
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_SetPath14529441
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetVersion14530986
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetPlatform14531635
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetCopyright14532267
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetCompiler14532691
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetBuildInfo14533120
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Ref: c-api/init c PySys_SetArgvEx14533576
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Ref: c-api/init c PySys_SetArgv14536016
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_SetPythonHome14536861
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetPythonHome14537694
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Ref: Process-wide parameters-Footnote-114538244
Node: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock14538299
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Ref: c-api/init threads14538483
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Ref: c-api/init releasing-the-gil-from-extension-code14540166
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Ref: c-api/init gilstate14542222
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Ref: c-api/init non-python-created-threads14542222
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Node: Cautions about fork14543974
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Ref: c-api/init fork-and-threads14544128
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Node: 高階 API14546045
Ref: c-api/init high-level-api14546183
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState14546347
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState14547021
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState interp14547259
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_InitThreads14547368
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_ThreadsInitialized14547944
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_SaveThread14548416
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_RestoreThread14548782
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_Swap14549878
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS14554702
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_New14555281
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Clear14555678
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_LeaveTracing14559035
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_GetDict14560106
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Ref: c-api/init c _PyFrameEvalFunction14560691
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Ref: c-api/init c _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc14561239
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Ref: c-api/init c _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc14561511
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc14562325
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_AcquireThread14563145
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_ReleaseThread14564291
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_AcquireLock14564903
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_ReleaseLock14565997
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Ref: 低階 API-Footnote-114566401
Ref: 低階 API-Footnote-214566443
Node: Sub-interpreter support14566485
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Ref: c-api/init sub-interpreter-support14566672
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig14567599
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig use_main_obmalloc14567888
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig allow_fork14568330
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig allow_daemon_threads14569263
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig check_multi_interp_extensions14569549
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig gil14570078
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL14570232
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL14570393
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL14570505
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_EndInterpreter14575578
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Ref: Sub-interpreter support-Footnote-114576381
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Ref: A Per-Interpreter GIL-Footnote-114578562
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_AddPendingCall14580717
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Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_CALL14586056
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Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_EXCEPTION14586444
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Head14590990
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Next14591278
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead14591490
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT14594280
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_alloc14594990
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_free14595290
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_get14597746
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_ReInitTLS14599377
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Ref: Python 初始化設定-Footnote-114601083
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE14799000
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL14799382
Ref: 2d914799382
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE14799940
Ref: 2de14799940
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION14800309
Ref: 31114800309
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING14801439
Ref: 167614801439
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE14802290
Ref: 167714802290
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG14803142
Ref: 4cc014803142
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_doc14803522
Ref: 475414803522
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_traverse14803858
Ref: 59414803858
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_clear14807418
Ref: 476b14807418
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_richcompare14811078
Ref: 477a14811078
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_LT14812070
Ref: 49cb14812070
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_LE14812172
Ref: 49cc14812172
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_EQ14812275
Ref: 49cd14812275
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_NE14812378
Ref: 49ce14812378
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_GT14812481
Ref: 49cf14812481
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_GE14812583
Ref: 49d014812583
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE14812717
Ref: a1514812717
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_weaklistoffset14813985
Ref: 7cc14813985
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_iter14815522
Ref: 136514815522
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_iternext14816052
Ref: 136614816052
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_methods14816897
Ref: 475d14816897
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_members14817432
Ref: 475b14817432
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_getset14818001
Ref: 476014818001
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_base14818562
Ref: 476414818562
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_dict14819886
Ref: 14bf14819886
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_descr_get14821405
Ref: 4c7314821405
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_descr_set14821737
Ref: 16cc14821737
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_dictoffset14822166
Ref: 4a3614822166
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_init14824073
Ref: 31014824073
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_alloc14825541
Ref: 475a14825541
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_new14826257
Ref: 30e14826257
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_free14827997
Ref: 475914827997
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_is_gc14828730
Ref: 4c7414828730
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_bases14829916
Ref: 4c7514829916
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_mro14830672
Ref: 4a3914830672
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_cache14831158
Ref: 4a3a14831158
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_subclasses14831324
Ref: 2ff14831324
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_weaklist14831784
Ref: 4a3b14831784
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_del14832374
Ref: 4c7614832374
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_version_tag14832520
Ref: 4c7714832520
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_finalize14832712
Ref: 8f914832712
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_vectorcall14834296
Ref: 4a3814834296
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_watched14834849
Ref: 4c7814834849
Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-114835013
Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-214835055
Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-314835097
Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-414835140
Node: Static Types14835182
Ref: c-api/typeobj id414835292
Ref: 4cc114835292
Ref: c-api/typeobj static-types14835292
Ref: 59614835292
Node: Heap Types14836197
Ref: c-api/typeobj heap-types14836280
Ref: 7a614836280
Ref: c-api/typeobj id514836280
Ref: 4cc214836280
Node: Number Object Structures14836783
Ref: c-api/typeobj number-object-structures14836931
Ref: 4cc314836931
Ref: c-api/typeobj number-structs14836931
Ref: 4cb214836931
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods14836996
Ref: 128e14836996
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_add14839447
Ref: 4a2d14839447
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_subtract14839537
Ref: 4c8014839537
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_multiply14839632
Ref: 4c8214839632
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_remainder14839727
Ref: 4c8414839727
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_divmod14839823
Ref: 4c8614839823
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_power14839916
Ref: 4c8714839916
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_negative14840009
Ref: 4c8914840009
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_positive14840103
Ref: 4c8a14840103
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_absolute14840197
Ref: 4c8b14840197
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_bool14840291
Ref: 4c8c14840291
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_invert14840369
Ref: 4c8d14840369
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_lshift14840461
Ref: 4c8e14840461
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_rshift14840554
Ref: 4c9014840554
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_and14840647
Ref: 4c9214840647
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_xor14840737
Ref: 4c9414840737
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_or14840827
Ref: 4c9614840827
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_int14840916
Ref: 4c9814840916
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_reserved14841005
Ref: 4c9914841005
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_float14841072
Ref: 4c9a14841072
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_add14841163
Ref: 4c7f14841163
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_subtract14841261
Ref: 4c8114841261
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_multiply14841364
Ref: 4c8314841364
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_remainder14841467
Ref: 4c8514841467
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_power14841571
Ref: 4c8814841571
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_lshift14841672
Ref: 4c8f14841672
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_rshift14841773
Ref: 4c9114841773
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_and14841874
Ref: 4c9314841874
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_xor14841972
Ref: 4c9514841972
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_or14842070
Ref: 4c9714842070
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_floor_divide14842167
Ref: 4c9b14842167
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_true_divide14842266
Ref: 4c9d14842266
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_floor_divide14842364
Ref: 4c9c14842364
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_true_divide14842471
Ref: 4c9e14842471
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_index14842577
Ref: 128d14842577
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_matrix_multiply14842668
Ref: 4c9f14842668
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_matrix_multiply14842770
Ref: 4ca014842770
Node: Mapping Object Structures14842880
Ref: c-api/typeobj mapping-object-structures14843039
Ref: 4cc414843039
Ref: c-api/typeobj mapping-structs14843039
Ref: 4cb414843039
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods14843106
Ref: 477f14843106
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_length14843280
Ref: 4ca114843280
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_subscript14843576
Ref: 170314843576
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_ass_subscript14843976
Ref: 4ca214843976
Node: Sequence Object Structures14844474
Ref: c-api/typeobj sequence-object-structures14844633
Ref: 4cc514844633
Ref: c-api/typeobj sequence-structs14844633
Ref: 4cb314844633
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods14844702
Ref: 477e14844702
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_length14844855
Ref: 4a3514844855
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_concat14845201
Ref: 4ca314845201
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_repeat14845508
Ref: 4ca414845508
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_item14845829
Ref: 170214845829
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_ass_item14846593
Ref: 4ca514846593
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_contains14847088
Ref: 4ca614847088
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_inplace_concat14847431
Ref: 4ca714847431
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_inplace_repeat14847986
Ref: 4ca814847986
Node: Buffer Object Structures14848554
Ref: c-api/typeobj buffer-object-structures14848711
Ref: 4cc614848711
Ref: c-api/typeobj buffer-structs14848711
Ref: 49f614848711
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs14848776
Ref: 4a3c14848776
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs bf_getbuffer14849012
Ref: 57814849012
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs bf_releasebuffer14850906
Ref: 57914850906
Node: Async Object Structures14852052
Ref: c-api/typeobj async-object-structures14852201
Ref: 4cc714852201
Ref: c-api/typeobj async-structs14852201
Ref: 4cb114852201
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods14852287
Ref: 4a3414852287
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_await14852706
Ref: 4c7a14852706
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_aiter14853101
Ref: 4c7b14853101
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_anext14853501
Ref: 4c7c14853501
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_send14853815
Ref: 4c7d14853815
Node: Slot Type typedefs14854137
Ref: c-api/typeobj id614854272
Ref: 4caa14854272
Ref: c-api/typeobj slot-type-typedefs14854272
Ref: 4cc814854272
Ref: c-api/typeobj c allocfunc14854325
Ref: 493014854325
Ref: c-api/typeobj c destructor14855399
Ref: 493414855399
Ref: c-api/typeobj c freefunc14855512
Ref: 4b2514855512
Ref: c-api/typeobj c newfunc14855596
Ref: 493f14855596
Ref: c-api/typeobj c initproc14855809
Ref: 493b14855809
Ref: c-api/typeobj c reprfunc14856006
Ref: 494314856006
Ref: c-api/typeobj c getattrfunc14856176
Ref: 493514856176
Ref: c-api/typeobj c setattrfunc14856396
Ref: 494514856396
Ref: c-api/typeobj c getattrofunc14856695
Ref: 493614856695
Ref: c-api/typeobj c setattrofunc14856973
Ref: 494614856973
Ref: c-api/typeobj c descrgetfunc14857330
Ref: 493214857330
Ref: c-api/typeobj c descrsetfunc14857560
Ref: 493314857560
Ref: c-api/typeobj c hashfunc14857772
Ref: 493a14857772
Ref: c-api/typeobj c richcmpfunc14857943
Ref: 494414857943
Ref: c-api/typeobj c getiterfunc14858156
Ref: 493814858156
Ref: c-api/typeobj c iternextfunc14858329
Ref: 493d14858329
Ref: c-api/typeobj c lenfunc14858507
Ref: 493e14858507
Ref: c-api/typeobj c getbufferproc14858645
Ref: 493714858645
Ref: c-api/typeobj c releasebufferproc14858822
Ref: 494214858822
Ref: c-api/typeobj c unaryfunc14858999
Ref: 494c14858999
Ref: c-api/typeobj c binaryfunc14859138
Ref: 493114859138
Ref: c-api/typeobj c sendfunc14859301
Ref: 4c7e14859301
Ref: c-api/typeobj c ternaryfunc14859489
Ref: 494a14859489
Ref: c-api/typeobj c ssizeargfunc14859676
Ref: 494814859676
Ref: c-api/typeobj c ssizeobjargproc14859842
Ref: 494914859842
Ref: c-api/typeobj c objobjproc14860015
Ref: 494114860015
Ref: c-api/typeobj c objobjargproc14860160
Ref: 494014860160
Node: 範例<53>14860331
Ref: c-api/typeobj examples14860470
Ref: 4cc914860470
Ref: c-api/typeobj typedef-examples14860470
Ref: 4c6b14860470
Node: 循環垃圾回收的支援14865835
Ref: c-api/gcsupport doc14865947
Ref: 4cca14865947
Ref: c-api/gcsupport supporting-cycle-detection14865947
Ref: 4cb514865947
Ref: c-api/gcsupport supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection14865947
Ref: 4ccb14865947
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_New14868271
Ref: 8f514868271
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_NewVar14868443
Ref: 8f614868443
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData14868627
Ref: 14fa14868627
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Resize14869646
Ref: 14ff14869646
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Track14870030
Ref: 137d14870030
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_IS_GC14870471
Ref: 7c814870471
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_IsTracked14870720
Ref: 7ba14870720
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_IsFinalized14871108
Ref: 7bb14871108
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Del14871499
Ref: 137c14871499
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_UnTrack14871712
Ref: 137e14871712
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c visitproc14872433
Ref: 494d14872433
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c traverseproc14873053
Ref: 494b14873053
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c Py_VISIT14873871
Ref: 476214873871
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c inquiry14874451
Ref: 493c14874451
Node: Controlling the Garbage Collector State14875078
Ref: c-api/gcsupport controlling-the-garbage-collector-state14875222
Ref: 4ccc14875222
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Collect14875408
Ref: 7d214875408
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Enable14875978
Ref: 6d714875978
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Disable14876256
Ref: 6d814876256
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_IsEnabled14876537
Ref: 6d914876537
Node: Querying Garbage Collector State14876832
Ref: c-api/gcsupport querying-garbage-collector-state14876976
Ref: 4ccd14876976
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects14877161
Ref: 4cce14877161
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c gcvisitobjects_t14877964
Ref: 4ccf14877964
Node: API 和 ABI 版本管理14878453
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion doc14878577
Ref: 4cd014878577
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion api-and-abi-versioning14878577
Ref: 4cd114878577
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion apiabiversion14878577
Ref: 409d14878577
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MAJOR_VERSION14878906
Ref: 4cd214878906
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MINOR_VERSION14878980
Ref: 4cd314878980
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MICRO_VERSION14879054
Ref: 4cd414879054
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_LEVEL14879128
Ref: 4cd514879128
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_SERIAL14879333
Ref: 4cd614879333
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_VERSION_HEX14879438
Ref: 56a14879438
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c Py_Version14881359
Ref: 56914881359
Ref: API 和 ABI 版本管理-Footnote-114881781
Node: 安裝 Python 模組14881854
Ref: installing/index doc14881982
Ref: 4cd714881982
Ref: installing/index installing-index14881982
Ref: d7914881982
Ref: installing/index installing-python-modules14881982
Ref: 4cd814881982
Ref: 安裝 Python 模組-Footnote-114883079
Node: 關鍵術語14883157
Ref: installing/index key-terms14883250
Ref: 4cd914883250
Ref: 關鍵術語-Footnote-114885236
Ref: 關鍵術語-Footnote-214885261
Ref: 關鍵術語-Footnote-314885290
Ref: 關鍵術語-Footnote-414885322
Node: 基本用法<4>14885402
Ref: installing/index basic-usage14885520
Ref: 4cda14885520
Ref: 基本用法<4>-Footnote-114887063
Ref: 基本用法<4>-Footnote-214887100
Node: 我該如何 ？14887149
Ref: installing/index how-do-i14887276
Ref: 4cdb14887276
Node: 在 Python 3 4 之前的 Python 版本中安裝 pip？14887779
Ref: installing/index install-pip-in-versions-of-python-prior-to-python-3-414887934
Ref: 4cdc14887934
Ref: 在 Python 3 4 之前的 Python 版本中安裝 pip？-Footnote-114888364
Node: 只為目前的使用者安裝套件？14888451
Ref: installing/index install-packages-just-for-the-current-user14888647
Ref: 4cdd14888647
Node: 安裝科學的 Python 套件？14888874
Ref: installing/index install-scientific-python-packages14889066
Ref: 4cde14889066
Ref: 安裝科學的 Python 套件？-Footnote-114889494
Ref: 安裝科學的 Python 套件？-Footnote-214889540
Node: 平行安裝多個 Python 版本並使用它們？14889586
Ref: installing/index work-with-multiple-versions-of-python-installed-in-parallel14889730
Ref: 4cdf14889730
Node: 常見的安裝問題14890701
Ref: installing/index common-installation-issues14890804
Ref: 4ce014890804
Node: 在 Linux 上安裝套件至系統 Python14891008
Ref: installing/index installing-into-the-system-python-on-linux14891129
Ref: 4ce114891129
Node: 未安裝 pip14891675
Ref: installing/index pip-not-installed14891843
Ref: 4ce214891843
Ref: 未安裝 pip-Footnote-114892089
Node: 安裝二進制擴充 binary extension14892215
Ref: installing/index installing-binary-extensions14892333
Ref: 4ce314892333
Ref: 安裝二進制擴充 binary extension-Footnote-114893204
Ref: 安裝二進制擴充 binary extension-Footnote-214893250
Node: Python 如何達成任務14893299
Ref: howto/index doc14893421
Ref: 4ce414893421
Ref: howto/index python-howtos14893421
Ref: 4ce514893421
Node: 遷移延伸模組到 Python 314894528
Ref: howto/cporting doc14894659
Ref: 4ce614894659
Ref: howto/cporting cporting-howto14894659
Ref: 117214894659
Ref: howto/cporting porting-extension-modules-to-python-314894659
Ref: 4ce714894659
Ref: 遷移延伸模組到 Python 3-Footnote-114895416
Ref: 遷移延伸模組到 Python 3-Footnote-214895467
Ref: 遷移延伸模組到 Python 3-Footnote-314895524
Ref: 遷移延伸模組到 Python 3-Footnote-414895552
Node: Curses Programming with Python14895599
Ref: howto/curses doc14895766
Ref: 4ce814895766
Ref: howto/curses curses-howto14895766
Ref: 2b2114895766
Ref: howto/curses curses-programming-with-python14895766
Ref: 4ce914895766
Node: What is curses?14896179
Ref: howto/curses what-is-curses14896310
Ref: 4cea14896310
Ref: What is curses?-Footnote-114898646
Ref: What is curses?-Footnote-214898686
Node: Python curses 模組14898730
Ref: howto/curses the-python-curses-module14898802
Ref: 4ceb14898802
Node: Starting and ending a curses application14899609
Ref: howto/curses starting-and-ending-a-curses-application14899765
Ref: 4cec14899765
Node: Windows and Pads14903022
Ref: howto/curses windows-and-pads14903178
Ref: 4ced14903178
Node: Displaying Text14907722
Ref: howto/curses displaying-text14907853
Ref: 4cee14907853
Node: Attributes and Color14911635
Ref: howto/curses attributes-and-color14911707
Ref: 4cef14911707
Node: 使用者輸入14916229
Ref: howto/curses user-input14916364
Ref: 4cf014916364
Ref: 使用者輸入-Footnote-114920175
Node: For More Information14920215
Ref: howto/curses for-more-information14920326
Ref: 4cf114920326
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-114921815
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-214921852
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-314921916
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-414921960
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-514922022
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-614922074
Node: 描述器 Descriptor 指南14922145
Ref: howto/descriptor doc14922342
Ref: 4cf214922342
Ref: howto/descriptor descriptor-guide14922342
Ref: 4cf314922342
Ref: howto/descriptor descriptorhowto14922342
Ref: 136314922342
Node: Primer14923502
Ref: howto/descriptor primer14923607
Ref: 4cf414923607
Node: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant14923949
Ref: howto/descriptor simple-example-a-descriptor-that-returns-a-constant14924067
Ref: 4cf514924067
Node: Dynamic lookups14925525
Ref: howto/descriptor dynamic-lookups14925670
Ref: 4cf614925670
Node: Managed attributes14927066
Ref: howto/descriptor managed-attributes14927176
Ref: 4cf714927176
Node: Customized names14929813
Ref: howto/descriptor customized-names14929924
Ref: 4cf814929924
Node: Closing thoughts14932257
Ref: howto/descriptor closing-thoughts14932341
Ref: 4cf914932341
Node: Complete Practical Example14933707
Ref: howto/descriptor complete-practical-example14933839
Ref: 4cfa14933839
Node: Validator class14934102
Ref: howto/descriptor validator-class14934206
Ref: 4cfb14934206
Node: Custom validators14935230
Ref: howto/descriptor custom-validators14935364
Ref: 4cfc14935364
Ref: Custom validators-Footnote-114937955
Node: Practical application14938024
Ref: howto/descriptor practical-application14938134
Ref: 4cfd14938134
Node: Technical Tutorial14939519
Ref: howto/descriptor technical-tutorial14939668
Ref: 4cfe14939668
Node: 摘要14940093
Ref: howto/descriptor abstract14940190
Ref: 4cff14940190
Node: Definition and introduction14940499
Ref: howto/descriptor definition-and-introduction14940620
Ref: 4d0014940620
Node: 描述器協定14941840
Ref: howto/descriptor descriptor-protocol14941988
Ref: 4d0114941988
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Ref: 使用 GDB 來為 C API 擴充功能和 CPython 內部偵錯-Footnote-114975304
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Ref: howto/enum id115043963
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Ref: Displaying the date/time in messages-Footnote-115120675
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Ref: howto/logging next-steps15120847
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Ref: howto/logging handlers15130062
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Ref: howto/logging logging logging Formatter __init__15132696
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Ref: howto/logging library-config15142664
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Ref: howto/logging id115148562
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Ref: howto/logging id215149419
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-logging-in-multiple-modules15162107
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-handlers-and-formatters15167753
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook dealing-with-handlers-that-block15181109
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook running-a-logging-socket-listener-in-production15191164
Ref: 4d9715191164
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-115194678
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-215194710
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-315194782
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-415194812
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook adding-contextual-information-to-your-logging-output15195078
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook context-info15195078
Ref: 2a8715195078
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-loggeradapters-to-impart-contextual-information15196370
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-objects-other-than-dicts-to-pass-contextual-information15199781
Ref: 4d9a15199781
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook filters-contextual15200440
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook use-of-contextvars15204428
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook imparting-contextual-information-in-handlers15214183
Ref: 4d9d15214183
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-a-single-file-from-multiple-processes15215310
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-processes15215310
Ref: 4d9f15215310
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-concurrent-futures-processpoolexecutor15225995
Ref: 4da015225995
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook deploying-web-applications-using-gunicorn-and-uwsgi15227190
Ref: 4da115227190
Ref: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI-Footnote-115227850
Ref: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI-Footnote-215227880
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-file-rotation15228107
Ref: 4da215228107
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Ref: 4da415230157
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customizing-logrecord15237469
Ref: 4da615237469
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclassing-queuehandler-and-queuelistener-a-zeromq-example15241583
Ref: 4da715241583
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook zeromq-handlers15241583
Ref: 4da815241583
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclass-queuehandler15241932
Ref: 4da915241932
Node: Subclass QueueListener15243233
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclass-queuelistener15243382
Ref: 4daa15243382
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook pynng-handlers15244352
Ref: 4dab15244352
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclassing-queuehandler-and-queuelistener-a-pynng-example15244352
Ref: 4dac15244352
Ref: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example-Footnote-115244976
Ref: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example-Footnote-215245016
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id315245203
Ref: 4dad15245203
Node: Subclass QueueHandler<2>15247179
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id415247333
Ref: 4dae15247333
Node: An example dictionary-based configuration15251045
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook an-example-dictionary-based-configuration15251278
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Ref: An example dictionary-based configuration-Footnote-115253210
Ref: An example dictionary-based configuration-Footnote-215253296
Node: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing15253382
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook cookbook-rotator-namer15253596
Ref: 2ad715253596
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-a-rotator-and-namer-to-customize-log-rotation-processing15253596
Ref: 4db015253596
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Ref: 4db115255223
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Ref: 4db215265042
Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-115267199
Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-215267258
Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-315267327
Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-415267386
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Ref: 4db315267636
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Ref: 4db715277928
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Ref: 4dc215295486
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Ref: 4dc815306095
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Ref: A Qt GUI for logging-Footnote-215322561
Ref: A Qt GUI for logging-Footnote-315322603
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-syslog-with-rfc5424-support15322815
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Ref: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support-Footnote-115326541
Ref: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support-Footnote-215326600
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Node: Patterns to avoid15331492
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Ref: 二進位資料-Footnote-115418050
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Ref: howto/unicode references15447425
Ref: 4e0a15447425
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Ref: References<3>-Footnote-715448697
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Ref: 4e0b15448888
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Ref: 4e0c15449353
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Ref: howto/unicode converting-to-bytes15452602
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Ref: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code-Footnote-115456689
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Ref: Unicode Properties-Footnote-115458614
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Ref: References<4>-Footnote-215463864
Ref: References<4>-Footnote-315463916
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Ref: 4e1515470536
Node: Converting Between File Encodings15471897
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Ref: howto/unicode id315473983
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Ref: References<5>-Footnote-215474661
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Node: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters15560438
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Node: Managing Global State15560898
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions opt-out-limiting-to-one-module-object-per-process15564143
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Node: Delegating tp_traverse15571607
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions avoiding-pyobject-new15573953
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-classes15574911
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Node: Module State Access from Regular Methods15575482
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-regular-methods15575679
Ref: 4e6115575679
Node: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters15578184
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-slot-methods-getters-and-setters15578377
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Node: Lifetime of the Module State15579808
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions lifetime-of-the-module-state15579952
Ref: 4e6315579952
Node: Open Issues15580495
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions open-issues15580583
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Node: Per-Class Scope15580955
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions per-class-scope15581060
Ref: 4e6515581060
Node: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types15581353
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions lossless-conversion-to-heap-types15581458
Ref: 4e6615581458
Node: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order15581696
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Ref: howto/mro the-beginning15583592
Ref: 4e6915583592
Ref: The beginning-Footnote-115588169
Ref: The beginning-Footnote-215588306
Node: The C3 Method Resolution Order15588418
Ref: howto/mro the-c3-method-resolution-order15588564
Ref: 4e6a15588564
Node: 範例<55>15590896
Ref: howto/mro examples15591057
Ref: 4e6b15591057
Node: Bad Method Resolution Orders15596600
Ref: howto/mro bad-method-resolution-orders15596738
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Ref: Bad Method Resolution Orders-Footnote-115602987
Node: The end15603171
Ref: howto/mro the-end15603308
Ref: 4e6d15603308
Node: Resources15606483
Ref: howto/mro resources15606583
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Node: Python 常見問題15606618
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Ref: faq/index python-frequently-asked-questions15606735
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Node: 一般資訊15607385
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Node: 什麼是 Python？15608435
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Ref: 什麼是 Python？-Footnote-115609586
Node: 什麼是 Python 軟體基金會？15609638
Ref: faq/general what-is-the-python-software-foundation15609803
Ref: 4e7515609803
Ref: 什麼是 Python 軟體基金會？-Footnote-115610382
Node: 使用 Python 時有任何版權限制嗎？15610428
Ref: faq/general are-there-copyright-restrictions-on-the-use-of-python15610618
Ref: 4e7615610618
Ref: 使用 Python 時有任何版權限制嗎？-Footnote-115611409
Ref: 使用 Python 時有任何版權限制嗎？-Footnote-215611456
Node: 當初為什麼 Python 會被創造出來？15611503
Ref: faq/general why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place15611693
Ref: 4e7715611693
Node: 什麼是 Python 擅長的事情？15613835
Ref: faq/general what-is-python-good-for15614030
Ref: 4e7815614030
Ref: 什麼是 Python 擅長的事情？-Footnote-115614896
Node: Python 的版本編號系統是如何運作的？15614921
Ref: faq/general faq-version-numbering-scheme15615119
Ref: 4e7915615119
Ref: faq/general how-does-the-python-version-numbering-scheme-work15615119
Ref: 4e7a15615119
Ref: Python 的版本編號系統是如何運作的？-Footnote-115617213
Ref: Python 的版本編號系統是如何運作的？-Footnote-215617287
Node: 我要如何得到 Python 的原始碼複本？15617329
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Node: 我要如何取得 Python 的說明文件？15618335
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Ref: 4e7c15618552
Ref: 我要如何取得 Python 的說明文件？-Footnote-115619074
Node: 我從來沒有寫過程式，有沒有 Python 的教學？15619106
Ref: faq/general i-ve-never-programmed-before-is-there-a-python-tutorial15619335
Ref: 4e7d15619335
Ref: 我從來沒有寫過程式，有沒有 Python 的教學？-Footnote-115619695
Node: 有沒有 Python 專屬的新聞群組或郵件討論群？15619747
Ref: faq/general is-there-a-newsgroup-or-mailing-list-devoted-to-python15619976
Ref: 4e7e15619976
Ref: 有沒有 Python 專屬的新聞群組或郵件討論群？-Footnote-115620885
Ref: 有沒有 Python 專屬的新聞群組或郵件討論群？-Footnote-215620946
Node: 如何取得 Python 的 beta 測試版本？15621027
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-get-a-beta-test-version-of-python15621250
Ref: 4e7f15621250
Ref: 如何取得 Python 的 beta 測試版本？-Footnote-115621806
Node: 如何提交 Python 的錯誤報告和修補程式？15621843
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-submit-bug-reports-and-patches-for-python15622069
Ref: 4e8015622069
Ref: 如何提交 Python 的錯誤報告和修補程式？-Footnote-115622458
Node: 是否有關於 Python 的任何已出版文章可供參考？15622495
Ref: faq/general are-there-any-published-articles-about-python-that-i-can-reference15622709
Ref: 4e8115622709
Ref: 是否有關於 Python 的任何已出版文章可供參考？-Footnote-115623249
Node: 有沒有關於 Python 的書？15623285
Ref: faq/general are-there-any-books-on-python15623488
Ref: 4e8215623488
Node: www python org 的真實位置在哪裡？15623889
Ref: faq/general where-in-the-world-is-www-python-org-located15624061
Ref: 4e8315624061
Ref: www python org 的真實位置在哪裡？-Footnote-115624309
Node: 為什麼要取名為 Python？15624338
Ref: faq/general why-is-it-called-python15624536
Ref: 4e8415624536
Ref: 為什麼要取名為 Python？-Footnote-115624922
Node: 我需要喜歡「Monty Python 的飛行馬戲團」嗎？15624973
Ref: faq/general do-i-have-to-like-monty-python-s-flying-circus15625120
Ref: 4e8515625120
Node: 在真實世界中的 Python15625278
Ref: faq/general python-in-the-real-world15625396
Ref: 4e8615625396
Node: Python 的穩定性如何？15625789
Ref: faq/general how-stable-is-python15625922
Ref: 4e8715625922
Ref: Python 的穩定性如何？-Footnote-115626891
Ref: Python 的穩定性如何？-Footnote-215626933
Ref: Python 的穩定性如何？-Footnote-315626975
Node: 有多少人在使用 Python？15627017
Ref: faq/general how-many-people-are-using-python15627218
Ref: 4e8815627218
Node: 有沒有任何重要的專案使用 Python 完成開發？15627719
Ref: faq/general have-any-significant-projects-been-done-in-python15627938
Ref: 4e8915627938
Ref: 有沒有任何重要的專案使用 Python 完成開發？-Footnote-115628616
Ref: 有沒有任何重要的專案使用 Python 完成開發？-Footnote-215628668
Ref: 有沒有任何重要的專案使用 Python 完成開發？-Footnote-315628697
Ref: 有沒有任何重要的專案使用 Python 完成開發？-Footnote-415628726
Node: Python 未來預期會有哪些新的開發？15628757
Ref: faq/general what-new-developments-are-expected-for-python-in-the-future15629001
Ref: 4e8a15629001
Ref: Python 未來預期會有哪些新的開發？-Footnote-115629562
Node: 對 Python 提出不相容的變更建議是否適當？15629632
Ref: faq/general is-it-reasonable-to-propose-incompatible-changes-to-python15629884
Ref: 4e8b15629884
Ref: 對 Python 提出不相容的變更建議是否適當？-Footnote-115630657
Node: Python 對於入門的程式設計師而言是否為好的語言？15630699
Ref: faq/general is-python-a-good-language-for-beginning-programmers15630896
Ref: 4e8c15630896
Ref: Python 對於入門的程式設計師而言是否為好的語言？-Footnote-115634693
Ref: Python 對於入門的程式設計師而言是否為好的語言？-Footnote-215634744
Node: 程式開發常見問答集15634806
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Ref: faq/programming programming-faq15634969
Ref: 4e8e15634969
Node: 常見問題15635206
Ref: faq/programming general-questions15635303
Ref: 4e8f15635303
Node: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？15635725
Ref: faq/programming is-there-a-source-code-level-debugger-with-breakpoints-single-stepping-etc15635934
Ref: 4e9015635934
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Ref: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？-Footnote-215637380
Ref: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？-Footnote-315637424
Ref: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？-Footnote-415637477
Ref: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？-Footnote-515637523
Ref: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？-Footnote-615637572
Ref: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？-Footnote-715637611
Ref: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？-Footnote-815637641
Ref: 是否有可以使用在程式碼階段 具有中斷點 步驟執行等功能的除錯器？-Footnote-915637698
Node: 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？15637741
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Ref: 4e9115638015
Ref: 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？-Footnote-115638378
Ref: 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？-Footnote-215638432
Ref: 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？-Footnote-315638474
Ref: 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？-Footnote-415638505
Ref: 有沒有工具能夠幫忙找 bug 或執行靜態分析？-Footnote-515638537
Node: 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？15638578
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Ref: 4e9215638815
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-create-a-stand-alone-binary-from-a-python-script15638815
Ref: 4e9315638815
Ref: 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？-Footnote-115640493
Ref: 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？-Footnote-215640558
Ref: 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？-Footnote-315640586
Ref: 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？-Footnote-415640619
Ref: 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？-Footnote-515640672
Ref: 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？-Footnote-615640724
Ref: 如何從 Python 腳本建立獨立的二進位檔案？-Footnote-715640773
Node: Python 程式碼是否有編碼標準或風格指南？15640805
Ref: faq/programming are-there-coding-standards-or-a-style-guide-for-python-programs15640974
Ref: 4e9415640974
Ref: Python 程式碼是否有編碼標準或風格指南？-Footnote-115641196
Node: 核心語言15641238
Ref: faq/programming core-language15641359
Ref: 4e9515641359
Node: 為什麼當變數有值時，我仍得到錯誤訊息 UnboundLocalError？15642725
Ref: faq/programming faq-unboundlocalerror15642913
Ref: 1d7015642913
Ref: faq/programming why-am-i-getting-an-unboundlocalerror-when-the-variable-has-a-value15642913
Ref: 4e9615642913
Node: Python 的區域變數和全域變數有什麼規則？15644838
Ref: faq/programming what-are-the-rules-for-local-and-global-variables-in-python15645117
Ref: 4e9715645117
Node: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?15645982
Ref: faq/programming why-do-lambdas-defined-in-a-loop-with-different-values-all-return-the-same-result15646222
Ref: 4e9815646222
Node: 如何跨模組共享全域變數？15648116
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-share-global-variables-across-modules15648360
Ref: 4e9915648360
Node: What are the "best practices" for using import in a module?15649135
Ref: faq/programming what-are-the-best-practices-for-using-import-in-a-module15649343
Ref: 4e9a15649343
Node: Why are default values shared between objects?15652121
Ref: faq/programming why-are-default-values-shared-between-objects15652368
Ref: 4e9b15652368
Node: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?15654751
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-pass-optional-or-keyword-parameters-from-one-function-to-another15654995
Ref: 4e9c15654995
Node: 引數 arguments 和參數 parameters 有什麼區別？15655580
Ref: faq/programming faq-argument-vs-parameter15655827
Ref: 4e9d15655827
Ref: faq/programming what-is-the-difference-between-arguments-and-parameters15655827
Ref: 4e9e15655827
Node: 為什麼更改 list 'y' 也會更改 list 'x'？15656511
Ref: faq/programming why-did-changing-list-y-also-change-list-x15656751
Ref: 4e9f15656751
Node: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?15660150
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-write-a-function-with-output-parameters-call-by-reference15660384
Ref: 4ea015660384
Node: How do you make a higher order function in Python?15662777
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-make-a-higher-order-function-in-python15662997
Ref: 4ea115662997
Node: 如何在 Python 中複製物件？15664563
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-copy-an-object-in-python15664754
Ref: 4ea215664754
Node: 如何找到物件的方法或屬性？15665163
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-find-the-methods-or-attributes-of-an-object15665349
Ref: 4ea315665349
Node: 我的程式碼如何發現物件的名稱？15665632
Ref: faq/programming how-can-my-code-discover-the-name-of-an-object15665830
Ref: 4ea415665830
Node: What's up with the comma operator's precedence?15667396
Ref: faq/programming what-s-up-with-the-comma-operator-s-precedence15667603
Ref: 4ea515667603
Node: 是否有等效於 C 的 "? " 三元運算子？15668165
Ref: faq/programming is-there-an-equivalent-of-c-s-ternary-operator15668383
Ref: 4ea615668383
Node: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?15668934
Ref: faq/programming is-it-possible-to-write-obfuscated-one-liners-in-python15669168
Ref: 4ea715669168
Node: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?15670679
Ref: faq/programming faq-positional-only-arguments15670856
Ref: 1f0815670856
Ref: faq/programming what-does-the-slash-in-the-parameter-list-of-a-function-mean15670856
Ref: 4ea815670856
Node: 數字和字串15671956
Ref: faq/programming numbers-and-strings15672079
Ref: 4ea915672079
Node: 如何指定十六進位和八進位整數？15672844
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-specify-hexadecimal-and-octal-integers15672982
Ref: 4eaa15672982
Node: 為什麼 -22 // 10 回傳 -3？15673594
Ref: faq/programming why-does-22-10-return-315673799
Ref: 4eab15673799
Node: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?15674557
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-get-int-literal-attribute-instead-of-syntaxerror15674750
Ref: 4eac15674750
Node: 如何將字串轉換為數字？15675336
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-a-string-to-a-number15675530
Ref: 4ead15675530
Node: 如何將數字轉換為字串？15676824
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-a-number-to-a-string15676994
Ref: 4eae15676994
Node: How do I modify a string in place?15677533
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-modify-a-string-in-place15677717
Ref: 4eaf15677717
Node: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?15678571
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-use-strings-to-call-functions-methods15678805
Ref: 4eb015678805
Node: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?15680123
Ref: faq/programming is-there-an-equivalent-to-perl-s-chomp-for-removing-trailing-newlines-from-strings15680361
Ref: 4eb115680361
Node: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?15681118
Ref: faq/programming is-there-a-scanf-or-sscanf-equivalent15681378
Ref: 4eb215681378
Node: 'UnicodeDecodeError' 或 'UnicodeEncodeErro' 錯誤是什麼意思？15682021
Ref: faq/programming what-does-unicodedecodeerror-or-unicodeencodeerror-error-mean15682255
Ref: 4eb315682255
Node: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?15682448
Ref: faq/programming can-i-end-a-raw-string-with-an-odd-number-of-backslashes15682635
Ref: 4eb415682635
Ref: faq/programming faq-programming-raw-string-backslash15682635
Ref: 19ee15682635
Node: Performance<4>15683916
Ref: faq/programming performance15684049
Ref: 4eb515684049
Node: 我的程式太慢了。我該如何加快速度？15684227
Ref: faq/programming my-program-is-too-slow-how-do-i-speed-it-up15684406
Ref: 4eb615684406
Ref: 我的程式太慢了。我該如何加快速度？-Footnote-115687284
Ref: 我的程式太慢了。我該如何加快速度？-Footnote-215687311
Node: What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?15687376
Ref: faq/programming efficient-string-concatenation15687555
Ref: 4eb715687555
Ref: faq/programming what-is-the-most-efficient-way-to-concatenate-many-strings-together15687555
Ref: 4eb815687555
Node: Sequences Tuples/Lists15688525
Ref: faq/programming sequences-tuples-lists15688649
Ref: 4eb915688649
Node: How do I convert between tuples and lists?15689399
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-between-tuples-and-lists15689533
Ref: 4eba15689533
Node: What's a negative index?15690378
Ref: faq/programming what-s-a-negative-index15690571
Ref: 4ebb15690571
Node: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?15691149
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-iterate-over-a-sequence-in-reverse-order15691341
Ref: 4ebc15691341
Node: How do you remove duplicates from a list?15691688
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-remove-duplicates-from-a-list15691900
Ref: 4ebd15691900
Node: How do you remove multiple items from a list15692725
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-remove-multiple-items-from-a-list15692922
Ref: 4ebe15692922
Node: How do you make an array in Python?15693470
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-make-an-array-in-python15693666
Ref: 4ebf15693666
Ref: How do you make an array in Python?-Footnote-115694696
Node: How do I create a multidimensional list?15694723
Ref: faq/programming faq-multidimensional-list15694936
Ref: 1f4015694936
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-a-multidimensional-list15694936
Ref: 4ec015694936
Ref: How do I create a multidimensional list?-Footnote-115696169
Node: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?15696196
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-apply-a-method-or-function-to-a-sequence-of-objects15696449
Ref: 4ec115696449
Node: Why does a_tuple[i] += ['item'] raise an exception when the addition works?15697028
Ref: faq/programming faq-augmented-assignment-tuple-error15697318
Ref: 1d4715697318
Ref: faq/programming why-does-a-tuple-i-item-raise-an-exception-when-the-addition-works15697318
Ref: 4ec215697318
Node: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?15700537
Ref: faq/programming i-want-to-do-a-complicated-sort-can-you-do-a-schwartzian-transform-in-python15700818
Ref: 4ec315700818
Node: How can I sort one list by values from another list?15701299
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-sort-one-list-by-values-from-another-list15701496
Ref: 4ec415701496
Node: 物件15702091
Ref: faq/programming objects15702210
Ref: 4ec515702210
Node: 什麼是類別 class ？15703449
Ref: faq/programming what-is-a-class15703552
Ref: 4ec615703552
Node: 什麼是方法 method ？15704292
Ref: faq/programming what-is-a-method15704417
Ref: 4ec715704417
Node: What is self?15704740
Ref: faq/programming what-is-self15704923
Ref: 4ec815704923
Node: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?15705378
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-check-if-an-object-is-an-instance-of-a-given-class-or-of-a-subclass-of-it15705554
Ref: 4eca15705554
Node: What is delegation?15707847
Ref: faq/programming what-is-delegation15708094
Ref: 4ecb15708094
Node: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?15710197
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-call-a-method-defined-in-a-base-class-from-a-derived-class-that-extends-it15710431
Ref: 4ecc15710431
Node: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?15711052
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-organize-my-code-to-make-it-easier-to-change-the-base-class15711326
Ref: 4ecd15711326
Node: How do I create static class data and static class methods?15711876
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-static-class-data-and-static-class-methods15712119
Ref: 4ece15712119
Node: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?15713684
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-overload-constructors-or-methods-in-python15713922
Ref: 4ecf15713922
Node: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam15714832
Ref: faq/programming i-try-to-use-spam-and-i-get-an-error-about-someclassname-spam15715081
Ref: 4ed015715081
Node: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object15716281
Ref: faq/programming my-class-defines-del-but-it-is-not-called-when-i-delete-the-object15716531
Ref: 4ed115716531
Node: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?15718466
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-get-a-list-of-all-instances-of-a-given-class15718701
Ref: 4ed215718701
Node: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?15719040
Ref: faq/programming why-does-the-result-of-id-appear-to-be-not-unique15719269
Ref: 4ed315719269
Node: 我什麼時候可以依靠 is 運算子進行識別性測試？15720160
Ref: faq/programming when-can-i-rely-on-identity-tests-with-the-is-operator15720392
Ref: 4ed415720392
Ref: 我什麼時候可以依靠 is 運算子進行識別性測試？-Footnote-115723466
Node: 子類別如何控制不可變實例中存儲的資料？15723508
Ref: faq/programming how-can-a-subclass-control-what-data-is-stored-in-an-immutable-instance15723717
Ref: 4ed515723717
Node: 如何快取方法呼叫？15725146
Ref: faq/programming faq-cache-method-calls15725282
Ref: 24b715725282
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-cache-method-calls15725282
Ref: 4ed615725282
Node: 模組<5>15728221
Ref: faq/programming modules15728309
Ref: 4ed715728309
Node: 如何建立 pyc 檔案？15728748
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-a-pyc-file15728862
Ref: 4ed815728862
Ref: 如何建立 pyc 檔案？-Footnote-115731428
Node: 如何找到當前模組名稱？15731470
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-find-the-current-module-name15731648
Ref: 4ed915731648
Node: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?15732185
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-have-modules-that-mutually-import-each-other15732401
Ref: 4eda15732401
Node: __import__ 'x y z' 回傳 <module 'x'>，那我怎麼得到 z？15734355
Ref: faq/programming import-x-y-z-returns-module-x-how-do-i-get-z15734643
Ref: 4edb15734643
Node: 當我編輯需要引入的模組並重新引入它時，更動沒有反應出來。為什麼會這樣？15734931
Ref: faq/programming when-i-edit-an-imported-module-and-reimport-it-the-changes-don-t-show-up-why-does-this-happen15735155
Ref: 4edc15735155
Node: 設計和歷史常見問答集15736562
Ref: faq/design doc15736732
Ref: 4edd15736732
Ref: faq/design design-and-history-faq15736732
Ref: 4ede15736732
Node: 為什麼 Python 使用縮排將陳述式進行分組？15739336
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-use-indentation-for-grouping-of-statements15739531
Ref: 4edf15739531
Node: 為什麼我會從簡單的數學運算得到奇怪的結果？15741081
Ref: faq/design why-am-i-getting-strange-results-with-simple-arithmetic-operations15741324
Ref: 4ee015741324
Node: 為何浮點數運算如此不精確？15741472
Ref: faq/design why-are-floating-point-calculations-so-inaccurate15741697
Ref: 4ee115741697
Node: 為什麼 Python 字串不可變動？15743060
Ref: faq/design why-are-python-strings-immutable15743297
Ref: 4ee215743297
Node: 為何「self」在方法 method 定義和呼叫時一定要明確使用？15743842
Ref: faq/design why-must-self-be-used-explicitly-in-method-definitions-and-calls15744103
Ref: 4ee315744103
Ref: faq/design why-self15744103
Ref: 4ec915744103
Node: 為何我不能在運算式 expression 中使用指派運算？15746246
Ref: faq/design id215746592
Ref: 4ee415746592
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-i-use-an-assignment-in-an-expression15746592
Ref: 1a4615746592
Ref: 為何我不能在運算式 expression 中使用指派運算？-Footnote-115746982
Node: 為何 Python 對於一些功能實作使用方法（像是 list index ），另一些使用函式（像是 len list ）？15747024
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-use-methods-for-some-functionality-e-g-list-index-but-functions-for-other-e-g-len-list15747365
Ref: 4ee515747365
Node: 為何 join 是字串方法而非串列 list 或元組 tuple 方法？15748587
Ref: faq/design why-is-join-a-string-method-instead-of-a-list-or-tuple-method15748889
Ref: 4ee615748889
Node: 例外處理有多快？15750459
Ref: faq/design how-fast-are-exceptions15750693
Ref: 4ee715750693
Node: 為什麼 Python 內沒有 switch 或 case 陳述式？15751518
Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-there-a-switch-or-case-statement-in-python15751775
Ref: 4ee815751775
Node: 為何不能在直譯器上模擬執行緒，而要使用作業系統的特定實作方式？15753108
Ref: faq/design can-t-you-emulate-threads-in-the-interpreter-instead-of-relying-on-an-os-specific-thread-implementation15753388
Ref: 4ee915753388
Ref: 為何不能在直譯器上模擬執行緒，而要使用作業系統的特定實作方式？-Footnote-115753943
Node: 為何 lambda 運算式不能包含陳述式？15753999
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-lambda-expressions-contain-statements15754296
Ref: 4eea15754296
Node: Python 可以被編譯成機器語言、C 語言或其他種語言嗎？15755047
Ref: faq/design can-python-be-compiled-to-machine-code-c-or-some-other-language15755282
Ref: 4eeb15755282
Ref: Python 可以被編譯成機器語言、C 語言或其他種語言嗎？-Footnote-115755659
Ref: Python 可以被編譯成機器語言、C 語言或其他種語言嗎？-Footnote-215755687
Node: Python 如何管理記憶體？15755715
Ref: faq/design how-does-python-manage-memory15755963
Ref: 4eec15755963
Ref: Python 如何管理記憶體？-Footnote-115757615
Ref: Python 如何管理記憶體？-Footnote-215757646
Node: 為何 CPython 不使用更多傳統的垃圾回收機制？15757671
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-cpython-use-a-more-traditional-garbage-collection-scheme15757913
Ref: 4eed15757913
Node: 當 CPython 結束時，為何所有的記憶體不會被釋放？15758775
Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-all-memory-freed-when-cpython-exits15759053
Ref: 4eee15759053
Node: 為何要把元組 tuple 和串列 list 分成兩個資料型態？15759702
Ref: faq/design why-are-there-separate-tuple-and-list-data-types15759968
Ref: 4eef15759968
Node: 串列 list 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？15761077
Ref: faq/design how-are-lists-implemented-in-cpython15761333
Ref: 4ef015761333
Node: 字典 dictionaries 在 CPython 中是怎麼實作的？15762092
Ref: faq/design how-are-dictionaries-implemented-in-cpython15762323
Ref: 4ef115762323
Node: 為何字典的鍵一定是不可變的？15763173
Ref: faq/design why-must-dictionary-keys-be-immutable15763406
Ref: 4ef215763406
Node: 為何 list sort 不是回傳排序過的串列？15767197
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list15767452
Ref: 4ef315767452
Node: 如何在 Python 中指定和強制使用一個介面規範 interface spec ？15768206
Ref: faq/design how-do-you-specify-and-enforce-an-interface-spec-in-python15768446
Ref: 4ef415768446
Node: 為何沒有 goto 語法？15770669
Ref: faq/design why-is-there-no-goto15770911
Ref: 4ef515770911
Node: 為何純字串 r-string 不能以反斜線結尾？15772005
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-raw-strings-r-strings-end-with-a-backslash15772222
Ref: 4ef615772222
Node: 為何 Python 沒有屬性賦值的 with 陳述式？15773208
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-python-have-a-with-statement-for-attribute-assignments15773451
Ref: 4ef715773451
Node: 為何產生器 generator 不支援 with 陳述式？15775784
Ref: faq/design why-don-t-generators-support-the-with-statement15776034
Ref: 4ef815776034
Node: 為何 if、while、def、class 陳述式裡需要冒號？15776491
Ref: faq/design why-are-colons-required-for-the-if-while-def-class-statements15776747
Ref: 4ef915776747
Node: 為何 Python 允許在串列和元組末端加上逗號？15777424
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-allow-commas-at-the-end-of-lists-and-tuples15777618
Ref: 4efa15777618
Node: 函式庫和擴充功能的常見問題15778581
Ref: faq/library doc15778752
Ref: 4efb15778752
Ref: faq/library library-and-extension-faq15778752
Ref: 4efc15778752
Node: 常見函式問題15779045
Ref: faq/library general-library-questions15779160
Ref: 4efd15779160
Node: 我如何找到執行任務 X 的模組或應用程式？15779699
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-find-a-module-or-application-to-perform-task-x15779885
Ref: 4efe15779885
Ref: 我如何找到執行任務 X 的模組或應用程式？-Footnote-115780446
Ref: 我如何找到執行任務 X 的模組或應用程式？-Footnote-215780471
Node: 哪裡可以找到 math py socket py regex py 等 來源檔案？15780502
Ref: faq/library where-is-the-math-py-socket-py-regex-py-etc-source-file15780741
Ref: 4eff15780741
Node: 我如何使 Python script 執行在 Unix？15781507
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-make-a-python-script-executable-on-unix15781743
Ref: 4f0015781743
Node: 是否有適用於 Python 的 curses/termcap 套件？15783190
Ref: faq/library is-there-a-curses-termcap-package-for-python15783415
Ref: 4f0115783415
Ref: 是否有適用於 Python 的 curses/termcap 套件？-Footnote-115784210
Node: Python 中是否有等同於 C 的 onexit 的函式？15784270
Ref: faq/library is-there-an-equivalent-to-c-s-onexit-in-python15784499
Ref: 4f0215784499
Node: 為什麼我的信號處理程式不起作用？15784717
Ref: faq/library why-don-t-my-signal-handlers-work15784883
Ref: 4f0315784883
Node: 常見課題15785212
Ref: faq/library common-tasks15785345
Ref: 4f0415785345
Node: 如何測試 Python 程式或元件？15785533
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-test-a-python-program-or-component15785676
Ref: 4f0515785676
Node: How do I create documentation from doc strings?15787585
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-create-documentation-from-doc-strings15787778
Ref: 4f0615787778
Ref: How do I create documentation from doc strings?-Footnote-115788154
Ref: How do I create documentation from doc strings?-Footnote-215788194
Node: How do I get a single keypress at a time?15788229
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-get-a-single-keypress-at-a-time15788375
Ref: 4f0715788375
Node: 執行緒15788619
Ref: faq/library threads15788749
Ref: 4f0815788749
Node: 如何使用執行緒編寫程式？15789048
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-program-using-threads15789190
Ref: 4f0915789190
Node: 我的執行緒似乎都沒有運行：為什麼？15789498
Ref: faq/library none-of-my-threads-seem-to-run-why15789706
Ref: 4f0a15789706
Node: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?15791260
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-parcel-out-work-among-a-bunch-of-worker-threads15791484
Ref: 4f0b15791484
Node: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?15794080
Ref: faq/library what-kinds-of-global-value-mutation-are-thread-safe15794289
Ref: 4f0c15794289
Node: 不能擺脫全局直譯器鎖嗎？15795790
Ref: faq/library can-t-we-get-rid-of-the-global-interpreter-lock15795933
Ref: 4f0d15795933
Ref: 不能擺脫全局直譯器鎖嗎？-Footnote-115798572
Node: 輸入與輸出15798632
Ref: faq/library input-and-output15798794
Ref: 4f0e15798794
Node: 如何刪除檔案？（以及其他檔案問題 ）15799403
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-delete-a-file-and-other-file-questions15799537
Ref: 4f0f15799537
Node: 如何複製檔案？15800782
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-copy-a-file15800973
Ref: 4f1015800973
Ref: 如何複製檔案？-Footnote-115801439
Ref: 如何複製檔案？-Footnote-215801510
Node: 如何讀取（或寫入）二進位制資料？15801562
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-read-or-write-binary-data15801767
Ref: 4f1115801767
Node: I can't seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?15802950
Ref: faq/library i-can-t-seem-to-use-os-read-on-a-pipe-created-with-os-popen-why15803171
Ref: 4f1215803171
Node: 如何存取序列 RS232 連接埠？15803690
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-access-the-serial-rs232-port15803930
Ref: 4f1315803930
Ref: 如何存取序列 RS232 連接埠？-Footnote-115804266
Node: 為什麼關閉 sys stdout stdin stderr 並沒有真正關閉它？15804309
Ref: faq/library why-doesn-t-closing-sys-stdout-stdin-stderr-really-close-it15804474
Ref: 4f1415804474
Node: 網路 Network /網際網路 Internet 程式15805663
Ref: faq/library network-internet-programming15805825
Ref: 4f1515805825
Node: Python 有哪些 WWW 工具？15806316
Ref: faq/library what-www-tools-are-there-for-python15806492
Ref: 4f1615806492
Node: 如何模擬 CGI 表單送出 submission METHOD=POST ？15807116
Ref: faq/library how-can-i-mimic-cgi-form-submission-method-post15807351
Ref: 4f1715807351
Node: 我應該使用什麼模組來輔助產生 HTML？15808460
Ref: faq/library what-module-should-i-use-to-help-with-generating-html15808703
Ref: 4f1815808703
Ref: 我應該使用什麼模組來輔助產生 HTML？-Footnote-115808925
Node: 如何從 Python 腳本發送郵件？15808977
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-send-mail-from-a-python-script15809222
Ref: 4f1915809222
Node: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?15810544
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-avoid-blocking-in-the-connect-method-of-a-socket15810730
Ref: 4f1a15810730
Ref: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?-Footnote-115812008
Node: 資料庫15812037
Ref: faq/library databases15812199
Ref: 4f1b15812199
Node: Python 中是否有任何資料庫套件的介面？15812353
Ref: faq/library are-there-any-interfaces-to-database-packages-in-python15812510
Ref: 4f1c15812510
Ref: Python 中是否有任何資料庫套件的介面？-Footnote-115812998
Node: How do you implement persistent objects in Python?15813055
Ref: faq/library how-do-you-implement-persistent-objects-in-python15813212
Ref: 4f1d15813212
Node: 數學和數值15813611
Ref: faq/library mathematics-and-numerics15813720
Ref: 4f1e15813720
Node: 如何在 Python 中生成隨機數？15813815
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-generate-random-numbers-in-python15813905
Ref: 4f1f15813905
Node: 擴充/嵌入常見問題集15814787
Ref: faq/extending doc15814972
Ref: 4f2015814972
Ref: faq/extending extending-embedding-faq15814972
Ref: 4f2115814972
Node: 我可以在 C 中建立自己的函式嗎？15816386
Ref: faq/extending can-i-create-my-own-functions-in-c15816552
Ref: 4f2215816552
Node: 我可以在 C++ 中建立自己的函式嗎？15816883
Ref: faq/extending id215817097
Ref: 4f2315817097
Node: 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？15817490
Ref: faq/extending c-wrapper-software15817703
Ref: 4f2415817703
Ref: faq/extending writing-c-is-hard-are-there-any-alternatives15817703
Ref: 4f2515817703
Ref: 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？-Footnote-115818432
Ref: 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？-Footnote-215818459
Ref: 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？-Footnote-315818526
Ref: 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？-Footnote-415818555
Ref: 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？-Footnote-515818597
Ref: 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？-Footnote-615818634
Ref: 寫 C 很難；還有其他選擇嗎？-Footnote-715818691
Node: 如何從 C 執行任意 Python 陳述式？15818730
Ref: faq/extending how-can-i-execute-arbitrary-python-statements-from-c15818953
Ref: 4f2615818953
Node: How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?15819470
Ref: faq/extending how-can-i-evaluate-an-arbitrary-python-expression-from-c15819695
Ref: 4f2715819695
Node: 如何從 Python 物件中提取 C 值？15820011
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-extract-c-values-from-a-python-object15820249
Ref: 4f2815820249
Node: 如何使用 Py_BuildValue 建立任意長度的元組？15821469
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-use-py-buildvalue-to-create-a-tuple-of-arbitrary-length15821686
Ref: 4f2915821686
Node: 如何從 C 呼叫物件的方法？15821867
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-call-an-object-s-method-from-c15822131
Ref: 4f2a15822131
Node: 我如何捕捉 PyErr_Print 的輸出（或任何印出到 stdout/stderr 的東西）？15823309
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-catch-the-output-from-pyerr-print-or-anything-that-prints-to-stdout-stderr15823563
Ref: 4f2b15823563
Node: 如何從 C 存取用 Python 編寫的模組？15824750
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-access-a-module-written-in-python-from-c15825014
Ref: 4f2c15825014
Node: How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?15825822
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-interface-to-c-objects-from-python15826076
Ref: 4f2d15826076
Node: 我使用安裝檔案新增了一個模組，但 make 失敗了；為什麼？15826646
Ref: faq/extending i-added-a-module-using-the-setup-file-and-the-make-fails-why15826883
Ref: 4f2e15826883
Node: 如何為擴充套件除錯？15827239
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-debug-an-extension15827529
Ref: 4f2f15827529
Node: 我想在我的 Linux 系統上編譯一個 Python 模組，但是缺少一些檔案。為什麼？15828081
Ref: faq/extending i-want-to-compile-a-python-module-on-my-linux-system-but-some-files-are-missing-why15828353
Ref: 4f3015828353
Node: 如何從「無效輸入」區分出「不完整輸入」？15828758
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-tell-incomplete-input-from-invalid-input15829071
Ref: 4f3115829071
Node: 如何找到未定義的 g++ 符號 __builtin_new 或 __pure_virtual？15830017
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-find-undefined-g-symbols-builtin-new-or-pure-virtual15830341
Ref: 4f3215830341
Node: Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python e g through inheritance ?15830723
Ref: faq/extending can-i-create-an-object-class-with-some-methods-implemented-in-c-and-others-in-python-e-g-through-inheritance15830978
Ref: 4f3315830978
Node: 在 Windows 使用 Python 的常見問答集15831538
Ref: faq/windows doc15831720
Ref: 4f3415831720
Ref: faq/windows python-on-windows-faq15831720
Ref: 4f3515831720
Ref: faq/windows windows-faq15831720
Ref: 4f3615831720
Node: 如何在 Windows 作業系統裡運行 Python 程式？15832424
Ref: faq/windows faq-run-program-under-windows15832608
Ref: 4f3715832608
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-run-a-python-program-under-windows15832608
Ref: 4f3815832608
Node: 如何使 Python 腳本可以執行？15836013
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-make-python-scripts-executable15836268
Ref: 4f3915836268
Node: 為什麼 Python 有時需要這麼長的時間才能開始？15836812
Ref: faq/windows why-does-python-sometimes-take-so-long-to-start15837055
Ref: 4f3a15837055
Node: 如何從 Python 腳本製作可執行檔？15837918
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-make-an-executable-from-a-python-script15838155
Ref: 4f3b15838155
Node: * pyd 檔是否與 DLL 相同？15838389
Ref: faq/windows is-a-pyd-file-the-same-as-a-dll15838614
Ref: 4f3c15838614
Node: 如何將 Python 嵌入 Windows 應用程式中？15839626
Ref: faq/windows how-can-i-embed-python-into-a-windows-application15839870
Ref: 4f3d15839870
Node: 如何防止編輯器在我的 Python 原始碼中插入 tab？15844364
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-keep-editors-from-inserting-tabs-into-my-python-source15844624
Ref: 4f3e15844624
Ref: 如何防止編輯器在我的 Python 原始碼中插入 tab？-Footnote-115845493
Node: 如何在不阻塞的情況下檢查 keypress？15845535
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-check-for-a-keypress-without-blocking15845810
Ref: 4f3f15845810
Node: 如何解決遺漏 api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll 的錯誤？15846183
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-solve-the-missing-api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0-dll-error15846386
Ref: 4f4015846386
Ref: 如何解決遺漏 api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll 的錯誤？-Footnote-115846885
Node: 圖形使用者介面常見問答集15846943
Ref: faq/gui doc15847165
Ref: 4f4115847165
Ref: faq/gui graphic-user-interface-faq15847165
Ref: 4f4215847165
Node: 圖形使用者介面 GUI 的常見問題15847395
Ref: faq/gui general-gui-questions15847548
Ref: 4f4315847548
Node: Python 有哪些 GUI 套件？15847639
Ref: faq/gui what-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python15847818
Ref: 4f4415847818
Ref: Python 有哪些 GUI 套件？-Footnote-115848502
Ref: Python 有哪些 GUI 套件？-Footnote-215848544
Ref: Python 有哪些 GUI 套件？-Footnote-315848571
Ref: Python 有哪些 GUI 套件？-Footnote-415848650
Node: Tkinter 的問答15848732
Ref: faq/gui tkinter-questions15848861
Ref: 4f4515848861
Node: 如何凍結 Tkinter 應用程式？15849161
Ref: faq/gui how-do-i-freeze-tkinter-applications15849308
Ref: 4f4615849308
Node: 是否可以在等待 I/O 時處理 Tk 事件？15850276
Ref: faq/gui can-i-have-tk-events-handled-while-waiting-for-i-o15850502
Ref: 4f4715850502
Node: 我無法讓鍵繫結 key binding 在 Tkinter 中作用：為什麼？15851002
Ref: faq/gui i-can-t-get-key-bindings-to-work-in-tkinter-why15851183
Ref: 4f4815851183
Node: 「為什麼 Python 被安裝在我的機器上？」常見問答集15851809
Ref: faq/installed doc15851978
Ref: 4f4915851978
Ref: faq/installed why-is-python-installed-on-my-computer-faq15851978
Ref: 4f4a15851978
Node: 什麼是 Python？<2>15852254
Ref: faq/installed what-is-python15852435
Ref: 4f4b15852435
Ref: 什麼是 Python？<2>-Footnote-115852939
Node: 為什麼 Python 被安裝在我的機器上?15852991
Ref: faq/installed why-is-python-installed-on-my-machine15853216
Ref: 4f4c15853216
Node: 我能夠自行刪除 Python 嗎？15854201
Ref: faq/installed can-i-delete-python15854395
Ref: 4f4d15854395
Node: 已棄用項目15855181
Ref: deprecations/index doc15855282
Ref: 4f4e15855282
Ref: deprecations/index deprecations15855282
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Node: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目<2>15855727
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1315855860
Ref: 4f5015855860
Ref: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目<2>-Footnote-115857410
Ref: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目<2>-Footnote-215857452
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Ref: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目<2>-Footnote-1015857892
Ref: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目<2>-Footnote-1115857948
Ref: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目<2>-Footnote-1215858004
Ref: Python 3 13 中待移除的項目<2>-Footnote-1315858100
Node: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<3>15858157
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1415858335
Ref: 4f5115858335
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Ref: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<3>-Footnote-1015863819
Ref: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<3>-Footnote-1115863876
Ref: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<3>-Footnote-1215863932
Ref: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<3>-Footnote-1315863988
Node: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<3>15864044
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Ref: 4f5215864222
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Ref: Python 3 15 中待移除的項目<3>-Footnote-715868104
Node: Python 3 16 中待移除的項目<2>15868160
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1615868338
Ref: 4f5315868338
Ref: Python 3 16 中待移除的項目<2>-Footnote-115868825
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Ref: 4f5415869044
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Ref: deprecations/index c-api-deprecations15876041
Ref: 4f5515876041
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Ref: deprecations/index id115876465
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Ref: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<4>-Footnote-115879643
Ref: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<4>-Footnote-215879685
Ref: Python 3 14 中待移除的項目<4>-Footnote-315879741
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Ref: deprecations/index id215879980
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Ref: 16815885646
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Ref: glossary term-asynchronous-context-manager15887730
Ref: 3c715887730
Ref: glossary term-asynchronous-generator15888020
Ref: 1dcb15888020
Ref: glossary term-asynchronous-generator-iterator15888843
Ref: 409415888843
Ref: glossary term-asynchronous-iterable15889680
Ref: bed15889680
Ref: glossary term-asynchronous-iterator15889968
Ref: bef15889968
Ref: glossary term-attribute15890412
Ref: 223415890412
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Ref: glossary term-borrowed-reference15891971
Ref: 47ba15891971
Ref: glossary term-bytes-like-object15892750
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Ref: glossary term-bytecode15893752
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Ref: 170715895118
Ref: glossary term-class-variable15895308
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